Skip to main content

Full text of "Chambers's encyclopaedia; a dictionary of universal knowledge"

See other formats


presented  to  the 

LIBRARY 

UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  •  SAN  DIEGO 

by 

FRIENDS  OF  THE  LIBRARY 


Dr.    Denis  Fox 

donor 


2459  c^-Jalfz  J^oad 
Xa   ^oLia,  Calif.   Q90^J 


CHAMBERSS 


ENCYCLOPEDIA 


A  DICTIONAEY 


OF 


UNIVERSAL    KNOWLEDGE 


NEW    EDITION 


VOL  VI 


HuMBER   TO   Malta 


¥ 


^m~ 


fp-- 


iZ 


WILLIAM    &    ROBERT    CHAMBERS,    LIMITED 
LONDON    AND    EDINBURGH 

J.  B.  LIPPINCOTT  COMPANY,  PHILADELPHIA 
1901 


A II   livjhts   reserved 


The   following  Articles   in   this  Volume  are  Copvrighted   1)y  J.   B.   Lippincott   Compant  in 
the  United  States  of  America  : 


Idaeo. 

Illinois. 

Indian  Tep.kitory. 

Indiana. 

lOV.'A. 

Irving,  Washingtos. 

Jackson,  Andrew. 
Jefferson,  Thomas. 
Johnson,  Andrew. 


Kansas. 

Kentucky. 

Lee,  Robert  Edward. 

Lincoln,  Abraham. 

Longfellow,  Henry  Wadswoeth. 

Louisiana. 

Lowell,  James  Russell. 

Maine. 


Among  the  more  important  articles 

in  this  Volume 

are  the  following : 

HcME,  David 

J.  Hill  Burton. 

KeaN;   KEHBLE 

Robert  W.  Lowe. 

Hungary 

Bartholo.mew  Gonszt. 

Keats 

F.  T.  Palorave. 

Hint,  Leigh 

F.  Hi.NDES  Groome. 

Keble 

Bev.  Prof.  W.  Lock. 

H[:spAND  .\ND  ■Wife.. 

Thomas  Raleigh. 

Kent;  Lincoln 

J.  C.  Groome. 

HvnnODTNASflCS 

Professor  Cargill  G.  Knott. 

Kentucky 

Professor  Frank  B.  Greene. 

Hydrogen 

Dr  L.  Dobbin. 

Kepler 

Rev.  E.  B.  Kirk. 

Hydrophobia 

M.  Pasteuk  &  I'rol'.  J.  A.  Thomson. 

Khiva;  Kandahar,. 

Professor  Arminius  Vambi5p.y 

Hygiene. 

Dr  Andrew  Wilson. 

KiNGSLEY 

Ulick  Burke. 

Hymn 

Rev.  John  Julian, 

Knox 

P.  Hume  Brown,  LL.D. 

Hypnotism. 

Dr  R.  W.  Felkin. 

Koran. 

Rev.  John  Milne. 

Ibsen  :  Lessing 

J.  T.  Bealbt. 

KuFic  Coins 

.Stanley  Lane-Poole. 

Iceland 

Ji5n  a.  HjALTALfs. 

Lace;  Leather 

James  Paton. 

Idaho;  Indian  Teb 

Jacques  W.  Redwat. 
Professor  James  Geikie. 

Lafontaine 

Igneous  Rocks,  &c... 

Lake-dwellings 

Joseph  Anderson,  LL.D. 

Illegitimacy 

Benjamin  Taylor. 

Lamb,  Charles 

Canon  Ainger. 

Illinois. .1 

Colonel  H.  G.  REEVEa. 

Lamps 

William  Love. 

Illumination;  Indes 

Henry  B.  Wheatlev. 

Lancashire 

C.  Fairbairn. 

Illustration 

J.  R.  Pairman. 

Land  Laws 

J.  Boyd-Kinnear. 

Immigration 

Independents 

Arnold  White. 

Rev.  W.  Cooke  RnssELL. 

SirRlCHARDTEMPLE,G.C.S.I.,D.C.L. 

George  J.  Lasgdale. 
Sir  John  Murray. 

Lao-tsze 

Lassalle 

India 

Indi.ana 

Indian  Ocean 

Leaf. 

Professor  Patrick  Ged;:S3. 

Lee,  General 

N.  B.  Webster. 

Indh-bubber 

Ink 

John  A.  Cleugh. 

Leeds.. 

Leighton  ;  Letters.. 

Insanity 

Dr  T.  S.  Clooston. 

Leipzig 

Findlay  MuiRHEAa 

Canon  Isaac  Tavlcr, 
Professor  J.  A.  Thomson. 

Leonardo  da  Vinci.. 
Le  Sage;  Llop.entb... 

J.  M.  Gray. 

Insects  &  I.  Plants.. 

John  Ormsbv. 

Insurance 

George  Kino,  F.S.A. 

Leyden,  John 

Robert  Cochrane. 

International  Law.. 

Iowa. 

Ireland 

James  M.  Irvine. 

F.  W.  Hobsfield. 

Justin  M'Carthv,  M.P.  ;  Prof.  Mac- 

Library.. 

T  G  Law   LL  D. 

Lifeboat 

C.  DiEDiN(Sec.  Lifeboat  Inst.). 

Kinnon  ;  Prof.  G.  T.  Stokes,  D.D. 

Light;  Lenses 

Dr  Alfred  Daniell. 

Iron. 

W.  Mattieu  Williams. 
F.  H.  Underwood,  LL.D. 

Lighthouse 

Lightning 

Irving,  Washington. 

R.  T.  Omond. 

Isaiah 

Prof.  George  Ad.am  Smith. 
Hugh  Robert  Mill,  D.Sc. 

Lincoln,  Abraham... 
Lion;  Leopard 

Island;  Latitude 

F.  E.  Beddard,  F.R.S. 

Isocrates;  Is^us 

P.  B.  Jevons. 

Liquor  Laws 

Sir  Charles  Wentworth  Dilke. 

Italy  (Geog.  &  Hist.) 
II      (Literature) 

W.  DUNDAS  WALKEIt 

Signora  Cantagalli. 

Liszt 

Lithography 

J.  R.  Pairman. 

■Jackson,  Ai-:dhsw. 

Professor  J.  P.  LAMBERi^:>y. 

Liturgy;  Lit.a:;y 

Marquis  of  Bute. 

James  I 

John  Russell. 

Liver 

Professor  Havcrait  and  Dr  LuNDi;-- 

Japan 

Professor  DixON  (Tflkyo). 

Liverpool. 

Thomas  Ellison. 

Java 

Livingstone 

Professor  W.  G.  Blaikie,  D.D. 

JEFFER.SON,  Thomas.. 

Professor  X.  B.  WEESTE3. 

Lloyds 

Col.  Henry  Montague  Hozier. 

Jerrold,  Douglas 

Walter  Jerrold. 

Locke 

Professor  A.  Campbell  Fraser. 

Jerusalem 

Sir  Walter  Besant. 

Logic;  Lotze 

Professor  Pringle-Pattison. 

Jest-books  ;  Jesters. 

■W.  A.  Cloi-ston. 

London 

Rev.  W.  J.  Loi-TiE. 

Jesus  Chbist 

Dean  Farrar. 

London  University.. 

T.  Lc  51.  Douse. 

Jews 

Emm.  Dectsch  and  Isidore  Ha2=i-. 

Longfellow;  Lowell 

F.  H.  Underwood,  LL.D. 

Louisiana 

Joseph  A.  Breacx. 

Job 

Rev.  Professor  A.  B.  Davidson. 

Luther. 

Principal  TULLOCH. 

John's  Gospel 

Rev.  J.  Sutherland  Blac  k. 

Lyly,  .John 

A.  H.  BULLES. 

JoHN.sON,  Andrew..... 

Hon.  Frederick  W.  Sevvaku. 

Lytton,  Bulwep. 

F.  HiNDES  Groome. 

Johnson,  Samuel 

Professor  Hales. 

Macaulay 

William  Wallace. 

JUNIU.S 

W.  Fraser  Rae. 

Machiavelli 

Signora  Cantagalli. 

Jury;  Law 

Thomas  Raleigh. 

Machine  Gun 

Lieut.-Col.  H.  D.  B.  Dunlcp. 

Justice  of  Peace 

A.  Wood  Renton. 

Madagascar 

Rev.  James  Sibree. 

.luTE;  Lead;  Linen.. 

Professor  Henry  Goudy. 
Alexander  Galletly. 

Madras 

Professor  SIichie  Smith. 

Magnetism 

Dr  Alfred  Daniell. 

JUVE.VAL;  Lucan 

Dr  J.  P.  Steele. 

,1      Terrestrial 

Professor  Cargill  G.  Knott. 

Kansas 

Noble  L.  Prentis. 

Maine 

Dr  Charles  W.  Greene. 

Kant... 

JAMts  Hutchison  Stirling,  LL.D. 
g  to  tender  their  thanks,  for  revi 

Malays 

Professor  A.  H.  Ivi-ave_ 

The  Publishers  be 

sing  the  article   '  Thomas   4  Kenipis,'  to    tho    Rev.   S. 

Kettlewell;   for  'Kinderparten,' to  Herb  K.   Fboebe 

L  ;    for  *  Immaculate   Conception,*   '  Indulgence,'   *  Infalli- 

NG  ;  for  '  lona,'  to  the 

Duke  of  .\rgyll;    for  'Edward 

Irving,'  to  Mrs  Oliphant;  for  '  Italy,'  to  Signor  LuiOI  Be 

DIG,  Director-general  o 

Italian  .Statistics  ;  for  'Jamaica,' 

to  Chief-justice  Child, 

St  Lucia  ;  for  '  .Jesuits,'  to  the  Ver 

y  Ucv.  the  General  of  the  Order ;  for  '  Leighton,'  to  tho 

liev.  Dr  Blair  of  Dun 

)lane  ;  as  also  to  tlie  Very  Kev.  tht 

;  Deans  of  Lichfield  and  LincoUi,  to  Professor  Hu.XLEY 

of  Inverness,  Leicester,  Macclesfield 

and  otlior  towns. 

MAPS    FOE   VOL.  VI. 


PAGE 

INDIA 98 

IRELAND 198 

ITALY 240 

ITALIA  ANTIQUA 241 


CHAMBERS'S 

Encyclopaedia 


A  DICTIONARY   OF   UNIVERSAL   KNOWLEDGE 


llinber.  the  estuary  of  the 
livers  Oiise  and  Trent  (and  so 
of  the  Dove.  Derwent,  Wharfe, 
i*v:c. ),  runs  east  and  then  south- 
east for  a  length  of  38  miles, 
sejiaratinj;  tlie  counties  of  York 
and  Lincoln,  with  a  breadth 
varying  from  1  to  7  miles.  Its 
drainage  basin,  with  an  area  of 
9770  miles,  is  the  largest  in  England  ;  and  by 
means  of  navigable  streams  and  canals  the  Humber 
is  connected  acros.s  England  with  the  Mersey,  the 
Severn,  and  the  Thames.  The  navigation  is 
obstructed,  especially  on  the  north  side,  by  banks 
and  shoals.  The  Humber  was  the  southern 
boundary  of  the  ancient  kingdom  of  Northumbria 
in  the  wider  sense,  and  of  Deira  when  Xorthumbria 
was  di\  ided  into  Bernicia  and  Deira ;  Mercia  lay 
.south  of  the  estuary.  By  way  of  the  Humber 
Danes  and  Northmen  made  many  terrible  incur- 
sions into  England,  notably  in  8(J7,  101.3,  1066,  and 
1069.  The  great  port  on  the  Humber  was  anciently 
Kavenser  or  Kavenspur,  just  inside  fSpum  Head. 
The  i)rocess  of  erosion  by  the  sea  was  already  at 
Work  when  Henry  Bolingbroke  landeil  here  in 
1399  ;  soon  after  the  place  wa.s  \\  holly  covered  by 
the  encroaching  waters,  and  Hull  became  the  port 
on  the  north  shore,  as  (jrimsby  now  is  on  the  south. 
See  The  Bivrrs  iif  E-iujUnitl  (f.-ussell,  1889),  and 
Boyle's  Lost  Tuwm  of  the  Itimihei-  ( 1889). 

lIllllllK'rt.     See  I'l'.VLY. 

Hiiiuble-bec.    See  Bee. 

Illiniboldt.  a  river  of  Nevada,  rises  in  the  NE. 
part  of  ihi!  stale,  and  Hows  \VS\V.  to  Humboldt 
Sink,  a  lake  over  40  miles  in  circumference,  which 
ha.M  no  outlet.  Length,  nearly  .350  miles.  The  river, 
which  is  unnavig.able  even  for  canoes,  is  strongly 
impregnated  with  alkaline  matter.  The  region 
through  which  it  Hows  is  b.arren,  and  the  banks 
are  destitute  of  trees  or  shrubs.  The  Central 
I'acific  Uailroad  runs  througli  the  valley  of  the 
Humboldt. 
261 


Humboldt,  Friedrich  Heinrich  Alex- 
ander, Bari.ix  vox,  one  of  the  greatest  of  natur- 
alists, was  born  at  Berlin,  14th  September  1769. 
His  father,  whom  he  lost  when  he  was  not  quite 
ten  years  of  age,  was  chamlierlain  to  the  king  of 
Prussia.  He  studied  at  the  universities  of  Frank- 
fort on-the-Oder,  Berlin,  and  Gottingen ;  and 
during  his  residence  at  Gottingen  (^89-90)  he 
made  those  visits  of  scientitic  e.xploration,  the  fruit 
of  which  was  his  first  independent  work,  a  treatise 
on  the  basalts  of  the  Khine.  In  the  spring  and 
summer  of  1790  he  made  a  tour  through  Belgium, 
Holland,  England,  and  France.  In  June  1791  he 
entered  the  Mining  Academy  at  Freiberg,  where 
he  enjoyed  the  instructions  of  Werner.  His  eight 
months'  residence  here  led  to  the  publication  of  his 
Flora  Siibterrancd  Friberf/eiisis  (1793).  He  was 
afterwards  appointed  to  an  office  in  the  mining 
dep.artment,  and  spent  some  years  in  this  capacity, 
chieHy  at  the  Fiohtelgebirge,  in  I'pper  Franconia. 
His  researches  here  resulted  in  a  work  on  the 
irritability  of  the  muscular  and  nervous  fibres  of 
animals  (1799).  The  desire  of  visiting  tropical 
countries,  however,  led  him  to  resign  his  office, 
and  devote  himself  entirely  to  the  study  of  nature. 
He  sjienl  three  months  at  Jena,  where  he  was  the 
intimate  associate  of  (ioetheand  Schiller.  At  Paris 
he  contracteil  a  friendshiji  with  Aiine  Bonpland, 
afterwards  his  companion  in  many  and  various 
scenes.  Some  time  after  he  obtained  ])ermission 
from  the  Spanish  government  to  visit  all  the 
Si)anish  settlements  in.  America  and  the  Indian 
Ocean.  He  sailed  from  Coninna  along  with  Bon- 
pland on  .")th  .lune  1799.  They  visited  Teneritl'e, 
<ascende<l  the  Peak,  .and  made  many  scientific  ob.ser- 
vations.  On  Kith  .Inly  they  arrived  at  Cuniana  in 
South  America,  ami  in  the  course  of  live  years 
explored  a  vast  extent  of  territory  in  what  are  now 
Venezuela,  Colombia.  Ecnailor.  and  Peru,  as  well 
a-s  in  Me.\ico,  which  they  crossed  from  west  to  ea.st. 
In  Havana  Humboldt  prepared  materials  after- 
wards emjdoyed  in  his  Jissiii  I'lilitiqiie  siir  VIsle  dc 
Cuba  ( 182()).     At  Paris  he  occupied  himself  in  the 


HUMBOLDT 


Hrrangement  of  his  collections  and  manuscripts, 
and  jointly  with  Gay-Lussac  made  experiments  on 
the  chemical  constitution  of  the  atmosi>liere.  Hav- 
ing visited  Italy,  and  returned  to  Berlin,  he  accom- 
panied Prince  Wilheliii  of  Prussia  in  1807  on  a 
political  mission  to  Fiance,  and  obtained  leave 
from  the  government  of  his  own  country  to  remain 
there  for  tlie  publication  of  his  travels,  for  which 
the  disturbed  state  of  Germany  at  that  time  did 
not  allow  proper  opportunity.  He  continued  to 
reside  in  Paris  till  1827.  The  wish  of  the  king  that 
he  should  reside  in  his  native  country  was  gratified 
in  1827,  when  he  proceeded  to  Berlin,  and  there, 
in  the  winter  of  1827-28,  he  gave  lectures  on  the 
Cosmos,  or  physical  universe. 

In  1829  Humboldt  again  Ijecame  a  traveller,  the 
Emperor  Nicholas  then  sending  out  a  well-appointed 
expedition  to  the  north  of  Asia,  to  explore  the 
Ural  and  Altai  Mountains,  Chinese  Dzungaiia, 
and  the  Caspian  Sea.  In  this  expedition  Huml>oldt 
was  accompanied  by  his  two  friends  Ehrenlterg 
and  Rose.  Its  princiiial  results  were  the  scientific 
examination  of  the  beds  which  produce  gold  and 
platina,  the  disco\ery  of  diamonds  in  an  extra- 
tropical  region,  the  astronomical  determination  of 
positions,  magnetic  observations,  and  geological 
and  botanical  collections.  Tlie  whole  journey 
occupied  nine  months,  and  extended  to  2.320  miles, 
and  is  described  in  a  work  by  Rose  (2  vols. 
1837-42)  and  in  Humboldt's  yl.wV"  0'«f/r(/t' (3  vols. 
184.3).  The  political  chang^es  of  the  year  1830  led 
to  Humboldt's  employment  in  political  services  ;  he 
was  cliosen  by  the  king  of  Prussia  to  carry  to  Paris 
his  recognition  of  Louis-Philippe,  and  during  the 
ensuing  twelve  years  was  fi'eq\iently  sent  to  Paris 
to  reside  for  four  or  five  months.  He  accom|)anied 
the  king  of  Prussia  also  in  visits  to  England, 
Denmark,  &c.  During  tins  time  he  published  his 
Exaiiwn  Critique  c/c  In  Oiogi'ap/tie  ilu  Nuiivcait 
Continent  (5  vols.  1835-38).  Humboldt  spent  the 
later  years  of  his  long  life  at  Berlin,  where  he 
occupied  a  high  position  at  the  Prussian  court. 
His  last  great  work.  Cosmos  (4  vols.  1845-58), 
has  been  iinanimously  recognised  as  one  of  the 
greatest  .scientific  works  ever  published,  exhibiting 
in  most  lucid  arrangement  many  of  the  principal 
facts  of  the  physical  sciences  and  their  relations 
to  each  other.  Tlie  style,  however,  is  somewhat 
heavy,  and,  seen  from  our  present  standjioint,  tlie 
author's  \iews  are  in  many  resjiects  defective.  The 
germ  of  the  work  was  the  author's  lectuies  in  Berlin 
in  1828,  themselves  partially  based  on  \\\%  Ansichten 
der  Natnr  ( 1808).  Humlioldt  died  in  his  ninetieth 
year.  May  (J.  1 850. 

It  is  not  easy  to  estimate  the  amount  of  Hum- 
boldt's contriltutions  to  science.  The  geography  of 
Spanisli-America  was  most  imperfectly  known  ]ire- 
vious  to  his  travels  there,  during  which  he  astio- 
nomically  deternuned  nmre  than  700  positions,  and 
he  liestowcd  much  la1>our  on  the  preparation  of  the 
ma]is  in  whicli  his  discoveries  were  exhiljited.  His 
barometrical  o1)servations  were  likewise  very  num- 
erous, as  well  as  his  ob.servalions  an  all  points  con- 
nected witli  meteorology.  To  him  we  are  indebted 
for  the  most  important  generalisations  concerning 
magnetism  and  also  climate.  He  olitained  dis- 
tinction also  by  his  laliours  in  the  determination  of 
the  magnetic  eiiuator,  and  liy  his  observations  on 
electrical  eels,  and  on  the  respiration  of  fishes  and 
young  crocodiles.  The  editing  and  jireiiaring  of 
the  great  work  of  the  American  journey  occujiied 
twenty  years  of  his  life  ;  ami  in  his  work  he  had 
the  assistance  of  many  of  the  most  eminent 
.scientists  of  the  time — Cuvier,  Latreille,  (Jay- 
lyiissac,  Thenar<l,  \c. — as  well  as  the  most  distin- 
guished artists  and  engravers.  There  is  but  one 
complete  edition  of  i\\e  oj)iis  maejnnm  (1807-17),  in 
30  vols.  (20  folio  and  10  quarto) ;  the  so-called  small 


edition  being  but  excerpts.  The  title  of  the  whole  is 
Voyages  aiix Itcgions  £qiii)ioxiales  du  Noiircnii  Con- 
tinent, fait  en  1799-1S04  par  Alexandre  de  Hum- 
boldt et  Ainu'  lionpland,  redigC  par  Alexandre  de 
Hinnljoldt :  and  it  falls  into  six  sections,  some  of 
which  and  their  parts  are  quoteil  as  separate  works 
{licl(ttion  Historitjue,  Ohsrr  rat  ions  de  Zoologie, 
Observations  Astronomiqites,  l'/ii/si<ji(c  ginerale  et 
Geologie,  Plantes  fjoiiinoxiales,  witli  atlases,  essays, 
<.*i.c. ).  Humboldt  is  unquestionably  one  of  the 
great  figures  of  the  century,  and  in  private  life  was 

I  remarkable  for  benevolence  and  kindliness,  while 
his  most  conspicuous  defect  was  vanity. 

I       See   the  great   biographical   work,  edited  by   ]Srulii)S, 

I  Alexander  von  Hnmboldt :  cine  irissenscltaftlichc  liio- 
(iraphie  {1S7'2 ;  Eug.  trans.  1S73);  and  Lord  Houghton's 
Monoijraiilts  (1873).     His  correspondence  witii  many  of 

'  the  most  eminent  men  of  the  time  has  been  published  in 
many  separate  woi'ks — thus,  tliat  with  Varnliagen  (lytJO), 
with  Von    Raunier    ( ISdf  I.   with    Goethe   (187(5).  with 

1  Campe  (1877),  with  liis  brotlier  Wilhelm  (1880). 

Humboldt.  Kari,  Wilhelm  vox,  the  elder 
brotlier  of  the  preceding,  eminent  as  a  statesman 
and  for  hi>  works  on  philology,  a-stlietics,  .md 
I  general  literature,  was  born  at  Potsdam.  22d  .Iiine 
1767,  and  educated  at  Berlin,  Fiankfort-on-the- 
Oder,  and  Giittingen.  He  eagerly  studied  antiqui- 
ties, a'.sthetics,  and  the  Kantian  philo.sophy,  as  well 
as  law,  to  which  he  profes.sedly  devoted  liinv-elf. 
After  travelling  in  Germany,  France,  and  Switzer- 
land, he  acquired  the  rank  of  counsellor  of  legation, 
but  showed  little  inclination  for  official  employ- 
ment. In  1791  be  mariied,  and  for  some  years 
resided  cliietly  on  his  wife's  estate  in  Thuringia, 
and  afterwards  in  ,Jena,  associating  most  intimately 
with  Schiller,  and  devoting  himself  to  poetry  and 
other  literary  and  scientific  pursuits.  A  \aluable 
memorial  of  his  friendshiji  with  Schiller  is  the  cor- 
lespondence  between  them.  F'rom  1797  to  1799 
Humboldt  resided  jiartly  in  Paris  and  jiartly  in 
Spain,  and  in  1801  became  Prussian  resident  at 
Rome,  where  he  remained  for  a  number  of  years  in 
this  capacity,  and  in  that  of  minister-plenipoten- 
tiary, a  most  generous  patron  of  young  artists  and 
men  of  science.  From  Rome  lie  returned  to  his 
native  ccmntry  to  fill  the  high  idaceof  first  minister 
of  Public  Instruction.  The  Berlin  university  owed 
its  existence  to  him.  In  1810  he  went  to  \'ienna 
as  minister-plenipotentiary,  and  from  this  time  he 
took  part  in  all  the  most  important  political  afiairs 
in  which  his  country  was  concerned.  .After  1819 
he  resided  chiefly  at  Tegel,  where  he  laid  out  line 
pleasure-grounds,  and  formed  a  mdile  collection  of 
sculptures  bv  the  greatest  masters.  He  died  8th 
April  1835. 

His  earliest  literary  works  were  collected  by  him- 
self under  the  title  of  '.Esthetic  Essays'  [yEsthe- 
tiselie  Vcrsnehc,  1799).  His  'Collected  Works' 
ajipeared  in  7  vols.  (1841.52).  Humboldt  devoted 
himself  with  the  greatest  assiduity  to  the  study  of 
philology,  and  was  the  first  to  make  the  >tudy  of 
the  Ba.sque  tongue  a  .scientific  pursuit.  He  also 
spent  much  labour  on  tlie  languages  of  the  East, 
vari(Mis  questions  connected  with  (uicntal  liteia- 
tnre,  and  the  languages  of  the  South  Sea  Islands. 
One  of  his  most  important  works  is  on  the  Kawi 
language  in  .lava  (3  vols.  183()-40),  ].ubli>hed  after 
his  death  by  Edward  Muschmann  ;  the  introduction 
to  this,  On  the  A'ariety  of  Structure  in  Human 
Speech,  and  his  reflections  (Ui  the  influence  thereof 
on  the  intellectual  piogrc-s  of  mankind,  mark  a 
new  era  in  the  science  of  iiliilology.  Letters  to  a 
Female  Friend  (1847:  Eng.  trans.  1849)  exhibit 
his  character  in  a  most  jpure  and  amiable  light. 
See  the  admirable  bi()gia|iliy  by  llaym  (  18,5(>),  and 
his  correspondence  with  Schiller  (1830;  new  ed. 
1876),  Goethe  (1876),  Kdrner  (1879),  -iind  his 
brother  Alexander  ( 1880). 


HUME 


Hnuie.  David,  plulosoplier  and  liistoiian,  was 
born  at  Eilinbuigli  on  the  ietli  of  April  1711  (o.s. ). 
His  father  was  the  lainl  or  proiirietor  of  tlie  estate 
of  Xinewells,  in  Berwickshire,  Imt  David,  ln'ingtlie 
younger  son,  had  to  make  his  own  fortune  with  no 
other  assistance  than  an  education  and  the  inlluence 
of  his  respectable  family.  He  wxs  educated  at 
home  and  at  the  university  of  Ediubnrgh.  His 
father  desij;ned  law  as  his  profession,  and  he  sub- 
mitted to  the  initial  steps  of  the  proper  practical 
training,  but  it  was  not  a  pursuit  to  his  liking. 
De.serting  it,  he  made  e.\periment  of  a  mercantile 
life  in  Bristol  ;  but  commerce  was  not  more  con- 
genial to  him  tlian  jurisprudence,  and  he  gave  it  a 
very  short  trial.  He  now  became  a  student,  devot- 
ing himself  to  books  with  no  settled  practical  object 
before  him.  He  has  recorded  his  suH'erings  at  this 
time  from  despondency  and  dejiression  of  spirits, 
caused  apparently  l>y  the  eti'ects  of  monotonous 
study.  At  twenty-three  years  of  age  he  went 
to  France  and  lived  some  time  in  La  Fleche, 
where  he  describes  himself  ;vs  wandering  about  in 
solitude,  and  dreaming  the  dream  of  his  philosophy. 
In  1739  he  published  the  first  ami  second  l)ook  of  his 
Treatise  on  Human  Xature — the  germ  of  his  philo- 
sophy, and  still  perhaps  the  best  exposition  of  it, 
since  it  has  there  a  freshness  and  decision  approach- 
ing to  paradox,  much  modified  in  his  later  works. 
Although  the  dawn  of  a  new  era  in  philosophy, 
this  book  was  little  noticed  ;  in  his  own  words, 
'it  fell  dead-born  from  the  press.'  It  «as  a  work 
of  demolition.  By  separating  the  impre-ssions 
or  ideas  created  on  the  thinking  nund  by  an 
external  world  from  the  absolute  e.xistence  of  that 
world  itself  he  showed  that  almost  everything 
concerning  the  latter  was  taken  for  granted,  and  he 
demaniled  proof  of  its  existence  of  a  kind  not  yet 
atl'orded.  It  was  thus  that  he  set  a  whole  army  of 
philosophers  at  work,  either  to  refute  what  he  had 
said,  or  seriously  to  till  up  the  blanks  which  he 
discovered  :  thus  he  gave  the  original  im]iulse  both 
to  the  Scottish  school  of  philosophy —  Keid,  and  the 
rest — and  to  Kant's  speculations.  In  1741  and  1742 
he  published  two  small  \olumes  called  Essays 
Moral  and  Politieal :  they  were  marked  by  learn- 
ing and  thought,  and  elegantly  written,  but  are 
not  among  the  more  remarkable  of  his  works. 

He  felt  Iceenly  at  this  time  the  want  of  some  hxed 
lucrative  pui-suit,  and  his  longing  for  independence 
was  the  cause  of  a  sad  interruption  to  his  studious 
and  philosophical  pursuits.  He  wa-s  induced  to 
become  the  companion  or  giiardian  of  an  insane 
nobleman,  and  had  to  mix  with  the  jealousies  and 
mercenary  objects  of  those  who  naturally  gather 
round  such  a  centre.  In  1747  he  obtained  a  rather 
more  congenial  appointment  as  secretary  to  ( ieneral 
St  Clair,  whom  he  accompanied  in  the  expedition 
to  the  coast  of  France  and  the  attack  on  Port 
L'Orient,  the  depot  of  the  French  Eivst  India  Com- 
pany :  this  atl'air  had  no  impmtant  results,  but  it 
gave  Hume  a  notion  of  actual  warfare.  Next  year 
he  accompanied  the  general  in  a  diplomatic  mLssi(m 
to  France,  and  ;vs  he  travelled  he  took  notes  of  his 
impressions  of  Holland,  Germany,  and  Italy,  which 
are  published  in  his  Life  and  t'orns/iondenre. 

In  1751  he  published  his  In'inirti  into  the  Prin- 
ciples of  Morals,  a  work  of  great  originality,  and 
one  of  the  clearest  expositions  of  the  leading  prin- 
ciples of  what  is  termed  the  utilitarian  system.  .\t 
the  same  time  he  intended  to  publish  his  Diulmiues 
roneerninq  Natural  Iteiigion ;  but  his  friends, 
alarmed  by  the  .sceptical  spirit  pervading  them, 
prevailed  on  him  to  lay  them  aside,  and  they  were 
not  nuule  ])ublic  until  after  his  death.  In  his 
thirty-lifth  vear  he  had  unsuicessfullv  compete<l 
for  the  chair  of  .Moral  Philosophy  in  Kdinburgh, 
and  at  this  period  we  find  him  unsuccessful  in  an 
attempt  to  obtain  the  chair  of  Logic  in  Glasgow. 


Next  year,  in  1752,  appeared  his  Political  Dis- 
courses. Here,  again,  he  made  an  era  in  literature, 
for  in  this  little  work  he  announced  those  principles 
of  political  economy,  compreheniling  the  doctrine  of 
free  trade,  which  it  fell  to  his  friend  .\ilam  Smith 
more  fully  and  comprehensively  to  develop.  He 
was  appointed  at  this  time  keeper  of  the  .\dvocates' 
Library,  with  a  very  small  salary,  which  he  devoted 
to  a  charitable  purpose.  It  was  here  that,  sur- 
rounded with  books,  he  formed  the  design  of 
writing  the  history  of  England.  In  1754  he  issued 
a  ijuarto  \t)lume  of  the  Ilistonj  of  tin'  Stuarts,  eon- 
taininij  the  lieigns  of  James  1.  and  Charles  I.,  and 
presently  completed  this  porti(m  of  the  work  in  a 
second  volume,  bringing  it  down  to  the  Revolution. 
The  second  volume  attracted  more  notice  than  the 
first  had  done.  He  then  went  backwards  through 
the  House  of  Tudor,  and  completed  tiie  work  from 
the  Roman  period  downwards  in  1762.  While  so 
employed  he  published  Four  Dissertations:  the 
Natural  History  of  Religion  :  of  the  Passions ;  of 
Tragedy:  of  the  Standard  of  Taste  (1757).  Two 
other  dissertations,  intended  to  accompany  these, 
were  cancelletl  by  him  after  they  were  jirinted — 
they  are  On  Suicide  and  The  Immortalily  if  the 
Soul,  and  were  subsequently  printed  in  his  works. 

In  1763  he  went  to  France  as  secretary  to  Lord 
Hertford's  embassy  :  here  he  was  in  his  element, 
and  found  fame  at  last.  He  became  familiar  with 
the  brilliant  wits  and  savants  of  the  Parisian 
circle — with  Turgot,  D'Alembert,  Helvetius,  Hol- 
bach,  Diderot,  BuH'on,  Malesherbes,  Crebillon, 
and  the  rest,  as  well  as  with  the  hardly  less 
distinguished  women,  De  Boutflers,  Du  Dett'and, 
and  L'Espinasse.  His  sojourn  in  Paris  was 
unfortunate  in  bringing  him  into  intimacy  with 
the  restless,  vain,  and  self-tormenting  Rou.sseau, 
who,  after  experiencing  much  sulistantial  kindness 
from  Hume,  got  suspicious,  and  forced  him  into  a 
memorable  nuarrel.  After  his  return  home,  in 
1766,  he  accepted  the  responsible  office  of  L'nder- 
secretary  of  State  for  the  Home  Department.  In 
his  own  Life  he  says  :  '  I  returned  to  Edinburgh  in 
1769  very  o])ulent  (for  I  possessed  a  revenue  of 
£1000  a  year),  healthy,  and,  though  somewhat 
stricken  in  years,  with  the  prospect  of  enjoying 
long  my  ease,  and  of  seeing  the  increase  of  my 
reputation.'  His  health  gave  way  in  1774,  and  he 
died  at  Edinburgh,  25th  August  1776. 

Hume  is  the  outcome  of  the  empirical  philosophy  of 
Locke.  His  philosophical  writings  do  not  form  a  system, 
but  discuss  many  of  the  sahent  ideas  of  pliilosophy, 
mainly  in  a  sceptical  or  destructive  manner.  Ideas  are 
but  weakened  copies  of  '  impressions '  of  the  senses,  outer 
or  inner ;  mind  is  a  succession  of  isolated  impressions  and 
ideas  ;  the  idea  of  cause  depends  on  the  habit  of  mind 
which  expects  the  event  that  usually  follows  on  another, 
and  there  is  no  necessary  connection  between  cause  and 
effect.  Hume's  History,  which  ^dves  Inm  a  high  rank 
among  English  hist<»rical  authors,  was  not  remarkable 
for  historic  impartiality  (in  a  later  etlition  more  tlian  a 
hundred  alterations  on  the  reigns  of  the  drst  two  Stuarts 
were  made  by  Hume  hunself,  and  all  to  the  Tory  side), 
and  has  been  largely  superseded  by  more  modern  works  ; 
but  new  editions,  with  or  without  the  contimtatiun  l>y 
Smollett,  still  appear ;  Dr  Brewer's  StuUmt's  Hume 
(1858)  being  a  recognised  text-book.  Hume's  position 
in  relation  to  his  predecessors  and  successors  is  given 
imder  Berkeley  ;  the  article  C.vus.^litv  is  largely  con- 
cerned with  the  discussion  of  his  views.  For  the  hitiiiciice 
of  Hume's  scepticism  in  awaking  Kant  from  his  dogniatic 
slumber,  see  K.\nt.  The  most  important  edition  of 
Hume's  works  is  that  by  T.  H.  Green  and  T.  H.  (Jrose 
(4  vols.  1S74).  with  introduction  and  exhaustive  analysis 
of  Hume's  philosophy.  The  Life  and  Corrtsitondi nee  (tf 
Darid  Huiiii:  was  published  by  J.  Hill  liurtioi  (2  vols. 
1846);  Dr  G.  Birkbeck  Hill  edited  Litttm  of  Dniid 
Hum*:  to  WiUiam  Strahan,  with  copious  and  valuaMe 
notes,  in  1889.  For  his  theological  position,  and  his  rela- 
tion to  Edinburgh  society,  complicated  by  his  '  infidelity," 


HUME 


HUMMING-BIRD 


see  Leslie  Steplien's  EiwUsh  Thought  in  the  Eirihleenth 
Ctidurii  (1876),  tlie  aiitobiograpliy  of  'Jupiter  Carlyle, 
&c  There  are  short  monographs  by  Prof.  Huxley  ('  Eng- 
lish Men  of  Letters'  series,  1«79),  Prof.  Knight  ('Philo- 
sophical Classics'  series,  1880),  and  Prof.  Calderwood 
('Famous  Scots'  series,  1898);  and  German  works  by 
Jodl  (187'2),  E.  Pfleiderer  (1874),  and  Gizycki  (1878). 

Hllllie.  JOSKPH,  politician,  was  liorn  2'2d  January 
1777,  at  Montrose.  He  studied  luediciue  at  Edin- 
burgh, anil  in  1797  liecanie  assistant-suij;eon  in  the 
service  of  the  East  India  Company.  He  ajiplied 
himself  to  the  acquisition  of  tlie  native  languages, 
and  during  the  Mahratta  war,  from  180'2  to  1807, 
tilled  some  half-dozen  important  offices,  chief 
amongst  whicli  were  those  of  interpreter  and  com- 
missary-general. On  the  conclusion  of  peace  he 
returned  to  England  in  1S08,  his  fortune  made. 
Becoming  imbued  witli  the  political  philosophy  of 
James  Mill  and  Bentham,  he  gained  admission 
to  parliament,  sitting  as  member  for  Weymouth, 
Aberdeen,  Middlesex,  Kilkenny,  and  ;Montrose 
successively,  this  last  from  IS4'2  to  liis  deatli.  which 
occurred  oil  20th  February  1855.  'An  uncompro- 
mising honesty,  an  instinctive  hatred  of  abuses,  an 
innate  love  of  liberty,  and  an  uuHinching  will  to 
e.\tend  its  benefits  to  others^tliese,  and  the  close 
experience  of  men  derived  liy  himself  during  the 
earlier  part  of  his  life,  rendered  Mr  Hume  one  of 
the  most  powerful,  and  at  the  same  time  one  of  tlie 
most  practical,  of  reformers  in  a  reforming  age.' 
Amongst  tlie  schemes  and  reforms  he  advocated 
may  be  enumerated  the  establishment  of  savings- 
banks,  freedom  of  trade  with  India,  aliolition  ot 
flogging  in  the  army,  of  naval  impressment,  and  of 
imprisminient  for  debt,  repeal  of  the  act  prohibiting 
export  of  machinery,  and  of  that  preventing  work- 
men from  going  "abroad,  reduction  of  election 
expenses,  abrogation  of  duties  on  paper,  and 
removal  of  aViuses  of  all  and  sundry  kinds  what- 
soever. He  was  also  chief  agent  in  discovering 
the  treasonable  designs  of  the  Orange  lodges,  whicli 
proposed  to  make  the  Duke  of  Cumherlaud  king  on 
the  decease  of  William  IV. 

Hume,  P.VTRICK  ( 1641-1724),  an  eminent  states- 
man and  covenanter,  Lord  Cliancellor  of  Scotland, 
who  in  1690  was  created  Lord  Polwarth,  and  in 
1697  Earl  of  Marchmont.  See  B.\illie  (Lady 
Grizel). 

Humeral,  an  oldong  scarf  worn  by  priests  and 
snb-deacons  round  their  shoulders  at  certain  parts 
of  tlie  service  of  the  Mass  and  of  Benediction,  the 
paten,  pyx,  or  monstrance  being  also  wrapped  in 
it  (so  as'  to  prevent  contact  at  those  times  with 
naked  liands). 

Hummel.  Joh.vxn  Nepomuk,  pianist  and 
innsical  composer,  was  born  at  Presburg,  14th 
Noveiiilier  1778.  He  first  studied  under  Mozart, 
and  tlien,  after  a  seven  years'  concert  tour  in 
Germany,  Denmark,  England,  and  Holland,  he 
returned  to  Vienna  to  complete  his  musical  educa- 
tion under  Albrechtsberger  and  Salieri.  From 
1803  to  1811  lie  lield  the  post  of  musical  director  to 
l>rince  Esterliazy  ;  and  in  1816  be  filled  a  similar 
position  at  Stuttgart,  but  movc.l  four  years  later  to 
Weimar,  where  he  died,  October  17,  1837.  In  the 
course  of  several  musical  tours  be  delighteil  the 
capitals  of  Europe  with  bis  pianoforte  playing  and 
his  clever  improvisations  on  that  instrument.  Of 
liis  innsical  compositions  the  only  ones  which  have 
value  at  the  present  day  are  bis  pianoforte  works. 

Hlimmins-bird  {Tror/,;/ii.s-),  a  Linncan  genus 
of  birds,  now  constituting  a  family,  Trochilidie. 
The  nearest  relations  of  the  humming-birds  are  the 
Swifts  (f|.v.);  that  they  form  together  with  the 
swift  one  large  grou])  is  clear  from  their  very  close 
resemblances  in  anatomical  structure.  Nitzsch, 
Huxley,  Garrod,  and  others  who  have  investigated 


the  osteology,  ninscular  anatomy,  and  other  points 
concur  in  tliis  opiiiicui  as  to  the  relationship  of  the 
family  ;  they  resemble  in  their  habit  and  in  brilliancy 
of  idumage'the  Snnbirds  (q.v.),  which  replace  them 
in  the  eastern  tropical  regions.  The  dazzling  brilli- 
ancy of  humming-birds,  the  extreme  rapidity  with 
which  they  dart  through  the  air,  their  hovering 
above  the  ilowcrs  from  which  they  obtain  their  food, 
with  humming  .sound  of  wings,  which  move  so 
quickly  as  to  be  indistinctly  visible,  or  '  like  a  mist,' 
have  attracted  universal  admiration  since  the  first 
discovery  of  America.  The  diminutive  size  of 
almost  all  of  them  — some  of  them  being  the  smallest 
of  birds,  and  if  stripped  of  their  feathers  not  larger 
than  a  humblp-bee — lias  still  further  contributed  to 
render  them  objects  of  interest,  whilst  the  plumage 
of  the  ditlerent  species  exhibits  an  almost  endless 
variety  of  colours.  Some  species  possess  '  the  most 
gorgeously  brilliant  metallic  hues  known  among 
created  things  ; '  some  on  the  otlier  hand  are  sombre 


i(,  Sword -bill  Huiiiiiiing  -  bird  (Dociiiiustcx  tnsifer); 
h,  ■Wliite-booted  Kacket-tail  ( .S7c,'/«««rHS  UnderKoodi); 
c,  c\  male  and  female  Tufted  Coquette  (Lophornis 
onuita ). 

in  hue.  Humming-birds  are  entirely  confined  to  the 
American  continent  and  West  Indies,  where  there 
are  about  1'20  genera,  containing  over  400  species  ; 
no  less  than  15  species  occur  in  North  America. 
Of  the  South  American  forms  the  majority  inhabit 
the  liotter  regions,  hut  some  are  confined  to  elevated 
mountain-tracts  even  above  the  snow-line. 

Humming-birds  have  slender  bills,  which  are  also 
generally  long,  and  in  some  extremely  so,  the  form 
of  the  bill  exhibiting  a  womlerful  adaptation  to  the 
kind  of  flowers  from  which  tlic  liird  obtains  its  food 
^straight  in  some,  curved  in  others,  Humming- 
birds do  not,  as  was  long  sup|iosed,  feed  on  honey 
alone,  but  to  a  considerable  extent,  and  some  or 
them  jierhaps  chiefly,  on  insects,  not  rejecting 
s]iidcrs,  whilst  they  often  snatch  away  the  iii.sects 
which  have  become" entangled  in  spiders'  webs.  Tlie 
toii"iie  is  verv  long,  capable  of  being  darted  out  to 
a  considerable  length  :  tlie  bone  of  the  tongue  (liyoid 
bone)  lieing  much  elongated,  ami  its  branches  jias.s- 
ing  round  the  back  of  the  skull  to  the  forehead, 
where  they  meet  in  a  point  before  the  line  of  the 
eyes.  Tlie  tongue  itself  consists  of  two  hollow 
filaments,  joined  together  for  the  greater  part  of 
their  length,  and  separated  at  the  tip  ;  thestrncture 
of  the  tongue  and  livoid  bones  is  curiously  like 
that  of  tluT  Woodpei-kers  (ip v.)  and  the  sun-birds 
already  referred  to  :  this  affords  an  illustration  of 
the    fact  that  similar    requirements   often    cause 


HUMMING-BIRD    MOTH 


HUNGARY 


development  of  similar  structures  in  animals  other- 
wise distinct.  Tlie  \vinp<  of  huiiimini;-l)irds  are 
verylonf,'  and  iiowcrfiil,  like  tliose  cif  the  swifts,  tlie 
lenj;tli  lieinj;  iiartioiilarlv  marked  in  tliat  iiortioii  of 
the  winj;  whioli  oorresponds  to  the  hand  of  mammals; 
hence  the  name  Macrochires  which  is  ajiplied  to  the 
group.  Humnun>,'-l)iids  construct  their  nests  with 
nice  art,  generally  of  lichens  and  of  lihrous  suh- 
stances,  such  as  cotton.  They  do  not  lav  more 
than  two  eggs.  They  are  very  liolil  in  clefence  of 
their  nests  and  young,  and  are  said  to  strike  fear- 
lessly with  their  needle-like  hills  at  the  eyes  of  hirds 
of  i>rey,  which  they  far  surpass  in  agility  and  raiudity 
of  Hight.  They  are  very  easily  tamed  and  rendered 
fandtiar,  and  have  been  known  to  return  again  in 
spring,  after  a  winter  nngratiou  to  a  warmer  climate, 
to  the  window  from  which  they  hail  been  allowed  to 
escape.  Attempts  to  keep  tamed  humuLing-birds 
have  generally  failed  ;  and  they  have  almost  never 
been  brought  safely  across  the  Atlantic.  Hum- 
ming-bird skins  were  anciently  used  by  the  Mexi- 
cans foi  making  pictures. 

See  Jolin  Gould's  magnificent  Moiiofjmph  on  the  Tro- 
chilid(e  (5  vols.  18^19)-  Oould's  collection  of  specimens 
was  bought  for  tlie  Briti.sli  Museum. 

Hiiiiiiiiiiis^-bird  illotli.    See  Hawk  moth. 
Hiiuioiii's,    Humoral    Pathology.     -See 

TEMPEIt.VMEXi',  Hlrl'OCR.\rE,S. 

Huiuperdinck,  Exgelbert,  composer,   was 

born  at  Siegl)urg,  near  Bonn,  1st  SeiJtember  1S.")4; 
and  after  studying  music  at  C<dogne,  Frankfort, 
Munich,  &c.,  and  travels  in  France,  Spain,  and 
Italy,  taught  in  the  conservatoriunis  of  Barcelona 
and  Cologne,  anil  was  musical  adviser  to  a  publish- 
ing hrm  ill  Mainz.  Wagner  summoned  him  to 
a-ssist  in  the  production  of  that  master's  only 
symphony  ;  and  it  wa.s  he  w  ho  prepared  anjl 
coaclied  the  first  cast  of  Parsifal  at  Baireuth 
(1S82).  He  subsequently  settled  in  Frankfort 
(1890),  and  became  famous  as  the  author  of  the 
phenomenally  successful  children's  opera  or  musical 
fairy  play.  Hansel  mid  (Irctel  {\iif)i),  which  was 
followed  by  Srhnecxritfchcii  ('Tlie  Snow  Maiden') 
and  The  Royal  Chihlren. 

Iliiiicliback.    See  Spinal  Column. 

lllllldrod.  in  Hlnglish  law,  an  ancient  sub- 
division of  counties,  the  name  of  which  probably 
arose  from  there  being  a  hundred  warrior.s,  or  per- 
haps a  hundred  families,  or  ten  tithings,  in  each 
(see  Feudalism  ).  In  ancient  times,  if  a  crime  was 
committed,  such  as  robbery,  maiming  of  cattle, 
Imrning  of  .stacks,  &c. ,  the  hundred  had  to  make  it 
good.  The  old  distinctions  have,  however,  now  less 
sijjniticance.  But  the  characteristic  of  a  hundred  is 
still  this,  that  it  has  a  constable  orbailiif,  and  when 
any  damage  is  done  by  rioters  feloniously  destroy- 
ing property  the  owner  has  his  remedy  by  suing  the 
hundred  for  the  damage.  In  order  to  secure  this 
remedy  the  party  or  his  servant  must,  within  .seven 
days,  go  before  a  justice,  and  engage  to  prosecute 
the  ott'endei-s,  when  aii]irehended.  So.  where  there 
is  no  hundred,  the  county,  or  city,  or  tow  n  is  liable 
in  like  manner.  Execution  is  levied  on  the 
trea.surer  of  the  county.  In  the  northern  counties 
a  hundred  w.is  called  a  wapentake  CS'orkshiie)  or 
a  ward.  See  Riot,  Cocntv.— The  townships  in 
Delaware,  U.S.,  are  also  called  lliindreds.  See 
Professor  (J.  K.  Howard's  IiitroduHiun  ti>  the  Local 
Constitutional  History  of  the  U.S.  ( lialtimore,  1889 ). 
— The  Hundred  Days  is  a  name  often  given  to  the 
period  between  Napoleon's  landing  in  France  after 
his  escape  from  Kiba  (1st  March  181"))  and  the 
battle  of  Waterloo  ( 18tli  June  1815).  See  Fkance, 
Napoleon-  I. 

Hungary  (  Hung.  Marjyurorszdg,  Ger.  Ungam, 
Lat.   llunrjariu)  is  the  eastern  anil  larger  half  of 


the  Austro-Hungariau  monarchy,  covering  an  area 
of  about  125, (M)0  si],  m.,  between  44'  10'  and  49'  .S5' 
N.  lat.,  and  lietween  14'  '25'  and  '26-  25'  E.  long. 
Comprising  Hungary  proper,  Transylvania,  Croatia 
and  Slavunia  (nominally  also  l)almatia),  and 
Fiurae,  it  forms  the  realm  of  the  crown  of  St 
Stephen  or  Transleithania,  which  is  a  coequal 
factor  with  Austria  or  CisliMtliania  in  the  empire- 
kingdom  ruled  over  by  the  Hapsburg  dyna.sty. 
The  two  states  form  a  union  under  one  monarch 
for  military,  diplomatic,  and  customs  purposes, 
l.mt  otherwise  retain  their  distinct  independence  of 
each  other.  The  form  of  its  government  as  well 
as  its  geographical,  industrial,  and  statistical 
features  having  been  dealt  with  in  the  article 
Austria,  it  now  remains  only  to  give  an  account 
of  the  history,  language,  and  literature  of  the 
country,  or  its  chief  and  ruling  inhabitants,  the 
Magyars. 

Histori/. — But  little  is  known  of  the  history  of 
the  Hungarians  previous  to  their  appearance  in 
Europe  in  884.  They  are  generally  believed  to  be 
the  de.scendants  of  the  Scythians,  and  to  have  come 
from  regions  about  the  Caspian  Sea.  They  lirst 
settled  along  the  ^liddle  Volga,  but,  having  been 
pressed  westwards,  they  in  889  crossed  the  Car- 
pathian Mountains  under  Almos,  and  under  the 
further  leadership  of  his  son  iVrpad  they  conquered 
the  ancient  Pannonia  and  Dacia  of  the  Romans  ; 
and  this,  their  new  country,  was  in  the  year  1000 
formed  into  a  regular  kingdom  by  Stephen.  For 
his  merits  in  Christianising  his  people  Stejihen 
was  afterwards  created  a  saint,  and  recei\'ed  from 
Pope  Sylvester  II.  the  title  of  '  apostolic  king ' 
and  a  crown,  both  of  which  have  been  worn  l)y 
all  the  kings  of  Hungary  to  the  present  day.  The 
Hungarians  were  at  first  an  extremely  warlike  and 
even  savage  tribe;  and,  not  content  with  subduing 
the  various  nationalities  inhabiting  the  ancient 
Roman  inovinces,  they  made  frequent  expeditions 
into  Germany  and  Italy,  destroying  the  early  results 
of  Christian  civilisation.  All  this,  however,  ceased 
on,  and  even  before,  the  accession  of  Stephen,  who 
turned  his  attention  solely  to  the  con.solidation  of 
Christianity  and  interior  order  and  prosperity.  He 
laid  the  foundation  of  many  institutions  suiviv- 
ing  to  the  present  day,  such  as  the  ecclesiastical 
organisation,  the  archbishoprics  and  bishoprics,  the 
munici|ial  and  county  councils,  and  even  the 
national  council,  which  eventually  developed  into 
the  Diet  of  the  States.  Within  two  decades  after 
his  death  (  1038)  two  attempts  were  made  to  over- 
throw- Christianity,  and  to  re-establish  Paganism, 
but  only  with  very  slight  and  temporary  success. 
I'nder  I'iela  I.  ( lOO'l-OS).  Ladislaus  the  Saint  ( 1077- 
95),  and  Coloman  the  Learned  (1095-1114),  the 
country  made  very  marked  ]irogress.  The  reign  of 
Andrew  II.  is  remarkalde  on  account  of  the  nobles 
having  extorted  from  him  in  1222  the  '  Golden 
Bull,'  or  Hungarian  Magna  Charta,  the  privileges 
of  which  were  in  12:{1  extended  to  the  clergy  and 
lower  iioliility.  The  '  (Jolden  Bull  '  conferred  niany 
personal  and  material  advantages  on  the  nobles, 
and  also  contained  a  guarantee  for  the  annual 
convocation  of  the  diet ;  it  conceded  the  right  of 
armed  resistance  to  any  illegal  acts  of  the  king. 
During  the  reign  of  liela  I\';  (1235  70)  Hungary 
was  devastated  by  a  terrible  Mongol  invasion.  To 
replace  jiart  of  the  ]iopulation  cruelly  ma.ssacred 
by  the  Asiatic  savages,  Bela  introduced  German 
colonists;  hence  the  German-speaking  communi- 
ties in  Hungary  to  the  present  day.  By  the  death 
of  Andrew  III.  in  1301  the  House  of  Arpad  be- 
came extinct,  and  the  throne  of  Hungary  oecame 
an  object  of  rivalry  between  various  foreign  poten- 
tates. After  many  vici.ssitudes,  Hungary  wa.s 
fortunate  enough  to  lind  a  worthy  king  in  the 
person   of    Charles    Robert  of    Anjou   (1308-42), 


HUNGARY 


who  did  much  tn  i)lace  his  adopted  cotintry  on  a 
level  with  more  civilised  western  nations.  His 
son,  Louis  the  (yicat,  made  Hungary  the  most 
powerful  nation  of  the  period  in  central  Europe. 
After  the  death  of  Ladislaus  Posthumus  (1457), 
Matthias  Corvinus,  the  son  of  Hunvady,  tlie  great 
anti-Turkish  hero  and  regent  during  tliat  king's 
minority,  was  elected  king.  Under  his  reign 
Hungary  attained  to  the  pinnacle  of  fame,  pros- 
perity, civilisation,  and  power.  He  waged  suc- 
cessful wars  against  Podiehrad  of  Bohemia,  and 
got  himself  crowned  king  of  Bohemia  and  Moravia. 
He  also  defeated  the  Turks  at  Kenyermezo,  and 
reconquered  tlie  soutliern  provinces  held  hy  them. 
In  1485  he  even  took  Vienna  and  made  it  the 
ca]iital  of  Ids  country,  which  was  at  that  time 
more  extended  tlian  ever  before  or  after.  But 
Matthias  was  not  only  a  great  general  ;  he  was 
also  a  great  legislator,  a  munihcent  patron  of 
art  and  sciences,  and  a  great  judge.  His  impar- 
tiality and  love  for  the  people  were  so  generally 
recognised  tliat  to  tlie  present  day  there  lives  in 
Hungary  the  proverb  :  '  King  Matthias  is  dead  ; 
there  is  no  more  justice.'  Matthi.a.s  having  died 
witliout  legitimate  heirs,  the  throne  of  Hungary 
again  became  tlie  object  of  (ierce  struggles  between 
various  pretendeis,  and  the  country  underwent 
in  consequence  a  period  of  rapid  decay.  Under 
Vladislaus  (1490-1516)  Hungary  was  the  scene  of 
a  sanguinary  peasant  insurrection,  known  as  the 
Di'izsa  revolt,  which  was  ultimately  siqipressed, 
and  led  to  a  system  of  abject  serfdom.  Louis  II.  s 
reign  was  still  more  disastrous.  The  Turks,  under 
Soliman  the  (Ireat,  took  advantage  of  the  en- 
feebled condition  of  the  country,  invaded  it  witli 
a  gigantic  army,  annihilated  the  Hungarian  forces 
at  Mohacs,  pillaged  whole  districts,  including 
Bulla  with  the  world-famous  Bililiotheca  Corvina, 
and  carried  oft'  some  30,000  Hungarians  as  slaves. 
Louis  II.  himself  lost  his  life  in  or  after  the  battle 
of  Moh;ics,  and  the  Hungarian  throne  became 
once  more  the  prize  of  contention  lietween  two 
claimants.  One  was  John  Ziijiolya,  Woiwode 
of  Transylvania,  whom  one  section  of  the  nobles 
proclaimed  king,  the  other  was  Ferdinand  of 
Austria,  brother-in-law  of  Louis  II.  Z:ipolya  was 
supported  by  the  Turks,  Ferdinand  by  the  majority 
of  the  Hungarian  nobles.  Eventually  Zapolya 
surrendered  his  claims  to  the  whole  kingdom, 
merely  retaining  Transylvania  and  the  "Trans- 
tisian  district  of  Hungary  for  life.  Thus  the 
Hapsburgs  obtained  at  length  a  final  footing  in 
Hungary,  and  the  country  entered  on  a  period  of 
endless  sutl'ering  and  humiliations. 

The  successors  of  Ferdinand — viz.  Maximilian, 
Rudolph,  Ferdinand  11.,  Ferdinand  JII.,  and 
Leopold  I. — when  they  were  not  engaged  with  the 
Turks,  concentrated  their  energies  on  the  sup- 
pressiim  of  I'rotest.antism  in  Hungary.  The  I'ro- 
testants  won  several  victories  over  the  Imperial- 
ists, as  in  1G04  (i  under  .Stephen  Bocskay,  in  1()'20- 
21  under  Bethlen  (labor,  in  1644  under  George 
Kakoczy,  thus  forcing  the  government  to  show 
more  toleration  towanls  the  followers  of  the  new 
religion  :  but  the  kings  being  under  Jesuit  influ- 
ences, all  treat  ii's  and  promises  were  broken  on  the 
first  oppcirtunily.  Kspeiially  ruinous  was  the  long 
reign  of  Leojiold  1.  ( Ui.'iT  1705),  who,  with  the 
most  merciless  determination,  use<l  all  means  at 
his  disposal,  as  he  himself  siud,  to  'impoverish, 
enslave,  anil  recatholicise  '  Hungary.  Some  of  his 
own  highest  otiice-liolders,  although  themselves 
Catholics,  so  much  resented  his  terrible  treat- 
ment of  the  Protestants  that  they  began  a  con- 
spiracy for  the  separation  of  Hungary  from  the 
Hapsburg  dominions ;  but  the  plot  having  been 
detected,  the  ringleaders  were  put  to  death.  For 
many  years  the  Hcatfolds  were   at  work  in  sus- 


proved  \ery  success- 
?d   to  the  capture  of 


pected  districts,  and  thousands  of  \  aliant  families, 
mostly  Protestants,  >\eie  exterminated.  A  Pro- 
testant rising,  under  fount  Enierie  Tiikiily,  and 
supported  by  Kara  Mustaplia, 
ful  in  1683,  and  very  nearly  led  to  tlie  capl 
Vienna  and  tlie  utter  destruction  of  Austria;  but 
at  the  host  moment  John  Sobieski,  king  of  Poland, 
saved  Vienna  and  the  Hapsburgs.  After  the 
retreat  of  the  Turks  from  ^'ienna  they  graduallj' 
lost  their  hold  on  Hungan-. 

Leopold  died  in  1705  amidst  the  anxieties  en- 
tailed upon  him  by  another  Hungarian  rising,  led 
by  a  seeiind  Francis  Baki'iezy,  wliieh  did  not  end 
before  1711.  Leo]iolil  succeeded  in  causing  the  diet 
to  declare  the  tlirone  hereditary  in  the  House  of 
Hapsburg,  and  Charles  VI.  ( 171  l-40)received  their 
adhesion  to  the  Pragmatic  Sanction,  securing 
the  right  of  succession  in  the  female  line.  Never- 
theless, his  daughter  ALaria  Theresa's  claim 
to  the  throne  was  called  in  iiuestion  by  several 
German  rulers  and  by  Fraiii'e,  her  dominions  were 
invaded,  and  she  saved  them  and  herself  only 
through  the  magnanimous  self-sacrilice  of  the 
Hungarians.  She  was  the  first  Hapsburg  ruler 
who  showed  herself  grateful  to  the  Hungarians, 
and  who  proved  herself  to  understand  the  duties  of 
a  sovereign.  She  made  sexeral  concessions  to  the 
Protestants,  improved  the  condition  of  the  peasants, 
and  established  schools.  Her  son  and  successor, 
Joseph  11.  (1780-90),  does  imt  strictly  figure  among 
Hungarian  kings,  as  he  had  never  himself  been 
crowned  in  Hungary,  but  carried  on  his  reign  in 
violation  of  the  Hungarian  constitution  as  an  auto- 
cratic emperor.  He  was  an  enlightened  reformer, 
but  did  not  reckon  with  national  feelings,  class 
idiosyncrasies,  interests,  and  ]iiejndices  ;  he  at- 
tempted to  make  Hungary  ]iarl  of  a  vast  jian- 
(iermanic  bureaucracy  ;  and  many  of  his  measures 
fostered  the  discontent  to  such  a  degree  that  at  his 
deathbed  he  saw  himself  compelled  to  recall  all 
his  illegal  edicts,  with  the  exception  of  one — viz. 
that  enjoining  religious  toleration.  Leopold  II.  at 
1  once  convoked  the  diet  (the  first  for  twenty-five 
i  years),  and  confirmed  the  rights  and  indeiiendence 
j  of  the  nation.  His  conciliatory  reign  lasted  only 
two  years,  and  he  was  succeeded  by  Francis  I. 
(1792-1835),  whose  aiobition  it  was  to  fidlow  the 
example  of  his  least  reputable  predecessors.  As 
long  as  the  Napoleonic  wars  lasted,  and  the  Hun- 
garians su]iporteil  him  with  money  and  troops,  he 
played  at  constitutionalism  ;  but  as  soon  as  the 
Napoleonic  d<angers  were  passed  he  showed  himself 
in  Ids  true  character,  discontinued  the  diets  and 
levied  troops  and  taxes  at  bis  pleasure  till  1825, 
when  he  was  driven  by  the  general  discontent  and 
resistance  to  convoke  the  states. 

This  diet  marked  the  beginning  of  the  new  era 
in  Hungary.  The  nation  commenced  to  awaken  to 
the  consciousness  of  its  many  wants,  intellectual 
and  material ;  the  desire  for  reforms  was  fast  ripen- 
ing. The  majority  of  the  delegates  to  the  next 
diet  (1832)  were  already  bearers  of  radical  in- 
structions. The  desired  reforms,  however,  were 
slow  in  coining,  owing  to  the  narrow  minded  pidicy 
of  Metternich  and  the  whole  court  party.  The 
diet  of  18.'i2  counted  among  its  members  such  men 
as  Count  Louis  ll.iltluinyi.  Baron  Nicholas  Wes- 
selenyi.  Baron  Joseph  Eutviis.  Francis  Ileak,  and 
Louis  Kossuth.  The  more  important  reforms  passed 
by  this  and  the  subsei|iient  diets  of  1839  and  1843 
were  tho.se  regarding  the  official  use  of  the  Hun- 
garian language,  the  eligibility  of  non-nobles  to 
public  ollices,  and  the  equal  rights  of  Christian 
denominations.  Outside  parliament  there  was  no 
less  acti\itv  than  inside.  Kossuth's  I'csti  llirluu 
(the  first  llungarian  jiolitical  daily  paper),  which 
in  enthusiastic  lanjinage  taught  the  masses  how 
to  demand  their  rights,  rapidly  spread  all   over 


HUNGARY 


the  country.  Kossuth  advocated  the  abolition  of 
serfilom,  the  equality  of  all  citizens,  the  liability 
of  nobles  to  taxation,  and  freedom  of  the  press. 
He  was  returned  to  the  diet  of  1S47  as  senior 
member  for  the  county  of  Pest,  and  it  was  on  his 
motion  that  the  House  re.solved  in  March  1S48  to 
send  a  deimtation  to  Vienna  to  demand  all  these 
and  various  other  reforms.  Ferdinand  \.,  a  weak- 
mindeil  man,  who  had  reigned  since  1835,  yieldeil 
after  some  hesitation,  and  the  first  Hungarian 
responsible  ministry  entrusted  with  the  task  of 
carrying  the  said  meivsures  was  appointed.  Count 
Louis  Hatthanyi  was  prime-minister,  Deak  minis- 
ter of  justice,  and  Kossuth  minister  of  finance. 
But  the  court  party  were  secretly  iletermined  to 
frustrate  all  these  reforms,  wliicli  openly  they  did 
not  dare  to  oppose.  They  therefore  incited  the 
Croatians  ami  other  non- Hungarian  nationalities 
to  rise  against  Hungarian  s\ipremacy.  .Accord- 
ingly Croatia,  Slavonia,  the  Servian  Banat,  and 
eventually  the  Koumans  of  Transylvania  took  up 
arms  against  Hungarian  rule :  and  w  hen  the 
central  government  in  \ienna  was  apiiealed  to 
it  issued  highly-worded  proclamations  against  the 
rebels,  but  gave  very  scant  help  to  subdue  them, 
whilst  secretly  it  supplied  them  with  arms,  am- 
munition, and  money.  The  Hungarian  govern- 
ment, so  treacherously  abandoned,  proceeded  to 
obtain  frou]  parliament  the  \  ote  of  a  levy  'of 
200,000  men  and  42  million  Horins  of  money, 
but  to  these  measvires,  unanimously  decreed  by 
parliament,  the  crown  withhelil  its  assent.  Later 
on,  Septemlier  ti,  when  a  deputation  of  120 
members  waited  on  Ferdinand  to  urge  him  to 
oppose  the  Croatian  invasion,  the  court  again 
gave  an  evasive  reply.  But  a  few  days  later, 
having  received  good  news  respecting  the  army 
operating  in  Italy,  the  court  threw  aside  the 
hypocritical  mask  hitherto  worn,  and  declared 
open  hostility  to  Hungary  by  ignoring  the  exist- 
ing constitution  and  government,  recalling  the 
Palatine  Archduke  Steplien,  ami  appointing  Count 
Lamberg  governor-general  and  royal  commissioner 
for  Hungary.  Parliament  declared  these  acts 
illegal,  and  Count  Lamberg  was  murdered  on  his 
arrival  by  the  enraged  population  of  Budapest. 
The  ministry  now  resigned,  and  a  committee  of 
national  defence  was  appointed  with  Kossuth  as 
president.  .V  comparatively  numerous  army  was 
rapidly  er|uipped  and  .~ent  to  meet  Jellachich,  who 
was  marching  towards  Budapest  at  the  head  of  the 
Croatians.  He  was  completely  beaten  at  Veleneze, 
anil  iluring  an  armistice  of  three  days,  which  was 
granted  him  by  the  victorious  Hungarians,  he  fled 
ignominiously  towards  Vienna.  Notwithstanding 
this  defeat  he  was  appointed  ci>mmaniler-in  chief  of 
all  the  forces  and  alter-ego  of  the  emperor-king  in 
Hungary;  and  all  tlie  decrees  anil  resolutions  of 
the  Hungarian  parliament  were  declared  illegal. 

'_)n  December  2  Ferdinand  was  compelled  by  a 
family  council  to  abdicate  in  favour  of  his  nephew, 
Francis  Joseph,  who  was  then  eighteen  years  of 
age.  In  his  name  the  war  began  to  be  carried  on 
bitterly  against  Hungary,  all  tlie  more  as  the  diet 
declared  the  succession  unconstitutional.  Up  to 
the  middle  of  January  next  fortune  seemed  to 
favour  the  Austrian  arms :  the  Hungarians, 
though  they  fought  valiantly  and  obtained  some 
victories,  had  to  retreat  before  the  overwhelming 
numbers  of  the  enemy  ;  the  whole  trans-Danubian 
district  and  the  north  and  south  were  lost  to  them  ; 
they  had  only  the  va,st  plains  of  the  .Mfiild  and 
Transylvania,  where  Bem  entirely  subdued  the 
rebellious  nationalities.  Meanwhile  the  Russians 
were  also  coming  to  the  aid  of  the  .Vnstrians,  so 
that  the  Hungarians  had  fair  reason  to  despair  of 
their  own  position.  It  was  only  the  inactivity  of 
NVindischgiiitz,  the  new  Austrian  generalis.sinio,  that 


saved  the  Hungarians.  His  aimless  stay  at  Budapest 
gave  Kossuth  time  to  perambulate  the  country, 
and  by  his  stirring  eloquence  and  boundless  energy 
to  create  a  splendid  thoniih  irregular  army,  which, 
under  the  various  leadei-snip  of  L)embinski,  Vetter, 
Gcirgei,  Klapka,  and  others,  won  so  many  victories 
over  the  .Austrians  within  the  ne.xt  three  months 
that  by  the  end  of  April  the  country  was  almost 
entirely  free  from  the  enemy.  The  many  defeats 
of  the  Austrian  regular  forces  by  the  Hungarian 
irregulars  so  exasperated  the  Menna  court  that,  on 
March  4,  1849,  it  promulgated  a  decree  abolishing 
the  Hungarian  constitution:  to  whicli  the  Hun- 
garian diet  replied  by  the  declaration  of  independ- 
ence, and  the  dethronement  of  the  Hapsburg 
dynasty  on  April  14.  No  final  form  of  government 
was  decided  upon,  but  Kossuth  was  temporarily 
elected  governor-piesident,  and  instead  of  the 
committee  of  national  defence  a  new  ministry 
was  formed  under  the  presidency  of  Bartholomew 
Szemere.  Had  Ciirgei  not  disregarded  Kossuth's 
advice,  had  he  forced  his  way  to  Vienna  after  so 
many  victories,  the  whole  war  might  have  come 
to  an  end  with  glorious  results  for  Hungary  ;  but 
Giirgei  decided  to  first  retake  Budapest,  and  thereby 
enabled  the  united  Ku.ssian  and  Austrian  armies 
to  invade  the  country  at  various  points.  These 
combined  armies  consisted  of  no  less  than  275,000 
men.  with  600  batteries,  whilst  the  Hungarians 
numbered  baiely  135,000,  with  no  artillery  to 
speak  of.  In  these  circumstances  the  Hungarians 
had  little  chance  of  defending  themselves  with 
any  measure  of  success,  but  they  continued  to 
;  fight  with  the  greatest  determination.  Fortune 
j  still  smiled  on  them  here  and  there,  but  on  the 
I  whole  chances  and  events  were  against  them. 
I  This  decline  of  their  fortunes  was  aggravated 
by  the  serious  dissensions  between  Gcirgei  and 
Kossuth,  which  grew  daily  in  intensity  till  the 
latter  thought  it  advisable,  in  order  not  to  hamper 
the  other's  strategic  activity,  to  abdicate  in  favour 
of  Gfirgei  on  August  11,  1849.  (jnce  in  the  possession 
of  the  chief  political  and  military  power,  Gcirgei 
no  longer  thought  of  continuing  the  struggle,  but 
immediately  and  unconditionally  surrendered  him- 
self to  the  Russians.  This  act  on  his  part  was 
defended  by  him  as  one  imposed  liy  necessity  and 
a  saving  of  further  bloodshetf  ;  but  examined  in  the 
light  of  his  former  conduct  and  of  the  fact  that  he 
induced,  by  empty  and  futile  promises  for  the  safety 
of  their  persons  and  their  troops,  thirteen  other 
generals  to  follow  his  example,  it  is  generally  con- 
sidered by  the  majority  of  his  countrymen  an 
act  of  unpardonable  treason.  Kossuth  and  several 
other  military  and  political  leaders  Hed  to  Turkey, 
whilst  the  others  who  remained  behind  and  were 
cajitured  were  either  sentenced  to  long  terms 
of  impiisonment  or  shot  and  hanged  like  mere 
criminals.  Among  the  latter  were  Count  Louis 
Batth^nyi  and  the  thirteen  generals  betrayed  by 
Gcirgei,  including  Count  Charles  Leiningen,  a 
relative  of  the  t^ueen  of  England.  Giirgei  him- 
self was  sent  to  Klagcnfurt,  and  kept  there 
on  a  small  jiension.  Hungary  was  incoriimated 
into  and  governed  as  an  hereditary  jimvince  of 
Austria,  the  governiu'  being  ( General  Haynau.  who 
wielded  his  utiicial  power  with  extraordinary 
harshness  and  cruelty.  Political  prisoners  were 
tortured,  women  publicly  flogged,  properties  and 
righfs  conliscated.  With  the  exception  of  the 
abolition  of  scifdnm  all  the  acts  of  the  diet  of  1848 
were  annulled,  and  Hungary  was  governed  by  a 
host  of  foreign  officials  according  to  Austrian  laws 
and  institutions.  The  country  displayed  no  active 
resistance,  nevertheless  all  the  rllorts  of  this 
centralising  and  (iermanising  .system  so  completely 
failed  that  by  18.">7  the  Vienna  government  began 
to  see  its  futility  and  to  oH'er  some  concessions. 


8 


HUNGARY 


After  the  disastrous  Italian  war  in  1859  the  old 
Hungarian  chancellory,  as  it  existed  previous  to 
1S4S,  was  re  estal)lish(Ml,  Imt  failed  to  satisfy  the 
Hungarians,  whose  [jassive  resistance  threatened 
with  a  linal  breakdown  the  Austrian  state 
niachini'ry.  At  length  in  1861  the  diet  was 
once  more  convokeil  :  Imt,  as  it  demanded  tlie  full 
restitution  of  the  constitution  of  1S4S,  it  was 
quickly  dissolved.  Gradually,  however,  Vietter 
counsels  prevailed  at  the  court  of  Vienna.  Parlia- 
ment was  again  summoned  in  1805,  and  the 
demands  of  the  Hungarians,  as  fornnilated  Ijy  Deak 
and  his  party,  were  complied  with,  and  resulted  in 
the  agreement  described  in  detail  in  the  article 
Au.sTKr.\.  Francis-Joseph  was  crowned  king  of 
Hungary,  June  7,  1867,  and  entered  on  the  faith- 
ful discharge  of  his  duties  as  constitutional 
monarch.  There  is  still  a  numerous  party  in 
Hungary  in  favour  of  complete  separation  from 
Austria,  but  none  are  hostile  to  the  sovereign. 
The  renewal  of  this  decennial  tinancial  arrange- 
ment (1897-98)  led  to  very  strained  relations 
between  the  two  sections,  the  Hungarians  declin- 
ing to  raise  their  contributions  from  81 '4  to 
42  per  cent,  of  the  common  expenditure.  Hun- 
gary made  good  use  of  the  period  of  internal 
peace  enjoyed  after  the  coronation,  an<l  made 
rapid  strides  in  the  path  of  civilisation.  It 
established  an  admirable  system  of  elementary 
and  higher  education,  built  a  magnificent  net  of 
railways  (now  largely  in  the  liands  of  the  state), 
improved  its  judicature,  developed  commerce  and 
industry,  and  organised,  in  addition  to  the  Austro- 
Hungarian  common  army,  an  eliective  system  of 
national  defence,  the  Honveds.  Budapest,  its 
capital,  equalled  by  few,  sur])assed  by  none  among 
the  great  cities  of  Europe,  is  watched  with  as  much 
envy  by  the  Austrians  as  the  growing  influence 
of  the  Hungarians  in  the  common  councils  of  the 
monarchy.  Lately  the  former  heavy  deficits  have 
disappeared  from  the  budget,  and  there  is  every 
hope  of  the  kingdom  soon  being  in  a  condition  to 
reduce  its  heavy  debts.  The  various  nationalities 
in  Hungary  (  Servians,  Wallai-hs,  Kuthens,  Slovaks, 
Germans)  enjoy  the  same  rights  as  the  native 
Magyars,  which  are  considerablj'  greater  than  in 
Austria ;  there  is  therefore  comparatively  little 
discontent  prevailing  among  them,  even  though  pan- 
slavistic  missionaries  strive  to  make  mischief.  ^luch 
of  Hungary's  steady  progress  is  due  to  the  fact  that 
since  the  new  era  there  have  been  few  changes  in  its 
government.  The  thousand  years  of  national  exist- 
ence was  celebrated  by  a  millennial  exhibition, 
historical  proce.ssions,  tSrc.  at  IJuda]iest  in  1896. 

Languafjc  and  Litrriiliire. — The  Hungarians 
when  they  settled  in  their  present  land  a  thousand 
years  ago  brouglit  their  language  ready  with  them, 
and  this,  although  it  has  had  since  to  borrow  certain 
words  from  Euro]iean  languages  to  convey  new 
ideas,  has  retained  all  its  original  features  both  as 
regards  etymology  and  syntax.  The  origin  of  the 
Hungarian  language  can  hardly  be  stated  yet  with 
certainty.  Hungarian  philologists  are  divided  into 
two  sections  on  the  i)oint,  the  '  Orientalists  '  main- 
taining its  adinity  with  'rurco-Tartaric  languages, 
whilst  the  '  Finnists  '  contend,  and  for  the  j)resent 
at  least  with  far  more  general  success,  that  it 
belongs  to  the  I'giic  branch  of  the  Finnish  group. 
By  reason  of  the  perfect  harmony  between  vowels 
and  consonants,  and  the  very  distinct  articulation 
and  pronunciation  cs.scntial  to  it,  Hungarian  is 
considered  a  very  nnisical  language,  particularly 
a<lapled  to  poetry  and  ihi^torio.  Its  grammar, 
moreover,  is  so  stiikingly  dill'ercnt  from  that  of  .-my 
other  European  language,  and  so  rich  in  original 
characteristics,  that  it  oilers  a  very  interesting 
field  to  students  of  comnarative  philology.  It  is 
acknowledged  by  them  tliat  it  is  well  adapted  to 


express  ideas  with  the  utmost  clearness,  owing  to 
the  distinctness  and  immense  variety  of  endings 
and  the  originality  and  Hexibility  of  its  roots. 
Among  its  characterLstics  are  that  it  has  no  gen- 
ders, and  (/c<:/i>iatioii  and  luiijiif/aliun  are  effected 
by  means  of  suffixes  only  ;  that  the  verbs  pos- 
sess objective  and  subjective  forms  (e.g.  kitiik, 
'  I  see  ; '  kifom,  '  I  .see  him  or  her  or  it :  /litu:, 
'  thou  seest ; '  Idtml,  '  thou  seest  him  or  her  or  it,' 
&c. );  that  it  invariably  places  the  surname  before 
the  Christian  name.  It  is  also  noteworthy  that 
there  are  absolutely  no  dialects  in  the  Hungarian 
language,  ami  scarcely  any  ditlerence  of  pronuncia- 
tion in  the  various  parts  of  the  country. 

From  the  date  of  the  establishment  of  the 
Hungarian  kingdom  the  use  of  the  Hungarian 
language  was  so  much  restiicted  that  a  Hungarian 
literature  can  hardly  be  said  to  have  existed  before 
the  close  of  the  18th  century.  The  introduction  of 
Christianity  by  Italian  and  German  ])riests  in  the 
11th  century  made  Latin  the  official  language  and 
the  medium  of  intercourse  between  the  educated 
classes,  and  this  remained  so  to  a  great,  though 
gradually  dindnishing,  extent  up  to  the  third  and 
fourth  decade  of  the  19tli  century.  There  was  a 
slight  reaction  in  favour  of  Hungarian  after  the 
Reformation,  but  the  language  was  not  taught  in 
.schools  till  tlie  year  1790,  and  parliament  did  not 
discontinue  Latin  until  182o.  The  oldest  Hun- 
garian literary  record  extant  is  a  funeral  oration 
dating  from  the  year  1171  ;  there  are  also  some 
religious  songs  and  dramatic  '  mysteries'  from  the 
14th  century.  The  first  lay  poet  of  real  merit. 
Baron  Valentine  Balassa,  li\ed  in  the  second  half 
of  the  16th,  the  first  great  epic  poet,  Ziinyi,  in 
the  17th  century. 

The  revival  of  literature  began  to  take  place  only 
towards  the  end  of  Maria  Theresa's  reign.  Lyric 
poetry  was  cultivated  by  Anyos,  ^'irag,  Bacsanyi, 
and  by  Alexander  Kisfaludy  (1772-1844),  Daniel 
Berzsenyi  (1776-1836),  Francis  Kazinczy  (  17o9- 
1831),  and  others,  who  not  only  added  to  the 
valuable  stock  of  literature,  but  also  enriched  the 
language  with  new  words  and  forms — Kazinc/.y 
excelling  so  nmch  in  this  respect  as  to  obtain 
the  appellation  of  'the  recreator  of  the  language.' 
Kiilcsey,  orator,  essayist,  and  )ioet,  and  Charles 
Kisfaludy  (1788-1830),  the  founder  of  Hungarian 
drama,  were  the  chief  literary  figmes  at  the  be- 
ginning of  the  19th  century.  Hungarian  poetry, 
however,  cainiot  be  said  to  have  possessed  much 
originality  at  this  period  :  it  was  reserved  to  such 
men  as  Petdfi  (1823-49),  A'orosmarty  (180O  Tw), 
Ar.any  ( 1817-82),  and  Tom])a  ( 1819-08)  to  regener- 
ate Hungarian  poetry  on  mitional  lines.  This  end 
was  attained  towards  the  period  of  the  war  of  in- 
dei)endence,  since  which  Hungary  has  produced  a 
number  of  minor  poets,  such  as  Saro.sy,  Szasz, 
Vajda,  Kiss,  Keviczky,  Abninyi,  and  Rudnyanszky. 
In  dramatic  literature  Charles  Kisfaludy  wius 
followed  by  Szigligeti  (1814-78),  whose  extreme 
fertility  enriched  it  by  many  exceedingly  successful 
)days.  The  classic  tragedy  Bank  liiin  of  Katona 
(1792-1830),  and  Tin;  IIiDium  Tragedy,  a  dramatic 
poem,  by  M.adach  (1823-64),  on  the  lines  of 
Goethe's  Fnimt,  but  no  less  original,  dc-^erve 
especial  mention.  Amongst  their  siicce.'^scu's  there 
is  only  one  great  dramatist — (iregor  Csiky.  The 
Hungarian  theatres  rely  mainly  on  |ii-oilucl.~  of 
foreign  literature — French,  English  and  (ieiiuan. 

In  ])rose  literature  Hungary  has  i>roiluced  many 
.standard  works.  The  founder  of  the  real  Hun- 
garian novel  was  IJaron  Nicholas  Josika  (1794- 
180,')),  whose  liistoi-iral  ami  soi-ial  novels  on  the 
model  of  Sir  Walter  Scott's  works  achieved  great 
success  and  ])(q)ularity.  Baron  Josejdi  Eiitviis 
(1813-71)  cultivated  the  sentimental  imvel,  and 
the  novel  with  a  purpose.     But  among  authors  of 


HUNGER 


HUNT 


fiction  the  highest  rank  is  due  to  Maurice  Jukai 
(q.v.),  whose  Ijoumlless  imagination  and  jHofound 
liuniour  have  rendereil  him  a  ta^■oul•ite  with  leaders 
in  many  countries  heyond  liis  own.  Ahnost  all  his 
novels  have  been  translated  into  German,  many 
into  Italian,  French,  English,  and  other  lan- 
guages. Beyond  its  own  original  productions  it 
also  possesses  admirable  translations  of  all  the 
masterpieces  in  the  worlds  literature,  from  the 
Bible,  of  which  it  possesses  three  versions,  down 
through  all  ages  and  countries  to  Tennyson's 
poems.  A  collection  of  Shakespeare's  plays  is 
especially  noteworthy,  they  ha\'ing  been  translated 
by  Hungary's  greatest  poets,  including  Petiifi 
(Curiolanus),  Arany  (Hamlet,  Mid.snmmer-Xighfs 
Dream,  King  John),  N'oriismarty  (Kinfj  Lear),  and 
others.  It  should  be  adiled  that  the  best  literary 
talent  of  the  country  is  to  a  great  e.\tent  connected 
with  journalism. 

See  Fessler,  (iesehiehte  der  Umiam  (newed.  by  Klein, 
1863-87);  Majlath,  Gcschichte  der  Magiiaren  (2d  ed. 
1853 ) ;  Sayous,  Histoire  des  Hongrois  ( Par.  1876 ),  and 
works  by  Uor^'ath,  Szalay,  I'oldy,  <tc,  ;  also  Vambery, 
Storu  of  Hunrjarii  ( 1886  1 ;  Leger,  Historj/ ofAustro-Hun- 
pari/  I  trans,  by  Mrs  Birkbeck  Hill,  prcfaCL'  by  Freeman, 
1890) :  and  Felbermann,  Huniiari/  and  its  People  (1892). 

Hunger.    See  Appetite,  Dige.stiox. 

Ilungerford,  a  town  of  Berkshire,  partly  also 
in  Wiltshire,  is  situated  on  the  river  Kennet,  26 
miles  WSW.  of  Reading.  It  is  a  hunting  centre, 
and  a  favourite  resort  of  anglers,  having  been  even 
in  Evelyn's  time  'a  towne  famous  for  its  troutes. ' 
In  the  town-hall  ( 1870)  is  jireserved  a  honi  gifted  to 
the  (own  by  .lolm  of  (Jaunt  in  1362.     Pop.  '2965. 

Hiiningeil  (Fr.  Hmihir/ue),  a  town  of  Alsace, 
on  the  left  bank  of  the  Hliine,  2i  miles  N.  of  Basel, 
is  celebrated  for  its  Hsh-lireeding  estal)lishment 
(see  Plscici'LTURE).  It  was  fortilied  by  Vauban 
in  1679-81,  but  the  works  were  finally  destroyed  in 
1815.     Pop.  1704. 

Huns  (Lat.  Htiimi,  Gr.  Ounnoi  and  Chowioi), 
a  nomad  race  of  antiquity,  whose  remote  ancestors 
were  probably  the  Hiuiig-nu,  a  people  of  Turkish 
stock,  who  formed  a  powerful  state  in  Mongolia 
in  the  2d  centun'  B.C.  In  177  they  conquered 
another  large  nomad  race,  the  Yue-chi,  akin  to 
the  Tibetans,  and  drove  them  westward  and  south- 
ward, they  themselves  following.  But  alx)ut  the 
dawn  of  the  Christian  era  their  political  power  fell 
to  pieces  and  the  tribesmen  were  scattereil.  One 
section,  however,  seems  to  have  tied  westwards  and 
to  have  settled  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  river 
Ural  and  the  Volga.  At  all  events,  some  three 
centuries  and  a  half  later  the  people  known  to 
classic  and  medieval  writers  as  Huns  stepped  upon 
the  stage  of  history  from  that  part  of  the  world. 
About  the  year  372  they  moved  westwards  again. 
under  a  leader  called  Balamir,  and  subdued  first 
the  Alani,  who  dwelt  between  the  Volga  and  the 
Don,  and  then  proceeded  to  attack  the  (Jstrogoths, 
part  of  whom  submitted  somewhat  tamely,  whilst 
another  ]iart  oti'ered  strenuous  opposition,  but  were 
in  the  end  compelled  to  submit  likewise.  This 
business  completed,  the  Huns  next  invaded  the 
territories  of  the  \'isigotlis,  and  drove  this  people 
before  them  across  the  Danube,  except  one  section, 
who,  under  Frithigern,  sought  permission  of  Valens, 
emperor  of  the  East,  to  settle  in  his  territories. 
The  districts  quitted  by  the  Goths  were  occupied 
by  the  Huns.  This,  their  first  wave  of  invasion  and 
conquest,  seems  then  to  have  subsided  ;  and,  though 
it  was  followed  by  more  than  one  smaller  after-wave, 
it  was  not  until  about  4.30  that  the  sec<mil  anil 
greater  wave  began  to  gather  head  again  in  Bhuas 
or  Kugulas.  This  chief  acquired  such  power  and 
inHuence  that  in  432  he  imposed  upon  Theodosius 
II.,  emperor  of   Byzantium,  an   annual  tribute  of 


350  pounds  of  gold.  He  was  succeeded  in  433  by 
his  more  illustrious  nephew  Attila  (q.v.).  With 
Attila's  death,  however,  in  453,  the  power  of  the 
Huns  crumbled  to  pieces  aiidd  the  intestine  strifes 
of  his  sons  and  generals,  and  the  attacks  of  their 
foes  round  aliout.  After  a  most  disastrous  defeat 
iuHicted  upon  them  in  Pannonia  in  454  by  the 
combined  armies  of  the  Goths,  GejiidiV,  Suevi, 
Herulians,  and  others,  the  tribesmen  of  the  Huns 
rapiilly  dispersed.  Some  settled  in  the  Dobrudja, 
othei's  in  Dacia,  whilst  the  main  Imdy  seem  to 
have  returned  to  the  land  from  whence  they  came 
— viz.  the  region  about  the  river  Ural.  Some 
authorities  identify  these  with  the  later  Bulgarians, 
who  about  the  end  of  the  5th  century  had  risen 
into  a  powerful  state  on  the  Volga,  and  .sent  ofl' 
conquering  bands  to  the  south-west,  who  finally 
settled  in  the  modem  Bulgaria. 

The  Huns  are  described  as  being  of  a  dark  com- 
plexion, deformed  in  appearance,  of  uncouth  ges- 
ture and  shrill  voice.  '  They  were  distinguished,' 
says  Gibbon,  '  from  the  rest  of  the  human  species 
by  their  broad  shoulders,  fiat  noses,  and  small  black 
eyes  deeply  liuried  in  the  head  ;  and,  as  they  were 
almost  destitute  of  beards,  they  never  enjoyed  either 
the  manly  graces  of  youth  or  the  venerable  aspect 
of  age.  A  fabulous  origin  was  assigned  worthy  of 
their  form  and  mannei-s — that  the  witches  of 
Scythia,  who  for  their  foul  and  deadly  practices 
had  been  driven  from  society,  had  united  in  the 
desert  with  infernal  spirits,  and  that  the  Huns 
were  the  offspring  of  this  execral)le  conjunction.' 
Like  the  ^Mongols,  they  were  essentially  a  race  of 
horsemen  :  thev  fought  with  javelins  tipped  with 
bone,  with  sarjres,  and  with  slings  or  lassoes. 
They  ate  herbs  and  half-raw  meat,  which  they 
first  used  as  saddles  ;  and  they  clothed  themselves 
with  the  skins  of  m  ild  animals. 

The  \\lute  Huns  or  Ephthalites  or  Hephthalites 
are  by  some  regarded  as  a  branch  of  the  Hiungnu, 
though  others  make  them  the  descendants  of  the 
ancient  Royal  Scythians,  identifying  them  with 
the  Barsileens,  the  allies  of  the  Khazars.  What- 
ever be  their  real  origin,  they  were  certainly  estab- 
lished in  ancient  Bactria  and  the  adjoining  districts, 
between  the  Oxus  and  the  Caspian,  at  a  period 
contemporaneous  with  Attila's  career.  From  the 
third  decade  of  the  5th  century  onwards  for  about 
120  years  they  were  engaged  in  constant  wars  with 
their  neighlioui-s  on  the  south,  the  Persians.  In 
484  the  Ephthalites  routed  them  in  a  fierce  battle, 
in  which  Peroz,  king  of  Persia,  was  amongst  the 
slain.  But  their  power  seems  to  have  been  finally 
broken  abotit  560  by  the  all-conquering  Turks  on 
their  way  to  Asia  Minor  and  Constantinople. 

See  De  Guignes,  Histoire  Ui'nerale  des  Huns  (vol.  i. 
1756);  Neumann,  Die  Volktr  des  siidtiektn  Russia iid  {2A. 
ed.  1855);  ThieiTy,  Histoire  d'Attila  (4th  ed.  1874); 
and  Howortl],  in  Jour.  Antlintpol.  Inst.  (1872-74). 

Hnnstanton,  a  watering-place  of  Norfolk,  on 
the  Wash,  18  miles  NE.  of  King's  Lynn  by  a  rail- 
way (1S62).  It  has  a  broad  beach  of  firm  sand, 
and  good  bathing  and  sea-fishing,  a  pier,  and  a 
splendid  Decorated  church  (c.  1330).  Hunstanton 
Hall,  dating  from  the  Tudor  period,  but  greatly 
injured  l)v  fire  in  1853,  was  the  seat  of  Sir  Roger 
L'Estrange.  A  lighthouse  ( 1840)  lilts  a  fixed  light 
to  an  altitude  of  109  feet,  and  shows  it  for  a  dis- 
tance of  16  miles.  Pop.,  with  Barrett  Ringstead, 
1725. 

Hunt,  Henry,  surnamed  '  Orator  Hunt,'  was 
born  at  Ujiavon,  in  Wiltshire,  on  6th  November 
1773.  He  w;is  a  wellto-do  farmer,  but  in  1800  his 
hot  temjier  embroiled  him  with  Lord  Bruce,  the 
commandant  of  the  Wiltshire  yeomanry,  which 
brought  him  six  weeks'  imprisonment.  He  came 
out  of  gaol  a  hot  Radical,  an<l  spent  the  rest  of 
his  life  travelling  about  the  country  addressing 


10 


HUNT 


the  (leople  on  behalf  of  the  repeal  of  the  Corn 
Laws  anil  as  an  advocate  of  parliamentary  reform. 
In  1819,  on  the  occasion  of  the  Peterloo  massacre, 
lie  delivered  a  speech,  which  cost  him  three  veai^" 
imprisonment.  He  died  at  Alresford,  in  Hamp- 
shire, on  l.Sth  Kehniary  183.'). 

Hunt.  Jame.s  Hexry  Lkigh,  ijoet  and  essayist, 
was  born  at  Sonthgate,  near  Eiiinonton,  on  19th 
October  1784.  His  father.  Isaac  Hunt  (1752-  i 
1809),  a  Harliailian,  beinn  driven  by  the  Revolu- 
tion from  Philadelphia  to  London,  gave  up  law  for 
tlie  church,  but  lapseil  into  bankruptcy  and  Uni-  | 
versalism.  Leigh  Hunt  spent  eight  years  at  j 
Christ's  Hospital,  and  left  at  tifteen  a.s  tirst 
'  Deputy-Grecian,'  debarred  Ijy  a  stammer  from  i 
ftirt her  promotion.  He  was  a  clerk  first  under  , 
one  brother,  an  attorney,  and  next  for  four 
years  in  the  War  Ottice,  writing  meanwhile  much 
dramatic  criticism  -.  in  1S08  witli  another  brother, 
a  printer,  he  set  up  the  E.riiinitirr  ;  and  in  1809 
wedded  Marianne  Kent  (1788-1857).  The  Exa- 
miner's tone  was  Radical,  and,  after  several  govern- 
ment prosecutions  in  1813  for  a  libel  on  the 
Prince  Regent  (he  had  called  him  a  'corpulent 
Ad(mis  of  fifty"),  Leigh  Hunt  was  sentenced  to 
a  fine  of  £500  and  to  two  years'  imprisonment  in 
Surrey  gaol.  There  he  'scattered  urbanity,'  played 
battledore  with  his  children,  received  hosts  of 
visitors,  and  turned  his  cage  intoa  'bower  of  roses.' 
In  November  1821  with  his  wife  and  seven  children 
he  sailed  for  Italy,  but  landed  at  Leghorn  only  on 
1st  July.  He  went  on  Shelley's  in\  itation  to  help 
him  and  Byron  to  found  tlie  quarterly  Liberal. 
Just  a  week  later  Shelley  was  drowned  ;  Leigh 
Hunt  and  '  my  noble  friend '  failed  somehow  to 
pull  together;  the  Libenil  died  in  its  fourth  number; 
and  by  IS'25  the  family  was  b.ick  at  Highgate. 
Changes  of  residence,  to  Upper  Clieyne  Row,  Chel- 
sea, in  1833,  to  the  'old  court  suburb'  of  Kensington 
in  1840,  and  to  Hammersmith  in  1853 -these  are 
thenceforth  the  chief  events  in  Leigh  Hunts  life. 
It  was  one  of  ceaseless  activity  and  as  ceaseless 
embarrassment,  for  he  '  never  knew  his  multiplica- 
tion table.'  From  1844,  howe\er,  Sir  Percy  Shelley 
allowed  him  £1'20  a  year,  and  in  1847  he  received 
a  pension  of  £'200.  He  died  on  a  visit  to  Putney, 
28th  August  1859. 

The  'Cockney  poets,'  so  the  critics  dubbed  Keats 
and  Leigh  Huiit.  That  the  two  should  ever  thus 
have  been  biacketed  may  now  seem  straiige, 
for  Leigh  Hunts  poetry  now  is  little  known. 
And  yet  it  is  better  than  much,  maybe  most,  of 
the  newer  poetic  vogues.  Its  charm  lies  in  a 
prettines^  as  of  childhood  ;  its  wit  and  cleverness 
and  wine-like  sparkle  have  ever  a  smack  of  pre- 
cocity. Narrative  vei-se  is  his  forte,  his  foible 
jauntiness.  His  translations  are  among  the  <hoicest 
of  tlieir  kind  ;  he  transports  the  simthern  vintages 
to  Kngliinil,  and  their  colour  ami  tlavcmr  improve 
instead  of  losing  by  the  voyage.  As  his  poems, 
so  his  prose  ;  his  essays  are  always  worth  reading, 
but  only  after  the  Exsay-i  of  Elia.  Leigh  Hunt's 
writings,  indeed,  are  less  memorable  than  his 
friendships— with  Keats  and  Shelley,  as  also  with 
Lamb,  Byron,  Moore,  Coleridge,  Dickens,  Carlyle, 
and  a  whole  galaxv  of  lesser  luminaries.  IJur  know- 
ledj,'e  of  them,  ami  especially  the  first  two,  is  largely 
derived  from  his. 

In  his  excellent  List  of  the  Writiiiijs  of  Hazlitt  ami 
Ltfili  Hunt  (IH(iS)  Mr  Alexander  Ireland  clironologically 
arranges  with  notes,  &c.,  seventy-nine  works  by  the  latter, 
including  Jneenilia  (1801 ),  The  F(<i.il  of  the  /'nets  (1814). 
The  Slorii  of  Rimiiii  ( 1810 ),  Foliwie  ^^S\S),  Caijtaiii  Siriml 
ami  Cd/kalii  Pen  ( 1835 ),  and  2'lir  I'lilfn ;;  ( 1842 ) ;  besides 
much  in  prose,  as  Lord  fttiron  anil  his  Contem}x>raric!< 
(18'28),  Sir  Ralph  Esher  (l'8.'i2),  Imwiination  and  Faiietj 
(1844),  Wit  and  Humour  (1846),  Stories  oj  the  Italian 
Foelt  (1846),  A  Jar  of  Honey  from  Mount  Hpbla(\M)i}, 


and  The  Old  Court  Suburb  (1855).  See  Leigh  Hunt's 
Autobiofiraphi/  (3  vols.  1850  :  revised  ed.  b'^00)  and  Corre- 
spondence (2  vols.  18B2 ),  Forster's  Life  of  Dickens  (for  the 
unkindly  *  Harold  Skinipole '  episode  ),  a  capital  article  in 
the  Cornhill  (i.  1800),  and  one  by  Prof.  Uowden  in  Ward's 
En{tlish  I\>ets(iv.  1N80);  and  ski-tches  by  Ci>sino  Monk- 
house  (18*J3)  and  B.  Johnson  (  l8'.Mi  i. 

Hunt,  Thomas  Sterky,  an  American  chemist 
and  geologist,  born  at  N<Hwich,  Connecticut,  5th 
September  182G,  was  assistant  to  the  ehler  Silliman 
at  Yale  College,  and  from  1847  to  1872  chemist  and 
mineralogist  to  the  Canadian  tieological  Survey. 
He  was  also  ])rofessor  of  Chemistry  at  Laval  Uni- 
versity ( 18.")()-62)  ami  at  M'tiill  U'liiversitv  (1862- 
68);  from  1S72  to  1878  he  held  the  chair  of  "Geology 
in  the  Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology.  In 
1848-51  he  contributed  a  series  of  papers  on  theo- 
retical chemistry  to  the  American  Journal  of 
Sciciire  :  in  organic  chemistry  his  name  is  itleiitified 
with  a  system  essentially  bis  own.  His  researches 
into  the  composition  of  rocks  were  of  great  import- 
ance. In  1859  he  invented  the  green  ink  with 
which  Greenbacks  (q.v. )  are  printed.  He  was 
made  an  officer  of  the  Legion  of  Honour  in  1867, 
and  became  an  F.R.S.  (1859),  and  LL.D.  of  Cam- 
bridge ( 1881 ),  and  received  many  other  distinctions. 
At  his  death,  12th  February  1892,  he  had  published 
over  200  papers  and  several  larger  works  on  chem- 
istry and  mineralogy. 

Hunt.  William  Henry,  English  painter  in 
water-colours,  was  Ijorn  in  London,  Marcli  28,  1790. 
He  was  one  of  the  creators  of  the  English  school 
of  water-colour  painting,  Mr  Ruskin  pronouncing 
him  to  be  amonj;  the  gieatest  colonrists  of  the 
school.  His  snlijects  are  very  simple — '  Peaches 
and  Grapes,'  'Old  Pollard,'  'Basket  of  Plums,' 
'Roses,'  'Wild  Flowers,"  'Tranipeis  .at  Home," 
'A  F'armhouse  Beauty,'  'Fast  Asleep,'  &c.,  but 
they  are  conceived  in  a  finely  poetical  spirit,  and 
present  tlie  jierfectioii  of  finish.  He  died  10th 
February  1864. 

Hunt,  WiLi.iA.M  HoLMAN,  painter,  was  born 
in  Londim,  '2(1  April  18'27.  In  his  early  years  he 
was  engaged  in  business,  but  in  1845  he  was 
admitted  a  student  of  the  Roval  Academ^v-  I" 
the  following  year  he  exhibited  his  liist  |iicture, 
'  Hark ! '  a  cliiid  liolding  a  watch  to  her  ear  ;  this 
was  followed  by  scenes  from  Dickens  and  Scott, 
and  by  the  more  important  '  Flight  of  Madeline 
and  Porphyro,'  from  Keats'  Ere  ef  St  Ai//ies  ( 1848). 
At  this  period  Mr  Hunt  shared  a  studio  with  Dante 
tiabriel  Rossetti,  and  the  jiair,  .along  with  Millais 
and  a  few  other  earnest  young  paintiTs,  inaugurated 
the  '  Pre-Raphaelite  I!nitherli<iod,"  of  which  the 
members  .aimed  .at  detaileil  and  uncompromising 
truth  to  nature  in  their  rendering  of  visible  things, 
and  at  a  vivid  ami  unconventional  realisation  in 
their  treatment  of  imaginative  subjects.  In  1850 
Mr  Ifunt  contribnteil  to  'J'/ie  (lerni.  the  short-lived 
magazine  of  the  hrothcrhoinl,  two  etched  subjects 
illustrating  Woolner's  poem  'My  beautiful  Lady," 
and  at  a  later  period  he  designed  various  wood- 
cuts, in  particular  a  remarkable  series  for  the 
illustrated  Tennyson  of  1857.  The  first  of  the 
painters  works  executed  in  the  Pre-Rai>haelite 
manner  was  '  Rienzi  vowing  to  avenge  the 
Death  of  his  Brother'  (1849),  in  which  the 
princijical  figure  was  jiainted  from  Ros.setti.  It 
was  followed  hv  '  A  Converted  British  Family 
sheltering  a  Christian  Missionary  from  the  Pursuit 
of  the  Druids' (1850);  'Valentine  rescuinf;  Sylvia 
from  Protims,"  fnmi  the  Tvo  dentlemen  of  Verona 
(1851);  'The  Hireling  Shepherd'  (18.52);  and 
'Cl.audio  and  Isabella,'  a  tragic  and  im|>ressive 
prison-scene  from  Measure  for  Measure  (1853) — 
works  very  fresh  and  original  in  com-eptiiui,  and 
carried  out  with  the  most  careful  elaboration  ; 
while  '  Our  English  Coasts,'  known  also  as  '  The 


HUNTER 


11 


Strayed  Sheep'  (1853),  was  a  remarkable  ettbit  in 
landscape  art,  realising  with  exceptional  jioAver  an 
ettect  ot  vivid  sunlight,  and  conildning  in  a  wonder- 
ful manner  detail  and  definition  with  a  sense  of 
distance  and  atmosphere.  'The  Light  of  the 
World'  (ls.Vi-51).  of  which  a  smaller  replica  was 
e.xeciited  in  I8.56,  ranks  as  one  of  the  most  im- 
pressive symbolical  works  of  the  century  ;  it  is 
now  in  the  chapel  of  Keble  College,  Oxford. 
■The  Awakened  ("onscience'  aimed  to  point  a 
moral  by  means  of  a  scene  from  modem  life.  On 
the  completion  of  the  last-named  picture  in  the 
beginning  of  1S.54  Mr  Hunt  started  for  Palestine, 
with  the  intention  of  studying  eastern  life,  and 
realising  the  inciilents  of  the  biblieal  history 
with  the  closest  possible  accuracy  to  local  colouring 
and  the  surroundings  amid  which  they  occurred. 
The  result  of  several  jirolonged  visits  to  the 
East  appeared  in  'The  Scapegoat'  (I80O):  'The 
Finding  of  Christ  in  the  Temple'  (1860),  presented 
in  1896  to  the  Birmingham  Art  Galleiy ;  'The 
Shadow  of  Death'  (1874).  now  in  the  Corporation 
Gallery,  Manchester :  ami  '  The  Triumpli  of  the 
Innocents'  (1875-85),  executed  in  two  vei'sions ; 
while  the  pas.sionate  and  sjilendidly  coloured  'Isa- 
bella and  the  Pot  of  Basil '  was  the  result  of  a 
visit  to  Florence  in  1867.  In  1881  he  painted  a 
portrait  of  Professor  Sir  P.ichard  Owen  :  in  1888-89 
'The  Choristers  of  Magdalen  College,  Oxford, 
singing  the  May  Day  Hymn:'  and  in  1899  the 
'Miracle  of  Sacred  Fire  "at  Jeru.salem.'  In  1886 
he  contributed  to  the  t'onteinjiornr^i  lieriew  a  series 
of  autobiographical  papers  :  and  in  the  same  year 
over  thirty  of  his  works  were  exhibited  in  the  Fine 
Arts  Society's  rooms. 

Hunter,  John',  physiologist  and  surgeon,  was 
born  at  Long  Calderwood.  near  East  Kill>ride,  in 
Lanarkshire,  13th  February  17'28,  and  was  the 
youngest  of  ten  children.  One  of  his  sisters, 
Dorothea,  wasniarrieil  to  Dr  .lames  Baillie,  professor 
of  Divinity  in  the  university  of  Glasgow,  and  was 
the  mother  of  Matthew  and  .loanna  Baillie  (fj.v. ). 
His  brother  William's  fame  led  .John  to  apply  for 
and  obtain  the  .situation  of  assistant  in  the  dissect- 
i  ing-rooni.  He  studied  surgery  under  Cheselden 
I  in  1749-.50  at  Chelsea  Hospital,  and  subsequently 
under  Pott.  After  a  year  at  Oxford  he  entered 
St  (jeor^e's  Hospital  as  surgeon's  pupil  in  1754, 
I  afterwards  becoming  house-surgeon  and  partner 
I  with  his  brother  in  the  anatomical  school.  After 
I  ten  years'  bard  work  of  this  kiml  his  health 
I  gave  way.  and  in  1759  he  entered  the  army  as 
!  staff-surgeon,  and  served  at  Belleisle  and  in  the 
I  Peninsula.  Peace  being  proclaimed  in  1763,  he 
returned  to  London  and.  starting  the  practice  of 
surgery,  devoted  much  time  and  money  to  com- 
parative anatomy.  In  1767  he  w;vs  electeil  a 
Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society,  and  in  the  follow- 
ing year  was  appointed  surgeon  to  St  George's 
Hospital,  an  appointment  which  enabled  him  to 
take  pupils,  of  whom  one  of  the  earliest  was 
Jenner.  His  practice  at  this  time  was  increas- 
ing rapidly,  but  his  iiicome  never  reached  £1000 
a  year  until  1774.  In  1776  he  w;us  appointed 
surgeon-extraordinary  to  the  king.  In  1785  he 
built  his  museum,  with  lecture-rooms,  and  in  the 
same  year  he  tried  his  famous  operation  for  the 
cure  of  aneurism — that  of  simjdy  tying  the  artery 
at  a  distance  from  the  tunmur,  ami  between 
it  and  the  heart.  In  1786  Hunter  was  ap])ointed 
deputy-surgeon-general  to  the  army  ;  in  1787  he 
received  the  Coi)ley  medal  from  the  Royal  Society. 
He  was  now  nnivei-sally  acknowledged  liy  all  the 
younger  surgeons  ,xs  the  heail  of  his  profession  ; 
but  most  of  bis  contemporaries  lookeil  n\mn  him  as 
little  better  than  an  innovator  and  an  enthusi.ost. 
He  died  16tli  October  1793,  and  was  buried  in  the 
church  of  St  Martin's-in-tlie-Fields,  whence,  thanks 


to  Frank  Buckland,  his  remains  were  translated  in 
March  1859  to  Westminster  Al)bey.  Some  idea  of 
Hunter's  diligence  may  be  gathered  from  the  fact 
that  his  museum  contained  at  the  time  of  bis  death 
10,563  specimens  and  preparations  illustrative  of 
human  and  comparative  anatomy,  physiologj-, 
pathology,  and  natural  history.  He  died  in  coiii- 
parative  poverty,  and  his  collection  was  purchased 
by  government,  two  years  after  his  death,  for 
£15,000,  and  was  jnesented  to  the  Royal  College 
of  Surgeons. 

In  addition  to  the  numerous  papers  contributed  to  the 
Traiimclions  of  tlie  Royal  and  other  learned  societies,  he 
published  the  following  independent  works  :  The  Natural 
Hiatorrj  of  the  Bvman  Teeth  (1771-78);  A  Treatise  on 
the  Venereal  Diseaae  (1786);  Ohiierrations  on  Ceyiain 
Parts  of  the  Animal  Eeovomrj  (1786) ;  and  A  Treatise  on 
the  Blooel,  IvJImnmation,  and  Gunshot  Wounds  (1794). 
See  Palmer's  edition  ot  his  works  (1835),  Mather's  Two 
Great  Scot.wten  (18941,  and  the  Life  by  S.  Paget  (1897). 

Ilnnter.  Willi.\ji,  anatomist  and  obstetrician, 
an  elder  brother  of  .lohn  Hunter,  was  born  at  Long 
Calderwood,  Lanarkshire,  '2.3d  May  1718.  Origin- 
ally educated  for  the  church  at  Glasgow  University, 
he  studied  medicine  for  one  ses.sion  (1740-41)  at 
Edinburgh,  and  then  jiroceeded  to  Lond<in,  where 
he  went  through  a  long  training  in  anatomy  at  St 
George's  Hospital  and  elsewhere.  In  1747  he  was 
admitted  a  member  of  the  Corporation  of  Surgeons, 
ultimately  confining  his  practice  to  mid^iferj'. 
In  1762  Hunter  was  consulted  by  Queen  Charlotte, 
and  two  years  later  was  apjiointed  physician-extra- 
i  ordinary  to  her  majesty.  Elected  a  Fellow  of  the 
Royal  Society,  he  in  1768  became  professor  of 
Anatomy  to  the  Royal  Academy.  In  1770  he 
removed  to  Great  Windmill  Street,  where  he  had 
built  a  bouse,  in  connection  with  which  were  an 
amphitheatre  for  lectures,  a  dissecting-room,  and  a 
museum  which  contained  not  only  his  anatomical 
preparations,  but  many  objects  of  natural  history 
and  a  cabinet  of  very  rare  medals  and  coins. 
Hunter  and  his  brother  John  were  for  many  years 
estranged,  owin"  to  a  dispute  as  to  the  priority  of 
certain  discoveries  ;  but  the  quarrel  was  made  up 
while  William  was  on  his  death-bed.  He  died  SOtfi 
March  1783.  His  museum  was  bequeathed  to  his 
brother-in-law.  Dr  Baillie.  and  after  him,  with  an 
endowment  of  £8000,  to  Glasgow  University  (q.v. ). 
His  most  important  work.  A)i  Anutomicul  Descrip- 
tion of  the  Ihuiian  Gnirid  Uterus  and  its  Contents, 
did  not  appear  in  its  complete  form  till  after  his 
death. 

Hunter.  Sn:  AVilliam  Wilson,  statistician, 
was  l)orn  on  15th  July  1840,  educated  at  the  univer- 
sities of  Gla-sgow,  Paris,  and  Bonn,  and  in  1862 
entered  the  civil  service  of  India.  His  first  imi)ort- 
ant  office,  that  of  superintendent  of  public  iiistiiic- 
tion  in  Orissa  (1866-69).  gave  him  the  o]i]iortunity 
to  write  Annuls  of  linrcd  Bene/rd  (  1868)  and  Com- 
petredire  Dietiotntry  of  the  \on-Ari/itn  lAtnqvetqes 
of  India  and  Hif//i  Asia  ( 1 868 ).  Tlien,  after'  filling 
tlie  responsible  offices  of  secretan,-  to  the  govern- 
ment of  Bengal  and  the  sujjreme  "overnment  of 
India,  he  was  in  1871  appointed  director-general 
of  the  statistical  department  of  India.  The  Indian 
census  of  1872  was  his  first  work  in  his  new  position. 
His  later  books  include  the  onm]iendioiis  Iinjn  rial 
Gazetteer  of  India  (9  vols.  1881  ;  14  vols.  1886  88), 
Orissa  (1872),  Life  of  Lord  Mai/o  ('2d  ed.  1876), 
Statistical  Acronnt  of  Asseim  (1880),  Famine  Aspects 
of  Benqal  Districts  (1874),  Indian  Mussulmans 
(1871;  '3d  eil.  1876),  The  Indian  Empire  (iJd  ed. 
1886).  He  received  the  Star  of  Imlia  in  1878.  and 
in  1887  was  knighted.  In  18911-96  he  eiiited  a 
series  of  Lives  of  '  Kulers  of  India,'  to  which  he 
himself  contributed  Dalhonsie.  Tlie  Old  Missionary 
(  1895)  is  a  touching  story  of  Indian  life.  He  dieil 
at  (Jaken  Holt  Hall,  Oxford,  7th  Februarj-  1900. 


12 


HUNTING 


HU-PEI 


Hnntiiig.  See  Foxhitnting,  Stag,  and  tlie 
aitioU's  on  tlie  other  animals  hunted. 

lluiltilisdoil.  Selixa,  CofXTESS  OF,  was  the 
second  of  tliiee  daughtei's  and  coheiresses  of  Wasli- 
in>;ton  Shirley,  second  Earl  P'errers,  and  «as  horn 
Aujjust  24,  1707.  She  married  the  Earl  of  Hunting- 
don in  17'2S,  and  hecame  a  widow  in  1746.  .\dopt- 
inft  the  principles  of  the  Calvinistic  Methodists,  the 
foimder  of  which  sect  was  the  famous  George 
Whitetield,  .she  made  that  eminent  preacher  one  of 
her  chaplain.s,  and  assumed  a  leadei'ship  among  his 
followers,  who  came  to  be  known  as  '  The  Countess 
of  Huntingdon's  Connection.'  Her  labours  at  home 
increased  with  her  yeai-s.  For  the  education  of 
ministers  she  established  and  maintained  a,  college 
at  Trevecca,  in  Brecknockshire  (removed  in  1792  to 
Cheshunt,  Herts ) ;  and  built,  or  became  jjossessed  of, 
numerous  chapels  in  ditlerent  parts  of  the  country, 
the  principal  one  being  at  Batli.  She  died  June  17, 
1791.  By  her  will,  dated  January  11,  1790,  she 
created  a  trust,  bequeathing  her  chapels,  then  sixty- 
four  in  number,  to  the  care  of  four  persons.  Most 
of  them  have  become,  in  doctrine  and  practice, 
ahnost  identical  with  the  Congregational  churches. 

Hlintillgdoil,  the  county  town  of  Hunting- 
donshire, on  the  left  bank  of  the  Ouse.  and  the 
Ermine  Street  of  the  Romans,  59  miles  N.  of  Lon- 
don. It  became  the  seat  of  a  royal  castle  in  917, 
and  was  incorporated  in  11S9.  It  has  breweries, 
brickworks,  carriage-works,  and  nursery  gardens. 
Here  Oliver  Cromwell  was  born  (1599),  and  here 
the  ])oet  Cowper  lived  for  a  couide  of  yeare  ( 1765- 
67);  the  chnmicler,  Henry  of  Huntingdon  (q.v. ), 
wa.s  Archdeacon  of  Huntingdon.  With  the  muni- 
cipal borough  of  (lodmanchester  (pop.  2095),  on 
tlie  opposite  bank,  it  formed  a  jiarliamentary 
borough,  returning  till  1867  two  members,  till  1885 
one.      Pop.  ( 1851 )  3882  ;  ( 1891 )  4346. 

Hlllllillgdonsllire,  an  inland  county  of  Eng- 
land, 30  miles  long,  and  23  broad,  is  bounded 
on  the  N.  and  W.  by  Northampton,  Cambridge, 
and  Bedford  shires.  Area,  359  sq.  m.,  almost  the 
whole  of  which  is  arable  or  in  ]ia.sture.  Pop. 
(1801)  37,568;  (1861)  64,250;  (1891)  57,761. 
Huntingdonshire  has  no  hill-ranges  of  any  im- 
portance, and  is  watered  chieHy  by  the  Nene, 
which  forms  its  northern  lioundary,  and  the  Ouse  ; 
in  the  fen-district  in  the  north-eastern  part  of  the 
county,  forming  part  of  the  Bedford  Level  (q. v.), 
there  were  formerly  some  large  lakes  or  meres, 
notably  Whittle.sea,  Ramsey,  and  I'gg ;  but  these 
have  lieen  drained  and  reclaimed  for  culti\a- 
tion.  The  soil  consists  principally  of  clay,  with, 
in  places,  sand,  gravel,  and  ])eal  earth,  tlie  latter 
being  almost  wholly  conlined  to  the  fen-district. 
Huntingdonshire  comprises  four  hundreds  and 
the  municipal  boroughs  of  Huntingdon,  Codman- 
chester,  ami  St  Ives,  with  part  of  the  city  of  Peter- 
borough, the  greater  porticm  of  which  is  how- 
ever in  Northamptonshire.  It  contains  103  parishes, 
is  almost  entirely  in  the  dioce.se  of  Ely  and  the 
South-eastern  Circuit,  and  returns  two  ineni- 
hei-s  to  parliament.  A  peculiarity  in  its  civil 
government  is  that  it  is  included  under  the 
same  shrievalty  with  Cambridgeshire,  the  sherill' 
being  annually  clioscn  in  rotation  from  the  county 
of  Cambridge,  the  Isle  of  Ely,  and  this  county,  (if 
its  earlier  inhabit.mts  Huntingdonshire  has  numer- 
ous traces  ;  two  Roman  roads  traverse  it  ;  at 
Alwalton,  Earith,  and  Chesterton  are  remains  of 
camps,  the  construction  of  which  is  also  ascribed  to 
the  Konians  ;  and  in  many  places  Roman  remains, 
a.s  pottery,  coins,  <'<:c. ,  have  been  found.  .Vmong 
j)laces  of  intere.st  in  the  county  those  most  worthy 
of  mention  are  the  ruins  of  Ramsey  Abbey  anil 
Buckden  Palace,  the  latter  being  formerly  the 
residence  of  the  bishops  of  Lincoln  ;  Hinchinbrook 


House,  anciently  the  seat  of  the  Cromwell  family  ; 
Kimbolton  Ciustle,  the  seat  of  the  Duke  of  Man- 
chester, where  (Jueen  Catharine  resided  for  some 
time  after  her  divorce  from  Henry  VIIl.  :  Horeham 
Hall,  the  residence  of  the  Princess  Elizabeth  during 
the  reign  of  her  sister  Mary  :  Denton,  the  birth- 
place of  Cotton  the  antiquary;  Little  (iiihling, 
the  seat  of  Nicholas  Ferrar's  community  :  and 
Brampton,  where  lived  for  some  yeai's  Samuel 
Pepys. 

Hlllltly,  a  town  of  Scotland,  41  miles  N\V.  of 
Aberdeen.  In  the  vicinity  is  the  ruin  of  Huntly 
Castle,  the  seat  of  the  earls  and  marquises  of 
Huntly  (see  Gordon).  Huntly  is  the  birthplace 
of  Dr  George  Macdonald.     Pop.'  3760. 

Huntsville,  capital  of  Madison  county,  Ala- 
bama, in  the  valley  of  the  Tennessee,  10  miles  N. 
of  the  river,  and  212  miles  ESE.  of  ^Memphis  by 
rail.  It  has  an  ice-factory,  a  foundry,  and  manu- 
factures of  cotton,  cotton-seed  oil,  and  flour.  Pop. 
(1880)  4977;  (1890)  7995. 

Hllliyady  Jauos.  John  Corvinus  Hunyady, 
governor  of  Hungary,  one  of  the  greatest  war- 
captains  of  his  age,  was  born  towards  the  close 
of  the  14th  century.  His  origin  is  wrajiped  in 
mystery,  the  current  legend  being  that  he  w,is 
a  son  of  the  Emperor  Sigismund  by  a  Wallachian 
lady.  His  life  may  be  succinctly  described  as  one 
unbroken  crusade  against  tlie  Turks.  During  the 
period  1437-56  he  ^^  as  the  shield  of  Hungary,  not 
only  against  external  foes,  but  against  the  lawless- 
ness of  the  nobles  at  home.  The  principal  moments 
in  his  celebrated  contest  with  the  foes  of  Christen- 
dom are  his  expulsion  of  them  from  Transylvania  in 
1442;  his  brilliant  campaign  south  of  the  Danube 
in  1443;  his  defeat  in  the  bloody  battle  of  ^'al■na, 
14-14:  and  that  at  Ko.ssovo  in  1448;  hut  his  most 
glorious  achievement  was  the  storming  of  Belgrade 
(1456).  Shortly  afterwards  Hunyady  died  of 
dysentery.  During  the  minority  of  Ladislaus  V. 
the  great  captain  acted  as  governor  of  the  kingdom 
(1445-.53).  Hunyady  left  two  sons,  Ladislaus  and 
Matthia.s — the  former  of  whom  wju-;  beheaded  iit 
Buda  on  a  charge  of  conspiracy  :  the  latter  suc- 
ceeded to  the  crown  of  Hungary  (q.v.). 

Hllliza-Nagar,  the  valley  (containing  the 
forts  of  Hunza  and  Nagar)  of  a  river  running  into 
the  tiilgit,  at  the  extreme  NW.  corner  of  Cash- 
mere. Together  with  Kanjut,  the  up]ier  part  of 
the  same  valley,  it  became  British  in  1891. 

llllOII    Gllir.      See  New  GlINE.V. 

II lion  of  Itord«>ail\,  one  of  the  Charlemagne 
cycle  of  romances.  In  its  present  form  it  is  a  prose 
version,  dating  from  1454,  of  a  poem  current  about 
the  end  of  the  l2th  century,  and  sometimes  ;i.sciibed, 
without  grounds,  to  the  tnmvire  Hiion  de  Ville- 
neuve.  In  the  story,  Huon,  Duke  of  Guienne,  one 
of  the  paladins  of  Charlemagne,  in  .self-defence 
kills  Chariot,  son  of  Charlemagne,  and  is  in  con- 
sequence condemned  to  die,  but  his  life  is  granted 
on  the  hard  condition  that  he  brings  back  from 
Bagdad  .some  of  the  Saracen  emir's  teeth  and  beard 
after  having  kis.sed  his  daughter  before  his  face. 
The  dwai-f  Oberon  gives  him  a  magical  cup  and 
horn,  one  hla-st  of  wliiili  in  the  hour  of  ])eril  tirings 
him  and  1 0(1, 0(K)  warriors  to  Huon 'said.  Moreover, 
the  jirincess  Esclarmonde,  like  Medea,  lightens  his 
labours  by  falling  in  love  with  him,  so  that  at  bust 
he  is  completely  successful,  and  returns  with  her 
as  his  wife  to  clear  himself  before  Charlemagne. 
The  1  nose  romance  w,as  printcil  at  Paris  in  1516; 
and  Lord  Reiner's  English  transhition,  hv  Wvnkvn 
de  Worde,  in  1534  (ed.  by  S.  L.  Lee  for  K!  Eng. 
Text  Sue,  1SS2-87;  simiililied  by  Steele,  1896). 

IIA-nci,  one  of  the  central  luovinces  of  China, 
watered  by  the  'Vangtse.     See  China. 


HDRD 


HUSBAND    AND    WIFE 


13 


Hlird,  KiCHARD,  English  prelate  and  writer, 
nameil  the  'Beauty  of  Holiness'  on  account  of 
liis  comeliness  ami  piety,  was  boin  at  Conyrcve,  in 
StaH'orJshire.  .lanuaiy  13,  1720,  ami  studied  at 
Emmanuel  Colleirc,  Cambridge,  of  which  he 
became  a  Fellow  in  1742.  In  1749  appealed  his 
first  notable  production,  Coniiiwiifaii/  on  Horace's 
Ais  Poctka.  In  connection  with  this  work  Gibbon 
wrote  of  tlie  author,  '  I  know  few  writers  more 
deserving  of  the  great  but  prostituted  name  of 
critic  :  but.  like  many  critics,  he  is  better  qualilied 
to  instruct  than  to  execute.'  In  17,")0.  on  the 
recommendation  of  Warburton,  of  whom  he  was 
a  life-long  friend  and  admirer,  and  whose  Works  he 
edited  in  17S8,  he  was  appointed  one  of  the  White- 
hall preachers.  He  afterwards  (1774)  became 
Bishop  of  Lichfield  and  Coventry,  but  exchanged 
this  see  for  Worcester  in  17S1  ;  in  1783  he  declined 
the  archliishopric  of  Canterliury.  He  died  May 
28,  1808.  His  principal  works  are  Dissertations  on 
Poctrtj,  d-c.  (1755-57);  Dialogues  on  Sincerity, 
Retirement,  the  Golden  Age  of  Elizabeth,  and  the 
Constitution  of  the  English  Government  (1759), 
his  most  popular  book  ;  Letters  on  Chivalry  and 
Romance  ( 1762) :  Dialogues  on  the  Uses  of  Foreign 
Travel  (1764);  and  An  Introduction  to  the  Study 
of  the  Prophecies  concerninq  the  Christian  Church 
(\'T2).  See  Kurd's  Wor);s  (8  vols.  1811)  and 
Memoirs  by  Kilvert  ( 1860). 

Hiirdwsir.    See  Hardwar. 

Hurdy-gurdy,  a  very  old  musical  instrument 
of  the  stringed  kind,  something  between  a  guitar 
and  a  lute  in  appearance.  It  has  four  or  six  cat- 
gut or  wire  strings  attached  to  screw-jiegs  in  the 
head  :  two  of  the  strings  stretch  over  the  sounding- 
board  to  the  tailpiece,  and  are  so\inded  by  a 
woollen  wheel  (under  the  cover  a  in  the  fig.) 
charged  with  rosin,  ^\hich  Is  turned  by  means 
of  a  handle  with  the  player's  right  hand.     The 


Q'U  ■'- 


O 


/' 


Hurdy-gurdy. 

strings  are  '  stopped  '  by  an  ingenious  arrangement 
of  keys,  b,  manipulated  with  the  left  hand.  The 
remaining  strings  are  stretched  out  of  reach  of 
the  keys,  and  are  tuned  as  drones.  The  instru- 
ment has  a  range  of  two  octaves  from  the  tenor  G 
upwards.  The  rustic  simplicity  of  its  music  made 
it  at  one  time  a  great  favourite  among  the  peasan- 
try of  a  great  part  of  Europe  ( see  Engel's  Musical 
Instruments).  The  name  hurdy-gurdy  is  also  some- 
times applied  to  the  mechanical  pianos  familiar  on 
the  streets.  The  word  was  probably  coined  to 
express  contempt  of  the  instrument. 

Hlirlingliaill.  at  Fulham  (q.v.)  in  Middlesex, 
on  the  Thames  below  the  bridge,  the  headrjuarters 
of  Pigeon-shooting  (q.v.)  and  polo. 

Huron,  the  second  in  area  of  the  five  great 
lakes  on  the  frontier  between  the  United  States 
and  Canada,  is  connected  at  the  north-west  by  St 
Mary's  Hiver  with  Lake  Superior,  and  through  the 
strait  of  Mackinaw  witli  Lake  Michigan.  On  the 
Koutli  it  has  an  outlet  by  way  of  the  St  Clair  River. 
It  is  bounded  on  the  W.  anil  SW.  by  Michigan,  and 
elsewhere  by  Ontario.  The  lake  is  divided  into 
two  unequal  jiarts  liy  the  Cabot's  Head  peninsula 
and  (irand  Manitoulin  island,  the  parts  to  the 
north  being  called  North  Channel  and  Georgian 


Bay.  Its  e.xtreme  length  is  263  miles  ;  its  gieatest 
breadth,  exclusive  of  Geoigian  Bay,  105  miles; 
average  breadth,  70  miles.  The  area  of  the  entire 
lake  is  23,800  sq.  m.  ;  it  is  larger  than  Lake 
Michigan,  althongli  its  basin  is  smaller.  Accord- 
ing to  the  perfected  levels  of  the  United  States 
Lake  Survey,  its  mean  elevation  is  581f'u  feet 
above  sea-le\el  ;  it  is  20^.  feet  below  Lake 
Sujierior,  and  8,17  above  Lake  Erie.  Huron  has 
a  mean  depth  of  about  250,  and  a  maximum 
depth  of  750  feet.  There  is  an  average  ditterence 
between  high  and  low  water  (due  to  winds  and 
rain)  of  I/5  foot.  Hunm,  like  the  other  lakes,  is 
subject  to  violent  .storms.  It  contains  about  three 
thousand  islands,  nearly  all  Canadian ;  some  of 
them  are  of  considerable  size.  The  waters  are 
very  clear  and  pure,  and  abound  in  fish.  There 
are  numerous  good  harbours  and  roadsteads,  most 
of  them  on  the  Canadian  side  ;  at  Sand  Beach, 
Jliehigan,  there  is  a  harbour  of  refuge.  See 
Crosman's  Chart  of  the  Great  Lakes  ( Milwaukee, 
1888). 

Huroilian.  a  subdivision  of  the  Archaean  rocks 
of  Canada.     See  Arch.ean  System. 

Huroiis,  a  once  powerful  tribe  of  American 
Indians,  lielonging  to  the  Huron-Iroquois  family. 
In  the  early  jiart  of  the  17th  century  the  Hurons 
numbereil  about  .30,000  jiersons,  living  in  twenty- 
five  villages  witliin  a  small  territory  near  Georgian 
Bay.  By  the  end  of  the  century  the  tribe  had  been 
nearly  destroyed  by  the  Iroquois,  famine,  and 
disease ;  and  in  1693  the  few  survi\ ors  vere 
removed  by  the  French  to  Jeune  Lorette,  near 
Quebec.  Here  two  or  three  hundred  descendants 
still  live ;  but  very  few  are  of  ]nire  blood,  and  all 
are  Catholics,  and  have  abandoned  their  own  lan- 
guage for  French. 

Hiirriciino.    See  Storjis,  and  Wind. 

Hursley,  a  village  of  Hampshire,  5  miles  SW. 
of  Winchester.  John  Keble,  author  of  the  Christian 
Year,  was  vicar  here  from  1835  till  his  death  in 
1861).  In  1848,  with  the  profits  of  that  celebrated 
work,  he  restored  the  church,  which  is  rich  in 
modern  stained  glass.  Keble  himself  lies  buried  in 
the  churchyard,  and  in  the  chancel  is  the  grave  of 
Richard  Cromwell. 

Hurstinoureaux.  a  village  of  Sussex,  5  miles 
N.  of  Peven.sey,  with  the  extensive  ivy-covered  ruins 
of  a  fine  castle,  built  of  brick  under  Henry  VI.  by  Sir 
Roger  de  Fienes,  one  of  the  heroes  of  Agincourt. 
It  i)assed  in  1727  into  the  hands  of  the  Hares  or 
Hare-Xaylors.  The  then  head  of  the  house.  Bishop 
Hare,  took  good  care  of  the  estate,  but  its  resouices 
were  shamefully  squandered  by  the  two  succeeding 
heirs,  and  about  the  close  of  the  century  the  castle 
was  unroofed  and  its  valuable  contents  sold  oft'  at 
a  six  weeks'  sale.  A  modern  mansion  was  built 
near  its  ruins.  The  famous  Broad  Church  leailer. 
Archdeacon  Hare  (q.v.),  was  rector  of  the  parish 
from  1832  till  1855,  and  lies  buried  in  the  church- 
yard.  The  church  is  Early  English,  with  Per|ien- 
dicular  windows,  and  contains,  among  other  ancient 
monuments,  the  fine  canopied  altar-tomb  of  the 
second  Lord  Dacre. 

Hurstpieriioillt,  a  market-town  of  Sussex, 
8  miles  N.  by  W.  of  Brighton.  Here  is  St  John's 
College  ( 1849),  a  middle-class  school  in  connection 
with  Lancing  ((|.v.).     Pop.  of  parish,  2736. 

Husband  and  .WifV.  The  marriage-con- 
tract is  for  the  joint  lives  of  the  ]iarties,  and  comes 
to  an  end  with  the  death  of  either;  they  cannot 
themselves  put  an  end  to  it  or  escape  from  its 
oliligations,  except  by  means  of  ii  legal  Divorce 
(q.v.)  or  Sejiaration  (q.v.).  It  is  a  not  uncommon 
delusion  among  working-people  that  if  a  husband 
or  wife    runs    away  or    disappear    the   deserted 


u 


HUSBAND    AND    WIFE 


spouse  may  lawfully  many  aj;ain  ;  but  this  is  not 
the  case.  If  husband  or  wife  ilisappeais,  ami  is 
not  heanl  of  for  seven  yeai-s,  tlie  party  tleserteil 
may  marry  attain  witlumt  iiicuriiiig  the  risk  of  a 
conviction  for  liij;amy  ;  but  even  in  this  case  the 
second  mavriaj,'e  is  a  nullity  if  the  tirst  husband  or 
wife  is  alive  at  tlie  time  when  it  is  solemnised. 
Duriuj;  its  continuance  tlie  contract  has  important 
eHeets  on  the  rights  and  mutual   relations  of  the 

t)arties.  The  husband  is,  in  law,  the  head  of  the 
louse  ;  he  has  a  rij;ht  to  choose  the  family  domicile, 
and  to  require  his  wife  to  cohabit  with  liim  there. 
He  may  sue  and  be  sued,  enter  into  contracts,  and 
dispose  of  his  property  as  freely  as  a  single  man  ; 
the  modern  Enjjlish  law  ]>ermits  him  to  bequeath 
his  property  without  makiiiy;  any  provision  tor  his 
wife,  and  to  bar  her  claim  to  dower  in  disjjosing 
of  his  landed  estate.  He  is  bound  to  maintain  his 
wife  and  children ;  if,  being  aide  to  maintain 
them,  he  neglects  to  do  so,  his  goods  may  be  seizeil 
and  sold  Viy  the  parish  authorities,  or  he  may  be 
imprisoned  for  one  month  as  a  disorderly  pei-son. 
If  he  deserts  his  wife  and  family,  leaving  tliem  to 
become  a  charge  on  the  parish,  he  may  be  treated 
as  a  rogue  and  varabond,  and  imprisoned  for  three 
months.  If  his  wife  lea\es  him  without  just  cause 
he  is  not  l>ound  to  support  her,  and  he  may  compel 
her  to  return  by  Ijringing  an  action  for  the  restitu- 
tion of  conjugal  riglits.  But  if  there  is  just  cause 
for  separation — if,  for  example,  the  liusband  is 
guilty  of  what  the  law  deems  cruelty — as  keeping 
a  mistress  in  the  house,  or  starving  and  beating  his 
wife — the  wife  is  not  bound  to  return,  and  the 
husband  will  be  liable  for  the  price  of  necessaries 
ordered  by  her  on  his  credit.  Wlien  tlie  parties 
are  living  together,  the  question  whether  the  wife 
has  authority  to  pledge  her  husband's  credit  must 
be  decided  on  consideration  of  all  the  facts  of  the 
case.  No  authority  is  implied  from  the  mere  fact 
of  marriage,  and  tradesmen  are  not  safe  in  relying 
on  the  wife's  assertion  in  such  cases  :  but  a  woman 
who  keeps  her  husband's  house  may  be  taken  to 
have  authority  to  order  food  and  clothing  suit- 
able to  tlieir  rank  in  life,  unless  the  husband  has 
taken  steps  to  protect  himself  from  liability,  as, 
for  e.Kample,  l>y  giving  notice  to  the  tradesman  not 
to  trust  his  wife.  Sluch  misconception  prevails 
in  regard  to  the  e,\tent  of  a  wife's  authority  ;  and 
there  is  a  class  of  small  traders,  called  tallymen, 
who  take  advantage  of  the  popular  ignorance. 
They  persuade  working-men's  wives  to  purchase 
dres.ses  or  other  goods,  to  be  paid  for  by  instal- 
ments ;  on  default  in  payment,  the  husband  is 
often  made  to  jiay  heavily  for  his  wife's  improvi- 
dence, thougli  it  may  be  that  in  law  he  is  not 
liable  at  all.  In  such  a  case  it  is  sometimes  best 
for  the  husband  to  allow  himself  to  be  taken  into 
a  county  court,  where  the  judge  will  see  that  the 
tallyman  gets  no  more  than  his  due.  .V  jiolicy  of 
insurance,  elVected  by  a  husl)and  on  his  own  life 
for  the  benelit  of  his  wife  or  children,  is  protected 
against  his  creditoi-s. 

A  married  woman  is  called  in  law  French  feme, 
roverte  :  she  is  ])rotected  by  her  husband  and  under 
his  control,  and  the  two  are,  for  many  purnoses, 
one  |)erson  in  law.  If  she  commits  a  crime  in  his 
coriijiany  or  under  his  coercion  the  crime  is  his, 
not  hers  ;  he  is  punished  and  she  escapes  ;  but  this 
rule  does  not  apply  to  treason,  murder,  and  other 
heinous  offences.  Formerly  she  could  sue  onlv  bv 
her  next  friend,  and  if  she  was  sued,  her  husbaiul 
was  joined  ;  but  modern  rules  permit  her  to  sue 
and  clefend  alone.  .Vt  common  law  the  wife's 
personal  |)ro|>erty  vested  in  the  huslianil  :  he  took  j 
the  prolits  of  her  land  iluring  the  marriage  :  anil 
if  an  heir  was  born  of  the  marriage  the  husband  1 
became  'tenant  by  the  courtesy  of  Englaml,'  and  t 
held  the  land  for  his  own  life  if  he  survived  his  I 


wife.  He  assumed  her  liabilities  also,  and  might 
be  sued  for  her  antenuptial  debts.  Uul  at  an 
early  period  courts  of  eijuity  decided  that,  where 
jjioperty  was  given  for  the  separate  tise  of  a 
married  woman,  she  herself  should  have  the  use 
and  disposition  of  it  :  if  such  jiroperty  came  into 
the  liusband's  hands  he  held  it  as  tnistee  for  her. 
This  doctrine  of  separate  use  has  been  greatly 
extended  by  the  Married  Women's  Property  Acts 
of  1870,  1874,  and  1882.  These  acts  ilo  not  apiily 
in  their  integrity  to  women  married  before  they 
came  into  operation  ;  it  is  therefore  necessary  in 
iiscertaining  the  rights  of  a  wife  to  know  when 
she  was  married.  I'luler  the  .Vet  of  1882  a  wife 
holds  her  realty  and  personalty  ;us  her  own  separate 
property  ;  she  may  enter  into  contracts  relating  to 
it,  and  dispose  of  it  as  freely  as  a  Ji mc  sulr.  Her 
property  is  liable  for  her  separate  debts,  and 
execution  may  issue  against  it,  tliou>di  not  against 
her  person.  Her  husband  is  not  liable  for  her 
ante-nuptial  debts,  except  to  the  value  of  any 
property  which  cimies  to  him  through  her.  .She 
may  insure  her  own  or  her  husband's  life  for  her 
separate  use.  All  earnings  of  the  wife  are  i)ro- 
tected  by  the  Married  Women  s  Property  Acts ; 
and  under  an  earlier  act  a  woman  sejjarated  from 
her  husband  may  obtain  a  magistrate  s  order  pro- 
tecting her  earnings.  A  woman  who  has  projiei  ty 
may  be  made  liable  under  the  poor-law  for  the 
maintenance  of  her  husband  and  children. 

Marriage  is  a  '\alualile  consideration,'  ami  a 
settlement  of  property  made  in  purenance  of  the 
contract  stands  good  even  against  creditors.  Pro- 
visions for  the  benefit  of  children  are  "within  the 
.scope  of  the  marriage  bargain.'  A  ))ost-iiuptial 
settlement,  unless  made  in  fultilment  of  a  previous 
bargain,  is  not  made  in  consideration  of  marriage; 
it  may  be  upset  b\-  creditors  like  any  other  volun- 
tary transfer  of  property. 

"The  old  rule  that  husband  and  wife  are  one 
person  has  been  so  far  set  aside  by  legislation  that 
some  of  the  consequences  deduced  from  it  are  now 
doubtful  in  point  of  law.  Formerly,  if  pi'ojierty 
were  given  in  equal  shares  to  husbaiul  and  wife 
and  a  third  person,  the  husband  aii<l  \v  ife  took  liiilf 
and  tlie  third  person  the  other  half  :  and  it  has  been 
decided  that  this  rule  applies  even  in  a  case  of  a  gift 
or  will  made  since  1882.  Again,  it  iLsed  to  be  held 
that  a  woman  cmild  not  be  convicted  of  stealing 
her  husband's  goods  ;  but  sections  12  and  1(5  of  the 
.\ct  of  1882  enable  married  persons  to  iirosccute 
one  another.  Except  in  cases  within  the  act,  and 
cases  of  personal  injury  inflicted  by  one  spouse  on 
the  other,  husband  and  wife  cannot  give  evidence 
in  criminal  )iroeeediiigs  against  one  another  :  thus, 
on  a  trial  for  bigamy,  the  tirst  wife  cannot  be 
called  to  prove  her  own  marriage.  In  civil  actions 
the  spouses  are  competent  witnesses  for  and  against 
one  another. 

\  husband  surviving  his  wife  is  entitled  to  her 
personal  ]iroperty  not  disjiosed  of  by  her,  and  has 
a  ])aramouiit  claim  to  administer  her  estate.  A 
wife  surviving  her  husband  is  entitled  to  one-third 
of  his  personaltv  not  disposed  of  by  him,  and  she 
has  a  claim  to  ailmiiiister :  she  has  also  a  claim  to 
dower — i.e.  a  life-estate  in  one-third  of  his  land, 
unless  the  claim  to  dower  has  licen  barred. 

In  the  United  Stales  the  law  of  husband  ami  wife 
is  based  upon  the  common  law  of  England  a»  above 
explained.  The  legislation  of  the  diHerent  states, 
however,  has  diverte<l  the  common  law  rules  with 
somewhat  varying  effect  in  the  ilirection  of  the 
recent  English  statutes,  and  considerably  in  advance 
of  theiri  upon  the  .s;ime  lines.  A  long  scries  of 
statutes,  beginning  ;it  an  earlier  period  than  in 
England — about  1844— has  now  swept  away  the 
ilisabilities  laid  u[>on  married  women  by  the  com- 
mon law.     Wives  are  now  generally  able  to  hold 


HUSBAND    AND    WIFE 


HUSS 


15 


l)ioperty,  real  and  pei-suual,  in  their  own  rif;lit,  to 
ent«r  into  contracts,  and  to  sue  in  their  own 
names.  They  are  on  substantially  an  equal 
footin"  with  unmarried  women ;  and  it  is  not 
uncommon  for  married  women  to  earr_\'  on  business 
in  their  own  names  and  with  full  power  to  enforce 
contracts.  The  old  rule  that  husband  and  «ife  are 
one  person  in  law  is  now  practically  obsolete.  A 
wife  may  contract  with  her  husbanil  and  may  sue 
him  upon  tlie  contract,  in  some  states  directly,  in 
others  through  the  intervention  of  a  guardian  or 
trustee.  The  independent  position  conceded  by 
the  law  to  married  womeu  in  the  United  States  is 
a  chief  cause  of  tlie  recent  increase  and  freq^uency 
of  divorce  in  tliat  country. 

Tile  law  of  Scotland  has  specialties  of  its  own. 
The  husband  is  the  legal  curator  of  his  wife  ;  and 
if  at  the  time  of  the  marriage  slie  have  another 
curator,  the  office  of  tliis  last  expires.  Thus 
actions  brought  against  a  wife  must  be  brought 
also  against  tlie  husband  for  his  interest,  and  the 
husband  must  concur  in  actions  raised  by  the  wife. 
The  husband  further  in  his  capacity  of  curator 
signs  as  consenter  to  the  wife's  deeds.  The  hus- 
band is  liable  for  the  antenuptial  debts  of  his 
wife ;  but  uniler  the  Married  Women's  Property 
Act,  1877,  this  liability  is  limited  to  the  amount  liy 
which  the  husband  receives  prolit  from  the  mar- 
riage. The  wife  has  power  to  bind  her  husband  in 
so  far  as  she  acts  with  his  authority  and  as  his 
agent.  With  regard  to  furnishings  to  the  family, 
the  wife  is  presumed  Ijy  law  to  be  the  manager  of 
the  household,  pr(eposita  neijotiis  doinesiicis,  and  so 
to  be  authorised  to  bind  the  husband.  This  [ire- 
sumption  can  only  be  removed  by  inhibition  or  Ijy 
private  notice  from  the  husband  to  tradesmen. 
The  jus  muriti,  or  husband's  right,  had  the  etl'ect 
of  transferring  to  the  husband  upon  marriage  all  the 
pei-sonal  property  of  the  wife  belonging  to  her  at 
the  time  of  the  marjiage,  or  acquired  by  her  during 
its  subsistence.  It  also  ga\  e  the  husband  the  rents 
and  yearly  income  of  her  heritable  property  :  but 
it  did  not  extend  over  the  wife's  i)araphernalia. 
Besides  the  jus  mariti,  the  liusliand  possessed  tlie 
right  of  administration  of  his  wife's  heritable  pro- 
perty. In  virtue  of  this  right,  the  husljand's  con- 
sent is  necessary  to  all  acts  by  which  tlie  wife  deals 
with  her  heritage.  Both  of  these  rights  may  be 
renounced  by  the  husband  or  excluded  by  special 
contracts  and  settlements ;  and  with  regard  to 
marriages  that  come  under  the  Married  ^\'omen's 
Property  Acts  these  riglits  are  to  a  great  extent 
extinguished. 

The  eft'ect  of  the  Married  Women's  Property  Act, 
1882,  is  to  abolish  the  jus  utariti  altogether  with 
regard  to  marriages  contracted  after  its  date  ;  to 
vest  in  the  wife  as  her  own  separate  estate  all  the 
movable  property  acquired  by  lier  at  any  time. 
The  statute  practically  does  away  with  the  hus- 
bands  right  of  administering  the  income  of  the 
w'ife's  estate.  The  earnings  of  married  women  and 
those  of  women  livinj'  separate  from  their  husbands 
are  protected  by  i^irior  statutes  against  the  hus- 
band and  his  creditoi-s.  On  the  death  of  a  wife 
the  surviving  husband  has  a  liferent  interest,  called 
courtesy,  in  her  heritable  estate  ;  and  has  the  same 
interest  in  her  movable  estate  as  a  widow  has  in 
the  movable  estate  of  her  deceased  husband — i.e. 
a  share  amounting  to  one-half  if  there  are  no 
children,  and  one-third  if  there  are.  This  .share, 
when  it  falls  to  a  widow  out  of  the  estate  of  her 
deceased  husband,  is  hers  by  virtue  of  the  jus 
relictm  or  relict's  right.  The  widow  luus  further, 
where  she  has  no  conventional  provision,  a  right  to 
the  terce,  whicli  is  a  liferent  of  a  third  of  the 
Iiusband's  heritable  property. 

See  work.s  by  Lush  (1884),  Macqueen  (1885),  Schouler 
(Boston,  1882),  Thicknesse  (1884),  and  Crawley  (1892). 


Illisoll,  or  Hu.si,  a  town  of  Moldavia,  near  the 
Prutli,  .%  miles  SSE.  from  Jassy,  cultivates  tobacco 
and  the  vine.  It  was  founded  by  fugitive  Huss- 
ites in  the  15th  century.  Here  w.as  signed  in  1711 
the  treaty  between  the  Russians  and  Turks  by 
which  Peter  the  (Jreat  rescued  his  arniv,  surrounded 
by  the  foe.     Pop.  1S,.500. 

Hliskissoil,  WiLLi.VM,  statesman  and  linancier, 
was  born  at  liiitsmorton  Court,  in  AVorcestersliire, 
11th  March  1770,  and  in  17S3  wivs  sent  to  Paris  to 
study  medicine.  He  was  present  at  the  storming  of 
the  Bastille,  and  as  a  member  of  the  Club  of  1789 
attracted  attention  l>y  a  speech  on  the  assignats. 
Returning  to  England,  he  wa-s  appointed  in  1795 
under-secretary  in  the  Colonial  Department.  Next 
year  he  entered  parliament  for  Mor]ieth  as  a  sup- 
porter of  Pitt.  Being  returned  for  Liskeard  in 
1804,  he  was  appointed  secretary  of  the  Treasury  ; 
and  he  held  the  .same  office  under  the  Duke  of 
Portland  (1807-9).  In  1814  he  became  chief  Com- 
missioner of  the  Woods  and  Forests ;  in  1823 
President  of  the  Board  of  Trade,  ami  treasurer 
of  the  navy  ;  and  in  1827  Secretary  of  State  for 
the  Colonies.  But  he  resigned  office  linally  in  the 
following  year.  Through  his  exertions  "the  old 
restrictions  on  the  trade  of  the  colonies  with  foreign 
countries  were  removed.  He  also  olitained  the 
removal  or  reiluction  of  many  import  duties,  con- 
siderable relaxation  of  the  navigation  laws,  and  is 
allowed  to  have  been  an  active  pioneer  of  free 
trade.  He  received  fatal  injuries  at  the  opening 
of  the  Liverpool  and  Manchester  Railway,  15th 
September  1830,  and  died  the  same  evening.  A 
collection  of  his  speeches,  with  a  Life  iiretixed,  was 
published  in  3  vols,  in  1831. 

Huss,  or  more  properly  Hrs,  JoHS,  Bohemian 
reformer  and  martyr,  w;is  born  in  (probaldy)  1369, 
the  son  of  a  Bohemian  peasant,  at  Husinec  ( of 
which  Hus  is  a  contraction),  XW.  of  Budweis. 
Two  years  after  taking  (1.396)  his  master's  degree 
at  the  university  of  Prague  lie  began  to  lecture 
there  on  theological  subjects.  He  had  at  this  time 
already  come  under  the  iiiHuence  of  Wyclif's 
writinj^s,  in  all  probability-  through  Anne  of 
Bohemia's  retinue,  and  he  is  belie\ed  to  ha\ e  made 
them  the  basis  of  his  teaching.  In  1402  he  was 
appointed  rector  of  the  university,  and  began 
to  preach  at  the  Bethlehem  chapel  in  the  city  of 
Prague.  It  was  not,  however,  until  the  year  1408 
that  he  came  into  conflict  with  the  Roiiiaii  ( 'atholic 
Church.  In  that  year  certain  of  his  pulpit  utter- 
ances against  clerical  aliuses  ^vere  laitl  hold  upon 
by  the  clergy  of  the  diocese  and  city  of  Prague, 
and  made  the  ground  of  a  formal  complaint  against 
him  to  the  archbishop.  Sbyiiko.  In  consequence  of 
this  Huss  was  forbidden  to  exercise  priestly  func- 
tions within  the  diocese.  Early  in  the  following 
year  the  element  of  political  feeling  was  infused  into 
the  quarrel,  all  the  strong  interests  of  the  awaken- 
ing national  consciousness  ranging  themselves  in 
supiiort  of  the  reformer,  who  by  his  preaching  had 
conipletcdy  won  the  hearts  of  the  common  people. 
Although  Huss  was  again  elected  rector  of  the 
university  in  October  1409,  the  archbi>hop  com- 
missioned an  inquisitor  to  investigate  the  charges 
of  heretical  teaching  which  had  lieen  alleged 
again.st  him.  And  it  was  undoubtedly  in  connec- 
tion with  this  proceeding  that  in  December  the 
pojiB  ( Alexander  V.)  jiromulgated  a  bull  in  con- 
demnation of  Wyclif's  teaching,  and  ordered  all 
his  writings  to  be  |]iiblicly  burned,  and  at  the  same 
time  forliaile  preaching  in  any  except  collegiate, 
parish,  and  monastery  churches.  This,  however, 
not  being  sufficient  to  ]irevent  Huss  from  continuing 
his  preaching,  he  was  in  the  following  .luly  excom- 
municated bv  the  Archbishop  of  Pra<;ue.  Popular 
riots  followeil  in  the  city,  and  Hu.ss,  backed  by  the 


16 


HUSS 


HUTCHESON 


people,  still  maintained  his  position  ;  nor  did  he 
yield  one  jot  even  after  the  entire  city  was  laid 
under  a  papal  interdict  in  1411.  But  \i\  the  last 
month  of  tlie  folluwini,'  year  matters  had  greatly 
chanj;ed,  in  conseijuenoe  of  Hnss  havinfj;  spoken 
out  yet  more  boldly  against  the  churcli  :  hence  some 
of  his  more  inlluential  supporters,  including  the 
university,  had  fallen  away  from  him,  so  that  he 
was  constrained  to  yield  to  the  desire  of  the  king 
of  Boliemia,  Wenceslaus,  that  he  should  absent 
himself  from  Prague.  He  found  refuge  at  the 
castles  of  certain  of  his  supporters,  for  nearly  the 
whole  body  of  the  nobles  were  with  him.  This 
enforceil  leisure  lie  emjiloyed  ohielly  in  tlie  com- 
position of  his  principal  work,  Dc  Err/i:fi<i.  This 
book,  together  with  many  of  Huss's  minor  writin;^, 
contains  numerous  passages  taken  almost  verbatim 
from  Wyclif's  works  ;  and  the  authorities  of  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church  must  have  looked  upou 
Huss  as  the  expounder  and  propagator  of  Wyclif's 
views.  About  this  time  a  general  council  was 
summoned  to  meet  at  Constance,  and  Huss  was 
called  upon  to  present  himself  before  it,  in  order 
to  have  his  case  adjudicated  upon.  Provided 
with  a  '  safe  conduct '  from  the  Emperor  Sigis- 
mnnd,  he  arrived  at  Constance  on  3il  November 
1414.  Three  w-eeks  later,  in  violation  of  his 
safe-conduct,  he  was  seized  ami  thrown  into  prison. 
No  precise  chai'ge  had  been  lodged  against  him  ; 
but  ue  had  resumed  preaching  after  his  arrival  in 
Constance.  An  ill  auguiy  for  Huss  was  the  con- 
demnation of  Wyclif's  writings  by  the  council  in 
May  141.").  His  own  trial  began  on  .jth  June  follow- 
ing ;  but  he  was  not  i)ermitted  to  speak  freely  in 
his  own  defence,  nor  allowed  to  have  a  defender  to 
speak  in  his  liehiilf.  Called  upon  to  recant  uncon- 
ditionally, to  make  full  submission  to  the  council, 
and  to  pledge  himself  not  to  preach  or  teach  the 
doctrines  that  were  put  in  accusation  against  him, 
Huss  categorically  refused,  and  was  forthwith  led 
to  the  stake,  and  burneil  to  aslies,  <m  6th  .July. 

HrssiTES. — The  news  of  the  imprisonment  and 
death  of  .John  Huss  roused  popular  feeling  in 
Bohcmiu  to  the  highest  ]iitcli  of  wrath  and  indig- 
nation. Whilst  the  masses  gave  way  to  rioting 
and  murdered  Roman  Catholic  ecclesiastics,  452 
nobles,  in  a  diet  which  h.ad  been  h.astily  sum- 
moned at  Prague  in  September  1415,  solemnly 
attested  their  confidence  in  Huss,  and  their  admira- 
tion of  his  personal  character,  and  tliree  days  later 
formed  themselves  into  a  league  for  the  mainten- 
ance of  liberty  of  preaching  in  Bohemia,  and  for 
upholding  their  belief  in  the  Word  of  God  as  the 
ultimate  lawgiver  of  the  church.  For  this  they 
were  excommunicated  l>y  the  council.  Both  parties 
now  prepared  for  war.  Yet  it  soon  became  ap])ar- 
ent  that  the  Hu.ssites  were  not  all  of  one  mind  ;  for, 
as  in  all  great  popular  movements  of  this  kind, 
there  was  an  extreme  party  who  were  desirous  of 
carrying  things  to  the  greatest  lengths.  The  more 
moderate  section  formulated  their  demands  in  four 
articles,  preaching  of  the  gospel  in  the  Bohemian 
language,  the  right  of  the  laity  to  receive  the  com- 
munion in  both  kinils,  reform  of  clerical  abuses,  and 
the  probiliitioii  of  the  clergy  to  hold  sei'uhir  ]iroperly 
and  exercise  secular  jurisdiction  ;  these  were  calleil 
Praguers,  but  more  fre(|Uently  Calixtines  (<•«//./■ 
=  a  chalice)  or  I'traquists  (from  their  claiming  com- 
munion ■'iiih  ii/rfti/uu  .ijKitic).  The  extreme  partv, 
headed  by  Ziska  (q.v.),  and  called  Taborites,  from 
their  headiiuartei-s  being  at  iMount  Tabor,  some 
24  miles  N  K.  of  Pisek,  went  beyond  the  I'tra- 
(juists  in  their  condemnation  of  purgatory,  the 
worship  of  saints,  of  images,  ami  of  relics,  and  the 
practice  of  penance,  ami  in  their  a.ssertion  of  the 
right  of  tlie  laity,  even  of  women,  to  preach,  and 
that  in  any  building  they  pleased.  At  this  period 
too    King  Wenceslaus    (lied,  and  the    throne    of 


Bohemia  was  claimed  by  his  brother,  the  Emperor 
Sigismund.  Nevertheless,  both  parties  united  in 
ottering  a  stubborn  resistance  to  the  emperor,  and 
his  forces  were  defeated  at  Ziskaberg  in  1420,  at 
Deutsch-Brod  in  1422,  at  .Aussig  in  142ti,  and  .at  Taus 
in  1431.  Under  the  two  lirothers  Procopius  the 
Hu.ssites  invaded  Silesia,  Saxony,  and  Franconia  ; 
the.v  were  said  to  have  taken  and  destroyed  more 
than  100  towns  and  1500  villages  ;  according  to  a 
doubtful  legend,  Naumburgwas  saved  by  the  inter- 
cession of  the  schoolchildren.  After  the  battle  of 
Taus  negotiations  were  begun,  which  ended,  two 
years  later,  in  the  Calixtines  .securing  their  ends 
by  the  'Compactata  of  Prague,'  which  was  signed 
by  the  delegate  of  the  Council  of  Basel  on  30th 
November.  This  paciMcation  the  Taborites  refused 
to  accept,  and  in  the  contest  that  then  en.sued 
between  them  and  the  Calixtines,  they  were  worsted 
at  Lipan  near  Kolin  and  at  Hrib  near  Bohinisch- 
Brod  in  1434,  and  from  that  tune  rapidly  disappear 
from  history.  Two  years  later  the  Emperor  Sigis- 
mund, after  ratifying  the  'Compactata'  with  his 
signature,  was  accepted  l)y  the  Bohemians  as  their 
king.  The  Utraquists  finally  became  merged  in 
the  Moravian  Brethren  (q.v.). 

See  Documentff  JohannisHus  rifnm,  doctrinam,  rausani 
iUiistrtiiitift  (ed.  by  Palacky,  18(>'.l),  and  monographs  by 
Becker  ( 18581,  Kriinniiel  ( 180:!),  Berger  (1872),  Wratis- 
law  (in  English,  1882),  and  Loscrth  (1884;  Eng.  trans. 
1884);  Deni.s,  i{u3s  et  la  Guerre  des  Busmtcs  (1878); 
Palacky,  UrkiuifUicke  Beifnif/c  zur  Geschichte  des 
Hussitiiiki-ii'iK  (1872-73);  Kiummel,  Gescltichti-  der 
Bohnii^i'/n  n  Jii formation  ( ISfiii )  ;  Bezold,  Sitvimnid  iind 
die  Ji(irh:<t\rit(je  yegen  dir  Hin^sitci}  ( 1872- 77),  and  Zur 
Geseiiichte  dei>  Husifitnithumg  (1874);  Wratislaw,  John 
Hits  (1882)  ;  Leger,  Histortj  of  Austro-Hunr/nrii  (Eng. 
trans.  1890 ) ;  Lechler,  Johannrx  ffiiss,  ein  Lebenshild 
(1890);    the    articles    Bohemia    (' Literature ' ),    Ziska, 

PODIEBRAD,  CONST.U4CE,  WyCI.IF,  &C. 

Hussar,  a  light-cavalry  trooper,  wearing  in 
full  dress  a  tunic  and  Bushy,  (q.v,),  and  armed 
with  sabre  and  carbine.  The  10th  and  ISth  Light 
Dragoons  were  changed  in  1S06-7  to  Hussars,  the 
earliest  in  the  Britisli  army  (see  C.Ay.XLUV  ).  The 
name  is  not  a  Hungarian  huxz-dr,  indicating  that 
they  were  raised  one  out  of  e\ery  twenty  inhabit- 
ants ;  but  pure  Slavonic  for  'Gooseherd,'  a  name 
given  to  bodies  of  wild,  raiding  horsemen,  organised 
and  taken  into  pay  by  Matthias  Corvinus. 

Hussein.     See  Shiites. 

HllSIIIII.  an  old  town  in  the  Prussian  province 
of  Sleswick-Holstein,  23  miles  W.  of  Sleswick  by 
rail  and  2.].  from  the  North  Sea.     Pop.  (i2(i7. 

HlltcUesOll,  FliANCIS,  a  distinguished  jiliilo- 
sopher  of  the  18th  century,  was  the  son  of  a 
Presbyterian  minister  in  the  north  of  Ireland, 
where  he  was  born  in  1094.  He  studied  for  the 
cliurch  at  the  university  of  Glasgow,  but  slnntly 
after  the  completion  of  his  theological  cour.se  he 
was  induced  to  open  a  private  academy  in  the  city 
of  Dublin,  wliicli  proved  highly  successful.  In 
1720  he  imbli.shed  his  Iminini  into  the  Oriiiiiud  of 
<iiir  Itleas  uf  Bcoiitij  timl  Virtue,  Arc,  which  was 
the  means  (if  introducing  him  to  the  notice  of  many 
inlluential  ]icrsimages,  such  as  Lord  Granville,  then 
lord  lieutenant  of  Ireland,  .Vrcbbishop  King,  Piim- 
ale  B(mlter,  and  others.  This  work  was  followed 
in  172.S  by  his  Easeiy  on  t/ie  Niifiire  imtl  Cundiict  of 
the  J'ti.sxionx :  and  in  the  year  after  he  was  ap- 
pointed ])rofessorof  Moral  Philosojdiy  in  the  univer- 
sity of  (Ilasgow.  Here  he  died  in  1747.  In  his 
lifetime  he  published  various  niinoi-  books,  includ- 
ing a  small  treatise  on  Loi/ir  ;  but  his  lar''est  work, 
A  Synteni  of  Mejrnl  I'hilosojilni,  was  ]inblished  at 
Glasgow  in  17.55  by  his  son,  Francis  Ilutcheson, 
M.I).,  with  a  Life  \>\  Dr  Lee<-hman.  As  a  meta- 
physician Ilutcheson  may  in  some  respects  be  con- 
sidered a  pioneer  of  the  so-called  '  Scotch  school ' 


HUTCHINSON 


HUTTEN 


17 


aiul  of  the  common  sense  iihilosophy,  although  he  is 
largely  inlhienoed  by  Locke.  From  tlie  <leliveiy  of 
Hiitcheson's  lectuies,  aeooiding  to  Dugalil  Stewart, 
may  be  dated  the  motaphysioal  iiliilosophy  of  Scot- 
land. But  it  is  as  a  moral  iihilosuplii-r,  rather  than 
as  a  metaphysician,  that  Uutcheson  was  conspicu- 
ous. His  system  is  to  a  large  extent  that  of 
Shaftesbury,  but  it  is  more  conii)lete,  coherent,  and 
dearly  illustrated.  Hutcheson  is  a  strong  opponent 
of  the  doctrine  that  benevolence  has  a  sellish 
origin  ;  he  is  practically  a  utilitarian  ;  and  the 
faculty  by  which  moral  distinctions  are  recognised 
Hutcheson  (after  Shaftesbury)  terms  a  moral  sense. 
See  Ethics  ;  Fowler,  S/uff/es/jmi/  and  Hiitrheson 
( 1882)  :  and  W.  R.  Scott,  Fnnieh  'Hiiteheson  ( 1900). 
Hlltl'llill.soil,  Anne,  a  religious  enthusiast, 
was  the  daughter  of  a  Lincolnshire  clergyman 
called  Marbury.  Born  in  1590,  she  mariied  a  Mr 
Hutchinson,  and  in  1634  they  emigrated  from  Lin- 
colnshire, England,  to  Boston,  Massachusetts.  She 
held  various  theological  heresies  ;  amongst  others, 
that  the  person  of  the  Holy  tUiost  dwells  in  justi- 
lied  persons.  She  held  meetings,  lectured,  and 
denounceil  the  Massachu.setts  clergy  as  being  with 
few  exceptions  '  under  the  covenant  of  works,  not 
of  grace.'  Her  followers  were  charged  with  Anti- 
noniianism  (q.v. ).  Great  controversies  arose,  and 
a  synod  was  called,  in  which  her  teachings  were 
condemned  ;  and  lieing  tried  for  heresy  ami  sedi- 
tion, she  was  banished  from  the  colony.  She  and 
her  friends  acquired  territ(n'y  from  the  Narragan- 
.sett  Indians  of  Khode  Island,  where  they  set  up  a 
communit}'  on  the  highly  commendable  principle 
that  no  one  was  to  be  '  accounted  a  delincjuent  for 
doctrine.'  After  the  death  of  her  husband  (who 
shared  her  opinions)  she  removed  to  a  new  settle- 
ment in  what  is  now  New  York  state,  where,  in 
16-13,  she  and  her  whole  family  of  fifteen  persons 
were  taken  prisoners  by  the  Indians,  and  all  but 
one  daughter  barbannisly  murdered. 

Hlltdlilison.  John,  an  English  theological 
writer,  Ijorn  in  167-t  at  Spennithorne,  in  Yorkshire. 
He  was  for  some  time  steward  of  the  household 
of  the  Duke  of  Somerset,  and  left  his  service  to 
devote  himself  to  his  religious  .studies,  the  duke 
procuring  for  him  a  sinecure  appointuient  of  £200 
a  year  from  government.  In  1724  he  published 
the  first  part  of  a  work  called  Moses'  Friiieipia,  in 
which  he  defended  what  he  regarded  as  the  Mosaic 
cosmogony,  and  assailed  Newton's  theory  of  gravi- 
tation. He  continued  to  publish  a  succession  of 
works  till  his  death,  which  took  place  on  28th 
August  1737.  His  religious  .system  is  best  ex- 
hibited in  his  Thoughts  eonccniing  Religion.  The 
leading  principle  of  it  is  that  the  Holy  Scriptures 
contain  the  elements  not  only  of  true  religion,  but 
of  all  rational  philosophy,  wliicli,  however,  was  to  lie 
derived  only  from  the  original  Hebrew  ;  and  it,  for 
that  |iur|)Ose,  was  snlijected  to  strange  critical  or 
rather  fanciful  processes.  His  followers  were  calle<l 
HtT('HlN.soNl.\s.s,  and  among  them  were  persons 
of  considerable  learning  and  celebrity.  Ministers 
of  some  of  the  Scottish  I'resbyterian  churches  are 
yet  required  explicitly  to  renounce  the  errors  of  the 
Hutchinsonians. 

Iliiti'iiiiisoii.  Colonel  John,  the  type  of  the 
I'uritati  gentleman,  w,as  the  son  of  Sir  Tliom.as 
Hutchinson,  and  was  born  at  Nottingham  in  Sep- 
Icniher  Kjlo.  Hi;  studied  at  ('••niiliridge,  and  next 
for  a  short  time  at  Lincoln's  Inn,  ami  marrie<l  in 
1C3S  Lucy,  (laughter  of  Sir  .Allen  Apslcv.  He  now 
retired  to  Owthoipe,  and  here  his  meditations  on 
the  troubled  theology  and  politics  of  the  time  leil 
him  at  last  to  side  with  the  parliament  rather 
than  the  king.  He  became  governor  of  Notting- 
ham, and  successfully  held  the  town  against 
enemies  without  and  intrigue  and  cahimnv  from 
262 


within  till  the  close  of  the  struggle.  About  the 
beginning  of  the  year  1646  be  was  sent  up  by 
Nottingham  to  lill  liis  father's  place  in  the  parlia- 
ment, and  later  sat  as  one  of  the  commissioners 
in  the  High  Court  of  Justice  for  the  king's  trial, 
and  signed  the  warrant  im  his  execution.  He  sat 
in  the  first  ccntncil  of  state,  but  gradually  became 
alarmed  at  the  ambitious  schemes  of  Cromwell, 
and  ceased  to  take  an  active  part  in  politics.  At 
the  Hestoi-ation,  along  with  otiier  regicides,  he  was 
included  in  the  Act  of  Anmesty,  but  later  was  im- 
prisoned for  about  a  year  in  the  Tower  and  at 
Sandown  Castle  in  Kent  on  a  groundless  suspicion 
of  treasonalile  conspiracy,  and  died  lltb  September 
1664.  The  Memoirs,  written  liy  his  widowed  wife 
for  her  children,  was  first  pubiished  in  1806,  and 
revealed  to  the  world  a  delightful  picture  of  a 
grave  and  courteous  gentleman,  beautiful  and 
accomplished  ;  tender  to  hLs  family  and  the  poor  ; 
fearless,  frank,  and  honest  in  temper ;  intense  in 
devotion,  yet  entirely  free  from  austerity  ai\d 
fanaticism.  The  unsought  beauty  of  the  style, 
and  the  absolute  sincerity  and  truthfulness  of  the 
narrative,  give  the  book  an  almost  unique  place 
among  English  biographies,  and  the  tender  devoted- 
ne.ss  of  loving  memory  with  which  throughout  it 
is  informed  lias  still  power  to  touch  the  modern 
reader  with  a  thrill  ot  sympathetic  emotion.  An 
excellent  edition,  by  C.  H.  Firth,  was  published  in 
1885. 

Hlltteil,  Philip  von,  a  (Jerman  adventurer, 
and  a  cousin  of  Ulrich  von  Ilutten,  was  born  at 
Birkenfeld  about  the  end  of  the  15th  century,  and 
was  educated  at  the  court  of  Henry  of  Nassau.  In 
1528  the  Emperor  Charles  V.  made  a  grant  of  the 
province  of  Venezuela  to  the  ^Velsers,  a  hrm  of 
rich  Augsliurg  merchants  ;  and  Hutten  sailed  with 
one  of  the  companies  they  sent  out.  He  accom- 
panied the  viceroy,  tieorg  Hohemut,  in  a  long 
journey  ( 15.36-38),  in  which  they  reached  the  head- 
waters of  the  Rio  Japura,  near  the  eiiuator.  In 
1541  he  set  out  in  search  of  the  tiolden  City. 
After  several  yeai's  ot  wandering,  harassetl  by  the 
natives  and  weakened  by  hunger  and  fever,  he 
and  his  followers  came  on  a  large  city,  the  capital 
of  the  Oniaguas,  in  the  country  north  of  the 
Amazons ;  and  attacking  this  place,  they  were 
routed  by  the  Indians,  and  Hutten  himself  severely 
wounded.  He  led  those  of  his  followers  who 
survived  back  to  Coro  in  1546,  where  .luan  de 
Caravajal  had  in  the  meantime  usurped  the  office 
of  viceroy  :  and  by  him  Hutten  and  his  lieutenant, 
Bartel  ^^  elser,  were  seizeil  anil  beheaded.  Eight 
years  later  the  Welsers'  grant  was  taken  from 
them,  and  the  rule  of  the  (iermans  in  \'enezuela 
came  to  an  end.  Hutten  left  a  narrative  of  his 
journeyings,  which  w.as  published  under  the  title 
Zeittiiiej  a  lis  Indicii  ( 1765).  See  also  Von  Langegg, 
El  Dorado  (Leip.  1888). 

llllttrilt  Ulrich  von,  p<iet,  humanist,  and 
reformer,  was  born  on  21st  April  1488,  of  an  old 
Franconian  family  whose  seat  was  at  Steckelberg, 
near  Fulda.  Being  puny  and  small  of  stature,  and 
of  weak  health,  he  was  destined,  although  the 
eldest  son,  for  the  tonsure,  and  was  sent  in  1499 
to  the  Benedictine  monastery  of  Fulda.  But  his 
temperament  —  proud,  high-spirited,  impetuous,  im- 
patient of  conlradiction  and  of  restraint — did  not 
lit  him  for  leading  the  religious  life,  and  in  1.VI4  or 
1.')(I5  he  fled  away  from  the  monastery.  Consumed 
with  a  devouring  hunger  for  knowledge-  especially 
for  the  new  Humanistic  learning,  Hutten  visiti'd 
the  chief  universities  of  northern  (iermany,  ami 
finally  passed  by  way  of  \'icntia  into  Italy  (1512). 
During  these  years  he  was  often  utterly  destitute, 
and  generally  ill,  sustained  only  by  his  love  for  the 
New   Learning  and   his   indomitable  spirit.      His 


18 


HUTTEN 


HUTTON 


first  works — Latin  poems — were  jirintecl  in  l.")09  ; 
and  in  the  same  year  he  wrote  tlie  first  of  his  many 
l>itter  satires.  From  tills  time  onwards  his  )ien 
never  rested  :  wlien  not  employed  in  lielialf  of  the 
great  cause  it  >\'as  l)iis\-  in  some  jirivate  fend  or 
qnarrel.  ]n  Italy  Ilutten  remained  nearly  two 
years.  On  reaehin;.;  home  he  was  received  with 
distinction  at  the  court  of  Alhert,  Archbishop  and 
Elector  of  Mainz.  There  he  lir.st  became  ac- 
([uainted  with  Erasmns,  the  leader  of  the  Ihiman- 
istic  movement.  In  the  sprinj;  of  LjlS  all  the  liery 
eombativeness  of  Hutten's  nature  was  roused  by 
the  murder  of  his  cousin  Hans,  who  had  been 
wantonly  slain  by  Ulricb,  Duke  of  ^Viirteniberg. 
The  young  poet  launched  denunciation  after  de- 
nunciation at  the  guilty  duke,  ami  called  upon  the 
em])eror  to  punish  the  otl'ender  ;  and,  himself  gird- 
ing the  sword  upon  his  thigh,  be  niarcheil  into 
AVurtemberg  along  with  the  army  of  vengeance  bis 
family  had  raised.  His  friends  then  sent  him  back 
to  Ital,v  to  study  law.  At  Home  and  at  15ologna 
lie  spent  nearly  two  years,  and  came  home  to  enter 
the  service  of  the  Archbishop  of  Mainz.  It  was  at 
this  time  that  he  wrote  his  most  important  work, 
his  share  of  the  Epistolic  Obscuroriim  Virorum 
(q.v.)._ 

Having  been  formally  crowned  poet-laureate  of 
Germany  by  the  Emperor  Maximilian  at  Augsburg 
in  1.517,  Hutten  began  the  real  work  of  his  life,  bis 
deliberate  assault  upon  papal  aggressiveness,  in  an 
ironical  dedication  to  Leo  X.  of  a  new  edition  of 
Laurentius  Valla's  exposure  of  the  fictitious  Dona- 
tion of  Constantine.  When  be  first  heard  of 
Luther's  revolt,  Hutten  looked  upon  it  as  a  mere 
monks'  quarrel.  In  1519  he  took  part,  along 
with  his  subseciuent  friend  and  patron,  Franz 
von  Sickingen,  in  the  campaign  of  the  Swabian 
League  against  his  old  enemy,  Duke  Ulricli  of 
Wiirtemberg.  But  this  concluded,  he  returned 
to  the  attack  upon  the  papal  ])Ower.  The  ideal 
that  possessed  his  soul  was  to  create  a  national 
Germany,  delivered  from  the  hateful  interfer- 
ence, extortion,  and  spiritual  tyranny  of  super- 
cilious priests  from  beyond  the  Alps.  But  he 
also  aimed  at  an  intellectual  reform  of  the  so-called 
learned  classes,  through  the  spread  of  the  New 
Learninf;,  and  at  the  cultivation  of  refinement  in 
the  habits  and  manners  of  his  countrymen.  At 
length  he  came  to  understand  the  real  significance 
of  Luther's  action,  and,  at  once  joining  hands  with 
liim,  he  espoused  the  reformer's  part  %\ith  his 
customary  impetuosity  and  vehemence.  Hence- 
forward be  was  more  closely  identified  M-ith  the 
Reformation  than  with  the  Humanistic  movement. 
A  set  of  dialogues  which  he  published  in  1.520  con- 
tained Vai/isriis,  his  formal  manifesto  against  Rome. 
This  at  last  stung  the  pope  to  take  retributive 
measures,  and  he  caused  the  archbishop  to  dismiss 
Hutten  from  his  .service.  Hutten  found  shelter 
in  iSickingcn's  strong  castle  of  Kbernburg  in  the 
Palatinate,  whence  during  the  next  two  years  he 
discharged  a  perfect  show(u-  of  invectives,  denun- 
ciations, and  satires  at  the  heads  of  the  Komauists, 
and  wrote  ajqieal  after  apjieal  to  the  tierman 
emneror,  the  princ(^s  and  noliles,  bishops,  scholars, 
and  peo])le,  urging  them  to  shake  oil' the  tyrannous 
iloniiuation  of  the  enemies  of  their  country.  And 
in  oilier  to  get  at  the  common  ])eo])le  he  began  to 
write  in  the  vernacular,  his  earliest  work  in  (ler- 
man  being  Aiifi'rr/:,-r  il,-r  tditschen  Xatinii  (ir>'2()), 
a  poem  in  which  Hutten's  .satiric  powers  reach 
their  highest  pitch.  Sickingen's  castle  having 
beconie  unsafe,  Hutten  Med  in  1.52'2  to  \\.\,^\,  where 
he  was  greeted  with  markeil  coldness  by  Erasmus. 
Tlii.i  estiangemi'ut  shortlv  afterwards  gave  ri.se  to 
a  bitter  epistolary  (|uariel.  At  BiLsid  Ifutlcn  was 
again  attacked  by  the  odious  disease  from  which 
he  had  suM'ere<l  since  boyhood  ;  and,  after  seeking 


a  safe  retreat  at  Miihlhausen  and  at  Zurich,  was 
befriended  by  Zwiiigli,  who  found  him  an  asylum 
on  the  little  inland  of  t'fnau  in  the  Lake  of  Zurich. 
There  Hutten  ended  his  stormy  life  in  1.523. 

Hi.'i  writing.s  fall  into  tliruc  divisions  :  ( 1 )  Latin  poems 
(1509-16);  (2)  letters  and  orations  (1.515-17);  and  (3) 
dialogues  and  letters,  including  his  Uennau  writings 
(1517-231.  See  his  Vp(r<(  (hnnui  (7  vols.  1S.59-C2).  and 
lives  of  him  by  .Straus.'*  (  4th  cd.  187ti ;  trans,  hy  Sturge 
1874),  Schott  i  ISKO  ),  and  others. 

nutter,  Leoxhai:i>,  champion  of  Lutheran 
orthodoxy,  was  born  in  1.5(i:?  at  Nellingen,  near 
Ulm,  ami  filled  the  chair  of  Theology  at  AVittenbei'O' 
from  159U  till  his  death  in  lOHi.  His  Cnitipciu/inin 
(1610)  took  the  place  of  Melanehthon's  Loci,  and 
bis  Concnrdin  Coiicors  (1614)  w;is  long  a  standard 
work.  His  name  w.os  .adojited  by  Hase  (ij.v.)  in 
his  well-known  reh.abilitation  of  the  Old  Lutheran 
dogmatic,  i/u^/rcK,? /i'prf/c/c»4- ( 1828:   12th  ed.  1SS3). 

Illltton.  Ch.vrles,  mathematician,  son  of  a 
superintendent  of  mines,  was  born  at  Newcastle- 
upon-Tyne,  14th  August  1737  :  from  175.5  to  I77.S 
was  a  teacher  at  Jesmond  ami  Newcastle,  and 
published  works  on  arithmetic  (1764),  mensuration 
(1771),  and  bridges  ( 1772).  In  1773  be  was  made 
professcu-  of  Mathematics  at  the  Military  Academy, 
Woolwich,  and  in  1774  became  F.R.S. "  His  calcu- 
lations for  determining  the  density  of  the  earth 
from  Maskelyne's  observations  were  imblished  in 
the  Pldlosophical  Traiisrictions  for  1778.  He  re- 
signed the  ju-ofessorship  in  1807  ;  and  lie  died  27th 
January  1823. 

Hutton's  most  important  works  are  Tables  of  Products 
and  Powers  of  Numbers  ( 1781 ),  Meithcmatieal  Tables 
(1785),  Mathemntieal  and  Philosophical  Dictionary 
(1795),  Course  of  Mathematics  (1798-1801),  and  Recrea- 
tions in  Mathematics  and  Natural  Philosophii  (4  vols. 
1803 — larj^ely  from  the  French ). 

Hlltton.  dAJiES,  one  of  the  founders  of  geology, 
was  liorn  at  Edinburgh,  lid  June  1726.  He  studied 
medicine  in  his  native  city  and  at  Paris  and  Leyden, 
but  on  his  return  home  ( 1754)  he  settled  in  IJerwick- 
shire  and  devoted  himself  to  agricultural  pursuits 
and  to  chemistry,  from  which  he  was  led  to  miner- 
alogy and  geology.  In  1768  he  removed  to  Kdiii- 
burgh,  and  there  spent  bis  time  in  scientific 
investigations,  and  there  he  died,  26tli  March  1797. 
He  read  two  im]>ortant  papers  before  the  Royal 
Society  of  Edinburgh,  A  Tlirorif  of  the  lutrtli  ( 1785  ; 
expanded  to  2  vols,  in  1795)  and  A  Theory  of  Jinin 
(1784).  The  upraised  land  of  the  globe  niust,  he 
'thought,  be  worn  away  by  atmos]iheric  infiuences, 
and  the  deluis  be  finally  deposited  in  the  bed  of 
the  sea,  where  they  are  coiiscdidated  uifiler  great 
pressure  :  they  are  then  forced  upw.-irds  by  subter- 
ranean beat  acting  with  an  expansive  power,  and 
thereby  sjilit  ami  cracked,  the  fissures  at  the  same 
time  filling  with  molten  mineral  matter;  .and  so 
tlie  process  goes  on.  The  form.ation  of  rain  he 
ascribed  to  the  mingling  of  two  strata  of  air  of 
ilill'erent  temperatures  and  the  sukseqnent  con- 
densation of  the  mixture. 

He  also  wrote  Dissertations  in  Natural  Philosophy 
(1792),  Consitlerations  on  the  Nature  of  Coal  and  Culm 
(1777),  and  other  works.     See  Gkoi.ogv. 

Illltton.  KiciiARD  Holt,  son  and  gramlson  of 
I'nilarian  ministers,  was  horn  at  Leeds  in  1826, 
sluiliiMl  at  I'niversity  College  and  School,  London, 
and  under  M.artineau  at  the  Manchester  New 
College.  He  was  for  some  time  a  Unitarian 
prcachei',  became  principal  of  rniversity  Hall,  and 
I'ontriliuted  to  Unitarian  ju'rioilicals.  Cnder  the 
irilluence  of  F.  1).  Maurice  he  joined  the  Church  of 
England,  edited  the  new  quarterly  National  lic- 
/•/(■((',  and  taught  matliematirs  in  ISedford  College. 
About  1860  he  and  MrTowiiscnd  became  associated 
as  joint-editoi-s  of  the  Sprrlatnr  (founded  ill  1828), 
to  which  he  gave  the  impress  of  his  accoiiqdished, 


HUXLEY 


HUYGENS 


19 


resolute,  devout  niiml.  He  revei-pil  Cardiiinl  New- 
iiiau  ;  hail  constant  vejranl  to  ethical  anil  religious 
interests  in  his  jutlgnients  of  men  ami  movements, 
whether  literary,  social,  or  political  ;  anil  greatly 
strengthened  opposition  to  Irish  Home  Rule.  His 
SliKfies  in  Paiiiamcid  (]8(i6).  Essays,  Thcoloc] iral 
and  Literary  (1871:  new  ed.  ISSO),  and  Modern 
Guides  nf  £nf/lis/i  TliouglU  ( 1SS7  )  were  republished 
from  the  periodicals  ;  hisnionograph  on  Scott  ('Men 
of  Letters,'  1S7S)  was  his  least  etlective  puhlication. 
His  last  years  were  clouded  by  the  melancholia  of  his 
second  wife,  who,liU-e  his  first,  belonged  to  tlie  Liver- 
pool Koscoe  family.  He  died  11th  September  1897. 
Huxley.  Thomas  Henrv,  biologist,  bom  at 
Ealing,  Middle.sex,  4th  >Lav  182,"),  commenced  his 
education  at  the  school  in  that  place,  then  a 
small  village,  and  afterwards  studied  medicine  in 
the  Medical  School  of  Charing  Cross  Hospital.  In 
1846  he  entered  the  medical  service  of  the  royal 
navy,  and  did  duty  at  Haslar,  until  the  winter 
of  the  same  year,  under  the  late  Sir  John  Klehard- 
son,  by  whose  influence  he  was  appointed  assistant- 
surgeon  of  H.M.S.  Eattlcsnalcc.  This  vessel,  com- 
manded by  Captain  Owen  Stanley,  was  commis- 
sioned' to  survey  the  intricate  passage  within  the 
Barrier  Reef  skirting  the  eastern  sliores  of  Aus- 
tralia, and  to  explore  the  sea  lying  between  the 
nortliern  end  of  that  reef  and  New  Guinea.  Hux- 
ley devoted  himself  \\ith  zeal  to  the  study  of  the 
numerous  marine  animals  collected  during  the  sur- 
vey, and  made  them  the  subjects  of  scientilic 
Eiipers,  which  were  imblished  l>y  the  Royal  and 
innean  societies.  Towards  the  end  of  1850  the 
liattlesnake  returned  to  England,  and  Huxley  had 
the  gratiKcation  to  lind  that  his  paper  On  Ike 
Anatomi/  and  Affinities  of  t/ic  Family  of  the 
Mednscf!  had  been  published  in  the  Philosophiexd 
Transactions.  In  IS.jl  Huxley  was  elected  a 
Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  ;  in  18.52  one  of  the 
two  Royal  medals  annually  given  by  the  Society 
was  awarded  to  him  ;  and  in  185.3  he  contrib- 
uted to  the  Society's  Transaetlons  a  memoir 
on  the  morphology  of  the  Cephalous  Mollusca. 
In  1854  he  was  appointed  professor  of  Natural 
History,  including  Pahcontology,  in  the  Royal 
School  of  Mines  in  place  of  Professor  Edward 
Forbes,  and  held  that  olKce,  combined  with 
the  curatorship  of  the  fossil  collections  in  the 
Museum  of  Practical  Geology,  until  liis  retirement 
from  the  public  service  in  1885.  It  was  part 
of  the  duty  of  the  professor  to  deliver  a  course 
of  six  lectures  to  working-men  every  alternate 
year.  Some  of  these  have  been  published.  In 
1854  he  published  contributions  to  the  anatomy 
of  the  Brachiopoda,  in  which  some  hitherto  un- 
sus])ected  peculiarities  of  their  structure  were  de- 
scribed ;  and  in  this  and  the  preceding  year  he 
wrote  several  essays  on  histological  subjects.  In 
1856  he  accompanied  his  friend  Dr  Tyndall  in  his 
first  visit  to  the  glaciers  of  the  Alps,  and  his  name 
appears  as  joint-author  of  a  paper.  Observations 
on  Glaciers  (Phil.  Trans.  1857).  In  1859  his  large 
work  on  Tlic  Oceanic  Uydrozoa  ;  a.  Description  of  the 
Calycnphoridui  and  Pliijsiiphoridai  observed  during 
his  voyage,  was  pulilisiied  by  the  Ray  Society  with 
illustrative  plates.  After  his  a])]iointment 'to  the 
Royal  School  of  Mines,  Huxley's  attention  was 
chiefly  directed  to  vertebrate  morphology  and  to 
pal.'eontolog\-,  with  occasional  excursions  into  the 
region  of  ethnology ;  but  papers  on  the  agamic 
reproduction  and  morphology  of  Aphis  (1858),  on 
the  development  of  Pyrosojna  (  186(1),  a  manu.al  of 
the  Invertebrata  (1877),  and  classilication  and  dis- 
tribution of  Craylishes  (1878)  are  evidence  that 
tlie  In>i'rtebrata  were  not  neglected.  In  vertebrate 
morphology  the  most  important  pa|)ers  are  the 
Royal  Society's  Croonian  lecture.  On  the  Tlicory  of 
the  Vertebrate  Skull  (1858)  ;  various  papers  on  the 


brain  in  man  and  apes,  and  on  the  relation  of  man 

to  the  lower  animals,  and  Man's  Place  in  Nature 
( 1860  63)  ;  on  the  classification  of  Birds,  and  on  the 
Dino.iaiiria  (1868-70);  the  article  'Amphibia'  in 
Ency.  Piritannica  (1S75);  On  Ce.ratodns  (1876); 
the  cranial  and  dental  structure  of  the  Canidw 
(1880):  Lectures  on.  Coniparatire  An(donii/  (Midi); 
An  Intrudiictinn  to  the  Classification  of  Animals 
( 1869).  In  pahcontology,  be.sides  various  papers  on 
other  fossil  Invertebrata,  memoirs  on  Ptrryr/otus 
(1858)  and  Belcninitcs  (1864);  a  series  of  papers 
on  Stayanolepis  Eobertsoni  and  Hyperodapedon 
Gordoni  (1859-77-87);  preliminary  essay  and  de- 
scriptions of  Fossil  Fishes  in  the  Decades  of  the 
Geological  Survey  ( 1862 ) ;  Glyptodfjn  ( 186:5 ) :  Nean- 
derthal Skull  ( 1864) ;  Reptilian  Remains  fiom  India 
(1864);  TclerpetoH  (1866):  Amphiliia  from  the 
Kilkenny  Coal-measures  ( 1867-71 ) ;  Hi/psilophodon 
and  Evidences  of  Aflinity  bet\\een  heptiles  and 
Birds  (1869-70)  ;  Chclonia  from  Lord  Howe  Island 
(1887).  In  physiology,  a  short  treati.se.  Lessons 
in  Eleinrutary  Physiology.  Essays  on  topics  of  a 
philosophical  and  general  character  are  collected  in 
Lay  Sermons,  ike.  (1870);  Critiques  and  Addresses 
(187.3);  American  Addresses  and  Physinyrajihy 
( 1877 ) ;  a  short  work  on  Hume  ( 1879 ) ;  Science  and 
Culture  (1881);  and  Science  and  Hebrew  'Tradition 
(1894).  His  collected  essays,  with  an  antobib- 
graphy,  were  issued  in  9  volumes  in  ls9;5-95.  A 
member  of  the  Privy  Council  since  1892,  he  died  at 
Eastbourne,  '29th  June  1895.  His  son  Leonard 
wrote  his  Life  and  Letters  (2  vols.  1900). 

Huxley  strongly  advocated  and  greatly  furthered 
Darwin's  views  and  evolutionist  doctrines  in  gene- 
ral, and  was  a  keen  and  incisive  critic  of  what  he 
regarded  as  obscurantist  theological  prejudices.  He 
held  the  otiices  of  examiner  in  the  university  of 
Lomloii,  of  Fullerian  professor  at  the  Royal  In- 
.stitution,  of  Hunterian  professor  of  Comparative 
Anatomy  at  the  Royal  College  of  Surgeons,  of 
president  of  the  Ethnological  Society  and  of  the 
Bi-itish  Association.  He  was  .secretary  and  presi- 
dent of  the  Geological  Society,  and  .secretary  and 
president  of  the  Royal  Society.  He  was  elected 
ill  1873  Lord  Rector  of  the  university  of  Aberdeen, 
and  a  memlier  of  the  London  School  Board  in  1870. 
He  was  an  active  memlier  of  the  Royal  Commission 
on  Sea-lisheries  (1864-66),  and  served  on  several 
other  commissions  ;  and  lie.was  insjiector  of  Salmon- 
fisheries  from  1881  to  1885.  He  received  the  Wol- 
lastoii  medal,  the  Copley  medal,  and  a  Swedish 
order.  Honorary  degrees  were  conferred  on  him  by 
Oxford,  Cambridge,  WUrzburg,  Brussels,  Bologna, 
Breslau,  Edinlmrgh,  and  Dublin.  He  was  a  foreign 
or  corresponding  member  of  the  American,  Brus- 
sels, Berlin,  and  French  academies. 

Illiy.  a  town  of  Belgium,  is  romantically  situ- 
ated amid  lofty  rocks  on  both  banks  of  the  Meuse, 
19  miles  SW.  "of  Liege  by  rail.  Its  citadel  (18'22), 
whose  works  are  partly  excavated  in  the  solid 
rock,  commands  the  passage  of  the  river.  The 
church  of  Notre  Dame,  a  graceful  Gothic  edifice, 
was  begun  in  1311.  In  the  vicinity  are  iron- 
works and  coal-mines,  and  the  manufactures  in- 
clude paper,  leather,  beer,  spirits,  Ac.  Pop. 
(1876)  11,774;  (1890)  14,486.  Peter  the  Hermit 
founded  here  the  former  Abbey  of  Neufmoustier 
{XorumMonasteriiim),  and  here  in  1 1 1.5  he  died. 
Huy  has  been  frequently  besieged. 

Iluygcns.  CilRi.STiAN,  one  of  the  great  philo- 
siiplicrs  of  tlie  17th  century,  was  bmn  at  the  Hague, 
.\pril  11,  16'29,  and  was  the  second  son  of  ('on- 
stantine  lluygens,  poet,  diplomatist,  and  secretary 
to  the  Prince  of  Orange,  who  was  knighted  by 
James  1.  of  England  in  16'2'2.  Huygens  studied  at 
Leyden  and  IJreda.  His  first  work,  Theoreniata  de 
Qiaalratiira  Hyperboles,  Ellipsis,  et  Cireuli  (\G5l), 


20 


HUYSMANS 


HYACINTH 


is  an  example  o(  tliat  powerful  geometrical  talent 
which  lay  at  the  fminuation  of  all  his  scientilic 
achievements.  Soon  after  this  he  constructed  the 
penilnlum-clock,  following  out  the  iilea  tii-st  sug- 
gested hy  (ialileo  (see  HoKOLOcY).  A  complete 
description  of  Huygens'  instrument  is  contained  in 
his  great  work,  Homlogiiim  Omil/dforiiim  (1673). 
This  work  contains  expositions  of  many  of  the 
cases  of  constraineil  motion,  especially  those  appli- 
cable to  the  construction  of  timekeepei-s.  Huygens 
also  developed  and  gave  precision  to  the  in- 
vestigations of  (lalileo  ujion  accelerated  motion 
under  the  action  of  gra\ity  ;  and  there  is  no  donlit 
that  to  the  clearness  of  his  demonstrations  his 
great  successor,  Newton,  in  preparing  his  magni- 
ficent development  of  the  principle  of  accelerating 
force,  was  largely  indebted.  Newton  was  a  student 
and  admirer  of  his  works,  and  assigns  to  him,  along 
with  Sir  C.  Wren  and  Wallis,  the  distinguished 
epithet  of  hiijiis  trtatis  geomcfrarmn  facile  prin- 
cipcs.  I5y  means  of  an  imjiroved  telescope  of  his  own 
construction,  Huygens  in  10,5")  discovered  the  ring 
of  Saturn  and  the  fourth  satellite  of  that  planet. 
In  16.59  he  published  an  account  of  these  discoveries 
in  a  work  entitled  Si/strmn  Satiiniiiim.  In  the 
end  of  this  work  the  Micrometer  ((j.v. )  is  described. 
In  1060  Huygens  visited  England,  where  he  was 
.adhiitted  a  member  of  the  Koyal  Society.  He  dis- 
covered the  laws  of  collision  of  el.astic  liodies  about 
the  same  time  as  Wallis  and  Wren,  .and  also  m.ade 
a  material  improvement  in  the  .air-pump.  But 
his  most  im])ortant  discoveries  .are  in  the  depart- 
ment of  optics  :  he  it  was  who  first  |nopounded 
and  developed  what  is  now  known  as  the  undnla- 
tory  theory  of  Light  (q.v. ),  and  he  is  the  discoverer 
of  Polarisation  ((|.v. ).  The  'principle  of  Huygens" 
is  a  p.art  of  tlie  wave-theory.  In  1666  Huygens 
received  .an  invitation  to  settle  in  Fr.ance.  with  the 
promise  of  a  pension  from  Colbert,  then  .all-power- 
ful in  that  country.  At  Paris  he  rem.ained  till  1681, 
a  member  of  the  Koy.al  Academy  of  Sciences;  but 
alarmed  .at  the  d.anger  which  seemed  impending  over 
the  Protestants,  he  returned  to  his  own  country, 
and  died  at  the  Hague,  Sth  July  169.3.  His 
(l^in-res  i'miijihlis  have  been  issued  since  1888  by 
the  Amsterihini  .Vi'ademy  of  Sciences. 

Hliysinniis.  .lom.s  Karl,  novelist,  was  bom 
the  son  of  a  Dutch  father  at  P.aris  .5th  February 
1848,  and  since  IH06  holils  a  post  in  the  French 
ministry  of  the  interior.  His  first  novel,  Hac  an 
Dos  (1872),  Wiis  followed  by  a  series,  .all  full  of 
Zola's  realism,  till  in  1S9.5,  when  his  w(uUs  beg.au  to 
breathe  .a  spirit  of  Catholic  mysticism. 

IlliysilllI,  -Iax  \'an  ( 1082-1749),  Dulch  ]>aintcr, 
w.a-s  born  .and  died  .at  Amstenlam.  His  landscai)es 
are  conventional  and  artilicial,  but  his  fruit  and 
llower  jiieces  are  exi|uisite. 

llUZVarosll.  the"  non-Iranian  element  in  the 
Pehh'vi  dialect.      See  Zhnd. 

Ilwi'll-tlisaiiu;.  or  IIloi'KX-TllSANr,,  alluddhist 
monk  ot  China,  who  was  born  near  Honau  about 
60.5,  and  who  in  629  set  out  on  a  pilgrimage  to 
India,  travelling  by  w.ay  of  the  Desert  of  Gobi, 
Tashkend,  Samarcand,  I'amian  (q.v.).  and  Pesha- 
war. He  remained  in  India  a  period  of  thirteen 
years  {(i.'!l-44),  visiting  the  sacred  ]daces  connected 
with  his  religion,  .and  studying  its  sacred  books. 
He  dieil  in  604  in  a  convent  at  Chang-ngan  (now 
Singan).  Owing  to  the  m.any  curious  notices  he 
gives  of  matter.s  which  came  under  his  observation, 
and  the  high  degree  of  trustworthiness  which  his 
narr.itive  possesses,  his  memoii's  are  regarded  as 
one  of  the  most  important  works  on  the  history  of 
India  in  general,  and  of  I'.uddhism  in  particular, 
during  the  perioil  stated.  The  account  of  his 
travels  was  written,  not  by  himself,  but  under  his 
supervision,  and  was  ccmipleled  in  64H,     According 


to  ,a  remark  added  to  the  title  in  the  imperial 
Chinese  edition,  the  work  would  seem  to  have  been 
tr.anslateil  from  Sanskrit  into  Chinese;  but  this 
can  only  mean,  as  Stanislas  .Julien  (d)serves,  that 
the  fuiulamental  jiart  of  the  work  relating  to 
history,  legends,  \-c. ,  was  taken  from  Hindu 
sources.  IJesides  this  book,  there  exists  ,a  bio- 
graphy of  Hwen-Thsang  written  by  two  of  his 
disciples.  lioth  works  were  translated  into  French 
by  St.anislas  .Julien  (Paris,  18,53  and  lS.57-.58), 
.and  .an  abstr.act  of  these  by  H.  H.  Wilson  .a]>peare(I 
in  the  17th  volume  of  the  Joiinial  of  the  lio;/(il 
A  sin  fie  Sorie/i/.  See  .also  Hi  urn  Tsiaiig  in  Triib- 
ner's  Oriental  Library  ( 1888). 

Ilyncilltll  [HiiaeiiitJiiis),  a  genus  of  plants  of 
the  natural  order  Lili.acea' ;  bidbous-rooted  jdants 
with  corolla-like,  bell-shaped,  6-cleft  perianth,  six 
st.amens  fixed  in  the  tube  of  the  peri.anth,  and  dry 
cap.sular  fruit.  The  Hower  w.as  fabled  to  h.ave 
sprung  from  the  blood  of  the  beautiful  Spartan 
Hyacinthus,  beloved  of  Ajiollo  and  Ze|inyrus. 
Zephyrus,  jealous  because 
Hyacinthus  favoured 
Apollo,  caused  ApoUo's 
quoit  to  strike  and  slay 
tiie  beauteous  youth  while 
the  two  were  at  pl.a.v. — 
The  Oriental  Hyacinth 
(//.  orientiilis),  one  of  the 
most  favourite  of  florists' 
flowers,  is  a  Tiative  of  Asi.a 
Minor,  Syria,  and  Persia. 
It  is  now  n.atur.alised  in 
some  parts  of  the  south 
of  Eurojie.  It  h.as  broad 
linear  leaves,  and  .a  scajie 
with  a  r.aceme  of  many 
flowers  ]iointing  in  all 
directions.  The  flowers  in 
cultivation  exhibit  great 
variety  of  colour,  chiefly 
bine,  purple,  and  white. 
They  are  very  beautiful 
and  very  fr.agrant.  The 
fragi'ance  is  strongest 
.about  or  .after  eleven 
o'clock  at  night.  Anmng 
cultivated  hy.acinths  .are 
nnmy  with  double  flowers. 
The  hyacinth  h.as  been  cultivated  fmm  a  remote 
period.  It  was  introduced  into  Furope,  |irobably 
by  the  Dutch,  about  the  beginning  of  I  he  Kith 
century,  soon  after  the  revival  of  commerce, 
when  the  tr.aders  of  Ilollaml  carried  their  mer- 
chandise to  the  eastern  slunes  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean and  the  Archipel.ago.  It  w.as  very  little 
known  in  liritain  till  towards  the  beginning  of  the 
17tli  century,  but  soon  after  its  cultivation  h.ad 
become  a  passion  with  the  wealtliv,  as  it  had  for 
some  time  been  with  the  Dutch.  Kxtravag.ant 
prices— as  much  as  f200 — were  paid  for  a  single 
bulb  of  varieties  having  sjieci.al  or  rare  merits. 
This  p.assion  declined  fowanis  the  middleof  the  I8th 
century,  .and  the  cultiv.ation  of  the  hyacinth  l>ecame 
very  nnich  depressed.  In  recent  years,  however,  it 
has  been  very  much  extended,  an<l  forms  one  of 
the  |iiincipal  industries  of  florists  around  Haarlem, 
%\hii-li  is  .and  always  has  been  the  centre  of  the 
Dutch  bulb  trade:  but  their  elbuts. arc  now  directed 
witli  the  view  of  meeting  the  dcman<l  nf  the 
million  r.ather  th.an  the  speci.al  requirements  of  the 
fanciful  wealthy  few.  Ilyacinth  bulbs,  planted  in 
]iots,  readily  jiroduce  lieautif'iil  flowers  ;  and  Howere 
almost  e(|nnlly  licautiful  .are  obtained — for  one 
year  only,  however — by  placing  them  in  water  in 
hyacinth  glasses,  in  wliich  they  form  a  favourite 
ornament  of  apartments  in  winter  and  early  spring. 
The  cultivation  of  hyacinths  in   the  oiien  ground 


i 


Hyacinth 

{ Himcinth us  oricutalin 


HYACINTHE 


HYBRID 


21 


is  iiuicli  more  difficult,  tlieir  early  growth  lieinjc 
liable  to  he  destroyeil  hy  aJvei-se  weather.  New 
varieties  are  raised  from  seeil.  Several  oilier  species 
of  hyacinths  are  natives  of  the  south  of  Europe, 
Africa,  vSrc. — The  Grape-hyacinth  and  Globe- 
hyacinth,  frequently  cultivated  as  garden  flowers, 
are  now  referred  to  the  genus  Muscari. — A  common 
British  ]il;uit,  growing  in  woods  and  co|ises,  with 
beautiful  blue  flowers  very  like  those  of  the  oriental 
liyacintli,  but  all  drooping  to  one  side  (H.  nun- 
scriiitus,  also  known  as  Hcilla  nutans,  Eiidijuiion 
iiiitaii.f,  and  Atjiaphis  nutans),  is  sometimes  called 
the  Wild  Hyacinth,  and  sometimes  the  Blue-bell 
((l.v.).  The  bulbs  have  been  used  for  making 
starcli. — The  name  hyacinth  is  also  given  to 
varieties  of  garnet,  topaz,  sapphire,  and  zircon. 

Ilyaoilltlie.  Pere,  is  the  former  monastic  name 
of  (''hai;le.s  LoysoX,  born  at  Orleans,  10th  March 
1S27.  He  studied  at  St  Sulpice,  anil  in  ISol 
becoming  priest,  taught  philosophy  and  theology 
at  Avignon  and  Nantes.  Subsequently  entering 
the  order  of  the  Carmelites,  he  became  known  as 
a  powerful  preacher,  and  gathered  crowded  and 
enthusiastic  audiences  of  all  ranks  of  society  to  the 
Madeleine  and  Notre  Dame  in  Paris.  Almost  as 
remarkal)le  as  his  eloquence  was  the  boldness  with 
which  he  denounced  existing  abuses  in  the  church  ; 
anil  Archbishop  Darboy  defended  him  against 
the  accusations  of  the  Jesuits  till  in  1869  the 
Geneial  of  his  order  imposeil  silence  on  him. 
Hyacinthe  replied  by  a  letter  in  which  he  called 
for  a  thorough  reform  of  the  church,  and  was  e.\- 
ciuuinunicated.  Believed  from  monastic  vows  by 
the  pope,  he  became  a  secular  priest  under  the 
name  of  the  Abbe  Loyson.  He  protested  vigor- 
ously against  the  Infallibility  Dogma  ;  birt  although 
he  attended  the  '  Old  Catholic  '  Congress  at  Munich, 
and  on  visits  to  the  United  States  and  England 
fraternised  with  Protestants,  he  always  declared 
his  intention  to  remain  in  the  Catliolic  Church, 
trying  to  obtain  reforms,  such  as  the  liljerty  of 
marriage  for  the  clergy.  In  1872  he  married  an 
American  lady.  In  1873  he  was  chosen  cure  of  a 
congregation  of  Liberal  Catholics  at  Geneva,  but 
soon  left  them.  He  has  published  sermons  and 
lectures,  and  in  1879  established  a  '  Gallican  '  con- 
gregation in  Paris,  which  in  1884  attached  itself  to 
the  Old  Catiiolie  Church  in  Holland. 

Hyndes,  in  Greek  Mythology,  the  nurses  and 
guardians  (3,  5,  or  7  in  number)  of  young  Dionysus. 
Zeus  converted  them  into  stars  and  transplanted 
them  to  the  heavens,  where  they  form  the  liead  of 
the  constellation  Taurus.  Their  rising  with  the 
sun  was  held  in  Greece  to  mark  the  beginning  of 
the  rainy  .season. 

HyiPlia,  a  genus  of  digitigrade  carnivorous 
quadrupeds,  included  in  the  genus  C'anis  by  Lin- 
na-us,  but  now  referred  to  the  .Eluroid  division  of 
the  Carnivora,  of  which,  however,  it  is  a  somewhat 
aberrant  member,  forming  with  Prutclcs  (q. v. )  a 
subfamily,  Hya^nina.  Hya'iuus  have  six  incisors 
and  two  canine  teeth  in  each  jaw,  live  molars  on 
each  side  in  the  iipper  jaw,  and  four  in  the  under. 
They  .seize  an  object  with  so  lirm  ahold  that,  among 
the  .\rabs,  they  are  proverbial  for  olistinacy.  The 
vertebne  of  the  neck  .somc^times  become  ankyloseil 
in  old  liy:i'nas.  The  hindquarters  are  lower  and 
weaker  than  the  fore-quarters  of  the  liody,  so  that 
hya'Uas  move  with  a  shandiling  gait.  The  Ijody  is 
covered  with  rather  long  coai'se  hair,  forming  a 
mane  along  the  neck  and  back.  The  feet  have  each 
four  toes.  The  claws  are  strong,  lit  for  digging, 
and  not  retractile.  The  tail  is  rather  short.  Be- 
neath the  anus  is  a  dee]>  glandular  pouch,  con- 
tributing much  to  the  ollensive  oilour  by  which 
liy:inas  are  characterised.  Hy;i'nas  eat  carrion,  as 
well  as  newly- killed  prey,  and  are  of  much  use,  like 


vultures,  as  scavengers,  clearing  away  the  last  rem- 
nants of  carcasses  that  if  left  to  rot  would  greatly 
pollute  the  air.  They  sometimes  attack  cattle, 
especially  if  they  Hee,  but  rarely  man,  though  they 
sometimes  seize  children.  During  the  day  the.y 
hide  thcni-selves  in  caves,  old  rock-tombs,  ruined 
edihces,  \-c.  ;  by  night  they  roam  singly  or  in  packs 
in  quest  of  prey.  They  prowl  about  towns  and 
villages,  and  often  dig  up  corpses  that  have  not 
beeu  very  deeply  buried.  This,  together  with  their 
aspect  and  manners,  has  caused  them  to  be  gener- 
ally regarded  with  horror,  and  very  exaggerated 
accounts  of  their  iierceness  have  been  prevalent. 
Instead  of  being  untauuible,  as  was  huig  the  popu- 
lar belief,  they  are  capable  of  being  very  completely 
tamed,  and  show  an  attachment  to  man  similar  to 
that  of  the  ilog  ;  they  have  even  been  used  as  watch- 
dogs. Hya'uas  are  found  only  in  Africa  and  the 
south  of  Asia,  not  extending  to  the  farthest  east  of 
the  latter  continent. — The  Striped  Hy;ena  (H. 
siriata)  is  found  both  in  Asia  and  Africa,  and 
there  are  several  varieties  considerably  ditl'erent  in 
size,  colour,  &c.  The  smallest  hya-nas  are  of  the 
size  of  a  large  dog.  The  Spotted  Hya'ua  (II. 
crocuta )  iiduiliits  South  Africa.  It  is  rather  smaller 
than  the  largest  varieties  of  the  stripeil  hvivna,  but 
is  nu)re  tierce  and  dangerous.  It  is  called  Tiger- 
wolf  by  the  colonists  of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope. 


Spotted  Hyaena  (Hycena  crocuta). 

Besides  its  ordinary  howling,  which  it  emits  very 
freely  in  its  nocturnal  roamings,  this  hya-na  often 
indulges  in  an  expression  of  gratification  or  of  some 
passion,  resemliling  hysterical  laughter,  whence  it 
liiis  ac(|uired  the  name  of  the  Laughing  Hyiena. 
The  general  colour  is  ochry  gray,  with  tliiidy  scat- 
tered small  round  Tirown  spots,  and  sooty  muzzle 
and  feet.  The  Woolly  Hya'na  (H.  brunnca)  is  a 
smaller  South  African  species. 

In  consecjuence  of  the  bones  which  hya-nas  eat, 
their  dung  forms  solid  yellowish-white  balls,  of 
compact  earthy  fracture,  the  Album  (jifvcum  of  the 
old  materia  medica.     For  the  Hyana  Dog,  see  Dog. 

Ilya-liya.    See  Cow-tree. 

Ilybla,  the  name,  of  three  cities  of  ancient 
Sii'ily.  ( 1 )  An  old  Siculian  town  situated  on  the 
southern  slope  of  Mount  Etna,  which  figured  in  the 
.second  Punic  war;  its  site  is  fixed  at  the  modern 
Paterno.  — ( 2 )  A  city  founded  by  the  Megarians  about 
72(i  r..('.,  and  prob.ably  identified  with  the  city 
called  Mcgara.  It  w.-is  destroyed  by  ( lelon  of  Syra- 
cuse in  481  B.C.  It  is  believc<l  to  liave  stoncl  near 
the  modern  .Agosta. — (3)  A  third  Hybia  lay  between 
Syracuse  ami  Agiigentnni.  The  Hybhean  honey, 
so  nnich  sung  liy  Latin  ])oets,  was  gathered  on  the 
hills  near  the  first  two  cities. 

Hybrid  (Gr.  hybris,  'Inst'),  the  otl'spring  of 
two  patents  which  belong  to  dill'erent  varieties,  or 
to  difrerent  species,  or  even  to  ditlerent  genera. 
Thus,    according    to    the    degree    of     divergence 


§5 


HYBRID 


lu'twecn  tlie  parents.  Viuietyliylpiids  or  iiion^els, 
siiecieshybriils  (the  iiMiiil  a|i|ilioali<in  of  the  term), 
and  genns-liyliriils.  wliioh  are  very  rare,  have  to  lie 
ilistinjiuished.  It  is  also  useful  toiiote«ith  liroca 
that  liyl)riilisalion  may  be  {ii)  iKiliinit — i.e.  occni- 
rin;,'  in  umlisinrlped  natural  conditions,  of  which  we 
know,  relatively  few  eases:  [h)  liifiltd — i.e.  under 
direct  human  control,  on  which  our  clata  as  rej;ards 
animals  .are  chiefly  based  ;  and  (c)  urtijickil — i.e. 
by  jdacinj;  the  pollen  of  one  plant  on  the  sti^'ina  of 
another  .species,  or  by  niixin;,'  with  theegj;s  of  .some 
animal,  say  frog  or  lisli,  the  male  elements  of  some 
related  form. 

Among  mammals  genus-liybrids  lind  illustration 
ill  the  successful  crossing  of  he-goat  ( t'apra )  and 
ewe  (L)vis),  the  oti'spring  being  fertile  for  several 
generations,  Ijoth  inter  sc  ami  with  the  jiarent- 
stocks.  Species-hybrids  are  Avell  illustrated  in  the 
results  of  crossing  various  members  of  the  genus 
Erjuus — e.g.  male  ass  and  mare,  the  oti'spring  being 
a  mule  ;  or  horse  and  fem.-ile  ass,  the  oti'spring  being 
a  hinny.  Similarly,  dog  and  fox,  dog  and  jackal, 
lion  and  tiger,  hare  and  rabliit,  Indian  humped 
cattle  and  our  very  ditt'erent  domesticated  lireeds, 
and  not  a  few  other  more  or  less  nearly  related  forms 
have  been  successfully  crossed.  For  such  names 
as  '  leopard,' which  suggest  that  crossing  occurs  or 
occurred  somewhat  freely  in  nature,  there  is  little 
or  no  evidence.  Nor  was  there  any  truth  in  the  sup- 
position that  '  Jumarts'  restilted  from  the  crossing 
of  bull  anil  mare,  or  stallion  and  cow.  for  Jumarts 
turn  out  to  have  been  notliing  more  than  hinnies. 

Among  birds  the  common  duck  {Amis  hosc/ias) 
and  a  pintail  (Diijiln  iiruta),  the  common  goose 
(Aiiscr  fcrus)  and  the  very  distinct  Chinese  goose 
(A.  cygnoides),  goo.se  and  swan,  canaries  and 
finches,  pheasant  and  lien,  .and  other  allied  forms 
are  recorded  as  giving  rise  to  hybrids.  Among 
lower  animals  hybrids  also  occur  ;  diti'erent  species 
of  toad  are  often  seen  in  sexual  union,  but  the 
result  is  unknown  ;  the  artilicial  fertilisation  of  frog 
ova  with  the  sperms  of  other  species  has  at  least 
resulted  in  the  development  of  hybrid  tadpoles  ;  in 
several  lishes  hyliridisation  seems  to  occur  in  natural 
conditions,  and  artilicial  fertilisation  has  been 
efl'ected  even  between  genera,  to  the  extent  at  any- 
rate  of  starting  the  development  of  the  ova.  The 
liybri<ls  of  two  moths  {BoiiiOi/.r  c>/)it/iia  and  B. 
(()t/h^/(/)  have  been  recorded  as  fertile  inter  . if  for 
eight  generations  ;  and  K.  Hertwig  has  shown  that 
in  certain  conditions  the  male  elements  of  one 
snecies  of  Echiiiodenu  may  incite  development  in 
tlie  ov,a  of  another. 

IIi/l)ridi«atiuti  in.  I'lant.i. — Ex]ieriment  is  here 
iinicli  easier,  and  a  large  mass  of  <lata  has  rewarded 
the  investigations  of  Kolreuter  (ITtil),  Andrew 
Knight,  Dean  Herbert,  Gartner,  Wichura,  Hilde- 
brand,  Focke,  and  others.  The  subjc^ct  n^eived 
careful  <liscussion  from  Darwin  in  his  work  on 
cross-fertilisation,  and  also  from  Kiigeli,  a  sum- 
mar.v  of  whose  conclusions  is  available  in  the 
Englisli  translation  of  Sachs's  Te.ct-book  of  Ijotanij. 
Only  the  leailing  re.sults  •  can  be  noteil  here. 
Hybridisation  rarely  occurs  except  between  forms 
known  to  be  related  :  variety-hybrids  occur  easily 
and  abundantly;  species-hybrids  are  less,  though 
ipiite  common  ;  geinis-hybrids  (I'.g.  between  tlie 
grasses  .Kgilops  and  Trilicum,  between  Ithododen- 
ilron  and  Azalea,  between  Lychnis  and  Sileiie)  arc 
rare.  Besides  genetic  relationship,  some  subtle 
harmony,  which  we  can  onlv  call  '  sexual  allinity,' 
is  e.ssent/ial  to  successful  liybridisation.  When 
one  species  can  be  fertilised  by  the  pollen  of 
another,  the  rivv  rcrxii  relation  usually  holds  good  ; 
but  sometimes  the  hybriilisation  is  p<usisleutly  one- 
sided. Kolreuter  easily  obtained  seeds  from  Mini- 
liilis  jiiliijKi  with  the  jiollen  of  ,)/.  Inniiiflnrii,  while 
more   tliau   two  humlicd  experiments,   extending 


over  eight  years,  w  ith  the  pidlen  of  the  former  upon 
the  stigma  of  the  latter  were  futile.  The  results  of 
hybrid-fertilisation  exhiliit  many  ilegrees  ;  thus,  the 
motlier-plant  may  be  .atiectrd  by  the  strange  jiollen 
I  without  seeds  being  jiroduced,  or  seeds  may  be 
I  lornied  which  will  not  germinate,  or  numerous, 
vigorous,  and  fertile  hybrids  may  result.  AVhen  two 
kinds  of  pollen  are  simultaneously  applied  to  the 
stigma  only  one  kind  is  [lotent.  The  hybriil  is 
usually  intermediate  between  the  two  jiarents,  not 
only  in  structural  features,  such  as  the  venation  of 
the  leaves  and  the  shajie  of  the  Hower,  but  in  physio- 
log-ical  peculiarities,  such  as  the  time  of  (lowering 
and  the  mode  of  coloration.  Focke  reports  a 
curious  case  wliere  the  crossing  ni  A  nagallis  cwnilea 


Hybrid  Leaves : 

A,  leaf  of  Salix  mprea ;  B,  of  S.  vhninalU  :  C,  of  hybrid  between 

these  two  species.    (After  Wicliura.) 

and  A.  phaiiiceti  produced  hybrids  which  bore  in 
part  the  blue  flowers  of  the  former  species,  and  in 
]iart  the  reddisii  flowers  of  the  latter.  Hybrids  are 
usually  more  variable  than  the  parents,  and  the 
variation  may  be  towards  strength  or  to  wauls  weak- 
nes.s.  Since  Fairchild,  at  the  beginning  of  the  18th 
century,  first  intenlionall.y  jiroduced  a  cross  between 
iJiiiiitliiis  horlHttiis  and  D.  mri/n/j/ii/l/iis,  liybridi.sa- 
tion  has  often  been  resorted  to  by  gardeners  and 
arboriculturists  to  produce  a  strong  stock.  \'ery 
important  are  the  unmerous  hybrids  between  Euro- 
pean anil  American  vines,  .some  of  which  arc 
lielieved  to  be  endowed  with  greater  powers  of 
resisting  riiylloxera  and  fungi  than  the  unaltered 
Euroiiean  plants  pos.se.ss.  There  can  be  no  doubt 
that  species-hybrids  among  idanls  tend  to  be  sterile, 
and  this  tlie  more  the  wider  the  dill'erence  between 
the  parent  plants.  Sometimes  three  or  even  six 
individualities  have  been  gradually  mingled  in  a 
multiple  hybrid,  and  this  lessens  still  more  the 
chance  of  fertilil  y. 

C/i(iriirter  of  llijbriiis. — The  products  of  crossing, 
whether  of  species  or  of  varieties,  are  un<loubtedly 
very  variable,  sometimes  for  the  better — as  in 
many  of  our  domesticated  numgrels  among  both 
animals  and  plants — very  often  on  the  other  haml 
for  the  worse.  They  are  often  so  unstable  that  they 
tend  raiiidl.v  to  die  out,  as  has  lieen  ob.servcd 
among  some  human  experiments  in  mingling  races. 
The  saying  '  (iod  ni.ade  the  white  man,  tlod  made 
the  black  man,  the  devil  made  the  luulatto,' 
expresses  a  feeling  as  to  the  fre(|uently  inconvenient 
variability  of  variety-hybrids,  but  there  is  niticli  to 
be  said  on  the  otiier  siile.  Such  a  case  as  slieeji- 
goat  hybrids  shows  how  far  from  accurate  is  the 
still  prevalent  belief  that  bybiiils  from  widely- 
.separated  parent  forms  must  be  sterile.  We  are  by- 
no  means  warranted  in  saying  more  than  that 
sjiecieshybrids   tend    to    be  sterile  so  far  as   we 


HYDASPES 


HYDERABAD 


know  tlieiii,  ;uicl  that  it  must  be  leinembeied  is 
for  the  Millet  |iuit  in  uoiulitioiis  of  doniestication, 
where  the  resultiiii;  sterility  iiuiy  have  been  due  to 
conlineinent.  and  to  inohjuijed  interbreedinj;,  rather 
than  to  the  hybridisation  itself.  Nor  do  the  facts 
aUow  us  to  accept  the  further  jjeneralisatioii  that 
vaiiety-liybrids  are  always  fertile.  Not  only  are 
there  cases  of  the  reverse,  but,  as  Wallace  justly 
points  out,  the  conclusion  was  ayain  based  on 
domesticated  forms,  in  regard  to  wliich  it  must  be 
noted  that  the  very  tirst  essential  to  their  becoming 
domesticated  was  that  they  should  continue  fertile 
under  changed  conditions  of  life. 

Hjibrids  ill  Relation  to  Evolittloii. — The  facts  of 
liybridisni  raise  some  of  the  most  intricate  problems 
connected  with  evolution.  As  only  a  few  general 
statements  can  be  noted  here,  the  reader  is  referred 
to  the  cited  work  of  Alfred  Knssel  Wallace.  ( 1 ) 
Fertility  or  non-fertility  of  crosses  must  not  be 
e.xaggerated  into  the  test  between  variety  and 
species,  for  all  species-hybrids  are  not  sterile,  nor 
all  variety-hybrids  fertile.  (2)  Fertility  depends 
on  some  delicate  mutual  adjustment  or  coniple- 
nientariness  of  the  male  and  female  elements,  and 
is  readily  disturbed  by  external  or  constitutional 
conditions.  ( 3 )  Animals  seem  to  prefer  to  breed 
with  their  like  among  existing  varieties,  and  in  this 
way  it  is  believed  that  the  '  swamping  effects  of 
intercrossing '  have  been  usually  obviated,  though 
mutual  infertility  and  geographical  separation  may 
also  assist  in  preserving  the  varieties.  (4)  Brooks 
has  laid  stress  upon  the  fact  that  Ijoth  variety 
and  species  hybrids  are  highly  variable.  In  his 
theory  of  '  physiological  selection,'  Romanes  has 
emphasised  the  importance  of  mutual  sterility  in 
splitting  up  one  s])ecies  into  several.  '  Wheirever 
any  variation  in  the  highly  variable  reproductive 
system  occurs,  tending  to  sterility  with  the  parent 
form  without  impairing  fertility  with  the  varietal 
form,  a  physiological  barrier  must  interpose,  di\id- 
ing  tlie  species  into  two  parts,  free  to  develop 
distinct  histories,  without  mutual  intercrossing,  or 
by  independent  variation.'  (5)  Darwin  concluded 
that  '  tlie  sterility  or  infertility  of  species  with 
each  other,  whether  manifested  in  the  difficulty  of 
obtaining  tirst  crosses  between  them,  or  in  the 
sterility  of  the  hybrids  thus  obtained,  was  not  a 
constant  or  necessary  result  of  specific  ditt'erence, 
l)ut  is  incidental  on  unknown  peculiarities  of  the 
reproductive  system.'  Wallace  luas  advanced  a  step 
further  in  his  endeavour  to  show  that  '  if  we  accept 
the  association  of  some  degree  of  infertility,  how- 
ever slight,  as  a  not  unfrequent  accompaniment  of 
the  e.xternal  ditt'erences  which  always  arise  in  a 
state  of  nature  between  vaiieties  and  incipient 
species,  natural  selection  has  the  power  to  increase 
that  infertility  just  as  it  has  the  power  to  increase 
other  favourable  variations.' 

See  Breed,  Domestication,  Embryology,  Evolution, 
Reproduction,  Sex,  Species;  P.  Broca,  Jour.  d.  I. 
PhijsioLj  vols.  i.  ii.  iii. ;  AV.  K.  Brooks,  Hereditii 
{Baltimore,  1883);  Dai'win,  Plants  and  Aniuiah  under 
Douie»tic(Uio>t  (Lond.  18t>8),  and  E^'rcts  of  Crosa  and 
Self  FerUlimlion  (Loud.  1877);  Fucke,  Die  Pjtanzm- 
mijschlinijc  (Berlin,  1881);  Geddes  and  Thomson,  Evulii- 
tion  of  Sex  (Lond.  1889);  V.  Hensen,  Physiol,  d. 
Zeutnintj^  in  Hermann's  Haiulbuch  d.  Phtisiologie  (Bd. 
vi.  Leip.  1881);  G.  .J.  Romanes,  ^Aour.  Linn.  Sor.  XIX. 
( 188i; )  ;  J.  Sachs,  Text-boolc  of  Botonn  ( Oxford,  1882  ;  of. 
his  references  to  Kijlreuter,  Herbert,  Gartner,  Niigeli, 
fee),  and  Phiixiolo>jii  of  PfantK,  trans,  by  Marshall  AVard 
(t)xford.  1.S87);  A.  K.  Wallace,  Dartriiiism  (Lond. 
188'J):  Wichura,  HasUirdhiUlumj  im  Pjlamcnrcicke [Bies- 
lau,  18i;.0). 

Hydaspes.    See  Jhelu.m. 

Hydatid  (from  the  (ireek  /ii/i/n(i.i,  'a  watery 
vesicle'),  a  term  ap])lied  to  the  blachler-worm 
(acolex)  stage  of  certain  tapeworms,  but  jiarticnlarly 
to  that  of  Twnia  erhinococcm;  found  especially  in 


A,  brood-capsule  of  Echinococcus 
vcterinorum,  with  fully-formed 
and  rudimentary  heads  ;  B,  adult 
Tarnia  echinococcus. 


man  and  monkeys,  ox  and  swine,  in  liver,  lungs,  or 
almost  any  organ.  The  bladder-worm  ( ErliiHococois 
ntcrinijiiiin )  is  often  \ery  consjiicuous,  from  the 
size  of  a  pea  to  that  of  a  child's  head,  weighing  in 
some  cases  12  to 
30  lb. ,  and  notable 
among  bladder- 
worms  for  its  pro- 
line asexual  mul- 
tiplication. From 
the  inner  surface, 
in  numerous 
special  brood -cap- 
sules of  the  size  of 
millet-seed,  some- 
times 'hundreds 
of  '  heads '  are 
budded  off';  while 
daughter-bladders 
may  also  be  pro- 
duced externally. 
The  adult  tape- 
worm is  small, 
and  lives  socially 
in  the  intestines 
of  dog,  jackal,  or 

wolf,  it  is  from  the  dog  being  kept  too  much 
about  the  house  or  person  that  the  eggs  which  gi\e 
rise  to  the  dreadful  Echinococcus  find  their  way  to 
man.  The  disease  is  known  in  most  countries  of 
Europe,  but  is  commonest  in  Iceland.  The  term 
hydatid  is  sometimes  extended  to  other  bladder- 
w-orms — e.g.  the  '  stagger- worm  '  {T.  (.«;(«(•««)  of 
the  sheep,  or  in  medicine  to  serous  cysts  which 
have  nothing  at  all  to  do  with  parasites.  See 
Tapeworm  ;  and  for  a  very  full  discussion  of 
Echinococcus,  see  Leuckart's  Parasites  of  Man, 
(trans,  by  W.  E.  Hoyle,  vol.  i.  Edin.  1886). 

Hvdc,  an  important  manufacturing  town  of 
Chesliire,  7  miles  ESE.  of  Manchester,  and  5  NE. 
of'  Stockport.  Standing  in  a  coaltield,  and  enjoy- 
ing ample  facilities  of  communication  by  road, 
rail,  and  canal,  it  has  risen  from  a  mere  village 
to  a  considerable  town,  which  in  1881  was  in- 
corporated as  a  municipal  borough.  Cotton  is  of 
course  the  staple  manufacture  ;  then  come  the  felt- 
hat  industry,  engineering,  boiler-making,  iJcc.  The 
town-hall  is  a  handsome  building.  Pop.  (1811) 
180G;  (IStil)  13,722;  (1891)30,070. 

Hyde,  Edw.\rd.    See  Clarendon  (Earl  of). 

Hyderabad  (Haidardbud),  or  the  Nizam's 
Dominions,  a  great  native  or  feudatory  state  of 
India,  occupies  the  greater  part  of  the  Deccan 
[iroper  or  central  plateau  of  southern  India,  be- 
tween the  provinces  of  Madras  and  Bombay.  Area, 
81,807  so.  m.  (excluding  the  British  assigned  dis- 
tricts of  Berar,  q.v.)  ;  pop.  (1881)  9,845,594; 
(1891)  11,537,040.  About  a  tenth  only  are 
Mohammedans,  found  mainly  in  the  capital,  though 
the  Nizam  and  state  are  Mohammedan.  Telugu, 
Kanarese,  and  Maratlii  are  the  principal  languages 
spoken.  Education  is  making  rapid  strides  ;  dur- 
ing the  three  years  previous  to  1889  the  number  of 
schools  nearly  doubled,  and  the  pupils  increased 
from  11,740  to  27,700.  The  surface  is  a  slightly- 
elevateil  tableland.  The  principal  rivers  are  the 
(lodavari,  with  its  tributaries  the  Dudna,  Manjira, 
and  I'ranhita;  and  the  Kistna  (  Krishna),  with  its 
tributaries  the  Bhima  and  Tungabhadra.  The  soil  is 
in  general  very  fertile,  but  jioorly  cultivated  ;  yet, 
wherever  it  receives  moderate  .attention,  it  yields 
harvests  all  the  year  round.  The  products  are 
riee,  wheat,  maize,  mustard,  castor-iul,  sugar-cane, 
cotton,  indigo,  fruits  ( including  grapes  and  melons ), 
and  all  kinds  of  kitchen  vegetables.  The  pastur- 
ages are  e.xtensive,  and  sheep  and  horned  cattle  are 
numerous.     The  climate   is  good    on    the   whole. 


24 


HYDERABAD 


HYDRA 


The  mean  teinperatuie  (if  tlie  cajiital,  Hvdeialjail, 
in  Janiuiiy  is  74'  30',  and  in  May  93'.  Tlie  exports 
are  cotton,  nil-soeils,  clotli,  hides,  metal  wares,  and 
agricultural  produce;  salt,  grain,  timber,  Kiiro- 
jiean  piece-gooils,  and  hardware  are  imported.  The 
railway  from  Madra-s  to  liomhay  intersects  the 
south-west  part  of  tlie  state.  The  state  revenue  is 
ahout  .£4,000,000  a  year  :  and  tliere  is  an  army  of 
13,000  infantry  anil  1400  cavalry,  besides  a  large 
force  of  irregulars  ( possibly  some  48,000  constitute 
the  military  force). 

In  16S7  the  territory  long  known  as  the  Nizam's 
Dominions  became  a  province  of  the  Mogul 
empire  ;  but  soon  after  1713  the  governor  <n-  viceroy 
of  the  Deccan,  Asaf  Jah,  with  the  title  of  JS'izam- 
iil-MuUc  ('regulator  of  tlie  state'),  made  himself 
independent.  After  his  deatli,  in  1748,  two  claim- 
ants appeared  for  the  throne,  liis  son  Nasir  Jang, 
and  his  grand.son  Muzatl'ar  Jang.  The  cause  of 
the  former  was  es]ioused  by  the  East  India  Com- 
pany, and  that  of  the  latter  by  a  body  of  Frencli 
adventurers  under  Lieneral  Dupiei.x.  Then  followed 
a  period  of  strife  and  anarchy.  In  1761  Nizam  Ali 
obtained  the  suiueme  power,  and  after  some  vacilla- 
tion signed  a  treaty  of  alliance  with  the  English  in 
1766.  He  aided  them  in  the  war  with  Tippoo, 
snltan  of  Mysore,  and  at  the  termination  of  that 
war,  in  1799,  a  new  treaty  was  formed,  by  which, 
in  return  for  certain  territorial  conce.ssions,  the 
East  India  Company  bound  itself  to  maintain  a 
subsidiary  force  of  6000  men  for  the  defence  of  the 
Nizam's  ilominions.  Another  treaty  was  concluded 
in  1853.  The  Nizam,  who  in  point  of  rank  is  tlie 
first  Mohammedan  ruler  in  India,  remained  faith- 
ful to  the  British  during  tlie  mutiny  of  1S57-58 
(see  Jung,  8ik  S.\l.\iO.  The  assigned  districts 
(see  Uer.\r)  were  in  1861  given  in  trust  to  Brit.ain 
on  account  of  unpaid  and  increasing  debts ;  the 
surplus  revenue  being  returned  to  the  Nizam. 

Hyderabad  (Haidanibdd),  the  caiiital  of 
Hyderabad  slate,  stands  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Musi,  at  an  elevation  of  1700  feet  above  the  sea, 
by  rail  390  miles  N\V.  of  Madras.  It  is  6  miles  in 
circumference,  ami  is  surrounded  by  a  stone  wall, 
flanked  by  bastions.  In  1891  the  population,  in- 
clusive of  the  suburbs,  was  41o,039.  The  po]iulace 
consists  of  very  varied  elements,  anil  is  full  of  war- 
like spirit,  nearly  every  one  carrying  weapons,  'i'he 
street  architecture  is  uninteresting.  The  palace  of 
the  Nizam,  though  architecturally  of  no  great  import- 
ance, is  of  va-st  size.  Hyderabad  is  one  of  the  most 
important  strongholds  of  Mohaiiimedanisiii  in  India, 
and  the  mosc|iu>s  are  numerous.  The  iirincipal 
mosf|ue  was  fashioned  after  the  model  of  the  (Jreat 
Mosijue  at  Mecca;  in  the  interior  are  line  mono- 
lithic granite  columns,  and  outside  the  building  is 
crowned  by  very  lofty  minarets.  .Another  remark- 
able edifice  is  tiie  Char  Miuar  or  College,  with  four 
minarets  resting  on  four  connected  arches,  ;it  which 
the  four  ))rincipal  thoroughfares  converge.  On  the 
opposite  side  of  the  river  is  the  liritisli  Kesidcncy, 
a  magnilicent  jiile,  with  the  finest  staircase  in 
India;  it  stands  in  the  midst  of  fine  ornamental 
gardens,  and  coiumunicates  with  the  Nizam's  palace 
by  a  bridge  with  eight  spacious  arches  of  squared 
granite.  The  neighbourhood  boasts  of  wild  and 
)ticturesipie  scenery,  and  abounds  with  huge  tanks 
and  beautiful  gardens. —Secunderabad  (SiLii)i<l<ii-- 
iihiiil)  is  a  Hrilish  military  cantonment  (I'op.  1881, 
74,124)  6  miles  NE.  of  Hyderabad. 

Hyderabad,  the  historical  capital  of  Sind, 
and  (bicf  city  of  a  district,  stands  3).  miles  K.  of 
the  left  bank'of  the  Indus.  Pop.  ( 1891 )  58,048,  of 
whom  '25,000  were  Mohaiiiniedans.  The  town  is 
the  main  centre  of  iioslal,  telegraphic,  and  road 
vommunicatioii  for  the  province,  though  the  Sind 
railway,  terminating  at  Kurrachee,  is  on  the  other 


side  of  the  Indus.  It  is  famous  for  the  manu- 
facture of  silks,  gold-work,  pottery,  lacquered  ware, 
and  arms  of  various  kinds.  There  is  now  a  jdenti- 
fnl  watei-.sup)ily  from  tlie  Indus.  As  against  a 
native  fence  it  is  tolerably  strong,  occuiiying  a 
somewhat  steep  height,  and  having  a  rampart 
Hanked  by  round  towers. 

Hyder  Ali  (Hoir/ur  Ali),  ruler  of  Mysore,  and 
one  of  the  greatest  Mohammedan  princes  of  India, 
was  born  in  17'28.  His  grandfather  was  a  wander- 
ing fakir;  his  father  a  constable  of  a  district  in 
Mysore.  Hyder  spent  his  youth  in  idleness, 
though  occasionally  doing  military  service ;  but 
in  1749  his  bravery  at  a  siege  attracted  the 
notice  of  the  iiiaharajah  of  Mysore's  minister.  He 
.soon  became  in  all  but  name  ruler  of  the  king- 
dom ;  and  in  1759  he  dispossessed  his  master, 
allowing  him  to  retain  his  title,  while  he  himself 
took  that  of  dun-a,  or  regent.  He  then  eomiuered 
Calicut,  Bednor,  Kananur,  and  other  neighbouring 
states  ;  and  in  1766  his  dominions  included  more 
than  84,000  sip  m.  He  withheld  the  custmiiary 
tribute  from  the  Mahrattas  ((j.v. ),  .and  carried  on 
an  ultimately  .successful  war  against  them.  He 
waged  two  wars  against  the  British,  in  the  first  of 
which  (1767-69)  he  was  practically  successful,  and 
signed  a  treaty  under  the  walls  of  Madras,  which 
jirovided  for  al^ind  of  alliance.  'When  Hyiler  was 
defeated  by  the  Mahrattas  in  177'2  he  claimed 
English  support  ;  and  on  the  refu.sal  of  the  Madriis 
government  to  fulfil  what  he  believed  to  be  the 
treaty  obli"ations,  he  became  the  bitter  enemy  of 
the  Englisdi.  Taking  advantage  of  the  war  be- 
tween the  Englisli  and  French  (1778),  he  and  his 
son  and  successor,  Tippoo  Sail),  desceiuleil  like 
a  thunderbolt  into  the  Carnatic,  totally  routed 
two  English  commanders,  .and  r.avaged  the  country 
to  within  fortv  miles  of  Madras  ;  but  he  was  ulti- 
mately defeated  in  three  battles  by  Sir  Eyre  Coote. 
He  ditjd  suddenly,  still  in  alliance  with  the  French, 
in  Decemlier  1782.  See  L.  B.  Bowring,  Hnidar  Ali 
and  Tipii  Sidtini  (1893). 

Hydliora,  a  genus  of  parasitic  plants  belonging 
to  tlie  order  Cytinace.-e,  which  consists  entirely 
of  root-i)arasites.  Ili/diioia  a/iicaim  is  a  Soutli 
African  species  parasitic  on  the  roots  of  Meshy 
Euplioibi;e  and  other  succulent  jdants  ;  it  has  a 
putrid  smell,  but  is  roasted  and  eaten  by  the 
natives,  and  is  also  used  for  tanning. 

Hydlllllll.  a  genus  of  fungi  belongijig  to  the 
sub-order  Hymeiiomycetes,  order  Basidioiuycetes, 
and  having  'the  under  side  of  the  pihiis  covered 
with  soft  s]iines  which  bear  the  spores.  The 
species  are  numerous,  some  of  them  liritisli ; 
among  these  is  //.  irjiiiiiilimi,  more  common  in 
some'iiarts  of  the  cmitincnt  of  Euroiie,  and  much 
used  iis  an  esculent  in  France,  Italy,  and  (iermany. 
It  grows  cliiefiy  in  pine  and  oak  woods. 

Hydra,  a  (ueek  island,  lies  4  miles  frmii  tlie 
co.ast  of  tlie  Peloiionnesian  deiiartnient  of  Argolis 
and  Corinth.  It  is  a  narrow  rocky  ridge,  11  miles 
long,  1960  feet  high,  and  '20  si|.  m.  in  area.  The 
shores  are  rocky  and  steep,  and  the  interior  is 
destitute  of  veg'etation  and  of  water.  On  the 
north- we.st  coast  is  the  seaport  of  Hydra  (6446). 
The  7.'!42  islanders,  mostly  of  Albanian  origin, 
make  excellent  seamen,  and  carry  on  cotton  and 
silk  weaving,  tanning,  shipbnilding,  sponge-fishing, 
and  commerce.  The  island  wa-.  uninhabilcd  in 
aiK-ient  times.  I'revious  to  the  war  of  (iieek 
independence  the  Hydliotes  numbered  more  than 
28, (HK).  and  were  considered  the  richest  peo]ile  in 
the  archijielago.  They  enjoyed  a  large  share  of 
the  carrying-tr.ule  in'  the  lllack  Sea  and  the 
Mediterranean,  .and  traded  to  Kiigland,  the  Baltic, 
and  even  America.  In  the  war  they  took  a  most 
active  an<l  conspicuous  part ;  but  on  the  restoration 


HYDRA 


of  peace  the  island  lost  much  of  its  former  pros- 
perity, being  outrivalled  by  Syra. 

Hydra,  a  fabulous  monster  of  the  ancient 
worlil,  said  to  have  inhabited  the  marshes  of 
Lernjca,  in  Arjiolis,  not  far  from  tlie  seacoast. 
Accounts  vary  both  as  to  its  origin  and  apjiear- 
ance.  Some  make  it  the  issue  of  Styx  and  the  Titan 
Pallas,  and  otliei-s,  of  Echidna  and  Typlion.  It  is 
represented  as  liaring  several  heads,  which  imme- 
diately grew  up  again  as  often  as  they  were  cut  otl". 
The  number  generally  ranged  from  seven  to  nine, 
though  Simonides  gives  it  fifty,  and  some  historians 
a  hundred,  and  even  more.  Its  mouths,  which  were 
as  numerous  as  its  heads,  discharged  a  subtle  and 
deadly  venom.  The  destruction  of  this  reptile  was 
one  of  the  twelve  labours  of  Hercules. 

Hydra,  a  freshwater  polyp,  the  simplest  and 
most  familiar  representative  of  the  class  Hydrozoa 
(q.v. ),  H»ibkingdom  Ccelenterata(q.v. ).  The  ani- 
mal consists  of  a  tube,  varying  from  ^  to  g  inch  in 
length,  closed  at  the  proximal  end  by  an  adhesive 
plate  (pedal  disc),  whereby  it  is  connuonly  attaclieil 
to  some  Avater  weed:  at  the  other  (distal)  ex- 
tremity is  the  mouth,  at  the  apex  of  a  blunt  cone 
(hypostome),  round  whose  base  arise  from  six  to 


Fig.  1. 
Seinidiagrannnatic  longitudinal  section  of  an  adult  specimen, 
with  reprotluctive  organs  and  a  bud  (a);   magnified  eight 
dianiettrrs.     (After  Marshall  and  Hm-st.) 

eight  tentacles.  These  are  slender  tubes  closed  at 
the  end,  but  continuous  internally  with  the  main 
cavity  of  the  animal ;  they  have  a  warty  appear- 
ance and,  according  to  theii'  degree  of  contraction, 
may  lie  either  small  roundeil  nodules  or  stretch  out 
to  several  times  the  length  of  the  body.  The  prey, 
wliich  is  l«-numbed  by  the  thread-cells  to  be  pres- 
ently <lescribed,  is  drawn  by  the  tentacles  into  the 
mouth.  The  body-wall  consists  of  three  distinct 
layei's  :  I.  The  Ectoderm,  or  outer  covering,  con- 
sists of  the  following  kinds  of  cells  :  ( 1 )  covering 
cells  in  a  single  layer,  subconical,  with  the  broader 
enils  outwards.  (2)  Muscle-cells,  whose  biuse  forms 
a  filament,  ilisposed  longitudinally,  {'■i)  Intcirstitiul 
cells,  small,  rounded  and  jdaced  in  ginups  between 
the  lia-scs  of  the  larger  cells.  (4)  Cnidnbla^ts,  so 
called  because  they  C(Uitain  the  thread-cells  (cnido- 
cysts,  nematocysts).  These  latter  have  rather  a 
coinplicat<!d  structure;  they  consist  of  an  ovoid  sac, 
at  the  outer  end  of  which  the  wall  is  iiivaginated 
or  tucked  in  to  form  a  long  tube  coiled  up  like 
a  string:   the  commencement  of   the   invaginated 


Fig.  2. 

A,  a  thread-cell  with  the  thread 
not  everted  ;  highly  niagniliod. 

B,  a  tliread-cell,  after  the  evag- 
iuation  of  its  content*  ;  liighly 
magniiied,  Tlie  filament,  if 
completed  on  the  .scale  of  tin- 
drawing,  would  have  a  length 
of  12  inches.     ^  After  Gibson.) 


portion  contains  some  pointed  Iiarljs,  the  end  is 
filiform  and  pointed.  The  young  cnidoblasts,  in 
which  the  development  of  the  thread-cells  is  just, 
beginning,  are  situated  deeply  among  the  inter- 
stitial cells  ;  when  mature  they  are  placed  on  the 
surface,  and  form  noticeable  iirominences  between 
the  covering-cells  ;  the 
cnidolilast  remains  as  a 
sharply -defined  capsule 
round  the  thread-cell, 
and  near  the  ai)erture 
of  invagination  it  gives 
out  a  little  process 
( cnidocil ),  which  seems 
to  serve  the  purpose 
of  a  trigger,  for  upon 
touching  it  the  tube 
contained  in  the  thread- 
cell  is  suddenly  everted, 
and  then  presents  the 
ajipearance  of  a  long 
pointed  filament,  with 
barbs,  disposed  in 
ciicles  of  three  each,  at 
its  base.  It  is,  how- 
ever, only  certain  forms 
of  irritation  which  pro- 
duce this  ett'ect ;  it 
seems  to  be  under  the 
control  of  the  nervous 
system.  (5)Nerve-cells, 
with  numerous  proce.sses,  some  of  which  are  con- 
tinuous with  the  cnidoblasts.  (6)  Glandular  cells, 
which  are  restricted  to  the  pedal  disc.  II.  The  Endo- 
derm,  or  internal  layer,  consists  of  tliiee  kinds  of 
ciliated  cells  :  ( 1 )  a  layer  of  large  cells  which  often 
contain  gramdes  of  greenish  matter  resembling  tlyit 
of  leaves  (chlorophyll).  They  have  the  power  of 
throwing  out  processes  (pseudopodia)  during  diges- 
tion, and  almost  always  have  eiii]ity  spaces  or 
vacuoles  in  them  ;  they  may  furtherniore  give  rise 
to  muscular  filaments,  Ijoth  circular  and  longitu- 
dinal. (2)  Small  glandular  cells  in  the  hypostome. 
(3)  Glandular  cells  with  vacuous  spaces  at  the  ba-se 
of  the  body-cavity.  III.  The  Jle.soderm  is  a  thin 
structureless  lamella,  separating  the  ectoderm  and 
endoderm. 

The  hydra  reproduces  by  two  distinct  modes  : 
( 1 )  asexually  Ijy  gemmation.  AVhen  the  weather 
is  warm  and  food  abundant,  a  hollow  outgrowth 
tiikes  place  from  the  side  of  the  body  of  the  parent ; 
a  mouth  and  tentacles  are  formed  at  its  distal 
extremity,  and  eventually  it  separates  by  constric- 
tion of  its  base,  and  commences  an  iudeiiendent 
existence.  Several  buds  may  form  at  once,  and 
these  may  even  produce  secondary  Imds  befoie  their 
separation  from  the  paient,  but  this  foriiiatioii  of 
coloiues  is  merely  temporary.  (2)  Sexual  re|iro- 
ductiim  takes  place  when  the  conditions  of  life 
become  unfavouralile — e.g.  if  a  li.ydra  which  has 
just  begun  to  bud  be  placed  in  a  ves.sel  in  which 
fooil  is  scarce,  sexual  organs  will  be  formed  and 
the  bud  ■»ill  not  improbably  be  absorbed.  The 
male  organs  (testes)  are  conical  swellings,  situated 
not  far  below  the  tentacles  :  generally  they  are 
more  than  one  in  number.  They  arise  l>y  the  mul- 
tiplication of  the  interstitial  cells  of  the  ectoderm, 
and  when  mature  their  contained  spermatozoa 
are  shed  into  the  water.  The  ovum  is  as  a  rule 
single,  and  is  due  to  the  development  of  one  of  a 
mass  of  intei-stitial  cells :  the  suriiiunding  cells 
form  a  protective  capsule  which  eventually  retracts 
and  leaves  the  most  piomiiieiit  part  of  the  ovum 
liare  to  rccei\  c  the  spermatozoa.  Alter  this  the 
ovum  undergoes  segmentatiim,  a  hard  capsule  is 
formed  around  it,  and  it  falls  to  the  Ijottom  and 
then!  develops  into  a  young  hydia.  I'rioi-  to  .sexual 
reproduction  the  hydra  often  retires  into  the  shade 


26 


HYDRAGOGUES 


HYDRAULIC    ENGINES 


of  moss  or  similar  dark  objects.  As  rejiarJs  its 
reproductive  orj;aiis  it  seems  most  prolialjle  tliat 
liydra  Inus  iimlor^'one  ;;real  modilicatioiis  as  com 
pared  witli  oilier  liydrozoa,  and  that  its  simplicity 
is  not  piiniitivc  but  tlie  result  of  de^'oiieration. 
The  food  of  liydra  consists  of  organisms  more 
niiuute  tiian  itself,  wliicli  it  is  able  to  i];u-alyse  by 
its  thread-cells  :  after  the  nutritive  portion  of  these 
lias  been  extrai^ted  the  effete  portions  are  ejected 
throujfh  the  mouth.  The  animal  can  creep  slowly 
upon  its  disc  and  swim  by  the  same  oifian,  liangiuj,' 
suspembul  below  the  surface  of  the  water  ;  it  creeiis 
by  liending  the  body,  attaching  a  tentacle  to  the 
surface  upon  which  it  rests,  and  then  moving  the 
foot  up  to  the  tentacle  and  reli.'cing  it. 

Various  species  of  the  genus  Hydra  have  been 
described,  as  H.  viridis,  H.  fusca,  and  H.  milqaris. 
The  first  is  distinguished  by  the  presence  of  green 
cliloro|diyll  granules  in  the  cells  of  the  endoderm. 
It  has  lieen  maintained  that  these  were  alga"  living 
within  the  cells  in  a  state  of  Symbiosis  (q.v. ),  but 
the  facts  that  the  green  hydra  does  not  lose  its 
colour  in  the  dark,  that  the  coloured  bodies  have 
neither  nucleus  nor  cell-inembiane,  and  that  they 
are  found  in  the  ovum  where  they  originate  from 
colourless  bodies,  tend  to  prove  that  they  are 
integral  parts  of  the  animal. 

If  a  hydra  l>e  cut  in  two,  it  a|)pears  that  within 
certain  limits  each  portion  will  develop  into  a 
complete  animal :  but  the  statement  so  often  re- 
l)eated,  as  the  result  of  Trembley's  experiments, 
that  when  a  hydra  is  turned  inside  out  the  endo- 
derm and  ectoderm  will  mutually  take  on  each 
other's  functions,  and  the  animal  continue  to  live, 
is  erroneous :  the  animal  will,  on  the  contrary, 
rectify  its  position,  or,  if  prevented,  it  will  perish. 
When  a  hydra  captures  a  fragment  of  food  too  large 
to  be  taken  into  the  mouth,  it  everts  the  endoderm 
so  as  to  bring  the  digestive  cells  in  contact  with 
the  food,  but  it  speedily  regains  its  original  state  ; 
this  explains  the  power  it  has  of  rapiilly  recover- 
ing after  artificial  inver.sion.  Two  liydne  can  be 
permanently  fused  with  each  other  either  by  pin- 
ning them  together  with  bristles  or  by  inserting 
one  inside  the  other. 

List  of  more  important  references  in  addition  to  the 
ordinary  te.\t-books  of  zoology  :  Kleinenberg,  Hydra 
(Leip.  1872);  Jickeli,  Morpholog ischcs  Jahrhucli.  viii. 
(1882-83);  Parker,  Pnc.  Jioii.  ,SV.,  .xxx.  (1880);  Lank- 
ester,  JValure,  xxvii.  (1882-83);  Korotnev,  Ann.  and 
Marj.  Nat.  Hist.(n)  xi.  (1883);  Ischikawa,  Zeitschr.  f. 
irisa.  Zool.  y\\\.  (181K)). 

IIydragoi;iie.^.    See  Aperients. 

lI.V«ll*ail;u;en,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natui-al 
order  Hydrangeacea^,  which  many  botanists  make 
a  sub-(nder  of  Saxifragea^  distinguished  by  having 
four  to  six  petals,  eight  to  twelve  or  many  stamens, 
a  more  or  less  inferior  ovary,  and  two  to  iive  styles. 
In  hydrangea  thi^  llowers  are  in  cymes,  the  exterior 
llowers  sterile  an<l  dilated.  Few  s]iecies  are  known, 
and  they  are  chieHy  natives  of  the  southern  i>arts 
of  North  America,  and  of  China  and  .lapan.  The 
species  popularly  known  as  the  Hydrangea  (11. 
hovUiiaU)  is  a  native  of  China  and  .Japan,  and 
ha.s  long  been  in  cultivation  there  as  an  orna- 
iiiiMital  iil.-uit.  It  was  introduced  into  Mritain  by 
Sir  .lo.seph  Banks  in  17HS,  and  sjieedilv  became 
very  popular,  being  reailily  propagated  'b.\-  layiMs 
and  cuttings,  so  as  to  be  not  only  a  favourite' 
gieenhouse  plant,  but  a  frequent "  ornament  of 
cottage  windows.  In  the  scmth  of  England,  and 
south-west  of  Scotland,  it  endures  the  open  air. 
It  seems  almost  impossible  to  water  it  too  freely  ; 
and  In  favouralde  circumstances  it  becomes  a  niag- 
nilb-crit  shrub.  A  jilant  in  Devonshire  has  had 
IIKK)  largi!  cymes  of  llowers  expanded  at  once. 
The  flowers,  generally  iiiiik,  are  sometimes  blue  ; 
the  blue  colour  is  owing  to  peculiarities  of  soil. 


Peat  and  iron  ore  are  said  to  be  ]iroductive  of  blue 
flowers  in  the  hydrangea.  //.  Jtiimiika,  introduced 
into  Europe  from  Japan  by  Siebold,  b  remarkable 


Hydrangea  {Ifi/dianata  Iwrtinsis). 

for  its  very  large  cymes  of  Howers. — H.  iiu-ea  and 
//.  (jKcrci/o/ia,  American  species,  are  not  un- 
frei|uently  to  be  seen  in  Hower-gardens  in  North 
America. 

Hydrates  are  compounds  of  water  with  ele- 
ments or  with  other  compounds.  The  term 
Jiijdi'u.cittc  is  one  which  is  sometimes  used  as  a 
synonym  of  /ii/drate,  and  indeed  it  may  be  said 
that  we  have  no  certain  means  of  distinguishing 
the  one  from  the  other.  The  distinction  between 
the  two  is  that  in  the  hydrate  tlie  water  is  supposed 
to  be  present  as  water,  and  without  any  rearrange- 
ment of  the  molecules,  while  in  the  hydroxide 
the  water  is  considered  to  have  lost  its  identity, 
its  constituent  atoms  having  entered  into  new 
combinations.  As  a  typical  cxani|de  of  a  hydrate 
we  may  instance  crystallised  suljihate  of  copper, 
CuS04,5H^,0,  which  contains  the  water  so  loosely 
combined  that  it  is  driven  off  by  prolonged  heating, 
and  the  white  anhydrous  sulphate,  CUSU4,  is  pro- 
duced. Here  the  water  is  ajiparently  present  as 
water,  and  necessary  to  the  crystiillinc  form,  and 
is  therefore  called  water  of  crystallisation.  When 
nitric  anhydride,  N.,0;„  unites  with  water  it  forms 
nitric  acid,  N„05,iroO  or  HNO:;,  but  this  is  not 
regarded  as  a  hydrate,  because  the  nitric  acid 
cannot  lose  the  water  without  also  losing  its 
characteristic  properties.  The  whole  question  is 
full  of  diHiculties,  and  is  at  present  quite  theoreti- 
r.a]  ;  dilfcrcnt  chemists  using  the  terms  above  men- 
tioned in  dilb^rcnt  .senses. 

Hydraulic  <"raiH's.    See  Cr.\nks. 
Hydraulic  Kuv^iucs  or  .ll(»t4»rs  are  <iften 

conveniently  used  wlien  water  under  a  high  pres- 
sure is  olitainable,  and  where  work  is  intermittently 
re(|uired,  as  in  eaiJstans,  winches,  \c.  ;  they  do  not 
differ  essentially  from  steam-engines.  The  water 
a<'ts  by  dilference  of  pressure — i.e.  it  is  a<lmitte<l 
at  a  high  pressuie  at  the  beginning  of  the  stroke,  and 
exhausted  at  a  low]ircssure  at  the  end  of  the  strcdvc, 
thus  giving  .a  reciprocating  motion  to  the  plunger. 
The  velocity  of  tin;  iiiston  has  to  be  kept  low  to 
avoid  injurious  shocKs  in  su<ldenly  bringing  the 
column  of  water  to  rest :  since  they  work  under  very 
much  greater  pressures  than  steam-engines  (usual 
jircssure  7(K)  ll>.  jier  sq.  in.),  they  can  be  miudi 
smaller.  .\  common  form  is  the  three-cylinder  single 
acting  engine:  in  each  cylinder  works  a  idunger  ; 
water  is  admitted  by  valves  behind  the  plnngei-s 
and  forces  thetii  out  :  at  the  cornlusion  of  the  (Uit- 
stroke  the  pressure  water-supply  is  cut  otf,  and  the 


HYDRAULIC    MAIN 


HYDRAULIC    RAM 


27 


exhaust  valve  oiiened,  allowing;  the  phiiifjer  to  push 
the  water  out  of  the  c\liinlei'  ou  tlie  letuin  stroke, 
ami  so  ou.  There  are  two  ehainbers  iu  the  frauiiny, 
and  oue  passage  or  port  into  the  hottoui  of  the 
eylinder  :  during  tlic  working  of  the  engine  the 
eylinder  oscillates,  and  al  tlie  right  time  jmUs  one 
or  otlier  of  the  two  chaiuhers  in  ooninumication 
with  the  interior  of  the  eylinder  by  means  of  this 
|>ort  :  one  chamlier  is  open  to  exhaust-pipe,  the 
other  to  supply-pipe.  Tlie  plungers  are  connected 
to  a  three-throw  crank.  The  great  ad\autage  of 
the  single  action  is  that  shocks  are  avoided  at  the 
dead  centres ;  the  three  cranks  ensure  a  very 
uniform  turning  force  on  the  crank  shaft,  and  also 
enable  the  engine  to  start  in  any  position. 

Hydraulic  IMuiii.    See  G.\s. 

Hydraiilio  Mortar.    See  Cements. 

Hydraillit'  Press,  often  called  Braraah's 
press,  from  the  inventor,  dosejdi  Bramah  (q.v.), 
depends  for  its  action  on  the  principle  that  a 
jiressiire  exerted  on  any  part  ot  the  surface  of 
liquid   is   transmitted    undiminished  and    equally 


Hydraulic  Press. 

in  all  directions  through  the  mass  (see  Hydeo- 
.ST.\Tlcs ).  The  annexed  ligure  represents  the  essen- 
tial parts  of  the  machine,  minor  details  of  con- 
struction being  omitted.  F  is  a  strong  cast-iron 
or  ca.st-steel  cylinder,  open  at  the  top ;  B  is 
a  plunger  or  ram  wliich  fits  watertight  into 
the  cylinder ;  to  prevent  leakage  a  leatlier  ring 
U-shaped  in  section  is  placed  in  the  cavity  r  : 
any  water  trying  to  leak  out  forces  the  two  sides 
of  this  ring  hard  against  the  piston  and  the  si<le 
of  the  cavity,  and  the  greater  the  pressure  the 
tighter  it  keeps.  This  form  of  jiacking  is  now 
often  replaced  by  an  ordinary  stulting-box  filled 
with  hemp  jiacking.  A  pipe,  (J.  le.ads  from  the 
cylinder  to  a  force-inini)i,  H.  I!y  means  of  this 
)punip  water  can  be  forced  from  the  tank,  T,  through 
the  pipe  C  into  the  cylinder,  thus  pushing  tlie 
]p|ungeror  ram,  B,  upwards.  The  ram  carries  on  its 
to|i  a  platten  or  table,  on  which  the  bales,  &c.,  to  be 
)iressed  are  placed  ;  the  rising  of  the  pl.atten  presses 
lliem  against  the  entalilature  or  njijier  ]date,  A, 
which  is  held  in  position  by  the  columns  C.  The 
bale  can  thus  be  sipu'cv.eil  to  any  extent  desired. 

The  power  of  the  press  is  readily  calculated  ;  Id 
the  diameters  of  the  iiumj)-phingcr.  K.  and  ram,  I!, 
be  d  and  D  inches  respectively,  then  any  downward 
pressure  on   K  becomes  an  upwanl  pressure  on  1! 

magnified  -vr  times.     Suppose,  for  instance,   that 

the  pressure  on  K  was  .500  imunds,  and  tliat  the 
diameters  are  1  and  10  incdies  respectively,  then  the 

upward  thrust  would  be  .jOO  y.      ,    =  ."lO.OOO  pounds  ; 

very    enormous    pressures     are     therefore     readily 


obtained,  and  in  consequence  of  the  slow  motion 
there  is  extremely  little  waste  of  power  in  friction. 
It  is  thus  a  very  efficient  mechanism.  The  pum|i 
can  either  he  a  hand-pumip  worked  by  a  lever,  L,  as 
in  sketch,  or  it  may  be  worked  by  a  steam-engine, 
as  is  the  case  in  the  modern  powerful  ]iresses. 
The  enormous  multiplying  power  of  this  contrivance 
has  leil  to  its  most  e.Ktensive  use  ;  for  exanqile,  com- 
pressing cotton  and  wool  bales,  \c.,  expressing  oils, 
bending  iron  plates  and  bars,  lifting  heavy  weights 
(lifts  and  hoists),  raising  into  position  biidge- 
girdeis  (hydraulic  jacks),  &c.  Presses  of  enormous 
power  are  now  superseding  the  huge  steam-ham- 
mers in  large  steelworks,  obviating  the  unpleasant 
vibraticnis  and  ensuring  sounder  metal. 

Hydraulic  Raui.  a  .simple  and  conveniently 
applieil  mechanism,  by  which  the  energy  of 
water  falling  from  a  height,  Ji,  can  lie  made  avail- 
able to  force  a  portion  of  itself  to  a  greater  height, 
/('.  There  is  a  supply-reservoir,  fed,  say  by  a 
spring,  from  which  a  strong  pipe,  K,  conducts  the 
^^■ater  to  the  ram  at  a  lower  level.  The  ram  has 
two  valves,  one,  A,  opening  downwards  and  in- 
wards, the  other,  B,  opening  upwards  and  out- 
wards: the  weight  of  these  valves  issucli  that  when 
the  water  is  at  rest  its  normal  pressuie  is  unable  to 
keep  them  from  falling,  so  that  in  this  condition  A 
would  be  open  and  B  shut.  A  cottar  on  the  rod  of 
A  keeps  it  from  opening  more  than  a  certain 
amount,  and  this  can  be  adjusted  ;  the  valve  B 
opens  into  an  air-vessel,  C,  from  the  liottom  of 
which  the  delivery  pipe,  D,  leads  a«ay.  The  action 
is  as  follows  :  the  water  flows  from  the  reservoir 
through  the  pipe  R,  and  rushes  out  through  the 
now  open  valve  A  away  to  the  waste-pipe  ;  in  doing 
so  it  acquires  considerable  velocity,  and  its  pressure 
therefore  on  the  under  side  of  the  \-ahe  A  increases, 
and  finally  becomes  great  enough  to  close  it.  The 
flow  of  tlie  water  being  thus  suddenly  checked, 
produces  a  great  reaction,  and  by  its  moinentum 
opens  the  valve  B,  and  forces  a  portion  of  the  water 
into  the  air-vessel  C  :  the  energy  being  expended, 
the  juessure  falls  again,  B  closes,  and  A  opens  once 
more,  enabling  the  water  to  rush  out  to  the  waste- 
pipe,  and  so  the  whole  operation  is  repeated.  The 
two  valves  thus  alternately  open  and  close,  and  water 
is  ileli\ered  each  time  into  the  air-chanilier,  C,  the 
air  in  which  being  compressed  acts  as  an  air-cushion, 
keeping  up  a  constant  delivery  through  the  pipe  D. 


// 


-SLCtiuu  of  liyibaulic  liaiii. 

The  small  air-ve.ssel,  E,  is  for  diminishing  tlieslio(d<s, 
and  has  a  small  relief  valve  in  it  to  admit  air  when 
neces.sary  ;  it  is  self-acting.  The  hydraulic  ram 
was  an  invention  of  M<uitgollier  (  1707  ).  but  has  been 

greatly  imiiroved  :  its  niechanical  I'lliciencv  is  g 1, 

and  for  raising  small  (piantities  of  water,  such  as 
are  necessary  for  the  supply  of  single  houses,  farm- 


28 


HYDRAULICS 


HYDROCEPHALUS 


yards,  i<;c. — wlieie  water  at  the  lower  level  is 
Iileiitiful  aiul  clieaii,  it  is  a  most  useful  piece  of 
iiiecliaiiisui.  It  can  even  be  made  to  work  apiim|i, 
ami  so  to  deliver  a  supply  of  jiure  water  when  the 
motive  water  is  miuUly  or  impure. 

Il.vdraiili«'s.    f»ee  Hvdkomeciiasu's. 

Hydrides.  This  terui  is  ajiidied  hoth  to  coui- 
liinatioMs  of  hydrogen  with  metals,  and  to  similar 
coniliinations  with  orgauie  or  compound  radical.s. 
Hydrogen  forms  hydrides  with  a  number  of  the 
metals,  as,  for  instance,  arsenic,  antimony,  copper, 
and  potassium.  The  lirst  two  of  these  are  the  well- 
known  gases,  ai'seniuretted  hydrogen,  AsH,,  and 
antimoniuretted  hydrogen,  SliH;,.  In  the  case  of 
organic  radicals,  the  hydride  of  ethyl,  C.H.H,  for 
instance,  wivs  at  one  time  sn])|iosed  to  be  a  dillerenl 
substance  from  dimethyl,  CifjCH-,  but  the.se  were 
eventually  prov  ed  to  be  identical,  so  that  the  term 
hydride,  in  this  sense,  is  now  obsolete. 

Ilydrobi'oiiiic  .icid,  (I  ),'/<«,  HHr,  invisible, 
imugent,  acid  reaction,  fumes  in  moist  air,  lifpiid  at 
-  69'  C,  .solid  at  -  lUO'  C  ;  prepared  fioni  a 
bromide  plus  i)hosiihoric  acid,  or  phosphorus  tri- 
bromide  jiliis  water.  (2)  \i\\wn\i»  .■ioliilioii,  analo- 
gous to  commercial  hydrochloric  acid,  is  weakeneil 
by  boiling  until  HBr  sinks  to  47  per  cent.,  then 
distils  unchanged.     See  Uno.MlNE. 

Hydrocarbons  belong  to  the  department  of 
organic  chemistry,  and  may  be  shortly  dehned  as 
compounds  of  carlion  and  hydrogen,  and  nothing 
else.  Despite  their  apparently  simple  nature,  they 
are  frequently  very  com]dex,  antf  exist  in  such 
numbers  as  to  bewilder  the  beginner  in  chenucal 
study.  Fortunately,  they  can  be  gathered  into 
groups,  each  having  distinctive  characters,  and  the 
members  of  which  are  closely  related  to  each  other. 
The  chief  of  these  are  the  Paraliins,  the  Oletines, 
the  Acetylenes,  the  Henzene  (([.v.)  scries,  and  the 
Anthracene  (q.v. )  gnnip. 

The  Paraltins  are  found  in  natural  petroleum  as 
well  as  in  the  products  of  the  destructive  distilla- 
tion of  coal,  and  are  known  as  sat  untied  /ii/</nic(ir- 
boiis.  By  this  is  meant  that  the  carbon  present  is 
already  saturated  (so  to  speak)  with  hydrogen,  and 
has  no  tendency  to  unite  with  other  elements  or 
molecules.    Uraiihically,  carbon  may  be  represented 

as  -C-i.e.    with  four  arms,  each   one  of  which  is 

I 
capable  of  being  united  to  one  atom  of  hydrogen  ; 
and  when  all  four  arms  are  so  united,  a,  jiunij/in  is 


H 


lint,    instead    of    the 


produced ;    thus,    Il-C'-H. 

H 

single  atom  of  hy<lrogen,  one  arm  (or  all  the  arms) 
may  be  engaged  by  such  a  group  as  ("11;^,  so  that  we 
get  another  paratlin,   ClI.,— ClI,.     Thus   we  go  on 
forming  a  series,  each  member  of  which  ditlers  from 
the  preceding  one  in  having  an  extra  C\\...     Thus  : 
C'llj  Methane, 
CHj— CHo  or  C'.,ll,   ICthane, 
CH^-CH,.— ClI^  or  C';;H„  I'ropane, 
and  so  on  indeliuitely.     It  will,  however,  be  noticed 
that  when  we  ]iass  to  a  higher   member  than  pro- 
liane,  by  replacing  an  atom  of  hyilrogcn  by  ClI;,,  we 
may  do  so  in    two    ways,   according  jus    the   atmn 
reiilaced  is  in   the  ('II3  group  at  either  end,  or  the 
Clf.j  group  in  the  centre.     The  result  is  that  two 
hyilrocarbons  are  possible — viz.  CUj — CIL — C'H„ — 

(-'Ha,  and  also  ,,.,  '^CH — CH^.      In  like  manner, 

as  we  proceed  further,  wider  scojie  is  given  to 
lis,  the  result  being  that  when  Tridecane,  C^^H.,g, 
is  reached,  it  is  theoretically  possilde  to  reeogni.se 
802  such  bodies,  all  having  the  .same  percentage 
composition,  but  ditlering  more  or  less  in  charac- 
ters.    Many  of  these  isomei's  are  already  known. 


The  paraliins  are  characterised  by  their  indift'erence 
to  chemical  action,  being  unacted  on  by  caustic 
l>otasli,  sulphuric  or  nitric  acid.  The  general 
fonuula  of  the  paraliins  is  ('nH„„».j,  where  11 
represents  the  number  of  atoms  iu  the  fornnila. 

The  Olcjimx,  l'.,IL,u — The  chief  of  these  are 
Etliyline,  C„Hj,  Propylene,  (.'Jl,,,  liulylcne,  i\H„, 
.\niylene,  C5II,,,,  Ac.  :  and  it  will  be  oli.served  that 
in  all  of  them  the  iicrcentage  composition  is  identi- 
cal, and  that  each  member  diMers  from  the  lower 
one  by  the  addition  of  ('H„.  When  acted  on  by 
chlorine,  brondiu-,  or  iodine  they  readily  form  oily 
liquids,  sucli  as  Dutch  lii|uiil,  and,  generally  sjicak- 
ing,  they  markedly  dittcr  from  the  paraliins  in  the 
readiness  ^^  ith  which  they  unite  with  other  l>odies. 

Hydr<K'eIe  (Gr.  hiidnr,  'water,'  and  lelc,  'a 
swelling')  is  a  dropsy  of  the  tunica  vaginalis,  the 
serous  membrane  investing  the  testis.  It  oecui-s  iis 
a  smooth,  j)ear-shapc<l  swelling,  painless,  but  some- 
times causmg  a  slight  uneasiness  fr<uu  its  weight. 
The  quantity  of  lluid  in  the  sac  may  anmunt  to 
40  ounces.  Hydrocele  may  occur  as  a  result  of 
acute  inllammation,  but  it  most  commiudy  comes 
on  without  any  a|i[iari'nt  local  cause.  It  is*niosl 
frecpmntly  met  with  alxiut  or  beyoml  the  middle 
])eriod  of  life,  and  generally  in   persons  of  feeble 

Eower,  or  with  a  tendency  to  gout ;  sometimes, 
owever,  it  occurs  in  young  children,  either  iu  the 
same  form  as  in  adults,  or  ;us  what  is  termed  ctiit- 
fftiii'tftl  Itifdrorfif.  The  treatment  may  be  pnlliatit'c 
m  ciiraticc.  The  palliative  treatment  consists  in 
the  u.se  of  suspensory  bandages,  and  tajjping  from 
time  to  time.  Tapping  selihuu  gives  more  than 
temporary  relief,  the  swelling  usually  regaining  its 
former  bulk  in  three  or  four  months.  The  curative 
treatment  consists  in  setting  up  iidlammation  in 
the  tunica  vaginalis,  by  the  injection  of  tincture 
of  iodine,  so  as  to  obliterate  the  cavity,  or  by 
excision  of  the  whole  or  part  of  the  sac. 

llydroCH'plialllS.  Under  tins  term,  which 
literally  means  "water  in  the  head,'  are  includcil 
three  distinct  diseases — vi/.  acute  hydroce)ihalus, 
chrimic  hydrocephalus,  and  spurio\is  hydrocephalus, 
or,  ius  Dr  Marshall  Hall  termed  it,  hydrocephaloid 
disease. 

Acute  IIi/drorej)liidus,  or,  as  it  is  now  generally 
and  more  satisfactorily  termed,  iidicn-uhir  meiiin- 
f/itU,  is  e.s.sentially  an  inllammation  of  the  mem- 
branes of  the  brain  due  to  the  presence  of  Tubercles 
(q.v.).  The  occurrence  of  lluid  within  the  skull  or 
the  brain,  though  frequent,  is  nu'rcly  a  secoiulary 
and  subordinate  phenomenon.  It  is  an  extremely 
fatal  form  of  dLsea.se,  c(unmon  in  childhood,  much 
less  so  during  adult  life.  The  .symptoms  are  very 
variable  and  periilexing,  .so  that  only  the  barest 
outline  of  the  most  frcipient  and  inqiortant  can 
be  attemjpted  here.  There  is  usually  a  prcriiouilory 
perioil  111  .some  days  or  weid<s,  during  which  the 
appetite  and  digestion  are  ilisturbeil,  the  (lis|iosi- 
tiou  is  altered  either  in  the  direction  of  listlessness 
or  irritability,  the  strength  impaired,  and  the  body 
becomes  .slightly  thinner.  The  lirst  <listim't  .symp- 
tom of  the  disease  is  usually  seveiv  headache,  with 
sickness  and  feverishness  ;  the  jiul.se  is  rapid  and 
the  teuijierature  raised,  but  variable.  \iiniiting 
very  often  occurs  at  this  stage,  and  sometimes  a 
peculiar  cry  at  intervals,  which  if  present  is  very 
characteristic. 

In  this  iwai  stage  of  hydroccphalns,  which  most 
commonly  lasts  two  lU'  three  days,  the  synqi- 
tonis  generally  are  those  of  exciti'ment.  In  the 
second  stage  tlic  jpuIsc  becomes  irregular,  variable, 
and  often  slow.  (ieneral  heaviuc.-s  and  stujior 
come  on.  The  light,  which  annoyed  the  child  in 
the  lirst  stage,  Ls  no  longer  a  s(uirce  of  annoyance  ; 
the  pujiils  become  dilated,  the  power  of  sight  is 
imperfect  or  lost,  and  sipiinting  Ls  almost  always 


HYDROCEPHALUS 


HYDROCHLORIC    ACID 


29 


to  lie  oliseiveil.  Tlip  little  patient  now  lies  on 
his  back  in  a  ilrowsy  condition ;  ami  at  this 
period  spasmodic  twitcliinjj^s,  convulsions,  or 
jiaralysis  may  ajipcar.  The  excretions  are  passed 
unconsciously.  The  secon<l  stage  may  last  a  week 
or  two,  and  is  often  attended  hy  deceptive  a|)])ear- 
anecs  of  amendment,  the  child  not  unfrequently 
retraining  the  use  of  its  senses  for  a  day  or  two, 
liut  then  relapsing  into  a  deeper  stupor  than  before. 
The  symptoms  in  the  third  or  last  stage,  which 
may  last  only  a  few  hours  or  may  extend  to  a 
fortnight,  are  very  similar  to  those  in  the  second, 
except  that  the  ]mlse  again  becomes  very  rapid, 
beatiiig  sometimes  so  quickly  that  it  can  scarcely 
be  counted,  and  gradually  gets  more  and  more 
weak  till  the  patient  expires.  The  character- 
istic appearances  after  death  are  the  presence  of 
tubercles  in  the  membranes  of  the  brain,  usually 
near  the  base,  and  generally  more  or  less  softening 
of  the  central  part  of  the  brain,  >vith  the  ell'usion 
of  serous  tlnid  into  the  ventricles. 

It  must  not  be  supposed  that  the  stages  described 
above  can  be  observed  in  every  ca.se.  There  is,  in 
fact,  hardly  any  disea.se  Avhose  course  is  so  variable 
and  so  apt  to  mislead  those  observing  it.  In  its 
earlier  stages  its  recognition  is  sometimes  almost 
imiiossible  :  yet  it  is  only  then  that  any  treatment 
can  l)e  expecteil  to  l>e  successful.  C'olil  applied  to 
the  head,  leeching,  anil  purgation  sometimes  appear 
to  do  good  :  but  in  the  va-st  majority  of  cases  the 
disease  proves  rapidly  fatal.  Recovery  ha.s  been 
proved  to  take  place  only  in  some  few  exceptional 
instances. 

Chronic  Hifdroccpfinli'x  is  a  perfectly  distinct 
disease  from  that  just  described  ;  while  the  latter 
is  an  indammation,  the  former  is  a  dropsy.  In 
chronic  hydrocephalus  a  watery  fluid  collects 
within  the  skull,  before  the  bones  have  united 
to  form  the  solid  brain-case,  and  by  pressure  out- 
wards causes  them  to  separate,  and  increases 
the  size  of  the  head  sometimes  to  an  enormous 
extent.  Thus  Dr  Da\id  Monro  relates  the  ease  of 
a  girl  six  yeai-s  old  whose  head  measured  2  feet 
4  inches  in  circumference.  While  the  skull  is 
rapidly  enlarging,  the  hones  of  the  face  grow 
no  fa.ster  than  usual,  and  the  great  disproportion 
of  size  between  the  head  and  the  face  is  at  once 
diagnostic  of  the  disease.  This  disorder  some- 
times commences  liefore  birth,  and  almost  always 
in  early  childhood,  before  the  fontanelles  and 
sutures  of  the  skull  have  closed.  In  some  rare 
c.-tses  it  has  occuneil  later,  as,  for  examjjle,  at 
seven  or  nine  years  old,  anil  the  closed  sutures 
have  opened  under  the  augmenting  pressure. 
When  the  sutures  will  not  yield,  death  from 
pressure  on  the  brain  speedily  ensues.  Most 
children  with  chronic  hydrocei)halus  either  re- 
cover or  die  iti  infancy  :  but  a  few  survive,  bear- 
ing their  complaint  to  ailult  life,  or  even  to  old 
age.  lilindness,  ileafness,  palsy,  and  idiocy — 
one  or  more — are  commonly  associated  with  this 
dise.a.He,  but  occasionally  the  intellect  and  .senses 
are  sutliciently  perfect  for  the  ordinary  requirements 
of  social  life. 

The  results  of  treatment  are  generally  not  en- 
couraging, though  sometimes  benelit  ap])ears  to 
result.  It  may  be  attempted  by  internal  remedies 
or  by  snrgical  appliances.  The  meilical  treatment 
most  in  favour  ccmsists  in  the  administration  of 
diuretics,  purgatives,  ,and  especially  mercnrj',  which 
may  be  given  in  the  form  of  calomel  in  minute 
doses,  anil  applied  as  ointment  externally.  The 
surgical  ex|iedi('nts  are  bandaging  and  puncturing 
the  heail.  The  latter  ha«  in  many  cases  certainly 
lirolonged  life,  although  the  disease  h.as  linally  con- 
quered. Neither  of  these  means  is  applicable  after 
the  bones  of  the  skull  have  united. 

This   disea-se    occasionally   occurs    in    adult    or 


in  advanced  life,  after  enlargement  of  the  head 
has  become  imjiossible.  Stupor,  jiaralysis,  and  an 
inability  or  iinwillingness  to  s|icak  are  in  these 
cases  the  most  prominent  symptoms.  Dcau  Swift's 
death  was  due  to  this  disease,  and  it  is  recorded 
that  during  the  last  three  years  of  his  life  he 
remained  in  a  state  of  silence,  with  few  and  .slight 
exceptions. 

Spxrious  Hydrocephalus  resembles  acute  hydro- 
cephalus in  many  of  its  symptoms,  and  has  often 
been  mistaken  for  it.  Instead,  however,  of  lieing 
an  intlamniatory  disease  it  is  a  disease  of  debility, 
and  is  dtie  to  a  deficient  supply  of  blood  to  the 
brain.  The  following  are,  according  to  Watson, 
the  distinctive  characters  of  this  sjnirious  hydro- 
cephahis  :  the  pale,  cool  cheek ;  the  half-shut, 
regardless  eye:  the  insensible  pupil;  the  inter- 
rupted, sighing  respiration  :  and  the  state  of  the 
unclosed  fontanelle.  If  the  sym|)toms  are  those 
of  acute  hydrocephalus  the  surface  of  the  fontan- 
elle will  be  convex  and  prominent;  while  if  they 
are  due  to  spurious  hydroce])halus,  and  originate 
in  emptiness  and  want  of  support,  the  fontan- 
elle will  be  concave  and  depressed.  The  remedies 
in  this  disease,  which  readily  yields  to  treat- 
ment, are  nourishing  diet,  small  doses  of  wine 
or  e\  en  of  brandy  in  arrowroot,  decoction  of  hark, 
ammonia.  &c. 

Hydroeharidcae.    See  Ax,\ch,\ri.s,  Y.vllis- 

XERIA,   \VATf;i;  SOLDIER. 

Hydrochloric    Acid    (sym.    HCl ;    equiv. 

.36 '.J )  is  one  of  the  most  important  compounds 
in  inorganic  chemistry.  If  the  two  gases  which 
enter  into  its  composition  (hydrogen  and  chlorine) 
be  mixed  in  equal  volumes  they  will  remain  with- 
out action  upon  each  other  if  kept  in  the  dark  ; 
but  a-s  soon  as  they  are  brought  into  direct  sun- 
light they  unite  with  a  loud  explosion,  .and  hydro- 
chloric acid  'gas  is  the  result.  The  principal 
characters  of  this  gas  are  that  it  is  colourless, 
intensely  acid,  irrespirahle,  and  even  when  largely 
diluted  is  very  irritating  to  the  lungs  and  eyes, 
and  very  injurious  to  vegetation  ;  that  it  is  heavier 
than  air  ( its  specific  gravity  being  1  •2474,  air  being 
taken  at  TOOO)  ;  that  it  can  be  condensed  into  a 
colourless  liquid  ;  that  it  is  very  soluble  in  water, 
and  that  it  is  neither  combustible  nor  a  supporter 
of  combustion.  When  allowed  to  escape  into  the 
air  it  produces  white  fumes  by  condensing  the 
atmospheric  moisture.  If  the  air  be  previously 
dried  no  such  fumes  are  apparent. 

The  solutions  of  this  gas  in  water  form  the  acid 
which  was  first  known  as  Spiril  of  Sa/t,  then  as 
Muriaiii-  Arid,  and  which  is  now  termed  Hifilro- 
chloric  or  (_'h/orhi/<lric  Acid.  A  saturated  watery 
solution  of  this  gas  at  40^  (4-4°  C.)  has  a  specific 
gravity  of  r21,  and  consists  of  1  equivalent  of  the 
gas  dissolved  in  3  equivalents  of  water.  It  forms  a 
colourless,  fuming  liquid,  which  acts  as  a  caustic. 
On  heating  it  the  gas  is  evolved  abundantly  until 
the  temperature  reaches  230°  (110°  ('.),  when  there 
distils  over  a  diluted  solution,  having  a  sjiecilic 
gravity  of  I'l,  and  consisting  of  1  equivalent  of  the 
gas  and  8  equivalents  of  water.  It  is  to  these 
solutions  of  hydrochloric  acid  that  theteiiii  hi/dro- 
chliiric  odd  is  far  more  commoidy  apidicd  than  to 
the  ga-s  itself.  They  posses.s  tjie  ordinary  char- 
acters of  an  energetic  acid,  and  neutralise  the 
strongest  ba.ses.  The  neutralisation  is,  however, 
not  in  consequence  of  the  acid  coudiining  with  the 
oxide,  but  is  due  to  the  simultaneous  decomi>osi- 
lion  of  the  acid  and  of  the  oxide,  water  and  a 
metallic  chloride  lieing  formed.  It  .M  represents 
the  metal  the  reaction  is  expressed  by  the  equa- 
tion M,<  >  ■>.-  IK "1  =  MCI  +  II,0.  All  metals  which 
at  a  red  heat  decompose  water  also  decompose 
this  acid,  and  cause  an  evolution  of  hydrogen,  the 


30 


HYDROCELE 


HYDRODYNAMICS 


reaction  being  expressed  as  folU.ws :  M  +  HCl  - 
MCI  +  H  ^v.lioclilorie  acid  ga^  is  «■,  Ponm'<;n 
i^ieous  volcanic  product.  Free  liydrooldonc  acid 
fn  a  very  dilate  form  is  also  a  constituent  o,  the 
tastric  juice  of  man  and  annuals,  and  plajs  an 
Essential  part  in  tlie  disestive  process. 

ronmeoial  m.riatn-  „cv:rf-to  use  the  name 
en  Id  v<.d  l,v  manufacturing  cl.emists-is  made  by 
heatin.'  in  iron  cylinders  common  salt  (chloride 
f  so  lium  and  oil  of  vitriol  (liydrated  sulphuric 
acid),  and  condensing  the  evolve,  -as  m  wate 
cout.aiiied  in  a  series  of  stoneware  ^^  o  than  Bottles 
[qv.)  the  reaction  being  explained  by  the  equa- 
tion  : 


Chloriile 
o(  Sodium. 


Hydrochloric 
Acid. 


Oil  ot  vitriol.  "'Tcir"-         Sulphate  of  So,la. 

NaCl    +    H.,SO,     =     HCl      +      Xa.,SO,. 
This  commercial  acid  may  contain  various  impuri- 
ties—as, for  example,  iron  (which  gives  it  a  bright 
deep  yellow  colour),   the  chlorides   of  sodium   and 
ai-senic— the  latter  being  derived  from  the  oil  ot 
vitriol— sulphuric  and  sulphurous    acids,    ehlonne 
\-c      from    which    it  can   be   purihed   to   a  great 
extent  bv  dilution  and  redistillation.      'If  pure, 
savs   Mifler,    'the    acid   should   leave   no    residue 
when  evaporated  :  on  saturating  it  with  ammonia 
it    should   give   no   precipitate   of   oxide   of  iron  ; 
sulphuretted  hvdrogen  should  produce  no  turbidity 
in   it,   which   would  be  the  case   if   arsenic,   free 
chlorine,   or   suliihurous   acid   were   present ;    and 
on  dilution   ^^•ith   three   or  four   times  its  bulk  o 
water  no  white  cloud  of  sulphate  of  baryta  should 
be  produced  by  the  addition  of  chhiride  of  barium 
The  presence  of  hyilrochhn-ic  achl,  or  of  the  soluble 
chlorides    in    solution,    may   be    detected    by   the 
addition  of  a  few  drops  of  a  solution  of  nitrate  ot 
silver    which  occasions  the  formation  of  a  white 
curdv   precipitate   of  chloride   ot  silver,  wliicli_  is 
insoluble  in  nitric  acid,  but  dissolves  m  a  solution 
of  ammonia.  ,        ,,  <• 

Liriuid  hydrochloric  acid  (under  the  name  of 
spirit  ot  slilt)  was  known  to  the  alchemists. 
Hydrochloric  acid  gas  was  discovered  by  Priestley 
in  177'2-  and  Daw  in  1810  ascertained  that  it 
was  composed  of  chlorine  and  hydrogen.  In  many 
resjiects  hydrobromic,  hydrotluoric,  and  hydnodic 
acids  resemble  hydrochloric  acid. 

Hydrocele,  a  Tumour  (q.v.)  with  watery  con- 
tents in  the  tunica  vaginalis  of  the  testes. 
Hvdroevaiiir  Acid,  HCN  or  IlCy,  known 

also  "as  Prussic  .\cid,  from  its  having  been  hrst 
obtained  bv  Scheele  in  17.S2  from  the  substance 
known  as  ■Prussian  or  Berlin  Blue,  is  ot  almost 
equal  interest  to  the  chemist,  the  physician,  ami 
the  toxicologist.  ,  ,     , 

(1)  C/icmMn/.—Viw.  anhydrous  liydrocyamc 
acid  is  a  colourless,  highly  volatile  liquid,  with  a 
specific  gravity  of  0-607  at  64=  I<.  It  boils  at  80 
and  solidilies'into  a  crystalline  mass  at  o  f.  It 
possesses  a  very  iienetrating  odour,  resembling  tliat 
of  peach-blossoms  or  oil  of  bitter  almonds.  It 
burns  «ith  a  whitish  Hame,  reddens  litmus  paper 
gli"htlv(its  acid  properries  being  feeble),  and  is 
very  soluble  in  water  and  alcohol.  Pure  hydro- 
cyanic acid  niav  be  kept  unchanged  if  exclude, 
fi-oni  light,  which  occasions  its  decomiiosition,  ami 
the  formation  of  a  brown  substance  known  as  para- 
cvano"iMi.  Hydrocyanic  acid  is  readily  obtained  bv 
disliliraion  from  the  kernels  of  bitter  almonds  and 
many  kinds  of  stone-fruit,  from  the  leaves  an<l 
flowers  of  various  plants,  and  from  the  luice  of 
the  tapioca  plant  ( Jdtniplin  m/inilmt ).  Anhydrous 
hydrocyanic  acid  may  be  obtiiined  by  the  action  ot 
concentrated  hydrochloric  acid  on  cyanide  of  mcr 
cury.  The  diluted  hvdrocyanic  acid  of  the  Bntisli 
an.i  other  phariuac.lp.eias  is,  however,  of  more 
practical  importance.     It  is  made  (lintish  1  liar- 


mwo/).)  by  distilling  ferrocyanide  of  potassium 
with  dilute  sulphuric  acid,  and  is  standardised  to 
a  strength  of  '2  per  cent.  When  kept  for  any 
length  of  time  it  is  extremely  aid.  to  decompose. 

The  ordinary  tests  for  hydrocyanic  acid  are  ( 1 ) 
the  peculiar  oi\our  ;  (2)  the  nitrate  of  silver  test- 
there  being  forme<l  a  white  precipitate  ot  cyann  e 
of  silver,  which  is  sidulde  in  boiling  nitric  acid  ; 
(.3)  the  formation  of  Prussian  blue,  by  ailding  to 
the  Huid  under  examination  a  solution  of  some 
proto-  and  per-salt  of  iron,  bv  then  saturating  with 
caustic  potash,  and  finally  adding  an  excess  ot 
hydrochloric  acid,  when,  if  hydrocyanic  acid  is 
present,  we  have  a  characteristic  blue  precimtate -. 
(4)  the  sulphur  test,  which  is  the  liest  and  most 
accurate  that  has  yet  been  disco\ered.  To  the 
snsiiected  liquid  add  ammonia  and  yellow  sulpliy- 
drate  of  ammonium  ;  evaporate  the  liquid  in  a 
watch-gla-ss  to  dryness,  occasionally  adding  am- 
monia till  the  excess  of  sulphydrate  of  animonnim 
is  decomposed.  Add  water,  and  aciilify  with 
hydrochloric  acid.  If  hydrocyanic  acid  be  present 
the  sulphocyanate  of  amnumium  which  has  been 
formed  gives  a  blood-red  solution  on  the  addition 
of  a  ferric  salt.  ,    ,     ,  .         •  i 

(•2)  Medicinal  f^sfs.— Diluted  hydrocyanic  acul 
is  used  externally  as  an  ingredient  of  lotions  to 
diminish  itching  in  skin  diseases.  In  '2  to  8  minim 
doses  it  is  given  internally  to  diminish  irntalnlity 
of  the  stomach,  to  relieve  gastro-intestinal  pain, 
vomiting,  and  functional  paliiitation  ot  the  he.art. 
Given  by  the  mouth  or  \>\  inhalation  it  is  also 
useful  in  allaying  cough  in  jdithisis.  hooping-cough, 
bronchitis,  Ac.  All  these  ai>plications  depend 
upon  its  action  in  deadening  sensory  nerves. 

(3)  As  a  Po/,«)H.— Hvdrocyanic  acid  is  one  of  our 
most  energetic  poisons,  and  is  frequently  employed 
both  for  murder  and  suicide.    M  hen  axiiuill  jioison- 
ous  dose  (about  half  a  drachm  of  the '2  j.er  cent, 
acid)  has  been  taken  the  first  sym].toiiis  .are  weiglit 
and  pain  in  the  head,  with  confusion  of  thought, 
.'iddine.ss,    nausea    (and    sometimes   vomiting),    a 
quick  pulse,  and  loss  of  muscular  i»)wer.     It  death 
result  this  is  preceded  by  convulsions  and  invol- 
untary evacuations.     When  a  lanjc  dose  has  l.een 
taken  (as  from  half  an  ounce  to  an  ounce  ot  tlie 
■>  per  cent   acid)  the  symptoms  may  commence  in  a 
few  seconds,  and   it  is   seldom    that  their  appear- 
ance   is    delayed    beyond   one    or    two    minutes. 
'When,'  says'Dr  A.  S.  Taylor,  'the  patient  h.as 
been   seen  'at  this  period    he   has  been   perfectly 
insensible,  the  eyes  fixed  and  glistening,  the  pnpi  s 
dilated  and  unalVected  by  light,  the  limbs  flaccid, 
the  skin   cold   and   covered   with   a  clammy   per- 
spiration ;  there   is   convulsive  resiuratum  at  long 
iiiter\als,    and    the   patient   apjiears   dea.l   in   tfie 
intermediate  rime  ;  the  pulse  is  impcrceptilde,  ami 
the  respiration  is  slow,  deep,  gasping,  and  some- 
rimes  heaving  or  sobbing.'     The  patient  survives 
for  a  longer  or  shorter  period,  according  to  the  dose. 
According  to  Dr  Lonsdale,  death  has  occurred  as 
eariv  as  the  second  and  as  late  a.s  the  J,,rl;/-Ji/l/i 
minute  :  the  poismi  acts  a-s  a  i.aralysant  to  the  wliole 
nervous  system.      Death  is  due  to  paralysis  ol_  the 
heart  in  the  more  rapid  cases,  and  to  paralysis  of 
the  respiration  in  those  which  occur  more  slowly. 

Where  tlie  fatal  action  is  so  rapid  antidotes  are 
of  comparatively  little  value.  Chlorine,  aninionia 
eold  aflnsion,  and  artihcial  resi.iratMm  are  he  niost 
important  agents  in  the  treatment.  he  first  Uvo 
should  be  used  with  great  caution,  and  mily  b>  the 
medical  practitioner.  Cold  aflusion  on  the  head, 
ne,k  and  down  the  spine  is  a  valuable  remedy. 
Artificial  respiration  (see  UlCSHRATlON,  ArTIFI- 
ci  \i.)  sliould  le'ver  he  omitted. 

llYdl-odVliaillM-s.  in  its  complete  generality, 
is  the  science  which  treats  of  tt.e  motions  an. 
e<,uilibrium   ..f   a  material   system,   part  orallot 


HYDRODYNAMICS 


31 


which  is  lluiil.  In  acconlaiioe  with  moilorn  dyiiainic 
nomenclature  (see  DvXAMU's)  we  should  discuss  it 
tiiidei-  tlie  two  headings  Uydrokinetics  and  Hydro- 
statics. The  historic  usa^'e  of  the  term  lias,  how- 
ever, .so  fixed  itself  that  we  tjeiierally  re<;ar(l  hydro- 
dynamics ,as  excluding;  hydrostatics  and  a*  dealinj; 
oiily  with  kinetic  iirohlems.  Oiiginall.v,  as  the 
derivation  of  the  words  at  once  show,  hydro- 
dynamics and  hydrostatics  referred  only  to  the 
motion  and  eri\ulil>ri\im  of  lii|uids  ;  but  as  onr 
knowledj;e  of  the  jdiysical  jiroperties  of  all  kinds  of 
Huid,  lii|nid  and  gxseons,  increased,  it  was  recog- 
nised that  they  had  nnicli  in  common  from  a 
dynamic  point  of  view,  and  the  terms  became 
extended  in  their  application  as  defined  above. 
Thus  the  Hoating  of  a  balloon  in  air  depends  on  the 
same  hydrostatic  principle  as  the  floating  of  a  ship 
on  water.  The  sim]iler  and  some  of  the  more 
practical  problems  of  liydrostatics  will  be  found 
treated  under  that  heading.  In  its  practical 
engineering  aspects  hydrodynamics  is  known  ;xs 
hydraulics,  including  such  important  subjects  as 
tlie  construction  of  canals,  breakwaters,  docks, 
pumps,  water-pipes,  water-wheels,  and  so  on,  most 
of  which  liave  separate  articles  to  themselves. 
Here  we  shall  confine  ourselves  to  the  scientific 
principles  of  the  subject,  using  familiar  cases  as 
illustrations. 

The  study  of  hydrodynamics  has  led  to  the  con- 
ception of  wliat  is  called  the  prrfiH  fluid.  It  may 
be  <lefined  as  a  substance  incapable  of  resisting  the 
smallest  deforming  .stress.  For  instance,  no  portion 
of  such  a  fhiid  can  resist,  even  for  a  moment,  a 
longitudinal  pressure  if  unsupported  by  a  lateral 
pressure.  The  logical  consequence  of  this  definition 
is  that,  if  the  Huid  is  at  rest,  the  pressure  at  a  point 
is  the  same  in  all  directions ;  for  if  it  were  not  so 
there  would  be  a  deforming  stress,  and  therefore  a 
yielding  of  the  fluid,  and  equilibrium  could  not 
exist.  By  .similar  reasoning  we  may  show  that,  if 
the  pressure  varies  from  point  to  point  in  a  Huid  at 
rest,  there  must  be  an  external  force  acting  on  the 
fluid  in  the  direction  in  which  the  pressure  is  increas- 
ing. Thus,  in  virtue  of  gravity,  atmospheric  pres- 
sure decreases  as  we  ascend,  and  the  pressure  in 
the  ocean  or  any  other  body  of  water  increases  as 
we  descend.  So  long  as  we  are  dealing  with 
equililiiium  of  fluids  we  meet  with  nothing  incon- 
sistent with  the  delinition  of  the  ideal  perfect  fluid. 
Across  every  interfaces  separating  two  contiguous 
portions  of  the  fluid  the  mutual  stress  is  of  the 
nature  of  a  pressure  wholly  normal  to  the  interface. 

When,  however,  we  pass  to  cases  of  fluid  motion 
we  find  that  the  properties  of  the  perfect  fluid  are 
very  f.ar  from  being  realised  in  nature.  The  smallest 
relative  motion  amongst  the  diflerent  parts  of  a 
fluid  brings  into  play  mutual  stresses  which  are  not 
normal  to  the  interface  between  two  contiguous 
portions.  These  tangential  stresses  tend  to  destroy 
the  relative  motion,  existing  only  so  long  Jis  the 
relative  motion  exists.  They  are  thus  partly 
analogous  to  resistances  due  to  friction  in  the 
dynamics  of  solid  bodies — hence?  the  term  fluid 
friction  (see  VlscosiTV)  fretjuently  emphiycil  to 
denote  the  property  that  discrimin.ites  actual  fluids 
from  the  ideal  )>erfect  fluid.  Kluiil  friction,  how- 
ever, ilifli'i-s  from  friction  in  one  iriarked  particular; 
it  has  no  significance  in  .static  problems.  It  is 
wholly  kinetic.  The  gradual  stilling  of  troubled 
waters,  the  calming  of  the  wind,  the  slackening  in 
spee<l  of  the  water  in  a  stream  as  we  ])ass  from  the 
centre  and  sui-face  portions  towards  the  banks  or 
bottom  are  familiar  examjiles  of  the  efl'ects  of  fluiil 
friction. 

Under  certnain  circumstances  the  tangential 
.stresses  thus  brought  into  play  not  only  rr'tard  the 
motion  of  the  more  swiftly-moving  jiarls  of  the 
fluid,  but  even  accelerate  tiie  motiim  of  the  more 


slowly-moving  parts.  Tims  a  ra|)idly-llowing  river 
entering  the  sea  draws  along  with  it  a  consiilerable 
cjuantity  of  the  original  ocean  water.  The  efl'ects 
of  a  draught  of  air  are  felt  far  beyond  the  direct 
course  of  the  main  current.  It  is  impossible,  in 
fact,  to  mark  ott  clearly  the  boundaries  of  a  current 
flowing  in  fluid  of  the  same  kind.  In  like  manner, 
the  eddies  formed  in  the  wake  of  a  solid  body 
moving  through  either  air,  water,  or  other  fluid 
could  not  be  produced  if  it  were  not  for  the  exist- 
ence of  these  tangential  stresses.  In  every  case 
the  fin.al  result  is  a  dissipation  of  energy  (see 
Energy  ) ;  but  in  the  majority  of  cases  of  practical 
importance  the  rate  of  dissipation  is  so  slow — in 
other  words,  the  tangential  stresses  are  so  small  in 
comparison  with  the  other  efTective  forces  acting — 
that  tlie  properties  of  tlie  perfect  fluid  go  far  to 
exjilaiu  many  hydiokinetic  phenomena.  Some  of 
these  we  shall  now  consider. 

It  has  been  already  pointed  out  that  the  equi- 
librinm  of  a  fluid  under  the  action  of  gravity  or 
other  force  depends  upon  the  manner  in  which  the 
pressure  varies  in  the  direction  of  the  force.  Now 
a  force  has  always  a  definite  direction  ;  and  con- 
sequently in  all  directions  perpendicular  to  the 
direction  of  the  resultant  force  acting  at  a  point  in 
the  flui<l  there  can  be  no  variation  of  pressure. 
Thus,  from  any  one  point  we  can  pass  to  an  infinity 
of  neighbouring  points  at  which  tlie  jiressure  is  the 
same  ;  from  each  of  these  again  to  an  infinity  of 
others  ;  and  so  on  indefinitely.  We  thus  arrive  at 
the  conception  of  a  surface  in  the  fluid,  at  every 
point  of  which  the  pressure  is  the  same.  Such  a 
surface  is  called  a  surface  of  equal  pressure,  and 
one  of  its  essential  ])roperties  is  that  it  is  perpen- 
dicular at  every  point  of  it  to  the  resultant  force 
there.  In  the  case  of  fluids  at  rest  under  the  action 
of  gravity  these  surfaces  are  also  called  level  sur- 
faces, and  are  for  all  practical  purposes  essentially 
horizontal  planes.  A  consideration  of  these  prin- 
ciples leads  easily  to  the  conclusion  that  equilibrium 
in  a  fluid  mass  cannot  exist  if  the  pressures  at  two 
points  at  the  same  level  ditt'er,  or  if  the  pressures 
are  the  same  at  two  points  at  diflerent  levels. 
These  two  conditions  are  essentially  one  and  the 
same ;  and  when  they  are  fulfilled,  fluid  motion 
must  take  place  (see  such  articles  as  At.mo-SPHEre, 
Wind,  W.we,  Siphon,  and  Artesi.\n  Wells  for 
familiar  illustrations  of  these  principles). 

The  discharge  of  fluids  through  orifices  includes 
a  number  of  very  important  phenomena,  some  of 
which  we  shall  discuss  in  detail.  The  vessel  MAB 
( fig.    1 )  is  provided  at  D,  C,  E,  o  with  apertures 


Fig.  1. 

which  may  be  closed  when  desired.  Let  the  vessel 
be  filled  with  water  up  to  the  level  .\IA  :  then,  if 
the  orifice  n,  which  looks  vertically  u]iwards,  ia 
opened,  a  jet  of  water  will  be  projected  up,  and 
will  reach  very  nearly  to  the  height  M.\.  If  it 
were  not  for  Ihiid  friction  and  the  conse(|uent  dis-si- 
pation  of  energy  the  jet  would  rcNicli  the  height 
MA.     As  soon  as  the  orifice  o  is  opened,  the  water 


32 


HYDRODYNAMICS 


surface  tliere  beiii;,'  cxposoil  simply  to  the  pressure 
of  tlio  atiiin-^]ilier(-  is  umlor  tlie  sanio  ])ressure  as 
tlii>  iinioli  lii^tuM- surface  MA.  Hiuice  a  How  takes 
place  anil  will  continue  to  take  place  until  tlio  sur- 
tace  of  tlie  water  MA  lias  sunk  to  the  level  of  the 
water  at  i:>.  The  experiment  shows  that  the  jet  is 
]irojc<-teil  with  a  velocity  very  nearly  ernial  to  that 
wliic-h  wo\ilil  he  acciuireil  hy  a  hotly  falling  under 
gravity  from  the  level  AM  to  the  level  o.  This 
velocity  is  given  hy  the  relation  r-  =  '2rih,  where  g 
is  the  acceleration  due  to  gravity  and  h  the  <litl'erenee 
of  level  mentioned.  Similarly,  if  tlie  orifices  at  D, 
C,  K  are  o])eneil,  the  issuing  jets  will  he  projected 
with  speeds  whose  sipi.aies  will  l>e  found  to  he  very 
a])proxiniately  proportional  to  the  ilid'erences  of 
level  hetween  the  upper  surface  MA  and  the  respec- 
tive orilices.  This  may  he  proved  experimentally 
by  constructing  the  orifices  so  that  the  discharge 
i."  initially  horizontal,  and  then  measuring  tlie 
range,  I>K  or  BL,  reached  hy  the  several  jets.  Thus, 
assuming  the  law  just  given,  commonly  called  the 
theorem  of  Torrii-elli,  we  may  show  that  the  srpiare 
of  the  range  1!K  is  equal  to  four  times  the  product 
of  the  dill'erences  in  level  of  the  orifice  D  below 
A  and  above  B,  that  is,  4AD  -DB.  Hence  if  we 
describe  a  semicircle  ACiB  on  AB  as  a  diameter, 
the  horizontal  lines  DF,  CO,  EH  meeting  this 
semicircle  will  be  half  the  horizontal  ranges  corre- 
sponding to  the  res|iective  orilices. 

The  height  of  the  free  water  surface  above  the 
orilice  from  which  the  water  is  issuing  is  technically 
called  the  hrnd.  The  "leater  the  head  the  greater 
is  the  pressure  at  the  level  of  the  orilice,  and  the 
more  available  the  water  for  practical  imrposes. 
Part  of  the  head  is  consumed  in  overcoming  fri(^tional 
resistances  ;  for  wellformed  sim|de  oritiees  about  Gj 
per  cent,  of  the  whole  head  is  so  expended.  The 
(liscliarge  from  any  orilice  in  a  given  time  will 
depend  obviously  on  the  size  of  the  orilice  and  on 
the  available  head.  Experiment  shows,  however, 
that  for  sharp-edged  orilices  in  a  wall  the  discharj^e 
is  distinctly  less  than  the  simple  theory  would 
indicate.  In  such  cjises  the  section  of  the  jet  is 
smaller  than  the  section  of  the  orilices  in  the  ratio 
of  about  .5  to  8.  This  is  sulhciently  exiiliuned  liy 
the  convergence  of  the  streamlets  in  the  fluid  whicli 
ultimately  form  the  jet ;  and  this  convergence  con- 
tinues for  a  little  distance  beyond  the  orifice,  jiro- 
ducing  the  phenomenon  of  the  vctia  coutracta  or 
contracted  vein.  We  have  seen  how  the  sjieed  of 
ellliix  is  measured  by  means  of  the  par.abohc  path 
of  the  jet;  this  speed  lauUiplied  by  the  iiumlier  of 
seconds  in  a  chosen  interval  of  time,  and  hy  the 
('ff'rrtirc  (unknown)  area  of  the  orilice  gives  the 
whole  discharge  in  that  interval.  This  discharge 
can  he  easily  measured  ;  and  thus  the  data  are 
complete  for  limling  the  eirective  area  of  the  orilice 
and  comparing  it  with  the  real  area.  By  furnishing 
an  orilice  with  a  short  mouthiiiece  of  the  form  of 
the  contracted  vein,  we  may  regard  thi;  siuallest 
cross-section  of  the  mouthpiece  as  the  true  orilice. 
In  this  case  the  oU'ective  area  and  the  real  area  arc 
the  .same. 

In  these  simple  ca.ses  of  efHux  the  energy  of  elllux 
is  wholly  explained  as  being  derived  from  the  hydro- 
static lic.'id  iif  water.  The  pressure  due  to  this  head 
is  the  weight  of  a  I'olumn  of  water  of  nnitcross 
section  and  of  a  height  ec|iial  to  the  head.  Thus,  if 
p  is  the  density  of  the  water,  so  that  p>/  is  the  weight 
of  unit-volume,  the  pressure  p  due  to  a  head  h  is 

P'l/i.     Thus,  bv  Torricelli's  theorem,  -    is  half  the 

P 
s(|u,are  of  the  velocity  with  which  a  jet  would  he 
projected  through  an  orilice  made  at  a  place  where 
till-  pressure  is  j>.     Hence  we  may  regard  this  ratio 

'    as  the  energy  per  unit  mass  of  water  due  to  the 


pressure  /).  But  if  the  water  is  in  motion  with  a 
speed  I',  its  energy  jier  unit-mass  is  on  this  jiccount 
hi-'-.  If,  further,  the  iiarticular  portion  of  the  lluid 
considered  is  at  a  height ./'  above  a  certain  arbitrarily 
chosen  level,  dclined  as  the  level  of  zero  iiotential 
energy,  then  its  potential  energy  is  r/.r.  The  whole 
energy  possessed  by  the  moving  lluid  is  built  up  of 
these  three  |iarts  due  respectively  to  pressure,  speed, 
and    gravitation,   and   is  given   therefore    hy   tlie 

expression  —  -f  iv-  +  qx.     Now,   in  the  case  of  a 
p      -         ■' 

steady  frictionless  flow  along  a  deterniin.ate  channel, 

the  whole  energy  possessed  by  any  unit-mass  of  the 

lluid  must  be  the  same;  for  at   some  time  or  other 

every  element  passes  through  the  ]iosit ions  occupied 

at  other  times  by  other  elements  in  the  same  sti'eam- 

line,   and    passes  through   them   under  the  .same 

dynamic  conditions.     Hence,  neglecting  the  eflecta 

of  friction,   we  arrive  at  the  conclusion  that  the 

expression  for  energy  just  given  is  constant  along 

any  given  stream-line.     Take,  for  example,  a  jiipe 

of  uniform  bore.     If  the  How  is  steady  the  invari- 

ahleness  of  the  cross-section  reipiires  the  sjieed  at 

every  point  to  he  the  same.     Hence  as  x  diminishes 

/)  must  increase,  so  that  (  —  +  .(?•'')  "'-ly  remain  con- 
stant. For  a  horizontal  pipe  x  nuist  be  constant, 
and  so  of  necessity  is  p.  Now  sujipose  the  tube  to 
he  horizontal  but  of  variable  section  ;  then,  .since  x 

is  constant,  the  expression  [—+  M')  must  also  he 

constant.  Tint  the  speed  c  varies  inversely  as  the 
sc'ctioti  ;  hence  p  must  be  greatest  where  the  bore  is 
wiliest  and  least  where  the  bore  is  narrowest.  In 
other  words,  the  cross-section  and  pressure  increa.se 
together  and  dimiiiisji  together.  A  familiar  illus- 
tration of  this  is  shown  in  lig.  2,  in  which  water  is 
e.scaping  from  a  short  cylindrical  nozzle  A.      The 


contracted  vein  occurs  at  c,  so  that,  the  velocity 
being  greater  there  than  at  the  open  end  of  the 
tube,  the  ]Messure  is  less.  But  the  ])ressure  at  A  is 
the  atmos])heric  pressure  ;  and,  conse(|uentlv,  if  a 
tube  he  led  from  c  to  the  vessel  of  water  \',  the 
water  will  be  pushed  ii^i  to  some  point  b  by  the 
excess  of  the  atmospheric  pressure  over  the  pres- 
sure at  c. 

When  the  efl'ects  due  to  friction  are  taken  into 
account  we  see  in  a  general  way  that  the  energy, 
instead  of  remaining  constant  as  we  pa.ss  along  a 
streamline,  will  steadily  fall  oil'.  In  the  ca.se  of  a 
iiiiifiirm  pipe  thi^  loss  of  energy  will  show  itself  in 
a  more  rapid  falling  away  in  the  pressure.  For 
instance,  in  a  horizontal  |>ipe  of  uniforiii  bore  the 
pressure  will  steadily  diminish  as  we  pass  along  in 
the  direction  of  the  How.  At  the  oiien  end  of  the 
lii|)e  (r,  lig.  2)  the  pressure  is  that  of  tlic  atmosphere; 
and  this  will  gradually  increase  a-s  we  ]iass  along 
the  pipe  against  the  How  until  we  come  to  (/,  where 
the  pressure  falls  a  little  short  of  that  due  to  the 
head  of  water  in  the  vessel.  This  may  be  shown 
experimentally  as  indicated  in  the  ligure,  in  which 
the  small  iii>iight  tubes  inserted  in  the  horizontal 
pipe  become  lillcd  with  water  to  a  certain  lu-ighl. 
In  the  construction  of  water-works  these  and  many 


HYDRO-EXTRACTOKS 


ITYDROMEL 


33 


other  problems  in  liyilrokinetics  receive  their 
[irai'ticul  siihitioii.  In  tlio  motion  and  lh)w  of 
iiiiihly  eom]Messilili'  Ihiiils,  snoh  as  gases,  we  meet 
with  theorems  similar  to  tlioso  just  discussed  for 
liquids.  The  treatment,  however,  is  necessarily 
more  abstruse,  and  is  far  from  comidete  if  thermo- 
dynamic considerations  are  left  out  of  account.     See 

G.ASKS,  SOINP,  THEItMor)VN.\MICS. 

Tlie  hydrokinetic  problems  connected  with  the 
motion  of  solids  throuirh  lluids  have  their  most 
important  a|iplicatious  in  questions  which  concern 
the  artillorynian  and  the  sliipbuiUlor.  In  the 
practice  of  j,»nnnery  tlie  law  of  the  resistance  to 
projectiles  in  air  has  been  very  fully  worketl  out. 
At  very  high  speeds  the  resistance  is  very  great 
indee<l ;  and  it  may  be  shown  that  an  ordinary- 
sized  projectile  if  dropped  from  an  innnense  heiglit 
(say  4IJ  miles)  could  never,  under  the  action  of 
gravity  alone,  attain  a  speed  of  SOO  feet  per  second. 
One  great  source  of  loss  of  energy  of  a  body  moving 
through  a  liquid  is  the  formation  of  eddies  and 
vortices  in  its  wake.  These  are  the  direct  result  of 
tangential  stresses  acting  between  contiguous  jior- 
tions  of  the  llnid  moving  with  dill'erent  speeds.  In 
virtue  of  the  same  tangential  stresses  the  eddying 
motions  quickly  die  away,  and  the  energy,  as  in  all 
such  transformations,  takes  the  form  of  heat. 

The  best  English  treatises  on  hydrodynamics  are  Lamb's 
Htidroihnutinirs  (1895)  and  Bas-sctt's  Hydrodiiiiitmics 
(2  vols.  l.StSS-S!));  see  also  Unwiu's  ' Hydraulics '  in  £'«- 
ci/clojatlia  Britannka  (9th  ed.). 

Hydro-extractors.    See  Drying-m.\chi.\es. 
nydrofliioric  Acid.    See  Fluorine. 

HydroKCH  ( *.viii.  H  :  atom.  wt.  1  ;  Gr.  hifdur, 
'water,' and  (ifiiiiuo,  'to  produce')  is  an  element- 
aiT  gas  ami  the  lightest  substance  known.  It  is 
colourless,  odonrless,  and  non-poisonous,  although 
as' ordinarily  prepared  it  frequently  contains  traces 
of  disagreeably  smelling  or  of  poisonous  impurities. 
The  gas  when  subjected  to  enormous  pressure  at 
an  extremely  low  temper.ature  can  be  reduced  to 
the  liquid  state.  In  combination  with  o.xygen  it 
forms  one-ninth  part  by  weight  of  water,  and  it  is 
a  most  iuijiortant  constituent  of  the  tissues  of 
animals  and  plants.  It  enters  into  the  composi- 
tion of  a  large  number  of  mannfactured  substances 
and  prixlucts  used  in  the  arts,  medicine,  iS:c. ,  as, 
for  instance,  starch,  sugar,  vinegar,  gutta-percha, 
alcohol,  ether,  benzene,  aniline,  indigo,  morphia, 
&c.  It  is  not  found  largely  in  nature  in  the  free 
or  unconibined  state,  but  it  does  occur  in  some 
ga.seons  emanations  from  the  earth,  as  in  the  sol- 
iktariLs  of  Iceland  and  in  the  petroleum  regions  of 
Pennsylvania.  Being  the  lightest  gas  known,  its 
density  is  often  adopted  as  the  standard  of  com- 
parison for  the  densities  of  other  gases.  The 
density  of  atmospheric  air  compared  with  that 
of  hydrogen  as  unity  is  nearly  It.").  As  hydrogen 
posses.ses  the  lowest  atomic  weight  of  all  the  ele- 
ments, the  atomic  weight  of  hydrogen  is  almost 
universally  adopted  by  chemists  as  unity,  and 
those  of  the  other  elements  referred  to  it ;  but  at 
pre-sent  there  is  a  decided  movement  in  favour  of 
the  adoption  as  standard  of  an  atomic  weight 
which  can  lie  determined  with  more  rigid  accuracy 
than  that  of  hydrogen  can. 

Although  hydrogen  is  usually  ela.ssed  amongst 
the  non-met.iilic  elements,  it  is  in  its  chemical 
behaviour  more  closely  related  to  the  metals.  It 
combines  with  o.xygcn,  at  a  red  heat  forming  water, 
this  combination  being  accompanied  by  the  giving 
out  of  a  great  <leal  of  heat.  A  jet  of  hydrogen 
burns  in  air  or  oxygen  with  a  non-luminous  llame, 
which  is,  however,  sullicicntly  hot  to  heat  to 
whiteness  a  fine  platinum  wire  held  in  it.  The 
behaviour  of  hydrogen  towards  chlorine  is  e.K- 
tremelv  interesting.  The  two  gases  can  be  mixed 
203 


in  equ.tl  volumes  and  preserved  without  combina- 
tion taking  place  for  an  indelinite  i)eriod  if  keiit  in 
the  dark,  hut  on  exi)osure  to  ditl'used  daylight 
combination  begins,  and  its  jirogress  depends  n]ion 
the  brightness  of  the  light  and  the  duration  of  the 
exposure.  Momentary  exiiosurc  to  direct  sunlight 
causes  combin.ation  to  take  place  with  explosive 
violence,  and  a  similar  ellect  is  produced  by  raising 
any  portion  of  the  mixture  to  a  red  heat.  llydrogen 
as  a  rule  combines  with  those  things  with  which 
the  metals  in  general  combine,  forming  compounds 
which  are  analogous  to  those  of  the  metals.  Com- 
pounds containing  hydrogen  and  mie  other  element 
are  common  decomposition  products  of  decaying 
vegetable  and  animal  matters ;  as,  for  instance, 
marsh-gas,  ammonia,  and  sulphuretted  hydrogen, 
which  contain  hydrogen  combined  with  carbon, 
nitrogen,  and  sulplmr  respectively. 

Hydrogen  gas,  under  the  name  of  comlnistible 
air,  was  obtained  in  the  16tli  century  by  Paracelsus 
by  treating  certain  metals  with  dilute  acids,  and 
was  more  or  less  known  to  Boyle  ami  others  ;  but 
Cavendish  (q.v. )  in  his  paper  on  '  Factitious  Airs,' 
published  in  the  Transactions  of  ike  Jioi/al  Society 
for  1766,  was  the  first  to  describe  accurately  the 
properties  of  this  gas,  and  the  methods  of  obtaining 
it,  hence  he  is  usually  nientione<l  as  its  discoverer. 

The  ordinary  methods  for  preparing  and  purify- 
ing hydrogen  will  be  found  in  any  elementary 
treatise  on  chemistry.     See  Cases. 

Hydrogen  Peroxide  (sym.  H.fl^)  is  a 
componnil  of  hydrogen  and  oxygen,  containing  a 
larger  proportion  of  oxj-gen  than  water,  the  otlier 
compound  of  these  elements.  It  was  discovered  in 
1S18  l)y  Thi'nard,  and  was  by  him  regarded  as 
oxidised  water  as  it  very  readily  decomposes,  when 
heated,  into  oxygen  and  water.  The  substance, 
when  freed  from  water  as  completely  as  possible, 
is  a  thick  transparent  liquid,  of  specific  gravity 
1'45,  without  colour  or  smell,  but  possessing  a 
bitter  taste.  It  bleaches  many  vegetable  colours, 
and  when  applied  to  the  tongue  or  skin  produces  a 
white  spot  and  gives  rise  to  consideralile  pain.  Its 
bleaching  action  and  most  of  its  chemical  char- 
acters depend  upon  its  powerfully  oxidising  pro- 
perties. It  is  employed,  in  dilute  solution,  for  the 
restoration  of  oil-paintings,  its  action  upon  these 
being  an  oxidising  one. 

Hydrography,  as  a  branch  of  physical  geo- 
grapiiy,  deals  with  the  waters  of  the  globe  in  so  far 
as  they  are  available  for  navigation.  The  liydro- 
grapher  determines  liy  means  of  observations  and 
soundings  the  outline  of  coasts  and  shores,  the  con- 
figuration of  river-beds,  lake-basins,  and  the  .sea- 
bottom  adjacent  to  coasts,  ascertains  the  position 
and  extent  of  shoals  and  rocks  and  islands,  as  well 
as  of  beacons  and  lighlhonses,  investigates  the 
nature  and  velocity  of  currents,  the  local  tidal 
phenomena,  the  changes  taking  idace  in  river- 
mouths  and  in  harbours,  and  tlie  alterations 
efl'ected  in  coast-lines  by  the  action  of  the  sea. 
All  these  details  it  is  his  business  to  embody,  as 
far  as  may  be,  in  charts  and  maps  which  shall  be 
serviceable  for  the  practical  mariner.     See  Chart. 

Ilydroid.    See  IIyi)i;iizoa. 

Hydr01IIC<'liailics,  a  term  sometimes  used  so 
as  to  cover  what  in  tliis  wmk  is  dealt  with  at 
Hydrodynamics  (q.v.)  and  Hydrostatics  (q.v.),  as 
also  hydraulics,  or  the  dcpiirtnient  of  engineering 
which  deals  with  the  ajiplication  of  liquids  in 
motion  to  machinery.  Ilj'dromecbanics  is  some- 
times jimili'd  to  the  latter  department  alone,  tin 
the  other  b,-uid,  hydraulics  is  sometimes  made  to 
cover  hydrodynamics.  See  E.NciNEEKlNt;,  with 
articles  ihcrc  cited,  and  Watek-wokks,  Sewaok. 

Ilydroiliel.  a  beverage  made  of  honey  ami 
water  :  fermented,  it  becomes  mead. 


34 


HYDROMETER 


HYDROPATHY 


llydroilK'tcr.  an  instrument  which  in<lioates, 
by  ilie  (loiilU  Id  \\  liich  it  sinks  in  a  lii|uid  in  which 
it  lloalK,  the  speeillo  lU-nsity  or  spuciiic  gravity  of 
that  linuiil.     See  Sl'iiCiKic  i)EXSlTV. 

Il.vdroiliys,  a  genus  of  water-mice  found  in 
Australia,  Tasmania,  and  New  Guinea,  distin- 
guished from  all  other  rodents  by  the  small 
number  ( ". )  of  molars.  They  are  called  Beaver- 
rats  in  T.ismania ;  arc  nocturnal  and  very  shy  ; 
inhabit  the  banks  of  both  fresh  and  salt  water,  and 
swim  well,  with  the  help  of  partially-webln'd  hind- 
feet.  The  largest  species  is  twice  the  size  of  a 
common  rat.  One  species  has  the  belly  white,  the 
other  yellow. 

Il.vdropatliy,  like  Hiidvothcrnpti  and  Ibidnt- 
theni/jeiiticK,  means  the  ii.se  of  water  in  the  treat- 
ment of  disease,  or  in  the  prevention  of  the 
leniloncy  to  tlisease.  Popularly,  however,  Itydro- 
jiiilhij  has  become  so  attached  to  a  s|)ecial  scheme 
of  water  treatment  that  it  will  be  used  here  in  that 
sense  alone  ;  while  liiiih-ullieni/in  will  refer  to  the 
less  restricted  an<l  more  scientilic  use  of  water  as 
one  of  the  many  therapeutic  wea]ions  furnished  by 
e.\perieiice  to  the  armoury  of  the  practitioner  of 
medicine.  Water  is  the  world's  natural  medicine. 
We  find  early  mention  of  water  as  a  curative 
agent,  and  its  virtues  are  extolled  by  many  of  the 
classical  writers — e.g.  Hippocrates,  Galen,  Celsus, 
Musa,  and  Asclepiades.  In  the  middle  ages  Aetius, 
Alexander  of  Tralles,  Paulus  of  -Kgina,  and  Avi- 
cenna  may  be  claimed  as  its  advocates;  while  in 
more  modern  times  Cardanus,  Hollman,  Bernardo, 
Sir  John  Floyer,  Dr  Baynard,  the  Ilahns,  Tissot, 
Dr  Smith,  and  Hancoke  de.serve  mention  ;  as  do 
also  I'are,  Lombard,  and  Percy  in  special  reference 
to  its  use  in  surgery.  By  most  of  these  men  water 
was  applied  botli  e.'cternally  and  internally — inter- 
nally chielly  as  a  cold  drink  in  fevers  ;  and  it  was 
on  this  point  the  battle  raged  chietly,  Boerliaave 
and  others  dis|)uting  hotly  against  the  propriet}'  of 
so  administering  it.  To  Dr  James  Currie  (q. v. ), 
a  l.iver))ool  physician,  belongs  the  credit  of  intro- 
ducing its  use  in  fevers  and  febrile  diseases.  His 
book  ( 1797 )  contains  some  most  interesting  informa- 
tion, and  the  records  of  a  large  number  of  experi- 
ments carried  out  to  the  best  of  his  abilities,  with 
the  very  imiierfeet  thermometers  then  in  use.  His 
interest  appears  to  have  been  originally  roused  by 
the  success  of  Ur  Wright  in  treating  fever,  both  in  his 
own  case  and  that  of  others,  on  board  ship,  by  the 
ai)plication  of  cold  sea-water.  Currie's  work  was 
translated  into  German  by  Michaelis,  and  spread 
his  treatment  far  and  wide,  meeting  with  much 
favour  and  also  with  bitter  hostility.  Amongst  its 
warmest  supporters  was  Oertel,  a  teacher  in  Ans- 
bach,  who  re-editeil,  or  rewrote,  many  of  the  older 
treatises,  and  who  probably  had  some  direct  influ- 
ence on  the  man  who  really  introiluced  a  new  era 
in  treatment  l)y  water.  This  was  Vincent  Priessnitz 
( 179;)- 181.')),  a  Silcsian  farmer  of  Griifenberg,  who 
aftc'  considerable  success  in  treating  wonnds  and 
spr.iins  in  animals  with  cold-water  baudage-s, 
had  to  treat  himself,  a  horse  having  broken  some 
of  his  ribs.  Again  successful,  he  continued  the 
treatment  whenever  he  could  on  any  of  the  neigh- 
bouring peasants,  and  advanced  the  further  step  of 
using  water  internally  ;  his  fame  spread,  and  he 
soon  gathered  an  immense  vlicidilc.  and  achieved 
renuirkable  success.  He  showeil  great  ingenuity 
in  inventing,  with  the  a.ssistance  of  his  patients, 
all  sorts  of  new  methods  of  applying  water  to  every 
part  of  the  body  ;  ami,  though  using  water  as  his 
sole  rcnieilial  agent,  he  very  sagaciously  emjdoyed 
hiM  cl  exercise,  fresh  air,  and  a  regulated  ])lain  diet  a.s 
adjuviints.  Unfortunately,  being  utterly  ignorant 
of  medicine,  he  taught  peculiar  ideas  of  disease, 
which  he  considered  to  be  due  to  the  presence  in 


the  blood  of  certain  acriil  humours  which  had  to  be 
diluted  and  extracted  by  means  of  water,  lie  .said 
the  escape  of  these  produced  an  eruption  which 
marked  the  crisis  ;  but  as  it  is  known  that  water 
ajiplied  cimtinuously  will  produce  such  an  eruption 
on  even  the  healthiest  skin,  and  as  all  the  known 
facts  of  pathology  are  opposed  to  his  doctrine-^,  «e 
are  obligW  to  reject  his  theories  even  winle  his 
practice  is  admitted  to  be  ailndrable.  It  is  to  tliis 
special  system  of  w.-iter  treatment  that  the  term 
Hililiopatlni  is  now  generally  applied.  There  are, 
however,  endless  hybrid  varieties  in  which  one  or 
other  theory,  or  ])aiticular  form  of  jnaetice,  is  either 
specially  rejected  or  adopteil  ;  so  it  must  not  be 
supiiosed  that  the  foregoing  siatements  apply  abso- 
lutely to  all  hydropathists.  P.cyond  cavil,  however, 
tlie  most  scientilic  position  to  take  u])  is  that  in 
which  water  is  used  as  a  remedial  agent  in  every 
way,  in  which  it  has  been  proved  to  be  useful,  «ith- 
out  restricting  its  u.se,  or  reailing  its  results  in  the 
light  of  any  theories,  while  at  the  same  time  care  is 
taken  to  avoid  all  ill  eflects.  This  constitutes  the 
.system  of  Hi/drut/icrripi/,  which  obtains  pnmiiiient 
notice  in  all  nLo<lern  books  on  therapeutics.  Possibly 
the  term  nught  be  imjiroved,  as  heal  in  many  cases 
seems  to  be  the  real  agent,  of  which  water  is  only 
the  vehicle.  Thermotherapeutics  ami  Thermo- 
therapy  have  been  suggested  as  terms  more  scien- 
tilically  correct.  Water  has  often  been  abused,  like 
every  other  good  thing  in  this  world  ;  even  an  ice- 
water  dys|ic|isia,  due  to  too  free  indulgence  in 
drinking  iced  water  (but  especially  along  with 
food),  being  not  uncommon  in  America. 

Water  may  be  employed  medicinally  both  inter- 
nally and  externally  in  its  three  forms— solid, 
litiuid,  and  gasecnis.  For  the  external  uses,  see 
B.VTll ;  for  its  internal  use  with  drugs  in  solution, 
.see  Medicine,  and  Minee.M.  Sprini;.s.  There  is 
left  for  consideration  here  only  its  use  internally  as 
pure  water.  Absolutely  nece.<siiry  to  the  digestive 
process,  it  is  essential  to  life,  and  reijuires  rules  for 
its  advantageous  use.  Too  large  a  quantity  ini|iaii's 
digestion  by  so  diluting  the  gastric  and  intestinal 
juices  SIS  to  render  them  comparatively  inert.  The 
diliiculty  is  to  lay  down  delinile  rules  f<M-  the 
right  quantity,  as  this  will  vary  with  each  indi- 
vidual in  dillerent  surrinmding  circumstances,  of 
temperature,  amount  of  exercise,  and  (juality 
and  (luantity  of  food.  Per.sonal  exjierience  and 
skilled  advice  must  decide  the  quantity  in  each 
case. 

As  a  general  rule  it  is  better  to  drink  water  about 
an  hour  before  meals,  as  the  gastric  juice  is  then 
being  pre|)ared,  and  llnid  will  be  liius  supplied 
when  most  required.  Eveiy  one  with  a  weak 
digestion  ought  certainly  to  do  this,  and  only 
drink  a  little  /lut  water  w  itli  food,  as  the  sloniaeli 
requires  a  considerable  temiierature  to  allow  its 
physico-chemical  reactions  to  be  carried  on  success- 
fully. Water  is  also  very  useful  early  in  the 
morning  and  late  at  night  ius  helping  to  llnsli  out 
the  stomach  and  bowels,  dissolving  and  eaiiying 
oft'  the  waste  materials  which  may  have  accumu- 
lated by  the  kidneys,  lungs,  and  skin,  the  functional 
activity  of  which  organs  it  much  promotes.  Where 
the  e\'acuating  power  of  the  lower  bowel  is  weak, 
or  when  piles  are  present,  large  injections  of  water, 
hot  or  cold  as  judged  projier,  are  usi-ful  in  clearing 
out  I  lie  rectum  ami  stimulating  its  coat.  Ice 
internally  or  externally  is  very  useful  in  checking 
hemorrhage  an<l  soothing  irritability,  as  shown  by 
vomiting  or  otherwise.  As  steam  water  is  very 
useful  in  all  forms  of  inllammation  and  irritation 
about  the  mouth,  throat,  or  lungs,  and  often  in 
such  ciises  medication  witli  various  drugs  increases 
its  powers. 

There  are  fifty  hydropathic  establishments  in 
England,    lifteen    in   Scotlaml,   and    only   one    in 


HYDROPHIS 


HYDROPHOBIA 


35 


Irc!;inil.  Most  of  those  on<;inalIy  started  with  a 
ftill  e<niiiiment  for  tieatment,  inchiding  a  resident 
physician,  l>ath  attcmlants,  and  a  complete  set  of 
baths;  hnt  many  of  tlie  establishments  now  are 
merely  hi^^hclass  country  lioardini,'  houses.  In 
a  f  ?w,  however,  the  hydropatliist  can  still  find  all 
till'  usual  roi^uisites  for  correct  hydropathic  treat- 
ment. .Amongst  the  best  known  of  the  old- 
fasliioned  houses  are  Sniedley's  at  Matlock  Bridge, 
BcM  lihyddini;.  Ilkley  Wells  House,  Malvern,  and 
Soiithport  ill  Kn^land  ;  C'luny  Hill  near  Forres, 
Bridi^e  of  Allan,  Melrose,  Rothesay,  anil  Crietf  in 
Scotland  ;  and  St  Ann's  Hill  near  Cork,  in  Ireland. 
Anioiig  the  magiiilicent  modern  establishments  we 
may  name  those  at  Bath,  Bournemouth,  Buxton, 
Harrogate,  Ulverston,  Windeiinere,  The  Hall  at 
Busliey  near  Watford,  MoHat,  Peebles,  Pitlochry, 
Shandon,  Dunblane,  Oaisrlockhart  near  Edinburgh. 
See  Clarid-e,  CM  Water  Cure  (184t);  Graham, 
Grnfinheri]  (1843) ;  works  on  the  Water  Cure  by  Gully 
( l^l^-lW ),  Jolinson  (1843),  East  (1850),  Dunlop  (1873), 
Smedley  (1S79),  Braun  (Eng.  trans.  1875),  and  in 
G<Tman  by  Munde  (1877),  Kunge  (1879),  Anjel  (1881)), 
with  other  works  cited  in  the  thirty  pages  of  biblio- 
grai»hy  appended  to  Dr  Winternitz's  article  on  *  Hydro- 
therapeutics '  in  V'ou  Zienissen's  Handbook  of  General 
TUtrapeutica  (vol.  v.  1886). 

ilydrophis.    See  Sea-sx.a.ke. 

Hydrophobia  (Gr.  hyr/or,  'water,' and /)Ao6o«, 
'  fear ')  is  a  symptom  of  a  disea.se  known  as  Rabies, 
which  may  occur  in  man  and  in  various  animals  ; 
but  the  word  hydrophobia  is  also  frequently  used 
to  denote  the  disease  itself.  It  has  long  been 
known  that  rabies  is  communicated  from  one 
animal  to  another  if  the  saliva  of  the  one  is  intro- 
duced into  the  organism  of  the  second  ;  whether  it 
be  the  cose  that  the  first  has  bit  the  second,  or  has 
onlv  licked  it  on  an  open  sore.  The  saliva  of  a 
rabiil  animal  jiroduces  no  injurious  effect  if  brought 
in  contact  with  the  unbroken  skin  of  an  animal,  or 
even  with  a  mucous  surface,  provided  it  be  not 
excoriated.  The  dog  is  the  animal  most  freqitently 
afl'ected  by  rabies. 

When  a  rabid  dog  bites  another  animal  the 
latter  shows  no  immediate  symptoms  of  disease. 
The  wound  caused  by  the  teeth  of  the  dog  behaves 
like  an  oidinaiy  wound  and  becomes  cicatrLsed  in 
the  same  manner.  After  the  lapse  of  a  certain 
period,  which  may  vary  from  nine  or  ten  days  to 
several  months  (cases  are  known  where  the  time 
lias  been  as  long  as  twenty-six  or  tweiity-ei"ht 
months),  but  is  generally  from  four  to  six  weelcs, 
the  animal  that  was  bitten  exhibits  special  symp- 
toms :  rabies  lia.s  declared  it.self.  The  time  that 
lias  lapsed  since  the  bite  wa.s  received  is  called 
the  period  of  incubation.  When  the  atl'ected 
animal  Ls  a  man,  the  first  symptom  is  usually  a 
change  of  character ;  he  becomes  melancholy  and 
distrustful.  Next,  generally  at  the  beginning  of 
the  ca-se,  appears  a  symptom  called  iiirophobia — the 
smallest  breath  of  wind  which  touches  the  skin  of 
the  face  causes  its  muscles  to  contract.  Next 
comes  hydroiihobia — if  the  suflTerer  is  otl'ered  any- 
thing to  drinlc,  his  throat  contracts,  and  he  sufiers 
spasms  of  the  i)liarynx.  When  this  symptom 
appears  the  death  of  the  sufferer  Ls  at  ham),  and 
is  certain  to  occur  in  two  or  three  ilays.  During 
th'-  interval  between  the  appearance  of  the  hydro- 
pli  bin  .symptoms  and  death  the  patient  has 
p".  c.  Is  of  calm  and  accesses  of  fury,  and  also 
ev  i  Ills  paralytic  symptoms  which  usually  com- 
1111   I  e  in  the  lower  limbs. 

labiis  is  therefore  communicated  by  biting  from 
on-  animal  to  another;  any  scratch  "made  by  the 
te<  b  of  the  affected  animal  is  harmless  unless  the 
sa!  .a  is  convcyeil  to  the  wound.  The  animals 
lia.ilu  to  be  aliected  by  rabies  arc  verj-  numerous, 


and  comprise  almost  all  the  mammalia — men,  dogs, 
cats,  horees,  cattle,  sheep,  wolves,  foxes,  deer,  &c. 

The  question  of  the  etiology  of  rabies  has  re- 
mained very  obscure  until  a  very  recent  date  ;  the 
most  contiadictoiy  ojiinions  were  current  when  M. 
P;isteur  in  1880  set  himself  to  study  this  malady. 
His  labours  justifj-  the  following  statements. 

Rabies  is  a  virulent  disea.se,  transmissible  from 
one  animal  to  another  by  the  inoculation  into  the 
latter  of  those  various  secretions  and  tissues  of  the 
alfectcd  animal  in  which  the  virus  dwells.  This 
virus  consists  of  a  living  organism  which  has  not 
yet  been  made  visilde,  by  reason  of  the  insulliciency 
of  microscoiiic  apparatus,  but  its  existence  can 
nevertheless  not  be  denied.  This  statement,  taken 
in  connection  with  the  results  of  M.  Pasteur's 
labours  in  regard  to  the  impossibility  of  Sponta- 
neous Generation  (q.v. ),  utterly  contradicts  the 
assertions  of  those  who  pretend  to  have  observed 
rabies  in  animals  which  have  never  come  into  contact 
with  rabid  animals.  Such  assertions  are  always 
based  on  incomplete  observations.  If  rabies  could 
arise  spontaneously  in  dogs,  how  can  we  explain 
the  fact  that  vast  regions  like  Australia  may  be 
wholly  exempt  from  this  scourge  in  spite  of  the 
gi'eat  number  of  dogs  there?  The  reason  is  that  in 
these  countries  they  most  energetically  prevent  the 
introduction  of  any  dog  that  can  be  suspected  of 
rabies.  If  there  were  conditions  under  which  rabies 
might  spontaneously  appear  in  dogs,  then  in  terri- 
tories so  vast  as  the  Australian  colonics  these  con- 
ditions would  certainly  be  realised  from  time  to 
time.     But  there  is  no  rabies  in  Anstralia. 

]M.  Pasteur  has  studie<l  the  distribution  of  the 
^Trus  in  the  individuals  afl'ected.  He  has  observed 
that  the  virus  >\as  found  in  the  nervous  system 
and  in  the  saliva,  but  not  in  the  blood,  the  lymph, 
iSrc.  Hence,  if  we  inoculate  another  animal  with 
the  blood  of  a  rabid  beast,  the  lii-st  will  remain 
wholly  free  of  any  rabid  infection.  Similarly,  raliid 
virus  introduced  directly  into  the  circulatory  system 
of  an  animal  will  not  produce  rabies.  But  there  is  a 
sure  means  of  communicating  rabies  from  one  animal 
to  another — viz.  by  the  introduction  under  the  dura 
mater,  on  the  surface  of  the  brain,  of  a  liquid  which 
has  first  been  sterilised  and  in  which  thereafter  there 
has  been  soaked  a  portion  of  the  central  nervous 
.system  of  the  rabid  animal.  By  this  operation  one 
is  absolutely  certain  to  communicate  rabies  unless 
the  animal  is  refractory  to  rabies  and  cannot  take 
the  disejise.  In  the  course  of  his  studies  M. 
Pa-steur  observed  that,  in  certain  groups  of  animals 
which  had  been  inoculated  beneath  the  skin  with 
large  quantities  of  rabic  virus,  some  not  only  did 
not  take  rabies,  but  became  incapable  of  taking 
it — i.e.  they  might  with  impunity  be  inoculated 
on  the  surface  of  the  brain  with  rabic  virus.  This 
observation  wa.s  the  origin  of  the  discoxery  of 
preventive  inoculation  —  of  inoculation  which 
renders  an  animal  refractory  to  rabies. 

The  principle  of  such  inoculation  is  as  follows  : 
The  spinal  cord  of  a  rabbit  which  has  died  of  rabies, 
when  extracted  from  the  body  of  the  creature,  and 
preserved  in  drv  air  at  a  constant  temperature  of 
2.r  to  24°  C.  (74°  to  70°  F.),  loses  by  slow  degrees  its 
virulence.  With  a  spinal  cord  which  lia-s  lieen  so 
preserved  for  fourteen  days  it  is  impossible  to  com- 
municate rabies  to  a  rabbit  or  a  ilog.  But  this  spinal 
cord  has  nevertheless  still  a  certain  power  to  confer 
immunity  from  the  disea-se — the  inoculation  of  an 
animal  with  a  sullicient  quantity  of  it  will  render  it 
refractory  to  rabies.  At  the  same  time  M.  Pasteur 
oliserved  that  the  freshest  spinal  marrows,  that  is 
tn  say,  the  most  virulent,  are  those  best  fitted  to 
confer  immunity  from  infection.  To  reiulcr  an 
animal  refractory  to  infection  the  treatment  com- 
mences by  inoculating  it  with  sjiinal  ciud  fourteen 
days  old,  then  with  that  of  thirteen  days,  and  so 


36 


HYDROPHOBIA 


on  till  spinal  matter  three  days  olil  is  reached,  two 
days,  one  day,  and  even  such  as  is  not  yet  one  day 
old.  The  liust  may  he  introdnced  into  the  snhjeit 
of  experiment  without  danger,  hccause  it  is  already 
refr:vctory. 

AVIiat  gives  this  discovery  an  enormous  value  is 
that  these  preventive  inoculations  made  on  an 
atiiinal  early  enou,L,'h  and  swiftly  enough  after  it 
has  heon  bitten  prevent  raljies  from  declaring 
itself.  This  is  explicable  on  the  following  grounds  : 
The  virus  is  deposited  by  the  dog's  I>ite  in  a  super- 
ficial wound  :  there  it  meets  w  ith  little  nerve- 
filauients  in  which  it  is  further  cultiv.ated,  and  by 
means  of  which  it  ascends,  somewhat  slowly,  to 
the  nervous  centre.s.  The.se  nerve-centres  are  the 
quicker  affected  the  nearer  to  them  the  bite  has 
been  inflicted  :  hence  bites  on  the  head  produce 
rabies  after  a  shorter  period  of  incubation  than 
bites  on  tlie  extremities  of  the  body.  If  there  is 
time  to  render  the  organism  refractory  by  means  of 
the  preventive  inoculations  before  the  nerve-centres 
are  ivllerti'il  the  victim  is  saved  ;  the  nerve-centres 
once  ali'ected  and  destroyed,  it  is  evident  that  no 
power  of  man  can  bring  about  a  cure. 

What  out'ht  to  be  done  when  any  one  is  bitten 
by  a  mad  dog  is  this.  The  wound  made  by  the 
dog's  teeth  should  be  cauterised  as  soon  as  possible, 
and  deeply  too,  so  that  if  possible  the  virus  may  be 
destroyed  before  it  has  begun  to  cultivate  itself 
in  the  nervous  system.  Then,  if  it  is  certain  that 
the  animal  which  inflicted  the  bite  is  mad,  or  if 
there  is  good  reason  so  to  believe,  tlie  victim  sliould 
be  sent  as  sjieedily  as  practicaljle  to  the  nearest 
'Anti-rabic  Institute.'  It  is  obvious  that  his 
safety  depends  on  the  quickness  w^ith  which  tliLs  is 
done.  It  is  also  obvious  that  bites  on  the  head  are 
more  serious  than  bites  on  the  limbs,  inasnmch  as 
there  is  a  shorter  distance  to  be  traversed  ere  the 
nerve-centres  are  reached. 

How  can  one  make  sure  that  the  biting  dog  is 
mad  ?  If  possil)le  the  dog  should  lie  kept  under 
observation  without  being  killed  ;  for  it  is  much 
easier  to  recognise  rabies  in  a  living  animal  than 
by  the  earliest  post-mortem  examination.  The 
animal  will  change  its  character,  will  often  cease 
to  eat,  will  bite  everytliing  within  its  reach,  and 
will  sometimes  show  signs  of  p.aralysis,  its  hind- 

?uai'ters  and  its  lower  jaw  being  lirst  .attacked, 
n  such  cases  the  animal  will  inevitably  die  in  from 
three  to  four  days,  or  at  most  in  eight  days.  A 
post-mortem  examination  will  show  the  stomach 
empty  of  food,  and  containing  on  the  contrary 
foreign  substances  such  as  bits  of  wood,  stones, 
straw,  iSrc.  The  most  certain  w,ay  of  discovering  if 
a  ilog  was  really  mad  is  to  introduce  by  way  of 
inocul.ation  a  portion  of  its  medulla  under  the  (lura 
mater  of  a  rabbit.  The  rabbit  will  inevitably  be- 
come rabid  if  the  dog  was  rabid,  but  this  will  not 
take  place  till  after  lifteen  or  eighteen  days;  so 
that  it  would  be  imprudent  for  a  ])erson  who  had 
been  bitten  to  await  the  result  of  the  experiment 
before  beginning  to  undergo  preventive  inoculation. 

Statistics  of  the  proportion  of  deaths  by  hydro- 
phobia bad  never  been  properly  kept  up  to  the 
time  of  M.  Pasteur's  work  in  this  department. 
Few  doctors  actually  knew  this  terrible  nuilady. 
It  is  generally  said  that  of  a  hundred  jiersons  bitten 
by  mad  dogs  some  nineteen  or  twenty  ilic  of  hydro- 
phobia. This  figure  is  probably  too  low.  The 
mortality  amongst  cases  treated  at  the  I'asteur 
Institute  (established  Ijy  him  in  Paris  in  1881!)  has 
fallen  to  less  than  i  per  cent. 

[So  far  M.  Pasteur  has  sketched  his  discoveries 
and  practice  in  regard  to  rabies,  but  a  brief  un- 
argumentative  review  of  current  adverse  criticism  is 
also  requisite.  ( 1 )  As  a  working  hypothesis,  Pasteur 
a.ssumes  the  occurrence  of  a  specific  microbe  of 
rabies,    which    (in   spile  of   various  sanguine   in- 


vestigators) lias  not  yet  been  demonstrated.  In 
default  of  this  demonstration,  it  seems  lo  many 
that  both  the  practice  ami  the  theory  of  raliic 
inoculation  lack  security  and  conclusiveness.  (2) 
Again,  there  are  some  who,  while  believing  vaccin- 
ation to  be  empirically  justihed,  are  dis.xatislicd 
with  the  warrant  for  the  anti-rabic  treatment. 
They  urge  the  acknowleilged  divergence  between 
the  two  methods,  and  critici.se  the  jirinciple  on 
which  Pa.steur  works.  (3)  As  to  the  warrant 
furnished  by  Pasteur's  results,  it  is  argued  that  the 
statistics  are  unreliable — e.g.  because  many  of  the 
patients  inoculated  were  juobably  never  infected, 
because  in  genuine  cases  the  prevention  may  have 
been  due  to  lueliminary  cauterising  and  to  factors 
ajiart  from  the  anti-rabie  inoculation,  and  for 
various  other  reasons  which  forcibly  suggest  that 
in  drawing  inferences  from  statistics  the  sources 
of  error  are  indeed  nunu'ious.  (4)  Less  useful 
criticism  is  that  which  enii>hasi.ses  what  is  often 
true  of  progressive  medical  investigation — n.amely, 
that  there  have  been  failures  in  I'asteur's  treat- 
ment, that  certain  tent<ative  measures  weri!  con- 
fessedly futile,  that  there  have  been  striking 
changes  of  method,  and  so  on.  (o)  More  serious 
is  the  allegation  that  some  deaths  h.ave  occurred 
as  the  result  of  the  inoculations  rather  than  of  the 
infection  fioni  the  rabid  .animal.  Of  such  not 
altogether  unprecedented  casualties  the  possibility, 
but  not  the  actual  occurrence,  was  aclmitted  by 
the  EnglisI;  Investigation  ('ommittee  ( 1887),  while 
I'r  Armand  laill'cr,  who  speaks  with  much  author- 
ity, denies  (1889)  with  all  dcliber.ateness  that  there 
is  any  case  on  record  in  which  it  can  be  proved 
that  death  has  followed  as  the  result  of  Pasteur's 
treatment.  (C)  The  anlivivisectionists  have 
urged  .against  certain  imjilications  of  Pasteur's 
procedure  various  considcr.ations  which  merit  care- 
tul  discussion,  though  without  .special  bearing  on 
the  present  problem.  (7)  So,  too,  the  thorough- 
going anti-vaccinationists  are  of  coui'se  among 
the  critics  of  Pasteur,  but  their  .arguments  can  best 
be  dealt  with  in  connection  with  vaccine  inocula- 
tion, alxmt  which  we  know  at  least  a  little  more 
th.an  we  do  in  regard  to  the  anti-r.abic  preventive 
(see  V.\cci NATION).  (8)  Though  there  is  much  to 
be  said  on  both  sides,  tliose  who  are  willing  to  leave 
the  lu-oblem  to  the  experts  will  believe  meantime 
tb.at  Sir  James  Paget,  T.  Lauder  Hruiiton,  (leorge 
Fleming,  Sir  Joseph  Lister,  Kichard  tjiiain.  Sir 
Henry  K.  Koscoe,  .).  Burden  Sanderson,  and  \'ictor 
Horsley  h.ad  good  reasons  for  saying  in  the  Ke]iort 
which  they  luesented  to  parliament  in  18S7  :  'It 
m.ay,  hence,  be  deemed  certain  that  M.  Pasteur  has 
discovered  <a  method  of  protection  from  rabies  coni- 
])arable  with  that  which  vaccination  allords  against 
infecti<m  from  smallpox.' 

In  1889  a  Mansion  House  Fund  w.as  r.aised  in 
London  to  enable  poor  Fnglisb  sullerers  to  be  taken 
to  the  Institute  ;  nut  like  every  other  recognition 
of  Pasteur's  method,  the  scheme  w.as  reviewed  with 
keen  hostility  by  anlivivisectionists  and  anti- 
vaccinators.  In  18n(i  l)r  Paul  Gibier,  a  iiujiil  and 
assistant  of  M.  P.asteur,  opened  a  Pasteur  Institute 
in  New  York. 

See  Keport  of  a  Committee  on  M.  Pa-steur's  Treatment 
of  llydroiiliolii.i,  piTsciitcd  to  parliament.  Is,*;?.  For 
gciod  suMMiiaries  of  I'asttur's  method,  see  Dr  E.  Koux, 
Crooniau  Lecture,  Proc.  Hull,  ^o"-  "Ivi.  (Mny  188!!) ;  Dr 
A.  KufTer,  Brit.  Mctl.  Jour.  (Seplcnibcr  188'.i):  Vigiial, 
Brit.  Mid.  Jour.  (April,  May,  188li ).  Sec  also  piqiers 
by  I'iisteiir  in  (^omptcs  Jtcmtus  Acad.  Purix,  in  Bulletin 
dc  I'Arad.  dc  Mfd.  (from  1881  onwards),  in  tlie 
Auimlen  dc  I' Inntilut  Pasteur,  and  in  the  A'ln-  Iteiiew 
(N  vcmber  18S9).  See  also  LouIk  Ptmt'ur,  hist  Life  nnd 
Liiljnurs,  liy  his  fion-in-law  (tnms.  by  Lady  (laud 
Hamilton,  Lnnd.  1885).  Of  works  published  bi-furo 
Pjtsteur's  di.-coverit'K,  it  must  suffice  to  nietit  un  that  of 
I'linung.     I'or  criticisuis  of  Pasteur,  reference  may  bo 


HYDROPHYLLACE^ 


HYDROSTATICS 


37 


made  to  publications  of  the  Anti-Vivisection  societies 
( especially  Victoria  Street,  London ),  to  papei-s  by  Dr  A. 
Lutaud  in  the  Jour,  de  Mtiiecinc  tie  Paris;  Dr  T.  M. 
Dolan,  M.  /'<u<Uur  and  his  Milhods :  a  Critical 
AmiJ'isi.i  (Lond.  1SS<;):  Dr  C.  ■«".  Dulles,  J/«/iVa? 
HfC'iril  (New  York,  1SS6);  Dr  IL  Bigjjs,  The  Medical 
J\Vir.i  ( Pliili'delphia,  1886)]. 

IlydroilIiyllacCiP,  a  natural  order  of  herbs 
anil  iinslies,  containing  about  eighty  known  species, 
natives  chietly  of  the  colder  i>arts  of  America. 
None  of  them  .ire  of  importance  :  but  some  of  them 
are  favourite  ornaments  of  tlowerbordcrs,  particu- 
larly dilt'i'rent  sjiecies  of  Neniopliila. 

Hydrostatics  treats  of  the  equilibrium  of 
liquids,  and  of  their  pressures  on  the  walls  of 
vessels  containing  them.  It  is  a  purely  dynamic 
science,  and  concerns  itself  virtually  with  only  two 
of  the  many  physical  properties  of  liquids.  These 
are  density  and  mobility.  In  virtue  of  the  latter 
property,  a  liquid  has  no  tendency  to  conserve  its 
shape,  so  that  if  a  distorting  force  acts  on  it  it 
j-ields  without  any  tendency  to  recover.  It  has 
no  Ehisticity  (q.v.)  of  form.  Viscosity  (q.v.)  may 
retard  the  rate  at  which  the  distorting  force  takes 
effect  :  but  a  liquid  will  continue  to  change  form 
so  long  as  there  is  a  force  acting  on  it  which  is  not 
balanced  by  a  perfect  reaction.  Thus,  in  hydro- 
static problems,  nothing  of  the  nature  of  a  distort- 
ing force  is  taken  into  consideration.  All  pressures 
acting  on  portions  of  the  liqiiid  must  therefore  be 
perpendicular  to  the  surfaces  on  which  they  act ; 
ancl  equilibrium  requires  equality  of  pressure  in  all 
directions  at  any  point. 

The  fundamental  property  may  be  thus  stated  : 
When  a  pressure  is  exerted  on  any  part  of  the 
boundary  of  a  liquid  at  rest,  that  jjressure  is 
transmitted  undiminished  to  all  parts  of  the 
mass  and  in  all  directions.  Most  of  the  other 
propositions  of  hydrostatics  are  only  diflerent 
forms  or  direct  consequences  of  this  truth,  which 
may  be  proved  experimentally.  Suppose  a  close 
box  B  to  be  filled  with  water,  and  to  have  in- 
serted into  the  upper  cover  a  tube  a,  with  closely- 
fitting  plug  or  piston,  1  square  inch  in  area.  If  the 
piston  a  is  now  pressed 


ill 


down    upon    the    water 
with  a  force  equal  to  a 
pound  weight,  the  water, 
being  unauile  to  escape, 
_=.  will     react     upon      the 
^^S"  piston    with    the     same 
force ;    but  it  obviously 
will     not     press     more 
^'S-  !•  against   n  tiian   against 

any  other  part  of  the 
box,  therefore  every  square  inch  of  the  interior 
surface  of  the  liox  is  pressed  outward  with  the 
force  of  a  pound.  If,  then,  there  is  another  tube 
inserted  in  any  jiart  of  the  box  with  a  plug  of  the 
same  area,  as  at  6,  it  will  require  a  force  of  a 
pound  to  keep  this  plug  in  its  place.  (We  leave 
out  of  account  at  jiresent  the  pressure  upon  b 
arising  from  the  >i:cii//it  of  the  water  in  the  box 
above  it — i.e.  we  neglect  gravity  and  consiiler  only 
the  |)ressure  propagated  by  the  forcing  down  of 
the  plug  rt.)  However  many  plugs  of  the  same 
.-i/e  there  may  be,  each  will  be  pressed  out  with 
the  same  force  of  a  pound  ;  and  it  there  be  a  large 
plug  of  four  times  the  area,  as  at  r,  it  will  be 
pressed  out  with  n.  force  of  four  jiounds.  We  have 
only,  then,  to  enlarge  the  area  of  the  piston  c  to 
obtain  any  multiplication  of  the  force  exerted  at  a. 
If  the  area  of  v  is  1000  square  inches,  that  of  a 
being  I  square  inch,  a  pressure  of  one  ]iound  on  a 
becomes  a  pressure  of  1000  pounds  on  r  ;  and  if  we 
make  the  pressure  on  a  (me  ton,  that  on  c  will 
be  1000  tons.  Tlii.s  seemingly  wonderful  ninlti- 
plicatiun  of  power  has  received  the  name  of  the 


hydrostatic  jmradox.  It  is,  however,  nothing  more 
than  what  takes  place  in  the  lever,  when  one  pound 
on  the  long  arm  is  made  to  balance  100  pounds  on 
the  short  arm. 

If  the  pre-ssure  supposed  to  be  exerted  on  the  piston 
a  arise  from  a  pound  of  water 
poured  into  the  tube  above 
it,  it  will  continue  the  same 
though  the  piston  be  removed. 
The  pound  of  water  in  the 
tube  IS  then  pressing  with  its 
whole  weight  on  every  square 
inch  of  the  inner  surface  of 
the  box — downwards,  side- 
wise,  and  upwards.  The  ap- 
paratus called  the  hydrostatic 
icHovs  acts  on  this  principle 
(see  fig.  2).  It  consists  of  two 
stout  circular  boards  connected 
together  by  leather  in  the  , 
manner  of  a  bellows,  B.  The  ' 
tube  A  is  connected  with  the 
interior  ;  and  a  person  stand- 
ing on  the  upper  board,  and 
pouring  water  mto  the  tulie,  may  lift  himself  up. 
If  the  area  of  the  upper  board  is  1000  times  that  of 
the  tulie,  an  ounce  of  water  in  the  tube  will  sup- 
port 1000  ounces  at  W.  It  is  on  the  same  principle 
that  the  Hydraulic  Press  (q.v.)  depends. 

(1)  Equilibrium  of  Liquids. — After  this  explana- 
tion of  the  fundamental  properties  of  licpiids  it 
may  be  enough  to  state  the  two  conditions  of  fluid 
equilibrium  which  directly  flow  from  it.  ( 1 )  Every 
particle  of  the  liquid  must  be  solicited  by  equal 
and  contrary  pressures  in  every  direction  ;  otlier- 
wise  there  would  be  a  tendency  to  n^otion,  and 
therefore  motion  because  of  the  liquid  proijerty  of 
mobility.  (2)  The  upper  particles  at  the  free 
liquid  surface  must  form  a  surface  perpendicular 
to  the  impressed  force.  The  truth  of  this  is 
experimentally  demonstrated  by  the  horizontality 
of  the  surface  of  a  liquid  at  rest  under  gravity. 
It  can  be  shown  to  be  a  conseqiience  of  the 
primary  property  of  '  pressing 
equally  in  all  directions,'  for 
let  da  and  cb  be  vertical  lines, 
or  lines  in  the  direction  of 
giavity ;  and  ab  a  plane  at 
right  angles  to  that  direction, 
or  horizontal.  A  particle  of 
the  liquid  at  a  is  pressed  bj' 
the  column  of  particles  above 
it  from  a  to  d :  and  the  like 
is  the  case  at  b.  Now,  since 
the  liquid  is  at  rest,  these 
pressures  must  be  equal ;  for 
if  the  pressure  at  b,  for 
instance,  were  greater  than 
at  o,  there  would  be  a  How  of  the  water  from  a 
towards  b.  It  follows  that  the  line  (ul  is  ocpial  to 
be,  and  hence  that  dc  is  parallel  to  ab,  aiul  there- 
fore horizontal.  The  same  might  be  proved  of  any 
two  points  in  the  surface  ;  therefore  the  whole  is 
in  the  same  horizontal  plane. 

( 2)  Pressure  of  Liquids  on  Surfaces. — The  general 
proposition  on  this  point  may  be  stated  thus  :  The 
pressure  of  a  liquid  on  any  surface  immei'sed  in  it 
IS  c(|ual  to  the  weight  of  a  column  of  the  liquid 
whose  base  is  the  surface  pres.scd,  and  whose  height 
is  the  perpendicular  depth  of  the  centre  of  j,'ravity 
of  the  surface  below  the  surface  of  the  liquid  (see 
C'EXTKE  OF  Pp.E.ssuiiE).  The  pressure  thu.,  exerted 
is  independent  of  the  shape  or  size  of  the  vessel 
or  cavitv  containing  the  liquid. 

(.'!)  Uuoyaiici/  and  Flotation. ^As  a  coni>ci]ncr\ca 
of  the  proposition  regarding  the  pressure  of  liciuids 
on  surfaces  it  can  be  shown  that  when  a  solid  body 
is  immersed  in  a  liquid  its  loss  of  weight  is  equal 


Fig.  3. 


38 


HYDROSTATICS 


to  the  wei-lit  of  the  dt^nlaced  Hquid-i.e.  to  the 
wei"ht  of   iin   e.iual   bulk   of   luiiud.     1  lius,   it  a 
culnc  foot  of  the  liquid  «ei-hs  the  same  as  a  cubic 
foot   of   the   solid,    ihe   solid  will  ai.pear   to   have 
lost  all  its  weight,  aud   will  remain  lu   the    uiuid 
'vherever  it  is  put ;  if  a  cubic  toot  of  the  liquid 
^vei^Ih.  le.s  than  a  cubic  foot  of  the  solid,  the  solid 
Avilf  aopear   to  lose  part  of   its   weij,'ht,   and  will 
sink  :  but  if  a  cubic  foot  of  the  liquid  weighs  uioie 
than  a  cubic  foot  of  the  solid,  the  immersed  solid 
will  not  only  lose  all  its  weight,  but  will  ai'pear  to 
be  dominated  by  a  "c</«<«-c  weight    being  uiged 
upwards  to  the  surface  of  the  liquid   by  a  foice 
equal   to  the  ditlevence  of  the  weights  of  the  dis- 
placed liquid  and  the  solid.     In  this  last  ca^e  the 
solid  will  rise  until  it  swims  or  Hoats  on  thesurface 
of  the  liquid,  the  amount  ot  solid  imniersed  in  this 
final    state    of    equilibrium    being 
determined  bv  the  obvious  principle 
that     a    floating    body    must    be 
liuoved  up  bv  a  force  equal  to  its 
own   weight.'    Here    again,   then, 
[he    solid    seems    to    lose    all    its 
weight,  which  loss  must  be  simply 
the'^wei'^lit  ot  the  displaced  water. 
Thus  in  tig.  4,  where  AB  represents 
a  tloating  solid,  the  water  displaced 
by  the  immersed  part  B  is  equal  in  weight  to  the 

whole  solid.  ,      ,         ^  ^  j.i,„ 

As  the  buovancv  of  a  body  thus  depends  on  the 

relation  between 'its  weight  and  the  weight  of  an 

equal  bulk  of  the  liquid,  the  same  body  will   he 

more  or  less  buoyant,  according  to  the  density  of 

the  liquid  in  wliich  it   is  immersed.     A  piece  ot 

wood  that  sinks  a  foot  in  water  may  sink  barely 

an  inch  in  mercury.     Mercury  buoys  up  even  lead. 

Also  a  body  which  would  sink  of  itself  is  buoyed 

up  bv  attaching  to  it  a  lighter  body  ;  the  bulk  is 

thus"  increased'"  withcit   proportionally   increasing 

the  wei-ht.     This  is  the  luinciple  ot  lite-preservei-s 

of    all   kinds.     The  heaviest  substances    may    be 

made  to  lloat  bv  shaping  them  so  as  to  make  them 

disiilace  a  voluine  of  water  greater  than  the  bulk 

of   their  own    solid   substance  immersed.     A  Hat 

plate  of  iron  sinks  ;  the  same  plate,  made  concave 

like  a  cup  or  boat,  floats.     It  may  be  noted  that 

the  buoyant  property  of  liquids  is  independent  ot 

their  depth  or  expanse,  if  tiiere  be  only  enough  to 

surround  the  object.    A  few  pounds  of  water  nimht 

be  made  to  bear  up  a  body  of  a  ton  weight ;  a  ship 

floats  as  high  in  a  small  dock  as  in  the  ocean. 

(4)  HtahUiiii  of  F/rnUint/  Bodies.— Concave  ahd 
(iv   o)  to  ho'a'portion  of  a  liquid  turned  solid, 


St. 


for  the  mass  of  solid  water  ahd,  the  support  ng 
pressure  or  buoyancy  of  the  water  around  it  '.  st 
l)e  the  same  ;  hence  we  conclude  that  when  a  li 'ily 
is  imniersed  in  a  liquid  the  buoyant  iiiessure  is  a 
force  equal  to  the  weight  of  the  Ikiuk  displa. v.l 
and  acting  in  the  vertical  line  through  the  ccntr.-  ot 
gravity  of  the  space  from  which  the  iKpiid  is  <lis- 
placeil".  This  point  may  be  called  the  venire  of 
hiioi/ioirjl.  .J 

We  may  suppose  that  the  space  old  is  occupiett 
by  the  inuuersed  part  of  a  floating  body  hcOk  {  sg. 
5").     The  supporting  force,  ct,  is  still  the 
same  as   in   the  former  ca.se,   and   ads 
through  c,   the  centre  of  gravity  of  the 
displaced  water  ;  the  weight  of  the  biuly         ^ 
must  also  be  the  same :  but  its  point  ot 
application  is  iiowc',  the  centre  of  graviiy 
of  the  whole  liody.     "When  the  body  l^■ 
floating  at  rest  or  in  a  state  of  equili-       'J 
briuni,   this  point  must  evidently  be  in     y,g.  0, 
the  same  vertical  line  with  c  :  for  if  the 
two  forces  were  in  the  position  of  cs,  eg  ("o-  •>'' 
they  would  tend  to  make  the  body  roll  over,     llie 
line  passing  through  the   centre   of  gravity  ot    a 
floating  body  and  the  centre  of  gravity  of  the  dis- 
placed water  is  called  the  axis  of  flotation. 

A  floating  body  is  said  to  be  in  staole  equili- 
brium when,  on  suffering  a  slight  dis|,hKeiu(nt,  it 
tends  to  regain  its  original  position.  Ihe  condi- 
tions of  stability  will  be  understood  from  the 
accompanying  tigures.     I'ig.   7   represents  a  lioUy 


but  unchanged  in  bulk  ;  it  will  evidently  remain 
at  rest,  as  if  it  were  still  liquid.  Its  weight  may 
be  represented  bv  the  f.uce  r,/,  acting  through  its 
centre  of  gravity  c  ;  but  that  force  is  balanced  by 
the  upward  pressure  of  the  water  on  the  diflerent 
parts  of  the  un.ler  surface  ;  therefore,  the  resultant 
of  all  these  elementarv  pressures  must  be  a  force, 
cs,  exactly  equal  and  opposite  to  «/,  and  acting 
through  the  same  point  -■,  otherwise  the  body 
w.Mihrnot  be  at  rest.  Now,  whatever  other  bod> 
of  the  same  size  and  shape  we  suppose  substituted 


I'iL'.  8. 


floating  in  equilibrium,  G  being  it^  ^en'^,  "f 
.'lavitv,  B  its  centre  of  buoyancy,  and  At.l.  the 
Sxls  of  flotati.m,  which  is  of  course  vertical.  In 
fi.r  8  the  same  body  is  represented  lus  pusheo  01 
I  dmwn  slightly  from  the  perpendicular,  /'''-fl'fe 
of  the  immersed  portion  being  now  a  teied,  t  le 
centre  of  buoyancy  is  no  longer  111  tlie  axi-  ot 
fl!"iic    but   t.;  one  side,   as    at    B.      ^o.v,   it    is 

evident,  that  if  the  line  0/  <'i>f  *"">"/''•;. ''i;:Xe 
pressure-i.e.  a  vertical  line  through  l.->"ett--  e 
axis  above  the  centre  of  gravity,  a.s  at  M,  the 
tendency  of  the  two  forces  is  to  bring  "'^  •;>^'';  '  » 
its  original  position,  and  in  that  <»--;■  ''»=  '^'i' ,"• 
brin",  of  thJbody  is  stable.  .But  if  ^^^-^^  ]^ 
axis  below  G,  the  tendency  is  to  bring  the  .  xis 
furlher  and  further  from  the  vertical,  >>■'.', .''f 
body  "Ct  into  some  new  position  of  e(|Uilihi!..m. 
There  "is  still  another  case  ;  the  line  of  sii|.pori  or 
buoyancy  may  meet  the  axis  in  G,  and  then  the 
two"  forces  counteract  (me  another,  and  t  e  1.  d.> 
remains  in  any  l.osition  in  which  it  is  put;  the 
body  is  then  said  to  be-  in  m-,>tnd  cquilibnum.  In 
a  floating  cvlin.ler  of  wood,  for  instance,  1  IS 
always  right'under  G,  in  whatever  way  the  cyln  der 
is  lined."  When  the  angles  through  wlocl.  a  1  oa  - 
in-  body  is  made  to  r.dl  are  small  the  po  nt  -M  is 
"(^Tirlv  constant.  It  is  called  the  »„■  «.v„/rr  ;  ^>..d 
its  i>ositi.m  may  be  calculated  for  a  bo.ly  »l  gnen 
weight  and  dimensions.  In  the  <;;'■'«"■'•<;'"'•'  '.^ 
lvdi7.-of  ships  it  is  an  object  to  have  the  eel  tie 
';}  "avitv  as  low  as  possible,  in  ord..r  that  U  .  niy 
be  always  beh)W  the  metacentre.  W^th  this  VKW 
i  heavy  inaterials,  in  the  shajie  of  balhu-t,  are  placed 


HYDROSULPHURIC    ACID 


HYDROZOA 


39 


in  the  bottom,  and  tlie  lieaviest  jiortioiis  of  the 
car;ro  are  stowed  low  in  the  hold.  See  Specific 
Gii.wnv. 

llydrosiilpliiirir  .Ichl.    See  Sulphur. 

Ilydrolliorax  (ileiived  from  hijth'if,  'water,' 
and  tliiini.i-,  "the  chest')  is  tlie  term  applied  to 
dropsical  collections  in  the  pleura.     See  Drop.sv, 

PLlilKISV. 

Ilydrozoa.  one  of  the  main  divisions  of  the 
phylum  or  suli-l<inj,'ilom  Cielenterata  (q.v.),  the 
other  two  lieing  Ctenophora  (q.v.)  and  Anthozoa 
or  .\clinozoa  (q.v.).  Two  anim.al  forms  (zooids), 
reilui'i'ile  to  (me  common  plan,  are  |iresent,  which 
often  alternate  in  the  life-liistory  of  the  individual. 
t)f  one  of  these,  the  Hydroid  or  Polyp,  the  common 
fresh- water  Hydra  (q.v.),  may  Ije  taken  as  the  sim- 
plilied  type:  the  other  is  the  Jlediisa  or  jelly- 
Jisli.  It  is  only  in  this  latter  or  in  .some  degenerate 
form  of  it  that  sexual  orjrans  are  i>roduced  (except 
in  the  case  of  Hydra).     The  Hydrozoa  may  ho  free 

or  lixed.  simple 
or  colonial,  and 
these  variations  in 
habit,  along  with 
the  existence  of 
two  kinds  of  zooids 
just  referred  to, 
render  their  con- 
stitution so  com- 
plex that  it  will 
be  advantageous 
to  describe  briefly 
one  or  two  typical 
forms  before  giv- 
ing the  systematic 
airangenientof  the 
group. 

In  the  ca.se  of 
Sarsia  the  egg  pro- 
duced by  the  jelly- 
fi.sli  develo]is  fii-st 
into  an  ovoid  cili- 
ated cellul.ir  larva 
(plt()ni/«),  which 
attaches  itself  to 
some  so!M  object  by  one  end,  whilst  the  other 
grows  into  a  ])olyp  with  mouth  and  tentacles,  a 
colony  being  afterwards  produced  by  budding.  In 
the  most  essential  i)oints  of  its  stnicture  the  Hydra 
may  be  re<rarded  as  the  type  of  these  |)oly|)s ;  the 
tentacles,  however,  are  solid,  and  arranged  in  more 
than  one  circli^  ;  they  have  club  shaped  ends  beset 
with  thread-cells.  The  name  Syncoryne  has  been 
gi\en  to  the  jiolyps  of  this  genus.  Upon  the  walls 
of  the  e.xpanded  extremities  appear  buds,  each  of 
which,  gradually  enlarging  and  assuming  the  struc- 
ture of  a  Medusa,  drojjs  oil'  when  rijie  and  lea<ls  an 
independent  existence.  It  consists  of  a  high  bell, 
the  mouth  of  wliich  is  partly  closed  by  a  circular 
veil  attached  round  its  margan.  The  clap]ier  of  the 
bell  (mniiiihrium)  is  long,  cylindrical,  and  con- 
tractile, and  has  a  mouth  at  its  extremity  leading 
into  a  stoniiich  within  its  ba-se,  from  wliich  four 
canals  ra<liate  within  the  siil>stanee  of  the  bell. 
At  the  margin  of  the  bell  they  are  united  by  a  ring- 
canal,  and  beyond  this  they  are  produced  into  long 
hollow  contractile  tentacles.  Near  the  origin  of 
these  from  the  ring-canal  are  situated  eyes,  which 
are  not  merely  sensitive  to  light,  but  capable  of 
vision.  A  douiile  ner\'e-cord  passes  along  the  ring- 
canal,  and  sexual  org.ans  are  developed  in  the  wall 
of  the  mamibrium.  The  inner  ami  outc!r  surfaces 
of  the  bell  are  covered  with  ectoderm,  whilst  the 
cavity  of  the  stomach  and  th(^  canals  leading  from 
it  are  lined  with  ciliated  endoderm.  There  are 
ectodernial  muscles  in  the  sub-umbrella.  The  eggs 
produced   by   the   juocess  of   sexual    re]iroilucti(m 


Fig.  1. 
a,  Syncoryne  frutescens  (re<iuced):    b, 
branch  of  same  ( tnagnified ) ;  c,  ikLrsia, 
Medusa  of  same,  shortly  after  libera- 
tion.   (After  Alliiian.) 


develop  into  polyps  and  tlie  wliole  life-circle  is 
repeated. 

In  certain  cases  the  Medusa  or  sexual  person, 
instead  of  liecoming  free,  has  rem.ained  attached  to 
the  Hydroid  p<dyp,  and  under  such  circumstances 
has  undergone  more  or  less  degeneration.  It  may 
(1)  present  the  princijial  structural  features  of  a 
Medusa,  excejit  that  it  is  moutliless,  and  that  it 
has  the  form  of  a  closed  sac  owing  to  the  adhesion 
of  the  margins  of  the  bell  ( 'adelocodonic  gono- 
phore'  of  Allman),  or  (2)  it  may  be  merely  a  bud 
containing  sexual  products  ( '  sjiorosac  ' ). 

A  nrclia  amita,  one  of  the  commonest  jcny-fishcs 
of  our  coasts,  may  be  selected  as  an  exampl<!  of  a 
Medusa  of  (piite  dill'erent  structure.  The  liell  is 
tiattened,  thickest  in  the  centre,  and  notched  round 
the  margin.  The  manubrium  is  split  up  into  four 
long  pointed  processes  with  fringed  margins,  and 
from  the  stomach  aiul  from  its  four  saccular 
exi>ansions  there  proceed  eight  unbranched  canals, 
and  eight  which  bifurcate  several  times,  and  are 
united  by  a  marginal  ring-canal.  Four  ring-  orear- 
shape<l  reproductive  glands  are  developed  in  the 
base  of  the  stomach,  but  hang  down  on  the  lower 
.surface  of  the  bell.  In  each  of  the  eight  marginal 
notches,  which  conespond  to  the  main  stems  of  the 
branched  canals,  is  a  so-called  '  marginal  corpuscle,' 
or  sense-organ,  containing  an  otolith  and  a  ])ig- 
ment  mass.  These  sense-organs  appear  to  be  nerve- 
centres,  and,  by  their  connection  with  a  nervous 
plexus  in  the  suVi-umbrella,  to  control  the  move- 
ments of  the  animal  :  there  is  no  closed  nerve-ring. 
Between  the  marginal  corpuscles  are  a  large  number 
of  short  tentacles.  The  egg  gives  rise  to  a  ciliated 
pl.anula,  which,  after  swimming  freely  for  some 
time,  becomes  fixed  and  gives  rise  to  a  polyp 
(Scyphistoma)  wliich  ha*^  at  first  four,  then  eight, 


Fig.  2. — -iurelia  auritii  (reduced). 

and  then  many  tentacles.  Pour  internal  septa, 
reaching  from  the  base  to  the  margin  of  the  mouth, 
divide  the  cavity  of  the  polyp  into  a  central  -space 
aiul  four  lateral  recesses.  Usually  the  polyp 
undergoes  a  series  of  transverse  constrictions, 
which  produce  a  series  of  Medusoe,  which  are  set 
free  after  the  tentacles  of  the  polyp  have  been 
absorbed.  The  organism  in  this  stage  is  known  as 
,a  Strobila.  After  a  whole  series  of  Medusa-  has 
been  thus  set  free  the  polyp  can  form  tentacles 
afresh,  and  the  whole  process  can  be  repeated.  The 
Medusa'  when  first  set  free  have  neither  arms, 
marginal  tentacles,  radial  canals,  nor  reproductive 
organs,  so  that  they  have  to  undergo  a  complicated 
development  in  the  free  state. 

The  Hydrozoa  are  widely  distributed,  and  all 
marine,  with  few  exceptions  (e.g.  Hydra,  f'ordylo 
idiora).  The  Hydroid  polyjis  and  colonies  are 
attached  to  foreign  substances,  the  Medusa'  ami 
Siphonophora  are  free-swimming,  in  most  ciises 
ne.ar  the  surface,  though  certain  forms  apjiear  to 
be  denizens  of  deep  water  ( I'ectis,  Ntaujihanta, 
Hhodalia).  They  are  carnivorous,  and  some  are 
beautifully  phosphorescent  ( I'elagia,  Diphyes).  A 
few  are  fossil — e.g.  the  paUeozoic  Graptolitidas  and 


40 


HYfeRES 


HYGIENE 


Stromatopoiulte,  and  soine  Medusa;  fioin  the 
Jurassic  period,  and  some  from  the  Clialk.  Tliere 
are  about  1000  species,  arrau^'cJ  \iiuler  some  350 
genera,  wliich  may  be  chussilied  as  follows  : 

I.  Craspedota  (Hyilroiiiedusii;).— Hydroid  form,  either  free 
and  U'luponiry,  or  frte  or  lixcd,  simple  or  c(douial,  and  pcmia- 
neut.  Sometimes  tcntaculate,  tentacles  usually  solid  ;  luoulh 
prominent,  gastric  cavity  simple,  skeleton  usually  cliitinoid, 
rarely  calcareous.  Asexual  reproduction,  usually  by  gemma- 
tion. Medusoid  form,  with  tubular  manubrium,  and  an  in- 
turned  velum ;  sensory  organs,  ocelli,  or  auditory  organs.  It 
may  become  sessile  and  degenerate.  Se.xes  seimrate.  Almost 
all  marine. 

(i)  TrachynmliisK  (Monopsea,  Haplomorpha).— Free-swim- 
ming Jledusa^,  with  the  gelatinous  substance  of  the  disc  hard 
and  stitf;  no  hydriform  phase  in  development ;  tentacles  primi- 
tively solid  ;  auditory  vesicles  present.  Examples  :  Geryonia, 
iEgina. 

(ii)  i/i/(Zroirfm.— Hydriform  person,  with  small  polyps; 
generally  colonial,  with  a  chitinous  (rarely  calciireons)  exo- 
skeleton.  Sexual  only  in  Hydra.  Medusifonn  person  produced 
by  gemmation  from  the  hydriform,  often  degenerate.  (1)  Tubu- 
lariie  ( Gymnoblastea,  Anthomedusic),  hydriform  person  usually 
colonial;  no  special  receptacles  for  the  polyps  ( thccae ),  or  the 
medusiform  buds(gonangia);  sexual  organs  in  the  outer  or  oral 
wall  of  the  stomach.  Medusai  have  neither  utocysts  nor  tenta- 
culocysts,  but  ocelli  at  the  bases  of  the  tentacles  ;  and  are  of  the 
kind  known  as  Authomedus;e.  Examples  :  Tubularia,  Coryne, 
Cordylophora.  (2)  Campanulariie  (Calyptoblastea,  Leptome- 
dusaM,  hydriform  per-snn  in  permanent  colonies,  with  a  single 
circle  of  solid  tentacles ;  hydrothecie  and  gonangia  usually 
present ;  medusiform  persons  belong  to  the  division  Lepto- 
medusa-,  being  ilattened,  having  the  velum  feebly  developed  ; 
tentacles  2,  4,  6,  8,  up  to  several  hundred,  sometimes  with  ocelli 
at  the  base;  auditory  organs  sometimes  present:  sexual  glands 
in  the  radial  canals.  Examples :  Campanularia,  Sertnlaria, 
Pliunul.u-ia.  (3)  Eleutheroblastea,  colonies  not  permanent ;  no 
diflerentiated  gonophores.  Examples;  Hydra,  PrM^^.hydra. 
(4)  Hydrocorallia,  skeleton  calKtreons,  containing  the  Styla- 
steridse  and  the  Millepores  (q.  v.).  (5)  Rhabdophora,  containing 
certain  Cambrian  and  Silurian  fossils  known  as  Gmptolites  (  q.  v. ). 

(iii)  Siphonophora. — Pelagic  colonies,  with  several  diJfereut 
kinds  of  modified  polyps  or  Medns;f  (see  special  article). 

II.  AcBASPEDA  (Acalepha\  Scyphomedusa').— Medusje,  gener- 
ally of  considerable  size,  with  lobed  margin,  bearing  sensory 
spherules  ;  niaimbrium  square,  usually  produced  into  prolonged 
angular  lappets  ;  no  velum  ;  the  sexes  are  separate ;  nervous 
centres  in  the  marginal  sensory  bodies.  Hydroid  form  known 
in  but  few  instances ;  small  and  fixed,  mouth  surrounded  by 
a  disc,  provided  with  sixteen  or  more  solid  tentacles  ;  niultiijlies 
by  lateral  buds  on  a  creeping  shoot ;  Medusie  formed  from  it  by 
transverse  fission.     All  marine. 

(i)  Tessaronm, — Umbrella  high,  parts  disposed  in  fours,  four 
gastric  pouches.  (1)  Stauromedusa',  without  sensory  bodies. 
Example:  Lncernaria.  (2)  Peromedus;e,  with  four  sensory 
bodies,  disposed  between  the  principal  radii.  (3)  Cubomedusa;, 
with  four  sensory  organs,  placed  in  the  princii>al  radii,  four 
simple  tentacles,  and  eight  marginal  pouches.  Example ; 
Charybdea. 

(ii)  EphyroiiW!  (Discomedusse). — Umbrella  flattened,  parts 
disposed  in  eights.  (1)  Rhizostoma",  no  central  mouth, 
numerous  suctorial  apertures  on  eight  long  root-like  arms ;  no 
tentacles.  Example :  Crambessa.  (2)  Semostonne,  four  long 
arms  surrounding  a  simple  cruciform  mouth.  Example  : 
Aurelia.  (3)  Canuostonne,  no  arms  round  the  moutli.  which 
is  square ;  tentacles  solid,  usually  short.    Example  :  Nausithoe. 

In  addition  to  text-books  of  Zoology  in  general,  the 
following  works  may  be  consulted  :  Forbes,  Monograph 
of  British  Naked-eyed  Med  una;  (llay  Society,  Loud. 
1S48);  Agassiz,  North  Americayi  Acalephce  (Candj. 
U.S.A.  18fi.5) ;  Hincks,  British  Htjdroid  Zoophytes  ( ISiW) ; 
Albnan,  Monograph  of  Gymnohlastic  HyUroids  (Kay 
Society,  1872);  Report  on  the  Hiidroid<i  (Chatletujcr 
Reports,  Zoology^  parts  20  and  70,  1H83  and  1888) ;  Claus, 
Untersuchungcn  Ubcrdie  Organisation  and  Kntwirkdung 
der  Medusen  (1883) ;  Haeckcl,  Syntvm  der  Mcdusen 
(1871>-H1);  Deep-sea  Medusa'.  {Challenger  Kej)orts,  Zoo- 
logy, part  12,  18821;  Lendenfeld,  The  Australian  Hydro- 
medusie  (1885)  and  utlier  papers. 

Ilyfcrcs,  a  town  of  Provence,  in  the  French 
department  of  Var,  on  a  southern  hill-slope, 
crowned  by  a  ruined  castle,  3  miles  from  the 
Mediterranean,  and  13  E.  of  Toulon  by  rail. 
Embosomed  in  palm-jrrovos  and  oranf,'e-oichards, 
it  Is  celebrated  for  the  beauty  of  its  situation  and 
its  mild,  dry  clinnite,  and  is  tliercfore  yrowinj,'  more 
and  more  in  favour  a.s  an  invalid  re.sort  between 
Octidjcr  and  May.  An  Enj^lish  clnirch  was  built 
in  1881;  and  since  1875  f;reat  improvements  have 
been  carried  out  in  the  way  of  drainaj;e,  water- 
works, boulevards,  &c.  Massillon  was  a  native. 
Vop.  ( 1872)  5881  ;  ( 1891 )  8347.     Near  the  coast  lie 


the  wooded  lies  d'Hyeres  or  d"Or  (anc.  Staw/icie/cs). 
Here  the  heat  of  the  climate  is  tempered  by  ihe 
sea-breezes,  and  the  seascm  seems  an  eternjil  sprin;;. 
See  Denis,  llyircs,  ancicn  ct  ntoilcnie  (4tli  ed. 
Hy6ies,  1882). 

H J otography.    See  Kain. 

Hyii'ieia«  in  classical  mythology  the  goddess 
of  Health,  was  the  dauj;hter  of  -Esculapius.  She 
was  worshipped  at  Athens,  Corinth,  Argos,  and 
other  important  cities,  and  in  works  of  art  is 
usually  represented  as  a  virjjin,  with  a  snake,  the 
symbol  of  health,  wliich  drinks  from  a  cup  held  in 
her  hand. 

Hygiene  is  the  name  given  to  that  department 
of  inquiry  which  deals  with  the  catises  and 
prevention  of  disease  in  their  relaticm  to  the 
preservation  of  health.  As  thus  dehned,  hygiene, 
while  it  is  founded  on  medical  experience,  and 
while  it  is  advanced  by  medical  research,  stands 
out  clear  and  defined  from  the  ordinary  run  of  the 
science  and  art  of  medicine  which  deal  with  the 
cure  of  disease.  Tlie  aim  of  hygiene  is  to  ]irevent 
diseii.se  by  the  due  .tiipreciation  of  the  cau.ses  which 
induce  a  departure  from  the  normal  type  of  healthy 
life.  In  this  sense  it  has  well  been  named  Pre- 
ventive Medicine,  since  it  seeks  to  anticipate  the 
work  of  the  physician  by  its  endeavour  to  lemove 
the  causes  on  which  the  diseases  th.at  affect  man- 
kind depend.  Hygiene  iiresents  for  consideration 
two  chief  jdiases.  The  first  se(dion  of  J'cr.soiirtl 
Hi/f/iciie  relates  to  the  individual  as  a  unit  and 
to  liis  duties  in  the  maintenance  of  health,  and  in 
disease  prevention.  The  second  section  deals  with 
Public  Ilcaltli,  and  concerns  the  relations  which 
exist  between  masses  of  men  and  the  conditions  of 
liealthy  living.  In  the  lirst  case  the  study  embraces 
such  subjects  as  food,  clothing,  habits,  heredity, 
and  the  like,  which  relate  to  the  personal  history 
of  the  unit.  In  the  latter  ca.se  nygiene  has  to 
regard  the  community  and  the  nation,  and  to 
investigate  the  laws  under  which  disease  is  liable 
to  be  piopagated  by  the  ciicunislances  of  c(dlective 
life.  The  departments  of  hyitiene  which  ileal  with 
drainage,  healthy  houses,  ttie  removal  of  waste, 
and  the  pieventiim  of  infectious  disease  illustrate 
the  subjei-ts  with  which  the  public  .sanitarian  or 
health  officer  concerns  himself.  It  is  of  importance, 
however,  to  note  that,  as  regards  these  two  asjiects 
of  hygiene,  their  sco])e  is  by  no  means  so  restricted 
and  so  limited  as  the  terms  of  their  delinition 
might  seem  to  imply.  Por  jmblic  health,  as  may 
readily  be  shown,  can  only  be  advanced  by  the 
endeavours  of  individuals.  It  is  llie  individual 
and  personal  culture  of  health  which  not  only  nmst 
precede,  but  which  also  forms  the  fcmndation  of 
public  sanitation. 

The  history  of  hygiene  forms  in  itself  a  study 
of  much  interest,  and  teaches  ns  that,  like  most 
other  branches  of  modern  science,  that  of  health 
has  exhibited  a  gradual  evolution  and  a  cumu- 
lative ailvance.  Very  far  back  in  the  history 
of  mankind  we  may  trace  the  luesence  of  the 
ruling  idea  of  hygiene,  that  disca.se  could  be 
prevented  by  attenlicm  to  the  laws  and  conditions 
of  healthy  living.  That  the  hygienic  codes  of  the 
.lews  were  remarkably  full  and  comjilete  is  evident 
from  a  perusal  of  the  Mosaic  books  ol  the  Siriptnres. 
These  laws,  dealing  with  i|iiestions  of  food  an<l  feed- 
ing, with  the  isolation  of  the  sick,  and  with  the 
removal  from  camps  and  ilwelling-placcs  of  waste 
matters,  were  of  singularly  enlightene<l  character. 
The  modern  Jews  have  proliteil  by  the  attention 
]]aid  by  their  foref:ithers  to  (|uesti(ms  of  sanitation 
in  tlie  sh;ipe  of  their  greater  relative  limgevity, 
and  their  freedom  fnun  the  scouiges  anil  id.agues 
that  have  decimated  the  nations  amidst  which 
they  dwell.     The  great  desire  of  the  ancient  .lew 


HYGIENE 


41 


tlmt  liis  (lays  mij;lit  be  Ion,!,'  in  the  laiul,  and  that 
his  race  h-houlJ  ;,'i()\v  stiDii.L;  anil  inultiiily  exceeil- 
in.;;ly,  Iioic  a  very  oviileiil  relation  to  lii;'  ]>iactice 
of  those  liealth  hius  acconliii;^  to  wliioli  iiiiiiiunity 
from  disease  is  secured  and  hjiigevity  encouraged. 
So  that  early  enon<;li  in  the  phases  of  liunian 
developnient  and  civilisation  sanitary  science  began 
to  be  studied  in  view  of  its  obvious  ellects  upon 
both  jiei'sonal  and  national  welfare.  The  Greeks 
may  also  he  quoted  as  a  nation  given  to  make 
a  special  study  of  the  conditions  of  healthy  living ; 
but  in  their  case  the  culture  of  a  high  standard 
of  physique  probably  included  most,  if  not  all,  the 
points  to  which  this  ancient  pco])le  paid  attention. 
riiey  entertained  a  lofty  ideal  of  jihysical  beauty, 
and  attained  this  ideal  undoubtedly  through  the 
praelico  of  much  that  partook  of  tlie  character  of 
iiygienic  science.  Apart  from  this  bodily  culture, 
however,  the  Greek  was  not  a  sanitarian  in  the 
true  sense  of  the  terra.  He  was  visited  by 
epidemics  and  plagues,  which  were  regarded  as 
signs  of  displeasure  on  the  part  of  his  deities.  He 
made  no  attempt  to  discover  tlie  causes  of  these 
.scourges  or  to  arrest  their  course.  Sanitation  in 
lireece  of  old  was  therefore  more  a  thing  of  chance 
than  of  scientilic  nat\ire  ;  and  of  ancient  Home  the 
same  opinion  may  be  e.vpressed.  Great  publ-c 
works,  and  most  notably  those  connected  vitli 
water-supply  and  drainage,  were  certainly  under- 
taken and  carried  out  on  a  scale  of  magnirxence ; 
and  so  far  these  measures  must  have  auied  in  tiio 
maintenance  of  the  public  liealth ;  but  plagues 
were  frequent  and  loss  of  life  excessive  as  in 
ancient  Greece,  and  of  the  laws  of  liealth  as  we 
today  understand  that  term  the  classic  nations 
seem  to  have  been  nearly  ignorant.  Medicine 
itself  was  ot  course  in  iU  infancy ;  and  for  this 
reason — viz.  the  lack  of  knowledge  of  the  causes  ot 
disease — the  health  of  the  ancients  was  largely  a 
matter  of  chance. 

The  record  of  progress  in  health  science  naturally 
follows  the  course  and  track  of  ordinary  history, 
and  in  tliLs  respect  forms  a  most  interesting 
comment  on  the  social  advance  of  the  people.  The 
middle  ages  with  ourselves,  for  example,  beheld 
personal  health  neglected  and  public  health 
unknown.  Cleanliness  was  conspicuous  by  its 
absence;  the  'sanctity  of  dirt'  was  respected  by 
priest  and  people  alike ;  the  houses  were  built 
closely  togetlier ;  their  domestic  apj)liances  were  of 
the  rudest  description ;  ami  drainage  was  non- 
existent. The  conditions  of  ordinary  existence 
were  those  of  rapine  and  war,  and  under  such 
circumstances  it  is  not  wonderful  that  the  science 
which  ilevotes  itself  to  saving  life  should  scarcely 
have  made  its  inlluence  felt  at  all.  The  clearest 
proofs  of  the  utter  neglect  of  sanitation  were  to 
be  found  in  the  fevers  and  plagues  with  the  records 
of  whose  frightful  mortality  the  story  of  the 
iniildle  ages  teems.  Dr  Ciuy,  who  made  a  special 
stu<ly  of  the  history  of  the  epidemics  of  the  middle 
ages,  tells  us  that  in  the  l'2th  century  no  fewer 
than  fifteen  epidemics  and  many  famines  were 
recorded.  The  13tli  century  saw  twenty  plagues 
and  nineteen  famines;  while  the  14tli  beiicld  in 
its  early  i)art  eight  epidemics  and  a  succession 
of  famines.  In  1348  came  to  England  the  Black 
iJeath  or  Great  Pestilence.  As  the  result  of  this 
]d.iguo,  which  attacked  Europe  from  the  East, 
100,1)00  persons  died  in  London  alone.  In  Europe 
at  large  it  was  estimated  some  '2'>  millions  of 
persons  died  from  this  jilague.  Tlie  Sweating 
Sickness  attacked  England  in  1485.  This  wa.s 
a  plague  which  was  apparently  propagated  within 
the  bounds  of  our  own  land  by  the  liltliy  and 
impure  surroundings  of  the  people.  After  being 
attackecl  by  the  .sweating  sickness,  the  victim 
usually  died  within  twenty-four  hours.    It  attacked 


the  well-to-do  and  intemperate  livers  especially, 
and  a))i)cars  to  have  been  more  fatal  in  the 
case  of  men  than  of  women.  After  a  succession 
of  rea])pearanccs  this  epidemic  passed  away  in 
1551,  and  has  since  that  date  been  extinct.  A 
century  or  so  later(in  1606)  came  the  Great  Fire  of 
London,  a  catastrophe  whicli  was  not  an  unmixed 
evil,  since  it  cleared  away  the  Old  London  with  its 
foul  and  close  houses,  and  induced  the  erection  of 
a  new  and  more  sanitarily  built  city.  The  great 
lire  apparently  gave  the  ruiip  dc  i/rdrc  to  the  Great 
Plague,  which  prior  to  1606  had  swept  from  time 
to  time  across  the  country,  but  tlisappearcd  in  that 
year,  happily  to  return  no  more.  The  cessation  of 
the  epidemic  plagues  thus  enumerated  was  doubt- 
less due  to  tlie  abolition  or  modilication  of  the 
conditions  under  which  they  had  previously 
nourished.  Less  crowding  together  of  peojde  and 
of  their  dwellings,  a  freer  atmosphere,  and  a  greater 
measure  of  cleanliness  doubtless  acted  tlien  as 
now  in  abolishing  epidemics  ;  but  e%en  in  the  )8tli 
century  smallpox,  typhus  or  jail  fever,  scurvy, 
ague,  and  other  diseases  continued  to  be  only  too 
well  represented  as  legacies  of  the  ignorant  and 
careless  li\ing  which  characterised  the  preceding 
era. 

It  is,  however,  in  the  18th  century  that  hygiene 
begins  to  appear  on  the  social  horizon  with  sonie- 
t'  ..:g  of  clear  outline  and  defined  aims,  as  a 
ciistinct  branch  of  science,  pursuing  a  very  practical 
relation  to  the  lives  of  men.  The  Black  I)eath 
and  other  plagues  had  then  disappeared  as  we  have 
noted,  and  thus  the  chances  of  prolonged  life  had 
become  materially  iiicrea.sed  in  Britain  and  in 
other  European  countries  as  well.  The  sanitary 
historian  of  the  ISth  century  has  to  take  account 
of  at  least  three  great  names  as  those  of  fore- 
runners in  the  work  of  hygienic  progress.  Jclin 
Howaid  (q.v.),  the  philanthropist,  largely  based 
his  work  of  jail  reform  on  improvement  in  the 
terrible  state  of  these  p'.aors  of  detention.  They 
were  overcrowded,  and  liltliy  in  tlie  highest 
degree,  and,  as  a  consequence  of  these  condi- 
tions, typhus  fever  (which  is  a  disease  of  over- 
crowding) reigned  rampant  under  the  name  of 
'jail  fever.'  Howard  by  his  undaunted  efl'orts  suc- 
ceeded in  clearing  the  jails  of  this  jiest ;  and  to-day 
our  criminals  reap  the  fruit  of  Howards  phil;ui- 
tliropy  in  the  fact  that  the  jail  now  ranks  in  reality 
as  the  healthiest  of  dwelling-places.  It  is  no 
exaggeration  to  say  that  if  our  homes  could  be 
renclered  sanitary  to  the  same  extent  as  are  the 
jails  of  our  land,  the  death-rate  would  be  speedily 
reduced  to  a  minimum  compared  with  its  present 
amount.  Captain  Cook,  the  navigator,  stands  out 
as  the  second  of  the  sanitary  pioneers  of  last 
century.  He  it  was  who  iirst  showed  that 
s(-iir\y,  which  is  essentially  a  blood  dis(u-der,  and 
from  which  whole  ships'  crews  used  to  remain 
prostrate  in  long  voyages,  was  due  to  improper 
feedini^.  In  one  of  his  voyages  Anson  lost  GOO 
out  of  900  men  from  scurvy.  Cook  in  a  three 
years'  voyage  lost  only  four  hands  out  of  11 S,  and 
not  one  of  these  four  deaths  was  due  to  the 
seaman's  pest.  He  showed  that  in  the  absence  of 
fresh  vegetables,  lime-juice  should  be  served  out 
regularly  to  ships'  crews  (see  ScURVV).  To-day 
Captain  Cook's  discoveiy  is  duly  acted  upon 
in  the  case  of  long  voyages ;  and  the  extinction 
of  scurvy  in  this  fashion  may  be  regarded  as 
parallel  in  importance  to  the  prevention  of 
ague  through  tlie  draining  of  the  swamps  and 
morasses  amid  the  decaying  ^•e';etation  of  which 
the  ague  germs  breed  and  mnlliply. 

The  third  discovery  of  importance  in  sanitation 
in  the  ISlli  century  introduces  us  to  a  feature  in 
diseaiio  prevention  which  demands  especial  notice, 
because  of  the  renewed  importance  which  the  [irin- 


HYGIENE 


ci]>le  in  question  has  acquired  in  our  own  days. 
This  feature  maybe  called  that  of  the  mot/ificdtion 
of  disease.  It  be^an,  doubtless,  far  back  in  the 
history  of  eastern  nations,  if  we  are  to  credit  Himlu 
records,  but  in  I7'2()  Lady  Mary  Wortley  Afontagu, 
wife  of  the  Knjjlisli  ambassador  to  Turkey,  intro- 
duced it  to  the  notice  of  En.i,'lish  physicians 
untler  the  name  of  inorit/iit/o/i.  Tliis  pr.actice  tiame 
into  vogue  a.s  a  preventive  of  smalljiox  in  its 
pristine  severity.  Here  smallpox  matter,  taken 
from  the  jjustnles  of  a  jierson  sufl'ering  from  that 
ailment,  was  inoculated  into  the  bodies  of  healthy 
persons.  The  result  as  a  rule  was  that  they  acquired 
a  mild  attack  of  the  disease,  .uid  this  attack  was 
found  to  prevent  a  future  invasion  of  sinall])ox. 
Inoculation  undimbtedly  did  not  limit  the  spread 
of  .smallpox — indeed,  as  can  be  seen,  it  favoured  its 
spread — but  it  undoubtedly  tended  to  modify  that 
loathsome  ailment,  and  to  ])r(!vent  the  dreadeil 
seal's  and  defomiities  which  resulted  from  the 
disease  in  its  full  vigour.  Later  on  came  Jenner's 
discovery  of  rami/iatioii.  This  practice  began 
about  1706.  Here  matter  taken  from  the  pustules 
of  cow-pox  was  used  to  'vaccinate'  the  human 
being,  the  result  being  that  a  mild  attack  of  cow- 
pox  (or  allied  disorder)  was  given  to  children,  and 
this  was  found,  and  still  is  fonnd,  in  the  vast 
majority  of  cases  to  be  pre\entive  of  smallpo.x. 
The  subject  of  vaccination  need  not  be  discussed 
here ;  reference  may  be  made  to  the  article  on 
that  subject ;  suttice  it  to  say  that  since  1840,  when 
vaccination  began  to  be  made  the  subject  of  legal 
enactment  in  Britain,  and  since  1853,  when  fi-ee 
vaccination  was  provided  for  the  poor  by  law, 
smallpox  has  deerefused  both  as  regards  frequency 
and  severity.  Li  1867  vaccination  was  made  com- 
pulsory for  infants,  and  at  the  present  time,  even 
if  it  has  not  ell'ected  a  universal  escape  from 
smallpox  attack,  we  may  congratulate  ourselves 
upon  a  tremeudons  saving  of  life  from  this  disease 
by  its  aid. 

The  advance  of  me<lical  science — and  especially 
the  jjrogress  which  has  been  made  in  microscopic 
research  into  the  causes  of  disease— together  with 
the  spread  of  education,  and  of  a  consequent  intel- 
ligent interest  in  health  science  among  the  people, 
has  tended  powerfully  to  awaken  national  endea- 
vour in  nuitters  both  of  personal  and  public  hy.giene. 
In  Britain  the  law  has  ste])ped  in,  and  has  provided, 
by  means  of  many  suitalile  enactments  ( 1848,  1875, 
iVc. ),  full  encouragement  in  the  pursuit  of  healthy 
life,  as  well  as  protection  against  health  dangers. 
Each  town  or  district  is  provided  with  its  medical 
otlicer  of  health,  and  with  its  sanitary  inspec- 
tors, whose  duties  comprehend  the  abolition  of 
nuisances  and  the  general  supervision  of  drain- 
age and  other  sanitary  details.  To-day  it  may 
be  said  that  we  possess  a  very  fairly  "equipiieil 
stall'  of  health  experts  in  every  large  town,  able 
and  eager  to  assist  and  advise  the  citizens  in  the 
discharge  of  their  manifest  duties  to  themselves  and 
their  neighbours  in  the  observance  of  hygienic 
rule.s.  One  of  the  most  important  eii.actmeiits,  for 
instance,  is  represented  by  the  law  which  in  many 
towns  inakes  compulsory  the  notification  to  the 
authorities  of  every  case  of  contagious  disease  which 
falls  nmler  the  notice  of  the  householder  or  medical 
attcudaut  or  both.  In  this  way  it  is  sought  to 
limit  the  spread  of  those  infectious  ailments  which 
add  so  largely  to  the  deatbiate  each  year.  The 
authorities,  being  early  informed  of  the  ajipearance 
of  any  cases  of  these  diseases,  can  take  prom])t 
nieiusures  for  their  isolation  and  their  removal,  if 
neeil  be,  to  hospital.  One  case  of  smallpox,  of 
typhus  fever,  or  of  scarlet  fever  may  readily 
become,  by  neglect,  the  parent  of  thousands  (if 
cases,  witli  a  probable  mortality  frightful  to 
contemplate ;  whereas  by  proiniit  isolation  of  the 


fii'st  case  or  cases  niiseiy,  pain,  loss  of  money, 
and  chances  of  death  may  be  saved  to  thou- 
sands. The  seaports,  too,  are  now  narrowly 
watched  by  the  health  oHicers  of  these  ports,  and 
suspicious  cases  of  illness  on  vessels  arriving  in 
hariKmr  are  at  once  dealt  with.  Cholera,  it  may  be 
mentioned,  which  has  run  unchecked  on  the  con- 
tinent of  Euro]ie  on  sever.al  occasions  within  late 
years,  has  thus  been  warded  oil'  from  the  Uritish 
coasts  by  the  active  supervision  of  the  health 
authorities  at  the  ports. 

Within  the  sphere  of  the  home  health  science  has 
made  of  late  years  satisfactory  ])rogress.  The  prin- 
cii)le  of  safe  and  sanit.ary  drainage,  whereby  a 
himse  can  be  trapped  off  ciliciently  from  the  public 
sewers,  and  the  inroads  of  sewer-gas  (giving  rise  to 
tyiihoid  fever  and  other  ailments)  prevented,  is 
beginning  to  lie  everywhere  lu'actised.  I'lunibers 
are  now  encouraged  to  undergo  examinations,  insti- 
tuted first  of  all  by  the  Plumbers'  Company  of 
London,  and  to  acquire  thereliy  certilieales  of 
registration  showing  their  knowledge  of  the  prin- 
ciples on  which  house-drainage  should  be  con- 
structed. The  vile  '  scanii)ing  '  work  in  the  matter 
of  drains  so  prevalent  in  f<irmer  years,  and  so 
fraught  with  danger  to  the  inmates  of  houses,  it  is 
to  be  liojied  will  be  effectually  banished  from  our 
midst.  Here,  as  elsewhere,  in  sanitary  science,  the 
intelligent  interest  shown  by  the  public  in  hygiene 
is  beginning  to  bear  fruit.  The  householder  is  no 
longer  content  to  leave  the  sanitary  arian.i:emeiits 
of  his  house  in  the  bands  of  ignorant  architects  or 
equally  ignorant  plumbers.  His  interest  in  his 
health  atiairs  and  his  demand  for  sound  sanitary 
work  is  a  species  of  demand  for  which  the  inevitable 
supply  is  forthcoming  in  the  shape  of  the  incieased 
attention  now  being  paid  to  the  construction  of 
closets,  baths,  drains,  lavatories,  iVc. ,  and  to  the 
efficient  ]irotection  of  the  house  from  the  inroads 
of  drain  ellluvia.  In  other  details  also  the  health 
of  our  homes  is  receiving  the  care  it  deserves. 
Questions  of  ventilaticm  and  of  lighting  are  being 
studied  anew,  and  the  warming  of  houses  is  no 
longer  left  to  clnince.  Personal  health,  which 
ranges  in  its  extent  from  questions  of  foods  and 
drinks  to  those  of  cleanliness  and  clothes,  is  not 
neglected  amid  the  general  improvement  in  hygienic 
educ.'itimi ;  so  that  the  outlook  in  health  iinestions 
is  on  the  whole  of  the  most  hojieful  kind.  Happily 
the  ])eople  at  large  are  beginning  at  length  to 
perceive  and  to  act  on  the  great  truth  that  only  by 
their  persimal  education  in  hygiene,  and  by  their 
knowledge  and  observance  of  health  hnvs,  can  they 
secure  the  length  of  days  which  of  old  it  was 
declared  Wisdom  bore  in  her  right  hand. 

As  a  final  jioint  deserving  of  nienti<m  in  re!ati(m 
to  the  ac(iuiienient  of  hygienic  knowledge  we  may 
refer  to  the  .spread  of  knowledge  regarding  the  exact 
causes  of  those  infectious  or  zymotic  diseases  to 
which  reference  has  already  been  made.  The.se 
disea.ses  include  such  ailments  as  smallpox,  ty]ilius 
fever,  cholera,  typhoid  (or  enteric)  fever,  measles, 
hooping-cough,  dijihlheria,  scarlet  fever,  and  like 
disorders.  That  they  are  responsible  for  a  very 
large  annuint  of  our  annual  mortality  is  a  stable 
fact,  and  it  is  interesting  to  note  how  the  better 
knowledge  of  their  cansntiim  bids  fair  to  enable  us 
to  cope  successfully  with  tlieir  attack.  It  is  now 
generally  admitted  that  e.-ich  of  these  diseases  arises 
from  a  specilic  living  particle  or  f/erm  which,  .sown 
in  the  body,  nmler  favourable  conditi(ms,  gives  ri.se 
to  the  disease  in  (piestiou.  Each  germ  is  derived 
from  a  previous  case  of  the  disease,  and  each  disease, 
nmler  ordinary  circumstances,  breeds  true — that  is 
to  say,  if  we  sow  smallpox  we  reaji  smalliiox,  and 
not  measles  or  scarlet  fever;  ami  so  with  every 
other  disease.  What  is  known  as  the  'germ  theory 
of  disease '  has  thus  come  to  assume  a  paramount 


HYGIENE 


HYGROMETER 


43 


filaoe  and  power  in  modern  hygiene.  Already  we 
lave  Ijeconie  iicquaiuted  with  the  specilio  germs 
of  many  disorders.  We  know,  for  example,  the 
BacilliiJs  tiibcniilosis,  or  germ  to  which  tuliercle  is 
due — consumption  or  jilithisiis  beiuf;  menly  a  form 
of  tubercle,  as  that  disease  atl'ects  the  liiii^s.  Tlie 
germ  of  relapsing  fever  is  aUo  knmvii,  and  that  of 
the  spleiiii-  fever  of  cattle  and  shee|)  has  been  \erv 
fully  studied.  The  tight  of  mankind  against  these 
fevers  and  allied  ailments  is  thus  in  reality  a  combat 
with  the  germs  to  which  they  owe  their  origin. 
All  attempts  to  limit  these  disordei-s  by  disinfection 
or  otherwise  are  directed  towards  the  destruction 
of  the  germs  which  are  given  oil'  from  each  case  of 
a  given  disease,  and  which,  if  allowed  to  escajjc  into 
air  or  water,  infallibly  spread  the  ailment  broadcast. 
The  knowledge  of  tlie  exact  origin  of  such  diseases 
is  therefore  a  powerful  weapon  in  the  hands  of  the 
sanitarian.  In  other  ways  than  by  germ-destruc- 
tion it  is  sought  to  protect  man  and  animals  against 
disease  attack.  Pasteur  and  others,  by  modifying 
the  germs  of  a  disease  (e.g.  those  of  splenic  fever) 
by  submitting  them  to  varied  conditions  of  tem- 
perature, &c.,  and  by  arliiicially  imipagating  tliem 
m  ai>propriate  solutions,  have  succeeded  in  produc- 
ing germs  of  altered  and  weakenetl  power.  These 
latter,  used  to  inoculate  animals,  produce  a  mild 
form  of  tlie  disorder,  which  protects  against  subse- 
quent attack  (see  Hydrophobia).  This  is  the 
latest  jiractical  development  of  tlie  germ  theory 
itself.  How  far  it  may  be  extended  to  jirotect  man 
against  his  enemies  in  the  shape  of  disea-se  germs 
the  future  alone  can  tell.  Meanwhile,  it  is  in- 
teresting to  reflect  upon  the  fact  that  there  is  at 
le:vst  a  possibility  of  the  abulition  of  many  of  the 
ailments  which  now  aH'ect  us  liy  the  combined  work 
of  attention  to  the  ordinary  laws  of  health  and  the 
promotion  of  a  high  standard  of  physical  develop- 
ment, and,  it  may  be  also,  by  the  work  of  science 
in  fortifying  us  by  inoculation  against  the  invasion 
of  our  disease  enemies. 

It  may  be  added  that  the  cause  and  advance  of 
sanitation  in  England  has  been  encouraged  and 
assisted  by  various  Health  Exhibitions  held  in 
London  and  elsewhere,  in  which  the  latest  sanitary 
inventions  and  appliances  were  shown.  One  of  the 
fruits  of  the  London  Health  Exhibition  of  1884 
was  the  publication  of  an  admirable  series  of  hand- 
books, written  by  eminent  sanitarians  and  phj-si- 
cians,  and  dealing  with  the  various  ])hases  of  public 
and  personal  health.  As  regards  the  advance  of 
sanitarj'  science  abroad,  Germany  has  long  evinced 
a  thorough  appreciation  of  the  advantages  of 
scientific  instruction  in  hygiene,  and  the  Sanitary 
Institute  at  Herlin,  presided  over  by  Dr  Kobert 
Koch,  is  in  its  way  a  model  of  wliat  such  an 
establishment  should  be.  Laboratories  for  the 
stuily  of  public  health  science  have  been  established 
in  connection  with  most  of  the  English  universities  ; 
while  the  Royal  College  of  Physicians  of  Edin- 
burgh and  the  Royal  College  of  Surgeons  of 
London  have  built  laboratories  specially  intended 
for  the  study  of  germ  life,  and  fur  bacteriological 
investigations  in  relation  to  the  production  of 
diseases  at  large. 

In  the  United  States  the  supervision  of  health 
matters  is  delegated  to  Boards  of  Healtli,  of  whicli 
one  exists  in  each  .state.  These  lioards  receive 
rejiorts  from  medical  oHicers  and  other  experts, 
and  publish  each  an  annual  report  containing  much 
suggestive  matter  for  the  guidance  of  healtli 
reformers  and  for  the  improvement  of  the  ))ublic 
health  at  lar^e.  Quar.mtine,  conducted  on  rational 
principlns,  with  the  rigirl  exclusion  of  diseases  liable 
to  be  imported  by  immigrants,  is  maile  a  notable 
feature  of  the  sanitation  of  the  United  States. 

See  tlie  articles  Bacteria.  liATiis,  Cooking,  Diet, 
Gehm   Theory,   Gymnastics,  Health-besobts,  Hos- 


pitals, Hydropathy,  Nursing,  Medicine,  Sewage, 
VentilatiiN,  AVater-slpply  ;  also  Parkcs's  Hmjitne 
(1J583);  {Jalton'i  Htallltv  Dicellin'/s  (1880);  G.  "Wilson's 
Manual  of  Ilugicne  (188G);  Coriield's  Htalth  (1880); 
the  iiresent  writer's  Manual  of  Health  Science  (188,")); 
Simon's  /-.'m/lish  Sanitar)/  IiislUutions  (18!K));  Sir)!. 
W.  MiclKirdsiiirs  Diseases  of  Modeim  Life,  The  Cvmmcn 
Health,  an<l  liis  life  of  Chadwick  ;  and  books  on  livgicne 
by  Stcplienson  and  Jlurpliy  (1892-93),  ■Vrillonyhby 
(i89.>),  and  Lelimann  (1893). 

Ilysroilieter  (Gr.  hygms,  'moist,'  mclroii, 
'measure'),  an  instrument  for  measuring  the 
quantity  of  moisture  in  the  atmosphere.  The 
earlier  forms  of  hygrometer  depended  upon  the 
property  possessed  by  some  substances  of  readily 
absorbing  moisture  from  the  air,  and  being  thereby 
changed  in  dimensions  or  in  weight.  Of  this  kind 
was  the  hair  hygrometer  of  Saussure,  in  which  a 
hair,  which  ex]iands  and  contracts  in  length  accord- 
ing as  the  air  is  more  or  less  moist,  was  niatle  to 
move  an  index  ;  a  similar  instrument  was  the 
whalebone  hygrometer  of  Dehic ;  but  as  other 
causes  as  well  as  moisture  affect  such  instruments 
they  afl'oid  no  accurate  indications.  The  most 
perfect  hygnometer,  theoretically,  is  that  of  J.  F. 
Daniell  (q.v. ).  It  consists  of  two  bulbs  connected 
by  a  bent  tube,  as  represented  in  the  figure,  and 
enclosing  a  theiniometer,  together  with  some  ether 
and  vapour  of  ether,  the 
air  having  been  expelled.  . 

The    bulb    b    is    covered        f  (  ^ 

with    muslin,    and    «    is        m  m 

either  blackened  or  coated 
with  metal.  The  obser- 
ver's hand  is  placed  foi-  a 
short  time  on  h,  to  drive 
the  ether  into  a,  leaving 
b  and  tlie  tube  filled  with 
vapour  of  ether.  A  little 
ether  is  then  dropped  from 
a  flask,  of  the  form  c,  on 
the  muslin-covered  bulb ; 

evaporation     instantly ^^ 

takes  place  and  produces 
a  cooling  of  b,  which  condenses  the  vaptmr  inside  ; 
a  fresh  evaporation  from  a  fills  the  vacuum,  which 
is  again  condensed  by  dropping  ether  on  b,  and  the 
process  is  repeated  till  the  temperature  of  a  is  so 
reduced  by  successive  evaporations  ( see  Evapor.a.- 
TION)  that  i/cw  begins  to  be  formed  on  the  outside 
of  tli(!  bull).  At  the  instant  this  occurs  the  height 
of  the  mercury  in  the  two  thermometers  is  accur- 
ately noted,  the  one  giving  the  dew-i)oint  tempera- 
ture, and  the  other  the  temperature  of  the  air. 
The  actual  quantity  of  moisture  contained  in  a 
cubic  foot  of  air  can  now  be  readily  found  from  the 
following  empiiical  formula  :  weight  of  moisture  in 

5656'2 
grains  =  ^gXJ  ^  P  >'  where  f  is  the  temperature  of 

the  air  at  the  time  of  observation,  and  p  (found 
from  tallies )  the  elasticity  of  vapour  at  the  tem|)era- 
ture  of  the  dew-point.  The  evident  defects  of  this 
instrument  are,  first,  its  rajiidity  of  operation,  so 
that  no  time  is  allowed  for  the  glass,  ether,  ami 
thermometer  to  come  to  the  same  temperature,  and 
in  conseniience  the  dew-point  is  given  higher  than 
it  actually  is  :  secondly,  its  costliness,  owing  to  the 
great  consumption  of  ether;  and,  thirdly,  its  uso- 
lessness  in  tropical  countries,  owing  to  tlie  dillicnlty 
of  preserving  the  ether  in  a  fluid  state.  Daniell's 
hygrometer  was  used  at  the  Royal  Observatory, 
Greenwich,  from  1840 — the  commencement  of 
meteorological  ob.servations — till  1847,  when  it  was 
sopeiseded  by  the  more  convenient  instrument,  the 
Wet  and  Dry  Hnlb  Thermometers.  This  instni- 
ment  consists  of  two  ordinary  thermometers  :  one 
has  its  bulb  bare,  and  thus  shows  the  temperature 
of  the  air ;    the  other  has  its  bulb  covered   with 


u 


HYGROSCOPE 


HYMN 


mvislin,  which  is  kept  wet  hy  a  cotton  wiclciUppinj; 
into  water.  Tlie  evajMnation  from  the  muslin,  ami 
conseiiuent  cooling  of  the  Imlli,  being  in  proiiortion 
ttt  tlie  dryness  of  the  air,  the  ditl'erence  between  the 
reailings'of  the  two  thermometers  is  greatest  when 
the  air  is  driest,  and  zero  when  it  is  completely 
saturated.  The  readings  of  the  thermometers  being 
taken,  the  elastic  force  of  vapour  at  the  dewpoiut 
is  calculated  by  the  formula  of  Dr  Apjohn : 

*''  ^  '■>  88  30'  *  '  •'  9(i  30' 
the  first  formula  to  be  used  when  the  wet  thermo- 
meter is  abo\e,  and  the  second  when  it  is  below 
the  freezing-point  (32=).  In  these  formula  F  is 
tlie  elastic  force  of  vapour  at  the  dew-point,  which 
has  been  determined  for  different  temperatures  by 
Kegnault  from  carefully  conducted  experiments  ;/, 
the  elastic  force  at  the'temperature  ot  evaporation 
(or  reading  of  wet  bulb) ;  d,  the  difference  between 
the  dry  and  wet  bulbs  ;  and  /(,  the  height  of  the 
barometer.  From  this  the  quantity  of  moisture  in 
a  cul)ic  foot  of  air,  iS;c.  can  be  found  as  before.  To 
dispen.se  with  these  troublesome  calculations  the 
lljigroincti-ic  Tiihlcs  of  Mr  Glaisher  may  be  used, 
e.\cept  in  very  dry  states  of  tlie  atmosphere,  such 
as  occasionally  occur  on  Ben  Nevis  and  very  dry 
climates,  when  Dr  Apjohn's  formula  must  be  used. 
Ilygrosoope  is  a  name  sometimes  given  to  an 
instrument  for  indicating  the  presence  of  moisture 
in  the  atmosphere,  without  measuring  its  amouiit. 
Hygroscopic  substances  are  those  which  imbibe 
moisture  and  become  coated  with  a  moist  fdm. 

Ilyksos,  or  SnErHERD  Kings.  See  Egypt, 
Vol.'lV.  p.  239. 

Ilyilieu,  or  Hymex^US,  in  Greek  Mythology, 
the  god  of  marriage  ;  but  originally  the  word  seems 
to  have  denoted  only  the  Inidal-song,  which  was 
sung  liy  the  companions  of  the  bride  as  she  went 
from  her  father's  house  to  that  of  the  bridegroom. 
The  god  Hymen  is  first  mentioned  by  Sappho. 
The  legends  "concerning  his  birth  and  descent  are 
various ;  hut  he  is  generally  said  to  be  a  son  of 
Apollo  and  some  one  of  the  Muses.  He  is  repre- 
sented as  a  youth  with  wings,  a  bigger  and  graver 
Cupid,  with' a  bridal  torch  and  a  veil  in  his  hands. 

IIjlll«'nop'ter!l(Gr.,  'membrane-winged'),  an 
order  of  insects,  including  («)  ants,  l)ces,  wasps 
( Aciileata) — witli  stings  ;  and,  in  a  lower  divis;;.'n, 
(6)  gall-flies,  saw-llies,  and  iclnu>umon-llies  (Tere- 
brantia),  in  which  the  abdomen  of  the  female 
beai^  a  boring  ovijjositor.  The  mouth  parts  are 
adapted  l)oth  for  biting  .and  sucldiig.  1  he  wings 
are  typically  four,  membranous,  and  with  com- 
paratively few  veins  ;  they  may  be  caducous  or 
absent ;  tlie  second  pair  is  always  smaller  than  the 
first.  The  metamorphosis  is  complete.  Iloth  in 
structure  and  intelligence  the  hymenoptera  occujiy 
a  high  place  among  insects,  and  indeed  among 
animals.  Their  characteristics  will  best  be  gathered 
from  the  .study  of  special  types.  See  AxT,  Bee, 
G.\i.L-FLV,  S.uv-i'LV,  Wasp,  and  Insects. 

llyilietlllS.  a  mountain  (3308  feet)  in  Attica, 
now  "called  Trelo  Vouni,  situate<l  to  the  south-east 
of  Athens,  was  famous  among  the  ancients  for  its 
honey  and  its  bluish  marble.  The  honey  is  still  in 
rejiute. 

llyillll.  The  usually  .accepted  definiti(m  of  a 
Christian  hymn  is  that  of  St  Augustine  :  '  Do  y(ui 
know  what  a  liymii  is?  It  is  singing  with  the 
praise  of  f!od.  If  you  pr.aise  God  and  do  not  sing, 
you  utter  no  hymn.  If  you  sing,  and  praise  not 
Goil,  you  utter  no  hymn.  If  you  praise  .anything 
which  does  not  pertain  to  the  ]iraiseof  God,  though 
in  singing  you  praise,  you  utter  no  liymn.'  The 
hymns  of  the  cliiircli  wliich  are  known  to  us  as 
existing   at  the  time    these  words    were  written 


(c.  415)  were  mainly  of  the  character  thus  de- 
lined.  With  tlie  spread  of  Christianity,  however, 
changes  took  place  which  gave  rise  to  another 
and  broader  meaning  to  the  hymn.  The  expansion 
of  church  life  and  the  develoiuuent  of  doctrine  and 
practice  required  that  fuller  liberty  should  be  ex- 
tended to  sacred  song.  The  outcome  of  this  expan- 
sion of  the  original  idea  and  form  of  the  hymn  has 
resulted  in  the  accumulation  of  vast  stores  of  sacred 
lyrics,  a  large  proportion  of  which  have  passed  from 
time  to  time  into  public  use  in  divine  worship. 
The  languages  and  dialects  represented  therein 
number  more  than  two  hundred. 

I.  New  Testament  Hynnis. — The  early  history 
of  Christianity  is  in  our  Sacred  l?o(d<s ;  and  to 
them  we  must  go  for  the  first  examples  of  Christian 
song — the  Magnilicat,  the  Bcnc<lictus,  the  Angelic 
anthem  (see  Doxouna),  and  the  Nunc  Dimittis. 
The  fourfold  record  of  our  Lord's  ministry  contains 
no  other  songs.  In  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles  we 
read  of  hymns  being  sung ;  but  of  their  structure 
and  contents  we  have  no  example.  On  turning 
to  the  epistles  of  St  Paul,  St  James,  and  St  Peter, 
we  have  some  indications  of  the  nature  of  the 
hymns  which  were  then  sung.  Fragments  of  what, 
to  every  appearance,  were  familiar  hymns  in  the 
early  church  are  found  therein,  some  of  which 
are  known  a-s  the  '  faithful  sayings  '  of  Holy  AVrit. 
These  include  'Awake  thou 'that  sleepcst,'  &c., 
Eph.  v.  U  ;  'If  we  die  w  ilh  Him,  we  shall  also  live 
with  Him,'  &e.,  2  Tim.  ii.  11,  12  ;  'Manifest  in  the 
Hesli,  justified  in  the  sjiirit,'  i*v:c.,  1  Tim.  iii.  Ki; 
and  others,  as  1  Tim.  vi.  15,16,  Titus,  iii.  4-7,  and 
James,  i.  17.  The  songs  wliich  St  John  heard  in 
vision,  although  true  lyrics,  cannot  be  classed  as 
early  Christian  hymns. 

II.  Greek.— (\)  In  Greek,  the  mother-tongue  of 
Christianity,  it  is  natural  for  us,  when  we  have 
closed  the  Sacred  Record,  to  search  for  (he  earliest 
forms  of  sacred  song.  In  the  Ante-Niceiic  (leriod 
we  have  a  few  only,  some  of  which  are  written 
in  the  classical  metres,  and  olliers  wliich  are 
'  more  oriental  in  character,  and  have  an  allinity 
to  the  Hebrew  modes.' 

Of  the  former  tlie  best-known  instance  is  that  of 
Clement  of  Alexandria  (died  220';),  translated  by  Dr 
Dexter  as  'Shejiherd  of  tender  youth.'  Altbmij;h 
Clement's  authorship  is  not  beyond  doubt,  yet  it  is 
essentially  a  hymn  of  liis  day,  and  is  absolutely  con- 
fined, in  its  subject-matter,  to  tlic  incidents  and  doctrines 
ot  Holy  Writ.  The  hymns  and  poems  of  Gregory  of 
lvaziani:us  (;f30-3S"J)  are  all  in  classical  measures.  They 
were  piobalily  written  after  381,  and  iKimber  about 
'240  in  all,  of  which  3S  are  i!oginatic,  43  arc  on  moral 
sul;jects,  '.19  relate  to  his  own  life,  and  CO  more  arc 
on  miscellaneous  subjects.  Altliouph  amongst  these 
sacred  pieces  tlicre  arc  several  splendid  liynins,  we  know 
not  one  in  a  modern  hyinn-liooU.  Some  ot  tbc  finest  are 
easily  attikinable  in  the  original  in  Christ  and  Paranikas's 
Aitthologia  Oraca  Carmiitmn  Cln'islianorum  (1871), 
and  in  a  translated  form  in  A.  W.  C'liatKcld's  Sontis  and 
Ili/mtis  of  the  earliest  Greek  Christian  I'oets  (I87t>). 
Another  writer  in  t)ie  classical  metres  was  Synesius 
(375  4:50).  He  was  an  cloiiucnt  bishop,  and  well  read 
in  the  philosophy  of  his  own  and  of  older  days.  His  ten 
hymns  are  also  printed  in  the  Authotot/ia  O'rerca^  and 
traiisK-itcd  by  llr  Cliatlield  and  by  Alan  Stevenson 
(1805).  One  of  these  hymns,  translated  by  Mr  Chat- 
field  as  'Lord  Jesu,  think  on  mc,'  is  given  in  a  few 
modern  hvmnals.  '  Though  of  great  spirit,  reality,  and 
beauty,'  the  'hymns  of  Synesius  lie  confessedly  on 
the  borderland  of  Christianity  and  Neoplatonism,  and 
often  it  is  the  Platonic  rather  than  the  specially  Christian 
thought  that  inspires  bis  most  refined  passages'  {Diet, 
of  Jli/mnoloti.ii,  p.  457).  The  hymns  of  Soplironiiis, 
jiatri.arcli  of"  Jerusalem  (G29),  are  ot  a  still  later  date,  as 
are  also  those  of  EliasSyncelhis  and.St  John  of  Dam.ascus. 
(-)f  these  hymns  in  the  cla,ssical  measures  none,  except 
three  canons  of  St  John  of  Pamascus,  were  incorporated 
in  the  services  of  the  Eastern  Church. 
(2)  The  link  of  connection  between  the  Jewish 


HYMN 


45 


and  the  Cliristian  liymnody  is  found  not  only  in 
tlie  use  which  was  niaik!  from  the  very  first  of  tlie 
Jewish  Psalter  i!i  t'hristian  worsliiii.  hut  also  in 
the  adoption  of  the  ancient  'Hallelujah'  and 
'Hosaniia,'  and  in  tlie  alphahctical  and  otlier  forms 
of  Christian  antiphons  and  versicles.  The  primi- 
tive Greek  hymns,  as  distinct  from  hymns  of  the 
New  Testament  on  the  one  liand,  and  the  sacred 

Soems  in  classical  metres  on  the  other,  were  largely 
erived  from  Holy  Scripture. 

Tlie  Tcr  Sanctm  is  an  expansion  of  Isaiah,  vi.  3,  and 
usually  reads  '  Holy,  holy,  holy.  Lord  of  Sabaoth : 
Heaven  and  earth  are  full  of  His  glory.  Blessed  art 
Thou  for  ever.  Anien.'  The  gcnn  of  the  Olon'a  in 
Excel.ii.1  is  the  Angelic  song  at  Bethlehem.  The  Greek 
form  of  the  Gloria  Patri  ( '  Glorj-  be  to  the  Father,'  &c.) 
seems  to  have  had  its  origin  in  Our  Lord's  commission. 
'  Go  ve  therefore  ....  baptising  them  in  the  name  of 
the  Father,  and  of  the  Son,  and  of  the  Holy  Ghost' 
Besides  these,  the  Trisagion,  'Holy  God,  Holy  and 
Mighty.  Holy  and  Immortal,  Iiave  mercy  upon  ns  ; '  tlie 
Cheruhic  Bymn  of  the  Greek  liturgies,  'Let  us  who 
mystically  represent  the  Cherubim,  and  sing  the  holy 
hymn  to  the  Quickening  Trinity,  lay  by  at  this  time  all 
worldly  cares,  that  we  may  receive  the  King  of  Glory, 
invisibly  attended  by  the  angelic  orders.  Alleluia, 
Alleluia,  ^Uleluia : '  the  hymn  of  Justinian,  '  Only- 
begotten  Son  and  Word  of  God,'  &c. ;  and  various  clauses 
in  the  Te  Deum  are  all  based  upon  separate  or  accumu- 
lated passages  of  Holy  Scripture. 

Tliere  are  also  the  hymn  at  lamp-lighting,  widely 
known  through  Keble's  translation,  '  Hail !  gladdening 
Light,'  which  was  old  in  St  Basil's  time  (370);  'The 
Virgin's  Song'  of  Methodius  (died  c.  311),  translated  by 
Mr  Chatfield  as  '  The  Bridegroom  cometh  ! '  but  not  in 
hturgical  use  in  ancient  or  modem  times ;  and  a  few 
others.  Early  Greek  hymns  are  few  in  number  but  of 
fine  quality,  and  deal  almost  exclusively  with  scriptural 
subjects. 

(3)  The  liturgical  use  of  hymns  in  the  church's 
infancy  does  not  seem  to  have  heen  extensive. 
Both  Pliny  and  Justin  Martyr  hear  testimony  to 
their  use  in  public  worehip,  and  we  know  that 
some  were  in  use  in  the  church  of  Antioeh  in 
269.  '  Yet  as  late  as  the  4th  and  5th  centuries 
there  was  a  scruple  against  the  use  of  anything 
but  psalms  in  the  eastern  monasteries,  and  in 
Spain  the  Council  of  Braga  (561)  forbade  the 
use  of  hymns'  (Diet,  of  Hynuiol.  p.  460).  Ulti- 
mately, however,  the  popularity  and  power  of 
hymns  became  so  marked  through  their  use  by 
tfie  heretics,  and  their  emiiloyment  as  a  counter- 
check by  the  faitliful,  that  their  exclusion  from 
divine  \voiship  became  no  longer  possible.  The 
change  was  on  a  limited  .scale  at  first,  but  after 
the  complete  separation  of  the  Eastern  from  the 
Western  Church  the  hymn  in  its  various  forms 
grailually  assumeil  a  prominent  and  pemianent 
position  in  the  Greek  liturgy. 

(4)  It  has  been  pointed  out  that  tlie  principal 
link  between  the  early  and  later  hymns  is  found  in  a 
group  of  pieces  discovered  by  Cardinal  Pitra  in  two 
rare  liturgical  MSS.  at  Moscow  an<l  Home  ( Cardinal 
Pitra's  Analecta  Sacra  Iitcdlta,  Paris.  1876). 

(5)  The  next  period  (600-900)  is  that  in  which 
we  have  the  building  up  of  those  elaborate  service- 
books  of  the  Greek  Cliurch,  known  to  us  as  the 
Meii'nn,  the  Grcotrr  Octocchns,  the  Laser  Ortoechus, 
the  Triodinn,  the  Pentecostarioii,  the  Kiicholoriion, 
anil  the  Horoloijion.  In  these  works  the  number 
and  variety  of  hymns  are  very  numerous.  The 
liymn-writers  of  this  period  were  associated  at 
first  with  Jenisaletii  and  other  parts  of  the  Holy 
Lan<l,  and  subsequently  with  Constantinople. 

(a\  The  firtsl  prmip  includes  St  Andrew,  Archbishop 
of  Cret<!  ( iifiO-c.  732 ),  who  is  known  as  the  author 
of  sevt-ral  canons,  triodia,  and  idiomela,  including  the 
great  canon  of  the  Mid-Ixnt  week.  "To  the  English 
reader  ho  is  ))efit  known  tlirough  the  cento,  made  by 
I>r   Neale,  '  Cliristian,  dost   thou  sec  them  ? '    Almost 


contemporary  with  him  was  .St  Cosmas,  a  monk  of  St 
^^abas,  near  Jerusalem,  and  afterwards  Bishop  of 
Maiuuia,  near  Gaza,  who  died  c.  700.  He  was  the 
author  of  several  pieces,  including  a  cantui  for  Christ- 
mas Day,  beginning  in  Dr  Neale's  translation,  '  Christ 
is  bom  !  tell  forth  His  fame.'  j\t  St  Sabas  with 
Cosmas  was  .John  of  Damascus,  who  became  a  tower 
of  strengtli  in  Greek  hymnody.  Born  at  Damascus,  he 
accompanied  his  foster-brother,  Cosmas,  to  St  Sabas, 
and  tliere  he  wrote  his  theological  works  and  his  hymns. 
Late  in  life  he  entered  the  priesthood,  and  died  at  a 
great  age  (c.  780).  His  iniiuence  upon  later  Greek 
hymnody  was  very  great.  He  arranged  the  Octoech  W5  in 
accordance  with  the  Eight  Tones,  and  supplied  it  with 
several  canons  of  great  merit.  His  canons  are  his  finest 
work,  that  for  Easter  (beginning  in  Dr  Neale's  transla- 
tion, "Tis  the  day  of  Resurrection ')  being  well  known, 
in  part  at  least,  to  the  English  reader.  Witliin  tlie  next 
fifty  years  St  Theophanes,  a  native  of  Jcrusaliiii,  also  of 
St  Sabas,  and  afterwards  Archbishop  of  Mida,  was 
writing  extensively  on  the  martyrs  and  confessors  of  the 
Greek  Calendar,  which  took  the  form  of  canons  and 
idiomela.  Although  largely  represented  in  the  Maicea, 
he  is  almost  luiknown  to  the  English  reader. 

(6)  The  scrond  (jroifp  oi  hymn-writers  were  associated 
with  Constantinople.  The  first  of  these  is  Joseph  the 
Hymnographer  (died  883),  a  native  of  Sicily,  but  after- 
wards founder  of  a  monastery  at  Cimstantinople.  He  was 
one  of  the  most  voltiminous  of  the  Greek  poets,  and  is 
largely  represented  amongst  the  canons  in  the  Mcnaa. 
His  canon  for  Ascension  Day  is  very  fine.  Of  it,  how- 
ever, but  a  small  portion  is  familiar  to  English  readers. 
Ode  iv.,  translated  by  Dr  Neale  as  '  Jesus,  Lord  of  life  eter- 
nal,' being  the  best  known.  'Let  oui-  clioir  new  anthems 
raise,'  and  '  Stars  of  the  morning  so  gloriously  bright,' 
are  also  translations  by  Dr  Neale  from  St  Joseph.  St 
Joseph  of  the  Studium,  sometime  Bishop  of  Thessa- 
lonica,  wrote  several  pieces;  but  none  of  them  have 
been  translated  into  Enghsh.  His  elder  brother,  St 
Theodore  of  the  Studium  (died  820),  wrote  several 
canons,  notably  that  on  the  Judgment,  translated  by 
Dr  Neale  as  'That  fearful  day,  tliat  day  of  speechless 
dread,'  and  regarded  by  Xeale  as  'undoubtedly  the 
grandest  judgment-hymn  of  the  church  previous  to  the 
JJifS  Ir(V,'  He  also  wrote  '  A  song,  a  song  of  gladness,' 
which  is  a  part  of  his  triumphal  canon  on  the  victory  of 
the  Icons.  Methodius  II.  (died  836)  also  belongs  to  this 
group  of  poets.  Of  the  few  pieces  which  he  wrote  Dr 
Xeale  has  tran.slated  one  only,  '  Are  tliy  toils  and  woes 
increasing?'  and  has  given  it  as  by  St  Methodius  I.  in 
error.  Theoctistus  of  the  Studium  ( r.  890 ),  said  by  Dr 
Neale  to  have  been  a  friend  of  St  Joseph's,  is  not  largely 
represented  in  Greek  hymnody.  He  is  known  to  Enghsh 
readers  through  Dr  Neale's  translation  of  a  cento  from  his 
'Suppliant  Canon  to  Jesus,'  as  'Jesus,  Name  all  Names 
above,'  and  the  Eev.  E.  M.  Moorsom's  rendering  of  the 
same,  '  Sweet  Saviour,  in  Thy  pitying  grace.' 

(6)  From  this  date  to  the  16th  century,  when 
the  Greek  service-books  were  practically  closed 
against  new  compositions,  very  few  names  are 
known.  We  have  Metropliancs  (died  910); 
Eutliymius  (died  910);  Constantine  Porphyro- 
genitus  (913-959);  Leo  VI.  (died  917);  John 
Mauropus  (died  1060);  and  Philotlieus,  Patriarch 
of  Constantinople  (died  1370);  but  only  one  or 
two  ])ioces  by  these  writere  have  been  rendered 
into  English. 

III.  Si/riac  (170-1370). — Syriac  liymnody  deals 
with  the  churches  of  Syria,  Ipiier  iMesopolaiuia, 
and  western  Persia.  Its  history  extends  from  the 
2d  to  the  14lli  century. 

The  earUest  known  hymn-writer  in  this  language  is 
Bar-Daisan  (Bardesanes,  q.v.),  bom  in  l.')4.  His  son 
Harmonius  was  also  a  hymn-writer.  Both  fatlicr  and  son 
had  Gnostic  tendencies.  On  the  orthodox  side  we  have 
Simeon  bar  Sabbae,  Bishop  of  Scleucia,  who  sutl'ered 
martyrdom  in  '296 ;  and  the  greatest  of  all,  Ephracm 
Syrus  (q.v.;  c.  306-378).  His  jioitical  writings  were 
numerous,  and  included  homilies,  disrourses  on  Christ's 
Nativity,  the  Creation,  and  other  suijects.  Most  of  the 
Syriac  hymns  and  hymnists  are  practically  unknown  to 
the  western  world.  In  the  East,  however,  these  hymns 
form  a  considerable  portion  of  the  service-books  of  the 
various  divisions  of  the  Syriac  churches  to  the  present 


46 


HYMN 


day.  Their  English  use  is  vex-y  limited.  The  best-known 
example  is  '  Glad  sight,  the  holy  Church,'  by  the  Kev.  F. 
Pott. 

IV.  Latin. — (1)  No  name  is  associated  ■with 
Latin  hymns  until  after  the  Council  of  Nieii-a, 
325.  Almost  inimeiliatcly  after\vard.s  we  have  three 
great  oonteniijorary  writers :  in  Greek,  Gregory  of 
Xazianzus  (. 330-389);  in  Svriao,  Ephraem  Svrus 
< 300-378):  and  in  Latin,  St  Hilaiy  (died  .308).  The 
most  celehrated  of  the  hymns  attributeil  to  the 
last  is  the  '  Beata  nobis  j;audia  Anni  reduxit  or- 
bita,'  whicli  has  been  in  western  litur^'ies  from  an 
early  date.  St  Aml>rose  (c.  340.397)  was  almost 
a  contemporary  writer  with  the  above  three. 
About  100  hymns  are  attiibuted  to  him,  but  of 
tliese  only  twelve  are  accepted  by  the  Benedictine 
editors  of  liis  works,  including  '  ^ILterna  Christi 
inunera,'  '  Deus  Creator  omnium,'  '  O  Lux  beata 
Trinitas,'  and  '  Splendor  Paternie  gloria^. '  Tlie  rest, 
being  in  his  style  and  after  his  manner,  are  known 
a.s  Ambrosian  hymns.  Most  of  the  latter  and  all 
of  tliose  l>y  St  Ambrose  are  found  in  the  early 
liturgies  of  the  Western  Church.  Prudentius  (350- 
410)  did  not  write  hymns,  but  sacred  poems,  from 
which  portions  were  taken  and  incorporated  as 
hymns  in  the  services  of  the  church.  For  this 
purpose  these  extracts  were  admirably  suited  and 
widely  used.  His  '  Corde  natus  ex  Parentis,'  which 
was  taken  from  his  ])oem  'Da,  puer,  plectrum,'  in 
his  Catlintieriiion,  is  a  good  e.xaniple  of  this 
mode  of  treatment.  The  63d  edition  of  Pru- 
dentius' Poems  was  published  at  Leipzig  in 
1800.  This  is  a  splendiil  testimony  to  his 
worth.  Sedulius,  a  contemporary  of  Prudentius, 
is  known  in  hymnology  by  one  piece,  '  A  sol  is  ortfls 
•canline.  Ad  usque,'  of  which  the  second  jiortion, 
'  Hostis  Herodes  impie,'  is  used  as  an  Ejiiphany 
hymn  in  several  early  breviaries,  and  altered,  as 
'  Crndelis  Herodes  Deum,'  in  the  modern  Uomau 
Breviary.  The  6th  century  embraces  two  names 
of  great  repute:  Venantius  Fortunatus  (530-009), 
and  Gregory  the  Great  (540-004).  Fortunatus' 
Pui'/ns  are  extant  iu  eleven  books.  Some  ten 
or  twelve  hymns  bear  his  name,  but  his  right 
to  several  of  these  is  contested.  His  grandest 
productions  are  the  Piissioutide  hymns,  '  Vexilla 
Regis  prodeuut '  and  '  Pange  lingua  gloriosi  pr;c- 
lium  certaminis.'  Gregory's  accrediteil  hynuis  are 
about  a  dozen,  including  '  Audi  benigne  conditor,' 
'Ecce  jam  noctis,'  'Hex  Cliriste  factor  omnium,' 
and  '  Summi  largitor  pra'udi.'  The  f.airly  well 
authenticated  hymns  of  the  Venenible  Beile  (673- 
735)  nund>er  tea  or  twelve  only  at  the  utmost, 
including  his  '  Hynmum  canamus  Domino,"  and 
'  Hymnum  canontes  martyrum.'  Another  hundred 
years  give  us  Paul  tlie  Deacon  (died  c.  799)  and 
St  Theodnlph  of  Orleans  (died  821),  the  'Gloria 
laus  et  honor '  of  the  latter  being  long  and  well 
known  as  a  processioruil  hymn  for  Palm  Sunday. 
St  l{ji1janus  (776-850),  with  his  '  Christe  Sanc- 
torum decus  .Vngelorum,'  and  St  Odo  of  Cluny 
(879-942),  with  his  '  Lauda  milter  ecclesia,'  should 
be  mentioned,  as  also  Fulbert  of  Chartres  (died 
1028),  author  of  the  'Chorus  nova'  Hienisaleni,' 
and  llobert  IL,  king  of  France  (972-1031),  though 
their  claims  to  hymn-writing  are  oi)eii  to  i|iiesti(m. 

(2)  Although  this  brings  us  to  the  beginning  of 
the  11th  eentniy,  the  hyinn-writ«re  whom  we  have 
been  enabled  to  cite  are  comparatively  few.  Most 
of  them,  however,  are  names  of  great  standing, 
and  are  towers  of  hymnological  strength.  When, 
liowever,  all  the  compositiims  of  these  writers  are 
collected  together  we  still  liml  in  the  ancient  Latin 
service-books  and  other  MSS.  a  iiiiiss  of  hymno- 
logical literature  for  which  no  authorship  can  be 
found.  This  Ls  also  the  ca.se  with  reganl  to  llie 
succeeding  centuries,  ami  more  especially  with 
respect  to  the  Prose  or  Seijuence. 


(3)  Notker  Balbulns  (c.  840-912),  th.^  father  of 
.sequence-writing,  was  a  meiuber  of  tlie  Benedictine 
monastery  of  St  Gall,  his  luiiicipal  work  being 
literary  and  scholastic.  In  connection  with  divine 
worship  he  found  it  dilhcult  to  remember  the 
niusic;il  notes  {iieiimcx)  set  to  the  'Alleluia'  (speci- 
ally to  the  final  «),  which  were  .sung  between  the 
reading  of  the  Epistle  and  the  Gospel.  The  adajit- 
ing  of  words  to  these  ticii/nen,  instead  of  sound- 
ing them  as  musical  notes  only,  was  suggested  to 
him  by  another,  and  the  result  was  a  series  of 
Sequences,  or,  as  we  now  call  them,  hymns,  which 
to  the  number  of  115  are  known  ius  Notkerian 
Sequences,  but  of  which  less  than  fifty  are  by 
Notker.  Of  tliose  who  followed  Xotker  in  this 
mode  of  composition  Adam  of  St  A'ictor  (an  abbey 
at  Paris)  was  the  most  prominent.  The  service- 
books  of  the  middle  ages  abound  with  these  com- 
positions, but  the  greater  projiortion  by  far  are 
anonymous.  The  Xotkeiian  Seijuence  which  is 
best  known  to  the  English  reader  is  that  for  the 
Eiiiphany.  tr:iiislated  by  Dr  Ne;ile  as  'The  strain 
upraise  of  joy  and  jjiaise.     .Alleluia.' 

(4)  Whilst  the  work  of  composing  hymns  and 
sequences  was  thus  ]>rolific,  a  few  names  of 
great  note  stand  forth  in  their  grandeur  as  com- 
posers of  sacred  poems  as  distinct  from  liyiiins. 
It  will  be  snUicient  to  name  St  Bernard  of  Clair- 
vaux  (1091-1153),  and  his  grand  Passi(mti<le  poem 
'  Salve  mundi  salutare,'  and  his  contemporary, 
Bern.ard  of  Cluny,  with  his  splendid  'Iloia  novis- 
sima,'  to  show  the  nature  and  character  of  ihe 
work  which  was  done.     See  Dies  Ir^e. 

(5)  The  hymns,  sequences,  and  poems  referrerf 
to  above,  to  the  number  of  several  thousands,  are 
those  which  date  from  before  the  16th  century. 
Some  hundreds  more  were  added  to  the  stores  of 
Latin  liyiiiiindy  by  the  brothers  Santeiiil  and  others 
in  the  Chiniac  (i6S6),  the  Paris  (1736),  and  other 
breviaries  in  France,  additions  to  the  latter  being 
as  late  as  1820.  As  to  the  use  made  of  this  mass 
of  sacred  poetry,  we  may  add  that  two-thirds  or 
more  have  been  associateil  directly  with  divine 
woi-ship,  .and  the  rest  are  connecteil  with  works 
of  private  devotion  :  and  that  nearly  one-fourth 
have  been  translated  into  English. 

V.  English. —  English  hymnody  is  a  very  wide 
subject,  and,  if  we  include  therein  Anglo-Saxon 
compositions,  it  dates  from  Ca'dnion  (died  c. 
680).  Bishop  Aldhelm  (died  709)  sang  sacred 
poems  iu  the  vernacular,  and  is  said  to  have 
rendered  the  P.salter  into  metre ;  in  Chaticer 
(1340-1400)  we  have  an  early  English  hymn  to 
the  Blessed  Virgin;  in  I4I4  T.  Brampton's  Seven 
Penitential  Psalms,  and  later  carols  and  addi- 
tional hymns  to  the  Bles.-ed  Virgdn  Mary.  The 
lii-st  instalment  of  hymns  in  the  vernacular  of  any 
moment  were  those  translated  from  the  Latin, 
and  imluded  in  the  Primers  whicli  were  is.--iied 
both  before  and  after  the  Reformation.  These 
translatiims  were  followeil  by  otiiei's,  some  of 
which  are  |neserved  to  us  iu  the  Book  of  Common 
Prayer.  Translating,  however,  soon  gave  way  to 
paraphrasing,  and  Latin  and  (iernian  hymns  lo 
the  Book  of  P.sjilms.  The  sn|>plyiiig  of  ihe  need 
occasioned  by  the  snp|>ressicin  of  Latin  hymns  in 
ilivine  worslii]i  at  the  Keforiiialion,  by  the  introduc- 
tion of  the  Paraplirivse  instead  of  the  hymn,  is  a 
history  in  itself.  We  can  only  say  that  fiom  15()1 
to  1696  the  authorised  book  in  the  CImicli  of  ICng- 
biiid  was  the  '  t>ld  Version'  of  Steriiliolil  and  Hop- 
kins, and  from  the  latter  date  to  the  ado|itiim  of 
modern  bymn-boidcs,  the  'New  A'ersion '  of  Tate 
and  I'.rady.  In  the  meantime  the  foundations  of 
English  hymnody  were  being  extended.  A  rf.siinii: 
of  the  work  done  in  the  Elizabethan  age  is  given 
in  E.  I'arr's  Select  Poctrii,  chicjly  (Ici'utiuniil,  of  the 
lleiyn  of  Elizabeth  (Parker  See.  18451.     The  snui- 


HYMN 


47 


meus  given  are  either  from  books  of  poetry  or  works 
of  devotion,  and  are  pious  utterances  in  quaint 
anil  rn^'geil  verse.  Later  attempts  in  the  same 
direction,  hy  I>r  Donne  in  his  J'oem.^  { lliS;)  I,  (i. 
Herl)ert  in  his  Tcm/Ai:  (\iJX\),  C.  Harvey  in  his 
HijiKKjoriiii-  (1640),  and  others,  were  of  a  higher 
stamp,  and  l>ore  a  greater  attinity  to  the  modern 
hymn.  At  that  time  no  use  of  these  composi- 
tions was  made  in  public  woi-ship,  except  in  the 
case  of  private  institutions.  The  hymn  '  Jeru.saleni, 
my  happy  home,'  and  others  of  more  than  usual 
excellence  are  of  this  period. 

The  lii-st  English  liymnbook  was  the  Hipnns 
a>ul  Soiiifs  of  the  Chiin/i  ( 1U2;>),  by  tjeorge  Wither. 
The  king  granted  him  a  p.itent  to  hind  up  the  book 
with  the  .Metrical  Psalms ;  hut  the  whole  matter 
resulted  in  a  failure.  In  lt)41  Wither  republished 
the  same,  with  a  few  alterations,  as  Hallelujitk, 
Britiuii'.i  Sci'oml  Rcmfmbniitccr,  and  dedicated  it 
t<i  the  Long  Parliament,  hut  with  no  better  success. 
The  writings  of  Herrick.  Henry  Vaughan.  William 
Barton,  Bishop  Jeremy  Taylor,  Samuel  Crossman, 
Richard  C'r;ushaw,  John  Austin,  Bishop  Thomas 
Ken,  and  others  bring  us  down  to  1737,  when 
the  lirst  liymnbook  of  the  modern  type  (in  which 
the  original  hymns  of  \arious  authoi-s  are  inter- 
spersed with  translations  from  other  languages) 
was  published  by  John  Wesley  for  use  in  the 
Church  of  England. 

( 1 )  C/iiirch  of  England. — The  title  of  Wesley's 
"Dook  was  Vollution  of  Psalms  and  Hymns  ( Charles- 
town  :  printed  by  Lewis  Timothy,  1737).  The 
versions  of  psalms,  the  translations  from  Greek 
and  Gennan,  and  the  original  compositions  were 
seventy  in  all.  Wesley  ami  his  brother  Charles 
soon  chaugeil  the  style  of  their  hymnological 
productions,  and  from  1740  to  1780  (the  date  of 
the  Wesleyan  hymn-book)  published  only  their 
own  compositions.  John  M  esleys  hymnological 
work  for  the  Church  of  England  remained  a 
dead-letter  until  1700,  when  Martin  Madan 
publisheil  his  Collection  of  Psalms  and  Hymns, 
gathered  by  him  mainly  from  the  Wesleys  and 
Isjuic  Watt.s,  altered  without  permission  to  suit 
liis  Calvinistic  views,  and  published  without  leave. 

Dnrinj  17CO-1800  nearly  twenty  distinct  hynui-books 
were  issued.  Taken  as  a  who'e  they  were  Calvinistic  in 
iioctrine,  cmde  in  arrangement,  and  indebted  to  the 
M'esleys  and  Xonconformists  for  seven-eighths  of  their 
contents.  Three  writers  only  stand  out  during  this 
period  witli  marked  dLstinctncfS — X.  il.  Toplady,  John 
Newton,  and  William  Cowper.  During  the  ne.\t  twenty 
years  nearly  one  hundred  hynm-books  were  issued  for 
use  in  the  Church  of  En^iland,  and  the  places  of  publica- 
tion extend'-d  to  almost  every  county  in  the  country. 
Naturally  these  books  varied  in  their  contents ;  but 
their  general  doctrinal  tone  was  distinctively  Calvinistic. 
lilt  re  was  also  a  greater  and  more  miiform  recognition 
of  the  order  of  the  Book  of  Common  I'rayer  than 
before.  The  years  1820-.50  produced  anotlier  himdred 
of  hymn-books,  amongst  them  HickerstL-th's  Clirhtian 
fmlmoilii  ( 1,S:'.:}-41 ),  Elliott's  I'mlms  and  Hyiims  ( 1*^5), 
and  Hall's  Mitre  Hymn-ljook  ( 183G ).  (Jther  works  of 
importance  were  Bishop  Heber's  posthumous  Hiimns 
(l'<-7!,  Miss  Auber's  Spirit  of  tlie  Pmlms  (1«29), 
Bathurst's  Psalms  and  Hymns  {l&M),  and  Lyte's  Spi)-it 
of  the  Psalms  (18:t4).  the  contents  of  which,  in  each 
instance,  were  mainly  by  the  same  writer.  During  this 
periofl  ab^o  this  s'nre  was  richly  increased  by  the 
publication  of  Keble's  Christian  Year,  by  the  original 
coiiipos  tions  of  several  other  writers,  and  by  renewed 
efforts  at  transUtion  of  German  and  Latin  hymns.  This 
innneiise  growth  broadened  out  considerably,  and  brought 
the  subject  of  hymnody  strongly  to  the  front  during  the 
next  t'-n  ye.-irs.  'I'be  outcome  was  the  publication  of 
oy.  r  fifty  hymn-books  in  that  period,  a  groat  accumula- 
tion .if  .iriginal  brums  and  translations,  the  gradual 
excbiaion  of  nonconformist  hymns,  except  those  of  the 
liigb.-r  il.ss.  from  thv  cfiUections,  and  a  new  and  intense 
inUtrest  in  the  whole  subject  Additional  translations 
from  the  Latin  and  (icnnan,  together  with  original  com- 


positions of  great  merit,  created  a  longing  for  something 
better  in  the  form  of  a  hynui-book  for  public  use. 
Hymns  Ancient  and  Modern  (1801)  was  one  answer  to 
this  request.  Its  success  was  phenomenal.  On  the 
one  hand  it  raised  a  storm  of  opposition  ;  on  the  other, 
iluiing  the  next  twenty-five  years  it  called  forth  several 
iniportant  works  on  liynuiology,  various  collections  of 
sacred  lyrics  for  private  use,  ai'out  iifty  'supplements' 
to  and  editions  of  books  in  common  use,  and  nearly  one 
hundred  new  hymn-books.  Since  then  new  writers  whose 
names  have  become  household  words  have  arisen,  and 
the  needs  of  the  increased  activity  of  the  church  have 
been  met.  In  the  past  one  hundred  and  tifty  years  the 
Church  of  England  has  proiluced  about  five  huniired 
hymn-books,  and  nearly  two  humlred  and  fifty  authors 
and  translators  whose  works  have  been  at  one  tune  or 
another  in  use  in  public  worship.  Talien  together  their 
original  hymns  and  translations  will  umnber  ten  thou- 
sand. 

(2)  Eneflish  Nonconformists. — The  hymnological 
work  which  has  been  accomplished  outside  of  the 
Church  of  England  is  large  and  iniportant,  and 
has  had  great  intluence  in  all  English-speaking 
countries.  A  few  facts  only  can  be  set  forth  in 
each  instance. 

(a)  The  Baptists  from  the  first  quarter  of  the  17th 
century  to  the  present  have  been  divided  into  two 
sections,  the  Particular  or  Calvinistic,  and  the  General 
or  .\rininian  Baptists.  The  singing  of  hymns  with  the 
former  began  with  B.  Keach,  about  1673.  It  had  a 
stormy  birth  and  childhood,  for  opjiosition  thereto  was 
great,  but  at  the  present  time  hymn  singing  is  a  distinc- 
tive feature  in  their  worship.  The  General  Ba|)ti.^ts 
also  have  their  official  hymn-books,  and  singing  is  an 
essential  part  of  their  worship.  English  Baptist  writers 
number  about  one  hundi-ed,  and  their  hymns  two  thou- 
sand. 

{b)  The  Coivircyalioiuilists  or  Independents  used  hymns 
in  public  worship  some  thirty  years  before  the  Baptists. 
Their  hymn-liooks  have  been  many,  and  their  writers 
numerous.  The  latter  number  over  a  hundred,  and  their 
hymns  three  thousand  or  more.  Although  I.  Watts,  P. 
Doddridge,  and  J.  Conder  are  their  pride  and  toWTrs  of 
strength,  there  are  others  who  have  written  Ij'rics  of 
great  force  and  beauty. 

( c )  The  Methodists  are  broken  up  into  several  sections, 
as  the  New  Connection  (179C),  Primitive  Methodists 
(1810),  the  United  Methodist  Free  Churches  (an 
amalgamated  body  dating  from  1857),  and  the  Bible 
Christians  {1815).  The  first  official  hymn-book  of  the 
old  body  was  published  by  J.  AVesIey  in  1780,  and  is  the 
gi'oundwork  of  all  the  hymn-books  of  the  various  branches 
of  Methodism— the  Primitive  Slethodists  alone  excepted. 
Usually  Methodist  hymuody  is  said  to  have  had  a  great 
influence  upon  English  hymnody  everywhere.  I'his, 
however,  is  only  true  of  the  hymns  of  John  and  Charles 
Wesley. 

(c/)  Tlie  Unitarians,  although  niunerically  a  weak 
body,  have  produced  several  hjnun-writers  of  great  merit. 
Of  their  present  hymn-books  the  best  is  Dr  Martineau's 
Hymns  of  Praise  and  Prayer  (1873),  which  is  un- 
equalled amongst  Unitarians. 

( < )  Other  Denom  inations,  as  the  Irvingites,  the  Sweden- 
borgians,  the  .Salvation  .-\rmy.  and  many  othei's  have 
each  their  authors  and  official  hymn-books.  The 
writei-s  and  books,  however,  do  not  call  for  special 
notice. 

When  the  English  hymn  writers  are  counted  up 
and  their  works  are  tabulated,  we  have  a  total  of 
1000  writei-s,  an<l  '25.000  hymns. 

\l.  Irisli. — The  Uom.'iu  Catholics,  the  Protestant 
Episcopalians,  the  Presbyterians,  the  Methodists, 
and  others  in  Irelaml  have  been  so  closely  identi- 
fied with  their  brethren  in  England  .and  Scothiml 
that  in  most  instances  the  same  hooks  h.-ive  l>een 
in  use  in  the  three  rountries.  The  result  h.is  been 
that  Ireland  has  not  sh.aped  a  hymnody  for  herself, 
although  in  later  years  a  few  hymn-hooks  have 
been  pnlilishoil  iiidepiuidently.  The  Irish  Chinch 
has,  however,  an  aiithoriseil  hymnal,  'J'/ie  t'hiirrk 
Uymrnil  ( 1873,  with  supplement  of  lali-r  date).  In 
this  respect  it  is  greatly  in  lulvance  of  tlie  Churcli 
of  England. 


48 


HYMN 


VII.  ]\'clsh. — Tliere  are  refeicnces  in  AVelsli 
History  which  ^'o  to  show  that  some  of  licr  anoioiit 
bards  sang  liymus  of  praise  to  God  as  early  as  the 
6tli  century.  The  most  aiicien*:  productions  now 
extant  date  from  the  1-ltli  c(.;itury.  After  the 
Keforuiation  tlic  lead  was  taken  by  the  Established 
Church,  by  the  publication  of  A'rohdeacon  I'rys's 
version  of  "the  Psalms  in  IG'il.  Since  then  hvmn- 
writing  has  increased  somewhat  rajiidly,  especially 
since  the  Metliodist  movement  early  in  the  last 
century  ;  and  at  the  present  time  the  Established 
Church  anil  the  numerous  Nonconformist  bodies 
have  each  their  official  or  (luasiotticial  hymn-books. 
Welsh  hyninody,  although  very  ])o\verful  in  the 
principality,  lias  had  little  or  no  inliuence  upou  the 
Iiyninody  of  other  countries. 

' X III.'  Scut/ish. — One  of  the  most  interesting 
parts  of  Scottish  hymnody  is  the  history  of  the 
Scottish  Psalter,  a  work  which  is  interwoven 
with  Scottish  history,  and  has  had  a  powerful 
intluence  upon  the  Scottish  mind.  The  first 
ellectual  step  taken  to  provide  hymns,  as  distinct 
frour  psalm-versions,  for  public  worship  in  Scot- 
land, was  the  appointment  of  a  committee  of 
the  General  Assembly  in  1742.  This  committee 
presented  a  draft  collection,  which  was  authorised 
for  private  use  in  1745.  The  same  year  a  com- 
mittee was  appointed  to  revise  and  enlarge  the 
draft  for  |)ublic  use.  The  result  was  publlslied  in 
1781  as  Tntnslations  and  Paraphrases,  in  Verse, 
of  several  Pa^safjcs  of  Sacred  Scripture,  &c.  Of 
the  total  contents  (sixty-seven  in  all,  not  counting 
the  five  hymns  added  at  the  end)  tweuty-iive 
are  by  Watts,  five  by  Doddridge,  and  two  by 
Tate, 'the  rest  being  by  M.  Bruce,  T.  Blacklock, 
H.  Blair,  W.  Cameron,  J.  Logan,  J.  Morison,  and 
other  Scottish  writers. 

Although  the  addition  of  the  five  hymns  to  the 
Paraphrases  indicated  a  desire  for  a  larger  choice  of 
hymns  in  pulilic  worship,  nothing  definite  and 
official  was  done  b\-  the  principal  sections  of  Presby- 
terianism  until  the  publication  of  the  Hijmn-book  of 
the  Relief  Church  (1794),  the  Hymn-hook  of  the 
United  Freshytcrian  Church  (1852),  The  Scottish 
Hipnnal  of  the  Established  Church  (1870),  and  the 
Psidin-versions,  Paraphrases,  and  Hymns  of  the  Free 
Church  (1873).  These  have  been  revised,  added 
to,  or  superseded — notably  by  the  Hymnary  for  the 
Established,  Free,  and  U'.P.'Churches  in  Scotland, 
and  the  Irish  Presbyterian  Church  (1898).  Much 
activity  has  been  shown  by  individuals  amongst 
Presbyterians,  Scottish  Episcopalians,  Evangelical 
Unionists,  Baptists,  Congregationalists,  Glassites 
or  Sandemanians,  Kimian  Catholics,  and  others, 
the  outcome  of  which  is  a  mass  of  hyninological 
literature,  of  which  a  good  proportion  is  of  Scottish 
origin  and  of  liigli  merit.  Amongst  the  ninety 
to  one  hundred  Scottish  authm-s  and  tr.anslators 
whose  hymns  have  taken  a  high  ]>lace  in  the 
hymnody  of  the  church  the  most  eminent  are  .1. 
Morison,  R.  Blair,  S.  Martin,  W.  JJobertson,  H. 
Bonar,  .Jane  Borthwick,  M.  Bruce,  ,1,  1).  Burns, 
Sarah  Findlater,  K.  M.  M'Clieyne,  H.  M.  Macgill, 
and  H.  Wardlaw.  The  prince  of  these  hymn- 
writers  and  the  Charles  ^\  esley  of  Scotland  is  Dr 
Horatius  B(mar  ( 1808-89). 

IX.  American. — The  first  hook  printed  in 
America  was  the  Bay  P.salter  ( 1040),  consisting  of 
various  metrical  versions  of  the  Psalms  liy  English 
authors.  The  addition  of  a  few  s]>iritual  songs  in 
the  2(1  edition  of  1647  was  the  first  departure 
from  tlie  sole  use  of  p.salm-versions  in  that  conn- 
try.  This  small  beginning  had  at  the  lii-st  a  very 
slow  development.  The  years  1780-1800  wit- 
nessed the  general  recognition  of  hymns.  The 
Protestant  Episcopal  Church  extended  their  collec- 
tion in  1789  to  twenty-seven  hymns  :  a  collection 
by  the  Baptists  (the  second)  was  publisheil  in  1790  ; 


the  Congregationalists  had  their  Hartford  Selec- 
tion in  1799  ;  the  Wcsley:in  Metliodists  a  reprint  of 
a  Pochct  Hymn-Oook  originally  i>ublislifd  at  York, 
and  revised  after  some  years  of  use  in  1802;  the 
I'niversalists,  two  collections  in  1792;  the  Unita- 
rians, a*  selection  in  1795;  and  the  Presbyterians, 
Watts  at  first,  and  then  an  official  ccdleclion  in 
1828.  In  these  books  American  hynm-writers  had 
a  very  limited  representation,  most  of  the  hymns 
being  by  English  authors  ;  but  year  by  year  tlie 
American  element  became  more  ]ironounced  as 
hymnal  followed  hynnial  in  the  various  religious 
comumnions.  In  1800  an  original  hymn  by  an 
American  was  a  novelty  in  any  collection  ;  now 
no  American  hymn-book  of  the  highest  class  can 
do  with  less  than  two  hundred  and  fifty  authors 
and  translatoi-s,  and  of  these  not  less  than  fifty 
should  be  Americans.  This  percentage,  as  the 
outgrowth  of  some  eighty  years,  is  remarkable. 
Each  religious  communion  has  done  its  part  in 
bringing  about  this  great  result.  Of  the  two 
hundred  and  fifty  authors  and  translators,  the 
Bajitists  and  the  I'nitarians  number  over  forty-five 
each,  the  Congregationalists  aliout  forty  ;  the 
Protestant  Episcopalians  and  the  Presbyterians 
about  thirty  each,  the  Methodists  less  than 
twenty,  and  the  Universalists  about  ten.  The 
ren\aining  thirty  include  Quakers,  Keformed 
Germans,  Reformed  Dutch,  i.S.c.  Several  of  these 
writers  have  an  European  reputation,  as  Bishop 
Coxe,  Bishop  Doane,  C.  W.  Everest,  and  \V.  A. 
^liihlenberg  (Episcopalians);  T.  Hastings  and  J. 
AV.  Alexander  (Presbyterians) ;  H.  M.  Dexter,  T. 
Dwight,  and  Ray  Palmer  (Congregationalists) ;  P. 
Bliss,  Lvdia  Sigourney,  and  S.  F.  Smith  (Baptists); 
Faimv  Van  Alstvne  and  W.  Hunter  (.Methodists)  ; 
S.  G."  Bulfinch.'W.  C.  Bryant,  W.  H.  Burleigh, 
Emerson,  Holmes,  Longfellow,  S.  Longfellow, 
Lowell,  and  E.  11.  Scare  (Cnitarians);  and  the 
Quaker  poet  Whittier. 

The  number  of  hymn-hooks  published  in  America 
during  the  past  hundred  years  accounts  to  a  great 
extent  for  this  great  activity  in  hymn-writing. 
At  the  present  time  each  denomination,  and  there 
are  many,  has  its  official  hymn-bcxik,  or  its  quasi- 
official  book  or  books.  For  "ood  work  opportunities 
for  jiublication  thus  abound,  and  the  finer  produc- 
tions are  assured  a  certain  circnlation  and  a  possible 
immortality. 

X.  French. — The  French  metrical  psalters  have 
a  history  distinct  from  F'rcnch  hymns  and  hymn- 
hooks.  The  complete  jisalter  of  Marot  and 
Beza  (1552~G2)  was  the  psalm-book  of  the  Re- 
formed Churcli  until  its  place  was  to  some 
extent  filled  by  the  new  versicm  of  Conrart  (1U77- 
79),  and  the  revision  of  the  same  by  Pictet 
and  others  in  IG95.  As  in  otlicr  countries,  the 
psalter  subsequently  gave  way  to  the  hymnal,  and 
the  versions  of  private  individuals  were  mainly 
of  ]iublic  value  in  proportion  .as  they  yielded  suit- 
able pieces  f(n"  the  same.  The  writing  of  hymns 
in  the  vernacular  began  in  the  Kith  century  as  in 
German}'  and  elsewhere  with  translations  from  the 
Latin.  The  Roman  Catholics,  the  Huguenots  (in 
their  day),  the  Reformed  Church,  the  French 
Moravians,  the  Methodists,  .and  various  evangelical 
societies,  have  eacli  their  book  or  books  of  hymns 
for  divine  worship,  in  which,  although  there  are 
original  comjiositions  by  French  authors,  the  larger 
proportion  are  translations  from  English  and  Ger- 
nuvn  hymns.  The  Pereil  ha-s  produced  the  greatest 
French  Protestant  hymn-writers,  at  the  head  of 
whom  stands  Cc.sar  Malan  (1787-1804),  whose 
printed  and  MS.  hynms  number  about  one  thou- 
sand. As.sociated  with  him,  directly  or  indirectly, 
in  the  .s.anic  religious  movement  were  Ami  Bust,  II. 
Empaytiiz,  Merle  d'Aubignc,  Felix  Nell',  Henri 
Lutteroth,  A.  Vinet,  A.  Monod,  and  others,  men  of 


HYMN 


HYPATIA 


49 


wiiiUl-wide  reputation  and  influence,  who  have 
given  a  position  to  French  hymndily  unknown  to  it 
before. 

XI.  (jlcnnaii. — In  the  tleriniin  lan^uap'  then' 
are  not  les.s  than  one  hundred  thipu>!uiil  hyuins, 
of  which  about  ten  thousand  have  ptu^sed  into 
IJernian  hvnin -hooks  of  various  dates,  and  nearly 
a  thousand  are  regarded  by  tJernian  critics  as 
classical.  The  lirst  were  conteni|)orary  with  the 
earliest  Latin  .sei[uences  of  St  Xotker  and  others  ; 
the  last  are  the  productions  of  living  men. 

(1)  The  Firxt  Period  begins  with  Otfrid  of  Weissen- 
burg  (c  8(J,S),  anil  was  continued  by  others  until  the  time 
of  Luther.  The  greater  part  of  the  hyuins  of  this  period 
were  translations  from  the  Latin,  and  all  were  in  strict 
doctrinal  accord  with  the  Church  of  Korae. 

(2)  The  Sccoml  Period  (1.520  1648)  opens  with  the 
liyums  and  psalm-versions  by  Lutlier,  and  embraces  the 
Iteformatiuu  period  to  the  peace  of  Westphalia.  Tlie 
prnicipal  writers  were  Luther,  Justus  Jonas.  Alber, 
Spengler.  Hans  .Sachs,  Speratus,  N.  Decius,  and  others. 
Tlie  writings  of  these  authors  reached  to  about  1570, 
and  have  a  distinct  churchly  character  of  their  own. 
From  1577  to  1618  hymn-writing  and  hymn-book  making 
continued  very  much  on  the  old  lines,  and  lumibered 
amongst  the  writers  Selneckei',  KingwaUlt.  Herberger, 
and  P.  Nicolai.  The  miseries  of  the  Thirty  Years'  M'ar 
changed  the  whole  aspect  of  hymn-writmg  for  a  tnue 
by  tlie  introduction  of  a  strong  personal  element  of 
faith  and  courage,  and  hope  begotten  of  suffering.  The 
names  of  a  few  of  these  writers  \vill  recall  some  of  tlie 
finest  hymns  of  this  kind  in  the  German  language  :  Opitz, 
Heermaiin,  M  .\.  von  Ltiwenstern,  Altenburg,  Riiikart, 
Daeh,  and  Hist. 

(.3)  The  Third  Period  was  a  transitional  one,  and  led 
up  to  the  Pietistic  and    Moravian  writers  of   the  iie.vt 
era.      It   had   amongst   its    hynin-wnters   P.    tleriiardt,   ' 
Franck,    Xemnark,   Scheffler,    and   Louise    Henriette    of  j 
Brandunburg.      Of    these   the   greatest    were   Gerhardt, 
who  is  second  only  to  Luther  in  German  hyinnody,  antl  i 
Solieffler,  whose  love  for  Christ  was  first  in  everything. 
This  orthodox,  mystic  school,  with  its  deep  experimental 
piety,  was  soon  lost  in  the  Pietism  of  the  ne.vt  period.  j 

(■t)  Th'-  Fourth  Period^  commonly  known  as  the 
Pietistic  and  M'n-avian  era,  'was  a  reaction  against  the 
dry  scholasticism  and  cold  formalism  of  the  Lutheran 
Church,'  and  an  emphatic  pronouncement  in  favour  of 
'  practical,  pei-sonal,  and  experimental  piety.'  t)n  the 
Lutheran  side  the  leading  writers  were  Spener,  Francke, 
Kichter,  FreyUnghausen,  G.  Arnold,  J.  Lange,  Desslcr, 
Kainbach,  Bogatzky,  Schmolck.  and  Hiller ;  and  on  the 
Moravian,  Count  Zinzendorf.  These  names  recall  numer- 
ous hymns  of  deep  spirituality,  high  refinement,  and  great 
power.  I 

During  this  same  period  the  German  Reformed  Church 
broke  away  from  its  long-continued  and  almost  exclusive 
use  of  the  Psalms  in  metrical  form.  Their  first  hymn- 
book  appeared  at  Zurich  in  1.540.  This  was  followed  by 
A.  Lobwasser's  rhymed  translation  of  the  French  Psalter 
of  Marot  and  lieza  in  157.).  Another  hundred  and  fifty 
years  brought  them  into  closer  hymnological  conformity 
with  their  Lutheran  brethren,  and  produced  amongst  ■ 
others  three  well-known  hymii-ivi-iters,  J.  Neander,  I 
Lami>e,  and  Tersteegen. 

(5)  The  Fifth  Period  embraced  about  sixty  years  ( 1757 
1817 ).  and  covers  the  time  when  the  great  wave  of  Ration- 
alism broke  in  upon  the  German  churches  and  for  a  time 
changed  the  whole  aspect  of  their  hymnody.  Old  liynins 
were  altered  or  entirely  rewritten,  and  new  hymns 
written  partaking  of  the  nature  of  rhymed  sermons  on 
the  existence  of  God,  the  immortality  of  the  soul,  the 
dignity  of  man,  the  obligations  of  moral  duties,  and 
kindred  subjects.  To  the  hymn-writers  of  this  ordei 
there  were  a  few  notable  exceptions,  which  included 
Gellert,  Klopstock,  J.  C.  Lavater,  and  M.  Claudius,  the 
greatest  being  Gellert  and  Klopstock. 

(6)  The  Sixth  I'rrvttl  is  rich  in  writers.  Beginning 
almost  with  the  litth  century,  it  extends  to  the  present 
time,  and  embraces  the  well-known  names  of  F.  von  llar- 
denbierg  ( '  Novalis ' ),  E.  M.  .\rndt,  F.  .\.  Krunimacbcr,  F. 
W.  Kruuiniacher,  \.  Knajip,  J.  P.  Lange,  Spitta,  and 
fJerok. 

This  digest  of  the  hyninological  woik  of  more 
thiw  a  thousand  years  in  one  language  can  give 
264 


only  tlie  slightest  idea  of  what  was  done.  Little 
or  nothing  has  been  .said  .about  the  intiltitude  of 
hymn-books  (Cesaiigbuelicr)  which  were  issued  and 
liiiiuglit  into  coniuion  use  in  the  church  and  in 
the  home,  nor  of  the  metrical  vei"sions  of  the 
I'saliiis,  which  have  a  history  of  their  own.  We 
can  do  no  more  than  recall  and  em|ihasise  the 
facts,  and  refer  to  s|>ecial  treatises  f<M-  details. 
The  inlluence  of  German  hymns  upon  English  and 
American  hymnody  has  been  very  great.  In  fact, 
until  the  modern  revival  of  translating  hymns 
from  the  Latin  and  (rther  languages,  German  was 
almost  tlie  only  source  from  whence  hymns  other 
than  English  were  taken  for  use  in  the  hymn  books 
of  (Ji'eat  Britain  and  America  ;  .'Uid  at  the  ]iiesent 
time,  especially  in  America,  it  holds  a  |irominent 
position  in  the  hymnals  of  almost  every  party  and 
creed.  For  the  Dutch,  Italian,  Hoheinian,  Mor- 
avian, and  Scandinavian  hymns,  and  those  in  use 
in  foreign  missions  (in  more  than  150  languages 
anil  ilialects),  see  the  present  writer's  Dic/ionan/ 
of  Ili/m  n  uluc/y  ( 1 892 ). 

Cuiichiaion. — From  the  outset  of  the  propagation 
of  Christianity  throughout  the  nations  of  the  earth 
it  became  a  necessity  to  preach  to  the  people  in 
their  own  languages,  and  gradually  to  supply  them 
with  hymns  in  theirown  tongues.  This  has  resulted, 
as  we  have  seen,  not  only  in  a  great  number  of 
languages  being  represented  in  t'liristiaii  hymnody, 
but  also  in  a  vast  variety  of  metrical  forms  being 
found  therein.  Some  of  these  forms  are  intimately 
associated  with  the  ancient  classical  measures, 
whilst  others  are  widely  divergent  therefrom,  and 
seem  to  have  had  little  or  no  laws  of  conticil  be- 
yond the  fashion  of  the  period  or  the  fancy  of  the 
writers.  With  this  broailening  out  of  languages 
and  forms  came  also  a  rapid  increase  in  the  number 
of  sulijects  which  engaged  the  attention  of  Christian 
poets.  At  an  early  stage  of  cliuich  history  reverent 
stroiilies  in  praise  of  the  Hidy  Trinity,  and  espe- 
cially in  adoration  and  praise  of  the  Eternal  Son. 
together  with  a  metrical  homily  or  two  and  a  few 
im]ia.ssioned  songs  on  the  practical  side  of  Christian 
life,  formed  the  staple  of  sacred  song.  We  have  .seen 
how  the  expansion  of  church  life  and  the  develop- 
ment of  doctrine  and  practices  called  forth  a  fuller 
and  more  extended  hymnody,  until  every  incident  of 
im]iortance  in  Bible  story,  every  conceivable  shade 
of  Christian  doctrine  and  ritual,  every  epoch  in  the 
church's  history,  every  exjierience  in  her  children's 
life,  from  the  sutl'eriiigs  of  her  little  ones  to  the 
magnilicent  self-sacrilices  of  liei  martyrs,  have  been 
enshrined  in  sacred  song. 

Ilydgo.  or  KoUK,  a  port  of  central  Japan, 
situated  on  the  west  shore  of  the  Gulf  of  U.saka, 
about  20  miles  S.  of  that  city.  Hyogo  is  properly 
on  the  west  side,  and  Kobe  on  the  east  ot  an 
unimportant  river.  (Jpen  to  foreign  trade  since 
18(i8,  it  is  connected  by  railway  with  ( )saka,  and  li.as 
a  large  direct  foreign  trade  with  Eurojie,  -America, 
and  .Australia.  The  [dace  has  foreign  banks, 
wharves  for  ocean  steamers,  exttrnsive  .shiphuihl- 
iiig  yards,  and  a  large  paper-mill.  I'op.  (189;)) 
1.53,382.  The  imports  have  an  annual  value  of 
about  i;5,000,000 ;  the  exports  (rice,  tea,  silk, 
camphor,  lish,  matches,  jiorcelain,  umbrellas)  of 
alioul  i;4,ooO.O00. 

Ilyoid  BoiK*.  in  human  anatomy,  is  a  bony 
arch  consisting  of  live  movable  parts,  i|uite  sejiarate 
from  the  rest  of  the  skeleton,  and  lying  in  the 
fleshy  parts  of  the  neck  between  the  root  of  the 
tongue  and  the  larynx  (see  ToNiit'K).  For  the 
liyoiil  bone  of  the  dog,  see  the  ligure  at  Dm;. 

Iljosryailllis.     See  Hknii.xm;. 

Ily|tati:i,  daughter  and  iiupil  of  Tlieoii,  an 
astronomer  and  mathematician  of  Alexandria,  wa-s 
born  in  the  later  part  of  the  4th  century  .\.i).     Her 


60 


HYPERESTHESIA 


HYPERIDES 


learning  and  w-isiloin  made  lier  the  most  iiiHuential 
teacher  in  Alexandria,  and  tlie  fame  of  her  lectures 
drew  round  hei  students  fiom  all  |)arts  of  the  Kast 
where  the  iuHuenee  of  (Ireek  thought  and  know- 
ledge was  felt.  Tlie  idiilosophv  she  taught  seems 
to  liave  been  an  eclectieisin,  the  results  of  an 
endeavour  to  comhine  Neoplatonisni  with  Aris- 
totelianisni  ;  hut  her  tliouf,'lits  were  nrincipally 
given  to  astronomy  and  meelianics.  IVi'siinallv 
she  was  held  in  such  great  esteem,  and  sucli 
reliance  was  placed  im  her  judgment  and  sugaeity, 
that  the  magistrate-s  nseil  frei[uently  to  consult  her 
on  important  ca.se.s.  At  this  time  the  Bishop  of 
.\le.\audria  was  Cyril  (q. v. ),  a  tierce  hater  of 
heathens  and  lieretic-s.  Witli  his  connivance,  if 
not  at  his  instigation,  certain  savage  monks  from 
(he  Nitrian  deserts,  headed  l>y  one  Peter,  a  reailer, 
attacked  Hypatia  in  the  streets  as  she  wa.s  return- 
ing from  her  lecture-room,  dragged  her  from  her 
chariot,  hurried  her  to  the  Ca^sareuni  ( then  a 
church ),  there  stripped  her  naked,  and  hacked  her 
to  death  with  oyster  shells,  after  which  she  wa-s 
torn  to  pieces,  and  her  limbs  carried  to  a  place 
called  Cinaron,  and  there  burned  to  aslies  (415). 
None  of  her  writings  have  survived.  Kingsley's 
romance,  Hijpulia,  appeared  in  1S53. 

Hyperaestbesia  (Gr.  hyper,  'over,'  a/st/iesis, 
'  a  sensation ' ),  in  the  most  general  sense  of  the 
word,  denotes  an  e.xcessive  excitability  of  the  pari> 
of  the  nervous  apparatus  which  have  to  do  with 
sensation,  special  or  common.  Abnormal  sensibility 
to  pain  is,  however,  more  correctly  called  liii/icr- 
algesia.  In  this  condition,  ius  in  Tic-doulonreux 
(q.v.).  the  slightest  stimulus  may  cause  a  paroxysm 
of  pain,  even  a  current  of  air  or  a  noise  bringing  on 
an  attack  :  while  in  hynenesthesia  of  the  special 
senses  bright  Hashes  of  light  may  be  seen,  sounds 
may  be  heard,  and  even  smells  and  tastes  exjteri- 
enced  in  the  absence  of  any  objective  cause.  Of 
the  diseases  predisposing  to  hypera'sthesia  hysteria 
is  far  the  most  frequent :  but  it  is  sometimes 
induced  by  rheumatism,  gout,  skin  diseases,  in- 
tlamnuitory  affections  of  the  central  nervous  system, 
while  it  often  adds  greatly  to  the  distress  in  the 
early  stages  of  v  ariotis  fevers.  The  treatment  of 
hyper,-e.sthesia  is  that  of  the  morbid  change  on 
which  it  depends,  but  the  local  application  of 
anodynes,  ice,  or  warm  poultices,  and  sometinu'S 
the  use  of  electricity  may  do  mucli  to  diminisli  the 
patient's  .sufferings  for  the  time. 

Hyperbola.  If  two  similar  cones  be  i)laced 
apex  to  apex,  ami  with  the  lines  joining  the  apex 
and  centre  of  ba.se  in  each,  in  a  straight  line  ; 
then  if  a  plane  which  does  not  pa.ss  through  the 
apex  be  made  to  cut  both  cones.  c;icli  of  the 
two  sections  will  be  a  hyperbola,  as  I'liN.  P'AN'. 


It  is,  viewed  analytically,  the  locus  of  the  point  to 
which  the  straight  lines  EP,  FP  differing  by  a 
constant  quantity  are  drawn  from  two  given  points, 
E  and  K.  The.se  given  points  are  called  the  /or;', 
one  being  situated  in  each  hypciliola.  The  point 
G,  niidwav  between  the  two  foci,  is  called  the 
renire,  and    the  line  I'^K  the  transverse  axis  of  the 


hyperbola.  A  line  through  G  perpendicular  to 
tiie  transverse  axis  is  called  the  coiijuijiitf  oxis  .•  and 
a  circle  described  from  centre  \i,  with  a  radius 
equal  to  Ft;,  will  cut  the  conjugate  axis  in  (and  I). 
It  (1  be  taken  for  the  origin  of  co-ordinates,  and  EM 
and  E'F'  for  the  axes,  the  hyperbola  is  exjiressed  by 

^_  J^  _  1     r.;i!_„_(;C=i). 


((:B  = 


The 


the  equation"^-  ^  =  '• 

hyperbola  is  the  only  conic  section  which  lias 
.•\syniptotes  (q.v. )  :  in  the  figure  these  are  GT.  GT', 
(is,  GS'.  It  also  appears  that,  if  the  axes  of  co- 
ordinates be  turned  at  right  angles  to  ilieir  former 
position,  two  additional  curves,  HCK,  H'DK',  will 

be  f(U-nied,  whose  equation  is  ,..  -  •'.  =  1.     These 

'  /(-         It- 

two  are  called  nrnjuqate  hyperhnlns,  and  have  the 
same  asymptotes  as  tlie  original  byperbcdius.  The-se 
a-symptotes  have  the  fcdiowiiig  remarkable  proiierty : 
If  (starting  from  G )  the  asymptotes  be  iliviaed  in 
continued  pro]Hirliiin.  .and  from  the  points  of  .section 
lines  be  drawn  parallel  to  the  oilier  asyniptott'.  the 
areas  contained  by  tw<i  .adjacent  jiaralleis  and  the 
corresponding  parts  of  the  .asymiitote  .and  curve  are 
equal  ;  also,  lines  drawn  from  the  centre  to  two 
adjacent  point.s  of  section  of  the  curve  iii<lose  equal 
areas.  Tlie  equation  to  the  hyperbola  when  referred 
to  the  lusymptotes  is  xy  =  iili :  which  shuws  that  as 
the  ordinates  decrease  in  geometrical  progression 
tli<"  abscissa'  increase  in  the  same  ratio. 

Hyperbore'ans  (i.e.  dwellers  beyond  Boie.os 
CM  the  North  Wind),  a  name  given  by  the  ancients 
to  a  mythical  people,  whose  land  was  generally  sup- 
posed to  lie  in  the  extreme  northern  parts  of  the 
world.  As  the  favourites  of  Apollo  tliey  enjoyed 
an  earthly  p.aradise,  a  bright  sky.  .i  perpetual 
spring,  .a  fruitful  land,  unludken  peace,  and  ever- 
lasting youth  and  health.  In  the  nioilern  science 
of  anthropology  the  term  Hyperboreans  is  some- 
times used  to  designate  cerf.ain  peoples,  such  as 
the  Tchuktchis.  Aino,  Kamchadales,  &c. ,  who 
dwell  in  the  north-east  of  Asia  ami  the  north-west 
and  north  of  North  America.  an<l  who  cannot  be 
classed  either  with  the  Indians  or  the  jieoples  of 
the  Asiatic  jdatcau. 

HjiierioacoH',    or    IIvrKRiciN.*;.    a   natural 

onbr  of  about  SOO  known  sjK'cies.  trees,  shrubs, 
and  herb.aceous  plants,  widely  distributed  over  the 
world,  and  in  very  different  climates,  but  particu- 
larly numerous  in  North  America.  The  sjiecies  of 
Vismi.a  vield  a  substance  resembling  gamboge. 
Many  ot  the  Ilypericacea-  belong  to  the  genus 
Hy]iericuni,  or  St  .lohn's  Wort  (q.v.). 

llyperi'de.s  (more  correctly  Hyjiereides),  the 
(ireek  onitoi  who,  on  the  whole,  ranks  next  to 
Demosthenes,  excelling  him  in  grace  though 
inferior  to  him  in  moral  power,  w;us  probably  born 
about  the  same  time  .-us  Demosthenes.  I5y  birth 
belonging  to  the  middle  class,  he  became  a  pro- 
fessional advocate,  .and  earned  largi'  sums  of  money, 
which  he  spent  with  a  generous  hand  alike  on  his 
private  (somewhat  .scandalous)  pleasures  and  (m 
patriotic  purposes.  His  ri.sniiyc/iii  against  Philo- 
crates  assuren  his  professional  position  .and  brought 
him  on  U>  the  st.age  of  politics,  where  he  w;ls 
destined  to  play  a  notable  jiart  ( .■U,S  it.c. ).  From 
the  lii-st  he  was  an  opiionent  of  the  party  which 
advocated  pe.ace  with  Philip,  and  a  supporter  of 
Demosthenes.  The  importanci!  which  attached  to 
him  as  a  politician  at  liiis  time  is  shown  by  tin- 
fact  that  be  was  chosen  by  the  Areopagus  to  repre- 
sent the  Athenian  ca.se  before  the  .\mphictyons  in 
the  dispute  .as  to  the  coiiind  of  the  Dclian  temple. 
During  all  Demosthenes' manful  struggles  against 
Pliili]!  up  to  the  fatal  lield  of  Charoiiea,  when, 
with  the  defeat  of  Athens,  the  political  lilierty  of 
(ireece  pr.actically  came  to  .an  eml  and  the  so 
premacy  of  Macedonia  was  established,  Hyperides 


HYPERIDES 


HYPNOTISM 


51 


was  the  trusty  and  valiialile  supportei-  of  Pemos- 
thenes.  Even  atti'i-  the  ileath  iit"  rliiliii,  aiid  (luring' 
the  early  portimi  i)t'  Alexamler's  career,  llie  two 
■iratiu-s  eontiuueil  to  lie  faitlifiil  allies.  (Inly  when 
Demosthenes  emleavoured  to  t'oilmv  an  iniiiossible 
n'a  media  in  the  matter  of  .Vlexamler's  ali>i-oncling 
minister,  Harpalns.  iliil  llyperiiles  hreaU  with  his 
former  leader,  and  heail  that  aeeu-^ation  of  liriliery 
aj;ainst  Demosthenes  wliicli  not  only  rcsnited  in 
liie  hanishmeiil  of  the  yreal  orator  Imt  eonimitted 
Athens  to  the  fruitle-ss  revolt  aj;ainst  Maeedon, 
known  jvs  the  l.,ainian  war.  'I'lu'  leaders  of  this 
rev(dt  were  Leosthenes  and  Hyperides  :  the  former 
perished  in  liattle,  the  latter  was  put  to  death  by 
Antipater  ( oi'i  li.c.  |.  It  is  remarkable  that 
although  Hyperides  w;vs  adnured  and  studied  in 
Koman  times.  althonj;li  his  works  were  not  only 
known  to  Pliotius  in  the  !lth  century  but  actually 
lire.served  in  MS.  in  the  Kinjj's  Library  at  Buda 
until  1.V26,  when  Buda  wivs  taken  by  tlie  Turks, 
it  w;vs  not  until  1847  that  we  had  any  sjieciniens 
of  Hyperides'  oratory  by  which  to  judi;e  for  our- 
selves of  hi~  powei-s.  In  that  year  Mr  A.  C  Harris 
of  Alexandria  purcluised  a  papyrus  at  Thebes 
eontainini;  portions  of  Hyperides'  speech  again.st 
Deniosthenes  and  of  his  speech  for  Lycophron.  At 
the  .siime  time  Mr  .J.  Arden  was  ottered  a  papyrus, 
winle  he  was  travellinj;  in  Ej;ypt,  which  turneil  out 
to  beUmj;  to  the  same  volume  as  that  bought  by 
Mr  Harris,  and  to  contain  the  remainder  of  the 
speech  for  Lycophron,  and  also  the  whole  of  the 
>peech  for  Enxenippus.  In  ISoti  Jinother  traveller, 
Mr  Stobart,  obtiiined  from  the  same  neighbourhood 
another  papyrus  containing  the  Euneral  Oration 
of  Hyperides.  And  in  1SS9  M.  Eug.  Kevillout  an- 
nounced that  the  Lcmvre  had  on  his  proposition 
purcha-sed  a  papyrus  which  contains  fragment^  of 
the  first  speech  against  Athenogenes,  and  is  miuh 
Iietter  calculateil  to  give  us  an  idea  of  the  skill  of 
Hyperides  than  anything  aci|uired  by  England 
(Reriie  ilcs  h'/iii/ex  6';-<vy//c.v,  .lannary-March  l.SSSI). 
What  nu)st  impresses  one  in  reading  Hyper- 
ides is  his  grace,  next  his  indolence,  and  always 
ills  urbanity.  His  grace  is  nothing  allected  or 
xssumed,  nor  is  it  useless  ornament.  Hyperides  is 
a  practical,  not  an  epideictic  oratoi'.  and  means 
business.  His  grace  is  that  of  a  jjian  performing  a 
feat  well  within  his  powers,  ami  that  n(it  a  despi- 
cable feat.  At  the  same  time  he  is  indolent,  appar- 
ently because  there  is  really  no  need  to  exert  him- 
self. He  will  not  take  tlie  trouble  to  pick  and 
choose  words  :  he  maktw  the  one  that  comes  lirst — 
olis(d(ae,  olisi)lescent.  pid\erliial.  conversational,  or 
what  not— do  his  wurk.  He  will  not  turn  his 
sentences  over  mentally  again  and  again  before 
uttering  them,  so  that  they  may  ndl  out  smooth, 
pidi.slied,  balanced,  and  linished  :  he  will  rather 
let  them  come  out  at  their  own  length,  and  as  they 
list— he  can  pull  them  up  at  any  time  with  etl'ect 
and  without  ellbrt.  He  is  always  transparent, 
never  monotonous  ius  is  Demosthenes;  he  is  witty 
to  a  degree,  retined  in  his  niillery,  and  his  irony  Ls 
•  lelightful.  AlM)ve  all  he  never  in  his  keenest 
attacks  pa-sses  the  bounds  of  good  ta-ste,  as  does 
Denmsthenes.  Finally,  it  must  be  remembered 
that  what  we  |ios.sess  cannot  give  us  an  adequate 
idea  of  the  orat(uical  powers  of  Hvperidcs;  of  the 
speeches  against  Demosthenes  and  for  Lyco|dm)n 
we  only  possess  fragments  ;  the  speech  for  t'uxe- 
nippus  is  indeeil  iMUuidi^U!,  but  is  never  even 
mentioned  by  ancient  critii-.s,  and  therefore  can- 
not have  l)een  one  of  his  best  ])roductiims.  And 
as  to  the  speech  against  .Vthenogenes,  the  anony- 
mous \VTiter  of  the  treatise  on  the  Sublime 
praises  it  indeed,  but  praises  it  as  a  i>ri;tty  little 
speech.  The  best  account  of  Hyperides  is  that 
•nven  by  Blass  in  his  great  worW,  Die  Attisehe 
Beredaaiiikeit,  III.  ii.  1-72.     Churchill  Babington's 


original  eilition  of  the  Orations  for  Lycophron  and 
for  Euxenipiuis  (Cambridge,  IS.'i.S)  will  alwa\s  be 
v.iluable.  llie  liest  text  of  Hy|ierides'  works  is 
that  of  Blass  ill  the  Teulmer  series.  See  Ilager's 
(Jitiv.sl tunes  lli//ieri(/cie  ( Leip.  1870);  and  the 
Qiuiitcr/if  J.'eeirir  for  April  1894. 

Ilyporioil.  a  Titan,  smi  of  Uranus  and  Ce.  and 
father  of  Ili'lios,  Selene,  and  Eos.  Homer  and 
later  p(ii'l>  apiily  the  luime  ii-s  a  patronymic  for 
Helios  himself.  Hence  the  attribute  of  beauty  hiis 
been  connecled  with  the  name,  as  in  Shakespeare's 
'  Hyperion  to  a  satyr.' 

Hypei'stllC'lIt'  (Cr.  /ii/jyer,  'above,'  al/ieiios, 
'strength;'  so  called  to  distinguish  it  fnuii  Horn- 
blende, ij.v.,  with  which  it  was  formerly  con- 
founded), a  rock-forming  mineral  which  crystallises 
in  orthorhombic  forms.  It  is  an  anhydrous  iiiag- 
ncsian  silicate,  containing  a  large  iierceiitage  ( 1.")- 
•24)  of  ferrous  oxide  with  very  little  aluiiiina.  It  is 
generally  ilark  green  or  raven  black  in  c<dour,  but 
has  a  pearly  or  metallic  lustre  w  hen  fractured  across 
the  cleavage-planes.  This  is  due  to  the  presence 
of  ver\  numerous  minute  brown  .scales  of  some 
foreign  substance,  which  are  arranged  in  lines 
along  these  plane.s.  This  mineral  occasiimally 
occurs  massive,  like  hornblenile.  as  in  the  island 
of  St  Paul  on  the  Labrador  coast.  It  is  met  with 
also  as  an  occa-sional  constituent  of  some  erujilive 
igneous  rocks,  as  in  certain  andesites  and  porpliyr- 
ites.  and  in  jilutonic  rocks,  such  as  gabbro. 

HyperstlU'llit*'.  a  more  or  h-ss  coarsely  crys- 
talline igneous  rock  allied  totoibbro  (q.v.).  It  is 
an  aggregate  <if  labradorite  (felspar)  and  hyper- 
sthene,  and  is  of  plutonic  origin. 

Hypertrophy  (Cr.,  'over-nourishment')  is  the 
term  applied  in  medicine  to  the  enlargement  of 
certain  organs  of  the  body.  The  best  examples  of 
this  change  are  seen  in  the  muscular  system,  where 
it  may  occur  altogether  inilepemlently  of  disease. 
The  huge  bo.sses  of  flesh  that  stand  iirominently 
forward  in  the  arm  of  a  blacksmith  or  of  a  pugilist, 
and  in  the  leg  of  an  ojiera-daucer,  are  illustrations 
of  hypertropby  where  the  general  health  may  be 
perfect.  In  double  organs,  such  as  the  kidneys  ami 
lungs,  if  the  organ  on  one  side  degenerates  through 
diseiise,  the  organ  on  the  opposite  side  is  often 
found  to  enlarge  and  cany  on  double  wcuk.  In 
these  cases  liypertro]ihy  is  an  etl'ect  of  disease,  but 
is  at  the  same  time  a  resource  of  nature  to  preserve 
life.  There  are.  however,  cases  in  which  the  hyper- 
trophy has  a  hurtful  instead  of  a  cimservative 
elleci.  as,  for  examjile,  hypertroi)hy  of  the  thyroid 
;  gland,  constituting  the  disea.se  known  a.s  goitre  or 
bronchocele,  hypertrophy  of  the  prostate  gland, 
of  the  spleen,  <.S:e.  Tlie  following  are,  according 
to  I'aget,  the  conditions  which  give  rise  to 
I  hypertroi>hy  :  (1)  The  increased  exercise  of  a  part 
!  in  its  healthy  function;  ("2)  an  increased  aceumn- 
latiou  in  the  blood  of  the  particular  materials 
which  a  jiart  .iiiinoprijiles  in  its  nutrition  or  in 
secretion  ;  (.'!)  an  increaseil  alllux  of  healthy  blood. 
In  hypertrophy  of  the  muscular  tissue  the  liist  and 
third  of  thi'.se  conditions  are  i>resent.  In  hyper- 
trophy of  the  fatty  tissue,  constituting  obesity, 
there  is  an  excess  of  fat  or  of  its  chief  elements  in 
the  blooil. 

ilypllilsis.     See  SlTI,E,J. 

Ilypiiolislll.  or  I'sV('H()-THi;ii\i'i:i'  ncs.  I'rom 
17X4,  when  .Mesmer  at  I'aris  claimed  the  power  of 
curing  all  manner  of  iliseiuse  by  "animal  magnet- 
ism,' this  subject  h;us  been  more  or  less  t:il">oed  by 
the  nieclieal  piol'e.ssion.  The  nature  of  hypnotism 
.■md  methods  of  inducing  it  are  iliscus.sed  at 
.\m.m.\i,  M Ai;.NKrisM.  It  is  only  within  ihe 
last  few  years  that  it  hius  received  the  scientilic 
investigation   which  it  deserves;   but   hy|inntisni 


52 


HYPNOTISM 


HYPOCH^RIS 


is  now  extensively  used  on  the  Continent  in  treat- 
injr  ili^eiise,  and  is  slowly  llndiii.u  its  way  into 
in-actii-e  in  Hrilain.  It  is  imiJossilile  to  >aiipuse 
that  liypnotisni  will  ever  I'ullil  the  san;;niiu'  expee 
tatioiis  of  many  of  its  exponents,  tllongli  it  seems 
certain  that  it  will  render  yreat  aid  as  a  thera- 
lieutif  a};ent  in  treating;  smne  kinds  of  diseases. 
It  is  still  necessary  to  write  very  j^uardedly  npon 
the  snljject,  as  its  action  \\  lien  nsed  for  the  cure  of 
disease  is  imi>erfectly  understood  :  Imt  that  it  is 
useful  as  a  method  of  treatment  is  demonstrated 
by  many  cures  which  have  heen  thorou<;hly  investi- 
^:ated  hy  the  hiy;hest  scientitic  men.  Hypnotism  is 
not  any  longer  to  be  rej,'arded  as  a  mystery  or 
as  a  snperhuman  j,'ift,  for  its  action  can  for  the 
most  part  be  explained  by  our  ])resent  knowledi^e 
of  jihysiolofiy  and  [isycholoj^y.  The  chief  reason 
why  hypnotism  cannot  be  universally  employed  as 
a  therapeutic  a^'ent  is  the  fact  that  only  a  certain 
])roportion  of  persons  can  be  hyimotised.  The  pro- 
portion, however,  of  persons  insusceptible  to  its 
power  is  much  less  than  was  at  one  time  thou,i;ht ; 
and,  when  used  therapeutically,  somnamlmlism, 
the  deepest  staL;e  of  liyjmotism,  is  not  necessary. 
On  the  ('oiilinent  it  is  found  that  about  80  per 
cent,  of  the  inliabitants  can  be  hypnotised. 

Hypnosis  may  be  used  in  two  ways  in  relation 
to  disease.  In  the  first  place,  simple  sleep  is 
induced,  and  sleep  when  produced  without  the 
action  of  drugs  is  often  of  great  im])nrtance, 
and  of  itself  aids  in  treatment.  Again,  in  many 
cases  when  the  person  is  aslee]i.  suggestions  may 
be  made  to  liini  which  will  abolish  i)ain,  and 
which  in  some  diseases  will  bring  about  either 
the  relief  of  symptoms  or  the  cure  of  the  disease. 
Every  one  knows  that  the  mind  inlluences  the  body, 
and  that  concentrated  thought  can  bring  about 
sensations  in  various  localities.  It  is  upon  this 
knowledge  that  the  hypnotist  bases  his  practice. 
The  ]iatient  being  placed  in  a  hypnotic  sleep,  bis 
attention  is  directed  to  various  jiarts  of  the  lioily, 
and  very  often  the  cH'ect  is  increased  through  local 
stimulation  by  means  of  passes  or  rubbing.  During 
the  hypnotic  sleep  the  patient  is  uniulluenced  by 
his  surroundings,  and  therefore  he  is  all  the  more 
open  to  suggestions,  and  no  distuibiug  iullueiu'es 
diminish  his  powers  of  coiu'ciitration.  ]!y  means 
such  as  these  neuralgic  or  rheumatic  pains  may 
Ireiiuently  be  removed  :  heailaches  may  often  be 
cured,  and  so  may  .some  fornrs  of  dyspepsia,  as  well 
as  the  various  manifestations  of  hysteria  and  hypo- 
chondriasis, and  even  functional  )iaralysis.  It  is 
found,  too,  that  hypnotism  is  useful  in  dijisomania 
and  in  treating  persons  aihlii^ted  to  opium-eating 
and  other  de|iraved  tastes.  .\t  present  it  <'annot 
be  .Said  that  hypnotism  is  of  use  in  any  <lisease 
having  an  organic  origin,  although  in  such  <liseases 
various  sym|itoms,  esnecially  tho.se  of  pain,  may 
be  removed  successfully.  It  is  i|uile  jiossible  for 
operations  to  be  performed  upon  jiersons  lunlcr 
the  hypnotic  inlluences  without  the  slightest  pain 
being  ielt  by  the  patient  ;  but  a.s  vari<ius  other 
ana'stlietics  are  more  easily  eniploy<'d,  it  is  oidy  in 
a  few  cases  where  these  are  contra  indicated  that 
hypnotism  will  be  used  in  this  connection. 

Tor  educational  purposes  it  is  held  ]iossible  to 
imiiress  a  person  in  ihi;  hypnotic  sleep  with  ideas 
which  will  modify  his  usual  character.  I'"or  in- 
stance, it  seems  possibli'  in  Tuaiiy  cases  to  cure 
persons  of  bad  habits,  such  its  stealing,  lying,  or 
the  excessive  use  of  alcohol;  and  on  the  Con- 
tinent attempts  are  being  made  to  inlluence 
habitual  crinnnals  for  good  by  means  of  hyjinosis. 
Young  children,  defective  in  brain-|)ower  or  con- 
stitutionally vicious,  may  bi'  improved  by  careful 
hypnotic  tn'atmcnt.  It  is  a  mistake  to  supjiose 
that  hypnotism  can  only  be  used  successfully  in 
treating     iiervou.s    or    hysterical     persons.      Such 


people  are  often  difficult  to  hypnotise,  and  there 
is  always  a  danger  of  either  incrciisiu;;  their 
troubles  or  in  some  cases  of  inducing  insanity. 
Ordinary  individuals,  especially  those  who  have 
learned  to  obey,  are  the  subjects  whom  a  hypnotist 
would  luefer  to  treat.  Children  at  schocd,  s(diliers 
and  sailors,  and  ollicials  of  all  ranks,  are  the  clas.ses 
from  which  the  nuist  brilli;int  successes  have  been 
olitained  hitherto  in  treating  disea.se.  In  many 
cases  of  insanity  hypnotism  may  be  used  with 
advantage  as  a  thera))eutic  agent,  althiuigh  its 
employment  in  these  eases  is  not  by  any  meairs 
easy.  Persons  suffering  from  hallucinatiims,  it  is 
said,  have  been  cured,  and  those  who  suder  from 
the  jiainful  result  of  some  grievcuis  trouble  have 
lu'cn  restored  by  having  the  incident  blotted  mit 
from  their  memcuv. 

Although  hypnotism  has  power  for  good  when 
properly  used  by  meilical  men.  it  is  an  exceedingly 
dangerous  wea])on  in  the  h;tnds  of  the  unskilful  or 
nnscrupulons.  All  public  exhibitions  of  hyimotism 
should  be  prohibited  l>v  law,  as  jjersons  experi- 
mented upon  have  been  rendered  lumitics,  or 
had  their  nervous  systems  severely  damag<Ml. 
Crimes  have  been  committed  by  persons  who  have 
been  hypnotised,  dust  as  a  jierson  when  hypno- 
tised is  rendered  extremely  inipressiomible,  ami 
therefore  capable  of  receiving  beneficial  sugges- 
ti(Uis,  so  he  is  nearly  as  liable  to  receive  sugges- 
tions for  evil :  and  it  is  quite  iiossible  for  him  during 
the  hyjinotic  sleep  to  be  inqiressed  with  the  lielief 
that  he  is  to  connnit  some  act  after  he  has  awak- 
ened from  the  sleep — an  act  he  is  safe  to  <lo, 
acling  at  llie  time  as  an  automaton.  It  is 
absolutely  impo.ssible  for  a  person  to  be  hypm>tised 
unless  he  has  the  idea  of  wliat  is  going  to  happen. 
It  is  a  psychical  anil  not  a  physical  intluence  wliich 
brings  about  the  condition.  (July  peisons  whose 
will'iiower  is  weakened  by  fear,  or  by  the  idea  of 
a  supposed  power  which  inlluences  them  in  sjiite 
of  tliemselves,  can  be  hypnotised  witiiont  full 
consent  on  their  ]iart  ;  but  the  oftener  a  person  is 
hypnotised  the  more  easily  may  he  be  subseciuently 
ailccted. 

See  Uernlieiiu,  Suf/iiexliir  Tlifrapeiitics  (trans,  by 
Herter,  1S89);  Tuckey,  Pn'irho-thernpeniicx  (3d  ed. 
l.Siil ) ;  and  otlier  bixiks  on  hypiioti.sin  hy  Hjiirnstriim 
(ISSill.  Kingsbury  (ISIU),  Courmelles  (1891),  Vincent 
( ISy.'j ).  and  I  lart  ( denouncing  it  as  witchcraft,  1 894 ) ;  and 
the  article  t'UAla'or. 

llypiiotirs.    See  X.\i!coTirs.  Si.i-.ur. 

liypilllllK  a  genus  of  mos.ses  belonging  to  the 
(udcr  Ihyinca-.  Archcgonia  ami  capsules  are  borne 
on  sjiecial  latci'al  bi'anches.     The  sexual  oigans  are 

ton I  in  .\ugust  and  September,  and  the  capsules 

take  from  ten  months  to  a  year  to  ripen.  Alany 
sjiecies  are  remarkable  for  their  beauty,  and  are 
often  used  for  decorative  ]iur|Mises.  Their  dislri- 
lHUii>n  is  unix'crsal. 

II.VIMX'Slllsli  a  form  of  furnai'e  iiseil  by  the 
liomans  for  the  ])urpose  of  healing  baths  and 
apartments.  It  was  placed  in  a  chamber  beneath 
the  lloor,  and  the  heated  air  and  pi-odncts  of  com- 
bustion were  m.-ide  to  circulate  round  the  walls 
and  under  the  lloor  by  means  of  hollow  tubes  or 
a  hollow  lining,  and  were  also  carried  in  pipes  to 
other  rooms.      Si'e  liATIls. 

Ilyporlia'ris,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natuial 
order  Composila',  sub-order  Cichoracea\  of  which 
lUie  species,  yy.  nidiniUi,  or  Long-rooted  Cats-ear, 
is  extremely  common  in  meadows  and  pastures  in 
Ih'itain.  Its  leaves  spread  on  the  gnuind,  and 
icsemble  in  form  those  of  the  dandelion,  but  ri)ugh; 
the  stem  is  blanched,  the  tlowers  not  unlike  those 
of  the  dandelion,  but  smaller.  Caltle  eal  this 
plant  readily,  and  its  abundance  is  not  deemed 
injurious  to  pasture  or  fod<ler. 


HYPOCHLOROUS    ACID 


HYRAX 


53 


Hypochloroiis  Acid,  HCIO,  is  tlie  acid 
oontiliiied  in  bleachiu-;  iiowder.  It  can  only  lie 
iilitaine<l  as  a  dilute  sohitioM,  as  in  the  concen- 
trated state  it  is  very  lialile  to  decniiiposition.  It 
is  a  powerful  lileacliing  a<;ent,  and  forms  a  series 
of  salts,  liijpiirliluritfji,  wliicli  also  possess  Ideacliinj; 
properties.  The  chief  of  these  are  the  liypochlorites 
of  lime  and  soda.  Tlie  lime  salt  is  the  imiiortant 
constituent  of  Iileachin;;  powdci.  while  the  .soda 
salt  is  prepared  commercially  liy  pii-s-^in^'  chlorine 
into  a  solution  of  soda.  For  further  information, 
see  15le.\chixo  PowDEl!.  -7/i//"',  in  composition 
(tir.  'under  ),  is  used  much  like  .v"6-  from  Latin. 
Hynochlorous  acid  has  less  o.xygen  than  chlorous 
aciii ;  hyposulidinric  has  less  oxyjren  than  sul- 
phuric, but  more  than  s\ilpluiroiis  acid.  Hypo- 
pliospliates  are  salts  formed  by  hypophosphoric 
ai'id  and  a  ha-^e. 

II>pochoudri'asis(  so  called  from  its  supposed 
connection  with  the  hypochondriac  regions  of  the 
.Vbdomen,  '{.v. ),  a  disease  characterised  by  extreme 
increase  of  sensibility,  palpitations,  morbid  feelinys 
that  simulate  tlie  jireater  pari  of  disea-ses,  exaj;- 
gerateil  une,asine.-<s  ;ind  .anxiety,  chiefly  in  what 
concerns  the  healtli,  &C.  In  extreme  ca-ses  it 
liecomes  a  species  of  melancholia.  The  disease  is 
intimately  cimnected  witli,  if  not  cau.sed  by,  dis- 
order of  the  di<;estive  functions.  See  In'DI(;E.stion, 
Ins.vnitv. 

H.V|ioderiiii4-  Injection.  This  method,  lii-st 
introduced  by  the  late  Dr  .Vlexan<ler  Wood  of 
Kdinbiirgli,  is  an  e.xtremely  valuable  one  in  certain 
c.a-ses,  though  its  ajiplicability  is  limited.  It  consists 
in  the  injection  ot  a  solution  of  the  substance  to  be 
given  Ijeneath  the  skin,  by  means  of  a  hue  hollow 
iieeiUe  to  which  a  small  syringe  is  attached.  The 
iirick  given  by  the  needle  is  much  le.ss  acutely  felt 
oy  the  patient  if  the  neeille  be  lubricated  with 
carbolic  oil  or  the  like.  Ah.sor|ition  from  the  subcu- 
taneous tissue  takes  place  speeilily,  and  is  not  inter- 
fered with  by  vomiting,  or  other  conditions  of  the 
stomach  which  may  delay  or  prevent  the  entrance 
of  the  remedy  into  the  system  by  that  channel. 
The  action  of  the  drug  is  thus  at  once  more 
rapid  and  more  certain  than  when  ailministered 
by  the  mouth;  and  a  smaller  dose  is  required. 
Only  such  s\ibstanees  as  can  be  given  in  small  bulk 
and  ill  an  unirritating  comlition  are  available.  It 
is  thus  chiefly  of  u.se  for  the  vegetable  alkaloids, 
of  which  morphia  is  far  the  most  often  employed. 
It  need  hardly  be  said  that  it  is  to  be  used  only  by 
skilled  hands.  The  same  methoil  is  largely  em- 
ployed in  e-\perinients  on  the  .action  r)f  disease 
poisons  in  animals,  anil  in  Pasteur's  treatment  of 
iiyilroiihobia  ;  .see  also  Dii'llTHKRl.x,  TiitERCLE. 

Hvpo.s'tasis,  the  (Jreek  term  used  to  designate 
the  distinct  subsistence  of  the  three  pei'sons  of  the 
Trinity  (<|.v.). 

Hypo  thcc.  a  term  in  the  law  of  Scotland, 
but  not  used  in  England,  to  denote  .a  lien  or 
security  over  goods  in  respect  of  a  debt  ilne  by  the 
owner  of  the  goods.  Thus,  a  law-agent  or  attorney 
has  ,a  hypothec  over  the  title-deeds  of  his  client  in 
respect  of  his  .account  or  bill  of  costs  :  .and  the 
lanillord  of  agricultural  subjects  held  under  le.ascs 
iMirrent  at  the  llth  of  November  Issi  h.ts  a 
hypothec  over  the  furniture  or  crops  of  his  tenant 
lor  the  current  rent.  The  Hypothec  .\bolition 
(Seotlanil)  Act,  1880,  did  away  with  the  land- 
lord's hypothec  for  the  rent  of  all  other  land  e.\- 
ceeiling  two  acres  let  for  agricultural  purposes. 
Sei-  I, ANiii.iiini  Axn  Tenwnt. 

Ilypotlicnnse.  the  name  of  that  side  in  a 
right  anglecl  triangle  which  is  op|>osite  to  the 
right  angle.  The  well-known  properly  of  the 
liypothenuse,  that  the  si|uare  desciibcd  mi  it  is 
erjual  to  the  sum  of  the  squares  descril/eil  on  the 


)    are,    they    lind.    ai'coriling    to 


other  two  sides,  is   proved    in   the  47tli   proposi- 
tion of  the  tii-st  l«)ok  of  Euclid's  Elements. 

Hyrac4»tllCI*inm,  a  genus  of  fossil  ungnlales, 
established  in  IS.Sil  by  Owen  for  a  small  Kocene 
animal  about  the  .-ize  of  a  hare,  to  which,  how- 
ever, he  .afterwards  gave  the  name  of  I'liolophus. 
See  Horse. 

Hyrax.  a  genus  of  mammals  repre.-^entiiig  a 
distinct  order,  the  aflinities  of  which  are  very 
obscure,  and  unillumiiied  by  the  discovery  of  any 
fossil  forms.  '  Feeble  folk  '  as  the  species  of  hyrax 
(so-c.alletl  '  c(my ' 
m.any.  their  near- 
est allies  in  the 
huge  elephants 
or  in  the  ungu- 
lates proiier.  In 
size  they  .are  like 
rabbit.s  ;  but  the 
name  '  cony,' 
which  really  be- 
longs to  the  rab- 
bit, is  not  very 
apiuopriate ;  in 
appesirance  they 
rather  suggest 
marmots.  They 
are  natives  of 
Africa  and  Syria, 
stony  deserts,  or 
thick     bead,     snia 


Hyrax  syriacu.s 


and  live  among  the  rocks 
on    trees.       The   plump    bi 
ears. 


y, 
hort  slender  limb>, 
rudimentary  tail,  soft  yellowish-gray  or  brownish 
fur  are  obvious  external  characteristics.  Closer 
examination  shows  many  ])eculi<arities.  The  snout, 
which  has  a  cleft  upper  lip,  is  .s(nnewhat  rodent- 
like,  and  so  are  the  rootless,  jiersistcntly  growing" 
curved  upjjcr  incisois;.  except  that  they  lia\e  a  pris- 
matic sha|)e  and  a  sharp  point  insteail  of  the  chisel 
edge  of  rodents.  The  entire  dentition  is  expre.-^sed 
in  the  formul.a  \'',\'i,  and  the  b.ack  teeth  are  in 
pattern  distinctly  lilie  those  of  the  rhinoceros  and 
some  other  ungul.ates.  There  are  four  toes  on  the 
anterior  limbs,  three  on  the  hind,  all  with  short 
broad  nails  except  the  inner  toe  of  the  hind-foot, 
wbidi  bears  a  curved  claw.  The  feet  strikingly 
suggest  tho.se  of  rhinoceros  or  tapir,  ami  are  inter- 
esting in  the  further  peculiarity  that  the  naked 
sole  is  furrowed  in  such  a  wa\'  tliat  the  hyrax  can 
in  gecko-like  fashion  cling  to  the  vertical  sides  of 
rocks  and  trees.  Among  the  many  char.acteristics 
of  the  skeleton  may  be  noticed  the  huge  number 
(2,S-30)of  back  and  loin  (dorso-himbar)  vertebra'. 
The  brain  and  skull  most  resemble  those  of  niigu- 
liites  ;  the  stomach  recalls  that  of  horse  or  rhino- 
ceros ;  the  idacenta  is  zonary  as  in  elephants  and 
carnivores. 

There  are  numerous  species,  sometimes  referred 
to  two  genera,  Hyrax  and  Dendrohyrax.  The 
former  is  represeiite<l  by  //.  rdpm.ii.i,  the  Cape 
Daman,  Kli]p|id.a.ss,  or  Kock-badger ;  II.  siiriaciis, 
the  Sbaphau — niistranslateil  'cony' — of  Scripture: 
and  //.  Iiiilicsliiii-iis,  the  Ashtok  of  the  .\byssinians. 
These  live  in  companies,  usually  in  hides  among 
I  he  rocks,  and  feed  on  shoots,  grass,  (lowers,  ainl 
the  like.  In  reference  to  the  Scripture  .accimnt  it 
may  be  iiote<l  that  the  hyr.ax  docs  not  chew  the 
cud,  though  it  moves  its  jaws  vi-ry  coiistanlly. 
Though  only  two  are  born  at  a  birth,  the  rale  of 
mnltiplication  is  very  rapiil,  keeping  p.ace  with 
ravages  of  carnivores,  which  are  very  deailly  in 
spite  of  the  caution  and  even  sentinels  of  the 
hyra.\es.  Of  ditt'erent  habitat,  and  sometimes 
referred  to  the  second  genus.  I)eii<liohyrax.  are 
certain  hyraxcs  which,  in  West  and  South  .\frica, 
live  in  trees  -e.g.  I),  tirhorfti.s  and  />.  tlorsiilis. 
The  members  of  this  order,  so  puzzling  zoologi- 
cally,   are    iilayful,     good  humoured,     and     wary. 


54 


HYRCANIA 


HYSTERIA 


Their  flesh  is  sonietimos  eaten,  and  is  said  to 
resenil.le  lahhitV.— y/v''"''""'.  '^  supposed  inedioine 
for  certain  nervims  iliseases,  was  made  Iidmi  tlie 
mixed  urine  and  fa'ces  of  the  Cape  Hyrax. 

Ilvrfilllin.  an  an.'ient  district  of  Asia,  of  in- 
deiinhe  extent,  lumlered  on  tlie  Caspian  Sea(s(>iue- 
times  called  U  iirniiiinii  Man)  and  the  nverOxns 
U  corresi>onded  with  the  modern  Mazandoran  and 
Asteraliad. 

IlvrcaniiS.    the    name   of    two    Jewish    hij;h- 
nries'ls  and  princes  of  the  Hasmonean  family  (see 
M  \CCABEES ).     ( 1 )  .Ion N  Hykcanus,  son  of  Snuon 
ilaecahaMis,   who  ruled    I35-10.".  B.C.,   was  at  lirst 
tributary    to    the    Syrians,    hut    ou    the    death    of 
Antioch'us    nuide    li'imself     independent,    sululued 
the    Samaritans    on    the    north,    and    forced    the 
Iduui:iaus  ou  the   south    to   a<lopt   the   laws   and 
customs    of    the    Jews.      He    also    concluded    an 
allianoc  with   the  Komans,  and  extended  his  terri- 
tories almost  to  the  ancient  liiuits  of  the  Davidian 
monarchy.     <  lrij;inallv  a  Pharis.'e,  he  subsequently 
attached"  himself    lo  the   part\    ..f   the  Sadducees, 
who  were  anxious  to  keep  ou  ^ood  terms  with  the 
Rom.ans,   and  who  discountenanced  the  turbulent 
religious  patriotism  of  the  Jewish  masses.     Hyr- 
canns   was.    comparatively   sjjeakinj;-,    a    just   and 
enli'ihtened  ruler,   and   the  country  enjoyed  great 
prosperity   dnrint;   his   reigu.      He   left   live  sons, 
two  of  whom,  Aristobulus  and  Alexander,  governed 
with  the  title  of  Uiug.— (2)  Hvia:ANi:s  II.,  son  of 
Alexander,  and  grandson   of  the  preceding,  was  a 
feeble   prince.     Ou    the    death   of    his   father  (78 
B.C.)  he  was  ajipointed   highprie.st  by  his  mother 
Alexandra,  who  ruled  Judiea  herself  for  the  next 
nine  years.     After  her  death  ((lit  n.o.)  his  younger 
•brother,  Aristobulus,  a  braver  and  more  energetic 
man,  seized  the  ','overniueut.  and  forced  Hyrcanns 
to  withilraw   into   private   life.      He   tailed   to  win 
back  his  dominions,  until  l'omi)ey  l)egan  to  f.avonr 
his  cause.     After  some  years  of  tumultuous  light- 
ing, -Vristobulus  was  poisoned  by  the  partisans  of 
Ptolemy  (49   B.C.),  and   Hyrcanns  for  some  time 
possessed  the  dignity  of   high-priest.      Cawar  (47 
B.C.),  on  account  of   the  services   rendered  (o  him 
by  Antipaterof  lilunnea,  m.ide  the  latter  procurator 
oi'  Juda-a,  and   thus  left  in   his  hands  all   (he  real 
iiower.      Antipater  was    assassinated,   and    Anti- 
•nnins,   son  of   Aristobulus,   with   the   help  of  the 
T'arthian   king,   invaded    the    land,   captured   Hyr- 
canns  by  treai-hery,  cut  oil'  his  ears,   and   earned 
him  olV'to   Seleucia   on    the   Tigris.     Some   years 
later    Herod,    sou    of    his    old    friend    Antipater, 
obtained    supreme    power   in    Juda'a,    anil    inviteil 
the  aged   Hvrcaiius  home  to  Jeru.salem.     He  was 
allowed  to  dejiart,  and  for  some  time  lived  in  ea.se 
and  comfort :  but,  falling  under  suspicion  of  intrigu- 
ing against  Herod,  he  was  put  to  death,  '.W  B.C. 

Ilvslon.  JvMKS,  poet,  was  born  in  the  parish  of 
KirUVoiMMd,  Dumfriesshire,  July  -J:?,  170S.  Wlulc 
acting  as  a  shepherd  near  Airdsiuoss,  Ayrshire,  the 
scene  of  a  Coveuaiitiii.u  sUirmisii  and  Cameron  s 
dealh  (IGSO).  (he  traditions  of  the  district  stimu- 
lated his  imagination  to  the  writing  of  his  best- 
known  poem.  'The  Cameroiiiaii's  Dieain,"  which 
appeared  in  the  Kdiiihiir(jli  Miiriii::iiir  (1S'2I). 
Hyslo]!,  who  had  preiiared  hiinscdf  by  iierseveriiig' 
private  studv  f<u-  teaching  ,at  (Jreeuock.  ibrongh 
the  iullneuceof  I,ord  .h'ftrey  was  .-qipointed  tutor 
on  board  the  Dm-is.  While  tutor  tm  board  the 
Tiriiil  man-of-w.ir  he  dieil  of  fever  at  St  Jago, 
Cai>e  Verd  Islands,  November  4,  IH27.  An  editicm 
of  his  poems  wasjirinted  from  bis  manuscript  book 
by  the  Kev.  I'.  VIearns.  Coldstream  (Glasg.  I.SH7). 
Mr  Hamish  .M'Ciinu  set  hi^-  '  Ciimeronian's  Dream 
to  music  in  IHHil 


divergin"    stamens,    i 
ribs.        The       known 


and    a    calyx    with 


m<u'4' 
■  as  a 
A 

;    a 
Th^ 


/ 


L 


Hyssop    {  lli/s.mj)ii.\),   a   genus   of  plants  of  the 
natural     ordi  r  '  l,a(iiat;e,     distinguished     by     Umi 


straight 
lifteen 

species    are    few.      The    Com- 
mon    Hyssop    (H.     uffivinaiis) 
is     a     native     of     the     south 
of    Europe   and    the   East.     It 
is     found     on     the     Aljis      of 
Austria.      It  is  a  half-shrubby 
plant,  about   1.1   feet  high,   the 
upper  jiart  of  the  steins  (piad 
langular,  the  leaves  evergreen 
and  Lanceolate,   the  flowers  in 
one-siihul      wborled      r.aceiiies. 
The  lloweis  are  generally  of  a 
very  beautiful  blue.      It  has  an 
agreeable  aromatic  odour.       Ii 
lias    long    been    in    cultivation 
for  thi!  sake  of  its  leaves  ami 
young  shoots,  which  are  some 
times  used    for    culinary   pur 
poses  as  a  sea.soning,  but 
generally  in  a  dried  state 
stoni;icliic  ami  earmin;itiv( 
syruji    ma<le   with    them 
po]iular  remedy  for  colds, 
virtues  of  hyssop  depend  on  ;i 
volatile  oil.  '-The  hyssop  of  the 
JJible  has  been  supposed  to  be 
some    species    of     I'hytidacca 
(q.v.),  as  /'.  ai'iiiosit,  a  native 
of  the   Himalaya:    but  on  the 
authority     of      Dr      Koyle      it 
appears  to  have  been  the  com 
i  nion       Caper       (q.v.).— Hedge 
'  Hyssop  is   arath/a    officimilh.  ,   ComnHm  Hyssop 
1  SeeClVvTinl.A.  (//,„.«„/.»..  f#.- „«/,,,). 

Hysteria     (Cr.     hystera, 
'  the'womh)  ileri\es  its  name  from  an  ancient   Imt 
erniueiuis    notion    that    it    is   specially    eonni'cted 
with  disorders  of  tlu^  w<nnb.     It  is  a  disease  which 
exhibits    it.self    under    so    m.any    aspects    that    to 
I  descrilH-  all  the  \aried  forms  which  it  may  assume 
W(nild  be  to  give  nn  c>pitoiiie  of  the  symptoms  of 
!  nervous   diseases    in    general,   fm-   there   is   hardly 
one  of  these  which   the   ndmiciy  of   hysteria  may 
not    reproduce.       In    dealing    with    the    condition 
I  two  thiims  must   be  kciil    in   mind- the  tendency 
1  or  lempi'iiimeiit   which    iiredisiioses  to  it,   and  the 
I  exciting  c;iuse  which  determines  the  actual  attack. 
Among    savages    it    is    .scarcely    ever    met    with. 
Among  civilised  races  it  is  nneiinally  distributed, 
the  Krcueh.  lor  example,  being  more  hysterical  than 
the  Kmdish,  while  in  every  count ly  the  female  sex, 
esiieciaUv  at  or  before   tb.'   a-e  of  puberty,   is  far 
m.ire    liable   to   it   (ban   the    male.     Among   boys, 
howevi'r,  it  is  not  uncommon.     The  tendency  seems 
sometimes  to  he  due  to  hereditary  iniluence,  some- 
times to  injudicious  training  in  childhood. 

The  exciting  cause  which  ih'velops  the  hysterical 
tendencv  into  actual  hysteria  is  geiLcrally  some 
severe  e'motumal  shock  a  fright,  an  unlmpi.y  love 
affair,  or  a  sudden  reverse  of  fortune,  liut  luaiiy 
"eneral  diseases  occasiiuially  carry  hysteria  in 
their  train  ;  and  in  ISS'.l  a  volume  of  nearly  400 
pa.'cs  appeared  (Thr  Juntiiu/ Om.ses  of  llystrrw, 
by  Ceorgcs  Cninon)  dealing  solely  with  the  enn- 
iiieration  and  discussion  of  the  exciting  causes  of 
this  I'ldtciin  malady. 

In  the  divelopcd  disease  some  of  the  symptoms 
.are  coulinucms,  ojhers  occasional  or  piiroxysnial. 
The  will  is  we.akeiKMl.  and  the  iiatient  is  a  prey  to 
unre"ulated  whims  and  impulses.  The  tenii)er  is 
oflen     irritable,    and    every    petty    annoyance    is 

cxa ated    into   a    serious    trouble.      There  is  a 

moHud  craving  for  sympathy,  which  leads  to  the 
most  outrageous  acts.  Illood  has  be.Mi  swallowed 
bv  a  hysterical  girl  in  order  th.nt  she  iniglit  vmnil 
it  .•ig.'iin.     I'orter  has  been  mixed  with  unnc,  and 


HYSTEKTA 


HYTHE 


55 


tlie  inixtiire  iialnicHi  off  upon  the  medical  man  as 
an  alinoinial  iliscliargo.  Tlie  most  oUilnirate  lies 
liavo  Ix'cii  cciiioocleil  :  iniiDcent  people  have  heeii 
:u;cu.seil  <>l  imajiiiian'  crimes  :  every  inoniiveiiieru-e 
lias  heen  siitl'eied  ami  every  artilii-e  exhaiisteil  in 
iinlor  to  play  ii]m)m  the  creilulity  or  the  pity  of 
Irienils  and  atleiiclants. 

This  juoral  perversuni  has  its  counterpart  in  the 
dboriler  of  the  sensory  and  motor  mechanism. 
Sensihility  to  impressions  of  various  kinds  may 
l>e  exalted,  lessened,  or  abolished.  A  touch  may 
>;ive  ri.se  to  all  the  symploms  of  severe  ]iain : 
and.  on  the  other  hand,  the  prick  of  a  pin,  or 
even  the  contact  of  a  hot  iron,  may  not  he  felt. 
Paralysis  of  the  legs,  arms,  or  face,  or  of  one 
side  of  the  liody,  or  of  sjiecial  muscliw  or  groups  of 
muscles,  is  a  very  common  symptom.  Laryngeal 
paralysis  may  recluce  the  voicrc  to  a  whisper, 
speech  or  motor  power  may  often  return  suddenly, 
especially  nmler  the  influence  of  strong  emotion  ; 
and  there  is  no  douht  that  'miraculous'  cures  are 
sometimes  of  this  nature.  A  hysterical  paralytic, 
for  insUuice.  will  generally  run  out  of  a  Imrning 
house.  Digestive  ilisorders  are  common  in  hysteria, 
anil,  aidetl  sometimes  hy  fraud,  give  rise  to  '  fjtstitig 
girls'  and  other  newspaper  marvels.  Palpitation, 
great  rapidity  of  hreathing,  gidiliness,  an<l  Hu.shing 
of  the  face  are  also  of  freifuent  occurrence. 

But  besides  these  more  or  less  continuous 
symptoms,  there  are  the  occasional  paroxysms  or 
■  rtl-s '  which  in  the  popular  mind  are  chictly 
a&sociated  with  the  name  of  hysteria.  riiese 
emotional  storms  or  crises  vary  much  in  frequency 
and  severity.  In  the  mildest  form  there  is  no 
loss  of  conseiousne.ss.  but  the  arms,  leg>i,  and 
head  are  tossed  about,  and  there  is  great  mental 
excitement.  In  sever,  r  cases,  perhaps  .after  some 
premonitory  symptoms,  such  as  the  sen.se  of  con- 
striction in  the  throat  known  as  the  globus  Itiix- 
icriciis.  the  patient  falls  to  the  ground,  sometimes 
with  a  scream,  her  features  twitching,  her  back 
arched,  and  her  legs  and  arms  moving  convulsively. 
She  may  snap  like  a  dog  at  the  hands  of  those  who 
approach  liei ,  or  at  Ihm-  own,  oci'asionally  intlictinLi 
serious  injuries:  hut  she  rarely  linrt.s  herself  in 
falling,  ius  often  haj>i)ens  in  an  e|>iieptic  tit.  The 
seizure  may  hist  only  a  fraction  of  a  mitnite,  or  as 
long  as  three  or  four  hours. 

The  treatmiMit  of  hysteria  must  be  directed  both 
to  the  removal  or  alleviation  of  the  .symptoms  and 
to  the  cure  of  the  condition  which  gives  rise  to 
them.  The  lli-t  object  can  generally  be  attained, 
the  ,secon<l  more  rarely,  riie  treatment  must  be 
l)oth  moral  and  phy.sical,  and  the  former  is  the 
more  important  of  the  two.  In  the  more  severe 
ca.ses  complete  change  of  scene  and  surroundings 
is  recpiired.  The  ])alient  shoMid  be  placed  among 
strangers,  and  away  from  the  sym|)athising  friends 
whose  well-meant  "c:oddliiig'  and  condolence  are 
ofte.i  I  lie  chief  hindrances  to  recovery.  The  nurse 
must  lie  kind  but  lirm  :  and  while  the  morbid 
tendencies  of  the  patient  are  repressed,  she  must 
not  be  laugherl  at  but  understood,  and  encouraged 
to  make  es.says  in  self-control.  .-Xs  an  alternative 
to  sending  the  p.itient  away  from  home,  the  Weir- 
.Mitchell  treatment  has  met  with  much  success. 
The  patient  is  kei)t  in  bed.  isolated  excejit  from 
the  attendant,  I'nA  fed  with  abundance  of  easily- 
digested  food,  electricity  and  m!i.s.sage  being  applied 
daily. 

Particular  .symptoms  must  lie  treated  on  general 
principles.      Forced  feeding  by  means  of  a  stomach- 


I  tube  may  be  required  if  the  appetite  is  gone  or  the 
patient  refuses  food,  A  mixture  of  milk,  eggs, 
meat,  and  the  flour  of  lentils  has  been  used  for 
this  purpose  with  success.  Of  late  liypiiotism  has 
Viecn  much  em|iloyed  in  France  for  the  treatment 
.  of  hysterical  all'ections  ;  but  this  is  a  methoil  which 
I  should  be  used  with  caution,  for  it  sometimes 
aggravates  the  condition  winch  it  is  intended  to 
cure. 

For   prevention   of    the   'fits'    the   most    useful 

drugs  are  valerianate  of  zinc,  iron,  morphia,  and 

turpentine.     Slight  attacks  may  be  warded   ofl'  by 

an  antispasmodic  like  ether,  or  liy  inhaling  nitrite 

of    amyl.     To    cut    short    an    attack    after   it   has 

begun  a  copious  douche  of  cold  water  to  the  head 

is  an  old  and  approved  plan.     X  still  more  etlectual 

proceeding  is  to  close  the   mouth  and  nose  with  a 

towel  for  fifteen  or  twenty  seconds.     A  little  cold 

I  water  poured  into  the  mouth  often  acts  at  once. 

I  When  everything  else  fails,  ,'.;th  to  y',;th  of  a  grain 

I  of  apominphine,  injected  under  the  skin,  will  end 

the  fit  ((iowers). 
;  People  with  a  tendency  to  hysteria  should  be 
i  encouraged  to  sulistitute  some  rational  and  regular 
work  for  the  aimless  life  of  alternate  excitement 
and  lassitude  which  so  many  of  the  women  of  the 
u)iper  and  middle  classes  lead. 

Hy-strix.    Scc  PuRCfi'iNE, 

Hythe.  a  parliamentary  aiul  municipal  borough 
and  market-town  of  Kent,  5  miles  WSW.  of  Folke- 

I  stone,  15  miles  S.  of  Canterbury,  and  G7  SE.  by 
E,  of  London  by  rail,  is  one  of  the  Cinque  Ports 

I  (q,v.),    although    in    actual    locality    Lynipne    or 

I  Lymni     (the     ancient     Forttia    Lcmanis    of     the 

I  Romans),  now  some  three  miles  inland,  was  prob- 
ably the  original  harbour.  The  town,  which  is 
pleasantly  situated  some  distance  from  the  sea, 
is  built  on  the  side  of  a  hill,  from  the  top  of 
which  an  extensive  view  over  the  Komuey  marsh 
is  ohtaineil.  Its  church,  a  cruciform  building  of 
great  beauty,  in  part  Romane.-que,  has  been 
restored  since  1866,  and  contains  in  a  crypt  under- 
neatli  the  chancel  an  extraoidinarv  collection  of 
liiimau    skulls    and     bones — many    of    the    skulls 

I  having  deep  cuts  in  them — the  age  and  origin  of 
which  are  altogether  uncertain.  Near  to  Hythe 
are  the  heailquarters  of  the  School  of  Musketry 
and  Sliornclitie  camp,  both  estalilishcd  in  1854  : 
the  |iicturesi|ue  ruins  of  SaltwoiKl  Castle,  with 
memories  of  Becket ;  and  the  Uoyal  Military  Canal, 
2:?  miles  in  length,  constructed  in  1S0.">  for  the  con 
veyance  of  military  stores  to  Kye,  but  never  of 
much  use,  and  now  entirely  superseded  by  the 
railway.  In  18S1  a  sea-wall  and  parade,  extending 
from  Hythe  to  Sandgate  (q.v.)  and  Folkestmie 
(q.v.),  waso|iened.  These  and  some  smaller  places 
are     included    in    the    jiarliamentary    borough    of 

I  Hythe,  which  since  IMS-2  has  returned  only  one 
member.  Pop.  of  that  borough  (l.S.'il)  l.S,164  ; 
( 1891 )  .35,547,  of  whom  i'.'Al  were  within  the  miini- 

[  ci|ial  limits,  which  include  West  llylhe,  -In  I'JUo 
the  French  made  a  descent  on  Hythe,  but  were 
decisively  repulsed,  and  later  on,  towards  the 
end  of  the  reign  of  Michard  II.,  tin'  town  was 
visited  with  a  threefold  calamity,  a  lire  having 
destroyed  'JIKI  bouses,  a  pestilence  carried  oil'  numei- 
ous  inhabitants,  and  an  unusually  heavy  storm 
caused  a  severe  loss  of  men  and  ships.  Several 
charters  are  i>re.served  at  Hythe,  amongst  them  its 
earliest  charter  of   incorporathm  granted   in    1575. 

,  See  Montagu  Burrows  Cinijite  Potts  (18SS). 


till'  ninth  letter  in  the  aljihabets 
(if  western  Ennipe,  was  called 
iota  by  the  Greeks,  from  its 
Semitic  name  ijod.  Hence, 
(iwinj;  to  the  character  being 
llie  smallest  in  the  Hebrew 
ali)haliet,  we  get  the  word  jot, 
'  a  tittle '  ( St  Matt.  v.  18 ),  and 
jottiiiffs,  or  'small  notes.'  The 
name  '/'"/  meant  a  hand,  the  form  of  the  character 
in  the  Egyiitian  Hieratic,  from  which  the  Phoeni- 
cian alphabet  was  derived,  IxNiring  some  resem- 
blance to  a  hand,  with  tlie  thumb  held  .apart  from 
the  lingers  (see  ALPHABET).  In  early  (Jreek 
inscriptfons  the  form  of  the  letter  was  angular, 
something  like  our  Z  ;  it  then  came  to  resemble  S, 
and  this,  about  the  7th  century  !!.(_•.,  was  straight- 
ened out  into  a  vertical  stroke.  It  has  since  varied 
less  in  form  than  any  other  letter.  The  clot  in  our 
minuscule  /  lirst  came  into  use  in  the  11th  century 
.\. u.  It  was  originally  an  ai-cent,  /,  and  was  only 
employed  to  distinguish  //  from  »,  or  to  mark  the 
im  tlie  combinations  iii  and  in.  In  the  l'2th  cen- 
tnrv  the  accent  l)egan  also  to  be  used  when  /  was 
in  ju.xtaposition  with  m  or  n.  It  oidy  became 
universal  after  the  invention  of  jirinting,  when  it 
was  found  inconvenient  to  use  two  forms  of  tyjie. 
In  the  14th  century  a  dot  began  to  be  substitnteil 
for  the  accei\t,  the  oMest  MS.  in  which  the  dot  is 
found  dating  from  1327.  These  <listinctioiis  may 
seem  trivial, "but  are  very  useful  in  determining  the 
dates  of  medieval  MSS. 

In  Italian,  and  in  most  Eurojiean  languages,  the 
sound  of  the  letter  is  that  of  the  Latin  long  /,  the 
naiiHvsotinil  of  our  c,  which  we  have  in  the  Knglish 
words  iiiiiiliiiir  and  iiuiriiir.  The  long  7  in  Latin 
was  alw.-iys  thus  iironounceil,  and  never  like  /  in 
//»<■.  The  name-sound  of  our  /,  which  is  really  a 
diphthong,  is  only  heard  in  words  where  it  is  sup- 
ported by  a  subscript  r,  as  in  liitc,  pi/"\  niiiic,  or 
where  it  is  followed  by  an  old  guttural,  as  in  hi(//i. 
iiiiiflit,  litilit.  This  became  the  name-sound  because 
the  pronoun  I  (.-\.S.  /c,  Cer.  irh)  was  originally 
followed  bv  a  guttural  which  has  now  fallen  out. 
The  normiil  sound  of  /  in  English  is  that  heard  in 
bit.  dill,  sit,  which  is  the  short  Latin  i.  This  souml 
is  representeil  by  ;//  in  ri/inhnl,  by  ((  in  Ijii.si/,  h\  <;  in 
wnnieii,  by  ci  mfijrfcif,  by  /<■  in  sicn\  by  iii^  in  miilt, 
by  ee  in  tircerlieii,  and  by  id  in  atn-ititje.     See  0. 

laso.     See  .J.VMKS,  and  S.\XTl.\(;o. 

Iambic  Verse,  a  term  applied,  in  classic 
pr(i>i)ily,  and  somc'times  in  English,  to  verses  con- 
sisting of  the  foot  or  metre  called  lauihiix,  consist- 
ing of  two  syllabhw,  of  which  the  first  is  short,  and 
the  second  long  (  _  -).  .Vrchilochus  ((|.v.)  is  t;he 
reputed  inventor  of  iambic  verse.  'I'hc  English 
language  runs  more  easily  and  naturally  in  this 
metre  than  in  any  other.  '  Thus,  cmr  usual  blank- 
verse  line  cinisists  of  live  iamlmses,  while  we  have 
also  sucli  combinations  of  continuous  rhyming 
metres  in  iambic  measure  as  tetrasyllables  :  lines  of 
six  syllaides  and  three  accents  (Skeltonical  verse-)  : 
octosyllabics,  as  in  most  of  the  old  iciniain'cs.  Iliiili- 
bnta,  Lalla  lluuLli,  and  most  of  Scott's  and  liyron's 
romantic    poems,   e.xcept  Lara  and   the   Coi'sair ; 


decasyll.abies,  with  live  accents,  which  when  rhyming 
in  couplets  forms  our  so-called  heroic  metre  ;  and 
Alexandrines,  or  twelve-syllable  metre  with  six 
accents,  as  in  Drayton's  J'oli/o/bitDi.     See  Mktkk. 

laillbliellllS.  a  Neoidatonist  philoso]dier,  a 
native  of  Chalcis,  in  ('(cle-Syria,  who  died  about 
330  .\.I).  He  was  a  pupil  of  I'orphyry,  and  follower 
of  I'lotinus;  but  in  his  hands  the  Neoplatonist 
philosophy  degenerated  into  theurgy  and  demon- 
ology,  while  among  liis  disciples  his  reputation 
spveiid  as  a  conjuror  and  miracle- worker.  His  writ- 
ings included  a  life  of  Pythagoras,  and  treatises  on 
mathem.atics  and  jiliilosopliy  :  the  authenticity  of 
the  treatise  on  Egyptian  mysteries  (ed.  Parlhey, 
lS.'i7)  is  more  than  dubious.   '  See  Neoplatonism. 

lailtlli'lia.  a  genus  of  gregarious,  pelagic 
gasteropods,  in  the  same  division  as  the  river 
snail  (Paludina).  Troclius,  Turbo,  \-c.  The  shell 
is  snail-like,  but  delicate,  translucent,  and  blue  in 
C(dour.  In  the  warmer  seas  the  anim.al  tloMts  by 
expanding  its  'foot'  on  the  surface,  ami  is  il rifted 
about  l)v  currents,  occasicmally  on  to  British  shores. 


Common  '  Violet  Snail'  {lantliina  fmiiilis) : 
tShcll,  .'iiiiiiial,  and  raft. 

It  is  most  remarkable  for  an  airy  laft  which  it 
secretes,  and  eventually  sets  adrift,  laden  with  eg"- 
cai)sules,  like  tiiose  of  the  whelk.  The  aninuils 
exmle  a  violet  secretion,  and  seem  to  feed  on 
Velella  and  other  C'u-lenterates  of  the  Portuguese 
manof-war  type. 

lapyiiia.    SeeApii.iA. 

Ibarra,  capital  of  Imbabura  province,  Ecuadcu', 
has  a  pop.  of  ab.mt  10,0(10. 

Ibca.  or  l.li.E.A.      Sei!  Z.VXZIIiAl!. 

Iberia,  the  name  by  whicli  Georgia  (i|. v.)  was 
known  to  the  (ireeks  and  Uonians ;  and  also  an 
aniient  name  for  Spain.  Tlieiiueslion  of  ;in  Iberian 
race  is  discussed  at  liASiJt-KS,  N'.il.   I.  ]i.  7KI. 

Iberis.    Sec  t'ANDVTri-r. 

Ibex,  a  nanu!  given  to  several  species  of  the 
genus  ('apra,  of  which  the  best  known  is  the  .\lpine 
Tbex  (Ger.  Slciiiburl.-,   Kr.  JJoiiijnctin  ).     '"'' ■ 


The 


species  are 


described  at  (JoAT. 


Ibis,  agi^ims  of  birds  related  to  the  SiioonbilK, 
and.  more  remotely,  to  the  Storks  and  Herons.  Il 
comprises  alioul  twenty-live  species,  of  which  the 
hulk  belong  to  the  Old  World,  tliough  th(;  genus 
is  nearly  cosmopolitiin.  The  bill  is  long,  slender, 
curvi'il,  thick  at  the  base,  the  point  rather  obtuse, 
the  upper  mandible  deeply  grooved  throughimt  its 
length.     The  face,  and  generally  the  greater  part 


IBIS 


IBSEN 


57 


of  the  head,  and  soiiietinies  even  the  neck,  are 
destitute  of  feathers,  at  least  in  adult  liinl>.  The 
iihiinatre  is  mainly  white,  with  Mack  priniaiy 
feathers  and  plumes  on  the  wings.  The  neck  is  long. 
The  legs  are  rather  long,  naked  ahove  the  tai'sal 
joint,  with  three  partially  united  toes  in  front,  and 
one  behind  ;  the  wings  are  moderately  long;  the 
tail  is  very  short.  The  Sacred  Ihis,  or  Kgyptian 
Miis  (/.  irtltiiijiirtt  :  fornu-rly  known  as  /.  icli(jiosit), 
is  an  African  hird.  2  feet  6  inches  in  length, 
although  the  body  is  little  larger  than  that  of  a 
common  fowl.  The  (ilos.sy  Ihis  ( /.  or  I'tcijadi.-i 
fahinclhis)  is  a  .smaller  species,  also  African,  hut 
migrating  northwards  into  continental  Kurojie,  and 
occasionally  seen  in   Uritain.     It  is  also  a  North 


^ 

_^ 

^*i 

^^^^^ 

^^T% 

;_fe. 

""^  € 

^ 

»i 

> 

^ 

'm 

/'^ 

i^^H 

r 

^' 

mh^Sm 

i^ 

mmitr 

^^^^B^~- 

-~^-  -^^fc  - 

-  "^§ 

^^^I^^H 

'  WN^^"^  "~^ 

'^'P'M 

i%*^' 

I  *'^^~  ~ 

y^^' 

^J^a^ 

L 


Tlie  S.icred  Ibis  (/(/w  athiopira). 

American  bird.  Its  habits  resenilile  those  of  the 
.sacred  ibis.  Its  colour  is  black,  varied  with  reddish- 
brown,  and  exhibiting  tine  purple  and  green  reflec- 
tions. It  has  no  loo.se  pendent  feathers.  The 
White  Ibis  (/.  or  Emloiinins  rttija),  a  species  with 
pure  white  plumage,  abounds  on  the  eoa-sts  of 
Florida.  The  Scarlet  Ibis  ( /.  or  Ein/nriiinis  ruber) 
is  a  tropical  .\nierican  species,  remarkable  for  its 
brilliant  plumage,  which  is  scarlet,  with  a  few 
patches  of  glossy  black.  The  Straw-necked  Ibis 
(/.  or  Carjj/iilii.i  xpinimllis)  is  a  large  .Australian 
bird  of  fine  plumage,  remarkable  for  still'  nakcil 
yellow  feather-shafts  on  the  neck  .mil  throat. 

The  Sacred  ibis,  one  of  the  binls  worshipped  by 
the  ancient  Egyptians,  and  called  by  them  llnh  or 
Hib,  was  suppi>s(>d.  from  the  colour  of  its  fe.athers, 
to  syndiolise  the  light  and  shade  of  the  moon.  It 
Wiw  the  avatar  of  the  god  Thotli  (m-  Hermes,  who 
escaped  in  th.at  shape  the  jiursuit  of  Typhon.  Its 
feathers  were  supposed  to  scare,  and  even  kill,  the 
crocodile.  It  appeared  in  Egyjit  at  the  rise  and 
ilisappeared  at  tlic  iniiMd.itiori  of  the  Nile,  .and  was 
saiil  to  deliver  K^ypt  from  theuingcd  .uid  other 
serpents  which  came  liom  Arabia.  .\s  it  did  not 
make  its  nest  in  Egypt  it  was  believed  to  lie  .self- 
engenilering,  and  to  lay  eggs  for  a  lunar  month. 
It  wa.s  celebrated  for  its  |)urity,  and  only  drank 
from  the  lMiris<t  water;  besides  which,  it  Wiis  fabled 
to  entertain  the  most  invincible  love  of  Egypt,  and 
to  die  tif  self  starvation  if  trans|iorted  elsewhere. 
Its  lle^li  w;is  thought  to  be  iiicorruptibli-  after 
ile.ath.  and  to  kill  it  was  punishable  with  ileath. 
Ibises  were  kept  in  the  temples,  and  uiimi>li'sled  in 
the  neighbourhood  of  cities.  .\fter  ileath  they 
were  mniiimie<l.  ami  there  is  no  aiumal  of  which  so 
many  remains  have  been  found  at  riiebcs.  .Memphis, 
and  some  other  places.  Tliey  were  prepared  as 
other  mummies,  and  wraiiped  u|i  in  linen  b:inilages, 
which   are  sometiiiie.s   plaited    in    patterns  exter- 


nally. See  Wilkinson,  Maniirrs  and  Customs: 
.ind  Itenoufs  Hibbcrt  Lectures  (1880). 

Ibli.s.     See  Pkmonology. 

Ibll  Katllta.  -Vrab   traveller  and   geographer, 

whose  proper  name  was  Abu  .\bdullali  Moliai 'd. 

Wits  born  at  Tangiers  in  1.S04,  .-ind  s]ieiit  thirty 
years  ( l.'j'i.'i-.M)  of  his  life  in  travel.  Settling  at 
Ee/,  in  Morocco,  in  l.?,'J4,  he  wrote  the  history  of 
his  journeys,  and  died  there  in  1878.  The  course 
of  his  travels  led  him  lirst  to  Mecca,  then  to  Persia, 
Mesopotamia,  Arabia,  the  east  coast  of  Africa, 
.-\sia  Nlinor,  the  t';i.spian  regions,  Kliwiirizm,  liok- 
liara,  Afghanistan,  and  India  ;  thence  he  ]n-oceeded 
to  China  by  way  of  Sumatra,  and  finally  came 
home  to  Fez  in  i.S49.  liut  his  journeys  were  )u>t 
yet  done.  He  visited  southern  Sjiain.  and  then 
travelled  as  far  a.s  Timbuktu  on  the  Niger.  His 
narrative  is  extremely  interesting,  humour  and 
anecdote  alternating  with  grajdiic  description,  and 
through  it  all  runs  the  golden  thread  of  the  writer's 
naive  perscmality.  It  was  published  with  a  French 
translation,  in  4  vols.,  by  I)efrcmeiv  and  Saugui- 
uettiin  lS5S-.59(.S<led.  1893).  Hee Xatiotin/  1,'cvieic, 
July  1S8S,  and  Scot.  Geo;/.  Maij.,  .September  1888. 

Ibll  Ciabirol.    See  AyicEBROx. 

Ibll  Zoar.    See  AyExzo.\R. 

Ibrabiiii    Pasha,   viceroy  of   Egypt  (1789- 

1848).      Sec  Ei.VPT,  V(d.  IV.  p".  24L'. 

Ibrail.    See  Br.\il.\. 

Ibsi'll.  Hi:nri]C,  poet  and  the  creator  of  a  new 
type  of  drama,  was  liorn  at  Skieu  in  south  Norway, 
20th  March  1828.  In  1842  he  was  apiirenticed  to 
a  chemist  at  Grimstad.  But  he  aimed  hij;her: 
j  he  studied,  and  wrote  poetry  and  a  drama,  Cfiti/iiia. 
This,  publisheil  in  18o0,  was  a  failnre.  In  the 
I  same  year  he  became  a  student  at  Chiistiania 
I'niveisity.  but  soon  grew  tired  of  acadendc  study. 
.\fter  nearly  two  years  of  journalistic  work  he  was 
appointed  director  of  Ole  Bull's  theatre  at  Bergen. 
For  it  he  w  rote  live  romantic  dramas,  lint  only  two 
— Laehf  Iiir/er  iit  (Istri'it  and  'Hie  Banquet  at  StJlliuug 
— have  been  published.  In  1857  he  undertook 
similar  duties  for  the  National  The.atre  in  Chris- 
tiania.  His  ne.xt  dramas  were  The  Warriors  in 
Hc/t/c/and  (ISoS),  T/,e  liiral  Kintjs  (1864).  and 
Lore's  Coinedi/  (1862).  The  lirst  two  admirably 
reproiluce  the  style  and  spirit  of  the  old  sagas,  and 
placed  Ibsen  in  the  first  rank  of  Scandinavian 
<lramjitists.  The  last  is  .a  precursor  of  his  satirical 
social  dramas;  it  set  all  the  Philistine  world  of 
Norway  against  him.  Then  in  KS62  the  National 
Theatre  became  liankru]it  :  ;uid,  moreover.  lb>en 
w:is  bitterly  ilisa|ipoiiiteil  when  Norway  held  aloof 
from  the  Danes  in  their  straggle  against  the  German 
powers.  .So,  thoroughly  disgusted  with  his  country- 
men and  his  country,  he  said  good-bye  to  Norway 
in  1864  and  lived  cliielly  in  Uonie,  Diesden.  and 
Munich  till  1892,  when  he  returned  to  Chrisliaida. 
The  Norwegian  p.avliament  granted  him-  reluctantly 
— a  pension  in  1866.  In  that  and  the  follow  irig  year 
appeared  the  lyric  dramas  Brand  and  I'err  Gi/nt.  in 
many  respects  the  finest  things  he  has  ihuie :  the 
poetic  workmanshi^i  is  of  a  very  high  cnder.  Braiul 
IS  an  incarnathni  ot  the  absolute  sen.se  of  duty,  but 
his  ideal  striving  and  .self-sacrifice  end  in  disaster 
because  he  is  ignorant  of  the  jiropcr  function  of 
love.  PeertJyiit  is  the  complete  mirror  of  actual 
man  ;  in  his  case  scllishness  and  romantic  fancy 
are  the  rocks  upon  w  hieh  ideal  striving  comes  to 
nought.  By  intentimi  peculiarly  representative  of 
Nmwegi.in  ihar.icter.  liolh  dranuis  have  also  a 
universal  validity.  In  187.'!  Ibsen  ])ublished  the 
ilouble  drama  Emiirrur  and  Halilean  (.luliau  .atnl 
Christ;  Eng.  trans.  1876),  in  which  he  f.iretells 
the  'third  kingdom'  that  is  to  transcend  both 
cla8.sic  ami  Christian  culture.     But  alreiuly  in  1869 


58 


IBYCUS 


ICE 


lie  had  finislicil  The  Yoiiitij  Ulcnx  Letifiiic.  another 
of  thcj  >;ilirio:il  social  dramas  which  have  made 
his  nanu'  famous.  This  has  Ihtu  followed  liy 
Pillars  of  Society  (\>i"),  A  Doll's  //»««■(  IST'J  ), 
Ghosts  (1881),  An  Enemy  of  the  I'eople  (1SS2),  Tlie 
Wild  Due/:  ( 1884),  liosmnsholm  ( 18Sti),  The  Lady 
from  the  .S'ert  ( 1888),  The  Master  Builder  {ISS2), 
&e.     The  Dii/tr  ('2d  ed.  1875)  are  lyrics  and  epics. 

These  plays  aroused  a  storm  of  controversy  in 
Enj^laiid  in  1889,  as  they  hail  done  shortly  before 
in  IJerniauy  and  in  the  Scandinavian  countries. 
Ibsen  is  a  passionate  ailvoeate  of  individual  liberty. 
He  maiutain.s  that  man's  lirst  and  chiefest  duty 
is  to  be  wholly  man,  consistent  with  himself  in  all 
things.  An  idealist  of  the  hij,diest  type  in  the 
beliefs  he  entertains  as  to  the  future  possibilities 
of  mankinil,  he  is  a  sceptic  in  his  estimation  of 
existinj;  men,  ami  especially  of  existing  institu- 
tions, .social  and  political.  His  mission,  like 
Socrates'  of  old.  Is  to  awaken  men  to  a  real  com- 
prehension of  themselves.  Thus  he  is  an  uncom- 
promising liioral  reformer.  He  is  inspired  by  a 
stern  Semitic  earnestness,  and  drives  ri^iit  throu^'h 
all  obstacles  to  get  grasp  of  truth  unmistakiible. 
The  interest  and  methoil  of  his  plays  an-  almost 
exclusively  psychological.  He  makes  the  conse- 
quential development  of  character  the  supreme 
law  of  <lramatic  evolution.  His  plays  represent 
the  conclusion  from  the  psychological  premises  of 
some  problem  in  character  or  social  circumstance. 
Each  play  begins  where  an  ordinary  play  would 
be  just  on  the  jxiint  of  ending:  the  situation  is 
completely  formed  before  the  cui  tain  rises.  By  his 
analytic  method  Ibsen  is  i^n.ihled  to  paint  richly- 
detailed  pictures  of  inner  soul-life  without  resort- 
ing to  long  monologues  or  exi)lanatory  speeches. 
His  language  is  concisi'  and  vigorous,  an(l  full  of 
vivid  realLsm.  He  gels  some  of  his  ell'ects  by  the 
use  of  incisive  sarcasm  and  tragi<'  irony  and  fear- 
less outsi)cdcen  realism.  His  characters  are  real 
persons  :  each  in  thought,  language,  and  behaviour 
presents  a  consistent  individuality  throughout. 
There  is  at  times  too  much  niysticisu]  and  symbol- 
ism, and  a  tendency  to  exaggerate  contradictions  of 
character  and  overl)nrden  the  action  with  motives. 

Hcnrik  [hurn  (1898),  in  comnicmunitiun  of  h's70th  birth- 
day, is  a  collection  of  opinions,  criticisms,  and  of  reniiins- 
cences  by  ^Scandinavian  a«thor.-<,  edited  by  Gerhard  ( Ji-an. 
See  biographies  by  Va.senius  (.Swedish,  1883),  Passarge 
(German,  1SK3),  Jieger  (Norwegian.  1S8S ;  Eng.  trans. 
18941,  and  in  G.  Brandes'  works  (Danish.  1883).  In 
English,  Mr  Gosise's  articles  (in  /'ortiiiV/ZiWi/.  1,SS9,  ic. ); 
Wick.^teod's  Four  Leetnrcs  oti  Ihsrn  (18.02);  G.  Berii;ird 
Shaw,  The  QniiilcKscncr  of  Ihsciiism  (ISiB);  H.  H. 
Boye>'-n,  A  ('oitimentart/  on  the  Worka  of  Ihsin  (1894); 
and  .Vrcher's  transl.-it.inn  of  the  prose  works  (1890). 
Brand  ha.s  been  translated  both  in  jirose  and  verse. 

Ib'ycus.  lireek  lyric  poet,  a  native  of  Khegiuni, 
in  Italy,  llonrisheil  al)ont  .")4()  n.c.  and  lived  some 
time  at  the  court  of  I'olycrates,  tyrant  of  Samos. 
Acc(H'ding  to  the  legeml  he  w;ts  slain  by  r(d>bcrs 
near  Corinth,  and  dying  called  upon  a  Hock  of 
cranes  that  he  saw  Hying  overhead  to  avenge  him. 
The  cranes  went  and  hovered  over  the  theatre  at 
Corinth,  where  Ihi;  people  wc^re  assembleil.  One 
of  the  murderers,  seeing  them,  exclaimed  involnn- 
tarily,  '  IJehold  ilii^  aveugers  of  Ibycus.'  This  led 
to  an  iniiuiry,  anil  to  the  con\icllon  of  the  guilty. 
The  story  is  best  told  in  Schiller's  beautiful  ballad. 
Ibycus  wrote  chielly  erotic  poi^tiT.  The  fragments 
that  survive  are  printeil  in  lieigk's  I'octw  Lyriei 
Grwci  (vol.  iii. )  and  in  Schneidewin's  Delect  us 
Poesis  Grmroniin  Eleoinea:  (  18:19). 

lea,  a  department  on  the  coast  of  Pern,  witli  an 
area  of  840()  s(|.  in.  and  .a  jiop.  of  over  (iO,00().  The 
greater  part  is  a  sandy  desert,  bul  the  river  valleys 
are  fertile,  and  are  planted  with  corn,  fruits,  c(dton, 
aiiU  indigo.    In  one  of  these  valleys  lies  the  capital. 


lea,  50  miles  SE.  of  Pisco,  its  port,  with  which  it 
is  connected  by  railway.     Pop.  7000. 

I'rnrii.s.    See  D.r.nAi.us. 

\^•^•■  is  water  in  the  s(did  form.  It  is  specifically 
lighter  than  water  which  is  just  about  to  freeze, 
and  therefore  swims  in  it.  Water,  in  becoming 
solid,  expands  about  ,',th  in  v(vlume  or  bulk,  and 
thus  acquires  a  density  eipial  to  (l!Ht!74  ( water  at 
0°  ('.  =  rttO).  The  formation  of  ice  takes  place 
generally  at  the  suiface  ol  water.  This  is  owing  to 
the  peculiarity  that,  when  water  has  (at  the  ordi- 
nary almosjdieric  ])ressure)  cooled  down  to  within 
3  <r  V.  of  freezing,  it  ceases  to  contract  a.s  it  did 
before  with  increase  of  cold,  ami  begins  to  expand 
until  it  freezes  (see  Hkat)  ;  this  causes  the  coldest 
portions  of  the  water  to  lie  floating  always  on  the 
surface.  In  some  circumstances,  not  ver^'  well 
explained,  ice  forms  at  the  bottom  of  rivers,  and 
is  called  ground-ice  or  Anchor-ice  (q.v.). 

Water  in  orilinary  cases  freezes  at  the  degree  of 
temperature  marked  0  on  the  Centigrade  and 
Reaumur's  thermometers  and  'A'l  on  l''ahrenheit's  ; 
but  if  it  is  kept  i>erfectly  still  it  may  be  cooled  t<i 
nearly  -  .")■.■)  C.  below  freezing  (=  'I'l"  F. )  and 
still  remain  liquid.  'I'he  least  shake,  however,  or 
throwing  in  of  a  solid  body,  makes  a  portion  of  it 
freeze  instantly,  and  its  temperature  rises  immedi- 
ately to  0°  C.  Sea- water,  and  salt  water  in  general, 
freezes  at  a  lower  temperature  than  pure  water  ;  in 
doing  this  part  of  the  salt  separates,  and  the  ice, 
when  melted,  gives  water  that  is  fresher  than  that 
on  which  the  ice  was  formed.  I'he  colour  of  pure 
ice  is  deep  blue,  which  is  only  discernible,  however, 
when  it  is  in  large  masses ;  it  is  best  seen  in  the 
clefts  of  a  glacier  or  of  an  icelierg.  In  order  to 
melt  a  pound  of  ice  it  is  ncci-.ssary  to  comiminicate 
to  it  as  much  heat  as  will  raisin  80'0'2.5  lb.  of  water 
1°  C.  This  measures  tin'  '  latent  heal  '  of  ice  :  the 
temperature  does  not  rise  until  the  ice  has  been 
melted. 

In  the  neighbourhood  of  the  poles,  and  on  moun- 
tains of  a  certain  height  in  all  latitudes,  there  exist 
immense  m.osses  of  permanent  ice :  ami  even  in 
some  districts  of  Siberia,  where  a  kind  of  culture  is 
|iracticable  in  summer,  th<'re  are  found,  at  a  certain 
depth  below  the  surface  of  the  earth,  strata  of  ice 
mingled  with  sand.  In  sinking  a  well  at  Yakutsk, 
the  soil  was  found  permanently  frozen  hard  to  the 
depth  of  382  feet,  and  consisting  in  somv  parts 
entirely  of  ice.  In  the  hiwi  i  regions  of  the  torrid 
zone  there  is 
no  ice,  and  in 
the  temperate 
zones  it  is  a 
passing  pheno- 
menon. From 
the  polar  ice 
fields  and 
glaciers  which 
ail'  always  )iro- 
trnding  them- 
selves into  the 
sea,  great  float- 
ing masses  he- 
come  det«ched 
and  form  (<•'■- 
lien/s,  floes, 
and  drift-ice 
(see  t!l,.\CIKI!). 
These  bergs  or 
mountains  of 
ice  rise  some- 
times more  than  250 feet  above  the sea-le\el.  Thev 
present  the  appi'arance  of  dazzling  white  chalk  clifV- 
of  the  mo.'-l  iiiiitastic  shapes.  Kresh  fractures  have 
a  green  or  hluecoloni.  From  the  specific  gravity, 
it    is    calculated     that     the    volume    of    an    ice- 


An  Iceberg, 
shr>wlng  tlie  proportion  un<irr  water. 


ICE 


59 


lierp  below  the  water  is  aliont  nine  times  that  of 
the  iirotrudin.L;  jiait.  Icelieij;-^,  .-uiil  lines  or  iee- 
lielils.  are  iilleii  huleii  "iUi  pieees  <it  loek  ami 
masses  of  stones  and  detritus,  whieh  they  have 
brought  witli  them  from  the  coiusts  where  tliey 
were  formed,  and  wliich  they  often  transiuirl  to  a 
great  dist.anee  towards  the  e(|nator.  'I'he-e  lh)at- 
ing  masses  of  ire  are  dangerous  to  uavigation.  Tlie 
icc-J'iiit  is  the  liell  or  fringe  of  ire  along  the  .shores 
in  arctii-  regions. 

The  hardness  and  strength  of  iee  inereases  with 
the  degree  of  eold.  In  the  .severe  winter  of  1740  a 
house  was  liuilt  of  the  ice  of  the  Neva  at  St  Peters- 
burg, .')()  feet  long,  16  wide,  and  'iO  high,  and  the 
walls  sujiported  the  roof,  whieh  was  also  of  ire, 
without  the  least  injury.  Before  it  stood  twiiiee 
mortars  and  six  iee-eannon,  made  on  the  turning- 
lathe,  with  earriages  and  wheels  also  of  iee.  The 
cannon  were  of  the  calibre  of  (i-ponnders  :  thethi(lc- 
nes.s  of  the  ice  wivs  only  four  inches,  and  yet  it 
resisted  the  e.vplosion. 

Faraday  lirst  called  attention  to  a  remarkable 
property  of  ice.  since  called  Itegelation.  Two  slab> 
of  ice,  with  tlat  surfaces,  placed  in  contact,  unite 
into  one  mass  even  though  the  temperature  of  the 
surrounding  air  be  considerably  nbore  the  freezing- 
point.  Faraday  endeavoured  to  account  for  this  liy 
assuming  that  a  small  quantity  of  water,  surrounded 
on  every  side  by  ice,  has  a  natural  tendency  to 
become  ice:  and  the  fact  that  two  blocks  of  ice 
placed  in  contact  do  not  unite  unless  they  are  moist 
seemed  to  beai-  oiu  this  idea.  l!ut  J.  Thomson 
gave  a  totally  dillerent  e.xplanation  of  this  pheno- 
inenon.  He  showed  that  tlie  capillary  force  in  the 
film  of  vvat«r  between  the  plates  is  sufficient  to 
account  for  a  very  considerable  pressure  between 
them  ;  so  that  from  his  point  of  view  the  pheno- 
menon would  be  identical  with  the  making  of  .snow- 
balls by  pressure,  or  with  the  formation,  by  a 
hydraulic  press,  of  clear  blocks  from  a  mass  of 
pounded  ice,  an  observed  fact,  the  explanation  of 
which  is  to  be  found  in  the  property  of  ice  mentioned 
below.  Faraday,  taking  up  the  question  again, 
showed  that  the  (so-called)  regelation  takes  place 
in  voter  a.s  readily  ;us  in  air,  a  fact  quite  incoii- 
sLstent  witli  the  action  of  capillary  forces.  To  this 
J.  Thomson  re))lied,  showing,  very  ingeniously,  that 
the  capillary  forces  he  at  lirst  assumed  are  not 
neces.sary  to  a  complete  explanation  of  the  observed 
phenomena.  See  Proceed iiiys  of  the  Royal  Society, 
lSOO-61. 

Othei'  X  lews  of  the  question  are  numerous  :  for 
instance,  that  of  I'er.soz,  ado|ited  by  Forbes,  in 
which  ic(!  was  ccmsidered  a-s  essentially  colder  than 
water,  and  as  passing  through  a  sort  of  viscous 
state  before    liquefying,   as    metals  do  during  the 

firocess  of  melting.  This  idea,  however,  has  not  of 
ate  found  much  sujiport ;  and  it  is  possible  that 
the  true  solution  of  the  question  is,  as  ■).  Thoms<m 
pointed  out,  to  be  founil  in  the  analogy  of  the 
crystallisation  of  s.-ills  from  their  a(|ueous  solutions. 
However  that  may  be,  there  is  no  doulil  .'ibout 
the  following  property  of  ice,  theoretiially  predicteil 
by  J.  Thomson  from  the  experimental  fact  of  its 
expanding  in  the  act  of  freezing,  and  demonstrated 
by  means  of  the  Piezometer  by  Sir  \V.  Thomson — 
VIZ.  that  the  freezing-point  of  water,  or  the  melting- 
point  of  ice,  is  Inirrrril  liy  prrsxurc  to  the  extent  of 
00074'  O.  for  every  atmosphere  of  pressure  :  and 
the  brothers  have,  with  singular  ingenuity,  aiii)lied 
tlii.s  to  the  explanation  of  the  motion  of  glaciers. 
That  .a  mass  or  glacier  ice  moves  in  its  channel  like 
a  viscous  fluid  wa.s  lirst  com|iIetely  established  by 
Forbe.v  Thomson's  explanation  of  this  motion  is 
of  the  following,'  nature  ;  In  the  immense  mass  of 
the  glacier  (even  if  it  were  homogeneous,  much 
more  so  when  full  of  cracks  and  lissiirc's,  as  it  always 
is)  there  are  portious  subjected   to  a  much  greater 


I 


stress  than  others.  The  pressure  to  which  they 
are  subjected  is  such  as  corres)ionds  to  a  melting- 
I  point  considerably  bctuir  the  temiierature  of  the 
mass — and  therefore,  at  such  points,  if  the  ice  be 
j  not  altogether  too  cold  it  melts,  the  stress  is 
I  relieved,  and  the  whide  njass  is  free  for  an  instant 
to  move  nearly  as  a  fluid  would  move  in  its  place. 
But.  the  stresses  being  thus  for  an  instant  removed, 
the  tem))erature  and  pressure  of  the  water  are 
again  consistent  with  freezing — iIk'  thin  layer  of 
water  quickly  .solidities,  and  then  matters  proceed 
as  before.  Thus,  at  ever\'  instant,  the  stresses  at 
dillerent  parts  of  the  mass  melt  it  at  those  places 
w  hi're  they  are  greatest,  and  so  produce  the  ('xtra- 
urdinary  phenomenon  of  a  mass  which  might  in 
common  language  be  teniied  soliil,  and  even  rigid, 
slowly  cree)>iiig  down  its  rocky  l)ed  like  a  stream  of 
tar  or  treacle.  This  explanation  would  not  meet 
the  ease  of  extremely  cold  ice  ;  and  it  api>ears  that 
even  extremely  cold  ice  can  be  made  to  How  slowly; 
whence  ice  must  have  some  true  viscosity. 

Iic-frac/c  (Did  Miiiiiifuctnrc. — The  trade  in  ice  is 
now  one  of  great  and  increasing  imjiortanee.  Ice 
has  always  been  esteemed  as  a  luxury  in  warm 
weather:  ami  this  early  led  to  the  storing  of  it  in 
winter  and  ]ireserving  it  for  summer  u.se.  The 
(ireeks,  and  afterwards  the  Homans,  at  lirst  pre- 
served suc.w,  closely  packed  in  deep  underground 
cellars.  Nero,  at  a  later  period,  established  ice- 
houses in  Koine,  .similar  to  those  in  use  in  most 
European  countries  up  to  the  present  time.  But 
these  means  were  not  enough  to  supply  the  luxuri- 
ous Romans  with  ice  for  cooling  lie\erages,  and 
they  actually  established  a  traile  in  .snow,  which 
was  brought  to  Home  from  the  summits  of  distant 
mountains.  The  trade  in  ice  in  Great  Britain  was, 
until  a  recent  period,  a  very  limited  one,  having 
been  chiefly  conllned  to  the  supjily  required  by  a 
few  of  the  lirst-class  fishmongers  and  confcctiimers 
— the  jirivate  residences  of  the  more  opulent  families 
being  furnished  with  ice-houses  (generally  .solid 
built  cellars,  wholly  or  jiartially  underground),  in 
which  a  sufficiency  is  kept  for  private  use.  But 
ice  has  come  to  be  more  and  more  largely  used 
in  preserving  ]>rovisions,  both  in  refrigerating 
chandjers  and  otherwise.  It  is  als()  used  by 
brewers.  In  surgical  operati(jns  ice  is  used  to 
jirodnce  ]iartial  ana-stbesia  ;  it  serves  in  fevers  to 
cool  the  mouth  and  reduce  the  internal  tempera- 
ture, while  ice  in  bags,  applied  to  the  spine,  is 
found  helpful  in  many  cases  of  sea  sickness,  and 
ill  other  aiiplications.  Much  ice  is  required  in 
America,  during  the  hot  weather,  for  jireserving 
dead  bodies  between  deatli  and  burial. 

Ice  was  imported  into  England  from  Norway  on 
a  considerable  scale  as  early  as  l,S2.'i;  but  it  was 
left  to  the  Americans  to  originate  a  trade  in  this 
article  in  their  own  cities,  which  has  extended  to 
Europe  and  Asia,  and  in  an  incredildy  short  space 
of  time  attained  a  surjirising  magnitude.  The 
ex]iort  of  ice  from  America  was  commenced  about 
lISO."),  by  a  merchant  n-'/.ned  Tudor,  who  sent  ice 
from  Boston  to  the  West  Indies.  After  persever- 
ing against  many  losses  he  siicceede<l  in  establish- 
ing a  trade  with  Caliiitta,  Madras,  and  Bombay  ; 
and  now  not  only  is  it  sent  in  vast  i|iiantities  to 
those  places,  but  also  to  Hong-kong,  W'hampoa, 
anil  Batavia.  .\bont  the  year  1S4I)  the  \Venha7n 
Lake  Ice  ('om|iany  commenceil  semliii;;  icetoCreat 
liritain  from  Boston.  The  sui>idy  of  ice  for  (ireat 
Britain,  however,  now  comes  almost  wholly  from 
Norw.iy  (mainly  from  Drobak,  near  Christiania, 
where  a  lake  was  christened  '  Wenham  I.,;ike,' after 
the  Boston  one;  in  1888,  '28.3,<)0.">  tons  (value 
£17H,4H'2)  were  imported  thence,  and  only  14.')  tons 
from  all  other  countries.  In  IS'lli  tie'  export  from 
Norway  to  Biilain  had  a  value  of  i'2li-,'J'.lS.  In  severe 
winters    the    Norfolk    Bioails    supidy    a    qiianlily. 


60 


ICE    AGE 


ICELAND 


Tliiity  ye.ai-s  previously  America  had  sent  to 
(Jreat  Britain  on  an  average  20, (KX)  tons  annually, 
costini;  f-20,000. 

In  America  the  ice  harvest  is  ;,'athereil  in  on  an 
enormous  scale  and  with  an  elaliorate  system  of 
apparatus.  The  ice  is  cleared  from  snow  Ijy  means 
of  an  implement  called  the  snow-plane.  An  ice- 
p!oui,di,  drawn  liy  horses,  and  driven  liy  a  man 
ridint;  upon  it,  is  then  made  to  cut  deep  parallel 
grooves  in  the  ice,  and  these  are  again  crossed  l)y 
other  grooves  at  right  angles,  so  that  tlie  whole 
of  the  surface  is  deeply  marked  out  into  small 
squares,  measuring  a  little  more  than  three  feet. 
A  few  of  these  sipiare  blocks  being  detacherl  by 
hand-saws,  the  remainder  are  easily  liroken  off  with 
crowbars,  and  Hoated  away  to  the  icestcnehouses, 
which  are  usually  built  of  wood,  on  tlie  bordei-s  of 
the  lake  or  river.  Some  of  tliese  are  of  vast  dimen- 
sions, and  contain  vaults  of  great  depth  :  the  walls 
are  double,  sometimes  treble,  or  even  quadruple, 
being  altogether  as  much  as  four  feet  in  thickness, 
and  having  liollow  spaces  between  to  render  them 
less  heat-conducting.  The  blocks  of  ice  are  covered 
up  with  sawdust,  a  biyer  lieing  placed  between  each 
tier  of  blocks.  ^lanv  of  these  ic('-lio\ises  are  made 
large  enough  to  hold'  from  40,000  to  80,000  tons  of 
ice.  The  (luantity  of  ice  harvested  in  the  United 
States  may  be  guessed  from  the  fact  that  I'hila- 
<lelphia  requires  an  annual  supply  of  700,000  tons. 
New  York  and  the  adjoining  cities,  1,200,000: 
while  in  some  states  the  average  consumption  per 
liead  of  the  po|>ulation  is  KiOO  11).  yearly.  New 
York  is  supplied  from  tlie  Hudson  ;  Philadelphia 
from  the  Schuylkill,  Delaware,  and  Lehigh,  as 
well  .as  from  llie  Kennebec;  lioston  from  Weidiam 
Lake,  .."ic.  ;  and  the  west  from  the  great  lakes. 
Throughout  the  States  everywhere,  exce|it  in  the 
extreme  north,  the  manuf.acture  of  .artilicial  ice  is 
now  largely  carried  on— in  1890  by  222  factories 
with  .'{21).")  liauds. 

The  building  of  iee-edilices  is  still  a  winter 
amusement  in  I'u.ssia :  ami,  in  the  New  \Vorld, 
Montreal  set  the  example  of  ,an  annual  ice-carnival, 
one  of  the  features  of  which  is  the  building  of  a 
great  ice-palace,  and  of  ice-monuments  of  various 
kinds.  Skating  (ci. v.)  is  the  subject  of  a  sejiarate 
article.  Ice-boating  is  an  exhilarating  recreivtion, 
pursued  on  frozen  lakes  and  rivers,  especially  in 
Ameiicn.  The  Canailian  ice-boat  or  ice-yacht  is 
not  so  much  a  boat  as  a  trianguhar  fr.amework  of 
wood,  running  by  means  of  a  sail — with  the  broad 
end  foremost— on  three  skates  or  runners,  3  feet 
long  by  8  inches  dee)).  There  is  but  one  large  sail, 
usually  triangular,  tautened  to  a  lioom  and  yard, 
which  may  be  over  .SO  feet  in  Ic-nglh.  Such  an  ice- 
boat may  be  steered  by  the  riiilder->kate  in  almost 
any  direction  not  in  the  teeth  of  the  wind,  and  may 
attain  an  average  si)eed  of  thirty  or  f<nty  miles  an 
hour,  and  sometimes  as  much  as  sixty-live  miles. 
Snow  seriously  reduces  the  spet>d.  For  means 
devised  for  artilicial  freezing,  see  FRliliZI.Nt;  MlX- 
Tf  KKS,  and  HKI'KI(;i;i!.VT()li.S. 

!<•«'  ,lii«>.    See  (iL.vfl.M.  Pi:i;ion. 

l<-«'lM'r!S.     i^ei"  If'K- 

Iceland  is  an  island  in  tlie  North  .Atlantic 
iiiMiii'diatcly  south  of  the  Polar  ( 'irde,  which  just 
touches  the  northernmost  point  of  the  island,  the 
Melrakkasletta.  It  lies  between  US  23'  and  (id 
:«'  N.  lal.,  anil  between  l.T  22'  and  24'  \r>'  \V. 
long.  The  nieriilian  of  Kerro  crosses  the  island  in 
the  middle.  The  distance  fnun  Iceland  to  (Green- 
land is  about  2.V)  miles,  to  Norway  (iOO  miles,  to 
the  Kariie  Islamls  about  2.")0  miles,  .and  to  Scot- 
land .IOO  nnles.  Its  suiierlicial  area  is  40.:«KJ 
s(|.  m.  ( moie  than  a  third  Larger  Ih.an  Scotland): 
its  length  from  east  to  west  .'{(M)  miles,  and 
its  breadth   from   north   to  .south  2(X)  miles.     The 


whole  length  of  the  south  coast  from  east  to  west 
is  entirely  wanting  in  bays  and  lirths;  ihecipa-t- 
line  is  not,  however,  straight,  but  bulges  out 
largely  in  the  noddle,  and  the  ncuih  coast  ha^  an 
inw.ard  corresiionding  curve.  Other  parts  of  the 
coast,  especially  the  north-west  ami  east  coasts, 
are  very  much  indented  by  tirths  anil  bays,  as 
may  be  seen  from  the  fact  th.at  the  circumference 
of  the  island,  if  measured  fnun  point  to  point,  is 
only  i)(K)  ndles.  luit  the  coast  line  following  the 
indentations  would  lie  aliovc  2000  miles.  The 
principal  liays  and  linlis  of  the  isl.md  aie  Kaxalloi, 
lireithifjord  ( liroad  l-'irth  ).  ami  Isafjord  ( Ice  Kirth ), 
on  the  west  coast:  the  Hun:iHi'ii  ( IJe.ar-cub"s  Bav ), 
Skagafjord  (Ness  Kirth).  Eyafjord  ( Islaml  Firth), 
ami  Skj;ilfanilaHoi  I  Shivering  Bay ),  on  the  north 
coast.  (In  the  east  coast  there  are  m>  large  lirths, 
but  m.uiy  sm.ill  ones:  the  best  known  of  the.se 
is  Seythisfjord  (  Fry  Firth). 

Taken  .as  a  wlnde.  Icelaml  may  be  said  to  be  a 
t.ableland  .about  2000  feet  high.  In  some  parts  it 
slopes  pretty  evenly  down  to  the  coast,  .as  is  the 
case  on  the  south  side  between  Eyafjallajiikull  and 
Beykjanes.  Here  is  the  largest  extent  of  lowland, 
.aliout  1400  sq.  m.  Tlie  next  largest  jiiece  of  low- 
land is  the  Boigarfjord,  which  extends  to  the 
Snaefellsjokull  r.ange  of  hills,  and  is  about  4tM) 
s(|.  m.  The  firths  in  the  north-west,  in  the 
north,  and  in  the  east,  may  be  looked  upon  as  so 
many  cuttings  in  the  tabieland  effected  by  vol- 
canic and  glacial  .action  during  former  geological 
periods  of  tlie  island.  In  most  cases  these  cuttings 
are  comparatively  n.ai  row,  and  hills  rise  to  about  2000 
feet  .aliruptly  from  the  water,  eliding  in  steep  pre- 
<'iliiees,  which  alVoid  breeding- places  to  an  immense 
number  of  sea-fowl.  This  is  especially  the  case  in 
the  north-west  and  the  east.  In  tin-  nortli.  and  in 
some  parts  of  the  e.ast,  there  :iie  several  broail 
valleys  running  from  the  lirths  into  the  interior. 
Iceland  is  througlioul  volcanic.  aii<l,  according  to 
geologists,  it  owes  its  existence  entiiely  to  vol- 
canic action.  The  interior  and  highest  part  of 
the  island  consists  of  volcanic  tufa  :  the  hills 
of  the  east  and  west  consist  for  the  most  part 
of  basalt.  The  whole  of  the  interior  is  occupied 
by  barren  sands,  lava  tracts,  ami  icetiehls.  The 
largest  of  tliese  lava  tracts  is  Oibitliahniun.  about 
1200  s(|.  111.  The  largest  icelield  is  tli:il  of  \'atna- 
jid<ull,  about  :iOIH)  sq.  m.,  and  ;ill  the  icefields 
together  cover  5.S60  sq.  m.  At  the  south-east 
corner  of  \'atnajoknll  is  the  highest  nnmntain 
in  Iceland,  called  Or.aefajokull  :  it  is  t)42li  feet 
above  the  level  of  the  sea,  and  its  upiier  part  is 
covered  with  everlasting  snow  or  ice  :  imil  so  are 
more  or  less  all  mountains  abo\e  4000  feet,  as  the 
snow-line  is  usually  at  fnun  :iO(M»  to  4000  feet, 
riiere  are  twenty  volcanoes  which  have  lieen  .active 
at  one  time  or  another  since  the  island  was  in- 
habited. Tiie  most  famous  of  these  is  Hecla  (q.v.), 
liecause  its  eruptions  have  been  most  freipient. 
There  are.  however,  other  voli'anoes,  such  as  Laki. 
near  Skapt:'i.  which  have  been  ibe  M>ats  of  more 
gigantii' eruptions.  This  volcano  threw  out  in  1783 
a  lava  stream  about  4."i  miles  in  length  and  nearly 
1.")  miles  in  breailth.  Such  an  out|iour  from  one 
vidcauo  at  one  time  is  unexamided  anywhere  else. 
The  south-west  |peninsula.  Ueykjanes,  has  fre- 
i|Uently  been  dislurlied  by  volcanic  outbur-ls.  which 
have  not  been  conliiied  lo  llie  laiul.  but  islands  in 
the  sea  round  it  have  bei'U  thrown  lip  or  sub- 
merged .alternately  by  submarine  volcanic  action. 
.\s  a  result  of  this  vcdcanic  activity.  2400  sip  m.  of 
Iceland  are  covereil  with  lava.  Many  of  the  ice- 
bills  have  been  active  volcanoes  ilnring  the  hist  (>(K) 
years,  sindi  as  ("traefajoknll  and  Kyafjallajokiill. 
These  ice-volcanoes  never  throw  out  any  lava,  but 
muil  ami  Jishes.  The  numerous  hot  springs  scat- 
tered about  the  island  are  also  coniiectcil  with  the 


ICELAND 


61 


voliimii'  liie>  :  tliese  are  in  many  jiaits  iiia<l<>  iis(> 
cil  liy  the  inliahitaiit^s  lor  i'iii>l<iiiji'  ami  wasliinj; 
imr|iosL's.  TIkmv  i>  ^'leat  ilill'fieiu'o  in  llii'  heat 
of  tliese  s|iriin,'s  :  some  are  just  warm  eiiou^'li  for 
lialliiiijr.  oiliei>*  convert  their  water  into  steam  at  a 
ilejrree  far  alnive  the  boiling'  point.  The  most 
fanionsof  these  hot  siiriiij;s  is  tievser  (q.v.).  Earth 
ipiaUes  sometimes  ilo  a  ;-;i**al  lii'al  of  tlamage  in 
\arion>  parts  of  the  islainl,  as  in  liSyii. 

Many  consiileraMe  rivers  run  from  the  interior 
either  north  or  south,  hut  none  of  them  are  navi- 
j;al>le,  lieoause  of  their  rapiilitx.  The  longest  are 
rhjoi-s;i  ( IJiill  l!iver)in  tliesoutli.  Joknlsaa  Fjollum 
anil  Skjiilfanilall jiit  in  the  north,  eaeli  bein^  above 
IIKI  miles  in  liMiulli.  Of  the  numerous  lakes. 
Thin,L;vall.ivatn  in  tlie  south  aiul  Myvatii  in  the 
north  are  the  larjrest.  Of  the  many  ]iretty  water- 
falls may  lie  mentioned  (Inlllnss  in  Hvit:i,  liotha- 
foss  in  Skjalfamlatljiit.  and  Kettifoss  in  Joknlsji. 

Iceland  is  not  rich  in  minerals,  at  loii.st  not  in 
paying' ijuantities.  There  are  many  sulphur-mines, 
and  .some  of  them  have  been  woi  ked  till  lately  with 
English  capital,  but  not  with  proht.  Surtarlirandur 
(liiinite)  and  brown  coal  are  found  in  many  places, 
a-s  well  a-s  iron  and  lime,  but  it  is  very  doubtful 
if  it  would  jiay  to  work  them. 

The  climate  of  the  south  of  Iceland  is  .somewhat 
like  that  of  the  north  of  Scotland — i.e.  rather  wet 
and  chan;.'ealile,  but  colder,  in  the  ncnth  of  the 
inland  the  climate  is  drier  and  colder  still.  Thunder- 
storms are  rather  rare,  and  usually  occur  in  winter. 
The  winter  is  mild  considering;  the  latitude,  but 
sjiring  and  sununer  are  frei|uently  cold.  The  mean 
temperature  of  the  yeai-s  lSS-t-89  in  the  north  was 
about  :i5  F.  The  greatest  peculiarity  of  the 
Iceland  climate  is  the  varying;  mean  temperature  of 
the  same  month,  the  ditierence  .sometimes  beinj,' 
27.  This  is  owing  to  the  arrival  or  non-arrival  ol 
the  (Ireenland  ice,  which  not  unfrei|uently  liloek> 
up  the  north  and  east  coasts  of  the  island  from  April 
to  Septendier. 

The  only  cereal  found  in  Iceland  is  the  so-called 
mehir  \Ehimiis  iireniiriii.i),  a  kind  of  wild  oats. 
Turnips,  carrots,  cabbages,  ami  pot.atoes  thrive 
very  well,  and  are  now  cultivated  to  some  extent. 
The  gnusses,  both  wild  and  cultivated,  however, 
are  tlie  principal  product  of  the  island.  Of  trees 
there  is  the  birch  {Jicliila  iiilcniieiiia),  seldom  ex- 
ceeding 12  feet  in  height,  and  some  willows  and 
juniper  bushes ;  amongst  the  heather  are  found 
crowberries  and  whortlelierrics. 

The  only  wild  animals  are  the  fox  and  the  rein- 
deer :  there  are  both  while  and  blue  foxes.  Rein- 
deer were  introduced  in  1770,  and  there  are  still 
a  few  herds  of  them  running  wild  on  the  hills  in 
the  interior  :  they  are  of  very  little  use  to  the 
inliabitant.-<.  Of  ilonie.stic  aninuils  the  sheep  is 
the  most  important  ;  it  is  usually  horned,  smne- 
tinies  even  with  three  and  four  horns,  and  ha.s 
some  general  resemblance  to  the  lilackfaced  sheep 
of  Scotland.  The  lambs  are  weaned  about  the  end 
of  June,  and  the  ewes  are  nnlked.  Large  mimbers 
of  them  are  now  exported  alive  to  Scotland  and 
England.  The  cows  are  of  a  small  breed,  but  ' 
yield  a  larger  quantity  of  milk  in  proportion  to 
their  size  than  most  other  cows.  Tlie  ponies  are 
generally  about  12  hands,  but  very  strong  and 
sure-footed.  Thousand.-  are  brought  to  Scotland 
every  year.  The  genuine  Icel.ind  dog  li.us  some 
resemblance  to  the  Eskimo  dog  and  the  Scotch 
collie.  According  to  the  latest  statistics  there 
are  about  20,fXH}  cattle,  .'500,(HK)  sheep,  and  .SO.OOt) 
ponies  in  the  ishand.  Of  birds  there  are  innnense 
nuniliers,  especially  of  water  fowl,  the  most  import- 
ant of  which  is  the  Eider-duck  (i|.v. );  it  yields 
large  (juantitiis  of  eider-ilown,  and  is  ,'ilmost  a 
domesticated  bird  in  many  parts  of  the  island. 
The  ptarmigan  is  the  only  game-bird.     The  most 


remarkable  bird  of  prey  is  the  Icelandic  falcon, 
formerly  so  much  esleemed  for  falconry.  I  )f  other 
birds,  tlie  whooper  or  wild  swan  may  be  mentioned; 
it  breeds  largely  in  Iceland.  The  sea  arouml  the 
coa,sts  is  very  rich  in  lish,  especially  cod  and  her- 
ring ;  the  cod-lisheries  have  been  carried  on  a  long 
time  by  the  islanders,  and  now  also  by  the  French, 
who  em|iloy  annu.illy  lietween  200  and  SOO  vessels 
in  this  lisliing.  Little  attenlion  was  jiaid  to  the 
herring-lishing  till  about  1)S,S0,  when  it  was  largely 
developed  by  the  .Norwegians,  and  now  also  by  the 
Icelamlers  themselves.  I'^iubacked  whales,  of  late 
.successfully  lished  by  the  Norwegians,  and  seals 
are  also  numerous.  Niany  of  the  salmon  and  trout 
rivers  are  now  rented  by  Englishmen.  '  There  are 
no  snakes  to  be  met  with  throughout  the  whole 
island ' — to  cite  the  whole  of  the  memorable 
seventy-second  chapter  repeated  by  I)r  Johnson 
friun  Horrebow's  XriftiiKl  llistfiry  of  Iceland 
(Copenhagen,  17.">0:  Eng.  trans.  1758). 

Iceland  was  discovered  about  the  beginning  of 
the  9th  century  by  Irishmen  or  Scotsmen,  but  they 
did  not  make  any  ]iernianent  settlement.  About 
seventy  years  later  it  was  rediscovered  .and  colon- 
ised by  Norwegians,  who  preferred  to  leave  their 
native  land  rather  than  submit  to  the  rule  of 
Harold  Haarfager.  Many  of  them  had  previously 
settled  in  the  (Jrkneys,  Hebrides,  and  Ireland;  and 
when  the\-  were  not  safe  there  from  the  attacks  of 
Harold,  they  went  to  Iceland,  and  a  considerable 
number  of  Irishmen  and  Scotsmen  went  with  them. 
Ingolf  was  the  tirst  settler.  In  about  sixty  yeare 
the  whole  i>land  was  inhiibited.  and  an  aristocratic 
republic  was  formed,  the  central  jioint  of  which  was 
the  Althing  which  met  every  year  at  Thingvellir. 
In  12li2-04  the  Icelanders  acknowledged  the  sove- 
reignty of  the  king  of  Norway  ;  and  in  1388,  when 
Norway  was  united  with  Denmark,  Iceland  shared 
the  same  fate.  When,  however,  Denmark  had  to 
give  up  Norway  in  1814,  Iceland  remained  with 
Denmark,  because,  it  is  said,  the  negotiators  of  the 
peace  of  Vienna  in  1814  did  m)t  know  that  there 
was  such  an  islaml  as  Iceland  in  existence.  The 
Althing  continued  under  the  Norwegian  and  Danish 
rule  with  very  limited  powers  till  1800,  when  it  was 
aliolisbed.  In  1874  the  king  iif  Denmark  gave  the 
island  a  new  constitution,  according  to  which  the 
Althing,  which  had  been  reorganised  in  1843,  ob- 
tained legislative  ]jowers  in  all  matters  cimcerning 
Iceland.  The  king  apjioints  a  governor  (Landshiif- 
thingi),  who,  with  a  small  council,  carries  on  the 
government  i  till  18'.)3  under  a  secretary  for  Iceland 
in  Copenhagen)  In  the  year  1000  Christianity  was 
introduced  in  Iceland,  and  a  century  later  two 
bishojis' .sees,  one  at  Skalholt,  the  othei-  at  Hi'ilar, 
were  establisheil.  About  the  noddle  of  tlie  Kith 
century  the  lieformation  was  introduced  in  Iceland, 
and  since  then  all  the  Icelanders  have  remained 
Lutherans.  Church  ni.atters  are  now  superintended 
by  one  bishop  at  Ueykjavik. 

The  most  notable  events  in  the  history  of  Ice- 
land fnuii  its  union  with  Norway  are  a  long  series 
of  altlictions  and  calamities,  caused  by  volcanic 
outbui'sts,  severe  sea.sons,  e|)idemics  (such  as  the 
black  death  in  1402,  the  great  plague  in  1494. 
the  ravages  of  the  smalljiox  ).  and  in  some  cases 
bv  misgoverinnenl.  The  population  of  Iceland  in 
ISOI  was  4ti,240;  in  1,^80,  ,2.422  :  in  ls90,  70,927; 
in  1895,  73,449,  though  in  1872-9.'i,  9000  endgrali-d 
to  America.  In  the  12th  and  l.'itli  cenluries 
the  Icelanders  produced  nnMe  vernacular  literature 
than  any  other  nation  in  Europe,  and  from  that 
time  love  of  information  has  been  a  distinguishing 
feature  of  the  lcelander.s.  At  the  present  day 
elementary  education  is  so  gencriil  th.al  a  child 
of  ten  unable  to  read  is  i|uile  an  i-Mcplinn, 
and  most  of  them  can  write  also.  Thirc  are 
several  schools  f<n'  children,  but  for  the  most  part 


62 


ICELAND 


education  is  impavtea  at  home.      There  a,e  tA  -. 
hitrlier  scliools  for  ^'eiR-ral  ea.icatiou,  and  a  college 
at^Kevkjavik   for  classical   iM.tnu-tum  :    tliere  are 
also  tWo  otl.cr  c-oUe-es  for  nuni>ters  and  nie.lical  j 
students.     Manv  farniere  are  ac(iuainted  with  two 
foreign  languages.     Reykjavik   on  tl.e  ^^^l^'^'^ 
coast"   is  the  capital  ot   Iceland,  w,  h  ^^1'"  '*  ^000 
inhabitants.     There  are  two  other  villages,  Isafjoid  j 
in  the  n.n-th-west  and  Aknreyn  in  the  north,  i^ch 
with  500  inhal.itants.      For  the  rest  the  poynlation  , 
is  scattered  all  round  the  island  ,.n_isolat^,l  tarins.   ! 
The  principal  means  of  support  ot   the   Icelanders  ; 
are   the    rearing   of    live-stock    and    lishmg.       lie 
dilf  exports  ai^  :  live  sheep,  in  1889  about  OO  000  = 
salt  mutton,  liOO.OOO  lb.   annually;  woc.l    1,200,000  , 
lb  •  sheeuskins   -iO.OOn  ;   tallow,  00,000  11).  :  borses,  , 
abo'nt'So :  salted  c.d,  haddock,  and  ling,  U,SOO,0(X) 
11,   •  malted  salmon,  about  40,000  lb.  ;  cod-liver  ml, 
ab..ut   ISOO   barrels:   -hark-liver  oil,   4000  barrels  : 
:ider  down,  0400  lb.  ;  and  feathers    l^jOOO  Ik      fhe 
annual  imports  are :  <-orn  and  breadstutts   10,9/ 1,000 
th.  ;  cotfee,  440,0001b.  ;  chicory    190,000  1b.  ■,  sugar 
1  0'>5  000  lb.  :  salt,  40,000  barrels  ;  tobacco,  l.J.?,000 
lb  "  spirit-    42,000  gallons  :   beer,    10,000  gal  ons  ; 
petroleum.  .-.5,000  gal  Ions  ;  cal,  4.300  tons  :  hsliing- 
lines  and  ropes.  55,000  lb.     Besides  these,  timb,.,-. 
iron,  cotton  goods,   and   other  clothing  stults   arc 
imported.      The    value    of    the    foreign    trade     in 
1S49  only  £16S,000,   was  in   1895  £830,3oO.      lliere 
are    now-    import    duties    on    spints    and    ^vines, 
tobacco,  cottee,  and  sugar.     The  trade  with  Iceland 
was  confined  to  Copenhagen  for  several  centuries, 
and  so  is  the  largest  part  of  it  st.  I.     Since  the  year 
18.54  the  trade  has  been  free  to  all  nations,  and  no« 
it  is  -oiiic'  more  and  more  to  Leith  and   Ntnycast  e. 
Theonlv  native   industry  consists   in  working  the 
wool  of  the  sheep  into  various  articles  ot  clothing  ; 
this  is  chietlv  done  by  the  women  m  winter.      I  he 
Icelanders  make  a  sort  of  tweed   which   they  ca 
vathnuil.  and  this  is  the  princii>,-il  clothing  mate, lal 
of  the  inhabitants,  but  is  not   exported.     «>!""'«t 
farms  there  is  an  old-fii-shioned  loom  m  which  the 
vathiuiil  is  woven. 

See  Vou  Troil,  Letter.^  on  Man,/  (1772) :  Sir  George 
Mackenzie,  T.ajel.  in  Mand  (l'^'"* ;  Henderson  ^^».- 

Iceland-   its   Volcanms,   drj/sers,   and   irluaen,   (IbW), 
Sir  Richard   F.    Burton,    Ultinm   Thnle:   a   *"»"»/';;» 
Iceland  1 1875 1;    J.  C.  Poestion,  Idand  dtis  Land  und 
SeM««' (Vienna    lf5.i=  -»/  ^    Batm.gartner,  . 
Island  und  die  Faroer  ( Freib.  i.  lir.  IHSM ). 

IrEL\NnicL.\N(:r.\GE  .\xd   I.ITEUATrUE.-'nie 
lan-ua.'e  wliiidi  is  now  called  Ir.'h,n,lw  w'as  down 
to  the  mil  century  spoken  all  over  Scandmavia- 
ie   in  \orwav,  Sweden,  and   Denmark,   as  well  as 
in 'the"  Faroe    Lsles,    Shetland     the    Orkneys     the 
Hebrides   and  on  the  coasts  of  England,  Scotland, 
and    Ireland.     It   was   a  sister    langu.age    to    t he 
\n-lo-Saxon  and  Old  l  lerman.     ]•  (Uinerlv  its  name 
^^DiiHsh  tu„q.<  (the  Danish  tongue)  or  ,\<:,rn,n>f, 
(the    Northern  t.mgue).      Us  similarity  to  Aug  o- 
Saxon   was    so    close    that    the   ancient    Icelandic 
authors  asserted  that  the  same  langua-e  was  spoken 
in    En-land   till   the  arrival  ot   W  ilham     he  (  on- 
.Mieror  as   in   Scandinavia.     This   is   the    language 
which  the  Norwegians  brought  over  to  Iceland  m 
the  9th   century,   and  becau.se  it  is  now  n..where 
spoken  but  in  Icelan.l,   it  is  called  I,-el<,H,ln:      1  he 
pre.sent   Danish   and    Swedish    stan.l    in    the   same 
relation  to  it  as  Italian  ami  Spanish  stand  to  l.atin 
In   Iceland  it  has  undergone  so  little  change  that 
any   Icelandic  child   who   has  learned  to  read    .^n 
read   the  saga.s  and  .songs  of  the   12th  and    l.itl 
centuries  as  ea.sily  ii-s  an  Knglish  chil.l  can   rea.l 
Shakespeare.     There  is,  however,  reason  to  beli.ve 
that  the  pronunciation  lias  been  somewhat  alteieil, 
especially  that  of  the  vowels  and  two  of  the  cm- 
sonants  :"  the  k  an<l  the  /  have  in  some  words  been 

I 


softened  into  q  and  5  ( th )  respectively.     The  vocab- 
ulary,   the   inllexions,    and   the   gramniatica,I  con- 
struction   have   been    preserved  almost    nnaltercl. 
The  relationship  to  Anglo-Saxon  and  hnglis  i  may 
be  .seen   at  a  glance,   so  many   w.uds  m   b„tli  lan- 
guages being'tpiite  the  same.     We   will    take   as    1 
fnstSnces  several  names  of  the  body,  as  Iceland  c 
/„,»,/,   'han.l:'.A".'/»'%   ■  finger  :' /"'^/ f'.""  ,=.  /'"^■; 
'back.'     And  if  this  is  the  case  with   hnglish    it 
is  still  more  so  witli  Scotch,  for  generally,  where  the 
Scotch  ditVers  fnmi  the  English  in  pronunciation  ot  a 
word,  it  is  identical  w  ith  that  of  Icelandn;.     In  some 
cases  the  consonant  has  been  softoneil  in    hnglish 
where  it  has  remaiiuMl  hard  in  Icelandic  ;  thus  the 
letter  A  in  connection  with  .v  is  a  softened  form  ot 
/.■_e  <T.    '.shall'   is  in    Icelandic,   shd  :    -shel      i.- 
«W.°  ship'  is  skip,  ami   instances  of    this   kind 
mitdit  be  multiplied  infinitely.      Hie   Icelandic   is 
aii'intlecti<,nal  language,  having  four  cases  not  onl\ 
for   the   n.uins    but    also   for   each    gender   ot    the 
•idiectives,  some  of  the  numerals,  ami  the  pronouns. 
With  re.'ard   to  the  phonetics  ,.f  the  language,  it 
may  be  remarked  that  vowel  change  (umlaid)  ha.s 
been   carried   further    tlian    in    any   other    of    the 
Teutonic  tongues.     The  chief  charact.uistics  which 
distin"uisli  Icelandic  from  (Jerman  ami  Lnglis  i  aie     , 
the  ending  of  the  infinitive  in  a  vowel,  usually", 
the  sulKxing  of  the  definite  article,  and  tl.e  pa.ssive    ] 
,u-  middle  voice  of  the  verb.      To  every  student  ot     j 
Northern  hist.uv  the  i|uestion  must  occur  why  tins 
.Ancient  tongue  has  been  preserved  in  Iceland,  and 
not  as  well  in  s.une  other  parts  ot  the  north  which 
have  been  <iiiite  as  isolated  as  Iceland.      ^  «  '''^■;'' 
no  hesitation  in  giving  as  reason  the  lact  that  tbt 
Icelanders  were  the  only  people  who  had  any  litera- 
ture in  it,   and  always  took  great  interest  in  that 
literature.     This  literature  has  not  merely  a  philo- 
lo.dcal  interest,  but  even  more  historical   interest 
as" it  contains  a  full  account  of  the  men  who  left 
tiieir  mark  in  every  corner  of  Europe,  who  «ere   in     . 
fact,  masters  of  Europe  during  the  9th   and    10th     , 
centuries,  and  whose  language  and  l.aw.  ■ire  =!«  ">l?     ; 
moment    important   elements  of  the  language  and     | 
institutions  of   the   English-speaking  race.      It  also     | 
throws  no  obscure  light  on  the  beliefs  and  modes  of     I 
life  of  our  common  ancestors.  I 

The   earliest    monuments   ot    this    tongue    are    | 
found  in  the  Kunic  inscriptions  of  Scandinavia  (see 
Runes)      The  remains  thus  t.mn.l  are  indeed  very 
'  difterent   from  the  langu.age  as  it  appears  in   Ice- 
1  landic    literature  ;     there    Is.     however,    sulhcient 
similaritv    to   .how   that   the  langnage  there  em- 
ployed is  really  the  same.      I  he  Kunic  luoiiuments 
range   from    the    8th    t,.    the    12th    century       The 
earliest  literary  productions  in  the  Icelandic  t.uigue 
are  the  mvthi'cal  .songs  contained  m  the  .-;o-calle.l 
poetical  Edda  (.,.v.),  the  collection  o    which  has, 
we  believe  erroneou.sly,  been  attributed  t..  San  und 
the  Learue.l,  who  died  in  1  i:W.      It  is  ,in|K,ssible  to 
ascertain    how- far   these   s<mgs    were    bnmfjlit   to 
Iceland  by  the  Norwegians,  though  some  of  them 
seem   to   point   to  a   time   anterior   to   the   settU- 
ment  of  tl.e  islaii.l.     The  only  thing  we  know  tor 
certain    Ls,    that    tla^v    existe.l    in    Iceland    in   the 
later  part  of  the  l'2th  century.     The  .dent ihcation 
of  some  or  all  of  them  with  either  Norway  or  the 
Western    Islands    is    founded   on    no    firmer    basis 
than    mere    conjecture        These    songs     may    be 
divi.led    into    mythical    ami    hermc    songs.       lUe 
mythical  song's  contain  .an  account  o.  the  gods  and 
.'iiints   the  creation  of  the  world  and  of  man,  the 
world-long  struggle  of   the    gods   with   th-  giants 
or  Titans  of  the  Northern  myth.dogy,  the  daj    ot 
iu.l.'ment,    or    the    destructi.ui    ..t    the    gods,    the 
•'dants,  ami  the  w.ul.l,  out  of  the  ruin.s  of  wdiich  a 
new  heaven  and  a  new  earth  are  to  arise.     One  ot 
the  son.-s  of  this  collecti.m   is  tl.e   //,'nv,/»«/(t  he 
Son.'  of  the  High  One-viz.  Odin) ;  it  is  a  didactic 


ICELAND 


63 


)iiieiu  i'iml;iiiiiiif;  rules  of  comluct  in  vari'ms  situa-  I 
lions  anil  views  of  life.  'I'lie  lieroie  son;;s  mostly 
treat  of  the  same  suliject  ju-  the  (icnnan  .\iM- 
iiinienliet/.  Some  of  these  son^^s  contain  the  most 
exquisite  expressions  of  leelaliilie  poetry.  There  j 
are  several  other  sonjjs  of  the  same  type  as  the 
I'Miia.  .\ll  these  scm^s  are  alliti-ralive:  tlieir  char 
acterLstics  are  simplicity  of  iliction  ami  natural 
expres.sion.  By  the  siilc  of  these  pojiular  sonus  a 
more  artilicial  poetry  \va>  ilevelopeil  liy  the  SUahls 
(H-V.);  here  rhyme  was  added  to  alliteration,  and 
the  expression  wivs  so  artiheial  that  they  could  he 
understood  by  the  initiated  only.  As  the  theme  of 
their  poems  was  usually  a  king  or  chief,  whose 
heroic  deeds  they  celebrated  in  their  songs,  this 
kind  of  poetry  ha.s  been  called  court  poetry.  Many 
of  these  scuig>  formed  the  nucleus  of  the  later 
aaga.  Hither  tie-  Skahl  hinr-elf,  or  another  per.sim 
who  had  learned  his  poem,  would  recite  it,  give 
explauatiiuis  of  it,  and  add  further  particulars  to 
the  life  of  him  whom  the  poet  celebrated,  and  thus 
the  saga  took  shape  shortly  after  the  celebration 
of  the  events  in  the  song.  Thus  a  literature  arose 
without  the  use  ol  letters. 

The  runes  were  used  only  for  inscriptions,  not 
for  literary  purposes.  Some  authorities,  however. 
are  of  opinion  that  the  earliest  Icelandic  writings 
were  in  runes,  hut,  as  there  is  not  a  single  tittle 
of  such  writing  left  ,is  evidence,  the  conjecture 
seems  very  hazardous.  The  first  Icelandic  bishop, 
Isleif.  who  died  in  1080,  introduceil  the  Latin 
alpliaber.  and  taught  young  men  in  preparation  for 
the  priestly  otlicc.      In  the  beginning  of   the   l'2th 

century  another  bi>hop  had  a  scl I  where   Latin 

was  taught.  Shortly  afterwards  liegau  that  literary 
activity  which  made  the  Icelanders  famotis.  The 
old  prose  literature  of  Iceland  consists  for  the  mo.st 
partof  .sagas — i.e.  tales.  l>otli  historical  and  fabulous. 
They  .are  .a II  more  or  less  in  the  form  of  biogra|>liiHs; 
their  authors  are  feu-  the  most  part  unknown.  With 
regard  to  the  scenes  of  the  sagit-s,  they  may  be 
divided  into  Icelandic  sag;us.  or  biographies  of  Ice- 
landers in  Iceland,  the  .s.ig.is  of  the  kings  of  Norway, 
and  sag;us  cmicerning  other  countries.  The.se  .saga.s 
give  a  faithful  ])icture  of  the  life  and  manners  of 
tliikse  times,  but  chronology  is  irsually  their  weakest 
point.  The  father  of  Icelamlic  literature  wa.s  Ari  the 
Learned  (  1067-1 14S).  He  wjus  the  lirst  who  began 
to  write  down  the  s,Hg:i.s,  most  of  which  had  alreaily 
been  foinied  in  the  mouth  of  the  saga-teller.  The 
principal  works  of  Ari  are  the  iMiiilnamabiik,  or 
account  of  the  settlement  of  leelaml,  containing 
the  names,  genealogy,  and  brief  accounts  of  every 
.settler.  It  is  an  evidence  of  veiy  careful  research 
and  wimderful  memory  of  the  author.  N'<i  other 
country  in  the  world  luus  such  an  account  of  its 
earliest  history.  He  also  wrote  a  small  l)ook  called 
Lihitllu.i  Ixliiiiiliiriim,  on  the  history  of  leelaml 
down  to  IlH.i,  and  an  account  of  the  introduction 
of  Christianity  calleil  Kristni  Sagn.  All  these 
have  come  ilowii  to  ns  ;  but  he  also  wrote  a  larger 
book  (m  Icilatid  which  is  lost,  and  tin-  lives  of  the 
earliest  kings  of  Norw.iy,  which  are  also  lost  e\ 
cept  so  far  as  tliev  may  be  embodied  by  Snoiii 
Sturbison  (  I ITH  l-i4l  ),  the  historian  and  poet. 
His  best-known  works  are  the  prose  F^dda,  or 
manual  of  Si-andinaviaii  mythology  and  Ici  lanilic 
l>oetry,  and  the  Lives  of  the  Kings  of  Norway,  m 
Hrim.skriiiiiiii,  down  to  the  death  of  .Sijjunl  the 
Ousader  i  ll.'iO).  The  third  nanir-  is  that  of  Stur-  i 
lu.son's  nephew,  Sturla  Thordaison j  j-JU  S4),  al.so  ' 
a  poet  ami  historian.  He  wrote  t  he  inlniditiijn  Siifin, 
also  ealleil  Stiirliiiiijii,  a  graphic:  account  of  the  I 
feuds  between  the  chiefs  of  Iceland  in  the  IHth 
ci-iitury.  which  resulted  in  the  subjection  of  the 
island  to  the  king  of  Norway.  He  also  w  rote  the 
life  of  Hakon  the  Old,  who  died  at  Kirkwall  in  ■ 
1263,  anil  that  of  his  -son  Magnus.     The  latter  is  I 


now  lost  c\ce])t  a  few  fragments.  The  sag;>s 
already  translated  into  Knglish  are  :  Ileims/.ritKjta, 
()rlninjiiiii((  Stcju.  the  stoiy  of  I'.urnt  Njal,  the 
story  of  Gisli  the  Outlaw,  the  Viiiuijlihiis  Saijii,  the 
(Suiinliiiigs  Sat/ii,  the  VuIsiiikju  tidijti,  and  several 
smaller  ones. 

Itesides  the  sagas  and  poetry  there  are  al.-o  found 
giammatical  essays  from  the  I'.'tli  and  l.'ith  cen- 
turies, astnuiomical  treatises,  a  guide  for  travellers 
t<p  liome  aiul  Jerusalem.  .\  remarkable  work 
apjieared  in  the  13th  century  i-alled  h'ununi/s 
Sl.iiijijsju  ('king's  mirror'),  which  contains  a  philo- 
sophical contemidatioii  of  life,  with  rules  for 
conduct  tinder  vaiious  circunistances  and  in  the 
company  of  all  sorts  of  ]ieople.  The  old  Icelanders 
were  no  less  industrious  translators  than  original 
wiiters,  f(u' they  seem  to  have  tianslated  any  foreign 
hook  that  came  into  their  bands.  Thus  they  trans- 
lated nurny  medieval  roniances,  sueli  as  the  legends 
of  King  Arthur,  and  these  translations  are  now  of 
great  value  for  \\n-  textu.al  criticism  of  the  originals. 
Among  the  most  remarkable  translations  of  those 
times  is  a  version  of  the  Old  Testament,  inter- 
mingled with  variiuis  observations  on  natural 
history,  comiiiled  froni  medieval  sotirces.  This  is 
perhaps  the  oldest  translation  of  the  Bible  in  any 
living  language.  There  are  also  translations 
of  a  great  number  of  homilies,  of  lives  of  saints, 
and  legends  of  the  church.  The  code  of  laws  of 
the  Icelandic  republic,  called  (^nigas  (gray  goose), 
lirst  written  down  in  llbS,  affords  am)de  evidence 
lit  j;reat  skill  in  legislative  enactments,  and  is  well 
worth  studying  in  connection  with  the  legal  history 
of  other  Teutonic  nations. 

Shortly  after  KWO  the  literary-  productiveness 
of  the  Icelanders  ceased,  except  for  the  writing  of 
.annals,  which  had  begun  in  the  preceding  lentury. 
The  iirin(i[ial  literary  activity  of  the  14th  century 
consisted  in  copying  and  making  collections  of  the 
labours  of  former  centuries,  ilany  of  the  sagas 
have  been  lueservcd  in  these  copies  only,  the  ori- 
ginals being  lost.  The  l.'ith  century  is  almost  a 
blank  as  far  as  literary  activity  is  concerned,  if  we 
excejit  ii  few  songwriters;  yet  even  then  there 
were  .some  students  of  the  old  saga.s.  About  the 
middle  of  the  lOth  century  a  new  turn  was  given 
to  the  literary  imrsuits  of  the  Icelanders  by  the 
introduction  of  tlic  Ilefoiniation.  'I'he  whole  Uilde 
was  translated  and  published  in  l.'i84,  and  niany 
othei-  theological  works  from  Danish  and  tlernian. 
In  the  ITthcentuiy  the  interest  in  the  (dd  literature 
was  reawakened,  and  many  parchments  were  tran- 
scribed. At  this  time  al.so  the  cidlecting  of  manu- 
script.- began,  and  they  were  carried  )iartly  to 
Sweden  and  ]iaitly  to  DcniLiark.  To  the  Latter 
countiy  they  were  taken  by  the  indefatigable 
collector  Arni  Magiiii.sson,  who  died  in  17H0,  after 
having  be(|ueathed  his  collectiiuis  to  the  university 
of  Copeidutgen.  There  is  no  doubt  that  this  ex- 
portalnm  of  the  manuscripts  was  very  fortuiuite 
for  their  preservation.  Krom  this  time  the  literary 
Ireasuies  of  Iceland  began  to  be  known  abroad'; 
the  lirst  to  maki'  known  the  historical  value  of  the 
sagas  was  the  Icelander  Torfaus,  who  died  in  1719. 
Since  then  there  has  been  no  want  of  diligent  ami 
careful  stmlenls  of  Icelandic  literature  both  among 
Icelanders,  Scandinavians.  (lermans.  and  lately  also 
amcuig  the  Knglish. 

The  liteiary  activity  of  the  modern  Icelanders 
is  not  conlined  to  the  study  of  the  old  literature 
alone  ;  there  is  also  a  considenible  modern  litera- 
ture, though  it  is  compaiatively  less  interesting, 
Iceland  luus  always  been  and  still  is  rich  in  song- 
writers, especially  of  a  lyrical  and  religious 
t4'ndency.  To  the  natural  history  and  the  history 
of  the  i.sland  itself  there  h.ave  been  valuable  con- 
tributions. Considering  the  pojailaticm  and  other 
circumstances  of  the  island,   it  cannot   he  denied 


64 


ICELAND    MOSS 


ICHNEUMON 


tlial  the  Icelaiulei's  at  the  present  day  compare 
favouralily  in  respect  to  literary  activity  with  any 
other  people  in  similar  circumstances. 

The  bf  st  guide  to  the  old  literatui'e  of  Iceland  is  to  be 
found  iu  the  Vfi>/(';iitmf  lut  to  the  •Sturlunf/a  Sa;fa,  edited 
by  Dr  G.  Vigfi'isson  (Oxford,  liS7S).  See  also  the  Corpus 
Puetictim  Bort'itle :  the  poetry  of  the  Old^Northern  tongue 
to  the  13tli  century  (2  vols.  188.'i),  edited,  translated,  and 
illustrated  by  Vigfusson  and  Powell.  Cleashy  and  Vig- 
fusson's  great  Icelandic-English  dictionary  ( 187^)  is  the 
standard  one.  There  is  a  list  of  liooka priiiteii  tit  Icelatid, 
by  Fiske  ( ISSW ). 

Iceland  Moss  {Crti-arid  Islamlira),  a  lichen 
fonml  in  all  the  nortliern  parts  of  the  world,  and 
valuable  on  account  of  its  nutritions  and  medicinal 
properties.  It  is  collected  as  an  article  of  com- 
merce in  Norway  and  Iceland.  In  very  northern 
regions  it  jjrows  even  near  the  level  of  the  sea  ;  in 
more  southern  countries  it  is  found  on  mountains. 
It  is  not  uncommon  in  the  mountainous  parts  of 
Britain,  althouyii  not  turned  to  any  economic 
account.  In  Carniola  it  is  used  foi-  fattening 
cattle  and  |iij;s.  It  grows  in  extreme  abundance  in 
Iceland  on  tracts  otherwise  desert :  and  numerous 
parties  migrate  from  great  distances  with  horses, 
tents,  and  provisions,  in  the  summer  months, 
for  the  sole  purpose  of  gathering  it  as  an  article 
of  commerce  and  for  food.  In  many  places  this 
lichen  tliickly  covers  the  whole  surface  of  the 
ground,  growing  about  U-4  inches  high,  and 
consists  of  an  almost  erect  Tliallns  (r|.v.).  It 
is  of  a  leathery  and  somewhat  cartilaginous  sub- 
stance. When  Iceland  moss  is  used  as  an  article 
of  food  its  bitterness  is  hrst  partially  remo\ed  by 
steeping  in  water,  after  which,  in  Iceland  and  other 

northern  coun- 
tries, it  is  some- 
times pounded 
and  made  into 
bread  ;  or  it  is 
prepared  by  boil- 

^W^#5l*S-J^L4!4''Vbs%r         ^vater  being  re- 
■twr:.      ^     ^■.\r— «,    T<Tk  jected.       It      is 

often  boiled  with 
nnlk,  making  a 
kind  of  jelly, 
either  with  milk 
or  water.  It  is 
an  agreeable  ar 
tide  of  food,  and 
very  suitable  for  invalids.  It  contains  about  8(i 
per  cent,  of  a  kind  of  starch  called  Livltcii  Stan-li. 
or  J.iflieiiiii,  and  owes  its  bitterness  to  an  acid 
jirinciple,  Cctrariv  Arid.  —An  allied  species,  Cetnt- 
rid  iiifiilis,  growing  in  noithcrn  countries,  pos- 
sesses similar  properties. 

Iceland  Sl»ar,  transparent  calc-spar.  or  cal- 
eite,  CaCOa ;  it  may  he  split  along  its  cleavage- 
planes  into  an  obtuse  rhomuohedron,  and  is  doubl\ 
refracting.     See  CAI.riTK. 

iceni.    Se(^  IJoadicea. 

Ice  I'iant  (illcsctiihri/anf/icmum  KrystaUiiiiiiii), 
an  annual  herbaceous  ])lant,  a  native  of  Africa 
and  of  the  south  of  Europe,  remarkable  for  the 
watery  vesicles  (ptijtiilif)  with  which  its  whole 
surface  is  covered,  and  which  ha\e  the  appearaui'c 
of  grannies  of  ice,  and  sparkle  in  tlu?  same  manner 
in  the  sun.  It  is  comnnm  as  a  tender  annual  in 
our  greeidicmses,  and  grows  in  the  ojieii  garden 
during  si:nimer  ;  the  leaves  ar<^  used  for  garnishing 
dislie.s.  The  e.\|ues.sed  juice  of  the  |)lant  has  been 
greatly  extolleii  as  a  remeily  for  diseases  of  the 
mucous  niendnanc^  of  the  lungs  and  nrijiary  pass- 
ages, and  als()  Un  dropsy.  The  seeds  are  used  for 
food  in  the  Madeira  Islands.  The  ashes  supply 
barilla,  and  the  plant  is  burned  on  this  account 


Vn 


Iceland  Moss  [Celraria  istuiitlira). 


abounds.     The    plant    is 
soila,    pot.ash,    and    other 


in    countries    where    it 

valuable   for  extracting 

alkaline  salts  from   nnprodnctive   soils,  renderin 

them  tit  for  culture.     It  is  so  used  in  the  south  of 

France. 

Icliailg,  a  walled  town  in  the  Chinese  ]n'o\  ince 
of  Hupei,  stands  on  the  Vang-tszekiang,  where  it 
escapes  from  the  limestone  gorges  and  ravines  of 
its  middle  course,  and  1000  miles  from  Shanghai  at 
its  mouth.  In  1877  it  was  declared  open  to  foreign 
trade,  but  in  consc(iuence  of  the  ilitlicnities  con- 
nected with  the  navigatum  of  the  river,  the 
competition  of  the  (^hiiiese,  and  the  jealousy  of 
the  Chinese  officials  it  advanced  but  slowly. 
Xevertiieless,  the  net  value  of  the  trade  notified 
to  the  fcneign  customs-office  increased  from  £21,304 
in  1S7S  to  nearly  £2,300,000.  The  imports  are 
chietly  shirtings,  lastings,  cloth,  and  silvei'  in 
ingots,  anil  the  exports  silk,  white  wax,  drugs, 
musk,  tin,  and  silver  in  ingots.  The  imports 
from  Great  Britain  constitute  about  half  of  the 
total  imports.  Ichang  is  connected  with  Hankow 
by  telegraph,  and  so  with  the  outer  worhl.  Top. 
35,000.  See  Little,  Tliromili  Ihr  I'tiiK/tsc  Gorges 
(1888). 

Icll  Dien  ( '  I  serve  ■ ),  the  motto  of  Edward  the 
Black  I'rince,  whose  badge  was  a  single  ostiudi 
feather,  afterwards  three  ostrich  feathers.  The 
story  that  he  adopted  both  motto  and  badge  from 
John,  the  bliml  king  of  Kohemia,  after  the  battle 
of  Crccy,  is  not  borne  out  by  historical  investiga- 
tion. Since  Edward's  time  the  motto  '  Ich  Dien' 
and  the  badge  of  three  ostrich  feathers  ha\e  been 
employeil  as  the  cognisance  of  the  Princes  of 
Wales.     See  Diet.  Xttt.  Biiii/.,  vol.  xvii.  p.  92. 

IclinenUIOn  (//c/y/cs^'v),  a  genus  of  digiti- 
grade  carnivorous  (iuadru|ieds  of  the  family  Viver- 
rida?,  having  a  much  elongated  body,  small  head, 
sharp  mu/.zle.  rounded  ears,  and  short  legs.  The 
species,  «hicli  are  pretty  nunierous.  are  natives 
of  Africa  and  the  warmer  parts  of  .Asia.  One,  the 
Andalusian  Ichneumon  (II.  ivliiieuitiini,  var.  Wid- 
dringtonii),  occurs  in  the  south  of  Spain.  They 
feed  on  small  (juadrnpeds,  reptiles,  eggs,  and  insects. 


Egyptian  Ichneumon  {fferpestes  ichneumon). 

Some  of  them,  jiarticularly  the  Egyptian  Ichneumon 
(//.  ic/iiicimi<t>i )  iind  the  Mangouste,  Mongoose,  or 
Mnngoose  (II.  gri.siii.i)  of  India,  have  been  greatly 
celebrated  as  ilestroyers  of  serpents  and  other 
noximis  reptiles,  many  Monderfnl  tables  being  su]per- 
aihled  to  the  truth  on  this  subject.  'I'lie  Egyptian 
Ichneumon,  the  ichni'umon  of  the  ancients,  is 
larg(M'  than  a  cat,  gray,  witli  hhudi  paws  .'ind 
muzzle.  It  was  a  sacred  animal  among  the  ancient 
Egyptians.  Tin-  ichneumon  is  ea.sily  ilomesti- 
cateil,  and  is  u.seful  iu  keejiing  lumses  free  of  rats 
and  other  vermin.  It  is  therefore  not  unfrei|Uentl.\ 
domesticated  in  Egv))t,  as  the  inongoo.se  also  is  in 
India.  This  species  is  rather  smaller,  of  a  lighter 
colour,  and  has  a  jiointed  tail.  Introduced  into 
Jamaica,  the  niongoo.se  did  admirable  service  in 
clearing  the  sugar-cane  helds  of  rats ;  but  became 


ICHNEUMON 


ICHTHYOSIS 


65 


a    plague    by   destroying    poultry    and    harmless 

aniiiwils. 

IclllieilUlUII.  a  name  apiilied  to  the  meiiibers 
of  a  verv  lart-e  family  of  insects  ( lclineuinoiii<l;>-). 
included  in  the  order  Hynienoptera,  and  notable 
because  the  larva-  are  para-^itic  in,  or  sometimes  on, 
other  insects.  There  are  several  tliousaiul  species. 
represented  in  all  parts  of  the  worUl,  including 
many  minute  forms  and  also  some  of  the  largest 
insects.  The  long  antenna-  have  many  joints  ;  the 
abdomen  is  usually  joined  to  the  thorax  by  a 
narrow  waist ;  the  females  are  provided  with  ovi- 
posit<ir~,  which  are  in  some  ca-ses  very  piomineut. 
VVith  these  they  lay  their  eggs  in  the  ova,  larva-, 
or  ailulis  of  other  insects,  and  sometimes  .also  of 
spiders.  The  ichneumon  embryos  develop  in  the 
safe  and  comfortable  hiding-place  thus  attbrded, 
and  utilise  their  hosts  as  tood  for  a  while,  but 
sooner  or  later,  before  or  oftener  after  pupation, 
leave  them  dea<I  or  dying.  Sometimes,  curiously 
enough,  the  ichneumons  themselves  fall  victims  to 
a  similar  trick  played  upon  them  by  members  of 
the  same  or  nearly  related  families.  As  adults, 
tliese  insects  feeil  on  the  juices  of  Howers.  The 
panvsitic  habit  of  the  larv;e  is  sometime.s  of  econ- 
omic importance,  since  they  thus  destroy  injurious 
insects.  Thus,  Microgaster  glomemtiis  and  Pimp/a 
instig'dor  are  parasitic  on  the  caterpillars  of  the 
cabbage  butterdy.  and  Aphiduis  upon  aphides. 

Icllliulogy  (Gr..  •  science  of  footprints').  See 
Fossils. 


Ichor,  the  ethereal  fluid  that  supplied  the 
place  of  blood  in  the  veins  of  the  gods  of  Greek 
mythology.  The  name  is  apiilied  in  medicine  to 
the  thin  watery  discharge  from  a  wound. 

Iclltliyodorillite  (Gr.,  'fish-spear-stone'), 
tlie  name  given  to  fossil  fish  spines,  not  uncommon 
in  the  stratified  rocks. 

Iclltbyology  ((Jr.  iilttltys,  -a  tisli,'  logon,  'a 
discourse"),  that  branch  of  natural  history  which 
treats  of  Hslies  I  c|.v. ). 

Ifhtliyoriils.    See  Odontornithes. 

IchthyosaurilS  ( Gr.,  '  tish -reptile  ' ),  a  remark- 
able genus  of  rejitiles  which  inhabited  the  sea 
during  the  deposition  of  the  Mesozoic  strata.  I-ike 
the  modern  Cetacea,  their  structure  was  modified  to 
suit  their  aquatic  life.  The  body  was  shaped  like 
that  of  a  tish,  the  limbs  were  developed  into  paddles, 
and  the  tail,  long  and  lizard-like,  was  furnished,  it 
is  believed,  with  a  fleshy  fin,  as  in  the  dolphin, 
i-xeept  that  its  position  was  vertical.  The  head  was 
large,  and  produced  into  a  long  and  pointed  snout, 
resembling  that  of  the  crocodile,  except  that  the 
orbit  was  much  larger,  and  had  the  nostril  placed 
close  to  it,  as  in  the  whale,  and  not  near  the  end  of 
the  snout.  The  jaws  were  furnished  with  a  large 
series  of  powerful  conical  teeth,  lodged  close  together 
in  a  continuous  groove,  in  which  the  divisions  for 
sockets,  which  exist  in  the  crocodile,  were  indi- 
cated by  the  vertical  ridges  on  the  maxillarj-  bone. 
The  teeth  were  hollow  at  the  root,  sheathing  the 


Ichthyosaurus. 


young  teeth,  which  gradually  absorbed  the  base  of 
the  older  ones,  and,  as  they  giew,  pressed  them 
forward,  until  they  finally  displaced  them.  The 
long  anil  slender  jaws  were  strengthened  to  resist 
any  sudden  shock  by  being  formed  of  many  thin 
bony  plates,  which  produced  light  and  elastic  as 
well  as  strong  jaws.  The  most  remarkable  feature 
in  the  head  Avas  the  eye,  which  was  not  only  very 
large — in  some  specimens  measuring  I'A  inches  in 
diameter — but  was  siiecially  fitted  to  accommodate 
itself  for  vision  in  air  or  water,  as  well  as  for 
speedily  altering  the  focal  distance  while  pursuing 
its  prey.  The  structure,  which  thus  fitted  the  eye 
so  remarkably  to  the  wants  of  the  animal,  consists 
of  a  circle  of  thirteen  or  more  overlapping  sclerotic 
bony  plates  surrounding  the  pupil,  as  in  birds.  This 
circle  acted  as  a  sort  of  self-adjusting  telescope, 
and,  a.ssisted  by  the  extraordinary  amount  of 
light  admitted  by  the  large  pnpil,  enabled  the 
icnthyosaunis  to  discover  its  prey  at  great  or  little 
distances  in  the  obscurity  of  the  night,  and  in  the 
dei)tlis  of  the  sea.  The  neck  wius  so  short  that  the 
bo«ly  was  probably  not  in  the  least  constricted 
behind  the  head.  The  backbone  was  fish-like ; 
each  joint  had  both  its  surfaces  hollow,  making  the 
whole  column  very  flexible.  The  small  size  of  the 
p.idilles  compared  with  the  body,  and  the  stillness 
of  the  short  neck,  seem  to  suggest  that  the  tail 
must  have  been  an  important  organ  of  motion. 
Professor  Owen  is  satisfied  that  it  was  furnished 
with  a  vertical  tail,  becau.se  the  vertebra'  are 
coinpresseil  vertically,  and  al.so  liecause  the  tail  is 
frequently  found  disarticulated  a  short  distance  from 
it.s  extremity,  as  if  the  weight  of  the  upright  tail 
2«j 


had  caused  it  to  fall  when  the  animal  had  begun  to 
decompose.  The  fish-like  body,  the  four  paddles, 
anil  especially  the  powerful  tail  would  make  the 
ichthyosauri  active  in  their  movements,  and  conse- 
quently, with  their  predaceous  habits,  very  danger- 
ous enemies  to  the  other  animals  that  inhabited 
with  them  the  Mesozoic  seas.  That  their  principal 
food  consisted  of  fishes  is  evident  from  the  masses 
of  broken  bones  an<l  scales  of  contemporary  fishes 
that  have  been  found  under  their  ribs  in  the  place 
where  the  stomach  of  the  animal  was  situated. 
Not  infrequently  entire  skeletons  of  small  indi- 
viduals have  been  found  within  the  thoracic  and 
abdominal  cavity  of  larger  ones.  As  these  small 
skeletons  are  complete  and  uninjured  and  of  the 
.same  species  as  that  in  which  they  occur.  Professor 
Seeley  thinks  that  some  of  the  ichthyosauri  were 
viviparous. 

The  remains  of  ichthyosauri  are  peculiar  to  the 
Mesozoic  strata,  occurring  in  the  various  members 
of  the  series  fiom  the  Lower  Lias  to  the  Chalk,  but 
having  their  greatest  develoimient  in  the  Lias  and 
Oolite.  More  than  thirty  species  have  been  dis- 
covered :  they  difl'er  from  each  other  chiefly  in  the 
form  of  the  head,  .some  having  a  long  and  slender 
snout,  like  the  gavial  of  the  Ganges,  while  others 
had  short  and  broad  heads,  more  like  the  common 
crocodile.  The  great  repository  ii'r  ichthyosaiirian 
remains  hitherto  lias  been  the  Lias  at  Lyme  Kegis. 

Ifhtliyosis.  or  FisHSKlx  Diskask,  is  char- 
acterised by  a  hardened,  thickened,  rough,  and 
almost  horny  state  of  the  cuticle  in  severe  ca.se.s. 
Instead  of  exfoliating  in  line,  almost  invisible 
flakes,  it  accumulates  in  irregular  scale-like  pieces. 


66 


ICKNIELD    STREET 


IDAHO 


wliich  may  be  removeil,  but  are  speedily  repro- 
fluced.  Perspiration  is  always  absent  or  very 
deticient  in  tlic  atlected  areas.  The  disease  niay 
affect  almost  the  wb.de  surface,  or  may  be  contincd 
to  a  sin-le  Jiarl  ;  and  is  most  fre.iuenlly,  but  not 
always,  congenital.  It  is  attended  by  no  constitu- 
tional disturbance,  and  the  general  health  is  otten 
very-  <'ood.  Tlie  disease  is,  however,  extremely 
obstinate,  and  when  congenital  may  be  considered 
as  incurable.  Treatment  consists  m  the  frequent 
use  of  warm  or  vapour  or  alkali.ie  baths,  so  as  to 
soften  the  tbickene.l  epidermis  and  to  tacihtate  its 
removal,  and  friction  by  meaus  of  a  piece  of  flannel 
or  i.umice-stone  may  be  conjoined  with  the  bath. 


The  apidication  of  sulidiur  or  resorcin   to  the  skin 
has   Jso   the  effect  of  promotiii-    .i".=""<.n.=.tmn_ 


desquamation. 
The  'eniidoviiie~n't"  of  sulphureous'  baths,  such  as 
those  at  Harrogate,  has  occasionally -been  fouml  ol 
temporary  use  -,  and  tlie  internal  administration  ot 
tar,  cod  I'iver  oil,  &c.  sometimes  gives  relief. 

Icknield  Street  (Lat.  Via  Iceniana)  an 
ancient  Roman  road  of  Britain,  which  ran  from 
Norfolk  soutli-westwards  to  the  vicinity  ot  Land  s 
End. 

Icollllkill.     See  loNA. 

Icon  Basilike.    See  Eikdm. 

leonilllll.    an    ancient    town    of    -^f  ,^,^"l°'t 
situated  on  the  western  edge  of  the  plateau  that 
skirts  the  northern  slopes  of  the  Taurus  Mountains, 
310   miles  E.  of  Smvrna.     The  capital  under  the 
Romans  of  Lvcaonia,  it  was  three  times  visited  by 
St   Paul    who  foiinde.1   there  a  Cliristian   church. 
In  70S  it  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Arab  comiuerors. 
Its  prosperity  culminated  in  the  end  of  the  llth 
century,  whe'n  it  was  made  the  capital  of  the  Seljuk 
empire       In   1190   Frederick   Barbarossa   defeatei 
the    Turks   in    the   neighbourliood,    and    captured 
Iconium.     Some  fifty  years  later  its  sultans  were 
made  the  political  playthings  of  the  Mongols  -and 
in   1392  they  submitted    to  the  suzerainty  of  the 
Ottoman  Turks,  though  the  state  was Jiot  incor- 
porated in  the  Ottoman  empire  until   148b.      ISeiiig 
the  meeting-point  of  some  of  the  principal   high- 
ways of  Asia  Minor,  and  a  place  of  considerable 
trade,  it  failed   not  to   figure  i.romiiicntly  in  t he 
wars  of  the  Turks.      In   1832    Ibrahim    Pasha  de- 
feated  the  Turks  there. -The  modern  towir,  called 
KoNiFH  or   KiiNiy.y,    the  capital   ot    the    lurkish 
Wiavet  of   Konieh,   i's  a  placi  of  20,000  or  30,000 
inhabitants,    who  live   by   commerce,    by  making 
stockings  and  gloves,  and  on  the  contributions  of 
the  numerous  pilgrims  who  visit  the  sacred  tombs 
and  other  holy  places  of   the  town.     Here  is   the 
principal    monastery   of  the  Mevlevi  or  '.lancing 
dervislies  in  the  Ottoman  empire.     Numerous  ruins 
of   mosques,   ma.lrasas   (colleges),    ^-c.    attest    the 
decayed  splend.iur  of  the  place. 

Iconoclasts  (Or.  dkon,  '  an  image, 'and  kktzo, 
'  I  break  ' ),  the  name  use.l  to  designate  those  in  the 
church,  from  the  8tb  century  downwards,  who  have 
been  .)i.posed  to  the  use  of  sacre.l  images  (i.e. 
of  statues,  pictures,  and  other  sensible  representa- 
tions of  sacred  objects),  or  at  least  t.)  the  paying 
of  religious  honour  or  rever.-nce  to  such  representa- 
tions. The  icon.iclast  movement  ha.l  its  commence^ 
ment  in  the  Eastern  t'hurch.  Opinion  is  .liyide. 
as  to  the  .)rigin  .and  antiquity  of  the  practice  ot 
Ima.'ewoiship  (q.v.)  in  the  church;  but  it  is 
certain  that  in  the  titli  m  Ttli  century  it  pievaile. 
extensively,  especially  in  the  eastern  empire,  an. I 
tiiat  practices  existe.l  in  s.mie  churches  which  wer.' 
a  source  of  mu.di  suspicion,  an.l  even  of  positive 
offence.  Manv  bish.ips  interposed  to  correct  these 
abuses :  but  the  ic.in.iclast  niovement,  sfict',y__so 
called,  began  with  the  imperial  e.lict  issued  in  ,'-b 
by  the  Emperm-  Leo  III.,  surnanie.l  th.-  jsaurian 
forbidding  the  honoui-s  paid  to  sacied  images,  an.l 


even  ommanding  the  remoxal  from  the  churches 
of  all  images,   that  of  our   L.)rd   alone  excepted. 
This  was  followed  by  an..tber  decree  in  730.  which 
prohibite.1,     un.ler    pain    of   death,    as   sinful    an.l 
idolatrous,  all  acts  of  reverence,  public  or  innate, 
to  images,  an.l  directed  that  wber('\er  siich  image-s 
should  be  found  they  shoul.l   lorthwith  be  removed 
or  destroyed.     The  attempt  t.i  ciif.ircc  this  .lecree 
aroused  great  opposition,  especially  in  the  I'.reek 
islan.ls  and  in  Italy.     The  popes  Oregory  II.   nn.l 
Gregory    UI.     protested    vehemently    against    it 
repuiliated  the  imputation  of  i.lolatry,  and  explained 
the  nature  of  the  honours  to  images  for  which  they 
c.mtended.      Leo   peisevercd.    nevertheless,    m  his 
.ipposition,  which  was  ontinued  by  his  successor, 
< 'onstantine,   surnamed  Cipionymiis.      I  n.ler  this 
emper.u-  a  council   was  b.-l.l  in   Constantinople  in 
7,-)4  in  which  the  icon.)clast  decrees  were  affirmed 
in   their  fullest    extent:    and   Constantine_s    son, 
Leo  IV  ,  renewed,   on   his   accession   in   7/5,   the 
enactments  .>f  his  predecessors.      I'n.ler  the  widow 
of  Le.)   the  Empress  Iiene,  a  oiincil  was  liel.l  at 
Niea'a' (787),    in    which    these    proceedings    were 
condemned    and    rev.)ke.l  ;    l)ut    other    succeeding 
I  emper.u-s,     Nicepbonis     (802-811),     Leo     \.,     the 
Armenian  (813-820),   Michael   II.,  tlie  Stammerer 
I  ( 820-829 ),  and  Theophilus  ( 829-842 ),  retiirne.l.  with 
.n-eater    or    less    severity,    to    the    p.ilicv    of    the 
fconoclast  emperors.     As  regards  the  l.rcek  <  buivh 
the  controversy  may  be  said  to  have  been   hnally 
settled   under  the  Empress  Tbe...lora  in  a  council 
lield    at   Constantin.iple   in   840,   or   at   least  by   a 
subsequent  one  of  870.     The  modern  usage  of  the 
Greek  Church  permits  pictures,  but  rejects  g'raven 
or    sculirtured    representations   .>f    sacred    objects. 
Except  in  Italy,  the  iconoclast  c.mtroversy  create. 
1  hut   little  sensation  in  the  Western   (  huicb  until 
j  the  niovement  in  the  time  of  fharlcmagm>  and  his 
successors,   to  be  noticed  under   the    hea.l    iM.v.ih- 
WOKSHIP. 

IctiUUS.  Of  Ictinus,  who  shares  with  ( 'allicrates 
the  glory  ..f  ha\iiig  designed  the  one  perfect  build- 
in"  which  the  w.irld  has  ever  seen,  very  little  can 
be"  stated  with  certainty.  In  addition  to  bis 
masterpiece,  the  Parthenon,  the  temple  of  Apollo 
Eidcurins  at  Bassa-,  near  Phigalia,  the  sculptured 
relii-fs  fnuu  which  are  now  in  th.'  Bnhsh  Museum, 
may  be  ascribed  to  him.  He  is  alsi)  kn.iwn  t.. 
have  been  the  architect  of  a  temide  atKleusis,  an.l 
to  have  written  an  exhaustive  treatise  upon  the 
Parthenon,  with  which  his  name  is  in.liss.dubly 
connected.     See  Athkxs. 

Ida,  a  mountain  range  in  Asia  Minor,  exten.ling 
fr.iiu  Phrygia  through  Mysia  into  the  Tr.iad.  The 
.-itv  of  Troy  was  situated  at  its  base.  1 1  is  tlie  scene 
of  many  ancient  Greek  legends.  The  sijiithern 
part  of  the  range  was  calle.l  (iargarus,  the  higdiest 
peak  of  ^^•hicb  is  r,74!>  f.'et  aboN  .^  the  sea.  Here 
there  was  a  temple  of  fvbele,  xnIio  therefore  was 
called  the  Itla-an  Mother.  From  I.la  flow  severa 
famous  streams,  as  the  '''a"";"*-  ^L'!'""-,  fj' 
S<'ainander. -There  is  an.Uber  Ida  {80oo  feel  ii 
Crete,  extending  from  west  to  east,  u.nv  calle.l 
Psiloriti.  Here  Zeus  was  s.iid  to  luue  been 
educated. 

I'dallO.  since  1890  on.'  .if  the  l-nited  States,  is 
situ"  "l  I  between  the  42d  and  49th  parallels  ..f 
l-uitu.le  and  mainly  between  the  f„pj riBi.t  i8!io  m  u.s. 
I'llth  and  114th  'meii.lians  of  by  j.  b.  uppmcou 
.;,  gitiute.  1.1  shape  it  Ls  an  co„.p.„v- 
irregular  trapezoid.  Its  maxiniu.u  length  is  a  out 
490 Statute  miles  ;  its  breu.lth  varies  tr.mi  ab.,ut  42 
nd"es  at  tl'c  '  pan-han.Ue  '  which  forms  the  northern 
,ait,  to  :«'0  miles  along  the  southern  boundary. 
Its  area  is  about  84,8011  s.|.  111.  ,      ,, 

One  ..f  tl,.>  main  ranges  ..f  I  he  Bocky  M.mntams, 
in  various  parts  called  the  Cabinet,  Cunir  d  Alcne, 


IDAHO 


IDDESLEIGH 


ami  Bitter  Root  iiiomitaius,  forms  the  iiortli- 
easteni  liouiularv,  separatinj;  Idnlio  fniiii  Monlaiia. 
In  the  jiiuitherii  part  this  rauye  is  a  purtiDii  ol  tlic 
coiitiiioiital  ilividi'  lietweeii  the  Atlantic  ami  Parilic 
oceans.  Ahout  Ttl.tHJU  »ij.  la.  of  the  territory  i> 
situated  in  the  draiiiajje  basin  of  the  Coluuiliia 
Kiver:  the  remaining  part  lies  in  tlie  Great  Ba^in, 
its  surface  watei-s  llowing  into  ( ireat  Salt  Lake. 

A  comparatively  small  area  in  the  south  e.vcepteil, 
the  entire  surface  is  rugged  ami  mountainous. 
In  aililition  to  the  high  range  on  the  north  e;vst<Mn 
l«)r(ler  spurs  of  this  range  traverse  the  territory  in 
a  ilirection  generally  ea-st  an<'.  west.  Of  the.se 
Salmon  Kiver  Mountains  are  perhaps  the  most 
noteworthy,  ;us  they  separate  what  is  popularly 
known  as  Northern  Idaho  from  the  phitcau- region 
in  the  central  an<l  southern  part.  All  these  ranges 
are  high,  their  summits  reaching  elevations  of 
10,000  feet  and  niiwards.  The  average  altitude  of 
the  territory  is  about  5000  feet.  The  lowest  level 
is  the  valley  of  Snake  Uiver,  which  at  Hoise  City 
is  2000  feet  al>ove  the  sea-level.  In  the  south  are 
a  number  of  irregular  ridges  largely  shaped  by 
erosion,  locally  known  as  the  Bear  Kiver  Mountains. 
Goose  Creek  Mimntains,  South  Mountains,  ISlack- 
foot  Kange,  v<:c.  A  part  of  the  plateau-region  is 
included  in  the  great  lava  flood  which  occurred  in 
comparatively  recent  geological  times,  and  which 
is  still  noticeable  in  the  cliH's  and  mesas  that 
divereify  the  surface. 

Snake  River — also  known  as  Shoshone,  ami  a.s 
Lewis  Kiver — drains  by  far  the  largest  part  of  the 
territory.  Its  coui-se  (about  8.50  miles  in  length) 
lies  in  a  valley  remarkalile  for  scenic  beauty.  In 
various  places  the  valley  widens  ovit  into  broad 
savannahs  .su.sceptible  of  a  high  degree  of  cultiva 
tion.  The  open  valleys  alternate  with  narrow 
canons  through  which  the  ri\er  flows  in  dalles  and 
cataracts.  This  river  is  navigable  from  the  mouth 
of  Powder  Kiver  to  Salmon  Falls,  a  distance  of 
200  miles.  Salmon  Kiver,  one  of  the  largest 
tributaries  of  Snake  Kiver,  drains  the  central 
part.  The  char;icter  of  its  valley  is  much  like  that 
of  the  latter.  Clearwater,  Payette,  Boise,  Weiser, 
Bruneau,  Malade,  and  Goose  rivers  are  tributaries, 
important  mainly  for  the  fertile  lands  which  flank 
their  courses.  I'end  d'Oreille,  or  Clarke's  Fork, 
drains  Northern  Iilaho.  Its  main  tributaries  are 
CtEur  d'Alene  and  St  .Joseiih  rivers.  Dalles, 
cascades,  and  cataracts  characterise  all  the  rivers 
of  the  territory.  Shoshone  Falls  almo.st  rival 
those  of  Niagara  in  grandeur. 

There  are  two  lake-regions :  one  in  the  pan- 
handle, the  other  in  the  south-east.  The  former 
includes  Pend  d'Oreille,  CV'ur  d'Alene  and  Kaniksu 
laki;s  ;  the  latter.  .John  Day  and  Bear  lakes.  The 
surplus  watei-s  of  Hear  Lake  flow  through  Bear 
Kiver  into  Great  Salt  Lake.  These  lake-regions 
abound  in  game,  and  are  perhaps  the  flnest  liunt- 
ing-grounils  in  the  rnited  States. 

-Vmon^'  the  wild  animals  are  the  grizzly  bear, 
two  species  of  brown  bear,  the  lilack  liear,  raccoon, 
panther,  batlger,  wolf,  fo.v,  and  co.Mite.  Fur- 
liearing  animals  are  represented  by  the  lyn.\',  mink, 
anil  twaver.  The  l)ison,  once  common,  is  now 
rarely  if  ever  seen.  The  moose  and  elk  are 
occasionally  met  with.  Deer  of  two  species  and 
antelope  are  numerous.  The  Rocky  .Mountain 
shee|>  IS  fouml  in  the  Co;ur  d'.Mene  .Mountains. 

V'egetati(m  is  abumlant  in  the  northern  and 
central  parts,  but  somewhat  delicient  in  the  arid 
lands  of  the  south.  Forests  of  conifers,  including 
white,  yellow,  bhick  or  loilge-pole,  and  sugar  pine, 
as  well  a-s  several  species  of  cedar  ami  spruce,  cover 
the  western  slopes  of  the  Bitter  Koot  and  (Veur 
d'.-Vlene  mountains.  These  forests  embrace  a 
wealth  of  tindier  not  surpassed  by  any  other  eipial 
area  on  the  continent.     Fir,  taniaiack,  and  larch 


are  also  abundant.  In  the  central  and  southern 
part  the  forests  give  place  to  e.xtensive  mesas  over- 
grown with  sage  brush,  and  rolling  lands  covered 
with  bunch  grass.  The  river-\alleys  are  dotted 
with  occasional  groves  of  cottimwood  ami  thickets 
of  wild  fruits,  such  as  the  blackberry,  wild  currant, 
salal,  aiul  fo-v  grape. 

The  mineral  wealth  of  the  state  consists  chiefly 
in  its  mines  of  silver,  lead,  gold,  and  copper,  pro- 
ductive in  the  order  named.  The  output  of  these 
metals  has  .sometimes  reached  nearly  !520,000,0O0 
in  .-i  year.  Coal  of  good  iiuality  lias  been  ilis- 
covereil  in  seven  of  the  eighteen  counties.  In  the 
basin-region  of  the  south-east  soda,  gypsum,  sul- 
phur, and  minerals  common  to  lacustrine  deposits 
abouml.     Mineral  springs  are  numerous. 

The  climate  is  e.\ceedingly  healthy.  The  ex- 
tremes of  temjierature  rarely  range  beyond  0°  and 
90'  F.,  except  in  regions  of  great  altitude.  The 
rainfall,  abundant  in  the  north,  is  dehcient  in  the 
south,  so  that  irrigation  is  necessary  to  ensure  full 
crops.  The  agricultural  proilucts,  stock  and  farm, 
aggregate  well  over  810,000,000.  (Jrain  farming  is 
of  necessity  confined  to  the  narrow  river-valleys, 
and.  ;us  a  whole,  the  territory  is  better  adapted  to 
stock-raising  than  to  cultivation.  The  crops  are 
largely  moved  by  wagon-trains  and  river-ooats, 
but  tliere  were  in  1890  about  1000  miles  of  railway. 

Idaho,  constituted  a  territory  in  18G3,  received 
its  present  limits  in  186S,  and  in  1890  «iis  raiseil  to 
the  rank  of  state.  Gold  was  first  found  in  is.3'2, 
and  raised  in  paying  cjuantities  in  1S60.  The 
jiopulation,  distributed  mainly  along  the  river- 
\alli'vs  of  the  south  and  west,  was  returned  at  14,999 
ill  1870,  and  32,010  in  1880  ;  in  1890  it  was  84,38.>, 
aliout  one-fifth  consisting  of  people  of  the  Mormon 
t'aitli.  There  are  also  upwards  of  10,000  Indians 
not  included  in  the  foregoing  numbers.  The  pulilic 
schools  and  religious  and  charitable  institutions  are 
well  supported. 

Boise  City,  the  capital  and  largest  city,  had  in 
1890  a  population  of  2'A\1.  Montpelier  and  Weiser 
came  ne.\t  in  size. 

Iddesleigb,  Earl  of.  Conservative  statesman, 
better  known  as  Sir  Stattord  Northcote.  was  liorn 
of  a  very  old  Devonshire  family,  on  27th  October 
1818,  and  was  educated  at  Eton  and  Balliol 
College,  Oxford,  gaining  a  tiist-class  in  chussics. 
He  began  public  life  in  18-12  as  private  secretary 
to  Mr  Gladstone,  who  was  then  President  of  the 
Board  of  Trade.  In  1847  he  was  called  to  the  biir, 
and  four  years  later  succeeded  his  grandfather  iis 
eighth  baronet.  He  was  secretary  to  the  com- 
missioners of  the  Great  Exhibition,  and  for  his 
services  was  created  a  C.B.  In  185.5  he  enteied 
parliament  as  Conservative  memlier  for  Dudley, 
and  in  1858  was  elected  for  Stamford,  in  1866  for 
North  Devon.  He  sat  for  the  latter  constituency 
until  18S5.  He  was  Financial  Secretary  to  the 
Treasury  in  Lord  Derby's  ministry  of  1859,  and  in 
1860  he  was  appointed  by  the  same  prime-minister 
President  of  the  Board  of  Trade.  He  hail  already 
demonstiated  his  knowledge  of  finance  by  his 
treatise  entitled  Tiirnti/  Yeoris  of  Finoncin/  I'lilin/, 
published  in  1862.  While  at  the  India  Ottice  m 
1868  Sir  Statl'ord  Northcote  was  charged  with  tlie 
responsibility  of  the  .Abyssinian  Exjiedition.  which 
under  his  auspices  was  carried  to  a  successful  issue. 
In  1871  his  old  ally  Mr  Gladstone  appointed  him 
British  Commissioner  to  the  T'niteil  States  lor  the 
adjustment  of  the  .Alabama  difliculty.  Sii  Staflord 
Northcote  was  Chancellor  of  the  Excheipier  in  Mr 
Disraeli's  ministry  of  1874,  and  among  other  usclul 
measures  which  he  intiodnccd.  in  addition  to  his 
budgets,  was  the  Friendly  Societies  Bill  of  1875.  In 
the  debates  on  ea-stern  allairs  and  the  Suez  Canal  be 
rendered  signal  service  to  the  governmenl.  When 
Mr  Disraeli  went  to  the  L'pper  House  Sir  Staflord 


68 


IDEA 


IDIOCY 


succeeded  to  the  leadereliip  in  the  Commons,  and  1 
his  task  was  very  arduous  in  eoiinection  with  the 
Irish  debates.  Upon  the  death  of  l^ord  Beacons 
field  he  heoame  loint  leader  of  the  Conservative 
party  with  the  .Man|iiis  of  Salislmry.  His  inanat;e 
ment  of  the  Tories  in  the  Lower  House  during; 
several  years  of  ojinosition  elicited  warm  eidogiunis. 
When  Lord  Salishury  came  into  power  in  ISS.'i 
Sir  Statt'ord  Northcote  was  raised  to  the  jieer- 
ajje,  under  the  title  of  Earl  of  Iddesleigh  and 
Viscount  St  Cyres.  and  was  appointed  First  Lord 
of  the  Treasury.  He  sat  as  chairman  of  the  com- 
mittee ajipointed  to  imiuire  into  the  depression 
of  trade.  In  1S86  he  was  the  recipient  of  a  hand- 
some testimonial,  suljscribed  hy  members  of  hotli 
l)olitical  partie--.  In  Lord  Salisbury's  second 
ministry  Lord  Iddesleigh  was  Foreign  Secretary  : 
but  he  resijjned  this  post  early  in  January  1887. 
On  tlie  l'2th  of  the  same  montli  he  died  very 
suddenly  at  the  premier's  olticial  residence  in 
Downing  Street.  Lor<l  Iddesleij^h  was  elected 
Lord  Rector  of  Edinburgh  Uni^■el•sity  in  1883,  and 
during  his  tenure  of  office  delivered  an  excellent 
address  to  the  students  on  'Desultory  Reading.' 
See  his  c(dlected  Lectures  and  A's-vfo/.f  ( 1S87),  and 
tlie  Life  by  Andrew  Lang  (1890). 

Idea.  This  word  has  bcnne  very  distinct  mean- 
in.g^  in  the  history  of  philosophy.  Down  to  the 
17tb  century  it  had  the  si<milicati(m  given  to  it  by 
Plato,  and"  referred  to  t-lie  Platonic  doctrine  of 
eternal  forms  existing  in  the  Divine  mind,  accord- 
ing to  which  the  world  and  all  sensible  things  were 
framed.  The  word  was  used  in  this  sense  in  litera- 
ture as  well  as  in  philosophy  down  to  the  17th 
century,  as  in  Spenser,  Shakespeare,  Hooker,  and 
Milton. 

In  speaking  of  the  mental  representation  of 
external  tilings,  Descartes,  instead  of  employing 
the  various  teiiiis  iiiuiffe,  s/iceies,  phantnsni.  \'c. , 
■which  bad  been  the  words  formerly  in  use  for  that 
particular  signilication,  used  the  word  idea.  In 
this  he  was  ifollowed  by  other  philosophers,  as,  for 
example,  Locke,  who  states  that  he  has  adopted 
the  word  to  stainl  for  '  whatever  is  the  object  of  the 
understanding,  when  a  man  thinks.'  Thus,  the 
mental  im])ression  th.at  we  are  supposed  to  have 
when  thinking  of  the  sun  without  seeing  the  actual 
object  is  called  our  idea  of  the  sun.  The  idea  is 
thus  in  contrast  with  the  sensation,  or  the  feeling 
that  we  h.ive  when  the  senses  are  engaged  directly 
or  immediately  uj^n  the  thing  itself.  Hut  the 
word  has  l>een  very  variously  used,  as  bv  Berkeley, 
Ilume.  Kant,  Ilegel  (see  these  articles).  For 
innate  ideas,  see  Common  Sense,  Locke. — 
hlealism  is  a  term  used  almost  as  variously  !vs 
Idetr.  Idealism  may  be  a  theory  concerning  our 
knowledge  of  external  existence,  restricting  mind 
directly  to  knowledge  of  its  own  state,  whereas  the 
opposed  renlhm  imi>lies  a  direct  knowledge  of  the 
external.  Idealism  may  be  also  a  theory  as  to  the 
nature  of  the  universe,  and  be  spoken  of  (rightly 
or  wrongly)  as  snOjertire  idealism,  as  in  Fichte 
(q.v.),  rri'timl  as  in  Kant  (i].v.),  or  absolute  as 
in  Ilegel  (q.v.).  See  also  Berkeley.  In  the 
medieval  controversies  between  nominalism  and 
realign,  realism  was  a  kind  of  idealism  (see 
Nii.\liN.\MSM).  Iilealism  is  also  used  for  ethical 
and  resthetic  systems  which  ado]it  an  ideal  standard 
of  estimating  character,  human  possibilities,  or 
subjects  in  art  (see  Reali.sm  ).  The  wonl  realism 
has  a  further  \)eculiar  .sense  in  Herbart  (q.v.). 

Illelcr.  Chhisti.vn   Lrnwir.,  astron er  and 

chronologist,  was  born  2Ist  September  176(i,  near 
Perleberg,  in  Prussia,  an.l,  after  hohling  vari<ms 
oflices,  received  a  profe.ssoi-ship  at  the  uiiivei-sily 
of  Berlin  in  IS'21.  He  wrote  several  valuable 
works  on  chron<ilogv,  and  died  August  10,  1841). 


Ides.    See  Calends. 

Idiocy  is  delined  by  Ireland  a>  -mental  de- 
liiiency  or  extreme  stupidity  deiiending  upon  mal- 
nutrition or  ilisea^e  of  the  brain  occurring  either 
before  birth  or  liet'ore  the  evolution  of  the  mental 
faculties  in  childhood  ;  while  Indiecility  is  gener- 
ally vised  to  denote  a  less  decided  degree  of  such 
mental  incapacitv.'  The  difference  between  both 
conditions  and  JciiiciitUi  (see  Insanity)  is  that 
the  ilement  w,as  once  sane  and  respon.sible,  the  idiot 
and  the  imiiecile  never  develojied  mental  capacity 
at  all  ;  tbev  remained  arrested  children.  The 
name  iininiliii  has  been  given  to  idiocy.  The 
mental  faculties  never  showed  themselves  in  an.v 
high  degree,  because  the  organ  of  mind  in  the  brain 
never  developed.  There  are  great  varieties  of 
idiocy  and  imbecility.  Some  of  tlie  lowest  have  no 
speech,  no  power  of  distinguishing  between  one 
per.son  and  another,  no  all'ection  or  hatred,  no  feel 
ings  of  pleasure  or  ])ain,  no  jiowcr  to  take  care  ol 
themselves,  and  can  never  be  taught  any  of  these 
tilings.  In  body  such  idiots  are  dwarfish,  mis 
shapen,  uglv,  with  the  features  and  expre.ssicm  of 
face  often  of  the  lowest  of  the  lower  animals,  with 
no  power  of  walking.  This  lieing  the  conditicm  of 
the  lowest  varieties,  they  rise  gradually  in  the  scale 
till  many  imbeciles  are' Ijeautifiil  in  features,  and 
reach  normal  bodily  development,  but  are  slightly 
wanting  in  some  e.s.sential  mental  facultv,  in  intel- 
ligence, or  in  atl'ection,  or  control,  or  self-guidance. 
The  mental  doliciency  is  in  by  far  the  majmity  of 
idiots  and  iiiibecih's  accompanieil  by  correspond- 
ing bodily  weaknesses  of  some  sort. 

Idiots  iind  imbeciles  diU'er  much  in  their  capacity 
for  further  development  under  even  favourable  cir- 
cumstances. Some  can  l>e  greatly  elevated  towards 
the  standard  of  average  humanity,  and  can  even  be 
renilered  lit  to  earn  their  own  livelihood  in  simple 
trades  or  manual  labtmr,  while  oilier^  cannot  be  in 
any  way  imi)roved.  They  are  es|iecially  subject 
to  certain  bodily  diseases  of  degeneration,  such  iis 
scrofula.  consum[iti(m,  rickets,  an<l  diseases  of  dell- 
cient  nutrition  generally.  Two-thinls  of  idiots  die 
of  ccmsumptiim.  The  great  aims  in  treatment  are 
to  improve  the  bodily  nutriti(m,  the  nervinis  and 
muscular  action,  and  "the  habits,  to  teach  co-ordin 
ated  movements  and  sini]de  emiiloyments,  such  a.-, 
gardening,  mat  making,  carpentering,  ^c,  and  to 
evolve  the  jiossible  intelligence  bv  an  eilucation 
through  the  senses.  Some  of  them  have  one  faculty 
or  cajiacity  fairly  or  even  extra<U(linarily  develoi)eil, 
while  the  general  mental  power  is  weak.  Some  are 
good  musicians.  Some  can  calculate  well,  while 
others  are  ingenious  in  construi  tiveness.  Such 
faculties  have  in  those  cases  to  be  especially  culti- 
vateil.  For  this  purpose  good  food,  exercise,  drill, 
warmth,  fresh  air,  and  music  are  necessary,  and  a 
careful  study  and  testing  of  each  case  to  find  out 
its  strong  and  weak  points ;  and  teachers  who 
devote  themselves  to  this  iiarticular  kind  of  educa- 
tive process  are  required.  For  most  of  them  thi> 
can  imlv  be  done  in  I" raining  Schools  for  Idiot>  and 
Inibeciles,  of  which  there  are  about  twelve  fiill\ 
eipiipped  in  the  Cnited  Kingdom.  It  is  felt  by 
manv  persons  that  in  a<ldition  to  these  a  kinrl  of 
school  is  needed  between  them  and  the  ordinary 
school,  for  the  purpose  of  develoiung  '  backward 
children,'  of  wlumi  there  are  a  c(msiileiable  proixu- 
tion  in  our  .schocds  -a  ilcadweigbt  <m  our  teachers 
and  (Ui  the  progress  of  the  ordinary  scholai>. 
Eilucation  should  be  suited  to  the  educability  and 
the  inherent  brain-caoacity  of  the  scholar.  Ciui- 
"enital  idiots  and  imbeciles  may  have  iitliuks  uf 
Ill-lite  insiiiiitji,  for  which  they  may  need  to  be  sent 
to  asylums  for  the  insane  :  but  as  a  general  inlc 
such  institutions  are  not  suitable  for  tlieni.  Few 
betiefactoi-s  of  their  kiml  deserve  more  honour  than 
the  pioneers  in  the  right  treatment  and  education 


IDIOSYNCRASY 


IDOLATRY 


69 


oi  itiiois  and  ci-etius,  such  as  lleatl,  Howe,  Seguiu, 
and  (Ju^'geulii'ilil.  Few  tilings  must  have  lookeil 
so  ilisheaiteninv;,  unatinu'tive,  and  uuproniisiMg  of 
goiid  results.  But  tioni  a  scientilic  point  of  view, 
both  [)s\chologically  ami  iihysiologiially,  the  unde- 
veloped minds  and  bodies  of  this  class  have  great 
interest  and  high  imijortance. 

Ireland  chussilies  idiocy  into  ten  divisions  :  ( 1 ) 
Genetons,  ('i)  .Microce|phaIic,  (3)  Eclam)isic,  (4) 
Epileptic,  (5)  Hydioceiihalic,  (6)  I'aialytic,  (7) 
t-'ietinic,  (S)  Traumatic,  (9)  Intlamiiiatory,  and 
( 10 )  by  deprivation  of  the  senses.  Eroiii  this  it  is 
seen  that  there  are  many  pathological  ciiuses  of  the 
disease.  It  is  a  popular  error  to  suppose  that  all 
idiots  have  small  heads.  Tliiee-lifths  of  them  have 
larger  heads  than  average  men,  and  only  a  few  (the 
microcephalic)  are  small-headed.  It  is  quality 
more  than  quantity  of  brain  that  counts  for  mind. 
''ii/iiii.tiH  is  a  very  interesting  variety  of  idiocy  ami 
imbecility,  and  is  the  subject  of  a  separate  article. 
The  general  causes  of  idiocy  have  not  yet  been 
fully  made  out.  It  is  umjuestioiiably  hereditary  in 
at  lejist  50  per  cent.  Consanguine  marriages  are 
the  cause  of  idiocy  beyond  doubt,  but  only  when 
the  stock  Ls  bad,  and  so  any  tendency  to  nervous 
iliscase  in  the  parents  is  doubled  in  the  children. 
Scrofula  is  another  fertile  source  of  this  ilegenera 
tioii  of  humanity,  and  there  is  ground  to  believe 
that  frights  to  the  mother  when  pregnant  cause  a 
small  |)roportion  of  the  idiocy  of  the  world.  But 
idiots  are  born  in  apparently  perfectly  healthy 
families.  Evolutionally  idiocy,  imbecility,  and 
cretinism  may  be  looked  on  as  reversions  to  a  lower 
type,  and  so  an  example  of  one  of  natures  ways  of 
bringing  a  bad  stock  to  an  end  by  stopping  repro- 
"luction.  Idiots  and  imbeciles  are  regarded  as 
children  all  their  days  l)y  the  law,  and  provisions 
are  made  for  the  appointment  of  tutors  and 
curators  for  tlicm.  They  are  held  irresponsible 
for  their  acts.  See  Dr  W.  W.  Ireland,  Idiocy 
iiiii/  linberiliti/  { 1877). 

Idiosyncrasy.    See  Antipathy. 

Idlr.  a  town  in  the  West  Hiding  of  Yorkshire, 
near  the  Aire,  3  miles  N.  by  E.  of  Bradford,  like 
which  it  is  a  seat  of  the  woollen  uiauuiactures. 
I'ljp.  of  township  ( 1851 )  7118  ;  ( 1891 )  14,462. 

Idorrase.    See  Vesuvun. 

Idolatry  is  the  worship  paid  to  an  image 
wliiili  is  held  to  be  the  abode  of  a  superhuman 
personality.  It  is  widely  spreail  among  primi- 
tive religions,  as  the  ideas  underlying  it  form 
an  essential  part  of  the  savage  philosophy  of 
the  universe  everywhere.  Yet  it  is  not  itself  a 
Tirimitive  worship,  lieing  absent  among  Bushmen, 
Hottentots,  Kuegians,  Veddahs,  anil  Eskimo, 
whih-  present  in  the  great  civilisations,  ;us  the 
Egyptian,  Chahlean,  Indian,  (Jreek,  and  Koman, 
and  nowhere  in  more  s])lendid  development  than  in 
the  .\Ie.\ican  ami  Peruvian.  The  idol,  as  something 
visible  and  concreti:,  helps  the  savage  to  give  a 
deliiiite  form  to  his  vague  ideas  of  higher  beings, 
just  as  the  doll  embodies  to  the  child  the  notion  of 
distinct  pei-soiiality.  We  may  dismiss  the  idea 
that  iilolatry  represents  a  deciidence  of  the  religious 
sentiment,  defjenerating  from  a  eoncejition  of  the 
Divine  as  absolute  spirit  to  its  symbolical  rejuesentii- 
tion  under  human  or  animal  forms.  In  realit.v  it 
marks  a  stage  of  progre.ss  in  religious  growth,  when 
man  rising  al)ove  the  vague  adoration  of  personified 
objects,  conceives  of  gods  under  the  form  judged 
most  worthy  of  their  habitation.  In  theological 
phraseology  the  term  idolatry  is  often  used  loosel.v 
as  covering  all  forms  of  worsliip  of  seen  as  opposed 
to  unseen  existences,  thus  including  lit/iu/uti-i/, 
(Uadrolatrij,  zoolatri/,  pijrolatnj,  subwUiii,  and  even 
such  forms  of  worship  as  nciroUiIri/.  The  earlier 
stages  of  idolatry  are  luUarUm,  or  the  worship  of 


mere  objects  pei-sonilied,  and  animism,  or  the  belief 

in  spirits  as  ilistinct  from  things  and  accustomed 
to  exercise  inHueiue  upon  the  atlairs  of  men.  It  is 
incorrect  to  say  that  idols  invariably  begin  with 
being  symbolical  representations,  and  are  next 
taken  for  the  image,  and  lastly  for  the  body  itself 
of  the  divinity,  through  forgetfulness  oi'  their 
primitive  signilication.  And  all  images  which 
represent  a  superior  being  and  are  wors-liipiied  are 
not  idols,  but  only  those  whiih  are  believed  to  be 
conscious  and  animate.  Yet  the  di-stinction  is  not 
precise,  and  indeed  within  the  range  of  the  same 
religion  the  images  of  the  Divinity  remain  for  some 
animate  individualities — actual  embodiments  of 
spirits — for  others  mere  symbols,  like  the  Madonna 
and  Child  which  help  to  warm  the  piety  of  the 
faithful  in  Catholic  countries,  or  the  photograph 
which  brings  a  distant  mother  the  more  distinctly 
to  the  memory  of  an  Australian  colonist.  In  course 
of  time  the  idol  tends  to  become  confounded  w  ith 
the  idea  of  which  it  was  the  symbol,  hence  super- 
stition and  delusion  ensue  :  but  the  missionary's 
iconoclastic  zeal  is  often  as  unintelligent  as  the 
grown  man's  indignation  at  the  child  fondling  its 
doll.  It  must  not  be  forgotten  that  the  savage 
mind  is  ever  prone  to  confound  a  subjective  relation 
w  ith  an  objective  one.  To  make  the  image  of  an 
object  for  him  is  to  reproduce  it,  and  by  means  of 
the  portrait  he  passes  easily  to  the  notion  of 
reaching  its  original. 

There  is  a  continuous  transition  from  fetichism 
to  idolatry,  and  the  one  is  commonly  the  antecedent 
of  the  other.  Fetichism  Ls  strictly  the  belief  that 
the  possession  of  an  object  can  procure  the  services  of 
the  spirit  lodged  w  ithin  its  interior,  and  hence  any 
material  object  is  capable  of  being  made  a  fetich, 
provided  only  it  is  capable  of  being  appropriated. 
Naturally  the  fetich  of  stone  or  wood  is  the  one 
most  easily  transformed  into  an  idol,  and  early  it 
is  carved,  shaped,  and  polished,  like  the  (ireek 
jfjciiia,  or  ornamented  with  coloured  feathers  or 
the  like.  A  new  ste|i  is  taken  when  on  the 
summit  of  the  stone  or  column  there  is  shaped  a 
human  head,  like  the  heniies  of  the  Greeks ;  and 
once  the  head  is  formed  the  rest  of  the  figure 
f<dlows  naturally.  Idols  are  most  often  more  or 
less  artistic  imitations  of  the  human  form,  often 
made  colossal  or  monstrous  to  represent  addeil 
jiower  or  dignity  ;  and  it  is  a  somewhat  striking 
development  of  commercial  Christianity  that  there 
is  an  active  manufacture  of  these  in  our  own  city 
of  Birmingham  and  elsewhere,  to  be  sent  out  to 
India,  it  may  be,  in  the  same  ship  with  the 
missionaries.  To  the  savage  mind  the  animal  is 
the  equal  of  man,  and  it  is  quite  natural  that  it 
also  should  become  the  dwelling-place  of  a  divinity, 
either  in  its  ordinary  form  or  in  mixed  human  .ukI 
animal  forms,  like  the  mon.stious  creations  of  the 
ancient  Chaldeans.  But  iu  general  the  human 
form  predominates  in  the  conception  of  gods, 
because  the  natural  anthropomorphism  of  man 
attributes  to  his  deities  human  thoughts  and 
feelings,  and  thus  ends  with  lending  them  also  a 
human  physiognomy.  Even  such  developments  of 
idolatry  as  the  aiiotheosis  of  the  phallic  emblem 
and  its  ie])resentalion  in  wood  or  stone  is  but  a 
specialiseil  form  of  the  anlhropoiiioriihic  spirit. 

Idols  which  receive  the  worship  of  a  nation  or  a 
tribe  are  a  simple  development  of  fetiches  in 
human  form  which  belong  to  individuals.  Thus  side 
by  side  with  idols  which  are  the  object  of  public 
worship  we  liml  others  that  are  merely  indiviilual 
or  domestic  fetiiln-s,  like  the  small  liguies  buried 
by  the  ancient  Egyptians  in  their  graves,  and  the 
tcruiihiiii,  which  liachel  stole  from  Lal>an,  anil  hid 
in  the  camel's  furniture  on  which  she  .sat.  The 
worship  of  the  dead  may  also  lead  us  to  idolatry 
by  the  same  truusitious  aa  the  woi'sliip  of  spirits. 


70 


IDRIA 


IGNATIUS 


Tliev  form  a  large  and  powerful  class  of  spirits : 
and  it  is  natural  that  some  rewptacle  should  1)e 
found  for  thcui.  Again,  the  elemental  idea  that 
after  death  the  spirit  continues  to  reside  in  the 
body,  or  in  some  portion  of  it,  as  a  bone  or  the 
skjill,  explains  the  philosophy  of  placin"  a  statue 
of  the  dead  man  beside  his  grave.  The  Maori 
atiia  or  ancestral  deity  deigns  to  enter  his  carved 
wooden  image  througli  the  incantation  of  a  priest, 
in  order  temporarily  to  ileliver  oracles.  Tiele  has 
sliown  us  that  the  ?u'r(/(i//i\  those  representations 
of  monsters  so  common  outside  the  Chaldean 
palaces,  had  for  their  aim  to  offer  alternative 
dwelling-places  to  malignant  spirits,  especially 
those  of  diseases. 

A  striking  feature  of  idolatry  is  its  tendency  to 
revive  even  under  the  shadow  of  purer  spiritual 
ideas.  The  proneness  of  the  ancient  Jews  to  lapse 
into  the  idolatry  of  the  neighbouring  races,  despite 
the  lofty  conception  of  monotheism  which  was 
early  grasped  by  the  Semitic  consciousness  and  is 
still  maintaine(\  within  the  wide  range  of  Islam, 
is  paralleled  by  the  moilern  Brahman  return  to 
a  practice  abhorrent  to  the  ancient  Vedic  religion, 
as  well  as  the  universal  Bud<lhist  adoration  of 
statues  and  relics  of  a  founder  pre-eminent  anjimg 
men  for  the  pure  spirituality  of  his  teaching.  And 
even  within  the  range  of  Christianity  itself  such 
fantastic  absurdities  as  winking  and  wee|>ing 
statues,  and  the  periodical  liquefaction  of  a  saint's 
blood  si.xteen  centuries  old  are  conceptions  in 
perfect  keeping  with  the  devices  of  an  idolatrous 
priesthood  in  Polynesia  or  Cential  Africa. 

See  the  articles  Animism,  Animals  (Wor.ship  of), 
Fetichism,  Image- worship,  and  Religion  ;  the  works  of 
Spencer,  Waitz,  Schultze,  Reville,  and  Girard  de  Kialle, 
paxxiin  :  and  jiarticnlaily  E.  B.  Tylor's  Earlii  Historii  of 
Maiikinil  (chap,  vi.),  and  Primitive  Culture  (chap,  xiv.j; 
and  Goblet  d'Alviella's  admirable  study, '  Les  Origines  de 
ridolatrie,'  in  the  Reruc  (Ic  VHistoire  des  Helirnons  (vol. 
xii.  1885). 

I<lria,  a  mining-town  in  the  Austrian  crown- 
land  of  Carniola,  celebrated  for  its  quicksilver 
mines  (discovered  in  1497),  is  situated  109H  feet 
above  sea-level  in  a  deep,  caldron-sliajied  valley,  on 
a  river  of  the  same  name,  2'.i  miles  W.  by  S.  of 
Laibach.  Upwards  of  230  tons  of  (jnicksih'er  are 
produced  annually,  and  about  20  tons  of  cinnabar 
(red  sulphuret  of  mercury).  Pop.  4984.  The 
miners  numlier  1300;  aliout  1000  of  the  women  are 
enqdoyed  in  lace-making. 

Idris.  a  mythical  figure  in  Welsh  tradition, 
supposed  to  have  been  at  once  a  giant,  a  prince, 
and  an  astronomer.  On  the  summit  of  Cader  Idris 
(q.v.)  in  Merionethshire  may  be  seen  his  rock-hewn 
chair,  and  an  ancient  tradition  told  that  any 
Welsh  bard  who  should  pass  the  night  upon  it 
would  be  found  ne.xt  morning  either  dead,  mad, 
<n-  endowed  with  supernatural  poetic  iMspirati(m. 
This  Irailition  forms  the  subject  of  a  line  poem  by 
Mrs  llcmaus:  the  gigantic  size  of  the  chair  is 
alludeil  to  in  Tennyson's  (h'niiiil  (ittel  Eiiirl. 

Idrisi.    See  Edhisi. 

I«liiiii:i>a.    See  Edom. 

Idllll.  or  IlilXA,  the  name  of  a  godde.ss  of  the 
northern  mvthology.  She  was  the  daughter  of  the 
dwarf  Svalil  ;  but  being  received  among  the  .Esir, 
she  became  the  wife  of  iJragi.     See  SCANDINAyiAN 

MVTIlOI.OliV. 

Idyll  (Gr.  cidiiUioii,  Lat.  idijUium,  'a  little 
image ' ),  a  term  generally  used  to  designate  a 
species  of  poem  representing  the  simple  scenes  of 
pastoral  life.  It  is,  however,  an  error  to  sujjpose 
that  the  idyll  is  exclusively  pastoral  :  certainly 
there  is  no  warrant  for  such  a  notion  in  the  usage 
either  of  the  ancients  or  the  moderns.  Of  the 
thirty  Eidyllia  of  Theocritus  not  more  than  one- 


half  are  pastoral  in  their  character.  After  the  use 
made  of  the  word  by  Tenny.son  in  his  hh/llx  of  the 
Kill;/,  which  are  eoic  in  their  style  and  treatment, 
and  romantic  and  tragic  in  their  incidents,  it 
becomes  very  ditiicult  to  say  what  may  not  be 
calleil  an  idyll. 

If,  a  rocky  island  in  the  (hilf  of  Mai-seille.s, 
crowned  by  a  ca-stle,  the  Chateau  d'lf,  which  wjvs 
built  by  Francis  I.  of  France,  and  subsequently 
used  as  a  state-pri.s(m.  Here  were  conlineii, 
among'st others.  Mirabeau  ami  the  Duke  of  Orleans 
(Philip  Egalite),  not  to  mention  'Monte  Cristo.' 

Iflli,  a  small  seaport  in  southern  Morocco,  35 
miles  S.  of  Aguilon,  ceded  to  Spain  in  1883  in  ful- 
Hlnient  of  a  clause  in  the  treaty  signed  between 
the  two  ccnintries  so  far  back  as  1860. 

IglS'dl'asil.     See  Yggdrasii,. 

Iglail  (IJolim.  Ji/iltim),  the  second  largest  town 
of  Moravia,  is  situated  1703  feet  above  sea-level, 
on  the  river  Iglawa,  close  to  the  Bohemian 
boundaiy,  123  miles  NNW.  of  Vienna  by  rail. 
It  has  some  old  churches  (one  founded  in  799). 
Its  staple  industries  have  always  been  the  m.anu- 
facture  of  cloth  and  wodUen  goods ;  glass  and 
tobacco  are  al.so  manuf.ictured.  It  has  a  large 
trade  in  corn,  flax,  wool,  cloth,  and  timber.  Pop. 
(l.SSO)  12,378;  (1890)  23,716.  Here  in  1436  the 
Emperor  Sigismund  signed  the  Prague  Compactata, 
after  whicli  he  was  accepted  as  king  by  the  Bohem- 
ians. In  the  Thirty  Years' War  it  was  taken  by 
the  Swedes  and  recaptured  by  the  Imperialists. 

Ig'loolik,  an  island  near  the  east  end  of  the 
Fury  and  Ilecla  Str.ait  in  the  Arctic  Ocean,  is  the 
place  w  here  Parry  passed  the  winter  of  1822-23. 

Igliatiofl'.  NicoLAls  Pailovitcii.  Knssian 
diplomatist,  was  the  son  of  General  Paul  Ignatieft', 
a  favourite  officer  of  Alexander  II.  He  was  born 
at  St  Petersburg  on  29th  January  1832,  and 
educated  in  the  corps  of  pages.  In  18.")6  he 
exchanged  from  the  military  to  the  diplomatic 
service.  In  1858  he  induced  China  to  give  up 
to  Itii.ssia  the  Amur  province;  and  in  1,860, 
having  been  appointed  ambassador  at  I'cking,  he 
secured  for  his  country  from  China  the  southern 
portion  of  the  Maritime  Province  lying  east  of 
the  Amur.  Between  the  two  treaties  by  which 
Bussia  thus  gained  footing  on  the  Pacilic,  Igiia- 
tiell'  concluded  with  Khiva  and  Bokhara  com- 
mercial treaties  advantageous  to  his  own  country. 
In  1867  he  was  made  ■amba.s.sador  at  Constan- 
tinople, at  which  court  he  hail  represented  Kussia 
since  1864.  He  there  acquired  considerable  inllii- 
ence  over  the  Sultan  and  amongst  the  Turkish 
statesmen.  An  ardent  Panslavist,  he  is  suspected 
of  having  intrigued  with  the  Slav  states  of  the 
Balkans  in  the  interests  of  Bu.ssia.  In  the  diplo- 
m;ilic  proceeilings  before  and  after  the  Kusso- 
Turkish  war  of  1878  Ignatietl'  toid<  a  principal  part 
as  Itussia's  representative.  The  treaty  of  San 
Stefano  was  princii)ally  his  work  ;  and  he  wa-s 
greatly  incensed  when  it  was  decided  to  submit  its 
conclusions  for  revision  to  a  Euroiiean  conference 
al  Berlin.  After  Alexander  111.  came  to  the 
tlirotie  Ignatiell'  was  a]>pointed  minister  of  the 
Iiiq>erial  Domains,  and  in  1881  succeede<l  Prince 
Loris  Melikoll  as  minister  of  the  Interior.  In  this 
capacity  he  endeavoured  to  stauip  out  Nihilism  by 
forcible  measures,  but  unsuccessfully.  He  was 
dismissed  at  the  end  of  the  year,  ai)parently 
becau.se  of  his  Panslavist  intrigues,  and  for  having 
shut  his  eyes  to  the  persecutions  of  the  Jews. 

lUliatillS.  one  of  the  so-called  Apostolic 
l'';uliers,  about  whom  infornuition  is  but  scanty 
down  to  the  time  of  Eusebius,  except  in  .so  far 
as  may  be  gained  from  the  much-disputed  epistles 
as.sociated  with  his  name.     His  birth  and  education 


IGNATIUS 


71 


are  wrapped  in  obscurity,  livit  from  the  letters  it     the  Siiiyrneans,  Maenesians,    Philadelphiaus,  and 
may  lie  inferred   that    he  was   not   Ikmh   of   Cliris-     Trallians.      liesides  tlie  oiifiiiial  (Ireek  tliis  form  is 


tiau  parents,  but  was  converted  in  mature  life, 
and  tliat  his  earlier  life  had  been  such  as  to  lill 
liis  later  years  with  renioi'se  and  give  an  unusual 
intensity  to  his  religious  convictions.  The  name 
is  Koman :  tiie  second  name.  Theophoros,  is  merely 
a  second  name  and  not  a  title  of  honour  ascribed 
to  the  saint.  It  wa.s  often  interpreted  as  'the 
(ioil-borne,  as  Ignatius  was  said  to  be  the  chihl 
our  Lord  took  in  his  arms  (Mark,  ix.  36,  37), 
but  this  story  was  unknown  in  the  early  centuries. 
Eusebius  is  silent  about  it,  an<l  Chrysostom  says 
distinctly  that  Ignatius  had  not  seen  the  Lord. 
Urigen  makes  him  the  second  of  the  Antiochene 
bishops,  and  in  Jerome's  revision  of  the  Chronicoti 
of  Eusebius  he  is  stated  to  have  been,  with 
Papias  and  Polycarp,  a  disci)de  of  St  John.  The 
usual  ilate  for  his  accession  is  6i)A.D.  ,and  of  his 
martyrdom  107,  but  all  that  can  be  said  with 
certainty  is  that  his  martyrdom  fell  about  110. 
The  letters  show  that  he  was  condemned  to  the 
wild  beasts  at  Antioch,  and  that  he  was  carried  to 
Rome  by  a  maniple  of  soldiers  merely  for  the 
execution  of  his  sentence.  On  the  journey  he  was 
joinetl  at  Suiyrna  by  rejnesentatives  from  the 
churches  of  Tralles,  Magnesia,  and  Ephesus.  Here 
he  wrote  four  letters  which  are  extant  :  three  to 
the  churches  whose  delegates  had  met  him — the 
Ephesians,  the  Ma.gnesians,  and  the  Trallians  ;  the 
fourth,  t<)  the  church  of  the  Romans,  whither  he 
was  jimrneying.  The  first  three  are  mainly  con- 
cerneil  in  enforcing  lessons  of  doctrinal  truth  and 
ecclesiastical  order  ;  the  fourth  is  occupied  almost 
entirely  with  the  thought  of  his  ap|)roaching  mar- 
tyrdom. Next  from  Troas  he  wrote  thiee  lettei's  : 
the  lirst  and  second  to  the  churches  of  Philadel- 
phia and  Smyrna,  which  he  had  just  visited  ; 
the  third  to  Polycarii,  bishop  of  the  latter.  The 
general  topics  treated  are  the  same  as  in  the  first 
three,  but  special  charges  are  laid  ujion  Polycarp 
to  exhort  the  luethreu  at  .4ntioch.  We  next  hear 
of  him  at  Philippi.  as  we  learn  from  Polycarp's 
extanr  reply  to  the  Phili]>iiians,  who  had  evidently 
asked  Polycar])  for  copies  of  the  letters  of  Ignatius 
— not  improbably  the  \ery  cause  of  their  preserva- 
tion. Beyond  this  point  we  know  nothing  more  of 
Ignatius  save  that  at  Rome  he  earned  his  martyr's 
crown.  The  tragic  interest  of  his  journey  to  face 
his  doom  in  the  arena,  and  the  noble  ami  exalted 
heroism  i>f  his  enthusiasm  as  the  \  ision  of  martyr- 
dom fin'  his  Loril  opened  up  before  his  eyes,  left  his 
dying  letters  a  precious  heritage  to  the  church  and 
gave  an  added  sanctity  to  his  teai'hing. 

About  the  close  of  the  4th  century  we  meet  the 
nersistent  statement  that  the  relics  of  Ignatius  had 
been  carried  from  Rome  to  .\ntioch,  and  we  find 
October  17  fixeil  a-s  the  day  of  his  martyrdom.  The 
bones  were  finally  ileposited  in  the  Tychanim  or 
Tem])le  of  Fortune,  which  henceforward  became 
known  as  the  Church  of  Ignatius.  His  reputation 
was  great,  as  is  evinced  by  the  epistles  forged  or 
interpolated  in  his  name ;  the  legendary  acts  of 
martyrdom,  which  give  the  unhistorical  but  well- 
known  interview  with  Trajan  ;  the  translation  of 
his  letters  into  Syriac,  Coptic,  and  Armenian  - 
honoured  especially  by  the  .Mon<ipliysites,  who 
fani'ied  they  found  support  in  them  for  their 
distinctive  tenets.  .And  from  the  close  of  the  16th 
century  tlie  Jacobite  patriarchs  of  Antioch  have 
regularly  assumed  the  name  of  Ignatius  on  their 
accession  to  the  see. 

riie  Ignatian  epistles  exist  in  tliree  diH'erenl 
fcuins  or  recensions.  The  Jir.st  of  these  contains 
three  epistles  alone  :  to  fidycarp,  to  the  Ephesians, 
and  to  the  Romans.  It  is  e.xlant  only  in  a  Syriac 
version.  The  xreoiid  presents  these  three  epistles 
iu  a  fuller  f(M-ni,  and  adds  to  them  four  others  :  to 


and 

is 

anil    Coptic 


found  in  Latin,  .\rnii-nian,  .Syriac 
translations,  allhongh  only  fragmentarily  in  tl 
last  two.  The  third  contains  the  seven  epistles 
already  mentioned  in  a  still  longer  form,  together 
w  ith  six  others — a  letter  from  Mary  of  Cassobola  to 
Ignatius,  and  letters  from  Ignatius  to  Mary  of 
Cassobola,  to  the  Tarsians,  the  Antiochenes,  to 
Hero,  and  to  the  Philippians.  This  recension  is 
extant  both  in  the  Greel;  and  in  a  Latin  trans- 
lation. These  three  it  is  now  usual  to  rail  the 
Shiirt.  Mii/d/e,  and  Long  recensions.  As  will  be 
seen,  of  the  twelve  Ignatian  epistles  (excluding 
that  of  Mary  to  Ignatius)  three  occur  in  three 
different  forms,  four  in  two  forms,  and  the  remain- 
ing five  in  one  form  only.  The  Long  recension  is 
now  universally  condemned  as  spurious.  More 
serious  is  the  dispute  between  the  remaining  two, 
which  are  often  spoken  of,  from  their  editors,  as 
the  Curetonian  (Short )  uni^  the  Vossian  (Middli) 
versions.  The  Curetonian  long  held  the  field,  but 
the  genuineness  of  the  Vossian  letters  is  now  the 
prevailing  belief,  and  is  every  day  gaining  ground. 
Bishop  Lightfoot  began  by  believing  in  the  Cuie- 
tonian  form,  luit  gradually  found  that  the  position 
demanded  too  much  ingenuity  from  the  Ignati.in 
forger,  and  at  length,  iuUuenced  greatly  by  Zalin, 
found  himself  compelled  to  believe  in  the  seven 
Vossian  epistles  as  representing  the  genuine 
Ignatius.  Indeed  the  priorit.y  and  substantial 
genuineness  of  the  Vossian  letters  may  be  said  to 
be  pro\ed,  in  so  far  as  any  question  of  the  kind 
can  be  proved,  by  Lightfoot's  work  ;  and  with  this 
conclusion  one  of  the  main  buttres.ses  of  Baur's 
.scheme  of  the  formation  of  the  Christian  canon  and 
of  early  Christian  history  generally  falls  to  the 
ground. 

The  Short  Forui,  represented  only  by  a  Syriac  version, 
was  tirst  published  by  the  Rev.  W,  Cureton  in  1845,  from 
Mss.  recently  brou-^bt  to  the  British  Museum  from  the 
Nitiian  desert.  Not  only  are  the  epistles  fewer  in 
number,  but  shorter  and  more  abrupt.  Tiieir  upholders 
believe  the  Greek  fonn  an  expansion  and  corruption  of 
the  lost  Greek  originals  of  these  Syriac  letters  ;  while 
their  opponents  thinly  the  Syriac  an  abridgment  of  the 
Greek. 

Tlie  Middle  Form  was  first  published  in  the  Latin 
version  ( made  perhaps  by  Kobert  Grosseteste ),  by  Ussber 
I  Oxford,  1(144  I,  from  two  MSS,  discovered  in  England  ; 
the  orij^nal  Greek,  by  Isaac  Voss  (.Amsterdam,  1646 j, 
from  a  Mediceau  MS.,  the  epistle  to  the  Koinans  alone 
excepted,  which  was  first  pubHshed  by  Ruinart  ( Paris, 
16810.  The  -Armenian  version  appeared  at  Constantin- 
ojjle  in  1783.  These  may  now  be  accepted  with  some 
confidence  as  the  seven  epistles  of  Ignatius  men  cloned  by 
Eusebius,  which  were  translated  into  .Syriac  soon  after 
his  time,  and  of  which  the  Cmx-tonian  epistles  are  uierely 
an  extract. 

Tlie  Long  form  in  its  Latin  version  was  printed  by  J. 
Kaber  Stapulensis  (Paris.  14118  );  in  the  Greek  version  by 
Valentinus  Paceus  ( Dillinga;,  15.57).  These  epistles  are 
supposed  to  liave  been  interpolated  and  extended  by  the 
[iseudo-lgnatius  in  the  later  half  oi  the  4tli  «  ntury. 

The  chief  ditl'ercnces  in  substance  of  these  three 
forms  of  the  Ignatian  epistles  arc  these  :  the  Cure- 
Ionian  text  contains  mi  quotation  from  the  Old 
Testament,  and  very  lew  from  the  New,  while  the 
\'i)ssian  contains  a  coiisideralile  number  of  quota 
lion.s,  and  the  Long  a  large  number.  -Vgain,  the  last 
also  contains  many  allusions  to  religious  institu- 
tions not  in  existence  in  a  mature  state  before  the 
4th  century,  as  well  as  plagiarisms  from  preieding 
writers  and  perceptible  diti'erences  in  doctrinal 
teaching.  There  is  a  tendency  to  maintain  the 
su|iremacy  of  the  Father  and  to  make  the  Son's 
agency  dependent.  Indeed,  many  pas.sages  savmir 
distinctly  of  Ajiollinarianism,  yet  the  general 
bearing  of  the  language  leans  faintly  to  tlie  Ariaii 
side.      The   whole    might    well    be   an   eirenicon 


IGNATIUS'    BEANS 


KJNEOrS    ROCKS 


palmed  off  by  a  pious  fraud  upon  the  name  of  a 
venerated  primitive  lather  of  the  church.  Tlie 
styh"  ami  expression  throu;,'hout  drive  us  to 
the  conviction  that  the  six  additional  lettere 
come  from  the  same  hand  which  interpolated  the 
seven. 

Again,  tlie  Vo.ssian  letters  are  found  to  be 
ili.stinctly  antagonistic  to  Docetism.  Indeed,  a 
characteristic  note  of  Ignatian  tlieology  throujih- 
out  is  tlie  accentuation  of  the  twofold  nature  of 
Christ — liis  deity  and  his  humanity.  The  advocacy 
of  the  ei)iscopal  oHioe  appears  definitely  in  the 
Short  no  less  than  the  Mid<lle  form  ;  and  the 
abridgment  must  have  been  made  rather  for 
purposes  of  edilication  or  practical  convenience 
rather  llian  for  Monoidiysite  reasons,  as  C,  Words- 
worth maintained,  or  for  any  other  doctrinal 
purpose.  In  sliort  the  al)ridf,'ment  theory  is  much 
more  rational  and  easy  than  the  expansion  theory, 
and  if  we  are  to  accept  the  latter  we  must 
maintain,  says  Lij;litfoot.  that  the  pseu(h)-lj^natius 
was  a  prodif^y  of  minute  observation,  of  subtle 
insight,  of  imitative  skill,  of  laliorious  care,  which 
is  probably  without  a  parallel  in  the  history  of 
literary  forgeries,  and  which  assuredly  was  an 
utter  impossiliility  among  the  Christians  of  the  '2d 
and  3d  centuries. 

The  iiroiiiinence  and  autliority  of  the  episcopal 
oliic-e  in  the  Ignatian  epistles  has  proved  a  grave 
stumbliiig-lilock  to  many  .scholars.  It  is  certainly 
sutticiently  clear  througliout,  yet  it  is  merely  as  the 
emliodiment  of  the  idea  of  order  and  the  guarantee 
of  unity  within  the  church.  It  is  not  ujiheld 
exclusively  as  against  other  forms,  while  all  tinge 
of  sacerdotalism  is  absent,  as  well  as  such  an 
argument  as  that  in  Iremeus,  who  lays  stress  on 
the  apostolic  succession  as  a  security  for  its  faithful 
transmission.  Nor  is  it  autocratic  by  any  means, 
while  its  spread  is  not  yet  uniform  throughout 
Christendom,  as  at  Philippi,  for  example.  Evidence 
of  a  localised  episcopate  within  the  (Jentile  churches 
is  absent,  and  nowhere  is  there  any  trace  of  the 
notion  of  a  distinct  diocese,  wliile  there  is  no 
reference  to  any  developed  ritual  of  public  service. 
Six  of  the  epistles  are  full  of  the  necessity  of 
obedience  to  bishops,  which  is  alone  wanting  in 
the  seventh,  that  addressed  to  the  Romans,  who 
it  may  legitimately  be  inferred  had  not  yet  ailopted 
the  form  of  government  which  Ignatius  elsewhere 
coniinended  with  such  warmth. 

Sec  Cureton,  Antkni  Siirittc  Version  of  the  Epistles  of 
S.  Iiinaliiis,  &c.  (1815),  and  liis  Corpus  Itjnatianum 
(1849);  the  works  in  his  support  by  Bunsen,  A. 
Ritschl,  R.  A.  Lip.sius,  and  those  against  iiis  theoiy 
by  Baur  and  Hilgenfeld,  who  ilenied  the  authenticity  of 
any  recension.  A  fatal  Itlow  to  Cureton's  tlie<try  was 
dealt  by  the  able  and  learned  work  of  Zalin,  Ii/natiua 
roil  Antiochien  (1,S7I5),  wliicli  won  over  Lipsius,  and  now 
holds  the  field,  its  most  formidable  cliainpion  being 
the  late  Bishop  Lightfoot,  whose  work,  Tin  Apostolie 
Fathers,  I'lirt  II.,  .S'.  Iinatiiis  mid  S.  Poliicarp  (2d 
ed.  3  vols.  1.S89 ),  contains  all  materials  necessary  for 
a  complete  study  of  the  question,  and  is  a  m.tsterpiece 
of  profound  erudition  and  conclusive  argument  liardly 
to  be  c(|ualled  in  tlie  whole  range  of  English  or  German 
scholarship. 

Ignatius'  BcilllS,  Saint,  the  seeds  of  the 
Jriniitiii  iiiiuirii.  fonnerly  Stri/r/inox  Ifiniitll,  a  tree 
of  the  natural  order  Loganiace.T,  and  nearly  allied 
to  that  whi(di  ]iroduces  Nux  vomica  (q.v.),  a  native 
of  Cochiii-China  ami  of  the  Philippine  Islands. 
The  fruit  is  of  the  size  of  a  large  jiear,  and  contains 
about  twenty  In-owiiisli  seeds,  of  about  the  size  of 
olives,  rounded  on  one  side,  and  somewhat  angular 
on  the  other.  They  contain  strj/chtiid,  Imt  no 
brucia,  and  their  medicinal  uses  are  similar  to 
those  of  nnor  vomieri. 

Ignatius  Loyola.    See  Luvola. 


Igneous  K«>el{S  are  those  which  have  been 
eru]ited  from  the  heated  interior  of  the  earth  -.  hence 
they  are  also  termed  rniptire  roi-/:s.  I'etrologi- 
cally  they  may  be  groiiiied  under  two  head — rn/s 
IdlliiK  and  fniijiiuntiil.  The  crystalline  division 
includes  many  rocks  wliicli  are  rather  vitreous  or 
glassy  than  crystalline,  while  a  large  number  are 
comiiosed  partly  of  crystalline  and  [lartly  of  non- 
crystalline materials.  No  quite  satisfactory  cl.a.ssi- 
fication  of  the  'crystalline'  igneous  rocks  has  a-s 
yet  been  possible,  ])erhai>s  tlie  most  convenient 
being  that  which  is  based  on  the  nature  of  the 
principal  rock-forming  minerals.  Thus,  those  in 
whicli  cnthoclase  (see  FliLSP.Mi)  is  a  dominant 
ingredient  are  grouped  together  as  Orthorhise  mrks. 
In  another  large  class  plagioclase-felsjiars  play  a 
principal  part,  and  thus  we  have  the  J^/tii/ioc/cise 
rocks .  ami  .so  in  like  manner  Xe/i/ic/iiie  and  Leucite 
I'ocks,  and  Olivine  and  Srrpcntiuc  rocks. 

(1)  Orlliurliisr  liocl.s. — Some  of  these  rooks  con- 
tain much  free  silica  ((j>uartz,  (|.v.),  while  otliers 
contain  litlle  or  none.  They  are  thus  divided  into 
two  groups — Qiiartziferotis  and  Qiuirtzless.  Under 
the  fust  group  come  dranifc,  Qii/irtz-porpht/ri/,  and 
LijKiritc,  while  under  the  second  are  ranged  Si/cnite, 
Orth(jcl(isc-porph;/ry,  ami  Truchi/te.  Some  of  these 
rocks  are  holocrysfalline — i.e.  composed  entirely  of 
crystalline  ingredients,  as  granite  and  syenite; 
others,  such  as  liparite  and  trachyte,  are  only  semi- 
crystalline — they  contain  in  addition  to  crystalline 
(•onstituents  a  larger  or  smaller  proportion  of  non- 
ilillerentiated  mineral  matter.  OhsiiUmi  and  Pitch- 
stuiic  are  \itreons  species  of  orthoclase  rocks  which 
consist  almost  entirely  of  volcanic  gla.ss.  Otlier 
kinds  of  orthoclase  rocks  have  been  recognised  by 
petrcdogists,  but  those  mentiimed  are  the  most 
important. 

('2)  riagiuc/iise  Jiocl.s. — Most  of  the  rocks  in  this 
division  are  distinguished  by  their  basic  character 
— that  is  to  say,  they  contain  generally  less  silica 
than  orthoclase  rocks.  The  most  ini]>ortant  s]vecies 
arc  Dioritr  (a  crystalline  granular  aggregate  of 
plagioela.se  ami  hornblende).  A/ir/esite.  Por/i/iiiritc, 
Brisiilt,  and  (liiljhro.  The  holocrystalline  character 
is  seldom  met  with  in  this  divisicm  ;  it  occurs, 
however,  in  diorite  and  gabbro.  The  other  species 
mentioned  usually  contain  some  ailmixture  of  non- 
difi'erentiated  mineral  matter.  \'itreous  varieties 
also  occur  in  this  divisi(m.     See  H.vs.vLT. 

(3)  XfjilieJiiir  (iiid  l.ciicilc  Uuel.s. — The  rocks  in- 
cluded under  this  head  closely  resemble  the  bitsalt 
rocks  of  the  preceding  division,  ]ilagioclase  being 
substituted  in  whole  or  in  part  by  nepheline  or 
leucite  m  by  both.     See  IJ.VSALT. 

(4)  Oliriiic  iitid  Serpcntitic  Hocks. — These  are 
generally  rather  basic  rocks.  The  olivine  rocks 
projjer,  or  I'crii/ofifc.i,  as  they  are  called,  contain 
olivine  as  their  princi]ial  constituent.  They  <iften 
-how  more  or  less  alteration,  the  olivine  being  re- 
plai^ed  in  whole  or  in  jiart  by  Serpentine.  Some 
olivine  rocks,  indeed,  have  been  eomiiletely  altered 
into  serpentine. 

'VUe/rfiifiiioital  igneous  rocks  consist  of  the  loose 
eji'i'tamenta  which  have  been  ermited  from  vol- 
caiuc  orifices.  These  rocks  are  frequently  con- 
solidated, and  when   line-grained   it  is  .sometimes 


Fii>.  1.— Neck  tilled  with  Fraginental  Igneous  Hock. 

ditficult  without  the  help  of  the  microscope  to  dis- 
linguish  them  from  compact  crystalline  igneous 
rocks.  Some  account  of  tliese  rocks  will  be  found 
under  AtxiLoMBRATE,  Tikk,  Volcano. 


IGNEOUS   ROCKS 


I<;neoU8  ix>ck$,  when  looketi  at  friiiii  the  point  of 
view  of  the  stmlent  of  stiuctural  geology,  are 
cla-ssilieil  in  an  altogetlier  ilid'eifnt  way.  It  is  not 
only  necessaiy  to  know  the  iietrologicul  oliavacter 
of  a  rock — we  ninst  discover  something  of  its  his- 
tory. W.os  it  eNtrudeil  at  the  surface  like  the 
ejecta  of  modern  \olcanoes,  or  did  it  cool  and 
consolidate  below  ground  ?  Thus  two  kinds  of 
igneous  or  eruptive  rocks  are  recognised  hy  geolo- 
gists :  ( 1 )  Vufciiiiic  roc/.s,  consisting  of  la\as,  tutis, 
i*i.c. .  which  have  heen  ejected  at  the  surface,  either 
upon  the  lanil  or  under  water:  (2)  Plutonic  or 
Hiniogetn'  rufhs,  which,  whether  consisting  of  crys- 
talline or  fragmental  materials,  have  not  been  so 
e.xtruded,  but  are  now  exposed  owing  to  the  de- 
nudation of  rock-masses  underneath  which  they 
were  formerly  concealed.  The  \olcanic  rocks  are 
often  termed  contiuiporancoii.'i — i.e.  they  belong  to 
tile  same  geological  age  ;is  the  strata  with  whicli 
they  are  intrrbalded.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
2)lutO)iic  rocks  are  described  as  intrusive  or  .iiibsc- 
(jiient,  because  they  have  been  intruded  amongst, 
and  therefore  must  be  subsequent  in  date  to  the 
rocks  w  ith  which  they  are  in  contact. 

( 1 )  Contemporaneou.s  I</ncous  liaehs. — These  con- 
sist of  crystalline  (lava-llows)  and  fragmental  rocks 
(tuffs,  vVc. ),  and  are  simply  the  products  of  former 
volcanic  action.  They  are  met  with  at  all  geo- 
logical horizons  from  the  oldest  down  to  the  most 
recent  jieiiod.  Sometimes  they  indicate  the  former 
existence  of  small  isolated  'puys'  (see  VoLC.XNo  i, 
fi'om  which  it  may  be  only  a  single  eruption  took 
place  ;  at  other  times  they  are  obviously  the  pro 
<lncts  of  nnicli  more  jiowerful  an<l  long-continued 
volcanic  action.  Many  of  the  hill-ranges  of  central 
•Scotland  (for  example,  Sidlaws,  Ochils,  Ac.)  are 
liuilt  up  of  successive  laia-flows  with  associated 
toll's,  which  have  been  ejected  from  vents  in  the 
manner  of  modern  volcanic  eruptions.  In  some 
regions,  however,  there  occur  vast  successions  of 
lava-Hows,  covering  immense  areas,  which  do  not 
ajipear  to  have  been  erupted  from  isolated  vents, 
but  are  believed  to  have  welled  up  along  the  line 
of  great  fissures,  and  to  have  poured  in  wide  Hoods 
over  the  sui-face,  so  as  eventually  to  form  extensive 
plains  or  plateaus.  The  rocks  of  such  '  fissure- 
eruptions '  consist  usually  of  basalt,  with  basalt- 
tiill'  or  I'alagonite.  The  basalt  plateaus  of  the 
western  territories  of  North  America,  of  Ice- 
lanil  and  the  Faroes,  of  the  Deccan  (India),  and 
of  Abyssinia  are  good  examides  ;  while  in  Antrim 
and  in  many  of  the  western  islands  of  Scotland 
fragments  of  similar  plateaus  may  be  studied. 

An  interbedded  or  ruufem/wrancous  lava-form 
lock  mav  often  be  di-^tinguisherl  from  an  intrusire 


Fig.  2. — Contemporaneous  and  Intrusive  Igneous  Kocks : 
c.  r,  cont4!iiiporaneon.s  trai)<rocks  ;  f,  t,  conteiiiporaneniis  frag- 
mental igneous  rocks ;  i,  p,  n,  d,  intriisix'e  igneous  rocks. 

sheet  of  ciystalline  igneous  rock  by  noting  that 
the  beds  which  immediately  overlie  it  show  no 
tiace  of  having  been  subjected  to  the  action  of 
h''at.  The  ui)per  part  of  the  lava-form  rock  is  not 
infrequently  scoriaceims  or  amygdaloidal  (.see 
-\.MYi;i).\LOID)  in  character,  ;uid  fragments  of  this 
<  I  u-t  may  occasioiuilly  be  fnuml  in  the  overlying 
l>ed.s  if  these  chance  to  be  of  aqueous  origin. 

(2)  Intrusive  Ir/neoux  Uijrl.s. — These  rocks  are 
likewise  met  with  under  two  {ormsi—rri/stalline 
and  frtigntentid.  The  frugmcntul  intrusive  rocks 
are  foun<l   onlv    in   connection   with   old   volcanic 


vents.  These  latter,  in  conntries  where  volcanic 
action  has  been  long  extinct,  no  longer  exist  as 
crateriform  hollows.  The  ujijier  parts  of  the  cones 
have  all  been  swept  away,  and  only  the  stumps 
renuiin.  These  stumps  are  known  as  nrel.ft,  by 
which  is  understood  a  more  or  less  cylindrical 
funnel  or  volcanic  vent  filled  up  either  with 
fragmental  or  crystalline  rock  or  with  l)oth. 
Such  necks  vary  in  diameter  from  a  few  yards 
>ip  to  several  hundred  feet ;  sometimes  they  occur 
ujion  a  line  of  Dislocatiim  (q.v.)  or  fault:  at 
other  times  they  have  no  such  connection.  The 
necks  now  descrilied  are  probably  the  relics  of 
comparatively  small  \olcanoes  like  the  puys  of 
Auvergne  and  the  Eifel.  Now  and  again,  however, 
as  in  some  of  the  hill-ranges  of  central  Scotland, 
necks  of  a  larger  size  are  met  with.  These  \aiy 
from  100  yards  or  so  up  to  a  mile  or  more  in  dia- 
meter, and  are  usually  plugged  up  with  crystalline 
igneous  rock,  although  fragmental  rock  also  i>  occa- 
sionally present.  Such  necks  seem  to  be  the  stumps 
of  great  volcanic  vents,  from  which  the  lava-form 
and  fragmental  igneous  rocks  of  the  surrounding 
neighbourhood  were  ejected.  Good  ex.amples  occur 
in  the  ranges  of  the  Sidlaws,  the  Ochils,  the 
Braids,  i*v:c.  i3os.5C-v  is  the  term  applieil  to  irregular- 
shaped  nuisses  of  crystalline  igneous  rocks,  which 
ai)pear  to  be  for  the  most  part  of  deepei-seated 
origin  than  those  of  the  necks  just  referreil  to. 
The  rocks  of  these  bosses  are  usually  more  or 
less  coarsely  crystalline,  and  often  have  a  gran- 
itoid aspect,  such  as  granite,  syenite,  gabbro, 
i^cc.  Bosses  usually  cover  a  considerably  wider 
area  than  necks,  and  it  has  been  conjectured 
that  they  are  merely  the  most  deeply  seated 
jiortions  of  ancient  volcanoes — the  leservoirs  from 
which  molten  matter  was  pumped  up  to  the 
surface.     Intrusive  Sheets  are  masses  of  ervstalliue 


Fig.  3. — Intrusive  Sheet  and  Dykes  : 
j,  igneous  intrusive  sheet ;  rf,  rf,  dykes ;  s,  .s,  sedimenlaiy  strata. 

igneous  rock  which  have  been  erupted  between  the 
[uanes  of  bedding  of  i)re-existing  strata.  They  are 
never  scoriaceous  or  slaggy,  ami  are  generally 
markedly  crystalline  in  texture,  especially  when 
the  sheet  is  thick.  Their  intrusive  character  is 
often  betrayed  by  the  baked  appearance  of  the  beds 
which  overlie  them  ;  by  the  fact  that  they  seldom 
keep  i|uite  to  one  and  the  sanu'  plane,  but  some- 
times break  across  the  oveilying  bcils  and  continue 
their  couise  along  a  somewhat  higher  horizon  ;  and 
by  the  veins  and  protrusions  which  not  infrequently 
proceed  from  them.  Dijhes  are  vertical  wall-like 
sheets  of  igneous  rock,  which  may  vary  in  thick- 
ness from  a  foot  or  so  up  to  .SO  yards  or  iimre.  They 
often  run  persistently  in  one  direction  for  many 
miles.  Occasionally  tliey  ilivide  into  two  or  more 
branches,  ami  now  and  again  they  send  out  \eins 
into  the  surrounding  strata.  The  rock  most  Ire- 
i|uentlv  niet  with  in  such  dykes  is  basalt.  Some- 
times (Ivkes  rise  along  the  line.s  of  faults,  but  this 
is  by  no  means  general.  Veins  is  the  term  ajijilied 
to  the  more  irregulai',  winding,  blanching,  and 
tortmuis  smaller  intrusions  of  igneous  rock.  They 
may  consist  of  any  kind  of  ei\stalline  rock. 
Dykes  and  veins  are  frequently  found  proceeding 
in  all  directions  from  bosses,  as  in  the  case  of 
granitic  nia.s.se.s.  From  the  smaller  puy-like  necks 
also  veins  and  dykes  have  occasionally  been  in- 
jected into  the  surrounding  rocks,  while  these  and 


74 


IGNIS    FATUUS 


IGUANA 


pxtensive  sheets  may  often  lie  tiacetl  proceeding 
from  the  larger  kinds  of  necks.  The  rocks  s>ir- 
rimniling  bosses,  anil  traversed  liy  veins,  are  often 
liighly  nietaniorpliosed. 

Ignis  FiltllllS  (  l-at.  ignis,  Mire,'  /((tniin, 
'foolish')  is  a  luminous  appearance  of  uncertain 
nature  which  is  occasionally  seen  in  marshy  places 
and  churchyards.  The  plienonicnon  has  lieen  fre- 
qnently  descrilieil.  hut  it  h.os  heen  observed  so 
rarely  in  favourable  circumstances  by  .scientitic 
men  tliat  there  is  no  satisfactory  explanation. 
The  light  usually  appears  in  autumn  evenings 
shortly  after  sunset  :  it  is  common  in  flie  north  of 
(Jermany,  in  Italy,  in  the  south  and  nortli-we.st  of 
Knglauii,  anil  on  the  west  of  Scotland,  but  it  lias 
been  noticed  in  many  other  countries. 

Descriptions  of  ignes  fatui  vary  so  much  that 
several  dift'erent  phenomena  have  evidently  been 
included  under  the  name.  The  li"ht  usually  re- 
sembles a  flame,  and  is  often  mistaken  at  first  for 
the  light  of  a  lantern,  but  seen  more  closely  the 
colour  appears  as  bluish,  reddish,  greenish  or 
yellowish,  merging  into  purple,  but  never  a  clear 
white.  Some  ol)servers  describe  the  Hanie  as  fi.\ed 
in  position,  shining  steadily  either  close  to  the 
ground  or  a  few  feet  above  it,  and  illuminating  the 
surrounding  reeds  and  grass.  Others  have  seen  it 
in  motion  bounding  rapidly  over  the  country,  and 
sometimes  rising  Idgh  in  the  air.  The  light  has 
been  seen  to  ilivide  repeatedly  into  several  smaller 
llames,  which  describe  complicated  movements, 
arivancing,  retiring,  and  eoud)ining.  The  moving 
light  is  said  to  recede  from  an  observer  « ho 
approaches  it,  but  to  follow  liim  if  lie  retires  I'loni 
it. 

Some  supposed  appearances  of  the  ignis  fatiiiis 
have  been  proved  to  be  the  lights  of  distant  houses 
seen  through  trees  ;  others  are  almost  certainly  due 
to  luminous  insects,  such  as  the  glow-worm,  or  to 
the  phosphorescence  of  decaying  vegetable  matter. 
St  Elmo's  Fire  (q.v. )  has  also  been  confounded  with 
it.  But  setting  all  these  possible  cases  aside,  both 
fixed  and  moving  ignes  fatui  have  been  proved  to 
exist.  The  spectrum  of  the  light  has  never  been 
observed,  so  far  as  the  writer  can  ascertain.  It  is 
said  that  paper  has  been  ignited  by  the  Haiiie,  and 
if  this  be  so  there  must  be  at  least  two  similar 
phenomena  of  different  nature.  List  in  north 
tlermany  pas.sed  his  hand  through  the  buiiinoiis 
appearance  and  felt  no  warmth  :  near  the  same 
locality  at  a  later  date  Knorr  held  the  metal  ti])  of 
a  walking-stick  in  the  llaiue  of  a  lixed  ignis  fatuus 
( whicli  he  could  not  hiinsrlf  touch  <ui  account  of 
the  marsh)  for  a  ipiarter  of  an  hour,  but  the  metal 
was  not  warmed.  In  the  former  instance  a  putt'  of 
air  extinguished  the  llanie,  and  a  very  slight 
explosion  was  heard  when  it  reappeared  ;  in  the 
latter  a  strong  waft  of  air  only  made  it  flicker 
slightly,  and  a  light  breath  ]>roduced  no  eli'ect. 
No  odour  was  perceptil)le. 

The  common  hypothesis  that  ignis  fatuus  is  the 
flame  of  burning  marsh-gas,  C'Hj,  is  untenable,  for 
although  this  gas  is  produced  aliuii<lantly  in  many 
marshy  places  it  cannot  ignite  siiontaneonsly. 
The  more  plausible  suggestion  tliat  plios]ihuiettcil 
hydrogen,  PH::,  which  is  spontaneously  inliam- 
mable,  might  be  produced  in  cbtin'hyards  or 
marshes  where  there  is  decaying  animal  matter. 
does  not  account  for  the  etl'ect  ob.served  by  the 
German  physicists,  since  no  g.os  can  burn  williont 
giving  out  lieat.  and  that  particular  gas  has  a  very 
Ijenetrating  and  characteristic  smell.  Xor  could 
a  burning  gas,  except  on  the  most  extravagant 
assumptions,  hound  over  the  country  like  a  ball  of 
lire  for  half  an  hour  at  a  time.  Tlie  early  supposi- 
tion of  a  phosphorestMMit  \'apour  is  more  reasonable, 
although  excepting  that  of  free  pl]os|)horns,  which 
could  not  occur  in  nature,  no  sueli  \  apour  is  knowif 


to  exist.  The  phenomenon  was  undoubtedly  more 
common  a  century  ago  than  it  is  now,  and  its  dis- 
appearance in  many  localities  may  be  directly 
traced  to  the  draining  of  fens  and  marshes. 

Popular  names — e.g.  Will-o'-the-Wiso,  .Jack-a- 
LantiMii,  Spunkie,  vS:c. — abound  in  folulore,  and 
are  connected  with  many  stories  of  travellers  mis- 
taking the  iiiarsh  lights  for  a  cottage  window,  and 
being  decoyed  into  dangerous  places,  often  with 
fatal  results.  A  (lerman  legend  identifies  the 
will-o'-the-wisp  with  the  soul  of  an  unbaptised 
infant ;  an  Irisli,  with  a  soul  broke  out  of  Purga- 
tory. For  the  folklore  of  the  subject,  see  Xotcs 
(nifl  Qiirrif-i.  passim. 

IjiflloraillllS  (Lat..  'we  do  not  know'),  the 
word  formerly  written  by  a  graiid-juiy  on  the  liack 
of  an  indictment,  meaning  that  they  rejected  it. 
The  word  is  now  useil  most  conimonl,v  as  a  syn- 
onym for  a  blockhead. 

IS'llorailC'C  (Ignurantiit  Juris)  is  held  in  law 
to  lie  no  excuse  for  any  breach  of  contract  or  duty, 
nor  for  crime  or  other  oH'ence.  It  is  alisolulely 
necessary  to  start  with  this  maxim,  otherwise  it 
would  be  quite  impossilde  to  administer  the  law  ; 
for  if  once  a  contrary  maxim  were  allowed  it  would 
not  only  be  a  premium  to  ignorance,  but  wonld 
lead  to  endless  and  abortive  inquiries  into  the 
interior  of  a  man's  mind.  Ignorance  of  a  fact, 
however,  is  a  ditl'erent  thing.  Another  kindred 
maxim  of  the  law  is  that  every  man  intends  the 
consequences  of  bis  own  act.  Thus,  if  he  shoot 
at  <»■  give  poison  to  a  person  it  is  presuiiu'd  that 
he  intended  to  kill  such  person.  So,  if  he  Ic-ne 
a  trapdoor  open  in  a  street  or  tlionuighfare  it  is 
held  tliat  he  intended  people  to  fall  into  it  and  be 
injured.  There  is,  however,  a  doctrine  called  linnu 
fides,  which,  in  the  case  of  petty  offences  punishable 
by  justices,  often  tempers  the  strict  and  rigid  a]i- 
plication  of  the  maxim,  ignura/i/ia  /Kris  neiiiinnn 
exciisat :  and  even  in  crimes  a  judge  always  takes 
into  consideration,  when  pa.ssing  judgment,  whether 
the  prisoner  or  defendant  was  an  ignorant  or  in- 
telligent person. — In  Catholic  theology,  a  man  is 
never  excused  for  sin,  whether  of  omission  or  of 
commission,  on  the  plea  of  ignorance  which  he  can 
be  fairly  expected  to  overcome,  of  'vincible'  or 
wilful  ignorance;  whereas  'invincible'  ignorance, 
whicli  a  man  could  not  help  or  abate,  altogether 
excuses  from  .uuilt. 

IgUUrantilK'M.  a  religious  congregation  of  men 
ill  tiie  Roman  Catholic  Church,  <levoted  in  the 
gratuitous  instruction  of  poor  children,  now  better 
known  as  the  lirothers  of  Christian  Schools.  See 
Sciliidl.s. 

I&'lialada.  a  town  of  Spain,  32  miles  N\V.  of 
Barcelona,  on  the  west  side  of  Mount  Montserrat. 
It  carries  on  iiiaiiufactures  of  cotton  and  woollen 
goods  and  li rearms.      Po]i.   ll.iUM). 

Iguana,  a  genus  typical  of  the  lgiianid:e,  a 
familv  of  thick-tongued  lizards  representing  in  the 
New  SVorld  the  Agamida-  of  the  t)ld.  The  family 
comprises  fifty-six  genera,  most  of  which  an;  found 
in  tropical  .-\merica.  They  are  slender  and  lizard- 
like in  form,  have  distinct  eyelids,  the  tym]iaiiic 
luembranc  usually  free,  the  tail  long  ami  com- 
piesseil,  the  toes  free,  live  on  each  liiiili,  and  ending 
ill  a  sharp  claw.  They  arc  ailioieal  in  habil,  ami 
feed  chiefly  on  leaves  anil  fruits,  but  will  al.so  eat 
insects.  The  genus  Iguana  includes  live  s|iecies, 
found  in  the  West  Indies  and  South  America,  and 
all  characterised  by  a  pyramidal  head,  a  pouch  of 
skin  under  the  throat,  and  an  ii]iriglit  comb  of 
pointed  teeth  extending  alonj;  the  back  from  the 
neck  to  the  tiji  of  the  tail.  The  best  known  is  the 
Common  or  (Ireen  Iguana  (/.  tii/ifn-ii/dtiis),  which 
has  a  very  large  pouch,  is  preilominantly  of  a 
beautiful  green  colour,   and  grows  to  a  length  of 


IGUANODON 


IHRE 


75 


from  3  to  5  feet.     Tliis  iguana  lives  usually  in  trees 
near  a  stream,  eliniliiiiu'  with  jireat  ease,  and  mov 
in','  rapidly  along  tlie  l)ranclius,  but  taking  readilv 
to  tlie  water,  where  it  swims  hy  means  i)f  its  tail. 


Common  Iguana  (Iiji" 


culatus). 


Its  Hash  is  white  and  tender,  and  is  much  esteemed 
for  food.  It  Ls  sometimes  caught  by  noosed  cords, 
sometimes  tracked  to  its  burrow  by  dogs  trained 
for  the  purpose.  The  eggs  are  about  the  size  of 
those  of  a  pigeon,  but  have  no  hard  shell,  and  are 
laid  in  the  sand.  They  also  are  used  as  food. 
Other  species  of  iguana  and  their  eggs  are  eaten 
l>y  those,  as  Danvin  says,  '  wliose  stomachs  soar 
above  all  prejudices.'  Other  important  genera  are 
Anolis  :  Cyclura,  one  species  of  which,  C.  lophoimi,  is 
called  the  'great  Iguana'  of  Jamaica;  .4iublyrhyn- 
chus,  the  marine  lizard  ;  Phrvnosoma,  the  '  homed 
toads  ;' and  the  Basilisks  (q. v.).  See  LlZ.\RD  ;  and 
Boulenger,  Brit.  Mas.  Cat.  of  Lizards  ('2d  ed. 
Lond.  ISS.'i-ST). 

Ignau'odou  ilguan.a.  and  Or.  odoits.  'tooth'), 
a  genus  of  remarkable  gigantic  ilinosaurian  reptiles, 
more  abundant  in  the  Wealden  lieds  of  Kent,  Sus- 
sex, and  the  Isle 
of  Wight  than 
any  other  genus 
of  associated 
saurians.  Their 
singular  struc- 
ture, differing  in 
many  important 
particulars  from 
any  known  rep- 
tile, long  caused 
great  diversity 
of  opinion  as  to 
their  true  posi- 
tion. Dr  Man- 
tell,  their  origi- 
nal discoverer 
and  learned  ex- 
pounder (18-22). 
first  knew  of  their  existence  from  some  enormous 
lK)nes,  which,  notwithstanding  their  c(>los.sal  size, 
he  cimsidered  reptilian.  A  large  tooth  next  turned 
u|>,  whose  smooth-worn  crown  attested  its  having 
belongeil  to  a  herbivorous  animal.  Numerous  other 
specimens  of  teeth  were  in  process  of  time  dis- 
covered, and  Dr  Mantell  found  tliat  tliey  corre- 
spomled  in  a  remarkable  manner  with  the  teeth  of 
the  small  American  lizard,  the  iguana,  .■iltliough 
they  exhibited  ven'  striking  and  im]iorlant  differ 
ences.     The  first  guesses  as  to  the  creature's  size, 


Fig.  1. — Front  and  side  view  of  a 
Tooth  of  the  loner  jaw  of  the 
Iguanodun,  about  two-thirds  natu- 
ral size. 


founded  on  fragmentary  materials,  varied  vastly  ; 
Alantell  suggesting  a  length  of  "0  feet,  Owen  of  28. 
.\n  extraordinary  recent  lind  of  iguanodons  has 
simplified  this  and  other  (|uestions  as  to  the  struc- 
ture. In  187S  there  were  found  at  Bernissart,  in 
Belgium,  between  Mons  and  Tournai,  the  remains 
of  .about  twenty-three  s])ecimens,  belonging  to  two 
well-marked  species;  only  two  other  species  having 
till  then  been  proposed.  In  the  complete  skeleton 
set  uj)  at  Brussels  from  these  materials  the  height 
is  14  feet  2  inches;  the  horizontal  length  of  the 
body  in  a  half-standing  attitude,  '2.3  feet. 

The  stnicture  of  the  skeleton  is  very  remarkable. 
The  front  parts  of  both  upper  and  lower  jaws 
were  without  teeth,  and  suggest  a  hollow,  beak-like 
arrangement ;  possibly  the  creature  had  a  long 
prehensile  tongue.  In  many  respects  there  are 
striking  resemblances  between  the  structure  of  the 
ornithopod  Dinos.aurians  (of  which  the  Iguano- 
dontida-  are  a  family )  and  that  of  birds.  The  verte- 
bral column  had  joints  slightly  concave  on  both 
surfaces,  yet  had  lofty  neural  arches ;  and  the 
sacrum  was  composed  of  five  anchylosed  joints,  a 
structure  found  in  no  other  reptile.  The  two  fore- 
legs were  small  ;  the  hinder  limbs  were  long  and 
strong,  raising  the  body  some  distance  from  the 
ground.  The  leg  terminated  in  a  three-toed  foot, 
which  produced  the  enormous  tridactyle  impressions 
on  the  argillaceous  Wealden  lieds  that  were  for 
some  time  considered  to  be  the  footprints  of  huge 
birds.     The  teeth  of  the  iguanodon.  while  bearing 


Fig.  2. — Skeleton  of  Iguanodon. 

a  general  resemblance  to  those  of  the  iguana,  were 
much  more  complicated  both  in  external  form 
and  internal  structure  than  in  any  other  known 
reptile.  In  all  other  known  reptiles  the  vertically 
flat  teeth  are  always  sharp-edged,  and  fitted  only 
to  cut  ott'  the  plants  on  which  they  feed  :  but  the 
worn  crowns  in  this  animal  show  that  the  iguano- 
don thoroughly  trituratetl  its  food  before  swallow- 
ing it. 

Igliviuiu.    See  GlBBio. 

IhrOt  Joil.vN,  an  eminent  Swedish  scholar  of 
Scottisli  extraction,  was  born  at  Lund  in  1707,  and 
educated  at  the  university  of  I  psala,  where  he 
acquired  a  great  reputation  and  carried  oil'  the 
highest  honours.  He  subsequently  travelled  in 
France  and  England,  was  appointed  on  his  return 
to  Sweden  under-librarian  to  the  Academy  of 
Sciences,  and  rose  through  a  variety  of  olfices  to  be 
profe.sscu'  of  Belles-lettres  and  Political  Economy 
(1748).  He  died  in  1780.  Hire's  principal  work  is 
his  G/o.ss'iriion  Sniogothiviun  ('2  \'(ds.  folio,  17t)9),  a 
work  of  great  talent  and  erudition,  which,  though 
a  product  of  the  pre-scientific  age,  may  in  some 
respects  be  regarded  as  the  foundation  of  Swedish 
philology.     It  was  issued  at  the  cost  of  the  state, 


ILCHESTER 


ILLEGITIMACY 


which  gave  Ihie  10,000  ilollai-s  to  execute  it.  An- 
oiher  work  of  lasting  vahie  is  the  Svciiskt  Dialect- 
Lc.cii'iiii  ( 1700). 

Iloliester.  a  .lecaveil  village  of  Soiiiei-setsliiie, 
on  the  Yei).  .")  miles  NW.  of  Yeovil.  Supposed  to 
he  the  I.sr/ia/i-s  of  Ptolemy,  it  wa.«  the  principal 
station  of  the  Koiiians  in  this  region,  and  was  a 
flourishing  town  in  Saxon  times.  Numerous 
Koman  remains  have  heen  found  here,  lleliester 
is  the  hirthphice  of  Koger  Bacon.  Till  18.S2  it 
returned  two  niemhers.      Hop.  683. 

Ile-d«'-Fran<"«',  one  of  the  old  provinces  of 
France,  haviiii;  Paris  as  its  capital,  and  now  mostly 
comprised  in  the  departments  of  Seine,  Seine-et- 
Oise  .\isiie.  Seine-et-Marne,  Somiue,  and  Oise. 
In  the  middle  of  the  9th  century  it  was  made  a 
dukedom,  and  hecanie  one  of  the  four  constituent 
fiefs  of  the  French  monarchy.  The  second  duke, 
t)do.  commonlv  called  Count  of  Paris,  was  cmwnecl 
kiiig  of  France  in  8S.S.  His  successors  contended 
for  "some  vears  for  the  throne  of  France  :  one  of 
them,  Hugh  Capet,  founded  in  987  the  Capetian 
dvna.stv  ("see  Fr.wce).  lle-de-Fiance  was  for 
n'leily  the  name  of  Mauritius  (q.v.). 

Iletzk,  a  town  in   the  Russian  governnient  of 
Orenburg,   near  the   confluence   of   the   Ilek  with 
the  Ural.     Pop.  5769.     Close  by  is  the  richest  sah_ 
bed  in  Russia,  vielding  close  upon  '21,700  tons  of 
.salt   annuallv.  '  It    was   discovered    by    Palla.*    m 
1769,  and  visited  l>y  Murchison  in  1850. 
Ileum.    See  Digestion. 
Ileus,  or  lLi.\c  P.vssioN.     See  Colic. 
Ilex,  a  tree  often  named  in  the  Latin  cla.ssics, 
the  Evergreen  Oak  or  Holm  Oak  (QiieiriDi  flex). 
See  O.^K.     It  is  a  native  of  most  parts  of  the  south 
of  Europe  and  of  the  north  of  Africa,  often  attain- 
in"  large  dimensions,  as  it  sometimes  does  where 
planted" in  Britain.     It  grows  in  general  singly  or 
in  small  groups,  and  loves  the  vicinity  of  the  sea. 
Its  leaves  are  ovate-oblong,  acute,  leathery,  hoary 
beneath  ;    but  thev   varv  mucli  in  some  respects, 
from  the  size  of  a  sloe-leaf  to  that  of  a  beech,  and 
from  being  very  spinv  at  the  edge  to  perfect  e\en- 
iiess.    The  bark  is  verv  astringent,  and  is  employed 
for  tanning  hides  in  the  countries  to  wliich  the  tree 
is  indigenous.     Its  wood  is  very  hard  and  heavy, 
tough,  durable,  and  useful,  particularly  for  a.xles, 
pulleys,  screws,  and  wliatever  is  to  lie  subjected  to 
niucli  friction.     The  acorns  are  of  various  <iuality, 
sometimes  bitter,  and  sometimes   sweet  and  eat- 
able.—In  modern  botany  Ilex  is  the  generic  name 
of  the  Holly  (q.v.). 

Illraeoinbe,  a  watering-place  of  England,  is 
finely  situated  on  the  picturesf|Ue  rocky  mast  ot 
North  Devon,  on  a  cove  or  inlet  of  the  Bristol 
Channel.  11  miles  NNW.  of  Biunstaple  (  I.')  by  a 
branch-line).  Its  air  'combines  the  soft  warmth 
of  South  Devon  with  the  bracing  freshness  of  the 
AVelsh  mountains'  (Charles  Kingsley).  This  and 
its  line  coast-scenery  and  its  admirable  sea-bathing 
annuallv  attract  large  numbers  of  visitors.  On  the 
north  side  of  the  (good)  harbour  there  is  a  light- 
house, the  light,  1'27  feet  above  high-water,  lunng 
visible  for  U)  miles.  .Vlthough  having  now  nolliing 
more  than  a  little  coasting  trade  and  lishing, 
Ilfracombe  was  in  the  Ulli  centtiry  a  liort  of  some 
consequence,  and  contributed  six  ves,sels  to  the 
English  fleet  for  the  sii-ge  of  Calais.  A  destructive 
fii/occnrred  in  .Tuly  1896.  Pop.  ( 1851  )2919  ;  ( 1881  ) 
6'-'5o;  (1891)  769-2. 

IlliaVO,    a    Portuguese    town    40    miles 
Oporto.     Two  miles  distant  is  the  glass  and 
lain  factory  of  Vista  .\legre.      Pop.  7800. 
Hi.    See  Kin-.i A. 

Ilirill,  tlie  bitter  principle  derived  from 
(q.v.). 


S.    of 
porce- 

llollv 


Ilissus.    See  Athens,  and  Attica. 

Ilium.    See  Troy  ;  and  for  Iliad,  see  Homer. 

Ilk  (O.E.  i/l!.-  'the  same'),  an  (dd  form  found 
both  in  English  and  Scotch  meaning  the  same. 
Thus,  Chaucer  has  this  ilk  worthe  knight'  an«l 
•that  ilk  man.'  It  is  still  not  unknown  in  Scot- 
land in  cmiiu'ction  with  family  designations  :  thus, 
'  Kiidoch  of  that  ilk  '  means  •  Kinloch  of  the  estate 
of  that  same  name,'  or  'Kinloch  of  Kinloch.'  '(If 
that  ilk '  is  however  <Minstantly  but  absurdly  and 
ignorantly  used  to  mean  'of  that  description,  as  in 
'Carpetbaggers  anil  politicians  of  that  ilK.' 

Ilkeston,  a  market  town  of  Derbyshire,  near 
the  Erewash  l{iver,  9  miles  ENE.  of  Derby,  and 
•20  S.  of  Chesterlield.  It  enjoys  reimte  from  its 
alkaline  spring  ami  baths  (opened  in  1830).  The 
parish  chuich.  with  a  lofty  pinnacled  tower,  has 
interesting  Norman  and  Early  English  features. 
The  town-hall  was  built  in  1868.  Ilkeston  has 
manufactures  of  hosiery,  lace,  silk,  and  earthen- 
ware, with  coal  and  iron  mines  in  the  vicinity. 
In  1'251  a  charter  for  holding  a  market  and  fair  here 
was  granted  to  Hugh  Fitz- Ralph:  ami  in  1887 
Ilkeston  was  incorporated  as  a  municijial  borough. 
Pop.  (1861 ). 3330;  n881)  14.122:  (189r)  19,, 44. 

Ilkley.  a  watering-place  in  the  West  Riding  of 
"\'orU-liii"e,  on  the  Wharfe.  among  heatheix  hills, 
13  miles  NNW.  of  Ilradfor.l  and  16  NW.  of  Leeds 
by  a  liranch-line  (  186.")).  Since  1 S46  it  has  become 
the  se.at  of  .several  hvdropathic  establishments— 
Ilkley  Wells  House,  Ben-Rhyddiug  (q.v.),  \;c.  It 
occupies  the  site  of  a  Roman 'station,  and  in  the 
churchvard  are  three  curious  Saxon  crosses  :  whilst 
Bolton' .\bbev  (q.v.)  is  5  miles  north-west.  Pop. 
(1851  )  sll  :  (1891)  5767. 

Ill,  a  river  of  .•\lsace,  rising  to  the  south-west  of 
Basel,  and  flowing  1'27  miles  north -north-eastwaid, 
till  it  fall>  into  the  i;hine9  miles  below  Strasburg. 
It  is  navigable  over  nearly  one-half  of  its  cour.se. 

Ille-et-Vilailie,   a   maritime    French   dejiait- 
nient,  formc.l  out  of  the  north-eastern  portion  of  the 
old  pvovince  of  Brittany.     Area,  '2596  s,].  m.  :  pop. 
(lS72).-)89,.>3'2;  ( 1891 )  6'26,873,  mostly  of  Celtic  race. 
It  is  watered  chiellv  bv  the  Vilaine  and  its  tribu- 
tarv  the  llle,  which  unite  near  Uennes,  the  capital 
of  the  dei.artment.      llle-el-Vilaine  consists   of  a 
"i-anite  plateau   traversed    by   ranges  ol    low  lolls. 
It   is  agricultural,  cultivation  having  been  greatly 
improve,!  during  recent  years.     The  cider  of   this 
district  is  the  best  in  France  ;  the  butter  ot  Rennes 
is  celebrated  :    the  horses  of  the  department   are 
noted  for  their  endurance,  ami  are  m  great  re.iuest 
for  the  iirmv  ;  an<l  bee-keeping  is  iinisecuted.      Inm 
is    mined  :' slates   are   (|Uiirricd  :    ami    salt   is   ex- 
tracted.    The  department  is  dividcl  into  six  arron- 
dissements- -Rennes,  Fongeres.  Mont  fort,  St  Malo, 
Vitrc,  and  Rcdon.     St  Malo  is  the  principal  .seap(U-t. 
llles:i«imaey,  by  the  laws  of  Engdand,  debars 
•I  child  from   the  inheritance  of  the  lather,  unless 
express  provision  be  made  by  will  (see   B,\ST.\i;i>). 
It  was  even  held  by  xMr  .Justice  Chitty  (t  hanccry 
Division,  Julv   1889)  that   the  term   •children     in 
•I  will  iloes  liot  cominiso  illegitimate  i-sne.  it  the 
wording  otherwise  is  not  such  as  obviously  mean- 
ing to  include  them.       ,.,,..  .  , 
The  whole  subject  of  llle-'itimacy  tmnis  one  t,f 
the  most  .lillicult  of  the  social  problems  :  and  there 
is  no  branch  of  social  science  in  which  there  is  such 
.leliciencv  of  literature.      Ami    yet   its  importance 
is   suflicientlv   evidenced    by   the    fact_  that    40,,, 50 
ille.dtimate  ■children    were   born    m    England    ami 
Wales    and   1(1,380  in  ScotlamI,  in  one  year.      In 
isss'tiie  illegitimate  births  registered  in  England 
amounted  to  46  percent,  of  the  total  births   and 
to  1  -4  per  1000  living  persons.     Ihe  birth  rate  ot  that 
year  was  the  lowest  in  England  since  the  present 


ILLEGITIMACY 


77 


system  of  registratiuii  began ;  but  it  is  noticeiible 
tlmt,  while  the  mariia^^e-rate,  and  coiiseiiueiitly 
the  legitimate  birth-rate,  has  declined  steadily  fi)i 
some  years,  the  illegitimate  birth  rate  has  also 
steadily  declined.  Krom  1841  to  lS.')!t  the  indpor 
tion  ot  illegitimate  births  to  the  total  niimln  r 
registered  ranged  from  (i'3  to  7  per  cent. :  in  the  ten 
years  Iroiii  \S~H  to  1SS7  the  average  was  48  per 
rent. :  in  1888  the  proportion  was  4t)  per  cent. 
The  decline  is  very  striking,  becanse,  in  the  period 
lii-st  mentioned,  the  rate  lluctuated  between  (j  anil 
7  per  cent,  with  a  remarkable  unil'ornuty.  In  the 
vear  lS4o.  70  <mt  of  every  1000  births  registered  in 
tngland  and  Wales  were  illegitimate  ;  in  1888  only 
4(5  out  of  every  1000.  Illegitimacy  was  greatest 
in  the  following  districts,  the  ligures  here  given 
being  the  illegitiuiate  births  in  every  lOOO  births 
registered  :  Norfolk,  74  ;  Herefordshire,  8,5  :  Shrop- 
shire, 80  :  Cumberland,  78  :  and  North  Wales,  73. 
Middlesex  (e.\tra-metropolitan )  comjiares  favour 
ably,  with  M  :  Yorkshire  .show.'^  for  West  Hiding 
49,  Ea-st  Hiding.  .50,  and  North  Hiding.  02  :  and  the 
great  industrial  counties  come  out  with  Durham, 
40  ;  Northumberland,  49  :  Lauca-shire,  44 :  Derby- 
shire, 43 :  Warwickshire,  42.  The  marriage-rate 
is  proportionately  low.  Thus,  while  the  average 
marriage-rate  in  England  and  Wales  in  1888  was 
14'2  per  1000  pel-sons,  the  marriage-rate  of  Here- 
ford was  11-5;  Shropshire,  11  4;  Norfolk,  134; 
Cumberland,  12-6;  and  North  Wales,  11-6.  In 
comparing  with  the  returns  of  past  years  we 
lind  many  Uuctuatious  in  the  counties ;  but,  gener- 
ally speaking,  the  highest  rates  of  illegitimacy  in 
the  least  densely  populated  districts.  Unfortu- 
nately «e  cannot  derive  from  this  fact  any  con- 
clusion referring  to  the  education  or  pruileutial 
habits  of  the  people,  for  in  Scotland,  where  educa- 
tion is  general,  and  thrift  national,  the  rate  of  ille- 
gitimacy is  notoriously  hii'h.  And,  as  regards 
morals,  it  should  be  remembered  that  a  high  per- 
centage of  illegitimacy  may  mean  that  there  is  no 
jirostitution. 

In  the  year  1887  there  were  10,380  illegitimates 
registered  in  Scotland  out  of  a  total  of  124,418 
births,  but  in  1866  there  were  11.673  out  of 
1 13,667.  This  marks  a  considerable  iuiprovement, 
and  in  fact  during  the  twenty  years  1879-88 
there  was  a  stea«ly,  although  not  a  continuous 
decline  in  the  rate".  The  rate  for  1888— 8 -.34  per 
cent. — was  slightly  higher  than  that  of  the  jirevious 
year;  that  of  1889  wa-s  only  7vSo.  The  following 
detailed  figures  are  based  on  the  retuins  foi- 
1888.  In  the  principal  towns  the  rate  was  as 
follows:  Gla-sgow;  83;  Edinburgh,  8".5 ;  Dun- 
dee, 10-3;  Aberdeen,  103;  Greenock,  5'3 :  Leith, 
6 '6  ;  and  Paisley,  6  3  illegitimates  out  of  every  100 
registered.  The  lowest  jHoportioM  in  urban  Scot- 
land wa.s  in  Glasgow — landward  and  suburban  dis- 
trict. 4.3.  The  highest  rural  proportion  was  in 
Wigtownshire,  with  18"2;  and  the  lowest  rural  pro- 
portion was  in  Kinross-shire,  with  4.  Next  to 
Wigtownshire  for  illegitimacy  come  BanHshire, 
with  168;  Kirkcudbright,  with  15'7  :  Elginshire, 
with  152;  Dumfriesshire,  with  13'9;  Abenleen- 
sliiie,  with  132;  Kincardineshire,  with  124;  Ho.x- 
burghshiie,  with  112;  and  Berwickshire,  with  111 
percent.  The  average  is  brought  down  by  the  low 
rates  in  the  shires  of  Kinross,  Ito.ss  ami  Cromarty, 
Dumbarton,  Renfrew,  Fife,  Clackmannan,  Stirling, 
Bute,  Lanark,  and  Linlithgow,  which  range  be- 
tween 4  and  6'8  per  cent.  The  other  counties 
range  about  the  average  for  all  Scotland,  with 
the  exception  of  Shetland,  which  shows  the  com- 
paratively low  rate  of  only  48  illegitimates  in 
every  100  births.  (In  1880  Shetland  was  the  lowest 
country,  with  4  ;  Kinros.s  having  6'7  :  Wigtown  had 
17 '7  per  cent.)  What  Ls  called  the  insular- rural 
districts  had  an  average  of  6 '2.      The  comparison 


for  1888  may  be  otherwise  summed  up  thus :  I 
child  in  every  12  born  throughout  Scotland  was 
illegitimate;  but  in  the  i)rinci|ial  towns  the  pro- 
|iortion  was  1  in  13;  in  the  large  towns,  1  in  1.");  in 
the  .small  towns,  I  in  12  :  in  the  mainhiiidrnral 
districts,  1  in  10;  and  in  the  insular  rural  districts, 
1  in  16.  The  tendency  to  illegitimacy  in  Scotlaml 
is  greater  in  the  north-eastern  and  southern  rural 
districts  than  in  the  south-western  mining  and 
manufacturing  districts — which  is  much  the  same 
distinction  as  we  ob.served  in  England.  Duly,  in 
no  part  of  England  are  the  ligures  so  de|)lorable  ;i-«» 
in  Scotland.  Yarious  theories  have  been  advanced 
to  jiccount  for  this,  but  it  is  doubtful  if  the  whole 
solution  has  yet  been  found.  The  following  may 
at  anyrate  be  instanced  as  among  the  probable 
causes  of  the  prevalence  of  illegitimacy  in  Scot- 
land :  a  national  caution,  which  detei-s  from  early 
and  iiuinovident  marriages:  the  laxity  of  the 
marriage-laws  in  lesjiect  of  the  subsequent  legiti- 
mation of  children  born  out  of  wedlock  ;  and  the 
herding  together  of  farm-labourers  in  bothies  and 
farm-buildings.  It  is  to  be  noted,  also,  that  a  large 
proportion  of  the  illegitimacy  can  hardly  be  ascribed 
to  vice,  seeing  that  the  parents  often  live  together 
and  rear  their  families  just  as  if  they  were  legally 
married,  and  as,  perhaps,  many  of  them  will  be 
some  day.  For  this  curious  practice  no  doubt  the 
former  high  proclamation  fees  may  have  been  to 
some  extent  respcjiisible. 

In  Ireland  we  lind  a  very  different  state  of  afl'aii's. 
There,  in  1888,  of  106,433  tilths  registered  only  3124 
or  29  per  cent,  were  illegitimate.  Since  1884  the 
percentage  has  ranged  between  2  7  and  2  9. 
This  is  the  average  for  the  whole  island,  but  in 
Ulster  the  percentage  was  44;  in  Leinster,  2o; 
in  Munster,  2'2;  an(l  in  Connaught  as  low  as  07. 
Dublin  county  was  chargeable  with  nearly  one- 
tenth.  Londondeny  county  with  about  another 
tenth,  and  Antrim  with  about  one-fifth  of  the 
whole.  The  marriage-rate  in  Ireland  is  curiously 
low,  being  only  420  per  1000  of  the  population,  as 
against  14'1  in  England,  and  12'4  in  Scotland. 
Poverty  may  explain  the  low  marriage-rate,  and 
it  is  noticeable  that  of  the  78,684  emigrants  of  that 
year  over  80  per  cent,  were  between  fifteen  and 
thuty-five  yeai-s  old — that  is,  of  the  marriageable 
age.  The  infrequency  of  bastardy  can,  howe\er, 
only  be  a.scribed  to  the  chastity  of  the  jjeople,  early 
marriage,  and  the  wholesome  restraints  of  the 
church. 

To  turn  now  to  British  colonies,  we  shall  find 
some  interesting  figures ;  but  it  is  important  to 
bear  in  mind  that  birth-rates,  like  marriage-rates, 
ba.sed  upon  a  comparison  with  the  total  population, 
are  .somewhat  misleading  where  the  po|iulation  is 
in  an  abnormal  condition.  As  in  most  of  the 
colonies  the  males  largely  exceed  the  females, 
there  must  necessarily  be  an  abnormally  small 
proiiortion  of  child-bearing  women.  In  1887  the 
illegitimate  births  in  Yictoria  numbered  1580,  or 
1  in  every  21  births  registered.  This  rate  shows 
a  small  increase  since  1880,  when  the  rate  was  1 


The  mean   foi    fifteen  years  was  4'25 


per 


cent,  of  the  total  births,  but  the  total  for  1887  wa.s 
4'78  per  cent,  of  the  births.  As  regards  the  other 
Australasian  colonies,  illegitimacy  is  most  rife  in 
New  South  Wales,  where  it  was  (1886)  46.);  next 
in  Queensland  (1886),  3-97  :  next  in  Tasmania 
(1887),  340;  and  next  in  New^  Zealand  (1S86), 
3-12  to  every-  UK)  children  born.  The.se  figures 
are  remarkably  low,  but  then  we  must  remember 
that  the  ])o]mlations  are  not  yet  in  a  normal  con- 
ilition,  and  also  that  the  statistics  of  illegitimacy 
for  many  reiusons  never  reveal  the  whole  truth. 

This  fact  must  be  borne  in  mind  in  considering 
the  following  table  of  the  proportion  of  illegiti- 
macy in  all  the  countries  of  the  world  for  whicli 


78 


ILLEGITIMACY 


ILLINOIS 


fillies  are  available, 
the  perioil  1881-90. 


England  and  Wales 

r^cotland 

Ireland 

Austria  (average).  - 

Caritithia 

Lower  Austria  and  Styria 

Upper  Austria 

Dalmatia 

llunjsiO* 

'•Belgium 

Deuinark 

'tYance 

Germany  (average) 

Upper  Bavaria... 

Schauniburg-Lippe 

Prussia 

Alsace-Lorraine 

Greece 

^Holland 

Italy 

Portugal  (certain  provinces  only,  \ 

returns  incomplete) )" 

Roumania 

Russia  (average  1867-81 ) 

Spain 

Sweden 

Norway ... 

Switzerland 

Brazil  (estimate) 

fCanada  

Costa  Rica 

Guatemala — Whites 

Indians 

I  United  States 

New  South  Wales 

Victoria 

Queensland 

South  Australia,  no  statistics. 

West  Australia 

Tasmania 

New  ilcaland.. 

In  tiie  following  table  we  show  the  comparative 
prevalence  of  illegitimacy  in  the  principal  foreign 
cities  : 


ILLEGITIMATE  BIRTHS  TO  EVERY  1(X)0  BORN. 


given 

are  all  for 

Per  cent,  lit 

Year. 

lllegitilimtca  tu 

toU]  biilliA. 

ISSS 

4  G 

1887 

8-34 

1886 

•J -9 

1887 

14-89 

4500 

2600 

iOOO 

3-50 

8-00 

1887 

9-30 

1S86 

10-00 

1887 

8-20 

1886 

0-47 

15-67 

2-74 

8-34 

8-10 

1889 

160 

1887 

3-2-2 

1887 

7-45 

1885 

14-00 

1887 

5-00 

3  00 

1884 

5-40 

188(i 

14-88 

1886 

7-90 

1887 

4-sO 

1884 

■25-00 

1880 

24-00 

1887 

50-00 

" 

25-00 

1886 

4-66 

1887 

4-78 

1886 

3-97 

1888 

S-;« 

1887 

3-40 

1886 

3-12 

Vienna 449 

Prague 439 

Munich 431> 

StocMiolui 396 

Moscow 300 

Budapest -299 

Copealiagen  .... 279 

Paris -268 

St  Petersburg... 236 
Trieste 211 


Leipzig 211 

Dresden '208 

Milan 204 

Rome .194 

Venice 189 

Breslau 186 

Bucharest 175 

Liege 174 

Christiania 162 

Berlin 154 


Glieut 144 

Hanilmrg 138 

Frankfort 132 

Turiu 132 

Antwerp 129 

Cologne 124 

Palermo 101 

The  Hague 99 

Naples 86 

Rotterdam 70 


None  of  the  above  figures  are  iJiesenteil  as  abso- 
lutely accurate.  They  can  only  he  ap])r(>xiniate 
in  the  he.'*t  case,  lor  in  every  country  there  uiust 
always  he  a  large  number  of  Ijastarils  who  either 
are  not  registered  at  all,  or  wlio  are  registered  as 
legitimate.  But  as  far  as  they  go  tlie  tigures 
are  instructive.  They  do  not,  however,  enable  one 
to  form  any  conclusion  as  to  the  causes  of  ilk- 
gitiiuai-y  in  respect  cillier  of  religion,  of  edm-ation, 
of  induslrial  (x-cupation,  or  of  distribution  of  popu. 
lation.  Neither  can  any  theory  be  well  evolved 
from  a  racial  basis  when  we  lind  Swetlen  with  as 
high  an  average  as  .\ustria,  and  both  with  more 
than  twice  the  aveiage  of  Italy  and  Spain.  It  is 
a  reuiarkabie  fact  that  in  the  year  bS.")!  more 
than  one-half  of  the  entire  birth.s  in  V'ienna  were 

*  In  the  eases  marked  with  iin  asterisk  the  percentage  is  of 
living  births ;  in  the  other  cases,  of  total  births  registered, 
including  still-born. 

t  No  statistics  are  available  for  Canada. 

{  In  (he  United  States  there  seems  no  elflcient  system  of 
registration  of  marriages  an'l  births— a  fact  ujmn  which  the 
CoMUnissioner  of  Uabour  conunents  in  his  recent  special  report 
on  'Marriage  and  Divorce'  in  the  republic.  Some  of  the  indi- 
vidual states  record  tlie  illegitimate  liirths,  but  the  llgures  are 
misleading  beejiuse  incomplete.  Tims,  the  state  of  Indiana 
returned,  in  1886.  ;i8,370  legitimate  and  .560  illegitimate  births— 
the  illegitimate  being  oidy  about  r46  of  the  w-liole ;  a  result 
which  in  the  light  of  the  above  table  we  can  only  regai-«l  as  due 
to  defective  registration. 


illegitimate,  but  there  is  no  e.xplanatiou  forth- 
coming of  that  fact,  nor  of  the  improvement  re- 
vealed in  the  above  table.  lu  Euroiie  generally, 
althimgli  not  universally,  there  seems  a  tendency 
to  decrea.se  in  the  rate  of  illegitimacy  ;  but  how 
f.ti-  that  appeaiance  may  be  ilue  to  moral  causes 
oi-  nieiely  to  more  comiuehensive  statistics  it  is 
imiiossihle  to  say. 

In  the  ]>criothcal  reports  of  tlie  respective  registrars- 
general  \i-ill  be  found  details  referring  to  Kngland,  Scot- 
laud,  and  Ireland.  Tlie  Virtofian  Year-hook,  by  H.  H. 
Hayter,  government  statistician,  may  be  consulteil  for  the 
.Vustralasian  colonies.  Tlie  tigures  for  foreign  countries 
have  been  compiled  from  official  and  other  sources  too 
numerous  to  mention.  Information  about  illegitimacy  is 
given  in  the  Jetinial  de  fa  Socicti  de  StntUtiqnt  df  Paris 
(24th  and  liBtli  years);  \n  Proctdintkntos  del  Deporta- 
meiito  NacionnI  de  EstadiMica,  AW  (Huenos  Ayrcs, 
1887 ) ;  and  in  Popolazioiie  :  Aforimciito  drilo  Utato  Civile 
t  Confroitti  Iitteruazioitati  per  i/ti  aniU  I^(!5-S3  I  Kome, 
1884).  In  the  -lournal  of  the  Eoyal  Statistical  Society 
(London)  for  1859  and  I8(j2  there  are  interesting  papers 
in  the  subject.  .See  also  A.  Letiingweirs  IlUijitimacy 
f.id  the  [iijincnrr  of  thf  Seftsons  on  Conduct  (1892). 

lUillliilli.  one  of  the  principal  mountains  of  the 
Bolivian  Andes,  40  miles  SE.  of  La  Paz.  Height, 
•21,150  feet.     See  Andes. 

lUillOis  t'"'  seventeenth  in  area  of  the  United 
Stales,  but  the  third  in  population,  extends  fiom 
Wisconsin  and  Lake  Michigan  on  fowright  imo  m  v.s. 
the  N.  and  NE.  to  the  junction  of  by  .i.  b.  Lippincott 
the  Ohio  .and  Mississi)ipi  liveis  at  CLipniiy. 
the  exti-enie  S\V.  a  ilistancc  of  nearly  400  miles. 
It  is  bounded  on  the  E.  liy  the  stale  of  Indiana, 
from  which  it  is  partly  separated  by  the  AA'abash 
Kiver ;  on  the  S.  it  is  seiiarated  from  Kentucky 
by  the  Ohio;  and  on  the  W.  the  Mississipiu  (lows 
between  it  and  the  states  of  Iowa  and  Missouri. 
The  area  is  56,650  sq.  m.,  or  nearly  that  of  England 
anil  Wales. 

The  surface  of  Illinois  is  the  most  level  of  any 
state  in  the  Union,  except  Delaware  and  Louisiana; 
and  its  wide  grassy  ])lains,  though  broken  by 
numerous  streams  fringed  with  belts  of  line  timber, 
have  gained  for  it  the  name  of  the  Prairie  State. 
The  drainage  is  towards  the  southwest,  through 
Streams  which  How  into  the  Mississippi.  The 
Illinois  River,  the  largest  in  the  state  to  which  it 
gives  name,  is  formed  by  the  union  of  two  streams 
in  the  northeast  of  the  state,  abinit  45  miles  south- 
west of  Lake  Michigan,  and  has  a  siuith-wesl  course 
of  about  500  miles  in  all,  joining  the  Missis- 
sippi '20  miles  above  the  mouth  of  the  Missouii. 
Tlie  fertile  soil  -a  heavy  black  loam  — with  a 
favouiable  climate,  makes  this  the  lichest  agri- 
(-iiltural  stale  in  the  Union;  and  Illinois  lanks 
tiist  for  the  jniiduction  of  coin,  cattle,  hogs,  and 
horses. 

The  annual  value  of  the  principal  crops — maize, 
oats,  hav,  wheat,  potatoes,  lye,  barley,  buckwheat, 
tlax,  tobacco— is  well  over  §1511,000.000.  Theie  are 
extensive  vineyards  in  the  state,  and  good  wine  is 
made.  .Much  fruit  is  raised,  especially  for  the  mar- 
kets of  Chicago.  Forests  still  cover  a  large  area  of 
the  land.  Honey  and  wax  are  obtained  im  a  large 
scale.  There  ;ire  1,500,000  horses  and  mules,  over 
3,000,000  cattle,  and  1,000,000  sheep  in  the  state. 

The  iiiiiieral  output  of  Illinois^  espei-ially  of  bitu- 
minous c<ial,  is  also  large  :  the  state  ranks  next  to 
Pennsylvania  in  this  iespe(-t.  Nearly  a  liftli  of  the 
entire  (-oal Held  of  the  United  States  is  found  in  this 
state  ;  and  though  some  tbiee-fourths  of  the  coal  is 
f<mnd  ill  the  .loliet  region  in  the  north  east,  there 
ate  some  900  collieries  in  about  lifty  .separate 
counties  of  the  state.  The  annual  output  reaches 
15,000,000  tmis,  and  the  industry  employs  .SO.OOO 
persons.  There  are  lirine-springs  in  the  south  of  the 
stale.     Iron  and  zinc  are  also  workeil  ;  ami  other 


ILLITERATES 


ILLUMINATI 


79 


niiiieiuU  are  lead,  limestone,  salt,  anil  fluor-spar, 
the  liist  fouiiil  near  Koseclare. 

Tlie  position  of  Illinois  (iresents  unusual  facilities 
for  couinieri-f.  It  lius  4oo  miles  of  navigable  rivers  ; 
awaterway  to  the  Atlaiilio  iliroiigli  tlu' great  lakes: 
:inil  the  drainage-canal  (1900)  from  tlie  Chicago 
liiver  to  thf  Pesplaines  connects  Chicar'o  with  the 
.Mississippi  Kiver.  Illinois  has  more  railroads  tlian 
any  other  state — 1(1,77(3  miles  in  1897.  The  traile  of 
the  -state  centres  in  Chicago,  and  in  the  article 
on  that  city  statistics  are  given,  as  W(>ll  as  some 
indication  of  the  leailing  manufactures.  ( H  these 
last  the  princii)al  are  connected  with  agriculture. 

The  state  i.s  divided  into  102  counties.  The  gov- 
ernor and  most  of  the  other  state  officers  are  elected 
for  four  years,  the  judges  of  the  supreme  court 
for  nine.  The  legislature  meets  hicnnially  ;  and 
to  the  lower  house  each  district  returns  three  mem- 
hers,  cumulative  voting  heing  iicrmitted  in  order 
to  provide  for  the  representation  of  minorities. 
Twenty  representatives  are  sent  to  the  Federal 
congre.ss.  The  provisions  for  ecim-ation  are  liberal. 
The  state  maintains  two  normal  schools,  an  agri- 
cultural college,  and  an  industrial  tiniversity  ;  and 
besides  these  there  are  many  other  colleges  and 
universities.  A  compulsory  educational  law  is  in 
force,  which  reijuires  children  l)etween  the  ages 
of  seven  and  fourteen  to  attend  for  at  least  si.\- 
teen  weeks  in  the  year  some  public  day  school, 
or  some  ijrivate  school  teaching  the  branches  com- 
monly taught  in  the  public  schools.  The  most 
important  educational  in-titutions,  inchiding  the 
magnilicently  endowed  Chicago  University,  are  in 
and  about  CI] icago  (i|.v.).  Thirty  higher  institn 
lions  have  700  teachers  and  over  10,000  imjiils. 
Over  2.5,0()0  elementary  teachers  instruct  800,0(10 
pupils.  The  state  charitable  institutions  include 
four  hospitals  for  the  insane,  at  Elgin,  Kankakee. 
Jacksonville,  and  .\nna  :  an  institution  for  the  deaf 
and  dumb,  and  another  for  the  blind  at  Jackson 
ville  ;  an  a-sylum  for  the  feeble-minded  at  Lincoln  : 
a  home  for  the  orphans  of  soldiers  at  Normal  ;  ami 
eye  and  ear  infirmary  at  Chicago  ;  a  reform  school 
for  boys  at  Pontiac  ;  and  a  soldiers'  and  sailors' 
home  at  Quincy.  The  47o.0<K)  Kimian  Catholics  in 
the  state  have  an  archbishop  and  three  bishops. 

Formerly  a  part  of  the  North-west  Teiritory, 
Illinois  was  organised  as  a  territory  in  1809,  and 
ailniitted  as  a  state  on  3d  December  1818.  While 
the  Feileral  law  at  that  date  made  a  population 
of  •tO,(X)0  a  condition  of  admission,  it  i.s  well 
established  that  the  actual  population  of  Illinois 
was  then  but  34,620.  In  18:^0  the  population 
numbered  1.57,445  ;  in  1850,  851,470 ;  in  1870, 
•2,539,891  ;  in  1880,  3,077,871  ;  and  in  1890, 
3,82(j.3.")  1 .  Chicago  is  by  far  the  largest  cit.\ 
of  Illinois ;  its  limits  embrace  more  than  a  fourth 
of  the  entire  population  of  the  state.  Peoria, 
t^uincy,  Springfield  (the  capital),  and  RoekfonI 
rank  ne.\t  in  population.  Important  events  in  the 
history  of  Illinois  have  been  the  Indiiin  wars  of 
the  territorial  period,  the  Black  Hawk  war  of 
1><32,  and  the  Mormon  (ij.v.)  troubles  in  1840-14. 
The  .state  raised  si.\  regiments  for  the  Mexican 
war,  and  during  the  civil  war  contributed  259.092 
men  to  the  Union  armies,  of  whom  over  29,(XMi 
were  killed  in  action  or  died  of  woumls  or  disease. 
At  Snringlield  Abraham  Lincoln  lived  before  he 
was  elected  president,  and  there  he  is  buried.  See 
S.  Breese,  Eurhj  Hi.ilori)  of  Illinois  (Chicago, 
1HS4);  J.  Moses,  lUinnix,  Ilistoriffd  iiiid  Statintiiut 
(Chicago,  1889). 

Illiterates  ^  term  used  to  designate  those 
persons  who  are  unable  to  rea<l  or  write,  or  both. 
The  percentage  of  illiterates  in  a  country  furnishes 
one  of  the  few  means  of  estimating  <|uantitatively 
the  average  level  of  intelligence,  or  at  least  of 
education,  po!«e.s.sed  by  the  people  of  that  conntry. 


Unfortunately  a  strict  comparison  cannot  be  made, 

because  the  statistics  of  illiteracy  in  ditl'eient 
countries  are  not  based  upon  one  uniforndy  recog- 
nised method  of  obtaining  them.  ( 1 )  A  few- 
countries — e.g.  the  United  States,  Hungary.  Italy, 
and  Portugal,  and  the  .Vustralian  colonies  of  \ic- 
toria  and  Tasinaina — have  endeavoured  to  take  an 
exact  census  of  illiterates ;  in  their  enumerations . 
all  children  below  six  years  of  age  were  excludeil, 
except  in  the  I'nited  States,  w-liich  excluded  all 
children  below  ten  years  of  age. 


Uiiitiil  .State-s  (18S0).22-15  p.iv 
Italy  (1881) 54-30    .. 


Hungary  (1880) iT14  p.c. 

Portugal  ( 1878) 79-Or    .. 


Men. 

Wouieu. 

Mf.%1.. 

9-60 

11-50 

10,S5 

4  t)5 

S-28 

6-46 

■J3-40 

25-30 

24-H.-I 

2  (-III 

l-!« 

1-1)9 

3-76 

4-20 

3-98 

4-52 

6-71 

0-62 

304 

3 -49 

3-26 

1-92 

2-89 

2-40 

3-31 

5-11 

4-21 

14-39 

22-62 

18-50 

42-36 

62-80 

52-58 

The  high  percentage  of  the  United  States  is 
due  to  the  low  educational  status  of  the  Negro 
population.  In  1881  there  were  in  the  colony  of 
Victoria  2380  per  cent,  of  illiter.ates,  and  in  Tas- 
mania 48-78  per  cent.  Of  the  other  methods  that 
are  employed  to  ascertain  the  number  of  illiterates 
(2)  the  most  complete  results  are  afl'orded  by  the 
enumeiation  of  the  men  and  women  who,  on  the 
occasion  of  their  marriage,  are  unable  to  sign  their 
names  in  the  registers.  On  this  basis  we  have  the 
following  results  for  comparison  in  the  year  1886  : 

Country, 
Eiiglaud  aud  Wales. . . 

Scotland 

Ireland    

Victoria 

Xew  South  Walf.s. 
Queensland  ... 
South  Australia 
N'ew  Zealand. 
rrussia(lS84) 

France  (1882) 

Italy  (1887) 4236 

It  may  be  stated  that  while  in  England  and 
Wales,  in  1863,  23  8  per  cent,  men  and  'A'Al  per  cent, 
women  signeil  their  marriage  register  by  mark,  in 
1897  the  figures  were  only  33  per  cent,  men  and 
40  per  cent,  women.  In  Scotland  in  1897  the  pro- 
portion was  216  per  cent,  men  and  3-27  per  cent, 
women,  while  in  several  counties  all  signed  their 
names.  In  Ireland,  in  the  .same  year,  the  pro- 
portions were  151  per  cent,  men  and  132  per  cent, 
women.  (3)  The  subjoined  table  gives  the  number 
of  recruits  w-lio  were  unalile  to  ic-kI  ami  write  in  the 
respective  countries  named,  and  where  universal 
conscription  is  in  force  : 

Baden  (1884) 0-02 

Wiirtemberg  ( 1^84  ). 0-02 

Bavaria  (1884) O'Os 

Sa.wtiy  (1884) 0-15 

Sweden  ( 1883) 0-27 

Denmark  ( I8S1 ) 0-36 

Uerniany  (1884) 1-27 

Switzerland  (isss) 1-3 

Pru.ssia  (1884) 1-97 


Holland (1887) >-5 

France  (1886; 10-30 

Belgium  ( 1887  i  13-87 

Austria  ( 1888 )     26  00 

Hungary  (1884)    3»-60 

Italy  (1888) 42-98 

Russia  ( 1882; ...   78-79 

Servia  (1881) 79-31 


(4)  .At  the  general  election  of  18S6  in  Great  Brit- 
ain ami  Ireland  there  voted  in  England  and  Wales 
.38,587  illiterate  persons,  in  Scotland  4836,  in  Ire- 
land 36,722.  giving  a  percentage  of  2(i9  ont  of  a 
total  of  2.91)9,381  voters  who  went  to  the  poll.  (5) 
Out  of  a  total  of  .34.473  persons  of  all  ages  arrested 
in  the  odony  of  Victoria,  in  the  vear  1.S87.  2(>,509 
coulil  oidy  lead  or  write  imperfectly,  and  3333  were 
totally  unable  to  read,  a  percentage  of  86-.56 
illiterates  apprehended.  Illiteracy  among  voters, 
both  white  and  black,  increased  enormously  in  the 
south  of  the  United  States  between  1870  and  1880. 
In  Texas  in  1870  there  were  17,500  illiterate  votei-s: 
ill  1880  there  were  33,085.  But  between  1880  and 
1890  the  illiteracy  in  the  States  was  reduced  to  13-4 
I  per  cent,  of  the  total  population.  Peoide  unable 
to  sign  their  name  attest  a  document  by  making 
a  cross,  certilied  by  a  witness  who  can  write. 

lllorill.     See  il.oiil. 

Illllllliliati  (Lat.  'the  enlighleneil '),  a  name 
assumed  by  iir  conferred  upon  various  mystics  i)ro- 
fessing  to  have  special  knowledge  of  God  and  things 


80 


ILLUMINATI 


ILLUMINATION 


divine.  The  sects  which  may  be  included  under 
the  title  ;iie  the  AlDiiihnutux,  hIid  oiij;iiiated  in 
Spain  aliDUl  lo'iO,  and  were  finally  eruslied  by  the 
Inijuisition :  the  ihierhiH.i  in  Krance,  who  llouilshed 
I'loni  1623  ti)  1G35 :  another  sect  which  arose  in 
the  south  of  France  about  17'2*2,  and  perislied  in 
the  storms  of  the  Revolution  :  an  association  of 
mystics  in  Belgium,  in  the  later  half  of  the 
18th  century.  liut  the  name  is  more  particularly 
siven  to  the  Order  of  the  Illuininati,  founded  at 
Tngolstadl  on  May  1,  1770,  which  soon  s])read  over 
almost  all  the  Catholic  parts  of  Germany.  Its 
foumler,  Adam  Weishau])t  (1748-1830),  professor 
of  Canon  Law  at  lugolstadt,  at  first  called  it  the 
Order  of  the  PerfectiUilists.  Filled  with  detestji- 
tion  of  .Jesuitism,  and  impatient  of  the  restraint^ 
which  were  at  that  time  imposed  on  the  freedom 
of  human  thou{;lit  in  Catholic  Cermany,  especially 
in  Uavaria,  Weishaupt  set  himself  to  combat 
ignorance,  superstition,  and  tyranny,  by  foundiu;; 
an  association  which  should  be  a  luminous  centre 
for  the  promotion  of  rational  and  religious  en 
lighteument.  Religious  dogmas  and  forms  of 
worship  were  rejected  ;  his  religious  system  was 
a    form   of    deism.      But    the    .society   prosecuted 

})olitical  aims  as  well,  in  that  the  members  of  the 
lighest  of  the  orders  into  which  it  was  divided 
were  pledged  to  the  furtherance  of  Republican 
opinions.  Implicit  obedience  to  the  chiefs  of  the 
association  was  one  of  the  first  laws  of  its  con- 
stitution. The  accession  of  Baron  von  Knigge 
to  the  new  order,  and  the  su|)port  which  it 
received  from  the  Freema.sons,  leil  to  its  rapid 
extension ;  about  17S0  it  counted  more  than  200(1 
adherents,  mostly  men  of  rank  and  influence.  It 
was  regarded  with  favour  liy  Goethe,  Herder, 
Nicolai,  Ernest  II.  of  Gotlia,  and  Karl  August  of 
Weimar.  Weishaupt  and  ICnigge  quarrelled  in 
1784.  The  order  began  to  be  openly  denounced 
as  ilangerous,  in  1784  and  1785  edicts  were  issued 
bv  the  Elector  of  Bavaria  for  its  suppression,  and 
\^eishaupt  was  ilegraded  and  banished.  See  liis 
Geschichte  dcr  Verfolgtiiig  der  Illuminaten  (1787) 
and  Kurze  Bechtfcrtigiiiig  mciner  AbsiehteH  (1787). 
— Ilhimiiiism,  the  system  of  the  French  illu- 
rainati,  is  sometimes  used  as  a  synonym  for  Free 
masonry  and  unbelief,  from  a  Catholic  point  of 
view. 

Illiiiiiiiiiitioii  of  .llaiinscripts,  the  art  of 

painting  numuscripts  with  miniatures  and  orna- 
ments, an  arc  of  the  most  remote  antiquity.  The 
Egyptian  papyri  containing  portions  of  the  Ritual 
or  •  Book  of  tlie  Dead '  are  ornamented  with 
veritable  drawings  and  coloured  pictures.  E.\ce])t 
these  papyri,  no  other  manuserijits  of  antii|uitv 
were,  strictly  speaking,  illuminated  ;  such  (Jreek 
and  Rom.iu  manuscripts  of  the  1st  century  as  have 
reacheil  the  present  day  being  written  only.  Pliny, 
indeeil,  mentions  from  Varro  that  authors  had  their 
portraits  [jainled  on  their  works,  and  refers  to  a 
biographical  work,  with  numerous  portraits  intro 
duceil.  but  all  such  bavi-  disai)])eared  in  the  wreck 
of  ages;  the  oldest  illuminated  .MSS.  which  have 
survived  beiug  the  Diusi-orhk.-<  of  Vienna  and  the 
Vii/jil  of  the  Vatican,  both  of  the  4th  century, 
and  ornamented  with  vignettes  or  pictures  in  the 
Byzantine  .style  of  art.  St  Jerome,  indeed,  in  the 
same  century,  ccuuplaiiis  of  the  abuse  of  the 
practice,  as  shown  by  tilling  ijp  books  with  capital 
letters  of  preposterous  size.  The  Byzantine  style 
strongly  influeuced  every  other  early  style  through- 
out tlie  West,  and  its  influence  can  be  traced  as 
late  as  the  Hth  century. 

The  art  of  illuminating  manuscripts  with  ^old 
and  silver  letters  is  supposed  to  have  been  derived 
from  Egypt,  but  it  is  remarkable  that  no  pa|iyrus 
has  any  gold  or  sil\er  inlroduceil  into  it.  The 
artists  who  painted  in  gold,   called   Ckri/sogriiji/ii, 


are  mentioned  as  early  as  the  2d  centurw  One  of 
the  oldest  manuscripts  of  this  style  is  the  Cudcx 
Anjcnteus  of  I'ltilas  (3(50  A.D.):  and  the  charter 
of  foundation  of  Newminster  at  Winchester  by 
King  Edgar  (9(>6  .-v.  u.),  six  centuries  later,  shows 
the  use  of  these  lettei-s.  (Jold  letters  seem  to  have 
been  used  in  the  East  during  the  12th  and  13th 
centuries.  At  an  early  period  the  use  of  illumin- 
ated or  decorate<l  initial  letlei-s  conmuMiced  — to 
lie  distinguished  from  the  illuminated  or  painted 
pa^es  placed  at  the  head  of  Byzantine  manu- 
scripts. Originally  they  were  not  larger  than 
the  text,  or  more  coloured  ;  but  the  Syriac  manu- 
scripts of  the  7th  century  have  them  with  a 
pattern  or  border  ;  and  they  go  on  increasing  in 
size  and  splemlour  from  the  8th  to  the  1  Ith  century, 
when  large  initial  letters,  sometimes  decorated  with 
little  pictures  or  ndniatures,  came  into  fashion  in 
the  Greek  and  Latin  manuscripts.  The  subjects 
of  the  figures  mixed  up  with  the  arabesque  orna- 
ments often  referreil  to  the  texts ;  warriors  and 
warlike  groups  of  figures  being  introduced  when 
the  text  referred  to  war,  symliolical  representa- 
tions of  hell  where  the  chapters  following  treated 
on  that  region.  These  initial  letters  soon  increased 
to  a  great  size,  being  from  2  to  24  inches  long  : 
they  were  most  used  in  the  8th  and  9th  centuries, 
but  continued  tUl  the  12tli  century,  ami  degener- 
ated in  the  16th  to  the  iast  decadence  of  art — the 
grotes(iue.  In  the  13th  century  burnished  gold 
was  used  as  a  background  for  letters  and  minia- 
tures, and  so  linely  were  these  backgrounds 
executed  that  they  appear  like  plates  oit  solid 
gold.  The  art  which  flourished  in  the  eastern 
an<l  western  empires  pas.sed  over  to  Ireland,  and 
there  gave  rise  to  a  separate  school  or  kind  uf 
illumination.  This  style,  which  consists  in  a 
regular  seiies  of  interlace<l  ribbon  ornaments,  often 
terminating  in  the  heads  of  gryphons  and  other 
animals,  seems  to  have  been  derived  from  the  later 
patterns  of  Byzantine  art,  seen  on  mosaics,  mural 
paintings,  and  other  objects.  This  Celtic  style  is 
finely  exhibited  in  the  remarkable  MS.  at  Trinity 
College,  Dublin,  known  as  the  '  Book  of  Kells,' 
which  is  believed  to  be  of  the  9th  centtiry.  The 
minute  size  and  number  of  the  interlacements  is 
quite  wonderful. 

The  Hilicrno  Saxon  style  is  seen  in  the  .so-called 
Durham  Book  in  the  British  Mu.seum  (Cott.  MS. 
Nero  I).  IV.),  which  is  only  second  to  the  Book  of 
Kells  in  beauty.  It  was  written  by  Eadfrith, 
Bishop  of  Lindisfarne  (died  721),  in  hcuiour  of  St 
Cuthbert.  The  various  schools  of  art  in  the 
mi<ldle  ages  found  their  honu>s  hi  the  dillerent 
monasteries,  and  the  so-called  Upus  Angliciiiii  is 
exhibited  in  the  Benedictioiial  now  in  the  posses- 
.sion  of  the  Duke  of  Devonshire  at  Chatsworth. 
This  wius  produced  at  the  Old  Minster  at  Win 
Chester,  and  was  executed  by  (Jodcmann  (after- 
wards abliot  of  Thorney)  for  Ethelwold,  Bishop 
of  Winchester  (963-984). 

In  the  12tli  century  a  new  style  arose  which  was 
distinguished  by  the  profusion  of  its  ornamenta- 
ti(Ui,  intricate  modes  of  illumination,  and  abundant 
use  of  gold  and  silver.  In  the  13th  century  the 
art  still  more  deterimated  in  western  Europe,  but 
the  manuscripts  of  the  14lh  century  show  a  great 
advance  in  painting  over  the  works  of  previous 
centuries.  Dante's  hifiiiit  Voiimicdiii  in  the  British 
.Museum  (Egcrtoii  MS.  943)  is  a  line  siieciinen  of 
the  work  of  Italian  artists  in  this  century.  The 
.Arundel  Psalter,  also  in  the  British  \luseum 
(Arundel  MS.  83),  is  a  noble  work  of  English 
artists.  It  was  given  by  Robert  de  Lyle  to  his 
daughter  Audry  in  1339.  " 

In  the  l.'ith  century  the  art  of  miniature  began 
to  decline  in  England,  and  the  finest  works  were 
produced   by  foreign   paintei-s.      This  is   the  case 


ILLUMINATIONS 


ILLUSTRATION    OF    BOOKS      81 


with  the  fatuous  Beilfui.I  Missal  iu  the  Britisli 
Museuui.  It  was  luepaieil  for  .lolm,  Duke  of  Bed- 
ford, son  of  Henry  I\".  and  IJejtent  i>f  France,  on 
his  niarriajie  in  14'JS  with  the  dauyliter  of  John, 
Duke  of  Burgundy.  'I'lie  duchess  presented  tlie 
MS.  (with  her  hushaml  s  consent)  to  Henry  VI. 
on  Cluistraa-s  Eve.  14S0.  Iu  this  same  century 
were  produced  the  celel)rated  choir  hooks  in  the 
cathedral  of  Siena,  by  (.Jirolarao  da  t'reinona  and 
Liberale  da  Venuia.  who  were  paid  foi-  tlieir  wink 
in  146S  and  147'2  7.".  One  of  the  most  lieautiful 
specimens  of  the  work  of  the  next  century  is  the 
Book  of  Horn's  of  Anne  of  Brittany,  wife  of  Louis 
XII.,  which  has  borders  of  natural  jdants  on  a  i,'old 
j;round.  Tlie  artist  to  whom  we  are  imlebted  for 
this  priceless  monument  of  French  art  at  the 
period  of  the  Renaissance  was  Jean  Bourdichon 
(  14.-)7-1521). 

The  usual  mode  of  i>ioduction  adopted  in  the 
Scriptorium  was  for  the  scribe  to  rule  a  space  for 
his  te.^t  in  accordance  with  the  general  desif,'n,  and 
to  wiite  within  tliese  liuiits.  He  was  followed  by 
the  illuminator  of  initials,  borders,  and  ornamental 
accessories.  Then  came  the  miniaturist.  St  David, 
the  patron  saint  of  Wales,  is  said  to  have  been  an 
jvssiduous  illuminator,  and  among  the  most  cele- 
brated miniaturists  niav  be  mentioned  Giotto 
I1276-13.37).  Fra  Angelico  (1389-14o5),  Attavante 
(14o5-1520),  Julio  Clovio  (1498-1578),  Vincenzo 
Kaimondo  (died  1557),  and  Boccardino  (16th 
century ).  Raphael  anil  Jan  van  Eyck  might  l>e 
added  to  the  list.  Tliat  splendid  example  of 
Flemish  illumination,  the  Franciscan  Breviary  of 
Cardinal  Donienico  llrimani  (1461-1523).  has  been 
attributed  to  Memling,  but  later  inquiries  have 
proved  that  he  bad  nothing  to  do  with  it. 

In  the  reign  of  Louis  XIV.  the  art  became 
extinct,  ending  with  a  style. of  painting  called 
camaicii  ffri.s.  a  kind  of  nionoclirome,  in  which  the 
liglits  are  white  or  gold,  and  shaded  so  as  to 
enuilate  bas-reliefs.  Among  oriental  nations  the 
Persians,  Hindus,  and  Chinese  have  illuminated 
manuscripts  of  great  beauty,  none  of  which,  how- 
ever, can  compete  with  those  of  the  western 
nations  in  antiquity.  For  beauty  of  design  some 
of  the  Arab  manuscripts  are  charming,  but  their 
antiquity  does  not  reach  beyond  the  13th  century. 
The  Chinese  Budilhists  have  also  illuminated 
classics,  or  religious  books  of  their  sect,  one  of 
which,  the  Diamond  Book,  as  it  is  called,  in  the 
British  Museum,  has  a  text  splendidly  printed  in 
silver  and  gold  lettei-s  on  a  Idue  ground,  and 
the  vignettes  charmingly  painted  in  tempera,  on 
macerated  leaves  of  the  Fiiiis  Indica. 

See  J.  W.  Bradley,  Manual  of  Illumination  (1861); 
Dictionarv  of  Miniaturists  (3  vols.  1887  80):  H.  Shaw, 
The  Art  of  Illumination  ( 186G ) ;  W.  &  G.  Audsley,  Guide 
to  Illuminating  and  Missal  Paiulinij  ( 1861  ) ;  L)e  Gray 
Birch  i  .Tenner,  Earhi  iJra'riiKjs  anrj  Illuniinations 
(187f»i;  -I.  H.  Middietmi.  Illuminatal  Afattuscripts 
(181rji;    Falconer  Madaii,  Books  in  Manuscrijjt  {189Z). 

Illiiiiiinations.    See  Pvrotechny. 

Illusions  are  usually  distinguished,  as  having 
scune  basis  in  outward  physical  facts,  from  (h'/imii/ns, 
which  are  purely  .subjective  hallucinations,  with  no 
foundation  .save  perverted  imagination,  or  other- 
wise disordered  faculties.  Optical  illusions  are 
exemplified  by  the  appearances  connected  with 
mirage.  See  (Jl-TICAI.  Il.U'.sioNS,  Al'i'.MiiTiox.s, 
Dreams.  H.\lh;oin.\tiox.s,  Insanity;  and  Sully's 
Illuxiiiiis  ( Inter.  Sc.  Series.  1881  ). 

Illustration  or  Itooks.  Since  man  first 
discovered  how  to  convey  bis  thoughts  to  others 
by  means  of  writing,  he  seems  to  have  felt  the 
want  of  some  method  of  illustration  or  embellish- 
ment. From  the  Kgyptian  papyrus  down  to  the 
invention  of  |irinling  this  was  sujqilied  bv  jiictures, 
266 


coloured  or  uncoloured.  engravings,  carvings,  &c.. 
executed  by  hand,  and  so  far  as  these  have  any  con- 
nection with  books  or  writings  their  history  will 
be  found  in  the  article  Ilumixatiox  of  JIaxi'- 
SCRII'TS.  The  lirst  juinted  books  were  entirely 
illustrations,  both  jiictures  and  text  being  printed 
from  blocks  engraveil  on  wood  in  relief,  such  as  the 
Biblia  I'auperum  (q.v.).  and  many  others.  The 
Ars  MeiiinriDnli  (end  of  15th  century)  comprised 
fifteen  New  Testament  pictures,  faced  by  the  same 
number  of  text  pages,  all  engraved  on  wood.  The 
Mazarin  Bible  (145.5),  the  first  book  comvdetely 
printed  from  movable  types,  ninny  of  the  cojdes  of 
which  were  beautifully  embellished  by  hand,  was 
sold  as  a  manuscript,  till  the  number  of  copies 
aroused  suspicion.  Many  other  spurious  MSS. 
were  produced  iu  the  same  way,  the  larger  price 
obtained  for  them  forming  a  temptation  to  those 
having  the  secret  of  printing. 

The  first  edition  of  the  hjwcidum  HntnaiKr  Sal- 
irifioiiis,  said  to  have  lieen  printed  by  Coster  abotit 
1440.  is  supposed  to  be  the  first  book  in  which 
two  difl'erent  coloured  inks  were  useil  on  the  same 
page:  and  the  ornamental  cajiitals  in  the  Psalter 
of  Fust  ami  Schiitler  in  1457  are  beautiful  speci- 
mens of  printing  in  two  colours.  Probably  the 
first  printed  book  with  wood-engraved  illustra- 
tions used  throughout  the  text  was  the  Fables 
of  Ulrich  Bohner,  issued  by  Albert  Pfister,  printer 
of  Bamberg,  in  1461,  which  had  101  engravings  on 
wood.  In  Italy  the  first  known  example  is  the 
Mfditafioiira,  published  by  Ulrich  Hahn.  a  Ger- 
man, in  Piome,  1467,  of  which  three  copies  are 
still  known  to  exist.  The  most  artistic  book  of 
this  period  was  certainly  a  volume  on  military  art 
by  ^'alturius,  illustrated  by  eighty-two  designs  by 
Matteo  Pasti,  at  Verona,  in  1472.  The  designs 
are  in  outline  and  very  cleverly  drawn,  though 
poorly  engraved. 

The  invention  of  the  method  of  printing  from 
engraved  (intaglio)  plates  intro<lnced  a  new  factor 
into  book  illustration.  //  Muittc  Santo  di  Dio 
(Florence,  1477)  was  the  first  liook  issued  with 
illustrations  engraved  on  metal. 

In  the  beginning  of  the  16th  century  many  books 
were  beatitifully  illustratetl  liy  pictures  in  chiar- 
oscuro, produce<l  by  three  or  four  blocks,  engraved 
on  wood,  jirinting  ditt'erent  shades  of  the  same 
colour,  generally  ochre,  brown,  gray,  or  red,  many 
of  the  original  drawings  being  by  Titian,  Raphael, 
Pannigiano,  and  other  mastere.  About  the  middle 
of  the  16th  century  engraved  (dates  l)egan  to  be 
used  in  conjunction  with  wood -engravings  in  the 
same  books  :  and  from  this  pei  ioil  a  struggle  for 
supremacy  began  between  the  two  arts,  which 
finally  resulted  in  favour  of  metal  at  the  end  of 
the  century.  Wood-engraving  declined  till  re- 
vived by  Bewick,  and  metal  engraving  and  etch- 
ing had  the  field  to  themselves.  During  the  18th 
century  nuiny  books  were  beautifully  illustrated 
by  engraved  and  etched  title-pages,  vignettes,  and 
tailpieces,  the  most  celebrated  artists  making 
designs  for  the  purpose  :  the  tyi)e  w.os  first  printed, 
leaving  spaces  on  whicli  the  plates  were  afterwards 
printed.  'J'hc  leail  taken  by  France  in  the  18th 
century  was  closely  followed  by  Germany  and  Eng- 
land. Coloured  illustrations,  when  not  coloured  by 
hand,  as  they  generally  Mere,  were  [irinted  by  means 
of  numerous  carefullv  prepared  wood  blocks,  each 
])rintinga  ilifVcrent  colour.  .\n  elalxu'ate  account  of 
the  tnethoil  will  lie  found  in  Savage's  work.  In 
short,  the  history  of  book  illustration  reflects  more 
or  less  faithfully  the  state  of  art  of  the  period,  and 
it  may  he  traced  in  the  articles  Book,  Engraving, 
\\'o<)d  engraving,  Bartolozzi.  Bewick,  (^axton, 
Diirer.  Hogarth,  Turner,  <.S:c. 

The  invention  of  lithography  in  1796  introduced 
a   third    (dement,    which    was    inimeiliatelv    taken 


82 


ILLUSTRATION    OF    BOOKS 


a.lvantage  of.      Bein-   much    cheaper   than   sicel- 
ei-ravinir,   it  gvadually  teu.led  to  Hupej-s.-de  t  hat 
^^i^'fer  ho.3c  purposes,  it.  ^l-^>f .  ^^f^^J  ^  ^ 
{or  coloured  work  giving  it  great  adwuitagcs  ox.i 
its   i-ial       In    Kuijlaiid    hook    illustration   may  he 
said    to    have   reached    its    culiuinatin^r    poiiit    as 
regards  en-'raved  and  etched  plates  m  the  hrst  halt 
K  19tir..entnry,  in  the  series  o.  -J'"-^-  ^ee^^ 
sakes,  and   the  higher-cla^ss   hooks   ^^^f^<^^^l  ]^> 
such   niivsters  as  Stothard,   Turner,   ^c-     >lie  le 
Wval  of  woo,l.engraviug  hy  Bewick  and  lus  pupils 
.n-adually  led  to  the  restoration  of  that  ait  as  an 
illustrating  medium.     In  this  it  was  greatly  a  ded 
hv  the  facflitv  with  which  wood-engravmgs  can  he 
printed   along-  with   the   text,  .t"o:ether   with   t  .e 
advance  made  in  typographic  printing.     The  senes 
of  Christmas  hooks  illustrated  hy  John  (afterwards 
Sir  John)  Gilbert  and  Birket  Foster  had  no  small 
share   in  that   advancement.     Among  the  artist^ 
who  have  helped  to  raise  the  art  to  its  present  lugji  I 
position   may   he   mentioned   Cruikshank,    H.    Iv. 
Browne  (Phiz),  Doyle,  Leech    Tenniel,  MiHais,  1'. 
Walker     \V.    J.    Linton,    Herkomer,    iVc.       llie  | 
.levelopment  of  what  has  been  called  the  American  [ 
school  of  wood-engraving  has  still  further  increased 
the  influence  of  that  branch  of  art  tor  illustrative 

^^mlef-Uock  Proc'ssci  for  Book  Ilhistratim.- 
While  Photogravure  (q. v.)  threatens  the  hnal  ex- 
tinction of  steel-engraving,  very  many  processes 
have  been  invented  to  pro<lnce  relief  blocks  with 
a  view  to  supersede  wooil-engravmg  in  book 
iUustration.  Tlie  object  aimed  at  is  to  reproduce 
drawings  in  line  or  wash,  in  fac-simile,  on  a  reliet 
block  capable  of  being  printed  from  the  surface  at 
the  type  press.  That  is,  the  lines  or  part^  which 
impre%4  the  paper  are  to  be  left  in  relief,  while 
the  white  parts  are  cut  out  so  as  to  leave  the  paper 

unprinted.  ,.   r  1 1     i  i 

What  are  called  'process'  relief  blocks  may  be 
divided  into  two  kinds— those  reproduced  from 
black-and-white,  or  line  drawings  by  pen  and  ink, 
and  those  from  half-tone  idiotographs  or  wash 
drawings.  The  former,  as  Ijeing  the  simpler,  we  ^ 
shall  describe  first.  ,        .        .    i 

The  -simplest  form  of  it  is  when  a  drawing  is 
made  in  transfer  ink  on  lithographic  transfer  pa,per 
(see   LlTHOGR.\PHy),    or  when   a    proof  ot    a   line 
drawin.'  on  stone  or  line  engraving  can   lie  got  in 
transfer   ink.     This    transfer   drawing  or   proof   is 
transferred  to  the  jjolished  surface  of  a  zinc  plate 
ill    the    or.linarv    lithographic    manner.      /inc    is 
generally  used,  iiecause  it  is  cheap,  and  is  readily 
soluble  in  etching  acid  ;  but  copper  is  sometimes 
used  for  very  fine  work.      After  tlie  transfer  the 
plate  is  wetted,  and  the  lines  are  inked  repeatedly 
till    a   thick    coating   of    ink    covers   the    lines   or 
the  drawing.     Pow.lered  asphalt,  or  other  similar 
substance,   is   then  dusted  over  the   plate,   which 
is     -entlv    heate.l    till    the    asphalt    is    incorpor- 
ated   with   the   ink.     The  back  of   the   i>late   and 
the  other   parts   not   requiring    to-  be  etched   are 
covered    by   varnish,    and    the   plate   is    put   into 
a   bath    of"   acid    for    the   uncovered    iiarts   to    be 
etched   awav,   leaving  the  lines  in   relief      As  tlie 
etching,   if  carried   on  continuously,  would  under- 
mine the  lines  and  tinallv  eat  them  olf  altogether, 
the   plate  Is  removed  from  the  bath  after  a  very 
slight    etching.      It  is   then   wa-shed    and    gently 
heated,  which  causes  the  asphalt  and  mk  to  run 
down   the  side  of   the  lines  already   in    relief,  .-ind 
l)rot(>ct  them  from  further  etching.     This  is  a  very 
delicate    part   of    the    process,    and   great    skill    is 
required  to  let  the  protecting  compound  run  down 
enough  and  no  more.     The  iilate  is  returned  to  the 
bath  and   etched  a  little  more.     The  wa.shing  and 
heating  is  repeated,  aii.l  so  the  etching  an.l  heating' 
o-oes  on  "radually  till  a  suHicieiit  depth  is  obtained 


for  the  line  parts.     During  the  etching  a  rocking 

motion  is  given  to  the  batli  to  make  tlie  acid   act 
more    equallv    and    allow    the   bubbles   of   gas   to 


more  equallv  and  allow  the  l.uoi.les  oi  ga-s  ou 
escape.  The  larger  white  parts  are  generally  cut 
deeper  afterwards  with  machine  drills. 

When  other  than  transfers  are  to  be  reproduced, 
such  as  peuaiid-ink  drawings,  engravings,  or  ;uiy 
(ither  drawing  in  line,  the  subject  is  photographed  to 
the  required  size.      Here  this  process  has  a  decided 
advantage  over  that  just  described,   ina.smuch  as 
the  drawing  to  be  copied  may  Vie  made  of  any  con- 
venient size,  while   a  drawing  on  transfer  paper 
must   be   of   the  exact  size   required.      The  iilioto- 
<naph  being  obtained,  it  is  treated  a-s  for  a  plioto- 
fithograph    (see    Lithography),    transferred    to 
stone,  and  a  re-transfer  taken  to  put  on  the  zinc, 
which  is  then  treated  a.s  already  described,      liy 
tliis  process  a  little  of  the  sharpne.ss  of  the  drawing 
is  lost  bv  the  repeated  transfers,  every  one  tend- 
ino-  to  tliicken  and  blur  the  lines  a  little  :  a  more 
direct  method  of  putting  the  draxyiiig  on  the  zinc 
is   as   follows.      The   plate    is    thinly   and   evenly 
coated  with  bitumen,  bichromatised   albumen,  or 
other   substance  sensitive   to    the  action  ot    light. 
\    very    strong   photographic    negative,    taken    in 
reverse  from  the  drawing,  in  which  the  lines  are 
clear  gla.ss  and   the  lights  as  dense  as  possible,  is 
put  on  the  plate  and  exposed  to  the  light.      1  he 
lioht    acting    through   the    lines   on    the    negative 
re'nder  the  corresp.mding  parts  of  the   coating  on 
the  zinc    to  a  sufficient   extent,   insoluble,  while 
the  light  parts,   being   protected    by  the  negative, 
can  he  dissolved  out  by  a  suitable  so  vent  m  the 
case  of  bitumen,    or  washed   ort   if  the   albunien 
method  is  used.     The  drawing  is  thus  left  on  the 
zinc  in  bitumen,  and,  as  that  substance  is  a  good 
protective   against   acid,   the    plate   is    etched    as 
already  described.     ^ 

There  are  also  several  gelatine  processes,  one  oi 
two  of  which  may  be  shortly  described.  In  the 
svcllcd  oekd/iir  process  a  plate  of  glass,  coated  with 
a  film  of  bichromatised  gelatine,  is  exposed  under 
a  negative,  from  a  line  drawing,  and  afterwards 
soaked  in  cold  water,  when  the  i«rts  >.>ot  acted 
upon  by  the  light  « ill  swell  up  suthcientl>  to 
allow  of  a  cast  being  taken  which  will  give  the 
lines  in  relief,  or,  if  the  plate  be  put  in  /,r.^  water, 
will  be  removed  alt<>getlier,  /cc,v<„,,  the  hues  in 
relief  Or,  if  a  nhoto-vositrre  be  put  on  the  hlni, 
the  lines  will  be  left  soluble  and  may  be  disso  ved 
out  bv  hot,  or  swelled  up  by  cold  water.  In  these 
.relatine  processes,  however,  the  relief  is  very  low, 
and  the  white  parts  have  t«  be  made  up  with 
heated  wax  by  hand,  which  is  a  very  .lelicate 
i.rocess,  or  cut  away  in  a  subsequent  stereotype. 
In  some  methods  a  solid  slab  of  prepared  gelatine 
I  is  used,  when  the  etching  or  dissolving  out  may 
be  made  as  deep  as  reipiired.  i;«-„,.;„„ 

'  There  are  an  inlinitv  of  other  slightly  difteiing 
processes  for  producing  the  same  result  but  ivs 
they  are  all  more  or  less  fimnded  on  the  same 
principle,    they  do  not  call   for  separate   descrip- 

"  The  production  of  relief  blocks  fr.ini  ordinary 
photographs  or  drawings  made  by  washes  of  black 
and  white  Is  a  much  more  delicate  matter.  n- 
ta.'lio  plates  have  indeed  been  ,n  success  ul  use  tor 
manv  years  (see  I'i.or,M;K,uii;K,  but  relief  bl<K-ks 
until  the  invention  ot  Meisenbach  s  process  baffled 
all  elVorts.  As  in  relief  bl.,ck  every  jiart  which 
touches  the  paper  prints  W«</.-,  and  every  part 
which  does  not  tcmch  the  paper  leaves  it  irhite  it 
is  obvious  that  until  some  method  was  devise.l  ot 
turning  the  smoothly  graded  tones  ot  a  photo.^rapli 
into  something  which  coul.l  be  represented  in  pure 
black  anil  white,  success  was  impossible. 

The  method  sought  after  was  to  biea.k  up  the 
photo-tones  into  some  sort  of  grain,  stipple  or  line, 


ILLUSTRATION    OF    BOOKS 


S3 


wliioli  sliould  be  closest  in  the  darkest  parts,  and 
liecome  more  open  iis  the  li;,'hts  were  approarlied. 
It  would  he  nnadvisalile.  even  it'  it  ueie  possible, 
to  enumerate  all  the  devices  which  have  been 
inventeil  and  patented  for  this  purpose.  That 
patenteil  by  Alei.senbach  of  Munich  in  KS,S2.  how- 
ever, jvs  the  one  on  which  nearly  all  the  most 
succe.ssful  subsequent  processes  are  bivsed,  may  be 
brielly  explained.  A  ^lass  plate  is  prepared  with 
tine  parallel  lines,  thus  ";  This  is  exposed  be- 
tween the  lens  and  tin-  ^^-nsitive  plate  in  the 
camera,  at  a  very  slimt  .li>tance  from  the  plate, 
and  when  the  exposure  is  half  compleled  the  cap 
is  put  on  the  lens,  the  lined  ]date  is  taken  out  and 
put  in  with  the  lines  in  the  reverse  clirection,  thus 
^  <>J.  and  the  exposure  is  conipleteil.  The  resultant 
^- 1  netrative  is  thus  broken  into  minute  regular 
dot-  These  -screens"  are  now  prepared  with  cross 
lines,  thus  avoiding  the  necessity  of  changing  the 
position  cluring  exposure.  They  are  glass  plates 
with  etched  lines,  or  are  photographically  printed 
from  a  jilate  so  prepared— two  plates  being  fastened 
face  to  face  with  their  lines  in  opposite  directions 
to  give  the  cross  etlect.  The  lines  may  vary  in 
width  from  85  pei  inch  for  new>.pa]iei  printing,  to 
about  150  per  inch  for  fine  printing.  Plates  with 
■2IX)  per  inch  produce  work  so  very  fine  in  grain  that 
special  printing  is  required. 

A  grained  photograph  being  finally  obtained  In- 
means  of  an.v  of  the  tiiousand-and-one  processes,  it 
is  transferred  to  zinc  and  etched  as  describeil  for 
the  line  process. 

In  addition  to  these  photochemical  proce.sses, 
there  are  several  mechauical  methods  of  producing 
relief  blocks,  of  which  Me.ssi-s  Dawson's  Typo- 
etching  process,  an  improvement  upon  Palmer's 
< Jlyphographic  process  (patented  in  1848),  is  very 
extensively  used  for  the  production  of  maps,  plans, 
diagrams,  &c.  .V  polished  bra,ss  plate  is  covered 
with  a  film  of  prepared  wax,  on  which  the  lines  are 
drawn  with  special  etching  needles  which  clear 
away  the  wax  down  to  the  metal.  Letters  and 
words  are  stamped  through  the  wax  with  types  of 
varying  sizes  as  may  be  rerpiired.  The  wax,  which 
is  of  course  very  thin,  is  added  to  by  melting  other 
wax  over  the  surface  with  a  he.ated  iiointed  metal 
tool.  This  stream  of  melted  wax  is  skilfully  pre- 
vented from  running  into  the  lines  or  lettei-s,  and 
when  thick  enough  to  give  sufficient  depth  t<i  the 
finished  block,  an  electrotype  is  taken  from  the 
plate,  in  which  the  cleared  surface  of  the  bra.ss 
forms  the  raised  lines,  and  the  built-up  wax  the 
sunk  or  white  parts.  This  electrotyjie  is  the  print- 
ing block.  Many  of  the  text  maps  in  the  present 
work  are  executed  by  this  process  :  those  in  A  ol.  VL 
p.  Till,  and  Vol.  VII.  p.  76:2,  are  good  examples. 

-Many  other  mechanical  methods  are  used  in 
engraving  ami  etching,  but  generall.v  they  are 
too  technical  to  be  detailed  here,  and  we  have 
€lescril)ed  nearly  all  which  are  of  any  public  conse- 
quence. 

It  is  obvious  that  these  various  processes,  thou<;h 
simple  enough  in  theory,  give  great  scope  for  skill 
in  manipidation,  and  much  of  their  success  depends 
on  the  ability  of  the  operator.  .\s  a  means  of  illus- 
trating books  they  are  making  rapiil  strides  to- 
wards complete  success  within  tlie  bounds,  not  by 
any  means  unlimiteil,  of  their  capabilities.  The 
rapidity  with  which  they  can  Vie  produced  ha.s 
rendered  the  <lail.v  illustraleil  paper  a  possible  and 
:iccomplished  fact.  .\s  to  cost,  blocks  can  be  pro- 
duced for  from  \>\.  to  Is.  6d.  per  sipiare  inch  of  sur- 
face, according  to  the  nature  of  the  ilrawings — the 
stipple  process  being  the  more  expensive. 

The  first  and  most  important  rcipiisite  is  to 
obtain  ilrawings  snitalde  for  the  purpose,  and  tlie.se 
should  be  made  by  artists  who  have  studied  the 
capabilities  and  requirements  of  the  various  methods. 


For  the  line  processes  the  drawings,  when  not 
executed  on  transfer  pajier,  should  be  made  on 
bristol  board  or  smooth-surfaced  white  paper,  with 
I  .■'onie  den.se  black  pigment,  as  much  of  the  sue 
ce.ss  depends  on  the  sharpness  and  blackness  ot 
1  even  the  faintest  lines.  Stephen's  ebony  stain, 
j  AVinsor  vV;  Newton's  liquid  lampblack,  and  other 
pigments  have  been  used  for  the  jiurpose.  The 
drawings  should  be  larger  than  the  required  re- 
production, ius  the  reduction  tends  to  refine  the 
block,  and  care  should  lie  taken  to  see  that  every 
detail  is  exactly  iis  wanted.  f<M-  the  process  repro- 
iluces  the  defects  as  strongly  as  the  beauties  of  a 
drawing.  (Jiven  proper  drawings  and  subjects 
suitable  for  the  purpose,  this  process  undoubtedly 
I  is  callable  of  producing  first-cla-ss  work. 
1  The  stipple  or  Meisenbach  process  is  a  much  more 
,  delicate  affair,  and  from  the  care  with  which  its 
blocks  require  to  be  printed,  on  account  of  the 
necessarily  shallow  nature  of  the  etching,  its  appli- 
cation is  much  more  limited.  If  nature  iilioto- 
graph.s  are  repniduced  on  too  small  a  scale,  the 
stipple,  if  coarse,  obliterates  much  of  the  detail, 
and.  if  too  fine,  is  apt  to  blur  in  juinting.  Hut 
when  drawings  are  specially  made  fur  it  by  artists 
who  understand  its  requirements,  it  is  capable  of 
very  fine  lesults,  and  the  drawing  is  reiiro<luced 
«itn  a  fidelity  seldom  seen  in  an  engiaving.  The 
drawings  may  be  executed  in  lampblack  and 
Chinese  white,  or  any  pure  monochrome. 

This  process  has  been  so  improved  and  developed 
that  it  has  liecome  almost  the  universal  medium 
for  ordinary  book  illustration. 

The  weak  point  of  nearly  all  tone-process  work 
is  that  the  sharpness  and  brilliancy  of  the  original 
drawing  gets  softened  and  generalised  away,  and 
the  result  is  sometimes  flat  and  spiritless,  with  a 
tendenc.y  to  become  monotonous.  The  process  has 
no  white  ,•  even  the  highest  lights  are  covered  with 
tint.  This  difficulty  is  met  by  an  increasing  use  of 
hand  engraving  on  the  blocks,  in  order  to  restore 
the  vigour  of  the  drawing,  anil  to  give  something 
more  or  less  like  a  good  wood  engiaving. 

The  latest  ilevelopment  of  the  process  is  the  Three- 
Colrjur  Prorrjsg.  Coloured  pictures,  or  naturally 
coloured  objects,  are  by  this  method  reproiluce'd 
and  printed  by  means  of  three  blocks,  printeil  with 
red,  yellow,  and  blue  inks  respecti\elv.  It  is 
founded  on  a  suggestion  by  the  late  Clerk  Alaxwell, 
and  Professor  Vogel  of  lierlin  and  many  others 
have  helped  in  its  development.  By  lueans  ot 
coloured  scieens,  or  liglit-///tr.v.  three  separate  nega 
tives  of  the  subject  are  taken,  reproducing  the  colour 
values  of  the  yellow,  red,  and  blue  rays  respectively. 
I'hese  negatives  are  by  the  usual  process  made  inlo 
blocks,  which,  if  properly  printed  with  the  correctl.\ 
coloured  inks,  jirodnce  a  more  or  less  exact  fac 
.simile  of  the  original  object  or  drawing.  Man\ 
very  fine  examples  of  the  process  ha\e  been  pro 
diiced,  in  whicli  every  touch  of  the  bnisb  in  a 
water-cobjur  drawing  has  been  faithfully  repro- 
duced. The  care  and  delicacy  necessary  for  success- 
ful printing,  however,  is  very  great,  anil  the  method 
should  be  limited  to  ca.ses  where  speciallv  prepared 
paper  can  be  used  in  printing,  or  the  resiilt  mav  be 
disappointing. 

For  purely  photogr.aphic  methods  of  illustiati<in, 
such  as  collotype,  see  Photography. 

See  Tlic  Prorcss  Year-Book  (annually);  W.  Sav.ige, 
PracUciil  HiiU.1  <in  Decorative  JPrinlin;/  ( I^nd.  1*<L'2); 
Paper  on  IMu.strated  Books  in  Qiiarterlii  Manaziin.  vol 
Ixxiv.  (.June  l!^i):  H.  IJoucliot,  The'  Printed  Jlook 
its  Historii.  ///ii.ilrati"iig,  dc.  (  Kng.  ed.  by  K  C.  Biginorc 
Loud.  1,S.S7;  new  ed.  1R89);  J.  .S.  Hodson,  aiiide  to  Art 
lUtMratioii  (1.S84);  Modern  Mdhoilx  of  Il/u/tratiiii; 
BiKika  \  I/ond.  1887);  Jiweph  Peiin.Il.  Pen  Pratrhni  anil 
Pea  DraiujhtKmen  ( ISH'I ;  new  c<l.  ISIM ).  and  Mmlern 
Iltiutrntinii  (1S9.">). 


64: 


ILLYKIA 


IMAGE-WORSHIP 


Illyria  (Lat.  nh/rii-Km),  in  ancient  times  tlie 
country  that  siretelieil  alonjj  the  eastern  siile  of 
the  Ailriatic  Sea,  from  Epinis  northwards.  It 
was  not  a  homof,'eneoiis  territorv,  hut  varied  in 
extent  at  ilitl'erent  periods  of  its  history.  The 
region  was  inhahited  hy  numerous  trihes,  wlio 
seem  sehh>m  to  liave  heeu  held  togetlu-r  hy  any 
sort  of  political  cohesion.  Kroni  some  cause  or 
other — prohahly  the  mountainous  character  of  the 
region  they  inhahited  was  the  princijial  cause  — 
they  were  the  last  of  the  peoples  of  the  lialUan 
peninsula  to  he  hrou^'ht  within  the  fold  of  civilisa- 
tion. The  single  Greek  colony  of  Dyrrhachium 
or  Epidamnus,  in  the  south,  w;is  the  only  point 
whence  the  rays  of  Greek  enliglitennient  could 
penetrate  the  darkness  of  Illyrian  barharisni.  The 
lUyrians  are  described  as  resembling  the  savage 
Thracians  in  their  mannei's,  as  tattooing  their 
bodies,  !i.s  ottering  human  sacrifices  to  their  deities, 
but  as  honouring  women,  who  even  held  chieftain- 
ships amongst  them.  For  many  years  they  seem 
to  have  kept  up  a  series  of  incessant  attacks  upon 
the  early  kings  of  Macedonia  :  they  levied  tribute 
from  Amyntas  II.,  and  slew  Perdiccas  (.359  B.C.). 
But  they  were  subdued  hy  Philip  II.  and  Alex- 
ander, who  annexed  their  country  to  Macedonia. 
In  the  3d  century,  after  the  breaking  up  of  the 
Macedonian  monarchy,  they  caused  much  annoy- 
ance to  Greece  and  Italy  by  their  ])iratical  excur- 
sions. At  length  the  patience  of  Rome  wjis  ex- 
hausted, and  in  two  short  wars  (229  and  219  B.C.) 
she  succeeded  in  subjiigating  the  refractory  Illy- 
rians.  Fifty  years  later  they  pro\oked  a  third  \\ar 
with  Kome,  Mhich  restilted  in  their  defeat  and  the 
incorporation  of  their  territories  in  the  all-vi('torious 
republic.  Nevertheless,  the  Illyrians  only  con- 
sented to  be  civiliseil  at  the  sword's  point,  they 
frequently  rose  in  revolt  against  their  conquerors  ; 
but  in  35  B.C.  Illyria  Wiis  made  a  Roman  province. 
During  the  em])ire  they  served  faithfully  in  the 
Roman  armies,  and  even  gave  halt-a-dozen 
emperoi-s  to  the  state,  as  Claudius  II.,  Aurelian, 
Diocletian,  Probus,  and  some  otheis.  Under  the 
rule  of  the  emperors  the  political  importance  of 
Illyria,  or  Illyricum,  as  the  Romans  called  it, 
was  greatly  increased.  In  the  2d  century  Illyria 
extended  as  far  north  as  the  Danube,  and  even 
Iteyond  it,  and  included  Noricuni.  Pannonia, 
Micsia,  Tlirace,  and  Dacia.  t'onstantine  still 
further  enlarged  its  boundaries,  ami  made  it  one 
of  the  four  chief  divisions  of  his  empire.  But 
when  the  empire  was  divided  l)etween  East  and 
West,  Illyria  w;is  also  divided.  Noricuni,  Pan- 
nonia, Miesia.  lie.  were  designated  as  Illyris 
liarbara,  and  incorporated  with  the  empire  of  the 
West  ;  Illyris  {Jneca,  embracing  Greece,  Mace- 
donia, Epirus,  &c.,  was  attached  to  the  eastern 
empire.  In  the  period  of  the  final  dissolution  of 
the  western  emiiire  Illyria  was  successively  over- 
run by  the  Gotiis,  the  Huns,  and  several  Slavic 
tribes,  and  nearly  all  traces  of  civilisation  dis 
appeared.  The  illyrians  themselves  partly  amal- 
gamated with  the  Ilnns  and  their  Slavic  con- 
querors, and  partly  were  driven  southwards,  where 
one  of  their  tribes,  the  Alhani,  survive,  at  all 
events  in  name,  in  the  modern  Albanians.  As 
the  several  Slavic  states  became  consolidated  and 
rose  to  power,  the  |)olitical  importance  of  Illyria. 
and  even  its  name,  gradually  died  away.  The 
name  was  revived  in  ipiite  modern  times,  when 
Napoleon,  in  1809,  formed  the  territories  he  had 
wrested  from  Austria  into  the  Illyrian  provinces. 
In  1816,  when  they  were  resUued  to  Austria,  this 
power  ciui.stituted  out  of  them  and  the  provinces 
of  Carinthia,  Carniola,  Gorz,  Gr.adisca,  and  Istria 
the  kingdom  of  Illyria.  But  the  designation  was 
dropped  in  1849,  and  the  territories  included  in  it 
were  reorganised  as  provinces. 


The  geographical  features  of  Illyria  are  ilescribed 
uiuler  Bosxi.\,  I)ai.m.\ti.\.  M<iMi:NK(iRi>,  \c.,  the 
modern  states  or  provinces  with  which  it  most 
nearly  coincided. 

The  name  Illyrian  is  also  used  in  three  other 
significations.  In  the  17th  and  18th  centuries  it 
wius  used  to  inilicate  those  Slavs  who  were  membei's 
of  the  non-united  Greek  Church — i.e.  principally 
the  Servians  or  Razans.  In  the  19th  century  the 
terms  Illyrian  and  Illyrian  peoides  were  used  in  con- 
nection with  the  idea  of  tlie  \inion  of  the  Southern 
Slavs — the  Servians,  Croatians.  and  Slovenians — 
into  a  revived  Illyrian  kingdom,  an  idea  which 
seems  to  have  been  first  made  current  by  Gai 
about  1835.  Illyrian  literature  is  sometimes  used 
when  Servian  literature  is  meant ;  and  Servian 
literature  in  this  sense  includes  Dalmatian  or 
Ragusan  literature.  See  Skkvia,  and  U.viiisA. 
The  scene  of  Shakespeare's  Tuxlfth  Ai(j/it  is  laid 
in  Illyria. 

IIllIOIl  (formerly  Mai/sk),  a  lake  in  the  Russian 

government  of  Novgorixl,  with  an  area  of  ;154 
sq.  ni. ,  and  a  depth  varying  from  7  to  30  feet.  The 
rivers  Shelcni,  Lovat,  Msta,  and  several  others  How 
into  the  lake,  which  ilischarges  its  waters  throu"!! 
the  river  Volkhof  into  Lake  Ladoga.  The  lake 
abounds  in  fish. 

Illllinster*  an  ancient  market-town  of  Somer- 
.setsliire,  is  situateil  on  the  I.sle,  11  miles  SE,  of 
Taunton  by  rail.  The  church  is  a  noble  example  of 
Perpenilicular  architecture.  Sonu>  manufactures  of 
rojies,  bricks,  and  tiles  are  carried  on.  Pop.  of 
parish  (  KS31 )  2957  :  ( 1891 )  3135. 

II  Obeid.    See  Obeii). 

Ilori.  or  Ii.LOKlN',  capital  of  a  Voiuba  state 
in  western  Africa,  and  a  great  connnercial  centre, 
stands,  .at  an  elevation  of  130U  feet,  about  IGO  miles 
NNE.  from  Lagos  (on  the  coast).  The  people, 
70,000  in  number,  consist  of  'S'orubas,  Hau.ssa, 
Kulah,  and  others,  anil  make  cloth,  arms,  and 
leather.  The  state  is  now  ]uactically  a  pnoinee 
of  the  empire  of  Sokoto  (q.v.):  and  is  within  the 
territory  of  the  British  Royal  Niger  Conii)any. 
The  religion  is  Mohammedanism,  with  strong 
traces  of  heathenism. 

Ilslcy.  East,  or  .MarivET  lLsl.l■:^,  a  m.irket- 
town  of  Berkshire,  situate<l  amid  bleak  and  dreary 
downs,  9  miles  N.  of  Newbury  and  tii  S.  of 
Didcot.  Its  sheep-markets  count  among  the  most 
important  in  the  kingdom.  Pop.  577.  Archbishop 
de  Dominis  was  rector  of  West  Ilsley,  2  miles 
north-west.      Pop.  377. 

linage.    See  Lenses,  Mikkoi!. 

IlllSlgi'-W<»rslli|l  (Hr.  ci/'0)io/at/ei«),  the  use 
in  public  or  jirixate  worslup  of  graven  or  i)ainted 
representations  of  sacred  jiersiuis  or  things,  and 
especially  the  exhibition  of  honour,  reverence,  or 
worship  to  or  towards  such  representations.  Neither 
in  the  New  Testament  nor  in  .-iny  genuine  writings 
of  the  first  age  of  Christianity  can  any  tr.-ice  be 
discovered  of  the  use  of  statues  or  pictures  in  the 
worship  of  Christians,  whether  public  or  private. 
The  earliest  allusion  to  such  representatiiuis  is 
found  in  Tertulliau.  who  appeals  to  the  inuisje 
of  the  Good  Shepherd  as  engraved  upon  the 
chalices.  A  very  curious  pagan  caricature  of 
<  hristianity  of  the  same  age,  lately  discovered 
scratched  upon  the  w.ill  of  a  room  in  the  palace  of 
the  Ca'sars(see(iHAIFlT!),  which  rudely  represents 
a  man  standing  in  the  attitude  of  prayer,  with  out- 
stretched hand,  before  a  grotesijue  caricature  of  the 
crucifixion,  and  which  bears  the  title  •  Alexamenus 
wcuships  God,'  has  been  recently  alleged  by 
I  at  holies  jis  an  additional  indicutiim  ol  at  least  a 
certain  use  of  inuiges  among  the  Christians  of  the 
2d  centurv.     The  tombs  of  the  Christians  in  the 


IMAGE-WORSHIP 


IMBROS 


85 


I{iiiiian  catacombs,  many  of  which  are  of  a  date 
anti'rior  to  Constantine,  frequently  have  graven 
niioii  them  rei<resentations  of  tlie  Dove,  of  the  ( 'ross. 
lit  the  symholioal  Fish,  of  the  Ship,  of  Adam  ami 
Kve,  of  Moses  strikin<,'  the  rock,  of  Jonah,  of  Daniel 
in  the  lions'  den,  of  the  apostles  Peter  and  Paul, 
and  above  all,  of  the  Good  Shejiherd  ;  and  those 
compartments  of  the  catacombs  which  were  used 
as  chapels  are  often  profusely  decorated  with  sacreil 
rejiresentations,  the  aije  of  which,  however,  it  is 
not  e.asy  to  determine  with  accuracy.  It  is 
admitted  by  Catholics,  however,  that,  from  the 
fear  of  perpetuatinj;  idolatrous  notions,  for  the  first 
three  centuries  the  use  of  images  was  rare  and  ex- 
ceptional ;  nor  was  it  until  after  the  establishment 
of  Cliristianity  under  Constantine,  and  p.articularly 
after  the  condenmation  of  the  Nestorian  heresy  in 
+30,  that  statues  and  pictures  of  our  Lord,  of  the 
\'irgin  Mary,  and  the  Saints,  were  commonly 
introduced  in  churches,  especially  in  the  East  and 
in  Italy.  And  yet  even  in  the  5tli  century  the 
practice  had  already  reached  a  great  height,  as 
we  learu  from  the  church  historian.  Theodoret, 
for  the  East,  and  from  Pauliuus  of  Xola,  for  Italy  ; 
and  in  the  6th  and  7th  centuries  many  popular 
practices  prevailed  which  called  forth  the  con- 
denmation of  learned  and  pious  bishops  both  in  the 
E;ist  and  in  the  West.  It  was  usual  not  only  to 
keep  lights  and  burn  incense  before  the  images, 
to  kiss  them  reverently,  and  to  kneel  down  and 
pray  before  them,  but  some  went  so  far  as  to  make 
the  images  serve  as  goilfathers  and  godmothers  in 
baptism,  and  even  to  mingle  the  ilust  or  the  colour- 
ing matter  scraped  from  the  images  with  the 
eucharistic  elements  in  the  Holy  Communion  : 
This  use  of  images  by  Christians  was  alleged  as  an 
obstacle  to  the  conversion  of  the  Jews,  and  as  one 
of  the  causes  of  the  progress  of  Mohammedanism 
in  the  East ;  and  the  excesses  described  alK)\  e 
]irovoked  the  reaction  of  Iconoclasni  (rj.v. ).  In  the 
second  Council  of  Nice  (787)  the  doctrine  as  to  the 
worship  of  images  was  carefully  laid  down.  A 
distinction  was  drawn  between  the  supreme  worship 
of  adoration,  which  is  called  latreia,  and  the 
inferior  worship  of  honour  or  reverence,  called 
ilijitleia.  The  second  Council  of  Nice  declared 
that  the  worshiji  to  be  paid  to  images  is  not  the 
supreme  worship  of  hitreia,  but  only  the  inferior 
worship  of  rlouleia  :  and  also  that  it  is  not  (ibsuliitc. 
and  is  not  rendered  to  the  images  themselves,  but 
rdatiic — i.e.  only  addressed  through  them,  or  by 
occasion  of  them,  to  the  original  which  they 
reiiresent.  A  strange  error  in  the  translation  of  the 
Creek  acts  of  the  Council  of  Nice,  by  which  it  ap 
peared  that  the  same  adoration  was  decreed  liy  that 
council  to  images  ■  which  is  rendi'red  to  tlie  Holy 
Trinity  it.self.'  led  to  a  vehement  agitation  in 
France  and  Germany  under  Charlemagne,  and  to  a 
condemnation  by  a  synod  at  Frankfort  of  the 
doctrines  of  the  Council  of  Nice.  But  an  explana- 
tion of  this  error,  and  of  the  false  translation  on 
which  it  was  based,  was  immediately  afterwards 
;.'iven  by  the  pope ;  and  eventually  the  Nicene 
exposition  of  the  doctrine  w.os  univer.sally  acceiiUMl 
in  the  Western  as  well  as  in  the  Eastern  Church. 

.\t  the  Reformation  the  reforming  party  generally 
rejected  the  use  of  images  as  an  unscriptural 
novelty,  and  stigmatised  the  Catholic  practice  its 
superstitious  and  even  idolatrous.  The  Zwinglian, 
and  sulisequently  the  Calvinistic  churches  en- 
tirely repudiated  all  use  of  images  for  the  pur- 
^ loses  of  worship.  I.uther,  on  the  contrary,  while 
le  conilemned  the  Koman  worship  of  images,  re- 
"arded  the  simple  use  of  them  even  in  the  church 
for  the  puriiose  of  instruction  and  a.s  incentive.s  to 
faith  and  to  devotion  a-s  one  of  those  aainphora. 
or  iiuliffetent  things,  which  may  l>e  permitted, 
although  not  of  neces.sarj'  institution  ;  hence,  in  the 


Lutheran  churches  of  (Jermany  and  the  northern 
kingdoms,  pictures,  crucihxes,  ami  other  religious 
symUils  are  still  freely  retained.  In  many  of  the 
parish  churches  of  England  these  renuvincd  till  long 
after  the  Keformation.  Thus,  we  liml  that  William 
Dowsing  found  ample  eiu]iloyment  during  ten 
UKmths  of  1644  in  destroying  ])ictures  and  images 
in  the  churches  of  the  single  county  of  SuHblk,  in 
accordance  with  an  ordinance  of  parliament.  In 
the  modern  Anglican  Church  the  practice  is  still 
a  subject  of  coutrovei'sy,  and  the  magnificent 
sculptured  reredos  erected  in  St  Paul's  Cathedral 
was  protested  against  as  idolatrous  by  some  of  the 
Lonffon  clergy  in  1888.  In  the  Presbyterian  Church 
and  in  all  the  other  Protestant  communicms  images 
are  entirely  unknow  n,  although  ligures  of  patron 
saints  and  eminent  churchmen  have  occasionally 
been  set  up,  as  in  the  restored  St  Giles'  High  Kirk 
in  Edinburgh. 

The  Roman  Catholic  Church,  through  the  decree 
of  the  Council  of  Trent,  disclaims  the  lm|iutation 
commonly  made  against  Catholics  of  the  idolatrous 
worship  of  images,  '  as  though  a  divinity  dwelt  in 
them,  or  as  though  we  [Catholics]  a.sked  anything 
of  them,  or  trusted  in  them,  as  the  heathens  did  in 
their  idols.'  It  renews  the  Nicene  distinction 
between  absolute  and  relative  worship  ;  the  lattei- 
of  which  alone — •  whereby  we  worship  Christ  and 
the  saints,  who  are  the  prototypes  of  tliese  images ' 
— it  sanctions  or  permits ;  and  it  contends  for 
the  great  ad\antage,  especially  in  the  case  of  rude 
and  unlearned  people,  to  be  drawn  from  the  use  of 
]iictures  and  statues  in  the  chnrchos  as  '  memorials 
of  the  suflerings  and  of  the  mercy  of  our  Lord,  jus 
instructive  records  of  the  virtues  of  the  saints,  and 
exhortations  to  the  imitation  of  their  example, 
and  as  incentives  to  the  love  of  God  and  to  the 
practice  of  piety '( Sess.  xxv.  On  the  Inroetttion  of 
Saints).  In  many  foreign  churches,  esjiecially  in 
Italy,  in  southern  Germany,  and  in  France,  are 
to  be  found  images  which  are  popularly  reputed 
as  especially  sacred,  and  to  which,  or  to  prayei-s 
oft'ered  liefore  which,  miraculous  effects  are  ascribed. 
But  instnicted  Catholics  declare  that  the  legends 
connected  with  siich  images  form  no  ]iart  of 
Catholic  belief.  Most  Catholic  books  of  instruction 
contain  cautions  against  attributing  such  effects 
to  any  special  virtue  of  the  images  themselves, 
rather  than  to  the  special  faith,  trustfulness,  and 
fervour  which  are  stirred  up  by  their  presence,  and 
by  the  recorded  examples  of  the  mercy  of  God 
with  which  they  are  associated.  For  the  modern 
Greek  usage,  see  Iconocl.\.sts. 

Imago.    See  Insect. 

IluAui,  or  1m.\UM,  the  officer  who  in  Midiani- 
Miedau  mosf^ues  recites  the  prayers  and  le.ads  the 
devotions  ot  the  faithful.  In  Turkey  the  inuini 
al.so  pei-forms  the  ceremonies  c<uiuected  with  cir- 
cumcisions, marriages,  and  funerals.  The  prophet 
Mohammed  and  his  immediate  successors  bore  the 
title  Imam,  because  they  u.scd  perscmallv  to  con- 
iluct  the  devotions  of  their  followers.  Hence  the 
title  came  to  mean  head  of  tlu;  faith,  and  as  such 
is  borne  bv  the  Sultan  of  Turkey.  For  '  the 
Hidden  Imam,'  see  I.S.M.VILI.S,  M.UlDi. 

Iiiiatra  Falls.    See  Finland. 

IllllH'filil.V.    ^ee  Iniocv. 

Illlbros.  or  iMiiHos,  an  island  of  the  .Egean 
Sea,  belonging  to  Turkey,  about  14  miles  NK.  of 
Lemnos  and  the  same  distance  W.  of  the  mouth 
of  the  Dardanelles.  .\rea,  98  m|.  m.  ;  pop.  UIKH), 
mostly  of  (Jreek  descent.  The  island  is  mountain- 
ous, its  highest  summit  attaining  1959  feet  above 
sea-level.  Goats  and  bees  are  kept.  The  inhabit- 
ants cultivate  the  soil  and  carry  on  lisliing.  The 
chief  village,  Kastro.  is  .situated  on  the  north 
coast,  and  occupies  the  site  of  the  ancient  town 


86 


TMERITIA 


IMMERMANN 


of  Imbros.     It  is  the  seat  of  a  metiopolituii  of  the 
Greek  Cliurcli. 

IllK'ritia.  •><  Imi  i;i;iiiia.     See  Hkokcia. 

Illlitatio  (ill'isti.  a  famous  liook  liighly 
prizeil  liy  ilfvoiit  (liristians  of  all  ciinfession^.  and 
traiislateil  into  nioic  lan.jjua.^cs  than  any  Ixiok 
exceiit  the  Hible.  The  qnestion  of  its  authoi-shii) 
has  t,'iven  rise  to  a  great  controversy.  It  was 
formerly  attributeil  unhesitatingly  to  Thomas  Ji 
Kempis,  an<l  the  best  authorities  still  regard  it  as 
his  wcnk.  Hut  it  has  been  claimed  f(n'  ("liancellor 
Gei-son  (((.v.).  for  Cerson,  abbot  of  Vercelli  (an 
apparently  hypothetical  person),  for  Waller  Hilton, 
a  monk  ot  Sheen  in  Surrey,  for  I'.onaventura,  Uer- 
nard  of  ('lair\:iu.>;,  and  for  many  other  writers,  botli 
famous  and  obscure.     See  Kemi'IS  (Thom.vs  a). 

Iiuitatioil.  in  the  science  of  mu.sical  composi- 
tion, is  the  repeating  of  the  same  ])assage,  or  the 
following  of  a  passage  with  a  similar  one,  in  one  or 
more  of  the  other  part~  (u-  voices,  and  it  may  be 
either  strict  or  free.  Wlien  the  imitated  pa.ssage 
is  repeated  note  for  note,  and  every  intei  val  is  tlie 
same,  it  is  called  strict,  and  it  nuiy  take  place  in 
the  unison  or  octave,  or  in  any  other  of  the  tlegrees 
of  the  scale,  eitlier  aljove  or  below  the  original 
pa.ssage.  Canon  (q.v. )  is  strict  imitation  carried 
on  to  some  length.  The  progression  of  a  pa.ssage 
may  also  be  imitated  by  an  inversion,  or  by  revers 
ing  the  movement  of  the  original  :  also  by  notes  of 
a  greater  or  of  a  lesser  value  (see  Al'GMENiWTION). 

Iiiiitatioii.    See  .MiMii'Kv. 

IllliaacillatO    <'01l«'»'l»fi0H.      The    Feast  of 

the  Immaculate  Conceiition  ot  the  I!le.ssed  Virgin  j 
Mary  is  celeVirated  on  the  8th  of  December  in  the 
Latin,  and  on  the  9th  in  the  Greek  Church,  in  j 
which  latter  church  it  is  held  under  the  name  of  ' 
'The  Conception  of  St  Anne,' the  mother  of  the  ! 
Virgin  Mary.  The  festival  of  the  Conception 
itself  is  traceable  iu  the  Greek  Church  from  the 
end  of  the  5th  century,  and  in  the  Latin  dates  from 
the  7th  :  l)Ut  a  great  controversy  prevailed  for  a 
long  time  iu  the  West  as  to  whether  and  in  what 
sense  the  conce])tion  of  the  Blessed  Virgin  War\ 
was  to  be  held  immaculate,  and  in  what  sense  the 
Blessed  Virgin  herself  was  to  be  held  conceived 
without  sin.  It  was  ludieved  to  be  a  conseipience 
of  the  doctrine  of  the  divine  maternity,  ami  a 
necessary  part  of  the  honour  due  to  the  Incarna- 
tion, that  the  Blessed  Mother  should  be  held  to 
have  been  at  all  times  free  from  the  stain  of  sin. 
This  might  have  been  either  by  her  having  been, 
like  the  prophet  Jeremiah  (Jcr.  i.  6).  or  the  IJaiitist 
St  .lohn  (Luke,  i.  3.3),  sanctified  before  her  birth— 
i.e.  ]Miriheil  in  her  mother's  womb  from  the  stain 
of  original  sin  :  or  by  the  still  higher  sanctilication 
of  having  been  entirely  exempted  from  the  stain  of 
.sin,  either  before  the  forniati(m  of  the  embryo 
in  the  womb  of  her  mother,  or  at  least  before  its 
animation  by  union  with  the  soul.  The  actual 
controversy  in  the  West  may  be  said  to  have  com- 
menced with  St  Bernard,  who  not  only  reuion- 
.strate<I  with  the  canons  of  Lyons  in  li:!l  for  their 
unauthorised  introduction  of  this  festival  in  their 
cathedral,  but  rejected  the  opinion  of  the  lilessed 
Virgiu'.s  having  been  conceived  free  froTii  original 
sin,  though  he  admitted  her  sanctification  in  her 
mothers  womb.  Duns  Scotus.  in  a  dis]iutation 
held  before  the  univei-sity  of  Paris  in  l.'fOT,  main 
tained  the  iloctrine  of  the  immaculateconcepliiin  in 
its  highest  sen-e  :  and  the  entire  order  to  which 
he  belonged,  the  I'ranciscan,  as  well  as  the  sclionl 
to  which  he  has  given  his  name,  the  Scotisis, 
afterwards  zealously  defended  it.  The  Thondst 
school,  which  was  that  of  thc>  Dondnican  order, 
denieil  the  ininnu'ulate  I'onception,  and  mu«li  divi- 
sion for  a  time  e.\isted  :  but  the  prevailing  tend- 
ency wa-s  at  all  times  towards  the  Scotist  opinion. 


The  university  of  Paris  in  13S7  comlemneil  the 
Thomist  doctrim-.  The  Council  of  Basel — al- 
though,   it   is    true,    at  the    time  when   it    was   in 

I  coiillict    with   the    popi — declared    the   doctrine   of 

I  the  immacidate  conceptiim  to  be  a  Catholic 
dogma,  and  reprobated  in  the  strongest  terms  the 
opposite  o]iini<in.  Sixtus  IV.,  however,  inipo.-ed 
on  the  deiendei-s  of  lioth  opinions  in  UTU  the  idili- 
gation  of  nuitnal  toleration  ami  charity,  and  re- 
newed this  constitution  in  14.s;!  ;  but  the  university 
of  Paris  reipiired  from  doctors  graduating  an  oath 
that  they  would  defend  the  dogma  of  tlie  imma- 
culate concepticm.  The  Council  of  Trent  merely 
declared  that  '  in  its  decree  on  original  sin  it  did 
not  comprehend  the  blessed  and  immaculate  Virgin 
Mary,'  and  renewed  the  constitutiiui  of  Sixtus  l\'. 
This  abstinence  on  the  part  of  the  council  led  to  a 
further  renewal  of  the  (lispute,  which  reached  such 
a  pitch  towardstheclo.se  of  the  Kith  century  that 
Pius  V.  not  only  prohibited  either  side  fnun  stig- 
matising the  opposite  with  the  name  of  heretical, 
but  forliade  all  public  discussions  of  the  .subject, 
except  iu  theological  disputations  in  the  presence 
of  a  learned  amlitory.  In  the  pontilieates  of  Paul 
\.  and  <;regor>  XA'.  earnest  requests  were  made 
by  the  Spanish  crown  to  obtain  a  definite  declara- 
tion in  favour  of  the  doctrine  of  the  immaculate 
conception  ;  but  the  pope  again  refused,  contenting 
himself  with  rejieating  the  constitution  of  Sixtus 
I\  .  He  added,  however,  certain  new  provisions: 
(1)  That  disputants,  in  asserting  the  doctrine  of 
the   innuaculate   coneei>tion.   should    .abstain    from 

I  assailing  the  opposite  doctrine.  (2)  That  no  one 
exeei>t  the  menjbers  of  the  Dondnican  order,  and 
others  specially  privileged,  should  jiresume  to  de- 

I  fend,  even  in  private  disputation,  the  iloctrine  that 
the  Blessed  Virgin  Alary  was  coiu'cived  in  oiiginal 

1  sin.  (3)  That,  nevertheless,  in  the  public  ma.ss  or 
oHice  of  the  church,  no  one  should  introduce  into 
the  prayers  or  other  formularies  any  other  W(ud 
than  simidy  cnmc/itio,  without  adding  any  epithet 
involving  either  doctrine.  At  the  same  time 
opinion  was  setting  steadily  in  favour  of  the 
doctrine  of  the  immaculate  concejition.  Alexander 
VII.,  and  afterwanis  Clement  IX..  added  new 
solemnity  to  the  festival.  Clement  XI.  ordained 
that  it  should  b(!  observed  as  a  holiday  of  obliga- 
tion, and  at  length  Gregory  X\'l.  ]iHiiiiilted  tliat 
the  epithet  immaculate  should  be  introduced  into 
the  public  .service.  In  the  eml.  .at  the  instaiuHM)f 
bishops  in  various  parts  of  the  church.  Pope  Pius 
IX.  .addressed  a  circular  to  the  bishops  of  each 
nation,  calling  for  their  opiidon,  and  that  of  their 
people,  as  to  the  faith  of  the  church  on  the  point  ; 
and  on  the  receijit  of  leplies  all  Imt  absolutely 
unaninmns,  he  issucil  a  solemn  decree  at  Pome,  in 
a  numcrims  council  of  lii^hoiis,  on  the  8th  December 
1854,  declaring  the  doctrine  to  be  an  article  of 
Catli(dic  belief,  and  proiJosing  it  as  such  to  the 
universal  church.  This  decree  h.os  been  univer- 
sally accepted  throughout  the  Koman  Church. 

llllUiaiH'IK'C.  the  notion  that  the  intelligent 
and  creative  iirinciple  of  the  universe  perv.ades  the 
universe  itself,  a  fundamental  c(Uicei>tion  of  Pan- 
theism ( i|.v.). 

Iiiiiiiannol.    See  Emmanuel. 

Iiiiin«-rniami.  Kahi,  LKnicitKCHT.  .lramati>t 
and  liuriHoist,  was  born  at  Magdeburg  on  '24th 
Apiil  ITiMi,  and  educated  at  his  native  town  ami  at 
Halle,  where  he  opposed  the  duelling  liiiinrlioi- 
srhiil'tiit  (i|.v.).  In  1817  he  entered  the  public 
service  of  Prussia,  ami.  after  serving  at  Miinster. 
Magdeburg,  anil  Diisseldorf,  died  at  the  bust- 
named  town  on  25th  .August  1840.  For  twenty 
years  of  his  life  ( 181!)  :«•)  he  was  greatly  iidlueiiced 
by  the  Countess  von  .\hlefeldt.  an  intellectual 
l.idv   of   literarv   tiu-les.       Immerniann    began    his 


IMMEU.^IANN 


IJIMIGRATIOX 


literary  career  as  au  aillierent  u(  the  Komaiitic 
school,  ami  in  the  spirit  of  that  selmol  wi-otc  the 
conieiUes  Die  Priii:<:ii  ron  ^i/it(/,iis  (18'2I  )  ;iiiil  Ar.v 
Aufff.  (/iv  LuIk  { 1824),  ami  tlie  tragedies  Ihi.s  Thul 
mil  Jioiiccnil  (1S22),  Kuni;/  Pcriaiitlcr  (1S2;}),  and 
others.  His  later  drainutii-  works,  as  the  trilo<r\" 
A/exis  { l,S32 )  and  tlu'  iiiyl  liical  pii-fo  Merlin  (  I,S.'{1 ). 
show  more  originality  and  fewer  tnu-es  of  Koniantie 
intiuence.  He  failed  in  an  eudeavonr  to  make  the 
theatre  at  Diisseldorf,  of  wliidi  he  liecame  director 
in  1,83,"),  a  model  of  classic  elegance  and  lieiiltliy 
intliienee.  His  fame  rests  more  endnriiigly  npon 
his  tales  (Miacelkii,  IS-W)  ,and  the  humor<nis, 
satirical  novels  Die  Epiifuncn  (I8;j())  and  Miiiicli- 
/laiixeii  (1.839),  this  la-st  the  best  known  of  liis 
works  and  one  of  tlie  best  of  (ierman  novels. 
The  idyllic  portion  of  Miuu-ltliaiiKCn  has  often  l.)een 
printed  separately  undei-  the  title  Dcr  Oberhuf. 
licsides  these  he  wrote  a  mock  heroic  poem  Tiili- 
fiiiitiliiti  (1827).  the  epic  Tristiin  mitl  Isulilr 
(1842),  ami  Meinwnliilieii  (1840-4:{).  the  la.st  two 
left  incomplete.  C'ollecte<l  editions  of  his  works 
were  pnblished  in  14  vols.  (  1840  4;{).  and  in  211  V(ds. 
by  Bo.vberger  (1883).  Sec  Life  by  his  widow, 
editeil  by  C.  \.)n  I'ntlitz  (2  vols.  1870). 

Illlllli^:i'ittioil.  Under  the  he,a<l  of  Emigration 
(i|.v.)the  can.scs  which  have  led  to  immigration  and 
the  comliti<ms  under  which  movements  of  popnla- 
tion  are  conducted  have  been  fully  described.  It 
is  necessary  under  immigration  (entering  or  passing  ' 
into  a  place,  as  opposed  to  emigration )  to  touch  on 
some  features  of  national  opinion  and  pidicy  which 
have  come  into  e.-cistence  within  the  past  few  years. 
I'ntil  the  l,%st  few  years,  with  the  exception  of  the 
immigration  of  Huguenot  fanulies  from  France  to 
(Ireat  Britain  Mtter  the  revocation  of  the  KiHct  of 
Nantes,  the  (lopuL-ition  of  these  islands  has  not 
been  increased  from  external  sources.  Since  18,80 
a  considerable  intlux  of  the  Semitic  inhabitants  of 
e.xstern  Europe,  priiicipaliy  Polish,  Kussi.au,  lion 
manian,  and  (Ierman  .Jews,  li.as  seriously  affected 
tlie  industrial  |H)sition  of  IJritish-born  workers  in 
certain  trades.  Public  attentii>n  w.as  drawn  to  the 
subject  in  18.88  ami  1889  by  the  a]>pointment  of 
two  parliamentary  committees — one  by  the  House 
of  Lords  on  the  sweating  system,  the  other  by  the 
House  of  Connmms  on  the  question  of  foreign 
pauper  immigration.  These  separate  inquiries 
were  really  directe<l  to  the  same  subject.  From 
the  evidence  given  it  appears  that  the  anti-Semitic 
laws  of  Kussi.a,  Poland,  .-mil  ( lermany.  .aggravated 
by  the  hated  liurden  of  compulsory  military  service, 
have  induced  consideralile  ImmUcs  of  destitute  per- 
.son--,  iilmo>t  exclusively  of  the  Hebrew  faith,  to 
.seek  in  England  a  refuge  from  civil  and  religious 
persecution.  I'ldike  the  Huguenots,  who  brought 
with  them  not  only  capital,  industry,  .and  a  know- 
ledge of  at  le.ast  two  useful  tr.ades,  silk-weaving 
and  w.atch-making.  the  .lewish  refugee  families 
arrive  in  England  in  a  destitute  condition.  The 
result  of  this  indigent  condition  is  a  willingness 
to  accept  the  smallest  remuneration  for  the  heaviest 
l.aboiir.  Si.xteen  to  eighteen  hours  ,i  day  is  no 
unu--ual  ]jeriod  of  toil  for  these  pauper  imndgrauts 
in  the  iHmtlinishing  trade.  Tlie  weekly  remun 
eratioii  for  this  wink  varies  from  four  to  fourteen 
shillings,  .according  to  the  skill  and  industry  of 
the  worker.  The  bearing  of  these  facts  on  the 
welfare  of  P>riiisli  born  workers  engaged  in  the 
same  (u-  in  kindred  occupations  is  of  a  sinister 
character.  Alone  of  civilised  nations  (Ireat  Britain  I 
is  without  laws  to  cimtrol  and  if  need  be  check  the  ' 
influx  of  foreigners,  who,  contiibuting  nothing  to 
the  mitional  revenue,  enjoy  the  privileges  without 
.sharing  the  liunlens  of  citizenship.  Public  ojiinion 
holds  jealously  to  the  trailitioiis  of  bospitalily 
England  has  always  extended  tosullerers  by  foreign 
[lei-secution.     Ma//.ini,  Kossuth,  ami  Ui'sini  found  ' 


a  .sanctuary  on  ISritish  soil.  It  is  held  that  the 
humbler  objects  of  foreign  tyranny  shall  ha\  e 
no  colder  welcome  measured  out  to  them.  The 
present  position  of  the  pauper  immigr.ant  i|Uestion 
in  Great  Britain  is  set  forth  in  the  lieport  of  the 
Select  Committee  of  the  Hou.se  of  Commons,  1889, 
and  is  to  the  eH'ectllial  although  no  immediate 
legislation  is  recommi'mled,  the  circumstances  are 
such  as  to  recpiire  careful  watching,  with  the  prob- 
ability of  some  restrictive  measure  being  reciuired 
in  the  future. 

Far  otherwise  has  the  question  of  immigi-atiou 
been  dealt  with  in  the  I'ldleil  States.  By  an  act 
piissed  by  congress  in  1882  (al.so  the  l^ndesirable 
Persims  .Act,  1891  )  it  is  provided  that  passengers 
arriving  from  foreign  ports  shall  be  suliject  to 
ex.uiiination.  If  a  convict,  lunatic,  idiot,  or  any 
person  unable  to  take  care  of  himself  or  herself 
without  becoming  a  public  charge  be  found  <ui 
bo.ard,  such  perscms  shall  not  be  allowed  to  land. 
In  1,898,  .3229  per.sons  were  sent  back  to  their  jiort 
of  embarkiition,  2812  under  the  .above  act  of  1S91, 
anil  417  undi'r  the  Contr.act  L.abour  .Acts  menlioned 
below.  Uf  the  total.  312  were  British  and  Irish. 
The  liability  to  repatriation  acts  as  a  deterrent 
to  the  embarkation  of  persons  likely  to  come 
under  the  act.  The  import.ation  of  foreigners 
and  aliens  is  prohibited  in  certain  cases.  By  the 
.Alien  Contract  Labour  I>aws  ( 18,S5,  1887,  1888.  ami 
1891)  prepayment  for  transportation  of  or  assist- 
ing foreign  immigrants  under  contr.act  for  labour 
in-  service  made  previous  to  emigration,  is  declared 
to  be  unlawful.  Any  contract  so  made  is  void  and 
of  no  etlect.  Foreigners  temporarily  residing  in 
the  L'nited  States  are  nevertfxeless  permitted  to 
engage  other  foreigners  as  private  secretaries,  ser- 
vants, or  domestics.  Nor  are  persons  ]irevented 
from  engaging  as  skilled  labourers  foreigners  in 
any  new  industry  not  established  in  the  Ignited 
States.  The  provisions  of  this  act  do  not  apply 
to  jirofessional  actors,  artists,  lecturers  or  singers, 
nor  to  persons  employed  strictly  as  iiersoual  ami 
domestic  servants,  nor  do  they  |>revent  any  in- 
dividu.al  assisting  his  friends  or  relatives  to  end- 
gr.ate  to  the  United  .States  for  the  purpose  of 
settlement. 

The  restriction  of  the  immigration  of  the  Chinese 
into  the  United  States  dates  from  the  completion 
of  the  great  trans-continental  railw.ays.  Thrift\, 
.abstemious,  andindust  lions,  the  Mongolian  lalioui  CIS 
thre.atened  to  lower  the  wages  of  the  Irish  and  the 
native-born  .Americans.  The  case  for  the  excdusion 
of  Chinese  includes  the  following  jioints  :  ( 1 )  That 
they  .arrive  in  the  country  faster  than  any  other 
kind  of  immigrant;  (2)  that  the  number  of  Chinese 
is  greater  than  that  of  any  other  race;  (3)  that 
they  are  indisposed  to  be  governed  by  white  men's 
haw;  (4)  that  they  are  dissimilar  in  habits  and 
occu]iation  to  the  English  spe.-iking  races;  (,"i)  that 
they  evade  the  i);iyment  of  taxes  justly  ilue  to  the 
government  ;  (6)  that  they  arc  governed  by  pesti- 
lential habits;  (7)  that  they  are  useless  in  cases  of 
emergency;  (8)  that  they  habitually  desecrate 
giaveyards  by  the  removal  of  bodies  therefidin  ; 
(9)  that  the  hiws  governing  the  whites  are  found 
to  be  inapplicable  to  the  Chinese  ;  (10)  that  they 
are  inclined  to  habits  subversive  of  the  comfort 
and  well  being  of  the  community;  ( 1 1 )  that  they 
do  not  come  .as  permanenl  settlers.  To  carry  out 
the  measures  for  excluding  the  Chinese  a  treaty 
was  concluded  between  the  United  States  and 
China  in  1880,  which  was  proclaimeil  the  follow- 
ing year.  The  lirst  and  most  iinporlaiit  articli'  of 
this  treaty  stipulates  that  'whencNcr  in  the  opinion 
of  the  governmenl  of  the  United  Stales  the  coming 
of  Chinese  labourers  allects  (u  threatens  to  allei't 
the  interests  of  that  country,  or  to  end.anger  the 
good  order  of  the  said  uouutry,  or  of  any  locality 


88 


IMMORALITY 


IMMORTALITY 


within  tlie  territory  tliereof,  tlie  government  of 
Cliin;i  aj;rt'Os  tliat  the  fioveriniient  of  the  t  niled 
Stiilesj  may  regulate,  limit,  or  suspend  such  roniin^ 
or  resilience,  but  may  not  absolutely  iirohil)it  it.' 
In  pursuance  of  the  stipulations  in  the  above 
treaty  congress  passed  in  .May  1882  an  act  declar- 
ing that,  '  in  the  opinion  of  the  government  of  the 
United  States  the  coming  of  Chinese  labourers 
to  this  country  eiKlangers  the  good  order  of 
certain  localities  within  the  territory  thereof,' 
and  it  is  eiuicted  that  the  immigration  of  Chinese 
labourers  be  su.spended  for  ten  years,  and  during 
tliat  lime  it  shall  not  be  lawful  for  a  Chinese 
labourer  to  come,  or,  having  come,  to  remain  in  the 
United  States.  No  C'hinose  are  or  can  be  admitted 
to  citizenship.  The  laws  and  regulations  devised 
to  secure  the  exclusion  of  the  Chinese  are  exceed- 
ingly stringent.  Any  person  Iningiug,  or  causing 
to  he  brought,  any  Chinese  person  not  lawfully 
entitled  to  enter  tlie  United  States  is  guilty  of  a 
inisdemeanoTir,  and  shall  on  conviction  be  lined  not 
e.xceeding  .JIUOO,  and  imprisoned  for  not  exceeding 
one  year.  Masters  of  ves.sels  arriving  at  United 
States  ports  mustsupi)ly  to  the  collector  of  customs 
a  separate  list  of  (Jhinese  jjassengers  on  board. 
Any  refusal  or  wilful  neglect  to  comply  with  these 
provisions  subjects  the  master  to  the  penalties  pro- 
vided for  refusal  to  deliver  a  manifest  of  cargo. 

Public  opinion  in  the  United  States  is  by  no 
means  unanimous  on  the  Chinese  question.  The 
pressure,  however,  of  the  Pacific  states  has  been 
too  str(mg  for  resistance  by  the  Atlantic  states. 

With  regard  to  the  laws  and  regulations  prevail- 
ing in  the  larger  British  colonies,  space  will  not 
])ermit  their  being  .set  forth  in  detail.  The  follow 
ing  precis  of  facts  and  references  will  be  found 
useful  for  further  investigations  of  the  subject : 

Laws  or  regulations,  if  .'my,  in  the  large  colonies  pro- 
hibiting or  restricting  the  ininiigration  of  pauper  or  infirm 
persons : 

Vaiuirla. — See  cltap.  (i.5  of  revised  Statutes  of  Canada. 
1886,  sections  17  to  24. 

Ntiv  South  Wales. — No  statute. 

Victoria. — Sections  .*it>-y9  of  Passengers,  Harbours,  and 
Kavigation  Statute,  1H65. 

South  AuMrulia. — The  governor  lias  power  under  the 
Immigration  Act  to  make  rules  for  repatriating  pauper 
and  infirm  person.s. 

Qnnrnslati't.      Xu  statute. 

Tasmauia. — Section  3,  4'J  Vict.  No.  4,  lilSS. 

New  Zealanil — Imbecile  Passengers  Act,  1882. 

('ape. — No  statute. 

Natal. — No  statute. 

Tile  laws  of  foreign  countries  respecting  the  admission 
and  continued  rosidence  of  destitute  aliens  are  contained 
in  a  retuiTi  presented  to  parliament  in  September  1887 
(c.  .5](J8,  Eyre  &  Spottiswoode). 

The  law  of  the  Austral.asian  colonies  rel.ating  to 
the  Chinese  are  substantially  the  sanu'  as  those 
prevailing  in  the  United  States.  See  CuiN.V,  Vol. 
III.  p.  193 ;  and  CooLIKS. 

Illiniorality,  in  point  of  law,  is  a  good  defence 
to  actions  and  suits,  ami  obligations  and  ciintracls 
made  .against  good  nnuiils  are  inetl'ectual  at  law. 
Thus,  for  example,  if  a  man  gave  a  bond,  or  granted 
a  deed,  giving  to  a  woman  sinni^  annuity,  with  a 
view  to  induce  her  to  live  in  concubinage,  this 
would  he  a  good  defence  against,  the  bond  or  deed 
being  enfoiced,  for  the  law^  di.scountenances  his 
conduct;  whereas,  if  it  were  tnerely  a  bond,  or  a 
gift,  in  considenition  of  .something  of  the  same  kind 

1>ast  and  ended,  the  deed  wouhl  be  gooil.  So  the 
[eeper  of  a  house  of  ill  fame  is  not  allowed  to  sue, 
and  has  no  legal  remedy  against  her  guests  for  any 
sum  agreed  to  be  paid  for  immor.'il  pur|ioses. 

Immortality  is  the  iimtinued  existence  oi 
the  human  soul  in  a  future  and  invisible  state.  '  If 
a  man  die,  shall  he  live  again?'  is  a  question  which 


has  naturally  agitated  the  heart  and  stimulated  the 
intellectual  curiosity  of  man,  wherever  he  has  risen 
above  a  state  of  barbarism,  and  commeitced  tuexer- 
cise  his  intellect  at  all.  The  religion  of  all  civilised 
peoples  may  be  said  imne  or  less  to  recognise  the 
alhrmative  of  the  ipiestion,  although  often  under 
very  vague  ami  materialistic  forms.  Some  of  the 
most  widely-spread  forms  of  belief  in  the  world  would 
seem  to  be  exi-cptiiins  to  this  statcmriit  ;  for  in 
Hinduism  the  goal  sought  is  ahsoriJtion  into  the 
Universal  Spirit,  and  theief(ue  lo.ss  of  individual 
existence ;  while  the  pious  Buddhist  strives  for 
yirmiia,  or  complete  extinction.  Yet  even  here 
the  belief  in  a  future  life  exi.sts  in  the  form  of 
Transmigration  ( (pv. ). 

In  the  ancient  Kgy|itian  religion  the  idea  of 
immortality  liist  a-ssumes  a  delinite  shape.  There 
is  a  clear  recognition  of  a  dwelling-place  of  the 
dead  and  of  a  future  judgment.  Osiris,  the  bene- 
licent  god,  judges  the  dea<l,  and  '  having  weigheil 
their  heart  in  the  scales  of  justice,  he  .sends  the 
wicked  to  regions  of  darkness,  while  the  just  are 
sent  to  ilwell  with  the  god  of  light.'  The  latter, 
we  read  on  an  inscription,  '  fouml  favour  befme  the 
great  Cod  :  they  dwell  in  glory,  where  they  live  a 
heavenly  life;  the  bodies  they  have  iiuitted  will  for 
ever  repose  in  their  tombs,  whilst  they  rejoice  in 
the  life  of  the  supreme  God. '  Immortality  is  |)lainly 
taught,  but  bound  up  with  the  idea  of  the  preser- 
vation of  the  body,  to  which  the  Kgyi)tians attached 
great  im]iortance,  as  a  condition  of  the  .soul's  con- 
tinued life;  and  hence  they  built  vast  tombs,  and 
embalmed  their  bodies,  as  if  to  last  for  ever.  In 
the  Zoroastrian  religion  the  future  world,  with  its 
governing  spirits,  jilays  a  prominent  ])art.  Under 
Urmuzd  and  Ahriman  there  are  ranged  regular 
hierarchies  of  spirits  engaged  in  a  perpetual  con- 
flict ;  and  the  siml  passes  into  the  kingdom  of  light 
or  of  darkness,  over  which  these  spirits  resjiectivelv 
preside,  according  as  it  has  lived  on  the  earth  well 
or  ill.  Whoever  has  lived  in  purity,  and  has  not 
.sullered  the  i/irn  (evil  spirits)  to  have  any  power 
over  him,  passes  after  death  into  the  realms  of 
light.  In  the  early  (Jreek  paganism  Ha<les,  or 
the  realms  of  the  (lead,  is  the  emblem  of  gloom 
to  the  Hellenic  imagin.ttion.  .\chilles,  the  ideal 
hero,  ileclares  that  he  '  would  rather  till  the  ground 
than  live  in  pale  Elysium.'  This  melancholy  view 
of  the  future  everywhere  pervailes  the  Homeric 
religion.  'With  the  progress  of  Hellenic  thought 
a  higher  idea  of  the  future  is  fimnd  to  ch,aiaeterise 
both  the  jjoetry  and  jihilosophy  of  (ireece,  till,  in 
the  Platonic  Socrates,  the  concejiticm  of  immort.al- 
ity  shines  forth  with  impressive  clearness  and  ]ire- 
cision.  In  the  .l/ii/lui/i/  and  the  I'liodu  Socr.ates 
discourses  of  the  doctrine  of  the  soul's  immortality 
in  language  at  once  rich  in  faith  ami  in  beavity. 
'  The  soul,  the  ininiaterial  part,  being  of  a  nature 
.so  sujierior  to  the  body,  can  it,  he  asks  in  the 
riiwdii,  'as  soon  as  it  is  separated  from  the  body, 
be  <lis]iersed  into  nothing,  aiid  perish?  tMi,  far 
otherwise.  Hatlier  will  this  be  the  result.  If  it 
take  its  departure  in  a  state  of  [lurity,  not  carrying 
with  it  any  clinging  impurities  of  the  body,  im- 
])urities  which  during  life  it  never  willingly  shared 
in,  but  .-ilways  avoided,  gathering  itself  into  itself, 
and  making  the  separation  from  the  body  its  .-lini 
and  study  that  is,  devoting  it.self  to  true  philo- 
sophy, .■mcl  studying  how  to  ilie  caliidy  ;  for  this  is 
tnu^  philo.sophy,  is  iti  not? — well,  then,  so  pre]>ared, 
the  soul  departs  into  that  invisible  region  w  hich  is 
of  its  own  nature,  the  region  of  the  divine,  the 
immiM'tal,  the  wise,  and  then  its  lot  is  to  be  happy 
in  a  state  in  which  it  is  freeil  from  fears  and  wiM 
desires,  and  the  other  evils  of  humanity,  and  spends 
the  rest  of  its  existence  with  the  gods. 

It  is  only  in  Christianity,  however,  that  tlii> 
higher  life  is  clearly  revealed   as   a   reward,   uot 


IMxMORTELLES 


IMPETIGO    CONTAGIOSA 


89 


merely  to  the  true  philosopher,  but  to  every  humble 
and  pious  soul.  I'hrist  '  hath  brought  life  and 
immortality  to  lijjlit  by  the  gospel."  '  According  to 
bis  abundant  mercy,  (to<l  hath  begotten  us  again 
unto  a  lively  hope  by  the  resurrection  of  Jesus  < 
(."hrist  from  the  ilead.  to  an  inlieritance  incorrupt- 
ible and  undi'liled,  and  that  tadctli  not  away, 
reserved  in  heaven.'  It  is  undoubtedly  owing  to 
Christianity  that  the  tioctrine  of  the  soul's  im- 
mortality has  become  a  common  and  well -recognised 
truth — no  mere  result  of  speculation,  nor  product  of 
j>riestly  invention— but  a  light  to  the  reason,  and  a 
guide  to  the  conscience  and  conduct.  For  the 
Old  Testament  view  see  the  article  Hell  :  for  other 
'luestions  connected  with  the  future  state  see  the 

articles  ASIMISM,  APPARITIOX.S,  CoNDITIOX.\L  I.M 
MORT.ALITV,  HE.WEX,  ESCHAT0L00Y,0RIGEX,  PRE 

E.xisTENCE,  Soul,  Spiritualism.  Theosophy. 
rNlVERSALlST.s;  also  Salmonds  C'/i)(4Y««H  Doctrine 
of  Immoitnliti/  (  1896 ).  | 

Iiniuortelles.    See  Everlasting  Flower. 

I'inola.  a  town  of  Italy  on  an  islet  in  the  livei 
Santerno.  in  the  midst  of  "a  fruitful  plain,  •22  miles 
SE.  of  Bologna  Ity  rail,  with  manufactures  of  leather, 
pottery,  silk,  and  ^'la.ss.  Its  cathedral  has  been 
spoiled  by  restoration.  Pop.  12,500.— Innocenzo 
du  I mola  (properly  Krancucci ),  a  notable  painter, 
was  born  here  in  1494,  and  did  most  of  his  life's 
work  in  Bologna,  where  he  died  about  1550. 

Impanation  (Lat.  in,  and  panis,  'bread'),  a 
technical  word  formed  on  tlie  analogy  of  '  incarna- 
tion.' employeil  in  eucharistic  controversies  as  early 
as  the  12th  century  to  express  the  union  of  the 
body  of  Christ  with  the  consecrated  bread  in  the 
Euchaiist :  hut  later  specially  used  of  Luther's 
doctrine  of  Consul)stantiation  (<|.v.).  See  T.UTHER, 
and  Lord's  Supper. 

Inipearhuieilt.  an  exceptional  form  of  process 
-vvlierel)y  the  House  of  Commons  may  obtain  redress 
fi>r  any  unlawful  act,  and  especially  for  high  crime.s 
and  misdemeanours  committed  by  jjcers  and  minis- 
tei-s  of  the  crown.  When  the  House  has  resolved 
on  an  impeachment  certain  of  its  members  are 
deputed  to  go  to  the  bar  of  the  House  of  Lords,  and 
there  to  present  the  charges  they  are  prepared  tn 
support.  At  the  trial  the  Lords  as  a  bod\-  act  as 
jiidges,  the  managers  appointed  by  the  Commons 
conduct  the  prosecution,  and  the  accu.sed  may  be 
di'fended  by  counsel.  For  a  picturesque  description 
of  these  proceedings,  see  Nlacaula}''s  E.ssay  on 
Warren  Hastings.  A  pardon  by  the  crown  may 
not  be  pleade<l  in  bar  of  an  impeachment ;  but  after 
conviction  and  sentence  the  crown  may  j)ardon  the 
oll'ender.  The  la-st  instance  of  an  im])eachnieut  is 
that  of  Lord  Melville  in  180.>.  Impeachment  is  a 
f<irm  of  trial,  and  is  to  be  distinguished  from  pro- 
ceedings by  way  of  Bill  of  Attaimleror  Bill  of  Pains 
and  Penalties.  Parliament  deals  witli  such  l)ills  in 
its  legislative  and  not  in  its  judicial  capacity.  In 
the  United  States  impeachment  is  a  written  charge 
Virought  by  the  House  of  Representatives  to  the 
Senate  against  a  civil  officer  of  the  I'nited  States  : 
or,  in  the  several  states,  the  accusation  of  an  officer 
by  the  legislature  to  the  senate  of  the  state.  The 
most  famous  trial  of  impeachment  in  the  I'niteil 
States  was  that  of  President  Johnsim  (q.v.),  in 
1H6S;  and  he  was  acquitteil  under  the  rule  requir- 
ing a  two-thirds  vote  of  the  meuibei-s  ])resent  to 
secure  a  cimviction,  the  vote  standing  .V>  for  and  10 
against  conviction. 

Iniponetrability.  one  of  the  essential  pro- 
perties lit  mattiT.  ini|ilies  that  no  two  IxMlies  can  at 
till'  saiiK'  lime  occupy  the  same  space.  If  a  nail 
be  driyeii  into  a  idece  of  wood,  it  does  not,  iiroperly 
^peaking,  poietrntr  the  wooil,  for  the  libres  are 
driven  a.side  l>efore  tiie  nail  can  enter.     If  a  vessel 


be  tilled  with  fluid,  and  a  .solid  body  be  then  placed 
in  it,  as  much  water  will  run  over  as  is  equal  in 
bulk  to  the  solid  body,  in  this  way  making  room 
for  it.  The  lightest  gases  are  really  as  impenetrable 
as  the  densest  solid  ;  although,  owing  to  their  coni- 
liressibility,  it  is  not  readily  made  apparent. 

Imperative,  Categorical.  See  Kant,  and 
Ethics. 

Imperial  Cities.    See  Free  Citles. 

Imperial  Institute.  The  Imperial  Institute 
of  the  Initi'd  Kingdom,  the  Colonies,  and  India, 
designed  to  iummemorate  the  jubilee  of  l^hieen 
Victoria  ( 1SS7  ),  aims  at  comiirising  complete  cullec- 
tions  of  the  products  of  the  \arious  parts  of  the 
British  enipiie,  a  commercial  intelligence  depart- 
ment for  the  promotion  of  trade  and  industry,  and 
a  great  school  of  modern  oriental  languages  (opened 
in  1890).  In  1890  some  £4.)0,000  had  been  sub- 
scribed for  the  purpose,  at  home,  in  Canada,  Aus- 
tralia, and  India.  The  foundation  of  the  building 
costing  £300,0(10  was  laid  by  the  Queen  in  1887,  and 
the  Institute  was  opened  by  her  on  10th  May  1893. 

Imperialism,  in  its  original,  and,  perhaps,  its 
widest  sense,  was  expressed  in  the  gieat  designs 
of  Charlemagne  (q.v.).  Regarded  thus,  it  amounts 
to  a  scheme  of  undisputed  sway  over  an  extensive 
area  of  unbroken  territory — autocracy  on  a  grand 
scale.  In  that  sense  we  lind  imperialism  in  the 
traditional  policy  of  the  czars  of  Russia — a  policy 
which  is  supposed  to  imply  continuous  expansion 
to  the  east.  But  imperialism,  as  it  came  to  be 
known  in  connection  with  Germany,  does  not 
imply  conquest  or  aggression  or  annexation  of 
icnitory.  In  Germany  the  policy  sprang  from 
the  Franco-German  war,  or  rather  from  the  events 
preceding  it,  and  it  meant  simply  the  union,  or 
leunion,  of  the  several  German  states  and  peoples 
under  one  head  for  purposes  of  oti'ence  and  de- 
fence, and  for  certain  liscal  and  political  purposes. 
As  applied  in  the  affairs  of  the  United  Kingdom 
we  find  imperialism  with  a  twofold  signification. 
It  has  been  in  use  for  a  comparatively"  few  years 
— since  about  1878  or  1879-  and  is  usually  traced 
to  Lord  Beaconstield  (q.v.).  That  statesman  was 
credited  with  large  dreams  of  empire  for  the  British 
crown,  and  one  of  Ids  most  memorable  acts  was  to 
have  the  (i>ueen  pmclaiiued  Empress  of  India.  In 
connection  with  the  British  empire,  the  word  im- 
perialism may,  however,  be  used  as  combining  the 
interests  of  all  the  menibei's  of  the  grouii — the 
mother-country,  the  colonies,  and  dependencies — 
as  distinguished  fiom  purely  national,  colonial,  oi' 
local  concerns.  The  character  and  design  of  such 
British  imperialism  are  expressed  more  or  less 
coherently  in  the  schemes  of  the  Imperial  Insti- 
tute and  the  Imperial  Federation  League  (see 
Colony).  The  term  'Imperial  Parliament.'  as 
now  applied  to  the  legislature  at  Westminster, 
is  anotlier  exjiression  of  the  same  sentiment.  See 
Absolutism,  Autocracy,  Chauvinisme. 

Impetigo  <'oiltasiosa.  a  disease  of  the  .skin. 
It  consists  of  crop-  iit  pustules,  which  may  either 
l)e  scattered  or  collected  in  groups.  These  pustules 
burst,  drv-  up,  and  become  covered  with  scalis  or 
crusts  of  .1  yellow  ciilimr.  not  unlike  little  ma.-.ses 
of  candied  honey.  I'nim  beneath  these  crusts  a 
purulent  discharge  commonly  exudes  ;  the  crn.sts 
become  thicker  and  larger,  and  the  skin  beneath 
them  is  red  and  raw.  The  disea.se  is  most  common 
in  childhoixl,  and  generally  arises  in  ill-fed,  ill-cared 
for  children  ;  but  it  may  be  transmitted  by  contact 
toailulls.  The  head  and  face  are  most  commonly 
affected.  Lmal  treatment  consists  in  removal  of 
the  crust  by  poulticing,  and  the  aiqilication  of 
white  precipitate  ointment.  .Vttenlion  must  be 
paid  to  the  general  health  :  cod-liver  oil  and  other 
tonic  medicines  are  often  desirable. 


90 


IMPEY 


IMPUISOXMEXT 


Impcy.  !^IR  El.l.iAll.  born  in  1732.  was  edncatoil 
at  Westminster,  l)ri>iij;lit  up  to  the  liar,  .anil  sent 
out  to  Hcn^'al  a-s  the  lirst  eliief-justioe  aiipointeil 
under  tlie  ke^rulatin^  Act  of  1773.  He  landeil  in 
(  alciitta.  19tli  Octolier  1774.  in  coniiiaiiy  with  his 
hrother  jiidjje.--  and  the  three  members  of  council 
sent  out  from  En^'land  under  the  same  act.  From 
the  lirst  Iniiiev  acted  in  harmony  witli  the  governor- 
jieni'ral.  Wanen  Hastings  ((|.v.):  and  in  the 
followin;;  year  |iresided  at  the  trial  of  Maharaja 
Xanil  Kumar  (Nuneoinar).  charged  with  forgery. 
Iiupey  condudeil  the  trial  with  fairness  and 
iiatience  ;  the  prisoner,  however,  wjis  found  guilty 
iiy  the  jury,  after  an  impartial  charge  l)y  the  cliief- 
justice,  who  sentenced  him  to  death  with  the  eon- 
eurrenceof  a  full  court.  In  1777  Impey  was  referred 
t«  as  arbitrator  between  Hastings  and  (ieneral 
Clavering  wlien  the  latter  cl.aimed  the  reversiim  of 
the  post  on  Hastings"  alleged  resignation.  Impey 
pronounced  in  favour  of  Hastings  ;  thereby — as  the 
governor-general  afterw.arils  ai'knowledged — saving 
his  fortune,  hommr,  and  reputation.  In  1779,  how 
ever,  a  contlict  occurred  between  the  government 
and  the  court  on  a  ijuestion  of  jurisdiction,  which 
was  only  appeased  by  Imjiey  accepting  the  chief- 
ship  of  the  Comp.any's  courts  in  addition  to  his  own 
duties.  In  1783  lm|iey  was  recalled,  and  impeaclied 
for  his  conduel  in  the  case  of  Nuneomar.  He 
wa.s  honourably  acquitted  ;  I'itt  and  Dunning  and 
Thurlow  all  concurred  in  approving  the  whole  of 
his  conduct.  In  bis  retirement  lie  continued  to 
enjoy  the  friendship  of  good  men.  In  1S()3  be 
visited  I'aris,  .and  was  tor  a  short  time  detained  by 
the  French  government  in  consequence  of  the 
rupture  of  the  peace  of  Amiens.  He  died  in  his 
house  at  Newick,  near  I'righton.  1st  October  1809. 
Impey  was  a  good  scholar,  both  classical  and 
oriental  :  as  a  judge  he  was  industrious  and  free 
from  corruption.  His  faults  were  vanity  and  a 
tendency  to  obsequiousness. 

See  Hastings  ;  Life  of  Sir  E.  Impcii,  by  his  son,  E.  1!. 
Impey  (1846);  The  Ston/  of  Nuneomar,  by  Sir  J.  F. 
Stephen  ( ISS.T ) ;  and  Mill's  Brillxli  Iniliii. 

Iiiipeyaii.    See  I'nii.As.v.NT. 

Illipliail.  the  native  name  of  .Manipur  (q.v.). 
llll|>llCH'a  one  of  the  names  of  Sorghum  or  Dnrra 

(q.v.l. 

IllipU'lilCIlt.  in  Scotch  law.   means   fullilment 
of  a  luiilrai-t  iii  decree  of  the  court. 
Illipllivilllll.     See  Atriim. 

linpoiidorablc    Siibstaiu'cs,    an    epithet 

ajiplieil  til  light,  heal,  elrciririty.  and  magnetism 
at  a  time  when  tln'\  weie  universally  considered 
as  matter,  in  cimtiailisiinclion  to  those  substances 
wbich  possessed  seirsil.le  weight.      See  HkA'I'. 

Imports  and  Kx|»orts.    See  1!.\i,.\.nci-;  di- 

'ri:.\lii:;  alsn  article-  on  (ii;KAT  BlMT.MN  and  other 
ciiiintrics. 

lllipot4>ll«-.>.      See  .\lAl:IMA(ii;. 

lllip«»IIIMlill$>.     See  PofNl). 

Illipressioilisili.  the  term  applied  to  a  modern 
school  of  art  which,  originating  in  France,  is 
usually  held  to  have  been  founded  by  Edonard 
Manel,  and  of  which  <  laude  .Monet,  Degas.  Henoir, 
Pissaro.  Sisley.  and  l)e  t'esane  are  the  best-known 
members.  The  impie.ssionists  may  he  said  to  have 
Krst  ajipeared  before  the  |inblic  it)  the  siiecial 
exhibition  of  the  works  of  .Manet  and  his 
followers  which  was  held  in  I'aris  in  1SG7 ;  and 
in  1874  and  1876  collections  of  their  works  were 
brought  together  in  the  lioulevard  des  Italieiis 
and  in  the  galleries  of  Duraiid  Ituel.  who  in  l.HS'J 
organised  .an  exhibition  oi  their  |iroductiiins  in 
London  ;  while  a  series  of  works  by  Monet  were 
shown  in  1889  in  the  <!oupil  (lallery.  London. 
The  aim  of  the  impressionists  is  to  rid  themselves 


of  the  trannuels  of  artistic  traditiiui,  and  to  look  at 
nature— and  iiortray  her — in  a  fresh  and  original 
manner.  They  therefore  strive  to  avoid  such 
lompromises  and  conventionalities  of  lighting, 
composition,  &c.  a.s  have  been  frankly  accepted 
by  the  art  of  the  past,  and  to  reniler  with  absolute 
truth  their  iiersonal  and  innnediate  '  inii>res.sions ' 
of  nature.  The  members  of  the  school  accordingly 
se|iarate  themselves  from  the  great  so-called 
■romantic'  art  of  the  last  generation  in  France 
— liie  art  of  men  like  Corot.  Decamps.  Uimsseau. 
and  Danbigny — wbich  is  a  legitimate  and  orderly 
development  of  the  mighty  .art  of  the  |iast ;  and — 
though  they  have  more  kinship  with  these — they 
are  also  to  be  distinguished  from  the  /ilrln-tiir 
painters  of  modern  Fnim-e,  at  whose  head  stands 
liastien  Le]iage,  and  whose  main  aim  is  a  careful 
and  strictly  scientific  accuracy  in  their  ridative 
tones  of  colour.  In  their  rejection  of  tradition  and 
desire  for  a  fresh,  unconventional  rendering  of 
nature  the  impressionists  are  at  one  with  the  pre- 
Itaphaelitcs  of  England  :  but,  while  the  latter 
studied  nature  in  a  severely  detailed  and  an.alytical 
manner,  the  former  look  on  her  in  her  large 
relations,  and  portray  only  such  of  her  salient 
features  as  are  visible  on  a  cursory  examination, 
and  these  they  render  by  bruslnvork  of  the 
slightest,  thinnest,  and  loosest  description.  From 
the  pre-liaphaelites  the  impressionists  are  still  more 
definitely  separated  by  their  want  of  care  for 
intellectual  or  emotional  interest  in  their  jiictures. 
In  the  words  of  one  of  their  ablest  exponents,  they 
hold  that  the  eye  of  the  painter  ■should  abstract 
itself  from  memory,  seeing  luily  that  which  it  looks 
upon,  and  that  as  for  the  lirst  time  :  and  the  hand 
sliimid  become  an  impersonal  abstraction,  guided 
<mly  liy  the  will,  oblivious  of  all  previous  cunning.' 
In  the  works  of  most  of  the  im]iiessionists  little 
selection  of  subject  or  care  for  beauty  of  colour,  form, 
or  e.xpression  is  visible  ;  and  their  art,  touching  as  it 
would  seem  by  an  instinctive  prefi'ience  on  some  of 
the  most  unlovely  aspects  of  19th  century  e.xist 
eiice,  dealing  with  the  life  of  the  jockey  and  the 
ballet-girl,  and  portraying  the  worst  atrocities  of 
modern  costume,  has  frequently  fallen  into  dire 
depths  of  ugliness  and  \  uigarity.  Certain  points 
of  resemlilance  to  the  aims  and  metboils  of  the 
inijiressionists  are  to  be  found  in  the  works  of 
sttcb  able  painters  as  .1.  .M.  Whistler  and  J.  S. 
.Sargent,  and  still  more  distinctly  in  those  of  .several 
of  the  younger  I'.iris-trained  English  jiainters  who 
have  exhibited  in  the  SnlVolk  Stieet  (iallery  and  in 
the  Xineteeiitb  Century  .\rt  Club.  In  ISS9  several 
young  English  painters,  stylingthei.iselves  ■  London 
Inipiessioiii-ts,' and  including  I!,  and  \V.  .Sickert, 
T.  l!oiiss(d,  1'.  \\  .  Steer,  and  I'f.ineis  Hate,  ludd  an 
exhibition  in  the  (ioujiil  (iallery,  London:  and  a 
pamphlet  by  the  last-named  painter  Tin  Xiitnrnl- 
i.slii-  Srhdiil  tif  I'uiiiiitKJ  C-d  ed.  1887)  contains  the 
best  exposition  of  the  aims  of  the  English  section 
of  the  school. 

lnipr«-SsnH-|ll.  See  I'KESSCiANO. 
liniM'illt.  See  i'.iiol'C,  Vol.  II,  |>,  3U3, 
llliprisoilllK'lll.  Imprisonment  is  one  of  the 
three  clas.scs  of  punishment  for  crime,  death  and 
penal  servitude  liciiig  the  other  two.  I'lidei 
certain  statutes  the  punishment  of  whi]iping  also 
may  be  .■uljudged  to  juvenile  ollenders  or  persons 
convicted  of  assaults  with  violence.  It  has  always 
been  a  jiower  inhereiil  in  courts  of  justice  to 
imprison  for  contx'inpt  of  their  authority,  and  until 
lately  for  non-p;i.vment  of  debt.  In  criminal  pro- 
ceedings a  iieisiin  may.  by  a  warrant  of  a  justice 
of  peace  or  ni;igistrat*'.  be  imprisoned  before  ti'ial, 
provided  the  justice  considers  it  is  not  a  proper 
case  for  allowing  bail  ;  and  though  in  ndnin- 
oH'ences  an  accused   person   may  insist  on    being 


IMPROPER    HOUSE 


INCANDESCENCE 


91 


ili.--c-liai>;e<I  on  tendering'  sufficient  bail,  yet  in 
move  serious  eritiies  it  i>  in  llie  discretion  of  tlie 
justice  to  aceept  or  refuse  llie  l)ail  tendered, 
and  on  liis  refusal  ai)|)lieation  may  be  made  to 
iudges  of  the  common  la«-  courts  to  accept  l)ail. 
In  Scotland.  «hen  such  review  is  resorted  to  under 
the  Criminal  Procedure  Act  of  1SS7,  or  the  Act  to 
amend  the  Law  of  Bail,  1SS8,  the  court  as  a  j;eneral 
rule  leaves  the  proseoitor's  discretion  as  to  bail 
abilitv  untouched,  and  in  Knj;laud  the  same  rule 
obtains.  In  both  countries  the  supreme  courts 
will  iiitei-fere  where  the  niiestion  is  merely  one  of 
amount,  or  where  nuilice  or  oppression  on  the  part  of 
the  iirosecutor  is  averred  :  but  in  tScotland,  ow  inj;  to 
the  svstem  of  official  as  distin^Miisheil  from  ]>rivate 
prosecution,  such  j,aoun(ls  are  rarely  ad\aiiioil  in 
support  of  an  application  for  bail.  Imprisonment 
may  be  with  or  without  hard  labour,  or  it  may  be 
solitary.  Kverx  prisoner  sentenced  to  undergo  a 
long  term  passes  a  period  in  solitary  confinement. 
aniFit  i.s  in  the  power  of  jirison  governors  to  older  ' 
a  return  to  this,  which  is  considered  the  hardest 
part  of  the  term,  for  any  gross  breach  of  iliscipline. 
The  statutory  limit  of  imprisonment  is  two  years. 
Penal  servitude  may  be  inllicted  for  life,  or  any 
shorter  term,  but  in  the  ca.se  both  of  imprisonment 
and  penal  servituile  the  convict  can  at  any  time, 
and  repealediv  within  certain  limits,  apply  to  the 
Home  Secretai-y  in  Englaml.  and  to  the  Scottish 
Secretary  in  Sco'tland.  for  commutation  or  rendssion. 
The  documents  are  forwarded  to  the  judge  who 
tried  his  case,  and  the  secretaries  are  guided  in 
their  decision  by  the  report  which  the  judge 
furnishes.  In  the  general  case  a  fourth  or  a  third 
is  deducted  from  all  terms  of  penal  servitude  as  a 
matter  of  course  where  the  convict  has  complied 
witli  prison  rules.  In  police  and  other  Jietty 
ott'ences  tried  summarily  at  common  law  and  under 
a  variety  of  statutes,  im|irisoiiment  is  usually 
awarded 'with  the  option  of  a  fine  (discretionary 
in  amount ).  excepting  the  ca.se  of  theft :  but  all 
other  oflences  tried  liefore  recorder  aiul  quarter 
sessions  in  England  ami  the  sheritt'  ami  jury  in 
Scotland  are  visited  with  imiirisonment,  although 
in  a  few  isolated  examples  statute  gives  an  option. 
The  unlawful  detention  of  the  ]ierson  by  any  one, 
or  '  false  impri.sonment '  (in  Scotland,  'wrongous'), 
constitutes  a  personal  injury,  and  may  be  treated 
as  a  criminal  or  as  a  civil  ottence.  When  persons 
tried  and  convicted  aie  afterwards  proved  to  have 
been  innocent,  compensation  may  be  awarded  to 
them,  along  \vith  a  formal  '  pardon.' 

The  subject  of  imprisonment  for  debt  is  discus.sed 
at  T»Ein-,  Vol.  III.  p.  717. 

liiipropiT  lloHse.  See  Niisanck. 
impropriation,  the  transfer  to  a  layman  of 
the  revenues  of  a  lienelice  ti>  which  the  cure  of 
siuils  is  annexed,  with  an  obligatiim  to  [provide  for 
the  performance  of  the  sjdritual  duties  attached  to 
the  lieneficc.  The  jiracticc  of  iniiiroiirlatioii  difl'ers 
from  the  somewhat  similar  but  more  ancient  usage 
of  ojiiiroiiriatioii,  inasmuch  as  the  latter  .supposes 
the  revenues  of  the  ai(]>ropriated  benelice  to  be 
transferred  to  ecclesiastical  or  (luasi-ecclesia-stical 
persons  or  bodies,  as  to  a  certain  dignitary  in  a 
c.invent,  a  college,  a  hospital  ;  while  improjuiation 
implies  that  the  temporalities  of  the  benelice  are 
enjoved  by  a  layman.  The  practice  of  impropria- 
lion.  and  still  more  that  of  approinialion,  as  in  the 
ase  of  monasteries,  &c.,  and  other  religious  h<mse.s, 
prevailed  extensively  in  England  bcfori'  the  Itefor- 
:iiation  ;  and  on  the"  suppression  of  the  monasteries 
all  such  riglits  were  veste<l  in  the  crown,  and 
were  by  the  crown  freely  transferred  to  laymen, 
to  whose  succe.s.soi-s  in  title  they  have  jiassed  by 
le.scent  and  purchase.  The  spiritual  iluties  of  such 
■ectories  are   discharged  by  a  clergyman,   who   is 


called  a  vicar,  and  who  receives  a  certain  portion 
of  the  emoluments  of  the  living,  generally  cimsist- 
iiig  of  a  part  of  the  glebe-land  of  the  pai-sonage, 
together  with  what  are  called  the  'small  tithes' 
of  the  parish.  A  lay  impro|)iiatf)r  is  rector  of  the 
parish  ;  as  such  he  has  rights  over  the  chancel  of 
the  church,  and  is  bound  to  keep  it  in  repair. 

Improvisatori.  an  Italian  term,  designating 
poets  who  without  previous  preparation  compose 
on  a  given  theme,  and  -who  sometimes  sing  and 
accompany  their  voice  with  a  musical  instru- 
ment. The  talent  of  improvisation  is  found  in 
races  in  which  tlie  imagination  is  more  than  usu- 
ally alert,  as  among  the  ancient  IJreeks,  the  Arabs, 
and  ill  many  tribes  of  negroes.  In  modern  Eurojie 
it  has  l>eeii  almost  entirely  conlined  to  Italy,  where 
I'etrarcli,  in  the  l'2th  century,  introduced  the  prac- 
tice of  singing  improvised  verses  to  the  lute;  and 
down  to  the  present  day  the  perfomiances  of  im- 
provisatori constitute  one  of  the  favourite  enter- 
tainments of  the  Italians.  Far  inferior  to  these  are 
such  improvi.sations  as  those  of  Theodore  Hook, 
wonderful  as  they  were.  Women  have  fretiuently 
exhiljited  this  talent  in  a  high  degree.  Iniprov  isa- 
tion  is  by  no  means  limited  to  brief  poems  of  a  few- 
verses  and  of  very  simple  structure,  but  is  often 
carried  on  with  great  art,  and  in  the  form  and  to 
the  length  of  a  tragedy  or  almost  of  an  epic  poem. 
But  such  productions  when  printed  have  never 
been  found  to  rise  above  mere  mediocrity.  It  is 
wortliv  of  notice  that  the  greater  number  of  the 
celebrated  im]iiovisatori  of  Italy  have  been  born 
in  Tuscany  or  the  Venetian  territory.  Siena  and 
Verona  have  been  especially  productive  of  them. 
Some  of  the  ])riiicipal  are  SeraUno  ilAquila  ( 14ti6- 
1.500),  Peifetti  (1U80-1747),  Meta.stasio  (q.v.),  who 
soon  abandoned  the  art,  Zueco  (died  1764),  Serin 
and  Rossi  (l>oth  beheaded  at  Naples  in  17!)!l), 
Ciaiini  (]>ensioned  by  Bunaijarte),  and  Tommaso 
Sgricci  (  1708-1 S36). '  The  bcsl-known  improrisa- 
t/ins  are  Maddalena  Morelli  Fernandez,  also  called 
('orillaUlimpica,  the  original  ol  .Madame  de  Stacl's 
Curiiine  (died  1800),  Teresa  Bandettini  (17tJS- 
1837),  Kosa  Taddci,  Signora  Jl.azzei  (probably  the 
lirst  in  point  of  talent),  and  more  lately  the 
Sicilian  Giovannina  Milli. 

lilipiltutioil  is  one  of  the  most  ccuumon  tech- 
nical expressions  in  Christian  theology.  It  is 
meant  to  denote  the  transference  of  guilt  i>r  of 
merit  of  punishment  or  reward.  The  doctrine  of 
the  iinputatioM  of  sin,  for  example,  is  the  doctrine 
which  inculcates  that  all  mankind  are  sharers  in 
the  fact  and  consequences  of  Adam's  fall  from 
innocence ;  and  the  correlative  doctrine  of  the 
imputation  of  Christ's  righteousne.ss  is  that  which 
inculcates  that  the  merit  or  rightf^ousness  of  Christ 
is  transferred  to  those  who  believe  in  him,  or,  in 
other  words,  that  thev  liecome  sharers  in  his  merit 
or  righteousness.     See  Covenant,  ATONEMENT. 

InatM-«'ssil»lo    Inland.     See    Tristan    da 

ClNIIA. 

iliaUlia.      See   liAIIAMAS. 

Iiiaiiilioii.    See  Fasting. 
Iiiari-liiii;:.    See  <;uaktin(;. 

in  .trliculo  .liortis  i.e.  at  the  moment  of 
death,  a  legal  phrase  used  in  connection  with  the 
execntimi  of  deeds  bypei-sons  at  the  point  of  death. 
See  Wii.i.. 

lnfand<'S«'«'II«'«'.  The  hotter  a  body  the 
greater  till' dislurbaiice  which  its  particles,  always 
o.scillating,  set  up  in  the  suironndiug  ether,  and 
the  greater  is  the  proportion  of  elherwiivcs  of  short 
length  whiih  are  set  up.  Thus,  as  a  body  becomes 
progressively  hotter  it  lirst  becomes  visible  in  the 
dark  as  a  fog-gray  object  (platinum  at  .SOU  C, 
I  gold  at  i\T  C,  ami  iroii,  not  iiuite  free  from  rust. 


92 


INCANTATION 


INCEST 


at  377°  C— H.  F.  Weber),  then  asli  gray,  then 
yellowish-gray,  then  faintly  retl,  then  ieil  hot, 
orange,  yollnwish-white,  while  liot,  and  lastly, 
when  there  is  at  very  high  temperatures  a  pre- 
iionderanc'i'  ol  the  more  refrangible  rays,  it  becomes 
bluish  or  even  distinctly  blue,  as  it  seems  the  sun 
would  ajipear  were  it  not  for  our  atmosphere  (Lang- 
ley)-  Incandescence  is  usually  witnessed  in  solids; 
in  liquids  it  is  not  known  by  sight ;  in  gases  we 
have  examples  in  the  hydrogen  flame  and  in  the 
condition  of  the  air  traversed  by  lightning  or  the 
electric  arc.  For  Incandescent  Electric  Lam])s, 
see  Electric  Light  ;  and  for  the  incandescent  gas- 
light, see  Gas-lighting,  Vol.  V.  |i,  103. 

IlK'antatioil.  a  formula  of  words  said  or  more 
fre(|uently  sung  for  purposes  of  enchantment.     The 
use  of  such  is  a  persistent  feature  in  sorcery  from 
the  earliest   times,    and   we   still    find  them  used 
among  sav.age  peoples  as  spells  or  charms   effica 
cious  for  the  healing  of  sickness  and  the  averting  of 
danger,  as  well  as  for  bringing  on  rain  or  invoking 
any  other  lile.ssing  that  is   much  desired.     Xo  less 
common  are  malignant  spells  by  means  of  which 
evil  deities  are  induced  to  send  sickness  or  death 
ujion  enemies,  the  darker  and  malignant  side  of 
magic  being  ever  as  present  to   the  i)rimitive  mind 
as  the  benelicent.     Such  traditional  formulas  show 
a  marvellously  conservative  fixity  of  form — a  proof, 
if  such   were  needed,  of  their  real  unreality  and 
practical  inefficiency,  and  that  the  whole  has  at  no 
time  Ijeen  other  than  a  dark  and  blind  apjioal  to  un- 
known forces,  without  the  slightest  glimmering  of 
scientilic  ratiocination,  and  capable  of  no  improve- 
ment.     For   the   same   reason    ancient    or   foreign 
epithets,  and  terms  not  merely  misunderstood  but 
not  understood  at  all,  are  often  found  to  have  been 
particularly    efficacious,    and    we    Hml    medieval 
sorcerers  in  their  formulas  using  transposed  letters 
and  artificial  words,  the  traditional  Jewish  names 
of  demons,  as  Asmodai  and  the  like,  and  a  gibberish 
of  mixed   Hebrew  and  (Jreek  words  more  or  less 
consciously   confused.     Even    so    late   as    IS.SO   in 
Ijincolnshire  two  Gypsy  girls  were  found   using  a 
book  of  navigation  in  the  process  of  their  fortune 
telling.      The     history     of    such     words    as    the 
Gnostic  Abraxas  (q.v. )  and  the  medieval  Abracad- 
abra (q.v.)  throw   great   light   on   the  methods  of 
magicians    from    the    earliest   ages   down   to    the 
time  when  their  absurdities  disapiH'anHl  before  the 
dawn  of  a  true  scientific  method.      I!ut  it  was  not 
merely  among  the   less  ci\  ilised  peoples  that  such 
constant  use  of  incantations  was  made.     In  ancient 
Egypt  magic  was  worked  into  an  elaborate  system 
and  ritual,   and  many  formulas  of  such  religious 
magic  are  preserved.     Again,  the  Habyloniaiis  had 
a  great  wealth  of  set  formulas  by  means  of  which 
they  proiiiliated  or  exix-lled  the  malignant   demons 
who  swarmed  around  them.     In  the  I'cc/ii.i  we  con- 
stantly meet  the  mantras,  corresjionding  exactly 
to    the     matamanik    of    the     Ke(lskins    and    the 
karahius    of    the    Ma(n-is.        In    the    Oiti/sscij   the 
kinsmen  of  Odysseus  sing  '  a  song  of  healing    over 
the  wound  gi\en   him  liy  the  boar's  tusk.      In  the  \ 
Kali-ralii,    again    we     lind    the   song    that  salves 
wounds ;    and    nothing    is   more    common    in    our 
Euroiiean    traditional    folk-tales    than    the    most 
startling   miracles    wrimght   by  the   repetition    of 
snatches  of  rhynje.       15ut  indeed  such   traditional 
refrains  are  by  no  means  yet  extinct  in  the  corners 
of  the  most  civilised  countries,  used  along  with  tin' 
modcM-n   and   more  legitimate  methods  of  healing. 
and  they  even  have  u  defensible  use  in  the  soolhiii;; 
etl'ect  that  an  act  of  faith  has  upon  a  sinqile  mind. 
Thus  in  Shetland,  .-ucording  to  a  writer  in  the  Xcw 
Slatlstical  Accoiiiit  of  Scotia nd,    'when  a   i)erson 
has  received  a  sprain  it  is  customary  to  apply  to 
an  individual  practised  in  casting  tlie  "wresting 
thread."     This  is  a  threail  spun  from  black  wool. 


on  wliich  are  cast  nine  knots,  and  tied  round  a 
sprained  leg  or  arm.  Dnrin";  the  time  the  operator 
is  putting  the  thread  round  the  affected  limb,  he 
says,  but  in  such  a  tone  of  voice  as  not  to  be  bean! 
by  the  bystanders,  nor  even  by  the  person  opeiated 
upon  : 

Tlie  Liird  rade,  and  tile  foal  slade  ; 

He  liglited,  and  lie  righted. 

Set  joint  to  joint,  lione  to  bone, 

And  sint'W  to  sinew, 

Hi-;il.  in  the  Holy  Ghost's  name.' 

Inoai'Ililtioil.  the  usual  theological  term  for 
the  union  of  the  divine  nature  with  the  human  in 
the  divine  jierson  of  ('hrist.  The  wend  hicaniatid 
first  occurs  in  the  liatin  version  of  Iremeus,  and 
in  the  (Jreek  fathers  we  find  its  equivalent  sark- 
nsis  and  cnaiit/irO/icsis.  See  Chkist,  Je.sus,  and 
( Ittley's  Doctrine  of  the  Incarnation  ( 18%). 
Incus.    See  Pkru. 

Iiiceiidiai'isin.  See  Aitsox,  Epidemic. 
Ilieeiise.  a  perfume,  the  odour  of  which  is 
evolved  by  burning,  especially  in  religions  worshiii. 
The  incense  at  present  in  use  consists  of  some  resin- 
ous base,  such  asgum  olibanum,  mingled  with  odor- 
iferous gums,  balsams,  ite.  There  is  no  regular 
formula  fin-  it,  almost  every  maker  having  his 
own  pcciiliar  recipe.  The  ingreilients  are  usually 
olibanum,  benzoin,  styrax,  and  jiowdered  cascar- 
ilia  bark.  These  materials,  well  mingled,  are  so 
idaced  in  the  censer  or  thurible  as  to  be  sprinkled 
by  falling  on  a  hot  plate,  which  immediately  vola- 
tilises them,  and  difl'uses  their  odour  thrmigh  the 
edifice. 

In  the  Catholic  Church,  both  of  the  West  and 
of  the  East,  incense  is  used  in  public  woi-ship, 
more  particularly  in  connection  with  the  eucha- 
ristic  service,  which  is  regarded  as  a  sacrifice : 
but  such  use  is  implicitly  condemned  by  Tertullian, 
Lactantins,  Au<'ustine,  \c. .  and  seems  not  to  have 
established  itself  till  the  (ith  or  at  least  the  .")th 
century.  In  the  Koman  Catholic  Church  incense 
is  used  in  the  solemn  (or  high)  mass,  iji  the  con- 
secration of  churches,  in  solemn  conseciatienis  of 
objects  intended  for  u.se  in  public  worship,  and  in 
I  he  burial  of  the  dead.  There  are  also  minor  in- 
ceiisations  of  the  celebrating  bislio)i  or  priest  and 
infericn-  ministers  ;  of  prelates,  princes,  and  other 
diguilaiies  officially  jiresent  .at  tlie  service:  and  a 
generjil  incensation  of  the  whole  congregation. 

In  Ibe  Iteformed  churches  the  use  of  incense  wivs 
abanihmed  at  the  same  time  with  other  pr.actices 
which  have  been  laid  aside  by  them  as  without 
'warrant  of  Scriptuie.'  It  li.is  been  revived  by 
some  Iiitnalists,  imt  was  prohibited  by  the  .Vrch- 
bishops  of  Canterbury  and  York  in  July  1899.  See 
t'ExsicR,  Frankixcen.se. 

Incest  (Lat.  Ill,  'not,'  and  castas,  'chaste') 
i-~  the  marrying  of  a  [lerson  within  the  Levitical 
degrees.  In  the  old  ecclesiastical  Law  (now  oliso- 
lete),  and  in  Scotland,  it  comprelieuds  cohabitation 
irres|)ective  of  marriage.  The  law  of  England,  as 
declared  by  statutes  ]iassed  iti  the  reign  of  Hcniy 
\T1I.,  forbids  marriage  within  the  prohibited 
degrees  (see  CON.SANGl'lM'rv).  A  marriage  be- 
tween a  widower  and  his  deceased  wife's  sister 
1  (imcs  within  these  rules,  and  is  void,  and  it  makes 
no  difference  that  the  marriage  was  celebrated  in 
a  foreign  country,  as,  for  example,  Denmark,  in  the 
I'nited  States,  or  in  one  of  the  liritish  colonies, 
where  these  marriages  are  legal,  if  the  jiarties  were 
domiciled  in  England,  and  went  abroad  merely  to 
evade  the  English  law.  It  has  also  been  decided  in 
England  that  the  same  rules  which  .'iliply  between 
legitimate  relations  aiq)ly  between  natural  relations, 
though  one  is  legitimate — as,  for  example,  lietween 
a  man  and  the  daughter  of  an  illegitimate  sister  of 
his  decea-sed  wife.  Though  incestuous  marriages 
are  utterly  void  in  England,  still  it  is  not  a  criminal 


INCH 


IN    C'CENA    DOMINI 


93 


oH'ence  to  iiiarry  iiicestiiuu!<ly,  not  even  in  those 
cases  in  which  the  coiim'c-tii)n  is  most  iibhinioiit 
to  the  moral  sense  of  nninkiml,  and  llie  reiiietly  in 
the  ecclesiastical  courts  may  he  consiiiered  obsolete. 
In  Scotland  incest,  which  is  calculated  on  the  same 
grounds,  not  only  makes  a  marriai;e  void,  but  the 
better  oiiinioii  is  that  to  marry  mcestuously,  iis 
well  as  to  commit  incest,  is  a  capital  ollence.  See 
Mahiiiawk. 

Ilich,  a  (Jaelic  word,  corresponding;  to  Irish 
iiuiii:.  and  si^nifyin.i;  Island  {(|.v.);  the  same  root 
appeals;  in  Lat.  /H.vula.  Inch  and  Innis  enter  into 
many  compounds,  as  Inchmahome  (an  island  in 
the  Lake  of  Menteith),  Inniscattery  (an  island  in 
the  estuary  of  the  Shannon),  \-c. 

IlK'llbald.  Elizabktu,  actress,  dramatist,  and 
novelist,  was  the  dau<,'hterof  John  Simpson,  farmer 
at  Standinj;lield.  Bury  St  Eilmnmls,  where  she  was 
horn  on  lotli  October  17o3.  While  quite  a  girl 
she  determined  to  become  an  actress,  and  ^vhen 
only  eighteen  left  her  home  to  seek  a  theatrical 
engagement  in  London.  After  a  series  of  strange 
ailventures  she  betook  herself  to  her  relations  in 
l>ondon,  an<l  with  them  she  met  Joseph  Inchbald, 
an  obscure  actor,  whom  she  married  on  9tli  .June 
177'2.  She  then  went  to  Bristol,  where  she  made 
her  debut  a,s  Cordelia  on  4th  Se])temher  177'2 ; 
and  for  some  years  she  played  in  provincial  theatres. 
Her  husband  died  suddenly  in  1779,  and  in  1780 
(3d  October)  she  appeared  in  London,  playing 
Bellario  in  Phihi.stcr,  at  Covent  Garden,  Here  she 
remained  for  nine  years,  but  never  rose  beyond 
mediocrity,  an  impediment  in  her  .speech,  which 
was.  however,  su|iposed  to  lie  cured,  being  certainly 
a  bar  to  her  progress.  Hut  before  she  left  Covent 
Garden,  in  1789,  she  had  fonnd  her  true  vocation — 
literature,  and  to  it  she  devoted  herself  till  her 
powers  began  to  fail.  Her  earliest  eftbrts  were 
plays,  her  first  being  The  Morjul  Ttilc,  a  farce  pro- 
duced in  July  1784.  She  wrote  or  adapted  nineteen 
plays,  her  best  being  the  comedies  of  Such  Tliinqs 
nrc"  (1787),  The  Midiiii/hf  Hour  (1787),  and  The 
Wedding  Day  ( 1794)  ;  the  farces  of  Appcuiance  is 
Agaiml  Them  ( 1785)  an<l  The  Wieloirs  rou-(1786): 
ami  her  adaptation  from  Kotzebue,  Lovers'  Vows 
(1798).  She  edited  the  well-known  InehhahVs 
British  Theatre  (2.5  \'ols. ),  a  Moi/erii  Theatre 
(10  vols.),  and  a  Collection  of  Farces  (7  vol.s.). 
But  her  fame  rests  not  upon  her  dramatic  work  so 
much  as  upon  her  novels,  A  Siuijile  Story  ( 1791 ) 
and  Xriture  and  Art  (1796),  which  rank  among 
English  standard  novels.  Mrs  Inchbald,  who  was 
a  Catholic,  became  very  devout  in  her  later  years, 
and  died  at  Kensington  House  (then  a  Catholic 
establishment),  1st  August  1821.  Her  biography 
by  Boaden  ( 2  vol.s.  1833 )  is  one  of  the  most  cumbrous 
and  ill-digested  even  of  that  writer's  jiroductions. 
She  wrote  an  autobiograiihy,  but  destroyed  the  MS. 
by  the  ad\iee  of  her  s])iritual  director.  See  the 
Memoir  by  William  Bell  Scott  prelixed  to  a  new 
I'll  i  I  ion  of  .1  Sim/ile  Stori/  and  Xat  ure  and  A  rUlSSO). 

llH'llcaiie.     See  Bei.i.  Kock. 

llM-llCOlui.  and  lufllkfitll.     See  FORTH. 

Iiirideiioc,  Angle  ok.     See  Optics. 

liK'Icdon,  Charlks  Benjamin,  singer,  was 
born  at  St  Kevern,  Cornwall,  in  1763,  was  admitted 
U>  the  choir  of  E,\eter  (Jathedral  at  the  age  of 
eit;ht,  and  served  in  the  navy  from  1779  to  1783. 
His  voice  wa-s  now  a  line  tenor,  and  in  1784  he 
made  his  first  appearance  at  the  Southampton 
Theatre,  as  .\lplioiiso  in  the  Castle  of  Aurlalusia. 
From  1786  to  1790  he  sang  in  the  summer  at 
V'auxhall  Gardens,  and  in  the  winter  at  Hath.  In 
September  1790  he  appeare<l  at  Covent  (iarden 
Theatre  as  Uermot  in  the  I^oor  Soldier  :  ami  for 
twenty-five  years  thereafter  he  remained  unrivalled 


as  a  ballad  singer.  In  1817  he  visited  America. 
Afterwards  \n;  travelled  through  Britain  under  the 
style  of  the  '  Wandering  .Melodist  ;"  and  he  died  at 
Worcestei,  lllli  February  1S26.  Incledcm's  singing 
was  bold  and  manly,  at  times  full  of  feeling  -,  his 
best  ballads  were  such  as  '  Black-eyed  Susan,'  '  Tlie 
Arethusa,'  and  'The  Stmm,'  which  he  sang  dressed 
as  a  sailor. 
liu'liiiation.  or  Dif.    See  Magnetism. 

lurlilied  Plaiic.  The,  is  reckoned  one  of  the 
mechanical  powers,  because,  by  rolling  it  up 
a  iplane.  a  man  may  raise  a  weight  which  he  could 
not  lift.  Let  us  su])pose  a  plane  as  in  the  figure  : 
let  its  length,  AB, 
its  height,  BC,  and  ^j; 

its  base,  CA,  he  re- 
spectively 13,5,  and 
12  feet:  and  let  a 
rolling  load  of  780 
lb.  be  placed  upon 
it  and  sustained  in 
position  by  a  pull 
or  push  acting  np 
the  plane.  We 
have  now  three  forces  in  equilibrium:  (1)  the 
weight,  W,  of  the  body;  (2)  the  resistance,  B, 
of  the  plane  to  bending  or  breaking;  and  (3)  the 
pull,  P,  up  the  plane.  These,  W,  R,  and  P,  are 
respectively  proportional  to  the  length,  AB,  the 
base,  CA,  and  the  height,  BC  ;  and  are  thus,  in 
the  case  supposed,  respectively  780,  720,  and  300 
lb.  A  force  which  would,  if  applied  vertically, 
just  lift  .300  lb.,  will  thus  keep  a  rolling  mass  of 
780  lb.  in  position  upon  a  smooth  inclined  plane, 
the  gradient  of  which  is  5  (height)  in  13  (sloping 
length) ;  and  a  force  exceeding  this  would  pull  the 
mass  up  the  slo[)e.  In  every  practical  case,  however, 
there  is  a  certain  force  expended  in  overcoming 
Friction  (q. v. ),  even  on  a  dead  level;  in  railway 
trains  this  is  equivalent  to  vertically  lifting  aliou't 
.■)()  lb.  for  every  ton  of  dead  weight  ;  and  w  ben  n 
train  leaves  a  level  run  to  I'o  up  a  slope  of,  say,  1 
in  80,  the  engine  has  then,  for  every  ton  of  weight, 
to  do  work  equivalent  to  vertically  lifting  50  lb. 
+  ^  ton  =  78  lb.,  instead  of  the  former  50.  The 
steeper  the  gra<lient,  therefore,  the  heavier  the  pull  : 
and  engineers,  in  roadmaking,  a\'oid  as  far  as 
jiossible  making  steeper  slopes  than  1  in  20.  The 
inclined  plane  presents  various  modifications,  such 
as  knives,  chisels,  axes,  wedges,  screws;  the  last 
two  are  generally  reckoned  as  distinct  mechanical 
powers,  and  will  be  treated  each  under  its  own 
iiead. 

IlK'lo.siircs.     See  Commons. 

In  t'<l'lia  Uoillilli,  a  celebi^ated  papal  bull, 
so  called  from  the  ancient  day  of  its  annual  publi- 
cation. Holy  Thursday.  It  is  not,  as  other  hulls, 
the  work  of  a  single  pope,  but,  with  additions  and 
modifications  at  various  times,  dates  back  to  the 
middle  ages.  Its  present  form,  however,  it  received 
from  the  iiopes  Julius  II.,  Paul  III.,  and  finally 
Urban  VI 1 1.,  in  1627,  from  which  year  it  continued 
for  a  century  and  a  half  to  be  published  annually 
on  Holy  Thursday.  It  may  be  briefly  described 
as  a  summary  of  ecclesiastical  censures,  especially 
of  those  with  which  grievous  violation  of  the  faith 
of  the  church,  or  of  the  rights  of  the  church  or  of 
the  Roman  see,  are  visited  :  excomnnniication 
being  denounced  against  heresy,  schism,  sacrilege, 
usurpation  of  the  rights  of  the  church  or  of  tlie 
pope,  fincible  ami  uidawful  seizure  of  church  pro- 
perty, pi-rsonal  violence  against  ecclesiastics,  \c. 
The  bull  also  denounces  other  crimes,  jus  piracy, 
nlunder  of  shipwrecked  goods,  and  forgery.  This 
t)ull,  being  regarded  by  most  of  the  crowned  heads 
of  Europe  as  an  infringement  of  their  rights, 
encountered  in  the  17th  century  the  determined 


94       INCOMBUSTIBLE    FABRICS 


INDEMNITY 


opposition   of  nearly  all   tlie  courts,  even  the  most 
Catholic;  and  at  length,   in   1770,  Clement   XIV. 
•liscontinueil  its  puKlicatimi,  which  has  never  since 
been  reneweil. 
Inrwiiibiistiblo  Fabrio.    !>ee  Kikk. 

Ill4'OIII('-ta\.  a  tax  ilirectly  levieil  on  all  ^iors<ms 
liavin;;  incomes  above  a  certain  amount.  We  hear 
of  a  lax  imjioscil  on  property  anil  incomes  by  the 
Kn^lish  parliament  in  1042  ilurinf;  the  great  Civil 
War.  It  liecanie  an  important  feature  in  the  fiscal 
systen)  iluriiif;  the  Krench  war  in  I79S.  ll  was 
revived  by  Sir  Robert  Peel  in  1S4'J,  and  may  now 
be  re'.;arded  as  pi'iinanent.  Since  1.S9S  all  incomes 
in  Britain  under  fl(i(l  are  exempted  :  deductions  arc 
made  from  incomes  between  flOO  and  £400  of  £160, 
between  £400  and  £500  of  £150,  between  £.")00  and 
£600  of  £1-20,  and  between  £600  and  £700  of  £70. 
See  Ghe.vt  I{rit.\ix,  Vol.  V.  ]>.  376. 

With  reference  to  the  equity  and  rea.sonableness 
of  the  income-tax  o]iinion  is  divided.  The  tax  is 
graduated  so  far :  considerations  of  equity  are 
satisHed  by  exempting  from  it  an  income  sufficient. 
for  a  decent  and  comfortable  maintenance.  C)n  the 
other  hand  the  tax  certainly  bears  an  inquisitorial 
character  through  the  oHicials  of  government  making 
investigation  into  the  pri\ate  atl'airs  of  the  citizens. 
Further,  as  the  estimate  of  income  must  to  a  large 
extent  be  left  to  the  discretion  of  the  persons  taxed, 
it  otters  very  consideralile  opportunity  for  conceal- 
ment and  falsilication  in  the  returns :  while  the 
conscientious  render  an  account  in  full,  the  less 
scrupulous  may  pay  less  than  they  ought.  Also, 
it  is  not  equitable  that  incomes  gained  from  har<l 
industrial  or  professional  labour  shoubl  be  taxed  as 
heavily  as  incomes  derised  from  inherited  proi)erty. 
Such  considerations  have  long  and  \igorously  been 
urged  against  the  income-tax,  and  it  must  be 
admitted  that  there  is  much  force  in  them  ;  but 
there  is  little  prospect  of  argument  taking  effect  in 
the  abolition  of  the  tax.  An  increase  of  income- 
tax  is  the  great  resort  of  government  in  times  of 
emergency,  particularly  during  war,  or  when  the 
fear  of  war  makes  special  armaments  nece.ssary. 
In  1890  Mr  Gosclien  estimated  that  every  penny 
added  to  the  tax  meant  an  addition  of  about 
£2,'200,000  to  the  revenue  (as  compared  with 
£800,000  in  1S44  under  Peel).  It  is  all  the  more 
convenient  and  even  indispensable,  because  taxa- 
tion in  Great  Hritain  is  now  limited  to  a  very 
few  articles  of  daily  consumption,  so  that  the 
exchequer  has  otherwise  only  nari-ow  scope  for 
increasing  the  revenue.  And,  apart  from  the  dilli- 
culties  of  levying  it,  it  must  be  maintained  that 
the  principle  of  taxing  the  citizens  according  to 
their  income,  after  deducting  the  minimum  neces- 
sary for  a  comfortable  living,  is  perfectly  equitable 
and  reasonable. 

In  the  United  States  an  income-tax  was  imposed 
in  the  years  186S-7I.  It  was  exempted  at  first  on 
86110,  tihen  on  -SIOOO.  and  ultimately  on  .•J2000. 
Incomes  up  to  •SoOOO  paid  5  percent.,  those  between 
$5001)  and  l!;iO,000,  7  per  cent.,  and  all  above 
.?)0,000,  10  |?er  cent.  An  income-tax  of  2  per  cent, 
on  all  incomes  over  .^000,  eii;u'ted  in  1804,  was 
declared  unconstitution.al  by  the  Sii|iienie  Court  in 
1895,  as  being  a  direct  tax. 

IlI4'wiiiiii«'iisiiriible.     See  ('(immkn.sitr.vble. 

Ilirrcnifllt.  CNK.vrtNKl),  is  the  increase  in  the; 
rem  of  land  ilue  to  the  growth  of  industrial  under- 
takings and  of  towns,  and  the  general  progress  of 
society.  Because  obtained  witlnmt  exertion  or  the 
expen<liture  of  capital  ou  the  part  of  the  owners  of 
the  land,  some  economists  maintain  that  it  should 
be  specially  taxeil. 

Incubation,  Thk  Period  ok.  during  which 
binls  sit  on  their  eggs  before  the  young  are  hatched 
varies  in  ilitl'erent  species,  but  is  nearly  constant  in 


I  • 


each.  In  the  hummingbirds  it  is  only  12  days  :  in 
canaries  it  is  from  15  to  18  days  ;  in  the  raven  and 
in  the  common  fowl  ii  is  21  days  ;  in  the  duck  it  is 
from  28  to  .')()  days;  in  the  |iheasaiit  and  in  the 
guinea-fowl  it  is  28  or  29  days  ;  in  the  turkey,  .30 
days :  and  in  the  swan,  from  40  to  45  days.  The 
degree  of  heat  (about  40^  C. ,  104°  F. )  necessary  for 
the  development  of  the  young  is  usually  sujiplied 
by  the  mother-bird  :  but  in  some  cases  the  sunshine 
(a.s  in  ostriches  during  the  day  ),  or  the  warmth  of 
a  nest  of  decaying  plants  (as  in  the  Megaiiodes),  is 
relied  upon  :  nor  must  it  be  forgotten  that  in  many 
Piisserine  and  Running  Birds  the  males  take  their 
sh.are,  or  it  may  be  the  entire  responsibility  of 
incubation.  While  the  patience  of  incubaticm  is 
most  emphasised  and  rewardeil  among  birds,  hints 
of  it  appear  in  re|itil('s — witness  the  female  python; 
and  analogous  processes  are  seen  in  a  few  amphibi- 
ous fishes,  and  even  Invertebrates. 

Incubators,  or  devices  for  artihcial  hatching,  are 
used  Ijotli  for  practical  anil  scientific  purposes  at 
the  poultry  farm  and  in  the  embryological  labora- 
tory. From  time  immemorial  the  Egyptians  have 
hatched  eggs  by  artificial  warmth  in  peculiar  but 
comparatively  simple  ovens,  .ind  thirty  millions  of 
chickens  per  annum  are  said  to  be  thus  hatched  in 
F.gypt.  In  1777  Boniiemain  devised  a  hatching 
ajiparatus  which  supplieil  the  Parisian  markets 
with  poultry.  In  1825  D'Arcet  obtained  chickens 
from  artificial  incubation  l>y  means  of  the  thermal 
waters  at  Vichy.  The  Erca/cohion,  invented  by 
Mr  liucknell,  was  .«aid  to  ]iossess  a  perfect  control 
over  temperature  from  300°  F.  to  that  of  cold 
water  for  any  length  of  time.  The  modern 
incubator  consists  es.sentially  of  a  large  water-bath 
and  a  gas  regulator  for  automatically  preventing 
the  rise  of  tenijierature  above  40  ( '.  The  eggs  are 
placed  in  a  tray  or  drawer,  so  arranged  that  the 
products  of  the  gas  comliustion  are  kejit  away  from 
the  eggs,  but  a  sujiply  of  fresh  air  and  moisture 
secured.  For  emliryological  purposes  the  form 
most  used  in  Great  Britain  is  probably  that  of  the 
Cambridge  Scientific   Instrument  Company.      See 

OSTUICH-FARMING,  POULTRY;   al.so  PlsnOt'I/miK. 

IlK'llblls.    See  Demonoldgy. 

IlK'lIlllbcilt,  the  rector,  par.son,  or  vicar  hold- 
ing an  ecclesiastical  benefice  in  Kngland.  ll  is  the 
common   title   in   Scotland  of  episcoiial  clergymen 

holding  chaige>. 

IiK-iimbcrod  Estates.    See  ENCuMBEREn. 

IlU-lllia  bllla.  See  I'.llil.loiiliAl'llv,  Vol.  II. 
p.   l.TJ. 

llnl*H'«'llt  Exposure  is  a  cnnunal  olience 
both  at  common  law  and  in  England  and  Ireland 
also  by  statute.  It  is  not  clearly  settled  whether 
more  than  one  person  must  lia\e  witnessed  the 
indecency  in  order  to  m.ake  it  an  olience.  The 
exposure  must  be  in  some  public  place  i.e.  in  a 
jilacc  which  may  be  seen  by  some  considerable 
nundier  of  persons.  The  olience  is  punishable 
summarily  by  three  months'  im]irisonnient.  In 
Scotland  indecent  ])ractices  are  also  indictable 
offences,  but  the  law  in  this  respect  is  somewhat 
vague,  and  the  ]iunislinient  is  left  to  the  discretion 
of  the  court. 

IlUleillllity.  an  instrument  or  contract  whereby 
is  )irotected  against  lo.ss,  or  against  the 
Fire  insurance,  for 
example,  is  a  contract  of  indemnity;  not  so  life 
insurance,  which  is  a  contract,  not  to  make  good 
an  uncertain  loss,  but  to  ])ay  a  certain  reversionary 
sum.  .-Xcts  of  indemnity  are  sometimes  jia-ssed  by 
parliament  for  the  protection  of  ])ublic  officers; 
thus,  in  1801  and  in  1817  acts  were  passed  to 
protect  officers  who  had  taken  ])art  in  tlie  appre- 
hension, &c.  of  persons  suspected  of  treason.    From 


a  per.siiu  is  ju 

risk    of    legal     jiroccei lings. 


INDENTURE 


INDEPENDENTS 


95 


the  year  17'27  oiiwar.l  j;eiieial  acts  of  indemnity 
were  passed  from  time  to  time  for  the  benelit  of 
those  who  oiiiitteil  to  take  the  oaths  of  olhce 
re<|uired  by  the  acts  imposing  disabilities  on 
dissiMitei's.  For  tlie  <.neat  French  war  indemnity, 
see  Fraxck.  Vol.  IV.  p.  783. 

IlldeUtliro,  the  technical  name  j;iveii  in 
En.Lfiand  to  a  deeil  under  seal,  entered  into  be- 
tween two  or  more  jiarties  with  mntnal  covenants. 
Formeily  the  papei-s  or  pieces  of  ]iarchment  on 
which  tiie  duplicate  copies  of  the  indenture  were 
executed  required  to  oe  actually  indenteil — i.e. 
notched  or  toothed  ( Lat.  dent,  '  tooth ' ),  or  cut  in 
a  wavinj;  line,  so  as  to  correspond  with  each  other, 
but  this  is  no  louder  necessary.  The  name  is  not 
Used  in  a  ijeneral  sense  in  Scotland,  excejil  in  the 
case  of  indentures  of  .Apprenticeship  f'j.v. ). 

Independt'llOf  Day,  in  the  Inited  States, 
falls  on  the  4tb  of  Jul.v,  and  is  observed  as  a  Ie<.'al 
holiday.  Pulilic  meetings  are  held,  orations  are 
delivered,  and  the  general  patriotism  finds  vent  in 
processions  and  in  salvos  of  artillery,  the  ex)ilosion 
of  crackers,  and  in  displays  of  fireworks.  In  the 
large  cities  accidents  have  been  not  unfreqnent,  and 
the  reckless  discharge  of  firearms  is  iu)w  kept  in 
check.  On  July  4,  1776,  the  Declaration  of  Inde- 
piMidence  was  reporteil  to  the  continental  congress 
ity  the  chairman  ;  it  was  read  anti  proclaimed  at 
tiie  state-honse  on  July  8;  but  it  was  not  signed 
by  all  the  delegates  until  August  2,  some  of  them 
having  to  wait  for  instructions  from  their  respective 
colonies. 

Independent.s,  or  Coxgreg.\tionali.sts. 
The  distinctive  principle  of  the  Congregational 
church  polit.v  is  that  every  ChrLstian  church  or 
congregation  is  entitled  '  to  elect  its  own  officers,  to 
manage  all  its  own  attaii-s,  and  to  stand  independ- 
ent of,  and  irresponsible  to  all  authority,  saving 
that  only  of  the  Supreme  and  Divine  Head  of  the 
Church,  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ.'  The.v  regard  the 
Sacred  Scriptures  as  their  only  standard,  and  hold 
that  liumau  traditions,  fathers  and  councils,  canons 
and  creeds  posse.ss  no  authority  over  the  faith  and 
prictice  of  Christians.  Congregationalism  denies 
that  there  is  any  authority  in  Scripture  for  uniting 
the  churches  of  a  nation  or  jirovince  into  one  church 
or  corporation  to  be  ruled  by  a  bishop  or  bishops, 
superior  to  the  bishops  or  pastors  of  particular  con- 
gregations, or  by  a  presbytery  or  synod  consisting 
of  the  pastors  or  elders  of  t  he  several  congregations  of 
the  nation  or  ]>rovince.  This  is  the  speciality  which 
distinguishes  Indepenileney  or  Congregationalism 
from  Episcop;u:y  and  from  Presbytery.  The  tenn 
'Independent'  is  supposed  to  have  originated  in 
the  incidental  use  of  the  word  in  an  '  apology ' 
a<Idres.sed  in  Latin  and  English  to  the  British  and 
Continental  universities  about  the  year  lt>()4.  But 
the  early  maintainers  of  this  form  of  church  govern- 
ment were  careful  to  repudiate  certain  iuferen(*s 
which  might  be  drawn  from  the  use  of  the  word. 
'  We  tlo  profess  <Iependence,'  sjiid  one  of  them, 
'  up(m  magistrates  for  civil  government  and  pro- 
tection ;  dependence  upon  Christ  and  bis  woni  for 
the  sovereign  government  and  rule  of  our  arlminis- 
trations ;  deuendence  upon  the  counsel  of  other 
churches  and  .synoils  when  our  own  variance  or 
ignorance  may  stand  in  neeil  of  such  help  from 
them.'  The  iinlependence  claimed  was  only  the 
right  of  every  individual  church  to  iulminister  its 
own  affairs,  free  from  the  control  or  authoritative 
jurisiliction  of  other  churches— a  right  compatible, 
it  was  asserted,  and  Ls  still  aiserted,  with  union  for 
the  promotion  of  commcm  ends,  and  with  fraternal 
aid  and  counsel  in  cases  of  variance  or  other 
difficulty.  .\s  compareil  with  other  societies  of 
Christians  who  claim  spiritual  an<l  ecclesiastical 
independence,    this    body  of    (Jliristians    may    be 


defined    briefly  as    independent  congregationally, 

or  iis  'Congregational  lndepen<h'nts.' 

Dui-triiKilhi  the  early  Independents  occupied 
the  same  position  as  the  other  sections  of  the 
Puritan  iamily.  i'lie.v  held  in  sukstance  the 
evangelical  doctrines  of  the  Ketormers,  '-f  (he  West- 
minster Assembl.y,  and  of  the  Thirty-nine  Articles. 

Not  refusing  to  confess  their  faith  with  the  other 
I  members  of  the  Westminster  Assembly,  the  rejire- 
sentatives  ol  the  Independents  disputed  the  right 
of  that  or  any  other  iisscmbly  to  confess  its  faith 
for  posterity,  or  make  that  confession  l>inding  upon 
them.  Largely  Augustinian  and  Calvinistic  in 
their  interjjretation  of  Scripture,  Congregationalist* 
have  in  these  later  years  become  more  alive  to  the 
freedom  which  their  princi|)les  involve  to  interpret 
Scripture,  not  according  to  any  one  .-clieme  or 
system,  but  as  loyalty  to  the  light  of  truth  and 
the  spirit  of  Christianity  may  dictate.  In  the 
reaction  which  followed  the  rise  of  Socinianism 
many  Independent  societies  fettered  the  use  of 
their  property  by  the  insertion  of  uncatholic 
doctrinal  restrictions  in  their  deeds.  In  later  year- 
the  use  of  their  property  and  buildings  has  been 
limited  only  to  the  catludic  interpretation  of  the 
teaching  of  Christ,  and  what  they  regard  as  the 
New  Testament  constitution  of  the  religious 
society. 

For  the  history  of  thi>  body  we  must  refer  to  the 
works  named  at  the  end  of  this  article.  But  it  ma,\ 
be  mentioned  that  as  early  as  the  days  of  tiiieen 
Elizabeth  it  was  numerous  and  influential.  In 
a  speech  made  by  Sir  Walter  Haleigli  in  the  House 
of  Commons  in  159"2,  on  the  subject  of  a  law  to 
transport  the  Brownists — as  they  were  ofi'ensivel\ 
and  untrnly  named  after  Roliert  Browne  (q.v.) — 
he  thus  refers  to  their  numbers  :  '  If  two  or  three 
thousand  Brownists  meet  at  the  seaside,  at  whose 
charge  shall  they  be  transpoi  ted 'r  or  whither  will 
you  send  themV  I  am  sorry  for  it,  but  I  am  afraid 
there  is  near  twenty  thousand  of  them  in  England; 
and  when  they  are  gone,  w  ho  shall  maintain  their 
wives  and  children?'  Several  eminent  men  of  this 
body  suffered  death  for  their  opinions  ;  others  were 
condemned  to  banishment.  The  greater  part  retired 
to  Holland.  Numbers  sought  an  asylum  in  New 
England  ;  and  America  still  cherishes  the  memory 
of  the  Pilgrim  Fathers,  as  the  fouudei-s  of  those 
institutions  which  are  the  sources  of  her  free<lom, 
her  intellectual  and  moral  power,  and  her  national 
elevation. 

By  the  pa.ssiug  of  the  Act  of  Iniformity  in  1662 
the  luilependents,  along  with  other  Nonconformists, 
were  subjected  to  much  suffering.  The  act  reiinired 
an  ex|)res.s  assent  and  ci>nsent  to  everything  con- 
taine(l  in  the  revised  Prayer-lxxik,  and  its  effect 
was  to  cause  1900  or  2000  of  the  clergy  to  leave  the 
church.  Still  the  Imlependents  ini'reased  :  and  the 
Revohitiou  of  16SS,  and  the  passing  of  the  Ttdera 
lion  Act  in  1680,  at  length  bronglit  them  relief. 
Efforts  were  made  about  this  time  to  bring  about 
an  accommodation  between  thi'ui  and  the  English 
Presbyterians ;  ami  in  1691  heatls  of  agreement 
were  drawn  up,  but  with  little  practical  result. 
In  1730  Presbyterians,  Baptists,  ami  Independents 
formed  themselves  into  a  united  IhhIv,  under  the 
name  of  the  Three  Denominations.  f(M'  the  i>ro- 
tcction  of  their  civil  and  religious  liberties.  Phi' 
hhleiicndcnts  are  tlie  largest  (lis>enting  body  in 
England  e.\cept  the  Wesleyan  Methodists.  The 
largest  confederation  of  its  churches  is  '  the  Con- 
gregatioiuil  I'nion  of  England  and  Wales,'  which 
LS  careful  to  lay  down  in  its  basis  the  princijile 
that  '  it  sh,all  not,  in  any  case,  assume  legislative 
authority,  or  l>e<M)me  a  ccmrt  of  appeal.' 

An  Independent  church  is.  from  its  very  con- 
stitution, at  liberty  to  choose  any  man  for  its 
minister  whom  it  considers  qualified  for  the  olfice 


96 


INDEPENDENTS 


INDEX 


— subject  only  to  the  check  arisiii';  from  the  fact 
that  iieijihboui'iii!;  luinistei-'-  will  refuse  to  ordain 
or  recojinise  a  man  whom  they  have  reason  to 
rejrard  as  (lisc|iialilieil.  Hut  from  the  l>ej,'inninf,' 
the  Imlenendeiits  have  attached  great  importance 
to  an  educated  ministry.  Their  leaders  in  the 
Puritan  aj;e,  such  as  Owen,  Howe,  and  Ureenhill, 
were  men  of  great  learning,  and,  a-s  soon  as  the 
Act  of  Toleration  in  l(iS9  allowed,  measures  were 
taken  for  securing  a  siiccession  of  educated  men. 

In  1800  the  Cunf/rcr/if/ioiial  Ycrtrhnok  reported 
■1S17  churches  and  i)reaching  stations  in  the  I  nited 
Kingdom  connected  with  the  liody,  of  which  101 
were  in  Scotland,  2!t  in  Ireland,  with  HI  stations, 
and  in  the  Channel  Islands  U.  In  Canada  there 
are  184  churches  and  stations,  in  Australia  300,  in 
New  Zealand  •!'>,  in  South  Africa  41.  in  Jamaica 
41,  in  British  (luiaiia  3S,  in  India  31,  in  China  2. 
on  the  continent  of  Europe  4 — making  a  total  of 
666.  There  are  in  all  18  colleges  for  training 
ministers,  with  02  professors  and  472  students ; 
besides  the  missionary  institutes  of  the  London 
Missionary  Society.  In  1895  there  were  48oO  Con 
gregationalist  churches  in  these  islands.  Their 
colleges  are  'New  College,'  London,  a  union  of 
three  older  colleges  —  Honierton,  Highbury,  and 
Coward — to  be  ultimately  transferred  to  Camuridgc, 
Cavendish  College  there  liaving  been  bought  in  1893 : 
Hackney  College ;  Lanca.sliire  College,  Manchester ; 
Yorkshire  College,  Bradford  —a  union  of  Airedale 
and  Rotherham  colleges  elt'ected  in  1888;  Mans- 
liekl  College,  Oxfonl,  formed  by  the  transference 
in  1880  of  Springhill  College  and  its'revenues  from 
Birmingham  to  O.xford,  where  graduates  of  any 
British  university  are  eligible  as  students,  pursuing 
part  of  their  studies  in  the  theological  classes  pro- 
vided by  other  colleges  of  the  university  ;  Cheshunt 
College,  belonging  to  Lady  Huntingdon's  trustees. 
founded  for  the  preparation  of  young  men  for  the 
Christian  ministry  in  any  section  of  the  church  to 
which  they  might  be  called,  but  virtually  an  Inde- 
pendent college;  Western  College,  Plymouth,  the 
oldest  of  the  colleges,  dating  from  1750  ;  Notting- 
ham and  Bristol  Institutes  for  the  training  of 
evangelists  and  village  pastors  ;  in  Wales,  Brecon, 
Bala,  and  Bangor ;  '  Carmarthen  Presbyterian 
College.'  governed  1)V  Dr  Williams'  trustees,  who 
are  Unitarians,  with  an  IndeiJcndent  theologii'al 
professor  and  many  Independent  students ;  and  the 
Theological  Hall  of  the  Scottish  Congregational 
churches  in  Edinburgh. 

In  Scotland  Imlependency  may  be  traced  back 
to  the  ilays  of  the  Commonwealth,  during  which 
it  was  imported  by  the  cha])lains  and  soldiers  of 
Cromwell.  But  the  present  lnilepen<lent  churches 
in  Scotland  owe  their  origin  mainly  to  a  mission- 
ary movement  in  the  end  of  the  18th  century,  chief 
among  the  leaders  of  which  were  the  brothers 
Robert  and  .lames  Haldane,  (ireville  Ewing,  John 
Campbell,  and  .John  AiUnnin.  The  Haldanes 
became  Baptists  in  couixe  of  time — a  circumstance 
which  greatly  divided  and  weakened  the  new  com- 
munity. The  formation  of  an  a(^ademy  for  the 
training  of  nnnisters  in  1811.  and  of  the  Congrega- 
tional L'niou  about  the  same  lime,  did  nmcli  to 
restore  the  lost  vigour  of  the  body.  It  should 
be  added  that  the  Baptist  churches,  both  in  Hng- 
lanil  and  Scotland,  are  as  strictly  'Independent' 
as  those  which  bear  that  name. 

In  .-Vmerica  the  lirst  Imlepcndent  church  was 
founiled  at  I'lymoiiih,  New  I'.nglaMil.  in  1(120  by 
a  party  of  i)ilgrim^  sent  fiom  Holland  by  John 
RolnnsoD.  In  1637  the  spreiid  of  Antinomian 
doctrine  caused  nnicli  discussion  in  the  church. 
By  a  synod  convened  in  New  Englanil  .\nti- 
nomi.anism  (4. v.)  was  unanimously  condemned. 
In  1638  Harvard  College  was  founded.  In  16.')8  the 
Savoy   Confession   was  adopteil.      It  still  remains 


ill  force.  I'nitarian  princi])les  spread  about  1750 
widely  in  the  Congregational  churches  of  America. 
In  1785  a  sei>aiation  tindx  jdace  between  the  I'ui- 
tarians  ami  the  Trinitarians,  but  both  still  retain 
the  Congregational  form  of  church  government. 
Ill  1883  the  Unitarian  churches  of  this  order  num- 
bered .360.  There  is  a  Unitarian  theolojiical 
seminary  at  Meadville,  Pennsylvania,  ami  Har- 
vard (q.v.)  has  only  of  late  years  been  professedly 
non-sectarian.  '  Congregatiimalism,'  according  to 
Dr  Schair.  'is  the  ruling  sect  of  the  si.\  north- 
eastern states,  and  has  exerted,  and  still  exerts,  a 
beneticial  iiiHneiice  upon  the  religions,  social,  and 
l>olitical  life  of  the  whole  nation.'  American  Con- 
gregationalism is  somewhat  nearer  to  Presby- 
terianisiii  than  the  English  type.  In  addition  to 
the  Conference,  or  Association  of  Churches,  by 
which  they  co-o]ierate  for  common  enils,  a  national 
council  meets  triennially  '  for  advisory  and  not 
juridical  ends:'  but  this  council  is  the  recognised 
agency  for  deciding  as  to  ministerial  or  ecclesiasti- 
cal fellowship.  In  1895  the  number  of  Congrega- 
tional churches  in  the  United  States  was  about 
■4800,  with  515,000  church  members,  and  nearly 
6OO.OIJO  children  in  Sunday-schools.  Besides  such 
well-known  colleges  as  Bowiloin,  Amherst, 
Williams,  and  (Hierlin,  the  American  Independ- 
ents possess  theological  seminaries  at  Antlover, 
Bangor,  New  Haven.  Hartford,  Oakland,  Chicago, 
ami  elsewhere. 

See  Vaughan's  Hi.-<tori/  of  Eni/Ush  NoncmLhirmity  ;  J. 
Fletcher's  ffistoni  of  Indciiemlencii :  \Vaddin!,'ton's  Con- 
i/rff/fttional  Histori/,  HOO  to  1S50;  Hanlmry's  Mcmoriah; 
Meal's  Uislorii  of  the  Puritanx  :  l)r  Stoughton's  Ecdt- 
Kiustical  Historii  of  Ewjland  :  Skeats's  Historii  of  the  Free 
Churches  of  Ent/land  ;  and  Barclay's  Inner  Life  of  the 
Jitfif/ioit.-i  ^oeietici  of  the  Coinmonivealth.  For  the  scrip- 
tural and  apostolic  basis  of  the  system.  Independents 
refer  to  Whately's  Kint/dom  of  ChriM  and  Hatch's 
Baiiipton  Lccluris  (1880).    See  also  the  article  I'l'HITANS. 

IlldOV  (in  full,  IXIJEX  LlIiUOKlM  I'ltOHIBI- 
TiililM  or  Exi'imi.XNDoltr.M),  a  catalogue  pub- 
lished by  papal  authority  in  the  Koman  Catholic 
Church  of  books  the  reading  of  which  is  pndiibited 
to  members  of  that  church,  whether  on  doctrinal, 
moral,  or  religious  giounds.  As  .a  natural  con- 
sc(|uence  of  the  claim  of  the  Catholic  Church 
to  .luthiirity  in  matters  of  religion,  ami  to  in- 
fallibility, that  church  also  claims  the  right  or 
the  duly  of  watching  over  the  faith  of  its  mem- 
bers, and  of  guarding  it  against  every  danger 
of  corruption,  the  chief  Jimong  which  is  held 
to  be  the  circulation  of  liooks  believeil  to  be 
injurious  to  faith  or  to  morality.  The  earliest 
recorded  exercise  of  this  restrictive  authority  is 
the  prohibition  of  the  writings  of  Arius.  The 
e;irliest  example  of  a  prohibitory  catalogue  is 
found  in  the  decree  of  a  council  held  at  Rome 
(494)  under  Pope  (Jelasius.  which,  having  enumer- 
ated the  canonical  books  of  .Scripture  and  other 
approved  works,  recites  also  the  apocryphal  books, 
together  with  a  long  list  of  heretical  authors, 
whose  writings  it  prohibits.  The  medieval  popes 
and  councils  pursued  the  same  course  as  to  the 
heterodox  or  dangerous  writings  of  their  respec- 
tive periods  ;  and  the  multiplication  of  such  books 
after  the  invention  of  printing  leil  to  a  more 
stringent  as  well  as  more  systematic  procedure. 
The  university  press  of  Louvain  issued  in  154(5,  and 
again  in  1550,  a  catalogue  of  prohibited  books. 
Similar  lists  ajipeared  by  authority  at  Venice, 
I'aris,  and  Cologne;  and  I'ius  IV.  issued  in  1557 
and  15.59  what  may  be  regarded  as  [jroperly  the 
lirst  Koman  Index.  One  of  the  gravest  nnder- 
t.ikings  of  the  Council  of  Trent  w;us  a  miue  com- 
jdele  and  authoritative  enumeration  of  all  tho.se 
liooks  the  use  of  which  it  was  expedient  to  prohibit 
to  the  faithful.     \   committee  wn-s  appointed  for 


IXDKX 


INDEXING 


97 


the  |>uipii>L'.  Hut  ii  wii,-;  fdUiul  iiiii)ossible  to  bring 
the  examination  of  the  books  to  an  end  before 
the  close  of  the  eoniicil  :  anil  the  entire  papers 
of  the  oommittee  were  handeil  over  by  the  eoiincil 
to  the  pope,  with  instructions  tliat  the  work  should 
be  completed,  and  the  result  published  by  his  own 
authority,  which  was  accordinjjlv  done  by  I'iut.  I\'. 
in  ir)64.  Further  additions  and  certain  niodilica- 
tions  of  its  rules  were  made  by  Sixtus  V.  and 
Clement  \'1I.  It  was  republished  in  l.">!)5,  and, 
with  the  addition  of  sueli  books  as  from  time  to 
time  it  wa-s  deemed  expedient  to  prohiliit,  in  several 
subsequent  editions,  the  most  remarkable  of  wliieh 
are  those  of  Brasichelli  ( Kome,  1007 ) :  Quiroixa 
(Salamanca,  1601):  and  Sotomayor,  y^orissimux 
//((/cj- ( Madrid,  lti4,S).  The  edition  best  known  to 
modern  tln'oloyical  readers  is  that  of  Home  (1819). 

The  prohibitions  of  the  Koiiian  Index  are  of  two 
classes,  either  absolute  and  total  or  partial  and 
provisional,  '  until  the  book  shall  have  Ijeen  cor- 
rected.' The  ground  of  the  prohibition  may  be 
either  the  authorship  of  the  work,  or  its  subject, 
or  both  together.  L  nder  the  first  head  are  pro- 
hibited all  the  writings  of  /icrcs^iiirchs — i.e.  the  first 
founders  of  heresies — no  matter  what  may  be  the 
subject.  Under  the  second  head  are  prohibited  all 
books  confessedly  immoral,  and  all  books  on  magic, 
necromancy,  iV:c.  Under  the  third  are  prohibiteil 
all  books  of  heretical  authorship  treating  on  doc- 
trinal subjects;  all  versions  of  the  Bible  by  hereti- 
cal authors  ;  and  all  liooks,  no  matter  by  whom 
written,  which  contain  statements,  doctrines,  or 
insinuations  prejudicial  to  the  Catholic  religion. 
The  preparation  of  the  Index,  in  the  tirst  instance, 
was  committed  to  the  care  of  the  Congregation  of 
the  Ini|uisition  in  Rome ;  but  a  special  Congregation 
of  the  Index  was  established  by  Pius  V.,  and  more 
fully  organised  by  Sixtus  \'.  This  congregation 
consists  of  a  prefect  (who  is  always  a  cardinal),  of 
Ciirdinals,  of  consultei's.  and  of  examiners  of  books 
(qiuilifirntnrrx).  Its  proceedings  are  governed  by 
rules  which  have  been  authoritatively  laiil  down 
by  several  popes,  especially  by  Benedict  XH'.,  in 
a  constitution  issued  July  10,  1753.  The  growth 
of  modern  literature  has,  of  course,  entirely  out- 
stri|)ped  the  limited  and  tardy  machinery  of  this 
tribunal.  A  very  small  proportion  even  of  the 
most  anti-Catholic  publications  outside  of  Italy 
a|>pear  even  by  name  in  the  Roman  Index  ;  but, 
besides  the  positive  prohibitions  of  the  Index  itself, 
there  are  certain  general  rules  regarding  the  use  of 
books  by  which  the  freeilom  of  \\  hat  is  considered 
perilous  or  pernicious  reading  is  much  limited 
anmng  membei"s  of  the  Roman  I  '.itliolic  Church. 

In  this  list— so  objectionable  to  i'rotestants  as  striking 
at  liljerty  of  private  judgment,  may  be  found  the  works 
of  Jewel,  Usher,  Sanderson,  Hull,  and  Pearson,  but  not 
tho  most  really  formidalile  English  attacks  on  Uonianisni, 
the  works  of  Chillingworth  and  Hooker,  not  to  speak  i>f 
Milton.  Uunyan,  and  Swift,  other  EngUsh  works  con- 
demned are  Chaucer,  Spenser,  Addison,  Goldsnuth,  and 
Macaulay.  The  Index  is  revi.sed  and  extended  from  time 
to  time— as  in  1888  ;  and  single  articles  m  niagazmes  may 
lie  specially  censured— as  the  articles  by  Mr  St  George 
Mivart,  a  Catholic,  on  '  Happiness  in  Hell '  in  the  Nine- 
Uenlh  denltinj  for  18!)2. 

Ind<rxing.  The  need  of  indexing  has  become 
more  urgent  as  the  mass  of  materials  to  be  indexed 
lias  increased,  and  the  circle  of  those  who  wish  to 
nse  the.se  materials  has  become  wider.  Lord 
Campbell  proposed  to  bring  a  bill  into  pailiament 
to  d(;|irive  an  author  who  published  a  book  without 
an  in<lox  of  the  privilege  of  <Mipyright.  There  are 
two  cla,~ses  of  books  to  be  indexed — viz.  books  of 
facts  and  books  of  opinion.  In  the  indexing  of  the 
first  cla.ss,  experience,  care,  and  common  sense  are 
needed,  and  the  work  must  lie  systematic  and  not 
ca.sual.  In  the  second  cla-ss  tlie.se  (inalilications  are 
required  and  something  else — viz.  the  insight  of  the  I 
267 


precis  writer.  The  indexer  must  understand  his 
subject  and  also  undei'staml  the  wants  of  the 
reader.  The  index  must  be  exhaustive  in  its 
indication  of  the  various  points  in  the  book,  and 
concise  in  expression,  and  in  addition  the  indexer 
must  be  careful  in  the  choice  of  catchwords  or 
titles  for  his  headings.  He  must  gather  together 
the  same  subjects  under  one  heading,  and  see  that 
they  are  not  separated  under  synonyms.  An 
author  frequently  uses  periphrases  to  escape  from 
the  repetition  of  the  same  fact  in  the  same  form  ; 
but  these  peripluiises  will  give  little  information 
when  inserted  as  headings  in  an  index,  and  it  is  in 
this  power  of  selecting  the  best  catchword  that  the 
good  indexer  will  show  his  superiority  over  the 
commonplace  worker.  The  meaning  of  the  word 
index  has  grailnally  grown  from  the  general  to  the 
liarticular,  and  the  word  is  now  established  as 
denoting  a  series  of  references  arrangeil  in  alplia- 
lietical  order.  There  are  other  kinds  of  indexes ; 
but  these  recjuire  an  explanatory  adjective,  as 
classified,  chronological,  iSrc.  In  indexing  names  it 
is  most  important  to  specify  the  cause  of  reference, 
as  a  block  list  of  references  after  a  name  is  almost 
usele.ss.  A  colossal  instance  of  this  fault  will  be 
found  in  Av.scough's  index  to  the  Gentleman's 
Magazine,  wliere  all  the  references  under  one  sur- 
name are  placed  together  without  even  the  distinc- 
tion of  the  Christian  name.  There  are  2411  entries 
under  Smith,  and  it  has  been  calculated  that  to  go 
through  this  mass  in  order  to  lind  say  Zachary 
Smith  would  take  the  consultei'  eight  days  of  ten 
hours  a  day.  It  is  also  important  to  bring  all  the 
references  to  one  man  under  one  heading,  and  not 
to  separate  them  under  the  different  names  or  titles 
he  may  have  borne.  In  the  index  to  Scott's  edition 
of  Swift's  Works  there  are  638  references  to  Harley, 
Earl  of  Oxford,  arranged  thus  :  227  under  Robert 
Harley,  111  under  Lord  Oxford,  and  300  under 
Treasurer  (Lord  Oxford).  There  should  be  one 
inde.x  for  a  coniidete  work  and  not  a  separate 
index  for  each  volume.  Again,  no  classilication 
should  be  allowed  in  an  alpha! letical  index.  This 
vicious  habit  of  chussification  makes  the  indexes  of 
some  well-known  papers  practically  valueless.  The 
consulter  of  the  inde.x  wishes  to  lind  ivhether  the 
volume  contains  anything  on  a  particular  subject, 
and  be  is  only  confused  and  annoyed  if  he  has  to 
look  in  a  succession  of  alphabet.s  arranged  under 
such  headings  as  original  articles,  note.s,  corre- 
spondence, iVc.  The  preparation  of  an  index 
consists  of  three  divisions:  (1)  compilation,  (2) 
arrangement,  (3)  printing.  Each  indexer  will  find 
out  the  mode  of  procedure  which  is  most  suitable 
im  himself  ;  but  it  may  be  said  generally  thai  fools- 
cap paper  is  the  most  convenient  size  for  nse. 
Those  entries  which  are  not  likely  to  be  repeated 
can  be  written  down  on  the  Jiage  ;is  they  occur  ;  but 
in  the  case  of  large  headings  it  will  be  more  con- 
venient to  use  a  separate  page  for  each,  and  keep 
these  pages  in  an  alphabetised  guard  book  so  that 
they  can  be  turned  to  in  a  moment.  When  the 
time  comes  to  cut  up  the  index  and  arrange  it  in 
alphabetical  order,  it  w  ill  be  necessary  to  see  that 
there  are  no  repetitions  of  the  same  subjects  under 
various  synonyms.  Ncnv  is  the  time  to  make  the 
cross  references,  ;ind  here  considerable  judgment  is 
required.  When  the  entries  are  short  and  few,  it  is 
better  to  repeal  them  than  to  refer  from  one  to  the 
other ;  but  in  the  case  of  long  entries  cross  references 
are  very  advantageous,  and  it  is  always  well  t<i 
refer  to  cognate  headings.  No  reference  to  the 
contents  of  a  general  heading  which  is  without  sub- 
divLsion  should  be  allowed.  If  a  general  heading  is 
divided  into  sections,  and  each  of  them  is  clearly 
defined,  they  should  be  '  cro.ss-referenced,'  but  not 
otherwise.  When  the  arrangement  of  the  cut-up 
slips  is  undertaken,  .some  alterations  and  revision 


98 


INDEXING 


INDIA 


of  headings  will  frequently  be  found  adWsable. 
The  value  of  an  index  is  greatly  enhanced  by  the 
proper  setting  out  of  the  entries  with  judicious  use 
of  different  types.  When  a  book  is  a  complete 
treatise  on  a  special  subject,  a  well-made  index  will 
form  an  admirable  key  to  the  subject  and  be  in 
itself  intrinsically  useful.  Indexes  mav  also  be 
made  with  regard  to  a  particular  subject  dealt 
with  in  a  number  of  bo(dvs. 

The  In'lo.x  Society,  to  form  a  library  of  indexes,  and  to 
make  indexes  to  important  hooks,  rare  serials,  &c..  w;\s 
founded  in  1877,  and  subsequently  incorporated  mtli 
the  British  Kecords  Society ;  their  publications  appear 
quarterly  in  the  Index  Library.  The  American  Library 
Association  Index  (1893)  indexed  3000  miscellaneous 
volumes.  See  books  mentioned  in  tlie  article  Bibliog- 
raphy, and  H.  B.  Wheatley's  How  to  Catuloijue  a 
Library  (IS90). 

India,  an  extensive  region  of  southern  Asia, 
and  next  after  China  the  most  populous  area  in 
the  world.  It  was  celebrated  during  many  ages 
for  its  riches  and  natural  productions,  its  beautiful 
mannf.ictures  and  costly  merchandise,  the  magni- 
licence  of  its  sovereigns,  and  the  early  civilisation 
of  its  people.  It  possesses  especial  interest  to 
British  people  fi'om  the  imperial  connection  of  its 
history  \siti\  that  of  their  own  nation.  It  affords,  too, 
the  greatest  market  in  the  world  for  British  textile 
manufactures,  and  a  great  field  for  the  employment 
of  British  capital. 

Nomenclature. — The  name  India  comes  to  us, 
through  the  Romans,  from  the  Greeks,  who  bor- 
rowed it  from  the  Persians.  The  latter  applied 
the  name  Hind  to  the  dwellere  in  the  basin  of  the 
Sindhu  River,  a  Sanskrit  name  for  the  Indus. 
Sindhu,  by  the  regular  change  of  s  into  h,  becomes 
Hind.  The  river  is  still  called  Sind  ;  while  the 
land  is  Hind.  Officially,  then,  the  countrj-  is  Hind 
in  the  vernacular,  and  India  in  English.  The 
national  name  Hindu  is  derived  from  Hind.  Then 
from  Hindu  came  the  name  Hindustan,  which  is 
only  a  province — viz.  the  region  of  the  Jumna  and 
the  Ganges.  This  name  has  sometimes  been 
applied  to  India  as  a  Avhole,  but  this  is  quite 
erroneous. 

Geographers  write  of  Further  India  and  Hither 
India.  The  former,  lying  eastward  beyond  the 
Malay  Peninsula,  is  mostly  in  native  hands,  and 
partly  under  French  protection.  The  latter  is 
under  British  dominion,  and  is  in  legal  phrase 
India.  It  was  in  1877  proclaimed  as  the  Indian 
empire.  This  article  will  refer  only  to  the  official 
Inclia  thus  indicated.  It  will  for  method  and  con- 
densation be  divided  into  five  parts— I.  The  Laud  ; 
II.  The  People;  III.  The  Government  and  the 
Military  Defence  ;  IV.  The  Civil  Administration  ; 
V.  The  Historj'. 

I.  The  L.\nt). 

India  is  the  central  i)eniiisula  of  southern  Asia, 
and  lies  in  8°  4'— 35°  N.  lat.  and  67°— 92°  E. 
long.  According  to  these  limits,  its  length  may  be 
stated  approximately  at  1900  miles,  and  its  breadth, 
reckoned  along  the  parallel  of  2.i°  N.  lat.,  at  1600 
miles,  with  an  area  of  at  least  1,350,000  sq.  m. 
But  in  round  numbers  the  square  miles  contained 
in  this  area  may  be  reckoned  at  one  million  and  a 
half — inclusive  of  Burma.  The  natural  boundaries 
of  this  vast  region  are,  on  the  N. ,  the  range  of  the 
Himalaya  Mountains,  which  separates  it  from 
Tartary,  China,  and  Tibet ;  on  the  W.  the  Suliman 
Mountains,  dividing  it  from  Afghanistan  and 
Beluchistan  ;  on  the  SW.  and  .S.  the  Arabian  Sea 
and  the  Indian  Ocean  ;  on  the  E.  the  hill-ranges 
which  border  nixin  Burma,  and  the  Bay  of  Bengal. 
From  the  mouths  of  the  Brahmaputra  on  the 
eastern  side,  and  of  the  Indus  on  the  western  side, 
the  two  coasts,  east  and  west,  incline  towards  the 


same  point,  and  meet  at  Cape  Comorin,  thus  pro- 
ducing the  form  of  an  inverted  triangle.  The 
two  sides  of  the  triangle  have  together  a  coast- 
line of  about  2000  miles.  Thus  southern  and 
central,  or  as  it  may  be  called  peninsular  India, 
is  from  its  extent  of  seaboard  a  maritime  ccmntry. 
It  is  northern  India  only  that  lia.s  a  continental 
character. 

Geography. — For  the  geography  of  India  there 
exist  excellent  materials  ifrom  the  Grand  Trigono- 
metrical  Survey — a  work  of  the  highest  scientific 
value — which  has  determined  the  height  of  tlie 
mountains  and  the  situation  of  all  the  orincipal 
places  :  from  the  topographical  sur\ey,  which  hits 
displayed  the  contour  and  configuration  of  the 
whole  country  ;  from  the  revenue  and  cadastral 
surveys,  which  have  delineated  the  boundaries  not 
only  of  villages  but  of  fields  also  for  all  ]irovin(es 
except  Bengal  and  Behar.  The  region  presents  a 
diversified  surface  and  scenery.  It  has  indeed  been 
called  'an  epitome  of  the  whole  earth,'  consisting 
as  it  does  of  mountains  far  above  the  level  of  per- 
petual snow,  broad  and  fertile  plains,  bathed  in 
intense  sunshine,  arid  wastes,  and  impenetrable 
forests.  Its  natural  divisions  are  the  Himalaya, 
the  sub-Himalayan  ranges,  the  plains  of  the  Ganges 
and  the  Brahmaputra,  the  basin  of  the  Indus,  the 
highlands  of  Hindustan,  the  Vindhya  and  Satpura 
ranges,  and  the  peninsula  south  of  those  ranges. 

Tlie  Himalaya  (me.aning  'the  abode  of  snow') 
consists  of  a  chain  some  1500  miles  in  length,  in 
which  the  links  are  formed  by  mountain  knots 
covered  with  perpetual  snow,  some  of  which  rise 
from  20,000  to  near  30,000  feet  above  sea-level,  and 
are  the  highest  yet  discovered  in  the  world.  It  is 
the  dominatin"  factor  in  the  geography  of  northern 
India,  being  tlie  source  of  the  Indus,  the  (ianges, 
the  Brahmaputra,  and  of  their  jirincipal  affluents. 
See  HiMALAY.v. 

The  sub-Himalayan  ranttes  run  between  the 
chain  of  the  Himalaya  and  tlie  plains  of  the  Ganges 
and  Indus.  They  occupy  Cashmere,  the  Simla 
hill-states,  Gurhwal,  Knmaon,  Nepal,  Sikkini,  and 
Bhutan,  which,  owing  to  their  elevation  above  the 
sea  (5000  to  9000  feet),  have  a  climate  like  central 
Europe  in  summer  and  cold  as  Switzerland  in 
winter,  with  the  vegetation  of  the  temperate  zones. 
These  regions  are  separated  from  the  plain  of  the 
Ganges  by  the  submontane  tract  called  Terai, 
which  extends  in  a  long  belt,  5  to  '2.t  miles  in 
width,  from  Hurdwar  (where  the  Ganges  issues 
from  the  sub-Himalayan  ranges)  to  the  Brahma- 
putra. It  is  covered  with  forest,  and  is  the  haunt 
of  wild  beasts.  The  soil  is  very  fertile,  but  malaria 
has  rendered  it  uninhabitable  by  man  and  the 
domestic  animals,  at  least  from  ,\pril  to  October. 
This  wilderness  is  being  gradnally  narrowed  or  in- 
vaded by  the  progress  of  drainage  and  cultivation. 

The  plains  of  the  Ganges  and  the  Brahmainitra, 
which  include  Bengal,  Behar,  the  Doab  ( meaning 
the  '  Mesopotamia '  of  the  Ganges  and  Jumna  rivers ), 
Gudh,  and  Rohilcund,  form  an  alluvial  tint,  ter- 
minating in  a  delta,  and  extending  from  the  Bay 
of  Bengal  to  the  slight  uplands  on  the  Punjab 
border  that  form  the  water-parting  between  the 
Ganges  and  the  Inilus.  Throughout  its  entire 
length  the  (ian"es  and  its  numerous  tributaries 
s])read  out  like  the  veins  of  a  leaf,  carrying  every- 
where their  fertilising  intluence.  The  population 
of  the.se  fertile  and  well-cultivated  plains  is  very 
dense. 

The  basin  of  the  Indus,  in  the  north-west,  is 
towards  the  south  stqiarated  from  that  of  the 
Ganges  by  the  Aravalli  Hills.  The  Punjab  occupies 
the  northern  portion.  South  oi  the  Punjab,  and 
parallel  with  the  river,  the  great  sandy  desert  of 
the  Indus  extends  for  nearlv  500  miles.  The  valley 
of  the   Indus   is  continued   through   Sind   to   the 


INDIA 


99 


Arabian  Sea.  Between  the  Indus  region  and 
the  Aravalli  Hills  lies  the  Thur  desert,  an  ex- 
panse covered  with  sandhills,  400  miles  lon^'  and 
100  broad.  It  is  only  in  the  nei;,'libc)urli()od  of  the 
Indus  and  some  of  its  tributaries  that  the  surface 
can  be  cultivated  by  means  of  river-ini>;ation — 
although  crops  of  grain  may  he  grown  in  hollows 
and  narrow  valleys  after  the  rains.  The  horse  and 
camel  alone  can  cross  this  desert,  which  is  described 
in  Hindu  geography  as  '  the  region  of  death.' 

The  highlands  of  Hindustan  extend  from  the 
Vindbj-a  and  Satpura  mountains  as  a  base  to  the 
border  of  the  Thur  desert.  They  include  the 
tableland  of  Mahva  and  Rajputana  or  Rajasthan, 
which  has  an  elevation  of  about  2000  feet  above 
the  level  of  the  sea. 

The  ^'indhya  and  Satpura  ranges  are  two  hill- 
chains,  with  an  elevation  from  2.500  to  4000  feet, 
partly  though  not  entirely  parallel  from  east  to 
west,  and  divided  from  each  other  by  the  valley  of 
the  Nerbudda  River.  They  form  what  may  be 
called  the  backbone  of  middle  India,  or,  by  another 
metaphor,  a  broad  wall  ilividing  northern  from 
southern  India. 

The  peninsula  south  of  the  Satpura  range  is 
in  two  divisions.  The  first  is  the  Deccan  (q.v. ), 
which  name  means  'the  south."  This  area  is  a 
central  tableland  extending  from  12°  to  21  N.  lat. , 
rising  from  1.500  to  2000  feet  above  the  sea,  and 
enclosed  on  all  sitles  by-  mountain-ranges.  These 
ranges  are  the  Satpuras  above  mentioned,  the  Ea,st- 
ern  Ghats,  somewhat  low,  facing  the  Bay  of  Bengal, 
and  the  Western  Ghats,  higher  and  more  important, 
facing  the  Indian  Ocean.  Between  the  Eastern 
Ghats  and  the  sea  are  fertile  littoral  tracts  known 
to  history  as  the  Northern  Circars  and  the  Carnatic. 
Between  the  Western  Ghats  and  sea  is  a  similar 
tract  known  geographically  as  the  Konkan.  As  a 
northern  continuation  of  this  tract  is  Gujarat,  with 
its  oflshoots  the  peninsulas  of  Kathiawar  and 
Cutch.  From  the  low  land  of  the  Konkan  to  the 
Deccan  plateau  the  mountains  rise  in  a  succession 
of  geological  formations  looking  like  gigantic 
terraces.  The  rivers  of  the  Deccan  rise  in  the 
Western  Ghats,  and,  after  traversing  the  tableland, 
descend  to  the  sea  by  passages  through  the  Eastern 
(;hat.s.  The  slope  of  the  country  corresponds  with 
the  course  of  the  rivers ;  it  has  a  gi'adua!  inclina- 
tion towards  the  east.  The  second  division  begins 
technically  from  the  Tungabhadra  River,  but  geo- 
graphically from  the  hills  south  of  Cuddapah.  It 
extends  right  down  to  Cape  Comoiin,  the  apex  of 
the  inveited  triangle,  and  includes  Madras,  Tanjore, 
Trichinopoli,  Tinnevelli,  and  other  famous  places. 

To  this  summary  of  natural  divisions  a  brief 
notice  of  the  mountains  and  rivers  may  lie  added. 

The  mountain-system  forms  a  connected  whole. 
It  Ls  .separate  from  the  Himalaya  and  from  the 
Sulinian  range,  which  forms  a  wall  between 
India  and  Afghanistan.  It  may  best  be  followed 
from  the  southern  point.  Cape  Comorin,  north- 
wards, thus  :  From  that  point  there  run  upwards 
two  long  lines  of  hills  and  mountains,  one  north- 
easterly, the  other  north-westerly.  The  north- 
easterly line  comprises  the  Eastern  Ghats 
already  mentioned,  which  become  merged  in  the 
hilly  region  cm  the  west  of  Ben<;al,  and  runs  up  to 
the  neighbourhood  of  Allahabad,  at  the  junction  of 
the  Jumna  and  the  Ganges.  This  line  nowhere 
exceeds  an  altitude  of  3500  feet  above  sea-level. 
The  north-westerly  line  comprises  the  Travancore 
and  Falni  hills,  the  Nilgiri,  the  Western  Gliilts, 
the  Aravallis,  and  the  Kajasthan  hills,  up  to 
the  neighbourhood  of  Delhi.  This  line  has  at 
several  pl.aces  considerable  altitude,  for  example 
in  the  Nilgiri  ('Blue  Peak'),  MKM)  feet  and 
upward;  and  Mahahaleshwar  (near  Vwma.)  and 
Abu  in  Rajputana,  upwards  of  4000  feet.     These 


two  lines  are  as  the  sides  of  a  triangle,  and  are 
joined  at  the  top  by  the  two  transverse  and  parallel 
ranges  of  the  \  indhya  and  Satpura  already  men 
tioned.  Thus  the  mountain-system,  like  the  ex- 
ternal configuration  of  the  country,  is  in  the  shape 
of  an  inverted  triangle. 

The  rivcr-si/stem  may  be  thus  epitomised.  The 
Indus  in  the  north-west,  with  a  ci>urso  of  900 
miles  after  issuing  from  the  Himalayas,  drains 
with  its  four  famous  affluents,  the  Sutlej, 
the  Ravi,  the  Chenab,  and  the  Jhelum,  about 
300,000  sq.  m.,  and  empties  itself  into  the  Arabian 
Sea.  In  the  north-east  the  Ganges,  with  the 
Jumna  and  other  atHueuts,  and  the  Brahmaputia 
and  Meghna — all  which  join  in  the  Bengal  delta 
— drain  about  500,000  sq.  m.  Owing  to  their 
virtual  amalgamation  in  Bengal,  it  is  ditticult  to 
assign  a  length  to  the  courses  of  these  rivers,  which 

'  empty  themselves  in  the  Bay  of  Bengal.  The 
central  region — viz.  that  of  the  Vindhyas  and  the 

!  Satpura — about  100,000  sq.  m. — is  drained  by 
the  Nerbudda  and  the  Tapti,  the  former  having  a 
course  of  800  miles,  the  latter  of  400  miles,  and 
both  flowing  west  into  the  Gulf  of  Cambay,  a 
branch  of  tlie  Araliian  Sea.  The  remaining  area 
(viz.  600,000  sq.  m.,  out  of  a  total  of  1,50(1,000) 
consists  of  the  Deccan  and  the  peninsula.  It  is 
drained  by  the  following  rivers  :  Mahanadi,  with 
a  course  of  520  miles  ;  Godavari,  898  ;  Kistna,  80f) ; 
Tungabhadra,  400  ;  Pennar,  350  ;  and  Kaveri,  470. 
There  are  many  other  rivers  wb.ich  cannot  be 
particularised  here.  Among  them  may  be  men- 
tioned the  Hooghly  and  the  Gumti,  Calcutta 
being  situated  on  the  former  and  Lucknow  on  the 
latter  ;  both  belong  to  the  Gangetic  system. 

Geology. — In  1856  a  stati'  of  geologists  commenced 
a  geological  survey  of  India,  which  has  since  then 
been  steadily  continued.  They  have  examined  an 
area  several  times  as  large  as  that  of  Great  Britain, 
and  supplied  for  the  districts  with  which  they 
have  dealt  an  accurate  knowledge  of  the  mineral 
resources. 

Professor  Medlicott  summarises  the  general 
result  thus.  '  Geologically  India  is  divided  into 
three  distinct  areas  :  ( 1 )  peninsular  and  ( 2 )  extra- 
peninsular,  separated  by  (3)  the  Indo-Gangetic 
plains,  formed  of  the  deposits  of  those  great  rivers 
and  tlieir  tributaries.  ( 1 )  is  a  land  surface  of 
immense  antiquity,  all  the  fossiliferous  rocks 
within  it  being  of  aerial  or  fluviatile  formation,  and 
the  newest  of  them  of  Lower  Tertiaiy  age.  It  is 
principally  a  massif  of  gneissic  rocks,  with  bands 
and  basins  of  transition  strata  of  various  ages, 
culminating    in     the     Vindhyan     formation,     of 

!  unaltered  and  undisturbed  strata,  yet  of  un- 
determined age,  being  unfossiliferous.  Totally 
separate  from  the  Vindhyans  comes  the  (iondwana 
formation  :  near  its  base  the  Indian  coal-measures 
on  Upper  Palaeozoic,  while  the  top  group,  where 
near  the  coasts,  contains  Upper  Jurassic  marine 
fossils.  A  great  volcanic  formation,  known  as  the 
Deccan  Trap,  covers  an  immense  area  in  Bombay 
and  Central  India ;  the  deposits  locally  found  in  it 
contain  only  fresh-water  fossils ;  in  Gujarat  it 
occurs  between  Eocene  and  Cretaceous  marine 
strata.  Along  the  outer  margin  of  the  plains  (2)' 
presents  an  almost  unbroken  face  of  Tertiary  rocks, 
of  immense  thickness,  and  more  or  less  intensely 
disturbed.  On  the  west,  associated  with  Cretaceous 
strata,  they  extend  to  form  the  uplands  of  Afghan- 
istan and  Persia.  On  the  eiist,  again  associated 
with  U^iper  Sec4)n<lary  beds,  they  abut  against  the 
crystalline  rocks  of  the  Malay, an  axis.  On  the 
north  they  form  the  sub-Himalayan  chain  at  the 
base  of  the  central  Asian  massif,  the  southern 
ridfjes  of  which  form  the  Himalayas ;  in  this 
position  the  Tertiary  series,  except  at  its  very 
uase,  is  inclusively   of    fluviatile    formation,  like 


100 


INDIA 


the  ])laiiis,  ami  contiiin.--  tlie  famous  Siwalik 
raamriialian  fauna.  Tlie  outer  Himalayan  is  fonncii 
of  crystalline  and  other  rocks  of  uncertain  aj,'e ; 
but  on  the  north  side  of  the  range  there  is  a  full 
succession  of  Paheozoio  and  Secondary  marine 
formations.  At  the  north-east  an;;le  ot  the  plains 
the  Shilloiig  plateau  of  crystalline  roeUs,  capped  liy 
horizontal  Tertiary  strata,  sejiaratiiif;  the  lower 
Assam  valley  from  Sylhet  in  eastern  Bengal,  is  an 
outlier  of  the  peninsular  mus.'ii/.  At  the  north- 
west angle  of  the  plains,  in  the  Salt  Range  of  the 
Punjah,  there  is  again  a  small  exposure  of  the 
ancient  limit  of  the  peninsular  massif,  presenting 
an  outcrop  of  coastal  deposits  of  Paheozoic  age. 
Besides  the  (londwana  coal,  a  light  coal  occurs 
sporadically  in  the  Tertiary  rocks  from  Sind  to 
Cashmere,  and  in  upper  Assam  there  are  rich  coal- 
measures  of  ahout  the  same  age  ;  in  both  these 
regions,  also,  petroleum  is  more  or  less  abundant. 
Pure  iron  ores  are  abundant  throughout  the  penin- 
sula and  in  the  outer  Himalaya;  other  ores  are 
comparatively  scarce,  except  along  the  Malayan 
axis.  The  iliamonds  of  India  an<l  the  aluminous 
gems  of  Burma  are  well  known.' 

In  ancient  times  there  were  gold-mines  in  the 
mountains  of  the  south-western  regions,  which 
supplied  the  metal  for  the  golil  coinage  which  was 
then  almost  universal  in  the  country.  The  most 
accessible  parts  of  the  auriferous  strata  have  been 
worked  out  ages  ago,  and  the  remnant  forms  what 
is  known  as  the  My.sore  mines.  There  are  other 
auriferous  de|)osits  in  parts  of  the  Deccan.  Silver 
lias  never  been  discoveied  in  any  appreciable 
quantity  within  the  country  ;  but  in  the  middle 
ages  it  was  introiluced  largely  from  across  the 
Himalayas  and  used  for  coinage.  In  the  Shan  de- 
pendencies of  Burma,  however,  it  is  extracted  from 
lead  ore.  Coal  is  obtained  largely  in  western 
Bengal,  in  the  Satpura  Hills  to  a  considerable  ex- 
tent, and  in  the  Deccan  to  some  extent,  and  in  some 
other  jilaces  also — enough,  on  the  whole,  to  supply 
the  railways.  Iron  and  copper  are  found  and 
worked  in  many  ])arts  of  the  country.  There 
are  many  other  mineral  proilucts  of  lesser  import- 
ance. Dianumds  are  still  found  in  the  central  hills, 
and  ruby  mines  are  worked  near  the  Irawadi. 
The  mineral  resources  on  the  whole  are  inferior  in 
importance  to  the  agricultural.  See  the  Manunl  of 
the  Hdjlorjii  of  India,  l)y  Medlicott,  Blanford,  and 
Ball  (.■!  vol's.  1879-81). 

Ciiinate. — It  follows  from  the  foregoing  summary 
of  geography  in  a  country  extending  over  26°  of 
latitude — one  extremity  of  which  runs  far  into  the 
torrid  zone,  and  the  other  terudnates  in  a  range  of 
mountains  rising  far  above  the  line  of  perpetual 
snow — a  countrv  embracing  lowland  jdains,  elevated 
plateaus,  and  alpine  regions,  that  the  clinuite  must 
be  extremely  varied.  The  whole  country  has  three 
well  marked  seasons — the  cool,  the  hot,  and  the 
rainy.  This  characteristic  applies  without  ilisliiic- 
tion  to  all  parts  of  the  country  ;  even  to  the  Hima- 
layas, which  have  otherwise  a  climate  like  that  of 
Switzerland.  The  cool  months  are  November,  De- 
cember, January,  and  a  jiart  of  February  ;  the  dry 
hot  weather  i>recedes,  and  the  moist  hot  weather 
Follows  IJK!  periodical  rains.  The  rainy  season  falls 
in  the  ndildle  of  summer  ;  its  heginning  is  earlier  or 
later  according  to  circumstances,  its  ending  is  in 
September,  But  in  Burma  it  lasts  longer  ;  ami  in 
the  peninsula  there  is  a  second  rainy  season, 
calleu  the  latter  rains,  during  the  autumn.  The 
winter  is  the  plea.sant  period  :  the  spring  is  gener- 
ally hot  and  healthy ;  the  sunnuer  depends  on 
the  duration  of  the  lains  ;  the  .-uitumn  is  close, 
malarious,  and  unhealthy.  The  rainy  season 
everywhere  comes  from  the  same  cause — viz. 
the  attraction  by  the  sun  of  moisture  from  the 
ocean  in  clouds,  and  their  condensation  into  rain 


ujiou  the  land.  It  is  called  nmn.soon,  probably  a 
corruption  of  the  Persian  word  for  season  (see 
Mox.sooN).  It  is  the  occasional  failure  of  the 
monsoons  that  causes  the  periodical  famines  to 
which  the  country  is  liable.  The  central  table- 
land is  cool  comparatively,  but  the  alternations  of 
heat  and  cold  diller  greatly  elsewhere.  In  the 
north-west  there  is  burning  heat  with  hot  winds  in 
summer,  and  frost  at  night  in  winter.  In  the 
south  the  heat  is  more  tempered,  but  the  winter 
is  cool  only,  and  not  cold.  At  Ootacamund,  on 
the  Nilgiris,  "200  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea, 
the  mean  annual  tem)ierature  is  58°  F.  :  at  Madras, 
83° ;  Bombay,  84° :  Calcutta,  79° :  Bangalore,  74'  ; 
and  at  Delhi,  72°.  But  at  places  like  Delhi,  where 
the  heat  of  summer  is  tremendous,  the  average  is 
reduced  by  the  cohl  in  winter.  The  fall  of  rain 
varies  greatly  in  diHerent  parts  of  the  country. 
In  the  north-eastern  and  other  outlying  i>arts  it 
exceeds  75  inches  ;  at  one  observatory  in  north- 
east Bengal,  Cherra  Punji,  there  is  a  phenomenal 
fall  of  titK)  inches  in  the  year.  In  the  Deccan,  in 
the  upper  basins  of  the  Ganges  and  the  Indus,  it 
is  30,  and  in  the  lower  regions  of  the  Indus  less 
than  15  inches.  The  remainder  of  India  is  placed 
between  the  extremes  represented  by  these  damp 
and  dry  belts,  but  is,  as  compared  with  Europe, 
an  arid  country.  Hence  the  necessity  of  tanks 
and  irrigation  canals  to  su]pply  moisture  to  the 
soil,  and  to  obviate  the  danger  of  drought  and 
famine.  A  meteortdogical  department  has  been 
established,  with  161  observatories,  the  chief  of 
which  are  at  Calcutta  and  Bombay.  See  Henry 
K.  Blanford's  Practintl  Guide  to  the  C'liitiates  and 
Weather  (f  India  (1889). 

Fauna. — The  domesticated  animals  are,  lirst, 
the  cattle — cows,  bnttaloes,  oxen  :  the  last  two  do 
the  work  of  agriculture.  The  bull  and  cow  are 
sacred  animals  to  Hindus,  and  by  them  are  never 
killed  for  food.  The  indigenous  breeds  of  horses  in 
India  are  being  improved  by  the  importation  of 
foreign  sires.  They  lia\'e  ne\er  been  employed  in 
agriculture.  The  jiony,  the  donkey,  and  the  mule 
are  largely  used.  Sheep  and  goats  are  abundant. 
The  pig  is  plentiful,  hut  is  despised  by  the  upper 
and  middle  classes  of  the  people.  The  monkeys 
are  tame  and  are  held  sacred.  The  wild  animals 
include  the  tiger,  panther,  cheetah,  boar,  bear, 
bison,  ele])hant,  and  rhinoceros.  The  crocodile 
and  alligator  infest  most  of  the  rivers.  Deer  of 
all  sorts  abound  everywhere,  .and  mainly  supply 
sustenance  to  the  carnivorous  animals.  The  lion, 
the  hya-na,  the  lynx,  and  the  wolf  are  unimport- 
ant. The  elephant  is  used  only  for  purpo.ses  of 
war  or  of  state,  both  by  the  government  and  by 
the  native  nobility.  The  ibex  and  the  ovis-ammon 
(the  wild  goat  and  the  wild  sheep)  iire  found  only 
in  the  highest  parts  of  the  Himalayas.  Poisonous 
snakes  aliouml,  ihe  worst  being  the  cobra  dacapello 
(the  black-hooded):  many  thousands  of  the  natives 
die  from  snake-bite  in  the  year.  The  government 
otter  rewards,  and  numy  thousan<ls  of  animals,  in- 
cluding snakes,  are  destroyed.  The  area  supjHirt 
ing  these  animals  has  shrunk  during  the  i>resent 
century  from  the  spread  of  cultivation,  and  is  still 
shrinking.  Destructive  visitations  of  locusts  liappen 
occasionally.  The  birds  arc,  of  course,  inlinitely 
various ;  but  several  of  the  most  beautiful  or 
remarkable  species  are  wanting.  The  eagle  is 
found  only  in  the  Himalayas,  .so  is  the  idieiusant. 
The  partridge  is  .seen  in  all  the  plains,  and  in  some 
places  the  quail  is  abundant.  The  sni|>e  is  found 
in  the  marshy  land  ;  waterfowl  swarm  in  some 
localities,  and  llighls  of  wild  geese  .sweep  through 
the  air.  Vultures  and  other  birds  serve  as 
scavengers.  The  crow  is  common  everywhere,  but 
not  the  raven. 

At    the   sea]>ort   towns   the  supply   of    fish   for 


INDIA 


101 


European  consumption  is  excellent,  and  fisli-curinj; 
is  largely  practised  by  the  natives.  Inland  tlio 
fishing  in  the  mountainstieanis  is  good,  Imt  in  the 
rivers  of  the  champaign  the  lish,  thougli  abundant 
in  cmantity,  are  not  esteemed  for  quality.  See 
\V.  T.  Blanford's  fauna  of  British  I>i<li(t  { 1S88  et 
seq. ). 

Flora. — Nearly  half  of  the  country  is  tropical, 
though  none  of  it  is  eqtiatorial,  anil  a  part  is  not 
only  temperate,  hut  cold  ;  accordingly  the  vegeta- 
tion varies  greatly.  .\s  compared  willi  equatorial 
regions,  the  country  has  tropical  (iroducts  plentiful 
•ind  good,  but  not  first-rate,  such  ivs  tnliacco.  sugar, 
ginger,  and  spices  of  all  sorts.  Kice  lia.s  from  time 
immemorial  fieen  a  staple.  Maize  and  millet  are 
articles  of  food  for  the  stronger  races.  Oilseeds  are 
largely  exported.  The  cultivation  of  wheat  ha.s 
greatly  developed  for  exportation  since  the  era  of 
cheap  |)rices.  Tea  is  grown  largely  uiuler  Euro- 
pean  supervision  in  the  Eastern  Himalayas,  and 
already  surp.asses  the  China  teas.  Cott'ee  is  grown 
in  the  soutli,  hut  with  chequered  success.  Among 
the  dyes,  indigo  and  lac  ( red )  are  noteworthy. 
European  Howei-s  of  all  sorts  are  cultivated  nowa- 
days. The  indigenous  flowers  are  not  rich,  the 
water-lilies  being  the  best :  the  llowering  shrubs 
are  veri'  fine,  however.  Of  trees  in  the  plains 
neiir  the  coasts  the  palm  order  with  its  several 
\  arieties  strikes  the  ob.server.  Inland  the  mango 
fruit-tree  and  the  orange,  the  umbrageous  banyan, 
the  sacred  peepul,  and  the  bamboo  are  features  in 
the  landscape.  In  the  hills  the  teak  and  other 
u.seful  timber  trees  are  obtained.  In  the  Himalayas 
are  the  cedar,  the  pine,  the  fir,  the  juniper. 

The  primeval  forests  which  covered  the  country 
have  long  been  restricted  to  the  hill  and  moun- 
tain system  already  described.  But  further. 
in  this  country,  as  in  many  other  countries,  the 
hills  have  been  deforested  by  reckless  destruction 
during  many  generations,  to  the  injurj-  of  the 
••liraate  and  of  that  water-suiiply  on  which  so 
much  depends.  Conservation  of  forests  was  not 
attempted  under  native  rule,  nor  under  British 
rule  until  the  middle  of  the  HIth  century.  Since 
tliat  time,  however,  a  forestry  department  has 
been  set  up  as  a  branch  of  the  administration  in 
every  province,  with  European  officei-s  trained  in 
Europe.  For  the  whole  country,  the  forests  uniler 
supervision  amount  to  100,000  sq.  m.,  of  which 
two-thirds  arc  under  cnnqdete  conservancy.  Be- 
sides augnientiug  the  national  resources,  the  forestry 
is  profitable,  and  yields  a  net  revenue  yearly  of 
more  than  half  a  million  sterling. 

The  agricultural  statistics  show  that  barely 
one-third  of  the  whole  country  is  cultivated  or 
grazed.  Of  the  remainder  a  iiortion  is  available 
for  cultivation  ;  the  rest  is  uncultivable,  consist 
ing  of  stiff  hillsides,  desert,  river-beds,  &c. 

II.  Thk  PeuI'Lk. 

Popiilution. — This  has  since  the  middle  of  the 
19th  century  been  a.scertained  by  census.  The 
decennial  census  of  1881  showed  2.53  millions  of 
souls  for  the  whole  ctmntry,  including  the  British 
territories  and  the  native  states,  and  an  increa.<e 
of  13  millions  over  the  preceding  census.  This 
total  was  exclusive  of  the  population  of  the  Cash- 
mere state,  which  really  belonged  to  the  country, 
and  of  Upper  Burma,  subsequently  annexed.  With 
Cashmere  and  all  Burma  the  population  at  the 
census  of  1891  was  287,22.3,241,  an  a])parent  in- 
crea.se  of  3.3,429,917  (deducting  the  areas  not 
reckoned,  .a  net  increa.se  of  27,821,420);  and  this 
total  excludes  Nepal,  lihutan,  Sikkinj,  .and  the 
French,  Portuguese,  and  Dutch  territories.  In 
round  numl>ers,  then,  the  population  may  be 
stated  at  290  millions.  But  though  populous  the 
country  is  not  as  a  whole  densely  peopled  ;   the 


average  of  inhabitants  to  the  square  mile  being 
229  for  the  British  provinces,  111  for  the  native 
states,  anil  184  for  the  whole  country.  The  hill 
and  mountain  system,  indeed,  shows  a  sparse 
jiopulalion  :  hut  the  pl.ains  of  the  Ganges  and  the 
Brahmaputra,  again,  and  the  co.ast  districts  and 
the  sonthern  peninsula,  are  <lensely  peopled.  I  Ijc 
(langetic  pl.iin  generally  has  .an  average  of  400  to 
the  sq.  m. ;  and  some  ])arts  of  it,  near  Benares  and 
Patna,  show  an  average  actually  double  the  above, 
and  a  density  which  is  quite  excessive.  Of  the 
287  millions  not  more  than  30  were  urban,  the  rest 
being  rural.  Thus  the  vast  majority  of  the  peo]ile 
live  in  the  country,  and  most  of  these  are  agricul- 
tural or  pa-storal.  Everywhere  the  returns  show  an 
excess  in  the  number  of  males  over  that  of  fenuiles. 

The  jpopnlation  of  the  three  presidencv  cities 
are:  Calcutta,  ,861,764  ;  Bomli.ay.  821,764  :  Sl.adr.as, 
4.V2,.t18.  Below  these  there  are  twenty-live  towns 
with  more  than  100,000  inhabitants  each,  and  below 
these  again  forty  seven  with  more  than  50,000  each. 

Ethnoloifn  and  Liitii/iia(ic. — The  languages  of 
the  present  day  as  well  as  those  siioken  in  former 
ages,  !is  far  as  these  are  known  to  us,  belong  to 
four  diti'erent  stocks — viz.  the  Aryan,  Dravidian, 
Kolarian,  and  Tibeto-Burman  stocks.  In  point 
of  chronological  order  the  Kolarians  ajipear  to 
have  been  the  first  settlers,  and  all  indications 
jioint  to  their  bavin"  originally  entered  India  from 
the  north-east,  and  having  thence  .spread  west- 
wards over  the  northern  plains.  As  regards  the 
tribes  speaking  Tibeto-Burman  dialects,  they  are 
confined  to  the  skirts  of  the  Himalayan  range: 
thus  forming,  as  it  were,  the  southern  edge  of 
the  wide  Tihetan  speech-field,  having  probably 
penetrated  at  various  times,  from  the  plateau  of 
Tibet,  through  the  numerous  p,a.sses  of  the  Hima- 
laya.s.  Eastwards,  again,  these  dialects  stretch,  in 
a  more  or  less  c(Uitinnous  chain,  itntil  they  merge 
in  the  compact  boily  of  Bnrinan  speech.  l$ut 
whilst  a  .separate  linguistic  development  makes 
it  necessary  to  treat  the  Kolarian  and  Tibeto-Bur- 
man languages  as  two  distinct  groups,  it  is  yet 
highly  pndiahle  that  they  were  ultimately  derived 
from  the  same  Mongol  stock.  After  a  time  the 
Kolarian  settlers  wotild  seem  to  have  been  dis- 
turbed in  their  possession  of  the  northern  plains 
by  the  inroads  of  Dravidian  tribes.  These,  having 
gained  entrance  into  India  through  the  north- 
western pa.sses.  seem  to  have  imsheil  forward, 
driving  the  Kolarians  into  the  mountainous  dis- 
tricts whicli  liorder  the  Gangetic  plain  in  the  simth, 
and  ultimately  to  h.ave  forced  tlieir  way  through 
them,  iind  poured  themselves  in  a  mighty  stream 
into  the  southern  peninsula.  Whether  in  so  iloing 
they  were  already  nrgeil  onward  by  tribes  of  another 
r.ace  following  in  their  vviike  we  do  not  know; 
certain  it  is,  hovvevei ,  that  at  some  time  or  other 
subsequent  to  the  immigration  of  the  Dravidians — 
prolmbly  more  than  4000  years  ago  people  of  the 
Aiyan  stock  must  have  entered  the  "land  of  the  five 
rivers'  (  Punjab)  either  through  those  same  passes 
of  the  Suliman  range,  the  coinmaml  of  which  has 
so  often  ilecided  the  fate  of  India,  or  by  a  more 
northerly  and  yet  more  rugged  route,  across  the 
Hindu-Kush,  ami  liy  way  of  trie  Pamir  ]dateau  ami 
the  highlaml  valley  of  Cashmere,  hi  favour  of  this 
latter  allern.ative  it  li.as  been  urged  that  there  are 
to  this  diiy  settled,  to  the  north  of  Cashmere  and 
Kabul,  several  trilies  of  the  Aryan  stock,  such  as 
the  Dards  .and  the  Siah-Posh  Kafirs,  whose  ver- 
nacular dialects  are  of  so  archaic  a  character  as  to 
have  suggested  the  idea  that  these  tribes  may 
|>erhaps  lie  the  direct  descendants  of  some  remnants 
of  the  )primitive  ( Indo-lr.anic)  .-Aryans  which  Inul 
rem.ained  behind  in  the  old  homes  when  the  great 
body  of  their  brethren  took  their  departure  in  quest 
of  inori!  favoured  abodes.     However,  our  knowledge 


102 


INDIA 


of  these  waifs  and  strays  of  the  Aryan  stock  is  still 
very  iiiii)eifoct ;  ami  they  may  after  all  turn  out 
to  be  mere  detaclied  dialects  of  either  the  Indie 
or  the  Iranic  hrancli  of  Aryan  speech.  Between 
these  two  divisions  no  sharji  line  of  demarcation 
can  indeed  be  drawn  ;  but  the  lan^'uafies  of  tlie 
countries  west  of  the  Indus — viz.  tlie  Pushtu  (or 
Pakhtu )  of  the  Afghans,  and  the  Baluchi,  one  of 
tlie  two  principal  languages  of  Beluchistan — form 
intermediate  links,  being  by  most  scholars  included 
in  the  Iranian  group,  whilst  others  would  rather 
refer  them  to  the  Indian  division. 

(1)  IiuloAryan  Group. — Tlie  earliest  accessible 
form  of  Aryan  speech  in  India  is  the  Vedic,  espe- 
cially the  language  of  the  sacred  hymns  of  the 
Rigveda  which  rejiresent  the  Aryan  tribes  as 
settled  in  the  Punjab.  Even  at  that  early  period 
dialectic  varieties  seem  already  to  have  existed  to 
some  extent  among  difterent  tribes.  In  the  course 
of  the  later  Vedic  ages  the  Aryan  language  ex- 
tended its  sway  eastward  over  nearly  the  whole 
of  northern  India.  During  this  process  foreign 
ethnic  elements  were  doubtless  largely  absorbed  by 
the  Aryan  community,  and  the  greater  or  less  pro- 
portion of  such  admixtures,  coupled  with  inde- 
pendent political  formations,  could  not  fail  ere 
long  to  produce  difterent  dialects  of  marked  indi- 
viduality. Mean\vhile,  the  exegesis  of  the  sacred 
hymns,  already  largely  unintelligible  at  the  time 
when  they  were  lii-st  collected,  and  the  consequent 
close  cultivation  of  grammatical  and  phonetic 
studies,  resulted  in  the  grammatical  fixation  of 
the  literary  language  (hence  called  Sanskrit — i.e. 
' completely  or  correctly  formed,  polished'),  prob- 
ably about  the  6tli  century  B.C.  Henceforth  the 
divorce  between  the  literary  idiom  and  the  popular 
dialects  was  complete.  The  existence  of  such 
dialects  at  that  time  is  amply  attested  liy  the 
fact  that  (Jautania  S'akyamuni  (or  Buddha,  'the 
awakened,'  as  he  subsequently  called  himself),  in 
preaching  his  new  gospel  of  salvation  through  indi- 
vidual righteousness,  made  iLse  of  the  Miigadhi, 
commonly  called  Pali,  the  local  dialect  of  his 
native  Magadha  (  Beliar),  which  accordingly  became 
the  sacred  language  of  Buddhist  literature  ;  but 
being  as  such  a  grammatically  fixed  idiom,  like 
the  Sanskrit,  it  became  gradually  estranged  from 
the  vernacular  with  which  it  had  originally  been 
identical.  The  canonical  books  of  the  Buddhists 
were  settled  at  a  council  held  in  the  reign  of  the 
Emperor  As'oka  about  250  B.C.,  but  they  were  not 
committed  to  writing  till  about  80  B.C.,  so  that 
the  state   of   their   language   is  attested  for  that 

{leiiod  at  latest.  The  same  Emperor  As'oka  has, 
lowever,  left  us  authentic  dialectic  documents  of 
his  own  time — viz.  the  famous  rock  inscriptions, 
containing  religious  edicts,  and  scattered  over  the 
area  of  northern  India  from  the  vicinity  of 
Peshawar  on  the  north-west  frontier,  and  (iirnar 
in  (iujarat,  to  Cuttack  on  the  eastern  coast.  Simi- 
lar in  its  origin  to  the  Pali,  another  local  dialect, 
the  Malidrdslitri,  or  language  of  the  province  of 
Mahiiriishtra  (the  present  Mahratta  country), 
became  the  religious  dialect  of  another  large  sect, 
the  Jains,  which  .seems  to  go  back  to  about  the 
same  time  as  the  origin  of  Buddhism.  Moreover, 
several  popular  dialects  were  early  employed  for 
literary  purposes  by  Indian  dramatists.  While  the 
use  of  Sanslcrit  in  dramatic  literature  is  confined 
to  male  characters  of  the  higher  classes,  women 
and  inferior  male  characters  are  invariably  made 
to  speak  various  local  dialects.  The.se  dialects, 
called  Prakrits — i.e.  either  'vulgar'  or  'derivi'il 
(from  the  Sanskrit )'- may  be  looked  upon  as  the 
forerunners  of  the  modem  vernaculars  of  northern 
Indiii,,  Though  the  oMest  existing  plays  can  hardly 
be  placed  earlier  than  the  btli  century  of  our  era, 
the  actual  use  of  the  Prakrits,  as  popularly  spoken 


dialects,  may  go  back  some  centuries  before  that 
time.  The  principal  Nro-Aryaii  languages  of 
India  are  (1)  lieiKjali :  (2)  Criyd  (of  Orissa) ; 
(3)  Hindi  (of  the  Upper  Provinces),  with  the 
closely  allied  Pan/dhi  and  Aepdli  (the  language  of 
the  tJoorkhas,  tlie  ruling  cla-ss  of  Nepiil);  (4) 
Sind/ti  (on  the  lower  Indus);  (o)  Kashmiri :  (G) 
Mardthi ;  (7)  Gujardti—v{\\\Q\\  Beanies  (fuwyjoro- 
tire  Grammar  of  the  Modern  Aryan  Languages  of 
India),  however,  takes  to  be  a  mere  dialect  of 
Hindi.  To  these  may  be  added  (8)  Assamese, 
formerly  considered  a  dialect  of  Bengali  ;  (9) 
Brdliui,  one  of  the  two  languages  sjioken  in 
Beluchistan,  which  at  one  time  was  thought  to 
be  Dravidian,  whilst  some  scholars  would  even 
now  refer  it  to  the  K<dariaii  group:  and  (10) 
Sinhalese,  the  language  of  tlie  southern  half  (per- 
haps at  one  time  of  the  whole)  of  the  island  of 
Ceylon,  doubtless  imported  from  northern  India, 
in  the  early  centuries  B.C.,  by  Buddhist  immi- 
grants :  with  its  literary  dialect  called  Elu,  and 
the  dialect  of  the  Aryanised  aboriginal  Veddahs. 

Many  of  these  languages  show  a  considerable 
number  of  dialectic  varieties,  esiiecially  the  Hindi, 
by  far  the  most  important  of  all,  of  which  as 
many  as  fifty-nine  dialects  are  enumerated  by  Cust 
(Modern  Languages  of  the  East  Indies).  Not  a 
few  of  these  dialects  are,  however,  of  a  veiy  mixed 
character,  owing  to  their  being  spoken  by  Aryan- 
ised tribes  of  one  of  the  three  other  groups,  and 
consequently  showing  a  more  or  less  strong  non 
Aryan  element.  A  peculiar  and  important  form 
(for  it  can  .scarcely  be  called  a  distinct  dialect)  of 
Hindi  is  Urdu  or  Hindustdni,  which,  lieing  Hindi, 
with  a  more  or  less  considerable  admixture  of 
Persian  (and  Arabic)  words,  and  written  in  the 
Persian  character,  originated,  after  the  Moham- 
medan conquest,  through  the  official  intercourse 
of  the  Persian-speaking  rulei-s  and  their  Hindu 
subjects — much  as  in  English  the  original  Teutonic 
groundwork  lias  been  overlaid  by  a  thick  layer  of 
Romance  and  Latin  vocables  and  formative  elements 
— and  has  developed  into  a  kind  of  lingua  franea  for 
the  whole  of  India  ;  a  southern  variety  of  it  being 
called  Ikikhani  or  Dekhni.  In  point  of  the  anti- 
quity of  its  literary  documents,  Sinhalese  stands 
pre-eminent  among  Neo-Aryan  languages ;  its  de- 
velopment from,  or  by  the  side  of,  Pali  being  well 
authenticated  by  Elu  works  goin^  back  to  the  5tli 
century  of  our  era,  and  by  inscriptions  of  very  early 
date.  Next  to  it  conies  Hindi,  commencing,  about 
1'200  .\.D.,  with  the  Prithinij  R;isau,  a  heroic  poem 
by  ('hand  lianhii,  composed  in  an  archaic  form  of 
Hindi  which  Trumpji  projioses  to  call  'Old  Ilindui ;' 
whilst  the  term  '  Hindui '  is  applied  by  him  to  a 
somewhat  more  nuxlern  form,  represented  by  the 
writings  of  the  religious  reformer  Kabir  (c.  1450 
A.D.),  the  sacred  liooks  of  tlie  Sikhs  (the  (irantli), 
and  Tulsi  Das's  translation  of  the  Sanskrit  e]iic 
Riimdj-ana.  In  Maiiithi  the  oldest  existing  work, 
a  i)araplirase  of  the  Sanskrit  philosojihic.al  poem 
Bhagavadgitil,  claims  to  have  been  written  in  1290 
.\.D.  ;  whilst  Bengali  literature  commences  with 
the  religious  writings  of  the  Vaishnava  reformer 
Chaitanya,  a  contemimrary  of  Luther.  None  of 
the  other  languages  possess  any  literature  above 
two  or  three  centuries  old. 

(2)  Dravidian  Group. — The  extension  of  the 
Biahmanical  civilisation  and  literature  ha-s  intro- 
duced into  these  languaj;es,  a-s  into  those  of  the 
other  stocks,  a  very  considerable  element  of  Sans- 
kritic  words;  whilst  their  grammatical  structure 
has,  on  the  whole,  remained  intact.  As  regards 
tlie  ultimate  affinities  of  this  stock,  Dr  Caldwell, 
in  his  Comparatire  Grammar  of  the  Dravidian 
Languages,  has  shown  that  Dravidian  speech,  in 
its  formative  features,  betrays  a  '  family  likeness' 
to  the  Scythic  ( Finnic-Tataric )  stock ;"  whilst  he 


INDIA 


103 


also  detects  in  it  certain  analogies,  though  of  a 
rather  indelinite  and  remote  character,  to  Aryan 
speech.  The  people  speaking  Univida  languages 
oocupy  a  compact  area  extending  over  the  whole 
of  the  southern  part  of  the  peninsula,  with  one  or 
two  enclaves  in  the  Aryan  territory.  Dravitlian 
scholars  recognise  twelve  distinct  languages,  oidy 
four  of  wliich,  also  the  most  important  in  regard 
to  population,  have  developed  anything  worthy  of 
the  name  of  a  literature  —viz.  ( 1 )  Tumi},  occupying 
the  south-eastern;  (2)  Telugu,  the  north-western; 
(3)  Kcmarese  (or  Katinada,  i.e.  Karnataka),  the 
north-eastern:  and  (4)  Malai/dhim,  the  south- 
western portion  of  the  Dravidian  area.  The 
remaining  memliers  of  the  family  are  (5)  Tulu, 
hetween  the  two  preceding  ones,  on  the  Malabar 
coast;  (6)  Kotiagii,  the  language  of  Coorg,  adjoin- 
ing the  last  named,  inland  ;  (7)  Tue/a  and  (8)  Kota, 
both  spoken  by  tribes  of  the  Nilgiri  hills;  (9) 
Gone/,  in  Central  India ;  ( 10)  Khone/ s,nd  ( 11 )  Ordott, 
west  and  north-west  of  Orissa;  and  ( 12)  Rdjmahnl, 
or  Mdlet\  the  language  of  a  tribe  of  the  Riijmah;il 
hills  in  Bengal.  Tamil,  which  has  also  extended 
its  sway  over  the  northern  half  of  Ceylon,  may 
boa-st  of  a  rich  and  varied  literature ;  its  oldest 
works— the  Chint;imani,  an  e\nc  poem  of  15,000 
lines,  anil  the  Kural,  a  collection  of  ethical  stanzas, 
both  of  them  by  Jain  poets — probably  dating  back 
to  the  10th  century,  if  not  earlier.  In  the  sister 
languages,  Nannaya's  Telugu  translation  of  the 
epic  Mahabharata  and  Kes'ava's  Kanarese  gram- 
mar probably  belon"  to  the  r2th  century  ;  whilst 
Malayalam,  originally  a  mere  dialect  of  Tamil, 
commences  with  the  heroic  poem  Ramacharita,  of 
uncertain  date,  but  probably  a  century  or  two 
later  than  those  works. 

(3)  Kolarian  Group. — The  term,  derived  from 
tlie  tribal  name  of  the  Kols,  was  first  introduced  by 
Sir  G.  Campbell.  The  people  speaking  these  lan- 
guages, settled  chierty  in  the  jungly  and  mountain- 
ous tracts  of  the  Central  Provinces,  are  computed 
to  number  about  two  million,  though  many  tribes, 
such  as  the  Bhils,  who  have  adopted  other  lan- 
guages, especially  Hindi,  ethnologically  doubtless 
belong  to  this  grou]).  Kolarian  speech  possesses 
a  very  comjdete  suth.xal  system  of  inflection,  its 
conjugational  system  being  especially  developed. 
Some  of  the  chief  points  in  which  it  differs  from 
Dravidian  speech  are  that  it  has  a  dual  num- 
ber for  nouns,,  and  that  it  lacks  a  negative  form  of 
the  verb.  Our  knowledge  of  most  of  these  lan- 
guages is,  however,  still  sadly  defective.  Brand- 
reth  proposes  to  include  nine  dift'erent  languages 
under  this  group,  to  which  Cust  adds  a  tenth  ;  but 
this  scheme  is  so  far  (jnly  provisional.  The  best- 
known  member  of  this  family  is  the  SantAli — spoken 
by  a  vigorous  tribe  inhabiting  the  so-called  Santal 
I'arganas  ( and  adjoining  districts )  along  the  western 
frontier  of  Lower  Bengal — of  «hich  we  have  a  good 
grammar  by  Skrefsrud  (1873).  The  only  other 
language  of  this  group  the  grammar  of  which  has 
l)een  at  all  adequately  treated  is  the  Munddri, 
spoken  by  Mundas,  Bhumij,  and  Larka  Kols; 
whilst  of  others,  which  are  probably  destined  to 
die  out  before  long,  we  have  as  yet  only  scanty 
vocabularies. 

(4)  TibelnBunimn  Group.— "[\n>i  fielil  has  also 
as  yet  been  very  imperfectly  surveye<I,  most  of  its 
languages  lying  either  wholly  beyond  the  Indian 
frontier,  or  only  just  projecting  into  the  British 
territory.  They  share  the  general  agglutinative 
character  of  the  only  two  literary  langM.iu'i'~  of  this 
family,  the  Tibetan  and  Burmese,  whilst  in  them 
the  tone  of  the  voice  also  plays  generally  an  ini- 
(lortant  part  in  the  meaning  of  words,  though  not 
to  the  same  extent  a.s  in  monosyllabic  languages. 
Brandreth  proposes  to  arrange  these  lK)rder-lan- 
guages  in  nineteen  ditlerent  classes,  which  Cust  re- 


duces to  a  few  geographical  groups — viz.  the  Nepjil, 
Sikkiiii,  Assam,  Manipur-Cliittagong,  and  Trans- 
Himalayan  groups — the  la-st-named  group  consisting 
of  the  southern  oft'shoots  of  the  Tibetan  branch  of 
Tibeto-Bvirman  si)('i>oh. 

A  curious  cluster  of  dialects,  which  seems  to  be 
independent  of  any  of  the  four  grouiis  of  Indian 
speech  hitherto  mentioned,  is  found  in  the  Khasi 
hills,  in  the  province  of  Assam.  There  is  a  good 
K/uim  grammar  by  Pryse.  This  language,  in 
which  five  or  six  dialects  are  distinguished,  is  of 
the  monosyllabic  order  ;  but  its  e.xact  relationship 
has  not  yet  been  determined. 

The  word  Hindu  has  been  used  in  various 
senses.  In  truth  it  means  all  those  who  pro- 
fess the  Hindu  or  Brahmanic  faith,  which,  how- 
ever, consists  of  many  sects.  This  vast  community 
of  nearly  208  millions  of  souls  is  divided  into 
several  Castes  ( q.v. ),  high  antl  low.  The  high  castes 
are  mainly  Aryan  ;  the  lower  castes  partly  Aryan 
and  partly  Dravidian  or  aboriginal.  A  pei-son  must 
be  born  into  the  high  castes,  and  cannot  enter  them 
by  conversion.  If  a  person,  as  for  instance  an 
atjoriginal,  be  converted,  he  can  enter  the  lower 
castes  only.  The  sections  of  Hindu  community 
thus  summarised  differ  not  only  in  nationality  and 
language  in  different  provinces,  but  in  customs  and 
dress.  Their  languages  are  to  be  counted  by 
scores. 

The  Mohammedan  (or,  strictly,  Muhammedan) 
population,  on  the  other  hand  (about  58  millions), 
in  all  parts  of  India  affect  the  same  customs,  and 
generally  speak  one  language — Hindust;ini  or  I'rdii. 
It  is  the  one  chiefly  known  to  Europeans.  It  is 
the  vernacular  in  the  towns  alone,  and  those,  too, 
of  the  north-west  only.  In  these  provinces,  also, 
it  is  the  official  language.  It  is,  however,  hardh' 
known  to  the  Mohammedans  of  ea.stern  Bengal, 
who  speak  Bengali.  Persian  and  Arabic  are  more 
or  less  known  as  classical  languages  to  the  Moham- 
medans of  India,  but  are  not  spoken.  The  lan- 
guage of  the  courts  of  justice  is  evenwhere  the 
language  of  the  province. 

The  aboriginal  hill-tribes  have  caused  trouble  on 
the  Assam  frontier  at  various  times,  especially  those 
on  the  north-east  frontier  near  Assam.  The  hill- 
tribes  of  the  Dravidian  race  also  are  in  a  primi- 
tive state  socially.  Of  these  the  most  important 
are  the  Bhils  and  Gonds,  who  are  found  in  the 
^'indhya  and  Satpura  regions,  the  K  bonds  and 
Kols,  who  inhabit  the  Eastern  tlbiits,  and  the 
Sontals  on  the  hill-country  west  of  Bengal.  The 
Bhils  were  wont  to  live  by  plunder,  and  used 
to  burst  out  of  their  jungles,  committing  many 
outrages ;  but  in  1825,  after  various  methods  of 
subduing  them  had  been  unsuccessfully  tried  by 
the  British  government,  it  was  resolved  to  tempt 
them  into  military  service,  with  good  results. 
The  Khonds  and  Kols,  driven  into  the  jungles 
and  mountains  of  Central  India  by  the  advance  of 
the  Aryan  race  from  the  north-west,  have  pre- 
served the  grim  religion  that  prevailed  in  the 
country  before  Hinduism  was  heard  of.  That 
religion  m.iy  be  brielly  characterised  as  Devil 
worship,  with  efforts  to  propitiate  the  malignant 
deities  hy  human  sacrifice,  principally  of  children. 
Successful  efforts  have  been  made  by  the  British 
government  to  suppress  these  practices.  As  a 
tribe  the  (ionds  are  the  strcmgcst ;  they  adopted 
parts  of  both  Hindu  and  Moli.amniedan  culture, 
founded  a  rude  dyna-sty,  and  signalised  their  rule 
by  works  of  material  improvement.  For  more 
than  a  century  past  they  have  relapsed  into  their 
pristine  condition.  It  is  from  among  these  aborigi- 
nal tribes,  numbering  in  all  perhaps  fifteen  millions, 
that  proselytes  to  Hinduism  are  obtained. 

Natio/Kil  C/uiriirfer. — To  the  inhabitants  of  India, 
who,  although  generally  a  mixed  race  of  Dravidian 


104 


INDIA 


and  Aryan  origin,  now  form  many  distinct  nations, 
MO  general  statement  can  apply.  The  acute  but 
unwarliki!  inhabitants  of  tlie  (iangetic  delta  are 
<|uite  unlike  the  less  intellectual  but  sturdier  races 
of  the  upper  basins  of  the  Ganges  and  the  Indus  - 
i.e.  the  North-western  Provinces  and  the  I'unjali. 
The.se  latter  again  are  dissiiiiilar  from  the  liigli-bidl 
and  chivalrou.s  race  of  Kajiisthan  or  Kajputana, 
and  the  hardy  thou'di  humble  Mahratta  of  the 
Western  Ghdts.  Still  further  varieties  are  found 
in  the  half-warlike  and  partly  refined  races  of  the 
eastern  coast  and  southern  peninsula,  mi.xed  up 
with  races  of  lesser  spirit  aiul  culture.  The  races 
who  in  this  generation  are  believed  to  have  pcditical 
!i.si)irations  are  the  Sikhs  of  the  Punjab — the  Sikh 
faith  V)eing  really  an  offshoot  of  Hinduism — the 
(Joorkhas  of  Nepal,  and  the  Mahrattas  of  the 
Western  Ghats  ;  and  perhaps  some  sections  of 
Mohammedans,  who  mi^ht  be  aided  by  Arabs  im- 
migrating from  Arabia.  The  Krahmans  everywhere. 
10  whatever  nationality  they  may  belong,  or  what- 
ever language  they  may  speak,  have  a  homogeneous 
character,  imbued  with  a  lofty  pride  transmitted 
through  long  generations. 

The  Mohammedans  of  centr.al  Asiatic  descent 
are  strict  adherents  of  their  faith,  an<l  sometimes 
fanatical.  But  those  who,  like  the  inhabitants  of 
eastern  Bengal  and  of  parts  of  the  I'mijab,  are 
merely  Hindus  or  aborigines  made  Mohammedans 
by  conversion,  are  of  coui'se  less  orthodo.x.  Their 
religion  is  a  mi.vture  of  the  doctrines  of  the  Koran 
with  the  local  idolatry.  The  Parsees,  a  mercan- 
tile and  educated  class,  seated  at  Bombay  and 
alon^  the  west  coast  of  India,  are  the  descendants 
of  the  fugitive  lire-woishippers  of  Persia.  See 
Parsees. 

The  national  character  cannot  be  portrayed  from 
this  congeries  of  nationalities,  yet  some  character- 
istics can  be  set  forth  as  generally  prevalent  -.  for 
the  upper  and  middle  classes,  domestic  affection, 
munilicence,  tenacious  adherence  to  custom,  venera- 
tion with  awe  leading  to  superstition,  love  of  ex- 
ternal nature,  an  inclination  f(M-  abstract  medita- 
tion, mental  acuteness  and  subtlety,  litigiousne.ss, 
shrewdness  of  observation  ;  for  the  humbler  classes, 
temperance,  patience,  docility,  charitableness  to  the 
indigent,  endurance,  fortitude  under  disaster,  and 
industry.  The  (jualities  termed  princi]de  and 
public  spirit  in  western  phrase  cannot  be  pieili- 
cated  of  any  class.  Deep  attachment  to  the  ances- 
tral religion  takes  the  place  of  patriotism.  '  Dharm  ' 
to  the  Hindn,  and  Din  to  the  Mohammedan,  means 
virtue  under  a  religious  sanction.  In  justice  to 
the  women,  it  must  be  said  that,  desjiite  their 
subjectiim  and  seclusion,  they  have  shown  courage- 
ous fortitude  in  times  of  danger  and  charitable 
munilicence  when  endowed  with  means.  The 
suttee  ' widow-liurning'  evinceil  supreme  resolu- 
tion. Predatory  and  pugnacious  instincts,  heredi- 
tary in  some  classes,  are  jiartly  subdued  by  the 
ixix  romana  of  British  rule.  Politically  the  lead- 
ing factor  is  this,  that  the  congeries  of  national 
ities,  despite  community  of  faith,  have  no  idea  of 
national  union  or  of  self-organisation.  This  renders 
them  com]iaratively  easy  of  government  by  a  foreign 
power  that  posse.sses  governing  capacity. 

I'lujsical  (^hirUitics. — These  \ary  together  with 
race  and  climate.  The  stature  is  often  tall  in  the 
north,  and  short  in  the  south— very  much  as  in 
Kuro)pe.  Strength  does  not  depend  on  height,  of 
course.  The  Nepdlese  are  short,  so  are  the  .\IalMal- 
tas  ;  both  are  strong.  As  a  rule,  strength  with 
courage  is  found  more  in  the  north  than  in  the 
south,  but  least  perhaps  in  iIk-  (iangetic  delta. 
Bengal  Ls  the  only  large  province  that  furnishes  no 
recruits  to  the  army.  Physical  endurance,  the 
power  of  making  protracted  bodily  e.xertion  with 
but  scanty  sustenance,  is  peicejitible  evei-ywhere  ; 


in  some  places  it  is  extraordinary,  and  rarely  to  be 
equalled  in  any  country.  As  a  point  of  compari 
son,  a  native  h;is  hardly  half  the  strength  or 
nervous  force  of  a  European,  jierhaps  not  more 
than  one-third  ;  his  work  comparatively  would  be 
in  the  s;une  projiortion.  In  conse()ueiice  of  this 
and  of  the  cheapness  of  living,  his  w.-iges  are  not 
more  than  one-si.xth  of  the  British  rate.  A  pro- 
[losition  of  this  sort  cannot  be  stated  accurately 
or  delinitely,  but  some  snch  truth  as  this  lies  at 
the  basis  of  the  political  economy  of  the  country. 

Itiligion. — Hinduism  or  lirahmanism  is  the  re- 
ligion of  the  great  majority  of  tlie  people,  and 
M:(diamniedanism  conies  ncx'l.  Of  the  287,O()O,(l00 
inhabitants  of  India,  Ibitish  iind  fendalorv,  in  1S91, 
•207,700,000  were  Hin<lus,  ,")7, 000,000  Mohainmedans, 
!),.300,000  aboriginal  pagans,  7,000,000  Buddhists 
(almost  all  in  Burma);  1,400,000  dains,  90.000 
Parsees  (chieliy  in  Bombay),  17,OltO  Jews.  In 
Bengal  there  are  nearly  2-4,000.0()()  Mohamnu'dans 
to  47,000,000  Hindus;' in  llie  Punjab,  IS.OOO.OOO 
to  10,000,000  Hindus.  The  Sikh  rcdigion  is  pio- 
fe.ssed,  according  to  the  census  for  the  Punjab,  by 
1,900,000  of  its  inhabitants.  The  Christian's  num- 
ber 2.200,000.  I'lMililhism  at  one  period  prevailed 
very  generally  throughout  India;  it  is  now  con- 
lined  to  Bhutan,  .Sikkim.  and  Burma.  See  BlDDH- 
IS.M,  J.\INS,  ilOHAMMKD,   PaH.SEES,  SIKHS. 

Hiiiihiism. — The  lirst  to  be  considered  is  that 
variety  of  creeds  which  is  ilerived  from  Biahmanic 
sources,  and  known  as  the  Hindu  religion,  or 
Hinduism.  The  following  summary  of  the  origin 
and  development  of  Hinduism  is  from  (ioldstiicker's 
essay  (Literary  Heniaiiis.  1879),  originally  written 
for  the  first  edition  of  this  work. 

Hinduism  may  be  divided  into  three  periods,  the 
Vedic,  Epic,  .and  Pui;inic,  as  our  knowledge  of  the 
first  is  derived  from  the  sacred  liooks  called  the 
Veda,  of  the  second  from  the  epic  poems  the  liuind- 
yana  and  the  Maliuliliiinitti,  of  the  third  from 
the  mythological  works  known  under  the  name  of 
Piiniiius  and  TiiiitrKn.  Writers  on  this  subject 
have  marked  the  beginnings  (if  certain  di\  isions  of 
Vedic  works  with  1200.  lOOO,  SOO,  and  lioo  yi-ars 
n.C.  The  iiuestion  of  Hindu  chronology  «ill  be 
more  ]iarticiilarly  consi<leied  in  the  article  Veda. 
Probal)ly  the  latest  writings  of  the  Vedic  class  are 
not  more  recent  than  the  2d  century  n.c.  Uncer- 
tainty hangs  over  the  period  at  which  the  two 
great  epic  poems  were  composed,  although  there 
is  reason  to  surmise  th.-it  the  lower  liiidts  of  thai 
period  are  not  far  fnmi  the  liegimiing  of  the 
Christian  era.  The  Pnninic  period,  on  the  other 
hand,  jiU  scholars  are  agreed  to  regard  as  corre 
sponding  with  part  of  our  medieval  histcny. 

'J'/if  ]'ecJas. — If  the  yiV;/- K(v/«— the  oldest  of  tlic 
A'e<las.  and  )>i(djably  the  oldest  literary  ilocumenl 
in  e>;istence  -coiiici<leil  with  the  beginning  of 
Hindu  civilisaticm,  thi^  popular  creed  of  the 
Hindus,  as  depicted  in  some  of  its  hymns,  would 
leve.-il  the  original  creed  not  only  of  this  naticni, 
Imt  also  of  humanity  it-self.  'I'he  Hindus,  ,as  de 
incteil  in  these  hymns,  are  far  advanced  lieyond  tlu' 
starting-jioint  of  human  society.  Indeed  they  may 
be  ranked  among  these  iMiriniiunilies  already  ex- 
]ierienced  in  arts,  defending  (heir  homes  .ainl  |iio 
perty  in  organised  warfare,  aci|uainteil  even  with 
many  vices  which  only  occur  in  an  advanced  con 
dition  of  artilicial  life  (see  Veu.\).  Vet  the  ideas 
expressed  in  the  greatest  number  of  the  Big-Veda 
hymns  are  neither  emanating  from  an  artificial 
imagination  nor  largely  affected  by  philosophy. 
The  Hindu  of  these  hymns  is  engrossed  by  the 
might  of  the  elements.  The  powers  which  turn  his 
awe  into  pious  subjecliun  are:  A(/>ii,  the  tire  of 
the  sun  and  lightning;  Jiiilra,  the  bright,  cloud- 
less tirmament:  the  Maritl.i,  or  winds;  Siiri/a,  the 
sun  ;  Ushas,  the  dawn  ;  and  nature  in  general.     He 


INDIA 


105 


invokes  them,  not  as  representatives  of  a  superior 
lifinn,  before  wliom  the  human  soul  professes  its 
humility,  but  Ueeause  he  wants  their  assistance 
:i.gainst"enemies — liocause  he  wishes  to  olitain  from 
them  rain,  food,  cattle,  health,  and  otlier  worldly 
goods.  H(>  sei^ks  them,  not  for  his  spiritual,  hut  for 
his  material  welfare.  Sin  and  evil,  indee<l,  are  often 
adverted  to,  and  the  gods  are  praised  lieeause  they 
ilestroy  sinners  and  evildoei's.  Hut  tliese  words 
are  not  to  be  associated  with  our  notions  of  wrong. 
A  sinner,  in  these  hymns,  is  a  man  who  fails  to 
address  praises  to  those  elemental  deities,  or  to 
gratify  tlieni  witli  the  oblations  they  receive  at  the 
liauds  of  the  believer.  He  is  the  foe,  tlie  robber, 
the  demon — in  short,  the  borderer  infesting  tlie 
territory  of  the  'pious'  man,  who,  in  his  turn, 
injures  and  kills  the  other.  On  the  whole  these 
hymns,  so  far  from  reflecting  unfavourably  on  the 
internal  condition  of  the  Hindu  community,  seem, 
on  the  contrary,  to  bespeak  tlie  union  and  brother- 
liood  wliich  existed  among  its  members. 

The  worship  of  the  elementary  beings  was  origin- 
ally simple  and  harmless.  Most  of  the  Hig-Veda 
hymns  mention  but  one  sort  of  offering  made  to 
these  gods.  It  consists  of  the  juice  of  the  Soma 
(i|.v. )  or  moon-plant,  which,  e-\)>ressed  and  fer- 
mented, was  an  exhilarating  and  inebriating 
beverage.  There  is  a  class  of  hymns,  however,  to 
be  found  in  the  liig-Veda  in  which  the  instinctive 
utterance  of  feeling  makes  room  for  the  language 
of  speculation  ;  and  the  mysteries  of  nature  be- 
ing more  keenly  felt,  the  circle  of  beings  which 
overawe  the  popular  mind  becomes  enlarged.  Thus, 
the  objects  by  whicli  Indra,  .\gni,  and  the  other 
deities  are  propitiated,  become  gods  themselves; 
Soma  is  invoked  as  the  bestower  of  all  worldly 
boons.  The  animal  .sacritice  is  added  to  the  original 
rites :  and  the  horse  of  the  sacrifice  especially  is 
invoked  by  the  worshipper. 

Mystical  language  then  shows  that  religion 
was  endeavouring  to  penetrate  into  the  mysteries 
of  creation.  This  longing  is  expressed  in  other 
hymns,  which  mark  the  beginning  of  the  pliilu- 
.sopltical  iTf.i-d  of  tlie  Vedic  period.  The  following 
extract  will  illustrate  the  nature  of  this  thin! 
class  of  hymns,  as  they  occur  in  the  oldest 
\'eda  :  '  Then  there  was  no  entit.v  or  non-entity  : 
no  world,  or  sky,  or  aught  above  it :  nor  water 
<leep  or  dangerous.  Death  was  not,  nor  was  there 
immortality,  nor  ilistinction  of  day  or  night.  But 
Th.\T  breathed  without  atilation,  single  with  her 
who  is  within  him.  Other  than  him,  nothing 
existed  which  since  has  been.  .  .  .  Who  knows 
exactly,  and  who  shall  in  this  world  declare,  whence 
and  why  this  creation  took  place?  The  gods  are 
subsequent  to  the  production  of  this  world  :  then 
who  can  know  whence  it  proceeded,  or  whence  this 
varied  world  arose,  or  whether  it  uphold  itself  or 
not  ?  He  who  in  the  highest  heaven  is  the  ruler  of 
this  universe,  does  indeed  know  ;  but  not  another 
one  can  possess  this  knowledge.' 

As  soon  as  the  problem  implied  by  passages 
like  these  wa-s  raised,  Hinduism  must  have  ceased 
to  be  the  pure  worslii])  of  the  elementary  powers. 
Henceforward,  therefore,  we  see  it  struggling  to 
reconcile  the  latter  with  the  idea  of  one  sui)reme 
being.  The  lirst  ot  these  efforts  Ls  shown  in  that 
pc>rtion  of  the  \'edas  called  Bruhmaitii ,  the  secoiul 
in  the  writings  termed  UpanUhiul.  In  the  Brdh- 
inaniis  the  mystical  allegories  are  reduce<l  to  a 
systematic  form.  Epithets  given  by  the  Kig- 
Veda  poets  to  the  elementary  gods  are  spun 
out  into  legends.  A  ponderous  ritual,  founded 
on  those  legends,  is  brought  into  a  system  which 
requires  a  class  of  priests.  However  mnch  this 
ritual  betrays  the  gradual  development  of  tlie  in- 
stitution of  castes  (unknown  to  the  hynuis  of  the 
I  tig- Veda),   there  are  still    two  features   in   them 


which  mark  a  progress  of  the  religious  mind  of 
the  .ancient  Hindus.  While  the  poets  of  the  Rig- 
Veda  are  chiefly  concerned  in  glorifying  the  visible 
nianifestations  of  the  elementary  gods,  in  the 
llnilunanas  their  ethical  qualities  are  put  forward 
for  imitation  and  praise.  Truth  and  untruth,  right 
and  wnmg — in  the  moral  .-ense  which  these  words 
imply — are  often  emphasised  in  the  de.'^ciiption  of 
the  battles  fought  between  gods  and  demons.  A 
second  feature  is  the  tendency  in  these  llr;ihnuinas 
to  determine  the  rank  of  the  gods,  .and  to  give 
prominence  to  one  special  god  amongst  the  lest : 
whereas  in  the  old  Ve(li<-  poetry,  though  there  may 
be  a  predilection  to  bestow  more  jiraise  on  some 
gods  than  on  others,  yet  there  is  no  intention  to 
raise  any  of  them  to  a  supreme  rank.  Thus,  in 
some  Bralimanas  Indra,  the  god  of  the  lirma- 
ment,  is  endowed  with  the  dignity  of  a  ruler  of 
the  gods  ;  in  others  the  sun  receives  the  attributes 
of  superiority. 

The  Upa'iiishads. — An  answer  to  the  (|uestion 
regarding  the  Almighty  is  attempted  by  the 
'mysterious  doctrine,'  as  laid  down  in  the  writ- 
ings known  under  the  name  of  Upanishads.  Their 
object  is  to  explain,  not  only  the  process  of  crea- 
tion, but  also  the  nature  of  a  supreme  being,  ami 
its  relation  to  the  huni.an  soul.  In  the  Upanishads 
the  deities  of  the  Vedic  hymns  become  symbols  to 
assist  the  mind  in  an  attempt  to  tiniler>tand  the 
true  nature  of  one  absolute  entity,  and  the  manner 
in  which  it  manifests  itself  in  its  worldly  form. 
The  human  soul  itself  is  of  the  same  nature  as 
this  sujireme  or  great  soul  :  its  ultinuite  destina- 
tion is  that  of  becoming  reunited  witli  the  supreme 
soul,  and  the  means  of  attaining  that  end  is  not 
the  perform.ance  of  sacrificial  rites,  but  the  com- 
prehension of  its  own  self  and  of  the  great  soul. 
Thus  the  I'panishads  became  the  basis  of  a  eom- 
]iaratively  enlightened  faith.  They  contain  the 
germs  whence  the  three  great  systems  of  Hindu 
philosophy  arose.  They  advance  sufficiently  far  to 
express  belief  in  <a  suineme  being,  but  .ncknowledge 
I  he  inability  of  the  human  mind  to  conipreheuil 
its  essence.     See  Veda. 

The  Epics  and  tlie  Philusoplit/. — The  ICpic  period 
of  Hinduism  is  marked  by  a  development  of  the 
two  creeds,  the  general  features  of  which  have 
now  been  traced  in  the  Vedic  writings.  The  popu- 
lar creed  strives  to  find  a  centre  lound  which  to 
gnmp  its  imaginary  gods,  whereas  the  philosophical 
creed  finds  its  expression  in  the  groundwiuks  of  the 
Siiiikhi/a.  Siidi/a,  and  Veddtda  systems  of  philo- 
sophy. In  the  former  we  find  two  gods  in  [lar- 
ticular  who  are  rising  to  the  highest  rank,  A'ishnn 
and  Siva  :  for  as  to  Brahma  (the  m.asculine  form  of 
Brahman),  though  he  w,as  looked  u]ion  now  and 
then  a«  superior  to  both,  he  gradually  disappears, 
and  becomes  merged  into  the  philosophical  Brahma 
(the  neuter  form  of  the  same  word),  which  is  a 
further  evolution  of  the  great  soul  of  the  I'pani- 
shad.s.  In  tlie  epos  J,'(iiiidi/<iii<i,  the  superiority  of 
Vishnu  is  admitted  without  disjiute  ;  in  the  great 
epos,  the  Mahdhhdnda,  however— which,  unlike  the 
former  epos,  is  the  product  of  successive  ages — there 
is  an  apparent  rivalry  between  the  claims  of  Vishnu 
and  Siva  to  occujiy  the  highest  rank  in  the  pantheon. 
.-VIre.ady  there  is  a  ]iredilection  during  thi.-.  Epic 
period  for  the  supremacy  of  \'i>hnu  ;  and  the  policy 
of  incorporating  rather  than  comhating  antagonistic 
creeds  led  more  to  a  ipiiet  ailmission  than  to  a 
warm  support  of  Siva's  claims  to  the  highest  rank. 
One  remarkable  myth  illustrates  the  altered  posi- 
tion of  the  gods  during  the  Kpic  period.  In  the 
\'edic  hymns  the  immortality  of  the  gods  is  never 
matter  of  doubt.  The  offerings  they  receive  may  add 
to  their  cimifort  .and  strength,  but  are  not  indispens- 
able for  their  existence.  It  is,  on  the  contrary,  the 
pious  saciilicer  liimself  who,  through  his  offerings, 


106 


INDIA 


secures  to  liiiiiself  long  life  and  immortality  after- 
wards. And  the  same  notion  orevails  throughout 
the  oldest  Brahmanas.  It  is  only  in  the  latest  work 
of  this  class,  and  more  especially  in  the  Ejiic  poems, 
that  we  tind  the  inferior  gods  as  mortal  in  the 
beginning,  and  as  becoming  immortal  through 
exterior  agency.  In  the  S'ataiMithn-Brdhmana 
the  juice  of  tlie  Soma  jdant,  ottered  by  the  wor- 
shipper, or  at  another  time  clarified  butter,  or  even 
animal  sacrifices,  impart  to  them  this  immortality. 
At  the  Epic  period  Vishnu  teaches  them  how  to 
obtain  the  Ainrltn,  or  beverage  of  immortality, 
without  wliioli  they  would  go  to  destruction. 

The  philosophical  creed  of  this  jjeriod  develops 
the  notion  that  the  union  of  the  individual  soul 
with  the  supreme  spirit  may  be  aided  by  penances, 
such  as  peculiar  modes  of  breathing,  particular 
postures,  protracted  fasting,  and  the  like  ;  in  short, 
by  those  practices  which  are  systematised  by  the 
Yoga  doctrine.  The  most  remarkable  Epic  work 
which  inculcates  this  doctrine  is  the  celebrated 
poem  B/taijavadgitd,  which  S'ankara,  the  great 
philosopher,  declared  to  be  founded  on  the 
Yoga  belief.  The  doctrine  of  the  reunion  of  the 
individual  soul  with  the  supreme  soul  was  neces- 
sarily founded  on  the  assumption  that  the  former 
must  have  become  free  from  all  guilt  att'ecting  its 
])urity  before  it  can  be  remerged  into  the  source 
whence  it  proceeded.  And,  since  one  human  life  is 
apparently  too  short  for  enabling  the  soul  to  attain 
thereto,  the  Hindu  mind  concluded  that  the  soul, 
after  the  death  of  its  temporary  owner,  had  to  be 
born  again,  in  onler  to  complete  the  work  it  had 
left  undone  in  its  prenous  existence.  This  is  the 
Hindu  doctrine  of  metempsychosis.  The  beginning 
of  this  doctrine  may  be  discovered  in  some  of  the 
oldest  Upanishads,  but  its  fantastical  development 
belongs  to  the  Epic  time. 

The  Piirdnris  and  the  Tantras. — The  Purftnic 
period  of  Hinduism  is  that  of  its  decline,  so  far  as 
the  popular  creed  is  concerned.  Its  pantheon  is 
nominally  the  same  as  that  of  the  Epic  period. 
Brahmil,  Vishnu,  and  Siva  remain  still  at  the  head 
of  its  imaginary  gods.  But  whereas  the  Epic  time 
Ls  generally  characterised  by  a  friendly  harmony 
between  the  higher  occupants  of  the  divine  spheres, 
the  Funinic  period  shows  discord  and  destruction  of 
the  original  ideas  whence  the  Epic  gods  arose. 
Brahnid  is  withdrawn  from  the  popular  adoration, 
leaving  Vishnu  and  Siva  to  light  their  battles  in 
the  minds  of  their  worshippers  for  the  highest  rank. 
The  divine  element  whicli  still  distinguishes  these 
gods  in  the  Kanuiyana  and  Mahilbhiirata  is  now 
more  and  more  mixed  up  with  worldly  concerns 
and  intersecteil  with  historical  events,  distiijured  in 
their  turn  to  suit  individual  interests.  Of  the  ideas 
implied  by  the  Vedic  rites  scarcely  a  trace  is  visible 
in  the  PurAnas  and  Tantras,  wliich  are  the  text- 
books of  this  creed.  Some  Puranas,  it  is  true 
— e.g.  the  Bhdgaimtu — make  in  some  sense  an  ex- 
ception to  this  aberratiim  from  original  Hinduism  ; 
but  they  are  a  compromise  between  the  jiopular 
creed  and  the  Vediinta  creed,  which  latter  remains 
the  faith  of  the  educated  and  intelligent.  They  do 
not  affect  the  worship  of  the  masses  as  practised  by 
the  various  sects,  whether  harndess,  as  with  the 
worshippers  of  Vishnu,  or  offensive,  as  with  the 
adorers  of  Siva  and  his  wife  Pi'irga.  It  is  this 
popular  creed  which,  with  further  deteriinations 
caused  by  the  lap.se  of  centuries,  is  still  the  main 
religion  of  the  ma.sses  in  India.  See  PurAna  and 
Sanskrit,  Vol.  IX.  p.  153. 

Tiie  philosophical  creed  of  this  period,  which  is 
stUl  preserved  by  the  educated  classes,  is  derived 
from  the  Ved;inta  philoso|)hy.  It  is  based  on  the 
belief  of  one  suprenu'  l>eiMg,  who  is  invested  with 
all  the  perfection  conceival)le  by  the  human  mind. 
But  the  nature  of  that  being  is  declared  to  be 


beyond  the  reach  of  thought,  as  not  possessing  any 
of  the  i|ualities  by  whicli  the  human  mind  is  able 
to  comprehend  intellectual  or  material  entity.  See 
Vedanta. 

The  sects  which  arose  during  the  third  period  of 
Hinduism  suppose  that  their  woi-ship  is  counten- 
anced by  thevedas;  but  its  real  origin  is  derived 
from  the  Puranas  and  I'antiax.  There  are  three 
chief  divisions  of  the.se  sects — the  adorers  of  Vishnu 
(  \'aishnavas ),  of  Siva  ( Saivas ),  and  of  the  wives  or 
female  energies  of  these  gods  (Siiktas).  For  the 
philosopliy,  literature,  &c.,  see  Sanskrit. 

The  Fopular  Fdith. — This  nmst  be  noted  as  it 
is  seen  among  the  Hindus  to-day.  The  triad  of 
Brahma  the  creator,  \'ishnu  tlie  preserver,  aiul 
Siva  the  destroyer  is  still  remembered.  One  of 
them  (Brahma)  has  lapsed  into  an  abstraction, 
and  practical  adoratioti  is  di\ided  between  the 
other  two.  The  Sivaites  are  chietly,  but  not 
entirely,  in  the  north ;  the  Vishnuitcs  in  the 
south.  The  Sivaite  worship  is  chietly  attracted 
by  the  wife  of  Siva,  under  various  names — Kali, 
Diirga,  Parbati,  anil  so  forth.  Vishnu,  again,  is 
almost  lost  in  the  worship  paid  to  his  two  incar- 
nations (avatars),  Rama  and  Krishna.  Lesser 
divinities,  such  as  Hanunian,  the  '  monkey  god,' 
and  Ganesh,  the  'elepliant-god,'  are  also  honoured. 
The  sanctity  of  the  Ganges  (Ganga)  remains,  and 
when  the  river  is  lost  in  the  delta  that  sanctity  is 
to  some  extent  continued  to  the  Hooglily,  flowing 
past  Calcutta.  The  Nerbudda  also  is  sacred.  The 
ling  or  phallus  is  still  an  emblem,  and  gives  its 
name  to  the  Lingayet  sect  in  the  Deccan.  It  is 
hard  to  gauge  the  thoughts  of  Hindus  regarding 
a  future  state.  They  think  of  a  heaven  (Swarga) 
and  a  hell  ;  also  of  giant  demons  ( Rakshas ).  From 
their  demeanour  in  the  presence  of  certain  death 
it  may  be  inferred  that  they  expect  absorption  into 
the  divine  essence  or  entity,  through  the  inter- 
vention of  the  god  or  gods  they  have  worsliip]ied. 
It  is  hard  to  measure  the  extent  to  which  this 
faith  may  have  been  weakened  by  the  western 
education  of  to-day  in  the  minds  of  the  rising 
generation.  The  undermining  is,  however,  ex- 
tensive. Still,  in  the  upper  class  there  are  many 
who  cling  to  Brahmanic  orthodoxy,  and  with  the 
mass  of  the  people  the  adoration  at  the  temples, 
the  floral  and  votive  ollerings,  the  ceremonies,  the 
festi\als,  the  pilgrimages,  are  all  maintained.  The 
rule  of  life  is  still  comprehended  in  the  tenii 
Dharm,  which  includes  religious  fidelity  and  moral 
virtue. 

The  Caste  System,  which  is  a  j)otent  factor  in  the 
national  life,  does  not  appear  to  have  been  a  part 
of  the  Vedic  religion  originally.  But  it  arose 
subsequently  with  a  religious  sanction  which  is 
still  maintained.  The  Brahman  caste,  including 
the  priests,  is  held  to  have  something  divine  in  it. 
Most  of  the  several  millions  of  lirahmans  follow 
secular  emjiloyment  :  but  even  the  humblest  of 
them  is  hedged  round  by  a  certain  sort  of  sacred- 
ness.  This  caste,  together  with  the  Kshatri  or 
warrior  caste,  and  the  Vaisya  or  trader  caste  (in- 
cluding the  subilivision  of  Kayasths  or  writers),  are 
held  to  be  twice-born  (dwija).  This  character 
does  not  attach  to  the  Siidra  caste,  which  includes 
the  masses.  The  restrictions  in  respect  of  food 
and  drink  (water)  in  the  caste  system  are  most 
severe  and  narrow.  Caste  is  lost  from  any  of  the 
infringements  that  are  inevitable  in  foreign  intor- 
couise.  But  restoration  to  caste,  though  often 
expensive,  is  sufliciently  facile.  Within  each  caste 
as  a  division  of  the  jieople  there  are  subdivisions 
infinitely  numerous,  which  as  a  whole  have  been 
reckoned  at  several  thousands. 

'J'hc  liruhmas.  —  But  a  new  religion  is  arising 
among  the  Hindus  educated  after  the  western 
manner :     this    may    be    termed    Brahnioisni     or 


INDIA 


107 


tlieisni,  eschewing  cast*  and  almost  everj-tliing 
Biahmanic.  There  are  alreatly  two  divisions — 
Braliraos  and  AdhiBralimos  ;  perhaps  other  divi- 
sions may  be  formed.  Their  community  is  termed 
the  Brahmo  Soniaj  (q.v.).  Tliese  theistic  reformei-s 
look  primarily  to  the  Vedas,  hut  refer  also  to 
the  Christian  Hihle.  This  intellectual,  moral, 
and  spiritual  moven\ent  may  have  inlinite  develop- 
ment under  the  national  education  now  established, 
and  is  to  be  reckoned  among  the  phenomena  of 
the  country.  It  has  been  necessary  to  pass  a 
special  law  for  the  marriages  of  this  sect  and  other 
sects. 

The  Sikhs. — Their  faith,  though  not  quite  what 
it  was  in  the  preceding  generation,  is  still  a 
living  power.  In  the  Punjab  and  the  protected 
Sikh  states  it  really  was  a  sort  of  reformation, 
anil  a  moral  system  engrafted  on  Brahmanism. 
Otherwise  it  recognises  all,  or  nearly  all,  the  Brali- 
manic  tenets,  caste  included.  Its  sacreil  Ixiok,  the 
Granth,  is  well  known.  Its  spiritual  teachers 
(Gurus)  have  a  status  irrespective  of  the  Brahman 
priesthood,  and  it  has  religious  orders  endowed 
with  fighting  qualities.  A  man  is  not  bom  into 
its  system,  but  is  initiated.  Practically  the 
initiated  ones  are  all  Hindus,  who  thus  become 
Sikhs  or  disciples.  There  are  two  modes  of 
initiation,  something  like  baptism  :  the  first,  that 
of  the  foot,  practised  by  the  founder,  Baba 
Xanak  :  the  second,  that  of  the  sword,  as  practised 
by  Govind  Sing,  the  warlike  pro])agator.  The 
former  has  more  of  a  religious  character,  the  second 
is  more  militant.  The  popularity  of  the  latter  cul- 
minated in  the  palmy  days  of  the  Sikh  kingdom, 
when  the  temple  of  initiation  at  Amritsar,  near 
Lahore,  was  daily  crowdeil. 

Buddhism  is  now  for  the  people  only  a  nominis 
umbra:  probably  the  words  '  buddh,'  as  abstract 
wisdom,  and  '  nirvana,'  as  a  haven  of  celestial 
quiescence,  are  remembered.  In  the  Eastern  Hima 
layas,  Sikkini,  and  Bhutan  it  is  really  Laniaisni 
(q.v.),  or  the  medieval  corruption  of  Buddhism, 
of  which  the  headquarters  are  at  Lhasa,  in  Tibet, 
with  the  Dalai  Lama  and  the  incarnations.  The 
representations  of  Buddha  or  Gautama  have  the 
aspect  of  ineffable  repose  which  Buddhism  has 
everywhere  exhibited.  The  caste  system  does  not 
exist,  but  the  monastic  order  is  all-powerful.  In 
Burma  the  faith  is  still  mainly  that  which  was 
settled  at  the  last  great  council  of  Asoka,  in 
northern  India,  before  the  Christian  era.  Here 
also  caste  is  not  acknowledged  ;  but  the  priestly 
and  monastic  orders,  though  they  cannot  arrogate 
a  status  like  Brahmans,  are  veiy  influential. 

■Jainism  is  believed  to  have  originally  sprung 
from  the  same  school  of  speculative  thought  as 
Buddhism.  It  has  sacred  books  and  saints  of  its 
own,  in  a  long  line  or  series,  and  it  promises  a 
future  quiescence  hardly  distinguishable  from 
annihilation.  It  has  an  excessive  tenderne.ss  for 
animal  life.  It  recognises  caste.  Its  adherents 
are  largely  found  in  the  banking  and  mercantile 
cla.«ses. 

Muhaminedanism.—TXna  is,  in  many  parts  of  the 
country,  strict  and  exactly  presencd,  and  '  din,' 
or  orthodoxy,  is  still  a  word  to  conjure  with.  The 
two  sects,  Sunnis  and  Shiahs,  exist  in  this  as  in 
other  countries  ;  the  dynasties  have  been  mostly 
Sunni,  and  the  people  chiefly  belong  to  that  sect, 
hut  the  Shiahs  have  always  been  numerous  at 
Lucknow.  In  eastern  Bengal,  however,  the  faith 
is  much  modified  and  deba.sed,  and  this  remark 
ar)plies  to  nearly  half  of  the  Moslem  population. 
"Tlie  ramifications  of  the  fanatical  Wahabi  sect  in 
Arabia  have  spread  to  the  Indian  empire,  thereby 
causing  occasionally  political  trouble. 

The  Parsees  preserve  the  Zoroastrian  faith  and 
practice — the    tire-worship,   and    so   forth.     Their 


'  towers  of  silence,'  inside  of  which  the  dead  are 

deposited,  are  conspiciious  objects.  There  are  traces 
still  in  India  of  the  old  woi-ship  of  trees — the  Bo, 
the  tulsi,  and  others,  aud  of  the  serpent  (Naga). 
The  aboriginal  cult  consists  of  veneration  for  the 
great  spirit  and  for  malignant  powei's,  including 
sMialliiox,  and  even  the  tiger,  with  worship  of 
stocks  and  stones. 

Edigiotis  Endounnentn. —The  .several  religions 
have  from  time  immemorial  received  endowments 
from  the  native  dynasties,  which  endowments 
are  in  part  maintained  under  British  rule.  The 
value  of  these  endowments  consisted  in  the  aliena- 
tion of  the  land  revenue  in  favour  of  religious 
institutions  as  grantees.  The  government  has 
severed  itself  from  any  share  in  the  management 
of  these  institutions,  but  it  regards  the  landed 
emlowments  as  property,  and  has  maintaine<l 
them  after  due  investigation  of  tenure,  title,  and 
the  like. 

Christianity. — The  traditions  of  St  Thomas  ( q.v. ) 
the  Apostle  survive  in  the  south,  where  also  a  Syrian 
Churcli  was  planted  in  the  early  centuries  after 
Christ.  In  the  5th  century  Nestorianism  came 
fiom  Babylon,  and  still  survives.  In  the  16th 
century  Roman  Catholic  missions  anived  from 
Portugal,  and  soon  afterwards  came  the  famous 
St  Francis  Xavier  (q.v.)  with  the  Jesuits.  The 
Jesuit  missions  had  great  success  on  both  sides  of 
the  Peninsula  in  a  certain  way,  but  their  ministers 
were  somewhat  orientalised.  Just  two  centuries 
later — i.e.  at  the  middle  of  the  18th  century— the 
Society  of  Jesus  was  broken  up  in  Europe,  and  the 
south-Indian  missions  languisned  in  consequence. 
Early  in  the  19th  century  the  society  was  re- 
established, and  ere  long  its  missions  were  resus- 
citated. 

The  DanLsh  settlement  on  the  south-east  coast 
at  Tranquebar  saw  the  first  Protestant  mission, 
which  was  Lutheran,  under  Ziegenbalg,  in  1795. 
He  was  followed  by  Schwartz  in  the  Peninsula. 
Towards  the  end  of  the  century  the  Baptist  mission 
was  set  up  at  the  then  Danish  settlement  at 
Serampore.  In  the  early  yeai-s  of  the  19th  century 
Henry  MartjTi,  the  Church  of  England  chaplain, 
began  to  work  as  a  missionary.  The  bishopric 
of  Calcutta  was  established  in  IS14,  and  then 
followed  the  operations  of  the  two  great  associa- 
tions of  the  Church  of  England — the  Church 
Missionary^  Society  and  the  Society  for  the  Propa- 
gation of  the  Gospel.  The  Church  of  Scotland 
began  its  missions  in  1S30,  increased  bv  the  Free 
Church  after  1S43.  These  were  followed  by 
missions  from  the  Wesleyan  and  Baptist  com- 
munities (British  and  American),  from  thetierman 
Society  at  Basel,  from  the  London  Missionary 
Society,  and  the  United  Presbyterians  in  1860.  In 
1835-.37  the  bishoiirics  of  Madras  and  Bombay 
were  established,  the  Bishop  of  Calcutta  becoming 
Metropolitan.      Recently   bishops    have   been   ap- 

Eointed  for  the  Punjab  and  Sind,  and  for  Burma, 
esides  two  missionary  bish()])s  for  the  Peninsula. 
The  Church  of  England  is  the  ollicial  ehnrch, 
and  its  chaplains  are  stationed  at  the  principal 
towns  and  military  cantonments.  In  many  places 
al.so  there  are  ministers  of  other  denominations. 
R<nnan  Catholic  priests  are  ministering  every- 
where, and  many  of  them  are  salaried  by  the 
government  a-;  ministei^  to  the  European  soldiers 
of  their  faith.  Besides  these  there  are  the  Euro- 
pean ordained  missionaries — many  hundreds  of  all 
denominations— and  under  these  a  fivst  growing 
native  ministry. 

The  following  was  the  distribution  of  the  Chris- 
tain  population,  by  race,  in  the  empire  in  1881  : 
European,  142, 6I()";  Euriisi.in,  eS.OS.T ;  Native, 
893,6.">8 ;  others  (including  various  Asiatic  races), 
764,172— total,  1,862,525.    The  following  is  accord- 


108 


INDIA 


ing  to  denomination  at  tlie  census  of  1891 :  Cliuivh 
of  Enjrland,  ii'tri.Oie;  Preslnteiians,  40.407  ;  otiiei 
Protestants,  :«)0,'J05 ;  Koman  Catliolics,  1,315,'2C3; 
Syrians,  Armenians,  and  Greeks,  201,684 — tx>taJ, 
2,284,380. 

Till!  ini.ssionarios  liavo  now.  for  half  a  century, 
worked  with  jjastoral  devotion,  literary  labour, 
and  educational  eHioicucv,  in  western  !vs  well  as 
eastern  knowleili;e.  Tliev  have  studied  reli;L,'i<)ns. 
translated  the  Scriptures  into  tlie  principal  lan- 
j^uages,  issueil  ininierous  works  on  Christian  teach- 
ing, .su|)ervised  schixds.  founded  colleges,  maniiged 
the  cure  of  congregations.  I'hey  have  long  con- 
stituted a  moral  force  in  the  country,  with  heue- 
licial  elloct.  soei.ally  and  politically.  The  increase 
in  the  numher  of  native  Christians  has  been  pro- 
portionally great. 

Social  Customs. — Four-fifths  of  the  population 
are  aHecte<l  largely  Viv  the  caste  system  already 
de.scril)ed  as  being  partly  at  least  connecte<l  with 
the  popular  religion.  .A.  religious  sanction  in 
some  degree  attaches  to  infant  marriage,  or  child 
marriage,  with  all  classes ;  also  to  tlie  seclusion  of 
women,  and  to  the  prohibition  against  remarriage 
of  widows,  with  the  upper  ami  midille  cla.sses.  In 
jjractice  the  women  of  the  masses  are  not  secluded, 
iiut,  on  the  contrary,  appear  everywhere,  and  work 
out  of  doors  ;  they  re-marry,  too,  if  in  widowhood. 
The  burning  of  widows  ( suttee  or  sati )  on  the  funeral 
pyres  of  their  husbands  has  long  been  suppressed 
by  the  criminal  law  under  Hritish  rule.  Polyandry 
is  found  only  among  a  few  of  the  aboriginal  tribes, 
I'olygamy  is  sanctioned,  but  not  enjoined  ;  it  is,  of 
<;ourse,  confined  to  those  who  can  att'ord  to  maintain 
more  than  one  wife.  Here,  again,  in  practice  the 
masses  of  the  people  are  monogamist.  In  all  classes 
the  marriage  exjienses,  arising  chiefly  from  the  otter- 
iugs  made  to  the  ]iriesthooil,  are  so  excessive  as 
frequently  to  cause  embarrassment  to  families. 
Many  of  the  social  c\istoms  above  indicated  are 
regretted  and  deprecated  by  nati\e  reformers  as  j 
being  injurious  to  the  national  progress,  and  I 
benevolent  ellorts  for  reformation  are  made.  The 
laws  of  inheritance,  dower  and  divorce,  women's  j 
property,  adoption,  partition,  and  other  social 
matters  are  held  to  have  a  ouasi-religious  sanction.  I 
Tliey  are  generally  observed  in  the  coni'ts  of  justice 
under  British  rule,  both  fcU'  Hindus  and  Moham- 
medans. Three  criminal  i)rac,tices  have  been 
severely  dealt  with  by  the  British  government : 
female  infanticide,  arising  from  the  presumed 
exigencies  of  ca.ste ;  the  murderous  and  treacherous  j 
Thuggee  connected  with  the  goddess  of  destruc- 
tion :  and  the  Meriah  or  human  sacrifices  by  some  ' 
of  the  hill-tribes.  j 

T/ic  Vi7/(i</c  Si/sfi'iti. — This  is  a  factor  in  the  rural 
life  of  the  Hindus,  ami  from  them  has  been  ado|ited  ] 
by  the  Mohammedans.  A  village  does  not  merely 
mean  a  collection  of  houses,  but  corresponds  to  a 
township  or  a  parish.  It  is  an  area  of  some  hun- 
dreds or  thousands  of  acres  of  land,  according  to 
cir.'umstances,  and  is  under  the  administration  of 
hereditary  functionaries,  the  principal  of  whom  is 
the  pottiil  ( head-iidiabitant ).  a  small  local  nuigis- 
trate.  who  su]ierint(^uds  the  all'airs  of  the  com- 
munitv,  .settles  dis]iutes,  attends  to  the  rural  police 
ami  the  collection  of  taxes.  Among  the  other 
funclionariesmay  be  mentioned  the  accountant  and 
notary  {hnrnuni  or  ptitirari)^  who  keejts  a  register 
of  the  produce  and  the  names  of  the  proiirietors, 
and  draws  up  all  deeds  of  sale,  transfer,  \c,.  :  the 
Brahman,  or  village  nriest ;  the  schoolmaster  ;  and 
the  watchman.  liesidcs  these  almost  every  village 
has  its  iustrologer,  smith,  carpenter,  potter,  barber, 
and  bard,  all  of  whom  are  ri'warded  out  of  the 
produce  of  the  village-lainls.  M'nder  this  sim])le 
form  of  municipal  government  the  inhabitants  of 
the  countrv   have   lived   from    time    immemorial. 


The  boundaries  of  the  village  have  been  but  seldom 

altered  :  and  llinugh  the  vilhages  themselves  have 
been  sometimes  altered,  and  even  desolated  by  war, 
famine,  aiul  disea.se,  the  same  name,  the  same 
limits,  and  even  the  same  families,  have  ccmtinued 
for  ages.  The  inhabitants  give  themselves  m> 
trouble  about  the  breaking  uji  and  division  of 
kingdoms  ;  while  the  village  renuvins  entire  they 
care  not  to  what  jiower  it  is  transferred,  or  to  what 
sovereign  it  devolves  ;  it.s  internal  economy  remains 
unchanged  ;  the  potail  is  still  the  head-inhabitant, 
and  still  act-s  as  the  petty  magistrate.' 

Costume. — This  is  in  these  numenms  nationalities 
<haracterised  universally  by  the  ease,  lightness,  anil 
looseness  common  in  the  JEa-st  and  suitable  to  the 
hot  climate.  But  it  varies  in  the  many  provinces, 
and,  indeed,  with  every  nationality.  The  turban 
(pagri)  has  every  sort  of  dimension,  from  minute 
neatness  to  turgid  nuissiveness.  The  waistband 
(dhoti)  extends  often  below  the  knee,  in  which  case 
there  is  no  trouser.  .Jackets  in  many  styles  are 
common.  The  women's  dress  in  many  respects 
resemliles  that  of  the  men.  The  petticoat  is  not 
universal.  The  head-dress  is  often  extended,  so  ;us 
to  hang  gracefully  down  the  back.  The  shoe  is 
not  always  worn  ;  indeed,  the  humbler  cla.sses  are 
generally  barefooted.  With  them  the  blanket 
is  often  a  plaid.  The  black  colours  of  Europe 
are  seldom  seen,  but  indigo  blue  is  common. 
Otherwise  white,  set  off  by  gay  margins,  and  rich 
>carfs  and  shawls,  is  the  prevailing  colour.  .\s  a 
whole  the  national  dress  is  picturesque,  and  a  holi- 
day crowd  has  the  appearance  of  a  nower-garden. 

Architecture. — This  is  not  generally  remarkable 
in  the  humbler  dwellings.  In  the  (iangetic  delta 
the  m.aterials  are  bamboo  and  thatch,  and  the  cot- 
tages, being  covered  with  creepers,  are  ]iicturesque. 
In  the  north  both  walls  and  roofs  are  of  indurateil 
earth,  the  elt'ect  being  utterly  ]ilain.  In  the  south 
wood  and  brick  are  used.  The  street  architecture 
in  the  cities  and  towns  is  diversified  in  a  manner 
conducing  to  pictorial  effect.  The  Europeans  have 
not  invented  any  style  for  their  buildings,  except 
at  Calcutta,  where  the  ]irivate  houses  have  ,a  stately 
architecture  suited  to  the  climate.  Otherwise  for 
their  churches  they  have  adopted  the  Cothic  style, 
and  for  their  civil  structures  the  leading  styles  of 
Europe,  with  certainly  a  noble,  (nen  magnificent 
ell'ect  at  Calcutta  anil  Bombay.  At  .Madras,  in 
Bajputana.  and  elsewhere,  they  have  used  .adapta- 
tions of  the  old  oriental  styles. 

The  indigenous  styles  of  architecture  for  many 
centuries  have  been  the  chief  ornaments  of  the 
laud.  Their  study  has  been  greatly  elucidated  by 
the  .\rch:eological  Survey.  They  begin  with  the 
Buddhist  era  ;  for  the  preceding  or  Vedic  era  there 
are  no  remains.  The  best  authoritv  legarding 
them  is  Fergusson,  from  whose  works  tiie  following 
classification  is  taken.  It  must  suffice  to  note  the 
salient  points  only. 

I'lic  Hindu  Sti/lcs.-  h\  the  Buddhist  architecture 
the  characteristic  features  are.  first,  ilie  Tope  (  a  cor- 
ruption of  Stupa,  or  '  monumental  mound ' ),  encased 
with  ma.sonry,  having  a  superstructure  at  the  top, 
and  corridors  round  the  base,  with  four  entrances 
marked  by  gateways,  often  of  great  beauty ; 
secondly,  the  Lat  or  pillar,  generally  monumental  ; 
the  Cliaitya  or  hall  of  woisbip  ;  the  Vihara,  or 
nu>mistery.  \\ith  cells  for  the  monks.  Tlu^  two  la^t 
named  are  often  rock-cut,  and  thus  have  an  extra- 
ordinary interest.  One  tower  only,  that  of  Buddh 
(lya  in  Behar,  has  been  found,  and  it  is  one  of 
the  mddest  dimensions.  .Mmost  all  parts  of  the 
architecture  are  adorned  with  bold  yet  graceful 
carvings  of  men  and  women,  and  of  animals.  In 
some  of  the  rock-cut  chambers  or  cave-temples  are 
remains  of  frescoes  immensely  valuable  to  the 
>tudent. 


INDIA 


109 


The  only  liviii;.'  aiotiitectuie  of  Bu<I(Ihism  is  in 
the  Eastern  Hiinalayivs,  in  Sikkini.  Tlu'ie  the 
figures  of  Buddha  are  heautitully  executed  in  terra- 
cotta :  and  the  monasteries  are  proterled  from  the 
snow  by  unihrelhi-shaped  roofs.  In  Nepal  there 
is  one  tapering  pagoda  in  the  Burmese  style,  hi 
Burma  the  circular  dagohjis  have  been  developed 
into  the  e.xquisitelytaperiiig  pagodjis,  with  gilded 
surface,  and  the  masonry  is  set  off  hy  wood-carv- 
ing of  the  most  elaborate  description. 

In  the  Jaina  architecture  the  original  character- 
istics were  somewhat  similar — Jainism  and  Buddh- 
ism being  cognate  faiths.  But  simplicity  begins 
to  be  lost  in  ornament.  Extensive  remains  are 
discovered  on  hill-tops  far  removed  from  one 
another — Parasnath  in  Bengal,  Abu  in  Kajputana, 
Satranj  in  Kathiawar.  There  is  a  dis[iosition  to 
congregate  small  temples  in  great  numlier  on  hill- 
tops, so  as  to  form,  ;vs  it  were,  cities  of  the  gods. 
Tne  general  effect  of  these,  however,  is  not  pictur- 
esque. The  large  towers  become  rounded  and 
ribbed,  with  a  circular  addition  something  like  a 
ro.se  on  the  apex,  surmounted  by  a  linial,  .so  that 
the  general  effect  is  not  unlike  a  spire.  Arches 
and  domes  become  prominent  features.  Elaborate 
ornamentation  is  introduced  into  the  stone 
masonry.  Pillars  and  lesser  towers  of  great  beauty 
are  erected. 

The  styles  which  follow  are  historically  Brah- 
manic.  In  the  Hinialaya.s  there  are  two  styles  : 
one  in  Cashmere,  with  Hindu  affinities,  but  with 
greater  simplicity  of  outline  and  of  detail  in  gray 
limestone ;  the  other  in  Nepal,  with  Chinese  and 
Burmese  affinities,  the  most  striking  examples  l)eing 
those  of  temples  built  in  stories,  with  sloping  roofs, 
copper-gilt,  and  projecting  eaves  ;  the  walls  being 
often  of  enamelled  brickwork,  and  the  wood-carving 
very  rich. 

The  Dra vidian  style  prevails  in  the  southern 
peninsula,  where  the  Tamil  language  is  spoken.  It 
is  called  after  the  old  Dravidian  race,  which  has 
still  a  distinctive  existence  in  this  region.  The 
towers  of  the  temples  lose  the  rounded  and  spiral 
forms,  and  become  nearly  pyramidal.  The  temple 
enclosures  have  vast  gateways  (gopuras)  of  com- 
paratively square  shape,  though  narrowed  towards 
the  top.  The  surface  ornamentation,  though  very 
tine  in  some  respects,  is  on  the  whole  grotesquely 
profuse.  At  some  points,  however,  the  redstone 
sculptured  figures  are  superb.  Granite  is  largely 
employed  in  this  style,  also  the  e.xquisite  stucco 
obtained  from  shell-lime.  The  styles  heretofore 
mentioned  were  devoted  almost  entirely  to  reli- 
gious pui-poses.  But  this  Dravidian  style  is  adapted 
to  civil  uses,  and  appears  in  stately  palaces,  jmblic 
offices,  pavilions,  elephant -stables,  and  so  forth. 
This  has  been  ascribed  to  the  influence  of  Moham- 
medan example.  The  arch  becomes  prominent ; 
and  at  Madura  especially  there  is  an  arched  hall 
of  real  magnificence. 

The  Chalukyan  stvle  is  named  after  a  Hindu 
dynasty  that  reigned  in  the  central  Deccan.  It  is 
found  originally  in  that  region,  but  extended  to 
Mysore,  where  its  noblest  works  were  arrested  in 
their  constraction  bv  the  Mohammedan  invasion. 
Its  materials  are  often  of  \()lcanic  and  granitic 
stone.  The  pyrami<lal  shape  prevails,  and  the 
l)atient  elaboration  of  surface-ornament  excites 
wonder  ;  but  in  the  general  outline  stillness  and 
solidity  prevail  over  gracefulness. 

The  Indo  Aryan  or  Brahmanic  .style  Ls  more 
widely  spread  than  any  of  the  others,  exten<ling 
as  it  does  throughout  the  northern  and  central 
regions.  Its  examples  are  varied  ;  many  are  too 
small  to  l>e  effective  or  signiticant,  but  .some,  such 
as  the  group  near  Jaganatli,  in  Uri.ssa.  and  that  at 
Brindaban,  on  the  Jumna,  are  of  the  grandest  type. 
Artistically  the  Oris.sa  examples  are  perhaps  the 


best  in  the  whole  country.  The  forms  are  influ- 
enced by  Mcihammeilan  example.  The  rounded 
and  coronetcd  tower  already  nuntioned  in  the 
Jaina  style  is  found  to  perfection  here.  In 
northern  India  it  is  called  the  Shiwala.  This 
style  is  adapted  not  merely  to  temples,  but 
to  cenotaphs  for  the  repose  of  ashes  after  crema- 
tion, to  palaces  and  summer-houses,  to  fortresses, 
to  the  dams  of  artilicial  lakes,  to  travellei-s'  rest- 
houses,  to  wells,  and  to  the  spacious  reservoirs 
that  are  famous  under  the  name  of  Baoli.  The 
domes  and  lesser  cupolas  become  frequent.  The 
balconies  and  windows  are  much  to  be  adniiretl. 
One  palatial  summer-house  at  Deeg,  in  Kaj- 
putana, is  one  of  the  most  beautiful  Imildings  of 
its  kind  in  the  world.  The  modern  Hindu  work 
chiefly  belongs  to  this  style,  and  is  still  going  on. 
In  general  terms,  ob.servati(m  of  nature,  aspira- 
tion for  beauty,  and  artistic  feeling  have  charac- 
terised the  Hindus — whether  Buddhist  or  Jain  <n- 
Brahmanic— and  imparted  to  their  architectural 
achievements  an  art-culture  rarely  surpassed  by 
any  nationality. 

The  I)id(i-S(iriice.nir  Style. — This  may  be  divided 
into  two  jiarts,  the  Pathan  and  the  Mogul.  It 
begins  with  the  1 1  tli  century,  aiul  ends  with  the  15th. 
The  early  Pathan  style,  whether  in  stone,  as  at 
Ahniedabad,  near  the  west  coast,  or  in  brick,  as  at 
Gaur,  in  Bengal,  far  eastwards,  consists,  with  one 
notable  exception,  of  the  Hindu  architecture  already 
described,  but  adapted  for  a  simple  worship,  and 
modilied  with  a  certain  breadth  of  conception  to 
which  the  Hindus  never  attained.  The  exception 
is  this,  that  sculpture  of  the  human  form  is  ex- 
cluded, as  lieing  idolatrous.  The  later  Pathan 
style  was  Ijased  on  northern  models.  Plainness 
and  grandeur  are  its  characteristics,  both  in  the 
northern  and  the  central  regions.  The  dome,  the 
arch,  the  minaret  are  nobly  developed :  indeed, 
the  dome  at  Bijapur,  in  the  Deccan,  is  the 
grandest  object  of  its  kind  in  the  world,  and  is 
equally  remarkable  for  structural  skill. 

The  Mogul  style  began  with  Akbar  the  Great 
in  the  14th  century.  At  lirst  it  appeared  in 
a  somewhat  Hinduised  form,  because  tlie  Moslem 
princes  married  Hindu  princesses.  But  it  soon 
became  purified  from  a  Moslem  point  of  view, 
I  and  resumed  the  severe  simidicity  and  grandeur  of 
I  the  later  Pathan  style,  superadding  thereto  a  grace 
and  dignity  never  surpassed  in  human  art.  At 
firet  the  materials  were  red  sandstone  and  marble 
intermixed.  But  by  degrees  marlde  was  used  more 
and  more,  till  the  culminating  examjile  of  thisstyle, 
the  Taj  Mahal  at  Agra,  was  encased  entirely  with 
this  material,  inlaid  with  precious  and  parti- 
coloured stones  (see  illu.stration  at  Agr.v).  .After 
this  the  Pearl  mosque  (marble)  at  Agra  and  the 
palace  fortresses  at  Agra  and  Delhi,  aiui  the  Jama 
mosques  at  Delhi  and  Lahore  (Punjab)  are  the 
most  renowned  examples. 

The  Indo-Saracenic  style  is  apjilied  largely  to 
tombs,  it  being  the  practice  of  the  sovereign  to 
erect  his  tomb  in  his  own  lifetime.  Besides  this 
class  anil  the  other  cla.s.ses  of  structure,  it  was 
largely  applied  to  caravanserais  an<l  to  educational 
institutions  (MuUrusax).  In  all  its  later  stage, 
it  was  marked  by  surface  decoration  in  coloured 
enamel  on  earthen  material,  with  hues  of  which 
the  brilliancy  and  (|uality  cannot  be  imitated  in 
modem  times.  After  the  break-u])  of  the  Mogul 
empire,  a  deba.sed  modification  of  the  stvle  was  in- 
troduced at  Lucknow.  High  as  was  tiie  art  cul- 
ture in  the  architecture  of  the  Hindu  predeces.sors, 
it  was  even  snrpa-ssed  by  the  Moslem  successors. 

III.  Government  and  Military  Defence. 

The  Empire— Since  Queen  Victoria  was  pro- 
claimed Empress  in  1877,  India  is  an  empire,  includ- 


110 


INDIA 


ing  the  Britisli  territories  and  the  native  states, 
or,  in  other  words,  the  Indian  allies,  feudatories, 
and  vassals  of  the  said  empire  from  the  Tihetan 
and  Tartar  ^atei'shed  of  the  Himalayas  to  Cape 
Coniorin.  It  includes,  too,  every  area  within  their 
geographical  limits,  without  any  exception,  except 
the  comparatively  small  settlements  Delon<'ing  to 
France  and  Portugal.  The  empire  is  under  one 
supreme  authority  in  India— viz.  the  Viceroy  and 
Governor-general  in  Council.  It  may  thus  he 
divided  into  two  categories — the  British  terri- 
tories, comprising  about  three-fifths  of  the  total 
area,  and  four-fifths  of  the  total  population  ;  and 
the  native  states.  It  will  be  convenient  to  dispose 
of  the  latter  first. 

The  Native  States.  — The  relations  between  these 
and  the  British  government  are  regulated  by 
treaties  in  full  detail.  These  treaties  have  been 
published  in  many  volumes,  and  form  a  record  of 
the  utmost  value  to  the  student  of  modern  India. 
Some  states  do  not  ordinarily  appear  in  the 
official  tables,  though  they  form  an  integral  part  of 
the  empire  and  are  in  communication  with  IJritish 
political  agents.  In  their  internal  affairs  they  are 
uncontrolled.  These  are  the  important  Himalayan 
state  of  Xepal,  and  the  lesser  states  of  Sikkim  and 
Bhutan.  The  native  states  which  appear  in  the 
official  tables  occupy  more  than  a  third  of  the  area 
of  the  empire,  and  contain  more  than  one-sixth  of 
its  entire  population.  They  are  thus  grouped  in 
the  census  table  of  1891  : 


Native  States. 


Area  lu 
English 
sii.  miles. 

Hyderabad 82,698 

Baroda 8,226 

Mysore 27,936 

Cashmere 80,900 

RiUputana 130,268 

Central  India 77,808 

In  Bengal 36,834 

■•  North-west  Provinces 6,109 

•1  Punjab 38,299 

It  Central  Pro\inces 29,435 

■  •  Madras 9,609 

.r  Bombay 69,046 


Population, 
1S91. 

11,537,040 
2,416,396 
4,943,604 
2,643,962 
12,016,102 
10,318,812 
3,296,379 
792,491 
4,263,280 
2,160,511 
3,700,622 
8,059,298 


Total  Native  States 695,167 


66,047,487 

Hyderabad  as  given  above  is  exclusive  of  Berar, 
which,  however,  though  temporarily  administered 
by  Britain,  is  a  part  of  the  Nizam's  dominions,  with 
17,718  SI],  m.  and  2,897,491  population.  Further, 
the  Shan  dependencies  of  I'p]ier  Burma  contain  an 
estimated  i)Opulation  of  2,000,000,  which  is  not 
included  in  the  above  total. 

The  relations  of  the  native  princes  to  Britisli 
authority  ditter  very  widely.  Some  are  practically 
independent  sovereigns,  except  that  the  suzerain 
power  does  not  permit  any  of  them  to  make  war  on 
one  another,  or  to  form  alliances  with  foreign  states ; 
while  some  are  under  tolerably  strict  control.  As 
a  rule  they  govern  their  states  under  the  advice  of 
an  English  resident  appointed  by  the  Governor- 
general.  Thus  at  every  considerable  native  court 
there  is  stationed  a  Ijritish  agent,  political  or 
diplomatic.  There  are  in  all  about  .300  states,  allied 
or  feudatory,  great  and  small  ;  thev  are  divided 
into  allied  ('with  20.000,000  inhabitants),  tributary 
(about  liftv,  with  12,000,000),  and  protected  (about 
ninety,  with  18,000,000).  j 

Another  classilication  is  according  to  the  religion 
and  race  of  the  native  dynasty  :  I 

I.  .Mahratta,  withatotal]>opulationof  6,2.')0,000;  I 
a    revenue   of    £;), .300,000 :    and    native   armies   of  i 
60,000  men.     The  chief  states  are  :  ( 1 )  Gwalior  or  i 
Sindhia   (pop.    3,116,000);    (2)    Indore  or    Holkar  i 
(pop.  1,000,(MH));  and  (.3)  Baroda  (pop.  2,18o,()00). 
These  are   Hindu  in  faith,   hut  may  conveniently 
be  distinguished  from  the  other  Hindu  .states.     See 
Maiir,\tt.\s. 

II.  Hindu,  nearly  100  in  number,  with  a  population 


of  27,000,000;  a  revenue  of  f8,000,000 ;  and 
native  armies  of  188,500  men.  Of  these  the  chief 
are  :  ( 1 )  Mysore  (q. v. ;  pop.  5,000,000) ;  (2)  the  Raj- 
pulana  states,  such  as  Udaiimr  or  Mewar  (pop. 
1,200,000),  Jeypore  (pop.  2,000,000),  Jodh])ur 
(pop.  2,(K)0,0(K)"),  and  some  14  smaller  states;  (3) 
the  Madras  states,  such  as  Travaneore,  Cochin, 
Pudukota;  (4)  the  Bombay  feudatories,  over  30  in 
number;  (5)  the  lesser  states  of  Central  India, 
including  Rewa  and  Bundelkhand  ;  (6)  Punjab 
states,  including  the  protected  Sikh  states,  ten 
larger  and  five  smaller,  Pati:vla  being  the  largest. 

III.  Mohammedan,  with  a  po|).  of  14,000,000 ; 
a  revenue  of  £5,000,000 ;  and  armies  of  75,000. 
The  greatest  are  :  ( 1 )  Hyderabad  of  the  Deccan,  or 
the  Nizam's  Dominions  (q.v.  ;  pop.  10,000,000,  of 
whom  three-fourths  are  Hindus,  though  the  dvnasty 
and  military  power  are  Moslem  ) :  ( 2 )  Bhojial  ( pop. 
800,000,  nine-tenths  Hindus  by  faith) ;  (3)  Bahawal- 
]iur  (pop.  500,000)  ;  (4)  Some  nineteen  others  with 
a  collective  pop.  of  2,000,000. 

IV.  Frontier,  mainly  Himalayan  and  eastern 
Bengal.— ( 1 )  Cashmere'witli  Jamu  ( pop.  1  ,.500,000) ; 
(2)  the  Patlian  (Afghan)  tribes  ;  (3)  Mauipur  (jiop. 
200,000):  (4)  Bhutan  (pop.  200,000);  (5)  Nepiil 
(pop.  2,000,000). 

The  feudatory  states  (excluding  Nepal,  and 
without  counting  small  states  with  an  aggregate 
of  about  1,000,000  inhabitants,  which  have  no 
armies)  have  together  armed  forces  amounting  to 
350,000  men,  and  4300  guns.  The  flower  of  this 
army  has  on  recent  occasions  been  placed  at  the 
disposal  of  the  British  government  as  paramount, 
and  is  virtually  a  part  of  the  imperial  forces. 

The  sum  total  of  these  four  categories  would 
bring  the  population  up  to  60  millions,  and  the 
total  revenue  to  15  millions  sterling  annually. 
These  states  are  loyal  to  the  British  crown  as 
paramount  and  suzerain.  Their  loyalty  was  prove<l 
during  the  imperial  crisis  of  1857-58.  In  the 
aggregate  they  form  a  preservative  and  constitu- 
tional force  in  the  country.  The  Britisli  govern- 
ment takes  a  paternal  interest  in  the  welfare  and 
good  government  of  these  states.  Misgovernment 
is  ettectually  prevented.  Colleges  and  schools 
under  British  auspices  are  established  for  the 
education  of  young  native  princes. 

As  descendants  are  frequently  wanting  in  these 
old  families,  it  was  important  that  the  jirinciple  of 
adoption  should  be  recognised,  otherwise  the  state 
might  on  the  demise  of  the  native  jirince  without 
issue  lapse  to  the  British  government  as  para- 
mount. All  feai-s  on  this  account  were  set  at  rest 
by  a  decree  in  1858  sanctioning  the  ri'dit  of  adop- 
tion according  to  Hindu  en-  MoTiammedan  law. 

7'/»'  British  Territories. —  These,  containing  (with 
Ajmere,  Coorg,  British  Beluchistan,  and  the  Anda- 
mans)  964,992  sq.  m.  and  221,172,9.52  souls,  are 
broken  iip  into  eight  main  divisions  for  civil  govern- 
ment. They  were  originally  in  three  divisions, 
called  presidencies,  which  have  become  historic — viz. 
Bengal,  Madras,  and  Bombay.  The  old  presidencies 
of  Madias  and  Bombay  still  smviveasunitsof  govern- 
ment under  go\enio"rs  in  council  as  of  yore  ;  but 
every  area  that  does  not  spccilically  belong  to  them 
is  considered  to  belong  to  the  Bengal  Presidency. 
The  last-named  presidency,  being  much  the  largest 
of  the  three,  has  been  subdivided  into  several 
divisicm.s.  Of  these  subdivisions  the  three  princi- 
pal are  Bengal,  >vitli  Bohar  and  Orissa  ;  the  North- 
western Provinces,  with  Oinlli  ;  the  Punjab,  with 
Delhi.  Each  of  these  is  under  a  lieutenant-governor. 
The  three  remaining  subdivisions  are  the  Central 
Provinces,  Assam,  and  Burma,  each  under  a  chief- 
commissioner  ;  of  these  the  Governor-general  in 
Council  is  technically  the  governor,  but  he  delegates 
the  greater  part  of  his  powers  to  the  chief-com- 
missioner in  each  case. 


INDIA 


111 


The  subjoined  table  thus  shows  these  main  tenitorial  divisions,  with  tlieiv  areas  and  populations  : 


Bengal,  Behar,  and  Orissa 

I  North-western  Provinces  and  Oudli. 
n„.(' .  I  -'  Punjab  and  Delhi  . 


Central  Provinces.. 

Assam 

Burnm 

Madras. . 


I  Cel 

As 


Madras  . 

Bombay Bombay  with  Sind. . 


Besides  these  there  are  three  small  detaelied  terri- 
tories— viz.  Ajiiiere  (in  Kajputana),  Coorg,  and  the 
Andaman  Ishmds.  .\11  tliis  i.'s  exchi.>iive  of  the 
Ber;ir  province,  which,  though  under  Britisli  ad- 
ministration, is  a  part  of  the  Nizam's  dominions. 

These  figures,  large  as  they  are,  fail  to  gi\e  a 
delinite  impression  of  the  enormous  area  and  popula- 
tion under  British  authority  in  this  part  of  tlie 
globe.  The  districts  under  direct  British  administra- 
tion have  an  area  almost  quite  as  large  as  that  of 
the  United  Kingdom,  Austria- Hungary,  Germany, 
France,  and  Italy  together,  or  more  than  seven 
times  that  of  the  United  Kingdom.  The  area  of 
the  native  states  is  as  large  as  Norway  and  Sweden, 
Spain,  Holland,  and  Belgium  put  together.  In 
population  British  and  feudatory  India  together 
have  more  than  all  European  states  together, 
omitting  Russia  only.  The  British  territories 
(without  the  native  states)  contain  more  than  one- 
seventh  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  entire  "lobe. 

Machinery  for  governing. — In  1858  the  govern- 
ment was  transferred  from  the  East  India  Company 
(q.v. )  to  the  crown.  In  1877  the  Queen  assumed 
the  title  of  Empress  of  India  ( Kaisar-i-Hind).  The 
government  of  India  is  in  the  highest  resort 
vested  in  a  Secretary  of  State  in  Lonilon,  who 
is  a  member  of  the  cabinet,  and  has  a  parliament- 
ary undersecretary  and  a  council  of  ten  to  fifteen 
membei's.  The  executive  government  in  India  is 
administered  by  the  Viceroy  and  Governor-general 
in  Council,  acting  under  the  control  of  the 
Secretarj-  of  State  for  India.  The  Viceroy  and 
Governor-general,  appointed  by  tlie  crown,  is  assisted 
by  an  executive  council,  consisting  of  si.x  ordinary 
members  ( appointed  by  the  crown ),  each  of  whom 
has  charge  of  a  department  of  the  e.xecutive  ; 
together  with  one  extra-ordinary  member,  the 
commander-in-chief  of  the  annv.  This  council 
virtually  sits  as  a  cabinet.  Tlie  legislation  for 
the  empire  is  conducted  by  a  '  legislative  council,' 
composed  of  the  members  of  the  executive  above 
mentioned,  together  with  members  from  six  to 
twelve  in  number  apiioiiited  by  the  Viceroy  and 
Governor-general.  Such  is  the  mechanism  of  the 
government  of  India. 

In  the  several  subdi^'isions  of  the  Bengal  Presi- 
dency the  lieutenant-governors  and  the  chief-com- 
missionere  above  described,  in  their  executive 
capacities,  rule  individually.  But  two  of  them,  the 
lii-ii tenant-governors  of  Bengal  and  of  the  North- 
western Prf)vinces,  have  legislative  councils  for  pro- 
vincial legislation.  The  lieutenant-governors  and 
the  chief-commissioners  are  mainly  chosen  from  the 
civil  service  of  India.  The  members  of  the  legisla- 
tive councils  are  all  ai)pointed,  the  elective  prin- 
ciple not  having  been  as  yet  introduced.  Madras 
and  Bombay  are  under  governors  appointed  by  the 
crown.  Each  of  them  has  an  executive  council, 
sitting  a.s  a  cabinet,  also  appointed  by  the  crown, 
and  a  legislative  council.  With  the  governor- 
general,  the  governors,  the  lieutenant-governors, 
and  the  members  of  council,  the  tenure  of  office 
is  for  a  term  of  five  years.  There  are  proposals  for 
enlarging  the  several  legislative  councils. 

The  country  is  divided  into  territories  technically 
designated  'regulation'  and  'non-regulation.'     In 


style  ol  Govcnuuvut. 

Lieutenant-governor. 
Chief-commissioner. 
Governor  in  Council. 


Vre.-^  in  jM).  m. 

Pop.  18ftl. 

151.543 

71,346,987 

i07,r.03 

46,906,085 

nO,C67 

20,886,847 

86,601 

10,784,294 

49,004 

5,476,833 

171,430 

7,606,560 

141,189 

35,630,440 

125,144 

18,901,123 

.942,981 

217,637,169 

Total . . 

the  non-regulation  territory  originally  more  discre- 
tion was  allowed  to  the  officials  both  in  the  collec- 
tion of  revenue  and  in  the  administration  of  justice. 
But  of  late  the  distinction  practically  amounts 
to  little  more  than  form,  and  is  teclmical  chiefly. 
In  the  regulation  districts  the  judicial  .service  is 
distinct ;  in  some  of  the  non-regulation  it  is  not. 
The  lieutenant-governorship  of  the  Punjab  and 
the  several  chief-cotnmissionersliips  are  non-regula- 
tion ;  so  are  some  few  outlying  tracts  elsewhere. 
The  rest  of  the  country  is  regulation. 

T/ie  Units  of  Ac/ministration. — The  larger  units 
are  the  districts  ( generally  called  collectorships  in 
English  and  zilluhs  in  the  vernacular),  of  which 
there  are  in  all  the  provinces  above  mentioned 
about  254.  Each  district,  if  in  regulation  territoiy, 
is  under  a  collector-magistrate ;  if  in  non-rec^lation 
territory,  a  deputy-commissioner.  The  head  (jf 
the  district  has  most  multifarious  and  res])onsible 
duties:  he  is  fiscal-officer,  charged  with  collecting 
the  revenue,  as  well  as  magistrate,  and  besides 
superintends  police,  gaols,  education,  sanitation, 
and  roads.  In  parts  of  the  non-regulation  territory 
he  is  also  the  civil  judge,  but  not  in  regulation 
territory.  The  subordinate  officers  are  ileputy- 
collectors  and  assistant-magistrates.  The  district 
may  be  compared  to  an  English  county  or  a  French 
department,  and  \aries  in  size  from  an  area  con- 
taining 3,000,000  inhabitants  to  one  with  only 
50,000.  Within  the  district  the  lowest  unit  is  the 
village  or  parish  (inouzah),  according  to  the  village 
system  already  described.  There  are  about  570,000 
such  villages  or  parishes  in  the  British  territories. 
In  all  the  divisions  of  the  empire,  except  Madras, 
the  districts  are  formed  into  gioups,  several  to 
each  group,  under  a  commissioner.  Of  these  there 
are  more  than  fifty. 

The  State  Services. — The  administration  is  con- 
ducted by  members  of  the  Indian  civil  service 
( formerly  called  the  coven.anted ),  the  gieat  major- 
ity of  whom  are  European,  though  some  are 
natives.  The  service  is  recruited  from  the  suc- 
cessful candidates  at  competitive  examinations 
held  in  London  ;  but  some  natives  have  been 
allowed  to  enter  the  service  by  nomination,  and 
these  are  called  statutory.  To  this  serviii-  most  of 
the  higher  administrative  appointments  are  secured 
by  act  of  parliament.  'The  local  civil  service 
(formerly  called  uncovenanted ),  appointments  to 
which  are  mostly  made  by  the  authorities  in  India, 
is  composed  of  Europeans,  Eurasians  (the  oll'spring 
of  native  mothers  by  Eurojiean  fathers),  and 
natives.  Some  of  the  Europeans  are  appointe<l  in 
England,  especially  those  who  belong  to  scientific 
departments.  The  organisation  of  the  native 
branches  of  the  civil  service,  with  pay,  ])romotion, 
and  pension,  is  a  feature  in  British  rule,  and. 
together  with  the  state  education,  is  bcnolicially 
atl'ecting  the  national  character.  Thus,  while  the 
direction  is  in  Euro])ean  hands,  the  great  mass  of 
civil  officials  consists  of  natives. 

The  European  Commnniti/.  —  Existing  mainly  at 
Calcutta,  .Madras,  and  Bombay,  this  body  con- 
si.sts  of  the  merchants,  manufacturers,  barristei-s, 
lawyers,  and  other  professional  men.  This  non- 
official    body,    together    with    the    official    botly, 


112 


INDIA 


constitutes  a  force  of  indeijeudent  opinion,  which 
is  a  factor  in  tlie  jirogress  of  the  country.  It  is 
suiiportetl  liy  an  English  press.  The  newspajjcrs 
are  published  not  only  nt  the  presidency  cities,  hut 
also  at  all  the  provincial  capitals. 

y/ii-  Aniii/. — In  1S.')9  the  troo]is  of  the  Kast  India 
Company  became  the  Indian  military  forces  of  the 
British  crown.  The  estalilished  strength  stands  at 
218,729  otiicers  and  men.  Of  this  total  145,177 
belong  to  the  native  army,  and  73,052  are 
European  troops  of  the  regular  British  army.  In 
the  total  of  the  native  troops  a  limited  number 
ol  European  otticers  is  iMchuled.  The  forces  were 
divided  into  three  armies,  named  after  the  '  presi- 
dencies'of  Bombay,  Madras,  ami  Bengal.  But  in 
1895  these  commands  were  abolished,  and  the  control 
of  the  governors  of  Bombay  and  Madras  ceased ;  there 
are  now  four  ccnnmands  -Punjab,  Bengal,  Bombay, 
and  Madras— each  under  a  lieutenant-general,  who 
is  under  the  direct  command  of  the  commander- 
in-chief  in  India  and  under  the  control  of  the 
government.  Out  of  1(13  liatteries  of  artillery 
."S8  are  manned  by  European  gunners.  The  power  ; 
and  mobility  of  the  army  have  been  vastly  aug- 
menteil  by  the  lailway  system  hereafter  to  he  men- 
tioned, esjiecially  in  the  direction  of  the  fortihed 
military  posts  on  tlie  north-west  frontier.  The  old 
forts,  which  are  also  arsenals  ami  magazines,  are 
maintained  at  Madras,  Bombay,  .\llaliabad,  Delhi,  \ 
Agra,  Lahore,  and  elsewhere.  Fort  William  at 
Calcutta  Mas  scientilically  constructed  early  in  the 
century.  The  barracks  for  the  European  troops 
have  been  reconstructed  on  modern  principles,  and 
are  among  the  l)est  structures  of  their  kind  to  be 
found  in  any  country.  The  native  troops  are 
recruited  by  voluntary  enlistment,  with  gooil  pros- 
pects of  pay  and  pension,  from  all  nationalities 
and  from  all  castes,  Brahmans  or  others.  Though 
the  regiments  are  conmiandeil  by  European  otticers, 
there  are  native  commissioned  as  well  as  non  com- 
missioned officers.  Both  classes  are  usually  drawn  j 
from  the  ranks.  The  drill  and  discipline  are  Euro-  ' 
pean.  N'olunteering  is  largely  in  vogue  among  the 
European  communities  in  the  capital  cities,  on  the 
pruicipal  lines  of  railway,  and  elsewhere.  Several  ' 
battalions  have  been  formed,  which  constitute  an  i 
effective  addition  of  more  than  1S,0(XJ  men  to  the  | 
military  strength  of  the  country. 

Tltf  Maritime  Fnrre. — This  was  for  many  years 
furnished  by  the  Indian  luivy  under  the  East  India 
('ompanv.  This  wivs  abolished  after  a  long  and 
honouralde  career,  in  1863,  and  the  command  of 
Indian  waters  was  undertaken  by  the  royal  na\y. 
Fifteen  vessels  or  nmre  are  stationed  in  these 
waters,  with  liead(|uarters  at  Bombay,  under  an 
admiral  commander-in-chief:  the  Indian  treasury 
contributing  a  yearly  sum  towards  the  cost  of  this 
arrangement.  There  is  also  a  marine  department 
at  Calcutta,  and  at  Bombay  for  military  transport. 
Two  ironclads  for  harbour  defence  are  kept  in 
Bombay  harbour,  which  for  spaciousness  anil  ile- 
fensihility  ranks  in  the  lii'st  class  of  harbours  in  the 
world.  Madras  hius  merely  an  open  roadste.id. 
But  Calcutta  has  to  be  apiuoached  by  eighty  miles 
of  river-navigation,  which  can  be  conducted  only 
by  pilots  of  life-long  training;  and  it  is  therefore 
ahsidutely  defended  by  nature.  Kangoon,  near  the 
mouth  of  the  Irawadi,  has  a  similar  advantage, 
hut  in  a  lesser  degree.  Kurrachee,  near  the  mouth 
of  the  Indus,  though  good,  is  not  large  enough  for 
the  importance  of  its  situation.  To  these  should 
be  added  Aden,  which,  though  a  plutonic  proniou- 
lory  of  Arabia,  commaniling  the  entrance  to  the 
Red  Sea,  is  yet  a  i)art  of  the  Indian  system— a 
first-rate  fortilication  and  an  imperial  coaling 
station  (see  Coaling  Statiox.s). 

Two  gieat  steam-navigation  c(uupanies,  with 
headiiuarters    in    London,    but   plying    in  eastern 


waters,  form  an  addition  to  the  maritime  resources 
of  the  country  for  war  or  other  emergency.  Their 
ships,  though  oHicered  of  cimrse  by  Europeans,  are 
manned  chiclly  by  Mohammedans  from  the  coast 
districts  (La.scars),  who  are  excellent  sailors. 

IV.  Civil  AujwiNisruATioN. 

Luw  find  Justice. — The  fundamental  institutiiuis 
of  the  Indian  empire  have  been  established  by 
parliament  in  a  series  of  statutes.  The  regulations 
of  the  East  India  Comiiany  provideil  for  civil  pro- 
cedure, leaving  the  native  laws  to  be  observed  in 
social  allair.s,  and  British  justice  to  be  followed  in 
other  afi'airs.  The  supreme  courts  established  by 
the  crown  in  the  presidency  towns  of  Calcutta, 
Madras,  and  Bombay,  towards  the  end  of  the  IStli 
century,  administered  the  English  law.  In  1833 
the  English  government  set  up  a  commission 
to  frame  a  body  of  sub.stantive  law,  civil  and 
criminal,  for  the  British-Indian  territories.  This 
commis.sion  and  its  success(us  laboured  up  to  a 
reeent  time;  an<l  with  their  liel]>  a  penal  code,  a 
civil  procedure  code,  and  several  other  fundamental 
laws  have  been  pa.s.sed.  The  legislative  work, 
both  civil  and  criminal,  is  highly  scienlilic  as  well 
as  practical,  and  is  framed  .after  the  best  models  to- 
be  fouiul  ;iny where.  In  isr)3  a  legislative  council 
in  India  was  set  up.  In  addition  to  this  several 
local  legislatures  were  established  in  1861,  and 
these  may  hereafter  be  enlarged.  About  the  same 
time  the  supreme  courts  were  abolished,  and  in 
their  stead  High  Courts  were  established  to  control 
the  whole  administration  of  justice  inside  and  out- 
side the  presidency  towns,  tireat  care  hits  within 
the  last  generati(m  been  taken  with  the  organisa- 
tion of  the  native  judicial  service  under  the  super- 
vision of  the  Eurojiean  civil  service.  Courts  of 
various  grades  (over  2(MX)  altogether)  exist  in  all 
parts  of  the  districts  already  described,  so  a-s  to  be 
accessible  to  the  people.  In  such  a  society  as  that 
of  India  there  must  needs  be  defects  and  sliortcom- 
ings  in  the  judicial  system,  but  on  the  whole  it 
commands  popular  confidence,  as  is  proved  by  the 
extent  to  which  it  is  brought  into  use.  In  1880- 
89  the  number  of  civil  suits  in  the  whole  country 
has  risen  from  li  to  2  millions  annually,  and  the 
value  from  14  to  20  millions  of  tens  of  rupees.  Of 
these  about  two-thirds  are  for  small  sums  of  less 
than  £10.  In  the  criminal  depaitment  about  IJ 
million  of  crimes  and  otl'ences  are  re]iortcd  annually ; 
for  these  cases  about  b',  million  |)ersous  arc  brouglit 
to  trial,  of  whom  over  half  are  convicted.  The 
suppression  of  gang-robbery  and  other  crimes  of 
overt  violence  lornis  a  marked  feature  of  British 
administration — besides  the  extinction  of  the 
criminal  practices  menti(med  under  the  head  of 
Sijciii/  Ciistums.  8ee  the  Aiigla-litdian  Codes,  ed. 
by  Whitley  Stokes  (vol.  i.  1887). 

Puliec  (tiid  I'n'.tons. — The  regular  police  include 
a  force  of  160,000  officers  and  men  ;  the  cost  of 
15,000  is  defrayed  by  nninicipalities,  and  of  the 
remainder  by  the  state.  Further,  there  are  besides 
the  village  watchmen,  about  51)0,000,  corresponding 
to  the  number  of  \  illages.  The  constabulary  is  a 
native  force,  the  princip;il  officei-s  oidy  being  Euro- 
))eans.  It  is  subject  in  all  res]iects,  except  internal 
disci|)line,  to  the  magistracy,  and  in  eacli  province 
is  under  an  inspector-general  in  each  division  of  the 
empire.  There  is  one  regular  constable  to  7  sq.  m. 
ami  l.'iOO  ii\habit;ints — which  indicates  the  peace- 
ful habits  of  the  peo]de.  Creat  care  has  been  taken 
in  the  scientilic  construction  and  supervision  of  a 
prison  in  almost  every  ilistrict.  There  are  upwards 
of  230  i>risons,  with  about  82,000  prisoners,  inclu- 
sive of  12,000  traiisporte<l  to  a  convict  settlement 
at  the  Andaman  Island.s. 

Ed)ieatio7i.  —  'Vhe  existing  svst'Cm  may  be  dated 
from  1854,  though  vari(uis  efforts  had  Wen  made 


INDIA 


113 


loiij;  I>efi)ie  that  tUate.  ConipulsoiT  attendanee  lias 
not  yet  lieeii  enacted.  Still  the  attemlanoe  at  school 
is  considerable,  though  nothing  like  «hat  it  may 
yet  l)eooine.  Theie  are  three  principal  unixersities, 
at  Calcutta,  Madras,  ami  Bombay,  each  having 
many  atiiliated  colleges  ;  there  are  also  two  new 
univei-sities  in  theXorth-westeru  Provinces  and  the 
Punjab.  These  institutions  are  successful,  save  in 
one  respect — that  very  many  enter  them  who  do 
not  take  degrees ;  about  14.000  pass  the  entrance 
e.\aniination  annually,  of  whom  less  than  .3000 
take  degrees.  The  educational  institutions  are  of 
several  kinds,  public,  aided,  private  and  unaided  ; 
all  together  they  amount  to  134,000  in  number, 
with  3i  millions  of  scholars.  These  numbers, 
though  actually  large,  are  not  so  relatively  to  the 
population.  Of  these  students  not  more  than  one- 
twelfth  consists  of  girls.  The  income  comes  from 
various  sources,  government  grants,  and  provincial 
revenues,  local  rates  and  cesses,  municipal  funds, 
and  fees  paid  by  the  parents  ;  the  total  amounts  to 
4i  millions  of  tens  of  rupees  annually,  and  the 
e.\penditure  is,  of  coui-se,  commensurate.  The 
English  language,  with  all  the  western  literature, 
arts,  and  sciences,  is  taught  to  the  upper  students 
everywhere.  Much,  however,  remains  to  be  desired 
in  respect  to  iihysical  science,  and  technical  instruc- 
tion is  still  in  its  infancy  :  the  native  mind  seems 
as  yet  to  lean  towards  literature  rather  than  the 
e.xact  sciences,  towards  the  cultivation  of  the 
meniorj-  and  the  imagination  rather  than  of  the 
rea.soning  faculties.  But  intellectual  assiduity  is 
evinced  in  a  commendable  degree.  There  are 
numerous  missionary  colleges.  Schools  of  art  have 
been  organised  in  the  capital  cities ;  there  is 
an  imperial  museum  at  Calcutta,  and  museums 
in  all  the  chief  cities  and  towns.  The  native 
languages,  both  classical  and  vernacular,  are  also 
cultivated  sedulously.  A  vernacular  literature  of 
primers  and  elementary  works,  also  of  more 
advanced  works,  chietiy  translations,  is  springing 
up  under  the  auspices  of  the  British  authorities, 
vast  numbers  of  such  works  appearing  annually. 
In  the  whole  country  there  are  about  400  news- 
papers in  the  various  vernacular  lanjjua^es.  Their 
total  circulation  is  not  very  great,  tlie  largest  cir- 
culation of  any  journal  being  20,000  copies.  They 
enjov  virtually  a  complete  freedom. 

Post-office  ami  Te/ep-aphs.— There  are  22,000 
post-oHices  and  letter-boxes  in  the  Indian  empire, 
with  41,000  men  employed.  The  nuniber  of  letters, 
newspapers,  parcels,  and  packets  is  in  all  375 
millions  annually.  This  number  is  fast  increasing  ; 
though  large  actually,  it  is  not  very  considerable 
in  relation  to  the  population.  There  are  open 
.3'2,(KX)  miles  of  inland  telegraph  lines,  with  nearly 
3  millicms  of  messages  annually.  This  number  is 
exclusive  of  the  submarine  cables. 

Trade. — The  following  figures  are  taken  from  the 
Indian  returns,  which,  owing  to  differences  in 
valuation  and  exchange,  do  not  agree  exactly  with 
the  English  returns.  The  im|)orts  in  l,S!l4-9.5\y  sea 
were  valued  in  tens  of  rupees  at  70  millions  mer- 
chandise (including  government  stores),  9  millions 
trea-sure,  total  79 ;  the  exports  at  109  millions 
merchandise,  and  8  millions  treasure,  total  116. 
( In  1894-95  the  rapee  was  approximately  equal 
to  Is.  3d.)  Thus  the  grand  total  of  imports  and 
exports  stood  at  196  millions.  Uf  the  imports  more 
than  four-fifths,  and  of  the  exports  more  than  half, 
piv<s  by  the  Suez  Canal.  Again,  of  the  imports 
nearly  all  come  froni  the  United  Kingdom  :  but  of 
the  exports,  while  more  than  one-half  goes  to  the 
United  Kingdom,  a  considerable  portion  is  sent  to 
other  countries.  Of  the  imports  the  jirincipal 
item  consists  of  cotton  goods ;  the  next  most 
important  is  that  of  metals ;  other  important 
items  are  machineiT,  railway  plant  and  rolling- 
268 


stock,  manufactured  silk,  sugar,  and  woollen  manu- 
factures. Among  the  exports  there  is  no  jnc- 
|)onderating  article  like  cotton  goods  amcmg  the 
imi)orts ;  but  the  principal  items  of  export  are 
cotVee,  raw  cotton,  cottim  twist,  yarn,  manu- 
factures, dyes,  grains,  including  rice  and  wheat, 
hiiles  and  skins,  jute,  raw  and  manufactured,  seeds 
( oil  chietiy  ),  tea,  wool.  The  growing  exiiortation  of 
food-grains  in  vast  quantities  has  disturbed  or  dissi- 
pated any  notion  to  the  ertect  that  the  increasing 
population  might  be  in  want  of  suHicient  .sus- 
tenance. Of  shipping,  10,893  vessels,  with  a  ton- 
nage of  7,189,465  tons,  entered  and  cleared  the 
ports  ;  of  these  almost  the  whole  were  British,  a 
snuill  fraction  only  being  foreign.  All  this  is 
exclusive  of  coasting  trade,  valued  at  SO  millions 
annually,  with  smaller  craft  along  a  coast-line 
of  7000  miles  and  more,  with  300  harbours, 
mostly  small.  There  are  influential  chambers  of 
commerce  at  the  princi)ial  seaport  towns,  mixed 
bodies  of  Europeans  and  natives. 

Communications. — The  length  of  railw.ays  open 
for  traffic  may  be  stated  thus  (for  1895):  guaran- 
teed companies,  2590  miles  :  a.ssisted  companies, 
407:  state  lines,  14,145:  native  states,  838— total, 
nearly  19,000.  The  total  number  of  ])assengers  on 
all  these  lines  in  1894  was  upwards  of  146  millions  ; 
the  quantity  of  goods  conveyed  upw.-irds  of  \\2 
millions  of  tons.  The  gross  receipts  of  all  these 
lines  were  well  over  25  millions  (tens  of  rupees). 
The  net  earnings,  after  defrayal  of  working  ex- 
penses, were  13  millions. 

Koad-making  was  being  vigorously  prosecuted, 
but  became  somewhat  superseded  by  the  introduc- 
tion of  railways.  Several  magnificent  trunk-lines 
have  been  constructed.  Of  the  total  length  in 
the  whole  country  (60,000  miles)  aliout  one-third 
has  been  bridged  and  macadamised.  Similarly 
the  railways  compete  with  the  old  boat  traffic 
on  the  great  rivers.  This  traffic,  however,  still 
exists  to  a  wonderful  extent  in  eastern  Bengal, 
where  the  boats  of  varied  size  and  build  form  a 
conspicuous  feature  in  the  country. 

Manufactures. — These,  whether  in  metals  or  in 
fibres,  have  always  lieen  very  fine,  and  are  still 
maintained.  The  local  manufactures  of  cotton 
goods  are  very  extensive.  The  beautiful  fabrics  of 
all  sorts  are  mostly  kept  up.  The  foreign  trade, 
however,  has  during  the  I9th  century  checked  the 
development  of  indigenous  manufactures.  On  the 
other  liand  it  has  stinmlated  new  manufactures, 
especially  in  jute  and  cotton.  The  cotton-mills  at 
Bombay,  organised  on  the  British  m(idel,  with 
British  capital  and  direction,  but  witli  native 
laljour,  have  been  considerably  developed,  and 
threaten  to  enter  into  competition  for  the  Indian 
market.  A  factoiy  law,  on  the  English  i)rinciple, 
but  not  exactly  with  English  provisions,  was 
passed  in  1881. 

Irriffcdion  and  C'n«nZs.— This  subject  has  owing 
to  climatic  exigencies  attained  vast  dimensions. 
Native  dynasties  have  all  distinguished  themselves 
in  this  direction  :  drought  and  famine  have  always 
urged  every  government  to  action,  and  the  w  ork  has 
been  taken  up  by  the  British  government  with  its 
western  skill  and  capital.  The  Cianges  canal  with 
its  branches,  the  canal  systems  of  the  ileltas  of  the 
Mahanadi,  the  Godavari",  the  Kistna.  and  the  Ka- 
veri,  are  among  the  greatest  works  of  their  kind  in 
the  world.  Great  canals  are  drawn  from  the  five 
rivers  of  the  Punjab,  and  the  Indus  is  to  Sind  what 
the  Nile  is  to  Egypt.  These  irrigation  canals  arc 
but  little  used  for  navigation.  The  total  length 
of  these  and  their  branclies  is  calculated  at  14,000 
miles.  Besides  the  canals  there  are  in  many  dis- 
tricts artificial  lakes;  wells  also  for  irrigation  arc 
found  in  most  of  the  valleys  everywhere.  The 
irrigated  area  in  its  grand  total  is  reckoned  at  28 


114 


INDIA 


millions  of  acres,  of  wliioli  over  S  millions  are 
watered  from  canals.  The  capital  outlay  on  this 
enormous  system  cannot  be  estimated,  Imt  the 
British  ^'overnment  has  in  this  way  laid  out 
31  millions  of  tens  of  rupees,  besides  sums  spent 
yearly  out  of  current  revenue.  The  embankments 
alonj;  the  Lower  hulus  and  in  the  Gangetic  delta 
for  restraining  Hoods  are  very  extensive,  ha\"iiig  a 
total  length  of  about  1500  miles. 

Famine  Relief.— AW  this  bears  on  the  preven- 
tion of  famine  by  state  aid.  Owing  to  exten- 
sive failures  of  the  monsoon  rains  at  periodically 
recurring  intervals,  droughts  and  fanunes  have 
occurreil.  Though  the  natives  bore  up  against 
their  misfortune  with  admirable  fortitude,  and 
brought  out  reserves  of  food  such  as  few  nation- 
alities could  produce,  and  though  the  authorities 
put  forth  strenuous  efforts,  yet  the  loss  of  life  has 
been  sometimes  tremendous.  In  1874  the  principle 
was  followed  of  ile\oting  the  entire  resources  and 
])0wer  of  the  government  to  the  mitigation  of  dis- 
tress or  the  saving  of  life.  In  years  of  plenty  a 
sum  varying  from  1  to  li  million  sterling  is  set 
aside  out  of  current  income  to  meet  the  cost  of 
relieving  distress  in  time  of  famine.  During  the 
period  1S74-SO,  £16,000,000  was  thus  expended  ;  in 
1896-9S  alone,  over  £-1,000,000. 

Municipalities. — Municipal  corporations  (at  Cal- 
cutta and  Bombay  elected  by  the  rateiiayers) 
have  been  established  in  all  the  cities  and  large 
towns  of  the  empire,  their  total  number  being 
nearly  a  thousand.  The  population  under  their 
jurisdiction  amounts  to  14  millions  of  souls;  their 
annual  income  to  2J  millions  of  tens  of  rupees  ;  and 
their  debt  to  nearly  5  millions. — In  many  dis- 
tricts the  establishment  of  district  boards,  by 
popular  election,  for  purposes  resemliling  those  of 
county  government  in  England,  has  been  under- 
taken since  1880. 

Vital  Statistics  and    Sanitation. — This    subject 
has  for  many  years  past  received  systematic  atten- 
tion.    The  water-works  at  Calcutta,  Bombay,  and 
other  places  rank  high  among  works  of  tliis  char- 
acter in  any  country  of  the  world  ;  and  the  puritica- 
tion  of  the  drinking-water  in  many  centres  of  popu- 
lation has  beneKcially  atiected  the  public  health,  j 
The  instruction  of  the  natives  as  qualilied  medical  < 
men  and  as  medical  assistants  has  for  uumy  years  [ 
been  supported   by  the  government,     iledical  col-  I 
leges  at  the  cai)ital  cities,  and  medical  schools  at  ! 
other  places,    have   been    establislied    successfully. 
There  are  more  than  1500  dispensaries  for  gratuitous 
medical  relief,  which  receive  aliout  250,000  persons 
indoors  annually,  besides  relieving  10.\  millions  of 
outdoor  juitienls.     There   arc   more   than   twenty 
lunatic  asylums,  with  some  3.')00  inmates.     Several 
millions   iire   vaccinated    annually.      Sanitation    is 
everywhere  a  department  of  state  administration  ; 
and   every  province  of  the  empire  lias  a  sanitary 
commissioner.     Vital  statistics  have  been  collected 
and  compiled.     The  death-rate  for  the  empire  has 
of  late  years  ranged  from  24  to  '28'.'{5  per  thousand. 
Of  this  about  2  jier  cent,  is  attributed  to  cholera, 
IS  to  fever,  1  to  smallpo.x. 

Eiiiifiration. — Owing  to  the  excessive  density  of 
population  in  several  i)arts  of  the  eniiiire,  govern- 
ment has  for  many  years  past  encouraged  and 
facilitated  emigration  to  tlie  trojiical  and  sub- 
tropical colonies,  the  annual  emigration  of  coolies  in 
1890-95  varying  from  l.S, 000  to  20.000.  In  I8SO-89 
the  emigration  to  the  Mauritius  aniounteil  to  7.">.')8 
souls;  Natal,  80.57:  British  Cuiana,  .•{0.142;  British 
West  Indies,  39,:J04 ;  I'lji,  liS02 ;  French  West 
Indies, 8712;  Surinam  (  Dutch),  04.53— total,  107,008. 
There  is  also  a  considerable  migraticm  from  the 
plains  and  low  hills  of  the  central  regions  to  the 
rice-plains  of  Burma,  and  also  to  the  tea-plantations 
in  Assam  and  in  the  Kastein  Hinialava.s. 


Finance. — The  currency  is  in  siher  rnjiees,  which 
alone  are  legal  tender ;  the  subordinate  I'arts  of 
the  rupee  being  sixteen  annas,  and  those  of  the 
anna  being  twelve  pai  (pies)  in  copper.  The 
monetisation  of  silver  as  sole  legal  tender  to  an 
unlimited  amount  dates  from  1835.  There  is  also 
a  government  ])aper  currency,  legal  tender,  amount- 
ing to  about  16  millions  sterling  in  value.  The 
rupee  is  nominally  equal  in  value  to  two  shil- 
lings ;  and  in  former  days  ten  rupees  were  held 
equal  to  a  pound  sterling.  While  for  Indian 
purposes  the  finances  were  generally  exhibited 
in  rupees,  of  which  the  higher  numiiers  were  a 
lakh  or  100,000,  and  a  crore  or  100  lakhs,  yet 
for  English  purposes  they  were  always  exhibited 
in  sterling  money ;  thus,  a  lakh  was  reckoned  as 
equal  to  £10,CK)0,  and  a  crore  as  ei|ual  to  a  million 
pounds,  and  for  many  years  the  Indi;in  accounts 
were  exhibited  in  Englaud  in  sterling  by  the  pro- 
cess of  dividing  the  rupee  totals  by  ten.  In  the 
then  relative  values  of  gold  and  silver  this  |)lan 
answered  well,  for  generally  ten  rupees  were  really 
equivalent  to  one  pound  or  thereabouts.  But 
during  recent  yeai-s,  owing  to  the  depreciation  of 
the  rupee,  which  has  fallen  at  times  to  below  one 
shilling  and  livepence  in  the  exchange,  tliis  plan  is 
no  longer  possible.  So  now  the  Indian  accounts 
for  England  are  shown  in  tens  of  nijiees  (or  R.x.) 
whercliy  the  comparison  between  the  figures  of 
recent  and  of  former  years  is  niaintaineil.  The 
linauce,  then,  is  shown  thus  in  tens  of  rupees,  for 
gross  revenue  and  expenditure,  excluding  cajiital 
expenditure  on  public  works.  The  expenditure  is 
incurred  chiefly  in  India,  but  [lartly  also  in  England 
for  India. 

v„„.  Gross  Revenue.  Expenditure. 

'""'■  K.v.  K.x. 

1SS6-S7 77.S37,134  77,158,707 

18!>7-!!8 7S,750,744  SO,  783,376 

18S8-89 8l.U96.678  81,659,660 

1SS9-90  84.636,300  S2,s26,60O 

1893-04 90,565,214  9--',112,-.'I2 

There  are  alternations  of  surplus  and  deficit ;  and 
after  luittiui;  one  against  the  other,  ihere  had 
been  a  surplus  during  the  ilecade  1881-90.  The 
exipcnditure  has  been  greatly  increaseil  of  late 
yeai's  by  the  depreciation  of  the  lujiee.  The 
liayments  annually  to  England  amount  to  about 
10  millions  sterling — for  interest  on  debt,  pen- 
sionary allowances,  and  other  charges.  This 
sum  adjusted  in  gold  has  to  be  )>aid  by  the  Indian 
government,  which  has  no  money  save  silver  ;  and 
in  the  low  state  of  the  exchange  these  jiaynients 
become  excessive  and  embarrassing.  In  order  to 
discharge  an  obligation  of  Iti  millions  sterling  India 
has  to  remit  23  millions  of  tens  of  rupees  ;  thus  it 
is  estimated  that,  as  compared  with  lormer  vears, 
the  deineciation  of  siher  has  imposed  on  her  a 
burilen  of  some  7  millions  annually  (in  tens  of 
rupees).  The  main  heads  of  taxation  may  be  set 
down  in  tens  of  rupees,  thus :  land,  about  235J 
millions  ;  opium,  8A  ;  salt,  8.j  ;  stamps,  4  ;  excise, 
4| ;  customs.  H;  asses.sed  taxes,  \\;  provincial 
rates,  31.  The  grand  total  of  receipts  and  expendi- 
ture has  of  late  yeai's  been  swollen  by  the  inclu- 
sion of  the  receipts  and  charges  pertaining  to  the 
railways. 

Excltnling  the  opium,  which  is  really  paid  by  the 
Chinese  (see  the  paragra]ili  on  opium  revenue 
below),  the  taxation  above  summarised  amounts 
to  nearly  47  millions,  and  falls  at  the  rate  of  four 
shillings  ])er  head  per  annum,  which  is  light.  (If 
the  expenditure  above  set  forth,  there  are  23 
millions  for  the  army  services,  which  is  about 
equal  to  the  charges  for  the  civil  services  of  all 
.sorts,  exclu.sive  of  interest.  Besides  all  this,  there 
is  a  capital  account  of  outlay  from  borrowed  money 
on  productive  works,  r.-iilways,  and  canals  of  irri- 
gation.    From  3  to  5  millions  annually  are  thus 


INDIA 


115 


laiil  out  by  the  state,  besides  a  nearly  equal  sum 
by  guaranteed  or  assisted  railway  eoiiiiiauies. 

I'ltlilic  DM. — The  debt  tlius  incurred  Ntands  at 
!•;{  millions  for  railways  and  "JT  lor  canals  ;  in  all  120. 
Besides  this  there  are  nearly  1'20  millions  for  other 
;)Ur|)oses.  mainly  war.  The  sum  of  the  two  amounts 
to  about  240  millions.  Of  thissum  nearly  I'JOmillions 
(in  tens  111  ru|iees)  are  iu  India  and  the  rest  in  sterling 
are  in  Eiij;land.  There  are  also  oldiications  styled 
'unfunded  debt,'  consisting;  of  treasury  notes, 
savings-Viank  deposits,  and  other  items,  amountini; 
to  OJ  millions.  Furtlier,  there  were  more  than  90 
millions  of  eaiiital  outlay  by  railway  comjianies, 
on  which  the  interest  was  guaranteed  by  the 
Koveniment.  But  this  h;us  been  modified  by  the 
fact  of  j;overnment  havinj;  recently  imrchased  some 
of  these  jjuaranteed  lines.  The  interest  charges 
annimlly  may  be  shown  thus  ;  on  railways,  state, 
3;^  millions  tens  of  rupees  ;  guaranteed,  .3}  ;  irriga- 
tion canals,  1  ;  other  heads,  5A.  The  rates  of 
interest  have  been  reduced  iu  recent  times,  and 
now  range  from  3  to  4i  per  cent. 

Biihk.-i. — There  is  a  state  or  presidency  bank 
with  various  lirauches  at  Calcutta,  at  iladras, 
and  at  Bombay,  or  three  in  all.  The  system  of 
small  savings-banks  has  been  greatly  extended  by 
the  govermuent  ;  there  are  Glol  such  institutions, 
and  331,711  depositors,  with  a  balance  of  6,577,737 
tens  of  rupees.  The  native  bankers,  between 
■2lK3,00O  and  300,000  in  number,  form  a  numerous 
connnunit.v  that  ramihes  all  over  the  country,  with 
a  well-established  system  of  bills  of  exchange 
(  Huiuli ).  A  |ilan  of  life  insurance  by  government 
has  been  established  for  the  natives,  the  effect  of 
which  may  be  considerable  hereafter. 

Lunil -taxation  and  Land-si/slcni. — This  claims 
notice  on  social  and  economic  grounds  as  well  as 
fiscal.  The  tax  is  collected  in  money  instead  of  iu 
kind,  as  was  often  the  case  under  native  nile.  It 
consists  of  a  portion  taken  Ijy  the  state  from  the 
agricultmal  rent — and  nnieh  the  smaller  portion. 
Apart  from  this,  the  incidence  of  ta.x  on  the  value 
of  the  gross  produce  is  reckoned  to  range  from  4  to 
10  ]ier  cent,  in  the  several  provinces  of  the  empire. 
In  all  these  provinces,  exce)it  Bengal  and  Behar, 
for  the  assessment  of  the  lax  a  survey  of  every 
field,  besides  a  general  survey  of  every  village, 
has  been  made.  In  every  village  there  is  a  register 
showing  the  ownership,  occupancy,  rights,  and 
interests  in  every  field.  This  is  revised  yearly, 
and  called  the  Record  of  Bights.  This  cadastral 
survey  and  this  Domesday  Book  for  so  vast  a 
country,  executed  by  the  British  government, 
logfther  con-stitute  the  largest  operation  of  the 
kind  ever  undertaken  in  any  age  or  country. 
'J'hus  the  government  has  either  conferred  de 
num  on  the  people,  or  recognised  ius  belonging 
to  them  from  antiquity,  something  which  is  equiv- 
alent to  properly  in  land,  whether  such  jiroperty 
existcil  under  previous  native  rule  or  not,  which  is 
sometimes  ilonbtful.  This  iiroperty  is  attended  by 
transactions  of  sale,  mortgage,  trust,  loan,  secuiity. 
The  land-tax  is  the  first  charge  on  it ;  but  it  is 
rendered  valuable  by  the  moderation  in  the  assess- 
ment of  the  tax. 

As  regards  the  land  system,  there  are  several 
tenures,  varied  by  the  conditions  under  which  the 
tax  is  fixed.  Tlie  first  is  that  of  lee-simple  after 
redemption  of  the  tax,  under  which  government 
lan<ls  are  solil  to  European  planters  of  tea  or  coffee, 
and  others.  The  next  is  that  where  the  tax  has 
been  fixed  forever,  in  Bengal,  Behar,  Benares,  and 
part  of  .Mailra.s,  and  isstyleil  Zemindari.  The  tenure 
in  Orissa.l  )udh,  Sind,  and  the  Central  I'rovinces  is 
similar,  save  that  there  the  lax  is  fixed  for  twenty 
or  thirty  years.  Next  is  the  peasant  proprietary 
tenure  of  the  North-western  I'rovinces  and  the  I'liu- 
jab,  where  the  tax  is  fixed  for  thirty  years,  and  the 


proprietors  are  grou]ied  together  in  their  villages 
as  communities  or  coparcenaries  :  this  is  styled 
ilouzahwari.  Kesembling  this  in  all  respects 
except  one  is  the  liyotwari  tenure  of  Madras  ami 
Bombay — the  exception  being  this,  that  the  Kyot 
or  peasant-proprietor  is  assessed  individually  for 
each  field  he  hoMs.  Similar  to  this  is  the  tenure 
in  Assam  and  in  l!urma.  The  village  organisation 
is  almost  everywhere  preserved. 

Below  the  landowners,  great  and  small,  are  the 
cultivators.  They  are  divided  into  two  categories, 
the  occupancy  tenants  and  the  tenants  at  will. 
The  former  inherits  his  tenure,  but  as  a  rule 
cannot  sell  it  without  the  owner's  consent.  He  is 
protected  by  law  against  exaction  and  from  in- 
terference or  eviction,  so  hnig  ius  he  pays  the 
customary  or  stipulated  rent:  ami  generall>'  his 
rent  cannot  be  increased  against  his  will  without  a 
decision  of  a  court  of  law. 

Opium  Ecrcnuc. — This  is  for  the  most  part  levied 
on  the  exportation  of  the  drug  to  China ;  the  very 
small  portion  consumed  in  India  is  taxed  un<ler 
the  head  of  excise.  The  tax  on  the  exported  drug 
from  Calcutta  amounts  to  6j-  millions.  The  culti- 
vators of  the  poppy  are  in  British  territory  ;  they 
l)ring  their  produce  to  the  government  factory,  and 
thence  it  is  sent  to  the  seaport,  where  it  is  taken 
up  by  the  exporters.  These  arrangements  are  made 
to  secure  the  revenue  and  to  prevent  illicit  con- 
sumption. The  tax  on  cx|iortation  from  Bomb.ay 
amounts  to  '2^  millions.  Tlie  jiroduee  is  raised  in 
the  native  states  of  Malwa  and  Kajputana. 

The  Milt-tux  is  derived  from  salt  partly  obtained 
on  the  sea-coast  of  Madras  and  Bombay,  partly 
from  the  salt  lake  in  Kajjiutana,  partly  from  the 
rock-salt  in  the  Punjab,  and  partly  imported  fiom 
England.  It  is  the  only  tax  universally  paid  by 
the  poor,  and  falls  at  the  rate  of  sixpence  per  head 
per  annum  on  the  population. 

Excise. — The  farming  system  which  used  to 
prevail  in  the  excise  on  drugs  and  spirits,  for  the 
manufacture  of  which  the  materials  are  to  hand 
everywhere  iu  superabundance,  has  been  con- 
demned as  likely  to  lead  to  the  encouragement 
of  drinking  witli  a  populati(m  that  is  generally 
temjierate.  This  is  being  sujierseded  by  a  better 
.system,  known  as  that  of  central  distilleries. 

H'«f/cs  and  Prices. — As  general  facts,  both  wages 
and  prices  have  risen  under  British  rule.  The 
labourer  of  the  better  class  will  earn  four  annas 
(sixpence)  a  day,  the  humbler  not  more  than  two 
annas.  The  ]irice  of  fooil-grain  may  be  roughly 
taken  at  one  ]ienny  for  2  lb.  (seer),  which  su]i|plics 
a  fair  sustenance.  In  a  family  Ihe  women  and 
children  earn  some  wages.  Clothing  is  scanty 
and  cheap  ;  fuel  but  little  needed,  and  can  be  got 
without  payment.  Kent  for  cottages  is  but  little 
known.  The  masses  of  the  rural  population,  how- 
ever, are  not  labourers,  but  live  on  their  lands 
either  as  owners  or  occupants.  Incomes  from  land 
arc  not  assessed  to  income-tax,  whidi  at  a  rale 
of  2A  per  cent,  yields  l.\  million,  and  thus  repre- 
sents a  taxable  commercial  and  professional  income 
of  60  millions— greatly  less  than  that  of  England 
with  a  population  only  one-fifth  as  large.  Lastly, 
there  is  not,  and  never  has  been,  anything  like  a 
poor-law  ;  nor  is  there  an.y  ai>|)arent  m'cd  for  one. 

V.    TlIK   IIlSTOKY. 

Phases  of  Civilisaliati. — With  a  country  of  \\ 
million  of  s(|.  m.,  containing  a  population  of  270 
millions,  of  nniiiy  languages  and  nationalities,  with 
traces  reaching  backwards  more  than  three  thou- 
sand years,  an  historical  summary  would  become  an 
Indian  jungle  of  names  and  dates  uidess  it  wcie 
arranged  on  a  ]il;ui  and  guided  by  >ome  leading 
ideas.  \\  it  Inml  such  a  method  no  lesson  from  ihc 
facts  would  be  conveyed.     Now,  in  these  Uaj's  a 


116 


INDIA 


strange  ami  complex  civilisation  is  perceived  in 
the  Indian  empire,  and  the  student  should  in(juiie 
liy  what  steps  through  the  ages  this  has  been 
brought  about.  At  the  basis  of  this  imniense 
social  fabric  is  the  prehistoric  status  of  aboriginal 
races.  Of  these  races  many  an  indication  is  still 
perceptible,  and  of  them  some  are  still  surviving. 
This  status  was  largely  atl'ecteil  liy  inroads,  Dravi- 
dian  and  other,  from  central  Asia,  many  centuries 
before  the  Christian  era.  From  one  of  these  in- 
vasions, which  was  Aryan,  sprung  the  early 
Hindu  or  Vedic  system.  Whether  any  previous 
invasions  had  introduced  civilisation  or  not,  this 
Vedic  system  certainly  was  a  ci\ilised  one. 
This  became  overlaiil  with  corruptions,  ant,  was 
reformeil  l>y  tlie  liuddhistic  system  some  five 
or  si.v  centuries  B.C.  Then  came  the  Greek 
invasion  under  Alexander  the  Great  and  some  of 
his  successors,  which  afl'ected  only  the  north- 
western parts  of  the  country.  It  was  followed 
by  other  in\asions  from  central  Asia,  some  styled 
Bactrian,  others  Saka  or  Scythian,  wliich  extended 
much  farther  than  the  nortli-western  regions. 
Meanwhile  Buddhism  had  strengthened  and  ex- 
tended itself  till  it  obtained  tlie  sovereignty  over 
the  whole  country.  Thus  established  as  a  state 
religion,  it  lasted  for  some  centuries  after  the 
Christian  era.  Then  it  gave  way  to  the  old  Hindu 
system,  revived  under  an  elaborated  form  whidi 
should  be  styled  Brahmanism,  and  which  repre- 
sents the  modern  Hinduism.  Bralimanism  after 
its  re-establishment  in  the  6th  century  nourished 
till  the  lltb  century  .\.i).,  when  the  first  Moham- 
medan in\asion  took  place.  This  was  followed 
by  successive  invasions,  till  the  greater  part  of 
the  country  was  subdued  and  parcelled  out  into 
various  Mohammedan  kingdoms.  INIany  of  these 
kingdoms  were  subdued  liy  one  Mohammedan 
dynasty  known  as  the  Mogul.  Thus  the  Mogul 
empire  was  established,  eml>racing  most  parts  of 
the  country,  in  the  15th  century.  It  lasted  for 
less  than  two  centuries,  and  then  began  to  slnink. 
Its  fall  was  |)recipitated  by  the  rise  of  the  Mahrat- 
tas,  who  brought  aliout  a  revival  of  Hindu  power 
on  the  ruins  of  the  Mogul  donunion  in  the  17th 
century.  ;\Ieanwhile  European  inlluence  was  be- 
ginning to  be  felt — Portuguese,  Dutch,  French — 
all  round  tlie  coasts,  but  not  far  in  the  interior. 
This  gave  way  to  the  British  intiuence,  wliich  was 
established  in  the  middle  of  the  IStli  century,  and 
by  the  middle  of  the  19tli  had  spread  over  the 
length  and  breadth  of  the  land,  being  soon  after- 
waiils  formally  proclaimed  as  the  Indian  empire. 
Thus  in  the  India  of  to-day  ;iro  to  be  found  traces 
of  (a)  an  alioriginal  condition  with  some  Dravi- 
dian  civilisation,  {/>)  a  civilisation  early  Hindu 
or  Vedic,  (<•)  Buddiiist,  (</)  Greek,  («•)  Bactro- 
Scythian,  (/|  later  Buddhist,  (;/)  Brahmanic  or 
modern  Hindu,  (/<)  Mohammedan,  (/)  Mahratta, 
(;')  continental  European,  and  (/.)  British.  The 
following  summary  will  Inielly  indicate  the  course 
of  events  as  concerning  the  several  stages  in  the 
national  life  ami  tlie  development  of  tTie  mixed 
civilisation  which  is  seen  to-day. 

77((:  Ahiiri(iiiiitl. — This  is  prehistoric,  and  is  both 
without  written  record  ami  also  without  coins  or 
inscriptions  ;  but  there  are  philological  traces  and 
rude  monuments.  Uouglily,  it  may  be  said  that 
there  were  at  least  se\eral  aboriginal  races,  and 
that  incursions  of  tribes  from  without  took  jdace-- 
not,  like  .subsequent  invasions,  from  the  north- 
west, but  from  various  quarters  by  sea  and  land. 
Rude  stone  monuments  are  fouml,  and  sepul- 
chral remains  with  luimitive  imidements  have 
been  excavated  in  several  parts  of  the  country 
widely  distant  from  each  other.  These  are  of  the 
highest  antiiiuarian  interest.  They  hardly  indicate 
civilisation,  but  they  prove  at  least  a  social  organ- 


isation of  a  semi-barbaric  cliaracter.  The  pojiulation 
was  sparse  ;  the  face  of  the  country  was  a  primeval 
forest,  dotted  about  with  cultivation  and  habita- 
tions. The  stature  of  the  jieojile  was  small,  the 
skin  dark,  and  the  features  of  a  Tartar  cast,  with 
broad  cheek-bones,  low  forehead,  nose  small,  niimth 
somewhat  large.  Upon  this  people,  whatever  it 
may  have  been,  two  inroads  were  made,  one  by  a 
race  known  as  the  Kolarian,  now  icprcseiitcd  by  the 
Sontlials,  the  Bhils,  and  other  trilics  ;  the  other, 
from  the  north-west,  called  the  Dravidian.  The 
origin  of  the  Dravidians  is  still  doubtful.  They 
must  have  had  some  civilisation  which  spread 
over  the  whole  countiy,  and  wbiidi,  though  ab- 
sorbed by  some  subsequent  systems  in  the  north, 
is  still  traceable  in  the  soutii.  Their  race  in  its 
ruder  form  is  still  represented  by  hill-lribcs,  Gonds, 
Khonds,  and  others. 

I'lic  Early  Hindu  o;'  Vedic. — At  least  a  thousand 
years  B.C. — [irobably  much  more,  (lerhaps  tifteen 
hundred — an  Aryan  .ace  from  central  Asia  descended 
across  the  Western  Himalayas  into  northern  India 
through  the  north-west  corner,  and  gradu,allys]iread 
over  the  whole  country.  They  were,  ethnologically, 
of  the  Caucasian  or  IndoGermanic  type,  with 
fair  complexion,  straight  profile,  lofty  brow,  com- 
pressed mouth,  tall  stature.  But  their  complexion 
wa-s  darkened  by  sojourn  below  the  Himalayas  ; 
their  hardihood  was  softened,  while  their  intellect 
was  relined  by  the  hot  climate.  They  received  the 
name  Hindu  from  Hind,  th.at  (luarter  wliich  they 
first  overran.  Their  language,  the  Sanskrit,  is  one 
of  the  most  highly  elaborated  forms  of  human 
.sjjeech.  They  brought  with  them  the  Vedic  reli- 
gion. They  produced  the  sacreil  verse  of  the  Vedas 
and  the  legends  on  which  the  two  great  epics,  the 
Mahabharata  and  the  Itanuiyana,  were  founded  in 
a  subse<|nent  century.  Tliey  formed  the  rules  of 
social  ethics  afterwards  embodied  in  a  code  known 
as  that  of  Mann,  or  the  moral  laws  of  the  Manava 
priests.  They  came  originally  without  any  divi- 
sions of  caste,  but  afterwards  their  society  became 
broken  up  into  castes,  rigidly  separated  from  each 
other.  The  first  or  priestly  caste,  styled  Brahman, 
was  held  to  have  a  divine  sanction,  and  was  kept 
.separate  without  intermixture  from  geneiatioii  to 
generation.  The  two  secular  castes  were  tlio.se  of 
the  soldier  (Kshatri)  and  the  trader  (A'aisya), 
including  all  civil  pursuits.  These  three  originally 
consisted  of  tho.se  who  immigrated,  but  they  niu.st 
have  been  largely  recruited  by  those  whom  they 
found  in  the  country,  especially  the  I)ravidian>. 
Below  these  w.as  the  Siidra  or  low  caste,  consisting 
of  aborigines  and  miscellaneous  country-folk.  At 
the  bottom  of  the  social  scale  were  the  Pariahs, 
who  were  outside  the  jiale  of  caste.  The  dynastic 
and  territorial  arrangements  of  this  era  are  Imt 
slightly  known,  but  there  were  capital  cities  on 
the  Ganges  near  the  modern  Patna  and  on  the  site 
of  Allahabad. 

I'/ic  liiiddliist. — As  the  faith  and  civilisation 
above  sketched  became  corrupted  and  overlaid  by 
mythology,  a  reformer  arose,  afterwards  known  as 
Buddha,  a  man  of  a  noble  family,  in  the  region 
near  the  modern  province  of  Oudli.  Though  his 
memory  has  been  sioduded  by  fable  and  mysticism, 
he  was  a  real  jjcixiiiality.  He  lived  about  500 
B.C.  The  simplilied  and  purilied  faith  a.s  he  left 
it  to  his  disciples  had  s|iread  largely  but  not 
entirely  over  India  by  the  year  .'i.S7  B.C.,  when  the 
(Jieeks  arrived.  L'p  to  this  time  there  are  no 
iiioper  materials  for  composing  history.  The  Sans- 
krit language,  though  i>reserved  as  a  cla-ssic,  had 
cea.sed  to  be  a  sp(d<eii  language.  It  had  been 
succeeded  by  a  modified  form  known  as  the  Pali, 
which  was  tlie  chief  of  the  local  vernaculars  called 
Prakrit. 

By  this  time  Jainism  had  arisen.    It  is  considered' 


INDIA 


ii; 


liy  many  to  be  cojriiate  with  BuiWliisni  ;  at  all 
events  it  sprang  from  the  same  school  of  specu- 
lative thought.  It  maintained  a  separate  exist- 
ence on  similar  if  not  the  same  principles,  and 
spread  from  the  western  regions,  where  it  first 
flourished,  to  other  parts  of  the  country.  After 
Buddhism  hail  been  banished  from  the  land,  Jainism 
remained,  and  still  continues  an  ett'ective  faith. 

Thr  Grid:. — Ale.\ander  the  Great,  having  invaded 
India  from  the  north-west  corner,  penetrated  only 
as  far  as  the  Sutlej,  and  subdued  the  basin  of  the 
Indus  and  its  tributaries — i.e.  e.xactly  the  modern 
provinces  of  the  Punjab  and  Sind.  Beyond  this 
his  influence  was  not  felt  in  the  main  portion  of 
the  country.  One  of  his  successors,  Seleucus,  liow- 
e\er,  entered  into  relations  with  Chandra  tJupta, 
a  Hindu  king  of  the  eastern  region,  who  had  not 
yielded  to  Buddhism,  and  whose  name  was  turned 
into  Sandrocottus  by  the  Greeks.  For  this  epoch 
there  are  historic  materials  from  Greek  sources. 

The  Bnctro-Scythian. — The  Greek  invasion  was 
succeeded  by  several  invasions  of  tribes  from  cen- 
tral Asia.  The  Baetrians  were  orientalised  Greeks, 
planted  in  Balkb  or  Bactria  by  Alexander,  together 
with  central  Asiatic  Aryans ;  of  these  the  records 
are  scanty.  The  Sakas  or  Scythians  were  also 
Aryans  from  central  Asia.  In  the  absence  of 
records,  it  is  here  that  numismatics  begin  to  play 
an  important  part.  Coins  have  been  discovered 
indicating  lines  and  lives  of  kings,  and  dynasties 
which  would  otherwise  l)e  unknown.  Tliese  tribes 
penetrated  as  far  a-s  the  central  parts  of  the  country, 
and  held  their  position  for  some  centuries  after  tfie 
Christian  era. 

The  L'itcr  Buddhist. — Meanwhile  Buddhism 
had  produced  some  great  rulers.  In  the  direct 
line  from  the  Chandra  Gupta  already  mentioned, 
there  arose  As'oka,  himself  a  convert  to  Buddhism, 
and  the  greatest  sovereign  that  ever  pro]jagated 
that  faith.  He  established  something  apiu'oaching 
to  an  empire  about  230  B.C.,  his  original  king- 
dom being  in  the  lower  valley  of  the  CJanges. 
HLs  general  edicts  have  been  preserved.  He  held 
several  councils,  the  last  of  which  settled  the 
rule  of  faith  for  observance  during  subsequent 
centuries.  For  this  era  stone  inscriptions  come 
itito  use.  Then  followed  the  Bactrian  and  Scythian 
invasiims  already  mentioned  ;  but  the  invaders 
embraced  Buddhism.  Thus  in  a  certain  sense  the 
several  tribes  of  Aryan  invaders  became  amalga- 
mated, anil  for  some  centuries  after  Christ  Bu<l- 
ilhism  in  faith  and  in  civil  government  prevailed 
over  India.  Meanwhile  it  had  sjiread  to  neigh- 
bouring regions,  Ceylon,  Burma,  Tiljet,  China,  and 
even  Afghanistan.  From  the  visits  of  Chinese 
pilgiims  recorded  on  two  occasions,  separated  by 
considerable  intervals  of  time,  much  is  learned  of 
the  then  condition  of  the  country.  But  while  the 
faith  endured  in  those  regions,  it  yielded  to  the  old 
Hinduism,  which  should  now  be  called  Brahmanism. 
I'efore  it  fell  Budilhism  raiseil  many  architectuial 
moimments  in  various  provinces,  which  still  attest 
its  greatness  and  culture.  Simplicity  and  purity 
of  faith  were  its  original  characteristics,  and  were 
nrobably  maintained  throughout  its  Indian  career, 
liowever  much  it  may  have  become  overlaid  by 
<uper^>tition  elsewhere.  At  its  best  it  wa.s  j)robably 
better  than  any  of  the  native  systems  that  have 
.succeeded  it. 

The  Brahintinlc  or  Modern  llhuln. — The  subjuga- 
tion or  suppression  of  Buddhism  may  be  dated  from 
the  time  of  the  Bralimanist  king  Vikramaditya  or 
Vikramajit,  in  the  6th  century  .\.  t>.  He  overcame 
the  .Sakiis  or  Scythians,  who  it  is  to  be  remembered 
had  mostly  become  Buddhists,  expelling  some,  but 
amalgamating  most  of  them  in  his  own  system. 
He  reigned  at  I'jjain  in  the  X'imlhya  region.  He 
antedated,   so  to   speak,   his  era,   jdacing  it  back 


600  years,  or  56  years  B.C.,  and  this  is  the  Samvat 
or  modern  Hindu  era.  Thus  Brahmanism  finally 
.supei'seded    Buddhism.       Its    doctrines    were    ex- 

iiounded  by  the  reformer  Sankar  Acharya  in  the 
3eccan,  but  it  soon  became  crusted  over  with  tables 
and  inventions.  The  time  of  A'ikramailitya  has  in 
western  phrase  been  termed  the  lienaissance  of 
Hinduism.  Certainly  it  was  .so  as  regards  Sans- 
krit literature.  This  language,  long  dead  for  all 
mattei-s  save  religion,  wa-s  revived  for  the  drama  and 
for  descriptive  poetiy.  Kalidasa,  of  this  epoch,  is 
among  the  sweet  singers  of  the  olden  time.  There 
were  searchings  and  eflbrts  after  knowledge  in 
astronomy,  medicine,  and  other  sciences.  The 
caste  system  may  have  lo.st  its  religiims  eflicacy  for 
some  centuries,  but  it  retained  its  secular  vitality. 
The  Brahman  caste  had  held  its  own.  The  otlier 
castes  had  absorbed  most  of  the  innnigraiits  from 
central  Asia.  Then  for  full  four  centuries  the 
Brahmanic  system  was  re-established  all  over  the 
countn-.  It  was  upheld  by  Hindu  states  at 
Avantipur  in  Ca.shmere,  at  Ajodhya  in  ( )udh,  on  the 
coa.st  of  Orissa,  at  Kanouj  and  Benares  on  the 
Cianges,  at  Delhi  on  the  Junnia,  at  Sur;it  on  the 
west  coast,  at  Vijayanagar  in  the  southern  Deccari, 
and  elsewhere.  It  produced  many  s]dendid  fanes, 
the  ruins  of  which  delight  the  modern  observer. 
It  was  characterised  by  a  fantastic  mythology  and 
a  somewhat  sensuous  idolatry.  It  proiluced,  in 
addition  to  the  old  code  of  !Manu,  a  further  set  of 
regulations  under  the  name  of  Yajnavalkya. 
Minute  ceremonial  observance,  varying  for  e\erv 
class,  cramped  the  soul.  Thus  the  spirit  of 
the  people  was  enslaved,  their  sentiments  were 
cramped,  and  their  thoughts  awestruck.  Their 
mind  was  turned  to  superstitious  requirements 
rather  than  to  the  practical  (|uestions  of  public 
life.  Their  society  was  further  enfeebled  by 
the  subjection  of  women.  Maternal  and  conjugal 
influence  must  have  existed,  but  in  an  irrespcmsilile 
way.  Each  one  of  the  countless  sections  of  the 
community,  each  tribe  or  class,  each  cousinhood 
descending  from  a  common  ancestor,  within  its 
narrow  circle  became  tenacious  of  its  own  tradi- 
tions, guarding  them  against  all  the  world,  and 
caring  little  for  anything  extraneous.  Hence 
arose  the  system  of  village  comminiities,  winch 
was  consolidated  and  hardened  by  the  recurring 
troubles  of  the  time.  Each  community  was  a 
brotherhooil  within  its  village  only,  with  cohesion 
like  that  of  a  square  of  infantry.  This  institution 
saved  Hindu  society  duiing  the  convulsions  of  the 
llth  and  succeeding  centuries.  But  a  society  thus 
cim.stituted  was  manifestly  a  ready  prey  for  north- 
ern invaders.  During  the  later  jiart  of  this  era 
there  were  apparently  some  internal  revolutions 
among  the  Hindus  them.selves.  Then  in  1001  .A.l). 
came  the  Mohammedan  invasion.  I'p  to  this  date 
the  history  of  the  country  remains  to  be  written, 
in  the  English  language  at  Iea.st ;  the  nearest 
ajiproach  to  it  is  Lassen's  lodhchc  Altertumskunde 
(4  vols.   1844-01  ;  -.'d  ed.  ISOO  el  .very. ). 

The  MuliiiiiiiDrihin. — In  1001  Mahnnnl  of  Ghazni 
invaded  India  through  the  ]iasses  of  the  Suliman 
Mountains.  From  this  time  onwards  the  history  of 
India  can  be  fully  understood  from  abundant 
materials,  though  the  details  are  intricate.  Several 
Mohammedan  dynasties  in  succession  estaldished 
themselves  at  Iiclhi,  others  at  Mandu  in  the 
Vindhyas,  at  .VbnuMlabad  on  the  we^l  coast,  .-it 
five  ]>laces  in  the  Deccan,  of  which  the  two  most 
famous  are  tlolconda  ami  Bijajiur.  At  all  these 
points  architectural  renniins  bear  witness  to  culture 
and  jiinver.  Thus  almost  all  Iinlia  fell  umler 
Mohammedan  ilominion.  About  the  year  1'2(K)  the 
Mongol  (icnghis  Khan  devastated  the  north- 
western jiart   of  the  country.     Snci- ling  Mongol 

inviisions  were  repelled  by  the  Indian  .Mohainme- 


118 


INDIA 


dans,  but  in  ISilT  tlie  Tartar  Tiniuv  or  Tamerlane 
advanced  to  Delhi  and  jiroclainied  liiniself  enqHTor 
of  India.  This  title  lapsed  fur  a  while,  till  in  1.V25 
liis  descendant  Baher  revived  it,  and  became  the 
lirst  who  bore  the  fanions  title  of  the  Great  Moj;ul. 
His  ilescendants  siibdned  nuo  by  one  most  of  the 
Mohammedan  states  in  tlie  upper  half  of  India,  and 
became  em]ierors  in  reality  :  Imt  tlie  states  in  the 
southern  half  preserved  independence  more  or  less, 
liaber's  f;randson.  Akbar  the  Great,  made  this 
empire  effective  with  the  aid  of  a  Hindu  minister, 
Todur  Mul.  He  was  perhaps  the  t;reatest  sovereifjn 
that  India  has  ever  seen.  His  code  of  regulations, 
the  Ayini-Akberi,  is  still  studied.  His  reign  and 
the  reigns  of  his  three  successors  were  splendid,  and 
their  architectural  remains  evince  an  artistic  cul- 
ture hardly  surpassed  in  any  age  or  country.  Of 
these  three  the  last  was  Aurungzebe,  a  man  of 
masterful  ability-,  distigured  by  a  cruel  liigotry. 
In  his  time  the  empire  began  to  shake,  and  a  new 
Hindu  power  was  set  u]i — the  Maliratta.s.  After 
his  death  in  1707,  the  decline  and  f.all  of  the  Mogul 
empire  set  in  rapidly.  In  the  general  cataclysm 
which  followed  four  fresh  Mohammedan  king- 
doms rose  to  the  surface — viz.  that  of  the  Xawab 
AVazir  of  Oudh,  that  of  the  Nizam  of  Hyderabad 
in  the  Deccan,  that  of  tlie  Nawab  of  the  Oarnatic, 
that  of  Hyder  Ali  and  Tippoo  at  Seringapatam  in 
Mysore.  All  four  are  mnch  heard  of  in  the  18th 
century.  After  the  fall  of  the  empire  the  titular 
Great  JIo{;ul  remained  at  Delhi  till  18.57.  The 
Mohammedan  system  inculcated  simplicity  of 
faith  and  morals.  It  was  bitterly  opposed  to 
idolatry,  and  was  at  first  iconoclastic,  but  in  the 
end  it  extended  toleration  to  Iliiiduism.  It  fairly 
res])ected  the  handed  property  and  (iiidowments  of 
that  religion.  It  introduced  some  fresh  ideas,  and 
imp.avted  some  breadth  of  ideas  generally,  and  some 
improved  notions  of  statesmanship  and  orgaiii.«a- 
tion.  Otherwii^e  it  produced  but  little  ellect  upon 
Hindu  civilisation.  It  imposed  its  own  official 
language  and  its  own  criminal  law ;  but  it  main- 
tained civil  laws  and  customs  for  the  most  part. 
It  undertook  nojniblic  instruction  save  that  which 
was  Moslem.  It  planted  Jloslems  all  about  the 
country,  but  did  not  convert  the  indigenous  people 
in  large  numbers  anywhere  excejit  in  one  quarter. 
That  exception  was  eastern  Bengal,  where  the 
inhabitants  embraced  the  Moslem  faith  ;  but  how 
this  came  about  is  a  question  not  settled.  It 
has  been  conjectured  that  Buddhism  .survived 
here  without  civste,  and  tli.at  the  inhabitants 
were  not  unwilling  to  adopt  Moliammedanism, 
as  a  casteless  faith.  Be  this  as  it  may,  the 
eastern  Beng.al  pojiulalion  has  iiiultiplitd  till  it 
amounts  to  nearly  '2.5  millions,  and  is  the  largest 
Mohammedan  peojile  now  existing  in  any  one 
country.  Finally,  the  .M(diaiiimeilan  power  endured 
so  long  a.s  it  was  recruited  from  trans-Himalayan 
regions  and  the  hardy  north  :  it  soon  lost  its 
strength  when  its  supporters  came  to  dwell  from 
generation  to  generation  in  the  hot  country  below 
the  mount.aiiis. 

Tlic  J\!ii/irii/ta.— The  rising  of  the  Mahrattas 
against  the  Mohammedan  domination  was  begun 
in  1G57  by  Sivaji  in  the  Western  tiliats.  Tlieir 
dominion  advanceil  as  that  of  the  threat  Mogul 
receded.  It  was  a  low-caste  Hindu  confederation, 
with  a  hereditary  Bralimin  chief  at  its  head,  umler 
the  title  of  IVsliwa,  at  I'oona  in  the  Deccan. 
Though  it  absorbed  the  Mogul  empire,  it  never 
overcame  the  four  fresh  Mohammedan  states  above 
mentioned  ;  but  it  wa«  the  jirincipal  power  exist- 
ing when  tlie  Europeans  aiipeared  in  force  on  the 
scene.  It  governed  its  n.ative  Deccan  territories 
tolerably  well  ;  and  to  the  north  of  them  it 
foiiniled  several  stales  which  still  endure  pros- 
perously      Still,   it  had   less  civilisation  than  any 


power  since  the  Vedic- Aryan  inva.sion,  and  it  tlirew 
many  parts  of  the  country  into  confusion.  Under 
its  shadow  some  fresh  evils  sprung  up,  such  as 
Thuggee  and  the  organised  bandit  system  known 
as  I'iudarry.  During  this  hapless  time  occurred 
irru])tions  under  the  Persian  Nadir  Shah  and  the 
Afghan  Ahmed  Shah  ;  but  these  invaders  came, 
slew,  sacked,  devastated — and  turned  back  again 
withmit  permanently  alVecting  the  country.  In  the 
overthrow  of  the  Mogul  power  that  ensued,  there 
arose  a  fresh  system  in  the  Punjab — viz.  the  Sikh. 
A  prophet  arose  named  Baba  Nanak,  who  lueaehed 
a  reformation  of  Hinduism.  He  was  followed  by 
Govind  Singh,  who  established  the  .system  by  force 
of  arms  in  tlie  Punjab,  and  even  as  far  as  the 
Jumna.  Thence  arose  a  Sikh  dynasty,  which 
lasted  till  the  middle  of  the  Ullli  century.  This 
essentially  Hindu  power  cut  oil'  the  Imlian 
.Mohammedans  from  what  had  lieen  their  original 
base  in  Afghanistan,  and  left  them  isolated  amidst 
their  foes. 

27ic  Continental  European. — In  the  time  of  tlie 
Moguls  and  the  Mahrattas  several  European 
nationalities  appeared  in  India  .'is  travellers, 
traders,  missionaries.  The  Dutch  had  several 
.settlements,  of  which  the  memory  still  reniain.s. 
The  Portuguese,  after  the  discoveries  of  A'asco  da 
Gama,  controlled  virtually  the  whole  west  coast, 
excepting  Bombay,  then  a  small  ]dace.  Their 
headquarters  were  at  Goa,  on  the  coast  south  of 
Bomliay,  which  became  a  town  and  a  harbour  of 
the  lirst  i.ank  in  the  18th  century.  The  Portugue.se 
inlluence  allected  civilisation  in  the  western  region 
to  a  perceptible  degree.  In  the  IStli  century  the 
position  of  the  French  rivalled  that  of  the  English; 
the  wars  between  the  two  nations  were  carried  into 
the  East,  and  the  contest  was  waged  on  the  waters  as 
well  as  on  the  land  of  India.  The  name  of  the  great 
Frenchman  Dujdeix  is  respected  by  the  British  in 
India  as  of  the  worthiest  of  foemen.  Thus  the 
British  had  to  contend  simultaneously  with  French 
rivals  as  well  as  native  enemies  on  Indian  soil. 

The  Britislt. — This  begins  to  be  a  dominating 
inlluence  from  the  battle  of  Plassey  in  1757,  won  by 
Clive  over  the  Mogul,  which  gave  to  England  the 
dominion  of  Bengal  and  lieliar,  the  most  |ioiiulou.s 
lirovinces  in  the  wliide  country.  The  British  East 
India  Cmniianv  had  been  settled  in  India  since 
1G.5,S.  It  had  tliree  trading-.settlements  on  or  near 
the  coast  at  Calcutta,  Madras,  and  Bombay. 
The.se  grew  into  estaldishmcnts  for  lighting  and 
governing,  and  the  territorial  nucleus  thus  formed 
soon  exjianded.  The  aeipiisition  of  Bengal  with 
Beh.-ir  raised  the  comiiany's  territories  into  a 
dominion  of  magnitude.  Thus  the  company 
in  the  later  half  of  the  eighteenth  century 
appeared  as  one  of  the  powers.  It  really  rose  on 
the  ruins  of  the  Mahratta  dominion.  Within  sixty 
years  from  Plassey,  tli.at  is  by  1818,  when  Poona, 
under  the  last  of  the  Peshwas,  fell  to  the  British,  the 
E;tsl  India  t'ompany  wa,s  the  master  of  India  as 
far  as  the  Indus  basin,  but  not  in  the  Punjab 
nor  in  Siml.  Within  these  limits  it  had  acquired 
the  whole  basin  of  the  Ganges  and  the  co.ast 
districts  on  both  siiles  of  the  peninsula.  The 
Great  Mogul,  now  powerless,  was  under  its  care  at 
Delhi.  It  had  conquered  the  MohamiiKHlaii  stale 
in  Mysore  and  restoreil  a  Hindu  sovereign  there. 
The  two  Jlohamiiiedan  states  of  Oudh  and  Hydera- 
bad (Deccan)  were  it^s  dependent  allies,  tli<mgh 
with  all  honour.  It  w;ts  maintaining  many  native 
states,  Hindu  and  Mahratta,  in  the  same  position. 
Among  these  must  be  included  (after  severe  fight- 
ing) Ne)>al,  the  one  Himalayan  state  which  was 
capable  of  w.aging  war,  and  which  had  contended 
sturdily  with  British  forces.  The  Pindarries,  who 
raised  a  robber  i>rg,'i.ni>ation  almost  to  the  rank  of 
a  power,  h.ad  been  subdued.     The  British  dominion 


INDIA 


119 


h.id  liecii  toundeil  l\\"  Clive,  preserved  dniiii^  a 
world-wide  crisis  for  England  l>y  Warren  Ha.stiiifrs, 
extended  by  Comwallis,  and  still  further  advanced 
liy  Wellesley.  and  almost  perfected  by  the  Marquis 
oi  Hastinjrs.  l!y  1.S2S  there  was  a  Pax  liritannica 
tlirouLTliout  Inilia  after  centuries  of  internal  war 
and  revolution.  How  far  the  East  India  Company 
wa-s  the  aggressor  in  any  of  these  transactions  may 
l«e  a  controversial  question.  It  was  often  induced 
to  participate  in  the  contests  of  the  native  states 
among  themselves :  in  self-defence  it  had  to  fight 
the  combinations  formed  against  its  veiy  exist 
ence:  and  being  the  victor,  it  had  to  deal  with  the 
vanquished.  Thus  by  various  means  the  fabric 
of  its  dominion  rose.  It  had  raised  a  large  native 
army  and  some  European  forces  of  its  own,  but 
these  had  to  be  sustained  by  royal  troops  from 
England ;  consequently  on  each  renewal  of  its 
charter  the  company  passed  more  and  more  under 
the  control  of  the  British  government.  The  next 
imperial  step  was  in  182.5,  when  the  first  Bunnese 
war  occurred  under  Amherst :  it  ended  in  some 
acquisition  of  territoiy,  which  wa-s  the  beginning 
of  a  new  dominion  across  the  waters  of  the  Bay  of 
Bengal.  There  wa.s  then  a  development  of  peaceful 
civilisation  under  Lord  William  Bentinck  till  1835. 
But  in  1838  it  was  decided  to  set  up  a  native  sove- 
reign in  Afghanistan  under  British  protection,  as  a 
means  of  guarding  the  north-western  frontier.  This 
led  to  the  first  Atghan  war,  after  which  the  British 
evacuated  that  countiT.  This  was  the  tii-st  check 
in  a  victorious  career  of  eighty  years  since  Plassey. 
There  remained  the  basin  of  the  Indus  yet  uncon- 
quered — i.e.  Sind  and  the  Punjab:  the  former  was 
conquered  under  Ellenborough,  the  latter  under 
Hardinge  and  Dalhousie  after  severe  fighting  in 
two  wars,  in  which  the  Sikhs  were  the  aggressoi-s. 
Thus  the  Sikh  kingdom  so  ably  founded  by  Kanjit 
Singh  succumbed.  Then  at  length  it  wa-s  .said  that 
not  a  shot  could  be  fired  in  anger  throughout  India 
without  leave  of  the  British  government.  Under 
Dalhousie  also  a  second  war  broke  out  with  the 
Burmese ;  the  result  extended  British  dominion 
over  the  delta  of  the  Irawadi.  At  this  time  all 
the  works  of  peace,  moral  and  material,  were  pro- 
secute<l.  Shortly  after  Dalhousie  had  handeil  over 
his  charge  to  Canning  the  mutiny  in  the  Bengal 
native  army  broke  out  in  1857. 

A  crisis  arose  of  which  the  dimensions  can 
readily  be  gauged  by  the  reader  who  has  followed 
the  various  facts  already  set  forth  in  this  article. 
After  the  occuiTence  of  some  isolated  mutinies  in 
the  Bengal  native  soldieiy,  generally  called  sepoys, 
during  the  early  part  of  1857,  the  native  portion  of 
the  garrison  at  ^Ieerut,  near  Delhi,  broke  out  on 
loth  May  ;  the  European  ganison  failed  to  prevent 
them,  and  the  mutineers  marched  straightway  to 
Delhi,  and  were  joined  liy  the  native  troops  tliere 
and  by  the  city  moli.  The  rebels  set  U])  as  emperor 
the  titul.ar  Great  Mognil,  who  dwelt  in  the  ance.stral 
palace  there  under  British  protection,  and 
claimed  the  restoration  of  the  Slogul  empire. 
event  was  r.apidly  followed  by  the  revolt  of  almost 
the  whole  native  army  of  the  Bengal  I^residency. 
Their  comrades  of  the  Bombay  Presidency  were 
but  slightly  art'ected,  and  those  of  Madra-s  hardly 
at  all.  At  that  time  the  native  forces  numbered 
more  than  247,0(J(J  men  of  all  arms ;  of  the.se 
about  50,000  belonged  to  Ma<lras,  30,000  to 
Bombay,  anil  the  remainder  to  Bengal ;  among  the 
latter,  Imwever,  were  many  troops  called  irregular. 
A  large  part  of  the  inegular  troops  remained 
staunch  ;  l)ut  of  the  Bengal  regular  troojis  only  seven 
battalions  continued  in  service.  From  80,000  to 
90,0(K)  soldiers,  horse  and  foot,  wore  in  revolt, 
iiaving  in  many  cases  murdered  their  otlicers,  and 
sometimes  the  European  families  also.  The  mutin- 
eers, too,  who  were  cantoned  over  many  stations  in 


pro- 
This 


broad  provinces,  held  forts,  arsenals,  treasuries. 
They  were  armed  with  British  weapons,  ha<l  been 
organised  with  British  discipline,  were  in  possession 
of  much  artillery,  of  a  great  number  of  cavalry 
hoi'ses  and  other  transport,  and  of  vast  sums  of 
treasure.  In  Hindustan,  in  Oudh.  and  in  parts  of 
Malwa,  throughout  the  summer  the  British  power 
was  insulated  at  certain  points,  such  as  the  camp 
before  Delhi,  the  cantonment  at  Meerut,  the 
fortresses  at  Agra  and  Allahabad,  the  weak  fortifi- 
cations at  Lucknow.  Elsewhere  the  European 
m.agislracy  with  their  f.amilies  had  been  cither 
killed  or  hunted  away,  and  the  court-houses  with 
their  reconls  burnt.  The  dis!u«ter  e.xtended  over  at 
least  an  area  of  100,000  sq.  m.,  with  a  jiopulation 
of  40  millions.  It  occurred,  too,  at  the  worst 
season  of  the  year.  If  not  speedily  stamped  out 
the  fire  must  spread  oyer  the  whole  country.  The 
year  was  a  centenaiy  of  historic  events.  It  was 
just  one  hundred  years  since  Clive  founded  British 
dominion  at  Plassey,  and  two  hundred  since  Sivaji 
the  Mahratta  stnick  a  deadly  blow  at  the  Moslem 
power.  Many  an  enemy  thought  that  the  knell  of 
the  empire  had  sounded.  And  certainly,  tinless 
the  resources  of  the  British  Isles  could  be  bronght 
to  bear  upon  the  scene  of  revolt  within  a  few 
months,  the  British  authority  would  be  narrowed 
to  its  three  oiiginal  seats — namely,  the  presidency 
towns  resting  on  the  sea-board. 

At  that  time  there  were  40,000  Euroi>ean  troops 
in  the  country.  Several  thousand  men  on  their 
way  from  England  to  China  at  Lord  Elgin's  dis- 
posal were,  with  his  co-operation,  diverted  to  India. 
Some  40,000  European  soldiers  were  desjiatched 
from  England  round  the  Cape  of  Cood  Hojie  by  a 
sea-voyage  of  12.000  miles.  Meanwhile  the  dis- 
asters at  Cawnpore  and  elsewhere  in  Hindustan 
had  been  partially  retrieved  by  Henry  Havelock. 
At  the  outset  a  force,  largely  consisting  of 
Europeans,  marched  against  Delhi.  After  a  severe 
siege  of  four  months,  the  place  was  recaptured  by 
a.s.sault.  The  communications  had  Ijeen  main- 
tained continuously  with  the  Punjab,  under  John 
Lawrence,  as  a  base  whence  reinforcements  were 
dcriied.  Native  troops  were  raised  from  the  loyal 
Punjab  in  place  of  the  mutineers  of  Hindustan. 
Lucknow,  for  a  long  while  after  the  death  of  Henry 
Lawrence  besieged  l>y  rebels,  was  first  relieved  and 
afterwards  recaptured  liy  a  European  force  under 
Colin  Campliell.  The  districts  were  speedily 
reoccu])ied  by  British  authority.  Though  many 
infiuential  individuals,  some  chiefs  and  princes, 
and  some  classes,  including  the  worst  part  of  the 
mob,  had  joined  the  rebellion,  or  latlier  the  military 
revolt,  still  the  ma-ss  of  the  people  in  these  districts 
had  remained  passive,  and  readily  returned  to  their 
allegiance.  The  principal  native  princes  and  their 
states  hail  set  an  inqioilant  example  of  loyalty. 
Within  six  months  ot  the  outbreak  llie  imiierial 
danger  w;us  .surmounted,  though  trouliles  lasted 
here  and  there,  and  the  embei-s  smouldered  for 
more  than  a  year,  especially  in  the  hilly  parts  of 
the  central  regions.  The  cost  of  suppressing  this 
rebellion  is  reckoned  at  40  milliims  sterling.  Unlike 
all  the  earlier  foreign  dynasties,  the  British  jiower 
had  never  been  naturalised  or  domesticated  in  the 
countiy,  but  w;is  then,  as  ever,  recruited  constantly 
from  the  Ihitisli  Isle.s.  Its  otlicers  serving  in  the 
countrj-  had  lieeu  born  and  educated  rn  Europe, 
and  possessed  as  a  reserve  against  danger  all  the 
imperial  qualities  of  their  race. 

Many  causes  were  assigned  for  the  Indian 
mutiny.  The  grea-sed  cartridges  served  out  to 
some  of  the  Bengal  troops  operated  as  an  immediate 
provocation.  The  BrahmiMs  were  too  nunurous  in 
the  ranks;  they  were  fanatical,  and  they  had  the 
brains  to  contrive  mischief  when  discontented. 
The  Kabul  disaster  had  broken  the  sjxdl  of  invinci- 


120 


INDIA 


INDIANA 


liilitv.  Ccrtaiu  cliiefs  near  the  scene  of  the  ont- 
lireak  were  lahourin^'  under  a  sense  of  wrong,  real 
or  sni)])Ose(l.  Some  native  states  liad  been  alarineil 
at  British  jiolicy  with  regard  to  the  ri^^ht  of 
ailo]ition.  The  annexation  of  Omlh,  Iiowever 
righteous  in  itself,  had  induced  many  Mohaniniedan 
cons|)irators  to  excite  mutiny,  and  to  turn  it  to 
)>olitical  account.  This  hronght  aliout  a  very 
unusual  coniliination  between  Mohammedans  and 
Hindus.  Still,  these  and  other  lesser  causes  would 
never  by  themselves  have  brought  about  such  a 
crisis  as  that  which  has  been  described.  The 
])rinie,  the  fundamental  cause  was  a  large  and 
.simple  fact,  namely  this.  The  native  forces  were 
much  too  large  relatively  to  the  European.  There 
was  only  one  European  soldier  to  six  native 
soldiers,  whereas  now  there  is  one  to  t\\o.  The 
sepoys  then  had  the  physical  force  in  their  hands, 
and  they  knew  it.  The  distribution,  too,  of  these 
excessive  numbers  aggravated  the  peril.  The 
sei)oys  were,  as  already  seen,  in  charge  of  the 
stations  containing  the  state  resources,  civil  as  well 
as  military.  It  was  the  sense  of  power  which  jcave 
them  tlie  mind  to  revolt.  Their  interests,  includ- 
ing employment,  pay,  pension,  and  the  like,  were 
indeeil  bound  up  with  the  British  rule.  The 
government  was  over-slow  to  believe  that  the  men 
would  revolt  to  tlie  destruction  of  their  own  pros- 
pects. But  their  conduct  proves  that  there  are 
moments  when  religious  fanaticism,  national  senti- 
ment, pride,  and  passion  will  ]irevail  over  self- 
interest.  The  occurrence  was  only  a  qviestion  of 
time,  and  many  will  wonder  why  it  did  not  happen 
before.  But  an  analysis  of  historic  circumstances 
would  show  that  ne\'er  before  had  a  complete 
opportiinity  ofi'ered.  ilutiny  of  particular  bodies 
01  troops  had  often  occun-ed  alreaily,  ami  had  been 
overcome.  Thus  the  British  authorities  came  to  be 
insulticicntly  alive  to  the  symptoms  which  por- 
tended the  events  of  1857.  But  after  the  storm  had 
burst  they  evinced  qualities  rarely  sHrjjassed  in  the 
annals  of  the  nation,  and  the  history  of  the  time  is 
aglow  with  genius,  valour,  and  capacity. 

Tlie  crisis  past,  no  time  was  lost  in  rectifying 
the  military  faults  which  had  rendered  the  revolt 
possible.  The  native  troops  were  reiluced  in 
number,  the  European  troops  were  augmented. 
The  physical  predominance  at  all  strategic  points 
was  placed  in  the  hands  of  Euro[)ean  soldiers, 
and  almost  the  whole  of  the  artillery  was  manned 
by  European  gunners. 

Peace  and  order  having  been  restored  to  the 
empire  in  1858,  various  changes,  constitutional  and 
other,  were  made.  The  East  India  Ctmipany,  the 
greatest  corporation  ever  kno«n  to  history,  ceased 
to  exist,  and  the  government  was  assumed  by  the 
British  crown.  The  army  was  reorganised  so  as  to 
guard  against  the  danger  from  which  the  country 
liad  just  been  saved.  As  compared  with  the 
relative  projiortions  of  former  times,  the  European 
force  w.is  doubled,  while  the  native  force  was 
reduced  bv  nM)re  than  one-third.  Thus,  as  already 
seen,  the  turojiean  and  the  natives  were  as  one  to 
two  ;  moreover,  the  Eurojiean  was  placed  in  charge 
of  the  strategic  and  dominant  jiosition,  so  that 
the  |)hysical  jiower  was  now  in  his  hamls.  The 
ilominion  was  consolidated  by  the  work  of 
peace  under  successive  viceroys,  Elgin,  Lawrence, 
JIayo,  Northbrook,  with  material  improvement 
and  moral  juogress.  In  1878,  under  Lytton,  a 
.second  Afghan  war  was  waged,  which  le<l  to  the 
strengthening  of  the  north-western  frontier.  The 
work  of  peace  was  continueil  under  Kipon  till  188-1, 
when,  under  Dutl'erin,  it  became  necessary  to  i>ro- 
ceed  against  the  king  of  Ava.  and  snbseciuently  to 
annex  L  p|ier  Burma.  This  measure,  following 
previous  annexations,  brought  the  whole  Burmese 
dominion    and    the    entire   region   of  the  Irawadi 


in  India  in  contact  with  China.  The  years  1896-98, 
under  Lord  Elgin,  saw  famine,  the  plague  in  Bombay, 
earthquakes  in  Assam,  and  a  troublesome  but  siic- 
ee.ssfnl  war  on  the  north-western  frontier.  British 
civilisation,  by  legislation,  by  peace  and  order,  by 
educati(m,  by  works  of  material  improvement,  by 
Western  ideas,  is  moulding  the  mind  of  nearly  ail 
the  nationalities  in  the  empire. 

Books  of  Il(fariicr. — There  is  not  space  here  for 
attempting  a  review  of  Anglo-Iiidi.-ui  literature,  which 
is  verj'  extensive.  Some  few  works  only  will  now  be 
mentioned,  which  are  of  a  comparatively  jiopulav 
character  and  are  readily  accessiljle.  For  history,  the 
best-known  works  are  those  by  ilill  ami  Thornton,  and 
the  shorter  one  by  Marslunan.  Regarding  special 
periods,  Mountstuart  Elphinstone,  for  the  Mogul  era ; 
Keene,  for  the  decline  and  fall  of  the  Mogul  empire  ; 
Grant-Duft',  for  the  Mahrattas ;  JIalleson,  for  the  French 
in  India  ;  Kaye,  for  the  first  Afghan  war ;  Kaye  and 
Malleson,  for  the  war  of  the  nuitinies  in  l.S57~5S  ;  Trotter 
and  Maine,  for  the  Victorian  era.  Much  light  is  derivaVjle 
from  the  biographies  of  Clive,  Warren  Hastings,  Metcalfe, 
Macaulay,  the  Lawrences  (Henry  and  John),  Mayo,  and 
Dalhousie.  There  are  also  recent  histories  of  India  from 
the  earliest  times  hv  Trotter  11890),  Talboys  Wheeler 
(1891),  and  H.  G.  Keene  (1.S93);  of  Ancient  India,  by 
Eomesh  C'hunder  (3  vols.  1889-01);  of  the  British 
Dominion  in  India  by  .Sir  A.  Lyall  (3d  ed.  1894) ;  of  the 
Portuguese  in  India,  by  Danvers  (1894);  a  series  of 
•Epochs  of  Indian  History,'  edited  by  J.  Adams;  and 
valuable  papers  on  the  Indian  Mutiny,  selected  by 
G.  W.  Forrest.  See  also  the  Iinpcfiaf  Gazetteer  of 
India  (2d  cd.  14  vols.  1SS5-87),  edited  by  Sir  \V. 
Hunter,  and  his  Indian  Empire  (3d  ed.  1893);  Modern 
India,  by  Campbell.  Modern  India  and  the  Indiana, 
by  Monier  Williams  (1889);  India  Past  and  Present, 
by  Sanmelson  (1889);  India  in  ISSO,  by  the  present 
writer;  (tar  Indian  Prolrctorate,  hy  C.  L.  Tupper 
(1S9:M;  The  Protected  Princes  of  India,  by  W.  Lee 
Warner  (1894) ;  The  Land  Rcrenue  of  India,  by  Baden- 
Powell  (1893);  and  The  Conversion  of  India,  by  Dr 
George  Smith  (1893);  also  Curzon's  Pnssia  in  Central 
Asia  (1803),  and  Dilke's  Proldrms  of  Greater  Britain. 
(1890).  To  these  should  be  added  the  reports  by  the 
government  on  the  moral  and  material  jirogress  of  tlie 
country,  and  the  volume  of  statistics  published  annually 
by  the  Indian  Office  in  London.  Tlie  Journal  of  the 
Roiial  Asiatic  Societi/  and  the  Calcutta  Rei-itw  supuly 
quite  a  mine  of  materials.  Some  light  is  thrown  on  tliis 
great  subject  by  Tod's  I!iij">il^<""'  Itajendralal  Mitra's 
Antiquities  of  Orissa,  Khys  Davids  on  I'.uddliisni,  Franiji 
on  the  Parsees,  Talboys  Wheeler's  Maii'ihhtirata  and 
RdmAiiana,  abstracted  in  English  ;  Max  Miiller's 
analysis  of  oriental  religions ;  the  tran Nations  of  the 
sacred  books  of  the  East ;  Barth's  lieliiiions  nf  Indiet 
(Eng.  trans.  1882);  Monier  Wilhams'  Indian  ^yis• 
dom,  and  his  Brahmanism,  Buddhism,  and  Hinduism 
(1889);  Lyall's  Asiatic  IStudies  C-'d  ed.  1S*84),  Edward 
Thomas'  Numismatic  Essays,  and  Fergusson's  Historij  of 
Indian  Architecture.  Indian  architecture  is  illustrated 
at  the  articles  on  Agk.\,  P.K.N.UiKs,  El,KPH.iNT.\,  Ellora, 
&c.  And  see  amongst  others  the  following  articles  in 
this  work  : 

Afgliniiistan.  Chve.  .Madras. 

Akbar.  D:iIlio\isie.  Malirattan. 

Aurmigzcbe.  luipleix.  Mithaiiiiiicd. 

Uengal.  Ea^t  Itniia  i^all^krit. 

Bombay.  Coiiii«iiiy.  Sikhs. 

Brahma.  Ganges.  Siva. 

Buddliisni.  Hastings.  Suez  Canal 

Calcutta.  Himalaya.  Suttee. 

Canning.  Indus.  Vcilas. 

Caste.  Jains.  Vishnu. 

Ceylon.  Juggernaut.  Wellesley. 

India.  Staii  of.    See  Indian  Orders. 
Illdiniia.  the  thirty-fnst  stale  of  the  .American 

I'nioii    in   area,   and   the  eighth  in   population,   is 

centrallv  situated  between  37^47'   Cn|.j iijiit  isoo  in  u.a. 

and   41'' .W  N.  lat.,  and   in  84'  49' 

— 88°  2'  W.   hmg.      It    is   bounded 

on  the  N.  by  Lake  Michigan  and 

on   the   E.   by   Ohio,  on  the  S.   liy 

which  it  is  separateil  by  the  Ohio  iiiver.  and  on  the 

W.   by  Illinois,  the  \V abash   Kiver  being  the  line 


l>y  J.  B.  Llpitlucott 
iipiuij'. 

Michigan  stale, 
Kentucky,  from 


INDIANA 


INDIANAPOLIS 


121 


of  ilivision  a  part  of  the  way.  Its  greatest  len{;tli 
north  ami  south  is  276  miles,  its  avera;,'e  hreailth 
14(t  miles,  anil  its  area  36,350  sq.  m.  The  coast- 
line on  Lake  Michigan  is  about  60  miles. 

The  surface  of  the  country  has  a  slight  slope 
towards  the  west  and  south-west,  the  highest  point, 
near  the  eastern  boundary,  being  l'2.i0  feet  above 
sea-level.  Drainage  is  in  four  main  ilireotinns  : 
tlirougli  the  St  Joseph  liiver  to  Lake  Michigan, 
the  Mauniee  Kiver  to  Lake  Erie,  the  Kankakee 
Kiver  to  the  Mississiiipi,  and  the  Waba-sh  and 
other  streams  to  the  uliio;  small  streams  intersect 
the  state  in  every  direction,  and  in  the  northern 
part  there  are  numerous  small  lakes.  The  northern 
naif  of  the  state  is  Generally  level,  e.xcept  for 
occasional  irregular  ridges  forming  '  divides '  be- 
tween streams.  Hills  increase  in  frequency  from 
the  centre  of  the  state  to  the  south  and  south-east, 
and  along  the  Ohio  '  knobs  '  200-500  feet  high  are 
almost  continuous,  with  deep  gorges  and  river- 
bottoms  between.  Much  of  tlie  north-western 
regions  is  inundated  with  water  the  greater  part  of 
every  year  ;  but  this  land  is  being  actively  reclaimed 
liy  a  system  of  drainage.  The  fertility  of  the  soil, 
whether  clay  or  sandy  loam,  is  greatly  increased 
l\v  a  vast  system  of  under-draining,  there  being 
in  1888  nearly  25,000,000  yards  of  drain-tiles  in 
use. 

The  minerals  include  coal,  bog  and  hematite  iron 
ores,  and  stratified  limestones  and  sandstones  in 
abundance,  ochre  lieds,  kaolin,  fireclays,  and  some 
gold.  The  actual  workable  coalfield  covers  an  area 
of  6000  sq.  m.  The  production  of  coal  of  all 
kinds  amounted  in  1870  to  437,870  tons,  in  1880  to 
1,449,496  tons,  and  in  1888  to  3, 140,979  tons,  mostly 
block  coal,  although  there  is  also  abundance  of 
bituminous  and  some  cannel  coal.  The  natural  gas 
field,  the  centre  of  which  is  in  Delaware  county,  40 
miles  NE.  of  Indianapolis,  has  been  developed  since 
1886,  and  §6,000,000  was  invested  in  1888  in  the 
business  of  supplying  it  for  fuel,  there  being  395 
wells  in  twenty-three  counties.  In  1897  there  were 
2O00  wells  in  twenty-eight  counties,  with  an  average 
How  for  each  of  2,000,000  cubic  feet  tlaily.  In  the 
g.-is  region,  and  in  the  districts  within  reach  of  its 
]iipes,  it  became  for  a  time  almost  the  exclusive 
fuel,  and  also  came  into  use  as  an  illuniinant.  But 
by-andby  the  supplies  of  gas  began  to  give  out  (see 
G.\.s-L1GHTIXG),  and  the  coal  supjdies  resumed 
their  old  importance.  In  1897  the  number  of  tons 
of  coal  raised  was  3,706,401,  while  65,000  casks 
of  petroleum  were  obtained.  Building-stone  and 
whetstones  are  jdenliful.  Devonian,  Silurian,  and 
Carboniferous  are  the  chief  geological  formations. 
The  climate  is  healthy,  but  very  variable:  the 
winter  is  severe  but  short  ;  and  summer  is  hot  in 
the  '  Hoosier  State,'  a-s  Indiana  is  nicknamed — 
nobody  knows  why,  though  many  stories  are  told. 

The  principal  industry  is  agricultuie,  the  chief 
crops  being  maize,  wheat,  oats,  rye,  barley,  buck- 
wheat, potatoes,  and  tobacco.  Some  250,000  gallons 
of  wine  are  made  yearly.  The  stale  is  surpa.-.sed 
only  by  Minnesota  and  Kansas  for  the  amount  of 
its  wheat  crops,  and  by  Iowa  for  maize.  Flax  and 
sorghum  are  raised,  a-s  are  also  enormous  quantities 
of  apples  and  peaches.  Dain'  produce  is  exported. 
Wool,  honey,  maple-sugar,  cider,  and  vinegar  are 
made,  ami  fruit  and  ve<jetablcs  are  ]ireserved. 
About  a  third  of  the  slate  is  still  under  wood. 

The  mamifacturesof  Indiana  jiresenl  great  variety, 
and  are  often  important.  Among  the  largest  m.anu- 
factories  of  their  class  in  the  world  are  the  wagon 
and  plough  factories  at  South  Bend,  the  manu- 
factories of  tlourmill  machinery  and  carriages  at 
Indianapolis,  the  plalegla-'s  works  at  New  Albany, 
and  the  encaustic  tile  works  at  Indianapolis. 
Indianai>oli»  has  alsf)  the  second  largest  pork- 
packing  establishment,  and  is  at  the  hea<l  of  the 


sofa-manufacture  ;  Indiana,  indeed,  turns  out  more 
furniture  than  any  other  state  of  the  Union,  largely 
made  from  the  valnalile  timbers  of  the  Waliash  anil 
its  tributaries.  In  KS86  there  were  11,885  manu- 
factories, with  a  capital  of  851,490,656.  The  value 
of  raw  material  used  during  the  year  was 
.?91, 872,291  ;  of  products,  §158, . 562,729  ;  wages  and 
other  expenses,  .S;j  1,2 11,1.52.  In  1890  there  were 
12,384  manufactories  with  124,-349  workers,  jiroduc- 
ing  in  the  year  a  valu<!  of  8227, 1 100,000.  Al  that 
date  (the  census  year)  the  manufactures  of  the 
state  had  increased  tenfold  in  thirty  years.  The 
trade  is  almost  wholly  internal,  though  Micliigan 
city  has  trade  with  Canada ;  navigable  river>  and 
canals  greatly  facilitate  commerce.  The  central 
position  of  Indiana  compels  all  main  through-lines 
from  the  east  ami  west  to  cross  the  state.  In 
1S80  tliere  were  4(120  miles  of  raihvav  in  o]iera- 
tion :  in  1895,  10,000.  Tlie  Wabash  and  Erie 
Canal,  the  largest  in  the  United  States  (476  ujiles), 
has  ,374  miles  in  Indiana  ;  and  anothei  canal  (75 
miles)  extends  from  Lawrenceburg  to  Hayestown. 
The  Ohio  is  navig.alde  throughout  its  length  Avithin 
the  state,  and  on  it  over  fifty  Indiana  steamboats 
ply  :  the  Wabash  is  navigable  to  Lafayette,  and 
its  branch,  the  White  Kiver,  for  about  60  miles. 

The  population  in  llSOO  numbered  4577  whiles 
and  163  coloured,  1.35  of  the  latter  being  slaves. 
In  1860  the  pojiulation  was  1,350,428  :  in  1880, 
1,978,.301;  and  in  1890  it  was  2.600,000.  The 
cities  with  over  30,000  of  a  jioinilation  in  1890 
were  Indianaijolis  (105,436).  Evimsville  (.50.756), 
Fort  Wayne  (35,392),  and  Terre  Haute  (.30,217). 
Great  attention  is  devoted  to  education.  In  1888 
the  children  of  school  age  numbered  756,989,  of 
whom  514,463  were  enrolled  in  the  common  schools. 
The  number  of  teachers  was  14,204,  of  school- 
houses  9882 ;  the  revenue  for  the  year  was 
.85,235,032.  There  are  a  state  univei-sity  at  Bloom- 
ington,  the  Purdue  University  and  state  institute 
of  technology  at  Lafayette,  and  the  state  normal 
school  at  Terre  Haute,  as  well  as  a  hundred  high 
schools  :  instruction  at  all  these  is  free.  Not  under 
state  control  are  14  universities  and  colleges,  and 
numerous  academies  and  special  schools.  In  most 
of  the  colleges,  as  in  the  common  schools,  the  sexes 
are  educated  together. 

The  state  is  divided  into  ninety-two  counties. 
The  governor  is  elected  for  four  years.  The  general 
assembly,  composed  of  fifty  senators  and  one 
hundred  rei)resentatives,  meets  every  two  years. 
Indiana  has  two  senators  and  thirteen  representa- 
tives in  congress.  The  judges  of  the  supreme 
court,  live  in  number,  are  elected  for  six  years. 

Historij.  —  Indiana  was  discovered  by  La  Salle  in 
1671,  and  constituted  part  of  New  France.  In 
1763  France  ceded  the  country  to  Great  Britain  :  by 
the  treaty  of  1783  it  became  a  part  of  the  I'nited 
States,  under  the  general  term  of  the  north-west 
territory,  which  later  wa.s  divided  into  the  terri- 
tories of  Ohio,  Indiana,  Micliigan,  Wisconsin,  and 
Illinois.  In  1816  Indiana  was  admitted  to  tlie 
Union,  and  the  state  government  was  finally 
settled  at  Indianapolis  in  182.5.  By  the  ordinance 
of  1787  slavery  was  prohibited  in  the  territory. 
The  Indian  troubles  resulting  from  the  influx  of 
settlers  culminated  in  the  battle  of  Tipjiecanoe  (see 
H.\RI!lso.N,  W.  II.)  in  1811.  Indiana  sujqilied  five 
regiments  for  the  war  with  Mexico,  and  during  the 
civil  war  furnishe<l  for  the  government  service 
208,.367  men,  of  whom  24,416  were  killed  or  died 
of  disease. 

Illdiillinit'olis.  the  cai>ital  and  largest  city  of 
Indiana,  i-^  on  the  west  fork  of  White  Kiver,  on  a 
level  plain,  near  the  centre  of  the  state,  195  miles 
S.SE.  of  Chicago  by  rail.  It  is  a  regularly-built  an<l 
beautiful  city.  Its  streets,  many  of  them  100  feet 
wide,  for  the  most  part  cross  at  right  angles  ;  but 


122 


INDIAN    ARMY 


INDIAN    ORDERS 


four  main  avenues,  radiating  from  a  central  park, 
cross  tlie  others  dia^ionally.  The  jirinoipal  build- 
ings include  a  handsome  ne\v  state-house  ( comideteil 
1888),  a  line  county  courtdiouse,  a  city  liall,  a  prison 
for  women,  a  large  state  asylum  for  the  insane,  and 
other  a-sylums  for  tlie  lilind  and  deaf  and  duiiili; 
and  the  city  possesses  an  imposing  monument  to 
tlie  soliliers  and  sailors  who  fell  in  the  civil  war. 
It  has  also  two  medical  colleges,  numerous  schools, 
and  nearly  a  hundred  churches.  Indianapolis  is  one 
of  the  cliief  railway  centres  of  the  United  States, 
fifteen  main  lines  converging  here.  The  trade  in 
agricultural  produce  is  very  considerable.  Pork- 
packing  is  the  leading  industry,  but  there  are  also 
large  Hour  and  cotton  and  woollen  mills,  numerous 
foundries,  and  manufactories  of  furniture,  carriages, 
tiles,  vSre.  (see  IxDl.\N.\).  The  site  of  Indianapolis, 
then  covered  witli  dense  forest,  was  selected  for  the 
future  capital  in  1820,  and  the  citv  was  founded  in 
18-21.  In  1860  the  pop.  was  18,113;  (1870)  48,244  : 
(1880)7.5,056;  (1890)  105,436. 

Iiidinii  Army.    See  E.\st  Ixdi.v  Arjiv. 

Indian  Corn.    See  Maize. 

Indian  Cress.    See  Na.sturtium. 

Indian  Fiij.    See  Baxvan,  Pkickly  Pe.vr. 

Indian  Fire,  a  bright  white  signal-light,  pro- 
duced by  burning  a  mi.\ture  of  7  parts  of  sulphur, 
2  of  Realgar  (q.v.),  and  24  of  nitre. 

Indian  Ink.    See  Ink. 

Indian  Ocean.  Tlie  Indian  Ocean  is  bounded 
on  the  W.  by  Africa,  on  the  N.  by  Asia,  on  the 
E.  by  Australia  and  the  Australasian  Islands. 
According  to  modern  geographers  it  is  limited  to 
the  S.  by  tlie  40th  parallel  of  south  latitude,  in 
which  region  it  opens  widely  into  the  Southern  and 
Antarctic  oceans.  It  gradually  narrows  towards 
the  north,  and  is  divided  by  the  Indian  peninsula 
into  the  Bay  of  Bengal  on  the  east  and  the 
Araliian  Sea  on  the  west,  the  latter  sending 
northward  two  arms,  the  Persian  (iulf  and  the 
Red  Sea.  AVitliin  these  limits  the  Indian  ticean 
is  estimated  to  have  an  area  of  17,320,500  scj.  m. 

At  the  dawn  of  history  the  Indian  Ocean  was 
known  as  the  Erythraean  Sea ;  the  Pluenicians  are 
said  to  have  been  familiar  with  this  southern 
ocean  at  a  very  early  date.  Neclio,  an  Egyptian 
monarch  who  flourished  about  610  B.C.,  is  reported 
by  Herodotus  to  have  sent  some  of  his  vessels, 
manned  by  Phomicians,  into  the  Ervthnean  Sea 
with  orilers  to  return  liy  the  soutli  of  Africa  and 
the  Columns  of  Hercules.  Whether  or  not  this 
voyage  ever  took  place,  it  aiipears  certain,  from 
their  reports  as  to  the  position  of  the  sun  to  the 
north  of  them,  that  these  early  navigators  pene- 
trated far  soutli  (see  (Ieogum'HY,  Vol.  V.  p.  145). 
From  a  very  early  date  there  was  a  coasting 
trade  between  Imlia  ami  the  Persian  Gulf,  but 
the  voyage  of  Nearclius,  one  of  Alexander's 
generals,  from  the  Indus  to  the  Persian  Gulf, 
IS  the  earliest  reliable  record  of  these  coasts. 
Hippalus,  an  Egyptian  navigator  who  Hourished 
about  the  beginning  of  the  Christian  era,  was  the 
first  to  observe  the  regular  alternations  in  the 
directiiui  of  the  monsoons  of  tlie  Indian  Ocean,  and 
to  profit  by  tliem  to  open  up  a  direct  route  across 
the  high  seas  from  the  Red  Sea  to  Imlia.  The 
shore  routes  were  hencef<u-th  abandoned,  and  a 
fresh  impulse  was  given  to  \oyages  into  oriental 
waters.  In  the  9tli  century  the  Arabs  made  fre- 
quent voyages  across  the  Indian  Ocean,  Stdeiman 
of  Siraf  being  probably  the  first  to  cross  the  l>ay  of 
Bengal  and  jiass  into  the  China  Sea.  In  1486  tlie 
Portuguese  rounded  the  Cajie  of  (iood  Ho])e,  and 
in  1408  Vasco  da  t!aiua  reaehed  the  co.a.sts  of  Indi.i 
by  the  same  route.  In  1521  the  one  remaining  ship 
of  Magellan's  squadron  crossed  the  southern  Indian 


Ocean  in  completing  the  firet  circumnavigation  of 
the  world. 

The  mean  depth  of  the  Indi.'in  Ocean  is  estimated 
at  about  2.S(K»  fathoms,  or  slightly  greater  than  that 
of  the  Atlantic  (q.v.).  The  greatest  depths  are  in 
the  eastern  part  to  the  south  of  the  e(|uator,  where 
it  is  estimated  that  there  are  fnllv  50,(MM)  sq.  m. 
with  a  depth  of  over  3(K)0  fathoms.  '  Over  !  3,000.000 
sq.  ill.  of  this  ocean's  floor  lie  between  the  depths 
ot  2000  and  3000  fathoms. 

The  area  of  lan<l  draining  into  the  Indian  Ocean 
is  estimated  at  6,813,600  sq.  m.,  and  the  annual 
rainfall  on  this  land  is  equal  to  4379  cubic  miles  of 
water.  The  rivers  flowing  from  the  Asiatic  con- 
tinent are  by  far  the  most  important,  and  they 
carry  an  immense  amount  of  detrital  matter  into 
the  Bay  of  Bengal  and  Arabian  Sea,  these  forming 
extensive  deposits  of  blue  mud.  Along  the  African 
coasts,  in  depths  from  100  to  1000  fathoms,  there 
are  great  depo.sits  of  glanconitic  sands  and  muds, 
and  on  these  as  well  as  other  coasts  there  are  coral 
muds  and  sands,  and  blue  and  green  muds  in  the 
shallower  depths.  In  the  deeper  parts  of  the 
ocean,  far  from  land,  there  are  vast  deiiosits  of 
red  clay,  Kadiolarian  ooze,  and  Globigerina  ooze. 
In  the  Southern  Ocean,  towards  the  Antarctic,  the 
lied  of  the  ocean  is  covered  with  a  Diatom  ooze. 

The  temjierature  of  the  surface  waters  of  the 
Indian  t)cean  varies  much  in  diti'cient  parts  of  the 
ocean,  and  at  the  same  jdace  at  ditl'erent  times  of 
the  year  or  states  of  the  wind.  In  tropical  regions 
the  temperature  usually  varies  from  70  to  SO'  F., 
and  the  yearly  range  is  only  7°  or  8'  F.  (")fl'  the 
Cape  of  Good  Hope  and  off  Ca]ie  (iuanlafui,  how- 
ever, the  annual  range  of  temperature  may  be  from 
20°  to  30°  F.  For  instance,  sudden  jind  great 
changes  of  temperature  are  often  noticed  off  Capi' 
Guardafui  when  the  wind  blows  oil'  shore,  for  in 
this  wav  cold  and  ileep  water  is  drawn  up  along 
the  African  coast  to  take  the  place  of  the  warm 
.surface  water  which  is  driven  eastward  by  the 
wind. 

The  temperature  of  the  water  at  the  bottom  of 
the  Indian  Ocean  is  ver,y  uniform  and  suliject  to 
little,  if  any,  annual  variation.  In  the  Bay  of 
Bengal  and  Arabian  Sea  temperatures  of  33°'7  F. 
and  34°'2  F.  have  been  lecordeil  at  the  bottom  ; 
these  are  not  more  than  the  fraction  of  a  degree 
higher  tlian  tliose  observed  by  the  C7iii//c>ir/cr  in 
50  of  S(mth  latitude.  It  is  certain,  therefore,  that 
this  deep  cold  water  is  slowly  drawn  into  the 
Indian  Ocean  from  the  .\ntarctic  to  supply  the 
])lace  of  the  warm  surface  currents  that  are  driven 
southward  by  the  winds.  The  currents  of  the 
Indian  Ocean  are  less  constant  than  in  the  other 
great  oceans,  anil  are  largely  controlled  by  the 
directiim  and  strength  of  the  monsoons  (see  Mox- 
soox.s).  Some  of  the  most  eliaracteristie  coral 
atolls  and  islands  are  to  be  found  towards  the 
central  part  of  the  Indian  Ocean,  such  ;us  the  great 
Maldive  croup,  the  Cliagos,  Diego  Garcia,  and  the 
Coccos  Islands.  Almost  all  the  tropical  shores  are 
skirted  by  flinging  and  liarrier  reefs.  Christmas 
Island  is  an  uiuaised  coral  formation.  St  Paul's, 
Mauritius,  Roitrigucz,  and  others  are  of  volcanic 
origin,  while  Madagascar,  Ceylon,  and  Socotra  are 
tyyiical  contiMcnlal  islands. 

Indian  Orders^  Three  British  orders  of 
knigbtlioiid  take  their  name  from  India.  (1)  The 
Im|)erial  Order  of  the  Crown  of  India,  instituteil 
1st  January  1878,  consists  of  the  (,)ueen,  certain 
of  her  daughters  and  dangbtei-sin-law,  of  numerous 
native  Indian  iirinces^es,  and  the  wives  and  other 
female  relatives  of  the  viceroy  of  India,  the 
governors  of  Madras  and  Bombay,  and  the  Prin- 
cipal Secretary  of  State  for  India.  (2)  The  Must 
Kxaltcd  Older  of  the  Star  of  India,  instituted 
in  1861.  and  enlarged  in   1866  and   1878,  coii-sists  of 


INDIAN    RED 


INDIA-RUBBER 


123 


tlie  snveieij;ii,  a  ^laiid -master  (the  vii'erov  for  tlie 
tiiiio  lieing),  and  tlirce  classes  of  iiiomliers — Kiiijilits 
Graml  Comniaiiders  (G. C.S.I. ),  of  whom  tlieremay 
be  .SO;  Knights  Coinmaiiders  (K.C.S.I.),  of  whom 
there  may  be  72:  ami  Com|)aiiions  (C.S.I.),  144 
in  number.  The  badge  of  the  order  is  a  light  blue 
ribbon  with  thin  white  stripes,  and  the  motto 
'Heaven's  Light  our  Guide.'  (3)  The  Most  Emi- 
nent Order  of  the  Indian  l-'nipire,  instituted  in  1S7S 
to  eomniemorate  the  proclamatiim  of  the  Queen  of 
England  as  Empress  of  India,  and  enlarged  in  1S8G 
and  1887,  consists  of  the  sovereign,  a  grand- 
master (the  viceroy  for  the  time  being),  ami  three 
classes  of  members — Knights  Grand  Commanders 
(G.C.I.E.),  Knights  Commanders  (K.C.I.E.),  and 
Companions  (C. I.E. ).  The  motto  of  the  order  is 
Imji'  rafn'cis  Aiisjtuiin  ('Under  tlie  favour  of  the 
Empress '). 

Indian  Red.  a  silicate  of  iron,  imported  from 
the  Persian  Gulf. 

Indians.  Red.    See  Americas  Indians. 

Indian  Shot  (Caima  indica),  a  plant  common 
in  almost  all  tropical  countries ;  a  herbaceous 
perennial,  with  a  creeping  root-stock  (rhiznmc), 
and  a  sinii>le  stem,  formed  by  the  cohering  bases 
of  the  large,  tough,  ovate-oblong  leaves.  It  belongs 
to  the  natural  order  Mar.antace.'p.  It  derives  tlie 
name  Indian  Shot  from  the  seed,  which  is  hard, 
round,  and  about  the  size  of  a  very  small  pea.  The 
seeil  yields  a  beautiful  red  colour.  The  root-stocks 
are  very  large,  spongj-,  and  jointed,  and  are  used 
in  Brazil  for  emollient  poultices  in  tumours  and 
abscesses.  The  root-stocks  of  some  of  the  other 
species  of  Canna  are  more  valuable,  yielding  the 
starch  called  Tous-les-mois. 

Indian  Territory  comprises  a  jiortion  of  the 
region  originally  set  apart  by  the  I'nited  States 
government  as  a  home  fiu'  Indian  corjxigLt  is93  in  r.s. 
tribes.  It  is  bounded  X.  by  Kan-  it  j.  e.  Lirrincott 
sas,  from  which  it  is  separated  by  Comi).-u.y 
the  parallel  .■}7°  X.,  E.  by  Missouri  and  Arkansas, 
S.  by  Texas,  from  which  it  is  sep.arated  by  the  Red 
River,  and  W.  by  Oklahoma  Territory.  The  line 
dividing  these  two  territories  is  exceedingly  irregu- 
lar, and  Oklahoma  lies  both  W.  and  X.  of  Indian 
Territory.  Beginning  at  the  X.  this  lioundaiy 
is  formed  bv  the  meridian  90°  W.,  the  parallel 
36"-  10'  X.,  .aiid  the  meridian  90  .37'  ?>0'  W.  to  the 
N.  Fork  of  the  Canadian  River.  S.  and  W.  of 
this  stream  the  line  is  continued  by  the  meridian 
96'  47'  W.  to  the  Canadian  River,  by  that  river 
to  the  meridian  98°  W. ,  and  thence  S.  to  the  Red 
River.  The  section  of  land  situated  S.  of  Kansas 
and  E.  of  Texas  and  the  Piildic  Land  Strip,  known 
as  the  Cherokee  Outlet,  is  also  described  as  a  part 
of  Indian  Territory,  although  it  is  under  the  juris- 
diction of  Oklahoma  (q.v.),  of  which  it  will  ulti- 
mately become  a  part.  The  area,  not  including 
the  Ciierokee  Outlet,  is  .31,000  sq.  m. 

The  surface  of  the  territory  consists  mainly  of 
rolling  prairie  land  rising  gradually  from  the  south- 
east toward  the  X.  and  W.  In  the  southeast  the 
surface  is  broken  by  low  ranges  of  the  ( Izark  Moun- 
tains which  cro.ss  the  Arkans.-us  border.  The  most 
important  groups  are  the  San  Bois  and  Shawnee. 
In  the  south-west  are  the  Arbiicklc  Mountains. 
The  mineral  resources  are  |)ractically  iindevelo]>ed, 
but  coal,  cop)ier,  iron,  marble,  and  building  stones 
are  known  to  exist  in  considerable  r|uantitic.s.  The 
territory  is  well  watered,  and  is  drained  by  the  Red 
anil  Arkansas  Rivers  ami  their  numerous  tributa- 
ries. The  river  bottoms  are  wide  and  fertile,  sub- 
ject to  overllow  in  the  spring,  and  usually  enclosed 
belween  bluds  which  ri.se  abruptly  to  the  inter- 
vening nplanils.  The  noitli-easlern  ]>art  is  well 
wooded,  and  a  belt  of  forest,  known  as  the  '  Cross- 
tinibers,'  e.xtends  from  the  Arkansas  River  to  the 


Brazos  in  Tex.as.  The  black  bear,  brown  bear, 
antelojie,  and  deer  are  almndant  ;  wild  turkeys, 
prairie-hens,  and  sage-hens  also  abound. 

Indian  Terrilory  when  first  established  inclmlcd 
all  the  hitherto  unorganised  portion  of  the  Louisiana 
Purch:ise,  and  was  designed  for  occujiancy  by  the 
tribes  then  e.ast  of  the  Mississippi.  During  the  years 
18.3.3  and  18.34  the  Creeks,  Choctaws.  Chick.asaws, 
and  Cherokees  were  removed  to  their  new  home. 
In  18.38  the  Scminoles  were  added,  and  the  rem- 
nants of  sever.al  other  tribes  fcdlowed  shortly  .after. 
Treaties  were  made  by  the  government,  covenant- 
ing to  maint.ain  the  title  of  the  country  to  the 
Indian  tribes.  The  origin.a!  grants  extended  nortli- 
w.ard  from  the  Red  River,  including  portions  of 
what  are  now  Kansas  and  Nebraska,  and  westw.ard 
to  the  IDOtli  meridian.  By  subsequent  treaties  with 
the  Indians,  the  United  Stales  .acquired  control  of 
the  country  X.  of  parallel  .37  .  A  strip  of  land 
between  the  par.allels  .30°  .30'  N.  and  37°  N.,  and 
between  the  nieridi.ans  100 'W.  .and  103°  W.,  later 
known  as  the  Public  Land  Strip,  was,  after  tlie  an- 
nexation of  Texas,  for  a  time  erroneously  reckoned 
as  .a  part  of  Indian  Territory. 

In  1800  the  United  .States  purchased  the  western 
portion  of  the  various  grants  to  be  allotted  to  other 
Indian  tribes  or  to  freedmen.  At  the  s.ame  time, 
the  Seminoles,  who  had  parted  with  their  entire 
domain,  purcli.ased  a  portion  of  the  land  ceded  by 
the  Creeks.  Tribes  whose  homes  were  west  of  the 
Missi^si])pi  have  at  various  limes  been  settled  on 
these  bauds.  By  consent  of  the  Indians,  part  of 
these  lands  were  in  1889  and  1890  thrown  open  to 
white  settlers,  and  the  organis.ation  of  Oklahoma 
reduced  Indian  Territory  to  its  ]iresent  limits. 

The  Cherokees,  Choctaws,  Creeks,  Chick.asaws, 
SeiniiKdes.  .and  some  of  the  smaller  tribes  at  or 
near  the  l^'uapaw  Agency  in  the  north-east  have 
ni.ade  considerable  progress  in  civilisation.  Schools 
and  churches  have  been  established.  There  are 
excellent  farms  and  cattle  ranges,  and  commerce 
has  gained  some  foothold.  The  ^lissouri,  Kansas, 
and  Texas  Railway  crosses  the  territory  from  X. 
to  S.  Before  the  civil  war  the  Indians  owned  negro 
slaves,  and  during  the  war  some  of  the  civilised 
tribes  sided  with  the  South,  and  for  a  time  were 
considered  to  h.ave  forfeited  tlieir  lands.  The  terri- 
tory comprises  three  divisions,  partly  under  iho 
jurisdiction  of  United  States  courts  .and  partly 
under  tribal  jurisdiction.  The  judici.al  centre  of 
the  first  district  is  at  the  Quapaw  Agency,  of  the 
second  .at  McAlister,  and  of  the  third  at  Ardmore. 

Population  .at  the  census  of  1890,  186,490,  of 
whom  177.082  .are  members  of  the  live  ci\ilised 
tribes  (with  descendants  of  former  negro  slaves), 
and  the  remainder  are  Indians  on  reservation.s. 
See  the  articles  AMERICAN  Indian.s,  Oklahoma, 

ClIEnoKF.E.S,  &c. 

India-rubber.  CAOUTnioic,  or  Gum  Ei.as- 

TIi',  a  subslance  which,  on  .account  of  its  peculi.ar 
projierties,  is  extensively  used  in  the  arts.  It  is 
toiind  in  the  milky  juices  of  ]ilants,  .and  most  abund- 
antly in  the  natural  orders  iloiaee.T?,  .Vrtocarpacco-, 
Eiiphorbiacc.-r,  A|iocyn.acea',  and  Asclepiadaccn'. 
It  exists  in  llie  milky  juice  of  plants  growing  in 
temperate  climates  ;  but  it  is  only  in  tropical  and 
subtropical  countries  that  it  occurs  so  abundantly 
.as  to  be  of  economical  importance.  The  iirincijial 
South  American  tree  is  the  Ilerca  hrrtsilioisls  or 
giiiaticnsis,  also  called  Siphom'a  c/ctstivn,  <nJnli(iji/ia 
etrislirn,  a  Eu])liorbiaceous  tree  ;  also  the  Mexican 
CusliUdfi  ehisiirrt,  which  is  Artocarpaccoiis.  In  the 
E.ast  the  Finis  cliislica  (of  the  order  Mor.ace.e), 
akin  to  the  Banyan  (q.v.),  is  a  tree  of  noble  jiro- 
portions.  the  appeai.ance  of  whose  glossy  leaves  is 
well  known  in  Europe  from  small  specimens  grown 
in  pots  as  ornamental  ]dants.  ^  arioiis  Apocy- 
n.aceous  trees  ( Williighbeia,  Laiidolpliia,  Uiceola, 


124 


INDIA-RUBBER 


&c.)  yieUl  comiueicial  (juaiitities  of  lublier  in 
Malaya,  Borneo,  ami  Central  Africa.  The  name 
Caoiiic/ioiK  is  from  a  Carib  or  Central  American 
won!  Cac/iiidiii. 

Some  of  the  properties  of  imlia-ruliber  mnst 
have  been  known  in  Araei'ica  at  a  \er_v  early 
perioil,  because  balls  made  by  the  Haytians  of  tlie 
(jiiiii  oftt  /irc,  bouncing  better  than  the  winil-balls  of 
Ca-stile,  are  mentionetlby  Herrera  in  his  account  of 
Columbus's  second  voyafxe.  In  a  book  published  in 
1615  Juan  de  Toniuemada  mentions  the  tree  which 
yields  it  in  Mexico,  describes  the  mode  of  collecting 
the  gum,  and  states  that  it  is  made  into  shoes  :  also 
that  the  Spaniards  use  it  for  waxing  their  canvas 
cloaks  to  make  tliem  resist  water.  More  exact 
information  was  furnished  by  M.  de  la  Condamine 
in  1735.  India-rubber  was  at  first  known  as 
Elastic  Gmii,  and  received  its  present  name  from  the 
discovery  (about  1770)  of  its  use  for  rubbing  out 
black-lead  pencil  marks,  for  which  purpose  it  began 
to  Vie  imported  into  Britain  in  small  quantities 
about  the  end  of  the  18th  century,  being  much 
valued  by  artists,  and  sold  at  3s.  the  cubic  half 
inch.  Even  before  this  time  its  employment  for  the 
manufacture  of  flexible  tubes  for  the  use  of  surgeons 
and  chemists  had  lieen  successfully  attemjited  ; 
but  it  was  not  till  1820  that  its  employment  began 
to  extend  beyond  the  rubbing  out  of  jiencil  marks. 
Its  apjdication  to  the  manufacture  of  waterproof 
cloth  lirst  gave  it  commercial  importance.  Aljout 
the  same  time  a  method  was  discovered  of  fabricat- 
ing articles  of  various  kinds  by  casting  india-rubber 
in  moulds.  Its  elasticity  and  flexibility,  its  insol- 
ubility in  water,  and  its  great  impenetrability  to 
gases  and  fluids  in  general  liave  now  been  found  to 
adapt  it  to  a  great  variety  of  uses ;  but  for  by  far 
the  greater  number  of  its  applications  it  is  now 
employed  in  the  vulcanised  state. 

The  inilia-rubljer  of  commerce  is  obtained  most 
largely  from  South  America,  but  considerable 
quantities  are  also  procured  from  British  India,  the 
Indian  Archipelago,  the  west  coast  of  Africa,  and 
the  Mauritius.  During  the  year  1888  the  imports 
of  this  material  into  Great  Britain  were  as  follows  : 

c»-t. 

From  Brazil 106,017 

„     West  Coast  of  Africa 43,443 

II     Africa,  other  parts 7,352 

II     United  States  and  Central  America 9,435 

.,     British  India 21,989 

.,     Portugal 11,276 

.,     Other  Countries 20,238 

Total 220,350 

In  1852  the  total  imimrts  were  only  15,269  cwt. ; 
in  1862,  59,703  cwt.;  in  1876,  157',509  cwt.;  in 
1883,  229,101  cwt.  ;  in  1887,  237,511  cwt.  ;  in  1888. 
218,171  cwt.;  and  in  1889,  236,275  cwt.  In  1883 
the  average  piice  per  cwt.  was  318s. ;  in  1885, 
220s.  :  in  1887,  228s.  ;  and  in  1894,  21Gs.  The 
value  of  imi)()rts  in  1883  was  £3,652,817,  and  in 
188S,  £-2,o55,341.  In  1894  the  import  was  302,451 
cwt.  (including  that  fiom  Xyassaland  and  Congo 
Free  State  )v.alued  at .£3,272, 104.  India  rubber  goods 
worth  over  £1,000,000  are  exported  from  Britain. 

India-rublier  is  sometimes  collected  by  cutting 
the  trees  down,  wliich  is  a  veiy  ruinous  process, 
and  resorted  to  mainly  that  a  greater  ipiantity  may 
be  obtained.  The  more  usual  method,  however, 
is  by  making  sim]>le  incisions  in  the  trunks.  In  a 
few  hours  the  juice  which  flows  out  tills  clay  basins 
]ilaced  to  receive  it.  It  is  solidilied  and  dried  by 
various  metlio<ls — sometimes  spreail  out  in  thin 
layers  and  di'ied  in  the  sun  or  the  snu>ke  of  fires, 
sometimes  (in  Central  America)  coagulated  by 
leaves  of  a  kind  of  vine.  .\  good  tree  will  yiehl 
four  ounces  of  juice  ilaily.  aii<l  twenty  gallons  in 
a  season  ;  a  gallon  producing  2  lb.  of  gooil  rubber. 
Adulteration  is  not  uncommon. 


Para  india-rubber  is  the  best,  and  conunands  the 
highest  price  in  the  market  (averaging  about  3s. 
peril).).  The  other  South  American  kinds  are  of 
fair  quality.  East  Indian  rubber,  though  natur- 
ally a  tine  quality,  is  often  injured  by  adulteration 
an<l  careless  collecting. 

Commercial  india-rubber  is  a  tough  fibrous  sub- 
stance, possessiu"  elastic  properties  in  the  highest 
degree.  Keduced  to  the  temperature  of  freezing 
water  (32°  F. )  it  hardens,  and  in  greater  jiart,  if 
not  entirely,  loses  its  elasticity,  but  does  not  be- 
come brittle.  ^Vhen  heated,  as  by  placing  in 
boiling  water,  it  softens  and  becomes  very  much 
mcue  elastic  than  at  ordinary  temperatures,  though 
it  does  not  in  any  degree  dissolve  m  the  water.  If 
suddenly  stretched  to  seven  or  eight  tinu's  its 
original  length  it  becomes  warm  ;  and  if  kept  in 
this  outstretched  form  for  several  weeks  it  apjiears 
to  lose  in  great  part  its  elastic  properties,  and  in 
this  condition  is  reailily  cut  into  those  thin  threads 
which  are  used  in  the  chistic  put  in  bonnets,  \-c., 
and  the  ela-sticity  of  which  is  readily  renewed 
by  the  application  of  gentle  heat.  Of  late  years, 
however,  elastic  thread  is  usually  prepared  with 
vulcanised  rubber.  Commercial  india-rubber  is 
insoluble  in  water  and  alcohol,  is  not  acted 
upon  by  alkalies  or  acids,  except  when  the  latter 
are  concentrated  and  heat  is  applied,  but  is 
soluble  in  ether,  chloroform,  liisulpnide  of  carbon, 
naphtha,  petroleum,  benzol,  and  the  essential  oils 
of  turpentine,  lavender,  and  sassafras.  Manv 
other  essential  and  lixed  oils,  when  heated  witli 
rubber,  cause  it  to  soften,  and  produce  thick  glu- 
tinotis  compounds,  especially  linseed-oil,  which,  in 
the  proportion  of  1|  lb.  of  the  oil  to  4  oz.  rubber 
in  tliin  strips  of  lilnis,  yields  a  solution  which, 
when  strained,  is  of  great  use  in  rendering  shoes, 
cloth,  itc.  waterproof.  When  heated  to  248'  F. 
rubber  fuses ;  and  at  600°  it  is  volatilised,  at  the 
same  time  undergoing  decomposition,  ami  yields  a 
liquid  called  Caoiitclioncin,  oossessing  great  sol- 
vent powers  over  imlia-rubber  and  other  sub- 
stances. 

To  purify  the  raw  material  it  is  boiled  for  some 
time  in  large  tanks,  wliich  softens  it  and  in  some 
measure  releases  the  solid  impurities  with  w  hich  it 
is  often  mixed.  It  is  then  ptit  through  ]iowerful 
machines  which  ma.sticate  and  reduce  it  to  shreds, 
and  while  undergoing  this  operation  a  stream  of 
water  is  constantly  running  over  it  and  thorouglily 
cleansing  it  from  all  inqiuiities.  It  is  then  rolled 
out  into  thin  sheets  and  hung  up  to  <lry  in  a  room 
heated  by  artilicial  means,  ami  thus  freed  from  all 
moisture.  Or,  after  clean.sing,  the  material  under- 
goes a  juocess  of  kneading  under  very  heavy 
ndlers,  which  causes  the  adhesion  of  the  varicms 
]iieces  of  rubber  to  each  other,  and  ultimately 
yields  a  mass  or  block  of  rubber  in  w  Inch  the  C(m- 
densation  is  so  ]ierfect  that  all  air-holes  and  other 
cells  and  interstices  disappear.  The  block  of 
rubber  is  then  cut  under  water  by  iiowerful  knives 
or  shears  into  sheets,  from  which  bands  or  thread 
may  be  obt.ained.  In  the  manufacture  of  sriuare 
threads  mere  cutting  is  had  recourse  to:  ami  the 
delicacy  of  the  ojieration  may  be  understood  when 
it  is  stated  that  one  ipouml  of  rubber  will  yield 
32,0(X»  yards  of  thre.-ul.  The  round  elastic  tliread 
is  ]ircpared  from  rubber  which  has  been  treated 
with  abcmt  double  its  weight  of  bisulphide  of 
carbon,  containing  alxnit  5  per  cent,  of  alcohol, 
which  yields  a  soft  material  resembling  in  con- 
sistence bread-dough  or  ]iutly ;  and  this  being 
s(|ueezed  through  a  series  of  small  liides,  |)roduces 
minute  round  threads,  which  are  first  received  (m 
an  endless  piece  of  velvet,  and  ultimately  on  an 
endle.ss  web  of  common  cloth  500  to  600  yanls  long, 
<luring  the  transit  of  the  threads  across  which  the 
solvent  or   bisulphide   of  carbon   evaporate.s,   and 


INDIA-RUBBER 


125 


leaves  tlie  iuilia-rubber.  When  it  is  wished  to 
weave  these  threads  into  cloth  they  are  wound 
upon  bobbins,  taking  care  to  stretch  the  rubber 
as  mucli  as  possible,  so  as  to  deprive  it  for  the 
time  being  of  its  elasticity ;  and,  after  it  has  been 
woven  into  the  cloth,  a  hot  iron  is  passed  over 
the  fabric,  and  immediately  the  rubber  resumes 
its  elasticity. 

The  nu'tliod  for  making  waterproof  clothing  or 
'  Mackintoshes,'  the  tii-st  application  of  rublier  on  a 
large  scale,  suggested  by  Professor  Synie  in  1818,  was 
patented  in  18'23  by  Charles  Macintosh  of  Glasgow. 
In  this  manufacture  the  caoutchouc  has  to  undergo 
many  and  varied  processes.  It  is  Hrst  reduced  to  a 
solution  with  naphtha  or  otiier  solvent,  and  it  is 
then  amalgamated  with  other  ingredients  accordin" 
to  the  nature  of  the  material  it  has  to  be  applied 
to.  It  is  then  spread  on  the  surface  of  tlie  cloth, 
a  process  formerly  done  by  hand,  but  now  by  means 
of  spreading  machines,  which  ap(dy  it  in  very  thin 
coats,  so  thin  that  with  pure  jiara  proofing  as  many 
as  twelve  coats  are  spread  to  make  the  cloth  air- 
proof,  but  so  thin  is  each  coat  that  the  twelve 
only  measure  one  ninety -sixth  part  of  an  inch  ; 
for  ordinary  waterproof  purposes,  however,  live  or 
six  are  generally  sntticient.  For  ilouble  textures 
the  cloths  are  then  pressed  together  between  heavy 
rollers.  These  cloths  are  all  vulcanised,  and  this 
can  be  iierformed  by  a  number  of  processes — by  the 
'  cold  '  piocess,  by  vaporising,  by  steam,  and  by  dry 
heat.  The  garments  are  then  cut  out  from  the 
cloth,  and  fastened  together  by  means  of  pure 
rubber  cement,  which  make  the  edges  adhere. 

The  variety  of  garments  now  made  up  are  almost 
endless,  and  every  year  the  demand  for  them  in 
fashionable  designs  and  cloths  is  increasing. 

Vulcanised  or  Solid  India-rubhcr. — Pure  india- 
rubber  is  now  used  only  to  a  limited  extent  in  the 
arts,  but  it  is  .applied  in  the  vulcanised  state  to  .a 
very  large  extent.  The  remarkable  change  whicli 
caoutchouc  undergoes  when  n;ixed  with  sulphur 
and  heated,  according  to  circumstances,  from  240' 
to  310^  F.,  was  discovered  by  Charles  Goodyear,  in 
America,  in  1831  11,  and  independently,  about  the 
same  time,  by  Mr  Tiiomas  Hancock,  in  England. 
In  the  process  of  vulcanising,  the  rulOier,  as  a 
preliminary  step,  is  either  torn  into  shreds  or 
crushed  into  thin  pieces  by  machinery,  and  after- 
wards washed.  There  are  two  principal  kinds  of 
vulcanised  rubljer,  one  hard  and  horny  in  its 
texture,  the  other  soft  and  ela.stic.  In  the  case 
of  the  former  the  caoutchouc  is  mixed  with  about 
one-third  of  its  weight  of  sulphur,  and  heated  for 
several  hours,  the  temperature  tinally  rising  to 
fully  300'  F.  For  the  soft  kind  of  vulcanised 
rubljer,  on  the  other  hand,  a  much  smaller  propor- 
tion of  sulphur  is  required — viz.  from  2.^  to  10 
per  cent.,  and  the  heat  to  which  it  is  subjected 
m  the  vulcanising  chamber  is  considerably  less. 
Usually,  too,  with  this  latter  kind,  the  articles  are 
made  liefore  the  rubber  is  heateil.  The  sulphur  is 
commonly  aildiMl  in  the  ground  state,  but  some- 
times the  rubber  Is  treated  with  some  solution 
containing  this  element,  such  as  the  bisulphide  of 
carbon. 

Although  sulphur  is  the  only  essential  ingredient 
required  for  vulcanising  rabber,  yet  other  sub- 
stances are  usually  added.  Thus,  in  the  case  of 
machinery  belting,  pipes,  and  some  other  articles, 
the  silicate  of  magnesia  (French  chalk)  is  u.sed  to 
prevent  adhesiveness.  Litharge,  or  carbonate  of 
lead,  again,  is  frequently  mixed  with  the  rubber 
and  sulphur  for  certain  purposes  ;  but  there  is  really 
a  long  list  of  materials  nmre  or  less  used  in  |»epar- 
ing  ilill'erent  qualities  of  vulcanised  caimtchouc, 
each  manufacturer  u.sing  ndxluro  the  exact  nature 
of  which  he  is  careful  not  to  divulge.  Asphalt, 
tar,  lime,   lampblack,   whiting,   rosin,  sulphide  of 


antimony,  and  ground  cork  are  some  of  the  in- 
gredients most  commonly  emidoyed  in  this  way. 
Belting  for  machinery  and  some  kinds  of  tubing 
are  formed  of  alternate  layers  of  canvas  and  vul- 
canised rubber. 

Natural  caoutchouc,  as  already  stated,  is  elastic, 
cohesive,  impervious  to  gases,  insoluble  in  water, 
and  resists  many  chemical  reagents  ;  but  it  loses 
its  elasticity  by  cold,  softens  by  beat,  and  is  de- 
stroyed by  many  fixed  oils.  After  being  vulcan- 
ised caoutchouc  has  its  elasticity  greatly  increased, 
is  not  haitlened  1)V  cold,  and  does  not  soften  or 
become  viscid  at  any  tenipeiature  short  of  its 
absolute  decomposition.  Besides,  it  is  barely  sol- 
uble in  turpentine,  naphtha,  and  the  other  solvents 
of  pure  caoutchouc  ;  nor  does  oil  readily  penetrate 
or  soften  it.  Very  often,  however,  the  natural  oil 
in  some  cloths,  or  oils  used  in  manufacture,  tend 
to  make  the  rubber  decav,  and  this  has  often  caused 
rubber-manufacturers  a  large  amount  of  trouble. 

It  would  be  a  hopeless  task  to  attempt  to  specify 
the  many  useful  purposes  to  which  vulcanised 
caoutchouc  is  applied,  even  if  we  had  the  space  to 
spare.  From  the  year  1843,  when  it  was  lirst 
made,  to  the  present  time  the  various  patented 
applications  of  it  must  be  thou.sands  in  numlier. 
The  mere  abridgments  of  the  specifications  con- 
nected with  this  material,  issued  by  the  English 
Patent  Office,  form  a  thick  volume.  Under  the 
head  Golo.shes  will  be  found  a  brief  description 
of  the  process  of  making  india-rubber  shoes.  Both 
coats  and  shoes  of  this  material  have,  however,  the 
objectionable  property  of  preventing  the  escape  of 
moisture  from  the  skin.  Belting,  butters,  wheel 
tires,  washers,  vahes,  pipes,  tire-liose,  and  other 
engineering  appliances  form  a  large  branch  of  tlie 
rubber-trade.  For  medical  and  surgical  ]niiposes 
many  articles  are  made  of  this  material.  Of  such 
an  apparently  trivial  matter  as  vulcanised  rubber 
thread  one  English  firm  turns  out  about  3000  11). 
per  day,  and  another  single  small  article — viz. 
tobacco-pouches — is  made  in  another  factoiy  at  the 
rate  of  3000  per  diem. 

Hard  vulcanised  rubber,  termed  vulcanite,  and 
sometimes  ebonite,  is  made  into  a  great  many  small 
articles,  such  as  combs,  chains,  luacelets,  boxes, 
penholders,  pajier-knives,  knife-handles,  buttons, 
iSrc,  as  a  substitute  for  materials  like  horn,  bone, 
ivory,  and  jet.  Like  these  substances  themselves, 
it  is  formed  into  various  objects  by  moulding,  cut- 
ting, carving,  polishing,  and  other  processes.  Vast 
numbers  of  tliese  articles  are  now  sold.  The  black 
colour  of  vulcanite  ornaments  has  still  a  tendency 
to  turn  gray,  but  the  brittleness  wbieb  was  a  fault 
of  combs  made  of  it  a  few  years  ago  seems  to  be 
overcome.  With  respect  to  objects  of  considerable 
size,  vulcanite  has  been  made  into  furniture,  orna- 
mental tiles,  and  even  rails  for  railroads  and  pav- 
ing for  footpaths,  for  which  latter  pur|)ose  it  suits 
admirably.  A  kind  of  vulcanite  is  now  very 
largely  enqdoyed  as  an  insulator  in  electric  cables. 

India-rublier  when  melted  at  398°  F.,  and  mixed 
with  half  its  weiglit  of  slaked  lime,  forms  a  useful 
cement  or  lute,  which  can  be  easily  loosened,  but 
it  will  dry  and  liarden  if  red  lead  is  adiled.  A  very 
tenacious  glue  is  formed  by  heating  caoutchouc, 
coal-tar,  and  shell-lac  together.  It  forms  an  in- 
gredient ill  some  special  kinds  of  varnishes,  and  it 
also  improves  the  hilivicating  qualities  of  miiicial 
oils  when  a  small  i|Uantity  is  dissolved  in  them. 

In  Great  Britain  some  of  the  large  india-rubber 
factories  enqdoy  over  1(100  hands,  and  smaller  works 
are  sjiringing  up  all  over  the  country.  The  exports 
are  sent  all  over  the  world,  jirincipallv  to  the 
Continent,  North  America,  and  .\uslralia.  The 
duty  levied  on  this  class  of  goods  is  prohibitive  of 
the  expansion  of  the  trade  with  the  L  iiited  States. 
The  manufacture  of  india-rubber  is  also  carried  on 


126 


INDICATOR-DIAGRAM 


INDIGESTION 


extensively  in  the  I'nited  States  and  Fiance.  In 
most  niliber-factories  a  lar^'e  number  of  tlie  work- 
people are  females  :  and,  as  no  j;reat  skill  is  re- 
i|uired  on  the  juirt  of  tlie  operatives  enjiapred  in 
some  departments,  einploymenl  in  such  works  has 
proved  a  lioon  to  many  pei-sons  «ho  have  ne\er 
learned  a  trade. 

The  hi.i,'h  price  of  raw  indiaruliber  has  led  to 
many  attempts  to  prochice  a  substitute,  but  none 
of  them  e(|Ual  in  durability  the  pure  caoutchouc. 

IlulifSltor-diaitram.  a  dia;;ram  drawn  on  an 
itH/icator-canl  by  the  pencil  of  the  indicator  of  an 
engine  at  work.  The  oliject  in  view  i.s  to  ascertain 
the  relations  between,  and  also  the  jiroduct  of  the 
varying  pressure  and  the  corresponding'  variations 
of  "volume  of,  the  working  substance — steam,  ex- 
plosive gas  mixture,  hot  air,  or  other  material. 
The  latter,  the  variations  of  volume,  are,  in  a 
cylinder,  well  represented  by  the  movements  of 
tiie  piston  ;  the  former,  the  varying  pressure,  may 
be  followed  by  making  the  steam,  iS:c.  press  out 
the  piston  of  a  small  side-cylinder  against  the 
resistance  of  a  spring.  If  a  pencil  be  attached  to 
this  piston  it  will  mark  on  a  piece  of  paper  or  card 
held  in  contact  with  the  point  a  straight  line 
traced  and  retraceil  with  varying  velocity.  If  the 
steam  be  shut  oil' from  this  side-cylinder  the  pencU 
assumes  the  position  of  'no  pressure.'  If  now,  on 
the  other  hand,  the  piston  of  the  main  cylinder  be 
matle  to  draw  the  paper  or  card  past  the  i)encil 
]ioint  in  a  direction  at  right  angles  to  tlie  former, 
the  varying  velocity  with  which  a  straight  line  is 
traced  and  retraced  on  the  paper  will  reproduce 
the  varying  velocities  of  the  main  piston  itself.  If 
these  two  actions  be  now  combined  the  pencil  will 
move,  say,  uii  and  down,  while  the  paper  will  oscil- 
late or  be  unrolled  backward  and  i'o:\vard.  The 
peucil-iioint  will  accordingly  describe  upon  tlie  jiaper 
an  irregularly-curved  ligure  which  will,  in  uniform 
working,  be  a  closed  curve,  and  will  always  tend 
api)ioximately  to  reproduce  itself  'aring  each  suc- 
cessive cycle  of  the  engine.  Upon  the  scales  on 
which  the  linear  traces  of  the  pencil  represent,  in 
directions  at  right  angles  to  one  another,  the  varia- 
tions of  |iiessure  and  the  i)istoii-iiioveiiients  re.spec- 
tively,  the  Krca  enclosed  by  this  curve  will  repre- 
sent the  work  done  by  the  engine  during  each 
cycle ;  and  its  funn  enables  the  actual  pressures 
and  volumes  of  the  working  substance  to  be  traced 
out  for  each  successive  portion  of  the  cycle,  and 
thus  enables  the  working  of  the  engine  to  be  care- 
fully studied  in  detail.  Kor  exanijilcs  see  Holmes, 
I'/ic  Stcitm-ciiijitic  ;  and  Dugald  Clerk,  Gas-ciii/inas. 
See  article  Gas-engise  for  diagrams. 

Indic*tion,  a  period  or  cycle  of  lifteen  years, 
tlie  origin  of  which  is  iiivcdved  in  oliscniity.  Imt 
which  was  originally  a  ii.scal  term.  It  began  to  be 
used  in  reckoning  time,  chielly  by  ecclesiastical 
historians,  during  the  life  of  Athanasius  ;  it  was 
afterwards  adopted  by  the  popes,  who  still  con- 
tinue to  use  it,  and  through  whose  inllucnce  it 
came  to  be  .so  generally  employed  during  the 
mi<lille  ages  that  the  dates  of  charters  and  public 
deeds  of  tliis  era  are  expressed  in  indictions  as  well 
as  in  years  of  the  Christian  era.  The  first  indiction 
is  supposed  to  h.ive  commenced  on  September  24, 
312,  the  day  of  Constantine's  victory  over  Maxen- 
tius.  If  we  reckim  backwards  to  the  commence- 
ment of  the  ("hrisli.ui  era  it  will  be  seen  that 
1  A.l).  does  not  corre-^pond  to  the  1st,  but  to  the 
4th  year  of  an  indictiim — hence,  if  to  out/  ijircn 
l/rar  of  the  Christian  era  3  be  added,  and  the  xiim 
(liridcd  by  15,  the  rcmaim/cr  will  r/ire  the  jWKifioti 
of  that  ifcar  in  an  iiidiiiinn — thus,  1800  A.D.  was 
the  third  year  of  an  indiction.  Of  course  such  a 
methoil  of  marking  time  was  necessarily  incom- 
plete, for  it  inclniled  no  statemimt  of  the  number 


of  indictions   which   had   elapsed    since   the    first 
adoption  of  that  method  of  computation. 

IlI<Ii«-tllli'Ut.    See  Cri.minal  L.vw. 

Iiulios.    See  East  Lnijie.s,  and  West  Indies. 

Illlli!;t>sti4»ll,  <n-  Dvsi'El'siA,  jiroperly  includes 
only  such  derangements  of  the  digestive  process  as 
do  not  depend  on  any  recognisable  structural 
change.  But  it  is  very  common  to  apidy  the  term 
loosely  to  any  digestive  disorder,  whatever  its 
cause  may  be.  In  this  sense  dys])(>psia  is  a 
.symptom  of  a  multitude  of  diseases,  in  the 
description  of  which,  when  it  is  .sullicienlly  im- 
portant, it  will  be  found  noticed.  Fum-tional 
dyspepsia,  the  dy.spepsia  of  otherwise  lieallhy 
peojile,  is  what  will  be  considered  here.  (If  Ibis 
there  are  two  chief  varieties,  the  atonic  and  the 
irritatirc  or  acid  dyspepsia.  The  former  is  caused 
by  deficient  secretion  of  the  gastric  juice  and 
diminished  movement  of  the  stomach  walls,  and 
it  is  often  associated  with  a  want  of  vitality  in  the 
system.  The  latter  is  fre(|iienlly  found  in  persons 
of  vigorous  and  robust  frame  anil  of  active  iiabits  ; 
and  in  many  cases  it  is  to  be  looked  upon  as  the 
result  of  an  excess  of  digestive  activity  leading  to 
the  accumulation  of  an  abnormal  amount  of  acid 
products  in  the  stomach,  esjjecially  toward  the  end 
of  digestion.  This  form  is  more  common  in  men 
than  in  women,  and  is  rarelv  met  with  before  adult 
life. 

The  symptoms  of  dyspejisia  differ  considerably 
in  different  individuals.  The  appetite  is  often 
good,  and  sometimes  voraciims,  but  it  may  lie 
deheient.  For  scmie  time  after  eating  there  may 
be  no  discomfort ;  but  sooner  or  later  pain  comes 
on  in  the  region  of  the  stomach,  at  first  dull,  after- 
wards more  severe.  A  feeling  of  fullness  and  dis- 
tension follows,  accompanied  by  flatulent  discharge 
and  the  eructation  of  a  sour  liipiid.  The  discom- 
fort may  sometimes  deejien  into  nausea  and  vomit- 
ing. The  ]iain  occasion.-illy  shoots  uj)  towards  the 
shmilders,  and  may  run  down  the  left  arm,  like  the 
pain  of  angina  pectoris.  From  this,  however,  it 
may  be  distinguished  by  the  fact  that  it  comes  on 
after  food.  The  pain  is  due  partly  to  over-sensitive- 
ness of  the  stomach,  and  partly  to  the  irritation  of 
its  acid  contents,  especially  of  butyric  acid.  When 
the  pain  is  of  a  iiaroxysmal  character  it  is  called 
Gastralgia  or  Gastrodynia.  Cardialgia  or  heart- 
burn, and  Pyrosis  or  water-brash,  are  common 
symptoms  which  have  also  been  dignified  with 
special  names.  The  former  is  said  to  be  caused 
by  the  irritation  of  the  upper  end  of  the  stomach 
by  the  fumes  of  its  acrid  contents,  while  the  latter 
is  essentially  an  abortive  act  of  vomiting  accom- 
panied by  a  gush  of  saliva  ( Iioberts). 

In  the  treatment  of  indigestion  the  diet  should 
be  strictly  regulated.  The  experience  of  the 
patient  is  often  a  belter  guide  as  to  details  than 
all  the  dicta  of  the  faculty.  The  food  should  be 
]iro])erly  cooked  and  well  masticated,  and  the 
interval  between  meals  should  neither  be  too 
long  nor  too  short.  Where  the  appetite  is  feeble 
food  must  be  laki'U  fiei|uently,  in  small  i|uantilics 
at  a  time;  and  it  is  often  advantageous  to  u.se 
substances  which  have  been  partially  digested  m  ith 
liancreatic  or  peptic  extract.  A  mixture  of  animal 
and  vegetable  food  is  in  general  more  easily 
digested  than  either  kind  taken  exclusively. 
Mutton,  fowls,  and  game  aie  the  most  digestible 
kinds  of  animal  food  ;  roast  beef  is  to  be  preferred 
to  boiled  :  l)Ut  ]iork  ami  all  cured  meats,  such  as 
salted  beef,  ham,  tongue,  and  all  greasily-cooked 
dishes  should  be  avoided.  Cheese,  pastry,  raw 
vegetables,  such  as  salads,  cucumbers,  t'tc. ,  must 
also  he  prohiliitiMl.  As  a  rule,  dys|ieplic  persons 
would  probably  do  well  to  avoiil  all  .stimulating 
drinks ;    but  in   some  cases  a  little    cold,    weak 


IXDIGIRKA 


INDO-CHINA 


127 


branily  and  water,  or  a  s'liss  of  olil  sherry,  or  a 
iittlo  iiittor  ale  may  be  taken  with  advantage. 

It  is  of  j;reat  importanee  to  attend  to  the  bowels 
(see  CoN"sTlPATU)N  ).  Keguhir  exercise  in  tlie  open 
air  should  be  enjoined.  Hiding  e.\ercise  is  of  special 
service  wliere  the  liver  is  ovU  of  order.  In  some  ca.ses 
change  of  scene  and  oecnjiation  is  of  more  beneht 
than  anything  else.  In  the  medicinal  treatment  of 
dyspepsia  a  iiost  of  renii'dios  are  in  vogue.  Acids 
(especially  nitro-hydrocldoric  acid),  either  before 
or  after  meals,  bitters  (such  as  quinine,  calumba, 
gentian,  rjua-ssia,  and  hops),  and  nu.\  vomica 
increase  the  appetite  and  aid  digestion.  Pepsin  is 
a  valn.able  adjuvant.  Nausea  and  vomiting  may 
be  checked  by  hydrocyanic  acid,  chloroform,  and 
cre.'usote  in  very  small  doses,  or  by  ice  and  alkalies. 
Hyposulphite  of  soda,  sulphurous  acid,  and  carbolic 
aciil  act  well  when  the  vomiting  depends  on  fer- 
mentation. For  flatulence,  bismuth,  cardamoms, 
charcoal,  sulpho-carbolate  of  sodium,  hot  W'ater, 
and  many  other  remedies  are  in  use.  For  the  pain 
in  the  stomach  the  subnitrate  of  bismuth  in  drachm 
doses  has  a  well-merited  reputation.  Spirits  of 
chloroform,  followed  by  hot  water,  may  also  be 
used.  The  subcutaneous  injection  of  morphia  gives 
ett'ectual  relief  for  the  time,  but  it  should  not  be 
employed  without  advice.  In  nervou.s  dyspepsia, 
hydrochlorate  of  cocaine  in  doses  of  a  quarter  of  a 
grain  ha-s  lately  been  used  with  success. 

Illdigirka.  a  river  in  the  Siberian  government 
of  V.ikntsk,  rises  in  a  western  otl'set  of  the  Stano\oi 
Mountains,  and,  after  a  northerly  course  of  870 
miles  through  a  desolate  and  frozen  desert,  falls 
into  the  Arctic  Ocean  in  71°  N.  lat.  and  150°  E. 
long. 

lutligo  (Gr.  Indikdii,  'Indian  drug'),  a  most 
important  vegetable  dyestuti',  yielding  a  beautiful 
blue  and  very  durable  dye,  the  Ixisis  also  of  the  best 
black  dye  in  woollen  cloths.  It  has  been  used  in 
India  from  a  very  early  period,  and  was  imported 
thence  by  the  ancient  (ireeks  and  Romans,  but 
was  lost  to  Europe  during  great  part  of  the  middle 
ages — although  the  cultivation  of  the  jdant  and 
preparation  of  the  ilye  were  described  by  Marco 
Polo  in  the  loth  century — until  re-introduced  bj' 
the  Dutch  about  the  middle  of  the  Itith  century. 


Indigo  Plant  (Indiijofera  tinctoria) : 
o,  lucerne  of  !ieiid-i)ods.    ( Frnm  Beutley  and  Trimen.) 

The  plants  that  yield  the  best  indigo  belong  to  the 
genus  Indigof(Ma,  of  tlio  natural  order  Leguminosse, 
sub-order  l'apilion;icea>.  Itu/if/ij/n-ii  timti/riri  in  the 
species  most  generally  cultivated  in  India.  Central 
.American  and  West  Indian  indigo  is  the  produce 
of  /.  iDii/  and  /.  ;/iiiiliiniilii. 

Indigo  is,  however,  obtained  from  plants  of 
other  genera,  particularly  from  W'riqhtia  timtoria 
(natural  order  .'Vpocyn.ace.i-),  East  Indies;  Bufitisin 
liiirloria  (natural  onler  Leguminosiv),  North 
America,  which  yields  indigo  of  a  p.ale  colour  anil 
very  inferior  c|uality  :  Tei>hrosin  tinctoria  (natural 
order  Legnminosa' ),  Malabar;  T.  Apolllven,  Egypt 


and  Nubia;  Marschnia  tinctoriu  (natural  order 
Asclepiailacea'),  in  Sylhet ;  ami  Poliiijimiiiii  line- 
turiiiiu  and  1'.  Cliinensc  (natural  order  Polygcui- 
aceaO,  (.'hiua  and  Ja]ian. — In  times  when  East 
Indian  indigo  was  not  known,  or  was  brought  to 
Europe  onlv  in  small  quantity,  the  same  dye- 
stuil'  was  obtained  from  AVoad  (q.v.).  — A  coar.se 
kind  of  indigo,  called  liastard  Indigo,  was  also 
at  one  time  made  in  N(U-th  .America  from  the 
young  shoots  of  Am/irjihit  (■<rriilca  and  A.  /ruti- 
costi  (natural  order  Lcguminos.-c). 

In  cultivating  the  indigo  plant  the  seed  is  sown 
in  drills  about  one  foot  apart  at  the  beginning  of 
the  rainy  season.  Hoeing  and  weeding  rciiuiri^  to 
be  assiduously  attended  to  to  prevent  the  )ilants 
from  being  overpowered  by  weeds.  The  lirst  crop 
is  obtained  in  about  three  months  after  sowing. 
The  stems  are  cut  as  the  plants  begin  to  llower, 
and  quickly  shoot  up  again,  and  in  this  way  two 
and  sometimes  three  crops  are  taken  from  the  same 
plants  in  one  season.  Immediately  the  crop  is  cut 
it  is  tied  in  bundles  and  carried  to  the  steeping 
vats  to  undergo  the  process  of  extracting  the 
indigo  ;  for  an  account  of  which  see  Dyeing. 

Commercially  speaking,  indigo  may  be  said  to 
be  the  pioduce  of  India  and  Central  America,  as 
these  are  the  only  localities  which  supply  the 
recognised  form  of  the  article.  Bengal  is  the 
chief  seat  of  indigo  pioduce  ;  and  IJengal  indigo 
is  the  most  esteemed.  From  1740  till  the  civil  war 
indigo  was  much  grown  iu  tieorgia  and  South 
Carolina,  but  thereafter  the  United  States  ile- 
jiended  on  imported  indigo,  liritish  imports  fluctu- 
ated from  aliove  1,000,000  cwt.  (\alue  £-.>,.5iJ0,000 ) 
to  under  00,000  cwt.  (value  £950,000)  in  the  last 
years  of  the  19th  century,  when  the  trade  was 
menaced  by  German  artificial  indigo.  Tlie  essential 
constituent  of  natural  indigo  is  Iin/ii/rifiii  or  Iiidiqo 
Blue  (C^HjNO),  but  it  likewise  contains  Lidlrio 
Brown,  Indigo  Bed,  and  other  ingreilients.  In 
1878  liaeyer  of  Munich  announced  the  successful 
synthesis  of  an  artificial  indigo  from  phenylacetic 
acid,  a  coal-tar  product ;  and  Neumann  of  Zurich 
ma<le  the  synthesis  commercially  practicable.  By 
1897  Germany  supplied  its  own  wants  from  this 
source ;  by  1901  one  company  at  Luchvigshafen 
produeeil  .-is  much  as  could  be  grown  on  iJO.OOO 
acres  of  Indian  land,  and  it  was  a  (|uesti(ni  whetlier 
the  growers  of  natural  indigo  in  Behar  and  other 
parts  of  Bengal  would  be  able  to  comjiete  with  the 
German  aniline  companies  (see  Aniline,  Dyeing, 
SvNTUE.sis).  The  costly  so-called  r/reen  indir/u  of 
Cliina,  useil  by  Chinese  artists  and  for  silk-dyeing, 
is  obtained  from  a  tree  called  honi-hi. 

IlHli;X<>  Bird  {Cifano.yn'.ra  eyanea),  a  North 
American  bird  of  the  Finch  family  (Fringillidic),  a 
native  of  the  United  States,  as  far  north  as  the 
Missouri,  which  it  visits  in  summer,  and  of  Central 
America,  where  it  spends  the  winter.  It  is  about 
5A  inches  in  length,  of  a  beautiful  bine  colour, 
variously  tinged  ami  shaded.  It  frequents  open 
places  on  the  edges  of  woods,  and  has  a  very  sweet 
song. 

Illdilllll.  a  metal  (trivalent;  atom.  wt.  =  11.3'4), 
soft,  silver-white,  malleable,  sidnble  in  hydrochloric 
acid  ;  its  sulphati>  forms  alums  with  alkaline  sul- 
phates. It  was  discovered  in  ISO;)  by  Beich  ami 
Richter  in  Freiberg  zinc-blende,  through  observ- 
ing in  its  spectrum  two  characteristic  indigo-blue 
lines. 

Iii«lividiialisiii.    See  Socialism. 

Illd«»-<ilili:i.  the  eastern  of  the  two  great 
Asiatic  iH'niiisnlas  which  extend  southwards  into 
the  Indi.'in  Ocean,  sometimes  Ciillod  Further 
India.  It  is  washed  on  the  east  by  the  Gulfs 
of  Tonquin  and  Siani  an<l  the  Chinese  Sea,  and 
on    the    west   by    the    B.ay   of    Bengal.      AccountB 


128 


INDO-EUROPEANS 


INDUCTION 


of  the  various  states  which  it  embraces  will  be 
found  under  the  headinj,'s  Axnam,  Bi"RMA  (with 
map),  Ca.mbddia,  Cochix-Chixa,  Malacca, 
SlA.M,  and  ToxQllN- — The  term  Indonesia  is 
sometimes  used  for  the  Indian  Archipelago,  the 
islands  to  the  south-east  of  Asia. 

Iii«lo-Eiiro|ieaiis.    See  Aryan. 

Illdore.  a  Mahr.atta  principality  of  India,  com- 
prising the  territories  of  the  Holkar  dynasty,  and 
consisting  of  several  detached  tracts,  covers  an 
area  of  8400  sq.  m.  The  bulk  of  it  lies  between 
.Sindhia's  dominions  on  the  north  and  Bombay  Pre- 
sidency on  the  so\itli,  its  length  from  north  to 
south  being  120  miles,  and  its  breadth  82.  It  is 
traversed  from  east  to  west  by  the  Nerbudda, 
which  almost  bisects  it ;  by  the  Vindhya  Moun- 
tains, their  loftiest  point  within  its  limits  being 
2.')()()  feet  above  the  sea ;  and  by  the  Satpura 
Mountains.  Principal  products,  poppy,  cotton, 
tobacco,  wheat,  rice,  millets,  i*i:c.  ;  principal  in- 
dustries, cotton  and  oi)ium  m.anufacture.  Pop. 
( 1891 )  1,099,990.  The  Vindhy.as  and  Satpuras  have 
from  time  immemorial  been  tlie  home  of^  the  Bhils 
(q.v. ),  the  wildest  of  the  aboriginal  tribes  in  India. 
Tlie  Holkar  State  Railway  connects  the  Rajputana 
railway-system  with  that  of  Boml)ay.  The  climate 
is  sultry,  the  thermometer  ranging  from  60°  to  90" 
F.  in  the  shade.  The  state  was  founded  about  the 
middle  of  the  18th  century  by  Malhar  Rao,  a 
soldier  of  fortune,  who  served  the  Peshwa.  In 
1818  the  ruler  of  the  Holkar  dominions  was 
reduced  to  the  position  of  a  feudatory  prince  of 
the  British  Indian  empire.  He  keeps  up  an  army 
of  8900  men. 

Illdore,  the  capital  of  the  Maharaja  Holkar's 
dominions,  is  situated  in  22°  42'  N.  lat.  and  75°  54' 
E.  long.,  1780  feet  above  sea-level.  Pop.  (1891) 
92,329,  mostly  Hindu.s.  During  the  revolt  of  1857, 
though  the  maharaja  remained  faithful  to  the 
British  government,  his  troops  mutinied  on  1st 
July,  holding  their  prince  a  prisoner  in  his  own 
palace,  and  butchering  many  Europeans  in  cold 
blood.  The  town  dates  only  from  1770.  Close  to 
the  town  is  the  district  specially  set  apart  for  the 
residence  of  the  Governor-general  of  Indiii's  agent 
for  Central  India.  Within  this  district  stands  a 
celebrated  European  hospital. 

IlldorseillOIlt,  the  term  generally  used  to 
denote  the  writing  of  the  name  of  the  holder  on 
the  b.ack  of  a  bill  of  exchange  or  promissory  note, 
on  transferring  or  assigning  it  to  another.  Signing 
the  name  'A.  B.'  alone  is  a  blank  indorsement; 
and  if  the  transferee  is  named  it  is  an  indorse- 
ment '  in  special'  or  'in  full.'  The  usual  form  is 
'Pay  C.  D.  or  order.  (Signed)  A.  B.'  In  Scot- 
land it  is  '  Pay  the  contents  to  C  D.  or  order. 
(Signed)  A.  B. '  When  personal  liability  is  to  be 
avoided  the  words  '  withcmt  recourse'  are  added, 
anil  in  this  case  no  demand  can  come  back  on  the 
indorser,  who  would  otherwise  be  liable.  The 
word  indorsement  is  also  frequently  used  in  Eng- 
lish law  to  denote  any  matters  written  or  indorsed 
on  the  back  of  writs  or  deeds,  as  indorsements  on 
declarations,  on  writs  of  summons,  iSrc. 

Illdrn,  the  name  of  one  of  those  Himlu  deities 
that  were  worshipped  more  especially  in  the  Vedic 
period  of  the  Himlu  religion,  but  enjoyed  a  great 
legendary  pojiularity  also  in  the  Epic  ami  Puranic 
]ieriods.  In  those  U'ig-\'eila  hymns  whicli  form 
the  oldest  portion  of  Vedic  poetry  Indra  is  a 
mighty  ruler  of  the  bright  lirmanient,  and  his  ]irin- 
cipal  feat  is  that  of  con<|uering  the  demon  ]'r'ititi, 
a  symbolical  personitication  of  the  cloud  which 
obstructs  the  clearness  of  the  sky  ami  withholds 
the  fructifying  rain  from  the  earth.  All  his 
wonderful  deeds  are  performed  by  him  merely  for 
the  benelit  of  the  gooil,  which,  in  the  language  of 


the  Veda,  means  the  pious  men  who  worship  him 
in  their  songs,  and  invigorate  him  with  the  olier- 
ings  of  the  juice  of  the  Soma  [dant.  He  is  there- 
fore the  '  lord  of  the  virtuous,'  and  the  '  disoomliler 
of  those  who  neglect  religious  rites,'  and  at  the 
same  time  he  has  all  the  attributes  of  a  warlike 
"od,  and  is  invoked  as  the  destroyer  of  cities. 
During  the  Epic  and  Puranic  periods,  where 
ethical  conceptions  of  the  divine  powers  prevail 
over  ideas  based  on  elementary  impressions,  Indra 
cea-ses  to  enjoy  the  worshiji  he  liail  aciiuired  at  the 
Vedic  time,  and  his  existence  is  chielly  uphehl  liy 
the  poets,  who,  in  their  turn,  however,  work  it  out 
in  the  most  fantastic  detail.  A  remarkable  trait 
in  this  legendary  life  of  Indra  is  the  series  of  his 
conflicts  with  Krishna,  an  incarnation  of  Vishnu, 
which  end,  however,  in  his  becoming  reconcileil 
with  the  more  important  god.  When  represented 
in  works  of  art  Indra  is  generally  seen  riding  on 
his  elephant;  and  where  he  is  painted  he  is  covered 
with  eyes. 

Illdre.  a  department  of  Fiance,  formed  princi- 
pally out  of  the  western  portion  of  the  old  jirovince 
of  Berri,  lies  immediately  south  of  the  department 
of  Loir-et-Cher.  Area,  262.3  sq.  m.,  of  which  about 
four-lifths  are  in  tillage  and  pasture.  Pop.  (1872) 
'277,69.3:  ( 1S86) '296,147  ;  { 1891 )  29'2,868.  It  is  quite 
flat,  and  well  watered  by  the  Indre  (which  flows, 
from  the  department  of  Creuse,  152  miles  north- 
westward to  the  Loire)  and  the  Creuse.  It  con- 
tains three  well-marked  districts — a  stony,  woody 
region  with  sandy  .soil  in  the  soiith,  a  fertile  agri- 
cultural region  in  the  east,  and  in  the  north-west  a 
region  of  moors,  marshes,  and  ponds,  interspersed 
with  forests.  The  more  notable  products  are 
wheat,  oats,  potatoes,  turnips,  fruits,  and  wine. 
The  sheep  are  excellent  as  food,  and  produce  lirst- 
rate  wool.  Much  poultry  is  reared,  fhe  princijial 
industries  are  ironworks  and  manufactures  of  doth, 
))aper,  leather,  and  porcelain.  The  department  is 
divided  into  four  arrondissements — cfiateauioux, 
Le  Blanc,  Issoudun,  and  La  Chfttre.  The  capital 
is  Chate.auroux. 

Illdrc'-Ct-Loire,  -i  department  of  France, 
formed  chiefly  out  of  the  ancient  province  of 
Touraine,  is  crossed  by  the  Loire  from  NE.  to  S\V. 
Area,  '2360  sq.  m.  ;  'pop.  (1872)  ,317,0-27  :  (1886) 
340,921 ;  ( 1891 )  337,'298.  It  is  watered  by  the  Loire 
and  its  tributaries,  the  Cher,  Indre,  and  Vienne, 
all  of  them  navigable.  The  valley  of  the  Loire  is 
very  fertile,  studded  with  orchards  anil  garilens 
ami  vineyarils  ;  it  is  called  the  'garden  of  France.' 
South  of  this  lies  the  monotonous  but  productive 
plateau  of  St  Maure,  north  of  it  the  sterile  region 
of  GAtine.  The  products  include  grain,  wine 
(about  22,000,000  gallons  annually),  fruits  (especi- 
ally plums),  anil  liemp.  The  industry  has  never 
recovered  from  the  blow  struck  by  the  Edict  of 
Nantes.  The  chief  manufactures  are  powder,  files, 
cloth,  i)aper,  and  leather.  The  dei)artment  is 
ilivided  into  the  three  arrondissements  of  Tour.s, 
Chinon,  and  Loclies  ;  capital.  Tours. 

Illdlirtiuil,  one  of  the  great  ju-ocesses  of  scien- 
tilic  discovery  and  |iroof.  It  is  the  operation  of 
disroveriiifi  and  pruoinr/  general  pro|)ositiiuis  ; 
while  deduction,  on  the  other  hand,  is  the  method 
of  ap/ili/ini/  general  ]iropositions  once  <liscovered 
to  particular  cases  considered  to  lie  included  within 
their  scope.  By  induction  we  establish  the  law 
that  heat  expands  liodics  ;  by  deilnclion  we  ap]ily 
it  to  explain  why  a  clock  goes  slower  in  summer  than 
in  winter,  owing  to  the  changes  of  the  length  of 
the  penilnluni.  It  should  be  mentioned  that  what 
has  iieen  called  perfect  inductiim — the  oliservation 
of  ti/l  the  instances  and  a  statement  of  the  result 
in  one  general  jiroposition — is  not  by  Mill  or  the 
moderns   rocogniseil   as    proper  induction    at    all. 


INDUCTION 


129 


Induction  is  the  process  of  real  inference — in 
other  words,  by  it  we  i>rocee<l  from  tlie  known 
to  the  unknown  ;  or  from  a  limited  range  of  facts 
we  attinn  what  will  hold  in  an  unlimited  lun^'e. 
All  thinjjs  that  we  do  not  know  by  actual  trial 
or  ocular  ilemonstration  we  know  by  an  inductive 
operation.  Deduction  is  not  real  inference  in 
this  sense,  since  the  general  proposition  already 
covers  the  case  that  we  apply  it  to;  in  a  proper 
deduction  the  conclusion  is  more  limited  than  the 
premises.  By  the  inductive  method  we  obtain  a 
conclusion  much  larger  than  the  premises  ;  we 
adventure  into  the  sphere  of  the  unknown,  and 
pronounce  upon  what  we  ha\t'  not  yet  seen. 
Nothing  is  more  common  tlian  the  making  of  bail 
inductions,  and  accordingly  it  is  now  considered 
a  part  of  logic  to  lay  down  the  rules  for  the  right 
performance  of  this  great  operation.  For  the 
principles  and  mles  of  induction,  see  Mill's  Logic 
(book  iii.).  Fowler's  Inductiiv  Logic,  and  Venn's 
Principles  of  Eiiipirical  or  Lmliictive  Logic  (1890) : 
an<I  see  the  article  LOGIC 

Induction  is  a  term  used  in  England  to 
denote  the  investing  or  giving  possession  of  a 
benefice  to  a  clergyman.  This  is  done  by  a 
mandate  from  the  oishop  to  the  archdeacon  ( in 
some  places  the  dean  and  chapter)  to  make  tlie 
induction.  The  inductor  takes  the  clergj-nian 
by  the  hand,  and  lays  it  on  the  key  of  the 
cimrch-door  (or  some  part  of  the  church  itself), 
then  opens  the  door  and  causes  him  to  enter  the 
church  alone,  and  to  toll  one  of  the  bells  as  a 
public  notification  to  the  parishioners.  The  in- 
cumbent's possession  of  the  benefice  is  completed 
by  'reading  liimself  in' — i.e.  reading,  generally  on 
the  following  Sunday,  the  Thirty-nine  Articles,  and 
immediately  thereafter  making  a  formal  declara- 
tion of  assent  to  their  doctrine,  and  giving  a  pledge 
of  his  conformity  to  the  rules  of  the  church. — In 
Scotland  the  presbyterj-  induct  the  minister. 

Induction,  in  Electricity  and  Magnetism,  is  a 
term  of  various  application.  In  every  case,  how- 
ever, there  is  a  certain  idea  present — the  idea, 
namely,  of  an  efi'eet  produced  at  an  apparent 
distance  from  the  producing  cause,  the  effect 
being  essentially  a  reproiluction  of  the  cause. 
More  accurately  stated,  induction  is  the  name  of 
a  method  or  mode  by  or  in  which  a  particular 
electric  or  magnetic  condition  is  made  to  pass  from 
one  material  system  to  another  without  the  inter- 
vention of  any  obvious  material  connection.  Thus, 
in  static  electricity  a  metallic  body  or  other  con- 
ductor brought  into  the  neighbourhood  of  an 
electrified  body  becomes  itself  electrified  by  in- 
duction. Similarly,  a  piece  of  iron  or  other 
magnetisable  metal,  when  brought  near  a  magnet, 
or,  more  generally,  wlien  brout'ht  into  a  magnetic 
field,  becomes  itself  magnetised  by  induction.  In- 
deed, according  to  Faraday's  view,  induction  is 
the  essential  feature  in  all  electric  and  magnetic 
interaction.  These  two  fundamental  ca.ses  of 
iniluction   will   be    found    treated    in    full    under 

El.KCTRICITV  and  M.VfiNETISM. 

There  is,  however,  a  third  and  very  important 
group  of  electric  and  magnetic  phenomena  to 
which  the  name  induction  Ijelongs.  These  were 
dLseovered  by  Faraday,  and  will  be  treated  in  a 
general  way  under  M.agnetism.  The  es.sential 
peculiarity  of  this  cla.ss  of  induction  phenomena 
Ls  the  production  of  electric  currents  in  conductors 
or  circuits  in  which  there  exists  no  .source  of 
electrical  energj-.  These  induced  electric  currents 
are  in  all  cases  the  result  of  si>me  magnetic  change 
in  thir  region  occupied  by  the  conductor.  Thus 
magnetic  change  may  lie  i)rofluced  by  tlie  approach 
or  withdrawal  of  a  magnet ;  or  it  may  l)e  produced 
by  the  motion  of  the  conductor  in  a  constant 
269 


magnetic  field  ;  or  it  may  be  due  to  variations 
of  primary  currents  in  neighbouring  conductoi-s, 
or  even  in  the  conductor  itself.  In  this  last  case 
the  variations  of  these  primary  currents  cause 
corresponding  variations  in  the  magnetic  fields 
existing  with  them,  so  that  the  induced  current 
can  always  be  explained  in  terms  of  a  mametic 
change.  According  to  tthm's  Law  (see  Elec- 
tricity ),  the  strength  of  a  current  tlowing  through 
a  given  circuit  depends  on  the  electromorive  force 
which  excites  the  current,  and  on  the  resistance  of 
the  circuit  through  which  the  current  Is  made  to 
How.  In  the  case  of  induction  of  currents  the  electro- 
motive force  is  directly  due  to,  and  is  measured  in 
terms  of,  the  rate  of  change  of  the  number  of  lines 
of  magnetic  force  embraced  by  the  circuit ;  and 
this  rate  of  change  depends  on  the  geometrical 
form  of  the  circuit  and  on  its  space  relations  to 
the  magnetic  field  surrounding  it.  Thus  the  in- 
duced current  depends  on  three  things — viz.  the 
form  of  the  circuit,  the  varyiii"  space  lelations  of 
the  circuit  and  the  magnetic  field,  and  the  ordinaiy 
ohmic  resistance  of  the  circuit. 

One  of  the  readiest  ways  of  producing  induced 
currents  is  to  have  two  coils  of  wire,  one  placed 
inside  the  other,  and  to  pass  through  the  inner 
or  primary  coil  a  current  of  varying  strength. 
At  everj-  variation  of  the  primary  current  a  current 
is  induced  in  the  outer  or  arcoitdarii  circuit.  The 
direction  of  the  secondary  current  depends  on  the 
manner  of  change  of  the  primary.  If  the  primary 
cuiTent  is  decreasing  in  strength,  the  induceil 
current  in  the  secondaiy  circuit  fiows  in  the  same 
direction  as  the  primary  in  its  circuit :  luit  if  the 
primary  current  is  increasing,  the  secondary  current 
Bows  in  the  reverse  direction.  The  best  etl'ects 
are  produced  at  the  'making'  and  the  'breaking' 
of  tlie  primary  circuit  :  for  by  these  operations 
the  primary  current  is  made  to  have  its  greatest 
variations.  This  is  the  principle  of  action  of  the 
Riihmkorff  IiuUtction  Coil,  one  of  the  many  forms 
of  whicli  is  shown  in  the  figure.  The  coils  are 
wound,  the  primary  inside  the  secondary,  on  the 


portion  marked  \V.  The  battery  wires,  attached 
to  the  binding  screws,  j),  n,  are  brought  into  con- 
nection with  the  terminals  of  the  primaiy  coil  by 
means  of  the  comnnitator,  C  The  terminals  of 
the  secondary  coil  are  fixed  to  the  brass  heads 
of  the  gla.ss  pillars,  P,  P',  which  are  furnished 
with  pointed  rods  capable  of  tmiversal  nmtion. 
The  true  way  of  looking  at  the  action  of  this 
instrument  is  to  regard  the  primary  current  as 
the  .source  of  a  magnetic  field  within  and  around 
tlie  coils.  To  intensifv  the  magnetic  field  it  is 
nsual  to  introduce  a  .soft  iron  core  into  the  centre 
of  the  coil.s.  In  virtue  of  magnetic  induction  this 
iron  core,  umler  the  inlhience  of  the  nmgnetic  force 
due  to  the  primary  current,  becomes  j)owerfully 
magnetised,  and  the  magnetic  fiehl  withni  the  coil 
greatly  increased.  When  the  primary  current  is 
internipted  the  iron  core  loses  nearly  all  its  mag- 
netism, and  accompanying  this  great  decrease  in 
the  strength  of  the  magnetic  field  an  intense  in- 
duced current  fiows  in  the  secondary  circuit.     Now 


1:30 


INDUCTION 


INDULGENCE 


it  is  only  wlien  the  magnetic  tield  is  varying  that 
the  induced  eleetioniotive  force  exists  :  and,  since 
in  a  given  secondavy  circuit  the  total  current 
induced  is  proportional  to  the  total  change  in  the 
magnetic  lieM,  it  follows  that  the  more  al)rupt  this 
change  the  more  concentrated  will  lie  the  now  of 
the  secondary  current. 

In  the  induction  coil  matters  are  so  arranged  that 
the  induced  current  is  sutliciently  concentrated  to 
pass  across  a  considerable  air-space,  which  really 
forms  part  of  the  secondary  circuit.  By  taking 
the  terminals  of  the  secondary  circuit  in  our  hands 
we  may  make  ourselves  part  of  this  circuit,  and 
experience  the  curious  throbbing  sensation  of  a 
galvanic  shock.  (»r  «e  may  attach  the  terminals 
to  the  platinum  wires  of  a  tJeissler  tube,  and  pro- 
duce the  beautiful  ert'ects  of  electric  discharge 
through  gases  in  a  state  of  great  raiity.  In  most 
forms  of  induction  coil  the  primary  current  is 
broken  and  made  automatically,  the  varying  m.ag- 
netic  strength  of  the  iron  core  being  used  for  this 
purpose.  When  the  primary  current  passes,  the 
iron  core  becomes  a  powerful  magnet,  and  attracts 
a  small  iron  disc  set  opposite  one  end.  By  means 
of  a  simple  form  of  lever  attachment  this  disc 
when  so  moved  interrupts  the  piimary  circuit. 
The  current  then  ceases  to  flow,  the  iron  core 
loses  most  of  its  magnetism,  and  tlie  small  iron 
disc  thus  freed  returns  to  its  original  position. 
With  this  return  of  the  disc  the  prunary  circuit 
is  again  completed,  the  current  flows  as  before, 
and  the  same  order  of  effects  is  repeated,  and  so 
on  indefinitely.  In  the  secondary  coil  there  is, 
of  course,  a  possible  induced  current  at  make  as 
well  as  at  break.  But,  as  in  such  instruments 
the  corresponding  magnetic  change  is  not  nearly 
so  rapid  at  make  as  at  break,  the  induced  current 
is  not  so  concentrated.  Hence,  practically,  in 
working  with  an  induction  coil  we  have  to  do  only 
with  the  induced  current  due  to  the  interruption  of 
the  primary  circuit. 

The  Telephone  (q.v.)  is  an  instrument  whose 
action  deijends  largely  upon  the  laws  of  electro- 
magnetic induction  ;  and  in  the  same  category  we 
may  include  the  induction  l)alance  of  Professor 
Hnghes,  which  illustrates  in  a  marvellous  way  the 
sensitiveness  of  a  variable  current  flowing  in  a  cir- 
cuit to  the  presence  of  a  small  piece  of  metal  or 
other  conducting  material. 

Indulgence,  in  Koman  Catholic  theology, 
means  a  remission,  by  church  authority,  to  a 
repentant  sinner  of  the  temi>ornl  punishment 
which,  in  the  ("atholic  thecny,  remains  dvie  after 
the  sin  and  its  eternal  i)unisliment  have  been 
remitted.  By  the  discipline  of  the  first  centuries  a 
.severe  course  of  penitential  observance  was  exacted 
of  all  who  fell  into  any  grievous  crime,  especially 
apostasy,  murder,  and  adtdtery,  such  sinners 
being  excluded  from  church  c(unmunion  for  vari- 
ous periods,  in  some  cases  even  till  the  hour  of 
death.  These  penitential  observances,  which  Pro- 
testants regard  as  ptirely  disciplinary,  were  de- 
signed, according  to  the  Catholic  Niew,  as  an 
expiation  on  the  part  of  the  penitent  for  the 
temporal  punishment  which,  after  sin  and  the 
etertml  punishment  due  to  it  have  been  remitted 
by  God,  still  remains  to  be  undergone  :  and  some 
of  the  most  acriinonious  of  the  early  controversies, 
the  .Montanist  and  the  Novatian,  arose  a-s  to  the 
power  of  the  church  to  relax  these  penitential 
observances,  and  to  admit  grievous  sinners  to 
communion.  These  ancient  relaxations  (of  which 
they  refjard  that  referred  to  in  1  Cor.  v.  5  and  in 
2  C'()r.  it.  10  a,s  a  type)  are  consiilered  by  Catholics 
a-s  examples  of  the  modein  indulgence;  and  the 
practice  which  grew  uji  in  the  .Sd  and  4tli  cen 
turies,  and  which  even  then  was  carried  to  great 
extremes,   of    granting    such   relaxations    on    the 


recommendation  of  martyrs  or  confessors,  is  held 
by  Catholic  the(dogians  to  be  an  illustration  of 
that  principle  of  vicarious  atcmement  according 
to  which,  in  the  iheorv  of  indulgences,  the  church 
is  supi)osed  to  supjdy  from  the  inexhaustibli' 
treasure  of  the  merits  of  Christ,  and  of  the 
'  supererogatory '  works  of  the  saints,  what  may 
be  wanting  to  the  completeness  of  the  atonement 
of  the  less  perfect  but  yet  truly  penitent  sinner 
to  whom  she  grants  the  indulgence.  That  this 
l>ractice  of  relaxation,  whatever  may  lune  been 
its  real  import,  was  to  be  used  according  to  the 
judgment  of  the  bishop  as  to  the  disjjosition  of 
the  penitent,  is  expressly  laid  down  by  the  Council 
of  Ancyra  in  308  and  by  that  of  Nice  in  325.  In 
all  cases,  however,  the  person  granting  the  relaxa- 
tion was  to  impose  certain  good  works  a-^  a  partial 
substitute  for  the  penalty  which  had  been  relaxed  ; 
and  among  these  works,  which  had  at  first  been 
purely  personal,  came  by  degrees  to  be  included 
money  payments  for  certain  religious  or  charitable 
objects,  as  the  building  of  a  church  or  the  founda- 
tion of  a  monastery  or  hospital. 

The  name  indulgence  appears  to  have  originated 
late,  the  first  recorded  instance  of  its  use  lieing  by 
Alexander  II.  in  the  11th  century  ;  but  the  institution 
itself  is  found  in  full  development  during  the  wars 
of  the  Cru.sades,  the  serving,  or  the  contributing 
to  service  in  which,  '  provided  it  were  for  devotion 
alone,  and  not  from  motives  of  greed  or  of  glory,' 
was  accepted  in  the  Council  of  Clermont  *;is  an 
equivalent  suljstitute  for  all  ])enance. '  Such  an 
indulgence  was  called  "plenary;  where  a  portion 
only  of  the  jienitential  works  was  relaxed  it  wa.s 
called  '  partial  ; '  and  in  order  to  put  a  bar  to 
their  excessive  multiplication  and  to  other  abuses 
Innocent  III.  declared  the  power  of  granting 
'  plenary  indulgences '  to  l)e  reserved  to  the  pope 
atone,  bishops  being  only  authorised  to  grant  the 
'partial '  or  limited  indulgences  described  above. 
Tlie  fourth  Lateran  ccmncil  condemns  the  'indis- 
creet and  superfluous'  granting  of  indulgences; 
and  among  the  abuses  which  grew  up  in  the 
church  during  the  western  schism  one  of  the  most 
remarkable  was  the  lavish  dispensation  of  indul- 
gences, in  the  granting  of  which  the  contending 
popes  rivalled  each  other  in  prodigality.  The  last 
extreme,  however,  was  not  reached  until  the  be- 
ginning of  the  16tli  century,  when,  with  a  view  to 
raising  the  funds  necessary  for  the  erei'lion  of  the 
great  church  of  St  Peter's  at  Pome,  the  Jiope,  Leo 
X.,  published  a  plenary  indulgence,  the  ])rincipal 
comlition  for  the  gaining  of  which  was  a  I'ontribu- 
tion  to  this  woi'k.  Catholic  historians  contend 
that  in  itself  such  a  conilitii>n  was  perfectly 
justiHable,  and  that  if  ibdy  explained  to  the 
peoi)le  it  might  lie  lawfully  aiul  even  meritoriously 
complied  with  :  but  they  admit  that  Tetzel  and 
many  more  preachers  of  the  indtilgence  in  extolling 
its  natural  ellects  went  to  indefensible  extremes, 
anil  that,  even  making  th(>  fullest  allowance  for 
exaggeration,  it  cannot  be  dcnieil  that  grievous 
abuses  both  of  doctrine  ami  of  practice  were  cimi- 
ndtted  in  (iermany  and  in  Swit/erland.  Hence  the 
decree  of  the  Council  of  Trent,  while  it  allirms  that 
the  use  of  indulgences,  a,s  Vicing  '  most  salutary  for 
the  Christian  people,  and  approved  by  the  author- 
ity of  councils,  is  to  be  retauu'd  in  the  church,'  yet 
orders  that  'in  granting  them  nioderalion  be  ob- 
served, lest  bv  exce.«sive  facility  iliscijilinc  may  be 
enervated.'  tjpon  the  special  instructions  of  this 
council  all  the  modern  legislation  cm  the  subject 
of  indulgences  has  been  foundeil  ;  but  as  the  decree 
of  the  council  does  not  explicitly  declare  what  is 
the  precise  eH'ect  of  an  indulgence  it  is  further 
explained  by  Pope  Pius  W..  in  his  celebrateil 
bull  Aucturcm  Fidci,  that  an  indulgence  received 
with  due  dispositions  remits  not  alone  the  canonical 


INDUS 


INFALLIBILITY 


131 


jwiiance  attaolied  to  L-eitain  eiinies  in  this  lifo,  but 
alsi)  tlie  teiiipoial  imni-liiiu'iit  wliitli  would  await 
tlie  penitent  after  ileatli  to  he  emlured  by  liim  in 
pur^'atory. 

From  the  above  explanation  it  will  be  {fathered 
that  Catholies  clo  not  understand  by  an  indulgence 
a  remission  of  sin,  much  less  a  iiermission  to  com- 
mit sin  or  a  promise  of  forgiveness  of  future  sin. 
They  contend,  moreover,  that,  since  the  benetit 
of  an  indulgence  can  only  be  enjoyed  by  a  sinner 
who  has  repented  of  sin  and  resolved  to  embrace 
a  new  life,  the  imputation  of  introducing  laxity 
of  principle  and  easy  self-indulgence  is  entirely 
unwarranted.  And  although  for  the  most  part 
the  good  works  which  are  re(iuired  a-s  the  condition 
of  obtaining  indulgences  may  appear  eitsy  and  even 
trivial,  yet  the  one  indispensaole  preliminary — 
sorrow  for  sin  and  sincere  purpose  of  amendment 
— involves  the  highest  etibrl  of  Christian  virtue. 

fSee  vol.  iii.,  H.  C-.  Lea's  Histoi'y  of  Auricular  Confession 
and  ItuiuUience  (1896). 

Thk  Decl.\ration  of  Indulgence,  proclaimed 
by  James  II.  in  1687,  promised  to  suspend  all  law.s 
which  tended  to  force  tlie  consciences  of  his  subjects. 
His  real  aim  was,  of  course,  merely  to  relieve  the 
Homan  Catholics  :  heuce  the  declaration  \v;is  very 
uiipo]iMlar,  and  the  refusal  of  the  Seven  Bishops  to 
command  their  clergy  to  reail  it  from  their  pulpits 
wa.s  but  the  culminating  point  of  universal  public 
dissatisfaction.  Two  similar  indulgences  in  Eng- 
lish history  were  tho.se  issued  by  Charles  II.  in 
lt)B2  and  167"2,  both  of  which  were  ennally  unpleas- 
ing  to  the  dissenters  alike  in  England  and  Scotland, 
who  ileclined  to  share  their  toleration  with  their 
Koman  Catholic  fellow-subjects. 

Indus  (Sansk.  Sindhu),  a  river  of  India,  which 
lises  in  an  unexplored  region  in  Tibet,  near  the 
sources  of  the  Siitlej,  in  3'2"  N.  lat.  and  81°  E. 
long.  The  precise  spot  is  said  to  be  16,000  feet 
above  the  level  of  the  sea,  and  to  be  on  the  north 
side  of  the  Kailas  Mountain.  Its  general  course  is 
at  lirst  towards  the  north-west,  through  Tibet  and 
Cashmere.  Here  it  is  known  :is  the  Singh-ka-bali. 
In  the  north-west  of  Cashmere,  in  about  34'  50'  N. 
lat.  and  7-1°  30'  E.  long.,  it  turns  abruptly  south- 
wards, and  follows  that  direction,  varied  by 
stretches  to  the  south-south-west,  right  down  to 
the  sea.  In  the  mountains  its  current  is  very 
rapid  ;  the  river  passes  through  deep,  wild  gorges 
(one  near  Iskaidoh,  in  north-west  Ca.slimere,  having 
a  sheer  depth  of  considerably  more  than  10,000 
feet),  and  is  liable  to  Hoods,  which  come  with 
terrible  swiftness,  rise  very  high,  and  cause 
tremendous  damage.  The  Indus  entei-s  the  Punjab 
812  miles  from  its  .source.  Near  .\ttock  (q.v.),  48 
miles  lower  down,  it  receives  the  Kabul  River  from 
Afghanistan,  and  then  becomes  navigable.  Here 
it  is  only  iOO*)  feet  above  sea-level.  450  miles 
below  .\ttock  it  receives,  on  the  left,  the  accumu- 
lated waters  of  the  Punjab  through  the  single 
channel  of  the  Panjnad.  Each  of  the  ■  live  water- 
coui-ses,"  a.s  well  a.s  the  Kabul,  is  practicable  for 
inland  craft  to  the  mountains.  I'elow  its  conflu- 
ence with  the  Panjnad  the  Indus,  instead  of 
increasing  in  volume,  becomes  gradually  less.  Its 
b.xsin  is  narrow,  anil  the  atlluents  are  insigniticant, 
while  there  is  a  great  loss  by  evaporation.  The 
river  also  diviiles  into  numerous  channels,  many  of 
wliii'h  l)ecome  lost  in  the  sand,  while  others  return 
niui'li  shrunken  in  volume.  The  delta  of  the  river 
covers  an  area  of  about  .'{(MK)  sri.  ni.,  ami  extends 
for  some  125  miles  along  the  .Arabian  Sea.  The 
main  channel  is  constantly  shifting.  The  delta 
is  not  on  the  whole  very  fertile,  and  is  almost 
entirely  destitute  of  trees.  In  l)otli  Punjab  and 
Siiidli  the  bed  of  the  river  is  littered  with  islanils 
and  sandbanks.     The  cultivation  of  the  arid  plains 


through  which  tlie  lower  Indus  passes  i's  dei)endent 
upon  the  annual  overflow  of  the  river  ami  artilicial 
irrigation  fed  by  that  overflow.  The  total  length 
of  the  river  is  estimated  at  somewhat  more  than 
1800  miles,  and  the  area  of  its  drainage  ba-sin  at 
372,700  sij.  m.  The  Indus  abounds  with  lish  of 
excellent  (inality,  and  is  infested  by  crocodiles. 
Before  the  opening  of , the  Indus  Valley  Hailway  in 
1878  the  river  was  necessarily  the  princi]ial  means 
for  the  transmission  of  commerce ;  but  since  that 
event  the  railway  has  very  greatly  superseded 
navigation. 
Industrial  Schools.     This   term   is   used 

very  variously,  sometimes  being  synonymous  with 
Ragged  Schools,  in  which  mechanical  arts  are 
tauglit ;  sometimes  designating  ordinary  element- 
ary schools,  in  which  agricultural  or  some  other 
industiial  art  is  taught  to  the  boys  during  one 
portion  of  the  school-day,  or  in  which  sewing,  cook- 
ing, washing,  and  ironing  are  taught  to  the  girls. 
See  EniCATiox,  Technical  Edication,  Rai:c;ed 
Schools. 

Inebriates.  Retre.\ts  kok.  The  Habitual 
Drunkards  Act,  1879,  amended  and  made  perma- 
nent by  the  Inebriates  Act,  1888,  made  provision 
for  the  licensing  of  institutions  for  the  reception 
and  treatment  of  habitual  drunkards.  By  these  acts 
an  inebriate  might  sign  a  bond  before  two  justices 
of  the  peace  for  a  period  not  exceeding  twelve 
moiilhs,  under  which  the  licensee  of  the  retreat  had 
power  to  detain  and  control  him  during  the  time 
s])ecifled.  No  provision  was  made  for  the  committal 
of  any  one  against  his  will,  nor  for  the  establish- 
ment  of  retreats  for  the  reception  of  per.sous  unable 
to  pay  for  their  maintenance.  The  Inebriates  Act 
of  1898,  which  came  into  force  on  1st  January  1899, 
gives  jiower  to  courts  of  justice  to  commit  persons 
convicleil  of  jienal  offences  whose  oll'ence  may  l>e 
traced  to  drink,  or  who  may  be  found  to  be  habitual 
drunkards,  to  three  years'  detention  in  a  state  (<»• 
certilied  )  inebriate  reformatory.  The  Secretary  of 
State  is  eniiK)wer.ed  to  establish  state  inebriate 
reformatories,  or,  on  ap]>Ucation  from  county  or 
borough  councils  or  ]irivate  persons,  to  certify 
private  inebriate  reformatories.  Full  provision  is 
made  for  the  conducting  and  management  of  these 
institutions.  The  act  applies  to  the  whole  United 
Kingdom.  An  amending  act  ( 1899)  provides  for  the 
payment  of  expenses  of  prosecutions  under  the  act. 

In  .\merica  there  were  in  1895  above  lilty  such 
hospitals,  with  over  1000  patients,  in  some  states 
of  the  Union,  inebriates  may  l)e  com)inlsorily 
coiumittc<l  to  these  institutions.  It  is  claimed 
that  '  in  fully  3000  cases,  35  per  cent,  of  those  who 
had  renuiined  under  treatment  at  least  one  year 
had  been  permanently  restored.' 

Inertia  (l^at.,  'inactivity'),  a  universal  pro- 
perty of  matter,  fully  described  in  Newton's  first 
law  of  motion,  which  asserts  that  crcry  bodi/ 
perseveres  in  its  state  of  rest  or  of  uniform  motion 
in  a  straight  line  except  in  so  far  us  it  is  eompelh'il 
by  force  to  alter  that  state.  Part  of  this  principle 
was  known  to  the  ancients,  ami  by  them  attrib- 
uted to  a  certain  repugnance  to  motion,  which 
was  ik  characteristic  c)f  all  matter;  but  it  was 
.shown  by  (iaiileo  that  just  as  the  body  at  rest 
could  not  of  itself  begin  to  move,  so  the  body  in 
motion  cinild  not  of  itself  come  to  rest. — The 
Moment  of  Inertia  is  the  sum  of  the  products  of 
every  ])article  of  a  ma.ss  into  the  corresponding 
distan<-e  from  a  given  point  or  axis  of  rotation. 

Ines  de  t'astro.    See  Ca.stko. 

inraililtility.  the  imnmnily  from  i>rror,  in 
all  that  regards  faith  and  morals,  which  is 
claimed  by  the  Uonian  Catholic  Church,  and, 
at  lea-st  an  reganls  the  ]>!i«t,  by  the  (ireek 
Church,    as    represented    in    the    ilecrees    of    the 


132 


INFALLIBILITY 


INFANT 


councils  wliicli  that  clniroli  looks  upon  as  ecu- 
menioal.  The  latter  elaiiii.  however,  whieli  doe-? 
not  ,uo  Ijovonil  that  of  iiicrniini),  or  actual  exenip 
tion  from  error  uji  to  the  jireseut  time,  clitters 
widely  from  that  of  iiifallihilitv,  as  put  forward  hy 
the  Itoman  Cliurcli,  which  involves  not  alone  an 
actual  historical  imniuuity  from  error,  Irat  also 
such  a  positive  and  ahidiug  assistance  of  the  Spirit 
of  (,!od  as  will  at  all  times  lioth  protect  ajjaiust 
the  possihility  of  error  and  guide  and  direct  in 
the  taithful  teacliiuy  of  all  necessary  truth.  The 
infallihility  claimed  hy  the  Homan  Church  is  thus 
of  two  kinds,  passive  and  active — the  first  (Matt. 
xvi.  18),  in  virtue  of  which  the  church  never 
can  receive  or  embrace  any  erroneous  doctrine,  no 
matter  hy  whom  proposed  ;  the  secoml,  in  virtue 
of  which  she  is  charged  with  the  function  (Matt, 
x.vviii.  U):  Mark.  .\vi.  1.5;  Ephes.  iv.  11-16)  of 
permanently  tc(if/iin(/  to  the  world  the  essential 
truths  of  (Jod,  of  actively  resisting  every  access  of 
error,  and  of  authoritatively  deciding  every  con- 
troversy hy  which  the  oneness  of  helief  among  the 
faithful  may  he  endangered.  Catlioli<-s  regard  this 
gift  as  a  natural  and  necessary  accompaniment  of 
the  authority  in  matters  of  faith  with  which  they 
helieve  the  cliurch  to  he  invested,  and  wliicli,  if  not 
guided  in  its  exercise  hy  such  infallihle  assistance, 
would  he  hut  a  false  light  and  an  attractive  but 
dangerous  instrument  of  delusion. 

Such  is  the  notion  of  infallihility  as  claimed  by 
the  Roman  Church.  Two  very  impoitant  and 
practical  ipiestions,  however,  arise  regarding  it, 
both  of  wliicli  have  been  the  occasion  of  nnich  con- 
troversy even  among  Catholics  themselves  :  ( 1 )  as 
to  the  subject — the  seat  or  the  organ  of  this  in- 
fallibility, and  (2)  as  to  the  object — the  matters 
to  which  it  extends. 

As  to  the  first,  all  Catholics  have  been  agreed 
that  the  body  of  bishojis,  morally  speaking,  through- 
out the  church,  acting  in  common  with  the  pope, 
constitute  the  most  perfect  organ  of  the  infallibility 
of  the  church  ;  and  hence,  that  when  they  unite  in 
any  way,  whether  asseudded  in  a  general  council 
or  separated  in  place,  their  judgment  is  infallible. 
Thus,  if  a  doctrinal  decree  was  addressed  oflicially 
by  the  )iope  to  the  whole  church,  and  either  ex- 
pressly contirmed  or  tacitly  accepted  by  the  bishops, 
this  decree  was  held  to  he  infallible.  In  like  man 
ner,  if  a  doctrinal  decree,  emanating  even  from  a 
local  council,  as  that  of  a  national,  or  e\'en  a  pro- 
vincial chundi,  was  universally  accepted  by  the 
nope  and  the  bishops,  that  decree  also  was  held  to 
tie  infallible.  In  a  word,  wherever  there  is  found 
the  luiitiil  judgment  of  the  pop(!  and  the  bishops,  all 
have  agreed  in  acce|>ting  it  as  the  infallible  judg- 
ment of  the  church.  But  should  the  jiope  alone 
judge  without  the  bishops,  then  arose  tlie  well- 
known  dispute  of  the  (lallican  and  Ultrainoutane 
divines  ;  the  latter  allirnung,  the  former  denying, 
the  papal  judgment  to  lie  infallible  ;  liut  all  agree- 
ing that  it  was  not  bin<liug  as  im  article  of  Catholic 
faith  >o  long  as  it  had  not  received  the  assent  of 
the  liody  of  the  bishops.  Hy  the  decree  of  the 
Vatican  ( 'ouncil  ( 1870 )  this  controversy  was  decided 
after  much  discussion  ;  the  constitution  Pantor^tcr- 
«H.s-  teaches  '  that  when  the  Roman  Hontill' speaks 
e.r  cuthnlril — that  is,  when  he,  using  his  office  iis 
pastor  and  <loctor  of  all  Christians,  in  virtue  of  his 
apostolic  oHice  defines  a  ilocUinc  of  faith  and 
morals  to  be  held  by  the  whole  church — he  by  the 
divine  assistance,  |)romised  to  him  in  the  blessed 
Peter,  possesses  thai  infallihility  with  which  the 
Divine  Hedeenier  was  ]deased  to  invest  his  church 
in  the  definition  of  doctrine  on  faith  or  morals,  and 
that  therefore  such  definitions  of  the  lioman 
J'ontifl'  are  irreformable  in  their  own  luilure  and 
not  because  of  the  consent  of  the  church.'  See 
I'ol'E. 


On  the  matters  or  subjects  to  which  the  gift  of 
infallibility  extends  Catholics  are  agreed  in  one 
l)rinciple,  that  it  embraces  all  those  subjects,  and 
those  only,  which  are  necessary  for  the  maintenance 
of  divine  truth  in  the  church.  Hence,  jiresuppos- 
ing  di\ine  revelation,  either  written  or  oral,  it 
embraces  all  questions  of  faith  and  morality,  all 
subjects  of  general  discipline,  so  far  at  least  as  to 
jireclude  the  introiluction,  by  authority  of  the 
church,  of  any  discipline  which  should  be  injurious 
to  faith  or  to  morality.  On  the  other  hand,  it  does 
imt  embrace  questions  of  science,  or  matters  of  fact,^ 
or  abstract  opinions  unconnected  with  religion.  On 
this  point  all  Catholics  have  been  agreed.  But  a 
very  celebrated  disputi-  arose  in  the  17th  century, 
on  occasion  of  the  Auijiistiniis  of  Jansenius,  as  to 
the  infallibility  of  the  church  in  judging  of  books, 
out  of  which  originated  the  well-known  Jansenist 
distinction  of  lau'  and  of  fact  (see  J.VNSE.NISM). 
On  this  subject  it  will  be  enotigli  to  say  tliat 
all  Catholics  are  now  agreed  in  recognising  as  a 
necessary  condition  to  the  effective  infallibility 
that  it  should  extend  to  the  judgments  upon  books 
so  far  as  to  decide  whether  the  doctrine  contained 
therein  may  or  may  not  be  opposed  to  sound  faith 
or  morality. 

[  The  Vatican  Council  produced  a  large  literature,  in- 
cluding Cecconi,  Storia  del  Concilia  Vutinmo  ( 1873 ) ; 
Frond,  Actes  ct  Histoire  da  Concile  Qicuminiiiue  de  Hume 
(8  vols.  1870-73).  Salmon's  Infallibilit>/  of  the  Cliurcli 
(1889)  discusses  the  doctrine  controversially  from  the 
Protestant  point  of  view.]  See  also  B.vsEi.  ( ConNCli.  of  ), 
Pope,  Kojian  Catholic  Church,  &c.,  and  Hev.  1).  Lyon.s, 
Cliristidtiit;/  unit  In/all ilili til— Both  or  Neither  (1892). 

IllfiUliy.  in  Law,  was  a  stigma  attaching  to  the 
character  of  a  person  so  as  to  iliscpialify  him  from 
being  a  witness.  It  was  distinguished  into  infamy 
of  fact  and  infamy  of  law.  Infamy  of  fact  results 
from  a  depraved  course  of  life  and  abaudiuied 
character,  of  law  tVom  the  sentence  of  a  c(mrt 
finding  the  person  guilty  of  any  crime  to  which 
the  character  of  infamy  attached.  Since  1843  it  has 
not  been  possible  to  exclude  a  witness  on  the 
grouiul  of  infamy,  though  (pn'stions  as  to  character 
and  as  to  crimes  committed  by  a  witness  may  be 
asked  with  a  view  of  atl'ecting  his  cre<libility. 

llllailt,  in  English  law,  is  a  term  which  in- 
cludes all  persons  under  the  age  of  twentv-one. 
Such  persons  aie  subject  to  special  rules  of  law, 
which  may  be  summarised  as  follows  : 

( 1 )  Crime. — A  child  tinder  seven  cannot  be  con 
victed  of  crime  :  a  child  between  seven  and  four- 
teen can  be  convicted  if  it  is  shown  that  he  knew 
the  nature  of  his  act.     A   boy  under  fourteen  is 
presumed  incajiable  of  rape. 

(2)  Marriatjc. — Boys  under  fourteen  and  girls 
under  twelvt?  cannot  contract  marriage.  As  a 
general  rule,  infants  of  nnirriageable  age  require  the 
con.sent  of  parents  or  guardians  to  marry  ;  but  the 
absence  of  such  consent  does  not  afl'ect  the  validity 
of  a  marriage  actually  solemnised.  A  perscui  pro- 
curing the  marriage  of  an  infant  by  fiatid  forfeits 
any  property  which  accrues  to  him  or  her  from  the 
marnage. 

(3)  Properli/  and  Contraet. — An  infant  may 
acquire  and  dispose  of  property,  enter  into  eon- 
tracts,  and  carry  on  business  ;  but  he  is  privileged 
to  repuiliale  lialiilily  for  his  acts,  except  in  certain 
cases.  Contracts  for  necessaries  (i.e.  for  things 
suitable  to  the  infant's  po.sition  in  life)  are  binding 
on  him  :  and  settlements,  &c.,  executed  with  the 
approval  of  a  judge,  in  terms  of  certain  acts  of 
jiarliament,  are  also  binding.  (Jn  coming  of  age 
an  infant  may  confirm  or  lesciiul  any  act  by  which 
he  has  aci|iiired  or  disposed  of  pr()])erty  <luring 
infancy  ;  if  he  continues  to  hold  luoiierty  ac(|uired, 
he  must  perform  obligations  connected  with  it  :  if 
e.g.  he  has  acquired  shares  in  a  company,  he  nuist 


INFANT 


INFANTE 


133 


pay  calls  on  thein.  If  he  luvs  entered  into  a  con- 
tinuing contract  (e.g.  a  contract  of  partnei-sliip ), 
lie  is  taken  to  have  conlinneil  it,  unless  he  re.scinds 
anil  ceases  to  take  the  Kenehtof  it  within  a  reason- 
alile  time.  As  for  his  other  contracts,  he  might 
formerly  have  conlirmeil  them  liy  an  i\rprcAs  ratili- 
cation  ;  he  is  now  precluded  from  doing  so  by  the 
Infants'  Belief  Act  of  1874,  which  enacts  that  no 
action  shall  be  brought  on  the  ratidcatiou  of  a 
promise  made  during  infancy.  No  will  made  by  a 
person  under  twenty-one  is  valid.  An  infant  may 
bring  an  action  by  his  jmir/ir/n  ami  or  next  friend 
(usually  his  father,  if  living).  If  an  action  is 
brought  against  him,  a  guar<lian  ad  litem  may  be 
appointed.  A  parent  or  guardian  is  not  liable  for 
the  <lebts  of  an  infant,  unless  he  has  expre-ssly  or  by 
implication  contracted  to  pay  them.  An  infant 
may  contract  as  agent  for  a  person  of  full  age  ;  in 
this  case  his  acts  are  regarded  as  the  acts  of  his 
jirincipal. 

In  Scotland  the  law  ditt'ers  in  many  respects 
from  the  law  of  England  on  this  subject.  The 
term  infant  is  not  used  at  all  in  a  technical  sense. 
All  persons,  if  male,  are  in  legal  strictness  called 
^lupils  till  fourteen,  and  if  female,  till  twelve  ;  and 
trom  fourteen  or  twelve  to  twenty-one  they  are 
technically  called  minors.  In  general,  the  contracts 
of  a  pupil  are  absolutely  void,  and  he  is  under  the 
care  of  tutors,  who  are  either  his  parents  or  othei-s 
appointed  by  the  court.  A  minor,  on  the  other 
hand,  may  enter  into  contracts  ;  but  if  they  are 
to  his  lesion  or  prejudice  he  can  reduce  or  set 
them  a;side  any  time  within  four  years  after 
majority.  Moreover,  if  a  minor  go  into  trade,  his 
contracts  bind  him,  as  they  do  other  persons. 
Further,  a  minor  can  make  a  will  or  testament, 
operating  on  his  movable  estate,  though  he  cannot 
alienate  his  heritable  estate  in  like  manner.  The 
four  years  which  are  allowed  to  him  after  majority 
to  consider  whether  he  will  set  a.'^ide  contracts  are 
called  qiuidricnniian  utile  :  and  if  he  can  prove 
lesion  he  is  in  that  period  entitled  to  restitution. 
In  Scotland,  also,  a  minor  may  marry  as  freely  as 
if  he  were  a  major,  and,  indeed,  he  is  in  general 
I  his  own  master,  or  sui  juris,  at  the  age  of  fourteen 
j    (a  female  at  twelve).     See  the  article  Age. 

lufant.  Feeding  of.  When  the  health  and 
strength  of  the  mother  admit  of  it,  there  is  no 
doubt  that  the  food  provided  by  nature  is  far  the 
l)est  suited  for  infant  nourishment.  In  this  case 
the  child  should  be  fed  entirely  on  breast  milk  for 
the  first  six  or  eight  months  at  least,  and  partially 
for  the  remainder  of  the  lirst  year  of  life.  Beyond 
this  period,  nursing  is  usually  injurious  to  mother 
and  child,  but  is  often  continued  bec^iuse  of  the 
idea  that  it  tends  to  ])reveut  juegnancy.  If  from 
any  cause  the  mother  is  unable  to  nui-se  her  infant, 
a  wet-nurse  is  the  best  substitute ;  though  the 
improvement  ett'ected  in  the  pre]>aration  of  artificial 
foods  has  rendered  this  method  of  bringing  up 
infants  less  commcm  than  it  used  to  be.  The 
selection  of  a  suitable  nurse  shimld  be  entrusted  to 
the  medical  adviser,  and  is  a  resjjonsible  and  diffi- 
cult duty.  When  neither  of  these  methods  is 
available,  the  milk  of  .some  animal  has  to  be  used, 
(■oats'  milk  anil  asses'  milk  have  both  been  recom- 
meniled,  ;is  more  nearly  resembling  human  milk 
than  cows'  milk  does;  but,  as  they  are  alnmst 
always  ditlicult  to  procure,  while  cows'  milk  is 
abundant  and  cheap,  it  is  thi>  which  in  the  vast 
majority  of  cases  must  be  employed.  The  differ- 
ences between  human  milk  and  cows'  milk  must 
therefore  l)e  recogniseil  and  allowed  for.  They 
may  lie  summed  up  as  follows  :  f 'ows'  milk  con- 
tains much  less  sugar,  rather  less  fat,  ami  consider- 
ablv  ijiore  albuminoids  than  human  milk  ;  ami 
under  the  action  of  acids  a  much  larger  proportion 
of  albuminoids  coagulate,  and  form  a  much  firmer 


clot  in  the  former  than  in  the  latter.  To  a.ssimi- 
late  cows'  milk  as  closely  as  ]iossible  to  the  natural 
food  of  the  infant,  it  must  be  modilicd  in  >ome  such 
way  ;!,■<  the  following  :  One  tablopooiiful  of  milk 
to  be  mixed  with  half  a  tablc.-pnonful  of  cream, 
two  tablesjioonfuls  of  water  (boiled  ),  and  a  quarter 
of  a  teaspoonful  of  milk  sugar  for  each  meal  during 
the  first  month.  If  the  cows  milk  still  forms  too 
firm  a  clot,  a  tablespoonful  of  lime  water,  or  of 
barley  water,  may  be  substituted  for  one  table- 
spoonful  of  Jilain  water ;  or  a  little  .solution  of 
gelatine,  orot  one  of  the  prcjiared  foods  for  infants, 
such  its  Mellin's,  may  be  acldeil.  The  (|uantity  of 
milk.  \c.  nmst  be  gradually  increased  ivs  the  cliild 
grows,  till  at  the  sixth  month  il  has  nine  table- 
spoonfnls  of  milk,  one  of  cream,  two  of  water,  and 
a  teaspoonful  of  milk  sugar  at  each  meal.  It  is 
sometimes,  but  not  generally,  necessary  to  secure  a 
supply  of  milk  from  one  cow.  If  ordinary  milk 
disagrees,  predigestion  (by  Uenger's  liquor  pan- 
creaticus  or  Fairchild's  [le^itonising  powder  1  may 
overcome  the  difficulty.  It  milk  cannot  be  borne 
in  any  form,  .some  substitute  (prepared  'infants' 
food,'  chicken  broth,  raw  meat  juice,  «S:c.)must  be 
used.  But  in  all  such  difficult  cases,  medical 
advice  should  be  sought. 

There  is  no  more  fruitful  source  of  illness  in 
infants  brought  up  on  the  bottle  than  inijierfect 
attenti(ui  to  cleanliness,  which  leads  to  souring  of 
the  nulk  and  severe  indigestion.  There  should 
always  be  at  least  two  bottles,  tubes,  I'tc.  in  use; 
and  after  a  meal  the  apparatus  shouhl  at  once  be 
taken  to  pieces,  thoroughly  cleansed  with  soda  and 
water,  and  left  steeping  in  fresh  Iwiled  water  till  it 
is  required.  No  cork,  wood,  or  other  aliMirbent 
substance  should  be  used  in  the  cimstruction  of  the 
fittings  of  the  bottle,  as  this  renders  perfect  cleanli- 
ness ahnost  impossible. 

Till  after  the  sixth  month  at  least  the  infant  is 
unable  to  digest  starchy  foods,  unless  specially  pre- 
pared as  in  the  'infants'  fooil  ;'  and  the  giving  of 
rusks,  biscuit-crumbs,  &c.  before  this  period  cannot 
be  too  strongly  condemned. 

It  is  no  less  important  to  the  infant  than  to  the 
adult,  but  rather  more,  that  the  meals  shoulil  be 
taken  legularlv.  During  the  first  si.x  weeks,  w hat- 
ever  metlmd  of  feeding  is  adopted,  a  nu^al  should  be 
given  on  the  average  every  two  hours  from  o.v, M. 
to  II  P.M.  From  this  period  to  the  eighth  month 
the  interval  should  gradually  be  increa.sed  to  three 
or  four  hours,  and  always  as  far  as  |)ossilile  the  time 
of  the  meals  .should  be  the  same  froju  day  to  day. 
Of  course  these  are  merely  general  statements  ;  the 
contentedness  and  thriving  of  the  infant  are  the 
true  guides  in  each  individual  case.  To  give  it 
a  meal  every  time  it  cries  merely  overloads  the 
stomach  and  ]irovokes  disorder  of  the  digestion. 

After  the  eighth  month  live  meals  a  day  should 
be  enough,  and  two  should  con>ist  of  farinaceous 
food,  well  cooked  (rusks,  stale  bread-crumlis,  oat, 
barley,  or  wheat  Hour),  as  well  as  milk.  About 
the  tenth  month  the  yolk  of  an  egg  may  be  given 
once  or  twice  a  day,  or  chi<d<enscMip  in  its  stead. 
After  the  lirst  year  the  range  of  the  diet  nuvy  be 
gradually  increased,  bread,  mashed  potato,  meat 
broth,  lisli.  chicken,  well-boiled  vegetables  being 
gradually  addeil.  I!ul  uumy  children  thrive  well 
im  milk  and  farinaceous  food  alone  u|i  to  two  or 
three  yeais  of  age,  and  if  so  may  be  allowed  to 
continni'  on  that  diet. 

Ilirailtc  ( friun  the  Lat.  iii/ans,  'an  infant"), 
the  title  given  in  Spain  and  I'ortug-al  to  the  quinces 
of  the  royal  family,  the  corresponding  title  of 
InF,\NT-\  being  given  to  the  princesses.  Since 
1388,  however,  tin-  heir-appariuit  to  the  throne  in 
Spain  has  been  styled  the  I'rince  of  .\sturias,  .-ind 
the  heir-apjiareut  in  Piu'tugal,  until  the  separation 
of  Brazil   Irom  the  mother-country,  bore  the  title 


134 


INFANTICIDE 


of  Prince  of  Brazil.      The  personal  .loniam  of  an 
Infante  or  Infanta  is  called  the  hijaiitwlo. 

Infanticide,    or    the    nmrdering    of    infants, 
was  cmmnon  In 'ancient  tin>es,   and  still   prevails 
in  some   barbarous    coiunmnities.       The    practice 
existed   in    Greece    and    Knn>c,    and    oven    found 
defenders  in  Plato  and  Aristotle.     The  lat  er  m  lus_ 
Pnlltk.  sai.l  the  law  shonl.l  forbid  the  nnr  uring  of 
the  maimed,  and,  where  a  <-heck  to  population  is 
required,   abortion  should  lie   produced  before  the 
quckening  of  the  infant.     In  Sparta,  as  in  other 
Greek  states,  the  law  directed  that  when  a  child 
was  born  the  father  should  carry  it  to  aii  appointed 
,,lace,  there  to  be  inspected  l>y  the  elders  of  the 
eommunitv.     If  it  was  a  promising  child,  they  re^ 
turned  it  to  its  parents  to  be  educated  •  othe n  ise 
it  was  thrown  into  a  cavern  at  tbe  foot  of  Mount 
Tav-etus       In  ancient  Rome  the  Twelve  Tables 
directed    malformed    infants    to    be    immediately 
destroyed,  and  by  the  Patria  Potestas  the  father 
liad  an  absolute  power  over  his  children  extending 
t,>  life  and  <leath  ;  but  the  rigour  of  the  paternal 
law   both   as  regards  the   killing  and   the   sale   o 
infants  was  softened  bv  subsequent  legislation,  and 
es,,eciallv  bv  Numa.     Among  the  Norse  the  child  s 
life  hun<'  in' the  balance  till  tlie  father  handed  it  to 
the  nurse  to  be  reared.     If  it  was  weak  or  inal- 
f.n-med,  or  if  the  father  disapproved  of  its  living, 
the  child  was  killed  by  exposure  to  the  weatlier 
and  to  wild  beasts.      According  to  t  a;sar  the  Uauls 
^^•ere  invested   with  the  power  of  life  and  death 
over  their  children,  and  so  late  as  the    3th  century 
the  Poles  killed  imperfect  children.     Amongst  the 
Arabs  it  re(iuire.l  an  ordinance  to  prevent  the  crime 
of  killing  children  lest  the  parent  sh.mld    be  re- 
duced to  want,  and  this  element  of  anxiety  for  the 
father's  independence  and  comfort  entered  largely 
into  the  calculations  of  n.any  states,  barbarous  and 
civilised,    with    regard   to    their    posterity.       Ihe 
'    Arabs  also  Imried  female  infants  alive. 

In     modern     times     infanticide     lu-evails     only 
amonost  barbarous  or  semi-civilised  nations,  and 
even  Smongst  these  the  increased  intercourse  with 
civilised   stales    is    gradually    stamping    out    the 
practice.     Until  comparatively  recent  tunes  child- 
murder   prevailed   throughout   the    who  e    of    the 
South  Sea  Islands.     In  the  Fijian  island  of  \  anim 
Levu,  or  some  parts  of  it,  the  infanticide  reached 
till   the   middle  of   the  19th  centuiT,   a  ha  t   and 
in    others    two-thirds    of    the    child    population. 
Amongst   the   Hin.lus   the   practice  of  destroying 
children,  especially  females,  prevailed  to  a  fearfiil 
extent    until  it  was  checked  under  the   Marquis 
of  AVeilesley-s  rule  ( 1798-1805).     The  practice  was 
forbidden  In"  the  ^"edas;  but,  in  consequence  ot  the 
expense  and  the  disgrace  attached  to  girls  remain- 
ing   unmarried,    the    practice    prevailed    amongst 
th?   Raiputs-who   <lestroyed    all    fen.ales   excei.t 
the  tirst-born-and  the  native  races      The  methods 
of    killing   were    poisoning    by    pills    of    tobacco, 
drowning  in   milk,  smearing  the  mother  s  breasts 
with  opium,  and   plastering  the  numth  with  cow- 
,lun...     Notwithstanding  the  Koran,   the  Moham- 
medans were  inclined  to  the  practice   hut  et  ected 
their  object  bv  means  of  abortion,     tllmts  began 
to  be  made  towards  the  close  of  tlie  18th  century, 
amongst   others   1>v   .Jonathan  Duncan   and   Major 
-Walker,   for  tlie  suppression  of  tlie  practice,  and 
in    18.53   these   ettorts  were   at   last   crowneil  witli 
success  at  a  durliar  arrange.l  for  by  Lor.l  Lawrence 
It  was  thought  expedient  to  continue  a  system  o 
surveillance  bv  the  police  in  some  districts,   and 
to    institute    a    system    of     average    numbers    m 
families,  which  concentrated  llieir  vigilance  upon 
those   families  which   rea,'he,l   the  lowest  average. 
Amongst   the   .lapanese    the    lather   ha.  .   hut    has 
not  now,   absolute  power  ot    lite   and  <leath   o  e. 
his  children.      In  China  infanticnle  was,  and  in  tlie 


remoter  parts  of  that  vast  country  still  is,  common. 
One  of  the  causes  here  is  the  right  jiossessed  by 
rhinamen  of  periodically  repudiating  their  wives. 
Sometimes  the  infants  were  stilled  by  the  niidwives 
at  birth,  and  sometimes  they  were  cast  into  a 
neighbouring  stream,  where  in  some  cases  they 
were  humanelv  kept  alloat  by  a  gourd,  so  that  they 
might  be  saved  from  ilestruction  by  any  compas- 
sionate iierson  who  might  feel  disiiosed.  In  early 
missionary  times  it  was  a  part  of  the  d.uty  of  mis- 
sionaries to  pick  up  and  rear,  or  entrust  to  othei-s 
for  the  purpose  of  rearing,  the  waifs  wlm  had  been 
abandoned  through  the  avarice,  poverty,  or  callous- 
ness of  their  parents. 

In  nearly  all  the  cases  mentioned  infanticide  w;as 
prompted 'by  religious  or  economic  reasons,  or  m- 
dub'-ed   in   from   caprice  or  indoleiu-e  ;   and   it  was 
permitted  in  deference  to  the  jiower  with  which  in 
mimitive   communities    as    well    as    in   advanced 
:  states    like    Greece    an<l    Rome    the    father    w'as 
endued.     Modern  civilisation  deals  very  ditterentlv 
with  tlie  subject.     In  all  European  states,  althoug'h 
they  differ  widely  in  their  treatment  of  infanticide 
1  and  connate  crinies,  human  life  is  from  its  lust  to 
I  its  last'^hour  held  sacred,  and  whoexer  puts  an  enil 
to  it  is  a  murderer.     Almost  the  only  motive  which 
in  such  countries  now  leads  to  infanticide  is  that 
!  of  shame--the  parents  incurring  the  risk  of  coni- 
'  mittin>'    child-murder  to   escape    social    disgrace. 
The   etlbrts   therefore   of   legislators   and   criminal 
lawyers  on  the  one  hand  have  been  directed  to  the 
repression  of  aborti.m,  concealment  of  pregnancy, 
and   murdering  the  new-born   infant,  and  of  i.hil- 
anthroi.ists  on  the  other  to  remove  temptation  to 
<-ommit  the  graver  crimes  by  providing  I'oundling 
Hospitals  (q.v.),  where  the  offspring  of  sin  may 
hud  a  refuge.     See  also  ILLECHTIMACY. 

In  England  and  Scotland  the  inexcusable  killing 
of  infants  is  theoretically  murder,  and  the  only 
excuse   for  killing   the   fuitus  is   the  safety  ot  the 


mother;  otherwise,   Abortion   (q.v.)  is  a  crimina 
oHence      The  concealment  of  birth  is  also  a  criminal 
otlenee;    see    BlRTH    (CoNCE.^i.ment    ok).      1  he 
destruction  of  children  may  be  ellected  negativeh 
by  not  supplying  food  and  clothing,  as^well  as  by 
the  positive  act  of  woun<lin<'  or  ill-treating  :  and  it 
a  parent  or  other  person  who   is  b(miid  by  law  to 
supply  food   and   clothing  to  the  eliil.l   refuses  or 
ne'dects  to  do  so,   thereby  causing  its  .leatli,  such 
ref'iisal  or  neglect  amounts  either  to  murder  or  man- 
slaughter,  according  to  the  circumstances.     More- 
over! the  unlawful  ahandoniiig  or  exposure  of  any 
chihl  under  the  age  of  t«-o  years,  whereby  the  life 
and  health  of  the  chihl  are  endangereil,  is  a  mis- 
demeanoni    punishable    with    three    years     penal 
servitude.      Where   a  person   is  charged   with   the 
murder  of  a  very  young  child  it  is  essential  to  prove 
that  the  child  was  in  life.      I  nder  a  statute  of 
.lames    I.    there  were    presumptions    against    tlie 
mother,  but  in   1803  the  trials   tor  ollences  of  this 
class  were  placed  under  ordinary  rules  of  evidence. 
The    presumption   wliich    now  obtains    Uiat    every 
new-born    child    found    dead    was    born    dead    is 
l,elieved    by   certain   jurists   to    have    eiieourage.l 
infanticide.'      The    test    of    a    child    being    born 
alive  is   not   that   it    breathed,   or   had   an    inde- 
pendent circulation  after  it  '^'^y^V^'^f^"'''.^ 
Inother;    it   is   enough    that    the   ^■'"'''j     ,^,. 
born.     Hence,  if  a  n.an  strike  a  woman  with  ch  Id, 
so  a.  to  cause  the  death  of  the  child,  he  is  neither 
..•uiltv  of  murder  nor  of  manslaughter  of  the  child. 
Tn  ail  cases  of  the  munler  of  infants  the  question 
wliether  the  child  was  fully  born,  and  so  the  sul- 
iccl  of  murder,  is  generally  one  ot  medieal  .,un>- 
rudence.       In     England    and    \\  ales    the    annual 
u    be,  of  xerdicts^of  murder  of  infants  one  yea. 
old  ami  under  varie.l  in  18T9-8H  from  OS  to   ](.,t. 
The  alxne  oflences  in  reference  to  mfanticule  aie 


INFANTRY 


INFERNAL    MACHINES 


135 


punished  in  a  similar  manner  in  Scdtland.  where, 
thoutjli  the  killinj;  of  a  oonijiletely  horn  infant  is 
muriler,  a  verdict  of  ouliialde  homieiile  is  fre(|nently 
returned.  Concealment  of  iirej;naucy  is  the  usual 
charge  under  49  lleo.  111.  chai".  17. 

It  ha.s  been  stated  that  every  day  an  inf|nest  is 
held  upon  the  bodies  of  chililren  destroyed  through 
the  design,  the  neglect,  the  ignorance,  or  the  mental 
infirmity  of  the  mothei's.  Even  when  the  act  may 
fairly  l>e  regarded  as  a  crime,  its  enormity  is  gener- 
ally greatly  lessened  in  the  eye  of  the  law  by  the 
consideration  of  the  physical  condition  and  moral 
disturl)ance  of  the  parent. 

An  Act  of  1S72  oliliges  those  who  undertake 
for  hire  to  nurse  infants  under  llie  age  of  one  year, 
for  a  longer  period  than  twenty-four  hours,  to  have 
their  house  registered,  ami  to  keep  records  of  the 
children  they  take  charge  of.  Tlie.\'  must  also  give 
notice  to  the  coroner  or  procurator-liscal  of  such 
infants'  deaths,  and  are  under  obligation  to  keep 
sanitary  houses.  By  an  important  statute  passed 
in  1889  any  person  over  sixteen  who  wilfully  ill- 
treats,  neglects,  abaiulons,  or  exposes  a  boy  under 
fourteen  or  girl  under  sixteen  years  of  age,  or 
causes  or  procures  this  to  be  done,  in  a  manner 
likely  to  cause  the  child  unnecessary  suft'ering 
or  injury  to  its  health,  is  gtiilty  of  a  misilemeanour, 
and  is  liable  to  £100  of  tine  or  imjtrisonment  for 
two  years,  or  to  both.  Lesser  penalties  are  inflicted 
on  summary  conviction.  The  line  may  be  increa.sed 
where  the  oH'ender  is  proved  to  be  interested  in  the 
ileath  of  the  child.  See  Children  (Cruelty 
TO),  and  BiRi.AL  Societies. 

Infantry.    See  Army. 

Infant  Schools.  The  subject  has  been 
already  treated  under  Education  (4. v.).  But  there 
still  remain  a  few  points  to  be  ad\erted  to.  Pastor 
Oberlin  (q. v.)  may  be  regarded  as  the  founder  of 
infant  schools.  He  apijointed  women  in  bis  own 
parish  to  assemble  the  little  children  between  the 
ages  of  two  and  six,  to  interest  them  by  conversa- 
tion, pictures,  and  maps,  and  to  teach  them  to 
read  and  to  sew.  The  lirst  infant  school  attempted 
in  Great  Britain  was  in  connection  with  Koliert 
Owen's  socialistic  establishment  in  Scotland.  The 
education  and  training  of  young  children  were 
matters  of  great  interest  and  study  to  Pestalozzi 
( i\.  V. ).  Hls  system  was  adapteil  to  English  rerjuire- 
ments  by  the  Home  and  Colonial  Infant  School 
Society,  founded  in  1S36.  This  society  has  done 
e.vcellent  work  in  training  teachers  and  instituting 
model  infant  and  juvenile  schools.  But  the  most 
successful  system  of  educating  quite  young  children 
is  the  Kindergarten  (q.  v. ). 

Infection.  The  grounds  for  believing  that 
each  of  the  large  class  of  communicable  disea-ses 
depends  upon  the  presence  within  the  body  of  a 
distinct  living  organism  have  already  been  stated 
(see  Germ).  The  manner  in  which  each  of  these 
supposed  organisms  behaves  in  originating  fresh 
cases  of  diseii.se  is,  however,  almost  as  characteristic 
a.s  the  eliects  it  produces  on  the  body. 

(1)  In  malarial  or  miasmatic  disea.ses,  chief 
among  which  is  ague,  though  they  present  many 
analogies  to  truly  infectious  diseases,  there  is  no 
eviilence  that  the  malady  can  be  transmitted  from 
the  sick  to  the  healthy.  The  disease  poison  is 
derived  from  soil,  water,  or  air,  in  which  it  seems 
to  live  and  multiply. 

(2)  IntHrmeiliate  between  these  and  the  more 
characteristics  infectious  disea-ses  is  a  group  of 
which  cholera  and  typhoid  (enteric)  fever  maybe 
taken  as  types.  Here  the  infi'ctious  material  lia.s 
its  origin  chielly  from  the  dejecta  of  the  patient, 
but  seems  to  nc(|uire  infectious  properties  only 
after  it  has  l>een  some  time  (pndiably  for  .several 
days)  outsiiie  the  human  body. 


(3)  The  largest  and  most  typical  class  includes 
typhus,  smallpox,  measles,  scarlet  fever,  hooping- 
cough,  and  many  others.  In  all  these  the  di.sea.se 
is  directly  and  immediately  communicable  from 
the  sick  to  the  healthy.  But  there  are  striking 
ditlerences  in  the  conditions  under  which  infection 
usually  takes  ])lace.  The  ]ioison  of  typhus,  the 
dreaded  'jail  fe\er'  of  past  times,  is  rapidly 
destroyed  liy  admixture  with  air,  and  the  danger 
of  its  spreading  can  be  much  diminished  by  free 
ventilati(ui.  In  smallpo.x  the  infection  can  retain 
its  vitality  for  years  on  the  walls  of  a  room,  or  in 
the  artilicially  dried  discharge  from  the  pustules  : 
in  scarlet  fever  it  may  exist  for  many  months  in 
articles  of  clothing.  Measles  is  not  least  infectious 
in  the  early  stage,  when  it  i)resents  merely  the 
symiitoms  of  a  bad  cold  ;  scarlet  fever  infection  is 
not  at  its  worst  till  the  rash  has  faded  and  the 
skin  Ijegins  to  lie  shed. 

(4)  Tlie  last  group  consists  of  those  diseases  in 
which  the  ])oison  does  not  diffuse  itself  through  the 
air,  but  requires  to  be  directly  inoculated  to  pro- 
duce the  disease — e.g.  syphilis  and  hydrophobia. 

This  classification  of  <liseases  believed  to  be 
dejienilent  upon  organisnjs,  though  practically  con- 
venient, cannot  be  considered  a  strictly  accurate 
one ;  for  many  of  the  diseases  in  group  3,  perhajis 
all,  can  be  ]uopagated  by  inoculation,  and  the 
infection  of  some  may  be  able  to  de\  elop  outside 
the  body  and  liehave  like  those  in  group  2.  Enough 
has  been  said  to  show  the  complexity  of  the  proli- 
lems,  both  jiractical  and  scientific,  presented  by 
the  subject.  As  to  the  Infectious  Diseases  Notifi- 
cation Act  of  1889,  and  other  cognate  matters,  see 
Hygiene,  Di.sinfec'T.\nt.s,  Cont.\gion,  and  the 
articles  on  the  several  diseases. 

Infeftinent.  or  S.vsine,  a  Scotch  law  term, 
used  to  denote  the  symbolical  giving-  possession  of 
land,  which  was  the  com])letion  of  tlie  title,  the 
mere  conveyance  not  being  enough.  The  instru- 
ment of  sasine  was  the  notarial  instrument  embody- 
ing the  fact  of  infeftment.  The  old  ceremony, 
which  was  not  abolished  until  184.5,  was  thus  per- 
formed. The  bailie  of  the  superior  of  the  lands, 
the  attorney  of  the  vassal,  a  notary,  and  two 
witnesses  proceeded  to  the  lands  in  which  sasine 
was  to  be  granted.  The  attorney  delivered  to  the 
bailie  the  superior's  precept  of  sasine,  and  required 
him  to  perform  his  duties.  The  bailie  delivered 
the  warrant  and  relative  deeds  to  the  notary,  who 
read  antl  published  them  to  all  present.  The  bailie 
thereupon  delivered  the  symbols  of  possession, 
sometimes  a  pen,  to  the  attorney,  and  the  attorney 
then  took  instruments  in  the  hands  of  the  notary 
by  gdving  him  a  piece  of  money.  But  now  the 
necessity  of  a  separate  formality  is  unnecessary,  it 
being  sufficient  to  register  a  conveyance  in  the 
register  of  sasines  in  Scotland.  In  Scotland  an 
infeftment  in  xeeuritij  is  a  temjiorary  infeftment  to 
secure  |)ayment  of  some  ilebt  :  and  an  infeftment 
of  relief  \s  a  similar  security  to  relieve  a  cautioner. 

Infernal  Machines,  contrivances  made  to 
resemble  ordinary  harmless  objects,  but  charged 
with  some  dangerous  explosive.  An  innocent-look- 
ing box  (u-  similar  receptacle  is  partly  filleil  with 
dynamite  or  other  explosive,  the  rest  of  the  space 
l)eing  occnjiied  by  some  mechanical  arrangement, 
mostly  clockwork,  which  moves  inamlibly,  and  is 
generally  so  contiived  that,  when  it  has  run  down 
at  the  end  of  a  predetermined  number  of  honi->* 
or  days,  it  shall  cause  the  exi>losive  substance  to 
explode.  Kor  a  statement  of  the  uses  to  w  hich  this 
cla.ss  of  infernal  machines  ha.s  been  put  by  the 
anarchist  parties,  see  Dyxamitk.  Fire-ships  (q. v.) 
were  employed  in  former  times ;  and  niouern 
nations  apply  a  shnilar  |)rinciple  in  their  torpedo 
boats  (see  TORriCDOKS).     Bombs  or  hand-grenades, 


136 


INFIDEL 


INFLAMMATION 


ill  so  far  as  they  have  been  eiiiployeil  for  the 
felonious  destruction  of  human  life,  must  also  l)e 
accounted  infernal  machines.  The  most  notorious 
instances  have  been  the  unsuccessful  attempt  on 
Xapoleon  111.  by  Orsiui  (q.v.)  in  1S5S  and  the  kill- 
ing of  Alexander  11.  of  Russia  in  1881.     See  also 

ChIC.VGO,  ANARCHIST.S. 

Infidel, among.st  Christians,  popularly  means  one 
who  rejects  Christianity  as  a  divine  re\  elation,  but 
is  not  used  of  heathens  (thoujjli  they  are  iiifdc/es, 
Lat.  '  unfaithful ' )  or  heretics.  By  Moslems  Chris- 
tians are  called  hv  a  corresponding  term  ( 'giaour,' 
'  kaffir,'  &c. ).  See  Atheism,  Deis.m,  Apologetics, 
Christianitv,  Heresy,  Persecition. 

Infinite.  In  philosophy,  infinite  is  that  which 
is  witliout  any  limitation,  and,  like  absolute  and 
unconditioned,  is  used  especially  of  the  Infinite,  of 
(iod.  As  to  our  knowledge  of  the  infinite,  some 
( as  Hamilton  and  Mansel )  hold  that  the  idea  is 
purely  negative ;  Descartes  attirmeil  that  the  idea 
of  the  infinite  was  not  merely  the  idea  of  an  objec- 
tive reality,  but  is  implied  as  a  necessary  con- 
dition of  every  other.  See  Absoute,  Condition, 
Kelativity  OF  Knowledge;  Haniikon's  />/>- 
):iisxio»s,  Mansel's  Limits,  Calderwood's  Philosopliii 
of  the  Infnitc,  Spencer's  First  Principles. 

In  matheniatics,  the  term  infinity  and  the 
phrases  infinitely  great  and  infinitely  small  are  of 
constant  occurrence  ;  and  the  symbol  oo  is  usually 
said  to  denote  a  magnitude  infinitely  great, 
the  symbol  0  a  magnitude  infinitely  small.  Are 
these  magnitudes  infinitely  great  and  infinitely 
small  to  be  reasoned  about  in  the  same  way  as 
ordinary  finite  magnitudes?  Are  these  symbols 
oc  and  6  to  be  treated  in  the  same  way  as  ordinary 
algeT>raic  symbols,  «,  6,  ,t,  y,  &c.  ?  \Vitli  respect 
to  the  symbol  0  there  seems  at  first  sight  to  be 
little  dilticulty,  for  we  are  accustomed  to  regard  it 
as  denoting  the  absence  of  all  quantity,  or  as  the 
result  obtained  by  subtracting  any  finite  i[uantity 
from  a  quantity  equal  to  it.  It  is  found  convenient 
however,  though  it  would  be  impossible  to  e.\plain 
in  short  compass  the  grounds  of  the  convenience,  to 
give  another  meaning  to  the  symbol  0.  The  new 
meaning  will  perliaps  be  understood  from  the 
following  illustration.     Take   the   algebraical   e.\- 

pression    -,  and  suppose  x  capable   of   increasing 

so  that  it  may  become  greater  than  any  assignable 

quantity  ;  then  the  value  of       will  diminish  and 

become  less  than  any  assignable  quantity,  and  the 
limit  towards  which"  it  tends,  that  is  to  say,  the 
value  from  which  it  may  be  maile  to  dilt'cr  as  little 
as  we  please,  is  symbolised  by  0.  The  same  ex- 
pression will  enable  us  to  give  a  meaning  to  the 
symbol  oo.  Suppo.se  x  ca))able  of  diminishing  so 
tliat    it    may   become    less    than    any    a-ssignable 

<|uantity  ;   then  the  value  of    ,  will  increa.se  and 

become  greater  than  any  a-ssi^nahle  quantity,  and 
the  limit  towards  which  it  tends,  that  is  to  say,  the 
value  from  which  it  may  be  made  to  ditler  as  little 
as  we  i)lease,  is  syml)olised  by  oo.  The  symbols  0 
and  oc  therefore,  denoting  the  limits  towards  which 
certain  variable  quantities  tend  when  jiarticular 
supi>ositions  are  made,  cannot  be  used  absolutely 
like  the  symbols  denoting  finite  quantitii's  :  because 
rt  -j-  rt  =  1,  it  would  be  erroneous  to  conchnle 
that  0  ^  0  =  1  or  oo  -;  oo  —  1.  Expressions  such 
as  0  :-  0,  oo  -=-  oo,  rx:  -  cc;  0  •:  oo,  oc°,  and  some 
others  are  called  indeterminate  forms  :  for  methods 
of  evaluating  them,  see  Chrystal's  Alijclim,  chap. 
XXV.,  or  De  Morgan's  Differential  and  Integral 
Ciilriiliis,  chap.  X. 

Infinitesimals  is  the  name  apjilied  to  the  method 
adojited  by  Leibnitz  .us  the  foundation  of  his  I  litter- 


ential  Calculus.  Leibnitz  considered  magnitudes 
as  composed  of  infinitely  small  elements  or  infini- 
tesimahs.  Those  elements  which  are  infinitely 
small  comjiared  to  any  finite  magnitude  arc  inliiii- 
te.simals  of  the  first  degree :  those  which  are  infinitely 
small  compared  to  infinitesimals  of  the  first  degree 
are  infinitesimals  of  the  second  degree  ;  and  so  on. 
The  principle  of  the  method  brietiy  stated  is  that 
two  finite  magnitudes  are  eipial  if  they  ditler  only 
by  an  infinitely  small  magnitude.  Th(i\igh  the 
results  (djtained  by  the  ajvplication  of  infinitesimals 
are  seen  to  be  always  in  accord  with  the  ifsults 
olitained  by  other  methods,  and  a  method  which 
always  leads  to  correct  conclusions  nuist  be  logically 
sound,  vet  the  fundamental  principle  does  not  at 
fii-st  siglit  seem  rigorously  exact,  and  the  method 
looks  as  if  it  were  merely  one  of  approximation.  In 
consequence  it  has  now  come  t<i  be  usual  to  found 
the  calculus  on  the  doctrine  of  limits. 

Infinitesimal  C'alenlns.    SeeCAi.ciLvs. 
Infirniarie.s.    See  Hosi-n  al. 

Inflammation  is  the  most  important  of  all  the 
morbid  processes  that  fall  under  tlie  notice  of  the 
physician  or  sui'geon.  The  most  ob\ious  >yniptoms 
or  phenomena  of  intlammation,  when  it  attacks  an 
external  or  visible  part,  are  pain,  redness,  heat, 
and  swelling.  If  a  healthy  man  ^'ets  a  splinter  of 
wood  or  any  other  foreign  body  mdiedded  in  any 
lleshy  part  he  begins  to  experience  pain  at  the 
part,  and  this  is  soon  succeeded  by  redne.ss  of  the 
skin.  In  its  early  stages  the  ]irocess  is  known  as 
irritation;  but  soon,  if  the  foreign  body  be  not 
removed,  the  pain  and  redness  increase,  and  are 
accompanied  by  a  firm  and  extremely  tender  swell- 
ing at  and  around  the  spot,  and  a  sense  of  abnormal 
heat.  These  purely  local  symjitoms  are  succeeded, 
if  the  infiammation  reach  a  certain  degree  of  in- 
tensity, by  a  general  derangement  of  the  \a.scular 
and  nervous  systems,  to  which  various  names,  such 
as  constitutional  disturbance,  sym]>tomatic  or  in- 
tiammatory  fever,  iS.c.,  have  been  apjdied. 

Numerous  observers  have  attempted  to  trace  the 
exact  idienomena  of  intlammation,  by  microscopic 
exannnation  of  the  transparent  parts  of  animals  in 
which  the  process  has  been  artificially  excited. 
Fiom  observation  made  on  the  web  of  the  frog's 
foot  and  other  transparent  parts  of  animals  by 
AVharton  Jones,  Paget,  Cohnheim,  lUirdon  Sander- 
son, Ziegler,  anil  many  others,  the  main  features  of 
the  process  are  now  well  known. 

In  inHammati<m  of  moderate  severity  the  Tilood- 
ve.ssels  of  the  ]iart  are  seen  to  dilate,  and  the  current 
of  blooil  through  them,  at  first  sometimes  a  little 
accelerated,  become>  much  slower  than  the  normal. 
In  consequence  of  this  retardation  the  white  blood- 
corjuiscles,  being  somewhat  sticky  in  consistence, 
fall  out  of  the  central  stream,  and  drag  along  the 
sides  of  the  vessel,  where,  as  the  inllammation 
increases,  they  are  arrested.  Then  hdlows  the  most 
remarkable  jiart  of  the  |irocess.  .Minute  buds  are 
seen  to  form  on  the  outsiile  of  the  walls  of  the 
veins  and  capillaries,  each  one  corrcsiioniling  to  a 
white  blood -coriiusde  in  the  interior.  These  buds 
grow  larger  at  the  expense  of  the  corpuscles,  which 
thus  pass  through  the  wall  of  the  vessel  without  any 
break  in  its  continuity  ;  and  the  migration  continues 
till  tlie  tissiie  around  the  vessels  is  crowded  with  cor- 
piiscles.  .\t  the  same  lime  an  abnormal  quantity 
of  fluid  exudes  through  the  walls  of  the  blooil- 
vessids.  and  in  jiart  coagulates,  forming  with  the 
lorjiuscles  what  is  known  as  coagnilable  or  jdastic 
lymph.  From  the  caiiillaries  red  as  well  as  white 
liloodcorpuscles  ]ia«s  into  the  tissues.  If  the  in- 
llammation be  more  intense  coni)dete  arrest  of  the 
How  iii  blooil  in  the  vessels  (stasis)  takes  plai'e. 

We  may  now  consider  the  explanation  of  the 
cardinal  symiitoms  of  intlammation.     The  redness 


INFLAMMATION 


INFLORESCENCE 


137 


<lepeiuls  upon  there  l>einj;  more  Mood  than  usual 
in  the  blood-vessels  of  the  atlec'ted  jiarl  :  soinotiiiies 
also  noon  the  occurrence  of  lieiiiorrlia^'c  in  tlio  in- 
Hanieit  tissue.  The  sirelliiir)  depends  in  jiart  iijion 
the  ilisiension  of  the  blood-vessels,  but  mainly  upon 
the  effusion  of  fluids  and  blood-corimscles  above 
described.  The.se  are  termed  the  jinnliicts  of  in- 
ttamniation  ;  and  many  changes,  some  of  a  repara- 
tive nature  and  others  of  an  injurious  tendency, 
depend  upon  their  luesence.  The  jniin  may  vary 
from  mere  discomfort  to  intense  agony.  It  Ls 
probably  due  to  compression  of  the  sensory  nerves 
of  the  ati'eeted  i>art  by  the  dilated  ve.ssels, 
and  the  e.xudation.  It  is  often  throbbing. 
There  is  usually  most  pain  in  those  )>arts  in 
which  the  tension  |)roduced  by  the  swelling  is 
the  greatest,  as  in  bone,  serous  and  fibrous  mem- 
l>ranes,  &c.  The  jiain  occurring  in  inllaniniation  is 
always  aggravated  by  pressure,  and  by  this  means 
the  physician  can  often  distinguish  between  in- 
Hamniatorv  and  noninflammatory  disorders.  The 
h(rit  is  selilom  so  much  increased  as  the  sensations 
of  the  patient  would  lead  him  to  believe ;  it  does 
not  rise  above  the  maximum  heat  of  the  blood  in 
the  interior  of  the  body.  This  increase  of  heat 
depends  upon  the  increased  How  of  arterial  (or 
highly  o.xidised)  blood  to  the  part. 

The  blood  obtained  by  Ideeding  a  patient  suffering 
from  inflammation  of  any  imjiortant  organ  usually 
presents  a  peculiar  appearance  after  coagulation 
Kiu)wn  as  the  6i{^y  cottMsee  Ul.ooD).  Another  and 
a  more  important  change  in  the  blood  in  intlannna- 
tion  is  the  augmentation  of  the  fibrin,  which  often 
rises  to  two,  three,  or  more  times  its  normal 
fjuantitv. 

The  further  course  of  intianimation  is  nnich  more 
variable.  The  most  favourable  termination  is 
resolution,  where  the  products  of  the  inflammation 
are  gradually  removed  by  the  lymphatics,  and  the 
tissue  returns  to  its  normal  state.  If  the  exuded 
Idood-corpnscles  aecunnilate  in  large  amount  (sup- 
jiiontioti)  they  form  an  .Abscess  (q. v.),  and  must  in 
general  be  evacuated  before  cure  can  take  place. 
If  the  inflamed  tissue  be  superficial  its  outer  layers 
may  <lie  and  be  thrown  oft  ( ulceration ),  leaving  a 
sore  which  heals  by  Cicatrisation  (i|.v. ).  If  the 
inflammation  be  .severe  and  extensive  Gangrene 
('|.v. )  or  iiiorfifirnfiori  may  ensue. 

In  the  return  to  health  of  inflamed  tissues,  where 
■neither  resolution  nor  death  of  the  patient  has  taken 
place,  formation  of  new  tissue  is  necessary  to  fill  up 
the  gaji  which  is  left  by  suppuration  or  ulcera- 
tion. This  is  effected  mainly  by  the  action  of  the 
ijxnded  leucocytes  present  in  tlie  'plastic  lymph,' 
which  under  suitable  con<litions  becomes  gradually 
organised  into  fibrous  tissue,  bone,  &c.  ;  but  the 
restoration  of  the  epithelial  co\ering,  where  a  breach 
in  the  surface  either  of  skin  or  mucous  membrane 
has  occurred,  is  effected  only  under  the  influence  of 
epithelial  cells  present  at  the  edge  of  the  gap.  The 
process  is  essentially  similar  to  the  healthy  repair 
of  broken  bones  (see  l'i!-V(Tl'l!L ),  or  incised  wounds, 
though  many  authorities  do  not  apply  the  term 
inflammation  to  these  ca.se.s.  It  is  thus  that  parts 
recently  severed  from  the  body  may  be  some- 
times rejilaced  and  still  live.  The  succes.s  of  the 
Taliacotian  operation,  by  which  a  new  iio.se  is 
engrafte<l  in  tiie  positicm  of  that  which  had  been 
lost,  of  the  operation  of  injecting  a  stimulating 
fluid  into  cystic  tunnmrs,  with  the  view  of  setting 
n)!  adhesive  inflammation,  and  of  various  other 
surgical  operations,  essentially  depends  upon  the 
property  of  organisation  possessed  by  inflammatory 
exurlation,  or  closely  allied  jirodncts.  Although 
the  organisation  of  pliLstic  lymph  is  thus  es.sentially 
a  conservative  ami  reparative  jirocess,  it  leads  in 
many  ca-ses  to  untoward  results.  Thus,  when  a 
serous  membrane  (e.g.   pleura,  pericanlium,   ])eri- 


tonenni )  is  inflamed,  the  exudati(m  between  its  con- 
tiguous surfaces  often  becomes  transfoniieil  by  the 
saiiie  process  into  fibrous  tissue,  forming  layers  or 
bands  which  seriously  inteifere  with  the  functions 
of  the  organs  involved  {lung,  heart,  intestine,  as 
the  ca-se  may  be)  after  the  inflammation  has  sub 
sided.  In  inflammation  of  the  iris  (he  jiupil  may 
be  rendered  irregular  or  immovable,  or  may  even  be 
closed  up  by  inllammatory  exudation.  In  endo- 
carditis, lu'  inflammation  of  the  lining  mendirane 
of  the  heart,  exuilation  may  bo  di']iosited  in  wart- 
like ma.sscs  on  the  valves,  and  may  thus  occasion 
some  of  the  worst  forms  of  cardiac  disease. 

The  causes  of  inflannnalion  are  veiv  various. 
.-Vmong  predisposing  causes  must  be  reckoned  any 
condition  which  lowers  the  vitality  of  the  whole 
body,  or  of  a)iy  particular  part  of  it.  The  most 
obvious  exciting  causes  are  mechanical  violence, 
chemical  irritants,  excessive  heat  or  cold,  produc 
ing  injury  of  a  part  of  the  1iody  which  leads  directly 
to  inflammation  in  that  part.  Less  obvious,  but 
not  less  certain,  is  the  ett'ect  of  exjiosure  to  cold  in 
exciting  inflammation  of  internal  organs.  But  of 
all  the  causes  the  most  important  undoubtedly, 
though  they  have  only  been  recognised  within  thi^ 
last  three  decades  of  the  19th  century,  are  micro- 
organisms— bacteria,  &C.  (seeGEit.M).  Besides  the 
numerous  specifir  diseases  attended  by  inflam- 
mation of  various  organs  and  tissues  ]irove<l  or 
believed  to  be  due  to  these  bodies,  many  forms  of 
what  is  known  as  simple  inflammation — e.g.  acute 
abscess — have  been  shown  to  be  associated  with 
them.  Some  authorities  go  so  far  as  to  say  that 
no  true  inflammation  can  take  place  without  them  ; 
and  though  this  opinion  has  not  been  proved,  it 
is  certain  that  almost  all  the  most  severe  forms  of 
inflammation  are  characterised  by  the  presence  of 
some  form  of  micro-organism. 

The  inflammatory  diseases  of  the  most  important 
organs  are  described  under  their  specific  names, 
anil,  as  a  general  rule,  the  termination  -///.>■  is  em- 
ployed to  indicate  an  inflannnation.  Thus,  periton- 
itis signifies  inflannnation  of  the  peritoneum  :  iritis, 
inflamniation  of  the  iris  ;  &c.  Inflammation  of  the 
lungs,  however,  is  usually  known  as  ijneuuionia 
instead  of  ]ineumonitis,  and  of  the  pleura  as  ]p|eurisy 
in.stead  of  pleuritis.  See  PxEi MdXiA.  I'i.ki'RISy, 
Entekitis  (for  inflammation  of  the  liowels), 
Peritonitis,  Sto.-«.\cii  (for  gastritis).  Liver  (for 
hepatitis),  Eve  (for  iritis),  Br.vin,  &c. 

It  is  unnecessary  to  enter  into  the  consideration 
of  the  treatment  of  inflammation  further  than  to 
remark  (1)  that  if  possible  we  must  lemove  its 
exciting  cause,  which  can  seldimi  be  done  except 
when  the  inflammatiim  is  external  ;  ami  (2)  that 
the  patient  should  be  jilaceil  on  a  strictly  anti- 
phlogistic regimen  ( which  i]n]ilies  a  total  abstinence 
from  solid  animal  food  and  stimulating  drinks,  due 
attentimi  to  ventilation,  temperature,  iSrc. ).  Of  the 
direct  remedies,  one  of  the  most  powerful,  both  for 
good  and  evil,  is  bloodlelting.  although  at  pre.sent 
it  is  rarely  used.  The  medicines  cliiefly  employed 
are  purgatives,  prejiaralions  of  mercury,  tartar 
emetic,  and  opium  ;  while,  as  external  aiijilications, 
hot  fomentations  or  poultices  (scunetimes  ajiplica- 
tions  of  cold  water  or  ice  are  preferable),  and 
counter-irritation  by  means  of  blisters,  sjnapisms, 
sctons,  iK.c. .  are  often  of  service. 

Illflortioil.     See  Cr.v.mmar. 

Illfloi'4>s«'«-|l«'<'.  This  term  is  applied  by 
botanists  in  a  concrete  and  special,  a.s  well  as  in  an 
abstract  and  general  sense — i.e.  first  to  any  single 
group  or  natural  aggregate  of  flowei-s  arising  upon 
a  common  main  axis,  ami  secomlly  to  the  various 
modes  or  princi])les  of  floral  arrangement  them- 
selves. Despite  that  enilless  superficial  divei-sity 
upon   whii-h  the  charaoteri.stic  aspect  of  difl'eient 


138 


INFLORKSCENCE 


species  and  laifior  j;ri)iiii-  m)  iinicU  depends, 
these  aiipaiently  indelinite  variations  may  readily 
be  reduced  to  a  small  minibcr  of  easily  intelli- 
gible types.  For,  wliile  tlie  earlier  botanists  natu- 
rally tended  to  develop  a  nomenclature  corres|)ond- 
in^  to  tlie  multiplicity  of  outward  forms  which 
inflorescences  acipiire,  the  progress  of  research  has 
siniplilied  this  by  centerinj,'  attention  upon  the 
few  and  sinqde  modes  of  liranching  by  which  they 
arise.  \\  <>  naturally  set  ont  witli  any  plant  of 
which  the  axis  continues  to  grow  indelinitely,  but 
of  which  a  number  of  secondary  axes  arising  in  the 
axils  of  the  leaves  are  developed  as  flowers.  Wlien 
the  pedicels  of  these  fh)wers  tend  to  reach  a  moder- 
ately equal  lengtli  the  inflorescence  is  known  as  a 
raceme  (fig.  1,  n);  or  when  the  process  of  floral 
development  arrests  them,  so  that  the  flowei-s  are 
practically  sessile,  we  have  a  spike  (fig.  1,  il).  The 
growing  point  of  most  racemes  and  spikes,  how- 
e\'er,  tends  to  be  checked  bv  the  reproductive  stress, 
and  the  axis  thus  freipiently  ends,  or  rather  seems 
to  end,  in  a  termin.al  flower.  Good  examples  of 
this  essentially  racemose  or  sjiicate  type  are  fur- 
nished by  many   Liliaceic,  Scrophulariaceic,  &c. — 


Fig.  1. 

a,  raceme  of  lily  of  the  valley  (Convallarift) ;  6,  corymb  of  caiuly- 
tuft  (Iberis);  c,  tiinbcl  of  fruits  of  fennel  (F(eniculuui) ;  (?, 
spike  of  vervain  (Verbena);  e,  head  of  fruit>s  of  dandelion 
(Taraxacum);  /,  Dorstenia;  p,  tig  (Ficus)  in  vertical  section. 

e.g.  Tritoina,  foxglove,  mullein,  iVc.  Kven  such  a 
curious  inflorescence  as  that  of  the  pine-apple  may 
now  easily  be  interpreteil  as  a  greatlj'  condensed 
spike  of  fiiiits,  crowneil  by  its  leafy  growing 
point. 

The  shortening  of  the  main  axis  of  a  niceme  may 
take  place  after  ordinary  development  has  begun, 
so  that  the  upper  internodes  are  iiincli  less  develo]ied 
than  tlieir  predecessors.  The  pedicels  of  the  younger 
flowers  naturally  sliai'e  the  same  arrest  of  develop- 
ment, and  thus  it  is  that  the  comparatively  long 
pedicels  of  the  lower  flowers  place  them  on  niucli 
the  same  level  as  the  higher  ones,  and  even  as 
the  summit  of  the  axis.  This  variety  is  known 
as  the  iw.'///('Mlig-  1.  '').  so  familiar  in  the  candy- 
tuft. When  all  the  internodes  are  so  slinrtened 
that  the  jiedicels  arise  from  practically  the  same 
level,  we  have  the  lunhel  (fig.  1,  c),  so  characteristic 
of  the  rmbelliferje. 

Siip^io.se  this  vegetative  arrestment  .ami  floral 
precocity  to  be  continued  still  further,  internodes 
and  pedicels  alike  become  arrested,  and  the  result 
is  a  crowded  cone  or  excessively  shortened  spike 
of  .se.ssile  flowers.  Hy  continuing  the  siime  i)ro- 
cess  which  gave  us  the  corymb,  the  cone  neces- 
sarily tends  to  appear  more  and  more  cle])ressed 
tlirough  the  more  rai)id  upgrowth  of  its  lower 
portions;  thus  we  have  thai  characteristically 
expandeil  axi.s,  .so  compactly  .set  with  florets  as  to 
resemble  at  first  sight  a  single  flower,  fauuliarly 


known  as  the  head  or  caiiitulnm  of  the  Composites 
(fig.  1,  <■).  The  spiral  arrangement  of  the  florets 
so  obvious  in  a  sunflower  is  simply  that  of  the 
dei)ressed  cone,  which  we  may  again  draw  out  in 
imagination  into  the  corymb,  the  spike,  or  the 
raceme,  with  which  it  is  in  princi]ile  identical. 

A  capitulum  fundamentally  similar  may,  how- 
ever, be  evolved  in  a  slightly  dillercnt  way.  by  the 
more  or  le.ss  complete  arrestment  of  the  secondary 
axes  of  an  umbel.  Hence  il  is  that  a  few  nmbel- 
liferous  plants,  like  Astrantia,  or  still  better  the 
sea-holly  (Eryngium),  &c.,  come  to  present  that 
appearance  which  so  often  induces  tlie  beginner 
to  confuse  them  with  Composites. 

But,  since  it  is  manifest  that  the  same  embryonic 
shortening  may  occur  in  any  type  of  inlhuescence 
whatsoever,  it  becomes  evident  that  we  must 
reserve  the  term  eaiiitulum  for  the  type  of  inflor- 
escence presented  by  the  Composite  or  Scabious, 
leaving  the  various  superficially  resemblant  forms 
or  pseii(/o-c((/nfi(la,  as  of  sea-holly  already  referred 
to,  or  those  of  sea-pink,  of  bergamot,  i)vc..  to  be 
separately  analy.sed  according  to  their  true  origin. 

Keturning,  then,  to  the  capitulum  jirojier,  we  must 
continue  to  kee])  clearly  in  view  that  conceiition  of 
vegetative  growth  (as  reaching  its  maximum  rate 
only  at  some  distance  behind  the  growing  point ) 
which  may  be  actually  verified  by  measurements  of 
any  growing  shoot  or  root.  The  conical  axis  thus 
not  only  tends  to  bro.aden  ,ind  flatten,  but  its  lower 
jiortion  must  <at  length  overtake  the  apex,  and  a 
perfectly  flat  receptacle,  as  in  some  species  of 
Dorstenia,  results.  The  nuirgins  next  outgrow  the 
apex,  and  the  cone  is  now  liecoming  a  shallow 
saucer  (other  species  of  Dorstenia,  fig.  1,/).  The 
saucer  next  Ijecomes  a  cup,  or  even  flask  ;  and  the 
remarkable  hollow  inflorescence  of  the  fig  (fig.  1, 
1  (i)  is  thus  seen  to  be  morphologically  akin  to  the 
j  capitulum,  and  tlirough  this  by  the  corymb  even. 

to  the  original  raceme  itself. 
I  The  study  of  vegetative  branching  (see  BRANCH  ) 
has,  howevei',  shown  us  that  we  may  have  to  do 
with  compound  or  sympodial  axes  as  well  as 
simple  or  monopodial  ones.  That  is  to  say,  in 
our  primary  axis  the  growing  point  may  perish, 
leaving,  however,  of  course,  all  the  more  ojipor- 
tunity  for  the  development  of  the  sec<mdary  axes 
latent  in  its  lateral  tiuds.  This  ilisappearance  of 
the  i)rimary  growing  point,  having  once  set  in,  soon 
works  back,  until  we  have  it  occurring  immedi- 
ately after  the  development  of  the  first  lateral  Imd. 
This  then  readily  takes  its  placi>  for  practical  pur- 
]io.ses,  just  as  a  larch  or  pine  which  has  lost  its  top 
renews  it  by  the  upgrowth  of  a  branch.  But  the  new 
axis  dies  in  turn  after  giving  birth  to  its  succe.s.sor, 
and  so  on  ;  thus  the  fo/sr  (i.ri.i  or  si/tiipodc  is 
formed.  Inflorescences  of  this  tyjje  are  known  as 
ci/iiics.  The  simplest  in  principle  is  that  of  the 
I)ay-lily  (q.v.).  It  is  commonly  known  as  the 
hefkoiil  cyme  (fig.  2,  A),  since  tlie  origin  of  the 
new  axes  winds  on  in  the  same  spiral  order  .as 
that  of  the  leaves  u]ion  the  jirimary  axis  it-self. 
The  distinction  from  a  raceme  is,  however,  easily 
made  when  we  notice  that  the  so-called  bracts  are 
not  really  brads  at  all,  hut  are  more  or  less  oppo- 
site to  the  flowers  ;  being  really  only  the  axillant 
leaves  of  the  next  axis,  which  bears  its  flower 
only  after  producing  a  leaf  with  the  bud  of  its 
successor. 

But  in  other  eases  the  sjiinil  may  change  its 
direction  with  each  new  axis,  ami  the  false  axis 
thus  assumes  a  very  dill'erent  appearance,  that  of 
the  .v(o//«'o(V/ c;//»r  (iig.  2,  /),  of  which  the  classical 
example  is  furnished  by  the  Boraginaeeii- (Goebel, 
however,  regards  these  as  unilateral  racemes,  and 
oilers  Tradescantia,  Kcheveria,  iVc.  as  more  re.il 
types).  Thi.s  rever.sal  of  the  spiral  has  been  [irettily 
verified  by  noting  how  in  the  scorpioid  cyme  of  the 


INFLUENZA 


IN    FORMA    PAUPERIS 


139 


Kdck-iose  ( Heliantlieiiiuiii )  tlie  spiral  of  the  calyx 
runs  ill  an  opposite  direction  iu  each  successive 
lower. 

So  far  we  have  been  dealing  with  cvniose  iu- 
Horescences  as  arising  in  plants  with  alternate 
leaves  :  in  opposite-leaved  plants — e.g.  Carvophyl- 
lace;e  and  Begonia  (q.v. ) — the  resulta.it  form  is 
neoes-saiily  very  dirt'eient.  Let  the  growing  (loiiit 
teriiiinate  in  a  Hower  as  liefnic  ;  but  >iiioe  each  of 
the  two  leaves  iiiimediately  lielow  is  in  an  ciiually 
favourable  condition,  both  as  legards  radiation  and 
aliment,  we  have  two  secondary  a.\es  instead  ol 
one.  Hence,  insteail  of  one  secondary  axis  continu- 
ing in  the  line  of  the  primary  one,  we  have  neces- 
sarily two  of  equal  strength  and  divergent  at  an 
ei|ual   angle.     The   main   axis   thus  at   tii-st  sight 


Fig.  2. 

Diagrammatic  represtiitation  of  k,  lielicoid  cyme ;  i,  scorpioici 

c.mie ;  /.-,  dictia.siiim. 

seems  to  have  forketl,  especially  when  the  terminal 
(lower  disappears,  just  as  in  the  false  dichotomy  so 
apparent  in  the  branches  of  the  lilac  or  mi.stletoe  ; 
and  hence  the  old  name  of  t/ic/iotoinoits  ci/mc,  which, 
Imwever,  it  is  evidently  necessary  to  correct,  as 
dichasiiim  (fig.  2,  I),  biixiioits  cyme,  or  the  like. 

This  inflorescence  may  undergo  shortening,  or  in 
more  physiological  language  remain  more  or  less 
embryonic,  as  in  most  Labiata'  (which,  however, 
present  all  gradations,  from  the  fully-developed 
cymes  of  Hyssopus,  through  the  '  false  whorls  or 
'  verticillasters '  of  the  majority  of  genera,  to  the 
terminal  pseudo-capituluiii  of  Bergainot).  The 
apparent  umbel  of  geraniums  and  the  pseudo- 
capitulum  of  the  sea-pink  have  also  this  origin. 

Not  only  modilications  of  these  leading  ty[>es, 
but  various  combinations,  simple,  compound,  anil 
complex,  anil  in  all  degrees  of  reduction  or  exuber- 
ance, may  also  arise ;  the  question  of  separat- 
ing all  the  preceding  types  of  inflorescence  as 
rwlirU  from  a  small  residuum  as  dorsi  ventral  also 
presents  itself.  See  Goebel's  Outlines  of  Classiji- 
cdti'iH  and  Van  Tiegliem's  Tniilc  cle  Botnniquc. 

Influenzal  (Ital.,  '  inlluence  ;' called  in  French 
In  {iri'iijir),  one  of  the  class  of  diseases  to  which 
the  teiiii  zvmotic  has  been  applied,  has  been  Ion;; 
recognised  liy  medical  writers.  The  popular  aiipli- 
cation  of  the  name  to  any  .severe  cold  in  the  head 
is  not  sanctioned  by  medical  authority,  f'ullen 
called  it  i:(itfirrlnis  <■  ruiilriffio,  but  although,  in 
most  cases,  it  chisely  resembles  ordln.-iiy  catarrh, 
it  presents  certain  points  of  ditleience  from  that 
disea.se.  In  lulditioii  to  the  ordinary  symptoms  of 
catarrh,  there  Ls  a  sudden,  early,  and  very  striking 
debility  and  depres.sion  of  spirits.  This  early 
debility  i>  one  of  the  mo.st  marked  and  character- 
istic signs  of  influenza.  The  mucous  membranes 
(especially  those  of  the  respiratory  organs)  are 
much  affected.  The  tongue  is  white  and  creamy, 
the  .sense  of  taste  is  lost,  there  is  no  ap|ietite,  the 


jiiilse  is  soft  and  weak,  the  skin,  although  at  lii>t 
liol  .'Hid  dry.  soiin  liecmiies  moist,  and  the  patient 
complains  of  pains  and  soreness  in  various  parts  of 
the  body. 

In  simple,  unconqilicated  cases  convalescence 
supervenes  in  the  course  of  a  week  or  sooner ;  but 
intiuenzii  is  veiy  frequently  conjoined  with  bron- 
chitis or  pneumonia,  in  which  case  it  is  much  more 
pei'sislent  and  dangerous.  There  is,  moreover,  an 
extreme  proneness  to  relapse  on  the  slightest 
exposure,  even  after  the  patient  feels  perfectly 
recovered. 

Influenza  afibrds  an  excellent  example  of  an 
epidemic  di.sea.se,  a  whole  community  being  often 
attacked  in  the  course  of  a  few  hours.  From  this 
it  may  be  inferred  that  the  occurrence  of  this  dis. 
ease  is  connected  with  some  iiartii-ul.-ir  condition  of 
the  atmos|jlierc,  but  what  that  condition  is  is  not 
known.  Not  iinfrequently  intliienza  follows  close 
upon  a  sudden  thaw  ;  sometimes  it  is  lueceded  by 
thick,  ill. smelling  fogs  ;  but  hot  and  cidd,  wet  and 
dry  weather  have  all  been  attended  by  severe  out- 
breaks of  the  disea.se.  Like  cholera,  influenza 
generally,  but  by  no  means  constantly,  follows  a 
westerly  direction,  or  one  from  the  south-east  to- 
wards the  north-west,  and  its  course  seems  to  be 
altogether  independent  of  the  surface  currents  of 
air,  as  it  often  travels  against  the  prevailing  wind. 

The  epidemic  which  luevailcd  durini'  the  winter 
of  lS89-9()  in  most  parts  of  the  civilised  world, 
the  first  of  importance  in  Ihitain  for  nearly  forty 
years,  juesented  some  points  of  dift'erence  from 
most  of  the  previously  recorded  outbreaks.  In 
particular,  there  was  in  many  places  a  much 
larger  proportion  of  cases  without  any  catarrhal 
symptoms  whatever  than  appears  to  have  been 
observed  before.  Such  cases  present  a  close  re- 
semblance to  Dengue  (q.v.),  and  many  observers 
have  come  to  the  conclusion  that  there  is  a 
much  closer  relation  hetween  the  two  diseases  than 
has  been  hitherto  supposed  :  while  some  believe 
that  the  epidemic  in  question  was  itself  dengue 
modified  by  climate,  and  not  influenza  at  all. 

The  most  important  point  in  the  treatment  of 
influenza  is  not  to  bleed  the  jiatient,  or  in  any  way 
to  depress  his  vital  jiowers.  He  should  be  kept 
in  bed  ;  his  bowels  should  be  gently  opened,  his 
skin  slightly  acted  upon,  if  dry  ;  and,  if  the  cough 
lie  troublesome,  a  mustard-poultice  should  be 
applied  to  the  chest,  and  an  expectorant  mixture 
prescribed.  Anti|iyrin  and  antifebrin  were  during 
the  epidemics  of  1889-95  found  very  valualde  in 
combating  the  feverishne.ss  and  pain  of  the  early 
stage.  In  persons  of  weak  or  broken-down  coii 
stitutions,  ammonia,  beef-tea,  and  wine  and  water 
must  be  given  from  the  outset.  The  dcliility  that 
often  remains  for  a  considerable  period  after  tlie 
establishment  of  convalescence  is  best  met  by  the 
preparations  of  iron,  quinine,  and  strychnia. 

Few  diseases  increase  the  death-rate  to  such  an 
extent  as  inlluenz.i;  more,  however,  in  consequence 
of  the  great  mimlicr  of  persons  who  arc  attacked  in 
a  severe  epidemic  than  in  I'Diisequencc  of  its  danger 
ill  individual  cases.     .Sec  El'lDKMir,  (iKiiM. 

In  Furnia  Pauperis  ( ■  in  the  character  of  a 

poor  person').  Persons  are  saiil  to  sue  in  fornin 
jmuperi.'s  when  the  law  allows  them  to  conduct  law- 
suits without  ]iaying  fees  to  eourt-oHiceis,  counsel, 
or  .solicitors.  In  F^ngland  a  statute  ilf  Henry  VII., 
afrirming  the  common  Law,  provided  th.it  such  as 
woulil  swear  themselves  not  worth  t'."),  except  their 
wearing  apparel  and  the  matter  in  question  in  the 
cause,  should  be  exempt  when  plaintiffs,  but  not 
when  defendants,  from  the  payment  of  court-fees, 
and  should  be  entitled  to  have  counsel  and  attorney 
assigned  to  llieni  by  the  courl  without  fee.  Tlie\ 
were  fiirlher  excused  from  co>tr-  when  iinsucce-sfiil  ; 
a  privilege  which,  according  to  ISIack.stoiie,  amounted 


140 


INFORMATION 


INFUSORIA 


in  former  times  only  to  the  rather  nncomfortable 
alternative  of  clniosing  lietween  payinj;  and 
Iieinj;  whipped.  This  iiKlnlgenoe.  first  conlined  to 
iilaintitl's,  was  afterwards  exlendeil  to  defendants. 
It  was  at  first  restricted  to  the  t'oninion  Law 
Conrts,  but  afterwards  adopted  in  the  jiractice  of 
the  Eiinity  and  Probate  and  l)i\orce  Courts.  No 
one  can  sue  in  forma  jmupcrU  unless  the  opinion 
of  counsel  on  his  case,  and  an  atlidavit  by  the  party 
or  his  solicitor  that  the  same  case  contains  a  full 
statement  of  tlie  material  facts,  lie  produced  to  the 
court  applied  to.  .V  suitor  /»  forma  pauperis  is 
not  entitled  to  costs  unless  by  order  of  theoourt.  In 
Scotland  an  .Act  of  1424  established  the  poor's  roll 
to  secure  a  like  privilege  to  poor  persons  tliere. 

Inforuiatiou.    See  Cri.minal  L.wv. 

InforillOIS  in  Enjjlish  law,  the  person  who 
sues  for  a  penalty  under  some  statute.  In  many 
statutes  which  deline  otl'enees — not  criminal,  but 
savouring  of  criminality —encouragement  is  often 
given  to  persons  who  are  willing  to  sue  on  behalf 
of  the  crown,  the  pecuniary  penalty  or  part  of  it 
being  given  to  the  informer.  This  kind  of  action 
is  called  a  qui  trim  action,  from  the  use  of  the 
words  qui  taiii  pro  domiiut  rcgind  rjiaim  pro  scip.so, 
Sec.  In  criminal  proceedings  an  accomplice  who 
turns  king's  evidence,  if  accepted  as  a  witness  by 
the  crown,  is  called  an  a|iprover  or  proven  Ever 
since  the  days  of  the  professional  '  sycophant ' 
at  -Vthens  the  informer  has  been  regarded  as  an 
odious  character.  In  Ireland,  owing  to  the  un- 
satisfactory relations  between  the  government  and 
the  people,  almost  any  person  who  gives  evidence 
against  a  prisoner  runs  the  risk  of  making  himself 
unpopular.  In  Chancery  proceedings  at  the  suit 
of  the  attorney-general  the  informer  is  called  a 
relator.  In  Scotland  an  informer  is  the  party  who 
sets  the  Lord  Advocate  in  motion  in  criuLinal  pro- 
secutions, and  the  Lord  Advocate  is  bound  to  give 
up  the  name  of  the  informer,  who  is  liable  in  case 
of  malicious  prosecutions.     See  Approver,  Spv. 

IllillsioiIS  are  aqueous  solutions  of  \'egetable 
substances  obtained  without  the  aid  of  boiling.  In 
this  lespect  only  do  they  ditl'er  from  decoctions,  in 
the  manufactvire  of  which  boiling  is  resorted  to. 
Infusions  are  prepared  l)y  digesting  the  vegetable 
substance  (root,  bark,  &c.)  in  hot  or  cold  water  in 
a  covered  earthenware  vessel.  Cohl  water  is  pre- 
feral)le  when  the  active  principle  is  very  volatile, 
or  when  it  is  desireil  to  avoid  tlie  solution  of  some 
ingredient  in  the  vegetable  which  is  soluble  in  hot, 
but  not  in  cold  water.  For  examjile,  in  jueparing 
the  infusion  of  calumba  cold  water  is  preferable, 
because  it  takes  up  the  bitter  principle  (which  is 
the  essential  ingredient ),  and  leaves  the  starch- 
matter  undissolved.  In  most  cases,  however, 
boiling  water  is  emjiloyed.  Infusions  are  jue- 
ferred  to  decoctions  when  the  active  piinciple 
volatilises  at  a  boiling  heat,  as  in  the  case  of 
essential  oils ;  or  when  ebullition  readily  induces 
some  chemical  change,  !is  in  the  case  of  senna. 

Infusions  may  also  be  prepared  by  Percolation 
(ij.v.),  a  i)rocess  which  is  extensively  employed  in 
the  preparation  of  tinctures.  When  tints  prepared 
they  are  less  liable  to  decay  than  when  prepared  on 
the  old  system. 

The  fresh  infusi(ui,  while  j>osse.ssing  a  finer 
flavour,  is  in  danger  of  being  superseded  in 
pharmaceutical  practice  by  the  concentrated  in 
tnsion.  On  account  of  the  trouble  and  exjiense 
involved  in  making  small  nuantities  of  the  fresh 
preparations,  reco\ir.se  is  frequently  had  to  the  con- 
centrateil  ones,  which,  when  diluted  with  seven 
times  their  bulk  of  distilleil  water,  more  or  less 
represent  the  fresh  article.  Where  the  active  prin- 
liple  is  a  volatile  one  it  is  very  dillicult  to  retain 
the  full   aroma  in   the  cimcentrateil  state,  and  to 


this  question  mvich  pharmaceutical  attenticm  has 
been  turneil.  The  concentrated  infusi<uis  contain 
from  "20  to  2.5  per  cent,  of  alcohol,  w  hich  is  essential 
for  their  preservati<Hi.  The  simjile  infusions  may 
be  ])reserved  for  a  short  time  by  the  addition  of  a 
trace  of  chloroform. 

InfllSOi'ia*  a  name  given  to  several  classes  of 
active  Protozoa,  siune  of  which  appear  in  great 
numbers  in  stagnant  infusions  of  animal  or  vege- 
table matter.  The  great  majority  are  provided 
with  vibratile  locomotor  jirocesses  of  their  living 
matter,  usually  in  the  form  of  cilia  or  llagella ; 
and,  though  these  may  be  retracted  when  the 
animal  occasionally  encysts  itself,  they  are  prac- 
tically permanent,  and  express  the  predominantly 
actite  constitution  of  these  cells.  >Iost  are  micro- 
scopic, but  many  are  readily  seen  when  foul  water 
is  held  in  a  glass  vessel  between  the  eye  and  the 
light.  Yet  tliere  may  be  more  Infusorians  in  a  cup 
of  stagnant  water  than  there  are  people  on  the  globe. 
Infnsorians  occur  both  in  fresh  ami  salt  water,  and 
a  few  are  parasitic  ;  they  feed  on  vegetable  or  on 
animal  matter,  on  b.icteria  or  on  one  another, 
while  some  possessed  of  a  green  )>igment,  closely 
allied  to,  if  not  identical  with  chlorophyll,  prob- 
ably absorb  carbonic  dioxide  after  the  manner  of 
plants.  .Most  Infnsorians  possess  a  •  mouth '—i.e. 
a  special  aperture  thnuigh  which  the  food-particles 
are  wafted  in  by  the  cilia  or  tlagella.  As  single 
cells,  comparable  to  the  units  of  ciliated  ei)ithelium 
in  nnilticellular  animals,  to  the  active  spores  of 
plants,  and  to  male  cells  or  spermatozoa,  they 
exhibit  the  usual  protoplasmic  structure  and  the 
central  differentiation  or  nucleus.  There  is  usually 
a  definite  rind,  often  with  cuticular  structures;  and 
there  are  generally  contractile  vacuoles,  probably 
excretory  in  function.  Many  Infusorians  occur 
not  as  single  individuals,  but  as  members  of  a 
colony,  the  results  of  multiplication  remaining 
clubbed  together,  and  often  forming  mas.ses  easily 
visible  to  the  unaided  eye.  They  multiply  with 
great  rapidity  by  dividing  into  two,  or  by  rapid 
successive  division  into  a  larger  number  (spore- 
formation);  and  thus  a  single  Infusorian,  with 
favourable  temperature  and  nutrition,  may  in  four 
days  become  the  ancestor  of  a  progeny  of  a  million, 
in  six  days  of  a  billion,  in  seven  and  a  half  ilays  of 
a  hundred  billions-  weighing  one  hundred  kilo- 
grammes! If  the  life  of  the  species,  however,  is 
to  be  sustained.  C(mjugation  or  incipienlly  sexual 
union  of  two  Infusorians  (not  of  the  same  family) 
must  occur,  for  if  the  descendants  of  (me  imlividual 
be  left  by  themselves  the  w  hole  family  tails  victim 
to  'senile  degeneration,' and  the  members  dwindle 
away.  In  many  cases  anumg  ciliated  Infusmians 
the  'researches  of  Maupas  and  others  have  shown 
that  the  conjugation  of  two  forms  means  an  inter- 
change of  nuclear  elements  ;  in  other  cases  the  two 
individuals  fuse  into  one.  When  the  two  con- 
jiigates  are  of  une<^ual  size,  a.s  in  the  e(mnnon 
Vorticella  or  bell  animalcule,  it  seems  justifiable 
to  call  the  smaller  male  and  the  larger  female. 

The  cl<i.s.ses  included  under  the  title  of  Infnsorians 
are  as  follows,  beginning  with  those  ciliated  f<u-ms 
to  which  zoologists  often  restrict  the  term. 

Ciliata. — Infnsorians  characterised  by  the  pre- 
dominance of  alternately  bent  and  straightened 
motile  processes  known  as  cilia.  The  usual  nucleus 
is  accompanied  by  a  second  neighli(mr  nucleus 
(parn-  m- micro-micleus),  the  elements  of  which  are 
interchanged  in  conjugation.  They  are  classified 
according  to  the  relative  position  and  size  of  their 
cilia.  The  slipper-animalcule  (  ParamaM'ium  ),  ami 
Ojialina  parasitic  in  the  intestine  of  the  frog 
illustrate  those  which  are  more  or  less  completely 
ciliated  ( Holotricha) :  the  beautifully -coloured 
species  of  Stentor,  the  genus  Halantidium,  with  one 
sjiecies  parasitic  in  man,  and  the  common  Itursaria 


INFUSORIAL    EARTH 


TNGLEBY 


141 


ai-e  among  those  witli  heterogeneous  cilia  dissiniilar 
ill  size  anil  fonu  ( Heteiotiicha)  :  the  stalked  liell- 
aninialoule  Vorticella  and  its  heautifiil  allies  Kpi- 
stylis  and  Carchesiuni,  the  junipin<;  Halteiia,  with 
agirdleof  spiingv,  liiistle-like  processes,  and  Ojilin  ■ 
diuni.  whicti  nuiltiplies  into  large  hollow  colonies, 
sometimes  5  inches  across,  have  a  special  wreath 
of  cilia  round  the  mouth  ( Peritricha) ;  and  hu-tly, 
those  with  cilia  restricted  to  the  under  surface  are 
well  illustrated  by  Euplotes,  Oxytricha,  and  Sty- 
lonichia. 

F/ti(jcl/at(i. — Infusorians  with  a  \ibratile  or  un- 
dulatory  tlagellum,  or  with  more  than  one,  used 
for  loi'oinotor  or  food-catching  pur])oses,  including 
a  vast  number  of  forms,  some  of  which  are  often 
called  Monads,  wliile  others — e.g.  Volvox — ap- 
proach if  they  do  not  unite  with  the  Alg;e.  One  of 
the  very  commonest  Hagellate  genera  is  Euglena. 
To  the  tiagellates  proper  there  have  to  be  added 
the  C'hoanoHagellata,  with  a  single  tlagellum 
surrounded  liy  a  beautiful  winegla.ss- like  collar — 
e.g.  Salpingicca,  and  the  interesting  Proterospongia 
— a  colony  with  slight  division  of  labour  among  its 
membei's  and  like  a  little  fragment  of  .sponge  Hesli : 
also  the  Dinotiagellata,  with  two  tlagella,  one 
parallel,  the  other  transverse  to  the  long  axis  of 
the  body — e.g.  Peridinium,  an  extremely  common 
marine  form,  attbrding  food  to  some  tishes  ;  lastly, 
the  KhynchoHagellata,  with  a  large  locomotor 
tlagellum,  including  two  genera — the  phosphor- 
escent marine  ■  night-light '  (Xoctiluca),  and  Lejito- 
discus,  a  beautiful  bell-like  form,  which  seems 
within  the  compass  of  a  single  cell  like  a  far-olf 
l»rophecy  of  medusoid  architecture. 

Uiirloria  or  Ariiietariu. — Infusorians  with  cilia 
only  in  their  free-living  youth,  usually  lixed  as 
adults,  and  always  with  prehensile  or  suctorial  pro- 
cesses like  tentacles,  by  means  of  which  tlie}'  prey 
upon  other  Protozoa.  Acineta  and  Podophrya  are 
suctorial  ;  the  common  Acineta  is  only  prehensile. 

In  beauty  of  form  and  movement,  in  the  liveli- 
ness of  their  behaviour,  and  in  the  intricate  phases 
of  their  life-history,  Infusorians  attbrd  almost  in- 
exhaustible material  for  investigation,  which  many 
workers  have  shown  to  be  at  once  captivating  in 
it-self  and  full  of  biological  suggestiveness.  In  the 
general  economy  of  nature  Infusoria  are  especially 
important  as  a  food-supply  to  small  animals,  and 
in  so  far  .is  they  unite  with  Bacteria  in  working 
decaying  matter  once  more  into  the  cycle  of  life, 
or  in  reiUicing  it  to  simpler  elements. 

See  B.\CTEHIA,  Moxad,  Param.ecilm,  Pkotozoa, 
Vorticella  ;  Claparede  and  Lachmann,  Etudes  mir  les 
/h/imoii'm  I  Geneva,  1858-Gl);  Steiu,  Organisnius  der 
Infumons-Thiere  (Leip.  1859-83)  ;  Saville  Kent,  Maniwl 
of  the  Infusoria  (Lond.  1880-82)  ;  Ray  Lankester,  article 
'Protozoa,'  Enci/cl.  Brit.  (188.5)  ;  llaupas,  Archir.  Zool. 
ExiiKT.  ( vi.  1,S88 ) ;  Biitsclili,  '  Protozoa,'  in  Bronn's 
Thierrarh. 

Infusorial  Earth,  Diatom  Eakth,  Kiesel- 
GIHH,  a  siliceous  deposit  formed  chielly  of  the 
frnstates  of  Diatoms  ((pv.).  It  is  used  as  Tripoli 
Poiidfr  for  polishing  purposes,  and  as  an  absorbent 
of  nitro-^lycerine  in  makmg  Dynamite  (q.v. ). 

Ingelheiui,  Lower  and  L'pper,  two  small 
German  towns,  10  miles  E.  of  Bingen.  The  former 
(pop.  ."JtMX))  claims  to  be  the  birthplace  of  Charle 
ma''ne,  and  has  ruins  of  the  maguilicent  palace  he 
built  here;  the  latter  (pop.  3300)  was  once  a  free 
city  of  some  importance. 

Inselow,  dKA-N,  a  popular  poetess  and  novelist, 
w.'is  born  at  Boston,  Lincolnshire,  in  1820.  Her 
(irst  ettbrts  in  vei'se  were  published  anonymously 
in  18.50  under  the  title  of  A  Bliijining  Clirntiicle  of 
ftirideiit.s  nmi  Ferlitiffs.  These  gave  indication  of 
considerable  power,  ,as  well  as  of  the  intlneni'c  of 
Tennyson  and  Mrs  Browning,  to  whose  writings 
she  ap|iears  to  have  been  strongly  drawn  in  youth. 


A  good  deal  of  Miss  Ingelows  poetry  is  of  a  devo- 
tional or  religious  cast,  intmspcctive  in  quality 
and  melodi(Mis  in  style.  But  she  has  also  written 
some  powerful  ballads,  and  of  her  minor  pieces 
The  Hiiili-llde  oil  tlic  Const  of  Liiico/iix/iiri',  1571, 
is  probably  both  the  linesl  and  the  best  known. 
(If  lier  larger  poems  A  Slori/  of  Ddoiii  (IStJT)  has 
been  the  most  successful.  To  about  the  same  time 
belong  Dehorult's  Book  and  tin-  I.oiirlii  Rorl:, 
(h-iiiidmother's  H/ioe,  The  Suspicious  Jia-kdtiir, 
riie  Life  of  John  Smith,  The  Miiininrs  irifh  Silver 
Tiiil.t,  Stiulics  for  Stories.  Among  her  novels  may 
lie  nn-ntioned  Off  tlic  Skelliiis,  Fitted  to  lie  Free 
(  1S7.")),  Don  John  (1876),  and  Sarah  de  Bcrciiffer 
1880).  An  edition  of  poems  appeared  in  1880-87 
(3  vols.).      Slie  died  iOtli  July  1807. 

IllSeiuailll,  Bernhard  Severix,  Danish  poet 
aiul  novelist,  was  born,  May  28,  1789,  at  Thorkild 
strup,  in  Falster.  He  first  wrote  lyrics  (Proene, 
lice),  ami  then  collections  of  Fairii-tales  and  Stories. 
But  his  best  works  were  a  series  of  historical  novels, 
in  which  he  took  Walter  Scott  for  his  model — 
]'ii/deiiiar  Seier  (1826),  Eri/.  Menred's  Childhood 
(1828),  Kini/  Erik  (1833),  and  Prinee  Otto  of 
Denmark  ( 1835).  The  poems  Wuldeinar  the  Great 
and  his  Men  (1824),  Queen  iMare/aret  (18.36),  and 
HoUjer  Dunske  (1837),  which  are  based,  like  his 
novels,  on  incidents  of  Danish  n.ation.al  histcny  and 
tradition,  rank  among  Ingemann's  most  success- 
ful efforts.  Besides  being  prolific  he  was  also 
versatile,  and  essayed  his  hand  in  nearly  all 
branches  of  pure  literature,  not  the  least  estimable 
of  his  productions  being  Psalms  (1825).  From 
1822  he  taught  Danish  language  and  literature  in 
the  Koyal  Academy  of  Soro,  near  Copenhagen.  His 
collecti\e  works  were  published  in  39  vols.  ( 1843- 
64).     He  died  24tli  February  1862. 

Illgrriliailland,  the  old  Swedish  name  for 
which  is  now  the  government  of  St  Petersburg. 

Illiiersoll.  Jared,  an  American  jurist,  born  in 
Connecticut  in  1749,  studied  at  Yale  and  in  London 
and  Paris,  and  became  a  prominent  lawyer  in 
Phil.adelphia.  He  was  a  member  of  congress  in. 
1780-81,  was  in  1787  a  delegate  to  the  convention 
that  framed  the  Federal  constitution,  and  in  1812 
was  the  Federalist  candidate  for  the  vice-presidency 
of  the  United  .States.  He  was  a  judge  in  the 
district  court  of  Philadelphia  at  the  time  of  his 
death,  31st  October  1822.— His  son,  CHARLES 
.IarkI),  born  in  Philadelphia,  3d  October  1782,  sat 
in  congress  in  1813-15,  and  there  advocated  the 
principle  that  '  free  ships  make  free  goods  ; '  was 
loi-  fourteen  years  LTnited  States  district  attorney 
for  Pennsylvania  :  and  was  ,a  prominent  leader  of 
the  Democrats  in  congress  from  1841  to  1847.  He 
died  14th  May  1862.  He  was  the  author  of  some 
poems  ,and  a  drama,  a  political  satire  entitleil 
fiiehii/iiiii's  Letters  (1810),  and  an  Historical  Sketch 
of  the  ir»/- (;//,s7J(4  vols.  1845-52). 

Ius;ersoll,  Robert  Green,  was  born  at 
Dresden,  New  York,  11th  August  1833,  the  son  of 
ii  Congregational  minister  of  very  broad  views. 
With  his  brother  he  opened  a  law  <iflice  at  Shaw 
neetown,  Illinois,  bnt  removeil  in  1857  to  Peoria. 
In  1862  65  hi'  was  colonel  of  a  Federal  cavalry  regi 
ment  :  in  1866  he  was  ap]iointed  slate  attorney- 
general.  Ho  was  a  successful  lawyer,  a  well  know  \\ 
Bepublican  campaign  orator,  and  attracteil  nuire 
notice  than  he  deserved  by  his  lectures  directed 
against  the  Christian  religion,  and  by  many  pani- 

i)hlets  and  books  published  with  the  same  (diject. 
ledied  21st  .luly  1899. 

Ini!l<'l>>'«  Ci.EMEST  Mansfield,  an  eminent 
Shakespi'aiian  scholar,  was  born  at  Edgbaslon, 
liirniinLiliam,  2'.ltli  October  1S23,  was  educated 
priv.itely,  and  afterwards  proceeded  to  Trinity 
College,  Cambridge,  where  he  graduated   B.A.  in 


142 


INGOLDSBY 


INIA 


1847,  ami  l)ecame  M.A.  in  1850.  and  LL  O.  m  18o9. 
He  enteie.!  his  fatliovs  office  as  a  sohcitoi-,  and 
..nictised  for  a  short  time,  thonyli  by  no  lueans 
a-ssiduouslv  or  con  a  more  ;  ami  after  Ins  lathers 
death  in  ISot)  reliminished  the  profession  altogether 
to  devote  himself  to  a  busy  life  of  letters.  He  was 
one  of  the  two  En-lish  honorary  members  ot  tlie 
Weimar  Shakespeare  Society,  an  original  trnstee 
of  Shakespeare-s  birthplace,  a  vice-presulent  ot  the 
New  Shakespeare  Society  (a  post  he  afterwar.ts 
resi-'netl),  and  successively  foreisn  correspondent 
aiuf  vice-president  of  the  Koyal  Society  of  Litera- 
ture.    He  died  iGth  Septeml)er  ISSti. 

His  earliest  work,  O^dUaes  of  Thc.oretimI  Lome  Omi 
was  followed  by  An  Introduction  to  -Vf(<rp;i,«.s«c-  (lSb4~ 
«;•)  and  The  Revival  of  Philoso,>hy  ot  <.nahndor[\^,^)). 
But  the  most  important  work  of  '"^  l'^'';»'y>f« /f„f " 
when  he  published  The  Shakespean  Fal>ricatiO,u>(lSoJ) 
and  .1  Complete  View  of  the  Shakespeare  tontrover^T) 
( 1861)  These  were  followed  by  Wa.<<  Thomas  Lofje  an 
Actor  f  (1808);  The  Still  Lion  (1874),  enlarged  into 
Shakespeare  Hermeneutics  ( 1875 ) ;  The  CcnturiegPrayse 
( 1874) ;  Shakespeare  :  the  Man  and  the  Book  (18rT-!>l ) , 
Shakespeare's  iJonfS  1 1883 ) ;  Shakespeare  aw  the  En- 
closure of  Common  Fields  at  Wclcumbe  (lb&>) ;  and  an 
edition  oi  CimbelineiiSm).  \  selection  of  admirable 
Essaiis  on  a  wide  range  of  subaects  was  issued  in  1888  l)y 
his  son,  Holcorabe  Ingleby,  who  prepared  in  the  same 
year,  for  private  circulation,  a  brief  memoir  of  his  tathei-, 
with  a  collection  of  his  epigrams,  translations,  and 
verses. 

Iiigoldsby,  Thomas.    See  B.\rham. 
lll"Olstadt  (called  Aureatum  and  Chrysopolu 
_ie'''the  gohten   citv'),  a   town   and   first-class 
fortress  of  Bavaria,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Danube, 
53  miles  bv  rail  N.  of  JIunich.     It  contains  two 
castles  of  the  former  dukes  of  Bavaria-lngolstadt 
( now  used  for  military  purposes ) ;  the  Gotliic  cliurch 
of  Our  Lady  (1425),  in  which  is  the  tomb  of  Lck, 
Luther's  opponent ;  and  the  former  Jesuit  college. 
Brewin.',    cannon-founduig,   and   the   manufacture 
of   gunpowder   and    salt    are    tlie   only    industries. 
Pop    (1875)  14,474;  (1885)   l(i,390    mostly  Koman 
Catholics.     A  university  was  founded  liere  in  14,2, 
which  reckoned  Reuchlin  and  otlier  eminent  scholars 
among  its  professors,  and  a  century  afterits  founda- 
tion liad  4()00  stndents.     It  was  removed  to  Lands- 
lint  in  1800,  and  to  JIunich  twenty-six  years   ater. 
In.'olstadt  was  the  lirst  German  town  at  winch  the 
Jesuits    were    permitted    to   establish    tlieinselves, 
and  to  teach  iniblicly  from   the  uiuversity  chairs. 
Loyola  gave  it  the  fond  title  of  '  lus  little   Ben- 
iaiiiin  '      Here,  too,  Adam  Weishaupt  established 
ihe  Ilhiminati  (q.v.).     Ingolstadt,  which  existed  in 
tlie   9th   century,  was   first   fortihed  in  lo39.       In 
1S27  the  fortifications,  which  had  been  destroyed 
by  tlie  French  in  1800,  were  restored  upon  a  hrst- 
ciass  scale.      See   works  by   Geistner  (1853)   and 
Kleemann  (1883). 

lugruliaiii,  Joseph  Holt,  author  of  TAe 
rrln'uofthc  House  of  David,  was  born  at  Portland, 
Maine,  in  1809,  was  for  some  time  a  sailor  and 
afterwards  taught  languages  at  a  colle-'e  in  Missis- 
siiipi.  He  published  a  string  of  wild  romances 
such  as  Cmdaln  Kiid  and  Lafitta,  or  the  Ftriilc  of 
the  Gulf:  but  after  he  was  ordained  to  the  Episco- 
pal ministry,  in  1855,  he  chose  biblical  subjects  for 
his  stories," and  wrote  The  rrinee  of  the  Uou'ieof 
Darid  (\So5),  The  Pillar  o/ i'Yre  ( 1859),  and  //,.; 
ThroHC  of  David  ( 1860).     He  died  in  18(50. 

Ingres.  Jean  Dominique  Auguste,  Kiench 
painter,  was  born  at  Montauban,  15th  September 
178).  He  became  a  pupil  of  David  in  l/9b,  and 
five  years  later  gained  tlie  'Grand  Prix.  In  180b 
he  proceeded  to  Rome,  where  he  resi.led  for  tour 
teeii  years.  He  then  spent  f.mr  years  in  Fh>rem;''. 
where  he  painted  'The  Vow  of  Louis  Mil.,  a 
picture   which,   on   being  exhibited  at  the  1  aris 


Academy  in  18'24,  broke  down  the  inditteience  of 

the  public  to  the  work  of  Ingres,     in  Italy  he  ha.1 
adhered  to  the  style  of  Davi.l,  but  had  mo.lilied  it 
by  the  inspiration  he  got  from  Raphael  and  other 
old  inastei^.     To  this  period   belong  his  best:  por- 
traits, and  his  '  tEdipus  and  the  Sphinx,    'Venus 
Anailyomene,^  '  Romulus  and  Acron,   '  \  irgil  read- 
in>'  the  .Eitcid;  '  liapliael  and  Fomanna,      Roger 
aiul  Angelique.'     Returning  to  Paris  in  18'26,  Ingres 
was  appointed  professor  of  Fine  Arts  at  the  Aca.l- 
eniy    and  became  tlie  recognised  head  of  a  great 
school.     But  the  acrimonious  criticisms  passed  upon 
his  •  Apotheosis  of  Homer'  (18'27)  and  'Martyrdom 
of  St  Svmphorian'  ( 1834)  made  him  gladly  embrace 
the  opportunity   of   succeeding   Horace   \  eriiel   as 
director  of  the  French  Academy  in  Koine  in  1834 
Tliere  he  painted  ' Stiatonice '  and  the  '1  ortrait  ot 
Cherubini.'      The  exhibitimi   of    these   and    other 
pictures  in   Paris    at   length   turned    the   tide   ot 
popular  admiration  full  an.l  strong  in  his  tavour. 
He   relied   more  upon   form   and    line   than    upon 
colour;  some  of  his  best    productions  ('(.irl   after 
Bathing,'  '  CEdipus  and  the  Sphinx,  the  '  (Jdahsque, 
and  the  '  Fountain'),  compositions  ot  a  few;  figures 
aach,  are  unquestionably  deserving  of  admiration  ; 
but  of  late  it  is  commonly  held  that  for  u  time  he 
was  unduly  overrated.     At  tlie  exhibition  of  18o.i 
he  was  awarded   the  grand    medal   of   hon.nir   for 
his    collection    of    pictures,    and    was    nominated 
a   grand    otticer  of   the    Legion   ot    Honour.      He 
retTirned  to  Paris  in  1S41,  and  thed  there  on  14ti 
January    1867.      See   Lives   by   Delab.irde   (18/0), 
Blanc  (1870),  and  Schmarsow  (1884;  in    Dohines 
Kitnsf  and  Kilnstler). 
Iiigria.    See  St  Petersburg. 
lu&rossing.    See  Engrossing. 
Ino-lllpll,  al^ljot  of  Crowland,  long  considered 
the  author  of  the  Historia  Mona.'itcrii  Croylandcuiis, 
according  to  Ordericus  Vitalis,  was  secretary  to 
Duke  William  of  Normandy,  and  was  by  hmi  in 
lOSli  made  abbot  of  Crowland,  where  he  died,  1  fat . 
November   1109.     The    Histona    Mouasteni    t'oy- 
lamlensis  was  printed  by  Sir  He"]-.V  ^avile  in  his 
Scriptores  licrum  Anglicarum  post  Bcdam  {U9b), 
and  in  a  more  complete  edition,  with  the  continua- 
tion  by  Peter  of   Blois,  in   vol.  i-  of   the   hcrum 
Amilicarum     scriptores     vetars     (t).xford,       084). 
There  is  a  translation  by  H.  T.  Riley  m   Bohii  s 
Antiquarian  Library  ( 1854 ).     Some  writers  even  of 
the  18th  century  questioned  the  entire  genuineness 
of  the  book  ;  but  their  scepticism  did  not  proceed 
further  than  the  hypothesis  of  interpolations  by  a 
later  writer.     But  in  18'26,  in  the  (J, larlcrhj  Review, 
Sir  Francis  Palgrave  endeavoured  to  prov  e  that  the 
whole   so-called   History  wius  little  better  than   a 
novel,  and  was  probably  the  composition  of  a  monk 
in  the  13th  or   14th  century.     'I'his  has   been  con- 
clusively proved,  as  the  student  will  find,  by  M 
Kilev  ill   the  Archa-oloyical  Journal  (vols.  i.   and 
ii.),  and  by  Sir  T.   D.    Hardy  in  the   Descriptive 
Catalo(/ue  (vol.  ii.). 

lllhaiubanc,  a  Portuguese  station,  capita  of 
a  district  on  the  east  coa-st  of  Africa,  hes  just 
south  of  the  tropic  of  (^'ai.ricorn,  and  is  l^eautifully 
situated  on  its  bay,  but  unhealthy.  The  town 
dates  from  17<14,  and  has  6.500  mliabitants,  of  whom 
some  70  onlv  are  Europeans. 
lulieritaiice.    See  Heir,  Inte.sta.v,  Will. 

StC'CKSSION,  HKKEDITY. 

Iiiia  (Inia  ijcoffrensis),  a  toothed  fresh-water 
Cetacean,  not  unlike  a  dolphin,  but  with  certain 
■uiatoniical  peculiarities  which  keep  it  outside  that 
fimilv  It  is  f<mnd  in  some  of  the  upper  tributaries 
o'f  the  Amazons,  and  in  the  lakes  near  the  t  ordil 
leras  It  nieiusures  about  8  feet  in  length,  luis  a 
Ion"  cylindrical  snout  with  stitt'  hairs,  and  a  very 


INITIALS 


INK 


143 


slij;lit   dorsal  fin.     It  feeds  oliieHy  on  fish,  and  is 
hunted  for  the  s;ike  of  the  oil  which  it  yields.     It 


Inia. 

is  generally  found  in  little  troops  of  three  or  four. 
The  females  show  great  alleetion  for  their  young. 

Initials*  Though  in  general  it  is  usual  and 
regular  in  all  legal  deeds  and  writings  for  a  party 
to  write  his  ordinary  signature  in  full,  yet  in  many 
cases,  especially  in  documents  of  a  mercantile 
nature,  signature  hy  initials  will  hind  equally  with 
the  full  signature.  If,  however,  the  suhscription 
to  a  bill  of  exchange  be  by  initials  or  marks  it 
will  not  warrant  summary  execution  ;  and  the 
pursuer  of  an  action  on  the  bill  will  have  to  prove 
that  such  initials  or  marks  are  the  party's  usual 
mode  of  subscribing. 

Injections.  This  term  is  applied  in  medicine 
to  fluids  thrown  into  the  passages  or  cavities  of  the 
hotly  by  means  of  a  syringe  or  elastic  bag.  The 
fluids  thus  injected  into  the  rectum  or  lower  bowel 
are  termed  Clystere  (q.v.).  Hypodermic  Injections 
are  treated  under  that  head.  See  also  Tr.axs- 
FUsioN  OF  Blood. 

Injector.  Fig.  l  shows  in  section  a  simple 
form  of  injector  for  raising  water.  Steam  issuing 
from  the  pipe  S,  into  the  vessel  WR,  wUI  first 
create  a  partial  vacuum  above 
W  by  dragging  air  with  it,  and 
then,  when  the  water-level  is 
above  the  nozzle,  will,  on  collaps- 
ing by  conden.sation,  impart  its 
energj'  to  the  water  and  drive  it 
up  through  the  narrow  neck 
below  R,  to  a  height  of  about 
one  foot  for  every  pound  of 
steam-pressure  ])er  square  inch. 
It  is  doubtful  whether  these  in- 
jectors can  work  so  economi- 
cally, as  regards  expenditure  of 
steam,  as  ordinary  slow-moving 
pumps  do ;  but  they  possess 
many  conveniences  and  advan- 
tages which  are  bringing  them 
into  use. 
Feed-])umps,  for  feeding  water 
into  steam-boilei's,  are  dithcult  to  keep  in  order 
when  driven  at  high  speed.  The  very  ra])id  action 
of  the  valves  severely  tries  their  durability.  In 
the  ca.se  of  locomotives  inconvenience  was  often 
occasioned  by  the  fact  that  their  feed-pumps  acted 
only  when  they  were  running ;  and  thus,  if  an 
engine  happened  to  stand  still  for  any  length  of 
time,  the  water  ncca-sionally  got  too  low  in  the 
boiler.  .\I.  Henri  (jili'ard's  injector,  now  in  general 
use  in  place  of  high-sjieed  feed-pumps,  acts  equally 
well  wtietlier  the  engine  is  running  or  at  rest. 

The  diagram  lig.  2  will  give  an  idea  of  the  essen- 
tial parts  <if  GiHard"s  injector.  \  is  the  steam- 
Imiler,  H  the  water-level,  CDF  a  j>ipe  into  which 
■"team  is  admitted  :  this  pipe  terminates  in  a  cone 
DF,  which  is  enclosed  in  a  larger  cone  HH.  In  the 
cone   DF  tlie  pointed  plug  E    can    be   raLse<l  or 


Fig.  2. 


lowereil  so  as  to  increa.«e  or  diminish  the  area  of 
the  aperture  at  its  lower  end  F.  tl  is  a  pil'c  com- 
municating with  the  water-cistern,  and  admitting 
water  into  the  external  cone  HH.  K  is  a  pipe 
communicating  with  the  boiler  under  the  water- 
level,  tin  opening  commuiiicatiims  between  the 
boiler  and  this  apparatus  it  might  be  expected  that 
steam  would  rush  out  at  F,  and  water  at  K.  both 
currents  meeting  with  great  force,  and  escainng 
into  the  atmosphere  between  the  two  openings. 
Paradoxical  a.s 
it  may  appear, 
the  water  at  K, 
although  it  is 
actually,  by 
rea.sim  of  the 
head  of  water 
arising  from  the 
dill'erence  of 
level  between 
the  aperture  at 
K  and  the 
water-level  at 
B,  subject  to  a 
greater  boiler- 
pressure  than 
is  the  steam  in 
the  cone  DF, 
is    yet     over- 

Sowered,  and 
riven  back  in- 
to the  boiler  by 
the  stream  of 
water  and  con- 
densed steam 
issuing  from 
H ;  and  thus 
water,  from  the 
jjipe  G  and  the 
tender  or  cistern,  is  introduced  into  the  lioilcr,  and 
constitutes  the  feed-water.  The  energy  of  the  col- 
lapsing steam  at  F  is  transferred  to  water  in  HH  ; 
this  is  driven  forward  in  a  stream,  which  is  at  its 
narrowest  at  K  ;  in  this  stream  the  actual  energy 
per  unit  of  bulk  at  K  thus  comes  to  exceed  the 
j)otential  energy  of  the  boiler- water  at  K.  and  its 
actual  velocity  to  e.xceed  the  possible  velocity  of 
outflow  from  K  ;  whence  the  outflow  from  K  is 
overpowered.  In  practice  this  injector  is  a  .some- 
what expensive  apparatus  in  consequence  of  the 
number  of  adjustable  parts  required.  \'ariations 
in  the  pressure  of  steam  require  alterations  in  the 
area  of  the  steam-passage,  and  in  the  distances  be- 
tween the  mouths  of  the  conical  openings  for  the 
outflow  and  inflow  of  steam  and  water. 

Injnnction,  in  English  law,  is  an  introductoiy 
writ,  liy  wliicli  a  superior  court  stops  or  prevents 
some  inequitable  or  illegal  act  being  ilone.  If  the 
party  disobeys  the  injunction  lie  may  be  attached 
for  contempt  of  court,  and  imprisoned  till  lie  obeys. 
In  Scotland  a  remedy  of  a  similar  kind  is  called  an 
Interdict  (q.v.). 

Ink  is  a  general  term  for  any  fluid  substance 
which,  when  applied  to  a  suitable  surface,  leaves 
upon  it  a  partially  or  wholly  indelible  impies^iun. 
.■\ny  such  fluid  maybe  used  for  writing  purposes; 
but,  as  the  recording  material  is  geneiallv  paper, 
this  fluid  must  have  either  an  alhnity  for  the  tilirous 
matter  of  which  the  jiaper  is  made,  or  for  the  sizing 
material  use<l  to  produce  upon  it  a  homogeneous 
surface.  This  is  necessary  to  prevent  the  removal 
of  the  ink  by  water  ;  and  this  power  of  mordanting 
it.self  is  one  of  .special  importance,  as  upon  it 
"lepend  the  permanency  ami  iiulelibility  of  the 
records.  Certain  salts  have  this  pniiiiMlv,  opecially 
salts  of  iron,  which  when  exposed  to  the  air  aliMirb 
oxygen,  tiie  result  of  which  is  that  the  pale  blue- 


144 


INK 


green  solution  produced  by  mixing  protosalts  of 
iron  with  veKt'table  mattei's  containin''  tannic 
or  gallic  acid  is  converted  into  a  dense  blue-black 
insoluble  coiniMiund,  which  cannot  be  removed 
from  tliH  ]iai)er  unless  it  is  tampered  with  bv 
means  nf  cliciiiicals  cajiable  of  deconiposiiij,'  or 
destroyinj;  it.  It  is  owing  to  the  lonuation  of  this 
insoluble  compound  that  writing-ink,  when  left  in 
open  vessels  ex()osed  to  the  air,  becomes  thick  and 
ropy,  and  unfit  for  use.  Other  black  inks  are  pre- 
pared from  salts  of  chromium  and  vanadium. 
These  inks  are  in  some  cases  more  suitable  than  the 
simple  writing  inks  described  above.  Sul]>hate  of 
indigo  is  also  used  as  a  colouring  matter.  A  black 
ink  which  lays  claim  to  indelibility  is  prepared 
from  nigrosine,  one  of  the  aniline  compounds ;  l)ut 
the  colour  is  much  inferior  to  that  of  ordinary  inks, 
and  is  not  absorbed  by  the  paper  fibre  to  the  same 
extent.  Writing-inks  are  generally  acid  in  char- 
acter, which  causes  the  corrosion  on  metal  pens ; 
but  this  property  rather  tends  to  enhance  the 
value  of  the  ink,  as  it  retards  the  bleaching  action 
noticeable  in  old  documents.  Creasote,  or  connnon 
wood  vinegar,  is  added  to  most  inks  to  prevent 
mouUling. 

The  following  will  be  found  excellent  recipes  for 
the  manufacture  of  black  writing-ink  on  a  .small 
scale  :  '  JV/'t/i  tjalh  and  atdp/tdtc  of  iroit. — 1  lb. 
bruised  galls,  1  gal.  boiling  water,  5^  oz.  of  sulphate 
of  iron  (  copperas )  in  solution,  'A  oz.  gum-arabic,  previ- 
ously dissolved,  and  a  few  drops  of  an  antiseptic,  such 
as  carbolic  acid.  Macerate  the  galls  for  twenty-four 
hours,  strain  the  infusion,  and  add  the  other  ingre- 
dients. With  Logiroud.  —  hoil  10  oz.  logwood  in 
20  oz.  of  water ;  boil  again  in  20  oz.  more  water, 
and  mix  the  two  decocticms;  add2oz.  chrome  alum, 
and  boil  again  for  <iuarter  of  an  hour  :  and  1  oz. 
gum-arabic.     The  ]iroduet  is  25  oz.  deep  black  ink. 

Copying-inks  are  prepared  by  adding  sugar,  gum, 
or  glycerine  to  ordinary  writing-inks.  These  sub- 
stances protect  the  colouring  matter  (combined 
with  the  iron)  from  the  oxidising  influences  of 
the  air,  by  forming  a  skin  or  impervious  varnish 
over  the  writing.  Thus,  when  the  damp  '  tissue  ' 
is  pressed  upon  the  writing,  sutticient  unoxidi.seil 
ink  is  transferred  to  stain  the  paper  from  back  to 
front,  and  expose  a  legilile  copy  on  the  upper  side. 
Aniline  colours  dissolved  in  water  holding  gum  or 
sugar  in  solution  are  also  used  as  copying  fluids. 
Owing  to  their  intense  colouring  power  these  inks 
are  useful  where  many  copies  from  one  document 
are  recpiired,  Ijut  only  for  tem])orary  use,  as  on 
exposure  to  air  or  light  these  colours  cpiickly  fade, 
and  the  record  is  lost.  C'opyable  printing-ink  is 
prepared  from  these  materials  ;  and,  when  written 
and  printed  matter  is  to  be  copied,  as  on  way-bills 
or  invoices,  its  use  is  a  great  C(mvenience.  Copy- 
able  pencils  are  prepared  from  the  same  materials 
(in  a  solid  form).  IJut  there  is  a  very  serious 
objection  to  the  use  of  such  inks  and  pencils  : 
the  printed  or  written  matter  can  be  entirely 
removed  by  means  of  alcohol  or  other  solvents. 

Many  attempts  have  been  made  to  produce  writ- 
ing-inks which  would  hin<ler  or  render  im|M)S.sible 
tampering  with  documents,  but  witliout  much  suc- 
cess. The  ncrcessity  for  such  inks  seems  exag- 
gerated, as  it  has  lieen  found  that  even  with  the 
best  manipulative  skill  and  chemical  knowledge 
it  is  practically  impossible  wholly  to  renmve  writ- 
ing produced  with  the  common  iron  and  tannin 
ink,  such  a.s  is  almost  universally  used. 

Coloured  Iri/:.s. — These  are  essentially  solutions 
of  colouring  matters.  Ked  ink  is  best  ])repare<l  by 
dissolving  pure  carmine  in  ammonia;  blue,  by  dis- 
solving Prussian  blue  in  oxalic  acid;  green,  by 
dissolving  one  per  cent,  methyl  green  in  warm 
water.  Other  c(dours  can  also  be  sim|)ly  prei)aicil, 
but  not  being  in  denumd  aie  not  usually  met  with  in 


commerce.  The  desirable  properties  in  all  writing- 
inks  are  that  they  shall  How  freely  and  not  gum  or 
clog  the  pen,  th.it  they  shall  remain  [lerfectly  lluid 
(without  depositing  the  cidouring  matter),  and  that 
they  shall  be  reasonably  permanent  in  character. 

Si/iniiiitliitir  Inks. — These  are  of  great  variety, 
and  although  possessing  an  interest  to  the  lover 
of  the  marvellous,  are  not  in  common  use.  When 
weak  solutions  of  cobalt  are  used  (chloride  or 
nitrate),  the  writing  remains  invisible  until  the 
l)aper  is  heated ;  it  then  assumes  a  red  colour, 
which  on  being  exposed  to  damp  air  (or  breathed 
ujion)  changes  to  green.  Salts  of  lead  or  bis- 
muth, on  being  treated  with  sulphuretted  hydrogen, 
give  a  black  impression.  When  a  weak  solution  of 
galls  or  tannic  acid  is  used  the  pa])er  on  being 
plunged  into  a  bath  of  a  per-salt  of  iron  will  show 
the  characters  in  black.  This  is  a  useful  methoil 
of  restoring;  faded  old  writing,  and  in  cases  where 
chemicals  liave  been  used  with  the  purpose  of 
removing  it. 

Printing-Ink. — This  is  a  greasy  or  oily  compound 
in  which  solid  jugments  are  held  in  suspension,  and 
is  altogether  difl'erent  both  in  a]ppearance  and  com 
position  from  the  writing-inks  we  have  described. 
It  also  is  usually  apjilied  to  paper  surfaces,  and 
amongst  other  qualities  it  must  possess  the  pro- 
perty known  to  piinters  as  'distribution' — i.e.  of 
liein"  easily  spread  out  in  a  layer,  the  tenuity  of 
whicli  w  ill  not  cause  it  to  till  u])  the  inter.stices  of 
and  between  the  ty[ies  ;  it  must  also  attach  itself 
to  the  paper  when  the  type  is  pressed  upon  it, 
detaching  itself  from  the  latter  entirely ;  it  must 
possess  the  apjiarently  ojiposite  properties  of  drying 
on  the  paper  within  reasonable  time,  whilst  it  shall 
not  do  .so  on  the  type,  rollers,  or  ink-tables  :  and 
lastly,  it  should  be  perujanent  in  so  far  as  the 
impressions  on  paper  should  have  no  tendency  to 
change.  The  various  qualities  of  printing-ink  may 
be  described  under  three  heads — viz.  :  ( 1 )  news- 
paper inks;  (2)  bookwork  inks;  and(3)  lithographic 
inks.  With  the  common  and  consequently  cheap 
i  printing-inks  it  is  not  nei'ess.ary  that  the  more 
i  expensive  drying  oils  be  employed  as  a  vehicle  or 
varnish  for  the  colouring  matter.  Common  oils 
made  from  paratlin  and  resin  ;ire  used,  mixed  with 
ordinary  lampldack.  Krom  this  conqiound,  when 
ap|ilied  to  the  surface  of  printing-paper,  the  oily 
matter  is  absorbed,  leaving  the  colouring  matter  as 
a  stain  on  the  outside,  which  does  not  'set  oft"  to 
such  an  extent  as  to  prevent  its  emjiloyment  for 
cheap  periodicals  and  new  spapei^.  The  better  class 
of  printing-inks,  however,  must  actually  dry  npon 
the  surface  of  the  pajier  in  the  sanu'  manner  as 
paint  will  dry  when  aiqilied  to  a  wall.  This  result 
is  obtained  by  the  em|)loyment  of  drying  oil.s — that 
is,  oils  which  have  the  jiropcrty  of  absorbing  oxygen 
and  becoming  gum-like  or  resinous  in  cliaracter. 
Thus,  when  the  ink,  jirepared  from  linseiMl,  poppy, 
or  walnut  oil,  is  exposed  to  the  atmosphere, 
especially  if  assisted  by  heat,  the  coh>uring  matter 
becomes  imprisone<l  or  varnished  over  with  a  resin 
ous  coaling,  which  jirevents  it  setting  oft'  or  staining 
any  substance  brought  in  contact  with  it.  In  pre 
paring  the  varnish  of  such  inks  the  oils  already 
menti(med  are  heated  to  500"  or  600  K.,  at  whicli 
temi)eralure  they  are  kept  for  a  ))eriod  varying 
witli  the  ilegree  of  viscosity  or  thickness  of  the 
varnish  required.  In  this  operation  the  oil  (a 
compound  of  fatty  acids  with  glycerine)  gradually 
thickens,  without  nmch  loss  of  colour  or  weight, 
pungent  funu's  of  acroline,  due  to  the  decomposi 
tion  of  the  glycerine,  being  gi\  en  ott'.  The  varnish 
so  produced  is  mixed  with  l.amjiblack,  ]ireparecl 
either  from  coal  or  burning  oil,  or  from  the  im 
perfect  condnistion  of  giis,  and  after  very  careful 
grimling  is  in  a  condithm  for  use. 

The  manufacture  of  coloured  inks  is  practically 


INKERMANN 


INLAYING 


145 


much  tlie  siiiiie  as  for  black  inks,  only  frreat  care 
must  be  exeiciseil  to  seciiie  the  purity  of  tlic  var- 
nish, ami  to  sec  that  the  chemicals  eiiiiiloyeil  ilo 
not  react  u|ioii  one  another.  l'"or  exani|ilc,  wlien 
vermilion  (which  is  a  compouml  of  sul]ihur  aiul 
mercury)  is  employeil  with  colours  containing 
iron  or  lead,  the  splemliil  colour  of  the  vermilion 
is  entirely  destroyed  hy  the  foriiiaticui  of  black 
sulphur  comiiounds  with  the  iron  and  lead.  It  is 
impossible  in  such  an  article  to  give  more  than  the 
general  outline  of  this  manufacture,  with  wliich 
are  connected  many  mysterious  processes  for  which 
there  is  no  chemical  explanation.  The  technical 
manuals  are  said  to  contain  reliable  recipes  to 
guiile  to  its  manufacture,  and  we  must  refer  our 
readem  to  these  for  details.  The  chief  ilrawback 
in  regard  to  coloureil  printing-inks  is  their  tpn<lency 
to  fade  on  exposure  to  the  air  and  light.  This 
drawb.-ick  has  become  more  accentuated  since  the 
introduction  of  coal-tar  colours,  with  which  it 
seems  to  be  the  rule  that  the  more  brilliant  and 
beautiful  they  are  the  less  are  they  tit  to  resist 
these  destructive  intluences. 

In  lithography  both  writing  and  printing  inks  are 
employed,  these  being  of  a  peculiar  character. 
The  former  consists  of  a  soapy  fluid  holding  in 
suspension  fatty  matters  (shellac,  white  wa.x,  and 
tallow),  which  on  being  transferred  to  the  stone  are 
absorbed  and  retained  by  its  porosity.  The  sub- 
sequent application  of  lithographic  juintingink 
(which  is  only  the  finest  variety  of  printing-ink 
prepared  in  an  especial  manner)  to  the  dam])  surface 
of  the  stone  causes  it  to  collect  and  form  a  layer  on 
the  portions  which  the  lithographic  writing-ink  has 
penetrated.  As  in  the  ca.se  of  letterjjress-inks, 
those  for  lithograiihic  purposes  are  prepared  in  black 
and  coloured  varieties. 

Special  inks  an;  i>repared  for  collotype  and  tin- 
plate  printing.  8tani]iing  or  obliterating  inks  may 
either  be  prepared  by  thinning  down  black  or 
coloured  letterpress  printing-inks  with  linseed-oil 
or  turpentine,  or  by  grinding  aniline  colours  with 
glycerine  and  treacle. 

Iiulian  Ink  or  Chiiin  Ink. — This  is  a  mechanical 
mixture  of  the  purest  and  densest  lampblack, 
with  a  solution  of  gum,  gelatine,  or  of  agar-agar. 
The  black  paste  is  dried  and  pressed  so  as  to 
form  cakes,  in  which  condition  it  is  sohl.  The 
lam|)l>lack  is  pre|iared  by  burning  sesame  or  other 
oils,  controlling  the  su]iply  of  air  so  that  in  place 
of  a  clear  flame  the  carbon  from  the  burning  oil  is 
deposited  in  line  flakes  in  the  form  of  lampblack. 
For  the  very  flnest  varieties  the  material  used  for 
this  purpose  is  camphor.  The  lampblack  or  carbon 
so  produced  is  amorphous,  and  of  an  intensely  black 
colour.  In  this  condition  it  is  .seldom  used  for  the 
purpo.se  of  ordinary  writing,  but  when  rubbed  down 
with  water  forms  a  material  used  by  draughtsmen 
for  plans,  &c.  Inks  of  a  similar  nature  can  be 
prepared  by  mixing  the  solutions  already  mentioned 
with  colouring  matti^r. 

Markinrjink. — When  certain  salts  of  silver  or 
platinum  are  ajiplied  to  textile  fabrics  these 
materials  are  reduced  in  the  libres  of  the  fal)ric,  and 
the  writing  .so  prmluced  is  not  rem<ived  by  the 
ordinary  scouring  process  to  which  such  articles  are 
subj(^ited.  Aniline  in  the  i)resence  of  oxidised 
substances  also  produces  a  useful  indelibh-  ink. 

Ink-stains. — The  renmval  of  writing  ink  stains 
from  liiKiii  is  easily  eU'ected,  by  alternately  dipjiing 
the  jiarts  in  a  solution  of  oxalic  aciil  anil  iivpo- 
chlorite  of  lime  (or  soila).  If  the  stains  he  old  and 
have  as.snnied  the  brown  colour  of  iron  mould, 
warm  diluted  muriatic  .acid  will  be  found  ellectu.al 
in  their  removal.  Where  the  fabric  is  coloured 
the  removal  <if  ink-stains  is  more  iliflicult,  as  the 
chemicals  employed  in  the  former  ca.se  are  inadmis- 
sible. In  this  case  a  solution  of  pvropliospliate  of 
270 


sod.a  may  be  used  with  advantage,  as  this  salt  does 
j  not  seriously  all'ect  even  ilclicale  colours.  It  is  of 
I  coui'se  necessary  to  thoroughly  wash  the  fabric  after 

the  removal  of  the  stains. 

Illkoriliailll.  a  village  in  the  Crimea,  .situated 
near  the  castein  extremity  of  the  harbour  of 
Sebastopol.      Sec  t'ltlMEAN  Wak. 

Iiiliiiid  Ri'vomie.    See  Excise,  Taxation. 

Illlayiliu;  is  the  art  of  decorating  flat  surfaces 
by  the  insertion  of  materials  ditlering  from  tlu? 
ground  or  body  in  which  they  are  iidaid.  in  colour, 
texture,  or  other  qualities.  The  body  or  basis  may 
be  wood,  stone,  or  metal,  and  the  inlaid  or  en- 
crusted substances  may  be  woods  of  various  colours, 
ivory,  mother-of-pearl,  tortoiseshell,  ]irecious  and 
other  metals,  marbles,  and  hard  and  precious 
stones,  all  these  substances  being  selected  prin- 
cipally on  account  of  the  brilliance  and  variety 
of  their  colours.  Inlaying  in  wood  is  known  gener- 
ally as  marquefrif :  in  metals  the  inlay  principally 
praeti-sed  is  called  Diiniascenin;]  (q.v. );  and  in 
marble  and  i>recious  stones  it  forms  a  variety  of 
.1/06rt;'c-work  (q.v.).  As  is  the  case  with  most 
decorative  .arts,  the  origin  of  inlaying  can  be  traced 
to  eastern  countries.  While  some  kinds  of  inlays 
were  known  in  ancient  Rtune,  the  art  as  prac- 
tised in  modern  times  flrst  took  root  in  Venice 
in  the  loth  century,  when  small  caskets  were 
ornamented  with  inlays  of  ivory  and  wood  in 
strictly  geometrical  patterns,  such  as  continue  to 
be  reproduced  to  this  day  in  the  familiar  iidaid- 
work  of  ISomhay.  Contemporaneously  the  Floren- 
tines began  to  ornament  furniture,  iyc.  with  small 
inlaid  dice  of  ivory  arranged  to  form  various 
patterns,  and  this  style  of  iiday  luis  since  become 
generally  known  as  Certosa-work,  from  the  fact 
that  the  choir-littings  in  the  church  of  the  Certosa 
or  great  Carthusian  monastery,  near  Milan,  are 
ornamented  in  this  nuinner.  From  the.se  begin- 
nings developed  the  Tarsia-work  of  Italy  of  a 
century  later,  which,  dealing  at  first  with  geo- 
metrical patterns  in  wood,  ilevelopeil  into  inlaid 
representations  of  architecture,  views,  figures,  and 
drapery,  and  Anally  into  foliaceons  scrolls  of 
modern  marquetry,  ilarquetry-work  in  furniture 
was  greatl^•  elaborated  in  I'"rance,  (iermany,  and 
Holland  towards  the  close  of  the  17th  century, 
and  workers  in  wood  found  great  delight  in  skilful 
elaboration  of  intricate  designs.  Towards  the  close 
of  the  17tli  century  a  new  development  of  mar- 
quetry was  ellected  by  a  French  artist,  Charles 
Andre  Boule,  in  the  exclusive  use  of  inlaid 
veneers  of  tortoiseshell  ami  brass,  now  known  as 
Buhl  work,  lioth  in  design  and  execution  Boule's 
work  was  of  remarkable  ipiality  ;  the  colour  of  his 
tortoiseshell  was  frequently  lndghtened  liy  a  back- 
ing of  gohl  or  vermilion,  and  his  brass-work  was 
enriched  with  skilful  engraving.  Towards  the 
close  of  the  18th  century,  while  marquetry  of  a 
most  elaborate  character  was  being  made  in  tier- 
many  and  Italy,  the  richest  triumphs  of  the  art 
were  ]U-oduced  in  France  by  the  famous  ebcniatcs 
Keisner  and  Roentgen  ;  but  (lie  IJevolution  put 
an  end  for  the  time  to  the  manufacture. 

Pietraihini.  which  (consists  of  an  inlay  of  bright- 
coloured,  hiud,  and  precious  stones,  in  slain  of 
marble  or  in  panels  of  wood,  is  allied  to  the  ancient 
mosaic-work  which  flourished  in  llit^  jialniy  days  of 
Home;  but  true  mosaic,  although  embedded,  is 
not  inlaid.  I'ii'lra-dura  began  to  be  made  in  Italy 
in  the  l.'ith  century,  but  its  extreme  costliness 
prevented  its  extensive  a)>i>lication.  Two  varieties 
were  made  in  Italy,  one  licing  an  inl.iy  of  minute 
pieces  of  stones  \\\{\\  colours  so  arranged  as  to  form 
a  design  or  iiictuie,  like  mosaics  of  larger  size. 
This  is  known  as  Roman  mosaic,  in  contradistinc- 
tion to  Florentine  nuisaic,  which  consists  of  slices  of 


U6 


INN 


INNES 


stone  shaped  ami  inserted  to  form  definite  jiortions 
of  the  reciiiired  (lesi.Lrn.  This  hitter  chiss  of  inhiid- 
work  was  introdueed  into  India  by  a  Frencli  artist, 
Austin  de  Hordeanx,  who  dei'(nated  the  famous 
Taj  Mahal  at  A;;ra  in  pietradnra  of  the  rirliest 
and  most  elaborate  character.  The  art  then  took 
root  in  that  region,  and  to  this  ilay  pietradura  of 
manifestly  European  cliaracter  in  design  continues 
to  be  a  charaoterislie  art  industry  of  Agra. 

The  ornamental  treatment  of  metals  by  inlaying 
is  principally  conlined  to  the  encrusting  and  inlay- 
ing of  wire  and  fine  plates  of  gold  and  silver  into 
iron,  steel,  and  bronze.  The  inhaving  of  gold  an<i, 
to  a  minor  degree,  silver  wire  into  iron  or  steel 
is  known  as  Damascening  (<|. v.).  In  India  sucli 
damascening  is  known  as  Kuft  work,  and  exten- 
sively practised  in  the  Nortli-western  I'rovince.s. 
Etl'eetive  ccnnliiiuitions  of  inferior  metals  are  also 
made  in  Indi.-i;  silver  inlaid  in  a  black  alloy  of 
copper,  lead,  and  tin  Ijeing  known  as  liidri-work, 
from  IJidar,  in  the  Deccan.  Combinations  of  copper 
and  brass,  .and  of  brass  and  tin,  are  also  common 
in  the  household  vcissels  of  the  Hindus.  The 
Japanese,  wlio  iiossess  many  alloys,  excel  in  com- 
bining ami  inla>  ing  them,  often  in  relief,  in  their 
art  metal  manufactures. 

lun  (ancient  iKiins),  a  river  of  (Jermany,  the 
most  important  Alpine  .affluent  of  the  Danube, 
rises  in  the  south  of  the  Swiss  canton  of  Gri.sons, 
and  Hows  north-e;vst  through  the  valley  of  the 
Engadine,  and  onwards  through  Tyrol  and  Bavaria, 
to  its  junction  with  the  Danub«  at  Passau  in  a 
.stream  (.320  y.ards)  broader  than  that  of  the 
Danube.  Its  total  course  is  317  miles.  In  Bavaria 
its  bed  is  broad  and  sown  with  island.s.  I 

Inn  is  the  legal  designation  of  a  house  or  hotel 
where  lodging  and  refreshment  are  provided  for 
travellei-s  generally.  I'uldic  liou.ses,  >.\:c.  are  not 
properly  described  as  inns  unless  some  rooms  are 
set  apart  for  guests  to  lodge  in.  An  inn  may  be 
set  up  without  a  license  ;  but  if  excisalde  linuors 
are  soKl  the  innkeeijer  must  take  out  a  license ; 
and  even  temperance  hotels  are  made  subject  to 
police  inspection,  to  ]irevent  evasion  of  the  law. 

An  innkeeper  is  boumi  to  open  his  house  to 
travellers  generally ;  he  nuiv  not  refuse  refresh- 
ment or  lodging  to  any  person  who  is  able  and 
willing  to  pay.  unless  such  pers<m  is  drunk  or 
disorderly,  or  tainteil  with  infectious  di.sease.  He 
is,  of  course,  bound  oidy  to  give  such  accommoda- 
tion as  he  lias.  If  the  traveller  has  a  horse  and 
luggage  the  innkeeper  is  bound  to  receive  them  if 
he  lias  accommodation,  provided  tlie  traveller  him- 
self intends  to  lodgi^  tliere  iis  a  guest.  But  the 
traveller  is  not  entitled  to  select  whatever  room  he 
pleases,  and  if  he  will  not  accept  such  reasonable 
accommodation  as  is  oli'iued,  the  innkeeper  may 
order  him  to  leave  tlie  house.  An  innkeeper  liius  a 
lien  or  right  to  ilctain  the  horse,  carriage,  or  goods 
of  his  guest  for  that  jiart  of  the  reckoning  appli- 
cable to  each  respectively,  and  this  lien  he  ac(|iiires 
even  if  the  horse,  <,V-c.  be  not  the  pidjierly  of  the 
guest.  He  has  no  right  to  detain  the  person  of  his 
guest. 

By  the  Kiiman  law  an  innkeeper  was  bound  to 
restore  goods  entrusted  to  him  by  his  guests,  unless 
they  were  lost  by  some  (liiiniiiiiii  fttUilc,  or  inevit- 
able misfortiiiic  ;  this  was  the  ell'ect  of  a  clause  in 
the  edict  beginning  Naiiliv,  niiipoiirx.  stalm/iini. 
The  same  rule  wjis  adopted  by  the  English  common 
law.  Hence,  if  a  guest  was  robbed  of  his  goods  at 
an  inn  the  innkeeper  was  liable,  unless  the  guest 
had  taken  upon  himself  the  care  of  his  own  pro- 
Jierty,  or  tlie  loss  was  due  to  the  default  or  neg- 
ligence of  the  guest  himself,  his  servant,  or  com- 
panion :  and  the  landlord  was  not  permitted  to 
escape   liability   by   jjutting  n])   a  notice  that  he 


would  not  be  answerable  for  losses.  But  the  Inn- 
keepei's  Act,  IStiS,  provides  that  an  innkeeper  shall 
not  be  liable  to  make  good  the  loss  of  any  goods, 
«.*i:c.  (not  being  a  horse  or  carriage)  to  a  greater 
amount  than  £.S0,  unless  the  loss  has  been  occa- 
sioned by  his  own  wilful  default,  or  the  projierty 
has  been  depositetl  with  him  for  safe  custody.  A 
copy  of  the  first  section  of  the  act  must  be 
exhiliited  in  the  hall  or  entrance  to  the  inn.  The 
liability  of  innkeepers  in  respect  of  goods  belonging 
to  their  guests  extends  to  all  keepere  of  public- 
houses,  &c. ,  but  not  to  persons  who  let  lodgings. 
The  keeper  of  a  boarding-liouse  or  lodging-house  is 
free  from  liability  if  he  exercises  ordinary  care — i.e. 
such  care  as  he  takes  of  his  own  goods.  The  Inn- 
keepers Act  of  1.S7S  permits  a  landlord  (after 
giving  notice  jus  required  by  the  act)  to  sell  the 
property  of  a  guest  who  has  left  witliou'..  paying. 
In  Scotland  the  Koman  rule  of  law  jis  to"  inn- 
keepers' liability  liius  been  adoided,  and  the  law  is 
substantially  the  same  as  in  Englaml,  exceiit  that 
no  indictment  would  lie  against  an  innkeeper  for 
refusing  a  guest.  See  furtlier,  as  to  tlie  licenses 
rei|uiied  by  innkeeiiers,  the  articles  LICENSING 
Laws  and  Ln;iOK  L.vws. 

Innate  Ideas.    See   C'o.m.mon  skx.se,  Des- 

CAliTES. 

Inner  Ilonse.  the  name  given  in  Scotland  to 
the  higher  divisions  of  the  Court  of  Sessiim  (ij.v.). 

Innerleithen,  a  jiolice-burgh  ( IStii))  of  Peebles- 
shire, near  the  Tweed's  left  bank,  G  miles  ESE.  of 
Peebles,  and  12  W.  of  tialashiels.  Its  first  woolleu- 
factory  was  established  in  1700,  about  which  time 
its  saline  spring  (Scott's  'St  Itonan's  AVell")  came 
into  celebrity ;  but  the  great  extension  of  its 
woollen  industry  d.ates  from  fifty  veais  later.  Pop. 
(1841)40.-^:  (isili  )lV)I2. 

Inner  Temple,  one  of  the  Innsof  Court  (((.v.). 

Innes,  Cusmo,  lawyer,  antiiiuary,  and  his- 
torian, w!is  born  at  Durris,  on  Deeside,  9th 
September  17i)S.  His  father,  formerly  the  laird 
of  Lenchars,  was  a  scion  of  the  old  family  of  Iniies 
<if  Innes.  Cosmo  was  educated  at  the  Edinburgh 
High  School,  and  he  graduated  both  at  t!la.sgow 
and  Oxford.  In  1822  he  jias.sed  as  a  Scottish 
advocate,  became  sherifV  of  Moray  in  1840,  and 
subsequently  wiis  appointed  clerk  to  the  Second 
Division  of  the  Court  of  Session.  In  1S4G  he 
was  elected  to  the  (unpaid)  chair  of  History  in 
the  nniver.sity  of  Edinburgh.  Cosmo  Innes  is 
|ierha|is  best  known  ius  llie  author  of  ^Scotland  in 
l/ic  Middle  Af/cx  (ISGO),  and  iikctc/ics  of  Early 
Scotch  JJistoi!/\\SC>l ),  but  he  also  prepared  the  first 
volume  of  Actn  of  the  Scottish  I'artiiuiictit,  and  at 
the  time  of  his  death  Wius  engaged  on  an  index  to 
the  whole  series.  He  was  further  a  most  imlustri- 
ous  member  of  the  P.aniiatyne,  Maitland,  and 
S|ialding  Clubs,  and  edited  for  them  several  of 
the  register-books  of  the  old  religious  houses  of 
Scotlaiul,  with  other  historical  documents  of  great 
iiii|iortance.  He  published  a  volume  of  lectures  on 
Lc<jal  Antiquities  (1S72),  and  was  the  author  of 
several  memoirs,  including  one  of  Dean  Kamsay. 
Cosmo  liines  died  smldenly  at  Killin,  ;jlst  July 
1874,  in  his  seventv-sixlh  year.  See  the  Memoir 
by  his  daughter.  Mi's  Hill  Burton  (1874). 

Innes,  Thomas,  a  Scottish  historian,  known 
better  sis  'Father  Innes,'  was  born  in  1002  at 
Diumg.osk,  on  Deeside,  Aberdeenshire.  At  fifteen 
he  was  .sent  to  Paris,  where  he  studied  at  the 
College  of  N'avarre  and  the  Scots  College,  of  which 
latter  bixly  his  eldest  brother  Lewis  ( 16.'>1-1738) 
was  principal  from  1()82.  Tlumias  received  ]iriest's 
orders  in  1U!I2,  ami  after  three  years  of  mission 
work  at  Inveraven,  Banflshire  ( 1G!)8  1701 ),  returned 
to  Paris,  and  became  prefect  of  studies  in  the  Scotfi 


INNES 


INNOCENT 


147 


College,  where  lie  dieil,  iStli  January  1744.  To 
pursue  his  researches  he  hail  puul  a  visit  or  two 
to  Knglaud  ami  Scotlanil  :  and  Woilrow,  who  saw 
him  at  Edinhurgh  in  17'2+,  desiMihes  him  as  'a 
monkish,  bookish  person,  who  meddles  with  nothing 
but  literature.'  Withal  he  was  a  staunch  Jacobite, 
but  no  Ultramontane  ;  not  free,  indeed,  from  sus- 
picion of  Jansenism.  He  may  jnstly  be  looked  on 
as  the  precursor  of  Xiebuhr  and  Nielmhr's  sue- 
ce.ssoi-s ;  for  his  Critical  £sxai/  on  tlic  Aiicteiit 
Iii/nihitdiita  of  Scotland  {2  \i>U.  1729)  is  nuioli  the 
earliest  of  all  scientific  histories.  It  was  meant 
for  an  introduction  to  a  Cicil  and  Ecclesiastical 
History  of  Scotland,  one  volume  of  which,  coming 
down  to  Columba's  death,  he  prepared  for  the 
press,  whilst  another,  bringisg  down  the  narrative 
t«  831,  was  left  incomplete.  Both  were  edited  for 
the  Spalding  Club  by  Dr  Grub  in  1853.  The  aim 
of  the  whole  work  was  '  to  counteract  the  inven- 
tions of  former  historians  [Hector  Boece],  and  to 
go  to  the  bottom  of  the  tlark  contrivances  of  factious 
men  [  George  Buchanan  ]  against  the  sovereignty  of 
our  kings  ; '  and,  though  he  thus  wrote  with  a 
purpose,  his  honesty  and  acumen  were  such  that 
the  work  retains  a  permanent  value.  See  the 
Memoir  by  Dr  Grub  pretixed  to  the  reprint  of 
the  Critical  Essay  ( '  Historians  of  Scotland '  series, 
vol.  viii.  1879). 

InilOCCDtt  the  name  of  thirteen  popes,  the  most 
remarkable  of  whom  are  the  following. — Innocent 
I.,  a  native  of  Albano,  was  elected  Bishop  of  Home 
in  402.  Next  to  the  pontilicate  of  Leo  the  Great 
that  of  Innocent  forms  the  most  important  eixxh 
in  the  history  of  the  relations  of  tlie  see  of  Home 
with  the  other  churches,  both  of  the  Ea-st  and 
of  the  West.  He  Wiis  earnest  and  vigorous  in 
enforcing  the  celil>acy  of  the  clergy.  He  main- 
tained with  a  firm  hand  the  right  of  the  Bishop  of 
Kome  to  receive  and  to  judge  appeals  from  other 
churches,  ami  Ids  letters  abound  with  assertions  of 
universal  jurisdiction,  to  which  Catholics  appeal  as 
early  evidence  of  the  Roman  primacy.  Innocent  1. 
died  in  417,  and  was  canonised. — For  Innocent  II. 
see  Pope,  Antipopk. 

Innocent  III.  (Loth.\rio  Conti),  by  far  the 
greatest  pope  of  this  name,  wa-s  born  at  Anagni  in 
1161.  After  a  course  of  much  distinction  at  I'aris, 
Bologna,  and  Rome,  he  was  made  cardinal ;  and 
eventually  in  1198  was  elected,  at  the  unpre- 
cedentedly  early  age  of  thirty-.seven,  a  successor  of 
Po])e  Celestine  III.  His  pontificate  is  ju.stly  re- 
ganled  as  the  culminating  point  of  the  temporal  as 
well  as  the  spiritual  supremacy  of  the  Roman  see; 
under  the  impulse  of  his  ardent  but  disinterested 
zeal  for  the  glory  of  the  church,  almost  eveiy  state 
and  kingdom  was  brought  into  subjection.  In  Italy, 
during  the  minority  of  Frederick  II.,  who  Wiis  a 
ward  of  Innocent's,  the  authority  of  the  pope 
within  his  own  states  was  fully  consolidated,  and 
his  intluiMice  among  the  other  states  of  Italy  was 
confirmed  and  extended.  In  Germany  he  adjudi- 
cated with  authority  upon  the  rival  claims  of  Otto 
the  (iueliih  anrl  Philip  of  Swabia  ;  in  France  he 
compelled  Pliilip  .Augustus  to  dismiss  Agnes  ile 
Meranie,  whom  he  had  unlawfully  married,  and 
to  take  Kick  Ingeburga.  In  Spain  he  exercist^l 
a  similar  authority  over  the  king  of  Leon.  The 
history  of  his  conflict  with  anil  triumph  over  John 
of  England  displays  in  a  stronger  light  the  extent 
of  his  pretensions  and  the  completeness  of  his 
supremacy.  Even  the  king  of  Armenia,  Leo, 
receivcil  his  legates.  And,  as  if  in  order  that 
nothing  might  be  wanting  to  the  completeness  of 
his  authority  throughout  the  then  known  world, 
the  Latin  conouest  of  ConstJintinople  and  the 
establishment  ot  the  Latin  kingdom  of  .liM'u.salem 
put  an  end,  at  lea.st  during  his  pontificate,  to  the 
shadowy  pretensions   of  the  eastern   rivals  of    his 


power,  si)iritual  as  well  as  temporal.  His  views  of 
the  absoluteness  of  the  authority  of  the  church 
within  her  own  dominion  were  no  less  unbending 
than  bis  notion  of  the  universality  of  its  extent. 
To  him  every  olfence  against  religion  was  a  crime 
against  society,  and  in  his  ideal  Christian  republic 
every  heresy  was  a  rebellion  which  it  was  the  duty 
of  the  rulere  to  resist  and  re|)ress.  It  was  at  his 
call,  therefore,  that  the  crusade  against  th<! 
Albigenses  was  organised  and  undertaken.  .\s  an 
ecclesiastical  administrator  Innocent  holds  a  high 
place  in  his  order.  He  was  a  vigorous  guanlian  of 
]iublic  and  private  morality,  a  steady  ]>rotector  of 
the  weak,  zealous  in  the  repression  of  simony  and 
other  abuses  of  the  time.  He  prohibited  the 
arbitrary  multiplication  of  religious  orders  by 
[irivate  authority,  but  he  lent  all  the  force  of  his 
power  and  influence  to  the  remarkable  spiritual 
movement  in  which  the  two  great  orders,  the 
Franciscan  and  the  Dominican,  had  their  origin. 
It  was  under  him  that  the  celebrated  fourth 
Lateran  Council  was  held  in  1215.  In  the  follow- 
ing year  he  was  seized  with  his  fatal  illness,  and 
died  in  July  at  Perugia  at  the  early  age  of  fifty-six. 
His  works  embrace  sermons,  a  remarkable  treatise 
on  the  Misery  of  the  Condition  of  Man,  and  a  large 
number  of  letters.  The 'golden  secjuence  '  '  Veni, 
sancte  Spiritus '  has  been  attributed  to  him  by 
some.  It  is  from  his  letters  and  his  decretals  alone 
that  the  character  of  the  age  and  the  true  signi- 
ficance of  the  church  jiolicy  of  this  extraordinary 
man  can  be  fully  understood.  However  earnestly 
men  may  dissent  from  these  views,  no  student 
of  medieval  history  will  refuse  to  accept  Dean 
Milman's  verdict  on  the  career  of  Innocent  III. 
that  '  his  high  and  blameless,  and,  in  some  respects, 
wise  and  gentle  character,  seems  to  approach  more 
nearly  than  any  one  of  the  whole  succession  of 
Roman  bishops  to  the  ideal  light  of  a  supreme 
pontitt';'  and  that  'in  him,  if  ever,  may  seem  to 
I)e  realised  the  churchman's  highest  conception  of  a 
vicar  of  Christ. ' 

See  Miliuan's  Latin  Ckristianitfj,  vol.  v. ;  Jerry's 
Histoirc  </«  Papc  Innocent  III.  (18.53);  and  the  works 
in  German  by  F.  Hurter  (1S31-42),  Deutsch  (1876), 
Schweuier  (1882),  and  Brischar  (18S3). 

Innocent  XI.  (Benedetto  Odesc-\lchi),  born 
at  Como  in  1(311  and  elected  in  1676,  was  one  of 
the  most  distinguished  among  the  popes  of  the  17tli 
century.  He  was  a  vigorous  and  judicious  reformer  ; 
but  his  historical  celebrity  is  mainly  owing  to  his 
contest  with  Louis  XIV.  The  dispute  began  with 
an  attempt  on  the  part  of  the  pope  to  put  an  end 
to  the  alnise  of  the  kind's  keeping  sees  vacant,  in 
virtue  of  what  was  called  the  Droit  dc  Jieyale,  and 
appro])riating  their  revenues.  The  resistance  to 
this  attempt  drew  forth  the  celebrated  declarations 
of  the  French  clergy  as  to  the  (lallican  Liberties. 
But  the  actual  conflict  regarded  the  immunities 
enjoyed  bv  the  foreign  ambassadors  residing  in 
Rome,  and  especially  the  right  of  asylum,  which 
they  claimed  not  only  for  their  own  residences,  but 
also  for  the  adjoining  district.  These  districts  had 
gradually  become  so  many  lu'sls  of  crime,  and  of 
frauds  upon  the  revenue  :  and  the  pope  gave  notice 
that  he  would  not  thereafter  receive  the  credentials 
of  any  new  amliassador  who  should  not  renounce 
these  abusive  claims.  The  great  powers  murmured 
at  this  threat,  but  it  was  with  France  that  the 
crisis  occurred.  Louis  XIV.  instructed  his  new 
amba.ssador  to  maintain  the  dignity  of  France,  and 
sent  a  large  body  of  military  and  naval  olficers  to 
su]i|iort  his  pritensions.  Innocent  persisted  iu 
refusing  to  grant  an  audience  to  the  ambassador. 
Louis,  in  reprisal,  seized  on  the  pa]ial  territory  of 
Avignon  ;  but  the  jKipe  was  innnovable.  anil  the 
dispute  was  not  ailjnst<!d  till  tlie  following  pontifi- 
cate.     Innocent  dieil  in  1689.     The  pope  of  Brown- 


148 


INNOCENTS 


INOCULATION 


iii<;'s  Uiiiri  and  tlir  liuul  was  lunoceiit  XII.  (  HjT- 
iiatelli),  jiope  in  lliUl-lTUO. 

Illlioroilts,  Hoi.v.     See  C'iuluekmas. 

InilOiniliatt'  Artory  (ArUita  itiuomiuata) 
is  tlie  lirst  larye  Inanch  given  ofV  fnini  the  arch  of 
the  Aorta  (q.v.). 

Iiiuoiniiinti'  Bone.    See  I'elvis. 

Innsbruck,  the  capital  of  Tyrol,  109  miles 
by  rail  S.  of  Munich,  stauils  on  the  Inn  at 
its  junction  with  the  Sill,  ISSO  feet  above  sea- 
level,  surrounded  and  overhung  by  mountains 
ranging  from  7o(M)  to  SoOO  feet  high.  It  is  a 
beautiful  place,  with  broad  tree-shaded  streets, 
areaded  shops,  and  four  sc|uares  adorned  with 
statues.  The  Franciscan  church,  or  Hofkirche, 
built  in  the  Renaissance  style  in  1353-63,  contains 
a  beautiful  and  elal)orate  monument  to  the 
Emperor  Maximilian  1.  (who,  however,  is  buried 
in  Vienna ).  It  consists  of  a  marble  sarcojihagus 
supporting  the  emperor's  etligy  in  bronze,  in  a 
kneeling  posture  ;  while  on  both  sides  of  the  aisle 
are  twenty -eight  bronze  tigures  of  royal  (mostly 
Hapsburg)  personages,  by  Peter  Visclier  and  other 
(ierman  artists.  In  the  same  church  are  monuments 
to  Andreas  Hofer  and  his  comrades  Speckbacher 
and  Haspinger,  and  to  the  Tyrolese  who  fell  in 
the  wars  against  France  (179(>-1 809).  The  parish 
church  of  St  James  has  a  picture  of  the  A'irgin  by 
Lucas  Cranach.  The  other  chief  buildings  are  the 
imperial  ca.stle,  built  by  Maximilian  I.  and  restored 
by  Maria  Theresa  in  1766-70;  the  'Golden  Roof 
I'alace;'  the  national  museum,  the  Ferdinan- 
deum ;  and  the  university  (founded  in  1677, 
and,  after  several  vicissitudes,  organised  anew  in 
1826),  which  has  the  usual  four  faculties  and 
upwards  of  SOO  stu<lents  and  HID  professors  and 
lecturers.  To  the  university  are  attached  a  library 
of  92,000  volumes,  a  botanical  garden  especially 
I  ich  in  Alpine  Jlora,  and  the  usual  museums, 
laboratories,  &c.  Amongst  the  eight  monasteries 
(if  Innsbruck  is  the  lirst  that  the  Capuchins 
lounded  in  Germany  (1594).  Innsbruck  carries  on 
manufactures  of  w  oollen  cloth,  machines,  and  glass, 
and  glass-painting.  It  is  much  visited  by  tourists 
in  till!  summei'.  Pop.  (1890)23,320;  or,  including 
the  suburbs  of  liiitting  and  Wilten,  35,S00.  Inns 
hnick  has  always  been  a  place  of  some  commercial 
importance,  owing  to  its  situation  at  the  ford 
across  the  Inn  and  at  the  head  of  the  Brenner  Pass 
to  Italy.  The  Romans  had  here  their  principal 
colony  in  Rha-tia.  From  1  ISO  the  town  belonged 
to  the  Counts  of  Meran  ;  in  1363  it  passed  with 
Tyrol  to  Austria.  The  stormiest  period  of  its 
history  fell  in  the  days  of  Hofer  (ipv.).  See 
( iwercher,  Iiiii^bnic/.-  und  dcssin  UiiKjchuiKj  ( 1880). 

Inns  of  Court,  the  mime  given  to  certain 
Nolnntary  societies  which  have  the  exclusive  right 
of  calling  persons  to  the  English  bar.  These 
societies  had  their  origin  in  the  Kith  century,  when 
the  clergy  ceased  to  practise  in  the  law-courts,  anil 
their  place  was  taken  by  lay  [irofessors,  '  a))pren- 
tices,'  and  students  of  law  who  congregated  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  Westminster.  There  are  four 
Inns  of  Court — Lincoln's  Inn,  the  Inner  Temple, 
the  MidiUe  Temple,  and  Gray's  Inn.  Each  jiossesses 
a  dining-hall,  library,  and  chajiel,  the  Temjile 
Church  being  usc<l  as  a  chapel  by  lioth  the  societies 
which  take  then-  n.imc  from  tlu'  liuildings  which 
once  belonged  to  the  Kniglits  Templars.  Each 
inn  derives  a  considerable  income  from  houses  and 
chambers  occnpii'd  by  liarristers  and  others,  and 
each  is  governed  by  an  irresponsible  body  called 
the  Benchers.  New  membei-s  of  this  body,  who  are 
usually  judges  or  senior  counsel,  are  chosen  by 
the  e.^Lsting  members.  The  inns  possess  e<|ual 
jirivileges ;  since  1855,  when  a  royal  commission 
reported  on  their  revenues  and  constitution,  they 


have  joined  in  providing  lectures  for  the  benelit  of 
students,  and  in  examining  candidates  for  admis- 
sion to  the  bar.  They  have  discretiim  to  a<lmit 
or  refuse  any  candidate  without  assigning  their 
reasons  ;  but  no  objection  is  maile  to  the  admission 
of  any  pei'son  of  good  character.  E;ich  inn  exercises 
discipline  over  its  own  meml)ei-s,  and  has  power  to 
disbar  them — i.e.  to  withdraw  from  them  the  right 
to  practise  ;  but  there  is  an  ajipciil  to  the  judges 
from  the  decision  of  the  benchers.  The  right  of 
disbarring  is  exercised  only  in  the  case  of  ]iersons 
guilty  of  criminal  oH'ences  or  gross  jirofessional 
misconduct ;  a  formal  inquiry  is  held,  hut  the 
results  of  the  investigation  are  not  made  public. 
Serjeants'  Inn  was  formerly  a  society  composed  of 
barristers  and  judges  belonging  to  the  'order  of 
the  coif  ; '  but  this  inn  was  abolished  in  1877.  The 
smaller  societies,  sometimes  called  Innsof  Clianceiy, 
have  never  been  of  any  great  imiiortance ;  their 
buildings  have  passed  into  the  possession  of  one  or 
other  of  the  inns  of  court,  or  have  become  the 
property  of  small  j>rivate  societies  of  solicitors,  &c. 
Stajile  Inn  and  Clement's  Inn  are  interesting  by 
reason  of  the  colleg'iate  character  of  their  buildings. 
For  further  information,  see  the  Report  of  the 
Commission  of  1855.  Tlie  steward  of  any  of  the 
inns  of  court  will  furnish  intending  candi(hites  for 
the  bar  with  information  as  to  the  terms  of 
admission,  &c.  See  Barristek,  and  I'earce's 
Bislofi/  ijftlic  Intis  of  Court  ( 1848). 

The  society  known  as  the  King's  Inns  in  Dublin 
jierforms  the  duties  of  an  inn  of  court  in  relation  to 
the  Irish  bar.  The  Scottish  bar  is  organiseil  on  an 
entirely  ditl'erent  plan  (see  ADVOCATE). 

Innut'lldo,  a  part  of  a  pleading  in  cases  of 
libel  atul  slander,  pointing  out  what  and  who  was 
meant  by  the  libellous  matter  or  description. 

Inoculutiou  ("engrafting'),  the  communica- 
tion of  disease  to  a  healthy  subject  by  the  introduc- 
tion of  a  .specific  germ  or  animal  poison  into  his 
system  by  puncture  or  otherw  ise,  originally  used  of 
the  inoculation  of  smallpox  (for  )ireventive  inocu- 
lation, see  Bacteri.v.'Gek.m,  Anthka.x.  Diph- 
TIIKliIA,  HVDItoi'llKliIA).  If  the  mailer  of  a  small- 
pox pustule,  taken  after  the  commencement  of 
the  eighth  day,  be  inserted  in  or  beneath  the 
skin  of  a  person  who  has  not  previously  sudered 
from  smallpox,  the  following  phenomena  are  in- 
duced: (1)  Local  inllammation  is  set  up:  (2)  on  the 
seventh  or  eighth  day  there  is  fever  sinular  to  that 
of  smallpox  ;  and  (3)  after  the  hipse  of  three  more 
days  there  is  a  more  or  less  abundant  eruption  of 
pustules.  This  process  is  termed  inoculation,  and 
the  disease  thus  produced  is  denondnated  inocu- 
hited  smallpox.  The  disea.se  jiroduced  in  this  arti- 
ticial  manner  is  much  simpler  and  less  dangerous 
than  ordinary  smallpox  ;  and  iis  it  was  an  almost 
ciulain  means  of  preventing  a  subse(|ueiit  att:ick  of 
the  ordinary  dise:ise,  inoculation  was  much  jirac- 
tiseil  till  it  was  superseded  in  the  beginning  of  this 
century  by  Jenner's  introduction  of  vaccination. 
The  importance  of  inoculation  was  recognised  in 
the  Eiist  at  a  ^ery  early  period,  the  Chinese 
jiractising  it  from  the  6tli  century,  and  the 
Brahmins  from  a  very  renu)te  antii|uity.  In 
Persia,  Armenia,  anil  Georgia  it  was  in  use,  and  it 
is  even  said  to  have  been  employed  in  Scotland 
and  Wales.  It  was  not,  however,  till  Lady  Mary 
Win  tley  Montagu  wrote  her  celebrated  letter  from 
Adri;tn(>ple  in  1717  that  the  operation  became 
generally  known  in  England.  In  that  letter  she 
writes:  'The  smallpox,  so  fatal  and  so  general 
amongst  us,  is  here  entirely  harndess,  by  the 
invention  of  iiuiriifliiiii,  which  is  the  term  they  give 
it.  Every  year  thousands  undergo  the  operation. 
There  is  no  example  of  any  one  that  has  died 
in  it,  and  you    may  believe  that  I  am  very  well 


INOWRACLAW 


INQUISITION 


149 


satisfied  of  the  safety  of  the  ex])erinient,  since  I 
inteiul  to  tiy  it  on  my  lU'.ir  little  son.'  Fmir  years 
aftenvaiils  she  Imil  her  danfiliter  publicly  inocu- 
lated in  Enjjland  :  the  experiment  w;vs  then  per- 
fornietl  successfully  on  six  condemned  criminals 
at  Newgate,  and  on  the  st-renf;tli  of  these  success- 
ful cases  two  children  of  Caroline,  Princess  of 
Wales,  were  inoculated,  which  gave  a  sanction  to 
the  ])ractice. 

Inoculation  was  not,  however,  thoroughly  estab- 
lished for  more  than  a  quarter  of  ,i  century  after  its 
introduction.  It  met  with  virulent  o)iposition  both 
from  the  medical  profession  and  the  clergy.  A 
sermon  is  extant  which  wa.s  ])reaclied  in  1722,  by 
the  Kev.  Edward  Massey,  in  which  it  is  asserted 
thcit  'Job's  distemper  was  continent  .smallpox,  and 
that  he  had  been  inoculated  by  tlie  devil.'  The 
great  drawback  to  inoculation  turned  out,  how- 
ever, to  be  this  :  while  it  was  invaluable  to  him 
who  underwent  the  operation,  .and  completely 
guarded  him  from  the  natural  disease  in  its  severe 
form,  its  effect  upon  the  community  at  large  was 
extremely  pernicious  in  keeping  alive  the  natural 
disease,  and  increasing  its  spread  amongst  those 
who  were  not  protected  by  inoculation.  While  one 
in  hve  or  six  of  those  ^^  ho  took  the  natural  disease 
died,  the  average  number  of  deaths  at  the  Inocula- 
tion Hospital  was  only  3  in  10()0:  and  yet,  according 
to  the  authority  of  Heberden,  in  every  thousantl 
deaths  within  the  bills  of  nu)rtality  in  the  first 
thirty  years  of  the  18th  century  (before  inoculation 
was  at  all  general )  only  seventy-four  were  due  to 
smallpox.  The  deaths  from  this  disea.se  amounted 
to  9.5  in  1000  during  the  last  thirty  years  of  the 
century  :  so  that,  notwithstanding  the  preservative 
effects  of  inoculation  on  almost  all  who  were 
operated  on,  the  total  number  of  deaths  from  this 
disease  increa.sed  in  one  hundred  years  in  the  ratio 
of  about  5  to  4.  At  the  beginning  of  the  18th  cen- 
tury about  one-fourteenth  of  the  popidation  died 
of  smallpox:  whereas  at  the  latter  end  of  the 
same  centuiy  the  number  (notwithstanding,  or 
perhaps  rather  in  consequence  of,  inoculation  j  had 
increa.sed  to  one-tenth ;  and  this  immense  con- 
sumi>tion  of  human  lives  wa.s  not  the  total  e\il, 
for  many  survivors  were  left  with  the  partial  or 
entire  loss  of  sight  and  with  constitutions  ile- 
stroyed.  The  benefits  which  were  expected  from 
inoculation  were  far  from  being  realised,  and 
smallpox  would  doubtless  have  gone  on  increasing 
in  its  tlestrnctive  power  if  it  had  not  been  checked 
by  .Jenner's  di.scovery  of  Vaccination  (([.v.).  Inocu- 
lation was  forbidden  by  law  in  1840. 

Iiiowraclaw.  called  also  Jung  BRE.sL.\f 
{ '  Young  Hreslau ' ),  a  town  of  Prussia,  is  situated 
near  the  Polish  frontier,  66  miles  XE.  of  Posen. 
Its  chief  industries  are  salt  mining,  the  nianu- 
f.acture  of  salt  and  ni.achines,  ami  iron-founding. 
Pop.  ( 1875)  9139  ;  ( 1S8.5)  13,54S. 

In    iiartibiis    iiifidHiiiiii   (Lat.,    -in    the 

region-;  of  the  unbeliev<'|-s ').  Titular  bishops 
in  th<;  rhurcli  of  Home  were  from  the  13th  century 
until  the  ]iontilicate  of  l.i'o  .XIII.  styled  bishops  /// 
/mr/iliiis  iiijiililiniii.  They  were  originally  bishops 
who  h.ad  no  diocese,  anil  took  their  titles  from 
places  where  there  wa.s  no  longer  a  bishop's  see. 
Th(!  usage  originated  after  the  (ireek  schism, 
ami  became  general  in  the  time  of  the  Crusades. 
The  )>l.vces  conijuercd  by  the  crusaders  in  the  E;u-t 
were  furnisheil  with  Uoman  Catholic  bishops;  but 
when  these  coni|Uest.s  were  again  lost  the  popes 
continued  to  appoint  and  conseci-ate  the  bishops 
JLs  a  cimlinual  protest  against  the  power  which 
hail  iirevailed  over  their  alleged  right,  and  to 
siguity  their  lio]>e  of  restitution.  Hut  in  Ihitaiu, 
the  iLssuniption  of  territorial  titles  being  illegal 
and  dangerous,  the  Konian  Catholic  bishops  actu- 


ally resident  long  bore  titles  derived  from  such  dis- 
tant jdaces.  In  18.")0  their  assiim|ition  of  titles  from 
their  actual  sees  gave  prodigious  oU'ence  in  Eng- 
land, and  led  to  the  passing  of  the  JCrrlcsinsticnl 
TUlrn  Hill  (q.v. ),  which,  howe\  er,  remained  a 
dead  letter,  aiul  was  repealed  in  1^71. 

IlHIIM'st.     See  Coi!OXi:i!. 

llH|lli''>iti**ll*  f'i'lle'l  !tlso  'the  Holy  Ullice,'  a 
tribunal  in  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  for  the 
discovery,  riqiression,  and  punishment  of  heresy, 
unbelief,  and  other  offences  against  religion. 
From  the  veiy  first  establishment  of  Christianity 
as  the  religion  of  the  Koman  empire  laws  nmre 
or  less  severe  existed,  as  in  most  of  the  ancient 
religions,  for  the  repression  and  punishment  of 
dissent  from  the  national  creed  :  and  the  em 
perors  Theodosius  and  Justinian  a]ipi)inteil  ollicials 
called  'inquisitors,'  whose  special  duty  it  was 
to  discover  and  to  prosecute  before  the  civil 
tribunals  offences  of  this  class.  The  ecclesia-s- 
tical  cognisance  of  heresy  and  its  punishment 
by  spiritual  censures  belonged  to  the  bishop  or 
the  episcoiial  synod  ;  but  no  sjiecial  machinery 
for  the  purpose  was  devised  until  the  spread  in 
the  11th  and  12th  centuries  of  certain  sects,  re- 
puted dangerous  alike  to  the  state  and  to  the 
church — the  Cathari,  Waldenses,  aiul  Albigenses 
— excited  the  alarm  of  the  ci\il  a,s  Avell  as  of 
the  ecclesiastical  authorities.  In  the  then  con- 
dition of  the  public  mind,  however  differently  it 
is  now  constituted,  heresy  was  regarded  as  a 
crime  against  the  state,  no  less  than  against 
the  chinch.  .\n  extraordinaiy  commission  was 
.sent  by  Pope  Innocent  III.  into  the  south  of 
France  to  aid  the  local  authorities  in  checking 
the  spread  of  the  Albigensian  heresy.  The  fourth 
Lateral!  Council  (1215)  earnestly  impre.ssed  both 
on  bishops  and  magistrates  the  necessity  of  in- 
creased vigilance  against  heresy ;  and  a  council 
held  at  Toulouse  directed  that  in  each  parish  the 
priest  and  two  or  three  laymen  of  good  reiiute 
should  be  appointed  to  examine  and  report  to 
the  bishop  .dl  such  oflenees  discovered  within  the 
district. 

So  far,  however,  there  was  no  permanent  court 
distinct  from  those  of  the  bishops :  but  under 
Innocent  l\'.,  in  1248,  a  s]iecial  tribunal  lor  the 
purpo.se  was  instituted,  the  chief  direction  of  which 
Wits  vested  in  the  then  recently-established  Doniin 
ican  Order.  The  Inquisition  thus  constituted 
became  a  general  instead  of  as  ]ireviously  ,a  local 
tribunal ;  and  it  was  introduced  in  succession  into 
Italy,  Spain,  (ierinany,  and  the  southern  provinces 
of  France.  So  long,  moreover,  as  this  ciiustitutioii 
remained  it  must  be  regarded  as  a  strictly  papal 
tribunal.  Accordingly,  over  the  l''rench  and  Ger- 
man Inquisition  of  the  following  century  the  popes 
exercised  full  authority,  receiving  appeals  .against 
the  rigour  of  local  tribunals,  and  censuring  or  even 
depriving  the  inquisitor  for  undue  severity.  In 
France  the  Inquisition  «as  discontinued  under 
Philip  the  Fair:  and  though  .in  :itteinpt  was  m.ade 
under  lli'iirv  II.  to  revive  it  jigainst  the  llu;;uenots 
the  ellbrt  was  unsuccessful.  In  (iermany.  on  the 
appearance  of  the  lieghards  (q.v. )  in  the  beginning 
of  the  14tli  eeiitiiry,  the  Inquisition  came  into 
active  ojieiation,  and  inquisitors  for  (k'rmany 
were  named  at  intervals  by  various  ]io])es,  as 
Urban  V.,  Cregory  XL,  lioniface  IX..  Innocent 
VIII. ,  down  to  the  liefonii.-itioii.  when  it  fell 
into  disuse,  lu  England  it  was  never  received, 
all  the  proceedings  against  heresy  being  reserved 
to  the  ordiuaiT  tribunals.  In  Poland,  though 
established  in  1.327,  it  had  but  a  brief  existence. 

It  is  the  history  of  the  Inquisition  ii-s  it  existed 
in  Spain,  Portugal,  and  their  dependencies  that 
has  absorbed  almost  entirelv   the   real   interest   of 


150 


INQUISITION 


INSANITY 


this  ])ainful  subject.  As  an  onlinaiv  tiilninal 
similar  to  those  of  other  countries  it  hail  existed 
iu  Spain  from  an  early  period.  Its  functions,  how- 
ever, in  tliese  times  were  little  more  than  nominal  : 
liut  early  in  the  rei;;n  of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella, 
in  conse(]uence  of  tlie  alarms  created  by  the  .alleged 
iliscovery  of  a  plot  among  the  .lews  and  the  Jewish 
converts — who  had  been  reipiired  either  to  emi- 
grate or  to  conform  to  Christianity — to  overthrow 
the  government,  an  application  was  made  to  the 
pope,  Sixtus  IV.,  to  ]iermit  its  reorganisation 
(1478);  hut  in  reviving  the  tribunal  the  crown 
assumed  to  itself  the  right  of  appointing  the 
inquisitors,  and,  in  truth,  of  controlling  the  entire 
action  of  the  tribunal.  FrouL  this  date  forwards 
Catholic  writers  regard  the  Spanish  Inquisition  .as 
a  state-tribun.al,  a  character  whicli  is  recognised 
by  Kan  ice,  Cuizot,  Leo,  and  even  the  great  anti- 
papal  authority  Llorente  ;  .and  in  dissociating  the 
church  generally  and  the  Roman  see  itself  from 
that  state-tribunal,  Catholics  refer  to  the  bulls 
of  the  pope,  Sixtus  IV.,  protesting  ag.ainst  it. 
Notwithst.anding  this  protest,  however,  the  Sp.an- 
ish  crown  m.aintained  its  .assumjition.  Inquisitors 
were  appt)inted,  and  in  14S3  the  tribtinal  com- 
menced its  terrible  eaieer  under  Thomas  de 
Torquemada.  The  popes,  feeling  their  protest 
unsuccessful,  were  com|)elled  from  considerations 
of  prudence  to  tolerate  what  they  were  powerless 
to  suppress ;  but  sever.al  papal  en.actments  are 
enumerated  by  Catholics,  the  object  of  which  was 
to  control  the  arbitrary  action  of  the  tribunal  and 
to  mitigate  the  rigour  and  injustice  of  its  proceed- 
ings. Unhappily  these  measures  were  inetl'ective 
to  control  the  fan.atical  activity  of  the  local  judges. 
Tlie  number  of  victims,  as  stated  liy  Llorente,  the 
popular  historian  of  the  Inquisition,  is  positively 
appalling.  He  athrms  that  during  the  sixteen 
ye.ais  of  Torquemad.a's  tenure  of  ottice  nearly  9000 
were  condemned  to  the  llames.  The  second  head 
of  the  inquisition,  Diego  Deza,  in  eight  years, 
according  to  the  same  writer,  put  aliove  1(500  to 
a  similar  death  ;  and  so  for  the  other  successive 
inquisitors-general.  Cut  Catholics  loudly  protest 
ag.ainst  the  credibility  of  these  fearful  allegaticms. 
It  is  impossible  not  to  see  th.at  Llorente  was  a 
violent  parti.sau  ;  and  it  is  alleged  that  in  his 
work  (m  the  B.asque  Provinces  he  li.ad  already 
jnoveil  himself  a  venal  .and  unscnqiulous  fabricator. 
-Utliougli,  therefore,  he  lui-s  made  it  impossible 
to  disprove  his  .accuracy  by  .aiiiiealing  to  the 
original  ji.apers,  which  he  himself  destroyed,  yet 
his  Catholic  critics — as  Hefele  in  Ids  Life  uf  Vitr- 
ditial  Xiineiics—\\n\c.  produced  from  his  own  work 
many  ex.amples  of  contradictory  and  exaggerated 
statements  ;  Prescott,  in  his  Fc.n/iiiaiid  atid  Isa- 
bella (iii.  407-70),  has  iiointed  out  many  simil.ar 
instances;  and  Kanke  does  not  hesitate  [Fiirxten 
iind  y'ullxxr  von  .Siid-ciirvjjn,  i.  ■24'J)  to  impc.-u-h 
his  honesty.  Still,  with  all  the  deductions  winch 
it  is  i>ossilde  to  make,  the  working  of  the  Imjni- 
sition  in  S]iain  and  in  its  dependencies  even  in 
the  New  World  involves  an  amount  of  cruelty 
which  it  is  impossible  to  contemplate  with- 
out horror.  \Vlien  it  was  attempted  to  intro- 
duce it  into  JSajiles  Pope  Paul  III.,  in  1041), 
exhorted  the  Neapolitans  to  resist  its  intro- 
duction, '  because  it  was  excessively  severe  and 
refuse<l  to  moilerate  its  rigour  by  the  example 
of  the  Koman  tribunal'  (Llorente,  ii.  147).  Pius 
IV.  in  loO.'J  addressed  a  similar  exhortation  on 
the  same  ground  to  the  Milanese  {ibid.  ii.  '2.'i7): 
ami  even  the  most  bigoted  Catholics  unaninKuisly 
confess  and  repudiate  the  barbarities  which  dis- 
honoured religion  by  assuming  its  semblance  and 
its  n.ame. 

The    jjiocedure    of   the    Ini|uisition   deserves    ,a 
brief  notice.     The   party,  if  suspected  of   heresy, 


or  denounced  .as  guilty,  was  liable  to  be  arrested 
and  detained  in  iMison,  mily  to  be  brought  to  trial 
when  it  might  seem  lit  to  his  judges.  The  pro- 
ceedings were  comlucted  secretly.  He  was  not 
confronted  with  his  accusers,  nor  were  their  names 
even  then  made  known  to  him.  The  evidence  of 
an  accomplice  was  adunssil)le,  and  the  accused 
himself  was  liable  to  be  ]mt  to  the  t(uture  in  (uder 
to  extort  a  confession  of  his  guilt.  The  punish- 
ments to  which,  if  found  guilty,  he  was  liable 
were  de.ath  by  lire,  as  exemplilied  in  the  terrible 
Auto  d.a  Fe  (ii.v.),  or  on  the  scallbhl,  imprison- 
ment in  the  galleys  for  life  or  for  a  limited  jieriod, 
forfeiture  of  pro]>erty,  civil  infamy,  .and,  in  minor 
cases,  retractation  and  ]inblic  pen.ance.  It  is  f.air 
to  recollect  that  son}e  of  the  usages  were  but  the 
ordin.ary  juocedures  in  all  the  courts  of  the  age, 
whether  civil  or  ecclesiastical. 

The  rigour  of  the  Siianisli  Inquisition  .abated  in 
the  Later  p.art  of  the  17th  century.  In  the  reign 
of  Charles  III.  it  was  forbidden  to  punish  capitally 
without  the  royal  warrant;  and  in  1770  tiie  royal 
authority  was  reijuired  .as  a  conditiim  oven  for 
an  arrest.  From  KSOS,  under  King  .lose|ih  l!(ma- 
parte,  the  In(|uisition  w.as  sni)iiressed  until  the 
Kestor.ati<ui ;  it  was  again  .supiuessed  ou  the  estab- 
lishment of  the  ciuisiitntiou  of  IS20:  but  it  was 
partially  restored  in  l!S2o;  nor  w.os  it  till  18.34 
and  183,")  that  it  was  linally  abolished  in  Sp.ain, 
its  property  being  aiqdied  to  the  licpiidatioii  ot  the 
n.ational  del)t. 

The  Inquisition  was  established  in  Portug.al  in 
l.')57,  and  its  jurisdiction  \\!is  extended  to  the 
Portuguese  colonies  in  India.  The  rigour  of  its 
proces.ses,  however,  was  much  mitigated  in  the 
18th  century,  and  under  John  VI.  it  fell  altogether 
into  disuse. 

The  Inquisition  in  Pome  and  the  Pa|)al  States 
never  ce.ased.  fiom  the  time  of  its  establishment, 
to  exercise  a  .severe  .and  watchful  control  over 
heresy,  or  the  sus|)icion  of  heresy,  whicli  otl'ence 
was  punished  by  impri.sonment  and  civil  dis- 
aliilities ;  l)Ut  of  capital  sentences  for  heresy  the 
bi.story  of  the  Iioman  Inquisition  ])resents  few 
instances,  and.  .according  to  lialmez  (On  Ciril- 
isatiijii,  p.  I.")t)),  that  tribunal  'has  never  been 
known  to  order  the  execution  of  a  capital  sen- 
tence' for  the  crime  of  heresy.  The  Iribunril  still 
exists  nnder  the  direction  of  .a  congregation,  but 
its  .action  is  confined  to  the  examination  of  books 
and  the  trial  of  ecclesi.astioal  otiences  and  (piestions 
of  church  law  ;  .and  since  the  Italian  occupation  of 
Itome  in  1870  its  supreme  jurisdiction  is  limited  to 
the  Vatican. 

See  Llerente's  IMoria  Crilim  tie  hi  TiiquiMcion  (Fr. 
trans.  4  vols.  1S17);  Comte  Josciili  de  Maistre^s  Letters 
on  the  Spanish  Jiuixiimtion  (Eiig.  trans.  1S51 1 ;  I'rescott's 
Fcrdinniid  and  Imhella  ;  Motley's  works ;  Ilefele's  Car- 
'liii'jl  Xijitoies  :  Balincz,  Cntholieixm  and  Proti^glaiitism  ; 
liotliiian,  liisehichte  dee  Inqiiixilion  (1878);  Molinier, 
L'Jniiiiisition  dans  tc  7uidi  de  la  Franee  an  XIII.  it  au 
XII'.  Sierk  (1880);  H.  C.  Lea's  Ilistori/  of  the  Inqnisi- 
tion  of  the  Middli  A'les  (3  vols.  1888). 

Ilis:illity<  N'o  good  delinition  of  insanity  has 
ever  been  given  in  any  language,  nor  is  it  iiossible. 
Any  delinition  that  would  have  accurately  lifted 
what  was  uiiderstoml  as  insanity  in  Sliakesiieare's 
time  would  be  (piite  inadei|uate  now,  for  we  count 
men  insane  ^^■|lo  would  ha\e  passeil  muster  well 
enough  in  the  lUtli  century.  Another  dillicully  of 
delinition  consists  iu  this,  that  the  very  .same 
mental  symptoms  may  exist  in  two  ]ieopIc,  and  iu 
one  they  may  constitute  true  insanity,  whiles  in  the 
other  they  may  only  be  one  of  the  br.ain  symptoms 
of  a  fever.  And  if  there  is  one  tidng  belter  under- 
stood about  insanity  now  than  liirmerly,  it  is  th.at 
there  is  no  exact  line  of  demarcation  between 
insanity  and  sanity  any  more  tlian  there  is  between 


INSANITY 


151 


light  and  darkness.  Tliere  is  an  umlelineil  bnnlei- 
land  tlii'<)nj;li  which  most  oasos  nf  insanity  pass, 
between  technical  and  le^'al  sanity  and  insanity. 
But  while  this  is  tine,  there  is  no  truth  and  httk? 
sense  in  the  common  saying  that  '  all  are  more  or 
less  insane  on  some  point."  Stich  a  statement 
entirely  mistakes  the  real  signiMcance  of  insanity 
as  a  disease,  and  is  a  pernicious  fallacy  begotten  of 
ignorance.  Insanity  may  be  reasonably  described, 
according  to  the  scientiho  ideas  of  our  time,  as 
'such  an  alteration  in  any  or  all  of  the  mental 
functions  of  the  brain  as  makes  a  man  unlit  from 
this  cause  to  do  his  work  or  manage  his  allairs,  or 
mingle  in  the  society  of  his  fellow-men,  or  which 
makes  him  unsafe  to  liimself  or  others  or  to  society, 
this  alteration  not  being  solely  the  result  of  fever, 
but  being  the  result  of  disea.se  or  disorder  in  the 
working  of,  or  imperfection  in  the  develoi)ment  of 
that  portion  of  the  brain  through  which  mind  is 
manifested.'  In  delining  or  descriljing  insanity  we 
wish  to  exclude  the  delirium  of  fevers,  comatose 
conditions,  somnambulism,  mere  eccentricity,  hys- 
teria, transitory  brain  excitements  due  to  religious 
or  other  strong  emotions,  or  due  to  other  adei|uate 
causes.  A  mother  who  loses  contnd  over  herself 
when  she  hears  suddenly  that  a  child  is  dead  may 
be  more  sane  than  another  who  shows  no  outward 
sign  of  emotion  on  such  au  occasion. 

TesU. — There  is  or  can  be  no  absolute  test  of 
insanity — or  of  sanity,  for  that  matter.  Sanity  is 
best  proved  by  normal  self-control,  and  insanity  by 
the  loss  of  it  from  disease.  The  presence  of  one  or 
more  insane  delusions  was  at  one  time  the  leg.al 
test,  but  it  is  not  a  true  or  scientific  one.  The 
'  knowledge  of  right  and  wrong '  was  at  one  time 
a  legal  test  of  res])onsibility,  in  other  words  of 
sanity,  by  the  law,  hut  it  has  long  been  given  up. 
Half  the  lunatics  know  right  from  wrong  in  some 
de'Tee  or  other. 

Miiid  mid  Jtmiii. — Insanity  cannot  be  proiierly 
studied  or  in  any  degree  understood  except  liy 
reference  to  the  mental  functions  of  the  brain.  A 
physiological  view  of  mind  can  alone  throw  light 
on  the  complicated  and  wondrous  phenomena  of 
this  disease.  No  merely  meta])hysical  or  subjective 
view  or  study  of  mind  seems  to  help  us  in  the  least 
a.s  to  it ;  the  facts  are  inexplicalde  on  any  such 
view  of  mind.  Looked  at  from  the  human  and 
social  point  of  view,  no  other  dise.ise  a]iproiiches 
it  in  the  terror  it  inspires,  the  sense  of  helplessness 
it  causes,  the  dee])  distress  to  relatives,  aiul  the 
disruption  of  all  normal  social  conditions.  A 
scientilic  view  of  it  alone  brings  ns  into  the 
mental  and  emotional  attitude  witli  which  civilised 
humanity  now  regards  disease  in  general.  No  pro- 
gress was  ma<le  in  its  study  or  treatment  till  jihysi- 
cians  came  to  look  at  it  in  precisely  the  same  way 
as  they  do  ordinary  disease.  Mind  must  be  re- 
garded by  all  students  of  insanity  ]iractically  as 
Ijeing  a  'brain  function'  which  is  found  in  all 
animals  in  varying  degrees  ;  which  in  man  does  not 
at  one  time  of  life  exist  at  all,  then  is  seen  to  arise 
in  small  beginnings  like  any  other  function,  then 
gradually  to  develop,  attain  maturity,  and  then 
fail  .and  eventually  disappear — all  tlies(f  conditions 
of  mind  being  absidiitely  correlateil  with  the  struc- 
tural development  and  decay  of  the  mental  organ 
in  the  brain.  It  is  thus  stmlied  and  lookeil  on 
as  .sensation  and  motion  are  studied.  The  latest 
jihysiological  .and  evolutional  stmlies  of  mind  in 
relation  to  brain  seem  to  lead  to  the  conclusion  on 
scientilic  and  not  merely  a /o/on  grounds  that  it  is 
to  the  mental  organ  or  centres  in  the  brain  that 
all  higher  evolution  tcnd.s.  In  it  are  '  representeil ' 
every  other  organ  and  function  of  the  body,  and 
so  they  are  all  in  intimate  ami  organic  connection 
with  it  and  its  highest  function  of  iidnd,  and  s<i 
with  each  other  as  to  make  of  the  organism  an 


organic  unity.  If  the  evolutionists  are  right,  every- 
thing that  lives  tends  towards  mentalisation,  and 
all  the  nervous  organs  of  all  the  types  of  animal 
life  find  their  acme  in  the  mental  centres  of  the 
human  brain.  The  whole  of  the  human  brain  is 
not  a  ment.al  organ.  There  are  centres  for  motion 
and  sensation  and  regulation  of  function,  but  they 
are  all  represented  in,  and  correlated  and  largely 
controlled  by  the  mental  organ,  it  clearly  resides 
in  the  convolutions  of  the  brain.  Tins  dominant 
organ  has  necessaiily  become  what  it  is  in  man 
through  the  hereditary  iidluences  that  have  gradu- 
<ally  upbuilt  it  since  the  beginning  of  life.  This 
heredity  has  been  largely  iidluenced  by  external 
conditions.  These  have  been  good  and  b,ad 
throughout  the  ages,  and  the  bad  have  left  many 
bad  mental  results,  in  so  far  as  luatural  selection 
and  the  struggle  for  existence  have  not  er.-idicated 
them.  The  mental  organ  in  the  human  brain  ha.s 
thus  become  the  most  complicated,  the  most  deli- 
cate, and  yet  the  most  potent  thing  in  nature, 
impressionable  to  all  stimuli  from  within  the  body 
and  outside  it ;  reactive  in  due  amount,  and  yet 
not  unduly  if  healthy,  to  all  these  impressions  and 
stimuli :  containing  within  itself,  in  a  way  that  yet 
we  are  not  even  able  to  realise,  hereditary  ([ualities, 
bad  and  good,  from  thousands  of  ancestors.  If  this 
is  so  one  is  prepared  to  believe  that  through  evil 
hereditary  intiuences,  and  from  evil  conditions  out- 
side it,  this  organ  may  often  be  upset  in  its  normal 
working.  The  most  important  form  of  such  upset 
is  insanity,  Ijccause  it  touches  the  highest  brain 
function.  The  student  of  mind  physiologically 
linds  on  the  threshold  of  his  studies  that  every 
form  of  mental  energy  is  just  as  hereditary  as  the 
colour  of  the  hair  or  the  sha]ie  of  the  nose;  he  finds 
that  volitional  power,  reasoning  acuteue.ss,  emo- 
tional keenness,  moral  sensitiveness,  good  social 
instincts,  retentive  memory,  and  mental  resistiveness 
of  all  kinds  are  all  transnutted  hereditarily.  He  is 
therefore  prepared  to  believe  that  these  same  laws 
of  heredity  have  determined  the  volitional  para- 
lysis, the  reasoning  and  the  emotional  perversions, 
the  losses  of  memory,  and  the  mental  instability 
which  he  finds  among  the  insane,  and  to  believe 
that  it  is  proliably  the  most  here<litary  of  all 
diseases. 

Gcmritf  Si/m/itoms. — The  symjitoms  of  ins.anity 
are  best  studied  as  mental  and  bodily  symjitoms. 
It  is  only  since  the  disease  was  stmliecl  from  the 
physician's  point  of  view  that  the  bodily  symjitonis 
Ii.ave  been  specially  noticed.  Nothing  in  medicine 
was  ever  seen  till  it  was  lookeil  for.  Nowadays 
every  i)hysician  knows  that  the  bodily  symjitoms 
and  the  general  condition  of  the  body  and  its  organs 
are  often  the  most  important  matters  for  him  to 
observe  and  attend  to  in  a  case  of  insanity.  lie 
linds  few  cases  of  recent  insanity  without  smdi 
bodily  symptoms.  The  most  common  mental 
.symptoms  are  morbid  emotional  depression  and 
mental  jiain,  which  is  the  dondnant  symptom  in 
mel.anidiolia.  It  is  an  essential  law  of  lite  that 
in  health  the  performance  of  all  function  yields 
|ile,asure.  The  law  is  that  to  live  is  to  energise, 
and  to  energise  is  to  enjoy  life.  Kxcept  this  is  so 
there  is  abnormality  or  disea.se.  In  many  cases  of 
insanity  to  energise  mentally  is  to  suller  p.ain.  The 
essential  relationship  between  emotion  and  action 
is  thus  reversed.  Aiuither  sym|itom  in  other  cases 
is  an  unilue  emotional  exaltation  :  this  iscomnioidy 
associated  with  a  loss  of  the  great  coutrcdiing  or 
iidubitorv  functions  of  the  brain,  and  occurs  in 
mania.  There  is  morbid  brain  excitement,  com- 
monly exhibiteil  in  restless  motions  or  shouting. 
Such  cases  may  go  on  to  comjilele  loss  of  any  con- 
sciousness of  all  the  former  brain  imjircssions  and 
mental  life.  The  patient  remembers  nothing,  and 
does  not  know  his  nearest  friends.     Another  most 


152 


INSANITY 


common  symptom  is  a  <Iiminution  or  loss  in  the 
power  of  attfntion.  This  is  common  to  nearly  all 
forms  of  insanity.  Then  we  ha\e  perversion  of  the 
reiusonini,'  power,  as  seen  most  freqnently  in  insane 
delusions.  Like  insanity,  an  insane  delusion  ean- 
not  be  defined.  It  may  be  said  to  he  'a  belief  in 
something;;  that  would  be  incredible  to  ordinary 
people  of  the  same  class,  education,  or  race  as  the 
person  who  ex|ire>ses  it,  this  resullinjr  Iroin  some 
morliid  state  of  the  brain.'  Insane  delusions  are 
coTumon  in  most  eases  and  varieties  of  insanity. 
They  are  divided  into  lixed  delusions  and  changing 
delusions,  the  former  being  the  most  serious  and 
incurable.  Some  delusions  are  held  by  patients  in 
a  sort  of  slack  theoretical  way,  not  inlluencing 
conduct;  others  .again  are  keenly  held  and  leail  to 
their  logical  results  in  eomluct.  There  may  be  two 
'  prophets  of  the  Lord  '  in  an  asylum,  one  of  whom 
will  insist  on  delivering  his  'mes.sage'  on  every 
opportunity  to  all  with  whom  he  comes  into  con- 
tact, will  not  emi)loy  himself  in  ordinary  occupa- 
tions, anil  refrains  from  all  amusement :  the  other 
will  only  speak  of  his  delusion  when  asked  about 
it,  will  lie  a  capital  blacksmith  or  scrubber  of  Hoors, 
and  enjoy  thoroughly  a  ilance  or  a  comic  song.  The 
origin  of  insane  delusions  is  one  of  the  most  intiM- 
esting,  and  often  the  most  obscure  of  psychological 
problems.  In  some  cases  the  process  can  be  clearly 
traced,  being  analogous  to  the  jirocess  of  'day 
dreaming  '  in  children.  Imagination  and  fancy  are 
vivid,  the  reasoning  and  comparing  power  is  in 
abeyance,  and  so  the  sulijective  is  taken  for  the 
objective.  Every  time  a  fancy  is  so  looked  on  it 
gets  more  anil  more  '  organised  '  into  a  real  delusion. 
Sometimes  delusions  result  from  the  accentuation 
of  the  natural  mental  tem]ierament  by  outward 
cii'cumstances— e.g.  when  a  hunchback  of  a  natur- 
ally sensitive,  suspicions  disposition  is  in  his  boy- 
hood annoyed  by  ins  fellow  boys  at  school,  the  con- 
sciousniws  of  his  deformity  being  thus  ever  bro\ight 
before  him,  and  when  weak  health  and  lack  of 
physical  power  make  him  irritable  and  misan- 
thropic and  he  then  takes  a  fever,  <luring  which  he 
is  delirl<ms,  and  fancies  all  the  time  that  he  hears 
the  ohl  bo\'-voices  of  o[i]n"obrium — it  seems  intelli- 
gible in  such  acasc  that  after  recovery,  but  with  still 
a  bloodless  and  weakened  brain,  lie  should  still 
hear  the  voices  saying  'hunchback,  liunchliack.' 
The  hearing  of  voices  when  no  such  exist  is  an 
exam]jle  of  a  hall ucitiaf ion,  which  is  used  to  denote 
special  sense  impressions  that  have  no  outward 
causes.  Hallucinations  may  be  of  hearing,  which 
are  the  most  common  and  the  most  serious  as  a 
.symptom  of  inciiraliilily  if  long  continued;  of 
sight,  the  next  most  common  ami  more  likely  to  he 
recovered  from  ;  of  smell  and  taste,  which  are  rare, 
and  not  favourable.  Hallucinations  and  delusiims 
are  often  connected  with  and  arise  out  of  real  sensa- 
tions, which  are  misinterpreted  by  the  weakened 
brain — e.g.  a  man  has  been  drinking,  and  has  so 
disordered  his  stomacli,  and  irritated  its  lining 
membrane,  that  he  feels  a  constant  pain  there  and 
a  bad  taste  in  his  mouth,  and  he  concludes  that 
poison  has  been  put  into  his  food,  adducing  these 
real  sensations  as  jnoof  of  his  delusion.  His  mental 
centre  had  been  disturbed  in  its  working  by  the 
drink,  so  that  he  could  no  longer  reason  clearly 
and  )mt  the  true  interpretation  on  the  fact-*. 

A  ilistinclive  char.ictcr  of  an  insane  delusion 
is  that  it  cannot  be  in  any  way  changed  or 
dispelled  by  the  dealest  demonstration  that  it  is 
false.  A  man  thinks  he  is  ruined  and  a  jianpcr; 
you  bring  his  bank  book  and  show  him  that  he  has 
.tlOOO  to  his  account;  and  you  bring  the  lianker 
with  the  actual  money  to  him,  but  you  cannot 
by  such  niean>  eradiiatc  the  falM-  belief.  .\  sane 
man  may  have  a  hallucination  (see  H.\l.l.l'('lN.\- 
TIONS),  l)ut  he  knows  his  '  l)rain   is   ))laying  him 


a  trick,'  when  ordinary  means  are  taken  to  demon- 
strate the  unreality  of  his  impression.  Another 
very  important  and  most  dangerous  syni|itom 
in  insanity  is  the  tendency  towards  suicide.  This 
is  commonly  a  symptom  in  melancholia,  and  usu- 
ally goes  with  a  deiire.ssed  emotiimal  state.  I!ut 
sometimes  it  exists  fiy  it.self  as  a  morbid  impulse, 
nnreasoning,  unaccounted  for.  uncxplainable. 
Sometimes  patients  attcnijit  their  lives  when  un- 
conscious of  what  they  are  doing,  and  do  not  remem- 
ber what  they  have  done.  Patients  say  that  ideas 
of  suicide  come  into  their  minds  unsuggested  in  the 
midst  of  work  and  even  of  enjoyment.  A  desire  to 
luit  an  end  to  ones  own  life  is  iihysiologically  the 
furthest  away  from  health  of  any  miubid  mental 
sym|iliim  that  can  possibly  occur,  for  it  is  a  |ier- 
version  of  the  primary  instinct  of  all  living  beings 
— viz.  the  love  of  life,  and  the  desire  and  elVort  to 
protect  and  jneserve  it.  AVithont  this  instinct  life 
would  soon  end  on  the  earth.  It  is  not  any  reason- 
ing as  to  the  desirability  of  life  that  keeps  men 
and  ;uiinials  alive  and  drives  to  unceasing  elVorts 
to  )ircserve  it,  nor  is  it  the  jdeasure  of  eating, 
nor  tlie  fear  of  pain  in  death.  It  is  the  simple 
innate  organic  instinct  to  live  which  no  reasoning 
can  impair  in  most  men.  AVhen  a  man  attemiits 
his  life,  apparently  as  a  calm  reasoning  conclusion 
from  facts  which  seem  to  prove  that  this  is  the  best 
thing  he  can  do,  in  ninety-nine  cases  out  of  a 
hundred  the  process  of  reasoning  is  not  the  real 
motive  for  the  act,  but  the  loss  of  the  life  instinct 
which  started  the  reasoning  and  made  the  act 
possilde.  No  doubt  the  strength  of  the  instinct 
and  of  the  love  of  life  is  much  less  in  .some 
persons  and  in  .some  races  apparently  than  in 
others.  But  such  a  lessened  instinct  means 
a  bad  heredity  and  lessened  capacity  for  the 
struggle  for  existence.  It  is  twin-brother  to  a 
hereility  towards  ordimtry  insanity.  There  may 
be  motives  that  with  civilised  men  are  stronger 
even  than  the  love  of  life,  and  a  man  with  a  strong 
will  or  under  the  impulsion  of  a  strong  emotion  or 
in  a  state  of  despair  may  certainly  take  his  own 
life  though  sane.  Suicide  is  frei|ui'ntly  suggested 
by  the  sight  of  the  means  of  self-destruction. 
There  are  many  persons  not  insane  who  cannnt  see 
a  sharp  weapon  or  go  near  a  |iii'cipice  without  the 
suggestion  of  suicide,  while  many  of  the  insane  are 
entirely  unable  to  resist  attempts  on  their  own 
lives  when  such  means  are  seen.  Some  patients 
will  use  the  utmost  cunning  to  conceal  their  in- 
tention of  committing  suicide,  whilst  others  will 
do  it  most  oiienly.  The  natural  courage  of  the 
jierson  comes  in  very  strongly  in  I'stiniating  the 
actual  ri>k  in  any  case;  but  the  most  timid,  the 
most  conscientious,  who  intellectually  know  it  to  be 
wrong,  and  see  that  every  rational  motive  goes 
against  it,  the  most  allcclionate,  who  know  the 
terrible  anguish  it  will  cause  to  those  they  love, 
the  most  religious,  who  fear  eternal  damnation  as 
its  conseijuence,  all  e(|iially  commit  suicide  when 
sull'cring  irom  insanity  with  the  suicidal  impulse. 
.\bout  17110  iiersons  actually  lake  away  their  own 
lives  every  year  in  Knglaml,  the  iiroportion  being 
much  higlier  in  some  other  countries.  Alcohol  is 
responsilile  for  very  many  suicides  every  year. 
The  same  patient  very  often  sticks  to  the  same 
methods  ot  connnitting  suicide.  He  will  again 
and  again  try  to  hung  or  poison  himself  when 
he  has  plenty  of  better  chances  of  cutting  his 
throat.  The  fidlowiiig  are  the  common  methods 
of  suicide  in  (Ireat  Hritain  in  theirorderof  freipiency 
-viz.  drowning,  hanging,  starvation,  wouiuls  by 
lirearms,  poisoning,  juecipitation,  and  choking. 
Hut  somi!  patients  ]iiepare  elaborate  means  and 
a|iparatus  for  the  purpose.  .An  .American  killed 
him.sclf  with  a  complicated  apiiaratns  worked  by 
clockwork,   which  lii-st  put  liim  under  cliloroform 


INSANITY 


153 


and  then  decajiitated  him  ;  this  aiipaiatus  liaving 
taken   him  over  two  veais  to  eonslniet.     Siiieidal 


feeling  or  impulse   is   often    recovered    from,  and   is 
not  a  speeially  bad   symptom   except  as  retiuirinj 


•elinj;  or  impulse   is   otten 

i)t  a  specially  bad   sympi 
the  watching  of  the  iialient. 

Another  mental  symptom  of  insanity  very  com- 
mon is  impulsiveness,  or  action  in  an  automatic 
unreasoning  way,  sometimes  without  any  cimscions 
intention  on  the  ]iatient's  part,  and  without  ]iower 
of  eontnd  by  the  will.  A  man  sees  a  large  (date- 
glass  window,  and  he  hurls  a  stone  through  it  im- 
pulsively. Another  cannot  resist  the  impulse  to 
tear  his  clothes,  a  third  cannot  resist  the  imimlse  to 
set  a  haystack  on  lire.  Incontrollable  impulse 
naturally  goes  with  diminished  volition  in  insanity. 
What  would  be  the  conduct  of  most  sane  men  if 
their  wills  did  not  stand  between  impulse  and 
action  ?  If  the  will  is  paralysed,  as  it  is  in  many 
ca.ses  from  disease,  their  impulse  is  uncontrolled. 
Patients  may  be  fully  conscious  of  morbid  imi)ulses, 
may  intellectually  see  their  danger  or  absurdity, 
and  morally  may  deplore  their  '  w  ickeilness '  in 
yielding  to  them,  yet  have  no  power  to  control 
them  ;  or  they  may  be  in  a  condition  of  unconscious- 
ness, or  false  con.sciousness,  during  which  impulsive 
acts  are  <lone  and  not  remembered  afterwards  at  all. 
When  consciousness  returns  such  people  are  sur- 
prised and  incredulous  when  told  that  they  have 
snijuslied  furniture  or  tried  to  kill  their  children. 
A  i)atient  once  attempted  her  own  life,  suddenly 
smashed  a  picture,  and  nearly  strangled  her  attend- 
ant, and  was  amazed  when  told  what  she  had 
done.  fShe  was  a  gentle,  religious  lady  of  the 
highest  principle.  Whenever  she  passed  into  this 
condition  of  false  consciousness  during  which  such 
impulsive  acts  were  done  she  wouUl  glare  at  one 
particular  picture  on  the  wall,  and  woulil  sjiring  at 
it,  so  that  it  had  to  be  removed  from  the  room. 
She  had  no  [lartioular  feeling  abcmt  it  when  in  her 
ordinary  state  of  consciousness. 

One  of  the  most  common  and  most  painful 
symptoms  of  insanity  is  a  change  of  natural 
attection  towards  relatives.  The  '  mother  forgets 
her  sucking  child;'  the  sister  eea.ses  to  love  the 
brother;  and  the  husband  dislikes  or  suspects 
his  wedded  wife.  This  is  not  universal,  l)Ut  in 
m^arly  half  the  cases  of  insanity  the  affective 
condition  is  thus  perverted  or  reversed.  The 
memory  is  not  necessarily  all'ected  in  insanity.  In 
many  patients  it  is  exaggerated  :  things  come  back 
with  unnatural  vividnes.s.  A  man  during  simple 
mania  could  repeat  most  of  the  I'salms  and  many 
of  .Shakespeare's  plays,  which  he  never  could 
when  well.  In  some  ea.ses  the  memory  brings  back 
oidy  the  unpleasantnesses  of  past  life,  in  others 
only  the  jileasant  events,  and  in  others  there  is  no 
memory  of  pa,st  events  at  all  during  the  attack. 
It  is  a  constant  source  of  anxiety  to  relatives 
whether  patients  remember  the  events  that  have 
taken  jdace  during  their  attack  or  their  own  .say- 
ings, feelings,  or  thoughts  then.  No  rule  can  be 
laid  clown  as  to  this.  It  <lepends  on  the  nature 
of  the  attack,  and  especially  on  whether  tin'  power 
of  attention  is  affecteil  during  its  continuance.  It 
is  certain  the  memory  of  events  that  happened 
during  the  attack  is  usually  binned  or  distorted  or 
ha/v,  even  though  a-s  in  some  cases  the  patients 
allirm  they  '  can  remember  everything.  It  is 
freijuent  that  after  recoveiy  they  speak  of  the 
event.s  during  the  attack  and  their  own  feelings 
then  'as  if  it  were  a  dream.'  Sometimes  tlie 
allective  nature  gets  changed  during  an  attack  not 
only  in  regard  to  ])ersons,  but  to  books,  scenery, 
an<l  food.  The  ai^ietites  become  perverted  and 
changed  ;  the  social  instincts  are  commonly  altered. 
In  a  few  cases  these  are  iiitensilied,  Init  their  usual 
discrimination  i.s  lust.  Commonly,  a  lunatic  is 
unsocial,  and  some  ciLses  are  entirely  iLsocial.     The 


imaginative  faculty  is  usually  perverted,  this  being 
generally  connected  with  the  ihdusions  present. 
In  some  cases  an  attack  of  insanity  is  a  prolonged 
'<lay-dieaui,'  the  condition  being  one  rather  of 
disjointed  fancy  than  of  coherent  or  constructive 
imagination.  The  normal  l.iw  of  iissociation  of 
ideas  is  usually  altered.  The  same  ideas  do  not 
suggest  each  other  in  sanity  and  insanity.  The 
tendency  is  in  insanity  for  ideas  to  suggest  gro- 
tesque and  incongruous  things  or  trains  of  thought. 
The  habits  of  life  are  notably  changed  in  most 
cases,  men  and  women  becoming  literally  'not 
themselves  '  in  their  ways  and  modes  of  living. 
The  cleanly  liecomes  uncleanly  ;  the  orderly  man 
disorderly. 

The  chief  bodily  symptoms  in  insanity  are  the 
following.  There  is  scarcely  any  symptom  more 
common  before  and  in  the  early  stages  of  attacks 
than  slee|)le.ssiiess.  '  Tired  nature's  sweet  restorer, 
balmy  slee]!,'  certainly  departs  when  the  terrible 
brain  disturbance  occurs,  or  is  about  to  occur.  It 
does  not  follow  that  because  a  man  is  sleepless 
he  is  going  to  be  insane,  but  almost  every  Kind 
of  insanity  is  sleepless  in  its  early  stages.  Xor  does 
it  by  any  means  follow  that  sleeplessness  is  always 
the  cause  of  the  attack.  It  is  rather  in  most  cases 
an  early  symptom.  The  next  bodily  symptom  in 
importance  is  morbidnesses  of  s))eech.  On  the 
patient's  speech  we  chiefly  depend  for  our  diagnosis 
of  most  cases.  Through  it  delusions  are  given  ex- 
pression to  :  it  may  be  incoherent  or  i)artially  coher- 
ent ;  it  may  be  over  rapid,  slow,  or  entirely  absent. 
A  patient  at  iSIorningside  Asylum  never  uttered 
a  word  for  seventeen  years,  though  he  could  speak 
quite  well  but  for  a  delusion  he  lias,  antl  he  works 
well,  writes  to  express  his  wishes,  goes  out  every 
Saturday  and  sees  the  sights  of  the  town,  and 
behaves  mostly  like  a  sane  man,  save  in  this  par- 
ticular. Often  the  conventicuialities  of  speech  are 
lost  or  dropped  in  insanity.  The  articulation  of 
words  is  often  changed.  Next  in  importance  to 
the  sjieech  is  the  expression  of  the  face  and  eyes. 
This  is  given  by  the  most  delicate  combined  mus- 
cular and  nervous  apparatus  that  exists  in  nature, 
being  in  the  most  intimate  connection  with  the 
mental  jiart  of  the  brain,  and  acting  as  its  chief 
expositor  and  interpreter.  It  would  be  impossible 
to  describe  all  the  changes  that  take  place  in  the 
expression  oS  the  eyes  and  faces  of  the  insane.  In 
the  depressed  ami  ilemented  ca-ses  the  eye  loses  its 
lustre  and  brilliancy ;  in  maniacal  cases  it  has 
abnormal  feverish  brillianey  ;  the  inipil  enlarging 
and  the  eyeliils  being  drawn  too  far  apart  pro- 
duce staring,  the  whole  of  the  cornea  being  seen. 
Ill  regard  to  the  expression  of  the  face,  we  see  how 
the  'mind  muscles  alter  the  man  when  in  actiim 
and  repose,  in  health  and  sickness.  The  natural 
exprcs.sion  is  greatly  changed,  and  little  beauty  of 
feature  survives  during  acute  attacks.  The  ciui- 
ventional  control  over  the  outward  expression  of  the 
emotions  is  lost,  and  th(^  face  accurately  shows  the 
state  of  the  mehuicli(dic,  the  maniacal,  or  the  de- 
mented patient.  Often  too  the  lixed  delusion  shows 
in  the  patient's  face.  Indeed  there  are  many  cases 
where  the  expression  cau.sed  by  changed  emotion 
during  the  first  jiart  of  an  attack  gets  fixed,  and 
remains  .so  after  the  pati<!nt  has  really  ceased  to 
feel  the  morbid  emotion  at  all.  A  lady  who  had 
been  intensely  melaiiclioly  in  feeling  for  live  years 
then  sank  into  incurable  weakness  of  mind,  and 
comidetely  lost  her  keen  feeling  and  memory,  but 
for  the  next  twenty  years,  till  her  death,  the 
muscles  of  her  face  anil  her  attitude  expressed  the 
melanidioly  which  she  did  not  feel.  She  constantly 
wrung  her  hainls,  and  could  not  tidl  why  she  ilid 
.so.  There  was  in  fact  an  automatic  'muscular 
misery.'  There  are  important  indications  of  certain 
kinds  of  insanity  in  the  state  of  the  jiupils  too. 


154 


INSANITY 


In  the  muscular  inoveiiients  of  the  hody  an  insane 
patient  «ill  often  indicate  his  emotions  far  more 
than  a  sane  man  would  do. 

The  skin,  the  hair,  the  pei-spiration,  tlie  liver, 
the  heart,  and  the  kidneys  are  often  changed  in 
working,  and  the  temperature  of  the  hody  altered 
during  an  acute  or  recent  att.ack  of  insanity. 
Before  .an  attack  there  are  often  pains  or  nnea-sy 
feelings  in  the  head,  which  ilisappear  wlien  it 
conies  on.  The  bodily  sensations  are  notahly 
dulled  in  most  acute  attacks.  Patients  will  often 
cut  or  bruise  themselves  or  undergo  operations 
without  feelings  of  jiain.  The  body  weight  is 
rapidly  lost,  and  the  general  nutrition  almost  in- 
variably sutl'cr.s.  Thus  it  is  seen  that  disease  can- 
not attack  the  highest  org.an  ami  function  witli<uit 
affecting  also  almost  every  other  organ  and  function 
of  the  body.  The  liigher  brain  centres  and  the 
peripheral  oi-gans  act  and  react  on  each  other,  so 
that  when  the  one  is  disturbed  in  action  the  olliers 
sutler. 

Foniis,  Varieties,  ami  Classifirritinii  of  fii.iiiiiifif. 
— One  case  of  insanity  may  dill'er  from  another  in 
all  its  symptoms,  mental  and  liodily,  so  that  the 
two  may  have  almost  nothing  in  common  except 
that  in  both  the  mind  is  affected  from  brain  dis- 
order. One  case  may  be  so  near  sanity  that  it 
needs  an  expert  to  say  there  is  anything  «  rong ; 
while  another  is  '  raving  mad '  to  any  eye.  (Jne 
case  is  conscious  that  his  mind  is  affected  ;  another, 
much  worse,  believes  he  w.as  never  so  well  in  his 
life.  One  case  needs  no  control,  and  can  do  some 
work  ;  another  needs  the  control  of  others  in  all 
respects,  and  cannot  do  anything.  One  is  per- 
fectly safe  to  himself  and  others,  while  another  is 
as  dangerous  as  the  poj)ular  '  madman  '  is  snpi>osed 
to  be — as  a  matter  of  fact,  half  the  insane  are  not 
dangerous  at  all,  and  very  few  of  them  arc  as 
dangerous  as  they  are  ]iopularly  supposed  to  be. 
The  popular  idea  that  the  insane  are  all  nnich 
alike  is  utterly  wrong.  Nothing  is  more  common 
than  for  the  doctor  of  an  a.sylum  to  be  asked  such 
questions  as — '  Do  your  patients  kiujw  where  they 
are?'  'Are  they  the  better  for  the  visits  of 
friends?'  'Do  they  enjoy  each  other's  society?' 
'  Are  they  happy  ? '  '  Do  they  like  or  dislike  you  ? ' 
'Are  they  nice  to  do  with?"  To  one  and  all  of 
such  fjuestions  the  answer  has  to  be — 'They  diller 
entirely  from  each  other  in  all  these  respects.' 
Where  there  are  ditierences  it  is  the  business  of 
science  to  classify.  Insanity  has  been  classified 
most  variously,  but  at  the  lu-eseiit  time  only  two 
of  the  cl.assilications  can  lie  said  to  hold  the  held. 
The  one  is  that  in  which  the  prevailing  mental 
symptoms  are  taken  as  the  basis  of  classilic.ation, 
the  cases  with  similar  mental  symptoms  being 
thrown  together  into  each  group.  'Ihis  wiis  first 
done  by  Philip|ie  I'inel,  who  w,as  born  in  174.")  and 
died  in  I.S'iti,  was  the  jibysician  to  the  great  hos|iital 
for  the  insane  at  I'aris,  the  liicctre.  and  who  during 
the  revolutionary  ]ierio(l  asked  and  got  permission 
to  remove  the  chains  and  m.anacles  from  his  ]iatients 
there.  It  is  the  'mental  cla.ssilication,'  and  is  used 
more  or  less  by  .all  physicians.  The  other  classifica- 
tion w.as  that  cleviscd  by  David  Skae,  who  was  born 
in  ISI-I  .-ind  dieil  in  1S7:!.  and  was  physician  to  the 
Itoyal  l-',diiibuigb  .\>ylnm  for  twenty-seven  years, 
exercising  during  that  time  an  enormous  inlluence 
on  the  growth  of  the  mental  department  of  medi- 
cine, wliich  is  calleil  '  alienism  '  in  Fiani'i>,  •  psyebia- 
trie'  in  (Jermany,  and  commonly  niedico-ii.sychology 
in  IJritain.  The  '  clinical  cla.ssilication  '  goes  on  the 
jirinciple  of  select  ing  a  more  real,  natural,  and  lasting 
relationship  between  the  cases  than  mere  nuMital 
symptoms.  The  weak  point  of  the  mental  classi- 
fication is  that  it  is  one  of  symptoms  only  :  ami  a 
case  may  change  entirely  in  its  symptoms  in  the 
course  of  the  same  attack.     The  weak  point  in  the 


clinical  classilicaticui  is  that  it  does  not  cover  the 
whole  groinid,  m.any  cases  not  being  as  yet  cl.as.sili- 
able  under  any  of  its  divisions.  The  cla.ssilication 
of  the  future  will  be  a  |iatliological  one,  which  will 
supersede  the  two  others,  but  our  knowledge  of  the 
pathology  of  the  various  forms  of  insanity  is  not 
as  yet  suthciently  accurate  to  eiuible  such  a  elas.si- 
hcation  to  be  made.  The  forms  of  insanity  under 
the  mental  classification,  as  found  in  Clouston's 
C/hiicfil  Lcrtiircs  on  Jllciital  Diseases  (1SS7),  are  as 
follows  : 

-W</((Hc/(o^«r,  comiirising  all  stntes of  dcpresition. — 
This  has  emoticm.al  de])re.ssion,  or  mental  pain  and 
sense  of  ill-being,  as  its  leading  and  domin.ant 
symptom.  There  may  in  aihlition  be  loss  of  self- 
control,  insane  <hdusions,  which  are  usually 
suggested  by  the  depression  or  impulses  towards 
suicide,  as  well  as  incapacity  to  follow  ordinary 
avocations  in  melancholia.  These  distinguish  it 
from  s.ane  melancholy.  Suicide  is  the  great  risk 
in  such  cases;  four-fifths  of  melancholies  being 
suicidal.  The  chief  of  the  bodily  sym]Ptoms  .are 
apt  to  be  thinness,  weakness,  a  low  nervotis  .and 
nutritive  tone,  and  stomach,  bowel,  and  liver 
derangements.  Melan<-holi.a  forms  about  .'{()  ]ier 
cent,  of  the  insanity  sent  to  .a.sylums  ;  but  if  the 
eases  not  sent  to  such  institutions,  but  treated  at 
home,  jire  taken  into  account,  it  forms  ]uobably 
half  the  total  number.  It  is  by  far  the  nm.st 
conscious  .and  the  nuist  manageable  form  of  recent 
ins.anity  on  the  whole,  being  the  form  next  to 
sanity.  Most  other  kimls  of  ment.al  disease  begin 
by  some  anmunt  of  mental  dejuession.  Of 
melancholic  ji.atients  sent  to  a,sylums  .">4  per  cent, 
recover  ;  but  .a  larger  percent.age  Ih.an  this  recovers 
if  the  cases  treated  at  home  are  also  included, 
because,  of  course,  it  is  the  worst  class  that  recpiire 
asylum  treatment.  The  recoveries  from  melanclioli.a 
.are  the  most  comiilete  of  all  forms  of  insanity.  It 
wouM  seem  to  be  caused  by  a  more  entindy 
functional  and  dynamical  brain  <listnrbance  than 
any  other  form  of  insanity  that  may  leave  no  trace 
whatever  hehiml  it  after  recovery. 

Mania,  comprising  all  slates  tif  mental  exaltation. 
— The  chief  emotional  forms  of  such  mental  exalt.a- 
tion  .are  joyonsness  .and  rage,  and  .are  comnicudy 
accomiianied  by  nui.scular  excitement,  restlessness, 
sleeplessness;  the  speech  tends  to  become  in- 
coherent, the  con<luct  violent  or  nncontrolle<l ; 
there  are  commonly  delusions  of  many  kiiuls. 
The  synii)tonis  range  from  a  jnycms  elevation 
with  talkativeness  and  merely  want  of  connnon 
sense  and  foolish  <'onduct  up  to  complete  incoher- 
lau'C,  delirium,  an<l  'raving  madness'  or  'acute 
mania.'  In  such  aiaite  cases  the  tem]ierature  of 
the  body  is  raised  as  in  .a  fever  ;  often  there  is  such 
ra]dd  loss  of  body  weight  that  iS  lb.  are  lost  in  a 
we(d<,  ami  the  patients  e\en  die  of  the  disejuse  in 
about  8  jier  cent  of  such  acute  cases  ;  while  on  the 
other  h.and  (iO  |ier  cent,  recover  .ami  30  ]ier  cent. 
Iiecome  incurable.  The  br.ain  is  very  congested 
.and  hyiieractive  in  a(  life  mania,  but  this  does  not 
result  from  inllanimation. 

h'idie  Ciiriilaire,  or  .slates  nf  ref/ii/ay  allenialion 
between  melancholia  and  mania,  forms  a  snuill  but 
distinct  variety  of  insanity.  More  or  less  jieriodicity 
and  tendency  to  recurrence  ami  ridajise  is  unfortu- 
n.ately  a  very  common  symptom  in  most  attacks  of 
insanity,  ami  tlie  jieriod  between  each  aggravation 
is  often  .about  four  weeks  :  liema'  the  name  'lun.acy.' 
It  is  hardly  necessary  to  .say  th.it  the  nnion  has 
nothing  whatever  to  do  with  insanity.  Nothing  is 
more  discouraging  to  those  in  (diarge  of  cases  than 
this  relapsing  tendency  :  but  it  should  not  le.id  to 
despair  of  ultim.ate  recovery,  unless  such  rehijises 
become  regular  and  fri-c|neril  for  years.  When  this 
is  the  case  the  prospects  of  recovery  are  bad. 
Patients  suliering  from  alternating  insanity  lead 


INSANITY 


155 


three  lives — one  -when  they  are  in  the  niehincholy 
stiijte,  anotlier  wlien  in  the  joyons,  elevated  sta^e, 
anil  another  when  nearly  sane. 

Monomania,  or  ililusional  in.saniiif,  is  that  form 
where  insane  delusions  are  the  chief  si-ins  of  the 
mental  alierration.  A  man  may  have  such  insane 
beliefs  of  all  kinds,  utterly  unfounded  in  fact  and 
utterly  unchan<;eable  liy  the  plainest  demonstration 
of  fact  that  they  are  false,  without  any  <;<""*^''iil 
depression  of  mind  or  exaltation.  The  intellect 
is  chietiy  affected  rather  than  the  aftective  nature 
in  such  a  case.  There  are  almost  no  cases  of  a 
literal  monomania  or  a  morbid  false  belief  on 
one  subject  alone.  The  delusions  are  morbid 
in  a  particular  direction,  the  chief  forms  being 
mononutnia  of  grandeur  or  pride,  of  unseen  agen- 
cies, and  of  unfounded  suspicions.  Electricity, 
mesmerism,  telephones,  gases,  noises  made  by 
imaginary  pei'secutoi's  are  the  common  sulijects  of 
the  second  form  ;  while  utterly  perverse  interpreta- 
tions of  the  conduct  of  friends  or  strangers  is  the 
common  form  of  the  latter.  The  two  together  are 
sometimes  classed  as  monomania  cf  perserufion. 
Hallucinations  of  the  senses — i.e.  imaginary  siglits, 
sounds,  smells,  and  tastes — are  veiy  common  in  this 
form  of  insanity.  It  is  not  very  curable  when  the 
delusions  get  fixed  :  but  in  the  early  stage,  and 
when  dependent  on  derangements  of  the  bodily 
health,  it  is  often  recovered  from.  This  form  of 
insanity,  and  delusion  generally,  is  of  great  impoit- 
anee  from  a  legal  point  of  view,  but  not  so  much 
from  the  medical  side. 

Dementia,  or  eondiiions  of  general  tncnfal  cn- 
fceblemetit,  is  the  state  of  Jiiiiid  where  the 
memory  is  impaired,  the  reasoning  weakened,  the 
feeling  diminished,  the  will  especially  lacking,  tlie 
attention  and  curiosity  far  l>elow  normal,  these 
changes  having  occurred  in  a  pei-son  Avho  had  at 
one  time  lieen  normally  constituted.  It  is  in  fact 
silliness,  want  of  mental  force,  imbecility  not 
congenital  but  acquired.  This  does  not  usually 
occur  as  the  lirst  .symptom  of  an  attack  of  insanity, 
but  a.s  the  sequel  to  mania — or,  more  rarely, 
melancholia — when  it  is  not  recovered  from  ; 
hence  it  is  commonly  called  secondari/  dementia. 
It  is  in  fact  the  incurable  stage  in  which  these 
disea.ses  end.  The  demented  patients  live  on  for 
many  years  sometimes.  The  most  com]dete  form 
of  dementia  occurs  after  mania  that  ha-s  not  been 
recovered  from  in  adolescen(-e.  Dementia  is  in 
fact  a  premature  mental  death  with  persisting 
bodily  life. 

Slii/mr  embraces  those  cases  where  there  is 
mental  torpor,  in  which  impressions  on  the  senses 
produce  no  effect,  the  patient  neither  speaking  nor 
taking  notice  of  aiiytliiiig,  and  having  no  volition 
except  to  resist,  liut  liciiig  able  to  stand,  and  walk, 
and  eat.  Trance  and  catalepsy  are  forms  of  stupor. 
The  bodily  functions  are  all  lethargic  in  stupor,  the 
heart's  action  low,  the  Ijody  cold,  and  the  muscles 
llabl>y.  Stui)or  commonly  occurs  in  young  |)eople 
if  both  sexes,  and  is  very  curable,  50  per  cent, 
recovering.  It  sometimes  attracts  popular  wonder 
.ind  attention,  whicli  is  very  bad  for  the  patient. 
In  some  c;i.ses  it  results  from  profound  and  terrible 
shocks  which  paralyse  mind  and  Ijody.  In  some 
c-ases  patients  remember  all  that  occurre<l  when 
they  appeared  to  be  taking  no  notice  whatever,  an<l 
in  others  the  time  during  which  the  stupor  lasted 
vv.^is  a  blank  to  them  afterwards. 

Jmjiu/sire  Inv(nil>/,  or  s/oics  of  defective  control. 
Is  the  la-^t  or  most  recently  invented  division  of  the 
mental  cla-ssi(ication.  In  some  wavs  it  is  the  most 
interesting  of  all,  ina-snuich  as  will  is  the  highest 
and  most  essential  of  all  the  mental  faculties,  and 
volitional  dUturbanees  have  a  clo.ser  relationship 
to  mor.ils,  l.iw,  .social  life,  and  conduct  than  .any 
other  a.spect  of  insanity.     It  is  often  seen  that  the 


chililren  of  insane  or  drunken  p.arents  are  lacking 
in  the  normal  power  of  conlnil  and  in  their  percep- 
tion of  the  .sense  of  right  and  wrong,  their  conduct 
being  a]it  to  be  impulsive  and  not  guided  by  rea.son- 
able  iMotives.  Evolutionally  the  highest  of  all 
(|U<alities  is  thus  lesseneil  in  amount,  this  tending 
towards  a  disruption  and  ilestruction  of  organised 
society.  If  lack  of  control,  criminality,  and  action 
from  impulse  became  hereditary  and  general, 
society  woulil  fall  to  pieces.  All  forms  of  insanity 
are  more  or  less  distinguished  by  lessened  control, 
but  there  are  persons  without  general  depression 
or  excitement,  without  insane  delusions,  without 
enfeeblement  of  mind,  who  will  suddenly,  and  not 
in  obedience  to  any  sane  motive,  sm;isb  furniture, 
tear  clothing,  steal,  set  things  on  lire,  obey  gross 
animal  impulses,  or  kill  thenrselves  or  others,  hav- 
ing no  power  of  control  to  prevent  themselves  from 
doing  these  things.  We  now  know  that  certain 
regions  of  the  brain  and  nervous  centres  have  as 
their  function  the  control  of  other  portions,  quicken- 
ing the  pace  of  action  or  stopping  it.  In  the  very 
highest  regions  of  the  brain  we  find  the  function 
of  mental  inhibition.  This  controls  mental  action 
in  other  portions  of  the  brain  convolutions.  In 
this  form  of  insanity  it  is  suppose<l  that  the  inhib- 
itory controlling  portions  or  'centres  of  mental 
inhibition  '  have  lost  their  power.  It  is  as  if  one's 
power  of  controlling  the  act  of  coughing  on  very 
inadequate  irritation  was  lost.  Every  mintitest 
point  of  dust  entering  the  larynx  would  set  up 
coughing,  w  hich  would  go  on  independently  of  the 
will  altogether,  as  an  .automatic  '  reliex  '  act.  In 
many  of  the  cases  of  impulsive  ins.anity  the  mental 
portions  of  the  brain  act  automatically  without 
any  controlling  .action  by  the  inhibiting  centres. 
It  is  a  pitiful  .ami  mo.st  .suggestive  thing  to  see  a 
human  being  who  knows  right  from  wrong,  and 
earnestly  desires  to  do  the  one  and  avoid  the  other, 
compelleil  by  morbid  impul.ses  to  act  wrongly,  all 
the  while  liewailing  the  dise.ased  necessity  that 
is  thus  laid  upon  him.  The  physician  frequently 
I  sees  such  a  ca,se.  Especially  is  this  sight  pathetic 
j  when  the  morbid  impul.se  is  to  take  away  his  own 
j  life  or  that  of  some  one  de.arer  to  him  than  life 
i  itself.  .Such  impulsive  insanity  is  often  set  u|)  in 
I  hereditaiily  unst.able  biains  liy  weak  health  and  by 
1  alcohol.  They  are  often  curable.  The  so-called 
'  moral  insanity  '  is  just  one  v.ariety  of  this  form  of 
mental  disea.se  where  the  moral  sense  is  absent 
from  disease,  and  the  power  of  doing  right  non- 
existent, while  the  impulses  are  all  towards 
immorality. 

The  clinical  varieties  of  insanity  are  heailed  by 
general  jianihisis,  a  speeilic  disease  of  those  portions 
fif  the  brain  that  subserve  mind  and  motion.  It 
is  alwavs  incurable,  getting  progressively  worse, 
gradually  impairing  and  at  length  deslroving 
speech,  motion,  mind,  ami,  usually  in  about  three 
years'  time,  life  itself.  In  this  form  of  insanity 
l)atients  commonly  have  extrav.agant  delusions  of 
I  wealth  and  jiower.  It  is  found  chielly  in  the  male 
I  sex,  in  large  cities  and  manufacturing  pl;ices.  and 
as  yet  is  almost  unknown  in  llie  Highlands  anil  the 
country  districts  of  Ireland.  It  is  a  ilise.ise  of 
modern  life,  and  is  proved  to  be  incre.a.sing.  I'ara- 
lijtic  insanittj  is  that  connected  with  apo|>lexies, 
softenings  .anil  tumors  of  the  brain,  whicli  cause 
ordinary  paralysis  lirst,  and  one  form  of  dementia 
afterwards.  Kiiileptie  insanitij  is  that  accomiiany- 
ing  c])ilepsy  in  so  many  cases.  It  is  often  attended 
by  great  violence  and  irritability,  and  by  danger  to 
those  arounil  thi'  ]<atient.  -Many  murders  are  com- 
mitted by  insane  epileptics.  It  is  now  much  more 
manage.ihle  than  formerly  under  modern  medical 
treatment,  but  is  apt  to  recur  after  app.arent 
recovery.  It  ]>revails  most  vario\isly  in  iliilerent 
parts  of  the  country.      In  Scotland  (udy  7  per  cent. 


15G 


INSANITY 


of  the  iiisiuiity  !;<  opileiitie  ;  iii  some  soutlioni  jiiid 
midliiiiil  oinnitics  of  Eiij;lanil  l2.")  ]n'r  cent,  is  of  tliis 
character.  Tlie  true  cause  of  tliis  diUcrcnce  is 
mikiiDwii.  iSy/i/ti/itic  hi.wnitj/  is  tlie  result  of  liraiii- 
poisoiiini;  liy  this  terrible  .scoury^e  of  hniiiauity. 
Alcolii>lir  t II ■■iaiiiti/ is  a  very  frequent  form  imleed. 
Alcohol  is  tlie  excitin<r  cause  of  from  lo  to  20  \iev 
cent,  of  all  insanity  :  hut  all  the  mental  disease 
caused  hy  alcohol  is  not  alcoholic  in.sanity.  There 
can  he  no  douht  that  some  hrains  are  so  prone  hy 
heredity  to  he  upset  in  (heir  mental  function  that 
it  takes  little  to  do  it.  If  it  is  not  a  i|uarrel  with 
a  friend,  it  is  a  si)ree  on  had  liquor.  True  alcoholic 
insanity  always  has  niotcu'  symptoms,  such  as 
tremblinfi.s,  convulsions,  im])aired  speech,  I've, 
except  dipsomiiiiiu,  one  variety  where  the  insanity 
consists  in  the  cr.avinj,'  for  excessive  use  of  lirpior, 
and  lack  of  control  over  this  craving;.  Alcoholic 
insanity  may  he  intensely  acute  or  very  mild,  very 
short  in  duratioii  or  very  lonj;  continued,  or  incur- 
able. That  caused  by  prolonj^ed  steady  soaking  is 
the  worst,  lihciiimitic  and  gouty  insanities  are 
very  rare. 

Phtliisical  insfinify,  or  that  connected  with  con- 
sumption, is  a  very  interestinj,'  vaiicly.  The 
patients  are  suspicious  and  unsocial,  and  often  have 
no  cough  or  s])it  or  other  outward  sign  of  consump- 
tion, winch  may  not  he  iliscovereil  till  the  chest  is 
examined.  In  some  cases  it  is  curalde.  The  tend- 
ency to  cousuiu]ition  and  to  insanity  are  often 
found  in  dill'crcnt  nicmliers  of  the  same  family. 
There  are  various  forms  of  insanity  connected  with 
derangement  of  the  reproductive  fnneticuis.  I'lrr- 
ine,  (iincniirrfiu'fil,  ovririaii,  hysterical,  .and  innstiir- 
bational  insanities :  while  pregnancy,  childbirth, 
and  nursing  are  the  causes  of  the  insrinity  of  pre  q- 
nancy,  juicrpceal  insanity,  and  lactationat  insanity. 
These  form  10  per  cent,  of  mental  disease  in  the 
female  sex.  They  are  the  most  curalile  of  all  forms, 
recovering  in  over  SO  per  cent,  of  the  cases.  I'licr- 
pcra/  insanity  occurs  commonly  witliiu  a  fortnight 
of  cliildhirtli,  and  is  the  most  .acute  ami  one  of  the 
most  daugermis  to  life  of  all  insanities,  while  the 
most  curable,  and  is  attended  by  the  highest  tem- 
peratures, sometimes  reacliing  10.")'.  The  ditt'erent 
periods  of  life  have  each  their  own  form  of  insanity. 
Pubescent  anil  addlesreiit  insanity  is  .always  heredi- 
tary, is  cmumonly  atrute  and  m.aniacal,  usu.ally  has 
remissions  and  exacerbations,  and  recovers  in  over 
60  per  cent,  of  the  cases,  those  not  recovering 
commonly  passing  into  the  most  typical  form  of 
sccoialiir//  denientiii.  This  f(U'm  of  in.s.auity  should 
be  treatiMl  chielly  by  milk  diet  and  exercise.  It  is 
one  of  numerous  di.seascs  to  which  the  period  of 
development  is  subject.  Climacteric  insanity  occurs 
at  the  i>eriod  of  the  'change  of  life.'  It  is  usually 
melancludic  in  character,  and  recovers  in  53  per 
cent,  of  the  cases,  under  |)ro]H'r  treatment  and  C(ui- 
ditions  of  life.  Senile  insanity  is  typi<'ally  seen  in 
the  senile  ilcmentiu  of  extreme  old  age,  when  the 
memory  and  all  the  faculties  have  faded  away. 
I5ul  spurts  of  mental  excitement  ami  mental  depres- 
sion, with  slec|)lessness  .and  uu man.ageability  .at 
home,  often  occur  before  llnal  dotage.  These  are 
often  recovered  from.  They  are  a  half-way  house 
to  dot.age  or  a  quick  road  to  it. 

A  number  of  rarer  and  less  imjiortant  eliiucal 
viirieties  of  insanity  have  been  described.  Trim- 
matic  insanity,  from  injuries  to  head  ;  anirniie 
insaniti/,  froni  thinness  of  blood  ;  diabetic  insanity : 
insanity  from  llrii/lit's  disease :  jtost-febrilc  insanity, 
following  all  kinds  of  fevers,  especially  scarlatina  : 
the  insanity  of  lead-poisonin;/ :  and  mi/ciiileniat- 
oils  insanity. 

Causes  of  Insanity. — There  can  be  no  (|neslion 
whatever  that  a  hereditary  tendency  is  the  chief 
predisposing  cause  of  insanity.  All  sorts  of  dis- 
turbing influence.s  to  the  lu-.ain  bring  out  this  pre- 


disposition into  actual  disease.  No  dotibt  TO  per 
cent,  of  all  cases  have  an  insane  or  neurotic  hered- 
ity. Epile|isy,  drunkenness,  all  nervous  diseases, 
consumption,  too  exciting  or  depressing  or  ex- 
hausting employments,  or  unfavourable  condi- 
tions of  life  in  ancestry  may  cause  insanity  in 
the  oll'spring.  Marriage  of  near  relatives  causes 
it  if  the  stock  is  bad  ;  not  if  it  is  goo<l.  The 
])hysical  causes  of  insanity,  allecting  the  body, 
such  as  alcohol  in  excess,  produce  insanity  in  four 
times  (he  proportion  which  mental  and  moral 
causes,  such  .as  attliction,  los.scs,  love-all'airs,  and 
religious  excitement,  do.  For  the  iiroduetion  of  a 
case  of  insanity  there  may  he,  .and  there  usually  is, 
more  than  one  cause — e.g.  ( 1  )  a  man  li.as  a  here<lity ; 
(•i)  he  is  at  .a  critical  lime  of  life,  or  is  lain  down  in 
general  health,  or  takes  alcohol  in  excess  ;  (8)  he  li.as 
a  money  loss,  or  domestic  alllictiou  just  before  his 
attack.  A  heredity  to  insanity  cloes  not  mean  a 
bad  hr.ain  or  a  weak  mind  before  theins,anity  comes 
on.  Often  it  is  quite  the  contrary.  It  is  not  the 
fools  that  go  off  their  heail.s. 

A' at  lire  of  Insaniti/. — Xo  one  now  doubts  that  it 
is  due  to  disorder  of  function  of  .a  certain  ))ortion  of 
the  brain — viz.  that  piirt  of  the  c<n'tex  which  is  the 
vehicle  of  all  mental  function.  This  bodily  as|icct 
of  it  should  never  be  lost  .sight  of  hy  physicians  and 
rel.ati(uis.  Essenti.ally  it  in  no  w.ay  dillers  imm 
many  ordinary  diseases  :  it  Ijegins,  runs  a  delinite 
eour.se,  and  enils  like  m.any  common  ailments.  It 
may  be  bnnight  on  by  disorder  in  many  other  parts 
of  the  body,  upsetting  the  brain  :  but  with  a  .s(mn<l 
br.ain  there  must  be  .a  souiul  mind.  The  exact 
pathology  of  m.any  forms  of  insanity  has  not  yet 
been  ascertained  ;  but  in  80  or  90  ]ier  cent,  of  the 
cases  that  die  some  abnormality  can  he  found  in 
the  brain. 

Treatment  of  Insanity — Asytnms  for  the  Insane. 
— The  general  princi]ilcs  of  modern  treatment  may 
be  di\'i<letl  into  bodily  and  mental  or  moral.  The 
bodily  treatment  m.ay  lie  generally  said  to  be  to 
put  all  the  org.ans  and  functions  right  if  wrong; 
to  get  up  the  strength  and  fat  of  the  body — 
the  writer  preaches  the  'gosjiel  of  fatness'  for  all 
his  insjine  .and  nervous  ]iatients ;  to  restore  the 
tone  and  right  working  of  the  nervous  system  ;  to 
restore  the  sleep  ;  to  give  medicines  that  iletcrmine 
more  blood  to  tlie  brain  in  cases  where  there  is  too 
little,  and  to  give  those  that  diminish  the  brain's 
blood-sujqdy  in  tlio.se  where  there  is  too  much  ;  to 
use  suitable  b.atlis  th.at  soothe  nervcnis  irrit.atiou, 
and  miner.al  w.aters;  to  invigoi.ate  and  sootlu"  by 
life  in  the  open  air  ;  and  to  let  oil'  undue  and  morbid 
nervous  energy  by  much  excrci.se,  gymnastics,  and 
massage  in  some  cases,  and  to  secure  complete 
brain  and  liody  rest  for  others.  The  mental  Ircat- 
iiMUit  consists  chielly  in  careful  observation,  com- 
panionshi]),  control,  distraction  of  the  mind  from 
morbid  thought  and  feeling  by  suit.able  occupations 
.ami  amusements,  and  guarding  ag.ainst  the  (langcrs 
of  suicide,  homicide,  and  self  neglect.  The  wliide 
nursing  of  in.sanity  is  a  most  <lilliciilt  (ask.  for 
which  the  best  bodily,  moral,  ami  mental  qii.alilica- 
tions  are  needed.  In  old  times,  and  even  up  to  a  very 
recent  date,  cruelty,  neglect,  stripes,  .and  tortures 
without  number  were  the  ordinary  means  of  '  treat- 
iiient.'  Cullen,  and  all  the  great  authors  of  his 
time,  ju'escribe  so  many  'lashes'  as  a  cloctor  now 
does  so  many  drojis  of  physic.  Even  the  very 
medical  means  used  were  made  terrifying  on  pur- 
)iose — 'surprise  baths'  in  which  |iatien(s  were 
without  warning  |ilungcil  and  kept  till  they  were 
nearly  drowned,  and  'chairs'  in  which  they  were 
'rotated'  till  they  fainted.  The  early  Christian 
theory  of  an  e\  il  spirit  having  entered  into  .an 
insane  man,  which  must  he  'got  out  of  him,'  was  at 
the  bottom  of  much  of  tliis  treatment,  and  accounted 
for  the  litter  want  of  sympathy  sliowu   towards 


INSANITY 


157 


tins  cliuis  of  sufVerers.  Pinel  in  Fiance,  iiml  William 
Tuke,  a  York  Quaker,  in  1792  ^-inu^ltaneou^ly  liej;an 
the  new  era  of  Ininianity,  skill,  and  science  for  the 
insane.  The  next  jjreat  landmark  of  pro-jiress  was 
when  mechanical  restraint,  in  the  shape  of  strait- 
jackets,  &c.,  was  disused,  and  the  'non-restraint 
system '  of  treatment  was  adopted.  This  Wiis 
between  IS'25  and  1S40,  and  was  the  work  of 
Charlesworth  and  tiairdner  Hill  of  Lincoln  A.syluni, 
and  Conolly  at  Hanwell.  The  ne.\t  advance  wa.s 
made  by  imitation  of  Belgian  experience  at  (ilieel, 
where  the  insane  are  largely  boarded  in  private 
families.  If  not  applicable  to  all,  or  even  to 
many  in  Britain,  it  showed  that  the  insane  were 
not  so  dangerous  as  they  had  been  considered.  The 
next  advance  took  place  in  Scotland,  from  1857, 
through  employing  the  insane  more,  classifying 
them  better  in  asylums,  making  asylums  more 
'homes'  with  'open-door'  departments  in  them, 
almost  abolishing  the  use  of  higliwalled,  enclo.sed 
'airing  courts'  in  asylums  for  the  exercise  of 
patients,  sending  them  out  into  the  open  grounds 
and  on  the  farms  instead,  and  setting  up  fully- 
equipped  'hospital'  wards  with  trained  nursing  for 
the  special  medical  treatment  of  the  sick  and  of 
the  recent  acute  cases,  while  quiet  incurable  ca.ses 
are  boarded  in  cottages  in  the  conritrv  under 
regular  inspection  and  supervision.  We  are  now 
fullv  in  the  scientific  era  when  we  hope  by  careful 
study  of  the  brain  and  its  disorders  to  understand 
the  real  nature  of  the  disea.se  and  apply  our 
remedies  with  the  certainty  and  exactitude  of 
science  in  each  ease.  To  secure  stich  treatment 
for  most  of  the  poor,  and  also  for  many  of  the  rich, 
asijlttms  for  the  his((ue  are  needful. 

Every  country  in  Europe  has  now  provision  more 
or  less  adequate  for  the  care  and  treatment  of  its 
insane.  In  Germany  and  Austria  a.sylums  are 
commonly  of  two  classes  :  the  one  for  tlie  cure  of 
the  curable,  near  large  cities,  where  the  patients 
only  stay  for  a  limited  time  ;  and  the  other  for  the 
incurable,  larger  in  size,  less  costly,  and  further  in 
the  country.  The  same  idea  is  carried  out  in 
France  (farm  colonies),  in  Belgium,  HoUaml,  and 
in  Great  Britain;  it  will  certainly  he  extended, 
for  it  enables  economy  of  management  to  come  in 
where  cost  is  of  no  avail  for  cure,  and  it  enables 
the  curative  idea  to  be  realised,  however  costly, 
among  the  smaller  numbers  and  individualised 
patients  who  are  curable.  In  England  the  two 
great  establishments  at  Caterham  and  Leavesden, 
each  with  over  '2000  inmates,  are  the  best  examples 
of  establishments  for  the  incurable.  That  at 
Darenth,  Dartfort,  is  for  congenital  imbeciles  and 
idiots.  All  three  were  built  to  supply  the  wants 
of  London.  The  largest  a-sylum  in  England  is 
C'olney  Hatch,  which  contains  '22M  jjuticnts.  This 
is  far  too  many  to  be  in  one  institution  if  it  is  for 
curable  patients.  One  of  the  best  known  for  its 
scientific  work  and  practical  succe^s  is  that  at 
Wakeheld,  containing  1400  patients.  The  English 
'registered  hospitals'  for  private  patients  fulfil 
a  most  important  philanthropic  function.  One  of 
them,  that  at  Cheadle,  near  Manchester,  under  Mr 
Mould's  most  able  and  original  management,  leads 
the  way  by  treating  h;ilf  its  patients  (l.')0  out  of 
•280 )  in  real  homes  in  the  country  ;  such  homes  being 
ordinary  villas,  farmhouses,  country  mansions,  anil 
seaside  residences  leased  for  the  purjiose.  Scotland 
is  honourably  ilistinguislied  by  its  early  care  for 
the  insane.  Either  in  the  end  of  the  IStli  century 
or  the  beginning  of  the  lOth,  every  considerable 
town  in  the  country  (  Edinburgh,  Glasgow,  Dundet!, 
Aberdeen,  Perth,  and  Dumfries)  had  erecteil  a 
'royal  chartered  a.sylum '  for  itself,  through  the 
benevolent  etl'orts  of  individual  citizens  or  of  cor- 
porate bodies.  These  made  iirovision  for  all  their 
insane,  poor  and  rich  alike,  each  helping  the  other. 


Commonly  each  royal  asylum  has  two  houses  or 
departments,  one  for  the  poorer  and  the  other  for 
the  richer  patients.  The  system  has  worked  well, 
and  by  means  of  it  far  more  complete  provision  has 
been  made  for  the  insane  of  moclerati!  means  than 
in  England.  The  largest  institution  in  Scotland  is 
tlie  Kciyal  Edinburgh  .Asylum  at  .Morniiigside  and 
Craiglockhart,  which  has  large  accommodation  for 
private  patients,  paying  either  the  higher  or  lower 
rates,  as  well  as  for  pauper  jiatients. 

The  Ignited  States  of  America  have  spent  enor- 
mous sums  to  make  the  best  provisiim  ]iossible  for 
the  mentally  afflicted.  As  much  as  i'UOO  a  bed  has 
been  there  spent  on  several  'state  asylums'  in  New 
York,  New  .Jersey,  an<l  Massachusetts.  In  most  of 
the  states  all  citizens,  rich  and  poor  alike,  have  the 
])rivilege  of  using  the  state  a-sylums.  The  members 
of  the  Society  of  Friends  in  the  state;  of  Penn- 
sylvania were  the  lirst  to  make  philanthropic 
etl'orts  to  provide  'hospital '  accommoilation  for  the 
in.sane,  their  etl'orts  following  at  a  very  short  inter- 
val the  work  of  Pinel  and  Tuke.  The  institutions 
in  the  United  States  are  now  growing  to  be  as 
large  in  size  as  those  in  the  I'nited  Kingdom. 
One  of  the  most  original  asylums  in  the  world, 
in  its  plan,  is  that  at  Kankakee,  Illinois.  It  has 
1600  patients,  and  consists  of  about  twenty  houses 
laid  out  on  the  two  .sides  of  a  'street,'  forming 
in  fact  an  insane  town,  all  of  who.se  inhabitants 
resort  four  times  a  day  to  a  central  dining-room  or 
restaurant  for  their  meals,  and  where  a  central 
ward  for  the  sick  and  the  administration  buildings 
are  also  situated.  The  provision  for  the  insane 
in  the  southern  states,  however,  is  backward  and 
defective;  and  on  the  whole,  it  is  generally  ad- 
mitted, even  by  Americans  who  have  seen  its 
asylums,  that  (ireat  Britain  has  led  the  way  in 
its  provisions  for  the  treatment  of  the  insane, 
and  that  it  is  still  unsurpassed  in  the  world. 

There  are  135  public  asylums  and  117  private 
asylums  now  in  the  United  Kingdom.  The 
principles  of  construction  of  such  buildings  have 
iMK'ome  much  more  domestic  anil  hospital-like 
and  less  prison-like  than  formerly.  Each  one 
should  be  a  liuspitdl-huinc,  and  the  dirt'erent 
wards  in  it  should  be  arranged  to  suit  iliH'ereut 
cliisses  of  patients  in  difi'erent  states  of  mind.  In 
fact  the  careful  'adaptation  of  the  house  to  its  in- 
habitants '  in  every  stage  of  their  disease  should  be 
carried  out.  There  .should  be  in  each  one  huspltitl 
wards  for  special  mental  and  bodily  nursing,  ruii- 
rolcM-ciit  wards  just  like  homes,  wards  where  the 
most  acute  and  violent  and  ilangerous  can  be  safely 
and  properly  treated  without  annoying  the  quiet 
and  convalescent.  Every  means  for  suitable  com- 
|ianionship  and  for  varied  occupation  and  anuise- 

mcnt  should   he  provided.      A  g I   asylum  should 

in  fact  ln!  a  series  of  special  model  dwellings  suited 
to  men  and  women  who  need  a  sonu^what  dilh'rent 
mode  of  life  from  ordiruiry  mankiml.  Good  a.sylums 
for  the  richer  classes  have  .seaside  ami  country  houses 
where  the  patients  go  for  change  in  small  parties. 

'I'/ie  Liiiiiiiii  J.titr/i.  —  For  the  protection  of  the 
proj)erty  of  the  insane,  laws  had  to  be  nuule  at  a 
very  early  period.  The  first  statute  on  the  subject 
for  England  was  passed  in  the  reign  of  Edward  11., 
and  for  Scotland  in  the  beginning  of  the  I4tli  cen- 
tury. Both  had  the  same  end  in  view.  Property 
then  meant  land,  and  the  prinuiry  duties  of  land 
were  to  the  king  and  the  country.  If  the  man  who 
held  it  from  the  king  Wius  unfit  from  mental  in- 
capacity to  perform  these  duties,  then  the  king  had 
to  resnmi'  possession  or  appoint  another  to  take  his 
|)lace  and  do  them.  Hut  the  man's  state  could 
not  he  luscertained  without  a  formal  in<|niry  by 
a  responsible  ollicial — the  Chancellor  an<l  the 
cliief  object  of  the  early  stattites  was  to  provide  for 
such   an   iiniuiry.     If   the   imm    Wius   found   to   be 


158 


INSANITY 


idiotic  or  fiiiious,  lie  alonj;  with  bis  ])ioperty  passed 
into  the  care  of  Ids  nearest  male  relative,  anil  there 
was  an  end  of  liiiii  so  far  as  the  law  went.  In  time 
some  little  care  was  hestowed  on  him  as  a  human 
hein;,',  ajiart  from  his  heinj;  an  owner  of  land.  The 
principle  was  afterwards  adojjted  that  the  inr|uiry 
W!is  to  he  held  hefore  a  jury,  the  issue  heiny  deter- 
mined hy  them,  and  the  conseouences  of  the 
verdict  heing  carried  out  under  the  direi'tion  of 
the  Chancellor.  I'.etween  I.'iOO  and  18W)  at  least 
forty  statutes  were  passed  in  England  relating  to 
the  insane,  and  something  like  eight  or  ten  in 
Scotland.  The  most  important  of  them  all  was 
the  great  English  Lunacy  Act  of  184.5,  passed 
through  the  exertions  of "  Lord  Shafteslmry,  the 
philanthroinst.  Its  ohjects  were  entirely  in  the 
interests  of  the  insane,  and  its  eti'ects  have  hecn 
most  henelicial  in  England,  while  throughout  the 
civilised  world  its  inlluence  for  good  has  been  felt. 
Under  its  provisions  asylums  have  been  erected  for 
every  county  in  Englanil.  A  lioanl  of  Commis- 
sioners was  apjiointed  who  inspect  and  report  on 
every  asylum,  and  see  every  insane  ])erson  whether 
in  or  out  of  an  institution  ;  and  every  precaution 
was  taken  that  the  insane  should  he  well  treated, 
ill-treatment  of  them  being  severely  punishable. 
At  least  £10.000,000  of  capital  has  been  laid  out  in 
building  asylums,  and  over  £1,500,000  a  year  be- 
sides is  ex]>ended  for  the  maintenance  of  their 
inmates.  A  new  statute  in  1889  made  certain 
changes  which  experience  had  suggested.  The 
Scotcli  statute  of  1857  was  founded  on  the  English 
Act  of  1845.  I'nder  it  a  Board  of  Commissioners 
in  Lunacy  was  ajjpointed  for  Scotland,  and  pro- 
vision made  for  the  insane  of  the  counties  that 
had  no  existing  royal  asylums.  Ireland  has  a 
very  good  asylum  system,  with  inspectors  in 
lunacy.  Scotland  luus  much  the  advantage  of 
England  in  tin;  ease  and  economy  with  which 
the  propeity  of  an  insane  person  can  be  taken 
care  of  temporarily  or  permanently  under  the 
charge  of  a  Cm'titor  Ijonl.-i,  strictly  responsible  to 
the  Court  of  Session.  England  holils  to  the  old, 
cund)rous  and  expensive,  but  very  efficient  system 
of  a  formal  in(|uiry  (ilc  Iiimctico  inquirendo)  by  a 
'  Master  in  Lunacy '  in  each  case.  If  the  jiatient 
is  found  incai)able  of  managing  his  atlairs  (miii, 
com/Ill.',-  iiinitis),  the  Lord  Chancellor  appoints 
a  '  committee  of  the  person  '  to  see  to  his  comfort 
and  jiroper  treatment,  and  a  'committee  of  the 
estate'  lo  manage  his  pro|)erty.  In  addition  to 
the  statutes  that  regulate  tiie  care  of  the  property 
and  the  persons  of  the  insane,  there  are  acts  that 
|irovide  tor  the  protei'tion  of  the  ]>ublic  and  the 
safe  custody  of  insant;  jiei'sons  who  ba\"e  c<^nimitte<l 
crimes  or  are  specially  dangerous  the  Criminal 
IjUnacy  Statutes — and  there  are  three  great  estab- 
lishments f(U'  criminal  lunatics,  one  at  Uroadmoor 
for  England,  one  at  Dundrnm  for  Ireland,  and  one 
in  conn(H:tion  with  Perth  I'enitentiary  for  Scot- 
land. About  three-fourths  of  the  obviously  insane 
are  now  in  asylums  or  under  committees  or 
oirators,  the  others  being  boardecl  under  super- 
vision in  families,  <»■  jdaced  in  workhouses. 
And  yet,  with  the  great  facility  for  treating  the 
insane  in  asylums,  such  precautions  are  taken  by 
the  law  and  by  the  boards  of  lunacy  against  their 
abuse  that  no  case  of  illegal  detention  of  a  sane 
person  on  the  ground  of  insanity  in  a  public  or 
jjrivate  asylum  was  proved  in  the  exhaustive  in- 
ipiiry  into  the  subject  by  the  select  committee  of 
the  House  of  Commons  in  1877. 

Ciirahi/i/i/  of  Iii.\((iiit>/. — Taking  all  the  cases 
now  technically  reckoneil  as  insanity  and  sent  to 
a.sylums,  40  per  cent,  recover;  hut  many  of  these 
are  subject  lo  relapses — from  which,  however,  they 
often  recrover  again,  just  as  peo])le  have  relapses 
iu  rhuuniatisni  and  bronchitis.     But  if  the  >light 


mental  disturbances  not  sent  to  lusylnms  at  all, 
and  the  cases  .sent  to  asylums  in  which  there  is  no 
organic  brain  disease  nor  very  achaneed  senility, 
are  alone  taken,  the  rate  of  recovery  is  at  least  70 
per  cent. 

M(irta/iti/.— The  rate  is  from  80  to  100  per  1000  of 
the  insane  living,  or  about  live  times  the  ileath-rate 
among  the  general  po]iuIation.  Insanity  is  in  fact  a 
disease  of  the  brain,  from  which  people  die  as  from 
other  diseases. 

Agrs  lit  ir/iir/i  I/isdiiiti/  orciir.1  must  f/rr/ucidli/. — 
Taking  the  number  of  persons  living  at  the  diil'er- 
ent  ages,  and  the  proportion  of  persons  of  the  same 
ages  who  heemne  insane  during  each  jieriod,  we  find 
that  insanity  occurs  most  frcipiently  in  men  from 
thirty  to  thirty-live,  and  in  women  from  lifly  to  lifty- 
tive.  But  perhaps  a  more  instructive  mode  of  look- 
ing at  the  ages  most  liable  to  insanity  is  to  point  out 
that  there  are  periods  siiecially  liable  to  it — viz.  at 
the  end  of  adole.scence,  from  eighteen  to  twenty-four, 
when  the  organism  is  just  attaining  reproductive, 
that  is,  organic,  perfection,  heredity  being  then  the 
chief  cau.se  ;  at  mid-life,  from  thirtv  to  lifty-live,  the 
worries  and  strains  of  life,  and  the  climacterie  iu 
women  being  then  the  chief  causes ;  and  after 
seventy,  the  general  failure  of  old  age,  and  especi- 
ally the  deliciency  of  hlood  to  the  brain  then  result- 
ing from  its  diseased  arteries  being  the  cause. 

A-  Insanity  increasing? — In  England  the  number 
of  the  insane  known  to  exist  lu'i.s  risen  from 
.•?(i,7(i2  in  1859  to  S4,.S45  in  1889,  or  from  18  67  to 
2907  to  every  10,000  of  the  jjopulation  :  and  in 
Scotland  froni  6413  to  11,954,  or  from  198  to  •2iiQ 
]ier  10,000  of  the  population  in  the  same  time.  But 
this  increase  does  not  prove  a  nsil  increase  of 
lunacy.  For  if  we  take  the  newly-registered  casi!s 
of  the  di-sease  each  year,  and  compare  their  nuin- 
hers  with  the  population,  we  liiiil  it  has  only  risen 
from  4'5  to  (i  |ier  10,000  of  the  ]Hipulation  in 
(ireat  Britain  in  thirty  years.  It  is  clear,  therefore, 
that  there  is  an  accumulation  of  the  insane  from  the 
following  causes— viz.  ( 1 )  through  their  heing  taken 
better  care  of;  (2)  the  abundance  of  good  institu- 
tions, where  all  the  insane  jioor  can  be  gratuitously 
treated;  (3)  the  operation  of  the  lunacy  laws;  (4) 
the  increasing  .sensitiveness  of  ])ublii'  ogiiiiion  as  to 
the  neglect  or  ill-treatment  of  insane  people;  and 
(5)  the  widening  area  of  the  mi'iilal  disi  in  bailees 
that  are  reckoned  technical  insanity  requiring 
treatment  in  a.syliinis,  all  these  tending  to  in- 
crease the  numbers  of  the  recognised  and  regis- 
tered insane.  There  is  in  fact  no  )jroof  that 
insanity  as  a  whole  is  increa-sing  :  certain  forms 
are  no  doubt  increasing,  and  presumably  other 
forms  are  diminishing  in  amount. 

Jlci/iro-lri/a/  and  Stu-iiti  Jit'/tttions  of  Insttnittf. — 
l'"ew  iiersons  have  studied  carefully  the  mental 
state  of  our  criminal  population  but  have  come  to 
the  conclusion  that  crime  is  most  closely  related  to 
mental  defect  in  very  many  cases.  Could  we  abolish 
the  latter  the  former  wcuild  shrink  to  small  ])ro]ior- 
tions.  This  docs  not  assume  that  many  or  most 
criminals  an?  technically  insane  |>er.sons.  They  are 
merely  blood-relations  of  the  insane.  The  law  has 
been  gradually  altering  its  tests  as  to  the  amount  of 
insanity  that  absolves  from  ])iiiiisbiiient  for  crime. 
<)f  old  a  man  accused  of  crime  bad  to  be  totally 
delirious  or  fatuous  to  he  absolvcil  from  jiunish. 
nient.  Now  the  power  of  controlling  bis  actions  is 
being  gradually  made  the  test.  The  law  has  thus 
approached,  and  at  l;ist  coincides  with,  the  sciciitilic 
views  of  in.sanity.  Society  should  have  the  keenest 
interest  in  the  mental  condition  of  its  nieinber.s. 
Soundness  of  mind  is  the  most  precious  possession 
of  a  people,  for  there  ,aie  innumi'iable  degrees  and 
kin<ls  of  mental  ami  moral  defects  that  fall  far 
short  of  insanity,  yet  are  intimately  related  to 
it,    hereditarily  and   ]).sychoh)gically — defects  that 


INSANITY 


INSCRIPTIONS 


159 


weaken  a  people's  power  of  work,  iliininish  its 
moral  force,  ami  impair  its  social  staliility.  It  is 
one  of  the  most  deeply  saiUleniii^  ami  terrilile  of  the 
facts  in  human  history  that  of  the  men  of  j;enins 
who  have  raised  and  j.'lorilieil  mankind  few  have 
l)een  without  mental  disease  in  their  families,  and 
many  have  themselves  fallen  victims  to  it.  If  it  is 
true  that  iis  yet  the  mode  of  human  development 
lias  heen  such  that  to  get  one  man  of  genius  nature 
had  to  sacrilice  mentally  many  of  his  kindred,  the 
world  should  pay  some  of  the  debt  it  owes  to  its 
poets  anil  thinkers  by  an  uiigrudirinj;  care  of  such 
victims.  To  produce  in  tlie  human  brain  tlie 
greatest  mental  strengtli  without  runninj,'  the  risk 
of  liability  to  mental  disease  must  be  one  of  the 
es.sential  nroblems  of  the  future  for  the  educationist, 
the  sociologist,  the  politician,  and  the  physician. 
Insanity  is  commonly  the  liual  Ijreakdown  which 
shows  that  many  previous  generations  had  broken 
the  laws  of  nature  in  their  lives.  It  is  the  out- 
come of  a  civilisation  in  which  the  true  principles 
of  evolution  for  human  beings  had  not  been  under- 
stood and  iissisted. 

The  cliief  modern  authorities  are :  Blandford's  In- 
sanity :  Bucknill  and  Hack  Tuke's  Psycholof/ical  Medi- 
cine :  Clouston's  Mental  Diseases;  Griesinger's  Mental 
Path'^l<)*ill ;  Bevan  Lewis's  J/f«/a/  Diseases;  Maudsley's 
Palhoh>iiy  of  Mind ;  Saukey's  Mental  Disease;  Savage's 
Insanity  ;  Spitzka's/n.-taHi^y;  Ball's  Maladic-^  Mentales  ; 
^squiToVs  Maladies  MentaUs ;  Guislain's  Fhrenopathics  ; 
Luy's  Maladies  Mentales ;  Morel's  Maladies  MentcUes ; 
Von  Krafft-Ebing's  Fsyehiatrie  ;  Kraepelin's  Psychiatric ; 
V.  Zicmiisen  aud  Schule's  Psychiatric. 

Ill.><<'ri|>tioil.S  is  the  name  given  to  records, 
not  of  tlie  nature  of  a  book,  which  are  engraved  or 
inscribed  on  stone,  metal,  clay,  and  similar  mate- 
rials. Since  ancient  documents  committed  to  such 
destructible  materials  as  |)apyrus,  parchment, 
or  paper  have  largely  perishe<l,  inscriptions  on 
harder  materials  are  in  many  cases  the  sole  sources 
of  our  knowledge  of  ancient  history  and  of  early 
languages  ;  and,  even  when  MSS.  have  been  pre- 
served by  copyists,  inscription.?,  which  preserve 
the  original  forms  of  the  letters,  are  of  supreme 
palicographical  importance.  All  the  books  of  the 
Pho'nicians,  Saha-ans,  Etniscans,  ISabylonians, 
Assyrians,  Xumidians,  and  Iljcrians  have  perished, 
and  hence  a  considerable  portion  of  our  knowledge 
of  early  oriental  history  is  derived  solely  from 
inscripticms.  A  very  large  number  of  inscriptions 
are  mortuary  epitaphs.  Others,  usually  the  most 
ini])ortant,  are  records  of  the  events  in  the  reigns  of 
kings.  Others  are  dedications  of  altars,  temples, 
or  aqueducts.  Many  are  of  a  religious  character, 
recording  donations  to  temples  or  in  honour  of  the 
gods.  Others  are  commercial  contracts,  banking 
records,  receipts  for  taxes  scratched  on  potsherds, 
scribblings  on  walls  (ijraffiti),  imprecati(uis,  and 
inscriptions  on  seals,  gems,  or  Viises.  Probably 
more  than  I-WjOCX)  inscriptions  are  known,  aud  a 
vjist  literature  has  accumulated  around  them. 
They  are,  however,  usually  chissed,  not  by  their 
subjects,  but  according  to  the  language  in  which 
they  are  written,  with  a  subsidiary  chronological 
arrangement.  The  chief  cUi.s.ses  are  Semitic, 
Creek,  Latin,  Runic,  Cuneiform,  Egyptian,  and 
Inilian. 

Scinitic  Inirnpfionn. — The  oldest  inscription  in 
the  Phu;nician  aljihabet  is  the  dedication  of  a 
bronze  vessel,  found  in  Cypnis,  which  belongeil  to 
the  temple  of  Hiual  Lebanon,  ami  is  now  in  the 
Hibliotlicqne  National  at  Paris.  It  was  written  in 
the  reign  of  Ilirani,  king  of  the  Sidonians.t  and 
may  be  a.ssigneil  to  the  eml  of  the  11th  century  li.f. 
or  the  beginning  of  the  lOlh.  Of  somewhat  later 
date,  about  H'.H)  B.C.,  is  the  Moabite  Stone,  which 
contains  a  record  of  the  chief  events  in  the  reign 
of  -Mesha,  king  of  Moub,  including  his  war  with 


.Vhab.  It  is  now  in  the  museum  of  the  Louvre  at 
Paris,  hi  tlie  s.ime  collection  is  a  long  inscription 
on  the  black  bxsalt  .sarcophagus  of  Kshmunazar, 
king  of  Sidon,  assigned  to  the  close  of  the  oth 
century  B.C.  Among  other  important  I'lacnician 
inscriptions  are  a  sacrilicial  larilV  found  at  Mar- 
seilles; an  Stb-century  inscription  from  Nora, 
in  Sardinia  ;  the  dedication  of  a  bronze  altar  by 
Vebaumelek,  king  of  Gebal  ;  and  numerous  in- 
scriptions of  the  Phu^iiician  kings  of  Cyjinis,  one  of 
them  a  bilingual,  which  gave  tlie  ki'V  to  the  ( 'yiniote 
writing  (.see  Pi1(J;mci.\  ).  In  the  .same  I'lKciiician 
alphabet  is  the  Hebrew  record  in  the  tiumel  which 
brought  the  water  under  Ophel  to  the  pool  of 
Siloam.  It  is  assigned  to  the  reign  either  of 
llezekiah  or  Manasseh  in  the  7th  century  B.C. 
AVe  have  also  a  fragment  of  an  inscription  from 
Herod's  lem]ile  at  Jerusalem,  and  others  from 
tombs  near  Jerusalem,  which  are  earlier  than  the 
siege  by  Titus,  and  numerous  early  inscriptions 
from  Jewish  cemeteries  in  the  Crimea,  at  Aden, 
Venosa,  Aries,  Tortosa,  and  Kome.  At  Palmyra 
there  are  more  than  a  hundred  inscrijilions  dating 
from  the  1st  to  the  3d  century  A.D.,  but  mostly 
written  in  the  reign  of  Zenobia,  and  there  are 
others  in  many  of  the  museums  of  Euroiie.  A 
Palmyiene  inscription  was  found  in  1S7S  at  South 
Shields  near  the  Koman  wall.     Sec  P.\L.MVl!.\. 

At  Nablus  there  is  a  Samaritan  inscrijition, 
written  in  the  reign  of  Justinian,  containing  a 
version  of  the  Decalogue.  The  most  interesting 
Arabic  insciijition  is  one  in  Kutic  characters  in- 
scribed with  gold  letters  on  blue-glazed  tiles  run- 
ning rounil  the  C^ubbet-es-Sakra,  or  Dome  of  the 
Kock,  at  Jerusalem,  the  great  mostjue  erected  by 
the  Calif  Abdalnialik  in  the  year  72  .-v.n.  The 
Nabathean,  or  early  Arabic  alphabet,  is  used  in 
numerous  inscriptions  on  the  rocks  at  Sinai,  and 
also  in  the  Hainan,  (Uie  of  which  dates  from  the 
reign  of  Herod  the  Great.  From  the  neighbour- 
hood of  Aden  come  a  large  number  of  in.scriptions 
in  the  South  Semitic  alphabet ;  and  tlieie  are  two 
early  Etliiopic  inscriptions  dating  from  the  4th  and 
otii  centuries  A.D.  at  Axnm,  in  Abyssinia.  At 
Haji-abad  and  Nakbsh-i-Kustam,  near  Peisepolis, 
are  a  number  of  inscriptions  <if  the  Parthian  and 
Siissanian  kings.  In  one  of  them  Sapor  1.  records 
his  victory  over  the  Emperor  Valerian  and  the 
Homan  army.  These  inscriptions  are  written  in 
a  scri]it  derived  from  the  Araniean,  and  exhibit 
the  oldest  f(niu  of  the  Pehlevi  alphabet.  At  Si- 
ngan-fu,  in  China,  is  an  inscription  written  partly 
in  Syriac  characters  and  partly  in  Chinese,  dated 
in  the  year  7S1  .\.D.,  and  recording  the  introduc- 
tion of  Christianity  into  China  by  the  Ncstorian 
missicuiaries. 

The  Ciiriiiis  Itiscrijjtioniim  Sciiiiticantm,  a  splen- 
did and  cshaustive  work  begun  in  1881  by  the 
Erench  .Academy  under  the  editorship  of  M.  Kenan, 
will,  when  complete,  include  all  the  Semitic  in- 
scriptions ill  i)liologra]iliic  facsimile.  The  most 
generally  useful  book  dealing  with  Semitic  inscrip- 
tions is  Scliriiilcr's  /V/c  I'hoiiizi.sclu;  Sjinirltc  (  1SG9), 
which  contains  :i'2.")  of  the  most  iinijortant.  Others 
will  be  found  in  (Jesenins,  Momiiiniitii  Li/igtia: 
Phtenicia;  (1821),  and  in  the  Vor/ms  Iiixrrijitiutniin 
Hehruiritritm.      See  PliiKNICI.i,  Mo.MiITK  STONE. 

(Ircch  [iiscnjdioii.s. — The  oldest  Greek  inscrip- 
tions hitherto  discovered  are  the  mortuary  records 
from  the  island  of  Santorin  (Thcia)  in  the  .Egeau, 
which  may  belong  to  the  8tli  an<l  iHh,  or  even 
to  the  lOtli,  century  li.c.  The  earlii'st  inscrii)- 
tions  to  which  a  delinilc>  date  can  be  as.~igiied  are 
the  records  cut  on  tlu^  knee  of  one  of  the  colos.sal 
statues  at  Alm-Sinibel,  near  the  second  cataract  of 
the  Nile,  by  llreek  mercenaries  in  the  .service  of 
Psammelichus,  king  of  Egypt.  They  date  from  the 
eml  of  the  7th  or  the  beginning  of  the  Cth  century 


IGO 


INSCRIPTIONS 


B.C.  These  aie  followeil  liv  the  records  on  the 
bases  of  tlie  statues  wliich  liiioil  the  Sacred  Way 
leading  to  the  temple  of  Apolh),  at  l}raiichid:v, 
near  .Miletus.  They  are  all  earlier  than  the  Persian 
war,  and  are  as.*i};ned  to  the  (ith  century  li.c.  Of 
about  the  same  (Uite  is  the  celebrated  Si^u'an 
inscription  from  the  Troad,  now  in  tlie  British 
.Museum.  Of  the  5th  century  is  the  lonj;  and 
important  inserii)tion  of  Lygilaniis,  found  by  Sir 
C.  Newton  at  Ilalicarnassus,  which  belongs  to  the 
time  of  Herodotus.  After  the  Persian  war  Greek 
inscriptions  became  more  numerous.  The  most 
interesting,  from  an  historical  jioint  of  view,  is 
that  inscribed  on  the  trophy  erected  at  Delphi 
by  the  Greeks  to  commemorate  the  defeat  of  the 
Persians  at  Plat;ea.  It  is  now  in  the  Hip])odr(>me 
at  Constantinople,  where  it  was  placed  by  Con- 
stantine.  Another  inscription  of  historical  interest 
is  the  dedication  to  the  Olympian  Zeus  of  a  bronze 
helmet,  which  formed  part  of  the  spoils  taken  at 
the  battle  of  ('um;e  in  474  B.C.,  when  the  naval 
power  of  the  Etruscans  was  shattered  by  Hiero  I., 
king  of  Syracuse.  It  was  fouiul  at  Olympia  by  Sir 
W.  Gell,  and  is  now  in  the  British  iluseum  (see 
Etruria).  It  was  the  practice  of  the  (Jreek  states 
to  affix  copies  of  treaties  to  the  walls  of  their 
temples.  Several  of  these  ha\e  been  preserved. 
They  are  mostly  between  Athens  and  her  allies, 
and  belong  to  the  5th  and  following  centuries. 
The  earliest  which  we  possess  is  a  treaty  between 
the  Eleans  and  the  Hera-ans,  which  is  assigned  to 
the  middle  of  the  6th  century  B.C.  It  is  engraved 
on  a  bronze  tablet  which  was  hung  in  the  temple 
of  Zeus  at  Olympia,  and  is  now  in  tlie  British 
Museum.  To  the  5tli  century  belong  the  interest- 
ing records  of  the  battles  fought  by  the  Athenians 
at  Drabescos  and  Potida'a  ;  also  a  list,  now  in  the 
Louvre,  of  the  Athenian  citizens  who  fell  in  Cyprus 
and  Egy]it  in  the  year  460  B.C.  ;  several  enumera- 
tions of  tlie  treasures  deposited  in  the  Parthenon  ; 
and  detailed  accounts  relating  to  the  erection  and 
cost  of  the  Erechtheum  at  Athens.  The  foregoing 
are  the  most  imiiortant  Greek  inscriptions  of  the 
early  period.  Those  of  later  date  are  extremely 
numerous.  One  of  the  most  interesting,  written 
in  Greek  hexameters,  was  discovered  in  1879  at 
Brough  in  Westmorland.  It  is  in  memory  of  a 
Syrian  youth  who  is  believed  lo  have  perished 
during  the  camjiaign  of  Septiinius  Severns  against 
the  Caledonians  in  the  year  209  A.D.  It  is  now  in 
the  Fitzwilliam  Museum  at  Cambridge. 

It  is  estimated  that  20,000  Greek  inscriptions  are 
known  to  scholars.  More  tliaii  10,000  liave  been  pub- 
lished by  the  l»erlin  Academy  in  the  C'or/>H-f  Jtigcrip- 
iionuM  irrarartmi,  of  wliich  tlie  first  two  volumes,  edited 
by  Bockli,  appeared  in  1,S2H  ami  1S33  ;  the  third,  edited 
by  Franz,  in  1853 ;  and  the  fourth,  edited  by  Kirchhofl', 
in  1S5G.  Kirchhofl',  Kulilcr.  ami  Ditteiiherger  have  edited 
the  Corpuit  Iii^cripttonitm  Attit'iiritin,  of  which  the  first 
volume  appeared  in  1S73.  The  chief  historical  inscrip- 
tions have  heen  imblished  in  a  handy  vohime  by  tlie 
Clarendon  Press  at  Oxford,  edited  by  E.  L.  Hicks,  under 
tlie  title  A  Manual  of  Greek  Historical  Inscripliuiis  ( 1882). 
The  dialect  inscriptions  are  given  in  Cauer's  IhUctns^ 
and  fac-similes  of  the  inscriptions  most  valuable  for 
palajograiihical  purposes  by  Kohl,  Inxeriptioucx  irractr 
AntiquiHsima'  ( Herlin,  1882).  For  the  beginner  in  Greek 
epigrapliy,  Kiihl's  Imaijincif  liiscriptionam  O'ra'caruni 
( lierlin,  1883),  a  cheap  and  useful  little  book,  and 
lieinach's  Trait'  J'Epiiirapliie  Grectpie  (Paris,  1885)  can 
be  recommended  ;  see  also  E.  S.  Roberts,  An  Introdnc- 
tion  to  Greek  Epit/raplitj  (Camb.  Univ,  Press,  1888).  See 
table  at  AlI'H.vuet,  Vol.  I.  p.  187. 

From  Cyjirns  we  have  a  number  of  Greek  inscrip- 
tions in  a  very  ancient  pre-alpliabetic  iliaracter, 
which  is  usually  designated  ius  the  Cypriote  sylla- 
bary, and  is  believed  to  be  related  to  the  scrijits 
of  Asia  Minor  and  Northern  Syria,  such  as  the 
Carian,    the   Lyciau,   and   the   Ililtite,   which  are 


criiition! 
important   of  these   is   a   long   Lycian  inscription 
assigned    to   tin'   5tli    century    B.C..    found    by   Sir 

C.  Fellowes  at  .Xanlbiis,  which  is  now  in  the  British 
Museum.  A  nunilierol  Carian  inscrijitions,  usually 
recording  the  visits  of  travellei-s,  have  been  found 
in  Egypt,  chietly  at  Aliydos  and  Abu-Simiiel. 
The  Hittite  inscriptions,  which  are  written  in  a 
hieroglyphic  character  not  vet  ileci|iliered,  are  en- 
graved" in  Wright's  Einjiire  of  the  llittitm  (1884). 
The  \'annic  inscriptions  from  Armenia  are  written 
in  a  form  of  the  cuneiform  character.     Sec^  1 1  iTTITliS. 

Latin  Inscriptions.— Qelwcca  60,000  and  70,000 
Latin  inscriptions  are  known.  The  oldest  probalily 
date  only  from  the  3d  century  B.C.  Of  the  early 
inscriptions  those  fnun  the  tombs  of  the  Scipios, 
now  in  the  Vatican  Library,  are  of  extreme  interest. 
These,  together  with  several  of  the  oldest  Latin 
inscriptions,  are  printed  in  the  second  apiiendix  to 
Koby  s  Latin  Grantniiir  (1872),  and  aie  engraved 
in  facsimile  in  Kitschl's  J'riscw  LatinitiUis  Munit- 
incnta  (1862). 

Latin  inscriptions  are  couched  in  a  style  of  their 
own,  consisting  of  regular  epigraphic  formula',  with 
ccmventional  modes  of  expressing  names,  paternity, 
tribe,  country,  domicile,  illegitimacy,  adoption, 
naturalisation,  and  with  abbre\iated  designations 
of  status  for  freemen,  freedmen,  slaves,  children, 
as  well  as  of  dignities  and  functions  of  all  kinds  in 
all  the  various  grades  of  official  life,  military,  civil, 
and  sacerdotal.  There  are  also  conventional 
formula'  for  epitaphs ;  and  others  are  employed 
for  edicts,  dedicathms  to  the  gods,  inscriptions 
on  buildings,  temples,  a([Ueducts,  and  statues,  as 
well  as  sortes,  execrations,  ;ind  theatrical  tissar(r. 
Besides  formal  inscriptions  there  are  nunierous 
qraffiti  scribbled  on  walls,  such  as  those  fouml  at 
Pompeii,  which  have  a  literature  of  their  own.  As 
a  specimen  of  the  way  of  interpreting  an  mdinary 
Latin  inscription,  we  may  take  the  lirst  three  lines 
of  No.  4114  in  the  Corpus  Insrrijilion inn  l.iilinarnnt. 
It  begins  thus:  'Til!.  CL.  CAXIiIIio.  CdS.  XVVIE. 
.S.    F.    LEG.     At(i(;.    I'U.     I'U.     I'ROVINC.     11.     C. ,'    i^C. 

These  abbrei  iations  are  to  be  expanded  as  follows  : 
Tibcrio  Claiidio  Camlido  t'onsu/i,  Quindccemriro 
sacris  faeiundis,  Leffaio  Aui/ustoriim  duorum,  pro- 
prd'lorr  Prorinria:  Ifis/taniir  Citerioris,  Ikv..  Mor- 
tuary inscriptions,  which  are  extremely  numerous, 
usuallv    begin    with  sonic  stock    formula,   such  as 

D.  M.S.  (Diis  Manihus  Haerum)  or  H.  S.  E.  (llic 
sepultns  est),  and  end  with  a  prayer  or  pious  wish, 
such  as  O.  S.  T.  T.  L.  (Opio  si't  tibi  terra  Icris). 
The  Eugubine  Tables  ((i.v. )  form  the  chief  monu- 
ment of  tlie  I^mbrian  (lialect.  There  are  about 
5000  Etruscan  inscri]ithin>,  which  have  an  exten- 
sive literature  of  their  own.     See  El'RlKIA. 

A  complete  collection  of  Latin  inscriptions  has  been 
undertaken  by  the  liorliii  Academy,  with  the  title 
Corpuif  In&criiitionuni  Latenarunt,  under  the  editorsliip 
of  Alommsen.  Hiihner,  and  others,  He^un  in  1803,  this 
great  work  already  o.\tends  to  15  iiiiarto  volumes,  with- 
out reckoning  supiilements.  The  best  book  for  a  beginner 
is  W.  M.  Lindsay's  Handbook  of  Latin  Inscriptioitsii  l.SDS) 
or  Cagnat's  (\nirs  d' Kpiiiraphie  Latine  (I'aris,  1889). 
The  most  complete  collection  of  the  dialect  inscriptions 
of  Italy — Etruscan,  ITmhrian,  Oseaii.  and  Menapiaii — is 
Pabretti's  Corpus  } n.^criptionuin  Italicartnu  (2  vols. 
1867-77),  with  several  sujtplemeiits.  Dit  Omhrisehen 
Spnichdenkmdfer^  edited  i>y  Aufrecht  and  Kirchhofi' 
(2  vols.  184'.l-51),  and  Mommsen's  iJie  Unleritalisehcn 
Dialcclen  ( 1850)  may  also  be  consulted.  The  inscriptions 
in  the  Catacombs  will  be  found  in  De'  Kossi's  In^vrip- 
tioncs  Christiaiuv  uriii.i  Ilonio;     See  L.VTIN,  (iH.vt'Frn. 

Jinnic  Inscriptions  have  been  found  in  great 
numbers  in  Sweden,  Norway,  Denmark,  Yorkshire, 
Cumberland,  Kent,  and  the  Isle  of  Man.  Among 
the  oldest  is  one  assigneil  to  the  1st  century  .\.D. 
on  a  rock  near  Trondhjem  in  Norway  ;  and  the 
Tune  Stone,  also   in  Norway,  which   is  assigned 


INSCRIPTIONS 


INSECTIVOROUS    PLANTS      161 


to  the  3(1  century.  One  of  tlie  most  inteipstint; 
is  on  ;i  nin>sive  goUlen  torque  found  at  liuzeu  in 
Walliicliia.  This  is  a  relic  of  the  invasion  of  the 
Dariuliian  jirovinces  l«y  tlie  Goths  in  the  :id  century. 
At  t'ollinjiliani,  in  Yorkshire,  is  a  Kunic  inscription 
in  memory  of  Kiny  Oswiu,  who  «as  murdered  in 
6.50  A. v.,  and  there  is  another  at  liewcastle  in 
memory  of  King  Alohith,  who  died  in  670.  At 
l!arns]iihe,  in  C'undierhuul,  there  is  a  rock  witli  a 
lonj;  inscri|ition  reeonlinj;  the  treacherous  slauf,'hter 
hy  l;ol)ert  de  Vau.\,  a  Norman  knight,  of  (_;illhie.s 
Buetli,  owner  of  tlie  lands  of  Lanercost.  The  cross 
at  Kutliwell  (q.v. ),  near  Dumfries,  contains  a  por- 
tion of  C:edmon's  poem  on  the  crucilixion. 

The  bust  collection  of  Runic  inscriptions  is  by  G. 
Stephen.s,  The  OhI  Northern  Runic  Monumentt  of 
Scamlituu'ia  and  Emjland  (3  vols.  1S66-84).  A  selection 
of  the  more  important  will  be  found  in  tlie  linnilliook  of 
thr  Old  Northern  Runic  Mmiumciit.^  (I.SS4  i,  by  the  same 
editor.     See  Runes,  Og.vms,  Scui.ptorhd  Stoxks. 

American  Inscriptions. — In  Greenland,  on  the 
sliores   of    BalHn    Bay   and    Davis   Strait,   a    few 

fenuine  Runic  inscriptions  have  been  discovered, 
'hey  probably  date  from  tlie  11th  and  l'2th  cen- 
turies, and  were  doubtless  executed  liy  Icelandic 
colonists  or  explorers.  Kecords,  variously  con- 
jectured to  be  Kunic.  Punic,  Celtiberic,  or  Xumid- 
iaii,  have  also  been  found  in  the  United  States, 
notably  on  the  Dighton  Kock  in  Massachusetts,  in 
the  island  of  Monliegan  oil'  the  coast  of  Maine,  in 
the  tirave  Creek  Alound  in  Virginia,  and  else- 
where. They  prove,  however,  on  examination,  to 
be  either  natural  markings  on  the  rock,  or  the  lialf- 
effaced  jiictorial  records  of  Red  Indian  tribes,  or 
even  inscriptions  by  early  European  colonists. 
Very  dill'erent  are  the  numerous  inscriptions  on 
the  walls  of  the  palaces  and  temples  in  the  ruined 
cities  of  Yucatan,  Honduras,  Mexico,  and  Guate- 
mala. They  are  written  in  unknown  characters, 
which  appear  to  constitute  a  system  of  hieroglyphic 
or  pictorial  writing,  akin  ])rol>alily  to  that  of  the 
Aztec  MSS. ,  which  as  yet  have  been  only  imper- 
fectly deciphered. 

The  Cuneiform  Inscriptions,  from  which  the  con- 
temporary annals  of  Babylonia  and  Assyria  have 
been  deciphered  in  recent  years,  form  by  themselves 
a  vast  department  of  st\idy.  The  oldest  may  date 
from  about  .30(K)  B.C.  Une  of  the  most  notable  is 
the  great  historical  inscription  of  Darius  Hysta.spes, 
engi-aved  on  the  perpendicular  face  of  a  rock,  400 
feet  above  the  plain,  at  Behistun,  in  Pei'sia.  It 
contains  a  thousand  lines  of  writing,  in  three 
languages,  Pei-sian,  Proto-Medic,  and  Semitic 
Babylonian.  Not  only  is  it  of  immense  historical 
importance,  giving  an  authentic  record  of  the  events 
of  tlie  reign  of  Darius,  but  it  is  of  great  interest  as 
having  furnished  the  clue  by  which  the  cuneiform 
writing  was  lii-st  deciphered.  Among  other  cunei- 
form inscriptions  may  be  enumerateil  the  annals  of 
Sargon  from  Khorsabad  ;  the  account  of  the  cam- 
paigns of  Sennacherib,  engraved  on  a  colossal  bull 
at  Koynnjik  ;  the  inscription  of  Samas-Rimmon, 
son  of  .Shalmaneser,  a  contemporary  of  Aliab  and 
Jehu;  the  inscri]ition  of  Shalmaneser  II.,  giving 
an  account  of  the  capture  of  Damascus  ;  the  long 
historical  inscriptions  of  Tiglath-pileser  I.,  of 
Sargon  I.,  and  o(  Ks-arhaddon,  and  the  accimnt  of 
the  Egyptian  campaign  of  Assurbanij>al,  besides  the 
inscription  of  Ivhamnmrabi,  king  of  liabylon,  which 
is  older  than  the  Exodus,  of  Irukh,  of  Nar.im  Sin, 
of  Neliuchadnezzar,  of  NalKiniilus,  Ids  successor, 
and  the  extremely  interesting  in.scription  on  the 
tomb  of  Cyrns.     See  ASSYRIA,  Babylonia,  Behis- 

TLN,  ClSElFORM. 

The  cliief  collection  of  cuneiform  inscriptions  is   The 

Cuneiform  In.icripfions  of   Wentf-m  Attia  { o  vols,  folio, 

1861-70),   cilited  by  .Sir    H.    Rawliiison    and    K.  Norris. 

Many   of   the    most   iiitere.-iting   of    the    cuneiform    and 

271 


E^QTitian  inscriptions  are  translated  in  the  more  acces- 
sible volumes  of  the  Records  of  the  J\ist. 

JCt/i/j-itiK/i  Inscriptions. — The  oldest  Egyptian 
inscription  to  wliicfi  a  date  can  be  assigned  is  one 
of  Sent,  a  king  of  the  second  ilynasty,  who  is 
believed  liy  Mariette  to  have  lived  about  470(J  B.C. 
This  venerable  record  is  now  among  the  treasures 
of  the  Ashmolean  Museum  at  Oxford.  The  his- 
torical inscriptions  of  the  IStli  and  lOtb  dynasties 
are  the  most  numerous  and  interesting.  The 
records  of  the  Asiatic  campaigns  of  Thothmes  I. 
and  Thothmes  III.,  of  Seti  I.  and  Ranieses  II.,  are 
all  at  Thebes.  They  are  older  tlian  the  Exodus, 
.and  constitute  the  chief  materials  from  which  the 
history  of  ancient  Egypt  has  been  reconstriu'ted. 
Two  of  the  faces  of  tlie  obelisk  called  Cleoi>atra's 
Needle,  now  on  the  Tli.ames  Embankment,  bear  the 
name  of  Thothmes  III.,  who  first  erected  it ;  on  the 
other  two  sides  Ranieses  II.  has  caused  his  own 
name  to  be  inscribed.  On  the  wall  of  a  temple  at 
Karnak  we  have  an  account  of  Sliishak's  invasion 
of  Juda'.a  in  the  reign  of  Rehoboiim.  One  of  the 
latest  of  the  Egyptian  inscriptions  is  the  Ro.setta 
Stone,  a  trilingual  record  in  Greek,  hieroglyphic, 
and  hieratic  characters,  engraved  on  a  blocK  of 
basalt.  Its  interest  arises  from  the  fact  of  its 
havini'  atlbrded  the  clue  which  enabled  Young 
and  Cliampollion  to  decipher  the  Egyptian  writing. 
See  Egypt,  Hiekoglyphics. 

Indian  Inscriptions  are  extremely  numerous. 
M.any  of  them  are  griints  to  temples,  engr.aved  on 
copper  plates.  The  oldest  and  most  interesting 
are  the  edicts  of  Asoka,  the  great  Buddhist  king, 
who  reigned  over  Northern  Indi.a  soon  after  the 
inv.asion  of  Alexander.  There  are  seventeen  ver- 
sions of  these  edicts,  two  engr.aved  on  pillars  at 
Delhi  and  Allahabad,  and  the  rest  on  rocks  in 
\'arious  parts  of  Northern  India,  from  Orissa  in  the 
east  to  Gujarat  in  the  west.  Of  later  date  are  the 
inscriptions  in  caves,  topes,  and  temples.  There 
are  also  old  Pali  inscriptions  in  Bunna,  Java,  and 
Ceylon. 

The  best  collections  of  Indian  inscriptions  are  in  the 
Corpus  Lnscriptionum  Indicarum,  edited  by  Cunning- 
ham (1877);  tlie  Archaolotjieal  Survcu  of  Western  India, 
edited  by  Burgess  (1874-78);  the  Elements  of  .South 
Indiem  Pulaoijrapjhii,  by  Eurnell  (1878);  and  Miiller's 
Ancient  Inscriptions  in  Cef/ton  (1883).  The  best  guide 
to  Indian  palaeography  is  Holle's  Tabel  ran  Vud  en  Nieuw 
Indische  Atphalnten  (Batavia,  1882). 

See  Alph.\bet,  Whiting,  Pal.eogkaphv,  Numi.s- 
MATIcs.  .Accounts  of  most  of  the  fore;;oing  inscriptions 
will  be  found  ir  The  Alphabet,  by  Canon  Taylor  (1883). 

IllSi'C'tivora  (Lat.,  'insect-eating'),  an  order 
of  mammals,  the  members  of  whicli— shrews, 
moles,  hedgehogs,  and  the  like — are  mostly  terres- 
trial, usually  nocturnal  in  h.aliit,  and  sni.all  ill  size. 
They  feed  iiKiinly  on  insects  and  siii:ill  animals,  and 
in  ad;iptation  to  this  diet,  which  often  |days  a 
useful  part  in  the  economy  of  nature,  the  summits 
of  the  molar  teeth  are  beset  with  small  conical 
tuViercles.  A  few,  such  as  the  moles,  burrow  ;  a 
few — e.g.  Potamogale — are  aipiatic  ;  while  the 
divergent  Galcopitliecns.  if  included  in  this  order, 
liJis  among  its  peculiarities  that  of  gliding  Ihrough 
the  air  (.see  FLYING  Ani.m.m.s).  The  majority, 
however,  have  the  general  habit  of  siirews. 
Though  often  externally  resembling  various 
rodents,  the  Insectivores  are  entirely  distinct  in 
their  anatomy.  Altogether  over  two  hundred 
living  s|i('cies  are  known,  and  many  fossils,  espe- 
cially from  Tertiary  strata.  The  Insectivora  are 
themselves  lowly  mammals,  bin  lea<l  on  to  lials. 

f^ee  Hkhoehoi:,  .Mammalia,  Mole,  Shkew  ;  Dobson, 
Monoiiruph  of  the  Ineirtirorn  (bond.  188'2);  Th.  Uill, 
Siinopaia  of  Inneclicorous  Manimah :  Hull.  (Jeol.  and 
CJeoji.  Surrci),  U.S.A.  (Washington,  187.">). 

Illscclivoroiis  I'lailis.  There  are  several 
hundred    species    of    Dicotyledons    which    in    some 


162 


INSECTIVOROUS    PLANTS 


way  or  other  catcli  insects  and  use  tlieiii  for  food, 
either  digestinj;  their  bodies  or  sini])ly  ahsortiing 
the  proihicts  of  their  decomposition.  Tliey  are 
reinarkahle  for  the  adaptations  of  structure  and 
function  by  which  the  insects  or  other  small  animals 
are  secured,  and  for  iheir  obvious  ap))roach  to  the 
animal  mode  of  nutrition.  For  it  is  a  familiar 
fact  that  all  typical  plants  feed  at  what  may  he 
called  a  very  low  chemical  level,  oblaining  the 
required  carbon  from  the  carbonic  acid  i,'as  of  the 
air,  aud  the  e(|ually  essential  nitrogen  from  am- 
monia, nitrates,  and  the  liUe  in  rain-water  aud  soil; 
while  animals,  on  the  other  band,  do  not  derive 
their  carbon  from  simpler  substances  than  starch, 
sugar,  aud  fat,  nor  their  nitrogen  from  a  lower 
source  than  the  allmmens  manufactured  by  other 
animals  or  by  plants.  The  insectivorous  forms, 
however,  lueak  down  the  distinction  in  so  far  as 
they  feed  like  aninuils  on  substances  at  a  hi"h 
chemical  level ;  and  the  unity  becomes  more  strik- 
ing as  we  recognise  that  many  of  the  insectivorous 
plants  exhibit  urarked  sensitiveness,  mobility,  and 
digestive  power. 

Altogether  there  are  nearly  five  hundred  species 
of  insectivorous  plants,  referable  to  about  twelve 
genera,  and  to  half  a  dozen  Uicotyledonous  orders. 
They  are  repi'esented  in  every  great  geograjihical 
region,  perhaps  with  the  e.Kception  of  tlie  African 
wastes  and  the  Argentine  pampas.  For  conveni- 
ence of  treatment  we  follow  Kerner  in  recognising 
three  sets  :  ( 1 )  those  with  jiits  or  cavities,  into 
which  small  animals  enter,  but  from  which  they  are 
unable  to  return — e.g.  Bladderworts  and  Pitcher- 
plants  ;  (2)  those  in  which  the  insect-catching 
depends  wholly  on  the  viscidness  of  the  leaves — e.g. 
Drosophyllum  ;  (3)  those  which  exhibit  distinct 
movements  which  help  to  secure  the  insects — e.g. 
Sundew  and  Fly-tra)). 

1.  ]Vitk  Fit-like  Traps. — The  Common  Bladder- 
wort  ( Utricularia  culijarix,  ord.  Lentibulariace;e 
or  Utriculariacea»)  is  a 
rootless  float  ingwater- 
jdant,  not  uncommon 
on  tarns  and  marshy 
lochs,  but  l)y  no  means 
consi)icuous  except  in 
summer,  when  its 
handsome  golden  blos- 
soms are  raised  on 
a  flower-stalk  about 
six  inches  above  the 
water.  Among  the 
slender  leaves  borne 
on  the  straggling  float- 
ing stem  arc  numerous 
bladders,  to  which  the 
plant  owes  its  name. 
They  are  much  modi- 
lied  dimpled  leaf- 
organs,  and  form  a 
simple  but  ell'ective 
lr.i]>.  As  the  ligure 
^hows,  they  are  hollow 
chambers,  entered  by 
a  door  or  valve  which 
Fig.  1. — Utricularia  (irafiana  :  opens  inwards  only, 
o,  section  of  bladder  of  ffricHfaria  and  allows  of  no 
iKtjUcUi.  egiess.     Tiny   crusta- 

ceans, known  as 
water-fleas,  whether  chased  by  their  enemies, 
attracteil  by  a  slight  mucilage,  or  promi)ted  by 
fatal  curiosity,  clamlier  on  the  antenna-like  bristles 
which  project  from  and  perhaps  protect  the  blad- 
ders. So  far  they  are  safe  enough,  but  if  they 
push  their  way  through  the  narrow  door,  tiiey 
find  within  the  bladder  a  prison  and  a  tomb. 
Escape  is  impossilile,  deatli  ensues,  and  the 
products  of   decomposition  are  absorbed  by  suck- 


ing cells  (fourfold  hairs)  on  the  walls  of  the 
bladder.  Towards  the  end  of  sunnuer,  when  the 
water  no  longer  swarms  with  crustaceans,  the 
Utricularia  begins  to  die  oil',  the  life  is  ccmcen- 
trated  in  terminal  buds,  the  bladders  fill  with 
water,  and  the  [)lant  sinks  to  the  liottom.  Thence 
it  rises  again  in  spi-ing  with  a  fresh  equijiment 
of  buoyant  bladdei's.  There  are  numerous  .species 
of  Utricularia,  of  which  several  are  a(|uatic  like 
the  above:  while  others,  especially  in  the  tropics, 
are  terrestrial.  The  booty  of  course  changes  with 
the  situation,  but  the  general  habit  seems  to  be 
the  same  throughout.  'We  can  only  mention 
an  allied  genus,  Genlisea,  which  has  traps  of  a 
different  pattern,  approaching  those  of  the  pitcher- 
plants. 

Among  the  pitclicr-plants,  the  most  familiar 
belong  to  the  genus  Nepenthes  (ord.  Nepentbacea-), 
which  includes  nearly  forty  species,  videly  dis- 
tributed by  swamps  and  jungle  pools,  'from  New 
Caledonia  and  New  Guinea  over  tropical  Australia 
to  the  Seychelles  and  Madagascar,  over  the  Sunda 
Islands  and  Philippines  to  Ceylon,  Hengal,  and 
Coehin-Cbina. '  The  young  ]dant  has  a  ro.sette  of 
half-|irostrate  leaves,  quite  unlike  those  of  the  adult, 
with  a  terminal  hooked  crest  overhanging  a  slightly 
hollowed  broad  lower  portion.  A  stem  shoots  up, 
however,  bearing  other  leaves,  broad  and  spathu- 
late  in  form,  ending  in  a  cylindrical  tendril,  which 
twists  round  adjacent  branches  and  develo|is 
terminally  into  a  large  cavity  or  ]iitcher.  The 
tendrils  gr.adually  lift  the  stem,  and  over  the  pool 
there  e\entually  hang  dozens  of  jjitcbers.  These 
vary  in  size  from  a  couple  of  inches  to  about  a  foot. 


Fig.  2. — Pitclier-plants : 

A,  Nepenthes  Phyllamphora  ;  B,  Sarraeeiiia  purpurea  ; 
C,  Durlinglonia  exidfarniau 

are  usually  luigbtly  coloured  with  red,  yellow,  and 
jiurplish  Idotches,  and  bear  two  lateral  llangos 
aii<l  a  ternunal  lid,  which  opens  when  the  pitcher 
attains  its  full  size.  Partly  by  the  colour  and 
partly  by  the  honey  glands  of  the  lid  and  jiitcher 
margin,  insects  are  attracted  :  they  sip  the  sweet 
secretion  ami  venture  I'arlher  down,  only  to  land 
im  an  exceedingly  smooth,  waxeil,  sli])pery  'con- 
ducting surface,'  whence  they  fall  into  the  lower 
third  or  half  of  the  |iitcher,  which  contains  water 
and  digestive  secretion.  When  an  insect  falls, 
the  secretion  is  stimulated  and  becomes  acid.  As 
analysis  has  shown  the  ]iresence  not  oidy  of  v.-irions 
acids  (malic,  cilronic,  fonnic)  but  also  of  a  peptic 
ferment,  the  fluid  is  exactly  like  that  of  an  animal 
stomach,  and  the  result  is  the  same. 


INSECTIVOROUS    PLANTS 


163 


Another  well-known  pitclier-])lant  is  Sarracenia 
purpurea  ( ord.  Sanaceniacea" ),  widely  distributed 
m  swanim'  regions  of  eastern  \ortli  America  from 
Hudson  Bay  to  Florida.  .V  rosette  of  half  ))ros- 
trate  hollow  leaves  surrounds  an  erect  Howerstalk. 
The  pitchers  are  topped  by  a  crest,  which  is  decor- 
ated with  reddish  streaks,  and  disposed  so  that  it 
catches  rain-drops  and  lets  them  slide  into  the 
pitcher.  Insects  are  attracted  liy  the  sweet  secre- 
tion of  jrlaudular  hail's  on  the  lid  or  crest,  wander 
farther  down  on  a  so-called  '  conductinj;  surface,' 
covered  with  downward-pointed  hairs  whicli  forbid 
return,  and  eventually  fall  hopelessly  into  the 
water  occupying  the  lower  part  of  the  pitcher. 
There  they  are  decomposed  and  absorbed.  Several 
inches  of  half-rotten  insects  are  found  at  the  base, 
renderini'  the  water  brown  and  putrid,  and  emit- 
ting a  disagreeable  smell.  That  digestion  does 
not  occur  seems  certain,  and  the  fact  is  confirmed 
by  Uiley's  observation  that  two  insects — a  fly 
(Sarcophafia  sarracenia)  and  one  of  the  Lepidop- 
tera  (Xanthoptera  semicrocea) — brave  the  horrore 
of  the  trap  in  safety,  and  utilise  the  dungheap  of 
rotten  insects  as  a  suitable  place  wherein  to  deposit 
eggs.  The  grubs,  which  would  perish  if  digestion 
occurred,  thrive  well  and  eventually  bore  their 
way  through  the  sides  of  the  leaf.  Birds  occasion- 
ally discover  the  store  of  insects  and  rifle  the 
pitchers  with  their  beaks.  While  all  the  species 
of  Sarracenia  probably  agree  in  being  non-digestive, 
they  present  considerable  diflerences  of  structure, 
which  we  cannot  here  describe.  Beside  the  above 
species — S.  purpurea — may  be  ranked  Helianiphora 
nutans  (from  Mount  Roraima  in  British  Guiana). 
In  S.  rariolaris  and  in  Darlingtonia  californica 
(from  the  Sierra  Nevada)  the  pitcher  is  capped  by  a 
helmet,  so  that  no  water  can  enter ;  the  contained 
liquid  must  therefore  be  wholly  a  secretion,  though 
still  only  putrefactive.  Finally,  .S'.  drumnwndii 
and  S.  undulata  are  in  external  form  almost  nearer 
to  Nepenthes  and  Cephalotus  than  to  the  other 
species  of  San-acenia. 

In  the  two  species  of  Sarracenia  last  mentioned 
only  some  of  the  leaves  are  modified  into  pitchers, 
the  others  remaining  green,  lance-shaped,  and 
nnhollowed.  So  is  it  with  Cephalotus  folUcularis 
( Cephalotace.e,  near  ord.  Ribe- 
siacea?),  which  is  restricted  to  a 
limited  area  near  All)any  in 
Western  Australia.  Here  in  the 
usual  basal  rosette  only  the  lower 
leaves  are  pitchers,  two  inches  or 
so  in  height,  best  adapted  for 
catching  ants  and  ground-loving 
insects.  The  outer  surface  bears 
ridges  which  help  the  insects  up, 
and  there  are  the  usual  attractions 
of  bright  colour  and  sweet  secre- 
tion. Intoxicated,  it  may  Ije,  with 
the  honey,  or  merely  inquisitive 
and  nnwarj%  the  visitors  pass  from 
the  sides  or  from  the  iiali-open  lid 
to  the  slippery  though  corrugated 
margin,  and  thence  fall  into  the  li<iuid  which  lilts 
half  the  pitcher.  Endeavours  to  return  are  l)alked 
by  a  projecting  shelf,  by  an  area  beset  with  stifl" 
downwaril-pointed  papillfe,  and  by  sharp  spines 
round  about  the  inturned  margin  of  the  collar. 
As  the  glandular  secretion  has  an  acid  reaction 
and  a  solvent  power,  Cephalotus  is  also  to  be 
credited  with  tnie  digestion. 

In  regard  to  the  murpholorpj  of  the  pitchers,  we 
shall  simply  cite  the  recent  conclu.sions  of  Mac- 
farlane :  ( 1 )  The  leaf  in  Nepenthes,  Helianiiihora, 
Sarracenia,  and  Darlingtonia  is  compound,  and 
consists  of  from  two  to  five  ]>airs  of  lealh-ts  ;  (2) 
there  is  a  marked  tendency  tf>  dorsal  fusion  of  the 
leaflets  from  apex  to  ba-se ;  (.3)  such  fuseil  leaflets 


Fig.  3.— Pitcher 
of  Cepfialotus 
foUicularis. 


are  seen  in  the  broad  basal  part  of  Nepenthes  leaf, 
and  in  the  flaps  and  lids  ot  the  various  pitchers  ; 
(4)  the  i)itcher  itself  is  a  dee])  dorsal  involution 
of  the  midrib  just  above  the  termination  of  the 
fused  upper  pair  of  leaflets,  except  in  Cephalotus, 
where,  as  Dickson  clearly  showed,  it  is  an  involu- 
tion of  the  leaf-ldade. 

\"ery  ditlerent  from  the  pitcher-plants,  and  with 
aiipliances  less  involved  for  insect-catching,  is  the 
Toothwort  (Lathra-a  sguamaria,  ord.  Scrophulari- 
ace;e)>  a  pale,  chloropliyll-less  parasite  found  in 
Britisli  woods,  battening  on  the  roots  of  trees  and 
shrubs.  Excepting  the  flower-stalk,  the  stem  is 
virtually  underground  ;  it  bears  suctorial  roots  and 
tooth-like  leaves.  The  latter  are  hollow,  and  are 
entered  through  a  nanow  aperture  by  many  kinds  of 
small  animals.  These  seem  to  be  entangled  in  pro- 
toplasmic exudations  within  the  leaf-cavity,  find 
e.xit  iuiiiossible,  die,  decompose,  and  are  absorbed. 
Along  with  the  toothwort  ought  also  to  be  ranked 
Bartsia  aljiina,  whose  underground  buds  show 
a  somewhat  similar  structure  and  carnivorous 
habit. 

2.  Plants  which  catch  Insects  by  Viscid  Secretion 
without  Pits  or  Movement. — The  best  representative 
of  this  set  is  Drosophijllum  liisitanicum  (ord. 
Droseraceie),  a  native  of  Portugal  and  Morocco, 
growing  with  luxuriance  in  sandy  or  rocky  places, 
to  a  height  of  about  a  span.  The  long  linear 
leaves  are  richly  beset  with  glands,  many  borne 
on  long  stalks,  red  in  colour,  and  copious  in 
an  acid,  viscid,  dewdrop-like  secretion,  the  others 
invisible  to  the  naked  eye,  without  stalks,  colour- 
less, and  with  an  acid,  di>solvent  secretion,  which 
is  only  exuded  in  response  to  the  stimuhis  of  some 
nitrogenous  substance.  Insects  of  various  kinds 
alight  on  the  long  leaves,  knock  off  the  drops  from 
the  stalked  glands,  move  anxiously  about  knocking 
ofl'  more  and  more  until  they  are  thoroughly 
besmeared,  and  their  trachea?  choked.  Giving  up 
the  struggle,  they  sink  on  to  the  surface  of  the 
leaf,  where  the  sessile  glands  begin  the  dissolvent 
and  absorbent  process.  Kerner  notes  that  the 
insect-catching  is  so  eft'ective  that  the  peasants 
about  Oporto  use  the  Drosophyllum  in  their  dwell- 
ings as  a  convenient  substitute  for  fly-]iaper. 

3.  Plants  u-hich  exhibit  Distinct  Klorements  in 
their  Insect-catching. — The  Common  Butterwort 
[Pinguicula  vulgaris),  belonging  to  the  same  order 
as  Ltricnlaria,  is  a  widely  distributed  representa- 
tive of  a  genus  including  about  forty  sjiecies,  all 
growing  on  more  or  less  marshy  ground  (see  fig.  at 
BUTTER\V0RT ).  From  a  rosette  of  plump  glisten- 
ing leaves  there  rises  for  several  inches  an  upright 
stalk,  bearing  a  beautiful  two-lipped,  spurred 
flower  of  a  violet  colour.  The  leaves  have  a 
di.stinet  fungus-like  odour,  doubtless  attractive, 
and  are  covered  with  glands,  some  stalked  like 
miniature  mushrooms,  others  almost  .se.ssile,  both 
wit4i  a  copious,  viscid,  acid  secretion.  This  serves 
as  'insect-lime,'  but,  besides  retaining  the  unwary 
midges,  it  finally  digests  them.  Drops  of  rain  may 
fall  on  the  leaves,  or  pebbles  may  land  there, 
but  without  noteworthy  ett'ect  ;  a  small  insect, 
however,  stimulates  a  copious  How  of  the  fatal 
secretion.  But  there  is  also  movetuent ;  for,  when 
an  in.sect  is  caught,  the  margins  of  the  leaves 
slowly  curl  inwards  for  an  ho\ir  or  two,  thus  sur- 
roumllng  the  booty,  or  shifting  it  nearer  the  centre, 
in  any  cji.se  exjiosing  it  to  more  glands.  After 
<ligestion,  the  results  and  the  surplus  exudation 
are  absorbed,  leaving  finally  the  undigested  skin 
of  the  insect  on  the  more  or  less  dry  leaf  surface. 
More  than  loO  yeai's  ago  Linn;rus  noted  how  the 
Lapps  used  tlie  butterwort  for  curdling  milk,  a 
property  due  to  a  rennet-like  fennent  which  the 
plant  has  in  adilition  to  the  iligestive  or  ]>eptic. 
The  antiseptic  qualities  of   the  ferments   perliaps 


164 


INSECTIVOROUS    PLANTS 


justify  another  oM  custom  of  applying  the  leaves 
to  the  sores  of  cattle. 

Beside  the  hutterwort  on  tlie  marshy  moor 
we  are  likely  to  liml  Drosera  rolinicli/olia  (ord. 
Droseraceoe)  or  some  otlier  species  of  sundew. 
Again,  we  have  a  rosette  of  prostrate  leaves,  from 
amid  which  rises  a  stalk  with  inconspicuous  wliitish 
flowei-s.  Very  striking,  and  constant  in  the  forty 
or  so  species,  are  the  reil  glandular  'hairs,'  'ten- 
tacles,' or  processes  which  grow  at  ditl'erent  lengths 
from  the  ujiper  surface  and  margins  of  the  leaf. 
These  are  complex  little  structures  with  a  head  of 
glandular  cells,  supplied  hy  numerous  water-pipes 
(wood-cells  or  tracheides),  and  surnmnded  exter- 
nally hy  a  drop  of  viscid  secretion.  These  tentacles 
are  sensitive,  mohile,  secretory,  digestive,  and 
ahsorptive.  To  drops  of  rain  they  are  indifferent, 
to  irritant  particles  they  may  respond  l)y  increased 
secretion  ;  out  wlicn  a  uiidge  or  a  sm.all  particle  of 
nitrogenous  food  is  placed  upon  them,  they  hecome 
marvellously  though  hy  no  means  rapidly  active. 
A  living  midge,  which  mistakes  the  secretion  drops 
for  nectar,  lights  on  the  leaf,  and  is  forthwith  en- 
tangled :  .as  it  struggles  it  becomes  more  hopelessly 
besmeared,  and  meanwhile  the  secretion  becomes 
truly  digestive  or 
pejitic.  More  than 
that,  however,  the 
'  tentacles'  curve  down 
upon  the  victim,  first 
one,  and  then,  after  an 
iritcrvalof  ten  minutes, 
another,  till  all  the  two 
hundred  or  perhaps 
half  of  them  close  upon 
the  dying  midge.  The 
whole  leaf  may  become 
concave  if  the  booty  is 
large,  and  tlien,  after 
an  h(nir  or  two  of 
leisurely  bending,  the 
leaf  looks  like  a  closed 
fist.  Many  kinds  of 
insects  are  thus 
caught,  and  even  a 
dragon-Hy  may  fall 
victim  to  the  combined 
efforts  of  several  adja- 
cent leaves.  The  sen.sitiveness  is  finer  than  our 
most  delicate  nerves  or  balances,  for  a  sundew  hair 
will  respond  to  a  millionth  of  a  grain  of  stimulating 
nitrogenous  matter.  The  response  is  marked  by 
the  increa.se<l  secretion  and  liy  the  bending,  while 
internal  changes  are  traceable  under  the  microscope 
passing  from  one  cell  to  another  down  the  tentacle. 
As  one  leaf  may  be  seen  with  the  reuuiins  of  a  dozen 
insects,  and  as  there  are  half  a  dozen  or  so  well- 
formed  leaves,  the  carnivorous  diet  of  the  sundew 
is  often  considerable,  and  it  has  been  demonstrated 
that  the  yield  of  seeds  is  better  in  those  which  are 
able  to  gratify  their  natural  appetite. 

Venu-i's  Flytrap  [  D/oikfh  nniscipiila),  which 
Linna'us  called  the  miracle  of  nature,  is  in  several 
ways  a  more  elaborate  insectivorous  i>lant  than 
any  of  the  .above,  and  is  the  climax  of  the  order 
Droseraceic.  A  native  of  the  eivst  of  Xorth  .Amer- 
ica, with  very  local  ilistril)Ution,  from  [..ong  Island 
to  Floriila,  it  grows  on  moorland,  with  a  circle  of 
more  or  less  prostrate  leaves  round  the  l«use  of  a 
many-llowered  stalk,  which  rises  4-1)  inches  from 
the  ground.  The  leaves,  about  4  inches  in  leni.-tli, 
consist  of  a  spathulate  stalk,  which  is  constricted 
to  the  midrib  at  its  junction  with  the  broa<l  blade. 
The  halves  of  the  bi.aile  ,ire  movable  on  one  another 
along  the!  midrib,  and  close  together  as  this  volume 
would  do  if  titled  with  au  automatic  dosing'  spring. 
Round  each  margin  are  twelve  to  tweutv  long 
teeth,  which  interlock  in  rat-trap  fashion  with  those 


on   each  half  of   the 
which    rise   obli(]uely. 


Fig.  4. — Leaf  of  Drosrni 
rotiindffolia  seen  from  abuve. 


of  the  opposite  side ;  the  centre  of  the  leaf  beai-s 
numerous  rosy  digestive  glands ;  and  there  are 
blade  three  sensitive  hail's, 
l)Ut  bend  Hal  on  a  basal 
joint  when  the  leaf  closes.  The  blade  .shuts  up  in 
S  to  10  seconds 
when  one  of 
the  sensitive 
hairs  is  stimu- 
lated, and  if  an 
insect  is  caught 
in  the  trap  a 
profuse  .secre- 
tion is  exuded 
fro  m  the 
glands.  Diges- 
tion goes  on  for 
a  week  or  a 
fortnight  ac- 
cording to  the 
size  of  the 
booty  ;  finally 
the  digested 
material  and 
the      secretion  v 

are     absorbed,  \^,      ^^, 

and     the     leaf 

then     reopens.  Fig.  .5.— Dionsea  muscipula  : 

There    is    evi-  ",  kaf. 

dently  division 

of  labour  to  a  greater  extent  than  in  the  sundew, 
for  the  marginal  teeth,  the  sensitive  hairs,  .and 
iligestive  glands  have  se|)arate  functions.  'I'he 
delicacy  of  sensitiveness,  the  rapidity  of  uuixement, 
and  the  copiousness  of  the  digestive  secretion  are 
noteworthy,  while  it  is  also  significant  that  JJurdon 
Sanderson  has  detected  electric  currents  similar 
to  those  ol)served  in  the  neuromuscular  activity  of 
animals. 

Superficially  somewhat  like  the  bladderwort,  in 
its  leaf-structure  very  like  Diona'a,  is  an  acpiatic 
plant,  Alilriirdiula  resiriilosii  (ord.  Droseracca' ),  at 
iiome  in  south  and  central  Europe,  nourishing  in 
l)onds  and  pools  where  clear  water  is  warmed  by  the 
summer  sun.  A  thin  rootless  lloating  stem  bears 
whorls  of  peculiarly  modified  leaves,  ilies  away  at 
one  end  .as  it  grows  on  the  other,  forms  in  autumn 
a  concentrated  terminal  tuft,  wliich  sinks  to  the 
mud  ,at  bottom  and  hibernates.  Thence  it  rises 
again  in  spring  lightened  of  its  stores  of  starch  and 
with  buoyant  air-spaces.  The  leaves  consist  of  a 
spatlmlate  stalk  and  a  broad  blade,  which  folds 
•along  the  nudrih  like  that  of  the  lly-lrap.  The 
m.argin  is  finu.  with  small  teeth,  which  meet  those 
of  the  opposite  side  wlicn  the  leaf  is  closed  ; 
externally  a  few  long  bristles  project  ;  the  surface 
be.ars  numerous  longish  hairs  and  also  small  siellale 
structures  :  there  are  large  and  small  glands.  When 
the  water-lleas,  insect-larva',  or  even  diatoms  rest 
on  the  .surface  of  the  leaf,  the  half-blades  close 
quickly  as  in  the  lly-lrap,  the  vici  ims  are  imprisoned, 
and,  though  Ihey  may  remain  .■ilive  for  some  ilays, 
thi're  seems  no  doubt  of  their  final  absorption. 
Other  species  of  .AIdrovan<la  from  Australia  ami 
Bengal  seem  to  have  the  same  habit. 

Besides  the  true  insect-catidiers  noted  above,  there 
are  not  a  few  jdants — e.g.  among  the  Saxifrages, 
Sedums,  and  Primulas,  on  the  glandular  .surfaces  of 
which  in.sects  are  often  entangled.  These  iilants 
suggest  how  the  insectivorous  habit  might  iiegin, 
and  there  are  two  species  in  the  sundew  order, 
liiirUhiUi  tlnitdla  and  /!i/li/i\  qi(jiniliii,  in  which 
the  insecl-calching  seems  lo  be  more  than  incipient. 
Among  the  possibly  insectivorous  forms  we  must 
also  include  a  Brazilian  fern,  KhiphtKjhutumn  ytul in- 
oxum,  anil  several  liverw<nts — e.g.  Anomncliidii 
iintrosn  and  J*/iif,s/ott'toti  nn'hli^tiyiformc.  Zoj>f  has 
recently  described  an  interesting  fungus  {Aii/iro- 


INSECTIVOROUS    PLANTS 


165 


botrys  oligospora )  which  catches  small  tin caclwoiiiis 
in  great  numbei-s  in  its  nooses,  lidilles  tJK'ir  bodies 
with  a  growth  of  tine  threads  (hyphie),  and  absorbs 
the  tissues. 

Utilitij.  —  The  adaptations  for  catching  and 
utilising  insects  are  so  numerous  and  etiective, 
that  we  are  apt  to  conclude  too  readily  that  the 
insectivorous  habit  is  not  only  advantageous  but 
necessary  for  the  health  of  the  plants.  There  are, 
however,  several  facts  which  suggest  caution. 
Thus  it  hiis  often  been  noticed  that  a  leaf  of 
sundew  or  fly-trap  may  suffer,  and  even  die,  from 
the  effects  of  too  big  a  meal,  a  serious  enough 
objection  to  utility  were  the  casualty  not  as  rare 
in  nature  as  it  is  common  in  experiment.  More 
important  is  the  ditticulty  raised  by  cultivatoi's, 
who  ])oint  to  all  sorts  of  insectivorous  plants 
flourishing  perfectly  without  any  insect  food.  To 
this  it  can  be  retorted  that  the  natural  conditions 
of  scanty  nitrogenous  supply  are  probably  not 
observed  in  the  greenhouse,  but  the  tacts  force  us 
to  al>andon  belief  in  the  necessit//  of  the  insectivor- 
ous habit.  We  can  only  maintain  that  it  is 
normally  advantageous,  a  conclusion  confirmed  in 
some  cases  by  the  decrease  in  the  quantity  and 
quality  of  the  seeds  when  no  insects  are  avail.-ible. 
From  this,  however,  we  need  not  conclude  that 
the  insectivorous  function  is  the  complete  or  even 
the  original  function  of  any  of  the  curious  leaf- 
structures  above  described. 

Physiological  Summary. — (1)  It  is  a  familiar 
fact  that  sundew  and  butterwort  generally  grow 
among  bog-moss  on  the  moors,  hardly  rooted  in  the 
soil,  and  therefore  less  adapted  than  ordinary 
plants  to  suck  itp  the  all-important  nitrogenous 
compounds.  The  same  relative  scantiness  in 
nitrogenous  supplies  is  more  or  less  marked  in 
the  habitats  of  other  insectivorous  plants,  and 
doubtless  rendei-s  them  more  dependent  on  their 
peculiar  animal  diet.  All  are  said  to  be  averse 
to  the  presence  of  much  lime.  (2)  The  diet  is  to 
some  e.\tent  a  matter  of  chance  ;  both  creeping 
and  flying  insects,  small  flies  and  even  large  moths, 
besides  spiders,  and  centipedes  are  caught  by  the 
terrestrial  and  pendent  traps.  The  aquatic  bladder- 
worfs  most  frequent  victims  are  the  small  crusta- 
ceans known  ius  Cyprids ;  while  the  suliterranean 
Lathnea's  ])risoners  vary  from  the  rank  of  mites 
down  to  infusoriaus.  (3)  Tlie  attractions  of 
insectivorous  plants  are  manifold ;  a  mushroom 
like  odour  in  the  butterwort  lures  insects  which 
frequent  fungi,  and  some  of  the  others  also  appeal 
to  the  sense  of  smell  ;  the  '  dew-drops  '  of  Drosera, 
the  rosy  patch  on  the  fly-tra|),  the  bright  colours 
of  many  pitchers  are  obvious  enough  cbainis ; 
while  the  frequent  exudation  of  honey  is  the  most 
direct  lure  of  all.  (4 )  In  Nepenthes  and  Cephalotu.s, 
Drosera  ami  Drosophylluni,  Diona-a  and  Pinguicula, 
the  bodies  of  the  insects  caught  are  digested,  that 
is  to  say,  chemically  altered  into  soluble  substances, 
which  are  absorbed  by  the  cells  of  the  leaf.  The 
process  agrees  with  animal  digestion  in  the  net 
result,  and  in  the  presence  of  a  pe])tonising  ferment 
and  an  acid.  'loo  little  is  known  al)out  the 
ferment  or  ferments,  and  also  about  the  various 
acids  present ;  but  there  is  no  doubt  in  regard  to 
their  digestive  activity.  It  is  very  important, 
however,  to  recognise,  with  Morren  ami  others, 
that  in  plant^s  iligestion  and  the  activity  of  ferments 
are  by  no  means  confined  to  the  insectivorous 
forms.  Thus  the  diasta.se  which  in  germinating 
seeds,  &c.  turns  starchy  material  into  sugar  is 
virtually  the  same  as  the  ferment  in  the  saliva,  \c. 
of  animals  ;  similarly  in  both  plants  and  animals 
there  is  an  inverting  ferment  which  turns  cane- 
sugar  into  graj)e-sugar  ;  there  is  also  an  emulsify- 
ing or  sai)onifying  ferment  in  jilants,  acting  on 
fata   and  oils  in  a  manner  comparable  to  part  of 


the  n'lle  of  the  pancreatic  juice.  J.  K.  (Jreen  has 
described  a  rennet-forming  ferment,  comparable  to 
that  of  the  calf's  stomach,  not  only  in  I'inguicnla, 
but  in  the  flowers  of  Galliii/ii  rcriim,  in  the  stem 
of  Cleiiuili.s  citalba,  in  the  petals  of  the  artichoke, 
&c. :  finally,  a  peptonising  ferment  has  been 
detected  not  only  in  in.sectivorous  plants,  but  in 
such  diverse  situations  as  the  late.x  of  Carica 
papaya  and  the  seeds  of  Vicia.  The  protoplasmic 
changes  of  plants  are  comparable  to  those  of  ani- 
mals not  only  fundamentally,  but  also  in  numy 
details,  and  the  insectivorous  plants  are  not 
unique,  but  simply  conspicuous  illustrations  of 
vegetable  digestion.  (.5)  There  is  no  doubt  that 
both  the  products  of  digestion  and  the  results  of 
decomposition  are  absorbed  by  the  insectivorous 
l)lants.  Large  stoniata,  protruding  papilhv.  suctorial 
'  hairs,'  and  other  structures  in  tlie  difl'erent  jilants 
are  sometimes  credited  with  this  function,  about 
which  little  deflnite  information  is  yet  forthcoming. 
An  interesting,  if  hardly  conclusive,  corroboraticm 
of  the  absorbent  activity  is  given  by  Clark,  who 
fed  Drosera  with  flies  saturated  in  citrate  of 
lithium,  and  some  days  later  detected  with  the 
sjiectroscope  the  presence  of  the'  metal  through- 
out the  whole  plant,  in  fact  even  in  the  flower, 
((i)  The  .sensitiveness  .so  marked  in  siuulew  and 
fly-trap  is  not  of  course  unique,  but  is  illustrated 
in  the  leaves,  tendrils,  stamens,  stigmas,  &C.  of 
many  plants,  and  may  be  compared — though  we 
cannot  go  much  further — with  that  of  animals. 
Both  Drosera  and  Diona'a  respond  to  various  kinds 
of  stimuli,  but  usually  and  most  readily  to  that  of 
nitrogenous  substances.  Darwin  gives  numerous 
illustrations  of  the  sundew's  sensitiveness  to 
extremely  homceopathic  doses  (  -000095  of  a  milli- 
gramme) of  nitrate  of  ammonia  and  the  like.  In 
the  fly-tiap  the  sensitiveness,  as  we  have  seen,  is 
definitely  localised  in  the  six  jointed  hairs.  ( 7 )  The 
movements  of  sundew,  fly-trap,  and  Aldrovanda, 
like  those  in  the  leaves  of  the  sensitive  jilant  or 
the  stem  of  the  hop,  the  stamens  of  the  barlierry  or 
the  stigma  of  Mimulus,  are  associated  with  changes 
in  the  cells  of  the  plant.  It  is  e.asy  enough  to 
compare  the  movements  with  those  of  contracting 
muscles ;  but  we  are  still  far  from  being  able  to 
work  out  the  comparison  or  determine  the  diverg- 
ence. Four  points  may  be  noticed:  (a)  In  the 
tentacles  of  Drosera  the  movement  is  associated 
with  a  visible  change  in  the  contents  of  the  cells. 
Darwin  described  this,  perhaps  mistakenly,  as 
'aggregation  of  the  protoplasm,'  and  comjiared  it 
witli  analogous  changes  seen  elsewhere.  From 
what  we  know  of  movement  in  other  jilants,  it  is 
likely  that  the  activity  of  the  insect-catchers  is 
connected  with  a  change  in  the  water  tension  or 
turgidity  of  the  cells,  (h)  lu  the  movement  of 
Diona'a  Darwin  detected  a  measurable  contraction 
or  alteration  of  form  ;  the  same  liiis  been  seen  by 
Cohn,  Haeckel,  and  others  in  the  mobile  organs  of 
other  plants,  and  at  once  su<'gests  the  change  of 
form  in  mu.scle-Hbres.  (c)  I'liough  there  is  no 
trace  of  anything  like  the  nerves  of  animals,  there 
is  no  doubt  that  a  stimulus  provoking  motion 
pa.sscs  from  cell  to  cell  and  from  part  to  part  in 
t>oth  sundew  and  fly-trap.  ('/)  Finally,  liurdon 
Sanderson  has  described  a  resting  and  an  action 
current  of  electricity  in  Diona-a,  and  concludes 
tli.at '  the  property  by  virtue  of  which  the  excitable 
structures  of  the  leaf  res]iond  to  stimulation  is  of 
the  same  nature  as  that  jio^sessed  by  the  >imilarly 
endowed  structures  of  .animals.' 

.\lthough  our  knowledge  of  insectivorous  plants 
dates  from  I7ti>>.  when  Kllis  sent  to  I.innaus  a 
description  of  the  lly-trai)  and  its  habits,  structural 
investigations  prevailed  until  Darwin  in  1860 
began  the  thorough  experimental  study  of  in- 
sectivorous  jdants,  comparing   their  sensitivene.ss, 


166 


INSECT-POWDER 


INSECTS 


mobility,  ami  digestive  powers  with  those  of 
animals.  Since  then  the  physiological  interest  of 
these  plants  has  been  kept  steadily  in  view,  our 
analysis  of  their  vital  processes  lieconiing  with 
each  year  more  complete.  At  the  same  time,  the 
morphology,  especially  of  the  pitcher  plants,  has 
been  studied  with  great  success.  The  most  diffi- 
cult question  concerning  the  origin  and  evolution 
of  the  insect-catching  structures  and  functions  is 
still  a  proljlem  of  the  future. 

See  the  following  general  works  from  which  a  guide  to 
the  vast  literature  will  l>e  obtained  :  C.  Darwin,  Inncc- 
tirorous  Plants  (1875);  O.  Drude,  in  Schenk's  Hand- 
buch  dcr  Botanik  (-voL  i.  1881);  P.  Geddes,  article  'In- 
sectivorous Plants,'  Eiicyrlo.  Brit. :  A.  Kerner  von  Mari- 
laun,  Ptlanztnhben  (vol.  i.  1887);  J.Sachs,  Phi/sioloi/i/  of 
P/«  »<.«.' trans,  hy  Marshall  Ward  (1887);  S.' H.  Vines, 
Phiisioloijy  of  Plants  ( 188(5 ). 

Insect-powder  is  a  greenish-yellow  powder 
having  a  sRghtl.N'  pungent  odour.  When  genuine 
it  is  prepareil  by  powdering  the  closed  Howers  of 
various  species  of  Pyrethrum,  especially  P.  car- 
neiim,  P.  rosciim,  and  P.  cinerancFfolium.  When 
dusted  on  Heas  and  other  insects  it  soon  stupefies 
and  linall.v  kills  them,  but  whether  this  is  due  to 
subtle  emanations  from  the  oil  or  to  the  contact 
with  the  powder  is  undetermined.  It  is  generall.y 
stated  that  the  volatile  oil  does  not  possess  this 
action,  but  the  writer  has  noticed  that  when 
midges  alight  on  a  hand  which  has  previously  been 
rubbed  with  an  alcoholic  tincture  of  the  powder 
they  become  stupefied,  and  in  many  instances 
rapidly  die.  The  powder  is  innocuous  to  man, 
although  it  is  stated  to  cause  jiartial  confusion  of 
ideas  in  those  who  sleep  in  a  room  in  which  much 
of  it  has  been  used. 

Insects  are  numerically  the  largest  class  of 
animals,  occupying  among  Invertebrates  a  position 
in  many  ways  similar  to  that  held  by  birds  in  the 
bacliboned  series.  Widely  separated  as  birds  and 
insects  are  in  structural  rauK,  they  have  many 
common  characters  :  both  are  very  rich  in  species, 
and  exliil>it  marvellous  variety  within  narrow 
range  ;  both  are  capable  of  true  flight,  are  on  an 
average  very  active  in  habit,  and  abound  in  illus- 
trations of  ga.v  colouring ;  Iioth  have  highly  de- 
veloiJed  sensory  and  nervous  organs. 

fi((i.v. ),  ir 

iiveloping 
(q.v.),  a  ventral  chain  of  ganglia,  and  a  dorsal 
brain.  Like  Peripatus  (q.v.) — a  .survivor  of  the 
ancestral  stock — and  like  the  lower  class  of  Myrio- 
pods,  insects  breathe  by  air-tubes  or  trachea',  and 
are  therefore  included  under  the  title  Tracheata. 
But,  contrasted  with  I'eripatus  and  Myriopods, 
insects  have  made  two  great  steps  of  progress  :  the 
body  is  centralised,  with  locomotor  limbs  reduced 
to  three  pairs  (whence  the  term  He.xapoda),  and 
all  the  ty])ical  average  forms  have  wings.  The  con- 
centration is  seen  in  the  reduced  number  of  rings 
or  bo(l.v-.segnients,  in  the  absence  of  developed 
appendages  on  the  hind-body  (or  alidoinen)  of  the 
adults,  in  the  coni]ile.\it.v  of  the  mouth-appendages, 
and  in  the  gathering  together  of  the  ventral  nerve- 
centres.  In  many  cases,  liowever,  the  progress  is 
emphasised  only  in  the  fnlly-formeil  insects,  for  the 
caterpillar  in  tlio  absence  of  wings,  with  le.ss  com- 
pact nervous  .system,  with  more  numerous  and 
primitive  apiiendages,  &c.,  recapitulates  au  ances- 
tral stage. 

To  Sinn  \\\\  insects  are  Arthropods,  which  are 
usually  winged  in  adult  life,  breathe  air  by  means 
of  trachea',  and  have  fre(|uenlly  a  iiictamoi  pilosis 
in  their  life  history.  The  adult  body  is  divided 
into  (1)  a  hcftd,  with  three  ]iairs  of  appendages 
(=  legs),  jdus  a  pair  of  pre-oral  outgrowths,  the 
antenme  or  feelers  ;  ("2)  a  thorax,  with  three  pairs 
of  jointed  legs,  typically  plus  two  pairs  of  doi-sal, 


compressed  sacs — the  wings  ;  (3)  an  ahdmiirK,  with- 
out legs,  except  in  .so  far  as  these  are  rudimentarilv 
represented  in  slings,  ovi])Ositors,  and  the  like.  It 
is  impossible  at  present  to  give  any  secure  estimate 
of  the  number  of  in.sects,  though  it  is  probably  safe 
to  say  that  they  exceed  all  other  animals  taken 


eloped  s 

Like  other  Arthropoila  (q.v.),  insects  have  jointed 
bodies  and  limbs,  an  enveloping  cuticle  of  Chitin 


Fig.  1. — Disarticulated  Beetle : 

A,  tlic  head ;  F,  the  abdomen  ;  between  A  and  F,  the  three  rings 
of  the  thorax;  a,  maxillary  iMllps;  b,  labial  jialps;  r,  mandibles; 
d,  antennip ;  B,  protliorax,  with  lirst  pair  of  le^s ;  C,  win^- 
covers  or  elytra  ;  D,  functional  wings  ;  II  and  I,  two  posterior 
pairs  of  legs ;  E,  coxa  of  leg,  with  pro.jecling  trochanter ;  e, 
femur :  /,  tibia  ;  fl,  tarsal  .joints. 

together.  Over  80,000  species  of  beetles  or  Coleop- 
tera  and  about  15,000  moths  and  butterflies  have 
been  recorded ;  and  S])eyer  estimates  the  total 
census  at  200,000,  while  AI'Lachlan  concludes  that 
future  entomological  industry  will  raise  the  sum 
total  of  insect  sjiecies  to  a  million. 

iStriictarc  atnl  Functions. — The  anatomy  and 
physiology  of  insects  will  be  discussed  together, 
and  that  as  tersely  as  possible,  referring  to  the 
articles  Ant,  15ee,  Butterfly,  itc.  for  illustra- 
tions, and  to  the  works  cited  for  iletalls. 

Form. — The  body  of  an  insect  consists  of  a  dis- 
tinct, undivided  head,  iirobably  composed  of  four 
obscured  segments,  of  a  Ihoiax  with  tliree  divlsimis 
(pro-,  me.so-,  and  ineta-thorax),  and  of  an  abdomen 
typically  with  eleven  rings.  In  detail,  however, 
the  varieties  are  legion  ;  thus,  the  thin-waisted  wasp 
contrasts  with  the  cockroach,  the  lank  gnat  with 
the  compact  Img,  the  graceful  May-Hies  with  the 
somewhat  ungainly  locusts,  the  minute  midges 
with  the  <!oliath  beetles  and  huiiiming-bird  moths. 

Ap/ieiidiif/es. — The  jointed  feelers  or  antenna', 
which  are  outgrowths  of  the  head,  not  strictly  com- 
parable to  legs,  have  often  numerous  nerve-endings, 
and  seem  to  be  used  in  sinelling,  as  organs  of  touch 
and  guidance,  and  also  in  cares.sing  or  in  cmn- 
municating  imiiressions  to  friends.  Kxactly  com- 
jiar.able  with  legs  are  the  three  pairs  of  mouth- 
appendages,  projecting  downwards  or  forwards 
from  the  head,  to  which  they  are  jointed  and  imm 
which  they  are  worked  by  muscles.  The  lirst  jiair 
— the  mandibles— have  but  one  joint,  and  are  with 
out  the  lateral  'jialp'  present  in  the  crust.acean 
org;ins  of  the  same  name.  They  are  biting  and 
I'hcwing  organs,  mid  are  more  or  le.ss  reduced  in 
those  insects  wliii'h  suck.  Next  come  the  lirst  iiair 
of  maxilla',  which  have  jointed  'palps.'  The 
.second  pair  of  ma\ilhe  are  united  at  their  base,  and 
form  the  so-called  hibiiim,  also  provided  with  |)alps. 
In  the  diHeient  orders,  and  in  association  with  the 


INSECTS 


167 


divei-se  diet,  these  three  pairs  of  mouth-organs  vary 
greatly,  as  may  he  seen  by  comparint;  those  of 
cockroach,  housetly,  motli,  and  bee.  In  connec- 
tion witli  the  tliree  paii-s  of  legs  on  the  thorax,  it  is 
necessary  in  identifving  insects  from  a  mannal  to 
become  familiar  witli  tlie  division  of  the  limb  into 
coxa,  trochanter,   femur,   tibia,   and  tarsal  joints, 

terms         fancifully 
taken     over     from 

W  vertebrate  anatomy. 

^^^         The  claws  and  pads 
-«,  ^'^?i,,     at  the  very  tip,  the 

tarsal  hairs  and 
glands  utilised  in 
adhering  to  smooth 
surfaces,  and  the 
occasional  vise  of 
the  legs  in  produc- 
ing sounds  ought  to 
be  noticed,  as  also 
such  contrasts  as 
are  illustrated  in 
the  muscular  legs 
of  the  cricket,  the 
long,  lank  limbs 
of  (laddy-lon"-legs, 
and  those  adapted 
for  swimming,  as  in 
the  water-boatman. 
Though  larval  in- 
sects often  have 
rudimentary  limbs 
on  the  a^idonien, 
only  hints  of  legs 
are  .seen  on  that  region  in  the  adults.  Such  hints 
we  find  in  the  lowest  wingless  iu.sects  (Thysanura), 
and  at  least  plausibly  in  stings  and  ovipositors. 

U'inr/s. — The  adult  insect  usually  bears  two 
pairs  of  dorsal  outgrowths  or  wings  on  the  two 
posterior  rings  of  the  thorax.  These  are  llattened 
sacs,  really  double,  worked  by  muscles,  traversed 
in  various  patterns  by  '  veins,'  which  include  air- 
tubes,  nerves,  and  vessel-like  continuations  of  the 
body-cavity.  They  are  undeveloped  in  some  passive 
females,  and  are  likewise  absent  from  many  parasitic 
forms,  such  as  lice  and  fleas.  In  these  eases  the 
wings  have  been  lost,  while  they  have  never  been 


Fig.  2.  — Mimth  parts  of  Cock- 
roach ( after  Savigny ) : 
!,  labruni ;  h,  mandibles  :  c,  first  pair 
of  maxilhf ,  with  d,  stijies ; 
lacinia;/, galea;  ^,  niaxillar>'  palps: 
h,  sub-mentuin  of  .second  pair  of 
maxillse  or  labium  ;  i,  mentum  ;  k, 
labial  p.ilps :  I,  paraglossa ;  m. 
lacinia :  the  last  two  together  form- 
ing the  ligula. 


Fig.  3. — Cross-section  through  the  Thorax : 
«,  tergnm  :  6.  wing ;  c,  epimeri»n  or  upper  part  of  side  ;  d,  stigma 
or  spiracle ;  e,  epi-stemum  or  lower  jtart  of  side ;  /,  leg ;  g, 
sternum ;   h,  ner\'e-conI ;  j,  alimentary  canal ;  k,  trachea ; 
(,  heart. 

att.ained  by  the  lowest  insects — the  Collenilwla  and 
Thysanura.  When  at  rest  the  wings  are  usually 
fohled  in  various  ways,  but  the  dragon-llies  and 
some  others  keep  them  expanded.  The  two 
pairs  may  be  almost  alike,  its  in  bees  and  butter- 
Hips  ;  those  in  front  may  be  merely  covers  (eh/tra) 
for  the  hind  pair,  as  in  beetles,  or  contorted  nuli- 
nients  in  the  little  liee-])ar,asitcs  (Strei>siptcra);  the 
hind  pair  may  )>e  linked  to  the  fore  pair,  as  in 
Hymenoptera,  and  are  rudimentary  '  balancers '  or 
'  halteres  '  in  Hies.  Tliey  are  often  hairy  or  scaly, 
or  gorgeous  with  pigment,  or  occ-isionally  odorif- 
erous.    Professor  Eimer  has  sliown  that  the  colour- 


I'ig.  4. — Thorax  and  part 
of  the  Abdomen  of  an 
Ephemerid  Larva  ( from 
Lang,  after  Graber) : 

a,  rudiments  of  posterior 
wing ;  6,  c,  d,  tracheal 
gills  ;  e,  /,  rudiments  of 
anterior  wings  :  g,  longi- 
tudinal trachea; ;  to  show 
close  analogy  between 
wings  and  tracheal  gills. 


ing  and  marking  of  butterfly  wings  serve  as  indices 

of  the  progress  and  relationship  of  species.     As  to 

their  origin,  it  seems  plausible  to  compare  them 

to  the  tracheal  outgiowths  seen  in  some  aquatic 

larva",   and  to  regard  them 

as  primarily  res]>iratory  and 

secondarily  locomotor.    One 

may  venture  to  suggest  that 

the    additional    respiratory 

eHiciency  derived  from  such 

outgrowths   would    increase 

the    tot.il    activity    of    the 

insect,    and    more    or    less 

directly  lift  it  into  the  air. 

Locomotion. — Insects  are 
emphatically  locomotor  ani- 
mals. 'They  walk,  run, 
and  jump  with  the  ijuad 
rupeds ;  they  tly  with  the 
birds :  they  glide  with  the 
serpents ;  and  they  swim 
with  the  fish.'  Even  the 
limbless  larvte  of  many 
forms  move  deftly,  con- 
tracting their  boilies,  and 
utilising  jaws,  hairs,  and 
tubercles  to  help  them 
along.        Some    will     even 

jump  to  a  relatively  enormous  height  of  six  inches 
or  more,  by  taking  their  tails  in  their  mouths 
and  letting  go  suddenly.  The  limbed  larvte, 
and  especially  the  true  caterpillars,  often  move 
with  great  rapidity  :  a  few  jump,  and  many 
climb  ;  others  utilise  their  silken  threads  in  spider- 
like fashion  ;  while  the  young  dragon -flies  propel 
themselves  along  by  the  forcible  expulsion  of  water. 
Even  some  pupa-  move  about,  but  the  triumphs  of 
locomotion  are  seen  in  the  adult  insects.  Reference 
must  be  made  to  such  a  work  as  the  Introduction 
of  Kirliy  and  Spence,  and  recourse  had  to  actual 
observation,  if  any  adequate  conception  be  desired 
of  the  variety  of  ways  in  which  insects  walk,  run, 
climb,  swim,  bun-ow,  and  fly.  In  connection  with 
the  flight  of  insects  it  may  be  noticed  that  the 
movement  of  the  wings  does  not  essentially  ditter 
fiom  that  of  birds,  that  motion  in  a  vertical  direction 
is  particularly  easy,  that  steering  is  more  difficult, 
especially  since  the  very  lightness  of  the  bodies 
of  insects  make  them  liable  to  be  blown  about  by 
the  wind.  Marey  calculates  the  approximate  num- 
ber of  wing-strokes  per  second  at  3.30  for  the  fly, 
240  for  the  humble-bee,  190  for  the  hive-bee,  110 
for  the  wasp,  'la  for  the  dragon-Hy,  9  for  a  butter- 
fly (see  I-'LVIXG). 

Skin. — Insects  resemble  othei'  Arthropods  in  hav- 
ing a  firm  chitinous  cuticle  formed  from  the  eidder- 
mis  or  hypodermis  (see  CuniN,  Ccticle).  The 
cuticle  bears  scales,  tubercles,  and  hairs,  of  which 
the  last  are  sometimes  olfactory  or  otlierwise  sen- 
sory. In  spite  of  the  ensheathing  armature  there  are 
often  g/ani/.i  in  connection  with  the  skin — witness 
the  salivary  glands  opening  near  the  mouth  in 
almost  all  in.sects.  the  silk  or  s])inning  glands  of 
many  larva-,  especially  of  such  iis  make  cocoons, 
the  odoriferous  glauds  of  bugs  anil  beetles,  the 
poi.son-glands  of  the  stinging  ants,  l)ees,  and  wasps, 
the  wax-glands  of  some  Aphitles,  Coccus  insects, 
and  bees.  Uefore  the  full  size  is  reached  there 
are  skin-castings  or  moultings,  often  numerous. 
The  mu.scii/((r  .Hi/stem  is  almost  always  highly 
developed.  The  muscles  which  work  the  legs 
and  month-organs,  raise  and  depress  the  wings, 
influence  the  income  and  expiration  of  air,  control 
the  circulation,  antl  move  the  segments  of  the  body 
on  one  another  are  most  important.  The  nerruus 
system  consists,  jus  in  other  Arthropods,  of  a  com- 
plex dorsal  brain  or  snpra-<i'sopliageal  ganglionic 
centre,  supplying  eyes  and  feelei's,  and  of  a  double 


168 


INSECTS 


ventral  chain  of  neive-centies.  From  the  first 
ventral  (or  sul)(Osophaijeal)  j;anf;lia,  oonnocteil 
\vith  the  brain  hy  a  rini;  rouml  tlie  f^ullet,  the 
inouth-ai)]ien(laf;es  are  innervated.  In  many  in- 
sects the  ventral  chain  is  centralised  in  a  few 
ganglia,  and  is  nsually  more  concentrated  in  the 
adnlts  than  in  the  larvu'. 

Sc>isc-or<iiins.  —  Except  in  fleas,  lice,  and  the  lowly 
CoUeinbola.  .■idult  insects  have  coni|>ound  eyes. 
Tliese  are  often  associated  with  sim|ih'  eyes  or 
ocelli,  which  are  all  that  ever  ajipear  in  larva'  or 
in  the  three  sets  of  insects  mentioned  above.  Blind 
insects  also  occnr  along  with  other  blind  animals  in 
the  darkness  of  caves.  Anditory  organs  are  repre- 
sented in  almost  all  orders  by  peculiar  nerve-endings 
('chordotonal'  and  'tymjianal'  organs)  superficially 
disposed  on  various  ])arts  of  the  body.  On  the  tactile 
antenna',  and  probably  also  on  the  ma-\illary  palps 
of  various  insects,  there  are  specially  innervated  skin 
cells  and  hairs  believeil  to  be  olfactory  in  function  ; 
while  othei-s  more  witliin  the  month  are  credited 
with  gustatory  sensitiveness.  The  skin  of  insects 
seems  in  certain  regions  to  be  sensitive  to  the  difter- 
ences  of  light  ,and  shade,  so  much  so  that  some 
speak  of  a  sixth  or  'dermatoptic  '  sense.  Much 
experiment  and  observation  is  still  requiied  on  the 
senses  of  insects,  and  we  can  only  mention  such 
general  facts  as  the  following.  There  is  sometimes 
both  optic  and  auditory  .sensitiveness  to  impressions 
which  are  beyond  the  range  of  human  sight  and 
hearing  :  in  Howervisiting  and  other  insects  there 
is  abunilant  evidence  of  sensitiveness  to  fragrance 
and  colouring,  and  smell  probably  aids  greatly  in 
that  ju'ompt  recognition  of  friends,  kindred,  or  foes 
which  the  social  insects  so  well  illustrate  :  there 
seems  little  doubt  that  the  i)ower  of  forming  dis- 
tinct images  of  external  objects,  after  our  fiisliion 
of  seeing,  is  very  slight  in  insects.  The  student 
should  refer  to  the  work  of  Sir  .Joliii  J^ubbock  on 
The  Senses  of  Animals  (Inter.  Si'ience  Series, 
1888 ).  Similarly,  to  return  to  the  functions  of  the 
nervous  system,  we  can  only  notice  that,  in  addition 
to  the  numerous  and  often  subtle  instincts  which 
are  ingrained  in  the  constitution  of  niany  species, 
there  is  indubitable  intelligence,  as  seen  in  the 
reasonable  adaptation  of  means  to  novel  ends  ;  that, 
as  in  other  animals,  the  intelligence  is  greatest  in 
the  social  insects — especially  the  ants  and  bees, 
where  it  is  a.ssociateil  with  complex  though  very 
small  brains.  There  is  also  plain  evidence  of 
emotion — e.g.  in  the  love-making  and  parental 
affection  of  many  insects.  See  Ant,  Bee,  Butter- 
fly, In.stinct,  and  especial  l.y  the  works  of  Luljbock 
and  Koiuanes. 

Alimrnf<irii  Hi/stem. — The  alimentary  canal  always 
con.sists  of  fore-,  mid-,  and  hind-gut  (.see  GUT),  of 
which  the  first  and  the  last  portions  are  lined  l)y  a 
thin  layer  of  chitin  continuous  with  the  external 
cutiide.  But  the  length  and  structure  vary  not  a 
little  in  ditt'erent  insects,  to  some  extenk  in  ivssocia- 
tion  with  the  ditVcrences  of  iliet.  The  fore-gut 
includes  month,  pharynx,  and  gullet,  of  which  the 
latter  may  be  swollen  into  a  crop,  or  bciir  an 
appended  ]iouch  (socalle<l  sucking  stom.ach),  or  be 
continueil  into  a  gizzard  with  hard  griiuling  plates. 
The  mid-gut  is  glandular,  <ligestive,  and  abscnptive; 
it  often  bears  saccular  outgrowths  or  glandular 
c.T?ca,  and  has,  as  its  (cndodermic)  origin  iin]dies,  no 
chitinous  lining.  In  Coleoptera.  for  instance,  its 
length,  which  is  usually  inconsidiuable,  varies  in- 
versely with  the  nutritive  and  digestible  ((Ualilies 
of  the  food.  The  hind-gut  is  often  coiled,  ter- 
minally ex]>anded  in  (he  rectum,  and  in  that 
region  .sometimes  associated  with  glands.  Its 
general  function  is  absorption,  while  from  it  there 
spring  excretory  tubes  or  Mal]iighian  vessels  (see 
infra ).  As  to  tlie  food  of  insects,  manv  are  vege- 
tarians, many  carnivorous,  a  few  mix  both  diets  : 


Fig.  5.— Anatomy  of  IToney  Ijee 
(alter  Lfuckart)  \ 

ft.  antelinsv  ;  h,  eyes  ;  c,  honey-crolt ; 
(7,  dist-'-stive  stoiii.-ich  ;  e,  exoret^iry 
tubules  ;  /,  rectal  glands  ;  fj,  reetuin  ; 
/(.  stij;uiata  or  spiracles;  i,  swollen 
Io?i;,'itudiiial  trachea :  k,  bases  of 
lef^s ;  nervous  system  in  uuddle  line. 


many  feed  on  the  juices  of  living  organisms,  others 
only  on  putrescence  :  many  actively  rille  llowers 
of  their  nectar  and  pollen,  or  hunt  for  other  insects 
withgreatactivity, 
while  not  a  few 
are  external  or 
internal  parasites 
upon  higher  ani 
mals  ;  the  ant-lion 
digs  a  pit  into 
which  its  unwary 
I>rey  may  fall,  while 
drag<m-tlies  attack 
their  winged  booty 
with  open  violence  ; 
among  ants  .some 
milk  the  aphides, 
while  others  are  so 
degenerate  in  pro- 
sperity that  tliey 
are  actually  fed  by 
their  slaves.  Nor 
should  it  be  for- 
gotten that  some 
of  the  higher  in- 
sects lay  u])  stores 
of  food,  usually 
with  parental  in- 
stinct for  the  sake 
of  their  young,  and 
that  the  eggs  are 
often  laid  in  the 
midst  of  the  food 
suited  to  the  larval 

apjietite,  even  in  cases  where  the  adults  may 
perish  before  the  young  are  hatched. 

liespirutory  System. — Insects  when  resting  often 
show  panting  movements  in  the  abibimen,  which  is 
swayeil  by  muscles  whose  activity  is  the  chief  con- 
diticm  of  the  circulation  of  air  throughout  the  boily. 
P'or  in  all  insects  the  whole  body  is  penetrated  by 
air  tubes  or  fnit/ieir,  which  send  line  branches  into 
all  the  organs  and  tissues.  These  tubes  are  really 
ingrowths  from  the  skin,  and  are  lineil  by  chitin, 
raised  in  what  appear  to  be  spiral  thickenings  \\  hicli 
keep  them  elastically  tense. 
In  most  cases  tlie.se  trachea' 
ojien  to  the  exterior  by 
paired  apertures  or  sti;/- 
miitd  on  the  breast  and 
abdomen,  often  guardei 
by  hairs  and  very  variously 
disposed.  There  are  never 
more,  and  usually  fewer, 
than  ten  pail's  of  openings, 
though  primitively  there 
was  probably  a  pair  to 
each  segment.  In  aqu.itic 
larva>  the  trachea'  do  not 
open  (if  they  did  the  insect 
would  drown),  but  are 
spread  luit  on  lateral  or 
terminal  expansions  (tra- 
cheal gills),  through  the 
thin  skin  of  which  the  Fig.  6.— Portion  of  a 
oxygen  dissolveil  in  the  branching  Air-tube  or 
water  is  absorbed  (see  Trachea,  sliowmg  the  in- 
Dl!.\OON-KLV,  El'IIEMEH.\,  tcrnal  chitinous  ri.iges. 
CiM.).     The  very  cllicient 

respiration  of  insects  is  one  of  the  facts  to  be  kept 
clc-irly  in  view  in  estimating  the  general  activity 
of  their  life. 

Here  we  may  notice  that  many  insects  produce 
sounds  which  often  ex|)ress  a  variety  of  emotions. 
Thus,  we  have  the  whirr  of  rapiillynioving  wings,  as 
in  Hies;  the  buzz  of  leaf  like  iippondages  near  the 
openings  of  the  trache:e  in  ni.any  llymenoptera;  the 
scraping  of  legs   against   wing-ribs,   as   in   grass- 


INSECTS 


169 


hoppers ;  the  chirping  of  male  cricki-ts.  pioiluceil 
by  nihbing  one  wing  against  its  neigliliour :  the 
shrill  piping  of  the  male  Cicadas,  wliicli  have  a 
com])lex  drum  like  instrument  :  tlie  voice  of  the 
death's-head  moth,  due  to  the  emission  of  air  from 
the  mouth  :  and  the  tapping  of  tlie  death-watch 
knocking  on  external  olijeets.  In  some  cases, 
where  not  simply  automatic,  the  sounds  serve  the 
alluring  purpose  of  love-songs :  they  may  also 
express  fear,  anger,  and  (according  to  Kirby)  even 
sorrow,  or  they  may  give  alarm  and  convey  tidings. 
Circulator;/  .s'//.s7p/h. — .\s  the  tissues  are  riddled 
with  air-tubes,  the  need  for  definite  blood-vessels 
is  greatly  lessened,  and  so  the  circulatory  .system  is 
slightly  developed  in  comparison  with  the  literally 
thorough  respiratory  arrangements.  The  blood — 
which  is  colourless,  yellow,  greenish,  or  even 
reddish,  with  amtcboid  cells — llows  for  the  most 
part  along  lacun;e  without  definite  walls.  There 
IS,  however,  a  central  organ,  the  dorsal  blood-vessel 
or  heart. 

Within  the  body-cavity  of  the  insect  there  is 
often  a  characteristic  mass  of  tLssue  known  ;is  the 
'fat-body.'  This  is  an  important  accumulation  of 
reserve  material,  most  aliundant  in  the  larval 
stages.  In  some  cases  the  fat-body  of  the  Iar\a  is 
rich  in  fat  and  poor  in  wa.ste  (mate)  crystals,  while 
that  of  the  pupa  is  the  revei'se,  showing  that  the 
material  is  used  up  in  the  reconstruction  or  meta- 
morphosis. In  a  few  insects,  such  as  Fireflies 
(q.v.  land  glow-worms,  part  of  the  fat-body  seems 
to  become  the  seat  of  plu)s|ihorescence,  the  light  of 
which  is  in  many  cases  a  brilliant  love-sigual.  See 
Phosphorescence. 

The  excretory  system  consists  of  a  set  of  fine 
tubes,  or  it  may  be  threads,  which  grow  out  from 
the  upper  part  of  the  hind  gut,  and  wind  about 
often  at  great  length  in  the  body-cavitv.  The 
component  cells  contain  aliundant  wa.ste-products. 
In  ilitferent  insects  the  excretory  or  malpighian 
tubes  vary  greatl.v  in  number  (2-150),  and  also  in 
the  manner  of  their  connection  with  the  gut.  The 
usual  type  of  iuvertebrate  kiilney — the  nephridium 
— though  persistent  in  Peiipatus  (q.v.),  is  not 
clearly  dLsci>verable  in  insects. 

Reproductive    System. — The    sexes    are    always 
separate  in  normal  insects :   and  the  Hermaphro- 
ditism (q.v.)   which  casually  crops   up  is  in   most 
I    cases  only  superficial.     In  Ipoth  sexes  the  reproduc- 
I    tive  organs  are  paired,  an<l  the  products  pass  out 
\    by  paired  ducts.     The  latter — the  oviducts  of  the 
female  or  the  ra-in  ileferentia  of  the  male — always 
I    open  near  the  end  of  the  abdomen,  and,  except  in 
the  Ephemerids,  by  a  single  aperture  :  it  is  possible 
I    that   they   re|)resent  modified     iiephridia.'     Acces- 
sory extern.al  and  internal  structures  in  the  males 
I    may  assist  in  copulation  or  in  making  the  sperma- 
tozoa  into    packets  :   of   similar  structures   in    the 
females   the    most    important   are    the    occasional 
external  ovipositors  or  egg-laying  organs,  and  the 
internal  .seminal  receptacle  in  whicli  the  spermatozoa 
received  from  a  male  are  .-tored  up,  and  serve  to 
fertilise  successive  sets  of  I'ggs.     In  the  queen-bee 
this  store  has  lieeu  known  to  la-st  for  two  or  three 
sea-sons,  while  I/ubbock  tells  of  an  aged  queen-ant 
which  laid  fertile  eggs  thirteen  years  after  the  last 
union  with  a  male. 

Male  and  female  insects  are  usually  somewhat 
diflerent  in  external  appearance.  The  males  are, 
on  an  average,  more  active,  smiillcr,  and  more 
brightly  coloured  than  the  female.s.  Kxtremes  are 
seen  in  male  and  female  Coccus  in.sects  (q.v.);  in 
the  se.xes  of  Glow-worm  (q.v.) ;  in  a  few  Butterflies 
(q.v.),  such  as  Orgyia,  where  the  female  is  wing- 
less ;  or  ip  the  curious  bee-parasites  Strepsiptera, 
where  the  female  virtually  remains  a  grub.  As 
some  in.sects  have  an  elaborate  courtship,  in  which 
the  females  choose  their  mates,  and  as  some  males 


fight  their  rivals,  there  can  be  little  doubt  that 
Sexual  Selection  ( ij.  v. )  h,us  accelerated  the  evolution 
at  once  of  beauty  and  strength,  while  natural  selec- 

I  tion  (see  D.vinviNiAX  Tiikohv,  Kvoi.trtoN)  m,ay 
have  retarded  the  evolution  of  gay  colouring  in  the 

I  females  to  whom  consjiicnousness  is  especially  dis- 
advantageous in   parentage.      Neither  position  is 

I  inconsistent  with  that  which  regarils  the  characters 
of  the  two  sexes  as  natural  and  necessary  expres- 
sions of  their  respectively  dominant  constitutions. 
See  Darwin.  Descent  nf  Mnn  .-  Wallace,  Darwinism; 
Geddes  and  Thomson,  Ernhttion  of  Sex. 

Peculiarities  in  Reproduction.— (a)  Virgin  birth 
or  parthenogenesis  occurs  normally,  for  a  variable 
number  of  generations,  in  two  butterflies  and  a 
beetle,  some  Coccus  insects  and  Aphides,  certain 
.saw-Hies  and  gall-wasps  ;  it  occurs  casually  in  the 
silk-moth  and  about  a  ilozen  other  Li'pidoptera, 
partially  or  voluntarily  in  the  drone  bearing  of  hive- 
bees,  seasonally  in  Aphides  (q.v.),  and  in  larval 
life  in  .some  midges  (e.g.  Chironomus).  (6)  Where 
parthenogenesis  occurs  for  a  period  and  is  there- 
after followed  liy  ordinary  sexual  reproduction,  as 
in  A|>hides,  we  have  to  deal  with  one  of  the  many 
forms  of  Alternation  of  Generations  (q.v.).  (c)  A 
few  insects  .are  e.xceptional  in  lieing  viviparous, 
bringing  forth  their  young  alive.  This  is  again 
illustrated  by  Aphiiles,  and  also  by  a  few  flies,  by 
the  little  bee-parasites  Strepsiptera,  and  by  some 
beetles.  {(I)  Many  insects  are  exceedingly  prolific 
— e.g.  apliLs,  silk-moth,  and  queen-bee.  A  clinuix 
is  reached  in  the  queen-termite  which  for  a  time 
goes  on  laying  thousands  of  eggs  '  at  the  rate  of 
about  sixty  per  minute  '. ' 

Development  of  the  Eyy. — The  ovum  of  insects, 
as  it  passes  down  the  ovaiian  tubes,  is  enclosed  in 
a  firm  cliitinous  envelope,  with  a  minute  aperture 
or  micropyle  (sometimes  with  more  than  one), 
through  which  a  male  element  or  spermatozoon 
penetrates  before  the  ovum  leaves  the  mother.  The 
segmentation  which  follows  fertilisation  is  for  the 

j  most  part  jieripheral   (centrolecithal  ;  .see  E.MliRV- 

]  OLOGY),  while  the  centre  of  the  egg  is  occupied 
by  a  relatively  pa.ssive  yolk  with  scattered  nuclei. 
The  result  of  segmentation  is  a  sphere  or  ellipsoid 
of  cells  enclosing  the  core  of  yolk,  and  on  the 
ventral  surface  of  the  sphere  or  ellipsoid  the  embryo 


Fig.  7. — Ventral  aspect  of  five  stages  in  the  devehipnient 
of  the  Water-beetle,  Hydrophilus  ( after  Heider ) : 

Tlie  anterior  end  is  uppennust.  «.  lie.id  lubes ;  b,  the  last  of 
the  body-seginents,  which  are  seen  becoming  more  niarkeil 
throughout  the  series;  round  about  the  embryonic  area  the 
amniotic  folds  develop. 

begins  to  be  mapped  out.  This  development  we 
cannot  here  follow,  but  it  is  important  to  notice 
one  unique  fact,  that  the  embryo  is  aiched  over  by 
a  double  fold,  constituting  the  internal  amniotic 
and  outer  serous  membranes,  .so  called  from  their 
resemblance  to  the  similar  enswathing  envelopes  in 
the  embryos  of  higher  vertebrates;  See  Lang's 
Lehrbw/i  der  I'eryl.  Anatomic  (vid.  ii.  Jena,  IMS9), 
where  a  summary  of  results  and  literature  will  be 
found. 

Metamorphosis. — (1)  In  the  lowot  in.sects — the 
old-fashioned,  wiugle.'^s  Thysauura  and  Collembola 


170 


INSECTS 


— the  young  form  which  einerjies  from  the  eggshell 
is  in  all  respects  a  miniature  a(lult.  Witliout  strik- 
ing change,  hy  growth  and  moultings,  it  heconies 
an  adult.  From  this  entire  absence  of  metamor- 
phosis we  reailily  pass  to  the  life-histories  of  cock- 
roaches anil  locusts,  of  lice  and  most  bugs,  where 
the  newly-hatched  young  are  very  like  the  parents. 
The  reproductive  organs  are,  of  course,  unde- 
veloped, and  there  are  no  wings,  but  the  hitter  are 
not  attained  even  by  the  adult  lice.  All  the  above 
forms  maybe  calleil  aimtabolic — i.e.  without  marked 
change  or  metamorpliosis. 

(•2)  In  Cicadas  tliere  is  a  slight  but  most  instruc- 
tive dirterence  between  larvi-e  and  adults.  The 
full-grown  insects  live  among  herbage,  the  youn- 
live  in  the  ground,  and  with  this  diversity  of  habit 
is  associated  at  least  this  much  dill'ereuce  in  struc- 
ture, tliat  the  anterior  legs  of  the  larva  are  adapted 
for  burrowing.  Furthermore,  the  larval  life  ends 
in  a  f|uiescent  stage,  or,  in  other  words,  tlie  adult 
form  is  attained  after  a  period  of  pupation.  But  the 
story  becomes  more  complex  when  we  pass  to  the 
Dragon-lly  (q.v.),  the  Ephemera  (ij.v.),  and  their 
relatives,  where  the  metamorphosis  is  slightly 
greater,  inasmuch  as  the  larv:e  are  aquatic,  with 
closed  respiratory  apertures,  aiul  with  tracheal 
gills,  while  the  adults  are  winged  and  aerial,  and 
breathe  by  open  trachete.  Sucli  insects  are  said  to 
have  an  incomplete  metamorphosis,  and  are  called 
hcmiiiictabolic. 

(3)  \'ery  different,  however,  is  the  life-history  of 
all  the  other  insects,  such  as  buttertlies  and  beetles. 
Hies  and  bees.  From  the  egg-shell  there  emerges  a 
larva  (maggot,  grub,  or  caterpillar),  which  lives  a 
life  of  its  own,  growing  and  resting  and  moulting, 
often  very  active  in  its  movements  and  voracious 
in  its  diet.  Having  accumulated  a  rich  store  of 
reserve  food  in  its  fat-body,  the  larva  becomes  for 
a  longer  time  more  or  less  quiescent,  becomes  in 
fact  a  puiia,  nymph,  or  chrysalis.  In  this  stage, 
often  within  the  shelter  of  a  spun  cocoon,  great 
transformations  occur  :  wings  hud  out,  appendages 
of  tlie  adnlt  pattern  appear,  reconstruction  and 
centralisation  of  organs  are  effected  ;  and  tinally, 
out  of  the  pupal  husk  there  emerges  an  imago  or 
miniature  fully-formed  insect.  Tliese  have  a  com- 
plete metamorphosis,  and  are  calleil  hulumctabnlk:. 

The  larv;e  of  these  higher  insects  with  complete 
metamorphosis  dilVer  greatly  in  different  orders. 
Thus,  the  '  maggots'  of  Hies  ( withqut  distinct  head, 
feelers,  ocelli,  &c. )  are  distinguished  from  the 
'  grubs  '  of  bees  (with  distinct  head),  and  both  from 
the  caterpillars  of  butterllies,  ike,  which  have 
limbs  <as  well  as  heail.  The  linil)less  maggots  and 
grubs  are  degenerate,  the  caterpillar  is  the  more 
normal  type.  It  is  technically  called  an  'eruciform 
larva,'  in  contrast  to  that  of  most  Ametabola  and 
Hemimetabola — the  '  campodeiform  larva,'  which 
is  not  even  worm-like,  but  like  one  of  the  lowly 
Thysanuran  in.sects  (Campodea),  with  the  regions 
of  the  l>ody  well  defined,  with  biting  mouth-parts, 
with  locomotor  thoracic  liml)s,  ice. 

But  beyond  distingiii>hing  the  above  two  great 
types  of  larva  (campodeiform  ami  eruciform),  and 
also  the  maggot,  grub,  and  caterpillar  forms  of  the 
latter,  little  more  is  possible  in  this  geneial  survey, 
for  the  larva!  vary  enormously,  according  to  their 
own  moilc  of  life  -parasitic  or  roving,  a<|uatic  or 
terrestrial,  carnivorous  or  herbivorous — and  acconl- 
ing  to  the  peculiarities  of  the  adnlt  forms.  We 
must  note,  however,  the  changes  in  connection  with 
the  numthorgans,  especially  as  these  form  part  of 
the  basis  of  cIa.ssilication.  'The  mouth-parts  may 
be  similar  in  all  stages  of  life,  ami  then  are  either 
atlapted  for  biting  (J/cHw/HffMK — i.e.  jaws  ])ersist- 
ent)  or  for  sucking  (Minurhi/iir/ia — i.e.  prolMiscis 
pei'sistent);  or  else  they  are  adapted  in  the  larva 
tor  biting,  in  the  adult  for  sucking,  the  change 


commencing  in  the  pupa,  and  rarely  affecting  the 
larval  stage  (Metagxatlm — i.e.  jaws  change<l ).'  See 
Braner's  cla-ssihcation  in  Hatchett  Jackson's  edition 
of  Kolleston's  Forms  of  Animal  Life  ( 1S88). 

T/u-  Intcnuil  Metamoiphusis. — One  of  the  most 
interesting  and  ditlicult  pro1)lenis  with  regard  to 
insects  concerns  the  transition  from  the  larval  to 
the  adult  structure.  In  those  forms  which  have  no 
metamorphosis,  or  only  an  incomplete  one,  the 
organs  of  the  larva  develop  continuously  into  those 
of  the  adult.  It  is  far  otherwise  in  tlie  complete 
metamorphosis  of  the  higher  insects.  There  the 
internal  changes  are  as  marked  as  the  e.\ternal  :  in 
fact,  there  Ls  a  gradual  reconstruction  of  organs 
during  the  later  larval,  and  especially  during  the 
pupal  stages.  Most  of  the  larval  organs  are  ab- 
soriied  liy  amieboid  cells,  and  their  debris  utilised 
in  building  up  new  structures.  To  a  certain  extent 
the  development  of  new  organs  takes  place  by  sub- 
stitution ;  that  is  to  say,  parts  of  the  larval  organs 
which  have  not  been  specialised  form  the  founda- 
tions of  the  adnlt  structures.  Of  sjiecial  importance 
is  the  ajipearance  in  the  larva  of  '  inuiginal  iliscs ' 
from  which  the  wings,  liml)s,  and  epidermis  of  the 
imago  or  perfect  insect  arise.  It  must  not,  how- 
e\er,  be  su])posed  that  the  transition  involves  any 
abrupt  change ;  the  absorption,  disajipearance, 
and  replacement  of  organs  is  gradual  throughout. 
Vet  almost  the  entire  musculature,  .-i  great  jiart 
of  the  tracheal  system,  the  larger  portion  of  the 
mid-gut,  and  many  other  parts  of  the  huva  disap- 
jiear  and  give  place  to  the  corresponding  organs  of 
the  adult  which  are  adapted  to  a  new  mode  of  life. 
In  pursuing  this  study  the  reader  will  best  begin 
with  Martin  Duncan's  Tntnsfurmations  of  Insects, 
Lubbock's  Oiitjin  and  Metamorphoses  of  Insects 
('  Nature  '  series,  Lond. ),  and  then  ]iass  to  the  cited 
work  of  Lang  and  the  literature  there  quoted. 

General  Life.  —  I'nder  this  title  we  can  do  little 
more  than  mention  .some  general  aspects  of  the  life 
of  insects,  (a)  While  insects  are  luedominantly 
active  animals,  we  lind  in  cimtra.sting  the  onlers, 
or  better  still,  the  families,  abundant  illustration 
of  the  antithesis  (to  be  read  throughout  the  animal 
series)  between  activity  and  ])assivity.  Thus 
might  the  female  cochineal  insect  represent  in  its 
torpid,  sessile  life  one  extreme,  and  the  exceeilingly 
busy  humble-bee  another,  (h)  In  the  majority  of 
cases  the  adult  insect  is  short-lived,  and  dies  within 
the  year;  an  adult  Kphemerid  may  be  literally  tlielly 
of  a  day,  but  from  this  there  are  many  gradations 
leading  up  to  the  rare  c;uses  of  a  nueen-bee  five 
years  idd,  or  an  aged  queen-ant  of  tiiirteen.  The 
total  length  of  life,  including  the  metamorphoses, 
\aries  not  a  little  with  the  climate  of  different 
countries  and  the  weather  of  different  years,  and 
the  life  is  prolonged  in  those  insects  which  hiber- 
nate, passing  the  winter  in  a  lethargic  state  hardly 
deserving  the  name  of  life  (see  Hiiiehnation, 
Like;  Weismann's  e.s.say  (m  'The  Duration  of 
Life'  in  IIere</iti/,  1889;  and  another  es.say  by 
Hay  Lankester  on  Com/iaratire  Longcrilif,  1870). 
((■)"lt  is  worthy  of  notice  that  reproduction  in  a 
great  number  of  insects  of  both  sexes  is  shortly 
followed  by  the  nemesis  of  death,  love  being  in  such 
cases  at  once  the  climax  and  end  of  life,  (el)  In 
connet^tion  with  the  influence  of  climate  and 
seasons  the  occurrence  of  ditt'erent  or  '  ilimorphic' 
summer  and  winter  brooils  in  some  Lepido|>tei'a 
should  be  noticed  (see  Weismann,  Stin/ie.-:  nn  the 
Theory  of  Descent,  Meldola's  trans.  Lond.  1880-82  ; 
and  Scudder's  Jiiitter/lies,  New  York,  1881).  (c) 
Nor  can  we  ilo  more  than  refer  to  separate  articles 
for  descriptiim  of  the  fascinating  social  life  of  many 
ants,  bees,  wasps,  and  termites.  (  /)  The  prolilic 
multiplication  of  insects  is  kept  within  l)ounds  by 
the  limitations  of  food-suppiv  and  weather,  by  the 
warfare  between  insects  of  liill'erent  kinds,  by  the 


INSECTS 


171 


and 
Metagnatha. 


appetite  of  higher  animals,  sucli  as  fish,  frogs,  ant- 
eatei's,  insectivores,  and,  at)ove  all,  birds.  As 
araonj;  other  animals,  we  lind  among  insects  abund- 
ant illustration  of  peculiarities  whicli  have  for 
their  result  at  lea.st  tlie  protection  of  their  posses- 
sors. The  leaf-insects,  walking-sticks,  moss-insects, 
humming-bird  moths,  scale-insects,  I'irc.  are  striking 
examples  of  a  protective  mimicry  in  form  and 
colouring  which  is  illustrated  in  great  variety  and 
frequency  throughout  the  cla.ss.  Many  larva>,  as 
well  as  adults,  show  especially  in  colour  a  sympa- 
thetic relation  to  their  environment,  while  othci-s, 
such  as  Caddis-tlies  (q.v. ),  are  masked  by  the  ex- 
ternal coverings  with  which  they  clothe  themselves. 
Many  insects  are  saved  by  their  hard  skins,  by 
their  disgusting  odour  or  tjvste,  by  their  deterrent 
discharges  of  rejiulsive  Huids,  by  their  assumption 
of  '  terrifying  attitudes,' by  the  simulation  of  death, 
or  by  active  resistance  witli  their  manifold  weapons. 
See  Mimicry  ;  and  Wallace's  Darwinism  (1889) 
and  literature  there  cited. 

C/dSsi/icdtioii. — There  is  as  yet  a  want  of  unanim- 
ity al)out  the  ela-ssitication  of  insects.  A  basis  is 
usually  found  in  the  degree  of  metamorpho.sis,  the 
characters  of  the  wings,  the  structure  of  the  mouth- 
organs,  and  the  nature  of  the  genital  and  excretoiy 
ducts.  On  many  points  future  embnological 
research  Avill  shed  light.  All  that  we  shall  do  here 
is  to  ^ive  the  genersil  grouping  adopted  by  Brauer. 
See  cited  text-books  of  Hatchett  Jackson  and  of 
Lang. 

^16.  HymenopUra.—Aiits,  bees,  wasps,  gall-flies, 
saw-flies,  &c.  ( Men.  and  Met.). 
C.  15.  Co?«op/era.— Beetles  (Men.,  rarely  Met.). 

Metabola  ;       14.  />ej>tV/oj>/^ra.— Moths  and  bntterflies  (Met.). 
Menngnatha       13.  Ci/>(ero.— Flies  (  Met.). 

12.  Siphonitptera  or  AphantpUra. — Fleas  (Met). 
11.  rrfc*oj)(<Ta.— Cad.lis-flies  (Men.). 
10.  Panorpala. — Scorjiion-flies  (Men.). 
9.  Neuroptera. — Ajit-lions,     lace-winged     flies 
(M>n.). 

5.  Rhyncliota  or  llemiptera. — Aphides,  coccus 
insects,  cicadas  ;  bugs,  water-scorpions, 
lice  (the  male  Coccidie  are  metabolic). 

7.  TVii/sanojitera.— Thrips(A.). 

6.  Corrodenfia.— Termites,  bird-lice  (A.). 
5.  Or(Ao;)te™.— Cockroaches,  locusts,  crickets 

(A.). 
4.  P(KOj^.kra.— Perla(H.). 
3.  Odonata. — Dragon-flies  (H.). 
2.  Ephemerida^ —  >iay-flies  (  U.). 
1.  Dernuiptera Earwigs  (A.). 

0.  Colhmbola  and  TAi/^aHHra.— Primitive  wing- 
less insects. 

Distrihution  in  Space. — Insects  are  represented 
almost  everywhere.  The  majority  are  indeed 
terrestrial  and  aerial,  and  esi)ecially  at  home  in 
warm  and  temperate  ccmntries,  but  in  the  Arctic 
regions  and  in  hot  springs,  at  great  heights  above 
the  snow-line  and  in  undergnmnd  caves,  and  most 
surprisingly  even  in  the  sea  there  are  insect  in- 
habitants. "  The  C/ial/eiifjcr  explorei-s  found  one 
or  more  species  of  the  genus  Halobates  ( among  the 
Hemiptera)  which  seemed  to  be  (|uite  pelagic. 
The  limits  of  distribution  are  in  great  part  those 
of  climate  and  of  the  requisite  food,  for  insects 
have  great  possibilities  of  dispersal,  not  only  in 
their  often  extensive  flight  and  liability  to  be 
swept  along  by  winils,  but  tln'ough  the  conveyance 
of  the  ilormant  eggs  or  even  gnibs  from  one  shore 
to  another  within  floating  lo"s.  Thus,  tropical 
insects  are  brought  on  lloating  logwood  from  across 
the  Atlantic,  wliile  locusts  have  l)een  known  to  fly 
or  to  be  blown  in  safety  across  more  than  .'KK)  miles 
of  .sea.  See  (;ko(!P..\Viii<'AI.  Distkiiii  tkin,  and 
works  there  cited. 

Hi.itori/. — Insects  must  have  appeared  in  com- 
paratively early  times,  for  a  cocfcro.irh-like  wing 
has  been  found  even  in  Silurian  strata.  Primitive 
dragon-Hies  and  also  lace-flies  ( Neurnpter.a)  occur 
in  tiie  Devonian,  cockroaches  and  walking-sticks 


B  f 

Ametabola  :    : 
Menorh>Ticha.  V 

A. 

AilETTABOLA 

and 

Hemimeta- 

BOLA  : 

Menorhynclia. 


(Ortho]itera)  in  the  Carboniferons  rocks.  There 
seems  much  reason  to  believe  that  the  Pal.vozoic 
insects  were  mostly  generalise<l,  'synthetic'  types. 
prophetic  of,  rather  than  referable  to,  our  modern 
orders.  In  the  Tri.is  Orthoptera  abound  ;  the 
first  distinct  beetles  apjicar  in  the  Lias,  where 
other  higher  insects  with  complete  metamorphosis 
also  occur.  See  especially  Scudder  in  Zittel's 
I'ala-ontologic  (1885). 

Pcc/ii/n-c. — As  to  their  genealogj-,  suftice  it  to 
say  that  the  wingless  CoUembola  and  Thysanura, 
at  the  biise  of  the  insect  series, 
doubtless  represent  primitive 
forms ;  these  lead  us  back  to 
some  of  the  le.ss  specialised 
myriopods,  and  these  again  to 
Peripatus  (q.v. ),  the  sole  sur- 
viving genus  of  the  ancestral 
Prototracheata.  Peripatus  links 
the  air-breathing  Arthroijods  to 
the  ringed  worms  or  Annelids, 
uniting,  for  instance,  in  its 
structure  the  trachea?  of  an 
insect  and  the  kidneys  or 
nephridia  of  a  worm.  See  Lub- 
bock's Origin,  <!•<■.,  of  Insects, 
and  then  the  papei-s  of  Brauer, 
Emeiy,  Packard,  iVc.  cited  by 
Hatchett  Jackson. 

Economic  Import.  —  Insects 
come  into  contact  or  collision 
with  human  interests  in  a  great 
variety  of  ways.  As  far  as  they 
are  concerned,  the  struggle  Ije- 
tween  man  and  animals  is  by 
no  means  over.  Strong  in  num- 
bers, many  of  them  are  directly 
or  indirectly  injurious  to  man 
and  his  property  to  an  extent 
which  frequently  affects  the 
prosperity  of  a  nation.  Direct 
injuries  to  man's  person  are  familiarly  illustrated  in 
the  parasitism  of  fleas,  lice,  and  other  more  or  less 
intimate  'boardei-s,'  but  these  are  less  important 
than  the  share  the  mosquito  seems  to  have  in  the 
loathsome  disease  Elephantiasis  arabiim.  The 
annoyance  of  midges  is  patent,  but  we  feel  the  deli- 
cacy of  the  threads  in  life's  web  when  we  rememljer 
that  the  house-fly  may  disseminate  the  germs  of 
bacterial  disease.  Personal  injuries,  however,  are 
dwarfe<l  when  we  think  of  those  done  to  projierty, 
and  especially  to  crops  and  herds,  by  voracious  or 
by  para-sitic  insects.  Clothes-moth  and  furniture- 
borer,  vine-insect  and  Colorado  beetle,  the  bot- 
flies w  liich  attack  shee]i,  cattle,  and  hoi-ses  are  fami- 
liar illustrations  of  formidable  pests.  It  should 
also  be  noted  how  the  hostile  insects  which  infest 
forest  trees  and  vegetation  generally  niav  occasion 
changes  which  have  far-off  effects  on  tlie  f;iiina, 
scenery,  and  even  climate  of  a  country-side.  In 
connection  with  injurious  insects  reference  should  be 
made  to  such  articles  as  .Anns,  BoT,  Corn  Insects, 
Hkssian  Flv,  Locust,  Phyi.i.oxkra.  Tset.sk, 
Weevil,  &c.  ;  to  the  well-known  and  inimitable 
Introduction  to  En/onio/iii/i/,  by  Kirby  and  Speiice  ; 
to  the  admirable  works  of  Miss  Urmerod  :  and  to 
the  researches  of  Ililey,  Packard,  and  others,  in 
the  Bulletins  of  the  United  States  Entomological 
Commission.  I''rom  either  of  the  last-named 
sources  a  guide  to  the  v.ost  literature  of  this  im- 
portant department  of  entomology  may  be  iibtiiined. 

As  to  the  other  side  of  the  account,  we  cannot 
ignore  our  inilebtedne.ss  to  hive-bee  and  silk-moth, 
to  cochineal  and  lac  insects,  which  furnish  us  with 
their  unique  and  valuable  products.  Othei-s  again 
are  indispensable  and  indefatigable  scavengers; 
many  wage  effective  war  upon  their  injurious 
kindred  ;   wliile  a  few,  such  as  locusts  and  some 


Fig.  8. — Campodea 
staphtijinus  (after 
Lubbock ),  one  of 
tlie  primitive  wing- 
less insects. 


172 


INSECTS 


INSPIRATION 


larv.T,  are  even  used  as  food.  All  these  benelits, 
however,  seem  small  in  the  li;,'ht  of  the  j;reat 
fact  that  the  majority  of  iilaiits  are  dependent 
upon  insects,  as  the  unconscions  liearers  of  the 
pollen  essential  to  the  normal  cross-fertilisation  of 
Uowers. 

Planta  and  Insects. — Referring  to  the  article 
Flower  for  a  statement  of  the  importance  of 
insects  in  the  cross-fertilisation  of  ilowers,  we 
are  safe  in  saying  that  neither  the  (lowers  nor  their 
constant  visitors  can  be  understood  apart.  Many 
insects,  however,  injure  plants  without  any  com- 
pensating henelit,  and  in  this  cimnection  nuist  be 
noted  the  frerjuent  oi'currence  of  protective  strnc- 
tures  in  ])lants,  whicli  help  to  dismiss  hostile  in- 
truders. On  the  other  hand,  there  are  numerous 
cases  in  whicli  ])lants  aiid  insects  (es]iecially  ants) 
form  a  mutual  partnership.  Such  '  myrmecophil- 
ous '  plants  a]e  saved  liy  their  bodyguard  of  ants 
from  unwelcome  visitors,  and  the  benetit  is  some- 
times returned  ( to  speak  metaphorically )  by  the 
growth  of  si)ecial  shelters  or  '  domatia,'  tenanted 
by  tlie  partner-insects.  See  (!.\LLS,  Ix.SECTlvoKOU.s 
Plant.s,  and  the  literature  cited  at  Flower  ;  also 
Kerner's  F/oiccrs  itnd  thrir  Unbidden  G iicsta  {tiiina. 
Lond.  1S78)  ;  and  for  references  to  the  works  of 
Delpino,  lielt.  Huth,  &c.,  on  '  myrmecopliilous 
plants,'  see  Schinijiers  Wechselbezie'huny  zirischen 
tjlanzen  und  Ameisen  ( 1888). 

Historji  of  the  Stiidij  of  Insects  (Entomologii). — 
Insects  had  their  due  place  in  Aristotle's  zoological 
system,  and  since  thoughtful  observation  began 
have  been  studied  with  much  constancy,  ilalpiglii 
(1628-94),  whose  name  is  perpetuated  in  connec- 
tion with  the  excretory  tubules,  was  the  (irst  to 
give  a  thorough  description  of  an  insect's  ( the  silk- 
moth's)  anatomy.  His  contemporary  Swammer- 
dam  got  further  in  his  investigation  of  insect  meta- 
morphoses. Uay  (  1028-78)  and  Liniueus  ( 17l>7-78) 
helped  to  infuse  system  and  order  into  entojuology, 
while  the  works  of  Kcauniur  (1683-1757)  are 
classical  models  of  carefulness.  Rosel  von  Rosen- 
hof.  Bonnet,  De  Geer,  Schiifier,  Fabricius,  and 
Lyonnet  were  among  the  illustrious  entomologists 
of  the  18tli  century.  Cuvier  (1769-18S2)  began 
the  study  of  insects  in  eaily  youth  with  an 
enthusiasm  which  he  never  lost,  and  was  wont  to 
trace  to  the  precision  gained  in  his  dissections  of 
insects  no  small  part  of  his  success  as  an  anatomist. 
Savigny's  comparison  of  the  nu)nth-appendages  of 
insects  and  other  .Arthropods  was  au  important 
step  on  .-i  path  often  |iursued  since;  and  among  the 
great  entomologists  of  the  lirst  half  of  the  19th  cen- 
tury, all  more  or  less  inlluenced  liy  ( 'nviers  example, 
were  Latreille,  Kirby.  Dufonr,  liurnuuster,  Au- 
douin,  IJlanchard,  Lacordaire,  and  .1.  (».  Westwood. 
But  beyond  this  the  embarrassment  of  illustrious 
names  makes  compressed  history  more  and  more 
ilitlicult;  snllice  it  to  notice  the  recent  progre.ss 
made  in  the  study  of  the  minute  strnctnre — e.g. 
of  the  sense-organs  of  insects— in  exjierijuental 
analysis  of  the  sensory  powers,  in  elucidating  a 
natural  classilication,  in  deciphering  the  history 
both  of  fo.Hsil  forms  and  of  the  individual  organism. 

Kirby  speaks  enthusiastically  of  the  we.-iltb  con- 
tained in  a  well-stored  cabinet  of  iu.sects.  of  the 
problems  suggested  by  the  study  of  their  anatomy 
and  physiology,  but  rightly  urges  that  'we  nmst 
behold  insects  when  full  of  life  and  activity,  en- 
gaged in  their  several  employments,  ])ractising  their 
various  arts,  pursuing  their  anioui-s.  ami  jueparing 
habitations  for  their  ])rogenv  :  we  must  notice  the 
laying  and  kind  of  their  eggs;  their  wonih>rful 
metamorphosis :  their  instincts,  whether  they  be 
solitary  or  gregarious,  and  other  miracles  of  their 
history.'  'I'heii  we  sh.iU  ('cho  the  words  of  I'liny, 
and  of  all  entomologists :  '  In  these  beings  so 
minute,   and   as  it  were  such   nonentities,    what  I 


wisdom  is  displayed,  what  power,  what  unfathom- 
able jierfection  ! ' 

As  reference  has  beeu  nia'le  throughout  the  article  to 
special  works,  it  will  be  encu^'h  here  to  uiention  sonic  of 
the  general  books— (»)  zoological  text-books,  such  at 
those  of  Clans,  Gegcnbaur,  Huxley,  Lang,  and  Hatcliett 
Jackson's  edition  of  KoUeston  :  (/;)  encyclopaedia  articles 
by  Newport  in  Todd's  ViniojxnlM  nf  Aiuitomii  und 
J'hiisioloiiji,  and  M'Lacldau  in  Unriirlii/ii'idia  ISritnnnica  : 
I  ( (■  I  to  the  more  popular  natural  histories— Cassell's 
( edited  by  Jlartiii  Duncan )  and  the  Standard  or  Itiver- 
side  (edited  by  .7.  S.  Kingslcy ) :  ((/)  to  general  works— 
W.  Kirby  and  \V.  .Spence,  IntroJiietion  to  Entomnlor/v 
(4  vols.  181.5-26;  1  vol.  Lond.  1850);  ,T.  O.  AVestwood, 
Ctasxifimtion  of  Insccla  (2  vols.  1839^10);  Packard, 
<Huide  to  the  Stiidii  of  IiiMcts  (New  York,  1S78); 
V.  Oraber,  lJi<  Iiisiktcn  (2  vols.  1877);  L.  Cauierano, 
Atuilomia  Uci/li  InsMi  ( 1882)  :  "\V.  F.  Kirby,  Eliimntnrii 
Text-hook  of  Entomoloijn  (ISS.")):  (i)  for  Uterature, 
Hagen's  liiUiolhcca  Enlomoloijint,  the  Naples  Znol. 
Jahrcubericht,  aiul  the  Zoohijical  Record. 

IllseSSOlM'S  (Lat.,  '  perchers ' ),  or  PERCHING 
Birds,  au  onh'r  of  birds  called  by  Cuvier  Passerine 
or  'sparrow-like.'  The  order  includes  more  than 
half  the  known  birds,  but  can  hanlly  be  delined, 
since  the  members  are  marked  otf  rather  by  a 
combination  of  characters  than  by  any  unioueness. 
The  title  is  usually  now  replaced  by  that  of  Passeres 
(q.v.). 

Insolvency.    See  B.vnkiuptcv. 
Insomnia.    See  Sleep. 

Inspectors.  See  Factory  Act.s,  Minino, 
NrisANCKs,  Poor-laws,  School  Inspectors,  \-e. 
In  the  military  use  of  the  term,  there  are  two 
inspectors-general  of  cavalry  in  the  United  King- 
dom and  two  inspectors  of  auxiliary  cav.alry,  also 
an  inspector  general  of  fortitications.  The  former 
inspect  the  several  corjis  in  their  districts,  .-ind 
]ioint  out  deliciencies,  the  corps  being  under  the 
c(Unmand,  however,  of  its  own  officers,  and  not  of 
the  insi)ector-general.  The  latter  is  responsible 
for  all  fortitications  and  military  works  in  the 
I'nited  KingdcMu.  District-inspectors  of  musketry 
have  beeu  replaced  by  district-assistant-adjntant- 
generals,  and  ins]iectors-general  of  hospitiils  by 
surgeons-general.  Inspectors  of  infantiy,  artillery, 
volunteers,  and  militia  have  beeu  abolished. 

Inspiration,  in  christian  theology,  is  the  in- 
fluence of  God  on  the  writers  of  the  Scriptures, 
which  nuikes  these  Scriptures  the  Word  of  (Jod. 
The  word  '  inspiration  '  is  derived  from  the  Vulgate 
translation  iotnn/s  .srriptnrtt  dirtnitufi  /n.s/n'nitft)  oi 
2  Tim.  iii.  16,  which  in  the  revised  English  transla- 
tion runs:  'Every  Scrii>ture  ins]iired  of  God  is 
|iri)litable,'  iS;c.  The  (ircek  word  l/ndjinnistos, 
rendered  'inspired,'  does  not  occur  in  classical 
(Jreek,  and  it  might  as  fairly  be  rendered  '  breathing 
the  divine  spirit.'  as  'given  by  the  divine  s]>irit.' 
Belief  in  inspiration  is  not  conlined  to  Jews  and 
Christians;  all  religions  that  are  based  on  a  divine 
revelatiiui  by  means  of  sacreil  scrijitures  assume 
and  nllirm  ins]iiratioii  for  th:it  revelation.  (Irtho- 
<lox  Hindus  regard  the  Vedas  as  of  superhuman 
origin,  and  ab.solntely  infallible.  The  Parsees  hold 
th.it  the  Zend-Avesta  was  revealed  to  Zarathustra 
by  the  per.sonilication  of  the  divine  will  which  cre- 
ated the  world.  .\nd  the  orthodox  Moslem  sees  in 
the  Koran  an  earlhly  copy  of  the  luigiual  he;ivenly 
text  revealed  to  Mohamuieil  in  his  trances  by  the 
angel  of  revelation  ;  tlunigh  various  Moslem  sec- 
taries, as  the  Motazilites,  treat  it  with  free  ration- 
alism. 

No  doctrine  of  insjiiration  is  formulated  either 
in  the  Old  'i'estinuent  or  the  New.  l!nt  it  inay 
be  said  that  the  .lews  generally  have  ludd  .a 
'high'  doctrine  of  ins]iir:uion  ;  and  the  earliest 
Christian  authors  apply  to  ( lid  and  New  'I'esta- 
ments  the  doctrine  develoi)ed    by    Pliilo  and   the 


INSPIRATION 


173 


Alexandrian  Jews  as  to  the  OW  Testament — that 
the  writei's  were  in  an  ecstatic  condition  or  trance 
as  interpreters  of  (jJotl's  will,  and  as  sucli  were  un- 
conscious of  what  they  spoke.  Origen  and  later 
authors  denied  this  iiuoitii-  theory  :  thou;,'li  Irena'Us 
and  Augustine  compare  the  writers  of  Scripture  to 
the  hands  which  wrote  what  Christ  dictated.  Tliere 
was  no  delinite  church  doctrine  before  the  Refor- 
mation ;  the  Keforniei's  <lid  not  discuss  fully  the 
nature  of  inspiration,  thou<;h  the  Heforniation  had 
empliasised  the  uniqueness  and  authority  of  the 
Scriptures.  It  was  Calovius  (([.v. )  wlio  laid  down 
the  theory  that  soon  came  to  be  rejiarded  as  the 
orthodox  Protestant  theory — that  nothin-;  exists  in 
the  Scriptures  which  was  not  divinely  suj^gested  and 
inspired.  His  followers  niaile  the  writers  depend- 
ent on  the  Spirit  for  their  very  words,  their  choice 
of  expressions  and  grammatical  forms  beini;  also 
divinely  perfect.  Buxtorf  found  the  Hebrew 
vowel  points  inspired,  and  the  Swiss  Formula 
Consensus  Helvetica  (see  C()Sfes.sions  of  Faith) 
extended  inspiration  to  the  punctuation. 

The  tendency  of  all  schools  of  modem  Protestant 
theoloj;y  has  been  to  pass  wholly  away  from  this 
mode  of  thought.  Without  at  present  regarding 
those  who  tind  in  the  Jewish  and  early  Christian 
literature  at  most  inspiring  rather  than  inspired 
books,  we  tind  the  extreme  antithesis  to  the  Calovian 
position  in  the  view  of  those  who,  accepting  divine 
revelation  in  the  Old  and  New  Testaments,  tind 
revelatiim  and  inspiration  in  all  that  makes  the 
nature  and  will  of  God  known  to  us — in  the  laws  of 
nature  a-s  well  as  in  the  literature  of  devotion  :  and 
having  regard  to  the  fact  that  the  Christian  dis- 
pensation is  a  higher  form  of  truth  than  the  Jewish, 
hold  that  there  is  more  of  di\ine  ins))iration  in  such 
Christian  books  as  the  Imitafio  Christi  and  the 
Pilgrim's  Progress  than  in  Esther  or  most  part  of 
the  Uld  Testament.  Between  these  extremes  are 
to  be  found  the  dogmatic  positions  of  all  those  who 
still  cling  to  the  Bible  as  the  unitjue  revelation  of 
C;o<l  in  Christ.  The  differences  ot  spirit  are  wide, 
and  the  divergencies  in  statement  innumerable. 
But  they  may  be  referred  to  a  few  main  types. 

Many"  hohl  the  doctrine  of  uleiuiry,  as  opposed  to 
partial,  ins])iration — practically  the  view  called  by 
its  enemies  rather  than  by  its  sup])orters  rerbal 
inspiration.  Thus  Dr  Charles  Hodge  teaches  that 
'all  the  books  of  Scripture  are  equally  inspired. 
All  alike  are  infallible  in  what  they  teach.  In- 
spiration extends  to  all  the  contents  of  all  these 
several  Ijooks.  It  is  not  con  lined  to  moral  and 
religious  truths,  but  extends  to  the  statement  of 
facts  whether  scientific,  histoincal,  or  geographical.' 
The  object  of  revelation  is  to  connnunicate  know- 
ledge, whereas  that  of  inspiration  is  to  secure  in- 
fallibility in  teaching.  Dr  A.  A.  Hodge  holds  that 
some  received  revelations  who  were  not  inspired  to 
communicate  them,  as  Abraham ;  that  sometimes 
the  writer  was  used  by  the  Holy  Spirit  as  an 
instrument  in  making  a  record  of  what  conveyed 
to  him  no  intelligible  sense  (1  Peter,  i.  10-1'2)  ; 
some,  as  Balaam,  being  unregenerate,  w-ere  in- 
spired though  destitute  of  spiritual  illumination. 
Of  those  who  abide  by  this  view  some  are  more 
careful  than  others  to  protest  against  a  iiicr/ifniiral 
doctrine,  hoMing  that  they  can  allow  fully  for 
the  individuality  and  special  gifts  of  the  various 
writers  of  Scrii>ture ;  all  errors  are  consistently 
denied,  and  discrepancies  are  explained  away 
as  trivial  and  merely  apparent  (see  Oo.si'ELS). 
The  standard  is  the  Scripture  in  the  original 
tongues,  the  text  being  established  by  criticism. 
The  canonicity  of  the  existing  iKjoks  should  on 
this  theorj'  be  proved,  but  is  sometimes  practically 
ius.sumed. 

In  opposition  to  this  view  it  is  sometimes 
atlirmed    that    inspiration    rendered    the    writers 


infallible  in  teaching  religious  and  moral  truth, 
though  they  might  err  as  to  historical  and  scien- 
titic  facts:  or  that  inspiration  was  but  a  pre- 
eminent degree  of  that  spiritual  illumination 
which  in  a  less  degree  is  comnmn  to  all  Christians; 
or  that,  while  Christ's  |iersonal  teiichings  were 
infallible,  the  apostles  and  others  were  inspired 
in  a  le.ss  degree.  Schleiermacher  taught  that  the 
authority  of  the  scriptural  writers  was  projior- 
tionate  to  the  closeness  of  their  relation  to  Jesus 
Christ.  -Many,  protesting  against  all  '  mechani- 
cal theories  and  procrustean  formula','  hold, 
with  Archdeacon  Farrar  (in  the  Clerical  Hi/m- 
posimn  cited  below):  'The  Bible  is  the  book 
which  contains  the  records  of  God's  dealings  with 
a  chosen  race,  and  through  them  with  mankind. 
Above  all,  it  is  the  book  which  contains  the 
gospel  of  his  Son  and  the  lessons  of  salvation. 
It  is  not  all  of  the  same  value.  It  is  not  all 
written  on  the  same  level.  It  contains  some 
things  which  were  permitted  because  of  the  hard- 
ness of  men's  hearts.  .  .  .  Much  of  it  is  written  from 
the  imperfect  moral  and  s])iritual  standard  of  times 
of  ignorance,  at  which  God  winked.  You  will 
hnd  recorded  in  it  without  comment  or  disai>proval 
some  opinions  and  some  actions  e\  en  of  good  men 
«hich  were  not  commendable.  You  will  iind 
attributed  to  God's  command  conduct  which  for 
us  would  be  heinously  criminal.  Nevertheless, 
this  book  is  a  sacred  book,  for  the  sum  total  and 
general  drift  of  its  teaching  is  loftier  and  diviner 
than  any  you  will  tind  in  the  worlil.  Both  liy  its 
own  loftiest  utterances  and  by  the  Christian 
conscience  which  it  has  trained,  and  by  the  final 
standard  of  the  gospel,  it  furnishes  you  with  ample 
means  whereby  to  judge  what  things  are  right 
and  wrong.  .  .  .  The  Bible  is  no  homogeneous 
whole.  It  consists  of  sixty-six  different  l)Ooks, 
the  work  of  at  least  forty  writers,  written  in 
diti'erent  languages  and  dialects,  and  separate  from 
each  other  by  hundreds  of  years.  It  is  not  a 
hook,  but  a  library  or  a  literature.'  Or,  as  Horton 
puts  it :  '  We  call  our  Bible  inspired,  because  by 
readinw  it  and  studying  it  we  fiiul  our  way  to  God, 
we  find  his  will  for  us,  and  find  how  we  can  con- 
form ourselves  to  his  will.'  It  is  not  more  necessarj- 
that  every  word  of  the  Bible  should  be  infallible 
than  that  Peter  and  other  apostolic  men  should 
never  in  their  teaching  have  made  nustakes,  and 
this  we  know  was  not  so. 

'  In  the  Koman  Catholic  Church  some  theologians 
have  asserted  verbal  inspiration ;  but  this  has 
never  been  the  doctrine  of  the  church.  Distinguish- 
ing between  inspiration  and  the  assistance  of  the 
Holy  (ihost,  which  would  merely.  :is  in  the  c:i.se  of 
general    councils,   protect    from    error,    the   church 

;  recognises   two  factoi-s   in   an   inspired   book— the 

I  natural  pow-ers  of  the  writers  on  the  one  hand  and 

[  the  impulse  and  direction  of  the  Holy  Ghost  on  the 
other.     But  the  church,  which  is  liie  guardian  of 

I  the  canon  and  the  interpreter  of  Scripture,  has 
never  dcliiicd  where   the  one  ceases  and  the  other 

j  begins.  Catholics  have  maintained  the  exist- 
ence of  trilling  errors  in  Scripture:  and  Cardinal 

I  Newman  sees  no  serious  ditliculty  in  admitting 
that  there  are  'obiter  dicta'  in  Scripture  whiili  are 
not  inspired. 

Sec  tlie  article  BiBI.K  in  this  work,  as  also  APOLOGETICS, 
Exegesis,  AccoMMoi'.\rio.v,  Divination,  Alui  ries, 
lioSPEL;  the  article  by  I'reiiier  in  Herzog,  the  supple- 
mentary article  in  SchalFs  Riiiijious  J^iici/clo/Atdia.  and 
that  in  .\ddis  and  .Vrnold's  Catholic  Dictionarij ;  tlie 
relevant  parts  of  tiie  works  of  Hodge,  t>o^te^zee,  Donicr, 
Pfleidercr;  lla;;inliacirs //m'"///"/  I'oclriii's  :  and  works 
on  his]iiration  by  NVordswortli  ( 18(il ),  tiaussin  ( Kng. 
trans.  18.51),  Ue  (18.54),  KUiott  (1877),  Brown  (18S0), 
Given  (1881),  K.  F.  Horton  (1888),  Cardinal  Newman 
in  the  KiHclrenlli  Cenlnrii  of  February  1884  ;  lii.yiiratwn  : 
a  Clerical  SiftniMaium,  \>y  the  rei>reMntativcs  of  various 


174 


INSTINCT 


views  (1881);  A.  B.  Bruce,  The  Kimidom  of  fiorf  (1889) ; 
C.  Gore  in  Lux  Mundi  (1890);  Sanday's  Bampton 
Lecture  on  Iiisi>iration  (1891);  and  the  innumerable 
works  on  tlie  subject  referred  to  in  the  books  named. 

Instinct,  the  mental  aspect  of  those  actions 
wliicli  take  rank  hetween  unconscious  rellex  activ- 
ities and  intelligent  conduct.  When  we  observe 
the  lowest  forms  of  life  KlidinL.'  slowly  towards  their 
food,  or  the  roots  of  iilants  overcominj,'  olistacles 
in  their  search  for  soil  and  moisture,  we  recognise 
activities  certainly  ad\antageons,  yet  so  compara- 
tively simple  that  they  almost  admit  of  direct 
physical  and  chemical  explanation.  More  complex 
activity  is  at  once  apparent  when  we  watch  the 
fly-trap  or  sundew  catching  insects,  or  notice  the 
protective  responses  which  most  animals  make  to 
provoking  or  startling  stimuli.  These  iniplj'  ,an 
inherited  and  wellestahlislied  relation  of  parts 
(usu.ally  nerve  and  muscle),  such  that  a  frequently 
recurrent  form  of  stimulus  provokes  an  immediate, 
definite,  anil  more  or  less  appropriate  response. 
Such  actions  usually  depend  on  what  is  figuratively 
called  a  neuro-muscular  'mechanism" — i.e.  on 
the  power  that  subordinate  nerve-centres  have  of 
responding  to  stimuli  without  bringing  the  chief 
centres  ( or  brain )  into  exercise.  They  may  there- 
fore occur  even  in  cut  oil  parts  of  animals,  or  after 
the  organism  is  virtually  dead.  Higher  than  these, 
however,  are  the  marvellous  activities,  most 
familiar  perhaps  in  insects  and  birds,  for  which 
tnore  or  less  of  a  brain  is  essential,  Mhich  are  so 
engrained  in  the  organism   that   they  require   no 

firactice,  which  often  adapt  means  to  ends,  but  show 
ittle  power  'of  adjustment  to  novel  conditions, 
which  are  linally  the  birthright,  not  of  elect 
individuals,  but  of  all  the  members  of  a  species. 
But  as  we  review  the  animal  series  in  ascending 
order  we  become  more  and  more  impressed  with 
yet  higher  actions,  for  which  a  head-centre  or  brain 
seems  essential,  which  often  require  to  be  learned 
and  are  perfected  by  practice,  which  adapt  means 
to  ends  in  novel  circumstances,  and  vary  greatly 
anion"  individuals. 

So  far  we  have  kept  apart  such  words  as  mind, 
intelligence,  instinct,  consciousness  ;  but  that  is  no 
longer  possible  or  desiralile.  for  the  last  three  grades 
of  activity  described  above  are  not  only  observ- 
able facts,  but  are  also  parts  of  our  personal  experi- 
ence, and  must  be  considered  in  that  light.  Like 
animals,  we  of  course  e.xhiliit  immediate  neuro- 
muscular responses  to  external  stimuli :  witness  the 
sudden  withdrawal  of  our  finger  from  a  burning 
object  unwittingly  touched.  Such  res]ionses,  for 
which  brains  are  not  neces.sary,  occur  '  without  our 
knowing,'  and  are  called  reflex.  Next  on  the  scale 
come  numerous  actions,  from  the  sucking  of  infancy 
onwards,  which  require  no  practice,  delilieration,  or 
etlorl,  but  yet  have  a  distinct  mental  a,spect,  being 
u.sually  a.ssociated  with  conscionsru'ss,  and  stimu- 
lateil  rather  by  perceptions  than  by  sensations. 
Such  actions,  learned  so  long  ago  that  the  power  of 
doing  them  is  now  entailed  by  heredity,  are  more 
predominant  in  animals  than  in  oui-selves,  and  are 
called  instinctive.  Higher  than  these,  and  |)re- 
eminent  in  man,  are  the  actions  which  deliberately 
adapt  means  to  ends,  with  conscious  intention  and 
controlling  intelliqetuc.  These  lead  on  to  the  most 
characteristically  liuman  actions,  in  whioli  we  often 
.seem  to  hold  ourselves  as  unities  apart  I'iom  what 
is  outside  us,  and  in  which  we  are  inllueiiced  by 
general  ide.as  and  definite  ideals,  being  in  fact  self- 
conscious  men.  So  far  there  is  practical  unanimity, 
I)Ut  difiicullies  inevitably  arise  when  we  begin  to 
project  upon  animals  our  own  experience  of  retlex, 
instinctive,  and  intellij.'ent  .actions.  We  are  forceil 
to  argue  by  analogy,  and  therefore  with  uncertainty. 
It  is  allowed,  however,  by  almost  all  that  the  old- 
fashioned  attempt  to  call  all  the  higher  activities 


of  anim.als  instinctive,  in  sharp  contra.st  to  the 
intelligent  conduct  of  man,  merely  expresses  an 
ignorant  prejudice.  No  competent  observer  denies 
that  ant  and  bee,  dog  anil  elephant,  beaver  and 
monkey,  frequently  exhibit  actions  higher  than 
instinctive,  in  .some  ca.ses  ijuite  parallel  to  that 
human  conduct  which  we  call  intelligent.  This,  how- 
ever, does  not  of  cimrsc  assiMt  that  any  animals  have 
attained  to  the  human  level  of  self-conscious  intelli- 
gence, with  its  ideas  and  ideals.  In  thinking  about 
the  grades  of  action,  which  are  usually  regarded  as 
stages  in  evolution,  it  is  well  to  distinguish  the 
objective  or  observable  characteristics  from  the 
subjective  or  analogical  interpretation  ;  and  it  is 
also  important  to  recognise  that  the  grades  ilistin- 
guished  are  not  hard  ami  fast,  but  simply  mark 
areas  on  an  inclined  plane  which  slopes  from  the 
amceba  up  to  man. 

Dcfliiition.',: — We  are  not  concerned  here  with  the 
general  questions  suggested  by  such  descriptions  of 
instinct  a-s  refer  it  to  'immediate  impressions  from 
the  Fii'st  Jlover  or  from  the  di\ine  energy  acting  in 
the  creature,'  nor  is  it  necessary  to  discuss  those 
which  make  the  term  include  all  the  .adaptive 
actions  of  animals  in  sharp  contra.st  to  the  intelli- 
gence of  man.  Some  others,  however,  are  more 
to  the  point.  Thus,  Hartinann  defines  instinct  as 
•  action  taken  in  pursuance  of  an  end,  without  con- 
scious perception  of  what  the  eiul  is.'  Spencer  calls 
instinct  '  a  kind  of  organised  memory  : '  .Samuel 
Hutler  says  '  instinct  is  inherited  memory  : '  .J.  J. 
Murphy  describes  it  as  '  the  sum  of  inherited  habits.' 
According  to  Eimer,  '  instinct  is  inherited  ca|)a- 
bility,  and  especially  inheiitecl  habit  ;  or  more 
exactly,  instinct  is  the  inherited  power  of  acting 
h,abitually  and  without  ilelilieration  in  a  inirposeful, 
intelligent  fashion,  under  the  influence  of  internal 
stimuli,  plus  or  minus  others  from  without. '  Accord- 
ing to  Komanes,  '  instinct  is  rellex  action  into  which 
there  is  im|iorted  the  element  of  consciousness. 
The  term  is  therefore  a  generic  one,  comprising  all 
those  faculties  of  mind  which  are  concerned  in 
conscious  and  adaptive  action,  antecedent  to  indi- 
vidual experience,  without  necessary  knowledge  of 
the  relation  between  means  em])loyed  and  ends 
attained,  but  similarly  ]ierformed  under  similar 
•and  frequently  recurring  circumstances  by  all  the 
individuals  of  the  same  species.' 

Examp/cs.  — Instinctive  actions  are  usually  perfect 
from  the  fii-st  and  independent  of  individual  experi- 
ence. Thus,  the  liutterlly  makes  the  lemarkable 
transition  from  caterpillar  to  adult  habits  without 
hesitation  ov  failure ;  the  bee  lilies  llowers  on 
its  first  flight ;  and  the  chick  in  the  first  few  hours 
of  its  open-air  life  makes  successful  darts  at  flies. 
Ill  other  cases,  however,  pr,actice  ajipears  to  help, 
as  in  the  nest-building  activities  ot  birds.  Nor 
are  instincts  always  sufficiently  perfect,  for  ants 
store  beads  instead  of  grains,  and  mistake  corn- 
wheat  seeds  for  their  own  encoiuis  ;  flower-visiting 
insi'cts  .also  jiatronise  blight  coloured  wallpa])er  ; 
and  the  lemmings  in  their  instinct  for  going  right 
ahead  will  swim  str.aight  out  to  sea.  Marvellous 
are  the  instincts  exhibited  by  social  animals  such 
a.s  ,ants  and  beavers,  by  insects  which  |>rovide  elabo- 
rately for  young  which  they  never  survive  to 
behold,  and  in  the  nesting  and  migration  of  our 
common  birds.  Less  pleasant,  in  fact  almost 
ile\ilish  in  iMgenuily,  is  the  instinct  of  the  Sphex 
wasps,  which  provide  fresh  meat  for  their  future 
larva'  by  storing  spiders,  in.sects,  and  caterpillars 
which  tliey  have  stung  in  their  chief  nerve-centres, 
with  the  result  that  the  victims  are  not  killed  out- 
right, but  only  paralysed. 

l)rii/iii  iif  tiislinil.s. — An  ajqiroximation  to  the 
truth  will  probably  be  atlained  by  comliining  the 
chief  theories.  (1)  Instincts  m,ay  be  the  iidierited 
results  of  compound  reflex  actions,  and  are  there- 


INSTITUTE 


INSURANCE 


175 


Automatic  Habit. 


/natlnctive. 


Reflex  Action. 


Diasr.im  illustrating  origin  of 
Instinct  from  rertex  action 
on  tin-  one  hand,  from  lapswl 
intelligence  on  the  other  (cf. 
Romanes '. 


fore  in  urij;iii  iinintelliijeut  (Spencer).  (2)  N'atuial 
selection  may  lix  on  imrjioseless  habits  wliicli  diaiice 
to  be  prolitable,  ami  convert  tlieni  into  instincts 
withont  intelligence  being  ever  concerned  in  the 
process  ( Darwin,  Romanes).  Weisniann  points  out 
that  not  a  few  instincts  are  exliibiteil  onlv  once 
in  a  lifetime,  so  that  they  at  least  can  hanlly  be  tlie 
inheriteil  results  of  practice.  He  holds  that  'all 
instinct  is  entirely  due  to  the  operation  of  natural 
selection,  and  has  its 
iNTKLLtOEKT.  foundation     not     upon 

I  inherited     experiences, 

but  upon  variations  of 
the  germ.'  (3)  Instincts 
may  arise  from  habits, 
which  were  origiiuilly 
intelligent,  becoming 
by  repetition  automatic 
( Darwin,  Lewes,  Ko- 
manes,  &c. ).  Einier 
derives  instincts  from 
inherited  intelligent 
habits,  which  are  sliort- 
ened  and  simplilied  in 
evolution,  though  fre- 
quently retaining  a  trace 
of  deliberation.  (4) 
While  instincts  may  arise  by  natural  selection 
alone,  or  by  lapsing  intelligence  alone,  '  these 
principles  when  working  in  c<j-operation  have 
greater  intluence  in  evolving  instincts  than  either 
of  them  can  have  when  working  singly'  (Romanes). 
(T))  Imitation,  as  Wallace  insists,  and  the  power  of 
rai)id  learning,  which  Eimer  emphasises,  have 
probably  been  of  importance  in  the  evolution  of 
some  instincts.  It  seems  certain  that  instincts 
may  arise  either  from  unintelligent  or  from  intelli- 
gent habits,  that  their  evolution  may  be  abetted  by 
natural  selection,  and  that  the  power  of  instinctive 
action  is  conserved  by  the  organic  memory  of 
inherit.ance. 

See  Ant,  Be.web,  Bee.  Bied,  Cuckoo,  Elephant,  &c. 
for  illu.strations ;  also  Br.vin,  Evolution,  Heredity. 
For  full  illustrations,  see  especially  G.  J.  Koinanes,  A  nimal 
Intelti(iei>ce  (Inter.  .So.  .Series,  I8S2);  Couch's  lllustra- 
tiuiix  of  Instinct ;  Lauder  Lindsay's  Mind  in  Animals  ; 
Biichner's  Aiis  dent  Geisteslfben  der  Thicrc  (trans.),  &c. 
For  theory  of  instinct,  see  especially  Romanes,  Mental 
Evolution  in  Animals,  with  a  jjosthunious  essay  on 
Instinct  by  Darwin  (1883);  compare  Darwin's  Vriijin 
of  SjH'cies  ;  Wallace's  Natural  Selection  ;  Spencer's  Prin- 
ciples of  Psycholoijii  and  Principles  of  Bioloijy ;  G.  H. 
Levies,  Problems  of  Life  and  Mind:  S.  Butler,  Life  and 
Habit;  3.  J.  Murpliy,  Habit  and  Intelligence;  Caqien- 
ter,  Maud.sley,  Bastian,  Wundt,  and  others  on  Mental 
Physiology ;  E.  Von  Hartmann,  Das  Unbewusste  voin 
Standpunktt  der  Phtjsiologie  (2d  ed.  1877):  Sclmeider, 
Der  thitrische  Wille  ( 1880) ;  Preyer,  Die  Scele  des  Kindes 
( 1882) ;  Eimer,  Die  Entstehuwj  der  Arten  (1888) ;  Weis- 
mann.  Papers  on  Heredity  (1889). 

Institute,  The,  in  English  law,  is  the  mode  of 

citation  or  reference  to  Chief- justice  Coke's  great 
work  on  English  law,  the  name  for  the  lirst  part  of 
which  is  C'o/.e  h^(/>«  Liltlcton  (see  Coke). — Institutes 
is  the  name  given  to  the  elements  of  Roman  or 
civil  law.     See  Law,  .Ii.stinian. 

Iiistitiitc-  «r  FraiKT.    See  Academy. 

Ilistruillt'lltatioil  is  the  art  of  using,  in  com- 
positiim,  the  various  instruments  and  combinations 
of  till'  Orchestra  (q.v. ). 

Illsiiraiire  is  a  contract  under  which  one  j>arty, 
called  the  Insurer,  or  As.surer,  agrees,  in  considera- 
tion of  a  sum  of  money  called  the  Premium,  to  pay 
a  larger  sum  of  money  to  another  party,  called  the 
Insured,  («•  Assured,  <in  the  hajqiening  of  a  desig- 
nated contingency.  Insurance  h.os  sometimes  been 
saiil  to  lie  akin  to  gambling,  but  it  is  really 
the  converse.     The  gambler  seeks  excitement  and 


I  gain  by  the  artificial  manufacture  of  hazardous 
speculations.  The  prudent  man  resorts  to  insur- 
ance in  order  to  secure  peace  of  mind  anil  immunity 
from  the  loss  which  might  arise  from  contingencies 
beyond  his  control.  The  gambler  creates  or  exag- 
genites  lisks  ;  the  insurance  otiice  equalises  them. 

The  ori'dn  of  insurance  is  lost  in  antic|uity.  At 
a  very  eaidy  ])eriod  merchants  insnicd  tlieir  ve.s.sels 
•and  goods  against  the  perils  of  the  .se.as,  and  ]iroh- 
ably  marine  ifisnrtf)ire  was  the  lirst  description  to 
I  come  into  existence.  From  insuiing  ships  and 
nicichandi.se,  tlie  step  was  not  a  long  one  to  insure 
for  the  voyage  the  life  of  the  captain,  on  whom  so 
much  depended  ;  and  we  therefore  soon  liiid  traces 
of  such  contracts,  the  insurance  frc(|uently  jirovid- 
ing  for  the  sum  assured  to  be  paid,  not  only  in  the 
event  of  the  death  of  the  captain,  but  also  in  the 
event  of  his  capture  by  pirates,  or  by  the  king's 
enemies.  Moreover,  the  merchant  in  those  early 
days  frequently  accompanied  the  \essel  in  whicli 
his  goods  were  shipped.  Possibly  he  had  olitaine<l 
the  goods  on  credit,  on  condition  of  paying  dotible 
their  cost  should  he  return  safely,  and  the  creditor 
would  thereupon  insure  the  life  of  the  meridiant  for 
that  particulixr  voyage.  Life  iissiiniiirr  jiroving  in 
this  connection  very  convenient,  it  gradually  was 
resorted  to  in  other  business  transactions,  and 
ultimately  came  to  be  sought  as  a  means  of  family 
jirovision. 

The  first  evidence  of  frc  insurance  is  to  be 
found  in  connection  with  the  Anglo-Saxon  guilds, 
although  probably  it  also  w.as  a  developiiieiit  of 
marine  insurance.  The  reader  will  iiiid  full  in- 
formation on  the  historical  aspect  of  the  subject  in 
the  various  articles  in  AValford's  Insurance  Eiinjclo- 
ptvdia,  and  in  an  essay  on  the  '  History  of  Life 
Assurance  in  the  United  Kingdom,'  by  the  same 
author,  in  the  Journal  of  the  Institute  of  Actuaries 
(vols.  XXV.  and  xxvi. ). 

Life  Insurance. — The  earliest  life-as.snrance 
[jolicy  of  which  iiarticulars  have  been  jireserved  was 
maile  on  loth  June  1583  at  the  '  Otiice  of  Insurance, 
within  the  Royal  Exchange,'  in  London.  Full 
<letails  of  this  policy  have  been  preserved,  because 
it  gave  rise  to  the  first  authentic  disputed  claim. 
The  policy  was  for  £383,  6s.  Sil.,  to  be  paid  to 
Richard  Martin  in  the  event  of  William  Cyblxms 
dying  within  twelve  months,  and  the  jiolicy  was 
underwritten  by  thirteen  dilVerent  persons  who 
gnarjinteed  sums  of  from  £25  to  £50  each.  The 
]ireminm  was  at  the  rate  of  £8  per  cent.  William 
Cybbons  died  on  28th  May  1584,  and  the  under- 
writers refused  to  pay  because  he  had  survived 
twelve  months  of  twenty-eight  days  each.  The 
Commissioners  a]ipointed  to  determine  such  eases 
held  that  the  twelve  months  mentioned  in  the 
])(dicy  meant  one  full  year,  and  they  ordered  the 
underwriters  to  ]iay.  These  appealed  to  the  Court 
of  Admiralty,  which  then  hail  jurisdiction  in  such 
cases,  and  wliere  in  1587  two  judges  tipbehl  the 
decision  of  the  Commissioners,  so  that  eventually 
the  underwriters  had  to  pay. 

The  existing  company  known  since  1698  as  the 
Hand-in  Hand  w;is  started  in  lODii  under  the  name 
of  the  Amicable,  and  is  therefore  the  oldest  insur- 
ance company  in  existence,  but  it  did  in>t  begin 
life  business  until  18.'j6.  The  earliest  known  life- 
as.surance  company  was  established  in  1699,  and 
called  the  '  Society  of  Assurance  for  Widows  and 
Orphans.'  This  was  what  now  would  be  called 
an  assessment  company.  It  did  not  guaiantee  a 
delinite  sum  assured,  in  consideration  of  a  lixed 
periodical  premium,  but  by  its  ciuislilutiou  it  was 
to  consist  when  full  of  20(K)  members  who  were  to 
contribute  ."j.s.  each  towards  every  death  that 
occurred  among  the  membei-s ;  this  contribution 
being  ilesigned  to  raise  £5(K)  on  the  death  of  each 
meinl)er,   contingent  on   all   members   paying  up. 


176 


INSURANCE 


The  next  life-assuniiice  institution  started  was  tlie 
famous  Amicable  (a  dilleient  company  from  llje 
Amicable  already  nientioned).     It  was  founded  in 

1705,  and  cliarteied  by  IJueen  Anne  on  Sotli  July 

1706.  W  alfmd,  in  las  Ilistor)/  uf  Life  Assiiruurr, 
states  that  the  ])laM  of  woi-king  was  tliis ;  Tlie 
number  of  memliors  was  to  be  2(100.  Amongst 
the  re))resentatives  of  those  who  died  in  the  lirst 
year  onesixtli  of  the  total  contributions  w:us  to  be 
divided  ;  in  the  second  year,  if  the  full  number  of 
members  was  enrolled,  £4000 ;  in  the  third  year. 
£6000;  in  the  fourth,  £8000:  in  the  lifth  and 
subsequent  years,  £10,000,  with  a  proportionate 
reduction  if  the  full  nund)er  of  members  was  not 
enroUeil.  The  full  contrilmtion  from  the  complete 
roll  of  members  would  be  £  I '-',000  per  annum,  and 
the  surplus  was  to  be  accumulated.  Tlie  Amicable 
lasted  as  an  independent  institution  until  1866, 
when  it  was  transferred  to  the  Norwich  Union  Life 
Insurance  Society,  and  its  ]iolicies  were  iinally 
nierj^ed  in  those  of  the  Xoiwich  Union  on  30th 
June  18S6.  V'arums  other  life  ottices  of  the  a.ssess- 
ment  order  were  starteil  .'ibout  the  same  time,  but 
all  except  the  Amicable  disappeared  on  the  liurstinj,' 
of  the  South  Sea  Bubble  in  1720.  In  1721  the 
London  Assurance  Corporation  and  the  Royal  Ex- 
change Assurance  Corporation,  both  of  which  hail 
been  chartered  in  1720,  received  additional  powers, 
under  which  they  were  authorised  to  transact  life 
business.  These  twins  both  remain  strong  corponi- 
tions  at  the  jjresent  ilay,  and  are  therefore  the 
oldest  surviving  life  offices  in  the  world.  The  lirst 
life  policy  of  the  London  Assurance  Corporation 
was  issued  on  7th  June  1721.  The  only  other 
life  office  which  we  shall  mention  here  is  the 
Equitable,  estalilished  in  1762,  and  prosperous 
still.  Its  history  for  now  more  than  a  century 
and  a  quarter  has  been  the  history  of  life 
assurance  in  England.  Its  affairs  ha\e  been 
conducted  by  men  eminent  in  the  assurance  pro- 
fession, and  to  its  cautiously  directed  enterprise 
in  early  days  we  are  in  great  part  indebted  for 
the  scientific  soundness  of  the  foundation  on  which 
the  business  of  life  assurance  stands.  Since  the 
passing  of  the  Life  Assurance  Companies  Act  in 
1870  it  has  been  possible  to  trace  minutely  the 
history  of  every  life  company.  (Jwing  to  amal- 
gamations they  are  diminishing  in  number.  At 
the  time  the  Act  of  1870  was  passed  there  were 
about  130  in  active  oi)eration,  a  number  reduced 
in  1 800  to  only  8S.  Under  the  Act  of  1870  a  deposit 
of  £20,000  must  be  made  with  the  Court  of 
Chancery  before  a  company  may  commence  life 
business,  and  this  discourages  the  formation  of  new 
offices. 

The  elementary  principles  of  life  assurance  are 
very  simple.  At  first  the  rates  of  jiremium  were 
fixed  in  .-i  purely  arbitrary  manner,  the  result  of 
guess-work,  and  no  dillereiice  appears  to  have  been 
made  in  resjiect  of  persons  of  itiU'erent  ages.  Hut 
as  experience  was  gathered  it  came  to  be  seen  that 
history  rej)eats  itself  with  great  precision ;  that 
out  of  a  given  numlx-r  of  persons  alive  it  can  be 
approximately  foretold  from  the  results  of  the  jiast 
how  many  will  die  within  a  given  time  :  and  it 
was  further  .seen  that  the  rate  of  mortality  has  a 
tendency  to  increase  with  the  age  of  the  lives 
observed  —that  is  to  say,  for  instance,  that  out  of 
a  thousand  persons  alive  agccl  thirty  fewer  will 
die  in  a  year  than  out  of  a  thousand  persons  aged 
sixty.  The  lirst  result  of  this  advance  in  scienlilic 
knowledge  was  that  a  limit  of  age  was  fixed 
beyond  which  ai>plicanls  w('re  not  admitted  into 
the  assurance  offices,  the  Amicalde  refusing  all 
aged  forty  live  and  over;  a  little  later  on  the 
E(|uital>le  was  started  upon  the  still  more  scientific 
princiide  of  charging  rates  varying  according  to 
age.      Early   investigators    tried   to    emliody   the 


results  of  experience  in  tabular  foini,  and  so 
produced  forerunners  of  what  are  now  known  as 
mortality  tables.  These  show,  out  of  a  given 
number  born,  how  iiiany  complete  each  year  of 
age,  and  by  means  of  a  properly  constructed 
mortality  table  the  rates  of  premium  which  should 
be  charged  for  the  assurance  of  lives  can  readily 
be  calculateil.  John  de  Witt,  (iraiid  pi'iisionaiy  of 
Holland,   was   ap[iarently   the  liist    to  apply  scicii- 

I  tilic  principles  to  the  calculations  connected  with 
annuities,  which  are  analogous  to  those  connected 
with  assurances,  his  report  on  this  matter  being 
distributed  to  the  members  of  the  States-general 
on  30th  July  1671.  The  Hist  mortality  table  was 
based  upon  observations  in  the  city  of  ISrcslau, 
and  was  jjrepared  by  E.  Halley,  Asliomimerroyal 
of  England,  and  published  in  the  r/ti/(ixi'ji/iici(l 
Transiictions  for  January  and  -March  1603.  The 
first  tables  of  premiums  used  by  the  I'^juitaUe 
Society  were  ])re])ared  from  the  mortality  of  the 
year  1741  by  James  Dodson,  author  of  the  Itliithe- 
iiKit/'rnl  licpositori/,  who  was  assocdated  \\itli 
Thomas  Simpson,  the  well-known  mathematician, 
in  founding  the  society.  Later  on  the  Equitable 
adojjted  tables  derived  from  the  London  bills  of 
mortality,  and  later  on  still,  that  known  as 
the  Northampton  table,  constructed   by   Dr  Price 

1  from  the  statistics  of  the  iiarish  of  All  Saints, 
Northampton,  during  forty  six  years  from  1735  to 
1780.  The  earliest  mortality  tables  were  prepared 
from  a  record  of  the  ileaths  alone;  but  it  was 
subsequently  discovered  that  this  gave  erroneous 
results,  and  had  a  tendency  very  much  to  cxag<'er- 
ate  the  estimate  of  mortality.  Joshu.a  Milne, 
actuary  to  the  Sun  Life  Assurance  Society,  .seems 
to  have  been  the  first  to  construct  mortality  tables 
correctly  by  comparing  the  numbers  dying  in  each 
year  of  age  in  a  po]>ulation  with  the  numbers  alive 
at  each  age.  On  this  princiide  he  constructed  the 
famous  Carlisle  tal)le,  based  upon  the  population 
of  the  parishes  of  St  Mary  and  St  Cuthbert, 
Carlisle,  in  1780  and  1787,  and  the  numl>er  of 
deaths  that  took  jil.ace  in  each  interval  of  ages  in 
the  same  two  ])arishes  during  nine  years,  beginning 
with  1770  and  ending  with  1787.  The  Carlisle 
table  formed  for  many  years  the  basis  on  which 
were  calculated  the  premiums  and  the  reserves  of  a 
great  many  of  the  leading  insurance  companies, 
and  so  accurate  was  it  that  even  at  the  present 
day  its  use  has  not  been  entirely  discontinued. 
The  records  of  the  Equitable  Society  furnished 
materials  for  the  construction  of  mortality  tables 
from  the  ex]ierience  of  assured  lives,  and  (Irillith 
Davies,  K.  U.S.,  actuary  to  the  (iuaidian  Assurance 
Company,  compiled  the  Equitabh'  assurance  table 
(1825)  from  data  he  derived  from  the  annual 
addresses  of  the  actuary  of  that  office.  Lat<»r  on 
a  committee  of  actuaries  collected  the  experience 
of  seventeen  insurance  com|ianies,  and  the  results 
were  published  in  lS4o.  .Again,  the  Institute  of 
.Actuaries  ci>llected  the  exjiericnce  of  twenty  com- 
(lanies  and  gave  it  to  the  world  in  the  volume  of 
Mortiiliti/  Experietirc  in  1869:  and  these  last  tables 
are  at  the  present  day  considered  the  best,  and 
with  Ibitish  insurance  companies  are  rapidly  snjier- 
seding  every  other.  M;iny  individual  companies 
h.ave  also  taken  out  their  mortality  experience, 
and  tables  have  been  prepared  from  the  experience 
of  foreign  companies  by  American  and  continental 
actuaries. 

In  the  calculations  of  a  life  office  the  probabilities 
of  life  ,are  combined  with  the  interest  of  money. 
To  take  the  simplest  possible  example  :  According 
to  the  Institute  of  Actuaries'  mcutality  table,  out 
of  1000  children  aged  ten  iV)6  will  attain  the  age  of 
twenty-one.  .Now,  .assuming  that  exactly  4  ])er 
cent,  compound  interest  can  be  realised,  the  sum 
required  to  he  invested  at  once  in  order  to  provide 


INSURANCE 


177 


£100  at  the  end  of  eleven  years  is  £64,  19s.  2d.  If 
it  be  arranged  that  each  of  the  lOlH)  chiUlren  an;eil 
ten  shall  receive  an  endowment  of  flOO  on  coming 
of  age,  it  is  clear  that  956  such  endowments  must 
lie  arran<;ed  for,  and  the  amount  now  rerniired  to 
provide  t hem  is  £62, 100,  3s.  4d.  In  respect  of  each  of 
the  1000  children,  therefore,  a  sum  of  £62,  2s.  must 
he  paid  down  if  he  is  to  receive  £100  on  reaching 
his  majority.  This  sum  is  called  the  present  value 
of,  or  the  single  premium  for,  the  endowment.  An 
annuity  consists  of  a  series  of  endowments,  the 
tirst  pav.able  at  the  end  of  one  year,  the  second  at 
the  eni\  of  two  yeai-s,  and  so  on  ;  and  its  present 
value,  or  the  sum  reiiuireil  to  purchase  it,  is  found 
by  calculating  the  value  of  each  of  these  endow- 
ments and  adding  the  whole  together.  Similarly, 
if  a  sum  of  money  is  to  be  paid  on  the  death  of  an 
individual,  a  calculation  is  made  for  the  premium 
to  cover  the  risk  of  death  in  the  first  year  ;  so  also 
for  the  second  year,  for  the  third  year,  &c. ,  to  the 
utmost  possible  duration  of  human  life  ;  and  the 
results  are  added  together  in  order  to  find  the 
single  premium  for  an  assurance  on  his  life.  For 
the  annual  i)remium  an  equation  is  made  between 
the  value  of  an  annuity  on  the  life  and  an  assurance 
on  the  same  life ;  and  thus  the  annuity — in  this 
case  called  the  annual  premium — equivalent  to 
the  single  premium  is  ascertained.  In  order  that 
such  calculations  may  be  made  easily  and  simply 
various  monetary  tallies  are  in  the  first  place 
prepared,  and  the  calculations,  which  would  other- 
wise be  so  laborious  as  to  be  almost  prohibitive, 
are  thereby  rendered  very  brief  and  easy.  On 
principles  similar  to  those  adopted  in  such  simple 
cases  as  are  above  indicated,  actuaries  are  able  to 
solve  many  complicated  problems.  For  instance, 
it  is  easy  to  ascertain  what  should  be  the  prenuum 
for  an  assurance  payable  in  the  event  of  one  person 
of  a  given  age  n.ving  before  another  person  of  a 
different  age ;  or  many  lives  may  be  introduced 
«-ith  various  orders  of  survivorship.  The  simpler 
questions  of  this  nature  may  be  solved  directly 
from  the  mortality  table  and  the  sulisidiarj-  taides 
which  are  usually  prepared  from  it ;  but  when  very 
complicated  questions  arise  other  processes  must  be 
resorted  to.  The  late  Sir  J.  W.  Lubbock,  Bart., 
in  the  Cnmhn'dgc  Philosophical  Transactions  for 
the  year  1829,  was  the  first  to  give  a  formula  of 
approximation.  Mr  W.  S.  B.  Woolliouse,  in  the 
Journal  of  Ihf  Inslittite  of  Actuaries  {vols.  \i.  and 
.\v. ),  produced  a  fornmla  essentially  the  same  as 
that  of  Lnbljock,  but  ditferent  from  it  in  that  he 
used  the  differential  calculus  instead  of  the  calculus 
of  finite  differences.  Mr  (i.  F.  Hardy,  in  the 
Journal  of  the  Institute  of  Actuaries  (vol.  xxiv.), 
greatly  extended  and  improved  Mr  Woolhouse's 
formula,  and  threw  it  into  various  sliapes  to  suit 
different  circumstances,  so  that  for  practical 
purposes  these  fonuulas  can  now  be  applied  to 
solve  the  most  comj^licated  questions  in  a  ver^' 
easy  manner.  Later  on  Mr  Woolhouse  again  took 
the  matter  up,  and,  in  the  Journal  of  the  Institute 
of  Actuaries  (vol.  xxvii. ),  investigated  the  general 
principles  upon  ^^■hich  tliese  formulas  of  approxi- 
mation are  based,  and  deduced  several  of  still 
greater  power  than  those  which  had  previously 
been  put  forward.  Little  more  therefore  remains 
to  l)e  done  in  this  direction. 

It  has  already  been  remarked  that  the  rate  of 
mortality  incre.-Lses  with  the  age.  The  usual 
custom  of  insurance  companies  is,  however,  to 
charge  a  uniform  premium  tliroughout  life,  and  it 
naturally  follows  that  this  prendum  must  be  in 
excess  of  that  require<l  for  the  mere  a'^surance  in 
the  earlier  years  when  the  mortality  is  compara- 
tively li^ht,  so  that  that  excess  may  be  accumu- 
lated at  interest,  and  Income  available  in  the  later 
years  of  the  policy  when  the  rate  of  mortality  is 
272 


heavier,  and  when  the  uniform  prendum  charged 
is  no  longer  sufficient  for  the  risk.  In  this  respect 
life  assurance  differs  from  fire  insurance.  With 
fire  insurance  a  reserve  is  required  only  for  the  un- 
expired portion  of  the  time  for  which  the  premium 
has  been  paid,  and  to  proviile  against  Htictuations 
and  contingencies.  In  life  assurance  also,  a  reserve 
is  required  for  these  objects,  ))Ut,  in  addition,  a 
reserve  is  necessary,  as  above  pointed  out,  on  account 
of  the  increasing  rate  of  mortality.  Hence  it 
follows  *liat  life  companies  transacting  business  by 
uniform  premiums  must  accumulate  large  funds, 
«hich  are  not  profit,  but  are  absolutely  necessary 
in  order  to  meet  prospective  liabilities.  This  is 
clearly  shown  when  a  company,  as  sometimes 
happens,  closes  its  door  to  new  business,  and  deter- 
mines simply  to  continue  its  e.xistence  in  order  to 
run  off'  current  contracts.  For  a  time  the  funds 
will  increase,  but  presently  it  will  happen  that  the 
claims  will  absorb  the  whole  of  the  premium  and 
interest  income.  A  little  later  on  the  claims  will 
be  in  excess  of  such  income,  and  the  investments 
will  have  to  be  drawn  upon,  until  when  the  last 
policj'  falls  in  the  funds  will  be  completely  ex- 
hausted. In  the  early  days  of  the  Equitable  Society, 
when  it  was  uncertain  what  would  really  be  re- 
quired to  cover  the  lisk,  much  larger  premiums 
tlian  ultimately  proved  to  be  necessary  were 
charged  ;  and,  as  there  were  no  shareholders,  the 
large  surpluses  which  accumulated  were  distributed 
among  the  policy-holders.  This  system  became  so 
popular  that  when  other  companies  were  started  at 
a  later  date,  although  the  rates  of  mortality  were 
much  more  accurately  understood,  an  additional 
premium,  over  and  above  that  required  for  the  risk 
and  for  expenses,  was  deliberately  charged,  so  as  to 
pro\'ide  a  fund  out  of  which  bonuses  might  be  paid 
to  the  policy-holders.  It  is  now  the  universal 
custom  of  life  offices  to  have  a  participating  class 
of  policy-holders,  among  whom  the  periodical  sur- 
pluses are  distributed.  There  are  many  ways  in 
which  these  so-called  profits  are  divided.  With 
some  companies  the  bonuses  are  large  in  the  early 
days  of  a  policy,  and  gradually  diminish  as  time 
goes  on.  Others  again  give  comparatively  small 
bonuses  at  the  outset,  these  increasing  with  the 
lapse  of  time ;  and  others  again  give  practically 
uniform  bonuses  throughout  the  duration  of  the 
policy.  Some  companies  make  it  a  feature  to 
return  the  surplus  in  cash,  or  as  a  reduction  of  the 
premium.  Others  treat  the  share  of  surplus  belong- 
ing to  the  individual  policy-holder  as  a  single 
prendum  to  provide  an  assurance  on  his  life,  in  this 
connection  called  a  revei-sionary  bonus  ;  so  that 
instead  of  paying  away  at  once  the  money  to  the 
policy-holders,  the  sums  assured  under  the  policies 
are  increased.  Other  companies  combine  these 
various  methods,  and  give  policy-hohleis  their 
choice.  The  systems  being  essentially  so  difi'erent, 
it  is  difficult  to  compare  one  company  with  another, 
and  the  intending  policy-holder  should  judge  for 
himself  which  system  would  best  suit  his  own 
circumstances,  and  act  accordingly. 

The  Institute  of  Actuaries,  founded  in  1848,  was 
incorporated  by  royal  charter  in  1884.  Its  journal, 
regularly  published  now  for  over  forty  years,  con- 
tains a  vast  numlicr  of  most  imjiortant  and  uscfid 
original  contributiiuis  on  the  theory  and  ]iractice  of 
life  assurance.  All  the  leading  actuaries  have 
contributed,  and  every  <li.scovery  of  importance  in 
actuarial  science  ha-s  fij-st  been  ]iublished  in  its 
pages.  By  its  meetings,  at  which  papers  are  read 
and  discussed,  the  institute  has  also  done  much  to 

1)romote  the  investigation  and  to  disseudnate  the 
cnowledge  of  life  contingencies.  In  early  days  it 
initiated  the  system  of  examinations,  an<l  gave 
certificates  of  competency  to  students  who  satLs- 
factorily   passed   tliem,   so   that   the   directors  of 


178 


INSURANCE 


insurance  companies  could  know  who  were  the  men 
qualiKed  for  posts  that  might  l>ecome  vacant. 
Later  on  lectureships  were  added  to  train  tlie 
students,  and  under  the  auspices  of  the  institute 
a  text-lxiok  in  two  parts  has  been  jiulilished,  deal- 
ing respectively  with  interest  an<l  annuities  certain, 
and  with  life  contingencies :  the  former  by  W. 
Sutton,  M.A.,  and  the  latter  by  the  writer  of  this 
article.  Another  great  achievement  of  the  Institute 
of  Actuaries  wa.s  the  collection  of  the  materials  for 
the  mortality  e.\i)crience  of  twenty  companies,  and 
their  compilation  in  the  form  of  moitality  tables 
and  monetary  taldes.  The  Faculty  of  Actvuiries  of 
Edinburgh  and  tlie  Actuarial  Society  of  Edinburgh 
have  also  done  good  public  service. 

Tlie  Life  Assuiauce  Companies  Acts,  1870-72, 
were  passed  owing  to  the  disastrous  failure  of 
two  great  companies,  the  Albert  and  the  European  ; 
and  under  them  companies  must  register  their 
accounts  in  specified  form,  and  at  periodical 
intervals  give  very  full  details  relating  to  their 
actuarial  valuations.  The  view  taken  by  the 
British  legislature  has  been  that  it  is  well  to  allow 
the  companies  to  be  managed  by  their  own  re- 
sponsible officials,  and  that  tlie  government  should 
not  actively  interfere,  but  that  for  tlie  protection 
of  the  public  full  information  should  be  available. 
The  acts  also  have  proved  a  great  benelit  by 
providing  for  the  reconstruction  instead  of  liquida- 
tion of  insurance  companies.  A  third  "leat 
advantage  of  the  acts  has  been  that  reckless 
amalgamations  have  been  rendered  impossible, 
while  amalgamations  that  are  for  the  good  of  all 
the  parties  interested  have  not  been  interfered 
with.  Now  such  full  details  of  everytliiiig  that  is 
done  in  connection  with  an  amalgamation  must  be 
published,  that  anything  like  extravagance  or  un- 
justifiable e.vpenditure  is  impossible. 

Fire  Insurance,  Marine  Insurance. — The  contract 
of  fire  insurance  is  a  contract  purely  of  indemnity — 
i.e.  the  assured  may  not  make  a  profit  out  of  a 
fire,  but  is  merely  indemnified  against  loss  sustained. 
Therefore  it  is  not  the  cost  of  the  goods  at  the 
time  of  purchase  that  is  taken  account  of  in  settle- 
ment of  a  loss,  but  their  value  at  the  time  of  the 
fire.  For  instance,  if  a  merchant  have  stored 
cotton  for  which  he  gave  £1000,  and  if  a  fire  occur 
when  his  stock  would  realise  only  £800  if  placed 
upon  the  market,  then  £800  is  the  limit  of  the 
amount  he  can  recover,  although  he  may  liave 
been  holding  the  cotton  for  an  advance  in  prices. 
Again,  if  a  householder  have  a  claim  upon  a 
company,  he  can  only  recover  in  respect  of  the 
value  of  his  furniture  and  effects,  after  allowing 
for  the  depreciation  due  to  wear  and  tear — i.e. 
by  the  contract  of  insurance  he  is  entitled  only 
to  be  placed  in  the  position  which  lie  occupied 
immediately  before  the  fire,  and  not  in  one  better. 
In  this  imjiortant  respect  fire  insurance  ditt'ers 
from  life  assurance,  because  in  the  case  of  a  life 
])olicy,  the  amount  of  the  interest  of  tlie  assured 
is  fixed  at  the  time  the  policy  is  issued,  ami  he 
may  on  the  death  of  the  life  assureil  recover  that 
full  amount,  although  at  the  time  of  the  death  his 
interest  may  possibly  have  altogether  ceased.  The 
contract  of  fire  insurance  dill'ers  also  in  important 
re-spects  from  the  marine  insurance  contract.  In 
tlie  latter,  if  goods  are  assured  for  less  than  their 
value,  the  ]>olicy-holder  carries  the  ri.sk  himself  for 
tlie  amount  uninsured.  For  instance,  if  a  merchant 
have  goods  on  a  vessel  to  the  value  of  £1000,  and 
if  he  insure  for  £500,  and  if  damage  to  the  goods 
occur  to  the  amount  of  £500,  he  can  recover  only 
£250,  he  being  his  own  insurer  for  the  ililterence 
between  the  value  of  the  goods  and  the  amount  of 
the  policy  (for  fuller  information  on  Marine  Insur- 
ance, see  AvERAiiE).  In  the  case  of  the  fire- 
insurance  contract,  however,  the  whole  £500  could 


in  such  event  be  recovered  from  the    company, 

unless  in  the  exceptional  c;ise  of  an  average  clause 
having  been  in.serted  in  the  policy.  By  the  average 
clause  the  insured  is  maile  liLs  own  insurer  for 
whatever  amount  is  not  covered  bv  fire  policies, 
and  it  is  sometimes  inserted  in  policies  covering 
large  trade  risks,  and  also  in  those  covering  goods 
stored  in  scattered  warehouses.  By  the  usual 
wording  of  fire  policies,  tlie  company  luis  the  right 
to  refuse  a  renewal  premium,  and  here  again  there 
is  a  marked  difi'erence  from  a  life  policy,  which  is 
renewable  at  the  option  of  the  assured.  Init  not  of 
the  assurer.  A  fire  jiolicy  is  not  a.ssigmible  without 
the  consent  of  the  office,  wliicli  it  is  usual  to  give 
by  the  way  of  indoi-seiiient.  Thus,  if  a  merchant 
whose  goods  are  covered  by  insurance  sell  the 
goods,  the  protection  of  the  fire  policy  is  not  there- 
by transferred,  but  the  purchaser  must  make  his 
own  arrangements.  Thus,  in  the  common  occur- 
rence of  the  purchase  of  a  house,  although  tiie  house 
may  have  been  covered  by  a  policy  in  tlie  name 
of  the  vendor,  the  purchaser  cannot  recover  under 
it  without  an  indorsement  having  been  place<l 
upcm  it  transferring  the  insurance  from  the  vendor 
to  liimself.  The  contract  of  fire  insurance  is 
]iersoiial  between  the  insured  and  the  office,  and 
the  insured  can  therefore  recover  only  the  amount 
of  his  own  personal  loss.  Thus,  for  instance, 
unless  so  stateil  in  the  contract,  the  j;oods  of  a 
servant  are  not  covered  by  the  fire  pcmcy  in  the 
name  of  the  master ;  and  goods  in  the  bands  of 
an  agent  are  not  covered  by  a  policy  in  the  agent  s 
name.  As  the  wording  of  lire  iiolicies  is  \ery 
strictly  construed  by  the  courts  of  law,  and  as  the 
offices  for  their  own  protection  are  often  compelled 
to  take  their  stand  on  the  literal  contract,  though 
they  seek  to  meet  liberally  every  hona-Jitlc  claim, 
the  policy-holder  should  be  careful  to  see  that  his 
jiolicy  is  in  accordance  with  his  wislies. 

Prior  to  1869  a  special  tax  was  imposed  on  fire- 
insurance  companies,  and  the  returns  they  were 
called  upon  to  make  furnished  an  accurate  record 
of  the  amount  of  fire-insurance  business  transactetl 
in  the  country.  In  1869,  however,  the  tax  was 
repealed,  and  a  stamp  of  one  penny  only  on  each 
policy  was  substituted.  The  result  is  that,  except 
in  the  metropolis,  where  for  the  metropolitan  fire- 
brigade,  under  act  of  parliament,  a  rate  is  ]iaid 
by  the  companies  in  projiortion  to  the  amounts 
assured,  it  is  impossible  to  say  what  is  the  total 
business  of  the  country.  Many  of  the  companies 
voluntarily  publish  their  accounts,  and  show  their 
premium  income,  and  those  with  a  life  department 
must  do  so  ;  but  in  the  case  of  purely  fire  offices 
this  is  not  compulsory. 

Fire  offices  may  be  broadly  distinguished  as 
tarifl'  and  non-tariff.  The  tariff  are  those  which 
belong  to  the  Fire  Offices"  Committee,  an  associa- 
tion formed  for  mutual  jirolection,  and,  by  the 
regulation  of  rates,  to  obviate  destructive  com- 
petition. The  non-tariff  offices  are  those  which 
]irofess  to  estimate  each  risk  on  its  merits,  with- 
out li.xing  a  minimum,  but  most  freiiueiitly  those 
offices  whidi  try  this  [dan  find  it  un.satisfactory, 
and  sub.se(|uently  join  the  tarifl'.  (ireat  Britain  is 
eminently  tlie  countrv  of  .successful  fire  offices,  and 
several  of  the  British  companies  are  larger  than 
any  establislied  in  any  otiier  part  of  the  world. 
Many  of  the  British  offices  transact  an  enormous 
foreign  business. 

Industrial  Insurance  is  the  name  given  where  life 
policies  are  of  small  amount,  and  secured  by  weekly, 
or  at  most  monthly,  i)reiiiiums.  The  premiums  vary 
from  id.  to  3d.  or  6d.  a  week,  and  it  is  usual,  instead 
of  the  ]ueiiiiuiii  being  adjusted  to  the  age,  to  adjust 
the  sum  assured;  so  that,  while  at  all  ages  the 
preminm  is  the  same,  the  amount  of  the  policy 
decreases  with  the  age  of  the  life  at  enti-y.     An 


INSURANCE 


17S 


enormous  imlustiial  business  is  transacted  in  Great 
Britain,  (lartlv  by  insurance  companies  and  jiartly 
by  collecting  l-'riendly  Societies  {  q.  v. ).  One  imliis- 
irial  company  alone — the  Prudential,  established 
in  1S4S— received  in  industrial  premiums  in  18S9 
the  huge  sum  of  £3,;i3(),74'2. 

Accitknt  Imurancc  generally  proWdes  for  a  sum 
payable  in  the  event  of  death  by  accident,  or  for  com- 
pensation, either  by  way  of  a  lump  sum  or  of  a  weekly 
allowance,  in  the  event  of  injury  or  disablement  from 
aceiilent.  Even  in  early  times  there  are  traces  of 
accident  business,  but  tiie  oldest  and  largest  exist- 
ing accident  company  is  the  Railway  Pjissengers', 
established  in  1S4S.  At  first,  a-s  its  name  implies, 
it  conliued  its  operations  exclusively  to  railway 
accidents,  and  accumulated  a  premium  income  of 
t"l'2,(KX)  a  year,  but  before  long  it  enlarged  its 
powers  so  as  to  transact  accident  Inisiness  of  every 
description,  and  in  1896  its  premium  income  was 
£•2,7-10,000.  Besides  transacting  accident  business 
proi)er,  many  of  the  companies  comliine  with  it 
employers'  liability  assurance — i.e.  they  guarantee 
to  refund  to  employers  any  damages  they  may 
have  to  pay  through  accidents  to  workmen  in  tlieir 
service;  but  without  the  greatest  care  this  depart- 
ment of  the  business  is  unreniunerative.  Some  of 
the  accident  companies  also  issue  policies  pro\  id- 
ing  weekly  compensati(m  in  the  event  of  incapa- 
city from  illness  ;  but  generally  it  h;us  been  found 
that,  on  account  of  the  difficulty  in  delining  illness, 
and  on  account  of  the  great  lialnlity  to  fraud, 
sickness  insurance  has  been  unprolitable. 

Fidelity  Guarantee  Insuramc. — The  first  attemjit 
at  lidelity  guarantee  insurance  ajjpears  to  have 
been  made  in  1720,  but  it  was  many  years  before 
the  business  took  root.  The  first  fidelity  ottice — 
'The  Guarantee  Society' — wa-s  established  in  1842. 
The  object  of  fidelity  guarantee  insurance  is  to 
secure  employere  against  fraud  ou  the  part  of  their 
clerks  and  servants. 

In  the  United  States  of  America  an  enormous 
life  business  is  transacted  by  the  native  companies, 
and  one  of  them,  the  Mutual  Insurance  Company  of 
New  York,  is  the  largest  office  in  the  world,  wlule 
several  of  the  others  far  sur|jass  in  magnitude  any 
British  company,  except  perhaps  the  Prudential. 
The  premium  income  of  the  Mutual  of  New  York 
in  1889  was  £4,745,572,  and  the  new  business  trans- 
acted in  that  year  amounted  to  £30,.310,912 — more 
than  ten  times  that  of  any  liritish  office.  The 
aggregate  premium  income  of  the  forty  leading 
Auienc.an  offices  in  1889  was  £28,199,804,  while 
the  total  premium  income  of  all  the  ordinary  life- 
a.ssnrance  couipanies  of  the  L  nited  Kingdom  was 
only  £13,928,001.  It  must,  however,  be  remem- 
bered in  comparing  these  figures  that  three  of  the 
Auierican  c(im[ianies — viz.  the  Mutual  of  New 
York,  the  Eipiitable  of  New  York,  and  the  New- 
York  Life — are  almost  cosmopolitau  in  their  nature, 
and  transact  a  gigantic  business  throughout  the  civi- 
lised world,  whereas  the  great  majority  of  British 
companies  transact  but  a  small  foreign  Imsiness. 

.Xiiieriean  insurance  law  ditlers  in  very  many 
respects  from  that  of  Great  Britain.  The  princi- 
ples have  been  adopted  of  strict  state  supervision, 
and  of  a  standard  of  solvency.  In  each  of  the 
states  there  is  an  officer  charged  with  the  <luty  of 
examining  into  the  alt'airs  of  insurance  companies, 
of  making  valuations,  and  of  reporting  the  results 
of  his  investigations  ;  and  if  the  assets  are  not 
sntHcient  to  meet  the  liabilities  as  legally  esti- 
mated, the  company  is  compelled  to  close  it.s  doors. 
As  each  state  of  the  Union  legislates  on  insurance 
matters  (|uite  indepen<lently  of  all  the  others,  con- 
siderable confusion  has  been  produced.  In  different 
states  different  standards  of^  solvency  are  set  up, 
and  it  might  tpiite  well  happen  that  in  one  state 
a  company  might  be  adjudged  bankrupt,  while  in 


another  the  commissioner  might  on  the  same  day 
give  his  certificate  that  it  was  in  a  position  to 
meet  all  its  engagements.  Practically,  however, 
these  anomalies  do  not  cause  much  inconvenience, 
and  the  various  states  are  gradually  a.ssimilating 
their  regulations.  One  principal  feature  of  the 
American  system  of  transacting  business  is  the 
Tontine  (q.v.)  system,  which  has  grown  to  gigantic 
proportions.  In  England,  in  almost  all  cases,  the 
surpluses  are  distributed  among  thi^  policy  holders 
by  way  of  immediate  bonuses,  but  in  America  the 
great  "majority  of  policies  are  issued  on  the  condi- 
tion that  profits  will  accrue  only  if  the  life  survive 
and  if  the  policy  be  kept  in  force  for  the  sti|iulate<l 
period.  The  effect  of  this  condition  is  that  when 
profits  do  vest,  they  are  of  course  larger  than  if 
the  policy-holders  had  received  immediate  bonuses. 
In  former  times  not  only  were  the  profits  placed 
in  a  Tontine,  but  the  policies  themselves  were 
subject  to  a  similar  arrangement ;  so  that  unless 
the  renewal  premiums  were  punctually  paid,  the 
policies  would  lapse  and  the  assured  \\i>ul(l  derive 
no  benefit  from  them. 

In  the  British  colonies  life  assurance  has  also 
developed  in  a  marvellous  manner ;  and,  consider- 
ing the  relative  populations.  Great  Britain  is  left 
far  behind.  The  Australian  colonies  in  particular 
are  pre-eminent  for  the  success  of  tljcir  insurance 
offices,  the  Australian  Mutual  Provident  Society 
of  Sydney  being  the  largest,  and  giving  perhaps 
the  largest  bonuses  of  any  company  in  the  world  ; 
this  result  being  due  in  part  to  excellent  manage- 
ment, but  principally  to  the  very  high  rate  of 
interest  which  invested  funds  yield  at  the  Anti- 
podes. On  31st  December  ISDti  the  Australian 
Mutual  Provident  Society  had  on  its  books  128,996 
policies  a.ssuring  £40,623,903,  at  annual  premiums 
of  £1, ,332,715,  and  the  invested  funds  amounted 
to  £13,728,540. 

While  in  the  Australian  colonies  insurance  laws 
differ  in  various  respects  from  tlK)se  of  the  United 
Kingdom,  yet  they  are  still  further  removed  from 
the  regulations  of  the  United  States  of  America. 
There  is  no  standard  of  solvency,  and  no  govern- 
ment supervision  in  the  ordinary  sense  of  the  word ; 
but  connfanies  have  to  make  returns  somewhat  on 
the  British  system,  so  that  the  public  may  have 
full  information.  In  France,  Germany,  and  Aus- 
tria there  are  also  large  insurance  companies. 

National  Insurance. — From  an  early  period  the 
British  government  has  been  accustomed  to  grant 
annuities  on  lives,  the  transactions  being  carried 
out  by  the  National  Debt  Commissioners.  The 
annuity  business  having  been  very  large  and  very 
successful,  it  was  naturally  thought  that  an  insur- 
ance business  providing  for  sums  payable  at  death 
might  with  e(|ual  propriety  be  undertaken,  and 
con.sei|uently,  tlirougli  the  medium  of  the  post-office, 
a  life-assurance  office  was  started  on  the  17th 
April  1805,  but  in  the  magnitude  of  results  it 
has  not  answered  expectations.  In  the  year 
1889  the  annmnt  received  in  premiums  was  only 
£15,108,  7s.  2il.,  and  the  amount  jiaiil  in  claims 
.£7473,  3s.  lOd.,  and  the  total  premium  receipts 
from  the  opening  of  the  office  up  to  31st  December 
1889  were  only  £226,069,  4s.  Sd.,  being  very  much 
le.ss  than  the  revenue  of  many  of  the  private  offices 
for  a  single  year.  Probably  tlie  rea-son  for  this  com- 
parative failure  of  the  liritish  life-iussurance  depart- 
ment is  that  no  efforts  are  made  to  devidop  the 
business,  and  no  comroi.ssion  is  jiaid  to  agent-s. 

New  Zealand  ha-s  also  initialeil  a  system  of 
national  insurance,  but  there  the  practice  of  private 
companies  luts  been  followed,  aud  with  eminent 
success.  Canvassei's  have  been  apiminted,  and 
commission  paid  to  agents ;  with  the  result,  that 
while  the  department  was  instituted  ouly  in  1874, 
yet   in    the   year    1896   the   prendnm   income  was 


180 


INTAGLIO 


INTEREST 


£790,956,  and  at  the  close  of  that  year  the  accumu- 
lated insurance  fund  amounted  to  no  less  than 
£2,591,342. 

Germany  is  the  only  country  which  has  attempted 
compulsory  national  insurance,  and  that  on  a  lar^'e 
scale.  The  tirst  hill  w.os  passed  in  ISS.'J,  and  pro 
vided  for  the  com]mlsory  insurance  of  workmen 
against  sickness.  In  1884  a  further  act  w;is  passed 
providing  compulsory  insurance  against  accidents  ; 
and  in  1889  a  tliird  hill  hecame  law  under  which  the 
working-cla.sses  will  on  disahlement  from  illness  or 
acciilent,  or  on  attaining  old  age,  receive  a  pension. 
It  cannot  he  said  that  the  insurance  laws  of  Ger- 
many are  based  upon  strict  actuarial  science,  but 
they  are  a  bold  attempt  to  solve  a  very  difficult 
problem.  In  the  United  Kingdom  there  is  perhaps 
not  the  same  need  for  a  compulsory  insurance  law 
of  this  drastic  character,  because  the  poor-law 
practically  has  the  same  end  in  view. 

Intaglio  ( Ital.,  'cutting  in  '),  a  term  in  art,  the 
o])posite  of  relief,  means  the  representation  of  a 
subject  by  hollowing  it  out  in  a  gem  or  other 
substance,  so  that  an  impression  taken  from  the 
engraving  presents  the  appearance  of  a  bas-relief. 
See  Gem. 

Integral  Calcnliis.    See  Calculus. 

Intellect.    See  Psychology. 

Intemperance.  See  Alcoholism,  Delirium 
Trkmens,  Inebri.\tes,  Intoxication. 

Intendant,  the  name  given  in  France  before 
the  Revolution  to  the  overseer  of  a  province.  Under 
the  complete  system  of  centralisation  established  by 
Richelieu  these  intendants  became  the  mere  organs 
of  the  royal  minister.  The  National  Assembly,  in 
1789,  established  in  each  department  an  elective 
administration.  Napoleon  virtually  restored  the 
intendants,  but  exchanged  the  hated  name  for  that 
of  Prefects  (q.v. ).  Intendant  is  the  name  of  the 
person  in  charge  of  an  estate,  and  there  are  intend- 
ants militaires,  intendants  dc  la  marine,  &c. 

Inter'calary  (Lat.  intercalaris,  'for  inser- 
tion), an  epithet  applied  to  those  months  or  days 
which  were  occasionally  inserted  in  the  calendar 
to  make  it  corresijond  with  the  solar  year.  See 
Calendar. 

Intercoiuinnning.  Letters  of,  was  an 
ancient  writ  issueil  by  the  Scotch  Privy-council 
waining  persons  not  to  harbour  rebels. 

Interdict,  an  ecclesiastical  censure  or  penalty 
in  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  consisting  in  the 
withdrawal  of  the  administration  of  certain  sacra- 
ments, of  the  celebration  of  public  worship,  and  of 
tlie  solemn  burial-service.  Interdicts  are  of  three 
kinds — local,  which  aft'ect  a  particular  place,  ami 
tlius  comprehend  all,  without  distinction,  who 
reside  therein  ;  personal,  which  only  aflect  a  person 
or  pei'sons,  ami  which  reach  this  person  (»•  persons, 
and  these  alone,  no  matter  wliere  found  ;  ami 
mixed,  which  all'ect  both  a  place  and  its  inhabitants, 
so  that  the  latter  would  be  bound  by  the  interdict 
even  outside  of  its  purely  local  limits.  Tlie  ])rinciple 
on  which  this  ecclesiastical  penalty  is  founded  may 
be  traced  in  the  early  discipline  of  public  jicnance, 
by  which  penitents  were  for  a  time  del)arreil  from 
the  sacraments,  and  from  the  ])rivilegc  of  presence 
at  the  celebration  of  the  eucharist ;  but  it  wa-*  only 
in  the  medieval  (leriod  that,  owing  to  circumstances 
elsewhere  explained  (see  Excommunication),  it 
came  into  use  as  an  ordinary  church  censure  in  the 
then  frequent  conllicts  of  the  ecclesiastical  ami  civil 
power.  It  wius  designeil  to  awaken  the  national 
conscience  to  the  nature  of  the  crime,  by  including 
all  alike  in  the  penalty  with  which  it  was  visited. 
The  most  remarkable  interdicts  are  those  laid  upon 
Scotland  in  1180  by  Alexander  III.;  on  Poland 
by  Gregory  VIL,  on   occasion  of   the   murder  of 


Stanislaus  at  the  altar  ;  by  Innocent  III.  on  France, 
umler  Philii)pe  Auguste,  in  1'200 ;  and  on  England 
umler  John  in  1'208.  The  description  of  England 
under  the  last-nanieil  interdict, as  detailed  by  some  of 
the  contemporary  chroniclers,  presents  a  str.an^ely 
striking  ]iicture  of  the  condition  of  the  ])ublic  mind, 
which  it  is  difficult  with  our  modern  ideas  fully 
til  realise  or  to  understand.  It  would  be  a  great 
mistake,  however,  to  sujipose  that  during  the  con- 
tinuance of  an  interdict  the  ])eople  were  entirely 
destitute  of  spiritual  assistance.  The  interdict 
mainly  regarded  the  solemnities  oi  public  worship; 
it  was  permitted  to  adndnister  bajitism,  confirma- 
tion, and  the  eucharist  in  all  cases  of  urgency  ; 
to  confess  and  alisolve  all  who  were  not  pei'scm- 
ally  the  guilty  participators  in  the  crime  which 
the  interdict  was  meant  to  punish  ;  to  celebrate 
marriage,  but  without  the  solemnities  ;  and  to 
confer  orders  in  cases  of  necessity.  And  under  the 
popes  Gregory  IX.,  Innocent  III.  and  IV.,  and 
Boniface  III.  still  further  ndtigations  of  its  rigour 
were  introduced,  one  of  which  was  the  removal  of 
the  interdict  and  restorati<ui  of  public  worship 
on  certain  great  festivals,  especially  Christmas, 
Easter,  Pentecost,  Assumjition,  and  All  Souls. 
The  Council  of  Basel  enacted  very  stringent  rules 
as  to  the  use  of  this  penalty,  ami  in  later  times  the 
general  interdict  has  been  entirely  disused,  altliough 
occasionally,  in  very  special  circumstances,  and  to 
mark  the  horror  of  the  church  for  some  enormous 
crime,  instances  are  still  recorded  in  which  a 
particular  place  or  church  has  been  vi.sited  with 
the  penalty  of  a  local  interdict. 

Interdict;  in  Scots  law,  is  an  order  issued  by 
the  Court  of  Session  to  stop  or  prohibit  a  person 
from  doing  an  illegal  or  wrongful  act.  The  party 
ajiplying  for  it  must  have  both  title  and  interest  to 
object  to  the  act  comjilained  of— i.e.  he  must  be 
more  than  a  mere  stranger.  The  iiriiu-ijiles  on 
which  it  is  granted  in  Scotland  are  substantially 
the  same  as  those  in  which  the  parallel  Writ  of 
Injunction  (q.v.)  is  granted  by  the  English  court. 
— For  Interdiction,  see  Facility. 

Interest  is  the  consideration  paiil  for  the  use 
of  money.  The  interest  of  £100  fm-  one  year 
is  called  the  rate  per  cent.  :  the  money  lent, 
the  princiiial ;  and  the  .sum  of  any  priiu'ipal  and 
its  interest,  the  amount.  The  current  or  market 
rate  of  interest  varies  from  a  variety  of  causes, 
tlie  chief  of  which  are  the  relation  existing 
between  the  accumulatiim  of  money  and  the 
demands  of  borrowers,  the  iirevailing  rate  of  profits 
on  trade,  and  the  security  and  duration  of  the  loan. 
In  Great  Britain  the  price  of  the  jiublic  funds 
indicates  the  interest  obtainable  for  a  permanent 
loan  with  no  risk  of  loss,  while  the  '  bank  rate ' — 
i.e.  the  minimum  rate  at  which  the  Bank  of 
England  will  disc(mnt  liills  represents  the  interest 
for  temporary  loans  with  less  undoubted  security. 
In  the  former  ca-se,  a.-*  with  fixed  annuities,  the 
nominal  rate  of  interest  never  varies  ;  but  the  real 
return  to  the  investor  depends  on  the  price  he  has 
to  i)ay  for  the  capital.  Thus,  if  the  jirice  of  2J  per 
cent.'consols  be  91S,  the  actual  return  will  be  3  per 
cent. 

Interest  is  computed  on  either  of  two  ]irineiples. 
Simple  Interest  is  charged  on  the  princiiial  alone 
for  any  length  of  time.  The  cimi|iutati()n  of  simple 
interest  is  ea.sy,  resolving  itself  into  a  mere  ques- 
tion of  proportion  :  thus,  having  given  the  interest 
on  £100  for  1  year,  to  find  the  interest  on  any  other 
sum  for  any  period,  ^'ariolls  ingenious  devices  are 
made  u.se  of  to  save  labour  in  these  calculations, 
especially  by  bankers,  and  arc  given  in  most  hand 
books.  Compound  Intkhest  is  the  charge  made 
where— the  interest  not  being  paid  when  due— it  is 
added  to  the  principal,  forming  the  amount  upon 


INTEREST 


INTERFERENCE 


181 


which  the  suhsetiueiit  year's  interest  is  ooiiiputed. 
The  rules  for  most  readily  iiiakinj;  coiiiinitatioiis  by 
coiii|>ound  interest  can  only  lie  etlectively  expressed 
alj,'el'raicallv,  and,  using  /  to  represent  the  interest 
of£\  for  one  year,  and  n  the  number  of  years,  we 
annex  a  few  "of  the  elementary  formulas  for  £1, 
from  which  the  result  for  any  sum  is  obtained  by 
simple  multiplication. 

(1)  Amount  of  £1 /or  a  given  time  at  comjiound 
interest.— At  the  end  of  the  first  year  the  principal 
(£1)  with  its  interest  («')  will  become  1  +  /.  At 
the  end  of  the  second  year  the  amount  will  be 
(1  +  /)  +  t  (1  +  i),  or  more  simply  (1  +  i)'',  and, 
generally,  the  amount  of  £1  in  n  years  is  (I  +  ()"■ 
Example  :  To  lind  the  amount  of  £6  in  20  years  at 
5  per  cent,  interest.  Here  (  is  Oo  and  n  is  20, 
whence  the  required  amount  is  6  x  105-"=  (by 
logaritluns*  6  x  265  =  £1518. 

(2)  Present  value  of  £1  due  n  i/ears  Ac/kjc— Since 

£1  become.^  I  +  »'  in  one  year,  by  proportion  j^r-^' 

otherwise  written  (1  +  *')■'  or  r,  will  become  £1  in 
the  same  time,  and  hence  the  present  value  of  £1 
due  «  years  hence  is  { 1  +  i)-"  {or  v'). 

At  5  per  cent,  simple  interest  a  sum  of  money 
doubles  it.self  in  20  years,  while  at  compoiind 
interest  with  the  same'  rate  it  takes  less  than  15 
years.  In  100  years  £1  at  5  per  cent,  simple 
interest  becomes"  £6 ;  at  5  per  cent,  compound 
interest  it  becomes  £131,  10s.,  or  thereby. 

(3)  AXSUITIE.S  Cert.\in.  —  Amount  of  an 
Annuity  of  £1  in  n  years. — At  the  end  of  the  n 
years  the  last  year's  annuity  will  l>e  due,  and  there- 
fore worth  £1";  the  second-la-st  will  be  worth  one 
year's  interest  in  addition,  or  l  +  (;  the  third 
(reckoning  backwards),  (1  +  i)-;  and  so  on  to 
the  first  year's  annuity,  which  will  amount  to 
(1  +  /)""'.  The  amount  required  is  therefore  the 
sum  of  the  geometrical  series  1  +  (1  +  i)  +  (1  ^-  if 

+  ....+(1  +  /)-';  or,  (i+_lt— f- 

I 

(4)  Present  Value  of  an  Annuity. — This  Is  ea.sily 
found  from  (3),  as  the  result  there  found  must 
evidently  be  the  present  value,  improved  at 
compound    interest  —  i.e.    multiplied    by  (1  +  »')». 

II          .1                »      1      •    1  -  ('  +  ')""  1  -  "" 

Hence  the  pre.sent  valuers -. ;  or,  — —  . 

Tables  for  the  four  cla.sses  of  values  above  described, 
based  on  various  rates  of  interest,  are  given  in 
most  works  on  annuities  and  other  liandlx>oks  ;  and 
various  useful  results,  besides  those  immeiliately 
intended,  can  readily  be  deduced  from  them. — The 
calculation  of  Life  Annuities  is  complicated  by  the 
element  of  the  probability  of  life,  and  is  treated 
under  .Vnntity. 

IXTERE.sT,  IN  LAW.— The  charging  of  interest 
was  formerly  looked  upon  with  great  disfavour, 
and  was  either  forbidden  or  restricted  by  the 
Usury  Laws  (n.v.),  which  were  not  finally  repealed 
till  18.'i9.  In  English  law  there  is  no  obligation 
imposeil  on  the  debtor  to  pay  any  interest  what- 
ever, though  the  sum  has  been  long  due  ami  often 
demanded.  The  creditor  can  always  sue  for  his 
debt,  which  is  his  proper  remedy,  but  he  derives  no 
benefit  from  giving  time  to  his  debtor.  Therefore, 
if  intere.st  is  to  be  paid,  this  must  be,  as  a  general 
rule,  by  virtue  of  express  agreement.  A  tacit 
agreement,  however,  would  be  presumed  and  given 
effect  to  where  it  could  be  proved  to  be  a  custom 
between  the  parties,  or  the  usage  of  a  particular 
tra<Ie  to  allow  interest.  Thus,  by  the  iisage  of 
merchant.^,  it  has  always  been  usual,  when  an 
action  has  been  brought  to  recover  the  amount  of 
a  bill  of  exchange  or  iironiissory-note,  for  the  jury 
to  add  interest  from  tlie  time  it  was  due.  In  the 
case  of  money  due  upon  an  awanl  by  an  arbitrator 
interest  Ls  due  from  the  ilay  when  the  awanl  was 


made.  Where  money  is  due  on  a  bond  also  interest 
is  added  from  the  day  it  ought  to  have  been  ]iaiil  ; 
and  if  a  surety  has  to  pay  money  for  his  priiuiiial 
he  can  recover  it  back  with  interest.  In  all  otiicr 
cases,  if  there  was  no  express  agreement  about 
interest,  none  could  be  claime<l.  By  3  and  -t 
Will.  IV.  chap.  42,  sec.  28,  a  jury  may  now 
add  interest  at  the  ordinary  rate  on  all  debts 
or  sums  certain,  which  are  made  payable  under 
some  written  instrument  at  a  certain  time  :  and 
even  if  not  due  under  a  written  instnimeiit, 
then  if  a  written  demand  has  been  made,  ex- 
pressly giving  notice  that  interest  will  be  charged 
from  "and  after  the  date  of  the  <lemand  if  not 
paid  then,  interest  will  also  be  due.  I'.ut  even 
in  these  last  cases  it  is  discretionary  in  the  jury  to 
give  the  interest,  and  therefore  it  is  not  claimable 
as  a  matter  of  coui-se.  As  regards  compound 
interest,  it  is  a  fortiori  not  claimalile  in  any  case, 
except  where  it  has  been  expressly  stipulated  for, 
or  where  there  is  in  some  particular  trade  a  definite 
custom  to  pay  interest,  and  such  custom  must 
always   be  proved.      The    courts    generally   name 

4  per  cent,  when  interest  is  decreed  for,  but  some- 
times 5  per  cent.  ;  and  where  funds  have  been 
misapplied  the  Court  of  Chancery  charges  com- 
pound interest  at  5  per  cent.  Pawnbrokers  are 
allowed  to  charge  interest  not  exceeding  a  fixed 
sum.     See  Pawxbroking. 

In  Scotland  the  law  has  always  been  much  more 
liberal  in  allowing  interest  to  be  claimed  on  out- 
standing debts,  for  there  the  converse  principle  was 
acted  on,  that  on  nearly  all  debts  whatever  interest 
was  claimable  either  by  statute  or  by  common 
law.  Thus,  interest  is  due  on  bills  of  exchange, 
on  the  amount  contained  in  a  horning  or  charge  to 
pay,  on  sums  paid  by  cautioners,  on  the  price  of 
lands  sold,  on  money  advanced  at  request,  cm  the 
price  of  goods  sold  if  the  usual  time  of  credit  lias 
expired,  and  generally  on  all  debts  when  payment 
is  due  and  has  been  demanded.  In  certain  cases 
principal  and  interest  to  a  fixed  date  are  accumu- 
lated into  a  capital  sum  on  which  interest  runs ; 
and  the  House  of  Lords,  on  appeal,  may  gi\e 
decree  for  compound  interest.  Tlie  courts  charge 
penal  interest  at  the  rate  of  20  per  cent,  against 
factors  and  trustees  who  illegally  retain  trust 
funds  in  their  own  hands. 

In  the  United  States  the  legal  rates  of  interest 
vary  in  the  difi'erent  states  and  territories,   from 

5  per  cent  in  Louisiana  to  12  in  Wyoming,  but 
in  the  majority  6  per  cent,  is  the  legal  rate.  In 
most  of  the  states  there  are  penalties  for  usury, 
ranging  from  forfeiture  of  the  excess  of  interest  to 
forfeiture  of  principal  an<l  interest.  But  a  higher 
rate,  and  in  many  cases  any  rate,  is  allowed  by 
contract. 

Interference,  in  Physical  Science,  is  a  term 
which  refers  to  a  very  general  (dass  of  phenomena 
depending  on  the  co-existence  at  one  place  of  two 
dilierent  sets  of  waves,  undulations,  or  vibrations. 
Its  essential  character  is  well  ilhistiated  by  the 
mingling  of  two  sets  of  ripples  produced  in  any 
way  (such  as  by  the  dropping  in  of  stones)  on  the 
otherwise  smooth  surface  of  a  sheet  of  water. 
Where  crest  meets  crest,  and  trough  meets  trough, 
there  the  resultant  disturbance  is  increiused  ;  but 
where  crest  meets  trough,  and  trough  meets  crest, 
the  disturbance  will  be  diminished,  and  even  anni- 
hilated should  the  mingling  ripples  be  equal  to 
begin  with.  In  such  a  ca.se  we  can  observe  the 
interference  of  individual  waves.  Now,  wlien'ver  wo 
have  wave-motion,  in  the  wide  dynamic  sense  of  the 
term,  there  we  may  have  interference-phenomena 
showing  themselves.  But  if,  as  in  the  c.ise  of  the 
propagation  nf  sound,  light,  and  electrical  waves, 
the  undulations  are  too  snuill,  or  of  a  character  too 
peculiar  to  be  individually  observeil  or  felt  by  any 


182 


INTERGLACIAL    BEDS 


INTERNATIONAL 


of  our  senses,  we  cannot  hope  to  have  eviilence 
of  interfeience-iiheuoinona  unless  there  is  a  steaily 
succession  of  two  trains  of  waves  reiiroduciiii;  the 
same  phenomenon  at  the  same  place  fm  an  indehnite 
time.  Thus,  two  dill'erent  rays  of  light  will  not  in 
general  proilncc  evident  interference-phenomena. 
It  is  only  when  they  have  been  l>n)ni;ht  from  the 
same  original  source,  and  made  to  pursue  slightly 
diti'erent  paths,  that  the  optical  ell'ects  of  interfer- 
ence are  possible.  As  a  simple  illustration,  take 
Grimahli's  experiment  as  modilied  by  Dr  Thomas 
Young  (1804),  to  whom  we  owe  the  discovery  of 
the  principle  of  interference  and  its  ai>i>lication  to 
optical  phenomena.  A  ray  of  light,  which  for 
simplicity  we  shall  regard  as  homogeneous — that  is, 
of  one  wave-length  and  colour — is  introduced  into  a 
darkened  chamljer  througli  two  minute  apertures 
very  close  together.  The  two  similar  divergent 
ray.s  of  light  so  produced  will  interfere,  and  the 
result,  as  sliown  on  a  screen  placed  a  short  distance 
in  front  of  the  apertures,  will  be  a  series  of  bright 
bands  separated  by  dark  spaces.  The  central 
bright  baud,  every  point  of  wliich  is  equidistant 
from  the  apertures,  is  produced  by  the  super- 
position of  two  rays,  crest  falling  with  crest,  and 
trough  with  trough.  The  ne.xt  bright  band  on 
either  si<le  is  the  locus  of  all  points  whose  distances 
from  the  two  apertures  ditler  by  a  wave-length  of 
light,  so  that  still  crest  falls  with  crest,  and  trough 
with  trough.  I?ut  at  the  points  that  lie  in  the 
centre  of  the  intermediate  dark  space  the  two  rays 
meet  so  that  crest  falls  with  trough,  and  trough 
with  crest,  and  thus  produce  darkness  instead  of 
brightness.  The  general  law  is  that  darkness  is 
produced  when  the  jiortions  of  the  two  interfering 
rays  that  coexist  at  one  point  \vere  in  the  oiiginsil 
single  ray  distant  from  each  other  by  an  odd 
number  of  half  wave-lengths ;  and  that  brightness 
is  produced  when  this  distance  is  an  even  multiple 
of  a  half  wave-length.  Theoretically  an  indefinite 
number  of  interference  bands  should  be  visible  ; 
but  practically  this  is  not  so.  The  chief  reason  for 
the  gradual  fading  of  the  further  bands  is  the  diffi- 
culty of  obtainiu"  sufficiently  jiure  homogeneous 
light.  If  the  light  is  ordinary  sunlight  it  will  be 
found  inipossilde  to  get  really  dark  spaces,  .since  in 
this  case  the  component  rays,  being  of  different 
wave-lengths,  cannot  interfere  in  the  same  way. 
Thus,  if  the  red  rays  interfere  so  as  to  annihilate 
each  other,  tlie  blue  rays  will  not  do  so,  but  may 
on  the  contrary  interfere  to  intensify  each  other. 
Hence  arise  the  coloured  banils  always  to  be  seen 
when  interference-i)henomena  are  produced  with 
non-homogeneous  light.  Amongst  other  oi)tical 
illustrations  of  the  principle  of  interference  we 
may  mention  the  coron:e  round  the  sun  and  moon 
when  they  are  seen  through  a  lleecy  cloud,  the 
spurious  bows  that  fringe  tlie  primary  rainbow,  tlie 
colours  of  soaj)  lllms  and  thin  plates  generally,  the 
colimrs  of  mother-of-pearl  and  diliraction  gratings 
(.see  Sl'KCTRfM),  Newton's  rings,  and,  as  a  simple 
experiment,  the  appearance  of  a  candle  or  lamp 
flame  when  looked  at  through  a  line  cambric  lianil- 
kerchief.  The  phenomenon  of  spring  ami  neap 
tides  (see  Tides)  is  another  case  of  interference  :  so 
alxo  are  shadows,  both  light-shadows  and  sound- 
shadows.  Moreover,  I)r  Hertz  of  C'arlsrulu!  has 
taught  us  how  to  obtain  and  mea-sure  the  interfer- 
ence of  electro-magnetic  waves.     See  Maoxetlsm. 

Iiiterjilarial  Itcds.    See  I'i.ei.^tocexe. 

lllt«>rillK  in  the  history  of  the  Reformation,  the 
name  given  to  certain  edicts  of  the  (lerman  emperor 
for  the  regulation  of  religious  and  ecclesiivstical 
matters  '  in  the  meantime  '  (  Lat.  iiitmin  ),  till  they 
could  be  deciiled  bv  .1  general  council.  The  chief 
are  the  lialishon  Interim  (at  the  diet  held  at 
Katisbon  in  1541);  the  Atigaburg  Interim  (diet  of 


1548);   and  the  Leipziq  Interim  (another  diet  of 
1548).     See  C'H.^liLEs  V. 

Illterlakcil  {'between  the  lakes'),  a  village 
of  Switzerland,  in  the  beautiful  valley  of  the  Aar, 
between  Lakes  Than  ami  lirienz.  Along  the 
Walnut  Avenue  or  Highway  between  tlie  lakes 
there  is  an  almost  uninterru]ited  line  of  hotels 
and  jiensions.  Tlie  village  is  visited  aunnallv  bv 
•20,000  to  ,S0,000  ttiurists.'who  make  it  their  start- 
ing-point for  reaching  many  of  the  most  wonderful 
sights  that  the  country  atl'ords,  especially  the 
Bernese  Oberland,  where  are  the  Staubbach, 
Lauterbrunnen,  the  Grindelwald  glaciei-s,  I'v.-c. 
Pop.  •2121.  The  nucleus  of  the  village  is  a  former 
Augustinian  monastery  (founded  1130). 

Interlineations  in  a  deed  are  additions 
or  corrections  written  either  on  the  maigin  or 
between  the  lines.  In  England  interlineations  in  a 
deed  are  not  fatal,  provided  only  it  is  proved  that 
they  were  made  before  executing  the  deed.  It  is 
usual  to  put  the  jiarties'  initials  opposite  the  place 
where  the  interlineations  occur,  in  proof  of  this,  or 
at  least  by  way  of  memorandum.  In  affidavits  and 
other  documents  the  initials  should  also  be  put  at 
the  places  interlined.  In  Scotland  interlineations 
ought  to  be  sij^ned  by  the  parties,  and  the  fact 
mentioned  in  tlie  testing  clause,  otherwise  it  will 
be  ju-esunied  that  the  interlineations  were  made 
after  the  execution,  and  will  vitiate  the  deed. 

Interloc'ntor,  in  Scotch  law,  means  a  finding 
or  judgment  of  a  judge  or  court  in  a  cause. 

Interlude,  in  Music,  is  a  short  melodious 
phrase  played  by  the  organist  (generally  extem- 
pore) between  the  ver.ses  of  a  p.saliii  or  hymn  tune. 
It  is  now  in  disuse  in  England.  In  Erench 
cathedrals  a  long  interlude  is  ]il,aved  between  the 
verses  of  the  Magnijieat.  In  the  German  Pro- 
testant Church  an  interlude  (ZirisehcnspicI)  is  often 
played  between  each  line  of  the  verse.  Examples 
of  its  artistic  use  may  be  found  in  Mendelssohn's 
Elijdh  ( •  Cast  thy  burthen  ' )  and  St  Paul  ( '  Sleepei-s, 
wake ' ). 

Intermarriage.    See  Consanguinity. 

Interment.    See  Biri.^l,  Cemetery. 

Intermittent  Fever.    See  Ague. 

International,  The.  The  International 
Working-men's  Association  was  founded  at  Lon- 
don in  18U4.  It  was,  however,  not  the  iii-st  attempt 
to  establish  an  international  combination  of  work- 
men. As  early  as  18.'?9  a  number  of  exiles,  cbietly 
German,  had  taken  part  in  an  unsuci'cssfnl  rising 
at  Paris,  and  removing  to  London  bad  fcnnieil  a 
league  in  the  interests  of  labour.  Containing 
workmen  from  most  of  the  countries  of  northern 
Europe  to  whom  (Jernian  served  as  a  common 
tongue,  the  league  naturally  assumed  an  inter- 
national charaelcr.  It  entered  into  relation  with 
Karl  Marx  in  !S47,  and  under  his  inllueiice  was 
reconstituted  under  the  name  of  the  Communist 
League.  In  its  name  Marx  ami  his  friend  Fr. 
Engels  drew  uji  the  manifesto  of  the  Communist 
]iarty,  an  expression  of  the  most  violent  revolution- 
ary and  international  socialism.  The  manifesto 
was  imblished  on  the  eve  of  the  revolution  of  1848, 
and  the  members  of  the  league  represented  the 
most  extreme  section  of  tlic  lighting  democnicv  in 
Germany  during  that  time  of  trouble.  The  failure 
of  the  revolution  was  soon  followed  by  the  di.ssolu- 
tion  of  the  league. 

The  as.sociation  of  1864,  usually  called  the  Inti'r- 
nalional,  began  in  the  visit  of  some  Freneh  work 
men  to  the  International  Exhibition  in  London, 
18()^2.  This  visit  wius  encouraged  or  supjiorted  by 
the  Enijieror  Na]iolei)n.  In  Liuidiin  the  Eiencli 
men  fraternised  with  their  English  brethren ; 
I  wishes  for  conunon  action  in  the  cause  of  labour 


INTERNATIONAL 


183 


were  interchangetl,  a  coui-se  which  was  fiirtliered 
by  the  desire  of  the  emperor,  through  tlie  work- 
men, to  intinence  public  opinion  in  favour  of 
Poland.  Finally,  in  September  1864,  at  .a  great 
nieeting  in  London,  it  was  ilecided  to  establish  an 
international  association  of  working-men. 

Mazzini  wa.s  tirst  commissioned  to  draft  a  con- 
stitution for  the  association,  without  satisfactory 
result  :  and  the  task  fell  upon  Mar.\,  who,  in  the 
inangural  address  and  in  the  statutes,  emliodied 
the  aims  of  the  new  movement  with  masterly  force 
and  clearness.  Notwithstanding  the  enormous 
progress  of  industry  in  recent  years,  Marx  cim- 
tended  that  the  lot  of  the  workmen  had  not 
improved  ;  that  the  economic  subjection  of  the 
worker  under  the  monopolist  of  the  instruments  of 
labour,  that  is,  of  the  sources  of  life,  was  the  cause 
of  servitude,  in  all  its  forms,  of  social  misery, 
intellectual  degradation,  and  political  dependence  ; 
and  that  the  economic  emancipation  of  the  working- 
class,  therefore,  was  the  great  end  to  which  every 
political  movement  should  be  subordinated  as 
means.  Fearing  that  the  new  hopes  now  awakened 
might  be  rendered  vain  through  the  want  of  union, 
he  maintained  that  the  emancipation  of  the  work- 
ing-class was  neither  a  local  nor  a  national,  but  a 
social  task,  which  concerns  all  countries  where 
modern  society  exists,  and  whose  solution  depends 
on  the  practical  and  theoretical  co-operation  of  the 
most  advanced  countries.  The  a-ssociation  declared 
that  all  societies  and  individuals  adhering  to  it 
recognise  truth,  justice,  and  morality  as  the  rules 
of  their  conduct  to  each  other  and  to  all  men  with- 
out distinction  of  colour,  creed,  or  nationality  ;  no 
duties  without  rights,  no  rights  without  duties. 
While  intended  to  act  as  a  centre  of  comliinatitm 
and  systematic  co-operation  between  the  working- 
men  of  various  countries,  the  International  left 
intact  the  organisation  of  existing  societies  which 
might  join  it.  There  was  to  be  an  annual  con- 
gress, which  should  name  the  general  council,  and 
the  general  council  would  hold  in  its  hands  the 
control  of  the  association. 

The  statutes  drawn  up  liy  Marx  were  adopted  by 
the  first  congress  held  at  Geneva,  1866 ;  and  the 
socialistic  principles  which  from  the  first  were 
implied  in  its  constitution  received  explicit  develop- 
ment at  that  and  .subsequent  congiesses,  Lausanne 
(1867),  Brussels  (1868),  Ba-sel  (1869).  The  nieet- 
ing at  Brussels  was  in  everj'  way  the  most  decisive ; 
it  declared  that  mines,  laml,  and  means  of  com- 
munication should  become  the  common  property  of 
the  state,  and  by  it  lie  handed  over  to  associations  of 
working-men  to  be  utiliseil  under  conditions  favour- 
able to  the  common  goo<l ;  and  that  only  through 
co-operative  societies  and  the  organisation  of 
mutual  credit  could  the  workmen  own  ami  control 
the  machines.  The  congress  further  condenmed 
all  appropri/ition  by  capital  of  rent,  jirolit.  or  in- 
terest ;  labour  should  enjoy  its  full  right  and  entire 
reward.  Against  the  war  then  imnunent  between 
France  anil  Germany,  and  against  war  generally, 
the  congress  raised  a  solemn  protest,  and  recom- 
mended a  universal  strike  in  the  event  of  its 
breaking  out.  At  the  congress  of  Basel  a  proposal 
for  the  abolition  of  the  right  of  inheritance  was  not 
carried. 

Ai)art  from  the  meeting  of  congresses,  it  is  not 
easy  exactly  to  define  the  development  of  the 
International.  Though  speedily  supi)ressed  by  the 
French  government,  it  had  some  influence  in 
directing  and  supporting  strikes  in  that  countiy, 
while  it  as.-;isted  Knglish  trades  unions  by  ]irevent- 
ing  the  importation  of  chea])  labour  from  the 
Continent.  It  had  adherents  in  eveiy  cimntry 
of  western  and  central  Europe:  but  its  influence 
alwavs  dopeniled  nmre  on  the  v.ast  and  undefined 
possibilities  of  the  cause  it  represented  than  on  its 


actual  strength.  Its  finances  were  weak,  its  organ- 
isation loose  ;  the  adhesion  of  many  of  its  members 
was  of  a  very  platonic  character.  Undoubtedly 
the  most  real  ami  elVective  gain  to  the  International 
was  in  Germany,  where  the  workers'  unions  con- 
stituting the  Eisenach  branch  of  the  Social  Demo- 
cracy declared  their  .adiiesion  to  it. 

In  1870  the  Internation.al  proposed  to  hold  its 
annual  congress  at  Paris,  the  ancient  seat  of  the 
revolutionary  movement,  but  the  Franco-CIerman 
war  intervened  to  prevent  it.  The  revolt  of  the 
Commune  with  its  disastrous  consequences 
rcnilered  a  congress  impossible  also  in  1871.  The 
International  had  little  or  nothing  to  do  with 
originating  the  Commune ;  only  a  few  of  its 
members  were  involved  in  the  rising,  and  on  their 
individual  responsibility.  After  the  suppression 
of  the  revolt,  Marx  in  the  name  of  the  general 
council  wrote  .a  trenchant  manifesto  fully  endorsing 
the  action  of  the  Conmiune.  He  saw  in  it  a  rising 
of  the  proletariat  against  a  clique  of  bourgeois 
adventurers  who  had  seized  on  the  central  power 
of  France.  It  was  a  revolt  of  the  proletariat,  the 
class  of  which  socialism  claims  to  be  the  sjjccial 
champion  ;  and  it  was  an  assertion,  against  the 
centralising  government  of  the  middle  classes,  of 
the  political  form  requisite  for  the  development  of 
socialism,  the  commune  or  self-governing  local 
gi'oup  of  workers. 

From  the  first  the  control  of  the  International 
had  depended  mostly  on  a  group  of  German  exiles, 
of  whom  Marx  was  the  undoulited  chief.  The 
followers  of  Blanqui  and  Proudhon  exercised  some 
influence,  but  it  could  not  be  comjiared  with  that 
of  Marx.  In  1869  Bakunin,  the  apostle  of  anarch- 
ism, with  a  body  of  followers  entered  the  Interna- 
tional. Naturally  they  objected  to  the  authority 
and  centralising  methods  of  Marx,  and  at  the 
Hague  congress  of  1872  a  rupture  ensued.  The 
anarchists  were  expelled  from  the  association,  the 
seat  of  which  was  also  transfened  by  the  Marx 
party  to  New  York.  In  1S73  both  jiarties  held 
congresses  at  Geneva,  which  did  nothing  notable. 
The  Mar.x  International  really  ceased  to  exist  from 
that  time.  The  Anarchist  International,  which 
was  most  powerful  in  the  Romance  countries,  such 
as  Spain  and  Italy,  continued  to  act  for  some  years 
.subsequently ;  and  particularly  it  was  responsible 
for  the  risings  in  the  cities  oi  southern  Spain  in 
1873-74,  where  the  insurgents  seized  on  jiart  of  the 
ironclad  tleet,  and  were  suppressed  not  without 
difficulty. 

No  formal  organisation  styling  itself  Inter- 
national now  exists,  but  the  socialist  parties  of 
the  diflerent  countries,  especially  those  adhering 
to  the  Marx  school,  fully  recognise  the  inter- 
national character  of  the  movement  in  which 
they  are  engaged.  Foremost  in  every  respect 
among  those  parties  is  the  (uMiuan  Social  Deuui- 
cracy,  with  its  strongly-pronounced  inditt'erence 
and  even  hostility  to  many  of  the  accepted  national 
interests  of  the  country.  Since  the  downfall  of 
Marx's  a.s.sociation  international  socialism  has 
fonn<l  expression  in  congresses,  as  that  of  Ghent 
in  1877.  In  1889  the  centenary  of  the  Great 
Kevolution,  two  large  internaticmal  congresses 
a.ssembled  at  Paris,  one  remesenting  the  more 
uncompromising  Marx  school,  the  other  consisting 
of  delegates  who  are  not  indisposed  to  co-operate 
with  other  democratic  parties.  The  ]iroposal  nuide 
in  1889  by  the  Swiss  government  for  an  inter- 
national c-oiifcriMici-  on  the  ]irotection  and  regula- 
tion of  labour  did  not  excite  mui'h  attention  :  but 
it  W!is  felt  that  the  whole  question  had  entered 
on  a  new  stage  when  in  the  spring  of  1S90  the 
Genuan  emperor  assembled  a  similar  confi'rence 
at  Berlin.  It  is  needle.ss  to  say,  however,  that 
this   International   of  the   European  governments 


184 


INTERNATIONAL 


INTERNATIONAL    LAW 


concerned  itself  with  only  a  small  portion  of  tlie 
great  task  undertaken  liy  the  association  so  called. 
An  international  demonstration  of  workmen  in 
favour  of  tlie  compulsory  limitation  of  the  working 
day  to  eijjht  hours  took  place  in  most  populous 
European  and  American  centres  on  May  1,  1890 
(in  London  the  principal  gathering  was  on  Sunday, 
4th  May ). 

See  Laveleye's  Socialism  of  To-day;  Johu  Rae,  Con- 
teniporary  Socialism ;  R.  Meyer's  Emancipatioitskampf 
lies  rierien  Standea  (vol.  i.  contains  tlie  documents 
bearing  on  the  International) ;  E.  Villetard,  Bisloire  de 
Vlntenuitiomth'. 

International  Law.  Under  this  designa- 
tion are  included  two  distinct  branches  of  jurispni- 
dence,  known  respectively  as  I'ublic  International 
Law  and  Private  International  Law.  Public  inter- 
national law  regulates  the  relations  of  states 
to  states ;  private  international  law  is  concerned 
exclusively  with  the  legal  relations  of  private 
individuals,  determining  by  the  law  of  what 
nation  such  relations  shall  be  governed  in  each 
particular  case.  Further,  it  has  to  be  noted  that 
a  variety  of  relations  may  occur  wherein  a  state 
and  the  citizen  of  another  state  are  the  subjects. 
Here  the  law  is  public  on  one  side  and  private  on 
the  other,  as  is  the  law  administered  in  prize-courts. 
In  practice,  however,  such  cases  are  treated  under 
public  international  law. 

Public  International  Lmv  is  the  name  given  to 
the  aggregate  of  rules  which  govern  the  conduct 
of  separate  states  in  their  relations  to  each  other. 
For  many  years  the  majority  of  writers  on  inter- 
national law  in  England  and  America  were  content 
to  look  for  the  ongin  of  these  rules  in  no  higher 
source  than  the  more  or  less  general  consent  of 
nations,  and  to  base  them  on  no  more  stable  founda- 
tion than  the  shifting  sands  of  expediency.  Juris- 
prudence thus  became  a  merely  arbitrary  system  of 
rules  founded  on  tacit  contracts  or  express  con- 
ventions, and  its  precepts  were,  logically  enough, 
considered  susceptible  of  any  degree  of  modifica- 
tion, limitation,  or  adaptation  that  temporary 
convenience  might  seem  to  demand.  These  un- 
fortunate doctrines  were  introduced  into  English 
jurisprudence  chierty  through  the  teaching  of  Ben- 
thain,  by  whom  utility  was  put  in  the  place  of 
natural  law.  His  principles  were  wrought  out  and 
more  specifically  applied  by  John  Austin,  whose 
works  long  continued  to  dominate  English  juris- 
prudence. This  principle  of  utility,  viewed  simply 
as  a  good  jiractical  test  in  legislation,  or  as  a  ready 
guide  in  applying  the  rules  of  natural  law  to  the 
complex  facts  of  state  life,  may  often  prove  of  higli 
value  ;  and,  according  to  Sir  H.  S.  Maine,  it  was 
in  this  aspect,  as  a  '  working  rule  of  legislation,' 
that  Bentnam  proposed  his  fornmla  of  the  '  greatest 
happiness  of  the  greatest  number.'  As  a  matter 
of  fact,  however,  the  majority  of  the  advocates  of 
utility  claim  that  in  itself  it  furnishes  the  rule  of 
life,  and  so  supplies  the  place  of  natural  law,  the 
existence  of  which  they  deny. 

These  doctrines  have  never  founil  much  currency 
on  the  Continent,  and  their  prevalence  in  England 
and  America  has  unfortunately  had  the  etlect  of  ' 
cutting  ofl'  the  juris|irudence  of  the.se  countries 
from  tlie  general  stream  of  scientific  jurisi)ruilence 
which  in  the  nations  of  continental  Eurojie  has 
continued  to  run  in  tlie  old  cliannid.  In  recent 
years,  however,  both  in  England  and  America  there 
is  observable  a  growing  tendency  to  abandon  this 
arbitrary  notion  of  positive  law.  Tiiis  movement  i 
has  been  largely  aided  by  the  scientific  .sjiirit,  and 
by  the  close  investigation  of  nature.  Similar  re- 
searches on  the  ethical  and  social  sides  of  human 
nature  have  been  c(|ually  fruitful,  with  the  result 
that  the  idea  of  the  universal  prevalence  of  law  in 
all  departments  of  life  has  been  vindicated,  and 


the  faith  of  mankind  in  nature  as  a  reasoned  organ- 
ism has  been  confirmed. 

As  a  science,  accmdingly,  positive  international 
law  has  for  its  oliject  the  discovery  of  those  laws 
which  determine  the  relations  of  nations  to  each 
other.  In  all  branches  of  municipal  law,  the  law 
of  the  relations  subsisting  between  citizens  is 
defined  and  enunciated  by  a  legislative  authority, 
is  applied  by  a  judicial  authority,  and  is  enforced 
by  an  adequate  executive.  The  positive  law  thus 
defined  is  accepted  on  all  hands,  and  con.seijucntly 
a  scientific  investigation  of  natural  law  is  only 
necessary  on  those  rare  occasions  when  alterations 
are  being  made  in  the  enacted  law.  In  the  case 
of  international  law,  in  the  absence  of  all  legis- 
lative, judicial,  and  executive  authority,  there 
really  is  in  the  strict  sense  no  positive  law  at  all. 
There  are  few  even  of  its  central  doctrines  which 
are  not  tlie  subject  of  warm  dispute  ;  the  objects 
to  be  aimed  at  are  no  less  undetermined  ;  its  his- 
tory is  in  many  respects  fragmentary  and  incon- 
sistent. The  truth  is,  as  Professor  Sheldon  Amos 
has  remarked,  that  international  law  now  exhibits  a 
positive  system  of  law  in  the  ju-ocess  of  making. 

The  natural  laws  governing  the  relations  of  nations 
must  have  been  coeval  with  the  existence  of  nations. 
It  nevertheless  remains  true  that  international 
law,  as  a  positive  system,  is  substantially  the 
creation  of  civilised  Europe  during  the  last  three 


centuries,  and  its  rules  are  now  practically  operative 

's.     In  spite  of  the  fact 

that  the  division  of  the  Greek  world  into  a  number 


only  among  civilised  states 


of  sejiarate  communities  would  seem  to  us  to  favour 
the  rise  of  such  a  system  of  law,  it  would  a)i|)ear 
that,  beyond  the  recognition  of  certain  common 
Hellenic  custoni.s,  no  efibrt  was  made  to  systemat- 
ically enunciate  any  rules  of  international  inter- 
course. The  gloi-j'  of  Greece  was  alreaily  waning 
when  the  Stoics,  tracing  out  in  a  more  ethical  and 
practical  direction  the  principles  of  Socrates,  arrixed 
at  the  idea  of  the  persona  and,  giving  a  definite 
form  to  the  conception  of  the  brotherhood  of  man- 
kind, enunciated  the  doctrine  of  the  jus  naturalc. 
In  this  doctrine  lay  the  germs  of  a  cosmopolitan 
system  of  international  law.  In  Rome  tlie  Jua 
fccialc  of  the  early  republic — regulating  the  formal 
intercourse  between  Home  and  otlier  states — 
looks  like  the  beginning  of  what  under  other  con- 
ditions might  have  developed  into  a  system  of 
international  law.  Unfortunately  during  the  whole 
period  of  the  empire,  while  the  municipal  law  of 
Kome  under  tlie  influeuce  of  the  Stoical  concep- 
tions was  achieving  its  bigli  destiny,  tlie  jurists 
were  by  their  theory  of  a  unixersal  empire  entirely 
shut  out  from  api>lying  their  ]irinciples  to  the 
relations  of  states  to  states.  So  too,  long  after  the 
Roman  empire  had  given  place  to  separate  king- 
doms, while  the  labours  of  tlie  civilians  contributed 
largely  to  the  consolidation  of  the  new  societies, 
the  imperialistic  traditions  still  lingering  among 
them  prevented  any  effort  being  made  to  evolve 
the  doctrines  of  a  jus  inter  <jentrs.  Meanwhile, 
the  peoples  of  Kurope,  closely  bound  in  llie  fetters 
of  an  omnipotent  feudalism,  were  painfully  strug- 
gling through  a  period  of  transition,  out  of  whicli 
were  to  emerge  the  great  European  monarchies. 
Pilling  this  long  period  the  need  of  some  defi- 
nite system  of  international  law  was  in  some 
measure  practically  supplieil  by  two  jHiwerfiil  iidlu- 
ences— the  authority  of  the  cliurch  and  the  insti- 
tution of  chivalry.  The  magnificent  organisation 
of  the  church,  besides  checking  violence  and  con- 
trolling in  .some  degree  the  turbulence  of  jirinces, 
enabled  the  l>o|ie,  taking  advantage  of  the  linger- 
ing notions  of  universal  sovereignty,  to  act  as 
arbitrator  in  a  great  variety  of  controversies  ranging 
in  importance  from  the  disiaites  of  private  indi- 
viduals to  tlie  adjustment  or  difficulties  of  serious 


INTERNATIONAL    LAW 


185 


international  concern.  The  institution  of  chivalry 
also,  by  introducin-.'  declarations  of  war  by  heralds 
and  a  "more  humane  treatment  of  the  vanciuished, 
and  generally  by  inculcating  the  virtues  of  lidelity 
and  magnanimity,  tended  to  assuage  the  horroi-s  of 
war.  Meantime  the  revival  of  commerce  arid  the 
growth  of  the  new  commercial  cities  gave  rise  to 
several  primitive  maritime  codes  (e.g.  the  laws  of 
Oleron,  the  laws  of  Wisby),  whose  publication 
did  much  to  regulate  the  "relations  of  states  in 
mercantile  matters.  At  length,  as  the  nations  of 
Europe  pa.ssed  into  manhood,  there  came  the  dawn 
of  a  new  era  and  a  general  rekindling  of  intellectual 
lijfe.  At  the  same  time  the  Reformation  gave  a 
deathblow  to  the  old  notion  of  a  common  superior 
whose  decisions  were  binding  upon  states,  and 
shattered  the  intiuence  so  long  beneticially  exercised 
by  the  Homan  curia  a.s  a  great  court  of  inter- 
national appeal.  Perplexed  by  the  terrible  events 
of  the  long  struggle  between  Spain  and  the  revolted 
Netherlands,  and  appalled  by  the  unbridled  license 
of  the  Thirty  Years  War,  Europe  cried  aloud  for 
deliverance  from  what  threatened  to  become 
international  anarchy.  The  time  was  ripe  for  the 
development  of  a  system  of  international  juris- 
prudence. The  renewed  study  of  Greek  philo- 
sophy had  revived  the  doctrines  of  the  jus  natiim/e, 
and  "in  the  application  of  these  old  principles  in 
the  new  direction  of  a  jus  inter  Rentes  was  found 
the  solution  of  the  problem  of  international  order. 
The  first  clear  reference  to  the  law  of  nations,  as 
a  separate  branch  of  positive  law,  and  as  such  dis- 
tinguishable from  the  law  of  nature,  is  usually 
found  in  the  work  of  Francis  jo  Suarez  of  Granada 
(154^-1617),  Dc  Lege  et  Deo  Legislatore.  Here,  as 
in  the  De  Jure  Belli  of  Albenc  Gentilis,  though 
there  is  no  attempt  at  a  detailed  system,  yet 
the  true  character  ami  general  objects  of  the 
law  of  nations  are  very  clearly  indicated.  Of 
the  workers  who  were  thus  engaged  in  applying 
the  law  of  nature  to  the  relations  of  states,  the 
greate-st  and  most  successful  was  Hugo  Grotius 
(158.3-l&i5),  who  combined  profound  learning  and 
keen  philosophic  insight  with  a  large  experi- 
ence in  public  affairs.  In  his  famous  work  De 
Jure  Belli  ac  Pads  (1625),  starting  with  the  con- 
ception of  a  real  and  determinable  law  of  nature, 
he  wrought  out  his  principles  into  a  detailed  and 
symmetrical  system  of  rules.  The  success  of  the 
work  was  rapid  and  decisive,  and  upon  the  founda- 
tions thus  deeply  laid  by  its  great  founder  inter- 
national law  continues  securely  to  rest.  Many  of 
liis  rules  indeed  have  undergone  a  process  of 
development,  and  the  growth  of  civilisation  has  led 
to  the  elaboration  of  large  bodies  of  new  niles  to 
meet  new  wants  and  changed  circumstances,  but 
the  authority  of  the  work  as  a  whole  remains  un- 
shaken. Among  the  most  interesting  legal  pro- 
dacts  of  our  day  are  the  manuals  of  the  laws  of 
war  issued  by  many  civilised  states  to  their  officers 
in  the  field,  and  perhaps  the  most  singular  feature 
of  these  manuals  is  the  number  of  rules  adopted 
in  them  direct  from  Grotius. 

It  remains  now  to  consider  what  may  be  called 
the  secon<lary  sources  of  this  branch  of  juiLspru- 
dence,  or  the  means  liy  which  positive  international 
law  is  defined  and  declared  in  the  concrete  relations 
of  states.  In  all  departments  of  jurisprudence 
custom  or  usage  is  the  earliest  form  in  which 
positive  law  declares  itself.  There  is,  however,  a 
constant  tendency  for  customs  to  outlive  the  cir- 
cumstances in  which  they  arose  ;  it  is  thus  con- 
stantly nece.s.sary  to  test  the  customarj-  niles  by 
the  touchstone  of  natural  law.  Further,  many  of 
the  recognised  rules  of  international  law  may  be 
traced  to  the  awards  given  from  time  to  time  by 
arbitrators,  the  judgments  of  mixed  courts  of  jirize 
appoiutetl  under  treaty,  and  even  to  such  decisions 


as  are  given  in  courts  corresponding  to  our  Court 
of  Admiralty.  The  great  liody  of  rules  comprising 
the  maritime  law  of  nations,  together  with  many 
fundamental  rules  in  other  deparlments,  may  be 
found  in  the  decisions  of  such  international  tribu- 
nals, and  thus  rest  on  authority  ( precedent )  as  trust- 
worthy as  that  which  commands  the  homage  of  the 
English  lawyer.  Of  such  precedents  perhaps  the 
most  valuable  are  those  furnished  by  the  decisions 
given  in  matters  of  prize  by  Sir  William  Scott, 
Lord  Stowell,  in  his  capacity  of  judge  in  the  Court 
of  Admiralty.  To  these  judgments,  which  must 
always  form  "an  important  part  of  a  course  of  study 
on  tiie  law  of  nations,  the  American  Judge  Kent 
(q.v. )  has  borne  this  remarkable  testimony  :  'There 
is  scarcely  a  decision  in  the  English  prize-courts, 
on  any  general  question  of  public  right,  that  has 
not  received  the  express  approbation  and  sanction 
of  our  national  courts.'  A  thinl  factor  in  the  for- 
mation of  positive  international  law  is  express 
convention  among  states.  While  treaties  during 
their  subsistence  constitute  between  the  parties  to 
them  the  most  direct  and  authoritative  declara- 
tions of  law,  yet  it  is  clear  that,  being  merely 
contracts,  they'cannot  directly  bind  by  their  pro- 
visions such  states  as  are  not  signatories.  Never- 
theless, a  series  of  treaties  between  ditt'erent  states 
containing  similar  stipulations,  or  even  a  single 
treaty  whose  provisions  have  been  acceded  to  and 
acted  upon  for  a  length  of  time  by  a  large  number 
of  nations,  may  have  important  ett'eets  on  con- 
suetudinary law,  and  in  this  way  may  materially 
ati'ect  states  which  have  taken  no  part  in  the 
matter.  Thus,  although  the  United  States  have 
steadfastly  refused  to  adhere  to  tlie  Declaration  of 
Paris  (1856),  yet,  if  the  provisions  of  that  treaty 
continue  to  be  uniformly  acted  on  l)y  the  other 
powers,  the  obligation  on  the  United  States  to 
conform  its  practice  to  the  rules  there  embodied  will 
daily  become  stronger.  Considered  as  sources  of 
international  law,  the  most  important  treaties  are 
those  which  profess  to  declare  the  absolute  law  of 
nations  as  understood  by  the  contracting  iiarties, 
such  as  those  abolishing  the  slave-trade,  or  defining 
the  relations  of  belligerents  and  neutrals.  It  is, 
however,  in  the  scientific  interpretation  of  the  law 
as  contained  in  the  writings  of  the  great  publicists 
that  the  most  important  of  these  secondary  sources 
of  this  branch  of  jurisprudence  is  to  be  found.  To 
render  clearer  our  conceptions  of  the  objects  of 
international  law,  to  draw  from  isolated  facts 
some  general  principles,  to  test  these  principles  by 
the  permanent  laws  of  human  nature  as  revealed 
by  the  history  of  events  and  by  the  moral  and 
physical  sciences,  and,  further,  to  apply  admitted 
principles  to  new  sets  of  circumstances  as  thev 
arise — to  do  this  and  much  more  has  lieen  the  work 
of  a  long  line  of  eminent  jurists,  who  are  at  once 
the  witnesses  to  the  law  and  the  guides  of  its 
development.  By  the  formation  of  the  '  Institute 
of  International  Law  '  at  Ghent  in  1873  an  attempt 
has  been  made  to  call  into  existence  a  new  a<;ency 
for  the  development  of  this  branch  of  jurisprudence. 
The  subjects  of  international  law  are  sovereign 
states.  In  all  branches  of  jurisprudence  life  is  the 
source  of  rights,  and,  therefore,  before  a  community 
can  be  regarded  as  having  the  rights  and  being 
subject  to  the  obligations  of  a  state,  it  must  be 
shown  to  pos.se.ss  the  essential  attributes  of  state- 
existence,  or,  in  other  words,  it  must  receive  politi- 
cal recognition.  To  the  act  of  recognition  a  general 
character  is  sometimes  coiiimuniiated  by  several 
recognising  powers  simultaneously  presenting  to 
the  court  of  the  claimant  identic  notes  of  recogni- 
tion, and  at  the  same  time  giving  to  their  repre- 
.sentativcs,  already  resident  as  consuls,  their  cre- 
dentials of  appointment  as  ministers.  Of  such  a 
concerted  proceeding  lietween  states  the  recognition 


186 


INTERNATIONAL    LAW 


of  Roumania  in  1880  is  a  recent  example.  Roufihly, 
we  may  say  tliat,  according'  to  modern  conceptions, 
a  stale  is  a  politically  autonomous  a;i,'t,'ie;j;ate  of 
human  being's,  liaving  delinite  relations  to  terri- 
tory, to  social  existence,  to  government,  and  to 
certain  moral  ideas,  of  which  tlie  ideas  of  a  historic 
past  and  a  liistoric  future,  and  of  natif)nal  unity  or 
common  interest  are  tlie  most  dominant  and  un- 
mistakalile.  During  the  nineteenth  century  the 
tendency  lias  been  to  lay  stress  on  nationality — 
a  tendency  to  wliose  strength  the  recent  uniliea- 
tion  of  Italy  and  Germany  hears  eloquent  testi- 
mony. Nevertheless,  although  a  political  com- 
munity is  composed,  as  Austro- Hungary  now  is, 
of  very  different  races  of  men,  or  although  it 
consists  internally  of  a  union  or  federation  of 
smaller  communities,  yet  it  may  be  in  the  eye 
of  international  law  a  single  state,  pro^■ided  the 
whole  is  suliject  to  one  supreme  authority.  It 
is,  however,  essential  that,  like  every  jural 
entity,  the  international  state,  whether  great 
or  small,  be  separate  from  every  other  :  its  moral 
and  physical  activity  must  he  (leculiarly  its  o\\ti. 
The  fact  that  recognition  thus  implies  separate 
existence  at  once  cuts  off  all  colonies,  however 
important  an<l  distant  from  the  parent  state,  and 
all  communities  which,  though  preserving  the 
organisation  of  a  separate  nation,  are  in  practice 
subject  to  the  rule  of  another  state.  The  funda- 
mental conception  of  international  jurisprudence  is 
that  of  the  iiiteidepcndence  of  states,  as  opposed 
to  their  independence.  The  fact  of  the  reality  of 
sucli  interdependence  is  every  day  Ijecoming  clearer 
with  the  increase  of  complexity  in  the  social,  com- 
mercial, and  political  ties  by  which  the  nations  of 
the  world  are  bound  one  to  another.  No  state,  for 
example,  can  administer  its  own  criminal  law  or 
execute  its  own  criminal  judgments  without  the 
continual  aid  of  all  other  states ;  and  in  declaring 
at  its  Oxford  meeting  in  ISSO  that  extradition 
might  take  place  at  all  times  independently  of  any 
contractual  obligations,  or,  in  other  words,  that  the 
right  of  extradition  is  a  right  at  common  law,  the 
Institute  of  International  Law  formally  accepted 
the  doctrine  of  the  interdeiiendence  of  states  as  a 
conception  fundamental  in  the  law  of  nations. 

(Questions  of  the  highest  importance  may  arise 
when  a  portion  of  an  existing  state  rises  in  rebel- 
lion, and,  setting  up  a  separate  government  over  a 
consideraVile  portion  of  the  national  territories, 
tenders  to  other  powers  a  claim  for  se])arate  recog- 
nition. Here  again  the  question  is  one  of  fact, 
depending  on  the  completeness  of  the  new  political 
and  military  organisatimi  and  the  probable  extent 
of  the  conflict  by  land  and  sea.  The  earliest  stage 
of  recognition  in  such  cases  usually  takes  the  form 
of  a  concession  of  liclligerent  rights  proceeiling 
either  from  the  opposite  party  in  the  war  or  from 
neutral  states  alone,  or  from  both.  Such  belligerent 
recognition,  while  it  <loes  not  confer  the  peaceful 
])rivileges  which  belong  to  the  perfect  state,  yet 
gives  all  the  rights  of  public  war  and  binds  tlie 
states  which  grant  it  to  all  the  duties  of  neutrals. 
The  insurgents  thus  acquire  a  recognised  status  : 
they  may  capture  the  goods  of  their  enemies  at 
sea ;  they  can  obtain  loans  of  money,  and  pur- 
chase military  and  naval  materials  alnoad  ;  their 
flag  is  acknowledge<l ;  and  their  revenue  laws  are 
respected. 

In  the  eye  of  international  law  mankind  may  he 
said  to  fall  into  three  spheres,  to  each  of  wliicli 
belong,  of  right,  at  the  hands  of  civilised  nations, 
three  distinct  stages  of  recognition — plenary  politi- 
cal recognition,  partial  political  recognition,  and 
natural  or  mere  human  recognition.  The  sjihcrc 
of  plenary  p<ditical  recognition  extends  to  all  the 
Christian  .states  of  Europe  and  to  those  states  of 
North  and  South  America  originally  colonised  by  I 


them  which  have  vindicated  their  independence. 
By  tlie  treaty  of  I'aris  in  ISoG  Turkey  was  formally 
'admitted  to  a  participation  in  the  advantages  of 
the  ])ublic  law  ot  Europe  and  the  system  of  concert 
attached  thereto.'  In  spite,  however,  of  this  techni- 
cal recognition  the  position  of  the  Ottoman  empire 
is  still  |>roperly  only  one  of  partial  recognition,  in 
which  sphere  are  also  included  Peisi.a,  China,  .lapan, 
and  Siam.  In  the  case  of  Turkey  and  these  other 
countries,  even  when  (lii>loniatic  relatiims  have  been 
established  between  them  and  civilised  states,  the 
recognition  does  not  extend  to  their  municiiial  law, 
either  public  or  private,  except  as  regards  their  own 
citizens  within  their  own  frontiers.  Within  the 
borders  of  all  these  states  separate  courts  are  main- 
tained, and  to  these  courts  is  entrusted  the  decision 
of  questions  between  the  citizens  of  the  western 
states  resident  in  these  eastern  countries.  The 
constitution  of  these  consular  courts  or  mixed  tri- 
bunals varies  considerably  in  different  oriental 
states,  and  is  in  most  cases  regulated  by  convention. 
The  practice  of  Great  Britain  in  this  respect  is 
still  mainly  regulated  by  the  Foreign  .lurisdiction 
Act  (6  and  7  \'ict.  chap.  94).  The  third  sphere, 
that  of  mere  human  recognition,  extends  to  the 
residue  of  mankind. 

All  the  subsidiary  jjiinciples  which  regulate  inter- 
national relations,  so  long  at  least  as  they  continue 
to  be  normal,  are  directly  deducible  as  corollaries 
from  the  central  doctrine  of  recognition.  Thus, 
since  recognition  implies  capacity  for  self-support 
and  self-government,  each  state  has  the  right  to 
choo.se  whatever  form  of  government  best  suits  the 
people  and  to  exercise  without  interference  all  the 
powers  which  it  possesses.  It  may  establish,  alt«r, 
or  abolish  its  own  municipal  constitution,  disco\  er 
and  settle  new  countries,  extend  its  navigation  and 
fisheries,  improve  its  revenues,  arts,  agriculture, 
and  commerce,  increase  its  military  and  naval 
forces,  and  develop  its  national  resources  l>y  all 
innocent  and  lawful  means.  This  fundamental 
rule  that  the  jural  attitude  of  .states  is  normally 
one  of  mutual  confidence,  and  that  the  highest 
political  wisdom  consists  in  allowing  to  each  nation 
entire  freedom  to  manage  its  own  internal  affairs 
and  to  develop  si)ontaneously  its  natiiral  resources, 
negatives  the  princiide  of  the  Balance  of  Power, 
now  practically  obsolete. 

As  regards  luoprietary  rights,  each  state  is  owner 
of  the  whole  area  inchnleil  within  delinite  bound- 
aries, ascertained  by  occuiiation,  prescription,  or 
treaty.  All  ports,  bays,  mouths  of  rivers,  and  a 
strip  of  sea  three  miles  in  width  bordering  on  the 
coast-line  are  ineludeil  within  the  territory  of  the 
state.  In  this  way  each  state  is  enabled  more  per- 
fectly to  carry  into  effect  its  maritime  laws  and 
customs  regulations,  to  juovide  f(n-  an  adequate 
system  of  coast  defence,  and  to  secure,  as  long  as 
it  remains  neutral,  immunity  from  all  acts  of  belli- 
gerency between  the  ships  of  the  enemy.  Where, 
however,  part  of  the  territorial  waters,  so  defined, 
cimsists  of  a  channel  of  comiiiunicatiim  between 
two  portions  of  the  ojieii  sea,  all  vessels  of  friendly 
states  have  the  right  of  free  ]iassage.  The  position 
of  interoceanic  canals  in  international  law  is  not 
yet  (|uite  settled,  but  the  tendency  seems  to  be  in 
favour  of  the  neutralisation  of  such  canals  under  an 
international  guarantee,  so  that  they  may  be  at  all 
times  open  to  tin'  ships  of  every  nation  for  the  pur- 
poses ot  jieacefiil  i)assage. 

Within  its  territorial  limits  each  state  is  entitled 
to  the  exclusive  power  of  legislation  in  respect  to 
the  personal  rights  and  civil  status  of  its  citizens, 
anil  in  res]iect  to  all  real  and  personal  projtert.v, 
whi'lher  belonging  to  citizens  or  aliens.  In  recog- 
nising the  state,  other  nations  recognise  its  legisla- 
tive capacity,  and  consequently  are  bound,  not  only 
to  allow  it' to  administer  its  own  municipal  law 


INTERNATIONAL    LAW 


187 


without  interference  witliin  its  own  limits,  I>ut  also 
to  accept  as  valid  and  give  ett'ect  to  the  delinitions 
of  (irivate  rights  contained  in  that  municipal  law. 
That  part  of  the  municipal  legislation  of  a  state 
which  deals  with  the  public  relations  of  citizens  is 
in  a  dill'erent  position,  and  is  not  recognised  as  valid 
within  the  jurisdiction  of  other  states.  Thus,  for 
example,  a  peer  of  the  United  Kingdom  carries 
with  him,  «  hen  he  goes  abroad,  none  of  the  privi- 
le"es  peculiar  to  his  peerage  :  l)ut  its  to  his  ]nivate 
relations — whether  he  is  married  or  single,  a  clebtor 
or  a  creditor,  a  major  or  a  minor — the  continental 
states  in  which  he  is  sojourning  accept  and  give 
ell'ect  to  what  English  law  says  regarding  them. 
So  tlie  judgments  of  the  judicial  tribunals  of  a 
recognised  state  ought  to  be,  and  in  jiractice  gpner- 
ally  are,  accepted  without  question  by  foreign 
states,  proviiled  only  their  validity  in  the  country 
in  which  they  were  pronounced  is  established. 
Such  foreign  judgments  are,  however,  e.\ecuted 
within  the  territory  of  the  recognising  state  only 
umler  the  authority  and  l>y  the  order  of  the  native 
tribunals,  and  thus  the  form  and  manner  of  e.\e- 
cution  are  exclusively  governed  by  the  law  of 
the  executing  state.  NVith  regard  to  crimes,  each 
state  administers  its  own  criminal  laws  within  its 
territories  to  foreigners  and  natives  alike.  Further 
than  this,  each  state  is  bound  by  the  princiide  of 
recognition,  and  consequently  by  the  common  law  of 
nations,  to  aid  other  states  in  administering  their 
criminal  laws  and  executing  their  crindnal  judg- 
ments. Thus  the  right  of  each  state  to  demand 
from  other  states  the  surrender  of  an  iiuliviilual 
accuse<l  of  having  committed  a  crime  within  its 
territorj-  is  a  right  at  common  law.  To  this  rule 
political  offences  form  an  exception,  inasmuch  as 
they  do  not  partake  of  the  universal  character 
attachin"  to  other  crimes.  The  matter  is  generally 
regulated  by  extradition  treaties,  in  which  are 
usually  contained  stipulations  to  the  effect  that  no 
one  will  lie  surrendered  unless  prinui  fftcie  evidence 
of  hLs  guilt  is  furnished,  and  unless  adequate  assur- 
ances are  given  that  the  accused  will  not  on  that 
occasion  be  tried  for  any  offence  other  than  the 
crime  for  which  he  is  surrendered.  The  civil  and 
criminal  jurisdiction  of  a  state  extends  to  all  its 
ships  on  the  high-seas  or  within  its  territorial 
waters,  and  to  its  public  vessels  everywhere.  When 
a  private  ship  enters  a  foreign  port,  it  becomes  sub- 
ject to  the  'concurrent  juiisdiction '  of  its  own 
state  and  of  the  country  in  whose  tenitorial  waters 
it  lies  for  the  time.  Considerable  light  was  thrown 
upon  the  exact  character  and  extent  of  the  jurisdic- 
tion of  a  state  over  that  portion  of  the  sea  within  the 
tliree-nule  limit  bv  the  case  of  the  Franconia  ( Kegina 
V.  Keyn,  2  Exch.  i>iv.  pp.  202-205 ).  In  that  case  the 
majority  of  the  court  held  that,  as  the  law  of  Eng- 
land stood  at  that  time,  the  English  courts  had  no 
jurisdiction  over  a  criminal  offence  committed  by  a 
foreigner  on  board  a  foreign  ship  which  was  on  the 
open  sea  but  within  three  miles  of  the  English 
coasts.  In  consequence  of  this  decision  the  Teiri- 
torial  Waters  Jurisdiction  Act  (-10  and  41  Vict, 
chap.  73)  wa-s  passed,  conferring  jurisdiction  in  such 
cases  upon  the  Courts  of  Admiralty.  To  the  rule 
that  the  jurisdiction  of  a  state  extends  over  all  [ler- 
sons  anil  things  within  its  territory  the  following 
excei)tions  are  taken — foreign  sovereigns  and  their 
suites,  when  visiting  a  eountiy  in  their  ollicial  capa- 
city, diidotnatic  a<jents  of  other  states,  and  ])ublic 
arnieil  lorces  of  a  loreign  nation  passing  peacefully 
through  the  state  territory.  The  exemption  of  the 
citizens  of  the  western  European  states  from  the 
local  juri.sdiction  in  ea-stern  countries  cannot  be 
con.sidered  an  exception,  inasmuch  as  these  latter 
countries  are  only  partially  recognised,  .and  con- 
sequently the  jirinciples  deduced  from  plenary  re- 
cognition are  in  their  case  inap|dicable. 


Primtc  International  Lair  is  that  department  of 
national  law  which  arises  from  tlie  fact  that  there 
are  in  the  world  different  territorial  jurisdictions 
possessing  diti'erent  laws.  The  subjects  of  this 
liranch  of  jurisprudence  are  private  imlividuals,  and 
its  rules  are  administered  by  municipal  courts. 
The  majority  of  the  relations  in  which  human 
beings  stand  to  each  other  are  in  their  nature 
univei'sal,  and  entirely  independent  of  the  states  to 
which  the  parties  belong.  Thus  an  individual  may 
possess  real  property  in  a  state  other  than  that  of 
his  domicile,  or  he  may  enter  into  a  contract  or 
execute  a  testament  in  a  country  diti'erent  from 
either.  As,  in  general,  each  of  these  countries  is 
governed  by  a  distinct  system  of  laws,  it  is 
frequently  a  question  under  which  system  the  par- 
ticular relations  fall.  In  the  event  of  an  action 
becoming  necessary,  is  he  to  appeal  to  the  muni- 
cipal laws  of  his  native  country  or  domicile,  or  to 
that  of  the  place  in  which  the  property  is  situated, 
or  to  that  in  which  the  contract  was  entered  into, 
or  in  which  the  testament  was  executed  ?  The 
whole  of  the  doctrines  of  private  international  law 
accordingly  resolve  themselves  into  the  single 
doctrine  of  the  localisation  of  such  legal  relations. 
This  liranch  of  law  determines  no  legal  relations 
whatever ;  it  simply  says  by  what  system  they 
.sh.all  be  determined.  It  is  adoctiine  of  jurisdiction, 
and  nothing  more.  The  collection  of  rules  for  thus 
determining  by  what  system  of  municipal  law  each 
legal  lelation  is  governed  was  usually,  till  recently, 
known  as  the  '  conflict  of  laws ' — a  title  justly  cen- 
sured as  expressing  a  limited  and  unsound  view  of 
this  branch  of  jurisprudence. 

According  to  the  famous  niles  of  Foelix  and 
Huber,  which  were  long  accepted  as  the  funda- 
mental propositions  on  which  pri\ate  international 
law  was  founded,  all  the  ert'ects  which  foreign  laws 
can  produce  within  the  territoiy  of  any  nation 
depend  aVisolutely  on  the  consent  of  that  nation, 
eitlier  express  or  tacit.  The  sole  foundation  for  the 
whole  system  was  found  in  the  voluntary  and  re- 
ci|)rocal  good-will  of  nations  ( comitas  gentium ). 
After  being  abandoned  by  the  majority  of  con- 
i  tinental  jurists,  this  view  was  formally  repudiated 
;  by  the  Institute  of  International  Law  at  tieneva 
in  1874.  The  whole  principle  of  this  branch  of 
law  is  nothing  more  than  a  direct  corollary  from 
the  doctrine  of  recognition.  The  right  and  duty 
of  mutual  confidence  involved  in  the  doctrine  of 
recognition  imply,  as  we  have  seen,  the  accept- 
ance and  enforcement  bv  the  recognising  state 
of  the  definitions  which  tlie  recognised  state  may 
have  imposed  on  legal  relations — and  this,  as  a 
rule,  even  when  the  definitions  so  imposed  differ 
from  those  widch  are  applied  to  the  same  legal 
relations  when  existing  among  its  own  citizens. 
In  this  aspect  private  international  law  rests  not 
upon  the  right  of  the  state  which  concedes  it,  but 
on  that  of  the  state  to  which  it  is  conceded. 

The  increasing  intercourse  lietween  individuals  of 
different  natiims  gives  a  growing  importance  to  the 
interests  affected  by  this  branch  of  law — the  rules 
being  accented  and  enforced  by  the  various  states 
as  part  and  parcel  of  their  local  law.  The  rights 
and  obligations  which   result  to  pei-sons  from  the 

f)Osse.ssion  of  immovables  are  entirely  regulated 
)v  the  law  of  the  country  where  the  immovable 
subjects  are  situated.  This  le.r  loci  n-i  xitn-,  as  it 
is  called,  determines,  even  in  the  ca.se  of  an  alien 
proprietor,  all  rpieslions  relating  to  the  acquisition 
of  immovables,  whether  by  sale  or  prescription,  to 
feu-duties,  to  letting,  hiring,  and  mortgaging, 
working  of  mines  and  nunerals,  servitudes,  and  to 
all  taxes  and  public  burdens.  The  law  of  the  place 
where  real  properly  is  situated  in  slicnt  governs 
exclusively  as  to  the  tenure,  the  title,  aiul  tlie 
descent  of  such  property.     In  England  and  .\nierica 


188 


INTERNATIONAL    LAW 


INTERVAL 


the  lex  loci  rei  sitee  is  also  applieil  to  determine  the 
jural  capacity  of  the  alien  proprietor,  in  so  far  as 
depends  on  his  personal  status,  for  example,  the 
a';e  at  which  he  can  acijuire,  alienate,  or  succeed 
to  immovalilcs.  In  Scotland  and  in  most  continental 
countries  theca^iaoity  to  aociuire  m  alienate  immov- 
able property  is  regulated  by  the  law  of  the 
domicile  of  tlie  owner,  by  which  all  matters  relat- 
ing to  status  are  exclusivelv  governed.  In  nearly  all 
European  countries  the  rule  long  obtained  that  the 
tenure  of  immovable  property  was  oidy  possible  to  a 
foreigner  on  the  condition  of  jiolitical  naturalisation. 
In  almost  all  states  this  nile  has  now  been  relaxed  ; 
and  in  Britain  it  has  been  entirely  departed  from 
under  the  Naturalisation  Act  of  1870  (S-S,  .34  Vict, 
chap.  14,  sect.  2),  which  provides  :  'Real  and  per- 
sonal property  of  eveiy  description  may  be  taken, 
acquired,  held,  and  disposed  of  by  an  alien  in  the 
same  manner  in  all  respects  as  by  a  natural-born 
British  subject ;  and  a  title  to  real  and  personal 
property  of  every  descriiition  may  be  derived 
through,  from,  or  in  succession  to  an  alien,  in  the 
same  manner  in  all  respects  as  through,  from,  or  in 
succession  to  a  natural-born  British  subject.'  On 
the  other  hand,  all  movable  and  personal  property 
is  governed  by  the  law  of  the  ilomicile  (te  f?o»i('- 
cilii).  Domicile  is  defined  by  Westlake  to  be  the 
'  le^'al  conception  of  residence,'  and  is  made  up  of 
various  elements  of  birth,  citizenship,  itc.  This 
law  of  the  domicile  also  regulates  all  questions 
regarding  personal  status,  legitimacy,  and  succes- 
sion to  movable  property.  If  a  question  arises 
about  a  contract,  its  validity  and  interpretation 
are  determined  by  the  law  of  the  country  in 
which  the  contract  was  entered  into  (/rx  loci  con- 
tractus). Thus,  if  a  marriage  is  valid  by  the 
law  of  the  place  where  it  was  made,  it  is,  gener- 
ally speaking,  valid  everywhere  else.  Wherever, 
from  the  nature  of  the  contract  itself,  or  the  law 
of  the  place  where  it  is  made,  or  the  expressed 
intention  of  the  parties,  the  contract  is  to  he  exe- 
cuted in  another  country,  everything  which  con- 
cerns its  execution  is  to  be  determined  by  the  law 
of  that  country.  Again,  all  questions  as  to  the  ad- 
piissibility  and  value  of  evidence  or  as  to  procedure 
or  remeily  are  determined  by  the  laws  in  force  at 
the  forum  in  which  an  action  is  raised  {lex fori). 
If  a  contract  made  in  one  country  is  attempted  to 
be  enforced  in  the  judicial  tribunals  of  another,  all 
questions  of  prescription  are  to  be  determined  by 
tne  law  of  the  state  where  the  suit  is  pending'. 
Such  at  least  was  the  view  taken  in  the  famous 
case  Don  r.  Lippmami,  though  Savigny,  Westlake, 
Bar.  and  others  argue  strongly  that  this  is  a  matter 
which  ought  to  he  ilecided  by  the  law  of  the  place 
where  the  contract  was  made. 

Reference   may  also   be  made  to  the  following 
articles  as  bearing  on  international  law  : 
Alien.  I  Enemy.  Naturalisation. 

.\mbas.sador.  '  Extradition.  Neutrality. 

Arbitration.  i  Foreign  Enlistment.     Paris  (Treaty  of). 

Balance  of  Power.       Foreign  Law.  Piracy. 

Blockade.  Geneva  Convention.     Political  OlfiMio-s. 

Capitulation.  Grotius.  Prisoners  of  War. 

Conflict  of  Laws.  Innnigration.  Privateer. 

Consul.  Jurisdiction.  Prize. 

Contraband.  .Iuri.si)rudence.  Siege  (State  of ). 

Diplomacy.  law.  Treaty. 

Domicile.  .Mani:ige.  War. 

ElBI-IOUKAruv.— I'ublic  International  Law:  Hugo 
Grotius,  Dc  Jure  Belli  ae  Pads  ( Paris,  U;2."> :  \\niewell's 
Eng.  ed.  18,").S);  Vattel,  The  Law  of  Nations  (Chitty's 
Eng.  td.  1797);  Bluntschli,  Das  modcnie  Volkcrncht 
(Leip.  1877)  and  Lc  Droit  Intcriuitional  Coitijii  (Paris, 
1874);  Kent's  Commentaries  (.\bdy's  cd.  Loiid.  1878); 
Wheaton's  Elements  of  International  i«ic  (Dana's  cd. 
Boston,  186(1 ;  Boyd's  ed.  Loud.  1878)  and  Hisloni 
of  the  Law  of  Nations  (New  York,  1808);  Pliilliniori", 
International  Lnw[,A  vols.  2d  ed.  1871 ) ;  W.  Oke  Manninf;, 
Commentaries  on  Law  of  Nations  (>iheldon  Amos's  ed. 
Lend.   1875);  W.  E.  Hall,  InUrnatioiuU  Law  (Oxford, 


1880):  Lorinier,  Institutes  of  tke  Law  of  Nations  {1>^S4  \ ; 
and  the  works  by  Westlake  (1805)  and  Lawrence  (1890). 

Private  International  Law :  Savigny's  .fpstcm,  kc 
vol.  viii.  (Eng.  trans,  by  William  Gutlirie,  with  notes 
andappendi.xes);  Story's  Conttiet  of  Laics  {new  ed.  Boston, 
1883);  Westlake's  International  Law  (new  ed.  1880); 
Bar's  Iiiternatio/ial  Laic  (Eng.  trans,  by  G.  R.  Gillespie, 
1883) ;  Horace  Nelson,  Selected  Cases,  Statutes,  and  Orders 
( 1 889 ) ;  X.  V.  Dicey,  La  w  of  Dom  idle  ( 1879 ) ;  Pitt  Cobbett, 
Leadimj  Cases  niirf  Opinions  on  International  Law  ( 1885). 

Interpleader  is  a  form  of  process  in  the 
English  courts  intended  for  the  protection  of  a 
defendant  who  claims  no  inteie^t  in  the  subject- 
matter  of  a  suit,  while  at  the  same  time  he  has 
reason  to  know  that  the  plaintilfs  title  is  disputed 
by  some  other  claimant.  In  such  a  case  the 
defendant  may  apply  to  a  judge,  who  will  order  the 
jdaintiff  and  the  other  claimant  to  apjiear  and 
interplead.  An  aii|ilicatiim  of  this  kind  nu\\  now 
be  made  in  any  action  in  the  High  Court.  Special 
[irotection  is  jjiven  to  sherifl's,  «.Vc.  when  goods 
taken  in  execution  are  claimed  by  a  third  party. 

Interpretation.    See  Exegesis. 

Interpreter.    See  Dragoman. 

Interval,  in  Music,  is  the  difference  of  pitch 
between  any  two  musical  tones.  Since  pitch 
depends  upon  the  vibration-frequencies,  the  rela- 
tion Ijetween  any  two  pitches  is  the  numerical  ratio 
between  the  two  vibration-frequencies  ;  and  all  jiaiis 
of  tones  within  which  the  frequencies  have  the 
same  ratios  present  equal  intervals.  The  interval 
between  any  two  tones,  whether  chosen  or  heaid 
at  random,  is  thus  expressible  as  an  arithmetical 
ratio ;  but  musically  it  is  imly  certain  intervals 
which  are  recognised  as  being  musical  intervals, 
and  what  these  are  depends  upon  the  Scale  (q.v.) 
which  is  in  use.  Among  the  European  nations  and 
those  of  European  descent  the  diatonic  scale  is 
employed  ;  and  this,  when  iinmodified  by  Tempera- 
ment (q.v.),  presents  tlie  ratios  given  under  Har- 
monics (q.v.).  Within  such  a  scale  the  various 
intervals  that  may  be  found  are  (C  being  taken  to 
represent  the  keynote  of  the  scale)  minor  second 
(=  E — F  or  B — C)  =  16/15:  grave  major  second 
(=  D— E  or  G— A)  =  10/9  ;  major  second  (=  t'— D, 
F— G,  A— B)  =  9/8  ;  grave  minor  third  (  =  D— F) 
=  .32/27;  minor  third  (=  E— G,  A— C,  B— D)  = 
6/5  ;  major  thii'd  (=  C— E,  F— A,  or  G— B)  =  5/4; 
perfect  fourth  (=  C— F,  D— G,  E— A,  G— C,  or  B 
— E')  =  4/3;  acute  foui-th  (=  A— D')  =  27/20; 
acute  augmented  fourth  (  =  F — B)  =  45/.32  ;  grave 
diminished  fifth  (=  B— F')  =  64/45;  giave  fifth 
(  =  D— A)  =  40/27  ;  perfect  fifth  (  =  C— ti,  E— li, 
F— C,  G— D',  A— E')  =  ;V2;  minor  .sixth  (E— C, 
A— F',  B— G')  =  8/5  ;  major  sixth  (  =  C— A,  D-li, 
G— E')  =  5/3  ;  acute  major  sixth  ( =  F— D' )  =  27/16 ; 
gi ave  minor  seventh  ( D— C,  G— F',  B— A' )  =  16  9  ; 
minor  seventh  (E — D',  A— G')  =  9/5;  seventh 
(C— B,  F— E')  =  15/8;  octave  (C—C,  D— D',  .<:c.) 
=  2/1.  By  taking  vaiious  notes  of  the  diatonic 
scale  as  starting-points,  and  measuring  known 
intervals  from  these,  we  arrive  at  intermediate 
notes  of  the  scale,  of  which  the  following  are 
examples,  the  vibration  ratios  being  given  with 
reference  to  C  : 

Vibration-ratios. 

C|  min(U-  third  below  E 25/24  =  10416\ 

DKas  A:D::.U:r)!.) 27/25  =  10800/ 

D}  minor  second  below  E 75/64  =  11672\ 

H  minor  third  above  C 6/5  =  1-2000/ 

A!"  minor  sixth  above  C 8/5  =  16000 

1*  minor  seventh  above  C 9/5  =  I'SOOO 

B}  3  m.ajor  thinls  above C...  125/64  =  r953I 
The  difterence  of  |>itch  between  C  and  C)  or  between 
D  and  Ilk  is  frecniently  called  a  semitone,  and  an 
interval  increased  or  iliminisheil  by  a  semitone  is 
said  to  be  augmented  or  diminished.  This  apjdies 
I  especially  to  the  interval  of  a  fourth  or  a  fifth, 


INTESTACY 


INTROIT 


189 


wliich  witli  the  octave  are  saiJ  to  be  perfect, 
because  any  augmentation  or  diminution  mars 
tlieir  consonance.  Tlie  major  sixth  or  third  may 
however  be  diminished  to  a  'minor'  sixth  or  third 
without  destroying  the  consonance  :  and  the  term 
'  minor'  is  also"  api'lied  to  tlie  diminishe<l  second  or 
seventli.  The  octave  begins  a  new  series,  and  tlius 
the  'ninth'  is  the  octave  of  the  second,  and  so 
forth.  For  further  discussion  of  the  musical  nomen- 
clature, which  is  somewhat  unsettled,  see  article 
'  Interval '  in  Grove's  Dictionary  of  Music  and 
Musicians  ;  and  for  a  numerical  table  of  the  various 
intermediate  tones  within  the  .scale,  see  Daniell's 
Pnncij>/iS  of  Physics,  'id  ed.  i)p.  390-91. 

Intestacy,  the  state  of  a  person  who  has  died 
without  testing — i.e.  without  leaving  a  will.  If  no 
will,  or  deed  equivalent  to  a  will,  is  executed,  or  if  a 
will  executed  is  invalid  from  defect  of  form,  then  an 
intestacy  occurs,  and  the  law  provides  an  heir  or 
next  of  kin,  in  lieu  of  the  owner  himself  doing  so. 
See  Heir. 

Intestines,  a  part  of  the  digestive  system, 
divided  into  the  smaller  intestine  (comprising 
dumlenum,  jejunum,  and  ileum)  and  the  greater 
intestine.  See  Digestion,  Vol.  III.  pp.  81-1,815; 
GfT  ;  and  for  Disea-ses,  see  Constipation,  Diar- 
RHCEA,  Dysentery,  Enteriti.s,  Peritonitis,  &c. 

Intimidation.    See  Thre.\t. 

Intonation.  The  opening  phrase  of  any  plain- 
song  melody,  sung  usually  eitlier  by  the  officiating 
priest  alone,  or  by  one  or  more  selected  choristers. 
The  term  is  most  commonly  applied  to  the  first 
member  (consisting  of  two  or  three  notes)  of  a 
Gregorian  Psalm-tone,  the  other  members  of  it 
being  the  dominant  (or  reciting-note),  the  media- 
tion, and  the  ending.  Its  use  is  confined  usually 
to  the  first  verse  of  the  psalm  or  canticle,  except 
in  the  case  of  the  Mannificat,  Benedictus,  and 
1'enite,  to  give  greater  solemnity  to  which  it  recurs 
in  each  successive  verse. 

Intoning,  a  modern  popular  term  for  the  utter- 
ance in  musical  recitative  of  the  versicles,  responses, 
collects,  &c.  of  the  Anglican  Liturgy.  This  recita- 
tive consists  mainly  of  a  single  sustained  note,  or 
monotone,  but  mav  W  varied  by  the  introduction  of 
certain  simple  infections,  which  have  the  sanction 
of  more  or  less  prevalent  custom  or  tradition.  Of 
these  a  full  account  may  be  found  in  various  choral 
books — e.g.  in  Doran  and  Nottingham's  Choir  Direc- 
tory of  Plain-song,  Doran  ami  Thompson's  Ritucd 
Music  of  the  Altar  (both  published  by  Novello), 
and  in  Notes  on  Ceremonial  (  Pickering). 

Such  musicil  recitative  in  vocal  prayer  is  un- 
doubtedly very  ancient,  and  its  employment  in 
Christian  worship  is,  in  fact,  an  inheritance  from  the 
Synagogue,  where  it  may  be  heard  still.  It  obtains 
equally  amon"  Mohammedans,  American  Indians, 
South  Sea  iSanders,  and  the  gieat  majority  of 
barbarous  nations,  and  would  seem  to  be  the  out- 
come of  an  instinctive  feeling'  that  the  familiarity 
of  our  colloquial  tones  of  voice  is  out  of  keeping 
with  the  reverence  that  befits  human  intercourse 
with  Deity.  Whatever  may  be  said  for  or  against 
the  practice  elsewhere,  there  can  be  no  doubt  that 
in  our  cathedrals  and  larger  sacred  buildings  an 
audible  utterance  would  without  it  be  far  less  easily 
attainable. 

Intoxication.  This  term  is  apiilied  to  the 
condition  l>rought  alxjut  by  an  overdo.se  of  alcohol. 
The  .■>yniptoiiis  imluced  vary  a  good  deal  according 
to  the  raiiidity  with  whicfi  the  alcohol  is  drunk 
and  altsoroed  into  the  blood,  and  also  according  to 
the  form — spirit.s,  wine,  or  l>eer— in  which  it  is  taken. 
If  they  are  swallowed  rapidly  in  large  quantities 
the  symptoms  are  tho.te  of  a  narcotic  poison.  See 
Alcohol,  Alcoholism,  Poison. 


Intoxication,  or  drunkenness,  is,  in  point  of 
law,  no  excuse  for  any  wrong  done  by  the  drunken 
jiarty.  Crimes  which  are  committed  in  a  state 
of  drunkenness  are  jninishablc  in  the  same  way  as 
if  the  actor  were  sober,  though  it  is  discretionary 
in  the  court  to  mitigate  the  sentence.  A  contract 
made  when  the  parties,  or  either  of  them,  are  in  a 
state  of  complete  incapacity  from  intoxication  may 
be  made  void.  So  it  is  when  one  of  the  parties  is 
intoxicated,  and  a  sober  person  imluces  his  consent 
by  fraud.  Thus,  if  goods  are  sold  to  a  person  so 
drunk  that  he  does  not  know  what  he  is  (loing,  the 
purchase  may  be  repudiated  as  soon  as  the  drunk 
man  becomes  sober.  Unless  he  does  so  immediately 
on  coming  to  his  senses,  however,  the  contract  w  ill 
stand.  The  drunk  man,  in  short,  may  either  re- 
pudiate or  enforce  the  bargain  when  he  comes  to  his 
sense.s.  The  mere  act  or  state  of  drunkenness,  when 
privately  indulged  in,  is  not  an  ofl'ence  against  the 
law  ;  but  if  it  lie  shown  in  public  it  may  become 
so.  Every  person  found  drunk  in  a  highway  or 
public  place,  or  in  a  licensed  house,  is  liable  to  a 
penalty  of  ten  shillings  ;  and  on  a  second  oft'ence 
within  twelve  months,  to  twenty  shillings,  and  on 
a  third  oft'ence  within  twelve  mouths,  to  forty 
shillings.  To  be  drunk  and  riotous,  or  be  drunk 
while  in  charge  of  a  horse  or  carriage,  or  of  a  gun, 
is  punishable  with  a  fine  of  twenty  shillings,  or 
imprisonment  for  one  month.  Local  acts  also 
often  impose  other  penalties.  In  Scotland  several 
ancient  statutes  were  passed  against  drunkenness, 
which,  however,  are  in  desuetude.  In  many  local 
police  acts  a  penalty  is  imposed  on  drunkenness  in 
the  streets. 

Intransigeants,  or  Intransigentes  (Irre- 
concilables),  a  name  sometimes  given  to  the 
extreme  political  parties  opposed  to  the  existing 
government  in  Italy,  Spain,  and  France ;  as,  for 
instance,  the  revolutionary  communists  in  Spain 
in  1873.  For  the  connection  of  these  last  with  the 
anarchistic  party,  see  International. 

Intrcnclinients.    See  Entrenchments. 

Introdnction  (Ital.  introduzione),  in  Music, 
is  a  kind  of  preface  or  jirelude  to  a  following  move- 
ment. Formerly  the  introduction  was  only  to  be 
found  in  large  musical  works,  such  as  symphonies, 
overtures,  oratorios,  \"c.  ;  but  now  it  is  found  in 
every  rondo,  fantasia,  polonaise,  waltz,  &c. ,  on  the 
principle  that  it  is  considered  abrujit  to  begin  all 
at  once,  without  preparing  the  audience  for  what 
is  to  come.  In  earlier  operas  introduction  is 
applied  to  the  piece  of  music  with  which  they 
begin,  and  which  immediately  follows  the  overture. 
In  .some  cases  the  overture  and  introduction  are 
united,  the  composition  going  on  without  any 
formal  pause,  as  in  Cluck's  Iphigtnie  en  Tauride, 
Mozart's  Idomeneo  and  Don  Giovanni.  Overtures 
themselves  are  frequently  commenced  by  an  intro- 
duction, as  in  Beethoven's  Egmont  and  Leonora, 
Nos.  2  and  3,  and  Weber's  Frciscliiit:  a.uA  Vbcron 
overtures.  Tlie  majority  of  Wagner's  operas  com- 
mence with  an  introduction  (  Vorsjiiel  or  Eintei- 
tung),  a  short  one  being  also  jirefaced  to  the  second 
and  third  acts.  The  introductions  are  also  import- 
ant and  characteristic  parts  of  several  of  the  sym- 
phonies of  Heethoven  and  Schumann. 

Introit.  in  the  Koman  Catholic  Church,  an 
anthem  sung  at  the  beginnin<;  of  the  ma-ss,  immedi- 
ately after  the  Confitcor,  and  when  the  jiriost  has 
ascended  to  the  altar.  It  consists  of  an  antiphon, 
(Gloria  Patri,  and  usually  part  of  a  ]isaliii  ;  but 
other  passages  of  Scripture  are  used,  while  a  few 
introits  in  the  present  Alissal  are  taken  from  unin- 
siiired  writers,  and  one  ( Whitsunday )  is  from  '2tl 
Esdras.  The  introduction  of  introits  is  a-scribed 
to  (iregory  the  Great  (595),  or  perhaiis  to  Celestine 
(423).     In   the   first   prayer-book   ol    Edward    \'I. 


190 


INTROMISSION 


INVERLOCHY 


an  intioit  is  prefixed  to  each  collect,  consisting  of  a 
|]saliii  to  lie  siiiii;  after  the  openinj;  prayer  in  the 
coiiiiiiunion  ollice. 

Intl'OIiiissioil,  in  Scotch  law,  is  the  assump- 
tion of  authority  to  deal  with  another's  pro- 
perty. It  is  divided  into  legal  and  vicious.  Legal 
intromission  is  where  tlie  party  is  e.vpressly  or 
impliedly  authorised,  either  hy  judgment  or 
deed,  to  interfere,  a.s  by  drawing  the  rents  or 
getting  in  dehts.  Vicious  intromission  is  where  an 
heir  or  ne.xt  of  kin,  without  any  authority,  inter- 
feres with  a  decease<t  person's  estate ;  as,  for 
e.xample,  where  a  person  not  named  by  a  will,  or 
without  the  authority  of  any  will,  collects  the 
property  of  the  deceased  pereon  as  if  he  were 
regularly  appointed.  By  so  doing  the  vicious 
intromitter  incurs  the  responsibility  of  paying  all 
tlie  debts  of  the  deceased.  The  vitiosity,  however, 
may  be  taken  otl'  by  the  intromitter  being  regularly 
confirmed  executor.  The  corresponding  phrase  in 
Engl.iiid  to  a  \  ieious  intromitter  is  an  executor  de 
.•iOn  tort. 

Intuition.  See  Common  Sense,  A  Priori, 
Locke,  Keid,  Ethics,  Psychology. 

lutus-susoeption,  or  Invagin.\tion,  is  the 
term  applied  to  the  partial  displacement  of  the 
bowel  in  which  one  portion  of  it  p;isses  into  the 
portion  immediately  adjacent  to  it,  just  as  one 
part  of  the  finger  of  a  glove  is  sometimes  pulled 
into  an  adjacent  part  in  the  act  of  withdrawing 
the  hand.  In  this  case  the  contained  portion  of 
intestine  is  liable  to  be  nipped  and  strangulated 
by  the  portion  which  contains  it,  and  all  the 
danger  of  Hernia  (q.v. )  results,  with  far  less 
chance  of  successful  interference  on  the  part  of  the 
surgeon  or  physician.  It  is  one  of  the  most  fre- 
quent and  fatal  causes  of  obstruction  of  the  bowels 
in  chililren,  but  less  comnum  in  adults.  The  ex- 
tent of  the  intussusception  may  vary  from  a  few 
lines  to  a  foot  or  more.  Even  when  inflammation 
is  set  up,  the  affection,  although  in  the  highest 
degree  perilous,  is  not  of  necessity  fatal.  The 
invaginated  portion  mortifies  and  sloughs,  while 
adhesion  is  established  between  the  peritoneal 
surfaces  of  the  upper  and  lower  portions  at  their 
place  of  junction,  so  that  the  continuity  of  the 
tulie  is  preserved,  although  a  large  portion  may 
be  destroyed.  If  the  patient  is  strong  enough  to 
bear  the  shock  of  the  inllauimation,  gangrene, 
sloughing,  &c. ,  a  complete  recoveiy  may  ensue, 
though  such  a  termination  is  rare.  In  the  early 
stage  the  normal  condition  may  often  be  restored 
by  large  enemata  of  air  or  water.  Of  late  some 
success  has  attended  operation  where  simple 
measures  have  failed.     For  Volvulus,  see  Colic. 

Inuliu.  a  vegetable  principle,  isomeric  with 
starch,  derived  from  Elecampane  (q.v.). 

Iiivalides,  Hotel  des.    See  Paris. 

Invaliding  signifies  the  return  home,  or  to  a 
more  healthy  climate,  of  soldiers  or  sailors  wlio 
have  been  rendered  incapable  of  active  duty  by 
wounds  or  the  severity  of  foreign  service.  The 
man  invalided  returns  to  his  duty  if  his  health  is 
sufficiently  restored  to  justify  the  step,  otherwise 
he  is  discharged  as  'medically  unfit.' 

Invention.    See  Patent. 

Inventions  nn«l  Discoveries.  The  follow- 
ing list  |iurpiirt>  to  give  only  a  few  of  the  more 
important  inventions  and  discoveries,  chiefly  such 
as  have  exercised  a  determining  inlliience  u]Min  the 
civilisation  of  the  world.  The  jirincipal  geograjihi- 
cal  discoveries  have  been  already  discussed  under 
(!e(m:i!.\I'HY.  For  other  information,  see  Beck- 
niunn  s  Uiatoru  of  Iitccntiuiui,  Discuccrics,  and 
Origins  {new  eii.  1888). 


Mariner's  Compass,  inveuted  in  Europe  in  the  I2th  century, 
although  known  and  nsed  for  centuries  previously  in  Cliina. 

Gunpowder,  by  Schwarz  about  1320  (see  Gunpowder). 

Printing,  by  j'obann  Gntenberg,  about  1440  (see  Printing). 

Copeniican  System,  in  1543  by  Co)K*rnicus  (q.v.). 

Microscope,  by  Hans  and  Zacharias  Janssen,  or  Zansz  of 
Middclburg,  about  1590. 

Cii-culation  of  the  Blood,  by  Hai'vey,  in  1616. 

Electricity,  name  invented  and  knowledge  of  advanced  by  W. 
Gilbert,  1651 ;  induced  electricity  discovered  in  1S31.  and  its 
relation  to  magnetism  shown  in  lbl9  by  Oei-sted  and  in  IbSS 
by  Faraday. 

Law  of  Gravitation,  by  Newton,  1682. 

Steam-engine,  by  Newconien  in  ITO.'J,  and  by  Watt  in  1768. 

Pianoforte,  by  Cristofori  of  Florence,  before  1720. 

Clock,  used  in  Europe  in  the  11th  century.  Chronometer,  by 
John  Harrison,  1762. 

Spinning-jenny,  by  Hai-greaves,  in  1767. 

Balloons  used  by  Nlontgollier,  1782-)-3. 

Weaving-loom,  by  CartwTight,  in  1785. 

Gas-lighting,  by  William  Muixloch,  in  1792,  at  Redruth  in  Corn- 
wall. 

Vaccination,  by  Jenner,  in  1796. 

Steamboat  proved  practically  useful,  by  Fulton  on  the  Hudson, 
1S07. 

Locomotive  on  railway,  by  George  Stephenson,  in  1814. 

Jliner's  safety-lamp,  by  Davy,  in  1816. 

Photography,  by  Niepee,  in  1823. 

Electric  Telegraph,  by  Jlorse,  1835,  and  by  Wheatstoue  and 
Cooke,  1834-37  (see  Telegraph). 

Penny  Postage,  by  Sir  Rowland  Hill,  1840. 

Sewing-machine,  by  Elias  Howe,  1841. 

Chloroform,  used  as  an  ana-sthetic  by  Simpson  in  1848. 

Evolution  Theory,  by  Darwin  and  Wallace,  in  1858. 

Spectrum  Analysis,  by  Ivirchhoff  and  Bunsen,  1860. 

Telephone  (q.v.)  in  lSt>0-76. 

Phonograph,  by  Edison,  in  1SS9. 

Uiintgen  Ravs.'bv  Riintgen,  at  Wurzburg,  in  1895. 

.\rgon  (1895),  followed  by  Krypton,  Neon,  Metargon,  Coronimn, 
Monium  (1898). 

Inventory,  in  England  a  list  of  a  deceased 
l)erson'sefi'ects  madeby  an  e.xecutor.  In  Scotlanditis 
also  used  in  reference  to  the  property  of  an  infant, 
pupil,  or  minor  whose  estate  is  under  the  care  of  a 
guardian,  tutor,  curator,  or  judicial  factor.  In  Scot- 
land it  is  also  used  in  connection  with  the  various 
pleadings  and  deeds  and  documents  jiroduced  or 
useil  in  a  suit  or  action,  then  called  an  inventoiy  of 
process.  So  as  to  an  inventory  of  titles — i.e.  the 
titles  of  an  e.-state  shown  to  a  purcluiser. 

Inveraray,  the  county  town  of  Argyllshiie,  is 
|)icturesquely  seated  on  the  north-we.-t  shore  of 
Loch  Fyne,  16  miles  SSW.  of  Dalmally  station, 
and  45  NXW.  of  Greenock  ( (•/('J  Loch  Eck).  Re- 
moved to  its  present  site  in  174'2,  it  li;us  a  sculptured 
stone  cross  from  lona  (c.  14(10),  and  an  obelisk  to 
the  memoi'v  of  seventeen  Campbells,  executed  here 
withovit  trial  iu  ItilS.'j  for  their  share  in  Argyll's 
expedition.  Inveraray  Castle,  the  scat  of  the 
Duke  of  Argjll  (q.v.)",  was  rebuilt  in  1744-61.  A 
royal  burgh  since  1G4S,  Inveraray  with  Ayr,  &c. 
returns  a  member  to  parliament.  Pop.  ( 1841 ) 
1233:  (1891)  743. 

Invereargill.  a  town  in  the  province  of  Otago, 
New  Zealand,  (iqiital  of  the  county  of  Southland, 
stanils  on  an  estuary  called  the  New  Kiver  Har- 
bour, 139  miles  by  rail  S\V.  of  Dunedin.  It  is 
regularly  built,  with  line  wide  streets,  g;us,  and 
steam  trams,  and  is  unusually  well  provided  with 
public  parks.  Besides  the  government  buildings 
and  schools  and  churches,  it  possesses  an  excellent 
athemeum  and  a  hospital.  There  are  some  thirty 
sawmills  in  and  aidund  the  town,  besides  foundries, 
ste.im  flour-mills,  breweries,  ami  manufactures  of 
boots,  bacon,  coiilials,  <.*i:c.  There  aie  extensive 
mcatfieezing  works  at  the  mouth  of  the  estuary, 
and  much  Southlauil  mutton  is  now  sent  to  Eng- 
land ;  other  exports  fiom  Invercargill  are  wool, 
grain,  cliee.se.  and  timber.     Pop.  796'2. 

Inverkeitllint;.  a  royal  burgh  of  Fife,  at  the 
lie.id  of  Invirkeitliiiig  Bay,  13  miles  WNW.  of 
Edinliurgli.  With  Stirling,  iVc,  it  returns  one 
memljer  to  parliament.      Pop.  1()76. 

Inverlochy,  a  mined  castle  of  Inveme-ss-shire, 
2    miles    NE.    of    Fort   William,   near  which    on 


INVERNESS 


INVESTITURE 


191 


Sumlay,  iil   February   llUo,    Montrose  completely 
routeil  his  rival,  Ar>;yll. 

Ilivcrnoss,  the  county  town  of  Invorness-shire, 
anil  capital  of  the  northern  Hij;hlai\ils,  stands  on 
the  Ness,  near  its  inoutli  in  the  Moray  Firth  ami 
the  north-east  end  of  the  Caledonian  Canal,  KIS 
miles  1)V  rail  WNW.  of  Aberdeen,  144  XNW.  of 
Perth,  iind  190  NNW.  of  Edinburgh.  Its  wooded 
environs,  hemmed  in  by  hills  ( Tomualmrieh,  223 
feet:  Torvean,  300:  Craitcphadrick,  430:  Dunean, 
940,  &c.),  form  a  pictnresime  and  interesting  land- 
scape. Visited  liy  Cobimba  (ii.v. )  about  565,  and 
by  Malcolm  Canniore  made  tlie  seat  of  a  royal 
castle,  by  Cromwell  of  a  citadel  (1652),  Inverness 
has  a  wealth  of  memories.  It  was  <carrisoned  by 
the  Eii'dish  in  1296  ;  in  1411  was  burned  by  Donald 
of  the  Isles  on  his  way  to  Ilarlaw ;  and  figures  re- 
peatedly in  the  history  of  the  Stuarts,  down  to 
their  final  overthrow  at  Culloden,  hard  by.  In 
front  of  the  ScotoFlemish  town-hall  (18S2),  pro- 
tected now  by  a  fountain,  is  the  Clach-na-Cudain, 
or  'stone  of  the  tubs,'  the  palladium  of  the  burgli. 
The  Episcopal  cathedral  ( 1867 )  of  the  uniteil  diocese 
of  Moray,  Koss,  and  Caithness  is  a  fine  Decorated 
edifice ;  and  other  features  of  the  place  are  the 
county  hall  (1835)  on  the  site  of  the  cjrstle,  the 
infirmary  (1804),  the  lunatic  asylum  (1860),  the 
royal  academy  (1792),  the  barracks  (1884),  the 
main  suspension  bridge  (1855),  and  the  Islands,  a 
favourite  promenade.  Malting,  threail-making,  and 
bleaching  have  given  place  to  woollen  manufac- 
ture, shipbuilding,  distilling,  iS:c.,  with  considerable 
shipping  and  commerce,  the  harbour  having  been 
mucli  improved  in  1847.  The  great  wool  fair 
(established  in  1817)  is  held  in  July;  and  the 
Xorthern  Meeting  (1788)  in  Sejitember.  A  royal 
burgh  since  about  1067,  Inverness  unites  with 
Forres,  Fortrose,  and  Nairn  to  return  one  member 
to  parliament.  Pop.  (1S31)  9663:  (1881)17,365; 
( 1891 )  20,855,  of  whom  6356  were  CJaelic-speaking, 
though  Inverness  still  is  famous,  as  in  Defoe's  and 
Or  Johnson's  day,  for  the  j>urity  of  its  English. 
See  two  books  by  Fra.ser-Mackintosh  (1865-75), 
Miss  Anderson's /HcecHras  before  I'ailways  {ISSo), 
and  Meniorabilia  of  Inverness  ( 1887). 

Inverness-shire,  a  Highland  county,  the 
large-st  in  Scotland,  and  larger  than  any  in  England 
but  '^'orkshire,  stretches  from  sea  to  sea,  and  has  a 
total  area  of  4323  sq.  m.,  of  which  1284  belong  to 
the  Outer  Hebrides— Skye,  Harris,  North  and  South 
Uist,  Benbecula,  Barra,  Kaasay,  Eig",  St  Kilda, 
and  thirty-seven  other  iidia1>ite<l  i.slands.  The 
mainland  portion,  measuring  85  by  55  miles,  Ls 
intersected  NE.  and  SW.  by  the  Great  Glen  and 
the  Caledonian  Canal  ( q. v. ).  'it  includes  Badenoch, 
Clenroy,  and  the  valley  of  the  Spey  on  the  east; 
Lochaberon  the  south ;  Glenclg,  Glen'gany,  Arasaig, 
and  Moidart  on  the  west ;  Strathglass  on'the  north  ; 
Glenurquhart  and  Glennioriston  towards  the  centre. 
It  Ls  truly  a  '  land  of  the  mountain  and  the  flood,' 
for  it  contains  Ben  Nevis  (4406  feet),  the  highest 
point  in  Britain,  with  twenty-six  other  summits 
exceeding  .3500  feet,  whilst  the"chief  of  its  rivers  are 
the  Spey,  Ness,  and  Beaulv,  and  of  ninety  good- 
si/ed  lakes  Lochs  Ness,  Archaig,  Shiel,  "Lochy, 
Monar,  Laggan,  and  Ericht.  The  west  coast  "Ls 
indented  by  s;ilt-water  Lochs  Houni,  Nevis,  and 
Moidart.  The  rocks  include  gnei.ss,  mica-slate, 
granite,  porjihyr}-,  anil  trap  ;  and  the  most  fertile 
soil  in  the  county  rests  on  the  reil  sandstone  in  the 
valley  of  the  .-Vird,  and  between  the  county  town 
and  Beauly.  Only  46  i)er  cent,  of  the  whole  area 
is  in  cultivation  ;  and  2.55  so.  ni.  are  under  wood, 
the  rest  being  sheep-walks,  deer-forests,  moss,  and 
barren  heath,  valuable  only  as  grouse-moors.  Sheep, 
numbering  some  700,000,  are  the  principal  live-stock ; 
and  there  are  five  deer-forests  of  50  sq.   ni.   and  I 


uijwards.  The  rivers  and  lakes  aft'ord  splendid 
fishing,  anil  in  1S90  the  total  rental  of  the  shoot- 
ings, deer-forests,  and  fishings  of  Invcrness-sliire 
was  £86,902.  The  land  is  mostly  divided  iunong 
eighty-nine  proprietors,  eight  holding  eacli  above 
100,000  acres.  The  county  returns  one  member 
to  parliament.  Inverness  is  its  only  town  of  any 
size;  Kingussie  and  Fort  'William,  though  jiolice 
burghs,  are  mere  \  illages,  as  also  are  lieaulv.  Fort 
Augustus,  and  Portree.  Po]).  ( ISOl )  72,672 ; 
(1S41)  97,799;  (1881)  90,454;  (1891)  90,121,  less 
than  21  inhabitants  per  square  mile.  See  articles 
on  the  chief  islands,  lakes,  &c.,  as  well  as  on  High- 
L.vxDs,  HEiiinviES,  Culloden,  Deer-fore.sts, 
CJle.nkov,  and  Foyee.s. 

Inversion,  in  Music,  is  of  three  kinds.  ( 1 )  Of 
a  chord,  when  any  other  of  its  component  notes  than 
the  root  is  placei\  lowest  (see  Harmoxv).  (2)  Of 
an  interval  (within  the  octave),  when  the  lower 
note  is  transposed  an  octave  higher,  or  vice  versCi. 
To  find  what  an  interval  becomes  by  inversion, 
subtract  the  figure  denoting  it  from  the  figure  nine; 
thus,  a  second  inverted  becomes  a  se\enth,  a  third 
becomes  a  sixth,  iVc.  In  this  change  major  in- 
tervals become  minor,  augmented  intervals  become 
diminished,  and  vice  vcrsii.  (3)  t_)f  a  subject  or 
theme,  when  it  is  imitated  in  contrary  motion — Le. 
the  melody  progresses  by  the  same  intervals  as  the 
original  theme,  but  ascends  or  descends  always  in 
a  contrary  direction.  This  is  a  frequent  device  in 
fugues  and  other  contrapuntal  music. 

Invertebrata,  a  collective  title  for  those 
animals  which  agree  in  not  exhibiting  the  char- 
acteristics of  Vertebrates — viz.  a  dorsal  nerve 
cord,  a  dorsal  median  supporting  axis  or  noto- 
choni,  respiratory  clefts  on  the  pharynx,  a  ventral 
heart,  and  eyes  arising  for  the  most  part  as  out- 
growths of  the  brain.  But  the  dividing  line  is 
no  longer  so  clear  as  it  once  seemed,  for  not  only 
are  Ascidians  or  Tunicata  recognised  as  degenerate 
Vertebrate  or  Chordate  animals,  but  several  'worm' 
tvpes,  among  Nemerteans  and  Cha^topods,  approach 
\  ertebrates  in  some  of  their  characters,  while 
Balanoglossus  (q.v. )  and  Cephalodiscus  (q.v.)  are 
so  near  the  boundary  line  that  they  are  usually 
called  Hemi-chordata  or  half  Vertebrates. 

In\ertel)rate  animals  are  first  divided  into  ( 1 ) 
Protozoa — uni-cellular — and  (2)  Metazoa — multi- 
cellular. The  latter  then  fall  into  two  distinct 
divisions  ;  («)  without  body -cavities — Sponges  and 
Cteleuterates — and  (b)  with  more  or  less  of  a  body- 
cavity — the  Ciulomata.  Anmng  the  latter  star- 
fish, &c.  (without  including  Vertebrates),  the 
Echinoderms,  the  Arthropods  ( Ci-ustaceans,  In- 
sects, \c.),  and  the  Molluscs  (bivalves,  snails, 
cuttle-fish),  and  finally  a  great  mob  of  'worms,' 
divisible  into  many  classes — Flat-worms,  Nemer- 
teans, Round-worms,  Chietopods,  iSrc. — have  to 
be  distinguished.  See  Vertebr.\T.\,  and  separate 
articles. 

Invernrie.  a  royal  Imrgh  of  Aberdeenshire,  at 
the  influx  of  the  Trie  to  the  Don,  16  miles  NW.  of 
Aberdeen.  With  Elgin,  &c.  it  returns  one  member 
to  parliament.     Poji.  3105. 

Investiture,  in  feudal  anil  ecclesiastical  his- 
tory, means  the  act  of  giving  corporal  possession 
of  a  manor,  ollice,  or  benefice,  accompanied  bv  a 
certain  ceremonial,  such  as  the  delivery  of  a 
branch,  a  banner,  or  an  instrument  of  ollice, 
more  or  less  designed  to  signify  the  power  or 
authority  which  it  is  supposed  to  convey.  The 
contest  about  ecdesiiustical  investitures  is  in- 
terwoven with  the  whole  coui-se  of  medieval 
history.  The  system  of  feudal  tenure  had  become 
so  universal  that  it  afl'ected  even  the  land  held  by 
ecclesiastics.  Accordingly,  ecclesiastics  who,  in 
virtue  of  the  ecclesiiistical  oHice  which  they  held, 


192 


INVINCIBLES 


IODINE 


I 


came  into  possession  of  lamls  began  to  be  regarrled 
as  becoMiing  by  the  very  fact  fendatoiy  to  the 
suzerain  of  these  lands  ;  and  the  suzerains  thought 
themselves  entitled  to  claim,  in  reference  to  these 
personages,  the  same  rights  which  they  enjoyed 
over  the  otlier  feudatories  of  their  domains.  Among 
these  rights  was  that  of  granting  solenm  investi- 
ture. Now,  in  the  case  of  bishops,  abbots,  and 
other  church  dignitaries  the  f(nni  of  investiture  con- 
sisted in  the  delivery  of  a  pastoral  stall'  or  crosier, 
and  the  placing  a  ring  upou  the  linger ;  and  as 
these  ba<lges  of  office  were  emblematic — the  one  of 
the  spiritual  care  of  souls,  the  other  of  the  espousals, 
as  it  were,  between  the  pastor  and  his  church  or 
monastery — the  assumption  of  this  right  by  the  lay 
suzerains  became  a  subject  of  constant  and  angry 
complaint  on  the  part  of  the  church.  On  the  part 
of  the  suzerains  it  was  replied  that  they  did  not 
claim  to  grant  by  this  rite  the  spiritual  powers  of 
the  office,  their  function  being  solely  to  g'lant  posses- 
sion of  its  temporalities.  But  tlie  church  party 
urged  that  the  ceremonial  in  itself  involved  the 
granting  of  spiritual  powers;  insomuch  that,  in 
order  to  prevent  the  clergy  from  electing  to  a  see 
when  vacant,  it  was  the  (iractice  of  the  emperors  to 
take  possession  of  the  crosier  and  ring,  until  it 
should  be  their  own  pleasure  to  grant  investiture  to 
their  favourites.  The  disfavour  in  which  the  prac- 
tice had  long  been  held  found  its  most  energetic 
expression  in  the  person  of  Gregory  VII.,  who  liav- 
ing,  in  the  year  1074,  enacted  most  stringent 
measures  for  the  repression  of  simony,  proceeded, 
in  1075,  to  condemn,  under  excommunication,  the 
practice  of  investiture,  as  almost  necessarily  con- 
nected with  simony,  or  leading  to  it.  But  a  pope 
of  the  same  century.  Urban  II.,  went  further,  ami 
( 1095 )  absolutely  and  entirely  forbade  not  alone 
lay  investiture,  but  the  taking  of  an  oath  of  fealty 
to  a  lay  suzerain  by  an  ecclesiastic.  In  the  l'2tli 
century  the  pope,  Pascal  II.,  agreed  to  surrender 
the  possessions  and  royalties  of  the  church  on  condi- 
tion of  the  emperor  ( Henry  V. )  giving  up  his  claim  to 
investiture.  This  treaty,  however,  never  had  any 
practical  effect;  nor  was  the  contest  finally  adjusted 
until  the  celebrated  concordat  of  ^Yorms  in  1122,  in 
which  tlie  emperor  agreed  to  give  up  the  form  of 
investiture  trith  the  ritig  caul  pastoral  staff,  to  grant 
to  the  clergy  the  right  of  free  elections,  and  to 
restore  all  the  possessions  of  the  Church  of  Kome 
which  had  been  seized  either  by  himself  or  by  his 
father  ;  while  the  i)ope,  on  his  part,  consented  that 
the  elections  should  be  held  in  the  presence  of  the 
em]ieror  or  his  official,  but  with  a  right  of  appeal 
to  the  provincial  synod  ;  that  investiture  niignt  be 
given  by  the  emperor,  but  only  h>i  f/ic  tomli  of  t/ic 
sceptre  :  and  that  the  bisllo^Js  and  other  church 
dignitaries  should  f.aithfuUy  discharge  all  the  feudal 
duties  which  belonged  to  their  principality.  See 
Church  ok  England,  Feud.vlis.m. 

Iiiviiieibles.    See  Feni.^ns,  Cavendish. 

Involucre.  In  ashortened  InHorescence  (q.v.). 
such  a>  the  umbel,  the  bracts,  unless  suppressed, 
are  necessarily  close  together,  an<l  form  an  apparent 
whorl  ( but  really  a  close  spiral)  around  the  group 
of  ]iedicels.  This  is  the  involucre.  In  compound 
umbels  the  whorl  of  Ijracts  of  the  secoiulary  umbel 
is  therefore  a  secomlarv  involucre,  and  is  commonly 
called  an  invohu-el.  In  composites  the  crowded 
whor!  of  green  leaves  immediately  outside  the  capi- 
tuluni,  which  the  non-botanist  mistakes  for  a  calyx, 
is  constantly  termed  the  involucre,  but  no  less 
inaccurately,  since  here  the  true  bracts  are  those  of 
the  separate  llorets,  and  occur  on  the  surface  of  the 
capitulum  itself  (e.g.  Finnia,  SunHower,  &c.  ).  The 
composite  'involucre'  is  therefore  merely  derived 
from  those  leaves  of  the  axis  below  the  capitulum 
which  remain  green  and  vegetative  since  Dearing 


no  florets  in  their  axils.  In  Scabious  (q.v.)  the 
tiTie  bract  of  each  floret  in  the  capitulum  unites 
as  a  sheath  around  the  ovary,  and  is  also  known 
as  the  involucel.  Here,  again,  we  have  a  regret- 
table use  of  terms,  themselves  hardly  necessaiy, 
in  two  distinct  senses. 

Involute.    See  EvoLUTE. 

Involntion  and  Evolution  are  two  opera- 
tions the  converse  of  each  other.  The  object  of  the 
first  is  to  raise  a  number  to  any  power,  which  is 
efl'ected  by  continuously  multiplying  the  number 
by  itself  till  the  number  of  factors  is  equal  to  the 
number  designating  the  power.  Thus,  2  raised  to 
the  third  ])ower  is  2  x  2  x  2,  or  8 ;  7  raised  to  the 
foiirtli  power  is  7  x  7  x  7  x  7,  or  2401,  &c.  Evolu- 
tion, on  the  other  hand,  is  the  extraction  of  a  root 
of  any  number — that  is,  it  Ls  a  method  for  discover- 
ing vliat  number,  when  raised  to  a  certain  power, 
will  give  a  certain  known  number.  Thus,  the  square 
root  of  64  is  8 — that  is,  8  is  the  number  which,  raised 
to  the  second  power,  will  give  64 ;  3  is  the  fourth 
root  of  81 — that  is,  3  raised  to  the  fourth  power  is 
81  ;  and  so  on.  The  symbols  expressive  of  the  two 
operations  are  as  follow  :  5^  means  that  5  is  to  be 
raised  to  the  third  power;  (7-)'  means  that  the 
square  or  second  power  of  7  is  to  be  raised  to  the 

fifth  power;  \9  or  .^9  or  9J  signifies  that  the  ex- 
traction of  the  second  or  square  root  of  9  is  required  ; 

^256  or  256*,  that  the  fourth  root  of  256  is  to  be 
extracted  ;  and  so  on.  Involution  and  evolution, 
like  multiplication  and  division,  or  dirt'erentiation 
and  integration,  difler  in  the  extent  of  their  apjili- 
cation  ;  the  former,  or  direct  operation,  can  alwitys 
be  completed,  while  there  are  numberless  cases  in 
which  the  latter  fails  to  express  the  result  with 
perfect  accuracy. 

lo,  the  daughter  of  Inachus,  king  of  Argos,  was 
beloved  by  Zeus,  and,  transformed  through  fear  of 
Hera's  jealousy  into  a  cow,  had  many  wandeiings. 
See  A  KG  U.S. 

Iodine  (sym.  I,  equiv.  127)  is  one  of  the  four 
nou-metallie  elements.  It  was  discovered  in  1811, 
by  Courtois,  in  the  waste  licjuors  produced  in  the 
manufacture  of  carbonate  of  .soda  from  the  .ashes  of 
seaweeds.  A  few  years  later  tlay-Lussac  discovered 
that  it  was  a  simple  elementary  body.  While  it 
is  still  obtained  from  the  half-fused  ash  of  dried 
seaweeds,  which  is  known  in  Britain  as  Kelp 
(q.v.),  it  is  much  more  largely  prepared  in  South 
America  from  the  iodate  of  sodium,  which  is  f(mnd 
associated  with  nitrate  of  sodium  in  the  native 
Chili  s,alt]ietre. 

In  small  quantity,  and  usually  in  combination 
with  sodium,  nuignesium,  or  calcium,  iodine  is 
very  widely  difruse<l  over  the  earth's  surface.  It 
exists  in  sea-water,  in  marine  animals  and  plants, 
and  in  certain  mineral  springs.  It  is  also  found  in 
■several  minerals,  as,  for  example,  in  certain  Mexi- 
can silver  ores,  in  Silesian  zinc  ores,  in  phosphorite 
from  the  ITpper  Pal.atinate,  aiul  in  coal. 

At  ordinary  temperatures  it  usually  occurs  in 
.solid,  dark-gray,  jjlLstening  scales ;  it  is,  however, 
crystallisable,  and  sometimes  appears  as  an  octa- 
hedron with  a  rhombic  base.  It  is  soft,  and  admits 
readily  of  trituration,  has  the  high  specific  gravity 
of  4'95,  and  <'volvcs  a  peculiar  anil  disagreeable 
odour,  which  indicates  its  great  volatility.  It  fuses 
at  225"  ( 107°  C. ),  and  at  about  .■J50°  ( 177°  C. )  it  boils, 
and  is  converted  into  the  purple  vapour  to  which 
it  owes  its  name  ( Gr.  lodes,  '  violet-like ' ) ;  it  has 
an  acrid  taste,  and  communicates  a  brownish- 
yellow  colour  to  the  skin.  It  is  verj'  slightly 
soluble  in  water,  but  <lis.solves  readily  in  watery 
solutions  of  ioilide  of  potassium  and  of  hyilrioilic 
acid,  and  in  alcohol  and  ether.  Iodine  vajiour  is 
the  heaviest  of  known  vapours,  its  specific  gravity 


IODINE 


lONA 


193 


compared  with  air  as  unity  beinjr  STH).  It  ooin- 
biiies  directly  with  phosjihonis,  sulpliur,  and  the 
nietaU.  Its  behaviour  with  hydm^'eu  is  aiialoijous 
to  that  of  chlorine  and  broniino  (sec  IlVDlio- 
CHlOric  AriD),  hut  its  affinities  are  weaker  than 
those  of  the  last  named  elements,  it  likewise  com- 
bines with  numerous  organic  sul)stances.  and  the 
compound  which  it  forms  with  starcli  is  of  such 
an  intense  blue  c(dour  that  a  solution  of  starch 
forms  the  liest  test  for  the  presence  of  free  iodine. 
By  means  of  this  test  one  part  of  iodine  may  be 
detected  when  dissolved  in  one  million  parts  of 
water. 

With  hydrojien  iodine  forms  one  compound, 
hytlriodic  nrid  (  HI ),  a  colourless,  puiifient  acid  ^as, 
wliicli  in  most  respects  is  analoj;ous  with  hydro- 
chloric aciil.  It  may  be  obtained  by  jjently  lieat- 
ing  a  mi.\ture  of  .amorphous  pliosi)horus,  iotline, 
and  wiiter.  The  soluble  iodides  of  the  metals  may 
\te  ol)tained  by  the  direct  I'onibination  of  hydriodic 
acid  with  the  metallic  oxides,  the  resultinj;  com- 
pounds bein;.'  the  metallic  Iodide  and  w.ater.  Some 
of  these  iodides  are  of  extreme  brilliancy — e.g. 
the  ioilide  of  mercury,  scarlet :  the  iodide  of  lead, 
yellow  :  and  othem  are  of  great  value  in  medicine. 
Amongst  tlie  latter  must  be  especially  mentioned 
iodide  of  potassium,  iodide  of  iron,  and  the  iodides 
of  mercury. 

Imlide  of  pot<i.s.«iuni  is  one  of  the  most  important 
medicines  in  the  pliarm.acopieia.  It  crvst.allises  in 
colourless  cubes,  which  are  sometimes  clear,  but 
usuall.v  have  an  oi)aijue  whitish  ap])earanee.  and 
are  soluble  in  w.ater  and  s])irit.  It  is  ileconiposed 
and  the  iodine  set  free  by  chlorine,  bromine,  fuming 
nitric  aciil,  .and  O/one  (q.v. ).  Iodide  of  iron  is 
formed  by  sh.aking  iron  wire  or  filings  in  a  closed 
vessel  with  four  times  the  weight  of  iodine  sus- 
pended in  w.ater.  There  are  two  iodides  of  mercury 
— riz.  the  green  sub-iodide  (Hgl)  and  the  red 
iodide  (Hgl...).  There  are  several  well-defined 
compounds  of  iodine  and  oxygen,  but  they  are  of 
no  .special  interest. 

The  prepiirations  of  iodine  are  emi)loyed  exten- 
sively in  medicine  and  in  Photography  (q.v.). 
Iodine  itself  or  its  compounds  niav  give  rise  to  the 
synii)toms  known  a-s  iotlixm  ;  most  commonly  run- 
ning at  the  nose  and  eyes,  with  headache  .and  sore 
throat;  sometimes  irritation  of  tlie  intestinal  canal, 
either  alone  or  combined  with  the  other  symptoms. 
In  the  ca.se  of  the  iodine  compounds  these  un- 
pleasant results  usually  cease  if  the  do.se  be  in- 
crea.se<l. 

Iodine  and  its  compounds  increase  the  activity 
of  the  al)sorbent  system  generally,  and  are  useful 
in  enlargement  of  the  glands  connected  with  that 
system  (lymphatic  glands,  thyroid,  spleen),  and 
wherever  absorption  is  deficient  ( liypertropliy  of 
l)rea.sts,  uterus,  iVc  ;  indolent  inllammatory  exu- 
dation in  any  organ ).  But  they  are  perhaps  of  the 
greatest  value  in  certain  forms  of  chroni('  rlieuma- 
tism,  certain  stages  of  syphilis,  in  scrofulous  con- 
ditions generally,  and  in  chronic  poisoning  by 
niercurj- and  lead.  In  the  last  case  they  set  free 
the  metals  from  insoluble  comjjounds  in  the  tissues, 
and  allow  them  to  be  eliminated  from  the  body  in 
solution  in  the  nrine. 

loiline  is  chielly  prescribed  internally  in  combina- 
tion, as  itxlide  of  pot.a.ssium,  iodide  of  iron,  especi- 
ally in  .stninious  cases,  and  red  iodiile  of  mercury  in 
s.yphills.  I're<!  iodine  is  very  apt  to  cause  iriita 
tion  of  the  intestinal  canaU  and  can  in  general 
only  Ije  employc<l  in  small  iloses.  Hut  .as  an  exter- 
nal application,  in  the  form  of  ointment,  tincture, 
or  liniment,  it  i.s  extensively  usnl  and  is  very 
valnable  It  .acts  as  a  par.asiticide  in  ringwornl, 
removes  muscular  pains,  and  promotes  the  absorp- 
tion of  exuilations  and  the  subduing  of  chronic 
intlammations.  In  large  doses  iodine 'ami  iiu)st  of 
273 


the  iodides  act  as  irritant  poisons ;  but  Aery  few- 
fatal  cases  are  on  record.  In  the  event  of  poison- 
ing with  the  tincture  of  iodine  the  first  point  is  to 
evacuate  the  stomach.     See  I'lil.soN.s. 

lodororm  ((Til.,)  is  a  lemon-yellow  crystalline 
sulistaiu'c,  having  a  satt'ron-like  odour  and  an  un- 
pleas.mt  iodineliUe  t.aste.  Its  odour  is  most  per- 
sistent, .and  can  hardly  be  removed.  It  is  of 
interest  as  h.aving  a  com|i(isition  similar  to  that 
of  Cliloroform  (q.v.),  from  which  it  only  difl'ers  in 
h.aving  ioiline  in  the  place  of  chlorine.  It  may 
be  prepared  by  the  .action  of  iodine  on  alcoliol  in 
the  presence  of  carlxniate  of  pot.ash.  It  is  almost 
insoluble  in  water,  but  diss(dves  in  alcohol,  el  her, 
.and  chloroform.  It  is  readily  volatile  when  hiMtcil, 
and  in  the  form  of  xapour  has  an;esllietic  pro- 
perties. It  is  employed  externally  .as  an  apjilica- 
tion  to  painful  ulcers,  .and  it  often  gives  relief  in 
uterine  cancer.  In  the  form  of  iodoform  gauze  it 
is  useil  in  anti.septic  surgery. 

lolite.      See  CORDIERITE, 

IOIia<  the  most  famous  of  the  Hebrides,  IJ 
mile  W.  of  the  south-western  extremity  of  Mull. 
Its  modern  name  is  believed  to  have  origin.atcil  in 
a  mistaken  reading  of  n  for  >i  :  the  word  in  the 
oldest  manuscripts  being  clearly  written  loi/ii. 
From  the  6th  century  to  the  17th  century  the 
island  w.as  most  generally  called  /,  //,  la,  lo,  Ed, 
Hi/,  Hi,  Hii,  Hie,  Hii,  Y,  or  17 — that  is,  sim])ly, 
'tlie  island  ; '  or  Ico/mki/l,  I-C'o/iniih-Kiflc,  or  Hii- 
Culiim-Killc — that  is,  '  the  island  of  Columba  of 
the  ehurcli.'  It  is  3^  miles  long,  and  li  mile 
broad.  Its  area,  computed  by  Bede  at  '  five 
families'  (or  'five  hides  of  land,'  as  the  pass.age  is 
rendered  in  the  .Anglo-Saxon  t'lironicle),  is  .3i  sq. 
m.,  or  '2264  .acres,  of  which  r.ather  more  than  .a 
fourth  part  is  under  tillage.  The  soil  is  naturally 
fruitful  :  its  fertility  was  regarded  as  miraculous 
in  the  dark  .ages,  .and,  no  doubt,  led  to  the  early 
occup.ation  of  lona.  Dunii,  the  highest  point  of 
the  island,  is  327  feet  above  the  sea-level.  I'op. 
•247. 

Its  history  begins  in  the  year  563,  when  St 
Columba  (q.v.),  leaving  the  shores  of  Ireland, 
landed  upon  lona  with  twelve  discijdes.  Having 
obtained  .a  grant  of  the  island,  he  built  u|ion  it  a 
monastery,  which  w.xs  long  regarded  as  the  motlier- 
clmrch  of  the  Picts,  .ami  was  venerated  not  only 
among  the  Scots  of  Britain  ami  Ireland,  but  among 
the  Angles  of  the  north  of  England,  who  owed  their 
conversion  to  the  .self-denying  mission.aries  of  lona. 
From  the  end  of  the  6th  to  the  end  of  the  Sth  cen- 
tury lona  was  scarcely  second  to  any  mon.astery  in 
the  British  Isles;  and  it  w.as  this  brilliant  cia  of 
its  .annals  which  rose  in  .lohnson's  mind  when  he 
descril)ed  it  ,as  'that  illustiious  islaml  which  w.as 
once  the  luminary  of  the  Caledonian  regions, 
whence  s.avage  clans  .and  roving  barliarians  derived 
the  benefits  of  knowleilge  and  the  blessings  of 
religion.'  But  neither  piety  nor  learning  availed 
to  save  it  from  the  ravages  of  the  fierce  .and 
heathen  Norsemen.  They  burned  it  in  7il.")  and 
again  in  .S()2.  Its  'family'  (as  the  monks  were 
called)  of  sixty-eight  persons  were  martyred  in  !S06. 
A  .second  ujartyrdom,  in  S'J."),  is  the  suliject  of  a 
contemporary  Latin  poem  by  Walafriilus  Strabus. 
On  the  Christmas  evening  of  986  the  island  was 
again  wasted  by  the  Norsemen,  who  slew  the  abbot 
.and  fifteen  of  his  monks.  Tow.ards  the  end  of  the 
next  century  the  nmnastery  was  rejiaired  by  St 
Margaret,  tin'  quci'ii  of  Malcolm  Canmore.  It  was 
visited  in  10!t7  by  King  .Magnus  Marefoot  of  Norway. 
It  was  now  iiart  of  that  kingdom,  and  sd  fell 
under  the  ecclesiastical  jurisdiction  of  the  Bishop 
of  Man  and  the  Archbishop  of  Trondhjem.  In  1203 
.a  Benedictine  monastery  was  fouiuleil  here,  and  a 
Benedictine    (afterwards    Aiigustiniaii )     nunnery. 


194 


IONIA 


IONIAN    ISLANDS 


In  1506  loiia  lieoanie  the  scat  of  the  Scottish  Bishop 
of  the  Isles,  tlie  abhev  oh\uch  being  his  catlieilial, 
and  tlie  monks  liis  chapter. 

No  biulding  now  remains  on  tlie  island  which 
can  claim  to  have  sheltered  St  (.'olniiiba  or  his 
disciples.  The  most  ancient  ruins  are  the  Laith- 
richean,  or  Koundations,  in  a  little  bay  to  the 
west  of  Port-a-Churraich  ;  the  Cobban  Cuildicli,  or 
Culdees'  Cell,  in  a  hollow  between  Dunii  and  Dun- 
bhnir^ ;  the  rath  or  liill-fort  of  Dnnbhuirj; ;  and 
the  Cleann-an-Team|Mill,  or  Glen  of  the  Church,  in 
the  middle  of  the  island.  St  Gran's  Chapel,  now 
the  oldest  church  in  the  island,  may  probably  be 
of  the  later  part  of  the  11th  century.  St  Marys 
Nunnery  is  perhajis  a  (■entury  later.  '1  he  Cathedral, 
or  St  Mary's  Church  (c.  1203),  whose  ruin  and  pre- 
cincts were  made  over  by  the  late  Duke  ol  Argyll 
in  Septeinbei'  1S99,  hiis  a  choir,  with  a  north 
sacristy  and  south  chapels  ;  north  and  south  tran- 
septs; "a  central  tower,  70  feet  high;  and  a  nave. 
An  inscription  (defaced  about  1S49)  on  one  of  the 
columns  of  the  choir  seemed  to  denote  that  it  was 
the  «ork  of  an  Irish  ecclesiastic  who  died  in  120.S. 
On  the  north  of  the  cathedral  are  the  chapter-house 
and  other  remains  of  the  conventual  or  monastic 
buililings.  In  the  '  Ueilig  t)ran' — so  called,  it  is 
supposed,  from  St  Oran,  a  kinsman  of  St  Cohimba, 
the  first  who  found  a  grave  in  it — were  buried 
Ecgfrid,  king  of  Northumbria,  in  6S4  :  Godfed,  king 
of  the  Isles,  in  1188;  and  Haco  Ospac,  king  of  the 
Isles,  in  1228.  Xo  monuments  of  these  princes  now 
remain.  The  oldest  of  the  numy  tombstones  on  the 
island  are  two  with  Irisli  inscriptions,  one  of  them, 
it  is  believed,  being  the  monument  of  a  bishop  of 
Connor  who  died  at  lona  in  1174.  To  this  in- 
teresting island  a  great  Catholic  pilgrimage  took 
])lace  in  June  1888.  For  St  Martin's  Cross,  see 
Cross:  see  also  the  Uuke  of  Argyll's  lona  (1871  ; 
new  ed.  1889),  and  other  works  cited  at  CoLU.MUA. 

Ionia,  the  ancient  name  of  the  coast  districts 
and  islands  of  western  Asia  Minor.  The  name 
Mas  derived  from  the  lonians,  one  of  the  four  most 
ancient  tribes  in  Greece.  According  to  the  usually 
received  tradition,  after  being  driven  out  of  the 
Peloponnesus,  they  removed  to  Attica,  whence, 
about  1060  B.C.,  they  sent  forth  warrior  bands  to 
settle  on  the  bays  and  iiromontories  and  islands 
of  Asia  Minor;  but  it  is  more  prol)alile  that  the 
immigration  was  gradual  ami  was  sjiread  over  a 
long  period  of  time.  Although  mountainous, 
Ionia  embraced  the  three  valleys  watereil  by  the 
Hcrmns,  Cayster,  and  Meander,  an<l  was  a  beauti- 
ful and  fertile  country,  extending,  according  to 
Ptolemy,  from  the  river  Hormus  to  the  river 
Meander,  though  Herodotus  and  Strabo  make  it 
somewhat  larger.  It  soon  reached  a  high  point  of 
prosperity  ;  agriculture  and  commerce  Ihmrished  ; 
colonies  were  sent  out,  which  settled  on  the  shores 
of  the  Black  Sea  and  in  the  south  of  (laul  (Mas- 
silia)  ;  and  great  cities  arose,  of  which  Ephesns, 
Smyrna,  Clazomena',  Krythras  Colophon,  and 
Miletus  were  the  most  celebrated.  Tliese  cities, 
with  six  others,  formed  the  Ionian  League.  Each 
retained  its  inde])endence,  the  form  of  government 
being  democratical ;  but  all  met  together  periodi- 
cally at  Panioniiim,  near  Priene,  for  the  discussion 
of  such  all'airs  ami  interests  i\»  they  had  in  com- 
mon, for  religious  woi-ship,  an<l  for  the  celebration 
of  athletic  games.  A  feu-  centuries  later  the 
twelve  cities  were  made  thirteen  by  the  accession 
of  Smyrna.  These  Ionian  states  were  gra<lually 
subdued  by  the  kings  of  Lydia.  Then  they  passed 
(557  B.l'.)  under  the  sway  of  the  Persians,  but  were 
allowed  a  considerable  measure  of  internal  lilierty. 
They  revolteil,  however,  in  .500,  but  were  reduceil 
to  subjection  after  a  bloody  battle  near  Ephesns  in 
496  u.O.  During  the  great  Persian  war  the  con- 
tingent  which    they   furnished    to    their    oriental 


masters  deserted  to  the  Greeks  at  the  battle  of 
Mycale  (479  H.C);  tlicreuiion  the  bmians  entered 
into  an  alliance  with  Athens,  ni>on  which  they 
now  became  dependent.  By  the  pe.ace  of  Antal- 
cidas  (387  B.C.)  they  were  again  made  subject  to 
the  Persians,  and  remaineil  so  till  the  time  of  Alex- 
ander the  Great.  Krom  this  period  Ionia  share<l 
the  fate  of  the  neighbouring  countvies.  ami  in  64 
B.C.  was  .ailded  to  the  Koman  empire  liy  Pom|iey, 
after  the  third  Mithridatic  war.  In  later  times  it 
was  so  ravaged  by  the  Tvirks  that  few  traces  of 
its  former  greatness  are  now  left. — The  lonians 
were  reg.irded  as  somewhat  effeminate.  They  were 
wealthy  and  luxurious  ;  and  the  line  arts  were  cul- 
tivated amongst  them  at  a  much  earlier  date  than 
amongst  their  kinsmen  in  the  motherconntry. 
Two  of  the  celebrated  temides  of  the  tireek 
world,  that  of  Diana  and  that  of  .Vpcdlo,  both  near 
Ephesns,  were  in  Ionia.  For  Ionic  architecture, 
see  Greek  Architectire.  For  the  Ionian  mode, 
see  Mrsic.  The  Ionian  School  was  the  name 
given  to  the  representative  philosophers  of  the 
Ionian  Greeks,  such  as  Thales,  Anaximau<lcr, 
Anaximenes,  Heraclitus,  Anaxagoras  (see  these 
names),  who  devoted  themselves  mainly  to  the 
question  what  was  the  primonlial  constitutive  prin- 
ciple of  the  cosmical  univer.se.  The  Ionic  dialect, 
nearly  akin  to  Attic,  excels  the  other  Greek  dialects 
in  softness  and  smoothness,  chielly  from  the  greater 
richness  of  its  vowel-system. 

Ionian  I>ilan<1s.  a  groun,  or  rather  chain,  of 
islands,  about  forty  in  nuiuber,  stretching  along 
the  west  and  south  coasts  of  (Jreece.  Corfu  (Cor- 
cvra),  Paxo,  Santa  Maura,  Ithaca  (Theaki),  Cejih- 
alonia,  Zante,  and  Cerigo  ( Cylhera )  are  the  largest. 
Accounts  of  their  ])hysical  features  and  other  par- 
ticulars will  be  found  under  the  separate  islands. 
Total  area,  1010  sq.  m.  ;  pop.  (1879)  244,43.3,  (1S89) 
238. 7S3,  the  great  majority  of  Greek  descent.  The 
surface  is  generally  Tiionntainous,  the  plains  and  val- 
leys being  fertile.  The  collective  term  'Ionian 'is of 
modern  date.  Previous  to  the  subjugation  i>f  tJreece 
by  Home  the  only  one  of  these  islands  that  rose 
above  the  historic  horizon  was  the  Corinthian  colony 
of  Corcyra.  On  the  division  of  the  Roman  empire 
these  islands  were  included  in  the  eastern  half.  In 
1081  Corfu  and  Ceidialonia  fell  into  the  bands  of 
Itobert  (;uis<-ard,  and  from  that  lime  they  had  a 
very  chequered  history  for  three  hundred  and  twenty 
years.  In  1401  Corfu  came  into  the  jiosscssion  of 
the  Venetians,  who  in  the  same  century  accpiired 
Zante  and  Ccphalonia.  and  subse<iiiently  most  of 
the  other  islands  included  in  the  group.  The 
Venetians  retained  them  until  1797,  when  they 
ceded  them  to  I'rance.  I'he  islands  were  seized  by 
Kussia  ami  Turkey  in  1799;  and  the  Emperor  Paul 
created  the  Kepublie  of  the  Seven  I'nited  Islands, 
under  the  i)rotection  of  Turkey.  But  in  1807  tliey 
were  given  liack  to  France  by  the  treaty  of  Tilsit. 
In  1809  Great  Britain  seized  Zante,  Cephalonia, 
and  Cerigo.  in  IHIO  Santa  Maura,  in  1814  Paxo, 
and  after  NajKdeon's  fall  Corfu  ;  and  on  November 
5,  1815,  were  formed  the  I'nited  Slates  of  the 
Ionian  Islands,  under  the  protectorate  of  Great 
Britain.  While  they  were  connected  with  Eng- 
land the  government  was  carried  on  by  two 
assemblies  and  the  Lord  High  Commissicmer,  the 
representative  of  the  British  government.  The 
rule  of  the  successive  commissioniM-s,  although 
directed  to  the  construction  of  roads,  the  regula- 
tion of  the  systems  of  taxation,  the  establishment 
of  educational  institnti(ms.  the  reform  of  the 
administration  of  justice,  and  similar  public  works 
for  the  furtherance  of  the  intellectual  ami  m.-iterial 
welfare  of  the  people,  w.as  on  the  whole  arbitrary 
and  despotic.  There  wa.s  iiermanent  friction,  often 
of  a  se\  ere  character,  between  the  representative 
of  Britain  and  the  representatives  of  the  islanders. 


IONS 

Nor  iliil  the  concessions  of  freeiloin  of  tlie  (iress,  an 
extension  of  tlie  fianeliise.  ami  fieedoni  of  election 
(with  the  iit;ht  of  the  hallot),  both  numicipal 
anil  parliamentary,  extorted  in  1S49  by  the  dis- 
tiirhances  of  Europe  during  the  year  previous,  do 
much  to  reduce  the  friction.  Insurrections  broke 
out  amonjrst  the  peasantry  :  the  discontent  with 
British  rule  increased  ;  and  the  party  that  agitated 
for  incor))oralion  witli  (ireece  waxed  daily  stronger. 
In  tlie  end  of  IS.iS  Mr  Gladstone  was  sent  as  a 
special  cmnniissioner  to  ascertain  what  could  be 
done  to  meet  the  claims  of  the  population.  He 
declared  against  annexation  to  Greece.  But  in 
1863  the  election  of  the  son  of  the  king  of  Denmark 
as  constitutional  king  of  Greece  gave  England  an 
opportunity  of  getting  rid  of  this  troublesome 
dependency.  On  1-tth  Xovember  a  treaty  was  cim- 
cluded  at  London  by  which  the  isl.ands  were  incor- 
porated in  (ireece.  In  Feliiuary  1867  they  were 
visited  by  a  .series  of  earthquake  shocks,  mo.st 
violent  in  Cephalonia,  where  they  caused  great 
destruction  of  life  and  property,  and  almost 
destroyed  the  two  chief  towns.  The  islands  ha\'e 
now  no  geographical  unity.  Cythera  (Cerigo)  is 
included  in  the  nomarchy  of  Argolis.  The  rest 
are  distributed  among  tlie  three  nomarchies  of 
Corcyra  (Corfu),  Cephalonia,  and  Zacynthos 
(Zante).  See  works  by  Ansted  (186.3),  Kirkwall 
(186-1),  Von  Warsberg  (Vienna,  1878-70),  and 
Rieniann  (Paris,  1879). 

Ions,  the  components  into  which  an  electrolyte 
is  broken  up  on  electrolysis.  The  one,  the  Anion 
(the  electro-negative  component — e.g.  chlorine), 
travels  'against'  the  current  (in  its  conventional 
direction  in  the  circuit),  and  is  deposited  on  or 
chemically  attacks  the  anode  or  positive  electrode  ; 
the  other,  the  Cation  ( the  electro-positive  com- 
ponent— e.g.  copper),  travels  'with"  the  current  to 
the  cathode — e.g.  to  the  spoons  in  the  plating  bath. 
See  Electeicitv,  Vol.  IV.  p.  270. 

Iota.     See  I. 

I  O  IJ,  a  memorandum  of  debt  given  by  a 
borrower  to  a  lender,  so  called  from  being  made  in 
this  abbreviated  form  : 

LoxDON,  ht  January  1SS9. 
I  O  U  Twenty  Pounds. 
To  Mr  C.  D.  A.  B. 

It  is  a  convenient  document,  because  it  requires  no 
stamp,  and  yet  it  is  valuable  evidence  of  the  exist- 
ence of  the  debt,  in  case  an  .action  is  afterwards 
brought.  If,  however,  the  I  U  U  contain  any 
promise  to  pay  the  debt,  then  it  will  amount  to  a 
promissory-note,  and  lie  void  unless  it  have  a 
stamp.  It  should  be  holograph,  dated,  and  ad- 
dressed to  some  person  or  persons,  but  it  does  not 
prove  its  own  date. 

Iowa,  one  of  the  United  States  of  America, 
extends  from  40'  .36'  to  43°  30'  X.  lat.,  and  from  90° 
15'  to  96°  38'  W.  long.,  and  h;vs  an  copyri,i.i  isno  lu  u.s. 
area  of  55,475  so.  m.  It  is  bounded  by  j.  b.  upiiincott 
on  the  X.  by  Minnesota,  on  the  Comiany. 
E.  by  the  Missi.ssip|)i  Hiver,  on  the  S.  by  the  state 
of  Missouri,  and  on  the  \V.  by  the  Missouri  and  Big 
Si(mx  rivers.  The  climate  is  continental,  with  cold 
winters,  hot  summers,  and  sudden  changes  of 
temperature.  The  autumns  are  beautiful  and  of 
long  duration.  The  mean,  temiicrature  of  the  year 
is  47',  anil  the  annual  rainfall  aliout  33  inches. 
(owa  is  noted  for  its  hcaltliliilness.  the  annual 
death-rate  being  only  1 10  in  every  lO.WIO  of  popula- 
tion. The  surface  is  a  rolling  prairie  ;  there  are  no 
mountains,  and  hills  or  blutrs  can  only  be  found 
along  the  principal  streams.  The  average  eleva- 
tion is  not  far  from  900  feet.  The  highest  point 
(1694  feet)  is  about  70  miles  E.  of  the  north-west 


lOV^^A 


195 


corner  of  the  state,  and  the  lowest  (444  feet)  at  the 
continence  of  the  Des  Moines  River  with  the 
Mississippi.  The  soil  is  unsurpassed  in  richness 
and  productiveness,  all  the  land  being  tillalile 
except  a  few  locky  bhitts  near  the  large  rixcrs. 
Natviral  forests  cover  the  slopes  that  intervene 
between  the  rivers  and  the  high  lands,  and  since 
the  cessation  of  the  destructive  prairie-tires  the 
area  of  woodland  has  been  steadily  increasing. 
Iowa  has  also  extensive  and  valuable  mineral 
deposits,  as  coal,  lead,  gypsum,  limestone,  clay, 
and  mineral  paints.  The  coal,  which  is  bituminous 
and  of  good  (]uality,  extends  over  an  area  of  nearly 
"20,000  sq.  m. ,  and  above  4  million  tons  have  been 
raised  annually  of  late  years.  The  Mississippi  on 
the  eastern,  and  the  Missouri  on  the  western  liorder 
are  navigable.  To  both  of  these  are  tributary  a 
number  of  inland  rivers,  those  of  the  Mississipjii 
system  flowing  in  a  south-easterly,  and  those  of  the 
Missouri  system  in  a  south-westerly  direction.  The 
Upper  Iowa,  Turkey,  Maquoketa,  Wajisijiinicon, 
Iowa  (with  its  large  affluent  the  Cedar),  Skunk, 
and  Des  ;\Ioines  rivers  are  the  principal  tributaries 
of  the  Mississippi.  The  rivers  of  the  Missouri 
system  are  the  Big  Sioux,  Kock,  Fhjyd's,  Little 
Sioux,  Boyer,  and  Xishnaljotony.  There  are  also 
several  small  lakes  in  the  northern  portion  of  the 
state,  situated  princiiially  near  the  great  water- 
sheds. 

Iowa  is  pre-eminently  an  agricultural  state.  The 
nature  of  the  surface  offers  excellent  facilities  for 
the  use  of  agricultural  machinery,  and  makes  farm- 
ing attractive  and  profitable.  X^early  two-thirds  of 
the  .34  million  acres  of  tillalde  land  are  now  under 
cultivation,  producing  annually  300  million  bushels 
of  maize,  .30  million  bushels  of  wheat,  60  million 
bushels  of  oats,  4  million  bushels  of  barley,  2i 
million  bushels  of  fiax,  li  million  bushels  of  buck- 
wheat, half  a  million  liushels  of  rye,  6  million  tons 
of  hay,  2  million  gallons  of  sorghum-syru]),  10 
million  bushels  of  potatoes,  100  million  pounds  of 
butter,  5  million  pounds  of  cheese,  2  million  pounds 
of  wool,  and  32  million  dozen  egg.s.  The  number 
of  live-stock  at  the  census  of  1890  were  as  follows  : 
horses,  1,312,079;  cattle,  4,000,000  :  mules,  41  648  ; 
swine,  7,000,000;  sheej),  4.50.000.  The  total  annual 
value  of  all  agricultural  products  may  be  fairly 
estimated  at  300  million  dollars.  AVliil'e  Iowa  has 
good  water-power,  cheap  fuel,  and  excellent  trans- 
portation facilities,  the  development  of  its  manu- 
facturing interests  has  been  but  slow.  In  1880  the 
number  of  manufacturing  establishments  was  6921 ; 
the  numljer  of  persons  emidoyeil  in  them,  28,372; 
and  the  value  of  their  annual  products,  S71,045,9'26. 
In  1890  there  were  7440  factories,  '  with  59,174 
workers,  producing  goods  of  the  value  that  year 
of  .SI '25, 049, 200.  Among  the  leading  articles  of 
manufacture  are  flouring  and  grist  mill  products, 
packed  meats  and  canned  goods,  sawed  lumber, 
carriages  and  wagons,  saddlery,  agricultural  im- 
plements, furniture,  bricks  and  tiles,  foundry 
products,  woollen  goods,  and  clothing.  The  com- 
merce is  chiefly  domestic.  The  principal  exports 
are  agricultural  and  dairy  jiroducls,  coal,  gypsum, 
and  lead  ;  I  he  imports,  groceries  and  manufactured 
goods. 

The  legislative  authority  is  vested  in  the  general 
assembly,  consisting  of  two  houses,  the  senate  (50 
members)  and  house  of  representatives  (100),  and 
meeting  in  regular  session  in  .I.-muarv  of  each  even- 
numbereil  vear.  'I'he  su[ireme  executive  power  is 
vested  in  a  governor,  who  is  elected  for  a  term  of 
two  years.  The  sujireme  court  consists  of  live 
judges,  elected  for  a  term  of  six  .\ears.  The  state 
is  divided  into  ninetv-nine  counties,  and  is  repre- 
sented in  the  nati<unii  congress  by  two  senators  and 
eleven  representatives.  'I'he  eihicational  policy  of 
the  st.ate  is  most  liberal.     .Scho(ds  are  established 


196 


IOWA    CITY 


IPSUS 


in  every  ilistiict,  an<l  must  be  kept  in  operation  at 
least  six  niontlis  each  voar.  Tlie  scliool  system 
eml)nices  tlie  ilistrict  and  liij,'li  school,  the  state 
university,  state  normal  sclioo!,  anil  state  agri- 
cultural ami  industrial  college.  In  1S90  there  were 
'2ti,769  teachers  in  about  17,0(W  common  schools, 
which  were  attended  by  ">0.S,7.m  ])upils.  I'pwards 
of  twenty  higli  schools  (includini;  the  state  univer- 
sity, Drake  l"niversity  in  I>es  >Ioines,  and  Cornell 
College)  have  nearly  -IDO  teachers  anil  over  7000 
pupils.  Iowa  has  the  lowest  percentage  of  illiteracy 
of  any  state  in  the  Union.  Of  324.09(3  inhabitants 
liorn  aliroad,  127,246  were  German  born  (1890).  The 
value  of  property  is  estimated  at  2000  million  dollars. 
The  territory  of  the  state  of  Iowa  formed  part  of 
the  '  Louisiana  Purchase.'  After  Iowa  had  succes- 
sively been  under  the  juri.sdiction  of  the  territorial 
governments  of  Missouri,  Michigan,  and  Wisconsin, 
it  was  organised  as  a  separate  territory  on  the  4th 
of  July  183S,  with  ISurlington  as  its  ca))ital.  It 
had  then  sixteen  counties  and  ,a  population  of 
22,SG0.  The  following  year  the  general  assembly 
located  the  seat  of  government  at  Iowa  City.  t*n 
2Sth  December  lS4(i  the  state  was  admitted  into 
the  Union,  with  a  population  of  nearly  100,000. 
In  1856  Des  Moines  became  the  permanent  capital. 
Iowa's  population  in  1850  was  192.214  :  in  1860, 
674,913;  in  1870,  1,194,020;  in  1880,  1,624,615; 
and  in  1890  it  was  1.911.896;  and  Iowa  w,as  the 
tenth  state  in  the  Union  in  respect  of  population. 
In  1890  there  was  within  the  limits  of  the  state 
one  city  (Des  Moines)  of  over  50,000  inhabitants: 
five  between  20,000  and  40,000  (Sioux  City, 
Dubuque,  D.avenport,  Burlington,  Council  BluH's): 
five  between  10,000  and  1 1,000  ;  and  twelve  between 
4000  and  10,000. 

Iowa  City,  capital  of  .lohnson  county,  Iowa, 
and  the  seat  of  the  territorial  ami  state  government 
from  18,39  to  1856,  is  situated  on  the  Iowa  River, 
120  miles  by  rail  E.  of  Des  Moiiu's.  The  old  capitol 
is  now  the  home  of  the  state  university.  The  town 
has  a  foundry  .and  a  number  of  mills  and  factories. 
Pop.  ( 18S0t  ^123  ;  (1890)  7106. 

Ipcraciiailba,  the  name  both  of  a  very  valu- 
able medicine  and  of  the  pl.iiit  i)roducing  it.  The 
plant  ( Ccp/taeh's  IprrarttanlKt )  belongs  to  the 
natural  order  Cinchonacea-,  and  is  <a  native  of  the 
damp  shady  woods  in  Brazil  and  some  other  parts 


Ipecacuanha  {Ccphaelis  Ijxcacuanha)  in  flower: 

a,  the  root. 

of  South  America.  More  recently  it  has  been 
cultivated  in  India  and  Ceylon,  although  there  is  a 
tendency  under  cultivation  for  the  idant  to  run 
into  varieties.  It  is  somewhat  shrubby,  with  a  few 
oblongo-lanceoliile  leaves  near  the  ends  of  the 
branches,  long-st;ilked  he:ids  of  small  while  Mowers, 
and  soft  dark-purple  berrie.s.  Tlie  part  of  ipecacu- 
anha used  in  medicine  is  the  root,  which  is  simple 
or  divided   into  a  few  branches,  flexuous,  about 


as  thick  as  a  goose-quill,  and  is  composed  of  rings 
of  various  size,  soniewhiit  fleshy  when  fresh,  and 
appearing  a.s  if  closely  strung  on  a  central  woody 
cord.  Ipecacuanha  root  is  ])repareil  for  the  market 
by  mere  drying.  It  is  collected  at  all  seasons,  al- 
though chielly  from  .lainiarv  to  March.  The  plant 
is  never  cultivated  in  Brazil.  It  has  now  become 
scarce  in  the  neighbourhood  of  towns,  but.  owing 
to  the  readiness  with  which  it  is  propagated  from 
portions  of  the  root,  it  is  not  likely  to  be  exter- 
minated. 

It  is  in  the  bark  of  the  root  that  the  active 
principle,  the  cmelhic,  almost  entirely  lies;  the 
other  ingredients,  such  as  fatty  mattei's,  starch, 
lignine.  iVc. ,  being  .almost  inert.  Emetine  is  repre- 
sented by  the  fornnila  CjHjnN.^Oj.  It  is  a  white, 
inodorous,  and  bitter  powder,  moderately  soluble 
in  alcohol,  and  having  all  the  charactei's  of  the 
veget.tble  alkaloids.  It  acts  as  a,  violent  emetic  in 
doses  of  iVth  of  a  grain  or  less,  and  is  a  jjowerful 
poison.  In  good  specimens  of  root  it  is  jiresent  to 
the  extent  of  nearly  1  per  cent.  In  small  ;inil 
repe.ated  doses — as,  for  instance,  of  a  grain  or  less 
— ipecacuanh.a  incre.ases  the  activity  of  the  secret- 
ing organs,  especially  of  the  bronchial  mucous 
membrane,  and  of  the  skin.  In  larger  doses  of 
from  1  to  5  grains  it  excites  nausea  and  depression; 
while  in  doses  of  from  \5  to  .30  grains  it  .acts  as  an 
emetic,  witliont  producing  such  violent  action  or 
so  nnich  nausea  and  depression  .as  tartar  emetic. 
Ipecacuanha  is  useful  as  an  emetic  when  it  is 
necessary  to  unload  the  stomach  in  cases  wheie 
there  is  great  debility,  or  in  childhood.  As  a 
n.auseant,  expectorant,  and  diaphoretic  it  is  pre- 
scrilied  in  affections  of  the  respiratory  organs,  .as 
catarrh,  hooi>ing-cough,  .asthma,  i}i:c.  ;  in  allectimis 
of  the  .alimentary  canal,  as  indigestion  and  dysen- 
tery ;  and  in  disorders  in  w  hich  it  is  desired  to 
increase  the  action  of  the  skin,  as  in  diabetes  .and 
in  febrile  atl'ection.s. 

Besides  the  Powder,  the  most  useful  iirep.ara- 
tions  are  the  Wine  of  Ipecacuaidia — of  which 
the  dose  to  .an  adult  as  a  diaiihoretic  and 
expectorant  ranges  from  10  to  40  minims,  aiul  as  an 
emetic  from  2  to  4  drachms-  and  the  Compouiul 
Ipecacuanh.a  Powder,  commonly  known  ;is  iJum'.i 
I'mrdir  (q.v. ).  To  l)roduce  the  full  ellect  iis  a 
sudorific  a  dose  of  10  grains  of  Dover's  Powder 
should  be  followed  by  cojiious  draughts  of  white- 
wine  whey,  treacle-posset,  or  some  other  warm 
and  harmless  drink. 

I|tllia<'lli  a.  in  Greek  legend,  a  daughter  of 
Ag;uiH'iiiniin  and  Clytemnestra,  or,  according  to 
others,  an  adopted  ihiughterof  ('lylemiu'stra.  Her 
father,  having  oU'endcd  Artemis,  couhl  only  avert 
the  wrath  of  the  goddess  by  promising  to  sacri- 
fice to  her  the  most  Iicautiful  thing  born  within 
the  year.  This  happened  to  be  Iphigenia.  When 
I])liigenia  w.as  brought  to  the  altar,  however,  she 
disappeared,  and  a  hind  lay  there  in  her  ste.ad  ; 
Artemis  herself  carried  her  oil' in  ii  chmd  to  Tauris 
(Crimea),  where  she  becaiiu>  her  priestess,  but  w;us 
afterwards  recognised  by  hci-  brother  Orestes,  who 
took  her,  .along  with  the  image  of  Artemis,  to 
Attica.  The  legend  is  of  post- Homeric  origin,  bnt 
evidently  goes  back  to  the  barb.aric  stage  of  the 
Greek  religion,  when  human  sacrifices  were  wont 
to  be  m.aile  on  sidenm  occasions.  It  g.ave  a  subject 
to  painters,  scnljitors.  iind  poets,  and  is  imperishably 
enshrined  in  two  s]dcndirl  tragedies  of  kuripides. 
In  modern  art  it  luis  enqihiyed  the  genius  of  Gluck 
in  nnisic,  and  of  i;:icine  ami  (ioethe  in  poetry. 

Ipoilia'a.  a  genus  of  ])lanls  of  the  natur.al  order 
Convoh  ul.ue.e,  differing  very  little  from  the  geims 
Convoh  ulu~  (i|-v.). 

IlLsaiiiltul.    See  Abu-Simbel. 

Ipsiis.    See  Antigonus. 


IPSWICH 


IRAWADI 


197 


Ipswich,  the  county  town  of  SufVolk.  69  miles 
NE.  of  Lonilon  by  rail,  is  situated  on  the  side  of  a 
hill  on  the  left  llaiik  of  the  rivei  (liiniinj;.  which, 
here  takin<i  the  name  of  the  Urwell,  hecomes  tidal, 
and  after  a  south-easterly  coui-se  of  1'2  miles  more 
falls  into  the  Genn.an  Ocean  at  Harwich.  In  the 
older  i)ortions  of  the  town,  principally  grouped 
near  ttie  river,  the  streets  are  narrow  and  irregu- 
larly huilt,  and  still  retain  many  picturesque  old 
buildings,  ilecorated  with  carved  work,  such  as 
Sparrowe's  House  (  1.567 ),  the  Neptune  Inn  (1(539), 
Archdeacon's  Place  ( 1471  ),  and  Wolsey's  Gateway 
(1528).  Of  public  buildings  the  principal  are  a 
town-hall  (1868),  in  the  Italian  Renaissance  style 
of  architecture,  surmounted  by  a  clock-tower  130 
feet  high:  post-office  (ISSl),  and  corn  exchange 
( 18S2),  both  close  by,  and  in  the  same  style  ;  public 
hall  ( 1868 ) ;  museum,  schools  of  science  and  art,  and 
free  libraiy  (1881-87),  the  first  of  which,  founded 
in  1847.  is  notable  for  its  pplen<lid  collections  of 
Suffolk  Crag  fossils  and  British  birds  ;  custom-house 
(1845);  nieclianics"institute(1824);  hospital  ( 1835- 
69-77);  barracks;  and  a  theatre  (1891),  on  the 
boards  of  whose  predecessor  Garrick.  Mrs  Keeley, 
and  Mr  Toole  made  their  debut.  The  churches 
are  si.\teen  in  number,  mostly  built  of  Hint,  and  in 
the  Perpendicular  style,  having  as  the  principal  or 
'  metropolitan '  church  .St  Mary  Le  Tower,  w  ith  a 
tower  and  spire  176  feet  high,  and  a  fine  peal 
of  twelve  bells.  Of  educational  establishments 
the  principal  is  the  grammar-school,  dating  from  at 
least  1477,  reorganised  by  Queen  Elizabeth  in  1565, 
moved  into  new  buildings,  of  which  the  foundation- 
stone  was  laid  by  the  Prince  Consort,  in  1851.  and 
reconstituted  under  a  new  scheme  in  1881  ;  it  has  an 
income  from  endowment  of  £5(K),  and  eight  scholar- 
ships of  an  aggregate  annual  value  of  £233.  Near 
it  are  two  arhoreturas,  charmingly  laid  out,  and 
Cliristchurcli  Park,  with  its  fine  Tudor  mansion 
( 1549).  Another  favourite  resort  is  the  promenade 
by  the  river-side,  skirting  the  Avest  side  of  the  dock. 
This  latter,  opened  in  1842,  covers  .30  acres,  and  is 
approached  from  the  Orwell  by  an  entrance  lock 
(1881)  capable  of  admitting  vessels  of  1400  tons. 
The  principal  manufactures  are  those  of  agricul- 
tural implements,  railway  plant,  artificial  manures, 
and  clothing.  In  the  history  of  Ipswich  the  chief 
events  deserving  mention  are  its  pillaging  in  991 
ami  lOfX)  by  the  Danes  ;  the  granting  in  1199  of  its 
first  charter  by  King  John  ;  the  appointment  of  its 
first  and  only  suffragan  bishop  ( 1.525 ) ;  visitations  of 
the  plague  (1603  an<l  1666  >;  partial  destruction  by 
fire  ( 1654)  ;  and  visits  of  Elizabeth  ( 1.561  and  1565), 
George  II.  (1736),  and  (ieorge  IV.  when  Regent. 
Cardinal  Wolsey,  Dr  William  Butler  (physician 
to  James  I.).  Iiisho|is  Brownrigg  and  Lany,  Clara 
Reeve,  and  .Mrs  Sarah  Trimmer  were  natives,  and 
Gainsborough  the  [lainter  a  resident  for  fifteen 
years.  l])s\vicli  h;us  returned  two  members  to 
parliament  since  1447  ;  and  its  population,  in  1801 
only  11. .336.  had  risen  in  1841  lo  25.264,  in  1881  to 
50,.546,  and  in  1891  to  57,360.  See  works  by  Clarke 
(18.S0),  Wodderspoon  (1842-50),  Glvde  (1850-87), 
and  Dr  J.  E.  Taylor  ( 1889). 

Ipswioll.  a  town  of  Queensland,  on  the  river 
Bremer.  23  miles  W.  of  Brisbane  by  rail.  It 
stands  in  a  rich  coal-mining  district.  Pop.  with 
suburbs  (1891)  10,190. 

Iqiliqiio.  the  port  and  capital  of  the  Chilian 
territory  of  Tarapacii  (  Peruvian  till  1881).  It  h.is 
amalgamating  works  in  connection  with  neighbour- 
ing silver-ndiics,  a  foundry,  and  exports  saltiictii', 
borax,  and  ioiline.  The  climate  is  hot,  and  ilrink 
ing-water  has  to  Ije  obtaineil  by  distillation. 
Earth(|nakes  have  more  than  once  ilama;;ed  the 
town.  The  roadstead  is  safe,  and  a  mole  has  been 
built.     Pop.  (1S76J  11,717;  (1895)33,031. 


I(|llitOS,  a  town  in  the  Peruvian  department  of 
Loreto,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Marafion,  about  75 
miles  above  the  mouth  of  the  Rio  Napo.  It  has  an 
active  trade,  valued  at  two  million  dollars  annually ; 
the  imports  are  exchanged  mostly  for  india-rubber. 
Pop.  80<I0— five-sixths  Indians  and  half-castes. 

Irak-.4jenii  (Persian  Irak),  a  central  province 
of  Persia,  nearly  coincident  with  ancient  Media. 
A  great  portion  of  the  surface  consists  of  elevated 
tablelands,  but  there  are  also  numerous  fertile 
valleys  only  partly  cultivated.  The  ea,stern  parts 
are  occupied  by  the  extensive  salt  desert  of 
Dasht-i-Kavir.  The  province  contains  the  princi- 
pal towns  of  the  kingdom,  including  Teheran,  the 
capital,  and  Ispahan.  The  imlustries  are  confined 
to  the  weaving  of  cloth  and  carpets,  and  the  mak- 
ing of  glass  and  porcelain.  Area,  138,190  sij.  m.  ; 
pop.  estimated  at  a  million. 

Irak-Arabi  (Arabian  Irak),  the  most  south- 
easterly district  of  Turkey  in  Asia,  almost  con- 
terminous with  ancient  Babylonia  (q.v. ),  lies 
lietween  the  lower  ci>urses  of  the  Tigris  and  the 
Euphrates,  and  includes  the  lands  adjacent  thereto. 
The  region  comprises  the  ruins  of  the  ancient  cities 
of  Babylon,  Selencia,  and  Ctesiplion,  and  the 
modern  towns  of  Bagdad,  Ba-sra,  and  Meshed  AH. 
The  population  is  estimated  to  number  nearly 
2,000,000,  chiefly  nomads.  Since  1867  cholera  has 
been  almost  constantly  prevalent. 

Iran,  or  Ep,.\n.  originally  the  name  applied  to 
the  grtat  .\sian  plateau  winch  has  for  its  borders 
on  the  north  the  Hindu  Kush  and  the  Elburz,  on 
the  east  the  Indus,  on  the  south  the  Persian  Gulf, 
and  on  the  west  Kurdistan  and  the  Tigris.  The 
term  is  now  the  official  designation  of  the  kingdom 
of  Persia.  In  early  times  the  inhabitants  ot  the 
Iranian  plateau,  together  with  the  peoples  of  the 
adjoining  parts  of  India,  bore  the  common  appella- 
tion of  Aryans.     See  Aryan  R.\ce. 

Irawadi.  or  Irr.\w.\ddy,   the  principal  river 
of  Burma.      Its  sources  are  not  known  with  cer- 
tainty.    A  favourite  origin  for  it  with  some  author- 
ities Wiis  the  Sanpo  (q.v.),  the  great  river  of  Tibet. 
But  this  has  been  shown  in  1878-82  to  be  the  ujiper 
waters  of  the  Brahmaputra.      In  25"  50'  X.   lat., 
a    short    distance   above    Bhamo,   two   arms,    the 
Mali-kha   and    the    Meh  kha,    unite   to   form   the 
river   that   is  undoubtedly  the   Irawadi  of   Burma. 
Those  two  arms  are  believed  to  have  their  sources 
in  the  Xanikin  or  Khanung  range,   that   walls  in 
the  Zayul  ba.sin  on  the  south  ;  they  certainly  come 
from  that  direction.     But  General  AValker,  late  of 
I  the  Indian  Trigonometrical  Survey,  is  resjionsible 
I  for   the    hypothesis,    advanced    in    1887,    that   the 
right-hand  or  eastern  branch,  the  Meh-kha,  is  the 
southward   C(mtinuation    of   the    Lu-Kiang,   which 
has   hitherto  been   reganled   as   the   upper  )iart   of 
I  the  Salwin  ;  and   he  also  identifies   the    Lii-Kiang 
with  the  Giama-nu-chu  or  Xu  River,  which  rises  in 
j  the  north  of  Tibet  and  lnus  a  course,  south-easterly, 
of  some  700  miles  in  that  countiy.     From  Bhamo 
I  the   Irawadi  has  a  very   sinuous   channel,   its  ]ire- 
'  dominant  direction   being,    however,   south.     Over 
this  entire  stretch  (about  70()  miles)  it  is  navigable 
for  small   boats,  in   spite  of  numerous  islands  and 
sandbanks  that  litter  and  impede  its  channel,  and 
in  spite  of  two  rock-bound  defiles  through  which  it 
pa.sses  between   Bhamo  and   Mamlalay.      A   third 
defile  occurs  nearly   100  miles  above  Bhamo.     Its 
waters  are  muchly  and  its  current  generally  ra])id. 
Before  reaching  the  sea.  in  nearly  a  dozen  mouths, 
ill    the    west    of   the    P,ay   of   Martaban.    the   ri\cr 
sprea<ls   out    in   a    wide    delta,    18,000    sq.    m.    in 
extent.     Of  its  mouths  two  (miy  are  used  by  sea- 
'  going  ve.ssels,    the    Ba.ssein  on  the  west  and   the 
I  Rangoon  on  the  east.     The  valley  and  plain  of  the 
I  Iraw.idi  are  very  fertile,  anil  grow  va-st  quantiliea 


198 


IRBIT 


IRELAND 


of  rice.  The  livev  is  tlie  chief  artery  <)f  the  country  : 
on  its  l)!i,iiks  stand  tlie  iirincipal  towns,  Uassein, 
l{anj,'ooii,  I'ronie,  Ava,  Manilalav,  lilianio ;  its 
hanks  wore  the  home  of  lUirniese  civilisation  ;  its 
watei's  have  served  as  the  main  means  of  com- 
munication not  only  to  tlie  interior  of  Burma,  hut 
to  the  scmth-western  provinces  of  China  and  of 
Tihet.  The  riier  drains  an  area  of  at  leiist  15S,000 
sq.  m.  Its  largest  atHuent,  coniin>r  from  the  right 
hand,  is  the  Chindwin.  This  and  the  two  left- 
hand  trihutaries,  the  Shwcli  and  Myit-nge,  are 
alone  navig.ihle.  The  plain  for  l.'iO  miles  from  the 
sea,  heing  liahle  to  annual  inundations,  has  heen 
]uoteete(l  hy  emhanknients  hnilt  along  each  side  of 
the  river  since  18ti3.  The  carriage  of  goods  and 
merchandise  is  shared  hetween  the  steamers  of 
the  English  '  Irawadi  Flotilla  Company'  and  a 
numcroiis  licet  of  native  hoats.  For  the  question 
of  origin,  see  General  Walker's  papers  in  Froc.  Itoy. 
Gcog.  Soc.  (1887  and  1888). 

Il'bit.  a  town  of  the  Russian  government  of 
Perm,  1170  miles  nearly  due  E.  of  >>t  Petersburg. 
Its  celehrateil  fair,  held  in  Fehruary,  is,  next  to 
that  of  Xiini-Xovgorod,  the  most  important  in  the 
em]>ire.      Pop.  4'212. 

Irt'laiicl,  an  islaml  forming  part  of  the  United 
Kingdom  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  lies  between 
51°  26'  and  55"  21'  N.  lat.,  and  5°  20'  and  10'  26' 
W.  long.  It  is  washed  on  the  N.,  AV.,  and  S. 
hy  the  Atlantic,  and  on  the  E.  by  the  North 
Channel  (13  miles  wide),  the  Irish  Sea  (138  miles), 
and  St  George's  Channel  (47  to  6!)  miles),  which 
sei)arate  it  from  the  larger  islaml  of  Great  Britain. 
It  is  an  irregular  rhomboid  in  shape,  its  greatest 
length,  from  Fair  Head  in  Antrim  to  Crow  Head 
in  Kerry,  being  .302  miles  ;  its  greatest  meridional 
length  is  225  miles,  and  the  average  Ijreadth  110 
miles.  The  island  was  known  to  tlie  Greek  geo- 
graiihers  as  Icnu;  (Straho),  and  to  the  Latins  as 
Ilihiritia  and  Jtivrnta.  From  the  latest  of  the 
]>rehistoric  occupants  of  'The  Green  Island,'  the 
invading  Milesians  or  Scots,  came  the  Latinised 
Scotia,  one  of  the  names  by  wliicli  the  'Isle  of 
Saints'  was  known  from  the  Uth  till  the  13th 
century. 

Area. — Ireland  is  divided  into  the  four  provinces 
of  Ulster,  Leinster,  Munster,  and  Connaught, 
which  again  are  subdivided  into  thirty-two  conn- 
ties.  The  total  area  is  '20,819,928  acres,  or  .32,531 
sq.  m.,  or  nearly  two-thirds  of  that  of  England 
without  Wales.  Of  the  total  area  15,066,761  acres 
were  in  1SS9  arable  and  grass  land,  326,343  acres 
were  covered  with  wood,  and  4,935,649  acres  were 
bog,  waste,  roads,  iVrc. 

Popiifritiuii. — In  1801  the  population  of  Ireland 
was  5,:!!(5.456  {.-i  density  of  Kit)  per  s(|.  mile)  ;  in  1841 
this  liad  increased  to  8,175,1'24  ( 251  per  scp  mile); 
thereafter  .set  in,  owing  to  emigration,  a  steady 
decrease,  so  that  in  1891  the  population  was  only 
4,704,750  (144-4  Jier  sq.  mile).  In  1891,  9.36,7.^'9 
belongeil  to  the  agricultural  class,  6,56.410  to  the 
industrial, '255,144  to  tluMlomestic,  214,343  to  the  ]pro- 
fcs>ioiial,  and  83,173  to  the  commercial.  In  ISSl 
Irchind  had  only  six  towns  with  ]io|>ulations  exceed- 
ing '20,000,  aml'in  1891,  eight  :  of  which  Dublin  li;ul 
361,891,  and  Belfast  255,9,50.  In  1890,  57.484  ix'isons, 
and  in  1891,  58,436  ]iersons  emigraleil  from  Ireland, 
the  vast  majority  of  them  going  to  the  United 
States.  By  far  the  greatest  number  who  left 
Ireland  in  one  year  emigrated  in  18S3 — 108.724. 
According  to  Mr  Parncdl,  in  1890  there  were  in 
England  .-uid  Scotland  7.50,000  ]iersons  of  Irish 
birth  (with  ]irobably  1,-500,000  descendants).  At 
the  census  of  1890  there  were  in  tlie  United 
States  1, 8.54, 971  persons  of  Irish  birth  ;  between  the 
yeais  1821  and  1889,  .3,443,1.52  Irish  i)ei. sons  settled 
in   the   States.      In    1881    there   were    in    Canada 


957,403  ]iersons  'of  Irish  origin'  (more  than  those 
of  English  origin,  nearly  twice  as  many  as  those  of 
Scottish  origin ).  In  Victoria  there  were  in  1881, 
86,7.50  Irish:  in  t^tueensland,  21,300:  in  Western 
Australia,  about  30tK) :  in  New  Zealand,  50,000. 
In  the  other  Australian  cohmies,  South  Africji, 
&c.,  the  census  does  not  distinguish  precisely  be- 
tween the  variims  British  element.s  of  population. 
During  the  thirty-seven  years  18.5.3-89,  2,775,007 
Irish  emigrated— "2.289,7.3.")  to  the  United  States, 
I73,.343  to  Canada,  and  280,7.33  to  Australia.  In 
1851-99  the  total  was  3,796,131. 


Provinces  aiid 

Ai<u)  In 

Pop. 

Pop. 

Pop. 

Couiitiea. 

St«t.  Acies. 

ISU.- 

ie8i.« 

1891.' 

Leinster. 

Carlow 

221,344 

86,228 

46,608 

40,9.'!0 

Dublin 

22i;,S95 

372.773 

418,910 

4111,210 

Kildare 

418,190 

114,488 

75,804 

70.206 

KilktMinv.. . . 

509,732 

202,420 

99,531 

87,201 

Kiliji's 

493,985 

146,867 

72,852 

65,563 

Longfori-1 .... 

269,409 

115,491 

61,009 

62,647 

Loutli 

202.123 

128,240 

77,684 

7i.o;« 

Me.ith 

579,801 

183,828 

87,469 

70.987 

Queen's 

424,854 

153,930 

73,124 

04.88:! 

WestTueatli . . 

453,453 

141,300 

71,798 

6.-., 109 

Wexfurtl 

67B.58S 

202,033 

123,854 

111.778 

Wiclilow 

Tot,il 

MCXSTER. 

600,178 

126,143 

70,386 

62,136 

4,876,918 

1,973,731 

1,278,989 

1,187,760 

Cl.ire 

827,994 
1.849,680 

286,394 
864,118 

141,4.57 
495,607 

124.483 
438,432 

Corli 

Kerry 

1,185,918 

293,880 

201,039 

179,l:i0 

Liniericlc  .... 

680,842 

330,029 

180,682 

16S.0I2 

Tipperarv 

1,061,731 

435,5.53 

199,612 

173.188 

W.iterCord — 

Total 

Ulster. 

401,652 

196,187 

112,708 

98,251 

0,007,723 

2,396,161 

1,331,115 

1,172,402 

Ajllriiu 

762,080 

360,876 

421,943 

471,179 

Avinaj^h 

328,086 

232,393 

163,177 

n:i.289 

("avail. 

477,809 

243,158 

129,470 

111,017 

Donepil 

1,197,154 

296,448 

206,035 

185,0:i5 

Down 

612,399 

301,446 

272.107 

224,008 

Ferniaiiagli . . 

457,300 

166,481 

84,879 

74,170 

I^oiulonclerry. 

622,315 

222,174 

164,991 

1,52,009 

Monaghan.  . . 

319,741 

200,442 

102,748 

S6,20ti 

Tyrone 

Total 

CONN.XCOHT. 

800,658 

312,956 

197,719 

171,401 

6,483,201 

2,386,373 

1,743,075 

1,619,814 

Galwav 

1,569,505 

440,198 

242,005 

214,712 

Leitrini 

392,303 

155,297 

90,372 

7S,018 

Mayo 

1,360,731 

388,887 

245,212 

219,034 

Roscommon.. 

607,691 

253,591 

132,490 

114,397 

Sligo 

Total. . . 
General  Total 

461,790 

1S0,8S6 

111,!;78 

98,013 

4,392,080 

1,418,869 

821,657 

724,774 

20,819,928 

8,175,124 

5,174,836 

4,704,750 

*  Tlie  figures  for  1881  anrl  1891  include  the  .soldiers  and  sailors 
serving  iu  Ireland  ;  tlie  ligures  for  1841  exclude  tlieni. 

Coasts  tiiiil  Plnjsical  As/icrfx. — The  eastern  coast 
is  comparatively  uniform  and  even  ;  but  the  eoast.s 
on  the  north,  west,  and  south  are  in  many  places 
rocky  and  high,  and  indented  with  numerous  deep' 
bays',  especially  at  the  southwest  corner  of  the 
island.  ^lost  of  these  bays  atroril  excellent  har- 
bours, some  even  for  the  largest  of  modern  war- 
.sliijis.  On  the  west  may  be  named  the  Bays  of 
Donegal,  Sligo,  Clew,  (Jidwiiy,  the  estuary  of  the 
Shannon,  ami  Dingle,  Kenmare,  and  Baiitry  bays; 
on  the  south  the  spacious  harbours  of  Cork  and 
Waterford  ;  on  the  north  Loughs  Foyleand  Swilly, 
which  both  iiciietrati'  a  long  dist;ince  inland.  (In 
llie  east  side,  o]ipositc'  England.  :u'e  Wcxlord  Il.'ivcn, 
the  Bays  of  Diililiii,  iJrogheda,  and  Duridalk, 
and  Carlingford  and  Belfast  loughs.  Numerous 
islands  occur,  especially  on  the  west,  but  they  are 
for  the  most  part  small  in  size.  Valentia,  in  the 
extreme  south-west,  w.as  the  terminus  on  the  British 
side  of  the  lirst  Atlantic  cables  to  North  .\mi'rica, 
as  those  of  1858,  1865,  and  1866,  and  of  others  since 


jtfl«aetf^^ip»Muy3£ 


i 


W^^^l^'^^ 


IRELAND 


199 


then.  Oil  the  west  too  are  the  islands  of  Aran, 
Aehil,  the  luishkea-s,  <!i.c.  Oil'  County  Antrim, 
in  the  northeast,  are  Kathlin  Island  and  tlie 
Giants"  Causeway  (q.v.).  Dangerous  points  on 
the  coasts,  and  some  low  groups  of  rocks,  are 
protected  hy  fifty-seven  lighthouses  and  three  tloat- 
inj,'  lights. 

The  surface  is,  generally  speaking,  an  un<Iulat- 
ing  plain,  relieved,  more  particularly  towards  the 
coasts,  by  detached  groups  of  low  hills.  The 
principal  ranges  are  the  Mourne  Mountains  in 
Down,  which  attain  their  highest  elevation  in 
Slicve-Donard  ("2796  feet);  the  mountains  of 
AVicklow,  which  rise  in  Lugnaquilla  to  a  maxi- 
mum lieight  of  3039  feet ;  and  Macgillicuddy's 
Kfoks,  in  Kerry,  their  highest  peak,  Carraii-Tual 
(3414  feet),  being  the  loftiest  in  all  Ireland.  The 
central  parts  of  the  island  aie  quite  tlat,  and  con- 
sist \ery  largely  of  bogs  or  morasses,  which  occu])y 
altogether  ],77"2,-t50  acres,  or  nearly  one-ninth 
of  the  entire  area.  The  largest  is  the  Bog  of 
Allen,  which  stretches  over  a  large  portion  of 
Kildare,  Carlow,  King's,  and  Queen's  counties. 
These  bogs  have  an  average  depth  of  l(i  to  2.5 
feet,  hut  occasionally  go  down  to  47  feet;  they 
yield  large  quantities  of  peat  or  turf,  and  contain 
numerous  remains  of  skeletons  of  men  and  animals, 
and  relics  of  human  habitation  and  occupancy. 
Extensive  tracts  of  deep  wet  bog  occur  in  Long- 
ford, lioscommon,  and  other  counties,  and  give  a 
peculiarly  dreary  and  desolate  as|>ect  to  the 
scenery.  Notwithstanding  the  quantity  of  water 
in  these  bogs,  they  e.xhale  no  miasma  injurious  to 
health,  owing  to  the  large  quantity  of  tannin  which 
they  contain. 

Hijilru(jiaphij. — The  princijial  river  of  Ireland, 
and  the  largest  in  the  United  Kingdom,  is  the 
Shannon  (q.v. ).  The  streams  which  drain  the 
eastern  part  of  the  central  plain  are  the  Lirt'ey 
and  Hoyne ;  the  south-eastern  part,  the  Suir, 
Barrow,  and  Xore  ;  while  the  waters  of  the  north- 
eastern part  are  collected  into  Lough  Neagh,  chietly 
by  the  Blackwater,  and  are  thence  discharged 
into  the  sea  by  the  Lower  Bann  and  Newiy  Canal. 
The  rivers  external  to  the  great  central  plain  are 
necessarily  short.  The  principal  are  the  Erne, 
Howing  to  the  north-west  ;  the  Foyle  and  Bann, 
to  the  luirth  ;  the  Lagan,  to  tlie  north-east  ;  the 
Hlaney,  to  tiie  south-east ;  and  the  Bamlon,  Lee, 
and  Blackwater,  to  the  ea-st,  through  the  county 
of  Cork.  None  of  these  rivers  are  of  much  im- 
portance to  navigation  beyond  their  estuaries, 
though  small  boats  can  ascend  some  distjince  up 
the  larger  streams  by  the  aid  of  canals,  locks,  &c. 
Artilicial  rivers  or  canals  connect  some  of  the  more 
important  trading  centres ;  for  instance,  Dublin 
has  water-communication  with  the  Shannon  by 
means  of  the  Grand  (165  miles)  and  Koyal  (70) 
canals,  and  Lough  Neagh  with  the  same  river 
by  the  Ulster  Canal  aiul  river  lilackwater. 

The  lakes  of  Ireland  (called  loughs)  are  both 
numerous  and  extensive  in  proportion  to  the  size 
of  the  island.  The  largest  is  Lough  Neagh  in 
lister,  co\eiiiig  an  area  of  nearly  100, (KJO  acres. 
The  other  loughs  of  consequence  are  Erne  and 
Derg,  also  in  Ulster ;  Conn,  Mask,  an<l  Corrib,  in 
Connaught :  Allen,  Ree,  and  Derg.  expansions  of 
the  river  Shannon  ;  and  the  lakes  ot  Killarney 
(q.v.)  in  Munster.  The  name  lough  is  also  ap]>lied 
to  many  salt-water  iidets  (see  above). 

Geulofj;/. — The  conliguration  or  relief  of  Ireland 
is,  a.s  a  matter  of  course,  intinuitely  relate<l  to  the 
geological  structure  of  the  island.  The  mountains 
are  built  uj)  of  relatively  hard  crystalline  schists 
and  disturbed  Lower  Pala'o/.oic  rocks,  while  the  low 
grounds  are  nearly  co-extensive  with  less  iniluiated 
and  comjianitively  undisturbed  Up|)er  I'abeo/oic 
Btrata.      The   interior  and   larger   portion   of    the 


island  is  in  fact  a  great  undulating  idain,  the 
central  area  of  which,  between  Dundalk  Bay  or 
Dublin  Bay  in  the  east  an<l  Galway  Bay  in  the 
west,  does  not  exceed  a  height  of  2.50  feet  above  the 
level  of  the  sea.  The  strata  throughout  this  central 
plain  belong  almost  exclusively  to  the  Carboniferous 
system.  Here  and  there  the  ground  rises  to  heights 
ranging  between  1000  and  3000  feet  so  ,as  to  form 
more  or  less  isolated  bills  ;inil  groups  <if  hills  and 
mountains  as  Slieve  Bloom,  the  Silvernuiie  Moun- 
tains, Slieve  Bernagh,  Galtymore,  ifcc.  These  are 
simply  islets  of  older  Palaeozoic  rocks  that  peer 
above  the  geneial  level  of  the  great  Carboniferous 
plain.  The  chief  highlands  of  the  island  are  met 
with  in  the  maritime  regions.  Thus  \\i!  have  in 
the  nortli  the  highlands  of  Donegal  ami  Derry,  the 
plateau-basalts  of  Antrim,  and  the  Mourne  and 
Carlingford  Mountains  with  Slieve  (lallion  ;  in  the 
south  the  highlands  of  Kerry  ami  Cork,  with 
Knockmealdown,  &c.  ;  in  the  west  those  of  Mayo, 
Galway,  and  Connemara ;  and  in  the  east  the 
mountains  of  Wicklow. 

Ireland  is  thus  built  up  chiefly  of  Palaeozoic  rocks 
— strata  of  Mesozoic  and  Cainozoic  age  being  very 
meagrely  developed.  Anluvan  gneissose  and  schist- 
ose rocks  occur  chietly  in  the  north-west  and  west — 
the  coarse  granitic  gneiss  of  Donegal  being  regarded 
as  belonging  to  the  same  series  as  the  gneissose  rocks 
of  the  north-west  Highlands  of  Scotland.  The 
oldest  of  the  fossiliferous  systems,  the  Cumliriuu, 
is  well  represented  in  the  south-east  of  Ireland, 
where  it  attains  a  thickness  of  14,000  feet  at  least. 
The  strata  are  upon  the  whole  unfossiliferous,  but 
numerous  surface-markings  have  been  detected, 
chiefly  worm-tracks,  &c.  In  many  places  these 
rocks  have  been  much  metamorphosed.  Thus  on 
the  Howth  coast  they  are  represented  by  i|Uartz- 
rocks  and  schists,  while  in  Wexford  they  pass  into 
gneiss.  Similarly  in  Galway  over  considerable 
tracts  the  Cambrian  seems  to  be  represented  by 
schistose  rocks  ;  some  of  these,  howeier,  seem  to 
be  of  Archiean  age.  The  Siliiriait  system  is  like- 
wise well  developed  in  the  island — both  lower  and 
upper  divisions  being  present.  This  system,  like 
the  Cambrian,  occurs  chietly  in  the  hillier  parts  of 
the  country.  In  the  Donegal  district  the  rocks  are 
much  metamorphosed,  and  are  doubtless  the  equiva- 
lents (if  the  altered  Lower  Silurian  strata  of  the 
Scottish  Highlands.  The  same  rocks  reajqiear  in 
Mayo  and  Galway  ;  in  the  last-named  district  they 
are  overlaid  unconformably  by  unaltered  Upper 
Silurian  sandstones,  conglomerates,  and  shales. 
Fossils  occur  here  and  there  in  the  less  altered 
portions  of  the  Lower  Silurian,  but  are  not  nearly 
so  common  as  in  the  overlying  iqiper  division.  It 
is  noteworthy  that  not  only  are  the  Up|ier  Silurian 
strata  unaltered,  but  they  contain  rolleil  fragments 
of  the  metamorphosed  Lower  Sihirian  rocks  ujion 
which  they  rest.  It  may  be  added  that  contem- 
poraneous volcanic  rocks  are  associated  with  the 
Upper  Silurian  strata  of  Galw;iy.  Coming  farther 
south  we  encounter  another  thick  series  of  l'|>i)er 
Silurian  strata  in  the  Dingle  jiromontory.  In  the 
districts  of  Waterford,  ^Vcxlord,  \Vicklow,  and 
Louth  Lower  Silurian  strata  are  likewi.se  well 
devel<q)e<l,  and  are  noted  for  the  evidence  which 
they  have  supplied  of  contemporaneous  volcanic 
action. 

No  representatives  of  the  marine  Devonian  are 
known  in  Ireland,  but  the  lacustrine  or  Olil  Rrc/ 
Samlstoiii:  tyi>e  is  well  devcloiied  in  the  south  and 
south-west.  Two  divisions  are  recognised — the 
upper  unconformable  to  the  lower,  which  latter 
reaches  a  great  thickness.  The  rocks  of  the  latter 
are  chietly  grits  and  slates,  which  have  yielded 
certain  bivalve  shells  (Anodonta),  probably  of  fresh- 
water origin,  l>ut  no  traces  of  the  marine  Devonian 
fauna.     The  ujqier  division  consists  chietly  of  Mag- 


200 


IRELAND 


stones  and  tilestones,  and  is  of  no  great  thickness. 
The  eliicf  fossils  are  worm  tracks  and  ferns.  Tliis 
division  appears  sparsely  in  the  centre  and  north  of 
Ireland,  where  the  f;eneral  character  of  the  strata 
recalls  that  of  the  Old  Ked  hiandsloiie  of  central 
Scotlaiul.  The  series  passes  up  conformably  into 
the  t'arlionifcrous  system. 

The  Vdibiiiiifcruii.i  system  occ\ii)ies  about  one- 
half  of  the  area  of  Ireland,  hut  the  strata  behmg 
chiefly  to  the  lower  division — viz.  the  Lower  Car- 
boniferous and  the  Carboniferous  limestone,  which 
latter  is  essentially  the  formation  of  the  plains. 
The  iip|ier  membei's  of  the  system  occur  in  a  few 
detached  patclies  scattered  over  the  surface  of  the 
great  central  plain,  the  major  )iortion  of  which 
was  probably  at  one  time  covered  with  Upper 
Carboniferous  strata.  The  basement  beds  of  the 
system  in  the  south  of  the  island  consist  chiefly  of 
marine  grits  and  slates,  which  pass  down  conform- 
ably into  the  I'jiper  Old  Hed  Sandstone.  In  the 
centre  and  north  this  luwer  division  is  represented 
by  conglomerates,  grits,  sandstones,  shales,  and 
earthy  limestones,  which  appear  to  be  the  equiva- 
lents of  the  '  Caleiferous  sandstones  '  of  Scotland. 
Overlying  these  basement  beds  comes  the  great 
Carboniferous  limestone  ('2500  to  5000  feet  thick), 
which  occupies  most  of  the  central  plain,  extending 
east  and  west  from  sea  to  sea,  an<l  stretchin''  fronj 
the  base  of  the  Donegal  Mountains  to  the  toot  of 
the  Killarney  Mountains  in  the  south.  In  Donegal 
the  limestone  rises  into  a  tableland  which  over- 
looks the  shores  of  Donegal  ISay  in  bold  blufis  and 
headlands,  and  reaches  from  1500  to  2000  feet  above 
the  level  of  the  sea.  Contemporaneous  volcanic 
rocks  accompany  the  limestone  series  in  the  south- 
west (  Limerick  and  Tipperary).  In  the  south  and 
in  the  north  the  limestones  are  overlaid  liy  marine 
sedimentary  deposits  which  are  beUe\ed  to  be 
on  the  same  general  geological  horizon  .as  tlie 
'  Yoredale  beds  '  and  '  Millstone  grit '  of  Englaiul. 
Succeeding  this  group  comes  the  'Coal-measures' 
series,  the  lower  portion  of  which  is  supposed  to 
represent  the  '  Oannister  beds'  or  lower  coal- 
measures  of  England,  while  the  upper  portion 
represents  the  middle  coal-measures  of  the  same 
country.  The  productive  coalfields  of  Ireland  are 
of  small  extent.  They  are  conlined  to  limited 
districts  in  the  north  and  south,  as  in  Tyrone,  Tip- 
perary, Kilkenny,  and  Carlow — all  the  coal  of  the 
south  of  Ireland  being  anthracitic. 

The  rpper  I'alaozoic  and  Cainozoic  rocks  of 
Ireland  are  confined  to  the  north-east  of  the  island, 
where  they  a|ipear  to  owe  their  ))reservation  in 
chief  measure  to  the  great  (mlflows  of  basalt  which 
f()rm  the  high  gronmls  of  Antrim.  Permian  strata 
are  very  sparingly  devcloiicd,  but  both  the  Lower 
I'ermian  and  the  overlying  Magnesian  limestone 
of  liiigland  are  represented.  The  lower  division 
is  characterised  by  the  presence  of  coarse  breccia.s 
like  lho.se  of  Shropshire.  The  Permian  is  seen  at 
Armagh  aixl  in  Tyrone. 

The  Triaxsic  .system  is  likewise  sparingly  repre- 
sented, occurring  in  a  narrow  band  round  tlie  basalts 
of  Antrim  and  Derry.  The  rocks  are  chiclly  red 
and  mottled  sandstones  and  nuirls,  with  gypsum 
and  extensive  bcd.s  of  rock  salt.  These  strata  are 
overlaid  by  certain  dark  shales,  which  have  yielded 
'  Kha'tic '  fossils. 

The  great  Jurassic  a^f-atom  of  England  is  for  the 
most  part  unrejuesented  in  Ireland,  hut  a  few  shales 
which  couK^  out  from  underneath  the  chalk  escarp- 
ment of  Antrim  have  been  ideiitilied  by  their  fossils 
as  perl.aining  to  the  Lower  Lias. 

Vrrtiiniiiis  .strata  i  Cppi'r  Creensand  and  Chalk) 
crop  out  from  nndeineath  the  basalts  of  Antrim,  to 
which  doubtless  they  owe  their  |ue.servation. 
There  is  rea.soM  to  believe  that  the  Cretaceous  beds 
formerly  covered  a  much  more  e.xtensive  area  in 


the  north  of  Ireland.     They  may  at  one  time  have 

extended  continuously  from  the  high  grounds  of 
Donegal  in  the  iKnth-west  to  the  Mourne  Mountains 
in  the  southeast. 

The  Tertiary  or  Cainozoic  rocks  consist  chiefly 
of  volcanic  accumulations  (trachytes  and  basalts)  ; 
their  age  is  ilcternMncd  by  the  occurrence  of 
intercalated  '  leaf-beds,' the  plants  in  which  show 
that  the  series  belongs  to  the  Uiii/orcin-  system. 
Many  of  the  basalts  are  beautifully  columnar 
(Giants'  Causeway  ).  The  volcanic  rocks  ajipear  to 
have  been  the  products  of  great  li.ssnre-eruptionsfor 
the  most  part,  but  the  '  necks '  or  plugged  n]i  throats 
of  isolated  volcanic  foci  have  been  detected.  The 
whole  area  in  this  northeast  jiart  nf  Ireland  is 
traversed  in  all  directions  by  basalt  dykes. 

Along  the  southern  shores  of  Lough  Neagh  fresh- 
water clays  occur,  the  fossils  in  which  are  of  I'tiaretie 
age,  so  tliat  this  Irish  lake  is  probably  the  oldest 
sheet  of  fresh  water  in  the  Hritish  Islands. 

Ireland,  like  the  sister  island,  abounds  with  evi- 
dence of  the  GlaridI  period.  The  whole  country 
has  been  buried  under  a  great  iticr  dc  f//iirr,  which 
was  continuous  with  that  of  Scotland  anil  England. 
The  bottom-moraines  (bcmlder-clay )  of  this  ice- 
sheet  are  encountered  everywhere.  Irish  geologists 
recognise  two  boulder-clays  separated  by  intervening 
stratified  deposits  of  marine  origin  (see  PLEIS- 
TOCENE Sv.STEM ).  Local  moraines  due  to  the 
'retreat'  of  the  great  mcj'  dc  ijlacc  are  common 
in  mountain  valleys.  Recent  dejm.sits  are  seen  in 
raised  beaches,  alluvial  terraces,  and  bogs. 

Ireland's  mineral  produce  is.snial  I.  In  1.S9G,  129,585 
tons  of  coal  were  raised  ;  the  iron  ore  is  less  in 
value.  Salt  is  made  ;  pyrites,  b;uytes,  and  lead 
ore  are  produced,  as  well  as  stone,  nuirble,  sand, 
clay  for  making  alununium,  iS:c. 

Animals. — Twenty-on(^  species  found  in  Great 
Brilain  are  unrepresented  in  Irel.md.  Erogs  are 
common  enough,  also  toads  ;  but  the  mole,  adder, 
shrew,  water-shrew,  water-vole,  the  two  land-voles, 
wild-cat,  polecat,  weasel,  ami  roe-deer  are  unknown  ; 
only  the  blue-hare  is  indigenou.s. 

Climate. — The  climate  rcseujliles  that  of  Bri- 
tain, but  is  modified  by  Ireland's  difl'erent  sur- 
face, its  greater  distance  from  the  Continent,  and 
the  more  direct  influence  of  the  Gulf  Stream. 
The  mean  annual  temperature  for  the  thirty-four 
years  ending  Mitb  1889  was  50 '0' ;  the  annual 
mean  temperature  of  England  is  49,"),  that  of 
Scotlanil  475.  In  Ireland  there  .are  3°  of  diflcr- 
ence  between  the  extreme  north  and  south.  In 
January  the  mean  tem]ieratnre  at  inland  situa- 
tions in  the  north  is  39 '5  ,  whilst  in  (he  extreme 
south-west  it  is  45 "2^ ;  whilst  in  tjuly  the  extreme 
mean  temperatures  are  582  at  Malin  Head  in  the 
ncnili  and  (iO'5'  at  Parsonstown  in  the  interior. 
Thus  in  winter  the  difVerence  of  temperature  of 
difl'erent  districts  is  5-7  ;  but  in  summer  it  only 
amounts  to  '2'3'.  Irelanil  enjoys,  therefore,  a 
climate  more  e(|uable  in  all  seasons  than  those 
parts  of  Great  liritain  which  are  within  the  same 
latitudes.  The  me;in  annual  minfall  for  the 
twenty-four  years  ending  18S3  varicil  from  •28'48 
inches  at  Dublin  to  89-40  inches  at  Kylcmiuc,  in 
Galw.av.  These  amounts,  \\hich  are  the  extremes, 
are,  however,  restiiitcd  to  veiy  limited  are.-is. 
About  half  the  whole  island  has  a  rainfall  of  from 
30  to  40  inches,  and  the  other  half  from  40  to  50 
inches,  the  fornu'r  region  being  in  the  east  aiul 
the  latter  in  the  west.  Thus  the  rainfall  is  very 
much  more  eijually  distributed  over  Ireland  than 
over  Great  Britain.  The  rainfall  in  winter  is 
greatly  in  <'X<-ess  of  that  iii  the  other  sca.soiis, 
particulaily  in  the  west,  owing  (o  the  low  teMi|ici,a 
ture  of  the  surface  of  the  gidund,  which  chills  the 
warm  and  moist  south-west  wimls  that  prevail  at 
this  time  of  the  year.     In  Great  Britain  the  chief 


IRELAND 


201 


niountain-raiijjes  are  in  tlie  west,  ami  lie  from 
iiortli  to  south ;  coiiseijueiitly  over  the  whole 
e;u-terii  slope  of  the  island  the  climate  is  drier, 
the  amount  and  frequency  of  the  rainfall  much 
less,  and  the  sunshine  more  brilliant  than  in  the 
west.  In  Ireland,  on  the  otlier  hand,  the  hills  in 
the  west  do  not  o|>]iose  such  a  continuous  barrier 
to  the  onward  proj;ress  of  the  south-west  winds, 
but  are  more  broken  up  and  distributcil  in  isolated 
groups.  Consequently  the  sky  is  more  clouded, 
and  rain  falls  moie  frequently  and  more  jfenerally 
over  the  whole  of  Ireland  tiian  Great  Britain,  and 
the  climate  is  thus  rendered  more  genial  and 
fostering  to  vegetation ;  hence  the  appropriate- 
ness of  the  name  'Emerald  Isle.'  Again,  owing  to 
its  greater  distance  from  the  Continent,  the  east 
winds  of  spring  are  le.s.s  severely  felt  in  Ireland, 
because  they  have  accjuired  warmth  and  moisture 
in  their  progres.s  westward  o\ev  Great  Britain 
and  the  Irish  Sea.  Queenstown,  in  the  south-west 
of  Irelanil,  enjoys  an  average  s])ring  temperature 
of  49%  which  is  about  2'o°  higher  than  at  Dover  on 
the  coast  of  Kent. 

Ai/n'iii/turc. — Down  to  about  the  middle  of  the 
IStli  centuiT  Ireland  was  almost  exclusively  a 
pastoral  country.  Yet  the  soil  is  in  many  parts 
eminently  adapted  to  tillage.  The  chief  reasons  of 
the  backwardness  of  agriculture  have  been  pro- 
hibitive and  unsuitable  legislation,  the  extreme 
smallness  of  the  greater  number  of  lioldings,  the 
lack  of  capital,  and  the  unsatisfactory  relations  of 
landlord  and  tenant.  As  a  rule  large  farms  were 
let  for  extremely  long  periods  of  tenancy,  and  the 
tenants  sublet  their  larms  in  smaller  portions, 
sometimes  two  or  three  times  over ;  consequently 
the  landlords  seldom  erected  buildings,  repaired 
farmsteads,  or  made  permanent  imi>rovements.  In 
1S79-SO  the  distress  amongst  the  ]ioorer  sections 
of  the  community  had  reached  such  a  pitch  that 
the  government  took  action,  and  in  ISSI  the  Land 
Law  ( Iieland )  Act  was  passed.  Its  principal 
measures  were  designed  to  i)rotect  the  tenant  from 
paying  more  than  a  'fair  rent,'  and  to  provide  for 
loans  being  made  to  tenants  to  enable  thera  to 
purchiuse  their  holdings  on  fair  and  equitable 
terms.  To  illustrate  the  smallness  of  the  holdings 
in  1841  :  there  were  in  tliat  year  310,436  holdings 
above  1  acre  and  less  than  .j  acres  ;  •25'2,799  from 
5  to  1.5  acres  ;  but  only  79,34-2  from  15  to  .30  acres, 
and  only  48,62.5  above  30  acres  each.  The  sub- 
joined table  will  show  the  rate  at  which  the 
small  holdings  have  decreased  in  number  and  the 
larger  holdings  have  increa.sed  : 


Vear. 

1  t.j  5  acres. 

5  Ui  15  acrwi. 

15  to  30  «CTe». 

Above  30  nc 

1871 

74,809 

171,383 

138,647 

159,303 

1881 

67,071 

li;4,0« 

135,7113 

l.i9,834 

1S98 

61,816 

154,441 

133,749 

174,245 

Of  the  holdings  above  30  acres  in  extent  in  1888, 
73,763  ranged  between  30  and  50  acres,  56,476 
between  50  and  100  acres,  22,796  between  100  and 
'2IH)  acres,  8372  between  200  and  .500  acres,  and  only 
1.561  exceeded  500  acres  in  extent.  In  the  same 
year  there  were  47,951  holdings  each  less  than  one 
acre.  Contemi>oraneously  witli  these  changes  there 
has  been  a  steady  but  very  noticeable  return  to  a 
predominance  of  jiasture,  as  will  be  aiqiarcnt  from 
the  variation  of  acreage  shown  in  the  following 
table  : 

V«tr.  CereKl  Cropn.  Green  Crrjiw.  Mc-ulow  miJ  Clover.      Fl,ix. 

1»C9  2.203,548  1,469,2m          1,670  716  229,252 

1871)  l,7i;l.S6-  1,294.691)          1.937.256  128.021 

1889  1,534.922  1,219,549          2,lS6,.i85  113,817 

Oats,  barley,  and  wheat,  in  the  order  named,  are 
the  chief  cereals  grown.  Under  green  crops  are  in- 
cluded potatoes,  turnins,  cabbage,  carrots,  vetches, 
anil  similar  crops.  The  extent  of  land  set  apart 
for  jiotatoes,  the  staple  food  of  the  peasantry, 
has  also  decrea.sed  very  largely  :  in  1869  potatoes  I 


occupied  1,041,902  acres;  in  1879,  842.671  :  and  in 
1889,  787,1.52  acres.  Aliout  10  million  .icies  are 
permanently  under  gra.ss,  and  aliout  330,0(K)  acres 
are  covered  with  woods.  Dining  the  last  fifty 
years  a  relatively  large  area  has  been  reclaimed 
and  converted  into  cultivable  soil  ;  in  1841  the 
Avaste  land,  including  bogs,  amounted  to  6,489,971 
acres;  in  1889  the  same  category  included  4,9,35,649 
acres.  The  next  table  shows  the  fluctuations  in  the 
number  of  live-stock  at  intervals  of  ten  years  : 


Vear. 


Hol-ses.  Mules, 
and  Asses. 
1869  719,421 

1879  785,025 

1889  910,042 


Cattle. 

3.733,675 
4,007.094 
4,093,944 


Sheep. 


Piga. 


4,651,195  1.0S2,224 

4.017.889  1,071,990 

3,789.629  1,380,548 


In  1895  there  were  1,439,053  acres  in  corn  cioijs, 
1,151,582  in  green  crops,  and  95,202  in  flax. 

Fisheries. — The  se.as  around  the  coasts  of  Ireland 
teem  with  lish  :  but  from  various  causes,  chiefly 
perhaps  the  distance  of  the  most  productive  fishing- 
grounds  from  the  centres  of  population,  the  fisheries 
are  not  in  a  flourishing  condition.  Large  quantities 
of  cured  fish  (3648  tons  in  1887)  are  even  inqiorted 
from  Scotland.  In  1890-95  the  Irish  fisheiies  were 
prosecuted  by  27,000  men  and  boys  in  6000  boats, 
whereas  forty  years  before  100.000  men  and  boys 
were  engaged  in  this  calling  on  '20,000  boats.  Tiie 
deeji-sea  hsh  of  greatest  conimen-ial  value  are 
mackerel,  herrings,  hake,  soles,  cod,  lobsters,  and 
oysters.  In  1887  herrings  were  exported  to  England 
to  the  value  of  £152,168,  mackerel  to  the  value  of 
£88,775,  and  cod  to  £142,734.  The  most  prosjieious 
fishing  is  that  for  salmon,  in  whicli  about  13,000 
men  are  employed.  The  total  v,alue  of  salmon 
exjiorted  in  some  years  amounts  to  as  much  as 
£.500,000.  The  total  value  of  Irish  fisheries  in 
1895  was  ,£269,000,  not  including  salmon. 

Mani'Jiirfurcs. — Ireland  is  not  and  never  has  been 
a  manufacturing  country.  Its  unsettled  state  ami 
the  general  dependence  of  the  population  on  iigTi- 
culture  have  hitherto  been  obstacles  to  the  for- 
mation of  great  manufacturing  establishments, 
except  in  the  north-east,  in  Lester.  The  staple 
industry  is  the  manufacture  of  linen,  introduced 
into  Ireland  by  Stratlord  in  1633,  and  much  en- 
couraged by  the  Duke  of  Ormonde  ( 1661-64).  In 
1881  tlie  number  of  spindles  employed  in  this  manu- 
facture was  927,300,  and  of  power-looms  21, '200; 
in  1887  the  figures  were  respectively  803,0'26  and 
24,300.  The  chief  seats  of  the  industry  are  Bel- 
fast and  other  towns  in  L'lster.  In  1889  nearly  10.56 
flax-scutching  mills  were  employed.  The  manufac- 
ture of  woollen,  silk,  and  cotton  stufls  and  of  jiaper 
is  also  earned  on,  but  only  to  a  comparatively 
inconsiderable  extent.  In  the  17th  century  the 
woollen  manufactures  of  Ireland  were  in  a  most 
flourishing  condition,  producing  ]irincipally  frieze 
and  flannel.  But  vexatious  measures,  prohibitive 
and  restrictive,  by  the  English  parliament  almost 
destroyed  the  industry  before  the  century  came  to 
an  end.  Instead  of  30,000  |ieis(uis  employetl  in 
this  indu.stry  in  1641,  there  were  only  7710  (in  less 
than  fifty  factories)  in  18SI.  The  silk  manufac- 
tures, since  their  introduction  by  French  emigr.ants 
in  the  beginning  of  the  18lli  century,  have  been 
alino.st  entirely  confined  to  Dublin  ;  poplin  is  still 
extensively  manufacUued  there  ami  in  a  few  other 
towns.  In  1890  there  were  '263  textile  factories  in 
Ireland,  and  nearly  .30  ilistilleries. 

CoiiunciTr  mill  S/ii/i/u'iii/. — The  exportation  of 
agricultural  produce  ciuis'titutes  the  bulk  of  the 
commerce,  and  by  far  the  greater  [lart  of  this  traili' 
(in  cattle,  sheep,  Jiigs,  sailed  meat,  grain,  flour, 
butter,  eggs,  and  linen)  is  carried  on  with  Gre.it 
Biitain,  chiefly  between  Dublin  and  Belfast  on  the 
one  side  and  Liverpool,  (il.asgow,  and  Bristol  on 
the  other.  This  trade  ha.s  been  assimilated  with 
the  coasting  trade  of  the  United   Kingdom  since 


202 


IRELAND 


18'2o ;  consequently  no  separate  statistics  of  it  are 
kept,  excei)t  for  live  animals  and  fij-li.  Of  these, 
66-2,409  cattle,  606,391  slieeji,  468,049  pijrs,  and 
31,61.S  liDises  were  exported  to  (heat  IJritain  in 
1889.     The  foreign  and  colonial  inn)orts,  consisting 

1)rincipally  of  grain,  wine  and  spirits,  fruits,  petro- 
euni,  and  tiniher,  were  valued  at  £7, •232,669  for 
the  year  ISSS,  and  the  exports  (chielly  linen  and 
spirits)  at  only  £870,873.  The  number  of  sailiii" 
and  steam  vessels  engaged  in  the  foreign  and 
colonial  trade  that  entered  at  Irish  ports  in  1880 
was  1737  (tonnage,  960,820),  and  cleared  1086 
(585,052  tons) ;  the  number  engaged  in  tra<le  with 
Great  Britain  that  entered  in  the  same  year 
was  54,742  (12,145,116  tons)  and  cleaved  52,803 
(11,588,074  tons).  Of  vessels  engaged  in  the  trade 
with  foreign  countries  and  the  colonies  in  1888 
there  entered  1168  (731,285  tons),  but  cleared 
only  158  (67,418  tons).  In  the  year  1894-95  the 
Irish  inijiorts  were  set  down  at  £8,862,000,  whereas 
the  (linrt  Irish  e.\j5orts  were  only  £332,000. 

Gorerument,  Police,  <i:-c. — The  government  of 
Ireland  has  since  the  union  of  1801  been  amalgam- 
ated with  that  of  Great  liritain.  It  is  represented 
in  the  imperial  parliament  by  28  peers  elected 
for  life  ill  the  House  of  Lords  and  103  members 
in  the  House  of  Commons.  The  e.xecutive  is 
vested  in  a  lord-lieutenant,  who  is  assisted  by  a 
chief -secretary  and  a  privy-council  (ap])ointed  by 
the  crown).  The  law  is  administered  by  a  Lord 
Chancellor,  a  master  of  the  Rolls,  and  the  other 
judges  of  the  Supreme  Court  of  Judicature,  which 
lias  two  divisions — the  High  Court  of  Justice,  with 
four  diNisious,  and  the  Court  of  Appeal.  Besides 
these,  there  are  three  commissioners  or  judges  who 
preside  over  the  luoceedings  of  the  Irish  Land 
Commission,  formed  in  1881  for  the  purpose  of 
adjusting  'fair  rents'  and  other  disputed  matters 
between  landlonls  and  tenants.  The  Landed 
Estates  Court  (established  in  1849)  has  since  1878 
formed  a  branch  of  the  Chancery  Division  of  the 
High  Court  of  Justice.  For  the  county  adminis- 
tration, see  Coi'NTY.  The  Poor-law  and  Sani- 
tary administrations  devolved  in  1872  upon  the 
Local  Government  Board  for  Ireland.  In  1887  a 
total  of  521,832  ])ersoiis  were  in  receipt  of  poor 
relief,  1,34,757  getting  outdoor  relief,  and  the  re- 
maining .387,075  receiving  relief  in  the  161  work- 
houses. This  relief  cost  £857,820.  In  1883  the 
exi)enditure  reached  its  maximum,  £1,042,84.5. 
Order  and  peace  are  maintained  by  the  Koyal  Irish 
Coiistabulaiy,  a  body  of  armed  police,  number- 
iii''  about  13, .500  men.  ,aiid  the  Dublin  Metro- 
politan Police,  a  force  of  1226  men.  The  Crimes 
Act,  repeatedly  re-enacted  for  the  prevention  of 
agrarian  outrage  especially,  may  at  any  time  lie 
put  in  force  by  the  proclamation  of  any  di>lrict. 
The  Local  Government  Act  of  1898  a.ssimilated 
the  administration  of  Ireland  to  that  of  Great 
Britain  ;  and  a  new  government  department  of 
agriculture,  other  industries,  and  technical  educa- 
tion «-iu<  establisbed  in  1899. 

lic/if/ioit. —}iy  far  the  larger  jmrtion  of  the  inhab- 
itants of  Ireland  are  lioman  Catholic: — 3,960,891 
at  the  census  of  1881,  jind  3,.')47,307  in  1891.  The 
Rom.an  Catholic  Church  of  Ireland  is  goveined  by 
four  archbishops  (Armagh,  Dublin,  Casliel,  anil 
Tuam  )  and  24  bishojis.  IriskProtestants  numbered 
1,1.'>9,I47  in  188],  and  1,327,5.35  in  1891.  I'nlil 
January  1871  the  establisheil  church  of  Ireland  was 
the  Kpiscoi>al  Church,  a  branch  of  the  (liuich  of 
England.  Since  its  disestablishment  it  is  still 
known  as  the  Church  of  Iielaml,  and  is  jnesided 
over  by  two  arehbishoiis  (Dublin  an<l  Armagh)  and 
eleven  bisho|)s.  Its  members  numbered  639,574  in 
1.S81,  an.l  600,103  in  1891.  In  1891  the  Presby- 
terians reckoned  444,974  adherents,  and  the  Metho- 
dists 55,500 ;    while   the   Presbvterians   lin<l   been 


470,7.34  in  18S1,  and  the  Methodists,  48,,839  in  the 
same  year.  The  relative  numbers  of  Konian 
Catholics  anil  Protestants  of  all  creeds  are  .shown 
for  the  several  prininces  in  the  subjoined  tabular 
statement  for  the  year  1881  : 

Rom»a  Catholic.  PniteaUut. 

Lciii.ster 1,094,825  188,657 

Muiistcr 1,24».S84  81,653 

Ulster 833,566  909,UKi 

Coimaught 783,116  38,ji'7 

Ei/iirrtlion. — The  primary  schools  of  Ireland  are 
mostly  under  the  management  of  the  Commissioners 
of  National  Education.  These  schools  have  since 
1831  been  open  to  Christians  of  every  denomination, 
without  compulsory  attend.ance  at  any  cla-ss  of  reli- 
gious instruction,  with  in  fact  perfect  freedom  in 
all  matters  a]ipertaiiiing  to  religion.  In  1881  there 
were  7648  of  these  schools  attended  by  1.066,2.59 
pupils  :  in  1888  the  numbers  were  8196  schools  and 
1,060,895  pupils  (826,181  Koman  Catholics,  109,687 
Church  of  Ireland,  and  111,072  Presbyterians). 
They  are  partly  under  Protestant,  jiartly  under 
Konian  Catholic  teachers,  and  ii.artly  under  teachere 
of  both  creeds  in  the  same  school,  and  are  to  a 
large  extent  su|iported  by  a  parliamentary  grant 
(£874,051  in  1887).  In  1878  one  million  sterling, 
from  the  former  endowment  of  the  Irish  established 
church,  was  set  apart  for  the  encouragement  of 
secular  intermediate  education.  The  fund  is 
administered  by  a  board  of  nine  commissioners, 
who  conduct  examinations,  pay  fees  according  to 
results,  and  present  exhibitions,  prizes,  and  certili- 
cates  to  successful  puiiils.  In  1887  out  of  5931 
pupils  who  presented  themselves  for  examination 
3595  passed.  The  most  important  university  in 
Ireland  is  that  of  Dublin  (q.  v. )  or  Trinity  CoHege. 
The  Koyal  University  of  Ireland  is  not  a  teaching, 
but  only  an  examining  body,  like  the  university  of 
London.  It  was  founded  in  1S80,  and  superseded 
the  t^ueen's  University  ;  and  it  giants  degrees 
irrespective  of  religious  confession.  The  three 
Queen's  Colleges  of  Belfast,  Cork,  and  Galway, 
opened  in  1849,  and  formerly  affiliated  to  the 
Queen's  University,  provide  instruction  in  the 
higher  branches  of  learning.  They  were  attended 
in  1887-88  by  a  total  of  775  students.  The  Hoyal 
t'oUege  of  Science,  established  in  1867  in  Dublin, 
was  founded  for  the  jmrpose  of  giving  instruction  in 
branches  of  science  applicable  to  the  industrial  arts, 
especially  in  mining,  agriculture,  manufactures, 
and  engineering.  The  Koman  Catholic  University 
of  Ireland,  founded  in  18.)4,  has  its  lieadiiuarters  in 
Dublin  ;  it  is  sup])(Mted  almost  entirely  by  jirivate 
contributions.  St  Patrick's  College,  Maynooth 
((),v.),  opened  in  1795.  is  the  princiiial  institution 
for  the  education  and  training  of  Itomaii  Catholic 
iniests.  Until  1871  it  received  an  annual  ii.-irli.i- 
ment.arv  grant;  but  in  that  year  this  was  eom- 
jiounded  for  by  the  payment  of  the  sum  of 
£372,331,  in  lieu  of  the  grants.  Two  Preshy- 
terian  colleges,  the  General  Assembly's  Theologi- 
cal College,  Belfast,  and  .Magee  Cidlege,  Liuidon- 
derry,  were  in  1881  eni|iower(d  to  grant  theological 
degrees  to  their  students.  In  1887  there  were  in 
Ireland  69  industrial  schools  for  boys  and  girls,  .58, 
with  6496  pupils,  being  Koman  Catholic,  and  11, 
with  814  jiupils.  I'lotestant.  In  the  same  year 
9  reformatory  schools  had  891  inmates.  In  1888, 
214  percent,  of  the  men  and  23  2  jier  cent,  of  the 
«omen  who  were  married  signed  the  register  by 
their  '  mark.' 

FiiKdici',  Taxiition. — The  net  amount  of  revenue 
raised  in  Ireland  for  contribulioii  to  the  imperial 
exchequer  for  the  year  ending  31st  March  1895  was 
£5,981,896,  of  which  £5,192,722  was  derived  from 
excise.      In    1.896   a    pailiamentary    committee    re- 

iiorted  that,  taking  everything  into  consideration, 
reland  waa  paying  much  more  than  her  share  of 


IRELAND 


203 


imperial  taxation.  The  national  debt  of  Ireland 
(al)out  150  millions)  was  consolidated  witli  that 
of  Great  Hritain  in  1817,  and  since  that  date  the 
fiiiiiier  has  had  no  separate  debt.  The  <;rainljurv 
ce>~,  a  tax  peculiar  to  Ireland,  corresponds  to  the 
highway  rate  of  England  and  AVales,  and  is  ex- 
l)ended  on  roads,  bridges,  quays,  prisons,  courts 
of  justice,  police,  public  charities,  county  officers, 
&c.  In  1887  the  sum  of  f-2,0l)-2,808  was  owned  by 
49,99-t  depositoi-s  in  the  trustee  savings-banks  of 
Ireland,  and  the  sum  of  £-2,802,000  by  158,848 
depositors  in  the  post-office  savings-banks.  In 
1894  the  capital  amount  in  the  latter  banks  was 
£4,975,680,  and  in  the  former  £1,997,495. 

CoMtuunkatiun. — The  first  railway  opened  in 
Ireland  was  the  short  line,  of  6  miles  long,  between 
Dublin  and  Kingston,  in  1S.'?4.  In  1895  the  number 
of  miles  open  and  in  ojieration  was  3044,  an  increase 
of  600  miles  since  1881.  The  companies  having 
the  longest  mileage  are  the  Great  Southern  and 
Western,  the  Great  Xorthern,  the  Midland  (Jreat 
AVestern,  the  "Waterford  and  Limerick,  the  Belfast 
and  Xorthern  Counties,  and  the  Dublin,  Wicklow, 
and  AVe.xford.  The  railways  are  constructed  on  a 
broader  gauge  than  those  of  Great  Britain — viz. 
5  feet  3  inches,  as  compared  with  4  feet  Si 
inches;  but  several  built  since  1878  (see  B.viLWAYS) 
are  only  of  3  feet  gauge.  The  local  authorities 
have  sanctioned  the  construction  of  60O  miles  of 
tramways.  The  first  considerable  electric  tramway 
in  the  United  Kingdom  was  that  from  Portrush 
to  the  Giant's  Causeway  ( 1883).  The  canals,  rivers, 
anil  lakes  have  lieen  already  mentioned.  In  the  year 
1894  95  the  postal  authorities  in  Ireland  despatched 
113  millions  of  letters  and  65  millions  of  post-cards, 
newr.pai)ei-s,  and  parcels,  and  4,038,262  telegrams, 
an<I  i.<sued  536,714  money  orders  (exclusive  of 
postal  ordei-s)  representing  the  sum  of  £1,364,000. 

BlBr.IOGR.VPHV.— The  earliest  account  of  Ireland  is  con- 
tained in  Giraldus  Cambreusis,  Topo'jraphia  ffibeniiw 
and  Expiii/nalio  JliUrnia.  Subsequent  accounts  will 
be  found  in  Holinshed,  Chronicles  (1577);  K.  Payne, 
Brief  Description  of  Ireland  (1590);  E.  Hogan,  Descr. 
of  Irela  lul  in  159S  ( 1878 ) ;  Sir  J.  Davies,  Diacoverie  of  the 
State  of  Ireland  (1613);  Edmund  .Spenser,  View  of  the 
State  of  Ireland  (1633);  Sir  Wm.  Petty,  Political  'Ana- 
tomy of  Ireland  (1691 1  and  Geog.  Descr.  of  the  Kingdom 
of  Ireland  ( 1700 ) ;  Arth.ir  Young.  Tour  inlrdand(  1780) ; 
Cesar  Moreau,  Past  and  Present  State  of  Ireland  (1827) ; 
G.  de  Beaumont,  L'Irlandc,  Socialc,  Polit.,  et  Rtliijieuse 
(183'J);  Thackeray,  Irish  Sketch  Book  (1843);  S.  C.  and 
Mrs  Hall,  Ireland;  Scenery,  Character,  drc.  (1843);  Sir 
Robert  Kant;,  Industrial  Resources  of  Ireland  (1844); 
G.  L.  Suiyth,  Ireland,  Hist,  and  Statist.  ( 1844-49) ;  Harriet 
Martineau,  Letters  from  Ireland  (18.53);  Dufferin, 
Irish  Eini'irationaiul  Tenure  of  Land  in  Ireland  ( 181J7) ; 
J.  M.  ilurpliy,  Ireland,  Inilustr.,  Polit.,  and  Social 
(1870);  O'Carry,  Ancient  Manners  and  Customs  of  Ii'e- 
/<u«/(1873);  Thebaud,  Irish  Bace  in  Past  and  Present 
(New  York,  1873);  Lcsaulx,  Au.')  Irland  (1877);  Hull, 
Physical  Oeoloijy  aruj  Oco;i.  of  Ireland  (1878);  Kinalian, 
ManualofOeol.  of  Ireland  {ISIS);  O'Brien, //«(.  of  Iriith 
Lami  Question  { 1880) ;  Kicliey,  Irish  Land  Laws  (1880) ; 
Sir  Charles  Russell,  A'ew  Views  on  Ireland  ( 1880);  Shand, 
Letters  from  West  of  Ireland  (1885);  Robert  Dennis, 
Industrial  Ireland  (1887);  E.  Lynn  Linton,  Aljout  Ire- 
latul  (1889);  J.  B.  Daly,  Glimpses  of  Irish  IiuJustries 
t  IHri'J).  For  comparative  statistics  of  Ireland  and  Great 
Britain,  see  Gkeat  Bkitaix;  see  also  Bkeuox  Laws, 
La.nd  Laws,  Ta-nistky,  kc. 

HiSTORV.— The  history  of  Irelan.l,  like  that  of 
ahnost  all  ancient  countries,  'tracks  its  parent 
lake '  back  into  the  enchanted  realms  of  legend 
and  romance  and  fable.  It  has  been  ."-aid,  not  un- 
truly, of  Ireland  that  she  'can  boast  of  ancient 
legends  rivalling  in  beauty  and  dignity  the  talcs  of 
Attica  ami  Argolis  ;  she  has  an  early  liistory  whose 
web  of  blended  myth  and  reality  is  a-s"  richly 
coloured  as  the  record  of  the  riilei-s  of  Alba  Longa 
and   the  story   of  the  Seven    Kings.'     We   canin)t 


now  make  any  eflbrt  to  get  at  history  in  the 
beautiful  myths  and  stories.  We  should  puzzle 
our  brains  in  vain  to  lind  out  whether  the  Lady 
Ce-sair  who  came  to  Ireland  liefure  the  deluge  with 
fifty  women  and  three  men  h:Ls  any  warrant,  even 
the  slenderest,  from  genuine  tradition  or  is  a  child 
of  fable  altogether.  We  cannot  get  at  any  hint  of 
the  actual  truth  about  Conn  of  the  Hundred  Fights 
and  Fin  Mac  Coul  and  Oisin.  But  the  impression 
which  does  seem  to  be  conveyed  clearly  emuigli 
from  all  these  romances  and  fables  and  ballads  is 
that  there  was  iu  Ireland  a  very  ancient  civilisa- 
tion, and  that  the  island  was  occupied  in  dim  far- 
oft' ages  by  successive  invaders  who  came  from  the 
south.  The  Pha'nicians  are  said  to  have  repre- 
sented one  wave  of  invasion  and  the  Greeks 
another.  Many  an  observer  w  ho  had  little  in  him 
of  the  merely  fanciful  has  left  it  on  record  that  in 
his  opinion  the  Celtic  Irish  even  still  give  evidence 
that  they  are  the  descendants  of  a  southern  people. 
Nemedians,  Firbolgs,  Tuatha  de  Dananns,  and 
Scots  are  reporteil  to  have  successively  planted 
themselves  in  an  island  which  before  their  coming 
was  probably  the  home  of  an  Iberian  people. 
What  may  be  called  the  authentic  history  of  Ire- 
land liegins  with  the  life  and  the  career  of  St 
Patrick.  Patrick  was  born  in  Scotland,  and  in  his 
early  youth  he  was  carried  as  a  slave  to  Irehind. 
He  escaped  to  Itome,  and  ro.se  high  in  the  service 
of  the  then  united  church.  Somewhat  early  in  the 
5tli  century  he  returned  to  Ireland  with  the  object 
of  converting  the  island  to  Christianity.  He 
accomplished  his  mission  completely,  and  he  even 
made  Ireland  the  great  missionary  school  for  the 
propagation  of  the  faith  all  over  Europe.  At  this 
time  Ireland  was  divided  into  septs  or  clans,  each 
sept  bearing  the  name  of  the  head  of  the  family. 
The  septs  all  owed  allegiance  to  the  chief  king. 
All  the  chieftainships  were  elective,  and  during 
the  lifetime  of  each  chief  his  successor  was  chosen 
from  the  same  family,  and  was  called  the  Tanist. 
All  the  land  was  held  by  the  septs  for  the  benefit 
of  the  peojile,  and  there  was  no  feudal  condition, 
and  no  system  of  ]irinu)geniture.  Near  to  the 
close  of  the  8th  century  the  Danish  sea-rovers  in- 
vaded Ireland  and  overran  great  part  of  it,  and 
made  settlements  on  the  eastern  coasts.  The  Irish 
chiefs  were  divided  among  themselves  anil  could 
not  keep  out  the  enemy,  and  the  Danish  occupa- 
tion lasted  for  much  more  than  a  century.  At  last, 
in  968-984,  a  strong  and  capable  Irish  chieftain, 
Brian  Boroimhe,  brother  of  the  king  of  Munster, 
defeated  the  Danes,  and,  although  he  did  not  drive 
them  out  of  the  country,  he  reduced  them  to  the 
condition  of  subdued  and  submissive  residents. 
Brian  now  made  himself  king  of  Ireland,  and  for 
twelve  yeare  reigned  a  successful  ruler  over  a 
peaceful  and  prosjiering  country.  As  he  grew  (dd 
the  Danes  plucked  up  sjiirit  again,  and  got  a  Heet 
anil  an  army  from  their  kinsmen  across  the  sea  to 
invade  Ireland.  Brian,  old  iis  he  was,  proved  him- 
self equal  to  the  occasion.  He  completely  defeated 
the  Danes  at  Clontarf,  but  Wiis  killed  in  his  tent 
at  the  end  of  the  battle  by  one  of  the  enemy, 
2,3d  April  1014.  There  were  no  nune  Danish 
invasions;  but  the  l)ani.--h  settlers  continued  to 
occupy  the  seaport  towns  of  the  east,  and  iu  time 
became  absorbed  into  the  common  population  of 
the  island. 

A  far  more  momentous  event  in  the  history  of 
Ireland  Wius  the  Norman  invasion  (1167-72).  This 
took  i)lace  in  the  reign  of  Henry  II.  ((].v.),  and  is 
another  story  of  Helen  of  Troy,  aiul  of  \'irginia,  and 
of  the  fabulous  I'lorinda  who  was  said  to  have  been 
loved  not  wisely  but  too  well  by  Koderick  the  (Joth. 
The  king  of  Leinster  carried  oil'  the  wife  of  the 
chieftain  of  Bretl'ni.  The  injured  hu^banll  made 
war  upon  his  wronger ;  the  King  of  Leinster  wjis 


20-1 


IRELAND 


gettin<;  the  woi-st  of  it,  and  Heil  to  En<;land,  and  in- 
duced Henry  11.  to  lend  liin\  countenance  and  even 
help.  Henry  had  before  this  received  a  hull  from 
Pope  -Vdrian  IV.,  an  En.ulisliiiian,  antliorisin],'  him 
to  a.ssume  authority  over  Ireland,  in  order  that 
Ireland  might  be  made  more  suljmissive  than  she 
was  to  the  ecclesiastical  <lirection  of  Rome.  Henry 
now  took  the  opiiortiinity  ottered  him  by  the 
fugitive  king  of  Leinster,  and  allowed  if  he  did 
not  authorise  a  sort  of  '  Free  Companions' '  inva- 
sion of  Ireland,  and  afterwards  came  over  him- 
self to  finish  the  conquest.  The  Irish  kings  and 
chiefs  fought  fiercely,  but  the  Normans  were  far 
better  armed,  and  in  fact  the  story  of  the  Norman 
invasion  of  England  was  told  over  again  in  Ireland. 
Henry  organised  the  country  after  the  Norman 
fashion  ius  well  as  he  could.  He  divided  the  island 
into  counties,  and  set  up  the  courts.  Kind's  Bench, 
Pleas,  and  Exchequer  in  Dublin.  He  allowed  the 
native  Irish,  however,  to  keep  to  their  time- 
honoured  system  of  IJrehon  law.  He  made  huge 
grants  of  land,  the  septal  property  of  the  island,  to 
his  favourite  Norman  barons,  leaving  the  barons  to 
liold  the  granted  land  in  the  best  way  they  could. 
So  l)egan  the  great  land  struggle  in  Ireland  which 
has  lasted  down  to  our  own  days. 

The  history  of  Ireland  for  a  long  time  after  the 
settlement  of  the  Normans  becomes  nothing  but  a 
monotonous  recital  of  the  struggles  lietween  the 
Norman  barons  and  the  Irish  ciueftains,  and  the 
struggles  Ijetween  mie  Irish  chieftain  and  another. 
Tlie  Norman  or  English  barons  lived  within  the 
cincture  of  their  own  domains  and  administered 
all'airs  on  the  feudal  system.  The  English  terri- 
tory was  known  as  the  Pale.  Outside  were  the 
Irish,  who  still  strove  hard  to  keep  up  their  own 
laws,  their  own  customs,  and  their  own  civilisation. 
English  law  diil  not  extend  any  of  its  jirotection  to 
them.  They  had  no  rights  which  a  Norman  was 
Ijound  to  recognise.  As  time  went  on,  however, 
a  curious  change  was  taking  ]ilace.  The  English 
began  to  be  drawn  very  much  towards  Irish  ways 
and  Irish  people.  They  took  to  marrying  Irish 
women  and  speaking  the  Irish  language..  This 
mingling  of  races  alarmed  the  goveriinient  in  Eng- 
land, and  tlie  severest  enactments  were  passed  for- 
bidding the  adoi)tion  liy  English  settlers  of  Irish 
names,  speech,  customs,  or  garl).  One  especially 
cruel  edict  onlained  that  any  Englislunan  who 
married  an  Irish  wife  was  to  be  mutilated  in  a 
horrible  way  and  then  put  to  death.  It  was  not 
found  possible,  however,  to  put  such  laws  in  force 
often  enough  to  prevent  the  l)leMdiMg  of  the  races. 
The  Englislimeu  still  married  tlie  Irishwomen. 
The  great  Norman  family  of  th"  (ieraldines  was 
descril)ed  Jis  more  Irish  than  the  Irish  themselves. 
liy  the  time  that  Henry  VII.  had  come  to  the 
throne  the  greater  |>art  of  the  island  was  in  the 
hands  of  Anglo  Irish  chieftains.  There  was  a  jiar- 
Hament  on  the  Norman  idea  sitting  in  Ireland  and 
illustrating  at  least  th(!  principle  of  a  representa- 
tive system.  Henry  VII.  seemed  inclined  at  lirst 
to  leave  the  tieraldines  to  manage  Ireland  in  the 
Ijest  way  they  could:  but  when  the  Oeraldines 
supported  the  cause  of  I'erkin  Warbeck  anil  Lam- 
bert Simnel,  Henry  retaliated  on  them  and  on  Ire- 
land. He  sent  over  Sir  Edward  I'oyniiigs  as  lord- 
deinily,  with  a  strong  army  at  his  back  and  with 
ample  authority  to  make  n  great  cliiinge.  I'oyn- 
iiigs summoned  a  pailiament  at  Drogheda,  and 
compelled  it  to  ])a.ss  the  famous  measure  known  as 
Poynings' Act  (I-4!)4).  This  act  declared  that  all 
English  laws  should  have  force  in  Ireland,  and  that 
all  legislatiiui  in  the  Irish  parliament  should  be  con- 
lined  to  measures  which  h;id  been  lirst  .-ipprovei]  of 
by  the  king  and  tlie  Privycouricil  in  England. 
Poynings'  Act  is  an  ciioch  in  the  histcuy  of  Ire- 
laud. 


Henry  VII.  dieil.  The  Geraldines  defied  the 
power  of  Henry  VIII.  The  rebellion  of  'Silken 
Thomas'  broke  out.  'Silken  Thomas,'  so  nick- 
named because  of  the  splendour  of  his  dre.ss,  wa-s 
Lord  Thomas  Fitzgerald,  and  he  proved  himself  of 
stronger  stulV  than  silk.  He  raised  a  des])erate 
revolt  against  the  king,  but  after  a  hard  struggle 
he  was  defeated,  and  he  and  his  live  uncles  who 
had  taken  up  arms  with  him  were  bnuight  to  the 
Tower  of  London  and  hanged.  Henry  conliscated 
the  church  lands  in  Ireland  exactly  as  he  had  done 
in  England.  A  parliament  was  sunnnoned  in 
Dublin  at  which,  for  the  first  time,  some  of  the 
Irish  chieftains  were  .seen  sitting  side  by  side  with 
Englishmen.  These  were  certain  of  the  Irish 
|irinces  who  had  agreed  to  hold  their  lands  iis  the 
gift  of  the  crown,  to  attend  the  king's  parliament 
and  seek  justice  in  the  king's  courts,  to  send  their 
sons  to  be  educated  in  Englaml,  and  to  renounce 
the  authority  of  the  po]ie.  This  parliament  con- 
ferred on  Henry  and  his  successors  the  title  of  King 
of  Ireland  instead  of  Lord  Paramount,  the  former 
design.ation  of  the  sovereign.  A  weary  chapter  of 
struggle  followed  the  death  of  Henry  VIII.  Henry 
had  done  his  Ijest  to  compel  the  Irish  ciueftains 
and  ]ieople  to  give  up  the  faith  of  Itonie  and 
ado]it  what  was  now  the  faith  of  the  majority  in 
England.  This  was  but  a  new  source  of  bitter- 
ness and  strife.  The  great  family  of  O'Neill  raised 
its  head  higher  than  ever,  and  the  chief  whom,  in 
detianee  of  English  law,  it  elected  to  that  jdace, 
Shane  O'Neill,  was  actually  able  to  make  terms 
with  Elizabeth.  The  Ueraldine  League  was  formed. 
Walter  Devereux,  the  first  Earl  of  Essex,  was  sent 
over  in  1573  to  put  down  the  O'Neills ;  but 
although  he  slaughtered  whole  ma.sses  of  them  he 
could  not  extirpate  them.  A  chronic  state  of  civil 
war  jirevaileil.  After  each  new  rising  had  been  put 
down  there  was  a  new  conliscation  <if  territory,  a 
new  ]danting  of  English  and  Scottish  settlers,  and 
anew  attempt  to  exjiel  or  extirpate  the  native  Irish, 
'lied  Hugh  ( (Neill  '  was  the  most  distinguished 
reliel  who  had  yet  aiqieared  in  Ireland.  He  was 
the  grandson  of  an  O'Neill  who  had  consented  to 
accept  fnun  Henry  VIII.  the  title  of  Earl  of  Tyrone. 
Hugli  O'Neill  had  been  brought  up  at  the  court  of 
Elizabeth,  and  w<as  accimnted  an  ornament  of  even 
that  most  brilli.ant  circle.  He  was  conlirmed 
in  his  title  of  Earl  of  Tyrone.  But  when  he 
went  back  to  his  own  country  he  seems  to  have 
found  blood  tlii(dcer  than  water,  for  he  resumed  his 
ancestral  title  of 'The  O'Neill,' and  |mt  on  all  the 
ways  of  an  iudependent  Irish  prince.  lie  did  not 
at  iirst  go  into  open  reli<dlion  ;  but  '  rebellion  lay  in 
his  way,  and  he  found  it.'  ^\■lletller  he  was  driven 
into  it  by  the  intrigues  of  English  agents  and 
officials,  or  whether  lie  of  his  own  motiim  struck 
for  the  independence  of  the  country,  it  would  not 
now  be  easy  to  decide.  He  (int  himself  at  the 
head  of  a  great  rebellion  of  the  chiefs,  and  he 
won  a  comjilete  victory  in  lister  over  Sir  Henry 
Bagenal,  the  lord-marshal.  ISagenal  himself  was 
killed.  There  was  something  romantic  about  the 
encounter  of  these  two  opiionents.  Some  time 
before,  O'Niull,  then  a  widower,  had  fallen  in  love 
with  Bageual's  beautiful  sister.  His  love  was 
returned,  and  the  lady  (doped  with  him  and  became 
his  wife.  The  river  Mlackwater  saw  her  brother's 
defeat  and  death.  For  a  "liile  fortune  seemed  to 
smile  on  Hngli  O'Neill.  Kidiert,  the  second  and 
most  famous  Essex,  was  despatched  in  l.")99  to 
defeat  him,  with  the  largest  army  ever  sent  into 
Ireland  u]i  to  that  time  ;  but  Essex  could  do 
nothing.  He  was  out-generalled  and  outwitted 
by  the  Irish  chief,  and  wiuit  back  to  England  and 
his  death.  Lord  .Mountjoy,  a  stronger  siddier. 
was  .sent  to  Ireland  in  his  place,  and  he  at  last 
siicceeded  in  defeating  Tyrone  and  putting  down 


IRELAND 


205 


the  rebellion.  O'Xeill  had  to  come  to  terms,  and  to 
renounce  all  his  claims  as  independent  Irish  prince. 
Klizabetli  died,  and  .lames  I.  accepted  the  surrender. 
l!ut  James  had  set  his  heart  on  jjettini;  rid  of  all 
the  Irish  laws  and  nsaj,'es  of  the  country,  and  if 
pos.siljle  imtting  down  the  Roman  Catholic  reli^'ion. 
Tyrone  and  another  Irish  chief,  Tyrconnel,  fled 
from  the  country  which  they  saw  they  had  no 
lon>;er  the  power  to  maintain,  and  both  dieil  years 
after  in  Rome,  and  were  buried  there.  'Tlie  llight 
of  the  earls,'  as  it  is  called,  left  the  island  com- 
pletely in  the  hands  of  King  James.  There  were 
a<^ain  vast  confiscations  and  new  settlements. 
When  King  Charles  succeeded  to  the  throne  and 
came  into  trouble  with  his  people  some  of  the 
Irish  chiefs  thought  their  opportunity  had  come. 
The  native  Irish  in  Ulster  rose  nnder  Sir  I'helim 
O'Xeill,  not  so  much  against  English  rule  as  against 
the  Scotch  and  Enn;lish  settlers  who  had  been 
planted  there.  In  that  rising,  following  on  the 
eight  years'  administration  of  Stratl'ord  (q.v. ),  oc- 
curred what  is  called  'the  massacre  of  1641.'  So 
far  as  oTie  can  form  any  judgment  it  does  not  seem  as 
if  there  was  any  delil>erate  and  jmrposed  massacre 
of  the  Protestants,  although  it  is  impossible  to  doubt 
that  there  was  a  very  barliarous  slaughtering  of  Pro- 
testants in  one  place.  The  struggles  of  that  time 
indeed  show  over  and  over  again  hideous  incidents 
which  can  hardly  be  described  as  anything  but 
massacres.  The  question  in  this  case  is,  was 
there  a  conspiracy  to  massacre  the  Protestant 
settlei's — was  that  the  conspiracy — or  was  there 
a  conspiracy  for  a  rebellion,  in  the  outlireak  of 
which  a  slaughter  of  a  great  numl)er  of  Protestants 
was  a  ghastly  incident?  Mr  Goldwin  Smith,  who 
certainly  is  not  in  much  sympathy  with  Irish 
historians,  gives  it  as  his  conviction  that  the 
massacre  was  '  unpremeditated  and  opposed  to  the 
policy  of  the  leaders,'  and  that  in  any  ca.se  it  was 
not  so  bad  as  some  of  the  massacres  done  by  the 
other  side.  The  rising  soon  became  something 
very  like  a  national  rebellion.  Colonel  Owen 
O'Xeill,  nephew  of  the  gallant  Tyrone — Owen  Roe 
O'Xeill,  as  he  is  always  called  in  Irish  song  and 
history — came  over  to  lead  the  struggle.  He  had 
won  a  high  place  in  the  Spanish  army.  At  first 
his  arms  in  Ireland  were  all  successful.  A  parlia- 
ment was  held  in  Kilkenny — a  national  convention 
— in  October  164"2,  to  proclaim  and  establish  the 
inilependence  of  Ireland.  The  papal  nuncio 
Rinuccini  came  from  Rome  to  give  his  counsel 
and  support  to  the  movement.  Charles  himself 
favoured  the  Irish,  and  made  many  pledges  to 
them  in  the  hope  of  getting  their  help.  His  hour, 
however,  had  come  ;  his  struggle  was  over,  and  his 
execution  left  Cromwell  free  to  take  Ireland  in 
hand.  The  only  man  in  Ireland  capable  of  meet- 
ing Cromwell  on  a  battlefield  with  any  chance  of 
success  w.os  uni|uestionably  Owen  Roe  O'Xeill  ; 
he  had  already  won  one  victory  over  the  English 
forces,  but  before  he  had  time  to  thiciw  himself 
across  Cromwell's  path  Owen  died.  He  died  so 
suddenly  that  the  common  belief  of  the  Irish 
I>eople  was  that  he  hail  been  done  to  death  by 
poi.son.  There  seems  no  good  ground  for  assuming 
anything  of  the  kinil  :  but  the  death,  so  sudden, 
and  for  the  Irish  so  untimely,  made  the  sus|jicion 
and  even  the  belief  quite  natural.  With  ( I'Xeill's 
ileath  was  gone  the  first  and  the  ht-^t  and  tli(!  only 
chance  of  any  success  for  the  Irish  movement. 
Cromwell's  march  was  from  vic'tory  to  victory.  He 
stamped  out  the  rebellion  with  merciless  seventy, 
and  then,  like  all  his  vicliu'ious  predecessors,  he 
went  in  fora  resettlement  of  the  island.  Cromwell's 
was  a  resettlement  with  a  vengeance.  He  seems  to 
have  contemplated  such  a  plantation  of  the  whole 
country  with  English  and  Scotch  settlei's  as  would 
render  any  further  ri.>*ing  of  the  Irish  impossible, 


and  indeed  would  before  veiy  long  lead  to  the 
positive  e.\iirpalion  of  the  Catholic  Celts.  All 
Ireland,  except  Connaught  alone,  was  portioned 
out  among  the  settlers.  Connaught  was  set  ai)art 
as  a  sort  of  reservation  into  w  hich  the  unfoi  tunate 
Irish  were  literally  driven,  and  where  they  were 
cooped  up  within  certain  prescribed  limitations. 
Irish  women  and  girls  were  shipped  oft'  in  thou- 
sands for  virtual  slavery  or  worse  in  oui-  West 
Indian  possessions. 

The  Restoration  brought  the  Irish  little  good, 
for  Charles  II.  was  more  anxious  to  conciliate 
the  Cromwellian  settlers  than  to  restore  the  Irish 
owners.  James  II.  came  to  the  throne,  and  the 
Irish  Catholics  got  better  treatment,  and  in  con- 
sequence showed  a  very  fervour  of  loyalty  to  him. 
They  championed  him  with  all  their  might  when 
he  quarrelled  with  his  people  and  fled  from  his 
throne.  The  Irish  were  in  all  these  struggles  in- 
variably the  losers.  They  supported  Charles  I.,  and 
brought  Cromwell  on  them  :  they  supported  James 
II.,  and  brought  William  III.  on  them.  William 
defeated  James  at  the  battle  of  the  Boyne  (1690) 
and  on  other  fields.  Limerick  held  out  to  the  last. 
It  was  defended  by  a  brave  soldier  and  true  ]iatriot, 
Patrick  Sarsheld — ^Slr  Disraeli  once  declared  in  the 
House  of  Comnmns  that  every  tnie  Irishman  was 
proud  of  'the  sword  of  Sarsfield  ' — and  William's 
generals  could  not  capture  it.  A  treaty  was  made 
which  promised  religious  freedom  to  the  Catholics 
and  to  King  James's  followers  the  right  to  their 
estates.  Then  Sarsfield  and  his  soMiers  marched 
out  with  all  the  honours  of  war,  and  passed  away 
into  the  service  of  foreign  lands  to  meet  the 
.soldiers  of  England  on  many  a  continental  battle- 
field. The  treaty  was  broken  almost  immediately 
after  it  had  been  made.  King  William,  who  ^^■as 
in  Holland  at  the  time  of  the  surrender  of  Limerick, 
would  have  upheld  it  if  left  to  himself ;  but  the 
opinion  of  his  English  supporters  was  fierce  against 
the  Catholics,  and  the  result  of  the  gallant  defence 
and  the  honourable  and  patriotic  surrender  of 
Limerick  was  a  series  of  new  penal  laws  inijiosed 
on  Ireland  with  the  avowed  purpose  of  extinguish- 
ing Catholicism  in  the  island.  These  laws  have  in 
fact  ever  since  been  known  as  '  the  penal  laws " — 
]ienal  jiar  e.rcclloire. 

The  two  great  struggles  in  Ireland  were  the 
religious  struggle  and  the  land  struggle.  The  first 
was  part  of  the  great  controversy  going  on  all  o^■er 
Europe  for  the  Church  of  Rome  and  against  it. 
The  main  eft'ort  of  English  statesmanship  was  to 
extinguish  Catholicism  in  Ireland.  The  land 
struggle  Iiegan  with  the  determination  to  impose 
on  Ireland  a  system  of  land  tenure  foreign  to  lier 
habits  and  traditions,  and  later  on  lo  take  the  land 
from  the  Irish  people  and  give  it  to  the  imported 
settlers.  I'lider  William  III.  the  religious  struggle 
became  aggravated ;  the  land  struggle  was  not 
mitigated  :  and  laws  were  even  passe<l  to  crush  the 
rivalry  of  Ireland  in  various  branches  of  nianu- 
facture  and  of  trade.  The  island  sank  into 
wretched  poverty,  and  when  the  two  successive 
outbreaks  of  the  Stuarts  took  place,  in  ITl")  and 
1745,  Ireland,  although  undoubtedly  in  deep  sym- 
pathy with  the  cause,  was  too  weak  to  lift  a  hand 
in  its  support.  The  rights  of  the  Irish  parlia- 
ment were  still  further  curtailed  under  .Anne  and 
under  (ieorge  I.  In  the  reign  of  (ieorge  the  appd 
late  jurisdiction  of  the  Irish  House  of  Lords  o\er 
Irish  cases  was  taken  away  by  an  act  of  thi'  English 
parliament.  The  Irish  parliament  was  a  very  poor 
snecimen  of  a  representative  institution.  Since 
William  IIl.'s  time  it  was  barred  against  Catholics. 
To  the  vast  majority  of  the  Irish  |)eople  its  <'\ist- 
ence  might  have  been  a  matter  of  absolute  indifler- 
ence.  Vet  the  sympathies  of  the  couiitr.v  went 
with   the  Irish  parliament  simply  because  it  was 


206 


IRELAND 


called  an  Irish  parliament,  and  represented  even  in 
name  tlie  authority  of  the  Irish  i)('0])le.  Gradually 
there  bejian  to  urow  u|i  in  Ireland  a  popular  party 
led  by  Protestants,  who  agitated  for  the  restoration 
of  its  independent  legislative  power  to  the  Irish 
parliament,  and  for  the  leform  of  that  parliament 
in  such  a  manner  as  to  make  it  really  roprosenla- 
tive.  (Iratlan  and  Flood  were  most  prominent 
in  this  movement.  The  war  with  the  American 
colonies  gave  an  ojiportunity  to  the  jiopular  i)arty 
to  drive  home  their  demands.  A  great  volunteer 
force  had  been  organise<l  in  Ireland  to  defend  the 
country,  ius  England  could  not  spare  troops  for  its 
defence.  The  volunteers  were  entirely  in  sympathy 
with  Grattan,  and  when  the  war  was  over  they 
sustained  him  in  his  demands.  English  statesmen 
very  wisely  gave  way,  and  in  1782  the  Irish  parlia- 
ment was  declared  to  be  an  independent  legislature 
— '  the  King,  Lords,  and  ('onimons  of  Ireland  to 
make  laws  for  the  people  of  Ireland."  An  immense 
inijiulse  was  given  to  popular  agitation  by  this 
victory.  The  volunteers  were  disbanded  by 
Grattan's  advice.  The  new  parliament  was  ex- 
clusively Protestant,  and  was  elected  by  an  e.\- 
clusively  Protestant  vote.  Yet  its  leaders  at  once 
went  to  work  to  obtain  the  emancipation  of  their 
Catholic  fellow-subjects.  Grattan  succeeded  in 
obtaining  an  act  to  admit  Catholics  to  practice 
at  the  bar.  He  then  carried  an  act  to  enable 
Catholics  to  vote  for  members  of  parliament.  He 
went  further  still ;  he  strove  for  a  measure  to  enable 
Catholics  to  .sit  in  the  Irish  parliament.  In  this 
object  he  was  assisted  and  encouraged  by  Lord 
Fitzwilliam,  the  viceroy  of  Ireland.  This  was  too 
much  for  George  III.  The  king  took  fright  at  the 
advance  made  towards  full  emancipation  of  the 
Catholics,  and  at  the  very  time  wlien  the  Irish 
people  thought  they  w-ere  near  to  a  peaceful  con- 
summation of  their  hopes,  the  viceroy  was  suddenly 
recalle<l,  and  all  immediate  hope  of  Catholic 
emancipation  blighted. 

There  ha<l  lieen  a  society  formed  during  the 
agitation  called  the  Society  of  United  Irishmen. 
It  was  formed  as  a  merely  peaceful  organisation 
to  assist  Grattan  in  the  carrying  of  his  reforms. 
It  was  got  up  and  oHicered  almost  exclusively  l)y 
Protestants  ;  many  of  them  young  men  of  rank 
and  inlluence,  like  Lord  Edward  Fitzgerald.  In 
the  anger  caused  by  the  recall  of  Lord  Fitzwilliam, 
ami  in  the  ilespair  of  any  peaceful  movement,  the 
I'niteil  Irishmen  became  a  rebel  organisation.  The 
war  with  France  was  going  on.  Napoleon  was  the 
rising  sun  of  the  French  peoi>le.  Wolfe  Tone,  a 
daring  young  Protest.ant,  went  over  to  France  and 
pleaded  the  cause  of  Ireland  there.  Napoleon  took 
It  up  merely  because  he  thought  an  Irish  rebellion 
might  be  fostereil  into  a  diversion  in  his  favour.  A 
l''iench  fleet  was  sent,  but  was  dispersed  by  a  storm 
like  another  Arnuula.  A  landing  was  made  in  one 
[dace,  but  oidy  by  a  very  small  force,  who  were 
soon  defeated  and  captured.  The  rebellion  broke 
out  in  the  south,  and  there  w;v.s  some  lieree  lighting, 
hut  it  was  crushed.  It  had  indeed,  owing  to  the 
French  failures,  been  only  a  series  of  disconnected 
local  risings.  It  was  crushed  with  remmseless 
severilv,  and  deeds  of  cruelty  were  iierpctrated  by 
the  sohliery  and  the  yeomanry  wldch  the  then 
cmnmander-in-chief.  Sir  Ralph  Abcrcromby,  de- 
plored and  cried  out  against,  but  was  wholly  unable 
to  repress,  and  which  the  viceroy  lamenti-d  and 
denounced  both  at  the  time  ami  after.  When  the 
rebellion  was  put  down  Pitt  th<iught  the  condition 
of  things  could  only  be  bettered  by  ailopting,  with 
regaril  to  Irelan<l,  the  same  jioliey  that  had  been 
ailopted  with  regard  to  S('otland,  and  uniting  tiie 
two  islamls  under  one  eomniim  parliament.  Grattan 
and  his  leading  colleagues,  among  whom  wiis 
iSir  John  Paniell,  fought  to  the  hist  against  the 


policy  of  union,  but  tliey  were  overborne.  There 
can  be  no  doubt  th,at  very  unscrupulous  measures 
were  employed  to  get  a  majority  of  the  Irish 
parliament  to  ]]a.ss  the  act.  Some  attempt  has 
lately  been  in.ade  to  show  that  the  money  spent 
was  not  spent  in  purchasing  votes,  but  only  in 
compensation  for  extinguished  proprietorial  rights 
over  constituencies.  Certainly  Lord  Cornwallis, 
the  viceroy  who  carried  the  Act  of  Lnion,  was  not 
under  any  such  iin]iiession.  He  understood  that 
he  w;us  comnii.ssicmed  to  bribe,  and  he  executed  his 
commission  faithfully,  while  he  frankly  detested 
the  work,  and  said  so.  The  Act  of  Union  came 
into  force  on  the  1st  January  1801.  There  had 
been  a  promise  held  out  to  the  Irish  Catholics  that 
the  union  should  be  a  preliminary  to  their  ]ironipt 
emancipation,  but  King  (!eorge  wouhl  not  hear  of 
any  such  concessicm,  and  his  nunisters  did  not 
venture  to  press  it  on  him.  The  .\ct  of  I'nion  was 
followed  almost  immedi.ately  by  the  abortive  and 
hopele.ss  rebellion  of  Uobert  Emmet.  Then  a  long 
dark  night  of  conspiracy,  agrarbin  and  political, 
came  on.  A  great  movement  was  made  for  Cath- 
olic emancipation.  The  movement  was  led  by 
Daniel  O'Connell,  and  became  svicce.ssful  after 
O'Connell  had  delied  the  law,  presented  himself  jus 
a  candidate  at  the  Clare  election  in  IS'iS,  and  been 
returned  by  a  great  pojiular  majority.  It  had 
become  a  mere  alternative  between  concession  and 
rebellion,  and  the  Duke  of  Wellington,  like  the 
brave  old  soldier  that  he  w.as,  declared  he  had  seen 
too  much  of  war  and  would  not  have  a  civil  war, 
and  so  prevailed  on  (ieorge  IV.,  and  the  Catludics 
were  enabled  to  sit  in  parliament.  The  tithe 
struggle  was  for  a  long  time  a  source  of  the  bitterest 
trouble  and  the  most  freijuent  bloodshed,  but  a 
settlement  was  at  last  etl'ecte<l  by  means  of  which 
the  tithe-collector  and  the  pea-sant  were  no  longer 
brought  into  collision. 

In  KS4'2  O'Connell  started  a  great  agitation  for 
repeal  of  the  Act  of  Union,  and  held  '  monster 
meetings,'  as  they  were  called,  and  at  one  time 
seemed  to  be  on  the  verge  of  driving  the  count ry 
into  rebellion.  O'Connell,  however,  h;ul  no  s\ich 
jiuriiose,  and  when  the  younger  and  more  liery  of 
his  followers  found  this  out  they  broke  away 
from  him  altogether.  O'Connell  died  while  the 
horrors  of  the  great  famine  of  -Ki  ami  "47  were 
still  on  the  land,  and  in  the  following  year,  1848, 
the  poetic,  impassicnied,  ardently-sincere  Young 
Ireland  party  broke  or  drifteil  into  rebellion.  The 
rebellion  was  easily  put  down— hardly  a  ilrop  of 
blood  was  shed.  15ut  the  Young  Ireland  movement 
had  undoubtedly  revived  the  national  feeling  in  all 
its  intensity.  There  was  a  '  Pluenix '  conspiracy, 
as  it  was  called,  in  1858,  and  a  Fenian  movement 
in  1807.  The  existence  and  the  succession  of  all 
these  movements  convinced  men  like  .Mr  Ihight, 
and  afterwards  Mr  Gladstone,  that  there  was  much 
in  the  state  of  Ireland  which  called  for  reform  and 
reconstruction.  Mr  tJladstone  set  to  work  with 
characteristic  energy.  He  disestablished  and  dis- 
endowed the  Irish  state  church — a  church  which 
ministered  to  the  sjiirilual  wants  of  not  ijuite  one 
in  live  of  the  Irish  population,  lie  passed  a  series 
of  measures  to  give  better  security  ot  tenure  to  the 
Irish  tenant-farmer,  to  entitle  him  to  compensation 
for  improvements  he  himself  had  made  it  he  were 
to  be  ejected  from  his  lanil,  an<l  to  helji  to  found  a 
peasant  projirietary  in  Irelainl.  .V  LamI  Commis- 
sion— it  ndglit  be  called  a  Land  Court-  was  formed 
which  had  the  power  of  reducing  rents  where 
reilnction  seemed  necessary  iuid  riglitfnl,  and  tix- 
ing  the  rent  for  a  certain  numlier  of  years.  .More 
lately,  a  Land  Purcha.se  Commission  was  created, 
the  function  of  which  is  to  assist  tenants  in  buying 
their  farms  from  the  landlords,  by  an  advance, 
under  certain  conditions  as  to  repayment,  of  a  large 


IRELAND 


207 


portion  of  the  puichase  money.  Tliese  measures 
are  in  fact  part  of  a  -jreat  ajrrarian  reconstruction 
which  is  still  going  on  in  Ireland,  and  to  which 
Conservative  governments  as  well  as  Liberal  have 
made  contribution.  Meantime  a  tierce  strnggle 
had  been  raging  between  the  pea.santrv  and  some 
of  the  landlords,  the  former  supported  by  the 
popular  and  powerful  Land  League.  There  was 
tnnch  disturbance  in  Irelaml,  and  Coercion  Act 
after  Coercion  Act  was  pii-ssed.  A  Home  Rule 
party  had  been  formed,  and  out  of  this  party 
sprang  a  small  but  very  determined  boily  of  Irish 
XationalLst  membei-s  who,  under  the  leadership  of 
Mr  Charles  Stewart  Parnell,  a  descendant  of  the  Sir 
John  Parnell  alreaily  mentioned,  set  themselves  to 
force  the  claim  of  Ireland  on  the  attention  of  the 
English  parliament  and  pulilic  liy  a  sy.stem  of  per- 
sistent obstruction  of  all  business  in  the  House  of 
Commons.  In  ilay  1882  the  whole  civilised  world 
was  horrified  by  the  murder  of  Lord  Fredeiicli 
Caven<lish,  newly  appointed  secretary  to  the  lord- 
lieutenaut  of  Ireland,  and  Mr  Lurke,  the  permanent 
imder-secretary.  The  niunlerers  were  proved  to  be 
a  gang  of  miscreants  banded  together  secretly  for 
the  perpetration  of  such  crimes.  They  were  be- 
trayed liy  some  of  their  own  associates,  were  found 
guilty,  anil  some  of  them  were  executed.  The 
Home  Rule  agitation  went  on  growing  stronger, 
and  at  hist,  when  a  new  Franchise  Bill  had  given 
a  popular  suttrage  to  Irelaml  as  well  as  to  England, 
the  Home  Rule  party  carried  ott'  eighty-six  seats 
out  of  one  hundred  and  three  which  make  up  the 
Irish  representation  (188.5).  Mr  Gladstone  (q.v. ) 
brought  ill  his  first  Home  Rule  Bill  in  1886,  but 
this  was  defeated  in  the  Commons  by  the  uuiteil 
Conservatives  and  Liberal  Unionists ;  a  second 
Home  Rule  Bill  was  passed  in  the  Commons,  but 
defeated  in  the  Lords  in  1802.  Under  Mr  A.  .1. 
Balfour  (1887-91)  and  his  In-other  Gerald  (1895- 
19lXt),  as  secretaries.  Ireland  prospered:  and  men 
of  all  parties  and  faiths  combined  in  an  a-ssociation 
to  promote  ilairying.  trade,  and  commerce.  The 
Local  Government  Act  of  1898  li.os  been  named 
above ;  the  Queen's  visit  in  1900  deserves  record, 
her  recognition  of  the  gallantry  of  the  Irish  soldiers 
in  South  Africa  by  the  permi.ssion  to  wear  the 
shamrock  on  St  Patrick's  Day,  and  the  formation 
of  a  regiment  of  Irish  Guards.  A  new  departure 
was  made  liy  the  Xationalists  under  Mr  O'Brien 
and  .Mr  Reduiond  in  1900-1901. 

See  Plowden's  HiMorical  Siriem  of  the  State  of  Ireland 
(1811);  Moore's  UMory  of  Ireland  (4  vols.  1839); 
Donovan,  Annah  of  the  Kinr/doin  of  Ireland  by  the 
Four  Masters  (3  vols.  1848);  CoiTespondenee  of  Lord 
Coitlereaijh  (12  vols.  1847-53);  Pajiers  and  Corrc- 
fpondence  of  Lord  Cormmllit  (3  vols.  18.59);  Lecky's 
Leaden  of  Pub'ic  Opinion  in  Inland  (1S61:  new  ed. 
1871-72);  Prendergast's  Cromwellian  Settlement  of 
Ireland  (18G5;  new  cd.  1870);  Darcy  JI'Gee,  Popular 
Hialori/  of  Ireland  (1869);  Froude's  Enqlinh  in  Ire- 
land in  the  ISth  Century  (3  vols.  1871-74);  Alfred 
Webb's  Irith  Bio'iraphy  (1879);  Keating's  Historti  of 
Irelawi  (1880);  Dufly,  Yonwj  Ireland  (1880);  Wal- 
pole's  Short  History  of  the  Kinqdom  of  Ireland  (1882) ; 
•J.  H.  M'Carthy's  Outlines  of  Irish  Uistom  (1883) ;  Lady 
Emily  Lawless,  The  Stvry  of  Ireland  (1888,  '  Story  of  the 
Xations '  series ) ;  Richey,  Short  Hislorn  of  the  Irish  People 
(18S,S);  Stokes,  Ireland  and  the  Celtie  Church  (1888), 
and  Ins  Ireland  and  the  Amilo-Norman  Church  (1889); 
Sophie  Bryant,  Celtic  Ireland  (1889);  Two  Centuries 
oj  Irish  History,  Vi^l-lgfO,  with  Introduction  by  15ryce 
(18s9);  Ball's  Historical  Review  of  the  Leijislatice 
Systems  in  Inland,  from  the  Invasion  of  Henry  II. 
to  the  Union  (1889);  speeches  and  writings  of  liurke; 
speeches  of  Grattan,  Curran,  Flood,  O'Connell,  Meagher, 
Isaac  IJutt.  .See  also  BUTT,  Castlere.\gh,  Celts,  Crom- 
well,     DlBLI.V      UNrVERSITY,      El)i;<ATIOX,      EVICTIO.V, 

KENHNS,  (JL.VDSTO.NE,  Grattax.  </Conxell,  ora.vge- 
MEN-,  Parnell,  Prrr,  Straffobu,  Whitebovs,  and 
works  cited  under  these  articles. 


L..\.NGU..VGE  .-VND  LiTER.VTURE.— The  native  lan- 
guage is  (Jaelic — Irish  Gaelic  as  distinguished  from 
Scottish  and  Manx  Gaelic,  the  three  constituting 
the  Goidelic   branch  of  the  Celtic   language  (see 

G.\EI.IC    L.VXOUAGE    AND    LlTEIiATUHE).      The   old 

grammarians  sometimes  desi^rnateil  Iheir  language 
or  dejiartments  thereof  by  dillerent  epilhet.*.  liilni, 
now  Jjeiirld,  meaning  the  English  language  exclu- 
sively, was  the  general  term  for  '  speech. '  A  dialect 
of  Gaelic  was  called  hclra  Fene — named,  it  uscil  to 
be  said,  after  Foiiiis,  a  mythical  grammarian.  This 
term  was  afterwards  restricted  to  the  '  language 
of  law,'  while  helra  bun,  'fair  speech,'  was  u.sed 
to  designate  the  'canon.'  Acconling  to  Cormac 
idnnbclru  meant  'obscure  speech,'  and  that  old 
lexicoCTapher  gives  onn  as  the  iarmbclra  for  'stone,' 
clock  being  the  c/ndt/i  belra  or  common  term. 
Bede  informs  ns  that  the  language  of  the  Picts  or 
Cniithnic),  to  use  the  Gaelic  name,  was  a  separate 
language  ;  and  Cormac,  already  mentioned,  notes 
ccirtit.  a  ilcalff  or  '  jjin '  as  bclra  Cridtlincacli,  or 
a  Pictish  word.  The  writer  of  an  old  graunnatical 
treatise,  preserved  in  the  Books  of  Bully aiotc  and 
Leccin  and  in  M.S.  I.  of  the  Scottish  Collection  of 
Gaelic  MSS.,  professes  to  give  the  form  of  the  third 
pei-son  singular  of  the  ])ersonal  pronoun  not  merely 
in  the  language  of  the  Milesians  or  Gaels,  but  also 
in  that  of  the  mythical  Firbolgs  and  Tuatha  de 
Dananiis  :  tiaelic  isse,  issi,  isscd  (masculine,  fem- 
inine, and  neuter  respectively);  Firbolg  sjieech 
uindiiis,  iiiniisi,  on  nor ;  Tuatha  de  Danann  mod, 
toe/,  traeth.  Elsewhere  Cormac  gi\es  toth  as  a 
technical  term  for  the  feminine  gender  and  Iretcth 
for  the  neuter. 

In  Ireland  the  language  was  les.s  subjected  to 
corrupting  influences  than  in  Scotland  and  in  the 
Isle  of  Man,  and  it  was  more  carefully  cultivated. 
The  diction  of  Irish  Gaelic  is  accordingly  more 
copious,  and  the  grammatical  forms  are  fuller. 
The  Norse  language,  which  displaced  for  a  time 
the  native  tongue  in  the  Hebrides,  hardly  took 
root  in  Ireland.  In  the  names  of  three  of  the  four 
l>rovinces  the  Norse  sufiix  stcr  appears,  but  the 
Scandinavian  element  in  Irish  topo<;raphy  as  com- 
pared with  that  of  the  north-west  Highlands  and 
the  Isle  of  Man  is  very  small.  The  English  lan- 
guage found  its  way  to  the  country  in  the  I2th 
century,  but  for  very  many  years  its  advance  was 
slow.  As  is  well  known,  several  of  the  leading 
English  settlers  became  ardent  students  and 
patrons  of  the  native  language  and  literature. 
Of  the  Burkes,  the  Butlers,  the  Keatiugs,  and 
Geraldines  it  used  to  be  said  in  this  regard  that 
they  were  I'lisi-i  Hibernis  Hilicniiurcs.  Beyond  the 
'pale'  the  native  laws  and  ways  liourLshcd  in  lull 
vigour  in  the  17th  century.  And  even  in  the  more 
purely  English  districts  Gaelic  was  commonly 
spoken.  IJr  Norman  Moore  ( Bart/io/omcw  IIosjji- 
tul  Urjtortu,  xi.  p.  146)  ijuotes  an  edict  of  the  year 
16.5.5  ordering  all  Irish  l'api>ts  and  all  Protestants 
unable  to  sjieak  the  English  tongue  to  leave 
Dublin  before  June  '20  of  that  year.  But  for  the 
la.st  300  years  English  has  been  steadily  and  with 
ever-increasing  pace  gaining  ground.  The  seeds 
of  decline  of  the  native  tongue  were  sown  even 
earlier.  The  revival  of  learning  which  spread  over 
the  west  of  Europe  in  the  1.5th  century  hardly 
touched  Gaelic  territory.  The  impetus  given  to 
the  cullivalion  of  the  native  language  in  AN'ales 
and  even  in  the  Highlands  of  Scotland  by  the 
Reformation  was  scarcely  felt  in  Ireland.  The 
views  of  men  in  power  were  hostile  to  the  study 
of  Gaelic.  The  plantation  of  Ulster  by  James  \. 
in  the  beginning  of  the  ITtli  century,  together 
with  repressive  mea.-*ures  of  a  severe  character 
afterwards  ailopted,  checked  the  production  of 
native  literature  and  gave  an  impetus  to  the  spread 
of  English  among  the  people.     \\  itliin  recent  years 


208 


IRELAND 


increai^ed  facilities  of  communication  witli  Enf,'lanil, 
Scotland,  and  America;  the  advance  of  education  ; 
tlie  extension  of  the  sutl'iaj;e;  the  social  and 
political  movement  of  our  ouii  day— all  contril>ute 
to  the  increiusiiif;  use  of  the  Knglish  lan^qia;;e, 
but  without  reducinj;  to  the  same  extent  the 
nuniher  of  persons  able  to  speak  the  old  tont,'ue. 
In  the  decade  1871  to  IS81  the  Caelic-speaking 
population  of  Ireland  actually  increased.  The 
number  who  spoke  Irish-Gaelic  only  in  1881  was 
64,167,  as  against  lOS.oOi  in  1871  ;  but  while  there 
were  only  714.313  bilinguals  in  1871, 
the  number  of  such  persons  increa.sed 
by  1881  to  88."i,7U.'>.  So  that  the  total 
able  to  speak  tJaelic  in  1881  was 
949,9.S'2,  while  in  1871  the  number  of 
such  jiersons  w.as  returned  at  817.875. 
The  current  decade  will  very  prob- 
ably show  decrease  under  both  heails, 
but  a  greater  diminution  proportion- 
ally in  the  number  of  persons  able 
to  speak  Gaelic  only  than  in  the 
class  of  bilinguals.  Slany  emigrants 
fondly  cherish  their  mother-tongue  in 
America,  and  in  the  United  States  one  or  two 
newspapers  print  occasional  contril)utions  in  Irish- 
Gaelic;  but  the  language  is  not  destined  to  flourish 
outside  its  native  soil. 

The  rich  literature  of  Ireland  has  been  preserved 
to  us  in  inscriptions  and  manu.script.  The  oldest 
inscriptions,  found  in  the  south-west  of  Ireland, 
are  written  in  a  peculiar  script  called  Ogham  (q.v. ). 
Native  writers  made  occasional  use  of  this  j)rimi- 
tive  and  withal  clumsy  moile  of  writing  long  after 
they  became  ac<juainteil  with  the  Koman  alphabet, 
for  we  find  specimens  in  such  MSS.  as  the  rriscian 
St  tJall,  and  even  in  quite  modern  documents,  as 
e.g.  in  MS.  XXXV.  of  the  Scottish  collection.  A 
few  of  the  Ogham  inscriptions  are  bilingual,  Gaelic 
and  Latin,  so  that  the  readings  of  the  unilingual 
Ogliams  are  establislied.  Tlie  (ddest  of  them  date 
as  far  back  as  ,")00  a.d.  The  linguistic  forms  would 
suggest  even  a  higher  anticpiity.  Thus,  for  example, 
the  genitive  of  masculine  O-stems  emls  in  / — iiinqi, 
Mai/iiffni,  forms  on  the  same  platform  with  the  Old 
Gaulish  inscri])tions  Ategnati,  Drnticni,  and  for 
that  matter  with  classical  Latin — Maximi,  domiiii. 
The  oldest  !\IS.  forms  are  maicc  and  »tai/<iiii,  the 
terminal  /  disap])earing  as  a  separate  syllable,  I>ut 
becoming  incorporated  in  the  jneceding  syllable  in 
order  to  preserve  the  souml  of  the  consonant.  This 
great  giammatical  change  in  the  short  interval 
between  the  ))eriod  of  the  Ogham  inscriptions  and 
the  oldest  MSS.  may,  in  part  at  least,  be  explained 
by  the  disturl)ing  inHnence  of  the  Latin  language 
introduced  by  the  early  clerics.  Inscriptions  in 
!{om.ai  cliarai'ters  are  found  with  greater  or  less 
interruption  down  to  our  own  day. 

The  Ui^iiani  inscriptions  h.ive  liccn  published,  among 
other-s,  by  the  l,at«  Mr  Brash,  Oiihiim  Iiiscribnl  Mnau- 
ments  of  the  (I'actlhif  (1870);  the  late  Sir  Sanmel  Ferguson, 
in  various  publications;  while  tlie  grainniatical  ftn-ins 
whicli  they  exliibit  have  been  explained  by  l*rofessor  Uliys. 
Let'luyes  on  IKc/.v/i  Philolofiy^  Lecture  vi.  ;  Mr  ^\'hitley 
Stokes,  D.C.L.,  Bei'tr.  zur  Verfil.  Spj'aclif.,  v.  ;  *  Celtic  l>e- 
clension' — Trans,  of  Phil.  Soc.  (1885),  and  Bcrtr.  :iirKuntle 
Tn'lo;in-iti.  S]»'ac/tctu  xi. ;  Mens.  H.  d'.Arbois  de  Jubain- 
ville,  fjtif'ir:^  itnr  Ic  Ih-oil  VcHi'pw.  The  inscriptions  in 
llonian  character,  chiefly  collected  and  drawn  by  tlie  late 
Dr  George  Petrie,  have  been  published  by  Sliss  Stokes, 
Christian  Inscriptions  in  the  Irish  iaH;/H«7C  ( 1872-78). 

The  MS.  literature  dates  from  the  end  of  the  7th 
or  the  beginning  of  the  8tli  century.  The  Konian 
cursive  hand  of  the  ."ith  century  w.os  introduced  by 
St  I'atriidv  and  his  comiianions  into  Ireland,  and 
h.i-s  been  adhi^red  to  with  characteristic  tenacity  to 
this  day.  Only  eighteen  letters  were  pernmnently 
adopted  :  a,  b,  c,  (/,  c,f,  g,  h,  i,  I,  m,  >i,  »,  p,  r, .«,  f, 
u.     X  is  used  to  express  tlie  numeral  10,  ocea-sion- 


ally  to  represent  the  combination  cs ;  q  stands  for 
cit ;  k  fre(|ucntly  for  m  ami  c(it/i,  '  battle  ; '  >/  and  z 
are  met  with  in  one  or  two  loan-words — yiiuiuii,  a 
'hymn;'  Zi/i/uoi,  'Ste|>hen.'  Theiddest  ]ire.served 
MSS.  are  in  Latin.  Over  20()  such,  written  by 
Gaelic  scholars  before  the  year  10(10,  still  remain, 
all  with  the  exception  of  some  half  a  dozen  in 
France,  Germany,  Switzerland,  ami  Italy.  They 
were  written  by  the  distinguished  missionary  and 
scholar  Columbanus,  his  coni]ianions  ami  followers, 
or  carried  abroad  during  the  8lh  and  Oth  centuries. 


Ojji  )r  u]d]\  ro  TO  3tia-cv3  't)W  ai)  r6ti)dt),  30 
■crU5  ye  d  e)i)3e)i)  2l)t)e)c  feu],  muy  3116  be 
ciiejredT  aii  i)dc  \\dcdixe  <x  tijiisd,  ac-c  30  ti)be)c 
an  beta  x)o\HY;-ce  d)3e. 

Jolin,  iii.  16  ill  Irisli,  as  printed  I  y  tlie  British  anil  Foreign  Bible  Society.  The 
following'  is  the  tmiislation  in  Roman  letters  ;  Oir  is  mar  so  do  phr<Wlini>;h 
Dia  an  ilnnihan,  gn  dtiij;  se  a  einghein  Meic  fe  n,  ionmis  giilli  b^  chreiileiis 
ann,  nach  rachadh  so  a  inuglia,  achd  go  nibeith  an  blieatlia  shiorrniiilie 
aige. 


One  occasionally  linds  a  Gaelic  quatrain  on  the 
maigin  of  these  MSS.,  as  in  the  Priscian  St  (_;all, 
or  a  short  poem  on  a  blank  jiage,  as  in  the  Milan 
and  Carinthian  Codices.  There  is  a  fragment  of  a 
sermon  in  old  Gaelic  in  the  town  library  of  Cam- 
bray  ;  and  still  more  valuable  are  the  Annotations 
on  the  Book  of  A niKig/i,  written  in  the  early  part 
of  the  9th  century.  Hut  the  most  imiiortant 
remains  of  old  Gaelic  are  full  glosses  on  abmit  a 
score  of  the  Latin  MSS.  on  the  Continent.  Three 
such  are  specially  noteworthy  :  a  copy  of  Priscian 's 
Gramm.ar  in  the  library  of  St  Gall  ;  a  co]iy  of  St 
Paul's  Epistles  in  the  university  of  Wiirzburg; 
and  a  commentary  on  the  Psalms  of  I)a\id 
by  Columbanus,  now  in  the  Ambrose  Library, 
Milan.  The  glos.ses  on  the  Milan  Codex  are  so 
voluminous  that,  according  to  Stokes,  a  very  com- 
plete grammar  and  dictionary  could  be  compiled 
from  them  alone. 

The  oldest  (Jaelic  MSS.  now  existing  were 
written  by  the  end  of  the  lltli  century.  To  this 
period  belong  two  beautiful  co|)ies  of  the  l.il/cr 
Jli//)uiorioii,  containing  hymns  in  L,atin  and  Gaelic 
composed  by  the  early  saints,  Patrick,  Fiacc  of 
Sletty,  ( 'olumba,  and  otihers.  Tlie  writer  of  I.cnhhor 
till  h-l'idhri\  'the  liook  of  the  Dun  Cow,'  a  miscel- 
laneous compihition  extracted  from  earlier  books 
now  lost,  was  killed  in  the  year  1 106.  The  7)(/o/i 
of  LciiLstcr,  a  large  folio  of  410  pages,  was  written 
before  1 167  ;  the  Book  of  liiithiniotc,  also  a  large 
folio  of  .502  pages,  and  the  I.inhhnr  Brcac,  or 
'  Speckled  IJook,'  containing  '280  p.ages,  by  the 
end  of  the  14th  century.  Somewhat  later  are 
the  Book  of  Lcaiii,  a  small  folio  of  over  600  jiages  ; 
and  the  Yellow  Book  of  J.eniii,  a  large  quarto 
of  .500  pages.  The  number  of  MSS.  increases 
as  we  come  later  down.  Mons.  H.  d'Arbois 
de  Jubainville  found  9.53  in  Ireland  and  Engl.ind 
(Es.-iiii  irun  Ciitiiloi/iic  lie  III  Litliriifiirc  Kpiijiir 
(Ic  rirliiHilr,  Paris,  1883),  the  most  valuable  nf 
which  are  in  the  libraries  of  the  Itoyal  Irish 
Academy  (enriched  by  the  Stowe  collection,  jiur- 
chased  f<n'  the  Academy  by  the  government). 
Trinity  College,  and  Franciscan  .Mimastery,  Dub- 
lin; in  the  Bodleian,  Oxford;  ami  in  the  ISritish 
Museum.  Many  of  these  MSS.  are  beautifully 
written  ;  while  several  in  the  ornamentatiiui  of 
their  capitals  and  margins  iue  line  specimens  of 
the  artistic  skill  of  the  old  Gaelic  scribes.  The 
contents  are  of  a  very  varied  description,  and 
embrace  all  ilepartments  of  literature.  A  con- 
siderable part  is  translated  or  adapted.  Such  are 
the  portions  of  the  legendary  liistory  of  Greece  and 
Home  found  in  Gaelic — the   destruction   of  Troy, 


J 


IRELAND 


209 


the  waiidevintr  of  I'lysses,  the  story  of  tlie  .Eiieul, 
tlie  life  of  Alexiimler  tlie  (iicat,  &c.  ;  most  of  tlie 
passions,  hoiiiilios,  and  lej;encls,  scriptural  and 
I'ci-lesiastical,  in  the  Leab/iar  Brciir  and  other 
MSS.  ;  and  such  also  is  the  medical  section  of  the 
literature.  Of  native  production  are  history,  in- 
cluding biographies,  annals,  and  genealogies  ;  tales, 
mythological,  heroic,  legendary ;  grammars  and 
dictionaries;  law;  and  poetry. 

Modern  Gaelic  literature  can  hardly  be  said  to 
exist.  The  New  Testament  was  |iulilislied  in  11103, 
and  the  tMd  in  1685.  A  fresh  translation  of  the 
Pentateuch  was  made  in  1868  by  Archbishop  Mac- 
Hale,  who  also  printed  the  first  six  books  of  the 
Iliiid  and  a  selection  of  Mooie's  melodies  in  Irish 
(iaelic.  The  New  Testament  has  been  translated 
anew  by  Jlr  Kane  into  the  Munster  dialect.  Fugi- 
tive pieces  of  lyric  veree  have  ai'peared  from  time 
to  time.  The  licliques  of  Irish  Puctri/,  published 
by  MLss  Brooke  in  1789,  and  the  six  volumes  pub 
lished  by  the  O-ssianic  Society  ( 1854-61 ),  are  chiefly 
'  Ossianic. '  '  The  Gaelic  Union '  has  printed  several 
texts,  and  publishes  the  Gaelic  Journal. 

Celtic  scholarship  dates  from  the  publication  of 
Zeuss's  Grammalica  Ccltica  in  1853.  \'alualile  \\ork 
was,  however,  done  by  Eugene  O'Currv  in  his  3IS. 
Materials  of  Irish  History  ( 1861 )  and  Planners  anil 
Customs  of  the  Ancient  Irish  { 1873) :  and  by  O'Don- 
ovan  in  his  Grammar  (1847),  his  edition  of  the 
Annals  of  the  Four  Masters,  and  his  Supplement  to 
O'Reilly's  Dictionary.  Zeusss  Granitnatica  Celtica 
(1853;  ad  ed.,  by  Ebel,  1871)  was  the  outcome  of 
thirteen  years  of  unwearied  work  among  ol<l  Celtic 
records.  Since  Zeuss's  dav  scliolarshi])  has  advanced 
over  the  whole  held  of  Celtic  studies,  in  Old  Gaulish 
and  in  the  Brythonic  dialects,  but  chiefly  in  Gaelic. 
Ebel  and  Schleicher  and  Ziegfried  are  worthily 
represented  in  our  day  by  such  men  as  Ascoli, 
Ni^ra,  Windisch,  Zinimer,  Thurneysen,  Jubainville, 
and  Loth  on  the  Continent,  and  among  ourselves 
by  Stokes,  Khys,  Atkinson,  &c.  The  licruc  Celtiqne. 
founded  in  1870  by  Gaidoz,  reached  its  tenth  volume 
in  1890.  Several  other  periodicals  at  home  and 
abroad,  notably  Kuhn's  Zcitschrift  fitr  Vergl. 
Sprachf.,  frequently  publish  important  articles  on 
Celtic  subjects.  ^Vin(lisch's  K uczgefasste  Irische 
Grammatik  has  twice  been  translated  into  English, 
in  1879.  The  same  scholar  has  also  published 
Irish  Texts  for  the  use  of  students,  with  a  valuable 
vocabulary.  Zimnier  (Berlin,  1881)  and  Stokes 
published  the  valuable  Wiirzburg  MS.,  with  minor 
glosses;  Nigra,  the  Turin  glosses;  and  Ascoli,  the 
St  Gall  and  Milan  codices.  Copious  extracts  from 
the  Turin  and  Milan  "losses,  together  with  the 
Gaelic  contents  of  the  Book  of  Annayh,  the  Lihcr 
Hymnorum,  and  the  Book  of  Deer,  with  other  early 
texts,  were  previously  printed  by  Stokes  under  the 
title  Goicleiica  (ad  ed.'  1872). 

Windisch  has  examined  the  laws  of  auslaut, 
vocalic  and  nasal,  and  explained  initial  aspiration 
and  eclipsis  (the  essay  has  been  translated  by 
the  late  l)r  Cameron,  and  printed  in  the  Scotti-sh 
Celtic  Keriew).  Professors  Zimmer  and  Thurney- 
sen have  investigated  the  jiosition  of  the  accent, 
and  its  influence  on  the  development  of  sound 
and  form  in  (Jaelic.  The  laws  of  metre  have 
been  discussed  by  Atkinson,  Stokes,  and  the 
scholars  above  named  ;  but,  in  order  to  attain  to 
full  knowledge  of  the  practice  of  the  bards  in  this 
matter,  it  is  necessary  that  the  graijimalical  tract 
already  referred  to  as  ])reservcil  in  the  Book  of 
Ballymote  and  other  MSS.  be  published.  In 
addition  to  numerous  and  valuable  pa|iers  ranging 
over  the  whole  field  of  Celtic  studies,  Stokes  has 
largely  added  to  our  knowledge  of  the  (Jaelic  noun 
and  verb.  \'aluable  materials  for  a  lexicon  have 
been  brought  together  by  AVindi.sch  in  the  Worter- 
huch  appended  to  liLs  Irische  I'exte ;  by  Atkinson 
274 


in  the  vocabularies  printed  with  the  Homilies,  &C. , 
from  the  Lcal/har  Breac,  anil  with  Keatings 
'Three  .Shafts  of  Death  :  by  Zimmer  in  bis  Kelt- 
ische  Stuilien  :  and  by  Stokes  in  the  full  Indices 
Verborum  attached  to  the  numerous  texts  |)ub- 
lished  by  that  great  scholar.  The  life  and  civilisa- 
tion of  the  people  have  formed  the  subject  of 
sei)arate  treatises,  as  e.g.  OCurry"s  Manners  and 
Customs  of  the  Ancient  Irish,  aiid  Rhys's  Celtic 
Heathendom  (  Hibbert  Lectures  for  1886);"  but  more 
fretjuently  of  elaborate  introductions  and  notes  to 
the  more  inii)ortant  pul>lications,  such  as  Keeves's 
Lifs  of  St  Columba :  the  Master  of  the  Kolls' 
.seiies  ;  Stokes's  Calendar  of  Oenyus,  The  Tripartite 
Life  of  St  Patrick,  and  Lives  of  Saints  from  the 
Book  of  Lismore. 

The  National  MSS.  of  Ireland,  edited  by  Gilbert,  have 
been  jniblished  by  government  in  the  Master  of  the  Koll.'i' 
series;  as  also  Tkc  Ancient  Laws  of  Ireland  (5  vols.); 
The  Annals  of  Lougli  Ce  (2  vols,  edited  by  Hennessey) ; 
Chroniccm  Scolorum  (Hennessey);  The  Wars  of  the 
Gacdhel  with  the  Gaill  (Todd);  The  Tripartite  Life  of  St 
Patrick  (Stokes).  The  Koyal  Irish  Academy  has  printed 
in  fac-simile  Leabhar  na  ft-Uidhre  (1870),  the  Lcabhar 
Brcac  (1876),  the  Book  of  Leinster  (1880),  and  in  photo- 
lithography the  Book  of  Ballymote  ( 1S87 )  ;  and  has  pub- 
Ushed  the  calendar  of  Oengus  the  C'uldee,  edited  by 
Stokes  (1880);  Passions  and  Homilies  from  Ihe  Lcabhar 
Breac,  with  vocabulary,  by  Atkinson  (1887);  and  Keat- 
mg-s  Three  Shafts  of'Liath.hy  Atkinson  (1890).  The 
Celtic  Society  published  among  others  the  Book  of  Riijhts, 
edited  by  O'Oonovan  ( 184.")),  and  the  Battle  of  Moiilena, 
edited  by  O'Curry  (1855 1.  The  Irish  Archaiological 
Society,  which  had  previously  issued  several  valuable 
works,  as  e.g.  the  Irish  Version  of  Nennius,  edited  by 
Dr  Todd  (1848),  amalgamated  with  the  Celtic  in  1854, 
and  the  combined  societies  have  published  among  other 
important  books  the  Liber  Hymnorum  (2  vols.  Todd, 
1855-09 ) ;  the  Life  of  Columba,  by  Adamnan,  edited  by  Dr 
K«eves  (1856);  Irish  Glosses  (Stokes,  1860);  the  Topo- 
araphicat  Poems  of  O'Dubhayain  and  O'Huidhrin 
( O'Donovan,  1862 ) ;  'The  Martyroloyii  of  Donegal  ( O'Don- 
ovan ) ;  Cormac's  Glossary  ( O'Donovan  and  Stokes,  1868 ). 
The  clarendon  Press  has  issued  Saltair  na  Rann,  edited 
by  Stokes  (1883) ;  the  Battle  of  Ventry,  by  Kuno  Meyer 
(1885);  and  Lires  of  Saints  from  the  Book  of  Lismore, 
by  Stokes  (1890). 

Irish  Church.  The  Irish  Church  was  a  branch 
of  the  Celtic  Church,  which  comprehendetl  the 
churches  of  Galatia  in  Asia  Elinor,  of  Gaul,  and  of 
the  original  Celtic  inhabitants  of  Great  Britain  and 
Ireland.  The  Celtic  Church  of  Gaul  necessarily 
exercised  a  great  influence  over  the  neighliouring 
islands.  Christianity  was  introduced  from  the  2d 
century  at  least  into  Biitain,  where  the  Celtic 
Church  was  so  firmly  established  that  it  furnished 
martyrs  in  the  Diocletian  ]iersecution,  and  bishops 
to  the  councils  of  the  4th  cenlujy.  When  the 
Romans  left  Britain  and  the  Ceks  retired  into 
Wales,  the  Celtic  Church  retired  with  them,  lea\  ing 
Britain  a  prey  to  Saxon  paganism.  In  Scotland 
Christianity  was  introduced  in  397  by  St  Ninian 
(q.v.),  a  Scottish  Celt,  but  a  disciple  of  St  Martin. 

.St  Patrick  is  called  the  apostle  of  lieland, 
and  his  lirst  missionary  arrival  is  (ixed  at  4.32; 
but  there  were  in  all  jirobability  .scattereil  colonies 
of  Christians  along  the  eiustern  coast  of  Ireland 
by  the  year  400.  We  have  proof  positive  of 
the  existence  of  Christianity  in  lrelan<l  in  the 
Chronicle  of  Pro.s])er  of  Aipiitaine,  a  contempo- 
rary of  St  Patrick.  Prosper,  under  the  date  of 
431,  writes  thus:  '  Palladius  was  consecrated  by 
I'opi^  ('(riestine  and  sent  to  the  Scots  bclii'ving 
in  Christ  as  their  lirst  bishop,'  where  the  reader 
must  observe  that  the  name  Scots  or  Scoti  was  till 
the  11th  century  exclusively  a]>plied  to  the  inhabit- 
ants of  Ireland.  Palladius  had  not,  however,  much 
success  in  Irelaml  :  he  failed  to  convince  the  Irish, 
was  driven  northwards,  and  died  iti  North  Britain. 
Thus  ended  the  lirst   formal  attempt  to  convert  the 


210 


IRELAND 


Irish,  ail  effort  made  too  under  the  direct  sanction 
and  autlinvity  of  tlie  jiapiil  see.  The  very  next 
year  (43'2)  St  Patriclc  is  said  to  liave  arrived 
on  a  similar  mission  ;  but  he  was  better  (jualilied 
for  his  work,  and  he  made  his  iuliuence  felt 
in  every  part  of  Ireland,  (laul  in  the  early 
part  of  "the  5tli  century  was  the  great  European 
centre  for  eastern  monasticism.  At  the  very  time 
that  St  Patrick  landed  in  Ireland  from  IJaul 
there  was  a  most  active  and  continuous  intercourse 
kept  up  between  (!aul  and  St  Jerome  at  Beth- 
lehem, Nilria,  and  the  monasteries  of  the  Tliebaid 
in  Egypt.  It  is  to  be  expected,  then,  that  the 
C'hiistianity  introduced  l>y  St  Patrick  would  e.\hibit 
traces  of  its  eastern  and  esjfecially  of  its  Egyptian 
origin.  The  architecture  and  ecclesiastical  arrange- 
ments of  the  early  Irish  Church  have  therefore 
many  features  in  common  with  the  East.  The 
monks  of  Nitria  and  of  the  East  were  generally 
solitaries  dwelling  each  in  his  own  cell,  even  when 
living  in  a  community  and  under  an  abbot.  The 
Irish  monks  were  solitaries  too,  and  down  to  the 
present  day  their  lieehive  huts,  constructed  so  as 
to  secure  the  least  possible  comfort  for  the  inhabit- 
ants, remain  all  along  the  western  coast  of  Ireland. 
The  churches  in  Ireland  are  often  grouped  in  se\ens 
an<l  placed  within  a  cashel  or  stone  fortification. 
So  they  are  in  Egypt  (Butler,  Coptic  Churches,  i. 
14).  The  Irish  monks,  like  the  Egyptian,  loved 
solitude  and  the  desert,  as  the  name  Desert,  Disert, 
or  Dysert,  which  forms  a  principal  factor  in  many 
Irish  names,  proves.  The  round  towers,  too, 
though  not  so  old  as  St  Patrick's  tin\e,  came  to 
Ireland  from  the  East  through  tiaul  and  Kavenna. 

The  interval  between  the  arrival  of  St  Patrick 
aiul  the  invasion  uf  Ireland  by  Strongbow  and  the 
Anglo-Normans  (llfi9-7'2)  is  a  celebrated  one  in 
tlie  liistory  of  the  Irish  Church.  The  (ith  and  7th 
centuries  are  its  best-known  epoch,  for  it  was  then 
that  St  Columba  and  St  Culumbanus  lived  and 
worked.  The  Irish  Church  at  that  time  was  the 
great  missionary  church  of  Europe.  St  Columba 
was  its  first  great  missionary.  He  was  the  apostle 
of  the  Scottish  Highlands,  and  he  summoned  to  his 
aid  when  dealing  with  the  Picts  two  celebrated 
Irish  saints — Canice  the  iiatron  of  Kilkenny,  known 
in  Scnthind  as  Kenneth,  and  Comgall,  the  founder 
and  lirst  abbot  of  Bangor  in  the  County  Down.  St 
Columbanus  ((j.v.)  preached  and  taught  in  tiaul 
and  Burgundy,  in  Switzerland,  and  in  northern 
Italy.  Other  missions  were  tho.se  of  Aidan,  Colman, 
Einan,  Ced<l,  and  many  others  in  northern  and 
central  England  ;  of  Virgilius,  .Marianus  Scotus, 
Cataldus,  Eiacra,  Eridolin,  and  several  others  in 
various  parts  of  tlie  Continent,  down  to  the  I'itli 
centjiry.  All  these  men  were  not  only  great 
mi.ssi(maries,  but  also,  viewed  by  the  standard  of 
that  day,  great  .scholars.  Virgil,  the  geometer  and 
first  bishop  of  Salzlmrg,  was  the  first  of  moderns 
who  taught  the  doctrine  of  the  earth's  sphericity 
and  of  the  existence  of  the  Antipodes.  Colum- 
banus upheld  lh(^  olil  eastern  cycle  against  (iaiil 
and  Uome  combined.  Se<lulius  and  .lolin  Scotus 
Erigena  knew  (ireek  when  a  knowledge  of  it  had 
died  out  elsewhere  in  the  West. 

This  ancient  church  was  monastic  and  yet 
episcopal.  It  was  episcopal  but  not  diocesan  : 
its  highest  order  were  bishops  but  not  orelatcs. 
The  j>rclatcs  or  rulers  were  the  heads  of  tlic  moii- 
iust('ries,  who  might  be  bishops  but  were  most  often 
mere  i>resbyters  and  abbots.  St  Patrick  and  the 
early  missionaries  from  (iaul  found  Ireland  intensely 
tribal.  Every  inodc-rn  barony,  of  which  there  are 
.-^oiiie  hundreds  in  Ireland,  represents  an  ancient 
se]>t  or  independent  jurisdiction.  Every  ancient 
dioci'se,  some  thirty  or  so  in  number,  represents  an 
ancient  kingiloiii,  or  at  least  an  ancient  tribe.  The 
earliest  missionaries  attached  themselves  to  tribes. 


who  looked  to  the  monasteries  and  specially  to  the 
first  founders  of  the  monasteries,  regarding  them  as 
the  apostles  of  Ireland,  lint  these  missionaries 
had  received  Christianity  in  an  episcopal  sli.ape, 
and  so  they  retained  it.  The  abbot  exercised 
jurisdiction  over  all  ijersons  and  ranks  within  his 
community.  But  the  bishop  or  liishops  who  might 
be  resident  in  the  monastery  or  within  its  reach 
exercised  episcopal  functions,  ordaining  even  the 
abliots  themselves,  and  celebiating  the  eucliarist  in 
their  ])resence.  In  the  coulroversy  as  to  the  rela- 
tion towards  Rome  of  the  early  Irish  Church  some 
have  insisted  that  St  Patrick  \vji,s  simidy  a  jiapal 
emissary.  Others  have  insisted  upon  his  complete 
independence.  There  cannot  be  much  doubt,  how- 
ever, that  Uome  and  Ireland  were  for  long  divided 
upon  important  questions.  The  controversies  of 
the  7th  century  with  respect  to  the  mode  of  bap- 
tism, the  keeping  of  Easter,  and  the  method  of 
the  tonsure  prove  that,  while  the  Irish  Church  of 
that  date  looked  up  with  the  greatest  respect  to 
the  city  where  the  blessed  ajiostles  IV^teraud  Paul 
had  sutiered,  yet  she  claimed  imlependence  in  all 
nijitters  of  doctrine  ami  ritual.  The  Celtic  Church, 
whether  in  England,  Ireland,  or  Scotland,  made  a 
stubborn  resistance  to  Konian  claims.  In  England 
and  Scotland  the  resistance  colla]).sed  at  an  earlier 
period.  But  in  Ireland  the  ancient  national  opposi- 
tion to  pajial  claims  did  not  cease  till  the  Synod  of 
Kells  in  llo'2,  and  of  Cashel  in  117'2. 

As  to  the  ritual  of  the  Celtic  Church  we  have 
not  much  information.  No  ancient  service-books 
luue  survived  in  Ireland,  though  a  large  number 
of  manuscripts  belonging  to  the  Celtic  iieriod  exist 
in  the  Dublin  libraries  ;  they  are  almost  all,  how- 
ever, transcripts  of  the  Co.spels,  as  the  Book  of 
Kells,  or  of  the  New  Testament,  as  in  the  Book  of 
.Vrm.'igh.  The  Antii'lionariiiitt  Jli'ttf/ii/rcusc  and 
the  Book  of  Hymns  which  JJr  To<ld  iiublished  in 
the  Irish  Archa'ological  series  do  not  contain  the 
liturgy  properly  so  called — i.e.  the  service  for  the 
Holy  Communion.  It  is  most  likely,  however, 
that  the  missal  of  the  Celtic  Church  was  in  the 
main  i<leiitii'al  with  that  of  the  other  churches  of 
the  West,  though  there  were  s|iecial  local  usages 
most  abhorrent  to  the  ideas  of  the  Koman  party, 
till  in  117'2  the  t'ouncil  of  Cashel  finally  established 
tluduglioiit  Ireland  conforndty  with  the  Church  of 
Engl.and.  There  are  two  other  points  connected 
with  the  Church  of  Ireland  which  have  often  raised 
discussions — viz.  the  round  towers  and  the  Culdee 
system.  But  Dr  I'etrie  has  proved  th.-it  the  round 
towers  are  of  ( 'hristian  origin,  that  they  were  always 
connected  with  monastic  establishments,  and  used 
jiartly  as  belfries  and  partly  as  places  of  refuge  and 
defence  during  the  wars  of  the  Danes  ;  while  Bishop 
Reeves  has  shown  that  the  Culdees  (q.v. )  were 
spread  all  over  the  Celtic  Church,  and  were  only 
tlie  ancient  Celtic  monks  in  a  state  of  corruption. 

The  lionian  system  was  striving  for  suiieriority 
in  Ireland  from  the  7th  till  the  I2th  century. 
.\lalachy,  .\iclibishop  of  Armagh  (1184),  .saw  that 
the  ancient  Celtic  system  was  hopelessly  corrupt. 
He  visiteil  St  Bernard  of  Clairvaux,  an<l  could 
not  but  be  struck  by  the  contrast  which  his  own 
church  ]ireseiited,  devoid  of  architecture,  order,  or 
discipline,  the  prey  of  every  rude  .and  hostile  chief- 
t.iiii.  when  comp.ared  with  the  Roman  system  in 
Caul,  where  every  r.iiik  was  duly  graduated,  e\cry 
order  exercised  its  due  functions,  and  the  laity 
were  humbly  submissive  to  ecclesiastical  decrees. 
St  Bernard  also  about  1140  sent  the  Cistercians 
to  Ireland,  ami  they  became  the  chief  agents  in 
reducing  the  Irish  Chnreli  beneath  the  yoke  of 
canonical  obiMlience.  The  Cistercians  brought 
notions  of  m.ileiial  civilisation,  csjiecially  as 
regards  agriculture  and  architecture,  almost 
hitherto  unknown  :  for,  though  the  Celtic  Church 


IRELAND 


211 


liail  cultivateJ  literature  and  scholarship,  the 
really  ancient  Celtic  churches  and  monasteries 
were  all  of  the  humblest  description  so  far  as  their 
iirchitocture  was  concerned.  Here  and  there 
indeed  in  Ireland,  when  the  Cistercians  came,  a 
few  specimens  of  architecture  of  a  highly  orna- 
mental type  called  Hiberno-Komanesque  were 
scattered  :'  hut  it  was  the  Cistercians  who  made 
splendid  churches  and  monasteries  fashionable  in 
Ireland.  The  Cistercian  monasteries  rapiilly  spread 
as  Anglo-Xorman  power  advanced  all  over  the 
island.  Ireland  within  one  hundred  years  after 
the  invasion  wiis  more  thoroughly  conquered  than 
she  was  three  centuries  later.  The  year  1250  saw 
the  king's  writ  far  better  respected  in  Kerry  or  in 
Donegal  than  it  was  in  the  reijjn  of  Elizabeth,  and 
wherever  the  Anglo-Norman  barons  settled  they 
brought  the  Cistercians  with  them.  De  Burgh 
built  St  Thomas's  Abbey  in  Dublin  in  honour  of 
Thomas-a-Cecket ;  De  Lacy,  Bective  Abbey,  over- 
hanging the  Boyne  near  Xavan  ;  Strongbow,  the 
.\Iai-shals,  and  their  friemls  erected  Jerpoiut  and 
Dunbrody  in  the  south  ;  the  De  Courcys  Newry 
and  other  aljbeys  in  the  north.  The  Cistercians 
assisted  in  otlier  directions  as  well.  The  Synod  of 
Cashel  met  in  1172  under  the  presidency  of  Christian, 
Bishop  of  Lisniore,  the  pai>al  legate  of  that  day,  and 
passed  eight  canons,  enforced  the  payment  of  tithes, 
regulated  the  work  of  catechising  and  of  baptism, 
established  the  Konian  table  of  affinity  in  matri- 
monial matters,  and  decreed  uniformity  of  worship 
througliout  England  and  Ireland.  From  the  date 
of  this  synod  the  canon  law,  as  it  was  received  in 
England,  became  law  in  Ireland.  The  last  Celtic 
Archbishop  of  Dublin,  Laurence  O'Toole,  died  in 
IISO.  The  ne.\t  archbishop,  John  Comyn,  was  an 
English  courtier,  nominated  by  Henry  II.,  and 
from  Laurence  O'Toole  till  the  Kelormatiou  no 
Irishman  was  ever  Archbishop  of  Dublin. 

The  Anglo-Xormans  whenever  they  had  power 
strove  completely  to  exclude  the  Celts  from 
ecclesiastical  benetices,  and  whenever  the  Celts 
had  power  they  strove  to  exclude  the  Anglo- 
Xormans.  In  fact,  from  1172  till  1540,  there  were 
two  churches  in  Ireland,  one  Anglo-Xorman,  the 
other  Celtic,  bound  together  by  the  one  tie,  the 
papal  supremacy.  This  hostility  between  Celt 
and  Anglo-Xorman  appears  again  and  again.  Prior 
to  1220  the  Anglo-Xormans  prohibited  the  admis- 
sion of  Irish  clerks  into  monasteries  or  benetices 
under  English  dondnion.  The  pope  rebuked  this 
exclusive  spirit  in  bulls  issued  in  1220  and  1224. 
Later  in  the  .same  century  the  prelates  of  the  Celtic 
portion  of  the  church  retorted  with  a  decree  pro- 
Inbiting  the  adndssion  of  English  clerics  into 
jiarishes  or  monasteries  under  their  jurisdiction. 
This  spirit  of  division  was  embodied  in  tlie 
Statute  of  Kilkenny  (1365),  whicli  peremptorily 
forbade  the  admissicm  of  Irish  clerks  into  any 
benelice  where  English  nile  prevailed  :  and  it  con- 
tinued to  be  the  practical  rule  followcil  in  all  higher 
promotions  till  long  after  the  Keformalion.  Dublin 
and  KilUenny  were  the  great  seats  of  Anglo-Xormati 
power  from  1172  to  i.>10.  Both  these  districts  are 
lull  of  monuments  of  English  church-building,  f(d- 
lowing  exactly  the  model  of  coeval  English  architec- 
ture ;  while  one  must  iienetrate  far  into  the  moun- 
tains of  Wicklow,  or  else  depart  westward  into  the 
great  central  region  of  bog  and  nior/uss,  l>efore  a 
glim|ise  can  be  had  of  true  Celtic  architecture. 

While,  however,  there  wa.s  this  internal  nati(mal 
division  in  the  Iri.sli  Church  during  this  jieriod, 
the  doctrine,  the  ritual,  and  go.i'riinicnt  of  the 
church  were  uniform.  The  |iapal  supremacy  was 
uidversally  accepted ;  the  royal  supremacy  was 
et|ually  respected.  Throughout  every  part  of 
Ireland,  no  matter  how  Celtic,  whenever  a  hislio]iric 
fell  vacant,  licen.se  to  elect  wa.s  lirst  humbly  sought 


from  the  crown  of  England.  And  this  was  no 
empty  ceremony,  for  whenever  the  see  was  of 
suthcient  value  the  crown  also  took  good  care  to 
signify  its  plea>ure  as  to  who  should  occujiy  it. 
The  tour  archiepiscopal  sees,  Armagh,  Dublin, 
Cashel,  and  ruani,  were  almost  always  Idled  by 
Anglo-Xormans.  The  Irish  Church  thus  ceased  to 
be  a  missionary  and  a  learned  and  became  a  merely 
p(ditical  church. 

The  national  hatred  which  prevailed  Vjetween 
the  Anglo-Xorman  and  Celtic  portions  of  the  Irish 
Church  between  1172  and  1540  explains  the  history 
of  the  Keformation  period.  The  English  portion 
of  the  population  naturally  followed  the  changes 
in  England,  and  the  Celts  as  naturally  held  all  the 
more  lirmly  to  the  papal  supremacy  and  the  old 
state  of  things  which  had  now  become  .synony- 
mous with  hostility  to  England.  Komanism  and 
nationalism  became  now  and  henceforth  close  allies 
in  Ireland,  though  previously  the  pope  had  been 
almost  always  found  hostile  to  the  Celts.  During 
the  years  between  1528  and  1600  tlie  course  of 
change  in  England  was  simply  reflected  in 
Ireland.  Archbishop  Alan,  an  English  ecclesiastic 
who  occui)ied  the  see  of  Dublin  in  1528,  was 
a  friend  of  AVolsey  ;  and  he  followed  closely  his 
patron's  footsteps.  About  1528-36  forty  of  the 
smaller  Irish  monasteries  were  dissolved  by  him. 
In  Io30-3S  the  remainder  were  suppressed  and 
their  property  granted  to  the  king,  who  dis- 
posed of  it  to  various  noblemen  and  courtiers. 
In  a  parliament  assembled  at  Dublin  in  1537 
the  act  of  the  king's  supremacy  in  Ireland  was 
enacted,  while  in  1542  Henry  Vlll.  was  declared 
king  of  Ireland,  his  legal  title  being  previously 
Dondnus  Hibernia-.  The  work  of  reforrjiation  now 
advanced  jjari  passu  in  England  and  Ireland. 
During  the  reigns  of  Mary  and  Elizabeth  the 
Irish  Church,  so  far  as  it  was  under  English 
intiuence,  humbly  followed  the  changes  in  England  : 
under  Mary  the  papal  supremacy  was  acknowledged, 
and  the  Latin  mass  celebrated  ;  under  Elizabeth  the 
royal  supremacy  was  alone  legal,  and  the  English 
liturgy  was  used.  In  the  Celtic  districts  during 
Elizabeth's  reign  a  number  of  bishops  comnus- 
sione<l  by  Rome,  aided  by  se^•eraI  Jesuits,  main- 
tained under  great  difticulties  a  vigorous  opposition 
to  the  Keformation.  The  17th  century  saw  new 
elements  of  religicms  confusion  introduced.  The 
immigration  of  the  Scottish  Presbyterians  and  the 
settlement  of  I  Ister  brought  a  community  into 
Ireland  who  disliked  the  episcojtal  establishment 
almost  as  much  as  the  pope's  adherents.  They 
naturally  sympathised  with  tlie  Puritan  opposition 
in  England,  which  culminated  in  the  supremacy  of 
Croniwell.  During  his  vigorous  rule,  which  secured 
lor  Ireland  a  greater  amount  of  ]ieace  tliaii  she  had 
long  known,  the  episcopal  establishment  was  sub- 
verted, and  an  establishment  of  a  congregational 
type  erected  in  its  steail.  On  the  Bestoration  the 
e|iiscopal  establishment  was  restored  in  greater 
splendour  than  e\  er. 

The  Roman  Catholics  now  began  to  consolidate 
their  organisation,  establishing  a  regular  successicm 
of  resident  bishops  and  clergy  throughout  the  whole 
c(mntry.  After  the  Revolution  of  I(i88-9I  a  series 
of  stern  enactments  commenceil,  which  grew  more 
and  more  severe  till  i\n:  reign  of  (ieorge  11.  These 
]>enal  laws  were  ilirected  against  the  Roman  Catho- 
lics, partly  as  adherents  of  the  Pretender  ami  partly 
in  revenge  for  the  i)ersocution  of  the  Hugui'iiots 
(q.v.),  many  of  whom  took  refuge  in  Ircl.ind. 
They  began  to  be  ri-laxeil  during  the  earlier  half 
of  the  reign  of  (Icorge  111.  In  fait  all  through 
his  reign  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  exercised 
ojienly  all  its  functions  and  maintained  a  regular 
episcopal  succession.  In  182'J  the  act  of  Calhcdic 
Emancipation  (<|.v.)  was  pa.s.sed,  which  swept  away 


212 


IRELAND 


IRIDE-a: 


all  (Usabilities  aftecting  the  secular  clergy  of  the 
Church  of  Koine,  though  still  retaining  certain 
restrictions  upon  the  regular  onlei's.  By  the  act  of 
Disestahlishnient,  passed  2Gth  July  1SG9,  the  state 
has  separated  itself  as  far  as  possible  from  interfer- 
ence in  tlie  afl'airs  of  any  branch  of  Irish  Christianity. 
The  former  Established  Church  is  now  governed  by 
a  general  synod,  which  meets  annually  in  spring, 
composed  of  the  bishops  and  reiiresentatives  of  the 
clergv  and  laity  ;  while  the  Koman  Catliolic  Church 
is  ruled,  as  formeily,  by  the  liishops  acting  under 
the  direction  of  the  pope.  Irish  Presbyterianisni, 
dating  from  IGl.S,  prevails  especially  in  the  eastein 
parts  of  Ulster.  The  Presbyterians  of  lister  were 
till  1869  endowed  with  a  Ecgitim  Duniini  (ii.v.). 
The  organisation  of  the  Presbyterian  Church  dates 
from  lOth  June  1642,  when  "the  first  presbytery 
was  established  in  Carrickfergus. 

See,  among  older  authorities,  Ussher's  Works ;  Sir 
James  Ware's  Works  (ed.  Harris);  Colgan's  Acta  Sanc- 
torum Hih. :  Annuls  of  Four  Masters,  and  works  in  Rolls 
series,  as  Chronicon  Scotorum  and  Annals  of  Lom/h  Cc. 
In  tlie  19th  century,  Todd  in  his  Life  of  St  Putrid;  and 
K.  King  in  his  Histori/  of  the  Irish  Church,  maintain  the 
Protestant  view;  Cardinal  Moran,  in  Essays  on  the  Earhi 
Irish  Church,  the  opposite  view;  Lanigan,  in  his  Ecclesi- 
astical Histort/  of  Ireland,  an  intermediate  position.  Dr 
Reeves  in  his  Adamnini's  Life  of  Columba  and  other 
works  lias  thrown  floods  of  hght  on  the  subject.  Other 
authorities  are  E.  Hogan,  S.J.,  Documenta  de  S.  Patricio ; 
Whitley  Stokes,  The  Triijarlite  Life  of  St  Patrick: 
Wan-en,  Celtic  Litmyy ;  Skene,  Celtic  Scotland.  G. 
T.  Stokes  in  Ireland  and  the  Celtic  Church  (1886),  and 
Ireland  and  the  Anrjlo-Jforinan  Church  (1889),  main- 
tains the  independence  of  the  Irish  Church;  Canon 
Bellesheim  in  his  works  on  the  history  of  tlie  Catholic 
Cliurch  m  .Scotland  (1888)  and  in  Ireland  (1890)  defends 
the  opposite  view.  See  also  Bishop  Healy  of  Clonfert, 
Schools  and  Colleyes  of  Ancient  Ireland  (1890);  Wasser- 
schleben,  iJi'e  Irische  Kanoiiensammlung  (1SH5) ;  Olden, 
The  Holy  Scriptures  in  Ireland  One  Thousand  Years  Aijo 
( 1888 ) ;  T.  K.  Abbott,  Versio  Ante-Hieronymiana :  Gilbert, 
Facsimiles  of  the  National  MSS.  of  Ireland.  Fur  the  more 
recent  history  :  Mant,  History  of  the  Church  of  I. ;  J.  T. 
Ball,  History  of  the  Reformed  Church  in  I.:  Hogan,  Hih. 
lyiuitiana  ;  Reid,  History  of  the  Presbyterian  Church  in 
I.;  Cotton,  Fasti  Eccl.  Hibern. ;  D' Alton,  ArchbLshops  of 
Dublin;  Irwin,  Irish  Presbyterianisni  (Lond.  1890). 

Ireland,    Samiel    William    Henry,    the 

author  of  the  notorious  Shakespeare  forgeries,  was 
born  in  London  in  1777,  the  son  of  Samuel  Ireland, 
a  dull  and  credulous,  but  honest  ilealer  in  old  books 
and  luints,  and  author  of  ii  few  books  of  travel 
illustrated  by  himself.  After  some  years'  schooling 
in  France,  the  boy  was  ap]irentieed  at  seventeen  to 
a  London  conveyancer,  and  ere  long  was  tempted 
by  his  father's  unintelligent  enthusiasm  for  Shake- 
speare to  forge  an  autograph  of  the  poet  on  a  care- 
fully-copied old  lease.  His  audacity  grew  with  the 
growing  credulity  of  his  dujies,  and  ere  long  locks 
of  hair,  private  lettei-s,  annotated  books,  <.K:c.  were 
plentifully  |)roduced,  and  all  inquireis  into  the  how 
and  the  where  fubbed  oil' with  lying  explanations. 
Boswell,  \\'harton,  Dr  I'.irr,  and  hiiiicueils  iiKire 
came,  saw,  and  believed  ;  but  those,  like  Malone, 
really  ijualilied  to  judge  denounced  the  imiiosture 
almost  from  the  first.  Ireland's  .audacity  now 
reached  the  folly  of  producing  a  deed  of  Shake- 
speare's be(|ueatliing  his  books  and  papers  to  a 
Williamllenrye  Indaunde,  an  a.ssumed  ancestor. 
Ne.xt  a  new  historical  jday  entitled  Vortiijcrn  was 
announceil,  and  carefully  concealed  until  its  pro- 
duction by  Sheridan  at  Drury  Lane.  It  wius  vapiil, 
worthless,  ami  un-Shakespearian,  and  wiist  hope- 
lessly damned  at  once,  and  this  fate  nijiped  in  the 
bud  the  growth  of  a  projected  .series  of  historical 
iilays,  of  which  indeed  tliat  on  Henry  II.  had  alreaily 
been  written.  The  uneasiness  of  the  impudent  young 
scoundrel's  father  at  leiiL'th  getting  the  better  of 
his  credulity,  he  deniaiuled  from  his  son  a  satis- 


factory e.\)ilanation  of  the  source  of  the  papers,  and 
the  young  man  was  forced  to  confess  liis  villany. 
He  published  his  confession  in  a  tract  in  1796,  and 
nioic  fully  in  his  Confessions  in  1805.  The  father's 
death  in  1800  was  supjioseil  to  have  bei^ii  hastened 
by  his  shame,  and  the  son  soon  sank  into  obscure 
poverty.  eUing  out  a  miserable  living  as  a  book- 
seller's hack,  till  his  death  on  17th  April  1835. 

IrelaiKl  Island,  one  of  the  Bermudas  (q.v.). 

Irensms,  one  of  the  most  important  of  the 
ante-Nicene  Christian  writers,  was  probably  born 
near  Smyrna,  in  Asia  Minor,  between  1'20  and  14t), 
and  in  his  early  youth  was  aci|uainted  with  Poly- 
carji ;  but  he  is  known  in  history  solely  through 
his  connection  with  the  Cruco-Ciaulish  Church  of 
southern  France,  of  which  he  was  a  bishop.  He 
was  a  priest  of  the  cluirch  of  Lyons,  under  the 
Bishop  Pothinus,  u]ion  whose  martyrdom,  in  (he 
pei-secution  of  Marcus  Aurelius,  in  177,  he  was  him- 
self elected  to  the  same  see,  which  he  continueil  to 
govern  for  twenty-live  years.  Gregory  of  Tours 
states  that  he  sutfered  martyrdom  in  the  persecu- 
tion under  Severus  in  202 ;  but  this  is  luoliably  a 
mistake.  His  day  is  the  28th  of  June.  Irenieus 
was  a  devoted  and  successful  missionary  bisho]i, 
but  his  name  is  associated  chiefly  with  his  activity 
in  opposing  the  Gnostics,  and  especially  the  \'alen- 
tinians,  and  with  his  atteni])ts  to  prevent  a  ruiitnre 
between  the  Eastern  and  AVestern  Churches  over 
the  question  of  the  day  on  which  Easter  was  to  be 
kept.  The  only  work  of  his  which  ha.s  come  down 
to  us,  except  a  few  fragments,  is  his  tieatise 
Ar/ainst  Heresies:  and  even  that,  except  parts  of 
the  first  book  which  are  jneserved  in  i|Uotations  in 
Hippolytus  .and  E]iiplianiiis,  we  have  only  in  a 
barbarous  Latin  version.  It  is  in  five  books,  the 
first  two  describing  and  criticising  the  tenets  of 
various  sects,  (Jnostic  and  Ebionite,  the  last  three 
setting  forth  the  orthodox  Christian  belief.  The 
first  edition  of  this  work  was  pnlilished  by  Erasmus 
(1526).  from  three  MSS.  which  have  since  been 
lost.  The  best  editions  are  those  of  Stieren  ( Leip. 
2  vols.  1851-53)  and  Harvey  (Camb.  1857).  There 
is  a  translation,  including  the  fragments,  in  Clark's 
Ante-Nicene  Libntri/.  An  able  examination  of 
Ireua'ns'  opinions  will  be  found  in  Dr  AVeriier's 
Der  PaidinisDiiis  ties  Irencrus  ( 1,890). 

Ireno,  a  poor  orphan  girl  of  Athens  (  born  about 
752),  wlio.se  lieauty  .and  talents  excited  the  ailmira- 
tion  of  the  Emperor  Leo  IV.,  who  niariicd  her  in 
769.  After  the  death  of  Leo  in  7.S0  she  ruled  .as 
regent  during  the  minority  of  her  son,  Constantine 
VI.  Banished  to  Lesbos  in  802,  she  died  there  the 
next  year.  The  Greek  Church,  on  account  of  her 
zeal  for  image-worship,  counts  her  among  its  saints. 
See  Byz.vntine  Empire. 

IretOU,  Hexhv,  an  English  general  of  the 
period  of  the  Commonwealth,  was  the  eldest 
son  iif  (ieinian  lietnn,  <il  Attenborongli,  Notting- 
ham, ami  was  born  in  Hill.  He  studied  at 
Oxford  and  at  the  .Middh'  Temiile,  London,  and 
oy  the  breaking  out  of  the  Civil  \Var  offered  his 
services  to  the  iiailiament.  His  connection  with 
Cromwell,  whose  daughter  Bridget  he  married  in 
1()46,  greatly  advanced  his  interests.  At  Naseby 
he  was  taken  prisoner  by  liiipert,  but  Cromwell's 
charge  set  liini  at  liberty.  Iicton  wius  one  of  the  most 
iniplacable  enemies  of  the  king,  and  signed  the 
warrant  for  his  execution.  He  accompanied  Crom- 
well to  Ireland,  and  in  16.50  became  lord-deputy. 
On  20tli  November  1651  lie  died  of  the  jil.ague 
before  the  walls  of  Limerick.  Fioni  Westminster 
.\bhey  his  remains  were  transferred  at  the  Hestora- 
tion  to  Tyburn. 

Iridoa',  or  iKin.ME.K,  a  natnr.al  order  of  endo- 
genous plants,  mostly  herbaceous,  with  bulbous, 
tuberous,  or  creeping  root-stocks ;  a  few  are  some- 


IRIDESCENCE 


IRKUTSK 


213 


what  sliiubliy.  Tlie  leaves  are  generally  sword- 
slia|H'<l,  in  two  rows,  ami  coiiifntit  (so  jilaceil  that 
one  seems  to  ride  on  the  back  of  another).  The 
perianth  is  ti  partite,  cidoured.  often  very  lieautifnl, 
in  some  regular,  in  otiiei's  irregular.  The  stamens 
are  three,  with  anthei-s  turned  outwards.  The 
ovary  is  inferior ;  there  is  one  style,  w  ilh  three 
stigmas,  which  are  often  petal-like,  and  add  mncli 
to  the  beauty  of  the  flower.  The  fruit  is  a  3- 
celled,  3-valved  capsule.  About  700  species  are 
known,  of  which  the  greater  number  are  natives  of 
warm  countries.  They  are  jiarticularly  abundant 
in  South  .Vfrica.  A  few  are  British.  Iris,  Gladio- 
lus, and  Crocus  are  familiar  e.xauiples  of  the  onler. 
Acridity  is  a  prevailing  characteristic,  and  some 
species  are  medicinal  ;  but  the  corms  and  root- 
stocks  of  some  are  edible. 

Iridescence,  the  sheen  of  mother-of-pearl  and 
other  objects  pos.sessing  a  finely-grooved  surface. 
It  is  due  to  Interference  (q.v.)  lietween  the  waves 
of  white  light  reflected  from  <liHerent  levels  in  the 
grooving  :  some  of  the  wave-lengths  are  more  com- 
pletely abolished  liy  interference  than  others  are ; 
the  result  is  that  the  residual  vibration  which 
reaches  the  eye  contains  a  preponderant  proi)ortion 
of  the  rays  which  have  been  less  adected  by  inter- 
ference, anil  the  reflected  light  accordingly  presents 
colours  which  \ary  according  to  the  angle  of  reflec- 
tion. 

Iridium  (sym.  Ir,  atomic  weight  192o — sp.  gr. 
•22'38)  is  one  of  the  so-called  noble  metals.  It  is 
occa-sionally  found  native  and  nearly  pure  in  con- 
siderable ma.sses  among  the  Uralian  ores  of  plat- 
inum, but  is  usually  combined  with  osmium  as  an 
alloy  in  flat  scales.  It  is  a  very  bard,  white,  brittle 
metal,  which  may  be  melted  liy  the  oxyhydrogen 
blowpipe,  or  l>y  the  heat  of  a  voltaic  current.  It  is 
malleable  at  a  w  bite  heat.  In  its  isolated  form  it 
is  unacted  upon  by  any  acid,  or  l>y  aipia  regia,  but 
as  an  alloy  it  dissolves  in  the  latter  fluid.  It  forms 
two  oxiiles,  Ir.^O^  and  IrO.^,  and  three  series  of  salts 
distinguishable  by  their  colours,  usually  much 
less  soluble  than  the  corresponding  platinum  com- 
pounds. Three  sulphides  and  chlorides  are  obtain- 
able. Iiidium  may  be  fused  with  phosphorus,  be- 
coming as  hard  as  before,  and  is  used  for  pen  points, 
contact  points  in  telegrajihy,  an<l  wearing  parts  of 
scientific  instruments.  Iridium  was  discovered  by 
Descotils  and  by  Tennant  in  180.S. 

Iri.S  (originally  a  personification  of  the  rainbow), 
the  me.ssenger  of  the  gods  in  the  lUiul,  an  ottice 
which  belongs  to  Hermes  in  the  Odi/sscij,  was 
daughter  of  Thaumas  and  Electra,  anil  sister  of  the 
Harpies.  In  the  earlier  poets  she  is  a  virgin  god- 
iless,  but  later  writers  make  her  wife  of  Ze|)liyrus, 
and  mother  of  Eros.  She  is  frequently  represented 
on  vii>es  and  in  bas-reliefs  as  a  youthful  winged 
virgin,  dressed  in  a  long  tunic,  with  a  herald's  stall 
and  a  pitcher  in  her  hands.  —The  broad  coloured 
ring  in  the  eye  is  called  the  Iris  (see  Kyk).  Iris  is 
also  the  name  of  one  of  the  Planetoids  (q.v. ),  dis- 
eovere<l  in  1S47. 

Iris  '"■  E'-oWKU-DE-LlCE,  a  numerous  genus  of 
plants  of  the  natural  order  Iridea',  having  the  three 
outer  segments  of  the  perianlb  relle.x(Kl,  the  three 
inner  arched  inwards,  and  three  petal-like  stigmas 
covering  the  stamens.  Tin;  species  are  widely 
spread  over  the  northern  heniisiiliere.  The  Yellow 
Iris  or  Corn  Flag  ( /.  //.•niii/iirorus)  is  abundant 
tiiroiighout  lintain,  and  is  readily  distinguished 
from  the  Stinking  Iris  {I.  firlii/in.sini/t )  by  its  larger 
and  bright  yellow  flowers.  The  latter  has  violet- 
blue  or  rarely  pale  yellowish-white  flowers,  and 
tin;  leaves  smell  disagreeably  when  bruised.  The 
flowers  of  most  of  the  species  are  beautiful.  Some 
of  them  have  received  much  attention  from  florists, 
particularly  /.  xijihiiim,  sometimes  called   Spanish 


Iris;    /.   xlpliiuuks   or   English   Iris;   .and   /.    gcr- 
maiiica  or  Common   Iris,    all    European    species. 


Yellow  Iris  (Iris pscuUaconts) : 
<t,  seeds. 

Many  fine  varieties  have  been  produced.  The 
Persian  Iria  {I.  jicrsica),  the  Snake's  head  Iris  (/. 
tubcros(i),  and  the  Chalcedonian  Iris  (/.  sK.fidiid) 
are  also  much  esteemed.  The  Persian  Iris  is 
delightfully  fragrant.  The  roots  of  all  these 
species  are  annually  exported  in  consideral>le 
quantities  from  Holland.  .Many  other  species  are 
of  frequent  occurrence  in  flower-gardens. — The 
fresh  root-stocks  of  /.  psciidacorus  are  very  acrid, 
as  are  those  of  many  other  species.  Those  of  /. 
florciitina,  I.  prillida,  and  /.  ncnnaiiiai  are  Orris 
Koot  (q.v.).  Those  of  /.  diehotoinit  are  eaten  in 
Siberia;  those  of  /.  cdidia  at  the  Cape  of  Cood 
Hope. 
Irish  Elli.    See  Elk. 

Irisll  .IIOSS.     See  C.\RR.\GEEN. 

Irish  Sea,  a  body  of  water  lying  between  the 
north  of  Ireland  and  the  north  of  England,  with 
the  south-western  counties  of  Scotland  on  the 
north.  It  is  connected  with  the  Atlantic  on  the 
north-west  by  the  North  Channel  and  on  the  south 
by  St  George's  Channel.  ISetween  the  coasts  of 
Louth  (Ireland)  and  Lancaster  the  Irish  Sea  has  a 
width  of  150  miles;  its  greatest  length  north  and 
south  is  about  the  same.  \Vitbin  its  boundaries 
lie  the  Isle  of  Man  and  .\nglesey,  with  Holyhead 
Island. 

Iritis  is  the  term  apjilied  to  inflammation  of 
the  iris.     See  EvE. 

Irkutsk,  a  government  of  eastern  Silicria, 
separated  from  China  on  the  S.  l>y  the  Sayan 
Mountains,  from  Transli.iikalia  on  the  K.  by  Lake 
Baikal,  and  lioundeil  W.  by  Yenisei-<k,  and  N.  ami 
NE.  by  Yakutsk,  occupies  an  area  of  'iS7,0(il  si|.  m. 
The  country  is  generally  mountainous,  but  pro- 
iluces  rye,  barley,  oats,  ami  vegetables.  The  most 
important  river  is  the  .Vngara  or  Ipper  Tungu/ka 
(1000  miles),  which  connects  Lake  Baikal  with 
the  river  Yenisei.  The  Lena  and  its  tributary  the 
Vitim  are  the  rivers  that  come  next  in  size.  Cold, 
iron,  and  salt  figure  foremost  aniimgst  the  mincial 
proilucts.  .Agriculture,  cattle- breeding,  ami  the 
transport  of  goods  lo  an<l  from  China  are  the 
chief  occupations  of  the  i)e()ple.  The  pop.,  oOl.-J.'t? 
in  1X!I7,  consists  of  Burials.  Tungus,  ami  Uussians 
(one-third  exiles  ami  forced  colcmists).  The 
industries    are     not    much    developed,    consisting 


214 


IRMIN 


IRON 


cliielly  of  Tjiandytlistilleries,  with  ironfoiiiuiiies 
and  factories  for  salt,  cloth,  and  pottery.  Tlie 
towns  .are  Irkutsk.  Kirensk  on  the  Lena,  Xijni- 
udinsk,  and  \"erkholensk. 

Iiaci  TSK,  the  capital,  on  the  Ang.ara,  is  the  resi- 
dence of  the  f^overnor-general  of  e.ostern  Siberia 
and  tlie  seat  of  a  bishop.  Althou<;h  .3722  miles 
from  St  Petersburg  (and  40  from  Lake  liaik.il), 
Lkutsk  is  the  best-built  town  in  Siberia,  with 
strai;^ht.  wi<le  streets,  and  handsome  ]iulilic  build- 
ings. It  possesses  a  cathedral,  stneral  chui'ohes, 
a  public  liiirary,  a  museum  of  natural  history,  .and 
other  public  institutions.  The  pop.,  32,.^12  in  187i), 
liad  increa.sed  to  43,962  in  1886:  it  consists  mostly 
of  Russians  and  liuriats.  Irkutsk  was  founded 
by  a  Coss.ack  chief,  Ivan  Pocliabof,  in  1052,  and 
obtained  town-rights  in  1686.  Owing  to  its  po.si- 
tion  on  the  great  Siberian  highway  between  China  ( 
.and  Russia,  it  is  the  commercial  centre  of  Siberia, 
especially  for  the  tea-trade  :  the  annual  value  of  its 
tr.ade  ainounts  to  about  £1,100,000.  The  Angara 
constitutes  the  main  highw.ay  for  goods  bound  for 
Kiachta  across  Lake  liaikal,  as  well  as  for  those 
coming  from  eastern  Siberia  .and  China  for  Russi.a. 
The  communications  between  Irkutsk  .and  Yakutsk 
and  the  northern  parts  of  Siberia  are  carried  on 
by  the  river  Lena.  Irkutsk  is  an  important  station 
on  the  great  tr.an.scontinental  Sibcri.an  r.ailw.av.  A 
lire  in  1879  did  damage  to  tlie  extent  of  £2,000,000. 

Ii'iiiiii  and  Irmin  Pillars.  Irmin  was  a  god 
of  the  ancient  (ierniiinic  tribes,  the  Hermiones  and 
the  Hermnndu.ses.  To  him  were  dedicatoil  the  so- 
called  Irmin  or  Irmen  Pill.ars.  one  of  which  origin- 
ally stood  at  Marsberg  in  'Westph.alia,  luit  was 
destroyed  by  C^harlemagne  in  772.  These  pillars 
■were  mostly  made  of  wood,  and  probably  were 
crowned  with  .an  image  of  the  god.  They  were 
lield  in  great  veneration  by  the  people.  '  Irmin's 
ch.ariot '  was  a  name  given  to  the  constellation  of 
the  (Jreat  Bear. 

IriierillS,  the  '  Lucerna  Juris,' a  learne<l  jurist 
of  the  12th  century,  who  was  born  in  liologna,  ilour- 
ished  (here  as  ,a  teacher  of  the  liberal  arts,  and 
died  under  the  Emperor  Lotliair  II.  before  1140. 
One  of  the  earli<'st  to  devote  serious  stud}'  to  the 
JnstHiitc.-i  and  Coile  of  .Justinian,  he  has  been  (.s(mie 
think  without  re.ason )  regarded  .as  the  founder  of 
the  Rolognese  school  of  law.  We  possess  by  him 
some  unpriiited  C!los.ses,  .and  the  so-called  Aiit/icii- 
lica,  an  ejiitome  of  the  Norcll.i  of  .lustinian.  His 
Formtilan'iiiii  TcihrUidtnim,  a.  directory  for  notaries, 
and  his  i^hnvstionr.':  .are  not  now  extant.  Ilis  n.anie 
also  occurs  in  the  forms  Ou.arnerius,  Warnerius, 
&c.  See  the  monograph  by  Vecchio  (Pisa,  1869), 
and  the  3d  vol.  of  ticker's  Furschiiiig.  znr  llcichs- 
V.  Rcrjdsfjrsch.  Itiilictis  {Innshi:  1870). 

Iron,  syin.  Fe  {fcrnon),  atomic  weight  56, 
sp.  gr.  78  to  7'9;  its  density  being  increased  by 
hammering,  rolling,  iVc.  I'liic  iron  is  a  chemical 
curiosity  obtainable  in  the  laboratory  by  reducing 
])ure  oxide  by  charcoal  or  hydrogen  at  a  very  high 
temi)rrature.  A  button  of  the  metal  thus  obtained 
is  white  .and  of  perfect  lustre,  very  tough,  an<l 
much  softer  th.an  ordinary  iron.  Its  melting-jioint 
is  higher,  so  much  so  th.at  if  we  attenijit  to  fuse  it 
when  exposed  to  the  air  it  burns  before  its  melling- 
]ioint  is  .attained. 

Orditiary  commerci.al  iron  is  protected  from  snch 
combustion  by  the  impurities  it  contains;  these 
being  more  readily  oxidised  than  tlie  iron  itself, 
while  they  lower  its  ftising-point.  Carbon,  silicon. 
Kul]ihnr,  and  phosphorus  are  the  most  mit.alile  of 
these  imjiurities,  but  manganese,  titanium,  calcium, 
cojiper,  arsenic,  ami  other  metals  also  occur  in 
minute  ijuantities  in  some  .samples.  The  propor- 
tiims  of  all  the.se  are  largest  in  crude  or  •  pig'  iron, 
and  in  ordinary  cast-iron.     They  are  reduced  to  a  ^ 


minimum  in  wrought  or  malleable  iron.  The  colour 
of  this  is  gray  or  liluishwhite  ;  it  is  hard  and  his- 
tnuis,  takes  a  high  jiolish,  is  librcms  in  texture,  and 
when  broken  .across  exhiliits  a  ragged  fracture. 
It  requires  ,a  very  intense  he.at  for  its  fusion,  but 
before  melting  passes  into  .a  soft,  pa.sty  condition, 
in  which  state  two  or  more  pieces  of  iron  may,  by 
being  hammered  together,  be  united  or  welded  so 
completely  as  to  form,  to  all  intents  .and  purpo.ses, 
a  single  ])iece.  At  a  red  heat  it  may  be  readily 
forged  into  any  shape  ;  but  .at  onlinary  tempera- 
tures it  possesses  very  little  malleability,  as  com- 
pared with  gold  and  silver.  In  ductility  it  stands 
very  high,  being  b.arely  exceeded  by  gold,  silver, 
and  pl.atinum  :  and  its  tenacity  is  very  gre.at ;  when 
combined  with  a  little  carbon  it  stands  at  the  head 
of  all  the  metals  (.see  Stekl).  Us  susceptibility 
to  magnetism  is  one  of  its  remark.able  character- 
istics (see  M.\gxetism).  At  a  high  temperature 
it  burns  readily,  as  may  be  seen  at  the  forge, 
or  (  more  strikingly )  when  a  glowing  wire  is  intro- 
duced into  a  jar  of  oxygen.  In  dry  air  and  at 
onlinary  temperatures  the  lustrous  surface  of  the 
metal  remains  unchanged  ;  but  in  a  moist  atmo- 
sphere the  surf.ace  r.ajiidly  becomes  oxidised  and 
covered  with  rust,  which  consists  nniinly  of  the 
hydrated  peroxide  of  iron.  At  a  bright  red  heat 
iron  combines  with  the  oxygen  of  steam  and 
liberates  hydrogen. 

Kdtive  iron  is  <a  r.are  mineral,  found  in  small 
grains  in  some  basaltic  rocks,  ami  \my  rarely  as 
thill  veins.  It  occurs  as  one  of  tlie  chief  constit- 
uents of  one  class  of  meteoric  stones.  Its  com- 
pounds are  very  widely  distributed,  more  so  than 
any  other  of  the  heavy  metals.  Nearly  all  of  the 
sedimentary  rocks  are  tinted  by  its  oxides,  and  we 
cannot  (iml  a  handful  of  .soil  on  any  part  of  the 
surface  of  the  earth  that  is  free  from  them. 

(«)  Oxides  of  Iron. — Iron  forms  four  definite  coin- 
pounds  with  oxygen — viz.  (1)  the  protoxide  or 
ferrous  oxide,  FeO,  which  is  the  base  of  the  green 
or  ferrous  salts  of  iron  ;  (2)  the  scs'jnioxit/e  or 
pe,roxidc  or  ferric  oxide,  Fe^f),,  which  is  the  base 
of  the  red  m  ferric  salts ;  (3)  tlie  Itlarl:  or  mtiffiictic 
oxide,  Fe.Oj,  which  is  regarded  .as  a  comiiouiid  of 
the  two  preceding  oxides;  .and  (4)  a  question.able 
compound,  ferric  arid,  FcO^.  The  protoxide  can- 
not be  iiblaiiied  in  an  isolated  state,  but  it  fiu'ins 
the  b.ase  of  \arious  ferrous  salts,  and  combines  with 
w.ater  to  form  a  hydrate,  FeO, HO,  which,  on  the 
addition  of  an  alkali,  falls  in  white  Hakes  pro- 
vided the  water  in  which  they  .are  suspended  con- 
tains no  free  oxygen  ;  otherwise  the  precipitate  is 
gray. 

The  most  important  piotosalts  of  iron,  or  ferrous 
.s.alts,  are  the  carbonate,  the  sulph.ate,  the  phos- 
])liate,  and  the  .silicate.  Carbonate  of  iron  or 
ferrous  carbonate,  FeO.CO.j,  exists  naturally  in 
vaihuis  minerals,  and  may  be  obtained  arlilicially 
by  ])recipitatiiig  a  soluble  protosalt  of  iron  with 
carbonate  of  ]iotash  or  soda,  when  the  carbonate 
falls  in  white  Hakes.  On  ex|iosure  to  the  air  it 
absorbs  oxygen  and  gives  oil'  carbonic  acid,  .and 
is  thus  converted  into  the  hydrated  peroxide. 
Sidphatc  of  iron  or  ferrous  .in//t/iate,  FeO, SO.,, 
7H2O  (or  l''eSOj,7H.X)),  is  obtained  by  the  solii- 
ti<m  of  iron,  «r  its  sulphide,  in  dilute  sulphuric 
.acid  ;  in  the  former  case  there  is  .an  evolution  of 
hydrogen,  and  in  the  latter  of  sulphuretted  hydro- 
gen. On  evaporation  of  the  solution  the  salt  is 
obtained  in  clear,  bluish-green  rhomboid.al  crystals 
containini,'  seven  atoms  of  water.  This  salt  is 
commercially  known  as  copperas  or  green  vitriol. 
I'/ios/diate  of  iron  is  obtained  by  |)recipitating  a 
solution  of  a  )>rotos;ilt  of  iron  with  )ihospliate  of 
soda,  when  a  white  liiecipitate  of  )ihosphale  of  iron 
Ls  thrown  down.  All  tlie.so  salts,  especially  the 
earbonaie  and   sulphate,   are  exten.sively  used   in 


IRON 


215 


nipiHi-iiie.  .'^i/icate  mid  pliospliate  of  iron  occur 
naturally  in  many  minerals. 

Tl;e  />cro.vir/c  uf  iron,  or  sesijnioxiile,  Fc...!),,, 
is  obtained  in  an  anhydrous  forui  by  iynitin^' 
the  protosulpliate,  and  is  known  in  the  arts 
uuiier  the  names  Coleothnr,  Crocus  of  Murs;  or 
liovgc,  accordinj;  to  the  degree  of  levigation  to 
which  it  hius  heen  submitted.  It  is  eini)loyed 
for  ]iolishinj;  glass,  jewellery,  \'c. ,  and  is  also  used 
as  a  pigment.  It  occurs  both  in  the  anhydrous 
and  in  the  liydrated  form  in  various  miner.als. 
The  liydrated  peroxide,  '2Fe^l  >.|,3HJ_),  is  obtaiiie<l 
by  precijiitating  a  solution  of  a  peisalt  of  iron 
with  an  excess  of  potash,  ammonia,  or  alk.aline 
carbonate.  It  falls  as  a  yellowish-brown  flocoulent 
precipitate,  which  when  dried  forms  a  dense  brown 
mass.  Kust,  as  lia.s  been  alrea<ly  mentioned,  is  a 
liydrated  peroxide. 

The  most  important  of  the  persalts  of  iron,  ov  ferric 
s.ilts,  are  the  neutral  and  the  basic  sulphate,  whose 
formula'  are  FeJJ.i,3S03  and  Fe„0,„3S03,5Fe.,03 
respectively,  the  nitrate,  Fe.^03,3NU3,  the  phos- 
phate, anil  the  silicate.  Of  tliese  the  neutral 
sulphate,  the  phosphate,  and  the  silicate  occur  in 
various  minerals.  The  nitrate,  wliicli  is  obtained 
by  the  .solution  of  iron  in  nitric  acid,  is  a  useful 
iiiedicin.al  agent. 

The  bluelc  or  magnetic  oxide  is  formed  when  iron 
is  heated  in  air  or  in  oxygen,  oi'  in  vapour  of  water. 

(b)  Ilaluid  suits  of  iron — the  chlorides,  bromides, 
and  iodides.  There  are  two  chlorides — viz.  a  proto- 
chloride,  FeCl,  and  a  perchloride  or  sesquichloride, 
F'eX'l^.  The  latter  may  be  obtained  by  dissolv- 
ing peroxide  of  iron  in  hydrochloric  acid.  The 
tincture  of  the  sesijuichloride  of  iron  is  much  em- 
ployed ill  medicine.  The  jirotiodide  is  an  extremely 
valuable  therapeutic  agent. 

(c)  There  are  several  sutpfiit/cs  or  sidphurets  of 
iron.  The  luotosulphide,  FeS,  occurs  in  small 
quantity  in  meteoric  iron.  It  may  be  obtained 
artificially  by  heating  iron  with  sul])hur.  It  is  a 
blackish,  hrittle  substance,  retaining  in  some  degree 
the  magnetic  properties  of  metallic  iron.  It  is 
insolulile  in  water,  but  in  moist  air  becomes 
oxidised  into  protosulpliate  of  iron.  With  acids  it 
develops  sulpiiuretted  hydrogen.  The  bisuliihide 
of  iron,  FeSo,  is  the  iron  pi/rites  of  mineralogists, 
and  the  miindic  of  commerce.  Under  the  latter 
name  it  is  used  e.xtensively  in  the  preparation  of 
oil  of  vitriol.  The  other  sulphides  are  of  less 
importance. 

The  protosnits  and  the  persnits,  or  i\\e  ferrous  and 
t\ic- ferric  srdts,  give  totally  dili'erent  reactions  with 
the  ordinary  tests.  The  solutions  of  the  former 
have  a  p.ale-green  colour,  while  tliose  of  the  latter 
are  generally  of  a  lirownishyellow  (uilour.  Sul- 
]iliuretted  Ijydrogen  gives  no  iirei-ijiitate  with  an 
acid  solution  of  .a  ferrous  salt,  while  it  gives  a 
milky  precipitate  of  sulphur  with  a  solution  of 
a  ferric  salt.  Potash,  soda,  and  ammonia  throw- 
down  a  gray  or  green  hyilrated  oxi<le  from  the 
former,  which  changes  to  darker  green  and  brown, 
and  a  brown  liydrated  peroxide  from  the  latter. 
Fcrroi'vaniile  of  jiotas^ium  gives  with  ferrous  salts 
a  white  precipitate,  which  soon  becomes  blue, 
while  with  ferric  .salts  it  at  once  produces  a  blue 
juecipitate,  even  in  a  very  dilute  solution.  Tinc- 
ture of  galls  (tannic  ,acid )  produces  no  immediate 
change  of  colour  with  the  ferrous,  but  a  deep 
l)lackishbliie  colour  (ink)  with  the  ferric  salts. 
Sul]ihocyani<le  of  potassium  produces  no  change 
with  the  ferrous,  but  gives  a  ileeji  blood-red  tint 
with  the  ferric  salts.  Succinate  and  benzoate  of 
animonia  produce  no  precipitate  or  change  of 
colour  with  the  former,  while  with  the  latter,  if 
the  solution  is  not  too  acid,  they  throw  down  jiale 
reddishlirown  precipitates. 

M-VXiFACTlKE  ill  Ikon. — The  increiusing  use  of 


iron  is  a  prominent  characteristii'  of  the  )ireseiit 
age,  and  every  day  sees  some  new  ainilication  of  it 
in  the  arts  of  life,  Although  the  most  useful  of  the 
metals,  it  was  not  the  first  known.  The  ililllcully 
of  reilucing  it  from  its  ores  would  naturally  m.ike 
it  a  later  acquisition  than  gold,  silver,  and  cop])er 
(.see  Uhonzk).  The  reduction  of  the  ore  known  as 
the  black  oxide  of  iron,  however,  has  been  carried 
on  in  India  from  a  \('ry  early  time. 

In  Euro]ie  the  rich  s]iecular  and  other  ores  of 
Spain  and  Kllia  were  much  used  during  the  Uoiuan 
period  ;  in  Greece,  also,  iron  was  known,  though, 
as  anion":  the  Romans,  its  use  was  subsequent  to 
that  of  bronze.  We  are  informed,  too,  by  the 
Roman  historians  that  this  metal  was  eniiihiyed  by 
the  ancient  liritons  for  the  manufacture  of  spears 
and  lances.  The  Konians,  during  their  occu]iation 
of  Britain,  manufactured  iron  to  a  considerable 
extent,  as  is  shown  by  the  cinder-heaps  in  the 
Forest  of  Dean  and  otlier  places.  The  rude  pro- 
cesses then  in  use  left  so  iiiucli  iron  in  the  cinders 
that  those  of  Dean  Forest  furnished  the  chief  supply 
of  ore  to  twenty  furnaces  for  between  200  and  riOO 
years.  In  those  early  times  the  iron  ores  were 
reduced  in  a  simple  conical  furnace,  called  an  air- 
bloomery,  erected  on  the  top  of  a  hill  in  order  to 
obtain  the  greatest  blast  of  wind.  The  furmices 
were  subsequently  enlarged,  and  supidied  with  an 
artificial  blast.  Charcoal  was  the  only  fuel  used 
in  smelting  till  1618,  when  Dud  Dudley  introduced 
coal  for  this  purpose  :  but,  the  iron-masters  being 
unanimously  opposed  to  the  change,  Dudley's  im- 
provement <lied  with  himself.  It  was  not  reintro- 
duced till  Abraham  Darby,  in  1713,  employed  it  in 
liis  furnace  at  t'oalbrookdale.  But,  as  this  method 
was  not  properly  understood,  the  production  of 
English  iron  declined  with  the  change  of  fuel,  till, 
in  17-40,  it  was  only  three-fourths  of  what  it  had 
formerly  been.  About  ten  years  after  this,  how- 
ever, the  introduction  of  coke  gave  reneweil  vigour 
to  the  iron-tr.ade,  and  then  followed  in  rapid  suc- 
cession those  great  imiirovements  in  the  manufac- 
ture which  have  given  to  the  history  of  iron  the 
interest  of  a  romance.  The  introduction  of  Watt's 
steam-engine  in  1770,  the  process  of  ]iuddling  and 
rolling  invented  Viy  Henry  Cort  in  1784,  and  the 
employment  of  the  liotblast  by  Neilson  of  tilas- 
gow  in  1830  have  each  been  of  inestimable  service. 
The  greatest  improvement  introduced  into  the  iron 
manufacture  in  recent  times  is  the  process  of  Sir 
Henry  Bessemer  for  the  production  of  mild  steel, 
patented  in  18.)t5  (see  Besse.meu).  The  '  Siemens- 
Martin  '  method  of  making  steel  has  also  of  late 
come  into  e-xtensive  use. 

Iron  ores  are  ahunilantly  distrilmted  over  tlie 
globe,  the  chief  kinds  being  ( 1 )  magnetic  iron 
ore;  (2)  red  liMMiiatite,  s]iecular,  or  red  iron  ore; 
(3)  brown  li;rmalile  or  brown  iron  ore  ;  (4)  carbon- 
ate of  iron,  iiududing  spathic  ore,  clay  ironstone, 
anil  hlackband  ironstone. 

The  ore  richest  in  the  metal  is  the  nine/netic 
or  /)/«(•/,■  oxide  of  iron.  When  pure  it  contains 
nothing  but  oxygen  and  iron,  its  chemical  for- 
mula bidng  FejO,.  which  ^i\cs  73  jier  cent,  of 
iron  by  weight.  It  occurs  in  dark  heavy  masses 
or  black  crystals,  and  is  found  in  the  oldei-  jirimary 
rocks.  Sweden  is  famous  for  this  ore,  and  for  the 
iron  produced  from  it.  which  is  esteemed  the  best 
in  Europe.  The  celebrated  mines  of  Danncmura. 
in  that  country,  have  been  constantly  winked  since 
the  loth  century.  Russia,  too,  has  gre.-it  iron- 
works in  the  I'r.-il  Mountains,  which  are  supplied 
with  this  ore.  So  also  have  Canada  and  several 
of  the  American  slates,  as  N'irginia,  Pennsylvania, 
New  .Iei"sey,  iSirc.  The  rock  formations  in  \vhich 
magnetic  iron  ore  occurs  very  rarely  contain  coal  ; 
hence  it  is  locally  smelteil  with  wood-charcoal, 
which  contains  no  sulphur. 


216 


IRON 


Eal  hiriiuitite  contains  a  little  more  oxygen,  its 
forniula  hein;;  I'^jOj,  that  is  to  say,  70  jicr  tent,  of 
iron  liy  weight  if  pure.  Tlie  best  ores  actually 
contain  from  60  to  G7  per  cent.  Thore  are  several 
varieties  of  this  ore.  The  lirsi  of  these,  sjieciilar 
iron,  so  called  from  its  lirif;ht  metallic  lustre, 
occurs  in  large  ami  beautiful  crystalline  ma.«ses 
in  the  island  of  Elba,  where  it  has  been  worked 
for  more  than  '2(R)0  yeai-s,  and  is  likewise  found  in 
many  other  ))arts  of  the  world.  It  is  of  a  steel- 
gray  colour,  a-ssuming  a  red  tint  in  thin  fragments 
and  when  scratched.  Another  variety  is  hiihiey 
ore.  Its  characteristic  form  is  in  large  kidney- 
shaped  no<lules,  with  a  line  radiated  structure. 
Ked  ha-matite  is  the  most  almmlant  variety.  It 
occurs  in  niiussive  deposits  and  in  thin  strata;  some 
specimens  are  hard,  others  pulverulent  and  so  soft 
that  when  rubbed  it  coats  the  fingers  with  an 
unctuous  smear  like  plumbago,  but  of  red  colour. 
Its  impmtance  has  niuch  increased  of  late  owing  to 
its  special  fitness  for  making  the  pig-iron  used  in 
the  ordinary  Bessemer  process.  This  \aluable  iron 
ore  is  found  in  great  abundance  at  M'hitehaven  and 
I'lverstone,  in  the  north-west  of  England,  where 
splendid  masses  of  it  occur,  15,  30,  and  even  GO  feet 
in  thickness.  Va.st  deposits  are  found  in  the  north 
of  Spain  near  Bilbao,  where  it  is  now  largely 
worked  and  exported  to  Great  Britain,  which  in 
1890-95  received  annually  from  -.'.oOO.OOO  to  ,'!,500,000 
tons,  worth  from  £2,000,000  to  £2,500,000. 

Broini  /Kcmutifc,  or  brown  iron  ore,  is  a  livdrated 
]>eroxide  of  iron,  and  has  the  same  composition  as 
red  luematite,  except  that  it  contains  about  14  per 
cent,  of  water.  It  is  generally  found  massive, 
more  rarely  crystalline,  and  a  variety  occurring  in 
small  rounded  nodules  is  called  pea  iron  ore.  When 
mixed  with  earth  or  clay  it  forms  the  pigment.s 
vellow  ochre  and  brown  umber.  Brown  luematite 
IS  now  an  important  ore  in  (Jrcat  Britain.  It 
occurs  in  dill'erent  geological  formations,  chietly 
in  Devonshire,  the  Forest  of  Dean,  South  Wales, 
and  in  the  county  of  Antrim  in  Irelaml  ;  also  in  an 
earthy  form  in  Northamptonshire.  It  is  the  ore 
chietly  smelted  in  France  and  Germany. 

Boij  iron  ore  is  an  imiiure  variety  of  brown 
haematite  usually  containing  |)hosphorus.  It  occurs 
in  curious  pockets  in  peat. 

I/mciiitc  is  a  ilark-gray  dense  rock  composed 
largely  of  i)eroxide  of  iron  with  varying  quautities 
of  titanic  acid.  It  is  found  abundantly  in  Norway, 
and  is  now  in  practical  use.  The  black  saiul  found 
on  the  north-east  shores  of  Canada,  and  at 
Taranaki,  New  Zealand,  is  similar,  but  the  oxide 
of  iron  is  magnetic. 

Garhomiteofiron,  when  found  in  a  comparatively 
pure  and  crystallised  state,  is  known  as  sjmthic, 
spnthuse,  or  sparrij  iron  ore  :  but  ^^•hen  im|)ure  ami 
earthy,  as  ctu;/  ironstone  and  hluchhuiid  ironstone. 
Spathic  ore  was  little  worked  in  England  previous 
to  1851,  soon  after  which  it  was  discovered  in 
Somersetshire.  The  Erzberg,  near  Eisenerz,  in 
Styria,  is  the  most  famous  locality  for  this  ore, 
where  it  has  been  worked  for  ages.  The  sjiathic 
carbonates  which  are  the  richest  in  manganese  have 
been  nnich  in  demand  to  yield  the  spiegeleisen 
re(|uireil  in  the  Bessemer  process.  In  its  purest 
form  it  contains  48  per  cent,  of  iron  :  and  in  colour 
't  varies  from  white  to  liull'  or  dark  brown,  some 
s-pccimens  of  it  taking  a  beautiful  polish,  and  look- 
ing like  marlile.  The  clay  and  blackliand  iron- 
stones are  essentially  mixtures  of  carbonate  of  iron 
with  clay,  blackband  having  also  a  considerable 
|protiortion  of  coaly  or  bituminous  matter.  These 
dull  earthy-looking  ores  occur  abundantly  in  (Jrcat 
Britain.  Until  lately  aliove  ono-lhini  of  all  tin- 
ore  mined  in  the  country  was  olitaincd  froni  tlic 
coal-measures,  where  fortunately  both  the  fuel  and 
the  limestone,   indispensable  for  the  reduction  of 


the  iron,  are  also  found.     The  ore  occui's  as  balls 
or  nodules,  or  in  continuous  beds. 

The  following  table  shows  how  widely  distributed 
are  British  ironstones.  The  last  item  of  English 
production  is  especially  signilicant.  It  represents 
the  poorest  and  woi-st  of  all  the  workable  ores,  but, 
being  so  easily  obtaine<l  (mostly  in  oiien  workings 
like  stone  ([uarries),  is  very  cheap,  and,  being  also 
near  to  abundance  of  coal,  is  used  in  the  great 
quantities  there  .stated.  It  is  indeed  merely  an 
indurated  ferruginous  mud  containing  from  40  down 
to  oidy  20  per  cent,  of  iron. 

PRODUCTION    OF    IRON-STONE    FROM    MINES    UNDER 
THE   COAL-MINE.S   REGUL.VTION    ACT. 


1887. 

1888. 

Couutles. 

Aveinge 

Arenige 

Tons. 

Prit-e 
per  Tun. 

Tons. 

Price 
per  Tun. 

s.    d. 

s.    d. 

366 

36 
1,037 

7     0 
7    0 
6    0 

605 
213 
761 

7     0 

7     0 

Cuiiilwrland 

6     0 

Denbigh 

2,713 

7    0 

651 

7    0 

Derby 

5,799 

6    2 

11,S23 

6    0 

Glamorgan 

22,472 

S    0 

22,753 

7    0 

Lincoln  

78,047 

3    0 

44,187 

3    0 

Moninoutll 

22,139 

7     9 

1S,S63 

7     9 

Nottinfihain 

121 

6    0 

750 

6    0 

100,600 
480,400 

5    0 
5    0 

131,100 

1,629,277 

5    0 

North  Staffordshire.. 

5    0 

.Suutli  Stall'ordsliirc. 

97,618 

8    1 

60,491 

10    7 

Warwick 

1,838 

7    4 

4,230 

8    0 

Worcester 

12,544 

8    1 

7,571 

10    7 

Yorkshire  (E.  &  W.) 

81,868 

10    0 

67,148 

10    0 

Yorksliire(  North  R.) 

4,980,421 

2  11 

6,395,942 

2  11 

Total,  England.... 

6,248,019 

7,396,366 

607,697 
115,399 

8    0 
8    0 

557,309 
99,8b9 

S    0 

Dumbarton 

8    0 

Edinburgh 

79,791 

9    0 

66,127 

9    0 

Fifeshire 

2,980 

9    0 

2,846 

9    0 

Haddington 

170 

9    0 

75 

9    0 

East  Lanark 

162,066 

9    0 

128,.'.32 

9    0 

We-st  Lanark 

112,806 

8    6 

65,186 

8    6 

76,793 

3,177 

153,892 

8,128 

9    0 
9    0 
8    0 
0    0 

95,866 
16,364 
179,b33 
30,680 

9    0 

Perthshire         ...     . 

9    0 

8    0 

Stirling 

9    0 

Total,  Scotland.... 

1,321,899 

1.238,597 

Grand  Total- 

United  Kingdom 

7,669,918 

8,636,032 

Including  the  ores  mined  under  the  Metalliferous 
Mines  Act— ores  not  diiectly  associated  with  coal 
—  the  iron  ore  raised  in  1878  was  15,72(1,870  ions. 
In  1894  it  was  12,.'?(i7,."50S  tons,  valued  tit  .f3, 190,047; 
the  metal  iiroduced  was  4, .347. 472  tons,  value 
£9,999,186.  In  the  I'nited  Slates  the  production 
of  oie  was  7, 120,362  ( long)  tons ;  in  1889,  14,518,041 ; 
while  in  1894,  tlie  proilnce  of  pig  iron  was  6,657,388 
tons,  value  .$65,007,247.  In  (iermany,  11,406,100 
tons  of  iron  ore  weie  raiscil  in  1890,  and  12,403,800 
in  1894.  In  1893,  France  i.iised  3,517,438  tons  of 
iion  ore:  Austria-lliingaiy.  1,100,000  Ions;  while 
Russia  produced  1,272,235  tons  of  pig-iron. 

The  ancient  iron-masters  were  unable  to  work 
any  but  the  richest  and  |iurest  ores,  the  magnetic 
oxides  and  haniatitcs.  The  above  table  shows  by 
the  price  and  (|uantity  of  the  North  Hiding  ores 
that  we  iiiv  no«'  tible  to  work  very  poor  and  very 
imiiure  material. 

The  most  remarkable  and  useful  i)roperty  of 
carbon,  that  uiion  which  its  value  as  a  fuel,  ^c. 
depends,  is  tiiat  when  remaining  at  ordinary 
terrestrial  tem|ierature  it  is  exceptionally  inert, 
does  not  combine  with  the  oxygen  of  the  air  or 
even  with  jmrc  oxygen,  nor  with  other  elementary 
subst.ances  (lluoiine  perhaps  excepted),  but  when 
heated  it  ac(|uircs  so  grccily  an  :illinity  for  oxy- 
gen that  it  not  only  burns  in   air     i.e.  comliines 


IRON 


217 


Catalan  or  Corsican  Furnace. 


violently  with  its  oxygen  (see  CoMBl'STIox),  but 

will  take  oxygen  away  from  most  of  its  ooinpounils, 

notably  from  the  metallic  oxides.     This  action  of 

removing  oxygen  from  oxides  of  metals  and  leaving 

the  metal  in  tlie  reguline  or  metallic  state  is  called 

retluction.  and  the  great   reducing  agent   of    the 

metallurgist  is  heated  carbon.      Hydrogen  acts  in 

a  .similar  manner,  and  is  also  used  as  a  reducing 

agent. 
The  ancient  iron-masters  obtained  iron  and  steel 

by  simply  heating  the  purest  obtainable  oxides  of 

iron  with  an  easily-prepared  and  nearly  pure  form 

of    carbon — viz.    wood-charcoal.       Their    furnaces 

were  of  very 
simple  con- 
struction, 
merely  a 

hearth  or  tire- 
place  in  which 
the  ore  and 
the  charcoal 
were  mixed 
together  and 
a  blast  applied 
to  obtain  the 
necessary  high 
temperature. 
Such  simple 
iron-making 
is  still  prac- 
tised in  India, 
Burma,  Bor- 
neo, China. 
Madagascar, 
iVc. ,  and  very 
tine  qualities 
of  iron  and 
steel  are  thus 
produced. 
Space  will  not  permit  a  detailed  description  of  the 

various  forms  of  ancient  furnaces,  but  there  is  one 

that  still  survives  in  Europe  which  is  typical  and 

specially  interesting.     It  is  shown  in  fig.  1,  and  is 

known  as  the  '  Catalan '  or  Coi-sican  furnace.     The 

blowing  apparatus   is   very   curious   aiul   effective. 
/"   is  the   hearth   or   furnace   with   the   tuyere  or 

blowing-tube  inserted  in  an  o])ening  of  the  wall. 

The  bottom  of  the  hearth  is  maile  of  a  sandstone 

that  will  bear  great  heat,  and  is  lined  with  charcoal 

dust.     A  pile  of  rich   ore,  usually 

hematite,    is    placed    on   this    and 

lieaped    up   over   the   curved    wall 

oiiposite  the  tuyere.     The  hearth  is 

then    tilled    up    with    charcoal    and 

covered    over   with    a    mixture  of 

charcoal  dust  and  small  ore,  moist- 

eneil     and     matted     together.      A 

gentle  blast  is  applied  at  first,  and 

when  the  Hame  bursts  through  the 

coating  more  of  the  same  material 

is  laid  over  to  keep  b;ick  the  main 

charge  until  the  mass  is  sufficiently 

heated  im  a  fair  start.     Then  the 

bla.st  is  turned  im  fully,  and  the  ore 

that  was  piled  on  the  curve<l  wall  is 

pushed  down  gradually  ;us  the  lower 

portion  is  reduced,  and  this  is  con 

tinned  until  a  mass  of  spongy  iron,  or 

'  bloom,'  is  formed.      This  is  drawn 

out,  hammered.  an<l  rolled  with  very 

jirimitive  machinery.     The  ancient 

wr>rkers  were  not  acquainted  with 

the  use  of  lime  as  an  artilicial  flux, 

and  hence  the  silica  of  the  ore  was 

got   rid  of  by  combining  with  some 

of  the  oxide  of  iron  and  thus  forming  a  liqui 

( see  Sl.V(.;  ). 
The    blowing-ai)paratus   or   '  tronipe '   shown   in 


the  drawing  is  tiseil  in  mountainous  countries 
where  streams  from  high  levels  are  available.  The 
upper  tank  a  is  erected  on  a  ledge  of  rock  with 
one  end  overhanging,  in  this  case  stipported  by  a 
tree-trunk.  Connected  with  the  large  hole  in  the 
liottom  is  a  wooden  tul>e  with  oldique  side  o|ienings, 
b.  It.  This  tube  terminates  at  the  top  of  a  lower 
tank  c,  w  hich  has  an  outflow  opening  at  </,  while  its 
upper  ])art  communicates  with  the  tuyere  at  e. 
The  tank  is  otherwise  closed  and  air-tight.  At  a 
in  the  upper  tank  is  a  plug  to  regulate  the  flow  of 
water  into  the  wooden  tube.  When  water  flows 
down  this  tube  its  velocity  is  of  cour-se  accelerated 
as  it  descends.  This  acceleration  divides  the  column 
of  water,  and  the  spaces  between  become  more  or 
less  vacuous.  Consequently  air  rushes  in  at  h,  h,  is 
dragged  down  by  the  descending  water,  aiul  cannot 
return  against  the  stream,  but  is  forced  by  the 
rushing  water  through  the  narrow  passage  into  the 
upper  part  of  the  lower  tank,  and  there  compressed 
in  a  degree  that  admits  of  regulation  by  raising  or 
lowering  the  plug  a.  When  the  inflow  of  water  is 
in  excess  of  the  outflow,  the  pressure  increases, 
when  the  outflow  is  in  excess  it  diminishes,  when 
they  are  equal  it  remains  steady,  and  thus  the 
required  variations  of  lilast  are  regulated. 

Jlodern  blast-furnaces  are  hollow  towers  ranging 
from  30  or  40  to  nearly  100  feet  in  height,  and  with 
internal  capacities  varying  from  500  cubic  feet  to 
upwards  of  25,000.  The  smallest  furnaces  are  those 
used  for  smelting  the  richest  and  jiurest  ores  with 
charcoal,  and,  generally  speaking,  the  poorer  the 
ores  the  larger  the  furnaces,  until  we  reach  the 
maximum  in  the  Cleveland  district  of  the  North 
Hiding  of  Yorkshire,  the  metropolis  of  which  is 
Middlesbrough. 

Figs.  2  and  .3  show  a  modern  blast-furnace  of 
ordinary  dimensions  ( fig.  2 )  as  seen  externally  ( with- 
out its  appliances  for  blast,  &c. )  and  (fig.  3)  in 
section.  The  external  rings  are  of  stout  iron, 
l)racing  all  the  masonrj-  together.  The  interior  is 
lined  with  firebricks  or  other  refractory  material, 
the  thickness  of  this  lining  or  'shirt'  increasing 
downwards  as  the  heat  increases.  Between  the 
shii't  and  outer  brick  or  stone- work  an  annular  space 
is  usually  left  which  is  filled  with  loose  sand  or 
fragments  of  slag  to  allow  for  shrinking  or  expan- 
sion of  the  interior.  The  larger  furnaces  have 
a  double  lining  with  such  space  surroun<ling  each. 


cinder 


Blast  Furnace. 


The  internal  foini  is  a  matter  of  .some  practical 
importance.  As  shown  in  the  section,  the  upper 
part  or   '  tunneliiea*!,'  n,  c,  projecting  above  the 


218 


IRON 


Fij; 


and  the  cleariii; 


siiiTonndiiij;  gallery,  is  cvlinilrical.  This  part  is 
lint  milled  to  all  fiiriiaoes.  It  merely  arts  as  a 
chiiiiiiey.  I'assin^  downwards  we  ooiiic  to  a  ooii- 
timiation  of  this,  c.  c,  which  is  ealled  the  'throat,' 
the  rhar<,'C  beinj;  pitched  down  this  from  the  j;.allerv 
through  the  arciies  or  '  tunnels'  that  are  shown  in 
the  section.  Hclow  this  is  a  long  truncated  cone, 
c,  /',  called  the  'stack,'  extending  to  the  widest 
part,  which  is  called  the  'helly  :'  this  name,  another 
form  of  the  'Ixish'  or  'hoshes'  (supposed  to  he  a 
corrujition  of  the  (Jerinan  luiur/i),  is  applied  to  the 
lower  inverted  cone,  which  extends  from  /' to  /(,  /(, 
where  the  hlast  enters  by  the  tuyfcies  or  twyers 
(fnim  the  l'"rciich  tiii/nii  or  tiit/thr,  whicli  is  freely 
translated  in  the  Ulack  Country  to  '  two  irons,"  as 
there  are  two  iron  tubes  as  shown  in  section,  tig.  4, 
and  externally,  lig.  5).  The 
outer  one  is  surrounded  by 
a  lining  of  llowing  W'lxter, 
which  enters  at  b  and 
escapes  at  c.  This  is  to 
save  it  from  fusiim.  The 
blast  is  thrown  in  through 
this  by  the  tube  n.  Below 
these  is  the  crucible  where 
the  melted  metal  rests  on 
the  'hearth.'  The  charge 
of  ore,  fuel,  and  lime  is  but 
slightly  .altered  in  bulk  until 
it  reaches  the  boshes  at  ./', 
and  the  downward  widening 
therefore  .assists  its  descent 
of  the  walls  :  but  below  this  the 
combustion  becomes  so  active  that  rajiid  contraction 
of  bulk  occurs  and  the  furnace  is  shaped  accordingly. 
The  gallery  or  '  cliarging-plate,'  r,  d,  is  shown  in 
fig.  2  connected  with  a  hydraulic  lift,  liy  which 
the  charge  is  raised  to  tlie  le\el  of  the  throat. 
Other  devices  are  used,  such  iis  inclined  planes,  iS;c. , 
and  some  furnaces  are  built  at  the  side  of  a  steep 
liill,  with  the  thro.at  ne.arly  on  the  level  of  the  hill- 
top. In  that  which  is  pictured  the  trolly-road  or 
tramway,  tr,  is  built  up  to  about  half  height  to 
meet  the  rising  inner  tube  of  the  hydraulic  lift  at  /. 
The  materials  charged  into  the  furnace  <are  ore, 
fuel,  and  llux,  varying  in  iiroportion  with  the  com- 
]>osition  of  the  ore.  The  demand  for  Mux  is  due 
to  the  impurities  of  the  ore.  Lime  is  used  for 
this  purpose.  It  combines  with  the  silica,  and 
forms  a  readily  fusible  compound,  a  silicate  of 
lime  or  lime-glass,  which  descends  with  the  silicate 
of  alumina,  an  analogous  compound  in  the  clay, 
and  forms  the  'slag,'  or  more  ]iroperly  'cinder,' 
which  lloats  on  t<ii)  of  the  fused  iron  in  the  crucilile. 
The  old  iron-inastei's  who  used  no  such  llux  lost 
much  of  their  iron  by  the  combination  of  its  oxide 
with  the  silica ;  hence  the  iron  in  the  '  Dane 
cinders'  of  the  Korest  of  Dean.  In  most  of  the 
modern  furnaces  the  crude  limestone  is  charged 
with  till'  crude  ore.  Otherwise  the  ore  is  lirst 
roasted  to  expel  the  water  of  comi)osi(ion  it  con- 
tains (clay  is  a  /(//(//-"/rv/ silicate  of  alumina)  and 
the  carbonic  acid  which  is  combined  with  the  iron, 
and  the  limestone  is  simil.arly  roasted  in  kilns  to 
expel  its  carbonic  .acid.  In  the  tall  furnaces  with 
hot-blast  these  oper.ations  are  automatically  per- 
formed in  the  upper  part  by  the  heat  escajiing 
from  below.  Formerly  the  coal  was  all  coked  before 
charging  into  the  fui'iiace :  now  raw  coal  or  a 
mixture  of  coal  .and  coke  is  used,  .and  the  coking, 
like  the  roasting,  occurs  in  the  u]iper  p.art  of  the 
furn.ace.  As  the  charge  descends  to  the  hotter  and 
hotter  parts  of  the  furnace  the  oxide  of  iron,  now 
ilehydrated  .and  dissociated  from  carbonic  .acid, 
becomes  reduced  lo  the  coiidilion  of  '  simiigy  iron.' 
The  I'xpcriments  of  Sii- .).  I.owlhian  rn'l!  show  Ih.at 
such  reduction  occurs  at  a  lower  tem]ierature  than 
was  formerly  sujiposeil.     It  is  fairly  started,  if  not 


completed,  before  the  limestone  is  fully  calcined. 
The  chief  reducing  agent  is  the  heated  carbonic 
oxide  gas  that  rises  from  the  incandescent  mass 
below.  This  g.as,  a  compound  of  one  efinivalent  of 
carbon  with  one  of  oxygen,  CO,  combines  greedily 
with  oxygen  when  heated,  and  foiius  carbonic  di- 
oxide (carbonic  .acid),  CO.,.  In  this  case  it  does  so 
by  taking  away  the  oxygen  from  the  oxide  of  iron. 
The  hydrocarlious  formed  by  tlie  distillilion  of  the 
coal  ])rob.ably  co-o]ierate.  The  spongy  iron  thus 
fonued  coiTes]ioiids  to  the  linal  product,  the  '  bloom  ' 
of  the  Cat.alan  and  other  primitive  furn.aces.  The 
iron  itself  is  pure  enough,  but  is  entangled  with 
the  earthy  impurities  of  the  ore.  The  bulk  of 
these  impurities  is  linally  removed  by  the  llux,  but 
before  this  occurs  .another  and  ralher  vex.atious 
.action  occurs  at  the  full  and  liright  red-hot  region 
below.  This  is  described  liy  Sir.!.  1..  P.ell  as  the  'zone 
of  .absorption,'  for  here  the  sjiongy  ii'ou  absorbs  im- 
purities that  have  afterwards  to  be  removed  by  the 
puddler.  It  t.akes  up  carbon,  silicon,  sulphur,  .and 
plios]ihorus  from  its  surrounilings,  the  sulphur  and 
carbon  from  the  coal,  the  silicon  and  iihosphonis 
from  the  ore.  These,  though  mischievous,  assist  the 
work  of  the  blast-furnace  ;  they  lower  very  consider- 
.ably  the  fusing-point  of  the  iron,  the  pure  s]ioiigy 
iron  being  practically  iinfusible  in  an  ordinaiy 
furnace.  The  niiinner  in  which  the  spongy  iron 
appears  to  obtain  its  carbon  is  curious.  Carbonic 
oxide  when  highly  heated  ('2U)0'F. )  is  dissoci.ated 
into  carbon  .and  carbonic  .acid.  One  h.alf  of  a  given 
(|uantity  loses  its  oxygen  .and  gives  it  over  to  the 
other  half.  Taking  two  eiiuivalents  of  carbonic 
oxide,  containing  two  of  carbon  and  two  of  oxygen, 
the  cliange  may  be  reiiresenteil  thus  :  q 
Sir  .J.  Lowthian  Bell,  who  has  devoted  (^JVpn 
an  inimense  .amount  of  costly  labour  to     Qy^       '" 

the    investigation    of    the   contents   of     q q 

various  parts  of  the  bl.ast-funiace, 
maint.ains  that  this  dissociation  occurs  at  a  much 
lower  temperature  in  the  bl.ast-furn.ace  than  in 
Deville's  apparatus,  possibly  owing  to  the  help  of 
the  iron  in  combining  with  the  llocculent  carbon 
immediately  it  is  thus  separated. 

After  these  changes  .are  com]ileted,  fusion  speed- 
ily occurs  in  the  rapidly-contracting  region  of  the 
furnace,  and  finally  the  whole  contents  of  the 
furn.ace,  excejiting  tlio.se  which  .are  converted  into 
g.ases  that  escape  from  the  toji.  are  lii)uelicd  and 
fall  into  the  crucible  as  two  distinct  fluids,  the 
melted  crude  iron,  and  the  cinder  or  sl.ag.  The 
latter  floats  .above  the  metal  and  runs  out  over  a 
d.am  by  a  specially-constructed  orifice.  While  thus 
covering  the  iron  it  protects  the  metal  from  oxida- 
tion, and  this  continues  until  themclal  .accumulates 
sutlicienlly  to  reach  the  'cinder  notch'  of  the  dam. 
WIk^u  this  occurs  the  furnace  is  ta])|ied — i.e.  a  ping 
which  stoi)ped  .a  ch.annelholc  at  tlie  bottom  of  the 
crucible  is  removed,  and  the  molten  crude  iron 
tlows  in  a  glowing  stream  down  long  ch.annels  in  .a 
bed  of  s.and.  Side-channels  of  moderate  length 
branch  out  on  each  side  of  the  main  channels,  as 
near  to  each  other  as  possible,  and  these  are  Idled 
with  the  iron.  In  the  poetic  language  of  the  Black 
Country  the  main  chamud  is  called  the  'sow,' and 
the  smaller  branching  channels  the  'pi{js.'  Hence 
the  well-known  name  of  'pigiron.' 

'I'he  table  below  shows  the  composition  of  pig- 
iron  ;  the  lirst  being  the  mean  of  twentynine 
bninds  of  high-class  pig,  the  secimd  of  a  common 
Cleveland  pig  ;  the  analyses  made  by  the  writer  : 

Cdmlnncfl  C:ivl)nii 8-91  0-SO 

GmpliilicCnrbim 1-92  100 

Silicon 1-81  2-23 

Phospliorus 0-33  f30 

.Siil|iluir 0-25  0-27 

Mnn^-nnesp I'SS  0-71 

Iron  by  ilitlcrencc 93'jW  03CB 

lOO'OU  100-00 


IHON 


219 


Pi;;iions  are  teolmioally  ilesoiibeil  as  p;iay. 
mottled,  anil  white,  ami  coninioiily  nuiiilM'ieil 
acconlingly,  comniencin^r  witli  the  gray  as  No  1, 
down  to  S'o.  8,  the  extreme  white.  Gray  pi<;- 
iron  is  granular  and  easily  drilled  or  liled,  owing  to 
this  structure:  white  jiig  is  crystalline  and  very 
hard,  liarder  than  the  hardest  steel.  Tliis  ditfer- 
ence  is  mainly  due  to  the  difterent  conditions  of 
the  carl)on.  In  tlie  gray  it  is  nearly  all  unconi- 
binetl  or  graphitic  ;  in  the  white,  nearly  or  quite  all 
conil)ined  ;  the  mottled  is  intermediate.  It  is  ea.sy 
to  pick  out  with  a  penknife  from  a  good  sample  of 
No.  1  pig  brilliant  scales  of  graphite,  technically 
described  as  'kish.'  Good  samples  of  pigiron  are 
used  directly  for  making  castings,  or  the  pig-iron  is 
relined  (see  Ijelow)  for  this  purpose.  Such  '  civst- 
irou  '  is  brittle  in  proportion  to  the  impurities  it 
contains.  In  its  ordinary  condition  it  is  neither 
malleal)le  nor  ductile,  though  small  c;istings  of  a 
superior  quality  of  refined  iron  may  be  rendered 
tougher  by  careful  annealing.  These  '  malleable 
castings '  are  now  largely  used. 

One  of  the  important  iin])roveinents  of  modern 
ironmaking  is  the  use  of  the  hot  blast.  Very  great 
economy  of  fuel  is  thereby  etl'ected.  -A.  great 
variety  of  ovens  for  heating  the  bla-st  have  been 
patented.  Their  essential  principle  is  pa-ssing  the 
air  through  tubes  or  passages  of  iron  or  lireclay  that 
are  heateil  liy  a  llame  or  hot  air  surrounding  them. 
The  heat  is  usually  obtained  by  utilising  the  waste 
inllammable  gases  that  formerly  blazed  away  to 
waste  from  the  top  of  the  blast-furnace.  For  this 
purpose  the  tunnel-head  («,  c,  figs.  2  and  ,3)  is  cut 
down,  or  not  built,  and  the  charge  is  thrown  upon 
a  stopper,  wliich  is  movable  in  such  wise  as  to 
drop  the  charge  with  little  or  no  escape  of  the  gases 
from  the  interior  of 
the  furnace.  The  most 
common  of  these  de- 
vices is  the  '  cup  and 
cone,'  shown  in  tig.  6, 
where  a  is  the  cup 
that  plugs  the  ojiening 
of  the  truncated  cone 
above.  The  charge  is 
pitched  into  this  in- 
verted cone  and  rests 
there  till  the  cup  is 
lowered,  when  it  falls  around  the  cup.  In  the 
figure  the  furnace  is  shown  closed.  The  inflam- 
mable gases  then  descend  by  the  pipe  h  to  their 
destination. 

In  order  to  obtain  ordinary  malleable  iron  from 
pig  iron  the  bulk  of  the  impurities  are  removed  by 
'  puildling  '  and  hammering  or  squeezing.  The  old 
iron-masters  simply  melted  the  crude  iron  in  a  refin- 
ing furnace  or  '  finery,'  and  then  subjected  it  to 
the  action  of  a  blast,  which  sutticiently  oxidised  the 
silicon  and  carbon.  Where  these  are  the  only 
impurities  that  require  removal  this  treatment 
Ls  still  used  ;  but  such  severe  oxidation  fails  to 
remove  the  sulphur  and  phosphorus.  The  refining 
furnace,  which  is  still  used  to  some  extent  for  the 
conversion  of  gray  into  white  east-iron,  or  a-s 
preliminary  to  ])uddling,  is  shown  in  sectiim  in 
fig.  7.  The  pig-iron  and  coke  or  charcoal  are 
charged  into  the  space  D,  the  blast  is  driven  through 
the  bla-st-pipes,  C,  C,  to  the  tuyeres,  as  shown. 
After  starting  well  with  fuel  below,  the  coke  con- 
tinues to  burn  and  the  iron  to  melt,  and  both  are 
continuously  charged,  the  molted  iron  flowing  down 
to  the  hearth  below,  where  the  blast  strikes  upQn 
its  .surface  .ami  oxiilises  the  carl>on  and  silicon, 
at  the  .same  time  circulating  the  lluid  metal  by  its 
stirring  action.  If  this  is  continued  long  enough, 
a  bloom  or  ball  of  malleable  iron  is  produced. 
With  le.ss  blowing  the  silicon  is  for  the  most  part 
burned  out,  and  the  graphitic  carbon  is  caused  to 


combine  by  the  high  temperature  attained,  and  thus 
■white  iron,'  suitable  for  foundry  i>ur]»)ses  or  for 
puddling,  is  produced.  In  tliis  case  the  melted 
iron  is  run  into  a  shallow  hearth,  and  there  allowed 


Fig.  7. — Finery. 


to  cool  and  throw  tip  a  film  of  silicate,  which  ea.sily 
separates  from  the  refined  metal  below.  This  is 
broken  up  into  convenient  pieces,  and  is  commonly 
described  as  'plate'  iron. 

The  Bessemer  process  (see  BESSEMER  Steel) 
is  but  a  modification  of  this,  the  dill'erence  being 
that,  instead  of  blowing  on  the  surface,  the  Besse- 
mer blast  is  introduced  below,  and  therefore  acts 
more  thoroughly. 

The  puddling  furnace,  in  which  the  puddling 
process  is  contlucted,  is  shown  in  vertical  sec- 
tion   in   fig.    8,    where  /  Ls   the   fireplace,    br  the 


Fig.  8. — Puddling  Furnace,  vertical  section. 

bridge,  h  the  bed,  fl  the  flue,  and  p,  }),  p,  p, 
iron  jiillars  supporting  the  furnace.  It  is  con- 
striictc<l  of  firebricks,  and  the  whole,  excepting  the 
flue,  is  encased  in  strong  iron  places  firmly  strapped 
together  Ijy  iron  rods.  When  the  fire  is  blazing  the 
flame  surmounts  the  bridge,  strikes  the  arched  roof, 
and  '  reverberates  '  down  u]ion  the  contents  of  the 
bed,  and  passes  along  the  flue  to  a  short  chimney, 
which  is  surmotinted  by  a  damper-plate  that  may 
be  raised  and  lowered  to  regulate  the  draught, 
rig.  9  is  a  horizontal  section  with  the  same  letter- 
ing, excepting  that  .v  is  addeil  to  show  the  working- 
door  or  stopper  licile  through  whii-h  the  pudiller 
works.  When  the  roof,  walls,  and  bed  of  the  fur- 
nace are  moderately  heated  the  puddler  '  fettles  ' 
liis  furnace  by  pla-stering  the  bed  and  sides  with  a 
'fettling  coniposition,  which  consists  essentially 
of  ground  oxiile  of  iron  made  into  .a  ]iastc  with 
water.  Ila-malite  is  the  best  fettling;  '  bulldng.' 
made  by  foasting  refuse  cinder,  is  cheaper,  and 
largely  u.sed.  Lumps  of  crude  iron  are  now  thrown 
in,  the  fire  is  made  up,  the  doors  closed,  and  damper 
raised  to  '  rouse  '  the  whole  and  melt  the  charge, 
which  usually  amounts  to  4.|  cwt.  Two  men  work 
the  furnace,  the  '  forehand  '  anil  his  '  uiiilerhand.' 
During  the  melting  the  underhand  turns  over  and 


220 


IRON 


distiiliutes  the  lumps  witli  a  loii^  ivon  rod.  When 
tlie  iiieltinj;  is  ooini>leteil  a  lieavier  iron  liar,  Hat- 
teneil  and  bent  at  tlie  workinj;  end,  is  nsed.  This 
is  called  the  '  laldile,' and  with  it  a  vif,'oious  stir- 
ring or  '  ralililing  '  is  kept  up.  The  work  is  very 
exhaustinj:.  and  the  men  work  in  turns,  the  fore- 
liand  taking  the  (.-ritical  part  of  the  process,  where 
greater  skill  is  (lemanded.  As  this  proceeds  the 
surface  of  the  melted  metal  lieeomes  further  agitated 
hy  the  bursting  of  small  bubbles  ;  this  agitation,  at 
lirst  supertieial,  ileepens  and  deepens,  until  the 
whole   nia.ss   is  seen  to  be  violently  seething  and 


Fig.  9. — Puddling  Furnace,  horizuntal  section. 

spirting  u|)  flashes  of  blue  flame  from  the  bursting 
bubbles.  This  Hame  is  mainly  due  to  the  burning 
of  carbonic  oxide.  The  ]uiddler  calls  this  the 
'  boiling,' and  now  the  forehand  works  the  rabble 
with  great  energy.  As  the  rabble  becomes  softened 
at  the  working  end  and  heated  where  held,  it  is 
rapidly  plunged  into  a  trough  of  water,  and  ex- 
changed for  a  cool  one.  Careful  observation  shows 
that  the  puddler  not  oidy  stirs  the  lluid,  but  gropes 
or  rabbles  along  the  bottom  and  sides  of  the  fur- 
nace. Presently  the  melted  mass  thickens,  solid 
granules  are  formed  amidst  the  liqiiid.  This  the 
puddler  describes  as  'coming  to  nature.'  It  con- 
sists  in  the  separation  of  infusible  iron  from  the 


fusible  silicates  ;  the  oxidation  of  the  silicon  form- 
ing glassy  silicic  aciil,  which  combines  with  oxide 
of  inm  or  any  other  basic  material  within  reach. 
These  solid  granules  are  at  a  welding  heat,  and  the 
next  business  of  the  iiuddler  is  to  weld  them 
together,  which  he  does  by  running  olt'  as  much  as 
possible  of  the  licjuid  cinder,  and  sijueezing  the 
granules  together  into  a  spongy  mass  or  ball. 
At  this  stage  he  lowers  his  damjier  and  blocks  the 
draught-hole  with  lumjis  of  coal,  in  order  to 
envelop  the  mass  of  expo.sed  granular  iron  in  a 
smoky  reilucing  atmosphere.  This  prevents  ruinous 
oxidation  or  '  cutting,'  as  the  jiuddler  calls  it.  Book- 
learned  critics  have  pointed  to  the  dense  volumes 
of  smoke  which  then  issue  from  his  chinniey,  and 
have  accused  him  of  ignorant  wastefulness  in  the 
cimsumption  of  fuel.  In  this  case  the  illiterate 
black-faced  pudiller  understands  the  theory  and  the 
practice  of  his  work,  and  the  learned  line  gentle- 
men are  ignorant  of  both.  The  ball  is  now  divided 
into  portable  dimensions  (usually  into  three),  and 
is  rapidly  carried  to  the  hammer,  where  it  is  struck 
lightly  at  first,  but  with  gradmilly  increasing  force 
as  it  beconu's  compressed  into  shape.  The  three 
balls  may  be  united,  commonly  are,  and  thus  beaten 
into  a  'pudilled  bar.'  During  this  beating,  or 
'  shingling,'  li(|ui(l  cinder  is  squeezed  from  the  mass 
like  water  from  a  sponge.  More  aiul  more  is 
squeezed  by  subsequent  compression  in  passing  the 
jiuddled  bar  through  rolls  similar  to  those  shown  in 
iig.  10.  It  lirst  enters  the  large  hole  of  either  the 
square  or  the  round  set,  and  then  while  still  red- 
hot  passes  successively  through  smaller  and  smaller 
ojienings.  In  the  sulise(|uent  working  of  the  iron 
this  S(jueezing  out  of  the  inqjuritics  is  continued. 
Thus,  if  it  is  made  into  boiler  plates  or  thin  sheets, 
the  bars  made  by  passing  through  the  rolls  are  cut 
into  short  lengths  and  'piled' — i.e.  stacked  in 
square  bundles,  then  heated  and  rolled  out,  during 


Fig.  10.— Rough  and  Finishing  Rolls. 


which  working  more  lluid  cinder  is  expressed.  By 
sucdi  means  the  ipiality  is  iniiuoxcd  up  to  a  certain 
point,  but  beyond  this  mischief  is  done,  for  if  the 
reheating  is  nqieated  too  often  the  iirotecting 
remainder  of  carbon  is  reuujved,  and  the  iron  itself 
then  oxidises — •burnt-iron'  is  the  result.  This  is 
friable,  owing  to  the  presence  of  particles  of  black 
oxide  in  the  midst  of  the  iron. 

Formerly  jpuddling  was  regarded  merely  as  a  pro- 
cess of  oxidation  produced  by  the  ai-tion  of  air  on 
the  surface,  and  the  puddler's  stirring  was  ilescribed 
as  a  means  of  bringing  fresh  material  to  the  surface. 
It  was  afterwards  shown  that  large  ipianlities  of 
oxygen  are  supplied  from  below  by  the  reduction  of 
the  oxide  of  iron  in  the  fettling.  The  writer  h.as 
tested  this  theory  by  excessive  fettling  with  rich 
htenuitite  and  laborious  ralibliug  ;  and  has  theicby 
turned  out  a  weight  of  puddled  liar  exceeiling  that 
of  the  crude  iron  of  the  charge,  the  excess  being 
due  to  the  reduced  iron  from  the  luematite.  But 
even  this  is  not  suHlcient  to  account  for  the  purili- 
eation  from  sulphur  and  phosphorus ;  oxidation 
alone  will  not  remove  the  remainder  of  these  when 
their  quantities  are   brought  down   to  about  \  per 


cent.  This  has  been  fully  proved  by  the  failure  of 
the  fierce  bl.ast  of  the  Bessemer  ccuiverter  to  do  so 
without  also  oxidising  the  iron  itself.  The  writer's 
explanation  of  the  juiddlers  success  in  purifying 
very  bad  pig-iron  is  that  his  process  consists  of 
oxi(lati(m  jiliis  washing;  that  he  washes  the 
granules  of  iron  in  li(|uid  and  basic  cinder,  as  the 
laundress  washes  libres  of  cotton,  \c.  in  soap  and 
water.  The  sulphur  and  phosjihorus  are  found  in 
the  cinder,  as  the  dirt  ami  grc-ise  in  the  soaji-suds. 
The  subsequent  s(|ucezing  out  of  the  residual 
entangled  liquid  cinder  by  hammering,  rolling,  ^rc. 
is,  according  to  this  theory,  strictly  analogous  to 
the  irriiii/iii;/  of  the  laundress.  In  connection  with 
this  impossibility  of  removing  «//  the  suljihur  and 
|ihospborns  by  iiu'ie  oxidation  it  is  desirable  to 
correct  a  serious  error  that  is  re]ieati'd  in  most  of 
our  text-books  even  the  best.  This  is  the  state- 
ment th.at  wrought  iron  contains  no  practically 
important  (piantity  of  carbon.  This  error  is  not 
shared  by  luactical  iidn-maUers  who  have  studied 
the  chemistry  of  their  work.  They  know  that  some 
carbon  or  silicon,  or  both,  must  remain  to  jirolect 
the   iron   itself   from   oxidation   when    heated.       It 


IRON 


IRON    AGE 


221 


nsiially  contains  about  '2  i)er  cent,  of  carbon,  more 
or  less,  aecorilintr  to  the  quantity  of  silicon,  wliidi, 
l>eins  more  reaJily  oxidised  than  carbon,  is  a  still 
more  efficient  protector.  This  is  of  great  practical 
importance  now  that  the  Bessemer  and  .Siemens- 
Martin  processes,  fonnerly  used  only  for  makiiij; 
steel,  are  applied  to  the  luaniifacture  of  a  malleable 
iron  by  pushinf;  the  oxidation  to  its  utmost  limit. 
If  this  limit  is  exceeded  brittlene.ss  instead  of 
toughness  is  the  result,  and  a  mistake  in  this  direc- 
tion involving  certain  portions  of  such  a  structure 
as  the  Forth  Bridge  might  be  fatal  to  the  whole,  ;vs 
'  nothin"  is  stronger  than  its  weakest  part.'  For 
the  making  of  such  '  semi  steel,'  see  Bessemer 
Steel,  and  Steel.    And  see  Founding. 

Statistics  as  to  the  development  and  present  position 
of  iron  manufactures  will  be  foimd  in  the  articles  Great 
Britaix,  Belgiim,  Germany,  United  States,  kc.  For 
the  processes  of  iron  manufacture,  see  C.  R  Alder- 
Wright,  T/ie  Chemical  Changes  accompanying  the  Smell- 
ing of  Iron  in  Blast-furnaces ;  Bauerman,  The  Metal- 
lurgy  of  Iron  ;  Sir  J.  Lowthian  Bell,  Chemical  Phenomena 
of  Iron  Smelting ;  W.  Fairbairn,  Iron  :  Its  History^  Pro- 
perties, and  Processes  of  Manufacture  :  W.  H.  Greenwood, 
Steel  and  Iron  ;  C.  Hoare,  Ir07i  and  Steel ;  A  K.  Hunt- 
ington, Metals,  their  Properties  and  Treatment;  Iron, 
an  Illustrated  We'kly  Journal ;  Journal  of  the  Iron  and 
Steel  Institute ;  II.  H.  C.  Landrin,  Treatise  on  Steel : 
F.  Overman,  The  Manufacture  of  Iron  ;  J.  Percy,  Metal- 
lurgy :  Iron  and  Steel ;  J.  A.  PhiUips,  Manual  of  Metal- 
lurgy ;  W.  M.  Williams,  The  Chemistry  of  Iron  atid  Steel 
Making.  In  German,  E.  F.  DiiTTe,  Uie  Atilage  und  der 
Betrirh  der  EisenhiiUen  ;  Dr  Karl  Hartmann,  Practisches 
Handhuch  der  Stahlfabrication  ;  A.  Ritter  von  Kerpely. 
Bericht  iiher  die  Forlschnttt  der  Eisenhiilten-Technik ; 
Stahl  und  Eisen;  H.  Wedding,  Die  Metallurgie.  In 
French,  Annales  des  Mines;  L.  Gruner,  Etudes  sur  les 
Bauts-fourneaux ;  Revue  Unirerselle  des  Mines. 

Xros  in  its  Physiological  and  Therapeutic 
Eel.\tions. — Iron  is  an  essential  constituent  of  the 
colouring  matter  of  the  blood-corpuscles  of  all 
vertebrate  animals :  and,  according  to  the  best 
authorities,  one  part  by  weight  of  iron  is  found 
in  230  parts  of  blood-corpuscles,  and  the  total 
quantity  of  this  metal  in  the  blood  of  a  man 
weighing  140  pounds  is  about  38  grains.  It  is 
the  presence  of  iron  in  the  blood  that  communi- 
cates to  the  ashes  of  that  fluid  their  reddish-brown 
colour,  the  iron  being  found  in  them  a.s  the  per- 
oxide. The  ashes  of  hair,  of  birds'  feathers,  of 
the  contents  of  eggs,  of  ga.stiic  juice,  of  milk,  and 
of  most  animal  fluids,  contain  traces  of  iron. 

Nothing  is  known  with  certainty  regarding  the 
chemical  condition  of  the  iron  in  the  animal  body  ; 
it  probably  exists  as  protoxide  in  the  venous  blood 
and  peroxide  in  arterial  blood.  It  is  introduced 
into  the  system  with  the  food  and  drink,  and  any 
excess  beyond  what  is  required  is  discharged  with 
the  excrements.  It  Ls  thus  a  food  rather  than  a 
medicine  ;  but  when  an  insutticient  quantity  is 
contained  in  the  nutriment,  or  when  from  any 
cause  the  absorption  of  the  iron  contained  in  the 
food  is  interfered  with,  chalybeate  medicines 
l)ecome  necessary  in  addition.  The  iron  that  is 
set  free  within  the  system  by  the  constant  disin- 
tegration of  blood-corpuscles  is  carried  out  of  the 
system  (lartly  by  the  urine,  chiefly  by  the  colour- 
ing matter  of  the  bile,  which  is  highly  ferruginous, 
and  probably  is  in  part  eliminated  by  the  hair. 
The  exact  part  which  the  iron  plays  in  the  body 
is  uncertain  :  but  it  is  most  probable  that  the 
power  which  the  bliHxI-corpuscles  possess  a-s  oxygen- 
carriers  is  mainly  due  to  tlie  presence  of  iron. 

In  most  forms  of  Ana'inia  (q.v.),  especially 
Chlorosis  (q.v.),  the  iron  compounds  are  of  in- 
comparably more  service  than  any  other  rcmeilies. 
In  amenorrhoia,  in  certain  painful  nervous  afl'cc- 
tions,  and  in  many  conditions  of  debility  the  salts 
of  iron  are  of  especial  service.     They  are  contra- 


indicated  in  plethora,  and  in  most  states  accom- 
panied by  feverishness.  The  forms  in  -h  hicli  iron 
may  be  prescribed  are  very  numerous,  and  v.ary 
considerably  in  their  utility,  according  to  the 
readiness  with  which  they  get  taken  up  into  the 
blood.  Aiuongst  the  most  generally  used  fenugin- 
ous  medicines  may  be  mentioned  reduced  iron, 
the  tincture  of  the  perchloride,  the  saccharated 
carbonate,  the  compound  iron  mixture  (containing 
the  carbonate),  the  suljihate,  the  tartarate.  several 
citrates  (especially  the  citrate  of  iron  and  quinine), 
&c.  A  course  of  Chalybeate  Waters  (see  Mineral 
W.\ters)  may  often  1je  prescribed  with  great  ad- 
vantage when  the  patient  cannot  bear  the  adminis- 
tration of  iron  in  its  ordinary  medicinal  form. 

Irou  Age<  an  arch;eological  term  indicating 
the  condition  as  to  civilisation  and  culture  of  a 
people  using  iron  as  the  material  for  their  cutting 
tools  and  weapons.  It  is  the  last  of  the  prehistoric 
stages  of  progress  represented  by  the  series  of  the 
three  ages  of  Stone,  Bronze,  and  Iron.  But  it  liius 
to  be  remembered  that  this  sequence  is  not  neces- 
sarily true  of  every  part  of  the  earth's  surface,  for 
there  are  areas,  such  as  the  islands  of  the  South 
Pacific,  the  interior  of  Africa,  and  parts  of  North 
and  South  America,  where  the  peoples  have  ]>assed 
directly  from  the  use  of  stone  to  the  use  of  iron 
without  the  intervention  of  an  age  of  bronze.  In 
Europe  the  iron  age  may  be  detined  as  including 
the  last  stages  of  the  preliLstoric  and  the  lirst  of 
the  protohistoric  periotls.  As  the  knowledge  of 
iron  seems  to  have  travelled  over  Europe  from  the 
south  northwards,  the  commencement  of  the  iron 
age  was  veiy  much  earliei-  in  the  southern  than 
in  the  northern  countries,  tireece,  as  represented 
in  the  Homeric  poems,  was  then  in  the  transition 
l)eriod  from  bronze  to  iron,  while  Scandinavia 
was  only  entering  her  iron  age  about  the  time  of 
the  Christian  eia.  The  transition  from  bronze 
to  iron  in  central  Europe  is  exemplified  in  the 
great  cemetery,  discovered  in  1846,  of  Hallstatt, 
near  Gmunden.  where  the  forms  of  the  implements 
and  weapons  of  the  later  part  of  the  bronze  age 
are  imitated  in  iron.  In  the  Swiss  or  La  Tine 
group  of  implements  and  weapons  the  forms  are 
new  and  the  transition  complete.  The  early  iron 
age  forms  of  Scandinavia  show  no  traces  of  Roman 
influence,  though  these  become  abundant  towards 
the  middle  of  the  period.  The  duration  of  the 
iron  age  is  variously  estimated  according  as  its 
commencement  is  placed  nearer  to  or  furtlier  from 
the  opening  years  of  the  Christian  era  :  but  it  is 
agreed  on  all  hands  that  the  last  division  of  the 
iron  age  of  Scandinavia,  or  the  Viking  Period,  is 
to  be  taken  as  from  700  to  1000  A.D.,  when  Pagan- 
ism in  those  lands  was  superseded  by  Christianity. 
The  iron  age  in  Europe  is  characterised  by  forms 
of  implements,  weapons,  personal  ornaments,  and 
pottery,  and  also  by  systems  of  tlecorative  design, 
which  are  altogether  difl'erent  from  those'  of  the 
preceding  age  of  bronze.  The  ini])lements  and 
weapons  are  no  longer  cast  but  hammered  into 
shape,  and  as  a  necessary  conse(|Uence  the  stereo- 
ty|ied  forms  of  their  predecessor  in  bronze  are 
gradually  departed  from,  and  the  system  of  decora- 
tion, which  in  the  bronze  age  consisted  chiefly  of 
a  repetition  i>f  rectilinear  iiattems,  gives  place  to  a 
system  of  curvilinear  ana  flowing  designs.  Hut 
tlie  principal  feature  that  distinguishes  the  iron 
age  from  the  preceding  ages  is  the  introduction 
of  alphabetic  characters,  and  the  consenuent 
development  of  written  language  which  laiit  the 
foundations  of  literature  and  historic  record. 

tiee  Hortr  EcraUs,  or  Studies  in  the  Archoolotty  of  the 
Northern  Nations,  by  Kemlile,  edited  by  I^tliam  and 
Franks  (1863);  Scotland  in  Piigan  Times— The  Iron 
Age,  by  Joseph  Anderson,  LL.D.  (1883);  The  Industrial 
Arts  of  Denmark  from  t/ic  Earliest  Times  (South  Kens. 


IROX    BARK    TREE 


IRON    MASK 


Handbook),  hy  Worsaac  (1882) ;  The  Iti'liiftrial  Art-n  of 
Seaiu/iitatia  in  thv  J'tu/tin  Time  (I^outh  Kens.  Hand- 
book), by  Hans  HildL-brand  (Lond.  lS(v<). 

Iron  Kark  Troe.  a  name  given  in  Australia 
til  certain  siR-rics  of  Eucalyptus  (<|.v. ),  and  par- 
ticularly E.  nsiiiifcra,  or  Hed  Gum,  on  account 
of  tlie  extreme  hardness  of  the  bark. 

IroiH'lads,  a  term  fii-st  apiilied  to  wooden 
ships  of  war  strengthened  by  .a  more  or  less  com- 
plete covering  of  iron  armour-plates.  Partial  iron 
defences  for  war-galleys  seem  to  have  been  in  use 
in  the  middle  ages  ;  the  lloatiiig-b.attenes  used  at 
the  siege  of  (Jihraltar  in  1782  ha<l  b(mib-|)roof  roofs 
and  sides,  strengthened  by  leather  and  bars  of 
iron.  Systematic  defences  of  this  kind  were  advo- 
cated by  numerous  writers  in  France,  Ameiica,  and 
England,  early  in  the  19th  century.  But  the  first 
regTilar  use  of  iron  armour  on  the  sides  of  ships 
was  when,  during  the  Crimean  war,  the  French 
maile  and  sent  to  the  Black  Sea  lloating-hatteries 
with  armour  4f  in.  thick.  In  18.58  the  French 
had  four  iron-])lated  line-of -battle  ships  building. 
The  first  IJritish  sea-going  ironclad  was  the 
Il'nmw  { lS(iO),  with  4h  in.  armour  for  the  upper 
deck  to  the  water-line  ;  but.  a.s  iron  was  the 
material  of  which  the  ship  was  built,  '  inmclad ' 
became  rather  a  misnomer.  The  term  is  still  em- 
ployed loosely  for  all  armoured  shijis,  turret-ships, 
harhette-ships.  &c. ,  even  if  the  luill  and  framework 
are  of  iron  and  the  armour  ( which  in  the  Indexible 
is  from  16  to  24  in.  thick)  is  faced  with  steel  (as 
in  the  Edinliurrjh,  Campcrdowii,  Warsjjitc,  &c.). 
See  Navy,  and  Shipbuilding. 

Iron  Cross,  a  Prussian  order,  instituted  on 
March  10,  18i:i,  l)y  Frederick-William  III.,  to  be 
confcrreil  for  distinguished  services  in  war.  It  was 
made  of  iron  to  commemorate  the  grim  'iron' 
period  at  which  it  was  created.  The  decoration 
consists  of  a  Maltese  cross  of  iron,  edged  with 
silver,  and  is  worn  round  the  neck  or  at  the  button- 
hole. The  ordt'r  w;is  revived  by  William  I.  on  ; 
19th  July  1870,  on  the  eve  of  the  great  war  with 
France.  The  grand  cro.ss,  a  cross  of  double  the 
size,  is  presented  exclusively  for  the  gaining  of 
a  decisive  battle,  or  the  capture  or  brave  defence 
of  a  fortres.s 

Iron  i'rowii.    See  Crown. 

Iron  Gates.    See  D.\Na'BE. 

Iron  llask,  Thk  M.\s  with  the.  The  story 
of  the  prisoner  so  called,  confined  in  the  Bastille 
and  other  prisons  in  the  reign  of  Louis  XIV.,  has 
long  had  a  romantic  interest  for  the  readers  of 
history.  The  first  notice  of  him  was  given  in  a 
work  entitled  Miinuiirs  Hecicts  puiir  scriir  << 
riUstuire  de  I'ersc  (Amst.  1745-46),  according 
to  which,  he  was  the  Duke  of  Vermandois,  a 
natural  son  of  Louis  XI\'.  ami  of  Mdlle.  de  la 
Valliere.  who,  having  given  a  liox  on  the  ear  to 
his  half-lirother,  the  grand  daui)hin,  had  to  expiate 
it  with  inj|irisonment  for  life.  The  assertion  wxs  ' 
without  foundation,  for  the  Duke  of  Vermandois 
died  in  camp  in  16S.'5;  but  the  confidence  with 
which  it  was  ma<le  causeil  a  deep  sensation,  ami 
the  romance  of  Alouliy,  L'Hummc  an  J/risijiic  dc 
Fcr,  which  immediately  followed  (Hague,  1746), 
was  read  with  all  the  more  avidity  that  it  was 
prohibited.  Voltaire,  in  his  .SViWc  de  Louis  XIV., 
treats  the  anecdote  liLstorically.  Accortling  to 
liim,  the  juisoner  was  young,  and  of  a  noble  figure. 
In  journeying  from  one  prison  to  another  he  wore 
a  mask,  and  was  at  last  transferreil  to  the  Biustillc, 
where  he  was  treated  with  great  distinction. 

The  fii-st  authentic  information  with  regard  to 
the  Iron  M.isk  was  given  by  the  Jesuit  (irill'et,  who 
acted  for  nine  years  iis  confessor  in  the  Bastille,  in 
his  'Train  den  diffcientci  Suites  de  Freiwcs  qui 
servent  a  itablir  la  ViriU  dans  I'llistoire  (Li^ge, 


1769).  He  brought  forward  the  MS.  Journal  of 
Du  Jonca,  the  lieutetiant  of  the  Bastille,  according 
to  which  SaintMars  arrived,  on  the  18th  September 
169S,  from  the  Isle  de  Saiiite-.Marguerite.  bring- 
ing with  him  in  a  litter  a  prisoner  whom  he  had 
already  had  in  custody  at  Pignerol.  The  prisoner's 
name  was  not  mentioned,  and  his  face  was  always 
kejit  concealed  by  a  mask  of  black  velvet.  TJie 
journal  mentions  his  death  on  the  Hlth  day  of 
November  1703,  and  that  he  was  buried  in  the 
cemetery  of  St  I'anl.  This  is  confirmed  by  the 
register  of  burials  for  the  parish  of  St  Paul's, 
where  the  prisoner  is  mentioned  under  the  name 
of  Marchiali. 

After  long  silence  Voltaire  returned  to  the 
subject  in  his  Essai  mir  /cs  Jhriirs,  but  he  brought 
forward  nothing  new.  In  the  seventh  edition  of 
the  Jiic/iuiiiiairr  P/ii/osoji/iii/iic  he  related  the  story 
anew,  under  the  head  Ami,  corrected  his  emu's 
as  to  time  from  the  journal  of  Du  Jonca,  an<l  con- 
cluded ^^■itll  the  a.ssurance  that  he  knew  more 
about  the  matter  than  Griftet,  bnt  chose,  .u*  a 
Frenchman,  to  be  silent.  An  addition  to  the 
article,  apjiarently  by  the  editor  of  the  work, 
freely  states  the  opinion  that  the  Mask  was  an 
elder  brother  of  Louis  XIV.  Tlie  writer  declares 
that  Aune  of  Austria  had  this  son  by  the  Duke  of 
Buckingham,  and  being  thus  undeceived  as  to  her 
sup|iosed  barrenness,  brought  about  a  meeting  with 
her  husbanil,  and  in  consequence  bore  Louis  XIV. 
Louis  is  held  to  have  first  learned  the  existence 
of  this  brother  when  he  came  of  age,  and  to  have 
put  him  in  confinement,  to  guard  .against  any 
possilde  unplea.sant  consei[uences.  .S.-iint-Michcl 
published  a  book  in  179(J,  in  which  he  relates 
the  story  of  the  unfortunate  being,  and  points 
to  a  secret  marriage  between  t^ueen  Anne  and 
Cardinal  Mazarin.  What  is  remarkable  is  that 
not  the  court  but  Louvois  contimied  to  mani- 
fest an  interest  in  the  matter,  and  took  every 
means  to  keep  the  identity  of  the  (irisoner  in  the 
dark.  A\"heii  the  Bastille  fell  the  luisoners  room 
was  eagerly  searched,  and  also  the  prison  register  ; 
but  all  iiu|uiry  was  vain. 

The  Abbe  Soulavie,  who  published  RKmoires 
de  Marci-liid  liichelicn  (London  and  Paris,  1790), 
tries  to  nuike  mit  from  a  document  written  by 
the  tutor  of  that  unfortunate  jirince  that  the 
Iron  Mask  was  a  twin-brother  of  Louis  XIV. 
A  prophecy  had  annoimced  disaster  to  the  royal 
family  from  a  double  birth,  and  to  avoid  this 
Louis  XIII.  caused  the  last  born  of  the  twins 
to  be  brought  up  in  secret.  Louis  XIV.  learned 
of  his  brothers  existence  only  after  the  death 
of  Mazarin,  and  that  brother,  having  discovered 
his  relation  to  the  king  by  means  of  a  portrait, 
was  subjected  to  jierpetual  imprisonment.  This 
view  of  the  matter  was  the  one  almost  universally 
prevalent  till  the  time  of  the  Bevolulion.  It  is 
also  followed  in  Z.schokke's  German  tragedy,  and 
in  Fournier's  drama,  foinided  on  the  story.  In 
(Jrirnm  s  correspondence  may  be  found  tlic  legend 
of  the  birth  of  a  twin-brother  of  Louis  XIV., 
but  history  avers  that  seventeen  ])ersons  were 
present  and  witnessed  the  delivery  of  the  queen 
of  one  male  infant  only.  As  legards  the  in- 
trigue of  Anne  of  Austria  with  the  Duke  of 
Buckingham  the  dates  make  the  supposition 
absurd,  as  forty-eight  years  el.ipsed  between  their 
iidiiiix  and  the  first  imprisonment  of  the  Mask 
in  Pignerol. 

The  first  conjecture  of  what  till  recently  seemed 
to  be  the  truth  is  contained  in  a  letter  dated  1770, 
written  by  a  Banm  d'lleiss  to  the  Joiiniaf  £>iri/r/(i- 
pddii/iie.  The  same  is  repeated  by  Louis  Dutcns 
in  his  IiitcrceiiUd  Vontspundencc  (1789),  who  de- 
clares that  there  is  no  point  of  history  better 
established  than  the  fact  that  the   prisoner  with 


IRON    MASK 


IRONWOOD 


the  Iron  M;isk  was  a  minister  of  tlie  Duke  of 
Mantua.  Tlii^  Tiiinister,  Count  Mattliioli,  had 
pledj;e<l  himself  to  Louis  XIV.  to  uij^e  his  nuv-ster 
the  lUike  to  deliver  up  to  the  French  the  fortress 
of  Ca-sale,  wliich  <;ave  access  to  the  whole  of 
Loiulianly.  Thouj:h  lar^'ely  bribed  to  maintain 
tlie  Kreuch  interests,  he  bej^an  to  l)etray  tlieni  : 
and  Louis  .\I\'.,  liavinj;  jxot  conclusive  proofs  of 
the  treachery,  contrived  to  liave  Matthioli  hireil 
to  the  French  frontier,  secretly  arrested,  'IM  April 
ItiTSt.  and  conveyed  to  the  fortress  of  Pifjnerol, 
which  was  liis  tirst  prison.  The  conclusion  of 
D'Heiss  and  Dutens,  tliat  Matthioli  was  the  Iron 
Mask,  though  acute,  wiis  only  a  conjecture.  But 
the  documents  discovered  and  published  by  M. 
Koux-Faziliac  in  his  licc/icrc/ics  /u'storiijues  ct 
criti'/iKS  siir  I'Hoiitmc  an  Miisqiie  lie  Fer  (1800), 
by  M.  Delort  in  his  llistoire  tie  V Homme,  ait 
Mdni/iic  dc  Fcr  (1825),  and  M.  Marius  Topin,  in 
his  Man  irifh  the  Iron  Mask  (trans.  1869),  seemed 
to  leave  little  doubt  on  the  subject,  and  the  public 
had  app.areutly  made  up  its  mind  that  the  secret 
was  at  last  discovered,  when  a  still  more  recent 
work  liy  a  I'Vencli  olKcer,  .M.  Th.  Jung,  La  Vcrite 
sur  Ic  Maxqne  (Ic  Fer  {Lcs  Empoixonneurs)  d'aprcs 
des  Durnnicnti  inedHs  dcs  Arehircs  dc  la  Guerre 
et  antres  dfpOis  puhlirs,  166j-170.i  (1873),  con- 
clusively showed  that  Matthioli  could  not  have  been 
the  mysterious  prisoner.  This  Italian  adventurer 
was  sent  to  I'ignerol  si.\  years  after  the  Mask 
entere<l  that  fortress.  He  was  left  behind  in 
Pignerol  when  Saint-Mars  removed  the  Mask  to 
the  Bay  of  Cannes,  and  his  death  there  was  never 
kept  secret.  Matthioli  could  not  speak  French  ; 
but  the  mi/stcri/,  the  man  in  the  mask,  spoke 
French  with  a  foreign  accent,  was  over  the  middle 
height,  tall,  well  made,  and  fond  of  music.  It 
says  little  for  the  pei-spicacity  of  either  M.  Topin 
or  of  his  readers  that  Matthioli  shouhl  ever  have 
been  accepted  as  the  owner  of  the  famous  Mask. 

M.  Jung's  hyijothesis  is  vastly  nuue  meritorious  ; 
in  fact,  be  marshals  his  facts  so  dexterou.sly  that 
we  should  almost  say  he  had  succeeiled  in  proving 
that  the  Man  in  the  Iron  Ma.sk  was  the  unknown 
head  of  a  widespread  and  formidable  conspiracy, 
working  in  secret  for  the  a-ssassinatiou  of  Louis 
XIV.  and  of  some  of  his  ablest  ministers.  The 
severity  of  M.  Jung's  laliours  with  reference  to  this 
subject  will  be  understood  when  it  is  stated  that 
iii  the  course  of  his  researches  he  had  to  examine 
some  seventeen  hundred  volumes  of  despatches  and 
reports  in  the  bureau  of  the  Ministiy  ')'  \\'ar. 
The  adventurer  upon  whom  he  fastens  the  Mask 
was  a  certain  .soldier  of  fortune,  a  M.  de  Marchiel, 
related  to  several  families  in  Lorraine,  and  apt  to 
a-ssume  their  names  when  an  a/ia.i-  was  reijuired  for 
his  |)urpose.s.  Seized  by  Louvois's  orders  at  the  ford 
of  Fcronne,  on  the  morning  of  March  29,  1673, 
he  wa.s  lirst  fiuwarded  to  the  Bastille.  There 
Louvois  saw  him,  and  sent  him  to  I'ignerol  and 
to  the  care  of  Saint-Mars.  I'rom  that  hour  the 
jailor  never  parteil  from  his  strange  prisoner.  De 
Alarchiel  went  with  him  to  Fxilles  ilU87),  to  St 
Marguerite,  .iml  died  in  the  Bastille,  November 
19,  1703.  His  funeral  cost  forty  livres,  ami  it  Is 
entered  in  the  register  of  the  parish  of  St  Paul  as 
that  of  '  M.  de  Mareliiely.'  Hi.s  clothes  and  hi.s 
Iron  Mask  were  burned,  and  there  the  few  facts 
know  n  about  this  man  end.  The  names  and  dates 
all  hang  so  well  together  that  this  conjecture  is  far 
the  most  rea.sonable  that  has  yet  been  inade.  But 
nothing  has  been  nrorcd,  except  that  the  Mask 
Wius  none  of  the  other  eleven  pei-sons  he  has  been 
supposed  to  be.  Nothing  more  will  ever  be  proved 
until  the  trea-sures  of  the  Vatican  give  up  the 
secret,  a  secret  which  the  Ma-sk's  cimfessor  must 
certainly  have  kiKiwn,  and  which  he  niaif  have 
revealed  to  his  ecclesiastical  superiors  in  Home. 


Ironsides,  a  name  popularly  applied  to  the 
regiment  of  a  thousand  horse  which  Cromwell 
raised  uiainly  in  the  eastern  counties  for  service 
against  the  king  early  iu  the  great  Civil  War.  The 
name,  already  given  for  his  bravery  to  an  English 
king,  Edmund  (q.v.),  was  lirst  attached  to  Crom- 
well himself,  butpa-ssed  easily  to  the  men  at  whose 
he.'ul  he  lirst  appeared  at  Edgehill.  Almost  from 
the  beginning  he  saw  that  real  religious  enthusiasm 
was  the  only  force  ade(|uatc  in  match  the  chivalry 
of  the  cavalier,  and  he  spent  his  own  money  freely 
on  the  e(pii]iment  of  his  men.  'did  decayed 
serving-men,  and  tapsters,  and  such  kin<l  of  fellows 
will  never  be  able  to  encounter  gentlemen,'  as  he 
said  to  Hampden,  and  the  .sohliers  he  gathered 
round  him  were  stalwart  and  substantial  yeomen, 
em]ihatically  'men  of  religion.'  who  'made  some 
con.scienee  of  what  they  diil,'  w  ho  knew  the  fear  of 
Cod  and  no  other  fear  at  all.  Social  distinctions 
and  religious  conformity  were  made  subordiuate  to 
competence  and  honesty.  '  Better  plain  men  than 
none  :  but  best  to  have  men  patient  of  wants, 
faithful  and  conscientious  in  their  employment,' 
wrote  Cromwell  ;  and  elsewhere,  '  I  have  a  lovely 
comjiany  :  you  would  respect  them  did  you  know 
them;  they  are  no  Atiabaptists ;  they  are  honest, 
sober  Christians  ;  they  e.xpect  to  be  used  as  men.' 
And  his  Ironsides  nobly  justified  their  captain's 
expectations.  At  Winceby  they  charged  'singing 
psalms,'  cleared  Lincolnshire  and  the  eastern 
counties  of  the  Cavaliers,  endured  the  shock  of 
Piupert's  horse  at  Marston  Moor,  and  scattered 
them  like  ehaft'  before  the  wind.  The  whole  par- 
liamentary army  was  next  reoiganised  on  the 
model  of  Cromwell's  brigade,  but  it  was  still  the 
stubborn  valour  of  the  Ironsides  in  the  left  at 
Naseby  that  changed  the  day  from  defeat  to  a 
crushing  victory,  and  practically  closed  the  war. 
"Truly  they  were  never  beaten,'  said  Cromwell  in 
a  s|ieech  the  year  before  his  death,  'and  whenever 
the.\  weie  engaged  against  the  enemy  they  beat 
continually.' 

Ir<»lltoil,  capital  of  Law^rence  county,  Ohio,  on 
the  Ohio  liiver,  142  miles  above  Cincinnati.  It  is 
the  chief  business  centre  of  an  important  iron 
region,  which  gives  employment  to  numerous 
furnaces,  foundries,  and  other  manufactories. 
Pop.  8857. 

Ironwood.  a  name  bestowed  in  different 
countries  on  the  timber  of  ditl'erent  trees,  on 
account  of  its  great  hardness  and  heaviness. — 
Mefrosidcros  vera  belongs  to  the  natural  older 
Myrtacea-.  and  is  a  native  of  Java  and  other 
eastern  islands.  Its  wood  is  much  valued  by  the 
Chinese  and  Japanese  for  making  rudders,  .inchors, 
&c.,  and  is  injported  into  Britain  in  small  ipiaiiti- 
ties  uniler  the  name  of  Ironwood.  The  bark  is 
u.sed  in  .lapan  as  a  remedy  for  diarrhoea  and 
mucous  discharges. — Mesna  ferrea,  a  tree  of  the 
natural  order  (iuttifeite,  is  a  native  of  the  East 
Indies,  and  is  jilanted  near  Buddhist  teni])les  for 
the  sake  of  its  fragrant  tlowers,  with  which  the 
images  of  Buddha  are  decorated.  The  timber 
known  a.s  Ironwood  is  very  hard,  ius  is  that  of  M. 
spcciosa,  another  tiee  of  the  same  genus  and 
region. — The  wood  of  Vepris  nndnluta,  of  the  order 
Piosmacea',  is  called  White  Iionwood  at  the  Ca]>e 
of  (jood  Hoiie.  It  is  very  hard  .and  tough,  and  is 
chielly  used  for  axles,  jiloughs,  ami  other  agricul- 
tural implements.  -TIk-  womi  of  Olea  laiirifotiii,  a 
species  of  olive,  is  called  I'lack  Ironwooil  in  the 
same  country,  and  is  used  for  the  same  purposes 
and  for  furniture. — 0.  enpeiisis  is  the  Ironwood  of 
the  Dutch  settlers  at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  and 
its  woorl  has  similar  i>roperties  to  and  is  used  for 
the  same  jnirposes  as  the  foregoing. — Vnpania 
sidcro:riihin  —  n;i\\na.\     order    Sapindacea; — is     the 


22-i 


IRONY 


IRREGULARS 


Iionwooil  of  tlie  i-sliiiuls  of  Uouilion  ami  Aiiilioynii. 
The  wood  is  red  in  ooloiir,  very  lieavv,  Uiiotty,  and 
dirtieult  to  work;  it  is  used  cliieHy  for  iiialiiiig 
stakes  and  jioles. — Sidcio.ri//o»  iiicrme — natural 
order  Sai)otaee;e,  beloii<;ing  to  tlie  Cape  of  Good 
Hope — is  nanieil  Iromvood  and  also  Mclhliuiit  Ijv 
the  settlers.  The  tiniher  is  extremely  hard,  and  so 
heavy  that  it  sinks  in  water.  It  is  extensively 
used  in  boat  and  bridge  building  and  for  agricul- 
tural purposes. 

Irony  (Or.  eironeia,  eirOii,  ' a  dissembler ' ),  the 
name  applied  to  a  figure  whieli  enables  the  speaker 
to  convey  his  meaning  with  greater  force  liy  means 
of  a  contrast  between  his  thought  and  his  expres- 
sion, or,  to  speak  more  accurately,  between  the 
thought  which  he  evidently  designs  to  express  and 
that  which  hi.s  words  properly  signify.  It  may  be 
employed  to  convey  a-ssent  and  approbation  as  well 
as  the  contrary,  Init  it  is  more  inoperly  a  weapon 
belonging  to  the  armoury  of  controversy,  by  means 
of  which  weight  and  point  may  be  added  to  the 
gravest  part  of  the  argument.  The  dialogues  of 
Plato  are  admirable  exami)les  of  a  subtle  dialectic 
irony,  in  which  the  opinion  of  the  adversary  is  put 
respectfully  in  the  foreground,  and  the  appearance 
of  deference  is  never  drojiped  until  the  supports  on 
which  it  rests  are  one  by  one  withdrawn,  and  the 
whole  is  completely  undermined  and  seems  to  sink 
by  the  weight  of  its  own  absurdity.  Of  this  rare 
art  in  modern  literature  there  is  nothing  worthy 
of  comparison,  save  the  Provincial  Letters  of 
Pascal.  The  Minute  Pliilosopher  oi  Bishop  Berke 
ley  is  one  of  the  most  unfortunate  attempts  at  its 
revival.  A  more  recent  master  of  dialectic  irony 
is  the  Danish  theologian  and  philosopher,  Kierke- 
gaard. The  highest  triumphs  of  irony  consist 
not  in  refutation  and  demolition,  but  in  clear 
demonstration  of  the  truth  once  the  fallacy  has 
been  exposed  and  overthrown.  Of  what  may  be 
called  practical  irony  numberless  instances  of  the 
most  v.arious  kinds  occur  in  life.  A  man  humours 
the  follies  of  another  to  render  them  more  extrava- 
gant, either  for  liis  own  amusement  or  his  victim's 
ultimate  proht  ;  another,  under  the  mask  of  friend- 
ship, ]ianders  to  the  wishes  of  some  deluded  man 
to  lead  him  to  his  ruin.  In  such  sjnrit  Tinion 
gave  his  gold  to  Alcibiades,  the  witches  fed  the 
ambitious  hopes  of  Macbeth,  and  Mephistopheles 
echoed  the  aspirations  and  the  despair  of  Faust. 
Fate  itself  brings  bitter  irony  to  bear  upcm  the 
hopes  of  mortal  life,  in  the  inevitable  rellection  how 
little  the  actual  good  and  ill  have  corresponded 
with  the  antecedent  hopes  and  fears.  The  calm 
retrospect  of  an  unemliittered  age,  no  longer  dis- 
turbed by  the  pa-ssions  of  the  actor,  is  ever  tinged 
with  a  genial  sense  of  the  dnmb  irony  of  things 
a-s  it  recognises  at  last  that  life  has  been  little 
more  than  a  vain  pursuit  of  the  phantoms  of  youth. 
.\nd  alike  in  the  broad  arena  of  history  we  lind 
human  imi>atience  and  temerity  punished  by  the 
relentless  hand  of  destiny,  as  in  the  signal  and 
sudden  reverses  that  follow  close  on  the  heels  of 
arrogant  ambition.  And  .so  in  the  microcosm  of 
the  drama,  which  must  be  a  faithful  image  of 
human  existence  ccmcentrated  in  the  mimic  sphere. 
An  admiralile  amplilication  of  this  thought  as 
ai)plieil  to  one  of  the  greatest  tragedi;ins  of  all 
time  will  be  found  in  Thirlwall's  famous  es.say,  'On 
the  Irony  of  Sophocles,'  in  his  Esuai/D,  Speeches,  and 
Srniciiis.  edited  by  Dean  Perowne  ( 1880). 

Iro(|lloi^<.  fornuulv  a  great  confederation  of 
Indian  tribes,  recognised  a.s  a  distinct  lirancli  of 
the  American  family.  At  the  beginning  of  the 
ITtli  century  they  included  the  Mohawks,  Oneidas, 
Onondaga.s,  Cayugas,  and  Senecas,  and  became 
known  as  the  'Five  Nations;'  in  1715  they  were 
joined    by    a    related  tribe,    the    Tuscaroras,   and 


henceforward  were  known  as  the  'Six  Nations.' 
Each  tribe  managed  its  own  affairs,  under  its  own 
sachems,  and  a  council  of  fifty  sachems  met 
annually  and  disposed  of  questions  all'ecting  the 
ccuifeileration  as  a  whole.  The  chiefs,  who,  like 
the  sachems,  were  of  equal  rank,  but  who  owed 
their  position  to  jiersonal  valour  alone  and  did  not 
foini  a  hereditary  liody,  exercised  leadei-ship  in 
time  of  war  only.  The  ccmfederation  was  found  by 
the  earliest  settlers  in  possession  of  the  greater 
l)art  of  the  present  state  of  New  York,  but  by  the 
end  of  the  17th  century  all  the  tribes  between  the 
Atlantic  and  the  Mississippi,  and  from  the  St 
Lawrence  to  the  Tennessee,  had  been  brought 
under  its  inlluence.  With  the  Dutch,  and  after- 
wards with  the  English,  the  Inxjuois  always 
maintained  friendly  relations,  even  taking  sides 
with  their  allies  during  the  Revolution  ;  to  the 
French,  (m  the  other  hand,  they  were  bitterly 
hostile,  and  their  enmity  had  an  important  ell'ect 
in  checking  the  growth  of  French  inlluence  in 
North  America.  After  the  Revolution  the 
Mohawks  crossed  into  Canada  under  .Joseph  Brant 
(q.v. ),  and  are  now  settled  on  two  reservations 
to  the  north  of  Lakes  Erie  and  Ontario.  The 
Cayugas  are  scattered,  and  some  hundreds  only 
of  the  Tuscavoras  have  found  a  home  among  the 
Mohawks;  but  most  of  the  Oneidas  are  settled  at 
Green  Bay,  Wisconsin,  most  of  the  Senecas  in 
Western  New  York,  and  the  Onondagas  still  hoM 
their  beautiful  valley  near  Syracu.se,  New  Y'ork. 
The  Iroquois  probably  never  exceeded  "2.3,000,  and 
they  still  number  nearly  half  as  many,  most  of 
them  in  the  United  States.  Schools  and  missions 
have  met  with  considerable  success,  and  civilisation 
is  making  marked  ]irogiess  among  the  descendants 
of  this  remarkable  confederation,  while  some  of 
their  number  lia\e  attained  to  distinction  as 
soldiers,  engineers,  (S:c. 

Irradiation.  When  a  biight  object  is  looked 
at,  an  image  of  it  is  formed  on  the  retina  of  the  eye. 
The  receiving-a])]iaratus  there  consists  of  a  number 
of  separate  stiniulable  elements  or  sets  of  elements  ; 
ami  tor  the  maximum  distinctness  of  vision  no  one 
of  these  elements  should  be  at  all  affected  by 
stimulation  of  its  neighbours.  If,  however,  the 
object  be  brilliant  the  iniagi'  on  the  retina  is  very 
bright,  and  neighbouring  .sensitive  elements  par- 
ticipate in  the  excitement  ;  a  bright  object  thus 
looks  larger  than  it  is.  Examples;  brig^it  white 
letters  (ui  a  bl.ack  ground  look  larger  than  they 
are  :  bliick  letters  on  a  bright  white  grouml  look 
smaller;  a  white-hot  wire  appears  thickened;  the 
new  niooit  appears  larger  than  the  copper-coh>ured 
'old  moon'  which  it  ajipears  to  'nnrse;'  and, 
especially,  an  electric  im'andescent  lamp  often 
appears,  on  .account  of  the  extreme  brilliancy  of 
its  attenuated  filament,  to  lie  almost  filled  with 
light. 

Irrational   Xnnibers,  a  term   ai)plied   to 

those  roots  of  numbers  which  cannot  be  accurately 
expressed  by  a  finite  number  of  figures.  For  in- 
stance, v2  is  an  irratiiuial  number.  If  the 
diameter  of  a  circle  is  one  foot  the  circumference 
is  an  irrational  number.  Irration.'il  numbers  have 
been  dellned  to  be  numlicrs  which  arc  incommen- 
sur.ible  with  unity.     They  are  also  termed  Surds. 

Irra>ra«l«l.v.    See  Ikaw.^ui. 

Irr4'u;illar.s,  agener.al  term  applied  to  i)artially- 
eipiipiied  troops  engaged  in  partisan  w.artare,  such 
.OS  the  Franctireuis  during  the  Franco-(!ernian  war 
of  1S70-71.  It  is  also  used  in  connection  with  the 
native  armies  of  British  India  which  were  re-organ- 
ised throughout,  <luring  the  years  18.">7-C1,  on  what 
is  called  the  'Irregular  .System' — that  is  to  say, 
with  only  eight  or  nine  Euroj>ean  olficers  insteail 
of  a  complete  establishment  of  from  twenty-one  to 


IRREGULARS 


IRRIGATION 


225 


twenty  four.  Previous  to  the  Mutiny  of  1857  most 
of  the  native  iCijinienl.s  weic  on  the  reguhir  system, 
the  troops  or  companies  being  commanded  by  Euro- 
peans, with  others  under  tliem  as  subalterns,  majors 
m  cliarge  of  win;;s,  and  a  lieutenant-colonel  in  com- 
mand, assisted  by  the  usual  regimental  stall' — viz. 
adjutant,  quartermaster,  and  surgeon.  Many  of 
these  otheers  held  other  appointments,  either  civil 
or  military,  during  peace,  Ijut  rejoined  their  regi- 
ments on  tlie  outbreak  of  war.  Only  some  seven  or 
eight  would  be  found  doing  regimental  duty  con- 
tinuously. A  few  irregular  corps  existed  havin" 
only  three  European  officers,  coniniandant,  second 
in  command,  and  adjutant,  attached  from  the  regu- 
lars and  drawing  high  rates  of  pay.  The  organisa- 
tion introduced  into  all  native  regiments  after  the 
Mutiny  gives  to  each  cavalry  regiment  nine  Euro- 
pean officers  from  the  Indian  Stall'  Corps — viz.  the 
commandant,  four  squadron  commanders,  and  four 
squadron  officei-s  (one  the  adjutant).  The  troop 
officers  are  natives,  and  there  is  a  native  adjutant. 
An  infantry  battalion  has  eight  European  officers — 
Wz.  the  commandant,  two  wing  commanders,  and 
live  wing  officers,  of  whom  one  is  the  adjutant  and 
another  the  quartermaster ;  the  company  officers 
are  natives,  and  there  is  a  native  adjutant.  The 
Corps  of  Guides  of  the  Punjab  Frontier  Force,  con- 
sisting of  six  troops  of  cavalry  and  eight  companies 
of  iufantiy,  luxs  fourteen  European  officers.  A  native 
battery  of  mountain-artillery  ha,s  a  commandant 
and  three  subalterns,  all  British,  with  three  native 
officers  under  them.  The  native  sappers  and  miners 
have  a  larger  establishment  of  British  officers,  and 
also  forty  European  non-commissioned  officers. 
The  routine  regimental  duties  are  carried  on  by  the 
native  officers,  who  live  in  the  lines  alongside  their 
men,  but  in  separate  quarters.  The  British  officers 
exercise  a  general  system  of  administration  and 
supervision,  and  live  in  cantonments  generally  at 
some  distance  from  the  lines,  except  when  on 
service  or  in  camp. 

Irrigation  (Lat.,  'watering''),  a  method  of 
jjroducing  or  increasing  fertility  in  soils  by  an  arti- 
bcial  supply  of  water,  or  by  inundating  them  at 
stated  periods.  Irrigation  was  probably  first  resorted 
to  in  countries  where  much  of  the  land  must  other- 
wise have  remained  banen  from  drought,  as  in 
Egj-pt,  where  it  w<us  extensively  practised  nearly 
■2000  years  before  Christ,  and  where  great  systems  of 
canals  and  artificial  lakes  were  formed  for  the  pur- 
po.se.  Extensive  \\orks,  intended  for  the  irrigation 
of  large  districts,  existed  in  times  of  remote  antiquity 
in  Mesopotamia,  Persia,  India,  China,  and  some 
other  parts  of  the  East :  and  in  such  of  these 
countries  as  have  not  entirely  lost  their  ancient 
prosperity  .such  works  still  exist.  Some  jilants  also 
re<iuire  a  very  abundant  sujiply  of  water,  and  irriga- 
tion has  become  general  where  their  cultivation  pre- 
vails. This  is  jiarticularly  the  case  with  rice,  the 
principal  grain  of  great  jiart  of  Asia.  In  Europe 
irrigation  prevails  chieHy  in  the  south,  where  it  was 
extensively  juactised  by  the  Romans ;  and  it  is 
inost  extensively  jiractised  in  northern  Italy,  and 
in  some  parts  oi  Spain  and  southern  France. 

Irrigation  in  Britain,  where  it  wiis  hardly  practised 
till  the  1 9th  century,  and  in  most  parts  of  Europe 
except  Italy,  is  almost  exclusively  emi)loyed  fxu- 
the  iiuipose  of  increasing  the  produce  of  grass  by 
converting  the  land  into  water-meadows.  The 
value  of  it,  even  for  this  one  purpose,  does  not  seem 
U)  Ih;  sufficiently  understood.  Poor  heaths  have 
been  converted  into  luxuriant  meadows  by  means 
of  irrigation  alone.  But  in  the  countries  in  which 
irrigation  is  most  extensively  practised  the  juo- 
duction  of  all  crops  depends  on  it. 

The  irrigatiiui  of  land  with  the  sewage  water  of 
towns  is,  under  another  name,  the  application  of 
liquid  manure.  In  no  small  degree  the  water  of 
275 


rivers  and  of  springs  depends  on  its  organic  and 
mineral  constituents  for  its  fertilising  properties, 
so  that  the  ai>plication  of  it  is  not  in  principle 
difl'erent  from  that  of  licpiid  manure  ;  but  it  must  be 
borne  in  mind  that  the  mere  abundance  of  water 
itself  is  of  great  importance  for  many  of  the  most 
valuable  plants,  as  the  most  nutritious  substances 
brought  into  contact  with  their  roots  are  of  no  use 
to  them  unless  in  a  state  of  solution  :  whilst  it  is  an 
additional  recommendation  of  irrigation  that  the 
supply  of  water  most  favourable  to  the  gro«tli  of 
many  valuable  i^lants  is  destructive  of  some  which 
in  many  places  naturally  encumber  the  soil,  as 
heath,  broom,  &c.  The  water  wliich  is  used  for 
irrigation  should  be  free  from  mud  and  such 
impurities  as  mechanically  clog  the  pores  of  leaves, 
or  cover  up  the  hearts  of  plants,  and  interfere  with 
their  growth.  Irrigation  is  far  from  being  so  ex- 
tensively practised  in  Great  Britain  as  would  seem 
desirable.  There  are  few  famis  in  the  British 
Isles  which  would  not  give  a  handsome  return  for 
artificial  watering  in  a  dry  year — i.e.  if  the  water 
could  be  obtained  and  applied  at  a  reasonable  cost. 
In  many  instances  the  produce  might  be  increased 
two,  three,  or  even  fourfold.  The  amount  of 
moisture  which  farm  crops  require  to  ensure  their 
full  development  is  greater  than  would  be  readily 
conceived.  At  Kothamsted  it  was  found  by 
Lawes  and  Gilbert  that  an  acre  of  wheat  in  five 
months  and  eighteen  days  evaporated  through  its 
leaves  no  less  than  335J  tons  of  water.  Light 
porous  soils  benefit  most  from  irrigation  :  sandy 
soils,  with  a  little  admixture  of  clay  and  marl, 
usually  most  of  all.  Except  in  tropical  countries, 
stiti'  retentive  clay  would  not  as  a  rule  be  benefited 
by  irrigation,  and  might  be  injured  by  it,  at  any 
rate  for  arable  farming.  Thorough  drainage, 
natural  or  artificial,  is  a  necessary  accompaniment 
of  successful  irrigation — necessary  so  that  the  soil 
may  not  become  '  water-logged,'  but  benefited  by 
the  water  percolating  through  it.  Soil  wholly  or 
partially  uncovered  by  vegetation  is  liable  to  be 
robbed  of  nitrogen  by  the  rain  or  irrigation  water 
washing  nitrates  into  the  drains  or  down  beycmd 
the  reach  of  the  plants.  This  is  avoided  in  grass 
land  by  the  roots  of  the  grasses  engaging  the 
nitrogen.  Irrigation  may  benefit  the  land  in  vari- 
ous ways,  most  usually  ( 1 )  by  softening  and  dis- 
integrating the  soil  in  percolating  through  it ;  (2) 
by  brin^'ing  additional  plant  food  into  it ;  ( 3 )  by 
facilitating  the  dissolving,  preparing,  and  distribu- 
tion of  the  plant  food  already  in  the  soil  ;  and  (4) 
by  the  oxidation  of  any  excess  of  organic  matter 
in  the  soil,  leading  thereby  to  the  production  of 
useful  carbonic  acid  and  nitrogen  compounds.  The 
extent  of  water-meadows  in  England  is  stated  to 
be  not  more  than  100,000  acres.  They  are  mostly 
confined  to  the  west  anil  south  of  England.  In- 
dividual farms,  irrigated  with  sewage  water,  are 
to  be  met  w  ith  in  many  parts  of  England,  but  the 
most  successful  instance  of  sewage  irrigation  in 
(Jreat  Britain  is  to  be  found  near  Edinburgh, 
where  an  extensive  tract  of  meadows  lying  be- 
tween Portobello  and  Leitli  yields  a  rent  of  £15 
to  £35  an  acre  ;  the  grass  is  cut  from  three  to  five 
times  a  year,  and  over  ten  tons  an  acre  have  been 
obtained  at  a  cutting.     See  Skwace,  M.vnure. 

The  methods  most  generally  pursued  are  what 
are  known  as  bed-work  irrigation,  catch-work 
irrigation,  and  subterraneous  irrigation.  The  first 
metho<l  can  be  conveniently  a)>plied  only  to  ground 
which  is  nearly  level,  and  may  cost  from  ±'20  to 
£40  per  acre.  The  catch-wmk  method  is  very 
much  less  costly,  and  can  be  applied  to  land 
whether  it  is  level  or  not.  By  the  last  system  the 
soil  is  saturated  with  water  from  below. 

In  .some  i)arts  of  the  I'liited  States  irrigation  is 
of  vital  importance ;  in  1890  the  total  area  of  the 


226 


IRRITABILITY 


IRVING 


ariil  lands  of  the  west  Avas  1,331.151  S(|.  in.  Tn  the 
east  tlie  principal  nse  of  inijxation  is  in  the  rice- 
lieKls  of  Sonth  Carolina  and  (;eorj;ia  ;  but  sni-li 
western  states  as  Colorado  and  Utah  are  altogether 
dependent  on  it,  owinj;  to  the  scarcity  of  the  rain- 
fall. This  is  true  also,  to  a  great  extent,  of 
southern  California.  In  all  these  arid  districts 
hundreds  of  miles  of  canals  and  ditches  have  been 
constructed  in  addition  to  the  mining  Humes 
utilised  for  irrigation  i)urposes ;  and  as  a  result 
wide  tracts  of  desert  have  l>een  turned  into  a  pro- 
ductive farming  country.  More  recently  irrigation 
has  been  introduced  in  western  Kansas,  largely  by 
canals  from  the  .\rkansas  River:  although  here,  as 
in  eastern  Cidorado  ami  California,  a  great  part  of 
the  water-supply  is  obtained  from  artesian  wells. 
In  .\rizona,  also,  it  is  expected  that  wide  tracts 
now  uninhabitable  will  be  rescued  with  the  aid  of 
irrigation. 

In  Australia  irrigation  on  an  American  scale, 
and  according  to  American  methods,  has  trans- 
formed hundreds  of  thousands  of  acres,  once 
covered  with  scrub,  into  luxuriant  vineyards, 
orchards,  and  orangeries,  especially  in  the  lower 
basin  of  the  Murray.  The  importance  of  irriga- 
tion to  the  Cape  is  noticed  in  the  article  on  that 
colony ;  and  the  irrigation  works  of  India  and 
Ceylon  are  referred  to  at  ISDI.v,  Ceylox.  Egypt 
{q.v. )  is  the  land  most  entirely  dependent  on  sys- 
tematic and  careful  irrigation. 

Irritability  in  Plants,  a  term  employed  to 
designate  phenomena  very  interesting  and  curious, 
hut  than  which  none  connected  with  vegetable  life 
are  more  imperfectly  understood.  Such  are  the 
phenomena  of  what  is  usually  called  the  Sleep 
(q.v.)  of  plants;  the  motion  of  the  spores  of  many 
cryptogamic  plants  by  means  of  cilia ;  the  motions 
of'  some  of  the  lowest  Alg.e ;  those  caused  by 
agitation  or  by  the  touch  of  a  foreign  body  in 
the  leaves  of  Sensitive  Plants  (q.v.);  the  motions 
of  Insectivorous  Plants  (q.v.),  &c. 

Irritation  is  the  term  applied  to  any  morbid 
excitement  of  the  vital  actions  not  amounting  to 
inllammation,  and  it  often  but  not  always  leads 
to  that  condition. 

Irtish*  a  river  of  Siberia,  the  chief  affluent  of 
the  Obi  (q.v.),  rises  at  the  east  end  of  the  Altai 
Mountains,  passes  through  Lake  Salsan,  breaks 
through  the  Altai  in  the  west  at  the  liottom  of 
a  savage  gorge,  and  Hows  north-westwards  across 
the  steppes  of  Western  Siberia  to  join  the  Obi,  from 
the  left,  at  S.amarow.  At  that  point  it  has  a 
width  of  2000  yards  ;  its  total  length  is  1620  miles  ; 
the  area  of  its  basin,  6i7,000  sq.  m.  The  important 
towns  of  Semipalalinsk,  Omsk,  and  Tobolsk  stand 
on  its  banks.  From  April  to  No\ember  it  is  navi- 
gable from  its  mouth  ;is  far  as  Lake  Saisan ; 
(luring  the  rest  of  the  year  tratlic  is  carried  on 
by  means  of  sledges.  Its  current  is  gradually 
sliifting  eastwards.  Its  best-known  tributaries 
are  the  Buchtarma  and  Om  from  the  right,  and 
the  Tobol  and  Islam  from  the  left. 

Iriin,  a  town  in  the  Spanish  province  of 
(iuipiizcoa,  on  the  Bidassoa,  near  the  French 
frontier,  24  miles  by  rail  S\V.  of  Bayonne.  In 
1837  Ceneral  Sir  De  Lacv  Kvans  (ipv.)  captured  it 
from  the  Carlists.      Pop.  '7040. 

Irvine,  a  seaport  of  Ayrehire,  on  the  river 
Irvine,  1:J  mile  from  the  Firth  of  Clyde,  and  II 
miles  by  rail  N.  of  Ayr,  2!)  SW.  of  tilasgow. 
.Made  a  sub-port  of  Trocm  in  1863,  its  harbour  hxs 
heen  inijiroved  since  1873;  and  there  are  cheniic.il 
works,  foundries,  grain-stores,  livrc.  The  bridge 
(1740-18.37),  the  new  town-hall  (1859),  a  statue  of 
Lord-justicegeneral  lioyle  ( 1867),  and  the  acailemy 
(1814)  are  features  of  the  town,  which  became  a 
royal  burgh  about  1230,  and  which  with  Ayr,  <&c. 


returns  one  member  to  parliament.  It  was  the 
birthplace  of  (ialt  and  .James  Montgomery,  and 
has  memories  also  of  Burns  and  the  Buchanites. 
Pop.  ( 1841 )  4594  ;  ( 1891 )  t)086. 

Irving.  Edward,  was  born  in  the  town  of 
Annan,  Dumfriesshire,  August  4,  1702,  and  at  thir- 
teen entered  the  university  of  Edinburgh.  In  1810 
he  became  a  schoolmaster  at  Haildington,  in  1812 
at  Kirkcaldy,  where  three  yeai's  later  he  >\!us 
licensed  to  preach  ;  and  in  1819  ho  w;is  ajipointed 
assistant  to  Dr  Chahners,  then  a  minister  in  (Glas- 
gow. His  sermons  did  not  prove  very  ])0]>ular ; 
Chalmers  himself  was  not  .satislied.  In  1822  Irving 
accepted  a  call  to  the  Caledonian  Church,  Halton 
I  (larden,  London.  His  success  as  a  preacher  in  the 
metropolis  was  such  as  had  never  previously  been 
witnessed.  After  some  yeai's,  however,  the  world 
of  fashion  got  tired  of  Irving  ;  but  it  was  not  till  his 
more  striking  singularities  of  opinion  were  de\  el- 
oped that  fashion  hnally  deserted  him.  At  the  close 
ot  1825  he  began  to  announce  his  convictions  in 
I'egard  to  the  second  personal  advent  of  the  Lord 
Jesus,  in  which  he  had  become  a  firm  believer,  and 
which  he  declare<l  to  be  near  at  hand.  This  was 
followed  up  by  the  translation  of  a  Spanish  woik, 
TItc  Cominq  of  the  Messiah  in  Mnjcsfi/  aiid  (llury, 
hy  Juiin  Josafat  Ben  Ezra,  which  i)rofessed  to  be 
written  by  a  Christian  Jew,  but  was  in  reality  the 
composition  of  a  Spanish  Jesuit.  Irvine's  intro- 
ductory preface  is  regarded  as  one  of  liis  most 
remarkable  literary  performances.  In  1828  ap- 
peared his  Homilies  on  the  Sacraments.  He  now 
began  to  elaborate  his  views  of  the  incarnation  of 
Christ,  asserting  with  great  emjihasis  the  doctrine 
of  his  oneness  \\'ith  us  in  all  the  attributes  of 
humanity.  The  language  which  he  held  on  this 
subject  drew  upon  him  the  accusation  of  heresy  ; 
he  was  charged  with  maintaining  the  sinfulness  of 
Christ's  nature.  But  he  paid  little  heed  to  the 
alarm  thus  created.  He  was  now  deep  in  the 
study  of  the  prophecies,  and  when  the  news  came 
to  London  in  tlie  early  i)art  of  1830  of  certain 
extraordinary  manifestations  of  ]irophetic  power  in 
the  west  of  Scotland,  Irving  was  prep.ared  to  believe 
them.  Harassed,  worn,  baffled  in  his  most  sacred 
desires  for  the  regeneration  of  the  great  Babylon 
in  which  he  dwelt,  branded  by  the  religious  public 
and  satirised  by  the  press,  the  great  preacher,  >\ho 
strove  above  all  things  to  be  faithful  to  what 
seemed  to  him  the  truth  of  Cod,  grasped  at  the 
new  wonder  with  a  pa.ssionate  earnestness. 
Matters  soon  came  to  a  crisis.  Irving  was  ar- 
raigni'd  before  the  presbytery  of  London  in  1830 
and  con\icled  of  heresy,  ejected  from  his  new 
church  in  Kegent's  Square  in  1832,  and  linally 
dcjiosed  in  1833  by  the  presbytery  of  Annan,  which 
had  licensed  him.  His  defence  of  himself  on  this 
last  occasion  was  one  of  his  most  splendid  and 
sublime  efl'orts  of  oratory.  The  majority  of  his 
congregation  adhered  to  him,  and  gradually  a  new 
form  of  Christianitj'  was  developed,  connnonly 
known  as  Irvingism,  though  Irving  had  really 
very  little  to  do  with  its  development  (see 
Catholic  and  ArnsroLic  Ciiriicii).  Shortly 
after  his  health  failed,  ami,  in  obedience,  as  he 
believed,  to  the  Si)irit  of  Cod,  he  went  down  to 
Scotland,  where  he  sank  a  victim  to  consumjjtion. 
He  died  at  Gla.sgow,  December  8,  1834,  in  the 
forty-second  year  of  his  age.  See  Carlyle's  Misccl- 
/rineous  Essiii/s  ami  his  licmim'sccnrcs,  and  JIrs 
01iphant'.s  Life  of  Edward  Ircing  ( 1862). 

Irvins,  Siu  Hknky  (b'U"n  John  Henuv  Brod- 

r.init),  actor,  was  bcun  in  1838  at  Keinton-Mande- 
ville,  Somerset.  Educated  in  London,  he  was  lor 
a  time  engaged  as  a  clerk  in  the  eily,  but,  having  a 
strong  inclination  for  Ihestage,  made  his  tirstappear- 
nnce  at  the  Sunderland  Theatre  in  1856.    After  m\i 


IRVING 


227 


playing  at  Eilinburgh  for  nearly  three  years,  he 
first  perfornieil  in  London  on  St'iiteniber  25,  1S59, 
at  the  Princess's  Tlieatre.  He  achieved  Init  a 
moderate  success,  though  some  dramatic  readings 
whicli  he  gave  at  this  time  at  Crosby  Hall  were 
warmly  commended  by  the  critics.  He  next  played 
at  Glasgow,  and  then  for  nearly  five  years  at  the 
Manchester  Theatre  Royal.  After  a  brief  engage- 
ment at  Liverpool  in  1S66  he  appeared  with  JSIiss 
Kate  Terry  at  Manchester  in  Hunted  Down.  An 
invitation  to  London  followed,  and  he  appeared 
at  St  James's  Theatre  with  nnich  succe.ss  as 
Doricourt  in  The  Belle's  Stratagem,  Dornton  in 
The  Road  to  Ruin,  and  (at  the  Gaiety)  iis  Mr 
Clienevix  in  I'nele  Dick's  Darling.  Performances 
at  other  London  theatres  followed,  and  in  1870,  at 
the  Vaudeville  Theatre,  he  made  a  distinct  mark 
as  Digby  Grant  in  Albery's  comedy  of  the  Two 
Roses.  Migrating  to  the  Lyceum  in  November 
1871,  he  further  added  to  his  reputation  by  his  tine 
representation  of  ^lathias  in  TItc  Bells.  Other 
impersonations  succeeded,  including  Charles  L, 
Eugene  Aram,  Kichelieu,  and  Louis  XL,  until, 
on  the  31st  of  October  1874,  he  created  genuine 
interest  by  his  unconventional  performance  of 
Hamlet.  This  Shakespearian  masterpiece  ran 
for  two  hundred  nights,  and,  although  the  public 
were  divided  as  to  the  general  merits  of  the  repre- 
sentation, full  justice  was  done  to  the  actor's 
abilities,  and  it  was  universally  admitted  that  Mr 
Irving  had  established  his  reputation  as  a  tragedian 
of  real  power  and  originality.  Among  other  suc- 
cesses under  Mrs  Bateman's  management  of  the 
Lyceum  were  Macbeth,  Othello,  Richard  III.,  and 
Tlie  Lyons  Mail.  In  December  1878  Mr  Irving 
entered  upon  liis  memorable  management  of  the 
Lyceum  Theatre,  where  his  triumphs  have  been 
shared  by  Miss  Ellen  Terry.  He  soon  added  a  suc- 
cession of  romantic  characters  to  his  repertoire. 
After  performances  of  Hamlet,  Othello,  and  The 
Merchant  of  Venice,  which  were  marked  by  scenic 
as  well  as  histrionic  excellence,  this  popular  actor 
appeared  in  1880  in  The  Corsicaii  Brothers ;  in  Lord 
Tennyson's  drama  of  The  Cup  in  18S1  ;  in  Romeo 
and  Juliet  and  Mncli  Ado  ahuut  Nothing  in 
1882  :  Twelfth  Night  in  1884  ;  W.  (_;.  Wills's  Olivia 
in  1885;  Faust,  adapted  by  AVills,  in  1886:  The 
Dead  Heart  in  1889;  King'  Lear  in  1892;  Bcchct 
in  1893  ;  King  Arthur  in  1895  ;  Cgmbeliiie  in  1896, 
&c.  Since  1883  Irving  and  his  company  have 
repeatedly  been  received  «ith  enthusiasm  in  tlie 
United  States.  He  was  knighted  in  1895,  and 
made  D.C.L.  of  Oxford  in  1S96.  Nutwithstaiuling 
certain  mannerisms  of  voice,  gait,  and  gesture, 
he  is  undoubteiUy  at  the  head  of  contemporary 
EnglLsh  actors,  and  he  has  done  much  to  redeem 
the  stage  from  formality  and  mediocrity.  See 
works  on  Irving  by  Joseph  Hatton  (1884),  Frederic 
Dalv  ( 1884 ),  "William  Archer  { 1885),  and  Percy  Fitz- 
gerald (1893). 

Irving,  WA.'illlNGTOX,  was  born  in  the  city  of 
Xew  York,  April  3,  1783,  and  died  at  Tarrytown, 
New  York,  November  28,  18.59.  comisht  isso  in  u.s. 
His  father's  family  were  Scotch,  by  J.  b.  lappincott 
and  claimed  descent  from  William  Compsny. 
de  Irwyn,  .secretary  and  armour-bearer  of  Robert 
IJruce ;  his  mother  was  English,  attached  to 
the  Episcopal  Church,  and  of  a  loving,  sunny 
teniper.  His  education  was  scanty  and  desultory. 
His  lii()tlicrs  were  .sent  to  college,  but  he  showed 
no  inclination  to  study,  being  '  a  dreamer  and  a 
.saunterer.'  This  arose  in  i)art  from  his  tendency 
to  pulmonary  disease.  He  began  to  rca<l  law  at 
the  age  of  nineteen,  but  after  two  years,  his  health 
being  precarious,  his  brothers  sent"liiiii  to  Europe. 
He  landed  at  IJordeaiix  in  1804,  and  wi'ut  by  .Mar- 
eeilles  to  Italy,  escaping  with  dithculty  from"  Bona- 
parte's police,  who  persisteil  in  regarding  liim  ;i>. 


an  Englisli  spy.  At  Rome  he  was  iiitoxicate<l  by 
Italian  art,  and  having  met  Allston,  the  American 
painter,  was  tempted  to  become  an  artist,  but 
tliought  better  of  it.  He  visited  Paris,  the  Nether- 
lands, and  London,  where  he  saw  John  Kemble 
and  Mrs  Siddons.  In  ISOG  he  returned  to  New 
York  in  inipro\ed  health,  and  was  admitted  to 
the  bar.  Those  were  'Corinthian  days,'  and  he 
led  a  rather  idle  life  ;  much  in  society,  and  greatly 
admired. 

His  liist  writing  was  in  the  Salmagundi,  a  semi- 
monthly sheet  in  imitation  of  the  Spectator,  con- 
ducted jointly  by  himself,  his  brother  William,  and 
J.  K.  Paulding.  It  ran  for  twenty  numbers,  and 
then  stopped  without  ex])lanation  in  the  fullness 
of  success.  There  was  considerable  merit  of  a 
superficial  sort  in  those  early  attempts,  but  there 
was  no  evidence  of  a  serious  literary  purpose,  for 
the  papers  apparently  were  written  with  a  view 
only  to  social  distinction.  His  first  characteristic 
work,  and  the  one  by  which  he  will  be  best  known 
to  posterity,  was  A  History  of  New  York,  by 
Diedrich.  Knickerbocker,  iiublished  in  1809.  All 
readers  of  English  know  the  little  man  in  knee- 
breeches  and  cocked  hat  as  one  of  the  permanent 
figures  in  the  gallery  of  literary  portraits.  The 
History  has  some  grains  of  truth,  liut  is  openly  a 
good-natured  burlesque  upon  the  old  Dutch  settlers 
of  ^Manhattan  Island.  The  humour  and  the  gravity 
whicli  mask  it  are  alike  irresistible.  It  may  be 
doubted  if  there  is  in  the  language  a  more  delight- 
ful or  more  perfectly-sustained  piece  of  drollery. 
Readers  of  Scott  will  remember  his  warm  praise  of 
the  book,  written  while  '  his  sides  were  sore  with 
laughing.'  In  the  United  States  it  was  uni\er- 
sally  read  ;  and  so  abiding  has  been  the  impression 
that  it  is  far  oftener  quoted  than  any  sober  histor- 
ical work.  It  is  to  the  American  people  as  i-cal  in 
its  way  as  the  Pilgrim's  Progress. 

For  many  years  after  this  Irving  was  in  partner- 
sliip  with  his  brothers  in  a  mercantile  business  that 
had  relations  on  both  sides  of  the  Atlantic  ;  but 
in  the  end  they  were  unsuccessful ;  and  \\hen  later 
he  had  won  his  place  among  authors  and  was 
receiving  a  good  income,  he  supporteil  two  of  his 
brothers  and  five  nieces  with  unsellish  devotion. 
In  May  1815  he  went  to  Europe  for  the  second 
time,  and  did  not  return  for  seventeen  years.  It 
was  in  1818  that  the  misfortunes  of  his  lirm 
culminated  in  bankruptcy,  and  thereafter  he  turned 
his  whole  attention  to  literature.  lie  declined 
liberal  oH'ers  for  magazine  work,  and  would  under- 
take nothing  that  was  to  interfere  with  his  plans. 
The  first  number  of  the  Sketch  Book  a]jpeared  in 
New  York  in  1819,  and  the  last  in  1820.  It  was 
received  in  the  United  States  with  universal  delight. 
Its  early  success  in  Great  Britain  was  largely  due 
to  the  powerful  support  of  Scott.  All  the  i)ieces 
in  this  miscellany  have  a  certain  charm — if  for 
nothing  more,  for  their  felicitous  touch  and  purity 
of  style.  The  chief  interest,  however,  centres  in 
'Kip  Van  Winkle,'  'The  Legend  of  Sleepy  Hollow,' 
and  '  Westminster  Abljey.'  The  last  is  one  of  the 
most  finished  descriptive  essays  of  our  cenlurv, 
though  ]ieihaps  a  little  lacking  in  siiii|ilicity.  The 
two  legendary  tales  are  in  a  way  related  to  the 
History  of  New  York,  and  have  had  a  currency 
and  an  inlluence  difficult  to  measure.  '  Rip  Van 
Winkle'  is  a  distinct  creation  of  genius,  aiul  with 
its  fellow  has  maile  the  lower  reach  of  the  Hudson 
clas.sic  ground.  Kor  the  Inst  time  tliere  had  lieeii 
IHoduced  in  the  I'nited  States  a  literary  work  on 
the  highest  level  of  contemporary  excelhiice. 
Ilracc/a-idgc  Hall  {IS'22)  fairly  maintained  but  ilid 
not  raise  the  author's  reputation.  It  was  scarcely 
necessary,  for  (!e(t//'rey  Crayon,  Gent,  wiuh  already 
at  the  summit  of  fiivoiir.  After  a  few  years  pa-ssed 
on  the  Continent  he  published  (1824)  Talcs  of  a 


228 


IRVING 


ISiEUS 


Traveller,  a  work  which  he  tliought  his  best  in 
regard  to  style,  but  which  some  consider  to  be 
over-refiueil. 

In  182()  lie  went  to  Spain  and  began  the  long 
and  arduous  studies  which  were  the  foundation  of 
his  more  important  serious  works.  These  were 
The  Life  of  Columbiin  ( 1S2S),  Cunqiiest  of  Granada 
(1829),  Voi/ar/es  of  the  Companions  uf  Columbus 
(1831),  The  Alhambra  {\S32),  Leifenih  of  tlic  Con- 
quest uf  Spain  (1835),  Mahumct  and  his  Suceessors 
(1850).  The  liist  two  or  three  of  the  works  just 
named  were  only  sketched  or  partly  written  before 
his  return  to  the  United  States  in  1832,  but  they 
are  given  together  with  the  group  of  which  they 
form  ])art.  It  was  Irving  who  tirst  revealed  to 
English  readers  the  rich  stores  of  Spanish  history 
and  romance  ;  an<l  whatever  may  be  done  to  correct 
or  enlarge  his  relations,  to  him  must  be  given  the 
praise  of  having  produced  some  of  the  most  fascin- 
ating books  in  e.\istence.  He  had  intended  to  write 
the  Tiistory  of  the  conquest  of  Mexico,  for  which 
he  had  collected  materials,  but  generously,  and 
to  bis  own  loss,  relinquished  his  design  to  Pres- 
cott  when  he  learnetl  that  the  latter  proposed 
to  undertake  it.  At  the  end  of  this  sojourn  in 
Spain  Irving  was  for  a  short  time  secretary  to  the 
United  States  Legation  in  London.  On  his  return 
to  his  native  city  (1832)  he  was  received  with  great 
enthusiasm.  He  declined  political  honours,  and 
continued  his  literary  work.  Having  made  an 
excursion  in  the  then  Far  West,  he  publLshed 
(1835)  A  Tour  on  the  Prairies.  In  the  same  year 
he  published  EecoUeetions  of  Abbotsford  and  Keir- 
steiid  Abbcij.  He  was  also  at  work  upon  the  last 
of  the  books  in  the  Spanish  series.  In  writing 
Astoria  (1830)  he  was  assisted  by  his  nephew,  his 
future  biographer.  The  Adventures  of  Captain 
Bonneville  (in  the  Rocky  Mountains)  appeared  in 
1837.  His  bi()grai)hy  of  Goldsnuth  was  mainly 
written  about  this  time,  though  not  published 
until  1849.  He  remodelled  for  hLs  own  residence 
an  old  Dutch  house  in  Tarrytown,  near  the  scene 
of  his  legend  of  Sleepy  Hollow.  This  became  well 
known  in  after  years  under  the  name  of  Sunnyside. 
But  his  intended  retirement  was  postponed  by  his 
appointment  in  18-12  as  United  States  minister 
to  Spain.  He  returned  in  1846  and  once  more  set 
himself  to  work.  Goldsmith -.md  Mahtimi't  ajipeared 
as  already  mentioned :  then,  in  1855,  nolfert's 
Roost,  a  miscellany.  His  last  work  was  the  Life 
of  George  Washington  (5  vols.  lSo.)-a9). 

Irving  was  never  married.  In  his  youth  he  was 
betrothed  to  Miss  Holliuan,  a  lovely  young  laily 
of  eighteen,  daughter  of  the  lawyer  with  whom 
he  pursued  his  studies.  Separated  from  her  by 
her  untimely  death,  he  remained  all  his  life  faithful 
to  her  menn)ry.  In  his  works  tln^re  is  to  be  observed 
a  delicacy  of  feeling  towards  woman,  a  chivalrous 
deference  as  well  as  tenderness  and  allection.  He 
was  also  exceedingly  fond  of  children  and  always 
bi^loveil  by  them.  In  his  youth  he  was  well  made 
and  handsome,  and  then,  as  afterwards,  was  alwaj's 
oourteil  by  the  best  society.  Sentiment  and  abunil- 
ant  humour  characterise  his  writings;  but  above 
all,  he  had  the  power  to  .seize  the  attention  of 
cidtivated  readers  by  his  keen  observation,  his 
graphic  touches  of  description,  and  his  lim|)i(l  and 
music'al  style.  The  early  books  which  lirst  gave 
him  fame,  and  those  which  came  from  his  studies 
in  Spain,  are  the  best,  for  in  them  his  genius  is 
eonsiiicuous.  The  Later  productions  are  respect- 
able, but  would  not  have  given  him  the  high  rank 
he  deservedly  holds.  His  was  a  fortunate  and' 
honourable  life  ;  and,  on  the  whole,  though  inferior 
to  one  or  two  in  genius,  he  must  be  jironounced 
thus  far  the  most  successful  of  the  writers  of  the 
New  World.  His  Life  was  written  by  his  nephew, 
Pierre  M.  Irving  (5  vols.  1862-64).      There  is  also 


an  excellent  short  biography  by  Charles  Dudley 
Warner  (1881). 

Irvingites.  See  Catholic  and  Apo.stolic 
Church. 

Isaac,  one  of  the  Hebrew  ii.atriarchs,  the  son  ot 
Abraham  and  Sarah,  and  hall-brotber  of  Ishmael. 
His  story  in  (jenesis  makes  him  born  when  both 
his  parents  were  advanced  in  age,  and  die  at 
Hebron  at  the  age  of  ISO,  leaving  two  sons,  Jacob 
and  Esau.  The  Midrash  ascribes  to  him,  in  allu- 
sion to  Gen.  xxiv.  63,  the  institution  of  the  after- 
noon prayer. 

Isaac  I.,  COMNENUS,  emperor  of  Constantin- 
ople, was  the  first  of  the  Comneni  who  attaine<l 
to  that  dignity.  Under  the  successors  of  Basil  II. 
Isaac  served  in  the  army,  winning  the  hearts  of 
officers  and  men  by  his  prudence  and  upri^dilness, 
and  on  the  deposition  of  Michael  VI.  in  1057 
was  elevated  to  the  throne.  He  established  the 
finances  of  the  empire  on  a  sounder  and  more 
stable  footing,  and,  braving  the  patriarch's  threat 
of  excommunication,  even  laid  the  clergy  under 
contribution  at  the  tax-collections.  He  repelled 
the  Hungarians  attacking  his  northern  frontier ; 
and  then,  resigniu"  the  crown  (1059),  retired  to  a 
convent,  where  he  lived  two  years  hmger.  He  was 
one  of  the  most  virtuous  and  able  emperors  of  the 
East.  There  are  e.xtant  from  his  pen  scholia  and 
other  works  on  Homer. 

Isaac  II.,  Angelus,  connected  through  his 
mother  with  the  Comnenian  emperors,  became 
sovereign  of  the  East  in  1185,  and  reigned  ten 
years.  Isaac  was  a  vicious  and  cowaidly  i>rince, 
and  his  reign  was  a  period  of  war  aiul  tumult. 
He  was  dethroned,  blinded,  and  imprLsoned  by 
his  brother  Alexius  in  1195.  Eight  years  later  he 
was  restored  to  the  throne,  and  reigne<l  for  a  period 
of  si.x  months,  when  he  was  again  dethroned,  an<l 
soon  after  he  died  in  prison. 

Isabella  of  Castile,  queen  of  Spain,  born  oa 
23d  April  1451,  was  the  daughter  of  John  II.,  kiu^ 
of  Castile  and  Leon,  and  in  1469  marrieil  Ferdinand 
v.,  surnamed  '  the  Catholic,'  king  of  Aragon.  See 
Ferdinand. 

Isabella  II.  (Maria  Isabel  Luisa),  ex-queen 
of  S))ain,  the  elder  daughter  of  Ferdinand  VII. 
See  Spain. 

Isabcy,  Jean  B.vptiste,  French  portrait- 
jiainter,  was  born  at  Nancy  (m  11th  April  1707, 
and  studied  under  David.  He  painted  iiortraits  of 
several  of  the  notabilities  of  the  Kevolution,  as 
Saint-.lust,  Barrere,  CoUot  d'Herbois,  and  others. 
Afterwards  he  became  court-iiainter  to  Napoleon, 
and  painteil  him  and  most  of  his  generals,  and 
important  events  in  his  life.  After  Napoleon's 
fall  Isabey  worked  for  the  Bourbon  sovereigns. 
He  excelled  also  ,as  a  miniature-painter  ami  as  a 
painter  on  porcelain.  His  '  Isabey's  Boat'  (1796), 
'Keview  ot  Troops  by  the  First  Consul'  (1804), 
'  Meinbei's  of  the  Congress  of  Vienna'  (1815), 
and  'Staircase  of  the  Paris  Museum,'  a  water- 
colour  (1817),  are  his  most  important  compositions 
apart  from  portraits.  He  died  at  Paris,  18th  April 
18.")5.  His  son,  Eugene  (1804-86),  was  a  clever 
historical  painter. 

Isa'llS  is,  like  Wordsworth's  cuckoo,  '  a  voice, 
a  mystery,'  for,  though  wv.  have  ten  of  the  fifty 
speeches  he  coiii|iosed,  we  know  absidutely  nothing 
of  the  facts  of  his  life,  excejit  that  be  imrsued  the 
profession  of  speech-writer  in  Athens,  and  that  his 
first  speech  was  composed  in  389  B.C.  and  his  last 
in  353  n.C,  so  th.at  he  may  be  said  to  have  lived 
from  the  time  of  the  IVloiJonnesian  war  to  that  of 
Philip's  supremacy.  Isa-us  did  not  com|)ose  jioliti- 
cal  speeches,  or  speeches  to  be  delivered  in  public 
suits,   but  exclusively  speeches  for   private  suits. 


ISiEUS 


ISAIAH 


229 


His  stven<;th  as  a  lawyer  lay  in  his  pnwer  of  deal- 
ing with  cases  of  inheritance,  ami  it  is  fortunately 
those  of  his  speeches  vliich  ileal  with  this  luanch 
of  Attic  law  that  have  sui\  ived  to  our  times.  To 
the  stndent  of  Aryan  institutions  and  of  compara- 
tive law,  as  well  as  to  the  student  of  Attic  law,  they 
are  invaluahle.  To  the  general  reader  they  are 
less  interesting,  for  the  very  nature  of  the  cases  in 
■which  they  were  delivered — ilisjjutes  as  to  mcum 
and  liiiim — finbade  any  very  lofty  flights  of 
eloi[uence.  On  the  other  h.and,  the  functions 
which  he  discharged  in  the  history  of  Greek 
oratory  as  a  branch  of  literature  were  of  the 
utmost  importance,  and  explain  the  fart  that  he 
was  included  in  the  '  canon '  of  the  ten  great  Greek 
or.atoi-s.  It  was  through  Isa?us  that  the  change 
from  the  older  style  of  Lvsias  to  the  new  school  of 
which  Demosthenes  is  tlie  greatest  representative 
was  eft'ected.  He  imitated  Lysias,  and  was  him- 
self the  teacher  of  Demosthenes.  It  will  he  re- 
membered that  Demosthenes'  first  speeches  were 
those  delivered  by  him  in  his  efforts  to  recover  his 
inheritance,  the  branch  of  the  law  in  which  Is-tjus 
was  acknowledged  master.  The  characteristics  of 
the  two  schools  lietween  which  Isa?us  was  the  con- 
necting link  are  to  be  seen  in  the  natural  tones  of 
Lysias  contrasted  with  the  technical  skill  of  the 
professional  orator  which  along  with  higher  gifts 
marks  Demosthenes.  The  importance  of  this  con- 
trast becomes  apparent  when  it  is  remembered  that 
the  speech-writer  or  logographer  was  not  allowed 
by  Athenian  law  to  speak  himself  on  behalf  of  his 
client,  but  only  to  compose  speeches  to  lie  delivered 
by  his  client.  When  speech-writing  first  became 
a  profession  and  a  branch  of  literature — i.e.  about 
the  beginning  of  the  Peloponnesian  war — there 
was  a  prejudice  in  the  mind  of  the  average 
Athenian  juryman  against  the  use  of  speeches 
thus  A\Titten,  which  made  it  desirable  that  the 
speech  should  have  the  appearance  of  being  the 
speaker's  own  composition.  In  adapting  his  style 
to  the  character  of  his  client  for  the  time  being 
Lysias  was  unrivalled.  By  the  time  of  Demos- 
thenes the  practice  of  logography  was  so  usual 
that  attempts  at  disguise  were  less  necessarj- ;  and 
the  speech-writer  might  display  all  the  technical 
skill  of  oratory  without  aroiising  suspicion.  Isneus 
endeavours  to  imitate  the  unprofessional  and 
innocent  style  of  Lysias,  but  does  not  succeed  in 
concealing  the  hoof  of  the  advocate  :  his  .simplicity 
is  exaggerated,  his  sentences  have  not  the  careless 
ease  of  Lysias,  but  an  ungraceful  negligence.  At 
the  same  time  we  find  in  him  the  germs  of  th.at 
combination  of  practical  titility  and  artistic  beauty 
which  was  afterwards  to  mark  the  new  school. 
Nor  can  it  be  doubte<l  that  Isa^us  surpasses  Lysias, 
as  he  is  himself  surp.issed  by  Demosthenes,  in  pure 
oratorical  skill.  Lysias  is  distinguished  for  simple 
colouring  but  graceful  drawin",  Isa>us  for  careless 
drawing  but  deeper  shade,  Iirighter  light,  and 
greater  wealth  of  colour.  The  crlido  prinrcps  is 
that  of  Aldus  ( I. ■)!.■?).  The  best  edition  and  com- 
mentani-  (German)  is  that  of  Schoniann  (1831). 

Isaiall  ( Heb.  Jcshtiiah ),  son  of  Anioz,  tirst  of  the 
greater  Hebrew  prophets,  was  a  citizen  of  .lerusalem, 
who  came  forward  as  prophet  about  740  B.C.  (prob- 
able death-year  of  King  Uzziah),  and  exercised  his 
office  till  at  least  the  clo.se  of  the  centurj-.  The 
main  object  of  his  prophesying  was  his  people, 
Israel,  sunk  in  so<'ial  nnnghteousncss  and  idolatiy  ; 
the  subject  was  his  people's  Clod,  Jehovah,  cxallcd 
or  sovereign  in  ritilitcoinDirss.  and,  because  there  is 
nothing  higher  tlian  righteonsne.ss,  sn])reme  over 
the  wlude  world  and  its  forces.  From  such  a  God 
to  such  people  only  |)unisliment  could  pass,  and  the 
means  for  this  w.-us  jiresent  in  the  gre.at  world-power 
of  the  <lay,  the  Assyrians,  four  of  whose  invasions 
of  Palestine  Isaiah  predicted  and  lived  to  see.     Be- 


cause, however,  Jehovah's  honour  and  the  existence 
of  true  religion  upon  earth  were  identilieil  with  the 
continuance  of  Israel's  national  history,  Isaiah  pro- 
mised the  survival  of  a  irnninnt,  the  stock  ot  an 
imperial  nation  in  the  latter  <lays,  and  centre  for  a 
whole  world  converted  to  Jehovah.  This  remnant 
required  a  leader  and  ,a  rallying-place  ;  and  it  was 
on  these  two  points  that  Isaiah's  eloquence  and 
hope  reached  their  climax  :  that  a  great  prince 
should  arise  in  Jndah — though  sometimes  he 
described  the  future  without  this  persimage — and 
that  Zion,  though  closely  besieged,  should  remain 
inviolate. 

In  the  book  of  his  name,  the  prophecies 
generally  admitted  to  be  Isaiah's  do  not  lie  in 
chronological  order.  They  may  lie  re-arranged 
according  to  the  four  invasions  of  Palestine :  Tiglath- 
pileser's,  734-.'{2 ;  Shalmaiiesers  and  Sargons, 
7'2.')-20 ;     Sargons,     711-10;     Sennacherib's,     701. 

( 1 )  In  the  prophecies  held  to  be  prior  to  the  first 
invasion  (ii.-x.  4:  some  add  x.  5-34,  and  xvii. 
1-14)  Isaiah  describes  his  call,  arraigns  lioth  states 
of  Israel,  intimates  their  invasion,  but  with  a 
difTerent  res\ilt  for  each.  To  north  Israel  he  holds 
ovit  no  hojie  :  in  the  worst  that  can  happen  to 
Judah,  Zion  shall  stanil,  and  David's  dynasty  sur- 
vive in  a  prince,  whose  birth  Isaiah  preilicts  as 
almost  immediate,  whom  he  hails  as  a  deliverer 
from  the  As.syrians,  but  his  ascriptions  to  -nhom 
are  applied  by  the  New  Testament  and  Christian 
theologj-  to  Jesus  Christ.  Tiglath-pileser  retired 
taking  only  a  small  part  of  north  Israel  captive. 

(2)  In  prophecies  of  the  next  invasion  (xxviii.  and 
most  probably  x.  5-xi.)  Isaiah  repeated  the  doom 
of  nortli  Israel,  an<l  his  word  was  vindicated  by 
the  fall  of  Samaria  in  721  and  captivity  of  the 
l>eople.  He  warned  Judah  again,  but  defied  the 
Assyrian  to  take  Zion,  and  expanded  his  prospect 
of  t"lie  coming  prince  and  the  glory  of  the  nation. 
Hezekiah,  his  friend,  was  now  on  the  throne,  and 
their  joint  work  of  abolishing  the  idols  may  have 
begun.  (3)  About  the  invasion  of  711-10  there  is 
difficulty.  Did  it  comprise  Judah  ?  Sayce,  Cheyne, 
&c.  say  it  did,  and  assign  to  it  Isaiah,  x.  5-34, 
xxii. ,  and  xxxvi.  1,  where  they  read  l^iair/oti  for 
Sennacherib.  But  of  an  invasion  of  Jndah  by 
Sargon  we  have  no  direct  evidence,  and  hence  other 
critics  (Driver,  Robertson  Smith,  &c.)  assign  to  this 
])eriod  only  .xx.,  xxi.  1-10,  perhaps  xvi.  13-14  (the 
rest  of  .XV. -xvi.  being  earlier),  and  the  events  in 
xxxviii.  and  xxxix.  (4)  With  70.5 — the  revolt  of 
Sargon  s  vassals  against  Sennacherib,  his  successor, 
and  Sennacherib's  lueparations  to  reduce  them — 
we  reach  the  most  fertile  period  of  Isaiah's  pro- 
phesying. In  xxix.-xxxii.  he  denounces  Jewish 
intrigues  with  Egyjrt,  preilicts  the  siege  and  deliver- 
ance of  Zion,  and  promises  to  faith  and  sincerity  a 
glorious  future.  In  another  set  of  oracles  to  foreign 
nations,  not  all  dating  from  this  time,  xiv.  24-32, 
perhaps  xvii.  12-14,  xviii.,  xix.,  xxi.,  xxiii.,  he 
intimates  to  a  number  of  tribes  the  futility  of  their 
resistance  to  Assyria,  and  allirnis  that  only  Zion 
shall  stand.  In  701  Sennacherib  overran  Juchili, 
and  seems  to  have  been  bonglit  oil'  by  llezid<iah, 
only,  however,  to  send  back  a  corps  under  the  Kab- 
shakeli  to  demand  Zion's  surrender.  It  w.os  this 
corps  whose  sudden  withdrawal,  upon  news  of  a 
great  disaster  to  the  main  army  at  Pelusiuni,  set 
Jerusalem  free,  and  so  gloriously  vindicated  Isaiah's 
word.  His  oraticms  during  these  events  are  prob- 
ably chtap.  i.,  <lescribing  the  devastation  of  .ludah  ; 
xxii.,  the  panic  and  profligacy  of  the  capital  on  the 
fn"st  appear.ince  of  the  enemy;  and  xxxiii.,  the 
prophet  s  final  triumph  at  the  Assyrian  witlidrawal ; 
with  the  detailed  narrative  of  events,  xxxvi.  2- 
xxxvii.  After  this  triumph  in  701  it  is  very  un- 
certain that  we  have  anvthing  more  from  Isaiah, 
except  it  be  the  latter  h.alf  of  xix.,  which  has  been 


230 


ISAIAH 


ISCHIA 


palloil  Ills  'swan-song.'  Of  his  end  we  know 
nothinj; :  a  tiadition  exists  tliat  lie  was  sawn  to 
(leatli  in  the  peisecution  of  Manasseli  (cf.  Epistle 
to  Heluows,  xi.  37  ;  Geniara,  Jebanioth,  49  6,  and 
Sanh.  103  h:  Joseph.  Atiiiq.  x.  31). 

There  still  remains  a  large  portion  of  the  Book  of 
Isaiah,  xiii.-xiv.  23,  xxiv. -xxvii. ,  xxxiv.,  xxxv., 
and  xl.-lxvi.  The  lii-st  doubts  as  to  the  authenticity 
of  these  wore  started  by  Aben-Ezra,  and  followed 
up  by  Kojipe  (1779),  wlio  sus|)ected  that  xl.-lxvi. 
were  of  later  date,  and  after  Idni  by  an  increasing, 
and  now  the  main,  body  of  critics  on  the  Continent 
and  in  Britain — (iesenius,  Hitzig,  Knohel,  Unibreit, 
Ewald,  A.  B.  Davidson,  C'lieyne,  Driver,  Robertson 
Snuth,  Knenen,  Wellhausen,  &c.  ;  and  to  a  less  de- 
gree, Delitzsch,  Bredenkamp,  Orelli,  <.tc.  No  critic 
of  any  eminence  now  claims  all  sixty  chapters  for 
Isaiah  ;  and  indeed  the  belief  that  they  were  all  his 
cimld  only  have  originated  through  the  taking  for 
granted  that  the  title  of  chap.  i.  covers  the  whole 
hook — an  opinion  falsified  Ijy  the  appearance  of 
titles  for  some  of  the  following  chapters  and  their 
absence  from  others.  None  of  the  chapters  in 
question,  save  xiii.,  claim  to  be  Isaiah's,  and  that 
they  are  not  his  may  be  argued,  apart  from  the 
uncertain  and  confusing  testimony  of  style,  vocal)U- 
lary,  &c.,  upon  grounds  of  historical  evidence.  The 
circumstance  and  horizon  of  these  prophecies  are 
entirely  ditl'erent  fiom  those  of  the  authentic  oracles. 
Assyria  is  no  more  the  dominant  world-power,  nor 
Zion  the  inviolate  fortress  of  tJod.  The  Jews  are 
not  in  their  own  land  :  they  are  either  in  exile 
or  just  returned.  It  is  no  more  the  repulse  of  the 
invader  or  the  recovery  of  Zion  from  siege  that 
is  predicted  ;  but  the  overtliiow  of  the  tyrant  in 
his  own  land,  the  redemption  of  a  cai)tive  people, 
the  laying  down  of  a  higlnvay  for  the  return  of 
exiles,  the  rebuilding  of  the  city,  and  the  resump- 
tion of  worshiji.  Exile  is  not  foretold,  nor  the 
effort  made  to  lift  the  imagination  to  it  as  certain. 
It  is  descriljcd  as  present  :  the  people  are  addressed 
as  in  exile,  their  conscience  is  appealed  to  as 
the  conscience  of  a  people  who  have  suH'ered  and 
acknowledge  their  penalty.  In  the  case  of  xl.-lxvi. 
there  is  an  additional  argument.  In  some  of  these 
chapters  Cyrus,  who  appeared  about  550  or  more 
than  a  century  after  Isaiah's  death,  is  not  only 
named  ;i.s  the  deliverer  of  the  exiles,  and  described 
as  existing  in  the  llesh  :  but  in  a  debate  (chap.  xli. 
fi'. )  about  Jehovah's  righteousness — i.e.  his  fidelity 
to  his  ancient  iiromises  of  deliverance  and  his  ability 
to  perform  them — Cyrus  is  presented  both  to  Jew 
and  heathen  as  a  living  proof  that  these  promises 
are  about  to  be  fulfilled — which  surely  would  ha\'e 
been  an  utterly  vain  proceeding,  if  Cyrus  were  not 
already  there,  visible  to  all  men.  This  very  definite 
evidence  overbears  not  only  the  resemblances  in 
style  between  xl.-lxvi.  and  Isaiah's  own  oracles, 
but  also  such  facts  as  that  Isaiah  foresaw  the  Bal)y- 
lonian  captivity  (xxxi.v. )  or  that  he  once  wrote  from 
the  standiMiint  of  a  nmch  larger  exile  than  liap]iened 
in  his  own  day  (xi,).  It  is  ipiite  possible,  though 
incapable  of  j)roof,  that  the  disputed  prophe<-ies 
contain  fragments  from  Isaiah  hinisclf.  rii.at  they 
contain  at  least  pre-exilic  fragments  is  more  certain  : 
Ivi.  9-lvii.  11  implies  that  the  Jewish  state  still 
exists,  and  bears  traces  of  an  origin  in  Palestine. 
By  some  Iviii.  fi'.,  esi)ecially  Ixiii.-lxvi.,  are  hehl  to 
be  jiost-exilic.  Originally  in  the  Jewish  canon  the 
Book  of  Isaiah  seems  to  have  followed  Ezekiel,  a 
fact  which  seems  to  confirm  the  late  date  of  at  least 
parts  of  the  book. 

Sec  Commentaries  1)y  Alu.\:indor  ( liS47 ;  new  ed. 
1875),  Ewald,  UeUtz.sch  ( trans.  1,S91),  Orulli  ( trans.  1891), 
and  the  present  writer  (in  'Expositor's  Bible,'  1891); 
Driver's /«<«■«/(  ;  his  Life  and  Times  (1888);  Kennedy's 
Unit;/  of  Isaiah  (1891);  works  by  Cheync  (]87o-'jri); 
and  Matthew  Arnold's  two  books  on  Isaiah. 


IsnilllM'l't.  Fr.vncois  Andre,  French  lawyer, 
was  born  at  Aunay  (Eure-et-Loire)  on  30th  Novem- 
ber 179'J.  In  ISIS  he  began  to  jiractise  as  an  advo- 
cate at  the  Court  of  Cassation  in  I'aris.  Here  he 
soon  made  a  name  as  a  piditical  advocate,  r;inging 
himself  in  opposition  to  the  Kestoration  govern- 
ment. About  this  time  he  greatly  enhanced  his 
reputation  by  i)uhlisliing  Ucrucil  CKiifrul  r/cs  An- 
a'lii lies  Lois  yntiiraisis  (29  vols.  1821-33),  I'ntHe  chi 
Droit  Puhlic  ct  till  Droit  t/c.s  Gnis  (5  vols.  IS'23), 
and  Code  A'/ectora/  I't  M:i>iirij,a/  (2d  ed.  1S31 ).  He 
also  interested  himself  actively  in  the  condition  of 
the  liberated  slaves  in  the  French  West  Indian 
colonies.  After  the  July  revolution  of  1830  he  was 
appointed  councillor  of  the  Court  of  Cassati(m  and 
elected  a  memlier  of  the  ('handier  of  Deputies. 
From  this  year  down  to  1S4S  Isambcrt  belongeil  to 
the  Constitutional  opposition,  signalising  himself  as 
a  friend  of  liberty  and  an  opponent  of  the  Jesiiits. 
The  chief  literary  productions  of  the  later  part  of 
his  life  are  Jitat  Heiiyienx  de  la  France  ct  dc 
fJiiiropc  (1843-44)  and  llistoirc  de  Justinicn 
(18.50).  His  Pcttidcctcs  Fraii^ccises,  a  collection  of 
French  laws,  edicts,  and  ordinances,  from  1789 
onwards,  was  left  unfinished.  Isambert  died  at 
Faris  on  13th  April  1857. 

Isaildllla.  or  IsANDHUVANA,  in  the  north-east 
of  Natal,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Buflalo  River,  110 
nules  N.  by  W.  of  Durban.  There,  on  22d  January 
1879,  the  British  camp,  com|irising  four  companies 
of  the  24th,  with  a  native  contingent,  under 
C(donels  Duinfoid  and  rulleine,  was  surjuised  by 
18,000  Zulus  in  Lord  Chelmsford's  absence  and 
almost  annihilated.  The  British  loss  exceeded  800, 
that  of  the  Zulus  2000. 

Ismv  or  ISEi:,  a  river  of  Bavaria,  rises  in  the 
Tyrol,  north-east  of  Innsbruck,  and  fiows  '2'20  miles, 
generally  in  a  north  and  north-east  direction,  till  it 
falls  into  the  Danube  near  Deggendorf.  Munich 
and  Landshut  are  on  the  banks  'of  Iser,  rolling 
rapidly  : '  Hohenlinden  (q.v. )  is  20  miles  away.  In 
the  first  part  of  its  course  it  is  an  imiietuous 
iiiouiitain-torreiit  ;  and  even  after  it  leaves  the 
Alps  it  has  many  rapids  and  islands.  Large 
i|uaiitities  of  wood  are  Ihialcd  down  the  Isar  from 
the  inuuntains.  Area  of  its  drainage  basin,  3545 
sq.  m. 

Isaill'ia.  in  ancient  geography,  a  district  of 
Asia  Minor,  occujiyiiig  the  summit  and  northern 
slopes  of  INlonnt  'raurus.  The  people  were  stern 
and  savage,  like  their  native  mountains,  and  occu- 
]ded  themselves  princiiially  in  robbery  and  piracy. 
At  length  their  deiircdations  and  tho.se  ol  their 
neighbours,  the  Cilicians,  became  so  formidable 
that  the  Roman  proconsul,  I'.  iServilius,  chased 
them  into  their  mountain  fastnesses  and  coerced 
them  into  siilimi.ssion  in  70  B.C.,  for  which  exjiloit 
he  acquired  the  surname  Isauricus.  Ncverthele.>^s 
the  Isaurians  were  not  subdued.  rompey,  in 
warring  against  the  Mediterranean  ]iiialcs,  drove 
them  otl'  the  sea;  but  they  soon  returned  again. 
Indeed  so  far  was  their  ))ower  frcjio  ha\  ing  been 
broken  that  they  conquered  the  Cilicians,  and 
remained  the  terror  of  the  neighbouring  states  down 
to  the  4tli  century.  In  the  reign  of  the  Emjieror 
(lallienus  ( '2.").3-'2(i8 )  there  even  aro.se  among  this 
savage  folk  a  rival  emperor,  Trebellianus,  who,  how- 
ever, was  finally  ciuslii'd.  This  sjime  peoiple  also 
gave  two  emijerors  to  Byzantium,  Zeiio  I.  (474-491 ) 
and  Leo  III.  (718-741);  the  descendants  of  the 
latter  ruled  over  the  empire  of  the  East  for  three 
generations.  From  the  51  h  century  <mwaids  the 
Isaurians  gradually  disappear  from  history. 

Is'cilin  (the  ancient  yEiinria  and  I'it/icciisa),  an 
i>laiid  on  the  north  side  of  the  entrance  to  the  Bay 
of  Naples,  U  miles  from  the  mainland.  Area,  26 
sq.  111.  ;  pop.  (1881)  •2'2,170.     Iscliia  is  a  favourite 


ISCHL 


ISINGLASS 


231 


iiUn'e  of  siiminer  resort,  liciiij;  noted  for  the  excel- 
Iciioe  of  its  warm  mineral  wiitei's,  the  ijreat  richness 
of  its  soil,  the  exquisite  llavour  of  its  fruits  and 
wines,  and  the  enchanting;  character  of  its  scenery. 
Its  hi<,'hest  point  is  the  volcanic  Monte  Epomeo, 
2tiOS  feet,  the  last  outhreak  of  which  occurred  in 
13(12.  In  ISSl  Casamicciola  \va.s  nearly  destroyeil 
l>y  two  earthquake  shocks.  A  still  more  dreadful 
catastrophe  hefell  it  on  Septcmlier  2.S,  1883,  wlien 
the  town  was  utterly  overwhelmed,  only  four  or 
five  buildings  being  left  standing,  and  four  or  five 
thousand  persons  lost  their  lives.  The  inhabitants 
grow  fruits,  wine,  and  oliveoil,  an<l  carry  on  fishing. 
Chief  towns  :  Ischia  (2741 ).  a  bishop's  seat ;  Casa- 
micciola (3963) ;  and  Torio(3157).  See  Johnston- 
Lavis,  The  Eitrthquahes  of  Ischia  (Naples,  1886). 

Isohl,  a  town  of  Upper  Austria,  surrounded  on 
all  >ides  by  gardens,  is  finely  situated,  1536  feet 
abo\e  sea-level,  on  the  river  Traun,  amid  magnifi- 
cent Alpine  scenery,  .33  miles  E.  by  S.  of  Salzlnirg. 
It  is  the  chief  town  of  the  district  called  the  Salz- 
karamergut  (q.v. ).  The  situation  of  Ischl,  and  the 
saline  baths,  established  in  1822,  attract  4000  or 
5000  visitors  annually,  including  the  Austrian 
royal  family,  who  have  built  a  villa.  About  8(KK) 
tons  of  salt  are  manufactured  here  ever>'  year  in 
the  salt-works,  opened  in  1.571.  Pop.  2124.  See 
Ischl  u ml  seine  Uin(jchung  (7tli  ed.  1885). 

Iseglieni,  a  town  of  Belgium,  10  miles  by  rail 
N.  by  W.  of  Courtrai,  has  linen  and  lace  manufac- 
tures, and  a  pop.  of  9520. 

IS60a  Lake  (Laeus Scbinus),  a  lake  of  Xorthem 
Italy,  situated  between  the  provinces  of  Bergamo 
and  Bre-scia.  Length,  12A  miles;  maximum  breadth, 
3^  miles ;  area,  24  sq.  m.  It  contains  two  small 
islands,  and  is  fed  by  the  Oglio,  a  tributary  of 
the  Po. 

Is^re,  a  department  in  the  south-east  of  France, 
round  which  on  the  north  and  west  flows  the  n\ev 
Rhone.  It  was  formed  mit  of  the  ancient  province 
of  Dauphine.  Area,  3200  sq.  m.  ;  pop.  (1872) 
.■■7.5,784;  (1886)  581,680;  (1891)  572,145.  The 
surface  is  level  in  the  north-west,  but  becomes 
mountainous  and  picturesque  in  the  east  and 
south-east.  Mont  du  Midi,  on  the  south-eastern 
border,  lises  to  13,088  feet.  Tlie  chief  river,  besides 
the  Rhone,  is  its  left-hand  tributary,  the  Istre, 
which,  rising  in  the  Alps  at  an  altitude  of  7540  feet, 
flows  south-westwards  to  join  the  Rhone  above 
Valence,  after  a  total  course  of  180  miles  ( 102 
navigable).  The  products  include  wheat,  wine, 
stone  fruits,  medicinal  plants,  and  hemp.  Cheese 
is  nia<le ;  anil  silkworms  are  reared.  The  de- 
partment is  rich  in  mineral  products  :  iron,  coal, 
and  turf  are  worked,  and  to  a  less  extent  marble, 
.slates,  and  gypsum.  The  industrial  activity  is 
considerable,  particularly  in  tlie  manufacture  of 
iron  and  steel  goods,  gloves,  silk  stulis,  cloth, 
linen,  paper,  straw-hats,  liqueur  (Chartreuse),  &c. 
The  department  contains  four  arrondissements, 
Grenoble,  La  Tour-<lu-Pin,  St  Marcellin,  and 
Vienne  ;  capital,  (irenoble. 

Iserlohn,  a  manufacturing  town  of  Prussian 
Weslnhalia,  is  situated  on  a  tributary  of  the  Ruhr, 
14  miles  SE.  of  Dortmund.  The  indiistry  is  chiefly 
directed  to  the  manufacture  of  hardware,"  especially 
of  brass  and  bronze  articles.  The  calamine  mines 
are  celebrated.  In  the  neighbourhood  is  tlie 
Declien  .stalactite  cave,  292  yards  long,  discovered 
m  1868.     Pop.  (1875)  16,868;  (1895)  24,722. 

Isrrnia  (anc.  ^Esemia),  a  town  of  Italy,  in  the 
.Apennines,  r>2  miles  N.  of  Naples.  It  is  surroun<led 
by  walls,  built  on  the  cyclopean  Samnite  remains. 
Among  other  antujuities  is  a  subterranean  aque- 
duct. The  town,  mucli  injured  in  1805  by  an 
earthrjuake,  is  the  seat  of  a  bishop.     Pop.  7678. 


Islllliaol,  the  .son  of  Abraham,  by  Hagar,  the 
Egyptian  handmaid  of  his  wife  Sarah.  In  the  story 
of  his  life  given  in  Genesis  he  was  driven  at  fifteen 
from  his  father's  house  along  with  his  mother,  and 
grew  up  to  manhood  in  the  .southern  wilderness  a 
famous  archer.  He  became  the  progenitor  of  a 
great  nation,  and  the  character  of^  the  Arabs  was 
supposed  to  have  been  foretold  in  Gen.  xvi.  12. 
Mohammed  a.sserted  his  descent  fmm  Ishniael,  and 
the  -Mohammedan  doctors  declare  that  Ishmael,  and 
not  Isaac,  was  ofl'ered  up  in  sacrifice — transferring 
the  scene  of  this  act  from  Moriah  in  Palestine  to 
Mount  .\rafat  near  Mecca. 

Isll'peinins,  a  city  of  Michigan,  15  miles  ^V.  of 
Marquette  on  Lake  Superior,  and  392  miles  N.  of 
Chicago  by  rail.  Large  quantities  of  iron  ore  (a 
red  hematite)  are  quarried  close  by,  and  the  town 
])ossesses  foundries,  blast-furnaces,  iSrc.  Many  of 
the  miners  are  Scandinavians.     Pop.  6840. 

Isidore  of  Soille  (Isidokus  Hispalensis), 
one  of  the  most  distinguished  ecclesiastics  at  the 
beginning  of  the  7th  century.  He  was  born 
most  probably  about  560,  either  at  Seville  or  at 
Carthagena,  where  his  father,  Severianus,  was 
prefect,  and  he  succeeded  Leander  as  Arch- 
bishop of  Seville  in  the  year  600.  Two  of  his 
brothers,  Fulgentius  and  Leander,  were,  like  him- 
self, bishops,  the  first  of  Carthagena,  the  second 
Isidore's  successor  in  the  see  of  Seville.  The 
episcoi)ate  of  Isidore  is  rendered  notalde  by  the 
two  half-ecclesiastical,  half-civil  councjls  at  Seville 
in  618  or  619,  and  at  Toledo  in  633,  which 
were  held  uiuler  his  presidency,  and  the  canons 
of  which  may  almost  be  said  to  have  formed  the 
basis  of  the  constitutional  law  of  the  Spanish 
kingdoms,  both  for  church  and  for  state,  down  to 
the  great  constitutional  changes  of  the  loth  cen- 
tury. He  also  collected  with  the  same  object  all 
the  decrees  of  councils  and  other  church  laws 
anterior  to  his  time.  His  death,  which  occurred  in 
636,  forms  one  of  the  most  remaikable  scenes  iu 
early  Christian  history.  When  he  became  sensible 
of  the  approach  of  death  he  sunnnoiiod  his  flock  to 
his  bedsiite,  exhorted  them  to  mvttual  finbearance 
and  charity,  prayed  their  forgiveness  for  all  his 
own  shortcomings  in  his  duty,  and  directed  all  his 
property  to  be  distributed  among  the  poor.  At  the 
eighth  Council  of  Toledo  in  653,  the  epithet  Egre- 
(/iiis  was  applied  to  him,  and  later  Pope  Benedict 
XIV.  permitted  the  office  of  St  Isidore  to  be  recited 
in  the  universal  church  with  the  antiphon  '  O 
doctor  optime,'  and  the  gospel  '  Vos  estis  sal  terra\' 

Isidore  wjis  a  voluminous  and  learned  writer  in  a  Latin 
ornate  rather  than  pure,  and  his  personal  cliaracter  stands 
high  for  its  simplicity  and  goodness.  His  writiii<,'s 
include  Etymtjlcujics  or  OnV/'/w  treating  of  the  whole  circle 
of  tlie  sciences,  and  showing  wide  reading  in  the  Greek 
and  Latin  classics;  Lilri  Differeiitiarum  sice  dc  proin-ie- 
tate  sermon um ;  Proamia  in  Lihros  Vet.  ct  Xov.  Test.; 
Quaistiones  ttim  tie  Nov.  quam  dc  Vet.  Test. ;  De 
Fide  Catholicit  contra  Judevos ;  Sententiarum  Lilri  Hi.; 
De  Eccitsiasticis  ojfifiis ;  Si/iifntt/tiut  de  himentaiione 
aniiiKC  pcccatricis;  Rdjula  .Moiuichorum ;  Dc  Natura 
Reritm  liber;  Chronicon;  Hi»tori(i  de  re'jihiis  Gothoru}n~, 
Wamlalorum,  el  Siicvorum ;  and  De  Viris  illnstribtis  liber. 

The  standard  edition  is  that  of  Arevallo  (7  vols.  4to, 
RoiiKu,  1797  1803),  reprinted  by  tlie  Abbe  Jligne  in  lii.s 
Palrolo'iia  Liitina  (Ixxxi.  l.\x.\iv.  ),  together  with  the 
Collectio  Omontim  ascribed  to  Isidore.  Vols.  Ixxxv.- 
Lxxxvi.  of  the  latter  also  contain  the  Litunjia  ilo:aru'jica 
secitiutuin  lic'julam  Batti  Jsidori, 

Isidoriaii  Decretals.    See  Canon  L.uv. 

Isinslass  (sui)|)osed  to  be  derived  from  the 
German  JfaKsenbldsc,  'bladder  of  the  sturgeon'), 
the  Iihthi/oeolhe  (iehthjis.  'a  fish;'  holhi.  'glue') 
of  the  classical  and  scientific  writers,  was  formerly 
obtained  only  from  the  common  sturge<in  {.Icripenscr 
sturio),  and  consisted  of  the  dried  air-bladder  of 


232 


ISINGLASS 


ISIS 


the  animal.  The  necessities  of  modern  commerce 
have,  however,  led  to  the  discovery  that  the  same 
part  in  many  other  lishes  forms  yood  isinglass  ;  and 
instead  of  llussia,  its  formerly,  being  almost  the 
only  producing  country,  large  quantities  are  now 
brought  to  Britain  from  South  America  (chiolly 
from  Maranham),  some  from  the  East  Indies,  New 
York,  and  Canada.  The  commercial  varieties  of 
this  mateiial  are  numerous ;  .and  besides  them 
others  are  occasionally  met  with,  as  the  Mdnilla, 
in  thin  cakes  ;  the  I'urii,  which  is  the  most 
remarkable  of  all,  resembling  grapes  of  a  reddish- 
brown  colour,  growing  from  a  straight  thick  stem, 
being  the  dried  ova  of  tlie  Sue/is  ffiijas,  a  large 
fish  common  in  the  mouths  of  the  Amazon.  An 
inferior  kind  is  also  made  of  cod-sounds  and  sole- 
skins,  sulliciently  good,  however,  to  be  used  in 
lining  beer  and  other  liijuids.  Isinglass,  strictly 
speaking,  is  not  Gelatine  (q.v.),  but  a  good  gelatine- 
yielding  tissue,  its  value  being  enhanced  by  the 
ease  with  which  it  is  abstracted  fioni  the  mem- 
brane when  compared  with  the  complicated  process 
necessary  for  separating  and  purifying  the  gelatine 
from  the  skins,  iS:c.  of  other  animals.  When  sepa- 
rated, however,  the  substances  are  identical  in 
composition,  and,  if  pure,  are  uudistinguishable 
from  each  other. 

IsiSf  the  name  applied  by  Leland,  Camden,  itc, 
and  in  the  form  Ysa  by  Higden  (14th  century),  to 
the  upper  part  of  the  river  Thames  (q.v.).  For  a 
long  discussion  of  the  origin  of  the  name — a  classi- 
cised form  perhaps  of  the  Celtic  uisgc,  '  water ' — see 
Notes  and  Queries  for  1882-84. 

Isis«  an  Egyptian  goddess.  The  deities  of 
ancient  Egypt  might  be  male  or  female,  but  in 
neither  case  could  the  Egyptian  worshipper  conceive 
a  deity  as  existing  in  isolation  :  to  every  deity  of 
eitlicr  se.K  there  must  be  a  counterpart  of  the  other 
se.x.  It  was  to  this  notion  that  the  goddess  Isis 
owed  her  origin  ;  she  was  the  counterpart  of  Osiris, 
and  this  fact  is  expressed  in  the  statement  that 
she  was  at  once  wife  and  sister  of  Osiris.  But  in 
all  such  cases  the  counterpart  remained  a  miudi 
less  important  person.age  than  the  origin.al  deity, 
whether  male  or  female.  The  mythological  func- 
tions of  Isis  accordingly  will  be  found  to  be  subordi- 
nated, at  any  rate  in  their  oldest  forms,  to  the 
myth  of  Osiris.  In  the  next  place,  as  the  child  is 
the  reproduction  of  its  parents,  for  the  father  lives 
again  in  his  children,  the  son  was  to  the  Egyptian 
in  a  way  identical  with  the  father,  and  when,  as  in 
the  case  of  the  gods,  the  mother  was  but  the 
counterpart  of  the  father,  the  identity  of  the  child 
with  the  parents  was  yet  more  complete.  In  other 
words,  as  a  child  is  impossible  without  parents,  so 
it  is  imiiossible  for  a  father  to  exist  without  a  child 
of  whicli  he  is  the  father.  Hence  we  find  that  the 
deities  of  ancient  Egypt  are  grouped  in  triads  or 
trinities.  Father,  mother,  and  child  cannot  be  con- 
ceived except  in  relation  to  each  other  ( the  terms 
are  correlative) ;  yet,  though  identical  and  insepar- 
able, they  are  nevertheless  tlistinct.  The  deity  who 
completed  the  triad  in  the  case  of  Osiris  and  Isis 
was  their  son  Horns.  In  order  to  understand  the 
position  occui)ied  hy  this  triad  in  the  circle  of 
ancient  Egyptian  deities  it  is  necessary  to  premise 
that  Egypt  was  no  exception  to  the  laws  which 
govern  the  growth  of  all  jiolitical  communities.  All 
states  which  arc  larger  tli.-in  more  city  states  have 
become  larger  by  the  amalgamation  or  .ii/}iiii/:isiiios 
of  smaller  unities.  The  smaller  stat.os  out  of  which 
Egypt  as  a  political  whole  was  formed  still  con- 
tinued after  the  |)olitical  unification  of  the  country 
by  .Menes  to  exist  .-is  administrative  districts,  even 
when  Egypt  became  T)art  of  the  Bonian  em]iirc',  jusi 
as  the  boundaries  or  ,a  modern  English  county  in 
many  cases  represent  the  frontiers  of  ancient  states. 


In  Egypt  these  divisions  are  generally  known  under 
their  (ireek  name  as  '  nomes.'  Each  nomo.  while 
yet  an  independent  state,  possessed  its  own  local 
ileities.  When,  however,  they  were  brought  under 
one  government  a  ])antheon  was  necessarily  formed, 
and  the  order  of  precedence  .amongst  the  v.arious 
local  deities  arranged.  Practically,  liowever,  each 
nome  continued  to  reg.anl  its  own  deity  or  trinity 
.as  re.ally  the  supreme  god,  unless  it  cmiM  succeed 
in  identifying  its  own  deity  with  some  other  mem- 
ber of  the  national  hierarchy.  This  explains  on 
the  one  hiind  the  statement  of  Herodotus  (ii.  42) 
that  no  gods  were  worshipped  universally  in  Egypt 
except  Osiris  and  Isis,  and  (m  the  other  hand  it 
enables  us  to  understand  how  it  ccuues  .about  that 
Isis  was  worshipped  .as  Mut  .at  Thebes,  .as  Sckliet 
.at  Bub.astis,  and  .as  Hathor  or  Atlior  at  Dcudera, 
as  Sothis,  the  dog-star,  and  .as  the  planet  Venus. 
It  also  expl.ains  wdiy  Osiris,  originally  the  local 
deity  of  Abydos,  came  to  be  universallv  worshii)]ied 
throughout  Egypt.  Osiris  undoubtetlly  owed  his 
elevation  in  the  Egyptian  p.antheon  to  tlief.act  that 
he  w.as  identified  with  Ka,  the  sun  or  sun-god.  In 
chapter  17  of  the  Book  of  tlic  Dctul  this  identifica- 
tion is  expressed  in  the  explicit  terms,  '  Ka,  the 
soul  of  Osiris,  and  Osiris,  the  soul  of  K.a.' 

We  may  now  proceed  to  the  mythological 
functions  of  Isis.  As  being  the  counterpart,  the 
sister  of  Osiris,  she  w<as  the  child  of  the  s.ame 
parents  as  her  brother  and  husband — of  Seb(or, 
.as  some  transliter.ate  it,  Qeb),  the  earth,  and  Nut, 
the  sky.  The  beneficent  course  of  the  sun  across 
the  sky  is  terminated  by  his  murder  at  the  hands  of 
his  brother  Set.  But  though  the  sun  dies  to-night, 
to-morrow  there  lives  another  sun,  who  is  dilierent 
.and  yet  the  s.ame,  as  the  child  is  ditlerent  fnuii  and 
yet  the  same  as  his  father.  This  is  Horns,  who 
avenges  the  death  of  his  father  Osiris.  Within  the 
limits  of  this  myth  place  was  found  for  Isis  as  the 
faitliful  wife  of  Osiris,  who  recovered  the  body  of 
her  murdered  husband,  after  it  h.a<l  been  flung  into 
the  Nile  by  Set.  Having  concealed  the  body,  Isis 
fled  to  her  son  Horns,  and  during  her  absence  Set 
founil  the  body  and  cut  it  into  fourteen  pieces, 
which  he  scattered.  These  Isis  cidlccted  au<l  Imiied 
in  a  stately  tomb.  The  question  at  once  procnts 
itself,  what  was  the  original  meaning  of  the  mytho- 
logical functions  .ascribed  to  Isis  in  the  myth  of 
Osiris?  And  we  may  conjecture  that  the  answer 
is  to  be  sought  in  the  original  local  character  of 
Egyptian  deities,  in  the  process  of  identification,  or 
'  syncretism,'  .and  in  the  litual  which  grew  out  of 
it.  Horns  was  originally  the  local  god  of  ICilfu  ;  he 
m.ay  have  been  a  solar  <Ieity,  at  anvrate  he  came 
to  lie  regarded  as  the  same,  yet  not  tlie same,  as  the 
loi'al  solar  deity  of  Abydos,  Osiris.  He  Wiis  inter- 
preted as  the  son  of  Osiris.  But  Horns  was  in  con- 
flict with  Set ;  obviously,  therefore,  it  must  have 
been  .as  the  .avenger  of  his  father,  Osiris,  that  Horns 
engaged  in  conllict  with  Set,  though  before  Horns 
was  iirought  into  connection  with  <1siris  no  such 
story  existed.  Ag.ain,  Horus,  before  he  was  identi- 
fied as  the  son  of  Osiris,  li.ad  .a  mother  of  his  own, 
Hathor,  the  local  lUuty  of  Dendera.  By  what 
process  Horus,  the  god  of  Edfu,  ha<l  come  to  be 
regarde<l  .as  connected  with  the  goddess  of  Dendera 
we  do  not  know.  I!ut  the  connect  i(m  was  expre.sseil 
in  ritual  by  a  religious  procession  from  Dender.a 
to  Eilfu.  Accordingly,  when  Horus  becanu>  tlie  son 
of  t)siris,  and  :\tlior  in  cons<M|uence  w.as  identifie<l 
with  Isis,  the  procession  in  which  the  im.age  of 
Athor — i.e.  Isis — visited  H(u-us  at  Eilfu  required  a 
mythological  explanation.  It  was  provided  by  the 
invention  of  the  myth  of  Isis'  llight  to  Horus  after 
the  deatli  of  ( )siris.  The  dismemberment  of  I  )siris 
and  the  collection  of  the  members  by  Isis  is 
apparently  .an  invention  to  account  for  the  phallic 
ceremonies,  which  survive  to  the  present  day  in 


ISIS 

E,!j>lit.  From  this  analysis  of  the  myth  of  Isis  and 
iVsiiis,  it  becomes  apparent  tliat  the  deities  of 
ancient  E<;ypt  were  not  originally  conceived  in 
triads  ;  hnt  that,  on  the  contrary,  the  trinity  of  the 
<;od  was  a  later  doctrine  designed  to  explain  the 
syncretism  which  resulted  from  the  amalgamation 
of  the  various  nomes  and  their  deities.  There  is 
yet  another  mythological  function  ascribed  to  Isis 
which  requires  mention  and  exjilanation  :  she  rocks 
the  cradle  of  the  infant  Nile.  To  the  Egyptian  the 
conflict  between  the  sun  and  the  powers  of  darkness, 
in  the  heaven  above,  may  have  had  its  parallel  on 
tlie  earth  beneath  in  the  perennial  conHict  between 
the  beneficent  Nile  with  the  sands  of  tlie  desert. 
At  anyrate,  Osiris  had  the  Nile  as  well  as  the  sun 
for  his  emblem  ;  and  by  a  not  unnatural  confusion 
Itetween  Osiris  and  Horus,  for  Horns  is  Osiris  in  his 
youth,  Isis  was  regarded  as  tending  tlie  infant  Nile. 
Finally,  we  may  dismiss  Isis  in  Egypt  Ijy  adding 
that  she  as  Neith  was  regarded  as  the  patron  goil- 
<le.ss  of  women,  and  presided  over  child-birth. 

But  we  have  yet  to  trace  the  fortunes  of  Isis  in 
Greece  and  in  Rome.  As  early  as  Herodotus 
(ii.  156)  she  was  taken  to  be  the  same  as  the  Greek 
Demeter — for  no  other  reason  apparently  than  that 
Demeter,  like  Isis,  suftered  a  great  loss.  Only,  it 
was  her  daughter,  not  her  luisband,  that  Demeter 
lost.  This  was,  however,  a  trifle  to  stand  in  the 
way  of  a  Greek  resolved  to  identify  his  mythology 
with  that  of  the  oldest,  the  wisest,  and  most  reli- 
gious of  mankind.  After  the  time  of  Herodotus — 
probably,  indeed,  not  until  post-classical  Greek 
times — on  the  ground  that  the  wife  of  the  sun  must 
he  the  moon,  Isis  became  a  moon-goddess,  and  was 
identified  by  the  Greeks  with  their  moon-goddess 
lo.  Again,  as  Athor,  Isis  was  imagined  to  be  the 
same  as  the  Semitic  Astarte  and  the  Greek  Aphro- 
dite. When  the  attributes  and  powers  of  all  these 
goddesses  were  ascribed  by  the  (post-classical) 
(ireeks  to  Isis  it  is  easy  to  understand  that  in  the 
Orphic  mysteries  Isis  was  the  chief  and  most 
mysterious  of  all  goddesses.  Nor  have  we  any 
difficulty  in  recognising  that  the  Pans  and  Satyrs 
and  the  nursing  of  Astarte's  children,  &c.  which 
appear  in  Greek  accounts  of  Isis  are  bono  wed  from 
myths  that  really  belong  to  Demeter,  and  are  not 
Eg>-ptian  at  all.  Our  two  chief  Greek  authorities, 
Diodorus  Siculus  and  Plutarch  {De  Isid.  et  Osir.), 
draw  mainly  upon  one  Hecata'us,  of  the  time  of 
Alexander ;  and  we  maj'  say  generally  that  it  is 
impossible  to  trace  Isis  as  a  figure  in  Greek  myth- 
ology- farther  back  than  the  age  of  Alexander. 

It  is  in  the  Roman  em])ire  that  Isis  becomes  a 
mythological  figure  of  importance  outside  Egypt. 
The  process  of  syncretism  was  carried  further  in 
her  case  than  in  that  of  any  other  deity.  Every 
function  ever  attributed  to  any  deity  whatever  was 
transferred  to  her,  and  the  result  is  best  stated  in 
the  words  of  the  mysterious  goddess  herself  to  the 
Golden  A.ss  of  Apuleius  {Met.  xi.  241)  :  '  I  am  the 
universal  mother  nature,  mistress  of  all  elements, 
first-born  of  the  ages,  supreme  of  goddesses,  queen 
of  names,  niler  of  the  gods,  sole  manifestation  of 
all  gods  and  goddesses,  whose  glance  makes  awful 
silence  in  the  shining  heights  of  heaven,  in  the 
depths  of  the  sea,  and  of  the  world  beneath,  whose 
unchanging  being  is  worshipped  under  many  forms, 
with  many  rites,  and  under  various  names,  as 
mother  of  the  gods,  a.s  the  Cecrojii.an  Minerva, 
I'a|>hian  Venus,  Dictynnian  Diana,  Stygian  Proser- 
pina, the  ancient  goddess  Ceres,  as  Juno,  Hellona, 
Hecate,  Rhamnusia — but  my  true  name  is  t^ueen 
Isis.'  To  this  we  may  adil  the  inscripticm  men- 
tioned by  Proclns  :  '  I  ,am  that  which  is,  has  been, 
and  shall  bo.  My  veil  no  one  has  lifted.  The  fruit 
I  l)ore  was  the  Sun.' 

See  Ma.'ipero,  Histoirf  Ancimnf ;  IjC  Page  Rcnoufs 
Uibbcrt  Ltctures  (IHTJ) ;  Sayce's  Hcrodotui ;  Chantepic 


ISLA 


233 


de  la  Saussaye,  Lchrhuch  der  RcJiaionpicx-h  ichtc.  (i.  1887 ) ; 
Brujiscli,  liflinion  und  Mvtfwhi/u'  dtr  aftcn  .Eiii/pter 
(i.  1;>84);  K.  Lepsius,  Ucher  den  ersUn  yE'jiiptisckenGol- 
terkrcis  ( 1851 ) ;  £.  Lefebure,  L'£tude  de  la  Religion  Egijp- 
ticn  iw:  (1886). 

I.skan«Ieroon.    See  Sc.vxdeeoon. 

Isla,  Jose  Fr.vncisco  de,  was  born  in  170:?  at 
Vidanes,  in  north-western  Spain.  Earlv  in  life  he 
joined  the  Jesuits,  for  some  years  was  lecturer  in 
jiliilosophy  and  theology  at  Sego\ia,  Santiago,  and 
Pamplona,  and  became  famous  as  a  preacher,  but 
still  more  as  a  humorist  and  satirist  by  his  writings, 
especially  his  novel  of  Friiir  Geniiid.  Except 
Cervantes  and  Quevedo  no  man  had  a  larger  share 
of  that  peculiar  grave  humour  which  is  one  of  the 
special  jiroducts  of  Spain,  and  with  him  it  seems 
to  have  been  almost  irrepressible.  Even  in  Voiifli 
Triumphant,  an  account  of  a  masque  pcrfmined  by 
the  students  of  his  own  order  at  Salamanca  in 
1727,  in  honour  of  the  canonisation  of  two  young 
Jesuits,  he  could  not  altogether  control  his  pro- 
pensity to  ridicule.  The  Letters  of  Juan  de  la 
Eiicina,  written  in  1732,  on  a  pamphlet  by  a  quack 
doctor  at  Segovia  who  had  given  him  offence,  are 
a  good  example  of  his  style,  but  a  more  character- 
istic one  is  the  Din  Grande  de  Nararra.  a  descrip- 
tion of  the  ceremonial  at  Pamplona  on  the  accession 
of  Ferdinand  VI.  in  1746,  which  he  «  rote  at  the 
request  of  the  local  authorities.  It  is.  in  fact,  an 
adroit  caricature  of  the  grandiloquence,  pomposity, 
and  inflated  phrase  usual  on  such  occasions,  but 
liis  artful  flattery  of  provincial  vanity  and  official 
self-importance  blinded  the  eyes  of  the  good  Pam- 
plonese,  and  they  passed  a  vote  of  thanks  to  him, 
which  he  appealed  to  with  an  admirable  assnnip-  • 
tion  of  injured  innocence  when  the  wits  of  Madrid 
chai'ged  him  with  the  joke.  He  had  a  hearty  con- 
tempt for  shams  and  pretences  of  all  sorts.  Friar 
Gerund  was  aimed  at  t,lie  charlatanism  of  the 
popular  preachers  of  the  day,  especially  the  preach- 
ing friars.  The  decline  of  culture  produce<l  un- 
critical audiences,  and  these  again  swarms  of 
preachers  who  tried  to  get  credit  with  the  crowd 
for  originality  by  tricks,  mannerisms,  and  clap- 
trap. Isla's  model,  as  he  owned  in  his  preface, 
was  Don  Quixote ;  what  Cervantes  had  done  with 
the  sham  cliivalry  and  sentiment  of  the  romances, 
he  strove  to  do  with  the  vulgar  buffooneries  of  the 
pulpit,  and  he  was  almost  e(|ual!y  successful.  The 
first  volume  came  out  at  Madrid  in  1758,  and  in 
three  days  the  whole  edition  of  1500  was  sold  oil'. 
From  the  king  down  everybody  was  delighted  with 
it^ — everybody,  that  is,  except  the  friars,  for  '  Fray 
Gerundio'at  once  became  a  nickname,  and  their 
ccmgregations,  they  found,  laughed  at  instead  of 
with  them.  But  the  friars  were  a  power,  and  at 
their  instance  the  Inquisition  stopped  the  pulilica- 
tion  of  the  book.  A  clandestine  edition  of  vol.  ii., 
with  the  imprint  of  Campazas,  as  well  as  a  reprint 
of  vol.  i.,  came  out  in  1770,  and  another  in  1787, 
but  none  with  a  license  until  1813.  Isla  was  struck 
down  with  paralysis  in  1767  as  he  was  obeying  the 
edict  exjielling  the. Jesuits,  but  he  insisted  on  sliar- 
ing  the  lot  of  his  comrades,  and  betook  himself  to 
Bologna,  where  he  lived,  cheerful  and  uncomplain- 
ing, in  poverty  and  ill-health,  until  the  end  of  1781. 
A  little  before  his  death  he  wrote  his  franslaticm  of 
Gil  Bias.  A  friend  had  urged  him  to  assert  tlieir 
country's  claim  to  a  book  that,  as  the  French  them- 
selves acknowledged,  had  been  st(don  from  S]iain, 
hut  he  objected  that  he  was  not  David  enough  to 
attack  such  a  (Joliath  as  Le  Sage,  and  that  he  liad 
never  read  Gil  liliix.  But  afterwariN,  having 
nothing  to  do,  he  took  it  up  and  translated  it,  anil 
further  amu.sed  himself  with  a  jireface  in  which  he 
hunmured  his  friend's  ))atriotic  idea  in  his  own 
grave  way,  by  a  circumstantial  story  in  the  style 
of  Gerundio  and  the  Dia  Grande,  of  how  Le  Sa(^ 


234 


ISLA    DE    PINOS 


ISLAY 


(who  never  was  in  Spain),  beinj;  in  the  suite  of  the 
French  anihas«ulor  at  Madrid,  met  a  fertain  An(Uv- 
hisian  advocate  wlio  pive  him  the  M.S.  of  the  novel. 
On  his  title-i)aj;e  lie  put,  '  Stolen  from  S|)ain,  and 
re.stoied  to  its  country  and  native  language  by  a 
jealous  Spaniard  wlio  will  not  allow  his  nation  to 
he  made  game  of;"  words  wliich  snlheiently  indi- 
cate his  drift ;  hut  his  pavity  imposed  upon  the 
Conite  de  Neufchfiteau  of  the  French  Academy, 
and  pvovoki'd  a  serious  refutation  in  IS  18,  to  which 
Llorente  replied  in  1820;  and  the  controversy, 
havinj;  that  element  of  paradox  which  gives 
vitality  to  argument,  still  maintains  a  titful  exist- 
ence.    See  Le  S.\ge. 

The  best  edition  of  Isla's  works  is  that  in  vol.  xv. 
of  the  BiUioteca  dc  Autorcs  EsjxiTiohs,  giving  Fray 
Gerundio,  the  Cartas  de  Juan  dc  la  Encimi,  the  Dia 
Grande  de  Nacarra,  and  a  full  collection  of  his  deUghtful 
letters,  but  omitting  his  sermons  and  translations.  The 
EngUsli  translation  of  Friar  Gerund  (1772),  by  Dr 
Warner  (some  say  Dr  Nugent),  is  somewhat  abridged 
and  a  little  vulgar  in  its  attempts  at  tlie  dialect  of  the 
Cauijios  rustics,  but  on  the  whole  pretty  faithful. 

Isla  de  Pinos.    See  Finos,  Isla  de. 

Isluillt  or  EsL.\M  (Arab.),  the  proper  name  of 
the  Molianimedan  religion  ;  designating  complete 
and  entire  submission  of  body  and  soul  to  God,  his 
will  and  his  service,  as  well  as  to  all  those  articles 
of  faith,  commands,  and  ordinances  revealed  to  and 
ordained  by  Mohammed  the  prophet.  See  Moham- 
medan rsM. 

Islamabad.    See  Chittagoxg. 

Island  (A.S.  iqland,  if),  'island,'  and  land. 
Ig  is  cognate  with  tcel.  cij,  Dan.  <>,  and  ultimately 
with  A.S.  cd,  Gothic  a/iira,  and  Lat.  aqua,  all 
signifying  'astream,'  'water.'  The  4-  in  island  cre])t 
in  through  confusion  with  Fr.  isle,  derived  from  Lat. 
insula),  land  surrouniled  by  water.  The  larger 
masses  of  land  surrounded  Ijy  water,  or  parts  of 
them,  are  Continents  (q.v. ),  and  the  term  island  is 
usually  restricted  to  the  smaller.  Since  Australia 
has  an  area  of  over  3,000,000  sq.  in.,  and  (omitting 
Greenland,  which  is  possibly  an  ice-bound  archi- 
pelago) New  Guinea,  the  ne.xt  island  in  size,  has 
onlj'  303,000  so.  m.,  the  distinction  drawn  between 
continents  antl  islands  in  the  restricted  sense  is 
more  than  verbal.  There  are  few  large  islands. 
Borneo,  indeed,  is  little  inferior  in  size  to  New- 
Guinea  ;  but  Aladagascar  ami  .Sumatra  are  the 
oidy  others  with  an  area  greater  than  100,000  sc|. 
m.  Honshu  (the  main  island  of  Japan)  and  Great 
Britain  rank  next,  the  latter  being  sixth  in  order  of 
size  if  New  tiuinea  is  taken  as  first.  The  follow- 
ing table  shows  the  relative  mainland  area  of  the 
largest  islands. 


HI.  m. 

New  Guinea 303,000 

Borneo 284,000 

Madat^-ascar 227,000 

Smnatra 185,000 

Hnnsliu 80,600 

Great  Britain 83,700 

Oeleln-s 68,800 

New  Zealand  (S.  Island )..58,60O 

Java 48,400 

Cuba 45,000 

Sew  Zealand  (  N.  Island  )  .44,500 

.N'ewfiiundland 40,200 

Luzon 40,000 


Islands. 


Arta  111 
sq.  lu. 

Iceland 39,800 

Mindanao 37,000 

Irelan.l 32,600 

Ilayti 2S,800 

Tasmania 26.200 

Ceyluii 24,700 

Nova  Zctnbla(  N.  Island  ).1U.300 

Tierra  del  Fuego 18,500 

Nova  Zenibla  (S.  Island ).15,700 

Fonnosa 15,000 

Hainan 14,000 

Sicily 9,900 

Sardinia 9,200 


Two  classes  of  islands  may  he  distinguished — 
continental  and  oceanic.  Cuntincntal  Islands  are 
closely  allieil  by  the  structure  of  their  rocks  to  the 
nearest  continental  land,  from  which  they  are 
rarely  far  distant,  although  .sometimes — as  in  the 
case  of  .Mailagas(rar  and  New  Zealand — sep.arated 
by  depths  exceeding  1000  fatbonrs.  As  a  rule, 
contiiicnt.al  islands  lie  to  the  south  and  east  of 
the  continent  with  which  they  are  associated. 
The  only  exceptions  to  this  rtile  are  islands  on 


the  continental  shelf — i.e.  separated  by  depths  less 
than  100  fathoms,  which  have  been  cut  oil'  from 
the  nuiinland  in  geologically  recent  times.  \Yith 
the  exception  of  Mad;igascar  and  New  Zealand, 
the  separation  of  which  is  unusually  complete, 
the  plants  and  animals  of  continental  islands  are 
similar  to  those  on  the  adjacent  continent,  and 
from  the  slight  differences  detected  the  period 
at  which  separation  took  place  has  sometimes 
been  calculated.  Groups  of  continental  islands 
enclosing  seas  stretch  from  the  south-east  penin- 
sula of  each  of  the  northern  continents  towards 
the  nearest  southern  continent.  The  Greek 
Archipelago  points  from  the  Balkan  Feninsula 
towartls  Africa,  the  A\"est  Indies  run  from  Florida 
and  Yucatan  to  South  America,  and  the  Eastern 
Archipelago  extends  from  the  Malay  Peninsula 
to  Australia.  These  archipelagoes  represent 
mountainous  tracts  of  continent  which  have  sub- 
sided, or  else  irregular  portions  of  the  submarine 
plateaus  Mhich  are  unileigoing  elevation.  Professor 
James  Geikie  points  out  in  a  paper  (Scut.  Gcikj. 
Maij.,  Februaiy  1890)  that  in  past  geological 
epochs  groups  of  great  islan<ls  occupied  the  sites 
of  the  present  continents,  and  he  shows  reason  foi 
believing  that  the  evolution  of  continents  by  the 
incorporation  of  islands  on  the  great  world  ridges 
is  .still  going  on,  although  accompanied  by  the 
formation  of  new  islands  through  local  erosive 
action  on  the  coasts. 

Oceanic  Islands  lise  abraptly  from  great  depths, 
and  show  no  geological  continuity  with  the  con- 
tinents. They  apjiear  abo\e  the  surface  either  as 
(a)  Volcanic  Islands,  usually  rugged  peaks  or  vast 
accumulations  of  lava  nearly  as  precipitous  below 
the  surface  as  above,  or  as  (i)  Coral  Islands  (q.v.). 
Numerous  submarine  mountains  have  been  dis- 
covered in  ditl'erent  parts  of  the  ocean,  which  oidy 
require  moderate  elevation  or  the  deiiosition  of 
sediment  or  coral  growth  to  appear  on  the  surface 
as  islands.  The  fauna  and  Hora  of  oceanic  islands 
like  those  of  Madagascar  and  New  Zealand,  wiiich 
biologically  resemble  oceanic  islands,  differ  widely 
from  those  of  the  continents,  and  iiresent  many 
features  of  unicpie  interest,  which  have  been 
worked  out  in  detail  by  Wallace  in  his  Island 
Life.     See  Geoguai'iiic-vl  Distriiution. 

t'ontinental  islands  have  in  historical  times 
formed  the  cradles  of  great  commercial  nations, 
the  insular  jiosition  giving  security,  and  the  water 
border  acting  at  once  as  a  harrier  to  the  less  adven- 
turous continental  pcojile  and  as  a  highway  to 
the  bolder  islanders,  whose  closer  contact  with  the 
sea  makes  them  nations  of  sailors.  —  For  Floating 
Islands,  see  that  head  ;  and  for  the  '  Islands  of  the 
Blessed  '  and  other  fabulous  islands,  see  Antille-s, 
Atlantis,  Avalon,  Brendan,  Elysium,  &c. 

Islaudsllire,  a  part  of  Northumberland  in 
England,  embiacing  the  Fame  Islands,  toj^ether 
with  three  parishes  adjoining  Berwick-on-'Twecd 
(q.v.)  and  portions  of  two  others.  Area,  28,444 
acres;  pop.  3875.  Till  1S44  it  formed  a  detached 
pai  t  of  ])urliam  county. 

Islay<  an  island  of  Argj'llshiie,  13  miles  W.  of 
Kintyre,  and  h  mile  .'>\V.  of  Jura,  from  which  it  is 
separated  by  the  Sound  of  Islav.  Deeply  indented 
on  the  .south  by  Loch  Indal  ( 12  x  8  miles),  Islay 
has  a  maximum  length  and  breadth  of  '2.')^  and  19 
miles,  and  an  area  of  240  s(|.  m.  It  contains 
several  small  fresh- water  lakes,  anil  attains  a 
height  of  1444  feet.  More  than  half  the  whole 
area  is  capable  of  cultivation,  and  great  improve- 
ments have  been  effected  in  the  way  of  road- 
nuiking,  draining,  reclamation,  itc.  Dairy-farm- 
ing, stockr.-iising,  and  whisky-distillation  are 
leading  industries ;  whilst  slate,  marble,  iron, 
lead,  and  silver  have  been  worked.     In  the  course 


ISLE    OF    FRANCE 


ISOCRATES 


23r. 


of  the  century  tlie  oM  luoprietois  iinil  the  ii.-itive 
tenantry  liave  heen  larijely  siijiersecled  by  new- 
comers.' Islay  has  regular  steamboat  communica- 
tion with  01asf.'ow,  anil  a  telegraph  was  established 
in  ISTI.     Pop.  (1S:S1)  14,nS2;'(1891)  7335. 

Lslc  of  France.    See  M.vuritius. 

Isle    of   Mail,    Wight,    &c.      See    M.\n, 

AViGHT. 

Isles,  Lords  of  the.  See  Lords  of  the 
Isles. 

Islewortb.  a  JlkUlle-sex  parish,  on  the  left 
l>ank  of  the  Thames,  12  miles  WSW.  of  London. 
Here  is  Sion  House,  a  seat  of  the  Duke  of  North- 
umberland, the  place  where  the  crown  was  ottered 
to  Lady  Jane  Gre\'.     Pop.  15,884. 

Islington,  a  suburb  of  London,  but  so  closely 
connected  with  it  as  to  form  part  of  it,  is  situated 
2i  miles  N.  of  St  Paul's.  Pop.  (1861)  155,341  : 
(1871)  213,778;  (1891)  319,143.  It  is  remarkable 
for  the  numl)er  of  its  religions,  educational,  and 
benevolent  institutions.  The  Agiicultural  Hall 
(1861),  where  the  great  national  cattle  and  horse 
sho«  s  are  held,  is  capable  of  holding  50,000  people. 
In  1885  Islington  was  made  a  parliamentary 
borough.  It  retnins  four  merabei's  to  parliament, 
one  member  for  each  of  its  four  divisions. 

Ismail,  a  town  and  river-port  in  the  Russian 
government  of  Bessarabia,  stands  on  the  north 
bank  of  the  Kilia  branch  of  the  Danube,  48  miles 
from  the  mouth  of  that  river.  Formerly  a  Turkish 
fortress,  it  was  taken  and  destroyed  by  Suwavoff  in 
December  1790  ;  came  into  posse.ssion  of  Russia  in 
1812 ;  was  assigned  to  Moldavia  by  the  treaty  of 
Paris,  1856,  its  fortifications  being  razed  ;  and  was 
transferred  to  Russia  again  liy  the  Berlin  Congress 
of  1878.  It  ha-s  an  .active  trade  in  corn,  wool, 
tallow,  and  hides.  Poj).  with  the  adjoining  Tutch- 
kott'(1866)  31,779;  (1897)  31,293. 

Isinailisi,  a  small  town  on  Lake  Tinisah, 
through  which  the  Suez  Canal  passes.  It  stands 
on  the  railway  from  Cairo  to  Suez  and  on  the  Sweet 
Water  Canal.  During  the  construction  of  the  canal 
it  was  the  headijuarters  of  the  work,  having  been 
founded  in  1863,  Ijut  it  is  now  a  place  of  only  1850 
inhabitants. — The  name  Ismailia  was  also  given  to 
Gondokoro  (q.v. )  on  the  White  Nile. 

Isniailis,  a  Mohammedan  sect.  Like  the  rest 
of  the  Shiali,  or  party  of  Ali,  they  held  that  the 
liignity  of  Imam,  or  head  of  the  true  faith,  was 
inherent  in  the  house  of  the  Prophet  and  the  line 
of  Ali,  the  Prophet's  cousin,  son-in-law,  and  chosen 
lieutenant.  They  arose  in  Syria  and  Persia,  taking 
their  name  from  one  Ismail,  whom  they  regarded 
as  the  seventh  and  last  of  the  Inulms,  and  who 
lived  about  770  .v.D.  But  the  sect  acquired  its 
importance  a  century  later  from  Abdallah  al 
Kaxldah,  a  Pei-sian  of  Susiana,  and  son  of  Maimiin. 
He  was  an  oculist,  a  scholar,  .and  an  able  juggler. 
The  Ism.ailis  had  then  no  visible  Inifun  ;  indeed  the 
Shiah  lo-^t  its  twelfth  and  Last  Imam  in  the  mys- 
terious disappearance  of  Mohammed  in  879  .\.I). 
The  idea  of  a  'Hidden  Imam,' dotincd  to  a])]>ear 
for  the  reformation  of  religion  and  of  the  world, 
thus  became  necessary  for  its  existence.  To  under- 
mine the  whole  empire,  to  prejjare  a  great  revolu- 
tion and  overthrow  I.slam  \v;is  Abdallah's  desire. 
His  iiistrunjent  w.is  the  faith  in  a  '  Hidden  Im.''im,' 
or  '  Mah<li,'  MJuideil  or  Inspirc^l  One,'  styled  by 
Abdallah  the  seviiith  prophet,  .Mohammed  having 
been  the  si.vtli.  His  many  widelysjire.ail  d.ais  or 
missionaries  taught  their  converts  "that  this  coming 
deliverer  IkuI  opened  up  the  true  and  mystic  mean- 
ing of  the  Koran.  The  teaching  of  all  previous 
prophets  w.as  abrogated  by  him.  Converts  p.assing 
through  their  nine  stages  of  instruction  learned  to 
deny   all   positi\e   religion.      Prayers,   tithes,   pil- 


grimages, legal  purity,  and  other  religions  obser- 
vances were  shown  to  have  meaning  and  \ise  for 
only  the  blinded  ciowd.  A  Deniiurgus  was 
declared  to  be  the  world's  maker.  The  resur- 
rection, the  end  of  the  world,  final  ju<lgnient,  and 
rewards  .and  punishments  were  mere  allegories. 
The  universe  was  eternal.  Finally,  belief  w.as 
made  absolutely  free.  Mohammed,  the  Chief, 
Hidden  Imam,  ftlahdi,  or  Seventh  Prophet,  S(m  of 
Ismail,  w.as,  .after  all,  not  to  appear  but  in  his 
doctrine  t.aught  by  his  disciples  and  apostles  ;  and 
the  duty  of  all  believers  was  to  bring  the  worhl's 
sovereignty  into  the  hands  of  these.  Aljdallah's 
son,  Ahmed,  succeeded  him  as  Grand  Master  of  the 
Ismailian  .Society.  In  his  time  a  Babylonian 
peasant,  Hamdan  Karmat,  joined  it,  became  a 
missionary,  ,a  leader,  and  at  length  about  891  ])ro- 
claimi'il  a  communistic  .sy.stem.  For  two  centuries 
the  K.armathians  were  the  scourge  of  Islam  and 
the  East.  An  Ismailian  missionary  among  the 
Berbers  of  Constantine  called  the  people  to  arms 
in  All's  name.  Gbeidallah,  a  descendant  of  Ab- 
dallah al  Kaddah,  and  Grand  M.aster  of  the 
Ismailian  Society,  was  put  at  the  head  of  tlie 
revolution,  before  which  the  Aghl.abite  (809)  and 
the  Edrisite  powers  quickly  fell ;  .and,  calling  him- 
self a  scion  of  Ali,  by  Fatima  the  Prophet's 
daughter,  was  declared  Calif  and  Mahdi.  The  rise 
of  his  dynasty,  which  is  called  the  Fatimite,  is  the 
most  remarkable  example  in  history  of  tlie  jiower 
of  religious  enthusiasm  led  by  conscious  imposture. 
Egypt  (970)  and  Syria  were  added  to  its  enqiire. 
The  Karinathians  recognised  it  and  paid  it  tribute. 
Miserably  decayed,  it  was  supplanted  in  Egypt  by 
Saladin  in  1171.     .See  also  INIahdi. 

Isnia'il  Paslia,  Khedive  of  Egypt  (q.v.)  from 
1863  to  1879. 

Isobars.    See  Meteorology. 

IsOChronisiU  (Gv.  isos,  'equal;'  rhronos, 
'time').  A  pendulum  is  isochronous  when  its 
vilnations  are  performed  in  equal  times,  whether 
these  vibrations  be  large  or  small  ;  but  it  can  only 
possess  this  property  by  being  constrained  to  move 
in  a  cycloidal  arc.     See  Cycloid. 

Isoclinal  Strata.  See  Geology,  Moun- 
tains, Stkatificatiox. 

Isocrates,  the  Athenian,  who  was  born  436 
B.C.  and  died  .338  B.C.,  represents  the  perfection  of 
'epideictic'  oratory — i.e.  oratory  in  which  form  and 
literary  finish  count  for  everything,  and  matter  for 
very  little.  Oratory,  as  a  department  of  literature, 
was  in  Athens  the  outcome  of  that  growth  of 
litigiousness  and  development  of  the  faw-courts 
which  characterised  Athens  from  about  the  begin- 
ning of  the  Pelo]ionnesian  wars.  The  consequent 
necessity  under  which  every  Athenian  was  of  being 
.able  to  defend  himself  in  a  court  of  law  first  fostered 
the  rise  of  a  cla.ss  of  men — the  Sophists — who  pro- 
fessed to  teach  the  art  of  argument,  even  to  the 
extent  of  making  the  worse  appear  the  better  cause ; 
.and  next,  as  the  literaiy  taste  of  Athenian  juries 
increased,  fostered  the  rise  of  a  class  who  iiroi'esstd 
to  te.ach  the  art  of  literary  form,  and  who  taught 
by  example  rather  than  precept.  Hence  '  epideic- 
tic" oratory,  show-speeches.  Such  teachei's  of 
rhetoric  have  existed  in  other  countries,  but  at  no 
place  and  in  no  age  h.ave  they  reached  the  artistic 
excellence  of  Isocrates.  This  is  partly  due  to  the 
fact  that,  owing  to  the  ]ieculiiir  circumstances  just 
ex|ilaineil,  teachers  of  rln'toiic  in  .Athens  at  this 
time  could  g.ain  the  ear  of  the  ])ublic,  whilst  else- 
where and  at  other  times  the  teacher's  audience  has 
consisted  of  his  pupils,  and  he  has  lacked  the 
stimulus  .and  the  I'orrective  of  competent  criticism. 
But  though  the  hour  li.ad  come,  it  might  have 
sounded  in  vain  li.ad  not  the  man  been  there.  A 
brief  summary   of   Isocrates'   life   will   show   that 


236 


ISOCRATES 


ISOMERISM 


nature  had  iicsi>,'iie(l  liim  for  his  work.  If  his 
siicL'ohes  are  ileMcient  in  praeticality  to  an  extent 
that  has  irritated  Niehuhr  for  instance,  it  is  be- 
cause Isocrates  was  himself  so  utterly  impractical. 
Tlie  son  of  a  prosperous  tlute-nialier,  Isocrates 
received  an  excellent  education,  and  in  his  youth 
heard  the  show-speeches  made  at  Athens  by  the 
earliest  epideictic  orator,  Oorgias.  He  also  listened 
to  the  lectures  of  tlie  philosopher  Frodicus,  and 
joined  the  circle  of  Socr.ates.  But  he  only  cotiuetted 
with  philosophy,  and  though  in  the  r/ia-i/rus  of 
Plato  Socrates  expresses  the  higliest  expectations 
of  him,  Isocrates  abandoned  philosophy.  He  then 
took  to  speech-writing  as  a  profession,  but  he  had 
none  of  the  talents  required  in  the  composition  of 
speeches  having  such  ,a  practical  object  as  that  of 
winning  a  case  in  a  law-court.  After  trying  his 
hand  at  six  such  speeches  (402-39.'?  B.C.)  he  aban- 
doned logography.  If  he  failed  in  writing  practical 
speeches  to  be  delivered  by  others,  he  was  still  less 
adapted  by  nature  to  deliver  his  own  speeches 
himself  and  follow  a  political  career  ;  his  voice  was 
too  feeble,  and  he  was  nmcli  too  nervous.  Other 
people  since  Isocrates  having  failed  in  other 
pursuits  have  betaken  themselves  to  schoolmaster- 
ing,  but  Isocrates  deserves  the  credit  of  having 
been  the  tirst  to  discover  this  resource.  About  390 
B.C.  he  set  up  as  a  teacher  of  oratory",  though  he 
did  indeed  profess,  in  the  speech  which  served  as 
his  prospectus  (Against  t/ie  Sophists),  to  give  a 
general  practical  education.  In  his  prospectus  he 
was  careful  to  distinguish  himself  from  such  shallow 
pretendere  as  the  Sophists  on  the  one  hand,  and  on 
the  other  from  such  unpractical  teachers  as  philo- 
sophers. This  sample  of  his  skill  as  an  artist  in 
words,  though  it  drew  from  Plato  (Euthi/dcmus, 
304,  I))  some  contemptuous  animadversions  on  the 
little  knowledge  of  certain  persons  who  oiltivate 
the  domain  intermediate  between  philosophy  and 
politics,  succeeded  in  drawing  to  him  pupils  who 
subsequently  became  distinguished,  statesmen  such 
as  Timotheus  and  Laodamas,  historians  such  as 
Ephorus  and  Theopompus,  orators  such  as  Isa^is, 
Lycurgus,  -Eschines,  and  Hyperides.  Pupils  jjaid 
him  1000  drachm.-e,  and  were  put  by  him  ttirougli  a 
course  of  three  or  four  years'  duration.  He  himself 
composed  moilel  speeches  for  them,  such  as  the 
Pancffi/ririis  (about  380  B.C.)  and  the  I'lnticicxs 
(373),  and  corrected  the  oratorical  exercises  com- 
posed by  them.  But  he  also  wrote  speeches  in- 
tended to  be  practical  :  one  of  them,  the  Archi- 
fhiiiiii.i  (.365  B.C.),  may  actually  have  been  composed 
for  and  <lelivered  by  the  Sjiartan  king,  Archidamus, 
but  the  majority,  for  instance  the  Si/inmachiciis 
(357  or  3.55  B.C.),  the  Arcujiar/itirii.t  (about  3.')4  B.C.), 
the  raiKit/iniairiis  (342-339),  and  the  letters  to 
Philip  of  Macedon,  were  not  designed  to  be  de- 
livered but  to  be  circulated  and  read — they  are 
in  fact  the  earliest  political  pamphlets  known.  As 
a  politician,  or  rather  a  would-bi!  polit  ician,  Isocrates 
has  only  one  idea,  and  that  an  utterly  impractic- 
able one— to  unite  all  (Jreeks  togetlier  in  a  joint 
attack  upon  the  common  foe,  Persia.  The  practical 
commentary  on  this  ridiculous  Pan-Hellenistic 
panacea  was  the  destruction  of  (Ireek  freedom  on 
the  lield  of  ChaTonea  Ijy  the  very  Philip  to  whom 
Isoc'rates  looked  to  make  his  nostrum  efl'ective. 
'  That  dishonest  victory,'  in  the  words  of  Milton, 
'killed  with  report  that  old  man  eloi[uent.'  Iso- 
crates did  indeed  die  shortly  after  the  news  of  the 
battle  at  the  age  of  ninety-four,  but  it  mav  be 
doubted  whether  it  was  the  news  that  killed  the 
.schoolmaster.  Unpractical  Isocr.ates  certainly  was. 
Alexander  comjuered  Asia  in  less  time  than  it  took 
Isocrates  to  write  a  single  speech  (the /'""r'/'/(vV».s). 
But  it  wa.s  this  very  characteristic  which  made  the 
oratory  of  Isocrates  what  it  is.  And  Milton's 
tribute  to  him  may  serve  to  remind  us  that,  in  the 


opinion  of  all  competent  judges,  for  melody,  artistic 
merit,  perfection  of  form  and  literary  liuisli,  Iso- 
crates stands  unrivalled.  He  has  of  cour.se  the 
defects  of  his  (rualities.  His  work  m.vy  be  linished, 
but  it  is  unileniably  laboiired.  He  m.ay  have 
melody,  but  it  is  ajit  to  become  monotonous.  He  is 
always  smooth,  even  where  he  ought  to  be  stormy. 
Such  perfection  of  form  as  he  att.-iined  could  only  be 
produced  by  an  artist  who  was  willing  to  sacrifice 
everything  else  to  it,  and  Isocrates  by  nature  did 
readily  incline  to  do  so.  A  few  obvious  generalities 
and  a,  few  moral  sentiments  were  all  that  he 
required  in  the  way  of  matter  for  a  speech— i)ideed 
for  many  speeches.  The  result  is  that  lia\ing  rea<l 
one  of  his  speeches  you  have;  read  all.  The  truths  of 
morality  are  indeed  eternal,  but  they  will  not  bear 
eternal  repetition.  Ha<l  b\it  one  of  his  speeches 
survived,  his  poverty  of  thought  wo\ild  never  have 
been  discovered,  Imt  fate  with  cruel  kimlncss  has 
preserved  nearly  eventhing  he  ever  wrote.  But  if 
Isocrates  is  too  beautiful  to  be  absolutely  perfect 
himself,  we  must  not  forget  that  to  appreciate  his 
services  to  Greek  literature  we  must  not  consider 
him  apart  from  the  history  of  Greek  oratory.  He 
demonstrated  once  and  for  all,  and  at  luecisely 
the  time  when  the  demonstration  was  necessary, 
that  prose  as  well  a-s  poetry  may  have  an  .artistic 
beauty,  may  have  rhythm,  flow,  and  melody  of 
its  own.  It  was  worth  a  lifetime's  labour  to  efl'ect 
this  ;  and  if  it  was  only  in  Demosthenes  that  this 
o\itward  beauty  came  to  bo  wedded  with  nobler 
and  with  manlier  qualities,  let  us  remember  that 
it  were  as  vain  to  expect  the  fruit  without  the 
blossonr  as  to  imagine  that  we  could  have  had 
Demosthenes  without  Isocrates. 

Tlie  first  edition  was  printed  at  Milan  in  1493.  The 
'best  edition  of  the  text  is  that  in  the  Teubner  series. 
There  are  excellent  English  notes  on  the  Demo7iicus  and 
Pancrii/ricjis  by  J.  E.  Sandys,  German  notes  by  Rancheii- 
stein  on  the  latter  and  tlie  Arcopaiiitinis.  There  is  an 
English  translation  by  Freere  (1894  ct  scq.). 

Isoclyiiniiiic,    Isoelinic.    and     I.sosonic 

LilK'S  (<-ir.  isos,  'equal  ;'  r/i/inoiiis,  'force;'  /.lino, 
'  I  bend;'  goiiia,  'an  angle '),  or  lines  of  equal  force, 
equal  inclination,  and  equal  declination,  are  three 
systems  of  lines,  which  Ijcing  laid  down  on  maps 
represent  the  magnetism  of  the  globe  as  exhibited 
at  the  earth's  surface  in  three  clas.ses  of  phenomena, 
the  varying  intensity  of  the  force,  the  varying  dip 
or  incliiiation  of  the  needle,  and  its  varying  declina- 
tion from  the  true  meridian.     See  MAGNETISM. 

I'.sola  ItcIIa.  I.soL.x  Madre.    See  Borromean 

LSLAND.S. 

Isola  Grossn,  or  Isola  Li:nc,a  (Great  or  Long 
Island),  a  long,  narrow  island,  27  miles  by  3, 
running  parallel  to  the  coast  of  Dalmatia,  over 
.ag.'iinst  Zara.     It  belongs  to  Austria.     Pop.  12,000. 

Isoilicrisill  (from  the  Greek  word  isoma-cs, 
'composed  of  eipial  parts'),  the  relation  between 
chemical  compounds  which  are  identical  in  their 
ultimate  or  jiorccntage  composition,  but  i)rosent 
dilleiences  in  their  cliemical  properties.  Isomeric 
compounds,  or  isomcn't/cs,  are  divisible  into  meta- 
meric  compounds,  or  mctameridc.s,  and  i)olynieric 
compounds,  or  polymr.ridcs. 

In  all  mctameric  compoiinds  the  molecul.ar 
weight  is  the  same,  while  in  all  polymeric  coni- 
]iouiids  the  molecular  weights  are  sinqile  niulti|iles 
of  the  molecular  weight  of  the  lowest  member  of 
the  group.  As  an  illustr.ation  of  nietameride.s, 
propionic  acid,  C.,H,,CO(')H,  .acetate  of  methyl, 
CH.,CO-OCH„  and'f(uniic  ether,  H-C0'OC.,H,, 
may  be  taken.  Their  rational  formula',  whicli 
express  their  pndiabh;  constitution,  are  perfectly 
distinct,  yet  they  all  have  the  same  percentage 
composition,  the  s.ame  emidrical  formula,  CjHuO;, 
and  the  same  molecular  weight  (74). 


ISOMOKPH18M 


ISPAHAN 


As  an  illustration  of  polymerides,  the  hydro- 
carbons homologous  with  olefiant  gas  may  he 
taken.  Oletiant  gas  is  rei)resente<l  by  the  formula 
C,H,,  propylene  by  CjH^,  butylene  by  C^H^,  aniylene 
by  CjH,„.  These  snbstances  have  the  same  per- 
centage composition,  but  different  molecular 
weights. 

Tne  carbohydrates,  which  are  represented  by 
the  general  formula  C,H„„0„,  present  well-marked 
examples  of  isomerism.  Thus,  cellulose,  CgHj^Oj, 
starch,  CrtHioOj,  and  gum,  CjHi^jOj,  are  meta- 
nieric ;  wliile  grape-sugar,  C|jH,,_,Og,  possesses  the 
same  percenta''e  composition,  but  twice  as  hi^h 
a  molecular  weight,  as  lactic  acid,  CsHgOj,  and  the 
same  percentage  composition,  but  three  times  as 
high  a  molecular  weight,  as  acetic  acid,  CoHjO^ ; 
hence  the  three  last-named  substances  are  poly- 
meric. 

The  most  recent  researches  have  brought  to  light 
the  existence  of  several  special  varieties  of  iso- 
merism. A  tautomeric  body  is  one  in  which  the 
reaction  to  some  reagents  is  as  if  certain  hydrogen 
atoms  were  in  one  place  in  the  molecule,  while  to 
othei-s  it  is  as  if  tlie  hydrogen  occupied  a  different 
position  ;  and  a  tautomeric  body  may  be  des>no>ncric 
when  it  can  be  prepared  in  recognisably  different 
forms,  differing  from  one  another  in  the  position  of 
these  wandering  hydrogens.  AUoisomeric  bodies 
have  a  similar  chemical  stracture,  but  the  geo- 
metrical symmetry  is  different,  as  in  the  following 
case  (in  which  the  symbol  X  stands  for  the  group 
•CO  OH): 


Fumaric  Acid. 
H  y-,  ^  X 
X  -^-^    H 


Maleic  Acid. 


g.o.v^     H 

The  question  of  geometrically  symmetrical  or 
asymmetrical  arrangement  of  atoms  in  a  molecule 
has  become,  in  the  hands  of  Wislicenus  and  others, 
one  of  considerable  importance  in  reference  to 
isomerism.  Quite  possibly  the  allotropic  modifica- 
tions of  some  of  the  elements  (see  Allotropy)  are 
really  isomeric  differences  of  arrangement  of  the 
atoms  within  the  Molecule  (q.v.).  See  also  Aeo- 
M.-\.Tic  Series  and  Chemlstrv  (Vol.  III.  p.  152). 

IsoniorpllisUl  (derived  from  the  Greek  words 
isos,  'equal,' and  morp/tc,  'form')  strictly  signities 
similarity  of  form,  but  it  is  now  restricted  by 
chemLsts  to  those  substances  which  are  not  only 
similar  in  their  crystalline  form,  but  are  also 
analogous  in  their  chemical  composition.  The 
diamond,  C,  magnetic  oxide  of  iron,  FeO,Fe„Oo, 
and  potash-alum,  K,S0,,Al,(S0j).;,2-m,0,  'all 
crystallise  in  octahedra,  but  there  is  obviously 
no  analogy  in  the  chemical  composition  of  these 
substances ;  on  the  other  hand,  the  spinelle  ruby, 
Mg<->,.\U03,  maj^etic  oxide  of  iron,  FeO.Fe.jOj, 
and  chrome  ore,  FeO,Cr.jO;„  not  only  ciystallise  in 
octahedra,  but  (as  their  formuUe  show)  are  also 
analogous  in  their  chemical  composition.  Hence 
the  members  of  the  latter  grou|),  not  the  former, 
are  truly  isomorphous  in  the  restricted  sense.  As 
further  examples  we  may  (|Uote  the  elements 
arsenic,  antimony,  and  tellurium ;  the  chloride, 
bromide,  iodide,  and  fluoride  of  potassium ;  the 
.sesquioxides  of  ahnninium,  iron,  chromium,  and 
manganese  ;  and  for  a«lditional  lists  refer  to  Miller's 
Chi'iniail  Physica.  In  most  cases,  as  Milscherlich 
( to  whom  we  owe  most  of  our  knowledge  of  this 
subject )  showed,  the  chemical  composition  of  sub- 
stances that  correspond  in  form  is  analogous  ;  and 
that  cliemist  further  endeavoured  to  prove  that 
crj'stalline  form  is  independent  of  the  chemical 
nature  of  the  atoms,  and  that  it  is  determined 
solely  by  their  grouping  and  relative  positions  ;  the 
same  number  of  atoms  combined  in  the  same  way 
always  i>roducing,  according  to  him,  the  same 
crystalline  form.     The  coincidence  of  similaritv  in 


crystalline  form  with  similarity  in  atomic  arrange- 
ment is  the  most  important  generalisation  yet 
arrived  at  in  the  science  of  crystallography  ;  and  in 
chemistry  it  has  been  of  essential  service  in  facili- 
tating the  cUissiticaUon  of  compounds,  and  to  some 
e.xtent  in  determining  the  combining  numbers  or 
atomic  weights  of  the  elementary  bodies. 

Iso'poda  (Gr.,  'equal -footed'),  an  order  of 
higher  Crustaceans  in  the  division  with  unstalked 
eyes.  The  body  is  usually  flattened,  and  the  fii-st 
pair  of  abdominal  legs  form  a  lid  o\erlappiiig  the 
others,  which  generally  bear  gills.  They  are 
mostly  marine,  Init  the  wood-lice  are  terrestrial ; 
they  live  mainly  on  decaying  animal  matter,  but 
many  are  parasitic.  The  j^tenus  Tanais  seems 
ancestral  and  primitive  ;  Asellus  is  very  common, 
both  in  fresh  and  salt  water ;  the  cTibble  ( Lim- 
noria)  bores  into  wharf -posts  and  ship-sides; 
Idotea  includes  the  largest  forms  with  adapti\e 
colours  and  sometimes  phosphorescence  ;  the  family 
Copyridie  are  parasitic  on  other  Crustaceans,  and 
have  very  small  males ;  the  family  ^iigida?  in- 
cludes many  '  fish-lice ; '  some  of  the  parasitic 
Cymothoidie  are  fii-st  male  and  then  female.  The 
Oniscid;e  are  terrestrial,  and  feed  on  decaying 
vegetable  matter  ;  the}'  are  familiarly  known  as 
'wood-lice,'  'sow-bugs,'  'pill-bugs,'  'slatei-s,'  of 
which  Ouiscus,  PorceUio,  and  Armadillo  are  com- 
mon genera.  See  Crustacea,  Fish-lice,  Wood- 
lice. 

Isotlieriual  Lines.    See  Temperatlee. 

Isotl'opisill,  physical  homogeneity  or  amorph- 
ism ;  identity  of  elastic  forces  of  propagation  of 
vibration  (light,  heat,  sound),  or  identity  of  sus- 
ceptibility to  magnetisation,  in  all  directions. 

Ispahilll,  properly  ISFAHAN,  a  famous  city  of 
Persia,  capital  of  the  province  of  Irak-Ajemi,  and 
formerly  capital  of  the  entire  country,  is  situated 
on  the  Zenderud,  in  an  extensive  and  fertile  jdain, 
226  miles  S.  of  Tehran.  The  river,  here  600  feet 
broad,  is  crossed  by  three  noble  bridges,  one  of 
them  1000  feet  in  length,  with  34  arches,  but  now 
sadly  in  decay.  Groves,  orchards,  avenues,  and 
cultivated  fields  surround  the  city  for  miles  ;  but 
the  permanent  beauty  of  the  %-icinity  only  serves 
to  make  the  contrast  all  the  more  strilcing  between 
the  former  splendour  of  the  city  and  its  present 
ruinous  condition.  Miles  of  street  are  now  almost 
tenantless,  and  many  of  the  palaces  are  deserted 
and  rapidly  falling  to  decay.  The  suburb  .Julfa, 
on  the  southern  bank  of  the  river,  once  a  flourish- 
ing Armenian  settlement  of  30,000  inhabitants,  is 
now  little  better  than  a  mass  of  ruins,  since 
most  of  the  Armenians  have  migrated  to  India. 
Ispahan,  however,  is  still  an  important  city  and 
the  seat  of  extensive  manufactures,  including  all 
sorts  of  woven  fabrics,  from  rich  gold  brocades  and 
figured  velvets  to  common  calicoes.  Trinkets  and 
ornamental  goods  in  great  variety,  with  firearms, 
sword-blades,  glass,  and  earthenware,  are  al.so 
mamifactured.  Of  late  yeai-s,  too,  Ispahdn  has 
shown  considerable  signs  of  improvement ;  many 
of  its  edifices  have  been  rebuilt ;  rice,  an  important 
article  of  commerce,  is  now  largely  cultivated  in 
the  neighbourhood.     Pop.  estimated  at  60,000. 

Isijahan  was  a  trading  town  of  importance,  and 
the  capital  of  Irak,  under  the  califs  of  Bagdad.  It 
was  taken  by  Tiniur  in  13S7,  when  70,000  of  the 
inhabitants  arc  said  to  have  been  ma.ssacred. 
During  the  ITtli  century,  under  Shah-Abbas  the 
Great,  it  became  the  capital  of  Persia,  and  reached 
the  climax  of  its  prosperity.  Its  walls  were  then 
24  miles  in  circuit,  and  it  is  said  to  have  had 
between  eOO.WHI  aii.l  l,(HiO,000  inhabitants.  It  was 
then  the  emi)orium  of  the  Asiatic  world  :  the  mer- 
chamlLse  of  all  nations  enricheil  its  bazaars,  and 
ambiussadors  from  Kurope  and  the  East  crowded 


238 


ISRAEL 


ITALIAN    ARCHITECTURE 


its  court.  In  1722  it  was  devastated  by  the 
Afghans,  and  some  time  afterwards  tlie  seat  of 
•government  was  transferred  to  Tehran  (q.v.).  The 
importance  of  the  place  is  likely  to  rise  throiif,di 
the  ojieninj;  of  the  Karun  River,  since  the  main 
road  leading  from  Moliammera  to  the  interior  of 
Persia  will  pass  Ispahan.  Ispahan  is  besides  the 
religious  centre  of  Persia,  as  the  Imam  Ujumaa 
(high-priest)  residing  here  is  looked  upon  as  the 
greatest  ecclesiastical  dignitary  of  the  Shiite 
world. 

Israel,  Kingdom  of.    See  Jews. 

I.sriiels,  Jcsef,  genre-painter,  was  born  at 
Groningen  in  1824.  He  studied  at  Amsterdani 
under  Pieneman  and  Kruseman,  and  in  Paris 
under  Picot  and  Henri  Schetier.  In  1855  his 
'  William,  Prince  of  Orange,  opjiosing  the  Decree 
of  the  King  of  Spain '  attracted  attention  in  the 
Exposition  ^ni^■crselle.  But  this  work  was  almost 
the  only  eH'ort  of  the  painter  in  the  direction  of 
historical  art ;  for  he  soon  turned  to  scenes  from 
humble  life,  and  settling  at  Katwijk  near  Leyden 
he  devoted  himself  to  the  portrayal  of  the  (islier- 
folk,  sending  to  the  Salon  of  1857  his  'Children  of 
the  Sea'  and  his  'Evening  on  the  Shore.'  In  1867 
liis  celebrated  '  Interior  of  the  Orphan  Asylum  at 
Katwijk'  gained  for  him  a  third-class  medal  and 
the  ribbon  of  the  Legion  of  Honour ;  and  eight 
years  later  he  was  awarded  the  cross  and  a  first- 
class  medal.  More  recently  he  has  resided  at  The 
Hague,  working  indefatigably,  and  producing  a  long 
series  of  genre-pictures  in  oils  and  water-colours, 
presenting,  usually  in  its  pathetic  aspects,  the  life 
of  the  humbler  classes  of  Holland.  At  lirst  his 
work  was  somewhat  violent  in  colour,  but  gradu- 
ally it  has  become  subdued,  harmonious,  and  lovely ; 
his  management  of  the  restricted  tonality  which  he 
has  adopted  shows  the  most  accomplished  artistic 
skill ;  and  his  handling  is  large,  vigorous,  and  un- 
lal loured.  Among  his  chief  pictures  may  be 
named  'The  Sewing-school  at  Katwijk'  (1881), 
'Silent  Company' (1882),  'Fine  Weather'  (1883), 
and  'The  Struggle  for  Life'  (1883).  He  is  also 
favourably  known  as  an  etcher  by  'Old  Mary,' 
'The  Cradle,'  'The  Motlier,'  'The  Fisherinaii,' 
and  other  plates  very  simi)le,  direct,  and  painter- 
like in  their  method.  See  a  monograph  by  Netscher, 
■with  etching's  by  SteelLnk  ( French  trans,  by  Zilckeu, 
Amsterdani ). 

Issik-kul  (Kirghiz,  'warm  water'),  a  lake  in 
central  Asia,  in  the  Russian  province  of  Semirye- 
tchensk,  situated,  at  an  elevation  of  5000  feet  above 
sea-level,  between  the  Terskei  .Vla-tau  range  on 
the  south  and  the  Kungei  Ala-tau  on  the  north. 
It  mejisures  112  miles  long,  38  miles  broad,  and 
covers  an  area  of  1980  sq.  m.  Its  water  is  very 
salt,  but  full  of  lish,  especially  carp.  Notwith- 
standing the  fact  that  it  receives  forty  or  more 
rivei's,  its  surface  falls  permanently  at  the  rale  of 
8  or  9  inches  a  year. 

Issoire  (anc.  fs^iudorutn),  a.U>\yn  in  the  French 
department  of  Puy-de-Dome,  near  the  conlluence 
of  the  Couze  and  Allier,  21  miles  by  rail  SE.  of 
Clermont-Ferrand.  Po]i.  6051.  The  town  and  its 
people  were  treateil  with  savage  fury  by  both 
parties  during  the  religious  wars  after  the  Ke- 
lormatioM  (157-1-77). 

Is.soimIiiii.  a  town  in  the  French  department 
of  Indre,  72  mih's  S.  of  Orleans  by  rail,  has  manu- 
factures of  )iarchment,  cloth,  agricultural  instru- 
ments, \'c.,  and  (juarries  of  lithographic  stone. 
Poji.  (1S72)  11,913;  (1886)  !2,697  ;  (1891)  11,431. 

IssiK'i  in  Law,  means  the  point  of  fact  in  dis- 
pute which  is  submitted  to  a  jury. 

I.SSUS,  anciently,  a  .seaport  on  a  gulf  of  the 
same  name  in  Cilicia,  Asia  Minor,  celebrated  for 


the  victory  which  Alexander  the  Croat  obtained 
here  over  Darius  (333  li.C),  by  wliich  the  camp 
and  treasure  and  family  of  Darius  fell  into  his 
hands. 

Issy,  a  village  in  the  French  department  of 
Seine,  half  a  mile  SW.  from  Paris,  with  which  it  is 
connected  by  a  tramway,  possesses  a  seminary,  a 
retreat  for  old  men,  a  castle,  and  manufactures  of 
waxcloth,  chemicals,  \c-  Pop.  (1S86)  12,080. 
Here  on  3d  July  1815  Bliicher  defeated  DavoAt. 
In  1870-71,  during  the  siege  of  Paris  by  the  Cer- 
mans,  the  fort  of  Issy  sufiered  severely  from  the 
ai'tillery  fire.  It  has  since  been  re-erected,  and 
now  forms  part  of  the  south-west  defences  of 
Paris. 

Istaklir,  or  St.vkhr,  an  ancient  city  of  Persia, 
built  near  Persepolis  (q.v.). 

Istaiuboill.     See  CONSTAJJTINOPLE. 

IsthutllS,  in  Geography,  a  narrow  neck  of  land 
joining  two  larger  portions,  as  the  Isthmus  of  Suez 
and  the  Isthmus  of^  Panama.  The  name  was  often 
employed  by  the  ancients  without  any  addition 
to  designate  the  Isthmus  of  Corinth,  joining  the 
Peloponnesus  to  continental  Hellas.  Here  were 
celebrated  the  Isthmian  Games,  one  of  the  four 
great  national  festivals  of  Greece.  See  Athletic 
Sports. 

Istria,  an  Austrian  nuirgraviate,  forming  a 
peninsula  in  the  north-east  corner  of  the  Adriatic 
Sea,  between  the  Gulf  of  Trieste  and  the  Gulf  of 
Fiume  or  Quarnero.  Although  a  mountainous 
land,  often  swept  by  the  sirocco  and  bora  winds, 
it  yields  excellent  olive  oil  and  wine.  Area,  with 
the  adjacent  islands,  1812  sq.  m.  ;  pop.  (1880) 
•292,000  ;  ( 1885)  '299,911,  many  of  whom  are  eng.aged 
in  seafaring  life.  Capital,  Ko^igno. — For  Dora 
d'Istria,  see  Ghik.\. 

Itacollliuite,  a  schistose  quartzite,  containing 
scales  of  mica,  talc,  and  chlorite,  which  are  often 
so  arranged  as  to  give  a  certain  flexibility  to  the 
rock  (flexible  sandstone).  In  Brazil  and  the  south- 
eastern states  of  North  America  itacolumite  is  the 
matrix  in  which  diamonds  are  found. 

Italian  Architecture.  This  term  is  usually 
limited  to  the  style  practised  by  the  Italian 
architects  of  tlie  15th,  IGth,  and  17th  centuries, 
and  since  adopted  in  every  country  in  Europe. 
The  style  originated  in  a  revival  of  the  ancient 
architecture  of  Rome.  Althougli  Gothic  archi- 
tecture had  been  practised  in  Italy  during  the 
13th  and  14th  centuries,  it  had  never  been 
thoroughly  naturalised.  The  Italians  always  showed 
a  preference  for  the  round  arch  over  the  jjointed 
northern  form ;  and  even  in  tlie  buildings  they 
erected  in  the  pointed  style  there  is  a  certain 
siniiilicity  and  largeness  of  parts  indicative  of  a 
cliissic  feeling.  As  early  as  1350  Giovanni  Pisano, 
in  the  beautiful  sculjiture  of  the  pulpit  in  the 
Ba])ti.stery  at  Pisa,  sliowcd  a  return  to  tlie  ancient 
models.  Aruolfo  di  Cani)>io  planned  the  catheilral 
of  Florence  ( 1290-13COV  and  in  his  design  proposed 
a  great  dome  (a  remarkably  Koman  feature)  over 
the  crossing  of  the  nave  and  tran.sept.  This  he  did 
not  live  to  complete  ;  but  he  prejiared  the  way  for 
Brunelleschi  (q.v.),  who  went  to  Rome  to  study 
tlie  ancient  buildings  there,  at  that  time  neglected 
and  hardly  known  to  thi,'  Italians  tliemselves,  and 
ultimately,  notwilhstamling  great  opposition,  suc- 
ceeded in  carrying  out  the  construction  of  the  dome 
as  it  now  stands.  From  this  time  the  revival  of 
Roman  architecture  went  on  rapidly.  It  was 
encouraged  by  the  popes  and  other  princes  of  Italy; 
and  the  invention  of  the  iirinting-press  soon  spread 
a  knowledge  of  the  works  of  the  Italian  archilects 
over  Europe.  At  Ci-st  the  Komau  mouldings  and 
ornaments  only  ^vere  copied  and  applied  to  the 


ITALIAN    ARCHITECTURE 


ITALY 


239 


existing  forms.  As  the  .ancient  style  became  better 
undei'stood  its  general  principles  were  gradually 
adopte<l,  until  at  length  the  jlodern  Italian  style 
wa-s  formed.  This  stylo  may  be  delined  as  ancient 
Roman  architecture  aiiplied  to  tlie  forms  and 
reiiuirements  of  modern  buildings.  It  has  been 
admirably  applied  to  domestic,  Ijut  it  has  never 
been  so  successfully  used  in  ecclesiastical  edifices. 


library  of  St  Mark's,  Venice, 
by  Sansovino. 


Ricardi  Palace,  Florence, 
by  Michelozzo. 


The  domes  of  the  Italian  churches  render  the 
interiors  of  these  buildings  very  impressive,  and 
are  a  feature,  for  the  introduction  of  wliich  into 
the  west  of  Europe  we  are  indebted  to  this  style  ; 
but  the  facades  of  the  churches  are  broken  up  into 
stories,  antl  want  the  unity  of  a  <  iothic  front. 

Italian  architecture  is  divided  into  three  styles 
or  schools,  according  to  the  places  where  it  was 
practi.sed — viz.  the  Florentine,  Roman,  and  Vene- 
tian. The  Florentine  buildings  are  massive  and 
grand  in  eH'ect  ;  they  are  indebted  to  ancient  Roman 
art  chietly  for  details,  the  outlines  being  the  same 
as  those  of  the  older  buildings,  designed  to  suit  the 
requirements  of  the  locality.  Florence  being  a 
turbulent  city,  every  man  who  had  anything  to  lose 
had  literally  to  make  his  house  his  castle.  Accord- 
ingly, the  basement  floor  is  ma.ssively  built  with 
lar^e  blocks  of  stone,  and  the  windows  are  small  and 
plain.  The  Roman  school  naturally  resembles  nmre 
closely  the  ancient  Roman  Imihlings  so  numerous  in 
that  city — pilasters,  arcades,  ^.c.  being  freely  used. 
In  Rome  tne  plan  of  inchnling  two  or  more  stories 
in  one  order  of  columns  or  pibusters  with  their 
entablature,  having  an  attic  or  low  story  above, 
first  originated,  and  was  afterwards  extensively, 
but,  as  already  explained,  not  successfully  applied 
to  churches. 


The  Venetian  style  is,  as  might  be  expected  in  a 
city  long  accustomed  to  elegant  palaces,  the  most 
ornate  and  picturesque  of  the  Italian  schools. 
Venice  is  crowded  witli  specimens  of  all  kinds  from 
the  earliest  to  the  latest  Renaissance,  and  retains  its 
individuality  of  style  from  first  to  last.  Each  stoiy 
is  marked  by  a  separate  tier  of  columns  or  pilasters 
with  their  entablature ;  the  windows  are  arched 
and  ornamented  with  columns,  and  the  spandrils 
commonly  Idled  with  figures.  The  outline  is  v.-iried 
in  form,  and  is  usually  linished  with  a  balustrade, 
broken  by  pedestals,  and  crowned  with  sculptured 
figures.  It  is  from  this  most  picturesque  of  the 
styles  of  the  Italian  Renaissance  that  the  other 
countries  of  Europe  derived  their  peculiar  forms. 
See  Ren.^iss.\xce,  Eliz.vbeth.^n,  Pall.vdio. 

Italy.  The  kingdom  of  Italy  comprises  the 
central  of  the  three  great  peninsulas  of  snutherii 
Europe  (excepting  the  small  re|)ublic  of  San  Marino, 
q.v. ),  together  with  Sicily,  Sardinia,  and  some 
smaller  islands.  Knit  to  the  solid  mass  of  central 
Euro|ie  by  the  Apennines,  the  peninsula  projects 
soutli-eastward  into  the  Mediterranean  like  a  mag- 
net, drawing  to  itself  in  ancient  times  the  lordship 
and  commerce  of  the  whole  sea,  and  serving  as  the 
avenue  by  which  the  culture  of  the  East  was 
carried  Into  northern  and  western  Europe.  At  the 
Strait  of  Otranto  Italy  ap]U'oaches  within  less 
than  50  miles  of  Albania.  The  boundaries  of  the 
peiunsula  are  on  the  W.  and  S.  that  portion  of 
the  Mediterranean  kno\\Ti  as  the  Tyrrhenian  Sea, 
and  on  the  E.  the  Adriatic ;  on  the  N.  the  Alps 
stretch  from  the  head  of  the  Adriatic  to  the 
Riviera,  and  almost  without  a  break  shut  in  the 
kingdom  from  Austro-Hungary,  Switzerland,  and 
France.  The  peninsula  itself  extends  from  46'  40' 
12"  N.  lat.  (Monte  Trugnoni  in  the  Carnian  Alps) 
to  the  southernmost  point  of  Calabria,  an  unnamed 
headland  in  37°  54'  54"  N.  lat.,  or  24"  farther  south 
than  Cajie  Spartivento.  The  extreme  eastern  point 
is  the  Cape  of  Otranto,  18°  30'  .37"  E.  long.,  and 
the  western  ^Monte  Tabor,  6°  33'  7"  E.  Its  greatest 
length  in  a  direct  line  is  710  miles  ;  the  breadth 
ranges  from  351  miles  in  the  north  to  about  20 
between  the  Gulfs  of  Sta  Eufemia  and  Squillace, 
but  in  most  places  is  about  90  or  100  miles.  The 
seaboard  of  the  peninsula  e.xtends  to  2272  miles, 
that  of  the  islands  to  1944  mUes ;  in  1S90  the 
frontier  with  France  was  returned  at  307  miles, 
with  Switzerland  at  407  ndles,  and  with  Austria  at 
466  ndles. 

The  area  of  the  kingdom  of  Italy  was  formerly 
given  officially  as  114,416  sq.  m.,  but  the  data  on 
which  this  estimate  was  based  were  know  n  to  be 
inexact.  Strelbitsky,  in  his  Snpa-Jick  de  I'EiiroiJC 
(1882),  made  the  area  111,410  si|.  ni. :  his  calcula- 
tions were  revised  by  the  Italian  Military  (leo- 
gi'aphical  Institute  in  1SS4,  and  the  total  area  of 
the  kingdom  M'as  still  further  rciluced  to  110,657 
sq.  m.,  made  up  ;is  follows:  ('ontinental  and  penin- 
sular Italy,  with  the  small  islands  embraced  in 
its  administration,  91,422  sq.  m.  ;  Sicily  and  the 
islands  adnunistratively  dependent  on  it,  99.39  si|. 
m.  ;  Sardiida  and  the  islets  near  it,  9296  s(|.  m. 
These  .are  the  otficial  figures  for  the  entire  king- 
dom ;  but  .as  yel  no  detailed  survey  li.as  been 
accomplished,  and  the  areas  given  for  tlie  provinces 
in  the  table  below  are  those  obtained  by  Strel- 
bitsky's  calculations.  At  the  first  general  cen- 
sus of  the  kingdom,  in  1871,  the  population  was 
26,801,154.  The  t.able  gives  the  population  actually 
])resent  at  the  cen>Ms  of  Decendjcr  31,  1881  (density 
257  ]>er  s(|.  m. )  ;  in  1895  the  estimated  ]>opul,itioii 
was  3(1,913,670.  The  number  of  foreigners  in  Italy 
at  the  time  of  the  census  of  1881  was  59,956,  includ- 
ing 16,092  A  ustrians,  12,104  Swi.ss,  10,781  French, 
and  7302  Uritish.  The  Italian  population  includes  in 
Piedmont  about  120,000  of  French,  and  some.SOoo 


2-iO 


ITALY 


of  Teutonic  orijnn,  in  Southern  Italy  at  least  60,000 
of  Allianian  anil  20,000  of  Greek  origin,  and  in 
Sardinia  7000  or  SOOO  of  Sjjanisli  origin.     (A  list  of 


Provinces  and  CouipArtimentl. 

Area  in  Sq. 
MUea. 

Population 
luISSI. 

Eat.  Pop.  in 
1889. 

1,906 

2,892 
2,664 
4,037 

729,710 

635,400 

076,926 

1,029,214 

801,462 
677,5.'>6 

2.   Cuiieo 

3.  Xovara 

732,3.19 

4.  Tuiiu 

1,085,780 

FlEliSIONT 

11,389 

3,070,250 

3,297,167 

1,619 
468 

760,122 
132,261 

810,562 

6.  Porto  Maurizio 

136,738 

LiGURIA 

2.087 

892,373 

947.300 

7.  Bergamo.        .   .        ... 

1,092 
1,845 
1,080 
687 
911 
1,213 
1,312 
1,206 

390,775 
471,668 
615,060 
302,138 
295,728 
1,114,991 
469,831 
120,534 

430,5s2 

601,531 

9.  Como. 

665  411 

324  204 

11.  Mantua. 

321  87-^ 

12.  >filan 

1,228,218 
613  983 

14.  Sondrio 

128,172 

LOMBARDY 

9,346 

3,680,616 

4.013,973 

15.  Belluno 

1,292 
797 
643 
962 

2,566 
733 

1,228 

1,075 

174,140 
397,762 
217,700 
376,704 
601,745 
356,708 
394,005 
390,349 

194,003 

16.  Padua   . 

437,6.16 

17.  Ro^^go 

239,579 

421,509 

19.  Udine 

655,911 

20.  Venice 

383.247 

428,658 

22.  Viceuza 

441,406 

Venice 

9,276 

2,814,173 

3,101,807 

23.  Bologna    

1,432 
1,014 
768 
994 
1,278 
909 
779 
838 

464,879 
230,807 
251,110 
279,264 
267,306 
226,717 
218,359 
244,959 

497,213 

260,430 

25.  Forli.. 

274.042 

26.  Modena 

303,541 

27.  Parma 

285,790 

28    Piacenza                   . .   . 

242,853 

29.  Ravenna 

232,482 

30.  Keggio  Emilia 

260,140 

Emilia 

8,012 

2,183,391 

2,352,497 

1,273 

2,239 

1,771 

133 

644 

648 

1.206 

1,477 

238,744 
790.776 
114,295 
121,612 
284.484 
169,469 
283,563 
205,926 

259,018 

32.  Florence                   ..   . 

880,226 

33.  Grosseto 

127,123 
126,798 

35.  Lucca .            .         .... 

309,480 

36.  Massa  and  Carrara 

37.  Pisa 

186,221 
310,321 

38.  Siena. 

222,104 

Tl'SCANY 

9,291 

2.208,809 

2,391,291 

39.  Ancona.          

788 

770 

1,072 

1,167 

267,338 
209,185 
239,713 
223,043 

290,307 

229,477 

41.  MaeeraUt 

42.  Pesaro  and  Urbino 

261,071 
240,082 

Marches. 

3,797 

939,279 

1,021,697 

43.  Perugia  (Umbria). 

3,668 

572,060 

624,039 

44.  Rome 

4,699 

903.472 

982.581 

46.  Aquila  degli  Abruzzi  .... 

2,558 
1,705 
1,194 
1,110 

353,027 
365,434 
343,948 

254,806 

389,117 
391 .087 

47.  Chieti. 

372,815 

48.  Teranio 

281,332 

Abruzzi  and  Molise.. 

6,567 

1,317,215 

1,434,361 

49.  Avellino 

1,171 
837 

2,090 
336 

1,958 

6.392 

392,619 
238,425 
714,131 
1,001,245 
650,157 

432,949 

269,015 

51.  Caserta 

779,782 

52.  Naples 

1,060,032 

63.  Salerno 

597.031 

CaMI'ASIA 

2,896,577 

3,12s.S09 

54.  Bari 

2,288 
2,684 
3,048 

679,499 
3.16,267 
663,298 

761,7-28 

55.  Foggia 

66.  Lecce 

381,754 
600.905 

Apulia 

7,920 

1,689.064 
624.504 

1,734.3,87 

57.  POTEKZA(Basilicata).... 

3,998 
1,998 
2,686 
1,227 

566.309 

5!>.  Catanzaru 

433,975 
4.il,185 
372,723 

461,209 

69.  Cosenza 

60.  Reggio  di  Calabria. 

492,690 
405,913 

Calabria 

6,811 

1,257.883 

1,359,872 

01.  Caltanissetta 

02.  Cat.iiiia 

1,270 
1,924 
1,166 
1,246 
1,985 
1,440 
930 

266,379 
663,467 
812,487 
460,92-1 
699,151 
341,628 
283,977 

297.762 
6"3  0-»'> 

774,070 
389.560 
317,176 

66.  Syracuse 

67.  Trapani 

Sicily 

8,961 

2,927,901 

3,205,1)88 

68.  Cagliari 

6,284 
3,922 

420,635 
281,867 

449,414 
286.174 

69.  Sassari 

'Sardinia 

9,200 

6t>2,002 

735,!i8S 

Total.... 

111,410 

28,459,628 

30,947,306 

the  liretty  numerous  jilaces  in  the  Neapolitan  and 
Sicilian  provinces  where  Albanian,  an  Italianised 
Modern  Creek,  Gallo-ltalic,  Provencal,  and  lllviian 
are  still  in  use  as  •  linguistic  islands,'  will  be  found 
in  a  paper  contributed  by  I'rince  Lucieu  Bonaparte 
to  the  I'liik.logical  Society,  March  1890.)  The 
estiin.ated  population  at  the  end  of  1889  (see  table) 
was  30,947, .'JOG ;  but  this  is  based  solely  on  the 
difference  between  births  and  deaths,  and  takes  no 
account  of  emigration.  \\'ithin  the  eight  veare 
1882-89,  791,404  persons  left  Italy  for  dillerent 
parts  of  America,  as  many  as  113,0(')G  emigrating 
in  1889  alone.  In  1888  the  United  States  received 
47,856;  Argentinia,  75,029 ;  Brazil,  104,35.S.  Of  the 
1881  population  501  in  every  1000  were  males.  In 
the  accompanying  table  the  old  coiiipartiiiniili  or 
groups  of  provinces  are  retained  for  convenience, 
although  they  are  no  longer  recognised  as  adminis- 
trative divisions.  The  area  is  nearly  that  of  Great 
Britain  and  Ireland  ;  the  population  about  four- 
tifths  that  of  the  United  Kingdom  at  the  same 
date.  To  the  kingdom  proper  must  be  addeil 
Italy's  colonial  possession  in  Africa.  This  consists 
of  the  territories  of  Assab  and  Massowah  {ii.v. ), 
on  the  Red  Sea,  Keren  and  Asmara  in  Abyssinia, 
and  the  Dahlak  archipelago,  which  embrace  a  total 
area  of  nearly  4000  sq.  m.,  and  were  united  into  a 
colony  bearing  the  name  of  Eritrea  in  1889.  More- 
over, Italy  established  a  protectorate  for  some  dis- 
tance inland  from  Massowah,  and  along  the  coast 
from  lias  Kasar  (18"  2'  N.)  to  beyond  Assab,  and 
till  the  disastrous  events  of  1896  claimed  to  have 
established  a  protectorate  over  Abyssinia. 

The  towns  with  a  population  of  over  100,000  in 
1881  were  Naples,  463,172;  Milan,  295,543;  Uome, 
273,268;  Turin,  230,183  ;  ralermo,  205,712  ;  (ienoa, 
138,081  ;  Florence,  134,992  ;  Venice,  129,445  ;  and 
Bologna,  103,998.  In  1895  the  estimated  p(i|)u 
lations  were:  Naples,  523,000;  Rome,  45.'i,(iiiO: 
Milan,  433,000  ;  Turin,  336,000  ;  Palermo,  277,0011 ; 
Genoa,  217,000;  Florence,  200,000;  Venice,  150,000; 
Messina,  147,000;  Bologna,  142,000.  The  seat  of 
government  was  at  Turin  from  1861  to  1865,  then 
at  Florence  till  1870,  since  which  date  Rome  ha-s 
been  the  capital  of  the  kingdom. 

Pliysicat  Features. — The  configuration  of  conti- 
nental Italy  (for  the  islands,  see  SARDINIA  and 
Sicily)  may  be  easily  explained;  in  the  penin- 
sular portion  it  is  jletermined  mainly  by  the 
great  chain  of  the  Apennines.  It  is  usual  with 
geographers  to  divide  the  countiy  into  Northern, 
Central,  and  Southern  Italy,  the  middle  section 
generally  being  taken  to  e.xtend  between  Siiezia 
and  Cape  Circello  on  the  west  coast  and  Rimini 
and  Monte  Gargaiio  on  the  east  coast.  This 
division,  however,  especially  as  regards  its  southern 
boundary,  is  purel.y  arbitrary,  and  it  will  be  more 
convenient  in  this  article,  while  retaining  the 
terms  commonly  in  use,  to  describe  the  country 
under  the  two  divisions  into  which  physically  it 
falls— the  great  jilain  of  Northern  Italy,  and  the 
generally  mountainous  peninsula  to  the  south. 

On  the  northern  frontier  the  Alps  sweep  round 
in  a  mighty  arc  from  Nice  to  Trieste,  running  out 
in  places  into  Piedmont,  Loiiibanly,  and  Venice. 
For  the  most  |iart  they  rise  steep  and  abrujit, 
except  where  their  wall  is  pierced  by  long,  deep 
valle.ys ;  and  .some  of  the  loftiest  peaks  in  the 
system,  including  Mont  lilanc  and  fllonte  Rosa, 
behmg  to  this  mountain-girdle.  The  highest 
mountain  entirely  within  the  kingiloiii  is  Gran 
Paradiso  (13,652  feet),  the  culminating  ])oint  of 
the  Graian  .\lps,  in  Piedmont.  Between  the  .Alps 
and  the  Apennincw  spreads  the  broad  fertile  Lom- 
bardo-Venetian  plain,  a  nearly  level  CDuntry. 
which  differs  altogether  in  character  from  the 
])Cninsula  to  the  south,  and  for  a  long  period  was 
politically  distinct  from   it.      Most  of   this  great 


r 


k 


H  >R   CHAMBERS, LIMITED.  LONDON  t   EDINBUflt 


ITALIA 


t   CHAMBERS.  1.1  KITED.  LONDON*   [DINSURI 


ITALY 


241 


alluvial  tract,  which  lills  nearly  the  whole  of 
Northern  Italy,  belongs  to  the  biusin  of  the  Po ; 
it  is  iiiigated  by  numerous  streams  and  canals, 
and  is  one  of  the  most  fruitful  and  llourishinj; 
districts  of  Italy.  The  principal  rivei's  are  fed 
from  the  Alpine  lakes;  and  the  Po  ((j.v. ),  which 
descends  from  Monte  Viso,  on  the  western  frontier, 
and.  as  it  sweeps  across  the  plain,  receives  the  con- 
triliutions  of  numerous  important  streams,  ranks 
for  its  volume  of  water  among  the  notable  rivers 
of  Europe.  It  is  navigable  for  320  out  of  its  420 
miles,  and  several  of  its  tributaries  are  also 
navigable.  The  Adige,  which  is  connected  with 
the  Po  by  canals,  Is  also,  although  much  more 
rapid,  navigalile  in  its  lower  course,  and  so  is  the 
Brenta  :  the  other  streams  that  pour  down  through 
the  Venetian  plain  are  mostly  nmuutain-torrents. 
The  lakes  of  Northern  Italy  belong  to  a  dirt'erent 
class  from  those  of  the  peninsula.  Many  of  the 
Po's  triliutaries  spread  out  at  the  foot  of  the  Alps 
into  considerable  bodies  of  water,  among  which  are 
the  Lago  di  Garda  (127  sq.  m. ),  Lago  Maggiore 
(81),  and  Como  (58).  The.se  lakes  are  all  remark- 
able for  their  depth  ;  ilaggiore  is  reported  to  have 
a  depth  of  1158  feet,  Como  1358,  and  Garda  1916 
feet.  From  Rimini  to  the  Gulf  of  Trieste  the 
coast  is  flat  and  marshy  from  the  overHow  of  the 
rivei's,  and  fringed,  both  north  and  .south  of  the 
muddy  delta  of  the  Po,  for  long  distances  by 
lagoons.  These  lagoons  are  in  general  separated 
from  the  sea  by  only  a  narrow  strip  of  sand,  with 
openings  at  intervals,  and  contain  some  important 
harbours,  such  as  Venice  and  Cliioggia.  On  the 
opposite  coast,  along  the  Riviera,  from  Nice  to 
Spezia,  the  sunny,  rugged  mountains  come  close  to 
the  water's  edge,  the  only  considerable  portions  of 
level  ground  occurring  at  the  mouths  of  valleys. 
The  Apennines  shut  out  this  district  from  the  rest 
of  Northern  Italy,  and  from  their  pro.ximity  there 
are  no   large  streams  along  the  coast  here.     The 

feology  of  the  north  and  we.st  of  Northern 
taly  is  that  of  the  Alps  (q.v. ).  In  the  basin 
of  the  Po  there  are  vast  moraines  left  by  the 
glaciers  of  the  Glacial  Period  :  and  the  Isolated 
Monti  lierici  and  Euganean  Hills,  in  the  plain 
north  of  the  Adige,  are  of  volcanic  origin. 

In  the  peninsula  the  Apennines  are  the  most 
important  feature.  The  chain,  after  stretching 
across  from  the  Gulf  of  tJenoa  to  the  Adriatic, 
turns  and  runs  down  in  a  broad,  irregular  mass  to 
the  e.xtremity  of  Calabria,  but  does  not  extend 
into  the  '  heel '  towards  Utranto.  Its  highest  point 
before  it  makes  its  bend  is  Monte  Cimone  (7110 
feet);  but  the  mean  elevation  Is  only  some  5200 
feet,  and  the  principal  summits  of  the  range  occur 
in  Central  Italy.  Here  it  no  longer  presents  a 
continuous  ridge,  but  is  broken  into  mountain- 
masses  and  short  ranges,  marching  in  a  roughly 
parallel  direction,  and  separated  by  extensive  up- 
land valleys.  The  limestone  rocks  of  the  Ajjcn- 
nines,  rugged  and  cleft,  till  the  interior  of  the 
country  with  picturesijuc  mountain-scenery,  which 
becomes  wilder  iis  the  chain  stretches  farther  south, 
and  in  the  Neapolitan  lii'dilands  exhibits  a  savage 
grandeur,  that  is  softened  somewhat  by  the  fertile 
'red  earth,'  formed  from  the  disintegrated  limestone. 
In  Central  Italy  the  main  chain  follows  the 
Adriatic  side,  and  its  ejistern  slope  is  the  steeper  : 
the  western  is  less  abrupt,  and  contains  numerous 
valleys.  The  culminating  ]ieak  of  the  Apennines 
is  Monte  Como  (9577  feet),  in  the  great  mountain- 
mass  called  Gran  Sasso  d'ltalia.  The  bold  pro- 
montory of  Monte  Gargano  (once  an  island)  Joes 
not  belong  to  the  Apennine  .system.  The  Neapoli- 
tiin  .Apennines  fill  the  rest  of  the  peninsula,  cro.ss- 
ing  over  to  the  west  coast,  and  running  dose  upon 
the  sea  again,  as  in  Northern  Italy;  but  the  .system 
properly  ends  with  Monte  Pollino  (7376),  where  the 
276 


Calabrian  peninsula  begins ;  for  here  the  limestone, 
except  at  long  intervals,  gives  place  to  granite, 
gneiss,  and  crystalline  schists — to  reappear,  how- 
ever, in  the  motintains  of  Sicily,  which  may  be 
looked  upon  as  a  continuation  of  the  range  (for  the 
geology,  .see  Apennines).  (_)n  the  west  side  of  the 
peninsula,  between  the  main  chain  and  the  sea,  a 
volcanic  tract  extends  from  the  isolated  trachytic 
cone  of  Monte  Amiata  (5689),  in  Tuscany,  to  the 
Monti  Laziali,  and  as  far  south  as  Vesuvius  (4206), 
the  only  volcano  still  active.  The  entire  Cami)a- 
nian  plain,  the  Roman  Campagna,  and  the  country 
round  \'iterbo  are  mainly  ot  volcanic  origin  ;  and 
throughout  this  tract  are  a  number  of  small  lakes 
occupying  crater-shaped  basins.  The  only  volcanic 
peak  east  of  the  main  chain  is  Monte  ^'ulture 
(4.364),  somewhat  farther  north  than  Vesuvius. 
To  the  volcanic  centres  within  the  peninsula  may 
be  added  Etna  in  Sicily,  and  Stromboli  in  the 
Lipari  Islands.  Tuscany  is  a  hilly  country,  ^^  hicli 
.seldom  rises  into  mountains.  Farther  south  the 
Roman  ]jlain,  the  Pontine  Marshes,  and  the  fer- 
tile Campanian  plain  are  connected,  with  unim- 
portant breaks  ;  but  on  the  east  side  of  the  Apen- 
nines the  only  plain  is  that  of  Apulia,  which  rises 
into  undulating  downs,  and,  in  the  peninsula  to  tJie 
north-east  of  the  Gulf  of  Taianto.  into  low,  barren 
hills  of  Pliocene  formation.  North  of  Apulia 
stretches  of  vine-clad  hills  occujn'  the  country 
between  the  mountains  and  the  Adriatic,  until  the 
lowlands  of  Northern  Italy  are  reached. 

The  rivers  of  the  peninsula  present  a  striking 
contrast  to  those  of  the  northern  plains.  Here  are 
no  such  ine-xhanstible  reservoirs  as  in  the  lakes 
and  snowlields  of  the  Alps,  nor  is  the  rainfall  of 
importance  save  in  the  winter  months;  so  that 
even  the  larger  lowland  rivers,  e.xcejit  the  Tilier, 
fall  considerably  in  summer,  and  in  the  south  what 
are  torrents  after  heavy  rains  often  in  the  dry  sea- 
son disappear  altogether.  The  chief  rivers  of  the 
peninsula  How  into  the  Tyrrhenian  Sea  ;  but  only 
the  Tiber  (for  90  miles)  and,  to  a  less  extent, 
the  Arno  (66  miles),  Volturno,  and  (iarigliano  are 
navigable.  The  lakes  of  the  jieniusula  ai'e  either 
crater-lakes,  such  as  that  of  Rolsena  ( 45  sq.  in. ), 
or  occupy  troughs  among  the  mountains.  To 
the  latter  class  belongs  Trasimeno  or  the  Lago  di 
Perugia  (52  sq.  m.);  Fucino  or  Celano,  which  was 
a  larger  lake,  has  been  drained,  and  is  now  culti- 
vated. The  coast  along  the  Adriatic  extends  un- 
broken, excei>t  where  the  Gargano  promontory  forms 
the  Gulf  of  Manfredcmia  ;  and  on  this  side  tlie  only 
harbours,  unless  we  include  Ancona,  are  Brindisi, 
Barletta,  and  IJari.  Taranto  is  one  of  the  Iiest 
harbours  in  Italy.  A  vast  fertile  plain,  but  infested 
with  malaria,  adjoins  the  gulf  of  that  name  ;  while 
nearly  everywhere  in  Calabria  the  coast,  though 
richly  clothed  with  southern  vegetation,  is  more  or 
less  steep,  and  the  only  port  is  Reggio,  on  the  Strait 
of  Messina.  To  the  north  are  the  Gulfs  of  Policastro, 
Salerno,  Naples,  and  (iaeta,  that  of  Naples,  shel- 
tered by  the  islands  of  Ischia  and  Capri,  being  espe- 
cially well  provided  with  harliours.  In  Central  Italy 
the  west  coast  contains  seveial  long,  shallow  bays, 
divided  by  in'omoutories  which  have  been  formed 
by  alluvial  deposits  connecting  rocky  islan<ls  with 
the  mainland  ;  but  still  farther  north,  along  the 
Riviera,  the  .steep  coast  presents  a  number  of  ailmir- 
able  harl)ours,  such  <as  Spezia,  Genoa,  and  Savona. 

Cli/iittte  and  I'ci/ctutniii. — The  generally  warm 
climate  of  Italy  is  considerably  modilied  in  |)laces 
by  the  presence  of  the  mountainranges  or  the 
proximity  of  the  sea.  The  i)lain  of  the  Po,  open 
to  the  icy  winds  from  the  Al|is,  and  closed  to  those 
from  the  south,  has  a  cohl  if  short  w  inter  ( the  mean 
winter  temperature  of  Turin  is  nearly  the  same  as 
that  of  Shetland),  while  along  the  Riviera  the 
temperature  is  as  high  as,  and  sometimes  highar 


242 


ITALY 


tlian,  that  of  Kome  or  Naples.  Tliiouf;hoiit  tlie 
peninsula  the  teniiieiatuie  i.s  lowered  liy  the  jires- 
ence  of  the  Apennines,  and  some  of  the  coldest 
districts  of  Italy  are  found  in  the  Marches  and  in 
the  Ahruzzi  uplands.  Moreover,  the  Adriatic 
coast,  exiiosed  to  the  north-east  winds,  is  colder 
than  the  correspondinj,'  west  coast.  July  is  in 
{general  the  hottest  niimtli,  but  in  the  extreme 
south  Au},'ust:  the  coldest  month  in  every  pro- 
vince is  .January.  The  lii<,'hest  temperature  re- 
corded is  109°  F.  (in  Apulia),  the  lowest  -25°  V. 
(on  Monte  Stelvio,  in  Lombardy);  but  over  the 
whole  country  the  extremes  of  mean  annual 
temperature  for  the  period  1876-88  were  only 
46°  and  ()'2°  F.  AVith  re^,'ard  to  the  rainfall  a 
considcralde  dili'erence  is  observable  in  the  various 
sections  of  tlie  country.  In  the  very  south  there 
are  but  two  seasons,  a  wet  and  a  dry  ;  whereas  in 
Northern  Italy  there  are  two  greater  and  two  lesser 
rainy  periods  in  the  year,  nuist  rain  falling  in 
October  and  in  spring,  and  least  in  winter.  Over 
all  tlie  peninsula  autumn  is  the  wet  season  ;  but 
in  the  islands  most  rain  falls  in  the  winter  months. 
The  lowest  nu'an  annual  rainfall  is  in  Foggia  (18 
in.)  and  Sardinia  (17);  the  highest  in  the  Venetian 
province  of  Udine  (60  in.),  and  in  Dergamo  and 
Novara.  The  distribution  of  moisture  is  very  un- 
equal, even  in  districts  near  one  another  (the  yearly 
mean  of  Venice  itself  is  less  than  half  tliat  of  Udine ) ; 
but  in  general  nu)st  rain  falls  in  the  mountains. 
Snow  is  common  in  the  basin  of  the  Fo,  becoming 
less  so  as  we  proceed  south,  excejit  in  the  uplands, 
where  in  some  districts  it  lies  for  months.  The 
cold  mistral  blows  in  the  Gulf  of  Genoa,  and 
the  scorching  sirocco  att'ects  the  coast  sometimes 
as  far  north  as  Venice.  The  singular  clearness 
of  the  atmosphere,  enhancing  the  charms  of  build- 
ings and  of  landscape,  strikes  every  visitor;  but  in 
many  districts  the  evil  presence  of  malaria,  from 
J  uly  to  October  especially,  forms  a  serious  drawback 
to  the  sunny  climate.  Indeed,  some  of  the  most 
fertile  tracts  of  Italv,  a.s  in  Calabria,  have  for 
centuries  lain  deserted  owing  to  this  plague.  Only 
six  districts  (' circondarii ')  are  altogether  free  from 
malaria,  and  the  malignant  type  infests  the  Adriatic 
lagoims,  the  Tuscan  Maremma,  the  Konum  Cam- 
pag^na,  Apulia,  most  of  the  Calabrian  coiust,  and 
Sicily  and  Sardinia.  In  1887  no  less  than  21,033 
deaths  were  set  down  to  malarial  fever.  In  the 
Campagna  and  elsewheie,  however,  drainage  opera 
tions  have  had  a  good  effect. 

Tlic  vegetation  of  Ncuthern  Italy  is  in  the  main 
sucli  as  can  endure  the  frosts  of  winter.  But  by 
tlic  lake  sides  we  lind  orange  and  olive  trees,  and 
the  summer  heat  is  sullicieut  to  ripen  rice  and 
maize,  of  which,  as  well  as  other  cereals  ami  legumes, 
large  crops  are  raised.  Forests  of  chestnuts  clothe 
the  mountains,  vineyards  the  lower  liills,  and  the 
mulberry-tree  is  extensively  grown.  The  Kiviera, 
.so  far  as  vegetation  is  concerned,  lielongs  to  South- 
ern Italy,  and  the  date-i)ahMs  and  orange-trees  are 
continued  at  slight  intervals  along  the  Tuscan  coast. 
In  the  interior  of  Central  Italy,  however,  the  vege- 
tation still  presents  much  the  same  features  as  in 
the  Lomliard  plain,  and  it  is  only  in  Southern  Italy 
that  the  iMcililerranean  Mora  prevails.  Here,  in 
the  lowlands  fmm  .Monte  (Jargano  ami  Terracina 
south,  the  lloia  of  central  Europe  gives  ]dace  to 
palms  and  orange  and  lemon  and  citron  trees,  the 
cactus  anil  agave,  laurels,  myrtles,  oleanders,  and 
forests  of  arbutus  and  the  evergreen  oak.  Only 
at  elevations  above  2600  feet  do  the  chestnut  and 
oak  reajipear,  and  higher  still  the  beech  ;  the  birch 
and  lir  and  pine  are  conlined  to  the  Alps. 

Ar/ricuKiin:. — Italy  is  preeminently  an  agricul- 
tural country.  Of  its  entire  area  87  per  cent,  is 
returned  as  productive,  the  nniiroductive  tracts 
embracing  only  the  higher  mountain  districts  and 


the  mai-shes ;  and  even  these  latter  are  being  gradu- 
ally drained.  Nearly  half  "f  llio  proiluctive  area  is 
uniler  cultivation.  The  otHcial  ri'turns  of  the  area 
under  cultivation  in  the  two  periods  of  live  years, 
1870-74  and  187!)  83,  .show  an  increase  in  the  num- 
ber of  acres  devoted  to  vines,  olives,  oranges,  maize, 
oats,  barley,  rye,  leguminous  plants,  and  potatoes, 
and  a  decrease  in  the  case  of  wheat,  rice,  (•hcslnuts, 
hemp,  and  tiax.  As  regards  their  yield,  however, 
all  the  grain  crops  exhibit  a  falling  oil':  and  the 
decrease  became  still  greater  in  the  years  1884-89. 
The  following  table  shows  the  average  number  of 
acres  under  the  several  grain  crops,  and  the  produce, 
for  the  period  1879-83;  also  the  produce  for  1894, 
which  was  similar  to  that  for  1893 : 


Wheat 

1879-S3. 

1894. 

Acres. 

Bu.hels. 

Busholl. 

10,961,340 

4,076,099 

1,099.051 

860,652 

390,894 

496,686 

128,200,294 
82,000,057 
18,269,602 
10,891,1.54 
6,054,417 
20,142,258 

117,830,000 
67.800.000 
16,600,000 
8,0CS.0O0 
4,273,000 
15,770,000 

Miiize 

B.irley 

Rye  . 

Rice  

The  live-year  mean  of  the  wheat  crop,  which  is 
higher  than  the  yield  of  18S8,  is  equal  to  11-7 
bushels  jier  acre,  or  not  much  more  than  a  third  of 
the  |)roduce  per  acre  in  Scotland.  The  jnodnce  of 
maize  per  acre,  again,  is  about  seven-eighths  that 
of  the  United  States.  These  crops  do  not  meet 
the  needs  of  the  kingdom,  and  wheat  iigures  as 
the  heaviest  item  in  the  annual  imports.  In  1888- 
89  the  quantity  of  this  cereal  imi)orted  increased  by 
nearly  30  per  cent.,  while  the  import  of  maize  leaped 
from  2168  to  1.58,356  tons.  The  reduced  wheat  acre- 
age is  mainly  due  to  the  great  inciease  of  vineyards, 
especially  in  Southern  Italy,  an<l  of  meadow  lands  ; 
the  reduction  would  be  greater  but  that  a  good 
deiil  of  reclaimed  land  has  been  given  up  to  this 
croji  and  to  maize.  Barley  is  largely  used  for  feeding 
cattle,  especially  in  the  islands.  As  a  rule  it  hius 
a  thick  husk,  and  Ls  of  little  use  for  beer  ;  but  of 
late  years  the  government  has  made  exiicriments 
in  sever.al  provinces,  and  also  distrilmt<'d  ]iarcels 
of  seed,  witli  .a  view  to  jmunote  the  cultivation  of 
a  grain  better  suited  for  brewing.  Kice,  Mhich  is 
grown  in  very  few  jilaces  outside  the  northern 
plains,  has  in  nniny  districts  been  given  up,  i)artly 
owing  to  the  competition  of  foreign  rice,  but  largely 
because  constant  crops  of  it  exhausted  the  soil. 
Haricot  beans  are  a  common  croii  in  all  parts  of 
the  country,  as  well  as  lentils  :uid  a  smaller  pro- 
portion of  jiease  ;  but  the  cro])  of  coinmcui  beans, 
lupines,  vetches,  .and  the  like,  for  winter  forage,  is 
twice  as  large.  Lupines  are  raised  also  for  manure. 
Potatoes  are  grown  everywhere,  although  the  (pian- 
tit.y  is  decreasing;  and  tomatoes  and  vegetables  are 
also  of  importance.  Of  liemp  (  principally  iji  Kmilia 
and  Campania)  some  70,111)0  tons  arc  .anun.-Lllx  jiro- 
duced,  and  of  llax  (a  pmu-  (juality)  15,000  tons. 
Tobacco  is  grown  mostly  in  tlie  provinces  of  Lecce, 
Benevento,  \'icenza,  ami  lielluno.  The  crop  varies 
from  5,000,tt00  to  10,(KI0,0(X)  lb.  a  year.  The  grape 
harvest  in  Italy  is  second  in  value  to  the  cereals 
alone,  and  exceeds  that  of  any  one  of  them.  The 
area  under  vines  has  been  incre;used  by  about 
half  since  1870,  especially  in  Piedmont,  Southern 
Italy,  and  the  islands  ;  and  the  government  has 
established  several  schools  of  viticulture,  besides 
expending  considerable  sums  in  defending  the  vines 
from  the  attacks  of  the  phylloxera,  \"ineyards 
occupy  some  7,6.50,000  acres,  and  the  ]iroducti(Ui 
of  wine  ii\  1887  w:us  lu'arly  728  million  gallons,  or 
more  than  tli.at  of  France  (cf.  \o\.  IV.  p.  774) — 
although  in  1HS9,  a  bad  year,  the  crop  yiehled 
only  4(i5  million  gallons.  The  Italian  wines  are 
still  comparatively  poor  ;   but  a  fair  quality  is  pro- 


ITALY 


243 


duoed  in  Sicily  and  some  other  places  where  good 
methods  are  employed,  and  a  considerable  qniintity 
of  this  is  exported.  Below  the  44tli  parallel  the 
olive  is  amonj;  the  most  valuaVOe  products.  In 
Northern  Italy  it  is  of  no  imp<ntance,  excejjt  in 
Liguria:  and  "even  there  it  is  niucli  less  widely 
"rown  than  formerly.  Indeed,  over  all  the  king- 
dom the  amount  of  olive-oil  produced  has  ''reatly 
dinunislied  :  in  1879-S.S  the  average  for  eatHi  year 
was  nearly  74  million  gallons,  in  liSSS  less  than  30 
million  gallons.  For  oranges,  lemons,  liergamots, 
■&C.,  the  returns  show  nearly  3000  million  fruit, 
about  two-thirds  coming  from  Sicily.  Much  of 
this  is  exported,  but  part  is  used  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  essential  oils,  lime-juice,  &c.  Among  the 
less  important  fruits  of  Italy  are  the  tig,  ])each, 
apricot,  piickly  pear,  and  many  others.  Over  11 
million  acres  are  under  forest.  The  almond,  wal- 
nut, and  hazel,  the  sumach,  cork,  and  dwarf  palm, 
and  much  more  the  mulberry,  are  all  of  value. 
Finally,  the  chestnut  is  not  only  a  i)rominent  tree 
in  the  upland  districts,  but  yields  an  important 
article  ot  food  ;  yet  the  use  of  cereals  is  gradually 
becoming  more  general,  and  on  the  lower  hills 
chestnut-groves  are  giving  place  to  vineyards. 
Still  in  an  average  year  the  harvest  is  over  700 
million  jiounds. 

The  extent  of  cultivable  land  in  Italy  is  being 
increased,  both  by  deforesting  and  by  the  reclama- 
tion of  land  from  the  rivei-s  and  swamps.  Culti- 
vation is  still  carried  on  in  a  veni"  primitive  fashion 
in  some  parts,  but  in  others  machiueiy  has  for  long 
been  not  uncommon,  and  generally  modern  methods 
are  gaining  ground.  In  Northern  Italy,  Tuscany, 
and  round  Naples,  indeed,  the  farming  is  of  a  very 
high  character.  Double  crops  in  the  same  year, 
as  of  beans  after  wheat,  are  often  the  rule,  and  it 
is  not  unusual  to  see  olive-orchards  where  vines  are 
planted  beneath  the  trees  and  crops  of  some  kind 
hll  the  space  between  the  rows.  Irrigation  is 
more  extensively  employed  every  year  ;  but  the 
•expense  attending  its  use  has  helped  to  keep  much 
of  the  land  in  the  hands  of  large  owners.  Never- 
theless, the  system  of  peasant  proprietorship  is 
extending.  Otherwise,  land  may  be  held  by  the 
metayer  system,  or  by  rent,  paid  either  in  money 
or  in  kind  ;  or  the  cultivator  may  be  simply  the 
paid  servant  of  the  landlord,  receiving  a  share  of 
the  produce  for  his  labour.  In  any  case,  the  life  of 
the  Italian  pea.sant  is,  as  a  rule,  one  of  unremit- 
ting drudgery  and  poverty — often  of  privation,  and 
agricultural  strikes  have  occurred,  as  in  1889  in 
the  (lallarate  district  of  Milan,  and  in  1890  at 
Conselice,  in  Romagna. 

The  crop  of  hay  ami  gra-ss  in  1888  was  over  21 
million  tons.  Since  1880  there  has  been  an  almost 
constant  increa-se  in  the  area  devoted  to  meadows 
and  pastures :  and  this  has  been  encouraged  by  the 
raLnister  of  Agriculture,  both  by  means  of  prizes 
and  bv  the  distribution  of  seed.  In  IS'.iO  there  were 
5,000,(KJ(J  cattle,  6,900,000  sheep,  1,800,000  goats, 
4ind  1,800,000  swine.  There  are  no  relurirs  of  the 
immber  of  bud'aloes,  liut  they  probably  amount  to 
from  10,000  to  15,(J(J0.  Northern  Italy  is  famous  for 
its  dairy  districts, and  lar^e  co-operative  dairies  have 
been  established,  especiiilly  in  Lombardy,  in  Ven- 
•eto,  and  in  the  valley  of  Aosta.  The  well-known 
I'armesan  cheese  Ls  manufactured  from  Lombardy 
to  Emilia,  Corgonzola  also  in  Lombardy,  and 
■Gruyere  in  Piedmont.  There  is  a  government 
experimental  dairy  at  Lodi,  which  imblisbcs  re- 
ports. Butter  and  meat  are  exporU;(l,  and  al.-o  live 
cattle ;  but  the  exports  of  tlie-^e  la.st  liave  diminished, 
seemingly  owing  to  errors  in  breeding  ami  feeding. 
This  matter  ha.s  received  the  serious  attention  of 
the  government,  and  a  C'omniissione  Zootccnica 
<1887)  has  been  appointed,  and  technical  schools 
estal)lished   throughout  the  country.     Also,   there 


are  over  200  royal  stations  for  stallions ;  and  the 
government  aid  to  horse-breeding  in  1888  e.xceeded 
£65,004). 

Fisheries. — There  are  \aluable  lisheries  round  the 
coiist  and  in  the  lagoons.  The  tunny  is  the  most 
valuable  tish,  and  after  that  the  anchovy  and  sar- 
dine ;  but  the  eel-fisheries  of  Comacchio  (q.v. )  are 
also  of  importance.  The  r/nincle pcaca  (i.e.  lisheries 
carried  on  outside  the  boats'  own  districts  or  on 
foi-eign  coasts)  employed  1323  smacks,  with  8796 
men,  in  1886  ;  and  of  these  195  boats  and  1072  men 
were  engaged  in  the  coral-fishery,  and  45  boats  and 
856  men  in  the  sjionge  lisheiy.  In  1888  the  boats 
numbered  1421,  the  coral  and  sponge  fisheries 
employing  respectively  163  and  48.  The  ])rincipal 
tishing-grounds  are  oil'  the  coa.sts  of  Sicily,  of  Tunis, 
and  of  Istria  and  Dalmatia.  Sponges  are  tished  off 
Tunis,  and  coral  now  almost  e.xclusively  off  Sicily — 
and  even  the  Sicilian  banks  are  rapidly  becoming 
exhausted.  In  1880  the  discovery  of  a  new  bank 
at  Sciacca  raised  the  total  quantity  fished  there  to 
9,906,000  lb.  ;  in  1888  it  had  fallen  to  1,290,000  lli. 
In  1894  the  total  value  of  lish  caught  was  about 
£6,800,000,  and  of  coial  raised  nearly  £90,000. 
The  coral  is  sent  across  to  the  mainland  in  the 
rough  state,  and  is  worked  chielly  at  Torre  del 
Greco,  Naples,  Leghorn,  and  Genoa. 

Minerals. — Italy  contains  no  deposits  of  bitumin- 
ous coal,  nor,  except  in  a  few  localities,  of  iron.  A 
very  little  anthracite  and  about  .300,000  tons  of 
lignite  are  raised  annually,  most  of  the  latter  in 
Tuscany  and  L'mbria ;  and  peat  is  found  in  many 
districts.  Nearly  all  the  iron  is  raised  in  Elba  ( q.  v. ), 
and  a  very  little  in  Lombardy  and  Piedmont.  The 
great  mineral  product  of  Italy  is  sulphur,  which 
represents  nearly  half  of  the  annual  value  of  all 
minerals  raised  throughout  the  kingdom  ;  and  of 
this  nearly  nine-tenths  is  obtained  in  Sicily.  The 
total  value  of  the  mineral  prod\icts  decreased  in 
1882-94  from  £2,952,610  to  £2,150,000.  In  18SS 
the  principal  items  were  sulphur,  £1,000,500;  zinc 
ores,  £286,500;  lead  ores,  £276,500;  lignite,  ^c, 
£107,000;  iron  ores,  £80,000;  silver  ores,  £77,000; 
mercurv,  £68,000 ;  copper  ores,  £65,000 :  boiacic 
acid,  £52,000;  and  gold  ores,  £19,500.  The 
number  of  persons  employed  in  this  industry  was 
47,063  in  1887,  49,154  in  1888.  In  addition'must 
be  mentioned  the  quarrying  of  marble,  granite, 
and  alaliaster,  valued  at  nearly  a  million  sterling 
annually,  and  emploj-ing  some  20,000  men.  The 
marble  of  Carraia  (q.v. )  is  especially  famous,  as  is 
also  the  alabaster  of  Volterra,  near  Pisa.  See 
Al.\baster. 

3Iatuifacl tires. — Partly  because  of  the  high  cost 
of  fuel,  Italy  does  not  rank  among  the  great  manu- 
facturing cotmtries  of  Europe  ;  but  in  some  branches 
of  trade  her  productiims  are  of  considerable  import- 
ance. Owing  to  various  causes,  complete  statistics 
are  not  in  every  c;ise  obtainable ;  but  the  great 
advance  of  the  manufacturing  indu-stry  generally 
may  be  estimated  from  the  increase  in  the  annual 
imports  of  coal,  which  increiised  nearly  livefold 
between  1871  and  1880.  Still  the  steam-power 
machinery  of  the  country,  according  to  its  relative 
lioi-se-|)ower,  is  eipnil  to  only  about  onef(irtietli 
that  of  Great  Britain,  and  is  less  than  a  third  of 
that  move<l  by  water.  Of  principal  importance  is 
the  silk  industry,  which  employs  some  150,000  per- 
sons, exclusive  of  those  engaged  in  rearing  the  silk- 
worm ;  in  1880  this  culture  was  carried  on  in  5I8.S 
comnmnes,  and  by  over  570,000  persons:  the 
cocoon  harvest  amounte<l  to  75,089,655  lb.  (in 
1888,  to  96,798,272  lb.).  The  great  seat  of  the 
silk  industiy  is  in  Northern  Italy,  and  es|)ecially 
in  the  province  of  Como.  A  large  quantity  of  raw 
silk  is  still  exi>orted,  to  be  returned  in  the  form  of 
textile  go<Hls.  Nevertheless,  the  exports  of  silk  in 
all  forms  greatly  exceed  the  imports — in   1888  by 


244 


ITALY 


£9,400,000.  The  maiuifactuie  of  tliieiul  ami  of 
cotton  tissues  shows  a  steady  ailvaiice,  as  iloos  also 
the  s|iiimiiiy;  ami  weaviiij;  of  wool.  The  iiianufac- 
ture  of  jute  is  conliiied  to  a  few  lai;,'e  factories. 
The  noilli  is  the  seat  of  the  iron  industry,  but 
there  is  a  large  manufactory  of  iron  rails  at  Terni, 
in  Perugia ;  the  iiriucipal  copijcr- works  are  at 
Leghorn.  The  machinery  manufactured,  including 
that  turned  out  l>y  the  government  estalilislimeuts, 
is  valued  at  little  short  of  £4,000,000  a  year,  the 
chief  centres  of  this  work  being  Turin  and  Milan  ; 
but  macldnery  to  the  value  of  between  one  and 
two  millions  sterling  is  still  imported  annually. 
The  manufactures  of  glass  and  ceramic  wares  are 
valued  at  £2,500,000 ;  the  former  include  the 
famous  Venetian  glass,  and  the  latter  majolica, 
faience  (so  called  from  Faenza),  and  other  valuable 
wares.  A\'ith  these  may  l)e  classed  the  cutting  of 
cameos  and  the  production  of  mosaics  at  Kome, 
Naples,  and  Florence,  and  also  the  working  of 
coral.  For  the  preparation  of  food-stutl's  there  are, 
according  to  the  most  recent  returns  available, 
30,414  mUls  moved  by  water,  steam,  or  wind 
(29,418  by  water) ;  besiiles  these  there  are  no  less 
than  20,994  moved  by  animal  power.  The  latter 
are  chiefly  for  domestic  imrposes,  however,  and 
most  of  them  are  in  Sardinia.  About  G  million 
tons  of  corn  and  maize  are  ground  annually,  and 
nearly  90,000  persons  are  employed  more  or  less 
regularly  in  the  mills.  Large  ijuantities  of  Hour- 
pastes  are  nianufact\ired,  principally  from  foreign 
wheat,  which  is  harder  than  the  native  grain.  Of 
spirits,  made  mostly  from  maize,  the  production  in 
the  hscal  year  188(i-S7  was  .'),;i24,412  gallons;  and 
to  this  must  be  added  marsala,  vermouth,  Jind 
other  liqueurs.  In  the  same  year  there  were  1.S9 
breweries  in  operation.  Small  quantities  of  sugar, 
glucose,  and  chicory  also  are  produced  ;  confection- 
ery and  preserved  fruits  are  regular  articles  of  ex- 
])ort.  The  mantifacture  of  tobacco  is  a  government 
monopoly  ;  in  1SS7  there  were  17  factories,  ami  two 
depots  (at  Leghorn  and  Sampierdarena),  employing 
10,387  hands;  the  production  amounted  to  nearly 
40,000,000  lb.  The  output  of  the  tanneries  is 
estimated  at  £4,000,000,  and  there  is  a  considerable 
export  of  gloves.  There  are  numerous  paper-mills 
in  Piedmont,  Lombardy,  and  Campania,  and 
factories  of  straw-hats,  the  piincipal  at  Florence, 
and  of  cloth,  silk,  and  felt  hats  in  Piedmont 
e.sjiecially.  The  export  of  straw-hats,  though 
still  considerable,  is  diminishing,  while  that  of 
straw-jilaiting  is  increasing.  Sulphuric  and  tar- 
taric acid,  suljihate  of  (|uinine  (  nuide  at  Milan  and 
Genoa),  salt,  .soap,  oils,  candles,  wax  matches,  Oic. 
are  also  exi)orted.  Finally,  the  extensive  building 
operations  carried  out  within  recent  yeai's  \vith  a 
view  to  modernise  the  large  cities  have  given  a 
great  im])ulse  to  the  manufacture  of  brick.s  and  the 
like,  as  well  as  to  the  quarrying  of  stone. 

C'omiiieiTc. — The  foreign  trade  of  Italy  is  facili- 
tated both  by  the  ('xtensiNe  seaboard  and  good 
harbours  ami  by  railway  connections  with  the 
countries  beyond  the  Alps.  In  1.S78  the  kingdom 
was  eighth  in  the  list  of  Furopean  commercial 
nations,  being  surpassed  by  (ireat  Britain,  (lermany, 
France,  Holland,  Helgiiim,  Russia,  ami  Austria;  ten 
years  later  it  had  outdistanced  Austria,  and  was 
about  ei|ual  with  Russia.  The  imports  during  these 
ten  years  showed  a  mjarly  steady  increase,  amount- 
ing linally  to  over  .")0  per  cent.  ;  the  exports  liiil  not 
vary  great  ly,  but  on  the  whole  exhibited  a  very  slight 
falling  oil'.  The  value  of  the  former  (excluding 
bullion  and  goods  in  transit )  in  1 887  was  £04,030,000 ; 
of  the  latter,  £.39,9.>5,0O0.  In  1888  the  imports 
fell  to  £40.584,000,  the  exports  to  £3.-),()77,O0O  ;  in 
1S,S9  the  returns  rose  again  to  £55,027,000  and 
£38,019,000  respectively.  Taking  the  entire  trade 
of  the  country,  one-fourth  is  set  down  to  articles 


of  food,  about  a  half  to  raw  and  i)artially-prepared 
materials,  and  the  remainder  to  manufacture<l 
good.s.  Wheat  rei]resents  an  eighth  of  the  total 
imports,  and  yarns  and  tLssues  nearly  as  much  ; 
after  these  come  raw  cotton,  coal,  timber,  sugar, 
nuichinery,  lish,  iron,  collee,  hides,  cheese,  tobacco, 
in  this  order.  Silk,  mo.stly  raw  or  thrown,  snjiplies 
about  three-tenths  of  the  exports,  and  wine  more 
than  one-tenth ;  olive-oil,  fruit,  eggs,  hemp  and 
flax,  sulphur,  worked  coral,  nuirble,  and  rice  come 
next.  The  commercial  intercourse  of  Italy  up  to 
the  end  of  1887  was  chiefly  with  France  (over  ;J4 
per  cent,  of  the  total);    Great  Rritain  (nearly  15 

J)er  cent.),  Austria,  Germany,  Switzerland,  and 
iussia  following  at  some  distance.  In  1888,  how- 
ever, Italy  entered  on  a  war  of  tarills  with  France, 
which  bad  the  imnu'diate  result  of  reducing  the 
direct  trade  with  the  latter  c(uintrv  liy  almost  one- 
half,  anil  Rritain  advanced  to  the  tirst  place. 
This  change  is  in  a  large  degree  only  apparent, 
for  great  quantities  of  Italian  products,  notably 
raw  silk,  have  since  been  exported  to  Switzer- 
land tirst,  and  thence  to  France.  Nevertheless,  its 
efi'ect  is  to  render  the  figures  for  the  years  that 
follow  1887  misleading.  The  principal  imports 
from  Rritain  are  coal,  iron,  cottons  and  woollens, 
machinery,  and  sugar;  the  chief  exports  thither  are 
olive-oil,  oranges  and  lemons,  with  their  essences 
and  syrtips,  hemp,  sulphur,  chemicals,  and  marble. 
The  Italian  mercantile  marine  at  the  end  of  1888 
embraced  0810  sailing-vessels  and  steamers,  with 
a  tonnage  of  853,033  tons  ;  the  steamers  numbered 
200,  of  175,100  tons.  Over  nine-tenths  of  the 
whole  were  employed  in  the  lishing  and  coasting 
trade.  In  the  same  year  1 1 1 ,257  vessels  of  20,048,258 
tons  entered  (111,103  cleared)  Italian  ])orts.  Tin- 
Italian  shipping  engaged  in  international  naviga 
tion  has  rapidly  fallen  oil'  of  late  years.  Mort- 
than  half  the  steamers  entering  Italian  i)orts  are 
Rritish,  and  these  carry  nearly  four-lifths  of  the 
maritime  trade.  The  most  important  seajiorts  are 
Genoa  and  Savona,  Leghorn,  Naples,  Venice, 
Me.ssina,  and  Palermo.  In  1894,  of  a  total  imjiort 
of  £43,000,000  (excluding  specie)  only  £5,5.55,00(> 
were  from  Rritain ;  of  an  export  of  £40,000,0(K> 
£3,130,000  were  sent  to  liritain.  In  1894,  113,983 
vessels  of  28,200,000  tons  cleared  from  Italian  ports. 

In  1895  there  were  9300  ndles  of  railway.  Since 
1885  the  state  lines  have  been  workeil  by  private 
companies,  and  about  four  fifths  of  all  the  railways 
belong  to  two  great  systems,  the  Meiliterranean 
and  the  Adriatic.  Two  notable  tunnels,  the  Mont 
Cenis  and  St  Gothard,  connect  the  It.alian  system 
with  those  of  France  and  Switzerland,  an<l  a  Sim- 
plon  tunnel  is  projected  ;  there  is  al.so  a  coast  line 
from  Genoa  to  Nice,  and  several  connections  with 
the  Austrian  railways.  There  were  al.so  1405  miles 
of  steam  tramways.  In  1880  there  were  50,101 
miles  of  roads  open,  besides  7003  miles  in  construc- 
tion ;  and  the  total  length  of  navigable  canals, 
nn>stly  in  J.,ombardy  and  \'cnice,  was  0.")5  miles. 
The  rivers  are  navigable  for  about  790  ndles.  In 
1881  there  were  3420  ]iost-olliccs  in  Italy,  in  188!) 
there  were  4358  ;  the  surplus  of  revenue  over  ex- 
penses in  the  latter  year  was  about  £200,000.  In 
1889  there  were  21,935  miles  of  telegraiih  lines,  and 
telephones  were  to  be  found  in  sixty  communes. 

Sdciiil  Cuiiilitiiiiis.-  'X\w  jirincipal  occupation, 
agriculture,  employs  nearly  a  third  of  the  entire 
])0]iulation,  and  the  manufactuics  only  about  half 
as  many.  Nevertheless,  the  proportion  of  inhabit- 
ants congregated  iji  cities  is  unusually  large,  and 
in  Southern  Italy  and  the  islands  even  the  peasants 
prefer  to  have  their  homes  in  .some  town  or  village. 
The  sanitary  condili<m  of  these  towns,  in  which 
nearly  three-fourths  of  the  entire  jiopuLatinn  is 
congregated,  is  often  deplorable.  A  commission 
appointed  in  1885  reported  that  in  0404  comniuius 


ITALY 


245 


there  were  no  sewei-s  of  any  sort,  in  1313  there 
were  sewers  capahle  of  carrying  ort'  rain-water 
alone,  and  in  only  17,541  conininnes  siioli  as  wimlil 
carry  ott'  foul  sewage:  that  in  3()3()  coniiniuu's, 
witli  a  total  population  of  nearly  11,000,000,  most 
of  the  houses  had  no  privies,  and  in  12Sli  other 
communes,  with  a  population  of  '2,76'2,(M)0,  this 
ailjunct  was  lacking  in  almost  every  house  :  and 
that  ISSl  communes,  with  9,50O,0O6  inliahitants, 
were  supplied  with  drinking-water  of  poor  or  l),id 
ou.ality,  and  149,")othei-s,  with  6,000.000  inhaliitants, 
niil  not  receive  w.ater  sufficient  for  the  actual  needs 
of  the  people.  In  such  circumstances  the  preva- 
lence of  infectious  diseases  is  not  to  he  wcmdered 
at :  in  1887  the  proportion  per  million  inhahit.ants 
of  deaths  from  all  causes  in  England  and  Wales 
was  ahout  two-thirds  that  of  Italy,  hut  from  in- 
fections and  contagious  disea.ses  less  than  one- 
third.  Yet  in  some  respects  an  improvement  is 
visihle  in  the  hygienic  comlition  of  Italy.  The 
annual  de.ath-rate  from  malaria  appears  to  he 
steadily  diminishing,  as  does  that  from  pellagra, 
a  wTetched  disease  resulting  from  insufficient  and 
unwholesome  food,  and  often  ending  in  insanity  ; 
it  is  confined  to  the  northern  and  central  provinces. 
The  proportion  of  deaths  from  alcoholism  in  the 
larger  towns  is  much  the  same  as  that  for  all 
England,  hut  for  the  whole  of  Italy  it  is  only  a 
third  as  great.  The  food  of  the  artisan  cla.sses 
consists  mainly  of  cere.als  and  he.ans  ;  maize  is 
mostly  used  in  the  north,  where  also  the  sm.all 
proportion  of  animal  food  is  ahout  douhle  that  con- 
sumed in  the  south.  The  diet  of  the  peasantry, 
again,  almost  never  includes  meat  or  fish,  and 
-seldom  any  wine.  Signor  I5odio  ha.s  calculate*! 
that  the  average  daily  wage  overhead  of  work- 
people in  factories,  mines,  \-c.  is  about  two  lire 
(Is.  9d.):  that  of  agricultural  labourers,  allowing 
for  periods  when  their  work  is  not  required,  he 
calculates  at  not  much  over  one  lira  for  every  day 
in  the  year.  The  character  of  the  jieople  is  in 
general  sober  and  thrifty,  and  they  prove  excellent 
workmen  where  sheer  labour  is  required,  as  in 
quarries  and  drainage  operations ;  skill  in  the  use 
of  steam  machinery,  ana  the  like,  may  be  expected 
to  develop  with  experience.  Moreover,  the  old 
Koman  spirit  of  stern  utilitarianism  is  stronger  in 
the  sons  of  modern  Italy  than  the  a-sthetic  artistic 
temperament  principally  associated  with  them  in 
many  minds  :  the  n.ational  type  must  rather  be 
described  as  thoroughly  practical  ;  the  '  improve- 
ments '  that  are  transforming  Home,  Florence, 
Naples,  the  miles  of  new  streets,  the  staring  blocks 
of  modem  hou.ses,  Paris-like,  that  have  displaced 
the  i)ictures(|ue  squiilor  of  a  generation  ago,  are 
sufficient  evidence  of  this.  Numbers  of  Italians 
migrate  every  year  in  seaich  of  work,  and  many 
who  go  abroad  for  longer  ])erioi!s  still  hope  to 
return  to  their  own  land  with  a  competence  some 
day  :  in  this  respect  the  Italian  love  of  country 
appears  only  less  strong  than  the  Chinese.  Tlie 
national  character  is  passionate  and  quick  to  resent 
an  injury,  and  the  annual  number  of  homicides  per 
100,WX)  of  the  population  is  nearly  twenty  times 
as  great  as  in  England  ;  no  other  country  of  Europe, 
except  Spain,  approaches  Italy  in  tliis  respect. 
Capital  punLshinent  was  definitely  abolished  in 
1889.  Assaults  and  woundings  are  also  veiy  numer- 
ous, and  as  regards  all  these  ott'ences  against 
the  person  tlie  southern  provinces  and  the  Islands 
enjoy  a  grim  pre-eminence.  Yet  a  slight  general 
<lecrea«e  in  the  number  of  crimes  and  ott'ences  is 
observable  within  recent  years.  With  regard  to 
illegitimacy,  Italy's  position  may  be  seen  in  the 
separate  article  on  that  subject ;  but  here  it  should 
be  noted  that  the  percentage  of  illegitimate  birth.s 
has  increased  by  more  than  half  since  18C3.  The 
ruolii,  or  foundling-wheel,  is  gradually  being  sup- 


pressed :  in  1S66  it  was  in  use  in  1179  communes, 
in  1888  in  .')94  <mly,  and  these  mostly  in  Sicily  and 
the  southern  province.s. 

Uclifiiiin  unit  Kil nratioii. — Religious  freedom  is 
now  secured  to  all  creeds,  but  the  Koman  Catholic 
is  the  recoraised  state  religion,  ami  claims  all  but 
a  very  small  fraction  of  tliejieople.  <  If  Protestants 
there  are  about  62,000,  and  of  .Jews  38,000 :  the 
former  include  some  22,fM)0  Wahlensians  (q.v.). 
There  are  in  Italy  ;■)!  Catholic  archbishops  and  223 
bishops,  and  over  76.5(KI  ])arish  priests.  The  rank 
and  dignity  of  tlie  pope,  as  a  sovereign  jirincp.  is 
recognised  by  the  Law  of  1871  which  defines  the 
relations  of  the  church  an<l  state ;  his  pei'son  is 
sacred,  his  residence  inviolable,  and  he  has  his 
own  court  in  the  Vatican  (see  RoM.\x  C-VTHolic 
Church).  Under  a  series  of  laws  the  great 
majority  of  the  religious  houses  have  been  sup- 
pressed, small  pensions  being  paid  to  most  of  their 
inmates  who  h.a(l  taken  vows,  and  their  property 
confiscated.  Part  of  the  funds  thus  ]il,aced  at  tlie 
disposal  of  government  have  been  devoted  to 
educational  purposes. 

Education  is  under  a  minister  of  public  instruc- 
tion, who  is  assisted  by  a  council  ;  and  in  every 
province  there  is  a  school  lioard,  under  the  direc- 
tion of  the  prefect.  Nearly  IJ  million  sterling,  or 
about  half  the  sum  appropriated  for  this  puqiose 
in  England  and  Wales,  is  set  aside  by  the  state 
annually  for  education  ;  to  this  the  communes  and 
provinces  add  2i  millions.  At  the  formation  of 
the  kingdom  of  Italy  the  general  ignorance  was 
incredibly  profound,  although  learned  societies 
existed  in  every  large  town,  many  of  them,  like 
the  universities,  of  European  fame  (see  Ac.vdejiy  ). 
Reference  to  the  sejiarate  article  on  illiteracy  will 
show  that,  as  regards  education,  Italy  still  comes 
behind  most  of  the  nations  of  Europe  :  yet  notable 
progress  has  been  made.  In  1861,  of  those  over 
nineteen  years  of  age,  6.5  per  cent,  of  the  males  and 
81  per  cent,  of  the  females  were  unable  to  read  or 
write  ;  in  1881  the  percentage  had  fallen  to  54  for 
the  males  and  73  for  the  females.  In  1866,  of  the 
men  married  60  per  cent,  and  of  the  women  79  per 
cent,  had  to  make  their  mark  ;  in  1888  the  jier- 
centages  were  42  and  62  respectively.  The  various 
parts  of  the  kingdom  differ  wiilely  in  this  respect. 
Piedmont  has  only  15  jier  cent,  of  conscripts  and 
11  per  cent,  of  the  men  married  illiterate,  while  in 
Calabria  the  respective  ]iercentages  are  73  and  64, 
and  in  Rasilicata  73  and  70.  In  all  cases  the  pro- 
portion of  women  illiterate  is  gieater  th.an  that  of 
men.  The  notion  of  intellectual  equality  between 
the  sexes  is  confined  to  a  few  earnest  reformers, 
and  there  is  much  less  adequate  provision  for  the 
higher  education  of  girls,  although  the  universities 
nominally  are  open  to  women  as  well  as  men.  The 
convent  schools  teach  mainly  embroidery  and  devo- 
tions, and  the  government  and  superior  schools  are 
not  satisfactory.  In  18()1,  however,  a  good  high 
school  for  girls  was  opened  at  Milan,  and  its  suc- 
cess has  led  to  the  establishment  of  many  similar 
schools  in  other  towns.  Primary  education  is  com- 
pulsory, and  separate  boys'  and  girls'  schools  are  to 
be  found  in  all  but  tlie  very  poorest  communes.  In 
1861-86  the  number  <if  imjiils  (male  and  femalel  in 
these  elemcntarv  sclmols  incre.used  from  885,1.52  to 
2,252,898;  in  1886  there  were  46,073  such  schools 
open,  besides  7.5.55  private  elementary  schools. 
There  were  also  2139  a.syluius  for  children,  many 
of  them  conducted  on  the  kimlergarten  system, 
with  2.52.763  children;  anil  there  were  7144  night- 
schools  with  283,230,  .and  588(i  Suiiday-s<-hoi.ls  with 
169,609  ))ii]iiU  eniolled.  besides  133  normal  schools 
with  10,.542  pupils.  In  1.S.SS  the  gymna.^iums  num- 
bereil  728 (2.55 episcopal  and  141  jirivate),  witli49,980 
scholars;  the  lyceums,  .321  (124  episcopal  and  .5.5 
private),  with  13,688  |m|iils.     Also,  there  were  481 


246 


ITALY 


technical  sclmols  and  institutes  (84  private),  with 
34,602  students  ;  23  niercjintile  inaiiue  schools  ( 19 
governmental),  with  7.5G  pupils;  and  22  collej;iate 
institutions  and  superior  special  schools,  with  2(i()2 
students  and  170  'hearers.'  Finally,  there  are  in 
Italy  21  univei-sities,  17  of  them  governmental  and 
4  'free' — i.e.  maintained  hy  the  pnn-inces  and 
communes ;  the  total  number  of  students  and 
'hearers'  was  19,441  in  189.!-94,  besides  100  wlio 
were  entered  at  three  lyceums  that;  provide  ,a  uni- 
versity course.  Tlie  oldest  university  is  that  of 
Bologna  (q.v.),  the  largest  that  of  Naples  (4104 
students).  The  great  body  of  Italian  students  are 
enrolled  in  the  faculties  of  medicine  and  juris- 
prudence ;  theology  is  not  taught  in  any  of  the 
universities.  The  students  of  divinity  in  the 
seminaries  in  1881  numbered  11,277. 

Government. — Italy  is  a  constitutional  monarchy, 
the  executive  power  vested  in  the  king,  with 
succession  in  the  male  line,  being  e.xercised  through 
responsible  ministers.  The  legislative  functions 
are  in  the  hands  of  the  king  and  parliament  con- 
jointly, the  latter  consisting  of  a  senate  and 
chamber  of  deputies.  The  number  of  deputies  is 
508 :  the  franchise  is  extendeil  to  all  citizens  who 
are  of  age,  can  read  and  write,  and  pay  20  lire  of 
direct  taxes.  The  senate  is  composed  entirely  of 
life-members,  with  no  lixed  limit  as  to  numbers  (at 
present  about  300);  all  its  members,  except  the 
princes  of  the  royal  family,  are  nominated  by  the 
king,  and  must  be  forty  years  of  age  or  upwards. 
Neither  senators  nor  deputies  are  paid,  but  they 
have  the  right  to  travel  free  by  rail  or  steamer  in 
any  part  of  Italy.  Jloney  bills  nnist  originate  in 
the  Lower  House.  The  parliaments  are  quinquen- 
nial, but  may  be  dissolved  by  the  sovereign  at  any 
time.  Ministers,  who  number  eleven,  are  not  neces- 
sarily members  of  either  house.  The  Government 
of  the  provinces,  with  a  prefect  at  the  head  of 
each,  is  very  much  the  same  as  in  France. 

Armi/  and  Navy. — Military  (for  the  maritime 
population,  naval)  service  is  compulsory  for  all 
citizens  from  the  age  of  twenty  to  thirty-nine,  but 
only  about  80,000  annually  are  drafted  into  the 
standing  army  (3000  into  the  navy).  Recruits  are 
divided  into  three  classes,  those  oi  the  third  enter- 
ing the  territorial  militia  at  once,  and  receiving 
unlimited  leave,  except,  in  time  of  peace,  for  30 
days'  drill  every  four  years.  Recruits  of  the  second 
category  aie  enrolled  for  eight  years  in  the 
permanent  army  (with  unlimited  leave)  and  four 
in  the  mol)ile  militia  (landwehr),  and  then  enter 
the  territorial  militia.  The  infantry  of  the  first 
category  have,  before  being  transferred  to  the  terri- 
torial militia,  three  years  with  the  colours,  eight 
on  leave,  and  four  in  the  mobile  militia  ;  the  other 
arms,  nine  years  with  the  colours  and  on  leave. 
One-year  volunteers  are  adndtted.  The  standing 
army  in  189.')  numbered  SoS.OOO  men,  and  those  of 
the  permanent  army  on  unlimited  leave  590,000 ; 
the  total  w;ir  strength,  inclmUng  mobile  and  terri- 
torial militia,  was  returned  ,at  about  2;J  million 
men,  about  one  million  of  whom  had  received  a 
regular  training.  The  carabineers  (24,000)  peiform 
the  duties  of  gendarmes.  There  are  a  stall-college 
and  a  school  for  artilleiy  and  engineer  otlicers  at 
Turin,  others  for  infantry  and  cavalry  officers  at 
Modena  and  I'arma,  for  cavalry  ollicers  at  Pinerolo, 
anil  for  the  sanitary  corps  at  Florence,  and  mili- 
tary colleges  at  Milan,  Florence,  Rome,  Naples,  and 
Messina.  A  chain  of  fortresses  has  been  erected 
along  the  northern  frontier ;  there  are  numerous 
forts  and  batteries  in  the  basin  of  the  I'o  ami  along 
the  coast ;  and  Rome  is  protected  by  a  circle  of 
fifteen  forts. 

After  the  disa-strons  defeat  at  Lissa  in  1866  the 
navy  was  reconstructed,  and  now,  after  years  of 
nnreiuitting  exertion,  Italy  is  one  of  the  strongest 


maritime  powere  of  Europe.  In  1876  the  navy 
included  14  armoured,  7  unarmoured,  and  2  despatcli 
vessels,  beside,s  other  vessels  that  brought  the 
etl'ective  total  to  53,  «itli  an  armament  of  298 
guns  :  the  thickest  armour  wius  815  inches.  Accord- 
ing to  a  report  ]niblislietl  in  1890,  Italy  had  then 
18  armoured  battle-ships,  19  jirotected  cruisei's, 
9  despatch-vessels,  6  torpedo  cruisere,  1  se.i-going 
torpedo  boat,  and  8  gun-vessels :  the  maximum 
thickness  of  armour  carried  by  these  vessels  wa.s 
2I5  inches,  and  their  apinoximate  value  was  put 
at  8i  millions  sterling.  There  were  also  12.S 
torpedo  lioats,  and  other  vessels  that  brought  the 
total  to  2.34  ships,  representing  with  their  armament 
a  value  of  £15,IK)0,000.  Two  of  the  armour-clads, 
the  Italia  and  Lepnnto,  are  the  largest  warships 
yet  built,  and  the  armament  of  the  navy  imludes 
several  guns  of  100  and  106  ton.-;.  The  jieriod  of 
service  in  the  navy  is  eighteen  years,  but  a  limited 
number  only  of  the  conscripts  actually  serve  four 
years,  and  the  rest  are  normally  on  permanent 
leave.  In  1888  there  were  about  17,500  otlicers  and 
men  on  active  service. 

Finances. — The  finances  of  Italy  ])resent  an 
interesting  study.  F'rom  the  tinit  the  young 
kingdom  Avas  burdened  with  the  cost  of  the  war 
with  Austria  and  the  debts  of  the  old  Italian 
states,  and  moreover  has  been  obliged  to  face 
many  years  of  extraordinary  expenses  ;  whilst  the 
land,  especially  in  the  south,  has  never  been 
developed  to  anything  like  its  full  capacity,  and 
the  revenue  has  been  restricted  in  consequence.  In 
1862  there  was  a  deficit  of  neariy  £18,000,000,  and 
it  was  not  until  1875  that  the  first  small  surplus 
was  obtained.  Except  the  first  half  of  1884,  the 
ne.xt  ten  years  showed  a  surplus,  larger  or  smaller ; 
but  each  of  the  four  years  following  18S5  ended 
in  a  deficit.  Roth  income  and  expenditure  have 
steadilv  increased  :  in  1862  the  former  was  over 
£19,200,000,  the  latter  £37,000,000  ;  in  the  financial 
year  1888-89  the  actual  re\enuc  was  £60,034,000, 
the  expenditure  £69,409,000— deficit,  £9,375,000. 
The  chief  sources  of  income  are  the  customs,  the 
income,  land,  and  house  taxes,  and  the  tobacco 
monopoly  ;  the  principal  ex))enses  are  the  interest 
of  the  public  debt,  exceeding  21  millions  sterling, 
and  the  cost  of  the  army  and  navy,  which  is  nearly 
as  great.  In  projiortion  to  the  ])roilucti\ity  of  the 
country,  Italy  s  i)ublic  debt  is  very  heavy.  At  the 
end  of'  1861  it  wa.s  slightly  over  .il25,odo,Ot)0  ;  but 
a  long  successicm  of  annual  deficits,  extensive  rail- 
way and  other  public  works,  and  costly  armaments 
have  raised  it  year  by  year  till  in  1895  (when  the 
revenue  and  expenditure  were  about  £70,000,000) 
the  debt  had  reached  £492,314,300,  amounting 
to  £15,  18s.  5d.  per  head  of  the  population, 
exclusive  of  the  communal  and  luovincial  debts. 
Meanwhile  it  should  be  noted  that  the  Italian 
government  lia.s  removed  certain  of  the  old,  objec- 
tionable imposts,  such  as  the  grist  tax ;  and  in 
1883  the  forced  paper  currency  was  withdrawn  from 
circulation. 

For  information  as  to  Italy  the  best  sources  are  the 
adinirablt?  otlicial  publications,  a  complete  list  of  which 
is  included  in  the  Sa;ii/io  di  HihUofjralia  statistiea  Jtnfiana 
(3d  ed.  Koine,  1890).  The  A itnuai^io  statistico  Italinno 
(published  since  1S78)  contauis  topoi;raphical  as  well  as 
statistical  information  ;  most  of  the  statistical  jiortion 
Avill  be  found  summarised  in  the  Statesman  s  Year-book. 
A  comprehensive  review  of  Italy's  progress  is  presented 
in  a  memoir,  equally  able  and  candid,  IH  aleutii  Indict 
del  Prorircam  economicn  e  sociale  d' Italia  (Rome,  18iK)), 
by  ,Signor  L.  Bodio,  one  of  the  most  masterly  of  present- 
day  statisticians.  Tlie  Dizionario  coro;iraiico  (8  vols.), 
by  Amati,  is  part  of  a  monumental  work  in  course  of 
publication  at  Milan  {U Italia  sotto  I'AspcttoJisico,  sUyrico, 
arlij(tico,  e  utatiMico).  See  also  Laveleye,  L  Italic  actniUe 
(Paris,  1881 ),  and,  among  Giiglish  works,  Giillenga's  two 
books  on   Piedmont,  his  Italu  Rtriiitcd  (2  vols.  1875), 


ITALY 


247 


and  Itali/  PrcMiit  and  Future  (2  vols.  1887  );  the  books 
of  A.  J.  C".  Hare  (q.v.);  and  Beauclerk's  Rural  lUthi 
(18S8).  For  Southern  Italy,  see  Lenormant,  La  Grande 
Grlce  (3  vols.  1S81-S4)  and  A  trovers  VApulie  et  la 
Lucanie  (2  vols.  1883);  and  Mrs  Koss,  The  Land  of 
Manfred  (19,^). 

History. — The  ancient  history  of  Italy  will  he 
more  conveniently  treated  of  under  KOME  ;  see  also 
ExitlRIA,  Umbria,  iV:c.  In  476  a.d.  the  Heruliau 
mercenaries  in  the  pay  of  the  western  empire 
rose  in  revolt,  and  proclaimed  their  leader  Odoa- 
cer  king ;  and  the  last  emperor  of  the  West,  the 
pretty  hoy  Rounilus  Augustulns,  was  sent  to  end 
his  davs  amid  the  woods  and  fish-ponds  of  Lucul- 
his"  villa  near  Naples.  The  senate,  by  Odoacer's 
command,  recognised  Zeno  as  head  of  the  western 
as  well  as  the  eastern  empire,  and  he  in  turn 
bestowed  on  the  Teuton  leader  the  dignity  of 
'patrician.'  For  thirteen  years  Odoacer's  rule 
was  undisputed  ;  but  in  489  Theodoric,  king  of  the 
Ostrogoths,  invaded  Italy  with  a  commission  from 
the  Greek  emperor,  besieged  the  Herulian  in 
Ravenna,  and  in  493,  after  his  surrender,  slew  him 
\vith  his  own  hand.  In  spite  of  this  bloody  begin- 
ning, Theodoric's  rule,  which  lasted  till  .5'25,  was 
wise  and,  on  the  whole,  just.  But  the  Arian  faith 
of  the  conquerors  held  them  and  the  Italians  apart, 
and  when  Justinian's  general  Belisarius  was  sent 
to  reconquer  Italy  he  was  welcomed  liy  the  colonists 
of  Sicily  and  the  south.  From  536  to  553  the  war 
was  desperately  maintained,  the  hero  on  the  Gothic 
side  being  Totila  (541-552).  But  the  valour  of  the 
barbarians  was  outmatched  by  the  generalship  of 
the  aged  eunuch  Narees ;  and  in  553  Teias,  the 
last  king  of  the  Goths,  was  slain  in  battle,  and  the 
descendants  of  the  host  who  had  followed  the 
Amal  king  into  Italy  sixty-four  years  before,  now 
few  in  number  and  sore  at  heart,  were  permitted 
to  march  back  across  the  Alps.  Italy  was  now 
governed  from  Ravenna  for  a  few  years  by  an 
exarch  or  viceroy  ;  but  in  568  came  an  invasion 
by  the  Lombard  nation,  under  their  king,  Alboin, 
and  all  the  central  portion  of  the  peninsula  passed 
from  under  the  sway  of  Byzantium.  Pavia  was 
made  the  capital  of  the  new  kingdom,  and  the 
great  duchies  of  Spoleto  and  Benevento  were 
founded,  pressing  on  Rome  and  the  Greek  mari- 
time cities  of  the  south.  Yet  the  Lombards  were 
not  strong  enough  to  occupy  the  whole  peninsula, 
and  Rome  and  most  of  the  coast  towns,  as  Avell 
as  the  islands,  remained  to  the  emperor.  The 
invaders  imposed  on  the  country  a  sort  of  feudal 
system,  ami,  being  Arians,  treated  the  Italians 
with  great  harshness,  until  Gregory  the  Great 
effected  their  conversion  to  ortliodo.w.  From  this 
period  the  popes  for  a  lime  appear  as  the  champions 
of  the  national  cause.  Leo  the  Isaurian's  decree 
against  the  woi-ship  of  images  was  met  by  Gregory 
If.'s  declaration  of  Roman  independence;  and 
in  726-50  the  i)opes  succeeded  m  driving  out 
the  exarch  and  checking,  with  the  help  of  the 
Franks,  the  encroachments  of  tlie  Lombards.  Pepin 
twice  cros.sed  the  Alps,  compelleil  the  Lombard 
king  to  yield  up  the  exarchate  and  the  Pentajiolis, 
which  he  had  conquered,  and  j>resented  them  to 
the  pope  in  756  :  this  gift  wa.s  the  nucleus  of  the 
temporal  sovereignty  of  the  bishops  of  Rome. 

In  774  Pepin's  son,  Charlemagne,  who  had  been 
summoned  to  the  aid  of  the  Jiope,  deposed  Desi- 
derius,  the  last  Lombard  king,  and  added  his 
dominions  to  liis  own ;  in  8(XI  he  was  crowned 
emiieror  of  the  Romans.  Meanwliile  the  Lombard 
duchies  in  the  south  were  still  independent,  and 
Sicily  and  anuml^erof  free  cities  in  Southern  Italy, 
as  well  as  Venice,  recogni.sed  the  Greek  overlord- 
ship,  lint  in  the  9th  centuiy  tlie  Saracens  subdued 
Sicily,  landed  on  the  mainland,  and  even  threat- 
ened Rome.     Leo  IV.  fortilied  the  s\iburb  on  the 


north  bank  of  the  Tiber,  which  after  him  was  called 
the  Leonine  city,  and  called  to  his  aid  Louis  11., 
Charlemagne's  gieat-gi'andson,  who,  with  the  helji 
of  the  eastern  emperor,  checked  the  jirogress  of  the 
Saracens  for  a  time.  But  after  the  death  of  Louis 
the  infidels  compelled  the  helpless  pope  to  pay 
tribute ;  and  the  (Jreeks,  profiting  by  the  weak- 
ness of  Charlemagne's  successors,  recovered  most 
of  Southern  Italy,  and  held  it,  under  an  officer 
entitled  Catapan,  till  1043.  Eight  kings  of  the 
Carlovingian  line  were  acknowledged  in  Northern 
Italy,  their  rule  ending  with  Charles  the  Fat  in 
887.  Then,  till  961,  succeeded  ten  so-called  Italian 
sovereigns — dukes  of  Spoleto  and  Friuli,  the  Ger- 
man Arnulf,  Hugh  of  Provence,  Berengar,  mar- 
quis of  Ivrea,  and  others.  Under  their  feeble 
sway  the  power  of  the  feudal  nobles,  and,  within 
the  cities,  of  the  bishops,  waxed  great,  the  papal 
chair  was  occupied  by  men  of  infamous  life,  and 
Magyars,  Saracens,  and  Northmen  overran  the 
country,  tuniing  wide  tracts  into  a  desolate  wilder- 
ness. In  951  Berengar  II.  was  compelled  to  do 
homage  to  the  German  king.  Otto  of  Saxony.  He 
was  suffered  to  rule  until  961,  and  then  deposed; 
and  in  962  Otto  was  crowned  as  king  of  Italy  at 
Milan  and  as  emperor  at  Rome.  From  this  time 
the  right  to  the  crown  of  the  Roman  empire  (two 
centuries  later  it  was  the  Holy  Roman  empire)  was 
held  to  accompany  the  German  kingship.  Except 
in  name,  there  was  no  longer  an  Italian  kingdom, 
and,  with  its  foreign  emperors  occupied  for  the 
most  part  beyond  the  Alps,  the  countiy  was  in 
some  degree  left  masterless.  Its  division  into 
separate  states  was  now  but  a  question  of  time. 

Moved  by  the  scandals  of  tlie  papacy  and  the 
constant  revolts  in  the  city.  Otto  took  the  election 
of  the  popes  away  from  the  Romans,  chose  a  pope 
of  his  own,  and  put  the  city  in  his  charge.  Else- 
where he  encouraged  the  rise  of  the  communes  as 
a  check  upon  the  great  vassals.  The  towns  had 
already  been  permitted  to  raise  walls  as  a  defence 
against  the  barbarians,  and  now  the  chief  cities 
were  freed  from  the  jurisdiction  of  the  counts. 
The  death  of  Otto  III.  in  1002  was  followed 
by  a  dispute  for  the  crown  ;  Rome,  the  papacy 
and  the  city,  fell  af'ain  into  the  liands  of  the 
Tusculan  counts,  while  the  Lombard  cities  gained 
in  imjiortance  as  their  alliance  was  sought  l)y  one 
side  or  the  other.  Milan  supported  Henry  of 
Bavaria,  w  ho  had  been  elected  in  Germany  ;  and 
he  severely  punislied  her  ri\al  Pavia,  who  had 
espoused  the  cause  of  the  Lombard  Ardoin.  Henry 
died  in  1024,  and  was  succeeded  by  Conrad  of 
Franconia,  who  was  invited  into  Italy  and  crowned 
with  the  iron  crown  at  Milan,  by  Heribert,  the 
aichbisho]!.  I'nder  this  prelate  Milan  advanced 
greatly  in  jjower  and  independence.  An  eHcclive 
militia  was  formeil,  and  Heribert  is  said  to  have 
invented  the  carrorcio,  a  car  which  carried  into 
battle  the  city's  banner  and  an  altar,  and  round 
which  the  burghers  fought  as  in  defence  of  a  sacred 
thing.  The  citizens  had  already  formed  themselves 
into  a  jiiirlameiito,  and,   while  Heribert  lived,  the 

Sower  of  the  smaller  counts  who  had  now  come  to 
well  in  the  city  was  bridled.  The  other  Lombard 
cities  also  were  rising  into  some  degree  of  inde- 
pendence. Pi.'^a  and  Genoa,  besides  \  enice  (which 
acknowledged  the  nominal  sovereignty  of  the  Greid< 
emperor),  were  becoming  great  by  their  command 
of  ileets  ;  and  tbe.v  succeeded  to  the  rich  carrying 
trade  of  the  Mediterranean  after  the  fall  of  the 
Greek  cities  in  the  south  before  the  Normans. 
During  the  first  half  ot  the  lltli  century  a  body  of 
Norman  adventurers  had  gained  a  firm  footing  in 
Apulia,  which  they  ultinuitely  con<|Ucred  asac(nint- 
.shi])  for  themselves.  The  pope,  Leo  IX.,  marched 
against  them,  and  was  defeated  and  taken  iirisoner 
by  Robert  Wiskard  or  Guiscard  at  Civitella  ( 1053) ; 


248 


ITALY 


and  Wiskard  olitained  from  liim  tlie  investiture  (if 
liis  [ircseiit  an<l  future  conquests,  wliicli  he  Wiis  to 
liohl  as  a  lief  of  tlie  holy  see.  Kobert  extended  his 
power  on  the  mainland,  and  took  the  title  of  Duke 
of  Apulia  and  Calabria  in  lOoO.  In  1060-90  his 
brother  Koger  eimijuered  Sicily  from  the  Saracens  ; 
in  1127  the  family's  dominions  in  Apulia,  Calabria, 
and  Sicily  were  united  by  his  sou  Roger,  who  in 
li;iO  assumed  the  title  of  king  of  Sicily. 

Meanwhile  the  fierce  struggle  over  Investitures 
(q.v.)  had  been  fought  out  between  em|)er(n-  and 
pope.  When  the  archdeacon  Hildebrand  became 
I'ope  Gregory  VII.  (1073)  he  enforced  the  celibacy 
of  the  clergy,  as  Leo  IX.  hail  already  endeavoured 
to  do  ;  and  in  1075  he  condemned  the  investiture 
of  ecclesiastics  by  lay  lords.  Otto  the  Great 
and  Henry  III.  had  appointed  and  deposed  popes, 
and  therefore  this  latter  decree  led  to  a  quarrel 
with  Henry  IV.  (q.v.).  At  a  diet  in  1076  Gregory 
was  deposed.  The  pope  replied  liy  excomnuini- 
eating  the  king,  who  was  compelled  by  a  rebellion 
in  Saxony  to  submit  and  do  penance  at  Cauossa, 
the  castle  of  the  Countess  Matilda  of  Tuscany,  the 
popes  ally.  Henry,  however,  soon  lenewed  the 
strife,  appointed  an  antipope,  and  in  1084  took 
Konii",  was  crowned,  and  besieged  (Gregory  in  the 
fortress  of  St  Angelo.  Thence  the  pontift  was 
delivered  by  WLskard,  who  drove  the  emperor  oil', 
and  carried  Gregory  away  from  his  riotous  subjects 
to  end  his  days  at  Salerno.  The  struggle,  how- 
ever, was  carried  on  by  Gregory's  successors,  till 
by  the  concordat  of  Worms  (1122)  the  emperor 
yielded  the  main  principle  at  issue,  surrendering  to 
the  cardinals  the  election  of  the  pope,  who  was 
still  to  possess  the  right  of  conferring  the  imperial 
crown.  By  the  death  of  the  Countess  Matilda, 
loo,  in  1115,  the  church  had  inherited  her  vast 
domains  ;  and,  although  the  emperor  took  jjosses- 
sion  of  them,  the  popes  retained  their  claim,  to  be 
revived  in  after  yeai's. 

I'roni  this  long  struggle  the  northern  cities 
emerged  strengthened  and  practically  autonomous. 
They  still  behmged  to  the  empire;  but  they  were 
governed  by  their  own  inagistrates,  called  consuls, 
ai<led  by  au  oligarchical  council  ;  and  they  enjoyed, 
and  unha])pily  took  frequent  advantage  of,  the 
riglit  to  make  war  on  their  own  acco\int.  The 
ijuanel  of  the  Guelphs  and  (ihibelliiies  (q.v.)  arose 
in  (Jcrmany  at  this  time,  and  liefore  long  these 
names  were  heard  everywhere  in  Italy  ;  but  here 
they  stood  not  alone  for  the  pojie's  party  and  the 
emperor's,  but  also  for  the  burning  jealousy  and 
hatred  of  rival  cities,  each  struggling  to  rise  at  the 
co.st  of  its  neighbours.  Arnold  of  Brescia  (q.v.) 
for  a  time  established  a  reimblic  in  Home,  but  it 
was  sujipressed  by  Frederick  Barb.irossa  in  1154. 
In  that  year  Frederick,  who  bad  been  elected  king 
in  )l.">2,  came  into  Italy  to  take  away  the  self- 
government  of  the  towns,  and  reduce  them  to  their 
former  subjection  to  the  emperor.  After  punish- 
ing several  hostile  cities,  he  went  on  to  Konie  and 
was  crowned  by  Adrian  IV.  (Nicholas  Break- 
spear),  the  only  pope  of  English  birth  :  but  he 
soon  quarrelled  with  him,  and  on  Adrian's  death 
supported  an  antipope.  In  1 15S  Frederick  returned 
from  (iermany,  and  compelled  Milan  to  surrender, 
after  a  montiVs  siege.  lie  now  set  in  every  town 
a  podesta  to  a<lminister  justice,  who  should  be 
chosen  always  from  another  city  ;  and  from  cities 
and  b.arons  alike  he  took  away  the  jirivilege  of 
making  war  on  one  another  without  his  jiermission. 
An  attempt  to  appoint  their  consuls  also  drove  the 
Mil.incse  into  a  second  revcdt,  in  1159;  but  Frede- 
rick was  delayeil  by  the  heroic  defence  of  Crema, 
and  it  was  not  till  May  1161  that  he  again 
invested  .Milan.  The  city  hold  out  till  March 
1162,  and  was  then  destroyed  by  the  vindictive  I 
jmiii'rialists,  and  the  people  driven  from  the  ruins.  > 


Soon  afterwards  the  cities  of  the  Veronese  march 
formed  a  league  of  defence  against  Frederick 
which  he  was  unable  to  crusli.  In  1167  he 
besieged  the  pope,  Alexan<ler  III.,  in  the  Colis- 
eum ;  Imt  the  latter  escaped  to  ISenevento,  while 
a  terrible  pestilence  fell  upon  the  (Jerman  camp, 
and  Frederick  with  difficulty  led  the  remnant 
of  his  army  north  to  I'avia.  tinly  this  city  and 
the  Marquis  of  Montferrat  in  all  North  Italy  had 
held  back  from  the  great  Lombard  league,  which 
had  meanwhile  been  fcmned  and  had  restored  the 
Milanese  to  their  city.  In  IKiS  Frederick  lied  in 
disguise  across  the  Alps  ;  and  in  the  .same  year  the 
confederates  founded  a  new  city  on  the  plain 
between  Pavia  and  Montferrat,  to  be  a  check  on 
these  two.  The  league  named  it  Ales.sandria,  in 
honour  of  their  ally  the  pope  :  (fcl/n  ji<((//ifi  { '  of 
straw'),  their  enemies  added  in  derision;  but  its 
<litcli  and  rampart  of  earth  held  Frederick  at  bay 
all  tbrourdi  the  winter  of  1174-75,  till  he  was  forced 
to  raise  tlie  siege.  Finally,  the  crushing  defeat  at 
Legnano  (May  29,  1176),  from  which  field  be  hardly 
escaped  with  his  life,  maile  him  willing  to  treat  for 
peace.  In  1177,  at  Venice,  the  emjieror  came  to 
terms  with  the  pope,  and  agreed  to  a  six  years' 
truce  with  the  Lombard  towns;  in  I  IS.'!  a  ]ier- 
manent  peace  was  ratified,  the  cities  retaining 
their  right  of  war  and  of  selfgovernment,  ami  the 
emperor  his  podesths  and  his  rights  of  sustenance 
and  support  against  enemies  outside  the  league. 
The  rule  of  podestas  was  soon  adopted  outside  of 
Lombardy  as  well,  for  the  settlement  of  nobles  in 
the  towns  had  introduced  a  lawless  element  and 
given  rise  to  factions;  so  that  a  supreme  judge 
who  was  not  a  townsman,  who  held  office  for  a 
single  year,  and  had  then  to  render  an  account 
of  his  administration,  was  most  likely  to  ]>rove 
impartial.  Yet  from  the  podestiis  to  the  despots 
was  but  a  step,  and  this  was  taken  a  few  yeara 
later. 

Since  the  battle  of  Civitella  the  Normans  had 
continued  faithful  allies  of  the  popes,  and  it  was 
with  the  object  of  deprivinj;  the  latter  of  this 
powerful  su]iport  that  Frederick  now  h.ul  his  son 
Henry  VI.  married  to  the  heiress  of  Sicily.  F'rede- 
rick  died  in  1 190,  and  in  1194  Henry  was  recognised 
as  king,  and  the  Norman  rule  in  Southern  Italy 
came  to  an  end.  He  died  in  1197,  ami  the  next 
year  his  wife,  who  had  acknowleilged  the  pope  as 
overlord,  died  also,  leaving  their  infant  sun  I'rcde- 
rick  to  the  guardianship  of  Innocent  III.  The 
pa]>al  territory  had  now  become  extensive,  and  the 
establishment  of  a  Latin  empire  at  Constantinople 
(1204),  duiing  the  fnurth  crusade,  added  to  the 
prestige  of  the  Koman  see.  Hut  the  chief  gainer 
by  the  capture  of  the  exstern  capital  was  Venice, 
who,  as  a  reward  for  lending  her  licet,  was  pre- 
.sented  by  the  victorioiis  crusaders  with  a  large 
share  of  the  divideil  empire,  and  was  able  to  occupy 
at  least  a  number  of  islands  and  coast  territory  :  .sue 
was  now  suiireme  in  the  Levant.  Frederick  IL, 
who  was  crowned  cmperoi-  in  1220,  was  king  of 
Italy,  Sicily,  Sardinia,  (iermany.  Burgundy,  and 
Jerusalem.  So  formidable  a  piince  made  i)opes 
and  connnnnes  both  unca.sy.  He  was  excommuni- 
cated by  Gregoiy  IX.  in  1227,  because  he  delayed 
his  departure  on  a  |iromised  crusade ;  and  after- 
wards, when  he  had  gcme  to  the  Fast,  while  he  was 
crowning  himself  at  .Jerusalem  his  enemies  Avere 
still  busy  at  home.  The  pope,  whose  hands  wore 
greatly  strengtheneil  by  the  newlyfonmlcil  Fran- 
ciscan and  Dominican  onlers,  stirred  up  the  Lom- 
bard cities  to  levolt,  and,  after  Frederick  had 
crushed  the  Milanese  at  Cortenuova  (12:!7),  drew 
Venice  and  (lenoa  into  the  league  against  him. 
Frederick's  cause  was  upheld  in  Northern  Italy  by 
Ezzelino  da  Komano,  infamous  for  his  cruelties. 
In    1245    Innocent    IV.,    the    emperor's    personal 


ITALY 


249 


enemy,  haJ  liini  declared  dethroned  by  a  council 
convened  at  Lyons;  and  after  live  veal's  of  liarass 
ing  anxiety,  his  life  the  object  of  constant  plots. 
Frederick  dii^l  in  December  12o0.  Tlie  cause  of 
his  son  and  grandson  was  upheld  by  his  natural 
son  Manfred,  who  in  1'2.58  became  king  of  Sicily. 
There  w.a-s  no  abatement  of  fun"  in  the  fierce 
struggle  between  Cuielphs  and  Ohibellines.  but  the 
balance  of  success  so  far  inclined  towards  Manfred 
after  the  battle  of  Monteaperto  (l'2tiO),  which  re- 
stored Florence  to  the  Ghibellines,  tliat  Urban  IV. 
invited  Charles  of  Anjou  into  Italy  to  head  the 
Guelphic  party.  In  1206  Manfreil  was  defeated  and 
slain,  and  the  .Swabian  line  came  to  an  end  with 
his  nephew  Conradin,  who  was  beheaded  at  Najde-s. 
The  Guelphs  were  again  supreme  ;  Imt  (Tregory  X. 
restored  their  banished  rivals  to  tlieir  cities,  and 
for  a  time  made  the  two  parties  live  in  peace. 
Charles,  who  received  the  kingdom  of  Sicily  as  the 
gift  of  the  popes,  had  promised  that  it  should 
never  be  held  along  with  the  empire  :  and  now,  as 
a  final  check  to  the  Angevin  s  possible  ambition, 
the  pope  brought  the  dispute  to  a  close  which  had 
kept  tlie  empire  without  a  head,  and  crowned 
Kndolf  of  Hapsburg,  who  was  elected  in  127.'^. 
Tills  emperor  in  1278  recognised  the  popes  as 
temporal  soiereigns,  and  their  power  was  hence- 
forth firmly  established  over  Rome  and  the  Cam- 
pagna,  Emilia,  the  Romagna,  and  the  March  of 
Ancona ;  and,  as  Rudolf  left  Italy  to  itself,  the 
Cinelphic  party  was  enabled  to  strengthen  its  power 
ainl  to  crush  such  hostile  cities  as  Pis.a.  Charles  lost 
Sicily  by  the  rebellion  which  began  in  the  Sicilian 
Vespers  (q.v. ),  in  1282  :  and  the  islaml  gave  itself 
to  the  House  of  Aragon,  which,  as  the  popes  were 
hostile,  necessarily  became  Ghibelline.  Meanwhile, 
in  Tuscany  the  triumphant  Guelphs  had  become 
broken  up  into  factions,  the  Neri  and  Bianchi 
(Blacks  and  Whites),  the  former  violent  Guelphs, 
and  the  latter  at  first  moderate  Guelphs,  until  the 
fierce  aninm.sity  of  their  o]iponents  made  them 
Ghibellines.  For  in  1.301  Charles  of  Valois,  who 
h:ul  been  called  in  by  Boniface  VIII.  to  help  the 
Neri,  entered  Florence,  and  givve  the  Bianchi  up 
to  the  cruel  vengeance  of  their  enemies  :  among 
those  banished  from  the  city  was  the  ])oet  Dante. 
Under  Clement  V.  the  seat  of  the  papacy  was 
removed,  in  1300,  to  Avignon,  where  it  remained 
for  the  ne.\t  seventy  years.  In  the  follo\ving  year 
the  new  emperor,  Henry  VII.,  came  into  Italy  to 
revive  the  Ghibelline  party,  and  to  restore  peace 
and  onler.  The  task,  however,  was  now  beyond 
the  power  of  any  German  master.  Henry  died  in 
August  131.S,  having  etl'ected  no  lasting  change 
exript  in  Milan,  which  he  had  handed  over  to  tlie 
Ghibelline  Visconti. 

We  have  now  reached  a  ])eri<)d  when  the  cities  of 
Northern  Italy  had  fallen  under  the  sw.ay  of  tyrants 
or  desjjots.  The  feudal  power  of  the  niral  counts 
had  gradually  been  lessened  by  the  communes, 
until  the  nobles  had  become  citizens.  Hut  they 
merely  e.xchangeil  their  ca.stles  for  fortified  palaces 
in  the  cities  ;  and,  although  the  ]>odest;i  had  curbed 
their  power  for  a  time,  his  office  eventually  became 
not  so  much  that  of  a  <lictator  as  of  a  judge,  and 
the  interminable  wars  had  tended  to  give  the 
nobles  an  undue  predomin.ance,  since,  being 
trained  to  arms,  their  military  skill  naturally 
placed  them  above  the  burghers.  In  some  towns, 
such  a.s  Florence,  where  the  democratic  spirit  was 
strongest,  they  were  kept  in  check  by  a  ii'infnlim- 
ierc  of  justice  ;  but  in  most  cities  the  rupfrdii  of 
the  /tropic,  who  represented  the  party  in  the 
ascendant,  and  in  these  war-times  was  of  course 
a  noble,  giadually  rai.sed  himself  to  the  position  of 
master.  It  was  then  his  aim  to  depress  the  others 
of  his  own  order,  both  to  win  jmpularity  with  the 
people  and  to  prevent  possible  nvalry.    At  the  root 


of  the  wars  fought  between  those  in  Italy  who 
called  themselves  (luelphsand  < Jliilicllines  was  the 
question  whether  the  democracy  or  the  aristocrary 
was  to  be  supreme  in  the  cities.  Florence  as  yet 
preserved  her  ie]mblican  independence  :  but,  besides 
a  hereditary  oligarchy  in  Venice,  despots  were 
now  established  in  all  the  great  northern  <'ities, 
each  of  which  was  glad  to  submit  to  a  master  w  ho 
would  put  an  end  to  the  strife  th.at  liad  hampered 
its  commercial  prosperity.  Titles  were  bouglit  fnira 
the  CJerman  emperoi-s  or  assumed,  courts  were 
forme<l,  and  arTuies  were  hired  ;  for  w.ars  were  now 
I  waged  in  another  fashion  than  that  which  had 
prevailed  in  Barbarossa's  time.  Then  it  was  an 
honoured  custom  for  the  artisans  and  traders  of  a 
city  to  devote  a  week  or  a  month  in  the  year  to 
harrying  the  fields  of  ,a  rival  commune,  to  draw  its 
defendei's  into  an  ambuscade,  or  even  to  capture 
and  ruin  the  town,  provided  it  did  not  hold  out  too 
long :  in  any  case,  the  citizen-soldiers  returned 
home  in  a  few  days,  and  took  up  their  ordinary' 
work  again.  Now,  however,  war  was  a  science 
and  soldiering  a  trade :  the  iron  panoply  and 
ponderous  lance  of  the  man-at-arms  were  not  for 
the  craftsm.an  or  the  clerk.  Therefore,  in  the  14th 
century,  bands  of  mercenaries,  or  companies  of 
adventure,  under  condottieri,  made  their  appear- 
ance, selling  their  services  to  the  highest  Iiidder,  or 
plundering  the  lands  of  the  weaker  states.  Their 
battles  were  almost  bloodless,  the  campaigns  inde- 
cisive. Bound  by  a  common  profession,  they  were 
chielly  formidable  to  the  taxpayer  ;  and,  for  that 
matter,  in  tlieir  commercial  prosperity  the  cities 
were  at  this  time  receiving  the  reward  for  w  Idoh 
they  had  Iiartered  their  independence.  If  we  glance 
at  England  in  tliis  period,  which  followed  liard  on 
Bannockburn,  we  find  commerce  and  manufactures 
still  in  their  infancy,  wool  the  staple  exjiort, 
houses  of  mud  in  the  streets  of  the  cities,  and 
rushes  strewn  in  the  king's  chamber  t  but  the 
nation  had  now  its  constitution  complete,  and 
was  moving  in  the  broadening  path  of  fieedom. 
The  condition  of  Italy  was  in  sharp  contrast  to  all 
this.  Trade  and  manufactures  were  flourishing, 
art  and  literature  were  encouraged  at  the  courts, 
and  freedom  was  forgotten  in  present  comfort  and 
inglorious  well-being.  The  result  of  the  self- 
indulgent  policy  now  begun  was  seen  two  centuries 
later,  when  Italy  lay  helpless  beneath  the  feet  of 
conten<ling  foreign  armies. 

The  14th  and  loth  centuries  witnessed  the 
division  of  Italy  among  five  princiiial  ]iowers — 
the  kingdom  of  Naples,  the  duchy  of  Jlilan,  the 
rejiublirs  of  Florence  and  Venice,  and  the  pajiacy. 
In  Naples  the  Angevin  line  came  to  an  en<l  in  1435 
with  Joan  II.  She  was  succeeded  by  -Vlfimso  V.  of 
Aragon,  and  the  Two  Sicilies,  separate  since  12,S2, 
were  again  united.  At  his  death  in  1458,  however, 
Sicily  remained  to  the  kings  of  Aragon,  while 
Naples  was  bequeathed  to  liis  natural  son.  In 
Milan  the  iiowerful  Visconti  dynasty  surviveil  till 
1447.  Archbishop  (iian  Visconti.  who  died  in  13.54, 
made  himself  master  of  more  than  twenty  cities, 
and  extended  the  family's  power  over  the  greater 
part  of  Northern  Italy  :  and  these  domains  were 
reunited  by  his  grand-nephew,  Gian  tialeazzo,  who 
purchased  the  title  of  duke,  made  himself  lord  as 
far  as  the  borders  of  Venice,  aiul  was  tlireafciung 
Florence  when  the  jilaguo  carried  him  oil' in  1402. 
The  Visconti's  ]iosscssions  were  confined  within 
narrower  limits  under  his  son  Filippo,  and  were 
seized  in  1450  by  Francesco  Sforza,  a  famous 
general,  who  hail  married  Filijiiio's  natural 
daughter,  and  who  proved  a  wise  an<l  able  ruler. 
Florence  Uiu\  submitted  in  1342  to.adcspot  in  Walter 
of  Hricnne.  the  titular  DuUe  of  Athens:  but  this 
soldier  of  fortune  was  expelled  in  1343,  and  the 
city  w.as  ruled  until   14.34,  except  during  a  biief 


250 


ITALY 


revolution,  by  an  olii,'aicIiy.  The  presidency  of 
the  rei>ul>lic — practically  the  dictatorship- -was 
then  secured  1)y  Cnsiino  de'  Medici,  who  for  tliis 
end  had  courted  tlie  ^rood-will  of  the  couimoii 
people  ;  and  liis  undelined  power  passed  at  his 
death  in  1464  to  his  son,  and  reached  its  eulniin- 
.ation  under  his  famous  i;raihlson,  Lorenzo  the 
Magnificent.  Florence  was  already  mistress  of 
great  part  of  Tuscany,  and  Cosimo's  alliance  with 
Francesco  Sforza  helped  to  secure  her  position  as 
one  of  the  five  great  powers.  Venice,  which  had 
until  this  period  stood  aloof  from  Italian  politics, 
wa.s  in  the  hands  of  a  liereditary  jjrand  council. 
Thirty  years  of  contest  with  (ienoa  for  supremacy 
in  the  !ilediteri-anean  had  ended  in  victory  for  the 
republic  of  St  Mark  in  13S1.  The  capture  of  Con- 
staTitinojile  by  the  Turks  in  14.5.3  made  Venice, 
who  had  been  grad\ially  stripped  of  her  possessions 
in  the  Levant,  now  at  last  an  Italian  state ;  anil 
her  territory  on  the  mainland  was  greatly  extended 
under  Francesco  Foscari  (1457)  and  his  successors 
in  the  dogeship,  although  in  1477  a  Turkish  army 
ravaged  her  fields  to  within  siglit  of  St  Mark's. 
Rome,  except  <luring  Rienzi's  brief  rule,  liad  obeyed 
her  bishops,  exiled  at  Avignon.  In  1.377  the  papacy 
returned  from  the  Babylonish  capti\ity,  and,  in 
.spite  of  the  weakness  caused  by  the  Great  Schism, 
the  spiritual  sovereign  also  was  soon  found  among 
the  despots.  The  schism  endeil  in  1449,  and 
Nicholas  V.  wa.s  enabled  to  establish  firndy  the 
temporal  power  of  the  ])apac,y. 

Italy  now  enjoyed  a  term  of  prosperity  and  com- 
parative peace,  liroken  only  as  Venice  enlarged  her 
borders,  or  by  the  family  ambitions  of  the  popes. 
Hut  in  1494  Charles  VIII.  of  France  was  induced 
by  the  Milanese  regent,  Loilovico  Sforza,  to  invade 
Italy,  and  had  himself  crowned  king  of  Nai)les. 
Meanwhile,  Lodovico  had  murdered  and  succeeded 
Ills  nephew,  and  he  now  I'aised  Lonibardy  against 
Charles,  who  with  difficulty  got  back  to  France  in 
1495.  He  had  caused  the  e\i>ulsion  of  the  Medici, 
and  Florence  was  ai'ain  a  republic,  in  which  for  a 
time  Savonarola  s  influence  was  all-powerful.  But, 
of  more  consequence  than  this,  Cliarles's  expedition 
had  shown  the  way  to  others,  aiul  inspired  an 
ambition  which,  under  his  immediate  successors, 
cost  France  dear.  In  1499  Louis  XII.  subdued 
Milan  ;  in  1.501  Ferdinand  the  Catholic  tricked  him 
out  of  Naples,  which  the  two  had  joined  to  conquer, 
and  once  more  united  the  Two  Sicilies  under  one 
crown. 

The  century  thus  begun  is  the  most  disastrous  in 
Italian  history.  In  Northern  and  Central  Italy  the 
French  armies  held  their  own  against  the  pope  and 
his  allies  until  the  year  1512,  when  tlieir  young 
general,  tJa.st()ii  de  I'"oix,  fell  in  victory  before  the 
walls  of  Ravenna.  They  were  then  e.Kpelled  for 
the  moment ;  but  Italy  had  no  long  rest.  The 
rivalry  of  the  Emperor  Charles  V.  ami  Francis  I., 
which  makes  the  ])rincipal  p.art  of  F.uropeau  history 
during  this  period,  lilled  the  land  with  tiie  cla,sh  of 
foreign  arms  ;  while  her  own  lulers,  striving  each 
to  .snatch  an  advantage  from  tlie  confusion,  added 
to  the  country's  distractions.  The  papacy  was  a 
gainer  from  the  struggle.  The  conquests  of  the 
Borgias  passed  to  the  holy  see;  and  Julius  II. 
succeeded  in  humbling  Venice,  and  then  in  driving 
the  French  out  of  Lombardy  in  1512.  In  1.51o 
Francis  regained  Milan,  but  in  ir)24  his  forces  were 
expelled  from  Italy  liy  the  emi)eror,  and  in  1025 
the  French  king  was  taken  prisoner  at  Pavia.  In 
1527  occurred  the'  sack  of  Rome  liy  a  body  of  troops 
of  the  emjiire,  Lutherans  and  Spaniards.  The  Con- 
stable de  Bourbon,  wlio  had  led  them,  was  killed 
in  the  ii.ssauU,  and  tlie  sack  continued  for  seven 
dreadful  months.  In  Seotember  the  iMedicean 
Clement  VIL,  who  hail  lied  to  the  castle  of  St 
Angelo,   was  compelled   by   hunger  to  surrender. 


The  Medici,  who  had  returned  to  Florence  in  1512, 
were  again  driven  o\it,  but  were  restored  by  arms 
in  15.30.  Alexander  de'  Medici  received  from  the 
emijeior,  who  wii.s  his  father-in-law,  the  title  of 
duke  ;  and  in  1570  Cosinu),  bis  successor,  w  as  made 
Crand-duke  of  Tuscany  by  the  pope.  By  the  peace 
of  Camhrai  (1529)  Charles  had  been  left  master  of 
Italy  ;  his  sim  Philip  became  its  undisputed  lord 
by  the  ])eace  of  Ci'iteau-Cambresis  (1.5.59),  though 
Venice  really,  and  Cenoa,  Lucca,  and  the  little 
republic  of  San  Marino  nominally,  remained  inde- 
pendent. Besides  Tuscany,  there  were  the  duchies 
of  Modena  and  Ferraraand  of  Parma  and  Piacimza, 
and  the  rich  States  of  the  ('Inirch  :  Spain  herself 
held  all  the  rest  of  Italy,  save  Piedmont,  which 
was  restored  to  the  dukes  of  Savoy  in  the  person 
of  Philip's  cousin  and  general,  Emmanuel  Fili- 
bert.  This  prince  also  regained  Savoy  and  the 
province  of  Nice,  which  his  family  had  lost ;  but 
he  removed  his  capital  to  Turin,  and  his  house 
was  henceforth  Italian.  The  papacy  had  been 
strengthened  by  the  founding  of  the  .lesuit  order  in 
1540,  and  the  establishment  of  the  Inquisition  ;  and 
tlie  Council  of  Trent  ( 1.545-63)  defined  the  Catholic 
faith.  The  territory  of  the  church  was  further 
augmented  by  the  alisorption  of  several  lapsed  fiefs, 
and  the  supremacy  of  the  imntitt's  was  now  acknow- 
ledged by  Venice,  who  had  hitherto  recognised  im 
superior  to  her  own  patriarch.  But  ^  enice  was 
no  longer  the  great  state  she  had  been.  Her 
commerce  had  fallen  oil'  since  the  discoveries  of 
Columbus  and  Da  (iama,  and  most  of  her  con- 
quests were  in  the  hands  of  the  Turks,  to  whom, 
in  spite  of  the  victory  of  the  allied  tleet  at  Lepanto 
(1571),  she  had  been  compelled  to  give  up  even 
Cyprus.  Her  last  great  achievement,  in  a  war  that 
she  had  waged  at  intervals  for  five  centuries,  wiis 
the  conquest  of  the  entire  Peloponnesus,  in  1684; 
but  in  1715  this  fell  again  into  the  hands  of  the 
infidels.  The  power  of  Spain,  too,  h.ad  greatly 
declined,  and  besides  Masaniello's  revolt  at  Naples 
(1647)  there  were  ri.sings  in  Sicily,  which  gave  the 
island  to  Lonis  XIV.  for  two  years.  But  through- 
out this  period,  and  until  as  late  as  the  19th 
century,  Italy  was  disposed  of  li\'  foreign  poweix, 
and  partitioned  as  suited  their  jiolicy.  After  each 
of  the  three  European  wars  of  succession,  in  the 
ISth  century,  Italy  was  subjected  to  a  fresh  re- 
division  ;  but  it  is  not  necessary  to  notice  more 
than  the  last  of  these  in  detail.  The  services 
rendered  by  the  Hoiise  of  Savoy  against  the  French, 
during  the  war  of  the  Spanish  sucees.sion,  won  for  it 
the  island  of  Sicily  and  the  title  of  king.  'I'lie  new 
monarch,  Victor  .\madeus  II.,  was  one  of  the 
liberal  and  enlightened  des]iots  of  the  time;  and 
although  in  1720  he  was  compelled  to  ('xchange 
Sicily  for  Sardinia,  from  which  island  his  suecessore 
took  their  title  until  1801,  he  built  up  a  real  king- 
dom, took  the  schools  away  from  the  Jesuits,  and 
did  much  to  promote  the  welfare  of  his  subjects. 
The  last  war,  that  of  the  Austrian  succession,  in 
which  the  Sardinians  fought  gallantly  on  the 
Ilajisburg. Lorraine  side,  ended  with  the  treaty  of 
Aix-la-Chapelle  (1748),  which  left  Italy  divided  as 
follows  :  the  House  of  Savoy  held  Sardinia  and 
Piedmont,  with  Montferrat  and  Alessandria,  Tor- 
tona  and  Novara :  the  Austrians  retained  Milan 
and  Tu.scany  :  the  Bourbon  Charles  III.  was  king 
of  the  Two  Sicilies,  and  his  brother  Philiji,  Duke  of 
Parnui ;  the  papal  territory  stretched  across  the 
centre  of  the  peninsula  to  the  frontiers  of  Venice, 
which  survived  as  a  reiniblic  until  1797 ;  and 
finally,  Modena  and  (Jenoa  were  placed  under 
the  protection  of  France,  to  whom  the  (ienoese 
ceded  the  island  of  Corsica  in  17.55.  Italy  now 
enjoyed  a  brief  period  of  freedom  from  wars ; 
but  her  numerous  sovereigns  were  absolute,  each 
within  his  petty  domain,  and  the  despotic  policy  of 


ITALY 


251 


the  Bmirbons,  who  held  nearly  all  the  country,  was 

fenerally  atlopteil.  An  honouralile  exception  was 
'eter  Leopold,  who  Wiis  tJrandihike  of  Tuscany 
from  1765  until  he  succeeded  to  the  Austrian 
empire  ;is  Leopold  IL  in  1790.  He  instituted  many 
reforms,  restrict^tl  the  ]iiiwer  of  the  priesthood,  and 
stippressed  the  Inquisition  :  and  to  him  is  owing  the 
reclamation  of  the  fruitful  ^'al  di  Chiana  from  a 
Avilderness  of  pestilent  marsh.  To  tlie  rule  of  this 
|>rince  the  harsh,  jealous  oppression  of  the  other 
sovereigns  presents  a  pitiful  contrast.  For  Italy 
the  long  reign  of  misery  and  ilurkness  was  at  liist 
about  to  pass  away — but  slowly :  the  night  was 
not  yet  past. 

The  storm  of  the  French  Ue\olution  burst  in 
1792.  In  1796  Napoleon  entered  Italy  ;  in  1797 
the  Cisalpine,  Ligurian,  Cispadane,  and  Tiberine 
republics,  with  their  capitals  at  Milan,  Genoa, 
Bologna,  iind  Rome,  were  formed  out  of  Northern 
and  Central  Italy,  and  Venice  and  her  teuitory 
beyond  the  Adige  were  bestowed  on  Austria.  The 
next  year  Naples  surrendered,  and  was  made  the 
capital  of  the  Parthenoprean  Republic.  The  demo- 
crats in  the  cities  joyfully  welcomed  the  new 
doctrines  brought  by  the  invailing  army  :  but  even 
they  soon  wearied  of  a  nominal  freedom  that  be- 
stowed chiefly  the  privilege  of  sharing  the  hea\-y 
costs  of  the  French  wars,  and  in  1800  Napoleon 
had  to  «"in  the  peninsula  afresh  by  the  nctory  of 
Marengo.  In  1804  he  made  himself  emperor,  and 
in  1805  he  was  crowned  king  of  Italy  at  ililan. 
The  Bourbons  were  permitteil  to  retain  Tuscany 
and  Naples,  and  the  pope  was  reinstated  in  the  pos- 
session of  Rome.  Najjles,  however,  was  given  to 
Joseph  Bonaparte  in  1806,  and  to  Joachim  JIurat 
in  1808  ;  in  1809  Rome  was  annexed  to  the  French 
empire,  and  the  emperor's  sister  Eliza  was  made 
Duchess  of  Tuscany.  The  Congress  of  Vienna 
(1815)  restored  the  map  of  Italy  very  much  to  its 
former  appearance  ;  but  the  advantages  of  the  new 
distrilintion  fell  nearly  all  to  the  House  of  Austria. 
Venice  was  added  to  the  Austrian  crown,  and 
Lombardy  retained ;  an  Austrian  duke  was  set 
over  Modena ;  and  the  Austrian  Ferdinand  III. 
received  back  Tuscany,  to  which  Lucca  was  to  be 
added  whenever  the  death  of  Napoleon's  Austrian 
■\viie,  Maria  Louisa,  should  give  Parma  again  to  its 
former  Bourbon  masters.  The  only  other  lasting 
change  was  the  transference  of  Genoa  to  Victor 
Emmanuel  I.  of  Sardinia.  Naples  and  Sicily  were 
restored  to  the  Bourbons,  and  the  pope  was  once 
more  put  in  possession  of  the  States  of  the  Church. 
The  little  republic  of  San  Marino  was  also  recog- 
nised by  the  congress. 

A  period  of  absolutism  and  rigid  repression  now 
ensued.  The  returned  princes  ailoptea  in  full  the 
policy  dictated  from  V  ienna,  and  strove  by  all 
means  to  crush  the  rising  si>irit  of  in<lei>endence. 
The  Jesuits,  whose  order  had  been  suppressed  by 
the  pope  in  1773,  were  restored  and  the  elementary 
education  placed  in  their  hands,  where  it  was 
etl'ectually  str.angled.  The  legions  of  Austria  filled 
Lombardo-Venetia,  and  were  at  the  service  of  all 
the  petty  despots  in  the  other  parts  of  Italy  ;  while 
a  yet  larger  army  of  s]jies  was  at  work  in  every 
comer  of  the  unhapjiy  country.  The  general 
misery  provoked  conspua<'y,  ami  the  revolutionary 
Carbonari  societies  sprung  up  everywhere.  But 
the  movement  had  as  yet  no  directing  head. 
There  were  risings  in  Sovitlieni  Italy  in  1820,  but 
they  were  suppressed  in  the  following  year,  and 
the  leaders  executed  ;  and  numerous  less  important 
insurrections  there,  in  the  period  preceding  1846, 
were  easily  put  down.  Other  abortive  attempts 
were  ma<Ie  in  Piedmont,  in  Lombardy,  in  Modena 
and  the  Komagna,  the  only  result  of  which  was  to 
make  the  rulers'  hands  yet  heavier  on  the  people. 
Mor  was   there    thorough   unanimity  or  common 


.action  among  Italian  liberals.  The  extreme  repub- 
licans, represented  by  the  party  of  Young  Italy, 
were  headed  by  Mazzini,  whose  tiery  eloquence 
and  enthusiasm  transformed  the  vague  desires  of 
his  countrymen  into  a  passionate  hope  ;  but  his 
policy  sanctioned  methods  from  which  more  sober 
patriots  shrank.  From  Geneva  he  led  a  band  of 
refugees  to  the  invasion  of  Savoy,  in  18:53,  because 
the  new  king,  Charles  Albeit,  would  not  enter  on 
a  war  with  Austria;  but  this  wild  raid  ]iroved  an 
utter  failure.  Already  the  wiser  minds  in  It:ily 
looked  to  Sardinia  for  deliverance  ;  but  the  dream 
of  a  confederacy,  with  perhaps  the  pope  as  presi- 
dent, was  not  yet  dispelled.  Nay,  it  seemed 
about  to  be  realised  when,  in  1846,  Pius  IX. 
assumed  the  tiara,  and  initiated  a  series  of  liberal 
reforms.  Constitutions  were  granted  in  1847  by 
all  the  rulers  save  Austria  and  Feidinaml  II.  of 
Naples ;  and  from  the  latter  a  constitution  •nas 
wrung  in  the  following  year.  The  year  of  revolu- 
tions, 1848,  o]iened  with  a  street  massacre  by  the 
Austrians  in  Milan,  on  Sd  January.  In  February  the 
French  Republic  was  declared,  and  then  in  Italy  the 
party  of  Mazzini  was  for  a  moment  supreme.  Sicily 
revolted  from  Ferdinand,  and  in  Slaich  Charles 
Albert  declared  war  on  the  Austrians,  who  h.ad 
been  driven  out  of  Milan  and  Venice.  He  passed 
the  Ticino,  and  defeated  Radetsky  at  tioito  ;  but  on 
25th  July  the  Austrians  won  the  decisive  battle  of 
Custozza.  re-entered  Milan,  and  placeil  the  country 
under  martial  law.  In  Naples  there  had  been  a 
massacre  in  May,  and  on  30th  August  Messina  w;ts 
Ixmibarded.  Meanwhile  the  pope's  heart  had 
failed  him.  His  troops  had  gone  to  the  lielji  of  the 
Sardinians,  but  before  their  surrender  be  had 
declared  their  advance  to  have  been  without  his 
leave.  The  republicans,  who  had  regarded  his 
liberal  measures  with  suspicion  and  jealousy,  n(jw 
denounced  him  as  a  traitor  to  the  cause  of  Italian 
freedom.  On  15th  November  his  wisest  minister. 
Count  Rossi,  was  assassinated,  and  Pius  tied  to 
Gaeta  in  disguise.  A  republic  was  set  up  in  Rome 
on  9th  February  1849,  under  Mazzini  and  two  other 
triumvirs.  The  Grand-duke  Leopold  had  lied  from 
Florence,  but  Tuscany  refused  to  join  herself  to 
the  republic ;  yet  when  the  soveieign  she  had 
invite<l  back  returned,  his  first  act,  supported  by 
the  ju'esence  of  Austrian  tri)o]is,  \v;is  to  suppress 
the  constitution.  In  Piedmont  the  ultra-radicals, 
headed  by  Rattazzi,  were  now  in  power,  and 
a  fresh  campaign  against  Austria  was  begun — 
this  time  lasting  less  than  four  days.  On  '23(1 
March  Kadetsky  defeated  the  Piedmontese  at 
Novara.  Charles  Albert  gave  up  his  throne  to  his 
s<m,  Victor  Emmanuel  II.,  and  died,  brokenhearted, 
at  Oporto  four  months  later.  Elibrts  were  now 
made  to  leiluce  Rome  and  Venice.  In  vain  did 
Garibaldi,  who  had  been  calleil  to  the  defence  of 
Rome,  defeat  the  Neapolitans  at  Palestriiia  and 
Velletri.  A  French  army,  under  (Jeneral  Oudinot, 
took  the  city,  after  a  four  weeks'  siege,  on  il 
July.  Venice,  under  the  heroic  Daniel  Manin, 
bravely  kept  her  enendcs  at  liay  until  '2'2d  August. 
The  petty  sovereigns  now  came  back — the  pope 
last,  in  April  IS.')!).  Rome,  occupied  by  a  French 
garrLson,  wius  kept  in  a  state  ol  siege  for  se\en 
years,  and  the  city  never  quite  recovered  its  freedom 
until  1870.  Italy's  first  general  ett'ort  for  freedom 
had  ended  in  failure  :  1848  was  a  year  of  unfullilled 
visions.  But  one  important  gain  was  etl'ected  ;  the 
dream  of  federation  wxs  ended,  and  all  men  looked 
now  to  the  House  of  Savoy,  .save  the  few  idealists, 
like  Mazzini,  who  afterwards  stood  sternlj'  apart 
from  the  triumph  of  coinpromi.se. 

Victor  Emmanuel  was  faithful  to  the  Italian 
cau.se,  and  iiei'severed  in  the  path  of  ief(Uiii  on 
which  his  family  had  entered.  Sardinia  w;is 
relieved,  by  the  law  which  gave  the  government 


252 


ITALY 


power  to  aliolish  monasteries,  from  tlie  inculius  of 
an  army  of  idle  ami  iLTiiorant  ecclesiastics  ;  a  lilieral 
constitution  was  in  force,  the  ]iress  was  free, 
education  w,as  s])readini;,  and  a  measure  of  relifrious 
liberty  was  enjoyed.  In  1853  the  Sardinian 
prime  ministry  passed  into  the  hands  of  Cavour, 
the  hrain,  as  Garibaldi  was  tlie  arm,  of  the  comini; 
•strnp^le.  Henceforth  he  inspired  and  ^'uided  the 
national  movement,  until  his  death  in  tlie  moment 
of  victory.  The  Sardinian  troops.  reori;anised  by 
La  Marmora,  were  sent  umler  that  Lreneral  to  the 
Crimea,  where  they  won  for  themselves  honour, 
and  for  tlieir  country  allies  anion^'st  the  ^'reat 
powers.  Cavoiir  made  terms  with  Louis  Napoleon, 
and  in  1S.">!)  war  was  declared  once  more  against 
.Austria.  The  French  and  Italians  won  the  battles 
of  .Mairenta  and  Solferino  in  June,  and  tlien  the 
French  emjieror,  acting  indejieiidently,  agreed 
to  a  treaty  which  left  the  Austrians  in  posses.sion 
of  Venetia,  from  the  Mincio  eastward.  The  in- 
dignation of  the  Piedmnntese,  whose  sovereign  had, 
nnder  ("avonr's  agreement  with  Louis  Napoleon, 
to  give  u])  Savoy  and  Nice  in  return  for  this  assist- 
ance. M-as  intense  ;  but  the  states  of  Central  Italy 
voted  theii'  union  to  the  kingdom  of  Victor  Em- 
manuel, and  were  anne.xed  in  Alarch  lS()fl :  and  .a  few- 
days  after  Southern  Italy  revolte<l  from  Francis 
II.,  the  son  of  Ferdinand,  the  detested  lioniba. 
(Jaribaldi  and  his  volunteers,  their  expedition 
secretly  favoured  by  Cavour,  went  to  the  support 
of  the  insurrection  in  May,  and  in  September 
entered  Naples.  Cavour,  with  the  consent  of 
Louis  Napoleon  (who,  however,  maintained  the 
pope  in  Rome,  because  his  own  position  in  France 
w,as  strengthened  by  his  championing  the  head  of 
the  Catholic  Church),  now  sent  an  .army  into  the 
jiapal  states,  which  defeated  the  pope's  troops  at 
Castellidardo,  joined  Garibaldi,  and  helped  him  to 
defeat  the  Neapolitan  generals  on  the  Volturno. 
In  October  Victor  Emmanuel  entered  the  Abruzzi, 
and  Garibaldi  resigned  his  dictatorsliip  .and  retired 
to  his  island-farm.  In  February  1861  the  first 
Italian  ]iarliament  met  at  Turin,  and  Victor  Em- 
manuel was  proclaimed  king  of  Italy.  Hut  Rome 
and  Venice  were  not  yet  freed,  and  ("avour  died  in 
dune  of  this  year.  In  1862  Garibaldi  raised  a  body 
of  volunteers  to  liberate  Rome,  and,  having  crossed 
to  the  mainland,  was  di'f<>ated  at  Aspromonte; 
the  blame,  however,  fell  chielly  on  Rattazzi,  who 
was  then  minister,  and  who  had  sought  to  follow 
Cavour's  policy,  and  to  reap  the  advantage  of 
(laribaldi's  expedition,  but  had  neglected  to  first 
come  to  an  understanding  with  France.  The 
ex-pressed  sympathy  of  Europe  brought  about  the 
September  ('(invention  of  IS(i4,  by  which  Louis 
Napoleon  agreed  gradually  to  withdraw  the  Fn^nch 
troops  on  Italy's  .stipulation  not  to  allow  an  attack 
on  the  pope's  territory.  My  the  last  article  of  the 
convention,  the  cajiital  was  removed  a  step  nearer 
Rome — from  Turin  to  Florence.  In  18G6  tlie 
Austin- Prussian  war,  in  which  Italy  took  hut  an 
inglorious  ]iart  as  the  ally  of  Prussia,  added  to  the 
kingdom  the  coveted  territory  of  Aenice.  In  the 
same  year  the  I'"reiicli  garrison  was  withdrawn  from 
Rome,  and  Mazzini  demanded  that  the  city  should 
be  ca])tured.  In  1867  Garibaldi  and  his  volunteers 
gaiiiiMl  a  victory  near  Rome,  and  the  French 
returned  ;  the  volunteers  surrendered  in  November, 
and  the  general  w.as  arrested.  Rut  after  the  fall 
of  the  empire,  in  1870,  the  new  foreign  minister  of 
France,  Jules  I'avre,  (h'chircd  the  Seplember  Con- 
vention at  an  end,  and  the  king,  who  had  only 
preventeil  the  democrats  from  moving  by  arresting 
Mazzini,  was  at  length  free  to  act.  t>n  '20tli 
September  lie  entcreil  Rome,  and  the  emancipa- 
tion of  Italy  wa.s  com|)leted.  The  pojie  retained 
the  Vatican,  the  church  of  Sta  Maria  Maggioie, 
the  Lateran  palace,  the  villa  of  Castel  Gandolfo, 


with  their  precincts,  and  was  voted  an  income 
of  i;i.")().(M)0  out  of  the  revenues  of  the  state; 
yet  the  sjiiritual  sovereign  has  borne  but  im- 
p;itiently  the  loss  of  his  teni]ioral  jiowcr.  and 
fre(|uent  complaints  and  denunciations  have  been 
directed  from  the  Vatican  against  the  pal.ace  on 
the  l^uirinal.  Meanwhile  Italy,  at  last  free  ancl 
united,  has  become  one  of  the  great  continental 
powers,  as  has  been  shown  in  the  jireceding 
sections  of  this  article.  It  will  be  the  hope 
of  all  who  have  followed  the  story  of  her  long 
degradation  and  gallant  recovery  of  freedom  that 
this  rapiil  grow'tli  may  not,  like  her  earlier  pre- 
cocious development  in  arts  and  commerce,  be 
bought  at  the  after  cost  of  premature  decay. 

The  later  history  of  Italy  has  been  uneventful. 
Brigandage,  rife  under  the  'tyr.-innical  rule  of  the 
Bourbons,  and  afterwards  encouraged  by  their 
emissaries,  has  been  gradually  sujiiiressed,  educa- 
tion and  public  w-orks  have  steadily  advanced,  and 
in  the  south  the  peo|de  have  become  more  recon- 
ciled— at  least,  less  inveterately  hostile — to  the 
laws.  In  January  1878  Victor  Ennnanuel  died,  and 
w.as  succeeded  by  his  eldest  son,  Humbert  I.  (born 
1844) :  and  one  month  later  Pius  IX.  died  also,  and 
Leo  XIII.  became  pope.  The  most  important  inter- 
nal measures  since  then  have  been  the  wide  ex- 
tension of  the  franchis('  and  the  adoption  in  1882 
of  the  system  of  scrutin  tie  listc,  and  in  1883 
the  resumption  of  specie  payment.  The  popular 
interest  in  political  fjuestions  so  far  is  not  great; 
but  the  government  has  been  from  time  to  time 
embarrassed  by  the  agitation  conducted  by  the 
extreme  part.v  of  Irredentists,  whose  ]irofesseil 
aim  is  to  add  to  the  kingdom  all  those  districts 
of  Europe  w-Iiere  the  Italian  .sjieech  prevails. 
These,  w-hich  they  have  named  itnlirt  Irrcr/oita 
('Unredeemed  Italy'),  embrace  the  southern  Tyrol 
('the  Trentino'),  Giirz,  Trieste,  Istria,  and  i)al- 
matia,  and  also  the  Swiss  <-anton  of  Tessin 
(Ticino),  Nice,  and  the  islamls  of  Corsica  ami 
JM.-ilta  :  but  it  is  mainly  against  .\ustria  that  the 
hatred  of  the  Irredentists  is  directed.  In  1883  the 
ministry  dencmnced  the  schemes  of  the  association, 
as  aiming  indirectly  at  the  downfall  of  the  mon- 
archy, an<l  at  the  same  time  extolled  the  triple 
alliance  (of  Italy,  (iermany,  .'ind  .\ustria1,  into 
which  Italy,  exasjierated  at  the  extension  of  Fr(>nch 
inlliience  in  Tunis,  had  entered.  To  this  same 
jealousy  of  France's  encroachments  on  the  southern 
Mediterranean  shore  may  be  attributed  the  erection 
into  ,an  Italian  colony,  in  1882,  of  a  coaling  station 
founded  the  year  before  at  Assab,  on  the  Re(l 
Sea.  In  188.5  Mas.'iowah  w.as  occu]iied.  and  in  188!) 
the  Italian  colonial  territory  was  amalgamateil 
under  the  name  of  Eritrea  (see  p.  '240).  Aliyssinia 
had  come  to  be  looked  on  as  under  an  It.'iliaii 
prolectoiale,  but  difliculties  accumulated  until  in 
March  18!)6  an  Italian  force  was  routed  at  Adowa 
by  the  Abyssinian  king.  In  tlie  same  year  a  treaty 
was  concluded  with  France  about  Tunis;  and  the 
heir-aiiii.-uent  m.-irried  the  dMiighler  of  the  Prince 
of  Montenegro.  In  the  early  morning  of  2!llh  .Inly 
IDOii  King  Iluiubert  was  assassinated  at  Monza 
by  Aiigelo  liressi  of  Prato  in  Tuscany,  and  was 
succee<ied  by  his  son,  Victor  Emmanuel  III. 

The  principal  materials  for  Italian  history  during  the 
middle  ajjes  will  be  found  in  Muratori's  Rernin  Ilalicarnm 
Scriptor€s{2r)vo\^.  \7'S^-rt\  ;  useful  *  Indices  Chionnlogici' 
appeared  in  ISiS.")),  and  in  the  Archirio  Morko  Jlnliano 
(vols,  i.-xvi.  1838-51).  Sue  also  Guicciardini's  Istoria 
iVIluHa,  conthiued  to  1814  by  Carlo  Hotta  ;  Muratori's 
AiiiHili  (J'Tlalid:  C'csaro  Balbo's  finminnrio ;  Bryce's 
y/u///  Rumaii  Empire;  and  Villari's  S/oi-iii  I'oliticii 
d'ltcdia  (8  vols.  1883  ct  scr/.).  Amim:;  books  dealing 
with  separate  periods  may  be  inentioned  Hod^kin's 
Itaff/  timl  her  Ivvaders  (from  the  fall  of  the  empire  ; 
voluiiies  i.  to  vi.  1880-91);  Sisniondi's  HepuUiquet 
lUtlicuncs  da  Moi/en-dije ;   Troya's   i>loria   d' Italia   del 


ITALY 


253 


Medio  Eio  (17  vols.  1839-511);  Keuchlui's  Ucadiichte 
lUUieiis  fun  dtn'  Oriindunij  der  rtt/icrendeit  Dynastkii 
(4  vols.  1859-73)  ;  Maurice,  The  Rcvolutiunarii  Mort- 
inent  of  li>4^-4^>  (1887);  and  Niseo's  Slvria  cirUe. 
Syiuouds's  Kenaissancc  iii  Itulii  is  valuable,  and  A'on 
Kanke's  Huitort/  of  the  Popes  is  neces.sary  to  a  in'uper 
understanding  of  the  national  develoinnent.  1-inally, 
there  is  a  useful  little  volume  on  Italy,  by  W.  Hunt, 
M..-V.,  in  Professor  Freeman's  'Historical  Course.* 
Ueference  should  also  be  made  to  the  articles  on  the 
separate  provinces  and  the  great  cities  ( Home.  Florence, 
Naples,  Venice,  &c.  (,  and  to  the  works  cited  there ;  and 
also  to  the  numerous  articles  in  tliis  Encyclopa;dia  on 
the  principal  characters  in  Italian  history — from  Odoacer 
to  Cavour,  Garibaldi,  Mazzini,  ic  See  also  Aki,  DkaM-i, 
Paisii-ng,  KE^■AIssA^•CE. 

Langi'.vge  and  LiTER.VTURE. — Italian  is  one  of 
the  grou])  of  Neo- Latin  or  Itomauce  languages 
— viz.  languages  the  direct  offspring  of  the  Latin 
tongue  as  spoken  by  the  Romans  and  imposed  by 
them  on  the  nations  more  immediately  undei'  their 
dominion.  The  cliiet  subdivisions  of  the  Neo-Latin 
group  are  Frencli.  Spauisli  and  Portuguese,  Proven- 
cal, Koumanian,  and  Italian.  This  last  retains  the 
closest  resemblance  to  its  prototype.  The  atlinity 
lietweeu  the  Romans  and  the  races  of  the  Cisalpine 
Peninsula  being  closer  than  in  the  case  of  the  other 
Latinised  peoples,  the  phonetic  changes  intro- 
duced by  them  are  less  profound.  The  question 
a-s  to  whether  the  Neo-Latin  idioms  were  much 
motlilied  by  tlie  frequent  Teutonic  invasions  of 
.south-western  Europe  has  given  rise  to  prolonged 
discussion  among  philologists ;  but  more  recent 
methods  of  research  seem  to  establish  the  fact  that 
tlie  influence  of  these  invaders  \v;vs  slight,  the 
moie  perfect  language  of  the  vanquished  hav- 
ing imposed  itself  on  the  intellectually  inferior 
conquerors.  Neither  is  modern  Italian  derived 
entirely  from  the  so-calleil  'rustic  Latin,'  or 
inciurect  speech  of  the  lower  oidei"s.  The  origin 
of  the  words  whicli  conijiose  tlie  modem  tongue 
may  be  traced  in  as  many  cases  to  the  speech  of 
Cicero  and  Virgil  as  to  that  of  the  common  folk. 
The  difl'erences  between  the  ancient  and  modern 
languages  are  the  outcome  <if  the  natuial  evolution 
of  all  living  organisms  which  must  undergo  such 
changes  as  are  necessary  to  life  and  growth.  But 
so  overwhelming  was  the  prestige  of  Latin  litera- 
ture that  this  natural  evolution  was  looked  on  with 
contempt  by  the  learned  everywhere.  The  struggle 
between  the  written  but  dead  language  and  the 
various  forms  of  the  li\ing  speech  was  nowhere  so 
protracted  as  in  Italy,  where  the  intlueuce  of 
Roman  tra<litions  and  culture  was  supreme. 

During  tliLs  long  period  of  evolution  many  dia- 
lects sprang  up  which  still  jireserve  their  individual 
peculiarities.  The  conformation  of  the  peninsulii, 
its  varying  climates  and  .soils,  and  the  ditfeient 
origins  of  the  races  which  inhabit  it  account  for 
the  variety  and  differences  of  these  dialects.  Their 
seemingly  wide  divergences  are  in  reality  mostly 
caused  by  pronunciation  and  not  by  stnictural 
changes.  According  to  the  classification  of  Caix 
(in  his  adnurable  study  Siti  fJiitUtIi  irit<i/iu),  their 
]>rincipal  clivisions  are  :  ( 1 )  In  the  north  and  north- 
west tlie  <lalUr-lt(dian — viz.  Piediiiontese,  Lombard, 
and  Emilian  or  Bolojjuese,  in  close  atlinity  to  the 
French  in  their  mode  of  pronunciation  and  trun- 
cated terminations;  (2)  the  I'e;it</V(«,  spoken  also 
in  the  Italian  Tyrol  and  ]>arts  of  Dalmatia  ami 
Istria.  This  dialect  is  soft,  harmonious,  and  more 
purely  Italian.  The  subilivision  of  it  is  the  Friulian, 
which  preserves  a  clo.se  resemblance  to  the  ancient 
Klifetian.  ( 3 )  In  the  centre  the  pure  Kalitin  dialects 
— viz.  Tuscan,  Roman,  with  the  nearly-related 
dialects  of  t'mbria  and  the  Marches,  Campaninn, 
in  which  .\bnizze.se  and  .\pulian  arc  included.  (4) 
In  the  south  and  southwest  the  Ilmoltidian — 
viz.    SSiciliau,   spoken   al.so   in   the  e.xtienie  south 


of  Calabria  and  part  of  .Sardinia  ;  Coreican,  Sar- 
dinian, and  Liguriaii,  or  the  dialects  of  the 
(ieiioese  sea-coast.  This  last  grou|i  presents 
marked  traces  of  the  close  commercial  iiiterconise 
with  Spain  and  her  long  dominion  in  these  jiarts 
of  Italy. 

As  early  as  the  11th  century  the  earlier-matured 
idioms  of  F' ranee  and  Provence  had  already  taken 
shape  in  an  abundant  literature  of  their  own  which 
invaded  the  Italian  peninsula,  and  the  niuch- 
admired  jioetry  of  the  troubadours  threatened  to 
stitie  entirely  the  humbler  growth  of  the  soil. 
However,  ill  the  early  part  of  the  13tli  century,  in 
the  famous  centre  of  social  life  and  culture  formed 
by  the  brilliant  court  at  Palermo  of  the  Eiiijieror 
Frederick  II.  of  Hohenstaufen,  a  school  of  Aulic 
(or  court )  jioets  s]iraug  iqi  headed  liy  the  emperor 
himself  and  his  friend  and  secretary,  Piero  delle 
Vigne  (died  1249).  The  Sicilian  dialect  formed 
the  l)asis  of  the  idiom  used,  but  the  large  mixture 
of  Latin  words,  and  the  too  evident  imitation  of 
Provencal  models,  mark  this  school  of  poetry  as  au 
artificial  product.  After  the  death  of  Manfred, 
F'redericks  unfortunate  son  (1266),  the  Sicilian 
school  soon  ceased  to  e.xist. 

In  various  parts  of  the  mainland  more  or  less 
successful  attempts  were  now  being  made  to  write 
in  the  vulgar  dialects.  Noteworthy  is  that  of  St 
F'rancis  of  Assisi  and  his  followers  to  u.se  the 
Umbrian  dialects  in  religious  lyrics  during  the 
13th  century,  the  most  distinguished  among  this 
group  being  Jacopone  da  Todi  (died  c.  1306).  The 
sacred  dialogues,  a  primitive  form  of  the  mvstery 
play,  produced  by  this  same  school,  may  lie  re- 
garded as  the  earliest  germ  of  the  national  drama. 
Ad  important  group  of  lyric  poets  nourished  in 
Bologna,  then  a  centre  of  European  learning  and 
civilisation  ;  their  cliief  was  Guido  Guinicelli  (died 
1276),  praised  by  Dante  (Piirgatorio,  xxvii. )  as 
the  father  of  himself  and  all  other  singers  of  \o\k. 
The  contemporai-j'  Tuscan  poets  wrote  philoso- 
phical lyrics  full  of  ovei'strained  sentiment,  but  in 
wonderfully  pure  Italian.  Chief  among  them  were 
Guido  Cavalcanti  (died  1300),  the  beloved  friend  of 
Dante,  and  the  immediate  mecursor  of  the  hitter's 
lyric  style ;  and  Cino  da  Pistoia,  a  distinguished 
jurisconsult  and  admired  sonnet-writer,  whose 
death  ( 1336)  was  bewailed  in  verse  by  the  young 
Petrarch.  F'ra  Guittone  d'Arezzo  (1215-94)  and 
Francesco  da  Barberino  ( 1264-1348)  wrote  didactic 
allegorical  poems  and  songs;  the  epistles  of  the 
former  are  noteworthy  as  the  earliest  prose  writings 
in  the  vulgar  tongue.  Among  the  leading  political 
and  learned  men  of  Florence  wjis  Brunette  Latini 
(1210-94);  his  best-known  work  is  //  l\-wn//o, 
a  kind  of  allegorical  encyclopanlia  in  verse,  showing 
immense  erudition.  Dante  speaks  of  him  as  his 
instructor  and  master  {Jii/niii/,  .\v.).  To  this 
time  belongs  the  earliest  imixirtant  collection  of 
jirose  tales,  the  C'cido  Is'oi^clle  Atilichc,  ccdiected  by 
an  aiuniymons  but  pndiably  Florentine  writer.  It  is 
in  Tuscany,  in  the  central  zone  of  the  peninsula,  that 
the  idiom  at  last  takes  definite  shajie  in  which  the 
varied  dialects  of  north  and  south  are  to  find  their 
representative  type.  The  man  who  is  to  harmonise 
in  a  great  masterpiece  these  varied  elements  of 
style  and  language,  and  to  reveal  to  Italy  and  the 
world  all  the  power  ami  compass  of  the  living 
speech,  growth  of  his  native  soil,  is  the  F'lorentine 
Dante  Alighieri  (May  126.")-1.321 ).  Dante's  supreme 
poetic  genius  .anil  the  strength  and  inilividiiality 
of  his  noble  character  made  his  influence  as  great 
among  his  contenipoiaries  as  it  has  continued  to  be 
through  all  succeeding  ages.  Almost  contenipoi  ary 
with  Dante,  and  forming  with  him  the  triumvirate 
which  makes  the  I4th  century,  or  '  Trecento,' the 
golden  age  of  Italian  literature,  .stand  Petraich 
(1304-74)  and  Boccaccio  (1313-75).     Thus   Italian 


254 


ITALY 


literature  presents  the  strange  plienniiienon  tliat  it 
attains  its  zenith  in  its  opening;  poriixl.  I'otrarch, 
the  precnrsor  of  the  revival  of  classic  studies 
which  was  to  t.'ive  the  distinguishinj;  mark  to 
tlie  followint;-  century,  lives  in  fame,  not  by  his 
voluminiius  Latin  works,  hut  by  reason  or  the 
unemialleil  heaiity  of  his  songs  anil  sonnets  written 
in  tiie  ilespisetl  idiom  of  the  people.  If  we  may 
say  of  liiiu  that  he  hrought  to  perfection  the  lan- 
guage of  lyric  poetry,  so  may  Hoccaceio  have  the 
honour  of  giving  form  to  prose  hy  the  language  in 
which  he  clothed  his  tales.  Around  this  imposing 
trio  are  grouped  many  lesser  stars  whose  works, 
though  inferior  as  to  substance,  are  all  distinguished 
by  the  same  simple  beauty  of  style.  Francesco 
Stabile,  known  as  Cecco  d'Ascoli,  is  the  author  of 
a  strange,  semi-scientific  poem,  L'Accrha,  in  which 
he  severely'  censures  Dante's  DMiie  Comcdii.  He 
was  professor  of  Astrology  at  Bologna,  and  was 
burned  for  heresy  in  1327.  The  Florentine  Fazio 
degli  Uberti  produced,  in  imitation  of  the  Divine 
Comedy,  a  long  poem,  II  Dittamondo,  a  wearisome 
versified  account  of  imaginary  travels ;  more  suc- 
cessful were  his  graceful  lyrics.  Tlie  imitators  of 
Petrarca  during  this  century  are  of  little  im|iort- 
ance,  the  most  noted  being  Giusto  da  Valmontone 
(died  1449),  author  of  a  collection  of  lyrics.  La 
Bella  Maiio.  Among  Boccaccio's  followers  are 
Ser  Giovanni  Fiorentino,  author  of  a  collection  of 
tales  called  //  Pecorone,  written  about  1378,  and 
the  more  original  Franco  Sacchetti  (1330-99),  who 
gives  in  his  hook  of  anecdotes  a  familiar  and  spirited 
picture  of  contemporary  customs. 

The  earliest  undoubtedly  authentic  historical 
work  in  Italian  is  the  Chronicle  written  by  Gio- 
vanni Vilhini,  a  leader  in  the  commercial  and 
political  life  of  Florence,  whose  history  he  relates 
with  vigour  an<l  simplicity.  He  died  of  the  plague 
(1348),  hut  his  chronicle  is  continued  till  1364  by 
his  brother  and  nephew.  The  important  Cronaca 
del  siioi  tempi,  by  Dino  Comjiagni,  describes 
miimtely  the  party  strife  in  Florence  (1300-1). 
Especially  noteworthy  for  their  graceful  and  pure 
diction  are  the  letters  of  the  famous  St  Catharine 
of  Siena  ( 1347-80),  and  the  Fioretti  of  St  Francis, 
a  selection  by  an  anonymous  author  of  the  sayings 
and  doings  of  that  holy  man  and  his  followers. 

Though  classic  antic|uity  was  naturally  the 
source  of  all  culture  tluriiig  the  14th  century,  still 
the  great  men  of  that  age  <lrew  their  more  im- 
mediate inspiration  from  the  religious  and  political 
mijvements  of  their  day.  The  distinguishing  mark 
of  the  loth  century,  on  the  other  hand,  is  the  with- 
drawal of  the  cultured  class  from  interest  in  popular 
events,  and  their  contempt  of  the  national  language 
for  literary  \ises.  Latin  b(;comes  tlie  only  acknow- 
ledged literary  medium.  For  a  more  detailed 
account  of  all  the  celebrated  Humanists  and  their 
various  patrons,  see  Symonds's  Renaissance  in 
Itiiljl,  and  Roscoe's  Lorenzo  the  Magnifieent  and 
/.CO  the  Tenth. 

This  great  revival  or  '  Kenaissance '  of  Greek 
and  Roman  culture,  which  from  Italy  outwards 
atl'ected  the  whole  of  Eurojie,  was  fostered  by  the 
sph'udid  protection  of  tlie  numerous  princes  wliose 
rule  was  now  gradually  taking  the  place  of  the 
turliulent  but  life-inspiring  freed<ini  of  the  small  re- 
publics. These  patrons  and  their  erudite  courtiers 
have  conferred  a  lasting  benellt  on  posterity  by 
the  priceless  libraries  in  whose  collecting  they  vied 
with  each  other.  Foremost  amongst  artistic  and 
literary  centres  was  Florence,  under  her  Me<lici 
rulers,  Cosimo,  called  I'ater  I'atria',  and  his  grand- 
.son,  Lorenzo  the  iMagniticent,  who  were  the  first 
also  to  encourage  a  return  to  the  use  of  the  vulgar 
tongue  among  the  distinguished  writers  of  their 
court.  Leon  Battista  Alberli  ( 1406-72)  was  one  of 
the  most  zealous  advocates  for  the  restoration  of 


Italian.  A  wonderfully  versatile  genius,  he  ex- 
celled as  architeirt,  poet,  an<l  prose-writer  both  on 
art  sulijects  and  moral  jihilosophy  ;  his  most  im- 
portant Italian  work  is  a  treatise  '  On  the  Family,' 
of  which  tlie  well-known  dialogue  on  the  same 
suliject  ascribed  to  Agnolo  PamloHini  is  supposed 
to  have  formed  part.  Angelo  Folitian  ( 14.')4-!)4), 
one  of  the  most  brilliant  ornaments  of  this  court, 
wrote  an  exouisite  eclogue,  L'Orfeo,  the  tii-st  secular 
drama  in  Italian,  although  the  Canto  Carnascialeseo, 
or  rliyming  dialogues  sung  by  niasipierailcrs  at  car- 
nival time,  may  be  considered  an  earlier  form. 
Side  liv  side  with  these  are  the  friends  Pico  <lella 
Miranilola  (1463-94),  who  lias,  however,  left  little 
but  the  fame  of  his  vast  erudition,  and  Girolamo 
Benivieni,  author  of  much  didactic  and  devotional 
poetry,  which  reflects  the  teacliint;s  of  the  gii>at 
reformer  and  orator  .Savonarola,  the  opponent  of 
Pagan  culture,  whose  intluence  was  supreme  in 
Florence  from  1489  till  his  execution  in  1498.  The 
two  Florentines,  Giovanni  Rucellai  (1475-1526)  and 
Luigi  Alamanni  (1495-1556),  wrote  graceful  poems 
in  imitation  of  the  Georgics.  The  revival  of  classic 
rhythms,  attempted  by  Claudi<i  Tolomei,  has  been 
more  successfully  carried  out  in  modern  times  by 
Carducci  (q.v. ).  In  Naples  a  brilliant  school  of 
Latin  poets  flourished.  Pontano  (1426-1503)  en- 
joyed much  contemporary  fame  and  intluence  :  his 
more  celebrated  follower,  Jacopo  Sannazzaro  ( 1458- 
1530),  is  remembered  by  his  pastoral  romance,  with 
lyric  interludes,  Arcadia,  written  in  Italian. 

But  the  popular  and  typical  product  of  this  age 
is  the  narrative  iioem,  or  romantic  epic.  Rude 
translations  of  chivalrous  poems  from  the  French 
and  Provencal  had  long  been  in  use  among  the 
populace  ;  the  first,  however,  to  ennoble  the  narra- 
tive poem  was  the  Florentine  Luigi  Pnlci  ( 1432-84). 
His  style  is  comparatively  simple  and  free  from 
Latinisms,  and  one  of  the  distinctive  marks  of  the 
romantic  school  in  his  work,  as  in  all  other  litera- 
tures, is  the  breaking  ilown  of  the  classic  barrier 
between  the  serious  and  the  humorous.  Contem- 
porary with  him  Wivs  his  more  famous  competitor, 
Matteo  Boiardo  ( 1434-94),  an  adherent  of  the  dukes 
of  Ferrara.  To  the  same  brilliant  court  l)e!onge<l 
the  famous  Ariosto  (1474-1533),  who  brought  to 
perfection  the  romantic  epic.  In  close  connection 
with  this  new  school  are  the  hurlesr|iie-writers  of 
the  early  16th  century.  Most  |)olislied  of  these  was 
Fr.ancesco  Berni  ( 1497-1535 ) ;  he  live<l  in  the  service 
of  the  Medici  popes,  and  is  said  to  have  died  <if 
poison  given  by  order  of  the  notorious  Duke 
Alexander  de'  Medici.  Florence  was  the  sjiecial 
home  of  these  flippant  and  licentious  poets,  whose 
wit  gave  expression  to  the  all-pervading  scepticism 
and  corniption  of  the  age.  Antonio  Francesco 
(uazzini,  called  II  Liusca  (1503-84),  was  the  most 
brilliant  of  the  '  Hernesiiue  '  imitators.  He  excels 
also  as  a  writer  of  prose  tales  in  the  style  of 
Boccaccio,  while  his  conteni|iorarv,  Matteo  Ban- 
dello  (c.  1480-1562),  is  the  chief  story-toller  in 
Lombardy.  A  strange  variety  of  serio-comic  veree 
is  that  written  in  '  Lingua  Macaronica,'  or  Imr- 
lesqued  Latin,  hy  a  monk  of  .Mantua,  Teofilo 
F'oleiigo  (1492-1.544),  under  the  iiseudonym  of  Mer- 
linus  Cocajus.  Now  mere  literary  curiosities,  these 
humorous  poems  were  immensely  popular  in  their 
day. 

in  the  15th  century  the  corruption  and  dissen- 
sions of  her  many  rulers  had  reduced  Italy  to  a 
state  of  di.ssolution,  which  left  her  an  easy  prey  <o 
foreign  invaders,  ,and  the  16th  century  saw  the 
completion  of  her  ])olitical  ruin.  Her  literature  is 
trammelled  by  chussic  imitation  and  court  servility. 
A  corroding  cynicism  and  want  of  moral  sense  are 
the  characteristic  note  of  the  greatest  writers,  fore- 
most .among  whom  is  Machiavelli  ( 1469-1527) :  but 
his  gieat  genius  and  far-seeing  patriotism  retleera 


ITALY 


255 


his  defects  and  ennoble  his  work.  Next  to  him 
iis  historian  conies  his  feUowcitizen,  Francesco 
Ouicciardini  ( 1-483- 1540),  who  is  a  model  of  order 
and  elegance.  Every  court  in  Italy  had  its 
chroniolei-s,  hut  many  of  them  wrote  in  Latin. 
Among  these  the  most  quoted  is  Paolo  Giovio 
(1483-1552),  attached  to  the  (lapal  court  for  many 
years. 

The  secret  despatches  of  the  Venetian  ambas- 
sadors to  their  senate,  from  1500  onwards,  form  a 
copious  store  of  vivid  and  accurate  historic  infor- 
mation. Paolo  Paruta  (1540-98)  has  written  a 
remarkable  history  of  Venice.  The  growth  of  the 
secular  drama  was  rapid  at  this  time.  Moulded 
entirely  on  classic  models  as  to  form,  comedies  now 
begin  to  represent  living  types  and  customs,  while 
the  tragic  style  remains  stilted  and  artiticial. 
The  great  names  of  Machiavelli  and  Ariosto  are 
foremost  amongst  these  comedy-writei's.  Full  of 
wit  and  originality,  mixed  with  obscenity,  are  the 
comedies  of  the  infamous  Pietro  Aretino  ( 1492- 
1557),  whose  celebrated  Letters  were  used  by  him 
as  a  means  of  blackmailing  the  princes  wliom  he 
attacked.  One  of  the  most  apidauded  and  licen- 
tious comedies  wa.s  written  by  tfie  Cardinal  Dovizi 
of  Bihbiena  (1470-1520),  La  Calandra,  and  repre- 
sented before  Pope  Leo  X.  In  the  didactic  works 
II  Cortigiano  of  the  Mantuan  Castiglione  (147S- 
1529),  and  the  Galateo  of  the  Tuscan  G.  della 
Casa  ( 1503-56 ),  we  have  models  of  elegant  prose, 
which  preserve  for  us  pictures  of  the  court-life 
of  the  times.  The  learned  Cardinal  IJembo  ( 1470- 
1547 ),  who  during  his  lifetime  gave  the  law  in  all 
mattei-s  of  literary  taste,  did  much  by  example  and 
precept  to  help  in  the  restoration  of  the  vulgar 
tongue. 

Two  biographers  are  especially  famous.  Giorgio 
Vasari  (1512-74),  himself  an  indifferent  artist,  has 
left  us  a  precious  mine  of  information  in  his  much- 
quoted  Lives-  of  the  Arti.fis  :  and  unique  of  its  kind 
is  the  graphic  and  picturesque  autobiography  of 
the  great  artist,  Benvenuto  Cellini  ( 1500-71 ). 

Tlie  end  of  the  16th  and  beginning  of  the  17th 
centuries  saw  political  and  religious  liberty  in  Italy 
crushed  under  the  dominion  of  the  foreign  invaders, 
and  the  increasing  power  of  the  popes.  It  is  an  age 
of  decadence  in  art  and  literature,  language  is  pomp- 
ous and  verbose,  and  the  themes  treated  unreal. 
One  niime  of  enduring  f.ime  illumines  this  period, 
that  of  the  unhappy  Tasso  (1544-95),  a  pure  and 
earnest  genius,  and  witli  him  ends  the  pre-eminence 
of  Italian  literature  in  Euroi)e.  The  pastoral  drama, 
perfected  by  Tasso  in  his  Amintn,  and  by  his  rival 
Guarini  (1537-1612)  in  his  Pastor  Fido,  became 
widely  popular.  In  1.594  the  Dufiic  of  Rinuccini 
was  produced  with  music,  the  earliest  specimen  of 
the  musical  drama. 

The  prolixity  of  description  and  abuse  of  meta- 
phor, already  in  vogue  towards  the  end  of  t'.e  15th 
century,  grew  to  such  heights  in  the  17th  century 
that  '  Seicentismo'  has  remained  a  synonym  for  all 
that  is  false  and  exaggerated  in  style.  The  Nea- 
politan Giambattista  Marini  (1,509  1625)  is  tlie 
leader  of  this  school.  His  great  jioeni,  Adoitix,  ami<l 
all  its  grave  defects,  shows  a  powerful  inuigination 
and  masterly  ea.se  in  versification.  Among  a  crowd 
of  mediocre  and  servile  lyrists,  the  Florentine 
Vincenzo  Filicaja  (1642-1707)  is  nottnvorthv  for 
dignity  and  patriotic  feelin"  Gabriidlo  Chia^uera 
of  Savona  ( 1.5.52- 16.S7)  and  his  followers,  Fulvio 
Testi  of  Ferrara  ( 1.598  1646),  and  Francesco  Kedi  of 
Arezzo  ( 1626-98),  imitated  witli  success  the  Greek 
lyrists.  The  imitations  of  Ta.sso's  great  epic  were 
less  succe.s.sful  than  the  parodies.  A  mock-heroic 
masterpiece  is  Iji  Seahia  Itttpita  ( '  The  Stolen 
Pail'),   by  Ales.sandro  Tas-soni  of  Modena  (156.5- 

""" "  ■  iof 

Kosa 


1638).     Of  a  le.ss  playful  humour  are  the  satires  i 
the  well-known  NeapoliUui  artist,  Salvator  Koa 


(1615-73),  conspirator  with  the  famous  Masaniello 
against  the  Spanish  oppres.sors.  The  greatest 
names  of  this  age  belong  to  science.  The  writings 
of  the  foremost  of  all,  (ialileo,  are  models  of  clear 
exposition  and  choice  ilictioii.  The  works  of  the 
advanced  thinkei-s  of  the  time,  nearly  all  natives 
of  Southern  Italy,  and  the  best  known  amimgst 
whom  is  Giordano  Bruno  (c.  1550-1600),  belong 
to  the  history  of  ])liilosopliy.  Venice  still  cherishes 
the  name  of  Fra  Paolo  Sarpi  (1550-1623),  the 
scientist,  historian,  and  opponent  of  Jesuit  doc- 
trines. 

The  dawn  of  the  18th  century  shows  a  dull  level 
of  mediocrity,  and  a  false  and  afl'ected  literary 
taste,  which  tlie  authority  of  the  Koiiian  '  Academy 
of  Arcadia'  ilid  much  to  foster.  Opponents  of  the 
prevailing  fashion  were  tlie  Venetians,  Gasparo  and 
Carlo  (iozzi,  tlie  latter  ( 1722-1806)  being  e-speci.ally 
remembered  by  his  gi-aceful  dramatised  Fiahe. 
The  more  important  Lombard  poet,  Giuseppe 
Paiini  (l"'-9-99),  writes  with  simple  elegance  in 
his  satires.  Most  admired  of  his  own  contem- 
poraries was  the  dramatic  poet,  Pietro  Trapassi, 
known  as  Meta-stasio  ( 1698-1782),  poet-laureate  ami 
favourite  at  the  imperial  court  of  \  ienna;  but  much 
greater  is  now  the  renown  of  his  contemporary 
Goldoni  (1707-93),  who,  by  a  return  to  the  study 
of  popular  life  and  existing  surroundings,  liecame 
the  reformer  of  the  stage.  To  the  end  of  this  cen- 
tury belongs  also  Allieri  ( 1749-1803),  the  only  great 
tragic  writer  whom  Italian  literature  possesses. 
Roused  to  a  hope  of  lilierty  by  the  great  Revolu- 
tion, Italy  was  again  jjlunged  into  despair  after  the 
fall  of  Xa])oleon  by  the  loss  of  the  semblance  of 
unity  which  had  been  given  her,  and,  animated 
by  hatred  of  the  petty  tyrants  who  returned  to 
nile  her,  she  began  the  long  struitgle  for  freedom. 
All  the  eminent  literary  men  of  this  period  helped 
the  patriotic  cause  with  their  pen,  and  many 
sullered  exile  and  imprisonment. 

The  talented  Vincenzo  Monti  (1754-1828)  was  the 
leader  of  a  new  return  to  cla-ssic  models  in  his 
eloquent  and  llowinif  poems.  Pindenionte  (1753- 
1828)  is  a  noted  follower  of  this  scliool,  and  the 
more  famous  Ugo  Foscolo  (1778-1827).  The  most 
illustrious  of  the  classicists  is,  however,  Leopardi 
(1798-1837),  the  greatest  Italian  lyrist  since  the 
days  of  Petrarch.  The  tragedies  of  G.  B.  Niocolini 
( 1782-1861 ),  full  of  lieiy  patriotic  allusions,  were 
immensely  popular.  This  classic  school  in  turn 
gave  place  to  the  romantic.  The  centre  of  this 
movement  was  Milan,  and  its  chief  Manzoni  ( 1785- 
1873),  whose  Promessi  Sposi  is  the  only  really  great 
historical  novel  in  Italian.  Two  other  noteworthy 
historical  novelists  are  F.  D.  Guerazzi  (1804-74), 
who  took  a  leading  part  in  the  Tuscan  revolution 
of  1848;  and  Ma>sinio  dAzeglio  (1798-1865),  one 
of  the  foremost  piditical  men  of  his  time.  More 
modern  and  original  in  style  is  the  interesting 
novel,  Nievo's  Confessione  di  nii  Ottuaf/cnariu. 

Silvio  Pellico,  who  luis  written  many  draniius,  is 
better  known  by  the  touchingiy  natural  account  of 
his  imprisonment  by  the  Aiistrians.  The  romantic 
school  produced  no  remarkalile  lyrics  but  those  of 
Manzoni  himself,  and,  although  all  over  Italy 
fervent  poets  sang  of  freedom,  only  the  satires  of 
the  Tuscan  Giiisti  are  of  permanent  value.  The 
more  noted  of  these  minor  poets  are  Berchet,  Prati, 
Aleardi,  Poerici,  .and  (ialiriel  Kos.setti,  cimnected 
with  English  literature  through  his  illustrious  chil- 
dren. Belli  in  Rome,  and  Porta  in  Milan,  are  noted 
poetic  writers  in  dialect.  The  Siiiiiiiian/  of  tin: 
HiUonj  of  Italy.  \,y  Ce.sare  Balbo  (1789-18.53),  the 
Histori/  of  till'  Floicntine  Republic,  bv  (!ino  Cap- 
poni  (1792-1876),  the  Universal  Hixtonj,  by 
Cesare  Cantii  (born  1807),  are  noticeable  works. 
Rosinini  (1797-18.55),  t;ioberti(  1801-18.52),  Maniiaiii 
(1800-85)  are  well-known  metaphysical  and  theo- 


256 


ITASCA    LAKE 


IVAN 


logical  writers.  Niccolo  Tomiuaseo  (1802-1S74)  is 
iiotiofalile  iiiiiong  oritii's  ami  essayists  for  the  vast 
extent  of  his  leaniiuj;.  The  eloquence  aiul  purity 
of  style  of  Mazzini's  jjolitical  Avritiiij;s  give  them 
also  literary  value,  and  along  with  him  among 
ailvanceil  thinkei"s  must  be  mentioned  Koniagnosi 
(lT(il-lS3o). 

Since  the  stormy  times  of  her  struggle  for  life, 
uniteil  Italy  lias  i)rocluceil  few  literary  works  of 
character  and  originality.  The  name  of  tlie  poet 
Carducci  is  the  only  one  of  great  distinction. 
Among  the  minor  lyrists  are  Kapisardi,  liuerrini 
(Stecchetti),  and  Panzacchi ;  and  the  lyrics  in 
Tuscan  dialect  of  Kucini  are  full  of  wit  and 
nature.  lu  Naples  the  talented  young  Gabriele 
d'.Vnniinzio,  both  in  poetry  and  prose,  and  .Matilde 
Serao  and  Ciiuseppe  A'erga  in  their  novels  and 
stories,  belong  to  the  extreme  school  of  realism. 
In  the  north  the  novelists  Farina,  Barrili,  and  the 
more  eminent  Fogazzaio  show  moderate  tend- 
encies. The  vivid  Vita  Militarc  and  other  worlcs 
of  K.  de  Amicis,  and  the  charming  Aiitobiu(/rii/>/ii/ 
of  the  sculptor  Duprc,  are  well  worthy  of  notice. 
Among  dramatists,  the  works  of  Cos.sa,  Ferrari, 
Giacosa,  and  Cavallotti  are  the  most  popular. 
Arrigo  Boito,  the  composer,  shows  himself  in  his 
librettos  and  other  works  no  mean  ))oet. 

The  masterly  historical  works  of  P.  Villari  on 
Savonarola  and  Machia\elli  are  well  known  in 
translation  to  English  readers.  The  versatile  K. 
Bonghi  has  written  interesting  essays  on  various 
historical  and  political  subjects. 

For  tlie  laiigua;^e,  see  D'-\scoli,  Arckifio  Glottohinco ; 
Caix,  SiiUa  Storia  del  Dialctti  iV Italia  ;  Kajna,  Le  Oriijini 
delV  Epiipea  Franccse ;  Littre,  HUtobx  di:  la  Lanuuc  Fraa- 
^aUc  :  Max.  Miiller,  Lectures  on  the  Science  itf  Lanijiinge, 
No.  vi.  And  for  the  literature,  see  Sismondi's  Literature 
of  the  South  of  Europe  (trans,  by  Koscoe ) ;  Hallain's 
Literature  of  Europe  ;  Adolf  Gaspary,  Italienischc  Litter- 
atur  :  BartoH,  Storia  delta  Letteratura  Italiana :  De 
Sanctis,  Storia  delta  Letttratura  Italiaita  ;  .Settenibrini, 
Lisrorxi  !<ulla  Letteratura  Indiana  :  Carducci,  Studii 
Ldterarii  and  Lirici  del  Secolo  XVIII.  ;  Tabarrini,  Vita 
e  liicordi  di  Jtaliani  iliustri  del  XIX.  secolo. 

Itasca  Lake.    See  5Iissis.siPi'i. 

Itcb,  or  Sc.VBiES,  a  skin  disease  jiroduced  by 
a  nunute  mite  (SarcojAcn  sejiliici),  which  burrows 
in  the  epidermis  of  most  i)arts  of  the  body,  but 
especially  about  the  hands.  Its  presence  is  marke<l 
by  a  small  scaly  elevation  of  the  skin,  by  eruptions 
as  the  papill.i"  of  the  cutis  are  perforated,  and  by 
tJK'  irritating  itcliing  sensation. 

The  mite  itself  is  white  or  yellowish,  broad  and 
fiat,  with  two  pairs  of  mouth  ]iarts,  and  four  jiairs 
of  appendages.  The  males  are  scarcer  and  much 
smaller  than  the  females, 
which  are  just  vLsible  to 
the  miked  eye.  When  they 
have  entered  the  skin  they 
do  not  leave  it,  but  form 
tortuous  burrows,  through 
openings  in  which  the  em- 
bryos escape.  The  mites  are 
passed  by  contagion  from 
l)erson  to  per.son,  either  by 
direct  contact  or  by  clothes 
or  bedding.  It  is  probably 
the  embryos  or  larv:i'  whicii 
are  usually  thus  transmitted. 
The  above  species  also  occurs 
on  the  hoi-se,  Nea|)olitan 
itch-iiiitf,  iiuignilled  05  sheep,  and  li(m  ;  S.  s(jiiiiiiii- 
diameters.  fcni.s  occurs  ( causing  mange ) 

on  dogs,  ]>igs,  goats,  sheep, 
and  apparently  also  for  a  short  ]ieriod  on  man  ; 
i>.  iiiiiiur  is  also  distinguished  on  cats  and  raldiits. 

The  itch  was  for  a  while  rcgardeil  as  a  spccihc 
disea.se,  the  mite  being  unknown.      Avenzoar.   an 


Itcli-uiite  : 
Abdoiniiinl  view  of  female 


Arabian  physician  of  the  l'2th  century,  is  said  to 
have  recognised  its  true  nature.  So  does  Scaliger 
(1557);  and  Adams  tigures  the  aninuil  in  a  pai)cr 
read  in  1S05  before  the  Koyal  Society.  Amid  some 
scepticism  as  to  the  mite  during  the  early  part  of 
this  century,  M.  tiales  hoaxed  tlie  public  "ijy  ligur- 
ing  as  a  substitute  for  the  itch-mite  the  familiar 
denizen  of  cheese.  His  trick  w;is  discovered  by 
Kaspail,  and  the  existence  of  a  real  mile  was  more 
distrusted  than  ever,  till  in  1834  Kenucci,  a  Corsi- 
can  student,  again  demonstrated  its  jiresence  and 
characters.      It  luvs  been  often  studied  since. 

The  usual  cure  for  itch  is  found  in  baths,  with 
abundant  soap,  or  in  rubbing  with  sulphur  oint- 
ment. If  these  be  not  resorted  to,  the  multiplica- 
tion of  the  mite  may  give  more  serious  trouble. 

See  Ar.\chxida,  Mite,  P.vkasihsm,  Skin  ;  Uelafond 
and  Boiu'guignon  in  Mem.  Acad,  des  Sciences  (I'aris, 
1802);  and  treatises  on  Parasites  by  Leuckart,  Kiichen- 
ineister,  kc. 

Ith'aciU  now  Thi.\KI,  one  of  the  Ionian  Islands 
(q.v. ),  the  smallest  of  them  except  Paxo,  is  a  long, 
narrow  strip  of  land  oti'  the  north-east  of  C'ephalonia, 
and  lies  "20  miles  west  of  the  mainland  of  Greece. 
The  surface  is  mountainous  (2648  feet),  and  the 
coast  steep  and  rocky.  Area,  37  sq.  m.  AVine, 
currants,  and  olive-oil  are  largely  grown.  Goats 
are  kept.  Sponges  and  coral  are  fished  for.  The 
islaiid  is  celebrated  as  the  principality  ami  home  of 
Ulysses.  Pop.  10,1)50.  Cliief  town,  ^■athv.  See 
Scl'iliemann's  It/iakd  (1869). 

Ithaca,  capital  of  Tompkins  county,  New 
York,  is  picturesquely  situated  on  Cayuga  liake, 
near  the  southern  extremity,  and  on  the  sloi>cs  of 
the  neighbouring  hills,  35  miles  N\E.  of  Eliiiira  by 
rail.  It  has  a  large  trade  in  coal,  and  a  number  of 
foundries,  mills,  and  factories.  Ithaca  is  the  .seat 
of  Cornell  University  ((X.v.).     Pop.  (1890)  ll,7tl9. 

Itinerary  (Lat.  ititicniriuui,  derived  from  iter, 
'a  journey'),  the  name  given  by  the  Komans  to  a 
written  or  pictorial  account  of  the  princijial  mads 
and  routes  in  the  empire,  with  the  stations  and 
distances  between  them.  Of  the  former  class  the 
most  important  are  the  Ilitieniria  Aiitmiiiii  anil 
the  Itiiieruriiun  Ilicrosolyitiitaiium.  The  //.  Atituii- 
ini  are  two  in  number,  one  containing  the  routes 
through  the  Koman  provinces  in  Eurojie,  Asia, 
and  Africa,  and  the  other  the  principal  sea-routes. 
They  take  their  name  from  the  Emperor  Antoninus 
Caracalla,  under  whom  they  were  published,  ;us 
corrected  up  to  his  time,  but  they  seem  to  have 
been  originally  prepared  at  an  earlier  date. —The 
It.  Ilicrusolymitaiiam  was  drawn  up  in  the  4tli 
century  A.D.  for  the  use  of  idlgrims  from  Burdigala 
(  Bordeaux )  to  Jerusalem.  Another  example  of  the 
same  (dass  is  the  It.  A/ej'tt/uin,  showing  the  route 
of  marcli  of  Alexander  the  (ireat  through  Asia. 
There  is  a  collected  eilition  of  ancient  Itiiicniriti 
by  D'Urban  (  Paris,  1845 ).  For  the  Tabula  Pciiliii- 
gcriami,  .see  PElTINiilili. 

Itlirbide.  Agustin  de  (1783-1824),  emperor 
of  .Mexico  (q.v.)  in  1822-23. 

It/eliwe.  the  oldest  town  in  Ilolsteiii,  is  situated 
in  a  valley  backed  by  liuely-wooded  hills,  40  miles 
XW.  of  Hamburg  by  rail.  Principal  industries, 
sngar-relining,  cotton-weaving,  and  the  manufac- 
ture of  macliinery,  chicory,  and  soa|i.  Pop.  ( 1S90) 
12,481.  The  original  castle  (  Eselslletli ),  around 
which  Etzehoe  or  Itzehoe  grailu.ally  arose,  was 
built  by  Charlemagne  in  809.  Itzehoe  was  twice 
destroyed  by  the  Swedes  iluring  the  Thirty  Yeai-s' 
\\m.  ' 

Ivan  (i.e.  John  ),  the  name  of  two  grand-duke-- 
aiid  four  czars  of  liussia,  three  of  whom  are  treated 
at  Klssi.\.  The  best  known.  Iv.w  I\'.  iI5;iO-84), 
commonly  called  Ivan  the  Terrible,  reigned  from 
1533,  and  did  much  for   the  advancement  of  his 


IVAXOVO 


IVORY 


257 


country  in  arts  and  commerce,  as  well  as  for  its 
extension  by  arms.  He  was  the  liret  Knssian 
sovereign  to  be  crowneJ  as  czar.  He  subdueJ 
Kazan  and  Astraklian,  and  from  his  reign  dates 
the  lii-st  annexation  of  Silieria.  He  conclude<l  a 
commercial  treaty  witli  (Jueen  Elizabeth,  after 
the  Knglish  ha<l  discovered  (1553)  the  way  to 
Archangel  by  sea.  But  his  hand  fell  with  merci- 
less cruelty  upon  the  boyai-s  of  his  kingdom,  and 
upon  some  of  his  towns,  as  Moscow,  Tver,  and 
Novgorod.  In  the  last  named  some  60,000  jjeople 
were  slain  in  six  weeks.  This  was,  however, 
during  the  third  period  of  his  reign.  The  first 
marks  the  time  during  which  he  was  under  his 
mother's  guardianship :  and  the  second  the  era  of 
commercial  enterprise  and  territorial  consolidation. 
Ivan  died  of  sorrow  for  his  son,  whom  three  yeai-s 
before  he  had  slain  in  a  mad  fit  of  rage.  See 
Austin  Peniber,  I  run  tlic  Terrible  (1S95). 

Ivanovo,  or  Ivaxuff  Voznesensk,  the  'Man- 
chester' of  Russia,  in  t!ie  government  of  Vladimir, 
210  miles  by  rail  NE.  of  Moscow.  It  has  been  the 
centre  of  the  Kussiau  cotton  industiy  since  the 
middle  of  the  I8th  century.  Machinery  is  also 
made.     Pop.  (1S97)  35,930. 

Ivinghoe,  a  market -town  of  Buckinghamshire, 
2  miles  SSE.  of  Chedilington  junction,  and  38  NW. 
of  London.  Pop.  1280.  Ivinghoe  Beacon  (904  feet) 
belongs  to  the  Chiltern  Hills. 

Iv'iza  (anc.  Ehi'isus),  the  most  sotith-westerly 
of  the  Balearic  Isles  (q.v. ),  lies  56  miles  from  the 
Spanish  mainland.  It  is  mountainous,  and  its 
coasts  are  indented  by  several  bays.  Area,  228 
sq.  m. :  pop.  22,800.  The  principal  products  are 
salt  and  fruits,  with  a  little  lead.  The  chief  town, 
Iv-iza,  which  is  fortified,  is  the  see  of  a  bishop,  and 
has  a  population  of  7-tOO. 

Ivory  is  the  name  properly  given  to  the  tusks 
of  elephants,  a  material  which  consists  of  that 
modification  of  dentine  or  toothsulistance  showing 
in  transverse  sections  lines  of  ditterent  shades 
running  in  circular  arcs,  and  forming  by  their 
decu.ssation  minute  lozenge-shaped  spaces.  "By  this 
character,  which  is  presented  by  every  portion  of 
any  transverse  section  of  an  elephant's  tusk,  true 
ivory  may  be  distinguished  from  every  other  kind 
of  tooth-substance,  and  from  bone  and  all  artificial 
imitations  of  ivory.  Although  no  other  teeth 
except  those  of  the  elephant  present  this  character- 
istic, many  other  animals,  such  as  the  walrus, 
narwhal,  hippopotamus,  sperm-whale,  &c.,  possess 
teeth  or  tusks  which  from  their  large  size  and  from 
their  density  can  be  used  for  many  purpo.ses  in  the 
arts  for  which  true  ivorj-  is  employed.  A  small 
pro|»ortion  of  the  ivors-  of  European  commerce 
comes  from  Ceylon,  India,  Burma,  Cochin-China, 
and  the  islands  of  the  Ea.stem  Archipelago ;  but 
the  greater  part  of  the  produce  of  the  East  is  used 
in  the  regions  of  its  production.  The  hulk  of  the 
ivory  s(dd  in  the  markets  of  London,  Livei-pool, 
and  Antwerp  Ls  from  the  African  elephant,  and  it 
comes  from  the  interior  by  nearly  eveiy  outlet 
from  th.it  continent.  A  small  amount  of  ivory, 
brittle  in  (|nality,  is  also  obtained  from  northern 
Siberia  under  the  name  of  fcjssil  ivory,  being  the 
tusks  of  the  extinct  mammoth  embedded  in  the 
frozen  soil  of  the  region.  The  ivon,'  of  the  tusks 
of  the  .\frican  elepliant  Ls  held  in  the  highest 
estimation  by  the  manufacturer,  on  account  of  its 
superior  density  and  whiteness.  The  tusks  are  of 
all  sizes  up  to  about  180  lb.,  but  examples  have 
been  recorded  excee<ling  2fK)  IVi.  in  weight. 

The  value  of  ivory  is  in  prm'ortion  to  the  size 
and  soundness  of  the  tusks.  For  the  purposes  of 
sale  they  are  graded  as  teeth  weighing  60  lb.  and 
upwarils.  next  from  40  to  60  11>.,  and  thinl  between 
20  and  40  lb.  Below  the  weight  of  20  lb.  they  are 
277  ■* 


called  scrivclloes,  which  are  classed  as  hollows  and 
solids.  In  conseiiuence  of  its  increasing  scarcity 
by  reason  of  the  constantly-expanding  demand  for 
ivory,  there  has  been  a  lluctuating  but  giadual 
rise  in  the  price  of  the  substance;  but  in  recent 
years  values  have  remained  remarkably  steady. 
Takinjj  west  coast  African  '  teeth  '  of  good  quality, 
the  price  may  be  said  to  have  averaged  ,f50  per 
cwt.  during  the  ten  years  1881-90,  although  accord- 
ing to  quality  it  maj'  range  from  £37  to  t'60  in  a 
single  sale  ;  while  from  £50  to  £60  may  be  taken  as 
the  price  of  good  ivory  in  1890.  Selected  teeth,  and 
cuts  made  for  special  jiurposes,  such  as  billiard  ball 
soliils,  may  command  about  £110  per  cwt.  The 
quantity  annually  imported  into  Europe  averages 
12, .500  cwt.,  and  in  the  East  there  is  worked  up 
about  2500  cwt.  more,  to  jirocure  which  not  fewer 
than  40,000  elephants  must  be  sacrificed.  Beyond 
this  there  nmst  be  many  thousands  of  elephants 
killed  everv'  year  in  Africa  to  sup]ily  tusks  for 
chiefs  anil  head-men,  which  they  use  profusely  for 
the  ornamentation  of  their  dwellings  and  graves. 
Ivory  is  conveyed  to  the  coast  by  slave  labour  ;  and 
it  has  repeatedly  been  said  that  the  extinction  of 
the  African  .elephant  (which  with  the  present 
enormous  slaughter  seems  likely  ere  long  to  be 
achieved )  would  secure  the  suppression  of  the 
slave-tratle.  Among  western  communities  ivory  is 
chiefiy  in  demand  for  knife  and  other  handles, 
combs,  piano  keys,  billiard  balls,  chess-men,  and 
for  carved  figures  and  ornaments.  Dieppe  is 
the  principal  seat  of  the  carved  i\-ory  trade ;  but 
nearly  the  half  of  the  material  used  is  worked  up 
in  England. 

It  has  been  assumed  because  of  the  large  slabs  of 
ivory  used  by  ancient  artists,  some  of  which  are 
still  extant,  tliat  they  possessed  a  method  of  soften- 
ing, bending,  and  flattening  the  substance,  the 
secret  of  which  is  now  lost.  One  ancient  author 
indeed  mentions  a  means  of  softening  and  bending 
ivory  by  means  of  acid  solutions,  and  various 
recipes  are  given  by  medieval  writei-s  for  that 
purpose ;  but  these  are  not  found  practicable.  It 
is  alleged  that  immersion  in  a  solution  of  phos- 
phoric acid  renders  ivory  pliant  and  translucent ; 
but  that  is  done  at  the  expense  of  its  texture  and 
elasticity — in  short,  such  treatment  deprives  the 
substance  of  the  very  qualities  which  render  it 
valuable. 

The  use  of  ivory  can  be  traced  almost  to  the 
earliest  period  at  which  there  is  evidence  of  the 
existence  of  man  ujjon  the  earth.  On  fragments  of 
mammoth  tusks  which  have  been  picked  up  in  the 
caves  of  Dordogne  there  have  been  found  incised 
drawings  of  many  animals,  some  now  e.xtinct  and 
others  no  longer  inhabiting  Europe,  executed  with 
a  spirit  and  fidelity  which  are  simply  marvellous. 
From  that  time  downwards  the  records  of  every 
civilised  comnmnity  demonstrate  the  important 
place  occupied  by  ivory,  and  the  high  commercial 
value  it  possessed.  It  was  a  substance  distinctive 
of  royal  state  and  authority  in  ancient  numarchies  ; 
and  we  rea<l  that  King  Solomon  '  made  a  great 
throne  of  ivori,-.'  There  still  exist  examples  of 
Egyptian  inlaid  ivory  as  ancient  as  the  days  of 
Moses,  and  Mr  Layard  in  his  Nineveh  excavations 
secured  many  .Assyrian  ivory  carvings,  believed  to 
date  nearly  1000  li.c. ,  which  are  now  preserved  in 
the  British  Museum.  When  culture  and  art  were 
at  their  height  in  ancient  (!reece  ivory  was  lavishly 
used  for  carvings,  sculiiture,  and  objects  of  luxury  ; 
and  many  of  the  greatest  and  most  famous  wor^s 
of  Phidias  and  his  fellow-artists  were  'Chrys- 
elephantine '  (q.v.)  statues — gigantic  works  built  of 
plates  of  ivory  and  gold,  .some  of  the  figures  reaching 
a  stature  of  40  feet.  Among  the  Konmns  the  use  of 
ivorj-  for  purposes  of  luxury  was  equally  extensive  ; 
and  by  them  plates  of  ivory,  joined  lus  diptychs  or 


258 


IVORY 


IZARD 


tiiiitychs,  were  useil  as  wiitingtablets.  Presents 
of  such  iliptyclis  were  coiiiinoiily  made  by  consuls 
on  their  api>i)iutment  to  officials  within  their 
jurisdiction,  and  among  the  treasures  of  classical 
times  which  yet  exist  are  many  remains  of  consular 
ivories.  In  the  midille  ages  ivory  came  into  \ise 
for  ecclesiastical  purjioses  in  the  form  of  tablets 
anil  diptychs  for  keeping  registers  and  records,  for 
crucifixes,  statuettes  of  saints,  caskets,  reliquaries, 
croziers,  book-covers,  \-c.  At  the  same  period  for 
secular  use  it  was  carved  into  chess-men,  mirror 
cases,  combs,  'oliphants'  (linnting  and  tenure 
horns),  and  numerous  other  forms. 

Ivory,  Vegetauli;.  This  curious  material  is 
furnished  l)y  the  palm-like  plant,  Pliytclcjiliiiti 
imccrocdrpci,  which  grows  on  the  Andean  plains  of 
Peru,  and  on  the  banks  of  the  river  Magdalena, 
and  other  parts  of  South  America.  It  forms  the 
type  of  a  natural  onler,  the  Phytelephasic;e,  inter- 
mediate between  the  Palms  and  the  Screw  Pines 
(Pandanea?).  The  plant  throws  up  a  magnihcent 
tuft  of  light-green  ])innated  leaves  of  e.vtraordinary 
size  and  beauty,  like  immense  ostrich-feathers, 
rising  from  30  to  40  feet  in  height^  The  fruit, 
which  is  as  large  as  a  man's  iiead,  consists  of 
many  4-celled  leathery  drupes  aggregated  together, 
and  contains  numerous  nuts  of  a  somewhat  tri- 
angular form,  each  nut  being  nearly  as  large  as 
a  hen's  egg ;  they  are  called  Corozo  nuts  in  com- 
merce. The  kernels  of  these  nuts  when  ripe  are 
e.\ceedingly  hard  and  white,  in  fact  they  resemble 
ivory  so  completely  that  few  names  have  ever  been 
better  applied  than  that  of  vegetable  ivory.  They 
are  in  extensive  use  liy  turners  in  the  manu- 
facture of  l>uttons,  umbrella-handles,  and  small 
trinkets.  Two  or  three  millions  of  these  nuts 
are  now  inrported  into  Britain  annually,  and 
are  chietly  used  by  the  London  and  Birming- 
ham  turners. — For  another  ivory   substitute,   see 

C'ELLfLOID. 

Ivory-black.    See  Chakco.\l. 

Ivory  Coast,  a  part  of  the  northern  coast  of 
the  Gulf  of  Guinea,  AVest  Africa,  embraces  the 
districts  between  Cape  Palmas  and  the  river  Assini. 
Its  western  portion  belongs  to  Liberia  ;  its  eastern, 
now  counted  as  part  of  the  Gold  Coast,  is  sharecl 
between  Britain  and  France.  The  name  bears  no 
political  meaning. 

IVT€!'a,  a  town  of  Piedmont,  on  an  eminence  at 
the  southern  end  of  the  Val  d  Aosta,  38  miles 
NXE.  of  T\irin  by  rail.  Founded  in  accordance 
with  an  injunction  contained  in  the  Sibylline  Books 
about  100  B.C.,  it  has  a  cathedral  which  is  sup- 
posed to  occupy  the  site  of  a  tcmjile  to  Apollo. 
It  was  the  seat  of  a  Longobard  duchy,  and  under 
the  Carlovingians  of  a  niar([uisate.  One  of  the 
marquises  of  Ivrea,  Berengar  II.,  became  titular 
king  of  Italy  (q.v.)  in  tiie  lOtli  century,  and  his 
grandson  founded  the  line  of  the  dukes  of  Bur- 
gundy. lncor])i)rated  with  the  emiiire  in  1018, 
the  town  and  manniisate  were  given  by  Frederick 
II.,  in  1248,  to  the  House  of  Savoy.      Pop.  5883. 

Ivry,  a  village  of  over  1000  iidiabitants  in  the 
French  department  of  Eure,  16  miles  NNW.  of 
Drcux.  On  the  Plain  of  Ivry  was  fought,  Mth 
.March  lo'.tO,  the  famous  battle  between  Henry  of 
Navarre  and  the  armies  of  the  League. — IvuY- 
.suu-Seixe,  a  south-eastern  suburb  of  Paris,  on  the 
Seine.  Glass,  earthenware,  and  chemical  products 
are  the  chief  manufactures.  Pop.  (1881)  18,442; 
(1891)22,357. 

Ivy  (JleUcia),  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural 
order  Araliaceu',  consisting  of  shrubs  and  tiees, 
mostly  natives  of  tropical  countries.  The  llowi'rs 
have  live  or  ten  petals,  and  live  or  ten  cimverging 
or  consolidated  styles.     The  fruit  is  u  berry  with 


five  or  ten  cells. — The  Common  I\y  [H.  helix)  is  a 
well-known  native  of  Britain,  and  of  most  parts  of 
Europe,  although  it  is  more  rare  in  the  northern 
countries.  Its  long,  creeping,  branched  stem, 
climbing  on  trees  and  walls  to  a  great  height,  and 
closely  adherii\g  e\en  to  very  hard  substances  by 
means  of  aerial  rootlets,  wliich  it  throws  out  in 
great  abundance  along  its  whole  length,  acquires 
in  very  aged  plants  almost  the  thickness  of  a  small 
tree.  Its  5-lobed,  shining,  stalked,  evergreen 
leaves,  clothing  bare  walls  with  green  luxuriance, 
serve  to  throw  oil'  rain,  and  thus  render  damp  walls 
dry,  contrary  to  a  common  prejudice,  that  ivy 
tends  to  produce  dampness  in  walls.  In  order  to 
accinnplish  this,  however,  it  requires  to  be  pruned 
annually,  for  if  allowed  to  run  wild  it  admits  rain 
to  the  walls  by  its  projecting  liranches,  and  so 
renders  even  dry  walls  damp  by  preventing 
evaporation.  It  in- 
jures living  trees  by 
constriction  when 
permitted  to  grow 
upon  them.  The 
flowering  branches  of 
ivy  have  ovate,  entire 
leaves,  very  different 
from  the  others,  and 
do  not  climb,  but  pro- 
ject from  the  climb- 
ing branches.  h- 
small  greenish  llowei  - 
are  produced  in  thr 
bet'inning  of  winter, 
and  the  small  lilack 
berries  swell  during 
\\inter  and  ripen  in 
the  following  April. 
The  berries  are 
eagerly  eaten  Ijy  many 
birds,  although  they 
have  a  pungent 
taste,  and  contain  a 
peculiar  bitter  prin- 
ciple called  /ici/tritie, 
•ind  an  acid  called  hcdcric  acid :  which  are  also 
found  in  a  gunnny  exudation  obtaincil  by  incisions 
from  the  stem,  and  occasionally  used  in  medicine 
as  a  depilatory  and  a  stimulant,  and  in  varnish- 
making.  An  ointment  made  from  the  leaves  is 
used  for  curing  burns ;  the  application  of  Ijruised 
leaves  is  serviceable  for  removing  corns.  In  Egypt 
the  ivy  was  sacred  to  Gsiris,  in  Greece  to  Bacchus 
(Dionysos),  wliose  thyrsus  was  rejirosented  as  sur- 
rounded with  ivy  ;  tlie  liomans  mingled  it  in  the 
laurel  crowns  of  their  poets. 

There  are  numerous  varieties  of  common  \\y 
often  planted  for  ornamental  purposes,  of  which 
that  generally  known  in  Ihitain  as  Iri.sli  Ii\i/,  and 
on  the  {.'ontinent  as  Kii(//i.\/i  Iri/,  is  particularly 
esteemed  for  its  large  leaves  and  luxuriant  growtli. 
They  are  distinguished  from  each  other  by  tlie 
form  of  their  leaves,  and  al.so  by  their  colour,  there 
being  many  shades  of  green  anu  bron/e,  and  not  a 
few  with  gold  and  silver  blotched  leaves.  Ivy 
grows  readily  from  cuttings. — //.  iimbdlifera,  a 
native  of  And)oyna,  is  said  to  produce  a  finely 
aromatic  wood  ;  ami  //.  tcrchiiitliaccii,  a  Ccyloncse 
.sjiecies,  yields  a  resinous  substance  which  smells 
like  turpentine. 

Ixi'oil,  a  king  of  the  Lapitha',  the  father  of 
PIrilhous.  I'nable  to  find  purification  on  earth 
for  the  treacherous  murder  of  his  fatherin-l.aw,  he 
was  taken  up  into  heaven  and  ])urilied  by  Zeus. 
But  he  attempted  to  seduce  Hera,  and  for  imnish- 
ment  he  was  chained  to  a  fiery  wheel,  which  rolled 
for  ever  in  the  sky. 

Izard,  the  Pyrenean  Ibex.     See  Go.\T. 


»-       ■'  K 

Ivy,  showing  tlie  aerial 
Kootlets. 


J 


is  the  latest  aiUUtion  to  our 
alphabet,  and  hiis  been  inserted, 
as  the  tenth  letter,  after  i,  from 
which  it  was  devehjped,  just  as 
0  and  «•  follow  »,  out  of  which 
they  arose.  In  the  14th  century 
it  became  the  fashion,  in  Pro- 
vencal and  Catalan  MSS.,  to 
lenj;then  the  letter  /  into  the 
form  j,  with  a  tail  turned  to  the  left,  as  a  sort  of 
ornamental  initial  at  the  beginninj;  of  words.  The 
consonantal  sound  usually  occurrin;,'  at  the  begin- 
ning, and  the  vowel-sound  in  the  middle  or  at  the 
end  of  words,  the  initial  forni^  after  a  while  became 
conveniently  but  undesignedly  specialised  to  denote 
the  consonantal  sound,  the  medial  form  i  being 
retained  for  the  vowel-sound.  In  the  loth  century 
this  usage,  which  never  reached  Italy,  spread  to 
France  and  England,  but  it  was  not  before  the 
middle  of  the  17th  century  that  it  became  universal 
in  English  books,  as  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  in 
King  James's  IJible  of  1611  the  words  Jesus  and 
judr/c  are  printed  Icsus  and  iiiih/e. 

The  dot  over  the  j  is  a  curious  survival.  It  is 
unnecessary  as  a  diacritical  mark,  which  it  origin- 
ally was  (see  I),  as  there  is  no  danger,  in  its  present 
form,  of  confusion  with  any  other  letters.  The  dot 
remains  as  a  witness  not  only  that  /  was  developed 
out  of  /,  but  also  of  the  fact  that  the  evolution  of  j 
was  later  than  the  practice  of  dotting  the  /. 

In  English  the  symbol  ./  is  used  to  denote  the 
sound  of  ihh,  as  in  joitnial :  in  French  of  zh,  as  in 
jour :  in  Spanish  it  represents  the  hard  r/i,  heard  in 
the  Scotch  lor/i,  as  in  Jerez :  in  German  it  retains 
the  original  //  sound  of  the  Latin  consonantal  /,  as 
in  Jahr.  Thus,  while  German  geographei's  write 
Jenissei  and  Jahiit,  English  maps  have  Yenissei  and 
Yaknt. 

The  consonantal  sound  of  the  English  j  is  fre- 
f|Uently  e.fpressed  by  </,  as  in  fjem  or  gin,  or  by 
(/e,  jis  in  knovledrje.  The  sound  did  not  e.xist  in 
Early  English,  but  wa-;  introduced  from  France 
after  the  Norman  Conquest.  Hence  in  Middle 
Engll-th,  before  the  sym1)ol  was  invented,  we  find 
the  sound  rei)resented  by  other  devices.  Thus,  we 
have  Giv:i^  for  Jews,  rjestc  iov  jest,  cluiv;  fot  Jaw,  and 
cliam  for  jam.  Chaucer  has  gailer  where  the 
Bible  has  jailor.  The  use  of  j  is  still  extending, 
and  we  ftnt\  jibe,  jail,  and  ./ij^rey  occa.sionally  used, 
instead  of  tlie  more  correct  forms  gibe,  gaol,  and 
Geiijfreii. 

We  have  unfortunately  introduced  our  acquired 
French  sound  of  /  into  Latin  wonls  which  had  the 
consonantal  i,  which  the  Romans  ijrononnced  an  ij ; 
and  we  Ha,yjain,jugum,  j  uveitis,  Jupiter,  juneus, 
jacio,  hiiju.i,  and  nuijor,  where  the  Komans  said 
i/aiii,  yuguui,  ijavenis,  Yupiter,  yuiniis,  ijakiu, 
hugus,  and  iiuujor.  In  some  inscriptions  of  the 
early  imperial  age  the  consonantal  sound  of  /  is 
denoted  either  by  doubling  the  letter  or  writing  it 
as  a  cajiital ;  '  liuiius,'  or  '  hulus,'  representing  the 
older  .spelling  huius.  In  inscriptions  of  the  later 
empire  we  find  Giovc  for  Jure,  a  usage  adopted  in 
nioilern  Itali.iii,  in  which  we  have  Ge-iit,  (liovanni, 
Giuscnpe,  and  uiuggiore,  from  Jesus,  Johannes, 
Josephus,  and  iiutjor,  the  UHe  of  the  new  letter 


/  being  evaded  in  the  same  manner  as  in  Middle 
English. 

Jnbillpiir  (Jubbulpore),  chief  town  of  Jahali)ur 
district,  Central  Provinces,  India,  228  miles  by  rail 
S\V.  of  Allahabad.  Standing  at  the  junction  of  the 
Eiust  Indian  and  Great  Indian  Peninsula  systems, 
Jabaljiur  is  one  of  the  must  important  railway 
stations  in  India.  It  is  the  second  connnercial 
towD  in  the  Central  Provinces,  has  a  trade  worth 
about  £2,000,000  annually,  and  manufactures  cotton, 
tents,  and  carpets.  Pop.  (1S77)  55,188;  (1891) 
84,481. — The  district  of  Jabalpur  has  an  area  of 
3948  S(i.  m.,  and  a  population  of  748,146. — The 
divisiun,  one  of  the  four  into  which  the  Central 
Provinces  are  broken  up,  has  an  area  of  18,321 
sq.  m.,  and  a  pop.  of  2,375,642,  of  whom  three- 
fourths  are  Hindus. 

Jabiril  ( Mj/cferia ),  a  genus  of  birds  of  the  Stork 
family  (Ciconiida)  ;  the  chief  distinction  from  the 
storks  beinij  that  the  bill  is  a  little  curved  upwards. 
There  are  four  species,  which  are  found  in  Africa, 
India,  Australia,  and  South  America.  The  best 
known  is  the  American  Jabiru  [31.  amcrirand), 
which  is  found  from  ^lexico  southwards  to  the 
Argentine  Republic.  It  is  a  large  bird,  measuiing 
from  4  to  5  feet  in  height,  with  white  plumage, 
e.\cept  on  the  head  and  neck,  and  a  massive  bill. 
The  Jabirus  of  India  and  Australia  are  sometimes 
elevated  to  the  rank  of  separate  genera. 

Jaborandi>  Under  this  name  a  number  of 
drugs,  used  for  their  sialagogue  and  diaiihoretic 
actions,  are  known  in  Brazil.  In  Europe,  however, 
onl}'  the  leaflets  of  Filorarpiis  pinnntifuliiis  are 
recognised  as  jaborandi.  It  is  a  shrub  about  4  or  5 
feet  high,  slightly  branched,  the  branches  erect, 
leaves  alternate,  long-stalked,  imparipiunate,  and 
1  to  IJ  feet  long  ;  leaflets  opposite,  in  two  up  to  live 
pairs,  with  a  terminal  leaflet.  Each  leaflet  is  about 
4  inclies  long,  oval-oblong,  very  obtuse  or  emargin- 
ate  at  ape.x,  entire,  coriaceous,  and  containing  a 
number  of  glands  w  hich  show  as  dots  against  the 
light.  Flowers  in  racemes.  This  species  is  a  native 
of  Brazil.  Jaborandi  is  officinal  in  the  British 
Pharnuxcopieia,  and  is  there  defined  as  the  dried 
leaflets  of  Pilucarjnis  pcnnati/ulius.  They  contain 
an  alkaloid,  pilocari)ine,  C,jH„;X.jOm,  to  which  the 
eflects  of  the  plant  are  chiefly  ilue  ;  another  alka- 
loid, jaborine  ;  and  two  decomiiosition  products  of 
these,  naUK'd  respectively  [lilocarpidine  and  jahori- 
dine.  There  are  also  present  a  volatile  oil  and  a 
bitter  .substance.  .laborandi  wius  first  bnmght  to 
the  notice  of  medical  men  in  Europe  by  I)r  Con- 
tinho  of  Brazil  in  1874,  and  since  then  its  action  luis 
been  very  fully  investigated  by  numerous  physiolo- 
gists. When  pilocarpine,  or  i)reparations  taken 
from  it,  are  taken  internally  there  enwie  very 
profuse  salivation  and  persi)iration,  with  depres- 
sion of  the  circulation  and  disturbance  of  vision. 
Large  do^es  cause  in  addition  nausea,  vondting, 
and  great  muscular  relaxation.  The  salivation 
and  ]iersi>iration  may  be  com|detel}'  arrested  or 
prevente<l  by  the  administration  of  atropine. 
Ijocally  apjilicd  to  the  eye  it  causes  contraction 
of  the  pupil,  and  interferes  with  iK'commodation 
an<l  vision.     It  is  used  in  iritis,  in  Bright's  ilisease, 


260 


JACAMARS 


JACKAL 


ami  in  various  conditions  whore  its  sialagogue  or 
diaplioretie  oll'ects  are  desirable. 

Jacaiuars,  a  small  family  of  brilliautly-col- 
oured  Idrds  (iJalbulida- ),  inhabiting  dense  forests 
in  tnipioal  America  east  of  the  .Vndes.  They  are 
apparently  dull  and  stujiid,  like  their  near  relatives 
the  PuH'-birds  (Buceonida').  The  bill  is  long  and 
usually  straight,  the  feet  are  short  and  feeble,  the 
front  toes  are  united  for  some  distance,  the  plumage 
exhibits  a  rich  metallic  splendour.  They  feed  on 
insects.  The  white  eggs  (two)  are  laid  in  holes 
excavated  in  sandy  banks.  Technically  this  family, 
including  about  a  score  of  species,  is  ranked  among 
the  Picaria*,  subdivision  Picoidea?,  beside  the  putt- 
birds,  and  at  a  gieater  distance  toucans  and  wood- 
peckers. The  type  is  Galbiila  ffitlbuta,  resplendent 
in  golden  green  ;  Jacamcrops  (jrandis  is  the  largest 
species  ;  tlie  members  of  the  genus  Urogalba  shine 
like  black  steel. 

Jacana  (ran-ida:),  a  family  of  birds  allied  to 
the  Kails  (Kallida>),  but  differing  from  them  and 
from  all  other  birds  in  possessing  extremely  long, 
slender,  straight  toes  with  long,  sharp,  pointed 
claws.  They  have  pointed  .spurs  on  their  wings,  and 
many  have  a  shield  on  the  forehead  like  coots  and 
moor  hens.  They  are  found  in  all  the  tropics,  and 
are  birds  of  elegant  plumage,  frequenting  swamps, 
lagoons,  and  marshes,  where  they  walk  on  the 
broad  floating  leaves  of  aciuatic  plants  with  the 
greatest  ease.     The  genus  Parra   (ten   species)  is 

widely  distrib- 
uted in  the  warm 
parts  of  South 
America,  Africa, 
Asia,  and  also 
the  Australian 
region.  The 
Common  Jacana 
( Pa  rra  jacana ),  a 
South  American 
species  abundant 
in  Guiana  and 
Brazil,  is  about 
10  inches  long,  of 
a  black  colour, 
with  neck  and 
shoulders  of  a 
veddish-brown 
tint,  and  with 
green  wing-fea- 
tbers.  Tlie  other 
genus  ( riydroph- 
asianus)  of  the 
family  consists  of 
only  one  species, 
the  Pheasant-tailed  Jacana,  whicli  is  conhned  to 
the  oriental  region.  It  is  the  largest  of  all  the 
Jacanas,  and  is  found  in  India  and  (Jeylon,  where 
it  inhabits  niarshe.s  and  reedy  banks,  feeding  ehielly 
on  vegetable  matter,  but  also  on  sliells  and  water 
insects.     The  llesh  forms  excellent  eating. 

JacaraiKia  Wooil,  a  very  hard,  heavy,  brown 
wood,  also  called  Ru.si-wuod — Ihougli  not  the  true 
Kosewood  of  commerce — from  its  faint,  agreeable 
smell  of  roses.  It  is  brought  from  South  America, 
and  is  produced  liy  several  trees  of  the  genus  Jacar- 
anda,  of  the  natural  order  IJignoniacea'.  Several 
species  of  this  genus  are  called  Caroba  in  Brazil, 
and  are  there  accounted  anti-syphilitic. — Several 
species  of  the  nearly-allied  genus  Tecoma  also  have 
an  extremely  hard  wood,  as  T.  pentap/iyl/a,  a  nati\e 
of  the  Caribbean  Islands.  The  Brazilian  Indians 
make  their  bows  of  the  wood  of  T.  toxiphora  or  Fao 
d'uno.  , 

Ja<'arc.    See  Allig.vtok. 
Jacinth,  or   Hyacinth  (Ital.   giacinto,   Lat. 
hyaciiUUm),  a  transparent,  bright-coloured  variety 


Common  Jacana  (  Parra  jacana 


of  Zircon  (ij. v.),  of  various  shades  of  red,  passing 
into  orange  and  poppy-red.  A  perfect  stone  has  a, 
peculiar  golden  lu.-tre  mixed  with  its  rich  orange, 
and  would  formerly  have  fetched  a  high  price  ;  but 
the  jacinth  is  no  lon^^er  in  fashion.  By  the  ancients 
it  wa-s  highly  prized,  ami  many  line  iutagli  were 
executed  in  it,  notwithstanding  its  hardness,  which 
exceeds  that  of  chalcedony  and  its  varieties.  An- 
tique intagli  in  jacinth,  how(!ver,  almost  invariably 
e.xin1)it  a  sonu^\\hat  rubbed  or  worn  surface,  which 
is  believed  to  be  due  to  the  somewhat  porous  tex- 
ture of  the  gem.  Jacinth  occurs  in  numy  basalts, 
tuffs,  and  some  granitoid  plutonic  rocks,  as,  for 
example,  near  Expailly  in  Auvergue,  and  at  Unkel 
on  the  Rhine,  in  Bohemia,  Saxony,  the  Tyrol,  Nor- 
way, the  I'rals,  Greenland,  &c.  It  is  likewise  met 
with  in  the  form  of  granules  and  rounded  cry.stals 
in  the  beds  of  certain  streams,  and  in  alluvial 
deposits,  as  near  Expailly,  in  the  Iserwiese,  and  in 
certain  streams  in  Ceylon.  The  jacinth  or  hyacinth 
of  jewellers  is  not  a  zircon  at  all,  but  some'variety 
of  garnet — generally  Cinnamon-stoue  (q.v. );  and 
sometimes  ferruginous  quartz,  which,  from  its 
abundance  in  gypsum  at  Compostella,  in  Spain,  is 
called  Hyacinth  of  Compostella. — Jaiffoon  is  the 
name  given  by  the  Singhalese  to  another  variety  of 
zircon.  It  is  usually  gray  or  colourless,  but  often 
shows  more  or  less  ill-defined  tinges  of  green,  blue, 
red,  and  yellow.  The  surfaces  o^  the  crystals  have 
a  lustre  almost  rivalling  that  of  the  diamond.  It 
was  at  one  time  supposed  to  be  an  inferior  variety 
of  the  diamond,  and  is  still  occasionally  sold  as 
such. 

Jack  has  been  from  the  beginning  generally 
used  in  England  as  the  equivalent  of  John,  the 
most  common  of  Christian  names,  but  it  is  not  a 
little  curious  that  it  is  really  the  French  Jacijiics 
(till  the  17th  century  pronounced  as  a  di.ssyllable), 
and  so  through  the  Latin  Jacobus  and  Greek 
Jakobos  from  the  Hebrew  Ya'aijob,  .lacob.  Others, 
however,  explain  it  as  a  shortened  form  of  Jankin, 
an  old  diminutive  of  Juhan,  Jchan,  or  John. ;  from 
the  northern  forms  of  which  again.  Jolinlin.  or 
Jonkin,  we  have  Jockey  and  Jock.  The  contempt 
that  follows  on  excessive  familiarity  attaches 
itself  in  most  European  lang\iages  to  the  name 
John  and  its  equivalents ;  thus  we  lind  the 
Italian  Giovanni,  whence  Zan/ii,  our  Zany:  the 
Spanish  Juan,  as  hobo  Juan,  'a  foolish  John  ; '  the 
French  Jean,  with  its  signilication  in  com|iound 
terms  of  fool,  cuckold,  and  the  like  ;  and  our  own 
vulgarisms,  '  every  man  Jack '  for  all  men  without 
distinction,  a  './«c^'-of-all-trades,'  and  '  a,  Johnny' 
for  a  man  of  no  particular  account.  Again,  such 
compounds  as  '  Jack-ioo],'  'jack-aas,'  a  'y(('7,-])ud- 
ding,'  'jVfc/.-an-apes '  (with  intrusion  of  ti  ior  Jack- 
o'-apes)  point  in  the  same  dircoticui.  From  the 
sense  of  familiarity  it  came  to  be  u.sed  of  various 
implements  whicli  served  instead  of  a  boy  or  per- 
sonal attendant,  as  in  '  boot-_;V/r/.  '  and  the  kitclien 
'  jack  '  which  turns  the  spit.  Somewhat  similar  are 
such  usages  as  drinking  jVfc/i-,  the  'jack'  for  the 
small  bowl  aimed  at  in  a  game  of  bow  Is,  and  for 
the  knaves  in  a  pack  of  cards,  as  widl  as  for  a  small 
]>ike  as  opposed  to  the  full-grown  lish.  Ag'ain,  in 
complete  harmony  with  the  sense  are  sucli  com- 
pounds as  '  Jac/,- a- Ian  tern  '  and  'yaci-a-lent ' 
(Shakespeare,  Merry  Wires,  III.  iii.  27).  Jack 
the  Giant-killer  and  Jack  and  the  Bean-stalk  again 
show  the  same  .sense  of  familiarity  without  the 
accompanying  contempt. 

Jack,  or  Jaca  (Artocari>n.i  inter/ri/olia),  a  tree 
of  the  same  genus  with  the  Bread-fruit  (<|.v.),  a 
native  of  the  East  Indies.  It  is  a  larger  tree  than 
the  bread-fruit,  and  has  larger  fruit. 

Jackal  (Persian  shayhid,  Fr.  chacal),  the 
name  of  ;i  number  of  species  of  the  genus  Canis 


JACKAL 


JACKSON 


261 


<see  Dog),  whicliiire  in  many  respects  intermediate 
between  the  wolves  and  foxes.  Cam's  aiiicii.f,  being 
tlie  most  typical  and  widespread  form,  sometimes 
goes  under  tlie  name  of  the  Common  Jackal.     It 


Common  Jackal  (  Cnnix  aureus). 

measures  about  3  feet  in  len.cth,  one-third  of  whicli 
is  occupied  by  the  tail,  \\hilst  the  height  is  about 
18  inches.  The  animal's  build  is  strong,  the  muzzle 
is  more  acute  than  that  of  the  wolf,  blunter  than 
that  of  the  fox,  and  the  bushy  tail  hangs  down  as 
far  as  the  heel.  Tlie  ears  are  short,  less  than  one- 
fourth  the  length  of  the  head,  and  far  apart  ;  tlie 
pupil  of  the  eye  is  round.  The  colour  is  difiicult  to 
<lehne  :  its  ground-tint  is  a  dirty  fawn  or  grayish- 
yellow,  becoming  blacker  on  the  back  and  sides  ; 
the  under  surface  is  white,  reddish-yellow,  or  gray, 
and  there  are  not  unfrequently  ill-detined  dark 
bands  on  the  shoulders  and  hind-quart«rs.  The 
home  of  this  species  is  the  southern  part  of  Asia, 
from  India  (including  Ceylon)  over  Persia,  Arabia, 
Palestine,  and  Asia  Minor.  Hence  it  has  spread, 
perhaps  following  the  track  of  armies,  to  North 
Africa,  the  Morea,  and  Dalmatia.  In  its  habits  as 
well  as  in  its  structure  it  exhibits  characters  inter- 
mediate between  the  wolves  and  foxes ;  like  the 
former  it  hunts  in  packs,  like  the  latter  it  is 
nocturnal.  When  on  the  chase  these  animals  howl 
most  dismally,  and  make  the  night  hideous  in 
re^ons  where  they  abound.  The  singularly  appro- 
priate Arabic  name  Dccb  { '  howler ' )  has  reference 
to  this  habit.  So  far  from  avoiding  the  proximity 
of  man,  they  penetrate  into  ^■illages  in  search  of 
offal  and  carrion,  and  they  will  also  enter  yards, 
houses,  or  tents  in  the  most  shameless  manner,  and 
carrj'  off  whatever  takes  their  fancj-,  sometimes 
articles  absolutely  uneatable.  They  render  a  cer- 
tain amount  of  service  as  scavengers  and  by  killing 
vermin,  such  ,xs  mice,  but  this  is  by  no  means  an 
equivalent  for  the  damage  they  cause  by  their 
depredations  in  sheepfolds  and  poultry-yards,  a-s 
well  as  orchards  and  vineyards.  In  many  districts 
thev  constitute  a  veritable  scourge,  and  can  only  be 
held  in  check  by  their  congeners  the  dogs.  They 
follow  the  larger  carnivores  to  feed  upon  their 
leavings,  a  habit  which  has  given  them  the  reputa- 
tion of  being  '  the  lion's  jiroviders. '  Thev  are 
extremely  cunning,  and  in  oriental  fable  and  \im- 
verb  take  the  place  of  our  reynanl  in  this  respect. 
The  word  '  fox '  in  the  f  )ld  Testament  probably 
refers  in  many  cases  to  them.  According  to  Sir 
Emerson  Tennent,  they  habitually  hide  tlieir  booty, 
anil  if  observed  will  seize  some  indilfeient  article 
anil  make  off  with  it,  as  though  that  were  the 
object  of  their  solicitude,  returning  to  their  real 
spoil  at  the  first  convenient  ojqiortunity.  The 
skull  of  certain  jackals  has  a  homy  outgrowth  some 
half-inch  in  length,  eagerly  sought  for  as  a  charm. 
Jackals  are  readily  tamed,  and  the  likelihood  that 
they  have  given  rise  to  some  of  the  domestic  dogs 
has   already    been    .alluded    to    (see    Doc).      The 


Striped  Jackal  (Canis  lateralis,  C.  adastits)  is  a 
connecting  link  between  the  wolf  and  jackal.  The 
extreme  length  is  a  little  over  a  yard,  and  the 
height  rather  less  than  half  this;  the  pupil  of  the 
eye  is  somewhat  cllijitical  and  oblii|Ue,  the  ears 
widely  separated.  The  s]iecies  is  rather  rare,  but 
has  a  wide  distrilmtion  in  Africa  south  of  the 
Sahara.  The  Jackal-wolf  (Cam's  antlnis)  is  even 
more  wolf-like  than  the  last,  and  has  been  cla.'^sed 
l>y  different  authors  among  the  wolves  or  jackals. 
It  is  much  snuiUer  than  the  wolf,  and  inhaliits 
Northern  Africa.  The  Black-backed  Jackal  (Caiiis 
mesomclas)  is  somewhat  more  fox-like  than  the 
others,  especially  in  the  form  of  the  head.  The 
general  build  is  low.  The  ears  are  large  and  close 
together,  recalling  those  of  the  Fennec  (see  Fox). 
The  area  of  distril)ution  of  this  species  extends  from 
Middle  Nubia  down  the  east  side  of  the  continent 
to  the  Cape,  and  perhaps  across  to  the  west  coast 
also. 

Jack-a-laiiterii.    See  Ignis  Fatuus. 

Jackass,  L.vughixg.  See  Laughing  Jackass. 

Jack-boots.    See  Boots  and  Shoes. 

Jackdaw  (  Comis  moncdula),  a  species  of  crow, 
smaller  than  the  rook  and  carrion  crow,  its  utmost 
length  being  only  about  fourteen  inches.  It  is 
black,  with  purplish  wings  and  tail,  and  a  dark- 
giay  neck.  It  is  a  common  resident  in  the  British 
Islands,  and  is  found  nearly  all  over  Europe,  in 
many  parts  of  which,  however,  it  appears  to  be 
migratory  ;  also  in  Asia  and  the  north  of  Africa. 
It  is  not  found  in  America.  Its  food  consists  of 
insects,  snails,  and  wiunis.  It  builds  its  nest  in 
holes  of  cliffs,  ruins,  and  old  trees.  It  frequents 
towns  and  villages,  often  making  its  nest  in  a 
chimney,  by  dropping  down  stick  after  stick  till 
some  of  them  become  fixed  in  their  oblique  descent ; 
and  on  these  others  are  piled,  affording  a  firm  base 
for  a  nest  of  wool  or  other  soft  substance.  The 
jackdaw  lays  from  four  to  seven  (usually  five) 
iiluish-white  eggs,  which  are  covered  with  small 
dark-brown  spots.  The  jackdaw  is  a  social  bird. 
It  is  easily  domesticated,  and  becomes  very  pert 
and  familiar.  It  has  considerable  powers  of 
mimicry,  and  may  be  taught  to  imitate  very 
exactly  the  human  voice. 

Jackson,  (l)  a  flourishing  city  of  Michigan, 
capital  of  Jackson  county,  is  on  both  sides  of  Grand 
River,  which  is  here  crossed  by  seventeen  bridges 
( five  of  iron ),  76  miles  '\V.  of  Detroit,  and  37  miles 
S.  of  Lansing,  at  the  intersection  of  several  rail- 
ways. It  has  a  number  of  flour,  paper,  and  plan- 
ing mills,  and  of  foundries  and  machine-shops  ;  the 
Michigan  Central  locomotive-works  ;  breweries ; 
and  manufactures  of  furniture,  carriages,  wagons, 
boilers  and  machinerv,  farrjiing  implements, 
corsets,  soap,  &c.,  besides  boots  and  shoes  at 
the  state-prison  here.  There  is  a  flourishing 
general  trade.  'Within  the  city  limits,  and 
close  by,  there  are  several  mines  of  bituminous 
coal.  Jackson  was  settled  in  IS30,  and  became  a 
citv  in  'S.-)7.  Pop.  (ISGO)  4799;  (1870)  11,447; 
(IS90)  20,798.— (2)  Caidtal  of  the  state  of  Missis- 
sippi, on  Pearl  Kiver,  4.')  miles  E.  of  N'icksburg  by 
rail,  with  regular  streets,  and  houses  standing  for 
the  most  part  among  ganlens.  Here,  besides  the 
state-lionse,  with  a  valuable  library,  are  the  usual 
state  charitable  institutions,  and  the  penitentiary. 
There  is  a  consideral>le  trade  in  cotton.  Pop. 
.■J920. — (3)  Capital  of  .Madison  county,  Tennosee, 
on  the  South  Fork  of  the  Forked  Deer  River,  107 
miles  by  rail  S.  by  E.  of  Cairo,  Illinois.  It  is  the 
.seat  of  ^he  South-western  Baptist  University 
(1874),  is  of  some  importance  as  a  cotton  market, 
and  ha-s  planing  and  other  mills  and  railway  shops. 
Pop.  (1890)  10,(^39. 


262 


JACKSON 


Jackson.  ANnUKW,  General,  seventh  piesiilent 
of  tlie  I'niteil  States,  was  horn  at  Waxhaw  on  the 
simthern  honler  of  Nortli  Caro-  cupyrigiit  isao  in  o.s. 
liiia,  March  15,  1707.  His  father,  i>y  j.  b.  Linpincott 
an  iniini,i;rant  from  the  north  of  Compuoy. 
Irelaiul,  died  a  few  days  before  Andrew's  hirth,  and 
his  mother  and  brother  succumbed  to  the  hardshijis 
of  the  revolutionary  war.  After  being  admitted 
to  the  bar  at  Salisbury.  North  Carolina,  Andrew 
removed  in  17S8  to  Ka.sliville,  then  a  frontier  settle- 
ment, and  was  a|)iioinled  public  jirosecutor.  In 
1791  he  married  Mrs  Kaohel  Robards,  daughter  of 
Colonel  John  Donelson,  supposing  that  she  had 
been  divorced  from  her  former  husband.  But  the 
divorce  not  being  legally  granted  until  1793,  Jack- 
son had  the  marriage  ceremony  repeated.  These 
circumstances  furnished  material  for  malignant 
attacks,  and  the  irritable  Jackson  fought  several 
duels,  in  one  of  which,  after  he  had  a  rib  broken, 
he  killed  his  antagonist.  In  the  new  state  of 
Tennessee  Jackson  was  a  leading  man  ;  after  help- 
ing to  frame  its  constitution,  he  became  its  repre- 
sentative in  congress  in  1796,  its  United  States 
senator  in  1797,  and  a  judge  of  its  supreme  court  in 
1798.  Tliis  po.sition  he  held  until  1804,  when  he 
resigned.  He  gave  some  sup]iort  to  Aaron  Burr's 
half-revealed  schemes  of  conrjuest  in  the  south-west, 
and  when  Burr  was  tried  at  Richmond  in  1807  was 
still  his  steadfast  partisan. 

When  war  was  declared  against  Great  Britain  in 
1812,  Jackson,  being  major-general  of  the  state 
militia,  oll'ered  his  services  .and  led  "2500  men  to 
Natchez,  but  General  Armstrong,  tlie  new  secretary 
of  war,  ordered  him  to  disliand  them.  Jackson, 
however,  marched  them  in  a  body  back  to  Nash- 
ville, where  soon  afterwards,  in  an  affray  with 
Colonel  T.  H.  Benton,  he  was  severely  wounded. 
With  his  fractured  arm  still  in  a  sling,  the  general 
took  the  tield  in  September  1813  against  the  Creek 
Indians  in  Alabama.  This  campaign,  in  which  his 
military  genius  was  lirst  ett'ectively  displayed,  was 
closed  by  a  decisive  victory  at  the  Horseshoe  Bend 
of  the  Tallapoosa  River,  Marcli  27,  1814.  Hence- 
forth he  was  familiarly  called  'Old  Hickory.'  On 
May  31  he  was  made  major-general  in  the  regular 
army,  and  appointed  to  command  the  department 
of  the  South.  Pensacola  in  Spanish  Florida  being 
then  freelv  used  by  the  British  as  a  base  of  opera- 
tions, Jackson  took  the  resjionsibility  of  invading 
Spanish  soil,  stormed  Pensacola,  and  when  the 
British  fleet  withdrew  marched  to  New  Orleans, 
which  was  threatened  by  Sir  E.  Pakenham  with 
12,000  veterans.  Jackson  made  his  chief  defence  4 
miles  below  the  city,  where,  along  a  ditch  e.\tendini^ 
from  a  swamp  to  the  Mississippi,  he  constructed 
earthworks.  On  January  8,  1815,  under  cover  of  a 
fog,  Pakenham  tried  to  carry  these  works  by  direct 
assault,  but  within  half  an  hour  the  British  were 
repulsed  witli  a  loss  of  2600  men,  including  their 
commander,  while  the  American  lo.ss  was  but  8 
killed  and  13  wounded.  This  battle  was  remark- 
able not  only  for  the  unprecedented  disparity  of 
loss,  but  for  the  fact  that  it  was  fought  after  the 
treaty  of  i)eace  had  been  signed  at  Ghent,  Deeem. 
bcr  24,  1814. 

In  1818  Jackson  ai'ain  invaded  Florida,  severely 
ch.istised  the  Seniinoles,  and  executed  .Vrbuthnot 
and  Ambrister,  convicted  by  court-martial,  on  veiy 
slight  evidence,  of  inciting  the  Indians  to  war. 
After  the  ]iurch,a.se  of  Florida  Jackson  was  its 
lirst  governor,  but  soon  resigned,  and  in  1823  he 
wa-s  again  elected  to  the  I'nited  States  .senate. 
In  the  next  year  as  a  candidate  for  the  presidency 
he  had  the  higliest  popular  vote,  but  luit  a 
majority.  The  choice  was,  therefore,  made  by 
the  House  of  Re]iresent,atives  from  the  three 
highest  candiilates,  and  J.  Q.  Adams  was  selected  ; 
but  «hen   he  appointed    Henry  Clay  secretary  of 


state,  Jackson  and  his  friends  alleged  that  a 
bargain  had  been  niaile,  transferrin''  Clav's  votes 
to  Adams.  In  1828  Jack.son  w.is  electeii,  having 
178  electoral  votes  out  of  a  total  of  2I!1.  The 
first  president  from  beyond  the  Allcghanies,  lie 
was  a  lyi)ical  product  of  the  new  democratic 
era — fearles.s,  honest,  but  prompt  to  decide  every- 
thing for  personal  iea.sons.  A  striking  feature 
of  his  policy  was  the  sweeping  removal  of  minor 
otticials  and  filling  tlieir  jdaces  with  his  partisans. 
This  system  was  aiitly  described  bv  Senator  ^\■.  I- 
Marcy  in  1831  :  •  To  the  victor  belong  the  si)oils.' 
Jackson's  first  cabinet  was  broken  un  in  con.se- 
quence  of  his  characteristic  Imt  futile  etlbrt  to 
compel  social  recognition  of  Secretary  Eaton's  wife 
by  the  families  of  the  other  secretaries.  The  second 
cabinet  was  in  the  main  composed  of  abler  men. 
Martin  van  Buren,  who  had  been  .secretary  of  state, 
was  nominated  minister  to  England,  but  after  he 
had  gone  abroad  his  confirmation  was  defeated  in 
the  senate  by  the  casting  vote  of  Vice-president 
Calhoun.  This  strenuous  advocate  of  state  sove- 
reignty was  now  openly  opposed  to  Jackson,  a-s 
was  shown  at  a  banquet  in  1830,  when  the  president 
gave  his  famous  toa-st — '  The  Federal  Union — it 
must  be  preserved,'  and  the  vice-president  re- 
sponded with  another — '  Liberty — dearer  than  the 
Union.'  Congress  readjusted  the  tariff  in  1S.'J2, 
retaining  the  protective  sy.steni  which  had  pre- 
vailed .since  the  peace  of  1815,  and  against  which 
South  Carolina  had  inotested  as  unconstitutional 
and  oppressive.  On  November  24,  1832,  its  state 
convention  adopted  an  ordinance  of  nullification. 
President  Jackson's  proclamation,  ]uepared  by 
Edward  Livingston,  who  had  succeeded  A  an  Buren 
as  secretary  of  state,  ably  argued  the  whole  ques- 
tion, and  declared  a  firm  determination  to  execute 
the  laws  and  jne.serve  the  Union.  Under  the 
leadership  of  Clay,  congress  adopted  a  compromise 
tariff'  in  ^larch  1833,  and  South  Carolina  repealed 
its  ordinance. 

The  president's  veto  power  was  much  more  freely 
used  by  Jackson  than  by  his  pre<lecessois.  His 
most  memorable  ^eto  was  that  of  a  bill  to  renew 
the  charter  of  the  United  States  Bank,  which 
became  the  chief  Issue  in  the  ]iresidential  campaign 
of  1832.  Jackson,  having  obtained  219  electoral 
votes  i>ut  of  28(),  resolved  to  destroy  the  bank  by 
removing  the  government  deposits.  Two  sticces- 
si\e  secretaries  of  the  trea-sury  refused  to  do  so,  hut 
a  third  who  was  not  confirmed  by  the  senate  issued 
the  order.  The  senate  censured  this  act  as  usurpa 
tion,  but  Jackson  had  a  closing  triumph  when  the 
censure  was  cx])unged  on  January  Iti,  1837.  In  liLs 
administration  the  nation.-il  debt  was  fully  \nu<\  in 
1835,  and  the  surplus  revenue  which  accumulated 
was  ordered  to  be  distributed  to  the  several  states. 
In  foreign  atl'aiis  Jackson  won  cicilit  by  enforcing 
the  claims  for  the  spoliations  committed  by  French 
vessels  during  the  wars  of  Napoleon.  In  1831 
France  h\'  treaty  agreed  to  pay  §5,000,tK)0,  but 
afterwards  delayed  payment.  The  president  then 
recommen<led  to  congress  to  seize  I'rench  vessels  to 
make  u])  the  amount,  and  France  after  a  protest 
paid  the  claim.  Jackson's  second  term  having 
expired  on  March  4,  1837,  he  retired  to  private 
life  at  the  Hermitage,  near  Nashville,  whence  he 
still  watched  with  keen  interest  the  great  ixditical 
niovements  of  the  time.  He  died  at  the  Hermit- 
age, June  8,  1845. 

The  most  cumi)lfte  biograi)hy  is  by  James  Parton  (3 
vols,  Xew  "i'ork,  1800).  For  Jackson's  adiiiini.stration, 
T.  H.  Kenton's  Tliirt;/  Years'  View,  and  Von  Hoist's  and 
other  histories  of  the  United  States  should  be  examined. 
See  also  the  Life  by  W.  G.  Sumner,  in  the  'American 
Statesmen'  (1.S.82).  ind  that  by  Dyer  (1891). 

JiK'ksoil.  TllOM.vs  JoN.VTH.w,  an  American 
general,  better  known  as  '  Stonewall  Jackson,'  was 


JACKSON 


JACOBI 


■IGli 


iKirn  iit  Clai ksljiiif;,  AVest  'V'irginia,  '21st  Januarj- 
1824,  grailuateil  at  West  Point  iu  184(i,  eiitereil  the 
artillery,  ami  gairieil  two  l)revets  in  the  war  with 
Mexico.  He  retired  from  the  army  in  1851,  and 
l)ecame  professor  in  the  Virginia  Military  Institute, 
where  he  was  more  noted  for  his  conscientiousness 
and  religious  earnestness  than  for  his  success  as  a 
teacher.  He  took  command  of  the  Confederate 
troops  at  Harper's  Ferry  on  the  secession  of  Vir- 
ginia, and  commanded  a  brigade  at  Bull  Run, 
where  his  firm  stand  gained  him  his  iioin  dc  guerre 
of  'Stonewall."  Promoted  to  major-general,  in  the 
spring  of  1S62,  in  tlie  campaign  of  the  Shenandoah 
valley,  he  out-generalled  McDowell,  Banks,  and 
Kremont.  and  eventually  drove  hack  upon  the 
Lower  Shenandoah  these  three  Federal  aiinies,  two 
of  them  of  superior  strength  to  his  own.  Then, 
hastening  by  forceil  marches  to  Richmond,  he 
turned  the  scale  at  (iaines's  Mills  (•27th  June),  and, 
the  Confederate  cajiital  relieved,  returned  to  defeat 
Banks  at  Cedar  Run  in  August.  He  then  seized 
Pope's  depOt  at  Mana.ssas,  and  his  corps  bore  the 
brunt  of  the  lighting  in  the  victorious  seccmd  battle 
there  on  .SOtli  August.  On  15th  September  he 
captured  Harper's  Ferry  with  1.3,000  prisoners  and 
70  cannon,  and  the  next  day,  after  a  trying  uiglit 
inarch,  arrived  at  Sharpsburg,  where  his  presence, 
in  the  battle  of  Antietam,  saved  Lee  from  utter 
ilisaster.  Advanced  to  lieutenant-general,  he  com- 
manded the  right  wing  at  Fredericksburg  (1.3th 
December),  and  at  Chancellorsville  on  1st  May 
1863  drove  Hooker  back  within  the  Wilderness. 
All  next  day  .Jackson  was  on  the  march,  moving 
round  the  liauk  of  the  National  army  ;  at  niglitfall 
he  fell  upon  its  right  and  drove  it  back  on  Chan- 
cellorsville. Returning  from  a  reconnaissance, 
liLs  ])arty  was  lired  on  l)y  some  of  his  own  coni- 
manil,  and  Jackson  received  three  wounds.  His 
left  arm  was  amputateil  ;  but  pneumonia  set  in  on 
the  7tli,  and  on  the  10th  Jlay  hedied.  Jackson  was 
the  idol  of  his  troops  :  and  his  power  over  his  men 
was  justilied  as  much  by  his  .soundness  of  judgment 
as  by  his  personal  fearlessness.  No  single  death 
was  so  severe  a  blow  to  either  side.  See  Lives  by 
Dabnev  (1866),  Cooke  (1866),  his  wife  (1892), 
Parton  (1893),  and  G.  F.  Henderson  (1898). 

Jackson,  Willi.vm  (1730-1803),  musician,  was 
born  at  Exeter,  where,  after  some  years  in  London, 
he  in  1777  became  organLst  of  the  cathedral.  He 
published  many  songs  and  canzonets,  besides 
sonatas,  dramatic  pieces,  &c.,  some  of  his  com- 
positions having  great  vogue  in  their  daj-. 

Jacksonnlle,  ( I )  capital  of  Duval  county, 
Florida,  and  ihe  ]irincipal  business  town  in  the 
state,  is  on  the  St  John's  River,  '23  ujiles  from  its 
mouth.  The  meetingjilace  of  live  railways,  it  is 
It).')  miles  by  rail  E.  of  the  state  capital,  Tall!ihius.see. 
Tlie  streets  are  w  idc  and  well  shaded  ;  there  are 
numerous  hotels,  chielly  for  tlie  accommodation  of 
invalids  and  winter  visitors.  Tlie  city  has  a  large 
coiust  trade,  besiiles  an  active  river  trade.  The 
chief  exports  are  lumber,  cotton,  moss,  oranges 
and  marmalade,  and  early  vegetalih-s.  Pop. 
(1880)7650;  (1890)  I7,'201— inore  than  doubled.— 
(2)  Capital  of  Moi;,'an  county,  Illinois,  stamls  in  a 
fertile  prairie  region,  at  the  junction  of  several 
railways,  .34  miles  \V.  by  S.  of  Springlield.  It  is  a 
ph'iusaiit  town,  and  noted  for  its  schools.  Here  are 
the  Illinois  College  (Congregational  ;  founded  1830), 
the  Illinois  Female  College  ( .Methoilist ;  founded 
1847),  a  conservatory  of  music,  and  other  educa- 
tional institutions  ;  and  here,  too,  are  state  a.sylums 
for  tlie  blind,  the  deaf  and  dumb,  and  the  insane, 
and  an  asylum  Uir  the  idiotic  and  feeble-minded. 
There  are  nianiU'actures  of  woollens,  iiaiier,  machin- 
ery, boilers,  lunilier,  fiiriiilure,  coni^ectionery,  Sec. 
Pop.  (1880)  10,9'27;  (1890)  1'2,935. 


Ja<'ol»  ( Heb.  Yu'aquh),  one  of  the  three  chief 
Hebrew  patriarchs,  second  son  of  Lsaac  and  Re- 
bekah,  whose  history  and  character  are  graphically 
deserilied  in  the  Book  of  tlenesis.  He  and  his 
family  followed  Joseph  to  Egypt,  where  he  lived  for 
seventeen  years;  and,  dying  there,  he  was  carried 
to  Hebron  for  burial.  Many  see  in  the  history  of 
Jacob  (on  whom  Israel,  the  name  of  the  nation, 
was  also  conferred)  an  ethnological  record  rather 
than  a  personal  one.  Mention  is  frequently 
made  of  Jacob  both  in  the  Old  and  New  Testa- 
ments, and  there  are  also  many  legends  about  him 
in  Raldiinical  and  Patristic,  as  well  as  in  the 
Mohammedan  literature.  The  names  James, 
Jacques,  Giacomo  are  all,  as  well  as  Jacob  and 
Yakooh,  various  modern  derivatives  from  the 
Hebrew  patriarch's  name.  See  Jews. 
Jacob.  Bibliophile.  See  L.\croix,  P.-vul. 
Jacobahad,  a  town  of  L'pper  Sind,  26  miles 
NW.  of  Shikarpur  by  rail,  near  the  Beluchi 
frontier,  has  cantonments,  a  residency,  and  accom- 
modation fen-  the  trade  caravans  from  central  Asia. 
Here  is  the  memorial  tomb  of  General  John  Jacob, 
commandant  of  the  Sind  Horse,  who  founded  the 
place  in  1847,  and  died  here  in  1858.  Pop.  11,35'2, 
including  cantonments. 

Jacobi,  Friedrich  Heinrich,  a  German  philo- 
sopher, born  at  Diisseldorf,  23th  January  1743. 
The  son  of  a  merchant,  he  was  trained  at  Frank- 
fort and  Geneva  for  a  mercantile  career.  But, 
abandoning  business,  he  was  in  1770  appointed 
councillor  of  finance  for  the  joint  duchies  of 
JUlicli  and  Berg,  and  thenceforward  devoted  him- 
self princi])ally  to  literary  and  philosophical  pur- 
suits. He  maintained  an  active  correspondence 
with  Goethe,  Hainann,  Bouterwek,  and  was  ac- 
quainted M'ith  Wieland,  Herder,  Lessing,  Hem- 
sterhuis,  anil  others.  In  1804  he  was  summoned  to 
Munich  in  connection  with  the  newly-founded 
Academy  of  Sciences,  of  which  he  became  presi- 
dent in' 1807.  He  died  at  Munich,  10th  March 
1819.  Jacobi  was  not  a  systematic  thinker:  he 
elaborated  no  system  of  philosophy.  He  had  lie- 
come  convinced  of  the  truth  of  one  or  two  leading 
ideas  ;  and  from  the  standpoint  they  gave  him  he 
examined  the  chief  modem  philosophies  that  were 
known  in  his  day.  His  distinguishing  doctrines 
are  these  :  philosophy  as  elaborated  by  the  under- 
standing cannot  transcend  the  sphere  of  sense- 
given  materials,  and  consequently  can  never  get 
conviction  of  the  existence  of  such  things  as  God, 
immortality,  iVc. :  but  man  has  yet  another  faculty 
whereby  he  has  immediate  conviction  of  the  real 
existence  of  things— viz.  reason  ;  liy  this  faculty  we 
have  immediate  conviction  or  belief  not  only  of  the 
reality  of  objects  perceived  by  the  senses,  but  also 
of  the  reality  of  the  highest  verities  that  lie  beyond 
the  apprehension  of  .sense.  Taking  these  views  for 
his  guidance  he  successively  examined  Spinozism, 
in  Veber  die  Leitrc  des  Sjiiuuza,  in  Briefeu  an 
Meiidclsso/in  (1785)  ;  Hume's  teachings  and  Kant's, 
in  Darid  II intie  iiher  den  (Uiiuben,  oder  Iilealisuins 
nnd  Rccdismus  ( 1787) ;  and  Schelling's  philosopliy, 
in  Von  den  rjotttielieu  TJiiif/en  und  Hirer  (jjf'enbaruiiij 
(1811).  He  also  exjiounded  his  teaching  in  philo- 
sophical romances — Woldeiiair  (1779)  and  Alhrill's 
Bricfsammlunii  (  1781 ) — in  an  Ojien  Letter  to  Fie/ite 
(1799),  and  other  occiisional  writings.  His  works 
appeared  at  Leipzig  in  6  vols,  in  181'2-'24.  See 
monographs  on  him  by  Kuhn  ( 1834)  and  Zirngiebl 
(1S67). 

Jacobi,  K,\RL  GrST.W  J.\KOn,  German  niathe- 
maliciaii,  was  born  at  Potsdam,  lOtli  December 
1804.  He  studied  at  the  university  of  Berlin,  ami 
in  1827  was  appointed  extraordinary,  and  two  ye.iis 
later  ordinary  profe.s.sor  of  Mathematics  at  Kiinigs 
berg.     Jacobi  excelled  in  analytical  mathemalii's; 


264 


JACOBINS 


JACOBITES 


his  name  is  best  known  from  his  discos-eiy  of  ellijitic 
functions.  Besides  this  lie  did  most  vahiahle  wmk 
iu  connection  with  ditl'erential  equations  and  the 
tlieorv  of  nunihei'S  :  his  name  is  jieqietuated  in  tlie 
theory  of  ilcterminants.  In  1829  he  publislied  liis 
most  celebrated  work,  Fundamentu  nom  Theorim 
Finietiunum  E/hpticnrmn,  for  which  he  received 
the  medal  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences  of  Paris. 
Most  of  his  other  investigations  were  i)nblished 
in  Cirllc's  Journal  fiir  Mathciimtih.  Jacobi  was 
acriuainted  with  Gauss,  Legendre,  Abel,  and  other 
great  mathematicians  of  liis  own  day.  In  lS-t'2 
he  retired  from  his  chair,  owin"  to  ill-healtli, 
and  settled  at  Berlin.  He  died  in  that  city 
on  18th  February  1851.  His  Gcsnmmelte  Wcrkc 
(7  vols.  1  were  published  by  the  Berlin  Academy 
in  1881-91. 

Jneobins,  the  membere  of  a  political  club 
which  exercised  a  very  great  influence  during  the 
French  Revolution.  It  was  originally  called  the 
Club  Breton,  and  was  formed  at  Versailles,  when 
the  States-general  assembled  there  in  1789.  It 
then  consisted  exclusively  of  members  of  the 
States-general,  all  more  or  less  liberal  or  revolu- 
tionary, but  of  very  different  shades  of  opinion. 
On  the  removal  of  the  court  and  National 
Assembly  to  Paris  this  club  Ijegan  to  acquire 
importance.  It  now  met  in  a  hall  of  the  former 
Jacoliin  convent  in  the  Rue  St  Honore,  Paris  ;  the 
Dominicans  of  France  having  come  to  be  known  as 
Jacobins  from  their  chief  Paris  establishment  being 
that  of  St  Jacques  ( Jacobus )  in  the  Rue  St  Jacques. 
Hence  the  revolutionaiy  association  received  the 
name  of  the  Jacobin  Club,  which  was  first  given  to 
it  by  its  enemies  ;  the  name  which  it  adopted  being 
that  of  the  Society  of  Friends  of  the  Constitution. 
It  now  also  admitted  members  who  were  not 
members  of  the  National  Assemlily,  and  held 
regular  and  public  sittings.  It  e.xercised  a  great 
influence  over  the  agitation,  of  which  the  chief 
seat  and  focus  was  in  the  capital,  and  this  influ- 
ence was  extended  over  the  whole  countrj'  by 
affiliated  societies.  Its  power  increased,  until  it 
became  greater  than  that  of  the  National  Assenildy. 
It  formed  branch  societies  or  clubs  throughout 
France,  of  which  there  were  soon  not  less  than 
1200.  When  the  National  Assembly  dissolved  itself 
in  September  1791,  the  election  of  the  Legislative 
Assembly  was  mainly  accomplisheil  under  the 
influence  of  the  Jacobin  Club.  Almost  all  the 
great  events  which  followed  in  rapid  succes.sion 
were  determined  by  the  voice  of  the  club,  whose 
deliberations  were  regarded  with  more  interest 
than  those  of  the  Legislative  Assembly.  It  reached 
the  zenith  of  its  power  when  the  National  Conven- 
tion met  in  Se_i)tember  1792.  The  agitation  for  the 
death  of  the  King,  the  storm  which  destroyed  the 
Girondist.s,  the  excitement  of  the  lowest  "cla-sses 
against  the  bonrgcoisie  m-  middle  classes,  and  the 
reign  of  terror  over  all  France  were  the  work  of 
the  Jacobins.  But  the  overthrow  of  Robespierre 
on  the  9th  Thermidor  1794  gave  also  the  deathblow 
to  the  Jacobin  Club.  The  magic  of  its  name  was 
destroyed  ;  and  the  Jacobins  sought  in  vain  to  con- 
tend against  a  reaction  which  increased  ilaily  both 
in  the  Convention  and  among  the  jieople.  A  law 
of  October  10  forba<le  the  aifiliation  of  clubs,  and 
on  November  9,  1794,  the  Jacobin  Club  was  finally 
closed.  Its  i)lace  of  meeting  was  soon  after  de- 
molished.— The  term  Jacobins  is  often  emjiloyed  to 
designate  persons  of  extreme  revolutionary  senti- 
ments.    For  the  Anti-Jacobin,  see  CANNING. 

'Jacobites  (from  the  Lat.  Jacobus,  'James'), 
the  name  given  after  the  Revolution  of  1G88  to 
the  adiierents  of  the  exiled  Stuarts — James  II. 
(16.S.'i-1701 )  and  his  son  and  two  grandsons,  .lames 
Francis  Edward,  the  Chevalier  de  St  George  ( 1US8- 


1766),  Charles  Edward  (1720-88),  and  Henry  Bene- 
dict, Cardinal  Ycnk  (  172.5-1807).  Those  adherents 
were  recruited  from  the  Catholics,  the  Nonjurors, 
the  High  Churchmen  and  Tories  generally,  dis- 
contented and  place-seeking  Whigs,  the  Episco- 
palians and  Highlanders  of  Scotland,  and  the  great 
body  of  the  Irish  people.  Oxford  throughout  was  a 
great  Jacobite  centre,  a  zealous  npholder  of  '  pa-ss- 
ive  obedience'  and  the  'divine  right  of  kings;' 
whilst  Camlmdge,  on  the  other  hand,  was  all  for 
a  Protestant  succession.  First  came  the  battle  of 
Killiecrankie  (1689),  where  fell  Graham  of  Claver- 
house,  and  the  Irish  campaign  (1690-91).  with  its 
battle  of  the  Boyne  and  the  treaty  of  Limerick  ; 
next,  in  1696,  the  Assassination  Plot,  the  chief 
actor  in  which,  Sir  Georjje  Barclay,  escaped,  but 
for  which  Sir  John  Fenwick,  Sir  William  Parkyns, 
and  Sir  John  Friend  were  executed.  Then  in  1715 
there  was  the  twofold  rebellion — one  in  the  High- 
lands under  the  Earl  of  Mar,  another  in  the  Border 
country  under  Thomas  Forster,  M.P.,  and  the  Earl 
of  Derwentwater.  Both  practically  ended,  in  spite 
of  the  Chevalier's  subsequent  landing,  on  the  self- 
same day  (13th  November)  with  the  indecisive 
battle  of  Sheriftmuir  and  the  surrender  at  Preston, 
where  nearly  two-thirds  of  the  1500  prisoners  were 
Scots.  Seven  nobles  were  sentenced  to  death,  but 
onl}'  Kenmure  and  Derwentwater  suffered,  Nairn, 
Carnwath,  and  Widdrington  being  reprieved,  and 
Nithsdale  and  Wintoun  escaping  from  prison,  as 
likewise  did  Forster.  Not  for  the  first  or  the  la.st 
time,  the  inferior  prisoners  fared  worse  than  the 
principals,  twenty-six  being  executed,  while  over  a 
thousand  submitted  to  the  king's  mercy,  and  jieti- 
tioned  to  be  transported  to  the  American  planta- 
tions. Alberoni's  expedition  to  the  West  Highlands 
(1719),  with  its  'battle'  of  Glenshiel.  was  a  petty 
aft'air  compared  with  the  '15  or  with  the  nine 
months'  rebellion  of  the  "45,  whose  hero  throughout, 
as  indeed  of  the  whole  Jacobite  movement,  was 
'  Bonny  Prince  Charlie. '  It  opened  with  his  land- 
ing in"  the  Hebrides  (23d  July),  and  closcil  with 
liis  crushing  defeat  at  Culloden  (16tli  A|iril  I74t)). 
intermediate  events  being  the  victory  of  Preston- 
pans,  the  capture  of  Carlisle,  the  raising  of  the 
ilanchester  regiment,  the  turning  at  Derby  (6th 
December),  and  the  victory  of  Falkirk.  This, 
more  than  the  '15  even,  was  mainly  a  Scottish, 
mainly  indeed  a  Highland,  rebellion.  The  English 
Jacobites  as  a  body  held  aloof;  and  of  the  chief 
\'ictims  beheaded,  one  only,  Charles  R.ulclytt'e 
( Derwentwater's  brother),  was  an  Englishnian. 
The  others  were  the  Earl  of  Kilmarnock,  Lord 
Balnierino,  Sir  John  Wedderburn,  and  Lord  Lovat. 
The  Earls  of  Cromarlie  and  Traquair  were  let  off', 
and  nearly  a  thousand  pristmcrs  had  their  death- 
sentence  commuted  to  transportation  or  forced 
eidistment  ;  but  fifty  were  hanged.  In  stout  old 
Balmerino's  avowal,  'If  the  Great  Mogul  had  set 
ti])  his  standard  I  should  have  fcdiowed  it,  for  I 
could  not  starve,'  we  see  one  type  of  the  Jacobite  ; 
another,  much  ba.ser,  was  Lovat,  who  idayed  for 
a  dukedom,  whilst  ho]iing  to  risk  nothing,  for  he 
sent  his  son  off  to  light,  ami  himself  stayeil  at 
home.  The  hist  Jacobite  hanged  (on  7th  June 
1753)  was  I)r  Archibald  Cameron,  brother  to 
Locheil  ;  and  in  1772  the  last  of  the  Jacobite 
heads  fell  down  from  its  spike  upcm  Temple  Bar. 

This  sketch  by  no  means  exhausts  trie  list  of 
notabl<!  Jacobites,  which  comprised  at  nne  time  or 
another  Jeremy  ( 'idlicr,  Siichcverel,  Chaiies  Leslie, 
IJolingbroke,  Harlev,  Ormond,  Marshal  Keith, 
Rob  Roy,  William  Law,  Bishop  Atterbury,  Carte, 
Hearne,  Dr  King,  Patten  and  Murray  of  linmgh- 
ton  (the  two  Judases  of  the  15  and  the  '45), 
Flora  Macdonald,  Sir  Robert  Strange,  and  Sanmcl 
Johnson.  (Jne  remembers  the  Doctor's  words 
about  his  pension  (1762):    'Now  that  I  liave  it, 


JACOBITES 


JADE 


■2Gr, 


I  am  the  same  man  in  even-  respect  that  I  have 
ever  been  :  I  retain  the  same  principles.  It  is  tnie 
tliat  I  cannot  now  cui-se  [smiling]  the  House  of 
Hanover,  nor  wouUl  it  be  decent  for  nie  to  drink 
King  James's  healtli  in  the  wine  that  King  George 
gives  me  money  to  pay  for.  But,  sir,  I  tliink  that 
the  pleasure  of  cursinj:  the  House  of  Hanover  and 
il  rill  King  King  James's  health  are  amply  over- 
b.ilanceii  by  three  Imndred  pounds  a  year. '  There 
spoke  an  honest  Jacobite,  and  there  too  spoke  the 
spirit  of  the  age.  .Jacobitisni  might  linger  on  as 
a  tradition  among  the  Nonjurors,  the  very  last  of 
whose  bishops  died  in  1805 ;  but  as  an  active  prin- 
ciple it  had  long  since  become  extinct,  the  reason 
of  such  extinction  being  less  the  disasters  of  its 
adherents  or  the  worthlessuess  of  the  cause  than 
the  growing  prosperity  of  the  nation  at  large. 
Beati  pofi.sii/entes  had  a  double  application,  to  sub- 
jects no  less  than  to  sovereign. 

The  posthumou-s  .Jacobitisni  of  the  19th  century — 
'  Charlie  o'er  the  Water  nonsense,'  as  Borrow  terms 
it — was  largely  an  outcome  of  Scott's  splendid 
romance,  Wavcrlei/  (181-1);  and  many,  perhaps 
most  of  our  best-known  Jacobite  lyrics  were  com- 
posed by  post- Jacobite  poets — Bums,  Scott.  Hogg, 
Lady  Naime,  AVilliara  Glen,  Allan  Cunningham, 
&c.  This  same  19th  century,  which  has  liearil 
mass  of  requiem  said  for  Prince  Charles  Edward 
by  a  Protestant  minister  (18S8),  and  which  has 
seen  the  Stuart  Exhibition  (1888-89),  has  not  been 
without  its  two  Stuart  pretenders.  They  were 
'  John  Sobieski  Stolberg  Stuart.  Count  d'A'lbanie  ' 
(179.5-1872),  and  his  brother  '  Cliarles  Edward. 
Count  d'Albanie'  (1799-1880),  who  were  certainly 
the  sons  of  Lieutenant  Thomas  Allen,  Pi. X.,  and  who 
claimed  that  he  was  the  son  of  the  young  Chevalier. 

See  the  article  Stewart  (with  works  there  cited)  for 
the  exiled  Stuarts  ;  other  articles  on  persons  and  events 
mentioned  above,  and  on  'Williain  III.,  Anne,  George  I.. 
II.,  in. ;  the  histories  of  Macaulay,  Stanhope,  HUl  Bur- 
ton, Lecky,  and  C.  S.  Terry ;  the  CuUoden  Papers  ( 1815 ) ; 
Hogg's  Jacobite  Relics  (1819);  R.  Chambers's  JacrMu 
Memoirs  (1834),  and  ffistorii  of  the  Bebellion  of  1745 
(ISliS;  7th  ed.  1870);  Jesse's 'il/f'mo!)-«  of  the  Pretenihrs 
and  their  Adherents  (1845);  Mrs  Thomson's  J/emoir.t  of 
the  Jacobites  (184.5-46);  Dr  Doran's  ionrfoH  in  Jacobite 
Times  (1877);  W.  K.  Dickson,  The  Jacobite  Attempt  of 
171!)  (Scot.  Hist.  Soc,  1895);  Bishop  Forbes,  The  L.mm 
in  Moumimj  (Scot.  BUst.  Soc,  3  vela,  1895-96);  and  A. 
Lang's  Prince  Charles  Edward  (1900). 

Jacobites,  in  Church  Historj-.  See  Greek 
Chirch,  V'ol.  V.  p.  398. 

Jacob's  Ladder  {Polemonium  ccenUeum),  a 
hertiaceous  perennial  plant  of  the  natural  order 
Polemoniacea?,  common  in  the  centre  and  south  of 
Europe,  and  found  also  in  the  temperate  ]);uts  of 
Asia  and  North  America.  It  ha,s  a  smooth  stem 
li  to  2  feet  high,  and  a  terminal  panicle  of  bright 
blue  (sometimes  white)  flowers,  with  wheel-shajicd 
5-lobed  corolla.  Great  medicinal  virtues  were  once 
ascribed  to  it,  but  the  only  quality  which  it  seems 
to  possess  is  a  slight  astriiigency. 

Jacobas,  a  gold  coin,  of  the  value  of  twenty- 
five  shillings  sterling,  struck  in  the  reign  of  James 
L  (lC():$-25). 

Jacotot,  Jean  Joseph,  the  inventor  of  the 
'universal  methofl'  of  education,  was  bom  at 
Dijon,  in  France,  on  4th  March  1770.  In  the 
course  of  hi.s  chequered  career  he  was  successively 
fiolilier,  deputy-director  of  the  Polytechnic  School, 
military  secretan,',  and  the  holder  of  various  pro- 
fes.sorial  chairs,  a.s  of  Mathematics,  Koman  Law, 
&c.  He  retired  to  Belgium  in  1815,  and  three 
vears  later  was  appointed  lecturer  on  the  French 
language  in  the  university  of  Lonvain,  and  after- 
wards director  of  the  militar\'  Nomial  School.  He 
died  at  Paris,  30th  July  1840.     The  fundamental 


principles  upon  which  his  .system  of  education  rests 
are  that  the  mental  capacities  of  all  men  are  equal ; 
the  unequal  results  of  education  depend  almost 
exclusively  upon  will  ;  every  pei'son  is  able  to 
educate  himself,  provided  he  is  once  started  in  the 
right  way :  knowledge  should  Vie  accjuiretl  in  the 
hrst  place  through  instinctive  experience,  or  by  the 
niemoni'.  For  example,  in  imparting  a  knowledge 
of  a  language,  he  began  l)y  making  the  pupil 
commit  to  memorj-  a  single  passage  :  then  he  en- 
couraged bini  to  study  for  himself,  tirst  the  separate 
words,  then  the  letters,  then  the  grammar,  and 
lastly  the  full  meaning  and  import.  Jacotot's 
system  has  some  points  of  resemblance  to  Hamil- 
ton's (see  Hamilton,  James).  He  expounded 
his  views  in  Eiiseiqncment  Univcrsel  (1823).  See 
Life  by  A.  Guillard  (Paris,  1S60). 

Jacqiiard  Loom,  named  after  the  inventor, 
Joseph  Marie  Jacquard  (1752-1834).     See  AVeav- 

INO. 

Jacqnemart.  Jules  (1837-80),  French  etcher. 
See  ExGR.wiNG,  Vol.  IV.  p.  380. 

JaCQnerie,  the  name  given  to  an  insnrrectiim 
of  peasants  in  France  in  1358,  when  the  French 
king  John  was  a  prisoner  in  England.  The  nobles 
called  the  peasants  contemptuously  '  Japc|wes  Bon- 
homme;'  hence  the  word  Jacquerie.  The  rising 
was  caused  by  long-continued  oppression  on  the 
part  of  the  nobles.  It  broke  out  in  the  neighbour- 
liood  of  Paris,  but  extended  to  the  banks  of  the 
Marne  and  the  Oise.  The  magnitude  of  tlie  danger 
forced  the  nobles  to  make  common  cause,  and  on 
9th  June  the  peasants  were  defeated  with  great 
slaughter  near  Meaux.  This  put  an  end  to  the 
insurrection. 

Jactitation  of  Marriage  is  a  false  pretence 
of  being  married  to  another — a  wrong  for  which 
tlie  party  injured  could  formerly  olitain  redress  by 
a  suit  in  the  Ecclesiastical  Court.  Jurisdiction  in 
such  suits  now  belongs  to  the  Probate  and  Divorce 
Division  of  the  High  Court  of  Justice ;  but  the 
suit  is  unknown  in  modern  practice,  the  English 
law  being  clear  enough  to  enable  parties  to  ascer- 
tain without  litigation  whether  they  ai-e  married 
or  not.  In  Scotland,  where  the  law  is  not  so  clear, 
the  suit  of  declarator  of  putting  to  silence  (i.e. 
putting  an  end  to  pretended  claims)  an.swers  the 
same  purpose  as  a  suit  for  jactitation.  Thus, 
in  the  famous  Yelverton  case  (1801)  the  lady's 
action  for  declarator  of  marriage  was  met  by  a 
cross-action  for  declarator  of  putting  to  silence. 

Jade  is  a  name  applied  to  about  150  varieties 
of  ornamental  stones,  but  should  be  ])ro]i<'rly 
restricted  to  the  mineral  Nephrite  (q.v.),  so  called 
froiri  the  Greek  ncphros  because  it  was  supposed 
by  the  ancients  to  have  Airtue  in  renal  diseases. 
The  name  is  from,  the  Spanish  ijadu,  'the  flank' 
(from  the  Latin  iii(t),  because  it  was  believed 
to  cure  pain  in  the  side :  and  the  mineral  was 
brought  by  the  Spaniards  from  Mexico.  True 
jade  is  a  native  silicate  of  calcium  and  magnesium, 
tough,  and  of  various  shades  of  green,  yellowish- 
gray,  and  greenish-white.  It  is  never  crystal- 
line, and  it  is  veiy  hard,  bnt  not  excessively  so, 
and  is  remarkable  for  lieing  less  hard  when  freshly 
broken  than  .after  exposure.  The  specific  gr,a\  ity 
varies  from  2'91  to  3-06.  Jade  has  been  reporteil 
in  isolated  ca.ses  in  Prussia,  Turkey,  and  Corsica, 
but  import.ant  de|)osits  are  unknown  in  Europe. 
It  is  princiiially  founil  in  China.  Siberia,  New 
Zealand,  ami  in  some  of  the  islands  of  the  Snutli 
Pacific,  while  its  occurrence  has  also  been  reixuteil 
in  British  Columbia  and  Alaska.  Although  jade 
ornaments  were  brought  by  the  Spaniards  from 
Central  and  South  America,  the  mineral  is  not 
found  there  in  situ.  It  is  doubtful,  moreover,  if 
the  majority  of  the.se  reputed  jade  ornamenls  were 


266 


JADE 


JAGELLONS 


of  true  jade.  The  '  Amazon-stone,'  for  instance,  is 
not,  l)ut  is  a  variety  of  niiorocline  felspar,  wliile 
the  '  Bowenite '  of  North  America  is  really  a  \  aiiety 
of  serpentine.  Many  olijects  exported  from  China 
as  of  jade  are  really  of  serpentine.  A  variety  of 
jade  found  in  New  Caledonia  and  the  Maniuesas 
is  known  as  'Oceanic  jade,'  (littering  from  the 
orientivl  variety  in  the  \iroportions  of  lime  and 
magnesia.  The  New  Zealand  jade  also  dilVers  from 
the  Asiatic,  and  many  of  the  stones  used  by  the 
Maoris  known  as  /:aic(i-/i-aiva  do  not  contain  some 
of  the  inseparable  ingredients  of  true  jade.  The 
real  jade  found  in  New  Zealand  is  known  to  the 
Maoris  as  the  punnmu  or  'greenstone,'  and  is 
found  along  the  west  coast  of  the  south  island. 
They  work  it  into  amulets,  ornaments,  and  even 
axedieads  on  account  of  its  hardness.  In  New 
Caledonia  and  some  of  the  other    Pacific   islands 

i'ade  is  also  used  for  axe-heads,  and  thus  has 
leconie  known  to  mineralogists  as  axe-stone. 

Nowhere  is  jade  found  so  extensively  and  prized 
so  liighly  as  in  China.  And  yet  a  good  deal  of 
the  so-called  China  jade  is  really  jadeite — which  is 
a  silicate  of  alumina  and  sodium,  and  therefore 
a  ditlerent  eliemical  compound  from  true  jade. 
Jadeite  has  a  brighter  colour,  and  is  harder  than 
jade,  while  its  sp.  gr.  ranges  from  3 '28  to  3  ".So. 
Jadeite  is  also  found  in  Burma,  near  Bliamo,  and 
is  doubtle.ss  the  substance  of  wdiich  manj-  of  the 
old  Mexican  and  Central  American  ornaments 
were  made.  An  Eg\'ptian  scaraba'us  in  jadeite 
has  been  founil,  and  axes  of  jadeite  have  been  dis- 
covereil  in  the  lake-dwellings  of  central  E\irope, 
although  the  mineral  itself  is  unknown  in  Europe. 

In  China  jade  is  most  ingeniously  and  elabo- 
rately carved.  It  is  called  Vii-chi,  or  'yu-stone,' 
and  has  for  a^es  been  obtaineil  from  the  Kuen-lun 
Mountains,  where  it  is  found  in  veins  among  the 
schistose  and  gneissose  rocks  of  the  Kura-kasb, 
and  the  south  of  the  Kliotan  province.  Jade  from 
that  district  has  been  known  to  the  Chinese  for 
over  two  thousand  years.  Very  tine  <lark-green 
jade  is  found  near  Batougol,  in  Silteria,  in  boulders. 

The  mines  of  Chinese  'Turkestan  are,  so  far  as  is 
known,  the  only  mines  which  are  regularly  worked. 
There  are  over  one  hundred  of  them,  riddling  one 
lar^e  mountain-side  with  dark  tunnels,  giving  access 
to  long  galleries  winding  in  all  directions  ;  in  some 
cases  piercing  right  through  to  the  other  side  of  the 
mountain.  The  mineral  is  found  in  veins  several 
feet  in  thickness,  but  so  full  of  lissures  that  perfect 
blocks  are  not  often  found  of  more  than  a  few 
inches  thick.  It  is  for  this  reason  that  large 
pieces  are  so  valuable,  and  are  usvially  reserved 
for  the  imperial  tribute.  -At  Canton  there  is  a 
great  jade  market,  where  the  mineral  itself  lus 
well  a.s  all  sorts  of  articles  made  from  it  are 
on  sale.  The  ornaments  are  mostly  bracelets, 
brooches,  ear-rings,  (inger-rings,  and  hairpins,  and 
these  are  as  dear  to  the  Chinese  ladies  as  diamonds 
are  to  their  Caucasian  sisters.  A  necklace  of  green 
jade  beads  will  cost  £1000;  two  buttons  suitable 
for  a  mandarin  will  fetch  £30 ;  while  for  a 
moderate-sized  piece  of  the  vivid  green,  which  is 
much  sought  after,  from  £o(MJ  to  £000  w  ill  be  i)aid. 
The  stcme  is  exceedingly  dillicult  to  work,  and 
hence  the  great  cost  of  carved  specimens  ;  but  even 
at  Momien  a  i>air  of  rough  bracelets,  not  of  the 
Unest  i|ualily,  will  fetch  £-20  or  £31). 

.lade  ornaments  have  been  found  among  the 
lake-dwellings  of  Switzerland — at  the  lakes  of 
Hienni',  Zurich,  and  PfiilliUon ;  stone  celts  have 
been  found  in  ilolmens  in  France  which  re.semlile 
jadeite,  but  with  a  larger  iiroportion  of  iron,  and 
are  now  known  as  chloiuiiichiiiitc  :  and  implements 
of  the  Neolithic  age  in  western  Europe,  once  sup- 
]>o8ed  to  be  of  jade,  are  now  rccogniseil  as  of 
fibrolite  (a   silicate  of   aluminium,   .sp.   gr.   3"2). 


There  is  no  natural  jade  among  the  rock  forma- 
tions of  Switzerland,  so  that  the  ornaments  of  the 
lake-dwellei's  must  either  have  been  brought  by 
their  ancestors  from  Asia,  or  have  been  obtained 
in  barter  from  some  of  the  nomadic  races  of  pre- 
historic times.  Dr  Schliemann  reported  jade  celts 
anumg  the  ruins  at  Hissarlik,  and  in  the  Briti-sh 
Museum  there  is  a  seal-cylinder  of  jade  among  the 
Assyrian  and  Babylonian  relics.  The  jade  orna- 
ments of  India  nmst  have  been  brought  from 
central  Asia. 

See  Fischer,  Ncphrit  tind  Jadeit  (2d  ed.  Stuttgart, 
1881 ) ;  Meyer's  Catalogue  of  Jade  Articles  in  Dresden 
M)isfeum  (Leip.  1882-83);  and  Miss  Gordoii-Cumuiing's 
Wandcrinijs  in  China  (1885). 

Jael.     See  Deborah. 

Jaeu.  a  city  of  Spain,  capital  of  the  province  of 
the  same  name,  is  pictures(|uely  situated  on  a 
tributary  of  the  Guadal(pu\ir,  ."lO  miles  N.  by  \V. 
of  Granada.  Its  old  Moorish  walls  are  fast  crumb- 
ling away.  It  is  the  see  of  a  bishop  ;  the  catheilral 
dates  from  1532.  Pop.  (1884)  21,280.  By  the 
Moore  the  town  was  called  Jiiyijciui-t-harir,  '  Jaen 
of  the  Silk,'  on  account  of  its  silk  m.annfactures, 
for  which,  however,  it  is  no  longer  famous. — The 
province  (area,  5184  sq.  m.  ;  pop.  in  1887,  4.37,842), 
part  of  Andalusia  (q.v. ),  lies  wholly  within  the 
basin  of  the  Guadalquivir,  and  is  for  the  most 
part  mountainous.  Conquered  by  the  Moors  on 
their  entrance  into  Sp.ain,  Jaen  maintained  its 
independence  as  a  Moorish  state  till  1'246,  when  it 
fell  into  the  hands  of  Ferdinand  III.  of  Castile. 

Jafl'a,  or  JOPPA  ( Heb.  hifo  :  in  New  Testament. 
IdpjK :  Arab.  Yiifa),  a  town  on  the  sea-coast  of 
Syria,  53  ndles  NW.  of  Jerusalem,  of  which  it  was 
the  port  in  King  David's  time.  Hence  Jonah  sailed 
for  fai-shish  ;  here  Peter  had  his  vision.  Under 
Constantine  the  place,  which  had  been  destroyed  by 
Vespasian,  became  a  bishop's  see,  ami,  as  the  great 
landing-place  of  the  Crusadeis,  wa.s  taken  and  re- 
taken by  Christian  and  Moslem.  In  1799  Naiioleon 
stormed  it  and  massacre<l  his  prisoners  ;  in  1832  it 
was  taken  liy  Mehemet  AH,  and  restored  to  the 
Turks  by  British  help.  The  open  roadstead,  the 
ancient  walls,  the  yellow  sand-dunes,  an<l  the  exten- 
sive orange  gardens  are  now  the  chief  features  of 
the  brown  town  on  its  hillock,  which  possesses 
several  European  consulates  ;  a  landing-stage  and 
custom-house  were  ere<'te<l  in  1888.  There  is  a 
carriage-way  to  .Jerusalem  ( the  toll  of  which  was 
let  for  £'200d  in  1888),  and  a  railway  was  opened  in 
August  1892.  The  population  increased  from  15,000 
to  40,000  between  1883  and  1890,  while  the  export  of 
oranges  increased  thieefold,  largely  tbrougb  the 
(iernian  colony  of  300  jiersons  established  lierc  in 
1869.  The  total  exports  (wheat  and  fruit)  are 
worth  about  £.'>00,()00  a  year. 

•lafl'liapataill.  a  seaport  in  the  extreme  north 
of  Ceylon,  oji  an  island  of  the  same  name,  has  been 
peopleil  bv  Tanuls  for  more  than  '2000  years.  Pop. 
( 1891 )  43J)0'2.  A  large  sprinkling  of  the  European 
jiopulation  are  of  Dutch  descent. 

Jagatai,  a  central-Asiatic  dialect  of  Turkish. 
See  TfliKS. 

.laselloilS,  the  name  of  an  illustrious  dynasty 
which  reigned  in  Lithuania,  Polanil,  Hungary,  and 
liiiliemia.  The  name  is  derived  from  .lagello,  the 
last  of  a  line  of  hereditary  grand-dukes  of  Lithu- 
ania, who  succeeded  to  bis  iiatrimonial  po.sse.ssion 
in  l.'isi,  and  was  (l,38(i)  apjiointed  successor  to  his 
fatlier-in-law,  Louis  the  tiicat,  king  of  P(dand  and 
Hungary,  in  the  fornu-r  of  these  kingdoms,  after 
having  embraceil  Christianity,  ami  changed  his 
name  to  Ladislaus  II.  He  was  succeeded  on  the 
throne  of  Polaml  by  six  kings  of  his  house,  the 
last  of  whom,  Sigismund  .\ugustus,  died  in  l.")7'2. 
Through  a  sister  of  the  last,  however,  the  Jagellon 


JAGERNDOKF 


JAINS 


267 


dyiuisty  Wiis  continued  on  the  Polish  throne  till 
leus.     See  Poland. 

Lacli>>lans,  the  fourth  son  of  the  Ja^ellon  Casiniir 
IV.  of  Poland,  was  elected  kin-;  of  Holieiiiia  in 
1471,  on  the  death  of  Georj;e  Poiliehrad,  and  also 
succeeded  Mathias  Corvinus  in  Hunf;ary  in  1490. 
Ladislaus  died  in  1516,  and  wa-s  succeeded  in  hotli 
kinplonis  hy  his  son,  Louis  II.,  who  w;u*  defeated 
and  slain  l>y  the  Turks  at  Moliacs  ('iiltli  .\nj,nist 
lo'2t)),  .uid  with  whom  terminated  the  Jagellons  of 
Hoheniia  and  Hungary. 

Jiiji'crildorf.  a  town  of  Austrian  Silesia,  close 
to  the  frontier,  by  rail  34  miles  W.  of  Ratibor  anil 
18  NW.  of  Troppau,  has  manufactures  of  woollen 
cloth,  linen,  orjians,  i\:e.  Pop.  14,792.  From  1377 
there  was  an  independent  principality  of  Jiigern- 
dorf ;  in  1742  its  territories  were  divided  between 
Prussia  and  Austria. 

Jagg'^i'iiaiit.    See  JroGERN.vuT. 

Jaglft'J'y*      ''^^  D.\TE  P.\L.M. 

JajJIiar  {Fclis  onca),  one  of  the  largest  and 
most  beautiful  of  the  Felida?,  and  by  far  the 
strongest  and  fiercest  of  the  American  beasts  of 


Jaguar  [Felis  onca ). 

pre}-.  The  jaguar  is  nearly  equal  to  the  tiger  in 
size,  but  is  less  massive,  and  has  shorter  legs.  The 
soft,  rich  fur  varies  in  colour  from  yellowish-white 
to  very  dark  brown  or  black  ;  the  sides,  shouldei-s, 
and  thighs  are  marked  with  dark  ring  like  spots, 
larger,  and  arranged  in  more  regular  patterns  than 
those  of  the  leonard.  Each  ring  usually  encloses 
several  small  black  points.  The  black-furred 
jaguar  is  sometimes  regarded  as  a  different  species, 
but  the  cliaracteiistic  markings  can  be  seen  in 
certain  lights,  and  the  ground-colour  varies  greatly 
even  in  members  of  the  same  litter.  The  jaguar 
in  found  all  over  South  America  except  in  some 
[larts  of  Patagonia,  and  in  Xorth  America  as  far 
tiorth  a.s  the  borders  of  Texas  and  South  California, 
inhaliiting  chielly  the  outskirts  of  forests  and  the 
shady  banks  of  rivers  and  lakes.  The  food  of 
the  jaj,'uar  is  very  varied.  Wild  horses  and  mules 
are  his  favourite  prey,  but  birds,  turtles,  and 
lish  are  leadily  eaten,  while  he  is  often  forced  to 
depend  for  subsistence  on  the  timid,  stupid  capy- 
hariLs.  The  flesh  of  the  peccary,  too,  is  a  dainty 
which  he  exercises  all  his  ingenuity  to  procure,  for 
even  a  jaguar  dare  not  openly  attack  a  henl  of 
these  courageoiLs  little  pi«s.  "His  method,  it  Ls 
said,  Ls  to  conceal  himself  in  a  tree  till  a  herd 
pa.s.ses,  drop  down  on  one  and  kill  it,  then  soring 
into  the  tree  again  and  wait  patiently  until  the 
angry  herd  is  a  safe  distance  oil'.  The  jaguar  is 
hunti-rl  sometimes  with  the  husso,  but  most  fre- 
quently with  dogs  and  poisoned  arrows,  and  the 
skins  are  imported  into  hurope  in  large  numbers. 

Jallde,  or  J.VDE,  a  bay  in  the  north  of  Olden- 
burg, now   belonging  to  Prussia,   which  has  con 


structed    a    naval    station    on    its    shores.       See 

\VlLHELM.SH.\FEN. 

Jaliii.  Friedrich.     See  Gv.mxastics. 

Jallll.  JoH.vxN,  a  Catholic  bildical  critic,  was 
born  at  Tasswitx,  in  Moravia,  in  I'SO.  He  be- 
came professor  of  Oriental  Languages  at  Olmiitz, 
an<l,  in  17H9,  at  the  university  of  Vienna;  but  the 
unwonted  boldness  of  his  criticism,  as  that  Job, 
Tobit,  and  Judith  were  didactic  poems,  and  that 
the  New  Testament  demoniacal  possession  was  the 
result  of  natural  disease,  although  not  formally  con- 
demned, led  in  1806  to  his  honourable  retirement  to  a 
canonry  of  St  Stephen's,  Vienna.  He  died  August 
16,  1816.  Jahn  was  an  industrious  writer,  and  Ids 
EinJeitxing  ins  Alte  Testament  (1792),  Arcluioloifiu 
Biblica  (1805;  En"  trans,  by  T.  C.  Uphani,  18-40), 
and  Enchiridion  Hcrnienei/ticw  {IS\'2)  were  works 
really  remarkable  for  their  time  and  circunistances. 
Besides  these  he  published  many  manuals  on  the 
grammar  of  Hebrew,  Syriac,  and  Arabic,  an  edition 
of  the  Hebrew  Bible  (1806),  and  a  commentary  on 
the  Me-ssianic  prophecies  (1815). 

Jallll.  Otto,  a  famous  archaeologist  and  philo- 
logist, was  born  at  Kiel,  June  16,  1813,  and  .studied 
at  Kiel,  Leipzig,  aud  Berlin.  He  next  travelled 
in  France  and  Italy,  making  a  lengthened  stay  in 
Rome,  and  returned  in  1839  to  lecture  at  Kiel, 
whence  he  was  called  to  tJreifs^ahl.  In  1847 
he  accepted  the  chair  of  Arclneology  at  Leipzig, 
and  here  he  founded  an  archaeological  society, 
and  served  as  director  of  an  archa'ologieal  museum. 
Dejirived  in  1851  for  his  part  in  the  political  move- 
ments of  1848-49,  he  became  in  1855  professor 
of  the  Science  of  Antiquity,  and  director  of  the 
Academic  Art  Museum  at  Bonn,  whence  he  was 
summoned  in  1867  to  fill  Gerhard's  chair  at  Berlin. 
He  died,  however,  before  entering  on  his  new 
duties,  at  Giittingen,  9th  September  1869. 

Jahn's  contributions  to  archaeology  were  numberless, 
and  of  the  first  importance.  Here  may  only  be  named 
works  on  Polygnotus.  Die  HeUeuisckc  Kunst  (1S40), 
Peitho  (1846) ;  a  description  of  the  vases  in  King  Lud- 
wig's  collection  ( 1854 ),  and  works  on  the  representations 
of  ancient  life  on  vases  (1861,  1868) ;  and  a  work  on  the 
evil  eye  { 1850 ).  His  works  in  philology  mclude  editions  of 
Persius  ( 1843 ),  Censorinus  ( 1845 ),  Floras  ( 1852 ),  Pa  iisan  i<e 
(livcn'jitioarcis  Athaiiensis  (1860).  the  ii)'«(»s(1849)  and 
Orator  (1851)  of  Cicero,  Juvenal  (1851),  the  Pfriorhn: 
of  Livy  (1853),  the  Psiichc  et  CuiJido  of  Apuleius  (18.56), 
the  Ehctra  of  Sophocles  ( 1861 ),  the  Symposion  of  Plato 
( 1864 ),  and  Longinus  ( 1867 ).  Among  his  numerous 
other  works  may  be  named  his  elaborate  and  masterly 
biography  of  Slozai*t  (1856-60),  a  contribution  of  the  Hrst 
importance  to  the  histoiy  of  music;  Gckainmdtc  Aufudtzc 
iibcr  Mvsik  (1866);  and  his  Biographiache  Au/adtze 
(1866). 

Jail  Fever  (known  also  as  Putrid  or  Pestilen- 
tial Fever)  is  now  considcreil  to  be  merely  ,a  severe 
form  of  Typhus  Fever  (q.v.),  and  not  a  distinct 
disease.  At  the  present  time,  owing  to  improved 
sanitary  regulations,  this  form  of  disea.se  is  almost 
unknown  ;  but  we  learn  from  Howard's  Aixuiitit  uf 
the  iitdte  of  FrisdHS  that,  in  his  time,  the  disease 
was  very  frequent  in  the  prisons  of  England, 
although  unknown  in  those  of  the  continental 
countries.  In  the  celebrate<l  Black  Assize  ( q.v.), 
held  at  Oxford  in  1577,  there  is  no  evidence  that 
the  disease  prevailed  among  the  prisoners,  ;ind  yet 
it  broke  out  .imimg  the  jiersons  present  at  the  trial. 
So  late  as  May  17.50  the  loid  mayor,  an  aldeiiiian, 
two  judges,  most  of  thi!  jury,  anil  a  large  number  of 
spectators  caught  liiis  disea.se  from  attending  tlie 
a-ssizes  at  the  Old  Bailey  :  and  many  of  those  who 
were  infected  died. 

•laillS  is  the  n.'ime  of  .a  heterodox  sect  of  Hindus, 
found  ill  most  parts  of  I'pjier  In<lia,  nuiiieious 
more  especially  to  the  westwaril,  but  also  .scattered 
throughout    the   peninsula.      They   are   important 


•268 


JAINS 


JALAP 


fmm  their  wealth  ami  influeiK-e  rather  than  from 
tli''ir  miiiiher.  Their  tenets  are  in  several  respects 
analogous  to  those  of  the  Buddhists  (see  BlDUH- 
ISM),  but  tliey  resemble  in  others  those  of  the 
Brahmanical  Hindus.  AVith  tlie  Buddhists  they 
share  in  the  denial  of  the  divine  origin  and  author- 
ity of  tlie  \'eda.  With  the  Brahmanical  Hindus, 
on  the  other  hand,  they  agree  in  admitting  the 
institution  of  caste,  in  perlorniing  the  essential 
ceremonies  called  S(i)isl:dras,  and  in  recognising 
some  of  tlie  subordinate  ileities  of  the  Hindu  pan- 
theon ;  but  tliey  disregard  completely  all  those 
I'.ralinianical  rites  which  invohe  the  destruction  of 
animal  life. 

According  to  their  doctrine,  all  objects,  material 
or  abstract,  are  arr.anged  under  nine  categories, 
called  Tiiffiras,  truths  or  piinciples,  of  which  we 
need  notice  only  the  ninth  and  last,  called  Mohsha, 
or  liberation  of  the  vital  spirit  from  the  bonds  of 
•action — i.e.  final  emancipation.  In  reference  to  it 
the  Jains  not  only  affirm  that  there  is  such  a  state 
of  emancipation,  but  they  define  the  size  of  the 
emancipated  sonls,  the  place  where  they  live,  their 
parts,  natures,  and  numbers. 

The  principles  of  faith  are  common  to  all  classes 
of  Jains,  but  some  difi'erences  occur  in  their  duties, 
as  they  are  divided  into  religious  and  lav  orders, 
Yatis  and  S'riirakas.  The  Yati  has  to  leail  a  life  of 
abstinence,  taciturnity,  and  continence;  he  shouhl 
wear  a  thin  cloth  over  his  mouth,  to  prevent 
insects  from  Hying  into  it,  and  he  shonld  carry 
a  brush  to  sweep  the  jilace  on  which  he  is  about 
to  sit,  to  remove  any  living  creature  out  of  the  way 
of  danger ;  but,  in  turn,  he  may  dispense  with  all 
acts  of  worship  ;  whilst  the  S'niraka  has  to  add 
to  the  observance  of  the  religious  and  moral  duties 
the  worship  of  the  saints,  and  a  profound  rever- 
ence for  his  more  pious  brethren.  The  secular 
Jain  must,  like  the  ascetic,  practise  the  foiir 
virtues — liberality,  gentleness,  piety,  and  penance; 
he  must  govern  his  mind,  tongue,  and  acts  ;  abstain, 
at  certain  seasons,  from  salt,  flowers,  green  fruits, 
roots,  honey,  grapes,  tobacco ;  drink  water  thrice 
strained,  and  never  leave  a  liquid  uncovered,  lest 
an  insect  should  be  drowned  in  it ;  it  is  his  duty 
also  to  visit  daily  a  temple  where  some  of  the 
images  of  the  Jain  saints  are  placetl,  walk  round  it 
three  times,  make  an  olieisance  to  the  image,  and 
make  some  offerings  of  fruits  or  flowers.  The 
reader  in  a  Jain  temple  is  a  Yati,  but  the  minis- 
trant  priest  is  not  seldom  a  Braliman,  since  the 
Jains  have  no  priests  of  their  own. 

Th(!  Jains  fall  into  two  principal  divisions, 
Di(/(imbanis  and  S'lretAmfxiras.  The  former  word 
means  '  sky-clad,'  or  naked,  but  in  the  present  day 
ascetics  of  this  division  wear  coloured  garments, 
and  confine  the  disuse  of  clothes  to  the  period  of 
their  meals.  S'wcMmbara  means  '  one  who  wears 
white  garments  ; '  but  the  points  of  ditrerence 
between  the  two  divisions  are  said  to  be  700,  of 
which  84  are  of  paramount  importance.  In  the 
south  of  Inilia  the  Jains  are  divided  into  two 
Ciistes ;  in  l"pi)er  Hindustan  they  are  all  of  one 
caste.  It  is  remarkable,  however,  that  amongst 
themselves  they  recognise  a  number  of  families 
between  whicli  no  intermarriage  can  take  pl.ace. 

As  reg.ards  the  iiantlieon  of  the  .Iain  creed,  it  is 
still  more  fantastical  than  that  of  tlie  Brahmanical 
sects.  The  higlicst  rank  amongst  their  nundierless 
hosts  of  divine  beings — divided  by  them  into  four 
classes,  with  various  subdivisions — they  assign  to 
the  deified  saints,  which  they  call  Jinn  (whence  the 
usual  name  of  the  sect),  or  Arhnt,  or  Tirt/ia/.cii-d, 
besides  a  variety  of  other  generic  names.  The 
Jains  enumerate  twenty-four  Tirthakaras  of  their 
past  age,  twenty-four  of  the  present,  and  twenty- 
four  of  the  age  to  come  ;  and  they  invest  these  holy 
personages  with  thirty-six  superhuman  attributes  of 


the  most  extravagant  character.  They  distinguish 
the  twenty-four  Jinas  of  the  present  age  from  each 
other  in  colour,  stature,  and  longevity.  liishahltd, 
the  fii-st  Jina  of  tliis  age,  was  500  poles  in  stature, 
and  lived  8,400,000  great  yeare  ;  whereas  Malidrira, 
the  '24th,  had  degenerated  to  the  size  of  a  man, 
and  was  no  more  than  forty  yeare  on  earth.  The 
present  woi-ship  is  almost  restricted  to  the  last  two 
Tirthakaras.  Ihe  t]ld  view,  endoi-sed  by  Professor 
Weber,  was  that  the  Jains  are  a  remnant  of  the 
Indian  Buddhists  who  succeeded  in  maintaining 
their  existence  by  a  compromise  with  Hinduism. 
The  Jains  themselves  strongly  insist  that  their 
faith  is  older  than  Buddhism  ;  and  Jacolii  proves 
from  the  Jain  texts  that  Buddhism  and  Jainism 
were  developed  out  of  Brahmanisni  by  a  very 
gradual  nio\ement,  Jainism  beiu"  jirobably  the 
earlier.  Modern  Jainism  Sir  W.  \V.  Hunter  de- 
scribes as  '  a  religion  allied  in  doctrine  to  ancient 
Buddhism,  but  hum.anised  by  saint-worship.'  In 
1881  there  were  448,897  Jains  in  British  India. 

.See  Oldenberg,  BaJdha  (Eng.  tr.ans.  18S2)  ;  Thomas, 
Jainism;  or  the  Early  Faith  of  Asoka  (1877);  Khys 
Davids,  Hibbcrt  Lectures  (1881);  Jacobi,  Gaina  Sdtras 
('Sacred  Books  of  the  East,'  Clar.  Press,  1885);  and  for 
the  numerous  and  beautiful  Jain  temples,  see  Fergusson's 
Cave  Temples  of  India  (1880),  and  Burgess's  Buddkiat 
amlJaina  Caves  (2  vols.  1881-83). 

Jaipur.    See  Jevpore. 

Jsiisaliner  (Jei/siihiwre),  capital  of  the  native 
Indian  state  of  Jaisalmer,  in  Rajputana,  stands  on 
the  edge  of  the  Indian  Desert,  and  was  founded  in 
11.56.  It  has  several  Jain  temples.  Pop.  10,965. — 
The  state  of  Jaisalmer  contains  an  area  of  16,447 
sq.  m.,  and  108,143  inhabitants. 

Jaklltsk.    See  Yakutsk. 

Jalalpnr,  a  town  of  India,  8  miles  XE.  of  the 
city  of  Gujrat  in  the  Punjab,  noted  for  its  shawl 
manufacture ;  pop.  1'2,839.  —  There  is  another 
ancient  and  ruined  Jalalpur  on  the  Jlielum  River. 

Jalandliar.    See Ji luxder. 

Jalap*  a  \vell-known  purgative  medicine,  is  the 
root  of  Ipomcea  purija,  a  plant  of  the  natural  order 
('onvolvulacea>.  It  Is  a  native  of  the  eastern  slopes 
of  the  ilexican  .sierras, 
growing  at  an  eleva- 
tion of  about  6000  feet. 
Named  from  the  town 
of  .lalapa,  it  is  a  per- 
ennial twining  plant, 
with  large  flowers  and 
a  turnip-like  root,  vary- 
ing from  the  size  of  a 
hazel-nut  to  that  of  a 
mans  fist.  The  roots 
when  fresh  are  white 
and  fleshy,  and  abound 
in  a  milky  juice.  They 
are  dug  up  at  all  seasons 
of  the  year,  and  hence 
one  great  cause  of  their 
\ariation  in  size  and 
activity.  After  being 
dried  the  roots  are  nl 
brown  and  wrinkled 
externally,  of  a  deep 
vellowish  -gr.ay  colour 
internally,  and  have 
the  consistence  of  wood. 
Their  odour  is  faint 
.and  dis.agree.able,  and 
the  t.aste  is  nauseous. 
For  use  in  medicine  the 
roots  are  finely  pow- 
dered. Jalap-root  con- 
tains starch,  sugar,  lignin,  and  other  ingredients, 
but  the  active  princiiile  is  a  resin  which  is  otticinal 


Jalap  ( Ipomaa  purga ) : 
a,  the  root. 


JALAPA 


JAMAICA 


269 


under  the  name  of  Jalapw  Ecsina,  The  amount 
of  this  resin  varies  from  12  to  21  per  cent.  It  is 
extracted  from  tlie  root  by  means  of  dilute  alcohol, 
and  consists  cluetly  of  a  body  called  convolvulin. 
Jalap  is  a  hydragojjue  cathartic,  and  may  be 
given  alone  or  in  combination  with  calomel  or 
cream  of  tartar.  It  and  its  pre|)arations  are  used 
in  constip,ation,  renal  disease,  and  cerebral  atlections. 
Its  action  is  limited  to  the  production  of  severe 
purgation.  Jalap  was  fii"st  used  in  Engl.and 
about  the  beginning  of  the  17th  century.  The 
ordinary  dose  of  powdered  jalap  for  an  adult  varies 
from  ten  to  tlurty  grains,  a  scruple  generally 
acting  smartly  and  safely  ;  for  children  under  a 
year  old  the  dose  is  from  two  to  five  giains.  Tlie 
dose  of  the  compound  powder  is  double  tliat  of  tho 
ordinary  powder. 

Jalapa.  capital  of  the  Mexican  state  of  Vcim 
Cruz,  is  60  miles  by  rail  N\V.  of  Vera  Cruz  cit\ . 
It  is  situated  in  a  charming  and  fertile  district,  in 
a  healthy  and  temperate  climate,  4330  feet  above 
the  sea,  and  is  neatly  built  and  surrounded  Avitli 
pleasant  gardens.  The  principal  buildings  are  the 
old  Franciscan  monastery  (1536),  the  church  of  St 
Joseph,  a  hospital,  and  the  government  offices. 
Pop.  (1888)  14,000. 

Jalisco,  a  state  of  Mexico,  on  the  Pacific,  with 
an  area  of  38,840  sq.  m.  It  is  traveled  by  tlie 
Sierra  Madre,  and  in  great  part  fonns  a  plateau. 
The  climate  is  healthy  away  from  the  coast.  The 
principal  river  is  the  Kio  Grande  de  Santiago  ;  in 
the  south-east  is  the  lake  of  Chapala  (q.v.).  Silver 
and  copper  raining  and  agriculture  have  been 
the  cliiet  industries ;  but  within  recent  years  a 
numlier  of  cotton,  woollen,  paper,  and  tobacco 
factories  have  been  establislied.  Pop.  (1879) 
983,484  ;  ( 1895 )  1,107,863.  The  capital  is  Guadala- 
jara (q.v.). 

Jallia.  a  town  and  British  cantonment  in  the 
Nizam's  Dominions,  India,  210  miles  XE.  of  Bom- 
bay. Its  fruit  is  celebrated,  Ijeing  sent  to  Hyder- 
abad, Bombay,  and  other  large  towns.  Pop.  of 
town,  6258  ;  and  of  cantonment,  9933. 

Jam.    See  Preserved  Pkovlsions. 

Jamaica,  aboriginally  Xaymaca  ('Land  of 
Springs'),  one  of  the  West  India  Islands,  and  by 
far  the  most  important  of  those  belonging  to  Great 
Britain,  is  about  90  miles  to  the  south  of  Cuba, 
and  stretches  between  17°  43'  and  18°  32'  N. 
lat.,  and  between  76°  II'  and  7S°  20'  AV.  long. 
It  is  diWded  into  three  counties,  Surrey  in  the 
east,  Middlesex  in  the  middle,  and  Cornwall  in 
the  west;  its  area  is  4193  sq.  m.,  or  a  little  more 
than  the  three  English  counties  of  the  .same  names 
with  Hampshire  thrown  in.  The  greatest  length 
Is  144  miles ;  the  greatest  breadth,  50  miles.  Turk's 
and  Caicos  Islands,  as  well  as  the  three  Cayman 
Islands,  are  dependencies  of  Jamaica.  The  island 
Ls  traversed  from  east  to  west  by  the  Blue  Moun- 
tains, which  rise  to  7400  feet.  From  this  range 
nearly  120  streams  descend  to  the  coasts,  but 
owing  to  the  shortness  ami  steejine.ss  of  their 
courses  they  are  not  navigable,  witii  the  exception 
of  Black  Kiver,  which  atfords,  for  small  craft,  a 
passage  into  the  interior  for  30  niil<!s.  Excellent 
narlxiurs  are  everj'where  to  be  found.  Incompar- 
ably the  best  of  these  is  Kingston  (q.v.)  harbour,  a 
deep  and  capacious  basin  in  the  south-ciist  quarter 
of  the  island.  Jamaica  is  believeil  to  be  rich  in 
mineral  wealth,  but  no  minerals  are  extracted. 
The  chief  towns  are  Kingston  (jio]!.  46,542),  the 
capital,  and  Spanish  Town,  formerly  the  seat  of 
the  government  (pop.  5019),  on  the  soulli-exst  of 
the  island  ;  and  Montego  Bay  (pop.  4863),  Savanna- 
Wi-Mar  (2952),  on  the  soutliwest,  and  Faliiiouth 
(pop.  2517).  Port  Koyal,  situated  at  the  western 
extremity  of  the  npit  of  sand   that  nhuts  in  the 


harbour  of  Kingston  on  the  south,  which,  previous 
to  the  great  earthquake  of  1692,  was  one  of  the 
chief  cities  in  the  West  Indies,  is  now  a  place  of 
only  1200  inhabitants,  tlumgh  still  a  naval  station. 
The  climate  varies  considerably,  falling  on  an 
average  1°  for  every  300  feet  in  altituile.  At 
Kingston,  on  the  co:tst,  the  thermometer  is  nearly 
all  the  year  round  at  70°  duriufj  the  night  and  90' 
during  the  day,  the  mean  thus  being  80°  or  81° :  but 
the  heat  is  tempered  by  the  sea-breezes.  A  corre- 
sponding regularity  is  observable  in  the  u]dand 
regions.  On  the  whole,  the  island  is  very  healthy; 
invalids  even  come  from  the  United  States  to  enjoy 
the  benefit  of  the  salubrious  air  of   the  interior. 


There  are  two  rainy  seasons,  one  in  the  middle  of 
spring  and  the  other  towards  the  middle  and  end 
of  summer.  In  the  latter  the  rains  are  exception- 
ally heavy ;  \-iolent  thunderstorms  are  frequent, 
and  hurricanes  sometimes  occur.  A  cyclone  in 
1880  did  damage  to  the  extent  of  more  than  a 
million  sterling. 

The  vegetation  is  very  luxuriant.  The  primeval 
wootls  are  rapidly  disappearing  ;  yet  there  are  still 
many  valuable  trees,  such  as  balata,  mahogany, 
logwood,  lignum  vitie,  fustic,  ebony,  pimento, 
cocoa-nut  and  other  palms,  cactuses,  &c.  Trojiical 
fruits  are  grown  in  great  variety,  also  many  ot  the 
fruits  of  more  temperate  climes.  Fruits  were 
exported  to  the  value  of  £347,652  in  1888  (£39,451 
in  1878).  Spices,  dye-woods,  medicinal  plants, 
and  food  plants,  .such  as  ginger,  cochineal,  castor- 
oil,  arrowroot,  maize,  vanilla,  pimento  (allspice), 
\c.,  are  extensively  giown.  A  large  extent  of  the 
cultivated  area  (one -fifth)  is  devoted  to  the  grow- 
ing of  Guinea  grass.  This  and  pasture  land  occupy 
the  greater  portion  of  the  north  and  west  of  tlie 
Island.  In  the  south  and  east  the  principal  cro|)S 
are  sugar  (33,600  acres  in  1888,  12,800  less  than  in 
1878),  coffee,  vegetables,  and  fruits.  A  little 
cinchona  and  cacao  are  also  grown.  The  mon- 
goose, imported  to  prey  on  the  rats  that  infested 
the  sugar  estates,  has,  after  exterminating  the 
rats,  become  a  plague,  and  has  nearly  extirpateil 
lizards,  hai'mless  snakes,  and  small  birds,  so  that 
insect  pests  (especially  the  troublesome  ticks) 
abound.  The  negroes,  who  are  mostly  small 
holdei's,  are  the  chief  growers  of  fruit.  The  ex- 
ports, which  consist  chielly  of  dye-woods,  fruits 
(oranges,  lemons,  bananas,  inne-apples,  &c.),  sugar 
and  rum,  coffee,  ginger,  allspice,  and  cocoa,  aver- 
age fully  H  million  annually;  whilst  the  imports, 
consisting  of  food-stutls,  clothing,  hardware, 
liquors,  coals,  building  materials,  &c.,  reach  i>ietty 
nearly  the  same  value,  .\bout  40  per  cent,  of  tlie 
trade  is  with  the  United  Kingdom,  and  the  share 
with  the  United  States  43  per  cent. 

During  the  past  thirty  years  the  white  inhabit- 
ants have  increased  far  le.ss  rapidly  in  numbers 
than  the  black  and  coloured  population.  In  1861 
the  total  nopiilation  was  441,255  (13,S16  white  and 
427,439  black  and  coloured);  in  1871  the  tigures 
were  respectively  506,154  (13,101  and  493,053); 
and  in   1881,  580,804  (14,432  and  554,132,  besides 


270 


JAMAICA 


JAMES 


Chinese  ami  others,  ami  ll.Olfi  iiiniiij;iaiit  coolies). 
Ill  1891  the  iiopulalioM  hail  iiieieaseil  to  6:19,491. 
Bv  religion  ,S'2,;i()0  belong  to  the  Clmrch  of  Kngliiml, 
SO.OOO  are  Baptists,  22,000  Methodists,  10,S0()  l^res- 
bvterians,  9290  Roman  Catholies,  Ki.OlMI  of  the 
Rioravian  Church,  and  9900  of  other  churches — 
cliililren  lieing  exclmled.  In  1895  there  were  924 
government  schools,  with  98,359  jiujiils  ;  besides 
two  government  training  colleges  for  teachers. 
Secondary  education  is  left  to  private  initiative. 
Jamaica  has  185  miles  of  railwa.v  and  950  miles  of 
telegraph.  The  total  e.xports  in  1896  had  a  value  of 
£1,470,241  :  the  importsof  £1,856,378.  Thedefences 
of  the  island  include  a  British  ga.rrison  (the  West 
India  regiments)  of  more  tlian  1000  men,  a  volunteer 
force  of  6U0,  ami  numerous  coast  batteries.  There 
is  also  a  semi-military  police  force  of  ab<iut  700 
men.  The  i)ublic  debt  of  the  island  amounted  to 
.t'2,220,089  in  1896.  The  government  is  in  the  hands 
of  a  governor  appointed  by  the  Queen,  assisted  by 
a  privy-council  (which  fulfils  the  offices  of  an 
executive)  and  a  legislative  council,  both  partly 
elective,  jiartly  nominated  by  the  Queen  or  the 
governor. 

Jamaica  was  discovered  I)y  Columlius  in  1494, 
and  definitely  taken  possession  of  by  the  Spaniards 
in  1509.  The  original  inhabitants  were  peace- 
loving  Indians  ( not  Caribs ) ;  but  they  were  prac- 
tically extinct  in  1655,  when  the  island  was  con- 
quered by  the  English,  an  expedition  having  been 
sent  out  for  that  purpose  by  Oliver  Cromwell, 
under  Admiral  Penn  and  Venaljles.  Jamaica  was 
formall.v  ceded  to  England  by  the  treaty  of  Madrid 
in  1670.  The  place  of  the  native  Indians  was 
taken  by  negro  slaves,  imported  by  the  Spaniards, 
iind  by  Irish  and  colonial  immigrants,  who  arrived 
soon  after  the  capture  of  the  island.  During  the 
18tli  century  more  tlian  half  a  million  slaves  were 
brought  over  from  Africa.  Under  English  rule 
the  chief  events  in  the  history  of  Jamaica  were 
frecjuent  rebellions  of  the  Maroons,  a  community 
of  nmawa.y  slaves,  who  had  olitained  a  tract  of 
land  on  the  north  side  of  the  island  ;  in  1831-32, 
a  negro  insurrection;  and  on  August  1,  1834,  the 
emancii)ation  of  the  slaves,  Jamaica  receiving 
£6,161,927  as  her  share  of  the  compensation  nione.y. 
The  cliief  result  of  this  last  event  was  to  ruin  the 
sugar-growing  of  Jamaica,  principally  owing  to  the 
ditticulty  of  procuring  labour.  The  negroes  refused 
to  work,  now  the.y  were  free.  The  liberation  was  ( 
followeil  b.v  concessions  of  representative  and  con- 
stitutional rights  to  the  newly-liberated  slaves. 
But  the  experiment  ])roved  a  failure.  The  negroes 
considered  it  a  grievance  that  olfices  in  the  magis- 
tracy were  not  more  frequently  conferred  on  them. 
They  wished  to  suppress  coolie  inimigration,  which 
tended  to  keep  uown  wages.  They  sought  to 
obtain  land  witliout  rent.  The  more  violent  even 
suggested  the  expulsion  of  the  whole  white  popula- 
tion of  the  island.  In  1865  the  discontent  was  at 
its  height.  In  Octolier  of  that  year  the  negroes 
rose  in  revolt  and  massaere<l  twenty-three  whites. 
Martial  law  was  i)roclaimed  by  tjovernor  Eyre, 
who  suiipressed  the  rising  with  resolute  vigour, 
though  tbe  i>unishinents  inflicted  on  the  rioters 
were  in  scmie  ca.ses  perhaps  unnecessarily  severe. 
Eor  the  course  he  had  taken  (lovernor  I''yre  was 
thanked  by  the  Jamaica  Assembly  ;  but  in  England 
a  ditl'erent  view  was  taken  of  hi.s  conduct  (see 
EvuE).  He  was  recalled,  and  the  rejiresentative 
con.stitution  was  suspended.  A  new  ('onstitution 
was  framed  in  1866,  under  which  the  islaml  is 
now  governed  like  an  ordinary  crown  colony. 
Tliere  seems  to  be  good  authority  for  the  statement 
that  from  the  catastrophe  of  1865  a  new  life  has 
sprung.  Crime  has  diminished  ;  and  education  has 
eveiywhere  advanced  among  the  black  iiojiulation. 
A  collection   of  Jamaica   products  was  exhibited 


with  very  satisfactory  results  at  the  Philadeljihia 
Exhibition  of  1876  ;  and  an  exhibilicm  in  Jamaica 
of  native  products  was  opened  in  the  autumn 
of  1890.  New  roads  have  iieen  formed,  harbours 
are  being  constructed,  and  the  Rio  Cobre  irrigation 
canal,  begun  in  1872,  will  give  fertility  to  50,000 
acres  of  the  plain  between  Spanish  Town  and 
Kingston.  Thanks  to  the  Cuban  refugees  who 
have  taken  several  of  the  long-forsaken  sugar 
estates,  property  is  looking  u|),  and  the  official 
statements  show  that  the  export  trade  is  increas- 
ing, though  slowly.  Although  Jamaica  has  not 
recovered  its  former  commercial  jirosperity,  the 
negroes  cannot  now  be  described  as  idle.  They 
cultivate  their  provision  grinin<ls  w'ith  care,  and 
are  especially  active  in  developing  the  fruit  trade. 
Extreme  poverty  is  unknown  among  them,  and 
they  are  described  as  a  law-aljiding  and  inollensive 
community.  See  the  Jamaica  llaiidbuuk,  issued 
at  the  government  printing-office,  Kingston  ;  and 
Harpers  Magazine,  1890. 

Jaiiiaicii  Bark.    See  Cakibbee  B.vrk. 

Jamaica  Pepper.    See  Pimento. 

JaillbU8ar,  a  town  of  British  India,  presiilency 
of  Bombay,  is  situated  30  miles  SW.  of  Baroda. 
Pop.  11,479.     Cotton  is  prepared  for  export. 

James,  the  name  of  at  least  three  jjersons  who 
took  an  active  ])art  in  the  foundation  of  the  early 
Christian  church  :  ( 1 )  James  the  Elder,  son  of  the 
fisherman  Zebedee  ami  brother  of  John,  one  of  the 
three  chief  among  the  twelve  apostles,  put  to  death 
by  the  sword  under  Herod  Agrippa,  44  .\.D.  His 
(lay  falls  on  July  25 ;  in  the  Greek  Church,  on 
April  30.  According  to  a  baseless  legend  he 
journeyed  to  Spain  :  whence,  as  Santiago,  he  is 
reverenced   as   the   patron  saint  of   that  country. 

(2)  James  the  Younger  (the  Little,  not  the  Less), 
son  of  Alpha'us,  was  likewise  an  apostle,  and  is 
honoured  in  the  tlreek  Church  on  October  9  ; 
by  the  Catholies,   along   with  Philip,   on  May   1. 

(3)  James  the  Great,  the  eldest  among  the 
'brethren'  of  Jesus,  according  to  Joseiihus  (Ant. 
XX.  9,  1 )  was  stoned  to  death  by  command  of 
the  high-priest  Ananus  in  62  .\.D.,  <luring  the 
interval  between  the  departure  of  Eestus  and  the 
arrival  of  a  new  procurator.  The  la-st  is  identical 
with  the  James  mentioned  in  Acts  xii.,  xv.,  xxi., 
and  Gal.  i.  19,  who  was  the  head  of  the  Christian 
community  of  Jerusalem,  and,  according  to  Hege- 
sippus,  bore  the  surname  of  the  Just.  His  day 
falls  in  the  (ircek  Church  on  October  23.  Most 
theologians  consi<lcr  him  th("  author  of  the  epistle 
M-hich  bears  his  name,  although  it  has  been 
ascribed  to  both  the  others,  to  the  .son  of  Zebedee 
so  late  as  1876  in  an  able  commentary  by  the  Rev. 
F.  T.  Bassett. 

The  Epistle  of  James  stands  first  among  the 
cathulii:  epistles,  and  is  a  kind  of  encyclical  ad- 
dressed in  the  first  place  "to  the  twelve  tribes 
which  are  scattered  abroad,'  to  the  Jews  of  the 
Dispersion.  It  was  written  by  a  Jew  for  Jewish 
reauei's,  all  of  whom  are  supposed  to  be  subject  to 
the  Jewish  law,  and  it  wius  undoubtedly  written 
early,  perhaps  about  50  .\.D.  at  latest,  certainly 
before  the  ilestrnction  of  Jerusalem.  It  cannot, 
however,  be  proved,  though  generally  assumed, 
that  the  epistle  nmst  have  been  written  before 
Paul's  first  missionary  journey,  or  before  the 
-Apostolic  C(mncil.  Those  who  read  into  it  a 
<lesire  to  counteract  the  ellects  of  a  misconstruc- 
tion of  St  Paul's  doctrine  of  justification  by  faith 
of  course  demand,  as  will  be  seen,  a  later  dale. 
The  einstle  was  not  admitted  into  the  caiLoii 
without  sonu!  dilliculty,  and  it  is  not  much  quoted 
by  the  earlier  writers,  Origen  indeed  being  the 
earliest  we  liinl  quoting  it  by  name.  Kusebius 
places   it   iii   his   list  of    books    contioverted   but 


JAMES 


JAMKS    I.    OF    SCOTLAND      271 


recognised  by  most  {Aiiti/ef/omcna),  ami  Jerome 
expresses  tlie  doul>t  more  strongly  still.  Clement 
of  Alexandria  is  silent  about  it,  as  also  is  Ter- 
tullian,  nor  is  it  mentioned  in  the  Muratorian 
Fragment.  But  it  was  early  acknowledged  by 
the  Syrian  riiureli,  and  it  is  found  in  the  Feshito ; 
while  there  is  abundiUiee  of  less  direct  proof,  a.s 
we  liiid  startling  parallels  and  coincidences  too 
numerous  to  be  accidental  in  T/if  S/ii/j/icnl  of 
Hermas,  the  Epistle  of  Clemens  Komanus,  and 
Irena>us.  It  was  linally  declared  canonical  by 
the  third  Council  of  Carthage  (397),  and  already 
we  find  it  acknowledged  bv  Cyril  of  Jerusalem, 
Epiphanius  of  Cyprus,  Atlianasius,  Gregorj-  of 
Nazianzus,  and  all  later  theologians,  down  to  the 
time  of  the  Keformation.  when  it  w;is  rejected  by 
Erasmus  and  Cardinal  Cajetan,  and  stigmatised 
by  Luther  as  '  a  downright  epistle  of  straw  .  .  . 
with  nothing  evangelical  about  it,'  from  its  sup- 

Sosed  contradiction  to  his  fundamental  Pauline 
ognui  of  justiticatiou  by  faith  alone.  Calvin 
disputed  this  judgment,  and  maintained  that  the 
epistle  was  not  unworthy  of  an  apostle. 

The  aim  of  the  epistle  is  throughout  ethical 
ratlier  than  doctrinal,  Christianity  being  promi- 
nently put  forward  as  the  ethical  fulhlment  of  the 
law,  the  perfect  man  being  he  whose  faith  has 
constantly  proved  itself  in  practice,  and  who  is 
patient  under  all  tribulation.  It  echoes  closely 
the  language  and  niethijd  of  Christ  himself;  as 
Beyschlag  says,  'essentially  it  is  the  teaching  of 
Christ,  and  thus  there  is  little  teaching  about 
Christ.'  Besides  the  discourses  of  the  Master, 
especially  his  Seinion  on  the  Mount,  we  lind 
distinct  traces  of  familiarity  with  the  Wisdom  of 
Solomon,  and  the  Ecclesiasticus  of  the  son  of 
Siracli.  Formalism,  greed  of  gain,  respect  of 
persons,  falsehood,  evil-speaking,  i)oa.sting,  Avrang- 
liug  and  bitterness  in  debate,  attention  to  dog- 
matic definitions  instead  of  holiness  of  life — sucli 
are  the  sins  against  which  the  author  inveighs 
Anth  vivid  and  abrupt  invective.  His  Greek  is 
unusually  pure,  and  some  scholars,  as  Schmidt, 
Kertlioldt,  and  Bishop  Wordsworth,  have  supposed 
that  the  epistle  w;is  first  written  in  Aramaic  and 
afterwards  translated. 

The  passage  in  the  second  chapter  (14-26)  has 
been  interpreted  by  many  theologians  as  a  direct 
attack  on  the  Pauline  view  of  faith  and  justifica- 
tion, that  Christ  by  his  death  had  accomplLshed  a 
new  order  of  salvation,  in  which  the  law,  which 
was  merely  temporary,  was  now  abrogated,  and 
that  thus  Christianity  had  fitteil  itself  to  become 
a  universal  religion.  But  the  undoubted  difference 
of  tone  is  rather  that  of  a  diHerent  point  of  view 
than  of  conscious  contradiction,  and  had  the  writer 
had  Paul's  epistles  before  him  we  might  well  have 
expected  that  he  would  have  said  much  more. 
Indeed  the  whole  treatment  suggests  want  of 
acquaintance  with  Paul's  epistles  far  more  than 
a  criticism  of  his  doctrine,  and  the  works  required 
by  James  are  not  at  all  the  works  of  llie  law  con- 
ilemned  by  I'aul.  Paul's  cimception  of  faith  is  a 
complete  spiritual  communion  with  the  Heileemer, 
effected  by  the  free  gift  of  (!od,  in  consequence  of 
a  jirofound  conviction  on  the  sinner's  part  of  tlie 
saving  merits  of  Christ's  death,  the  source  of  a  new 
holy  life  in  Christ  and  of  love  at  once  to  Cod  and 
man.  To  James,  again,  faith  Ls  an  lussent  of  the 
thinking  mind  to  the  oneness  of  (Jod  and  llie 
Messianic  work  antl  vicarious  .sacrifice  of  Christ, 
a  preliminaiy  condition  indeed  of  justification  and 
eternal  .salvation,  but  yet  .sometiung  still  to  be 
ma<le  i)erfect  by  the  l'ooiI  works  which  are  the  out- 
wanl  fniit  of  inward  love.  (Jood  works  are  an 
external  addition  to  faith,  uniting  with  it  and 
completing  it,  regarded  a.s  a  neces.sarv  corollary  to 
juatiiication,   ratlier   thou,  as  with  Paul,  a  spon- 


taneous and  visible  fruit  of  the  consciousness  of  a 
completely  new  relation  to  (lod  attained  through 
an  antecedent  justilicalion.  To  Paul,  says  Weiss, 
this  is  an  act  of  grace  in  which  righteousness  is 
imputed  to  the  sinner  ;  to  James,  the  act  of  a 
judge  who  by  a  judicial  decision  attests  tlie  right- 
eousness as  proved  (Matt.  xii.  X!),  and  thus  pro- 
cures deliverance  from  destruction.  Paul's  con- 
ception is  nmre  philo-sophical  and  comprehensive, 
but  it  by  no  means  excludes  the  conception  of 
.lames,  which  is  at  once  earlier  in  time  and  adapted 
in  the  first  instance  to  a  narrower  circle  of  readei's. 
Paul's  emphatic  definitions  were  meant  to  opp<ise 
the  Judaising  i)arty,  who  would  have  narrowed  the 
largeness  of  Christian  liberty  by  emphasising  the 
necessity  for  the  works  of  the  Mosaic  law  :  James 
meant  to  strike  at  the  lingering  Jewish  notion  that 
to  be  a  child  of  Abraham  was  the  most  important 
consideration,  and  that  besides  this  an  intellectual 
a,ssent  to  the  special  claims  of  Christ  was  sufficient. 
His  faith  without  works  is  not  Paul's  justifying 
faith  at  all,  but  the  profitless  faith  without  love 
condemned  in  1  Cor.  xiii. 

The  Tiibingen  school,  as  might  have  been  ex- 
pected from  its  central  a.ssumption  of  an  early 
opposition  between  the  Jewish  and  c;entile  jiarties 
in  the  Christian  church,  claimed  the  Epistle  of 
James  as  a  polemic  against  Paul,  and  made  its 
author  a  pseudonymous  w  riter  of  later  time,  who 
employed  the  name  of  James  as  an  accepted  type 
of  spiritualised  Jewish  Cliristianity.  Schwegler 
elaborated  this  view'  of  the  epistle  much  more 
fully  than  Baur  himself,  regarding  it  as  a  parallel 
to  the  Clementine  Homilies.  He  makes  the  anti- 
thesis between  rich  and  jioor  in  the  epistle  lefer 
to  secularised  Pauline  Gentile  Christianity,  as 
contrasted  with  ]uimitive  Christian  Ebionism, 
and  further  reads  into  the  epistle  polemical  refer- 
ences to  (Gnosticism  ami  the  persecutions  of  the 
time  of  Trajan.  Hausrath  refers  it  to  the  same 
period,  and  considers  it  a  direct  answer  of  Jew  isli 
Christianity  to  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews.  Hil- 
genfeld,  again,  pushes  it  back  to  the  time  of 
Domitian,  explaining  the  wisdom  attacked  as 
Pauliuism  which  had  thrown  the  church  into 
disunion  by  its  doctrinal  disputes,  and  the  Chris- 
tianity of  the  writer  as  Essene  and  Orphic  in 
character.  Holtzmann  declares  for  the  .same  date, 
maintaining  the  dependence  of  the  eidstle  on 
the  Pauline  epistles  together  with  the  E])istle  to 
the  Hebrews  and  the  Apocalypse,  on  the  first 
Canonical  Gospel,  First  Peter,  and  the  Epistle 
of  Clement,  and  explaining  the  rich  as  dis- 
tinguished aspirants  to  Christianity.  Similarly 
Von  Soden  jilaces  the  e|)istle  in  the  time  of  the 
Domitian  persecutions,  and  pvonounces  the  author, 
whom  with  Holtzmann  and  others  he  transfer  to 
Kome,  as  of  a  kindred  spirit  with  Clement  and 
Hernias. 

Besides  the  general  introductions  of  Uleek,  De  Wette, 
S.  Davidson,  Hilgenfeld,  Holtzmann,  Salmon,  Dods,  and 
"Weiss,  and  the  works  on  the  New  'rt-r^t;oiit.iit  canon  by 
Kirchofer,  Overbeck,  Wustcott,  and  Zalin,  may  be  con- 
sult«tl  the  special  coiim.entaries  by  F.  T.  Bassett  ( 18711 1, 
Reu.ss  (187SI,  Krdmann  (1881),  Schegg  (1883),  K  H. 
Plumptre  ( \Vi>.l ),  Beyscldag  ( 1888  ;  5tli  cd.  of  the  coinni. 
in  the  Exei.  Hamlhiich) ;  R.  Johnstone  (2d  eil.  1888); 
and  J.  B.  Mayor  (18'.tt).  The  question  of  the  Brethren 
of  the  Lord  is  discussed  under  JosKI'Il. 

James  I.,  king  of  Scotland  (140G-.')7l,  the 
second  and  only  surviving  son  of  Uobert  III.,  was 
born  at  Dunfermline  in  1394.  His  <Mlueation  was 
entrusted  to  the  learned  Bishop  Wardlaw  of  St 
Andrews.  His  elder  brother,  David,  Duke  of 
Rothesay,  a  reckless  and  di.s.sipated  youth,  hail 
died  at  Falkland — it  was  strongly  siispectiil.  hut 
not  proved,  a  victim  to  the  uuprinci|)led  ambition 
I  of  ins  uncle,  the  Duke  of  Albany,  and  King  Uobert 


272 


JAMES    I.-II.    OF    SCOTLAND 


resolved  in  1406  to  send  his  younger  son  for  safety 
to  France.  Hut,  tliongli  a  truce  at  that  time  existed 
between  England  and  Scotland,  the  vessel  in  which 
the  young  prince  had  eniharked  was  seized  liy  an 
English  cruiser,  and  James  and  his  attendants 
were  carried  to  London,  ami  committed  to  the 
Tower.  He  Wii,s  detained  a  prisoner  in  England 
for  the  long  space  of  eighteen  years,  no  doubt  with 
the  connivance  of  the  Duke  of  Albany,  on  whom 
the  government  of  Scotland  had  devolved  on  the 
death  of  Robert  III.  in  1406.  Henry  IV.  made 
some  compensation  for  his  cruel  injustice  to  the 
young  prince  by  carefully  instructing  him  in  all 
the  knightly  accomplishments  of  the  age,  and  he 
not  only  became  distinguished  for  his  de.xterity 
in  martial  exercises,  but  he  could  i)lay  well  on 
the  lute  and  harp  and  other  musical  instruments, 
was  a  skilful  caligrai)her,  illuminator,  and  painter 
in  miniature,  and  had  also  a  considerable  know- 
ledge of  medicine.  On  the  death  of  the  Duke  of 
Albany  in  1420,  his  son  Murdoch  succeeded  to  the 
regency.  Under  his  feeble  rule  the  country  fell 
into  a  state  of  disorder,  almost  of  anarchy,  till  at 
length  Murdoch  himself  grew  weaiy  of  his  position, 
and  took  stejis  to  procure  the  return  of  the  lawful 
sovereign.  The  conditions  of  his  release  were  defi- 
nitely arranged  May  12,  1423.  It  was  stipulated 
that  £40,000  was  to  be  paid  to  defray  the  expense 
of  his  maintenance  and  education.  James  had  in 
a  singularly  romantic  manner  gained  the  atVections 
of  Jane  Beaufort,  a  daughter  of  the  Earl  of 
Somerset,  niece  of  Richard  II.,  and  granddaiighter 
of  John  of  Gaunt;  and  on  February  12,  1424, they 
were  married  with  all  the  pomp  befitting  the  occa- 
sion. The  royal  ))air  then  set  out  for  Scotland, 
and  were  welcomed  with  joyous  acclamations. 

James  found  his  kingdom  a  scene  of  la\\less  ex- 
cess and  rapine,  mainly  owing  to  the  weakness  of 
the  govei'nment  and  the  turliulence  of  the  noljles. 
He  at  once  set  himself  to  restore  the  legitimate 
authority  of  the  crown,  and  to  rescue  the  commons 
from  oiipression  and  plunder ;  but  in  carrying  out 
these  praiseworthy  objects  he  sometimes  lost  sight 
of  both  mercy  and  justice.  Eight  months  after  his 
restoration  he  suddenly  swooped  down  upon  his 
cousin  the  former  Regent  Albany,  two  of  his  sons, 
and  his  aged  father-in-law,  the  Earl  of  Lennox. 
They  were  brought  to  trial,  but  the  nature  of  the 
charges  against  them  is  not  known.  They  were 
founil  guilty  and  executed  amid  general  compassion 
and  regret  ;  the  people  believed  that  it  wa-s  simply 
an  act  of  cruel  revenge.  James  then  seized  and 
imprisoned  lifty  of  the  Highland  chiefs,  and  put  to 
death  the  most  obnoxious  ringleaders.  He  deprived 
the  powerful  Karl  of  March  of  his  estates,  and  on 
the  death  of  the  Earl  of  Mar,  the  victor  at  Har- 
law,  he  seized  the  earhhmi  and  annexed  its 
immense  estates  to  the  crown.  Meanwhile,  into 
the  parliament  he  introduced  the  principle  of  repre- 
sentation, and  for  the  first  time  caused  its  acts  to 
lie  published  in  the  language  of  the  common 
pcoiile.  Its  enactments,  which  were  judicious  and 
eidightened  beyond  the  age,  comprehended  the 
sul>jects  of  agriculture,  commerce,  foreign  and 
domestic  manufactures,  the  regulation  of  weights 
and  measures,  the  impartial  administration  of 
justice,  and  the  police  of  tlie  country.  He  reneweil 
commercial  intercourse  with  the  Netherlanils,  and 
loncludccl  a  satisfactory  treaty  with  Denmark. 
Norway,  and  Sweden.  He  drew  closer  the  ancient 
bond  of  alliance  with  France,  and  gave  his  eldest 
ilaughter  in  marriage  to  the  Dauphin.  But  he 
unfortun.ilcly  jicrsistcil  in  carrying  out  harshly, 
and  sometimes  unjustly,  his  measures  for  curbing 
the  power  of  the  nobles,  which  excited  not  withoiit 
cause  strong  discontent  and  aiiprehension  among 
the  whole  body. 

His  confiscation  of  the  earldom  of  Strathearn, 


which  had  devolved  on  Patrick  Graham,  brought 
matters  to  a  crisis.  A  conspiracy  was  formed 
against  the  king's  life,  headetf  by  his  uncle,  the 
Earl  of  Athole  ;  Sir  Robert  Stewart,  his  grandson  : 
and  Sir  Robert  Graham,  uncle  of  the  Earl  of 
Strathearn,  who  had  personal  as  well  fvs  family 
injuries  to  re^■enge.  The  plot  w;is  carried  into 
effect  at  Perth  on  the  20th  of  February  14:!7. 
The  king  was  about  to  retire  for  the  night,  when 
there  was  a  great  noise  and  clashing  of  arms 
heard,  and  a  baud  of  assassins  led  by  Giaham 
broke  into  the  monivstery  of  the  Dominicans 
where  the  court  was  residing.  The  bolts  had  been 
removed  from  the  chamber  door,  but  I'atharine 
Douglas  heroically  thrust  her  arm  into  the 
staple.  It  was  instantly  broken,  and  the  rullians 
burst  into  the  chamber.  The  king,  who  h.ad 
sought  refuge  in  a  vault  under  the  floor,  was  dis- 
covered, and  after  a  desperate  resistance  was 
cruelly  murdered.  The  murderers  were  all  appie- 
hended  in  less  than  a  month,  and  put  to  death 
by  tortures  shocking  to  humanity.  By  his  wife, 
the  heroine  of  the  Kiiir/is  Qitair,  he  left  one 
son  (his  successor)  and  five  daughters,  one  of 
whom,  Marijuerite  d'Ecosse,  dauphine  of  France, 
was  a  gifted  poetess.  James  was  unquestionably 
the  ablest  of  the  Stewart  sovereigns,  and  wius 
possessed  of  high  poetical  genius.  His  principal 
poem,  entitled  i7ic  Kinqis  Qiiair  (i.e.  the  king's 
quire  or  book ),  is  remarkable  for  elei'ance  of  dic- 
tion antl  tender  delicacy  of  feeling.  1  he  humorous 
pieces  Chrisfs  Kirk  on  the  Green  and  Pcblin  tu  the 
Flay  are  much  later  compositions ;  but  a  '  Ballad 
of  Good  Counsel,'  written,  unlike  ThcKimjis  Qtiuir, 
strictly  in  the  Scottish  dialect,  is  ascribed  by  Pro- 
fessor Skeat  to  James.  See  Professor  Skeat's  eili- 
tion  of  The  Kingis  Qtiaii-  (Scottish  Text  Soc.  1SS4), 
and  Rossetti's  noble  ballad,  'The  King's  Tragedy.' 

James  II.,  king  of  Scotland  ( 14:i7-60),  was  (Uily 
si.x  years  old  at  the  time  of  his  fathers  murder. 
So  alarming  was  the  aspect  of  aflairs  that  the 
queen-mother  deemed  it  necessary  to  take  shelter 
with  her  son  in  the  castle  of  Edinburgh.  Along 
with  Sir  Alexander  Livingston  of  Calleudar  .she 
was  entnisted  with  the  care  of  the  young  king ; 
but  Sir  M'illiam  Crichton,  who  was  ajipointed 
Chancellor,  and  was  governor  of  Edinburgli  Castle, 
kept  ])ossession  of  his  per.son,  until  the  queen 
contrived  to  convey  her  son  out  of  the  fortress 
concealed  in  a  chest,  and  took  refuge  with  Living- 
ston in  Stirling  Castle.  Crichton  was  Iiesieged  in 
his  stronghold,  and  compelled  to  make  his  sub- 
mission. Meanwhile  the  country  was  brought  to 
the  verge  of  ruin  by  the  feuds  of  the  nobles,  and 
the  death  of  the  Earl  of  Douglas  in  1439  removed 
the  only  restraining  power.  Livingston  availed 
himself  of  the  marriage  of  the  queen-dowager  to 
Sir  James  Stewart  of  Lorn  to  com|)el  her  to  resign 
her  olHce  as  guardian  of  the  king.  Crichton  and 
Livingston  became  reconciled,  and  were  now  the 
sole  rulers  of  the  kingdom,  till  in  1449  the  young 
king  assumed  the  reins  of  government.  He  dis- 
jilayed  great  prudence  and  vigoin-  in  the  manage- 
ment of  public  afVairs.  and  iidlicted  condign  punish- 
ment on  the  Livingstons  for  their  treatment  of  his 
mother. 

The  truce  which  had  for  some  years  existed 
between  England  and  Scotland  expired  in  1448, 
and  war  was  renewed  on  the  Borders.  Peace,  how- 
ever, wa-s  restiued  in  the  following  year  by  the  con- 
clusion of  a  iierm.ment  truce.  In  June  1449  James 
married  Mary,  the  only  daughterof  Arnold,  Duke  of 
(iuelilres.  He  jirocured  from  the  parliament  a  mim- 
ber  of  judicious  enactments  for  the  repression  of 
outrages,  the  imiiartial  administration  of  justice, 
the  protection  of  the  tenants  of  the  feudal  barons 
from  summary  ejection  from  their  lands,  and  for 
the  punishment  of  marauders.     But  his  efforts  to 


JAMES    III.     IV.    OF    SCOTLAND 


273 


piornote  the  social  welfare  of  the  people  were 
greatly  olistnioted  and  tlnvarteil  liy  the  nohle.s, 
and  espwially  )>y  the  Dongliuies  (see  Doi'ULAS); 
Earl  William  hent  his  whole  energies  to  obtain 
pre-eminent  position  and  power,  and  he  entered 
into  a  tie;isonal>le  homl  with  the  Earls  of  Crawford 
and  Hoss.  James  inviteil  him  to  the  court  at  Stir- 
ling, and  earnestly  urged  him  to  withdraw  from  his 
engagement  with  t'rawford  and  Ross.  Douglas  in 
a  iiaughty  and  insolent  manner  refused  to  comply 
with  this  re(|uest  :  and  the  king,  whose  temper  was 
naturally  fiery,  lost  all  self-comnuvnd,  and  stalihed 
the  earl  with  his  dagger.  Some  of  the  courtiei's 
pierced  his  body  with  twenty-six  wimnds.  After 
this  atrocious  mnrder  the  friends  and  vassals  of 
the  earl  maile  war  on  the  king  until,  by  liberal 
promises  of  land  and  honours.  Lord  Hamilton  and 
other  powerful  nobles  were  induced  to  abandon 
their  cause ;  their  estates  were  then  forfeited,  and 
they  were  compelled  to  take  refuge  in  England. 
James  was  so  irritated  at  the  conduct  of  the  Yorkist 
faction  in  protecting  and  pensioning  the  e.xiled 
Douglases  that  he  unwisely  surtered  himself  to  be 
entangled  in  the  contest  between  the  rival  houses 
of  York  and  Lancaster,  and  marched  for  England  in 
1460  at  the  head  of  a  powerful  army.  He  laid 
siege  t«  Itoxburgh  Civstle,  which  was  at  that  time 
in  the  hamls  of  the  English,  and  was  killed  by  the 
bursting  of  a  cannon. 

Jaiues  III.  (1460-88),  born  lOth  July  14:)1, 
succeeded  James  IL  in  1460.  The  guardianship 
of  the  young  monarch  was  entrusted  to  his  mother 
and  Kennedy,  Bisho])  of  St  Andiews,  a  prelate  of 
great  sagacity  and  integrity,  while  the  Earl  of 
Angus,  chief  of  the  "  Ked  Douglases,'  was  made 
lieutenant-general.  L'nder  their  management  the 
government  of  the  kingdom  was  carried  on  judici- 
ously and  successfully  ;  but  the  death  of  the  earl 
in  1462  and  of  the  bishop  in  1466,  while  the  king 
was  still  a  boy.  left  the  country  a  prey  to  the 
factious  and  ambitious  nobles,  conspicuous  among 
whom  was  Lonl  Boyd,  high  justiciar.  Lend  Boyd's 
son  wa.s  created  Earl  of  Arran,  and  in  1467  he 
obtained  the  hand  of  the  kings  sister,  the  Princess 
Margaret.  The  ambition  and  arrogance  of  the 
family,  however,  led  to  their  downfall.  Tlie  Earl  of 
Arran  fled  to  the  Continent ;  and  after  his  death,- 
which  took  place  apparently  before  1472,  the  Princess 
Margaret  married  Lord  Hamilton  (1474),  whose 
descendants  became  by  this  alliance  the  nearest 
heirs  to  the  crown.  When  the  king  reached  man- 
hood the  defects  of  his  character  became  api)arent. 
He  had  a  refined  and  cultivated  mind  and  fine  tastes, 
WEus  fond  of  mathematics  and  of  music,  and  [lossessed 
great  skill  in  architecture  :  but  ho  w:is  ipiite  unfit 
to  rule  a  country  like  Scotland  at  that  period  and 
to  keep  in  order  its  rude  and  turbulent  noljlcs.  He 
was  fond  of  money  and  of  plejusure,  and  spent  his  time 
in  the  society  of  architects,  painters,  and  musicians. 
The  nobles  were  indignant  at  the  slight  thus  put 
upon  them,  ami  attaclied  themselves  to  the  king's 
brothers,  the  Ouke  of  Albany  and  the  Earl  of  Mar, 
who  were  distinguished  for  their  courage  and  skill 
in  ndlitary  exercises.  James  became  jealous  of 
their  jjopularity  and  put  them  in  prison,  whence 
Albany  escaped  to  the  Continent,  but  Mar  <lied  in 
confinement.  Albany  had,  in  fact,  aspired  to  the 
crown  and  had  engaged  to  hold  it  a-s  the  vassal  of 
Edward,  king  of  England.  In  retaliation  for  an 
inv.asion  of  the  country  by  an  English  lleet,  James 
summoned  the  array  of  the  kingdom  t<i  make  an 
inroad  into  England.  The  army  had  atlvanced  as 
far  a-s  Lauder  wlien  the  dlsallected  nobles  suddenly 
seized  the  royal  favourites  and  hanged  them  on  a 
bridge  ovi-r  the  river  Leader — Angus  obtaining  the 
name  of  Bell-the-Cat  from  his  holdne.ss  in  taking 
the  initiative.  Keturning  to  Edinburgh,  they 
commit  led  the  king  a  clo.se  prisoner  to  the  ca«tle  of 
278 


Edinburgh.  A  reconciliation  was  efl'ected  between 
the  king  and  his  brother,  but  it  was  of  short 
duration.  The  consoiracy  among  the  nobles  was 
.speedily  renewed.  Tliey  rose  in  ojien  rebellion,  and 
induced  the  young  heir  to  the  throne  to  become 
their  nominal  head.  The  king  was  supported  by  the 
northern  liarons,  but  they  were  greatly  outnumbered 
by  the  rebels.  An  encounter  took  place  between 
the  two  lx)dies  (Utli  June  14S8)  at  Sauchieburn, 
about  a  mile  from  the  famous  lielil  of  Banuockburn. 
When  the  battle  was  going  against  the  royalists 
the  king  galloped  from  the  field,  but  was  thrown 
from  his  horse  at  Beaton's  Mill,  and  murdere<l. 
James  left  by  liis  queen,  Jlaigaret  of  Dennuirk,  three 
sous,  the  eldest  of  whom  succeeded  to  the  throne. 

James  IV.  ( 14SS-1.'>13)  was  born  in  147.'>.  lie 
was  only  in  his  sixteenth  year  when  he  was  induced 
to  join  the  disaffected  liarons  in  their  rebellion 
against  his  father,  but  there  is  no  reason  to  believe 
tluit  he  was  a  mere  passive  tool  in  their  hands.  The 
reuuirse  which  he  felt  on  learning  of  his  father's  mur- 
der, shown  by  his  wearing  an  iron  chain  round  his 
waist  and  submitting  to  various  other  austerities 
liy  way  of  penance,  att'ords  conclusive  evidence  of 
his  consciousness  of  guilt.  His  confederates  in  the 
rebellion,  as  might  have  been  expected,  turned  their 
victory  to  their  own  advantage.  They  took  posses- 
sion of  all  the  most  important  offices  of  state,  of  the 
money  in  the  royal  treasur\%  and  of  the  late  king's 
jewels.  They  liad  even  the  eti'rontery  to  accuse 
the  loyal  barons  of  treason,  and  to  deprive  them 
of  their  estates,  which  were  divided  among  the 
leading  conspirators. 

When  the  young  kin;'  reached  maturity  he  ex- 
hibited great  energy  and  good  .sense  in  the  admin- 
istration of  public  affairs,  in  vindicating  law  and 
punishing  crime,  in  encouraging  shipbuilding,  and 
in  developing  the  agriculture  and  manufactures  of 
the  country.  He  gradually  withdrew  his  confidence 
from  the  barons  wlio  had  used  him  as  a  tool  to  gain 
their  own  selfish  ends,  ami  transferred  it  to  Sir 
Andrew  Wood  (q.v. )  and  other  trustworthy  counsel- 
lors. James  vigilantly  guarded  against  the  en- 
croachments of  the  papal  court,  and  firmly  asserted 
the  ecclesiastical  independence  of  his  kingdom. 
His  romantic  and  rash  disposition  induced  him  to 
support  the  cause  of  the  imjiostor,  Perkin  Warbeck, 
who  visited  Scotland  in  1495,  and  to  invade  Eng- 
land in  his  behalf.  However,  in  1497  a  truce  for 
seven  years  was  concluded  between  the  two  king- 
doms, and  in  August  1503  the  Scottish  king  was 
married  to  ilargaret,  eldest  daughter  of  Henry 
VII. — an  alliance  which  led  ultimately  to  the  union 
of  the  crowns.  James's  att'able  manners,  frank  dis- 
position, and  splendid  hospitality  made  liim  highly 
popular  among  his  sulijects,  and  his  friendship 
was  courted  by  foreign  sovereigns.  Henry  VIII., 
who  ascende<l  the  English  throne  in  1.509,  joined 
the  league  against  France,  while  James  auhered 
to  the  ancient  alliance  with  that  country.  Petty 
disputes  arose  between  the  bonlerers  of  the  two 
countries,  and  inroads  were  made  on  both  sides. 
James  was  indignant  at  the  capture  of  two  privateers 
commanded  by  the  famous  .\ndrew  Bartnn,  who 
fell  in  an  engagement  with  two  English  men-of  war, 
and  all  re(lres.s  was  refused  by  Henry.  The  I'rench 
king,  hard  pressed  bytlie  Spanish  and  English  armies, 
made  strenuous  idlorts  to  obtain  a.ssistance  from  the 
Scots,  an<l  the  Erench  queen  addressed  a  letter  to 
James  calling  herself  his  mistress,  and  entreating 
him  for  her  sake  to  advance  three  feet  into  English 
ground.  He  wsis  unfortunately  imlnoed  to  comply 
with  her  request,  ami,  disregarding  the  entrealiesof 
his  ijueeu  and  the  remonstrances  of  his  counsellors, 
he  summoned  thi"  army  of  bis  kingdom  and  invaded 
England  in  llic>  sunnner  of  loi:?.  He  lingered 
about  the  Borders  until  the  Earl  of  Surrey  had 
collected  a  powerful  army  to  repel  the  invasion.     A 


274      JAMES    V.    OF    SCOTLAND 


JAMES    I.    OF    ENGLAND 


battle  took  place  at  Flodden  (q.v.),  9tli  Scptemlier, 
ill  wliicli  tlie  Scottish  kinj;  ami  tlie  llowcr  of  his 
nobility  ami  j;eiitry  lost  tlieir  lives.  .laiucs  pos- 
sessed excellent  aliilities and  };reat  acconii)lishnients, 
but  he  was  headstront;,  obstinate,  and  inipalient  of 
contradiction,  licentious,  fond  of  pleasure,  and  pro- 
fuse in  his  expenditure.  See  (irejjory  Sniitli's 
Dai/s  of  James  IV.  (IS'JO). 

James  V.  ( 1513-42),  wlio  -was  born  on  the  10th 
of  Aiiril  1.512,  ascended  the  throne  at  a  most  critical 
period  ;  for,  thou;;li  contrary  to  expectation  the 
Earl  of  Surrey  did  not  insade  Scotland,  the  king- 
dom was  torn  by  intestine  feuds  between  rival 
factions.  The  ijueen-dowager,  headstrong  and 
passionate,  w.is  appointed  regent.  About  eight 
months  after  the  king's  death  she  gave  birth  to 
a  son,  who  died  in  infancy;  and  four  months  later 
she  married  the  young  Earl  of  Angus,  head  of 
the  Douglas  family.  Her  marriage  put  an  end 
to  her  regency,  and  the  Duke  of  Albany,  son  of 
the  younger  brother  of  James  III.,  was  invited 
from  France  and  chosen  in  her  room.  Amid  the 
contentions  of  the  rival  French  and  English 
factions,  and  the  private  quarrels  of  the  nobles, 
the  country  was  reduced  to  a  state  of  almost  total 
anarchy.  The  intrigues  of  Henry  contributed  not 
a  little  to  foment  the  prevailing  disorders.  Albiiny, 
who  insisted  on  revisiting  France,  returned  after 
the  lapse  of  a  few  months  to  find  the  Hamiltons 
and  Douglases  at  open  war ;  and,  after  \aiu 
efforts  to  assert  the  authority  of  the  go\ern- 
ment,  he  ol)tained  permission  in  the  beginning  of 
152-t  to  re\isit  France  for  a  limited  period,  but  did 
not  return.  Meanwhile  the  young  king  had  been 
placed  under  the  care  of  the  poet  Sir  David 
Lyndsay,  who  instructed  him  in  all  manly  and 
liberal  accomplishments ;  but  his  mother  interrupted 
his  education,  and,  with  the  assistance  of  her  brother 
Henry  VIIl.  in  1524,  when  James  had  reached  his 
thirteenth  year,  put  him  at  the  head  of  the  govern- 
ment in  oriler  that  she  and  her  faction  might  mis- 
govern the  kingdom  in  his  name.  She  had  now 
become  tired  of  her  husband,  and  after  a  good  deal 
of  difficulty  she  succeeded  in  obtaining  a  divorce 
from  him,  and  married  young  Henry  Stewart,  a  son 
of  Lord  Avondale.  In  the  following  year  the 
custody  of  tlie  ycmng  king  fell  into  the  hands 
of  the  Douglases,  who  kept  him  a  close  prisoner 
until  he  made  his  escape  in  1528,  and  assumed  the 
jiosition  of  an  independent  sovereign.  He  dis- 
played great  firmness  and  resolution  in  carrying 
out  his  judicious  policy,  though  unfortunately  his 
murals  had  been  deeply  injured  by  the  manner  in 
which  the  base  syco|diants  of  the  court  had  pandered 
to  his  ]ia.ssions.  He  expelled  froni  the  kingdom  the 
Douglases,  who  had  entered  into  a  traitorous  league 
with  England,  severely  punished  the  I'order  free- 
booters, chasti.sed  the  insurgent  Highlanders,  re- 
newed the  ancient  commercial  treaty  between  Scot- 
land and  the  Netherlands,  instituted  the  College  of 
Justice,  and  took  measures  to  protect  the  ])easantry 
against  the  tyranny  of  the  b.inius.  Hissymjialhy 
with  the  common  people  and  his  habit  of  visiting 
their  houses  in  disguise  i>rocured  for  him  the 
designation  of  '  the  king  of  the  commons.'  In  1.5.36 
James  undertook  a  voyage  to  France,  and  on  the 
1st  of  Jamiary  1537  he  was  married  to  Magdalene, 
daughtcu-  of  Francis  I.,  who,  however,  died  in  the 
following  July.  In  June  1.538  James  niarrieil 
Mary  of  Uuisc,  widow  of  the  Duke  of  Lougueville 
and  sister  of  the  Duke  of  (!uise. 

Meanwhile  the  principles  of  the  reformed  faith 
were  making  progress  in  Scotland,  and  Henrv  VIII. 
tried  to  induce  his  nephew  to  fed  low  his  ecclcsia-stical 
policy  and  to  re))udiate  the  authority  of  the  jiajial 
see.  But  James,  though  he  looked  with  a  severe  eye 
upon  the  overgrown  wealth,  idleness,  and  corruii- 
tiou  of  the  clergy,  found  it  necessary  to  rely  on  their 


support  in  order  to  reduce  the  exorbitant  power 
of  tlie  nobles.  The  bishops  on  their  part  strove  to 
bring  about  a  ru]iture  with  England.  Witli  the 
hope  of  gaining  over  his  ne[phew  to  adopt  his  policy, 
Henry  invited  the  Scottish  king  to  meet  him  at 
York  in  the  autumn  of  1541,  and  waited  there  six 
days  for  him.  But  James  wa.s  induced  to  break 
his  engagement,  and  the  proud  tem]ier  of  the 
Englisli  monarch  lired  at  till-  insult.  ( )th('r  causes 
of  offence  arose,  and  war  broke  out  between  the  two 
countries  in  1542.  An  army  of  30,0(K)  men  under 
the  Duke  of  Norfolk  were  ordered  to  invade  Scot- 
land ;  but  the  attempt  ended  in  nothing.  A  Scot- 
tish army  levied  to  oppose  the  invaders  advanced 
as  far  as  F\ila  :  the  nobles,  howi^ver,  while  willing 
to  support  James  within  the  kingdom,  refused  to 
follow  him  beyond  the  frontier.  Another  army 
Mas  shortly  after  levied  by  the  exertions  of  the 
clergy  ;  but  the  command  of  this  army  having  been 
unwisely  given  by  the  king  to  a  favourite  named 
Oliver  Sinclair,  the  nobles  again  refused  to  act. 
While  the  Scottish  army  thus  disputed,  a  body  of 
F^nglish  Borderers  fell  upon  and  coin]iletely  routed 
tliem  at  Solway  Moss,  taking  many  ]irisoners. 
James  was  completely  overwhelmed  by  this  shame- 
ful discomliture,  and  fell  into  a  state  of  the  deepest 
despondency.  He  retired  to  F'alkland  Palace 
attacked  by  a  slow  fever  which  no  skill  could 
remove,  and  he  died  there  14th  December  1542,  in 
the  thirty-lirst  year  of  his  age.  He  left  one  legiti- 
mate child,  the  ill-fated  Mary,  who  was  only  a 
few  days  old  at  his  death,  and  six  natural  children, 
one  of  whom  was  the  celebrated  Kegent  Moray. 
See  Bapst,  Lcs  MariiKjcs  de  Jiivqiics  V.  (1889). 

James  I.  of  Exol.vnd  (1U03-25)  and  VI.  of 
Scotland  (1567-1025)  was  the  only  son  of  Mary, 
tjueeu  of  Scots,  and  Henry,  Lord  Darnley.  He  was 
born  in  Edinburgh  Castle  on  the  lOlli  June  1.566, 
at  which  time  unpleasant  relations  between  Mary 
and  her  husband  were  beginning  to  develop  them- 
selves. Then  followed  the  murder  of  Darnley  in 
February  1567,  the  marriage  of  ilary  to  Bothwell 
ill  May,  the  rising  of  the  nobles  at  Carberry  Hill 
in  June,  and  the  subseijuent  impri.sonment  of  Mary 
and  enforced  resignation  of  her  crow  u.  In  conse- 
quence of  this  rapid  course  of  events  , lames  was 
IMOclaimed  king  of  Scotland,  29th  .Inly  1567.  The 
nation  at  this  time  was  rent  by  factions,  and,  as 
was  customary  in  Scotland  under  'haiiii  kings,' 
each  faction  sought  to  have  possession  of  the  per- 
son of  the  monarch.  James  was  placed  in  Stirling 
Castle  in  the  keeping  of  the  Earl  of  Mar,  and  here 
he  received  his  education  under  the  laiiioiis  .scholar 
(ieorge  Buchanan.  Within  eleven  years  Moray, 
Lennox,  Mar,  and  Morton  had  successively  held 
the  regency  of  tlie  kingdom,  and  when,  in  1578, 
the  Kegent  Morton  was  driven  from  power  James 
himself  uominally  a.ssunied  the  direction  of  affairs. 
But  the  government  of  his  advisers  was  unpojuilar, 
and  Morton  once  more  succeeded  in  re-estahlish- 
ing  himself  in  the  regency.  About  this  time 
James  began  to  exhibit  that  )iartiality  towards 
favourites  which  was  so  characteristic  a  feature 
of  his  life;  and  an  acconi|dislied,  but  truculent 
and  unprincipled  soldier.  Captain  .lames  Stewart, 
whom  he  created  Earl  of  Airan,  was  the  favourite 
with  who.se  help  and  that  of  the  Duke  of  Lennox 
(another  favourite)  the  hiiig  was  enabled  liiially 
to  break  the  power  of  Morton.  Alter  Morion's 
execution  (1581  )  James  ruled  the  kingdom  through 
his  two  favourites,  not  without  much  discon- 
tent and  grunihling  on  the  part  both  of  the  kirk 
and  the  nobility.  Hence,  im  12tli  .\ugust  1582, 
occurred  the  well-known  Itaid  of  Kulhven  (<|.v.), 
when  the  king  was  forcibly  seized  by  a  party  of 
his  nobles,  and  under  their  direction  was  (il)liged 
to  sanction  the  imprisonment  of  .\iiaii  and  the 
banishment  of  Lennox.      In    1583   a  counterplot 


JAMES    I. -II.    OF    ENGLAND 


275 


■effected  the  king's  freedom,  wlieii  he  immediately 
restored  Arran  to  power.  Tlie  confederate  lords  were 
obliged  to  tlee  to  England,  whence,  in  158.5,  through 
the  connivance  of  t^ueen  Elizabeth,  they  returned, 
and  with  an  army  of  UMMK)  men  forced  James  to 
capitulate  in  Stirling  Castle.  .\rran  once  more 
w;i.s  banished,  and  never  again  restored  to  [)Ower. 

In  l.")86  Queen  Mary,  then  a  [irisoner  in  tuglaud, 
wa-s  condemned  l)y  the  English  court  to  be 
executed.  James's  conduct  at  this  time,  taken  in 
coimectiou  with  his  previous  attitude  towards  his 
mother,  and  his  subsequent  friendly  alliance  with 
Elizalieth,    has  been  severely   censured   by  Marys 

S artisans,  and  in  truth  does  not  admit  of  much 
efence.  In  the  winter  of  1589  he  went  to  Denmark, 
where  he  married  the  Princess  Anne  (1574-1619), 
daughter  of  Frederick  II.,  king  of  that  country. 
During  these  and  sulisequent  years  James  was  fre- 
quently in  conflict  with  the  Presbyterians  on  the 
one  hanil,  and  with  the  Roman  Catholics  on  the 
other.  Like  Elizabeth,  he  hated  Puritanism,  and 
\v;is  not  disinclined  towards  some  moditied  form 
of  Romanism.  The  spirit  of  Presbyteriaiiism  he 
regarded  as  too  democratic,  and  was  therefore  dis- 
posed to  introduce  Episcopacy  into  Scotland,  and 
did  ultimately  (in  1600)  succeed  in  establishing 
bishojis.  In  consequence  of  this  tendency  the  king 
had  frequent  theological  discu.ssions  with  the  Pres- 
byterian ministers :  which  discussions,  however, 
were  not  altogether  unwelcome  to  him,  as  he  had 
a  strong  taste  for  polemics.  Prom  1.391  to  1594  the 
Roman  Catholic  lords  in  the  north  were  in  a  state 
of  semi-insurrection ;  but  James  linally  marched 
against  them,  and  the  disturbances  were  sup- 
pressed. In  1600  occurred  that  strange  episode, 
the  Gowrie  Conspiracy  (qv.). 

During  the  whole  of  Elizabeth's  long  reign  the 
disturbing  element  in  Englisli  politics  had  been  the 
•  question  of  the  succession  to  the  throne  ;  this  Wiis 
(iiially  settled  when,  on  the  death  of  that  queen  in 
1603,  James  VI.  of  Scotland  ascended  the  English 
throne.  He  was  at  lirst  well  receiveil  by  his  subjects 
in  England,  Ijut  subsequently  became  unpopular  by 
reason  of  his  continued  partiality  towards  favour- 
ites. He  also  degradeil  the  prerogative  of  the  crown 
1)y  the  sale  of  titles  of  dignity :  the  title  of  baronet, 
which  he  originated,  couhl  be  bought  for  i;i000,  a 
barony  for  £5000,  and  an  earldom  for  £20,000.  His 
chief  favourite  at  this  time  was  Robert  Kerr,  or 
Carre,  a  Scotchman  of  the  Border  family  of  Kerr 
of  Ferniehirst.  on  whom  he  showered  honours  and 
emoluments,  finally  creating  him  Earl  of  Somei'set. 
When  Carre  fell  out  of  favour  he  was  succeeded 
by  the  notorious  Buckingham.  The  king  really 
g<iverned  through  these  minions,  and  the  name  and 
prestige  of  England,  so  forniiilable  under  Elizabeth, 
sank  into  insigniticance.  In  1617  James  revisited 
Scotland,  signalising  his  reap|iearance  among  his 
Scottish  subjects  by  several  angry  disputes  with 
the  clergy,  in  which  the  king  did  not  always  come 
ott'  victoriou.s.  His  eldest  son,  Henry,  Prince  of 
Wales,  having,  to  the  great  grief  of  the  nation,  died 
in  1612,  the  succas.sion  devolve<l  upon  his  second  son 
Charles  (afterwards  Charles  I.),  between  whom  and 
a  Spanish  princess  the  king  was  long  anxious  to 
etlect  a  marriage,  but  after  years  of  negotiation  the 
project  Wius  not  successful.  Buckingham,  who  Wius 
entnisted  too  much  with  the  conduct  of  the  atlair, 
acted  ra.shly  and  unwisely,  with  the  consequence 
that  war  broke  out  between  the  two  countries. 

.lames  died  on  27th  .March  1625.  His  character 
has  been  painted  in  various  colours  by  ditrerent 
historians.  Sully  epigrammatlcally  described  him 
as  'the  wisest  fool  in  Christendom  ; '  and  Macaulay, 
in  one  of  his  antithetical  sentences,  exaggerates 
lilts  aspect  of  .I.ames's  character  by  stating  th.it  '  he 
was  indeed  ma<le  up  of  two  men — a  witty,  wejl- 
read  scholar,  who  wrote,  disputed,  and  harangued, 


and  a  nervous,  drivelling  idiot  who  acted.'  By 
more  recent  historians,  however,  such  a-s  Von 
Ranke  and  Mr  S.  R.  Cardiner,  his  character  has 
been  treated  more  broadly  and  mildly  :  but  perhaps 
the  best  popular  estini.ate  of  the  man,  his  manners, 
and  his  peculiarities,  is  the  representation  of  him 
which  is  given  by  Scott  in  The  Furtniics  of  Niijel. 

The  literary  tastes  which  James  had  acquired 
under  the  tuition  of  Buchanan  appeared  in  after 
life  in  various  works  which  he  issued,  but  none  of 
which  ever  became  ]io)iular.  These  are  £ss((i/s  of 
a  Prentice  in  the  Dii-iiie  Art  of  Poesie  (1584); 
Poetical  Exercises  at  Vacant  Hours  ( 1591 ) ;  Demon- 
o/offic  (1.597);  Basilicoii  Doron  (q.v.),  in  which 
he  embodie<l  liis  somewhat  extreme  views  as  to 
the  divine  right  of  kings ;  and  the  Counterblast  to 
Tobacco  (1616). 

Besides  the  historians  already  named,  as  well  as  Burton, 
Tytler,  Calderwood,  &c.,  the  following  may  be  read  :  Good- 
man's Court  of  -lame.i  /.,  edited  by  J.  S.  Brewer  (2  vols. 
1839 ) ;  The  Secret  Hiftorii  of  the  Court  of  Khvi  Ja  mea  I., 
edited  by  Sir  'W.  !-cott  ( 2  vols.  1811 ),  crmtaining  ( )sborne's 
Memoirs^  "VVeldon's  valuable  Court  of  Kint/  James,  &c. 

Jiinies  II.  of  England  and  VII.  of  Scotland 
(1685-88)  was  the  second  surviving  son  of  Charles 
I.,  and  was  liorn  14th  October  1633.  A  short  time 
before  his  father's  execution  he  escaped  to  Holland, 
and  shortly  after  went  to  France.  He  served  for 
some  time  in  the  French  army  under  T-irenne.  and 
when  he  was  obliged  to  leave  the  French  territory 
on  the  conclusion  of  peace  between  the  English 
Commonwealth  and  Louis  XIV.  he  entered  the 
military  service  of  Spain.  At  the  Restoration  ( 1660) 
James  was  recognised  as  Duke  of  York,  and  was 
made  Lord  High  Admiral  of  England.  In  Novem- 
ber 1659  he  had  married  Anne  Hyde,  daughter  of  the 
Chancellor,  afterwards  Earl  of  Clarendon.  He  had 
some  skill  in  maritime  attairs,  and  in  1665  he  com- 
manded an  English  squadron  which  "ained  a  signal 
vict<u'y  over  a  Dutch  fleet  under  Adndral  Opdani. 
In  1671  he  again  encountered,  off  the  coast  of  Suf- 
folk, the  Dutch  led  by  the  celebrated  De  Ruyter, 
and  the  conflict,  which  was  obstinately  contested, 
terminated  at  nightfall  in  a  drawn  battle.  On  the 
death  of  Anne  Hyde  in  1671  James  made  a  public 
avowal  of  his  conversion  to  the  Roman  Catholic 
faith.  In  1673  the  English  parliament  passed  the 
Test  Act,  requiring  all  civil  and  military  ofUcers  to 
subscribe  a  declaration  against  transubstantiation, 
and  to  receive  the  sacrament  according  to  the  rites 
of  the  Church  of  England.  James  was  consequently 
obliged  to  resign  the  office  of  Lord  High  Admiral. 
Shortly  after  he  married  Mary,  daughter  of  the 
Duke  of  Modena.  The  national  ferment  occasioned 
by  the  supposed  Popish  Plot  became  so  formidable 
that  he  was  under  the  necessity  of  retiring  to  the 
Continent,  and  during  his  absence  an  attempt  was 
made  to  exclude  him  fnim  the  throne.  He  returned 
at  the  close  of  1679,  but  King  Charles  found  it 
necessary  to  reijuire  him  to  remove  again  from  the 
court,  and  he  was  sent  down  to  Scotland  to  take 
the  management  of  its  allaii's.  The  cruelties  which 
he  indicted  on  the  Covenanters  have  left  an  indel- 
ible stain  upon  his  memory.  Meanwhile  the 
Exclusion  Itill  was  again  introduced,  and  was  twice 
pa-ssed  by  the  Commons,  but  in  the  lirst  instance 
It  wa.s  rejected  by  the  Lords,  ami  on  the  second 
occasion  it  was  lost  by  the  dissolution  of  the  par- 
liament. James  then  returned  to  England,  and  in 
direct  violation  of  the  law  took  his  seat  in  the 
council,  and  resumed  the  direction  of  naval  affairs. 

At  the  death  of  Charles  in  1685  James  ascended 
the  throni'.  ami  on  taking  his  seat  at  the  head  of 
the  couiu'il  board  he  declared  his  resolution  to 
maintain  the  established  government  both  in 
church  iuid  stale,  and  to  respect  the  liberties  of 
the  people.  Ihib  immeiliately  after  his  accession 
he  proceeded  to  levy,  on  liLs  own  warrant,  without 


276      JAMES    II.    OF    ENGLAND 


JAMES 


waiting  for  the  nieetinj;  of  |>ailiaiiient,  the  customs 
ami  excise  duties  which  they  liad  f,'ianted  to 
Charles  only  foi'  life.  He  sent  a  mission  to  Kome, 
heard  mass  osleutationsly  in  puhlie  with  regal 
splendour,  became,  like  his  hrolher,  the  pensioned 
slave  of  the  French  king,  and  made  the  interests 
of  his  kingdom  subservient  Id  the  arbitrary  and 
aml)itious  designs  of  that  nionareh.  In  Scotland, 
at  his  instance,  the  pei^ecution  of  the  Covenanters 
Mas  reneweil  with  increased  severity  and  cruelty, 
and  a  law  was  passed  enacting  that  attendance  at 
a  conventicle,  either  as  a  ])reacher  or  a  hearer, 
should  be  punished  with  death  and  confiscation 
of  goods.  After  the  futile  rebellion  of  James's 
nephew,  Monnunith  (ii.  v. ),  came  the  '  liloody 
Assize,'  presided  over  by  the  infamous  JetlVeys, 
in  which  3'20  persons  were  hanged  ;  the  judicial 
murder  of  Alice  Lisle  aiul  Elizabeth  Gaunt  pro- 
duced an  especially  strong  impression  on  the  public 
mind.  The  suspension  of  the  Test  Act  by  the 
king's  own  authority,  his  prosecution  of  the  seven 
bishops  on  a  charge  of  seditious  libel,  his  conferring 
ecclesiastical  benefices  on  Roman  Catholics,  his 
violation  of  the  rights  of  the  universities  of  O.xford 
and  Cambridge,  liis  plan  for  packing  parliament, 
and  numerous  other  arbitrary  and  despotic  acts 
showed  his  fixed  determination  to  destroy  the  con- 
stitution and  to  overthrow  the  church.  The  indig- 
nation of  the  people  was  at  length  roused  against 
him,  and  it  became  evident  that  his  exjiulsion  from 
the  throne  was  necessary  for  the  welfare  and  safety 
of  the  nation.  Tlie  interposition  of  'William, 
Prince  of  Orange,  James's  son-in-law,  was  formally 
solicited  by  seven  intluential  politicians,  ami  «as 
readily  granted.  He  landed  at  Torbay  on  the  4th 
of  November  1(588  at  the  head  of  a  powerful  arm\', 
and  began  his  march  towards  London.  He  was 
everywhere  hailed  as  a  deliverer,  wlule  James  was 
deserted  not  only  by  his  ministei-s  and  troops,  hut 
even  by  his  daughter  the  Princess  Anne.  The 
unfortunate  king,  on  the  first  appearance  of 
danger,  had  sent  his  wife  aud  infant  son  to  France, 
and  he  soon  after  made  his  escape  from  the  country 
and  joined  them  at  St  Germains.  He  was  hosi)it- 
alily  received  by  Louis  XIV.,  who  settleil  a  pension 
on  him.  In  the  following  year,  aided  by  a  small 
bodv  of  French  troops,  he  proceeded  to  Ireland  and 
made  an  inell'ectual  attempt  to  regain  bis  throne. 
He  was  defeated  at  the  battle  of  the  IJoyne,  and  re- 
turned to  St  Germains,  where  he  resided  until  his 
death,  6th  September  1701,  in  the  sixty-eighth  year 
of  his  age.  He  left  two  daughters — Mary,  married 
to  the  Prince  of  Grange,  and  Anne,  afterwards 
queen — and  one  son  by  his  second  wife,  James 
rraucis  Edward,  usually  designated  the  Chevalier 
de  St  George  (see  J.\coiutks).  He  had  also  sev- 
eral ii.e^ltimate  children — one  of  whom.  Marshal 
Berwick,  was  a  renowned  military  commander. 

See  the  Iiistories  of  Ungland  by  Macaulay,  Eanke,  Lin- 
gard ;  IJumet's  Historii  of  h  it  Virn  Time  :  Macpherson's 
Historji  o(  Ureal  liriUiui  (1775)  and  Oiiijiiial  Paprra 
(1775)';  the  Lives  by  C.  J.  Fox  and  C'larki.-  (181G); 
AVcUwood's  Memoirs^  and  Luttri'U's  RcUition.  of  dilate 
Affairs ;  "Wilson's  James  II.  and  the  Duke  of  Beneick 
(1876);  Canipana  de  CaveUi,  Les  Uernierii  Stiiarlx  a 
St  Germ.ain  (Paris,  1871);  Bloxain's  MaijilaUn  Colhye 
ami  James  II.  (18>SG) ;  works  cited  at  Ch.^RLES  II.;  and 
articles  Sevkn  Ulsaors,  &c. 

•laiurs,  GE()K(iK  Pavne  KainsfokI),  romance- 
writer,  was  born  in  London  in  1801.  The  son  of  a 
well-known  phv sician,  he  wa-s  educated  at  Pulney 
and  in  I' ranee,  ami  by  se\enteen  had  wiilten 
some  eiustern  tales,  which  found  favour  with  Wash- 
ington Irving.  Thereafter  he  ceased  to  write, 
dictating  instead  to  an  amanuensis  his  '  thick- 
coming  fancies.'  In  all  he  published  sesenty-seven 
works,  in  198  volumes — historical  romances  nio.stly, 
but  also  bioyiaijliius,  poems,  &.c.     The  best  were 


among  the  earliest — Rkhelien  (1829)  and  Hoiry 
Munlciton  (l^'i'2).  He  wa-s  liritish  consul  at  Kich- 
mond,  Vir'jinia,  from  1852  till  1858,  and  then  at 
Venice  till  his  death  there  on  9th  May  I8ti0. 
'  G.  P.  li.  James '  may  be  chussed  its  a  hybrid — a 
productive  hylirid  -between  Dumas  aud  Sirs  Ann 
Kadclili'e.  Leigh  Huut  writes  kindly  of  him,  and 
Sir  Archibald  Alison  could  'revert  with  jileiisure 
to  his  varied  compositions,'  which  even  yet  nuiy  be 
safely  recommended  to  tlie  'young  jierson.'  But 
his  two  hoi-semen  will  be  remembered  best,  if  not 
indeed  solely,  by  Thackeray's  parody  BarOaziire. 

James.  Sin  Hkxry.  director  of  the  t;eoh)gical 
Survey  of  Ireland  and  of  the  Grdnance  Survey  of 
the  United  Kingdom,  was  born  near  St  Agnes  in 
Cornwall  in  1803.  He  pa-ssed  in  18'25  from  the- 
Koyal  Military  Academy,  AVoolwich,  into  the 
Koyal  Engineers.  In  1844  he  was  ai)i)ointed 
director  of  the  (ieological  Survey  of  Ireland  ;  in 
1846  head  of  the  Admiralty  works  at  Portsmonth  ; 
in  IS-'/i  director  of  the  tirdnance  Survey  of  the 
United  Kingdom ;  and  in  1857  chief  of  the 
Statistical  and  Topograjdiical  Department  of  the 
War  Office.  He  was  knighted  in  1800,  and  made 
major  general  in  1868.  He  died  at  Southampton 
on  15th  June  1877.  From  his  pen  came  several 
works  on  geology,  surveying,  \c. ,  including 
Onlnanee  Trirfunomctrical  Survey  of  Ircltiiid 
(1858)  and  Account  of  the  Principal  Triangiilii- 
Hon  of  the  United  Kingdom  (1864).  By  means 
of  zinco-photogiaphy,  ,a  process  which  he  inventeil 
in  1859,  he  produced  fac-similes  of  Domesdety  Bool: 
(32  vols.)  and  of  national  MSS.  of  England  (to 
Anne's  reign),  of  Scotland,  and  of  Ireland. 

Jniiics.  Henry,  Loud  (of  Hereford),  Q.C,  born 
at  Hereford  in  1828,  went  to  school  at  Cheltenliam 
College,  and  was  callcil  to  the  bar  of  the  RHildle- 
Temple  in  1S5'2.  In  1850,  and  again  in  1851,  he 
ha<l  attained  legal  distinction  ius  lecturer's  prize- 
man at  the  Inner  Temple.  He  became  a  Queen's 
Counsel  in  1869,  a  bencher  of  his  Inn  in  1870; 
and  in  March  1869  entered  the  House  of  Commons 
for  Taunton.  He  continued  to  represent  Taunton 
in  the  Liberal  interest  until  1885,  when  he  was 
returned  for  Bury,  in  Lancashire.  He  made  a  cou- 
siderable  mark  in  the  debates  on  the  Juilicattire 
Bill  in  1872,  and  in  the  succeeding  year  wa.* 
apiiointed  by  Mr  Gladstone  Solicitor-general.  In 
1873  he  became  Attorney-general,  and  \\  as  knighted ; 
and  in  1880,  on  the  return  of  Mr  (Hailstone  toiiower, 
he  again  became  Attorney-general.  He  ably  con- 
ducted the  Corrupt  Practices  Bill  througli  the 
House  of  Commons  in  1883.  Sir  Henry  James 
W!vs  ofi'ered  the  Loril  Chancellorship  on  the  forimi- 
tion  of  Mr  (Sladstone's  third  administration  iu 
1886.  but  he  declined  to  take  ofiice  in  conse<|Uence 
of  his  inability  to  support  the  Premier's  Irish 
Home-rule  policy  ;  and  in  1886  he  was  re-electcil 
for  Bury  unopposed,  as  a  Liberal  I'nionist.  He 
defended  the  Times  before  the  Parnell  Commission, 
and  strongly  opposed  the  second  Home  Knle 
Bill.  Cieated  Lord  James  of  Hereford  in  1895, 
he  became  Chancellor  of  the  Duchy  of  Lancaster. 

•lailU'S.  Henkv.  an  eminent  American  novelLst, 
was  born  in  New  York,  15th  April  1843.  He  was 
until  his  father's  death  known  to  the  reading 
public  as  Henry  James,  junior,  the  father  (1811 
82)  being  a  well-known  and  original  theological 
writer  and  lecturer,  the  exiionent  in  turn  of  Sande- 
manianism  and  the  system  of  Swedenborg.  The 
boy  w;us  cosnuipolitan  from  his  cradle,  and  was 
educated  under  his  father's  eve  in  New  York, 
(;ene\a,  Paris,  and  Boulogne.  In  1862  he  entered 
the'  Harvard  law-school,  liut  his  destiny  wa-s  to  be 
solely  .1  man  of  letters,  and,  after  the  usual  pre- 
liminaries of  nuigazinewriting  and  shorter  stories, 
he  took  his  place  among  contemporurj-  Mtxelists 


JAMES 


JAMESONE 


277 


with  KofleHrl:  Ifiir/soti  in  1875.  Already  in  1869 
he  hail  miirrated  to  Europe,  there  to  reside  hy 
turns  in  Enj;lanil  ami  in  Italy.  He  is  only  less 
eminent  as  a  critic,  ami  his  perfect  mastery  of 
modern  French  literature,  aihled  to  his  natural 
subtlety  of  jierception,  has  j,'iven  a  quite  extra- 
imlinary  value  to  his  delightful,  clever,  yet  in- 
effective studies  coUecteil  in  Frenrh  Poets  and 
Xo>rli.its  (1878)  and  Pmtin/  Portraits  (1888). 
The  value  of  the  latter  in  particular  is  marred  hy 
its  inconclusive  conclusions,  and  l)y  too  indiscrim- 
inate .admiration  of  his  friends.  His  Haicthornc 
(1879).  in  'English  Men  of  Letters.'  is  a  clever 
study,  but  yet  one  scarce  adequate  to  its  theme. 
Besides  these  he  ha.s  pulilished  several  v(dumes  of 
pen-sketches  of  things  in  the  Old  World,  written 
for  American  magazines,  as  Portraits  of  P/nres 
(1884)  and  .-1  Litt/e  Tour  in  France  (1884).  His 
more  important  novels  of  greater  or  less  length  are 
The  American  (1878):  The  Europeans  (\9.-»):  Daisi/ 
Miller  (1878) ;  A  Bundle  of  Letters  {iS'JQ)  :  IVash- 
initnn  Snunre  (1880):  The  Portrait  of  a  Ladtj 
(1881 ) :  The  Bosfonians  ( 1886) ;  Princess  Casanias- 
sima  (1886);  The  Traffic  Muse  (1890);  What 
Maisie  Knem  (1897);  and  The  Awkward  Ayr 
(1899).  Some  of  his  cleverest  work  is  to  be  found 
in  such  volumes  of  shorter  stories  ,as  Stories  Re- 
rired  (188.5K  Tlie  Rererherator  (1888),  The  Asjicrn 
Papers  ( 1 888 ),  and  A  London  Life  ( 1889). 

In  fiction  James  may  be  said  to  lead  the  English 
section  of  tlie  analytical  school  represented  in 
France  by  Bourget,  Guy  de  Maup.ossant,  and  other 
too  clever  young  writei^s.  His  stories  deal  mainly 
with  the  uneventful  lives  of  Americans  living  or 
travelling  in  Europe,  and  their  main  interest  lies 
in  the  subtle  contrasts  presented  in  the  contact  of 
a  comparatively  new  with  an  ancient  civilisation. 
James  has  paid  a  price  for  his  citizenship  of  the 
older  world,  and  some  of  his  studies  ha\  e  l)een  far 
from  pleasing  to  his  countrymen.  His  chief  want 
as  a  novelist  is  a  lack  of  vigour  and  of  wholesome 
Itreadth  in  his  views  of  life.  He  shrinks  from  a 
strong  situation,  even  when  it  is  required  by 
dramatic  necessity,  and  his  constant  foible  is  ver- 
bosity, which  he  escapes  only  in  his  shorter  stories. 
His  style  is  ever  neat  and  graceful — a  medium 
admirable  for  gentle  satire  on  human  weakness, 
unfit  for  the  expression  of  the  tragic  and  deeper 
side  of  nature.  A  spirit  of  tranquil  pessimism 
breathes  through  all  his  work,  but  the  l)urden  of 
the  world  weiglis  but  lightly  on  his  heart. 

James.  John  Angeli,,  an  eminent  Congrega- 
tionalist  minister,  was  born  at  Blandford  Forum, 
Dorsetshire,  June  6,  178.5,  ajiprenticed  to  a  linen- 
draper,  afterwards  studied  for  a  short  time  at  a 
dissenting  college  at  Gosport,  and  was  placed  on 
the  'preaching  list'  at  seventeen.  He  was  highly 
popular,  aiul  when  only  twenty  was  settled  as 
pastor  of  the  'church  meeting  in  Cart's  Lane,' 
Birmingham,  where  he  remained  till  his  death, 
October  1,  1859.  He  published  a  multitude  of 
sermons,  tracts,  addres,ses,  and  small  religious 
volumes  (the  best  known  being  the  Anxious 
Inquirer),  which  had  ,a  v.ast  circulation  (collected, 
17  vols.  1860-62).     See  his  Life  by  Dale  ( 1861 ). 

Jaine.son.  Anna,  authoress  and  art-critic, 
was  the  daughter  of  an  Irisli  miniature  painter 
named  lirowell  Murphy,  anil  was  born  al  Dublin 
in  1794.  Her  girlhood  wrts  passed  in  the  north  of 
England,  and  then  for  a  ilozen  years  she  h.ad  been 
a  governess,  when  in  1823  she  married  Mr  Robert 
Jameson,  a  banister,  who  in  1829  was  appointed 
a  puisne  judge  in  Dominica.  In  consequence  of 
lier  husband's  harsh  treatment,  Mrs  Jameson 
refused  to  accompany  him  :  and  save  during  a 
brief  visit  to  f'anarla  in  1836-38,  she  ceased  to  live 
with  him.  Mrs  Jameson  ).ulplished  in  1831  her 
first  important  work,  entitled  Memoirs  of  Female 


Sorereirins,  ami  this  was  succeeded  in  the  following 
year  by  her  subtle  and  fascinating  Characteristics 
of  Sliakespcare's  Women.  Among  other  topics 
upon  which  she  Avrote  at  this  time  were  female 
labour,  penitentiaries,  and  hospital  nursing.  She 
furtlier  published,  in  1833.  Beauties  of  the  Court  of 
Charles  II.,  in  1837  S/.etches  of  (ierninni/,  in  1838 
Rambles  in  Canada,  and  in  1846  .Memoirs  and 
Essai/.t.  But  it  is  as  an  art  critic  that  she  is  1)est 
remembered,  for  her  Handbook  to  Public  Galleries 
in  and  near  London  (1832);  Lives  of  Early  Italian 
Painters  (1845);  Poetry  of  Sacred  and  Leyend- 
arif  .Irt  (184S);  Lcf/ends  of  the  itlonastic  Orders 
(18.50);  Leejends  off  he  Madonna  (1852);  and  a 
Commonplace  Book  of  Thour/hts,  Memories,  and 
Fancies  (1854).  Her  work  on  our  Lord  and 
John  the  Baptist  as  represented  in  art  was  com- 
pleted hy  Lady  Eastlake.  She  died  at  E.aling, 
Slarch  19,  1860.  See  the  Memoirs  by  her  niece 
(1878),  and  the  new  edition  of  her  works  (6  vols. 
1890). 

Jameson.  Le.\nder  Starr,  leader  of  the  raid 
into  the  Transvaal,  was  born  at  Edinburgh  8th 
Febru.ary  1853,  studied  medicine  there  and  at 
London,  and  having  gone  to  the  Cape,  settled  in 
medical  pr.actice  at  Kimberley  in  1878.  Through 
Jlr  Rhodes  he  took  part  in  pioneer  work,  was  made 
administrator  for  the  South  Africa  Company  at 
Fort  Salisbury,  and  conciliateil  enormous  intlueiice 
and  popularity.  During  tlie  troubles  ,at  Johannes- 
b\irg  between  the  litlamler  reform  party  and  the 
Boer  government,  Jameson,  who  by  order  of  Mr 
Rhodes,  then  Cape  Premier,  had  concentrated  the 
military  forces  of  Rhodesia  at  Mafeking  on  the 
Transva<al  frontier,  started  with  500  troopers  to 
support  the  Reformers  {29th  December  1895)  just 
when  they  had  been  intimidated  by  President 
Kruger  ;  and  after  riding  foodless  for  twenty-four 
hours  the  party  encountered  on  1st  .January  1896 
an  overwhelming  Boer  force  strongly  jiosted  at 
Krugersdorp.  to  the  west  of  Johannesburg.  Sur- 
prised and  disappointed  that  no  support  came  to 
tliem  from  .Johannesburg,  they  fought  gallantly 
till  their  ammunition  was  exii.austed  and  till  Boer 
reinforcements  brought  up  artillery.  Then  Jameson 
and  450  men  surrendered,  aiul  were  imprisoned  at 
Pretoria,  but  handed  over  ere  long  to  the  British 
autliorities  for  trial.  Jameson,  who  arrived  in 
England  two  months  after  the  raid,  was  in  xVugust 
condemned  to  fifteen  months'  imprisonment,  with- 
out hard  labour.  Sir  .John  Willoughliy,  military 
chief  of  the  expedition  (an  officer  holding  Her 
Miijesty's  commission),  to  ten  months,  ami  '  Dr 
Jim's'  other  officers  to  minor  terms  of  imprison- 
ment— all  as  first-cLass  misdemeaiumts.  The  private 
troopers  were  not  punished.  This  disastrous  raid 
provoked  the  German  Emperor's  congratvilatory 
letter  to  Kruger,  which  caused  such  fierce  resent- 
ment in  Britain  and  nearly  led  to  war  with 
GerniiiMV. 

Jameson.  Robeut  (1772-1854),  geologist, 
born  at  Leitli,  and  educated  at  Edinburgh  Univer- 
sity ami  under  Werner  at  Freiberg  (1800-2),  was 
elected  in  1804  to  the  ch.air  of  Natural  History  in 
the  university  of  Edinlmrgh.  .•\t  first  a  Weruerian, 
he  .ado])ted  Ilutton's  views  ;  and  he  published  half 
a  ilozen  works  on  mineralogy  ami  geognosy 
(1804-.37). 

Jamesone.  Gkohue,  portrait-painter,  was  born 
in  .\berdcen.  probably  in  1588,  a  son  of  .-Vndrew 
Jamesone,  a  master- ni.ason  and  burgess  of  guild  of 
the  city.  A  b.aseless  tradition  allirrucd  that  ho 
studied  painting  in  .\nfwerp  under  Rubens  .along 
with  V^an  Dyck.  Re.illy  In-  was  in  UjI'J  apprcniiccd 
for  eight  years  to  'Jolin  .\ndcrson,  paynler'  (see 
Academy,  I4tli  .April  1894).  The  dates  inscribed  upon 
his  works  prove   that  in  16'20  he  pr.actised  his  art 


278 


JAMES    RIVER 


JANIZARIES 


at  Alierdeeu.  and  afterwaiils  mainly  in  Edinlmrjili, 
of  wliicli  lie  became  a  burjjess  in  1C:)3.  He  was 
soon  in  excellent  repute  as  a  poitiaitpainter,  and 
likenesses  liy  his  hand  of  manv  of  his  most  eminent 
contemporaries  still  exist.  One  of  his  chief  patrons 
was  Sir  Colin  Campbell  of  Glenorohy,  for  wliom  he 
executed  an  extensive  series  of  portraits,  both  from 
the  life  and  from  earlier  pictures,  ^vhlcll  are  now 
preserveil  at  Tavmouth  Castle  and  Laiij;ton  House, 
Duns.  Many  works  attributed  to  .lame.sone— in 
not  a  few  ca-ses  falsely  attributed  to  him— are  pre- 
served in  the  mansions  of  Scotland.  His  authentic 
works  are  painted  with  considerable  delicacy,  but 
are  marred  bv  verv  pronounced  mannerisms,  ami 
their  painter  "has  little  claim  to  his  custimiaiy  title 
of  'the  Scottish  Van  Dyck.'  He  died  at  Edin- 
burgh in  1044.  See  J.  Bulloch's  George  Jamesone 
(1885). 

James  River  is  formed  by  the  union  of  the 
Jackson  and  Cowpasture  streams  in  the  west  of 
Virginia,  and  has  its  entire  course  in  that  state. 
It  Hows  in  a  generally  east-south-east  direction, 
passin"  Lynchburgh  and  Richmond  ;  and,  widen- 
in''  into  an  estuarv  for  the  last  60  miles  of  its 
course  it  falls  intci  the  Atlantic  at  the  southern 
extremity  of  Chesapeake  Bay.  It  is  450  miles  in 
length,  and  is  navigable  for  large  steamere  to  City 
Poi'iit,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Appomattox.  It  was 
at  Jamestown,  now  a  mined  village  on  the  north 
bank  of  this  river,  that  the  first  English  settlement 
in  America  was  formed  (1607).  The  James  River 
and  Kanawha  Canal,  which  extemls  from  Richmond 
to  the  White  Sulphur  Springs,  follows  the  windings 
of  tlie  river  for  a  considerable  distance. 

James's  Bay.  the  southerly  arm  of  Hudson 
Bay  about  250  miles  long  from  north  to  south, 
and  175  miles  wide.  It  is  greatly  beset  with 
islamls,  and  its  navigation  Ls  dangerous. 

James's  Powder  is  the  modern  representa- 
tive of  an  old  nostrum  of  Dr  Itobert  James 
( 17(  :?  -76 )  of  London.  The  iireparation  in  the  pliar- 
niacopieia  which  is  supposed  to  ha\-e  similar  virtues 
in  febrile  ali'ections  consists  of  oxide  of  antimony  | 
and  phosphate  of  lime.     It  is  but  little  used  now.      | 

Jamestown,  a  village  of  New  York,  on 
Cliautauqua  Lake,  70  miles  S.  by  \\  •  of  Bullalo 
by  rail.  It  has  manufactures  of  woollens  and 
alpacas,  pianos,  furniture,  iS:c.  Pop.  (ISSU)  9357; 
(1890)  l(i,038.— Jamestoun,  in  North  Dakota,  has 
a  pop.  of  2236.     See  also  Jamks  Rivek. 

James  Town,  the  chief  place  and  only  sea- 
port of  St  Helena  (q.v. ). 

.lami,  the  last  classical  poet  of  Persia,  U19- 
92.     See  Persia  (Literature). 

Jamieson.  JtiUS,  D.D.,  a  meritorious  Scotch 
scholar,  was  born  in  Glasgow,  March  3,  1759, 
studied  for  the  ministry,  and  in  1781  was  ordained 
pastor  of  the  Sei^'ssion  (Anti-burgher)  C(mgrega- 
tion  at  I'mfar.  In  1797  he  was  translated  to  Edin- 
burgh, where  he  dioil  July  12,  1838.  Jamieson's 
reijutatiou  rests  on  his  Etiimiiloqiml  Dictiniiriri/  of 
the  Smtti.ih  LniKiiiac/e  (1808-9;  supplement  1825; 
best  edition  by  l)avid  Donaldson,  4  vols.  1879-87). 
It  is  a  work  of  great  industry,  and  of  very  consid- 
erable value  as  a  collection  of  Scotch  words, 
phrases,  customs,  ^:c.  ;  but  it  pos.sesses  little  criti- 
cal or  ])hilological  merit,  according  to  tin-  present 
standard.  His  ])reliminary  dissertation  on  the 
'Origin  of  the  Scots  Language'  is  an  elaborate 
but  iTnsuccessful  attempt  to  prove  that  the  Scottish 
language  is  really  the  Pictisli  language,  and  that 
the  Picts  were  not  Celts,  but  Scandinavian  (iotlis. 
Jamie.son  also  wrote  (Ui  the  Cnldees,  on  the  allin 
ities  of  the  tireek  and  Latin  languages  to  the 
Gothic,  on  the  royal  palaces  of  Scotland,  \c. :  and 


he  published   editions  of   Barbour's   Brine,    Blind  I  the   first 


Harry's  ^'/r  William   ]Valkice,  and  Slezer's  T/icat- 
nun  Sroti(r. 

Jammn  (Jmnmoo),  a  towni  of  Cashmere,  on  an 
affluent  of  the  Cheiiab.     Pop.  8000. 

JamilOtri.  hot  springs  near  the  source  of  the 
Jumna,  in  northern  India,  in  30'  59'  N.  lat.  and 
78  35'  E.  long.,  10,849  feet  above  the  sea.  "Their 
temperature  is  194-7°  P.,  nearly  that  of  boiling 
water  at  their  elevation.  They  are  overhung  by 
three  connected  immntains  known  as  the  Janiiiotii 
Peaks  (20,100  to  21,150  feet). 

.Janesville.  a  city  of  'Wisconsin,  lies  mostly 
between  blutls  in  the  narrow  bottom-land  of  Rock 
River,  which  is  crossed  here  liy  six  bridges,  91 
miles  NW.  of  Chicago,  at  the  junction  of  four 
railways.  The  river  is  crossed  by  dams,  and  its 
water-power  is  utilised  in  the  numerous  mamifac- 
tories.  There  are  a  number  of  Hour,  cotton,  and 
woollen  mills,  two  foundries,  and  thirty-four 
factories  of  various  kinds.     Pop.  (1890)  1],S36. 

Janet;.  Paul,  an  eminent  French  philosopher, 
born  at  Paris,  30tli  April  1823.  He  wa;s  e<lucat<'d 
at  the  Normal  School,  and  was  in  turn  teacher  in 
the  gymnasium  at  Bourges,  and  professor  of  Philo- 
soi)liy  in  the  faculty  at  Strasbnig  and  of  Logic  in 
the  Ivceuin  Lonis-le-Grand.  In  1864  he  was  elected 
to  the  Academy  of  Moral  and  Political  Science.s, 
and  tlien  he  lectuieil  in  the  Sorbonne  at  Pans.  He 
died  4th  October  1899. 

His  books  are  La  FamiUe  (1855),  Histoire  de  la  Philo- 
sophic marale  et  politique  (1858),  Le  Philosophic  du 
Bonhcur  (1862),  ic  Malirialisme  contcmporain  en  Alk- 
maone  (18G4).  Le  Ccrrenu  et  la  Pcn.si'c  ( 1866 ),  £<•.•>  Pro- 
blfmes  rf»  XIX'  SiMc  {1H72),  Philo^ilde  de  laPn-olu- 
tion  Fran^aise  (1875),  Les  Causm  finales  (18i0;  tng. 
tr.ms  1878),  La  Philosophic  FrarK^aise  coiitemporaine 
(1S79),  and  Les  Origines  du  Soeialiime  eontemimrain 
(I8s;!).  ... 

Janin.  Jile.s  Gabriel,  French  critic  and 
novelist,  was  born  at  St  Etienne,  December  24, 
1804,  and  had  his  education  there  and  at  Pans. 
He  took  early  to  journalism,  writing  for  thoFujaro, 
the  Ouotidic'iiiic,  and  the  Joiirmd  cles  Dihut.i,  and 
his  dramatic  criticisms  in  the  last-named  lournal 
made  him  a  leput.atiou  by  their  wit  an<l  vivacity. 
Janin  wrote  with  fatal  tluencv,  and  his  numberless 
articles,  prefaces,  books  of  travel,  and  miscellaneous 
pieces  of  task-work  pleased  his  readers  and  Idled 
ids  pockets,  but  di<l  nothing  for  a  future 
But  the  'prince  of  critics'  wrote  „  . 
present,  lacking  the  instinct  of  perpetuity.  \et 
twice  ho  came  near  to  writing  things  which  the 
world  will  not  willingly  let  .Jie.  His  strange  and 
at  lea-st  half-serious  story  J.'Aiir  morl  et  I"  1-emnic 
qiiillotinfe  ( 18'29 )  was  followed  by  linrnnre  ( 1831  ),  an 
interesting  book,  half-historical  novel,  half  polemic 
a".ainst  the  Orleans  family.  Janin  succeedeil  to 
Sainte-Beuves  chair  in  the  French  Academy 
in  1870,  and  died  I9th  June  1874.  His  U-.jn-res 
Chnisies,  in  twelve  v(dumes,  aimeared  in  l_8jf>-78, 
and  his  Corrcsjiuiiiltiiiee  was  published  in  1877. 

.lanina  (pronounced  Vdiiiiia),  or  JOANNINA, 
capital  of  a  vilavet  in  Turkish  Albania,  stands 
in  a  striking  situation  on  a  lake  (12  miles  hmg' 
by  3  broad)  of  the  same  name,  50  miles  inland 
from  the  shore  opposite  the  island  of  Corfu.  Its 
buildiu"s  include  iiKue  than  twenty  ecclesiastical 
edilicesr  and  the  ruined  castle  of  Ali  Pasha  ( q.  v. ), 
whose  headnuarters  were  at  Janina.  Gold  lace 
is  extensivetv  manufactured,  as  well  as  morocco 
leather,  silk  goods,  and  culour.Ml  liu.'U.  The  i.opu- 
latioii,  which  numbered  4(1.000  under  All  I'asba.  is 
now  about  20,0tHP,  of  whom  some  15,0(K)aieGre(d<s  ; 
Greek  is  the  language  spidicii.  The  town  has  been 
under  Turkish  rule  since  1430. 
Janizaries  (Turkish,  meaning  'new  soldiers'), 


fame, 
for  the 


regular 


standing   army  of    the    Turks, 


JAN    MAYEN    LAND 


JANSEN 


formetl  l>y  Sultan  Orklian,  almnt  1330,  of  Christian 
prisoneis  oompcllod  to  enilirace  Jloliamniedanisni, 
and  of  tlio  cliildren  of  t'liristians  forcilily  trained 
as  Mns-iiiliiians.  It  was  more  perfectly  organised 
by  Orkhan's  son,  Aniuratli  I.,  after  13ti2,  especial 
privileges  being  conferred  on  those  wlio  belonged 
to  it.  This  soon  induced  many  Turks  to  join  its 
ranks.  There  were  two  classes  of  Janizaries,  one 
regularly  organised,  dwelling  in  barracks  in  Con- 
stantinopK-  and  other  towns,  whose  numbers  some- 
times amounted  to  100,OtlO,  and  the  otlier  conipos- 
im;  an  irregular  militia,  scattered  throughout  the 
empire,  and  amounting  to  300,CKM)  or  400,000. 
At  the  head  of  the  whole  force  was  an  aqa,  who 
was  hehl  in  most  reverential  respect,  and  wliose 
power  extended  to  life  and  death.  In  time  of 
peace  the  Janizaries  acted  as  a  police  force.  In 
•war  they  served  on  foot,  and  were  noted  for  tlie 
wild  impetuosity  of  their  attack.  The  sultan's 
lK)dyguard  was  formed  of  them.  But  success  and 
special  privileges  produced  their  usual  eftects  ;  tlie 
history  of  the  Janizaries  abounds  in  conspiracies, 
;issassinations  of  sultans,  viziers,  agas,  &c.,  and 
atrocities  of  every  kind,  and  in  tlie  end  they 
became  more  dangerous  to  the  sultans  than  any 
foreign  enemies.  More  than  one  sultan  attempted, 
but  unsuccessfully,  to  reform  or  dissolve  them.  At 
last  Sultan  Mahmoud  II..  in  1S26,  having  organised 
a  new  force  after  the  pattern  of  the  European 
armies,  displayed  the  flag  of  the  Prophet,  and  after 
some  sanguinary  fighting  drove  back  the  Janizaries 
into  their  barracks,  which  he  burned,  SOOO  perishing 
in  the  flames.  Not  fewer  tlian  15,000  were  e.Keeuted, 
and  more  tlian  20,000  banished.  By  a  proclamation 
of  June  17,  1828,  the  Janizary  force  was  finally  dis- 
solved :  its  place  was  taken  l)v  the  Nizam,  the 
modern  regulai-s  organised  on  ,a  £uropean  plan. 

Jail  llayen  Land,  a  volcanic  island  in  the 
Arctic  ( Icean,  named  after  the  Dutch  navigator  by 
wliom  it  was  discovered  in  1011.  It  lies  between 
Iceland  and  Spitzbergen,  and  is  35  miles  long.  Its 
highest  point  is  the  e.\tinct  volcano  of  Beerenberg, 
8350  feet  (.Mohn,  188"),  the  sides  of  which  are 
covered  with  immense  glaciers  and  frozen  water- 
falls. In  1882-83  it  was  made  the  station  of  the 
Austrian  ]iolar  expedition.  Important  seal  and 
whale  fishings  are  carried  on  east  and  north  of 
Jan  Mayen  eveiy  summer.  For  an  account  of  the 
island,  see  Lord  bufl'erin's  Letters  from  High  Lati- 
tudes (2d  ed.  1S57),  and  Nature  for  August  1883. 

Jansen.  Curxeliis,  from  wliom  the  sect  of 
Jansenists  derives  its  name,  was  bom  in  15S5,  at 
Acquoi,  near  Leerdam,  in  Holland.  He  made  his 
stuclies  at  Utrecht,  Louvain,  .and  Paris,  and  from 
early  youth  was  familiar  witli  some  of  tlie  disciples 
of  Bajus  (i(.v. ),  and  with  the  .\bbe  do  St  Cyran. 
For  some  time  he  filled  a  chair  at  Bayonne  :  and  in 
1617  he  was  called  to  Louvain,  where  in  1030  he  was 
appointed  professor  of  Theology.  In  1630  he  w;is 
made  Bishop  of  Ypres,  and  in  this  city  he  died  of 
the  plague.  May  (i,  1G38,  just  as  he  had  completed 
liis  great  work  of  more  than  twenty  years'  prepara- 
tion, the  A  nr/ustiiius,  seu  Doetrinn  S.  A  hi),  ae  J/ inn. 
Niiturw  Sanitate,  yEf/riticdiiic,  Mediciiia,  advcrsus 
Pelagianos  et  Massilienses  (4  vols.),  which  proved 
the  occasion  of  a  great  theological  controversy. 
The  main  object  of  this  work  was  to  prove,  by 
an  elaborate  analysis  of  St  Augustine  s  works, 
that  the  teaching  of  this  Father  against  the  Pela- 
gians and  .semi  I'elagians  on  (Jrace,  Freewill, 
and  Predcstin.itloii  wa.s  directly  opposed  to  the 
teaching  of  the  moclera,  and  especially  of  the 
Jesuit  .schools,  which  latter  teaching  he  held  to  be 
identical  with  thai  of  the  semi-relagians.  Jansen 
repudiated  the  ordinary  Catholic  dogma  of  the 
freedom  of  the  will,  understood  to  mean  the  power 
to  choose  at  the  time  good  or  evil  (lihertas  contra- 


dictioiiis),  asserting  merely  the  existence  of  freedom 
from  external  constraint  (iibertas  a  eoartiouc),  not 
inward  necessity.  He  also  refused  to  admit  merely 
sutlicient  grace,  maintaining  that  interior  grace  is 
irresistible,  and  that  Christ  died  for  all.  In  tlie 
preface  Jansen  sulmiitted  the  work  to  the  judg- 
ment of  the  holy  see ;  and  on  its  publication, 
under  the  care  of  trommond,  in  1040,  being  received 
with  loud  clamour,  especially  by  the  Jesuits,  the 
A  iiifustiii  us  was  prohibited  by  a  decree  of  the  Inquisi- 
tion in  1641  ;  in  the  following  year  it  was  condemned 
in  general  terms,  as  renewing  the  errors  of  Bajus, 
by  Vrban  Y III.  in  the  bull  In  Eminenti.  This  bull 
encountered  much  opposition  in  Flanders ;  and  in 
France  the  Aur/ustinus  found  many  partisans, 
animated  both  by  doctrinal  predilection  and  anti- 
pathy to  the  alleged  laxity  of  moral  teaching  in  the 
schools  of  the  Jesuits,  with  whom  the  opposition  to 
the  Aiigustinus  was  identified.  Most  eminent 
among  these  were  the  celebrated  scholars  and 
divines  who  formed  the  community  of  Poit  Royal 
( q.  V. ),  Amaiild,  Nicole,  Pascal,  and  others.  Never- 
theless, the  .syndic  of  the  Sorbonne  extracted  from 
the  Augustiiius  seven  propositions  (subsequently 
reduced  to  five)  which  were  definitively  condemned 
as  heretical  by  Innocent  X.  in  1653.  The  friends 
of  the  Augustinns.  wliile  they  admitted  that  in 
point  of  rigitt  the  live  propositions  were  justly  con- 
demned as  heretical,  yet  denied  that  in  point  oifact 
the.se  propositions  were  to  be  found  in  the  Augus- 
tiniis,  at  least  in  the  sense  imputed  to  them  by  the 
bull.  Arnauld  in  a  celebrated  Lettrc  admitted  the 
church's  infallibility  on  the  former  question,  and 
the  duty  of  entire  submission,  but  held  that  the 
latter  was  a  question  of  historical  fact  on  which  the 
church  might  err,  and  that  it  was  suflicient  if  the 
faithful  received  her  decision  on  it  with  '  respectful 
silence.'  ileantime  the  controversy  had  produced 
one  work  that  holds  its  immortality  as  securely  as 
any  book  in  the  range  of  literature,  the  Lcttrcs 
Provinciales  of  Pascal.  Arnauld's  distinction  be- 
tween right  and  fact  was  at  length  condemned  by 
the  Sorbonne,  and  himself  and  sixty  other  doctors 
expelled,  and  in  October  1656  a  further  condemna- 
tion of  the  Augusti?iHs,  '  in  the  sense  of  the  author,' 
was  issued  by  Alexander  VII.,  rigidly  enforced  in 
France,  and  generally  accepted  :  and  early  in  1669 
peace  was  partially  restored  by  Clement  IX. — 
at  least  all  o\ert  opposition  was  repressed  by  the 
iron  rule  of  Louis  XIV. 

The  more  rigid  Jansenists,  however,  and  at  their 
head  Antoine  Arnauld,  emigrated  from  France, 
and  formed  a  kind  of  community  in  the  Low 
Countries.  The  controversy  was  revived  with  new 
acrimony  by  the  dispute  on  the  so-calle<l  '  case  of 
conscience,'  whether  a  dying  ecclesiastic  C(nil<l  law- 
fully be  absolved  who  was  not  convinced  that  the 
five  propositions  as  condemned  by  the  church  were 
contained  in  the  Augustinus ;  and  still  more 
angrily  in  the  person  of  the  celebrated  li'uesnel, 
whose  Moral  Jiijlections  on  the  New  Testament  was 
denounced  to  the  pope,  Clement  XL,  as  a  text-book 
of  undisguised  Jansenism.  This  pope  had  alreadv 
in  170,')  decided  the  case  of  conscience  by  the  bull 
'  Vineani  Domini,'  when  in  1713  he  condemned  by 
the  bull  '  Unigenitus '  .is  many  as  101  propositions 
extracted  from  the  Moral  liejlections.  After  the 
death  of  Louis  XIV.  the  regent,  the  Duke  of 
Orleans,  was  urged  to  refer  the  whole  controversy 
to  a  national  council,  and  the  leaders  of  the  .lan- 
senist  ]iarty  a]ipealed  to  a  general  council.  The 
party  thus  formed,  which  numbered  in  1717  four 
l)ishops  and  many  inferior  ecclesiastics,  were  called, 
from  this  circumstance,  the  Appellants.  The  lirm- 
ness  of  the  pope,  and  a  change  in  the  ]iolicy  of  the 
regent,  bnmglit  them  into  disfavour.  An  edict  wiw 
published,  June  4,  1720,  receiving  the  bull  :  and 
even  the  parliament  of  Paris  submitted  to  register 


280 


JANSSEN 


JANUS 


it.  although  with  a  reservation  in  favour  of  the 
liberties  of  the  Gallican  Church.  The  Appellants 
for  the  most  part  submitted,  the  recusants  being 
visited  with  severe  penalties ;  and  on  the  coming 
of  a"e  of  the  new  king,  Louis  X\'.,  the  un- 
conditional acceptance  of  the  bull  was  at  length 
forinallv  accomplished.  From  this  time  forward 
the  Vppellants  were  rigorously  repressed,  and 
a  large  n\imber  emigrated  to  the  Netherlands, 
where  they  formed  a  community,  with  Utrecht  as 
a  centre.  'The  party  still  remaining  in  France  per- 
sisted in  their  inveterate  opposition  to  the  bull,  but 
the  real  significance  of  Jansenism  may  almost  be 
said  to  have  died  with  Que.snel  in  1719,  and,  indeed, 
the  movement  inaugurated  by  such  intellects  as 
Xrnauld  and  Pascal  ended  in  France  before  the 
middle  of  the  century  in  fanaticism  and  supersti- 
tion. The  miracles  in  the  St  Medard  cemetery,  and 
the  physical  convulsions  that  became  common, 
brought  Jansenism  in  France  to  a  discredited  con- 
clusion (see  CONVUL.SIONARIES). 

In  one  locality  alone,  Utrecht,  and  its  dependent 
churches,  can  the  sect  be  said  to  have  had  a  regular 
and  permanent  organisation.     The  vicar-apostolic, 
Peter  ivodde,  having  been  suspended  for  Jansenist 
sympathies  by  Clement  XI.  in  1702,  the  chapter 
of  Utrecht  refused  to  acknowledge  the  new  vicar 
named  in  his  place,  and  angrily  joined  themselves 
to  the  Appellant  party  in  France,  many  of  whom 
had  found  a  refuge  in  Utrecht.     At  length,  in  1723, 
they  elected  an  archbishop,  Cornelius  Steenhoven, 
for 'whom  the  form  of  episcopal  consecration  was 
obtained  from  the  French  bishop  Varlet  (titular  of 
Babylon),  who  had  been  suspended  for  Jansenist 
oi)in'ions.     A  later  Jansenist  Archbishop  of  Utrecht, 
Meindarts,  established  Haarlem  and  Deventer  as 
his  suffragan  sees;  and  in  1763  a  synod  was  held, 
which  sent  its  acts  to  Home,  in  recognition  of  the 
primacy  of  that  see.     Since  that  time  the  formal 
succession  has  been  maintained,  each  bishop,  on 
being  appointed,  notifying  his  election  to  the  pope, 
and  craving  confirmation.      The  popes,  however, 
have  uniformly  rejected  all  advances,  except  on  the 
condition  of  the  acceptance  of  the  bull  Unigenitus  ; 
and  the  definition  as  of  Catholic  faith  of  the  dognia 
of  the  Immaculate  Conception  of  the  Blessed  X  irgin 
Mary  ( 1854)  and  the  Papal  Infallibility  ( 1870)  have 
been  the  occasion  of  fresh  protests.     The  Jansenists 
of  the   Utrecht  Church   still   number  about   6000 
souls,  and  are  divided  over  twenty-five  parishes  in 
the  dioceses  of  Utrecht  and  Haarlem.     Their  clergy 
are  about  thirty  in  number,   with  a  seminary  at 
Amersfoort.       Loos,  the   Jansenist    Archbishop   of 
Utrecht,  consecrated  Dr  Reinkens  bishop  for  the 
(ierman    Old    Catholics.     Pius    IX.    restored    the 
Dut<h    hierarchy    in     IS.'jl,   so    that   there   is  now 
an  orthodox  An-hbisho])   of    Utrecht.     The  Dutch 
.fansenists   are   in  doctrine  and  discipline   strictly 
orthodox   Konian  Catholics,  being  known  by  their 
countrymen  as  Oude  Koomsch  ('Old  Roman'). 

See  vol.  ii.  of  Hergenrotlicr's  Aflfjemeine  Kirchcn- 
tie.-:rhichtc  (1877-78);  Fuzet,  Les  Jansenistcs  (1877); 
"Xeale,  Jansenist  Church  of  IloUantI  11858);  Keuchlin, 
Gisch.  ron  Porl-Roiial  (18:i9-44):  Saintu-Beuve,  I'oH- 
Roi/al  (I860);  a  "Uenuaii  work  by  NippoUl  (1872); 
Secho,  Lm  ilernirrs  Janafnislci  (1891);  French  Jan- 
senists, by  Mrs  ToUemache  (1893). 

Janssen,  Coknki.is,  born  in  London  in  1593, 
died  at  Amsterdam  abcmt  1664,  lived  and  worked 
in  England  from  about  1618  to  1043,  and  acquired 
a  reputation  as  a  line  painter  of  portraits  ami 
liistorical  subjects. 

.laiissens,  .\BU.\HAM,  a  Dutch  painter,  wlio 
ciLlled  himself  Janssens  van  Nuyssen.  was  boni  in 
Antwerp  about  l.')75,  and  entered  the  guild  of  St 
Luke  in  1601.  He  died  at  Antwerp  in  1632.  His 
most  famous  jiictnrcs  are  the  '  Lntonibment  of 
Christ'  and  the  '  Adoratiou  of  the  Magi.'     From 


his  vigorous  drawing  and  a<lmirable  colouring  he 
ranks  next  to  Rubens  among  the  historical  painters 
of   the  period.— -Vnother  artist  of   this  name  waa 
Victor   HnNOiiif.s  J.vns.skn.s    (born   at   Brussels 
1664,  died  there  1739),  who  painted  chiefly  in  Rome 
and  at  Brussels. 
Jaiitliina.    See  Lvnthina. 
Jaiuiarilis.  St,  or  San  Gexxaro,  a  martyr 
of   the    Christian    faith    under    Diocletian,    was    a 
native  of  Benevento,  or  at  least  became  bishop  of 
that    see    in   the    later   part  of    the   3d   century. 
According  to    the    Neapolitan   tradition,    he   was 
taken    prisoner  at   Nola ;    and   the    place   of    his 
martyrdom,   in   305,   was    Pozzuoli,    where    many 
Christians   sutl'ered   the    same   fate.     His   body   is 
preserved  at  Naples,  in  tlic  cryi>t  of  the  cathedral, 
and  in  a  chai)el  of  the  same  church  are  also  pre- 
served  the   head   of  the   martyr,  and   two  phials 
{fimpu/hr)   supposed    to    contain    his    blood.     On 
three  festivals  each  year— the  chief  of  which  is  the 
day  of  the  martyrdom,  September  19,  the  otbere 
the   tii-st   Sunday   evening  in   M.ay   and   the   16th 
December — as    well    as     on     occasions    of    public 
danger  or  calamity,  as  earthquakes  or  eruptions, 
the  head  and  the  phials  of  the  blood  are  earned 
in    solemn    procession    to    the    high-altar  of    the 
cathedral,   or  of  the   church  of  St  Clare,  where, 
after  prayerof  longer  or  shorter  duration,  the  Idood, 
on  the  phials  being  brought  into  contact  with  the 
bead,  is  believed  to  liquefy,  and  in  this  comlitiim 
is  presented   for  the  veneratitm  of  the  i>eople,   or 
for  the  conviction  of  the  doubter.     It  occasionally 
happens  that  a  considerable   time  elapses    before 
the    liquefaction   takes  place,    and    sometimes    it 
altogetlier    fails.      The    latter    is  regarded   as  an 
ome^  of  the  woi-st  import :  and  on  those  occasions 
when  the  miracle  is  dela\ed  beyond  the  ordinary 
time   the  alarm  an<l  excitement  of  the  congrega- 
tiiui   rise   to   the   highest   pitch.     Those   wiio    are 
curious    as   to   the   literature   of    the    controversy 
regarding  this   celebrated  legend  will   lind   many 
do'cuments  in   the  sixth  volume  of  the   I'.ollandist 
Acta     tianctrjnim    for    September.      For    a    good 
account  of  the  modern  ceremony,  see  E.  N.  Rolfe 
and  H.  Ingloby's  Xttplcs  in  ISSS. 

January,  the  first  month  of  the  year.  It  was, 
among  the  "Komans,  held  sacred  to  ,lanus  (q.v.), 
from  whom  it  derived  its  name,  and  was  added  to 
the  calendar  along  with  February  by  Numa.  It 
was  not  till  the  18th  century  that  .l.muaiy  was 
universally  adopted  by  European  nations  as  the 
Jirst  month  of  the  year,  although  the  Romans  con- 
sidered it  as  such  as  far  back  as  251  B.C. 

JanilS,  an  ancient  Italian  god.  The  distinc- 
tive mark  of  Roman  religion  and  Roman  gods  as 
opposed  to  (Jreek  gods  is  that  the  former  are 
alistract,  whilst  Creek  thought  was  marked  by  its 
anthropomoriihism.  In  the  belief  of  the  Roman 
ever\  thing  and  every  action  had  its  corresponding 
spirit  -even  such  ju-ocesses  as  ploughing,  harrow- 
iii",  i^-c.  Janus,  tried  by  this  test,  ap|Uoves  bim- 
seFf  as  peculiarly  Italian.  He  is  'the  spirit  of 
opening,  and  there  is  nothing  in  the  mythology  of 
any  other  Aryan  nation  to  corresponil  to  him.  His 
name  is  derived  Iriuu  the  same  root  as  the  Latin 
word  jiiinia,  'agate'  or  'opening.'  As  the  spirit 
of  openin"  he  was  invoked  at  the  beginning  ot  all 
undertakings  (at  the  beginning  of  human  life  as 
Cuii.tiviii.t).  For  the  same  reason  he  wivs  the  goil 
of  the  beginning  of  day,  Matiitiiui^  I'litcr,  ami  of 
the  bc'dnning  of  the  (agricultural)  year,  the  lust 
nionth''of  which,  January  (though  originally  the 
eleventh  of  the  calendar  year),  was  dedicated  to 
liim.  Hence,  too,  may  be  explained  the  fact  that 
he  took  precedence  of  all  other  gods,  even  of 
.lupiter,  and  that  he  is  called  in  the  Saliario 
Hymn  Dcoriim  Dens  (Macrob.  bat.  i.  9),  and  even 


JANUS 


JAPAN 


281 


Summnntis.  In  the  next  place,  a.*;  the  spirit  of 
oppnin<^,  Jiinns  was  the  jroil  un<ler  whose  care 
were  all  janucr,  or  gates,  in  Home  :  aliove  all.  he  it 
was  under  whose  protection  was  the  arch-way  out 
of  which  the  army  marched  to  war  and  liy  wliieh  it 
retiirne<l.  This  arch-way,  which  in  later  times 
was  replaced  hy  a  temple  of  Janus,  naturally  had 
its  gates  open  in  time  of  war  and  closed  in  time 
of  peace.  The  tutelary  god  of  the  gate  tliat 
opened  lioth  ways  was,  by  a  natural  transference 
of  tliought,  himself  represented  l>y  an  image  having 
a  double  head  that  looked  both  ways  (see  As).  His 
connection  with  the  year  was  sometimes  indicated 
by  the  fact  that  three  fingers  of  the  right  liaml  were 
bent  so  as  to  indicate  the  numeral  CCC  (300), 
while  the  fingei-s  of  the  left  liand  were  spread  so 
:ls  to  denote  the  numerals  L  (50)  +  V  (5).  or  in 
later  times  L  +  V  h^  V  +  V — that  is,  in  all.  the 
3.>5  days  of  the  older,  and  the  365  days  of  the 
refonned  Julian  year.  As  the  god  of  gates  he 
naturally  carries  keys.  As  an  auspicious  god  he 
is  crowned  with  laurel.  The  interpretation  of 
Janus  as  originally  a  god  of  light  fails  to  explain 
liis  functions,  is  at  variance  with  the  spirit  of 
Konian  religion,  and  is  based  on  a  false  etymolog\": 
Janus  cannot  be  the  masculine  of  Diana,  because 
the  (■  is  long  ( and  therefore  cannot  be  consonantal ) : 
and,  moreover,  the  real  masculine  of  Diana  is 
pre.served  in  an  inscription  (C.  I.  L.  5,  783),  Jori 
Vianfi.  Janus  is  not  derived  from  a  root  meaning 
'  to  shine,'  but  from  one  meaning  '  to  go.' 

•Inpan,  a  comjption  of  Marco  Polo's  Zipangii, 
itself  a  corruption  of  the  Chinese  pronunciation 
of  the  native  name  Sihon.  Nikon,  or  Nippon, 
means  'Land  of  the  Rising  Sun.'  Dal,  'Great,' 
is  sometimes  jirefixeil.  Japan  Proper  comprehends 
four  large  islands — \-iz.  Honshu  (the  Japanese 
mainland),  Sliikoku,  Kvushu,  and  Yezo — and 
extends  from  26°  59'  to  45°  .30'  N.  lat.  Fomierly 
the  southern  portion  of  Saghalien  belonged  to 
Japan,  but  this  was  ceded  to  Russia  in  1875,  cer- 
tain of  the  Ki:rile  island  gioup  being  granted  in 
return.  The  empire  of  Japan — the  area  of  which 
has  been  estimated  at  155,000  sq.  m.,  or  34,000 
miles  larger  than  the  United  Kingdom — includes, 
in  addition  to  the  above,  nearly  4000  small  Lslands, 
among  which  are  the  Liu  Kiu  ( '  Loo  Choo  ' )  an(l 
Knrile  groups,  and  is  situated  between  •24°  6' — 
50°  .56'  X.  lat.,  and  122°  4.5'— 1.56°  32' E.  long.  It 
is  bounded  on  the  N.  by  the  Sea  of  Okhotsk,  on  ' 
the  E.  by  the  North  Pacilic  Ocean,  on  the  S.  ' 
by  the  eastern  Sea  of  China,  and  on  the  W.  by 
the  Sea  of  Japan.  On  the  1st  January  1S91  the 
population  of  Japan  was  40,4.53,461,  an  increase 
of  nearly  2  millions  in  5  years;  in  1894  il  \va.s 
41  ..390,000.  The  population  is  disi ributed  as  follows : 
Honshu,  31,722,674:  Sbikoku,  2,907,280  :  Kvushfi, 
6,379,262;  Yezo,  379,097.  Formosa  and  the  "Pesca- 
dores, ceiled  by  China  in  1895,  are  now  Japanese. 

Physical  Features. — The  islands  of  Japan  appear 
to  be  the  highest  portions  of  a  huge  chain  of  moun- 
tains which  rises  from  a  deep  ocean  bed  ;  they  are 
the  advanced  frontier  of  the  Asiatic  continent. 
This  chain,  though  dotted  with  volcanoes,  is  not 
therefore  itself  of  volcanic  origin.  Eartliouakes 
occur  very  frequently  in  Japan,  although  the 
western  slope,  facing  the  Asiatic  continent,  is 
exempt.  Japan  is  one  of  the  most  nmuntainous 
countries  in  the  world.  Its  jdains  and  valleys, 
with  their  foliage  snrpa.ssing  in  richness  that  Of 
any  other  extra-tropical  region,  its  arcadian  bill- 
slopes  and  forest-clad  heights,  its  alpine  peaks 
towering  in  weird  gramleur  above  ravines  noisy 
with  waterfalls,  its  lines  of  foam-fringed  headlands, 
with  a  thousand  other  charms,  give  it  a  claim  to  be 
considered  one  of  the  fairest  iwirtions  of  the  earth. 
The  sublime  cone  of  the  sacre<I  Kujisan  (  Ku.siyama. 
Aino,  '  Fire-goddess  Mountain '),  an  extinct  or  nither 


dormant  volcano,  rises  from  the  sea  to  a  height  of 
12.365  feet.  Ontake-san  and  Yaii-ga-take  (eacli 
10.000  feet),  Tate-yama  (9.500),  Yatsugadake 
(9000).  Haku-san  ('8590),  Asania-yama  (active 
volcano,  8260),  with  many  other  scarcely  lower 
peaks,  rise  in  Himshu.  The  eruption  on  Julv 
15,  1888,  of  Bandaisan  (6037  feet),  near  Lake 
Inawashiro,  was  due  to  imprisoned  steam  ;  KiOO 
feet  was  blown  oif  the  toji  of  tlie  hill,  and  27 
sq.  m.  of  country  covered  witli  debris.  The  three 
other  large  islands  also  abound  in  mountains, 
though  of  less  elevation.  ^"e/o  has  no  fewer 
than  eight  active  volcanoes.  Throughout  the 
empire  there  are  many  solfataras,  and  sul|iliur- 
ous  springs  well  up  from  hundreds  of  volcanic 
valleys.  The  plains,  most  of  the  valleys,  and 
many  of  the  lower  hills  are  liiglily  cuitivated. 
Lakes  are  not  veiy  numerous,  tlie  only  two  of  any 
size  being  Biwa.  near  Kyoto,  and  Inawashiro, 
midway  between  Tokyo  and  Sendai :  but  there  are 
countless  rivers,  most  of  which,  however,  are  too 
impetuous  to  admit  of  navigation.  The  harliours 
are  spacious  and  deep,  but  not  numerous,  consider- 
ing the  great  length  of  the  coast-line. 

Climcitc. — The  different  parts  of  Japan  vary 
widely  in  climatic  conditions.  Leaving  out  the 
northern  and  soutliern  extremes,  at  Tokyo  ( Yedo) 
we  find  the  annual  average  temperature  to  be  57  7° 
F.,  while  in  Avinter  the  mercury  occasionally  falls 
to  I62°,  and  in  summer  it  may  rise  to  96';  at 
Nagasaki  the  lowest  winter  temperature  is  23  2°; 
at  Hakodate  the  annual  extremes  are  2°  and  84°. 
The  normal  hot  weather  begins  only  about  the 
beginning  of  .July,  and  terminates  usually  in  the 
middle  of  September.  The  late  autumn  is  the 
driest  and  most  agreeable  season.  The  ocean 
current  known  as  the  Kuroshiwo  ( '  Black  Stream  ' ) 
consideralily  modifies  the  climate  of  the  south-east 
coast ;  thus,  while  snow  seldom  lies  more  than  5 
inches  deep  at  Tokyo,  in  the  upper  valleys  of  Kaga, 
near  the  west  coast,  less  than  1°  farther  north.  18 
and  20  feet  are  common.  The  east  coast  of  Yezo 
is  visited  by  a  cold  current  from  the  Kuriles,  which 
renders  the  climate  foggy  in  summer  and  retards 
cultivation.  The  rainfall,  which  varies  much  in 
different  years,  is  on  an  average  145  inches.  No 
month  passes  without  rain  ;  but  it  is  most  plentiful 
in  summer,  especially  at  the  beginning  and  the 
close  of  the  hot  seasons,  when  inundations  fre- 
quently occur.  North  and  west  winds  prevail  in 
winter,  and  south  and  east  in  summer.  The  violent 
circular  .storms  called  typlioons  are  liable  to  occur 
during  summer,  but  are  more  destructive  in  the 
autumn.  August  and  October  are  the  pleasantest 
months  for  travelling.  Thunderstorms  are  neither 
common  nor  violent,  and  autumn  fogs  are  equally 
rare.  The  climate,  though  .somewhat  relaxing  to 
Europeans  and  having  a  temlency  to  produce 
ananiia  and  troubles  of  the  head,  is  fairly  salubri- 
ous, highly  so  in  the  mountains. 

Verietable  Prodnrtions.  —  In  Hodgson's  Japan 
will  be  found  a  systematic  catalogue  of  Japanese 
flora  by  Sir  .loseph  Hooker.  Chestnut,  oak  (both 
deciduous  and  evergreen),  pine,  beech,  elm,  cherry, 
dwarf-oak,  elder,  sycamore,  nuiple,  cypress,  and 
many  other  trees  of  familiar  name  abound,  'flie 
grandest  forests  of  pine  and  oaks  of  gieat  size 
grow  in  Yezo  ;  but  the  lihiis  veniiri/era  or  lacquer- 
tree,  the  Lniinis  ramp/iom  or  cam]>hor-tree,  the 
Broiissnnetia  iinpfirijira  or  paiier-nmlberry~the 
bark  and  young  twigs  of  which  are  manul.ic- 
tured  by  the  .lapanese  into  paper — and  the  lUnis 
siicceilanen  or  vegetable  wax  tree  of  .Japan,  are 
among  the  remarkable  .and  characteristic  trees  of 
the  country.  Bamboos,  palms,  including  sago- 
palms,  ami  150  species  of  evergreen  trees  jikewiso 
flourish.  Thus  the  vegetation  of  the  tri>pics  is 
strangely  intermingled  with  that  of  the  temperate 


282 

oi-  friiifiil  zniie  ;  the  tree-forn,  liamlion. 
ItAiiana,  and  palm  grow  siile  by  siilo 
vitli  tlie  pine,  the  oak,  and  the  heeeh. 
and  eonifeis  in  great  variety.  Tlie 
eaniellia,  the  Vauh)\vnia.  and  the  chrys- 
antlicMinm  are  conspicnons  amongst  the 
indigenous  plants.  The  azalea  liloonis 
in  May,  and  a  red  variety  is  found  in 
the  mountains  as  late  as  the  heginning 
of  .Inly.  The  splen<lid  Lilium  riiirntum 
covers  the  hillsides  in  July  ;  and  these 
are  also  bright  during  the  same  month 
with  the  jiink  lierries  of  the  Curiaria 
jnpnnicn,  the  same  plant  from  which 
comes  the  arrow  poison  of  the  New 
Zealanders.  Nynipha^as  and  parnassia 
fill  the  lakes  and  morasses.  The 
tobacco-plant,  the  tea-shrub,  dill'erent 
varieties  of  the  potato,  rice,  wheat, 
liarley,  buckwheat,  and  maize  are  all 
cultivated.  The  iloia  of  Japan  bears 
a  remarkable  resemblance  to  the  Mora 
of  tliat  ])art  of  the  North  American 
continent  lying  between  the  Lower 
Jlississippi  and  the  Atlantic. 

Zonloqy. — AVild  animals  are  not 
numerous  in  Japan.  No  true  wolf 
exists,  the   Japanese   yamainu   ('wild 


JAPAN 


Sir 


771 


0   F 


0 

r 

s 

K       :   ^ 

//    ^ 

V/           £, 

// 

^^ 

1/ 

s 

Y- 

1 

English  Miles 


dog')  being  a  poor  imitation  of  the  fierce  Euro- 
pean animal.  The  black  bear  peculiar  to  the 
country  is  found  in  the  mountains  north  of  Tokyo, 
and  is  dreaded  in  Yezo.  A\ild  boar's  flesh 
is  often  seen  for  sale  in  the  ca])ital,  as  also 
monkey's  flesh,  an  animal  remarkable  in  Japan 
for  its  bright  crimson  face.  Wild  deer,  protected 
by  law  in  one  or  two  places,  are  freely  hunted 
elsowhero.  A  factory  for  tinning  venison  was 
established  in  Yezo,  at  IJibi.  A  clumsy  sjiecies  of 
antelope  inhabits  the  mountains.  The  fox,  a  small- 
sized  breed,  plays  an  imjiortant  part  in  the  folk- 
lore, a-s  the  embodiment  of  craft  and  as  a  kind  of 
magician.  A  variety  of  the  stoat,  known  as  the 
Hachi,  wages  war  on  rats  and  on  ]>oultry.  A 
bailger  resembling  the  American  species  is  trained 
for  fortunc-lclIiMg.  There  are  two  species  of 
squirrel,  also  two  Hying  squirrels,  various  kinds  of 
rat — powerful  ])ests — but  no  true  h(nise  mice.  The 
hare  is  a  small  species  resembling  a  rabbit.  There 
is  a  single  species  of  otter,  an<l  there  are  several 
varieties  of  the  seal  and  the  whale.  Of  the  various 
varieties  of  snake  only  one,  the  small  iiKimittihi,  is 
poisiino\is.  Of  domestic  animals  there  are  few.  The 
native  horse,  introduced  according  to  tradition  in 
the  3tl  century,   is   really  a   mere  pony,  and  has 


piact 
birds 


few  merits,  and  in  most  provinces  is 
a  miserable  animal.  The  province 
of  Shimosa,  east  of  the  capital,  is 
now  largely  devoted  to  horse-breed- 
ing, stallions  having  been  brought 
from  San  Francisco  for  the  purpose 
of  imjiroving  the  breed.  Draught 
oxen  are  common  on  the  main 
island,  but  milk-cows  are  of  quite 
recent  introduction.  Donkeys  are 
seldom  or  never  seen.  Pork  is 
rapidly  becoming  a  favourite  food, 
and  horseflesh  is  prcjiared  at  some 
of  the  restaurants  ot  the  cajiital. 
Goats  are  ])ractically  unknown, 
and  the  shee])  does  not  thrive. 
The  domestic  dog  is  a  wolf-like, 
ill-conditioned  animal,  while  the 
domestic  cat  is  remarkable  in 
having  a  mere  stnmii  of  .a  tail  ; 
foreign  varieties  of  tliese  animals 
are  being  rapidly  inlioduced. 
There  are  numerous  water  birds — 
cranes,  storks,  herons,  coots,  moor- 
hens, snipe,  wild  geese,  ducks ;  and 
cormorants  trained  to  lish.  the 
k  at  hvast  1100  years.  Land- 
and  power- 
sometimes   mistaken   for  a  raven,   rcign- 


piactice  dating  bji 

Is  are  less  numerous,  the  voracKm 


ful  crow 

ing  supreme,  and  acting  as  a  general  scavenger. 
There  are  two  magnificent  species  of  i)hefusant, 
pigeons,  quail,  hazel  gi-ouse,  and  ptarmigan. 
The  goshawk  was  much  useil  for  hawking  in 
feudal  times.  Various  owls  .abound.  S<mg-i)irds 
are  not  sjiecially  numerous,  the  bulllinch  and  two 
varieties  of  ikjiiIsu  ('.Japan  nightingale ')  being 
best  known.  Swallows,  swifis,  sjiarrows.  goat- 
suckers, and  woodpeckei-s  all  abound,  and  there  is 
a  line  species  of  Ja])ane.se  jay.  Of  all  -lajjanese 
birds  the  frtrn'n  /iriiirr/is,  a  lly-catclier,  is  tlu^  most 
beautiful.  Bird-catching  is  commonly  practised, 
decoy-birds  being  cruelly  blinded  for  the  i>urpose; 
and  the  Kuropean  market  is  now  largely  supplied 
with  skins  from  Ja]ian.  One  lark  is  fo\ind,  besides 
twelve  buntings,  eleven  thrushes,  three  robins,  a 
wren,  a  tit,  and  various  other  small  birds.  There 
are  many  varieties  of  the  ordinary  fowl,  the.se  binls 
being  kejit  in  nearly  every  hou.se,  almost  solely  for 
their  eggs.  The  larger  breeds  known  as  Slimim  and 
Kiihin  are,  as  their  names  imply,  of  foreign  cuigin, 
the  ordinary  breed  resembling  a  pheasant  in  size 
and  shape.     The   freshwater  fish    of    Japan    are 


JAPAN 


283 


mostly  nf  Eiiropcaii  fieneia.  The  rivei-s  of  Yezo 
swarm  with  salmon,  whicli,  when  salted,  suijnly 
tlie  southern  market.  Carp  are  kept  in  garden 
ponds,  and  goldlish  are  reared  extensively.  Of 
salt-water  fish  the  red-tleshed  mnquro  and  the 
(((*  are  eaten  raw  under  the  name  of  sashiini. 
Oysters  abound.  Akkeshi  in  Vezo  being  noted  for 
its  beds :  the  lol>ster,  an  emblem  of  longevity,  is 
liighly  prized  for  the  tal)le.  Insect  life  is  specially 
abumlant ;  butterllies,  moths,  dragon-flies,  and 
l>eetles  exist  in  astonishing  variety.  And  yet 
.lapan  is  comparatively  fret!  from  insect  pests. 
.Mosquitoes  and  gnats  are  troublesome ;  w.osps 
are  rare;  honey-bees  are  scarce,  and  the  native 
lioney  is  an  insijiid  substance. 

AipiruUure  is  the  chief  occupation  of  the 
Japanese,  and  they  are  very  careful  farmers, 
thoroughly  undei'standing  cropping  and  the  rota- 
tion of  crops.  The  soil  is  not  naturally  very  fer- 
tile, being  mostly  volcanic  or  derived  from  igneous 
rocks,  but  it  is  made  jtroductive  by  careful  manur- 
ing, especially  with  night-soil  from  the  villages 
and  towns.  Rice  is  the  staple  production,  wliile 
barley,  wheat,  millet,  buckwheat,  maize,  and  many 
varieties  of  bean  and  pea  are  also  everywhere 
produced.  The  rice  harvest  commences  in  Sep- 
tember ;  wheat  is  sown  in  drills  in  No\ember  and 
December,  and  is  reaped  in  May  and  June.  Of 
vegetables  the  staple  is  the  large  white  radish  or 
daihoti.  Of  Japanese  fruits  the  persimmon  and 
orange  are  alone  worthy  to  be  classed  as  really 
good  fruits.  The  plums,  peaches,  and  cherries  are 
very  poor,  the  trees  being  reared  for  their  blos- 
soms. The  culture  of  tea,  introduced  from  China 
iu  770,  is  univei-sal  in  the  midille  and  south;  the 
whole  production  amounts  to  about  22,000,000  lb. 
annually.  Sericulture  is  on  the  increase,  and  cotton 
and  hemp  are  also  widelv  grown.  Of  sugar  a  total 
of  over  90,000,000  lb.  was  produced  in  1895  ;  much 
tobacco  is  also  raised — an  inferior  kind,  remarkable 
for  its  mildness  and  dryness.  There  are  two 
agricultural  colleges,  with  foreign  professors  on 
their  staffs,  one  in  Tokyo,  the  other  at  Sapporo  in 
Yezo. 

Mineralogy. — The  mineral  resources  of  Japan 
are  considerable,  and  the  government  during  the 
sixteen  years  preceding  1884  spent  largely  upon 
mining.  Since  then  it  has  allowed  private  enter- 
prise to  step  in.  C!old,  silver,  copper,  iron,  lead, 
antimony,  tin,  sulphur,  coal,  ba.salt,  felspar,  green- 
stones, granites  ( red  and  gray ),  rock-crystal, 
agate,  carnelian,  amber,  scoria-  and  pumice-stone, 
talc,  alum,  iScc.  are  found  in  great(;r  or  less 
()uantities.  Ciold  is  ]irinci])ally  worke<I  in  the 
Lsland  of  Sado  ;  silver  on  the  main  island.  Coal- 
beds  extend  from  Nagasaki  to  Yezo,  the  principal 
mines  being  Takashima,  Miike,  an<l  Karatsu  in 
Kyushu,  and  Poronai,  near  Sapporo,  in  Yezo. 
Petroleum  is  found  in  small  quantities  near  Niigata 
and  in  Yezo.  The  supply  of  sulphur  is  almost 
inexhaustible,  and  of  wonderful  jnirity.  Good 
building-stone  Ls  scarce. 

Hi.ilnri/.  —  The  reputed  founder  of  the  present 
dynasty  was  Jimmu  Tenno,  who  ascended  the 
throne  in  660  B.C.  The  legendary  epoch  continues 
for  more  than  KXX)  years,  and  all  Japanese  history 
before  .)00  A.  I>.  i.s  to  be  classed  as  legendary.  In  201 
A.n.  the  Empre.ss  Jingo  is  said  to  have  invailed  and 
coni|uered  Corea,  and  this  expedition  was  f(jlIowed 
by  the  introduction  of  Corean  civilisation,  the 
sacred  Chinese  boolcs  lionqo  and  Seiijimon  arriving 
from  Corea  in  285.  In  552  Buddhism  w.os  intro- 
duce<I  from  Corea,  and  became,  forty  years  later, 
the  established  religion.  In  624  a  liuildhist  hier- 
archy was  establislie<l  by  government.  .Shortly 
before  this  direct  relations  ha<I  been  entered  upon 
■with  China,  and  Chinese  civilisation  was  thereafter 
rapidly  assimilated.     The  system  of  periods  com- 


menced in  046,  and  from  this  time  onward  the 
national  history  is  cli>arly  traced.  During  tlie  live 
centuries  which  ensue  tlic  jieople  made  immense 
strides  in  civilisation.  A  complete  system  of 
otticialdom  was  organised,  under  the  rule  of  the 
Fujiwara  family,  whose  members  filled  all  the 
chief  jiosts  under  government,  and  gave  a  succes- 
sion ot  consorts  to  the  imperial  house. 

The  decadence  of  this  family  and  the  growing 
weakness  of  the  government  favoured  the  rise  of 
the  hitherto  subordinate  military  class,  which,  in 
the  person  of  Yoritomo,  creatcil  S/ti/f/iiii  or  (ieneral- 
issimo  in  1192,  seized  the  reins  of  power.  The 
usurpation  of  sujueme  authority  by  this  officer, 
long  known  to  Euiope  by  the  Chinese  name  of 
Ti/cuoti,  led  to  the  erroneous  l)ut  natural  belief 
that,  <lown  to  1868,  there  were  two  emperors  in 
Ja|ian — one,  a  Mikado  or  'spiritual  emperor'  who 
reigned  but  did  not  govern,  and  the  Sliogun,  who 
really  governeil  though  he  paid  homage  to  the 
Mikado.  The  next  four  centuries  nntil  1003  were 
a  period  of  bloodshed,  marked  by  all  the  untold 
miseries  of  civil  strife.  The  militarv  fiefs  organ- 
I  ised  by  Yoritomo  raised  up  a  feudal  baronage, 
who  succeeded  in  making  themselves  virtually 
inde|)enilent  of  the  central  power.  Even  the 
Buddhist  monasteries  in  many  cases  became  mili- 
^  tary  centres.  At  one  time  (1333-92)  two  pupjiet 
,  dynasties  held  sway,  the  north  and  the  south,  to 
I  one  or  other  of  which  the  feudal  barons  rallieil. 
I  The  Shogunate,  made  powerful  by  Yoritomo,  it>elf 
fell  into  abeyance,  but  the  militarv  genius  and 
astute  policy  of  Hideyoshi,  who  died  in  159S,  ]iie- 
pared  the  way  for  its  revi\al  in  Ui03  by  Tokugawa 
Ij'eyasu,  the  illustrious  general  and  statesman  who 
gave  a  lasting  peace  to  Japan.  In  1592  Hideyoshi 
had  directed  an  expediticm  against  Corea,  iiillict- 
j  ing  a  blow  on  the  prosperity  of  that  countr\  from 
which  it  has  not  since  recovered.  lyeyasu.  \  ictori- 
ous  over  a  combination  of  southern  barons  ;it 
Sekigahara  near  Lake  Biwa  in  1600,  fixed  his  seat 
of  government  at  Yedo,  the  '  port '  situated  at  t  he 
liea<l  of  the  Gulf  of  Yedo,  and  near  the  emliouclnue 
of  the  rivers  which  drain  the  largest  plain  in  Japan. 
Backed  principally  by  the  northern  clans,  he  was 
able  to  consolidate  his  power  and  to  found  a  per- 
manent succession,  his  descendants  reigning  at 
Yedo  till  1868.  From  being  a  collection  of  small 
scattered  villages  this  place  soon  liecame  one  of  the 
most  populous  cities  in  the  world.  His  system  was 
perfected  by  lyemitsu,  the  third  Shogun  of  the 
Tokugawa  dynasty. 

It  was  his  policy  'to  preserve  unchanged  the 
condition  of  the  native  intelligence,' and  'to  pre- 
vent the  intrixluction  of  new  ideas  ;'  and  to  ellect 
this  he  not  only  banished  foreigners,  interdicted  all 
intercourse  with  them,  and  extirjiated  Christianity, 
but  introiluced  that  '  most  rigid  and  cunningly- 
devised  system  of  espionage '  « hich  was  in  full 
activity  at  the  time  of  the  Earl  of  Elgin's  mi.ssion,  as 
amusingly  described  by  Laurence  Oliphant.  '  This 
espionage,'  says  a  recent  Japanese  writer,  'held 
every  one  in  the  community  in  dread  and  suspicion  ; 
not  only  the  most  powerful  daimyo  felt  its  insidi- 
ous influence,  but  the  meanest  retainer  was  subject 
to  its  sway  ;  and  the  ignoble  quality  of  deception, 
developing  rapidly  to  a  large  extent,  became  at 
this  timi;  a  nation.al  characteristic.  The  daimyos, 
who  at  first  enjoyed  an  honourable  [lositiou  as 
guests  at  the  court  of  Yedo,  were  reduced  to  vassal- 
age, anil  their  families  retained  a-s  hostages  for  the 
rendition  of  a  biennial  ceremonial  of  homage  to  the 
Shflgun.  Restrictions  surrounded  personages  ot 
this  rank  nntil,  without  special  iiermission,  they 
were  not  allowed  to  meet  each  otiier  alone.'  The 
Portuguese,  who  first  landed  iu  .lapan  iu  the  year 
1543,  carried  on  a  lucrative  trade ;  but  by-and- 
by  the  ruling  powers  took  alarm,  ordered  away 


284 


JAPAN 


all  foreigners,  and  interdicted  Christianity  ( 1624), 
believing  that  foreij.'nei's  iin]ioveri>ihpd  tlie  conntrv, 
while  their  religion  stniok  at  the  root  of  tlie  politi- 
cal and  religious  systems  of  Jajian.  The  converts 
to  Catholicisni  were  found  to  have  jiledged  their 
allegiance  to  a  foreign  power,  while  their  conduct 
is  said  to  have  been  offensive  towards  the  Shinto 
and  IJuddhist  temples ;  so  that  in  time  they  came 
to  he  regarded  as  a  dangerous  and  anti-national 
cl.oss  whose  extirpation  was  essential  to  the  well- 
being  of  the  nation  and  to  the  success  of  the 
political  system  being  organised  or  perfected  by 
lycmitsu.  The  Portuguese  continued  to  frequent 
Japan  till  1638,  when  they  and  their  religion  were 
finally  expelled.  From  this  date  the  Japanese 
government  maintained  the  most  rigid  policy  of 
isolation.  Jso  foreign  vessels  might  touch  at 
Japanese  ports  under  any  pretence.  Japanese 
sailors  wrecked  on  any  foreign  shore  were  with 
ditliculty  permitted  to  return  home ;  while  the 
Dutch,  locked  up  in  their  factory  at  Deshiraa,  were 
allowed  to  hold  no  communication  with  the  main- 
land ;  and  the  people  lived  '  like  frogs  in  a  well,' 
as  the  Japanese  jiroverb  has  it,  till  ISS.'?,  when  they 
were  rudely  awakened  from  their  dream  of  peace 
and  security  by  Commodore  Perry  steamin"  into 
the  harbour  of  Uraga  with  a  squadron  of  United 
States  war-vessels.  He  e.\torted  a  treaty  from 
the  frightened  Shogun,  31st  March  1854,  and 
Japan,  after  a  withdrawal  of  "216  years,  entered 
once  more  the  family  of  nations.  Other  conntries 
slowly  followed  the  examide  of  the  United  States 
until  sixteen  in  all  had  obtained  the  same 
privileges. 

Five  ports,  Kanagawa  (Yokohama),  Kobe 
(Hyogo),  Xaga.saki,  Niigata,  and  Hakodate,  were 
opened  to  foreign  commerce,  'settlements'  or 
foreign  quartere  in  these  being  set  apart  for  the 
residence  of  foreigners  under  the  jurisdiction  of 
their  o%vn  con.suls.  A  limit  of  travel,  extending 
to  a  radius  of  twenty-five  miles  rouncl  these 
ports,  was  granted.  Foreign  settlenients  were 
al.so  established  in  Yedo  (Tokyo)  and  Osaka,  these 
settlements  being  within  the  prescribed  twenty-five 
miles'  limit  of  Yokohama  and  Kobe.  Ohstructions 
being  placed  in  the  way  of  foreign  merchants 
settling  at  Kanagawa,  the  question  was  quickly  i 
solved  by  their  crossing  the  narrow  hay.  now  lilled 
np,  and  erecting  their  'hongs'  at  Yokohama,  a 
few  miles  farther  from  the  ca|)ital.  With  the 
ojiening  of  these  ])orts  commenced  the  extra-terri- 
toriality  system  under  which  Japan  has  shown 
herself  so  restive. 

The  fall  of  feudalism  was  merely  accelerated  by 
the  arrival  of  foreigners.  For  long  not  a  few  (if 
the  most  powerful  clans,  chielly  Satsuma  and 
Choshii,  had  been  dissatislied  with  the  ShAgun's 
position,  and  these  gladly  availeil  themselves  of 
the  pretext  now  furnished  for  opposing  him.  All 
l)ossil>le  means  were  taken  to  involve  him  in 
complications  with  the  ambassadoi-s  at  his  court ; 
and  to  this  motive  rather  than  to  any  hatred  of 
foreigners  are  to  be  ascrihed  the  numerous  a.ssas- 
sinations  which  darkened  the  period  immediately 
]irior  to  1868.  Kvery  weakening  of  his  j)ower  w.as 
a  step  g.ained  towards  his  overthrow  and  the  longed- 
for  unification  of  the  empire  in  the  han<ls  of  the 
Mikado  (emperor).  At  length  the  Shogun  re- 
signed ;  but  it  was  only  after  a  sharj)  civil  war 
in  the  winter  of  1867-68  that  the  power  of  his 
adherents  was  com]di'tely  crushed.  At  the  outset 
of  the  struggle  the  imperial  party  were  decidedly 
retrogressive  in  their  political  ideas;  but  before 
its  close  various  circnmstances  convinced  them 
that  without  intercourse  with  foreign  nations  the 
greatness  which  they  desired  for  their  country 
could  not  be  achieved  ;  and  when  they  got  into 
- nwer  they  astonished  the  world  by  the  thorough- 


ness with  which  thev  broke  loose  from  the  old 
traditions  and  entered  on  a  coni'se  of  enliu'litened 
reformation.  Recognising  Ye<lo  lus  really  the  centre 
of  the  nation's  life,  they  resolved  to  make  it  the 
capital  ;  but  the  name  Yedo  being  distasteful 
through  its  associations  with  the  Shogunate,  they 
renamed  the  city  Tokyo  or  Tokei — i.e.  'eastern 
capital.'  Here  the  emperor  established  his  coiirt, 
abandoning  for  ever  that  life  of  seclusicm  which 
had  surrounded  his  ancestors  with  a  halo  of  semi- 
divinity,  but  deprived  them  of  all  real  power. 
The  venerable  city  of  Kyoto,  which  had  renuiined 
the  capital  since  794,  was  at  the  same  time  re- 
named Saikyo  or  Saikei — i.e.  'western  capital.' 
The  daimyos,  verj'  few  of  whom  were  more  than 
mere  weaklings  under  the  direction  of  strong- 
\\illed  retainers,  resigned  their  licfs,  and  were 
pensioned  by  the  government.  Since  1868  the 
leading  men  of  Satsuma  and  Choshu,  forming  what 
is  called  the  Sat-cho  combination,  have  held  the 
important  portfolios  of  state.  The  new  period, 
commencing  with  the  Emperor  Mntsuhito's  ac- 
cession, has  been  named  Meiji,  '  enlightened 
peace. ' 

Japan  has  during  the  Meiji  period  striven  to 
make  her  infliience  felt  as  a  powerful  factor  in 
Asiatic  politics.  Her  expedition  to  Formosa  in 
1874  to  punish  piracy,  her  annexation  in  1879  of 
the  Loo  Choo  Islands,  notwithstanding  China's  re- 
monstrances and  threats,  her  spirited  policy  in  Corea 
in  1873  and  again  in  188'2,  her  conscription  law  of 
1883  and  subsequent  army  reorganisation,  her 
development  of  a  strong  navy,  her  coast-defence 
scheme  of  1887,  subscribed  to  liberally  by  wealthy 
private  individuals,  prove  her  assertive  spirit.  A 
rebellion  in  1877  of  the  fiercer  Satsiima  men  under 
General  Saigo  was  promptly  crushed. 

In  1887  the  negotiations  for  a  revision  of  the 
treaties  were  broken  off',  owing  to  an  outbreak 
of  popular  dissatisfaction  with  the  guarantees 
demanded  by  the  seventeen  foreign  poweis  acting 
in  concert.  This  breakdown  w.as  followed  hy  a 
distinct  conservative  reaction  in  the  nation,  in  no 
way  seriously  att'eeting  the  steady  progress  of 
western  institutions.  Imt  marking  a  more  cautious 
attitude  and  a  more  critical  spirit.  In  the  spring 
of  18S9  the  combination  of  treaty  jiowi-rs  was 
liroken  through  by  the  action  first  m  the  United 
States  and  then  of  (iermany  and  Russia,  who 
formed  treaties  on  their  own  account,  abolishing 
extraterritoriality  an<l  sanctioning  mixed  resilience 
under  certain  mild  restrictions.  These  treaties 
were  to  come  into  force  in  1890.  Mexico,  not  a 
treaty  power,  had  also  arranged  an  inde)>endent 
treaty  in  November  1888.  Other  jjowers  jirepared 
to  follow.  But  a  strong  ojiposition  having  sprung 
U]),  the  Kuroda  cabinet  found  itself  unable  to 
carry  out  the  scheme,  and  treaty  revision  was  once 
more  shelved.  This  is  the  close  of  the  first  ejioch 
in  the  modern  history  of  .Japan,  following  on  the 
heels  of  the  promulgation  of  a  popular  constitution, 
February  11,  1889. 

The  jiosition  in  which  Japan  has  been  placed 
during  the  liast  few  decades  is  so  exceptional  that 
outsiders  find  great  ditticulty  in  forming  a  correct 
judgment  of  her  political  situation.  Instability 
is  supposed  where  it  is  really  absent,  the  fact  being 
that  no  nation's  history  li;is  been  more  consistent 
than  .lapan's.  The  sudden  change  of  front  in  1868 
was  deliberate  and  final,  one  end  li.aving  been  kept 
in  view  all  through  —the  independence  and  gloiy 
of  Dai  Nippon.  So  hurried  an  a.ssimilation  its 
was  made  necessary  by  her  complete  preiious 
isolation  was  naturally  accompanied  by  numerous 
minor  imprudences  and  extravagances,  the  result 
of  ignorance.  Rut  the  thoroughly  patriotic  spirit 
of  the  nation  has  triumphed,  an<l  her  administra- 
tion is  now  in  a  highly  satisfactory  condition. 


JAPAN 


285 


The  iussassiii:itic)ii  in  IS77  of  Okulio,  chief  of  the 
party  wliose  retoiiiis  jxaveriso  to  the  Satsuiiia  rebel- 
lion, was  foUoweii  twelve  years  later  by  the  assas- 
sination of  Visconnt  Mori,  a  cabinet  minister. 
This  lii-st  was  not,  like  the  former,  a  political  event, 
but  merely  an  unfortunate  isohited  incident,  the 
work  of  a  reli^'ious  fanatic,  a  Hhintoist.  Political 
assjissination  is  not,  however,  dead,  and  Ls  a 
peculiar  dan;;er  in  Japan,  where  its  perpetrators 
seem  wholly  regardless  of  their  own  lives. 

During  the  pn;st  few  yeare,  especially  since  the 
reconstruction  of  the  cabinet  and  the  administra- 
tion in  1S86,  the  court  has  emerged  entirely  from 
its  seclusion.  The  emperor  and  emprl^•'s  have 
visited  all  the  chief  institutions,  and  are  present 
at  public  spectacles.  The  crown-priiice,  Haru,  was 
the  tii-st  in  the  long  dynasty  to  be  educated  at  a 
public  school.  A  new  nobility  was  created  in  1884, 
drawn  partly  from  the  old   feudal   baronage  and 

Eartly  from  the  new  men  of  186S.  It  consists  of 
ve  orders,  princes  or  dukes  (II),  marquises  (28), 
counts  (8d),  viscounts  (355),  and  barons  (102),  who 
send  representatives  to  the  newly-created  Upper 
Chamber.  The  nation  is  itself  divided  into 
three  classes,  Kwazoku  ('nobility'),  Shizohii 
('gentry'),  and  Heimin  ('commonalty').  Of- 
ficials are  of  four  classes,  shinnm,  chukunin,  sonin, 
and  haiinin.  Officials  constitute  the  flower  of  the 
nation  ;  chuss  jealousy  is  absent,  careers  being  open 
to  the  poorest.  The  main  events  of  the  triumphant 
war  with  China  in  189-1-95,  the  acquisition  of  p'or- 
mosa,  a-s  also  the  Chinese  campaign  of  1900,  have 
been  noted  at  CHINA,  Vol.  III.  p.  194.  Japan  was 
visited  by  a  terrible  earthquake  in  1892;  and  in 
June  1896  an  earthquake  wave  cost  10,(X)0  lives 

Inhabitants. — With  the  e.xception  of  the  wilds 
of  Yezo,  peopled  by  12,000  Ainos,  the  Japanese 
islands  are  inhabited  by  a  single  race  speaking 
various  dialects  of  the  same  tongue.  Probably, 
but  this  is  merely  a  conjecture,  the  Japanese  are 
a.  mixed  lace,  the  issue  of  the  intermarriage  of 
victorious  Tartar  settlers,  who  entered  Jajjan  from 
the  Corean  peninsula,  with  Malays  in  the  south 
and  people  of  the  Aino  race  in  the  main  island. 
We  read  in  Japanese  annals  of 
constant  war  witli  savages,  and  in 
comparatively  recent  times  the 
Aino  race  occupied  the  northerTi 
extremity  of  Honshu.  There  are 
two  distinct  types  of  Ja])anese 
face,  that  which  is  found  in  art 
designs  beinf'  tlie  aristocratic  and 
rarer  tyire.  It  is  distinguished  by 
an  oval  head  and  face,  rounded 
frontal  bones,  a  high  forehead,  a 
nose  curved  and  well  shaped  but 
not  prominent,  narrow  and  sliglitl\ 
oblique  eyes  with  an  overlapi>ini; 
of  tlie  eyelid.  In  the  man  tin- 
face  is  almost  hairless,  with  tin- 
exception  of  a  narrow  and  sliorl 
moustache.  The  completion  i-^ 
pallid  or  slightly  olive,  and  tin' 
expression  demure.  The  com 
nioner  .and  vulgar  type,  almo>i 
universal  in  the  northern  districts. 
i.s  i>udding-faced,  full-eyed.  Hat 
nosed,  and  good-humoured  in  ex 
pression.  The  stature  of  the  race 
Ls  small,  and  the  trunk  is  jiropor- 
tionately  long  as  compared  with 
the  legsi  which  are  short.  The  use  of  heavy  wooden 
clogs  (geta),  together  with  the  carrying,  when  still 
j'oung  themselves,  of  their  infant  brotheis  and 
sUters,  gives  the  women  exce.ssively  thick  ankles 
and  Hat  feet.  The  hands  are  usually  prettily  shaped, 
both  in  the  man  and  the  woman  :  but  the  habit 
of   keeping  these,  especially  in  winter,  inside  the 


kimiino  ( '  coat ' ),  while  the  wide  sleeves  are  allowed 
to  hang  loose,  makes  them  clamni>"  to  the  touch. 
The  hair  is  coal-black  and  strong  in  texture,  and 
the  bearil  lias  somclimes  a  ruddy  tinge.  The  race 
is  physically  an  interior  one,  the  men  having  an 
ill-developed  form  and  harsh  features,  whilst  the 
women  lose  any  pretensions  to  good  looks  after 
the  tirst  bloom  of  youth  is  over.  The  ])lainness 
of  the  latter  is  increased  by  the  habit  at  marriage, 
or  after  passing  the  marriageable  age,  of  blaidvcn- 
ing  the  teetli  and  slia\ing  the  eyebrows,  customs 
happily  on  the  wane.  The  girls,  with  their  rosy 
cheeks,  fascinating  manners,  and  exquisitely  tiiste- 
ful  dress,  are,  however,  jjarticularly  attractive,  and 
the  children  are  bright  and  comely,  being  allowed 
full  liberty  to  enjoy  themselves — indeed  Japan  is 
the  paradise  of  children. 

The  Jajianese  have  many  excellent  qualities : 
they  are  kindly,  courteous,  law-abiding,  cleanly 
in  their  habits,  frugal,  and  ])ossessed  with  a  high 
sense  of  personal  honour  which  makes  sordidness 
unknown.  This  is  associated,  moreover,  with  an 
ardent  patriotic  spirit,  quite  removed  from  factious- 
ness. Nowhere  are  good  manners  .and  artistic 
culture  so  widespreail,  reaching  even  to  the  lowest. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  people  are  deficient  in  moral 
earnestness  and  courage,  which  leads  to  corrujition 
in  social  life  and  institutions.  It  is  only  when 
matters  have  become  intolerable  that  discipline  is 
enforced  by  the  use  of  Draconian  measures.  An 
utter  lack  of  chivalry  towards  women  is  an  un- 
pleasing  feature  of  the  national  life.  Civic  courage 
liiis  also  to  be  developed. 

The  town  costume  of  the  Japanese  gentleman 
consists  of  a  |i«we  silk  robe  extending  from  the 
neck  to  the  ankles,  but  gathered  in  at  the  waist, 
round  which  is  fastened  a  girdle  of  brocaded  silk. 
Over  this  is  worn  a  loose,  wide-sleeved  jacket, 
deciu-ated  with  the  wearers  armorial  device.  White 
cotton  socks,  cleft  at  the  great  toes,  and  wooden 
pattens  complete  the  attire.  European  costume 
has  been  prescribed  liy  government  as  the  official 
dress,  and  the  empress  and  her  suite  have  recently 
adopted  foreign  costume,  being  followed  to  a  certaiu 


extent  by  th(!  fashionable  ladies  of  the  capital. 
Hats  are  not  generally  worn,  except  by  those  who 
follow  Ijurojieau  fashions  or  in  the  heat  of  summei. 
The  women  wear  a  loo.-e  robe,  overla))ping  in  front, 
and  fastened  with  a  broad  heavy  giidle  of  silk 
(obi),  often  of  great  value.  In  winter  a  succession 
of  these  robes  are  worn,  one  over  the  other.     The 


286 


JAPAN 


foniic'ily  uuivei'sal  chijriion  coiffure  of  the  women, 
still'  with  iioiiiatuin,  which  w;i.s  done  up  by  the 
haiiili'essier  once  or  twice  a  week,  is  rapiitly  viehl- 
inj;  to  the  siniiik'r  (Irecian  knot.  The  poorer  elapses 
wear  nothing  more  than  a  loose  cotton  t,'own,  tied 
at  tlie  waist,  and  a  loincloth,  freiiuently  working 
only  in  the  loin-cloth.  Women  of  the  lower  class 
tliink  nothing  of  exposing  the  person  to  the  waist. 
The  women  jiowder  profusely,  a  white  skin  being 
highly  appreciated,  and  dye  the  lips  a  deep  red  : 
jewellery  is  not  worn.  The  old-fashioned  coiffure 
of  the  men,  still  freqnently  seen  anioni^'  the  lower 
classes,  especially  among  lishermen,  is  peculiar. 
The  head  is  shaven  on  the  top,  leaving  a  broad 
rectangular  bald  space,  and  the  hair  of  the  unshaven 
portion,  formed  into  a  compact  m;i.ss  like  a  candle- 
end,  is  then  turned  forward  upon  the  crown.  The 
children's  heads  are  shaven  grotesquely ;  priests 
and  many  old  women  sliave  the  head  completely. 
Long  hair  is  frequently  worn  by  discontented  poli- 
ticians and  jihilosophei's,  while  widows  wear  short 
hair.  Both  Japanese  men  and  women  are  fond 
of  smoking  tobacco ;  the  bowl  of  the  pi]ie  they 
use  is  less  in  size  than  half  a  thimble,  and  requires 
constant  rehlling. 

Although  the  Japanese  are  a  singularly  united 
people,  yet  the  nation  divides  itself  into  two 
portions,  the  governing  and  the  governed.  The 
former,  representatives  of  the  military  class  and 
numbering  some  4000  families,  are  high-spirited 
and  masterful  ;  the  rest  of  the  nation  are  sub- 
missive and  timid.  Many  of  the  seemingly  con- 
tradictory opinions  given  forth  regarding  the 
Japanese  can  be  reconciled  by  a  recognition  of 
this  fact.  ' 

Mrxle  of  Li  ring,  it-c. — Japanese  houses  are  slight 
constructions  of  wood  ;  in  place  of  windows  and 
shutters  they  have  an  inner  set  of  paper  screens, 
and  an  outer  set  of  wooden  shutters,  both  slid- 
ing in  grooves.  In  the  northern  districts  at  least 
two  sides  of  the  house  are  closed'  in  with  walls 
of  mud  plastered  on  wicker-work.  The  floors  are 
covered  with  thick  soft  straw  mats,  measuring  6 
by  'i  feet,  and  the  accommodation  of  the  houses 
is  reckoned  by  the  number  of  these  mats.  On 
them  the  inmates  sit,  eat,  and  sleep,  the  bed- 
clothes— heavily-padded  quilts — being  kept  during 
the  day  in  adjoining  closets.  The  surface  of  the.se 
mats  is  scrupulon.sly  clean,  for  boots  and  clogs 
are  removed  Ijefore  entering.  In  winter  heat  is 
obtained  from  charcoal  boxes,  either  movable  or 
set  into  the  floor,  and  most  of  the  cooking  is  done 
over  charcoal  braziers.  Rice  is  the  staple  food  of 
the  ])eople,  but  in  the  jjoorer  mountainous  regions 
millet  often  takes  its  place.  Fish,  seaweed,  and 
beans  in  all  forms  are  served  with  the  rice,  es)ieci- 
ally  in  the  son])s,  which  likewise  contain  be.-in- 
curd,  eggs,  and  vegetables.  Chestnuts  and  hazel- 
nuts are  also  largely  eaten,  and  the  walnut  is  made 
into  a  sweetmeat.  Shoi/ii  (soy),  a  sauce  made  of 
beans  and  wheat,  is  the  uuivei-sal  condiment, 
(lenerally  speaking,  the  food  is  unsatisfying  and 
mawkish  to  foreigners.  Fowls  are  now  pretty 
widely  used  for  the  table,  and  jiork  and  beef,  as 
well  as  bread,  are  increasingly  eaten.  The  meat- 
shops  are  frequented  at  night,  as  taverns  are  in 
England. 

Japanese  towns  are  subject  to  conflagrations  to 
such  a  degree  that  in  crowded  city  districts  houses 
are  supposed  to  List  on  an  average  only  three  years. 
The  jieojile  store  their  valuables  in  scpiare  towers 
of  bamboo  wattle  work  and  muil,  which  are  left 
standing  when  the  fire  has  swept  jKUst.  Incen- 
diarism followed  by  robbery  is  a  common  crime, 
formerly  punished  savagely.  The  institution  of  a 
gendarmerie  in  1881,  and  the  more  stable  nature  of 
the  edifices  recently  erected  in  the  capital,  have 
greatly  lessened  these  tires. 


The  Japanese  are  a  dyspeptic  people,  UKue  dying 
fiom  diseases  of  the  iligestion  than  from  any  other 
cause.  Skin  disejuses,  well  treated  at  the  vari(uis 
solfataras.  are  common  ;  bone  disea.ses  are  also  rife. 
Lung  disea-ses  are  not  so  deadly  as  in  Creat  Uritain, 
and  child-birth  is  attended  with  little  or  no  dang'er. 
A  very  dangerous  disea.se  peculiar  to  the  country 
and  yielding  to  no  specific  remedy  is  lyi/./.i',  a  form 
of  elephantiasis  or  hcri-bcri.  Smallpox  wiis  formerly 
a  scourge,  but  C(nn])ulsor>-  vaccination  has  remedied 
this.  Cholera  appeared  in  force  in  the  year  ISTi), 
and  again  violently  in  1886.  The  houses  are  built 
low  on  the  ground,  the  drains  are  open,  wells  are 
close  to  closets  and  rubbish-heaps.  However,  there 
are  now  both  an  active  sanitary  society  in  Tokyo 
and  a  foreign  professor  of  sanitarj'  engineering  in 
the  univei-sity,  and  water-works  "with  the  latest 
improvements  had  been  provided  for  Yokohama  by 
1890,  when  the  capital  and  Nagasaki  had  also 
water-work  schemes  under  consideration.  Infant 
mortality  is  small.  Suicide  is  common,  especially 
among  men,  three  out  of  four  male  suicides  hanging 
themselves,  one  out  of  every  two  female  snicidei 
diowiiinL;  herself.  The  figures  for  1800-94  show^ed 
an  annual  average  of  4606  men  and  3000  women. 

.Viimiers  and  <'ii.sfijin.i. — Many  of  the  customs 
once  characteristic  of  Japan  have,  since  the  aboli- 
tion of  feudalism,  liecome  obsolete.  Among  these  is 
seppukit  or  hnra-kiri  (see  Haki-K.vki),  for  long  a 
legalised  moile  of  suicide.  The  wearing  of  swords 
by  civilians  in  public  was  forbidden  by  law  in  1876. 
The  social  position  of  women  is  more  favouiable 
than  in  most  n(m-Christian  countries,  but  still 
leaves  much  to  be  desired.  However,  the  attitude 
assumed  by  the  empress  and  the'  imperial  ]irin 
cesses  is  rapidly  bringing  about  a  social  equality  of 
the  sexes.  Formerly  concuViines  were  recognised 
by  law,  and  a  certain  number  of  imiierial  mis- 
tresses are  attached  to  the  court,  whose  children 
are  o]ieii  to  the  succession — the  present  eni]ieror 
and  crown-prince  being  the  sons  of  mistresses.  A 
man  can,  however,  have  only  one  legal  wife,  and 
the  keeping  of  concubines  in  the  same  house  with 
a  wife  is  more  and  more  ilisconntenanced  by  social 
opinion.  Divorces  are  easily  obtained  by  husbands, 
and  the  nuptial  tie  is  little  respected  among  the 
lower  clas.ses  ;  but  women  of  the  well-to-do  classes 
are  modest  and  virtuous.  Marriages  are  .arranged 
through  an  intermediary,  and  botii  .sexes  marry  at 
ail  early  age.  As  the  continuance  of  families  is  a 
])oint  of  great  importance,  adoption  is  largely 
r&sorted  to  in  order  to  prevent  families  d\ing 
out.  Prostitution  is  jirevalent.  It  was  formerly 
no  unconmion  thing  for  a  ilntiful  daughter  to  sell 
herself  for  a  term  of  years  to  the  proprietor  of 
a  house  of  ill-fame  in  order  to  retrieve  her  father's 
fallen  fortunes.  'When  she  returned  no  stigma 
attached  to  her ;  r.ither  was  she  hononrcd  for  her 
filial  devotion.  Licensed  houses  of  ill-fame  have 
always  been  confined  to  certain  districts,  outside 
the  city  limits,  and  are  cari>fully  inspected.  Hot 
baths  are  a  gixjat  institution  in  Japan.  Formerly 
it  w.as  a  general  custom  for  persons  of  both  sexes 
to  bathe  together  :  ami  this  primitive  custom  still 
)irevails  in  rural  districts,  although  forbidden  in  the 
cities  and  always  unknown  in  Tokyo.  Great  respect 
is  ]iaiil  to  the  dead,  and  posthumous  names  are 
c(mferre<l  after  ileath,  some  of  the  most  celebrated 
names  in  Japanese  history  being  posthnmous  titles. 
Hcavv  sums  are  lavished  on  funerals. 

I'ntil  lately  the  only  vidiicles  in  Japan  were 
two  kinds  of  ]<alaiiipiin — viz.  the  lago  and  the 
uorimiiiio  :  but  in  all  the  more  level  districts  these 
have  now  Ix'en  superseded  by  ihejitirikisha  ( 'man- 
power-carriage'), a  sort  of  two-wheeled  perambu- 
lator drawn  by  a  man  who  runs  l)etween  the 
shafts.  In  many  of  the  more  mountainous  regions 
the  roads  are  imiiracticable  even  for  thejinri/.isha. 


JAPAN 


•287 


The  Japanese  are  essentially  a  iileasuie-lovin^' 
peo|iie,  aiul  >[>end  comparatively  large  sums  upun 
aniusements.  The  theatre,  though  formerly  de- 
spiseil  by  the  sdiiiiinii  class,  who  refused  to  enter 
its  diHirs,  forms  one  of  the  chief  national  resorts. 
Tlie  female  parts  are  taken  by  men,  hut  theatres 
exist  where  only  women  act.  A  single  performance 
lasts  from  morning  till  sunset,  and  a  whole  house- 
hold will  hire  a  box  and  spend  the  entire  day  at  the 
theatre.  Many  of  the  arrangements  are  jiriniitive, 
especially  the  orchestra,  whose  music  is  thin,  harsh, 
and  monotonous.  This  is  generally  true  of  Japanese 
music,  which  is  in  a  primitive  stage  :  the  prmcipal 
instruments  are  the  stringed  samiscn,  koto,  and 
kokyu,  and  the  winil-instruments  called  shakuhachi 
and  sho.  the  latter  mostly  used  at  funerals.  Pro- 
fessional musicians  are  in  great  rei]uest  and  are  well 
paid,  especially  the  young  women  known  as  rjiiskd, 
whose  dances  are  wonderfully  graceful.  Flower- 
shows  are  very  popular,  and  Hower-gardens  are 
crowded  at  the  proper  seasons — the  plum  and  ])eaeh 
blossom  season  being  in  Febnxary  and  March,  the 
cherry-blossom  season  and  the  peony  season  in 
April,  the  wistaria  season  in  May,  the  iris  season 
in  June,  the  lotus  season  in  August,  the  chrysan- 
themum season  in  October  and  November.  The 
time  of  greatest  festivity  is  the  Xew  Year,  now 
held  contemporaneously  with  our  own,  when  pine- 
trees  are  planted  before  the  dooi's,  the  houses  are 
gay  with  decoration,  and  pre.sents  are  lavishly  made. 
The  favourite  ^ame  at  this  season  is  oyobanc,  a 
kind  of  battledore  and  shuttlecock.  January  is 
the  kite  season ;  the  smaller  kites  are  of  various 
fantastic  shapes,  while  the  larger  and  more  power- 
ful ones  are  usually  rectangular.  Wrestling,  jug- 
gling, and  archery  are  favourite  sports,  and  among 
indoor  games  go  (checkei-s)  and  .s/iw/i  (chess). 

Language  and  Literature. — The  Japanese  lan- 
guage belongs  structurally,  like  Corean  and  Man- 
ehurian,  to  the  Altaic  family,  and  like  other  Altaic 
languages,  delights  in  long  involved  sentences,  the 
introductory  details  being  lieaped  up  to  an  extra- 
ordinaiy  length,  so  that  when  the  iinal  verb  is 
reached  many  of  these  are  apt  to  be  already  for- 
gotten. The  verbs,  which  are  liurdened  witli  un- 
translatable honorific  endings,  come  at  the  close  of 
the  clause,  (irammatical  gender  is  unrecognised ; 
case  is  indicated  by  separable  jiarticles ;  there  are 
no  articles ;  prepositions  follow  the  words  they 
govern.  The  language,  though  dithcult  to  master, 
is  easily  pronounced  and  musical.  The  introduc- 
tion of  (,'hinese  ci\  ilisation  in  the  6th  century  was 
followed  by  a  wholesale  absorption  of  Chinese 
woids  anil  charactei-s,  but  the  language  remained 
grammatically  unchanged,  as  obscure  and  involved 
in  its  idioms  and  constmctions  as  before.  Chinese 
ideographs  are  said  to  have  been  reduced  to  a 
phonetic  syllabary  by  the  Buddhist  priest  Kobo- 
daishi  in  810.  In  proce.ss  of  time  this  system,  the 
Hiragana,  was  rendered  more  comjilex  by  the 
addition  of  variants,  and  this  leil,  apparently,  to 
the  introduction  of  another  and  simpler  alphabet, 
entirely  without  variants,  known  as  the  Kiitakaiin 
character.  The  revolution  of  18G8  caused  th(^  lan- 
guage to  become  more  Chinese  in  vocabulary  tlian 
ever,  from  the  necessity  of  coinin"  a  host  of  new 
scientific  terms,  although  many  European  words 
were  also  transferred  simnliciter.  A  movement, 
powerfully  supported,  has  been  on  foot  for  several 
years  to  introduce  the  IJoman  alphal)et,  a  reform 
which  would  save  much  tedious  labour,  as  Japanese 
youths  have  to  soend  years  in  familiarising  them- 
selves with  the  dillicuk  Chinese  ideograph.s.  The 
literature  of  Japan  is  meagre  and  vapid  when  C(mi- 
nared  with  European  literature.  Poetry  came  to 
he  a  mere  matter  of  the  manipulation  of  words,  a 
feminine  accomplishment.  a.ssociated  with  line  call- 
giaph_\ ,  although  the  classical  poetry  has  left  some 


charming  remains.  Both  the  classical  prose  and 
poetry  owe  much  to  women  writers.  A  cloml 
resteil  on  literature  during  the  troublous  feudal 
times,  lasting  from  the  I'ith  to  the  17th  century. 
The  revival  of  the  Shinto  religi<m  Ijy  Mabuchi, 
Motoori  { 1730-1801 ),  and  other  scholars  was  accom- 
panied by  a  gi-eat  improvement  in  style ;  but  this 
S'eo-cla.ssical  Japanese  has  been  servilely  imitated, 
and  is  fast  becoming  fossilised.  At  ))resent  the 
language,  though  capable  of  expressing  ainiost 
every  shade  of  thought  required  in  a  complete 
modern  civilisation,  labours  under  these  ditliculties: 
(1)  there  are  countless  homonyms — e.g.  fifty-four 
characters  pronounced  ko,  often  requiring  pictorial 
explanation  in  speaking;  (2)  the  colloquial  and 
written  styles  differ  wholly,  anil  thus  literature 
fails  to  receive  fresh  impulses,  and  is  not  the  herit- 
age of  the  whole  nation.  The  greatest  of  Japanese 
novelists  is  Bakin  ( 171)7-1S48),  but  his  works  are 
terribly  spun  out.  The  light  prose,  which  made  its 
appearance  in  the  17th  century,  is  well  represented 
by  Va.\u  and  Ikku.  From  the  Kojiki,  or  '  Records 
of  Ancient  Matters,'  downwards  Japanese  litera- 
ture is  full  of  indecencies.  Much  of  the  place 
nomenclature  of  Japan  has  been  traced  by  Mr 
Chamberlain  to  an  Aino  source.  Double  names 
abound,  a  native  and  a  Chinese  form,  especially  for 
the  provinces,  that  with  the  s/tfi  termiiuition.  a.-^  in 
S/iins/iu,  being  the  Chinese  form.  Most  family 
names  were  originally  place  names. 

Religions  of  Japan. — There  are  two  prevailing 
religions  iu  Japan — Shinto  or  Kami  no  dlic/ii  ( 'The 
way  of  the  gods'),  the  indigenous  faith  ;  and  Bud- 
dhism, introduced  from  China  in  552.  (1)  S/iinto- 
ism. — The  characteristics  of  Shintoism  in  its  pure 
foiin  are  '  the  absence  of  an  ethical  and  doctrinal 
code,  of  idol-worship,  of  priestcraft,  and  of  any 
teachings  concerning  a  future  state,  and  the  deifi- 
cation of  heroes,  emperors,  and  great  men,  together 
with  the  worship  of  certain  forces  and  objects  in 
nature.'  The  jjrincijial  divinity  is  the  sun-goddess 
Anuvterasu,  from  whom  the  Mikado  is  held  to  be 
descended.  After  the  restoration  the  government 
attempted  to  free  Shintoism  from  the  Buddhist 
innovations  which  had  contaminated  it,  and  to 
revive  it  in  its  pure  form  as  the  national  religion. 
Shinto  temples  are  singularly  destitute  of  ecclesi- 
astical paraphernalia.  A  metal  mirror  generally 
stands  on  the  altar,  Imt  even  this  is  a  Buddhist 
innovation.  The  spirit  of  the  enshrined  deity  is 
supposed  to  be  in  a  case,  which  is  exposed  to  \iew 
only  on  the  day  of  the  deity's  annual  festival. 
The  worship  consists  merely  in  washing  the  face 
in  a  font,  striking  a  bell,  throwing  a  few  cash  into 
the  money-box,  and  praying  silently  for  a  few 
seconds  ;  nevertheless,  long  ))ilgrimages  to  famous 
shrines  and  to  the  summits  of  sacred  mountains 
are  often  taken  to  acconqilish  this.  Shintoism  is 
rather  an  engine  of  government  than  a  religion  ; 
it  keei)s  its  hold  on  the  nuusses  chiefly  through  its 
being  interwoven  with  reverence  for  ancestors  and 
patriotic  ideas.  (2)  Buddhism. — Of  Buddhists 
there  are  no  fewer  than  thirty-five  sects.  The 
monks  have  assumed  the  f\inctions  of  ])riests, 
and  Jai)anesc  Buddhist  worship  presents  striking 
resemblances  to  that  of  the  Honi.an  Catholic 
Church.  Notwithstanding  the  increa.sed  patron- 
age recently  bestowed  upon  Shintoism  by  the 
government.  Buddhism  is  still  the  dominant 
religion  among  the  people.  The  nuist  jiopular, 
;us  well  as  the  wealthiest  and  most  enlightened, 
of  the  Buddhist  denominations  is  the  Monln  or 
Shinshu  .sect,  which  recognises  one  (Jod  in  .Vniida 
Buddha  (cmly,  however,  an  abslracl  principle 
pei-sonilied),  discountenaiu'es  asT-eticisni  and  cleri- 
cal celibacy,  and  cultivates  preaching,  the  favour- 
ite topic  being  the  duty  of  self-reliance.  It 
would  be  a  ml^iake,  however,  to  suppose  lliul  a 


28S 


JAPAN 


clear  line  can  be  iliawii  between  aJbeieiits  of 
BiiiUlliisiii  ami  Sliiiitoisin  respectively  ;  in  tlie 
])()]jular  niinil  tlie  two  iaitlis  are  so  blemleil  that 
the  temples  of  both  are  frequented  without  much 
discrimination.  The  better-educated  classes  are 
mostly  agnostics,  strivinj;  more  or  less  to  regulate 
their  lives  by  the  maxims  of  Confucius.  The 
priests  retain  their  hold  on  the  ])eople  largely  as 
being  custodians  of  the  graveyards  and  performers 
of  funeral  rites.  Their  moral  inlluence  is  not 
weighty,  many  being  bad  boys  for  wliom  their 
fathers  have  found  it  imimssible  to  tind  good  wives. 
In  the  Meiji  i)eriod  none  of  the  ini]ierial  family 
have  entered  the  church  :  they  ati'ect  in  preference 
the  army  and  navy.  Some  of  the  more  active 
sects,  notably  the  ilonto  sect  at  Kyoto,  which 
has  established  a  large  college,  are  rising  to  the 
occasion  and  sending  out  preachers  and  propa- 
ganilists  to  meet  the  active  forces  of  modern 
Cliristiau  missions.     Japan  is  a  land  of  temples, 


Torii  of  Temple,  Suwa. 

but  many  are  now  falling  into  decay,  while  others 
are  turned  into  schoolhouses.  Every  grove  has  its 
shrine  anil  turii,  a  structure  in  wood  or  stone,  con- 
sisting of  two  ui)right  pillars  joined  at  the  top  by 
two  transverse  beams  or  slabs  ;  metal  t<»rii  are  also 
not  unknown.  The  Buihlhist  monasteries  in  the 
.lapanese  miildle  ages  were  undoubtedly  wonder- 
ful centres  of  civilisation,  and  the  i)riests  for  long 
commanded  reverence  by  their  self-denial. 

Christian  Jlissio/is. — Full  toleration  is  extended 
to  all  forms  of  religious  belief,  in  so  far  as  they 
do  not  coniiict  with  the  peace  and  onler  of  the 
community.  I'rancis  Xavier  introduced  Chris- 
tianity in  I.")49,  but  his  work  was  e.xtiuguished 
in  Idood,  till  scarcely  a  trace  of  it  was  left.  \\'hen, 
liowever,  the  country  w;is  o]iened  in  1S.")4  it 
w,is  found  that  2'2,(X)0  hist(nical  Roman  Catholic 
Christians  had  survived  persecution  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  Nagasaki.  Christianity  may  be  said 
to  have  linally  died  out  in  Tokyo  in  1715.  The 
Koinan  Catholic  Cliurcli  has  now  a  bishop  of  north 
and  one  of  south  Japan,  and  schools  and  convenis 
.scatterc<l  over  the  co\intry.  The  Creek  Church 
has  built  an  im]iosing  cathedral  in  Tokyo,  and 
carries  on  a  nourishing  work  in  the  capital  and  the 
north-eiust  of  Japan.  Of  the  Protestant  missions 
the  I'resln'terians,  live  sects  working  together,  and 
the  American  Congregationalists  are  the  most 
lloiirishing.  The  American  ami  Canadian  Method- 
ists, the  Baptists,  Kpiscopalians,  and  oiliers  ari' 
also  actively  at  work.  In  IS'JIj  the  nundier  of 
Protestant    missionaries    w.-is    loU    men,    lUO    un- 


married ladies,  and  102  native  ministei^,  and 
tlie  membership  at  the  5,3'2  stations  W!u>  over 
20,00(1.  There  were  10,297  scholars  at  tlie  mission 
schools,  and  at  Sunday  schools  21,597  pupils. 
There  were  32,000  Ko'man  Catholics,  with  02 
iiii-ssionaries  and  40  unmarried  ladies  :  and  14,000 
members  of  the  Crieek  Church.  Osaka  is  the 
centre  of  the  work  of  tlie  Church  MLssionary 
Society,  but  the  bishop  who  jiresiiles  over  it  and 
the  Society  for  the  Propagation  of  thi-  Cospel 
resides  in  Tokyo.  The  Young  Men's  Christian 
Association  of  America  has  a  resident  secretary 
in  Tokyo,  and  is  represented  by  teachers  in 
almost  every  province. 

EdunitioH  IS  general  and  compulsory.  There  is 
a  coiii|)lete  -system  of  local  elementary,  middle, 
and  normal  schools,  and  a  central  univer.sity  in  the 
cajiital,  with  live  higher  middle  schools  as  feeders, 
one  in  Tokyo,  the  others  at  Sendai.  Kyoto,  Kan- 
azawa  in  Kaga,  and  Kumamoto.  There  is  al.so  a 
higher  normal  school  in  the  capital.  The  element- 
ary school  course  extends  over  eight  years  (six  to 
fourteen ),  four  years  being  devoted  to  an  ordinary 
and  four  to  a  higher  course.  There  were,  in  18SS, 
2."i,.>.'{0  elementary  schools,  52  middle  schools,  and 
4ii  normal  schools,  besides  IS  >'irls'  high  schools, 
S9  technical,  1741  special,  and  67  kindergarten 
schools.  The  university,  reorganised  in  ISSli, 
when  it  absorbed  the  late  Imperial  College  of 
Engineering  and  other  institutions  of  a  high 
grade,  consists  of  five  colleges — Law  and  Politics, 
Literature,  Science,  Engineering,  and  Medicine. 
It  is  attended  by  over  71X)  students,  and  is  a 
jiowerfiil  and  well-e(|uipped  institution,  costing 
the  country  £42,000  annually.  On  its  stall'  are 
!S  German  professors,  7  Ihitish,  1  American,  and 
1  French.  Other  in.stitutions  in  the  capital  are 
the  Music  Academy,  the  Technological  Scliool.  the 
Dendrological  School,  the  Nobles'  School,  attended 
by  tlie  young  crown-prince,  the  Peeres.ses'  School, 
the  Girls'  Higher  School,  the  Ladies'  Institute,  the 
English  Law  School,  the  Higher  Commercial  School, 
besides  eight  other  commercial  schools  in  the 
country.  Education  is  jierfectly  free  from  chtss 
restrictions,  even  the  Nobles'  School  being  by  no 
means  exclusively  aristocratic.  Mission  schools 
have  been  doing  excellent  work.  The  capital  is 
full  of  private  schools  and  colleges,  the  Semmon- 
(iakko,  founded  by  H.  E.  Count  Okuma;  the  Keio- 
Gijiku,  conducted  by  Mr  Fukuzawa,  one  of  the 
leaders  of  modern  Japanese  thought  and  editor  of 
a  popular  daily  jiaper  ;  the  Kyoritsuliakko,  \c. 

The  printing-press  is  very  "active.  Daily  news- 
jiajiers  abound  and  are  sold  aslimishingly  cheaji. 
The  jiicss  laws  are  stringent,  and  imprisonments 
under  them  frequent.  Dnring  the  war  of  1895  the 
sanitary  and  surgical  apiiliaiices  and  methods  of  the 
Jajianese  were  scientifically  (lerfect.  Japanese 
jihysiologists  and  chemists  (such  as  Kitasato)  now 
rank  with  the  foremost  European  and  .■\mericau 
scientists. 

Ariii'i  (Old  Nari/. — The  Japanese  army  was  or- 
ganiseii  after  EuKijiean  metliods  in  the  years  18t)vS-72 
by  a  French  military  mission.  A  mild  form  of  con- 
scription ( I  out  of  every  28  young  men  above  twenty) 
came  into  force  in  1SS3.  The  jiresence  of  (.Jerman 
military  advi.sers  resulted  in  the  departure  in  18S8 
of  the  last  of  the  French  military  mission.  The 
soldiery  carry  the  Muiat.i  rille,  .-m  adaptation  of  the 
cliassepot.  In  1890  the  army  numbered,  in  service, 
49,294,  of  whom  3685  were  commissioned  ollicers 
and  131  engineers;  1st  reserve,  113,0()5  and  22 
engineers;  2d  reserve,  51,691.  In  1895,  after  the 
war,  the  regular  army  Wiis  reported  to  number 
IK)  less  than  279,000  men.  TIk;  navy,  organised 
under  a  liritish  naval  mission,  po>ses>ed  in  ls95, 
after  the  war,  some  30  sliip>  of  all  kimls,  inclmliiig 
those  captureU   from  the  Chinese,  and   3   modern 


JAPAN 


289 


coast  ■  tlefeiice  •run  vessels,  besides  5  olisolete 
steamers  ami  sailing-vessels,  some  of  whicli  are 
useil  as  traiiiiiij;-sliips.  There  were  also  3  powerful 
shins  of  the  latest  desi.i;n  tittinj;  out  and  in  reserve, 
and  5  more  under  construction.  Of  torpedo  hoats 
there  were  5.  with  17  more  under  construction,  also 
4  stjitiouary  school  shi|>s,  and  (i  or  7  small  fast  cnift 
for  harbour  defence.  The  three  naval  stations  are 
Vokosuka,  l.j  miles  soutli  of  Yokohama;  Kure,  on 
the  Inland  Sea  ;  and  Sasebo  :  the  principal  arsenal 
is  at  Yokosuka.  The  personnel  consists  of  8o0 
commissioned  oliicers  and  l'J,0(JO  sub-otlicers  and 
men.  The  naval  collej;c  Wiis  removed  in  188S  from 
Tokyo  to  the  island  of  Etajima,  in  the  Inland  Sea, 
close  by  Kure. 

The  Japanese  police  is  a  most  efficient  force, 
chietly  recruited  from  the  old  samKnii,  and  number- 
ing over  27,000.  A  gendarmerie  was  established 
in  IS.sl.  The  convict  system  is  an  excellent  one, 
aaid  convict  establishments  yield  a  profit  to  the 
government. 

liuiliLiiils. — The  railway-system  began  with  two 
lines,  ime  from  Tokyo  to  Yokohama,  and  the  other 
from  Hyogo  to  Osaka  and  Kyoto.  In  1S77  a  great 
impetus  was  given  to  railway  construction  by  the 
formation  of  private  comjianies.  The  lines  now  in 
course  of  construction  will,  when  completed,  give 
the  following  trunk  lines  :  ( 1 )  a  central  railway 
between  the  two  capitals  (finished);  (2)  a  con- 
tinuation through  Hyogo  to  Shimonoseki ;  (3)  a 
line  from  Tokyo  to  Aomori ;  ( 4 )  a  west-coast  railway 
by  the  Sliinano  Mountains  to  Niigata ;  (5)  a  line 
in  Kyushu  from  the  Strait  of  Shimonoseki  to 
Kagosliima.  Shikoku  and  Y'ezo  have  each  one  short 
railway.  Numerous  branch  and  loop  lines  are  fin- 
ished or  under  construction.  The  gauge  is  a  narrow 
one  :  most  of  the  engineers  are  English-trained. 
Total  mileage  open  in  1896,  2500  miles. 

In  the  mechanical  arts  the  .Japanese  have  at- 
tained to  great  excellence,  especially  in  metallurgy, 
and  in  the  manufacture  of  porcelain,  lacquer  ware, 
and  silk  fabrics  ;  indeed,  in  some  of  these  depart- 
ments works  of  art  are  produced  so  exquisite  in 
design  and  execution  a.s  to  excel  the  best  products 
of  Europe.  The  Enqieror  (Jotoba,  eighty-third  of 
his  line,  founded  about  1200  a  school  of  sword- 
nuiking  in  Kyoto,  which  he  himself  practically 
superintended;  Masanmne  (14th  century)  blades 
are  the  most  famous.  Goto  Yujo  (1435-1513)  may 
be  said  to  have  created  the  art  of  cliiselling  in 
metals  in  Japan.  Excellontly-finislied  cutlery  is 
still  made  in  Osaka  and  Tokyo.  The  porcelain 
industry  virtually  dates  from  the  13th  century, 
when  Shunkei.  the  '  Father  of  Pottery,'  tlouiT.shed 
at  Seto  in  Uwari  ;  hence  the  Japane.se  name 
Sctoinono  for  all  kinds  of  earthenware.  Shunkei 
studied  for  six  years  in  China ;  but  Japan  also 
owes  much  to  Corea,  whence  artisans  .arrived  at 
various  periods  on  the  invitation  of  Japanese 
nobles.  Among  the  most  celebrated  wares  are 
the  crackled  Satsuma,  which  dates  from  about 
IWO,  the  Hi/.en,  the  Kaga,  and  the  Owari.  Much 
of  the  art  decoration  of  these  is  executeil  in  Tokyo. 
The  lacquer  industry  dates  from  prehistoric 
times ;  some  of  the  finest  specimens  of  lacquer 
ware  extant  date  from  the  shogunate  of  Yoshinia.sa 
(14.3t>-80);  towards  the  end  of  the  17th  century 
lacquering  perhaps  reache(l  its  acme  of  perfection. 
The  bronze  and  inl.aiil  metal-work  of  .lapan  is 
highly  esteemed.  The  best  enamel  i  s/ii/j/ii>),  an 
art  introduce<l  from  China  two  and  a  half  centuries 
ago,  Ls  ma<le  in  Kyoto.  Silk-weaving  is  carried  to 
high  perfection,  especially  in  the  two  districts  of 
Kwaiisei,  round  Kyoto,  whose  loom.s  supply 
artistic  silk  and  cotton  goods,  and  Kwanto,  rouml 
Maebashi,  north  of  Tokyo,  whicli  supiilies  ordinary 
wearing  materials.  Fiictories  with  their  moilern 
improvemenUs  are,  however,  gradually  taking  the 
279 


place  of  the  old-fashioned  looms.  Kyoto  is  also  a 
centre  for  embroidered  goods,  often  so  exquisitely 
finished  as  to  reseml>le  paintings.  The  Japanese 
make  neat  carpenters  and  coopers.  Their  saw  and 
plane,  instead  of  being  pushed,  are  ilrawn  towards 
the  manipulator  ;  they  are  very  skilful  in  the  use  of 
the  adze,  but  their  axe  is  a  clumsy  instrument. 

Ja.]Kine!ie  pictoria/  art  divides  itself  into  several 
schools.  The  primitive  school,  of  which  the  cele- 
brated Sugawara  Michizane  and  Kose  Kanaoka 
are  the  leading  names,  took  its  rise  in  the  'Jtli 
century.  The  fii-st  really  native  school,  which  is 
known  as  the  Yamato  Kiu,  and  later  on  a-s  the  Tosa 
Iliu,  dates  from  1000  ;  it  devoted  itself  princijially 
to  the  painting  of  court-life  scenes  of  cereumny, 
illustrations  of  the  early  native  romances,  careful 
drawings  of  horses  and  falcons,  \-c.,  land.scape 
V)eing  suliordinate.  The  drawing  was  careful  and 
with  a  fine  brush  ;  gold  and  bright  colours  were 
lavishly  used.  The  perspective  was  isonietrical, 
and  the  liberty  was  frequently  taken  of  ignoring 
the  roofs  of  buildings  when  depicting  the  interiors. 
Koson,  the  last  famous  i)ainter  of  this  school,  died 
in  1866.  The  Chinese  scliool,  which  may  be  traced 
back  to  1400,  reached  its  highest  develojiment  in 
the  great  master  Kano  Motonobu  or  Ko-Hogen 
(1476-1559),  and  held  pre-eminence  for  three  cen- 
turies. The  works  of  this  school  are  characterised 
by  quiet  and  harmonious  colouring,  and  a  bold  use 
of  the  pencil ;  the  scenery  depicted  is  conx  en- 
tional,  often  impossible,  anil  nearly  always  in  its 
origin  Chinese.  The  advent  of  Hokusai  (1760- 
1S49)  marked  a  new  departure.  Hokusai,  a  man 
of  the  people,  struck  out  a  new  path,  and  is  one  of 
the  most  realistic  of  the  world  s  painters.  It  is 
this  popular  school,  held  in  comparatively  slight 
respect  in  Japan  itself,  which  has  the  chief  attrac- 
tion for  foreign  lovers  of  art. 

Commerce  aitcl  I)ultistrics. — The  commercial  and 
industrial  progress  of  Japan  has  of  late  been  nu)st 
satisfactory.  Until  the  year  1880  Japan  had  not 
accommodated  her  expenses  to  her  income.  A 
diminution  of  expenses  then  began,  culminating, 
at  the  close  of  1885,  in  a  wholesale  dismissal  of 
unnecessary  officials.  The  ministry  of  finance  had 
already  taken  in  hand  the  question  of  the  paper 
currency,  which  fell  stea<lily  from  1879,  until  in 
1883  it  touched  80  per  cent,  discount.  Contrary  to 
all  expectation,  silver  payments  were  resumed  in 
1884,  a  wonderful  triuui]ili  of  finance.  Since  then 
jirivate  companies  have  been  encouraged  to  buy 
over  govermnent  undertakings  and  develoj)  new 
schemes.  Foremost  of  such  are  the  Ni|ipon  (linko 
(Bank  of  Jajian),  a  seuii-government  institutioTi, 
the  Nippon  Yusen  Mail  Steamshi|i  Comiiany, 
numerous  railway  com]ianies,  various  tramway 
lines,  &c.  Japanese  conimerci;i,l  morality  and  far- 
sightedness do  not  enjoy  a  high  reputation.  Whole- 
sale transactions  have  l>een  rendered  impossible  by 
want  of  good  faith,  and  excellent  undertakings 
have  been  nipped  in  the  bud  for  the  sauu'  reason. 
The  chief  ports  are  Yokolianuxaml  Kobe  (or  Ilyogo), 
the  outlet  for  the  rich  products  of  central  Jaiian, 
now  a  formiilable  rival  to  Y'okohama  and  eclips- 
ing Naga-saki,  which  will  always  have  a  certain 
importance  ii-s  long  as  the  Takashima  coal  ndne 
remains  unexhausted.  N'iigata  is  a  foreign  port 
only  in  name  ;  Hakodate,  in  Yezoj  carries  on  a 
growing  trade.  The  commercial  and  industrial 
ilevelopment  of  Japan  has  of  late  been  marvellous. 
In  1890-95  the  exports  increased  in  value  from 
i;iI,30(J,UO()  to  nearly  £25,0<K),000 :  the  imports 
from  £1U,UIJO,000  to  about  £30,000,000.  Jaiian  Is 
now  seriously  threatening  the  commercial  and 
manufacturing  supremacy  of  Itrit.iin  and  other 
Enroiieaii  countries  in  many  |iarls  of  ihe  East,  as 
in  Singapore.  In  respect  ul  volume  of  trade  with 
Japan  liritain  comes  first,  then  the  United  Slates, 


290 


JAPAN 


JAPHET 


tlieii  China,  then  France,  and  next  India.  From 
Great  IJiitain  come  cliielly  cotton  and  woollen 
goods,  iron  and  machinery,  and  chenucals.  The 
stajile  exports  of  Japan  are  tea  ( United  States  and 
Canada),  silk  (United  Stales,  Canada,  France, 
Great  13ritain),  rice  ( .-Vnstralia,  Great  Britain, 
Germany),  porcelain,  coals,  matches,  umbrellas, 
clocks,  mats,  fans,  gums,  camphor,  shelHish,  henm, 
lac(iuer-\varc,  copper,  salt  lish,  cuttle-lish,  tish-oil, 
fish  manure,  seaweed,  mushrooms,  iVc.  In  IS'Jo,  of 
2.S0O  shijis  (IGUO  of  them  steamers)  entering  and 
clearing  Japanese  ports  in  the  foreign  trade,  nearly 
900  were  Japanese  (350  steamers).  The  develop- 
ment of  the  cotton  manufacture  is  a  significant 
feature  in  the  Japanese  industrial  re\olution  ;  in 
1890  there  were  over  thirty  prosperous  cotton 
factories.      The    Japanese    emigrate    to    Hawaii, 

tjUi island,    vVc.     In    1S94    Britain    rescinded    the 

capitulations  under  which  British  subjects  in 
Ja]<an  could  only  be  tried  by  consular  courts. 

Goi'ernment  and  Administration. — The  govern- 
ment is  a  hereditary  monarchy,  the  succession  being 
now  exclusively  in  the  male  line.  The  cabinet 
consists  of  ten  ministers  of  state,  presided  over 
liy  a  minister  president,  their  departments  being 
Foreign  Ati'airs,  Imperial  Household,  Interior, 
Finance,  War,  Navy,  Justice,  Education,  Agri- 
culture ami  Commerce,  Communications  (post  and 
telegraph,  &c.).  There  is  also  a  privy-council, 
mostly  composed  of  former  ministers  of  state. 
The  new  constitution.  Laid  out  on  German  lines, 
is  jealously  careful  of  the  supremacy  of  the  throne. 
The  imperial  diet  consists  of  two  Houses,  and  its 
approval  is  necessary  for  the  passing  of  every  law, 
debates  being  held  in  public.  The  first  general 
election  took  place  in  1890 ;  provincial  assendjlies 
were  instituted  in  1879.  For  adnnnistrative  pur- 
poses Japan  is  divided  into  forty-three  Icn  or 
prefectures  ami  three  fii  or  city  governments 
(Tokyo,  Kyoto,  Osaka).  The  normal  revenue  of 
late  years  (apart  from  the  war  indemnity  received 
from  China,  q.v.)  has  been  abinit  £14,000,000,  and 
is  usually  much  more  than  balances  the  expendi- 
ture. Tiie  del>t  in  1895  was  £63,000,000^  Penal 
and  civil  codes  ha\e  been  drafted  on  a  European 
basis.  Taxation  mostly  falls  upon  land  ;  the 
land-tax  is  levied  in  the  form  of  a  i)ercentage  of 
the  market  value  of  the  land.  It  has  hitherto 
been  impo.s.silile  for  Japan,  owing  to  the  restrictions 
imposed  liy  the  treaties,  to  increase  the  revenue 
from  customs  duties.  The  liquor  and  tobacco 
duties  are  heavy. 

Coinage,  Weights  and  Measures,  <bc. — The  coin- 
age is  practically  of  siher,  although  gold  coins  are 
still  issued.  The  mint  for  metal  coinage  at  O.saka, 
organised  and  supi^rintcnded  until  quite  recently 
by  British  experts,  turns  out  exiiuisitely-linislied 
coins.  The  silver  dollar  or  i/cn  has  since  ISSO  cir- 
culated generally  in  the  Far  East  on  a  par  with 
the  Mexican  dollar  ;  its  present  value  is  about  3s. 
There  is  a  subsidiary  silver  coinage  of  50,  20,  and 
10  sen  pieces,  besides  a  nickel  5  sen.  piece  ;  also  a 
copper  coinage  of  2  sen,  1  sen,  5  rin,  2  rin,  and  1  /■/« 
])ieces  (10  rin  =  1  sen;  100  sen  =  1  yen).  The 
pajier  mint  in  Tokyo  turns  out  a  redeemable  paper 
currency. 

For  lineal  measure,  the  artisan's  and  land 
shakn  answei-s  pretty  closely  to  the  English  foot 
(  =  •9942119);  the  ilry  goods  .shakii  is  longer 
(1 -242705).  Long  distances  are  measured  by  ri  : 
30  (/(o  =  1  »•(■  =  2-440.34  English  miles.  Land  is 
bought  and  sold  by  the  tsiibo  ( =  36  sq.  feet). 
Weight  is  reckoned  by  kin  ( 1  kin  =  1-32.507.323  lb. 
avoir.)  and  by  Kiranune  (16  kwamme  =  100  kin). 

On  January  I,  I8S8,  mean  solar  time  for  135' 
long.,  or  9  boms  F,.  of  dreenwich,  was  adopted  as 
standard  time  for  all  Japan.  This  meridian  passes 
through  Akashi,  fully  half  a  degree  W.  of  Kyoto. 


Authorilies. — The  works  of  Kaenii>fer(2  vols.  Lond. 
1727)  and  of  Siebold  C-'O  vols.  U-yden,  1832- .51)  remain 
always  classical.  The  best  liandy  coinpendiunis  of  iii- 
forniation  on  Japan  are  the  Handbook  fur  Japan,  in 
Murray's  series,  compiled  by  Satow  and  Hawes  (18.S4), 
the  Ancicn  Japan  oi  Appert  and  Kinoshita  (Tokyo,  1888), 
and  A  Concise  Dictioiiani  of  Japan  :  Koads,  Towns,  Latcs, 
etc.,  by  W.  N.  Whitney  (Tokyo  and  Loml.  1890).  As 
general  treatises  3.  J.  Rein's  Japan  (2  vols.;  Eng.  trans. 
1884-88)  and  W.  H.  CJriffis's  The  Mikado's  Empire  (New 
York,  187G)  may  be  consulted,  tlie  lirst  being  scien- 
tific, the  second  popular.  Anilersim's  Pictorial  Arts 
of  Japan  (Lond.  1886)  and  Morse's  Japanese  Homes 
(Boston,  U.S.  1880)  are  valuable  special  treatises.  For 
the  language  and  literature  consult  the  granniiars  of 
A.ston,  Chamberlain,  and  Inibrie,  and  the  dictionaries  of 
Hepburn,  Satow,  and  Gubbins,  and  Chandierlain's  Class- 
ical Poetri/  of  the  Japanese  (1880).  A  none  of  informa- 
tion is  contained  in  tlie  Transactions  of  the  Asiatic 
.Vncicti/  of  Jajian  (Lond.  Triibner),  the  Transactions  of 
tlie  German  Asiatic  Society,  the  Transactions  of  the 
Scismolorfical  Societi/  of  Japan,  and  the  Ctiri/santhemnm, 
a  montbiy  review  now  extinct.  The  Imperial  ITniversity 
sends  out  memoirs  ;  and  tliere  is  a  Japan  Weekhi  Mail 
( Yokuhama  ).  See  also  works  by  Arnold  ( 1891 ),  Murray 
(1894),  Hearn  (1895).  and  Parsons  (1890);  and  book.s  on 
the  Far  East  by  Curzon  (1894)  and  Norman  (1895). 

JapaunillS  is  the  art  of  producing,  by  the  aid 
of  heat,  a  hard  coating  of  coloured  varnish  upon 
metal,  wood,  or  papier-mache.  Articles  so  co.-ited 
resemble  the  lacquer  wares  of  Jaiian  and  China 
(see  Lacqi'EI!).  A  japanned  surface  dill'ers  from 
an  ordinary  painted  surface  in  being  harder  and 
more  durali>le,  and  also  in  not  being  easily  in- 
jured by  hot  water  or  by  being  placed  near  a 
fire.  A  good  brown  'japan'  is  prepared  by  separ- 
ately heating  equal  quantities  of  amber  and  asplial- 
tum',  and  adding  to  each  one-half  the  ipiantity  by 
weight  of  boileil  linseed-oil.  r.otb  coniiuiunds  are 
then  mixed  together.  Copal  icsin  may  be  substi- 
tuted for  the  amber,  but  it  is  not  so  durable.  Tinned 
iron  goods  are  most  largely  jai)anned,  and  for  them 
brown  and  black  colours  are  chi(dly  used.  Both 
are  obtained  by  the  use  of  brown  japan,  the  metal 
getting  a  preliminary  coating  of  bl.-u-k  paint  wbcm 
black  is  rec[uired.  Only  one  coating  of  brown 
japan  is  given  to  cheap  goods,  but  for  better  wares 
two  or  more  coatings  are  applied.  After  each 
coating  the  articles  are  heated  for  ten  or  twelve 
hours  in  an  oven  at  from  135^  to  165°  F.,  or  even 
up  to  a  much  higher  temperature.  The  japanned 
surface  is  then  rubbed  with  line  ground  pumice, 
next  with  rottenstone,  and  the  linal  polisii  given 
to  it  by  the  palm  of  the  hand.  tJold  or  bronze 
bands  or  floral  decoration,  or  both,  are  generally 
added.  These  are  lirst  painted  on  in  japanner's 
gold  size,  and  then  the  gold  leaf  is  ajiplied  or  the 
bronzed  power  du.steil  on,  after  which  the  objects 
are  again  placed  in  the  o\en.  After  they  are 
renmved  the  gill  or  bronzed  portions  get  a  pro- 
tecting coat  of  while  spirit  varnish.  When  wldte 
(M-  other  light  colours  are  used  for  japanning  they 
are  mixed  with  japanner's  varnish.  '1  hese  require 
more  careful  heating  in  the  oven  than  dark  brown 
or  black.  Such  articles  iis  tea-trays,  coal-boxes, 
cash-boxes,  tin  canisters,  ami  the  like  are  japanned 
in  great  numbers  in  Birmingham.  Fortable  baths 
an-  usually  linishe<l  internally  in  white  japan  ;  and 
it  may  be  remarked  that  this  would  bust  much 
longer  than  it  often  does  if  care  were  taken  not  to 
leave  soa|py  watei  in  the  baths  after  being  used. 
The  varnisliing  or  japaniung  of  the  surface  of  i)apier- 
maclie  wares  is  a  similar  process  to  the  above,  but 
in  the  case  of  these  shell  or  metal  inliiyiug  is 
often  worked  into  the  ja]>an. 

.laillict,  according  to  the  Hebrew  record,  the 
second  son  of  Noah,  whose  descendants  peopled 
first  the  north  and  west  of  Asia,  after  which  they 
proceeded  to  occu])y  the  'isles  of  the  (ieiitiles. ' 
The  term  Japhetic  or  Japetic  was  at  one  time  used 


JAPURA 


JASMINE 


291 


loosely  for  peoiiles  of  the  European  stock  {nearly 
as  Aryjin  and  Indo-European  now)  as  opposed  to 
Semitic  and  Haniitic  (Asiatic  and  African).  See 
EthN(ilo(;y,  Philology. 

Jai>lirii  (  yi(/iiird),  or  CaqletA,  an  inii>ortant 
triliutary  of  the  Amazon,  rises  in  southern  Colom- 
bia, on  the  ea-st  side  of  the  Andes,  flows  ESE.,  and 
enters  the  Amazon  opposite  Telle  by  several  anus. 
Its  upper  course  is  oroken  by  many  falls,  but  in 
tlie  lower  part  it  is  navij^able  for  river-steamers 
to  nearly  70"  W.  long.,  or  almost  oOO  miles. 

.l:irs;oon.    See  Jacinth. 

Jarl.    See  Earl. 

Jariiao.  a  village  in  the  French  department  of 
C'harente,  "23  miles  by  rail  W.  of  Angouleme,  where, 
on  March  13,  1569,  the  Duke  of  Anjou,  afterwards 
Henry  III.,  and  'ie.CWO  Catholics  defeated  15,0()0 
Huguenots  under  Louis  I.,  Prince  of  Conde  (q.v. ). 

Jaroslav  (pronounced  Yaros/af),  capital  of 
the  Russian  government  of  that  name,  stands 
at  tlie  junction  nf  tlie  Volga  with  its  affluent 
the  Kotorost,  173  miles  by  rail  XE.  of  Moscow. 
The  town  lia-s  broad  streets,  a  line  quay,  2  miles 
long,  beside  the  Volga,  nearly  fifty  churches,  thiee 
monasteries,  and  a  theological  college ;  it  is  the 
seat  of  an  archbishop.  The  law  college  (lyceum) 
has  more  than  300  students.  The  staple  industry 
of  the  place  is  the  manufacture  of  cotton  stutl's  ; 
ne.\t  comes  the  weaving  of  linen,  wool,  and  silk. 
Jaroslav  is  an  important  river-port,  and  does  an 
active  trade  in  corn  (one  half),  groceries,  and  tex- 
tiles. Pop.  70,171.  The  town  ^\as  founded  in 
1026,  and  was  the  capital  of  an  independent  princi- 
pality until  1471,  when  it  fell  to  Moscow. — The 
government  of  Jaroslav,  with  an  area  of  13,751  stj. 
m.  and  a  pop.  (1S97)  1,073,593,  spins  and  weaves 
cotton  ancf  flax,  and  manufactures  spirits,  tobacco, 
and  cheniioal.s. 

.I;ii'i*:ili.    See  TiMHEu,  Westekx  Austkalia. 

Jjirrow.  a  municipal  borough  and  seai)ort  of 
Durliam,  situated  on  the  Tyne,  3  miles  by  rail 
S\V.  of  South  Shields  and  7  miles  E.  of  Newcastle. 
Its  growth  from  a  small  colliery  village  to  the 
thrivin"  town  has  been  due  to  the  coustrviction  of 
its  docks  (since  1859),  and  to  the  establishment 
of  Palmer  &  Co.s  iron-shipbuililing  and  marine 
engine  works,  blast-furnaces,  iron  foundries,  gun- 
factory,  &c.,  which  together  employ  upwards  of 
7000  hands.  Pai)er  and  chemicals  are  also  manu- 
factured, and  coal  is  shipped  in  large  quantities. 
At  Jarrow  in  682  Benedict  IJiscop  founded  the 
Benedictine  mon;ustery  with  which  the  name  of 
Bede  (ip V.)  is  inseparably  a-ssociated.  Tlie  chancel 
of  the  parish  church,  reconstructed  in  the  11th 
century,  retains  portions  of  Benedict's  work ;  the 
nave  was  rebuilt  in  1783  and  again  in  1866.  Bede's 
cliair  is  still  preserved  in  the  church,  .larrow  was 
made  a  municipality  in  1875.  Pop.  (1871)  18,115; 
( 1891 )  .33,675.     See  Jewitt's  Jurruic  Chitrck  ( 1864). 

Ja.sllC'r,  Book  of  (Jitshar  in  Revised  Version  : 
Heh.  Si:/i/icr  hai//i.shar,  'the  B<jok  of  the  Upright;' 
translated  by  the  LXX.  liiOlioii  Ion  Ent/ioii.s,  and 
by  the  Vulgate  LilicrJicstonnn  :  but  the  Peshito  has 
Sep/ier  Hanhir,  'Book  of  Praises  or  Hymns'),  is 
one  of  the  lost  books  of  the  ancient  Hebrews,  which 
is  quoted  twice  (Joshua,  x.  13;  2  Samuel,  i.  18). 
Regarding  its  character  and  contents  there  ha.s 
l>een  mucli  speculation.  Talniudic  and  later  Jew- 
ish authorities  identified  it  variously  with  Cenesis 
(sometimes  called  'the  Book  of  the  I'liright'), 
Deuteronomy,  Juilges,  Jkc,  to  all  which  notions 
there  is  the  obvious  and  fatal  objection  that  the 
two  quotations  from  it  which  survive  are  not  to 
be  found  in  any  of  these  books,  an<l  could  not 
|)Ossibly  be  fouiiil  in  the  lii-st  two,  as  they  refer 
to  incirlents  which  occurred  at  a  subsequent  period 


in  the  national  history.  The  conjecture  of  the 
Syriac  and  Arabic  translators  has  been  adopted 
by  Dr  Lowtli,  Herder,  and  other  scholars — viz.  that 
the  Book  of  .huslier  was  a  collecticm  of  national 
ballads,  recording  the  warlike  deeds  of  the  national 
heroes  or  singing  the  jiraisesof  otherwise  celebr.ited 
men.  Gesenius  is  inclined  to  adopt  the  .same  view, 
and  suggests  that  it  may  have  acqiiired  its  name, 
'the  Book  of  the  Upright,'  from  having  been  written 
chiefly  in  jjraise  of  upright  men.  Donaldson,  in  an 
over-ingenious  work,  Jas/iar  (1854),  contended  for 
its  being  a  composition  of  the  age  of  Solomon,  and 
a  work  of  Nathan  and  (lad.  He  conceived  that  it 
originated  in  the  desire  of  the  more  religious  of  the 
community  to  possess  a  record  of  the  national 
history  which  should  chiefly  set  forth  the  righteous- 
ness of  the  tme  Hebrews,  and  he  attempted  to 
extract  from  the  so-called  canonical  books  of  the 
Old  Testament  such  passages  as  he  believed  to 
have  originally  formed  part  of  it.  The  actual 
book  could  not  have  been  earlier  than  the  age 
of  Solomon,  especially  if  a  fragment  relating  to 
the  building  of  the  temple  in  the  Septuagint  of 
1  Kings,  viii.  be  from  that  work.  In  the  r2-14th 
centuries  no  less  than  three  difl'erent  works  pro- 
fessing to  be  the  lost  Book  of  Jaslier  were  pro- 
duced :  and  in  1751  a  preposterous  forgery  under 
this  name  (and  ultimately  traced  to  one  Hive,  a 
London  printer)  created  some  excitement.  It 
claimed  to  have  been  translated  from  Hebrew  by 
'Alcuin  of  Britain,'  and  was  reprinted  in  1829. 

Jaslipill'i  a  native  state  of  Chutia  Nagpur,  in 
Bengal.  Area,  1963  sq.  m.  ;  pop.  90,'240.  The 
country  is  a  tableland,  ranging  from  2200  to  3500 
feet  in  height,  and  has  excellent  soil. 

Jasmin,  Jacques,  a  modern  Gascon  poet,  was 
born  at  Agen,  6th  March  1798.  He  has  given  in  his 
Soiibenis  (1830)  a  humorous  account  of  the  poverty 
and  privations  of  his  early  life.  He  earned  his  living 
as  a  oarber;  but  wrote  poetry  in  his  native  Langue- 
doc  dialect.  His  first  volume,  entitled  Papillntos 
(■Curl  Papers'),  apjieared  in  1835.  He  greatly 
enhanced  his  reputation  by  reciting  his  own  poems 
in  public.  His  poetry  is  full  of  beauty  and  power  ; 
the  pathos  of  his  serious  and  the  wit  of  his  comic 
pieces  are  of  a  high  order.  His  jioenis  were 
received  with  enthusiasm  in  France  and  even  other 
parts  of  Europe.  He  was  made  a  Chevalier  of  the 
Legion  of  Honour  in  1846,  and  in  1852  his  works 
were  crowned  by  the  French  Academy  and  a  prize 
awarded  to  him.  He  pulilished  four  volumes  of 
poems  in  all ;  the  best  jueces  are  The  C/iarimri 
(1825),  a  mock-heroic  poem;  The  Blind  Girl  af 
Ca.stel-Citilli;  (1835),  trans,  bv  Longfellow;  Fran- 
i-uiiclio  ( 1840) ;  The  Tiriti  Bru'thers  {llii\ )  :  Maii/ia 
the  Simple  (1845);  and  The  Son's  JVee/:  (1849). 
These  poems  raised  .lasndn's  native  tongue  to  the 
dignity  of  a  literary  language,  and  initiated  a 
literary  and  linguistic  movement  in  the  south  of 
France  which  has  gone  on  spreading  and  thriving 
since  his  death  (at  Agen,  on  4th  October  18(14). 
See  French  Lives  by  Rabain  ( 1867)  and  J.  Andrien 
(1882),  and  vol.  iii.  of  Sainte-l'euve's  Portraits  Con- 
temporains,  and  the  Life  hy  Samuel  Smiles  (1892). 

•lasilline.  or  JlissAMlNE  (Janminum),  a  genus 
of  ]ilanls  of  the  natural  order  J;isminacea\  The 
genus  Jiusmine  has  it«  calyx  and  corolla  each 
5  or  8  cleft,  two  stamens  attached  to  and  in- 
cluded within  the  tube  of  the  corolla,  and  a 
two-lobe<l  berry,  one  of  the  lobes  generally  abort- 
ive. The  name  .lasrjiine  is  from  the  Per-sian 
i/dsinin.  The  native  country  and  the  date  of 
introduction  of  the  Common  .lasmine  (J.  offi- 
cinale) are  unknown,  but  according  to  Gerard 
it  was  in  common  use  as  a  wall-shrub  and  for 
covering  arbours  as  far  back  ius  1.597,  and  it  is 
naturalised   in   many   parts  of   Europe  and  A-sia. 


292 


JASON 


JAUNDICE 


The  perfume  is  obtaineil  fnmi  the  (lowers  by  means 
of  absorption  in  a  fatty  substance.  -An  essential 
oil  is  also  (listilleil  from  jasmine.  The  eonimereial 
oil  of  jiusmine,  however,  is  merely  oil  of  ben  or  the 
like  llavoured  witli  jasmine. —  J.  ijmudijhji-aia,  a 
native  of  the  East  Indies,  has  flowers  still  more 
fragrant.     Another   Imliau   species  is  J.   Hanibac. 


Jasumiuui  nudiflorum. 

— Several  other  species,  some  with  erect  and  some 
■with  twininj;-  stems,  are  not  uncommon  in  tjardens 
and  greenhouses.  Some  have  white,  and  some 
have  yellow  flowers. — Cape  Jasmine  is  a  name 
for  Gardenia  (<i.v.),  and  the  Carolina  Jasmine  is 
Gelsemium  (q.v. ). 

Jasoii.    See  Argonauts. 

Jasper  (Gr.  iaspis),  a  mineral  geneially  re- 
garded as  one  of  the  varieties  of  Quartz  ((pv. ),  and 
distinguished  by  its  oi]acity,  owing  to  a  mixture  of 
clay  or  other  substances  with  the  silica  of  which  it 
is  chielly  composed.  There  are  many  kimls  of 
jasper,  some  of  them  of  one  colour,  as  brown,  re<l, 
yellow,  green,  white,  blue,  or  black,  and  some 
variously  striped,  spotted,  or  clouded  with  diti'erent 
colours.  Jas|)er  is  a  very  abundant  mineral ;  it  is 
found  in  veins  and  embedded  masses  in  many  rocks, 
sometimes  api>ears  as  a  rock  of  which  whole  hills 
are  forme<l,  and  is  very  common  in  the  sha]ie  of 
])ebbles.  It  has  been  prized  from  the  most  ancient 
times  for  ornamental  ]iurposes,  a.s  it  takes  a  high 
polish.  The  kind  called  Porcelain  jasper  is  rather 
rare.  It  is  often  full  of  minute  lioles,  or  is  cracked 
in  all  directions.  It  is  regarded  as  a  kind  of 
natural  porcelain,  and  is  found  in  places  where 
coal-seams  have  takcin  lire  :  it  is  thus  siuii>ly  a 
baked  clay.  Similar  baked  clays  are  not  infre- 
quently met  with  in  the  viciuity  of  intrusive  igneous 
rocks. 

Jassy,  or  Ja.shi,  the  cajdtal  of  Moldavia,  the 
nortlieni  division  of  Roumania,  stands  5  miles 
W.  of  the  Pruth,  •!{)?,  miles  by  rail  NW.  of  (Jdessa, 
and  2.S9  NNE.  of  IJucliarest.  The  town  was  almost 
'destroyed  by  fire  in  18'27,  after  which  it  was  re- 
built. The  streets  are  broail,  and  are  (laved  with 
asphalt,  and  tht,-  li<nises  mostly  one-storied  ami 
built  of  wood.  There  are  more  than  forty  (ireek 
churches  and  close  npon  sixty  Jewish  synagogues. 
The  most  noticeable  secular  buihlings  are  the 
jialaces  of  the  boyars  or  Koumanian  nobles,  both  in 
the  city  and  in  its  environs.  The  town  has  a 
university  with  about  40  teachers  and  170  students. 
The  industry  Ls  unimportant;  but  there  is  an 
active  trade  in  corn,  spirits,  and  wine,  mostly  with 
Galatz  on  the  Dauubi'.  I'op.  70,000,  of  whom 
half  are  Jews,  besides  Armenians,  Russians, 
(iyp.sies,  &e.  Jassy  was  the  residence  of  the 
Moldavian  princes  from  l.-ifi.').  Here  jieace  was 
concluded  between  Russia  and  Turkey  in  1792. 
During  Yi)silanti'H  insurrection  the  town  was 
almost  destroyed  by  the  Turkish  Janizaries  (18'2'2). 


On  a  height   clo.se   to  the  town  is  the  residence  of 
the  former  woiwoiles  or  governors  of  Moldavia. 

«Iaszbor«'Iiy.  a  town  of  Hungary,  39  miles  E. 
of  liudapcst.  I'op.  '21,507,  employed  in  agri- 
eullure,  clolli  manufacture,  and  wine-making. 

•lAtaka  (literally,  'relating  to  birth'),  the 
name  of  a  colleetiim  of  Icgetids,  containing  an 
account  of  the  oM  previous  births  of  Sakya  Muni, 
or  the  Ihiddha.  It  forms  a  part  of  the  iSiithijiitii/:ri, 
or  '  baskets  of  discourses,'  ot  I'ali  literature,  and  an 
edition  of  the  te.xt,  with  commentary,  was  issued 
byFausbolI  in  0  vols.  (Loiul.  1877-90).  These  are 
of  great  importance  as  the  earliest  collecth)U  of 
po[)ular  stories,  many  of  wliicli  al  an  early  date 
found  their  way  by  one  channel  or  other  to  the 
West,  a»<l  are  still  current  as  fables  of  .Ksoii  or  as 
traditional  and  apparently  indigenous  folk-tales. 
The  best  Knglish  translation  is  that  undertaken  in 
ISO.")  by  I'rofessor  Cowell. 

Jativa.  or  X.\TivA,  San  Felh-e  ue,  a  town  of 
Spain,  35  miles  by  rail  SSW.  of  ^■alencia.  As  the 
Sctdiis  of  the  Romans  it  was  famous  for  its  linen 
manufactures.  It  was  a  Moorish  town  until  taken 
front  them  by  Jayme  I.  in  1'224.  Here  was  born 
the  painter  Riliera  (Lo  Spagnoletto)  in  15SS.  It 
was  also  the  home  of  the  notorious  Borgia  (Borja) 
family.     Pop.  15,000. 

Jats«  the  most  numerous  and  valuable  section 
of  the  agricultural  populatiim  of  the  Punjab,  num- 
ber about  4A  millions.  They  are  by  many  iden- 
titied  with  the  Gctw :  and  some  of  the  best 
authorities  accept  the  theory  that  they  are  de- 
scended from  Scythian  invaders  of  India  in  i)re- 
hisloric  times.  Some  scholars  believe  them  cogmile 
with  the  Gypsies  (ipv. ). 

Jailer,  a  town  of  Prussian  Silesia,  on  the 
Neisse,  13  miles  by  rail  S.  of  Liegnitz.  It  is 
famous  for  its  sausa'jes  and  its  weekly  corn- 
market,  held  regularly  since  1404.  .lauer  was 
formerly  the  market  for  the  linen-trade  of  Silesia 
and  the  cai)ital  of  a  principality:  but  the  Thirty 
Years'  War  ruined  it.  It  now  nianufactures 
sugar,  leather,  cloth,  «S:c.     I'op.  (1SS5)  11,178. 

Jaiif.    See  Arabia. 

Jaillldice.  a  yellow  colour  of  the  skin  and 
conjunctiva  of  the  eye,  arising  from  the  prcsenci'  of 
the  colouring  matter  of  the  bill'  in  the  blood  and 
tissues,  is  a  symptom  of  various  disordered  condi- 
tions of  the  system  rather  than  a  sjiecial  disease. 
With  this  colouring  of  the  skin  and  eyes  the 
following  symptoms  are  associated  :  the  fa'ces  are 
of  a  grayish  or  dirty-white  tint,  in  conse(|nence  of 
the  absence  of  bile,  and  the  urine  is  of  the  colour  of 
sall'ron,  or  is  even  as  dark  iis  porter,  in  conseiiuence 
of  the  presence  of  the  c<douring  matter  of  the  bile. 
There  is  sometimes,  but  not  in  the  majority  of 
cases,  an  e.xtreme  itching  of  the  skin.  It  is  a 
popular  belief,  as  old  as  the  time  of  Lucretius,  that 
to  a  jaundiced  eye  I'vciytliiiig  ajipears  yellow. 
This,  iiowever,  is  a  very  rare  symptom. 

The  causes  of  jaunciici!  naturally  fall  into  two 
cla.sses,  those  where  there  is  mechanical  obstructicm 
of  the  bile-duct,  and  those  where  there  is  no 
obstruction.  Mechanical  obstruction  nuiy  be  pro- 
iluce<l  by  gall-stones  (see  Calci'H's)  or  thickened 
bile  witliin  the  duct :  by  inllammatory  swidling  of 
its  lining  membrane  or  that  of  the  duoilenum,  into 
wliicli  it  discharges  (riitnrrlidl  jaundice):  by  the 
jire.Hsure  upon  it  of  tumours  of  neighbouring  )parls, 
of  till!  pregnant  utiMUs,  or  of  accumul.ations  of 
fa'ces  in  the  bowels.  .laundice  may  result  without 
idjstruction  of  the  ducts  from  congestion  or  cir- 
rhosis of  the  liver,  from  seveie  mental  emotions 
(anger,  fright,  k'i.c. ),  and  especially  from  the  action 
of  various  poisons — e.g.  ]ihosphorus,  arsenic,  mer- 
cury, snake-jioison— and  of  various  acute  diseases 


JAUNPUR 


JAVA 


293 


— e.g.  typlins  fever,  iiy:eiiiia,  and  alxtve  all  yellow 
fever.  In  cases  of  obstructive  janndice,  all  author- 
ities are  agree<l  in  referring  the  yellow  stainini;  of 
the  skin  and  other  tissues  to  ahsorption  by  the 
lymphatics  and  veins  of  the  l>ileiiij;nient,  which  is 
secreted  liy  the  liver  but  not  clischarixed  into  the  in- 
testine. The  explanation  of  nonobstructive  jaun- 
dice is,  however,  not  .'so  clear,  and  raises  complicated 
physiological  questions.  According  to  one  theory, 
the  bile-pigments  are  fomied  in  the  blood  and 
merely  e.Kcreted  by  the  livei- :  and  on  this  view 
non-obstnictive  jaundice  is  caused  by  their  defective 
elimination  owing  to  diminished  activity  of  the 
liver-cells.  Others  hold  that  the  bile-pigments  are 
not  formed  except  by  the  action  of  the  liver-colls ; 
that  in  non-obstructive  jaundice  also  secretion  and 
re-ahsoi-]ition  always  take  place  ;  and  that  the  bile- 
pigments  continue  in  the  circulation  owing  to  some 
•<lefect  not  fully  understood  in  the  processes  occur- 
ring in  the  blood.  The  question  must  be  regarded 
jis  an  open  one  :  but  the  latter  theory  seems  at 
present  most  in  favour. 

Both  prognosis  and  treatment  of  jaundice  depend 
entirely  upon  the  recognition  of  the  cause  to  which 
it  is  due.  In  cases  of  gall-stones,  catarrhal  jaun- 
dice, pressure  of  the  pregnant  uterus  or  of  faecal 
accumulations,  and  of  congestion  of  the  liver,  the 
•case  usuallv  terminates  favourably ;  in  eases  of 
tumour  and  of  cirrhosis  of  the  liver  the  outlook 
is  always  grave  ;  in  jioisoninw  and  in  acute  disea-ses 
jaundice  is  often  a  very  serious  symptom  ;  where 
it  results  from  mental  emotion  it  sometimes  dis- 
ajipeai's  quickly,  but  is  often  followed  by  severe 
nervous  symptoms  and  death.  See  Liver  (  Dis- 
eases (IF ). 

Jillllipnr.  the  capital  of  a  district  in  the 
North-west  Provinces  of  India,  is  situated  on  the 
(.Tumti.  here  crossed  by  a  bridge  ( 15(i9-73)  712  feet 
in  length.  The  former  capital  of  a  Mojianmiedan 
kingilom,  Jaunpur  h,as  several  splendid  architec- 
tural monuments,  including  Ibrahim's  baths  ( 1420), 
mosques,  and  ruins  of  mosques  and  of  the  fort. 
Pop.  (1881) -14.845. 

Java  (Djaw,^),  an  island  of  the  Dutch  East 
Indies,  the  seat  of  the  colonial  government.  It 
Is  .situated  between  5°  52' { St  Nicholas  Point)  and 
8  50'  (South  Cape)  S.  lat.,  and  105°  l.T  and  114° 
39'  E.  long.  The  island  is  washed  on  the  N.  by 
the  Sea  of  Java,  on  the  E.  by  the  Strait  of  IJali, 
on  the  S.   bv  the  Imlian   Hcean,  and   i.n    tho  \V. 


SUMAffRA 


"•ESri  *■  Madura 


Enjlish  Miles 

en        loo      Igf,      ;r^ 


*r 


by  Sunda  Strait.  It  e.vtends  almost  due  west  and 
east,  declinin<5  aliout  15'  to  the  south.  The  ex- 
treme length  IS  alKjut  6<K)  miles,  the  breadth  40  to 
125  miles,  the  superficial  area  about  49.000  sq. 
m.  (excluding  M.-idura,  q.v.).  The  coast-line  is 
not  much  developed  ;  a  few  large  bays,  protected  by 
i.slands,  furnish  .safe  anclmrage  for  vessels.  From 
end  to  end  of  the  island  (most  pndiably  correspond- 
ing to  a  volcanic  line  of  fissure )  there  is  a  mountain- 
chain,  named  (lunung  Kendang,  and,  e.specially  in 
the  western  part  of  the  island,  several  ]iaiallel 
shorter  chains.  To  the  north  there  are  a  few 
isolated  mountains  in  the  alluvial  plain.     Towards 


the  south  the  island  falls  in  general  steeply  towards 
the  sea.  There  are  forty-three  volcanoes,  several 
of  which  are  still  active.  The  rivers  are  generally 
small,  but  become  torrent.s  when  swollen  by  rain  ; 
only  a  few  of  them  are  navigable.  The  climate 
depends  on  the  altitude;  it  is  rather  hot  and 
unhealthy  on  the  coiist,  but  ^dea.sant  in  the  hills. 
The  thermometer  seldom  indicates  more  than  9.5° 
F.  In  Batavia  the  average  temperature  is  78-5°, 
the  extremes  being  92  7°  and  (ifi'9°.  The  moun- 
tains rise  to  alKiut  12.000  feet,  and  are  clothed 
up  to  9(KK)  or  10,000  feet  with  luxuriant  foliage; 
on  the  loftiest  eminences  the  thermometer  some- 
times sinks  to  32°.  Generally,  even  in  the  hills, 
the  days  are  hot,  but  moderated  by  land  and  sea 
breezes,  which  blow  regularly  across  the  island; 
the  nights,  especially  in  the  highlands,  are  cool. 
The  rainy  season  lasts  from  November  to  March. 

The  population  of  Java  has  rapidly  increased  ;  in 
1850  it  was  9,570.000,  and  in  1894,  24,64.3,000.  At 
the  beginning  of  1SS8  (excluiling  Madura)  it 
amounte<l  to  a  total  of  20,898,122.  These  figures 
included  20.614,222  natives,  228,340  Chinese,  11,665 
Arabs,  and  2736  other  Orientals  (natives  of  India, 
of  Further  India,  iSrc. ).  The  Europeans  (half-castes 
included)  amounted  to  41,159.  The  natives  belong 
to  the  Malay  (q.v.)  race.  The  Madurese,  in  the 
eastern  part  of  the  island,  the  Sundanese,  living  in 
the  western  part,  and  the  Javanese  proper  difl'er  in 
physique  and  in  language.  Most  of  them  are 
jlohamniedans,  at  least  in  name,  for  much  of  the 
belief  of  their  ancestors  survives  in  the  Islam  that 
is  now  practised.  A  few  tribes,  however,  profess 
the  old  religion  (viz.  the  Baduwis  in  Bantam  and 
the  'Heathen'  of  the  Tengger  Mountains).  The 
native  Christians  nuinljer  about  12,000,  and  the 
Chinese  Christians  a  few  hundreds.  How  many 
half-castes  are  counted  among  the  Europeans  it  is 
impossible  to  say.  The  inhabitants  are  more 
civilised  than  t'^ose  cf  the  other  islands  of  the 
archipelago.  One  of  the  chief  vices  is  opium- 
smoking,  which  is  a  source  of  income  to  govern- 
ment, and  yields  for  Java  alone  about  £1,000,000 
a  year  for  licenses  and  profit  on  the  import.  There 
are  thirty-nine  Dutch  Protest.ant  and  twenty-one 
Roman  C.atholic  clergymen  for  the  whole  of  the 
Dutch  East  Indies,  besides  tho.se  who  are  working 
among  the  natives.  Every  form  of  leligious  belief 
is  free,  but  proselytising  is  strictly  prohiliited. 

The  chief  Ave.alth  of  Java  consists  in  its  luxuriant 
vegetation,  though  the  producing  power  seems  to 
be  now  a  little  exhausteil,  at  least  to  judge  from 
the  many  diseases  by  which  the  plantations  have 
I'cen  visited  of  late.  The  character  of  the  vegeta- 
tion varies  with  the  soil  and  the  elevation.  The 
division  (of  Junghuhn)  into  four  botanical  zones, 
up  to  20(X),  4.'><Xt,  75(K),  and  above  7500  feet  alti- 
tude, has  been  commonly  adopted.  The  fauna 
litters  from  that  ol  the  other  islands  of  the  archi- 
I'ldago.  The  animal  kingdom  is  not  very  rich  : 
tigers  (which  are  a  scourge  to  some  parts  of  the 
island),  rhinoceros,  deer,  and  wild  swine  are  the 
chief  representatives  of  the  quadrupeds  ;  there  are 
otdy  a  few  birds  that  are  conspicuous  for  their 
plumage,  and  hardly  any  that  are  distinguished 
liy  their  song.  Several  species  of  serpents  (some 
venomous) and  crocodiles  are  found  on  the  island. 
The  geology  of  Java  is  still  largely  undetermined. 
For  the  greater  part,  the  island  belongs  to  the 
Tertiary  formation,  altered  by  many  eruptions  of 
more  recent  date.  Some  parts  of  Java  seem  to 
belong  to  the  Pleistocene  period  :  seilimentary 
formations  of  rci'ciit  date  are  especially  ouisider- 
able  along  the  north-west  part  of  the  island. 
Though  in  rild  times  .lava  w.os  called  the  '  land  of 
gold,'  little  of  th.at  metal  has  been  fimnd  of  late; 
silver  is  scarce;  and  there  are  no  other  metals  at 
all.    Salt,  the  manufacture  of  which  is  a  govern- 


294 


JAVA 


ment  moiioiioly,  is  prepared  from  sea-water ;  ami 
coal  is  workcil  iu  the  Preauger,  and  marble  in  the 
Madiun  residency. 

Formerly  .lava  used  to  be  considered  as  atTording 
almost  a  )ierfoct  answer  to  the  luiestioii.  How  can 
a  colony  best  be  governeil  ?  The  material  pros- 
])erity  which  resulted  to  the  mother-country  trom 
this  possession  was  owing,  for  the  greater  part,  to 
the  system  of  General  \'an  den  liosch  (introduced 
in  1830).  Under  that  system  tlie  natives  were  com- 
pelled to  cultivate  part  of  the  ground  an<l  plant 
staple  articles  on  it,  whilst  the  produce  was  delivered 
at  a  fixed  price  to  the  magazines  of  the  government, 
and  from  them  shipped  to  Europe  and  sold  by  the 
Netherlands  Trading  Company.  Although  this 
system  brought  large  sums  into  the  treasury  of 
tlie  Netherlands,  a  vigorous  opposition  against 
it  existed  almost  from  the  beginning,  since  it 
pressed  very  hard  on  the  natives.  As  time  went 
on  the  opposition  gained  ground,  and  in  name  the 
system  was  given  np  and  private  planters  admitted. 
But  in  point  of  fact,  at  least  so  far  as  the  coffee- 
plantations  were  concerned,  the  .system  was  still 
continued,  because  the  income  derived  from  this 
item  could  not  be  dispensed  with.  A  commLssion 
was  appointed  in  1889  to  consider  in  what  way 
the  system  of  coffee-planting  might  be  altered.  At 
that  time  the  natives  received  fifteen  florins  ( £1 ,  5s. ) 
for  one  picul  (133J  lb.  avoir.),  whicli  they  had  to 
deliver  at  tlie  magazines.  Tliough  private  planters 
had  been  admitted  before  1870,  the  '  Agrarian  I^aw," 
which  then  was  ])romulgate<l,  greatly  facilitated  the 
establishment  of  plantations  by  private  individuals  ; 
but  still  the  competition  of  the  government  pre- 
vented an  unrestrained  develojiment.  In  some 
parts  of  the  island  { especially  in  the  western  part ) 
where  private  persons  are  owners  of  the  ground,  or 
hire  it  from  the  native  princes,  private  industry 
was  in  better  circumstances  ;  but  of  late  diseases 
in  the  crops  and  a  falling-olt'  in  juices  have  done 
nuich  damage.  Sugar,  coll'ee,  indigo,  tea,  and 
tobacco  are  planted  for  export.  Rice  is  grown 
extensively  for  native  consumption  (and  a  little 
for  export) ;  but  it  is  not  suHicient,  and  other  food- 
crops  (maize,  &c. )  have  to  be  cultivated.  The 
teaK-forests  belong  exclusively  to  the  government, 
but  tliey  are  managed  by  private  persons,  working 
iiniler  contract.  The  live-stock  includes  about  two 
and  a  half  million  buffaloes,  two  million  cattle, 
half  a  million  horses. 

Java  may  be  considered  the  centre  of  the  com- 
merce and  trade  of  a  great  part  of  the  Dutch  East 
Indies.  In  1888,  2995  vessels  entered  and  3126 
cleared  from  Java.  Of  the  chief  staple  articles 
there  were  exported,  in  ISSS,  13,529  cwt.  of  in- 
digo, 57(),9.57  cwt.  of  collee,  7,381,040  cwt.  of  sugar, 
239,057  cwt.  of  tobacco,  60,791  cwt.  of  tea, 
198,073  cwt.  of  tin  (all  these  by  private  jiersons 
or  by  companies),  anil  420,331  cwt.  of  coffee  and 
117,420  cwt.  of  tin  by  the  government.  The  general 
exixu'ts  and  imports  were  value<l  in  1880  at  £.308,200 
and  £2,090,709  respectively  on  account  of  the 
government,  and  at  £10,079,083  and  £10,140,717 
respectively  on  account  of  private  persons.  The 
countries  which  trade  most  exti^nsively  with  Java 
are  Hidland,  the  Straits  Settlements,  and  Great 
Britain.  The  leading  articles  of  import  are  cotton 
and  linen  goods,  wine  and  spirits,  jirovisions, 
machinery,  railway-plant,  iKrc.  .Java  has  frequent 
intercourse  with  Europe,  cin  Singa]>ore  or  dire<'tly 
by  Dutch  steamers,  and  is  connci-tcil  by  cable  with 
Europe  and  with  Australia.  The  telcgrai)h  >y.stem 
of  the  island  is  very  extensive.  There  are  good 
roa<ls  and  railways,  partly  bidonging  to  the  govern- 
ment, jiartly  to  jirivate  companies;  500  miles  of 
the  former  and  194  miles  of  the  latter  were  oiien 
in  1889. 

The  island  is  (excluding  Madura)  divided  into 


twenty-one  residencies  :  Bantam,  Batavia,  Krawang, 
I'reanger  Regencies,  t'heribon,  Tagal,  I'ekalongan, 
Samarang,  Japara,  Rembang,  S>iral)aja,  Pasuru.an, 
I'robolingo,  Besuki  (including  Banyuwangi),  Ban- 
vumas,  Bagelen,  Kadu,  Jokjak;uta,  Surakarta, 
JIadiun,  Kediri— two  of  which  (Surakarta  and 
Jok Jakarta)  are  under  native  jirinces.  Over  each 
residency  a  Dutch  resident  exercises  a  general  con- 
trol. The  residencies  are  divided  into  ofdcdingcn, 
under  assistant-residents,  to  whom  are  subject  the 
controllers  (100).  Subject  to  the  supervision  of 
these  European  officers  the  administration  is 
carried  on  by  native  functionaries — regents  at  the 
head  of  the  regencies  ( generally  corresponding  to 
the  fifdcciingen ),  to  whom  are  suljject  the  wcdoito 
or  chmang ;  the  regents  have  substitutes  called 
2xiftili. 

Tlie  languages  are  Javanese,  a  Malayan  tongue, 
divided  into  an  aristocratic  dialect  and  a  popular 
dialect,  Sundanese,  and  Madurese.  Besides  there 
is  another  language  used  in  old  inscrijitions 
and  manuscripts,  called  Kmii  (better.  Old  Java- 
nese). The  Javanese  alphabet  is  derived  from  the 
Devanagari.  Many  antiquities  were  left  by  the 
early  Hindu  conquerors,  especially  in  middle  and 
eastern  Java  (Boro  Budor  (q.v.),  Brambanan, 
Dieng).  The  literature  of  modern  Java  is  rather 
insignificant.  />((/«((/«( 'chronicles')  and  the  »<(.(/- 
arifl  ( '  puppet-plays  ' )  stories  sliould  be  mentioneil. 

The  /iistori/  of  Java  can  only  be  given  in  outline. 
The  earliest  historical  references  date  back  to  the 
ben;inning  of  the  5th  century.  In  412  .\.D.  Ea-Hien 
visited  Hindu  colonies  in  Java.  About  the  year 
800  the  intercourse  of  the  Hindus  with  the  island 
appears  to  have  become  more  important.  Already 
by  that  time  the  Javanese  had  attaineil  to  a  con- 
siderable degree  of  civilisation.  To  judge  from  the 
antiipiities,  there  were  three  periods  of  Hindu 
ascendency — a  period  of  Buddhism,  a  period  of 
Sivaism,  and  a  period  of  compromise.  Several 
powerful  Hindu  states  were  established,  among 
which  JIadjapahit  must  be  mentioned.  At  the 
beginning  of  the  15th  century  Mohammedanism 
reached  the  island  and  quickly  got  a  firm  footing. 
At  the  end  of  the  10th  century  European  merchant- 
adventurers  established  themselves  in  Java  ;  whilst 
the  Dutch  rule  in  the  islaml  began  in  1010  (the 
first  governor-general,  Pieler  Both ).  Then  began  a 
long,  tough  struggle  with  the  natives,  but  with  the 
lapse  of  time  the  Dutch  gained  ground.  The  most 
important  native  state  then  was  Mataram.  In  1705 
the  comjiany  obtained  possession  of  the  I'reanger 
Regencies,  and  in  1745  its  authority  was  extended 
over  all  the  north-east  coast  of  the  island.  In  1755 
the  emjiire  of  Mataram  was  divided  into  two  states, 
Surakarta  and  Jokjakarta.  In  1808  the  kingdom 
of  Bantam  was  incorporated  with  the  Dutch  jio.sses- 
sions  ;  but  these  in  1811  lu'came  part  of  the  French 
empire.  In  the  same  year  Java  was  occupied  by 
the  English,  and  remained  in  their  hands  up  to 
1817.  A  short  time  after  the  Dutch  had  resumed 
possession  of  Jav.a  an  insurrection  burst  out  in 
Jokjiikarta  in  1825  und<'r  Dip:l  Negara,  and  tlio 
struggle  lasted  until  18.30,  when  the  chief  of  the 
rebels  submitted  to  the  Dutch  authorities.  15y  that 
time  the  greater  part  of  the  states  of  the  native 
provinces  had  been  ini'orporated  in  the  Dutch 
possessions,  which  then  assumed  the  extension  they 
have  to-day. 

See  Sir  Stamford  Eafilus's  History  ofJa  va  ( Lond.  1817 ) ; 
De  ionjiu, Nnltrlandach  Oos(-/»i(/iV  ( 1802-88);  Jnnyliului, 
Jura  (1849-53);  AVorsfold,  ,4  VisU  Ui  Java  {\>i'.rA);  P.J. 
Vuth,  Jai'a,  Oco(!r<i/>hisch,  Etlinoluinnch,  Historhch  (3 
vols.  1875-78 ).  This  List  is  the  most  important  work  on 
.Tava,  though,  in  some  respects,  a  little  out  of  date.  Seo 
also  It.  Schuiling,  Ncdirlnnii  in  OoKt  ni  ll'ia^  (1889;  a 
general  description  of  the  East  Indian  colonies,  not  alwava 
to  be  trusted);  Dc  Lontcr  Handteidimj  tot  dc  Kciiuis 
vail  lul  Stuuta-  en  Adininieialicf-Rcchl  ran  Nalcrl.  Indie 


JAWOROW 


JAY 


295 


(M  ed.  1SS4):  Worsfold's  Visit  to  Java  (1893);  Eliza 
Scidmore's  Java,  lite  Garden  of  the  East  (ISOSi;  and 
Domves  Dekker's  romance.  Max  ffarelanr  (Eng.  tmns. 
18C8).  The  best  maps  are  in  Atlas  dtr  NtdcrlandscUc 
Bezilt in/It  II  in  Oost-Indie,  by  Stemfoort  and  Ten  Sitthoft". 

Jaworow.  a  town  of  Austrian  Galicia,  30  miles 
M"NW.  of  Lfinber^,  was  the  favourite  residence  of 
John  Soliieski,  kin>;  of  Polauil.     Pop.  9159. 

Jaxartes.  now  called  SihCn,  or  SYR-p.\RlA 
(both  sj/r  and  daria  mean  '  river ' ),  a  river  of  west- 
ern Asia,  which  rises  at  an  altitude  of  12,000  feet, 
SO  miles  S.  of  Lake  Issik-kul,  in  the  Tian-Shan 
Mountain.*.  It  is  at  first  called  the  Jaak-ta.sh,  then 
the  Taragai,  and  under  the  name  of  the  Narvn  it 
descends,  through  a  wild  narrow  gorge,  to  the  level 
of  6S00  feet  at  Fort  Xarynsk,  Howing  all  the  while 
steadily  west  with  detlections  to  the  south-west. 
After  passing  through  a  series  of  driedup  lakes  and 
being  joined  by  several  mountain-streams,  it  re- 
ceives, just  below  Namangan,  the  name  of  Syr- 
Dari.a.  A  little  west  of  Khojend  it  breaks  thiough 
another  gorge ;  then  turns  suddenly  to  the  north- 
west, and,  retaining  that  direction  for  8.50  miles, 
finds  its  way  into  the  Sea  of  Aral  by  a  delta  with 
three  mouths.  The  river  is  navigable  over  this 
distance  only  (8.50  miles).  Its  total  length  is  1500 
miles :  area  "of  its  drainage  basin,  320,000  sq.  m. 
Two  streams,  the  Tchu  (&)0  miles  long)  and  the 
Sar>-su  (570  miles),  which  formerly  joined  the  Syi- 
Daria  from  the  right,  are  now  lost  in  the  sands  east 
of  Perovsk  before  leaching  it.  Five  centuries  ago 
the  Syr-Daria  used  to  send  off  a  south-western 
branch  at  Perovsk,  which  flowed  into  the  Sea  of 
Aral  on  its  south-east  side,  not  far  from  the  mouth 
of  the  Arau-Daria.  This  branch  is  now  likewise 
lost  in  the  sand.  The  Syr-Daria  is  the  Nile  of 
Turkestan.  The  people  fertilise  their  valleys  by 
its  water,  carried  otf  in  inigation  channels. 

Jay  (Garruhis),  a  genus  of  short- winged,  short- 
billed  birds  of  the  Crow  family  (Corviihe),  repre- 
sented in  the  pahearctic  region  by  about  12  species. 
The  jays  inhabit  woodlands,  and  the  adults  are 
generally  found  alone  or  in  pairs.  They  are  almost 
onmivorous,  feeding  chiefly  on  berries,  seeds,  nuts, 
and  fruits,  but  eating  also  worms,  insects,  larva", 
birds'  eggs,  ami  even  young  mice  and  the  nestlings 
of  singing-birds.  The  well-known  blue  and  black 
markings  on  the  \\-ing-coverts  are  characteristic  of 
the  whole  genus,  of  which  the  Common  Jay  ( G. 
glamlurius),  the  only  British  species,  may  be  taken 


Couiiuuu  Jay  {Oarruitm  fflaTwUirius). 

OH  a  tvpe.  This  bird  is  comparatively  common 
througliout  Englanil  and  Wales,  and  is  found  in  the 
south  and  ea-st  of  Ireland,  and  in  Scotland  as  far 
north  .as  Inverness-shire.  Its  numbers,  however, 
are  everywhere  gradtiallv  decreasing,  owing  to  the 
constant  war  waged  against  it  by  gamekeepei-s  on 
account  of  its  partiality  for  the  eggs  of  game-birds. 


It  is  also  sought  after  for  its  beautiful  blue  feathers, 
which  are  used  in  the  making  of  artilicial  Hies. 
The  common  jay  builds,  in  thick  trees  or  high 
bu.shes,  a  cupsliaped,  basket-like  nest  of  sticks 
lined  with  grasses.  The  eggs,  .5  or  6  in  number, 
are  of  a  greenish-gray  colour,  thickly  speckled  with 
light-brown,  ami  sometimes  marked  with  line  black 
lines.  The  adult  liiid  measures  about  14  inches. 
The  prevailing  colour  is  a  light  brown,  but  the 
tail-feathers  and  quills  are  black  ;  the  wing-coverts 
are  black,  barred  with  bright  blue  and  white:  the 
head  bears  an  erectile  crest  of  whitish  feathere 
with  black  streaks.  Though  the  genus  Garrulus  is 
strictly  confined  to  the  Old  World,  closely  allied 
genera,  Cyanocitta,  the  Blue  Jays,  and  Xanthura, 
the  Long-tailed  Jays,  are  fonnd  in  North  and  South 
America.  The  Common  Blue  Jay  (C.  cristata) 
measures  Hi  inches,  and  is  of  a  grayish-purple 
colour.  It  is  common  throughout  Canada  and  the 
southern  and  eastern  States,  and  sometimes  does 
valuable  service  in  ridding  a  district  of  caterpillars. 
When  taken  young  jays  are  easily  tamed,  and  are 
very  popular  as  pets  :  for,  though  their  natural  note 
is  harsh  and  unpleasant,  they  possess  consideralde 
powers  of  imitation. 

Jay,  John,  an  American  statesman  and  jurist, 
and  first  chief-justice  of  the  supreme  court  of  tlie 
United  States,  was  born  in  New  York  city, 
December  12,  1745.  He  graduated  at  Kinj;'s  (now 
Columbia)  College  in  1764,  and  was  admitted  to 
the  bar  in  1768.  Elected  to  the  first  Continental 
congress  in  1774,  and  re-elected  in  1775,  he  prepared 
addresses  to  the  people  of  Great  Bi-itain  and  Canada, 
and  to  his  own  countrymen  ;  drafted  the  constitu- 
tion of  New  York  state  in  1777,  and  was  appointed 
cliief-justice  of  the  state  ;  was  returned  to  congress 
in  1778  and  elected  its  president,  and  in  the  follow- 
ing year  was  sent  as  minister  to  Spain.  In  1782  he 
was  added  by  congress  to  the  peace  commissioners, 
and  it  was  mainly  by  his  efforts  that  the  treaty  was 
brought  to  a  conclusion  on  terms  so  satisfactory  to 
the  United  States.  In  1784-89  he  was  secretary 
for  foreign  aftairs  ;  on  the  adoption  of  the  national 
constitution  in  1789  he  wrote  in  its  favour  in  the 
Feckndist  (.see  H.\:miltox):  and  after  the  organ- 
isation of  the  Federal  government,  Washington 
having  offered  liini  his  choice  of  the  offices  in  liLs 
gift,  he  selected  that  of  chief-justice  of  the  supreme 
court.  In  1794  he  concluded  with  Lord  Grenville 
the  convention  familiarly  known  as  'Jay's  treaty,' 
which  provided  for  the  recovery  Ijy  British  sulijects 
of  pre-revolutionary  debts  and  by  Americans  of 
losses  incurred  by  illegal  capture  by  British  cruisei^, 
and  the  determinatiim  of  the  eastern  frontier  of 
what  is  now  the  state  of  Maine;  the  British  were 
to  surrender  the  western  posts  held  by  them  in 
17S6,  and  there  was  to  be  reciprocity  of  inland 
trade  between  the  United  States  and  British  North 
America.  The  treaty,  though  favouralde  to  the 
United  States,  was  passionately  denounced  by  the 
Democrats  as  a  surrender  of  American  rights  and  a 
betrayal  of  France :  but  it  was  ratified  l>y  ^\'ivsh- 
ingtoii  in  August  1795.  Jay  was  governor  of  New 
York  from  1795  to  1801.  "Then,  tliongh  ofiered 
liis  former  post  of  chief-justice,  he  retired  from 
iiublic  life,  and  pa.sscd  the  remainder  of  his  days  at 
Lis  estate  of  Bedford,  in  Westchester  county.  New 
York.  There  he  die<l.  May  17,  1829.  There  is  a 
good  Life  (1833)  by  his  son,  William  Jay  (1789- 
1858),  who  was  a  notable  leader  in  the  anti  slavery 
movement,  and  whose  writings  in  favour  of  aibitra 
tion  in  national  disputes  e.xerteil  a  considerable 
influence.  See  al.so  the  Life  by  William  Whit  lock 
(New  York,  1887),  and  by  Pellew,  in  'American 
Stfl,tesmen  '  series  ( 1890). 

Jay,    William,    an     Knglish     Congregational 
minister,   wtvs  born  May  6,   1769,  at  Tisbury,   in 


296 


JAYADEVA 


JEFFEKIES 


Wiltshire.  He  woikeil  at  his  father's  trade,  tliat 
of  a  stonecutter  ami  mason,  until  his  sixteenth 
year.  He  was  then  sent  to  Marlhoroujjh  Acaileniy, 
a  Conjrre^'ational  training  eollege  for  the  ministry. 
His  first  eharjre  wius  at  Christian  Malfonl,  near 
('liip])enhani  :  then  he  otliciateil  for  a  year  in  a 
ehapel  helonginj,'  to  Lady  Maxwell  :  and  in  1701 
was  called  as  jiastor  of  Argyle  Chaiud  at  Hath, 
which  position  he  occupied  for  sixty-two  years. 
He  died  Deceniher  27,  IS.i.'?.  Jay  \\  as  an  impressive 
and  eloquent  preacher  :  he  heg.an  preaching  when 
only  sixteen.  As  a  writer  he  produced  several 
\V(nks  which  attained  to  a  ra]iid  and  very  extensive 
|iopularity.  Among  them  are  MoDiing  and  Ei^eniiiri 
Excniscs,  Short  Discourses,  The  Christifin  Contem- 
plated, Life  of  Rev.  Cornelius  Winter,  Memoirs  of 
Bev.  John  Clark,  Lectures  on  Female  Scripture 
Characters,  and  an  Autohiorfrajihi/  (1854).  A  C(d- 
lected  edition  of  his  works,  in  1 2  vols.,  revised  hy 
himself,  was  pulilished  in  1842-48  (new  ed.  1876). 

tiayadcva.  the  nom  de  plume,  meaning  'god 
of  victory,'  of  a  Hindu  poet,  wlio  was  horn  at 
Kendnli,  in  Birbhuni  district,  liengal,  in  the  12th 
century.  His  great  work  is  the  Cifa  Curinda,  a 
Sanskrit  lyric  drama,  in  which  is  celebrated  the 
love  of  Krishna  and  his  wife  Kadlia.  The  Hindu 
commentators  give  the  poem  a  mystical  interpreta- 
tion. As  the  '  Indian  Son"  of  Songs'  it  was  trans- 
lated in  1875  into  English  by  Sir  Edwin  Arnold. 

Jazyg«?S,  a  Sarmatian  tribe,  whose  original 
home  was  to  the  north  of  the  Sea  of  Azov.  In  the 
1st  century  of  the  Christian  era  they  moved  west- 
wards, finally  settling  in  the  plains  of  Hungary 
between  the  Theiss  and  the  Danube,  though  one 
band  seems  to  have  gone  to  the  north  side  of  the 
Carpathians,  and  to  have  been  vanquished  by  Her- 
naniic,  the  king  of  the  Goths,  in  the  early  part  of 
the  4th  century.  The  .southern  division  of  the 
tiilie  maintained  an  almost  incessant  ^^•arfare  against 
the  Danubian  provinces  of  Home,  in  sjiite  of  numer- 
ous defeats,  es])ecially  by  Marcus  Aurelins  ( 172 )  anil 
Cams  ( 28.'? ).  Their  power  \vas  finally  broken  by  the 
Huns  and  Goths.  The  dazyges  were  bold,  savage 
horsemen,  whose  only  abodes  were  wagons  and 
tents.  See  S.\rmati,\x.S. — Jazygia  is  a  district  in 
Hungary,  ESE.  of  Pesth,  whose  inhabitants,  Mag- 
yars, have  no  connection  with  the  ancient  Jazyges. 

Joanne  d'Albret  (1528-72),  the  CaUinistic 
mother  of  Henry  IV.  of  France  (([.v.),  through 
whom  he  succeeded  to  Navarre  and  Beam. 

Jeanne  d'Aro.    See  .Io.\n  of  Arc. 

Jebl).  Sir  Uicii.Mtr)  Ci..\vi:i!HorsE,  a  great 
thcek  .scholar,  was  bom  at  Dundee,  August  27, 
1841.  The  grand-nephew  of  Bishop  Jebb,  and  on 
the  maternal  siile  the  great-grandson  of  liisho]) 
Horsley,  he  iidu^rited  the  traditions  of  the  .scholar, 
and  i)assed  with  marked  distinction  through  St 
Columba's  College,  Dublin,  the  Charterhouse,  an<l 
Trinity  C<dlege,  Cambridge,  graduating  as  senior 
classic  in  IH(i2.  Soon  after  he  was  elected  Fellow 
of  his  college,  and  he  took  a  prominent  part  in 
organising  tTio  system  of  Inter-Collegiate  Classical 
Led  UK'S,  and  served  as  secretary  to  the  newly- 
founded  Cambridge  Philological  Society.  In  18G9 
lie  became  public  orator  of  the  university,  in  1872 
classical  examiner  in  the  university  of  London,  and 
tutor  of  his  own  college,  in  1875  profes.sor  of  (ireek 
in  the  university  of  (Jlasgow,  and  in  1SS9  regius 
professor  of  (Ireek  at  Cambridge.  He  has  received 
lionorary  degrees  from  Edinburgh,  Harvard,  C'am- 
bridge,  and  Bidogna,  and  was  awarded  a  Greek 
decoration  in  1878.  In  1801  he  was  electeil 
M.I'.  (I'nionist)  for  Cambridge  I'niversity.  He 
has  actively  suiqiorted  the  teaching  of  modern 
(Jrcek,  and  he  helped  to  establish  the  British 
School  of  Archaeology  at  Athens.  Professor 
Jebb's  books  are  The  Characters  of  Theophrastus 


(1870);  TJiC  Attic  Orators:  Antiplion  to  Lsccos 
(2  vols.  1870  80):  A  Primer  of  Creek  Litera- 
ture (1877);  Modern  Greece  (1880);  Translations 
into  Greek  and  Latin  Verse  ( 18731  :  Bentlci/  ( 1882) 
in  the  series  of  '  English  Men  of  Letters  ; '  admir- 
able school  editions  of  the  Eleclra  and  Ajaa:  of 
Sophocles:  an  Introduction  to  Homer  {iSS') ;  T^ec- 
tures  on  Greek  Poctri/  (180S):  and  Ifumauism  in 
Education  ( 1899).  But  perlia]is  his  most  im)>ortant 
work  is  his  monumenlal  edition  of  the  |ilavs  of 
So]>liocles,  with  text,  commentary,  and  prose  trans- 
lation, of  which  the  Cambridge  Press  issueil  (Edipus 
Ti/rannus  in  1883,  CEdipus  Coloneus  in  1885,  Anti- 
gone in  1888,  Trnrhinia;  in  1802.  ami  Electrn  in  1894. 
As  a  scholar  Jebb  is  eiiually  brilliaiil  and  accurate  ; 
he  shows  exceptional  sanity  and  sense  of  propor- 
tion, and  ]iossesses  the  gift  of  writing  adminiblo 
Englisli.      In  1000  he  w,as  knighted. 

Jedlmi'Sll.  the  county  town  of  lioxbiirghshire, 
is  beautifully  situated  on  .led  Water,  50  miles  by  a 
branch-line  (by  road  40)  SE.  of  Edinburgh.  (If'its 
magnificent  Augustinian  abbey,  founded  by  Daviil  I. 
in  1118-47,  and  finally  spoiled  by  the  English  in 
1544-45,  the  ruined  church  only  remains.  This, 
Norman  to  Second  Pointed  in  style,  is  235  feet 
long,  and  has  a  central  tower  86  feet  high.  In  1823 
a  jail  (now  disused)  was  built  on  the  site  of  the 
royal  castle  ( razed  1409 ),  where  a  skeleton  apjicared 
to  Alexander  III.  at  liis  marriage-feast  (1285). 
(Jther  memories  has  Jedburgh — of  Mary  Stuart  and 
Prince  Charles  Edward,  of  Thomson,  Burns,  Scott, 
and  Windswortli,  of  Mary  Somerville  and  Sir  David 
Brewster.  A  Border  town,  it  nurtured  a  warlike 
race,  Avhose  slogan,  'Jeddart's  here!'  was  seldom 
long  silent.  Their  chief  weapon  wa.s  the  '  Jeddart 
axe,'  a  stout  steel-headed  ptde,  4  feet  long ;  and 
'Jeddart  justice'  is  still  .a  byword  for  hanging  first 
and  trying  afterwards.  Ferniehirst  Castle  (rebuilt 
1508  ;  "restored  1880)  was  the  seat  of  the  Kerrs.  Jed- 
l>urgh  has  been  a  royal  burgh  from  time  innnemo- 
rial,  and  till  1885,  «ith  Haddington.  \<-.,  rctuirii'd 
an  M.P.  Woidlen  goods  have  lu'cn  mannfactuied 
here  since  1728.  Pop.  (1841)  .3277:  (1881)  .S402. 
See  Watson's  Jcdburcih  Abbey  (2d  ed.  1.S94). 

Jeddali.    See  Jidd.vh. 

JeW'erieS,  John  Hich.VRP,  generally  known 
as  KiCH.\lii)  JKFFKlillcs,  English  writer  on  rural 
subjects,  was  born  at  the  farndumse  of  Coate,  2^ 
miles  from  Swindon,  in  Wiltshire,  on  (ith  Novem- 
ber 1848.  He  starl<'d  life  as  a  jourmilist  on  the 
staff  of  the  North  Witts  llcndil  about  1801),  and 
for  twelve  years  w,as  busy  with  this  kind  of  work 
and  with  writing  crude  novels.  His  nanu;  lii'st 
becanu>  known  by  a  long  letter  to  the  Times, 
in  November  1872,  on  the  labourers  of  Wiltshire. 
This  |irocured  him  .an  opening  to  the  magazines  as 
a  writer  on  agricultural  and  rural  topics.  In  1877 
he  abandoned  country  journalism,  and  moved 
nearer  to  Londiui,  hojiing  to  make  a  living  by  his 
l)en.  In  the  following  year  he  won  his  first  real 
success  with  Tlie  (lamekce/ur  at  Home :  its  sub- 
title, 'Sketches  of  Natural  History  and  Itural 
Life,'  indicates  the  kind  of  work  by  which  his 
future  fame  wa-s  won.  Other  books  written  in 
the  same  vein,  or  on  similar  subjects,  are  Wild 
Life  in  a  Southern  Count//  (1879),  The  Amateur 
Poacher  ( 1880).  Pound  about  a  Great  Estidc  ( 1881 ), 
X(dnre  near  London  (1883),  /,//'c  (f  the  Fields 
(  1884),  Pcd  Deer  ( 1884),  and  The  'Open  Air  (  1885). 
The  book  entitled  The  Story  of  My  Heart  (188.S)  is 
a  strange  autobiogriiphv  of  inner  life.  Besides 
tlie.se  he  wrote  some  later  novels  of  indiflerent 
merit:  After  London,  in-  Wild  En</land  ( 1885)  is  a 
curious  nunance  of  the  future.  Within  his  own 
province,  although  it  w.as  not  a  wiile  one,  .lell'eries 
was  an  admirabh'  writer.  He  ])ossessed  a  womler- 
ful  insight  into  the  habits  an<l  ways  of  animals  and 


JEFFERIES 


JEFFERSON 


297 


birds  anil  creeping  tliiiij^'S.  and  a  {treat  love  of  them. 
No  En^'lisli  writfr  has  shown  a  more  minute  and 
accurate  acquaintance  with  the  life  of  the  hcdi;e- 
rows  and  woodlands  and  lields  of  southern  Kn^^land. 
He  had  also  a  reverent  feclinj;  im-  nature,  not  luily 
of  her  outward  phases  and  aspects,  Vmt  also  of  what 
may  he  termed  her  inner  life.  Nor  were  human 
beinjrs  excluiled  from  the  ranjre  of  his  observa- 
tion and  sympathy  :  he  has  left  admirable  sketches 
of  country-folk — farmers,  gamekeepers,  labourers, 
village-loafers.  &c.  He  died  at  Ooring  in  Sussex 
on  14th  Aujnist  1S87,  after  a  painful  illness  of  six 
vears'  duration.  See  Sir  Walter  Hesant's  Eulogy 
"( I8S8)  and  the  Life  by  H.  S.  Salt  ( 1893). 

JpfTerson.  .Joseph,  comedian,  was  born  in 
Philadelphia  on  SOth  February  182S).  He  came  of 
.1  theatrical  stock,  his  great  grandfather  having 
l>een  a  member  of  Garrick's  com]>aiiy  at  Dniry 
Lane,  while  his  father  and  grandfather  were  well- 
known  American  actors.  With  sucli  an  ancestiT 
it  is  not  womlerful  that  young  Jett'ei-son  was  on  the 
stage  from  his  very  infancy,  appearing  as  Cora's 
child  in  Pizrtnn  when  only  three  years  {)f  age,  and 
dancing  as  ,a  miniature  'Jim  Crow'  when  only 
four.  For  many  years  he  went  through  the  haril 
training  of  a  strolling  .actor,  and  then  played  in 
New  York,  where  in  1857  he  made  a  hit  as  Doctor 
Pangloss,  and  in  18,58  created  the  part  of  Asa 
Trencliard  in  Our  American  Cousin,  Sotheni  play- 
ing Lord  Dundreary.  In  1865  he  visited  London, 
and  at  the  Adelplii  Theatre  played  for  the  first 
time  his  world-famous  part  of  Kip  \a.n  Winkle 
(4th  September  186.i).  With  this  ch.aracter  his 
name  is  identified,  and,  although  he  has  slio\vn  him- 
self an  admirable  comedian  in  many  charactei-s,  to 
the  English-speaking  world  he  is  always  P»ip  Van 
Winkle.  Nor  is  this  wonderful,  for  the  character 
is  one  of  the  most  perfect  works  of  art — beautiful 
in  conception,  subtle  and  delicate  in  execution. 
And  the  art  is  all  the  actor's  ;  the  dramatist  has 
done  nothing.  Rip  is  a  lazy,  good-for-nothing 
vagabond,  but  .Jefferson  makes  him  '  the  Arcadian 
vagabond  of  the  world  of  dreams.'  See  his  Auto- 
biography {New  York,  1890). 

Jefferson,   Thoma.s,   third    president    of    the 

United  States,   was  born  at  Sh.adwell,  Albemarle  ' 
county,    Virginia,    1.3th   .April    \'iX      His   father, 
Peter  Jett'erson  (d.  1757),  of  Welsh   cpyrigu  isoo  in  u.s.  l 
descent,  was  a.  planter  and   sur-       hr  j.  b,  uppincott  | 
veyor  of  note  in  the  colony,  and  a       Company.  \ 

member  of  the  House  of  Burgesses  :  his  mother  was 
a  granddaughter  of  William  l{,andolph  ( I().')0-1711 ). 
Thomas  .JetVerson  was  the  third  child  and  eldest 
son  of  a  fiimily  of  ten  children.  He  entereil 
William  .and  Mary  College  at  the  .age  of  seven- 
teen, three  years  after  the  deatli  of  his  father, 
and  remained  there  two  ye.ars.  In  1767  he  w.as 
admitted  to  the  bar,  and  practised  with  siicce.ss. 
In  1769  he  was  a  delegate  to  the  House  of  Bur- 
gesses, and  here  his  fii-st  important  eli'ort  w.os  in 
support  of  a  motion  for  the  ea-sier  emancipation 
of  slaves.  The  pa-ssing  of  tlie  Boston  Port  \ 
Bill,  to  take  efl'ect  on  1st  .June  1774,  dciideil  Vir-  I 
ginia  to  make  common  cause  with  Massachusetts,  ■ 
and  .Jefferson  favoured  the  resolution  ji.assed  in  the 
Assemldy  of  Virginia  to  set  apart  the  lirst  day  of 
June  .as  a  day  of  fiisting  and  prayer.  The  goVer-  ! 
nor.  Lord  Dunmore,  offended  oy  this  .action,  dis- 
solved the  AHsembly,  and  tlie  members  met  in  tlie 
Raleigh  Tavern,  Williamsburgh,  an<l  rcsolveil  to 
advi.se  the  people  of  Virginia  to  send  ilcputies  to  a 
convention  to  consider  the  affairs  of  the  colony 
and  elect  delegates  to  a  general  colonial  congress. 
Jefferson  wa.s  chosen  a  member  of  the  coiivciitiim, 
and,  un.able  to  attenil,  he  sent  a  communication 
which  was  published  under  the  title  of  •  \  Sum- 
mary View  of  the  Rights  of  British  North  America.' 


It  was  not  .adopted  as  written  by  .Jeffei-son,  still 
he  was  threatened  by  I,oril  Ounmore  with  pro- 
secution for  higli-treason  :  and  his  name  was  in- 
cluded in  .a  liill  of  .attainder  moved  in  ]iarliamiiil, 
but  not  presseil  to  a  vote.  Jefi'ei-son  was  a  memlier 
of  the  second  congress,  which  met  at  Pliil.adel]diia 
in  1775,  and  took  his  seat  on  25th  June,  ,a  few 
days  .after  the  battle  of  Bunker  Hill.  Here  his 
unswerving  devotion  to  his  country's  cause,  his 
dose  acquaint.ance  with  English  law.  and  his 
manner,  characterised  by  .John  Adams  as  'prompt, 
frank,  explicit,  and  deci.sive,'  .secured  him  the 
I  respect  of  the  House.  He  was  re-elected  to  the 
third  congre.ss  (1776);  and  on  7th  June  Richard 
Henry  Lee,  of  Virginia,  as  instructed  by  his  c<m- 
stituents,  moved  that  independence  .should  be  de- 
cliired.  Congress  fixed  1st  July  for  the  consiileration 
of  Mr  Lee's  motion,  .and  meanwhile  appointed  .a 
committee  of  live  to  prep.are  a  suit,able  (leclaration 
on  M-hich  to  .act;  .Jefierson  was  chairman,  .and  the 
others  were  Franklin,  John  Adams,  Roger  Sher- 
man, and  Robert  R.  Livingston.  Byie(|uest  of  his 
colleagues,  Jett'erson  wrote  the  draft  of  tlie  declara- 
tion which  was  submitted  to  the  House  on  2Sth 
June.  Lee's  resolution  was  passeil  July  2.  and  the 
formal  declaration,  essentially  as  submitted,  was 
adopted  July  4,  1776. 

Jett'erson  now  resigned  his  seat,  and,  althongh 
ajiijointed  a  commissioner  to  France  with  Franklin 
and  Sil.as  De.ane,  he  declined  the  office  in  order  to 
serve  the  people  of  Virginia  in  forming  a  st.ate  con- 
stitution. Among  the  reforms  largely  due  to  him 
were  laws  converting  estates  tail  into  fee-simple, 
abolishing  the  principle  of  primogeniture,  .and  estab- 
lishing the  freeiloni  of  religious  opinion.  He  suc- 
ceeded Patrick  Henry  as  governor  of  A'irginia  in 
1779-81;  and  during  the  invasion  of  the  state  by 
Amold  and  Cornwallis  he  was  equal  to  the  emer- 
gency. In  178.3  he  was  elected  to  congress,  then 
sitting  at  Annapolis.  Maiyl.aml.  where  he  secured  the 
.a<loption  of  the  dccim.al  system  of  coinage.  He 
w.as  sent  in  the  summer  of  17.S4  to  act  with  Frank- 
lin and  Adams  as  plenipotentiaiy  in  negotiating 
treaties  of  commerce  with  foreign  nations  :  but  in 
this  mission  they  were  not  very  successful,  the  only 
treaties  effected  being  with  Prussia  and  Morocco. 
The  next  year  Jett'erson  succeeded  Franklin  as 
minister  to  France,  just  liefore  the  opening  events 
of  the  Revolution.  He  remained  during  the 
stormy  meetings  of  the  National  Assembly  and  the 
destruction  of  the  Bastille,  performing  with  much 
tact  the  delicate  duties  of  anibjussador,  but  evi- 
dently in  sympathy  with  the  revolutionary  move- 
ment. In  1789  W.ashington  appointed  him  secretary 
of  state,  but  he  did  not  enter  on  the  duties  of  the 
olhce  till  March  1790.  From  the  origin  of  the  two 
I)olitical  parties,  Feiler.al  and  Republican,  Jett'erson 
was  the  recogniseil  head  of  the  latter,  while  the 
other  members  of  the  cabinet  and  the  inesident 
were  Federalists.  On  1st  .January  1794  .lefferson 
withdrew  from  |iublic  life  to  his  estate  at  Monticello 
to  devote  his  leisure  to  agricultural  puiNuits  and 
his  f.avourite  literary  and  scientific  studies. 

From  this  retirement  he  w.as  called  to  the 
vice-presidency  of  the  I'nited  States  in  1797;  and 
in  1801  he  was  chosen  president  bv  the  House  of 
Representatives  on  the  thirty-sixth  ballot.  The 
popular  vote  re-elected  him  by  a  large  m.ajority  for 
the  next  presidential  term.  During  tiie  eight 
years  of  his  administralicui  party  spirit  ran  high. 
Among  the  chief  events  of  his  first  term  weic  the 
war  with  Tripoli,  the  .admission  of  (Miio,  and  the 
Louisiana  purch.a.-ie ;  of  his  second  term,  the  firing 
on  the  (.'hexfiprril.e  by  the  Lcnjmrtl,  the  Embargo, 
the  trial  of  .\aron  Burr  for  treason,  and  the  pro- 
hibition of  the  slave-trade.  For  these  and  nearly 
all  other  acts  and  events  of  his  administratioim 
Jefferson  was  as  warmly  praised  by  some  .a-  blaiiie<l 


298 


JEFFERSON    CITY 


JEFFKEYS 


by  otliei-s.  lu  1809,  after  nearly  forty  years  of 
public  service,  lie  bade  ailieii  to  [Hilitical  life  and 
strife.  Henceforth  liis  time  \v;v.s  deM)ted  to  the 
cultivation  of  his  estate,  to  boundless  hos^litality, 
to  the  interests  of  education,  and  especially  to 
the  establislinient  and  suiierintendence  of  the 
University  of  Virginia.  He  died  at  llonticeno, 
July  4,  KS'26,  a  few  hours  before  the  death  of  John 
Ad.anis.  Anioiij;  his  jiapers  was  found  this  inscrip- 
tion for  his  tomb  :  '  Here  lies  l)urieJ  Thomas  Jefi'er- 
son,  author  of  tlie  Declaration  of  American  Inde- 
pendence, of  the  Statute  of  Virginia  for  Reli'jious 
Freedom,  and  Father  of  the  I'niversity  of  Virginia.' 
In  person  he  was  over  six  feet  in  lieight,  with  blue 
eyes,  fair  complexion,  broad  forehead,  and,  in  early 
lite,  red  liair.  He  was  a  good  classii^al  scliolar,  and 
proficient  in  the  science  of  his  day,  a  reaily  writer 
and  Huent  talker,  but  not  an  eloquent  orator. 

■\Ve  have  his  Wrilhvis.  Correspondence,  licc.  (9  vols.  ed. 
by  H.  A.  Washington,  New  York,  1853-54),  his  Notes  on 
Virniiiin  {Paris,  17S1 ),  and  his  Manual  of  ParlMiuentary 
Practice.  See  Lives  by  Tucker  (1S37),  Parton  (1S74), 
and  ilorse  (ISS."?);  also  Henry  Adams,  Bistori/  uf  the 
United  stat€.-<  duriiiif  the  First  and  Second  Administra- 
tion of  Thonuis  Jefferson  { 4  vols.  New  York,  1891 ).  His 
authorship  of  the  Declaration  of  Independence  has 
recently  been  disputed. 

Jeflersoil  City,  since  1826  the  capital  of 
Missouri,  is  situated  on  the  south  bank  of  the 
Missouri  Kiver,  125  miles  by  rail  AV.  of  St  Louis. 
It  has  a  state-house,  governor's  residence,  I'.S. 
court-house,  state  armoury  and  penitentiary  (1500 
convicts),  and  the  Lincoln  Institute,  a  state- 
sup]iortcil  college  for  coloured  students.    Poj).  6742. 

Jt'flersoiiville,  a  city  of  Indiana,  on  the  Ohio 
River,  opposite  Louisville,  Kentucky,  with  which 
it  is  connected  by  an  iron  lailway  bridge  nearly  a 
mile  long.  The  falls  of  tlie  river  ,at  this  point  are 
utilised  in  the  various  manufactories,  which  include 
railway  worksliops,  foundries,  machine-shops,  Ihiur- 
niills,  &C.  There  are  also  boat-yards,  and  hyihaulic 
cement  is  manufactured  in  the  vicinity.  One  of 
the  state-prisons  is  here.     Pop.  (1S90)  10,666. 

Jeffrey,  Francis,  Lord,  a  Scottish  judge, 
politician,  and  literary  critic,  was  the  son  of  a 
(leputeclerk  in  the  Court  of  Session,  and  was  born 
at  Eilinliurgh,  23tl  October  1773.  After  preliminary 
education  at  the  High  School  there,  with  Scott  and 
Brougham  as  schoolfellows,  he  spent  two  sessions 
at  the  university  of  Glasgow,  ami  one  at  O.xford. 
In  1794  he  was  called  to  tlie  Scottish  bar,  but, 
having  adopted  AVhig  politics  at  a  time  when 
Whig  opinions  were  not  favourable  to  professional 
advancement,  he  made  lilth-  progress  for  many 
years  ;  indeed  for  long  his  income  did  not  exceed 
.tUM)  per  annum.  He  was  early  famed  for  the 
keenness  and  alacrity  of  his  intellect  and  for  his 
literary  tastes.  In  after  years,  when  his  jjractice 
increased,  he  was,  althongh  not  an  (nator,  remark- 
ably successful  in  jury-trials.  In  the  trials  for 
sedition  between  1S17  and  1822  he  aci|uired  his 
greatest  reputation  at  the  liar.  In  1820  and  again 
in  1823  he  was  elected  Lord  Hector  of  the  university 
of  (ilasgow  on  account  of  the  great  literary  dis- 
tinction he  had  then  attained  as  editor  of  the  Eclin- 
l>ur(jli  Ri-ricii:  In  1829  he  was  elected  Dean  of  the 
Faculty  of  Advocates;  in  1830  he  entered  parlia- 
ment as  member  for  Perth,  and  on  the  form.Uion  of 
KarUircy's  ministry  was  nominated  Lcjnl  .\dvocate 
for  Scotlaml.  After  the  jiassing  of  the  Keform  liill, 
with  which  he  hail  much  to  do,  especially  in  the 
ineasiires  relating  to  Scotland,  he  was  returned  for 
the  city  of  Kdinbiirgh,  whicli  he  continued  to 
represent  until  18.34,  wlien,  tired  of  iiolitics,  he 
accepted  from  Lord  Melliourne  the  dignity  of  a  lord 
of  till-  Court  of  Session.  As  a  judgi!  he  was  noted 
for  his  carefulness  ami  ability.  From  181.")  he  lived 
at  Craigcrook,  where  he  died,  26th  January  1850. 


It  is  neither  as  lawyer,  jndge,  nor  politician  that 
Jell'rey  has  secured  his  chief  title  to  fiime.  It  is  as 
a  literary  critic  anil  as  leader  in  a  new  departure 
in  literary  enterjjrise.  It  was  he  who,  along  with 
Sytlney  Smith,  l''rancis  Horner,  and  a  few  othere, 
established  the  lu/iiihiirgh  L'erici''  (<i.v.).  The  first 
proposer  of  the  scheme  is  suiiposeil  to  have  been 
Syilney  Smith,  who  was  the  nominal  editor  of  the 
first  three  numbers,  in  1802.  After  that,  however, 
Jelliey  was  appointed  editor  at  a  fixed  salary  of  £50 
per  number,  down  to  1809,  and  then  of  £200  per 
number  down  to  1829,  when  he  resigned.  His  own 
contributions  were  very  numerous,  especially  at 
first,  and  were  among  the  most  brilliant  and  attrac- 
tive of  the  papers.  He  himself  appraised  as  his 
most  valuable  work  a  Treatise  on  Betiuti/,  which 
nobody  now  reads.  His  style  was  easy  and  llnent, 
but  diffuse  and  at  times  careless.  He  was  exceed- 
ingly well  informed  on  a  great  variety  of  topics,  Imt 
not  profound.  He  had  a  fine  imagination,  a  satirical 
turn,  and  a  quickness  of  perception  which  instantly 
detected  ernns  in  manner  or  ofi'ences  against  taste. 
He  had  the  critical  faculty  without  being  a  critic 
in  the  highest  sense,  for  he  devoteil  himself  more 
to  analysis  of  method  than  of  matter  ami  thought. 
His  defect  as  a  critic  was  strikingly  illnstrateil  by 
his  mistaken  estimate  of  the  Lake  poets.  There 
was  always  much  of  the  parti.san  about  him,  and 
a  robustness,  not  to  say  brutality,  in  his  treat- 
ment of  opponents,  which  lirought  him  many 
enemies.  His  contributions  to  tlie  Bcrieir  num- 
bered about  200,  and  a  selection  from  them  was 
published  in  4  vols,  in  1844.  See  the  Life  by 
his  friend  Lord  Cockburn  (1S52),  as  also  Macvey 
Napier's  Correspundc/icc  (1877)  and  Carlyle's  Ifcnri- 
iiiscciiccs  (1881). 

Jeffreys.  George,  B.vron,  the  infamous  judge, 
was  born  at  Acton  in  Denbighshire  in  1048, 
educated  at  Shrewsbury,  St  Paul's,  and  West- 
minster schools,  and  called  to  the  bar  in  1668.  He 
rose  rapidl}'  into  practice  at  the  Ohl  Bailey  bar, 
and  became  in  1671  common  Serjeant  of  the  City  of 
Loudon.  Hitherto  he  had  affecte<l  to  belong  to  the 
Puritan  party,  but  he  now  began  to  intrigue  for 
court  favour,  was  made  solicitor  to  the  Duk(?  of 
York,  was  knighted  in  1677,  and  became  Itecorder 
of  London  in  the  following  year.  He  was  actively 
concerned  in  many  of  the  Popish  Plot  prosecu- 
tions, was  made  chief-justice  of  Chester  and  king's 
Serjeant  in  1680,  baronet  in  1681,  and  chief- 
justice  of  the  King's  Bench  in  1683.  His  first  ex- 
iiloit  was  the  judicial  murder  of  Algernon  Sidney, 
but  in  every  state-trial  he  |iroved  himself  a  willing 
tool  to  the  crown,  thus  earning  the  special  favour 
of  James,  who  raised  him  to  the  peerage  soira  after 
his  accession.  Among  his  earliest  trials  were  those 
of  Titus  Oates  and  llichard  I'.axter,  ami  in  both  he 
showed  his  customary  brutality  and  vindictiveiiess. 
In  the  summer  of  1685  he  was  scut  to  the  west  to 
try  those  involved  in  Monmouth's  rising,  and  earned 
the  Lord  Chancellorship  by  a  series  of  judicial 
murdei's  which  has  left  his  name  a  byword  for 
cruelty.  Three  hundred  and  twenty  were  hanged 
as  rebels  during  the  '  Bloody  Assize,'  as  Jeffreys 
made  his  way  through  Dor.set  and  Somerset,  while 
eight  hundred  ami  forty-one  were  transported,  and 
a  still  Larger  number  imprisoned  and  whi]iped  with 
merciless  severity.  A  drunken  and  brutal  bully, 
he  heaped  the  foulest  reproaches  upon  his  unhappy 
vi<'tims,  and  gloated  with  fiendish  malignity  over 
their  prospective  surt'erings.  It  wa-s  his  boiust  that 
he  had  hanged  more  traitors  than  all  his  predecessore 
since  the  Conquest.  He  held  the  Great  Seal  from 
September  1685  until  the  downfall  of  .lames,  and 
su|i|)orted  all  the  king's  despotic  ineiusures  as  pre- 
sident of  the  newly-ieviveil  Court  of  High  Com- 
mission, and  in  the  trial  of  the  seven  bisbojis.  Vet 
he  hail  rational  views  on  witchcraft,  and  was  too 


JEHAN 


JELF 


299 


honest  to  turn  Catholic  like  many  Ijetter  men.  On 
tlie  Hijiht  of  his  master  he  tried  to  follow  his 
exaniiile,  lint  was  caught  ilisguiseil  as  a  sailor 
at  Wiiiijiing.  anil  sent  to  the  Tower  to  save  him 
from  l.emg  torn  in  pieces  liy  the  mob.  Here  he  l 
died  four  niontlis  after,  his  frame  already  worn 
out  l>y  hard  drinkinj;.  April  IS,  l(iS9. 

See  the  Life  by  M'ooh-ych  (1S27)  and  the  apologetic 
or  eulogistic  one  by  H.  E.  Ii-ving  ( 1898). 

Jolinii.    See  ArKrxc.zEBE,  Agka. 

Jehlaiii.    See  .JnEMM. 

Jcbovahi  the  (listinctive  name  for  God  in  the 
Old  Testament,  in  the  Authorised  Version  is  some- 
times merely  transliterated  from  the  Massoretic 
Hebrew  text,  as  above,  but  more  frequently  it  is 
translated  a.s  'Lord'  (with  capital  letters).  The 
word  consists  of  the  consonants  JHVH  or  JHWH, 
with  the  vowels  of  a  quite  separate  word,  AdOn.AI  , 
( '  Lord  ' ),  an  indistinct  E  being  substituted  for  the  i 
short  .A.  What  its  original  vowels  were  is  only  ( 
matter  of  inference,  for  owing  to  a  peculiar  inter- 
pretation of  such  texts  as  Ex.  xx.  7,  Lev.  xxiv. 
11,  the  name  came  to  be  regarded  as  ineffable; 
the  scribes  in  reading  substituted  'Lord,' and  the 
LXX.  translation  has  Ki/rins.  The  evidence  of  the 
Greek  Church  fathers,  who  give  the  forms  Jtibc 
and  Jau  as  traditional,  as  well  as  the  shortened 
Hebrew  forms  of  the  word,  Jcih  ( Ps.  Ixviii.  4,  &o. ) 
and  Jrt/tii  (in  proper  names,  such  a-s  Jirmejahu  or 
Jeremiah),  indicate  that  nmst  probably  it  was 
ori^ually  spoken  Jahirch  (pron.  Yahicch).  Ety- 
mologically.  it  is  a  third  person  singular,  imper- 
fect, probably  of  the  verb  hrnrci/i  (or  hujah),  signi-  I 
fying  'to  be  ;'  as  regards  the  '  voice,'  scholars  are 
not  agreed,  some  supposing  it  to  be  causative,  and 
translating  '  he  will  cause  to  be '  or  '  he  will  cause  : 
to  come  to  pa-ss,'  while  others  with  more  probability  I 
view  it  as  a  simple  indicative.  The  text  usually 
relied  on  for  the  explanation  of  the  name  is  Ex.  iii. 
14,  with  its  kindred  pa.ssages.  The  older  inter- 
preters explain  the  verb  ( here  used  in  the  lirst 
person)  in  a  highly  metaphysical  and  abstract  ^ 
sense ;  the  '  I  am '  is  He  \\\\o  really  is,  the  ab.so-  [ 
lutely  existent,  the  eternal.  The  tendency  of 
modern  exegesis  is  to  read  a  more  concrete  and 
historical  meaning  into  the  expression,  translating 
it  '  I  will  be  what  I  will  be,'  and  taking  it  as  refer- 
ring to  the  divine  sovereignty,  autonomy,  self 
determination,  freedom,  but  especially  to  the  free- 
dom of  the  divine  grace.  This  view  is  confirmed 
by  such  a  passage  as  Hos.  i.  9 :  '  Ye  are  not  my 
people  and  I  am  not  I  will  be  for  you.'  Jehovah 
IS  '  He  who  will  be ' — all  in  all  to  his  i)CO]ile  ;  but 
•eye  hath  not  seen,'  'ear  hath  not  heard,'  'it  hath 
not  entered  into  the  heart  of  man,'  nor  can  lan- 
guage express  the  ways  in  which  hi-^  <livine  grace 
is  to  show  itself  to  them  ;  it  must  be  left  to  unfohl 
itself  in  the  as  yet  undreanied-of  actualities  of  their 
lives.  The  language  of  Ex.  vi.  3  (which  belongs  to 
the  priestly  or  latest  portion  of  the  l^entateuch) 
has  been  taken  as  proving  that  the  name  .lehovali 
was  of  relatively  late  origin  among  the  Hebrews  ; 
but,  if  thi>  interpretation  is  correct,  the  representa- 
tion Ls  hardly  reconcilable  with  what  is  said  in 
Gen.  iv.  26  ( an  older  portion  of  the  I'entateuch ),  or 
with  the  vei-j-  early  existence  of  proper  names  con- 
taining this  divine  name  (Ex.  vi.  20).  The  wonl  is 
doubtless  very  old,  and  in  all  probability  its  earliest 
connotation,  if  known,  would  be  found  to  rei)re- 
Bent  a  ver\'  jirimitive  ]iha.se  of  religious  thought 
(perhaps  it  may  lie  'he  who  causes  to  fall'  [the 
rain  or  lightning];  see  Hebrew  of  Job,  xxxvii.  6). 
At  one  time  or  another  in  the  history  c)f  Israel  and 
of  the  Christian  church,  it  has  conveyed  with 
various  fullness  and  depth  all  slia<les  of  the  meta- 
physical and  religious  meanings  hinted  at  above. 
Certain  portions  of  the  I'entateuch,  especially  of 


Genesis,  are  distinguished  by  the  almost  unvarying 
\ise  of  tills  name  of  God,  as  also  are  certain  sections 
of  the  I'salter — a  peculiarity  which  has  an  inii)ort- 
ant  bearing  on  questions  of  Old  Testament  criti- 
cism (see  IBllsLE).  For  references  to  the  recent 
literature  of  the  subject,  see  the  lexic(m  of 
Gesenius  (ed.  1890),  or  Driver's  essay  in  Stitdia 
Bihlica  (1885). 

Jeisk,  or  EisK,  a  town  in  the  Russian  province 
of  Kuban  (Caucasus),  on  a  small  bay,  at  the  east 
end  of  the  Sea  of  Azov,  Oo  miles  SW.  of  Azov. 
Founded  in  1848,  it  has  grown  rapidly,  exports 
corn,  Uax,  and  «ool,  and  lias  cloth  manufactures 
and  tanneries.     Pop.  27,915. 

Jejeobboy,  Sir  J.\msetjee  (Jamshedji 
Jijibhai),  a  Parsee  merchant-])rince  and  jdiilan- 
thropist,  was  born  of  poor  parents  at  Bombay,  loth 
July  1783.  At  an  early  period  he  showed  a  great 
aptitude  for  mercantile  jnirsuits,  and  was  taken 
into  partnership  by  his  father-in-law,  a  Bombay 
merchant,  in  1800.  When  peace  was  restored  in 
Europe  after  the  fall  of  Napoleon  the  Indian  trade 
with  Europe  increased  enormously,  and  in  this 
increase  these  Parsee  merchants  participated.  By 
1820  Jejeebhoy  had  amassed  an  immense  for- 
tune, and  now  began  to  exhibit  liberality  on  a 
magnilicent  scale.  He  contributed  very  gener- 
ously to  various  educational  and  ])hilanthropic 
institutions  in  Bombay,  as  a  hospital,  a  poor 
asylum,  the  Parsee  Benevolent  Institution,  and 
a  school  of  art ;  built  the  Jlahim  Causeway ; 
and  paid  most  of  the  expenses  connected  with 
the  construction  of  the  water-works  at  Poona. 
Altogether,  between  1822  and  1858  he  spent  up- 
wards of  a  quarter  of  a  million  pounds  sterling 
in  undertakings  of  a  jiurely  benevolent  character. 
Parsee  and  Christian,  Hindu  and  ilussulman,  \\ere 
alike  the  objects  of  his  beneficence.  The  Queen 
knighted  him  in  1842;  and  in  1857  he  was  made 
a  baronet.     He  died  14tli  April  1859. 

Jejllllllin.  the  middle  part  of  the  small  intes- 
tine.    See  Digestion. 

Jelalabad,  a  town  of  Afghanistan,  stands 
near  the  Kabul  River,  about  half-way  between  the 
Indian  frontier  fortress  of  Peshawur  and  the  city 
of  Kabul.  Formerly  a  strong  fortress  itself,  it  is 
now  a  dirty  village  "of  about  3000  inhabitants.  It 
is  interesting  from  its  heroic  defence  by  Sir  R.  Sale 
in  1841-42;  in  the  war  against  AfghanLstan  (q.v.) 
of  1878  it  was  held  by  the  British  until  1880. 

JehiI-ll<I-<Ull,  a  Sufi  Persian  poet  (1200-73). 
See  Pei;sia  (Literature). 

Jelatoin,  or  Elatma,  a  town  in  the  north  of 
the  Russian  province  of  'rambov,  170  nules  ESE. 
of  -Moscow.     I'op.  7560. 

Jcletz.  or  Eletz,  a  town  of  Russia,  120  miles 
by  lail  ESE.  of  Orel.  It  exports  large  quantities 
of  wheat  and  Hour,  ami  has  a  great  trade  in  cattle. 
Its  industries  include  leather,  soap,  candles,  iron 
goods,  lace,  and  linen.      Pop.  (1890)  36,'250. 

Jeir,  RiciiAUi)  William,  theologian,  was  born 
25th  January  1798,  the  second  son  of  Sir  James 
Jelf.  He  was  educated  at  Christ  Church,  Oxford, 
took  a  second-class  in  18'20,  and  became  Fellow  of 
Oriel,  and  later,  tutor.  In  1826  he  wius  ajipointed 
jireceptor  to  Piince  George  of  Cumberlanif,  after- 
wards king  of  Hanover,  in  1839  Canon  of  Christ 
Church,  and  in  1844  Principal  of  King's  College, 
London.  He  died  September  19,  1871.  His  most 
important  work  is  his  liampton  J^ecturcs  for  1844, 
T/ii:  Means  of  Orcire.  Dr  Jelf  was  a  pilhir  of 
orthodoxy,  and  his  name  will  be  best  remembered 
for  the  part  he  took  in  the  proceedings  which  led 
to  Maunc-e  being  deprived  of  his  professorship  at 
King's  College  for  unsound  views  on  the  question 
of  eternal  punishment  expressed  in  his  T/ieuloijiral 


300 


JELF 


JENNER 


Essni/s.     His  Thirtij-nine  Articles  Explained  was 
edited  by  J.  R.  King  in  1873. 

Jeir.  AViLl.lAM  EinvARD,  OrooK  gmniniaiian, 
was  siiii  of  Sir  .lames  Jelf.  of  Oaklaiids,  (UniU'fster- 
sliire,  and  w.as  hnni  at  Cloiicester  in  IfSll.  He  was 
eilm-aied  at  Kton  and  Cliiist  t'lmreli.  Oxford,  took 
a  lirstclass  in  is;j:i.  and  was  snoeessively  tntor  and 
censor  of  his  eollej^'e,  pnblic  examiner  and  proctor 
of  the  university.  He  was  one  of  the  pn^acliei's  at 
the  Chapel  Itoyal,  Wliilehall,  184(>-4S,  and  gave 
the  B.ampton  Lectures  in  ISo7  on  I'liri.stinn  Fiiitli. 
In  lS(il  he  piililished  a  h'tter  to  Dr  Tein]de  on  the 
'  Supremacy  ol  Scripture'  ill  answer  to  las  f.anious 
essay  on  '  Tlie  Education  of  the  Worhl.'  Dr  .lelf 
<lied  October  18,  1875.  He  is  best  remembered  as 
the  author  of  a  Greeh  Griimitiar,  based  on  tliat  of 
Kiibner  (1S4-2-4.t:  4th  ed.  18(j6),  still  the  most 
coiujdcte  in  English.  His  Exuininntivii  into  the 
Drii'triiie  nf  Confrssion  apjieared  in  187.5 ;  his 
Hit  mil  ism,  Boinanisin,  ami  f/ir  Ei)</lixh  lirforma- 
tiim  in  1870  ;  a  Commentary  to  the  1st  Epistle  of 
.loliii  in  1S77. 

Jcllarllicll.  .TosErii,  Baron,  Austrian  general 
and  ISaii  of  Croatia,  was  born  at  Peterwardein 
on  16th  October  1801.  His  father  attained  some 
celebrity  in  the  Turkish  wars  and  in  those  of  the 
French  Revolution  ;  the  son  also  adopted  the  pro- 
fession of  arms.  Having  won  the  entire  confidence 
of  the  Croatians,  he  was  in  1848  appointed  Ban  of 
Croatia  ;  by  this  appointment  Austria  secured  the 
suppiH't  of  the  Slavonian  Croati.ans  against  the 
Magyars  of  Hungary.  .lellachich  took  an  active 
part  in  the  supjiressioti  of  the  Hungarian  rising. 
He  died  at  Agram,  iOth  May  1859.  Not  only  a 
soldier  and  administrator  but  .a  poet,  be  published 
a,  collection  of  his  poems  ,at  Vienna  in  1851. 

Jellalabnd.    See  Jelalauad. 

Jl'llyt  For  jellies  m.aile  with  fruit,  see  Pre- 
.SEKVKI)  Puovi.sioN's.  The  food-value  of  calves-foot 
jelly  and  simil.ar  jellies  depends  on  their  gelatine. 
See  Celatine,  Pood,  Diet. 

Jt'lly-lisll  [Mediisf!'),  bell-shaped  or  disc-like 
marine  Hydrozoa,  for  the  most  part  acti\e 
swimmers.  One  set,  known  as  Acraspeda  or 
Acalephiv,  are  usu,ally  large,  with  a  climax  in  a 
giant  specimen  of  Cv.anea,  which  had  a  bell  7A 
feet  .across,  and  tentacles  P20  feet  long.  Beset 
with  myriads  of  stinging  cells,  these  'blubl>ers' 
often  m.ake  bathers  more  than  uncomfortable. 
They  are  freipuMitly  left  stranded  in  great  numbers 
on  the  beach  by  the  retiring  tide.  The  common 
Aurelia  is  a  well-known  representative,  while  the 
exceptional  Euccrnarians  are  noteworthy  in  leading 
a  more  or  less  sedentary  life  att.ache<l  to  seaweeds 
anil  other  objects.  An.atomically  diU'ercnt  from 
the  .above,  .ami  incbnled  .aincmg  the  Craspedote 
Hydrozoa  (q. v.),  are  the  Tracliymedusa>,  of  which 
<;eryonia  is  a  good  type.  Finally,  .a  great  number 
of  Meilnsoid  forms,  usu.ally  small  in  size,  very 
closely  resemble  the  Trachymedus.T,  but  difl'er 
both  from  them  .and  from  the  Acr.asped.a  in  being 
the  liber.ated  sexual  '  persons '  of  Hydroid  or  Zoo- 
phyte colonies.  See  C(elenterat.\  :  (Jenkk.v- 
TIONS  (.Ai.TEitNATiON  OF);  and  for  ex.act  clas.sifica- 
tion,  HviiKiizoA. 

Jt'lliappcs,  a  village  in  the  Belgian  province 
of  Ilaiiiault.  ;!  miles  by  rail  S\V.  of  Mons.  Here 
the  French  republicans  under  Dumouriez,  on  (itli 
November  17n2,  defeateil  the  .Austri.ans,  which 
victory  jd.aceil  Belgium  in  the  ]iower  of  the  French. 
The  village  stanils  on  one  of  the  richest  coallields 
of  Belgium,  and  manufactures  stmicware,  gla-ss, 
ami  chemicals.     Pop.  (1885)  11,322. 

•Ioiia«  a  town  of  Saxe- Weimar,  at  the  Lentra's 
inllnx  to  the  Saalc,  14  miles  by  rail  SE.  of  Weimar, 


and  .'il  XNE.  of  Siuilfeld.  It  lies  518  feet  .above 
sea-level,  engirt  by  steep  chalk  hills,  of  which  the 
Hausberg  (101)9  feet)  is  crowned  liy  the  old  Fuchs- 
turm,  .and  the  Forstberg  by  a  tower  in  memory  of 
the  .Jena  students  who  fell  in  the  Franco-Cerm.an 
war.  It  is  still  a  miaint  old-world  pl.ace.  with  its 
ibical  sr/ilos.s,  the  'Black  Bear'  inn  where  Luther 
halted  on  his  ilight  from  the  Wartburg,  and  a 
church  whose  steeple  is  .Sll  feet  high.  Goethe 
here  wrote  his  HmiKnin  iiiiil  Tnnnlhcii,  Schiller  his 
Wullenstcin  :  and  the  houses  of  these  and  of  other 
illustrious  residents  were  marked  with  tablets  in 
1858,  on  occasion  of  the  terceittenary  of  the  uni- 
versity, when,  too,  was  erecteil  a  bronze  statue  of 
its  founder,  the  Elector  .lohu  F'rederick  of  Saxony. 
He  founded  it  in  l.')47-.58  to  take  the  place  of 
Wittenberg  as  a  se.at  of  learning  ami  evangcdical 
doctrine;  and  it  soon  attained  a  high  re]iutation, 
though  not  its  zenith  till  the  d.avs  of  (ioethe's 
patron,  Duke  Karl  August  ( 1 787- l'S06 ).  To  that 
period  belong  the  names  of  Fichte,  Scholling, 
Hegel.  Schiller,  the  Schlegels,  Voss,  F'ries,  Krause, 
and  ()ken ;  to  our  own,  of  Hase  and  Haeckel. 
.lena  now  li.as  8S  jirofessors  and  lecturers,  over  450 
students,  .and  a  libr.ary  of  •200,000  volumes.  In 
1883  a  memori.al  was  erected  of  the  Burschenschaft 
(q.v.).     Pop.  (1875)9020;  (1885)  12,017. 

The  battle  of  .Tena  is  often  applied  as  a  collective 
name  to  two  separate  engagements  fought  on  the 
same  day,  14th  October  1806 — one  at  Auerstiidt 
(r|.v.),  14  miles  to  the  north,  between  30,000  French 
under  I>avoflt  and  48,000  Prussians  under  the 
Duke  of  Binmswick ;  the  other,  on  the  heights 
round  Jen.a,  between  70,000  Prussians  utider  the 
Prince  of  Hohenlohe  and  90,000  l'"rench  under 
N.apoleon  in  person.  In  both  the  Piatssians  were 
totally  defeated ;  and  their  defeat  entailed  that 
utter  prostration  of  the  l'\atherlan<I  which  was 
tyiiitied  two  years  later  by  the  hare-hunt  held  on 
the  b.attlefield  of  .Jen.a  by  the  Fremdi  and  Kussian 
emperors.  See  works  bv  OrtlolV  (.'!d  eil.  I.S76), 
Hitter  ( 1885 ),  .and,  for  the  battle,  Goltz  (1883). 

Joiigliiz  Kliaii.    See  Genghis. 

Jouissei.    See  Yenisei. 

Joilkilis.  I'lUiEUT,  .an  Englisli  merchant  caiitain, 
trading  from  .Jamaica,  who  alleged  that  in  1731  his 
slooji  had  been  boardeil  by  a  Spanish  </iiar<lii  riist<i, 
.and  that,  though  no  proof  of  smuggling  h.ad  been 
found,  be  had  been  tortured,  and  his  ear  lorn  ofl". 
The  said  e.ar — some  said  he  had  lost  it  in  the  pil- 
lory— he  produced  in  17.38  in  the  House  of  Com- 
mims  ;  and  a  nu-mber  .asking  him  what  were  his 
feelings  in  the  hour  of  peril,  he  answered,  '  I 
recommeniled  my  soul  to  (ioil,  and  my  cause 
to  my  country.'  A\'.alpole  next  year  was  forced 
by  the  ]iopular  clamour  to  consent  to  war  against 
Sp.ain. 

.Icniior.  EiAVARl),  the  discoverer  of  v.accina- 
tion,  was  born  .at  Berkeley,  in  (iloucestershire,  on 
the  17th  of  M.ay  1749,  and  was  the  third  son  of  the 
Rev.  Stephen  .Icnner,  vicar  of  the  ]iarish,  and 
rector  of  Itockhanqiton.  His  schooling  over,  he 
was  a]i)irenticed  to  .Mr  Ludlow.  ,an  eminent  sur- 
geon ,at  Sodbniy,  near  Bristol  :  and  in  his  twenty- 
lirst  year  went  to  London  to  prosecute  his  profes- 
sion.al  studies  under  the  celebrated  .lohn  Hunter 
(n.v.),  in  whose  family  be  resided  for  two  years. 
The  inlluence  of  the  master  exerted  a  lasting  ellect 
on  the  pupil,  who  became  an  expert  anatomist,  a 
sound  patbidogist,  a  careful  cxjierimcnter,  and  a 
good  naturalist.  In  1773  .lenner  setfle<l  in  his 
n.ative  place,  where  he  soon  .acquireil  .a  large 
practice.  In  1788  his  well-known  memoir,  (hi  the 
Niitiirdl  Ifixtori/  of  the  t'lirlon,  apjieared  in  the 
Trans.actions  of  the  Royal  Society.  In  1792,  the 
fatigues  of  general  juactice  having  become  irksome 
to  him,  he  resolved  to  conlinc  himself  to  medicine, 


JENXEll 


JERBA 


5U1 


iiml  «itli  thiit  view  he  obtained  the  degree  of  M.D. 
from  St  Andrews. 

The  discovery  of  tlie  prophylactic  ]>ower  of 
vacoinatioii,  l>y  which  the  name  of  Jeiiner  has 
become  imnu)rtali.--ed,  w;u*  the  result  of  a  pro- 
longed series  of  observations  and  experiments. 
He  was  pursuing  his  professional  education  in  tlie 
hotise  of  his  master  at  Sodbury,  when  a  young 
country-woman  came  to  seek  advice.  The  subject 
of  smallpox  being  mentioned  in  her  presence,  she 
oliserved  :  'I  cannot  take  that  disease,  for  I  have 
had  cow-po.\.'  This  was  before  the  year  1770.  It 
was  not  till  1775  that,  after  his  return  to  Glouces- 
tei-shire,  he  hail  an  opportunity  of  examining  into 
the  truth  of  the  traditions  respecting  cow-pox  ; 
ami  in  the  montli  of  May  1780,  while  riding  witli 
his  friend  Edward  (iarilner,  on  the  road  between 
Gloucester  and  Bristol,  '  lie  went  over  the  natural 
history  of  cow-pox  ;  stated  his  opinion  a-s  to  the 
origin  of  this  artection  from  the  heel  of  the  horse 
[when  suffering  from  the  grease];  speciHed  the 
different  sorts  of  disease  which  attacked  the  milkers 
when  they  handled  infected  cows  ;  dwelt  upon  that 
variety  which  affordeil  ])rotection  against  small- 
pox; anil  with  deep  and  anxious  emotion  mentioned 
his  hope  of  being  able  to  propagate  that  variety 
from  one  human  being  to  anottier,  till  he  had  dis- 
seminated the  practice  all  over  the  glolie,  to  the 
total  extinction  of  smallpox.'  Many  investiga- 
tions delayed  the  actual  discovery  for  no  less  than 
sixteen  veal's,  when  at  length  the  crowning  e.xperi- 
nient  on  James  Phipps  was  made  on  the  14th 
of  May  1796,  and  Jenner's  task  was  virtually 
accomplished.  This  experiment  was  followed  by 
many  of  the  same  kind  ;  and  in  1798  he  published 
his  Brst  memoir,  entitled  An  Inqninj  into  the  Causoi 
and  Eff'et-ts  of  tlf  Variolic  Vaccime.  Although 
tl>e  evidence  accumulated  by  Jenner  seemed  con- 
clusive, yet  the  practice  met  with  violent  opposition 
until  a  year  hacl  passed,  when  upwards  of  seventy 
of  the  principal  phjsicians  and  surgeons  in  London 
signed  a  declaration  of  their  entire  confidence  in  it. 
His  discovery  was  soon  promulgated  throughout 
the  civilised  world.  Honoui"s  were  conferred  upon 
hiin  by  foreign  courts,  and  he  was  elected  an 
honorary  meniber  of  nearly  all  the  learned  societies 
of  Europe,  though  not  of  the  College  of  Physicians, 
which  reipiiied  him  to  p.iss  an  examination  in 
classics.  Parliament  voted  him  in  1802  a  grant 
of  flO,(HJ(J,  and  in  1807  a  second  grant  of  £20,000  ; 
and  in  the  year  l.So8  a  public  statue  in  liLs  honour 
was  erected  in  London.  His  latter  days  were 
passed  cliieHy  at  Herkeley  and  Cheltenham,  and 
were  occu|)ied  in  the  dissemination  and  elucidation 
of  his  great  <liscovery.  He  died  of  apoplexy  at 
Berkeley,  26th  .January  1823.  See  his  Life  and 
Correspondence,  by  Dr  J.  Baron  (2  vol.s.  1827-38; 
2d  ed.  1850);  also" the  article  V.ACCINATION. 

Jeillicr,  Siu  Wii.Li.\M,  physician,  was  born  at 
Ch.atham  in  1S15,  and  educated  at  University 
College,  London,  where  he  himself  was  professor 
from  1848  till  1879.  He  was  appointed  physician 
in  ordinary  to  the  Queen  in  1862,  and  to  tlie  Prince 
of  Wales  "in  1863;  was  iii.ade  a  baronet  (1868), 
K.C.IJ.  (1872),  (J.C.B.  (18931,  E.K.S.,  president  of 
the  College  of  Physicians,  &f.  It  was  he  who 
establi>lied  the  difference  between  typhus  and 
tvphoid  fevers  (1851).  See  bis  Lectnrcs  on  Fevers 
(in,/  I)i,,ltlkerin  ( 1893).      He  died  llth  Dec.  1898. 

Ji'iiiiinus.  s Ai!.\H.    See  Marlborouoh. 

Jcnwlilll  <'aV4'.S,  a  series  of  vast  limestone 
caverns,  situated  on  the  west  side  of  the  Blue 
Mountains,  in  New  Simtli  Wales,  160  miles  W. 
of  Syilney.  They  were  discovered  in  1841,  and 
were  set  apart  in  1866  as  jmblic  property  by  the 
colonial  government.  In  grandeur,  magnitude, 
and  rich  variety  they  rival  tJie  Mammoth  Caves  of 


Kentucky.      See  S.  Cook's  Jcnolan  Caves  (Lond. 
1889 ). 

Jensen,  Adoli',  a  German  composer,  was  born 
in  IX.'iT  at  Konigsberg  :  from  1856  to  1868  was  a 
musician  successively  at  Posen.  (,'oi>eiihagen,  and 
Berlin,  and,  his  healtli  giving  way,  next  liveil  at 
Dresden,  Gratz,  and  Baden-Baden,  where  he  died, 
23d  .lannary  1S79.  He  Ls  best  known  by  his  songs 
anil  compositions  for  the  piano. 

JouyilS,  So.vME,  was  born  in  Loudon  in  1704; 
studied  at  St  John's  College,  Cambritlge  ;  sat  in 
jiarliament  for  Cambridgeshire,  Duuwicli,  and  Cam 
firidge  town  :  was  a  commissioner  to  the  Board  of 
Trade,  and  died  in  December  1787.  As  he  was 
rich  he  easily  acquired  a  literary  reputation,  but 
he  lacked  capacity  for  the  high  metaphysical 
]uoblems  that  lie  attacked,  and  his  books  are  long 
since  securely  forgotten.  Indeed  his  name  only 
survives  from  the  accident  that  Dr  John.son  criticised 
in  the  Litcnirij  Magiiziiic  his  Free  Inquiry  into  tlie 
Nature  and  Oririi)!  of  FJril  (1156).  He  condemned 
the  book  as  shallow  and  inadequate,  and  this 
judgment  Jeuyns  never  forgave  him.  Indeed  the 
argument  was  not  worth  his  powder  and  shot,  but 
Johnson  in  his  criticism  excelled  himself.  Jenyns, 
now  giown  orthodox,  published  in  1776  a  no  less 
shallow  book.  View  of  t/ie  Internal  Eridenrr  of  the 
Christian  Reliyion,  for  the  divine  origin  of  which 
he  strangely  argued  from  its  utter  variance  with 
human  reason. 

Jeplltliall,  one  of  the  judges  of  Israel,  ^^■as  a 
base-born  son  of  Gilead,  and  at  Ids  father's  death 
was  driven  out  from  any  share  in  his  father's 
inheritance  by  the  legitimate  sons.  He  was  a 
leader  of  freebooters  on  the  borderland  of  Amnion 
untU  recalled  by  the  Gileadite  eldei-s  to  head  them 
in  their  attemjit  to  throw  off'  the  yoke  of  Amnion. 
He  collected  his  warriors  from  all  parts  of  Gilead 
and  Manasseli,  and  before  the  battle  made  his 
unliapijy  vow  to  offer  up  for  a  burnt-ottering  the 
first  thing  that  came  forth  from  the  doors  of  his 
house  on  iiis  return.  The  Ammonites  were  defeated 
with  great  slaughter,  and  twenty  of  their  cities 
taken,  but  as  the  triumphant  conqueror  drew  near 
his  house  at  Mizpeh  there  came  forth  to  meet  him 
a  procession  of  maidens  with  dances  and  timbrels, 
and  first  among  them  his  daughter  and  only  child. 
The  high-spirited  niaiilen  asked  only  for  two 
months  in  which  to  bewail  her  hapless  fate  with 
her  companions  among  her  native  mountains,  and 
then  returned  to  her  father,  and  '  he  did  unto  her 
his  vow.'  Jeplithah  had  iie.xt  to  subdue  the  tribe 
of  Epiiraim,  envious  of  his  glorv,  and  this  he  did 
effectively,  cutting  off  thousanils  of  the  fugitives 
at  the  fords  of  Jorilan,  where  they  were  identified 
as  Ephraimites  by  their  inabilitv  to  pronounce  the 
word  Shitjboleth.  Jeiilitliali  jutlged  Israel  for  six 
years,  and  died.  Many  theologians  have  fouiul  it 
difficult  to  believe  that  one  of  the  heroes  of  faith 
of  Hebrews,  chap,  xi.,  should  have  oll'eied  a  human 
.sacrifice,  and  have  taken  refuge  in  Joseph  KiiiK-lii's 
suggestion  that  the  conditions  of  the  vow  \\eie 
satisfied  by  a  .sentence  of  perpetual  virginity  ;  but 
this  is  U>  take  a  dishonest  liberty  with  the  jphiin 
meaning  of  the  pa.ssage.  The  story  of  Jeiihtliali's 
daughter  is  closely  paralleled  by  that  of  Iphigcni.i 
in  Greek  mythology,  and  both  are  grouped  together 
by  Tennyson  in  liis  splendid  poem,  The  Dream  of 
Fair  t\'f/tnr/t. 

JernblAs.    See  Cakchemlsh,  Hittites. 

Jerasli.    See  Gkhasa. 

•lerba,  a  small  island  of  Africa,  off  the  south- 
east coast  of  Tunis,  to  which  cmintry  it  belongs. 
It  is  situated  in  the  Gulf  of  Gabes,  being  separated 
from  the  mainland  by  a  narrow  channel.  Area,  425 
sq.  ni. ;  pop.  40,000,  seven-eighths  lJerbei-s,  the  rest 


302 


JERBOA 


JEREMIAH 


Jews.  The  soil  is  very  fertile,  ami  is  laiil  ovit  in 
jranlens,  which  proiluoe  olives,  tlates,  v'co.  Fine 
woollen  textiles  are  made.  Jerha  is  a  centre  for 
the  Tunisian  sjionjie-lisldiif;'.  It  has  heen  held  to 
he  the  home  of  the  ancient  Lotophagi ;  ruins  of  the 
former  capital,  Menin.x,  still  exist.  See  Exiga- 
Kavser,  Dcacriptiun  Histuriqiw  dc  I'lle  Djcrba 
<1S8.5). 

Jerboa  (Dipus),  a.  genus  of  rodent  quadrupeds, 
helimging  to  a  distinct  family,  Dipodiiue,  remark- 
ahlc  fur  ihi!  great  length  of  the  hind-legs  and 
kangaroo-lilce  [)ower  of  jumping.  The  fore-legs 
are  very  small,  hence  the  ancient  Greek  name 
(lipous  ( '  two-footed  ' ).  The  tail  is  long,  cylindrical, 
covered   with  short   hair,  and  tufted  at  the  end. 


Jerboa  {Dipus  re'jtiptius). 

The  jerboas  are  inhabitants  of  sandy  deserts  and 
wide  grassy  i)lains  in  Asia  and  tlie  east  of  Europe 
and  .\frica.  An  allied  foim,  3!rn'o)ics,  occurs  in 
North  America.  They  are  burrowing  animals, 
nocturnal,  very  destructive  to  grain  and  other 
crops,  laying  U]>  hoards  for  their  winter  use.  They 
take  prodigious  leajis  when  alarmed  ;  the  fore-feet 
are  then  not  used  at  all,  liut  by  means  of  the  hind- 
feet  and  the  tail  they  leap,  although  they  are  small 
aninuils,  several  yards.  Their  tlesh  is  said  to 
resemble  that  of  the  rabbit. — Closely  allied  to  the 
jerboas  are  the  Gerliils  {GerbiUi(s),  small  quad- 
rupeds, also  distinguished  by  great  length  of  liind- 
legs  and  ])ower  of  leaping,  inhabitants  of  the  warm 
and  sandy  portions  of^the  Old  World. 

•It'rdiUU  William,  an  active  journalist,  born 
at  Kelso  in  1782.  He  removed  to  Lon<l()n  in  1S04, 
rejiorted  for  the  short-lived  .1  iir(/r/i.  and  the  I'i/ut 
evening  newsjiaper,  next  joined  the  statV  of  the 
Morning  Pust,  and  suljs('i|uently  rejiorted  during 
three  sessions  for  the  liritish  I'rcss,  contrihuting  at 
the  same  time  to  the  Satirist,  or  Muntlilu  Meteor, 
the  coi)yright  of  which  he  purchased.  It  was  he 
who  seized  IJellingham  after  he  had  murdered 
Spencer  I'ercival  in  the  lobby  of  the  House  of 
Commons  on  1 1th  May  1S12.  In  ISIS  Jenlan  be- 
came editor  of  tlie  Sun,  but  sold  his  share  in  1817 
to  found  the  Litcrari/  Oiizcttc,  which  he  edited  for 
thirty-three  years.  He  lent  his  support  to  estab- 
lish the  Royal  Society  of  Literature  and  the 
Melodists'  Club,  and  in  IS.SO  commenced  the /"ore/i/H 
l.iteriirii  Gazette,  wliidi  died,  however,  in  its 
thirteentli  number.  In  18.52  .lerdan  wa.s  granted  a 
])ension  of  l.l(H».  while  a  testimonial  was  presented 
to  him  s\ibscribed  to  by  many  of  the  first  men 
of  the  day.  He  published  his  Autobingraphi/  in 
4  vohnnes  in  1 8.")2-.').S,  and  in  1866  Men,  I  hare 
l.noirn.      He  dird  in  1869. 

.IcrCllliilll  (  Ileh.  JinnejAhi'i,  or  JirmejM),  the 
prophet,  son  of  Hilkiah,  the  priest,  was  a  native  of 


Anathoth  (imw  Anata),  in  the  territory  of  Ben- 
jamin, about  21  miles  NNW.  of  Jerusalem.  In 
Anathoth  while  still  yimng  (i.  6)  he  received  the 
prophetic  call,  described  in  the  opening  of  his 
boolv,  in  the  thirteenth  year  of  .losiali  (627-26  B.C.), 
and  his  prophetic  activity,  prineijially  carried  on  in 
Jerusalem,  continued  for  at  least  forty  years  there- 
after. His  teaching  in  its  political,  ethical,  and 
religious  aspects  can  be  understood  only  after  a 
careful  study  of  the  complicated  circumstances  of 
his  time,  which,  of  course,  can  only  be  broadly 
indicated  here.  It  was  after  he  hail  been  for  live 
years  a  prophet — in  the  eighteenth  year  of  .losiali 
—  that  the  important  occurrences  connected  with 
the  linding  of  the  book  of  the  law  (2  Kings,  xxii., 
xxiii.)  took  place  ;  and,  although  .Icremiah  is  not 
mentiimed  in  the  history  as  having  had  any  part 
in  tliese,  he  was  fully  in  sympathy  with  the  refor- 
mation movement  which  they  inaugurated,  and 
most  of  his  distinctive  prophetic  teaching  had 
reference  to  it  (see,  for  example,  especially  xi.  1-8  ; 
xvii.  19-27).  In  the  thirty-first  year  of  Josiah, 
when  Jeremiah  had  been  for  eighteen  years  a  pro- 
phet, occurred  the  death  of  that  king  on  the  battle- 
iield  of  Megiddo,  and  Jehoahaz  or  Shalbim,  his 
iumiediate  successor,  was,  after  a  biief  i-eign  of 
three  months,  deposed  liy  Pliaraoh-Necho,  the  con- 
queror, in  favour  of  Jehoiakim,  tlie  subservient 
vassal  of  tlie  Egyptian  king.  .Ichoiakim  had  not 
been  long  on  the  throne  before  .leremiah  began  to 
foretell  the  doom  of  Judali  and  .leru.salem,  Mhich 
he  saw  to  be  inevitably  approaching,  in  the  series 
of  characteristic  discourses  preserved  in  chaps,  vii.- 
i.x.  and  xxvi.,  warning  the  .lewisli  leaders  of  the 
folly  of  the  security  with  which  they  vainly  trusted 
in  the  presence  of  the  tenqde  of  the  Lord  among 
them,  and  bidding  them  look  to  the  ruins  of  Sliiloh. 
It  was  at  the  close  of  one  of  these  <liscour.ses  tliat 
he  was  seized  by  the  luiests  and  the  proiihets  ami 
all  the  people  and  brought  before  the  authorities  on 
the  capital  charge  of  having  '  prophesied  against 
the  city,'  and  it  was  chietly  to  the  intervention  of 
his  fast  friend  Ahikam,  the  .son  of  Shaphan,  that 
he  owed  his  acquittal  and  release.  The  battle  of 
Carchemish,  in  the  fourth  year  of  .lelioiakim,  when 
the  defeat  and  retreat  of  l^liaraoh-Xecho  laid  the 
whole  of  Syria  and  Palestine  ojien  to  the  a]iiiroach 
of  the  Chaldeans,  naturally  had  a  profonnti  efi'eet 
njion  the  foreign  policy  of  Judah  ;  the  same  year 
marked  also  a  new  departure  in  the  prophesying 
of  Jeremiah,  in  so  far  as  he  began  hencefm  ward 
to  declare  Nebuchadnezzar's  di\  iuely-appoiriled 
mission  to  be  to  lay  upon  .ludali  a  perioil  of  di'so- 
hition  which  was  to  last  for  'seventy'  years.  It 
was  in  this  year  that  he  received  the  divine  com- 
mand to  commit  to  wiiting  the  various  oracles 
he  had  up  to  that  time  delivered,  and  this  he  did 
with  the  jus.sistance  of  Hanicli,  his  di.seiple  and 
friend.  The  inciilents  of  the  ijulilic  reading  of 
this  record,  and  of  a  subsequent  partial  reading 
in  the  presence  of  the  king,  which  led  to  its  being 
committed  to  the  Haines,  are  among  the  most 
giaiiliic  in  the  whole  book  (xxxvi.). 

Jehoiakim  after  a  reign  of  eleven  years  was 
succeeded  by  his  .son  Jeconiah,  whose  brief  and 
obscurely-recorded  reign  of  three  months  termin- 
ated in  the  deportation  of  himself  and  a  numlier 
of  his  .subjects  to  Babylon,  the  incident  alluded 
to  in  the  parable  of  the  two  baskets  of  ligs 
(xxiv.).  To  these  exiles  the  jirojihet  shortly 
afterwards  addressed  the  letter  contained  in  chap. 
xxix.,  with  hopeful  assurances,  but  warning  them 
that  the  captivity  would  certainly  last  for  seventy 
years.  To  King  Zedekiah,  who  had  succeeiled, 
and  his  advisers,  Jeremiah  held  equally  decided 
language,  declaring  the  futility  of  all  their  politic 
devices  against  the  Chaldean  power;  the  vatch- 
word  of  his  policy  was  'Serve  tne  king  of  Babylon 


JEREMIAH 


JEROME 


303 


and  live,'  and  this,  in  the  teetli  of  an^iv  and 
bitter  opposition,  he  never  failed  to  iiiaintaiii, 
as,  for  example,  in  his  pnblic  controversy  in  the 
temple  court  with  the  rival  prophet  Hauaniah, 
whose  theme  was  '  Ye  shall  not  serve  the  kinj; 
of  Ualiylon'  (xxxviii.).  At  lengtli,  in  consemienee 
of  Zedekiah's  treacherous  and  imi)olitie  alliance 
with  Egypt,  Nebuchadnezzar,  in  Zedekiab's  ninth 
year,  iuvadoil  .)ud;ea.  For  a  time  he  was  com- 
pelled by  tlie  appearance  of  an  Egyjitian  army  to 
raise  the  siege  of  Jerusalem,  a  temporary  relief 
which  leil  the  nobles  to  use  their  inllueuce  with  the 
king  to  revoke  the  emancipation  of  the  slaves 
which  shortly  before  had  been  proclaimed.  This 
revocation,  against  which  .Jeremiah  strongly  pro- 
tested, was  the  theme  of  his  last  public  address 
(xxxiv. ).  Persuaded  that  tlie  catastrophe  he  bad 
so  long  foretold  was  only  postponed,  he  was  in  the 
act  of  leaving  Jerusalem  in  order  to  spend  the  rest 
of  his  days  in  retirement  at  Auathoth,  when,  on  the 
suspicion  that  he  was  deserting  to  the  Chaldeans, 
he  was  arrested  and  thrown  into  prison.  Still 
adhering  to  his  gloomy  prophecy,  he  ^^  as  consigneil 
to  the  deepest  dungeon,  where  Imt  for  the  inter- 
ference of  Ebedmelech  he  would  doubtless  soon 
have  perished.  He  was  not  restored  to  liberty 
until  an  eighteen  months'  siege  had  ended  in  the 
capture  of  tlie  city,  when  he  received  from  Xebuzar- 
adan  permission  to  fix  his  residence  where  he 
chose.  It  was  towards  the  end  of  the  siege  that  he 
gave  practical  proof  of  his  faith  in  the  ultimate 
return  of  his  countrymen  to  their  own  land  by 
exercising  his  right  of  redemption  over  the  ances- 
tral lands  of  his  family  in  Anathoth.  Jeremiah 
now  attached  himself  to  tJedaliah,  the  governor 
whom  the  Babylonians  had  set  over  the  Jews  whom 
they  had  left,  with  his  headquarters  in  ilizpeh  ; 
after  the  murder  of  Gedaliah  he  accompanied  his 
comiiatriots  to  Tahpanes,  the  border  city  of  Egypt, 
where,  according  to  tradition,  he  died  a  martyr's 
death. 

Viewed  in  the  light  of  the  preceding  brief  sketch 
of  Jeremiah's  life,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  book  of 
his  prophecies  as  we  now  possess  it  does  not  follow 
any  chronological  order.  It  consbts  of  the  following 
four  pails:  (1)  chaps,  i.-xxxix.,  consisting  of  jjro- 
phecies  relating  to  Judah,  mostly  with  some  his- 
torical data  attached,  and  all  belonging  to  the 
period  prior  to  the  fall  of  Jerusalem;  (2)  chaps, 
xl.-xlv.,  narrative  of  events  subsequent  to  the  fall, 
along  with  certain  prophecies  belonging  to  that 
period,  and  also  including  an  oracle  relating  to 
Barucli,  spoken  in  the  fourth  year  of  Jehoiakim; 
(.3)  xlvi. -li.,  oracles  relating  to  foreign  nations — 
Egypt,  Philistia,  Moab,  Ammon,  Edom,  Dama.-cus, 
Kedar,  and  the  kingdoms  of  Hazer,  Elam,  Babylon 
— of  various  dates  :  according  to  most  critics,  l.-li. 
are  not  by  .Jeremiah,  but  by  a  prophet  who  wrote 
in  Babylonia  towards  the  close  of  the  captivity  ; 
(4)  chap,  lii.,  a  historical  appendix  closely  parallel 
to  2  Kings,  XXV. 

Important  critical  questions  are  suggested  by  the 
fact  that  the  LXX.  vereion  of  Jeremiah  dill'ers  con- 
siderably in  its  arrangement  from  that  now  seen  in 
the  MjLssoretic  text,  and  that  it  is  considerably 
shorter — by  about  one-eighth  of  the  whole — mainly 
through  the  omission  of  words,  clauses,  and  single 
vei-ses.  The  relative  value  of  the  Greek  and 
Helirew  recensions  ha.s  not  yet  been  conclusively 
determined  ;  neither  seems  to  deserve  unqiuililied 
preference. 

The  distinctive  advance  of  Jeremiah's  teaching 
on  that  of  his  predecessors  is  due  to  liis  clear  recog- 
nition of  the  fact  that  the  divine  purpose  could  not 
t>e  realised  under  the  forms  of  the  Hebrew  st.ate, 
that  the  continuity  and  victory  of  the  true  faith 
could  not  l>e  dependent  on  the  continuity  of  the 
nation.     Israel  must  be  wholly  dispersed,  and  can 


only  be  gathered  again  by  a  divine  c.ill  addressed 
to  individuals,  and  bringing  them  one  by  one  into 
a  new  covenant  with  tlieir  llod,  written  on  their 
hearts  (xxxi.).  Here  for  the  first  time  in  history 
the  ultimate  problem  of  faith  is  based  on  the  rela- 
tiira  of  (Jod  to  the  individual  soul  ;  and  it  is  to 
Jeremiah's  idea  of  the  new  covenant  that  the 
New  Testament  teaching  directly  attaches  itself. 

The  most  important  expositions  of  Jeremiah  arc  tliose 
of  Ewald  (Prophets,  voL  iii.  Eng.  trans.  18X7),  (Iraf 
(1862),  Hitzig(  1841),  and,  in  English,  Cheyne  (Pulpit 
Ciimmentavy,  1883-S.5).  See  also  Cheyne's  Jeremiah  : 
his  Life  mul  Times  ( 1888),  and  Ball's  I'he  Prophecies  of 
Jeremiah  (1S90);  and  Workman's  Text  of  Jeremiah 
( 1889 )  is  useful,  thoiigh  not  to  be  impUcitly  trusted. 

J«'rez  de  la  Frontera.    See  Xeres. 

Jerfalcon.    See  Falcon. 

Jorielio.  once  one  of  the  most  flourishing 
cities  of  Palestine,  two  hours'  journey  westward 
from  the  Jordan,  and  six  hours  north-east  from 
Jerusalem,  in  a  well-watered  and  fruitful  dis- 
trict, yielding  dates,  raisins,  balsam,  and  honey, 
and  having  rose-gardens.  The  capture  of  .lericho 
by  the  Israelites  on  their  first  entry  into  Canaan, 
its  destruction.  Joshua's  curse  on  the  rebuilder, 
and  the  relmilding  of  it  in  the  reign  of  Ahab  are 
recorded  in  Josh.  vi. ;  1  Kings,  xvi.  34.  It  appears 
to  have  been  afterwards  the  seat  of  a  school  of 
prophets  (2  Kings,  ii.  4,  &c.).  It  suHered  during 
the  Babylonian  exile  (Ezra,  ii.  34).  The  groves  of 
Jericho  were  given  by  Antony  to  Cleopatra,  and 
])assed  to  Herod  the  Great,  who  resided  in 
Jericho,  beautified  it,  and  died  there.  It  was 
destroyed  in  the  reign  of  'Vespasian,  and  again 
rebuilt  under  Hadrian.  In  the  time  of  the  crusades 
it  was  repeatedly  captured,  and  at  last  comidetely 
destroyed.  The  place  is  now  a  shapeless  ruin, 
with  a  niiseralde  village,  Riha  or  Ariha,  and 
excavations  into  the  green  mounds  have  only  dis- 
closed sun-dried  bricks,  of  which  it  has  been  thought 
the  walls  of  the  city  may  have  been  built. 

Jerked-beef,  lieef  preserved  by  drying  in  the 
sun.  It  is  properly  called  c/ieirqui,  and,  like  its 
name,  is  originally  of  Chilian  origin. 

Jeroboam,  the  first  king  of  the  divided  king- 
dom of  Israel.  He  belonged  to  the  tribe  of 
Ephraini,  and  for  his  capacity  was  raised  by 
Solomon  to  be  superintendent  of  the  laboui-s  anil 
taxes  exacted  from  his  tribe  at  the  construction  of 
the  fortifications  uiulemeath  the  citadel  of  Zion. 
The  growing  disafiection  of  his  tribesmen  and  the 
alienation  from  Solr)mon  of  the  prophetic  order 
fostered  his  own  ambition  ;  but  he  was  soon  oliliged 
to  flee  to  Egypt  for  safety.  After  Solomon's  death 
he  returned  to  head  the  revolt  of  the  northern 
tribes  against  Rehoboam,  and  established  his  chief 
strongholds  in  Shecbem  on  the  west  and  Penuel  cm 
the  east.  In  order  to  destroy  the  religious  as  well 
as  the  political  unity  of  the  ancient  kingdom  he 
now  establislK'd  shiines  at  Dan  and  Bethel  to  wean 
away  his  peoi)le  from  the  sacred  yearly  pilgrimages 
to  .Jerusalem,  and,  further,  set  nj)  in  these  images 
borrowed  from  the  animal- wor^hi|l  of  the  Egyptians. 
Thus  his  name  has  descended  in  proverlnal  infamy 
as  'Jeroboam,  the  son  of  Nebat,  who  made  Israel 
to  sin,'  and  Koman  Catholic  writers  found  in  him 
a  convenient  jiarallel  to  Henry  \'III.  at  the 
time  of  the  Helormation.  .leroboam  sullered  a 
defeat  from  Ahijah,  son  of  Heboboam,  and  died 
soon  after  in  the  twenty-second  year  of  his  reigh. — 
Jeroboam  II.  was  the  son  of  .loasli,  of  the  dynasty 
of  Jehu.  He  thrust  back  tlie  Syrian  invadei-s*, 
reconquered  Ammon  and  Moab.  but  earned  the 
denunciatiiuis  of  the  jirophets  .Vmos  and  Ilo.sea 
by  failing  to  reform  religion  at  home. 

Jerome,  St  (Ei-skdiis  Hieronymu.s  Sdi-iiko- 
NIU.S),  wa.s  bora  at  Stridon,  a  town  whose  site  is 


304 


JEROME    BONAPARTE 


JERROLD 


now  unknown,  on  the  conlines  of  Balniatia  and 
I'annonia,  at  some  period  liutweeu  331  and  345 — 
prolial>ly  nearer  to  the  latter  year.  His  parents 
were  both  Christians.  His  early  education  was 
superintended  by  his  father,  after  w  hieh  lie  studied 
(Jreek  and  Latin  rhetoric  and  philo.soiihy  under 
-Klius  Donatus  at  Home,  where  he  was  also 
admitted  to  the  rite  of  baptism.  After  a  residence 
in  liaul,  he  seems  to  have  revisited  Koine  ;  Imt  iu 
the  year  370  he  had  settled  in  Aijuileia  with  his 
friend  Kulinus.  For  some  unknown  reason  he 
suddenly  went  hence  to  the  East  ;  and  after  a 
dangerous  illness  at  Antioch,  winch  appears  to 
have  still  further  added  to  the  reli;;ious  fervour  of 
his  ilispDsition,  he  retired,  in  374,  to  the  desert  of 
Chalcis,  where  he  sjient  four  years  iu  iienilential 
exercises  and  in  study,  especially  of  the  Hebre\v 
lan>,'uaj;e.  In  379  he  was  ordained  a  priest  at 
Antioch,  after  which  he  sjjent  three  years  in  Con- 
stantiuople  in  close  intiuuicy  with  Gregoiy  of 
Nazianzus :  and  in  38'i  he  came  on  a  mission 
connected  with  the  Meletian  schism  at  Antioch  to 
liouu",  wliere  he  liecame  secretary  to  the  pope 
Damasus,  ami  where,  although  already  engaged  in 
liLs  great  work  of  the  revision  of  the  Latin  \ei'siiin 
of  the  Bible,  he  attained  to  great  popularity  and 
inliuence  by  his  sanctity,  learniug,  and  eloquence. 
Many  pious  persons  placed  themselves  under  his 
spiritual  direction,  the  most  reiuarkable  of  whom 
were  the  lady  Paula  ami  liei-  daughter  Eustochion. 
The.se  ladi''s  followed  biui  to  the  Holy  Lanil,  whitli<tr 
he  returned  iu  3S.5.  He  jiermaueutly  lixed  his  resi- 
lience at  lielhleliem  iu  3S0,  the  lady  I'aula  liaviug 
fouiuled  four  convents,  three  for  nuns,  and  one  for 
monks,  the  latter  of  which  was  governed  by  Jerome 
him.self.  It  was  in  this  retreat  that  Jerome  pursued 
or  completed  the  great  literaiy  laljours  of  his  life  ; 
and  it  was  from  these  solitudes,  all  peaceful  as 
they  might  seem,  that  he  sent  forth  tiie  liery  and 
vehement  invectives  which  marked  not  only  liLs 
controversy  with  the  heretics  Jovinian,  Vigilautius, 
and  the  I'elagians,  but  even  with  his  ancient  ally, 
Kulinus,  ami,  although  in  a  minor  degree,  with 
St  Augustine.  His  conlli<-l  with  the  I'elagians 
rendering  even  his  life  insecure  at  Bethlehem,  he 
w.ts  compelled  to  go  into  concealment  for  above 
two  years  :  and  .soon  after  his  return  to  Bethleliem 
in  418  he  was  seized  with  a  lingering  illness,  which 
terminated  in  his  ileatli,  September  30,  4'20.  His 
original  works,  consistuig  of  letters,  treatises, 
polemical  and  ascetical,  commentaries  on  Holy 
•Scripture,  and  his  version  and  revision  of  former 
versions  of  the  Bible,  were  llrst  ]>ulilished  by 
Erasnuis,  9  vols,  fidio  (Basel,  1510),  and  have  been 
several  times  reprinted.  The  best  editions  are 
that  of  the  Benedictines  (5  vols,  folio,  Paris, 
](i93-170U)  and,  still  more,  that  of  Yallarsi  (11 
vols.  Ver(ma.  1734-42).  St  Jerome  is  universally 
regarded  as  the  most  learned  an<l  eloquent  of  the 
Latin  Fathers.  His  comnientaries  on  the  I!il)le 
are  esiiecially  valuable  for  the  learning  which  they 
display;  Imt  his  opinions  are  often  exaggerated 
aiKi  fanciful,  and  through  his  controversial  writings 
there  runs  a  strain  of  violent  invective,  which  con- 
trasts unfavourably  with  the  tone  of  his  conteni- 
I)orary,  St  Augustine.  See  the  article  Vri.o.vn;; 
also  the  works  by  Ziickler  ((iotha,  1805),  Amedce 
Thierry  (Paris,  1867),  Goelzer  (Paris,  1880),  E.  L. 
Cutis  (S.P.C.K.  1878),  an.l  Mrs  Martin  (1888);  and 
the  iranslalions  by  Fremantle  (1893). 

.It-roiiic  ItoiiaiKirlo  (1784-1860),  king  of 
\\  cslphalia.      See  Bu.\ .vl'.MM'E. 

.IfroilK*  of  I'raiflic,  the  friend  and  disciple 
of  lluss,  was  born  at  Prague  between  1300  and 
1370.  The  statement  that  his  family  name  was 
Faulliscli  is  incorrect.  After  attending  the  uni- 
vorsity  of  liis   native  town,   he  studied  for  some 


time  in  Oxford,  where  he  became  a  convert  to 
\Vyclif  s  doctrines.  When  he  reached  home  he  zeal- 
(Uisly  taught  the  new  doctrine  he  had  learned  in 
England.  He  further  studied  at  Paris,  Heidelberg, 
and  Cologne,  and  aci|uired  a  reputation  for  learn- 
iug ami  energy.  Ladislaus  II.,  king  of  Poland,  em- 
]>loyed  him  to  help  to  reorganise  the  university  of 
Cracow  in  1410  ;  and  Sigismund,  king  of  Hungary, 
inviteil  him  to  preach  before  him  at  Budapest. 
Jerome  entered  with  his  w  hole  .soul  into  the  contest 
carried  on  by  Huss  ((|.v. )  against  the  abuses  of 
the  hierarchy  and  the  prolligacy  of  the  clergy.  But 
his  impatient  zeal  lead  him  to  oversiej)  the  bounds 
of  prudence,  and  even  to  abuse  the  autlu>rity  he 
possessed,  ^^'hen  Huss  was  arrested  at  Constance 
Jerome  voluntarily  hastened  to  his  side  to  defend 
him,  although  he  was  not  provided  with  a  safe-con- 
duct. Arrived  at  Constance,  he  was  met  by  sinister 
rumours  as  to  the  fate  in  store  for  Huss  iuul  him- 
self. He  hastily  withdrew  from  the  city,  and 
apiilicd  for  a  safe-conduct.  It  was  refused  ;  there- 
u)ion  Jerome  set  out  to  return  to  Prague,  but  was 
arrested  at  Hirschau  in  Bavaria  in  April  1415, 
and  conveyed  to  Constance.  After  four  months' 
imprisonment  he  recanted  his  opinions;  but  eight 
months  later  still  (in  .May  1410)  he  boldly  with- 
drew his  recantation,  and  iu  the  .same  heroic  spirit 
went  to  the  stake,  30tli  May  1410.  See  works  in 
Gernum  by  Helfert  (1853)  and  Becker  (1858),  with 
others  cited  at  Hu&s  and  Wyclif. 

Jerrold.L)iHGL.\s  William,  author,  dramatist, 
and  wit,  was  born  in  London,  January  3,  180.3. 
He  was  the  youngest  son  of  Samuel  Jcrmld,  actor 
and  manager,  by  his  second  wife.  His  infant  years 
were  passed  at  Wilsby,  near  C'ranbrook  in  Kent. 
In  1807  his  father  became  lessee  of  the  theatre  at 
Slieerness.  Here,  with  (Jesner's  Death  of  Abel  and 
liuderivk  Satidu/ii,  Douglas  Jerrohl  as  a  child  of 
si.x  or  seveu  began  to  manifest  a  voracious  appetite 
for  books.  About  the  end  of  1809  he  was  sent  to 
school  at  Slieerness;  in  December  1813  he  joined 
the  navy  as  a  midshipman.  On  the  close  of  the 
war  his  shi])  was  paid  off;  and  the  hist  day  of 
January  1810  saw  the  arrival  of  the  .lerrold  family 
in  London,  where,  from  Broad  Court,  Bow  .street, 
I.'ouglas  Jerrohl  started  life  anew  as  a  printer's 
apprentice.  In  1819  he  was  a  compositor  on  the 
Hiiiidiiii  Miiiiitur,  when  the  following  incident  [ikJi- 
ahly  decid('d  his  bent  towards  literature  ;  he  had 
been  to  see  Der  Frcischiitz,  and,  having  written  a 
criticism  on  it,  dropped  it  into  his  employer'.s 
letter-box,  and  the  next  morning  was  handed  his 
own  copy  to  set  up,  with  an  editorial  note  to  the 
anonymous  correspondent  requesting  further  con 
tributions.  Jerrold's  capacity  for  study  was  enor- 
mous, and  his  perseverance  indefatigable :  night 
and  morning  he  worked  at  Latin,  French,  and 
Italian,  besiiles  getting  through  a  vast  amount  of 
reading.  He  became  dramatic  critic,  as  well  as 
compositor,  on  the  MtJiiifor.  In  lN'24  he  married 
Miss  Mary  Swann.  Before  this  date  he  had  already 
made  a  start  as  a  dramatist  ;  four  <if  his  pieces  hail 
been  ]ii<iduced.  the  lirst  of  which.  More  Friqliteiiid 
than  Hint  ( w  litten  when  Jerrohl  was  about  hf  teen  ), 
came  out  iu  18"21.  In  1825  Jerrohl  was  engaged, 
at  a  weekly  salary,  to  write  dramas,  farces,  <.Vc. , 
as  re<iuired,  for  the  Coburg  Theatre.  In  1829  he 
was  engaged  at  live  pounds  a  week  to  write  in  a 
similar  manner  for  the  Suriey  Theatre,  where  in 
that  year  lUttrh-eifed  Sti.-ntn  wjus  acted  for  tlu'  lirst 
time.  From  this  date  up  to  1854,  when  Tlit:  Jleiirt 
nf  tSiild  came  out  at  the  Princess's  Theatre,  numer- 
ous plays  were  produced,  each  one  of  which  was 
characterised  by  the  autliiu's  unique  style  and 
brilliant  and  sparkling  dialogue,  .lerrold  s  con- 
tributions to  i)erioclical  literature  began  soon  after 
he  commenced  life  in  London,  with  ocousional 
verses  and  sketches  iu   the  various  magazines  of 


i 


JERRYMANDER 


JERSEY    CITY 


305 


the  (lay  :  as  his  position  became  more  assured  he 
oonfributed  to  the  Mu/it/i/i/,  the  S'eir  Moidlihj, 
The  Ballot  (  wliich  he  sub-edited ),  Punch  in  London 
(a  short-lived  prototype  of  the  Punch),  the 
Athcnauin,  Blackwood s,  and  other  periodicals. 
Punch  was  started  in  1S41,  and  Jerrold  was  a  con- 
stant and  important  contributor  from  its  second 
number  up  to  the  time  of  his  death.  He  succes- 
sively editeil  the  Illuminated  Magazine  (1843-44), 
Doufflu-i  Jen  old's  Shillimj  Maijazine  (1845— tS), 
and  Dii Ill/lax  derrolds  Weekly  Neicapaper  ( 184G-48 ). 
In  these  periodicals,  along  with  Punch,  appeared 
much  of  his  best  work.  In  politics — and  his  was 
no  mean  political  force — Jerrold  was  Lilieral,  and 
in  18.52  he  accepted  the  editorship  of  Lloyd's 
Weekly  Xcivspaj/er  of  which  it  has  been  said  that 
he  '  found  it  in  the  street,  and  annexed  it  to  litera- 
ture.' .\s  a  wit,  for  what  has  been  well  termed 
*  fla-shini,'  insight,'  Jerrold  stands  alone.  He  died  at 
Kilburu  on  June  8,  1857.  A  collected  edition  of 
Jerrold's  works,  in  eight  volumes,  was  published 
during  his  lifetime ;  it  contains  his  principal  writ- 
ings, St  Giles  and  St  James,  The  Man  made  of 
Money,  The  Story  of  a  Feather,  Cakes  and  Ale, 
Punch's  Letters  to  his  Son,  Punch's  Complete  Letter- 
writer.  Chronicles  of  Clorernook,  itfrs  Caudle's  Cur- 
tain Lectures,  &c.,  and  fewer  than  half  of  Jerrold's 
dramatic  works.  A  selection  from  Jerrold's  politi- 
cal writings  in  Lloyd's  waspublished  in  1868  under 
the  title  of  Other  2'imes.  Ifte  Life  and  Remains  of 
Dou/flas  Jerrold,  by  his  son,  W.  Blanchard  Jerrold, 
was  published  in  1859. 

WiLLi.vM  Blanchard  Jerrold,  eldest  son  of 
the  above,  born  in  1S26,  was  named  after  Laman 
Blanchard  (ij. v.),  who  was  his  godfather,  and  whose 
daughter  he  inamed  ( 1849).  Educated  as  an  artist, 
Jerrold  early  abandoned  art  for  literature,  his  chief 
work  as  artist  being  the  part  he  took  in  the  produc- 
tion of  Howe's  Illustrated  Book  of  British  Sonqs. 
He  served  his  apprenticeship  to  literature  on  liis 
father's  newspaper,  and  for  a  short  time  was  re- 
porter on  the  Daili/  Xeirs.  On  his  father's  death 
Blanchard  Jerrold  became  editor  of  Lloyd's,  which 
office  he  continued  to  the  time  of  his  death,  March 
10,  1884.  He  was  appointed  (1852)  Crystal  Palace 
Commissi(mer  to  Swe<len,  and  on  his  return  pub- 
lished his  interesting  lirafje-heaker  trith  the  Swedes 
( 18.")4).  He  was  founder  and  |iresident  of  the  British 
section  of  the  International  Literary  Association. 
A  facile  and  voluminous  writer,  he  published 
Children  of  Lutetia ;  Cent,  per  Cent. :  a  Story 
written  on  a  Bill  Stamp :  Life  of  George  Cruik- 
shank  :  Life  of  Napoleon  III.  :  Life  of  Dore  ;  and 
London — a  Pilyrimaye,  &c.  Of  his  dramatic  writ- 
ings the  l)est  known  is  Coul  «.v  n  Cucuuibcr  ( 1851 ), 
one  of  the  most  successful  farces  ever  written. 

Jerryiiiaiider.    See  Gerry. 

Jersey,  the  chief  of  the  Channel  Islands  (q.v. ), 
14  miles  from  the  Norman  coast,  i;t.'i  from  South- 
aiiipt<m,  O.")  from  Weymouth.  Measuring  11  miles 
by  oi,  it  is  45  si|.  m.  in  area,  of  which  nearly  two- 
third's  is  cultivated.  Pop.  (1806)  22,855;  (1851) 
67,020;  ( 1881 )  52,455:  ( 1891  )  54,518— one-half  rural, 
the  rest  in  the  capital,  St  Helier,  and  suburlw. 
The  land  rises  to  the  north,  sloping  to  the  .south 
anil  west.  On  all  sides  are  large  o])eii  bays ; 
B<iulay  on  the  north  is  ca])able  of  iKJcoming  a  tine 
harbour,  which  is  at  present  much  wanted,  that  of 
St  Helier  lieing  dry  at  low-water.  The  highest 
point.  Mount  Mado,  Ls  473  feet  high  ;  its  mass  is 
a  porjdiyroid  granite  which  extends  south  as  far 
as  St  Peter's.  Smaller  iiia.s.ses  of  the  same  are 
found  in  the  south-east.  The  north-eiust  part  is 
conglomerate,  and  the  rest  of  the  island  is  chielly 
•liviiled  between  siliceous  and  schistosi'  rock  ;  the 
lower  levels  are  covered  with  clay  and  blown  sand. 
The  rocks  on  the  coaste,  being  mixed  with  veins  of 
2S(l 


greenstone  and  shale,  have  been  eroded  by  the  sea, 
which  has  left  a  number  of  caverns  and  pinnacles  of 
fantastic  form.  About  the  soutli  east  are  numerous 
reefs  of  primitive  rock  wbicli  render  the  approach 
dan"erous.  Between  Jei'sey  and  the  French  shore 
the  Ecrehos,  Bieutletins,  and  Minquiers  indicate  a 
former  connection  with  the  niainlaiul,  and  thus 
confirm  the  traditions  which  tell  of  a  separation  in 
comparatively  recent  times.  It  is  also  noticeable 
that  moles  and  toads  are  found  in  Jersey,  as  also  in 
Alderney,  wliile  there  are  none  in  Guernsey.  Agri- 
culture is  pui-sued  on  small  farms  held  on  feudal 
tenures  resembling  copyhold.  The  chief  present 
staple  is  the  potato,  the  early  produce  of  which 
comes  into  the  London  market  a  fortnight  before 
that  of  the  west  of  England,  and  thus  commands  a 
high  temporary  price.  Consequently  other  cultiva- 
tion has  been  much  neglected,  and  the  land  greatly 
stimulated  by  artificial  manures.  The  potato 
export  exceeds  60,000  tons  yearly,  of  a  value  of 
£264,000.  The  rearing  of  cattle  is  also  lucrative  ; 
it  is  estimated  that  there  are  fifty-eight  hea<l  of 
cattle  to  every  100  acres — nearly  three  times  the 
ratio  of  the  I  nited  Kingdom.  The  purity  of  the 
breed  is  maintained  by  careful  official  registration, 
and  the  stock  fetches  high  prices  from  breeders 
in  England  and  America.  Ihe  numlier  of  cattle 
exported  averages  nearly  1600  head  annually  (see 
Cattle,  Vol.  III.  p.  22).  The  imports  consist 
largely  of  potatoes  and  butcher-meat,  from 
France  and  England,  as  the  island  produces  little 
food  for  its  own  consumjition.  There  is  a  large 
and  well-kept  market  in  St  Helier,  and  a  number 
of  good  shops.  There  are  twelve  parishes  in  all, 
of  which  the  rectors  and  constables  are  ej--oJficio 
members  of  the  'states,'  the  rest  of  the  assembly 
being  elected  deputies,  with  the  addition  of  the 
twelve  jurats,  or  judges  of  the  royal  court,  whose 
chief  is  the  bailifV,  a  trained  lawyer.  The 
language  of  deliberation  and  judicial  Ijusiness  is 
French,  though  the  people  among  themselves  either 
use  English  or  a  form  of  the  ancient  Norman.  The 
parish  churches  are  old,  but  have  lost  many  traces 
of  their  primitive  architecture  in  frequent  restora- 
tions. The  royal  court  is  a  large  but  ill-lighted 
building  containing  some  pictures,  the  best  of 
which  is  a  full  length  portrait  of  Marshal  Conway, 
by  Gainsborough.  Tlie  character  of  the  people 
is  orderly  and  frugal,  the  deposits  in  the  savings- 
bank  exceeding  £300,000.  There  is  little  pauper- 
ism and  hardly  any  serious  crime. 

See  Ansted  and  Latham's  Channel  Igfumls  (Lond. 
1862) ;  also  articles  in  the  FortniiihUy  Rcriew  by  the 
Kight  Hon.  G.  Shaw-Lcfevre  and  Rev.  Barham  Zlncke, 
and  one  by  the  present  writer  in  the  Enftli»h  Historical 
Review  for  1887. 

Jersey  City,  after  Newark  the  second  city  of 
New  Jersey,  and  capital  of  Hudson  county,  is  on 
the  west  \ku\\<.  of  the  Hudson  Kiver,  opposite 
New  York,  of  which  it  is,  though  in  another  state, 
an  extension,  and  with  wliich  and  Brooklyn  it  is 
connected  by  steam  f(uries  ;  a  tunnel  wais  being 
made  in  1874-95  ;  ami  a  bridge  was  .sanctioned  in 
1894.  It  stands  on  a  peninsula  b<iuuded  on  the 
west  by  the  Hackensack  Kiver  ami  Newark  Bay  ; 
on  the  south-east  it  extends  along  New  Vork  Bav. 
Jei'sey  City  is  a  busy  but  not  a  l)eautiful  city,  ^t 
is  the  terminus  of  six  great  and  as  many  local  rail- 
ways, and  is  connected  witli  Eiuston,  Pennsylvania, 
by  canal  ;  and  at  its  wharves  many  ocean-steamei-s 
receive  and  discharge  their  freight.  It  is  thus  the 
entrepot  of  a  large  trade,  especially  in  inm,  coal, 
and  agricultural  produce.  Its  own  manufactures 
are  on  a  large  scab',  and  include  sugar.  Hour,  iron 
and  steel,  zinc,  boilers  and  machinery,  locomotives, 
oils  and  chemicals,  oakum,  lumber,  silk,  watches 
and  jewellery,  lead-pencils,  tobacco,  jiotlery,  soap, 
beer,  &c.     Tlie  city  has  large  abattoirs  aucl  stock- 


306 


JERSEY    CITY 


JERUSALEM 


yards,  and  grain-elevators  notable  both  for  their 
size  and  etticienry.  Tlie  site  of  Jersey  City  was 
formerlv  called  I'auhis  Hoeck  (Hook);  the  town 
receive(\  its  present  name  and  became  a  nmiiici- 
palitv  in  1838.  Pop.  ( 1860)  •2'J,'226  ;  ( 1870)  82,546  ; 
{\S<M)  163,(K)3. 

•leriisaleill.  Tts  Site. — Jerusalem — 31°  46'  50" 
N.  lat.  iUi.l  35'  13'  25"  E.  long.  ;  height,  2364 
to  2582  feet  above  tlie  sea- level— stands  on  the 
spurs  of  two  hills  surrounded  and  divided  by  two 
valleys,  once  deei),  now  partly  or  wholly  filletl  up 
with'  rubbish.  'The  exact  form  of  the  hills  has 
recently  been  ascertained  by  taking,  wlienever 
practicable,  a  series  of  rock  levels,  of  wliicli  250  have 
been  ( 1890)  correctly  laid  down  over  the  whole  area 
of  the  city.  More  are  Ijeing  added  from  day  to  day, 
and  the  contours  liavebeen  settled  by  Major  Conder, 
the  surveyor  of  western  Palestine,  with  a  general 
accuracy  wliicli  can  only  be  questioned  at  a  few 
points.  "  The  dividing  valley  had  two  shallow 
branches  within  the  city,  a  fact  of  considerable 
importance  in  considering  the  course  of  the  second 
wall.  The  Eastern  Hill  was  originally  a  rounded 
top  crowned  with  tlie  '  threshingHoor  of  Araunah,' 
and  the  rock  ami  cave,  probably  a  sacred  site  hnm 
time  immemorial.  It  sloped  steeply  to  the  west 
and  grailually  to  the  east  :  its  southern  exti-emity 
was  a  tongue  of  land  between  the  central  valley, 
the  TyrojjLBon,  and  the  eastern  valley  of  the  Kedron. 


/h\i  o\  f //  Coi/nseTM^^-    f ^  \ 


The  Western  Hill,  higher  than  the  other  by  more 
than  a  hundred  feet,  presented  similar  character- 
istics of  a  sterii  valley  on  cither  side  and  a  tongue 
of  land  running  southwards.  Either  hill  was  there- 
fore a  strong  natural  fortress,  a  hill  fortress,  such 
as  are  found  in  great  numbers  in  England — e.g. 
the  ancient  stronghold  called  ('astle  Neroche,  in 
Somersetshire,  seems  to  be  exactly  the  kind  of 
fortress  which  David  stormed.  The  weakness  of 
the  |ilace  for  p\irpo.ses  of  defence  lay  in  its  in- 
suHicient  su^iply  of  water.  One  spring,  that  now 
called  the  '  \  irgin  Fount,'  lies  just  without  the  old 
city  wall  of  Opiiel.  The  rock-cut  passage,  which 
runs  from  this  spring  to  the  Pool  of  Siloam  below, 
enters  within  the  eoui-se  of  the  cdd  Ophel  wall. 
There  is  also  a  well  called  Hammfim  esShafa  in 
the  very  centre  of  the  city,  close  to  the  Hiib  al- 
Kattanin  ('(Jate  of  the  ('otton  Merchants')  in  the 
Ilarani  area. 

.lerusalem  i.s  known  to  the  Moslems  as  Beil  el- 
M II /,ti(/f /fin  or  Beit  r.l-Mukdis,  the  '  Holy  Hcmse,'  or 
El -K mil,  'The  Holy.'  Yakut,  the  grejit  Moslem 
geographer,    who    knew   the   Jewish   name    Yertt- 


shahiim,  mentions  other  forms — Uris/iallnm,  Uri- 
.s/ialum,  and  ShnlUvin,  as  formerly  used  in  the  days 
of  the  Jews.  It  is  lirst  menlioned  in  doshua,  .\.  1  — 
'  Adoni-zedek,  king  of  Jerusalem.'  Afterwards,  in 
the  same  book,  it  is  spoken  of  as  Jebus,  or  Jebusi, 
'which  is  Jerusalem.  It  has  therefore  been  in- 
ferred  that  the  nauic  of  Jerusalem  was  given  to  the 
city  by  David,  lint  the  name  was  found  in  1890  on 
the  cuneiform  tablets  from  Tel-el-.Vmarna  ;  it  there 
appeal's  as  Uriisalcnt,  the  'City  of  Peace.'  It  was 
therefore  known  under  that  name  at  least  500 
yeaiT*  before  the  conquest  by  David.  The  northern 
boundary  of  Judah  is  drawn  'south  of  the  J  elm- 
site;'  therefore  it  is  reckoned  among  the  cities  of 
Benjamin.  In  some  passages,  however  (e.g. 
Psalms,  Ixxviii.  68),  it  is  held  to  belong  to  Juilah. 
The  con(|uest  of  the  city  by  the  Israelites  |iroveil  at 
first  incomplete  :  before  the  time  of  the  Judges  it 
was  again  'the  city  of  the  .stranger.'  Finally  con- 
quered by  David,  the  Lower  City  was  united  to 
the  Fortress  of  the  Upper  Hill  and  the  whole  .sur- 
rounded by  a  >\  all. 

Its  Hialuni. — The  history  of  Jerusalem  covers 
a  perio<l  of  about  3500  years.  Of  these,  500  at 
least  are  prehistoric,  though  glimpses  of  this  hmg 
period  may  hereafter  be  arrived  at  from  the  trea- 
sures of  the  cuneiform  inscriptions.  Of  the  3000 
years  which  remain,  less  than  500  show  us  Jeru- 
salem indejiendent,  the  capital  of  a  free  country,  and 
the  centre  of  a  national  religion. 
For  600  years  longer  the  city  was 
in  the  hands  of  the  Israelites,  it 
is  true,  but  never  wholly  independ- 
ent, always  a  juey  to  internal 
factions,  and  alternately  the  ])Os- 
.session  of  Egyjit  or  some  other 
powerful  nei;;hliour.  Loss  of  in- 
dependrnc<',  banishment  from  the 
city,  persecution  and  exile,  have 
only  made  the  Jew  look  with 
more  |iassionate  eves  of  longing 
upon  the  city  which,  w  hen  it  wiis 
his  own,  he  could  not  li<dd  with- 
out idolatry,  contempt  of  his  own 
laws,  and  inti'riial  ili.ssensi<ms. 
t)nly  50O  years  of  independent 
tenure  !  That  |)eriod  removed  by 
more  than  '2000  years  :  yet  the 
passionate  love  of  the  Jew  for 
Jerusalem  is  no  whit  dinunished. 

Here  are  the  landmarks  of  its 
history.  Its  name  is  found  on  an 
inscription  5(X)  years  at  least 
before  David  (see  also  Gen.  xiv. 
18)  ;  it  was  besieged  almost 
immediately  after  the  death  of  Joshua,  circa 
1400  B.C.  ;  it  was  again  taken  by  David  about 
1046  B.C.  ;  it  was  surrendered  by  Jehoiachin 
597  B.C.  ;  it  was  taken  from  Zedekiah  5,S()  ii.c, 
and  wlicdly  destroyed.  Fifty  years  later  (536 
B.C.)  the  edict  of  Cyrus  enabled  the  )ieoide  to 
return ;  the  temple  was  rebuilt ;  for  a  hundred 
years  parties  of  the  Jews  straggled  back — Ezra 
arrived  457  B.C.,  Nehemiah  445  B.C.  I'm  500 
years  after  this  Jerusalem  knew  not  a  single 
generation  of  jieace.  Internal  factions  tore  it  to 
pieces  ;  the  city  was  the  pos.session  in  turn  of 
Persian,  Macedonian,  Syrian.  Egyjitian,  and  Koman. 
It  wjus  never  wholly  indejiendent ;  there  was  never 
any  real  inde|>endence  for  Jeru.sjilem  after  its 
destruction  by  Nebuzaradan.  It  is  a  great  pity 
that  those  who  study  the  history  of  Jerusali'ui 
L'encrally  pass  over  the  |ieriod  fnnn  Nehemiah  to 
Herod  as  of  litth'  inteicst.  It  is,  on  the  i)tlicr 
hand,  a  time  of  the  greatest  interest,  and  full  of 
instruction  for  those  who  study  tin-  development 
of  the  tiery  Jnda'an  race.  We  hear  no  more  about 
Haal-worship  and    the    groves    of    Asherah ;    the 


JERUSALEM 


307 


pajran  cnlt  was  •rrowinj;  obsolete ;  tlie  {rods  of 
Hellas  had  invaded  Syria  :  those  of  Phtrnicia  were 
for-jotten.  Under  Antioohus  the  temple  was  con- 
secrated to  Zeus  Olyiupios  :  pijjs  were  sacrificed  on 
the  altars ;  the  Jewish  rites  and  ceremonies — the 
observance  of  the  Sabbath,  the  sacrifices  enjoined 
by  the  law,  the  rite  of  circumcision — were  for- 
bidden. Had  it  not  Ijeen  for  one  family — the  most 
illustrious  rebels  on  record — the  relijjion  of  the 
Jews  would  have  been  abandoned  and  their  nation- 
ality lost.  How  both  were  saved  belongs  to  the 
history  of  this  period  (see  Macc.\hke.s). 

It  is  not,  however,  a  time  on  which  tlie  historian 
<lwells  with  pleasure.  The  character  of  the  jieople, 
always  fiery  and  full  of  zeal,  turneil  to  fanaticism ; 
their  respect  for  the  law,  forced  ujion  them  by  persecu- 
tion and  ilisaster,  turned  to  a  worship  of  the  letter  ; 
they  divided  into  sects  which  hated  each  other 
more  bitterly  tlian  they  hated  the  (ientile.  The 
picture  of  .Jeru.salem  and  its  people  during  the  fifty 
years  which  preceded  the  destruction  of  the  city  by 
Titus  is  nowhere  surpa.ssed  in  all  the  dark  annals 
of  religious  zeal.  The  city  was  besieged,  taken, 
and  totally  destroyed  by  Titus,  70  .v.D. 

During  the  long  history  of  Jerusalem — t\\e  City 
of  Peace — it  sustained  seventeen  sieges  ;  twice  it 
was  utterly  destroyed  ami  razed  to  the  ground. 
There  is  no  city  in  the  world  whose  soil  has  been 
more  repeatedly  drenched  with  the  blood  of  its 
people — the  thousands  who  have  perished  by  the 
swonl  within  these  gray  walls  from  the  time  when 
the  'children  of  Judah  smote  it  with  the  edge  of 
the  sword  and  set  it  on  fire'  to  the  day  when 
Oodfrey  de  Bouillon  and  his  knights  rode  in  a 
stream  of  blood  reaching  to  their  saddle  girths  to 
recover  the  Holy  Sepulchre. 

The  Iiistoiy  of  the  city  to  the  destruction  by 
Titus  is  the  history  as  contained  in  the  Bible  ;  that 
which  follows  is  a  second  volume  divided  into  four 
chaptei-s.  The  first  chaiiter  contains  the  early 
centuries  of  Christianity,  for  the  most  part  a  peace- 
ful time  when  the  land  was  covered  with  monas- 
teries, churches,  and  hermitages ;  when  the  voice 
of  psalm  and  prayer  never  ceased  day  or  night. 
The  city  contained  the  great  grou])  of  churches  of 
Avliich  the  most  splendid  was  Constantine's  Basilica 
■of  the  Anastasis,  built  not  over  the  sepulchre,  but 
to  the  east  of  it,  the  sepulchre  itself  being  orna- 
mented with  columns  and  open  to  the  sky.  Pil- 
grimages began  at  first  to  the  site  of  the  Ascen- 
sion, afterwards,  as  other  sites  were  miraculously 
recovered,  to  that  of  everj-  scene  in  the  gospel 
history.  The  Persians  came  614  A.D.,  sacked  the 
city,  and  destroyed  all  the  churches.  Then  the 
Moslems  appeareil,  and  the  gates  were  thrown  open 
witlKtut  a  blow. 

The  second  chapter  contains  the  Moslem  rule 
(637-1089).  Then  the  Mosque  el-Aksa  wax  built, 
Justinian's  great  ehnrch  of  St  Marj-  funiLshing  the 
principal  edifice  ;  the  Dome  of  the  Hock  was  built ; 
and,  by  order  of  the  mad  <alif  Il.ikcm  Bi  Asur 
Illali,  the  church  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre  was  again 
dcstroyetl. 

The  third  chapter  is  that  of  the  Latin  kingdom 
<  10{)9-1'244).  Tlie  constitution  of  this  kingilom, 
as  coutJiined  in  the  Assises  de  JfriiHulem,  is  the 
most  valuable  rlocument  extant  on  the  principles 
of  feudalism.  The  kingdom,  after  continuous  war 
for  eighty-seven  years,  lost  Jerusalem,  nor  did  the 
cru.sftiler»  ever  succeed  in  retaking  it.  It  was, 
however,  ceded  by  treaty  to  Frederick  II.,  who 
in  IQ^J*  crowned  himself  in  the  church  with  his  own 
hamls,  being  then  under  papal  e.xcominunication. 

The  la-st  chapter  is  tliat  of  Jerusah^m  again 
ander  the  Moslems  (since  1244).  It  was  in  1.517 
that  the  Turkish  sultan  Selini  took  Jenisaleni. 
The  .'•even  hundred  years  covered  by  this  chapter 
have  been  for  the  most  part  years  of  peace.      The 


chronicles  of  later  years  are  barren  and  devoid  of 
incident. 

Its  Monuments. — The  principal  buildings  and 
ni<munients  for  which  the  explorer  of  the  modern 
city  has  to  look  are  the  first,  second,  and  third 
walls  of  the  great  temple  itself ;  the  royal  towers 
of  Pha.saelus,  Hipiiicus,  Psepliinus  and  Mariamne  ; 
theTyropuon  Bridge;  Barisor  Antonia  ;  Opliel ;  the 
Tombs  of  the  Kings ;  and  certain  pools.  It  would  be 
strange  indeed  if,  after  so  many  sieges  and  so  many 
generations,  much  should  survive  of  the  city  of 
Herod,  to  say  nothing  of  the  city  of  Solomon. 
There  is,  however,  more  than  might  have  been 
expected,  more  in  proportion  than  remains  of 
ancient  Rome  of  the  former  date ;  far  nifue  than 
remains  of  Tyre,  Carthage,  or  Corinth.  The  town 
was  so  carefully  examined  by  the  ordnance  survey 
of  Sir  Charles  Wilson  in  1865  that  it  seemed  as  if 
everything  above  ground  must  have  been  found. 
Yet  we  must  not  forget  that  Clermont  Cianncau 
found  above  ground  the  inscribed  stone  of  the 
temple,  and  that  there  may  still  be  most  important 
remains  built  up  in  walls.  Excavations  on  a  very 
extensive  scale  have  also  been  conducted  by  Sir 
Charles  Warren  in  1867-70,  Major  Conder  in  1871- 
76,  Clermont  Ganneau  in  1874-75,  the  Rus.sians,  the 
French,  and  the  Germans;  so  that  since  1870  the 
whole  of  the  previous  literature  in  Jerusalem  topo- 
graphy has  become  completely  antiquated.  In  the 
'  Jerusalem '  volume  of  the  Survey  of  Western 
Palestine  the  authors,  Warren  and  Conder,  have 
enumerated  most  of  the  monuments  that  now  exist 
above  ground  or  have  been  discovered  under  ground. 
They  are  brielly  as  follows  : 

(1)  The  rock  scarps  on  the  south  of  Zioii,  which  were  alDiost 

certainly  those  of  the  tirst  wall,  and  therefore  belong  to 
the  time  of  David. 

(2)  The  tomb,  west  of  the  rotunda  of  the   Holy  Sepulchre 

Church,  known  as  that  of  Nicodemus.  Its  form  is  that  of 
the  oldest  class  of  Jewish  tombs.  If  the  site  was  formerly 
within  the  second  wall  this  must  have  been  the  Tombs  of 
the  Kings. 

(3)  The  great  rtwk.cut  passage  from  the  Virgin's  Fount  to  the 

Pool  of  .Silnam.  This  can  hardly  be  more  recent  than  the 
8th  century*  b.c.  The  inscription  discovered  there  in 
August  18S0  is  believed  from  the  form  of  the  letters 
and  the  character  of  the  language  to  belong  to  that  period. 

(4)  Tlie  wall  of  Ophel,  discovered  by  Sir  C.  Warren  (lS88-e9). 

(5)  The  rock  scarp  of  the  Tower  of  Baris.    This  is  most  probably 

that  scarp  now  existing  at  the  NW.  angle  of  the  Haram. 

(6)  The  rock-cut  monuments  in  the   Kedron  valley.    Many 

belong  apparently  to  the  Hasmonean  period  (2d  c.  B.C.). 

(7)  The  Haram  area  "itself,  the  sit«  of  the  temple,  with  its 

stupendous  walls,  its  ancient  gates,  its  wailing-place,  and 
the  buildings  within  it;  the  Mosque  el-Aksa,  the  Dome  of 
the  Rock,  the  Dome  of  the  Chain,  the  Golden  Gate,  its 
vast  vaults,  hitherto  but  little  explored. 

(8)  The  Pool  Amygdalon,  now  called  Hezekiah's  Pool.    This  is 

probably  as  old  as  Herod. 

(9)  The  Pool  of  Bethesda,  recovered  in  1888. 

(10)  The  Twin  Pool,  half  of  which  was  found  by  Wilson  in  1866, 

and  the  other  half  by  Warren  in  1868. 

(11)  Tlie  'Tower  of  David,'  which  is  certainly  on  the  site  of  one 

of  the  old  royal  towers,  pr  ibably  Phasaelu.s. 

(12)  The  Tynjpceon  Bridge,  marked  by  the  spring  of  the  first 

arch.  The  remains  of  that  arch  and  the  opposite  pier 
were  discovered  sixty  feet  under  ground  by  Warren  in  1868. 

(13)  The  wall  erected  by  Hadrian  to  fortify  his  Elia  Capitolina. 

This  probably  followed  the  line  of  the  present  city  wall. 
He  also  probably  made  the  great  reservoir,  Birket  Israil. 

(14)  The  Basilica  of  the  Anastasis,  completed  by  Constantine 

in  the  year  3;i5  juD. ,  certainly  stomi  on  the  site  of  the 
present  church  of  the  Holy  8epulihre.  It  was  entirely 
destroyed  by  Chosnies  II.  in  614  a.d.  There  are,  however, 
still  existing  certain  remains  and  fragments  which  have 
been  fitted  by  Conder  into  their  places  in  Constantine's 
work.  Afl#r  the  destruction  of  this  building  a  more 
liunible  group  of  churches  was  erecte*!  on  the  site. 

(15)  In  the  year  632  a.d.  .lustinian  built  the  great  Basilica  of 

St  Mary's  within  the  temple  area.  This  church  is  prob- 
ably tlie  present  Mo.sque  el-Aksa.  It  is  suggest*-*!  by 
C<mder  that  the  later  ornamentation  of  the  Double  Gate, 
the  Htrxn-turc  of  the  Golden  G.nte.  and  the  roollng  of  the 
Haram  cist  ems  also  belong  to  the  time  of  Justinian. 

(16)  The  existing  church  of  the  Holy  S«'pulchre  was  comiiienced 

in  1103  A.i>  .  and  stood  until  1808.  wlien  it  was  |Mrtly  de- 
Btrriyed  by  lire.  Some  jkirts  of  it  are,  however,  beIiev<Mi 
to  be  older  than  the  crusaders'  time 

(17)  The  great  Hospice  of  the  Knit;tita  of  St  John,  south  of  the 

Holy  l-iepulchre,  ^vas  erected  during  the  Latin  kingdom. 


308 


JERUSALEM 


Recent  excavations  (1876-85)  have  laid  bare  a  grcat  part 
of  these  bnililings. 
(18)  Of  crusading;  reniaiiis  there  are  still  many  in  the  city.  The 
Tower  of  Daviil  on  the  site  of  Thasaelus  (?)  is  mainly  the 
work  of  tlie  Pisans,  and  a  yreat  deal  of  the  city  wall  is 
of  crusading  time,s. 

Tlipse  are  the  principal  niontiiiients  now  existing. 
M'e  may  add  the  discovery  in  1S87  of  a  fragment  of 
what  was  certainly  part  of  the  second  wall,  certain 
rock  .scavp.s  which  are  siijiposed  to  belong  to  the 
same  wall,  and  a  wall  with  a  gate  discovered  in  the 
Imilding  of  the  Protestant  church,  which  has  been 
cimjectnred  to  belong  to  this  wall.  But  this  is 
uncertain,  as  the  course  of  the  wall  has  never  been 
clearly  ascertained. 

Tlic  Rcstondion  of  the  City. — The  restoration 
of  the  ancient  city,  whether  under  Herod  or  Solo- 
mon, has  been  the  subject  of  keen  controversy  for 
many  years.  It  is,  of  course,  perfectly  well  known 
that  to  the  ordinary  jnlgrim  every  spot  in  the  city 
connected  with  the  Sacred  Narrative  is  exactly 
ascertained.  He  has  no  doubt.  The  first  who 
ventiired  to  dissent  from  the  authority  of  tradition 
anil  the  priests  was  one  Korte,  a  German  printer, 
who  travelleil  in  Palestine  about  the  year  \~'2S. 
There,  however,  a  hundreil  years  later,  he  was 
followeil  by  Dr  Robinson,  who  argued  that  the 
church  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre  could  not  possibly 
cover  the  site  of  our  Lord's  tomb.  In  the  year 
1S47  Jlr  James  Fergusson,  a  well-known  student 
of  Indian  architecture,  produced  an  essay  on  the 
topography  of  Jerusalem,  in  which  he  advanced 
the  proposition  that  the  Dome  of  the  Rock  was  nut 
built  by  Melek  at  all,  but  by  Constantine,  that  it 
covered  the  Holy  Sepulchre,  that  the  site  had  been 
transferred  at  some  time  or  other — during  some 
period  of  disturbance — that  the  temple  was  not 
built  over  the  '  Rock,'  but  in  the  south-west  corner 
of  the  Haram.  These  revolutionary  views  were 
adopted  by  a  small  party,  and  even  advanced  in 
Smith's  Dictioiiiini  of  the  Bible.  Since  that  time 
the  opinion  has  also  been  advanced  further  that 
Mount  Zion  and  the  city  of  David  were  not  the 
upper  but  the  lower  hill,  and  that  the  latter  was 
situated  on  the  northern  slope  of  Uiihel.  These 
views,  of  course,  necessitated  a  complete  re-casting 
of  the  topography,  with  results  tliat  have  been, 
with  various  modifications,  before  the  world  for 
forty  years.  As  regards  the  general  acceptance  of 
these  theories  it  is  enough  to  say  that  \Varren,  the 
explorer  of  Jerusalem,  and  Conder,  the  surveyor  of 
western  Palestine  ;  that  Palmer  and  Le  Strange 
among  linguists  ;  that  De  VogUe,  George  'Williams, 
Willis,  Clermont  Gaimeau,  anumg  antiijuaries  and 
.scholars  ;  with  many  other  scholars,  all  alike  refuse 
to  accept  them  ;  aii<l  that  not  a  single  architect  of 
eiiiinence  has  followeil  Fergusson 's  views  iis  to  the 
<late  of  the  Dome  of  the  Rock. 

The  sites  adopted  in  this  article  are  those  advo- 
cated by  Warren  and  Conder,  who  agree  in  the 
main  ])oints.     The  reasons  will  be  brielly  indicated. 

(I)  The  Site  of  tlie  Temiilc. — It  was  within  the 
Haram  area,  whioli  is  defined  by  the  ruins  of  its 
gigantic  walls  :  .losephus  says  that  the  cloisters 
reached  from  'valley  to  valley;'  that  the  wall  of 
Ophel  joined  the  ea.st  cloister  ;  that  the  temple  was 
on  the  toj)  of  the  hill  ;  that  the  Tower  of  Antonia 
stood  on  a  lofty  rock  north  of  the  hill.  Not  one  of 
these  cimdilions  can  be  satisfied  by  Fergusson's 
view,  which  places  the  temiile  in  the  south-west 
corner  of  the  Haram  and  makes  the  east  wall  start 
northwards  fifX)  feet  from  the  south-west  corner 
and  on  the  level  part  of  the  ridge.  This  theory 
was  jmt  forwaid  before  any  excavations  had  been 
attempted  and  when  the  nature  of  the  ground 
was  utterly  unknown.  T\w  hill  has  now  been 
contoured,  and  it  seems  certain  that  if  Joseiibus 
wass  right  the  temple  stood  over  the  sacred  rock, 
which,  according  to  De  V'ogiie,  was  just  south,  and 


acconling  to  Warren,  was  just  north,  of  the  altar. 
The  latter  also  makes  it  the  foundation  of  the  gate 
Nit/.otz.  Conder,  on  the  other  hand,  identifies  the 
rock,  which  is  the  highest  point  of  the  hill,  with 
the  foundation  stone  of  the  Holy  House.  He  there- 
fore follows  Josephus  exactly.  Not  only  this  :  he 
follows  a  tradition  accepted  unixersally  by  Jew, 
Christian,  and  Moslem.  Now  it  is  a  maxim  based 
on  the  experience  of  this  officer,  who  has  given  far 
more  time  and  attention  to  this  subject  than  any 
other  traveller  or  scholar,  that  when  a  tradition  is 
accepted  by  all  alike  it  is  generally  true.  From 
every  other  consideration,  indeed,  Conder's  views 
seem  impregnable.  If  Solomon  l)uilt  his  temple 
where  Fertjusson  put  it,  he  either  built  it  half-way 
down  the  Iiill  and  on  a  steep  slope,  or  he  had  to 
make  enormous  sub-str\ictures  to  begin  with  :  he 
cbo.se  for  his  site  a  hill  with  a  slope  of  1  in  5 ;  he 
neglected  the  obvious  ad\antages  of  the  summit ; 
and  he  departed  from  the  universal  custom  of 
choosing  the  highest  part  of  the  hill  for  temi)le, 
fortress,  or  city.  As  regards  the  position  of  An- 
tonia, that  agrees  jierfectly  with  the  rock  scarps  now 
known  to  exist  at  the  north-east  of  the  Haram  area 
and  with  Jo.sephus.  Further,  if  the  temple  had 
been  built  at  the  south-west  corner  there  wimld 
have  been  a  break  in  the  continuity  of  the  wall  at 
a  point  600  feet  east  of  the  south-west  angle — that 
is,  at  the  Double  Gate.  No  such  break  occurs,  and 
Tio  trace  of  foutulations  remains  where  the  east 
wall  of  the  temple  would  have  stood.  The  whole  of 
the  walls  about  the  Haram  have  been  examined  at 
dilferent  points;  they  all  belong  to  the  same  period, 
and  -were  built  by  the  same  builder.  But,  it  is 
argued,  Josephus  says  that  the  temple  enclosure 
was  a  stadium  in  length  on  each  side.  Fergusson 
began,  therefore,  by  measuring  out  a  space  of  GOO 
feet.  Why  Josephus  should  in  one  place  be  consid- 
ered as  accurate  as  a  moib'tn  engineer  and  in  all 
other  places  should  be  acknowledged  as  a  loose 
and  inaccurate  writer  is  not  apparent.  Conder, 
however,  an<l  those  who  agree  with  him  meet  the 
dittieulty  by  supposing  (as  the  Mishnah  also  does) 
that  the  sacred  enclosure,  estimated,  not  mctimirerl, 
by  Josephus,  meant  the  sacred  court  within 
which  no  Gentile  could  enter.  (See  Warren  and 
Conder's  Jenisn/em. ) 

(•2)  The  Site  (f  the  IIolij  Sejm/eh re.^This  site  is 
even  more  important  on  topographical  grounds  than 
the  exact  position  of  the  temple.  For  on  it  <le- 
pends  the  course  of  the  second  wall.  On  other 
grounds  it  is  important,  because  the  whole  question 
of  tradition  and  its  value  depen<ls  upon  it.  If  we 
can  prove  that  the  secoiul  «all  runs  with<mt  the 
church,  then  Christ  could  never  have  been  buried 
here,  and  the  whole  mass  of  medieval  traditions 
comes  toppling  to  the  ground,  dragging  with  them 
a  thousand  su])erstitions  and  tra<litions  attached  to 
other  places.  Fergussim  says  that  the  Dome  of  the 
Rock  is  the  actual  church  built  by  Constantine. 
Now  this  church  was  certainly  destroyed  by  Hakem. 
Fiirthi'r,  if  our  view  of  the  temple  he  correct,  the 
church  could  not  have  stoml  on  this  site.  But 
against  Fergusson's  view  e\  eiy  single  write)-,  every 
pilgrim  an<l  traveller,  and  e\ery  architect  is arrayeil. 
riiere  exists  a  long  euteiia  of  eviilence  from  the 
Bordeaux  i>ilgrim  of  the  4tb  century  to  the  ]iresent 
day,  which,  when  it  is  arranged  in  chronological 
Oliver,  makes  it  impossible  to  doubt  that  the 
basilica  erected  by  Constantine  was  on  the  site  of 
the  present  church. 

W  as,  however,  the  true  site  of  the  Holy 
Sepulchre  known  to  the  Christians  of  that  time? 
The  i)resent  writer  agrees  with  those  who  belie\e 
that  in  the  4tli  century  the  site  of  the  Holy 
Sepulchii>  was  utterly  lost  an<l  fiu'gotten.  There  is 
not  a  hint  anj'where  to  show  that  it  was  known  or 
cared  about.     No  tradition  of  it  survived.     When 


i 


JERUSALEM 


JERUSALEM    ARTICHOKE      309 


pilgrims  first  began  to  visit  the  city  they  were 
shown  tlie  site  of  the  Ascension  ;  it  was  the  living 
Lord  they  worshipped,  not  the  dead  t'hrist.  As 
for  the  tomb  itself,  they  never  so  mnch  as  inqnired 
after  it.  When  sites  began  to  l>e  manufactured 
this  would  doubtless  be  one  of  the  first,  and 
Eusebius  with  naivete  records  the  surprise  of  every- 
body when  they  dug  up  the  ground  covering  what 
they  called  the  site  of  the  Lord's  tomb,  and  actually 
did  find  a  tomb  there  !  The  difficulty  of  a  trans- 
ference of  sites — though  sites  are  sometimes  trans- 
ferred— is  enormously  increased  in  this  case,  because 
there  never  ceased,  during  the  time,  when  the 
transference  was  possible,  a  continuous  stream, 
fii'st,  of  Christian  pilgrims,  including  clerics  as  well 
as  ignorant  people,  and  next,  of  Moslem  pilgrims  ; 
and  in  order  to  gain  evidence  for  their  story,  the 
Christians  who  changed  the  site  Avould  have  to  get 
the  Moslems  to  join  in  the  fi-aud.  And  how  was 
the  memorj-  of  tlie  old  site  to  be  obliterated  from 
the  minds  of  the  people? 

There  are  many  other  questions  connected  with 
the  topography  of  the  city,  such  as  the  apparent 
confusion  of  Mount  Ziou,  sometimes  with  the  city 
of  David,  and  sometimes  with  the  temple ;  the 
description  of  the  city  given  in  the  Book  of 
Nehemiah  ;  the  date  and  purpose  of  the  Golden 
Gate  ;  the  position  of  the  gates  of  the  city ;  the 
course  of  the  first,  second,  and  third  walls;  the 
royal  towers  ;  the  Tombs  of  the  Kings,  with  many 
otters  which  must  be  left  for  a  more  detailed 
investigation.  Meantime,  to  fix  the  site  of  the 
temple,  Antonia,  the  first  and  second  walls,  and 
the  Basilica  of  the  Anastasis  is  to  go  far  towards 
clearing  vip  the  whole  of  this  ditticult  question  con- 
nected with  the  recovery  of  Jerusalem. 

Modern  Jerusalem. — The  present  city  contains 
about  48,000  inhalritants,  of  whom  half  aie  Jews, 
a  quarter  Moslems,  and  the  rest  Christians  of 
various  sects.  There  are  three  sects  of  Jews, 
the  Sephardim,  of  Spanish  origin ;  the  Ashken- 
azim,  of  (Jerman  or  Polish  origin,  themselves 
<livided  into  several  sects  ;  and  the  Karaites.  The 
Christians  consist  of  Greeks,  Armenians,  Geor- 
gians, Copts,  Syrians,  Abyssinians,  Latins,  and 
Protestants.  Lying  among  not  veiy  fertile  moun- 
tains, the  city  has  but  little  commeice,  and  practi- 
cally no  manufactures  ;  of  late  years  it  has  gi-own 
a  considerable  way  outsiile  its  walls,  the  dull, 
uniform,  windowless  one-storied  houses  stretching 
on  ever>-  siile.  The  climate  has  been  compared  to 
that  of  the  south  of  France.  Snow  sometimes  falls 
in  January  and  February  ;  rains  begin  in  October 
and  continue  to  fall  at  intervals  till  April,  when  a 
cloudless  sky  begins  and  lasts  until  October.  There 
are  now  banks  and  hotels,  and  a  railway  from 
Jaft'a  was  ojiened  in  August  1892. 

The  best  books  on  Jerusalem  are  De  Vogue's  Temple 
de  Jerusalem ;  Warren  and  Conder's  Jerugalem  (Pales 
tine   Exploration    Fund),    with    its    great    portfolio    of 

fUtes  ( 1884 ) ;  Wilson's  Ordnance  Survei/  of  JrruacUem 
1868).  The  student  should  also  consult  the  Quarterhj 
Statement  of  the  Palestine  Exploration  Fund,  for  which 
a  very  good  index  lias  been  made.  I'alfsliii'-  nmler  Ihe 
Moaems  ( 1890),  bv  Guy  le  Strange  ( Palestine  E.\ploration 
Fund),  is  invaluable  because  it  is  the  only  book  which 
gives  the  eviilcnce  of  .\rabic  writers.  Major  Conder's 
Tent  Work  in  J'ulcittinc  (1878)  also  contains  an  excellent 
chapter  on  Jerusalem.  And  for  architecture  there  is  the 
work  (1S88)  of  Professor  Hayter  Lewis  on  the  Dome  of 
the  Rock.  See  also  Besant  and  Palmer,  Jtrnsnlem.  the 
Cil.ii  of  Hi-rwl  intd  Saladin  (1872;  4th  ed.  18<J!»);  and 
the  articles  C'ai.vart,  Jkws,  M.vccaiieks,  ('bl'.s.\de8, 
Godfrey,  Baldwin,  HosptTALLEits,  Omar. 

.Jkiusalem  BisHOPnic  — In  1841,  at  the  instance 
of  Frederick-William  IV.  of  Pnissia  and  by  the 
meiliation  of  ('imnt  Bunsen,  an  arrangi^ment  was 
made  to  institute  a  bishopric  at  Jerusalem  in  con- 
nection with  the  united  Church  of  England  and 


Ireland,  and  under  the  joint  protection  of  England 
and  Pru.ssia.  The  right  of  appointment  was  to 
lie  alternately  with  each  of  the  protecting  goveni- 
ments.  The  agreement  met  with  strenuous  opposi- 
tion on  the  part  of  the  Tiactarian  section  of^the 
Church  of  England,  as  excluding  sympathy  with 
tlie  Komun  Catholic  Church,  and  courting  inter- 
communion with  Protestant,  non-episcopal  Pnissia  ; 
and  Newman  regarded  it  as  '  the  third  blow,  ^^■hicll 
finally  shattered  his  faith  in  the  Anglican  Church.' 
The  first  bishop,  Alexander,  was  a  converted 
German  Jew  who  had  taken  orders  in  the  English 
Church.  On  his  death  (1845),  Bishop  Gobat,  a 
CJerman  Swiss  who  had  been  in  the  service  of  the 
London  Missionary  Society,  was  appointed  by 
Prussia.  He  died  in  1879 ;  and  on  the  death  of 
the  third  bishop,  Barclay  (named  by  England),  in 
1883,  no  successor  was  appointed.  Prussia  with- 
drew from  the  agieement  in  1S86;  and  since  1887 
the  bishopric  is  a  missionary  bishopric  of  the 
Church  of  England  exclusively.  See  Hechler,  The 
Jerusalem  Bishopric  (1883). 

Jerusalem  Artichoke,  or  Topinamburi 
(Uclianthus  tuberosus),  a  plant  of  the  natural 
order  Compositie,  and  of  the  same  genus  with  the 
common  Sunflower  (q.v.),  is  a  native  of  Brazil. 
The  word  Jerusalem,  in  the  English  name,  is  a 
corruption  of  the  Italian  girasole,  'sunflower  ; '  the 
name  mtiehol-e  is  merely  from  a  supposed  similarity 
of  flavour  in  the  eatable  part^ — the  tuber— to  the 
Glolie  artichoke.  The  Jerusalem  artichoke  has 
strai'dit,  sparsely  branching  stems  from  8  to  12 
feet  high,  and  many  rough,  ovate,  acute  stalked 
leaves;  and  in  the  end  of  autumn,  though  rarely  in 
Scotland,  produces  yellow  flowers  resembling  those 
of  the  common  sun- 
flower, but  smaller. 
The  thick,  fleshy,  and 
knotted  perennial  root 
produces,  pretty  close- 
ly around  it,  oval  or 
roundish  tubers,  some- 
times thirty  or  fifty  in 
numlier,  which  are  red- 
dish on  the  outside, 
and  whitish  within,  in 
appearance  very  simi- 
lar to  potatoes.  They 
have  a  sweetish,  muci- 
laginous taste  when 
boiled,  and  are  much 
more  watery  and  less 
nourishing  than  pota- 
toes. They  are,  how- 
ever, very  palatable, 
when  proi)erly  prepared 
with  sauce,  and  make 
very  good  soup.  The 
plant  is  also  useful 
for  fodder  for  cattle, 
yielded  by  its  leaves 
and  the  more  tender 
parts  of  the  stems, 
file  stems  and  leaves 
contain  much  nitre, 
and  have  been  used  for 
making  potash.  The 
fibre  is  used  f<H'  making 
cordage  and  coarse  cloth 


Jerusalem  Artichoke 
(Helimilhua  tuOcrofUs). 

The  Jerusalem  artichoke 


is  scarcely  an  agricultural  crop  in  Britain,  although 
it  is  to  some  extent  in  some  parts  of  Europe.  It 
was  known  in  English  gardens  before  the  potato, 
to  which  it  in  some  measure  gave  phue.  It  is 
generally  juopagated  by  small  tubers,  <ir  cuttings 
of  tubers,  like  tlie  jiotato;  and  its  cultivation  is  in 
most  respects  similar,  although  the  aspect  of  the 
plant  is  very  dill'eient.  In  .Vmerica  it  is  sometimes 
called  Canada  jxit.ato  or  Virginia  jiotato. 


310        JERUSALEM    CHAMBER 


JEST-BOOKS 


JcriisaltMii  riiaiiibrr.    See  Westminster. 

Jorvjuilv  Abbey  (iiionounccil  Jarvis),  a 
ruined  ("isterciaii  abbey  of  Yurksliire,  ISJ  miles 
NW.  of  Ri])on.  It  was  built  in  lloG  by  monks 
from  the  Yorkshire  monastery  of  IJyland,  and  was 
disnuintled  in  1539,  its  hvst  and  twenty-tliird  alibot 
having  been  hanged  two  years  before  for  liis  share 
in  tlie  Pilgrimage  of  (irace.  Its  scanty  ruins  were 
excavated  in  1803  by  the  Eail  of  Ailesburj-. 

Jervis,  Siit  Jonx.    See  St  Vincent  (Eael). 

Jt'Si*  or  lEsi  (anc.  yEsiuni  or  .-i^sis),  a  walled 
town  of  Italy,  17  miles  by  rail  SW.  of  Ancona, 
has  a  cathedral,  a  town-house  with  good  pictures, 
manufactures  of  silk,  paper,  soaji,  litc,  and  a  trade 
in  wine,  olive-oil,  corn,  and  cheese.  Here  the 
Emperor  Frederick  II.  was  born.     Pop.  12,118. 

Jessamine.    See  Jasmine. 

Jesse,  Edward,  a  popular  ^^Titer  on  natural 
history,  was  born  at  Button  Cranswick,  Yorkshire, 
14th  January  1780.  He  became  clerk  in  a  govern- 
ment ottiee,  and  was  successively  secretary  to  Lord 
Dartmouth,  commissioner  of  hackney-coaches,  and 
deputy  surveyor-general  of  the  royal  parks  and 
palaces.  He  died  at  Brighton,  29th  March  1868. 
His  books  include  Gleanings  in  Natural  Histori/ 
(1832-35),  An  Angler's  Bambks  (1836),  Scenes  ((n'cl 
Tales  of  Country  Life  (1844),  Anerdotes  of  Dogs 
(1846),  and  Lecturer  on.  Natural  History  (1861); 
besides  editions  of  Walton's  Complete  Angler, 
White's  Selborne,  and  Ritchie's  Windsor  Castle.  See 
Mrs  Houstoun's  Si/lvanus  Redivivuji  (Lend.  1890). 
—John  Heneage  Jesse,  son  of  the  foregoing, 
was  born  in  1815,  and  at  an  early  age  filled  a  place 
in  the  secretary's  department  of  the  Admiralty  at 
Whitehall.  He  had  already  written  poems  and 
plays  without  success,  when  he  found  his  work  in 
a  series  of  bright  and  interesting  works  in  the  lielil 
of  domestic  history,  which  have  yet  far  more  tlian 
their  mere  readableness  to  coinmend  them  to 
general  readers,  if  not  to  serious  students.  These 
are  Memoirs  of  the  Court  of  England  during  the 
Reign  of  the  Stuarts  (1840),  Memoirs  of  the  Court 
of  London  from  the  Revolution  of  16SS  to  the  Death 
of  George  LI.  (1843),  George  Sehvyn  and  his  Con- 
temporaries (1843-44),  Memoirs  of  the  Pretenders 
and  their  Adherents  (1845),  Richard  the  Third  and 
his  Contemporaries  (1862),  and  Memoirs  of  the 
Life  and  Reign  of  King  George  the  Third  (1867), 
the  last  his  best  book.  Other  works  are  his 
Literary  and  Historical  Memorials  of  London 
(1847);  London:  its  Celebrated  Characters  and 
Remarhable  Places  (1871);  and  Memoirs  of  Cele- 
brated Jitonian.s  ( 1875).     He  died  7th  July  1874. 

Jesse  Window,  a  window  that  had  the  genea- 
logical tree  of  Jesse,  father  of  David,  painted  on  its 
glass  or  sculptured  on  the  mullions.  Such  were 
once  common  in  churches. 

Jessor,  also  called  Kasba,  a  town  of  Bengal, 
capital  of  a  district,  74  miles  by  rail  NE.  of  Cal- 
cutta. Po|i.  8495.  Since  the  opening  of  the  Cen- 
tral Bengal  Railway  Jessor  has  devidoped  into  a 
trading-mart  of  some  importance  in  local  prochicts. 

Jest-book.S  are  of  two  kinds  :  collections  of 
witty  sayings  and  practical  jokes  which  go  under 
the  names  of  certain  men  wlio  were  celebrateil  in 
their  day  as  '  merry  fellows,'  ami  collections  of 
facetia',  gathered  from  many  sources,  ancient  and 
modern.  Of  the  lirst  class  'farltons  Jests  may  be 
considered  as  a  fair  type  among  English  books  of 
facetia-.  Here  all  the  jests  and  practical  jokes  are 
a.scribed  to  that  pojiular  Eli/abelhan  comedian,  or 
rather  bull'oon  ;  but  i)roliably  not  a  single  one  of 
them  is  genuine  or  authentic.  This  book,  in  fact, 
Ls  simply  a  catchpenny  collection  of  jests  taken  out 
of  older  books,  uiid  fathered  on  Tarlton  after  his 
death  in  order  to  stimulate  its  sale  and  popularity.  I 


A  notable  example  is  found  in  TarlUm's  device  to 
reach  London  \\  itiiout  expense,  at  a  time  when  he 
was  in  the  country  and  with  an  empty  purse  :  he 
contrived  to  ha^•e  liimself  arrested  as  a  '  seminary 
])riest'  and  taken  up  to  the  metroi)olis,  where  he 
wa.s  at  once  recognised  and  set  at  liberty.  This  is 
a  variant  of  the  well-known  story  of  Rabelais,  with 
his  three  packets  of  harmless  wood -ashes,  labelled 
'  Poison  for  the  King,'  '  Poison  for  the  Queen,' 
'Poison  for  the  Dauphin.'  And  it  reajjjiears  in 
another  jestlH>ok  of  the  same  class,  in  the  com- 
position of  which  the  learned  man  under  whose 
name  it  goes  had  no  more  share  than  he  had  in 
that  of  the  Talmud,  namely.  The  Witty  and  Enter- 
taining Exploits  of  George  Buchanan,  commonly 
railed  the  King's  Fool.  Another  old  English 
liook  of  this  kind  is  the  Jests  of  Scogiii,  which 
the  enterprising  printer  foisted  on  the  public— as 
was  also  done  in  the  case  of  the  I'ates  of  the 
Mad  Men  of  Gotham  (see  Gotham) — as  having 
been  compiled  by  '  A.  B.  of  Phisicke  Doctour,' 
meaning  the  facetious  Andrew  Borde.  In  this 
book  Scogin,  or  Seogan,  '  a  schoUer  of  Oxford,'  is 
lepresented  as  playing  all  sorts  of  tricks,  most  of 
which  are  found  in  earlier  collections,  and  all  are 
traceable  to  French,  Italian,  and  Asiatic  sources. 
For  example,  with  the  helj)  of  his  '  chamber-fellow,' 
he  cheats  a  simple  rustic  out  of  half  his  flock  of 
sheep  by  ])ersuading  him  that  they  are  really  hogs 
— a  trick  which  not  only  occurs  in  medieval  Latin 
collections  and  all  the  jest-books  of  Europe,  but 
has  its  probable  original  in  an  old  Indian  work 
entitled  Hitopudesa  (a  Sanskrit  form  of  the  Fable* 
of  Pilpay,  or  Bidpai),  where,  in  like  manner,  three 
sharpers  cheat  a  Brahnum  of  a  goat  he  is  carrying 
to  sacrifice,  by  making  him  believe  it  is  a  dog. 
Of  other  jest-books  the  Pleasant  Conceits  of  Old 
Hobson,  the  Merry  Londoner,  is  a  good  example, 
albeit,  as  usual,  containing  little  that  is  not  found 
elsewhere.  Old  Hobson  is  a  conlirmed  jjractical 
joker,  and  many  of  his  best  conceits  turn  on 
merely  verbal  quibbles.  Two  nuue  books  of  this 
class  are  the  Jests  of  George  Peelc,  the  jjlayer, 
and  Archy  Armstrong's  Banquet  of  Jests  ;  and  it  is 
hardly  necessary  to  say  that  their  names  are  all 
that  is  theirs  in  the  collections. 

The  oldest  known  English  jest-book  is  A  Hundred 
Mery  'Talys  (about  1525),  to  which  the  lively 
Beatrice  refers  when  she  says  to  Benedick,  in  Much 
Ado  about  Nothing  { Act  II.  scene  i.),  '  Will  you  tell 
me  who  told  you  that  I  was  disdainful,  and  that  I 
had  all  my  good  wit  out  of  the  Hundred  Merry 
Tales? '  J^ext  in  order  of  date — and  of  interest  also 
— is  Mery  'Tales,  Wittie  t^ncstions,  and  (Jiiictcc  Au- 
sweres,  rcry  Mery  and  I'lcasant  to  be  Rcdile  (about 
1535).  From  these  two  the  compilers  of  s«ibsequent 
jest-books  in  the  early  years  of  the  1 7th  century  drew 
very  freely,  with  one  notable  exception,  Taylor'.'i 
Wit  and  Klirth  (i.e.  John  Taylor,  the  Water-poet), 
which,  he  tells  us  in  the  lengthy  title-imge,  he 
'chargeably  collected  out  of  Taverns,  Ordinaries, 
Innes,  Bowling-greenes  and  Alleys,  Ale-houses, 
Tobacco-shops,  llighwayes  and  Water-passages,  and 
which  is  '  made  up  and  fashioned  into  Clinches, 
Bulls,  Quirkes,  Yerkes,  tjuips  and  Jerkes :  apothegm- 
ati('allv  bundled  up  at  the  re(|uestof  John  (iaiiett's 
Chost'  ( 1635).  This  is  by  far  the  most  original  of 
all  our  English  jest-books — by  «  hich  we  mean  that 
it  contains  very  few  of  the  tales  found  in  the 
earlier  collectiuns.  And  if  we  seek  for  the  reason 
of  this,  it  is  probably  to  be  found  in  the  superior 
advantages  which  Taylor  possessed  over  mere 
literaiy  hacks — who  were  able  only  '  to  make 
new  books  as  apothecaries  make  new  mixtures, 
by  pouring  out  ol  one  vessel  into  another '--in  his 
protession  of  a  Thames  waterman,  which  must 
liave  briHigbt  him  into  contact  with  all  sorts  and 
conditions  of   men,    from   whom,   more  especially 


JEST-BOOKS 


JESTERS 


311 


5!ea-capUiins.  he  pioliably  learned  a  goodly  portion 
of  the  jests  he  tells  so  iniiiiiitly. 

The  earliest  collections  are  larcrely  derived  from 
classical  and  monkish  sources,  and  some  of  the 
tales  are  exceedinj;ly  coai-se,  even  ohseeiie.  Many 
are  at  the  exjiense  of  the  monks  and  friars,  whose 
greed  and  licentionsness  are  the  subjects  of  unspar- 
ing ridicule.  Not  a  few  exhibit  women  in  no  very 
favourable  light,  whether  maids  or  matrons,  anil 
these  we  may  he  sure  are  the  invention  of  miso- 
gynist churchmen.  Such  tales  show  that  women 
were  hehl  in  almost  a.«  low  estimation  in  Europe 
during  the  middle  ages,  and  long  after,  as  they 
seem  ever  to  have  been  in  Asiatic  countries  ;  and 
there  can  be  little  doubt  that  this  was  ilue  mainly 
to  the  monks  and  friars,  for  whom  oiirown  Cliancer 
had  seldom  a  goo<i  word  to  say.  There  is,  how- 
ever, considerable  humour  in  some  of  these  tales 
at  the  expense  of  women  :  and,  after  all,  human 
nature  is  verj"  much  the  same  in  every  age  and 
place  ;  as,  for" example,  in  the  storj-  of  the  young 
woman  wlio  grieved  for  the  death  of  her  husband, 
and  her  father  tried  in  vain  to  console  her  by  say- 
ing that  he  had  got  her  another  husband,  liut  she 
declared  she  would  have  him  not  ;  however,  when 
they  were  all  seated  at  dinner,  she  whispered  to 
him,  amidst  her  sobs,  '  Father,  where  is  this  same 
young  man  that  is  to  be  my  husband  ?'  To  which 
the  story-teller  adds  the  '  moral '  that  '  by  this  ye 
may  see  that  it  is  no  more  wonder  for  a  woman  to 
weep  than  for  a  goose  to  go  barefoot.' 

The  l>est  known  of  English  collections  of  faceti.-e 
is  Joe  Mi//er's  Jest-Bool;  or  the  Wit's  Vnde  Mecnm, 
which,  even  in  its  original  form  (1739),  is  a  mere 
compilation  of  witticisms,  drawn  by  the  versatile 
John  Mottley  mainly  from  16th  and  17th  centurj- 
jest-books,  the  liest  joke  in  it  being  the  name  of 
Joseph  Miller  (1684-1738)  on  the  title-page ;  for, 
though  a  comedian  by  profession,  it  is  said  that  he 
was  never  known  to  maKe  a  joke  in  his  life.  Those 
who  are  well  acquainted  with  the  humorous  litera- 
tnre  of  other  countries  as  well  as  that  of  our 
own  nnist  confess  that  if  our  jest-books,  both 
ancient  and  mo<leni,  were  stripped  of  all  that  is 
borrowed,  the  number  of  jokes  that  we  can  fairly 
claim  wonld  be  exceedingly  few  indeed.  But,  for 
the  matter  of  that,  no  other  country  is  better.  The 
late  Mr  Rjilston  has  justly  remarked  that  'an 
unfamiliar  jest  is  rarely  met  with  in  the  lower 
strata  of  fiction.'  The  liest  jokes  have  been  for 
ages  known  alike  to  the  Russian  or  Norwegian 
peasant,  the  vine-dresser  of  France  or  Spain,  the 
Italian  rustic,  the  Argyllshire  crofter,  the  wander- 
ing Arab,  the  luxurious  Persian,  the  peaceful 
Hindn,  and  the  crafty  C'hinese.  We  pa.«8  over 
the  species  of  mountebank  jest  which  has  of  late 
years  come  into  vogue  in  the  corners  of  many 
American  newspajiers,  as  it  is  likely  soon  to 
perish  of  its  own  infirmities.  Most  of  the  early 
English  jest-books  mentioned  in  this  article  are 
now,  in  their  original  forms,  of  extreme  rarity, 
although  there  must  have  been  many  ami  large 
editions  of  them.  Mr  W.  C.  Hazlitt — who  has 
reprinted  a  considerable  numlier  of  them  in  his 
Snakespeare  Jest ■  Hooks { ^  vols.  ]8()4),  with  valuable 
prefaces  and  notes — thinks  that  they  were  literally 
'  thumbed  out  of  existence  ; '  but  this  can  hardly 
account  for  their  exceeding  rarity,  and  we  are 
rather  disposeil  to  believe  that  vast  numbers  of 
copies  were  destroyed  during  the  Puritanical 
times  along  with  mucli  more  valuable  Ixioks  ;  and, 
when  the  reaction  set  in  with  the  Restoration, 
they  would  be  considered  as  old-fashioned,  .'ind  the 
wits  wo\ild  liegin  afresh,  though  they  did  not 
disdain  to  make  a  verj-  lilteral  use  of  the  anti- 
quated jest-books. 

Besides  the  bookn  already  incidentally  mentioned,  most 
collection?!  of  folklore  and  of  chap-books  contain  jests. 


Again,  many  books  of  this  class  are  roughly  grouped  as 
•  Facetise  '  in  booksellers'  lists,  especially  if  nior*  or  less 
Ifriroijtei  in  character.  Good  Knglish  jest-books  of  the 
Cavalier  period  are  the  Westmhiiitei'  Itrotlcrt/,  Choice 
Droltrrt/y  and  Mn-ri/  DrolUri/,  reprinted  by  Mr  R.  Koberts 
of  Boston  (3  vols.').  See  articles  Bidpai,  Cbap-books, 
Folklore,  and  Goth.^m. 

Jesters,  Court,  persons  who  were  kei>t  in  the 
households  of  princes  and  lesser  dignitaries  to  fur- 
nish amusement  by  their  real  or  atlected  folly,  and 
hence  commonly  called  Court  Fools.  At  what 
time  they  were  introduced  into  European  courts 
has  not  "been  precisely  ascertained,  but  there  is 
reason  to  suppose  that  they  existed  in  England 
iluring  tl)e  period  of  our  Saxon  history,  and  cer- 
tainlv  in  the  reign  of  William  the  Conqueror,  since 
an  almost  contemporary  historian,  Maitre  Wace, 
has  left  a  curious  account  of  the  preservation  of 
William's  life,  when  he  was  only  Duke  of  Nor- 
mandy, by  his  fool  Goles.  Otlier  fools  whose 
names  have  descended  are  the  Hitard  of  Edmund 
Ironside,  the  Will  Somei-s  of  Henry  VIII.,  Archie 
Armstrong,  who  lost  his  office  for  jests  which  the 
petty-minded  Laud  could  not  endure ;  and  in 
France  Caillet  and  Triboulet  in  tlie  time  of  Francis 
I.,  and  Chicot  in  the  reign  of  Henry  III.  Triboulet 
figures  in  Kalielais,  and  is  the  hero  of  Hugo's  Le 
rot  s'omusc  and  of  Verdi's  Jii(jijlctt(j.  The  last 
private  person  to  keep  a  fool  in  England  was  Lord 
Surt'olk,  whose  jester,  Dicky  Pierce,  was  buried  at 
Berkeley  in  172S.  In  Douce  s  Illustrations  of  Shake- 
sjxare  (1807)  there  is  a  dissertation  on  clowns 
and  fools,  with  an  account  of  their  peculiar  dress, 
the  motley  coat,  the  tight  breeches  with  legs  of 
dift'erent  colours,  the  cowl  bearing  asses'  ears  and 
crested  with  a  cockscomb,  and  the  bauble,  a  short 
stafJ'  with  a  ridiculous  head.  Douce  divides  them 
into  nine  clas.ses,  and  tinds  the  parent  of  the  Shake- 
spearian stage  clown  in  the  '  vice '  of  the  mysteries 
and  moralities. 

In  the  East  the  office  of  jest«r  existed  in  the  8th 
century,  and  probably  much  earlier  in  India.  The 
famous  Calif  Haroun  al-Raschid  had  a  jester  named 
Bahalul,  some  of  whose  sayings  and  doings  have 
been  preservetl  by  Araliian  writers.  He  appeal's 
to  have  possessed  vivacity,  wit,  and  observation, 
which  were,  however,  often  concealed  under  a  mask 
of  simplicity,  and  he  was  permitted  to  take  great 
liberties  with  the  calif's  courtiers.  '  I  wish,'  said 
Haroun  to  him  one  day,  '  I  wish  you  woiild  procure 
me  a  list  of  all  the  fools  in  Bagdad.'  '  That  would 
be  dilhcult,  O  Commander  of  the  Faithful,'  replied 
the  jester;  'but  if  you  desire  to  know  the  wise 
men,  the  catalogue  may  soon  be  completed.'  This 
found  its  way — mutatis  mutaitdis — into  English 
jest-ljooks  in  the  16th  century.  One  day  liahaliil 
was  discovered  seated  on  the  calif's  throne,  for 
which  Haroun  awarded  him  a  whipjiing  ;  then  said 
the  jester,  'U  Commamler  of  the  Faithful,  I  sat  in 
this  seat  only  half  an  hour  .and  have  been  whipped 
for  doing  so  ;  what  do  you  deserve  who  sit  in  it 
every  day?'  The  jester  doubtless  tlnmght  the 
slight  scourging  he  received  was  amplv  compen- 
sated by  the  bag  of  gold  pieces  wliicli  Haroun 
ordered  to  be  given  to  him  for  his  witty  remark. 

From  the  i>ractical  jokes  popularly  ascribed  to 
Ramakistnan,  he  may  lie  styled  the  Scogin  of 
Madra-s.  A  collection  of  his  jests  in  the  Tamil 
language  was  translated  into  lingli.sh  and  Teliigu 
by  riarrain  Sawmy,  and  published  at  Madras  in 
18.39,  and  not  a  few  of  them  areahuost  identical  with 
tales  ascribed  to  Euro|)ean  court  jesters,  such  as  our 
English  Scogin  and  the  Italian  (ionella.  This 
[  almost  unknown  little  book  explains  how  he  was 
endowed  with  so  nmch  wit  that  be  became  the 
greatest  Je.ster  in  the  wor'il,  and  by  the  exerci.se 
of  this  wit  at  the  court  of  a  riijji,  was  able  to  main- 
tain himM;df  and  fandly.     Like  the  European  court 


312 


JESTERS 


JESUITS 


jesters,  Rainakistnan's  too  ready  wit  frecjuently 
roused  his  roval  master's  wrath  ;  but  tliou^di  some- 
times condemned  to  deatli  lie  always  evaded  it, 
and  was  again  and  again  received  with  favour 
tlirou<;li  his  irresistible  drollery.  His  jests,  how- 
ever, have  none  of  the  coarseness  which  is  the  chief 
characteristic  of  his  western  brethren  ;  for  example, 
in  bis  counterpart  to  tlie  well-known  jest  of  Scogin, 
when  the  king  commanded  him  never  to  show  his 
face  in  the  royal  presence  again,  he  saves  propriety 
and  carries  out  his  jest  by  entering  with  a  large  pot 
over  his  head  and  down  to  his  shoulders.  See 
Dr  Doran's  Uistory  of  Court  Fools  (1858). 

Jesuits,  or  Society  of  Jesus,  a  celebrated 
religious  order  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church, 
which  has  filled  a  large  space  in  the  ecclesiastical 
and  even  the  political  history  of  the  world.  It 
wa.s  founded  in  15.34  by  Ignatius  Loyola  (q.v.),  in 
concert  with  live  associates — Peter  Le  Fevre,  a 
Savoyard  ;  three  Spaniards — James  Lainez,  Francis 
Xa\ier,  and  Nicholas  Bobadilla  ;  and  a  Portuguese 
named  Rodriguez.  The  original  object  of  associa- 
tion was  limited  to  a  pilgrimage  to  the  Holy  Land, 
anil  a  mission  for  the  conversion  of  infidels  ;  but 
as  all  access  to  the  Holy  Land  wa-s  precluded  by 
the  outbreak  of  a  war  with  the  Turks,  tlie  associates 
turned  their  thoughts  to  a  more  comprehensive 
organisation,  specially  designed  to  meet  those  more 
modern  requirements  which  had  arisen  since  the 
Reformation.  With  this  view,  Ignatius  Loyola, 
with  Lainez  ami  Le  Fevre,  having  meanwhile  re- 
cruited several  new  associates,  repaired  to  Rome  in 
1539,  and  submitted  to  the  pope,  Paul  III.,  the  rule 
of  the  proposed  order,  the  great  aim  of  wliich  was 
expres.sed  in  their  adopted  niotto  :  Ad  Majorem 
Dei  Gloriam  ( '  To  the  greater  glory  of  God  ' ) ;  and 
the  vow  of  which,  in  addition  to  the  threefold 
obligations  common  to  all  Catholic  religious  orders, 
of  chastity,  poverty,  and  obedience,  comprised  a 
fourth,  whereby  the  members  bound  themselves 
unreservedly  to  go  as  missionaries  to  any  country 
which  the  pope  might  indicate  to  them.  The 
new  rule  was  ajiproved  by  a  bull  of  1540 ;  and 
in  the  following  year  the  association  was  prac- 
tically inaugurated  at  Rome,  by  the  election  of 
Ignatius  Loyola  as  its  first  general. 

The  original  constitution  of  the  society  has 
undergone  few  modifications.  Although  it  is  com- 
monly represented  as  absolutely  monarchical,  yet 
the  authority  of  the  general  is,  in  many  respects, 
strictly  limited.  It  is  true  that  tlie  general— who 
is  elected  by  a  congregation  of  professed  members, 
compo.sed  of  two  elected  fathers  in  each  province 
together  with  the  provincial — holds  his  office  for 
life ;  and,  although  he  is  aided  in  his  government 
by  a  council  of  five  assistants,  he  is  not  obliged  to 
follow  their  advice  even  when  unanimous.  These 
assistants  are  elected  by  the  same  congregation 
that  elects  the  general,  and  remain  in  oHiee  during 
his  life.  Each  assistant  has  a  more  inimediate 
charge  of  a  grouji  of  jirovinccs  and  missions  called 
an  Assistioiri/,  formed  maiidy  according  to  the 
principal  European  languages — Italian.  (Jeriiian, 
Frencl),  Spanish,  and  English.  Rut  tlioiigli  the 
general  is  thus  absolutely  free  in  his  decisions,  he 
is  .strictly  bound  by  the  constitutions  of  the  order  ; 
nor,  although  he  may  dispense  in  particular  ca.ses, 
is  be  competent  of  his  own  authority  to  annul  or 
to  alter  any  of  the  constitutions.  Another  check 
on  inerely  arbitrary  power  and  outlet  for  com- 
plaints may  be  mentioned.  Every  three  yeai-s  a 
Congregation  of  I'rocuiators,  as  it  is  called,  is 
summoned  by  the  gimeral.  This  is  comjioseil  of 
a  deputy  chosen  by  vote  in  each  province  to  go  to 
Rome  or  elsewhere,  and  lay  the  condition  and  needs 
of  the  province  personally  before  the  general. 
AVhen  all  the  deputies  are  assembled,  they  have 
under  the  presidency  of  the  general  always  to  vote 


on  and  decide  one  (juestion— whether  there  is 
any  need  of  convoking  a  general  congregation. 
AlthouLdi  no  instance  of  deposition  has  ever 
occurred,  the  general  himself  is  liable  to  be  de- 
posed by  the  sentence  of  such  a  general  cimgrega- 
tion,  in  certain  contingencies  ^^  liich  are  specifically 
pointed  out  by  the  constitutions. 

The  body  over  which  this  general  presides  con- 
sists of  four  clas.ses  :  (1)   Professed,  who,  having 
passed  throui'h  all  preparatory  stages,  w  hicb  com- 
monly extend  over  ten  or  twelve  years,  or  even 
a  longer  period,  have  solemnly   taken   the   vows 
described  above,  including  that  of  obedience  to  the 
pope.     It  is  from  this  class  alone  that  the  general 
and  all  the  higher  otlicials  of  the  society  are  chosen. 
(2)  Coadjutors,  siiiritual  and  temporal':  the  former 
—who   have   completed    their  studies,   and    have 
(seldom  before   their   thirty  second    year,   or   even 
later)    been   admitted   to   holy   orders — being  de- 
signed to  assist  the  professed  "in  preaching,  teach- 
ing, and  the  direction  of  souls ;  the  latter  being 
lay-brothers,  to  whom  the  minor  and  menial  offices 
of  the  society  are  assigned.     ( 3 )  Scholastics,  who, 
having  passed  through  the  no\itiate,  are  engaged 
for  a  long  series  of  years,  either  in   pursuing   their 
own  studies,  or  in  teaching  in  the  various  schools 
of   the  order.     (4)   La.stly,   novices,  who,   after  a 
short    trial    as    'postulants'    for    admission,    are 
engaged    for    two    years  exelusi\ely   in    spiritual 
exercises,   {uayer,   meditation,  ascetic  reading,  or 
ascetic   practices,   and   generally   in    a    course  of 
disciplinary    training.      The    administrative    and 
executive  government  of  the  society,  throughout 
the  various  provinces  or  missions  into  which  it   is 
divided,   is  entrusted,   under   the  general,   to   pro- 
vincials, who  are  named  by  the  general,  and  hold 
office  commonly  for  at  least  three  years.     In  each 
separate  province  there  are  three  kinds  of  com- 
munities— ^jirofessed  houses  or  residences,  colleges, 
and    novitiates.      The    head-superior    in    each    is 
appointed  by  the  general,  who  receives  at  stated 
intervals  a  detailed  report  of  the  character,  conduct, 
and  position  of  each  member  of  the  society.     In  all 
these  gradations   the    subordination   is   complete, 
and   the  obligation  of  obedience  is  immediate  and 
unreserved  ;  and  one  of  the  most  familiar  accusa- 
tions against  the  society  is  that   this  duty  of  blind 
and  implicit  obedience  makes  the  superior  the  sole 
and  final  arbiter  of  con.science  for  all   his  subjects, 
the  judge  of  good  and  evil,  of  virtue  .and  of  vice. 
Nevertheless,  whatever  may  be  saiil  of  the  )>rac- 
tical    tendency   of   this  relation,    the   Jesuits   and 
their  aiiulogists   plead   that   both   in  the  rules  of 
St   Ignatius  and  in  the  so-called   'exanioii'  of  the 
candidate     there    is    contained,     in     the    duty    of 
obedience   to  a  superior,    an   explicit   reservation 
for  the  subject,  '  unless  where  the  sujierior  should 
command  what  is  sinful. ' 

The  system  of  training  exhibits  the  most  pro- 
found knowledge  of  the  biimaii  heart,  and  the 
most  correct  appreeiatiim  of  the  religions  instincts 
and  impulses  of  mankind.  The  long  exercises  of 
the  novitiate  were  designed  by  Ignatius  to  form  the 
individual  (diaracter  in  habits  of  personal  holiness, 
and  practices  of  personal  piety.  It  was  the  busi- 
ness of  the  school  and  college  to  form  the  social 
character  of  the  future  teachers  of  men,  and 
directors  of  the  destinies  of  society.  To  learning 
carefully  adapted  to  the  actual  condition  and  iiro- 
gress  of  knowledge  they  sought  to  add  manners 
and  habits  calculated  to  inspire  confidence,  and  to 
disarm  lucjudice  ami  sus]iicion.  Unlike  the  older 
orders,  they  made  no  parade  of  a  special  calling, 
whether  by  a  peculiar  habit,  or  by  peculiar  exterior 
indications  or  austerity  or  asceticism.  They  en- 
joyed, indeed,  in  these  respects,  some  exemptions 
from  the  more  austere  practices  of  other  ordere. 
Their  churches  were  but  (lesigned  as  suiiplementai'y 


JESUITS 


313 


to  those  of  the  parish  clergy*  (wliose  oidiniiiy 
costume  they  adopted  as  their  own  conventual 
dress),  witlioiit  the  canonical  services,  without  much 
imposing  or  attractive  ceremonial  :  liein''  cliietiy 
appropriated  for  religious  instruction,  ana  for  the 
duties  of  the  confessional.  Their  casuistry  avoided 
all  harsh  and  excessive  rigour :  and  it  cannot  he 
douhted  that  some  of  their  writers  carried  it  to  the 
opposite  extreme.  But  above  all,  they  addressed 
themselves  to  the  great  want  of  their  time — educa- 
tion ;  and  through  the  mastery  which  they  soon 
obtained  in  this  important  field,  a.s  well  as  their 
eminence  in  every  department  of  learning,  divinity, 

fihilosophy,   history,   scholarship,    antii|uities,    and 
etters,  they  attained   to  unliounded  influence   in 
every  department  of  society. 

The  organisation  of  the  society  is  settled,  in 
every  important  particular,  by  the  original  rules 
and  constitutions  of  St  Ignatius.  The  opponents 
of  the  Jesuits,  however,  allege  that,  in  addition  to 
these  public  and  avowed  constitutions,  there  exists 
in  the  society,  for  the  guidance  of  their  hidden 
actions,  and  for  the  private  direction  of  the 
thoroughly  initiated  members,  a  secret  code,  en- 
titled J/r<H/<f(  Secrcta  ('Secret  Instructions'),  which 
was  meant  to  be  reserved  solely  for  the  private 
guidance  of  the  more  advanced  members,  and 
which  wa.s  not  only  not  to  be  communicated  to  the 
general  body,  but  was  to  be  boldly  repudiated  by 
:ill  should  its  existence  at  any  time  be  suspected 
or  discovered.  This  singular  code,  a  masterpiece 
of  craft  and  duplicity,  was  first  printed  at  Cracow 
in  1612,  and  has  been  repeatedly  reprinted  by  the 
enemies  of  the  .Jesuits ;  Init  it  is  indignantly  dis- 
claimed by  the  society.  The  accounts  of  the  time 
and  circumstances  of  its  discovery  are  suspicious 
and  contradictorj-.  The  book  has  been  repeatedly 
condemned,  both  at  Rome  and  by  other  authorities, 
as  well  as  by  the  society,  and  its  apocryphal  char- 
acter is  now  commoidy  admitted. 

The  history  of  the  society  is  varied  in  the  different 
countries,  but  in  each  may  be  divided  into  three 
stages — the  rise,  the  suppression,  and  the  restoration 
of  the  order.  In  Italy  its  early  career  was  brilliant 
and  unclouded.  Before  the  death  of  the  first  general, 
St  Ignatius,  in  1556,  the  Italian  Jesuits  had  swelled 
to  KMK)  in  number,  and  the  order  was  established 
in  twelve  provinces.  Their  first  check  in  Italy 
occurred  in  Venice.  In  the  contest  of  this  republic 
with  Paul  v.  (q.v. )  the  Jesuits,  taking  the  side  of 
Rome,  accepted  in  1606  the  alternative,  proposed 
by  the  senate,  of  leavin"  the  \'euetian  territory ; 
nor  was  it  till  16.56  that  they  were  re-established  in 
Venice,  from  which  time  they  continued  to  enjoy 
nndi.sturbed  influence  in  Italy  until  the  suppres- 
sion of  the  order.  The  earliest  settlements  outside 
of  Italy  were  in  Portugal  .and  Sjiain.  In  1.540 
Rodriguez  (a  Portugue.se  nobleman)  and  Francis 
Xavier  opened  colleges  in  Portugal,  at  the  invita- 
tion of  the  king.  Francis  Borgia,  Duke  of  (iaudia, 
in  Spain,  wjus  equally  well  received  in  his  native 
countrj',  where  the  order  flourished  so  rapidly, 
that,  at  the  time  of  the  suppression,  the  Spanish 
Jesuits  numbered  above  6W)0. 

In  France,  although  a  house  for  novices  was 
founded  in  Paris  by  St  Ignatius  in  1542,  the  univer- 
sity of  Paris  opposed  their  introduction  as  unneces- 
sary, and  irreconcilable  with  its  ])rivileges.  They 
were  distasteful  to  supporters  of  the  (lallicaii 
liberties,  and  still  more  to  the  Huguenots.  The 
inristb,  the  jiarliament,  and  the  jiartisans  of  abso- 
Intism  were  alarmed  by  the  free  politii.il  opinions 
which  liatl  found  expression  in  some  of  the  Je>Mit 
schools.  t)n  the  other  hand,  the  democratic  party 
attributed  to  them  a  sinister  use  of  their  influence 
with  courts.  And  thus  their  progress  in  France 
was  slows  anil  their  jiosition  at  all  times  precarious. 
It  was  with  much  clilliculty  that  the  parliament  of 


Paris  consented  to  register  the  royal  decree  which 
authorised  their  establishment.  In  more  than  one 
instance  the  univei-sity  jirotested  against  their 
.schools  .-xs  invading  its  jirivileges.  In  the  wars  of 
the  League  they  did  not  fail  to  make  new  enemies; 
an<l  at  len^li  the  assassination  of  Henry  HI.  by 
Clement  (although  no  eviilence  of  any  connection 
with  the  Jesuits  appeared  in  his  case),  and  the  cir- 
cumstance that  Cliatel,  who  attempted  the  life  of 
HeniT  IV.,  had  at  one  time  been  a  pupil  in  their 
schools,  led  to  their  expulsion  from  France  in  l."i!l4. 
They  were  reinstated,  howe\er,  in  160.3  ;  but  on  the 
assassination  of  Henry  IV.  by  Kavaillac  the  out- 
cry against  them  was  renewed.  Although  it  seems 
quite  certain  that  this  clamour  was  utterly  without 
foundation,  yet  the  opinions  held  by  one  of  their 
order,  INIariana  (q.v.),  on  the  right  of  revolt, 
although  condemned  by  the  general,  gave  a  colour 
to  this  and  every  similar  imputation.  A  less  deep 
but  more  permanent  and  t'ornudable  movenu'Ut 
against  them  was  gradually  stirred  up  at  a  later 
period,  by  a  combination  of  all  the  causes  of 
unpoiiularity  alrea<ly  described,  to  which  new  point 
was  given  by  the  well-known  Jansenist  controveisy, 
and  by  the  questions  as  to  the  imputed  laxity  of 
the  moral  teaching  of  the  Jesuits,  and  their  alleged 
corrupt  and  demoralising  casuistry.  What  the 
ponderous  and  indignant  prelections  of  the  Sor- 
Ijonne,  and  the  learned  folios  of  the  Dominican 
and  Augustinian  schools  had  failed  to  accomplish, 
the  wit  and  brilliancy  of  the  celebrated  Lcttres 
Proi'iiiciales  of  Pascal  (q.v.)  efi'ectually  achieved. 
The  laxity  of  some  of  the  .Jesuit  casuists  wa.s 
mercilessly  exposed  Ijy  this  brilliant  adversary,  who 
represented  it  as  the  authorised  teaching  of  the 
order,  and  the  craft}"  maxims  and  practices  popu- 
larly ascribed  to  the  society  were  placed  Ijefore  the 
world  in  a  light  at  once  exquisitely  amusing  and 
fatal  to  the  reputation  of  the  body.  The  attempts 
at  rejoinder  on  the  part  of  the  Jesuits  Init  served 
to  fi.x  the  ridicule  more  firmly.  Of  the  thousands 
who  laughed  at  the  happy  humour,  or  sympathised 
with  the  vigorous  raillery  of  Pascal,  few,  indeed, 
could  plod  throu'di  the  learned  but  lieaxy  scholas- 
ticism of  his  adversaries.  In  vain  the  Jesuits 
insisted  that  the  obnoxious  casuists  had  been  con- 
demned by  the  society  itself :  in  vain  they  showed 
where  their  opinions  ditt'ered  fi'om  tliose  imputed  to 
them.  The  wit  of  Pascal  remained  unanswered  ; 
and  whatever  «ere  the  logical  merits  of  the  con- 
troversy, no  doubt  could  be  entertaine<l  as  to  its 
popular  issue.  The  pungent  pleasantries,  too,  of 
the  Provincial  Letters  were  liut  a  foretaste  of  the 
acrimony  of  the  later  Jansenistical  controvei'sies, 
in  which  the  Jesuits  .stored  up  for  themselves  an 
accumulation  of  animosities  in  the  most  various 
quarters,  the  divines,  the  Lawyers,  the  court  id's, 
which  were  destined  to  bear  bitter  fruit  in  the  later 
history  of  the  society  in  France.  Nevertheless, 
after  a  long  conHict,  they  enjoyed  a  temporary 
triumph  in  the  last  years  of  the  Regency  and  the 
beginning  of  the  reign  of  Louis  XV. 

In  (iermany  the  Jesuit  institute  was  received 
with  general  and  immediate  favour.  In  the  Catho- 
lic territories,  Austria,  Bavaria,  and  the  Rhenish 
principalities,  they  not  only  founded  colleges  and 
other  establishments  of  their  own,  but  they  were 
apnointed  at  Ingolstadt  and  other  universities  to 
hold  important  ))rofes.sorships,  and  received  in 
many  dioceses  the  charge  of  the  episcopal  .semin- 
aries then  newly  established.  Before  the  death  of 
the  fii-st  general,  .St  Ignatius,  the  order  could 
reckon  in  (iermany  26  colleges  ami  10  iiinfcssed 
houses.  In  Hungary  aiul  Transylvania  much 
bitterness  aro.se  out  of  their  introduction  ;  the  same 
may  be  said  of  Bohemia  and  Moravia;  and  through 
the  wh(de  course  of  the  Thirty  Years'  War  the 
Jesuits,    though    in    many   instances    wrongfully, 


3U 


JESUITS 


were  rej;aiiled  liy  the  helli^'eient  Protestants  as  the 
soul  anil  centre  of  tlie  Catliolic  oainp. 

In  tlie  Netlierlanils  they  enccmntered  some  oppo- 
sition at  lii-st ;  but  in  1562  Lainez,  the  seconil 
{leneral  of  tlie  order,  came  to  the  Low  Countries, 
and  a  collejre  was  opened  at  Lonvnin,  which  eventu- 
ally liecanie  one  of  the  greatest  eidlefjes  of  the 
order.  In  the  Protestant  kinjidonis  the  Jesuits 
ohtaincd  entrance  only  as  niissionaiies,  and  in 
some,  as  in  Enjiland,  Scotland,  and  Ireland,  under 
circumstances  of  great  ditiiculty  and  jieril.  From 
England  they  were  excluded  i)V  the  ^lenal  laws 
under  pain  of  death ;  nevertheless,  with  a  con- 
stancy and  (levotediiess  which  it  is  impossible  not 
to  admire,  they  maintained  through  the  worst 
times  an  unbroken  succession  of  missionaries  in 
many  parts  of  England.  They  often  resorted  to  the 
most  singular  disguises,  and  generally  bore  false 
nanu's ;  and  several  of  the  old  Roman  Catholic 
mansions  still  show  the  '  Priest-hole,'  which  was 
contrived  as  a  retreat  for  them  in  ca-ses  of  sudden 
emergency.  Into  Ireland  they  effected  an  entrance 
almost  at  the  first  foundation,  and,  after  many 
vicissitudes,  towards  the  close  of  the  reign  of 
Charles  11.  they  had  more  than  one  considerable 
college  for  the  education  of  youth. 

But  a  still  more  fertile  held  for  the  enterprise  of 
the  order  was  that  of  the  missions  to  the  heathen, 
in  which  they  outstripped  all  the  older  ordei's  in 
the  church.  In  the  Portuguese  colonies  of  India 
the  successes  of  Francis  Xavier  (q.v.)  are  well 
known.  The  results  of  their  mis.sions  in  China 
(under  such  men  a-s  Ricci,  155'2-1610,  and  Schall, 
1591-1669)  and  Jajian  were  even  more  extraordi- 
nary, as  also  in  Northern  an<l  Central  America. 
Above  all,  their  estal>lishments  in  the  southern 
continent,  in  Brazil,  in  Paraguay  and  Uruguay, 
upon  the  Pacific  coast,  in  California,  and  the 
Philippine  Islands  were  missions  of  civilisation  as 
much  as  of  religion. 

Such  was  this  association  in  the  first  stage  of  its 
Iiistory.  At  their  first  centenary  jubilee  the  mem- 
bers already  numbered  13,112,  ilistriljuted  over  32 
])rovinces.  At  their  suppiession,  a  century  later, 
they  had  increased  to  22,589,  and  were  possessed 
of  24  professeil  houses,  669  colleges,  176  seminaries, 
61  iu)vitiates,  335  residences,  and  275  missionary 
stations  in  inliilel  countries  or  in  the  Protestant 
states  of  Europe. 

The  decline  in  the  fortimes  of  the  Jesuits  was 
rapid  and  decisive  in  its  consummation.  The  first 
blow  which  they  sustained  was  in  Portugal.  An 
exchange  of  colonial  territory  having  been  effected 
between  that  kingdom  and  the  crown  of  Spain,  the 
so-called  '  Reductions'  of  Paraguay  (((.v.),  in  which 
the  .lesuit  missionaries  posses-sed  an  authority  all 
but  so\ercign,  were  transferred  to  Portugal.  The 
native  Indians  having  resisted  this  transfer,  the 
Portuguese  ascriljed  their  disatt'ection  to  the  .lesuit 
missionaries.  The  Portuguese  minister,  Pouibal 
de  ( 'arvallio,  to  whom  tlii^  Jesuits  allege  that  their 
possessions  in  Portugal  had  long  Im'cu  an  object 
of  desire,  instituted  a  comniissiim  of  iiirpiiry  ;  and 
w'hile  it  was  still  pending,  an  attempt  on  the  life 
of  the  king,  Joscpli,  which  was  laid  to  the  charge 
of  the  Jesuits,  furnished  liim  with  a  fresh  ground  of 
impeachment;  and,  without  awaiting  any  judicial 
proof  of  either  accusation,  he  issued,  in  Septemlier 
1759.  a  royal  decree,  by  which  the  onler  was 
expelled  from  the  kingdom.  This  exaniide  was 
followed  in  other  kingdoms.  In  France,  un<ler  the 
Due  de  Choiseul,  the  immediate  occjision  of  the 
disgrace  of  the  Jesuits  was  a  trial  in  the  civil  courts. 
Father  Lavalctte,  as  procurator  of  the  order  iu 
Martini<|iU',  had  coiisigiu-d  to  a  commercial  house  iu 
Marseilles  two  vahuililc  cargoes,  which  were  seized 
by  Euglish  cruisers,  .'ind,  Lavalette  being  unable  to 
meet  the  bills,  the  Marseilles  merchants  jiroceeded 


successfully  against  the  order.  The  Jesuits  re]ilied 
that  Lavalctte  acted  not  only  without  the  authority 
of  the  order,  but  against  its  |)osilive  constitutions, 
and  appealed  to  the  ]iarlianient  of  Paris  against  the 
sentence.  The  ini|uiry  thus  raise<l  juesented  an 
opportunity  of  wliich  the  ancient  enemies  of  the 
order  in  the  i)arliament  eagerly  availed  themselves. 
A  report  on  the  constitutions  of  the  society,  highly 
danmatory,  was  sp«'edily  dra>vn  up,  and  a  demand 
was  nuule  for  the  supjiression  of  the  order,  as  being 
irreconcilable,  in  its  constitution  and  practice,  w  ith 
the  interests  of  the  state  and  of  stxiiety.  A  strong 
effort  was  made  to  arrest  the  proceeiling  ;  but  a 
powerful  court-faction,  aided  by  the  seiret  intluence 
of  the  royal  mistress,  Madame  de  Pompadour,  who 
was  iiritatcd  by  the  refusal  of  her  Jesuit  confessor 
to  grant  her  absolution  unless  on  conditiim  of  her 
sej)arating  from  the  king,  and  supported  in  the 
press  by  the  jihilosoidiic  jiarty,  carried  all  voices, 
public  and  pri\ate,  against  the  Jesuits.  An  attempt 
at  cfuiipromise  was  pro]«ised  to  the  general.  Father 
Ricci,  by  which  the  obnoxious  constitutions  might 
be  abolished  or  modified  ;  Init  his  unbending  reply, 
'  Sint  ut  sunt,  ant  non  sint'  ('Let  them  be  as  they 
are,  or  let  them  cease  to  exist '),  cut  short  all  nego- 
tiation ;  and  a  royal  edict  was  published  in  1764, 
by  wliich  the  society  was  suppressed  in  the  French 
territory.  This  example  was  followed  by  Spain,  in 
1767,  with  circumstances  of  great  harshness  and 
severity  ;  and  by  the  minor  Bouilwii  courts  of 
Naples,  Pavnia,  and  Modena.  The  cmirt  of  Rome 
had  zeahnisly  but  vainly  interposed  in  their  behalf, 
and  from  Clement  XIII.,  especially,  they  received 
earnest  support.  But  his  successor,  Clement  XIV., 
inclining  in  this  and  all  other  questions  of  church 
and  stat«  to  the  side  of  peace,  having  in  \ain 
endeavcmred  to  procure  from  the  c<mrts  by  which 
they  were  condemned  a  relaxation  of  their  severity, 
and  being  pressed  by  the  ambassadors  of  France 
and  Spain,  at  length  issued,  July  21,  1773,  the 
celebrated  bull  '  Dominus  ac  Redeniptor  Noster,' 
by  which,  without  adoiiting  the  charges  made 
against  the  society,  or  entering  in  any  way  into 
the  question  of  their  justice,  acting  solely  «n  the 
motive  of  '  the  peace  of  the  church,' he  suppressed 
the  society  in  all  the  states  of  Christendom.  The 
bull  was  put  into  execution  without  delay.  In 
Spain  and  Portugal  alone  the  members  of  the 
society  were  driven  into  exile.  In  other  Catholic 
countries  they  were  ])emiitted  to  remain  as  iudi- 
vi<luals  engaged  in  the  ministi-j-  or  in  liteiaiy 
occupations  ;  and  in  two  kingdoms,  Prussia  under 
Frederick  the  (ireat,  and  Russia  under  Catharine, 
they  were  even  pennitted  to  retain  a  quasi-corpor- 
ate existence  as  a  society  for  eilucation. 

What  was  meant,  how  ever,  to  bs  the  suppression  of 
the  society  proved  but  a  temporary  suspension.  The 
ex-members  continued  in  large  numbers,  especially 
in  the  Pajial  States  and  Northern  Itjily  ;  and  soon 
after  the  first  storm  of  the  Revolution  liad  blown 
o\  er  measures  began  to  be  taken  for  the  restoration 
of  the  society.  The  first  overt  reorganisaticm  of 
them,  Ijarely  tolerated  by  the  ))0|)e,  was  in  1799,  by 
the  Duke  of  Parma;  in  1801  Pius  VII.  permitted 
the  re-establishment  of  the  society  in  Lithuania 
and  White  Russia,  and  with  still  more  formality 
in  Sicily  in  the  year  1804.  It  was  not,  however, 
until  after  the  French  Restoration,  and  the  return 
of  Pius  VII.  from  cajdivity,  that  the  complete 
rehabilitatiim  of  the  Jesuit  order  was  effected,  by 
the  publication  of  the  bull  'Solicitndo  Omnium 
Eccle.siarum,'  August  7,  1814;  and  in  1824  their 
ancient  college,  the  Collegio  Romano,  was  restored 
to  them.  Once  thus  re-established  by  Pius  VII., 
the  Jesuit  order  as  a  religious  onler  has  rem.ained 
on  in  the  Catholic  Church.  But  in  dillerenl  king- 
doms of  Euro|>e  it  has  had  various  fortunes.  In 
Modena,  Sardinia,  and  Najdes  it  was  re-established 


JESUITS 


JESUS    CHRIST 


315 


in  1815,  as  also  in  Spain.  It  was  again  siii) pressed 
in  Spain  fioni  1820  to  1825,  from  18;io  to  1844,  from 
1854  to  18.38,  and  its  members  were  banished  once 
more  in  1868.  In  Portugal  they  have  never  ol>- 
tained  a  lirm  footing.  Their  position  in  l-ianee 
was  one  of  sufferance  rather  than  of  positive  author- 
isation ;  nevertheless,  they  were  very  numeious 
and  intlneutial,  and  their  educational  institutions 
held  the  highest  rank.  In  188(t,  however,  the 
republic  decreed  the  dissolution  of  the  order,  with- 
out giving  it  the  alternative  of  seeking  autlior- 
isation  ;  and  in  July  of  that  year  the  members 
were  expelled  from  all  their  establishments  save 
the  educational,  an  additional  month  being  allowed 
them  for  vacating  the  latter.  In  Belgium  they 
reinstated  themselves  after  the  Revolution,  and 
they  now  possess  many  great  establishments,  pro- 
fessed houses  as  well  as  collej;es,  which  are  largely 
attended  )>oth  by  Belgians  and  foreigners.  In  Hol- 
land also  they  possess  several  considerable  houses,  as 
well  as  in  England,  Ireland,  the  United  States,  and, 
williiu  a  recent  period,  Scotland.  In  Switzerland 
they  opened  in  1818  a  college  at  Freiburg,  which 
became  a  most  flourishing  establishment,  and  sub- 
sequently they  e.xtended  themselves  to  Schwyz  and 
Lucerne  ;  hut  the  war  of  the  Sonderbund  ( one  of 
the  main  causes  of  which  arose  out  of  the  Jesuit 
question )  ended  in  their  expulsion  from  the  Swiss 
territory.  Of  the  German  states  Bavaria  and 
Austria  tolerated  their  re-establishment  for  educa- 
tional purposes.  In  the  Italian  provinces  of  the 
former,  as  also  in  the  Tyrol,  they  enjoyed  a 
certain  freedom  until  the  revolution  of  1848.  In 
Kus-sia  they  were  i)laced  under  sharp  restrictions 
in  1817;  ami  in  1820,  in  consequence  of  their  suc- 
cessful ett'orts  at  proselytism,  they  were  banished 
by  a  tinal  uka-se  from  the  Kiissian  territory,  whence 
they  still  remain  exclu<led.  The  Italian  revolution 
of  1848  seriously  affected  their  position  in  that 
country.  In  that  year  Pius  IX.  found  it  expedient 
U>  ])ermit  the  breaking  up  of  the  college  and  other 
houses  in  Kome.  They  returned,  however,  with 
the  pope  himself,  and  resumed  possession  of  their 
ancient  establishments.  On  the  proclamation  of  the 
kingdom  of  Italy  they  withdrew  from  Sardinia, 
Naples,  Sicily,  and  the  annexed  territories  in  general. 
In  the  recent  legislation  of  the  kingdom  of  Italy 
the  Jesuits  have  been  visited  with  a  special  measure 
of  repre.ssion.  While  each  of  the  other  |)rincipal 
religious  orders  is  permitted  to  retain  its  '  mother 
house '  at  Itome,  in  which  the  general  of  the  order 
may  reside,  the  Jesuits  have  been  required  to  quit 
their  principal  convent  of  the  Gesii.  In  (iermany 
also  they  nave  been  treated  with  exceptional 
severity,  being  held  resi)onsible  a.s  the  main  agents 
and  advisers  of  the  measures  adopted  in  the  Vatican 
Council,  which  were  complained  of  by  the  govern- 
ment as  infringing  the  rights  of  the  state.  By 
a  law  of  1873  the  order  wa.s  excluded  from  the 
empire,  its  establishments  were  abolished,  and  all 
foreign  Jesuits  were  ordered  to  be  expelled,  and 
the  (jerman  members  of  the  society,  as  well  lus  of 
kindred  iinlei-s  and  congregations,  to  be  'interned.' 
The  twenty-four  generals  of  the  Society  of  Jesus 
have  been  the  following  ( Italians,  excejit  where 
otherwise  specified )  :  Loyola  (1541-5(;),  Spaniard; 
Lainez  (1.5.5H-ft5),  Spaniard;  Borgia  ( 1. ">(;.')  72), 
Spaniard  ;  Mercurian  ( 1573-80),  Belgian  ;  Accpiaviva 
(1581-l(il5):  Vitelleschi(lB15-45);  Caraffa  ( 1 046- 
49);  Piccolomini  (1()49-51);  Gottofredi  (](j.">2); 
Nick"l  (l(i.")2-64),  Gennan  ;  Oliva  (1004  81); 
Noyelle  ( 1082-80),  Belgian  ;  (ionzalez  ( 1087  1705), 
Spaniard;  Tamburini  ( 1706-30) ;  Ketz  ( 1730-.50), 
Bohemian;  Visconti  (1751-55);  Centnrioni  (175">- 
57) ;  liicri  ( 1758-75)  ;  Hrzozowski  ( 180.5-20),  I'ole  ; 
Kortis  (1820-29);  Kootliaan  (1829  53),  Dutch; 
BecUx  ,l8.-)3-84),  Belgian;  Anderledy  (1884), 
Swiss  ;  Martin  ( 1892),  Spaniard. 


The  literature  of  the  history  of  the  Jesuits,  whether 
hostile  or  friendly,  is  almost  endless  in  extent  and 
variety:  reference  lu-iy  be  made  to  Gioberti, //  O'csiiila 
Moderno  (1847),  aiul  Cretineau  Joly,  Hhloirc  de  la 
Compagnie  de  Jcmi.i  (1845);  to  the  histories  by  Wolff 
C-'d  ed.  1803),  Steinnictz,  Huber,  Guettee  (18.5!)),  Tlu'Ie- 
man  (1873),  Griesinger  (Eng.  trans.  2d  ed.  IS.S.'j);  I'ark- 
man's  Jesuits  nf  Nurtli  America  in  the  17th  ctntiiri/  { I'Otb 
ed.  188(i);  Kanke's  Homisrhe  Papste  (6th  ed.  "1874); 
Foley's  Records  of  the  Emjlish  Province  of  the  Societi/  of 
Jtsus :  T.  G.  Law,  Conflicts  btiweeii  Jesuits  and  Seculars 
under  Elizabeth  (1890).     See  also  CASUISTRY,  Loyola, 

X^VVIEFt. 

Jesuits'  Bnrk.    See  Cinchona. 
Jesus,  son  of  Sirach.     See  Ecclesiasticu.s. 

Jesus  Christ.  It  is  obvious  that  any  attempt 
to  speak  in  a  few  pages  of  a  life  which  was  divine 
as  well  as  human — of  a  life  which  stands  at  the 
veiy  centre  of  the  world's  history  as  the  fullilnient 
of  all  the  past  hopes  of  humanity,  and  as  the 
highest  ideal  of  all  its  future  aims — can  only  be 
carried  out  Ijy  rigid  limitation  of  the  end  in  \\i'\\. 
It  will  be  impossible  here  to  enter  into  any  critical 
inquiries  ;  or  into  profound  theological  discussions 
respecting  the  inter-relation  of  the  two  natures 
in  one  person  ;  or  into  a  review  of  philosophical 
theories  respecting  the  work  and  person  of  Jesus ; 
or  into  a  defence  of  the  a  priori  possibility  or 
credibility  of  miracles;  or  into  a  minute  examina- 
tion of  conflicting  systems  of  chronology  ;  or  into 
a  harmony  of  the  variations  in  the  historical  narra- 
tives which  have  been  magiiitied  into  irreconcilable 
discrepancies.  On  such  questions  we  can  barely 
touch,  referring  for  further  information  to  tlie 
articles  on  Chki.stianity,  Chkistology,  Chkono- 
LOG\',  Gospels,  John,  and  Mik.\cles. 

The  sources  of  our  knowledge  of  the  life  of 
Jesus  are  almost  exclusively  biblical.  The  refer- 
ences to  Him  in  Jewish  and  heathen  literatuie  are 
distorted  by  hatred,  prejudice,  and  ignorance  ;  and 
the  onlj'  additions  to  our  knowledge  which  can  he 
gleaned  from  the  Christian  literature  of  the  early 
centuries  are  dubious  in  authenticity,  and  insigni- 
ficant in  amount.  Though  legend  has  connected 
the  name  of  Philo  with  the  apostle  Peter,  the 
learned  Alexandrian  lived  too  early  to  be  reached 
Ijy  the  growing  force  of  Christianity,  and  m;ikes 
no  allusion  to  it.  Some  critics  have  imagined  the 
existence  of  Christian  interpolations  in  I'hilo's 
account  of  the  Therapeuta?.  Joseplius  speaks 
briefly  of  John  the  Baptist,  and  of  the  martyrdom 
of  James,  the  Lord's  brother  ;  but  the  authenticity 
of  the  famoiLS  passage  about  Christ  is  now  given 
up  in  its  present  form,  for  it  must  in  any  case  have 
been  tampered  with  by  somi^  Christian  scribe.  'I'he 
silence  of  Joseplius  can  only  have  been  due  to  per- 
plexity or  policy.  From  other  Jewish  references 
we  learn  nothing  except  the  blinding  fury  of  the 
malignity  exciteil  liy  the  name  of  Christ.  The  blas- 
phemous scandals  and  innuendoes  of  the  Talnuid, 
which  culminate  in  such  deplorable  medieval  cal- 
umnies  as  the  Toldutli  ./<'s/(»,  are  lamented  by  all 
respectable  Jews,  and  iiide<'d  they  refute  thcm- 
.selves  by  their  preposterous  anachnuiiMns  and 
impo.ssible  absurdilic.H.  Generally  the  Talininlisls 
veil  their  hatred  under  distant  allusions  to  '  so  and 
so,'  'Absalom,'  'the  fool,'  'the  hung;'  and  they 
conceal  a  malediction  under  the  form  in  which  they 
write  the  name  of  Jesus.  Suetonius  only  allmhw 
to  Christ  (if  at  all)  under  the  blundering  notion 
that  he  ('Chrestus')  stirred  uptroulilcs  in  Koiiic  in 
the  days  of  Claudius.  Tacitus  historically  records 
the  crucifixion,  but  is  otherwise  a.s  grossly  ignorant 
of  every  fact  about  the  Christians  as  he  is  alMmt 
the  Jews.  The  only  notion  of  Christianitv  enter 
taine<l  by  him,  by  Suetonius,  and  by  Pliny  is 
<lerived  either  from  the  monstrcms  falsehoods  of 
pagan   enemies  or  from  a  confusion  of  C'hristians 


316 


JESUS    CHRIST 


with  the  members  of  the  vilest  Jewish  and  Gnostic 
sects.  Not  one  fact  can  lie  ilisinterrcil  from  the 
cynical  persitla<,'e  of  I^uciaii  in  his  tract  on  the 
death  of  Peregrinus,  or  from  the  anonymous 
Philopseudes.  Celsus,  indeed,  professes  to  have 
studied  the  documents  of  Christianity,  hut  his 
views  had  been  tainted,  partly  by  the  hostile  pre- 
judices of  pliilosophy,  and  partly  by  liis  reliance 
on  the  inventiim  of  scandal-nion,L;erinj;  Jews.  It 
is  more  disappointing  that  no  fact  about  Jesus  can 
be  derived  from  the  earliest  Christian  literature. 
Tliere  is  scarcely  a  single  grain  of  gold  in  tlie 
accumulated  rubbish  heap  of  legends  contained  in 
the  apocryphal  gospels  ;  not  a  single  fact  in  the 
allusions  of  tlie  Fathers  on  which  we  can  rely, 
unless  it  be  the  statement  tliat  the  stable  of  the 
Nativity  was  a  cavern  ;  not  a  single  unrecorded 
saying  of  Christ  {ciypa(poi'  ddy.ua),  unless  it  be 
'Prove  yourselves  "ood  money-changers;'  or  one 
or  two  others  which — like  '  He  who  is  near  me  is 
near  the  tire' — are  already  implicitly  contained  in 
the  records  of  the  gospels. 

We  therefore  turn  to  the  New  Testament, 
and  here  no  facts  of  the  life  are  pi'eserved  for  us 
except  those  which  are  recorded  in  the  gospels, 
and  receive  independent  attestation  from  the 
references  of  St  John,  St  Peter,  and  St  Paul.  St 
Paul  preserves  for  us  the  one  unrecorded  precious 
maxim,  '  It  is  more  blessed  to  give  than  to  receive,' 
but  nothing  more.  The  question  therefore  arises, 
'  May  we  rely  on  the  four  gospels  as  authentic  and 
adequate?'  That  they  are  so  might  seem  to  be 
suttieiently  proved  by  the  e.xistence  and  the  e\er- 
grow-ing  strength  of  Christianity  and  Christendom 
— the  religion  and  the  society  which  are  based  upon 
them.  They  have  indeed  been  placed  in  the 
crucible  and  thrust  into  the  hottest  furnace  of 
modern  criticism,  but  only  with  this  result  that 
in  these  days  scarcely  a  critic  pretends  to  impugn 
the  general  historic  trutlifulness  of  the  synoptic 
narratives,  though  many  endeavour  to  eliminate 
the  supernatural  elements.  The  characteristics  of 
the  gospels  themselves — their  simplicity,  their 
naive  confessions,  their  inimitable  stamp  of  honesty 
and  veracity  (tlie  aimplex  veri  sirf ilium),  the  im- 
possibility that  the  Cliaracter  which  they  set  forth 
sIiDuld  have  been  invented  by  fishermen  and  ta.\- 
gatherers,  the  historic  verification  of  which  they  are 
capaljle— are  the  pledge  of  their  authenticity.  And 
of  tlie  \arious  theories  which  have  lieen  adopted  to 
explain  away  their  significance  one  after  another 
has  hojielessly  broken  down.  Paulus  attempted  to 
account  for  the  gospels  on  naturalistic  grounds,  so 
that  miracles  were  merely  mistakes  of  enthusiastic 
oliservation  ;  but  after  the  crushing  exposure  of  this 
hypothesis  by  Strau.ss  it  has  never  been  revived. 
Strauss,  with  imposing  wealth  of  learning  and 
ability,  tried  to  apjdy  to  them  the  principles  of 
Hegel,  and  to  explain  theiu  as  myths  generated  by 
tlie  idea  ;  Imt  .-ifter  .a  temporary  success  he  wa-s  him- 
self forced  to  complain  that  his  views  had  been 
swept  away  by  the  orthodo.x  reaction.  Even  lienan 
says  of  Strauss 's  Lebcn  Jc.iii,  '  Ce  ("hrist^r  priori,  ou 
le  divine  bien,  n'est  p!vs  encore  le  Christ  historique' 
—£t.  d'JIixt.  lid.  pp.  157-58;  and  in  point  of  fact 
Strauss  was  refuted  by  the  intense  and  unique 
originality  of  the  gospel  story,  and  by  the  fact  that 
no  miracle  was  attributed  to  .lohn  the  liaptist 
even  at  the  zenith  of  his  mighty  influence.  )5aur 
and  his  able  successors  helpeil  to  nullify  the 
arguments  of  Strauss,  and  in  tlieir  turn  apjdied  to 
the  story  of  the  origins  of  Cliristianity  the  strong 
solvent  of  criticism  ;  but  liis  followi'rs  had  to  make 
larger  admisshins  th.an  he  liimself,  and  his  :ittcni]>t 
to  show  that  tlie  gospels  were  'tendency-writings' 
prove<l  itself  so  little  satisfactory,  an<l  was  so  com- 
pletely counteracted  by  the  writings  of  N<»nder 
and    others,    that    at    Tiibingen    itself   there   is   a 


Tubingen  school  no  more  ( Ewald,  Gesch.  Christ  its, 
Vorrede,  p.  xxvii.  3d  ed.).  Lastly  tliere  arose 
the  eclectic  schools  of  Schleieriiiacher  and  Kenan. 
The  medial  system  (Vennitteliimjs-Tlieolugie)  of 
Schleiermacher  produced  a  powerful  ett'ect,  but  the 
day  for  half-views  has  gone  by.  The  success  of 
Kenan  was  due  mainly  to  the  charm  of  style,  but 
he  was  not  sufficiently  serious  to  captivate  many 
proselytes.  His  Vie  tic  J^sns  was  \itiateil  in  part 
by  the  writer's  own  \acillations  aliout  the  fourth 
gospel  and  in  part  by  the  indignant  scorn  which  was 
kindled  l>y  his  hypothesis  that  He  whom  the  world 
has  recognised  as  rcrax  ct  rents  ct  ipsa  vcritiis 
lent  Himself  to  wilful  deception  in  the  raising  of 
Lazarus.  The  unshaken  belief  of  the  vast  majority 
of  Christians,  even  of  those  who  have  most 
thoroughly  examined  the  literature  of  scepticism, 
is  suthcient  to  prove  that  modern  apologetics  have 
been  adequate  to  sustain  the  far  fiercer  battle  of 
the  forces  which  were  routed  in  the  earlier  centuries 
by  Origen  and  Athanasius,  and  in  the  18th  by 
Butler,  Lardner,  and  Paley. 

The  attack  on  the  authenticity  of  the  fourth 
gospel  has  been  longer  and  more  determined,  but 
the  evidence  has  been  exhausted  with  careful 
accuracy  and  stated  w  itli  perfect  candour,  and  we 
may  point  to  the  papers  of  Bishop  Lightfoot  and 
the  edition  of  the  Gospel  of  St  John  by  Bishop 
Westcott  as  containing  arguments  which  seem 
finally  decisive  against  the  destructive  critics.  t)n 
this  subject  the  author  of  Sitpcrnutural  Jiclipioii 
was  practically  driven  out  of  the  field,  and  the 
certainty  that  Tatian  in  his  Diatessaron  used  the 
fourth  as  well  as  the  other  gospels — which  has  now 
been  proved  by  the  discovery  of  an  Armenian 
translation  of  Ephraem's  commentary  in  the  library 
of  the  Mechitarist  Fathers  at  Venice  in  1836— is  a 
strong  addition  to  the  weight  of  external  e\idence. 
This  commentary  of  Ephraem  was  translated  into 
Latin  by  Aucher  in  IS-tl,  and  published  by  De 
Mo?siiiger  in  1876.  Tatian  was  a  hearer  of  Justin 
Martyr,  and  his  undoubted  acceptance  of  the 
fourtli  gospel  gives  certainty  to  the  already  .strong 
probability  that  that  gospel  was  accepted  by 
.Justin. 

Before  proceeding  to  set  forth  in  its  general 
idea  the  narrative  of  the  gosjiels  .some  preliminary 
considerations  must  be  passed  in  review.  It  is 
essential  to  notice  that  the  life  of  Christ,  as 
related  in  the  gospels,  is  partial  and  fragment- 
ary. It  has  been  calculated  that  in  narrating  the 
public  ministrj'  of  Christ  the  synojitic  gospels 
only  deal  with  the  events  of  fifteen  indiitlis  (450 
days);  Imt  that  so  little  consecutive  is  the  narra- 
tive that  not  more  than  thirtv-five  days  are  dis- 
tinctly touched  u|)on,  wliihi  tliere  are  lacitnw,  in 
which  the  events  of  one,  two,  or  even  three  months 
at  a  time  are  passed  over  in  silence.  Further,  it 
has  been  observed  that  the  records  of  two  or  three 
of  these  days — the  day  in  the  cornfield  (-Matt.  xii. 
1-xiii.  52),  the  day  of  the  Sermon  on  the  Mount 
(Matt.  V.  1-viii.  17) — occu))v  large  fractions  of 
St  Matthew's  tiosjiel ;  the  i^ay  of  the  cursing  of 
the  iig-tree  occupies  one-seventh  of  St  Mark's ; 
and  the  story  of  five  days  (Luke,  xx.  1-xxiv.) 
occujiies  one-fourth  of  St  Luke's,  exclusive  of  the 
story  of  the  infancy.  If  this  comjjutation  be 
accepted,  (he  result  is  that  the  Synoptists  move  in 
the  sphere  of  one-thirteenth  part  of  a  ministry  of 
which  thi^  extent  is  uncertain,  but  which  is  generally 
believed  to  have  covered  little  more  than  three  years 
(see  Dr  Martineau's  Scut  of  AuthtirHtj  iti  Hdittion, 
]).  185).  It  is  a  legitimate  inference  from  this  that 
much  of  our  Lord's  |iulilic  activity  is  uiireconlcd  ; 
but  this  is  what  St  John  himself  distinctly  tells  us 
(John,  xxi.  "25).  The  gospels  were  written  to 
establish  a  faitli,  not  to  detail  a  biography  ;  to 
record  the  es.sence  of  a  teaching,  and  to  testify  to 


JESUS    CHRIST 


317 


the  majesty  of  a  Personality,  not  to  depict  the 
minute  incidents  which  liad  hut  a  sli^lit  or  second- 
ary hearing  on  the  great  design.  Tliere  are  vast 
spaces  in  tlie  lieavens  which  are  not  so«u  witli 
stars,  and  tlie  'economy,'  hoth  divine  and  human, 
which  marks  the  scantiness  of  tlie  evangelic  narra- 
tive of  the  ministry  is  but  a  part  of  that  simplicity 
and  reticence  which  contented  itself  with  so  hrief 
and  (  from  the  ordinarj-  point  of  view )  so  meagre  a 
reference  to  the  thirty  long  years  of  the  Saviour's 
growth  and  [(reparation. 

On  the  very  threshold  of  any  attempt  to 
speak  of  Christ  we  are  met  by  the  fact  that,  in  the 
belief  of  one-third  of  the  human  race.  He  was  not 
a  simple  man  but  a  Divine  man,  the  God-Man  : 
the  Son  of  Man  as  the  uniqiie  representative  of 
humanity  at  its  best  and  greatest,  but  also  pre- 
eminently—and in  a  sense  transcendently  different 
from  that  in  which  the  phrase  can  be  applied  to 
men — the  Son  of  God.  To  those  who  take  the  fact 
in  a  bare  isolated  way  it  may  seem  an  insuperable 
stumbling-block  :  not  so  to  those  who  do  not  dis- 
connect it  from  the  whole  conception  of  God  and  the 
entire  history  of  the  world.  Nothing  is  more  un- 
philosophical  than  the  a  jiriori  rejection  of  miracles, 
because  miracles  do  not  come  under  the  range  of 
ordinarj'  experience.  '  Historic  problems  cannot 
be  thus  settled  by  philosophic  categories.'  If  we 
start  with  that  helief  in  God  which  may  be  re- 
garded as  the  normal  datum  of  our  human  con- 
sciousness, and  if  we  contemplate  the  historic  fact 
of  the  fall  and  wretchedness  of  man,  the  belief  that 
God — in  conipaiision  for  and  in  order  to  redeem  and 
elevate  the  countless  millions  of  mankind  in  all 
their  generations — became  man,  and  took  our 
nature  upon  Him  in  the  person  of  His  Son,  so  far 
from  seeming  a  monstrous  hypothesis,  appears  to  he 
in  e.\act  accordance  with  His  nature,  as  the  best 
and  highest  that  we  know  and  can  imagine.  Those 
who,  like  Spinoza,  identify'  God  with  Nature,  which 
is  but  the  sum  total  of  His  visible  manifestations, 
exclude  from  Nature  the  sole  element  which  ex- 
plains it — viz.  the  element  of  a  Divine  and  Supreme 
Will. 

Nature  alone  can  furnish  us  with  no  explanation 
of  the  manifestation  of  Christ,  but  it  harmonises 
absolutely  with  that  idea  of  God  which  we  believe 
that  He  has  Himself  planted  within  us.  So  com- 
pletely is  this  the  case  that — as  was  seen  by  the 
great  German  historian,  Julius  von  Miiller — apart 
from  Christ  all  human  history  is  reduced  to  a 
chaotic  dream  (see  his  letter  to  liis  friend,  Karl 
Bonnet,  quoted  by  Lnthardt,  Apolofj.  Vortr. ;  Eng. 
trans,  p.  353).  All  the  hi-^tory  of  the  past,  up  to 
the  Incarnation,  points  to  Him,  and  in  Him  iinds 
its  fulfilment ;  all  the  development  of  the  age-s 
since  He  api)eared  springs  from  the  divine  impulse 
which  He  "ave.  As  Jean  Paul  Piichter  so  finely 
said:  '  He  lifted  the  gate  of  the  centuries  from  oil' 
its  hinges  with  His  bleeding  hand.'  The  most 
sceptical  of  historians  cannot  fail  to  see  that  Jesus 
stands  at  the  very  centre  of  humanity.  Not  only 
was  all  which  Ls  most  precious  in  Hebrew  literature 
full  of  unspeakable  yeaniings  for  this  Divine 
Deliverer,  lint  even  heathendom  abounds  in  uncon- 
scious prophecies  of  His  athent.  Among  the 
Persians  we  read  in  the  Zend-.\ vesta  of  '  the 
\-ictorious  Saoshyant,  the  beneficent  one  who  will 
benefit  the  whole  bodily  world,  who  will  stand 
against  the  destruction  of  the  bodily  creatures  to 
withstand  the  Z>;h3  of  the  two-footed  brood.'  He 
ia  the  redeemer,  bom  of  Zoroaster,  who  shall  cnish 
the  serjient-destroyer  Ahriman  (see  Zend-Avesta, 
Yast  xxviii.,  Sttcred  Books  of  the  Eont,  p.  '220). 
So,  too,  in  Bralimanism  we  have  the  redeemer 
Krishna,  who  is  constantly  represented  a-s  crushing 
and  conquering  the  serpent.  Among  the  Greeks 
we  have  the  profound  legend  of  Prometheus,  the 


representative  of  suffering  humanity,  who  can  only 
be  delivered  from  his  fetters  on  the  rock,  and  the 
tearing  of  the  vulture's  talons,  when  Herakles  the 
son  of  Zeus  descends  for  him  into  Tartarus.  ( Con- 
sider the  remarkable  lines,  ^lisch.  Prom.  1026-30, 
one  of  the  most  striking  of  the  unconscious  pro- 
phecies of  heathendom.)  Socrates  puts  into  the 
mouth  of  Plato  his  confession  of  the  necessity  for 
some  divine  deliverer  who  is  at  once  both  God  and 
man  (see  Ackermann,  Dus  ChristUrltc  in  Plato, 
Hamburg,  1835);  and  some  such  figure  has  been 
dreamed  of  in  all  the  higher  forms  of  religion  as 
a  necessary  inference  from  what  we  know  both  of 
God  and  man.  The  revelation  of  Christ  springs 
as  a  necessary  postulate  from  our  faith  in  God. 
For  some  remarkable  passages  in  the  ancients,  see 
Cic.  Dc  Legq.,  ii.  10;  Sen.  Ep.  52;  and  Schneider, 
Christliche  KUingc. 

But  in  speaking  of  the  human  life  of  Jesus  it 
is  unnecessary  to  entangle  ourselves  in  the  intense 
and  prolonged  theological  battles  which  culminated 
in  the  3d  and  4th  centuries.  The  result  of  those 
controversies  is  adequately  summed  up  in  the  four 
technical  terms  oXtj^ws,  reX^ws,  dSiatp^rwj,  affi-yxv'^<^s, 
decided  on  in  the  four  councils  of  Nice,  Constan- 
tinople, Ephesus,  and  Chalcedon.  As  against  the 
Arians,  Clirist  was  truly  God  ;  as  against  the 
Apollinarians,  He  was  perfeMy  man  ;  as  against 
the  Nestorians,  He  was  indirisibly  God-man  ;  as 
against  the  Eutychians,  He  was  distiiutly  God 
and  man.  Beyond  these  elementary  decisions  all 
attempts  to  deal  with  that  arcanum  of  theology, 
the  TrepixiipvcTis  or  eommutiicatio  idiomafum,  can 
only  end  in  failure  and  absurdity  (see  Hooker,  Ecrl. 
Pol.,  Book  v.,  liv.  §  10).  But  if  it  be  assumed  that 
it  is  impossible  or  iiTeverent  to  narrate  the  earthly 
life  of  such  a  Being,  the  answer  is  that  it  has  been 
done  in  the  four  gospels,  and  that  to  shrink  from 
doing  it  would  be  only  due  to  the  false  reverence 
of  Apollinarianism — now  quite  as  common  in  the 
church  as  Arianism  is  in  the  world — which  denied 
the  full  humanity  of  Christ.  It  is  most  necessar\-, 
too,  to  bear  in  mind  that  throughout  Christ's  earthly 
life,  from  the  Incarnation  to  the  Resurrection,  He 
voluntarily  laid  aside,  in  obedience  to  the  perfect 
conditions  of  humanity,  the  divine  attributes  of 
omniscience  and  omnipresence.  '  Being  in  the 
form  of  God,  He  thought  it  not  a  prize  to  be  on  an 
equality  with  Gotl,  but  emptied  Himself  (tKivwatv 
eavrbv),  taking  the  form  of  a  servant,  bein"  made 
in  the  likeness  of  man'  (Phil.  ii.  5,  6,  Revised 
Version ).  The  doctrine  here  revealed  is  known  in 
theologj-  as  the  doctrine  of  the  henosis  or  'empty- 
ing,' and  in  speaking  of  Jesus  we  have  constantly 
to  bear  it  in  mind,  as  the  necessary  condition  of 
His  being  'a  man  with  man,'  of  His  coming  ut 
Judii  us  lid  Judicos  11)11111 .1  udiios,  of  His  '  wearing  a 
tent  like  ours,  and  ol  the  same  material.' 

We  proceed  then  to  sketch  in  barest  outline 
'  those  sinless  years  which  breathed  beneath  the 
Syrian  blue.'  Jesus,  as  appeai-s  by  both  the 
genealogies  recorded  in  the  gospels,  was  of  the 
royal  house  of  David.  The  discrepancies  and 
divergences  of  those  genealogies  are  believed  to  be 
due  to  the  diflerences  between  His  lejjal  ami  His 
natural  descent,  which  in  one  or  two  jdaces  of  the 
line  was  affected  by  a  collateral  adojition,  or  a 
levirate  marriage.  His  virgin  birth  is  attested 
and  assumed  by  the  evangelists,  and  St  Luke, 
using  Hebraic  documents  which  seem  to  be  ilirectly 
traceable  to  the  memories  of  the  Virgin  Mary, 
preserves  for  us  particulars  about  the  infancy  of 
Jesus  which  are  not  found  in  the  other  Evangelists. 
The  apocr>phal  gospels  revel  in  imi)ossible  an>l 
even  revolting  details,  and,  stumbling  on  tlie  very 
threshold,  present  us  with  a  jiicture  wliiili  would 
have  been  instantly  destructive  of  our  faith  if  it 
had  l>een  true.      The  canonical  gospels  vindicate 


318 


JESUS    CHRIST 


their  truthfulness  and  their  supremacy  hy  the 
severest  reticence,  which  contains  no  word  to  mar 
that  ideal  which  every  ert'ort  of  invention  instantly 
dej^rades.  After  the  marvels  of  the  Nativity  at 
Bethlehem,  we  are  told  of  the  circumcisiim,  the 
presentation  in  the  tem]dc,  the  visit  of  tlie  Ma":i, 
the  flight  into  Egypt,  and  the  massacre  of  the 
innocents.  The  exact  date  of  tliesc  events  cannot 
be  determined  with  alisolnte  certainty,  hut  may  lie 
brought  within  narrow  limits,  and  most  schol.ars 
now  acquiesce  in  the  view  which  places  the 
Nativity  about  four  years  earlier  than  our  received 
era.  Tlie  historic  questions  which  the  narrative 
raises  have  been  sifted  to  the  liottom,  and  the 
credibility  of  the  gospel  details  has  been  tri- 
umiiliantly  established. 

After  the  infancy  there  is  a  deep  silence  which 
covers  all  but  the  concluding  fragment  of  the 
life  of  Christ.  From  the  return  to  Nazareth, 
while  He  was  yet  a  very  young  child,  to  the 
baptism  by  John  we  have  nothing  jireserved  to 
lis  except  a  single  anecdote  by  St  Luke,  and  a 
single  word  in  St  Mark.  It  is  exactly  respecting 
this  portion  of  the  life  of  Christ  that  the  apocry- 
phal gospels  most  deeply  betray  incompetent 
falsity,  and  the  gospels  show  that  grace  of  super- 
intendency  without  which  they  could  not  have 
recorded  what  the  apostles  had  seen  and  heard 
when  their  hands  handleil  the  Word  of  Life.  The 
anecdote  of  St  Luke  is  Christ's  visit  to  the  temple 
with  his  parents  at  the  Passover  just  before  His 
thirteenth  year,  which  marked  the  age  of  a  Jewish 
boy's  'coniirmation  ' — his  admission  to  the  rank  of 
a  'son  of  the  law'  {hen  hat-torah).  It  has  been 
called  '  the  solitary  floweret  out  of  the  wonderful 
enclosed  ganlen  of  the  thirty  years,  ])lucked  pre- 
cisely there  when  the  swollen  bud  at  a  distinctive 
crisis  bursts  into  (lower '  (Stier,  lirden  Jcsx,  i.  18). 
It  is  s|)ecially  precious  from  the  decisive  way  in 
which  it  shows  that  Christ  possessed  a  human 
soul,  and  not  only  the  J.ogns  instead  of  it ;  and  it 
exactly  accords  with  the  testimony  of  St  Luke 
that  oiir  Lord's  growth  was  that  of  a  child  in 
whom  there  was  a  (irmliial  increase  of  knowledge 
{Luke,  ii.  40,  TrXripovix^vov  not  TrewXrjpu/x^ov).  In- 
deed it  seems  to  have  been  tlie  siiecial  puriiose  of 
the  third  evangelist  to  give  us  at  lejist  one  glimpse 
of  Jesus  at  every  phase  of  His  human  life,  a-s  an 
infant,  a  child,  a  hoy,  a  youth,  and  a  full-grown 
man. 

The  one  wor<l  liappily  preserved  for  us  by  St 
Mark  is  'the  carpenter'  in  the  (luesth)n  of  the  un- 
believing Nazarenes,  'Is  not  this  t//r  crirpeiiter?' 
whicli  an  irreverent  reverence  has  altered  into  '  the 
son  o/ the  carpenter. '  It  shows  us  that,  as  a  part 
of  that  infinite  self- repression  and  obedience  by 
which  Christ  'abode  witli  His  iiarents  and  was 
subject  unto  them,'  He  shared  with  .lose])li  in  the 
humble  trade  by  wliich  he  earned  his  daily  bread. 
Unanimous  tradition,  im]dicil  by  the  gospels  them- 
selves, agrees  in  llu^  lielief  that  Joseph  died  early, 
and  that  our  Lord  grew  up  in  a  family  circle  of 
those  whom  the  evangelists  call  His  'brothers' 
and  'sisters.'  In  that  family  He  was  the  first-born, 
and  probably  heljied  to  support  them  all.  To  any 
imagination  which  was  not  divinely  guided  such  a 
nunle  of  spending  all  but  three  years  of  His  life 
would  have  seemeil  iiiqiossible  and  derogatory ; 
but  the  admissiim  is  one  of  the  most  striking 
iiroofs  of  the  absolute  veracity  of  the  gos])els. 
riieir  silence  as  to  all  other  record.s  of  those  thirty 
years  preaches  to  iis  with  the  most  majestic 
eloquence.  Some;  of  the gieatest  less<ms  of  Christ's 
examjile  are  involved  in  the  fact  that  He  did  not 
strive,  nor  cry,  neither  was  His  voice  heard  in  the 
streets.  The  central  le.sson  that  '  Christ  ])h';tsed 
not  Himself  is  written  large  over  the  closed  golden 
portals  of  those  unrecordecl  yeare.     Coming  to  live 


for  man.  He  chase  the  lot  not  of  the  few  but  of  the 
countless  multitudes,  the  immen.se  majority.  The 
town  and  the  home  winch  He  cho.se  were  alike 
poor,  provincial,  insignilicant.  Thus  He  rebuked 
pride,  which  is  one  of  the  two  great  taproots  of 
linman  aberration  ;  He  showed  the  sacredness  of 
obscuritv  ;  He  glorilied  the  lot  of  labour  which 
antiquity  despised.  Kebuking  the  restless  passion 
for  excitement  and  tlie  desire  to  minister  to  self- 
importance.  He  showed  to  all  mankind  that  the  time 
life  is  the  interior  life,  the  life  of  calm,  recollected- 
ness,  and  companionship  with  the  divine,  passed 
in  the  sweet  seclusion  of  a  home  and  the  ordered 
routine  of  lowly  duties.  It  is  impossible  for  most 
men  to  live  as  Christ  lived  during  His  brief  minis- 
try :  but  that  unknown  life  of  the  artisan  in  <hill, 
provincial  Nazareth  was  meant  to  teach  us  that 
the  commonplace  ordinary  life,  which  is  the  normal 
life  of  man,  may  yet  be  precious  with  the  liest 
sanctities  of  heaven  s  beatitude. 

Thus  ended  the  first  and  main  part  of  the  life 
of  Jesus.  At  the  age  of  thirty  began  the  second 
ph.Tse  of  His  life,  the  public  ministry — ending  with 
the  t  'ruciti  xion  and  the  Kesurrection — which  occupies 
all  but  a  fraction  of  the  gospels.  St  Peter's  epitome 
of  that  ii'iinistrv  is  that  'He  went  about  doing  good,' 
and  it  was  by  giving  up  everything  which  the  earthly 
and  sensual  mind  can  desire  that  He  left  us  an  ex- 
ample that  we  should  follow  His  steps.  To  iletail 
the  events  of  that  ministry  is  obviously  imjiossible 
here,  nor  is  it  necessary.  We  shall  but  indicate  its 
great  pha-ses  and  divisions,  ami  then  touch  on  some 
of  the  considerations  which  it  suggests.  It  falls 
into  the  following  great  divisions  : 

I.  The  call  to  the  ministrj'  in  the  baptism  and 
preaching  of  John  the  Baiitist,  who  first  ])ublicly 
recognised  Jesus  as  the  Messiah. 

II.  The  temptation  in  the  wilderness. 

III.  The  call  of  the  first  aiHistles  :  the  (ii-st  miracle 
atCana  :  the  beginning  of  the  preaching  in  (ialilee. 

IV.  The  fir.st  Pa-ssover  visit  to  Jerusalem,  the 
first  cleansing  of  the  temple.  The  (question  of 
the  rulers,  and  the  prophecy  '  Destroy  this  Temple,' 
iSrc.  The  interview  with  Nicodemiis  ;  the  retire- 
ment to  Galilee ;  the  discoui'se  to  the  S.-iniai  itan 
woman  at  the  well  ;  the  rejection  by  the  Nazarenes. 

V.  The  'Galilean  springtide'  of  the  ministry 
amid  the  gladness  of  the  multitudes ;  many  mir- 
acles of  healing ;  the  choice  of  the  twelve ;  the 
Sermon  on  the  Mount ;  the  message  from  the 
imprisoned  Baptist ;  the  intercourse  with  Phari- 
sees, publicans,  and  sinners  ;  the  great  day 
of  |)arables ;  the  visit  to  tJergesa ;  tlie  day  of 
Matthew's  fea-st. 

VI.  The  second  visit  to  Jerusalem  :  the  miracle 
at  Bethesda ;  the  murder  of  the  Baptist;  the  return 
to  (ialilee. 

VII.  The  feeding  of  the  five  thonsand  ;  the  dis- 
course at  Capernaum  ;  the  Sabbath  and  other  dis- 
putes, amid  ever-deepening  conflict  and  opposition. 

VIII.  The  flight  among  the  heathen  ;  the  Syro- 
Phd-nician  woman  ;  the  return  to  Decapolis  ;  the 
eiioch  of  i-arer  miracles ;  the  feeding  of  the  four 
thousand  ;  the  recognitiim  of  the  Me-ssiahship  by 
the  disciples  ;  the  Transfiguration  ;  the  healing  of 
the  <lemoniac  bo.v. 

IX.  The  visit  to  Jerusalem  at  the  Feast  of  Taber- 
nacles ;  the  woman  taken  in  adultery  ;  the  healing 
of  the  man  born  Idind  ;  the  return  to  (ialilee. 

X.  The  final  farewell  to  (ialilee.  Incidents  and 
teachings  of  a  slow  journey  towards  Ji'iusalem. 
Visit  to.Ierusalem  at  the  Fe;ust  of  De<lication.  The 
last  stay  in  Per:i'a  :  the  raising  of  Lazarus.  Jesus, 
under  a  ban,  withdraws  to  the  town  of  Kphraim. 

XI.  The  last  visit  to  Jerusalem.  The  events  of 
Passion  Week — I'alm  Sunday  ;  the  day  of  jKirables : 
the  <lay  of  temptali<ms  ;  the  great  denunciations  ; 
the  farewell  to  the  temple  ;  the  betrayal. 


JESUS    CHRIST 


319 


XII.  The  Last  Supper:  the  last  discourse;  the 
agony  in  Getliseinane  ;  the  arrest ;  the  threefohl 
trials  :  the  Crucitixion;  the  Kesurrection ;  the  great 
forty  ilavs  ;  the  Ascension. 

Such  Ijeing  the  great  divisions  and  landmarks 
of  the  life,  it  only  remains  to  touch  on  one  or  two 
of  the  important  questions  which  it  suggests. 

i.  What  was  tlie  length  of  our  Lord's  pulilic 
ministry  ?  We  are  unalile  to  answer  the  question 
with  certainty.  This  is  due  to  the  remarkaole  fact 
that  the  synoptic  gospels  occupy  themselves  almost 
exclusively  with  the  Galilean  ministry,  while  St 
John  mainly  dwells  on  the  ministry  in  Judea  and 
Jerusalem.  Sceptics  have  vainly  endeavoured  to 
extort  any  discrepancy  from  this  fact,  since  the 
Synnptists  most  distinctly  imply  that  much  of  our 
Lord's  time  must  have  1>een  sjient  in  Jerusalem 
(see  Luke,  x.  38,  xix.  42:  Mark,  xi.  11)— a  fact, 
indeed,  directly  stated  in  the  i-ecordetl  irocrdvis 
( '  how  often  ' )  in  His  lament  over  Jerusalem  ( Matt. 
xxiii.  37;  Luke,  xiii.  34).  We  may  then  decidedly 
reject  the  notion  of  a  onc-yrar's  ministry,  which  has 
been  most  unwarrantably  foundeil  on  the  expression 
of  Isaiah  (Ixi.  2)  and  the  reference  to  it  by  our 
Lord  at  Nazareth  (Luke,  iv.  19).  This  was  the 
view  of  Origen  (De  Prine.  iv.  5),  and  Clement  of 
Alexandria  {Strom,  i.  xxi.  sect.  145),  and  of  the 
tAvo  Gnostic  teachers,  Ptolenifeus  (Ep.  ad  Florum) 
and  Herakleon  ;  but  not  that  of  Melito  and  Iren- 
seus.  It  has  found  powerful  supporters  in  Browne 
{Oido  S(eclormii,  pp.  342-91 ),  and  Keim  {Jesti  ron 
Nnznra);  but  the  former  can  only  maintain  it  by 
eliminating  rb  irdtrxa  from  John,  vi.  4,  in  spite  of  all 
the  iiianiisenpts,  and  the  latter  by  rejecting  the 
authenticity  and  credibility  of  the  fourth  gospel. 
The  majority  of  scholars  agree  in  the  well-founded 
inference  stated  as  early  as  Hippolytus,  the  scholar 
of  Irensus,  Eusebius  (H. E.  i.  10),  Theodoret  (in 
Dan.  ix.  27),  and  Jerome,  that  Jesus  died  at  the 
age  of  thirty-three,  and  that  the  ministry  lasted 
more  than  two  and  a  half  veal's.  Irenwus's  exti-a- 
ordinary  assertion  (  C.  Her.  ii.  2515)  that  Jesus 
died  between  the  ages  of  forty  and  fifty  is  a  blun- 
der ( which  in  him  is  not  isolated ),  falsely  inferred 
from  John,  viii.  57.  The  only  element  of  uncer- 
tainty for  those  who  accept  the  fourth  gospel  is  the 
identification  of  the  unname<I  feast  mentione<l  by 
St  John  in  V.  L  If  that  feast  was  the  Jewish  feast 
of  Purim  we  see  that  St  John  groups  his  narrative 
round _^re  festivals — (1)  the  Passover  (ii.  13);  (2) 
Purim  (V.  1);  (3)  the  Passover  (vi.  4);  (4)  the 
Tabernacles  ( vii.  2 )  ;  ( 5 )  the  Dedication  ( x.  22 ) ; 
( 6 )  the  Passover  ( xi.  65 ).  It  is  in  accordance  with 
this  that  Purim  took  place  on  Veadar  14  (about 
March  19),  and  that  our  Lord  (some  time  before  the 
feast)  said  to  the  woman  of  Samaria  '  there  are  yet 
four  months  unto  harvest'  (John,  iv.  35).  Since, 
then,  there  were  three  Passovers  during  the 
ministry,  and  that  ministry  began  some  time 
before  the  first  Passover,  we  see  a  reason  for  the 
view  that  it  lasted  aVxiut  three  years — a  view 
which  l)est  accords  with  all  the  data.  And  though 
we  cannot  here  discuss  the  chronology,  the  opinion 
that  Christ's  baptism  by  John  took  place  m  the 
summer  of  26  A.D. ,  and  that  He  was  crucified  in 
the  spring  of  29  .\.D.,  is  probably  not  far  wrong. 

ii.  Without  entering  into  the  subject  of  apolo- 
getics, we  may  allude  to  the  miracles  which  enter 
so  largely  into  the  life  of  Jesus,  and  which,  as  they 
were  a  support  to  the  faith  of  former  centuries,  are 
regarded  as  a  stumbling-block  by  modern  science. 
St  John  puts  us  into  the  right  point  of  view 
when  he  calls  them  works  ('tpya — John,  v.  20,  and 
p'i.%tim).  Given  the  Personality  of  Christ,  miracles 
were  natural  to  Ilini ;  'our  supernatural  was  HLs 
natural.'  Their  oecurrence  becomes  a  question 
of  evidence,  and  the  sii|>posed  recondite  and  danger- 
ous fonnola  of  Hume  '  retluccs  itself  to  the  very 


harmless  proposition  that  anything  is  incred- 
ilili"  which  is  contrary  to  a  complete  induction.' 
When  Hume  said  that  no  evidence  could  estalilish 
a  miracle,  because  it  was  more  likely  that  evidence 
should  be  false  than  that  a  miracle  should  be  true, 
his  statement  came  to  no  more  than  this — that  a 
miracle  disturbs  the  mechanical  expectation  of  a 
recurrence  ( Mozley,  Bainiiton  Lcrliires,  p.  .")li). 
Hume  did  not  argue  for  so  unphilosophical  an  asser- 
tion as  the  impossibilitij  of  miracles,  but  he  argued 
against  their  credibilit)/,  because  his  philosophy 
practically  reduced  life  to  a  series  of  impressions 
and  sensations.  In  answer,  it  is  enough  to  say 
with  Lord  Bacon,  '  the  soul  of  man  was  not 
produced  by  heaven  or  earth,  but  was  breathed 
immediately  from  God ;  so  the  ways  and  dealings 
of  God  with  spirits  are  not  included  in  Nature— i.e. 
in  the  laws  of  heaven  and  earth,  but  are  ieser\ed 
to  the  law  of  His  secret  work  and  grace.'  The 
evidence  for  Christ's  miracles,  and  above  all  for  His 
Resurrection,  has  been  sufficient  to  convince  and 
potent  to  ameliorate  the  whole  civilised  world. 

iii.  Christians  rightly  regard  the  Resurrection  as 
the  one  fundamental  historic  miracle  on  which 
rests  their  historic  faith.  If  any  fact  can  be 
regarded  as  indisputable  it  is  the  fact  that  on  the 
morning  of  the  first  Easter  Sunday  the  astonished 
disciples  found  that  there  was  no  corpse  in  the 
rock-hewn  sepulchre.  So  much  is  now  freely  con- 
ceded by  the  most  advanced  sceptics.  The  testi- 
mon}'  in  favour  of  the  fact  is  overwhelming,  and 
it  is  impossible  to  account  for  the  existence  of 
Christianity  or  of  Christendom  on  any  hypothesis 
other  than  the  firm  conviction  in  a  miraculous 
Resurrection,  of  which  all  the  early  disciples  re- 
garded themselves  as  the  chosen  witnesses.  The 
modern  criticism  of  unbelief  has  only  attempted  to 
account  for  the  empty  tomb  by  theories  which  sink 
to  the  ground  under  the  weight  of  their  own  im- 
possibility. The  notion  of  a  meiely  apparent 
death  from  which  Jesus  was  revived  by  the 
spices  and  the  cool  sepulchre ;  the  notion  that  the 
apostles  stole  the  body  by  night :  the  notion  that 
Jesus  was  not  crucified  at  all,  but  only  someone 
in  His  place  ;  the  notion  that  '  the  faith  of 
Christendom  is  founded  on  the  self-deception  of  an 
halliieiiicc ' — have  been  in  turn  adopted  and 
abandoned.  Such  naturalistic  explanations  arc  im- 
possible, unless  they  be  bolstered  up  by  the  pre- 
posterous supi>osition  that,  at  some  stage,  deliber- 
ate deception  was  at  work,  and  that  the  teachers 
of  the  religion  which  is  preeminent  in  incul- 
cating the  sanctity  of  truth  founded  their  preach- 
ing upon  a  lie.  It  is  not  possible  here  to  develop 
the  arguments,  or  to  array  the  evidence,  on  which 
our  faith  in  a  literal  Resurrection  of  Jesus  in  a 
glorified  and  spiritual  body  is  foumled.  AVe  must 
be  content  to  refer  to  such  works  as  those  of 
Gebhardt  (Gotha,  1864),  Beyschlag  ( Beriin,  1865), 
Steinmeyer  (Berlin,  1871),  and  Bishop  Westcott 
on  The  Gospel  of  the  Resurrection  (Lond.  1884). 

iv.  And  it  must  be  borne  in  mind  that,  if  scciiti- 
cism  could  eliminate  from  the  gaspels  what  is  called 
the  supernatural  element,  it  would  still  Ije  con- 
fronted with  the  superhuman  grandeur  of  Christ 
Himself.  So  far  from  tending  to  discredit  the 
narratives  of  the  miracles  which  He  wrought,  it 
may  rather  lie  said  that  Science  tends  to  throw 
light  upon  their  accordance  with  the  yet  umle- 
ciphered  laws  of  nature ;  but  even  were  every 
miracle  eliminated,  Christ  still  continues  to  be 
what  even  those  who  have  doubted  of  His  divinity 
call  Him,  '  ein  Mi/stcrium,  ein  Unicum.'  The  ]iroof 
of  His  divinity  is  involved  in  His  perfect  sinle.ssness, 
which  not  only  transcends  the  attainments  but  even 
the  ideal  of  humanity.  Infinite  in  its  many-sided- 
ness. His  character  is  yet  supreme  from  every  .aspect 
in  which  it  can  be  regarded.     Not  only  is  He  the 


320  JESUS    CHRIST 


JEVONS 


sole  liuman   being  whom  sinlessness  has  claimed, 
01-  of  wliom  sinlessness  can  for  a  moment  lie  piedi- 
cateil,   but  the  ideal  presented  by  His  character 
stands  apart,  not  only  from  tliat  in  the  life  of  the 
best  pa"ans,   but  even   of  those  wliose  life  \vas  a 
professed  imitation  of  His.     And  more  even  than 
this,  imagination  has  again  and  again  attempted 
at  least   to  conceive  and   depict  a  character  abso- 
lutely stainless,  and  vet,  in  the  \vli(de  range  of  tlie 
world's   poetry   and   iiction,  has   ne\er    attempted 
to  do  so  without  hopeless  failure  if  it  descended 
for  a  moment  into  details.     Could  the  peasants  of 
Galilee  have  invented  the  sole  iicrjcct  ideal  which 
the    world    has   been    aide    either    to    imagine   or 
describe?     To  this  is  attributable  the  remarkable 
fact  that  even  the  most  pronounced  sceptics— even 
those  opponents  of  Christianity  who  would  gladly 
have  got  rid  altogether  of  the  admiration  of  Christ- 
seem  to  have  been  unable  to  contemplate  Him  with- 
out as  it  were  falling  on  their  knees.     '  Between 
Him  and  whoever  else  in  this  world,'  said  Napoleon 
to  General  Bertrand,  '  there  is  no  possible  form  of 
comparison.'     'Jesus  is  in  all  unique,'  says  Kenan, 
'  ami  nothing  could  be  compared  to  him '  (  Vie  dc 
Jtsiis,  p.  457 ).     Strauss  calls  Him  '  the  Being  with- 
out whose  presence  in   the  mind   perfect  piety  is 
impossible.'     Goethe  called  Him  'the  Divine  Man, 
the  Saint,  the  tvpe  and  model  of  all  men  '  (  Coitvcr- 
satimis  wMi   EAcrmann,   ii.   3).     J.    S.    Mill   said 
that  '  it  would  not  be  easy  even  now,  even  for  an 
unbeliever,  to  find  a  better  translation  of  the  rule 
of  virtue  from  the  abstract  into  the  concrete  than 
to  endeavour  so  to  live  tliat  Christ  would  approve 
our  life.'     The  character  of  Jesus  was  sufficient  to 
overawe  even  the  Hippancy  of  Voltaire,  as  we  see  in 
the  storv  of  his  remarkalde  dream. 

V.  Nothing  short  of  a  divine  personality  can 
account  for  the  stupendous  and  inexhaustible  ell'ect 
iiroduced  upon  the  world  by  the  life  and  teaching 
of  Christ— a  life  so  short  that  He  died  before 
the  full  completion  of  the  powers  of  manhood  ;  a 
ministry  so  confined  in  space,  so  contracted  in  time. 
That  li'fe,  lived  on  a  stage  so  narrow,  furnished 
to  mankind  the  sole  perfect  pattern  and  example  : 
that  teaching  involved  every  element  of  pure  and 
perfect  spiritual  religion.  It  was  Clirist  alone  who 
first  brought  home  to  the  mind  of  man  that  God 
is  love,  and  that  man  is  the  son  of  God  ;  and  first 
brought  life  and  immortality  to  light.  And  as 
Christ  thus  lieeame  the  Saviour  of  mankind  by 
example  and  teaching,  so  also  did  He  redeeni  the 
race  by  the  self-sacrifice  which  culminated  in  the 
cross  and  passion,  and  wliich  is  continued  by  His 
Resurrection,  Ascension,  and  session  at  the  right 
Iiand  of  tiod.  By  this  His  life  He  has  redeemed  us 
from  sin  and  death,  and  reconciled  us  unto  God. 
That  mighty  work  of  individual  regeneration 
whic-h  Christ' began  has  been  carried  on  by  the  j^ift 
of  the  Spirit,  which,  in  the  slow  |irooess  of  centuries, 
has  made  holiness  a  common  attainment  of  His 
saints,  and  leavened,  humanised,  ennolded  the 
thou'dits,  the  lives,  the  families,  the  society,  the 
kingdoms  of  mankind.  And  the  Christian  believes 
that  that  work  will  continue  until  '  the  kingdoms  of 
this  world'  become  universally,  and  in  reality  as 
widl  as  in  name,  the  kingdom  of  our  Lord  and  of 
His  Christ. 

The  hterature  of  this  i-ubject  is  inexhaustible,  and 
every  year  adds  to  its  enormous  accunudations.  It  begins 
•with  the  gospels  and  eiiistles  in  the  1st  century  of  the 
Christian  era,  and  continues  in  unbroken  succession 
tliriuigh  the  Fathers,  the  Schoohnen,  and  the  Ilcforiucrs, 
down  to  modern  days.  The  first  attempt  to  write  a 
consecutive  life  of  Christ,  outside  the  authentic  and 
apocryphal  gospels,  was  the  ViUi  Vhristi,  by  tSt  liona- 
ventura.  The  I'lmxtise  Raiuiiud  of  Milton  wius  practically  ' 
an  etrort  in  the  same  direction.  The  lives  of  Christ 
of  later  times  are  very  numerous  :  in  Italian,  that  hy 
Capecelatro    (Naples.    18C8);    in   French,   those  of   De  ' 


Pressens^,  Dupanloup,  Salvador,  ■ft'allon,  and  Renan; 
in  German,  those  of  Caspari,  Ewald,  Hase,  Hofmaim, 
Lange,  Neander.  Sepp,  Strauss,  AVeiss,  Keim,  and  many 
more;  in  English,  those  of  EUicott,  Geikie,  Edersheuu, 
and,  among  others  far  too  numerous  to  mention,  that  by 
the  present  writer  in  1874,  which  has  called  out  such  a 
multitude  of  successors.  See  also  tlie  articles  on  Joseph 
and  on  M.\iiY. 


Jet,  a  dense  variety  of  lignite  passing  by  degrees 
of  quality  into  bituminous  fossil  wood,  sometimes 
perfectly  black,  capable  of  being  easily  cut  and 
carved,  and  of  receiving  a  very  beautiful  nolisli. 
It  takes  its  name  from  Gagas  or  Gages,  a  place  in 
Asia  Minor,  where,  according  to  Pliny,  the  sub- 
stance was  obtained,  whence  in  his  time  it  was 
called  gagates,  afterwards  corrupted  into  ga'^at, 
the  modern  German  name,  and  jet.  Jet  is  only  a 
peculiar  form  of  lignite,  impregnated  with  bitumin- 
ous matter,  and  containing  about  37A  per  cent,  of 
volatile  matter.  It  is  electrical  when  rubbed ; 
hence  it  has  been  called  'black  amber'  by  the 
Pmssian  amber-diggers. 

Of  substances  used  for  trinkets  and  pei-sonal 
ornament,  apart  from  metals,  jet  appears  to  be 
one  of  the  most  ancient.  At  numerous  places 
throughout  Great  Britain  necklaces,  heads,  hut- 
tons,  and  other  small  objects  of  jet  have  been  dis- 
covered, sliowing  that  it  had  been  used  in  the  early 
bronze  period.  Probably  at  that  remote  time  it 
was  obtained  from  the  Yorkshire  coast  about 
Whitby,  whence  the  principal  supjdy  and  the 
finest  \iuality  anywhere  obtained  continues  to 
come.  The '  jet  occurs  at  Whitby  in  irregular 
interbedded  patches  in  the  Upper  Lias  shales,  two 
kinds,  hard  and  soft,  being  found  ;  but  only  the 
hard  is  of  value  for  ornaments.  The  industry  there 
gives  employment  to  a  large  proportion  of  the 
population.  "  It  is  also  worked  in  France  in  the 
department  of  Aude,  where  it  is  formed  into  rosary 
heads,  crosses,  and  other  trinkets.  Spain  also 
supplies  fine  jet,  which,  like  that  of  the  French 
workings,  is  found  in  irregular  veins  in  the  lower 
marls  of  the  Cretaceous  series,  correspon<ling  with 
the  Sussex  gault.  The  Spanish  jet  is  fouml  at 
Villaviciosa,  in  the  province  of  the  Asturias,  ami  is 
principallv  manufactured  at  Oviedo.  As  a  material 
for  niourn'ing  ornaments  iet  is  admirably  adapted, 
and  for  that  purpose  is  largely  used.  Imitations 
of  jet  ornaments  are  made  in  the  hardened  iiidia 
rubber  called  Vulcanite  or  Ebonite,  ami  in  glass. 

Jctou,  a  round,  fiat  piece  of  metal,  ivory,  &c., 

formerly  used  for  counting,  or  as  counters  at  play, 

and  also  as  a  check  given  to  members  of  a  society 

piussing  in  to  its  meetings. 

Jetsam,  Jettison.    See  Flotsam. 

Jeunessc  l»«r<'e  ('gilded  youth'),  a  party 

name  given  to  tho.se  young  men  of  tans  who, 
during  the  French  Revolution,  struggled  to  bring 
about"  the  reaction  or  counter-revolution  after 
Robespierre's  fall  ('iTlh  July  1794).  Other  nick- 
names bestoweil  uiion  the  same  party  were  Miis- 
cadins  ('scented  darlings')  and  I'dits-Mndres 
('elegants').  The  term  jciincssc  dorfe  is  still  in 
use  To  designate  young  men  about  town,  wlio 
always  go  elegantly  dressed,  have  the  air  of  spend- 
ing money,  and  live  a  butterUy  life  of  enjoyment 
and  pleasure. 

Jevons.  Wll.Ll.tM  St.vnley,  bom  in  Liverpool 
in  1S:?.">  was  educated  there  and  at  I'niveisity 
College.  London,  and  from  1854  to  1859  held  a 
position  in  the  mint  at  Sydney.  In  the  London 
M.A.  examinations  in  ISti'i  he  took  the  gold  medal 
in  i>hilosophy  :  in  18()()  he  wjis  aiqioinlcd  profes>ni 
of  Logic  and  Mental  Philosophy,  and  of  Tolitical 
Econcmiy,  at  Owens  College,  Mancliester  ;  and  in 
1876-81 'he  was  professor  of  Political  Economy  at 
University    College,    London.       He    was    elected 


JEW 


JEWELLERY 


321 


F.  K.S.  in  1S7"2,  ami  received  the  degree  of  LL.  D. 
from  Edinburgh  in  1876.  On  13th  Au-'ust  1SS2 
he  was  drowned  whilst  batliing  at  Bexhill,  near 
Hastings.  Jevons  was  the  lirst  to  popularise  the 
mathematical  methods  of  Boole  (ii-v.),  ami  so  to 
liring  symbolic  logic  within  the  capacity  of  be- 
ginners. Among  his  works  in  this  lield  are  his 
Ehiiii  iitiirij  Lessons  in  Lorjk  ( 1870),  a  very  popular 
text-book;  The  J'riiirij>/cs  of  Science  (1874),  per- 
haps his  most  inijiortant  work ;  a  collection  of 
useful  Studies  in  Deduct  ice  i(j(/H- (1880) ;  and  I'urc 
Lnipc,  and  other  Minor  Works  (1890).  To  the 
.s<'ii'iic(^  of  political  economy  he  contributed,  be- 
sides a  primer  and  several  pamphlets,  and  a  work 
on  Tl(c  Coal  Question  (1865),  whicli  led  to  the 
appointment  of  a  Royal  Commission,  liis  valuable 
Thcori/  of  Politieid  Eeonoin;/  (1871:  3d  ed.  1888), 
in  which  the  conception  of  '  linal  utility '  was  lirst 
distinctlv  formulated.  See  his  Letters  and  Journals, 
edited  by  his  wife  ( 1886 ). 

•low.  Wandering.    See  AVandeeing  Jew. 

Jt'Wt'l,  John,  one  of  the  fathers  of  Enjjlisli 
Protestantism,  was  born  at  Berrynarbor,  near  Ilfra- 
conibe,  in  152'2,  and  was  educated  at  Barnstaple 
school,  and  afterwards  at  Merton  and  Corpus 
Cliristi  Colleges,  Oxford.  He  was  admitted  B.A. 
in  1.540,  and  must  early  have  imbibed  Reformed 
doctrines,  as  he  was  closel.v  intimate  with  Peter 
Martyr  during  his  visit  to  Oxford.  Soon  after  the 
accession  of  Mary  he  went  abroad  for  safety's  sake, 
visiting  Frankfort  and  Strasburg,  and  returned  on 
the  accession  of  Elizabeth,  by  whom  he  was  .almost 
immediately  appointed  Bishop  of  Salisbury.  His 
great  controversial  ability  soon  made  him  one  of 
the  foremost  churchmen  of  his  age,  and  indeed  his 
famous  Aj)olo(/ia  Eeclesiai  Atiglicanie  ( 1562)  retains 
its  value  as  a  triumphant  exposure  of  the  preten- 
sions of  Rome.  Bishop  Jewels  unwearied  devoted- 
ness  at  once  to  his  episcopal  duties  and  to  the 
demands  of  a  great  controversy  wore  out  his 
strength,  and  brought  him  to  the  rest  of  the 
grave  in  his  fiftieth  year,  22d  September  1571. 

A  collected  edition  of  his  works  was  pubUshed  in  folio 
in  1009.  More  recent  editions  are  those  by  the  Kev. 
John  Ayre  in  the  Parker  .Society  (4  vols.  1845-50),  and 
by  the  Rev.  Dr  R.  W.  .Jelf  (Oxford,  8  vols.  1847^8). 
An  early  life  is  reprinted  in  Wordsworth's  Ecclesiastical 
Biijitraphij.     .See  also  the  Life  by  C.  W.  Le  Bas  ( 1835 ). 

J«'wellery.  The  word  'jewel'  is  from  the  Old 
French  j'ouel,  a  diminutive  of  ioie :  Ital.  ffioj'a, 
'joy;'  Lat.  f/audia.  Jewellery  embraces  primarily 
articles  inteniled  for  personal  decoration,  made  of 
precious  metals,  whicli  may  be  enriched  with  stones 
or  enamels.  But  objects,  also,  not  intended  for 
personal  use,  such  as  caskets,  when  decorated  with 
jiriMious  stones  are  .said  to  be  jewelled,  and  the 
term  jewel  lia-s  a  further  restricted  signilication 
wlii'ti  it  is  applied  to  one  of  the  insignia  of  the 
knightl.v  orders.  Popularly,  tliere  is  much  con- 
fusi<m  between  the  terms  gem  and  jewel ;  the 
former  belongs  especially  to  engraved  stones  (see 
Gem|.  Tlie  love  of  personal  ornamentation  is  a 
|)rimal  passion  of  humanity,  which  sways  with 
eijual  force  the  rudest  of  tribes  and  tlie  most 
advanced  and  luxurious  communities.  The  craving 
wliiidi  impels  the  ruile  savage  to  decorate  his  or  her 
jierson  with  beads  and  circlets  of  seeds,  shell,  bone, 
liorn,  and  wood  is  the  same  which  has  caused 
nionarclis  to  lavish  their  treasures  on  the  costliest 
materi.'ils  and  the  most  exquisite  workmanship  of 
their  crowns  and  insignia  of  state,  .lewellery  thus 
in  its  wide  accejitalion  as  a  purely  ornaniiMital 
adjunct  to  the  person  has  been  in  use  at  all  times 
and  by  the  entire  human  family.  .\nd  as  on  these 
iulornments  the  highest  art  and  skill  at  the  com- 
mand of  any  people  was  alw.ays  lavished,  they 
allbrd  some  measure  of  the  condition  of  the  handi- 
•isl 


crafts  and  of  the  artistic  development  of  the  people 
and  the  period  to  which  they  ludong.  Further,  in 
the  days  when  banking  and  money-lemling  were 
not  a  factor  in  commerce,  the  accumulation  of 
jewellery  formed  one  of  the  most  convenient  of 
methods  for  the  storing  of  realised  wealth.  It  is  so 
in  India  at  tlie  present  ilay. 

Before  the  use  of  metals  was  known,  jewellery, 
if  it  can  be  so  termed,  consisted  of  carved  beads 
and  fragments  of  such  bright  substances  as  were  at 
the  command  of  prehistoric  man.  Gold  is  the  lirsl 
metal  of  which  there  is  any  mention  in  literature, 
and  there  is  no  doubt  tliat,  being  always  found 
native,  it  was  the  hrst  to  be  used  by  niankinil. 
The  earliest  gold  ornaments  would  be  the  native 
pellets  of  the  metal  as  found,  and  w  hen  mankind 
possessed  no  mechanical  resources  beyond  rude 
liammers  of  stone,  with  which  to  beat  out  these 
pellets,  the  possibilities  of  decorative  treatment  of 
gold  were  verv  limited.  The  ability  to  melt  metals 
and  so  to  obtain  ma.sses  of  large  size  upon  which 
to  work  implies  a  very  advanced  knowledge,  to 
which,  however,  artificers  must  have  attained  at  a 
very  early  period.  Among  the  numerous  linds  of 
gold  jewellery  of  prehistoric  times  there  are  many 
specimens  which  show  that  the  early  artilicers 
possessed  considerable  command  over  their  material 
in  the  way  of  hammering  out  plates  to  uniform 
thickness,  drawing  or  beating  the  metal  into  wire, 
and  plaiting  and  twisting  it  into  torques,  armilla', 
rings,  and  other  forms  of  ornament.  In  these 
earliest  gold  ornaments  there  is  no  attempt  at 
decorative  treatment  other  than  what  could  be 
produced  by  the  hammer  ;  and  it  is  only  by  degrees 
that  simple  eti'orts  at  chasing,  engraving,  and 
embossing  make  their  appearance.  The  most 
archaic  gold  ornaments  discovered  by  l)r  Schlie- 
niann  in  his  excavations  at  Hi.s.sarlik,  which  he 
regards  as  ancient  Troy,  are  treated  with  the 
hammer  alone  ;  the  later  gold  ornaments  of  Myceua- 
are  of  a  niiicli  more  developed  character,  showing  a 
knowledge  of  chasing  and  embossing.  It  is  only 
when  we  come  to  historical  times  that  we  lind 
artilicers  had  obtained  command  over  their  material 
and  tools  sufficient  to  enable  them  to  proiluce 
jewellery  which  bears  a  distinct  impress  of  the  art 
and  ornament  of  their  period  and  nation. 

To  trace  the  development  of  jewellery  throuo;hout 
ancient  and  medieval  times  would  simply  be  to 
follow  the  course  of  art  and  the  arts  among  the 
leading  civilised  communities.  F'ortnnately  the 
tombs  of  the  dead,  and  hoards  which  have  ap|iar- 
ently  been  hid  to  escape  the  ravages  of  enemies, 
have  been  the  means  of  preserving  to  our  da.^■s  a 
number  of  examples  of  jewellery  of  all  times  and 
all  peoples  sufficient  to  illustrate  the  natun^of  their 
ornament  and  the  style  of  jewellery  the.y  wore.  In 
this  way  examples  of  the  jewels  of  the  ancient 
Kgy|itiaiis  remain  to  the  present  day,  from  which 
we  learn  that  the  civilised  people  of  tlie  Nile  valley 
even  in  very  early  times  hail  greatly  imjiroveil  on 
the  arts  of  our  prehistoric  ancestors  of  the  bronze 
period.  F'or  we  find  the  Egyptian  artilicers  could 
engrave,  chase,  solder,  enricli  with  enamel,  and  set 
precious  stones  in  their  jewellery-they  were  in 
fact  comiilete  masters  of  the  most  important  pro 
cesses  of  the  modern  jeweller.  The  jewellery  of 
ancient  (Jreece  shows  that  perfection  of  form  and 
purity  of  ornament  which  was  only  to  be  expected 
of  the  most  highly-gifted  artistic  race  of  all  times. 
The  jewellery  of  the  Romans  was,  like  their  art. 
inherited  from  the  (ireeks,  and  partook  of  their 
more  rolmst  Iml  less  relined  character;  but  with  the 
lapse  of  time  and  the  inlluence  of  northern  incur- 
sions it  modilicd  into  Gothic  forms.  Conti'mnoiary 
with  Greek  art  of  the  best  jieriod.  the  jewellery  of 
the  Etruscans  forms  the  most  remarkable  example  of 
fine  metal-working  of  ancient  limes.    The  Eliusi'an 


322 


JEWELLERY 


JEWS 


jew'elIei-8  were  able  to  prodiicu  on  the  surface  of 
their  f,'i)U)  11  rifh  granulated  apiiearauce,  as  if  it 
were  dusted  over  in  a  perfectly  equal  manner  with 
;,'()ld  powder,  wliioli  it  lias  hing  oeen  the  des])air 
of  jewellers  to  imitate.  Ahout  1860  the  late 
Alessaudro  Castellani.  of  Konie,  discovered  at  St 
Angelo,  amonj;  the  Calahriaii  mountains,  a  race 
of  peasant  f^old-worUers  who  ai)peared  to  have 
inherited  the  traditional  secret  ;  and  with  the  aid 
of  these  craftsmen  he  succeeded  in  producing  fairly 
satisfactory  re|>roductions  of  the  marvellously  tine 
work  of  the  ancient  Etruscans  ;  but,  after  patient 
experiment,  Castellani  himself  acknowledged  the 
I'^trnscan  method  to  be  still  a  lost  art.  Not  less 
noteworthy  is  tlie  jewellery  of  the  Celtic  and 
Scandinavian  races,  which  shows  remarkable  vigour 
and  individuality  of  character.  It  is  best  seen  in 
the  ancient  brooches  of  the  Scottish  Highlands  and 
Ireland,  in  which  the  arts  of  engraving,  inlaying, 
enamelling,  liligree-work.  Niello  (<|.v.^,  and  jewel- 
ling all  in  their  turns  were  made  use  of  in  the 
production  of  works  of  art  of  a  highly  distinctive 
character  (see  Brooch,  Vol.  II.  p.  478).  It  is  well 
known  that  a  taste  for  rich  and  gorgeous  jewellery 
is  one  of  the  most  outstanding  characteristics  of 
the  Hindu  :  and  throughout  all  classes  in  the  East 
Indies  bright,  glittering,  and  richly-coloured  per- 
sonal decorations  are  looked  on  as  indispensable. 
The  jewellery  of  India  in  its  styles  and  methods  of 
manufacture  brings  down  to  our  own  days  traditions 
of  the  earliest  skilled  craftsmanship  of  the  world. 
No  other  lace  of  jewellers  can  with  so  small  a 
weight  of  g(jld  produce  works  of  such  reniarkalile 
airiness,  grace,  and  elaboration  as  the  Hindus. 
Their  skill  in  Filigree- work  (q.v. ),  the  gorgeous 
colouring  of  their  translucent  enamels,  and  gener- 
ally their  masterly  and  bold  use  of  colours  and 
bright  fragments  of  stone  are  in  the  highest  degree 
admirable.  Traditional  skill  and  ancient  forms 
are  also  peipetuated  in  the  '  jjeasant  jewellery  '  of 
the  various  European  communities,  which  yet  show 
in  their  purity  the  styles,  combinations,  and 
methods  of  working  in  use  before  the  harsh 
mechanical  forms  of  modern  cheap  jewellery  came 
in  to  corrujit  taste  and  supplant  simple  arts. 

The  distinction  between  jewellery  of  the  present 
day  and  that  of  earlier  times  is  found  in  the  funda- 
mental fact  that  the  old  work  is  the  creation  of  the 
craftsm.an.  while  the  modern  jewel  is  the  jiroduct 
of  a  manufacturer  who  adopts  all  labour  saving 
nuichines  and  apjdiances  for  the  economical  Iniish- 
ing  of  his  wares.  Tlie  lowest  class  of  jewellery — 
that  whicli  forms  the  staple  of  the  'gilt-toy  trade' 
in  liirmingham — is  m.ade  from  sheet-copper  struck 
up  in  dies  and  moulds  by  means  of  the  screw-press, 
then  gilt  by  electro-deposit  and  adorned  with  glass 
pastes  in  imitation  of  diamonds  and  all  other  pre- 
cious stones.  The  cheap  ;uid  rapid  iiroduction  in 
limitli^ss  mimbers  of  imitation  articles  is  thus 
secured,  but  the  objects  themselves  are  utterly 
ilevoiii  of  artistic  significance.  To  a  large  ex- 
tent it  is  the  same  with  jewellery  even  of  the 
most  expensive  description,  for  although  it  is  not 
stamped  out  of  the  sheet,  vet  the  dilVerent  ]ior- 
tions  of  the  work  are  allotted  to  separate  workmen 
who  jierform  their  task  with  mechanical  accuracy, 
but  in  no  case  is  the  wb(dc  article  at  once  the  con- 
ception and  the  execution  of  the  single  individinil, 
as  was  the  case  with  the  work  of  the  ancient 
jeweller. 

The  head(|uarteis  of  the  jewellery  trade  as  a 
manufacturing  industiv  is  Biriuingham,  the  city  in 
which  ni'arly  all  the  sham  jcweHery  is  manufac- 
tured. The  district  of  ('Icrkenwell,  in  London,  is 
the  ccnlre  of  the  higher-class  jewellery  tr.ule  in 
the  United  Kingdom.  Silver  and  pebble  jewellery 
is  characteristicall.y  Scottish,  but  a  great  deal  of 
the  cheaper  Scottisli  pebble  jewellery  is  of  (Jerman 


manufacture.  The  manufacture  of  bog-oak  orna- 
ments is  a  s])ecialty  of  Dublin,  and  .let  (q.v.) 
jewellery  is  chielly  made  at  Whitby.  All  towns 
of  any  consiileiable  imi)ortance  are  also  centres  of 
jewellery  trade  ;  but  outside  the  I'nited  Kingdom 
I'aris,  A  ienna,  and  New  York  are  the  most  im- 
)iortant  places  of  ^iroductimi.  Alalia  has  acquired 
a  reputation  for  liligree-work  ;  and  reil  coral  j<;wel- 
lery  comes  largely  from  Naples.  See  also  PkecioUS 
Stones. 

See  Ennnanuel,  Diamonils  and  Precious  Stones  (1865); 
Jones,  Ilixlm-ii  (inil  Miislcrii  of  Pririon.t  SItmes  (1880) ; 
Cluiflcrs,  I/istorii  of  Eiuilish  Gohlsiiillh.i  (1881);  (!ee, 
The  <;nl,l.iMilh's  Hii,i,lh„„k  (1881 ),  and  his  Hnll-markinfi 
of  JcwLlUrii  ( 188:i) ;  liarliiit,  (iukle  J'fiitiiiue  rlu  Joaitlier 
(1884);  Fontenelle  and  Malcpeyrc,  Ifomtu  Manuel  du 
Kijouticr  Joaillier  (1884);  Decle,  Hislorique  dc  la 
Bijouterie  Fratn'aisc  (188!)). 

JoWS  ( ('orrupted  from  Yr/i  iirlim  ),  the  name  given, 
since  the  ISabylonish  cai)tivity,  to  the  descendants 
of  the  patriarch  Abraham,  who,  aljout  the  year 
;2000  B.C.,  emigrated  from  Mesopotamia,  on  the 
east  side  of  the  Euidirates,  to  Canaan  or  Palestine. 
They  were  originally  called  Hebrews  (see  Hehrkw 
Language).  In  consequence  of  a  famine  in 
Canaan,  Jacob,  on  the  in\  itation  of  his  son  Joseph, 
who  had  become  chief  minister  of  the  king  of  Egy])t, 
went  down  thither  with  all  his  family,  which  num- 
bered seventy  '  souls,' and  obtained  from  I'haiaoh 
permission  to  settle  in  the  land  of  (ioshen.  Here 
the  Hebrews  resided,  accmding  to  E.xod.  xii.  40, 
430  years.  Aecordin"  to  the  genealogical  table  of 
the  Levites,  in  Exod.  vi.  16-25,  however,  their 
sojourn  would  not  have  lasted  longer  than  '210 
or  "215  years  ;  most  of  the  commentators,  therefme, 
take,  with  Josephus,  tlu^  4.'i0  years  to  indicate 
the  period  from  Abraham  to  (he  Exodus  ( cf. 
(ialat.  iii.  17).  During  the  lifetime  of  Joseph, 
and  probalily  for  some  generations  afterwards,  the 
Hebrews  were  well  treated,  and  prospered ;  but 
a  new  dynasty — probably  the  lOth- arose,  and 
they  were  reduced  to  relentless  sliivery.  A 
deliverer  at  length  appeared  in  the  |ier.son  of 
Moses  ((|.v.).  The  ciicumstances  of  the  exodus 
(aliout  13'20  li.C.) — such  as  the  ten  |dagues  and  the 
crossing  of  the  Ked  Sea— are  a  source  of  continual 
controversy  between  the  Katiimalistic  and  the 
Supra-naturalistic  schools  of  biblical  criticism  ;  but 
the  flirt  of  an  exoilus  would  be  ilisimted  only  by 
the  wildest  scepticism. 

The  wandering  in  the  wilderness  of  the  Sinaitic 
peninsiil.a  is  said  to  have  lasted  forty  years,  though 
a  record  of  the  events  of  two  years  only  has  been 
preserved.  These,  howmer,  are  obviously  the  most 
important,  as  they  contain  an  elaborate  account  of 
the  giving  of  the  law  (  Kxod.  xix.  et  sci/.),  which  is 
re]>rcsented  as  a  diiccl  revelation  maih?  to  Moses 
by  Jehovah  Himself,  who  desciiidcil  upon  Mount 
Sinai  in  lire,  amid  the  iciar  of  thumlers  and  the 
(|uaking  of  hills.  The  antii|uity,  however,  of  Ihe 
priestly  or  ecclesiastical  portions  of  the  I'enlalench 
is  keenly  disjjuted  by  a  lapidly-giiiwing  majority 
of  modern  scholars,  even  so  orthodox  an  authority 
as  l'"r.  I)elit/..scli  having  become  a  convert  to  their 
views  shortly  before  his  death.  The  modern  school 
seek  to  .show  the  probability  of  smdi  passages 
having  been  cf)m])osed  and  inserted  subscrjueiil  (o 
the  great  organisation  of  the  luiesl  hood  liy  David; 
and  in  jiroof  of  this  |)oint,  among  other  evidences, 
to  the  Book  of  Judges  (q.v.),  which  narrates  the 
history  of  the  Helirews  some  '2(H)  years  iif/er  the 
conquest  of  Canaan,  and  which  yet  ccmtains 
scarcidy  a  single  trace  of  the  existence  of  Mosaic 
instituti(jns  among  them.  For  the  origin  of  the 
law  as  we  now  have  it,  the  development  of  the 
national  consciousness,  .and  the  growth  of  the  Did 
Testament  literature,  see  Bim.K.  There  is  a  grow- 
ing tendency  among  critics   to  locali.se  the  giving 


.JKVV« 


323 


i)f  tlie  law  and  the  various  events  connected  with 
levchition  at  Kadosh  rather  than  iii  the  so-calKnl 
Sinaitic  iicninsuhi. 

The  •  land  of  promise '  became  theire  at  last 
(about  1274  it.c),  under  Joshua  ( I),  v.),  the  successor 
of  Moses.  Tribe  after  tribe  was  swept  from  its 
ancient  territory,  and  for  the  most  part  either 
annihilated  or  forced  to  flee.  Yet  the  whole  bulk 
of  the  native  inhabitants  was  not  extirpated  or 
expelled,  nor  even  subdued  till  a  much  later  period. 
The  country  was  now  ilivided  anu>n<^  the  Hebrew 
trilie.s.  The  maj;nilicent  pastoral  rej^ion  to  the  east 
of  the  Jordan  was  now  occupied  by  the  tribes  of 
IJeuben,  Gad,  and  the  half-tribe  of  Mauasseh ;  while 
the  land  west  of  the  Jordan  was  parcelled  out 
to  the  remaining — Judah,  Simeon,  Dan,  Benjamin, 
Ephraim,  the  second  half-tribe  of  Mauasseh, 
Issaohar,  Zebulon,  Naphtali,  and  Aslier.  The  tribe 
of  Levi  received,  instead  of  a  province,  forty-eiKht 
cities  scattered  throu^;hout  Canaan  and  the  tenth 
pivrt  of  the  fruits  of  the  field,  and  were  allowed 
generally  to  settle  individually  throughout  the  land 
where  they  chose. 

After  the  death  of  Joshua  (about  12.54  B.C.)  the 
want  of  a  chief  to  the  young  state  became  sadly 
palpable.  Little  regard  was  paid  to  the  Mosaic 
iii>titutions  ;  the  single  tribes  pursued  their  own 
indiv  idual  interests ;  intermarriages  with  the  iilol- 
atrous  natives  weakened  the  bond  of  union  still 
further  ;  and  the  next  consequence  was  that  the 
tribes  were  singly  suljdued  by  the  surrounding 
nations.  At  this  juncture  there  arose  at  Intervals 
valiant  men  and  women.  Judges  (Sliofctim),  who 
lilierated  the  people  from  their  oppressors,  the 
Moabites,  Philistines,  Ammonites,  Amalekites,  >.*cc. 
Kifteen  of  these  are  named,  .some  of  whom  appear 
to  have  been  contemporary  with  each  other,  and 
to  have  exercised  authority  in  ditl'erent  parts  of 
the  country.  This  period  constitutes  the  '  heroic  ' 
age  of  Hebrew  history.  Among  these  Judges  the 
prophetess  Deborah,  Gideon,  Jephthah,  the  her- 
culean Samscm,  and  the  propliet  Samuel  are 
e.specially  notable ;  the  la.st  mentioned  was,  in 
every  sense  of  the  word,  the  greatest  Hebrew 
that  had  ;ls  yet  appeared  since  the  days  of  Moses. 
The  first  of  the  prophets,  he  was  also  the  last  of 
the  republican  chiefs  of  the  confederate  tribes. 
Wearied  of  their  intestine  feuds,  hara.s.sed  by  the 
incursions  of  their  predatory  neighlxMirs,  chiefly, 
however,  goaded  by  the  characteristic  ilesire  '  to 
be  like  all  the  other  nations'  (1  Sam.  viii.  5),  the 
people  compelleil  him,  in  his  old  age,  to  choose  for 
them  a  king  ( 1067  B.C.). 

The  fust  who  exercised  regal  authority  was 
Saul,  the  Uenjamite  ( 10G7-1055  B.C.).  But,  though 
a  distinguished  warrior,  and  a  man  of  royal 
presence,  he  appears  not  to  hai'e  possessed  the 
mind  of  a  statesman  ;  ami  his  wilfulness  and  par- 
oxysms of  insanity  Hnally  alienated  from  liim 
many  of  the  bravest  and  best  of  his  sul)ject«. 
.\iter  his  death  on  Moutit  (lilboa,  David  (i|.v.), 
his  .son-in-law,  was  proclaimed  king  ( 10.35  101.5 
B.C.).  This  nmnarch  was  by  far  the  greatest  that 
ever  sat  on  the  throne  of  Lsrael.  His  reign,  and 
that  of  his  equally  fanmus  son,  Solomon,  are 
regarded  as  the  golden  time  of  Hebn-w  history. 
The  remaining  aborigines  of  Canaan  anrl  its  borilers 
— viz.  the  Philistines,  Edoniites,  Amalekites, 
iFoabites,  &c. — were  thoroughly  subdued  ;  the 
houndarie-s  of  the  Hebrew  kingdom  were  extended 
as  far  as  the  Euphrates  and  the  I'ed  Sea ;  Jeru- 
salem wa-s  captureil,  and  made  the  capital  of  the 
conqueror;  the  priesthood  was  reorganised  on  a 
splendiil  scale  ;  the  arts  of  poetry,  music,  and  arclii- 
tecture  were  cultivated;  schools  of  jirophecy  (lirst 
established,  probably,  by  Samuel )  began  to  tlourish; 
a  magnilir-ent  temide  for  the  worship  of  Jehovah  was 
built  in  the  caiiitaf;  and  commeni.i!  intercourse  was 


carried  on  with  Pluenicia,  .Arabia,  Egypt,  with  India 
and  Ceylon,  and  perha|is  with  even  Sumatra,  Jav  a, 
and  the  Spice  Islands.  But  there  was  a  canker  at 
the  root  of  all  this  prosperity.  The  enormous  and 
wasteful  expenditure  of  Solomon  forced  him  to  lay 
heavy  taxes  on  the  people.  His  wealth  did  not 
enriidi  them ;  it  rather  made  them  poorer ;  au<l 
although  gifted  with  transcendent  wisdom  and 
the  most  brilliant  mental  powers,  towards  the 
end  of  his  life  he  presents  the  sad  spectacle  of 
a  common  eastern  despot,  voluptuous,  idolatrous, 
occa.sionally  even  cruel,  and  his  reign  (101.5  077 
B.C.)  cannot  but  be  regarded,  both  iiolitically  and 
financially,  as  a  splendid  failure.  After  his  death 
the  Hebrew  monarchv,  in  which  the  germs  of 
dissension — chiefly  jealousy  against  the  influence 
of  Judah — had  been  silently  growing  up  for  many 
a  year,  split  under  Kehoboam  into  two  sections 
(975  B.C.) — the  kingdom  of  Judah,  under  Keho- 
boam, son  of  Solomon,  and  the  kingdom  of  Israel, 
under  Jeroboam,  the  Ephraimite.  The  former  of 
these  countries  comprised  the  two  tribes  of  .ludah 
and  Benjamin,  together,  probably,  with  some  Danite 
and  Simeonite  cities ;  the  latter,  the  remaining 
ten.  After  nineteen  kings  of  difi'erent  dynasties, 
among  whom  Jeroboam,  Aliab,  Joram,  Jeroboam 
II.,  Pekah  may  be  mentioned,  had  reigned  in 
Israel,  few  of  whom  succeeded  to  the  throne  other- 
wise than  l>y  the  murder  of  their  predecessors,  the 
country  \\as  finally  conquered  liy  Shalmaneser,  king 
of  Assyria,  its  sovereign,  Hoshea,  thrown  into 
prison,  the  mass  of  the  people  carried  avay  cai)tiv e 
(720  B.C.)  into  the  far  east,  the  mountainous  regions 
of  Media,  and  their  place  supplied  by  Assyrian 
colonists.  These,  mingling  and  intermarrying 
with  the  remnant  of  the  Israelites,  formed  the 
mixed  people  called  Samaritans  (q.v. ).  Among 
the  twenty  king*  of  the  House  of  David  who  ruled 
over  Judah,  Jehoshaphat,  Uzziah,  Hezekiah, 
and  Josiah  distinguished  themselves  both  by 
their  abilities  as  rulers  and  by  their  zeal  for  the 
worship  of  Jehovah.  Yet  even  they  were,  for  the 
most  part,  unable  to  stay  the  idolatrous  practices  of 
the  people,  against  which  the  prophets'  voices  even 
could  not  prevail.  Other  kings  were,  for  the  most 
])art,  more  or  less  unfaithful  themselves  to  the 
religion  of  their  fathers,  and  umable  to  withstand  the 
power  of  the  Egyptians,  Assyrians,  and  Babylonians, 
to  each  of  whom  they  in  turn  became  tributary, 
until  at  la-st  Nebuchadnezzar  stormed  Jerusalem 
(588  B.C.),  plundered  and  burned  the  lem|)le,  put 
out  the  eyes  of  King  Zedekiah,  and  carried  off 
the  most  illustrious  and  wealthy  of  the  iidiabitants 
prisoners  to  Babylon.  The  Israelites,  who  had 
been  exiled  134  years  before  the  inhabitants  of 
Judah,  never  returned.  What  became  of  them 
hits  always  lieen  matter  of  vaguest  speculation 
(see  Babylom.sh  Captivitv,  ANGLO-lsR.VELrn-; 
Theory,  Beni-Israel). 

All  that  we  know  of  the  condition  of  the  Hebrews 
during  the  captivity  relates  exclusively  to  the 
inhabitants  of  the  kingdom  of  Juilah.  And  so 
mild,  especially  during  the  later  years,  was  the 
treatment  which  they  received  in  the  Babylonian 
empire  that,  when  libert.v  was  aninmnced  to  the 
whole  body  of  the  captives,  only  the  lowest  of 
the  low  returned,  together  with  the  Levites  and 
Priests.  The  Book  of  Esther  likewise  bears  testi- 
mony to  the  numbers  that  had  remained  scattered 
over  the  vast  em|iiro. 

The  influence  of  this  exile,  however,  w;us  of  a 
n»)st  stiiking  anil  lasting  nature.  Babylon  henci' 
forth  became,  and  remained  u)!  to  alxuit  10(10  a.H., 
the  'second  land  of  Isniel' — in  many  respects  even 
more  highly  prized  than  Palestine.  To  this  brief 
period  of  the  captivity  must  be  traced  many  of  the 
most  important  institutions  of  the  synagogue  in 
its  wider  sense.     Common  religions  meetings,  with 


324 


JEWS 


prayer,  were  establislieil  :  iiiiiiiy  of  the  Mosaic  laws 
were  re-eii forced  in  tlieir  primitive  rigour ;  and 
the  body  of  tlie  '  oral  law '  he^'an  to  shape  itself, 
however  rndcly,  then  and  there.  Besides,  there 
liej;an  to  jjrow  up  and  unfold  itself  the  belief  in 
a  Messiah,  a  Deliverer,  one  who  should  redeem  the 
people  from  their  bondajje.  Tlie  writer  of  the  last 
twenty-seven  ehaptei-s  of  Isaiah,  who  is  usually 
called  by  modern  seholars  the  'Younger  Isaiah,'  is 
held  to  belong  to  this  period,  and  exoresses  in  glow- 
ing language  the  hopes  of  the  exiles  ;  no  less  do 
many  of  the  I'salms  belong  to  this  time.  From  this 
period,  likewise,  the  belief  in  the  resurrection  of 
the  bodv  and  the  imnu)i  tality  of  the  soul,  iis  well 
as  the  notion  of  angels  and  demons,  begins  to  enter 
mori!  distinctly  into  the  general  creed. 

The  exile  is  generally  computed  to  have  lasted 
seventy  years.  This  is  not  strictly  correct ;  it 
lasted  seventy  years  if  reckoned  from  the  capture 
of  Jerusalem  in  the  reign  of  Jehoiakim  (fiOli),  but 
only  fifty  counting  from  the  destruction  of  .leru- 
salem.  When  Cyrus,  the  Persian  king,  had  over- 
thrown the  IJabvloni.an  kingdom  (5,38  B.C.)  he 
issued  an  edict  permitting  the  exiles  to  return 
home  ;  and  a  minute  account  of  the  circumstances 
attending  this  joyous  event  is  given  in  the  Books 
of  Ezra  and  Xeiiemiah. 

The  foundations  of  the  Second  Temple  were  laid 
in  the  second  year  of  the  return,  but  in  conse- 
quence of  the  interference  of  the  Samaritans  the 
«drk  had  to  be  laid  aside.  It  was  not  resumed 
till  the  second  year  of  Darius  Hystaspes  (5'20  B.C.), 
anil  was  hnally  completed  in  tlie  sixth  year  (516 
B.C.).  The  waste  cities  were  likewise  rebuilt  and 
repeoijled.  During  the  long  reign  of  Darius  the 
Jews  were  blessed  with  a  high  degree  of  material 
prosjierity.  Under  his  successor,  Xerxes,  probably 
occurred  the  incidents  recorded  in  the  Book  of 
Esther.  In  the  seventh  year  of  Artaxerxes,  the 
successor  of  Xerxes,  Ezra  the  priest,  invested 
with  high  powers,  lieaded  a  .secon<l  migration. 
Thirteen  years  later  Nehemiah,  Artaxerxes*  cup- 
bearer, but  a  man  of  Jewish  family,  was  ordered 
to  proceeil  to  Jerus.ilem.  and,  aided  by  Ezra  and 
others,  succeeded  in  secretly  fortifying  the  city, 
notwithstanding  the  continuous  opposition  from 
Samaritans,  Ammonites,  and  Arabians.  The 
strictest  observance  of  the  '  written  law,'  even  of 
those  of  its  parts  which  had  been  for  some  reason 
or  other  disregarded,  was  now  rigorously  enforccil, 
and  many  '  oral  ordinances '  were  put  into  prac- 
tice which  do  not  seem  to  have  been  much  heard 
of  ]>reviously.  The  supreme  spiritual  authority 
was  vested  in  a  society  of  pious  and  pre-eminently 
learned  men,  founded  by  Ezra,  out  of  which  grew 
the  'tireat  Synagogue.'  The  compilation  and 
transcription  of  the  sacred  records  began,  periinl- 
ical  public  readings  ami  expoundings  of  the  law 
weie  instituted,  anil  the  vast  Targumic,  ;is  well  as 
the  so-called  rabbinical  literature,  generally  dates — 
ill  its  earliest  beginnings — from  this  point.  During 
till'  life  of  Xeheniiah  the  breach  between  the  Jews 
and  Samaritans  became  tinal,  by  the  erection  on 
Mount  (lerizim  (q.v. )  of  a  rival  temple  to  that  at 
Jerusalem,  and  the  creation  of  a  rival  priesthood. 

-Vlexaniler  the  (!reat,  on  his  way  to  ci>ni|Uer  the 
whole  K;Lst,  did  not  deem  it  necessary  to  storm 
tierusaleni.  The  inhabitants  submitted  (."{Si  Ii.C), 
and  he  even  deigned  to  have  sacrifices  oH'ered  on 
his  behalf  to  the  national  god  of  his  new  subjects, 
a  great  number  of  whom,  and  of  Samaritans,  he 
carried  away  to  Egypt,  and  with  these  Jewish 
captives  peopled  a  third  of  hi>  newly  founded 
city  .Alexandria.  After  him  I'tolemy  Soter,  one 
of  his  generals,  who  had  become  king  of  Egyjit, 
invaded  Syria,  tf)ok  Jeru.'^alem  (;101  H.C. ),  and 
carried  oli'  1(X),(KHJ  of  the  inhabitants,  whom  he 
forced  to  settle  chiellv  in  Alexandria  and  Cvrene. 


The  Egyptian  or  Alexandrian  'Dispersion'  (Gohth) 
— destined  to  be  of  vast  importance  in  the  de- 
velopment of  Judaism  and  Christianity — gradu- 
ally spreail  over  the  whole  country,  from  Libya 
to  Etnioiiia.  They  enjoyed  eipial  rights  with 
their  fellow-.subjects,  both  Egyptian  and  Creek, 
and  were  admitted  to  the  higliest  dignities  and 
offices,  so  that  many  further  immigrants  followed 
of  their  own  free-will.  The  freedom  they  enjoyed 
enabled  them  to  reach,  under  Creek  auspices,  the 
highest  eminence  in  science  and  art.  To  this 
period  belongs  the  Creek  translation  of  the  Bible, 
the  Septuagint  (q.v.),  which,  in  its  turn,  while  it 
estranged  the  peo|ile  more  and  more  from  the 
language  of  their  fathers,  gave  lise  to  a  Viust 
p.seudo-epigraphical  and  apocryphal  literature— 
not  to  mention  the  jieculiar  llra-co-Jewish  philo- 
sophy, which  sprang  from  a  mixture  of  Helleni.-m 
and  Orientalism. 

For  a  hundred  years  Jnda'a  herself  remained 
under  Egyptian  rule.  During  the  reigns  of  the 
first  three  Ptolenues  it  jirospered  ;  but  after  the 
accession  of  Ptolemy  Pbilopator  a  change  for  the 
worse  came  over  the  fortunes  of  the  Jews.  After 
his  death  Antiochus  III.  (q.v.)  of  Syria  incorpor- 
ated Palestine  with  the  dominions  of  the  Seleucida', 
and  treated  the  Jews  less  favourably  than  their 
Egyptian  iiiastei-s  had  done.  Their  fate  became 
harder  still  under  his  son,  Antiochus  E|)iphanes, 
or  Epimanes  ('the  ^laihnan),  who,  by  every 
means  a  cruel  and  foolhardy  policy  could  devise, 
outraged  the  religious  feelings  of  the  iiatiou. 
To  foice  the  Jews  into  the  Creek  religion,  the 
temple  at  Jerusalem  was  dedicated  to  Jui)iter 
( llympius  ;  idol  altars  were  Imilt  in  every  yiliage, 
and  tlie  peoiile  conslr.ained  to  ofl'er  swine  daily. 
Some  yiclilcif,  iiiany  lied,  the  greater  part  preferred 
martyrdom  in  some  shape  or  other. 

At  this  juncture  the  heroic  family  of  Mattathias, 
a  priest  of  the  house  of  the  H;i.snioneans,  rose, 
together  with  a  few  patriots,  against  the  immense 
[lower  of  the  Syrians.  The  national  cause  quickly 
gathered  strength,  and  after  the  death  of  MattatliiiLs 
(  166  B.C.),  Judas  Maccaba-us  (q.v.)  led  the  national 
hosts  to  victory  against  the  Syrians.  After  his 
death  (161)  his  brothers  Jonathan  and  Simon 
completed  the  work  of  deliverance,  and  insti- 
tuted the  Sanhedrin  (145).  During  their  rule  alli- 
ances were  twice  formed  with  the  lionians,  and 
the  country  once  more  began  to  prosper.  Under 
Simon  more  especially,  Syrian  rule  became  a  mere 
shadow  :  his  was  an  almost  absolute  power,  so 
much  so  that  in  the  year  170  of  the  Seleucidian  era 
(1-1'2  li.r.)  a  new  , Jewish  era  was  commenced,  and 
public  documents  bore  date,  'In  the  first  ye.ar  of 
Simon,  high-priest  and  chief  of  the  Jews.'  Simon's 
.son,  John  Hyrcanus  (q.v.),  after  a  brief  jieriod  of 
vassalage  to  the  Syrians,  extended  his  authority 
over  S.imaiia,  (ialilee,  and  Idiimea — the  Idumeaus 
being  converted  to  the  Jewish  religion.  His  son, 
Aristobulus,  added  Iturea  to  his  dominions;  Alex- 
ander Janna'Us,  succeeding  his  brother,  further  con- 
trived to  enlarge  his  territories.  He  was  disliked 
by  the  mass  of  his  countrymen,  and  a  civil  war  of 
six  yeaiV  duration  ensued.  His  wife,  Alexandra, 
securing  the  support  of  the  Pharisees  (q.y.), 
governed,  on  the  whole,  iirudenlly  for  nine  yeai-s. 
The  Phari.siic  party,  however,  alnised  the  power 
which  fell  into  their  hands,  and  a  reaction  took 
place.  Aristobulus,  youngest  son  of  the  queen, 
marched  to  Jerus.ilem,  and  ejected  his  elder  brother, 
Hyrcanus  II.,  from  the  sovereignty.  This  led  to 
the  interference  of  the  Bonian.-,  who  were  then 
lighting  both  in  Syria  and  .\rmenia.  .lerusaleni 
was  caiilnred  (6.S  B.C.)  by  Pompey,  Judiea  made 
depenilcnt  on  the  Unman  province  of  Syria,  and 
Hyrcanus  apiioiiited  elhiiaich  ami  high-priest. 

In  54  H.C.  Licinius  Criussus  plundered  the  temple, 


JEWS 


325 


which  Ponipey  had  spared.  Wlien  the  war  lietween 
C;esar  and  I'onipey  broke  out,  the  partisans  of  Poni- 
pey  were  numerous  in  Syria,  and  contrived  to  iioison 
Aristohuhis  and  execute  liis  son  Alexander,  wlio 
were  Ca-sareans  (49  B.C.).  After  the  death  of  I'om- 
pey,  however,  tliinjrs  changed  ;  and  Ilyroanus,  or 
rather  .\ntipater  the  Muniean  (who  was  hotli  liis 
minister  .and  master),  saw  the  necessity  of  securin<r 
tlie  favour  of  Civ.sar.  AVith  Hyreanus  II.  ended 
the  line  of  the  Hiismonean  princes.  They  were 
nominally  both  sovereigns  and  high-priests:  hut 
the  real  religio\is  authority  had  passed  into  the 
hands  of  the  priesthood,  and  especially  of  the  San- 
hedrin  (q.v. ).  The  Idurifan  dynasty  virtually 
commenced  with  Antipater.  who  prevailed  on 
Ca»sar  to  restrict  Hyreanus  to  the  high-])riesthood, 
and  obtained  for  himself  the  office  of  procurator  of 
duda'a.  while  his  elilest  son  Phazael  was  appointed 
governor  of  Jenis.alem,  and  his  younger  son  Herod 
governor  of  (Jalilee.  The  Jewisli  or  national  party 
took  alarm  at  this  sudden  increa.se  of  Id\imean 
jKiwer :  strife  ensued,  and  ultimately  Antipater 
perished  by  poison  ;  l>ut  Herod,  l>v  the  assistance  of 
the  Itomans,  linally  entered  Jerusalem  in  triumph 
(.ST  B.C.),  caused  Antigonus,  the  last  male  repre- 
sentative of  the  Hasmonean  line,  and  his  most 
dangerous  enemy,  to  be  put  to  death,  and  com- 
menced the  difficult  task  of  governing  n,  peoi)le 
who  were  growing  more  and  more  unruly  every 
day.  For  the  history  of  the  next  period,  see  Herod. 
After  Herod's  death  (4  B.C.),  Archelaus,  one  of 
his  sons,  ruled  .Tuda'a  and  Samaria ;  but  his  arbi- 
trariness, and  still  more  his  constant  attacks  upon 
religion,  m.ade  him  hateful  to  the  people ;  and 
Augustus,  listening  to  their  just  complaints,  de- 
pri\ed  him  of  his  power,  and  banished  him  to 
Vienne.  Jnd;va  was  now  thrown  together  with 
Syria,  and  wa.s  niled  by  Roman  governoi-s. 

In  the  year  38  .\.D.  the  Emperor  Caligula  issued 
an  edict  ordering  divine  honoui's  to  be  paid  to  him- 
self. Everywhere  throughout  the  Roiuan  dominions 
the  .lews  refused  to  obey.  At  Alex.andria  a  fright- 
ful ma-ssacre  took  place,  and  for  ,a  time  it  seemed 
as  if  the  whole  of  the  inhabitants  of  .Jud;ea,  too, 
were  doomed  to  perish.  Herod  Agri])p,a  obtained 
anew  from  Claudius  the  dominion  over  all  the 
l>arts  once  niled  by  his  grandfather  Herod,  and 
many  privileges  were  through  his  intiuence 
granted  to  his  .Jewish  subjects,  and  even  to 
foreign  Jews.  They  received  the  rights  of  Roman 
citizenship  (41  .v.D. ),  and  their  niler  even  tried 
to  conciliate  their  religious  prejudices  by  the 
strictness  with  which  he  observed  their  law ;  yet 
the  national  party  remained  malcontent,  and  in 
an  almost  permanent  state  of  mutiny. 

After  the  death  of  Herod  .\grippa  I.  the  country 
was  again  subjected  to  Rom.an  governoi's.  The 
confusion  soon  became  indescribable.  The  whole 
land  w.os  overnin  with  robbers  .and  assassins,  some 
of  whom  professed  to  be  animated  by  religious 
motives,  while  others  were  mere  nithanly  free- 
lH>oters  and  cut-throats;  the  antipathy  between 
.lews  anil  Samaritans  waxed  tiercer  and  liercer, 
anil  the  Latter  w.aylaid  and  murdered  the  orthodox 
Galileans  as  they  went  up  to  worship  .at  .Icrusalem  ; 
all  sort.s  of  impostors,  fan.atics,  and  ]iretenders  to 
magic  m.ade  their  appe.ar.ance  ;  the  priesthood  wa.s 
riven  by  dissensions ;  the  hatreds  between  the 
popul.ace  .and  the  Rom.an  soldiery  (mostly  of  (Jr.a^co- 
Syrian  origin),  and  under  the  command  of  cruel 
procnratoi-s,  such  as  Albinus  and  (iessins  Klorus, 
incre.ased  :  frightful  portents  (.according  to  Jose- 
jihus )  appeared  in  the  heavens,  until,  in  (ifi  .\.F)., 
in  spite  of  all  the  prccautirm.ary  eH'orts  taken  by 
.\gnp|).a,  the  party  of  Ze.alots,  also  called  Sicarii 
or  '  A.ss.ossins,  burst  into  open  rebellion,  which, 
after  a  horrible  cam.age,  w.o-s  terminated  ("0  .\.i). ) 
by  the  conquest  of  Jerusalem  by  Titus,  the  destruc- 


tion of  the  temple,  and  the  ma-ssacre  and  banish- 
ment of  liundreds  of  thousands  of  the  unliap]iy 
people,  who  were  scattered  among  their  brethren 
in  all  parts  of  the  world. 

The  defence  of  Jerusalem  a.s  narrated  by  Jose- 
phus  is  one  of  the  most  magnificent  and  melancholy 
examples  of  mingled  heroism  and  insanity  that  the 
world  aftbrds.  Very  considerable  numbers  of  .lews 
were  still  allowed  to  remain  in  their  native  coun- 
try, and  for  the  next  thirty  ye.ars,  although  both 
hated  .and  treated  with  rigour,  they  appear,  on 
the  whole,  to  have  flourished.  The  Emperor 
Nerva  was  as  lenient  to  them  <as  to  the  rest  of 
his  subjects ;  but  as  soon  as  they  had  .attained 
some  measure  of  political  vitality,  their  turlnilent 
and  fanatical  spirit  broke  out  anew.  Their  Last 
attempts  to  throw  oft'  the  Roman  yoke,  in  Cyrene 
(ll.-)  .\.D.),  Cyprus  (116),  ^lesopotamia  (118),  and 
Palestine,  under  Bar-Cochba  (q.v. ),  were  defeated 
after  enormous  and  almost  incredible  butcheries. 
The  suppression  of  Bar-Coehba's  insurrection  ( 135 
.\.D. )  marks  the  final  desolation  of  .luiLea.  and  the 
dispersion  of  its  inhabitants.  The  whole  of  .Iuda>a 
was  made  like  a  desert,  .about  9S.5  towns  and  vill- 
ages Lay  in  ashes,  50  fortresses  were  r.azed  to  the 
ground  ;  the  name  of  .Jerusalem  itself  was  changed 
into  .-Elia  Capitolina,  and  a  heathen  colony  settled 
in  the  city,  from  entering  which  every  ."lew  was 
strictly  debarred.  The  hardships  to  which  the  un- 
fortunate race  were  subjected  were  .again  .alleviated 
in  the  reign  of  Antoninus  Pius  :  Alexander  Severus 
placed  Abraham  on  the  same  divine  level  as  he  did 
Christ.  Heliogabalus,  among  his  many  senseless 
whims,  piitronised  various  Jewish  practices,  such 
as  circumcision  and  abstinence  from  swine's  flesh ; 
and,  generally  speaking,  from  the  close  of  the  '2d 
century  till  the  establishment  of  Christianity  under 
Constantine  (.3.30  A.D. ),  when  their  hopes  were  once 
more  dashed  to  the  ground,  the  Jews  of  the  Rom.an 
emidre  appear  to  have  thriven  astonishingly.  In 
this  period  falls  the  redaction  of  the  chief  code  and 
b.asis  of  the  '  Oral  Law,'  the  Mishna,  completed  by 
Jehuda  Hanassi  ('the  Prince'),  or  Hakk.adosh 
('the  Saint'),  president  of  the  great  school  at 
Tiberias  (i'iO);  and  upon  this  code  were  grafted 
subsequently  the  two  gigantic  commentaries  or 
complements,  the  Palestinian  and  the  Cabyloni.an 
Oemaras.  The  Babylonian  Jews  were  even  more 
fortunate  than  their  western  brethren,  though 
they  dill  not  perhaps  attain  the  nieridi.an  of  their 
prosperity  till  the  reviv.al  of  the  Persian,  on  the 
downf.all  of  the  Parthian  empire.  Their  leader 
was  called  'The  Prince  of  the  Captivity'  (licsh 
Gchitha),  .and  was  chosen  from  among  those  held  to 
be  descended  from  the  House  of  D.aviil.  He  lived  in 
gi'eat  splendour,  assuming  among  his  own  ]ieo|)le 
the  style  and  state  of  .a  monarch.  The  reputation 
for  learning  of  the  Babylonian  schools,  Nehardea, 
Sura,  and  Pnmbeditha,  w.as  very  great.  What 
their  condition  was  at  this  time  farther  east  we 
cannot  tell,  but  it  seems  quite  certain  that  they 
had  obtained  a  footing  in  China,  if  not  before  the 
time  of  Christ,  at  least  during  the  1st  centuiy. 

In  Europe  the  ascendency  of  Christianity  was 
baneful  to  the  Jews.  Imperial  edicts  and  ecclesi- 
astical decrees  vied  with  e.aeli  other  in  the  rigour 
of  their  intolerance  tow.ards  this  unhappy  people. 
They  were  prohibited  from  making  converts,  and 
from  marrying  Christian  women ;  they  were  bur- 
dened with  heavy  taxes  ;  yet  no  persecution  ap])ar- 
ently  could  destroy  the  immortal  race.  In  the  4th 
century  they  are  found  in  large  numbers  in  lllyiia, 
Italy,  Spain,  Minorca,  (I.aul,  and  the  Roman  towns 
on  the  Ithine  ;  they  are  agriculturists,  traders,  and 
artis.ans  ;  they  hold  land  ;  their  services,  in  fact, 
cannot  be  dispensed  with ;  Constantine.  during 
whose  reign  a  fierce  revolution  broke  out  among 
tlie  Arians  and  Jews  (.353),  terms  them  '  that  most 


:v2(j 


JEWS 


hateful  of  all  people ;'  vet  in  sjiite  of  this  they  fill 
iinpnitant  civil  and  military  situations,  have  special 
courts  of  justice,  and  exercise  the  inlluence  that 
spring's  from  llie  ])ossession  of  Avealtli  and  kuo«- 
lcdj;e.  The  lirief  rule  of  .Julian  the  Apostate  even 
shed  a  nioinentary  gleam  of  s|ilcn<lour  over  their 
destinies,  and  secured  for  them  ijermission  to  le- 
huild  the  temjile  of  Jerusalem.  The  death  of  this 
emperor,  however,  frustrated  their  lahours,  and 
the  rapid  increase  of  ecclesiastical  power  was  hurt- 
ful to  them  in  a  variety  of  ways ;  although  the 
emperors  now  bej,'aii  to  protect  them  as  far  as  they 
could.  In  418  they  were  excluded  from  military 
service.  After  the  fall  of  the  western  empire 
their  fortunes  \\ere  ditt'erent  in  different  countries. 
In  Italy,  Sicily,  and  Sardinia  they  were  for  a 
time  unmolested  :  in  the  By/antine  empire  they 
suffered  many  oppressions  ;  while  in  the  tith  and 
7th  centuries  the  Franks  and  Spanish  Visigoths 
indicted  on  them  frightful  persecution.s. 

The  sudden  volcanic  outburst  of  Mohammedanism 
in  the  Arabian  peninsula  was  at  first  disastrous  to 
the  Jews  in  that  part  of  the  world.  For  several 
centuries  a  Jewish  kingdom  had  existed  in  the 
south-west  of  Arabia,  called  Himyaritis  or  Homer- 
itis,  which  was  in  a  flourishing  condition  in  120 
B.C.  About  '230  A.D.  a  prince  of  the  Jewish  faith 
mounted  the  throne  of  Yemen  ;  twice,  however,  the 
Jewish  kings  were  driven  from  it,  and  the  Christian 
relicjion  was  introduced  in  that  part  in  530.  At 
first  Jewish  tribes  around  Mecca  and  Medina 
entertained  opinions  favourable  to  Mohammed 
as  an  Arabian  chief,  but  when  Islam  began  to 
threaten  their  own  faith  they  rose  in  aims  against 
its  founder.  Mohammed  proved  the  stronger : 
he  subdued  the  Chaibar  trilies  in  627,  and  the 
Araljian  Jews  were  finally  removed  to  Syria. 
The  spread  of  Mohammedanism  through  Asiatic 
Turkey,  Persia,  Egypt,  Africa,  ami  the  south  of 
Spain  wa-s,  nevertheless,  on  the  whole  advantageous 
to  the  Jews.  Excepting  accidental  persecutions, 
such  as  those  in  Mauritania  (in  790)  and  in 
Egypt  (1010),  they  enjoyed,  under  the  califs  and 
Arabian  princes,  comparative  peace.  In  Moorish 
Spain  their  numbers  greatly  increased,  and  they 
became  famous  for  their  learning  as  well  as  for 
trade.  They  were  counsellors,  secretaries,  astro- 
logers, and  physicians  to  the  Moorish  rulers ;  and 
this  jieriod  may  well  be  considered  the  golden 
age  of  Jewish  literature.  Poets,  orators,  pliilo- 
sophers  of  highest  eminence  arose,  and  in  consider- 
able numl)ers ;  and  it  is  a  well-established  fact 
that  to  them  is  chiefly  due— through  the  Arab 
medium — the  preservation  and  subseiiuent  spread- 
ing of  ancient  classical  literature,  more  esi)ecially 
philosophy,  in  Europe.  But  in  Christendom  few 
and  far  between  were  the  moiiarchs  who  rose  above 
the  barbarism  of  the  churclies.  .\bout  the  begin- 
ning' of  the  11th  century  the  Byzantiue  emperor 
Basil  II.  renewed  the  per.secution.  In  Habyhuiia, 
too,  the  califate  had  passed  into  the  hands  of  rulers 
hostile  to  the  Jews;  and  before  the  close  of  the 
11th  century  the  Prince  of  the  Cajitivity  had 
perished  on  the  scallbld,  the  scliools  were  closed, 
the  best  of  the  community  had  tied  to  Spain,  and 
those  tliat  remained  were  reduced  to  an  aliject  con- 
dition, from  which  they  have  never  risen.  In  Italy 
their  position  was  made  tolerable  by  con.siderable 
pecuniary  sacrifices;  here  and  there  at  intervals  a 
spirit  of  Christian  intolerance  might  break  out,  but 
they  enjoyed  for  the  most  part  the  luoteelion  of 
the  popes. 

Less  favourable  was  their  lot  in  France.  Under 
the  weaker  of  theCarlovingians  thechurcli  advanceil 
with  imperious  striiles,  and  a  melancholy  change 
ensued  :  kings,  bishops,  feiulal  barons,  and  even 
the  mnnicipaiities,  all  joined  in  cruel  persecution. 
From  the  lltli  to  the  Utli  centurv  their  history  is 


a  series  of  successive  massacres.  All  manner  of 
wild  stories  were  circulated  against  them  :  it  was 
said  that  they  were  wont  to  steal  the  Host,  and  to 
contemptuously  stick  it  through  and  through  ;  to 
inveigle  Christian  chililren  into  their  houses,  and 
murder  them  ;  to  |)oisoii  wells;  and  the  like.  They 
were  also  haled  for  their  excessive  usury,  thougli 
there  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  princijial  blame  of 
this  is  to  be  attributed  to  those  whose  tyranny,  by 
dei)iiving  the  Jews  of  the  right  to  possess  hind,  had 
cofnpressed  their  activity  into  the  narrower  chan- 
nels of  tratlic.  Occasionally,  however,  their  debtoi-s, 
high  and  low,  had  recourse  to  a  very  easy  means 
of  getting  lid  of  their  obligjitions.  Thus,  Philip 
Augustus,  under  whose  rule  the  Jews  seem  to  have 
held  mortgajjes  of  enormous  value,  simply  conlis- 
cated  the  deljts  due  to  them,  forced  them  to  sur- 
render the  pledges  in  their  po.sse.ssion,  seized  their 
goods,  and  bani.slied  them  from  Fiance.  Vet  in  less 
than  twenty  years  the  same  juoud  but  wasteful 
monarch  N^as  glatl  to  let  them  come  back.  Louis 
IX.  cancelled  a  third  of  the  claims  which  the  Jews 
had  against  his  subjects,  'for  the  benefit  of  liLs 
soul.'  An  edict  was  also  issued  for  the  seizure  and 
destruction  of  their  sacred  books ;  and  we  are  told 
that  at  Paris  twenty-four  cart-loads  of  the  Talmud 
and  other  books  were  consigned  to  the  llames.  In 
the  reign  of  Philip  the  Fair  the  Jews  were  .again 
expelled  from  France  (ISOti)  with  the  usual  accom- 
jiaiiiments  of  cruelty  ;  but  the  state  of  the  royal 
iiiiances  rendered  it  necessary,  in  little  more  than 
a  dozen  yeare,  to  recall  them ;  and  they  ^^■ere 
allowed  to  enforce  |iayment  of  the  debts  due  to 
them,  on  condition  that  two-thirds  of  the  whole 
should  be  given  up  to  the  king  1  But  a  religions 
epidemic  havin"  seized  the  ciuumon  people  in 
Languedoc  and  tlie  central  regions  of  France  (1321 ), 
they  signalised  themselves  liy  horrible  luiissacres 
of  the  detested  race.  In  the  following  year  the 
plague  broke  out,  and  the  w  ildcst  crimes  were  laid 
to  the  charge  of  the  .lews.  One  shudders  to  read 
what  follo\ved  ;  in  w hole  provinces  e\ery  Jew  wivs 
burned,  and  at  Chiiion  a  hundred  and  sixty  of 
both  sexes  were  burned  together !  Christianity 
never  produced  more  resolute  m.irtyrs  :  they  sang 
hymns  in  the  place  of  torment.  Finally,  in  1.395, 
they  were  banished  from  the  centre  of  I'l.ance. 

In  England  they  are  mentioned  in  the  ecclesi- 
astical conslitutious  of  Eglicrt,  Archbishop  of 
Vork,  in  740;  they  are  also  named  in  a  charter 
to  the  monks  of  Ciowland,  833.  William  the 
CoiKiueror  and  William  Kiifus  favoured  them ; 
the  latter  carried  his  contemi)t  lor  the  religious 
institutions  of  his  kingilom  so  far  that  he  actually 
farmed  out  the  vacant  bisho]irics  to  .lews  ;  and  at 
Oxford,  even  then  a  seat  of  liaruing.  they  possessed 
three  halls— Lombard  Hall,  .Moses  Hall,  and  Jacob 
Hall,  where  Hebrew  was  taught  to  Christians  as 
well  as  to  the  youths  of  their  <iw  n  ]iersuasioii.  As 
they  grew  in  wealth  they  grew  in  unpopularity. 
On  the  day  of  the  coronaiicui  of  Kichard  the  Lion- 
Heart  (1189),  some  Jews  being  found  present  at 
the  spectacle,  fiom  which  their  nation  had  been 
strictly  excluded,  a  jiopular  commotion  against 
them  broke  out  in  Lomlou  ;  their  bonso  were  pil- 
laged and  burned;  and  though  Itanulf  de  Clanvill, 
the  chiefjusliciary  of  the  realm,  ]iarlially  .suc- 
ceeded in  arresting  the  havoc,  and  even  in  bringing 
some  of  the  mob  to  justice  (three  were  hanged), 
yet  the  barbarous  bigotry  of  priests  and  people 
prevented  anything  like  just  or  .salutary  punish- 
ment. Similiir  scenes  were  witnessed  at  Niuwicli, 
Edninndsbury,  .Stamford,  and  Vork  ;  in  Vork  most 
of  the  .Jews  preferred  de;ith  to  forciMl  b.aptisiu. 
When  Itichard  returned  from  Palestine  their  |iios 
pects  brightened  a  little;  though  they  still  were 
treated  with  L'leat  rigour,  their  lives  ami  wealth 
were  ju-otected — for  a  consideration  !    .John  at  fiixt 


JEWS 


327 


covered  them  with  honour,  but  suddenly  turned 
round  on  his  ]>rote;^i''s.  :ifter  tliey  liad  aeeuniuliiteil 
},'reat  wealtli,  and  iniiirisoned,  maltreated,  and  jdun- 
dered  tliem  in  all  parts  of  the  country.  I  nder 
Henry  III.  they  were  mulcted emninously.  Accused 
of  clipping  the  coin  of  the  realm,  they  had,  as  a 
penalty,  to  jiay  into  the  royal  e.xcheciuer  (1230)  a 
third  of  their  movable  property.  'lo  this  reign 
belongs  the  now  exploded  story  of  the  crucilixion  of 
the  Cliristian  boy,  Hugh  of  Lincoln  (ij. v.).  The 
accession  of  Edward  I.  did  not  mitigate  their 
misery;  some  efforts  were  made  to  induce  them  to 
give  up  their  profession  of  usury,  a.s  was  also  done 
in  France  and  elsewhere  during  the  same  period  ; 
but,  heavily  taxeil  by  the  sovereigns  or  govern- 
ments of  Christendom,  and  debarred  by  special 
decrees  or  by  \ulgar  i]rejudice  from  almost  every 
other  trade  or  occupation,  they  could  not  attbrd  to 
]irosecute  ordinary  callings.  The  attempt  made  by 
the  Dominican  friars  to  convert  tliem,  of  course, 
failed  utterly  ;  and  in  1253,  the  Jews — no  longer 
able  to  withstand  the  constant  hardships  to  which 
they  were  subjected  in  person  and  i)ropcrty — begged 
of  their  own  accord  to  be  allowed  to  leave  the 
country.  Kicliard  of  Cornwall,  howe\er,  persuaded 
them  to  stay.  Ultimately,  in  1290,  they  were 
driven  from  the  slK)res  of  England,  pursued  by  the 
execrations  of  the  infuriated  rabble,  and  leaving 
in  the  hands  of  the  king  all  their  proi)erty,  debts, 
obligations,  and  mortgages. 

In  Germany  they  were  looked  upon  as  the  special 
property  of  the  sovereign,  who  l.iought  and  sold 
them,  and  were  designated  his  KtnniDcrloicchtc 
( •  chamber-servants ' ).  About  the  8th  century 
they  are  found  in  all  the  Rhenish  towns ;  in  the 
loth  century,  in  Saxony  and  Bohemia ;  in  the 
11th,  in  Swabia,  Franconia,  and  Vienna;  and  in 
the  12th,  in  Brandenburg  and  Silesia.  The  same 
sort  of  treatment  befell  them  in  the  emi)ire  as 
elsewhere  ;  thev  had  to  pay  all  manner  of  iniqui- 
tous taxes — body  tax,  capitation  tax,  trade  taxes, 
coronation  tax — and  to  present  a  nniltitude  of 
gifts  to  mollify  the  avarice  or  supply  the  neces- 
sities of  emperoi-s,  [jrinces,  and  barons.  A  raid 
against  the  Jews  wiis  a  favourite  pastime  of  a 
bankrupt  noble  in  those  days.  The  Crusades 
kindled  a  spirit  not  in  Germany  only,  however, 
but  through  all  Christendom,  hostile  to  the 
'enemies  of  Christ.'  Treves,  Metz,  Cologne, 
Mainz,  Worms,  Spires,  Strasburg,  and  other  cities 
were  deluged  with  the  blood  of  the  'unbelievers.' 
At  such  epochs  the  pa.ssions  of  the  populace  and 
of  the  lower  clergy  could  not  be  restrained.  The 
word  Hfp  (said  to  b,e  the  initials  of  Hicro.mli/ma 
est  pcrr/ita,  "Jerusalem  is  fallen')  throughout  all 
the  cities  of  the  empire  became  the  signal  for 
ma-ssacre,  and  if  an  insensate  monk  sounded  it 
along  the  street*  it  threw  the  rabble  into  par- 
oxysms of  murderous  rage.  The  Jews  were  ex- 
]>eileil  from  Vienna  (119t)),  Mecklenburg  (12'2.3), 
Frankfort  (1241),  Brandenburg  (124:!),  Nuremberg 
(1390),  Prague  ( 1.391  ),  and  Ratisbon  (147t)).  The 
'Black  Death'  occasioned  a  great  and  widespread 
persecution  (1348-50).  They  were  murdered  and 
burned  by  thousands,  and  the  race  almost  dis- 
appeared from  Germany ;  only,  however,  to 
return,  for  their  services  were  indisiiensable. 
Here  aiul  there  they  posses.sed  the  riglits  of  citi- 
zens, or  were  allowed  to  hold  real  estate  ;  in 
general  they  were  permitted  to  jirosccute  only 
commerce  and  usury,  and  the  law  turned  on  them 
its  harshest  ivspect.  Repeatedly,  too,  the  em- 
I>erors  gr.atilied  at  once  their  piety  and  their  greed 
by  cancelling  their  i>ecuniary  claims.  In  many 
places  they  were  compelled  to  live  in  certain  parts 
of  the  town,  known  as  the  J iidenstriisic  ('Jews' 
Street  ■ ). 

ijwitzerland  commenced  to  [ler^'cutc  them  about 


the  middle  of  the  14th  century:  in  the  loth  cen- 
tury they  were  expelled  from  various  placi-s. 
Their  trc^atment  was  more  humane  in  I'oland  and 
Lithuania;  and  after  1348  their  numbers  there  were 
swelled  by  f\igitives  from  Germany  and  Switzer- 
land. Russia  and  Hungary  received,  pereecuted, 
and  banished  them. 

In  Spain  the  condition  of  the  Jews  was  long 
highly  favourable ;  hut  the  horrible  persecutions 
by  the  Gothic  princes  in  the  (ith  and  7th  centuries 
made  it  inevitable  that  the  hrst  gleam  of  a  Moorish 
scimitar  on  the  coast  would  turn  them  into  allies 
of  the  invaders.  During  the  whole  of  the  brilliant 
period  of  Moorish  rule  in  the  ]ieninsula  they 
enjoyed,  indeed,  what  must  have  seemed  to  them, 
in  comi)arison  with  their  fate  elsewliere,  a  soi-l 
of  Elysian  life.  They  were  almost  on  terms  of 
equality  with  their  Mohammedan  masters,  rivalled 
them  in  civilisation  and  letters,  and  probably  sur- 
])assed  them  in  wealth.  The  Spanish  Jews  were 
consequently  of  a  much  higher  type  than  their 
brethren  in  other  parts  of  Europe.  They  were 
not  reduced  to  the  one  degrading  occupation  of 
usury,  though  they  followed  that  too ;  on  the 
contrary,  they  were  husbandmen,  landed  proprie- 
tors, physicians,  iinancial  administrators,  and  they 
bad  courts  of  justice  for  themselves.  The  Chris- 
tian monarchs  of  the  north  and  centre  also  came 
to  apiireciate  the  value  of  their  services,  and  we 
find  them  for  a  time  protected  and  encouraged 
by  the  rulers  of  Aragon  and  Castile.  But  the 
extravagance  of  the  nobles  and  the  increasing 
power  of  the  priesthood  ultimately  brought  about 
a  disastrous  change.  The  estates  of  the  nobles 
were  in  many  cases  mortgaged  to  the  Jews  ;  hence 
it  was  not  ditiicult  for  '  conscience '  to  get  up  a 
persecution.  Gradually  the  Jews  weie  deprived 
of  the  privilege  of  living  where  they  pleased  ;  their 
rights  were  diminished  and  their  taxes  augmented. 
In  Seville,  Cordova,  Toledo,  Valencia,  Catalonia, 
anil  the  island  of  jNIajorca  outbursts  of  priestly 
and  popular  violence  took  place  (1391-92);  im- 
mense numbers  were  murdered,  and  wholesale 
theft  was  perpetrated  by  the  religious  rabble. 
Escape  w.as  possible  only  by  tliglit  to  Africa,  or 
by  accepting  bai)tisni  at  the  point  of  the  sword. 
The  number  of  these  enforced  converts  to  ChrLs- 
tianity  is  reckoned  at  '200,000.  The  fate  of  the 
Jews  in  Spain  during  the  15tli  century,  however, 
beggars  description ;  we  read  of  nothing  but  per- 
secution, violent  conversion,  massacre,  the  tortures 
of  the  Inquisition.  Thousands  were  burned  ali\e  ; 
and  in  one  year  280  were  l)urned  in  Seville  alone. 
Sometimes  the  popes,  and  even  the  noldes,  shuddered 
at  the  fiendish  zeal  of  the  inquisitors,  and  tried 
to  mitigate  it,  but  in  vain.  At  length  the  hour 
of    linal    hiuror    came.     In    1492    Fenlinand    and 

expulsii 
to   necoi 

tians,  with  the  strict  prohiliition  to  take  neither 
gold  nor  silver  out  of  the  country.  The  Jews 
oliered  an  (enormous  sum  for  its  revocation,  and 
for  a  moment  the  sovereigns  hesitated  ;  but  when 
Torijnemada,  the  Dominican  inquisitor-geneial, 
compared  tlu;m  to  Judas,  thev  shrank  from  the 
awful  accusation ;  and  the  ruin  of  the  most  in- 
dustrious, the  nu)st  thriving,  the  most  peaceable, 
and  the  most  learned  of  their  subjects — and  con- 
se(|uentlv  of  Spain  lierself  -became  irremedialile. 
Not  less  tli.an  300,000  resolved  to  abandon  the 
country,  which  a  residence  of  seven  centuries  had 
made  almost  a  seccmd  Jndiea  to  them.  The?  inci- 
dents that  marked  their  ileparture  are  heartremling. 
Almost  every  land  w;is  shut  against  tJiem.  Some, 
however,  ventured  into  France;  others  into  Italy, 
Turkey,  and  Morocco,  in  the  last  of  which  countries 
they  suiVered  the  most  frightful  privations.  Of  the 
80,000  who  obtained  an  entrance  into  Portugal  for 


Isabella  Issued  an  edict  for  the  expulsion  within 
four  months  of  all  who   refused   to  become  Chris- 


328 


JEWS 


eight  months  on  payment  of  eij;ht  gold  pennies 
a  head,  many  lingered  after  the  exjjiry  of  the 
appointed  time,  and  the  jmorer  were  sohl  as  slaves. 
In  1-19.5  King  Emanuel  oommaiuled  them  to  quit 
his  territories,  hut  at  the  same  time  issued  a 
secret  order  that  all  dewish  children  under  four- 
teen yeai-s  of  age  should  be  torn  from  their  mothers, 
retained  in  Portugal,  and  brought  uj)  as  Christians. 
.\gonv  drove  the  ,Ic\vish  mothers  into  madness  : 
they  destroyed  their  children  with  their  own  hands, 
anci  threw'them  into  wells  and  rivers  to  prevent 
them  from  falling  into  the  hands  of  their  perse- 
cutoi-s.  The  miseries  of  those  who  embraced 
Christianity,  but  who,  for  the  most  part,  secretly 
a<lliered  to  their  old  faith  (Oiissim,  Aniissim, 
'yielding  to  violence,  forced  ones'),  were  hardly 
le.ss  dreadful,  and  it  was  far  on  in  the  17th  century 
before  persecution  ceased.  A  ntos  da  Fc  of  sus- 
jiected  converts  hap]iened  as  late  as  1655. 

The  wanderei-s  appear  to  have  met  with  much 
Itetter  treatment  in  Italy  and  Turkey  than  any- 
where else.  During  the  15th  and  16th  centuries 
they  are  to  l)e  found  in  almost  eveiT  city  of  Italv, 
pursuing  various  kinds  of  trattic  (nearly  the  whole 
trade  of  the  Levant,  for  instance,  wa.s  in  their 
hands);  but  chielly  engaged  in  money-lending,  in 
which  they  rivalled  the  great  Lombard  bankers. 
Abarhanel  (q.v. ),  perhaps  the  most  eminent  .Jewish 
scludar  and  divine  of  his  day,  rose  to  be  confidential 
adviser  to  the  king  of  Naples.  In  Turkey  they 
were  held  in  higher  estimation  than  the  conquered 
(Jreeks:  they  were  allowed  to  reo|)en  their  schools, 
to  establish  synagogues,  and  to  settle  in  all  the 
commercial  towns  of  the  Levant. 

The  invention  of  printing,  the  revival  of  learning, 
and  the  Keformation  are  generally  asserted  to  have 
been  beneficial  to  the  Jews,  but  this  is  only 
partially  true.  AVhen  the  Jews  began  to  use  the 
presses  at  their  earliest  stage  for  their  own  litera- 
ture, sacred  and  otherwise,  the  Emperor  Maximilian 
was  urged — chiefly  by  converts  —  to  order  all 
Hebrew  writings  to  lie  committed  to  the  flames; 
and,  but  for  the  strenmnis  exertions  of  Reuchlin 
(q.v.),  ignorance,  treachery,  and  bigotry  might 
have  secured  a  despicable  triumiih.  Luther,  in 
the  earlier  part  of  his  career,  looked  with  no  un- 
f,avourable  eye  on  the  adoption  of  viident  means 
for  their  conversicm  :  on  the  other  hand.  Pope 
Sixtus  V.  was  animated  by  a  far  more  wise  and 
kindly  spirit  towards  them  than  any  Prote.stant 
prince  of  his  time.  In  15S8  he  abolished  all  the  per- 
secuting .statutes  of  his  predecessors,  allowed  them 
to  settle  and  trade  in  eveiy  city  of  Ins  dominions, 
to  enjoy  the  free  exercise  of  their  religion,  and,  in 
respect  to  tlie  administration  of  justice  and  taxa- 
tion, ]daced  tlieni  on  a  footing  of  ei|uality  with  the 
rest  of  his  subjects.  That  the  Iteformation  itself 
had  nothing  to  do  with  subsequent  amelioraticms 
in  the  condition  of  the  Jews  is  (mly  too  plain  from 
the  fa<-t  that  in  many  parts  of  Germany,  Protestant 
a.s  well  as  Catholic,  their  lot  became  actually 
harder  than  before.  They  were  driven  out  of 
Bavaria  (155.S),  out  of  Brandenburg  (157."?);  and 
during  the  whole  of  the  17th  and  the  first  ])art  of 
the  ISth  century  the  hardships  inflicted  on  them 
by  the  (lernian  governments  ])ositively  became 
more  and  more  grievous.  What  really  caused  the 
change  in  their  favour  wa.s  the  great  uprising  of 
human  reason  that  marked  the  middle  of  the  18th 
century.  Among  the  writers  who  distinguished 
themselves  in  (Jcnnany  by  ])leading  the  cause 
of  the  .Jews  we  may  s|iccially  mention  I.,essing  and 
Mendelssohn.  In  Holland  the  dews  were  permitted 
<■».«  early  as  ICO.S  to  settle  and  trade,  though  they 
ilid  not  .acquire  the  rights  of  citizenshi]i  till  1796. 

In  England  the  edict  of  Eilward  1.  remained  in 
force  for  more  than  .SOOycai-s  ;  .and  the  fii-st  .attempt 
in.ade   bv  the  .lews   to  obtain  a  legal   recognition 


in  that  country  was  during  the  Protectorate  of 
Cromwell  in  1635.  Cromwidl  himself  was  favour- 
alile  to  their  .admission  :  so  were  the  lawyers  ;  but 
the  nation  generally,  and  p.avticularly  the  religious 
portion  of  it.  were  strongly  hostile  to  such  a  nro- 
ceeding  ;  and  the  wearisome  c<mtroversial  jangling 
of  the  divines  appointed  to  consider  the  (inestiim 
prevented  anything  from  being  done  till  the  reign 
of  Charles  IL,  who,  standing  much  .and  fre- 
quently in  need  of  their  services,  permitteil  them 
quietly  to  settle  in  the  island.  The  English 
legislature  first  commenced  to  take  special  notice 
of  the  existence  of  Jews  in  the  first  half  of  the 
18th  century.  In  1723  they  were  distinctly  recog- 
nised as  British  subjects  in  an  act  which  permitted 
them,  when  giving  evidence  in  a  court  of  justice, 
to  omit  from  their  oath  the  words  'On  the  true 
fiiith  of  a  Christian.'  In  1753  they  obt.ained  the 
right  of  naturalisation,  but  in  det'ereiu'e  to  public 
clamimr  it  had  speedily  to  be  revoked.  Most  of 
the  civil  and  political  lights  of  the  .lews  hiive  been 
accorded  them  during  the  present  century.  I'ntil 
1828  the  number  of  Jewish  brokers  in  the  City  of 
London — all  of  whom  were  heavily  taxed — was 
limited  to  twelve.  A  Jew  c<mld  not  be  ailmitte<I 
to  the  freedom  of  the  City,  or  exercise  anv  retail 
tiiide,  till  1832.  Since  "lS33  the  iirofession  of 
b.arrister,  since  1835  the  shrievalty,  and  since  1845 
the  office  of  alderman  and  of  lord-mayor  have 
been  opened  to  them.  During  the  reign  of  CJueen 
Victori.a  .almost  every  .Jewish  disability  h.os  been 
removed,  so  that,  in  point  of  law,  Jews  are  now, 
if  natural-born  subjects,  on  pr.actically  the  same 
footing  as  English  subjects.  By  an  act  of  18-15 
they  were  allowed  to  ludd  ottices  in  muniiipal  cor- 
porations, on  condition  of  signing  a  decl.uation 
(in  pl.ace  of  the  usual  oath)  not  to  exercise  their 
influence  so  as  to  injure  <«•  weaken  the  I'rotestant 
Church.  The  privileges  of  this  act  were  extended 
by  one  of  1858,  whereby  .Jews  are  entitleil  to  be 
admitted  to  municipal  and  other  ollices  on  tak- 
ing the  oath,  omitting  from  it  the  idijectiimable 
formula.  In  1846  they  were  placed,  as  reganls 
their  schools  and  places  of  worship,  of  education, 
and  charities,  on  the  siimc  footing  as  Protestant 
dissenters.  In  1871  the  l^niver.sities  Tests  Act 
was  passed,  which  enabled  .Jews  to  graduate  at 
the  ancient  universities  without  detriment  to 
their  religions  principles.  Before  1845  doubts  had 
juevailed  whether  tiie  marii.ages  jneviously  cele- 
brated in  England  among  the  Jews,  .acconiing  to 
their  own  usages,  were  valid,  and  the  statute  of 
1847  put  .an  end  to  such  doubts  by  declaring  all 
such  marriages  valid,  provided  both  the  parties 
married  h.ad  been  jiersons  professing  the  .lewish 
religion.  But  now,  as  then,  th(nigh  it  is  com- 
jietent  fiu'  Jews,  like  other  dissenters,  to  sniier- 
add  any  religious  ceremony  they  please  to  tlieir 
marriages,  there  must  in  all  ca.ses  be  notice  given 
to  the  registrar  of  the  district  of  such  marriage 
being  about  to  take  place,  the  only  exemption 
being  that  the  niarri.age  m.ay  be  celebrated  iu  the 
syn.agogue  or  any  ordinary  dwelling,  and  not.  as 
with  other  denominations,  in  the  suiierintenilent 
registrar's  oHice,  or  a  registered  building.  A  license 
may  also  be  jnocured  from  the  sui>erintendent 
registrar,  and  the  secretaries  of  the  respective 
synagogues  are  recognised  as  the  pei-sons  to  keej) 
the  register  books  of  Jewish  marriages.  In 
Scotland  there  is  no  jieculiar  legislation  atl'ecting 
.lewish  marriages.  It  w.is  not  until  1858  that  .lews 
were  .a<lmitted  to  iiarliament,  .a  statute  of  that 
year  ein]ioweiiiig  the  House  to  moilify  the  oath 
required  of  members,  by  omitting  in  the  ca.se  of 
.Tews  the  concluding  words  of  the  oath.  Banm 
Kothschild  was  the  first  who  took  his  seat  in  the 
House  of  CtMiimoiis  on  the  p.assing  of  this  act. 
But  even  this  statute  was  only  permissive,  it  being 


JEWS 


;ii!u 


still  loft  in  the  power  of  parliament  to  refuse  to 
niiulity  the  oath  if  it  so  deterniiiied.  It  was 
aecoidinj;ly  supersedeil  liy  an  act  of  I8()(!,  which 
prescrilied  a  nniforni  oath  to  he  taken  hy  nieni- 
tiers  of  (ill  religious  denominations,  excejit  (Quakers 
and  other  Separatists,  who  might  claim  to  he 
admitted  hy  attirmation.  Jews  were  tirst  ad- 
mitted to  the  Upper  House  in  188'),  when  Sir 
N.  M.  de  Rothscliild  was  elevated  to  the  peerage 
as  Lord  Itothschild,  taking  the  oath,  more  J iidaico, 
with  his  head  covered.  The  very  highest  otticcs  of 
the  state  are  now.  with  scarcely  an  exception, 
within  the  reach  of  Jews.  Unlike  Rom.an  Catholics, 
Jews  may  present  to  livings  in  the  Church  of  Eng- 
liiml.  But  whenever  a  Jew  holds  any  office  in  the 
gift  of  Her  Majesty,  to  which  oliice  shall  helong  the 
right  of  presentation  to  any  ecclesiastical  henefice, 
such  right  of  presentation  devolves  upon  the  Arch- 
bishop of  Canterbury  for  tlie  time  being. 

Some  of  the  relics  of  that  mighty  host  of  exiles 
that  left  Spain  and  Portugal  found  their  way  into 
France,  where  they  long  lingered  in  a  miserable 
condition.  In  1550  they  were  received  into  Bay- 
onno  and  Bordeaux  ;  they  were  also  to  be  fotind 
in  considerable  nnmliei's  in  Avignon,  Lorraine,  ami 
."Ms.ace.  In  1784  the  capitation  tax  was  abolished. 
In  1790,  while  the  French  Revolution  was  still 
.animated  by  a  sincere  htimanitarianism,  the  Jews 
presented  a  successful  petition  to  the  national 
representatives,  Mirabeau  being  among  their  advo- 
cates. From  this  time  their  technical  designation 
in  France  has  been  Israelites.  In  1806  the  Emperor 
Napoleon  summoned  a  '  Sanhedrin '  of  Jews  to 
meet  at  Paris,  to  w  hom  a  variety  of  questions  were 
put,  mainly  with  a  view  to  test  their  fitness  for 
lieiiig  French  citizens.  Since  then  they  have  been 
found  not  only  in  the  highest  offices  of  the  civil 
administration — very  frequently  in  the  ministry 
(e.g.  Cremieux.  (Joudchaux,  FouM  ) — but  they  have 
also  tilled  some  of  the  chief  places  in  the  army  and 
navy.  We  may  add  here  that  their  bravery  in  the 
tielii  has  been  the  subject  of  frequent  remark — 
although  among  the  vices  with  which  a  brutal 
prejudice  loved  to  brand  them,  in  spite  of  all 
historical  evidence,  was  also  that  of  cowardice. 

In  Denmark  since  1814  they  have  been  on  a 
footing  of  equality  as  citizens  with  native  Danes. 
To  Sweden  they  were  fii-st  Invited — the  invita- 
tion only  extending  to  the  rich — in  1746.  Norway 
forbade  them  to  touch  its  soil  till  1860.  Admitted 
into  Russia  by  Peter  the  Great,  they  were  expelled 
by  the  Empress  Elizabeth  in  1743.  Readmitted 
by  the  Empress  Catharine  II.,  they  were  further 
protected  by  the  Emperor  Alexanih'r  L.  who  in 
1805  and  1809  issued  decrees  insuring  them  full 
liberty  of  trade  and  commerce  ;  Nicholas  with- 
drew these  i)rivileges.  In  1881  a  violent  agitation 
against  the  Jews,  accompanied  by  much  outrage 
and  bloodshed,  took  place  in  the  south  and  west  of 
Russia,  and  also  in  Warsaw.  Their  residence  is 
strictly  c(mfined  to  certain  i>arts  of  the  I'Mipire. 
Some  2'25,(KKJ  were  driven  out  by  furl  her  re- 
strictions in  I89"J,  and  many  were  then  and  later 
.settled  in  Argentina  and  elsewhere  by  Baron  Hii  sch. 
In  Poland  they  are  more  numerous  than  in  any 
other  part  of  the  worlil.  They  owed  their  tii'st 
humane  reception  in  the  14th  century  to  the  love 
which  King  <ja.siniir  the  Great  bore  for  a  .lewish 
mistress.  For  many  years  the  whole  trade  of  the 
country  was  in  their  hands.  During  the  17th  and 
the  greater  part  of  the  IHth  century,  however,  they 
were  much  persecuted,  and  sank  into  a  state  of 
great  ignorance,  anil  even  poverty  :  but  education 
— in  spite  of  the  severity  and  b,arbarisni  of  Russian 
intoler.ance — has,  since  the  French  Hevolulion,  m.ade 
jirogre-ss  among  them.  Frederick  the  (ireat,  king 
of  Prussia,  showed  himself  singularly  harsh  towards 
the  Jews ;  his  legislation  almost  throws  u.s  back 


into  the  middle  ages.  All  m.anner  of  iniquitous 
and  ridicuhms  taxes  were  laid  upon  them  ;  oidy  a 
certain  number  were  allowed  to  resi<le  in  the 
country,  and  these  were  prohibited  from  both  the 
most  honourable  and  the  most  Incr.ative  employ 
ments.  This  sh.ameful  state  of  matters  was  ended 
by  the  Prussian  edict  of  toleration  (1H12),  by 
which  Jews  were  placed  almost  in  an  equal  position 
as  citizens  with  other  Prussians.  Since  I  lien  the 
tendency,  on  the  whole,  had  lieen  to  enlarge  their 
'liberties' — until  the  revolution  of  1848  gained 
them  their  full  emancipation,  although  it  was 
slowly  carried  out.  In  the  smaller  Germ.an  states 
their  full  rights  were  grudgingly  conceded.  The 
Reichstag  of  the  empire,  like  the  National  .Assem- 
bly in  1848,  now  contains  many  prominent  Jewish 
members.  However,  the  progress  of  .lewish  eman 
cipation  in  Germany  has  not,  of  late  years,  been 
continuous.  Strange  to  say,  the  year  1880  was 
marked  by  a  remarkable  revival  of  hostility  against 
the  Jews,  especially  in  Berlin,  which,  known  as 
the  J uilenhetze,  was  encotiraged  by  many  persons 
of  standing  in  society.  In  Austria  the  Emperor 
Joseph  II.  distinguished  himself  by  passing  an  act 
of  toleration  (1782)  extraordinarily  lilieral  in  its 
provisions  for  the  jews.  Not  till  I860,  however 
(and  even  then  under  certain  restrictions),  did 
they  acquire  the  right  to  possess  land.  But  in 
1868  they  were  accorded  the  complete  liberty  which 
they  now  enjoy,  and  which  is  only  overclouded 
occasionally  by  outbreaks  of  Anti-Semitism.  In 
Hungary  and  Transylvania  they  h.ave  long  enjoyed 
important  privileges,  and  have  lieen  protected  by 
the  nobility.  In  Roumania  they  still  sutler  much 
ill-usage,  being  only  noiiunally  protected  by  the 
treaty  of  Berlin.  Spain  began  to  tolerate  them 
again  in  18.S7,  and  they  can  follow  trade  oi- 
agriculture  like  other  Sjianiards.  Cf  late  years 
they  have  even  been  allowed  to  assemble  for 
religious  worship.  Portugal,  where  they  enjoy  no 
civic  rights,  has  only  a  few  (ierman  .Jews.  Switzer- 
land long  ti-eated  them  harshly,  and  only  of  late 
have  steps  in  the  right  direction  been  taken. 

In  Turkey  they  are  very  numerous,  and  have 
thriven  in  spite  of  the  exactions  of  pashas,  the 
insolence  of  Janizaries,  and  the  miseries  of  war. 
Their  communities  in  Constantinople,  Adrianople, 
Salonica,  Smyrna,  Aleppo,  and  Damascus  are  con- 
sideralile  :  in  Palestine,  their  ancient  home,  they 
are  rapidly  increasing,  but  they  are  still,  in  s]iite 
of  the  many  eflbrts  on  the  part  of  their  European 
brothers  to  ameliorate  their  condition,  very  poor. 
Their  numbers  in  Arabia  are  not  very  large,  yet, 
they  enjoy  some  independence.  Those  in  Persia  have 
sunk  into  ignorance.  They  are  found  in  Afghan- 
istan, and  carry  on  a  trade  between  Kabul  and 
China  ;  in  India  and  Cochin  China,  where  they  are 
both  agriculturists  and  artisans;  in  Surin.am, 
where  there  is  a  nourishing  colony  ;  in  Bokhara, 
where  they  possess  equal  rights  with  the  other 
inhabitants,  and  are  skilled  in  the  manuf.-icture  of 
silks  and  metals  :  and  in  China,  where,  however, 
they  an?  very  insignilicant  both  in  numbers  .and 
position.  They  are  also  found  all  along  the  North 
African  coast,  where,  indeed,  they  have  had  com- 
munities for  perhaps  more  than  a  thousand  years, 
which  were  largely  reinforced  in  consequence  of 
the  gre.at  Spanish  persecutions.  They  are  niiiiier 
ous  in  Morocco,  though  not  .alw.ays  secure  from  the 
perils  of  Mohammedan  fanaticism.  In  Egyjit  and 
Siubia  they  are  few  ;  in  Ahy.ssinia,  where  they  are 
known  as  Falash.as,  more  numerous ;  thi"y  exist 
in  the  Soudan,  and  are  .also  found  farther  south  in 
considerable  numhei-s.  the  mining  industries  of  the 
Cape  and  Transva.al  being  largely  in  their  hands. 
.Vmerica.  too,  has  invited  their  sjiirit  of  enliMjuise. 
In  the  United  States,  as  in  (Jreat  Britain,  they 
enjoy  absolute  liberty,  and  have  established  some 


330 


JEWS 


500  congregations.  They  have  been  in  Brazil  since 
1625,  and  are  also  settled  in  some  parts  of  the 
West  Indies. 

The  jiresent  distribution  of  Jews  tlironghout 
the  world,  as  calculated  in  ISSS,  is  as  follows  : 
Russia,  3..500.(X)0:  AustroHunj;arv, 1,800,000  ;  (ier- 
nianv,  GOO.OOf) ;  Rouniania,  32o,0m :  Turkey  in 
Europe,  100,000;  Holland,  90,000  ;  Belgium,  tJOOO  ; 
France,  73,000;  Great  Britain,  100,000;  Italy, 
40,000;  Switzerland,  8000:  Scandinavia,  SOOO ; 
Servia  and  Bulgaria,  40,000;  Greece,  5000; 
Iberian  Peninsula,  2000— making  in  all  Europe 
aboye  6j  millions.  To  this  niav  be  added  about 
500,000  in  .\sia,  .S50,000  in  Africa,  500,000  in 
America,  and  20,000  in  Australasia.  This  would 
bring  the  total  number  of  Jews  in  the  world  up  to 
a  little  over  8  millions.  It  should  be  mentioned, 
however,  that  some  authorities  calculate  their 
number  as  considerably  less  than  this.  They 
assume  about  5A  millions  for  Europe,  and  IJ 
million  for  the  rest  of  the  world. 

lidh/ion. — Generally  speaking,  Jews  believe  in 
the  inspiration  of  the  Old  Testament,  the  authority 
of  the  Law  of  Moses,  the  absolute  unity  and  iucor- 
poreality  of  the  Godhead,  the  immortality  of  the 
soul,  the  ability  of  mankind  to  work  out  their  own 
.salvation  without  the  help  of  priest,  mediator,  or 
sacrifice,  and  the  ultimate  conversion  of  mankind 
to  Theism.  Such  are  the  main  points  of  agreement 
between  almost  all  Jews,  but  on  many  questions 
they  are  sharply  divided.  For  some  t«  o  thousand 
years  there  have  been  at  lea-st  two  religious 
sections.  In  the  time  of  Christ  they  were  known 
as  Pharisees  (Kabliinical  .Jews)  and  Sadducees 
(Biblical  Jews) ;  in  tlie  middle  ages  as  Rabbauites 
and  Karaites,  the  Rali1)anites  being  adherents  of 
traditional  Judaism,  and  the  Karaites  insisting  on 
the  literal  interpretation  of  Scripture.  Since  the 
early  part  of  tlie  19th  century  tliese  diti'erences 
have  to  some  e.xtent  been  reproduced  in  tlie  divi- 
sion of  Jews  into  Orthodox  and  Reformed.  The 
latter  (who  may  also  be  styled  Progressive  or 
Modern  Jews)  believe  in  the  divine  autliority  of 
the  Old  Testament  or  '  Written  Law '  only,  while 
Orthodox  (otherwise  known  as  Conservative  or 
Rabbinical )  Jews  ascribe  coordinate  authority  to 
the  '  Oral  Law '  of  the  Rabbins,  which  tliey  regard 
as  the  key  to  the  explanation  of  Holy  Writ.  The 
Oral  Law  is  embodied  in  the  Talmud  and  its  com- 
mentaries, and  is  believe<l  by  them  to  have  been 
orally  transmitted  from  Moses  to  his  successoi-s 
down  to  the  time  of  Jehuda  the  Holy  or  the  Prince 
(see  ante),  when  it  was  first  committed  to  writ- 
ing. To  this  main  distinction  most  of  the  diver- 
gencies between  Orthodoxy  and  Reform  can  be 
traced.  Thus  the  ilitlerence  of  opinion  on  such 
questions  as  sacrifice,  the  Messiah,  the  return  to 
Jerusalem,  and  the  restoration  of  tlie  national 
life  follows  as  a  corollary  from  the  maintenance 
or  repudiation  of  the  Rabbiniciil  standpoint.  A 
Rabbinieal  Jew  believes  in  the  political  lecoiistitu- 
tion  of  his  nation,  the  restoration  to  Palestine,  the 
rebuilding  of  Jerusalem  and  of  the  temple  on 
Mount  Zion,  and  the  rehal>ilitation  of  the  .sacri- 
ficial ritual.  He  also  looks  forward  to  the  coming 
of  a  personal  Me.ssiah,  a  descendant  of  David,  who 
will  assert  the  independence  of  his  race  and  accom- 
[)lish  the  restoration.  Such  are  the  hopes  which 
inspire  a  great  portion  of  the  orthodo.x  liturgy. 
Till'  Kefcniiied  Jew,  interpieting  Scripture  in  a  free 
and  rationalistic  spirit,  subscribes  to  none  ol  these 
beliefs.  The  sacrifices  ordained  in  the  Pentatench 
he  regards  in  the  light  of  a  temporary  concession 
of  Moses  to  the  barbarous  customs  of  his  age,  anil 
an  institution  which,  having  once  fallen  into  desue- 
tude, will  never  again  be  revived  ;  and,  in  support 
of  this  view,  he  jioiiits,  not  merely  to  the  ti-achiug 
of  Maimonides,  but   to   the  fiei|uent  denunciation 


of  sacrificial  rites  by  the  prophets  and  psalmists 
of  Israel.  Xor  does  he  believe  in  the  restoration 
of  the  national  life  or  the  return  to  Jerusalem. 
Most  commonly,  iiuleed,  he  is  even  unwilling  to 
admit  that  Jews  can  any  longer  be  considered  a 
nation.  Nor  does  he  find  any  difficulty  in  explain- 
ing away  those  utterances  of  the  projihets  which 
would  seem  to  point  to  such  a  return.  Such  utter- 
ances must  either  be  referred  to  events  in  the 
proximate  future,  such  as  the  return  of  the  Jews 
to  Palestine  uiuler  the  edict  of  Cyrus,  or  they  are 
to  be  regarded  as  mere  rhetorical  declamations  or 
poetical  pictures  without  any  definite  significance. 
Similarly  with  the  belief  in  a  |)eisonal  Messiah. 
Although  this  is  one  of  the  Thirteen  Articles 
of  Faith,  as  laid  down  by  Maimonides,  it  is 
gradually  being  abandoned  by  modern  Jews,  who 
are  inclined  to  substitute  for  it  the  belief  in  a 
Messianic  age  in  which,  as  foretold  by  the 
prophets,  all  mankind  «ill  be  brought  to  the 
Knowledge  and  worship  of  one  God,  ami  war  and 
dissension  will  cease  from  the  face  of  the  earth. 
From  all  this  it  will  be  seen  that  Reformed  Judaism 
not  merely  interprets  Scripture  in  the  light  of  com- 
mon sense,  but  also  exhibits  a  more  or  less  decided 
leaning  to  the  teachings  of  Rationalism,  some  of 
the  more  advanced  Reformers,  indeed  (for  there  are 
\arious  degrees  of  reform),  being  pure  Rationalists. 
Such  theories  as  that  of  two  Isaiahs,  or  the  late 
date  of  Daniel  and  Eeclesiastes,  are  subscribed  to  by 
most  educated  Jews,  but  the  WelUiausen  theory  of 
the  Hexateuch  is  held  only  by  the  more  advanced 
section  of  Reformei-s.  Sometimes  it  is  stated  that 
Orthodox  Jews  believe  in  the  physical  resurrection 
of  the  body  after  death.  But  this  is  not  correct. 
It  was  the  view  of  Jews  in  the  time  of  Christ,  and 
ha.s  long  since  been  superseded  by  the  lielief  in  the 
immortality  of  the  soul. 

The  distinction  between  Orthodoxy  and  Reform 
further  exhiliits  itself  in  ceremonial  jiractices  and 
the  ritual  of  the  synagogue.  Relormed  Jews 
restrict  themselves  to  the  practice  of  the  cere- 
monial laws  laid  down  in  the  Pentateuch,  with  the 
exception  of  those  which,  like  the  institution  of 
sacrifice,  have  no  application  at  the  present  day. 
Orthodox  Jews  are  expected  to  obey,  besides  the 
legislation  of  the  Pentateuch,  the  entire  body  of 
the  Oral  Law  with  its  many  thousands  of  minutia', 
and  the  several  customs  which  have  become  sancti- 
fied by  age  and  tradition.  These  are  principally 
set  forth  in  a  digest  known  as  the  i>hitlai<tn-Ariich 
— the  text-book  of  Orthodox  Judaism.  As  in 
private  practice,  so  in  the  public  woishi])  of  the 
synagogue,  Reformed  Jews  lia\e  simpliiied  the 
ritual  and  adapted  it  to  modern  needs.  They 
have  introduced  instrumental  music  and  mixed 
clioirs.  In  the  more  advanced  synagogues,  partic- 
ularly in  Americ^a,  the  service  is  made  to  appro.\i- 
mate  to  churcli  practices  in  three  particulars  :  ( 1 ) 
the  se.xes  sit  together  in  family  pews;  (2)  the 
heads  of  male  worshippers  are  uncovered;  ('A)  the 
.service  is  in  the  vernacular.  In  some  synagogues 
( Rerliii,  Pliiladel|ihia,  and  Cliicago)  innovation 
has  been  carried  to  the  extent  of  substitutiu*' 
Sunday  for  the  seventh-day  Sabbath,  while  several 
synagogues  in  America  have  Sunday  services  »'« 
mldition  to  those  held  on  the  Sabbath. 

The  programme  of  Judaism  put  forth  by  Dr 
Kiauskopf  of  Philadelphia  in  1888  is  of  so  very 
radical  a  character  as  hardly  to  deserve  the 
title  of  Judaism.  But  as  the  congregation  which 
have  adopted  it  not  only  call  themselves  Jews,  but 
are  regarded  as  such  by  the  rest  of  the  community, 
it  must  be  set  down  as  the  ultimate  phase  of 
Judaism,  marking  the  limits  beyond  which  it 
would  not  be  possible  for  Judaism  to  travel  with- 
out merging  its  identity  in  Theism  or  .Vgnosticism. 
■  We  discard,' says  Dr  Ivrauskopf,  'the  belief  in  a 


JEWS 


P.M 


Gml  who  is  a  man  magnified,  who  has  his  abode 
somewhere  in  tlie  interstellar  spaces.  We  discard 
the  helief  that  tlie  Bible  was  written  by  God,  or  by 
man  under  the  immediiite  dictation  of  God,  and 
that  its  teachin^rs  are  therefore  infallible.  .  .  .  We 
iliscard  the  belief  in  the  coming  of  a  human 
.Mfs>iah,  who  will  lead  us  back  to  I'alestine, 
establish  us  a-s  the  rulers  of  the  world,  and  make 
all  nations  tributaries  to  us.  We  discard  the 
Itelief  in  bodily  resurrection,  hell-torments.  Para- 
disian rewards,  prophecy,  superstitions,  all  Biblical 
and  Rabbinical  beliefs,  rites  and  ceremonies  and 
institutions,  which  neither  elevate  nor  sanctify  our 
lives.' 

Literature. — For  the  Hebrew  language,  see  under 
that  head.  The  extraordinary  influence  which 
the  religion  of  the  Hebrews  has  e.xereised  on 
Christian  and  Mohammedan  nations  has  given  a 
universal  significance  to  their  ancient  literature ; 
but  of  this  we  possess  nothing  which,  in  its  original 
shape,  reaches  further  back  than  the  period  of 
David.  The  composition  of  the  extant  works  in 
Hebreic  Literature  proper  would,  on  this  view, 
extend  over  a  period  of  nearly  900  >ears — viz. 
from  the  times  of  David  to  those  of  the  jlaccabees. 
This  period  was  preceded  by  a  preparatory  one 
of  sagas,  songs,  fragmentary  histoiical  notices, 
inscriptions,  laws,  and  probably  also  priestly  regis- 
ters. The  extant  literature  may  be  arranged 
under  the  five  heads — law,  prophecy,  history, 
lyric  poetry,  and  speculation  (see  Bible,  and 
the  articles  on  the  separate  books  of  the  Old 
Testament ).  The  same  epoch  in  which  took  place 
the  transition  from  Hebraism  to  Judaism — the 
epoch  of  the  captivity — was  also  that  which  niarked 
the  commencement  of  Jewish  literature,  properly 
so  called.  Founded  on  the  earlier  and  more 
creative  Hebrew,  and  for  the  most  part  written  in 
the  same  language,  it  is  yet  qualified  by  the  pres- 
ence of  religious  conceptions  borrowed  from  the 
Persians,  of  Greek  ^^'isdom,  Roman  law,  and,  at  a 
later  period,  of  Arabic  poetry  and  philosophy,  and 
of  European  science  ;  though  everything  is  strictly 
subordinated  to  the  great  ideas  of  the  ancient 
faith.  Since  the  return  from  exile,  the  Jewish — 
also,  but  erroneously,  called  the  Rabbinical — litera- 
ture has,  without  the  slightest  external  encourage- 
ment, actively  taken  part  in  the  cultivation  of  the 
human  mind  ;  and  in  the  results  of  this  activity, 
which  are  still  far  from  being  duly  appreciated, 
there  lie  concealed  the  richest  treasuies  of  cen- 
turies. 

Jewish  literature  ha-s  been  divided  chronologically 
into  nine  periods.  The  first  period  extends  to  143 
B.C.  After  the  return  from  exile  the  Jewish  people 
naturally  enough  became  animated  by  an  intense 
nationality  of  feeling.  Expositions  and  additions 
to  the  earlier  history  (Midrmhim  ),  a.s  well  as  Greek 
tianslations,  were  executed,  ami  several  of  the 
Hagiographa — such  as  particular  psalms,  the  so- 
called  Proverbs  of  Solonmn,  Ecclesiastes,  the  Books 
of  Chronicles,  portions  of  Ezra  and  Nehemiah — 
were  written.  To  this  period  also,  if  to  any,  must 
Iwloiig  the  uncertain  performances  of  the  Great 
HijiMijotjue  (q.v. ),  to  whom  the  work  of  completing 
the  canon  of  the  Old  Testament  is  chietly  ascribed. 
Towards  its  close  (190-170  B.C.)  several  writers 
a|)pear  in  propriij  jir.rsona,  as,  for  instance,  Sirach 
and  Aristobulus.  The  doctoi-s  of  whom  the  Great 
Synagogue  chielly  consisted  were  called  Soferim 
('ScribSi').  At  tliLs  time  Aramaic  finally  became 
the  popular  dialect  of  Palestine. 

The  ««t</;«/ period  extends  from  MZ  B.f.  to  135 
\.D.  The  Miflrash  (see  Exegesis),  or  the  inr|iiiry 
Into  the  meaning  of  the  sacred  writings,  wxs  divided 
into  Iliditrhii  and  I[ti'/ii(/a  :  the  former  cimsidered 
tlie  improvement  of  the  law,  with  a  view  to  prac- 
tical results  ;  the  latter,  the  essence  of  the  religious 


and  historical  interpretations.  At  first  both  were 
the  oral  ileliverances  of  the  Soferim,  but  gradually 
written  memorials  made  their  ai)pearance.  The 
public  interpretation  of  the  Scripture  in  schools 
and  synagogues,  the  independence  of  the  San- 
hedrin,  the  strife  of  sects,  and  the  influences  of 
Alexandrian  culture  furthered  this  development. 
To  this  period  also  belong  various  tireek,  but  not, 
as  is  still  erroneously  supposed  by  some,  the  written 
Targums  or  Aramaic  vei-sions  of  the  Bible  (see 
Targums  ),  which  sprang  at  a  much  later  period  from 
oral  translations  of  the  Pentateuch  in  the  synagogues 
instituted  after  the  return  from  the  exile  ;  furtlier, 
the  whole  of  the  Apocrypha  (q.v. ),  and  the  earliest 
Christian  writings,  which  are  at  least  the  produc- 
tions of  men  nurtured  in  the  principles  of  JudaLsm, 
and  which  contain  many  traces  of  Judaistic  culture, 
feeling,  and  faith.  It  was  also  characterised  by 
the  drawing  up  of  prayers,  scriptural  expositions, 
songs,  and  collections  of  proverbs.  The  author  of 
the  first  book  of  the  Maccabees,  Jascju,  Josephus, 
Philo,  Johannes  are  names  specially  worthy  of 
mention  ;  so  also  are  the  doctors  of  the  oral  law — 
Hillel  (q.v. ),  Shammai,  Jochanan-ben-Zaccai,  Gam- 
aliel, Eleazar-ben-Hyrcanus,  Joshua-ben-Cliananja, 
Ishmael,  Akiba,  and  others  of  like  eminence. 
Rabbi  ('Master')  Talmid  Chaeham  ('Disciple  of 
Wisdom')  were  titles  of  honour  given  to  those 
expert  in  a  knowledge  of  the  law.  Besides  the 
JIaccabean  coins,  Greek  and  Latin  inscriptions 
belonging  to  this  period  are  extant. 

The  third  period  reaches  from  1,3.5  to  475  A.D. 
Instruction  in  the  Halacha  and  Hagada  now  be- 
came the  principal  euiployment  of  the  flourishing 
schools  in  Galilee,  Syria,  Rome,  and  after '219  .\.D. 
in  Babylonia  :  the  most  distinguished  men  were 
the  masters  of  the  Mishna  {u.w)  and  the  Tabnnd 
(q.v.) — viz.  Eleazar-ben-Jacoii,  Jehuda,  Jose,  Meir, 
Simeon-ben-.Iochai,  Jehudatlie  Holy,  Nathan,  Chija, 
Rab,  Samuel,  Jochanan,  Hunna,  Rabba,  Rava,  Papa, 
Ashe,  and  Abina.  Besides  expositions,  additions  to 
Siracli,  ethical  treatises,  stories,  fables,  and  history 
were  also  composed ;  the  prayers  were  enriched, 
the  Targuni  to  the  Pentateuch  and  the  Prophets 
completed,  and  the  calendar  fixed  by  Hillel  the 
second  (340  A.D. ).  After  the  suppression  of  the 
academies  in  Palestine,  those  of  Persia — viz.  at 
Sura,  Pumbeditha,  and  Nehardea — became  the 
centre  of  Jewish  literary  activity.  On  Sabbaths 
and  festal  days  the  people  heard,  in  the  schools 
and  places  for  prayer,  instinctive  and  edifying 
discourses.  Of  tlie  biblical  literature  of  the  Greek 
Jews  we  have  only  fragments,  such  as  those  of  the 
versions  of  Aquila  and  Symmachus.  With  this 
peiiod  terminates  the  age  of  direct  tradition. 

The  fourth  period  (from  475  to  740  A.D.).  By 
this  time  the  Jews  had  long  abandoned  the  use  of 
Hebrew,  and  instead  had  adojited  the  language 
of  whatever  country  they  happened  to  dwell  in. 
During  the  tith  century  the  Babylonian  Taliiiud 
was  concluded,  the  Palestinian  Talnnul  having 
been  redacted  about  a  hundred  years  before.  Little 
remains  of  the  laboui-s  of  the  Jewish  literati  of  the 
7th  century,  or  of  the  earliest  Geo/iiin  or  luesidents 
of  the  Babylonian  schools,  who  first  appear  in 
589  .\.D.  On  the  other  hand,  from  the  6th  to  the 
8th  century  the  Ma-sora  ((|.v.)  was  developed  in 
Palestine  (at  Tiberias);  and,  besides  a  collection 
of  the  earlier  Hagadivs,  indeiieiident  commentaries 
were  likewise  executed,  as  the  Pesi/.ta,  the  l'ir!;e 
of  Eliezer  {100  A.D.),  &c. 

In  the  fifth  period  (740-1040)  the  Arabs,  ener- 
getic, brilliant,  and  victorious  in  liteiature  ius  in 
war.  had  apiirojiriated  to  themselves  the  learning 
of  Hindus,  Persians,  and  Greeks,  and  thus  excited 
the  emulation  of  tlie  oriental  Jews,  among  whom 
now  sjirung  up  physicians,  astronomei's,  gram 
marians,  commentators,  and  chroniclers.     Religious 


332 


JEWS 


and  historical  Hagailas,  hooks  of  morality,  and 
expositions  of  the  Talmud  were  likewise  com- 
posed. The  oldest  Talmudic  compends  helon;;  to 
the  a^'e  of  Anan  ('vVa/  7-'>0  A.n. ).  the  earliest  writer 
of  tlie  Karaite  Jews.  The  oldest  prayer  lionk  was 
drawn  up  ahout  8S0  ;  and  the  first  Talmudic  Dic- 
tionary ahout  900.  The  most  illustrious  (Iconim 
of  a  later  time  were  Saadia  (died  941),  equally 
famous  a-s  a  commentator  and  translator  of  Scrip- 
ture into  .Vrahic,  a  doctor  of  law,  a  grammarian, 
tlieidogian,  and  poet;  Scherira  (died  998);  and  his 
son  Hai  (died  1038),  who  wa«  the  author,  among 
other  tilings,  of  a  dictionary.  From  Palestine  came 
the  comidi-tion  of  tlie  Masora  and  of  the  vo\yel- 
system  ;  numerous  Midrru!him,  the  Hagiograpliical 
"fargums,  and  the  first  writings  on  theological 
cosmogony  Avere  also  executed  there.  From  the 
9th  to  tiie  llth  century  Kairwan  and  Fez,  in 
Africa,  jiroduced  several  celehrated  Jewisli  doctors 
and  authors.  Learned  rahhins  are  likewise  found 
in  Italy  after  the  8tli  century,  ,as  Julius  in  Pavia. 
IJari  anil  Otranto  were  at  this  time  the  great 
seats  of  Jewish  learning  in  Italy.  After  the 
sup]iression  of  the  Bahylonian  academies  ( 1040 ) 
Spain  liecame  the  central  seat  of  Jewish  literature. 
To  this  period  heloug  tlie  olilest  Hehrew  codices, 
which  go  hack  to  the  9th  century.  Hebrew  rhyme 
is  a  product  of  the  Stii,  and  modern  Hebrew  prosody 
of  the  lOtli  century. 

The  sixth  jieriod  ( 1040-1204)  is  the  most  splendid 
era  of  Jewish  medieval  literature.  The  Spanish 
Jews  busied  themselves  about  theology,  exegetics, 
grammar,  poetry,  the  science  of  law,  astronomy, 
niatliematics,  philosophy,  rhetoric,  and  medicine. 
They  wrote  sermons  and  ethical  and  historical 
works.  The  languages  employed  were  Araliic, 
Rabbinical  Hebrew,  and  .ancient  or  classical  He- 
brew. We  can  onlv  mention  here  the  great  doctor, 
Samuel  Halevi  (died  10.5.5),  and  the  renowned 
Mainionides  (q.v. ),  whose  death  closes  this  epoch. 
The  literature  of  the  French  rabbins  was  more 
national  in  its  character,  and  kept  more  strictly 
within  the  limits  of  the  Halacha  and  Hagada. 
The  great  Riishi  (q.v.),  the  prince  of  commen- 
tators, wliose  real  name  was  Solomon-hen-Isaac  of 
Troves  ( 1040-1105),  is  one  of  the  greatest  names  in 
Jewish  literature.  In  Provence,  which  combined 
the  literary  characteristics  of  France  and  Spain, 
there  were  celebrated  .lewish  <academies  at  Lunel, 
Xarboiiue,  and  Nimcs.  The  fame  of  the  Talinudists 
of  Germ.any,  especially  those  of  M.ainz  .and  Ratis- 
bon,  was  very  great.  Only  a  few  names  belong  to 
(Jreece  .and  Asia;  still  the  K.ar.aite  .lews  h.ad  a  very 
.able  writer  in  Jehuda  H.adassi  ( 1148).  The  greater 
portion  of  the  prayer-book  was  completed  before 
Niaimonides.  Many  of  the  works,  however,  pro- 
duced lietween  740  and  the  close  of  this  period  are 
lost. 

The  sofenth  period  (1204-1492)  bears  manifest 
tr.aces  of  the  influence  exercised  by  Maimonides. 
Literary  .activity  showed  itself  partly  in  the 
sphere  of  theologico-exegetic  philosophy,  partly 
in  the  elaboration  of  tlie  natiim.al  law.  With 
the  growth  of  a  religious  mysticism  there  also 
^(inuig  up  a  w.ar  of  opinions  between  Talinudists. 
Philosdjiheis,  and  Cabhalists.  The  most  celebr.ated 
.lews  of  this  period  lived  in  Spain  ;  later,  in  Portu- 
gal. Provence,  and  It.al.v.  To  Spain  belongs  (in  the 
IStli  century)  the  poet  Jehuda  Cli.arisi.  In  the 
I.5tli  century  a  decline  is  noticeable.  Hooks  written 
in  Hebrew  were  first  jirinted  in  Spain  at  Ixar  in 
.\ragon  (148.5),  at  Zamora  (1487),  and  at  Lisbon 
(1489).  During  this  epoch  the  chief  orn.ainents  of 
.(ewisli  literature  in  Provence  were  Moses-hen- 
N'.achm.an,  D.avid  Kimchi,  .leruliam,  F,ariss(d,  Is.aac 
Nathan,  the  author  of  tlii'  Hebrew  Concordance. 
In  Italy  .lewish  seliolar-i  eiii]iloyeil  themselves  with 
the  translation  of  Arabic  and  Latin  works.     While 


France  could  show  only  a  few  notable  authors, 
such  as  the  collectoi-s  of  the  TosKfht.  Moses  de 
Coucy,  and  Jehiel-bcn-.Ioseph.  the  poet  and  exe- 
gete  Berachj.a,  (Germany  juodiiced  a  multitude 
of  writers  on  the  law,  such  as  Fleazar  Halevi, 
Meyer  of  Kotlienburg,  Asher  lien  .lecliiel,  .lacob 
ben  Asher,  Kle.azar  ben  .lehudah  of  Worms.  Most 
of  the  extant  Hebrew  MSS.  belong  to  this  period  ; 
but  ,a  gre.at  i>art  of  medieval  .lewish  liter.ature  lies 
unprinted  in  Rome,  Florence,  Parma,  T'urin,  Paris, 
Oxford,  Leyden,  Vienna,  and  Munich. 

The  cigh'lh  period  ( 1 492 - 1 7:5,5 )  i^  not  marked  by 
much  creative  or  spiritual  force  .among  the  Jews. 
In  Italy  .and  the  E.ast  (1492),  in  Germany  and 
P<d.and"(  15.50),  in  Holland  (1620),  Jewish  scholars 
worked  printing-presses,  while  numerous  .authors 
wrote  in  Hebrew,  Latin,  Spanish,  Portuguese, 
Italian,  and  .lud.TO-tJerm.an.  Some  of  the  most 
eminent  theologians,  philosophers,  jurists,  lus- 
tori.ans,  mathematicians,  poets,  comment.ators,  lexi- 
cographers, grammarians,  &c.  of  this  period  were, 
besides  Spinoza,  Is.aac  Abravanel,  Elias  Levita, 
Seforno,  Bertinoro,  Karo,  Norzi,  Rossi,  Moses 
Isserles,  Manasseh  ben  Israel,  Lipman  Heller,  B. 
Alusaphia. 

The  »/»;/»  period  extends  from  17.55  to  the  pres- 
ent time.  Encouraged  by  the  spirit  of  the  18th 
century,  Moses  Mendelssohn  (q.v.)  opened  to  his 
co-religionists  a  new  era,  which,  as  in  the  middle 
ages,  first  manifested  it.self  in  the  national  litera- 
ture. Its  ch.ar.acter,  contents,  expression,  and  even 
its  phraseology,  were  changed.  I'oetry,  l.angn.age, 
philology,  criticism,  education,  history,  and  litera- 
ture li<ave  been  earnestly  cultivated.  The  sacred 
books*  have  been  translated  by  them  into  the  lan- 
guages of  modern  Europe,  .and  foreign  works  into 
Hebrew  ;  and  many  of  this  once  proscribed  and 
detested  race  have  t.aken  an  important  p.art  in  the 
public  and  scientific  life  of  Europe.  Among  the 
m.any  illustrious  n.ames  of  this  l.ast  period  we  can 
select  only  a  few  like  Jlendelssolin,  Mainion.  Ben 
Zeeb,  Heidenheim,  Uapoport,  Krochmal,  Zunz, 
Jost.  Oeiger,  Fiirst,  .Saclis,  Z.  Frankel,  Slein- 
schneider,  Graetz,  .Jellinek,  Pliili]>psolin,  Munk, 
Salvador,  Reggio,  S.  D.  Luzzatto — chiefly  culti- 
vators of  liter.ature  with  reference  to  their  own 
creed  and  nationality. 

To  enuiuer.ate  names  of  those  Avho  were  and  are 
illustrious  in  general  literature,  in  law,  philosophy, 
medicine,  philology,  mathematics,  belles-lettres, 
iVc.  we  cannot  even  attempt,  since  there  is  not  one 
coiintiy  in  Europe  which  does  not  count  .lews 
.among  the  foremost  and  most  brilliant  representa- 
tives of  its  intellectual  progress.  Of  Germany — 
c<msidcred  to  be  in  the  vangiianl  of  European 
learning — Bunsen  said  that  the  greater  part  of  the 
professors  .at  its  universities  and  academies  were 
.lews  or  of  .Jewish  origin  (Neander,  (Jans,  Benary, 
Weil,  Benfey,  Stahl,  Dernberg,  Valentin,  Lazarus, 
Herz,  Steinthal) — certainly  a  must  startling  fact. 
Oppert,  Darmesteter,  Bernays,  Sanders,  Karl 
Marx,  L.assalle,  Emil  Franzos,  Crcmieux  (<|.v.), 
.Ies.sel,  Sylvester,  Meldola,  Emma  Lazarus  are 
likewise  eminent  n.ames  in  liter.ature,  law.  and 
science ;  while  in  finance,  statesmanship,  and 
phil.antliropy  the  names  of  Itothschild  (q.v.), 
D'Isr.aeli,  Monteliore  (q.v.)  are  universally  f.anuli.ar. 
Another  extiatudinary  and  well  authenticated  f.act 
is  that  the  European  press,  no  less  than  Euro])e.an 
fin.ance,  is  to  a  great  extent  under  their  control  ; 
while,  on  the  other  hand,  names  like  Heine,  B. 
Biirne,  Berthold  .\uerliach,  Henriette  Ilerz,  .lulcs 
.l.anin,  Kelix  MendelssolinBartholdy,  llalevy, 
Meyerbeer,  Mosclieles,  .lo.achini,  Ernst,  Rubin- 
stein, Wieniawski,  Grisi,  Braliam,  (Jiuglini,  Da 
Cost.a,  Rachel,  Davison,  Bendeniann,  besides  hosts 
of  others  less  familiar  to  English  ears,  who  shine 
in  .all  br.anchcs  of  art — music,  sculpture,  painting, 


JEWS    EAK 


JHANSI 


333 


the  ilraiua,  &c. — show  jjlainly  how  unjust  is  the 
reproat-h  of  their  beiuj;  an  •alistnu-t'  ])eo|)le, 
without  sense  for  the  biij;ht  side  of  life  and  the 
arts  that  eniliellish  it.  Briefly — they  arc,  by  the 
unanimous  verdict  of  the  historians  and  phih)so|iher> 
of  our  times,  reckoned  among  the  chief  lu-onioters 
of  the  development  of  humanity  and  civilisation. 
What  has  been  their  reward  we  have  seen.  Ilajipily 
the  growth  of  religious  toleration,  ■«  Inch  is  the  ilis- 
tinctive  feature  of  the  present  age,  ha.s  changed  all 
this.  In  every  country  to  which  modern  civilisa- 
tion has  jienetrated  jews  now  enjoy,  if  not  the 
full  social  recognition  which  is  accorded  them  in 
England  and  France,  all  ordinary  civil  and  political 
riglits.  liussia  and  Roumaaia  alone,  among  western 
peoples,  still  maintain  towards  them  an  attitude 
of  medieval  barbarism.  But  so  anomalous  a  con- 
dition of  att'airs  cannot  long  continue,  and  the  time 
is  surely  not  far  distant  when  even  in  these  countries 
they  will  be  accorded  a  fair  measure  of  the  rights  of 
humanity. 

For  the  history  of  the  Jews  during  the  BiBLIC.iL 
I'EKIoD,  consult  the  histories  of  Ewald,  Stanley,  Kuenen, 
Wellliauscn.  Kenan,  Herzfeld,  Schiirer,  Stade,  Kittel, 
and  works  liy  Ederslieim.  General  Jewish  Histoky  : 
(iraetz,  Jost,  llUuian,  and  the  smaller  works  by  Palmer, 
Hosmer,  Adams,  Morison,  CasseL,  Magnus.  Jews  in 
Enol.vnd:  Picciotto,  Margohouth,  Jacobs.  Schaible's 
Die  Juden  in  Ewjland  (1S90),  and  the  publications  of 
the  Anglo-Jewish  Historical  Exhibition.  History  of 
Religion:  (1)  Biblical:  Kuenen's  RiHiiion  of  Israel, 
the  books  on  the  Prophets  by  Kuenen,  ^V.  R.  .Smith, 
and  Duhm  ;  on  Old  Testament  theology  generally 
hy  Odder,  .Schultz,  and  Eiehm ;  V.  R.  Smith's  0/d 
Testament  in  the  Jewish,  Church,  and  Lectures  on 
the  Religion  of  the  Semites;  and  Baudissin's  Studim 
zur  Seinitischen  Reli(]ionsfjeschichte.  (2)  General:  Jost, 
(leschichle  des  J udenthums  u.  s.  Sekten  ;  Geiger,  Judtn- 
thum  u.  seine  Geschichte :  Weiss's  History  of  Jewish 
Tradition  ( in  Hebrew ).  (3)  Modern:  Ritter,  Geschichte 
derJadischen  Reformation ;  Friedlander's  Text-hook  of  the 
.h Irish  Reliyion  {ISfil}.  JEWISH  LITERATURE  :  Karpeles, 
steiiischneider,  Etheridge,  and  Stern.  Art  :  Perrot  and 
Chipiez  ;   Madden's   Coins  of  the  Jeus.    Jewish  Life  : 

The  Jewish  Libraiy,'  edited  by  Joseph  Jacobs,  the  first 
vol. — by  Israel  Abrahams,  editor  of  the  Jewish  Quurtei'lii 
— being  Jewish  Life  in  the  Middle  Ayes  (1897,  based  on 
Giidemann  and  others) ;  Jewish  Ideals,  by  Joseph  Jacobs 
( 181ll>  I ;  the  works  of  Emd  Frauzos  (  The  Jews  of  liamow, 
ic,  trans.);  Children  of  the  Ghetto  [l>iQ2),  Dreamers  of  the 
Ghetto  ( 1898 ) ;  and  other  works  by  Zangwill.  The  move- 
ment called  'Zionism,'  founded  in  1897  tor  the  puri>ose 
of  securing  the  settlement  of  Jews  in  the  Holy  Land,  has 
annual  congresses;  the  Dreyfus  case  in  France  revealed 
an  uususjjected  amount  of  anti-Semitic  bitterness. 
See  also  the  articles  in  this  work  on 


Assyria. 

Ebioiiites. 

Jerusalem. 

Pliarisees. 

Babylonia. 

Egypt. 

Jesus. 

Sadducees. 

Bible. 

H.;ru.l. 

Karaites. 

f^aniuel. 

Cabbala. 

Hilliles. 

Maccabees. 

Sanhedriii. 

Cliasidiin. 

U-AV.ih. 

Moses. 

Synagogue. 

l-Javid. 

.Ir.ViiniVjXl. 

Pentateuch. 

'I'aluuul. 

Jew's  Ear  ( Exidium cmricula  Juche),  a  fungus, 
one  of  the  Hymenomycetes,  which  grows  on  decay- 
ing iiarts  of  living  trees,  particularly  elders.  Dried 
Jew'.s  Ear  w;t--.  forinerly  in  repute  as  an  astringent. 

•lew's-liarp.  or  Jew'.s-TRIMP,  a  simjde  musical 
instrument,  which  consists  of  a  flat  ehtslic  vibrating 
steel  tongue,  running  between  two  parallel  ribs  of 
metal,  and  fastened  at  one  end  to  the  farther  side 
of  the  circle  into  which  the  ribs  e.vpand  ;  the  free 
end  is  narrowed  to  a  thin  wire  and  |irolonged  at 
right  angles  to  the  vibrating  piece.  The  instrument 
is  held  between  the  teeth  or  lips,  ke]it  aiiart  by 
the  rib-frame,  and  the  free  projecting  end  of  the 
vibrating  tongue  is  struck  with  the  linger.  The 
instrument  is  used  from  the  Highlands  of  Scotland 
to  Tibet.  The  first  to  attain  any  notable  degree 
of  skill  as  a  iierformer  was  a  soldier  of  Frederick 
the  Great's  army.  But  his  fame  was  eclipsed  by 
a.  Wiirtemberger  named   Eulenstein,   who   played 


si.xteen  Jew's-harps,  tuned  to  difiVreut  keys :  he 
performed  in  London  in  1S28  (died  1890).  The  deri- 
vation of  the  word  seems  to  be  doubtful.  It  is  sug- 
gesteti  that  '  Jew's  '  is  a  corruption  of  '  jaws' '  and  of 
'jeu.'the  French  word  for  'play;'  nime  probably 
the  instrument  was  called  Jew's-harp  in  derision. 

Jew's  Mallow.    See  Corchorvs. 

Jew's  Tlioru.    See  Jujube  and  Paliukus. 

Jeypore  (Jaipur),  a  protected  native  state  in 
KaJiMilana  (ipv.),  with  an  area  of  l.-i.IU!!  m|.  m., 
ami  a  population  (1891 )  of  2,832,271),  chielly  llimlus. 
The  only  city  of  importance  is  the  capital.  The 
central  part  of  the  state  is  a  sandy  tableland  from 
1400  to  IGOO  feet  above  the  sea-level;  in  the  east 
and  north-west  there  are  mountains,  but  in  the 
south-east  the  soil  is  rich  and  fertile.  The  chief 
manufactures  are  enamelled  gold- wares,  marble 
sculptures,  and  fabrics.  Large  quantities  of  salt, 
also,  are  manufactured  at  the  Sambhar  Lake.  The 
gross  revenue  is  about  £1,'200,000,  of  which  £40,000 
a  year  is  paid  as  tribute  to  the  imperial  go\erii 
iiient.  The  army  numbers  about  14,000  men  of  all 
arms.  Great  attention  is  paid  to  education.  The 
Kajputana  State  Railway  runs  o\  er  Jeypore  terri- 
tory for  about  150  miles.  Jeypore,  after  many 
vicissitudes,  came  under  British  protection  in  1818. 
The  maharajah  was  eminently  loyal  during  the 
Mutiny,  and  was  rewarded  with  an  e.xtension  of 
territory. — The  capital,  Jeypore,  is  a  walled  city, 
850  miles  NW.  of  Calcutta  and  149  NE.  of 
Ajniere  by  rail.  It  is  a  handsome  and  regularly- 
built  town,  with  the  maliarajah's  [lalace  in  the 
centre,  and  is  the  most  important  commercial 
centre  of  Rajputana.  It  was  founded  as  late  as 
1728.  The  ancient  and  now  deserted  capital. 
Amber,  lies  5  miles  to  the  NE.  The  commercial 
business  of  Jeypore  is  chiefly  banking  aiul  ex- 
change, with  a  capital  engageil  of  over  £7,000,000. 
In  addition  to  the  banks  there  are  the  maliarajah's 
college,  an  industrial  and  economic  museum,  a 
school  of  art,  an  observatory,  a  mint,  the  'Mayo' 
Hospital,  and  numerous  temples  and  mosques, 
besides  the  beautiful  Ram  Newas  (4ardens  ( 70  acres ). 
Pop.  (1881)  142,578;  (1891)  158,905. 

Jezreelites.  or  the  New  and  L.\tter  House 
oi-'  Israel,  a  religious  sect  founded  in  England  by 
a  private  soldier,  James  White  (1840-85),  who 
adopted  the  name  of  James  Jershoni  Je/reel,  and 
|)rofessed  to  be  a  messenger  from  God,  who.se 
revidations  to  him  are  recorded  in  '  The  Flying 
Roll.'  The  head()uarters  of  the  sect  were  at 
(iillinghara.  in  Kent,  where  a  temple,  a  c<dlege, 
i.\;c.  were  jiartially  built.  Christ,  they  believed, 
by  his  death  redeemed  only  souls,  and  those  souls 
who  have  lived  since  Moses.  For  the  salvation  of 
the  soul  belief  ill  the  Gospel  was  suilicient ;  the  body 
must  be  saved  by  belief  in  the  Law.  When  Christ 
conies  to  reign  for  his  millennium  He  will  be  greeted 
by  the  144,000  (Rev.  vii.  5-8),  who  will  be  endowed 
with  immortal  bodies;  to  this  chosen  band  the 
members  of  the  New  and  Latter  House  of  Israel 
aspire  to  belong.  After  the  death  of  Queen  Esther, 
Je/.ieel's  widow,  in  1888,  the  sect  decayed. 

Jiiaiisi.  a  fortified  town  in  (Jwalior  state. 
Central  India.  During  the  Mutiny  of  1857  the 
native  garrison  niiinlered  all  the  Enro])eaiis.  in 
the  following  .\)iiil  the  place  was  recovered  liy  Sir 
Hugh  Rose.  The  town,  till  1801  in  the  British 
North-west  Provinces,  was  in  that  year  maile  over 
to  (Jwalior.  Pop.  28,00<J. — Close  beside  it,  in  the 
British  district  of  Jhansi,  is  the  civil  station  and 
military  cantonment  of  Jhansi  Naoabiul.  Pop. 
.'iiKJU. — The  tlUtrivf  of  .Ihan.--i  begins  just  oiilside 
the  native  fortress  of  Jhansi,  and  is  part  ol  the 
divi.siun  of  AUahabail  in  the  Northwest  Provinces. 
Area,  lOiO  sq.  m. ;  pop.  (  1891 )  409,419. 


334 


JHELUM 


JOAN 


Jhelnin,  or  Jeiilasi,  also  called  the  Bitasta 
(whence  tlie  ancient  Hydaspes),  one  of  the  rivers 
of  the  Punjab.  It  rises  in  the  mountains  of  Cash- 
mere, which  conntrv  forms  its  uiipor  hasin,  anil  is 
iiavi.'al)le  for  about  70  out  of  i:iO  miles  withm 
that  state.  On  emerging  from  the  Himalayas 
throu-'h  the  Baramula  Pass,  it  again  becomes 
navigfible  for  small  ciaft.  About  250  miles  froni 
its  source  it  enters  the  plains,  ami,  after  a  total 
coui-se  of  450  miles,  joins  the  Chenab  at  Timnui. 
On  the  banks  of  this  river  Avas  fought  the  hattle 
between  Alexander  tlie  (4reat  and  Poras.  The  j 
.IheluTu  passes  bv  the  towns  of  Srinajjar  (Kasli- 
mir),  .Jelalpur,  .jliehim,  and  Piiid  Dadan  Khan. 
The  Victoria  railway  bri<lge  near  Meeanee,  opened 
in  1SS7,  is  4875  feet  long.  See  Doab.— Jheluin 
(Jehlam),  town,  cantonment,  and  administrative 
headi|uarteis  of  Jehlam  district  (area,  3995  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  ()09,0.5G),  in  the  Punjab,  stands  on  the  Jehlam 
(Jhelum)  Kiver,  and  is  an  important  entrei)ot  of 
trade.  Pop.  of  town,  with  cantonment,  25,580. 
Jib.    See  Sail. 

Jiddnh,  or  Jeddah,  a  seaport  of  the  Hedjaz, 
Aialiia,  stands  im  the  Red  Sea,  about  65  miles 
W.  of  Mecca.  It  is  an  unhealthy  town,  sutt'ers 
greatly  from  want  of  water,  anil  is  surrounded  by 
a  desert.  It  owes  its  importance  to  the  fact  that 
it  is  the  port  of  Mecca,  and  consequently  the  place 
of  disembarkation  for  pilgrims  (sometimes  100,000 
in  a  year)  l)0uiul  for  the  holy  city.  Besides  this  it 
hiis  an  active  trade,  which,  however,  has  steadily 
decreased,  although  it  still  amounts  in  value  to 
about  £1,000,000  annually.  The  imports  comprise 
corn,  sugar,  metals,  earthenware,  manufactured 
textiles,  v<:c. ;  and  the  exports  consist  chielly  of 
mother-of-pearl,  hides,  cotl'ee,  balsams,  dates,  car- 
pets, &c.  Pop.  ( 1891 )  46,950. 
Jig.  See  GlGA. 
jijjjjer.  See  Chigoe. 
Jilillll.    SeeOxu-S. 

Jilliena,  or  Ximkna,  a  town  of  Spain,  21  miles 
N.  of  Oibraltar,  has  some  remarkable  caves  and  the 
remains  of  a  MoorLsh  castle.     Pop.  8500. 

Jingo,  explained  by  some  a-s  a  corruption  of  St 
Gingufph  ;  by  others,  of  'Jaiuko,'  the  lixsipie  name 
for  The  Supreme  BeiuL'.  Hence  the  familiar  expres- 
sions 'by  Jingo'  and  'by  the  living  Jingo.'  By 
supportei-s  of  the  Basque  "etymology  the  expression 
is  alleged  to  have  originated  in  Wales,  whither 
Edward  I.  is  said  to  have  had  a  party  of  Basque 
t^oliliers  conveyed  during  his  Welsh  wars ;  but 
'Hey  Jingo'  is  first  met  with  in  literature  in 
( Hdham's  Satirrs  upuu  the  Jesuits  ( 1679 ).  Jingoism 
is  now  understood  to  be  a  sort  of  British  Chauvin- 
ism, and  in  this  aspect  dates  only  from  the  Kus-so- 
Turkish  war  of  1878.  At  the  time  there  was  a 
strong  anti- Russian  feeling  in  London,  and  the  most 
popular  music-hall  song  of  the  day  was  a  sort  of 
doggerel  threat  against  Russia,  beginning  : 

Wc  don't  want  to  flglit,  but  by  jingo  if  we  do, 
We  've  got  the  ships,  we  've  got  the  men,  we  've  got  the 
money,  too. 

.linn.    See  DkiMoxoloov. 

Jitoniir.    See  Zhitomir. 

Joacliiin,  Joseph,  violinist,  was  born  at 
Kittsee,  near  Preshurg.  im  '28th  June  1831,  and 
received  his  musical  instructiim  at  Vienna  and 
Leipzig.  He  first  appeared  in  London  in  1H44. 
His  performances  at  Vienna,  Pesth,  Paris,  ami 
I,ondon  have  established  for  him  the  position  of 
one  of  the  lirst  violinists  of  the  day.  In  power 
and  brillianrv  of  execution,  and  in  the  mechanical 
lualities  of  jilaying,  he  is  little  if  at  all  inferior  to 

iganiin.       His   works,   which    include   overtures. 


•  juali 
Paga 


Hebrew  meloilies,  and  other  songs,   and   comi)<>si- 
tions  for   the   violin,   are    pervaded   by  the  same 


tenderness  and  depth  of  nmsical  feeling  that 
characterise  his  playing.  From  1850  he  was 
appointed  concert  director  in  Weimar,  and  from 
18.54  in  Hanover  ;  and  in  1869  he  became  a  member 
of  the  senate  of  the  Berlin  Academy,  and  director 
and  professor  in  the  Conservatory  of  Music.  He 
is  a  Mus.  Doc.  of  Cambridge  and  a  D.C.  L.  of 
Oxford:  and  on  17th  Match  1889,  his  jubilee, 
was  presented  with  a  magnificent  violin,  and  by 
the  German  emperor  with  the  Gold  Medal  for 
Art. 

Joacllinistlial.  a  mining  town  of  Bohemia, 
at  an  altitude  of  2400  feet,  on  the  southern  slopes 
of  the  Erzgebirge,  10  miles  N.  of  Carlsbad.  In  the 
16tli  century  the  mines  yielded  large  quantities  of 
siher :  but  the  production  of  this  mineral  has 
now  dwindled  down  to  less  than  2.50  cwt.  a  year. 
Besides  silver  the  mines  yield  nickel,  bismuth,  and 
uranium.  There  is  a  royal  uranium  factory.  The 
people  manufacture  tol>acco,  gloves,  lace,  &c.  The 
first  German  thalers  or  dollars  (see  Dollar)  were 
coined  here.     Pop.  6628. 

Joan.  Pope,  a  fabulous  personage  long  said  to 
have  filled  the  papal  chair  as  John  A  III._  for  about 
three  years  after  the  death  of  Leo  IV.  in  855. 
According  to  the  latest  and  accepted  form  of  the 
story,  she  was  daughter  of  an  English  missionary, 
and'was  born  at  Mainz  or  Ingelheim.  Forming  an 
illicit  connection  with  a  monk  at  Fulda,  she  put 
on  male  attire  and  lied  with  him  to  Athens,  where 
her  lover  soon  died.  She  then  came  to  Rome, 
where,  from  her  remarkable  learning,  she  became 
in  quick  succession  notary  to  the  curia,  cardinal, 
and  pope,  until  her  sex  "was  discovered  by  the 
premature  and  public  birth  of  a  child  during  a 
solemn  procession.  This  startling  story  was  uni- 
versally believeil  and  appealeil  to  in  Italy  from 
1400  to  about  1600  ;  it  appears  in  all  the  chronicles 
within  this  period,  and  even  so  late  as  I.'mO  is 
found  in  the  popular  guide  for  strangers  kno«n  as 
the  Mirabilia  Urhis  Rmnce.  Felix  Hemmerlin, 
Trithemius,  Coccius  Sabellicus,  Raphael  of  Vcd- 
terra,  Pico  di  Mirandola,  and  Adrian  of  Utrecht 
(afterwards  Pope  Adrian  IV.)  are  all  unanimous 
in  maintaining  it,  and  indeed  Aventine  in  (Jer- 
many  and  Onufiio  Panvinio  in  Italy  were  the 
first  "to  shake  the  general  belief  in  its  truth.  (Ine 
of  the  severest  blows  delivered  to  the  story  was 
given  later  by  the  hand  of  the  learned  Calvinist 
David  Blond'el,  in  his  Fumilit.-  A'e/aircissemeiit 
( Amst.  1649 ).  So  unquestioned  Wiis  the  stoi-y  that 
about  the  beginning  of  the  15th  century  the  bust 
of  the  female  pope  was  placed  in  the  cathedral  of 
Sienna,  along  with  those  of  the  other  popes,  ami 
there  it  renuiined  undisturbed  till  1(100,  when,  at 
the  ie(|uest  of  Clement  Vlll.,  Joan  was  meta- 
morphosed into  Pope  Zacharias. 

Baronius  thought  it  a  satire  on  John  VIII.  : 
Aventine,  Heumann,  and  Schriick,  a  satire  on  the 
Pornocracy  :  the  .lesuit  Secchi,  a  calumny  origin- 
ating with  the  Greeks,  just  as  Pagi  and  Eckliart 
thought  it  did  with  the  Wahlenses  ;  Leo  .-\lhuius 
l)elieved  it  to  be  ba,sed  on  the  story  of  Thiota,  a 
false  prophetess  of  the  9th  century ;  Leibnitz 
thought  it  based  on  a  simil.ar  story  that  might 
have  happened  in  the  case  of  some  foreign  bisho|i ; 
while  Blasco  and  Henke  believed  it  a  satirical 
allegory  on  the  origin  and  circulation  of  the  false 
decretals  of  Isidore— an  absnnl  theory  developeil 
still  further  by  ( Ifnirer.  Moslieim,  Luden,  and 
Hase  were  unable  to  believe  that  so  definite  a 
st<n-y  could  have  arisen  without  some  foundation  ; 
Kurtz,  while  saying  that  the  historical  eviilence 
is  valueless,  regards  it  as  an  un.solved  ridclle. 
At  length  Dr  Pidlinger  disproveil  all  preceding 
theories  at  once  by  showing  that  the  myth  origin- 
ateil   not   in   the  (itli  or    lOtli  century,  as  hitherto 


JOAN 


JOANNES    DAMASCENUS       33o 


believed,  but  was  fii'sl  put  into  writing  in  the 
niiilille  of  tlie  13th ;  and  advanced  the  tlieory 
tliat  the  story  was  deliherately  originated  by  tlie 
[•oiiiinicans  and  Minorites  in  the  time  of  Benedict 
VIII.,  a  deadly  foe  to  the  two  orders. 

The  story  wa.s  long  .supposed  to  he  mentioned  by 
Marianus  Scotns  (1028-86),  but  it  does  not  occur 
in  his  most  ancient  MSS. ,  nor  vet  in  those  of  Sige- 
bert  of  Genibloui-s  ( 1030-1112)"or  of  Otto  de  Frey- 
singen  (died  1158).  The  first  to  give  it  currency  is 
the  Dominican  Stephen  de  Bourbon  (died  1261 ),  on 
the  authority  of  tlie  lost  or  as  yet  undiscovered 
M8.  of  his  contemporary,  the  Dominican  Jean  de 
Mailly.  Thus  the  earliest  account  in  writing  is 
discovered  to  be  about  the  years  1240-50,  from 
which  source  it  was  transferre<l  to  works  of  history, 
like  the  popular  but  worthless  chronicle  of  the 
Dominican  Martinus  I'olonus  (died  1278).  Yet 
Pope  .Joan  does  not  appear  in  his  oldest  MSS. ,  and 
the  interpolation  must  have  been  made  between 
1278  and  1312.  The  main  vehicle  for  circulating 
the  myth  in  Germany  was  the  chronicle  Flores 
Tcmporum,  which,  connecteil  with  various  names, 
conies  down  to  1290,  and  is  mainly  a  compilation 
from  Martinus  Polonus.  Again,  the  story  was  in- 
serted In  the  so-called  Aiidstri.'.-ius,  the  most  ancient 
collection  known  of  biographies  of  the  popes,  but 
here  again  it  is  a  later  addition.  Soon  after  we 
lind  it  in  ^'an  Maerlant's  Historical  Mirror,  a 
metrical  Dutch  chronicle,  and  in  the  Dominican 
Tolonieo  of  Lucca,  and  later,  in  the  1-ith  century, 
in  the  Dominicans  Bernard  Guidonis,  Leo  of 
( Irvieto,  .John  of  Paris,  and  .lacobo  de  Acqui,  as 
well  as  in  Occam  the  Minorite,  the  Greek  Barlaam, 
the  English  Benedictine  Uanulph  Higden,  the 
Augustinian  Amahich  Augerii,  Boccaccio,  and 
Petrarch.  About  the  close  of  the  13th  century 
the  story  spread  with  great  rapidity,  and  in  the 
1.5th  hardly  any  doubt  shows  itself  at  all.  John 
Huss,  at  the  Council  of  ( 'otistanee,  naturally  enough 
employed  the  jiontilicatK  of  .Joan  as  an  .argument 
without  contr.adiction  from  either  side;  iind  the 
('hancellor  Gerson,  in  a  speech  before  Benedict 
XIIL  at  Tarascon  in  1403,  uses  the  circumstance 
.Ts  a  proof  that  the  church  could  err  in  matters  of 
fact.  The  scholastic  theologians  accepted  the  fact, 
and  we  KnJ  so  redoubtable  a  defender  of  papal 
despotism  as  Cardinal  Torrecreniata  maintaining 
it,  so  that  the  gibes  of  some  busy  compilers  at 
early  Protestant  writers  for  making  much  of  so 
unsavoury  a  story  are  but  i<lle  and  ill  infornie<i. 
The  Dominicans,  from  their  numerous  libraries, 
might  easily  have  exposed  the  fable,  but,  as  we 
have  seen,  they  were  actively  instrumental  in  its 
<lift'nsion  instead.  The  story  reached  the  Greeks 
in  the  second  half  of  the  15th  century,  and  it  is 
to  them  we  owe  the  revolting  detail  that  the  child 
wa-s  bom  just  as  the  woman  was  celebrating  High 
Mass.  A  Greek  scholar,  Emmanuel  Rhoidis,  in  a 
clever  study  ( Eng.  trans,  by  C.  H.  Collette,  1886) 
finds  it  impossible  to  believe  th.at  so  well  authen- 
ticated a  story  could  be  without  historical  basis ; 
anil  indeed  the  chain  of  authoritative  evidence  is 
exceedingly  awkward  for  those  disposed  to  attach 
high  credit  to  tradition  in  matters  of  belief. 

Originally  the  woman  is  nameless,  .and  there  are 
many  discrepancies  ,alio\it  her  name  (Agnes,  (!il- 
hert.a,  .Joan),  about  the  date,  her  place  of  birth 
and  previous  abode,  and  the  mode  of  the  catas- 
trophe. Four  circumstances,  .according  to  Dr 
Diillinger,  contributed  especially  to  the  i)roduction 
and  elaboration  of  the  fable:  (1)  the  former  use 
of  ji  pierced  seat,  popularly  suptiosed  to  be  a  pre- 
cautionary means  of  verifying  the  sex  of  a  newly- 
elected  pope,  but  really  .a  practice  symbolic  of 
taking  pos.se.ssi<>n,  the  se.ats  being  merely  bright  mmI 
tedes  porphiiretirrr,  from  an  ancient  Roman  b.alli ; 
(2)  a  stone,  with  an  unintelligible  but  ingeniously 


misread  inscription,  popularly  supposed  to  lie  a 
tombstone  of  the  unhappy  .Joan;  (3)  .a  statue 
found  at  the  same  spot,  its  long  rolics  being 
gr.atuitously  taken  for  the  dress  of  a  woman  ;  and 
(4)  the  custom  of  making  a  circuit  in  papal  pro- 
cessions, wliendiy  a  street  which  w.as  directly  in 
the  way  was  avoided.  The  woman  iii.ay  have  lieen 
made  of  English  blood  from  the  odium  attaching 
to  England  because  of  the  struggle  between 
Innocent  HI.  and  King  John  ;  and  besides,  many 
Englishwomen  made  the  ]iilgrimage  to  Rome, 
while  St  Boniface,  even  in  his  day,  complains  not 
only  of  their  number,  but  their  dubious  character. 
Her  birth  at  the  German  city  of  Mainz  might  be 
due  to  the  inveterate  German  hostility  to  Rom.iii 
claims,  together  with  the  fact  that  Mainz  was  the 
leading  city  of  Germany. 

See  Wensing,  Orcr  de  Paiisin  Johanna  (Hague,  1845), 
a  destructive  answer  to  another  Dutch  book  niaintainiii;,' 
tlie  truth  of  the  story,  by  Professor  Kist  (1843;  'M  cl. 
]8(»6),  who  thinks  Pope  Joan  was  probably  the  widow 
of  Leo  IV.  ;  Biaiichi-Giovini,  Esame  Crilico  deiili  Alii 
vclativi  alia  Papessa  Giovanna  (Milan,  1845) ;  and 
especially  DolUnger,  Die  Papstfaheln  des  Mittelalttrs 
(Munich,  1863  ;  Eng.  trans,  by  A.  I*luiiinier,  1871),  where 
the  historical  evidence  is  examined  and  conclusively 
demolished. 

Joannes  Daiuascenus.  John  Chrysorroa-s 
( '  the  goldeti-tiowing ' )  of  Dama.scus,  a  great  theolo- 
gian and  hymn-writer  of  the  Eastern  Church,  « as 
born  at  Damascus,  it  is  said,  in  676,  but  certainly 
before  the  end  of  the  7th  century,  of  a  Christian 
family  of  distinction  in  this  city,  known  by  the 
Arabic  surname  of  Mansour.  He  was  carefully 
educated,  together  with  his  adopted  brother  Cos- 
mas,  by  the  learned  Italian  monk  Cosmas,  mIio  had 
been  brought  a  slave  to  Damascus,  and  is  said 
to  ha\e  been  called  to  the  ottice  of  vizier  to  the 
reigning  calif.  He  replied  in  quick  succession 
to  the  iconoclastic  measures  of  Leo  the  Isauriaii 
with  two  memorable  addresses  in  which  he  \igoi 
ously  defended  the  practice  of  image-worshii).  His 
biographer  John,  patriarch  of  Jerusalem  ( 10th  cen 
tury),  tells  us  that  Leo,  unable  to  reach  his  formid- 
able antagonist  by  open  means,  caused  a  treason- 
able letter  to  be  forged,  in  consequence  of  which 
John's  hand  was  struck  off  by  order  of  the  calif, 
but  after  a  night  of  prayer  to  the  Virgin  miracu- 
lously restored.  It  is  cert.ain  that  his  later  years 
were  spent  in  a  monastery,  that  of  St  Sabas  near 
Jerusalem,  wdiere  we  are  told  he  mortilied  his  flesh 
with  ascetic  practices  of  unusual  severity.  Here 
he  found  leisure  and  inspiration  to  write  his  learned 
works  and  his  religious  poetry,  was  ordained  a 
priest,  and  died  soon  after  754. 

His  chief  Greek  works  are  Funs  Seintfia',  a  group 
of  three  works,  together  forming  an  eiicyclopa?dia  of 
t'hristian  theolog)' ;  De  Imafjiaibus  Orationes  III.  ;  De 
Recta  Senteiitia  Litter,  a  formal  profession  of  faith ; 
Contra  Jacohitas ;  Diaiorjus  contra  Manictiaeos ;  Di»pn- 
tatio  Christiani  et  Saraceni ;  Dt  Drttconibns  tt  Striiiiihn^, 
in  which  he  combats  popular  superstitions;  De  Dtiahits 
in  C'/triitto  Votunt(ttibus,  an  attack  on  Monophysite  and 
Monothelite  heresy;  Adversus  Negtoriaiws ;  Loci  Selecti 
ifi  Kpistotas  S.  Paidi,  mostly  from  the  homilies  of  St 
Chrysostom ;  Sacra  Paratlela,  consisting  of  passages 
from  Holy  Writ  illustrated  by  parallel  passages  from 
Scripture  and  the  Fathers ;  HomUixe,  thirteen  in 
number ;  Carmina,  including  both  canons  or  prose 
hymns  and  metrical  hymns;  and  Vila  JSarlaam  il 
Joasaph,  his  most  famous  work,  now  known  to  be  a 
(hsguised  version  of  the  life  of  ]!uddlia.  Of  .bdni's 
Canons  the  noblest  is  that  for  Easter,  beginning,  in 
Neale's  translation,  *'Tis  the  day  of  Hesurrectioii ;  Eartli, 
tell  it  out  abroad.'  Other  hymns  known  to  Englishiiien 
through  the  same  translator  are  *  Those  eternal  bowers, ' 
*  Take  the  last  kiss,  the  last  forever,*  and  'Come  ye  faith- 
ful, raise  the  strain.'  The  first  adequate  edition  of  the 
works  of  .Joannes  Damascenus  was  that  of  the  Dominican 
Michael  Lc  Quien  (2vol.s.  folio,  Paris,  1712).     This  was 


330       JOANNES    DAMASCENU8 


JOAN    OF    ARC 


re|>riiit«il  at  Venice  m  1748,  and  is  the  basis  of  the  edition 
in  Migne's  PatruUt(iia  ( 3  vols.  1S64 ). 

See  the  articles  Baui.aam  and  Josaphat,  and  Hymns  ; 
also  Dr  Xeale's  Hiiinns  of  the  Eastern  Church  (1870),  and 
Dr  Josepii  Langen's  adniirable  book,  Johaiiuf-i  von 
Oamtiskus  (Gotha,  1879);  also  the  Kev.  J.  H.  LniJton's 
St  John  of  Damascus  (1882),  in  tlie  '  Fathers  for  English 
Keaders.' 

•loau  of  Art'  (Fr.  Jeanne  dArc),  tlie  Maid 
of  (dleans,  one  of  the  most  stiikiug  figures  that 
e\er  crossed  the  stage  of  liistorv,  was  born  of  poor 
hut  devout  parents,  in  the  village  of  Douiremy, 
near  Vaucouieur.-,  on  the  liordcrs  of  Lorraine  and 
Champagne,  Gth  January  1412.  Like  other  maidens 
of  her  rank  she  was  taught  to  sew  and  spin,  not  to 
read  and  write;  and  in  tlie  i|uietness  of  her  country- 
life  slie  grew  up  tall  and  handsome  iu  form,  sweet 
and  womanly  lu  nature,  unlike  the  other  guls 
around  her  only  in  her  greater  modesty,  industry, 
and  devotion.  Her  reli''ious  faith  was  ardent  almost 
from  her  cradle;  she  loved  to  he  alone,  and  she 
brooded  in  her  waking  dreams  over  the  Bible  story 
and  the  legends  of  the  saints,  until  the.se  V)ecame 
as  real  to  her  as  they  were  to  St  Teresa.  The  cold 
abstraction  of  patriotism  she  never  discovered  for 
herself,  but  she  mourned  with  passionate  prayers 
and  tears  over  the  sorrows  of  down-trodden  France, 
until  these  prayers  took  real  .shapes,  and  returned 
to  her  witii  form  and  sound  as  messages  from 
heaven.  And  thus  there  gradually  grew  up  within 
her  heart  the  conviction  that  she  bad  been  chosen 
by  (4od  to  do  a  special  work  of  deliverance  for  her 
country.  At  thirteen,  the  noon  of  a  summer's 
day,  she  first  saw  a  light  and  heard  an  audible 
voice  from  heaven,  and  her  terror  gradually  dis- 
apjieared  as  these  signs  were  repeatedly  vouchsafed 
and  became  dear  and  familiar  to  her.  St  Michael, 
St  Catharine,  and  St  Margaret  bent  over  her  and 
wldspered  in  her  ears  her  heavenly  mission,  and 
though  calm  to  outward  eyes,  henceforward  she 
li\ed  an  inward  life  apart,  given  to  God  and  her 
saints.  During  that  unhappy  time  of  national 
degradation  a  prophecy,  ascriljed  to  Merlin,  was 
current  in  Lorraine,  that  the  kingdom  lost  by  a 
woman  (Queen  Isabell.-i)  should  be  saved  by  a 
\irgiii,  and  no  doubt  this,  together  with  her  visions, 
helped  to  deline  her  mission  to  the  broodiui'  and 
fiithusiastic  mind  of  the  young  peasant  girl.  'I 
liad  far  rather  rest  and  spin  uy  my  mother's 
siile,' she  said  with  simple  pathos,  'for  this  is  no 
work  of  my  choosing,  but  I  must  go  and  do  it,  for 
my  Lord  wills  it.'  Her  story  was  at  lirst  laughed 
to  .scorn,  but  her  persistence  bore  down  all  oppo- 
sition, and  at  last  she  succeeded  in  making  her 
way  to  the  Daujihin  and  convincing  him  by  secret 
signs  of  her  sincerity.  '  There  is  more  in  God's 
book  than  in  yours,'  she  said  to  the  douliting  and 
hesitating  theologians.  She  put  on  male  dress  and 
a  suit  of  white  armour,  mounted  a  black  charger, 
bearing  a  banner  of  her  own  device — white,  em- 
liroidered  with  lilies,  on  one  side  a  picture  of  God 
enthroned  on  idouds,  on  the  other  the  shield  of 
France,  supporleil  by  two  angels,  together  with  a 
pennon  on  which  was  represented  the  Annuncia- 
tion. Her  sword  was  one  that  she  divined  would 
be  found  buried  behind  the  altar  in  the  church  of 
St  Catharine  de  Fierbois.  Thus  ei|uipped  she  put 
herself  at  the  head  of  an  army  of  (iUOO  men, 
•lictated  a  letter  to  the  Knglish,  and  advanced  to 
aid  Dunois  in  the  relief  of  Orleans,  which  was  hard 
he.set  by  the  victoriinis  enemy.  Her  arrival  lired 
the  fainting  hearts  of  the  French  with  a  new  enthu- 
siiism,  and  rough  ami  hanlened  .Mililiers  left  oil'  their 
oaths  and  their  deliaucberv  under  the  spell  of  her 
imre  pre.sence.  On  the  2!Hli  April  1429  she  threw 
lierseif  into  the  city,  and,  after  lifteen  days  of  light- 
ing, the  Knglish  were  compelleil  to  rai.se  the  siege 
an<l  retreat,  carrying  with  them  the  tale  of  terror 


at  the  strange  witchcraft  by  which  they  had  been 
overcome.  At  once  the  face  of  the  w  ar  was  changed, 
the  French  spirit  again  awoke,  and  within  a  week 
the  enemy  were  swept  from  the  prinii]ial  positions 
on  the  Loire.  Amiii  the  carnage  anil  confusion  of 
her  strange  surroumlings,  Joan  showed  the  same 
purity,  simplicity,  and  good  sense  that  h;ul  marked 
the  village  girl.  She  shrank  with  womanly  tears 
from  the  sight  of  bloodshed,  and  trembled  with 
terror  at  her  tirst  wound,  while  the  brutal  taunts  of 
the  English  soldiers  stung  her  purity  to  the  heart, 
and  drew  hot  tears  of  indignation  from  her  eyes. 
But  all  thoughts  of  self  were  lost  in  devotion  to  her 
mission  of  w  liich  heaven  had  given  such  infallible 
proofs,  and  iu)w,  with  resistless  enthusiasm,  slie 
urged  on  the  weak-hearted  Dauphin  to  his  corona- 
tion. Less  than  three  months  later  she  stood 
beside  him  at  Klieims,  and  with  tears  of  joy  saluted 
him  as  king.  '  Would  it  were  God's  pleasure,'  she 
said  to  the  archbishop,  '  that  I  might  go  and  kei'p 
.sheep  once  more  with  my  sisters  and  my  brothers  : 
they  would  be  so  glad  to  see  me  again.'  But 
hea\en  had  reserved  for  her  its  highest  honour — 
to  set  the  martyr's  crow  n  upon  her  brow. 

Joan  could  not  infuse  her  spirit  into  the  hesitat- 
ing coward  and  his  corrupt  courtiers,  and  she 
wore  out  her  heart  with  vexation  as  she  .saw  the 
work  of  heaven  prevented  by  the  unworthiness 
of  man.  She  continued  to  accompany  the  French 
armies,  and  wa,s  present  in  many  conllicts,  anil  was 
mortiiieil  to  the  heart  by  the  failure  to  carry  Paris. 
At  length,  on  the  24th  May  1430,  she  threw-  herself 
with  a  handful  of  men  into  Compiegne,  which  was 
then  besieged  by  the  forces  of  Burgundy ;  and, 
being  driven  back  by  them  in  a  desperate  sally, 
was  left  behind  by  her  men,  taken  prisoner,  and 
sold  to  the  English  by  John  of  Lu.xembourg,  in 
November,  for  10,000  livres.  In  December  she  wirs 
carried  to  Kouen,  the  head<iuarters  of  the  English, 
heavily  fettered  and  Hung  into  a  gloomy  |irison, 
and  at  length  arraignetl  before  the  spiritual 
tribunal  of  Pierre  Cauchon,  then  Bishop  ot  lieau- 
vais  and  a  wretched  creature  of  the  English, 
as  a  sorceress  and  a  heretic,  while  the  dastard 
she  had  crowned  a  king  left  her  to  die.  Hei 
trial  w;is  long,  and  wius  disgraced  by  every  form 
of  shameful  brutality,  under  hardly  even  the  forms 
of  justice.  Day  after  day  a  host  of  learned  doctors 
tortured  her  simple  heart  with  tortuous  questions, 
the  aim  of  w  liicb  was  to  get  their  victim  to  con- 
denm  herself.  Even  through  the  tintrustworthy 
forms  iu  which  they  are  recmded  for  us  her 
answei-s  show  forth  the  noble  simplicity  of  very 
truth.  Innumerable  <|uestions  on  the  nature  of 
her  visions  were  answered  with  the  same  calmness 
and  strength,  cand  her  judges  were  for  very  shame 
driven  to  linish  the  interrogations  in  private, 
and  to  resort  to  the  nameless  infamy  of  sending 
Nicholas  Loyseleur,  a  pretcndeil  confessor,  to  draw 
matter  for  her  condemnation  from  the  most  sacred 
conlidences  of  religion.  In  the  judgment  she  was 
found  guilty  of  .sacrilege,  profanation,  disobedience 
to  the  church,  pride,  and  idolatry,  and  the  formal 
condemnation  was  conveyed  in  twelve  articles. 
The  judges  did  not  disallow  the  possibility  of 
heavenly  visions,  but  they  declared  those  of  Joan 
to  be  illusions  of  tlu-  devil.  They  were  now  ready 
to  send  her  to  her  doom,  but  they  wished  lirst  to 
force  her  to  an  abjuration  in  order  to  degrade  her  in 
public  opinion,  ami  they  tortureil  her  by  altermile 
threats  ami  promises,  until  the  bewildered  girl  at 
length  declared  that  she  submitted  to  the  church, 
ami  blindly  subscribed  everything  they  asked  of  her. 
They  then  condemned  her  to  ])erpetual  imprison- 
ment, and  forced  her  again  to  put  on  woman's 
dress.  But  it  was  far  from  being  meant  that  she 
should  escape  the  lire.  As  she  lay  iu  her  cell 
overwhelmed  with  self-reproach  and  despair,  and 


JOB 


337 


denied  what  she  most  longed  for  and  liad  heen 
solemnly  iironiised — the  eucharist,  she  Wiis  sub- 
jected to  new  indignities  from  the  brutality  of  her 
guards,  who  stripiied  her  of  her  woman  s  dress, 
so  that  to  protect  her  chastity  she  was  compelled 
again  to  put  on  the  forbidden  dress  she  had  laid 
;i.side.  This  was  at  once  made  the  "rounds  for  a 
charge  tliat  she  had  relapsed,  and  she  was  with- 
out delay  brought  again  to  the  stake.  May  30, 
1431.  The  woman's  tears  dried  upon  her  cheeks, 
and  slie  faced  her  doom  with  the  triumphant 
courage  of  the  martyr,  declaring  that  she  knew 
her  revelations  were  from  God,  and  that  she  had 
only  submitted  through  fear  of  the  lire.  Her  con- 
fessor to  the  last  held  up  the  cross  before  her  eyes, 
and  in  the  midst  of  the  flames  that  wrapped  her 
round  she  ceased  not  to  repeat  the  sacred  name  of 
Jesus,  anil  to  invoke  his  saints ;  a  last  time  she 
was  heard  to  exclaim  '  Jesus,'  then  her  head  sank 
down  :  she  had  finished  her  prayer  in  heaven.  So 
perished  the  great  uncanonised  saint  of  France, 
leaving  an  ineffaceable  stain  upon  English  honour. 

But  Joan's  mission  was  accomplished,  and  by  the 
enthusiasm  that  she  awoke  the  English  were  driven 
from  the  sacred  soil  of  France.  Twenty-five  years 
after  her  death  Pope  Calixtus  III.  acceded  to  the 
prayer  of  her  mother  and  her  brothers  (who  had 
been  ennobled  under  the  name  De  Lys),  that  the 
process  by  which  she  was  condemned  should  be  re- 
examined. After  a  careful  inquiry  the  finding  was 
that  the  twelve  articles  on  which  her  sentence  was 
baseil  were  false,  and  that  therefore  the  whole  pro- 
ceedings of  the  Bishop  of  Beauvais  were  null  and 
voiil.  The  judgment  was  publicly  declared  on  the 
spot,  in  the  marketplace  of  Kouen,  on  which  she 
sull'ered.  But  long  before  this  she  had  been  en- 
shrined a  saint  in  the  popular  imagination,  which 
read  the  wrath  of  heaven  into  the  sudden  end  that 
had  quickly  come  to  every  one  connected  with  the 
trial.  Inileed,  the  people  had  been  slow  to  accept 
the  fact  that  the  maid  was  actually  dead,  and  at 
first  readily  believed  in  the  impostor  who  arose  in 
Lorraine  five  years  later. 

The  story  of  Joan  has  been  a  rich  motlTe  in  the  world 
of  art,  from  the  honest  mediocrity  of  the  youthful 
Soutliey  and  the  noble  tragic  sense  of  Schiller  to  the 
heartless  ribaldry  of  Voltaire  and  the  fantastic  mummery 
of  .Sarah  Bernhardt.  Painter  and  sculptor  have  spent 
their  genius  on  the  theme  without  a.s  yet  adequately 
realising  its  simple  grandeur.  See  Quicherat's  elaborate 
work,  Proces  de  Coiidemnation  tt  Rehabilitation  de  Jeanne 
d^Arc  (5  vols.  1841-49) ;  the  books  by  Michelet,  Henri 
Martin,  and  Joseph  Fabre  ;  the  iconoclastic  paradox  of 
Lesigne  (1889),  H.  Wallon's  richly-illustrated  Jeanne 
d: Arc  (ith  ed.  1883),  Janet  Tuckey's  sketch  (1880),  and 
works  by  Blaze  de  Bur>'  (1889),  Lancry  (1889),  Sorel 
(1889),  Marenholtz  (18!X)),  AyroUes  (lsyO-94),  Lord 
Ronald  Gower  ( 1893 ),  and  Mrs  Oliphant  ( 1890 ).  For  the 
literary  development,  see  Kmnmer  ( 1874  ) ;  and  for  tlie 
military  (juestion,  Jlarin's,^fan»c d'Arc  Strattijiale  ( 1889 ). 

Job.  The  Book  of  Job  is  so  called  from  the 
nann'  of  tlie  man  who.se  history  is  the  subject  of  it. 
In  Hebrew  the  name  is  lyyob,  of  which  no  certain 
exphanation  has  been  given.  As  it  now  exists,  the 
book  consists  of  five  parts  :  ( 1 )  The  prohigue, 
chaps,  i.-ii.  This  tells  us  of  a  man  called  Job  in 
tlie  land  of  Uz,  who  was  '  perfect  and  upright, 
fearing  God,  and  eschewing  evil.'  The  man's 
worldly  prosperity  wa-s  in  correspon<Ience  with  his 
godlilu,--^.  In  tiie  council  of  lieaven  the  disin- 
terestedness of  his  religion  was  called  in  question 
by  the  a<lversary,  who  successively  receives  per- 
mLssion  lirst  to  deprive  him  of  all  liLs  possessions 
and  1hii',iv(!  him  oi  his  children,  ami  secomllv,  to 
atilict  him  in  his  person  with  a  frightful  malady. 
In  spite  of  these  alHictions  JoV)  liolds  fast  his 
integrity:  'In  all  this  Job  sinned  not.'  Hearing 
of  his  calamities,  his  three  friends  auiong  the 
neighbouring  emirs  come  to  condole  with  him.  In 
28'2 


the  presence  of  his  friends  Job  loses  his  self-posses- 
sion, and  breaks  out  into  a  iiiussionate  complaint, 
lamenting  that  he  had  ever  been  born  (iii.). 

(2)  The  debate  between  Job  and  his  friends, 
chaps,  iv.-xxxi.  Both  the  tone  and  the  senlinuMits 
of  Job's  complaint  seem  wrong  to  his  friends,  and 
this  feeling  on  their  part  initiates  a  debate  between 
them  and  Job  upon  the  meaning  of  his  atllictions, 
which  widens  out  into  a  general  ili.scussion  of  the 
causes  and  purposes  of  evil  and  atlliction  in  God's 
providence.  The  theory  of  the  friends  is  tliat 
affliction  implies  previous  commission  of  sins  on 
the  part  of  the  sufferer,  though  in  the  case  of  a 
good  man,  such  as  Job,  it  is  not  punitive  but  dis- 
ciplinary, meant  to  wean  him  from  evil  still  cling- 
ing to  him  ;  they  therefore  exhort  him  to  repent- 
ance, and  hold  up  a  bright  future  before  him.  Job 
denies  that  his  sufferings  are  due  to  sin,  of  which 
he  is  innocent ;  God  wrongly  holds  him  guilty  and 
afflicts  him.  And  here  the  dispute  with  his  friends 
works  into  the  problem  raised  by  Satan,  whether 
Job  would  renounce  God  to  his  face.  Under  the 
insinuations  of  his  friends,  which,  with  his  con- 
sciousness of  innocence,  left  him  no  escajie  but 
deny  the  rectitude  of  God,  Job  is  almost  driven  to 
openly  disown  God.  Though  stopping  short  of 
this,  he  reaches  the  conclusion,  supported  not  only 
by  his  own  history  but  by  much  which  can  be  seen 
in  the  world,  that  there  is  not  that  necessary  con- 
nection between  sin  and  suffering  which  the  friends 
insisted  on.  The  discussiim  between  Job  and  his 
friends  consists  of  three  circles  of  speeches  :  ( 1 ) 
chaps,  iv.-xiv.  ;  (2)  chaps,  xv.-xxi.  ;  (3)  chaps. 
xxii.-.xxxi.  Each  of  these  circles  consists  of  six 
speeches,  one  by  each  of  the  friends  with  a  reply 
from  Job.  In  the  last  circle,  however,  the  third 
disputant,  Zopliar,  fails  to  speak.  This  is  a  con- 
fession of  defeat ;  and  Job,  left  victor  in  the  strife, 
resumes  his  parable,  protesting  before  heaven  his 
innocence,  and  adjuring  God  to  reveal  to  him  the 
cause  of  his  afflictions. 

(3)  The  speeches  of  Elihn,  chaps,  xxxii.-xxxvii. 
A  youthful  bystander,  named  Elihu,  who  hitherto 
had  been  a  silent  listener  to  the  debate,  here  inter- 
venes, expressing  his  dissatisfaction  both  with  Job 
and  his  friends.  He  is  shocked  by  Job's  irrever- 
ence in  charging  God  with  unrigiiteousness,  and 
indignant  that  the  friends  have  not  brought  for- 
ward such  arguments  as  to  show  him  to  be  in  the 
wrong.  His  abhorrence  of  Job's  sentiments  is  even 
greater  than  that  of  the  three  friends,  from  whose 
theories  of  evil  he  differs  mainly  in  giving  greater 
prominence  to  the  idea  that  affliction  is  disciplinary 
and  proceeds  from  the  goodness  of  God.  (4)  The 
words  of  the  Lord  out  of  the  storm,  chap,  xxxviii.- 
xlii.  6.  In  answer  to  Job's  repeated  demand  that 
God  would  apjiear  and  solve  the  riddle  of  bis 
sufferings  the  Lord  speaks  out  of  the  tempest.  lie 
does  not  refer  to  Job's  problem  directly,  but  in  a 
series  of  splendid  pictures  from  the  material  crea- 
tion and  animated  nature  he  makes  all  his  glory 
to  pass  before  Job.  The  sufi'erer  is  humbled  and 
silent.  Such  thoughts  of  God  bring  him  b;u-k 
to  the  right  |)ositi(in  of  man  before  the  Creator 
— he  repents  his  former  words  in  dust  and  ashes. 
(5)  The  epilogue,  chap.  xlii.  7-17.  Job  having 
humbled  himself  before  God,  and  attained  to  a 
fuller  knowledge  of  bim,  is  restored  to  a  jnosperity 
double  that  which  he  enjoyed  before,  and  dies  old 
and  full  of  days.  With  the  exception  of  the  dis- 
courses of  Elihu,  the  connection  of  which  with  the 
poem  in  its  original  form  is  liable  to  dcuibt,  all 
these  live  ])arts  appear  original  elements  of  the 
book,  though  some  of  them  may  contain  expansions 
of  a  later  date. 

The  traditional  view  among  the  Jews  was  that 
the  Book  of  Job  was  strictly  historical.  Pissen- 
tients  from  this  view,  however,  are  referred  to  in 


338 


JOB 


the  Talmud,  where  a  rabbi  is  alhuletl  to  who  had 
said  :  '  A  Job  existed  nut,  and  was  not  created  ;  he 
is  a  parable.'  And  Maiinonides  (died  1204)  ex- 
pressed the  opinion  that  '  Job  is  a  parable,  meant 
to  exhibit  the  views  of  mankind  in  regard  to 
I'rovideuce.'  In  the  Christian  church  also  the 
previiiliuf,'  opinion  was  that  tlie  book  contained 
literal  history.  Luther,  however,  while  admitting 
a  basis  of  history,  was  of  opinion  that  the  history 
had  been  poetically  treated.  He  says  in  his  Tahlc- 
talk:  '  1  hold  the  Book  of  Job  to  be  real  history  ; 
but  that  everything  so  liappened  and  was  so  done 
I  do  not  believe,  but  think  that  some  ingenious, 
]iious,  and  learned  man  composed  it  as  it  is.'  This 
is  perhaps  the  prevalent  oi)inion  in  modern  times, 
tliough  there  are  many  scholars,  some  of  them  be- 
longing to  the  most  conservative  scliool  of  criticism, 
sucli  as  Hengstenberg,  who  hold  that  the  poem  is 
a  pure  creation  of  the  author's  mind  witli  a  didac- 
tic purpose  and  without  any  historical  foundation. 
That  the  poem  is  not  strict  history  is  shown  by 
the  many  ideal  elements  contained  in  it — e.g.  the 
heavenly  council  (chap,  i.-ii.  ;  cf.  1  Kings,  xxii.  19); 
the  addresses  put  into  the  mouth  of  the  Almighty 
(xxxvlii.-xlii. )  ;  the  symbolical  numbers,  ilircc  and 
seven,  used  to  describe  Job's  flocks  and  his  children 
( i.  2-3 )  ;  and  the  profound  thought  and  elaborate 
imagery  in  the  various  speeclies,  which,  so  far  from 
being  the  extem|Mnaneous  utterances  of  three  or 
four  persons  casually  brought  together,  could  only 
be  the  leisurely  production  of  a  writer  of  the 
highest  genius.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is  not  so 
probable  that  a  work  of  such  extent  and  written 
at  the  comparatively  early  date  to  which  the  book 
belongs  should  be  i)nrely  poetical  invention.  The 
reference  to  Job  in  Ezekiel  (xiv.  14),  which  can 
hardly  be  to  our  present  book,  suggests  that  there 
was  a  well-known  tradition  which  represented  Job 
as  a  man  famed  for  pietv  in  ancient  times.  This 
tradition  the  author  of  the  book  laid  hold  of  and 
no  doubt  embellished  with  many  details  in  order 
to  convey  through  it  the  lessons  in  regard  to  Pro- 
vidence which  it  was  his  object  to  teach. 

Students  of  the  book  have  not  found  it  easy  to 
dispose  all  its  contents  under  a  single  conception, 
and  some  writers,  as  Bleek,  have  contented  them- 
selves with  stating  some  lessons  which  it  obviously 
teaches.  The  prologue,  for  instance,  shows  how 
even  pious  men  may  be  visited  with  severe  afflic- 
tions, which  i.t  is  wrong  to  consider  due  to  special 
sins  on  their  part,  or  to  regard  as  signs  of  God  s  dis- 
pleasure. -Again,  the  course  of  the  debate,  taken 
in  connection  with  the  divine  .speeches  from  tlie 
storm-cloud,  suggests  that  it  is  presumption  in  man 
to  pass  judgment  on  CJod's  providence,  which  it  is 
beyond  human  wisdom  to  comprehend,  man's  true 
wisdom  lying  in  fearing  the  Lord  and  reverent 
submission  even  amidst  intellectual  darkness  and 
perplexity.  This  second  truth  may  bo  said  to  be 
the  burden  of  the  words  of  the  Almighty  spoken 
out  of  tlie  storm-clouil,  an<l  many  writers  have 
concluded  that  this  truth,  taught  l>y  God  himself, 
must  be  just  the  lesson  intended  by  the  book. 
This  view,  however,  neglects  entirely  the  light 
given  to  the  reader  in  the  prologue,  and  also  Job's 
restoration  narrated  in  the  epilogue,  and  indeed 
the  M'hole  debate  between  .lob  and  his  frien<ls.  A 
just  theory  of  the  purpose  of  the  book  must  take 
account  ot  all  its  elements.  Now,  first,  the  books 
of  Scrinture  have  mostly  a  practical  aim,  and  are 
directed  to  the  instruction  of  Israel  as  a  peoide 
in  special  circumstances.  The  circumstances  cfis- 
closed  by  the  book  are  those  of  great  distress  and 
perple.\ity  in  regard  to  the  ways  of  providence 
arising  out  of  this  distress.  Job,  though  repre- 
sented ns  an  individu.al,  must  be  regarded  as  a 
type  of  the  sull'ering  righteous,  or  it  may  be  of 
Israel.     His   history,  with   the  lessons  it  teaches, 


are  the  lessons  which  Israel  slionld  comfort  itself 
with  in  its  circumstances  of  atfliction.  Now,  these 
lessons  partly  come  out  in  the  debate  with  the 
three  friends  and  partly  in  the  history  of  Job's 
mind,  his  perplexity,  return  to  faith,  and  restora- 
tion. When  the  great  calamity  of  tlie  downfall  of 
the  state  befell  Israel  the  proijhetic  view  that  it 
was  due  to  the  sin  of  the  peoide  was  accepted,  and 
was  sufficient  when  the  state  as  a  unity  was  con- 
sidered. But  many  pious  individuals  sullered  for 
sins  of  which  they  had  not  been  guilty,  and,  as  in 
this  age  the  position  and  worth  of  the  individual 
began  to  rise  into  prominence,  tliis  fact  occasioned 
perplexity  in  regard  to  the  o])eraticm  of  Proviilence. 
Further,  wdien  the  exile  was  prolonged  and  a  new 
generation  arose,  innocent  of  the  sins  of  a  former 
age,  and  yet  involved  in  its  punishment,  this  per- 
plexity increased,  and  questions  began  to  be  asked 
whether  the  view  that  sufferings  were  always  due 
to  previous  sin  was  suHicient.  This  is  the  question 
in  debate  between  Job  and  his  friends.  Tliey 
maintained  the  attirmative,  while  Job  dissented, 
founding  on  his  own  history  and  on  much  that  he 
could  perceive  in  the  world.  When  the  author  of 
the  book  allows  Job  to  put  his  friends  to  silence, 
we  may  infer  that  it  was  his  i)urpose  to  teach  that 
the  ancient  view  left  much  unexiilained,  and  was 
not  a  solution  applicable  in  all  cases.  And  when 
in  the  prologue  he  exhibits  the  case  of  an  upright 
man  attlicted  as  a  trial  of  his  ujirightness ;  and  in 
the  body  of  the  book  the  man  in  spite  of  much 
doubt  and  even  sinful  frailty  holding  fast  liLs 
integrity  ;  and  then  in  the  eidlogue  the  same  man, 
victorious  in  his  faith  and  more  reverent  in  his 
submission  to  God,  crowned  with  double  ]iros- 
perity,  we  may  infer  that  it  w.-is  his  design  to 
teach  Israel  that  sutl'erings  may  be  a  trial  of  the 
righteous,  which,  if  reverently  borne,  will  lift  them 
up  into  fuller  knowledge  of  God,  and  therefore  into 
more  assured  peace  and  felicity.  This  is  the  lesson 
which  he  desires  to  teach  Isiael  amidst  its  sorrows 
and  the  perplexities  occasioned  by  them. 

Objections  have  been  made  to  llie  (niginality  of 
the  prologue  and  epilogue  which  have  little  weight. 
Among  modern  scholars  the  |ircvailing  view  is 
that  the  speeches  of  Elihu  ( .\xxii.-xxxvii.)  are  an 
insertion  of  a  later  date.  'I'liis  view  rests  on  such 
facts  as  these  :  that  Elihu  is  not  mentioned  either 
in  the  prologue  or  epilogue  ;  that  Job  makes  no 
reply  to  him,  nor  is  he  referred  to  in  the  divine 
answer  from  the  storm-cloud  ;  that  he  betrays  a 
mannerism  which  looks  like  the  creation  of  a  diller- 
ent  author ;  that  the  language  of  his  speeches  is 
less  pure  Hebrew  than  the  rest  of  the  book  ;  and 
that  his  strong  repugnance  to  the,  iireverence  of  Job, 
and  his  more  profoniul  sense  of  man's  sin  and  the 
goodness  of  God,  belong  to  a  later  age  than  the 
original  book.  The  section  is  of  great  interest  and 
significance  in  a  religions  point  of  view.  There  are 
other  pjwsages — e.g.  chap,  xxviii.,  which  it  is 
ditiicult  to  fit  into  the  general  scope  of  the  book, 
and  a  good  many  passages  are  wanting  in  the 
original  form  of  the  Greek  version. 

The  age  of  the  Book  of  J(d)  must  not  be  ccm- 
founded  with  the  age  of  Job  himself.  Job  is 
assumed  to  have  lived  in  the  l'alii;iicbal  period, 
the  colours  of  which  the  author  has  skilfully  tliinwu 
over  his  composition.  The  author,  however,  is  an 
Israelite,  whose  work  is  a  reflection  of  the  religious 
life  and  religious  thought  of  Israel.  Two  general 
facts  point  to  the  age  of  the  exile  as  the  period  to 
which  the  book  belongs :  first,  the  condition  of 
great  disorder  and  misery  which  forms  the  back- 
ground of  the  jioeiii  (ix.  24  ;  xii.  (i  :  \xiv.  12,  ^.c.) ; 
and  sec(Uidly,  the  di.scussions  on  I'lovidence  and 
the  relation  of  sull'ering  to  the  righteous,  which 
reveal  a  condition  of  perplexity  in  men's  minds 
occasioned  by  the  miseries  of  the  capti\ity.     Other 


JOBS    TEARS 


JOHANNESBURG 


339 


thin^  also  point  to  the  same  jieiiod — e.j;.  tlie  very 
liighly  dereloiied  doctrine  regarding  God,  wliich  is 
paralleled  only  in  Isa.  xl.-lxvi.,  and  the  later 
psalms  (  Ps.  cxxxix. ) ;  the  inwardness  of  the  moral- 
ity inculcated  (e.g.  chap.  xxxi. );  and  the  general 
aliinity  of  the  book  in  thought  and  language  with 
writings  of  the  exile  age.  Job  iii.  is  probably 
dependent  on  Jer.  xx.  14  scq.  The  author  of  the 
book  is  altogether  xinknown.  It  was  only  the 
projdiets  who  usually  put  their  names  to  theu- 
writings. 

The  lit^erature  is  verv  copious,  comprising  A.  Schultens 
(1737);  Umbreit  (1S32);  Hirzel-Olshausi-n-DiUiuann, 
Exeffi't.  Handbuch  (lS39-<iO);  Stickel  (1S42);  Schlott- 
mann  (ISol);  Benan  (1859);  Delitzsch,  Ewald  (both 
trans. ) ;  Hitzig  ( 1874) ;  Cox  (1880);  Davidson  ( Cambridge 
Bible  for  schools,  1884);  Bradley  ( 1887 ) ;  Froude,  S)u}H 
StuditA  (vol.  i. )  ;  Budde,  Beitrdye  zur  Kritik  d.  B,  Hiub 
(1870)  ;  Grill,  Zar  Kritik  d.  B.  Hiob  (1890). 

Job's  Tears  {Coix  lachri/ma),  a  corn-plant  of 
India.  It  is  a  grass,  sometimes  rising  to  the  height 
of  eight  feet,  with  the  stout  habit  of  maize,  to 
which  also  it  is  botanically  allied.  The  name  is 
derived  from  the  tear-like  form  of  the  hard,  shining, 
bluish-white  seeds,  which  are  sometimes  made  into 
bracelets  and  necklaces,  and  are  also  an  article  of 
fooil.  Though  one  of  the  woi-st  of  the  cereals, 
it  lias  l)ecome  almost  naturalised  in  Spain  and 
Portugal. 

Jocelin  de  Brakcloilde,  a  Benedictine  monk 
at  Buiy  St  Edmunds,  who  held  successively  the 
offices  of  abbot's  chaplain  and  almoner,  wrote  a 
domestic  chronicle  of  his  abbey  from  1173  to  the 
year  1202,  and  died  about  1211.  This  is  the  famous 
Chronica  Jocelini  de  Brakclunda,  edited  by  J.  (J. 
Kokewode  for  the  Camden  Society  in  1S40,  which 
gave  Carlyle  the  inspiration  out  of  which  grew 
Paiit  and  Present,  one  of  the  happiest  of  his  works. 
The  admiration  of  this  simple  and  veracious  13th- 
century  monk  for  his  superior.  Abbot  Sampson, 
touched  the  sympathetic  imagination  of  the  great 
IDthcenlurj-  cliampion  of  hero-worship,  with  whose 
masterpiece  Jocelin 's  name  will  remain  for  ever 
inalienably  linked. 

Jockey  Club.    See  Hokseracing. 

Jodeln.  a  peculiar  manner  of  singing  with  the 
falsetto  voice  in  harmonic  progressions,  practised 
by  the  Tyrolese  and  the  Swiss. 

Jodhpur,  or  M.4RWAR,  the  largest  in  area  of  the 
Rajputana  states,  containing  37,000  sq.  m.  ;  and 
the  .second  in  population  (2,521,727  in  1891 ).  Agri- 
culture generally  is  in  a  backward  condition, 
.ind  there  are  few  manufactures  save  of  salt  from 
the  Sambhar  lake,  half  in  Jodhpur  and  half  in 
Jeypore  (q. v. ).  There  are  no  railways,  but  one 
good  road  traverses  the  state.  Education  is 
neglected.  The  climate  is  remarkably  dry,  and 
the  difference  of  temperature  between  night  and 
day  ver>'  great.  Jodhpur  was  taken  under  British 
protection  in  1818,  paying  a  tribute  of  jtlO.OOO  a 
vear,  and  ijrovidin"  a  'contingent'  of  native  horee. 
Yhe  country  was  ill  governed  ;  and  the  contingent 
joined  the  mutineers  in  1857. — The  capital  city 
of  the  state,  Jodhpur,  founded  in  1459,  is  of  little 
interest.  Tlie  marked  dill'erence  between  Jodhpur 
and  the  adjacent  state  of  Jeypore  (q.v.)  is  very 
interesting. 

Joel,  the  second  in  order  of  the  twelve  minor 
prophet.s.  He  is  designated  in  i.  1  as  the  son  of 
retnuel,  or  (as  it  is  given  in  most  of  the  ancient 
versions)  liethuel,  but  of  his  personal  history 
nothing  us  told.  It  can  be  inferred,  however,  from 
his  l)ook,  with  a  high  degree  of  probability  amount- 
ing almost  to  certainty,  that  lie  lived  in  or  near 
Jerusalem  considerably  after  the  exile.  The  IJook  of 
Joel  falls  into  two  distinct  parts,  the  separateness 
of  which  is  obscureil  for  readers  of  the  Authorised 


English  Version  by  the  use  of  futures  instead  of 
preterites  in  ii.  18,  \9n  :  the  passage  is  correctly 
given  in  narrative  form  in  the  Revised  Version. 
The  tirst  part,  addressed  by  the  pro|)het  in  his  own 
name  to  his  contemporaries,  relates  to  a  jiresent 
plague  of  locusts  an<l  the  calamities  causeil  by  it ; 
1.  2 — ii.  11  describes  with  vivid  hyperbolical  imagery 
the  dire  invasion  which  threatens  the  destruction 
of  the  country  and  the  arrival  of  the  final  consum- 
ing judgment  known  as  'the  day  of  Jehovah;'  in 
ii.  1'2-17,  speakin":  in  the  name  of  Jehovah,  he 
summons  the  people  to  a  solemn  fast  at  the  sanc- 
tuary and  the  priests  to  intercessory  prayer.  The 
second  part  contains  Jehovah's  answer,  prefaced 
by  the  words  already  referred  to  :  '  Then  was  the 
Lord  jealous  for  his  land,  and  had  jjity  on  bis 
people :  and  the  Lord  answered  and  said  unto  his 
people.'  Fii-st,  a  promise  of  fruitful  seasons  to 
make  up  for  the  ravages  of  the  locusts  is  given 
(ii.  19-'26);  this  is  followed  by  the  promise  of  the 
outpouring  of  the  Spirit  on  all  the  Jews  and  even 
upon  their  servants,  and  the  linal  coming  of  the 
day  of  the  Lord,  which  is  to  issue  in  a  divine  judg- 
ment upon  their  heathen  enemies  in  the  valley  of 
Jeho.shaphat  ('Jehovah  judgeth  ')  and  in  the  iinal 
establishment  of  Jerusalem  as  a  ludy  city,  the 
centre  of  fertility  to  the  surrounding  land  (ii.  27 — 
iii.  21 ).  The  style  of  Joel  is  regarded  by  scholars 
as  elegant  and  pure  rather  than  original ;  his  pro- 
phetic conceptions  are  largely  modelled  on  those 
of  older  prophets  from  Amos  to  Ezekiel.  Until 
recently,  indeed,  the  prevailing  inclination  of  critics 
was  to  assign  an  early  date  to  the  book,  most  of 
them  placing  it  in  the  minority  of  .Joasli,  king  of 
Judah,  because  the  priests,  and  not  a  king,  appear 
as  heads  of  the  commonwealtli.  But  this  goes 
better  with  the  post-exilic  date,  to  which  other 
features  in  the  prophecy  clearly  point.  The  dis- 
persion of  Israel  is  alluded  to  in  iii.  1,  2;  Judah 
arid  the  people  of  Jehovah  are  regarded  as  synony- 
mous ;  and  the  reference  to  the  slave-trade  with 
the  Grecians  is  inconsistent  with  an  early  date. 
Ancient  and  medieval  interineters  commonly  ttxjk 
the  locusts  in  Joel's  prophecy  figuratively  or  alle- 
gorically,  and  the  same  view  has  been  argued  for, 
though  by  no  means  convincingly,  by  some  recent 
scholars.  There  are  separate  commentaries  on  the 
Book  of  Joel  by  Credner  (1831),  Wiinsche  (1872), 
and  Merx  (1879).  See  also  the  commentaries  on 
the  minor  prophets  mentioned  under  H(JSE.\. 

Joe  Miller's  Jests.    See  Jest-books. 

Johanna,  one  of  the  islands  of  the  Comoro 

(q.v.)  group. 

Johannesburg,  the  chief  town  and  mining 
centre  of  tlie  Transvaal  goldlields,  is  situated  about 
6(X)0  feet  above  sea-level,  298  miles  NE.  of  Kim- 
berley,  and  350  miles  N.  of  Ladysmith.  Railway 
connecticm,  completed  in  1892,  brought  Johannes- 
burg within  BO  hours'  journey  of  Capetown  :  and  it 
is  now  connected  also  with  Port  Elizabeth  (714 
miles),  Durban  (437  miles),  and  Limienco  Manpiez 
on  Delagoa  Bay  ( 396  miles ).  In  1886  the  Transvaal 
government  proclaimed  certain  farms  on  the  famous 
Reef  of  Witwatersrandt  as  public  goldlields  ;  and 
the  ground  <m  which  Johannesburg  now  stands 
was  selected  as  the  site  of  the  new  station 
or  town.  From  the  time  of  the  foundation  (IHS7) 
the  town  and  the  mining  industrj'  grew  raniilly. 
Ill  189.5-96  it  became  the  scene  of  the  struggles  nf 
the  Uitlanilers  to  extort  politicjil  and  other  rights 
from  the  Boer  government  (interrupted  by  the 
Jameson  (q.v.)  raid  of  January  18SI6),  which 
eventually  resulted  in  the  war  of  1899-191X1,  and 
the  annexation  of  the  Transvaal  and  (Jiaiigo 
Free  State  as  British  colonies.  A  dreadful  dyna- 
mite explosion  wrecked  part  of  the  town  in 
1896.     As   vet  in  1890  (with  poji.   of  60,()(K>)   the 


340 


JOHANNISBERG 


JOHN 


streets  were  not  lii^lited,  and  only  the  concession 
for  paving  tlie  jirincipal  street  liaJ  been  granted. 
The  government  buildintcs  consist  of  the  post  and 
telegraph  ollices,  and  the  niiningcommissioner's 
and  the  landrost's  (magistrate's)  otiices,  &C.  Fine 
hanks,  oluirches,  hotels,  clnb-houses,  with  shops 
and  private  houses,  and  a  niagnihcent  stock 
exchange  have  been  erected.  The  climate  is,  or 
would  be  very  healthy,  were  not  the  sanitary  con- 
ditions so  unsatisfactory,  and  were  it  not  for  the 
freijuent  terrible  dust-storms,  in  consequence  of 
winch  fevers  and  pneumonia  are  often  prevalent. 
The  neighbourhood  of  Johannesburg  is  delightful, 
and  villas  and  line  suburban  houses  are  springing 
up.  The  ]i(ipulation  at  the  census  of  Jul}-  1S9G 
was  102,714,  of  whom  olj'i-Jo  were  whites. 

See  Tka>;sv.\al  ;  Thomas,  Jofuiiiittsburcf  in  Arma 
(ls;i6);  Manii,  The  Truth  (r',m  Juhuitnesburg  (1897). 

Johanilisbi'rg:,  a  village  of  Prussia,  overlook- 
ing the  Rhine,  1.3  miles  WSW.  of  M'iesbaden.  It 
has  a  hydropathic,  and  manufactories  of  pianos  and 
printing-presses,  but  is  noteworthy  chietly  for  its 
castle  (17'2'2-3'2),  the  property  of  the  Metteniich 
family,  and  the  famous  vineyards  (3S  acres)  on  the 
castle  hill,  producing  the  choice  JohannisOcrgcr 
white  wine.     Pojj.  1316. 

John,  the  Apostle,  son  of  Zebedee  and  younger 
brother  of  James,  was  a  Galilean  fisherman,  prob- 
ably a  native  of  liethsaida.  From  Matt,  xxvii.  56, 
compared  with  Mark,  xv.  40,  it  is  jirobable  that 
Ids  mother  was  Salome,  whom  some  infer  from 
John,  xix.  25,  to  have  been  the  sister  of  the  mother 
of  Jesus.  In  the  synoptic  gospels  James  and  John, 
like  Peter  and  Andrew,  receive  their  call  to  the 
discipleship  while  engaged  in  their  daily  occupa- 
tion by  the  sea  of  Galilee,  ami  the  surname  'Sons 
of  Thunder '  is  conferred  on  them  liy  the  Master. 
Henceforward  John  is  always  mentioned  as  one 
of  'the  twelve,'  and  generally  figures  also  as  a 
member  of  an  inner  circle  of  disciples,  of  which 
only  his  brother  James  and  Peter  are  members 
besides  himself.  In  the  fourth  gospel  John  is  not 
mentioned  by  name,  liut  ancient  as  well  as  modern 
expositors  identify  him  with  tlie  coni|)anion  of 
Andrew,  who  lirst  became  acciuainted  with  Jesus 
at  Hetliany,  beyond  Jorilan,  while  he  attended  John 
the  Baptist  as  a  disciple,  and  forthwith  attached 
himself  to  him,  Anilrew  and  Peter  becoming  dis- 
ciples of  Jesus  at  the  same  time.  John  is  further 
identilied  with  the  'other  disciple'  who  in  John 
xiii.  23,  xxi.  7,  20  is  distinguished  as  the  disciple 
'whom  Jesus  loved.'  This  expression  is  usually 
taken  to  imply  an  exceptional  sweetness  and  lovable- 
ness  of  character  in  John  :  but  what  we  read  in  the 
Synoptists  shows  that,  originally  at  least,  he  must 
have  been  somewhat  passionate,  narrow,  and 
ambitious.  After  the  ascension  of  Jesus  John 
seems  to  liave  remained  in  Jerusalem,  where  he 
still  was  when  Paul  visited  that  city  for  the 
.second  time  after  his  conversion  (Gal.  ii.  9).  He 
does  not  appear  to  have  iieen  there  at  the  time 
of  the  last  visit  of  the  apostle  of  the  Gentiles,  about 
58  A.U.,  and  his  subsequent  history  is  involved  in 
the  greatest  obscurity.  A  chronicler  of  the  9th 
century,  (ieorgios  Hamartolos,  claims  to  have  read 
in  the  now  no  longer  extant  works  of  I'apias  that 
John  was  slain  by  the  Jews  like  his  lirotlier  .lames  ; 
and  that  he  dieil  a  violent  <leath  is  apparently  im- 
)j|i('d  also  in  a  pa.ssage  from  Heracleon  preserved  l)y 
Clement  of  Alexandria.  I5ut  general  ecclesiastical 
tradition  from  the  lime  of  Justin  (about  150  .\.D.)  has 
identilied  him  with  the  .autlior  of  the  Apocalypse 
(see  KKVlil.A'rioN  ),  and  from  that  of  IreiM'Us  (c.  175 
A.l>.)ha.s  re]>resentcd  him  as  sjiending  the  closing 
years  of  his  ministry  at  Ephesus,  anil  dying  there 
at  an  advanced  age,  after  liaving  written  not  only 
the  Apocalypse  but  also  the  Gospel  and  the  three 


Epistles  which  bear  liis  name.  The  authenticity 
of^  this  tradition  as  to  liLs  having  ever  lived  in 
Ephesus  has  been  challenged  by  many  critics,  who 
hold  that  it  rests  on  a  confusion  made  by  Iren;eus 
between  John  the  apostle  and  a  certain  John  '  the 
elder'  or  '  presbyter,  'a  disciple  of  the  Lord,'  men- 
tioned by  Pai)ias  as  distinct  from  the  apostle.  For 
the  negative  view  they  also  urge  the  silence  of  the 
New  Testament  ( Acts,  Eph.,  Pastoral  Epp.,  1  Pet.), 
of  the  Apostolic  Fathers,  of  Justin,  and  of  Hege- 
sippus,  and  others.  For  the  literature  of  the 
question,  see  the  works  mentioned  below,  under 
John  (Go.spel  according  to). 

John.  Epistles  of.  Of  the  three  canonical 
epistles  ascribed  to  the  apostle  John,  the  first  is 
not  in  form  an  epistle,  but  a  warm  jiractical  horta- 
tory treatise  b;ised  on  the  theological  principles  of 
the  fourth  gospel,  with  warnings  against  IJocetic 
and  Antinomian  gnosis.  The  seconil  and  third 
are  short  letters  of  an  occa-sional  character, 
addressed  to  individuals — unless  indeed  the  '  elect 
lady  '  of  2  John  be  a  figurative  title  for  a  church,  a 
view  which  has  great  probability  and  has  found 
very  large  acceptance  among  modern  interpreters. 
The  firet  e.xpress  mention  of  epistles  as  written  by 
John  the  Apostle  is  in  the  Muratorian  Canon  (about 
170  .\.D. ),  which  quotes  1  John  i.  1,  and  elsewhere 
enumerates  two  under  his  name.  From  the  time 
of  Origen  2  John  and  3  John  were  classed  among 
the  books  of  the  canon  whose  authenticity  was 
disputed  ;  Eusebiiis  and  Jerome  attribiited  them 
to  John  'the  Presbyter,'  as  distinguished  from 
John  the  Apostle,  and  this  view  has  been  followed 
by  many  modern  writers,  beginning  with  Era-^mus. 
On  the  internal  evidence  critics  are  for  the  most 
part  agreed  that  1  John  has  the  same  author  as 
the  fourth  gospel,  or  is  at  least  by  a  writer  of  the 
same  school.  The  epistle  has  occasionally  Ix'cii 
attributed  to  the  apostle  by  critics  who  denied  his 
authorship  of  the  fjospel.  As  to  the  priority  of  the 
two  works  in  point  of  date,  opinion  is  almost 
equally  divided.  For  commentaries,  see  the  ex- 
positions of  the  whole  Johannine  writings  by 
Liicke,  Baumgarten-Crusius,  and  Ewald  ;  also  the 
special  works  by  Huther  (in  Meyer's  CuDiiiientar, 
4tli  ed.  1880;  Eng.  trans.),  Braune  (in  Lange's 
liihelwcrk,  3d  ed.  1885;  Eng.  trans.),  Plummer 
(•2d  ed.  1886),  and  Westcott  (•2d  ed.  1886). 

John,  Gospel  accokding  to.  The  fourth 
canonical  gospel,  which  express  tradition  since 
aliout  170-80  .V.D.  (Theo))hilus  of  .\ntioch,  Irena'us 
of  Lyons,  Muratorian  Canon)  has  unanimously 
ascribed  to  the  apostle  John  (identifying  the 
'  disciple'  of  John  .x.xi.  '24  with  the  son  of  Zebedee). 
is  distinguished  by  a  number  of  sironglv-marked 
characteristics  from  the  lirst  three,  usually  known 
as  the  svnoptical  (see  Gospels).  The  keynote  of 
what  clement  of  Alexandria  has  called  •the 
spiritual  gosjiel '  is  struck  in  the  prologue  (i.  1-8), 
wliere  the  place  of  the  genealogies  and  detailed 
accounts  of  the  circumstances  of  tlie  birth  of  Jesus 
in  the  synoptics  is  taken  by  a  profouinllv  meta- 
physical statement  of  the  doctrine  of  the  incarna- 
tion of  the  Eternal  Logos.  The  scene  of  the 
narrative  of  the  earthly  life  of  .lesus  which  follows 
this  prologue  is  laid  from  lirst  to  last  almost  en- 
tirely in  .Jud:ca,  while  in  Matthew,  Mark,  and 
Luke  it  is  confined  with  lu^irly  equal  exclusivencss 
to  Galilee.  While,  again,  the  synoptics,  so  far  as 
they  suggest  any  chronology  at  all,  seem  to  imply 
that  the  pubUc  ministry  of  Jesus  did  not  extend 
much  over  a  year  (coinciding  in  this  with  the  mass 
of  early  tradition),  the  fourth  gospel  mentions  at 
least  three  jiassovers,  and  possibly  more.  There 
are,  besides,  important  dill'ereiices  in  various  minor 
chronological  details.  Thus,  the  cleansing  of  the 
temple,  which  the  synoptics  place  at  the  end  of 


JOHN 


341 


the  niinistrv,  is  in  the  fourth  assii^'ned  to  the 
beginning  ;  the  last  supper  is  dated  on  the  evening 
before  the  passover,  and  not  on  the  passover  itself ; 
and  the  anointing  at  Bethany  is  stated  to  have 
taken  place  six  divys,  not  two,  before  the  passover. 
Airain,  there  is  a  most  striking  ditt'erence  in  the 
selection  of  niat.erial.  The  fourth  gospel,  passing 
over  much  that  is  common  to  the  other  three — the 
temptation  in  the  wilderness,  the  transfiguration 
in  (ialilee,  the  agony  in  the  garden,  the  sermon  on 
the  mount,  and  most  of  the  paraViles  and  other  dis- 
coui-ses — introduces  us  to  new  persims  (  Nathanael, 
Nicodemus,  and  others),  new  localities  (such  as 
Cana,  .Enon,  Sychar,  Ephraim,  and  Bethany  be- 
yond Jordan ),  and  new  scenes  and  situations.  Its 
miracles,  which  are  comparatively  few,  and  include 
no  case  of  the  casting  out  of  devils,  are  not  for  the 
most  part  even  alluded  to  by  the  othei's  (that  of 
the  raising  of  Lazarus  is  a  conspicuous  instance  in 
point )  :  and  it  has  been  remarked  that  thev  are 
presented  less  as  deeds  of  compassion  wrought  at 
the  iiri'>>ing  call  of  human  need  than  as  spontane- 
ous displays  of  supernatural  power  jnimarily  de- 
signed to  prove  a  divine  mission.  The  greater  part 
of  the  work  is  composed  of  relatively  long  dis- 
courses, in  their  ar^imentative  and  theological 
character  on  the  whole  very  unlike  the  aphorisms, 
parables,  and  practical  or  prophetic  exhortations 
attributed  to  Jesus  in  the  synoptics,  while  they 
are  all  very  similar  to  one  another  in  general  type, 
and  their  style  is  indistinguishable  from  that  used 
by  the  author  himself  when  writing  in  his  own 
name.  The  aspects  in  which,  through  these  dis- 
coni-ses  and  otherwise,  Christ,  the  incarnate  Logos, 
is  presented  in  the  fourth  gospel,  are  widely  distinct 
from  those  in  which  .Jesus  of  Nazareth  comes  before 
us  in  the  others.  The  element  of  human  develop- 
ment is  wanting,  and  his  own  consciousness  of  a 
Divine  nature  and  mission,  as  well  as  the  recogni- 
tion of  these  by  his  followers,  are  represented  as 
having  been  operative  from  the  first.  Finally,  it 
sets  forth  a  more  inward  and  spiritual  type  of 
theology  and  religious  experience,  and  there  is  for 
the  most  part  in  its  eschatology  and  doctrine  of  the 
life  eternal  a  conspicuous  absence  of  those  images 
and  conceptions — everywhere  present  in  the  syno])- 
tics — derived  from  the  Jewish  circle  of  ideas  relat- 
ing to  the  kingdom  of  the  Messiah  and  the  doctrine 
of  the  last  things. 

It  is  less  than  a  century  since  these  and  similar 
features — such  as  its  more  elaborate  character  as  a 
piece  of  literaiy  composition — began  to  be  dis- 
cusseil  in  their  bearing  on  the  question  of  the 
origin  and  liistorical  character  of  the  fourth  gospel. 
The  question  was  first  started  by  the  English 
deists  (see  Evanson,  The  Dissonance  of  the  Four 
qcnernlUj  rerehvA  Gospels,  1792),  but  was  not 
liandlerl  with  any  approach  to  the  fullness  and 
thoroughness  which  the  importance  of  the  subject 
demanded  until  taken  up  by  rjretschneider,  whose 
leameil  and  acute  Probabilia  de  Evangelii  et 
Epistol/tniin  Joannis  apostoH  indole  et  origine 
(18'20)  may  still  be  read  with  profit.  Bretsehneidcr 
in  1824  professed  himself  satisfied  with  the  numer- 
ous replies  elicited  by  the  arguments  he  had  ba.sed 
on  the  ditl'erence.s  between  the  Johannine  and  the 
synoptic  traditions,  the  weakness  of  the  (external 
evidence  for  the  Johannine  authoishii>  of  the  fourth 
gospel,  and  the  inherent  improbaViility  of  such  a 
work  having  been  written  by  the  son  of  Zebedee. 
In  the  course  of  the  next  twenty  years  the  authen- 
ticity w.is  iiowpifully  defended  by  the  speculative 
insight  an<I  rare  religious  gonins  of  Schleiermacher  ; 
bnt  De  Wette  (lH2fi  .ST)  found  himself  unable  to 
ignore  the  clement  of  develo]ic.|  Hellenism  in  the 
disroui-ses,  and,  while  not  denying  the  partial 
authorship  of  John,  inclined  to  assign  the  work 
a.<i   a   whole   to   a   disciple.     A   somewhat   similar 


view  was  taken  by  Credner  (18.36),  and  also  Ijy 
Reus.s  (1840),  the  former  of  whom  laid  emphasis 
on  the  'subjective'  character  of  the  go.spel,  and 
held  that  it  was  to  be  regarded  less  as  a  history 
than  as  a  doctrinal  exposition,  in  which  the 
discourses  of  Christ  are  mixed  up  with  the 
Logos  speculations  into  which  the  author  has 
been  led  by  his  studies  in  Greek  philosophy. 
The  discussion  of  the  question  reached  a  wholly 
new  stage  in  the  writings  of  Baur  (chiefly  be- 
tween 1844  and  1847)  and  his  followers  of  the 
so-called  '  Tubingen  '  or  '  Tendency  '  school — a 
school  the  value  of  whose  labours  in  quickening 
a  true  historical  sense  for  New  Testament  sulijects 
can  hardly  be  overestimated,  and  whose  infiuence 
(not  yet  exhausted)  has  been  powerfully  and  bene- 
ticiallv  felt  far  beyond  the  circle  of  its  immediate 
disciples.  Space  will  not  allow  a  full  statement  of 
the  position  taken  by  Baur  or  of  the  arguments  he 
advanced  in  its  support.  They  can  be  adequately 
appreciated  only  in  connection  with  his  theory  of 
the  development  of  early  Christianity  as  a  whole. 
This  he  represents  as  having  passed  through  three 
stages — first  of  acute  antagonism  between  Ebionit- 

i  ism  and  Paulinism  (do^^•n  to  about  70  A.D. ),  and 
next  of  abatement  of  claims  on  both  sides  (ilown 

I  to  about  140  A.D. ),  while  finally,  after  the  elimina- 
tion of  Ebionitic  and  Gnostic  extremes,  came  the 
reconciliation  of  the  two  parties — practically  in 
the  ascendency  of  Catholicism  as  exhiliited  in  the 
Roman  Church  with  Peter  and  Paul  as  its  two 
recognised  founders,  and  ideally  and  theoretically 
in  the  fourth  gospel  (see  B.\fR :  also  Bible,  Vol. 
II.  p.  123).  Briefly  and  generally  stated,  his  view  of 
the  fourth  gospel  is  that  it  was  produced  about  160- 
70  A.D.  by  a  Gentile  Christian,  who,  firmh'  and 
heartily  convinced  that  the  historical  Jesus  was 
the  incarnate  Logos  and  veiy  Son  of  God,  sought  to 
exhibit  this  truth  to  his  contemporaries  with  con- 
crete vividness  in  a  persuasive  literary  form  by 
means  of  a  quasi-historical  narrative  embodying 
the  ideas  and  principles  which  he  regarded  as 
essential,  for  which  end  he  made  free  and  arljitraiy 
use  of  such  elements  of  the  current  ( but  still  some- 
what fluctuating)  tradition  as  were  capable  of 
being  adapted  to  his  purpose.  Subsequent  discus- 
sion has  led  the  modern  representatives  of  the 
Tubingen  school  to  modify  several  of  these  posi- 
tions as  originally  taken  by  Baur.  Thus,  as 
regards  date,  it  was  urged  by  the  other  side  that 
the  existence  of  the  fourth  gospel  was  •demonstrated 
for  at  least  130-40  A.D.  by  the  frequent  tjuotations 
from  it  in  the  writings  of  Justin  Alartyr ;  and  it  is 
now  generally  admitted  that  the  passages  referred 
to  prove  at  least  the  wide  currency  at  that  com- 
paratively early  period  of  many  of  tlie  special  ideas 
of  this  gospel.  This  and  other  considerations  have 
led  such  M'liters  as  Pfleiderer  ami  Keim  respectively 
to  carry  it  back  to  140  A.n.  and  130  A.D.  :  and, 
indeed,  Kenan  has  formulated  the  canon  that  the 
earlier  we  can  place  it  the  less  inexidicable  it 
becomes.  This  canon  is  suggested  by  the  ditticulty 
of  accounting  for  the  introduction  of  a  "ospid  in 
many  respects  so  new  after  the  synoptics  had  once 
had  time  thoroughly  to  establish  themselves— an<l 
they  undoubtedly  were  established  in  the  recogni- 
tion of  the  church  by  the  time  of  Justin.  The 
opponents  of  the  Tiihingen  school,  on  the  other 
hand,  such  as  Weiss,  set  up  an  opposite  canon  :  the 
later  the  date  the  Civsier  to  explain  the  allusions  to 
Gnosticism  and  the  comparatively  tardy  manner  in 
which  the  work  made  itself  felt  in  the  ollicial  the- 
ologj^  of  the  2d  century.  Another  point  in  which 
Baiir's  disciples  no  longer  hold  with  him  has  refer- 
ence to  the  authorship,  which  h(!  ii.ssigm'd  to  a 
Gentile  Christian.  In  the  ci>nrse  of  the  keen  con- 
troversy which  Baur's  writings  elicited,  much  stress 
has   been   laid   on   the   evidence    snp]>lied    by   the 


342 


JOHN" 


gospel  itself  to  the  eftect  that  its  writer  was  a  Jew, 
acquainted  not  onlv  with  the  LXX.  but  with  the 
original   Hebrew  of   the   01.1   Testament,  familiar 
wiUi  Jewish  customs  and  habits  of  tliont;ht,  with 
the  topography  and  local  peculiarities  of  .lerusalem 
and  the  temple,  and  of  Palestine  "enerally.     This 
is  now  very  generally   conceded  ;  but  it  is  added 
that  his  sympathetic  "familiarity  with  the  writings 
of   Philo  suggests   rather  an   Alexandrian    than    a 
Palestinian  Jew,  while  his  acquaintance  with  the 
Holy  Land  (whicli  after  all   cannot  be  shown  to 
have  been  exhaustive)  may  have  been  acquired  in 
the  course  of  travel.     But  as  regards  many  of  the 
vivid  literary  touches  on  the  part  of  the  narrator, 
^vhicll  on  one  theory  are  held  to  show  consummate 
descriptive  or  draniatic  skill,  and  on  the  other  to 
betoken  the  eye-witness,  it  is  pointed  out  that  such 
touches   are   not  wholly  absent    even   from   some 
gospels    that    are    confessedly    apocryphal,    and, 
further,  that  it  is  not  always  impossible  for  one 
will)  ha-s  only  heard  the  account  of  an  eye-witness 
to  convey  in  writing  some  giaphic  idea  of  what  he 
has  heard.     H  Baur's  view  has  been  in  some  im- 
portant respects  modified  by  his  successors,  conces- 
sions have  also  been  made  on  the  '  apologetic '  side 
to  such  an  extent  as  suggests  the  possibility  of  an 
ultimate  agreement  lietween  the  two  parties  in  the 
controversy.     Thus  B.  Weiss,  in  the  paragraph  of 
his  Introduction  (1889)  devoted  to  the  'limits  of 
the  historicity '  of  John's  gospel,  points  out  that, 
writing  as  he"  did  at  such  a  distance  of  time  from 
the  incidents  he  had  witnessed  and  the  discourses 
he   had   heard,  it  is  in   the   nature    of    the    case 
unreasonable   to  expect  that  at  least  the  longer 
discourses  sliould   be   reproduced   word   for  word. 
John's  manner  of  reproducing  the  words  of  Jesus  is, 
in  fact,  characterised  by  great  freedom,  his  purpose 
being  not  merely  to  reproduce   them   but   at   the 
same  time  to  explain  them   and   bring   out   their 
inner  meaning.      With  this  view  not   merely  the 
actual  phraseology  but  also  the  historical  setting 
lias  been  frequently  modified,  the  evangelist  cariu" 
only  for  the  eternal  significance  of  what   he   had 
to  tell.     Precisely  because  he  was  an  apostle  could 
he  do  this  without  embarrassment  or  hesitation. 
What  applies  to  his  reproduction  of  the  speeches 
applies  also  to  the  narrative  portion  of  his  work, 
where  he  often  sacrifices  the  actual  connection,  and 
modifies  the    historical   colour  of    events  in    the 
interests  of  his  one   primary  oliject.     The  failure 
of  memory  in  an  old  man  must  also  be  taken  into 
account.  "  The  view  thus  boldly  taken  by  Weiss 
is  substantially  also  that  of  Beyschlag  and  others 
who  cannot  shut  their  eyes  to  the  obvious  marks  of 
growth  and  development  wliich  are  seen  when  the 
ideas  of  the  fourth  gospel  are  compared  with  those 
set    forth    in   the  synoptical    tradition,   and   who 
recognise  that  the  author  of  the  former,  wlioever 
he  «-iis,  must,  whether  consciously  or  unconsciously, 
to  some  extent   have  been  carrying  back  into   a 
previous  generation  the  matured   thoughts   of  his 
own   time.     It  remains  to  add  that  the  external 
testimony  to  the  authorship  of  the  son  of  Zebedee 
is  extreiiiely   weak ;    his  name  is  not  associated 
witli  the  gospel   until   the  la-st  quarter  of  the  •2d 
century,  and  the  story  of  the  manner  in  which, 
'exhorted  by    his   fellow-disciples  and  bishops,   he 
wrote   dowii    everything  in   his  own   name '  while 
'all  should  certify  it,' as  given  in  the  Muratorian 
Canon,  is  obviously  legendary  {compare  John). 

For  the  literature  of  the  subject,  see  the  New  Testa- 
ment Introduction  of  Hilgenfeld  ( IS?.") ),  Bleek  ( 4th  ed.  by 
.Mangold,  1886),  Holtzmann  (2d  ed.  1886),  and  Weiss  (2d 
.■d.  1881» ;  Eng.  trans.  1887).  and  also  Sanday's  Anthorglnn 
•ind  Historicul  CharaHer  of  t/ie  Fourth  (iospd  (1872). 
lir  Sanday  conveniently  arranges  modern  writers  on  the 
subject  into  four  classes:  (1)  Those  who  maintain  the 
lolmuninc  authorship  and  complete  authenticity  of  the 


gospel,    such    as    Alford,    EUicott,    Westcott,    Caspar!, 
"Wieseler,   and  (with   some  qualitication )    Lutliardt ;   to 
this  list  ought  to  be  added  the  names  of  Salmon,  Light- 
foot,    lizra  .\bbot,  and  indeed  of  almost  all   English  or 
Cathobc  churchmen  who  have  written  on  the  subject.    (2) 
"Writers  who  maintain  Johaunine  or  mediate  Johannine 
authorship  and  qualified  authenticity  in  the  first  degree, 
the  names  here  mentioned  being  those  of  Liicke  ('whose 
work  is  still  one  of    the  undisputed   classics  of  biblical 
criticism'),    IJleek,     Ewald    (with    some   qualification), 
Meyer,  and  Orr,  to  wliicli  add  the  names  of  Beyschlag, 
Kitschl,  E.  Weiss,  and  of  Dr  Sanday  himself  ( '  To  lue  it  is 
far    more  probable  that  [the  discoui-ses]  represent  only 
the  natural,  spontaneous,  unconscious  devilopment  tliat 
the    original    elements    of   fact   have  undergone    in   the 
apostle's  mind.     It  cannot,  I  think,  be  denied  that  [they  ] 
are  to  a  certain  extent  unauthentic,  but  this  is  ratlier 
in  form  and  disposition  than  in  matter  and  substance"). 
(3)  Writers  maintaining  mediate  or   immediate  Johan- 
nine authorship  and  quaUfied  authenticity  in  the  second 
degree,  such   as    Renan   (  I'if  de  Jesus,   13th  ed.  1867). 
Weizsiicker  and  Wittichen,  to  which  names  add  those  of 
Eeuss  and   Rase.      (4)  Writers   who   deny  the  Johan- 
nine    authorship     and    authenticity    entirely — Hilgen- 
feld,  Keun,   Scholten,  Sir  R.   Hanson,  J.  J.  Tayler ;  to 
this  class  belong  also  Meijboom,  Hoekstra  and  Loman 
(Dutch),  Havet,  A.  Ke%-ille,  J.  Keville  (French),  and  of 
English  writers,  S.  Davidson,  the  author  of  Supa-nalural 
Sdioion,  and  E.  A.  Abbott,  whose  able  article  'Gospels' 
in  the  Encvclopivdia  Britamiica  contains  an  interesting 
view  of  the"  PhUonic  elements  in  the  gospel     There  are 
valuable  expositorj-  works  on  the  Johannine  -ivritings  by 
Liicke  (1820),  Ewald  (1861-62),  and  Keuss  (1879);  see 
also  the  commentaries  on  the  fourth   gospel   by  Meyer 
(newed.  Meyer-Weiss,  1880;  Eng.  trans.),  Godet  (1864- 
65-    Eng.    trans.    1877),   Keil   (1881),  Westcott   (1882), 
Plunimer  (1882),  Sadler  (1883)  and  Milligan  (1883). 

John,  the  name  of  a  long  line  of  popes,  the 
number  of  whom  is  variously  stated  liy  difterent 
historians.  John  VIIL  (87'2-82)  is  styled  the  IX. 
by  some  writei-s,  who,  accepting  the  story  of 
Pope  Joan  (q.v.),  reckon  her  as  John  \  IIL ; 
and  John  XV.  (985-96)  is  also  called  XVL  by 
those  who  place  before  him  another  John  who  died 
within  a  few  days  of  his  election.  Without  enter- 
ing into  this  q'uestion,  it  will  suttiee  to  say  that 
the  last  of  the  line  of  popes  called  John  is  John 
XXIII.,  who  filled  the  pa^ial  chair  most  unworthily 
in  1410-15.  The  following  popes  of  this  name 
appear  to  deserve  some  special  notice.— JoiIX  XII. 
was  the  son  of  Alberico,  and  grandson  of  the  noto- 
rious jMarozia,  who,  duriiit'  the  pontificate  of  John 
X.  (913-27),  ruled  with  almost  .supreme  power  at 
Rome.  John  was  originally  named  Octavianus, 
and,  being  elected  pope  in  956  through  the  violence 
of  liie  dominant  party  when  only  i"  'lis  nineteenth 
year,  wa-s  the  first  in  the  pa])al  line  to  origuiate 
'the  since  familiar  luactice  of  changing  his  name. 
The  Emperor  Otho  in  963  in  a  synod  of  the  clergy, 
overstepping  all  the  ordinary  rules  of  canonical 
procedure  a'nd  legal  precedent,  caused  sentence  of 
deposition  for  scandalous  life  to  be  pronounced 
against  John,  and  Leo  VIII.  to  be  elected  in  his 
sfead.  John,  however,  re-entered  Rome  in  the 
following  year  with  a  strong  party  and  thwe  out 
Leo ;  but  his  career  was  cut  short  by  a  dislionour- 
able'death.— John  XXII.  is  one  of  the  most  cele- 
brated of  the  popes  of  Avignon.  He  wa.s  born  at 
Cahors  in  1244,  and  was  elected  pope  in  1316,  on 
the  death  of  Clement  V.  Atteniiiting  to  carry  out 
in  very  altered  circumstances  the  vast  and  com- 
inehen'sive  policy  of  (Gregory  VII.  and  Innocent 
IIL,  John  interposed  his  authority  in  the  c(Uitest 
for  the  inijierial  crown  between  Louis  of  Itavaria 
and  Frederick  of  Austria,  by  not  only  espousing 
the  cause  of  the  latter  but  even  excommunicating 
his  rival.  Tlie  diet  of  Fiankfiu-t  refused  to  obey, 
and  a  long  contest  ensued,  not  only  in  (lermany 
but  also  in  Italy,  where  the  Guelph  or  papal  jiarty 
was  represented  by  Robert,  king  of  Naples,  !•  rede- 
rick  of  Sicily  being  the  chief  leader  of  the  (ihibel- 


JOHN 


343 


lines.  The  latter  w;xs  plaoeil  liy  John  under  the 
same  ban  which  had  already  been  proclaimed 
against  Louis:  but  in  13'27  Louis  came  to  Italy 
in  pei'son,  and  ha\  ing  been  crowned  at  Milan  with 
the  iron  crown,  advanced  upon  Rome,  expelled  the 
papal  legate,  and  was  crowned  emperor  in  the 
church  of  St  Peter's  by  two  Lombard  bishops. 
Immediately  on  his  coronation  he  proceeded  to 
hold  an  assembly,  in  which  ho  caused  the  pope, 
under  his  original  name  of  James  de  Cahors,  to 
be  thrice  summoned  to  answer  a  charge  of  heresy 
and  breach  of  fealty  ;  after  which  he  caused  him 
to  be  deposed,  and  Peter  de  C'orvara,  a  monk,  to 
be  elected  pope,  under  the  name  of  Nicholas  Y. 
These  measures,  however,  were  attended  with 
little  result.  Louis  returned  to  German}-,  and  the 
Guelphic  predominance  at  Rome  wa,s  restored,  the 
papal  representative  resuming  his  authority.  But 
Joiin  XXII.  never  personally  visited  Rome,  having 
died  at  Avignon  in  1334,  when,  although  without 
incurring  the  suspicion  of  personal  aggrandise- 
ment, he  had  accumulated  in  the  papal  treasury 
the  enormous  sum  of  18,000,000  florins  of  gold. 

Jobn,  kin^  of  England,  the  youngest  of  the 
five  sons  of  Henry  IL  and  Queen  Eleanor,  was 
bom  at  ()xford,  •24th  December  1167.  At  his 
birth  his  father,  who  had  provided  for  liis  elder 
brothers,  called  him  John  Lackland,  and  the  name 
stuck  to  him.  But  the  boy  was  Henry's  darling, 
and  he  betrothed  him  to  his  wealthy  cousin, 
Hawisa  of  Gloucester,  made  the  new  feudal  tenants 
of  Ireland  do  homage  to  John  as  well  as  himself 
in  1177,  and  sent  him  to  Ireland  as  governor  in 
1185.  Although  John's  misconduct  and  wanton 
insolence  soon  compelled  his  recall,  Henry  obtained 
the  pope's  consent  to  his  being  crowned  king  of 
Ireland  ;  but  the  coronation  never  took  place,  and 
in  1189  the  announcement  that  John  was  anion" 
his  enemies  gave  the  king  his  deathblow.  Richard 
on  his  accession  bestowed  four  English  shires  and 
otlier  lands  on  John,  and  married  him  to  Hawisa. 
No  sense  of  gratitude,  however,  held  John  from 
endeavouring  to  seize  the  crown  during  Richard's 
ca|)tivity  in  Austria ;  but  he  was  pardoned  and 
treated  with  great  clemency,  and  was  nominated 
his  successor  by  his  brother  on  his  deathbed.  In 
the  12th  century  the  principle  of  primogeniture 
was  but  imperfectly  adopted,  and  although  Arthur, 
the  twelve-year-old  son  of  John's  elder  brother 
Geotirey,  appears  to  modern  eyes  beyond  question 
the  rightful  heir  to  the  tlirone,  the  general 
opinion  of  his  own  day  was  in  favovir  of  John, 
who  had  the  nomination  of  the  late  king.  More- 
over, at  his  coronation  at  ^\'estminster,  which 
took  place  on  •27th  May  1 199,  the  old  English 
<loctrine  of  election  to  the  crown  was  for  the  last 
time  formally  asserted,  nor  did  any  man  dissent. 
On  the  Continent,  however,  the  barons  of  Anjou, 
Maine,  and  Touraine  acknowledged  Arthur,  whose 
claims  were  supported  by  Philip  of  France.  But 
Aipiitaine  was  secured  to  John  by  the  energj' 
of  his  mother  Eleanor,  and  in  May  1^200  he  suc- 
ceeded in  Iiuying  oil"  Philip,  married  his  niece 
Blanche  to  Philip's  son  Louis,  and  received  Arthur's 
liomage  for  Brittany.  But  in  the  same  year  he 
persuaded  his  Afiuitanian  and  Norman  bishoiis  to 
annul  his  marriagS  witli  his  ccmsin,  and  marrieil 
Isabel,  the  child-lieiress  of  Angoulcme  ;  by  which 
action  he  offended  both  the  liouse  of  Gloucester 
and  the  powerful  family  of  La  Marche,  one  of 
whom  was  betrothed  to  the  heiress.  In  the  war 
that  ensued,  Arthur,  while  endcavmiring  to  cap- 
ture hi.s  grandmother  Eleanor,  at  the  castle  of 
Mirabeau,     was    sni-priseil    by    John    and    taken 

Srisf)ncr.  Before  Easter  1^20.S  he  was  dead  ;  niur- 
ered  by  John's  orders,  if  not  by  the  king's  own 
hand,  men  said.  This  crime  cost  John  his  con- 
tinental dominions,    Philip  at  once  marcheil  against 


him,  captured  city  after  city,  and  finally,  in  March 
r204,  after  a  seven  nmnths'  siege,  took  King  1  lichard's 
'saucy  castle,'  the  Chateau-Gaillard  itself,  John 
making  scarcely  an  effort  against  him.  Only  a 
portion  of  Aquitaine  was  left  to  the  English  king, 
nor  could  he  recover  more  by  the  short  campaigns 
he  made  in  Poitou  in  P206  and  P214. 

The  first  period  of  John's  reign  thus  ends  with 
the  separation  of  Normandy  (1'204),  which  com- 
pelled those  who  held  lands  in  both  countries  to 
make  choice  of  one  :  henceforwanl  the  barons  of 
England  are  English.  Immediately  after,  iu  P205, 
John  entered  on  his  quarrel  with  the  church,  the 
occasion  being  a  disputed  election  to  the  arch- 
bishopric of  Canterburj.  The  matter  was  re- 
ferred to  the  pope,  Innocent  III.,  and  in  1207 
he  had  Stephen  Langton,  an  English  cardinal 
at  Rome,  a  man  of  great  learning  and  piety, 
elected,  and  consecrated  him  when  Jolm  had 
furiously  declined  to  receive  him.  In  1'20S  the 
kingdom  was  placed  under  the  Interdict  (q.v.). 
John  retaliated  by  confiscating  the  property  of 
the  clergy  who  obeyed  the  interdict,  and  driving 
the  bishops  into  exile.  Otherwise,  too,  he  acted 
vigorously.  He  compelled  'William,  king  of  Scot- 
land, who  had  joined  his  enemies,  to  do  him 
homage  (P209),  put  down  a  rebellion  in  Ireland 
(1210),  and  sulxlued  Llewellyn,  the  independent 
prince  of  Wales  (1212).  Meanwhile  John  had 
been  solemnly  excommunicated  (1209),  and  now, 
in  1212,  the  pope  Issued  a  bull  deposing  him  from 
his  kingdom,  and  absolved  his  subjects  from  their 
allegiance;  a  crusade  was  proclaimed,  and  to  Philip 
was  intrusted  the  execution  of  the  sentence.  John, 
outlawed  by  the  church,  and  hated  for  his  cruelty 
and  tyranny  by  his  subjects,  found  his  position 
untenable,  and  was  compelled  to  make  abject 
submission  to  Rome.  On  15th  May  1213  he  re- 
signed his  crown  to  the  pope's  envoy  at  Dover, 
and  agreed  to  hold  the  kingdoms  of  England  and 
Ireland  henceforth  as  fiefs  of  the  papacy,  and  to 
pay  a  thousand  marks  yearly  as  tribute.  This 
shameful  submission  closes  the  second  part  of 
John's  reign.  For  Innocent  the  degrading  exac- 
tion was  a  false  step.  From  this  period  may  be 
dated  the  hostility  to  the  papacy  which  culminated 
in  the  Reformation. 

Philip,  wrathful  and  disappointed,  turned  his 
forces  against  Flanders ;  but  an  English  fleet 
surprised  tlie  French  fleet  at  anchor  and  with 
only  the  sailors  on  board,  and  captured  300  vessels 
and  burned  100  more.  This  put  an  end  to  all  talk 
of  invasion,  and  in  1214  John  made  a  campaign  in 
Poitou.  Jlost  of  the  barons,  howevei-,  refused  to 
.serve  abroad,  and,  Philip  having  crushed  the  em- 
peror and  his  allies  at  Bouvines  (27th  July).  John 
returned  to  enter  on  the  struggle  with  his  subjects 
which  occupied  all  the  remainder  of  his  reign ; 
anil  now  for  the  first  time  in  English  history  we 
see  the  barons,  clergy,  and  people  ranged  side  liy 
side  against  the  tyranny  of  the  king.  A  demand 
that  John  should  keep  his  oath  and  restore  the 
laws  of  Henry  I.  was  scornfully  rejected.  John 
relied  mainly  upon  the  support  of  the  pojie,  but 
he  also  took  the  white  cross,  and  endeavoured  to 
detach  the  clergy  with  the  heavy  bribe  of  free 
election  to  bishoprics — but  vainly,  to  their  honour 
be  it  said.  Preparations  for  war  began  on  both 
sides.  About  Easter  'the  army  of  God  and  Holy 
Church,'  under  four  great  earls  and  forty  barons, 
assembled  at  Stamfijrd  and  marched  to  London  ; 
they  met  the  king  at  Runnymcde,  and  on  the  15th 
.luiie  1215  was  signed  the  Great  (.'liarler  (Magna 
Cliarta),  the  basis  of  the  English  constitution.  In 
August  the  pope  annulleil  the  charter,  and  the 
war  broke  out  again.  John  had  a  share  of  the 
military  talent  of  liis  family,  and  the  first  successes 
were  all   on   his  side,  until  the  barons  called  over 


344 


JOHN 


JOHN    O'    GROAT'S    HOUSE 


the  daiipliin  of  Fiance  to  be  their  leader, 
landed  in  May  1216,  and  John's  fortunes  Ix 


Louis 
necaine 
desperate.  Yet  the  Englisli  leaders  had  already 
begun  to  distrust  their  foreign  allies,  and  a  nunilier 
were  even  preparing  to  renew  their  allegiance, 
when  death  overtook  the  king  at  Newark,  on  19th 
October  1216,  in  the  forty -nintli  year  of  his  age. 

For  John's  character,  see  the  excellent  accounts  of  his 
reign  in  Pearson's  History  of  Enijland  (vol.  u.  1867), 
Green's  Shorter  History,  and  Stubbs's  preface  to  Walter  of 
Camitru  (vol.  ii.  1S73).  See  also  Stubbs's  Constitutional 
History  {vo\.  i.),  and  The  Early  Plantar/ends  In  'Epochs 
of  .Modern  History ; '  Pauli,  Gcschiehfe  von  Eni/land  ( vol. 
iii.  1858 ) ;  and,  down  to  the  loss  of  Normandy,  Norgate, 
Enqland  under  the  Angevin  Kings  (vol  ii.  1887). 

John  II.,  king  of  France,  surnamed  the  Good, 
the  son  of  Philip  VI.,  was  born  in  1319,  and  suc- 
ceeded his  father  in  13.50.  In  1356  he  was  taken 
prisoner  bv  Edward  the  Black  Prince  at  Poitiers 
and  carried  to  England.  After  the  treaty  of 
Breti"ny  (1360)  he  returned  home,  leaving  his 
secon'd  son,  the  Duke  of  Anjou,  as  hostage,  till  he 
shouUl  fuHil  tlie  terms  of  his  ransom.  But  in  the 
meantime  the  duke  escaped  back  to  France.  John, 
however,  chivalrously  kept  his  word,  and  returned 
to  London  early  in  1364;  liut  he  died  on  8th  April  in 
that  same  year,  without  having  regained  his  free- 
dom.    His  eldest  son,  Charles  V.,  succeeded  him. 

.lolin,  the  blind  king  of  Bohemia,  the  son  of 
fount  Henry  III.  of  Luxemburg  (afterwards  the 
Emperor  Henrv  VII.),  was  liorn  on  10th  August 
1296,  and,  having  married  (1310)  the  heiress  of 
Bohemia,  was  crowned  king  of  that  country  in 
1311.  In  the  struggle  between  the  rival  houses 
of  Austria  and  Bavaria  for  the  imperial  crown 
he  gained  the  victory  for  the  latter  at  Miihldorf 
in  1822.  In  1333-35  he  was  warring  in  Italy  on 
behalf  of  the  Guelphic  party.  In  1334  he  married 
Beatrix  of  the  French  Bourbon  house,  and  thence- 
forward was  an  active  ally  of  the  French  king ; 
he  went  to  his  assistance  against  the  English  in 
1346,  and  fell  at  Crecy  (26th  August).  He  had 
been  blind  since  1340.  During  his  reign  Silesia 
was  acquired  from  Poland. 
Jolm  Dory.    See  Dory. 

JohU  of  Austria  was  a  natural  son  of  the 
Emperor  Charles  V.  and  Barbara  Blomlierg  of 
Ratisbon,  and  was  born  24th  February  1547.  He 
was  early  brought  to  Spain,  and  after  the  death 
of  his  father  was  aeknowleilged  by  his  half-brother 
Philip  II.  Honours  and  an  annual  allowance  were 
bestowed  upon  him,  and  he  was  educated  along 
with  the  Prince  of  Parma  and  the  Infant  Don 
Carlos.  He  was  intended  for  the  chnrch,  but^  his 
own  bent  was  towards  war,  and  in  1570  he  received 
the  command  of  an  army  sent  against  the  rebel- 
lious Moors  in  Granada,  whom  he  completely  rooted 
out  of  the  country— signalising  himself  at  once  by 
valour  and  by  cruelty.  On  the  7th  October  1571,  witli 
the  united  ileets  of  Spain,  the  pope,  and  Venice, 
he  defeated  the  Turks  in  tlie  glorious  battle  of 
Lepanto.  Discord  breaking  out  among  the  allies, 
Don  John  separated  iiimself  from  the  rest,  took 
Tunis,  and  conceived  the  scheme  of  forming  a 
kingdom  for  himself  in  the  north  of  Africa.  But 
Philip,  jealous  of  this  design,  sent  him  to  Milan 
to  (d).serve  tlie  (Jcnoese;  and  afterwards,  in  1576, 
as  viceroy  to  the  Netherlands.  In  tliis  capacity 
he  sought  to  win  the  favour  of  the  oeoiile  liy 
mildness;  but  being  left  unsupiiorted  by  Philip 
he  was  hard  pressed  for  a  time,  till  tlie  arrival  of 
the  Prince  of  Parma  with  troons  eiialil(Ml  him  to 
restore  the  fortunes  of  S|iaiii  iiy  the  victory  of 
Geniblours  over  William  the  Silent  in  1577.  But 
Philip  was  now  aiipieliciisive  that  he  might  make 
liiiiiself  king  of  the  Netherlands,  and  Don  Jolin's 
nnliinely  death  in  his  entrenched  camp  at  Namur, 
on  1st  October  1578,  was  uot  without  suspicion  of 


poison.    See  Sir  \V.  StirlingMaxweH's  magnificent 

work,  Don  John  of  Austria  (2  vols.  1883). 

John  of  Gaunt,   Duke    of  Lancaster,   fourth 
son  of  Edward  III.,  w.as  born  24th  June  1340  at 
Ghent,  during  his    father's  visit   to   Khmders.      In 
1359  he  married  Blanche,  heiress  of  tlie  duchy  of 
Lancaster,  and  himself  was  created  duke  in  1362. 
Three   years  after  her  death   he  married  in  1372 
Constance,  daughter  of  Pedro  the  Cruel  of  Castile, 
and  assumed  the  title  of  king  of  Castile,  though 
the    country   and    crown   were    seized    and    lield 
by  Henry  of  Trastamare.      The   military  exiiedi- 
tions  which  John   organised  against  his  rival   all 
proved   unsuccessful.      Towards    tlie   close   of   his 
aged   father's   reign   John    gradually   became    the 
most  influential  personage  in  the  realm.     He  was 
an  ambitious  man,  and  put  himself  in  opposition 
to  the  party  of  his  brother  the  Black  Priiu'e,  and 
is  suspected   of  having  entertained   the  design   of 
succeeding  his  father  as  king.     He  also  oiijiosed 
the  party  of  the  clerg>-,  and  lent  support  to  "W  yclif 
and  his' followers.      But   he  was   very   uniiopnl.'ir 
with  the  common  people;  and  during  Wat  Tyler's 
revolt  they   burned   his   palace    of   the   Savoy,    in 
j  London.     'The    young   king   Richard,   distrusting 
him  too,  contrived  to  send  him  away  on  another 
:  expedition  for  the  recovery  of  his  crown  in  Spain. 
On  this  occasion  John  concluded  a  definite  peace 
I  with   Henry   of    Trastamare,   in   \irlue  of    which 
John's  daughter  Catharine  should  succeed  as  queen 
of  Castile.     On  his  return  to  England  after  three 
years'  absence  he  was  able  to  reconcile  the  young 
king  to  his  (John's)  brother  Thomas  of  Woodstock, 
Duke  of  Gloucester.     After  this  Kichaid  II.  seems 
to  have  reposed  more  confidence  in  J(diii,  for  lie 
made  him  Duke  of  Aquitaiiie,  and  entrusted  him 
with  several  embassies  to  Franco.     But  John  of 
Gaunt  gradually  ceased  to  be  a  factor  in  English 
politics,  and  died  on  3d  February  1.399.      On  the 
death  of  his  second  wife  he  had  married  in  1396 
his   mistress,    Catharine   Swynford,   by    whom   he 
was    already     the    father    of    three    sons    and    a 
daughter.     These  were   legitimated    in    1397,  and 
from  the  eldest  was  descended  Henry  A'll. 

John  of  Leyden  (projierly  John  Beuckels- 
zoon.  Benckels,  or  Bockhold)  was  born  at  Leyden 
in  1509.  He  wandered  about  for  some  time  as  a 
journeyman  tailor,  settled  in  Leyden  as  merchant 
and  innkeeper,  and  was  noted  for  his  abilities  as 
an  orator.  Adopting  the  opinions  of  the  Anabap- 
tists, he  became  one  of  their  wandering  imqdiets. 
In  1533  he  came  to  Miinster,  and,  when  .Matthie- 
sen  lost  his  life  in  1534,  became  his  successor. 
Setting  up  in  Miinster  '  the  kingdom  of  Zion,'  he  ap- 
plied in  an  extravagant  manner  the  princiides  of  the 
Old  Testament  theocracy,  and  established  polygamy 
and  coniniunity  of  goods.  In  June  1535  tlu^  city 
was  taken  liy  the  Bishoji  of  Miinster.  John  and 
his  chief  acc'omidices  sutl'ered  deatli  with  circum- 
stances of  fearful  crucdty  (January  26,  1536).^  See 
AnAH.VPTIST.S  ;  and  Ilamerling's  Ktmir)  von  Sion. 
John  of  Xeponiuk.  See  Nktomi-k. 
John  of  Salisbury.  See  S.vli.sisury. 
John  o'  Groat's  House,  in  Caitlmess,  1? 
mile  W.  of  Duncansbay  Head,  and  IS  miles  N.  of 
Wick,  was,  according  to  tradition,  an  octagonal 
building  with  eight  doors  and  windows  and  an 
eight-sideil  table  within,  buili  by  J(din  o'  Groat  to 
prevent  dis.sensions  jus  to  iirecedence  among  the 
eight  dill'crent  branches  of  his  family.  Whatever 
the  origin  of  tin-  legend,  which  resembles  tli.it  of 
the  Round  Table,  it  is  certain  thai  between  1496 
and  1525  there  was  one  Mohii  o'  (irot  of  Duncans- 
bay,  baillie  to  the  Earl  in  (hose  jiairts,' and  jirob- 
ably  a  Hollandcn-.  An  outline  mi  the  turf  marks 
the.  site  of  the  house  ;  and  the  neigbboiu  iiig  hotel 
(1876)   has,   appropriately    enough,   an    octagonal 


JOHN 


JOHNSON 


Sio 


fl 


tower.  '  Frae  JIaidenkirk  to  John  o'  Groat's ' 
(Burns)  is  the  Scottish  equivalent  of  'from  Uan  to 
Beershel)a.'  Maiilenkirk  beinj;  Kirkniaiden  in  tlie 
Mull  of  Galloway.  For  '  John  o'  Groat's  buckles,' 
see  Cowry. 
Juhu,  Prester.    See  Prester  John. 

John  the  Baptist^  the  forerunner  of  Christ, 
was  the  son  of  the  priest  Zacharias  and  Eliza- 
beth, the  cousin  of  Man*,  the  mother  of  our 
Lord.  He  was  a  Nazirite  from  his  birth,  and  he 
jrejiared  himself  for  his  mission  by  years  of  self- 
(liscipline  in  the  desert,  until  at  length  he 
appeared  to  startle  his  hearers  with  the  preaching 
of  repentance.  The  rite  of  baptism  which  he 
.administered  was  a  token  and  sj'mbol  of  repentance 
and  forgiveness  of  sins,  preparatory  to  that  baptism 
to  follow,  the  distinctive  quality  of  which  was  to 
be  the  gift  of  regeneration  through  the  power  of  the 
Holy  Spirit.  With  the  baptism  of  Jesus  the  more 
especial  office  of  the  forerunner  ceased,  and  soon 
after  his  ministrj-  came  to  a  close.  He  had  fearlessly 
denounced  Herod  Antipas  for  taking  Herodias,  his 
brother  Philip's  wife,  and  was  accordingly  flung 
into  prison,  where  ere  long  he  was  executed  at  the 
re((ucst  of  Salome,  the  daughter  of  the  abandoned 
Herodias.  The  Mandfeans  or  Zabians  (q.v.)  still 
claim  to  be  his  disciples.  John  the  Baptist  was 
from  an  early  date  regarded  in  England  as  the 
patron  saint  of  the  common  people,  and  great 
masonic  festivals  continue  to  be  held  on  St  John's 
Day,  the  '24th  of  June.  For  the  Kniglits  of  St 
John,  see  HOSPITALLERS. 

John's.  Eve  of  St,  one  of  the  most  joyous 
festivals  of  Christendom  during  the  middle  ages, 
celebrated  on  midsummer  eve.  From  the  account 
given  of  it  by  Grimm  in  his  Deutsche  Mythologic  it 
would  appear  to  have  been  observed  with  similar 
rites  in  every  country  of  Europe.  Fires  were 
kindled  chietly  in  the  streets  and  market-places  of 
the  towns ;  sometimes  they  were  blessed  by  the 
parish  priest,  but,  as  a  rule,  they  were  secular  in 
their  character.  The  young  people  leaped  over 
the  Uames,  or  threw  flowers  and  garlands  into 
them,  with  merry  shoutings,  songs,  and  dances. 
In  England  the  people  on  the  Eve  of  St  John's 
went  into  the  woods  and  broke  down  branches 
of  trees,  wdiich  they  brought  to  their  homes  and 
planted  over  their  doors,  to  make  gooil  the  prophecy 
respecting  the  Baptist,  that  many  should  rejoice  in 
his  birth.  It  was  a  lingering  belief  of  the  Irish 
peasantry  that  the  .souls  of  all  people  on  this  night 
leave  their  bo<lies,  and  wander  to  their  ultimate 
place  of  death  by  land  or  sea — a  notion  that  may 
throw  light  on  the  widespread  custom  of  watching 
or  sitting  up  awake  on  St  John's  eve.  In  Eng- 
land it  was  believed  that  if  any  one  sat  up  fasting 
all  night  in  the  church  porch  he  would  see  the 
spirits  of  those  who  were  to  die  in  the  parish  during 
the  ensuing  twelve  months  come  and  knock  at  the 
church  iloor  in  the  order  and  succession  in  which 
they  were  to  die. 

Johns  IIoi>kin.s.    See  Hopkin.s. 

Johnson,  -Andrew,  seventeenth  president  of 
the  t'nited  States,  was  born  at  Raleigh,  North 
Cari>lina,  December  29,  1808.  His  con-right  1890  lu  us. 
parents  were  in  humble  circum-  i.y  J.  b.  Lippincott 
stances,  and  his  father  was  drowned  c>»mi»in)-. 
while  attempting  the  rescue  of  a  friend  when 
Andrew  was  but  four  years  old.  At  the;  age  of 
ten  he  became  a  tailor's  apprentice,  and  with 
the  help  of  a  fellow  workman  learned  to  rcail. 
In  1 824  he  went  to  Laurens,  South  Carolina,  to 
work  as  a  journeyman,  and  two  years  later  emi- 

f'ated  to  (IreenviHe,  Tennessee.     I'here  he  married 
lizji   M'Cardle,  a  young  girl   of  education   and 
rclinenient,  who  taught  him  to  write,  and  in  other 


ways  heljied  on  his  studies.  He  served  as  alder- 
man and  then  as  mayor  for  several  years  ;  in  IS.'U 
took  part  in  framing  the  new  state  constitiUion  ; 
and  in  1835  and  18;i9  was  elected  a  member  of  the 
legislature.  In  1840  he  was  chosen  presidential 
elector-at-large,  and  cast  his  vote  for  Martin  Van 
Buren.  In  1841  he  was  elected  to  the  state  senate, 
and  in  1843  to  congress.  Successive  re-elections 
cimtinued  him  a  member  of  the  House  of  Repre- 
sentatives until  1853,  when  he  W'as  chosen  governor 
of  the  state  of  Tennessee,  and  in  1855  he  was  re- 
elected to  that  office.  In  1857  he  was  sent  to  the 
United  States  senate  for  six  years.  There  he  was 
an  earnest  advocate  of  the  Homestead  Law  and 
other  measures  for  the  benefit  of  working-men. 
He  was  a  sturdy  opponent  of  all  secession  and 
disunion  schemes. 

When  the  war  broke  out  in  1861  he  found  himself 
in  accord  with  the  administration,  and  during  its 
progress  was  a  leader  of  the  Southern  Union  men. 
His  efforts  and  sacrifices  in  behalf  of  the  Union  led 
to  his  selection  by  President  Lincoln  as  military 
governor  of  Tennessee  (1862).  ,and  subsequently  to 
his  nomination  and  election  to  the  vice-presidency 
(inaugurated  4th  March  1865).  On  the  assassina- 
tion of  Lincoln  (14th  April  1865)  he  became  presi- 
dent. He  sought  to  carry  out  the  policy  of  his 
predecessor.  He  retained  all  the  foiiner  cabinet 
in  office,  and,  when  vacancies  occurred,  lilled  them 
with  those  known  to  have  been  Lincoln's  personal 
and  political  friends.  But  the  assassination  had 
provoked  a  revulsion  of  pulilic  feeling.  Many  who 
had  favoured  amnesty,  leniency,  and  reconciliation 
now  began  to  doubt  whether  the  states  so  recently 
in  rebellion  could  safely  be  restored  to  a  share  in 
the  government  without  further  guarantees.  Con- 
gressional sentiment  divided  on  the  q\iestion  of 
'reconstruction.'  President  Johnson's  policy  was 
first  distrusted,  and  then  denounced  as  evincing 
disloyal  sympathies.  Irritated  at  the  misconstruc- 
tion of  his  motives,  and  resenting  the  charge  of 
disloyalty  as  insulting,  he  retorted  by  s])eeches  full 
of  bitter  and  violent  invective.  This  intensified 
the  ill-feeling.  Soon  a  majority  of  the  congress, 
elected  with  him,  were  opposing  his  jiolicy.  While 
he  urged  the  readmission  of  Southern  represent- 
atives to  seats,  the  congressional  majority  in- 
sisted that  the  Southern  states  should  be  kept  for 
a  period  under  militaiy  government,  until  they 
gave  more  proof  of  loyalty.  President  Johnson 
vetoed  the  congressional  measures  ;  and  the  con- 
gress passed  them  over  his  veto.  Extra  sessions 
were  held  to  keep  him  in  check,  and  laws  |iassed 
to  limit  his  power.  Finally,  his  removal  of  Secre- 
tary Stanton  from  the  war  department  precipitated 
a  crisis.  He  claimed  the  right  to  change  his  'con- 
stitutional advisers'  in  cabinet,  and  in  return  he 
was  charged  with  violation  of  the  'Tenure  of  Office 
Act,'  in  doing  so  without  the  consent  of  the  senate. 
Articles  of  impeachment  were  presented,  and  he 
was  formally  firought  to  trial  befoi'e  the  senate. 
'I'lie  trial  resulted  in  his  ac(|uittal — less  than  two- 
thirds  of  the  senators  voting  for  conviction  (see 
Impe.vchment).  Practically  this  ended  the  con- 
test, as  the  election  of  1868  was  close  at  hand,  at 
which  his  success<n-  was  to  be  cho.sen.  Retiring 
from  office  in  March  1869,  he  returned  to  Ten- 
nessee. He  was  an  unsuccessful  candidate  for 
congiess  in  1872,  but  was  elected  to  the  United 
States  senate  in  .laniiary  1875,  and  again  took  his 
seat  in  that  body.  On  31st  July  of  the  same  year 
he  died  from  a  stroke  of  paralysis. 

Johnson,  RlcilAlti)  Mentor,  vice-president  of 
the  United  States,  born  in  Kentucky  in  17>>1,  wa.s 
admitted  to  the  bar,  and  was  a  member  of  congress 
from  1807  to  1819,  of  the  United  States  semite  till 
1829,  anil  of  congress  again  till  1H.37.  He  served 
with   great   bravery   in   the   war  with   Britain    in 


'    346 


JOHNSON 


1812-13.     In  1837-41  he  was  vice-president  undei- 
A'an   Buren.      He  died  at   Frankfort,    Kentucky, 
19th  Noveniher  18j0. 
Jolllisoil,  Samuel,  so  famous  in  his  own  day 

as  a  lexico<,'raiiliei-,  an  essayist,  an<l  a  critic,  and 
still  so  famous,  though  rather  perhajis  for  [icrsonal 
than  for  literary  reasons,  rather  as  a  hrilliant  con- 
versationalist and  a  sincere  and  brav(?  man  than  as 
a  writer  of  the  highest  order,  was  born  at  LicliKeld, 
September  18  (N.S.),  1709.  His  father,  Michael  John- 
son, a  native  of  Derbyshire,  of  obscure  extraction, 
was  an  old  bookseller — what  we  call  a  second-hand 
bookseller — and  seems  to  have  been  a  person  of 
some  mark  and  importance  in  his  neighbourhood, 
where  booksellers  of  any  kind  were  then  scarce. 
'  He  propagates  learning  all  over  the  diocese,'  wrote 
I.ord  (iower's  chaplain  in  1716,  'and  advanceth 
knowledge  to  its  just  height ;  all  the  clergy  liere 
are  his  (lupils,  and  suck  all  they  have  froui"  him.' 
His  municijjal  position,  too,  was  good.  He  served 
the  ollices  of  junior  bailift',  of  sheritl"  (the  city  of 
Lichfu'M  beiug  then  styled  a  county),  of  mayor. 
His  wife,  Sarah  Ford,  came  of  a  yeoman's  faiiiily 
living  in  Warwickshire,  and  seems  to  have  been 
a  woman  of  some  capacity.  Thus  his  early  circum- 
stances were  not  so  unfriendly  to  the  future  lexi- 
cographer as  they  are  sometimes  represented.  On 
the  other  hand,  he  inherited  from  his  father  '  a  vile 
melancholy,'  a  terrible  tendency  to  depression  and 
despair,  which  never  wholly  ceased  to  dominate 
him,  and  possibly  some  tendency  to  superstition, 
as  he  was  credulously  taken  up"  to  London  to  be 
'  touched  '  for  the  '  kind's  evil,'  being  atHicted  with 
scrofula.  Moreover,  his  father  did  not  prove  a 
successful  man  of  business,  however  notable  his 
knowledge  of  books  ;  and  pecuniarv  troubles  soon 
began  to  be  felt.  Thus  in  his  social  rank,  aiul 
his  early  experience  of  comfort  followed  by  adver- 
sity, Johnson's  early  life  closely  parallels"  that  of 
Shakespeare.  He  was  sent  to  a  "dame's  school,  and 
then  to  the  Lichlield  grammar-school  ( 1716-26),  and 
for  a  while  to  the  school  of  Stourbridge ;  and  then 
for  two  years  (1727-29)  he  studied  or  idled  at  home. 
All  tlirough  life  he  was  of  indolent  halnts  ;  but 
his  quickness  of  apprehension  and  his  strength  of 
memory  were  amazing.  As  some  one  said  of  him, 
he  'tore  out  the  heart  of  books.'  And  so  during 
Ids  school-d.ays  he  became  a  prodigy  of  learning. 
Probably  the  hours  spent  at  will  amidst  his  father's 
books  ilid  more  to  make  him  so  than  the  lessons 
and  the  Hoggings  of  Jlessrs  Hawkins  and  Hunter, 
and  .Mr  Wentford.  At  last,  in  1729,  probably 
through  the  assistance  of  his  godfather,  Dr  Swin- 
fen,  he  went  up  to  Pembroke  College,  Oxford.  His 
attainments  were  soon  recognised  ;  a  Latin  transla- 
tion of  Pope's  Messiah  increaseil  his  fame ;  and  he 
became  a  figure  of  note  and  of  inllnence  in  the 
'  nest  of  singing  birds '  of  which  he  was  a  member. 
But  he  was  '  mi.serably  [loor;'  though  tluui,  as 
always,  he  bore  his  poverty  without  comjilaining 
or^  in  any  way  abating  Ids  indejiendent  siiirit. 
AV'hen  sonu;  well-intentioned  fellow-student  |)laced 
at  his  door  a  pair  of  new  boots,  of  which  he  stood 
sorely  in  need,  he  tlung  them  out  of  the  window. 
In  the  year  1731  things  grew  worse  and  worse  ;  he 
left  Oxford  linally  in  October,  without  a  degree; 
in  Dereiiilier  his  father  died. 

The  terril>le  struggle  with  poverty  which  began 
at  Oxford,  or' even  earlier,  lasted  soiiu-  tldrty  year.s 
more  (1731-62),  and  might  never  have' ceaseil 
but  for  the  intervention  of  the  royal  bounty. 
For  some  years  after  he  left  the  university  h'is 
life  is  obscure.  He  attempted  scluxdmastering,  as 
do  so  m;iny  when  there  is  nothing  else  before  them, 
thougli  he  could  scarcely  have  been  less  well  litteil 
fm-  such  work  uhysically  or  in  his  habits  than  in 
fact  he  was.  He  was  liable  to  convulsive  starts 
and  facial  contortions  ;  and  he  never  learned  how  to 


control  his  temper.     '  He  has  the  character,'  says 
an  extant  letter  concerning  one  of  his  candidature.s, 
'of  being  a  very  haughty,  ill-natured  gentleman; 
and  that  {sic)  he  has  .such  a  way  of  distorting  his 
face  (wliich  though  he  can't  help),  the  gentlemen 
think  it  may  atfect  some  young  lads.'     .-Vfter  a  few 
months   at    .Market   Bosworth,    he    reliiKinished    a 
situation  which  all  his  life  long  he  recollected  witli 
'  the    strongest    aversion    aiul    even    a  degree    of 
horror.'     Clearly  he  liked  the  peilagogic  profession 
as  little  as  it  liked  him.     He  now  made  appro.-iches 
towards    the    career    to   which   he   was    destined. 
Visitin"  Birmingham  in  search  of  emi)loyment,  he 
began  his  connection   with   the  j)ress   by   [iroduc- 
ing  an  alnid'^ed  translation  of   Lobo's    Vni/iicic  to 
Abijssiniii.     Also,  he  wrote  to  Cave,  the  proprietor 
of  the  Gentleman's  Magazine,  then  recently  started, 
proposin"  to  become  a  contributor.     In   1735,  his 
fortunes  being  at  their  lowest  ebb,  he,  aged  twenty 
five,  was  bold  enough  to  marry  the  widow  of  "a 
Binuingham  mercer,  aged  forty-six.     She  brought 
him  a  [lortion  of  £800,  part  of  which  seems  to  have 
Ijeen  lost  by  the  insolvency  of  an  attorney.     Tlie 
accounts  given  of  his  '  pretty  charmer,'  as  he  called 
her,  are  not  very  fascinating ;  but,  as  he  said  in 
after  years  to  Beauclerk,  '  Sir,  it  was  a  love  match 
on  both  sides.'     And  certainly  his  attachment,  at 
all   events,   was  deep,   and   tender,  and   constant. 
Once  more,  and  no  doubt  with  the  remainder  of 
his  wife's  portion,  he  attempted  schoolmastering; 
but  it  is  not  surprising  that  parents  did  not  crowd 
with  their  oH'spring  to  the  boarding  house  opened 
at   Edial   Hall,   near    Lichfield.     There    was    now 
nothing  for  it  but  to  trj'  the  metropolis.     In  1737, 
with    a   tragedy   and    twopence-halfpenny    in    his 
pocket,  he  came   up,  alon"  with  his  Filial  pupil, 
Garrick,  to  London,  which  liencefor ward  was  to  be 
his  al>ode.     Later  in  the  year  he  fetched  Mrs  John- 
son.    It  is  certain  he  had  a  terrible  struggle  to  make 
a  livin"      One  publisher,  noticing  his  burly  frame, 
advised  him  to  buy  a  porter's  knot ;  another  gave 
him  the  task  of  compilin"  a  catalogue  of  the  Har- 
leian  Library,  and  him  Jolinson  knocked  down  with 
a  folio  Septuagint  when  he  accused  him  wrongfully 
of  negligence.    He  was  sometimes  dinnerless  { youi-s, 
iinpransus,  is  his  signature  to  a   letter  to  I'ave), 
occasionally  l)edless  (we  hear  of  his  walking  round 
St  James's  Square  with  Savajje  all  one  night  '  for 
want  of  a  lockdii"'),  always  ill  fed  and  shabbily 
dressed.     But  he  liore  all  witli  a  s]dendid  courage. 
He   neither  whined   about    hanlships    he    had   to 
endure,    nor   boasted  of   the  fortitude  witli  which 
he  endured  them.     Tliere  is  no  more  heroic  lignre 
in   the  liistory   of  our   literature.      Meanwhile,   in 
spite  of  circumstances,  he  was  becoming  t\u:  fore- 
most writer  of  his  time,  and  was  already  obtaining 
an  influence  and  a  power  due  to  something  more 
than  his  writings — due  to  the  force  and  the  nobility 
of  his  character.     In  1738  he  became  a  regular  coii- 
triliutr)r   to   the  Gentleman's  Miir/azine,    and    from 
November    1740   to   February    1743   he    wrote    the 
debates  in  parliament  published  by  Cave  under  the 
title  of  The  Senate  of  Li/linnt,  and  '  took  care  that 
the  Whig  dogs  should  not  have  the  best  of  it.' 

In  1738  he  attempted  to  do  with  Juvenal  what 
Pope  had  been  doing  with  Horace ;  he  published 
his  London,  a  poem  between  whose  lines  may  be 
read  the  piteous  story  of  the  hai-sh  ex])erienres  he 
was  undergoing.  It  is  interesting  to  note  that 
I'ojie  on  first  reading  the  poem  promised  that  it.s 
unknown  author  should  soim  be  dfterrt,  and  got 
Lord  Cower  to  write  to  a  friend  to  beg  Swift  to 
obtain  Johnson  a  Dublin  degree  in  order  to 
help  him  to  a  mastership  of  £(i0  a  year.  A 
few  years  later,  in  1747,  he  pulilished"  his  pni- 
jiosal  of  a  new  Dictionary  of  the  Fnglish  Lan- 
guage. It  was  paradoxical  indeed  that  one  in 
his    stjirving    iiosition    should    undertake   a    task 


JOHNSON 


347 


BO  pijiiintic  and  so  uniemunerative.  But  it  was 
not  only  undertaken,  Imt  achieveil.  Just  when 
this  liu^'e  labour  was  nearini;  completion  a  nolile- 
nian  whose  help  at  an  earlier  period  would  have 
been  thrice  welcome  extended  towards  him  a 
patronisinj;  hand  ;  and  to  this  overture  Johnson 
replied  in  the  famous  letter  of  Fel)ruary  7.  1755, 
which  for  its  just  indij;nation,  and  its  passion 
of  independence,  to  say  nothint;  of  its  tine  tjuality 
as  a  piece  of  writing,',  would  make  its  author 
memorable  had  he  no  other  claim  on  the  admira- 
tion of  posterity.  Durint;  the  years  mainly  de\oted 
to  the  Dictionarj"  he  had  produced  also  his  Viiniti/ 
of  Human  Wishes,  another  and  yet  more  brilliant 
ailaptation  of  Juvenal,  and  also  the  series  of 
essays  called  The  Rambler,  in  which  his  genius 
showed  to  less  advantage,  though  it  is  frequently 
perceptible  in  the  acuteness  of  the  observations 
he  records.  In  1752,  just  after  he  had  concluded 
The  Ilambh'r,  his  wife  died.  His  grief  was  pro- 
found and  enduring.  For  some  forty  days  this 
man  who  to  the  world  at  large  seemed,  and  often 
in  manner  was,  so  rough  and  savage,  buried  his 
face  .and  wept.  'Sir,'  he  said  some  years  after  to 
an  old  fellow  Oxonian  who  asked  him  if  he  had 
been  married,  '  I  liave  known  what  it  was  to  have 
a  wife,  and  I  have  known  what  it  is  to  lose  a  wife. 
It  had  almost  broke  my  heart.'  Indeed,  one  of 
the  most  striking  characteristics  of  .Johnson,  when 
he  is  seen  beneath  the  surface,  is  the  inlinite  ten- 
derness of  his  n.ature  to  children,  to  women,  to 
poverty,  and  to  every  form  of  distress.  As  Garrick 
put  it,  he  had  nothing  of  the  bear  but  the  skin. 
Durin"  nearly  all  the  Dictionary  period  and  three 
years  beyond  it — i.e.  from  17-48  to  175S — he  was 
living  in  a  house  still  standing  in  Gough  Snu.are,  off 
Fleet  Street.  In  17-59  his  mother  died;  and  to  meet 
the  expenses  connected  with  her  death  he  wrote 
Basselas  in  the  evenings  of  a  single  week.  The 
novel  had  lately  arisen  in  our  literature  ;  and  so 
this  work  took  the  shape  of  a  tale.  But  .Johnson 
had  little  talent  for  that  kind  of  writing  ;  and  the 
value  of  Rasselas  lies  in  far  other  directions.  In 
respect  of  its  view  of  life,  it  has  been  well  described 
as  but  a  prose  edition  of  the  Vanity  of  Hmiuin 
Wishes  ;  and  it  has  much  in  common,  tliough  the 
difl'erences  also  are  striking,  with  Voltaire's  Can- 
dide,  which  was  publislied  almost  exactly  at  the 
same  time.  In  1758  he  3.giiin  attemjjted  the 
periodical  essay,  adopting  The  Idler  for  bis  title. 
During  all  these  ye<ars  he  performed  also  much 
hack  work.  Yet,  for  all  his  efforts,  he  was  more 
than  once  arrested  for  debt. 

At  last  he  was  relieved  from  his  oppressive  .and 
incessant  penury  l)y  the  bestowal  upon  him  by  the 
crown  of  a  well-deserved  pension  of  £.'i()0  a,  year. 
And  for  the  Lost  twenty-two  years  of  life  ( 1762-84) 
lie  lived  in  what  was  comparative  affluence,  find- 
ing himself  able  to  accommodate  in  his  house 
in  .Johnson's  Court,  whither  he  migi-ated  in  1765, 
and  mainly  to  sujiiiort  two  homeless  friends — viz. 
Mrs  Williams  .and  .Mr  Levett,  as  well  .as  his 
black  servant  Friincis  Barber ;  .and  in  his  house 
in  Bolt  Court,  which  he  occupied  from  1777  to 
his  death,  no  less  than  three  others  besides— viz. 
Mrs  Desmoulins  and  her  daughter,  and  a  Mi.ss 
Carmichael,  to  siiy  nothing  of  occasion.al  waifs 
and  str.ays  for  whom  he  provi<led  a  night's  lodg- 
ing. Tlie.se  strange  inmates  of  what  he  called  his 
'seraglio'  were  far  from  being  always  harmonious, 
but  all  their  petulance  c(mld  not  weary  out  his 
benevolence.  We  reail  of  his  carrying  home  a 
poor  creature  he  found  lying  on  the  streets  u|)on 
his  back,  and  putting  pennies  into  the  hands  of 
the  sleeping  street  Ar.olis  on  his  way  home  from 
the  club,  that  they  might  have  something  for 
breakfast  when  they  awoke  in  the  morning.  In 
the    London    of    that    dav   he    filled    an    almost. 


if  not  quite,  unique  position.  He  w.as  a  sort  of 
literary  monarch.  '  He  seemed  to  me,'  said  one  of 
his  many  friends,  '  to  be  considered  as  a  kind  of 
public  oracle,  whom  everybody  thought  they  had 
a  right  to  visit  .and  consult.'  In  176.'?  the  lion- 
hunting  Boswell  became  his  e.ager  and  faithful 
follower,  an<l  treasured  up  with  wondeiful  skill 
every  roar  that  was  uttered.  It  is  mainly  to  his 
faithful  and  reverent  recollection  that  we  owe  our 
intimate  knowledge  of  the  jieculiarities  of  the 
greiit  ni.an — his  insati.able  tea-drinking,  and  love  of 
late  hours;  his  slovenliness  in  dress  and  strange 
gesticulations  ;  his  physical  strength  and  courage  ; 
his  antipathy  to  Scotchmen,  and  love  of  London 
streets  ;  his  insensibility  to  music  .and  p.ainting ; 
his  hearty  old  Toryism,  hatred  of  Whigs,  and 
honest  oUl-fashioned  patriotism  ;  his  reverence  for 
the  church,  and  his  sincere  religion  yet  strange 
shrinking  from  de.ath  ;  his  .aldiorrence  of  .all  f.alse 
sentimentality,  and  rigid  truthfulness  ;  his  delight 
in  conversation,  his  marvellous  dexterity  in  retort, 
and  his  frequent  browbeating  of  his  antagonists. 
Even  his  cat  Hodge  has  become  a  living  person- 
ality to  posterity  from  the  inspired  faithfulness  of 
his  chronicler. 

In  1764  the  famous  club  known  as  the  Literary 
Club  was  formed,  having  amongst  its  original  mem- 
bere  Johnson,  Reynolds,  Burke,  Goldsmith,  Lang- 
ton,  Sir  John  Hawkins.  Prob.ably  in  1765  Johnson 
made  the  .acquaint.ance  of  Mr  Thr.ale  .and  his 
sprightly  wife,  who  made  a  new  home  for  him  both 
in  Southwark  and  at  Stieatham,  and  in  other  ways 
did  much  to  make  his  life  bright  and  h.appy  for  tlie 
long  space  of  more  than  sixteen  years.  \\'itb  them 
he  travelled  to  Bath,  to  Brighton,  to  North  Wales, 
to  France.  In  177.3  Boswell  persuaded  him  to 
visit  ScotLand  and  the  Hebrides,  which  was  per- 
liaps  the  most  striking  event  of  his  Later  years. 
So  far  as  his  terrible  enemy  melancholia  per- 
mitted, he  found  life  worth  living  and  pleasant 
to  live  during  this  ]ieriod.  He  delighted  to  fold 
his  legs  and  have  out  his  talk  ;  and  there  was  no 
Lack  of  appreciative  and  reverent  listeners.  But 
he  wrote  little.  To  set  himself  to  write  w.as 
always  an  eflort ;  and  he  shrank  from  making  it. 
His  best  thought  and  wit  found  an  outlet  in  con- 
versation. His  Joiirneij  to  the  Hebrides  and  his 
Lives  of  the  Poets  are  the  only  works  of  any  im- 
portance belonging  to  this  time  of  his  kingship. 
Some  time  in  March  1781,  he  writes,  '  I  finished 
the  Lives  of  the  Poets,  which  I  wrote  in  my  usual 
w.ay,  dilatorily  and  hastily,  unwilling  to  work  and 
working  with  vigour  ,ancl  h.aste.'  Meanwhile,  his 
social  circle  began  to  be  sadly  invaded  .and  broken. 
Goldsmith  died  in  1774,  Garrick  in  1779,  Beau- 
clerk  in  17S0,  Mr  Thrale  in  1781,  .and  Levett,  whom 
he  commemorated  in  a  touching  poem,  in  1782. 
For  a  while  after  her  husb.and's  death  Mrs  Thrale 
kept  up  the  old  relationship,  but  by  the  autumn 
of  17.S2  she  had  determined  to  marry  Piozzi,  an 
Itali.an  musician  and  Catholic,  and  Johnson's 
displeasure  at  what  he  con.sidered  a  degrading 
step  at  length  dissolved  a  frii'udship  which  had 
'soothed  twenty  years  of  a  life  radically  wretched.' 
The  m.arriage  actu.ally  took  idace  in  .June  1784, 
less  than  six  months  before  Johnson's  death.  In 
178.3  Mrs  Williams  passed  away  ;  and  f<ir  .all 
her  peevishness  was  sincerely  missed.  For  John- 
son, too,  the  end  w.as  .appro.achingi  In  1783  he 
suffered  a  |)aralytic  stroke.  He  rallied  to  some 
extent,  and  was  once  more  seen  in  his  old  haunts. 
But  in  the  f<dlowing  year  dropsy  and  .asthma 
attacked  him.  lly  November  there  wiis  but  little 
hope  of  his  recovery.  All  that  medical  skill  and 
all  th.at  the  tenderest  allection  could  do  to  relieve 
and  to  smooth  his  dying  hours  was  faithfully  ilone. 
He  took  solemn  leave  of  Langton,  .Purke,  Heynolds, 
and  other  dear  friends  he  had  love<l  with  a  constant 


348 


JOHNSON 


JOHNSTON 


affection,  and  sent  a  tender  blessinj;  to  his  yonng 
favourite  Fanny  liiiriiey.  wlio  watolied  weeping  at 
his  iloor.  '  I  am  afraid,'  said  Hiirke  one  day,  'that 
so  many  of  ns  must  be  oppressive  to  you.'  '  No,  sir, 
it  is  not  so,'  replied  .Johnson,  '  and  I  nuist  be  in  a 
wretched  state  indeed  when  your  company  would 
not  be  a  delight  to  me.'  '  My  dear  sir,'  said  Burke, 
with  a  breaking  voice,  'you  have  lieen  always  too 
good  to  me,'  as  he  left  him  for  the  last  time.  The 
brave  hearted  .Jolinson  faced  the  inevitable  with 
heroic  courage,  refusing  at  the  last  to  take  his 
oiiiates,  that  lie  might  '  render  up  his  soul  to  God 
unclouded.'  He  died  on  the  evening  of  December 
13,  and  he  was  buried  in  Westminster  Abbey  near 
Garrick,  Dryden,  and  Cowley.  A  monument  was 
raised  to  him  in  St  Paiil's. 

The  estimate  of  liim  as  a  writer  is  by  no  means  so 
high  now  as  in  his  own  day.  As  a  writer,  it  must  be 
said  of  him  tliat  he  was  rather  of  an  age  than  for 
all  time.  His  greatest  interest  for  us  is  that  he 
so  exactly  represents  the  current  ideas  of  his  age, 
such  as  they  were.  He  never  fnlly  expressed  him- 
self in  literature.  And,  excellent  as  are  several  of 
his  works,  or  at  least  passages  in  them,  we  should 
ne\er  have  known  his  real  greatness  but  for 
Boswell's  admirable  portraiture  of  him,  and  his 
masterly  reports  of  his  conversations.  Boswell's 
skill  in  these  respects  is  beyond  praise,  and  deserves 
a  better  acknowledgment  than  Macaulay  and  some 
other  critics  have  vouchsafed  him.  In  Boswell's 
pages  Johnson  will  live  for  ever,  and  be  better 
known  than  anybody  that  ever  lived.  And  the 
more  he  is  known,  the  more  readily  will  be  recog- 
nised the  nobleness  of  his  nature,  the  \igour  of  his 
genius,  and  the  value  of  his  literary  services. 

Editions  of  his  works  have  been  numberless:  the  best 
is  tliat  publi.shed  at  O.xford  in  11  vols,  in  182,5.  See 
the  article  BoswELL,  the  Life  by  Sir  J.  Hawkins  (1787), 
and  the  editions  of  JiosweWs  Life  of  Johiisnti  hy  Croker^ 
Napier,  Henry  Morley,  and  Birkbeck  Hill ;  the  Essaiis 
by  Artliur  Murphy,  MacaiUay,  and  Carlyle,  as  well  as 
Macaulay's  perfect  biography  in  miniature,  contributed 
to  the  Encuclopa^dia  Britannic.a  (1856);  also  Birkbeck 
Hill's  Dr  Johnson,  his  Friends  and  his  Critics  (1878), 
his  edition  of  the  Letters  (2  vols.  1892) ;  Leslie  Stephen's 
admirable  book  in  'English  Men  of  Letters'  (1878),  and 
tlie  little  book  l)y  Col.  K.  Grant  in  'Great  Writers' 
(with  a  bililiograpliy,  1887).  Matthew  Arnold  edited 
the  chief  si.x  of  the  Lives  of  the  Poets  ( 1878 ) ;  a  good 
edition  of  tiie  whole  is  tliat  by  Mrs  Napier  (1890).  .See 
also  Madame  D'Arblay's  Diari/  and  Letters,  Mrs  Piozzi's 
Aiitobio'jraphij,  and  Mrs  Napier's  Johnsimiana  (1884) — 
the  last  made  up  from  the  writings  of  Mrs  Piozzi,  Richard 
Cumberland,  Bishop  Percy,  T.  Tyers,  Dr  Cara]>l>ell, 
Hannah  More,  Madame  D'Arblay,  Rev.  T.  T^vining, 
Miss  Reynolds,  Sir  .Toshua  Reynolds,  and  Arthur 
Murphy. 

Johnston,  Albeut  SinNEV,  an  American 
general,  was  born  in  Kentucky,  3d  Kebruary  1803, 
graduated  at  West  Point  in  1826,  and  served  in  the 
United  States  army  until  18.34.  In  1S3G  he  joined 
the  army  of  Texas  as  a  private  soldier,  but  very 
shortly  became  its  head  ;  in  1838  he  was  appointed 
war  secretary  of  the  young  state,  and  in  IS.39  drove 
the  mar.anding  Indians  out  of  northern  Tex.as.  He 
served  in  the  Mexican  war  under  (ieneral  Taylor, 
who  in  1S49  appointed  him  a  paymaster  in  the 
United  St.ates  army.  In  18.5.T  he  received  a  cavalry 
regiment,  and  in  1S.")8  he  brought  the  .Mormon 
rebellion  to  an  end  without  the  employment  of 
force.  He  was  then  .aiipointed  brigadier-general, 
and  commaniled  in  Utali  and  in  the  deii.artment  of 
the  I'a(dlic  until  1801,  when  he  resigned  and  pas.sed 
ovei'  lo  the  South.  Appointed  to  the  ciunmand  of 
the  dep.irtment  of  Kentindvy  and  Tennessee,  he 
fiirlilied  Bowling  Gn-en,  .and  liidd  the  Northern 
army  in  check  until  F(dirn.arv  1H()2,  when  he 
retreated  to  Ntislivijle  and,  on  the  fall  of  Fort 
Dimelson,  to  Corinth,   M i.ssi.ssippi.     Here  he  con- 


centrateil  ,'50,000  men,  with  which  force  he  attacked 
tirant  at  Shiloh  before  d.aybreak  on  Sunday,  6th 
April  1862.  The  National  army  was  surprised, 
and  the  advantage  in  the  tremendous  battle  that 
ensued  lay  with  the  Confeder.ates  when,  at  half- 
past  two,  while  leading  a  charge,  .Johnston  was 
mortally  wounded.  The  next  day  Grant's  supports 
came  up,  and  the  enemy,  now  under  Be.auregard, 
was  <lriven  back  to  Corinth.  There  is  ,a  Life  of 
General  .Johnston  by  his  son  (New  Y<nk,  1878). 

Johnston,  Alexander  Keith,  LL.D., 
F.  K.S.  E.,  cartogr.apher  and  geographical  publisher, 
was  born  near  Edinburgh,  December  28,  1804. 
His  first  important  work,  the  JS'ational  Atlas  (fid.), 
occupied  him  for  five  years,  and  was  ]iublished  in 
1843.  Its  merits  received  immediate  recognition, 
and  Johnston  was  appointed  Geogra]>her  lioyal  for 
.Scotland.  Acting  on  a  .suggestion  from  Humboldt, 
he  visited  Germany,  and  g.athered  material  for  his 
Physical  Atkis  (1848;  2d  ed.  1856).  Its  publica- 
tion was  the  signal  for  a  shower  of  honours  from 
the  geographical  societies  of  Europe.  In  18.50 
appeared  a  verj'  useful  Dirtionary  of  Geoqraphy, 
better  known  as  'Johnston's  Gazetteer.'  In  1851 
he  constructed  the  fii-st  physical  globe,  show- 
ing the  geology,  hydrography,  &c.  of  the  earth. 
His  Royal  Atlas  of  Geography  (\9iG\)  w.as  one  of 
the  most  beautiful  and  minutely  accurate  atlases 
ever  executed  up  till  that  time.  Johnston  also 
published  atlases  of  Astronomy  and  Geology ;  a 
Military  Atlas  for  Alison's  ifisten-y  of  Europe; 
besides  educational  atlases,  physical,  general,  and 
classical,  which  obtained  a  \nde  circulation.  He 
died  10th  .July  1871.— His  son,  Alexander  Keith, 
born  in  1844,  was  educated  in  Edinburgh,  trained 
as  a  draughtsman  in  his  f.ather's  firm,  and  after- 
wards extended  his  experience  in  London  and 
Germany.  He  took  part  in  an  exploiing  expedi- 
tion to  Paraguay  in  1874,  and  in  1879  was  ap- 
pointed leader  of  the  Royal  (!eographii';il  Society's 
expedition  to  East  Africa,  mainly  f<U'  the  purpose 
of  discovering  a  practical  route  to  the  interior. 
He  was  scarcely  a  month  on  the  w.ay  when  he  fell 
a  victim  to  dysentery  at  Beroliero  on  the  road 
between  Dares-Salaam  and  Lake  Nyassa,  28th 
June  1879.  His  work  was  taken  up  and  success- 
fully completed  bj'  Mr  Joseph  Thomson.  John- 
ston, who  was  a  frequent  contributor  to  the 
Ocoffraphiral  Maejiiziiie,  produced  a  Physical 
Gcoe/rciphy  (1877),  edited  .and  extended  Hcdiwald's 
Africa  (1879)  in  Stanford's  series,  and  edited  a 
sheet  inaji  of  Africa  and  Boyce's  Gazetteer  (1879). 

Johnston,  or  Jox.ston,  Artiiuk  ( J.5S7-1641), 
eminent  as  a  physician  and  still  more  so  as  a 
humanist,  was  horn  of  an  honourable  family  at 
Caskieben,  Aberdeenshire,  and  educated  at  M.aria- 
elial  College  and  the  university  of  I'adu.a,  where 
he  graduated  M.I).,  .June  11,  1610.  The  same  year 
(says  Sir  T.  Unjiihart)  he  was  '  laureated  poet  at 
Paris  and  that  most  deservedly,'  and  thereafter 
visited  many  seats  of  learning  on  either  side  the 
Alps  from  Rome  to  Sedan,  in  which  latter  he 
sojourned  long  with  his  compatriot  Andrew  Mel- 
ville, professor  of  Divinity  in  the  university.  For 
many  years  he  practised  medicine  in  France, 
whence  his  fame  ,as  a  L.atin  ]ioet  spread  over 
Europe.  In  16'25  a|M)eared  in  London  his  elegy 
on  .I.ames  I.,  and  .about  the  same  time  he  was 
appointeil  physician  to  King  Charles.  His  Latin 
rendering  of  the  Song  of  Solomon,  dedicated  to 
that  monarch  (Loud.  16.'!3),  contained  a  specimen 
of  his  tr.anslation  of  (he  Ps.alms  of  David  into 
Latin  verse,  ,a  work  on  which  he  hail  bmg  been 
eng.aged,  and  which  was  published  at  Aberdeen  in 
1637.  In  that  year  he  lielped  to  bring  out  the 
Dclitiw  Poetiirum  Scotornm  hiijiis  A'ri  Illiis- 
triitm  (Amsterdam,  2  vol.s.   12mo),  a  collection  in 


JOHNSTON 


JOINTS 


349 


whioli  tlu>  scholai'ship,  taste,  ami  poetical  power  of 
his  count  IT  men  appear  to  signal  advantage,  and  to 
wliicli  hi-s  own  contributions  are  at  once  the  most 
numerous  and  the  best.  On  June  "24,  1037,  he 
accepted  the  post  of  rector  of  King's  CoUeL'e,  Aber- 
deen, and  enhanced  the  lustre  of  that  brilliant  era 
in  the  uni\orsity's  annals.  His  avocations  as  court 
physician,  however,  kept  him  mainly  in  England, 
where  his  fame  a.s  man  of  letters  and  poet,  as  well 
as  physician,  was  ste;idily  increiising  till  1641,  when 
he  died  suddenly  on  a  visit  to  Oxford.  His  trans- 
lation of  the  Psalms,  often  reprinted  at  home  and 
abroad,  di\ides  with  Buchanan's  still  more  famous 
version  the  palm  of  superiority  in  that  field  ;  but  his 
command,  at  once  comprehensive  and  refined,  of 
Latin  idiom  and  rhythmical  movement,  and  his 
imagination,  rich  without  extravagance,  are  even 
more  conspicuous  in  his  miscellanies,  among  which 
his  prolusion  on  the  great  anatomist  Casserio  would 
suftice  to  keep  him  in  the  front  rank  of  modern 
Latin  poets.  See  the  monograph  by  Principal 
Geddes  of  Aberdeen  ( 1890). 

JolinstOU,  J.vilKS  F.  W.,  a  Scottish  chemist, 
was  born  at  Paisley  in  1796.  He  was  of  humble 
parentage,  and  studied  at  Glasgow  University. 
Having  in  1830  married  a  lady  of  considerable 
fortune,  he  repaired  to  Stockholm,  and  became  the 
pupil  of  Berzelius,  the  chemist.  In  1833  he  was 
invited  to  take  the  readership  in  chemistry  and 
mineralogy  in  the  newly-established  university  of 
Durham.  But  he  resided  chiefly  in  Edinburgh, 
and  there  carried  on  his  investigations.  It  is  as 
an  agricultural  chemist  that  he  is  chiefly  known. 
His  Catechism  of  Agricultural  Chemistry  and 
Geology  ha.s  gone  through  more  than  fifty  editions, 
and  has  been  translated  into  almost  every  European 
language ;  and  his  Lectures  un  Agricultural 
Cheiiiiatri/  and  Geulugy  (1^4'_';  17th  ed.  1894)  are 
lield  in  high  esteem.  The  last  of  his  works. 
Chemistry  of  Common  Life  (1854),  has  passed 
through  several  editions  (one  edited  by  Church  in 
1879).     He  died  at  Durham,  18th  September  1855. 

JohlLSton,  JO.SEPH  Eggleston,  an  American 

feneral,  was  born  in  Virginia,  3d  February  1807. 
[is  mother  was  a  niece  of  Patrick  Henry.  He 
graduated  at  West  Point  in  1829,  fought  in  the 
Seminole  war,  became  captain  of  engineers  in 
1846,  served  with  great  gallantry  in  the  war  with 
Mexico,  where  he  was  wounded  at  Cerro  Gordo — 
lie  receiveil  altogether  ten  wounds  in  the  three 
wars  he  was  engaged  in — and  in  1860  was  commis- 
sioned quartermaster-general,  with  the  rank  of 
brigadier-general.  He  resigned  in  1861  to  enter 
the  Confederate  service,  and  was  appointed 
brigadier-general  and  given  the  command  of  the 
Army  of  the  Shenandoah  ;  in  August  he  was  made 
full  general.  He  came  to  the  a.s.-istancc  of  Beau- 
regard at  the  first  battle  of  Bull  llun,  but  waived 
his  claim  to  precedence,  and  left  him  in  com- 
mand. In  1862  he  was  for  several  months  dis- 
abled by  a  wound  received  at  Seven  Pines,  while 
opposing  McClellan.  In  1863,  with  a  weak  force, 
he  failed  in  an  endeavour  to  relieve  Vicksburg. 
He  commanded  the  force  directed  to  oppose  Sher- 
man's advance  towards  Atlanta,  in  18G4,  and  stub- 
bornly contested  his  ])rogress ;  he  was  steadily 
driven  back,  however,  and  in  July  w:us  relieved  of 
his  command.  He  was  again  i)laced  in  command 
by  General  Lee  in  February  186."),  .uid  ordered  to 
'drive  back  Sherman;'  but  he  had  only  a  fourth 
of  the  Northern  general's  strength,  and  after  a  last 
vigorous  re.Hi.stance  at  Bentonville,  in  March,  and 
after  learning  of  Lee's  surrender,  he  accepted  the 
same  terms  on  26th  A|)ril.  General  .Johnston 
afterwards  engagc^d  in  railway  and  insurance  busi- 
ness, and  Wius  elected  to  coUL'ress  by  llichmond  in 
1877.     He  was  appointed   Liiited  States  commis- 


sioner of  railroads  by  President  Cleveland.  He 
died  21st  March  1891.  See  his  Narratire  tf 
M Hilary  Upcratioiis  (1874),  and  Lives  of  him  by 
Johnson  (1891)  and  K.  M.  Hughes  ('Great  Com- 
manders '  series). 

Jolllistont'.  a  manufacturing  town  of  Henfrew- 
sliire,  on  the  Black  Cart,  3J  miles  W.  by  S.  of 
Paisley.  Founded  in  1781,  it  contains  a  large 
flax-mill,  cotton-mills,  a  paper  mill,  foundries,  and 
machine-shops.     Pop.  (1831 )  5617  ;  (1891)  9668. 

Johnstone,  Family  of,  takes  its  surname 
from  the  lordship  of  Johnstone  in  Annaudale, 
Dumfriesshire.  In  former  days  it  was  one  of  the 
most  powerful  and  turbulent  clans  of  the  west 
Borders,  and  was  at  constant  feud  with  its  neigh- 
bours, especially  the  Maxwells.  Three  branches 
of  the  name  still  exist,  Johnstone  of  Annandale, 
Johnstone  of  Westerhall,  and  Johnston  of  Hilton 
and  Caskieben  in  Aberdeenshire.  The  tirst  named, 
which  retained  the  ancient  patrinumy,  was  ennobled 
by  Charles  I. ,  and  became  successively  Lords  John- 
stone of  Lochwood,  Earls  of  Hartfell,  and  Earls 
and  Marquises  of  Annandale.  These  titles,  being 
limited  to  heirs-male,  became  dormant  in  1'792, 
and  nu)ie  than  once  rival  claims  for  their  revival 
by  the  Annandale  and  Westerhall  branches  ha\e 
been  repelled  by  the  House  of  Lords.  Both  the 
houses  of  Westerhall  and  Caskieben  enjoy  knightly 
rank,  and  a  branch  of  the  former  was  in  1881  raised 
to  the  peerage  as  Baron  Derwent. 

Johnstown,  (l)  capital  of  Fulton  county. 
New  "i'ork,  on  Cayadutta  Creek,  48  miles  WNW. 
of  Albany,  and  6  miles  S.  of  Gloversville  by  rail. 
It  has  soiiie  mills  and  large  numufactories  of  gloves 
and  mittens.  Pop.  5013.— (2)  A  town  of  Pennsyl- 
vania, on  the  Coneniaugh  River,  78  miles  E.  by  S. 
of  Pittsljurg  by  rail,  with  large  iron  and  steel 
works,  tanneries,  and  flour,  planing,  and  woollen 
mills.  Johnstown  was  overwhelmed  by  the  burst- 
ing of  a  reservoir  on  31st  May  1889.  Pop.  (1880) 
8380;  (1890)  21,805. 

Johore,  an  independent  state  at  the  southern 
extremity  of  the  Malay  Peninsula,  with  an  area  of 
10,000  sq.  in.  The  country  is  densely  covered  with 
timber,  and  rises  into  several  mountain-peaks,  the 
highest  being  Mount  Ophir  (4186  feet).  The  popu- 
lation numbers  about  200,000,  mostly  Malays  and 
Chinese.  The  former  live  by  fishing  and  wood- 
cutting ;  the  latter  are  traders  and  shopkeepers. 
The  chief  staples  of  the  country  are  tea,  gambler, 
and  black  pepper.  All  kinds  of  fruit  are  plentiful. 
The  climate  is  tropical  but  healthy.  The  capital 
is  Johore,  15  miles  NE.  of  Singapore. 

Joiifliy  (ane.  Joviniacum),  an  old  walled  town 
in  the  French  department  of  Yonne.  90  miles  by 
rail  SE.  of  Paris,  manufactures  cloth,  linen,  and 
sporting  rifles.  Pop.  6189. 
Joinery.  See  Carpentry. 
Joint-fir.  See  Sea-grape. 
.loints.  in  Anatomy.  A  joint  or  articulation 
may  lie  defined  to  be  the  union  of  any  two  segments 
of  the  skeleton  of  an  animal  body,  through  the 
intervention  of  a  structure  or  structures  of  a 
ditlerent  nature.  The  textures  which  enter  into 
the  formation  of  the  more  complex  joints  are  bone, 
cartilage,  fibro-cartilage,  ligaments,  and  synovial 
membrane.  Bone  forms  the  fundamental  part  of 
all  joints;  ligament,  in  various  modifications,  is 
employed  as  the  bond  of  union  between  the  bony 
segments;  W'hile  the  three  remaining  textures 
chiefly  occur  in  those  joints  in  which  there  is  free 
motion.  The  joints  vary  in  the  degree  of  motion 
from  almost  perfect  innnobility  to  the  greatest 
amount  and  extent  of  motion  that  are  compatihlo 
with  the  maintenance  of  the  bony  segments  in 
their  proper  relation  to  each  other. 


350 


JOINTS 


Joints  have  been  divided  by  anatomists  into  two 
great  classes — tlie  I mmovuhlc  and  tlie  Mucablc.  In 
the  immovable  or  Synarthroses  the  i)arts  are  con- 
tinuous, that  is  to  say  tlie  bones  are  united  together 
by  a  prolongation  of  tlie  periosteal  librous  membrane 
between  them.  In  some  cases  the  uniting  medium 
is  a  plate  of  cartilage.  There  is  no  >yuovial  sac 
intervening  between  the  bones.  In  movable  joints 
the  articular  surface  of  each  of  the  bones  is  covered 
M'itli  cartilage,  and  these  cartilaginous  plates  are 
separated  from  each  other  Viy  a  synovial  sac  more 
or  less  complete.  This  sac  is  lined  by  a  membrane 
which  secretes  a  viscid  fluid  for  luliricating  the 
articular  surfaces — the  synovia  or  joint-oil. 

In  synarthroses  the  articulation  is  said  to  be  by 
suture  when  the  bones  seem  to  glow  somewhat 
into  one  another,  and  to  become  interlocked  and 
dovetailed  together,  each  bone  having  a  jagged  or 
serrated  margin,  or  when  there  is  a  degree  of 
bevelling,  so  that  one  bone  is  overlapped  by  the 
other.  Both  these  kinds  of  suture  are  at  once  seen 
in  the  human  Skull  (q.v.). 

The  movable  joints  are  Amphiarthroses  and 
Dill rt/i roses.  In  the  former  tliere  is  partial 
mobility  of  one  bone  upon  another,  combined  with 
great  strength.  The  contiguous  surfaces  of  the 
bones  are  united  by  a  thick  and  strong  layer  of 
fibro-c.artilage,  the  centre  of  which  is  usually  soft, 
and  may  present  a  cavity  lined  by  a  synovial 
membrane,  with  which  a  little  elastic  tissue  is 
intermi.xed.  As  examples  of  this  kind  of  joint  may 
be  mentioned  the  articulation  between  the  bodies 
of  the  vertebrie  and  that  between  the  two  pubic 
bones  at  what  is  termed  the  symphysis. 

Diarthroses  are  complete  joints,  the  articular 
surfaces  being  covered  l)y  articular  cartilage  and 
separated  from  each  other  by  a  cavity  lined  by 
synovial  membrane.  In  these  the  degree  ami 
nature  of  the  motion  are  very  various.  There  may 
be  merely  a  little  gliding  motion  between  the  ends 
of  the  bones,  a-s,  for  example,  in  the  articulations 
between  the  various  bones  of  the  carpus  and  tarsus, 
(see  H.\ND,  Foot).  In  these  cases  the  surfaces 
are  plane,  or  one  is  slightly  concave  and  the  other 
slightly  convex ;  and  the  motion  is  limited  in 
extent  and  direction  by  the  ligaments  of  the  joint, 
or  by  some  projecting  point  of  one  of  the  bones. 
In  some  cases,  instead  of  a  slight  concavity  and 
convexity,  one  bone  presents  a  cup-like  depression, 
while  the  termination  of  the  other  assumes  a  hemi- 
spherical, or  more  or  less  globular  shape.  Hence 
the  name  of  bali  and  sod. et  that  is  applied  to  such 
joints.  The  best  example  of  this  variety  is  the 
'Hip-joint  ((|.v. ),  and  the  next  best  is  the  shoulder. 
In  these  joints  tlie  ball  is  kept  in  apposition  with 
the  socket  by  nie;ins  of  what  is  termed  a  ciwsular 
ligament,  which  may  be  described  as  a  uarrel- 
sliaped  expansion  of  ligamentous  structure,  attached 
by  its  extremities  around  the  margin  of  the  articular 
surfaces  composing  the  joint,  and  forming  a  com- 
plete investment  of  it,  but  not  so  tight  as  materi- 
ally to  restrict  its  movements.  This  species  of 
joint  is  capable  of  motion  of  all  kinds. 

Another  important  variety  of  articulation  is  the 
hinge-joint,  in  which  the  contittuous  surfaces  are 
marked  with  elevations  and  depressions,  which 
exactly  lit  into  each  other,  so  as  to  restrict  motion 
to  one  i)lane.  The  elbow  and  ankle  joints,  and 
the  joints  of  the  fingers  .and  toes,  are  the  best 
examjiles  of  this  variety.  The  knee-joint  is  a  los 
characteristic  example,  because  in  certain  positions 
it  is  capable  of  a  slight  rotation.  These  hinge- 
joints  are  always  provided  with  strong  lateral  liga- 
ments. 

The  last  kind  of  joint  requiring  notice  is  that 
which  admits  only  of  rutntory  motion.  A  pivot 
and  a  ring  are  the  essential  parts  of  this  joint,  the 
ring  Ijeing  generally  formed  partly  of  bone   and 


partly  of  ligament.  The  best  example  of  this 
articulation  is  that  between  the  atlas  (the  first 
vertebra)  and  the  odontoid  or  tooth-like  juocess  of 
the  a.xis  (the  second  vertebra).     See  H.-VND. 

Diseases  of  the  Joints. — In  diseases  of  the  joints 
we  may  have  one  or  more  of  the  following  textures 
att'ected  :  ( 1 )  the  synovial  membrane  ;  ( 2 )  the  carti- 
lage ;  and  (3)  the  \iones  themselves.  The  synovial 
membrane  may  undergo  either  acute  or  chronic 
intianimation,  givin<c  rise  to  the  serious  attectious 
known  as  acute  and  chronic  Synovitis  (see  S^no- 
vi.\L  Membr.\nes).  Loose  substances  of  a  fibrous 
structure,  and  usually  resembling  a  small  bean  in 
size  and  shape,  sometimes  occur  in  joints,  especially 
in  the  knee-joint.  They  commence  as  little  pendu- 
lous growths  upon  the  synovial  membrane,  which 
after  a  time  become  detached.  The  cartilage  may  be 
atl'ected  in  various  ways.  There  may  be  ( 1 )  simple 
destruction  of  cartilage;  (2)  scrofulous  destruction 
of  cartilage;  (3)  hypertrophy  of  cartilage;  (4) 
atrophy  of  cartilage,  and  other  moditied  forms  of 
disease  of  this  texture,  all  of  which,  especially  the 
second,  are  of  a  very  serious  character,  but  not  of  a 
nature  that  admits  of  popular  explanation.  The 
most  important  diseases  of  the  osseous  structures 
of  the  joints  are  (1)  ulcer  and  (2)  caries.  These 
diseases  often,  but  not  always,  begin  with  the  dis- 
organisation of  cartilage,  and  then  extend  to  the 
bones.  Sometimes,  however,  they  commence  in 
the  bones.    See  Ankylosis. 

Rejiection  or  Excision  of  Joints  '  is  on  the  whole 
safer  tlian  amputation  ;  less  \iolence  is  done  to  the 
body,  fewer  great  arteries  and  nerves  are  injured, 
and,  what  is  of  more  consequence,  fewer  large 
veins  are  divided,  and  as  the  articular  end  of  the 
bone  only  is  sawn  ott',  and  the  medullary  canal  not 
touched,  there  is  less  chance  of  iiyaiuia.  Lastly, 
the  patient  is  left  with  an  imperfect  limb,  it  is 
true,  but  with  one  which,  in  most  cases,  is  highly 
useful '  ( Druitt ).  The  operation  has  been  per- 
formed on  the  shoulder,  elbow,  wrist,  hii>,  knee, 
and  ankle.  Few  subjects  have  in  recent  times 
excited  more  discussion  among  surgeons  than  the 
application  of  this  operation  to  tlie  knee-joint. 
Tlie  operation  was  first  performed  in  1762  ;  and  u|) 
to  the  year  18.30  there  are  records  of  19  rases,  out 
of  which  11  died.  From  1830  to  1850  the  opera- 
tion was  never  ]ierformed,  and  was  generally  con- 
demned ;  but  in  the  last-named  year  it  was  re\i\ed 
by  Professor  Fergusson,  and  is  now  a  frequent  and 
most  valuable  operation.  'The  ca.>^es,'  says  Dr 
Dniitt,  '  in  which  it  ought  to  be  performed  are, 
generally  speaking,  such  cuses  of  injury  or  disease 
;i,s  would  otherwise  be  submitted  to  anqnitatum. 
The  olijei't  of  the  operation  is  to  produce  a  (irm  and 
useful  limb,  slightly  shortened,  an<l  with  entire 
l>onv  union,  or  fibrous  union  admitting  of  some 
small  degree  of  motion  at  the  situation  of  the 
joint.  But  all  cases  are  not  suitable  for  excision  ; 
and  those  cases  are  unsuitable  and  better  adayited 
for  amputation  in  which  either  the  quantity  of  the 
disea'»ed  bone  is  very  great,  or  the  ijua/ity  of  the 
disea.se  may  be  such  a.s  experience  h;i,s  shown  to  he 
incompatible  with  the  exudation  of  healthy  material 
of  re)iair. '  In  at  lea-st  50  per  cent,  of  ciu^es  the 
oiieration  results  in  a'  "'oocl  useful  leg.  It  has 
already  saved  so  many  limbs  that  it  must  be  re- 
garded as  one  of  the  greatest  triumphs  of  modern 
surgei-j'.  Further  information  on  this  subject  may 
be  found  in  Holmes's  System  of  Surgery,  or  in  any 
surgical  text -book— e.g.  Erichsen's. 

Joints,  in  deidogj',  are  the  natural  division- 
jilanes  or  cracks  by  which  rocks  of  all  kinds  are 
travei-sed.  Joints,  although  verj-  frequently  irreg- 
ular, yet  have  a  tendency  to  run  across  rocks  in 
certain  directions.  Thus,  in  ordinary  bedded 
lupieous  rocks  (sandstone,  shale,  limestone)  they 
are    irenerally    develojied    more   or   less    at    right 


JOINT-STOCK    COMPANY 


JOKAI 


351 


angles  to  the  bedding,  so  that,  if  the  strata 
be  horizontal,  the  leading  joints  will  be  ver- 
tical or  approximately  so.  Two  sets  of  these 
joints  are  usually  recognisable  (mtistcr-Juititi:), 
which  cut  each  other  at  or  nearly  at  right  angles. 
Hence  aqueous  rocks,  by  means  of  joints  and 
original  bedding-planes,  are  divided  into  larger  or 
smaller  cuboidal  blocks.  In  massive  crystalline 
rocks,  such  as  granite,  joints  are  rarely  so  regular. 
Yet  even  in  these  two  sets  of  joints,  crossing  each 
other,  can  often  be  traced  :  and  occasionally  an- 
otlier  horizontal  set  may  be  present — these  last 
simulating  the  bedding-planes  of  aqueous  strata. 
Were  it  not  for  the  presence  of  such  natural 
division-planes,  it  is  obvious  that  quarrying  would 
be  a  much  more  difficult  operation.  A  peculiar 
kind  of  jointing  is  met  with  in  certain  crystalline 
igneous  rocks,  as  in  some  finegrained  b;isalts,  in 
which  the  division-planes  separate  the  rock  into 
polygonal  or  more  or  less  perfect  hexagonal  prisms 
or  columns  (see  Bas.^LT).  Joints  have  been  formed 
in  various  ways.  Many  are  doubtless  due  to  the 
strain  and  tension  to  which  rocks  have  been  sub- 
jected duiing  movements  of  the  crust.  Others 
probably  owe  their  origin  to  contraction  on  cooling  : 
the  prismatic  joints  of  basalt  being  '  fissures  of 
retreat."  And,  in  like  manner,  it  seems  likely 
enough  that  sedimentary  strata  may  sometimes 
have  become  jointed  during  their  gradual  drying 
and  consolidation. 

Joiut-stoek  Company.    See  Company. 

Jointure,  in  English  law,  meant  originally 
an  e-state  settled  on  husband  and  wife  jointly  for 
their  lives.  Such  settlements  were  made  as  a 
substitute  for  dower,  which  is  that  portion  of 
property  to  which,  on  her  husband's  death,  the 
widow  is  entitled  for  the  maintenance  of  hei'self 
and  children — oue-third  and  upwards  of  the  estate 
for  life.  The  term  jointure  now  includes  an  estate 
limited  to  the  wife.  The  requisites  of  a  jointure 
are  :  ( 1 )  That  it  umst  commence  and  take  ettect 
immediately  on  the  husband's  death;  (2)  it  must 
be  for  the  wife's  life,  at  least ;  (3)  it  must  be  given 
to  the  wife  herself,  and  not  merely  to  trustees  for 
her  ;  (4)  it  must  be  expre,ssed  to  be  made  in  satis- 
faction of  her  whole  dower;  (5)  it  must  be  made 
before  marriage.  The  mode  of  giving  a  jointure  in 
modern  marriage  settlements  is  usually  by  way  of 
a  rent-charge  on  the  husband's  real  estate.  If  a 
jointure  be  created  out  of  an  estate  before  marriage, 
the  husband  cannot  sell  the  estate  afterwards,  so  as 
to  defeat  the  jointure.  A  jointure  is  not  lost  by 
the  treiisoii  or  felony  of  the  husband,  nor  by  the 
eloiJement  and  adultery  of  tlie  wife. 

In  Scotland  the  word  jointure  is  also  frequently 
used  in  a  similar  sense  to  denote  a  conventional 
provision  for  a  widow,  consisting  eitlier  of  an 
annuity  to  her  or  of  a  liferent  assignation  of  rents, 
or  of  a  liferent  of  lands,  called  a  locality.  In 
whatever  way  the  jointure  is  constituteil  it  also 
excludes  the  widow's  terce,  unless  it  is  otherwise 
expressed. 

Joinville,  a  small  town  of  4000  inhabitants  in 
the  French  department  of  Haute-Marne,  "i'i  miles 
N.  of  Chaumont  by  rail,  which  was  formed  into  a 
principality  by  Henry  11.,  and  later  supplied  the 
title  to  the  thinl  son  of  Louis-Philippe. 

Join>ille,  Jkan,  Sip.e  de,  the  biographer  of 
St  Louis  <if  France,  was  born  in  1224,  ami  l)ccame 
senechal  to  Thibaud,  Count  of  Cliamj)agne  and 
king  of  Navarre.  He  took  part  in  the  unfortunate 
crusade  of  Louis  IX.  (124S-54),  returned  with  him 
to  France,  and  lived  thereafter  partly  at  court, 
partly  on  his  estates.  He  declined  to  go  on  the 
fatal  expedition  to  Tunis,  and  survived  till  July 
11,  1.317.  During  his  stay  at  Acre  in  12.)0,  at  the 
•lite  of  twenty-six,  he  occupied  his  leisure  in  com- 


posing a  manual  of  the  Christian  faith — his  Credo, 
which  he  retouched  thirty-seven  years  later ;  and 
there  is  extant  a  letter  he  wrote  to  Louis  X.  at 
the  age  of  ninety-one.  During  the  crusade  he 
took  notes  of  events  and  wrote  down  his  impres- 
sions. At  the  age  of  almost  eighty,  ,at  the  entreaty 
of  Jeanne  de  Champagne,  wife  of  Philip  lo  lid,  he 
undertook  his  I'ie  de  Saint  Louis,  which  he  lini^^hed 
aft<>r  the  death  of  his  patroness,  and  presented  in 
1809  to  her  son  (afterwards  Louis  X.).  The  con- 
eluding  portion  of  the  book  bears  traces  of  senility  ; 
nothing,  on  the  other  hand,  is  more  clear,  animated, 
and  real  than  the  part  relating  to  the  crusade. 
Thus  the  book  is  obviously  a  collection  of  pieces 
composed  at  different  times.  Joinville  is  an  ex- 
cellent example  of  the  best  type  of  13th-century 
cavalier,  with  all  his  admirable  qualities  as  well  as 
all  his  limitations  and  defects  :  he  is  brave,  pious, 
candid,  devoted  to  his  king  while  strictly  main- 
taining against  him  his  feudal  rights,  considerate 
for  his  vassals,  a  jealous  "uardian  of  all  traditional 
privileges  ;  but,  on  the  other  hand,  his  intelligence 
generally  stops  short  at  detail  and  cannot  grasp 
general  causes  :  he  relates  unskilful  military  oi)era- 
tions  without  criticising  or  apparently  even  under- 
;  standing  them  ;  he  approves  intolerance  in  St  Louis, 
1  and  falls  into  woeful  puerilities  in  his  narration. 
:  His  style  conforms  closely  to  his  cliar.acter  :  it  is 
veracious,  Howing,  naive,  often  singularly  express- 
ive, but  it  has  neither  the  elegance  of  the  best 
'  prose-writers  of  the  middle  ages  nor  the  vigour 
and  solidity  of  Villehardouin  :  it  is  the  tone  of 
an  amiable  and  familiar  talker,  who  sonietimes 
forgets  himself  a  little  in  his  reminiscences,  but 
never  fails  to  charm.  The  book  has  the  one  con- 
summate merit  of  sympathetically  raising  up  clear 
before  our  eyes  the  breathing  image  of  a  romantic 
figure  over  whom  already  tliere  hung  the  shadow 
of  a  tragic  destiny. 

Unfortunately  the  text  has  onl.v  come  down  to  us  in 

later  MSS.  in  wliicli  the  language  has  been  modernised  ; 

but  the  methodical   study  of   competent  editors  has  at 

length  restored  with  almost  complete  security  both  the 

j  substance  and   the  form  of   the  book — one  of  the  most 

I  precious  bequests  of  the  middle  ages,  holding  its  place 

1  in  time  between  Villehardouin  and  Froissart.     The  best 

edition  is  that  of  N.  de  WaUly  ( 1S75).    See  Didot,  £ludta 

sur  la  Vic  et  Ics  Traiaux  de  Jean  de  Joinville  (1870). 

Joists.    See  Floor. 

Jokai.  Maukice,  Hungarian  novelist,  was  born 
on  Ulth  February  1825  at  Komorn.  He  qualified 
himself  for  an  advocate,  but  never  practised  ;  liter.i- 
ture  and  journalism  were  more  to  his  taste.  He 
was  an  active  partisan  of  the  Hungarian  struggle  in 
1848,  and  when  the  Austrians  gained  the  u])i>er 
hand,  it  was  with  difficulty  that  he  escai>ed  impris- 
onment. After  1849  he  devoted  himself  exclusively 
to  literary  pureuits.  His  works  number  close  on 
■300  volumes,  and  embrace  novels,  romances,  dramas, 
humorous  essays,  poems,  &C.  Of  these  the  most 
valuable  are  the  novels  and  romances,  of  which 
The  Turks  in  Hungary  (1852),  T/tc  Magyar  Nabuh 
( 1853),  and  its  continuation  Zultan  Karpathy  (1854), 
The  Sew  Landlord  (1862;  Eng.  trans.  1868),  Black 
Diamonds  ( 1870),  The  Bomance  of  the  Coming  Ccn- 
(iiri/  ( 1873),  The  Modern  Midas  ( 1875  ;  En",  trans. 
1885),  The  Comedians  of  Life  (1876),  God  is  One 
(1877),  The  White  IVoman  of  Leutschau  {ISSi),  am\ 
Timar's  Two  Worlds  (Eng.  trans.  1888)  may  be 
taken  as  good  examples.  His  skill  as  a  narrator  is 
enhanced  by  a  lively  im.agination,  humour,  and  a 
complete  gisi-sp  of  Hungarian  life.  His  work  is 
sonietimes  marred  by  imiirobability,  a  straining 
after  etlect,  and  superficial  treatment.  Most  of  his 
novels  have  been  translated  into  (lernian.  Jokai 
has  also  gained  fame  as  a  journalist,  as  editor  lii-st 
of  the  revolutionary  weekly  Pictures  of  Life,  then 
of  the  political  daily  Fatherland,  and  lastly  of  the 


352 


JOKJAKARTA 


JONES 


liuniDious  >vcekly  The  Comet  (1858-81),  ami  the 
government  organ  Ncmzct  ('The  Nation')-  He  is 
a  prominent  member  of  the  House  of  Representa- 
tives, licing  one  of  the  cleverest  itebatei-s  of  tlie 
party  of  the  liberal  government. 

.lokjilkarta,  a  residency  of  Java,  in  the  central 
part  ol  the  i>lan(l,  has  an  area  of  ll'Jl  sq.  ni.,  anil 
a  population  of  about  half  a  million,  neiirly  all 
Ja\  aiiese  :  see  Java.  The  capital,  Jokjakarta,  is 
a  town  of  more  than  50,000  inhabitants,  witli  the 
sullan's  pahice  ami  ruins  of  ancient  temples. 
Joliba.     See  NlGEli. 

Joliot.  capital  of  Will  county,  Illinois,  is  on  Des 
Plaines  Uiver,  35  miles  S\V.  of  Chicago  by  rail,  and 
its  water-jiower  is  increiised  by  a  canal  from  Lake 
ISIichigan.  It  is  the  site  of  the  state  penitentiary, 
and  has  extensive  manufactures  of  Hour,  steel,  rails, 
■wire,  stoves,  tools,  boots  and  shoes,  paper,  tiles, 
cigais.  i>i:c.  There  are  large  quarries  of  limestone 
at  Joliet,  and  a  coallield  in  the  neighbourhood. 
Pop.  (1880)  11,657  ;  ( 1890)  23,204. 
Jolly-boat  ( Dutch  jolle,  '  yawl ' ).  See  BOAT. 
Joilielli.  NicoLO,  Neapolitan  composer  (1714- 
74),  is  known  by  his  operas  Arm'ula  and  IJigciiia, 
and  Ijy  a  Miserere  and  a  Eeqtiiein. 

Joillillt,  Henri,  Baron,  born  6th  March  1779 
at  I'ayeriie,  in  the  canton  of  Vaud,  began  his 
military  career  in  the  Swiss  Guards  at  Versailles, 
and  lin'ally  rose  to  be  chief  of  the  statt'  to  Marslial 
Ney ;  he  was  created  baron  after  the  peace  of 
Tilsit.  In  1804  he  attracted  the  notice  of  Napoleon 
by  his  Traite  dcs  Grandes  Operations  Mi/itaires. 
He  distinguished  him.self  at  Jena,  in  the  Spanish 
cami)aigns  of  1808  and  succeeding  years,  duriii,g 
the  retreat  from  Russia,  and  at  Lutzen  and 
Bautzen  ;  but,  oiTended  at  the  treatment  winch  he 
received  from  Napoleon,  he  entered  the  service  of 
Russia  in  18U.  In  1828  he  took  an  active  part  in 
the  war  Russia  waged  against  Turkey,  particularly 
in  the  capture  of  Varna.  His  fame  as  a  nulitary 
writer  rests  upon  Histoire  Critique  et  Militiure  des 
Camijagiies  de  la  Rfvoliitioii  (5  vols.  1806),  Vie 
Politiiiae  et  Militaire  de  Napoleon  (4  vols.  1827), 
and  Precis  de  I' Art  de  Guerre  ( 1830  ;  new  ed.  1881 ). 
Baron  Jomini  died  at  Passy,  near  Paris,  24th 
March  1S69.  See  the  Life  by  Lecomte  (1861 ) ;  and 
Saiiite-Beuve,  in  Nouoeaux  Lundis,  vol.  xiii. 

Jonah.     The  Book  of  Jonah,  unlike  the  other 
eleven  of  the  series  of  the  minor  prophets  in  which 
it  occurs,  is  not  a  prophetic  di^<■ourse  but  a  narra- 
tive, and  does  not  in  any  sense  claim  to  have  been 
written   by  the  pro|>het  whose  name  it  bears.     It 
belongs  to' that  special  kind  of  literary  composition, 
comnu)!!  among  the   late  Jews,  usually  known  iis 
ha"gadic  ;  it  is  obviously  not  intended  to  be  taken 
aslTteral  history,  but  as  a  paralde  attached  to  a 
historic  name.    "The  name  in  this  instance  is  tliat 
of  .lonah,  the  son  of  Amittai,  who  is  mentioned  in 
2  lvin"s,  xiv.  25,  as  having  been  a  native  of  (!alh- 
hepheT  in   Galilee,   and   as   having  prophesied   the 
victories  of  Jeroboam   II.     No   writing   known   to 
belon"  to  him  is  now  extant ;  the  oracle  containeil 
in  Isaiah,  xv.,  xvi.,  and  spoken  of  by  that  proiiliet 
a.s  already  ancient,  has  been  conjecturally  attrib- 
uted   to    Jonah     by    Hitzig,    but     for     somewhat 
inadequate  rea.sons.     Whether  the  story  now  asso- 
ciated with  his  name  may  have  had  some  basis  in 
any   word   or  deed   of   his,  or  whether  the  choice 
of    his   name   was   quite   arbitrarily   made   by  the 
anonvmous    author,    cannot    now    be    determined. 
The  key  to  the  narrative,  the  details  of  which  are 
familiar  to  every  one,  is  to  be  sought  in  the  closing 
chapter,  where'Jehovah  asks  the  prophet  whether 
he  docs  well  to  be  angry  because  of  the  sparing  of 
Nineveh,  a  great  city  teeming  with  innocent    ife 
for  which  Jehovah  has  laboured,  and  which  he  has 


caused  to  grow.     Nowhere  in  the  Old  Testament  is 
that  particularism,  to  which  the  Jews  were  ever 
prone,  more  clearly  or  emphatically  rebuked.     As 
for  the   earlier  part  of  the  story,   its  cxnlanatlon 
is  to  be  s(mght  in  the  often-recurring  Old  Testa- 
ment figures  in  which  the  great  world-powers  are 
likened  to  sea-monstei-s  or  dragons  ( see,  for  example, 
Jei.  11.  44),  and  deliverance  from  any  overwhelming 
calamity  is  spoken  of  as  a  bringing  liack  from  the 
depths  of  the  sea  (Ps.   Ixviii.   22  [23]).      At  the 
time  when    the  Book   of   Jonah   was   written,   the 
Jews,  who  had  returned  from  the  Babylonian  exile 
full  of  bright  hopes  as  to  a  near  anil  glorious  future, 
had  become   querulously  aware   of   the   failure   of 
these.    The  object  of  the  writer  seems  to  have  been 
to  suggest  to  them  that  their  existing  trouldes,  in 
which  they  seemed  as  it  were  to  be  swallowed  up 
by  the  world-powers  which  oppressed  them,  were 
due   to   their   neglect   of  the   missionary  vocation 
which    had   been    urged   upon   Israel   by  the  later 
prophets  (see  especially  Isa.  xl.-lxvi.)  ;  once  Israel 
in  penitence  and  prayer  shall  have  shown  that  she 
has  again  become  alive  to  this  duty,  she  may  hope 
t^ 


■o  experience  the  fullilment  of  the'  prophet's  words 
:Hos.  vi.  2):  'After  two  days  he  willjevive  ns  ; 
on  the  third  day  he  will  raise  us  uj;.'     ""' 


The 


liver 


of  Jonah,  whether  a  composition  of  the  author  of 
the  rest  of  the  book  or  not,  certainly  cannot  be 
carried  back  to  a  date  nearly  so  early  as  the  8th 
century  B.C.  ;  it  is  largely  a  cento  from  older  com- 
positions, the  metaphors  in  verses  3-6  being  common 
in  all  periods  of  Hebrew  poetry.  See  the  com- 
mentaries on  the  minor  [irophets  mentioned  under 
Hosea;  also  Krahmer  (1839),  Jiiger  (1840),  and 
F.  Bergmann  (Strasb.  1885). 

Jonas,  Ju.sTUS  ( 1493-1555),  a  helper  of  Luther's 
in  the  work  of  reformation  and  translation  ol  the 
Bible,  was  professor  at  Wittenberg,  pastor  at 
Halle  and  Coburg,  and  superintendent  at  Eisfeld. 
He  took  part  with  Luther  in  many  of  the  great 
events  of  the  Reformation,  as  at  Worms,  Marburg, 
and  Augsburg.  There  is  a  monograph  on  him  by 
Pressel  ri863). 

Jonathan,  Brother,  corresponding  to  the 
English  John  Bull,  is  the  personification  of  the 
Unked  States,  especially  of  its  native  born  citizcn.s. 
The  original  of  the  name  is  supposed  to  be  .lona- 
tban  Trumbull  (1710-85),  governor  of  Connecticut, 
whose  shrewdness,  staunch  patriotism,  and  un- 
faltering zeal  gained  him  the  esteem  and  friendship 
of  Washington;  and  the  hitter's  phrase  when  i>er- 
plexed,  'Let  us  hear  what  Brother  Jonathan  says, 
passed  into  a  proverb. 

Jones,  Ebenezer,  poet,  was  born  at  Islington, 
•20th  January  1820.  He  was  brought  up  m  the 
strictest  sect  of  the  Calvinists,  but  at  thirteen  was 
writing'  verses,  and  in  secret  dev<mring  the  \\  aver- 
ley  novels.  In  1837  he  was  forced  by  his  fathers 
loii"  illness  to  turn  clerk  in  a  City  warehouse  :  his 
hoirrs  were  eight  to  eight  six  days  a  week.  Yet  he 
published  his  Studies  oj  Seiisaliou  and  Emit  ( 184.i ), 
poems  'full  of  the  very  essence  of  poetry,'  and 
admired  by  such  poets  as  Browning  and  Rossettl. 
But  the  world  rejected  them,  and  he  published  no 
more,  save  a  pamphlet  on  the  Land  JSIuiiomhj 
(1849),  which  anticipated  Henry  (Jeorge  by  thirty 
y<-ars  'in  proposing  to  nationalise  the  land.  A 
Chartist  he  was  not,  but  a  disciple  of  Carlyle  in 
politics,  as  of  Shelley  in  i.oetry.  In  \SU  be 
married,  miserably,  the  niece  of  Pjlwin  Athei-slcmc' ; 
and  he  died  at  lirenlwood,  14lh  Sei>teinber  Ks()lt. 
See  three  long  articles  by  Theodore  Watts^in  the 
At/ieiurum  (1878):  and  two  notices  by  Sumner 
Jones  (elder  brother  of  the  poet,  and  a  poet  him- 
self)  and  W.  J.  Linton  prefixed  to  a  reprint  of  tlie 
Studies  {\S19)- 
Jones,  Ed\varu  Blrne.    See  Burne-Jones. 


JONES 


353 


JoiK'S,  Ernest,  Chartist  poet,  was  tlio  son  of 
Major  .loiies,  equeny  to  the  Duke  of  ('uinl)erhiiul, 
aftiMwarils  kinj;  of  Hanover.  He  was  horn  at 
Uerlin  in  1S19,  was  educated  in  Germany,  and 
eanie  to  KnjjUiiul  in  1S3S.  In  1S41  he  ]iuhlislied  his 
ronianee.  Tltr  ]\'uod  Spirit,  was  called  to  tlie  har 
of  the  .Middle  Temple  in  1S44,  and  the  year  follow- 
inj;  heeame  the  most  prominent  leader  of  the 
Chartist  movement.  He  declined  all  remuneration 
for  his  services,  and  issued  Tlic  Labourer,  Notes  of 
tin-  People,  and  the  Chartist  organ,  IVie  People's 
Piijii  r.  He  voluntarily  resigned  a  fortune  of  nearly 
t'2(K«l  ]ier  annum,  left  to  him  on  condition  that  he 
should  abanilon  the  Chartist  cause.  For  the  jjart 
which  he  took  in  the  Chartist  proceedings  at  Man- 
chester in  1,S4S  he  was  condemned  to  two  years' 
solitary  conlinement.  This  vindictive  sentence 
was  brought  before  the  House  of  Commons,  liut 
Jones  refused  to  petition  for  its  commutation. 
While  in  jirison  he  composed  an  epic  poem,  The 
lleni/t  of  Hindostaii.  Tlie  authorities  refused  him 
pen.  ink,  and  paper,  and  the  poem  w;vs  stated  to 
liave  been  written  on  the  leaves  of  his  ])rayer-book 
with  a  bird  s  feather  and  blood  drawn  from  his  own 
xeins.  After  his  release  Jones  wrote  The  Battle- 
tiaij  (1855);  The  Painter  of  Florcnee  and  I'he 
Emperor's  Vigil  (1S56);  and  Beldagon  Church  and 
Coraijda  ( 1860).  He  tried  for  a  seat  in  parliament, 
but  was  defeated  at  Halifax  (1847)  and  Notling- 
huni  (  IS,)3,  1857).     He  died  2Uth  January  1809. 

Joiics,  Hemiy  Arthir,  playwright,  was  born 
at  Crandljorough,  Bucks,  ■28th  tieptember  1851,  and 
wjvs  at  first  in  business.  Only  Eonnd  the  Corner 
was  produced  in  1878,  Imt  his  first  hit  was  Tlie 
Silrer  Klin/  (ISS'2).  Other  plays  are  Saints  and 
Sinners  (lii>ii).  The  Middlcnuin,'The  Daneimj  Girl, 
Rebellious  Susan,  The  Triumph  of  the  Philistines, 
The  Liars  ( 1897 ),  The  Phijsician,  ( 1897 ),  iScc. 

Jones,  INIGO,  an  English  architect,  was  the 
sun  nf  .a  cloth- worker,  and  was  born  in  London 
15th  July  1573.  A  nobleman  sent  him  to  Italy  to 
study  landscape-painting,  but  he  was  drawn  to 
study  architecture  instead.  While  in  Venice  he 
paid  i)articular  attention  to  the  works  of  Palladio, 
whose  style  he  introduced  into  England,  whence  he 
is  sometimes  called  the  'English  I'alladio.'  On 
leaving  Italy  he  went  to  Denmark  by  invitation  of 
Christian  W.,  and  there  he  is  said  by  some  to 
have  designed  the  royal  palaces  of  Rosenborg  and 
Frederiksborg.  Keturning  to  England  in  1604,  he 
wa-s  emjiloyed  by  James  I.  in  arranging  the  scenery, 
&c.  for  the  masijues  of  Ben  Jonson,  which  were  at 
tliat  lime  the  chief  amusement  of  the  court.  Jonson 
afterwards  .satirised  his  fellow-labourer  in  Bartho- 
loinru-  Fair.  In  1612  Jones  revisited  Italy,  still 
further  to  improve  his  style,  and  on  his  return  to 
England  w,'is  a]ipointed  surveyor-general  of  the 
royal  buildings.  He  was  at  thi.s  time  accounted 
the  lirst  architect  of  Enghand,  and,  according  to 
some,  the  lirst  of  the  ago.  He  died  ilst  June  1652. 
Hi.s  ma.sterpiece  Ls  considered  to  be  the  I5anf|ueting 
House  (now  the  Chapel  Royal)  at  Whitehall. 
Another  representative  specimen  of  his  work  is  the 
church  of  St  I'aul,  in    Covent  Garden,  London. 

See  Walpole's  Antedutcs  of  PaiiUiiuj  (Dallaway's  ed. 
1828)  fur  the  buildings  designed  by  him;  his  Life  by 
Peter  Cunningham  ( 1848 ) ;  Fergusson's  History  of  A  rclii- 
lecture  ;  and  \V.  J.  Loftie,  Ini{/o  Jones  and  Wrin  (1893). 

Jones.  OWKN,  Welsh  antiquary,  was  born  in 
Denbighshire  in  1741,  and  dieil  in  London,  26th 
September  1814.  He  wa,s  all  his  life  a  furrier,  but 
had  early  ileveloned  a  taste  for  Welsh  poetry.  In 
1801-7  he  published  at  his  own  cost  the  Mijt'ijrian 
Arrhaiolor/i/  of  Widcs,  11  i:<)\h^rl\(>n  of  poetic  pieces 
dating  from  tlie  6th  down  to  the  14th  centurv  (ni'W 
ed.  Denbigh,  1870).  The  MSS.  from  which  he 
made  his  .telection,  running  to  one  hundred  volumes, 
2s:{ 


are  deposited  in  the  British  lluseum. — His  son, 
Owen  Jones,  born  in  1809,  made  himself  a  name 
as  an  art-decorator.  He  laid  the  fonndatioii>  of 
his  knowledge  in  an  architect's  otlice  in  London, 
travelled  for  four  years  in  .southern  Europe,  ami 
jiublished  Lksiijns  for  Mosaic  and  Tesselafcd  Pave- 
ments (1842),  Plans,  Elevations,  Sections,  and 
Details  of  the  Alhambra  (1845),  and  Pohjchroinutie 
Ornament  of  Italy  (1845).  He  was  made  sujier- 
inten<lent  of  works  for  the  Limdon  E.xhibilion  of 
1851,  and  afterwards  director  of  decorations  for  the 
Crystal  Palace,  where  he  designed  the  decorations 
of  the  Alhambra,  Egyptian,  Creek,  and  Ronum 
courts,  and  wrote  guide-books  to  the  lirst  two.  In 
1853  he  published  Principles  regulating  the  Employ- 
ment of  Colour  ;  in  1856  the  Gramnuir  of  Ornament, 
still  a  valuable  text-book  :  in  1864,  One  Thousand 
and  One  Initial  Letters  :  and  in  1867,  Examples  of 
Chinese  Ornament.  He  also  illustrated  several 
books.     He  died  in  London,  19th  April  1874. 

Jones.  P.WL,  LTnitetl  States  naval  ccnnmander, 
by  his  countrymen  styled  'the  Pirate.'  was  b(irn  in 
Kirkbean  jiarish  on  the  coast  of  Kirkcudbright- 
shire, 6tli  July  1747,  the  tifth  and  youngest  child 
of  John  Paul,  head-gardener  to  Mr  Craik  of  Arbig- 
land.  Apprenticed  at  twelve  as  sailor-boy  to  a 
Whitehaven  merchant,  he  made  several  voyages 
to  America,  where  he  had  an  elder  brother  settled 
in  'S'irginia.  This  brother's  property  he  inherited 
in  1773,  having  meanwhile  for  five  years  been  mate 
on  a  .slaver ;  and  about  the  same  date  he  changed 
his  name  John  Paul  for  that  under  which  he  is 
famous.  He  embraced  the  cause  of  the  American 
colonies;  and  when  congress  in  1775  resolved  to  lit 
out  a  naval  force  he  offered  his  services.  In  Ajiril 
1778,  \isiting  the  British  coast  in  a  brig  of  eighteen 
guns,  he  performed  some  most  daring  exploits,  and 
took  advantage  of  his  familiarity  with  the  scenes 
of  his  boyhood  to  make  a  hostile  descent  on  the 
shores  of  the  Solway  Firth.  At  Whitehaven  he 
fired  one  ship  and  spiked  thirty -six  guns;  from  St 
Mary's  Isle  he  carried  off'  Lord  Selkirk's  plate,  but 
six  years  later  restored  it ;  and  next  morning  in 
Belfast  Lough  he  captured  the  Drake  slooi)-of-war 
— the  first  naval  success  of  the  Americans.  The 
year  after,  as  commodore  of  a  small  French  squad- 
ron displaying  the  stars  and  stripes,  he  threatened 
Leith,  and  on  23d  September  fought  clo.se  oil'  Flam- 
borough  Head  a  most  desperate  and  bloody  engage- 
ment, in  which  he  captured  two  British  men-of-war. 
Louis  XVI.  created  him  a  Chevalier  of  the  Order 
of  Military  Merit,  and  congress  voted  him  a  golil 
medal.  In  1788  he  entered  the  service  of  the 
Empress  Catharine,  and  as  rear-admiral  of  the 
Black  Sea  fleet  served  creditably  in  the  war  against 
Turkey  ;  but  a  twelvemonth  later  hi^  quitted  the 
Russian  service.  He  died  at  Paris,  18th  .Inly  1792, 
his  funeral  being  attended  by  a  deputation  of  the 
Legislative  Assembly.  'He  was,'  .says  Professor 
Laughton,  'a  man  of  distinguished  talent  and 
originality  ;  a  thorough  Seaman,  and  of  the  most 
determined  and  ferocious  courage.  On  the  other 
hand,  his  vanity  was  excessive  .  .  .  and  his  moral 
character  may  be  summed  up  in  one  word — detest- 
able. ' 

See  Lives  by  Sherbourne  (1825),  Janette  Taylor  { 1830). 
Mackenzie  ( 1841 ),  Simma  ( 1845 ),  James  Haniiltou  ( 1S4S ), 
J.  C.  .Vbbott  (1875),  and  James  Barnes  (1900);  alM>  an 
article  in  Jlfackwood's  Mwjazinc  fur  October  1887,  ami  J. 
K,  Laughton's  Studies  in  Naval  Histovy  ( 188" ). 

Jones.  Sri:  Wili,i.\m,  one  erf  the  earliest  Eng- 
lish orientalists,  was  born  in  London,  28th  Sep- 
tember 1746,  the  son  of  William  .lones  (  1680  1749), 
a  learned  miUhematician  and  friend  of  Newlun. 
lie  had  bis  .schooling  at  Harrow  under  Thackeray 
and  Sumner,  and  entered  Ilniversitv  College, 
(Jxford,  in  1764,  where  his  rennirkable  attain- 
ments quickly  attracted  attention.     In  1765  he  left 


354 


JONGLEURS 


JONSON 


Oxford  ti>  become  tutor  to  the  eldest  son  of  Earl 
Spencer,  and  with  liiiii  reiii:iined  live  years.  He 
was  called  to  tlie  liar  in  1774,  and  two  years  later 
was  appointed  f'oniniissioner  of  Hankriipts.  In 
1770  he  publislied,  at  the  request  of  tlie  king  of 
Denmark,  a  Life  of  Nadir  H/m/t,  translated  into 
French  from  the  Persian  ;  in  1772  a  Pcrsidii  Gram- 
niiir ;  in  177-t  his  Latin  Commentaries  on  Asiatic 
Poetry  ;  and  in  17S0  a  translation  of  seven  ancient 
Arabic  poems,  known  as  the  Mvulliilcdt,  so  called 
from  beinj;  'suspende<r  in  the  temjde  at  Mecca.  In 
March  17S;!  he  obtained  a  judgeship  in  the  Supreme 
(_'ourt  of  Judicature  in  Bengal,  and  was  knighted. 
With  characteristic  ardour  he  at  once  devoted 
himself  to  the  study  of  Sanskrit  with  a  view  to 
prepare  a  digest  of  Hindu  and  Mohammedan  law. 
He  established  the  Koyal  Asiatic  Society,  'for  in- 
vestigating the  history,  antiijuities,  arts,  sciences, 
and  literature  of  Asia,'  and  was  its  lirst  president. 
He  contributed  largely  to  the  Asiatic  licscarchcs. 
Already  in  1789  he  had  finished  his  translation  of 
Saconfala,  or  the  Fatal  Ring  (1709),  when  in  1794 
he  i)ublished  a  translation  of  tlie  Ordinances  of 
Manu,  a  preparatory  task  for  the  greater  work. 
Soon  after  he  was  attacked  with  an  intlanimation 
of  the  liver,  which  carried  him  off  on  the  '27th 
April  1794.  The  East  India  Company  erected  a 
monument  to  his  memory  in  St  Paul's  Cathedral, 
and  a  statue  in  Bengal.  A  collected  edition  of 
his  works  was  publislied  by  Lord  Teignmouth  in 
six  quarto  volumes  in  1799;  two  supplementary 
volumes  followed  in  ISOl  ;  and  a  Life  in  1804. 
The  impulse  that  Sir  William  Jones  gave  to  the 
study  ot  Sanskrit  literatui'e  was  far  more  important 
than  the  performance  his  short  and  bus\^  life 
enabled  him  to  eU'ect.  He  was  indeed  a  learned 
scholar,  but  his  scholarship  was  of  the  pre-scientific 
age,  and  has  long  since  been  superseded.  But  his 
nohle  and  generous  character  ami  bis  ardent 
enthusiasm  for  learning  have  done  much  not  only 
to  promote  learning,  but  to  elevate  the  character 
of  tlie  scholar. 

Joilgleiir.S  ( Old  Fr.  jogleor,  juglere,  Ital.  gioc- 
colatorc,  from  the  Lat.  joculator),  among  Pro- 
vencals and  northern  Frenchmen,  a  class  of 
minstrels  during  the  middle  ages  who  sang  and 
often  composed  poems,  songs,  and  fabliaux,  ami' 
who  frequented  courts,  tournaments,  castles,  and 
towns  for  that  purpose.  They  made  a  trade  of 
song,  poetry,  and  story-telling,  and  often  of  jesting 
and  buH'oonery,  and  are  distinct  from  the  knightly 
poets,  the  Troubadours  and  Trouveres.  They  were 
often  for  their  special  gifts  retained  in  the  service 
of  particular  lords,  and  we  find  them  also  named 
inditierently  minestrels  or  mfnestric.rs.  Two  of 
their  number,  Jacques  Crure  and  Hugues  le- 
Loriain,  founded  the  church  of  St  Julii>n  in  l.'5.'il. 
See  Freymond,  Joii/lciirs  iind  Mciiistrtl.i  (Halle, 
188.3). 

Ji>nkJ>I>illg«  a  town  of  Sweden,  capital  of  the 
/"/(  or  county  of  Jonkoping  (area,  44()8  sq.  m.  ; 
pop.  in  1888,  195,045),  stands  on  a  beautiful  situa- 
tion at  the  .southern  end  of  Lake  Wetter,  115  miles 
by  rail  nearly  due  E.  of  (Jothenbuig.  It  is  famous 
for  its  safety-matches.  Pa]ier,  carpets,  tobacco, 
iVc.  are  also  made.  Pop.  (1875)  18,142;  (1890) 
19,(i82.  Here  several  Swedish  parliaments  have 
been  held,  and  peace  was  signed  between  Sweden 
and  Denmark  in  1809. 

JoiKIIlil  (  Fr.  joiiqui/lc,  from  Ltit.  jiinmis,  'a 
rush  '),  a  name  given  to  certain  species  of  Narcissus 
(q.v.)  with  rush-like  leaves.  The  Common  Jonquil 
{N,  Junqitilla),  a  native  of  the  south  of  Europe,  is 
one  of  the  most  common  bulbous-rooted  plants  in 
our  fiower-borders.  It  has  from  two  to  si.x  yellow 
flowers  at  the  suinmit  of  its  scape  ( leafless  stem  ). 
The   Sweet  scented   Jonquil    (»V.    odorus),    also    a 


native  of  the  south  of  Europe,  is  another  species 
very  generally  cultivated.  Perfumed  waters  are 
made  from  Jonquil  flowers. 

•loiisoil.  liKN,  dramatist,  was  born  at  West- 
minster about  1.573,  a  month  after  the  death  of  his 
father,  who  w.'is  a  minister.  His  grandfatlier  was 
of  Annandale  (probably  a  member  of  one  of  tlie 
Johnstone  families).  Ben  was  educated  at  West- 
minster School  under  William  Camden,  whom  he 
held  in  the  highest  veneration.  He  is  said  to  have 
spent  some  time  at  Cambridge,  but  certainly  did 
not  go  through  the  regular  academic  cour.sc.  His 
mother  was  remarried  to  a  nia.sterbricklayer  ;  and 
for  a  while  Ben  followed  the  craft  of  his  step- 
father. Ashe  'could  not  endure  the  occupation' 
(see  his  Coiircrsations  with  William  Dnimmond  of 
Havthorndcn)  be  went  oil"  to  serve  as  a  soldier  in 
the  Low  Countries,  where  he  distinguished  himself 
by  killing  one  of  the  enemy  in  single  combat  '  in 
the  face  of  both  the  campes.'  After  a  short  stay 
abroad  he  returned  and  'betook  himself  to  his 
wonted  studies.'  He  married  early  (about  I.')92) 
and  had  children,  whom  he  survived.  Among  his 
jioems  are  two  tender  elegies  on  the  death  of  his 
eldest  son  and  eldest  daughter.  According  to  his 
own  account  his  wife  was  'a  shrew,  yet  honest.' 
On  one  occasion  he  stayed  five  years  away  from 
her,  as  the  guest  of  Lord  Aubigny. 

We  first  hear  of  Jonson's  connection  with  the 
stage  in  1597,  but  he  had  ihmbtless  been  at  work 
fiu'  some  time  previ(nisly  both  as  an  actor  and 
dramatist.  In  1598  he  is  mentiom^d  by  Meres  as 
one  of  '  our  best  for  Tragedie.'  During  these  early 
years  he  seems  to  have  usually  collaborated  with 
other  playwrights — Porter,  Chettle,  Dekker,  \'c. 
He  had  a  narrow  escape  in  1598  from  the  gallows. 
An  actor  in  Henslowe  s  company,  (iabriel  Spencer, 
challenged  him  to  a  duel  in  the  fields  at  Shoreditch. 
Jonson  Killed  bis  adver.sary,  wa.s  tried  for  homicide, 
pleaded  his  clergy,  and  escaped  with  the  penalty  of 
branding  in  the  thumb  of  the  left  hand  and  the 
forfeit  of  his  goods  and  chattels.  In  his  conversa- 
tions with  William  Drummond  (q.v.),  whom  he 
visited  at  Hawthornden  in  1G18-19,  he  declared 
that  the  quarrel  was  not  of  his  seeking,  but  that  he 
'had  been  appealed  to  the  fields,' adiling  that  the 
challeng;er's  sword  was  10  inches  longer  than  his 
own.  During  his  imprisonment  he  wxs  visited  by 
a  priest  who  converted  him  to  the  Koinan  Catholic 
creed,  to  which  he  adhered  for  the  space  of  twelve 
yeare.  The  fact  that  he  was  branded  is  a  recent 
(liscovery,  made  by  Mr  Cordy  Jeafl'resou  in  the 
course  of  his  researches  in  the  Jliddlesex  Sessions 
Rolls. 

In  1598  Ercry  Mati  in  his  Humour  was  produced. 
There  is  a  tradition  that  Shakespeare  procured 
this  excellent  play  to  be  acted  ;  and  we  know- 
that  Shakespeare  himself  personated  one  of  the 
characters.  In  the  original  version  the  scene  is 
laid  near  Florence ;  afterwards  Jonson  gave  English 
names  to  the  characters,  and  shifted  the  scene  to 
London.  Krrr;i  Man  in  his  Humour  is  the  imly 
])lay  of  Jonson's  which  has  been  revived  in  modern 
tinies.  It  is  lighter  and  brisker  than  the  elaborate 
masterpieces  of  his  matiirer  years.  The  success 
of  Ercry  Man  in  his  Humour  inspired  J'Jrrri/  Man 
out  of  his  Humour  (1599),  a  somewhat  tedious 
play,  which  was  followed  by  The  Case  is  Altered 
(1599),  C;inlhia's  Jo  eels  (  KiOO),  and  The  Poetaster 
(1001).  In  the  litsl  play  Jonson  made  a  violent 
attack  on  Dekker  and  ^ial■st(m,  and  was  in  conse- 
quence a.ssaile<I  in  Dekker's  Satiromastix.  Sub- 
sequently Jon.son  and  Mai-ston  were  reconciled  ; 
they  worked  together  on  Eastward  Ho,  in  company 
with  Chapman  ;  and  Marston  dedicated  his  Mai- 
eontent  to  .lonson  in  handsome  terms.  But  the 
(|uarrel  broke  cmt  again  later.  Sejanus,  a  solidly 
constructed    but    frigid    tragedy,   WiLs  produced  in 


JONSON 


JORDAN 


355 


1603 ;  and  Vo/ponc,  or  the  Fo.):,  a  dexterously 
ini,'('iiious  but  uncomfortably  cynical  comedy,  in 
IWI.i.  Of  E/ticaiie,  or  the  Silent  Woman  (1609), 
a  farcical  mirth-inovoking  piece,  Dn'den  observed, 
'  I  prefer  it  before  all  other  plays,  I  think  justly, 
a'*  I  do  its  author,  in  judgment,  above  all  other 
poets.'  2'he  Aleheiaist  ( 1610)  is  the  most  elaborate 
and  most  masterly  of  jonson's  writings,  the  mag- 
nificent extravagance  of  Sir  Epicure  Mammon 
being  depicted  with  keenest  spirit  and  inexhaust- 
ible learning.  Catiline  (1611)  is  a  companion 
piece  to  Sejanns.  Bartholomew  Fair  (1614)  hits 
off  the  humours  of  the  old  London  festival  with 
the  liveliest  gusto,  and  in  the  pei-son  of  Zeal-of- 
the-Land  Busy  gives  a  capital  sketch  of  a  canting 
Puritan  elder.  The  Devil  is  an  Ass  (1616)  and 
The  Staple  of  News  (1625)  are  of  smaller  account. 
The  New  Inn  (1629-30)  was  not  successful  on  the 
stage  (as  .Jonson  records  in  a  famous  ode) ;  it  has 
an  improbable  plot,  but  contains  some  of  the  poet's 
most  eloquent  writing.  The  latest  comedies  were 
The  Magnetic  Ladij  (1632)  and  A  Tale  of  a  Tub 
(1633).  A  delightful  pastoral  play.  The  Sad  Shep- 
herd, Avas  left  unfinished. 

Ben  Jonson's  masques  are  of  singular  beauty. 
He  was  one  of  the  most  learned  men  of  his  age, 
and  he  lavished  all  the  stores  of  liis  knowledge 
on  tliese  entertainments ;  but  his  sprightliness 
of  fancy  and  fertility  of  invention  matched  liis 
learning,  and  his  masques  are  models  of  elemmce 
and  grace.  Tlie  mechanism  was  provided  by  Inigo 
Jones,  with  whom  he  frequently  quarrelled.  Other 
poets  allowed  Jones  to  take  the  chief  credit  for  the 
success  of  their  masques ;  but  Jonson  insisted 
that  the  poetry  was  tlie  main  tiling,  and  that  the 
mechanician's  art  was  of  minor  importance.  Jones 
finally  succeeded  (1627)  in  ousting  Jonson  from 
court  favour. 

In  addition  to  the  masques  Jonson  wrote  many 
elegies,  epistles,  love-poems,  epigrams,  and  epitaplis. 
The  famous  epitaph  on  the  Countess  of  Pembroke, 
beginning  'Underneath  this  sable  hearse,' is  most 
happily  turned  ;  and  another  on  Salathiel  Pavy 
is  hardly  inferior.  As  a  song-writer  he  had  few 
equals.  Of  his  songs  the  most  popular  is  '  Drink 
to  me  only  with  thine  eyes ; '  but  the  Hymn  to 
Diana  in  Cynthia's  Revels,  '  Still  to  be  neat,  still 
to  be  drest'  in  The  Silent  Woman,  and  manj'  of 
the  songs  scattered  up  and  down  the  masques  are 
equally  charming.  J*  one  knew  better  than  Ben 
Jonson  how  to  write  complimentary  poems  ;  the 
Viest  Ls  perhaps  the  epigram  to  the  Countess  of 
Bedford,  '  This  morning,  timely  rapt  with  holy 
fire.'  To  the  collected  edition"^  ( 1623)  of  Shake- 
speare's works  he  prefixed  a  noble  memorial  poem. 
His  prose  Discoveries  are  distinguished  by  admir- 
able judgment  and  unatt'ected  purity  of  diction. 

When  he  was  in  his  forty-sixth  year  lie  spoke 
with  humorous  complacency  of  his  '  mountain 
belly'  and  'rocky  face.'  But  bodily  infirmities 
came  in  later  years.  Towards  the  end  of  1625 
he  was  attacked  by  the  palsy,  and  afterwards  by 
dropsy.  For  the  last  two  or  three  years  of  his 
life  he  was  unable  to  leave  his  room.  His  sutl'er- 
ings  were  intensified  bj-  poverty ;  but  he  found 
patrons  in  King  Charles  and  the  Karl  (afterwards 
Uuke)  of  Newcastle.  He  died  in  August  1637, 
and  was  buried  at  Westminster  Abbey.  A  collec- 
tion of  poems  to  his  memory,  by  most  of  the 
famous  wits  of  the  age,  was  published  in  16.38 
under  the  title  of  Jonsonus  Verhius.  His  arrogance 
and  asperity  had  procured  him  some  enemies ;  but 
he  had  been  liberal  in  his  praise  of  others'  merits, 
and  the  younger  poets  regarded  him  with  reverence 
and  affection.  "The  slab  over  his  grave  bears  the 
inscription,  '  O  rare  Ben  Jonson  I '  His  works  were 
edited  (in  9  vols.)  in  1816  by  William  Oitl'ord,  who 
cleareil  away  the  baseless  calumnies  by  which  his 


memory  had  been  assailed.  Gifford's  edition  was 
re-issued  in  1873  (9  vols.),  with  additional  notes 
by  the  late  Lieut. -cnl.  Cunningham.  See  A.  C. 
Swinburne,  A  Study  of  Ben  Jonson  (1890). 

Joppa.    See  Jaffa. 

.lordat'lis,  Jakob,  a  Dutch  painter,  boiii  at 
Antwerp,  19th  May  lo93.  and  admitted  into  the 
St  Luke  guild  in  1615.  He  ranks  next  to  Ituliens 
amongst  Flemish  painters  in  the  departments  they 
both  cultivated.  Jordaens'  style  is  marked  by 
realistic  fidelity  and  vigour  of  portraiture,  and  his 
colouring  is  generally  good  ;  but  he  is  sometimes 
coarse  and  inelegant.  He  excelled  in  humoristic 
pieces  depicting  Flemish  life,  and  painted  also 
scriptural  and  mythological  subjects.  He  died  at 
Antwerp,  18th  October  1678. 

Jordan  ('descending'),  the  principal  river  of 
Palestine,  the  bed  of  which  forms  a  great  valley 
stretching  from  north  to  south,  in  the  eastern  i>art  of 
the  country.  It  is  formed  by  the  junction  of  three 
streams.  The  highest  source  of  the  Jordan  is  the 
Hasbany,  which  rises  near  the  Dnise  town  of  Has- 
beiya,  on  the  west  side  of  Mount  Hermon.  There  is 
another  spring  on  the  south  side  of  the  same  moun- 
tain at  Biinias  (  Paneas  or  Ca?sarea  Philippi ),  and 
the  Leddan  at  Dan.  The  Jordan  flows  south,  and 
after  a  course  of  a  little  over  100  miles,  ha\ing 
passed  through  the  small  Huleh  Lake  ( The  Waters 
of  Merom)  and  the  Lake  of  Tiberias  (Sea  of 
Galilee),  682  feet  below  the  Mediterranean,  it  falls 
into  the  northern  extremity  of  the  Dead  Sea  (q.v.), 
1292  feet  below  the  Mediterranean.  Besides  smaller 
affluents,  it  receives  four  streams,  the  Wady  Farah 
and  Wady  Kelt  from  the  west,  the  Hieromax  and 
Jabbok  from  the  east.  M'Gregor  estimates  the 
Jordan  to  have  200  miles  of  channel  from  the 
Hasljeiya  source  to  the  Dead  Sea.  The  source  is 
1700  feet  above  the  Mediterranean,  making  a  total 
fall  when  it  reaches  the  Dead  Sea  of  3000  feet. 
The  bed  of  the  river  varies  much  in  breadth,  from 
30  to  50  yards,  flows  latterly  in  a  sunken  channel, 
and  its  banks  of  white  marl  are  in  some  places  flat, 
in  others  steep ;  in  the  north  partly  occupied  by 
fields  of  barley,  but  barren  below  Jericho.  There 
are  upwards  of  forty  fords,  but  the  two  at  Jericho 
are  impassable  when  the  river  is  in  flood.  The 
course  of  the  Lower  Jordan  was  explored  by  Lieu- 
tenant Molyneux  in  1847,  by  Lieutenant  Lynch 
in  1848  :  the  Upper  Jordan  for  the  first  time  by 
John  M'Gregor  in  his  Rob  Roy  canoe  in  1869. 

Jordau.  Mrs  Dorothea,  actress,  was  born  near 
Waterfoid  in  1762,  the  daughter  of  an  actress 
and  one  Bland,  whose  father  afterwards  had  the 
marriage  annulled.  She  appeared  first  in  Dublin, 
under  the  name  of  Miss  Frances,  as  Pluebe  in  As 
You  Like  It,  but  soon  became  popular  in  rompish 
and  'breeches'  parts.  Having  liad  a  quarrel  with 
her  manager,  in  1782  she  crossed  the  channel  and 
obtained  an  engagement  from  Tate  Wilkinson,  of 
the  York  circuit,  with  whom  she  acted  for  three 
years.  It  was  Wilkinson  who  joked  her  about 
'crossing  the  Jordan,'  and  so  suggested  a  new 
name  to  her;  the  'Mrs'  was  added  to  secure  a 
legacy — a  theatrical  wardrobe — left  to  her  on  this 
condition  by  an  aunt  who  was  a  stickler  for  the 
proprieties.  Mrs  Jordan  made  her  debut  at  Drury 
Lane  in  The  Country  Girl  in  October  1785 — just 
seven  weeks  before  Sirs  Clive  died — and  in  a  few 
days  she  had  bewitched  the  town  ;  the  benches, 
formerly  empty  on  the  nights  when  Mrs  Siddoiis 
was  not  playing,  were  now  filled,  and  her  joyous, 
apparently  irre|iressible  laugh — \\eTswindlinii  laugh, 
a  friend  called  it — captivated  all  hearts.  InNovi'm- 
ber  she  appeared  as  Viola  in  The  Twelfth  Night— a, 
performance  of  which  Lanili,  long  after,  wrote  with 
a  kind  of  rajiture;  and  he  added,  '  Her  joyous  jiarta 
(in  which  her  memory  now  chiefly  lives)  in   her 


356 


JORNANDES 


JOSEPH 


yiiutli  weie  imtilone  liy  Iilt  plaintive  ones.'  Nevei- 
tlioless,  for  nearly  tliirty  yoai's-,  it  was  in  the  roles 
of  lonips  anil  boys  that  she  mainly  kept  her  hold 
on  llio  pnblic  :  in  tlie  part  of  a  youthful  and  tender 
lieroiiu!  slie  was  less  suecessful,  as  her  wonderful 
voiee  lost  its  freshness  ami  sweetness.  In  1790 
eonimenced  her  connection  with  the  Duke  of 
Clarence,  afterwards  William  IV.,  which  endured 
until  ISll.  Tliat  she  was  faithful  to  him  all  this 
time,  in  spite  of  her  youtliful  follies,  there  is  no 
reason  to  doubt,  ami  her  considerable  income  was 
placed  freely  at  his  service.  As  some  return  he 
was  warndy  attached  to  her,  and  cause<l  all  who 
came  to  his  house  to  treat  her  as  his  duchess.  No 
satisfactory  explanation  has  ever  been  given  of  the 
su<lden  breakin;,'-ott'  of  their  relations  :  Mrs  Jordan 
testilied  to  the  1  Juke's  generosity,  but  there  is 
rciuson  to  believe  she  sacritieed  herself  in  the  settle- 
ments that  followed.  At  anyrate,  after  playing 
in  London  and  in  the  provinces  until  1814,  sue  was 
compelled  to  retire  to  France  for  a  debt  of  £2000 — 
and  this  at  a  time  when  she  was  s\ipposed  to  be  in 
receipt  of  a  pension  of  £1500  a  year,  besides  her 
earnings  as  an  actress.  She  lived  in  comparative 
poverty,  though  not  in  actual  want,  at  St  Cloud, 
ami  <lied  there,  friendless  and  alone,  .3d  July  1816. 
In  1831  King  William  raised  her  eldest  sou  to  the 
peerage,  as  Earl  of  Munster,  and  gave  the  other 
Fitz-Clarences  the  rank  and  jirecedenee  of  the 
younger  sons  and  daughters  of  a  marriuis.  See 
the  Life  bv  Boaden  (2  vols.  1831),  and  Temple  Bar 
(October  i877). 

JornaudeS.  better  JoI!D.\N1S,  historian  of  the 
Gotlis,  was  by  birth  a  Goth,  or  of  both  Alan  and 
Gothic  descent,  and  flourished  in  the  middle  of 
the  6tli  century.  He  was  lirst  a  notary,  but  after- 
wards, adopting  the  Christian  religion,  became  a 
monk.  He  wrote  two  IxLstorical  works  in  Latin — 
De  liegiwruM  ac  Temporum  Suecessionc,  a  dry  com- 
pendium of  history  from  the  creation  to  550  .v.D. , 
and  only  vahuible  for  events  subseinient  to  450 
A.Ii. .  and  De  Getarnm  On'giiie  et  Rchtis  Gestis, 
which  is  based  on  the  earlier  work  (now  lost)  of 
the  Itoman  Cassiodorus.  This  last  is  our  only 
source  of  information  about  much  connected  with 
the  Goths  and  other  barbarian  tribes.  The  work  is, 
however,  a  mere  compilation,  and  has  many  in- 
accuracies and  inconsistencies.  Its  te.\t  is  pub- 
lished in  Muratori,  Rer.  Ital.  Sc.rijit.  vol.  i.,  and  in 
Grotius,  Ilist.  Gotthoruin,  &c.  (1G.>5). 

Jortill.  John,  miscellaneous  writer,  was  the 
son  of  a  Huguenot  refugee,  and  was  born  in 
Loudon,  2.3d  October  KiilS,  and  educated  at 
Charterhouse  and  .Jesus  College,  Cambridge.  Hav- 
ing taken  orders,  he  held  in  succession  the  livings 
of  Swavesey  in  Cambridgeshire  (till  1730),  East- 
well  in  Kent,  St  Dunstan's-inthe-East,  London 
(from  1751),  and  Kensington.  He  was  also  a  ])re- 
liendary  of  St  Paul's  and  archdeacon  of  London. 
He  dieil  5th  September  1770.  At  Cambridge  he 
published  a  volume  of  meritorimis  Latin  poems, 
Liixus  I'oetici  ( 1722 ).  The  works  for  which  lie  was 
best  known  are  Miscellaneous  Observations  upon 
Authors,  Ancient  and  Modern  (2  vols.  1731-32); 
Remarks  on  Ecclesiastical  History  (5  vols.  1751-53) ; 
Life  of  Erasmus  (2  vols.  1758-60):  and  Tracts: 
1  hiloliKjical,  Critical,  and  Miscellaneous,  edited  bv 
liLssou'(2  vols.  1790). 

•lorilllu,  a  volcanic  mountain  in  the  Mexican 
state  of  Miclioacan,  4315  feet  above  sea-level,  ami 
1640  feet  above  the  plain  on  which  it  stands,  is 
about  1,50  miles  WSW.  of  Mexico  city,  in  19"  9'  N. 
lat.  and  103'  51'  48"  W.  long.  It  wa.s  thrown  up 
during  one  night,  29th  September  1759,  after  several 
niontlis  of  sublerranean  convulsions.  The  i)lain  on 
the  mnthern  side  is  inflated  like  a  gigantic  nladder, 
the  surface  consisting  of  lava  and  cindei's— a  phe- 


nomenon to  which  the  ]ieoide  give  the  name  of 
jnaljiai/s:  it  has  aji  elevation  of  40  feet  above  the 
rest  of  the  plain,  and  is  convex,  ri>ing  in  the  centre 
to  535  feet.  The  .southern  sloiie  of  the  nu>untain 
is  coNered  with  lu.vuriaut  vegetation  from  base  to 
summit. 

Josiipliat.     See  B.VKL.\.VM. 

Jwsepll.  the  name  of  four  persons  in  Scrii)ture. 
(1)  Josiii'H.  the  elder  of  the  two  sons  of  Jacob  by 
Kachel,  and  his  father's  favourite  among  all  his 
sons.  His  envious  brothers  sold  liim  into  Egyjit, 
where,  after  he  had  endured  imprisonment  in  con- 
sequence of  the  calumnious  charges  of  the  wife  of 
his  nia-ster  Potiphar,  his  conduct  and  skill  in  the 
interpretation  of  dreams  brought  him  the  especial 
favour  of  Pharaoh  and  the  flrst  ]ilace  in  the  king- 
dom. His  prudent  foresight  en;ililed  him  to  stave 
oil'  fandne  by  measures  which  enormously  enhanced 
the  power  of  the  throne,  and  soon  he  had  the  grati- 
fication to  find  his  brothers  at  his  feet,  driven 
down  into  Egypt  for  lack  of  bread.  The  story  is 
told  in  full  detail  in  Genesis,  how  at  last  he  made 
himself  known  to  his  trembling  brothers,  and  .M-nt 
to  Canaan  for  his  aged  father  and  the  whole  fanuly, 
]ilacing  them  after  their  arrival  in  the  land  of 
tioshen.  Joseph  died  at  length  full  of  years  and 
honours,  and  when  the  Israelites  left  Egy|it  they 
carrieil  with  them  his  bones  to  l)e  Imried  in 
Shecliem  in  the  inheritance  of  bis  son  Ephraim. 

(2)  Joseph,  the  husband  of  the  Virgin  .Mary, 
and  reputed  father  of  Jesus,  a  carjienter  at  Naza- 
reth. The  earliest  genealogy  of  Jesus  makes 
Joseph  a  descendant  of  David,  and  woubl  seem  to 
favour  the  natural  birth  of  Jesus  from  parents  both 
of  royal  line  ;  but  the  notion  of  the  ndraculous  con- 
ception is  found  in  both  Matthew  and  Luke,  and 
was  early  accejited  as  a  ]iart  of  Christian  belief. 
Later  days  ileveloped  the  idea  of  the  perjietual 
virginity  of  Mary,  and  made  .lose]ih  into  licr  pro- 
tector and  merely  nominal  husbaml,  giving  Idm 
eighty  years  and  a  grown-un  family  of  sons  by  a 
former  wife  at  the  time  of  liis  formal  espousal  of 
Mary.  These  stories  tii-st  occur  in  the  aj)ocryphal 
gospels,  earliest  of  which  is  apparently  the  J'rot- 
evani/elium  of  James;  a  2il -century  jiroduction 
(|Uoted  by  Origen,  and  mentiiuied  by  Clement  of 
.Vlexandria  and  Justin  .Martyr.  The  apocryphal 
llisturia  Jose/ilii  fuljri  tiijndrii,  which  now  exists  in 
Arabic,  is  thought  by  Tischendorf  to  have  been 
originally  written  in  Coptic.  Joseph  apjiears  last 
in  the  gospel  history  when  Jesus  is  twelve  years 
old  (Luke,  ii.  43) ;  he  is  never  mentioned  iluring  his 
ministry,  and  may  be  jussumeil  to  have  been  already 
deail.  The  controversy  about  the  'brethren  of  the 
Lord'  has  engaged  the  attention  of  many  writers 
from  the  time  of  St  .Jerome  to  the  present  day. 
The  main  facts  related  of  tlieuj  in  Scrii)ture  itself 
are  their  unbelief  duiing  the  lifetime  of  the  Lord, 
their  distinctness  from  the  Twelve  (Acts,  i.  13;  1 
Cor.  ix.  5),  and  their  connection  with  .Joseph  and 
Mary.  The  two  opinions  that  luevailed  until  the 
time  of  St  Jerome  about  the  close  of  the  4lli  century 
were  ( 1 )  that  they  were  sons  of  Joseph  by  a  former 
wife,  as  held  by  most  orthodox  Christians,  ami  by 
such  Kathers  as  Clement  of  .Alexandria,  Origen, 
Eusebius,  Gregory  of  Nyssa,  Epiiihanius,  Ambrose, 
and  the  later  Greek  writers;  (2)  that  they  were 
.sons  of  both  .Joseph  and  Mary,  a-s  maintaineil  by 
Tertullian,  Ilelvidius,  Pxmosus,  and  the  heretical 
Arabian  sect  of  the  Antiilicomarianites,  and  Alfiud 
.and  Earrar  among  modern  scholai's.  St  .Jerome 
about  the  year  383  wrote  a  treatise  iu  answer  to 
Helvidius,  maintaining  that  they  were  cousins 
after  the  llesh,  being  scms  of  Mary,  the  wife  of 
Alpha'us  (identical  with  Clopas)and  sister  of  the 
Virgin.  In  this  opinion  Jerome  was  followed  by 
Pelagius,   Augustine,   Tlieodoret,  and   later  Latin 


JOSEPH    I. 


JOSEPHUS 


357 


-nritei's.  But  as  Bisliop  Lijilitfoot  points  out  in  the 
Dissertation,  'The  Brethren  of  the  Loni,'  aiiiienihHl 
to  his  C'onnnentarv  on  thi^  Eiiistle  to  the  Calatians 
(ISC).")),  Jerome  claims  no  traditional  su|i]iort  for 
Ills  theory,  and  docs  not  himself  hold  it  staunchly 
and  consistently.  The  strongest  objection  against 
the  Helvidian  theory  is  that  Jesus  on  the  cross 
commended  his  mother  to  the  keeping  of  St  .John 
(.lohn,  xix.  26.  "27) :  against  the  Hieronyniian,  that 
it  gives  a  special  sense  to  '  lirethren "  unsupjiorted 
by  biblical  usage,  and  that  it  su]iposes  two  if  not 
three  of  the  unbelieving  'Lord's  brethren'  to  be  in 
the  number  of  the  Tweh'e.  Lightfoot  favours  the 
Kpiphanian  as  travei-sing  less  serious  scriptural 
ditticulties,  and  more  in  accordance  with  Christian 
tradition. 

(.•J)  JO.SEPH  OF  AniMATHEA,  a  rich  Israelite  of 
high  character,  who  seems  to  have  lieen  a  member 
of  the  Great  Council  or  Sanhedrim.  He  o])posed 
the  determination  of  his  colleagues  to  bring  about 
the  death  of  Jesus,  but  did  not  openly  profess  him- 
self a  disciple  from  motives  or  fear.  But  the 
courage  of  his  convictions  came  to  him  at  the 
moment  of  the  crucifixion,  and  on  the  evening  of 
that  daj-  he  went  boldly  to  Pilate  and  begged  the 
body  of  Jesus,  burying  it  reverently  in  liis  own 
roclihewn  tomb.  An  ancient  tradition  makes  him 
carry  the  Grail  (q.v.)  to  Britain  about  the  year  63 
and  settle  at  Gla-stonbury  { q.v. ). 

(4)  Joseph,  called  Barsabas  and  surnamed 
.Justus,  one  of  the  two  pei-sons  chosen  as  worthy  to 
till  the  v.acant  place  of  Juda.s  among  the  Twelve 
(.Acts,  i.  •2.S).  Papias  relates  a  tradition  that  he 
had  been  miraculously  preserved  l)y  tlie  Lord  from 
the  fatal  effects  of  a  cup  of  poison  he  had  drunk. 

Joseph  I.,  emperor  of  Germany,  the  eldest 
son  of  Leopohl  I.,  bom  at  'Vienna,  2fith  July  1678, 
was  crowned  king  of  Ilungarj-  in  16S9,  and  king  of 
the  Romans  in  1690,  became  emperor  in  170.5,  and 
died  on  17th  April  1711.  Holding  opinions  more 
liberal  than  those  which  have  generally  prevailed 
in  his  family,  he  granted  privileges  to  the  Protest- 
.ants  of  his  dominions,  especially  in  Silesia.  In 
alliance  with  Britain,  lie  prosecuted  actively  and 
snci'esstuUy  the  war  of  the  Spanish  succession 
against  Fiance,  .\nother  favourite  scheme  of  his 
was  the  appropriation  of  Bavaria. 

Josopll  II..  emperor  of  Germany,  son  of 
Franiis  I.  and  Mari.a  Theresa  (q.v.),  wa.s  born  1.3th 
March  1741.  He  e.arly  gave  proof  of  excellent 
abilities.  In  1764  he  was  elected  king  of  the 
Romans,  and  after  the  death  of  his  f,ather  (176.5) 
emperor  of  Germany  ;  but  until  the  death  of  his 
mother  in  1780  his  actual  share  of  power  amounted 
to  little  more  than  the  chief  command  of  the  army 
and  the  direction  of  foreign  airaii"s.  Although  he 
failed  in  hisobject  of  .adding  Bavaria  to  the  Austrian 
dominions  (1777-79  and  again  in  17S5),  which  he 
hoped  to  obtain  in  exchange  for  the  Low  Countries, 
he  ,ac(]uired  (iaiicia,  Lodomeria,  iind  the  county  of 
Zips,  at  the  first  partition  of  Folanrl  in  1772;  and 
in  17S0  he  appropriated  great  part  of  the  bisho])rics 
of  l';issau  and  Salzburg.  He  was  a  zealous  reformer; 
but  having  imbibed,  like  Frederick  the  (!reat,  the 
principles  of  absolute  rule  which  prevailed  in  that 
age.  he  attempted  his  reforms  too  rashly,  and  too 
ninili  by  the  exercise  of  mere  authority.  .As  soon 
a.s  he  found  himself  in  full  ])ossession  of  the  govern- 
ment of  .\ustria  he  proceeded  to  declare  himself 
independent  of  the  pope,  and  to  prohibit  the  publi- 
cation of  any  new  papal  bulls  in  his  dominions 
without  his  plarct.  The  continued  publication  of 
the  bulls  '  I'nigenitus  '  and  '  In  Ciena  Domini '  wa.s 
prohibited.  Besides  this,  he  suppressed  no  fewer 
than  700  convents,  reduced  the  number  of  the  regu- 
lar clergy  from  63,tKX)  to  27,000,  prohibiteil  iianal 
dLspensatioiis  as  to  marriage,  and  on  1.5th  Octofier 


1781  published  the  celebrated  Edict  of  Toleration, 
by  which  lie  allowed  the  free  exercise  of  their  reli- 
gion to  the  Protestants  and  Non-united  (heeks  in 
his  dominions.  Pope  Pius  VI.  thought  to  check 
this  coui'se  by  a  personal  interview  with  the 
emperor,  and  for  that  purpose  made  a  visit  to 
Vienna  in  178'2.  but  Avas  unsuccessful  in  his  object. 
Joseph's  other  important  reforms  were  the  abolition 
of  serfdom  and  the  reorganisation  of  the  system  of 
t.axation  mi  a  juster  basis.  He  also  curtailed  the 
feudal  (irivileges  of  the  nobles.  In  17S8  he  engaged 
in  a  war  with  Turkey,  in  which  he  was  unsuccessful ; 
and  the  vex.ati<m  caused  by  this,  and  by  the  revolts 
in  his  own  ilominions,  in  Hungary,  Tyrol,  and  the 
\etherl.-inds,  and  the  necessit.v  under  which  he  felt 
himself  of  revoking  many  of  the  edicts  by  which  he 
had  sought  to  promote  the  welfares  of  his  people, 
especi.ally  in  Hungary,  hastened  his  death,  which 
took  ]ilace  on  •20tli  February  1790.  He  founded 
many  vahialile  educational  and  scientific  institu- 
tions, anil  did  lunch  to  promote  the  progress  of  arts, 
manufactures,  and  commerce  in  Austria. 

See  works  by  Bninner  { 1868-85),  Lustkandl  ( 1881 ),  and 
Nosinich  and  Wiener  (188.5)  ;  also  Leger's  History  of 
Au.-^tro-Hitti'iat't/  (Eng.  trans.  1890). 

Joseph,  king  of  Naples.     See  Bon.\P-4RTE. 

Josephine.  M.\p,ie  Rose,  emjiress  of  the 
French,  was  born  23d  June  1763.  in  the  island 
of  Martinique,  where  her  f.ather,  Tascher  de  la 
Pagerie,  was  captain  of  the  port  at  St  Pierre. 
She  had  onl.v  an  indifferent  colonial  education ; 
but  her  qualities  of  mind  and  heart,  even  more 
than  her  beaut.y,  won  univei'sal  regard.  When 
about  fifteen  years  of  age  she  came  to  France,  and 
in  1779  married  Viscount  Alexandre  Beauharnais 
(q.v.).  A  d.augliter  of  this  marriage,  Hortense, 
queen  of  Holland,  was  the  mother  of  the  Emperor 
Napoleon  III.  Josephine's  husband  was  executed 
during  the  Keign  of  Terror,  she  hei'self  just  escap- 
ing. On  9th  March  1796  she  was  married  to 
Napoleon  Bonaparte.  She  accompanied  him 
in  his  Italian  campaign,  and  exercised  a  great 
influence  in  restraining  him  from  measures  of 
violence  and  severity.  At  INIalmaison,  and  after- 
wards at  the  Luxembourg  and  the  Tuileries,  she 
attracted  round  her  the  most  brilliant  societ.y  of 
France,  and  contributed  not  a  little  to  the  estab- 
lishment of  her  husband's  po«er.  But  her  marriage 
with  Napoleon  proving  unfruitful,  it  was  dissolved 
b.Y  law  on  16th  December  1809.  .losephine  ret.ained 
the  title  of  empress,  corresponded  with  Bonajiarte, 
■and,  if  the  allied  sovereigns  had  jiermitted  it, 
would  have  rejoined  him  after  his  fall.  She  died 
at  Malmaison,  •29th  May  1814. 

See  Anbenas,  Histoire  ilc  Jos(phine  (1859);  Memoirea 
lie  Madame  de  Rcmusat  (2  vols.  Paris,  LS7il-80 ;  Eng. 
trans.  1880);  and  two  sumptuous  French  works  on 
Josephine  by  F.  Masson  (1898-99). 

Josephstadt.  one  of  the  most  important  for- 
tres.ses  of  the  Austri.an  empire,  stands  at  the 
confluence  of  the  Mettau  and  the  Elbe  in  Bohemi.a, 
10.\  miles  N.  by  E.  of  Kiiniggriitz.  Pop.  .5903,  of 
whom  3.500  belimg  to  the  garrison. 

•losephllS.  FL.Wlirs,  a  celebrated  .Jewi.sh  his- 
torian, was  bom  at  Jerusalem  in  37  A.D.  He  was 
of  both  royal  and  sacerdot.al  lineage,  being  de- 
scended, on  the  mother's  side,  from  the  line  of 
Asnionean  princes,  while  his  father,  Matthias, 
olliciated  .as  a  priest  in  the  first  of  the  twenty- 
four  coui-ses.  'I  he  careful  education  he  received 
developed  his  biilliant  faculties  .at  an  unusually 
early  age,  and  his  acquirements  both  in  Hebrew 
and  Greek  literature  soon  drew  public  attention 
upon  him.  Having  succe.ssively  attended  the 
lectures  at  the  par.amount  religious  schools  of  his 
time — 'sects,'  a.s  he  inaccurately  terms  them — he 
withdrew   into  the  clesert   to  sit  at   the    feet    of 


358 


JOSEPHUS 


JOSIAH 


one  Banos,  wlio  is  coniectured  to  have  been  either 
a   f,.ll<.\ver  of    John    the    Baptist    or  an   tssene. 
Three  vears  later  he  returneil  to  Jerusalem,  ami 
hencef(irlh  helon-e.l  to  the  l.oclv  of  the  '  Pharisees, 
vhi.-h  in  fact  comprised  the  hulk  ot  the  people. 
So  lii.'hlv  was  his  ability  esteemoil  that  at  the  age 
of  onfv  twentvsix  he  was  chosen  delegate  to  ISero. 
AVhen  the  Jews  rose  in  their  last  and  fatal  insur- 
rection   a-ainst    the    Komans    Josephus   was    aj)- 
pointed  govcrn.n-  of  Galilee.      Here  he  displayed 
tlie  greatest  valovir  and  prudence  ;  but  the  advance 
of  the  Konian  general  Vespasian  (6,   A.D.)  matte 
resistance   hopeless.       The  city   of   Jotapata  into 
which   Josephus   had   thrown   himselt   was    taken 
after  a  desperate   resistance  of   forty-seven  days. 
Alon.'  with  some  others  he  concealed  himself  in 
a  cavern,  but  his  hiding-place  was  discovered   and 
bein"  brought  before   Vespa.sian   he   would    have 
been  sent  to  Nero  had  he  not-according  to  his 
own  account,  for  Josephus  is  his  own  and  his  sole 
bio.'ianher— prophesied  that  his  captor  would  yet 
become   emperor  of  P.onie.      Neverthele.ss  he  was 
keiit  in  a  sort  of  easv  imprisonment  for  about  tliree 
years.     Joseiduis  was  present  in  the  Roman  army 
"at  the  sie-e  of  Jerusalem  by  Titus ;  and  after  the 
fall  of  the  citv  (TO  A.D.)  was  instrumental  in  aav- 
in.'  the  lives  of  some  of  his  relatives.     After  tins 
he^appears  to  have  resided  at  Kome,  and  to  have 
devoted    himself    to   literary   studies.     The  e.xact 
period  of  his  death   is  not   ascertained.      All   «e 
know  is  that  he  survived  Agrippa  II.,  who  died 
97  \  I)      He  was  thrice  married,  and  had  chiUlren 
bv'h'is  second  and  third  wives.     His  works  are  the 
Hhtfjni  of  the  Jcirislt    ]Var,  in  7  books,  written 
both  i'li  Hebrew  and  Greek  (the  Hebrew  version 
is  no  longer  extant);    Jewish  Antiquities,   in   2U 
books,  containing  the  history  of  his  countrymen 
from  the  earliest  times   down  to  the  end  ot   the 
rei"n   of    Nero    (the   fictitious   Hebrew   Josqmon, 
whTch   for  a  long  lime  was  identitied  with  Jose- 
phus' Antiquities,    dates   from   the   10th    century 
AD)-   a   treatise  on  the  Antiqnitij  of  the  Jews, 
a.'ainst  Apion,  in  2  vols.,  valuable  chiefly  for  its 
extracts  from  old  historical  writers ;  andan^»<o- 
bio(,raph!/(Sl-90  A.I).),  in  one  book,  which  mav  he 
considered  supplementary  to  the  Antiquities,     llie 
other  works  attributed  to  him  are  not  believed  to 
be  genuine 


tlie   peculiar  character  of  Josephus  is  not  diffi 
cult  to  descri"         "  '' "  "..n„f 


ibe.     He  was  in  the  main  honest  and 

veracious  ;  he  had  a  sincere  liking  for  his  countiy- 

inen   and  rather  more  piide  and  enthusiasm  in  the 

old  national  history  than  he  could  well  justify  ;  but 

the   hoiiclossness  of  attempting   to  withstand    the 

enormous  power  of  the  Kmiians  and  an   aversion 

to  marlvi-doni  caused  him  to  make  his  terms  w-illi 

the  eneniv,  perhaps  in  the  faint  hope  of  being  thus 

of  some  use  to  the  national  cause.     The  mlluencve 

of  Greek  philosophv  and  learniii<'  is  visilde  in  all 

his  writings,  and  iuus  given  to  his  conception  ot 

biblical  liistory  a  somewhat  rationalistic  tinge.     He 

speaks  of  Moses  as  a  human  rather  than  a  divinely 

inspired   lawgiver;   he  doubts  the  miracle   in    the 

crossing  of  the  Bed  Sea,  the  swallowing  of  Jonah 

by  tlie  whale,  and,  generally  speaking,  whatever  is 

calculated  to  teach  that  there  was  a  special  iniiac- 

ulous  i'rovidence  at  work  on  behalf  of  the  chosen 

people.     The  famous  iia-ssage  about  Je.sus  is  gener- 

allv  concclcd  to   he  an  interpolation.      His  style 

is  easy  and  elegant,  and  Josephus  has  often   been 

called  the  Greek  Livy. 

The  alitio  princcps  of  the  Greek  text  appeared  at 
Basel  ( Froben)  in  ir.44.  Since  tlien  the  iiiost  n"l"":tjj;'t 
editions  (with  notes)  are  those  of  Hudson  ( Oxford  1 1 -0, 
Havercamp  (Amst.  1731).  Dindorf  (Pans  1M.>~4,) 
Bckker  (G  vols.  Leip.  1K5.^)  .'il!),  and  Niese  (Berlin,  18.S(, 
el  ten.).  Josephus  lias  been  frciucntly  translated;  the 
most  celebrated  versions  in  English  have  been  those  by 


L'Estranee  (1T02),  Whiston  (1737;  new  and  revised 
edftfon  bf  ShiUeto;  5  voU.  18S9-90).  Maynard  (1800),  and 
Traill  and  Taylor  ( 1851 ).  See  the  German  books  devoted 
to  Josephus  by  Biirwald  (1877),  Bottger  (18,9),  Bloch 
(1879),  Destinon  (1882),  and  Olitzki  (18b(j). 

Joshua  (Heb.  JchushiM  :  Gr.  Icsous,  from  late 
Heh.  Jcshiki),  or  Hosm: A  ( Num.  xiii.  16),  the  son 
of  Nun,  of  the  tribe  of  Eoliraini,  is  lirst  mentioned 
in  Ex    xvii.  9  as  commanding  the  warriors  of  Israel 
in   the   battle  of   Keplddim.     He  was  also  one  of 
tlie   twelve  spies  sent  out  from  Kadcsh  to  collect 
information  about  the  strength  of  the  Canaanites 
and  the  prospects  of  the  intended  invasion  (Num. 
xiii  )    and  wlien  the  others  returned  disheartened 
iie   and   Caleb  alone   retained   their  courage    ami 
reported  in  favour  of  an  armed   advance.       Tliese 
two  alone,  therefore,  out  of  all  the  grown  men  of 
Israel,  were  exempted   from   the  divine   sentence 
that  because  of  their  want  of  faith  they  shoul.l  fall 
in  the  wilderness.     During  the  forty  years  wander- 
ings Joshua  acted   as   the   'minister     or   personal 
attendant  of  Moses  (Ex.  xxiv.  13,  &c.),  a  relation 
which  seems  to  have  marked  him  out  a-sthe  tavour- 
ite  disciple  and  proljable  successor  of  the  lawgiver. 
After  'the  Lord  was  angry  with  Moses     Joshua 
was  expresslv  designated  to  lead  the  people  into 
Canaan  (Deut.   i.   38),   and   this  designation   was 
solemnly  confirmed  at  the  tabernacle  (Deut.  xxxi. 
14    s,/q.)    before   Moses'   death.      The    book    that 
bears  his  name  is  a  narrative  of  the  conquest  and 
settlement    of    Canaan    under   the    leadership    to 
which   he   thus  succeeded.      It   relates   with  con- 
siderable detail  the  passage  of  the  Jordan,  the  tall 
of  Jericho  and  Ai,  the  submission  of  the  Gibeonites, 
the  defeat  of  the  live  kings  of  the  south  at  Beth- 
boron  and  of  the  four  kings  of  the  north  at  the 
waters  of  Meroin,  gives  a  large  number  of  geogra- 
phical and  administrative  details  ivs  to  the  distn- 
l.ution  of  the  conquered  territory  among  the  tribes 
that  had  taken  part  in  the  comiuest    and  concludes 
with  two  addresses  which  Joshua  de  ivered  short  y 
before  his  death.     The  Je>Nish  rabbins  and  early 
Christian  writers  all  supposed  this  book  to  have 
been  written  by  Joshua  himself;   but  this  is   an 
impossible  assumption,   for   besides    telling   ot    Ins 
death  it  alludes  to  a  number  of  things  that  (lid 
not   happen  until   long  after  that   event   (see    for 
example,  xv.  63  compared  with  Judges,  xix.  10-12; 
and  xix.  47  with  Judges,  xviii.  7,  '2.  s'/',.).     In  fact, 
like  the  other  historical  b.)oks  ot  the  O  d  restamcnt, 
it  is  an  anonvmous  writing,  and  when  ciitically 
examined  is  seen  to  have  been  originally  uiuteil  to 
the  Pentateuch,  and  to  have  been  composed  in  the 
same   manner.     It  is  made   up  of  extracts    fi..m 
various  narratives,  i.ieced  togetlier  by  a  later  liaud 
in  the   manner   of   eastern    hisloiians     and    in   its 
present  form  cannot  he  uuich  earlier  than  the  time 
of  Ezra.     Most  modern  critics  are  agreed  that  the 
documents  used  by  the  editor  were  mainly  three— 
the  Jehovistic  (known   to  critics   by   the   symbol 
JE)  of  the  Sth  or  9th  century,  the  Deuteronom.Mic 
(D)  of  the  7th,  and  the  Prie.stly  (P)  of  the  otli. 
To  the  Jehovistic  document   belong  in  the   main 
chaps,  ii.  1-viii.  '29;  ix.  1-xi.  9;  xxiii.,  xxiv.,  and 
a  fe«  short  fragments  in  other  chai)teis.     lo  the 
Dcuteronomist  are  assigned  chaps,  i.,  viu.  M-.io; 
xi     10— xiii    14  ;  xiv.  li-15,  and  some  other  small 
i.ortions;  while  the  lemainder,  including  the  greater 
part  of  the  account  of  the  division  of  the  territory, 
comes  from  the  priestly  writer.     Its  geographical 
details  are  chaiiicteriscd  by  great  vagueness,  ex 


details  are  chaiacteri.scd  by  great  va-ueuess,  ex- 
cept as  regards  the  portion  of  the  land  which  was 
held  bv  Jews  after  the  exile.  The  best  com- 
nientai'v  on  Joshua  is  tliat  of  Dillniann  ( 1886). 

Josiilll.  one  of  the  kings  of  Judah,  was  the 
son  of  Anion  and  Jedidah.  and  succeeded  his  father 
at  the  age  of  eight  in  641  B.C.  He  grew  up  an 
ardent  religious  reformer,  and  purged  Judah  and 


JOSIKA 


JOULE 


359 


Jenisalein  fioin  idolatry.  It  was  in  his  reign  that 
Hilkiiih  the  high-iiriest  is  said  to  have  discovered 
tlie  'Book  of  theTorah,'  hv  wliich  some  understand 
Deuteronomy,  othei-s  Exoilus,  and  others  again  the 
whole  Pentateuch.  The  king  now  vijiorously  re- 
established the  worehip  of  Jehovah,  and  instituted 
the  rites  in  the  newlydiscovere<l  hook.  He  met 
his  death  at  Megiddo,  in  the  valley  of  Esdraelon, 
when  attempting  to  cheek  the  advance  of  Pharaoh- 
Necho  against  tlie  Assyrians,  609  B.C.  Josiah  was 
the  last  of  the  good  kings  of  Judah.  In  his  days 
prophesied  Jeremiah  and  Zephaniah. 

Josiksi.     See  HfXG.\RY  (Literature). 

Jost,  Is.\AK  Markis,  a  Jewish  historian,  was 
born  at  Bernburg  in  Anhalt,  22d  Feljruary  1793. 
He  laboured  as  a  Jewish  schoolmaster  at  Berlin 
(1S-2G-35)  and  Frankfort-on-Main  (1S35-60),  and 
died  at  Frankfort,  20tli  November  1S60.  He  wrote 
Geschic/ife  der  IsracUtcn  (9  vols.  1820-29),  to  which 
were  added  Neiiere  Geschichtc  der  Jsracliten,  1S15- 
45  (3  vols.  1846-47),  and  Geschichtc  des  Juden- 
thiiiiui  (3  vols.  1S57-59).  He  also  edited  a  German 
translation  of  the  Mishnah,  with  text  and  com- 
mentary ( 6  vols.  1832-  34 ). 

Jotnnheim.    See  Giants. 

Joiibert,  Gener.^l.    See  Tr.\nsvaal. 

Jonbert,  Joseph,  w-as  bom  at  Montignac  in 
Perigord,  6th  May  1754,  and  studied  and  taught 
till  twenty-two  at  the  college  of  Toulouse,  then 
under  the  direction  of  the  Fathei'S  of  the  Christian 
Doctrine.  He  then  went  to  Paris,  and  here  made 
the  acriuaintance  of  Diderot,  D'AIembert,  Mar- 
montel,  and  La  Harpe,  and  lived  through  all  the 
fever  of  the  Revolution.  He  became  tlie  bosom 
friend  of  Fontane.s  and  Chateaubriand,  and  he 
canied  both  to  the  famous  salon  of  Madame  de 
Beaumont.  In  1790  his  native  townsmen  elected 
him  as  justice  of  the  peace,  and  in  1809  he  was 
nominated  by  Napoleon  on  the  recommendation  of 
Fontanes  to  a  seat  in  the  council  of  the  new  uni- 
versity. At  Villeneuve  and  at  Paris  he  lived  hence- 
forward, and  his  yeai-s  glided  quietly  away,  while 
he  read,  dreamed,  walked,  wrote  lettere,  and  dis- 
coursed to  friends  who  thronged  even  to  his  bed- 
room, which  he  seldom  left  before  three  o'clock  in 
the  afternoon.  Despite  weak  health,  he  carried 
his  head  high  all  his  life,  and  never  ceased  to  read 
and  re-read  his  favourite  books,  and  jot  down  his 
meditations.  Yet  he  published  nothing  in  his  life, 
although  he  was  the  keenest  as  well  as  the  kindest 
critic  to  the  writings  of  all  hLs  friend.s.  He  died 
4tli  May  1824.  Fourteen  years  after,  his  Avidow 
acceded  to  the  prayers  of  lier  friends  to  allow  a 
small  volume  to  be  i)rinted  from  his  papers. 
Chateaubriand  edited  it ;  Sainte-Beuve  praised  it 
without  stint  in  the  liceiic  dcs  Deux  Mondes,  and 
Joubert's  fame  was  from  the  moment  of  its  appear- 
ance assured.  And  his  Pcnsijes,  alike  from  their 
intrinsic  value  and  insight  and  their  faultless  form, 
are  worthy  of  their  place  in  the  splendid  succession 
of  La  Rochefoucauld,  Pascal,  La  Bruyere,  and 
Vauvenargues. 

At  length  in  1842  Joubert's  nephew,  Paul  de  Kajmal, 
issued  an  adequate  edition  of  the  Perutees  et  Maximea 
from  the  more  than  200  small  manuscript  books,  with  the 
addition  of  a  number  of  letters,  and  an  admirable  bio- 
graphical sketch,  -\nother  and  enlarged  edition  by  his 
brotlier,  Arnaud  Joubert,  followed  in  1850;  yet  another, 
better  arranged,  by  Louis  de  Raynal  in  two  volumes  in 
1862.  There  are  translations  by  G.  H.  Calvert  ( Boston, 
1867)  and  Henry  Attwell  (1877).  See  Sainte-Beuve's 
Caiueriet  du  Lundi  (vol.  i.),  Portraitt  LiUeraires  (vol. 
ii),  and  almost  every  page  of  his  Chatenuhriaivi  et  son 
Groujie :  also  Matthew  Arnold's  E»m  i/t  in  Criticitm 
(18<;.-)). 

Jouffroy.  Theodore  Si-MOX,  a  French  philoso- 
pher, was  bom  at  Pontets,  a  village  of  the  Jura,  on 


7th  July  1796.     He  became  a  pupil  of  Cousin,  the 
philosopher,  at  Paris,  and  from  1817  onwards  taught 

iihilosophy  at  various  educational  institutions  in 
'aris.  Ill-health  obliged  him  in  1838  to  exchange 
his  professorial  chair  for  the  post  of  librarian  to 
the  university.  He  died  at  Paris,  4tli  February 
1842.  Joutlioy  was  not  an  original  thinker,  aiul 
founded  no  scliool.  His  merit  is  that  he  was  the 
lucid  interpreter  of  the  teaching  of  the  Scottish 
philosophers  Keid  and  Dugald  .Stewart ;  he  trans- 
lated their  works,  with  critical  introductions  and 
notes.  His  own  best  books  were  Mctaiiffcs  Philo- 
sophiqiies  (1833;  new  ed.  1883),  fours  du  Droit 
Aaturel  ( 1835),  and  Cours  dEsthHique  (1843  ;  new 
ed.  1883).  A  prominent  feature  of  his  teaching 
was  the  sharp  separation  of  jisycliology  from  physi- 
ology. For  some  time  JouttVoy  was  an  industrious 
member  of  the  Chamber  of  Deputies ;  he  was  also 
well  known  as  a  journalist.  See  Life  by  Tissot 
(1876). 

Jouffroy  d'Abbans,  Claude,  Marquis  de 
(1751-1832),  claimed  by  the  French  as  the  inventor 
of  steam-navigation,  served  in  the  army,  and  ilid 
in  1783  make  a  small  paddle-wheel  steamboat  sail 
up  the  Rhone  at  Lyons — the  connection  between 
piston  and  paddle-wheel  axle  being  rack-and-pinion. 
Compelled  to  emigrate  by  the  Revolution,  he  failed, 
on  account  of  financial  ruin,  to  tloat  a  company  till 
after  Fulton  had  made  his  successful  experiments 
on  the  Seine  in  1803.  See  the  article  SHinu'iLD- 
ING;  ami  a  monograph  on  him  by  J.  C.  A.  Prost 
(Paris,  1889). 

JougS,  JUGGS,  or  JoGGS,  the  name  given  in 
Scotland  to  a  form  of  pillory  wliich  was  used  also 
in  Holland  and  probably  in  other  countries.  The 
jougs  were  nothing  more  than  an  iron  ring  or  collar, 
fastened  by  a  chain  of  two  or  three  links  to  a  pillar- 
or  wall  in  some  public  place, 
such  as  a  inarKet-cross,  a 
market  tron  or  weighing  post, 
a  prison  door,  a  church  door, 
a  churchyard  gate,  a  church- 
yard tree,  a  tree  beneath 
whose  branches  courts  were 
held,  and  the  like.  The  ring 
or  collar  opened  by  a  hinge 
or  joint,  so  as  to  enclose  the 
culprits  neck,  when  it  was 
secured  by  a  loop  or  staple 
and  a  padlock.  The  jougs 
were  employed  as  a  punish- 
ment as  well  for  ecclesiastical 
as  for  civil  oft'ences.  They 
may  be  traced  as  far  back 
as  the  16th  centuiy,  and, 
although  they  have  not  been 
in  use  for  the  last  hundred 
years,  they  may  still  be 
found  hanging  at  a  few 
country  churches.  The  ac- 
companying wood-cut  repre- 
sents the  jougs  at  the 
churchyard  gate  of  the  pic- 
turesque village  of  Dud<lirig- 
ston,  2  miles  SE.  of  Edinburgh.  The  Branks  (q.v.) 
were  occasionally  hung  on  the  same  idllar  with  the 
jougs. 

Joule,  James  Prescott,  F.R.S.,  LL.  1).,  one 
of    the   most  distinguished   experimental   |)bil(iso- 

fhei-s,  was  born  24th  December  1818  at  Salford. 
n  his  youth  he  bad  the  good  fortune  to  have  for 
instructor  in  science  the  celebrated  Dalton  ;  and 
he  soon  showed,  by  constructing  for  himself  elec- 
trical machines  and  other  philosophical  instruments, 
the  bent  of  bis  genius.  His  earliest  notable  experi- 
ments were  made  with  reference  to  electromagnetic 
engines ;    from  which  he  passed   to   quantitative 


>«=, 


;i#- 


Jougs. 


360 


JOURDAN 


JUAREZ 


<leterminations  lepardinf,'  heat,  and  the  transfor- 
maticm  of  various  forms  of  EneiRV  (q.v.).  He  is 
lustly  entitled  to  he  consideretl  as  tlie  experimental 
ifouniler  of  the  modern  theory  of  conservation  of 
enert;v— the  p-andest  generalisation  ever  made  in 
phvsical  science.  In  1878  a  civil  list  pension  of 
£•21)0  was  conferred  upon  him.  He  dieil  11th 
OctoUer  18S9,  at  Sale,  near  Manchester.  See 
Xatiirc  (Octolier  1882);  his  collected  papers  dmh- 
lished  l,v  the  Phvsical  Society,  1884-87):  and  the 
Mnuoir'hx  Osborne  Kevnolds  (1893).— The  name 
Jdii.K  has  been  sujigesteil,  and  to  some  e.\tent 
used  for  the  unit  of  work  in  practical  electricity. 
It  is  the  work  done  in  one  second  liy  the  ampire  or 
unit  current  Howiii','  through  the(y/i»i  or  unit  resist- 
ance, and  is  therefore,  according  to  Joules  Law  (see 
Elkctricity),  the  heat  developed  in  one  second 
in  a  conductor  having  that  resistance  and  carry- 
ing that  current.  It  is  approximately  equal  to 
107(100,000  ergs ;  so  that  '  Joule's  Equivalent, 
defined  as  the  mechanical  equivalent  of  the  heat 
required  to  raise  the  temperature  of  one  gramme  ot 
water  from  0"  C.  to  1°  C,  contains  to  the  .same 
approximation  i-\ii  joules. 

Joiirdail.  Jkax  B.\ptiste,  Comte,  a  French 
marshal,   born   29111  April   17G2,   at   Limoges.     He 
entered  the  arrav  at  sixteen,  and,  after  seeing  ser- 
vice  in   North  America,   rose   under  the   Republic 
to  the  rank  of  a  general  of  divisiim.     In  September 
1793  he  obtained  tlie  command  of  the  Army  of  the 
North,  and  on  16th  (October  defeated  the  Austrians 
at  Wattignies.     In   1794  and   1795  he  commanded 
the  Army  of  the  Meuse  and  Sambre,  and  with  it 
trained  the  victory  of  Fleurus  (26th  June   1794), 
drove  the  Austrians  back  across  the  Rhine,  took 
Luxemburg,   ami   laid   siege  to   Mainz.      But  on 
11th   ()ct(dier    179.')    he   was  defeated    at   Hiichst, 
and    thus   compelled    to    retreat   over   the    Kluiie. 
Crossing   this  river  again  in   1796,  he   penetrated 
as   far   as   Bavaria,  but  was   there  beaten  by  the 
Arch<luke    diaries    at    Amberg    and    ^^ur/.bul■g  ; 
this  discomfiture  made  him  resign  his  command. 
In  1799  the  Directorv  entrusted  him  with  the  com- 
mand of  the  Armv'  of  the  Danube  :    but  he  was 
again  defeated  bv  the  Archduke  Charles  at  Ostrach 
and  at  Stockach."     Although  he  took  no  part  in  the 
coan-d'Hut   of    18th     Rrumaire,    the   First    Consul 
employed   him   in    1800  in  the   reorganisation   and 
admiii'istr.ation  of  l"ieilmont :  and  on  the  e.stablish- 
ment  of  the  Empire  in  1804  he  was  made  a  marshal 
and  a  member  of  the  Council  of  State.      In   1806  he 
was  nominated  governor  of  Naples,  and  after\yards 
accompanied   King  Joseph   Napoleon   to   Spain   a-s 
chief  of  his  staff.     Louis  XVUI.  made  him  a  count 
in  1819.     But  his  republican  principles  led  him  to 
enter  heartily  into  the  revohitiim  of  1830.     He  died 
at  Paris,  23d"  November  1833. 
Joiiriialisiii.    See  Newsp.vpers. 

Joust.     See  TOUKN.\MENT. 

Jove.     See  JfPlTEli. 

.lOM't'tt,  Bkn.I-MIIN,  the  translator  of  I'lato, 
was  biirn  at  Camlicrwell  in  1817,  and  educated  at 
St  Paul's  Schocd  and  Balliol  College,  Oxford,  where 
he  h;id  a  distinguished  career,  taking  the  Hertford 
scholarship  in  1837,  a  chi-ssical  first-class  in  18.39, 
and  the  Latin  essay  in  1841.  Already  a  Fellow  in 
1838,  he  was  tutor'of  his  cidlege  from  1840  till  his 
election  as  master  in  1870.  Thus  his  whole  life  had 
been  identified  with  Balliol,  and  as  master  his  inllu- 
ence  is  supposed  to  have  i)ermeatcd  the  college  to  a 
degree  almost  unexampled.  He  was  a  member  witli 
Macaulay  of  the  Commission  for  imiuiry  into  the 
inoile  of  admission  to  tlie  Imlian  Civil  Service,  and 
he  was  appointed  in  185.i  to  the  rcgius  professor- 
sliip  of  (ireek  at  t  Ixford.  He  received  the  degree  of 
Doctor  from  Levden  in  187.'>,  Edinburgh  in  1884, 
!ind  Cambridge  in  1890,  and  acted  a-s  vice-chancellor  i 


from  1882  till  1886.  His  theological  writings  are 
an  article  'On  the  Interjuetation  of  Scnpture    in 

Kssmis  and  lin-lnr.s  {  1860),  for  the  alleged  heresies 
ill  wiiich  he  was  tried  but  acinitted  by  the  vice- 
chancellor's  court  ;  and  a  Commcntari/  on  the 
Enisths  of  St  rani  to  the  Thcssnlonians,  Galatians, 
and  Honwns  (2  vols.  18.-.,-.):  and  his  CI h-r,c  Sermons 
( 1895)  He  is  best  kn(.wn  hv  his  translation  ot  tlie 
Dialoqnrs  of  Plato  (4  vols.  1871  :  2d  ed.  3  vols. 
1876);  with  its  admirablv  learned  and  luci.l  intro- 
ductions, and  his  less  haj.py  versions  of  ■l''i"7;''>'!.''f 
(2  vols.  1881)  and  X\\c.  Politics  of  Aristotle  (1880). 
He  died  1st  October  1893. 

See  the  Life  and  Letters  by  E.  AWmtt  nnol  L.  ['""JphcH 
(1897-99),  and  a  sketch  by  Lionel  ToUcinaclio  \  18Jo). 

Jovoc's  Country.    See  (;.\i,w.\y. 
Juan.    See  Don  Juan,  John  of  ArsTRiA. 
Juan  Fernan»U'7,.  called  also  Mas-A-tii-.1!i:a 

('nearer  the  mainland'),  a  rocky  island  in  (lie 
Pacific  Ocean,  420  miles  \V.  of  Valparaiso,  Chili, 
to  which  it  belongs.  It  is  13  miles  long  and  4 
broad,  and  is  for  the  most  part  a  series  <.f  rocky 
peaks  of  volcanic  origin,  the  highest  of  which. 
Yuiuiue,  is  3000  feet  above  sea-level.  The  trees 
are  mostly  ferns.  The  sandalwood  trees  are  nejirly 
all  externiinated.  Horses,  j.igs,  and  goats  run  wild. 
The  island  was  discovered  by  the  Spanianl  wlios,- 
name  it  liears  in  1563,  and  was  frequently  visited  by 
buccaneers  down  to  its  occupation  by  the  Spaniards 
in  1750.  Here  Alexander  Selkirk,  a  buccaneer,  a 
native  of  the  Scotch  fishing-village  of  Largo,  lived 
in  solitude  from  1704  to  1709.  His  story  is  siip- 
i.osed  to  have  suggested  the  Robinson  Crusoe  ot 
Defoe;  thou'di  it  should  be  remembered  that 
Robinson's  isTand  was  on  the  other  side  of  South 
.\merica,  near  the  mouth  of  the  Orinoco.  ^\  lien 
Spain  lost  her  South  .American  colonies  .liian  Fer- 
nandez fell  to  Chili,  which  used  it  as  a  penal  settle- 
ment from  1819  to  1835.  It  is  usually  inhabitei 
bv  a  few  Chilian  seal  an<l  sea-lion  hunters  :  and 
in  1877  it  was  leased  bv  the  Chilian  government  to 
a  Swiss,  who  established  a  small  colony  there. 
See  an  article  in  Chambers's  Jonrjad  {li^»») ;  and 
M.ackenna,  Juan  Fernandez  (Santiago,  1883). 

.Juarez,  Benito,  president  of  Mexico,  w.as  born 
of  Indian  p.arents  in  Oaxaca  in  1806,  became  iin 
advocate,  and  as  governor  of  his  native  state  ( 1847- 
.52)  w.as  distinguished  both  for  his  ability  and  Ins 
honesty.  Exiled  during  the  dictatorship  of  Saiit.i- 
Anna.'he  returned  when  the  republic  was  restored, 
.and  in  18.57  w.as  elected  president  of  the  Supreme 
Court  (equivalent  to  vice-president  of  the  nation). 
On  the  overthrow  of  the  Liberal  president  by 
the  clerical  partv  in  1858  Juarez  assumed  the 
executive,  but  was  compelled  to  retire  to  Vera 
Cruz,  where  his  government  was  recognised  by 
the  L'nited  St.ates  in  1859,  and  whence  he  issued 
decrees  abolishing  religious  orders  and  confiscat- 
ing chnrch  propertv.  In  .lanuary  1861  he  was 
.al.te  to  enter  the'  capital,  and  in  M.arch  was 
elected  president  for  four  years.  In  Deceiiiber  of 
the  same  vear  the  allied  forces  of  England,  I' ranee, 
and  Spain  occupied  Vera  Cruz  (see  MEXICO);  in 
April  the  British  .and  Spanish  withdrew,  but  the 
French  remained,  and  declared  war  against  .Iiiarez, 
who  retreated  gradually  to  the  northern  front  km-, 
and  remained  for  nearly  a  year  at  Kl  Paso  did  None. 
He  entered  Mexico  city  again  in  July  186/,  Maxi- 
milian (q.v.)  having  been  shot  meanwhile  by  order 
of  court-m.artial-  an  ungenerous  but  not  imi>olitic. 
(.r  periiaps  altogether  unjustifiable  .act  of  reprisal. 
Juarez  was  again  elected  juesident  for  four  years- - 
years  disturbed  bv  repeated  revolutionary  attemj.ts. 
tn  1871  he  was  ieelected,  and  the  risings  became 
even  fiercer  and  more  frequent :  but  he  t.aced  all 
bis  foes  with  the  dogged  courage  of  his  race,  and 
was  holding  his  position   with    unwearied   energj' 


JUBA 


JUDAS 


301 


when    he    Hie<l,   somewhat    sn<klenlv,    18th    July 
1S7-2.     See  the  Life  by  I'lick  K.  liuike  (1894). 

JllbSU  a  fr'"*"'*'  river  of  eastern  Africa,  which 
tliiws  into  the  Indian  Ocean  at  aliont  (I  5'  S.  lat., 
ami  wliose  mouth  marks  the  nortliern  boundary  of 
the  coast  placed  under  British  control  by  the 
agreement  with  Germany  in  1890.  The  river  has 
been  explored  to  beyond  3°  N.  lat.,  and  Cecehi 
identifies  the  Umo  as  its  upper  waters ;  so  that  it 
probably  takes  its  rise  in  the  same  mountains  a.s 
the  feedei-s  of  the  Nile. 

.Illlia.     See  NuMiDiA. 

Jiihal.  son  of  Lamech  and  Adah  in  the  Genesis 
story,  the  inventor  of  the  harp  and  organ,  probably 
general  terms  for  stringed  and  wind  instruments. 
The  meaning  of  the  name  is  most  likely  significant, 
connected  with  ijobel,  'jubilee.' 

J nbbniporc.    See  Jabalpur. 

.Illbila'te.  the  lOOth  Psalm,  which  in  the  Vul- 
gate liegins  Jubilate  Deo  otniiis  terra.  It  was 
added  to  the  English  Prayer-book  in  1552,  to  be 
sung  after  the  Second  Lesson,  instead  of  the  Bene- 
dirt  US',  when  that  canticle  occurs  in  the  chapter  for 
the  day  ;  but  it  is  used  at  other  times  as  well,  and 
always  at  thanksgivings. 

Jubilee,  the  Ye.\r  of  (Heb.  ynhel),  a  peculiar 
theocratic,  and  apparently  theoretical  much  more 
than  practical,  institution  among  the  Hebrews 
<  Leviticus,  xxv. ),  by  which,  every  fiftieth  ( 7irit  forty- 
ninth  )  year,  the  land  that  in  the  interval  had  pa-ssed 
out  of  the  possession  of  those  to  whom  it  originally 
belonged  was  restored  to  them,  and  all  who  had 
been  reduced  to  poverty,  and  obliged  to  hire  them- 
selves out  as  servants,  were  released  from  their 
bondage ;  while  at  the  same  time  all  debts  were 
remitted  (Jos.  Ant.  iii.  12).  The  jubilee  fomis,  as 
it  were,  an  exalted  Sabbatical  Year  (q.v. ),  and  the 
land  was  completely  to  lie  left  to  rest  in  the  former 
as  in  the  latter.  The  design  of  this  institution  was 
ohielly  to  prevent  the  growth  of  an  oligarchy  of 
landowners,  and  the  total  impoverishment  of  some 
families.  It  was  proclaimed  at  the  end  of  the 
harvest-time,  like  the  sabbatical  year,  on  the  day 
of  atonement,  by  the  'yobel '  ( a  kind  of  horn ),  hence 
probably  also  its  name.  There  is  no  trace  in  the 
whole  history  of  the  Heljrews  down  to  the  Baby- 
lonian exile  that  the  jubilee  had  ever  been  observed ; 
after  the  return,  however,  it  appears  to  have  been 
rigorously  kept,  like  the  sabbatical  year,  for  some 
time  at  least ;  but,  from  its  general  impracticability, 
it  must  soon  have  fallen  into  disuse.  Dillmann 
maintains  the  'year  of  liberty  '  of  Ezek.  xlvi.  16-18 
to  be  the  year  of  jubilee,  while  Kuenen  and  Well- 
hausen  make  it  the  sabbatical  year. 

The  Christian  church  adopted  the  term  Jubilee 
from  the  Jewish,  and  the  jubilee  in  two  forms, 
the  '  ordinarj- '  and  'extraordinary,'  is  still  an  in- 
stitution in  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  a.s  a  period 
of  remission  from  the  penal  consequences  of  sin. 
The  ordinary  jubilee  is  that  which  is  celebrated  at 
stated  intervals,  the  length  of  which  has  varied  at 
different  time.s.  Its  origin  is  traced  to  Pope  Boni- 
face VIII.,  who  issued,  for  the  year  I.WO,  a  bull 
granting  a  plenary  indulgence  to  all  )iilgrim-vi.sitors 
of  liome  during  that  year,  on  condition  of  their 
penitently  confessing  their  sins,  and  visiting  the 
church  of  St  Peter  and  St  Paul,  fifteen  times  if 
strangers,  and  thirty  times  if  residents  of  the  city. 
Innumerable  troops  of  pilgrims  from  every  part 
of  the  church  Hocked  to  Home.  As  instituted 
by  Boniface,  the  jubilee  was  to  have  been  lielfl 
every  hundredth  year.  Clement  VI.,  in  a  bull 
of  1.34.3,  abridged  the  time  to  fifty  years.  The 
number  of  pilgrims  that  year  is  said  to  h.ave 
teen  no  fewer  than  l,0OO",(K)f) !  The  term  of 
interval    was    still    further    abridged    by    Urban 


VI.,  .and  again  by  P.aul  II.,  who  in  1470 
ordered  that  thenceforward  each  twenty -fifth  year 
should  be  held  .as  jubilee — an  arrangement  which 
has  continued  ever  since  to  regulate  the  ordinarj- 
jubilee.  Paul  II.  extended  still  more,  in  another 
way,  tlie  spiritual  advantages  of  the  jubilee,  by 
dispensing  with  the  personal  pilgrim.age  to  Home, 
and  gr.anting  the  indulgence  to  all  who  should  visit 
any  church  in  their  own  country  designate<l  tor  the 
ptirpose.  and  should,  if  their  means  permitted,  con- 
tribute ,a  sum  towards  the  expenses  of  the  Holy 
Wars.  The  substitution  by  Leo  X.  of  the  fund  for 
building  St  Peter's  Church  for  that  of  the  Holy 
AVar,  and  the  abusive  and  scandalous  proceedings 
of  many  of  those  appointed  to  preach  the  Indul- 
gence (q.v.),  were  among  the  proximate  causes 
of  the  Reformation.  In  later  jubilee  years  the 
pilgrimages  to  Rome  gradually  tliminished  in  fie- 
quency,  the  indulgence  being,  for  the  most  part, 
obt.ained  by  the  performance  of  the  prescrilied  works 
at  home  :  but  the  observance  itself  has  been  punc- 
tually maintained  at  each  recuning  period,  with  the 
single  exception  of  the  year  1800,  in  wliicli,  owing 
to  the  vacancy  of  the  holy  see,  and  the  troubles  of 
the  times,  it  was  not  held. 

The  extraordinary-  jtiliilee  is  ordered  by  the  pope 
out  of  the  regular  period,  either  on  his  accession,  or 
on  some  occa-sion  of  public  calamity,  or  in  some 
critical  condition  of  the  fortunes  of  the  chnrch  ;  one 
of  the  conditions  for  obtaining  the  indulgence  in 
such  cases  being  the  recitation  of  certain  stated 
prayers  for  tlie  particular  necessity  in  which  the 
jubilee  originated. 

Jubilee  is  also  used  for  the  celebration  of  a  fiftieth 
anniversary — as  the  jubilee  of  George  II I. 's  acces- 
sion (1809),  and  of  Queen  Victoria's  (1887):  and 
for  festi\als  generally,  as  the  '  Peace  .Ju)nlees ' 
celebrated  at  Boston,  United  States,  in  1869  and 
1872. 

Jllby.  Cape,  on  the  west  coast  of  Africa,  100 
miles  south  of  the  frontier  of  Morocco,  with  an 
anchorage.  A  trading  settlement  of  an  English 
company  was  established  in  1879-89. 

JiidiriU    See  Palestine. 

Jlldab  (Heb.  Ycfiucla,  'the  Bepraised  One') 
was  the  fourth  son  of  Jacob  and  Leah,  and  founder 
of  the  greatest  and  most  numerous  of  the  twelve 
tribes,  to  which  belonged  the  royal  house  of  David. 
In  the  march  through  the  wilderness  it  had  the 
van  assigned  to  it :  and  tradition  narrates  that  its 
standard  was  a  lion's  whelp,  with  the  words  :  '  Arise, 
O  Lord,  and  let  thine  enemies  be  scattered  ! "  After 
the  conquest  of  Canaan  its  territories  stretched 
from  the  Dead  Sea  on  the  east  to  the  Mediterranean 
on  the  west  (though  the  Philistines  long  held 
posses.sion  of  the  fertile  district  west  of  the  mcnin- 
tains  of  .Judah),  and  from  Jeru.salem  (excluding 
that  city)  on  the  north  to  the  land  of  the  Amalek- 
ites  on  tlie  south.  The  capital  of  the  tribe  was 
Hebron.      For  its  history,  see  ISR.\EL. 

Jiidaisers.    See  Ebioxites. 

Jllda.'^.  the  betrayer  of  Jesus,  surnamed  Iscariot, 
most  |irobably  a  n.ative  of  Kerioth  in  the  tribe  of 
.ludah,  .and,  if  so,  the  only  southerner  among  the 
twelve  disciples.  He  must  at  first  at  least  have 
been  fired  with  real  faith  and  zeal,  for  there  was  no 
worldly  reward  to  g.ain  when  he  first  left  his  old  life 
to  obey  the  call  of  tlie  new  ])ro]ihet  of  Nazareth. 
He  acted  as  stew.ard  to  the  company  on  thi-ir  jour- 
neys, and  John  tells  us  that  he  was  covetous  and 
dishonest  from  the  beginning.  It  was  the  tempta- 
tion of  nmney,  according  to  Matthew  ami  Mark, 
that  made  him  betray  his  m.a.stcr  to  the  chief 
priests  for  thirty  ])ieces  of  silver.  Luke  gives  the 
additional  motive  that  Satan  had  entered  into  him. 
The  Synoptics  represent  .Je.sus  as  conscious  of  the 
meditated  trcaclierj-,  which,  moreover,  wa.s  plainly 


362 


JUDAS    MACCABEUS 


JUDE 


foretold  by  himself,  and  even  inophesied  in  the  Old 
Testament ;  John  makes  Jesus  liimself  hasten  it 
forward  (xiii.  27).  Whatever  sudden  or  lonyf-pre- 
meditated  temiitation  it  was  that  turned  the  head 
of  Judas,  he  liad  not  wholly  lost  moral  sentiment, 
for  when  he  saw  the  awful  conseiinenees  of  his 
fiuilt  he  wius  hlled  with  the  remorseful  horror  of 
despair,  and  liad  tlie  grace  to  <;o  ami  hang  himself. 
The  two  variant  accounts  of  his  end  in  Matthew 
(x.Kvii.  3-10)  and  Acts  (i.  16-20)  have  this  much  in 
common,  and  moreover  that  the  hlood-mouey  was 
e.\changed  for  a  piece  of  ground  which  bore  before 
or  after  the  ill-omened  name  of  Aceldama,  or  the 
Field  of  Blood. 

The  mere  desire  for  gold  can  hardly  be  accepted 
a.s  a  motive  adequate  enough  for  a  crime  so  mon- 
strous, which  has  made  its  perpetrator's  name  to  all 
time  a  synonym  for  sliameful  treachery.  Yet  it  is 
almost  as  hard  to  Knd  it  in  the  promptings  of  dis- 
appointed ambition,  vindictive  hatred,  or  revenge. 
Theophylact,  the  elder  Lightfoot,  Bahrdt,  Niemeyer, 
an<l  Schmidt  sought  to  explain  tlie  treachery  by  a 
belief  in  the  miraculous  powers  of  Jesus,  which 
would  necessarily  protect  him  from  the  consumma- 
tion of  any  deed  of  violence.  The  ancient  Gnostics, 
and  Noack  among  moderns,  credited  Judas  with  a 
desire  to  bring  about  the  redemptive  ileath  of  Jesus 
and  the  consequent  triumph  of  Christian  truth. 
Again  Paulus,  Winer,  Hase,  G.  Schollmeyer,  and 
Wluitely  believed  that  the  worldly-minded  and 
ambitious  Judas  had  become  impatient  of  the  delay 
in  the  establishment  of  the  earthly  kingdom,  and 
that  he  adopted  his  policy  with  a  view  to  drive 
Jesus  to  action  by  forcing  his  hand.  Keim's  ex- 
planation is  that  the  force  of  old  associations  may 
liave  overcome  his  wavering  belief  in  the  Messiah- 
ship  of  Jesus  during  the  excitement  of  the  festival, 
when  a  burning  mental  struggle  burst  out  in  his 
heart  under  the  immediate  intiuence  of  relatives 
ardently  devoted,  as  he  himself  once  was,  to  the 
old  religion  as.sociated  with  the  sanctuary  of  Israel. 
The  old  legal  and  pietistic  prepossessions  of  his 
materialistic  rather  than  spiritual  temperament 
gloweil  up  anew  within  his  heart,  and  hurried  him 
without  deliberation  to  a  course,  the  quick  reaction 
from  which  was  hopeless  remorse,  horror,  and 
despair.  Perhaps  none  of  these  explanations  throw 
much  light  upon  an  enigma  so  dark  as  the  motives 
that  drove  Judas  to  his  fatal  treachery,  and  it 
may  lie  doubted  if  these  motives  were  any  less 
obscure  and  confused  than  the  jiiotives  that  sway 
the  human  heart  usually  are.  Had  his  avarice 
been  so  deep-seated  he  would  never  have  had  any 
measure  of  the  grace  of  the  disciple,  for  surely 
.Jesus  must  have  seen  the  possibilities  of  good  as 
well  as  evil  in  the  young  disci[)le  whom  he  attached 
to  himself.  But,  spite  of  outward  and  at  lirst 
genuine  enough  enthusiasm,  cariuil  seUishness  was 
deeply  rooted  in  his  nature,  and  «hen  the  mani- 
festation of  Christ  ceased  to  be  attractive  to  him, 
as  Neander  says,  it  became  reimlsive,  and  more  and 
more  so  every  day.  The  immeiliate  occiision  which 
turned  his  last  remnants  of  affection  into  violent 
hatred  may  well  have  been  some  sharp  reproof, 
some  fancied  slight  or  estrangement  that  came 
.suddeidy,  and  hurrieil  his  hot  heart  to  action  which, 
when  too  late,  he  was  bitterly  to  repent. 

The  treaohury  of  Judas  lias  given  rise  to  a  long  series 
of  psychological  studies  which  are  conveniently  eiui- 
ineratcd  in  Winer's  BifJinchrg  liealirortrrhurh  (3d  ed. 
1847 ^H).  In  Daub's  Jmi<ui  heharint/t  ( 1816  -IH)  a  short 
preliminary  investigation  of  the  crime  ojtens  up  a  dis- 
cussion of  evil  in  relation  to  good.  See  also  the  Lives  of 
Jesus  by  Neander,  Strauss,  I-lenan.  Noack,  Hase,  Keim, 
Farrar,  and  Edersheim ;  the  essay  by  De  Quincey, 
Stier's  H'ori/.i  of  the  Lord  Jesus,  Tragedies  by  Elisa 
Schmidt  (l.So2)  and  Dulk  (ISCS);  and  Kobert  Uuclianan's 
hallail,  Jtidits  Ixrttri>>t. 

Judas  Muccabifus.    See  Maccabees. 


Judas'  Tree  (Cercis),  a  genus  of  trees  of  the 
natural  onler  Leguminosae,  sub-order  Ciesalpineie. 
The  common  Judas'  Tree  (C.  SiliqiKi.'ilriim)  is  a 
native  of  the  south  of  Eurojie  and  of  the  warmer 
temperate  parts  of  Asia.  It  has  almost  orbicular, 
very  obtuse  leaves.  The  Howers,  which  are  rose- 
coloured,  appear  before  the  leaves.  There  is  a 
legend  that  Judas  hanged  himself  on  a  tree  of  this 
kind.  The  American  Judas'  Tree  (C.  caiuulciisis) 
is  very  similar,  but  ha.s  acuminate  leave.s.  The 
flower-buds  are  frequently  used  in  salads  and 
pickled  in  vinegar.  The  wood  of  both  species  is 
very  beautiful,  veined  with  black,  and  takes  an 
excellent  polish.  The  young  shoots  of  the  Amer- 
ican Juda,s'  tree  are  used  in  domestic  dyeing,  and 
impart  a  line  colour  to  wool. 

Jude,  Epistle  of,  one  of  the  smallest  and 
least  important  books  in  the  New  Testament 
canon,  which  purports  to  be  l)y  'Jude,  a  servant  of 
Jesus  Christ,  and  brother  of  James.'  This  Jude  is 
most  prolialily  the  Judas  who  was  one  of  the 
'  brethren  of  the  Lord '  ( Matt.  xiii.  55 ;  Mark, 
vi.  3).  There  is  a  Judas  in  the  list  of  the  apostles, 
as  given  by  St  Luke  (vi.  16;  Acts,  i.  13)  and 
recognised  by  St  John  (xiv.  22),  occupying  the 
place  of  one  who  in  the  lists  of  RLatthew  (x.  3) 
and  Mark  (iii.  18)  is  called  Lebbeus  or  Thaddeus, 
the  traditional  evangelist  of  Edessa.  The  absence 
of  the  epLstle  in  the  Peshito  is  of  itself  proof, 
according  to  Canon  Venables  (Smith's  Dirt,  uf 
Bible),  that  it  is  not  the  work  of  the  last.  St  Luke 
describes  the  apostle  Judas  as  'lobSas  'lasiifjou, 
which  would  naturally  mean  '  Jude,  the  son  of 
James,'  but  has  been,  without  sufficient  grounds, 
rendered  in  the  Authoriseil  Version  'Jude,  the 
brother  of  James.'  But  the  author  of  our  epistle 
rather  seems  to  distinguish  himself  from  the  apostles 
(verse  17),  and  on  other  grounds  there  seems  con- 
clusive proof  that  he  did  not  bekmg  to  the  Twelve. 
The  ejiistle  is  recognised  by  many  who  are  silent 
about  James,  as  Clement  of  Alexandria,  the  .Mura- 
torian  Fragment,  TerluUian,  and  Origen  ;  although 
indeed  it  is  not  mentioned  by  Clement  of  Kome, 
Ignatius,  Hennas,  Polycarp,  Pajiias,  or  lren:eus. 
As  has  been  said,  it  is  wanting  in  tlie  Peshito  or 
Syriac  version,  and  it  is  classed  by  Eusebius  with 
James  among  the  Aiiti/effomena,  or  disputed  books. 
Fifty  years  later  St  Jerome  mentions  that,  though 
then  received,  it  had  been  rejected  by  many  a.s 
quoting  the  apocryphal  Hook  of  Enoch  (verses 
14,  15).  Origen  tells  us  that  in  verse  9  again 
Jude  quotes  from  another  apocryphal  book, 
the  lost  Assumption  of  Moses.  A  more  serious 
objection  to  Judes  authenticity  is  the  question 
whether  the  particular  immoral  i)erversions  of 
Christian  truth  against  which  it  seems  to  be 
directed  existed  in  the  time  of  the  brother  of 
James,  who  appears  lo  have  been  deail  licfore 
the  accession  of  Domilian  (SI  A.I>.).  Davidson, 
Hilgenfeld,  Volkmar.  Schenkel,  .Mangold,  Lipsius, 
Holtzmann,  Weizsackei-,  and  Ptleiclerer  identify 
these  with  the  Antinoniian  Gnosticism  of  the  '2d 
century,  which  reimdialed  (iod  and  the  angels  of 
the  Old  Testament  as  subordinate  jiowers  (verses 
8-10),  Jesu.s  as  the  merely  human  organ  of  the 
higher  Christ  (verse  4),  and  ordinary  Christians 
as  people  jisychically  inferior  to  themselves 
(verse  19),  while  it  ail'orded  a  cloak  to  libertine 
tendencies  (verses  8,  10,  16).  But  it  niay  be 
questioned  if  the  epistle  specially  applies  to 
(Inosticism  [iroper,  as  there  is  no  distinct  hint  at 
the  doctrinal  basis  of  the  errors  denounced,  and 
the  whole  may  reasonably  be  interpreted  as  rebuke 
to  priviite  members  of  the  church  who  led  ungodly 
lives,  mi.sinterpreting  the  doctrine  of  grace  as  a 
charter  for  a  licentious  life,  ami  were  disobedient  to 
spiritual  authority,  not  necessarily  apjilicable  to 
special  organised  forms  of  immorality  and  error  yet 


JUDENHETZE 


JUDGES 


363 


to  be  developed.  x\t  the  same  time  it  sliinild  be 
remembered  that  otlier  ajiostU's  liad  already  bad 
cause  to  denounce  impurity  wliicli  bad  crept  into 
the  church  (2  Cor.  xii.  21  :  I'bil.  iii.  19;  Kev.  ii. 
20-22).  Clement  of  Alexandria  read.s  into  the 
epistle  a  prophetic  denunciation  of  the  immoral 
teachint;  of  Carpoerates,  and  Iteuan  boldly  claims 
it  a-s  a  diatribe  a;;ainst  l^iul. 

No  reader  can  overlook  the  strikin^ij  parallelism 
at  once  in  thouglit  and  language  between  Judeand 
2  Peter,  ii.,  from  which  we  may  feel  certain  that 
the  one  writer  had  the  work  of  the  other  before 
him.  It  is  a  ditticult  matter,  however,  to  deter- 
mine which  of  the  two  was  the  earlier.  Most 
critics  conclude  in  favour  of  Jude,  although  to  this 
there  are  several  serious  objections  on  which  a 
strong  case  has  been  constructed  by  Professor 
Luniby  in  The  Sjtca/cer's  Comiinntary. 

See  the  Introductions  of  S.  Uaridson,  Hilgenfeld, 
Holtzmann,  Salmon,  "Weiss,  and  Dods ;  the  works  on 
the  New  Testament  canon  by  Westcott  and  Zahn  ;  and 
the  special  commentaries  in  the  A'u)'(;//e/.  Exet.  Handbuch 
(3d  ed.  Bruckner.  18B5),  Meyer  (5th  ed.  Kuhl,  1887), 
Stier  (18.50),  Arnaud  (1851),  Rampf  (1854),  Fronmullor 
(1859),  Hoffmann  (1875),  Eeuss  (1878),  and  E.  H. 
Pluniptre  (1886).  See  also  Kitsch!  in  Theolog.  Stud.  u. 
Krit.  (1861). 

Jndeiihetze.    See  Jews,  p.  329. 

JlldSJe  is  the  generic  descriptive  name  given  to 
those  wlio  are  invested  with  the  power  of  judging 
and  deciding  causes  in  the  highest  courts  of  common 
law.  In  Great  Britain— though  it  is  otherwise  in 
America — it  is  not  usual  to  designate  the  highest 
class  of  judges  by  the  epithet  of  judge,  and  British 
lawyers  never  do  so.  Tlius,  instead  of  saying  Judge 
Blackstone,  Judge  Pollock,  Judge  Eldon,  the  proper 
description  is  Mr  Justice  Blackstone,  Chief-barou 
Polloclc,  Lord  Chancellor  Eldon,  &c.,  according  to 
the  particular  court  in  which  they  presided.  In 
Scotlatul  the  usual  prefix  to  the  name  of  a  judge  is 
Loid  ;  and  the  judges  there,  on  their  appointment, 
often  assume  territorial  titles  in  addition  to  the  pre- 
fix 'Lord;'  Kobert  Macfarlane,  for  instance,  becom- 
ing Lord  Ormidalc,  whilst  his  wife  remained  Mrs 
Macfarlane.  In  England  the  judges  of  the  superior 
courts  are  only  called  lords  while  they  sit  in  court 
or  in  chambers.  The  practice  has  long  been  for  the 
crown  to  confer  the  honour  of  knighthood  on  all  the 

i'udges  of  the  superior  courts  of  law  and  equity  in 
England,  but  not  in  Ireland  or  Scotland.  All  the 
superior  judges  are  appointed  by  the  crown,  and 
since  the  Act  of  Settlement  ( 1701 )  have  held  their 
offices  during  good  behaviour ;  since  1  Geo.  III. 
cha]i.  23,  they  have  also  continued  to  hold  their 
appiiiiitnients  not\vitlistan<ling  the  demise  of  the 
crown.  They  can  only  be  removed  from  their  office 
on  the  address  of  both  Houses  of  parliament. 
They  are  disc|ualitied  from  sitting  in  the  House  of 
Commons.  Judges  in  England  may  sue  and  be 
sued  in  their  own  courts,  but  none  may  be  judge  in 
his  own  case.  No  action  may  be  brought  against 
the  judge  of  a  superior  court  for  anything  done  in 
Ills  judicial  capacity.  Judges  of  inferior  courts  are 
liabli-  to  be  sued,  but  only  when  they  have  acted  in 
ba<l  faith,  or  beyond  the  bounds  of  their  jurisdic- 
tion. The  term  judge  is  the  proper  title  of  the 
judges  of  the  county  courts  established  in  England 
in  1846.  In  Scotland  the  phra,se  is  often  a|>plied  to 
all  judges,  superior  and  inferior,  whenever  tiiey  have 
a  fixed  and  ileterminate  jurisdiction,  in  contra- 
distinction to  citmmissioners,  who  have  an  occa- 
sional and  temporary  judicial  authority  delegated 
to  them. 

In  the  United  States  the  judges  of  the  supreme 
court  are  appointed  by  the  president  with  the  con- 
sent of  the  senate  ;  in  the  courts  of  the  several 
states  they  are  either  ajipointed  by  the  executive, 
clecte<l  by  the  legislature,  or,  as  in  most  states  of 


lale  years,  chosen  directly  liy  popular  suftVage.  A 
judge  is  not  lial)le  to  a  civil  action  for  acts  ]ier- 
lormed  as  part  of  bis  official  duty,  but  he  may  be 
impeached  lor  any  high  crime  or  misdemeanour. 

Judse-advooatt'-geiM'rul,  the  adviser  of  the 

crown  in  proceedings  to  coidirm  or  revise  the  de- 
cisions of  courts-martial,  lie  is  also  the  adviser, 
in  legal  matters,  of  the  Commander-in-chief  and 
Secretary  of  State  for  War.  Before  conlirniation, 
the  sentences  of  all  courts-martial,  with  the  evidence 
adduced,  are  submitted  to  him ;  and  it  is  for  him 
to  represent  to  the  commander-in-chief  any  ille- 
gality of  iirocedure,  or  other  circumstance  render- 
ing it  undesirable  that  the  Queen  should  be  advised 
to  confirm  the  court's  decision.  He  does  not  advise 
as  to  the  exercise  of  the  prerogative  of  mercy.  The 
judge-advocate-geueial  recei\'es  a  salary  of  £2000, 
and  is  usually  a  member  of  the  Hou.se  of  Commons 
and  of  the  ministry — changing,  of  cour.se,  with  the 
latter.  The  judge-advocate-general  is  also  the 
title  in  the  United  States  for  the  chief  of  the 
bureau  of  military  justice  at  AVashington. 

The  Di}niti)-jiiil(i(-adrocate  is  an  officer  holding 
a  temporary  commission  as  legal  adviser  of  court- 
martial,  to  assist  the  court,  and  to  see  that  no 
injustice  is  done  to  the  prisoner. 

Judges,  The  Book  of  (Heb.  ShOfetim — com- 
pare Carthaginian  Sufitoi ;  LXX.  Kritai,  but  in 
Philo  A'/V»if(to,  'judgments'),  a  canonical  book  of 
the  Old  Testament,  the  second  in  the  series  known 
as  the  'former  prophets,'  relates  to  the  periml  in 
the  history  of  Israel  from  the  death  of  Joshua  to 
the  birth  of  Samuel.  Its  authorship — or  rather  the 
authorship  of  any  part  of  it,  for  it  is  drawn  from 
more  than  one  source — is  unknown,  and  its  final  re- 
daction, as  is  shown  by  the  presence  of  Deuteronomic 
and  other  elements,  cannot  have  taken  place  until 
after  the  exile.  Its  composite  character  is  shown 
by  the  fact  tliat  it  has  two  beginnings  (see  i.  1, 
and  ii.  6 ).  The  main  section  of  the  book,  extending 
from  ii.  6  to  xvi.  31,  consists  of  an  apparently  con- 
secutive narrative,  grouped  round  six  principal 
judges — Othniel,  Ehud,  Ueborah,  Gideon,  Jeph- 
thah,  and  Samson — the  internals  being  filled  with 
the  history  of  Gideon's  son,  Abimelech,  and  refer- 
ences, more  or  less  brief,  to  six  minor  heroes — 
Shamgar,  Tola,  Jair,  Ibzan,  Elon,  and  Abdon.  The 
religious  pragmatism  of  this  narrative  is  oljvious  ; 
the  liistory  falls  into  running'  cycles,  all  correspond- 
ing to  the  scheme  indicated  at  tlie  outset  by  the 
words  :  '  After  the  death  of  Joshua  tlie  children  of 
Israel  did  evil  in  the  sight  of  the  Lord,  and  forsook 
the  Lord  God  of  their  fathers.  .  .  .  And  the  anger 
of  the  Lord  was  hot  against  Israel,  and  be  deliviMed 
them  into  the  hands  of  spoilers  .  .  .  and  they  were 
greatly  distressed.  Nevertheless,  the  Lord  raised 
up  unto  them  judges,  and  was  with  the  judge,  and 
delivered  them.  .  .  .  And  it  came  to  pass  when  the 
judge  was  dead  that  they  returned  and  corrupted 
themselves  more  than  their  fathers.  .  .  .  And  the 
anger  of  the  Lord  was  hot  against  Israel,'  &c.  The 
apparently  consecutive  character  of  the  narrative 
disappears  when  its  chronological  data  are  carefully 
analysed  ;  from  these  we  iiml  that  the  chronology 
of  the  section  is  hiised  on  two  artificial  alternative 
schemes,  either  of  which,  but  not  both  together, 
can  be  reconciled  with  the  datum  in  1  Kings,  vi.  L 
Thus  the  narrative  of  the  greater  judges  was  origin- 
ally separate  from  that  of  the  minor  ones.  The 
religious  standpoint  of  this  main  section  of  the 
Hook  of  Juilges,  taken  along  with  other  points  of 
internal  evidence,  shows  that  in  the  main  it  must 
have  been  composed  about  the  8th  century  H.C. 
There  are  signs  of  Deuteronomic  redaction,  liow. 
ever;  but,  on  the  other  hand,  the  section  contains 
elements  that  carry  us  much  further  back  than  the 
century  named — such  elements,  for  example,  as  the 


364 


JUDGMENT 


JUGGERNAUT 


song  of  Deborah  and  the  histoiT  of  Ahinielech.  Of 
tlie  remaining  jiortions  of  the  Book  of  Judges,  i.  1 
to  ii.  ">  is  relatively  old — older  than  the  Hook  of 
Joshua,  which  relates  to  the  same  subject,  the  con- 
quest of  Canaan,  but  treats  it  in  a  much  later 
manner.  The  closing  section  of  the  book  is  made 
up  of  two  uiu-omiecte<I  and  independent  narratives 
of  very  different  dates.  The  history  of  Micah  and 
the  Danites  (xvii.  1  to  xviii.  31 )  is  a  piece  of  very 
old  history ;  that  of  the  Levite  and  the  Benjamites 
is  considered  by  Wellh.ansen  to  he  post-exilic,  antl 
in  anv  case  must  he  regarded  as  comparatively  very 
late.  ' 

See  Wellhausen-Bleek,  Einlcitunri  (1878);  also 'WeU- 
h,iusen,  Relirjion  of  Israel  (Eng.  tr.ans.  p.  228  sqq.). 
There  are  commentaries  by  Keil  (Eng.  trans.  186.5),  also 
in  Lange's  Bihvfwerk  (1865),  in  the  Speaker's  Coinmen- 
tar;/,  and  in  the  Knrzfjef.  Kxeget.  Handbueh  by  Bertheau 
(184.")),  by  Stiider  (1835),  and  by  Moore  of  Andover 
(18!)6). 

Jiidgiiieut.    See  Hell,  Resuhrection. 
Jmlicatiire  .4cts  (1873-76),  The,  constituted 

the  English  Supreme  Court,  comprising  the  Higli 
Conrt  of  Justice,  with  a  Chancery  division  (see 
Ch.\ncery)  and  a  Queen's  bench  division  (see 
CoM.MON  L.\w);  and  the  Court  of  Appeal  (see 
Api'e.vl). 

JiidicinI  Coiiiinittee.    See  Privy-couxcil. 

.Iiidicial  Faotor.    See  Factor. 

JiMlifial  Seuaration.  in  English  law,  is 
the  separation  of  two  manied  jiersons  by  order  of 
the  Court  of  Divorce.  Married  persons  may,  if 
they  please,  mutually  agree  to  live  separate,  and 
they  may  enter  into  a  deed  of  separation  for  that 
pnr)iose,  which  to  some  extent  is  recognised  as 
valid  Ijy  courts  of  equity.  This  is  called  \oluntary 
separation.  A  deed  of  separation  is  alway.s  revo- 
cable by  consent  of  the  parties,  though  to  some 
extent  binding  on  each,  if  the  other  do  not  consent 
to  renew  the  cohabitation.  When  the  parties  have 
not  mutually  consented  to  separate,  one  of  them 
can  compel  a  judicial  separation  for  cert.ain  gi-ounds 
of  misconduct.  Thus,  either  party  may  apply  on 
the  ground  of  adultery,  or  cruelty,  or  desertion 
without  cause  for  two  years  and  upwards.  When 
a  husband  is  convicted  of  an  aggravated  assault  on 
his  wife,  the  court  before  which  he  is  tried  may 
make  .an  order  which  is  almost  equivalent  to  a 
judicial  sfqiaration. 

Married  jiersons  separated  by  deed  or  judicial 
oriler  are  still  married.  Not  being  divorced,  they 
cannot  marry  again  ;  hut  there  is  no  longer  the 
duty  of  <'ohabiting.  The  conrt  may  award  a 
certain  income  to  the  wife  after  separation,  and 
may  also  make  ordere  as  to  the  custody  and  main- 
tenance of  children.  Hut,  irrespective  of  this,  the 
wife  becomes,  to  all  int<'nts  and  puriio.ses  as  regards 
her  future  property,  in  the  same  [msition  as  if  she 
were  nnmarrieil.  On  the  other  hand,  the  husband 
is  no  longer  respcmsihle  for  maintaining  his  wife, 
except  so  far  as  he  may  have  heen  ordered  to  pay 
her  alimony,  and  he  is  not  li.ahle  for  her  future 
debts.  In  18.j7  the  law  (ui  this  he.ad  was  materially 
im|iroveil,  and  a  new  Divorce  Court  established. 
See  Divorce;  also  .Mahhiagk. 

In  Scotland  the  law  was  changed  in  18G1,  and 
now  nearly  coincides  with  the  English  law  in  many 
respects.  Whenever  a  decree  of  separation  a  niensa 
ft  t/iurn  is  obtained  at  the  instance  of  the  wife,  all 
property  which  she  m.iy  acquire,  or  which  may 
•levolve  upon  her,  is  held  entirclv  separate  from  and 
independent  of  her  husband  :  she  can  bei|ueath  it 
hy  will  ,as  if  lie  was  deail.  She  can  .also  enter  into 
contracts,  and  sue  and  he  sued  in  her  own  name,  and 
the  husbjind  is  no  limger  liable  for  necess.aries  or 
her  debts,  except  so  far  as  he  is  bound  by  the  decree 
of  separation  to  pay  her  aliment.     The  grounds  of 


judicial  separation  in  Scotland  also  are  nearly  the 
same  as  in  England. 

In  the  I'nited  States  the  courts  used  till  1838 
partial  ilivorce  a  mc)i.<!a  et  thoro :  but  since  then 
the  marriage  C(mtract  is  either  wholly  dissohed  or 
the  courts  refuse  to  interfere. 

Judith,  a  Jewish  heroine,  who  saved  her  native 
town,  lietlndia,  by  a  deed  of  unexampled  daring 
and  devotion.  She  made  her  w.ay  into  the  hostile 
camp,  and  into  the  very  tent  of  Holofernes.  general 
of  Nebuchadnezzar.  The  general  was  bewildered 
hy  her  beauty,  and  she  plied  him  with  wine  till  he 
sank  overpowered  upon  his  couch.  Then  she  cut 
off  his  head,  and  fouiul  her  way  out  caining  it  w  ith 
her.  Her  townsmen  were  inspireil  with  a  sudden 
enthusiasm,  rushed  out  upon  the  enemy,  and  com- 
pletely ilefeated  them.  The  tale  is  not  mentioned 
by  Josephtis,  and  has  from  an  early  period  been 
held  to  be  an  allegoiy.  It  forms  the  suliject  of  the 
apocryphal  book  of  Judith,  the  composition  of 
which  is  put  variously  between  the  time  of  the 
Maccabees  and  the  time  of  the  second  Jewish  war 
under  Hadrian.  The  exploit  of  .ludith  has  given 
a  frequent  subject  to  art :  here  we  may  im-rely 
mention  the  bronze  group  of  Donatello  at  Florence"; 
the  paintings  by  Botticelli,  Cranach,  Horace  Vernet, 
anil  Etty  ;  the  poetic  elaborations  of  the  theme  by 
Hans  Sachs,  Opitz,  and  Hebbel. 

Jlldson.  Adoniram,  American  missionary  to 
Burma,  was  born  in  Maiden,  Massachusetts, 
August  9,  1788.  He  graduated  at  Brown  Univer- 
sity in  1807,  passed  thiough  Andover  tliecdogical 
seminary,  and  in  1812  married  Ann  Ha.seltine  and 
sailed  fcu'  Indi.O-  There  tliey  joineil  the  llajitists. 
After  many  diihculties  they  settled  in  Rangoon, 
and  ere  long  Judson  began  to  preach  and  write  in 
Burmese,  translating  portions  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment (1817-21).  He  received  the  degree  of  D.D. 
from  Brown  University  in  1823.  In  1824  the 
missionaries  removed  to  Ava,  where,  during  the 
Burmese  war,  Judson  was  imprisoned  ;  and  he  stib- 
se<]\iently  l.abotired  at  Amherst,  I'rome,  Rangoon, 
Maulmain,  and,  with  remarkable  success,  among 
the  K.aren  jungles.  His  devoted  wife  died  at 
Amherst  in  1826.  In  1833  his  translation  of  the 
Bible  was  complete<I,  ami  this  was  followed  by  a 
Burmese-English  dictionary,  .ludson's  .second  wife, 
widow  of  G.  D.  Boardiuan  (rj.v.l,  died  in  1.S45 
on  the  voyage  home  to  America.  He  returned 
to  Burma  in  1846,  and  completed  his  dictionary 
at  -Maulmain,  but  his  health  failed,  and  lie  died 
at  .sea,  on  his  waj'  to  Mauritius,  12th  April  18.50. 
His  first  wife  was  author  of  a  ll/xtori/  of  the 
Burmese  Mission,  and  assisted  her  husli.and  with 
his  translations.  His  third  wife,  Emily  Chublmck 
(1817-54),  was  known  in  the  literary  worhl  as 
Fanny  Forrester.  See  Lives  by  W.ayland  (  Boston, 
1853)  and  Jndsnn's  son  Edward  (New  York,  1S83). 

Juggernaut,  or  Puri,  is  the  name  of  a  town 
on  the  coast  of  Orissa,  .at  the  southern  end  of  the 
delta  of  the  Mah.anadi,  cclebiivted  as  one  of  the 
chief  holy  places  in  India.  With  a  resident  ]iop. 
of  22,000,  .and  some  6000  lodging-houses  for 
pilgrims,  it  owes  its  reputation  to  a  temple  erected 
there  in  honour  of  Vishnu,  and  containing  an  idol 
of  this  Hindu  god,  called  JiifidiiiKilli  or  JiKjiicr- 
limit,  ,a  corruption  of  the  Sanskrit  word  Jiirjini- 
ndtha — i.e.  Lord  of  the  AA'orld.  It  was  long  a 
s.ocred  city  of  the  Ibidilhists,  the  abode  of  the 
Golden  Tooth  of  Buddha.  The  first  historical 
mention  of  .I.agannath  is  in  318  .\.D.  He  repre- 
sents Vishnu  in  all  his  m.anifestations,  and  is  in  .a 
special  sense  the  god  of  the  iieo^ile.  The  great 
festiv.als  sometimes  bring  200,000  pilgrims  ;  and  ihe 
.annual  offerings  m.ay  .amount  to  as  much  lus  i"37.liOO, 
hesides  .lag.annath's  revenue  of  £31,000  from  lands 
an<l  various  religious  houses.    The  temple  enclosure 


JUGGLERS 


JULG 


■U)5 


comprises  120  temples,  the  chief  |)af,'(>(Ia  bein^  that 
of  Jagannath.  with  a  tower  192  feet  liij;h.  Tliere 
are  twenty  four  annmil  festivals  in  his  honour,  the 
chief  lieinj;  the  car  festival,  when  Jajjannath  (  who 
is  armless)  is  ilragLred  on  his  car  (45  feet  high,  3.") 
feet  square,  with  sixteen  wheels,  each  7  feet  in 
diameter)  to  his  country-house.  This  Ls  less  than 
a  mile  ilistaut  from  the  temple,  l)nt  the  heavy  sand 
extends  the  short  journey  to  several  days,  until  the 
exhausted  devotees  resign  the  task  to  professional 
car-pullers,  who  have  also  to  assist  the  idol  home 
agaiu.  The  car  festival  has  Ijeen  currently  believed 
to  be  the  occasion  of  numerous  cases  of  self-immo- 
lation, the  frantic  devotees  committing  suicide  by 
throwing  themsehes  before  the  wheels  of  the  heavy- 
car.  This  is,  it  would  appear,  a  calumny  of  Eng- 
lish writei^.  See  Sir  W.  \V.  Hunter's  work  on 
Orissa  (1872),  in  which  he  'carefully  examined  the 
wliole  evidence  on  the  subject,  from  loSO,  when 
Abul  Fazl  wrote,  through  a  long  series  of  travellei's, 
down  to  tlie  police  reports  of  1870,'  and  came  to 
'  the  conclusion  which  H.  H.  Wilson  hail  arrived  at 
from  quite  ditlerent  sources,  that  self-immolation 
was  entirely  opposed  to  the  woiship  of  Jagannath, 
and  that  tlie  rare  deaths  at  the  car  festival  were 
almost  always  accidental." 

Jugglers.    See  CoxjCRiNG. 

Jugular  Vein.    See  Throat,  Vein. 

JugurtllU.  king  of  Xumidia,  s(ui  of  Mastan- 
alial,  who  was  a  natural  son  of  ilasinissa,  was 
carefully  educated  along  with  Adherbal  and 
Hiempsal,  the  sons  of  his  uncle  Micipsa,  who 
succeeded  Ma--.iuissa  on  the  throne.  After  Micipsa's 
death  Jugurtha  soon  caused  Hiempsal  to  be  mur- 
dered ( 118  B.C.),  whereupon  Adherbal  fled  to  Rome. 
•Jugurtha  succeeded  in  bribing  great  part  of  the 
Roman  senate,  and  obtained  a  decision  in  his 
favour,  freeing  him  from  the  charge  of  the  murder 
of  Hiempsal,  and  assigning  him  a  larger  share  of 
the  kingdom  than  was  given  to  Adherbal  (117 
B.C.).  But  Jugurtha  soon  invaded  Adherbal's 
dominions,  and,  notwithstanding  injunctions  by 
the  Romans  to  the  contrary,  besieged  him  in  the 
town  of  Cirta(112  B.C.),  and  caused  him  and  the 
Romans  who  were  captured  w-ith  him  to  be  put 
to  death  with  honible  tortures.  Thereupon  war 
was  declared  against  Jugurtha  by  the  Roman 
people :  but,  by  bribing  the  generals,  Jugurtha 
contrived  for  years  to  bafHe  the  Roman  power.  At 
last  the  consul,  Q.  Ca-cilius  Metellus,  proving  in- 
accessible to  bribes,  defeated  him  in  109  and  108 
B.C.,  so  that  he  was  compelled  to  flee  to  the  Mauri- 
tanian  king,  Bocchus.  Marius,  who  succeeded 
Metellus  in  the  commaud,  carried  on  the  war 
against  .Jugurtha  and  Bocchus,  till  at  last  Bocchus 
ilelivered  him  up  to  Sulla,  then  the  qua?stor  of 
Marius.  He  was  carried  in  the  triumph  of  Marius, 
January  1,  104  B.C.,  and  then  flung  into  a  dungeon 
under  the  Capitol  to  die  of  hunger.  Our  interest 
in  Jugurtha  is  entirely  due  to  the  masteroiece  of 
history  in  miniature  which  Sallust  devoted  to  his 
ston'. 

Jujube  [Zizijphii.s),  a  genus  of  spiny  and  de- 
ciduous shrubs  and  small  trees  of  the  natural  order 
RhamnaceiB.  The  species  are  pretty  numerous. 
The  Common  Jujube  (Z.  vulgnris)  of  the  south  of 
Europe,  Syria,  &c.  is  a  low  tree,  which  produces 
a  fruit  resembling  an  olive  in  sha))e  and  size,  red 
or  sometinies  yellow  when  ripe.  The  fruit  is  dried 
its  a  sweetmeat,  and  forms  an  article  of  commerce. 
Si/riij>  of  jiijuheji  is  u.sed  in  coughs,  fevers,  i"^c.  ; 
but  the  jujube  poMe  or  pAte  cle  jujube  of  the  shoos 
of  Britain  is  made  of  jmin-arabic  and  sugar,  witii- 
out  any  of  the  dried  jelly  of  this  fruit. — Tlie  jujube 
of  India  (Z.  JujuUi)  Ls  a  .similar  small  tree,  with 
rouml  or  oblong  fniit,  sometimes  of  the  size  of  a 
hen's  egg. — A  Chinese  species  of  jujube  (Z.  uitida) 


has  a  very  pleasant  yellow  fruit  about  an  inch 
long :  and  other  species  not  much  inferior  are 
found  in  Africa,  South  America,  and  other  warm 
countries. — Tlie  Lotus  {Z.  Ijjiua),  a  shnib  2  or  3 
feet  high,  a  native  of  Persia,  the  north  of  .Vfrica, 
^.c,  produces  in  great  abundanci;  a  fruit  aboul  as 
large  as  a  sloe,  and  with  a  large  stone,  but  liaving 
a  sweet  farinaceous  pulp,  which  the  natives  of 
some  iiarts  of  Africa  make  into  cakes  resembling 
gingeioiead.  A  kind  of  wine  is  sometimes  made 
from  it.  This  is  believed  by  many  to  be  the  Lotus 
of  the  ancient  Lotophagi  celel)rated  by  Homer. — 
Z.  Spina  C7in'sti,  another  native  of  the  countries 
near  the  Mediterranean,  is  sometimes  said  to  be  the 
jilant  from  the  branches  of  which  our  Saviour's 
crown  of  thorns  was  made,  and  is  tlierefore  calleil 
!  Christ's  Thorn  and  Jew's  Thorn,  names  which,  for 
the  same  reason,  are  also  given  to  Pu/iidus 
(iiuleatus.  The  fruit  is  about  the  size  of  a  sloe, 
oblong,  and  pleasantly  acidulous. — Z.  xtjlupi/rus,  a 
native  of  the  coast  of  Coromandel,  has  gi'eenish 
downy  fruit  about  the  size  of  a  cherry,  with  an 
eililile  kernel  tasting  like  a  tilliert.  The  tree,  which 
grows  aliout  20  feet  high,  yields  a  hard,  durable, 
yet  light  timber,  wliicli  when  mature  assumes  a  tine 
orange  colour. 

Jlljny.  the  most  northerly  pro^ince  of  the 
Argentine  Republic,  is  a  mountainous  tract, 
bounded  on  the  AV.  and  N.  by  Bolivia,  and  has 
an  area  of  about  27,000  sq.  m.  Its  minerals  are 
rich,  but  not  worked  to  any  extent.  The  chief  in- 
dustries are  agriculture  and  cattle-raising  :  sugar 
and  wheat  are  the  principal  crops.  The  exports 
(mainly  to  Bolivia)  consist  of  cattle,  mules,  fruit, 
chicha  brandy,  skins,  gold-dust,  and  salt.  Pop. 
(est.  1888)  goiOOO.— The  capital,  Jr.JUV,  on  the  San 
Francisco  River,  44  miles  >i.  of  Salta,  has  a  custom- 
house, a  national  college,  a  girls'  normal  .school, 
sugar-houses  and  retineries,  and  6000  inhabitants. 

Jnkes,  Joseph  Beete,  geologist,  was  born  near 
Birmingham,  on  10th  October  1811,  and  graduated 
from  St  John's  College,  Cambridge,  in  1836,  having 
studied  geology  under  Sedgwick.  In  1839  he  was 
appointed  geological  surveyor  of  Newfoundland, 
an<l  in  1842  he  took  part  as  naturalist  in  the 
exploration  and  survey  of  Torres  Strait,  New- 
Guinea,  and  the  east  coast  of  Australia.  After 
his  return  home  he  surveyed  part  of  North  Wales 
for  the  Geological  Sur\ey  of  the  L'nited  Kingdom 
(1846-50),  and  in  1850  became  local  director  of  the 
survey  in  Ireland.  He  also  lectured  on  geology  in 
the  Museum  of  Irish  Industry  and  at  the  Royal 
College  of  Science  in  Dublin.  He  died  in  tJiat 
city,  29th  July  1869.  Besides  writing  niany 
memoirs  on  geological  and  kindred  subjects.  Jukes 
published  Excursions  in  and  about  Nevfoiindland 
(2  \-ols.  1842),  Narrative  of  the  Surveyinri  V'oijage 
of  N. M.S.  'Fill,' in  Torres  Strait,  d-c.  (1847),  and 
A  Sketch  of  the  Physical  Structure  of  A  ustralia 
(18.50) :  but  he  is  best  known  as  the  author  of  the 
Student's  Manual  of  Geolot/y  (1857,  5th  ed.  1890). 
See  his  Letters,  edited  by  C.  A.  Browne  ( 1871 ). 

Julf'il,  a  suburb  of  Ispahan  (ij.v. )  iu  Pei-sia. 

•lillg,  Beumi.vkd,  philologist,  was  born  at 
Ringelbach,  in  Baden,  20tli  .-Vugust  1825;  studied 
cla.s.sical  and  comparative  philology  at  the  uni 
ver.sities  of  Heiilelberg  and  Berlin  ;  and  after  teach- 
ing in  gymnasia  at  Heidellicrg,  Freiburg,  and 
Rastatt  oecame  in  1851  extra-ordinary  |)rofcssiir 
of  Classical  Philology  at  Lemberg  ;  in  1853  ordinary 
professor  at  the  university  of  Cracow,  ami  in  1863 
at  Innsbruck,  where  he  died  14tli  August  1886. 
Besides  his  studies  in  comparative  philology,  ex- 
tended to  embrace  the  tongues  of  eiustern  Asia,  lie 
devoted  much  attention  to  the  question  of  com- 
parative folk-lale.s. 

Of  his  scientiBo  publications  the  most  iiiipurtaat  are 


366 


JULIA 


JULIAN 


Vater's  Litteratur  der  Grammatiken,  Lexika  und  WSrlcr- 
aammlunrjen  alter  Sprachen  dir  Erdt  (2d  ed.  184"),  Die 
Mdrchen  des  Siddhi-kiir  (186(5),  two  collections  of  Jlon- 
golian  Mdrchen  (1867  aiid  1868),  a  work  on  echoes  of  the 
Ureek  heroic  epos  amongst  the  Mongolians  (lS6it),  and 
Uibtr  Wcsen  und  Aufyabc  dir  Sprachicissaisehaft  (1SG8). 

Jlllia^  tlie  only  cliiUl  of  the  Roman  enipeior 
Aujjustiis,  was  his  daughter  liy  his  second  wife, 
Scrilionia,  and  was  born  in  39  B.C.  She  was  dis- 
tinjrnished  for  her  beauty  and  talents,  and  was 
married  at  fourteen  to  Marcus  Claudius  Marcellus, 
the  sister's  son  of  Augustus.  After  his  death  two 
years  later,  she  was  married  to  Marcus  Vipsanius 
Agrippa,  to  whom  she  bore  three  sons  and  two 
<laughters.  He  in  liis  turn  died  in  the  year  12  B.C., 
whereupon  Julia  was  given  in  marriage  ne.xt  year 
to  Tiberius  ;  his  mother,  Livia,  the  stepmother  of 
Julia,  pei-suading  Augustus  to  tliis,  in  order  to 
secure  the  succession  of  Tiberius  to  the  throne. 
Tlie  nuirriage  was  an  unhajipy  one,  and  the  con- 
duct of  Julia  herself  far  from  irreproachable  ;  but 
it  was  Livia's  hatred  rather  than  any  lofty  regard 
for  virtue  that  procured  the  unliappy  Julia's  banish- 
ment to  the  isle  of  Paiulataria.  I*  rom  Pandataria, 
whither  her  divorced  mother,  Scribonia,  accom- 
panied her,  she  was  removed  to  Rhegium,  where 
she  was  allowed  by  Tilierius  to  remain  destitute 
even  of  common  comforts  till  her  death  in  14  ,\.u. 
Her  son,  Agrippa  Postumus,  was  put  to  death  by 
Tiberius  shortly  before  the  deatli  of  his  nmtlier. 
Her  other  sons,  C.  and  L.  Ca-sar,  died  in  early  age. 
Her  daugliters  survived  her.  The  elder,  Julia,  in- 
herited her  mother's  frailty,  and  died  in  28,  in  the 
isle  of  Tiinienis,  on  the  coast  of  Apulia,  whither 
slie  had  been  lianished  by  Augustus  twenty  years 
before  for  adultery.  The  younger,  the  virtuous 
Agrippina  (ipv. ),  died  In  33,  in  Pandataria,  to 
which  she  had  been  banished  b^'  Tiberius. 

Jllliail<  sumamed  the  Apostate,  on  account  of 
his  renunciation  of  Christianity,  Roman  emperor 
from  about  the  end  of  361  to  the  middle  ot  3G3 
A.D.,  was  born  at  Constantinople  in  the  later  half 
■of  the  year  331.  He  was  tlie  youngest  son  of  Julius 
Constantius,  the  half-brother  of  Constantine  the 
Great,  and  his  full  name  was  Flavins  Claudius 
JuUanus.  On  the  death  of  the  great  Constantine 
in  May  337,  and  the  accession  of  his  three  sons, 
there  was  a  general  massacre  of  the  male  branches 
of  the  younger  line  of  the  Flavian  family  descended 
from  Constantius  Chlorus  and  his  second  wife  Theo- 
dora. Thus  perished  the  father  of  Julian,  his  elder 
brother,  paternal  uncle,  and  cousins,  while  he  him- 
self and  his  elder  h;ilf-)iriitlier  (Callus  were  alone 
spared  as  too  young  to  be  dangerous.  He  lived  a 
loveless  youth,  under  rigorous  espionage,  at  Macel- 
lum  in  Cappadocia  and  at  Xicomedia,  embittered 
moreover  oy  the  terrible  tragedy  he  had  just 
escaped,  which  stripped  him  of  all  belief  in  the 
reigning  religion,  and  drove  his  ardent  tempera- 
ment for  relief  into  the  literary  .'uid  [)hilosophical 
studies  of  his  time.  His  secret  apostasy  seems 
to  have  been  begun  at  Nicomedia  and  consum- 
mated at  Ephesus  under  the  iiilluence  of  the 
Neoplatonist  Maximus.  In  35.t  he  spent  a  few 
ha])py  months  at  Athens  in  the  study  of  Greek 
philosophy,  and  among  his  fellow-students  and 
ac(juaintances  here  were  the  future  Bishops  Hasil 
and  Gregory  Nazianzen.  Gallus  had  been  put  to 
death  the  year  before,  and  in  November  3,5.")  Julian 
was  summoned  to  Milan  to  assume  the  rank  of 
C'lesar,  and  marry  the  emperor's  sister,  Helena. 

The  shy  young  student  moved  awkwardly  amid 
the  atmos])here  of  policy  and  intrigue  at  the  court, 
but  during  the  next  live  years  he  found  more  con- 
genial occupation  in  the  camp,  and  hy  his  skill  and 
vigour  showed  th.at  he  was  a  soldier  as  well  as 
a.  philosopher.  He  overthrew  the  stubborn  and 
victorious  Alemanni  near  Strasburg,  subdued  the 


Frankish  tribes  along  the  Rhine  and  across  the 
river,  and  fixed  his  winter  quarters  at  Paris.  He 
endeared  himself  to  the  people  by  lightening  the 
pulilic  burdens,  and  to  the  soldiers  by  his  personal 
courage,  his  success  in  war,  and  the  severe  sim|)li- 
city  of  his  private  life.  In  April  36(1  the  emperor, 
alarmed  at  his  growing  jiopularity,  ilemanded  that 
he  should  send  some  of  his  best  troops  to  serve 
against  tlie  Persians,  but  his  soldiers  rose  in  insur- 
rection and  proclaimed  him  Augustus.  He  occu- 
pied some  time  in  consolidating;  his  power,  then 
sent  forward  one  portion  of  his  army  through 
Rha'tia  and  Noricuiii,  another  bv  the  northern  con- 
lines  of  Italy,  while  he  himselt'  with  .'iOtX)  cho.sen 
soldiers  plunged  into  the  gloomy  recesses  of  the 
Marcian  or  Black  Forest,  and  sailetl  down  the 
Danube  as  far  as  Sirmium,  where  he  waiteil  to 
unite  his  forces.  Here  he  first  threw  ott'  the  mask 
and  openly  declared  himself  a  pagan.  Here 
also  he  learned  of  the  opportune  death  of  his 
cousin  at  the  foot  of  Mount  Taurus  (November  3, 
361 ),  which  opened  up  to  him  the  government  of 
the  world.  The  first  winter  he  spent  in  the  im- 
perial city  in  a  course  of  public  reforms,  sweeping 
away  a  host  of  corrupt  officials  who  had  long 
battened  at  will  on  private  bribes  and  exactions. 
Towards  Christians  and  Jews  alike  he  ostenta- 
tiously adopted  a  policy  of  toleration,  but  none  the 
less  he  devoted  himself  with  all  the  enthusiasm  of 
the  convert  to  the  task  of  restoring  the  dignity  of 
the  old  religion.  He  was  assiduous  in  the  practice 
of  divination  and  all  other  superstitious  ceremonies, 
reopened  and  rebuilt  the  deserted  temples,  and 
lavished  his  patronage  upon  the  time-serving  repro- 
bates who  deluded  him  into  a  belief  in  the  reality 
of  their  conversion.  He  stripjied  the  church  of  its 
peculiar  luivileges  by  every  means  short  of  persecu- 
tion, but  was  mortilied  to  the  heart  by  the  little 
success  of  his  ardent  propagandism  alike  among 
the  citizens  .and  the  soldiers,  although  the  latter 
were  unable  to  pay  their  due  worship  to  the  pei'son 
of  the  emperor  without  seeming  to  bow  to  idols, 
from  the  subtle  way  in  which  the  imperial  and  the 
divine  sj'mbols  were  deliberately  interminij;led.  As 
soon  as  he  had  .settled  affairs  in  Constantinople  he 
set  out  on  a  journey  through  .Asia  Minor  to  .\ntiorh. 
Here  he  lived  from  July  ,362  to  the  March  of  the 
following  year,  and  found  its  luxurious  citizens 
as  inditt'ereut  to  his  paganism  as  to  Christianity. 
Yet  his  zeal  in  reformation  was  less  hateful  than 
his  economic  policy  in  fixing  an  arbitrary  price  on 
corn  in  order  to  stave  oft' a  threatened  famine.  The 
impudent  Antiochenes  revenged  themselves  upon 
the  sensitive  emperor  by  lampoons  an<l  ridicule ; 
yet  he  restrained  his  resentment,  or  confined  it  to 
the  pages  of  his  Jllisopoi/on,  an  ironical  satire  on 
their  ettemiuate  manners,  full  of  the  interest  of 
self-revelation.  His  famous  attempt  to  relmild  the 
temple  at  Jerusalem  was  intended  to  falsify  the 
cherished  prophecies  of  Christianity  no  less  than  to 
plea.se  the  Jews;  and  the  balls  of  llaine  which 
brought  the  work  to  a  standstill  were  with  one 
accord  accepted  as  miraculous  evidence  of  the 
special  interposition  of  heaven.  Much  has  been 
written  on  this  startling  story,  which  even  Ciibbmi 
was  obliged  to  receive  with  some  respect,  and  the 
case  ff)r  the  miracle  has  been  admirably  put  by 
Newman  in  liis  E.ssii;/  on  the  iliraclcs  in  Eurtii 
Kn-ldiinxtiral  Histori/  (1S42). 

In  March  .363  Julian  set  out  on  his  long  medi- 
tated expedition  against  the  Pei-sian  king  Sapor, 
and  after  a  tedious  march  crossed  the  Tigris,  and 
advanced  to  the  walls  of  Ctesiphon.  He  was  led  to 
advance  farther  by  the  false  promises  of  a  Persian 
traitor,  and  was  at  length  forced  to  retreat  through 
ii  barren  country,  under  a  burning  sun,  and 
harassed  by  the  swarms  of  the  Persian  cavalry. 
The  enemy  were  repeatedly  beaten  otr,  but  in  one 


JULIAN    CALENDAR 


JULIUS 


367 


of  the  attacks  the  emperor  was  woiimleil  hy  a 
spear-thrust  in  the  siile  and  fell  fainlin<,'  from  his 
hoi-se.  Theoiloret  tells  ns  how  as  liis  blood  spouted 
from  the  wouml  he  exclaimed,  '  Thou  hast  con- 
quered, O  Galilean  ! ' — a  poetical  tale  that  is  at 
least  an  embodiment  of  a  historic  truth.  He  was 
carried  to  his  tent,  where,  after  a  few  words  of 
brave  philosophy  to  his  weepin"  friemls,  he  died 
about  midnit'ht  on  the  eveninjr  of  June  "26,  3t>3. 

'Julian's  ^ife  was  an  accident,'  says  Beugnot. 
'  and  at  his  death  events  reverted  to  their  natural 
channel.'  He  failed  completely  in  the  aims  of  his 
life :  and  historj',  says  Mr  Kendall,  shows  few 
sadder  examples  of  noble  views  distorted,  great 
powers  misapplied,  and  high  aims  worse  than 
wasted.  He  was  at  once  a  soldier  and  a  states- 
man wTapped  in  a  student's  cloak,  and  his 
character  was  made  up  of  strange  contrasts.  He 
was  superstitious  and  fanatical  ;  loquacious,  rest- 
less, and  irritable  ;  without  either  the  calm  dignity 
of  the  Roman,  or  the  graceful  ease  of  the  Greek  ; 
vain,  pedantic,  and  hungry  for  applause  :  yet  with 
a  heart  passionately  devoted  to  truth  and  athii-st 
for  the  cooling  watere  of  divine  philosophy.  He 
was  chaste  and  abstinent,  just,  liberal,  and  affec- 
tionate :  yet  the  story  of  his  \vasted  life,  with  moie 
than  the  pathos,  lacks  all  the  charm  that  hangs 
around  the  brow  of  the  imperial  philosoplier 
Aurelius. 

To  Gregory  Nazianzen,  Chrysostom,  Sozomen,  Theo- 
doret,  and  all  the  early  Christian  writers,  the  Apostate 
was  a  monster  of  wickedness  ;  to  Claudius  ilamertinus  he 
was  a  figure  above  all  taint  of  human  intirmity.  Tlie 
veracious  and  competent  military  historian  .\mmiauus 
Marcellinus  and  the  rhetorical  Libanius  are  alike  warm, 
yet  discriminating,  panegyrists.  Of  modern  writers  the 
most  illustrious  is  <.iibbon,  whose  account  is  fairly  just  and 
one  of  the  most  splendid  passages  in  historical  literature. 
Yet,  as  Mr  J.  W.  Barlow  has  shown  [Hermathena,  vol. 
iiL  1879),  his  picture  of  Julian  has  sufl'ered  from  the 
necessity  for  the  appearance  of  severe  impartiality.  He 
disUked  his  superstition,  and  throughout  he  damns  him 
with  faint  praise,  and  sneers  at  his  virtue,  as  if  it  lacked 
the  merit  of  effort.  Even  the  allusion  to  his  uncleanly 
personal  habits — his  long  nails,  ink-stained  hands,  and 
populous  beard — is  scarce  justified  by  the  evidence,  being 
based  on  a  mere  ironical  exaggeration  of  Julian's  own,  in 
his  Migopo'j'yn,  to  justify  the  excessive  contempt  of  the 
over-luxurious  citizens  of  Antioch. 

Julian's  extant  writings  are  a  series  of  Epistles,  mostly 
addressed  to  men  of  letters ;  nine  Orations ;  Caesares,  a 
series  of  satires  in  which  past  Ciesars  are  treated  to  caustic 
satire  from  Silenus ;  and  the  Miso}jogon.  His  most  im- 
portant work,  Kata  Ckristiajv^n,  is  lost.  A  serviceable 
edition  is  that  by  F.  C.  Hertlein  (Leip.  1875).  See  vols, 
iii.  and  iv.  of  the  Due  de  Broglie's  L'&jlise  et  PEmpire 
Romain  au  quatriemc  SiMe  (1856-69);  Neander, 
Kaiser  Julian  wad  gein  Zeitalter  (1813;  Eng.  trans. 
1850);  J.  F.  A-  Miicke,  Flavins  Claudius  Julianus: 
nach  den  Quellen  (1867-69) ;  and  G.  H.  Kendall,  The  Em- 
peror Julian  :  Patjanism  and  Christianitii,  an  expanded 
HuLsean  Essay  ( 1879 )  ;  Bisliop  John  AVordswortli's 
article  in  vol.  iiL  (1882)  of  Smith  and  Wace's  Dictionary 
of  ChriMian  Biography ;  and  Alice  Gardner,  Julian,  Philo- 
iopher  and  Emperor  (1895).  The  essay  by  Strauss,  Der 
homantiker  auf  detn  Thron  der  Cdsartn  (18-17),  is  only 
a  clever  pamphlet  aimed  at  Frederick  William  IV.  of 
Prussia,  and  his  religious  reaction.  Ibsen's  splendid 
drama.  Emperor  ami  Oalikean  (1873;  Eng.  trans.  1876), 
sketches  a  new  ideal  culture  for  the  world  to  succeed  the 
Christian,  as  it  replaced  the  classical 

Julian    Caloiiilar,    Epoch,   Year.      See 

C'.M.KNU.VK,  CHRONDLOGY,  \  li.VK. 

Julien,  Stani.slas  Aioxan,  a  great  French 
Sinologue,  was  born  at  Orleans,  19tli  Sejitember 
1799,  and  became  at  twenty-one  an  assistant-pro- 
fes.sor  at  the  College  de  France.  Ere  long,  under 
Abel  H«5niusat,  he  gave  himself  with  such  zeal  to 
the  study  of  Chinese  that  he  mastered  its  ilitli- 
culties  in  le.ss  than  a  year,  and  actually  executed  a 
Latin  translation  of  the  philosopher  Mencius  (182-I- 


26).  From  that  time  his  lahoure  were  direeteil  with 
uninterrupted  assiduity  to  the  languages  and  litera- 
ture of  the  far  East.  Ancient  ami  modern  Chinese, 
Manchu.  Sanskrit,  and  the  Mongolian  tongues 
were  alike  familiar  to  him  ;  and  at  the  .same  time 
he  knew  almost  all  the  European  languages.  He 
succeeded  Hemusat  in  1832  at  the  College  de 
France,  became  in  18.39  keeper  of  the  I'oyal 
Library,  and  in  1854  head  of  the  College  Iniprriale. 
He  was  also  conservator  of  the  i5ibliothe(|ue 
Imperiale,  and  was  specially  charged  with  the 
oversight  of  the  Chinese  department.  He  died 
February  14,  1873.  Julien  gave  admiraljle  French 
versions  of  specimens  of  the  Chinese  drama  in  his 
Hoci-laH-hi  ('the  Circle  of  Chalk,'  1S32)  and  his 
Tchao-chi-kou-eul  ('the  Chinese  Orphan,'  1834)  ;  of 
Chinese  romances,  by  his  Blanche  et  Bleu  (1834),  Lcs 
ileiix  Coiisiiies  (1863):  and  Acaddnas,  a  collection 
of  Indian  novels  (1859).  He  was  also  the  first  to 
make  Chinese  poetry  intelligible.  But  a  more  valu- 
able service  still  than  these  was  his  translating 
the  great  manuals  of  Chinese  religion  and  philo- 
sophy, such  as  the  Livrc  dcs  Rccomjjeiises  et  des 
Pcincs  (1S35),  in  which  are  contained  the  doctrines 
of  Tao-.se:  the  I.irn-  de  la  Vote  et  de  la  Vcrtu  ( 1841 ) 
by  Lao-tse,  written  in  the  6tli  century  B.C.,  and 
forming  the  ohlest  and  most  illustrious  monument 
of  Chinese  philosophy  ;  and  aljove  all,  the  Histoirc 
de  la  Vie  d'Hioucn-Tsang  et  de  scs  Voyages  (}f^'i2), 
a  work  of  immense  importance  for  the  earlier  his- 
tory and  geography  of  India,  and  the  knowledge  of 
Buddhism.  But  not  content  with  these  brilliant 
labours,  Julien  translated  Chinese  treatises  on  silk- 
culture  and  the  manufacture  of  porcelain.  His 
splenilid  Sijnfaxe  Xouvellc  de  la  Langue  Chinoise 
appeared  1869-70. 

Jiilich  (Fr.  Jidiers),  a  town  of  Rhenish 
Prussia,  on  the  Koer,  20  miles  by  rail  NE.  of  Aix- 
la-Chapelle.  It  is  the  Jidiacian  of  the  Romans. 
Until  Its  fortiKcations  were  razed  in  1860  it  ranked 
as  a  fortress  of  the  second  class.  Pop.  5234. — From 
the  12th  century  Jiilich  was  the  capital  of  an  inde- 
pendent conntship,  created  a  duchy  in  1356.  In 
14'23  Jiilich  and  Berg  (q.v.)  were  united;  and 
Cleves  was  added  in  1521.  In  1609  a  disimte  arose 
as  to  the  succe.ssion,  which  was  not  settled  till  1666, 
when  a  decision  was  given  in  favour  of  the  House 
of  Pfalz-Neulnirg,  the  Elector  of  Brandenliurg 
obtaining  Cleves.  The  Pfalz-Neuburg  family  he- 
coming  e.xtinct  in  1742,  Jiilich  passed  to  the  Pfalz- 
Sulzbach  branch,  afterwards  electors  of  Bavaria. 
In  1801  the  duchy  was  annexed  to  France,  in  1814 
to  Prussia.  See  Ritter,  Der  Jiilicher  Erbfolgestreit 
(2  vols.  1874-78). 

Julius,  the  name  of  three  popes,  of  whom  the 
second  anil  third  deserve  especially  to  be  noticed. — 
Jl'Lir.s  II.,  originally  Giuliano  della  Rovere,  a 
nephew  of  Sixtus  IV.,  was  born  at  Albizuola,  near 
Savona,  in  1443.  He  was  vehemently  opposed  during 
his  cardinalate  to  the  designs  of  Alexander  VI.  for 
the  aggrandisement  of  his  family,  and  one  of  his 
earliest  measures  on  his  election  to  the  jiontilicate, 
in  1.503,  was  to  resume  possession  of  the  duchy  of 
the  Romagna,  which  had  been  bestowed  upon  Ca'sar 
Borgia.  Julius  was  himself  beyond  all  suspicion  of 
nepotism  or  selfish  designs  of  aggrandisement ;  but 
his  public  career  during  his  pontilicate  was  almost 
entirely  devoted  to  piditical  and  military  enter- 
prises for  the  complete  re-establishment  of  the 
)>apal  sovereignty  in  its  ancient  territory — Bologna, 
Ferrara,  I'v.c. — and  fm'  the  extinction  of  foreign 
ilomination  and  foreign  inlluence  in  Italy.  In 
pursuing  his  designs,  for  the  purpose  of  compelling 
from  the  republic  of  Venice  the  restitution  of  the 
papal  provinces  on  the  Adriatic,  Julius  not  only 
entereil  into  the  league  of  Canibrai  with  the  Emperor 
Maximili:in,  Fenlinand  of  Aragon,  and  Louis  XII. 


368 


JULLIEX 


JUNAGARH 


of  France,  Iput  liad  recoui^o  to  spiritual  ariii>,  by 
placing;  tlie  lepvililic  umliT  the  ban  of  the  cliiuoh  : 
and  on  the  submission  of  Venice,  apprehemlinj;  the 
ambitious  ilesiyns  of  Louis,  he  withiliew  from  the 
league,  and  entered  into  an  opposite  alliance,  the 
'  Holy  League,'  to  which  .^jiain  and  England  were 
parties.  During  this  bitter  ijuarrel  with  Louis  XII. 
the  latter  attempted,  but  ineft'eclnally,  to  enlist 
the  sympathies  of  the  churcli  against  the  pope. 
The  Council  of  H.sa,  which  was  convened  under 
Louis's  inlluence,  was  an  utter  failure ;  and  the 
o])posing  council,  iifth  of  the  Laterau,  assembled 
by  .Julius,  l)ut  not  brought  to  a  close  during  hi.s 
lifetime,  completely  frustrated  the  designs  of  the 
French  king.  It  has  been  said  without  grounds 
tliat  Julius,  in  his  hatred  of  France,  tried  to  draw 
even  the  Turks  into  the  league,  but  on  the  con- 
trary one  of  his  most  cherished  dreams  was  a  holy 
war  under  his  own  comniand.  As  an  ecclesiastical 
ruler  Julius  has  little  to  recommend  him  in  the 
eyes  of  clnirchmen.  As  a  political  sovereign  he 
is  described  by  Ranke  as  '  a  noble  soul,  full  of 
lofty  plans  for  the  glory  and  weal  of  Italy : ' 
and  Professor  Leo  considers  him,  with  all  his 
defects,  as  one  of  tlie  noblest  characters  of  that 
age  in  Ital.y.  He  was  a  liberal  and  judicious 
patron  of  art,  and  a  friend  of  the  rising  litera- 
ture of  the  time.  He  died  in  February  1513. 
There  are  Lives  by  Dumesnil  (Paris,  1873)  and 
Brosch  ((lOtha,  1877).— Jl'Llus  III.,  born  at 
Home  in  1487,  was  known  before  his  elevation  to 
the  pontificate  as  Cardinal  del  Monte.  He  was  one 
of  the  three  legates  of  the  pope  under  whom  the 
Council  of  Trent  wa.s  opened  :  antl  after  his  election 
to  the  papacy  in  1550  he  himself  reopened  (in  1551 ) 
that  council,  which  had  been  suspended  for  up- 
wards of  two  years.  He  is  connected  with  English 
history  as  having  sent  Cardinal  Pole  to  organise 
with  Mary  the  reunion  of  the  kingdom  with  Home  ; 
but  his  general  government  of  the  church  is  marked 
by  no  very  striking  events,  and  his  private  char- 
acter is  sullied  by  the  taint  of  nepotism.  He  died 
in  March  1.555. 

Jllllieil  (originally  JuLiEX),  Loris  Axtoine, 
was  born  at  Sisteron,  in  the  French  department  of 
Basses  Alpes,  23d  April  1812.  He  studied  at  Paris, 
and  became  a  conductor  of  concerts  there  in  1836  ; 
but  leaving  in  1838,  made  London  his  headipiarters, 
and  did  nnich  to  ])oi)ularise  music  in  England  by 
means  of  large  bands,  the  best  available  ))lavers 
and  singers,  and  the  most  attractive  pieces,  includ- 
ing his  own  'Monster  t^uadiilles.'  He  became 
bankrupt  in  1857,  and  retired  to  Paris,  where  he 
was  imprisoneil  for  debt.  He  died  in  a  lunatic 
asylum,  14th  March  IStiO. 

•IiiIIiIIKIoi*  {Jdlaiulliar),  a  city  of  the  Punjab, 
stands  in  the  Doab  or  rich  alluvial  plain  of  the 
same  name  between  the  Sutlej  and  the  Beas,  in 
:!1  21'  N.  lat.  and  75' 31'  E.  long.,  on  the  Sindh- 
I'unjab  and  Delhi  Railway  between  l'ml>alla  anil 
Iniritsar.  The  soil  of  the  neighbourhood  is  very 
productive ;  and  the  city,  though  fallen  from  its 
former  greatness,  in  1891  had  t>(),202  inhabitants. 
.JuUunder  is  a  very  ancient  city,  founded  before 
.\le\ander's  invasion  of  India,  and  is  referred  to 
in  the  Midiaihamta. — It  gives  its  name  to  an 
a<lministrative  tlittrict  of  1433  s(|.  m.  area  (pop. 
9<J7,583),  and  to  a  division  of  12,600  sij.  m.  area 
(pop.  nearly  3,000,000). 

•IlllllS.  or  IlTHTS,  a  genus  of  Millepedes,  in  the 
class  Myriapoda  (see  C'KXTIl'EDE). 

July,  the  .seventh  month  of  the  year  in  our 
calenilar,  tifth  in  the  Roman  ealenilar,  where  it  was 
called  Quintilis  ('the  Iifth').  Originally  it  con- 
tained thirtysi.v  days,  reduced  lirst  to  tliirty-one, 
then  to  thirty,  but  was  restored  to  thirty-one  days 
by  Julius  Cicsar,  in  honour  of  whom  it  was  named 


./«///  (Lat.  Jiditis),  his  birthday  falling  on  the 
12th.  In  this  month  the  sun  leaves  Cancer  and 
enters  the  .sign  of  Leo.  According  to  Dove,  the 
mean  temperature  of  July  at  London  is  04"  F.  ;  at 
Dublin,  OT;  at  Archangel,  liO' ;  at  Berlin,  66*;  at 
Rome,  76'.  The  average  summer  temperature  at 
j  New  York  is  72'-62;  at  San  Francisco,  5S°'04. — 
j  The  'July  Revolution'  is  that  in  France  in  .Inly 
1830,  by  which  Charles  X.  was  set  aside,  and 
LouLs- Philippe  became  king. 

Jlliui^ges,  Robert  of,  Archbishop  of  Canter- 
bury, was  a  Norman  by  birth,  and  came  to  England 
in  the  train  of  Edwar<l  the  Confessor,  over  whom 
he  acquired  great  inlluence.  He  wius  made  Bishop 
of  London  in  1044,  and  Archbishop  of  Canterbury  in 
1050,  and  from  the  first  was  the  head  of  the  anti- 
English  party  which  gained  a  temporary  triumi)li 
in  1051  by  the  banishment  of  Earl  Godwin  and  his 
sons.  Their  return  next  year  quickly  drove  him 
into  e.xile  in  Normandy.  The  AVitenagemot  stripped 
him  of  his  archbisliopric,  and  he  spent  the  re- 
mainder of  his  life  in  the  monasteiy  of  Jumieges, 
16  miles  SW.  of  Rouen. 

Jumieges,  Willi.\m  of,  a  Norman  monk  who 
compiled  in  Latin  a  history  of  the  Dukes  of 
Normandy  from  Rollo  down  to  1071,  which  is  of 
some  value  in  the  contemporary  part — the  story  of 
the  Conquest  and  early  reign  of  William  I.  It  is 
printed  in  iligne's  Patruluijim  Curstts  Cuttijilctiai 
(vol.  cxlix.). 

Jnillillil,  a  town  of  Spain,  36  miles  N.  by  W. 
of  Murcia,  cultivates  the  vine  and  esparto  gra.ss, 
and  manufactures  salt,  jars,  silk,  &c.     Pop.  13,890. 

Jllllina^  or  J.\MUX.A,  the  principal  feeder  of  the 
Ganges,  has  its  course  wholly  in  Hindnstau.  Its 
source,  at  a  height  of  10,849  feet  above  the  sea, 
is  in  31°  3'  N.  lat.  and  78"  30'  E.  long.,  5  miles  N. 
of  Janmotri.  After  a  southerly  course  of  95  miles 
it  breaks  into  the  plains  from  the  Siwalik  Hills  at 
an  altitude  of  only  1276  feet.  It  continues  to  How 
south  as  far  .as  Haniirpur,  beyond  Agra,  and 
then  turns  to  the  east,  finally  joining  the  Ganges 
from  the  right  3  miles  below  Allahaljad,  after  a 
total  course  of  860  miles.  As  a  rule  its  banks  are 
high  and  craggy.  Many  tributaries  add  their 
waters  to  swell  its  current.  Area  of  tlii!  ilraiiuige 
basin,  118,000  sq.  m.  The  towns  of  Delhi,  Agra, 
Firozabad,  Et;iwah,  and  Allahabad  stand  on  its 
banks.  From  each  bank  of  the  river,  where  it 
emerges  from  the  Siwalik  Hills,  a  canal  lixs  been 
constructed  for  irrigation  purposes  —  the  Eastern 
Jumna  Canal  ( 18'23  .30),  on  tiie  left  bank,  160  miles, 
and  the  Western  (I817-'25),  433  miles. 

Junipers,  a  term  given  by  opponents  to  the 
Sb.akers  (q.v.),  as  also  to  some  Welsh  Methodists, 
assumed  to  ■  jump  '  as  part  of  divine  worship. 

Juniping.    See  Athletic  Si'dkts. 

Juniltinu;  Hare  (I'cUetes  aiffcr),  a  South 
.\fricau  rodcut,  Spriin/  J/nasoi  the  I)utch  colonists, 
belonging  to  the  same  family  (Dipodida;)  as  the 
Jerboas  (q.v.).  The  he.ad  nuich  resembles  that  of 
a  hare,  although  the  ears  are  shorter  ;  the  form  of 
the  body  is  also  like  that  of  a  hare,  but  the  hind- 
legs  are  very  long  an<l  strong,  like  those  of  a 
kang.aroo,  ami  the  toes  both  of  fore  and  hind  feet 
are  armed  with  great  claws  ;  and  the  tail  is  long 
and  bushy.  Its  powers  of  leaping  are  extraordinary ; 
it  clears  '20  or  .30  feet  at  a  bound.  Night  is  its 
time  of  activitv,  and  it  then  makes  mischievous 
imoads  on  fields  and  gardens.  It.s  flesh  is  eaten. 
Its  range  extends  from  Mozambique  and  Angola 
to  the  Cape. 

JuUiltfiirll.  capital  of  a  native  state  (area, 
3283  sc|.  III.  ;  pcqndation,  .■f9l),0()0)  of  India,  in  the 
Bombay  I'resiilency,  is  situated  on  the  peninsula 
of  Kathiawar,  NW.  of  Bombay.     One  of  the  most 


JUNCE^ 


JUNIPER 


309 


pictuiesij\ie  towns  in  Iiuiia,  it  has  au  old  citadel, 
which  contains  several  liiiddhist  caves,  as  does 
also  the  ditch  surrounding  it  (see  Dr  Burgess, 
Anti</iiitiis  of  Cutc/i  fuiil  Ki(thUtiiur).  Pop.  ( 1881 ) 
24,679;  (1891)  31,G-4U. 

Junce:r,  or  Ji'NCACE.E,  a  natural  order  of 
endo,^'iii(>us  plants,  herbaceous,  generally  perennial, 
with  creeping  root-stock;  narrow,  often  tistular 
leaves  ;  regular  (lowers  ;  the  perianth  6-partite  ;  the 
stamens  six  ;  the  fruit  a  3-valved  capsule.  This 
order  is  nearly  allied  to  Liliacea',  notwithstanding 
very  great  ilitl'erence  of  aspect ;  for  rushes  ( Juncus) 
are  the  best-known  examples  of  it.  The  species, 
about  200  in  number,  are  mostly  natives  of  cold 
and  temperate  climates. 

June,  the  sixth  month  of  the  year  in  our 
calendar,  but  the  fourth  among  the  Romans.  It 
consisted  originally  of  twenty  si.x  days,  to  which  four 
were  added  bv  Komulus,  one  taken  away  by  Nunia, 
.and  the  montli  again  lengthened  to  thirty  days  by 
Julius  Citsar,  since  whose  time  no  variation  has 
taken  place.  During  this  month  the  sun  leaves 
the  sign  of  Leo  and  entei's  that  of  Cancer.  Dove 
gives  the  mean  temperature  of  this  month  at 
London  as  6P  F. ;  Dublin,  58° ;  Paris,  63°;  Vienna, 
67° ;  Rome,  7P. 

Juns,  JoH.\XN  Heisrich,  generally  called 
JrsG  Stillisg,  an  original  German  writer,  was 
born  at  Im-Grund,  in  Na-ssau,  r2th  September  1740. 
At  fii-st  he  pursued  his  father's  callings — tailor 
and  village  schoolma.ster ;  then  (176S)  he  became 
a  student  of  medicine  at  Strasburg,  where  he  wa.s 
intimate  with  Goethe,  who  admired  his  simple, 
pure,  all'ectionate  nature  (see  Wahrheit  tend  Dic/i- 
tunc/,  ii.).  Next  he  settled  (177"2)  as  a  medical 
practitioner  at  Elberfeld,  and  won  fame  as  an 
operator  for  cataract.  Subsequentlj'  he  held  the 
professorship  of  Political  Economy  at  Marburg 
( 1787-lSW )  and  Heidelberg.  He  died  at  Carlsruhe, 
2d  April  1817.  He  was  brought  up  in  a  pietistic 
circle,  and  the  effects  of  his  early  training  clung  to 
him  all  his  life.  Although  lie  wrote  some  semi- 
mystical,  semi-pietistic  romances,  and  later  in  life 
works  on  political  economy,  he  only  deserves  to 
be  remembered  for  his  charming  autobiography, 
H.  Slilliiig's  Jugend,  Junrjlingsjahre,  Wander- 
srhfift,  Httusliches  Leben,  uiul  Lcltrjahrc  (5  vols. 
Berlin,  1777-1804:  En",  trans.  is:i.")).  His  works 
were  published  in  12  vols.  (Stutt.  1843-44). 

Jllllga  Sir  S.\L.\E,  chief  minister  to  the  Nizam 
of  Hyderabad,  was  a  member  of  a  princely  family 
whicii  since  the  founding  of  tlie  Nizam's  dynasty 
in  1713  had  furnished  the  state  with  its  chief  minis- 
ters, and  was  born  in  1829.  Under  his  uncle,  the 
chief  minister,  Salar  Jung  was  trained  in  otiicial 
work,  and  in  1853  succeeded  his  uncle  in  his  im- 
portant otlice.  He  at  once  began  to  reorganise 
the  administration  of  the  state,  then  in  a  most 
deplorable  condition.  The  finances  were  in  such 
a  state  that  the  BritLsli  government  had  even  to 
pay  the  troops  the  Nizam  Wiis  permitted  by  treaty 
to  maintain  in  his  own  name ;  and  in  order  to 
repay  the  loan  the  province  of  Berar  was  ceded  to 
the  British.  Salar  .Jung's  first  care  was  to  reduce 
to  oVjedience  the  mercenary  .Arab  sokliery.  Then 
the  robber  chiefs  of  the  hill  distiicts  were  crusheil  ; 
courts  of  justice  were  establLshed  at  Hyderabad  ; 
the  police  force  was  organised  ;  the  construction 
and  repair  of  works  of  irrigation  were  attended 
to ;  and  schools  were  established.  During  tlie 
Mutiny  of  1857  Sir  Salar  Jung  remaineil  faithful 
to  British  interests  in  face  of  the  opposition  of  the 
people,  who  side<l  with  the  insurgents.  The  Nizam 
Afzul,  an  apathetic,  .suspicious,  and  capricious 
monarch,  had  lent  his  reforming  minister  no  aid  ; 
he  had  rather  hampered  ami  hindered  him.  But 
on  his  death  in  1809  Sir  Salar  Jung  shared  with 
284 


the  most  powerful  noble  of  Hyderabad  the  post  of 
regent.  In  1870  he  visited  England  with  the  ho]ie 
of  obtaining  the  restoration  of  the  Berar  province, 
but  in  this  he  was  disappointed.  After  thirty 
years  of  wi.se  government,  he  died  suddenly  on  8th 
February  1883.  He  was  a  Knight  Grand  Com- 
mander of  the  Star  of  India. 

Jung  Bahadur.  Sli;,  prime-ndnister  to  the 
Maharajah  of  Neiial,  was  born  in  1816.  His 
uncle  held  a  liigh  [losition  under  the  government 
of  Nepal,  but  was  murdered  at  the  instigation 
of  the  queen,  who  appointed  the  nephew,  Jung 
Bahadur,  conimander-in-chief  of  the  army.  \Vlien 
in  1846  the  premier  was  assassinated,  Jung  Bahadur 
took  vengeance  upon  the  leading  chiefs  concerneil 
in  the  crime  and  made  himself  jirime-minister.  .\ 
conspiracy  against  him  was  quickly  quenched  in 
blood  ;  the  queen  and  the  witless  king  were  ban- 
ished ;  and  the  heir-apparent  was  raised  to  the 
throne.  During  the  Mutiny  of  1857  he  showed 
his  friendly  feeling  to  the  British  by  sending  a 
Ijody  of  Goorkha  troops  to  their  assistance.  Jung 
Bahadur  was  knighted  and  received  a  Grand  Cross 
of  the  Star  of  India.  He  died  suddenly,  25th 
February  1877. 

Jungeriliailllia,  a  Linnrean  genus  of  crvp- 
togamous  plants,  containing  a  great  number  of 
species,  which  some  modern  botanists  have  diviilcd 
into  many  genera,  and  some  have  even  formed  into 
an  order,  Jungermanniacea',  although  it  is  more 
generally  regarded  as  constituting  a  sub-order  of 
Hepaticse  (q.v.).  The  distinctive  characters  of  the 
sub-order  are  that  the  spore-rn.ws  open  by  four 
valves,  and  that  the  isjiorcs  are  nii.ved  with  e/atcrs. 
The  species  much  resemljle  mosses  in  appearance. 
Many  are  natives  of  Britain,  some  of  them  very 
common  in  moist  places.  The  tropical  species  are 
verj'  numerous,  and  some  of  them  are  to  be  found 
even  on  the  young  shoots  and  leaves  of  plants. 

Jungfrail  ( '  the  Maiden  ' ),  a  magnificent  peak 
of  the  Bernese  Alps,  attains  a  height  of  13,671  feet. 
It  received  its  name  either  from  the  unsullied 
purity  and  dazzling  brightness  of  the  snow  liy 
which  it  is  covered,  or  from  the  fact  that  no  travel- 
ler had  ever  readied  its  highest  point.  Its  summit 
was  first  asceiuled  by  two  Swiss  gentlemen,  named 
Meyer,  in  1811.  In  1890  a  railway  from  Lauter- 
brunnen  to  its  .summit  was  projected. 

Jungle,  a  term  now  fully  adopted  into  the 
English  language  from  Bengal  (Sanskrit  /(///'/'(/(f, 
'desert'),  and  employed  to  designate  those  thickets 
of  trees,  shrubs,  and  reeds  whicli  aliound  in  many 
parts  of  India,  and  particularly  in  the  unliealtliy 
tract  called  Terai  or  Taraj-ani,  along  the  .southern 
ba,se  of  the  Himalaya,  and  in  tlie  Sundarbans 
(q.v.)  at  the  mouth  of  the  Ganges.  The  jnngles 
are  often  inipa.s.sable,  from  the  thick  growth  of 
underwood,  tall  grasses,  and  climbing  plants.  The 
soil  is  generally  .swampy,  and  fever  and  other 
diseases  abound.  Tigers  and  other  beasts  of  [irey, 
elephants,  boars,  deer,  and  other  (|uadru[ieds  may 
be  found  in  great  numbers  in  these  thickets,  with 
gigantic  snakes,  and  multitudes  of  monkeys.  The 
jungle  flora  and  fauna  are  very  peculiar,  and  the 
moisture  and  heat  cany  a  tropical  vegetation 
beyond  its  usual  limits  northward  to  the  lower 
valleys  of  the  Himalaya.     See  Indi.v,  Benuai,. 

.lungle-fowl.  the  name  given  in  India  to  the 
wild  species  of  Gallin:e  ((Itdlu.i frrriigimu.f)  wliich 
is  the  parent  of  our  domestic  barn-door  fowl,  and  to 
three  other  closely  allied  species  (see  Poi'l/ntV). 

Juniper  [Juui/Jirus),  a  genus  of  trees  and 
shrubs  of  the  natural  order  Conifera-,  suborder 
Cupressinea^,  having  unisexual  flowers,  the  male 
and  female  generally  on  separate  plants,  and  the 
fruit  a  fleshy  gidhnlc  { pojnilarly  a  hciiij),  containing 


370 


JUNIPER 


JUNIUS 


three  small  nuts.  The  species  are  all  evergreen, 
and  liave  small,  narrow,  rigiil  leaves,  wliii-li  are 
opposite,  or  in  whorls  of  three  or  four,  or  imbri- 
cated in  four  rows.  They  are  natives  chiclly 
of  temperate  and  cold  regions,  and  are  found  in 
Europe,  Asia,  Africa,  and  America. — The  Common 
.luniper  (Juiiimr  roiiiniiiiii.t)  is  found  in  all  parts 
of  Europe  an(i  the  north  of  Asia,  uiul  in  the  north- 
ern parts  of  North  America.  Only  in  favourable 
circumstances  does  it  become  a  tree  of  15,  20,  or  at 
most  30  feet  in  lieiuht,  and  in  general  it  is  only  a 
shrub  from  '2  to  G  feet  high.  The  fruit  takes  two 
years  to  ripen.  It  is  round,  of  a  bluish-black 
colour,  with  a  whitish  bh)iim  ;  is  of  the  size  of  a 
small  currant,  anil  is  produced  in  great  abundance. 


Fig.  1. 
«,  Jmiiperus  communis ;  h,  J.  sabina ;  c,  J.  cliineusis. 

The  little  nut.s  or  stones  of  the  fruit  have  on  the 
shell  three  glands,  which  abound,  before  rijiening, 
in  an  essential  oil — 0/7  of  Juniper — present  also  in 
the  young  wood.  This  oil  changes  to  a  true  turpen- 
tine when  the  fruit  reaches  maturity,  so  that  to 
obtain  tlie  oil  the  green  fruit  must  be  u.sed.  The 
wooil  is  yellowish  red,  brownish  in  the  heart,  hard, 
and  fragrant.  AVhen  of  suHicient  size  it  is  much 
valued  by  turners.  It  is  also  used  for  veneering. 
The  berries  have  a  strong  and  peculiar  flavour,  and 
are  nnich  useil  for  flavouring  gin,  which  derives  its 
name  from  them  (see  Gix).  They  also  enter  into 
several  medicinal  preparations,  being  stimulant, 
sudorific,  and   diuretic. — Oil  of  juniper  is  lighter 

than  water;  specific 
gravity,  0-8:?9.  It 
is  limpid  and  nearly 
colourle.ss,  and  is 
obtained  by  distill- 
ing the  unripe  fruit, 
or  the  twigs,  with 
water.  —  Spanish 
Juniper  (J.  o.ri/ccd- 
ri(s)  grows  in  arid 
situations  in  the 
countries  round  the 
Mediterranean  Sea. 
Its  fruit  is  about 
the  size  of  a  hazel- 
nut ;  and  from  its 
fruit  and  wood  is 
procured  an  essen- 
tial oil  of  ilisagree- 
able  odour,  called  Iliii/e  de  Cade,  whicli  is  used 
in  veterinary  practice,  [larticnlarly  as  a  cure  for 
scab  in  sheep. — \'irginian  Juniper  (.7.  r-irfjiiiiaua), 
the  Ked  Cedar  of  North  America,  is  an  ev<'r- 
green  tree,  often  30  .jO  feet  high,  of  conical  form, 
with  horizontal  branches  and  very  small  leave.s. 
The  berries  are  snmll  and  bright  blue.  The  heart- 
wood  \s  of  a  beautiful  red  colour,  valneil  by  turners. 


Fig.  2.- 


-Brancli  of  J.  communis, 
with  fruit. 


&c.,  while  for  cigar  bo.xes  and  lead-pencils  it  has 
practically  superseiled  the  now  .scarce  Bermudas 
Cedar  (J.  bcrmudiana),  a  lofty  tree,  with  veiy 
fragrant  reddish-brown  wood.  —  The  Ilinuilaya 
Mountains  produce  several  species  of  pmipcr  trees 
of  considerable  size,  beautiful  appearance,  and 
valuable  wooil. — The  Swedish  junijier  of  liritish 
shrublieries  is  merely  a  varietv  of  the  ciimuKm 
juniper.  The  Savine  which  is  J.  saOiiiK,  is  separ- 
ately treated.     See  S.^VINE. 

JlIIliHS,  Lkxtek-s  of,  a  series  of  seventy 
letters  signed  Junius,  whicli  aj^peared  in  the  I'liblic. 
Advert isir  between  the  21st  of  .January  17G9  and 
the  21st  of  January  1772.  They  were  revised  by 
the  author,  and  reprinted  two  UKUitlis  later  in  two 
small  volumes  by  llenrv  Sampson  \Voodfall.  An 
edition  which  appeared  in  1812  contained  one 
hundred  and  thirteen  letters  in  addition  to  the 
seventy  in  the  author's  edition  ;  live  only  of  the 
one  hundred  and  tliirteen  were  signed  Junius,  and 
one  of  the  live,  ilated  21st  of  November  17(i8,  was 
the  lirst  which  ajipeared  with  thtit  signature.  Soon 
after  Junius  began  to  write  be  attracteil  attention 
owing  botli  to  his  ajiparent  familiarity  witli  current 
politics  and  notable  jiersons,  aiul  to  bis  boldness  in 
commenting  tipon  them,  the  climax  being  reached 
by  him  in  his  letter  to  the  king  on  the  16th  of 
December  1709.  \\'oodfall  was  ]irosecuted  for 
printing  and  publishing  it  in  the  riil/ic  Aihrrlijicr, 
and  acquitted  on  a  technical  point,  while  Abuon, 
a  bookseller,  was  punished  for  selliiig  a  reprint  of 
it.  The  audacity  of  Junius  in  bidding  (Jeorge 
III.  remember  that  'while  the  crown  was  ac(|uired 
by  one  revolution,  it  may  be  lost  by  another,' 
stimulated  public  cuiiosity  as  to  the  writer  of  that 
letter  and  others.  Burke  was  generally  supposed 
to  be  Junius  till  bis  denial  was  accepted  as  conclu- 
sive. Among  the  numy  supposed  authors  of  the 
letters  >vere  Lord  Shidburne,  Barrc,  Lord  IJeorge 
Sackville,  Wilkes,  Home  Tooke,  and  Thomas, 
Lord  Lyttelton.  It  was  not  till  after  the  publica- 
tion of  the  edition  of  1812  tluit  the  name  of  Sir 
Philip  Francis  (ii.v.)  was  ]iublicly  allirnjcd  to  be 
concealed  under  tliat  of  Junius.  John  Taylor  was 
the  lirst  to  advance  what  is  now  known  as  the 
Franciscan  theory.  He  wrote  two  books  on  the  sub- 
ject :  the  first  appeared  in  ISl.'i,  and  was  entitled 
A  Disvovcry  oftltr  Author  of  the  Letters  of  J  uniun  : 
the  second  in  1810,  and  was  entitled  The  Identity 
of  Junius  with  (I  Di.sliiiyi-.islieil  Living  Charaetcr 
Estahlishcel.  In  the  lirst  Taylor  argued  that  the 
letteis  were  from  the  pens  of  Dr  Francis  and  his 
son  ;  in  the  second,  that  the  son  was  the  sole 
author.  I)e  t^'uincey.  Earl  Stanhope,  Lord  Macaulay, 
and  other  critics  and  historians  of  note  ba\  e  accepted 
the  Franciscan  theory.  Taylor  was  led  to  fiaine  it 
by  reailing  a  letter  wliich  had  appeared  in  the 
Public  Advertiser  tm  tbi'  2.'iil  of  March  1772  signed 
Veteran,  in  w  hich  Lord  Harrington  is  charged  w  ith 
expelling  Francis  from  the  AVar  Ollice.  The 
'Menuiirs'  of  Sir  Phili]i  Francis  by  Parkes  and 
Merivale  appeared  in  1807,  eontaming  private 
letters  from  Francis  in  w  hich  he  w  rote  that  he  had 
resigned  his  clerkship  and  declined  i)roinotion  to  a 
higher  post  in  the  War  UHice,  and  that  he  was  on 
terms  of  cordial  intinuicy  with  the  Lord  Harrington 
whom  Veteran  \ililied.  The  extant  manuscripts  of 
Junius  are  said  to  have  been  writleii  in  a  di.^guised 
hand,  and  many  fancied  resemblances  have  lieen 
traced  between  it  and  Francis's  natural  hanil. 
AVoodfall,  the  jirinter  of  the  Public  Ae/vcrtiner, 
Toiukins,  tlie  princiiial  writingniitster  of  his  day, 
and  other  contemiioraiy  authorities  considered  the 
handwriting  of  the  manuscripts  to  be  not  only 
natural,  but  to  bear  a  clo.-^e  resemblance  to  that  of 
many  men  and  women  who  lived  wlien  Junius 
wrote.  Moreover,  it  Wit-s  not  till  half  a  century 
after  the  publicati<m  of  Junius's  own  edition  of  his 


JUNK 


JUNOT 


371 


letters  that  the  theory  of  a  disguised  hiiiidwriting 
was  started  in  order  to  get  over  tlie  dillieulty  that 
the  natural  hand  of  Franeis  was  unlike  that  of  the 
.luniaii  niaiiuscriiits.  No  direct  or  indisputalilc 
jiroof  has  yet  cniineeteil  Francis  with  .Innins.  The 
anthorr-hiji  of  \\n:  letters  signed  Junius  remains 
a  mystery.  Junius  was  not  the  only  imiiortant 
political  writer  of  his  time,  many  others  lieing 
oonspicuous  and  admired,  yet  the  letters  of  Wilkes 
ami  Home  Tooke,  to  name  those  of  two  jiopular 
writers,  were  neither  so  unif<irndy  hrilliant,  nor 
were  tliey  so  carefully  polished,  as  the  letters 
signed  .Innius.  This  great  anonymous  writer  set 
a  pattern  for  the  leading  articles,  wliich  were  un- 
known in  his  d;iy.  and  througli  which  newspapers 
now  inlluence  public  opinion. 

See  Juniii:!  (2  vols.  1772);  Junius,  includiiiij  Letters 
bit  the  same  Writer  under  other  Siynatures  (3  vols.  1812); 
tri'-  articles  on  ^-Junius'  in  l^ilke's  P«y>tr.s  uf  a  Critic; 
articles  in  the  Athenwum  by  the  present  writer;  Chabot 
and  Twistleton,  The  Handwritinii  nf  Junius  { 1871  ) ;  and 
11.  K.  Francis,  Junius  Revealed  (18'J4). 

Juilki  a  Chinese  vessel,  clumsy  and  incapable  of 
much  seamanship  or  speed  ;  yet  junks  have  proved 
themselves  seaworthy  on  voyages  extending  even 
to  .\merica  and  Europe. — Jnnk,  in  the  British 
navy,  is  a  familiar  term  for  the  salt  meat  supplied 
to  vessels  for  long  voyages — the  name  being  prob-  j 
ably  derived  from  tlie  fact  that  it  becomes  as  \ 
hard  and  tough  as  old  rope,  pieces  of  wliich  are 
officially  styledyn^A'. 

Junker.  Wilhelii,  traveller,  was  born  of 
♦  lernian  parents  resident  in  Moscow  in  1840,  and 
.-•ludied  medicine  in  (liittingen,  Berlin,  and  Prague. 
Proeeeiling  to  Africa  in  1874,  in  the  first  instance 
to  Tunis  and  Eg'ypt,  he  in  1876-78  carried  througli 
a  series  of  explorations  among  the  western  tribu- 
taries of  the  L  pper  Xile,  .going  as  far  south  as  the 
Kibbi,  a  feeder  of  the  Welle.  In  the  year  follow- 
ing ( 1879)  Junker  started  from  Cairo  on  his  second 
ami  more  important  journey,  his  object  being  to 
explore  the  basin  and  course  of  the  river  Welle- 
Makua,  which  he  followed  down  to  22°  47'  40"  E. 
long,  and  3°  l.'J'  10"  X.  lat.  This  river  was  eventu- 
ally (end  of  1887)  proved  by  Captaiu  Van  Gele  to 
be  identical  with  the  L'bangi,  a  right-hand  affluent 
of  the  Congo.  After  spending  four  years  among 
the  Monbuttu  and  Niam-Xiam,  Junker  prepared 
to  return  home,  but  was  prevented  from  getting 
back  to  Egypt  by  the  Mahdi's  revolt,  and  had  to 
remain  with  Emin  Pasha  and  Casati.  But  in  the 
end  of  1880,  a  favouralile  (jpportunity  ijresenting 
itself,  he  managed  to  find  his  way  to  the  coast 
through  Karagwe,  and  reached  Cairo  again  in 
January  1887.  He  died  at  St  Petersburg,  13th 
February  1802.  See  his  Rcisrn  in  AJ'ricn,  JS7S-7S 
(Vienna,  188!) ;  English  translation  by  A.  H.  Keane, 
1S!)(I). 

Jllllkors.  the  name  commonly  given  to  the 
younger  members  of  the  squirearchy  or  landed 
gentry  of  Prussia  and  the  adjoining  states. — 
Junherthiiin  was  a  term  of  reproach  used  in  the 
miildle  of  the  10th  century  to  designate  the 
|)arty  of  reaction  in  Prussia,  which  found  its  nmst 
strenuou.s  supporters  amongst  the  landed  gentry. 

•Illlio  wa-s  to  the  Koinan  the  abstraction  of 
wom.inhood  a.s  Jupiter  was  the  abstraction  of  man- 
hood. This  is  the  genuine  Unman  conce]>li()n  of 
Juno,  and  to  this  we  must  look  and  not  to  any 
nature-myth  for  the  exjdanation  of  this  deity.  As 
.\Iominsen  lia.s  said  Ulist.  nf  It(,„iP.,  i.  28)^  what 
ilistingui.shes  Koman  relij;i()ii  from  flreek  is  that  in 
the  former  'to  everything  existing,  to  man  and  to 
the  tree,  to  the  state  and  to  the  storeroom,  a  sjiirit 
wa.s  a-ssigned,  which  came  into  being  with  it  and 
jierished  along  with  it,  the  counterpart  in  the 
spiritual   dnm.nin   of  the  i>hv«ie-il    plwnomennn  ;  to 


the  m.an  the  male  genius,  to  the  woman  the  female 
Juno.'  This  is  the  first  point  to  notice  in  analy.s- 
ing  this  deity  ;  Juno  is  the  counterpart  in  the 
s|iiritual  domain  of  the  female  princijile  in  the 
human  world.  The  next  step  in  the  analysis  is 
indicated  again  by  Mommsen  :  '  In  oceuiialions 
even  the  steps  of  the  piocess  were  spiritualised  ; 
thus,  for  example,  in  the  prayers  of  tlie  husband- 
man there  Wius  invoked  the  spirit  of  fallowing, 
of  ploughing,  of  furrowing,  sowing,  coveringin, 
harrowing,  and  so  on,  to  those  of  in-bringing,  up- 
storing,  and  opening  of  the  granaries.'  Following 
tlie  indication  thus  given  us  we  ob.serve  that  every 
step  in  the  life  of  woman,  every  function  of  the 
female  principle,  was  spiritualised  by  the  Komans, 
as  is  shown  by  the  various  titles  given  to  Juno — 
e.g.  Virginensis,  Matrona,  Natalis,  Juga,  Jugalis, 
Curitis,  Domiduca,  Iterduca,  I'nxia,  Pronuba, 
Cinxia,  Fluonia,  Ossipaga,  Upigena.  These 
spiritual  counterparts  of  the  \arious  phases  of 
woman's  life  were,  we  may  assume,  probably  not 
originally  all  supposed  to  inhere  in  one  individual 
deity,  but  were  separate  and  independent.  .\uU 
here  we  come  to  the  third  step  in  our  analysis ; 
these  various  spirits — the  spirits  of  marriage,  of 
birth,  of  travail,  iS:c. — came  eventually  to  be 
regarded  not  as  separate  spirits  but  as  various 
manifestations  of  one  and  the  same  ileity.  AVhat, 
then,  was  the  thread  round  which  these  ideas  so  to 
speak  crystallised?  It  was  in  all  probability  the 
figure  of  the  Greek  Hera.  This  undoubtedly 
became  known  to  the  Romans  through  the  cities 
of  Manila  Gra'cia  at  an  early  period  ;  the  '  female 
Juno' became  identified  with  her;  the  various  attri- 
butes of  Virginen.sis,  Matrona,  &c.  were  naturally 
assigned  to  the  new,  anthropoinorphic  Juno;  and 
the  other  resemblances  lietween  Juno  and  Hera 
were  loans  eti'ected  at  this  and  later  times  by  the 
Romans  from  the  Greek.  Juno  as  she  appears  in 
Virgil  is,  of  course,  a  reproduction  of  the  Hera  of 
Homer.     See  Hera. 

JllllOt,  Andoche,  Due  d'Abrantfes,  one  of  the 
great  Najioleon's  generals,  was  born  October  23, 
1771,  at  Bussy-le-Grand,  in  Cote-d'Or,  entered  the 
army  a-s  a  volunteer  in  1792,  and  distinguished 
himself  in  the  early  wars  of  the  republic.  His 
courage  at  Toulon  caught  the  eye  of  Napoleiui,  and 
he  carried  him  with  him  to  Egjpt  as  adjutant.  .-Vt 
Nazareth  he  covered  himself  with  glory  bv  putting 
to  flight  as  many  as  10,000  Turks  witli  but  .'iOO 
horse.  In  1804  he  was  made  governor  of  Paris,  and, 
after  a  short  stay  as  ambassador  in  Lisbon,  was 
appointed  in  1807  to  the  command  of  the  army  for 
the  invasion  of  Portugal.  In  a  short  time  l)y 
his  rapidity  and  skill  he  made  himself  miuster 
of  all  the  strong  jdaces  in  the  kingdom.  I''or  his 
brilliant  success  he  was  created  Due  d'Abianti's, 
and  appointi^d  governor  of  Portugal ;  but  he  si|uan- 
dered  the  fruits  of  his  victory  by  his  absurd  prodi- 
gality, and  was  ere  long  so  severely  defeateil  by 
Wellington  at  Vimiera  that  he  was  obliged  to 
conclude  a  convention  at  Cintra  and  retire  from 
Portugal.  He  subsequently  serveil  in  Germany  and 
Russia,  and  was  made  one  of  the  scapegoats  for  the 
great  Russian  <lisaster.  and  sent  to  govern  lllyria. 
This,  added  to  the  efl'ect  of  former  wounds  in  the 
head,  brought  on  mental  derangement.  He  was 
taken  to  his  father's  house  at  Montbard,  near 
r)ijon,  and,  two  houis  after  his  arrival,  preeipitated 
liimself  from  a  window,  .luly  22,  1813,  fracturing 
his  thigh-lione.  Amputation  was  i)erf(Unied,  but 
Junot  frantically  t<Me  oil'  the  bandages,  and  ilied 
seven  days  afterwards. — His  wife,  L.VtiHKTTK  I>K 
S.MNT-M'arTIN-Pkhmon  (1784-1838),  the  aeeom- 
jilisheil  and  reckles.sly  extravagant  Dnidiesse 
d'Abranti'S,  gained  a  re)uitation  in  the  literary 
world  liy  her  Mi'iiinircs  (18  vols.  1831-3o),  and  by 
several  minor  works. 


37-2 


JUNTA 


to 


Junta  {'assembly'),  the  name  f;iven  m  Snain 
w  a  lioch-  of  persons  combined  for  iiohtu-al  or 
ailministrative  purposes,  whether  sumnioued  by 
the  sovereign  or  meeting  on  their  own  initiative  as 
lepresentatives  of  tlie  people.  The  most  fainous  is 
the  central  junta  of  1808,  with  its  provincial  juntas, 
chosen  for  the  conduct  of  the  war  with  !•  ranee.— 
In  Euslish  historv  the  Whig  juuio  was  the  name 
given  to  the  chiefs  of  that  party  in  the  reigns  of 
AVilliam  III.  and  Anne.  Tlie  Junto  was  also  the 
name  of  a  del)ating  society  founded  by  Benjamin 
Franklin,  which  developed  into  the  American 
Pliilosophical  Society  in  1743.  Here  also  may  he 
mentioned  the  interior  committee  of  the  privy- 
council  under  Charles  I.,  which  was  the  germ  of 
the  modern  cabinet,  anil  which  Clarendon  says  was 
reiiroachfuUy  called  the  Junctu.  Its  principal 
members  were  Laud,  Strafford,  and  Cottiugton, 
the  Cliancellor  of  tlie  E.Kchequer ;  the  others  were 
Ju\on,  the  Lord  High  Treasurer,  the  two  Secre- 
taries. Vane  and  Windebank,  the  Marquis  ot 
Hamilton,  and  the  Earl  of  Northumberland  'for 
ornament.' 

Jupiter,  the  chief  god  of  the  Romans.     Etymo- 
lo'dcallv   identical  with  tlie  Sanskrit  Dyaus,  the 
(iPeek  Zeus,  and  the  Teutonic  Tin  or  Zio,  Jupiter 
is  one  of  the  few  gods  that  can  safely  claim  to  be 
descended  from  the  Indo-European  primeval  period, 
and  consequently  one  of  the  few  exceptions  to  the 
rule  that,  if  a  deity  is  common  to  the  Greeks  and 
the   Romans,  he  was  boirowed   by  the  latter  from 
the  former  in  historical  times,      lint  though  Jupiter 
was  known  to  the  Italians  from  tlie  time  when  they 
first  became  a  separate  branch  of  the  hulo-European 
people,  it  would  be  an  error  to  imagine  that  every- 
thin"  that  can  be  predicated  of  the  Greek  Zeus  holds 
gooil  of  the  Roman  god,  or  that  tlie  attributes  of 
Juijiter  can   be   ascribed    indiscriminately   to   the 
Greek  deity.     We  do  indeed  find  that  the  same 
tales  are  told  about  Jupiter  by  Mrgil  and  Ovid  as 
Lad  been  related  about  Zeus  by  the  Greek  poets 
■whom  the  Roman  writers  imitated  ;  but  it  by  no 
means  follows  that  these  tales  were   known  to  the 
Italians   before   their    contact   in    historical    times 
■with  the  Greeks.     On  the  contrary,  it  is  m  some 
cases  perfectly  certain  that  the  myths  were  bor- 
rowed   by    the    Romans    from    the    Greeks.     lor 
instance,  no  mytli   in  wliicli   Ai)()llo  figures  along 
■witli  Jupiter  could  possibly  be  an  original  Italian 
production,  because  it  was  only  in   historical  times 
that  the   worship  of  Apollo   was  introduced   from 
Greece  into  Italy.     In  this  article,   therefore,  we 
must  refer  the  reader  for  all  that  regards  tlie  Greek 
god  to  the  article  Zeus.     But,  aUhough  we  propose 
here  to  conhne  ourselves  to  the  Roman   ileity,  it  is 
i)y  no  means  easv  to  determine  tlie  outlines  of  this 
ii'.'ure  in  mythology  as  it  appeared  to  the  religious 
consciousness  of  tiie  Italians  before  they  came  in 
contact  witli  Greek  thought.     We  have  but  little 
direct  information  as  to  the  Italians  of  that  period. 
A  few  of  the  indiqitame.ii.ta  or  formuhe  containing 
the  epithets  of  the  gods  wliicb  were  recited  as  a 
sort  of  litany  by  tlie  Roman  jiriests  liave  survived 
to  us,  but  not   enough  for  our   purpose.     ^\  e  are 
tlierefore  reduced  to  general   considerations      And 
from  tliis  point  of  view  there  is  no  reason  whatever 
for  assuming  that  the  resemblance  between  Jupiter 
an<l    the   Greek   Zeus   was  originally   any   greater 
tlian  that  between  Jupiter  and  the  Sanskrit  Dyaus 
or  tlie  (lotbii^  Tin.      As  long  as  it  was   an   accepted 
thi'ory  that  the  ancestors  of  the  tireeks  and  Romans 
dwelt    together,   and    ajiart   fioni    the    rest   ol    the 
Indo-European  family,   for    some   time    before  im- 
migrating into  their   respective  historical  abodes, 
the  case  was  ditlereut. 

Now,  however,  this  Pelasgian  theory  no  longer 
has  the  sanction  of  either  philology'  o''  archa'ology. 
We  must,  therefore,  conceive  the  difference  between 


JURA 

the  original  Italian  Jiipiter  and  the  Greek  Zeus  to 
have  been  determined  by  the  general  dilierences  be- 
tween Greek  and  Roman  religion,     lii  the  striking 
words  of  Mommseu  (i//.v/'-/c.y  of  Hume,  i.  '28),   'As 
the  Greek,  when  he  sacriliced,  raised  his  eyes  to 
heaven,  so  the    Roman   veiled    his   head  ;    for  the 
prayer  of  the  former  was  vision,  that  of  the  latter 
rcHection.'       The    Greek    gods    were     thoroughly 
anthropomorphic;  they  were  represented  by  their 
poets  and  their  sculptors   alike   in   the   image   of 
man.     The  gods  of  the  Romans  were  much  nearer 
the  earlier  stage  of   animism  ;    they   were  powei-s 
whose   good-favour   could  be   propitiated   and    ill- 
will  averted  by  the  proper  ritual  and  by  sacritice, 
but  they  \vere  not  subjects  for  plastic  art  until  the 
time  of  Greek  influence.     This  dillerence   will   at 
once  account  for  the  fact  that  no   myths  whatever 
attach  to  the  Italian  Jupiter— all  that  are  related 
of  him  were  borrowed  in  late  times  from  the  Greek 
Zeus.     What  we  do  find  is  that  various  epithets, 
such  as  Lucetius  and  Elicius,  Imbricitor,  Frodigialis, 
Depulsoi-,  &c.,  are  apjilied   to  him.     And  we  may 
conjecture  that  all  such  epithets  were  probably,  as 
some  certainly  were,  originally  part  of  the  iiii/iffitd- 
ineitta,  with  the  recital  of  which  the  Itoman  luiests 
sou'dit  to  secure  the  favour  of  the  god.      In  the 
ue\t  place  it  is  to  be  noted  that  these  epithets  tend 
to  show  that  Jupiter  was  orig-inally  to  the   Roniaii 
just  as  abstract  a  figure  as  Janus  ( '  the  spint  of 
opening'),    Juventus    ('the   sjiirit   of   youth   ),    or 
Forculus  ('the  spirit  of  doors'),  Limentiuus  ('the 
spirit    of   thresholds'),   or  Cardea   ('the   simit    of 
door-hinges').     And  we  may  conjecture  that  the 
Romans,  who  have  retained  the  original  Indo-Euro- 
pean word   for   priest  (/tuytcH.  =  Sansk.   brahinaii) 
which    the    Greeks    lost,    also    present   to   us    the 
ori-inal    animism    of    the    Indo-Europeans    more 
faithfully  than  does  the  anthropomorphism  ot  the 
Greeks.     That  Jujiiter  was  to  the  Italians,  as  to  the 
Indo-Europeans,  the  spirit  of  the  sky,  is  shown  by 
his  epithet  Lucetius,  which  occurred  in  the  Saliaric 
Hymns.     The  same  conception  is  at  the  bottom  ol 
the  epithets  which   designate  Juiiiter  as  the   spuit 
of   thunder   or   of    lightning-Jupiter   Tonans,    or 
Eub'ur.     As  Jupiter  Latiaris  he  preside.l  over  tlie 
Latin  alliance.     As  the  supreme  spirit  apparently 
he  was  besought  to  grant  \ictory  in  war,  and  hence 
the  names  Stator,  Feretrius,  Victor.     The  vintage 
also  stood  under  the  care  ot   Jupiter  Libei\      1  be 
Ides  of  every  month  were  sacred   to  him.     He  W'l-s 
also   the   spirit   of    oaths,    Dius    Fidius.     I'lnally, 
although  many  of  the  epithets  applied  to  him  caii 
at  once  be  recognised  as  appropriate  to  the  original 
character  of  Jupiter  as  s]iirit  of  the  sky,  such  as 
Elicius,  Fulniinator,  Pluvius,  Imbricitor,  Serenator, 
Almus,  Frugiferns,  there  are  others,  such  as  Stator, 
Victor,  &c.,  which  cannot  possibly  be  derived  fioui 
his  functions  as  a  sky-spirit,  and  which  must  there- 
fore   be    accretions,    possibly    resulting    from    tlie 
identiUcation  of  the  Roman   .lupiter  with  the  cliief 
..(.ds   of    the   various   allied   states.       The   epithet 
Capitolinus   is   derived    from    the    temple   on    the 
Capitol  built  by  Taniuin,  and  the  spirit  inhaluting 
that  temple  w;is,   compared  with  the  rest,  Jupiter 
Oi>tiiiius,  Ma.\inius. 
Jupiter.    See  Planets,  and  Solar  Svstem. 
lura   (Scand.    deor-n?,    'deer-isle'),   an    Argyll- 
shire island,  ',  mil.-   NE.  of   Islay,  and  -n  miles  W 
„f  the  nearest  point  of   the   mainland.      It   extends 

28    miles   north-eastward;    varies    ill    widlli    tr 

J  mile  at  Loch  Tarbert  iu  the  middle,  to  8i  ijiilcs  ; 
and  is  14.3  sq.  m.  in  area.  The  western  side  is 
ru.'.'ed  and  de-solate,  the  eastern  green  and  pleas- 
ing" The  conical  Paps  of  Jura  are  •2.')71  and  '2412 
feet  high  :  and  most  of  the  surface  is  deer-forest. 
Pop  (1831)  1312:  (1891)  619,  nearly  all  (.aclic- 
spcakiii"      See  IlEliluuiiS  and  CuKUlEVlii'nvtN. 


JURA 


JURASSIC    SYSTEM 


373 


.llir:ta  a  range  of  ninuntains  of  a  ix'culiar  liiiie- 
stciiH"  fiiiination,  oiilitip  in  composition,  anil  gener- 
ally calleii  Jurassic,  whioh  extends  from  the  angle 
formed  by  the  Klionc  .iml  the  Ain,  in  a  north- 
<;.%sterly  direction  (with  a  gradually  declining 
elev.ation)  for  more  tlian  4.50  miles,  to  the  njjper 
ooui-se  of  the  Main.  Bnt  it  is  usuiil  to  restrict  the 
n.imo  to  the  ranges  that  lie  along  the  frontier  of 
Switzerland  .and  Fr.ance — mainly  in  the  depart- 
ments of  Pouhs,  .Jura,  and  .\in.  These  constitnte  a 
plateau  aliout  1.").5  miles  long  liv  40  wide,  with  an 
average  height  of  2000  to  2500  'feet.  The  loftiest 
peaks  .are  Keculet  (.i643  feet),  Cret  de  la  Neige 
(2I).).'?),  Mont  Tendre  (.").il2),  and  Dole  (.5.507). 
The  eastern  face  is  much  steeper  than  the  western. 
The  r.anges  .are  broken  by  inimerons  transverse 
gorge.s  or  'eluses.'  Many  roads  .and  railways 
travei'se  the  chains,  some  of  them  of  great  strategic 
importance.  Limestone  caves  are  nnmerons,  and 
tliey  abound  in  m.agnificent  stalactites  ami  in  the 
bones  of  extinct  .animals.  Some  rivers  of  consiiler- 
able  size  sink  into  the  ground  and  re.appear  after 
some  distance,  as  the  Orbe,  the  Doubs,  and  the 
Creuse.  Fine  pine-forests  are  a  characteristic 
feature  of  the  scenery. 

•InriU  an  eastern  French  dep.artnient,  bounded 
on  the  E.  bv  Switzerland.  Area,  1928  sij.  m.  ; 
pop.  (1881)  28.-1.2G3;  (1891)  273,028.  The  slopes 
of  the  .Jura  Mountains  are  thickly  wooded,  but 
h.ave  .also  many  pastures  and  meadows.  At  the 
foot  of  the  .lura  come  rich  vine-lands.  The  river- 
valleys  are  devoted  to  the  cultivation  of  gr.ain 
crops  of  v.arious  kinds.  The  chief  rivers  are  the 
Doubs,  Ain,  and  Ognon.  Tlie  vines  yield  G^  million 
gallons  of  wine  annually.  The  principal  industries 
are  the  working  of  iron,  cheese-making,  watch- 
making, and  turnery.  Iron,  salt,  marble,  clay 
(for  [lottery),  and  turf  are  the  most  important 
minerals  extracted.  The  department  is  divided 
into  four  arrondissements,  Lons-le-Saunier,  Po- 
llgny,  Sainte-Claude,  and  Dole.  Capital,  Lons-Ie- 
Saunier. 

Jlira.ssic  System,  the  name  given  to  th.at 
great  series  of  Mesozoic  strata  which  includes  the 
Li;us  and  overljin^  Oolites.  The  system  receives 
its  name  from  the  Jura  Mountains,  where  strata  of 
that  age  are  well  developed.  In  England  Jurassic 
rocks  extend  over  a  large  area  in  Yorkshire  between 
the  mouth  of  the  Tees  and  Filey  B.ay,  and  stretch 
south  from  the  Humber  along  the  western  borders 
of  the  great  Hats  of  Lincoln  and  rambridge,  from 
which  they  sweep  south-west  .a.s  a  broad  bolt  across 
the  .Midlands  to  the  Bristol  Channel  and  the  coasts 
<if  the  English  Channel  between  Lyme  Kcfjis  and 
Durlestone  Head.  Duly  a  few  patches  of  tJurassic 
rocks  occur  in  Scotland,  as  near  Brora  on  the  ea.st 
cojist  of  Sutherland,  and  in  some  of  the  western 
islands.  In  Ireland  the  system  is  e<iu.illy  sparingly 
represented,  as  near  Larne  and  Portrush  in  Antrim. 
On  the  Continent  rocks  of  the  same  age  are 
developed  over  extensive  regions.  They  form  a 
ring  or  zone-like  belt  surrounding  the  Cretaceous 
and  Tertiary  dei)osits  of  the  Paris  basin,  under- 
neath which  the  Jurassic  strata  doubtless  c(m- 
tinue.  Farther  south  another  belt  sweeps  round 
the  central  pl.ateau  of  France,  and  stretches  s(mtli 
to  the  Meditirr.anean.  The  most  continuous  areas 
in  Germany  occur  in  Franconia,  Swabi.a,  and 
l'[>per  Silesia.  Itocks  of  the  same  age  occupy  a  wide 
region  in  central  .and  northern  Russia,  while  more 
or  less  isolated  are.T-s  are  met  with  in  tlie  Caucasus, 
the  Crimea,  the  Carpjithians,  the  Dinaric  Aljis, 
the  A()i'nnines,  &c.  One  of  the  most  important 
.lurassic  tracts  is  that  of  the  Jura  Mountains, 
extending  between  Basel  .and  (ieneva.  Narrow  and 
bro.adcr  belts  of  the  same  strata  occur  along  the 
northern   and   southern   Hanks  of  the  .Mps.     The 


system   .also  occurs  in   considerable  force  in    the 
north-east  and  the  south  of  Spain. 

The  .lurassic  system  of  Europe  has  been  arranged 
in  the  following  groups  : 

Pitrbeckhn;  mostly  of  fresh-wat«rnrigin ;  they  contain  traces 
of  old  land-surfaces  (dirt-beds),  with  roots  and  steins  of  fossil 
plants. 

PoRTi.ANDiAN  .'  chicfly  sandstoncs,  marls,  and  limestone  (Port- 
land-stone ) ;  marine. 

KniKR[r>GiAN :  dark  shales  and  clay  (Kimeridge  Clay); 
marine. 

CoRALLiAN  :  limestones  with  corals  (Coral  Rag),  clays,  and  cal- 
careons  grits ;  marine. 

OxKORDiAN  :  dark  gray  or  blue  clay  (Oxford  Clay) :  ancl  cal- 
c^ireous  sandstone  (  Kellaway's  Rock — Callovian);  marine. 

Bathonian  :  limestones,  clays,  and  sands  (Cornbrash,  Bradford 
Clay,  and  Forest  Marble);  shelly  limestones  (Great  or  Bath 
Oolite).  Stonesfield  .Slate  ;  Fuller's  Earth  ;  all  marine. 

Ba.iocian  (or  Inferior  Oolite)  :  calc^reoua  sandstones  and  grits 
(Cheltenham);  marine;  represented  in  Yorkshire  by  estuarine 
sandstones,  shales,  and  limestones,  with  seams  of  coal  and 
ironstone. 

LlASSir:  sands  and  clays  (Upper  Lias)  resting  on  limestones, 
sands,  clays,  and  ironstones  (Middle  Lias,  Marlstone);  below 
which  come  limestones  and  dark  shales  (L.ower  Lias);  all 
marine. 

In  India  (Cutch)  Jurassic  strata,  ranging  from 
the  Bajocian  up  to  the  Portlandian  inclusively, 
attain  a  considerable  thickness.  The  system  is  not 
largely  developed  in  North  America  ( Sierr.a  Nevaila 
and  Kocky  Mountains),  but  is  notable  in  Colorado 
for  its  remarkable  reptilian  remains.  Finally  it 
may  be  added  that  Jurassic  rocks  have  been 
detected  in  S]>itzbergen,  Siberia,  Australia,  New 
Caledonia,  and  New  Zealand. 

Li/c  of  the  Period. — The  predominant  forms 
among  the  land-plants  were  cycads,  conifers,  ferns, 
and  eipiisetums,  but  with  these  were  a-ssoci.ateil 
tnte  nujnocotyledoiious  angiosperms,  represented  by 
fossil  fruits  which  are  apparently  referable  to  our 
screw-pines  ( Pandanacce ).  This  veget.ation  was 
widely  spread  over  the  earth's  surface,  flourishing 
abundantly  in  Britain,  and  extending  far  into  the 
Arctic  Circle. 

The  lower  classes  of  the  animal  kingdom  were 
represented  liy  foraminifera  and  sponges,  by  a  great 
variety  of  corals,  by  ciinoids  (both  stalked  and 
free  forms),  by  starfishes,  sea-urchins,  v'v.c.  Corals 
are  especially  numerous,  and  mostly  belong  to  the 
reef-building  family  of  star-corals.  Many  of  the 
limestones  of  the  peiiod.  indeed,  jiartioilarly  those 
of  the  Corallian,  aresimply  old  coral-reefs.  Amongst 
crinoids  one  of  the  most  characteristic  forms  was 
Pentacrinus — a  genus  still  living.  Many  genera  of 
sea-urchins  occur  ( Acrosalenia,  Cidaris,  DiadiMu.a, 
itc. ),  and  with  these  were  associated  numenms 
starfishes  and  brittle-stars.  The  most  prominent 
crustaceans  were  long-tailed  decapods,  to  which 
belong  our  modern  lobsteis,  prawns,  &c.  ;  atul  true 
crabs  were  also  present.  Insects  were  representeil 
by  ancestral  forms  of  cockroach,  gia.sshop]ier, 
earwig,  ant,  dragon-fly,  mayfly,  beetles,  bugs,  &c. 
Brachio])ods,  «luch  formed  so  characteristic  a 
feature  in  the  life  of  the  Pal.-eozoic  seas,  had  now 
ceased  to  be  dominant  forms,  although  they  were 
still  individually  numerous.  Mo.st  of  the  old 
Pala>ozoic  types  had  disappeared  before  Jur.assic 
times—two  "surviving  forms  (Spirifer  and  Lep- 
tana)  dying  out  at  last  before  the  close  of  the 
I-ia.s.sic  stage.  AVe  note,  however,  the  presence  of 
the  inarticulate  types  (Crania,  Lingula,  Piscina) 
which  appeare<l  (irst  in  Cambrian  times  and  ^till 
nourish  in  our  seas.  The  most  important  Jura.ssic 
brachiopods  are  Terebratula  and  IJhynchonella,  of 
which  there  were  many  species.  Both  genera  have 
survive<l  to  the  present,  but  are  reiiresentcd  by 
only  a  few  .species.  Amongst  the  lamellibrancli 
molluscs  many  forms  unknown  in  Pahcozoic  times 
imw  m.ade  their  lirst  ap])i'araiice,  the  most  import- 
ant types  being  the  oysters  (Ostiea,  (irvphaa,  and 
Exogyra),  together  with  Trig(uiiaand  I'lioladomya. 
(iasteropoils  were  fairly  numerous,  and  compri.-ed 


374 


JURASSIC    SYSTEM 


JURISPRUDENCE 


representatives  of  tlie  whelks,  spimne-shells,  spiilor- 
sliells,  iSre.  of  existing  sotis ;  and  it  may  l>e  noteil 
tliat  the  earliest  recognisable  freshwater  univalves 
( I'aluilina,  I'lanorhis)  date  from  .lurjissic  times. 
jjut  the  most  characteristic  molluscs  of  this  period 
were  the  cephalopods,  both  tetrahranchiate  and 
dibranchiate  types.  The  former,  or  chambered 
division,  were  represented  l)y  many  forms  of 
Ammonites,  several  hundred  species  having  been 
chronicled ;  and  the  latter,  or  '  cuttle-fish  '  division, 
by  numerous  species  of  Heleninlte.  Among  iishes 
were  giinoids,  usually  of  small  size,  ami  repre- 
sentatives of  the  sharks  and  rays.  But  by  far  the 
most  important  of  the  verteluates  were  the  reptiles, 
which  lh)urislied  in  extraordinary  abundance  dur- 
ing Jurassic  times,  and  may  well  be  said  to  be 
the  most  striking  and  characteristic  life-forms  of 
the  jieriod.  Chelonians  or  turtles,  lacertilians  or 
lizards,  and  crocodiles  are  all  represented  :  but  the 
most  characteristic  reptiles  were  the  huge  sea- 
saurians,  Ichtliyosaurus  (q.v.),  Plesicsaurus  (q.v.), 
and  Pliosaurus  (q.v. ).  Another  remarkable  group 
of  reptiles  were  the  pterosaurs  or  winged  saurians, 
of  whicli  tlie  most  noted  was  Pterodactylus  (q.v.). 
Contemporaneous  with  these  were  gieat  Dinosaure 
(q.v.),  such  as  Ceteosaurus,  jNIegalosaurus,  Atlanto- 
saurns,  iS:c. ,  while  bird-life  was  represented  by  the 
toothed  Archa'Opteiyx  (q.v.),  ■s\-ith  its  lizard-like 
tail.  The  higliest  forms  of  life  were  small  mar- 
sujiial  mammals,  some  of  which  seem  to  have  been 
insectivorous,  while  othere  were  herbivorous. 

P/ii/nical  Conditions. — During  Jurassic  times  the 
area  now  occupied  in  the  IJritish  IslaTids  by  the 
older  locks  appears  to  have  been  for  the  most  part 
dry  land.  The  sea  covered  the  north-east  corner 
of  Ireland,  and  extended  along  the  west  coast  of 
Scotland  over  the  site  of  what  is  now  Skye,  and  it 
seems  in  like  manner  to  have  occupied  the  Ncuth 
Sea  opposite  the  east  coast,  a  portion  of  which  in 
Sutherland  was  covered  by  it.  What  are  now  the 
high  grounds  of  northern  England  and  Wales  and 
the  hciglits  of  Devon  and  Cornwall,  together  with 
a  ridge  of  Palajozoic  rocks  which  extends  under 
London,  were  the  chief  land-areas  in  south  liritain, 
so  that  nearly  all  England  was  under  water  in  the 
earlier  stages  of  the  Jurassic  period.  The  same 
sea  swept  over  vast  areas  of  what  is  now  the 
Eurojiean  c(mtinent.  Tiie  older  rocks  in  the  north- 
west and  north-east  of  France  and  the  central 
plateau  of  the  same  country  formed  dry  land — all 
the  rest  was  submerged.  In  like  manner,  wide 
regions  in  Spain  were  under  water.  In  middle 
Europe  the  sea  covered  nearly  all  the  low  grounds 
of  north  Germany,  and  extended  far  east  into  the 
heart  of  Russia,  whence  it  passed  north,  and  was 
donlitless  continent  with  the  Arctic  Ocean.  It 
occupied  the  site  of  tlie  Jura  Mountains,  and 
passed  eastwards  into  Hoheniia,  while  on  tlie  south 
side  of  the  Alps  it  spread  over  a  large  jiart  of 
Italy,  extending  eiistwards  so  sis  to  submerge  a 
broad  region  in  Austria-Hungary  and  the  Turkish 
provinces.  In  short,  what  are  now  the  central  and 
southern  jiortions  of  our  ciiiitinent  formed  a  great 
archiiidago  in  which  aiipcared  numerous  islands 
large  and  small.  The  chief  land-areas  of  the 
European  region,  therefore,  were  confined  to  the 
nortli  and  north-west.  The  existence  of  this 
noitliern  land  is  shown  by  the  fact  that,  while 
the  liajncian  of  the  south  of  England  consists  of 
purely  marim"  accumulations,  the  contemporaneous 
deposits  in  Voiksliire  are  largely  fresh-water  and 
estiiarine. 

The  Juiiussic  strata,  which  attain  a  thickness  of 
several  thousand  feet,  point  to  considerable  sub- 
sidence ;  the  downward  movement,  however,  was 
not  continuous,  but  seems  to  have  been  inter- 
rupted by  pauses.  Taken  as  a  whole  the  strata  of 
north-western   and  central    Europe  are   indicative 


of  rather  shalIo"-water  conditions  ;  but  the  \\ aters 
were  often  sutticiently  clear  to  favour  the  abundant 
growth  of  coral-reefs.  After  the  deposition  of  the 
Portlandian  beds  the  sea<lisaii]>eareil  from  what  are 
now  the  low  grounds  of  England.  The  succeeding 
Purbeckian  beds  are  for  the  most  part  of  fresh- 
water origin,  and  seem  to  have  been  laid  down  at 
or  near  the  mouth  of  some  laige  river,  which 
probably  took  its  rise  in  the  hills  of  Englaiul  or 
Wales,  and  Howed  south  across  the  ujiraised  beil  of 
the  Jurassic  sea.  Similar  indications  of  a  more 
or  less  abruiit  change  from  sea  to  fresh  water  are 
atl'oided  by  the  Jurassic  of  central  Euro]ie.  ,is  in 
northern  France,  Hanover,  Westphalia,  ami  the 
Jura  in  Switzerland.  ^Vhile  tlie  Jurassic  of 
central  and  north-western  Europe  would  seem  to 
have  accumulated  in  somewhat  shallow  seas,  the 
contemporaneous  strata  of  the  Mediterranean  basin 
have  a  decidedly  more  pelagic  as|iect.  This 
soiUliern  development  of  the  Jurassic  is  sometimes 
called  the  Tithonian  series.  It  is  recognised  in  the 
southern  Alps,  the  southern  Tyrol,  the  Venetian 
and  Dalmatian  Alps,  and  the  Carpathians,  and 
extends  into  northern  Africa. 

The  climatic  conditions  of  the  Jurassic  period 
appear  to  have  been  extremely  genial.  Keef-liuild- 
ing  corals,  for  example,  thuirishcd  in  latitudes 
wliich  are  now  some  3000  miles  north  of  the 
present  range  of  reef-builders,  while  cuttlc-tishes 
and  Ammonites  and  large  enaliosaui-s  lived  far 
within  the  Arctic  Circle. 
Jlirieff.     See  DORP.AT. 

Jlirieu.  Pierre  (163T-17I3),  a  French  Pro- 
testant divine,  studied  at  Sedan  and  Sauniur, 
received  Episcopal  ordination  in  England,  and 
after  some  years  of  the  pastorate,  became  professor 
at  Sedan.  "  On  the  revocation  of  the  Edict  of 
Xaiites  (16S.))  he  became  pastor  of  the  Walloon 
church  at  Kotterdam,  where  till  his  death  he  busied 
himself  in  interpreting   the  Apocalyse  and   in   de- 

I  fending  the  Protestant  faith  alike  against  Arnauld, 

j  Bossuet,  and  P.ayle. 

Jlll'isdirtioil.  in  Law,  means  the  authority 
^^  hicli  a  court  or  judge  has  to  entertain  a  particular 
case  and  decide  it.  The  general  rule  is,  that  if  a 
court  which  has  no  jurisiliction  to  decide  a  par- 
ticular case  does  decine  it,  the  judgment  is  a  mere 
nullity.  Jurisdiction  may  he  limited  either  locally, 
as  in  the  ease  of  a  county  court:  or  personally,  as 
where  a  court  has  a  quorum  :  or  as  to  amount,  as 
when  the  Court  of  Session  in  Scotland  takes  cog- 
nisance only  of  cases  above  the  v.alue  of  £'2r> :  or 
as  to  the  nature  of  the  questions  to  be  determined, 
whether  crimes  or  civil  actions.  Jurisdiction  is 
said  to  be  concurrent  or  cumulative  when  it  may 
l)e  exercised  in  the  same  cause  by  any  one  of  two 
or  more  courts  at  the  choice  of  the  suitor.  In 
criminal  procedure,  to  prevent  the  collisi(m  which 
might  arise  from  each  of  the  courts  claiming  to 
exercise  the  right,  it  has  been  est.ablished  as  a  rule 
that  the  judge  who  first  exercises  jurisdiction  in 
the  cause  acijuires  a  ri*'ht,  jnrc  2)?'(rrenti(inis,  to 
judge  in  it  exclusive  of  tlie  othei-s.  '  This  right  of 
pieventicui  plainly  ap^iears  to  be  peculiar  to  criminal 
jurisdiction.  In  civil  process  it  is  the  jnivate 
pursuer  who  has  the  only  ri'dit  of  choosing  before 
which  of  the  courts  he  shall  sue'  (see  INTEKNA- 
TiriNAl.  L.vw).  Jurisdiction  is  said  to  be  privative, 
on  the  other  liand.  when  the  court  having  jurisdic- 
tion is  the  only  court  entitled  to  adjudicate  in  such 
cases.  When  a  judge  appoints  another  pei'soii  to 
act  in  his  jdace  as  deputy  or  substitute  he  is  said 
to  delegate  his  jurisdiction. 

JlirispriUlCIK'C  is  the  science  of  law  which 
professes  to  discuss  the  ininciples  on  which  legal 
rights  should  he  jirotecteci  and  enforced  ;  or  it  may 
be  called   the   idiilosophy  of   law.      In  its  literal 


JURISPRUDENCE 


JURY 


375 


sense  the  teiiu  means  merely  kiio«le(lt,'e  of  the 
law,  and  seems  to  have  lieen  so  useil  in  the  Roman 
l;nv,  from  which  it  hiis  lieen  borrowed.  The  word 
is  often  nseil  in  a  iiopular  sense  in  Britain  as 
synonymous  with  law,  and  it  is  also  so  used  in 
Fiance  :  Imt  it  is  more  correctly  used  in  contradis- 
tinction to  law,  as  implying  the  system  or  supposed 
methodical  scheme  emiiracing  the  principles  on 
which  positive  law  is  founded.  The  Institutes  of 
Justinian  define  jurisprudence,  with  a  certain  poni- 
pousness,  ,as  1>eing  the  knowledge  of  things  divine 
and  human,  the  science  of  right  and  wrong.  A 
distinction  is  sometimes  made  between  general 
jurisprudence,  wliieh  investigates  the  principles 
common  to  various  systems  of  positive  law,  divest- 
ing these  of  their  local,  partial,  and  other  acci- 
dental peculiarities ;  and  particular  jurisprudence, 
which  conlines  itself  to  the  particular  laws  of 
any  country,  say  England,  or  France,  or  Scotland, 
as  an  independent  system  taken  by  itself.  Juris- 
prudence thus  embraces  a  wide  range,  as  treating 
of  all  those  duties  which  are  enforced  between 
man  and  man  ;  and  yet  it  may  be  safely  said 
tliat  lawyers,  though  dealing  with  the  results  of 
the  science  every  day  of  their  lives,  seldom  give 
any  attention  to  the  latent  and  general  principles 
on  which  these  results  are  founded.  The  science 
has  been  cultivatcil  rather  by  students  of  philosophy 
than  by  lawyi-rs  ;  and  the  distinctive  colours  of 
the  characteristic  philosophies  of  England  an<l 
Scotland  have  tinged  the  jurisprudence  of  the 
several  countries.  The  utilitarianism  of  Locke 
and  Mill  has  given  a  practical  or  empirical 
cliaracter  to  Knglish  jurisprudence,  which  may  be 
seen  in  the  legal  works  ot  Hobbes  and  Bentliani, 
and  at  its  hardest  in  the  'cast-iron'  system  of 
Austin,  whose  lectures  were  long  the  first  English 
authority  on  this  subject.  In  Scotland,  on  the 
other  hand,  a  constant  tradition  of  another  tend- 
ency has  been  maintained  among  scientific  jurists 
since  the  time  of  Lord  Stair.  Scottish  juris- 
pnidence  has  alw.avs  had  a  closer  attinity  witli  the 
systems  of  the  pliilosophical  writers  of  France 
and  (Jermany,  and  bases  its  conclusions  upon  the 
law  of  nature  rather  than  upon  experimental  com- 

Sarisons  of  varying  systems  of  positive  law.  It  is 
eveloped  in  the  works  of  Ferguson,  David  Hume, 
Adam  Smith,  Dugald  Stewart,  and  Professor 
Lorimer.  The  recent  tendency  of  scientific  jurists 
in  England  has  been  to  abandon  the  emidrical 
methods  of  treatment  for  the  historical  method,  of 
which  the  most  prominent  anil  successful  follower 
was  Sir  Henry  Elaine.  In  his  work  the  element- 
ary principles  of  jurisi)rudence  are  drawn  from 
a  study  of  the  history  of  legal  conceptions  and 
institutions  as  they  appear  in  remote  ages  and 
among  peoples  at  a  i)riMiitive  stage  of  civilisation. 

Jury,  a  body  of  private  citizens,  sworn  to  tiy  a 
question  of  fact,  or  to  .ussess  the  amount  of  a  pay- 
ment legally  due.  In  almost  all  systems  of  law 
the  ordinary  citizen  or  freeman  is  called  to  take 
some  part  in  the  administration  of  justice.  The 
judirr.mti  Roman  law  are  sometimes  compared  with 
modern  jurymen ;  and  the  judex  wa."  in  fact  a 
private  citizen,  empowered  to  trj'  questions  of  fact 
and  law  under  the  general  directions  of  a  superior 
magistrate.  In  communities  of  Teutonic  origin, 
and  es])ecially  in  England,  the  pcoi]le— i.e.  the 
qnalilied  freemen,  or  a  selection  from  their  number — 
performed  many  important  duties  in  civil  disputes 
and  criminal  trials.  They  acted  as  accusers,  to 
'present'  ollenders  against  the  law;  they  deciiled 
what  action  should  be  taken  on  a  proof  by  wit- 
ne.sscs,  compurgators,  or  ordeal  ;  they  were  them- 
selves witnesses  to  the  acts  by  which  a  title  to 
land  was  established  ;  ('vcn  .sales  of  gooils  were,  in 
old  time,  witnessed  by  a  kind  of  jury  of  townsmen. 
Many  persons  suppose  that  trial  by  jury,   in  the 


T" 


modern   sense,  is  as  old  as  King  .Alfred  :    and   a 
cartoon  in  the  Houses  of  Parliament  endiodies  this 

iiopular  belief.  Dr  Stubbs  (see  bis  Coxstitiitinnul 
listonj,  chap.  xiii. )  attaches  great  importance  to 
the  popular  element  in  the  ancient  courts ;  but 
he  traces  the  modern  jury  system  to  a  Prankish 
origin.  Inquiry  by  sworn  recognitors,  as  described 
in  the  Frank  Capitularies,  may  have  been  adojjteil 
in  part  from  the  Itonian  imperial  legislation.  Tn- 
tioduced  into  England  by  the  Norman  Conqueror, 
this  form  of  inquiry  was  developed  into  trial 
by  jury  under  the  influence  of  the  I'lantagenet 
kings  and  their  legal  advisers.  In  course  of  time 
the  'juratores'  ceased  to  be  regarded  as  witnesses, 
or  as  judges  of  law  and  custom  ;  they  acted  on 
proofs  laid  before  them,  and  they  took  the  law 
from  a  presiding  jvidge.  The  partisans  of  royal 
prerogative  would  have  gone  further ;  they  would 
have  deprived  the  jurymen  of  their  independence, 
and  compelled  them  to  find  the  verdict  dictated 
by  the  judge  or  the  advisers  of  the  crown.  After 
a  long  struggle  the  independence  of  the  jury  was 
vindicated ;  while  at  the  same  time  the  judges 
were  freed  from  subservience  to  the  crown  ;  the 
functions  of  judge  and  jury  were  accurately  dis- 
tinguished ;  and  the  rules  of  evidence  were  de- 
veloped into  a  rational  system.  Trial  by  jury  is 
prized  as  one  of  the  chief  safeguards  of  the  liberties 
of  the  subject ;  It  is  admitted  to  be  the  liest  mode 
of  trial  in  criminal  cases  of  importance,  and  in 
those  civil  cases  where  damages  may  have  to  l)e 
assessed  for  wrongs  which  afi'ect  the  person,  family, 
or  reputation  of  the  plaintitt'.  In  ordinary  mercan- 
tile cases  the  tendency  in  England  is  to  dispense 
with  juries  ;  the  adjustment  of  property  riglits  is 
also  left,  for  the  most  jiart,  to  the  judges.  In 
political  cases  special  importance  attaches  to  the 
rules  of  law  which  secure  the  selection  of  a  fairly 
rei)resentative  jury.  It  is  not  pos.sible  under 
modern  law  to  pack  a  jurv  with  parUsans  of  the 
government.  In  those  parts  of  Ireland  where 
popular  feeling  is  hostile  to  the  government,  counsel 
for  the  crown  have  been  frequentlx-  charged  with 
making  an  unfair  iise  of  their  right  lo  order  a 
juror  to  '  stand  by '  when  his  name  is  called  :  but 
it  may  be  well  to  point  out  that  jurymen  are  lialile 
to  be  intimiilated  by  the  people,  in  cases  in  which 
party  feeling  is  deeply  aroused  in  Ireland,  and  that 
the  democratic  spirit  is  not  ahvays  favourable  to  an 
impartial  administration  of  justice  in  any  country. 
In  the  modern  criminal  practice  of  England  .'ind 
Ireland  several  forms  of  jury  are  in  use.  The 
Coroner's  Jury  consists  of  twelve  men,  usually 
householders,  summoned  by  a  peace-odicer  acting 
under  the  coroner's  warrant,  to  incjuire  in  cases  of 
sudden  death,  ^.c.  If  their  inquisition,  or  recorded 
verdict,  charges  any  person  with  crime,  the  person 
aceuscil  must  be  arrested  and  brought  to  trial. 
The  (iranil  Jury  is  a  body  of  not  less  than  twelve 
and  not  more  than  twenty-three  men,  summoned 
by  the  sheritt'  to  consider  the  indictments  to  be 
preferred  at  a.ssizes,  quarter  sessions,  or  the  Central 
Criminal  Court.  They  hear  only  the  witnesses  for 
the  prosecution  ;  if  they  think  the  evidence  wholly 
insuflicient,  they  'ignore'  the  indictment,  and  the 
foreman  indorses  it  with  the  words  'no  true  bill.' 
If  they  think  there  is  a  case  which  the  accused 
ought  to  answer,  they  fiml  'a  true  bill,'  and  the 
accused  is  thereupon  arraigned  before  a  Petty 
Jury,  who  inquire  whether  he  is  guilty  or  not. 
The  petty  jury  consists  of  twelve  men,  house- 
holders or  owners  of  iiroj)erty,  whose  names  ,ire 
called  over  from  the  panel,  or  parchment  list  ]ire- 
pared  by  the  sheriir.  The  prisoner  may  challenge 
the  array — i.e.  he  may  allege  that  the  panel  i-<  un- 
fairly made  u|).  lie  may  challenge  peremjitoriiv 
thirty-five  jurors  in  a  Ciuse  of  treason,  twenty  in 
p,  ca.se   of    felony  ;    and   either  the  crown   or   tlio 


376 


JURY 


JUS    DEVOLUTUM 


accused  may  challenge  any  iiiiiiiber  of  juiois  for 
cause  shown.  When  twelve  men  have  been  sworn, 
counsel  and  witnesses  for  the  ^irosecution  and 
defence  address  themselves  to  the  jury  ;  the  judge 
interposes  to  decide  points  of  law,  or  to  remind 
counsel  or  witnesses  of  their  duty  ;  at  the  close  of 
the  trial  he  sums  up  the  evidence,  and  states 
clearly  to  the  jury  the  question  tliey  have  to 
decide.  If  the  jury  retire  to  consider  their  verdict 
an  officer  is  sworn  to  keep  them  '  without  meat, 
drink,  or  fire;'  but  the  judge  may  allow  them 
til  have  a  fire  and  reasonable  refreshment.  The 
vcidict  of  tlie  jury  must  be  unanimous  ;  and  it  is, 
generally  speaking,  conclusive;  the  prisoner  can- 
not be  tried  again  on  tlie  same  charge.  Common 
jurors  do  not  receive  any  remuneration.  On  an 
indictment  or  criminal  information  for  libel  Fox's 
Act,  passed  in  1792,  empowers  the  jury  to  lind  a 
general  verdict  on  the  whole  matter  in  issue.  The 
judges,  in  certain  jmlitical  cases,  had  directed  the 
jury  to  find  the  defendants  guilty  on  proof  of  publi- 
cation of  the  paper  charged  to  be  a  libel ;  and  the 
act  closes  the  last  stage  in  the  struggle  for  the 
inde|iendence  of  juries  in  criminal  cases. 

Civil  cases  which  come  before  a  judge  and  jurj' 
inaj'  be  tried  by  a  common  jury  of  twelve  men, 
whose  names  are  called  from  tlie  sheritt-s  panel,  as 
in  criminal  cases.  Both  parties  have  the  right  of 
clialleni;e  to  the  array,  or  to  the  name  of  an  indi- 
vidual juror,  for  cause  shown.  Either  jiarty  may 
demand  a  special  jury — i.e.  a  jury  chosen  from  a 
special  list,  in  which  are  entered  the  names  of 
persons  possessing  a  property  qualification  higher 
than  is  required  in  the  case  of  common  jurors. 
Special  jurors  are  paid  ;  the  iiayment  is  usually  at 
the  rate  of  one  guinea  for  each  case.  The  jury 
must  be  unanimous  ;  but  the  verdict  of  a  majority 
may  be  taken  by  consent  of  the  parties.  If  the 
case  is  compromised  a  juror  is  withdrawn  by  con- 
sent, and  the  case  comes  to  an  end.  In  the  county 
court  small  civil  cases  are  sometimes  tried  by  the 
judge  and  a  jury  of  five.  For  the  use  of  the  term 
jury    in     connection    with    maimrial    courts,    see 

M.VNOR. 

In  Scotland  forty-five  jurors  are  summoned  in 
criminal  cases,  of  whom  fifteen  are  chosen  by  lot  to 
try  the  case  ;  the  verdict  of  a  majority  suffices.  The 
crown  and  the  accused  have  each  five  peremptory 
challenges  ;  and  any  number  of  jurors  may  be  chal- 
lenged on  cause  shown.  In  some  ]ioints  the  po.si- 
tion  of  the  accused  is  better  than  in  Kngland.  He 
is  entitled  to  have  a  copj-  of  the  indictment,  a  list  of 
the  witnesses  to  be  brought  forward  against  him, 
anil  a  list  of  the  jurors— advantages  which  an  I'^ng- 
lisb  prisimer  has  no  legal  right  to  demand,  unless 
he  is  accused  of  treason  or  misprision  of  treason. 
Evidence  is  first  given  on  both  sides  ;  the  counsel 
for  the  i)rosecution  then  addresses  the  jury,  and  the 
prisoner's  counsel  speaks  last.  In  England  the 
prosecuting  counsel  may  rejily  if  evidence  is  given 
on  liehalf  of  the  accused  ;  and  the  Attorneygeneral 
or  Solicitor-general  claims  the  right  to  reply,  even 
if  no  such  evidence  is  given.  Again,  the  jury  in 
Scotland  may  find  the  charge  'not  proven;'  and 
this  verdict  is  so  far  final  that  the  prisimer  cannot 
be  put  on  his  trial  a  second  time  on  the  .same 
charge.  This  rule  gives  the  accused  an  additional 
chance  of  escape ;  but  there  is  something  to  be 
said  against  the  expediency  of  permitting  a  verdict 
which  leaves  the  question  of  guilt  or  innocence  un- 
decided, .and  allows  the  accused  to  go  free  without 
clearing  his  character.  Trial  liy  jury  in  civil  cases 
>yas  no  part  of  the  ancient  jiraclice  of  the  Court  of 
Session — it  w.as  introduced  in  IS].')  by  an  act  which 
adopted  most  of  the  English  rules.  As  in  England, 
the  jury  in  civil  cases  consists  of  twelve  p(usons  ; 
but  unanimity  is  not  essential.  If,  after  being 
kept  three  hours  in  deliberation,  nine  or  more  of 


the  jury  agree  on  a  verdict,  their  \erdict  is  taken 
as  that  of  the  jtiry.  If,  after  being  inclosed  nine 
hours,  the  jury  cannot  agree,  the  judge  is  entitled 
to  discharge  them,  and  generally  does  so.  The 
judge  may  allow  the  jury  refreshment  after  they 
are  locked  up  to  deliberate. 

In  Ireland  the  jury  haws  are  substantially  the 
same  as  in  England.  'Until  the  passing  of  the  Act 
of  1871  (Lord  OHagan's  Act),  .'U  and  :i5  Vict, 
chap.  6.">,  modified  by  .39  and  40  Vict.  chap.  21,  by 
which  the  empannelling  and  summoning  of  juries  is 
made  the  subject  of  more  stringent  provisions,  the 
law  in  England  and  Irelaml  was  precisely  similar. 
But  special  legislation  has  from  time  to  time 
withdrawn  from  the  consideration  of  juries  in 
Ireland  for  a  limited  period  certain  crimes  of  an 
agrarian  or  '  i|uasi-political '  character  in  times  of 
great  national  excitement.  By  the  Crimes  Act,  oO 
and  51  Vict.  chap.  '20,  special  power,  extemling  as 
high  as  that  of  imposing  sentences  of  six  months' 
imprisonment,  on  conviction  of  certain  specified 
offences,  were  conferred  on  specially  constituted 
magisterial  courts  sitting  witliout  a  jury.  And 
special  juries  for  the  trial  of  criminal  charges  may 
be  einpannelled  in  certain  cases. 

The  Grand  .Juiy  in  Ireland  was  till  1898  entrusted 
not  only  with  the  ordinary  criminal  business  per- 
formed Ijy  the  grand  jury  in  England,  but  also  with 
the  entire  local  government  of  the  country,  county 
by  county,  much  as  the  same  was  formerly  carried 
on  in  England  by  the  justices  in  Ciuarter  Sessions ; 
but  the  Irish  Local  Government  Act  of  1898  with- 
drew all  its  administrative  functions,  and  conferred 
them  on  County  Councils  elected  triennially.  The 
authority  of  the  Irish  grand  juries  dated  from 
.Vnglo-Norman  times  ;  and  laws,  custom,  and  tradi- 
tion of  700  years  were  summed  up  ami  ascertained 
only  in  1836  by  the  Irish  Grand  .Iiiry  .\ct. 

In  the  United  States  English  [irinciples  have  been 
adopted  ;  and  trial  by  jury  is  maile  part  of  the 
constitution  in  nuist  of  tlie  states.  There  are  some 
states  in  which  the  jurors  are  empowered  to  decide 
questions  of  law  in  criminal  cases,  and  in  some  the 
judge  is  forbidden  to  charge  the  jury  on  the  facts. 
A  verdict  can  lie  returned  only  on  the  unanimous 
vote  of  a  jury;  and,  with  a  view  to  securing  impar- 
tiality, each  juror  is  required  to  swear  that  he  is 
free  from  any  jireconceived  opinion  as  to  the  case 
on  trial,  and  has  no  infmiuation  calculated  to  influ- 
ence his  decision.  The  law  permits  the  challenging 
of  individual  jurors,  both  perem]>torily  and  for 
cause  ;  and  this  right  has  frequently  been  grossly 
abused  for  the  purpose  of  delaying  justice,  as,  for 
example,  on  the  trial  of  the  murderers  of  Dr 
Croniu  at  Chicago  (18S9).  The  British  colonies 
have  flamed  their  jury  laws,  for  the  most  part,  on 
the  English  model. 

Jury  trial  has  been  established  in  France  (where 
the  verdict  of  a  majority  is  sufficient),  and  in 
many  other  contiiieiUal  countries,  in  most  of 
which  the  institution  will  be  found  to  bear  a 
general  resemblance  to  the  English  jury.  There 
are,  of  course,  endless  difl'erences  in  detail.  For 
the  particular  rules  as  to  i|ualificalions  of  jurors, 
\c.  in  England,  reference  may  be  made  to  Arcli- 
liold's  T'ldctke  and  Stephen's  Digest  of  Criminul 
Procc<liiix. 

.Iliryinast.  a  temiiorary  spar,  used  to  replace 
a  m.istwhicli  has  been  lost  from  any  cause,  and 
so  to  enable  the  vessel  to  reach  some  port  for  more 
permanent  re]iair. 

.Ills  Drvollltlllllt  a  phrase  of  ecclesia-stical 
law  used  to  denote  the  right  of  a  church  to  pre- 
sent a  minister  to  a  vacant  parish  if  the  p.itron 
neglect  to  exercise  his  right  within  the  legal  time. 
In  the  Established  Church  of  Scotland,  if  a  cure 
be  vacant  by  death  or  otherwise,  a  fit  person  mu.st 


JUS    GENTIUM 


JUSTICE    OF    THE    PEACE      377 


be  presented  to  the  presbytery  to  supply  the  cure 
within  six  niontlis  after  the  occurrence  of  the 
vacancy.  If  no  appointment  is  made  in  tliis  time  by 
the  con<;re<;ation  the  right  of  presentation  accrues 
to  the  prest)ytery,  and  is  called, /«»■  di-ru/i(fitm. 

Jiis  dentiuni.    See  International  Law. 

Jus  Mnriti.  a  phrase  used  in  Roman  law,  and 
adopted  in  th'^  Scotoli  law  to  denote  tlie  legal  right 
accruing  to  a  luisband  qua  husband  over  his  wife's 
property.     See  Husband  and  Wife. 

Jns  Prima*  Xoctis,  the  right  of  deflora- 
tion of  virgins,  granted  on  the  occasion  of  a 
marriage  to  a  special  person,  as  a  chief  or  a  priest, 
among  many  savage  races,  as  the  Kinipetu-Eskimo, 
Caribs,  and  certain  Brazilian  trilies.  We  have 
accounts  by  early  travellers  describing  the  custom 
as  existing  in  Nicaragua,  Teneriti'e,  Cambodia, 
Malabar  ;  and  Sugenheim  asserts  tliat  the  French 
kings  Philip  VI.  and  Cliarles  VI.  could  not,  in  the 
14th  century,  induce  the  Bishops  of  Amiens  to  give 
up  tlie  ancient  right.  Among  many  savages  a  simi- 
lar privilege  is  freely  granted  to  all  the  guests  at  a 
wedding — perhaps  a  survival  of  a  reward  for  help 
in  the  abiluction,  although  Lubbock  ingeniously 
attempts  to  explain  it  as  originally  an  act  of 
expiation  for  individual  marriage.  Again,  a  period 
of  privileged  and  unlimited  license  just  before 
marriage  is  not  uncommon  ;  while  we  often  meet 
with  the  practice  of  lending  a  wife  or  a  (laughter 
to  a  stranger  from  juimitive  notions  of  hospitality. 
Dr  Karl  Sclimiilt  in  Ids  erudite  work.  Jus  Prima; 
Noctis,  cine  gr.scluchllichc  Untersuchioiff  {Freihnrg, 
1881 ),  contends  that  this  'droit  du  seigneur'  never 
existed  in  Europe,  having  left  no  evidence  of  its 
existence  in  laws,  charters,  decretals,  trials,  or 
glossaries,  and  that  the  later  belief  in  it  is  merely 
'  ein  gelehrter  Aberglaube,'  which  has  arisen  in 
various  ways,  as  from  reports  of  individual  cases  of 
tyranny  and  from  an  unnecessarily  gross  interpreta- 
tion being  attacheil  to  the  line  paid  by  the  vassal 
to  his  feudal  lord  for  permission  to  marry.  Bach- 
ofen,  Giraud-Teulon,  and  Kulischer  regard  they!/.? 
primm  noHis  accorded  to  a  special  person  as  a  sur- 
vival from  a  primitive  stage  of  promiscuity  or  com- 
munal marriage,  the  ancient  communal  right  being 
in  ci)urs(!  of  time  taken  away  from  the  community 
anil  transferred  to  the  priest,  king,  or  noble,  as  its 
chief  representative.  It  is  perhaps  more  simply 
to  be  understood  a.s  a  mere  triliute  that  may  be 
exacteil  as  a  right  by  supeiuor  jxiwer,  as  by  the 
kings  of  Dahomey  ;  or  a  supreme  mark  of  loyalty 
or  respect  oll'ered  to  a  chief  or  priest.  This  alleged 
ancient  seignorial  privilege  is  the  central  point  of 
Be.iumont  and  Fletcher's  odious  play,  The  Custom 
oftlic  Country. 

Jus  Rclictil',  in  Scotch  law,  is  the  right  of  a 
widow  to  a  share  in  the  movable  or  pers(mal  pro- 
perty of  her  deceased  husband.  See  HUSBAND  AND 
Wife,  Succession. 

•Ilissieil,  De,  the  name  of  a  French  family 
whiili,  for  a  century  and  a  half,  numbered  among 
its  members  some  of  the  first  botanists  of  the  age. 
— .Antoine  de  .Jf.s.siKU,  born  at  Lvons,  Gth  July 
IBSfi,  and  died  at  Paris,  22d  April  IT.IH,  was  iiro- 
fes.sor  of  Botany  and  director  of  the  Botanical 
(!ard(!n  at  Paris,  wrote  various  works  on  botany, 
and  edited  Tournefort's  In.stitulioncs  Botrinicn; 
(1719).— His  brother,  Beknaud  de  Ju.s.sieu,  born 
at  Lyons,  17th  August  16!)!),  and  died  in  Paris, 
6tli  November  1777,  contented  himself  with  assist- 
ing .\ntoine  and  his  son  without  seeking  renown  by 
the  publication  of  his  own  ob.servations.  In  I7")H 
he  w.us  named  suiierintendent  of  the  gardens  at  the 
I'i'tit-Trianon,  and  there  arranged  tlie  jilants  in 
ac<'ordance  with  a  natural  system  substantially 
the  same  as  that  which  his  nephew  Laurent 
subsenuenlly  elaborated  in  a  more  perfect  manner. 


He  edited  the  second  edition  of  Tournefort's  ///.s- 
foirc  (let  riantcs  qui  naissnit  t/itns  leu  Enriron.i 
<lc  Paris  (2  vols.  1725).— Antoink  Laurent  de 
JussiEU,  born  at  Lyons,  12lli  A]iril  1718,  died 
at  Paris,  17tli  September  ISSti,  the  nejihew  and 
]iupil  of  liernard,  was  appointed  ]irofessor  of 
l)Otany  at  the  Paris  Botanical  (iarden  in  1770. 
His  Genera  P/nntarum  {17S0)  laid  down  the  prin- 
ciples on  which  modern  botanical  cl.assillcation 
is  based  (see  Bot.vny).  On  tlie  outbreak  of  the 
Revolution  the  hospitals  of  Paris  were  put  in 
his  charge.  In  1793  lie  organised  the  libr.ary  of  the 
Museum,  one  of  the  best  in  Europe.  In  1826  he 
resigned  his  professorial  chair  to  his  son  Adrien. 
He  jiublished  numerous  papers  on  botany  in  Anvales 
(lu  Museum  (from  1804-20),  and  in  Dirtioniiaire  ties 
Seicnees  Nafurcllcs. — Adrien  DE  JussiEf,  son  of 
Laurent,  born  at  Paris,  December  23,  1707,  died  in 
the  same  city,  June  29,  1853,  succeeded  his  father 
in  1826.  On  taking  the  degree  of  M.D.  in  1824, 
he  presented  as  his  thesis  a  valuable  memoir  on 
the  Euphorbiacea>.  This  was  followed  by  equally 
useful  papers  on  the  Rutaceie,  Meliacea',  and 
Malpighiacea^,  and  a  memoir  on  the  embryo  of 
the  Monocotyledtms.  His  Conrs  Elcmcntairc  de 
Bofanique  (1842)  reached  a  12tli  edition  in  1884. 
A  number  of  able  botanists  of  all  nations  owed 
their  training  to  him. 

Juste,  Theodore,  a  Belgian  historian,  was 
born  at  Brussels,  11th  January  1818,  became  in 
1859  keeper  of  the  Museum  of  Antiquities  there, 
and  in  1870  professor  of  History,  and  died  11th 
August  1888.  Juste  was  a  voluminous  writer,  but 
many  of  his  works  are  of  considerable  value  for  the 
history  of  his  country.  He  is  best  known  by  his 
Fonc/afeurs  de  la  Monarchic  Bclqc  (27  vols.  186.5- 
81).  Many  of  his  eariier  works  (18.'!0-80)  are 
abridged  in  Le  Pantheon  Natitmal  (1881 ). 

Jnste  Iflilieil,  a  French  term,  signifying  the 
just  mean,  or,  according  to  the  common  expression, 
the  golden  mean.  After  the  revolution  of  18.30  this 
term  acquired  a  political  signilication,  and  came 
into  very  frequent  use,  because  of  the  declaration 
of  the  organs  of  Louis-Phili|ipe,  that  the  juste 
mi/ieu  was  the  only  principle  of  government  which 
could  secure  the  welfare  ot  France. 

Justice,  HifiH  Court  of,  one  of  the  two  great 
sections  of  the  English  supreme  courts,  as  arranged 
by  the  Judicature  Acts  (q.v.).  For  the  Scottish 
College  of  Justice,  see  Court  of  Session. 

Justice,  Lord  Chief,  the  title  given  to  the 
chief  judge  of  the  Queen's  Bench  Division  of  the 
High  Court  of  .Justice  ;  formerly  given  also  to  the 
chief  judge  of  the  Common  Pleas.  He  of  the 
Queen's  Bench  was,  and  still  is.  Lord  Chief-justice 
of  England  ;  and  on  him  were  conferred,  in  1S81, 
the  powers  of  the  Lord  Chief-justice  of  Common 
Pleas,  that  ilivision  of  tlu!  court  being  abolished. 
Puisne  (i.e.  lesser  or  ordinary)  judges  in  all  divi- 
sions of  the  High  Court  bear  tlie  title  of  Justice, 
and  are  spoken  of  as  '  Mr  Justice  Smith,'  &c. 

Jiistice-scneral,  Lorh,  the  highest  jud^^e  in 
Scotland,  also  called  the  Lord  President  of  the 
Court  of  Session  (q.v.).  Next  to  him  ranks  the 
Lord  Justice-clerk.     See  Jitsticiary  Court. 

Justice  of  tlie  Peace.      In    1264   the  name 

euslris  jiacis  ajipeais  for  the  first  time  in  I'.nglish 
history.  Until  the  thirty-fourth  year  of  llic^  riign 
of  Edward  111.  the  odicers  ap|iointed  in  c>.-ich  county 
to  maintain  internal  order  were  invariably  described 
as  guardians  or  conservators  of  the  peace.  Origin- 
ally royal  nominees,  the  conservators  of  the  pence 
were  after  the  lifth  year  of  Edward  I.,  chovi-n  (at 
least  occasiimally)  by  the  whole  community  in  the 
county  court,  under  the  instructions  of  the  king 
conveyed  by  the  slierilV.     But  after  the  deposition 


378 


JUSTICE    OF    THE    PEACE 


of  Edward  II.  the  a|ipointiii<>iit  of  special  cii.itudi-.f 
jxici.i  was  ordained  liy  ]>arliaiiu'nt  (1  Kdward  III. 
stat.  2,  eliaj).  IG).  The  right  of  election  thus  taken 
away  from  the  people  was  soon  vested  in,  and  has 
ever  since  been  exercised  by,  the  sovereign.  While 
the  ])owi'r  of  ai>poiiitin<;  justices  of  the  peace  now 
iiractically  helongs  to  the  Lord  Chancellor,  it  must 
tie  clearly  undei-stood  that  the  commission  of  the 
peace  is  in  theory  the  Queen's  commission,  and 
that  the  Lord  Chancellor  h,as  no  such  authority 
over  justices  of  the  peace  as  he  possesses  over 
judges  of  the  county  courts.  The  functions  of  the 
ciistm/c^s  jxicis  appointed  in  i;!27  were  rapidly  and 
widely  extended  by  subsequent  legislation  ;  and 
36  Edward  III.  stat.  1,  chap.  12,  gave  for  the  first 
time  to  the  old  rimtodcs  pacin  their  familiar  modern 
name.  In  1.J90  a  new  form  of  commission  was 
agreed  u])Ou,  in  whi<'h  all  the  jiartieulars  formerly 
sjiecilied  from  a  number  of  statutes  were  compre- 
hended in  words  of  general  description.  This  was 
presented  to  the  chancellor,  acc^epted,  scaled,  and 
with  slight  variations  h;is  continued  in  use  ever 
since.  Cnder  Richard  II.  justices  of  the  peace 
attending  <(uarter  sessions  were  entitled  to  4s.  .a 
day,  payable  out  of  the  lines  and  amerciaments  at 
such  sessions.  It  appeal's,  however,  that  these 
payments  were  often  made  out  of  the  emoluments 
of  the  sherilV,  and  they  were  abolished.  The  ollice 
of  justice  of  the  peace  has  since  been  entirely 
gr.aiuitous;  but,  alter  the  conversion  of  the  con- 
stabulary into  ])olico,  stipendiary  magistrates  exer- 
cising a  summary  jurisdiction  not  unlike  that  of 
the  justices  have  been  appointed  in  all  large  cities 
and  in  many  large  towns.  The  office  of  justice  of 
the  peace  seems  to  have  been  held  on  several  occa- 
sions by  a  lady. 

It  is  impossible  here  to  trace  minutely  the  history 
of  the  multifarious  duties  which  have  at  different 
periods  been  discharged  by  the  justices  of  the 
peace.  The  statute  11  Henry  VII.  chap.  .3,  enabled 
them  to  determine  all  offences  except  treason  and 
felony  without  a  jury  upon  information  in  the 
king's  name.  But  this  act  was  repealed  in  the 
first  year  of  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII.  In  1653, 
when  the  Barebones  Parliament  made  marriage  a 
purely  civil  contract,  justices  of  the  jjeace  were 
empowered  to  hear  the  mutual  declarations  of  the 
contracting  parties.  They  were  authorised  liy 
their  commission,  and  still  have  power,  to  receive 
information  with  regard  to  any  iiulietable  ott'ence. 
They  were  also  invested  with  imiKutant  adminis- 
trative functions,  such  as  the  licensing  of  ale- 
houses and  the  appointment  of  overseers  of  the  poor 
or  surveyors  of  higlnv.ivs  ;  and  as  local  authority 
they  transacled  the  chief  county  business,  con- 
trolled the  county  police,  and  levied  the  county 
rates.  The  summary  jurisdiction  of  justices  of 
the  peace  has,  however,  been  detined  and  restricted 
by  recent  legislation,  and  the  liocal  Government 
Act  of  1888  lias  transferred  to  the  new  county 
councils  most  of  the  administrative  powers  for- 
merly exercised  by  the  county  justices  in  (|uarter 
sessions.     .See  Coi'.N'l'V,  and  Qr.vHTKlt  Skssions. 

There  are  two  classes  of  justices  of  the  jieace — 
those  exercising  jurisdiction  within  counties,  and 
those  appointed  for  boroughs.  Under  the  iMuni- 
cipal  Corporations  Act,  1882,  sect.  158,  borough 
justices  have  no  authority  to  act  at  general  or 
quarter  sessions  for  the  county.  County  jiistic<'s, 
on  the  other  hand,  have  jiriiiiA  fiirir  conciinent 
jurisdiction  within  any  borough  which  forms  part 
of  the  county.  This  presumption  is,  however, 
re])elled  where  tlw  borough  charter  contains  an 
express  clause  to  the  contrary — called  a  iioii  intru- 
viilirr  dausi! — and  the  boiongh  h;Ls  its  separ.ate 
court  of  (|uarter  sessions.  Again,  in  the  civse  of 
borough  justices  no  special  i|ualilication  beyond 
that  of  residence  in  or  within  seven  miles  of  the 


borough  is  required.  But  a  county  justice  must 
have  an  estate  of  freehohl,  copyhold,  or  long 
leasehold  in  England  or  Wales  of  the  clear 
annual  value  of  .£100,  or  a  reversion  expectant 
(Ui  leases  for  lives  of  £300  a  year.  By  38  and 
39  Vict.  chap.  54,  it  has  now  been  further  pro 
vided  that  a  person  shall  be  deemed  i|Ualifie(I  to 
be  appointed  a  county  justice  who,  being  of  full 
age,  has  for  the  space  of  two  years  immediately 
preceding  his  appointment  been  the  occupier  of  a 
dwelling-house  assessed  to  the  inhabited-house 
duty  at  a  value  of  not  less  than  i'lOO,  and  shall 
have  been  rated  to  all  rates  .and  taxes  in  respect 
of  such  premises.  No  sheritf  can  act  during  his 
shrievalty  as  justice  of  the  peace  for  the  county  in 
which  he  is  sheriff :  and  no  pers(ui  can  be  appointed 
to  act  during  banknii)tcy.  The  otlice  of  justice 
of  the  peace,  being  conferred  by  the  crown,  sub- 
sists only  during  the  pleastire  of  the  sovereign. 
The  commission  appoints  all  the  persons  named 
therein  to  keep  the  peace  in  the  county  specilied, 
and  any  two  or  more  of  them  to  in(|uire  of  ;uul 
determine  offences  committed  in  such  county  ;  in 
which  number  some  particular  justices  with  legal 
or  special  qualifications  were  formerly  directed  to 
be  always  included,  and  no  business  wxs  to  be  d<ine 
without  their  presence.  The  words  of  the  commis- 
sion ran  quorum  alvpicm  ve.itrum  A,  B,  C,  D,  <i<'. 
iiniim  esse  volinnus;  and  the  persons  so  named 
were  called  justices  of  the  i/iioriim.  It  is  now, 
however,  the  practice  to  include  nearly  all  of  the 
justices  in  the  <iuorinn  clause. 

The  functions  of  justices  of  the  peace  are  partly 
administrative  and  partly  judicial.  The  former, 
which  were  exercised  at  special  sessions,  used  to 
embrace  a  great  variety  of  subjects,  but  since  the 
Local  Government  Act,  1888,  sect.  3,  are  now  prac- 
tically restricted  to  the  licensing  of  ale-houses  and 
the  ;i]ipointment  of  oveiscers  of  the  poor.  The 
control  of  the  police  in  counties  will  hencefmth  be 
undertaken  by  a  joint  committee  of  the  county 
council  and  of  the  justices  in  quarter  sessions. 
The  latter  fall  into  three  cla-sses.  (1)  The  justice 
of  the  peace,  like  the  ancient  conservator  jiacis,  is 
empowered  to  preserve  the  peace,  to  suppress  riot,s 
and  aflrays,  to  take  security  for  good  behaviour, 
and  to  order  the  apprehension  and  committal  of 
criminals.  (2)  At  jictty  sessions  the  justices  mv 
enabled  to  try  certain  minor  oll'cnees  summarily 
and  without  a  jury.  (3)  The  commission  of  the 
peace  authorises  any  two  or  more  justices  to  hear 
and  determine  certain  graver  and  indict.able  offences 
at  (/itartcr  sessions.  The  statute  .34  Edward  III. 
cha)).  1,  confirming  IS  Edward  III.  stat.  2, 
chap.  2,  enabled  justices  of  the  jicace  to  try  at 
quarter  sessions  all  felonies  and  trespas.ses  \\liafso- 
ever  committed  within  the  county.  Comparatively 
recent  legislation  has  expressly  excepted  from  the 
jurisdiction  of  qutarter  sessions  the  most  .serious 
offences  in  the  criminal  law,  .such  as  murder,  per- 
jury, forgery,  bigamy,  .abduction,  itc,  and  only 
the  smaller  misdemeanours  ami  fehuiies  are  now 
triable  at  these  courts.  The  orders  and  convictions 
of  justices  out  of  .sessions  can  be  .appealed  against 
to  quarter  sessions ;  and  an  or<ler  made  at  quarter 
sessions  may  as  a  general  rule  be  removed  into  the 
Queen's  Bench  Division  of  the  High  Court  by  writ 
of  certiorari. 

As  to  the  liability  of  a  justice  of  the  peace,  in 
tlie  ca.se  of  a  justice  acting  erroneously  within  his 
jurisdiction,  an  action  will  not  lie  without  an 
express  allegati<m  .and  proof  of  malice  and  want  of 
iea.soiiable  or  jirobable  cause.  In  the  case  of  a 
justice  who  either  has  no  jurisdiction  or  exceeds 
it,  no  such  .allegation  or  proof  is  required,  but  no 
action  can  be  brought  in  regard  to  a  convict 'on 
or  order  till  it  has  been  qu.osheil  upon  ajqieal.     ,0 

In  Scotland  the  duty  of  collecting  evidence  for 


JUSTICE    OF   THE    PEACE 


JUSTICES 


379 


the  prosecution  of  criminals  restea  orijnnally  upon 
tlio  justice-clerk  and  the  sherill'.  When  it  was 
proposed  to  hold  a  criminal  inquirv,  the  sheritl', 
under  the  authority  of  a  writ  issued  bv  the  justi- 
ciar, summoned  the  best  and  most  cai>al>le  men  of 
each  l>urc;h,  town,  and  barony  witliin  liis  shire  to 
appear  before  the  justice-clerk  and  give  informa- 
tion of  the  crimes  done  within  their  res])ective 
bounds.  This  lieing  done,  it  lay  with  the  justice- 
clerk  to  digest  the  materials  thus  returned  to  him, 
and  to  make  up  from  them  a  roll  of  the  otlenders' 
names,  and  a  tile  of  dittay,  or  indictments  for  bring- 
ing those  pereons  to  justice.  When  the  Scotch  cir- 
cuit system  wa-s  reorganised,  a  more  regular  and 
effective  method  of  taking  'dittay'  was  adopted; 
tlie  act  of  15S7  em|iowered  the  king,  on  the  aihice 
of  his  chancellor,  treasurer,  and  justice-clerk,  to 
appoint  '  lionourable  and  worthie  persons  ...  in 
degree  earles.  lordes,  barronnes,  knights,  and  special 
gentlemen  lamled,  experimented  in  the  lovable  laws 
and  customes  of  the  realme.  actuall  indwellere  in 
the  same  shires  ...  to  be  constant  anil  continual 
np-takers  of  ilittay.'  This  is  the  first  statute  deal- 
ing with  the  institution  of  justices  of  the  peace  in 
Scotland.  The  office  was  further  regulated  bv  acts 
in  1609,  1617,  1633,  and  1661.  The  form  of  com- 
mission is  practically  identical  with  that  which 
was  settled  for  use  in  England  in  lo90.  There  is 
no  property  qualification  in  Scotland  ;  but  under 
6  Geo.  IV.  chap.  -IS,  sect.  27,  a  solicitor  cannot 
be  nominated  a  justice  of  the  peace  for  any 
county  in  which  lie  is  practising.  By  19  and 
20  \'ict.  chap.  48,  sect.  4,  the  disqualification 
does  not  extend  to  writere  or  procurators  who 
may  be  elected  magistrates  or  deans  of  guild 
in  any  burgh.  The  functions  of  justices  are 
partly  administrative  and  partly  judicial.  The 
Local  Government  (Scotland)  Act,  1889,  sect.  11, 
has  transferred  to  the  new  county  councils  the 
powers  and  duties  of  the  justices  in  relation  to  the 
following  subjects:  (1)  the  execution  as  local 
authority  of  the  acts  relating  to  gas-meters,  ex- 
plosive substances,  wei<rhts  and  measures,  habitual 
drunkards,  and  wild  birds;  (2)  the  appointment 
of  visitors  of  public,  private,  or  district  lunatic 
asylums ;  and  ( 3 )  the  registration  of  the  rules  of 
scientific  societies  under  6  and  7  Vict.  chaj).  .36. 
As  in  England,  the  justices  have  still  authority  in 
regard  to  the  licensing  of  ale-houses,  the  adminis- 
tration of  the  poor  laws,  &e.  The  jurisdiction  of 
justices  of  the  peace  is  partly  civil  and  partly 
criminal.  In  civil  questions  between  master  and 
ser\ant  they  have  jurisiliction  to  any  amount. 
The  justices  can  entertain  applications  for  the 
aliment  of  bastard  children.  The  civil  jurisdiction 
of  the  justices  is  now  practically  superseded  by 
that  of  the  sherilV  court,  unless  to  the  limited 
extent  allowed  by  the  Small  Debt  Act  (12  and  13 
Vict.  chap.  34).  There  is  no  trace  in  Scotland  of 
trial  with  a  jury  before  justices  of  the  peace,  as 
in  England  at  quarter  sessions.  The  ordinary 
criminal  jurisdiction  of  justices  is  confined  to 
bre;i<;hes  of  the  peace,  petty  thefts,  and  trifiing 
a.s.saults,  punishable  by  a  small  fine  and  imprison- 
ment. A  variety  of  penal  statutes  have  conferred 
upon  the  justices  of  the  peace  jurisdiction  in 
relation  to  the  revenue,  highways,  fishings,  and 
public-houses.  In  Ireland  the  justice  occupies 
practically  the  same  position  as  in  England. 

The  institutiim  of  ju.stices  of  the  peace  exi.sts  in 
the  United  States  of  .\merica.  In  some  of  the 
states  these  magistrates  are  apjiointed  by  the 
executive,  in  othere  they  are  elected  by  the  people 
and  commissioned  by  the  executive  ;  in  soiue  Citses 
they  hold  office  during  good  behaviour,  but  as  a 
Heneral  rule  tljey  are  appointed  for  a.  limited  ijericKl. 
See  liouvier's  Law  Dicttoiiari/  and  Hoore's  h'alcrul 
and  State  C'otistitutwns. 


Ju.STICE.s"  Cl.Kr.K.— The  justices' clerk  is  an  officer 
aiipointed  by  justices  of  the  peace  in  England  (  who, 
although  not  themselves  trained  lawyers,  are  yet 
called  upon  to  ailminister  many  branches  of  the  law) 
to  assist  them  in  the  discharge  of  their  duties,  to 
advise  them  as  to  points  of  law  and  practice,  to 
take  minutes  of  the  proceedings  in  every  ca.se,  to  re- 
ceive and  transmit  fines,  iS:c.  Every  clerk  api)oiiited 
after  the  passing  of  the  Justices'  Clerks  Act,  IS77, 
unless  he  has  previously  held  a  similar  appoint- 
ment for  a  |>eriod  of  not  less  than  fourteen  years,  is 
required  (<()  cither  to  be  a  barrister  of  not  less 
than  fourteen  years'  standing,  or  a  solicitor  to  the 
Supreme  Court  of  Jiulicature,  or  (6)  to  have  served 
for  not  less  than  seven  years  as  a  clerk  to  a  police 
or  stipendiary  magistrate,  or  to  a  metropolitan 
police-court,  or  to  one  of  the  police-courts  of  the 
City  of  London.  Under  the  same  statute  justices' 
clerks  receive  a  fixed  salary  instead  of  deriving 
their  remuneration,  as  formerly,  from  the  court 
fees. 

Justices.  Lords.  Since  the  Norman  Conquest 
it  has  been  the  occasional  practice  in  England  for 
the  sovereign  to  nominate  one  or  more  persons  to 
exercise  the  chief  powers  of  government  during  his 
temporary  absence  from  the  kingdom.  At  first 
this  duty  was  imposed,  princi]>ally  although  not 
perhaps  exclusively,  upon  the  justiciar.  But 
when,  after  the  death  of  Hubert  de  Burgh,  the 
functions  of  the  justiciar  were  gradually  distrib- 
uted and  his  office  itself  was  practically  abolished, 
ciistoc/cf:  icr/ni  or  '  lords  justices"  were  appointed  to 
govern  the  realm  during  the  sovereign's  absence. 
The  English  sovereigns  from  Edward  VI.  to 
James  11.  were  never,  while  actually  reigning, 
absent  from  England  at  all;  and  William  III.  in 
the  early  years  of  his  reign  invariably  left  l^Mieen 
Mary  to  discharge  the  duties  of  viceroy  when 
he  went  to  the  Continent.  But  after  the  death 
of  Mary  lords  justices  appear  to  have  been 
appointed  umler  tlie  great  seal,  on  the  occasion  of 
the  king's  absence,  fi\'e  times  between  1695  aiul 
1699.  The  names  of  the  Archbishop  of  Canter- 
bury and  the  Lord  Chancellor  were  usually  placed 
at  the  head  of  these  commissions.  The  Act  of 
Settlement  (12  and  13  Will.  III.,  chap.  2)  pro- 
vided '  that  no  person  who  shall  hereafter  come  to 
the  crown  shall  go  out  of  England,  Scotland,  or 
Ireland  without  consent  of  parliament ; '  but  this 
clause  was  repealed  by  1  Geo.  I.  chap.  51  ;  and 
George  I.  during  five  of  his  absences  from  Eng- 
land (1719,  1720,  1723,  1725,  1727)  left  lords 
justices  to  represent  him.  Similar  appointments 
were  made  by  Geoi'ge  II.  after  the  death  of  t^ueen 
Caroline :  and  George  IV.  on  his  visit  to  Han- 
over in  1S21  delegated  his  authority  to  nineteen 
guardians,  of  whom  the  Duke  of  York,  heir-pre- 
sumptive, was  one.  During  the  reign  of  Victoria 
the  propriet.y  of  an  appointment  of  lords  justices 
was  twice  considered — on  occasion  of  the  royal 
visit  to  France,  and  in  1845,  when  the  Queen  wjis 
preparing  to  visit  Germany ;  and  on  the  latter 
occasion  an  interesting  discu-ssion  took  i)lace  in 
the  House  of  Lords.  The  view  taken  l>y  Lord 
Chancellor  Lymlhurst  was  that,  although  the  great 
seal  could  not  be  used  out  of  the  realm,  mandates 
of  the  sovereign  given  by  sign-manual  out  of  the 
realm  were  valid,  and  that  it  was  '  in  the  bre.ast 
of  the  sovereign,'  on  going  abroad,  to  aj>iioint 
representatives  or  not,  a.s  ndght  be  <leemed  for  the 
l)ublic  good.  This  debate  practically  settled  the 
question,  and  the  nomination  of  lords  justices  luis 
fallen  into  desuetude.  These  appointments  were 
usually  made  by  lettei-s-patent  under  the  great  .seal, 
but  in  one  or  two  cases  parliamentary  confirmation 
of  the  powers  conferred  by  the  king's  authority 
was  obtained. 

The  power  to  create  peers  has  only  once  been 


380 


JUSTICIARY    COURT 


JUSTINIAN 


delegated — liy  Charles  T.  in  favour  of  Lord  Her- 
bert, afterwards  Earl  of  (;lamorf;an,  in  1044. 

Lords  justices  have  sometimes  heen  appointed  to 
carry  on  the  <;overnment  of  lrelan<l  in  place  of  a 
viceroy:  hut  in  modern  times  this  has  only  heen 
done  durinj;  occasional  alxsences  of  the  lord-lieu- 
tenant, or  in  the  interval  between  the  demise  of 
one  lord-lieutenant  and  the  app.'.intment  of  his 
successor.  These  lords  justices  bavo  usually  been 
the  Primate,  the  Lord  Chancellor,  and  the  Com- 
mander of  the  Forces. 

Lords  Ji.stice.s  of  the  Court  of  Appeal.— 
In  1811  it  w.as  found  tliat  the  work  devolving  on 
Lord  Chancellor  Eldon  in  the  Court  of  Chancery, 
and  at  the  same  time  as  Supreme  Judge  of  Appeal 
in  the  House  of  Lords,  was  too  severe  for  his  strength. 
After  considerable  discussion  it  was  decided  to 
a|ipoint  a  new  judge,  under  the  title  of  vice-chan- 
cellor, to  perform  part  of  his  duties  ;  and  in  1851 
Lord  John  Russell  introduced  into  the  House  of 
Commons  a  hill  for  the  i-eform  of  the  Court  of 
t'liancery.  This  statute  (14  and  15  Vict.  chap.  83) 
transferred  the  entire  jurisdiction  of  the  Lord  Chan- 
cellor as  head  of  the  Court  of  Chancery  to  a  new 
tribunal  called  the  Court  of  Appeal  in  Chancery. 
The  members  of  this  court  were  the  Lord  Chan- 
cellor himself,  and  two  other  judges  who  were 
required  to  be  at  the  date  of  their  appointment 
barristers  of  not  less  than  fifteen  years'  standing, 
took  rank  and  precedence  ne.\t  after  the  Lord 
Chief-baron  of  the  Exchequer,  and  were  styled 
Lords  Justices  of  the  Court  of  Appeal  in  Chan- 
cery. Shortly  afterwards  the  lords  justices  were 
'entrusted  with  the  care  and  custody  of  lunatics 
hy  warrant  iinder  the  Queen's  sign-manual.'  The 
Judicature  Acts  established  a  new  Court  of  Appeal 
(see  AppE.\L),  in  which  there  are  four  ex  iMcin 
members — the  Lord  Chancellor,  the  Lord  CMiief- 
justice,  the  Master  of  the  Rolls,  and  the  President 
of  the  Probate,  Divorce,  and  Admiralty  Division — 
and  five  ordinary  members,  who  are  called  '  lords 
justices'  after  their  predecessors  in  the  old  Court 
of  Appeal  in  Chancery.  The  lords  justices  are 
now  merely  members  of  the  Court  of  Appeal,  and 
have  no  original  jurisdiction  in  the  Chancery 
Division.  Their  jurisdiction  in  lunacy,  however, 
remains  substantially  unaltered  ;  and  by  section 
51  of  the  Judicature  Act  of  1873  they  were 
appointed  additional  judges  of  the  High  Court 
of  Justice,  so  that  they  might  exercise  it  more 
elVectively,  by  the  ai<l  of  all  that  original  juris- 
diction in  Chaiu'cry  which  was  formerly  auxiliary 
to  the  jurisdiction  in  lunacy.  The  lords  justices 
occasionally  sit  as  additional  judges  of  the  High 
Court  of  Justice.  When  acting  in  this  capacity 
they  are  bound  by  the  judgment  of  a  Divisional 
Court,  even  although  they  may  disapprove  of 
it,  and  would  have  reversed  it  in  the  Court  of 
Appeal. 

Justioiary  Conrt,  the  highest  criminal  court 
in  Scotland.  Its  judges  are,  since  188",  the  judges  of 
the  Court  of  Session  ( q.v. ) ;  formerly  there  used  to  he 
hut  seven  justiciary  lords,  five  of  them  a)ipoiiitcd 
by  jiatent.  It  sits  usually  in  Edinburgh,  but  also 
holds  circuit-courts  twice  a  year  in  a  number  of 
towns,  four  times  at  Perth,  Dundee,  and  Aberdeen, 
and  six  timers  in  Gla-sgow,  the  king<lom  being 
ilivided  for  that  purpose  into  three  divisions  or 
circuits.  The  jurisdiction  embraces  all  crimes 
whatever ;  and  it  is  an  appellate  court  as  regards 
inferior  criuunal  tribunals.  Its  decisions  are  linal, 
there  being  no  appeal  to  the  House  of  Lords. 

Justifiable    Homicide  is  the  killing  of  a 

human  being  without  incurring  legal  guilt,  as  where 
a  man  who  has  been  iluly  scuitenced  is  hanged ; 
where  one,  in  self  defence,  necessarily  kills  another 
to  preserve  his  own  life,  &c. 


•Instin.  surnamed  the  Martyr,  one  of  the 
earliest  and  most  distinguished  apologists  of  the 
Christian  church,  w.as  a  n.ative  of  Flavia  Neapolis, 
the  ancient  Sichem,  in  Samaria.  He  was  born 
probably  near  the  year  100  A.I>.  His  father  Priscus 
was  a  heathen,  and  Jvistin  was  educated  in  the 
religion  of  his  father.  He  became  an  ardent 
student  of  the  philosophy  of  his  age,  beginning 
with  the  school  of  the  Stoics,  but  finally  .adhering  to 
that  of  the  Platonists.  His  conversion  to  Chris- 
tianity he  ascribes  in  one  pl.ace  to  the  firmness  of 
the  Cliristian  martvi's,  in  another  to  a  chance  meet- 
ing with  a  venerable  stranger,  Avho  directed  him  to 
the  study  of  the  .Jewish  prophets,  anil  thmugh 
them  to  the  great  Christian  te.acher  whom  they 
foretold.  After  his  conversion  he  retaineil  the  garl) 
of  a  philosopher,  and  .appears  to  have  wandered  from 
pl.ace  to  place,  as  we  find  him  disputing  at  Ephesus 
and  Rome,  if  not  in  other  cities  also.  His 
martyrdom  is  supposed  to  have  taken  ]ilace  some 
time  between  148  and  165,  but  the  story  rests  on 
no  sure  historical  evidence.  The  works  of  Justin, 
although  not  very  voluminous,  are  highly  interest- 
ing and  important.  The  oidy  books  .ascribed  to 
him  with  cert<ainty  are  two  Apoloijies  for  the 
Christians,  the  first  (the  date  is  a  matter  of  cimtro- 
versy,  and  has  heen  placed  .anywhere  between  138 
.and  160), addressed  'to  Antoninus  Pius,'  the  second 
(perhaps  an  appendix  to  the  first)  'to  the  Roman 
senate:'  and  a  Dialnjinc  vitli  Trj/phri  the  Jew 
(date  perhaps  between  15.")  .and  164),  which  profes-ses 
to  be  the  record  of  an  .actual  two  days'  disputation 
held  at  Ephesus.  These  are  extant  in  two  MSS. 
only,  which  agi-ee  very  closely  with  each  other ; 
one  is  at  Paris  (date  1364),  the  other  (date  1541) 
in  the  Phillipps  Library  at  Cheltenham.  The 
Speech  to  the  Greeks  is  po.ssibly  .Justin's  ;  the  other 
works  once  ascribed  to  liim  are  certainly  spurious. 

The  first  edition  of  his  works  is  tliat  of  Hobert  Stephens 
( Pans,  1.051 ).  The  Benedictine  edition  of  Justin,  by 
Mar.an,  appeared  in  1742  ;  and  Otto's — the  best— at  Jena 
(3  vols.  1842-47;  3d  ed.  1871)  it  seqX  There  are  good 
translations  of  Justin  in  the  Library  of  the  Fathers  (1^61 ) 
and  Clarke's  ..'InJc-AVrenc  irtrar^  (1868),  and  a  jopular 
account  in  The  Chrintian  Fathers.  See  also  monographs 
bySeniisch  (P.reslau,  1840-42),  Aubi  (Paris,  1875),  Engel- 
hardt  ( Erlang.  1878),  and  Bishop  Kaye  (newed.  1888):  and 
Donaldson, //««.  of  Christ,  Lit.  and  Doclrim  (vol.  ii.  bSOti). 

Justin*  a  Rom.an  historian  who  fiourished,  in 
all  probability,  in  the  3d  or  4th  century,  .although 
some  assign  him  an  earlier  date.  His  Historiarum 
Philippieeinnn  Libri  XLIV.  is  a  selection,  rather 
than  an  abridgment,  from  the  Historim  Philippicee 
of  Trogus  Pompeius,  a  work  now  lost,  .and  so  called 
from  its  being  in  the  first  inst.ance  a  history  of  the 
Macedonian  monarchy,  but  really  a  kind  of  history 
of  the  world  down  to  the  Roman  conquest  of  the 
E.ast.  There  are  editions  by  Diibner  ( 1831 ),  Ilartwig 
(1860),  and  Riihl  (1886). 

Justin  I.  and  II.    See  Byzantine  Empire. 

Justinian  I>  Fl.avius  Anicius  Justinianus, 
nephew,  on  the  mother's  side,  of  the  Emperor 
Justin,  w.as  born  in  482  or  483  A.I).,  in  the  village 
of  Tauresinm,  in  Illyria.  His  original  mime  was 
Cpranda.  .\lthough  of  obscure  parentage,  the  son 
of  a  Slavonic  pe;vsant,  he  shared  the  success  of  his 
m.aternal  uncle,  Justin,  being  invited  at  an  early 
age  to  Constantinoi)le,  where  he  received  a  careful 
eilucation.  When  his  uncle  assumed  the  purple 
in  518  he  ap])ointed  Justinian  connnamler-in-chief 
of  the  army  of  Asia.  His  t.o-stes,  however,  inclin- 
ing him  rather  to  civic  imrsuits,  he  declined  this 
appointment,  ami  remained  attached  to  the  court 
ot  Constantinople.  In  .521  he  w.as  named  consul, 
.and  during  the  remaining  years  of  the  reign  of  his 
uncle  he  continued  to  exercise  great  inlluence. 
In  5'27  the  Kmperor  .lustin,  by  the  advice  of  the 
senate,  proclaimed  him  his  partner  in  the  empire. 


JUSTINIAN 


381 


Jn.-tiu  smviveil  this  steji  but  four  iiioiilhs,  and 
in  the  same  year  Justinian  \v;us  piDi'laiiiieil  sole 
eni|)eior.  ami  crowned  alonj;  vitli  his  wife,  the 
faiiions  Theodora,  whom,  despite  of  her  more  llian 
diihious  antecedents  ;is  an  actress,  he  luul  raised 
to  the  position  of  his  wife.  Jnstinian,  on  his  acces- 
sion, was  in  his  fortyliftli  year.  His  reif,'n,  which 
extends  over  thirty-eiy;ht  years,  is  the  most  brilliant 
in  the  history  of  the  late  empire.  Althonyh  him- 
self withont  tlie  taste  or  the  capacity  for  military 
command,  he  had  the  jrood  fortune  or  tlie  skill  to 
select  the  ablest  generals  of  the  last  days  of  Itonian 
military  ascendency.  Under  the  direction  of  his 
generals,  and  especially  of  the  celebrated  Narses 
(q.v.)  and  Belisarius  (q.v. ),  his  reign  may  be  said 
to  have  restored  the  Roman  empire,  at  least  in  out- 
want  appearance,  to  its  ancient  limits,  and  to  have 
reunited  the  East  and  West  under  a  single  rule. 
In  his  first  war — that  with  Persia — he  concluded  a 
treaty  by  which  the  crisis  that  had  so  long  threatened 
Wius  at  least  warded  oil';  but  the  rejoicings  which 
celebrated  its  termination  had,  owing  to  a  domestic 
revolution,  almost  proved  fatal  to  the  authority  of 
Justinian  himself.  A  conflict  of  the  so-called  Blue 
and  Green  factions  in  the  circus  in  532  was  but  an 
outburst  of  political  discontent,  which  went  so  far 
a.s  to  elect  a  rival  emperor,  Hypatius.  Justinian 
himself  was  struck  with  dismay,  and  had  made 
prcpaiations  for  flight ;  but  the  vigour  and  deter- 
mination of  Theodora  arrested  the  revolt.  Narses, 
with  a  relentless  hand,  repressed  the  tumults, 
3(1,000  victims  having,  it  is  said,  fallen  in  a  single 
day.  By  the  arms  of  Belisarius,  the  ^'andal  king- 
dom of  Africa  was  re-annexed  to  the  empire  ;  and 
the  same  general,  conjointly  with  Narses,  restored 
the  imperial  authority  in  Kome,  in  Northern  Italy, 
and  in  a  large  portion  of  Spain.  One  of  the  most 
e.xtraordinary,  though  in  the  end  inetl'ective  works 
of  the  reign  of  Justinian  was  the  vast  line  of  forti- 
fications which  he  constructed,  or  renewed  and 
strengthened,  along  the  eastern  and  south-eastern 
frontier  of  his  empire.  These  works  of  defence, 
and  the  construction  of  many  public  buildings  both 
in  his  capital  and  in  other  cities  of  the  empire, 
involved  an  enormous  expenditure,  and  the  liseal 
administration  of  Justinian,  inconsequence,  prcs.sed 
heavily  on  the  ])ublic  resources. 

It  is,  however,  a-s  a  legislator  that  Justinian  has 
gained  his  most  enduring  renowTi.  His  good  for- 
tune in  oljtaining  the  services  of  able  generals  was 
not  greater  tlian  that  which  attended  him  in  the 
field  of  law  and  legislation.  Brilliant  as  were  the 
triumphs  of  Narses  and  Belisarius,  they  were 
indeed  shortlived  in  comparison  with  the  work 
done  by  the  celebrated  Tribonian  (q.v.)  and  his 
coadjutors  in  the  way  of  reforming  and  codifying 
the  law.  Immediately  on  his  acc(wsion  Jns- 
tinian .set  himself  to  collect  and  codify  the  prin- 
cipal imperial  coustitutioiis  or  statutes  enacted 
jjrior  to,  ami  in  fi>rce  at,  the  date  of  his  acces- 
sion. In  this  respect  he  followed  the  example 
set  by  his  predecessor,  Theodosian.  The  code  in 
which  these  cuimtitatioiui  were  collected  was  pulj- 
lislied  in  5'2.S-'2i),  and  it  contained  a  general  pro- 
vision by  which  all  previous  imperial  enactments 
were  repealed  (see  CODK).  But  Justinian's  am- 
bition in  the  matter  of  consolidating  the  laws  went 
n]N(di  further.  Imperial  constitutions  made  up  but 
a  comparatively  small  part  of  the  body  of  the  law. 
The  bulk  i>i  it  (what  might  be  called  the  rtfiniiion 
Ititr)  was  con  Iain  ed  in  the  writings  of  the  ,/«W.v<« — 
i.e.  of  text  wrilei-s  and  c<Miimentat«rs.  Of  these 
writings  there  were  at  this  time  many  hundreds  of 
volumes  in  existence,  and,  owing  to  want  of  agree- 
ment in  the  opinions  of  the  various  writers,  the 
law  was  in  a  state  of  great  uncertainty,  not  to  say 
confusion.  To  remedy  this  evil  Jnstinian  resolved 
upon  the  publication  of  a  single  treati.se  in  w  hich 


the  commentaries  and  other  writings  of  the  jurists 
might  be  digested  and  harmimised.  The  prepara- 
tion of  this  great  work  was  entrusted  to  Tribonian, 
with  the  a.ssistance  of  Tln'ophilus,  a  celebrated 
professor  of  law  at  Berytns  ( moilern  lieyrout),  and 
two  01  her  professors,  and  eleven  advocates,  .'ind  it 
was  completed  in  the  short  jieriod  of  four  years,  ll 
was  iiublished  in  iifty  books  under  the  title 
J)i(/c\ta  <jr  Patiih'ctw  on  31st  December  534. 
While  the  UUjcst  wa-s  in  cour.se  of  ]>rcparalion 
.Instinian  resolved  on  the  composition  of  a  third 
legal  work — viz.  a  systematic  and  elementary 
treatise  on  the  law  which  might  serve  as  a  text- 
book for  the  use  of  students  and  as  an  intro- 
duction to  the  larger  work.  The  |)reparation  of 
this  was  also  entrusted  to  Tribonian  and  his  col- 
leagues, and  having  been  completed  a  few  days 
before  the  Digest,  was  published  in  four  books  on 
the  same  day  (31st  December  534)un<ler  the  title 
of  Institutioncs.  It  is  based  upon  the  Institutes 
of  Gains,  and  is  familiar  to  all  modern  lawyers 
under  the  name  of  "Justinian's  Institutes.'  Mean- 
time, while  both  the  Diffcat  and  the  Institutes 
were  being  prepared,  the  Cwlc  of  529  above  men- 
tioned was  withdiawn  from  circulation  and  re- 
published in  534  with  some  alterations,  and  especi- 
ally with  the  addition  of  fifty  new  constitutions 
(known  as  the  Quimjuagintd  Dceisioncs)  which  had 
in  the  interim  been  pronounced  by  Justinian.  This 
new  edition,  in  twelve  books,  is  known  a.s  the 
Codce  Uepetitic  PrwUctionis,  and  is  the  one  which 
has  cinne  down  to  us,  no  copy  of  the  earlier 
codex  being  extant.  All  these  works  ( Code, 
Digest,  IiistitKtes)  were  written  originally  in  Latin, 
and  all  of  them  were  prepared  with  care  and  skill, 
and  testify  to  the  great  ability  of  Tribonian  and  his 
co-editors.  Upon  the  publication  of  the  Digest 
Justinian  declared  by  a  constitution  that  all  previ- 
ous law  books  and  decisions  were  to  be  held  as 
superseded,  and  it  was  forliidden  to  refer  to  them 
in  the  practice  of  the  courts.  During  the  subse- 
quent years  of  his  reign  Justinian  pronounced  from 
time  to  time  several  new  constitutions  or  laws, 
some  of  them  making  \ery  important  changes  in 
certain  departments  of  the  law.  These  (mostly  in 
Greek)  were  collected  and  published  under  the  title 
of  Novdld'  (i.e.  'the  Novels'  or  'New  Constitu- 
tion'). There  were,  so  far  as  can  be  ascertaineil, 
about  170  of  these  Novels.  The  Institutes,  Digest, 
Code,  and  No\els  together  make  up  what  is  known 
as  the  Corpus  Juris  Cimlis. 

The  character  of  Justinian  has  been  much  can 
vassed,  and  opinions  are  not  agreed  about  it.  I'ro- 
copius.  in  two  separate  works,  has  painted  him  in 
very  ditt'erent  lights.  Making  allowance,  however, 
for  mneh  exaggeration  of  his  abilities  by  con- 
tenqiorary  writers,  it  may  be  said  that  he  contrasts 
favourably  with  most  of  the  emperors,  whether  of 
the  earlier  or  the  later  empire.  If  his  personal 
virtues  be  open  to  doubt  (and  certaiidy  vanity, 
avarice,  and  inconstancy  were  in  no  small  degree 
characteristic  of  him),  he,  on  the  other  hand,  dis- 
l)layed  undoubted  ability  as  a  ruler,  ami  in  the 
main,  just  and  upright  intentions.  He  died  on 
14th  November  olio  at  the  age  of  eighty-three, 
and  in  the  thirty-eighth  year  of  his  reign. 

A  few  words  must  be  said  abimt  the  legislative 
reforms  carried  through  by  Justinian.  He  was  not 
oidy  a  collector  and  codilier  of  the  laws  ;  he  also 
introduced  in  many  ilircctions  the  most  funda- 
mental clianges  into  the  substantive  l;iw  itself. 
The   following;   were  the  most  important   changes  ; 

( 1 )  He  ameliorated  the  condition  of  slaves-  depriv- 
ing their  nnisters  of  the  power  of  pulling  them  to 
death.  He  declared  that  any  one  who  |>nt  a  slave  to 
death  at  his  own  hand  shouhl  be  guilty  of  homicide. 

(2)  He  greatly  revolutionised  the  law  of  intestate 
succession    by  giving  to  eognati  (relatives  on   the 


382 


JUSTINIAN 


JUTE 


mother's  siile )  an  equal  share  with  af/uati  ( rehitives 
on  tlio  father's  siile)  of  the  same  iU'j;ree.  These 
two  changes  in  the  hiw  were  iirobahly  in  a  hirge 
measure  inihiced  by  tlie  circumstances  of  his  l)irth. 
He  made  consitleraUle  changes  in  the  law  of  ilivorce 
anil  as  to  the  property  of  spouses,  and  he  reformed 
civil  procedure  in  the  way  of  makinj;  it  uniform, 
and  introducing  a  system  of  small-debt  courts. 

See  tlie  Life  by  Isamliert  (Paris,  1>S.",G);  by  G.  Body 
(6th  ed.  18SU);  Newiiuui,  Doctrine  of  Justinian  (4th  ed. 
1885);  Roby,  Introduction  to  the  Digest  (1884);  Muir- 
liead,  Roman  Law  (188G). 

Jute   and  Jute    Maiiufaotnres.      Some 

attempts  on  a  small  scale  to  uiili.-.e  jute-tibre  for 
the  manufacture  of  carpets  werenuvle  at  Abingdim, 
in  Oxfoi-dsliiie,  about  the  year  1820  or  soon  after 
it.  But  it  was  at  Dundee,  which  had  long  been 
one  of  the  principal  seats  of  the  linen  industry, 
that,  in  ISS'2  or  1833,  the  spinning  and  weaving  of 
jute  Krst  began  to  give  prrunise  of  commercial 
success.  The  fibre,  then  little  known  in  Europe, 
was  at  first  received  with  sus]iicion,  and  for  some 
years  it  was  slowly  and  somewhat  stealthily  intro- 
duced as  a  te.\tile  material.      By  the  year  1850, 

however,  the 
use  of  jute  had 
become  exten- 
sive, and  since 
then,  owing, 
among  other 
things,  to  the 
improvements 
in  preiiaring 
and  spinning 
machinery,  the 
manufacture  of 
this  libre  has 
rapidly  ex- 
teniled,  and  is 
now  carried  on 
at  Dundee,  the 
chief  seat  of 
the  industry, 
on  a  gigantic 
scale.  Jute 

c  I  o  t  li  f  o  r 
(Ju  n  ny-bags 
(q.v. )  and  fin- 
native  clothing 
has  long  been 
woven  on 
hand-looms  in 
Bengal,  where  the  plants  yielding  the  libre  are 
cultivated.  Since  18'>7  a  number  of  large  jute- 
mills,  lifted  up  with  textile  machinery,  driven  by 
steam-power,  liave  been  erected  in  the  neighbour- 
hood of  Calcutta.  The  comparatively  snuill  cost  at 
which  jute  can  he  raised  and  manufactured  will 
no  doubt  secure  its  ])ermanent  success  as  a  textile 
industry  :  but  the  libre  is  decidedly  inferior  to  tlax 
in  strength  and  esjiecially  in  duraliility. 

.lute  is  obtained  from  the  liarU  of  two  closely- 
allied  species  of  plants  belonghig  to  the  lime-tree 
order  (Tiliaceie).  One  siiecies,  Corchoru.i  mp- 
sii/arix,  is  cultivated  in  central  and  east  Bengal  ; 
the  other,  C.  olitoriiix,  is  grown,  but  to  a  more 
limited  extent,  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Calcutta. 
The  former  grows  from  ri  to  10  feet,  sometimes  even 
to  14  feet,  in  height,  but  tlje  latter  is  rather  a 
smaller  plant.  The  (diief  dillerence  between  the 
two  is  in  the  form  of  the  fruit,  which  in  C.  tap- 
suluris  is  globular,  and  in  C  olitoriiis  much  elon- 
gated. Both  are  annuals  with  yellow  llowei-s, 
and  they  can  be  best  cultivated  <m  a  loamy  soil 
or  upon  one  of  clay  and  sand.  The  higher  lands 
prochu'e  the  lincst  iiu;ilities  of  jute.  Sucli  .as 
IS  grown  upon  nmti-banks  or  upon  submerged 
lands  is  mostly  larger  and   coai-ser.     The  sowing 


Jute  {Corchorus  capsu!aris) : 
a,  floWLT  ;  b,  fruit. 


time,  which  is  regulated  by  the  nature  and  posi- 
tion of  the  soil,  extends  from  March  to  June. 
When  the  plants  Hower,  which  they  do  in  some 
places  in  the  end  of  June,  the  cutting  of  the  crop 
begins,  but  this  is  often  not  done  till  the  fruit 
is  formed.  The  harvest  is  not  entirely  finished  till 
October,  and  it  is  from  late  reaping,  with  the 
plants  in  seed,  that  coarse  jute  is  obtained,  the 
crop  yielding  the  best  fibre  if  cut  during  the  flower- 
ing period. 

The  fibre,  which  is  the  inner  bark,  is  separated 
from  the  stem  by  retting — i.e.  steeping  in  water 
(see  I<'L.\X).  Sometimes  the  jute  is  jilaced  in 
rivers,  but  more  generally  in  tanks  or  stagnant 
pools.  To  prevent  any  risk  of  discoloration  of  the 
fibre  in  the  process  the  jute  stalks  in  sonu'  districts 
are  first  stacked  for  a  few  days  to  allow  the  leaves 
to  decay.  According  to  the  nature  of  the  ^^ater 
used  and  the  character  of  the  crop,  the  period  of 
retting  lasts  from  two  days  to  fully  three  weeks. 
Care  nmst  be  taken  to  stop  the  pi-ocess  as  soon  as 
the  fibre  begins  to  separate  from  the  stem,  other- 
wise it  rapidly  deteriorates.  It  is  believed  that 
retting  weakens  the  fibre,  and  that  if  it  could  be 
separated  horn  the  l>ark  by  some  inex)icnsi\e 
mechanical  process  a  better  (|uality  of  jute  than  it 
is  now  possible  to  obtain  would  be  sent  into  the 
market. 

The  best  qualities  of  jtite  are  of  a  jiale  clear 
yellow  or  buff  colour,  with  a  silky  lustre,  ea-sily 
spun  and  comparatively  strong.  But  there  are 
at  least  half  a  score  of  well  known  commercial 
varieties.  Some  are  bright-ccdourcd,  soft,  and 
strong,  and  such  are  best  for  textile  falirics — 
i.e.  comparatively  soft,  for  all  jute  is  of  a  hard  and 
woody  nature.  Other  kinds  are  coarse  and  strong, 
and  suited  for  making  ro]ies.  One  or  two  varieties 
which  are  of  weak  fibre  .are  siiited  for  making 
jiaper.  One  kind,  which  is  long,  soft,  and  fine, 
but  of  bad  colour,  is  largely  used  for  gunny-hags. 

In  order  to  lessen  the  harsh  an<l  brittle  character 
of  jute  it  is  subjected  to  a  softening  process  on  a 
kind  of  crushing  mangle,  from  cisterns  attached  to 
the  top  of  which  oil  and  water  are  at  the  same 
time  sprinkled  evenly  upon  it.  Formerly  whale- 
oil  w;us  used  for  this  purpose,  but  of  late  years  a 
heavy  paraffin  oil  or  some  similar  mineral  oil  lias 
been  largely  substituted  for  it,  a  clian;;e  which 
caused  a  great  fall  in  the  price  of  whale-oil.  The 
mangle  consists  of  four  horizontal  rows  of  fluted 
rollers,  9  inches  in  diameter,  between  which  the 
jute  passes  in  a  continuous  layer,  entering  at  one 
end  between  the  first  jiair  of  the  two  u]iper  rows, 
and  coming  out  at  the  opposite  eml  between  the 
last  pair  of  the  two  lower  rows.  Besides  sim|ily 
turning  round,  tlie  rollers  have  also  a  slight  lateral 
motion,  so  that  the  jute  is  thoroughly  crushed  or 
nipped.  This  crushing — together  with  the  help  of 
the  oil  and  water — softens  the  fibre,  and  prepares 
it  for  the  spinning  processes. 

Jute  was  formerly,  and  to  a  small  extent 
is  still,  siiun  by  two  distin<'t  iiroces.ses,  called 
'line'  spinning  and  'tow'  siiinning,  which  cor- 
respond to  those  in  use  fen-  Hax.  The  main 
dillerence  between  tlieni  is  that  in  '  line' sjunning 
the  tihre  is  heckled  on  machines  with  heckle- 
stocks  furnished  with  steel  teeth,  which  dress 
and  separate  the  lini;  or  best  p.art  of  the  fibre 
from  tlie  tow,  or  least  valuable  portion.  In  the 
'tow'  spinning  the  fibre  is  first  carded  on  cardiiig- 
engines,  each  of  which  has  a  peculiar  arrangement 
of  revolvin"  cylinders,  armed  with  card  points  or 
iiins  of  steel  wire.  What  may  be  called  the  card- 
ing process  of  spinning  is  no  longer  confined  to 
jute  tow,  but  the  whole  of  the  jute  is  now-,  as  a 
rule,  spun  on  this  system — i.e.  it  is  not  heckled  at 
all.  Jute-fibre  as  obtained  from  the  ]ilant  being 
from  6  to  7  feet  long,  and  often  considerably  nioi-e, 


JUTE 


JUTLAND 


383 


It  reijuires  to  lie  broken  into  leiij^tlis  of  tioiii  I4  to 
IS  inches.  This  is  done  ou  the  machine  calloil  the 
bieakei-caiil,  upon  which  also  the  jute  is  cleaned 
and  the  libres  laid  more  or  less  parallel  by  the 
action  of  the  card  points.  The  jute  leaves  the 
breaker-card  in  the  form  of  a  continuous  lap  or 
sliver,  3  to  4  inches  broad,  and  fifteen  of  these  are 
drawn  out  and  delivered  as  a  single  sliver  by  tlie 
second  carding'  engine,  calleil  the  tiiiislier-card. 
This  attenuation  is  accomplished  by  the  doffing- 
rollers  having  fifteen  times  the  surface  speed  of  the 
feed-rollers. 

The  sliver,  or  rather  slivers,  are  next  taken  to 
the  drawiug-frame,  where  their  fibres  arc  further 
straightened  and  equalised.  The  drawing-frame 
has  feed-rollei's,  travelling  gills  with  steel  teeth, 
and  drawing  and  delivery  rollers.  Here  four  sli\ers 
from  the  finisher-card  are  caught  by  the  feed  or 
retainin«r  rollers,  passed  through  tlie  travelling 
gills,  and  drawn  out  into  one  sliver  by  the  drawing- 
roUei-s,  which,  as  well  a.s  the  delivery-rollers,  move 
at  i\  times  the  speed  of  the  retaining-rollers.  The 
sliver  from  the  drawing-roUei's  is,  besides,  usually 
iloubled  by  passing  two  of  them  between  the 
delivery-rollers.  The  process  is  repeated  on  a 
second  drawing-frame  with  finer  antl  closer  teeth 
than  those  on  the  gills  of  the  first.  The  object  of 
doubling  and  drawing  out  the  slivers  so  frequently 
is  that  the  thick  place  of  one  sliver  may  be  cor- 
rected by  the  thin  place  of  another,  and  also  that 
the  dilierent  kinds  of  jute  may  be  thoroughly 
mixed  Ijoth  as  to  quality  and  colour. 

Roving  is  the  next  operation,  and  the  rovinfj- 
fiamc  in  the  arrangement  of  its  rollers  and  gills  is 
similar  to  the  drawing-frame,  but  in  the  former  the 
parts  are  smaller  and  the  gill-teeth  finer  and  more 
closely  set.  As  the  sliver  on  this  machine,  after 
being  still  further  attenuated  by  drawing-out 
rollers,  requires  to  be  twisted  into  a  loose  thread  or 
Move,'  a  spindle  and  flier  are  provided,  as  well  as  a 
bobbin  upon  which  to  -vrmA  it.  Finally  the  bob- 
bins of  'rove'  are  taken  to  the  sjii/iiiui(/-frainc, 
and  spun  into  yam  upon  the  '  throstle '  principle. 
.See  Spinning.  " 

Jute  fabrics  are  for  the  most  part  woven  of  yam 
retaining  its  natural  colour.  But  for  some  pur- 
poses it  is  bleached,  and  when  used  for  carpets  or 
curtains  it  is  dyed  various  colours.  Although  it 
can  only  be  made  pure  white  with  difficulty,  it 
readily  bleaches  j)ale  enough  to  admit  of  its  Ijeing 
dyed  without  injurj-  even  to  bright  colours.  Dyes 
upon  jute  are,  however,  fugitive  unless  they  are 
dyed  by  a  special  and  expensive  process,  which  is 
only  carried  out  to  a  small  e.xtent  in  practice.  At 
Ihindee  the  ordinary  fabrics  made  of  jute  are 
Hessians,  sackings,  camets,  tarpauling,  and  back- 
ings for  floorcloth.  The  last-named  are  wo\en 
ou  looms  of  extraordinaiy  width  (see  Floor- 
cloth ).  Dyed  carpets,  curtains,  table-coveis,  and 
the  like,  of  tliLs  material,  are  attractive  enough 
in  appearance,  and  carpets  especially  are  largely 
made.  These  are  cheap  but  not  very  durable. 
Millions  of  small,  brightly-dyed  prayer  carpets  for 
.Moslems  are  sent  from  Dundee  to  the  East. 
Fabrics  ma<le  of  jute  are  easily  rotted  by  <lamp, 
and  cannot  be  often  washed  and  dried  like  linen  or 
cotton  goods  without  injuring  them.  This  fault  of 
jute  s(«>n  betrays  itself  if  it  is  mi.xed  with  tlax  f(U- 
towelling.  Jute,  from  its  somewhat  glo.-<sy  lustre, 
is  occasionally  used  to  sophisticate  silk  ;  and  it  has 
been  employed  to  some  extent  to  make  wigs  and 
other  ai'ticles  in  imitation  of  those  made  of  human 
hair,  chiefly  for  theatrical  purjioses. 

The  following  calculation  made  by  Indian  com- 
mercial men  in  ISS."?,  and  (juoted  in  \Vatt's  Dktio)!- 
ury  of  Indian  Products,  gives  an  idea  of  the  extent 
of  the  jute  trade  in  different  [larts  of  the  world. 
Of  raw  jute  to  supply  iia  factones  per  week,  Scot- 


land (Dundee)  required  fully  18,400  bales,  England 
ISliO  bales,  and  Ireland  730  bales:  total  for  the 
I'nitcd  Kingdom,  21, (KM)  bales.  France  requireil 
weeklj'  4000  bales,  Germany  2170  bales,  and  other 
European  countries  between  them  2000  and  3000 
bales.  The  annual  cousumpt  in  all  Europe  w;is 
then  estimated  at  321,400  tons,  or  1,SOO,000  bales. 
There  were  actually  shipped  in  the  year  1SS2-S3 
to  Europe  2,364,400  bales,  l)ut  .some  may  have 
been  re-shipped.  At  that  time  the  twenty-two 
Indian  factories  consumed  yearly  107,000  tons,  and 
other  countries  not  included  above  (chielly  America 
and  Australia)  required  another  107,000  tons.  Tlie 
total  annual  consumpt  of  raw  jute  in  the  woiid  at 
that  time  was  thus  about  o3o,400  tons,  the  value  of 
which  may  be  roundly  taken  at  £0,iiOO,000.  In 
1S92-9S  the  jute  annually  shipped  Iruni  Calcutta 
llui-luated  from  2,216,000"bales  to  2,990,000  bales  ; 
and  the  price  varied  from  £10  per  ton  to  £13,  15s. 
In  1S96,  one  of  the  years  when  imports  were 
greatest,  the  total  import  was  340,649  ions,  value 
£4,167,492;  while  of  jute  yarn  there  were  ex- 
ported from  the  United  Kingdom  37,224,300  lb., 
value  £378,356,  and  of  jute  woven  yoods,  257,146,200 
yards,  value  £2,269,692.  Of  British  exports,  three- 
fourths  go  to  the  United  States,  and  an  incrciiiing 
quantity  to  Germany.  Of  7190  textile  manufac- 
tories in  the  United  Kingdom  in  1S90,  only  116 
were  jute-mills. 

Duuilee  ha^  no  moniii>o!y  :  Indian  rivaliy  has 
become  fornudable.  The  number  of  Indian 
steam  factories,  mostly  near  Calcutta,  was,  in 
1S9U,  twenty-four,  giving  employment  to  49,000 
persons,  and  using  up  annually  143,450  tons  of  jute. 
From  a  comparative  statement  of  the  wages  |iaid 
to  six  classes  of  work-people  in  a  Dundee  and  in  a 
Calcutta  jute-mill,  published  in  1SS4,  it  appears 
that  in  Scotland  they  earn  from  one-half  to  two- 
thirds  more  than  they  do  in  India,  witli  the  exceji- 
tion  of  wea\ei'S,  >\ hose  pay  is  more  nearly  equal  in 
the  two  countries,  and  of  unskilled  labonrei-s,  whose 
wages  are  \ery  small  in  the  East.  But  it  is  said 
that  to  produce  a  finished  piece  of  jute  fabric  seven 
persons  in  India  are  required  to  do  as  much  as 
three  at  home.  The  classes  of  goods  manufactured 
are,  however,  not  exactly  the  same  in  both 
countries,  and  for  this,  as  well  as  for  other  reasons, 
the  com])arison  cannot  be  very  accurately  made. 

The  value  of  jute  manufactures  (yarns  and  woven 
fabrics)  exported  from  the  United  Kingdom  in 
1894  was  £2,423.913.  The  United  States  imiiort 
annually  some  20,000  tons  of  jute,  besides  70,000 
or  80,000  tons  of  jule-bults  (lower  part  of  stem 
and  upper  part  of  roots).  The  States  may  be  said 
to  jiay  §10,000,000  annually  for  imported  jiite 
and  jirte  goods,  though  the' plant  is  now  being 
grown  successfully  in  the  southern  states,  and 
though  machinery  is  being  developed  with  the  view 
of  rendering  America  indepemlent  of  foreign  jute. 

•Jiiterbog,  or  Juterbogk,  a  town  in  the 
Prussian  province  of  Brandenburg,  39  miles  by 
rail  SSW.  of  Berlin.  Cloth,  cigare,  and  wine  are 
manufactured.  Pop.  6797.  Near  Jiiterbog  is  Den- 
newitz,  where  the  Prussians  under  Biilow  defeated 
the  French  under  Ney  and  Oudinot,  September  G, 
1813. 

Jutland  (Dan.  Jijlliind),  the  <mly  consiilerable 
jieninsula  of  Europe  that  ])oints  directly  north,  has 
since  early  in  the  10th  century  formed  a  portion  of 
the  kingdom  of  Denmark  'q.v.).  Area,  9754  s(]. 
m.  ;  pop.  (1800)  942,120.  Jutland  is  said  to  have 
been  inhabited  in  the  earliest  times  by  the 
Cinibri  (q.v.):  hence  it  was  called  the  Cimbrian 
Peninsula  or  Chersonesus.  In  the  5th  century  it 
was  inhabiteil  by  the  Jules,  who  took  \<;\\i  m  the 
exiiedilion  of  the  Sa.\ons  to  England.  The  .Jules 
were  succeeded  by  the  Danes,  who,  tmder  the  name 


384 


JUVENAL 


JUXON 


of  Normans  (Noitlimeii),  frequently  desolated  the 
coast  of  Geiniany  ami  France. 

Jlireiiul.  Deciniiis  Junius  Juvenalis  was  born 
almut  55  A.D.  at  Aquinum,  in  the  Volscian 
country,  wliere  his  fatlier,  a  free  lionian  citizen, 
possessed  an  estate.  He  received  the  usual  rhetori- 
cal education  in  Rome,  and  became  the  friend  of 
Martial,  ami  at  loa.st  the  acquaintance  of  Statins 
and  l^hiintilian.  Probably  under  Titus,  or  early  in 
Domitian's  rcijrn,  he  served  as  tribune  in  the  army, 
and  in  his  native  town  filled  the  important  posts 
of  censor  and  Hamcn  of  the  deihcd  Vespasian.  We 
kno«'  from  an  inscription  ajiparently  written  by 
himself  that  he  was  in  Britain  and  returned  home 
in  safety,  but  there  is  no  evidence  that  he  was 
there  in  a  military  capacity.  That  he  was  in 
I'jjpcr  Egypt  is  certain,  but  that  he  was  lianished 
thither  by  Hadrian  is  merely  a  more  plausible  con- 
jecture than  that  he  died  an  octogenarian  under 
Antoninus  Pius. 

His  interest  for  posterity  depends  altogether  on 
his  sixteen  satires,  still  extant,  which  occujiy 
the  very  first  rank  in  satirical  literature,  and  are 
of  priceless  value  as  pictures  of  the  Koman  life 
of  the  Empire.  The  order  in  which  these  com- 
positions follow  each  other  in  the  earliest  manu- 
scripts and  latest  editions  seems  to  have  been  that 
in  which  they  «ere  originally  published.  They 
were  grouped  probably  by  Juvenal  himself  into  five 
books,  and  these  were  gnen  to  the  Avorld  at  inter- 
vals, during  which  he  seems  to  have  undergone  not- 
able changes  of  mood.  The  first  book  contains  the 
first  five  satires,  and  saw  the  light  in  the  early  years 
of  Trajan's  government.  It  presents  Juvenal's 
poAvers  at  their  highest  and  most  sustained  pitch, 
fresh  from  living  experience  of  Domitian's  brutalis- 
ing  sway,  the  forms  and  effects  of  which  constitute 
their  main  theme.  Book  second  consists  of  one 
satire,  the  sixth,  levelled  at  females  in  general,  of 
whom,  in  their  degraded,  uusexed  condition  under 
the  empire,  he  draws  a  well-nigh  savage  picture, 
unrelieved  by  any  touch  of  that  chivalry  which 
belongs  to  a  later  and  christianised  civilisation. 
By  many  (chielly  French  ami  Italian)  critics  it  is 
reckoned  his  chcf-d'nttnr.  It  probably  ap|ieared  a 
little  before  the  death  of  Trajan.  The  third  book 
was  published  soon  after  Hadrian's  accession,  and 
comprises  the  seventh,  eighth,  and  ninth  satires. 
Interwoven  with  passages  of  earlier  composition 
than  that  date,  the.se  touch,  without  uniformly 
nuiintaining,  the  high  level  of  the  preceding  ones. 
The  fourth  hook,  also  publislied  under  Hadrian,  is 
maile  ui)of  the  tenth,  eleventh,  and  twelfth  satires, 
and  in  the  best  of  them,  the  tenth,  on  the  'Vanity 
of  Human  Wishes,'  notwithstanding  its  line  de- 
clamatory swing  and  its  characteristic  niisojjyny, 
theie  is  a  softer  spirit,  as  of  the  ' years  that  bring 
the  philosoi>hic  mind,'  or  at  least"tem|>er  tlie  im- 
Jietuosity  of  earlier  manhood.  The  fifth  book, 
again  given  to  the  world  in  Hadrian's  time,  con- 
tains satires  thirteen,  fourteen,  fifteen,  and  sixteen, 
and  even  more  than  its  predecessor  betrays  the 
softening  intluence  of  age,  while  distinctly  the  least 
vigorous  and  effective  of  the  series. 

Juvenal  and  Horace  respectively  reiiresent  the 
two  schools  into  which  satire  Inis  always  been 
divided;  and  from  one  or  other  of  tliem  every 
classical  satirist  of  modern  Kurope  derives  his 
descent.  As  Horace  is  the  .satirist  of  Kidicule, 
so  Juvenal  is  the  satirist  of  Indignation,     .luvenal  i 


is  not  a  man  of  the  world  so  much  as  a  reformer, 
and  he  plays  in  K(uiian  literature  a  jiart  corre- 
sponding to  that  of  the  pro)diets  under  the  Jewish 
dispensation.  He  uses  satire  not  as  a  hranch  of 
comedy,  which  it  was  to  Horace,  hut  as  an  engine 
for  attacking  the  brutalities  of  tyranny,  the  cor- 
rujitions  of  life  and  taste,  the  crimes,  the  follies, 
and  the  frenzies  of  a  degenerate  society.  He  has 
great  humour  of  a  scornful,  austere,  but  singularlv 
l)ungent  kind,  and  many  noble  Ihishes  of  a  higli 
moral  poetry.  It  should  be  noted  that  the  old 
lioiiKDi  genius— ii-s  distinct  fnun  the  more  cosmo- 
politan kind  of  talent  formed  by  Creek  culture— is 
|>lainly  discernible  in  Juvenal.  "  He  is  as  national 
as  the  English  Horarth,  who  jierhajis  gives  a 
better  image  of  his  kind  and  character  of  faculty 
than  any  single  English  bumorist  or  moralist  that 
we  could  name.  Juvenal  has  been  better  trans- 
lated in  our  literature  than  almost  any  other  of  the 
ancients.  Dryden's  versions  of  five  of  liis  satires 
are  amongst  the  best  things  he  ever  did.  l)r 
Johnson  imitated  two  of  the  most  famous  in  his 
Loiichii  and  I'aniti/  of  Hiiiiuiii  W i sites  :  and  the 
version  of  the  whole  of  them  by  Gifl'ord  is  full  of 
power  and  character. 

The  latest  and  best  editions  of  Juvenal  are  those  of  < ). 
,Tahn  (2d  ed.  by  Bucheler,  1886),  A.  M'eidner  ( Leip. 
1889),  and  J.  E.  B.  Mayor  ( Loud.  1878-86).  Other  anno- 
tated editions  are  those  of  Macleane,  Lewis  (with  a 
hteral  prose  translation ),  and  Pearson  and  Strong. 

Juvenile  Offender.**.    In  the  eye  of  the  law 

persons  are  considered  capable  of  comndtting  crime 
when  of  the  age  of  seven,  and  are  punishable  like 
other  persons.  But  in  England  and  Ireland,  when 
ever  a  person  under  the  age  of  sixteen  is  convicted 
and  sentenced  to  be  imprisoned,  the  court  or  magis- 
trates may  also  sentence  him  to  be  sent  to  a  refor- 
matory scliool  for  not  less  than  two  or  more  than 
five  years.  Such  sentence,  however,  cannot  be 
passed  upon  an  offender  under  ten  years  of  age, 
unless  his  offence  is  by  law  punishable  with  penal 
servitude  or  imprisonment,  or  unless  the  sentence 
come  from  a  superior  court,  such  as  a  court  of 
assize  or  of  (pmrter  ses.sion.s.  Children  who  ha\e 
not  yet  committed  crime,  but  are  in  a  vagrant  and 
neglected  state,  may  also  be  sent  to  an  industrial 
school. 

.Inxon.  AVlLLI.\M,  one  of  the  figures  on  the  liLst 
'memorable  scene'  of  Charles  I.,  was  horn  at 
Chichester  in  1582.  From  Merchant  Tayloi-s' 
School  he  passed  to  St  Jidin's  College,  O.xford, 
and  succeeded  Laud  lus  its  president  in  IG'21. 
Already  he  hail  held  livings  at  St  (iiles,  Oxford, 
and  Somerton  in  Oxfordshire,  and  through  Laud's 
inHuence  he  became  successively  dean  of  Worcester, 
prel)endary  of  Chichester,  dean  of  the  Chapel  Itoyal, 
and  Bisliiip  cif  London.  In  1685  also  he  was  made 
Lord  High  Treasurer— 'a  dignity,'  Laud  writes 
proudly,  '  htdd  by  no  churchman  since  Henry  VII.  s 
time.'  In  Cliarles's  vacill.ition  about  thefate  of 
Strafford,  Juxon  advised  him  to  relu.se  his  a-ssent 
to  the  bill,  'seeing  that  he  knew  his  lordship  to  be 
innocent.'  He  ministered  to  the  king  in  his  bust 
moments,  and  it  was  into  his  hands  that  Charle-s 
delivered  his  George  with  the  word  'Kemember.' 
During  the  Commonwealth  Juxon  amused  hiuLseif 
with  his  ]iack  of  hounds  at  liis  country-liou.se  in 
<;loucestershire,  and  four  months  after  the  Bestora- 
tion  was  appointed  .Vn-hlpishop  of  Canterbury.  He 
dieil  at  Lamheth,  -tth  .lune  1663. 


K 


i^R' 

4p'HitfH^ii^'L^ 

I^^K 

fei^^^^i 

is  the  eleventh  letter  in  our 
alplialiet.  Tlie  syiiihol  \v;is  de- 
lived  from  tlie  E''yptian  hieio- 
ilyphic  picture  ot  a  bowl  (see 
Alphabkt).  When  taken  over 
by  the  I'lia'niciaus  the  letter 
was  called  J.tiji/i,  'the  hand,' 
the  two  slanting  strokes  being 
probably  sui)posed  to  repre- 
sent the  forefinger  and  the  thumb.  With  little 
change  of  form  or  name  it  was  transmitted  to 
Greece  a-s  kappa,  and  then  with  the  other  Greek 
lettei-3  it  passed  into  the  primitive  alphabet  of 
Italy,  where  it  was  retained  by  the  L  nibrians 
and  the  Oscans,  but  ultimately  discarded  by  the 
Etruscans  and  the  Komans.  That  it  belonged  ori- 
ginally to  the  Latin  alphabet  is  proved  by  its  occur- 
rence in  two  or  three  of  the  earliest  Latin  inscrip- 
tions, and  by  its  retention  in  certain  conventional 
archaic  abbreviations,  such  as  KAL  for  valcndce. 
It  was  not  used  in  classical  Latin,  since  after  the 
inventiim  of  G  (see  G)  it  was  supertluous,  the  letter 
C  ha\  in-'  acquiied  jjrecLsely  the  same  sound,  that 
of  the  sharp  guttural  mute,  which  is  formed  by 
raising  the  tongue  to  the  back  of  the  palate. 
Hence  this  sound  came  to  be  denoted  by  C  in 
the  Latin  alphabet  and  in  all  the  alphabets  derived 
directly  from  it,  such  ;us  Italian,  Erench,  and 
Spanish  ;  while  the  symbol  k  was  retained  in  the 
alphabets  which  were  directly  or  remotely  influ- 
enced by-  the  Greek,  such  iis  Coptic,  Russian, 
Wallachian,  Servian,  Runic,  Gothic,  and  German. 
Thus  in  French  the  letter  k  is  only  used  in  modern 
loan-words,  such  as  kepi,  or  lulumctix  :  while  iu 
German  c  is  confined,  for  the  most  part,  to  words 
derived  from  Latin  or  French,  such  as  criminal, 
civil,  ronsul,  or  caital. 

In  England,  where  the  two  influences  met  and 
encountered  each  other,  the  usage  is  conflicting. 
In  the  southern  or  Saxon  shires,  into  which  the 
alphabet  wa.s  introduced  liy  Roman  monks,  c  was 
at  first  universal,  A'  being  unknown  before  the  l'2th 
century.  In  the  northern  or  Anglian  shires,  which 
pos.sessed  the  runes,  a  script  ultimately  of  Greek 
origin  (see  RfNES),  /,:  is  found  in  very  early 
MSS.,  such  as  the  Rush  worth  (jospels.  To  the 
Xortliumbrian  missionaries,  to  whom  the  conver- 
sion of  Germany  is  chietly  due,  may  be  attributed 
the  use  of  /.instead  of  (•  in  the  German  alphabet. 
After  the  Norman  comiuest  of  England  the  pho- 
netic power  of  c  became  uncertain,  owing  to  the 
introduction  of  its  French  value  of  .v  in  such  words 
aarili/,  and  hence  in  the  12th  and  following  cen- 
turies the  use  of  k  began  to  spread  from  the 
northern  counties  to  the  east  midlamls,  and  then 
to  East  Anglia,  being  employed  in  the  first  instance 
before  the  vowels  e  and  /,  where  the  value  of  c.  Wius 
most  ambiguous.  Hence  in  Middle  English  we 
find  k  in  the  words  Kcnl,  keen,  kith,  kin,  king, 
keep,  and  keii ;  and  al.so  before  n  in  the  wortls  knave, 
knee,  kneiul,  know,  knot,  and  kniijht,  in  all  of 
which  c  had  formerly  been  employed.  It  is  also 
u.sed  in  words  of  Sciindinavian,  Dutch,  or  northern 
origin,  such  iis  ken,  keij,  ktd,  kill,  kilt,  kindle,  kirk, 
kippered,  kink,  and  in  such  modern  loan -words  an 
Koran,  kanijaruo,  and  kaleidoscope. 
2S.-. 


But  on  the 


whole  the  usage  in  English  accords  nmre  with 
Latin  and  French  than  with  Greek,  German,  and 
Russian. 

li-,  a  Himalayan  peak.     See  GODWIN- AuSTEN. 

Hsiilbil  (.-Vrab.,  'square  house'),  the  name  of  an 
oblinig  stone  building  within  the  great  moS(iue  of 
Mecca.     See  Mecca. 

Kaaillil,  a  large  species  of  Antelope  ( q.  v. ). 

Kabbala.    See  Cabbala. 

Kabul,  or  C.VBUL  (the  Kabura  of  Ptolemy),  a 
\ery  ancient  town  which  has  figured  prominently  in 
modern  history.  It  was  taken  in  1394  by  Tamer- 
lane, and  again  in  1739  by  Nadir  Shah,  wliose 
son  Ahmed  Khan  founded  the  Durani  dyna-sty. 
Timur  made  Kabul  the  capital  of  Afghanistan  in 
1774.  It  is  memorable  for  the  events  which  led  to 
the  terrible  disaster  of  1S42  (see  Afgha>'Ista.n  ). 
It  was  taken  in  September  of  that  year  by  Pollock, 
and  its  bazaar  was  destroyed  ;  after  which  it  re- 
mained unvisited  by  Europeans  till  the  year  1879, 
when  Sir  Louis  Cavagnari  was  appointed  Resident. 
The  story  of  his  murder  is  still  recent  history.  On 
its  capture  by  Sir  Frederick  Roberts  the  city  was 
again  held  by  a  British  force  for  a  time  ;  but  after 
the  instalment  of  the  Amir  Abdur  Rahman  on  the 
throne,  the  British  forces  again  evacuated  Afghani- 
stan in  August  1S80. 

Kabul  is  charmingly  situated  at  the  foot  of  the 
Takht-i-Shah  and  Asmai  hills  which  separate  it 
from  the  Chardeh  plain.  On  a  s])ur  of  the.se  hills 
south  of  the  city  is  the  fortress  of  Bala  Hissar  (or 
'upper  fort),  once  an  important  stronghold,  but 
now  abandoned.  The  city,  which  is  composeil 
almost  entirely  of  mud-built  buildings  with  Hat 
roofs,  is  traversed  by  the  main  bazaar,  the  streets 
of  which  diverge  from  the  central  square  and  divide 
the  city  into  four  cjuarters.  The  Kabul  bazaar 
rivals  that  of  Kandahar,  and  includes  every  variety 
of  trade.  Carpets,  camel-hair  cloth,  and  skins  are 
perhaps  the  chief  sjiecialities ;  but  there  are  now 
many  shops  in  which  European  goods  can  be 
purchased,  and  Kabul  is  rapidly  a.ssuming  the 
general  character  of  an  Indian  mart.  Roads  have 
been  improved  and  wheel  traffic  introduceil,  cnlti\a 
tion  has  been  much  developed,  and  new  buildings 
abided  which  greatly  improve  the  city.  Comnnini- 
ciition  with  India  is  now  regular  and  constant, 
there  is  a  growing  trade  with  central  Asia,  and 
the  Afglian  policy  of  e.\chisivene.ss  towards 
strangers  has  been  greatly  modified.  The  canton- 
ment of  Sherpur,  situated  about  a  mile  north  of 
the  Bala  His.sar,  where  the  British  troops  were 
beleaguered  in  1880,  is  maintained  in  good  repair. 
Close  to  it  are  still  to  be  traced  Ihi!  outlines  of 
the  old  British  entrenchment  of  184(1.  At  the 
western  extremity  of  the  Benuira  ridge,  which 
flanks  Slier|iur  oti  the  north,  is  the  English 
cemetery,  now  protected  by  a  high  wall  ami  kept 
in  fairly  good  order.  Kabul  is  celelnated  for  its 
fruit,  its  grapes  and  melons  being  especially 
famou.s.  The  elevation  of  the  plain  above  sea- 
level  is  about  (iO()0  feet,  which  ensures  a  delight- 
ful temperature  and  fine  climate  iu  summer,  but 
is  sometimes  severely  cold  in  winter,  when  j-now 
occasionally  covers   the  ground   to   the   depth   nt 


386 


KABYLES 


KAFFIRS 


several  feet,  and  cnminunicatioii  is  frequently 
inlinruiiled.  'I'lie  jKipnlatidn  of  llie  oily  proliably 
iloos  not  exceed  7U,0UU,  and  it  is  eoMijjosed  of 
all  the  varied  elements  of  Afghan  nationality. 
Duranis  (or  true  Afghans),  (Jliilzais,  Hazaras, 
Tajiks,  and  Ki/.zilliashes  form  the  chief  Mohani- 
niedan  ])art  of  the  iiojiulation,  whilst  Hindus 
are  nuinerons  in  one  quarter  of  the  city,  and  a 
few  .lews  are  aUo  to  he  found. 

The  Kaiu'L  Kiveu  rises  at  Sar-i-Chashnia,  near 
the  source  of  the  Ilelniund,  flows  through  Kabul 
city,  and,  mainly  liy  a  long  series  of  preeiintous 
defiles,  finally  reaches  the  Indus  at  Attok.  The 
length  of  its  course  (generally  south-easterly)  is 
about  270  miles,  and  for  the  most  part  its  volume 
is  insiguilicant,  altliougli  it  sometimes  Hoods  the 
country  about  Naoshera. 

Kabyles.  a  branch  of  the  great  Berber  race  of 
Nortli  Africa.     See   Ukiujehs  ;  also  Al(ieri.\,  and 

TlNIS. 

Uadink.  an  island  nil'  the  S.  coast  of  Alaska, 
separated  from  the  mainland  by  Alaska  Strait.  It 
is  mountainous  and  heavily  wooded,  contains  good 
harbours,  and  has  an  area  of  34G.5  sq.  ni.  It  is 
inhabitecl  by  a  tribe  of  Eskimos,  engaged  in  the 
s.almon-hshery,  and  has  a  pop.  of  1500. 

Kspiiipeviser.  See  Denmark  (Literature). 
Kaf,    the    mountain    which    in    Mohammedan 

logrnd  surrounds  the  world. 

Kaffn.  or  Feodosia,  a  seaport  in  the  Russian 
government  of  Taurida,  on  a  bay  on  the  east  side 
of  the  Crimea,  62  miles  E.  by  N.  of  Simferopol. 
It  is  defended  by  walls  and  a  citadel,  and  con- 
tains the  ruined  palace  of  the  Khans  of  tlie  Crimea 
anil  a  Greek  cathedral.  Near  by  is  an  Armenian 
monastery  ( 1442 ).  Soap  and  caviare,  camel-hair 
carpets,  and  shec|iskin  rogs  are  manufactured ;  and 
here  is  the  only  oyster  fishery  in  Russia.  The 
h.'irbour  is  safe  an<l  spacious,  but  there  is  com- 
paratively little  sliipping.  Pop.  (1S91)  10,7%.— 
The  ancient  Tlieodosia  or  Feodosia  was  a  ilourisli- 
ing  colony  of  the  Milesians  ;  in  the  1.3th  century 
the  Genoese  founded  here  a  successful  trade-depot, 
which  they  called  Kafi'a.  It  fell  to  the  Turks  in 
147.5,  anil  to  the  Russians  in  1792. 

Kaffir  Bread,  a  name  ^civen  to  several  South 
African  specii's  of  Encephalartos,  which,  like 
many  othei-s  of  their  order  (Cycadacea",  q.v.),  have 
mucli  starch  in  their  stems,  and  atl'ord  a  kind  of 
sago  and  a  not  unnutritious  bread. 

Kaffir  t'orii.    See  Duuha. 

Kaffirs  (also  spelt  Kafirs  and  Caffres),  a 
well-marked  division  of  the  Bantu  family  of 
the  Ni^gro  race,  inhabiting  the  districts  now 
known  as  Swaziland,  Zululand,  the  South  African 
Republic,  Orange  Free  State,  Natal,  the  Cape 
Colony  dependency  of  Pondoland.  (Jriqualand 
East,  Tembuland,  and  Transkei.  Tliey  embrace 
two  main  divisions,  the  Zulus  (q.v.)  and  the 
Kallirs  proper.  Thi!  word  'Kaftir'  is  a  corrupt 
form  of  the  Arab  '  ICafir,'  meaning  'unbeliever,' 
and  was  borrowed  finm  the  .\frican  Mohammedans 
by  the  Portuguese,  and  from  them  by  the  Dutch 
and  English.  The  Kaflirs  projier  never  at  any 
time  formi'd  one  united  race,  out  have  always  been 
splil  uj)  inio  a  numlier  of  tribes,  tlie  most  influen- 
tial of^  which  have  been  the  Ama  Temlm,  tlie 
.■\ma-Xos,'i,  (ie|iresented  by  the  (icalekas  and  the 
(laikas),  and  the  .\ma-M|iondo.  Of  these  the  first 
named  are  the  tribe  of  royal  blood,  though  the 
greatest  jiower  has  always  been  in  the  hands  of 
the  Gcalcka  chief.  'I'he  Kaffirs  are  a  fine,  stalwart 
race  of  men,  well  made,  muscular,  and  tall.  Their 
skin  varies  in  colour  from  light  brown  to  sepia 
black.  Tlie  racial  diaracteristics  depart  more  and 
more  from  the  strict  Negro  tyjio  the  farther  the 


tribe  lies  to  the  south.  Yet  in  all  the  nose  is 
broad,  the  lips  thick,  and  the  hair  woolly  ;  but  it 
does  not  grow  in  tufts,  as  is  generally  asserted. 
They  are  fond  of  decorating  their  jiersons  with 
beads,  .shells,  and  featbeis,  and  they  ]uotect  their 
skins  from  the  sun  by  rubbing  them  with  fat  and 
red  clay,  which  makes  them  look  like  poli>hcd 
bronze.  The  women,  upon  whom  devolves  the  hard 
labour  of  cult iv;iting  the  fields,  are  individually  of 
inferior  physiipie  to  the  men.  The  jirincipal  article 
of  dress  is  a  tanned  ox-skin  ;  but  for  this  many  have 
within  recent  years  substituted  a  blanket.  '  They 
live  in  beehive-shaped  huts,  grouiied  in  kraals  or 
villages.  These  huts  are  formed  of  strong  wicker- 
work  frames  thatched  with  reeds  and  grass,  the 
largest  about  25  feet  in  diameter  and  7  or  8  feet 
high  in  the  centre.  They  are  a  pastoral  peiqile, 
the  chief  occupations  of  the  men  being  stock- 
breeding  and  hunting  ;  but  in  quite  recent  times  the 
cultivation  of  the  soil  has  begun  to  extend  amongst 
them.  The  care  of  cattle  is  the  most  honourable 
em]doyment,  and  belongs  entirely  to  men.  Tliey 
formerly  worked  in  both  iron  .ind  rojiper,  and  were 
not  unskilful  in  pottery  and  wood woru.  The  prin. 
cipal  articles  of  food  are  milk,  maize,  and  millet. 
Youths  are  circumcised  at  fifteen  or  sixteen,  living 
thereafter  for  a  couple  of  months  by  Iheniselvcs  ; 
the  entrance  into  womanhood  is  marked  by  the 
ntdii/iiiie,  a  dancing  festival  closing  a.  jieriod  of 
seclusion.  They  practise  polygamy,  but  tlie  wives 
are  not  of  equal  rank,  and  cannot  belong  to  the 
same  tribal  name  as  the  husliand.  The  custom 
known  as  nkiililoiiijM  prohibits  females  from  jiro- 
nouncing  the  names  of  any  of  their  husband's  male 
relatives  in  the  ascending  line,  or  any  words 
whatever  in  which  the  princi]ial  syllables  of  such 
names  occur — a  usage  which  leads  to  the  women 
using  different  words  from  the  men  almost  to  the 
extent  of  a  diflerent  dialect.  The  three  clicks  of 
the  Ama-Xosa,  usually  represented  by  the  sujicr- 
tluous  letters,  c,  q,  and  .t,  are  easily  sounded  .sejiar- 
ately  by  Europeans,  but  are  insurniomitably  difficult 
to  the  adult  in  combination.  The  rcdigious  in- 
stinct has  never  been  very  stnmglj'  ileveloped 
amongst  this  peiqde,  and  their  rites  consist  merely 
in  sacrifices  to  a]ipease  the  malignant  spirits  on 
every  hand.  Their  suiueme  being,  Qaniata,  is 
iniliU'erent  toman,  and  is  seldom  invoked  in  prayer. 
Snakes  are  treated  with  great  respect,  being 
regarded  as  a  favourite  form  assumed  liy  ancestral 
s]iirits.  The  belief  in  witchcraft  is  deeply  rooted, 
and  the  witch-doctor  is  generally  a  person  of  great 
iiilluence  in  the  tribe.  The  original  fine  moral 
ipialities  of  the  Kallirs— hospitality,  honesty,  and 
truthfulness  —  have  been  greatly  contaminated 
through  contact  with  vicious  Europeans.  At  the 
same  tinu^  Christian  missions  have  made  consider- 
able progress,  and  the  well-known  unsectarian 
mission  settli'inent  of  Lovedale  (o]icned  1S4I  ),  so 
•'enerously  supported  by  the  Free  Church  of  Scot- 
land, with  its  oflshoot,  lilytliswood,  120  miles 
distant,  in  the  Transkei,  has  already  bnnight  thou- 
sands of  natives  within  the  range  of  its  influence. 
The  Kallirs  have  ever  been  notable  for  their 
bravery.  In  war  they  arm  themselves  with  oxhide 
shields,  .about  5  feet  long,  wooden  clubs  with  heavy 
heads,  .•mil  assegai.s.  Politically  they  are  organised 
in  a  number  of  tribes,  each  subject  to  a  heredi- 
tary chief,  whose  jiower  is  supreme.  Yet  one 
chief  was  recognised  as  ]iaramount  of  all  the  tribes. 
Piirtly  owing  to  the  war-loving  proiiensities  of 
the  Kallirs,  and  partly  to  their  cattlelifting  raids 
and  disputes  with  the  cidonists  about  cattle,  Kaffir 
wars  have  been  frequent.  In  1780  the  Great  Fish 
River  was  declared  the  boundary  of  Cajie  Colony 
to  the  east,  but  the  Kaffir  incursions  became  .--o 
troublesome  that  in  ISIO  11  they  had  to  be  driven 
back   beliiml   the   Fish   River  by   force  of    arms. 


KAFIRISTAN 


KAKAPO 


387 


After  ;i  siiiiilav  little  war,  nmlertakcii  for  a  similar 
reasiiii,  in  ISli),  iluriii^  which  the  Kaliirs  made  an 
unsuccessful  attack  upon  Graham's  Town,  the 
houuilary  w;ls  ailvaiiced  eastwards  to  the  Kat 
Ki\er.  But  i)eace  «;us  constantly  heinj;  broken. 
In  1,S34  the  lirst  of  the  <,'reater  Kaliir  wars  broke 
out,  and  lasted  until  the  following'  year.  But, 
although  the  enemy  were  repulsed  and  their 
territories  up  to  the  Kei  River  annexed  by  the 
colonial  government,  the  annexation  Wii-s  not 
raiilied  bv  the  home  authorities  until  tlie  termina- 
tion of  tlie  next  war  (1S46-4S).  The  coni|uereil 
districts  were  called  British  Kallraria,  and  from 
I8o.'5  to  1S6.3  formed  a  separate  erowncolony  ;  but 
in  the  last-ijuoted  year  British  Kali'r.aria  was  incor- 
porated in  Cape  Colony.  The  power  of  the  chiefs 
w;i.s  nevertheless  still  unbroken :  in  ISoU  the  turbu- 
lent Gaikas.  who  had  waged  most  of  the  former 
wars,  in  conjunction  with  the  rest  of  the  Ania-Xosa 
and  the  Ania  Tenibu  tribes,  and  a  large  body  of 
revolte<l  Hottentots,  once  more  invailed  the  colony, 
but  after  a  struggle  of  nearly  three  years  were 
successfully  driven  back.  In  1856  the  frontier  dis- 
tricts were  settled  by  the  men  of  the  Cierman 
legion  who  had  fought  in  the  Crimea,  neaily  2500 
in  number.  The  last  war  broke  out  in  1S77  :  the 
(icalekas  took  up  arms,  and  were  joined  by  the 
(iaikas,  and  eventually  the  Zulus  also  entered  the 
fray  (see  Zl"LUS).  The  war  ended  in  the  over- 
throw of  the  power  of  the  Kaffir  chiefs,  and  the 
gradual  incorporation  of  their  territory  in  the  Cape 
Colony.  By  1888  all  Katt'raria  up  to  the  frontiers 
of  Natal,  with  the  single  excei)tion  of  East  Pondo- 
land--which,  however,  was  a  British  protectoiate 
— had  been  included  within  the  bounds  of  the  Cape 
Colony. 

The  Ama-Fengus,  or  Fingoes,  are  the  remnants 
of  broken  Ivatiir  tribes  ;  they  are  despised  by  the 
organised  Kaliir  races,  and  but  for  the  protection 
of  the  British  would  probably  be  little  better  than 
slaves  to  them.  They  have  always  been  loyal  to 
their  protectors,  and  live  .scattered  from  Zululand 
to  Cape  Colony. 

See  G.  Fritsch,  Die  Eingeborenen  Sud-Afritas  (1872); 
grammars  of  the  Kaffir  language  by  Bleek  (1869)  and 
Colenso  ( 1855 ) ;  Cliase  and  WUmot's  History  of  the  Cape 
of  Good  Hope  \  181)9) ;  G.  M'C'all  Theal's  Kaffir  Folklore 
[1882],  and  History  of  South  Africa  (1888) ;  and  G.  de 
Eialle,  Les  Peapks  de  I'Afriquc  (lii!^). 

Kaflristail,  a  mountainous  region  of  Asia, 
lying  between  the  Kabul  lUveron  the  south  and  the 
Hindu  Kush  on  the  north-west ;  its  eastern  and 
western  boundaries  are  formed  by  the  Cliitral  and 
Hanjshir  rivers  respectively,  feeders  of  the  Kabul. 
Area,  about  50(X)  sci.  m.  This  region  of  wild,  narrow, 
winding  glens  ana  impa-ssable  mountains  (11,000 
to  17, (MX)  feet)  has  been  for  centuries  the  la-st 
stronghold  of  primitive  Aryan  heathenism  against 
the  encroachments  of  Islam.  It  is  on  this  account 
that  the  inhabitants  are  called  by  their  Moham- 
medan neighbours  Kafirs — i.e.  'unbelievers,'  and 
their  countrv  Kafiristan.  These  people,  about 
2<X),(XK)  in  all,  although  speaking  ditl'erent  dialects, 
are  ethnically  of  one  race.  But  they  <lo  not  form 
a  political  unity  ;  the  tribes  into  wliich  they  are 
ilivided  are  often  at  war  with  one  another.  The 
only  points  of  union  between  them  politically  are 
their  hatred  of  the  Mohammedans  and  their  pas- 
.sionate  love  of  independence.  This  they  have  suc- 
cessfully maintained  at  diH'erent  times  against  such 
great  con<[ueror.-i  as  .Mahmud  of  Ghazni,  Tinmr, 
and  Uaber.  The  mountaineers  are  fair  in  coni- 
plexi<m,  the  women  often  handsome.  Contrary 
to  the  custom  of  orientals,  they  do  not  sit  cross- 
legj'ed  on  the  ground,  but  sit  on  stools  ;  and  they 
shake  hands  like  Englishmen.  Their  dress  is 
madi-  of  goatskin  ami  goat's  hair.  They  are  fond 
of  wine  and   dancing.     ^'ultivaVde  .soil  exist.s  only 


in  small  patches  alongside  the  torrents ;  conse- 
quently the  people  follow  chieHy  pastoral  pursuits. 
Since  1S9.V95  Kaliristau  is  recognised  by  Britain 
as  under  Afghan  control,  and  it  is  now  garrisoneil 
by  the  .Amir's  troops. 

See  Leitner's  Kafiristan  (Lahore,  1831);  Tanner  in 
Proc.  R  G.  &  ( 1881 ) ;  M'Nair  in  same  ( 1884 ) ;  Kiddulph, 
Tribes  of  the  Hindu  Kush  (18S0) ;  Sir  G.  Robertson,  The 
Kafirs  of  the  Hindu  Kush  ( 1896 ). 

KagOSlli'ma,  a  town  of  Japan,  on  a  large  bay 
of  tlie  same  name,  at  tlie  soutli  end  of  Kiu-siu 
Island,  with  manufactures  of  pottery  and  porcelain, 
arms,  and  cotton.  Pop.  (1896)  .55,197.  It  was 
bombaided  by  the  British  fleet  in  1863. 

Kaifteiir  Fall.    See  Essequibo. 

Kai-I'llUg,  capital  of  the  Chinese  province  of 
Honan,  near  the  southern  bank  of  the  Hoanijho, 
where  the  great  inundation  occurred  in  1887,  long 
the  chief  settlement  of  the  Jews  in  China.  .Among 
its  100,000  inhabitants  are  many  Mohammedans. 

Kaihis.    See  Elloka,  Indus. 

Kaill.  an  old  term  in  Scotch  law,  used  to  denote 
rent  paid  in  kind,  as  in  the  shape  of  poultry  or 
animals,  to  a  landlord. 

Kaillite,  a  hydrated  compound  of  the  chlorides 
and  sulpliates  of  magnesium  and  potassium,  used 
as  a  fertiliser.     See  Magnesiu.m,  Maxvue. 

Kaiiiozoie.    See  Cainozoic. 

Kaira.  capital  of  a  district  in  northern  Gujarat, 
•20  miles  SW.  of  Ahmedabad  by  rail.     Pop.  12,640. 

KairM'ail,  a  decayed  walled  town  of  Tunis, 
in  an  open,  marshy  plain,  80  miles  S.  of  the 
capital.  It  contains  about  fifty  ecclesiastical 
structures,  of  which  the  mosque  of  Okba,  who 
founeled  Kairwan  abovit  670,  is  one  of  the  most 
sacred  of  Islam.  Outside  the  city,  to  the  north- 
west, is  the  mosque  of  the  Companion — i.e.  of 
the  Prophet ;  this  and  other  sacred  tombs  have 
rendered  Kairwan — i.e.  '  caravan  or  restin<'-jjlace' — 
the  Mecca  or  sacred  city  of  northern  Africa.  As 
such,  it  has  been  jealously  guarded  from  detilenient 
by  the  presence  of  Jews  and  for  the  most  part 
of  Cliristian  travellers ;  but  it  was  entered  and 
explored  by  the  French  in  1881.  Kairwan  makes 
copper  vessels,  potash,  carpets,  and  articles  in 
leather.  Pop.  15,000.  See  E.  Rae,  Countnj  of  the 
Moor.'i  ( 1877 ) ;  Boddy,  To  Kaincdn  the  Hobj  ( 1885 ). 

Kaisarieb.    See  C^sarea. 

Kai.serslautern,  or  Lauterx,  a  town  of  the 
Ba\arian  Palatinate,  52  miles  by  rail  SW.  of 
Worms,  ha.s  of  late  years  developed  into  an 
important  manufacturing  place.  The  cliief  manu- 
factures are  tissues,  yarn,  sewing  and  other 
machines,  ultramarine,  furniture,  beer,  bricks,  &c.  : 
anil  there  are  ironworks,  steam-sawmills,  aiwl  rail- 
wav  shops.  Pop.  (1875)  22,699;  (1890)  37,047. 
Frederick  T.  built  a  castle  here  in  1152  (destroyed 
by  the  French  in  1713);  and  near  by  the  Freiich 
rejiublican  armies  were  defeated  in  1793  and  1794. 
See  Jost,  Gesc/iichte  Kaisershiiitcriis  (1886). 

Kaiserswcrtll,  a  Prussian  town  on  the  Khine, 
10  miles  below  Dusseldoif,  with  2400  inhabitants, 
is  the  se.it  of  the  ileaconesses  house  founded  by 
Pastor  Flicdiier.     See  Deaconesses. 

Kaiser   Wilhelm's   Land.     See   New 

(illNKA. 

Kaitlial.  an  ancient  town  in  the  Punjab, 
India,  93  miles  NNW.  from  Delhi.  It  is  con- 
nected traditionally  with  the  monkey-god  Hanu- 
nian,  and  in  called  in  Sanskrit  Kiijiisthtdo,  the 
'abode  of  monkeys.'  It  has  saltpetrerellneries, 
and  manufactures  lac  ornaments  and  toys.  It 
became  British  in  1843.      Pop.  14,754. 

Kakapu,  or  Owr.  PAltuor  {Utrinops  habrop- 
tilus),  a  remarkable  bird,  a  native  of  New  Zealand, 


388 


KAKODYLE 


KALISZ 


Kakapo 
(Striffops  habroptilus). 


lieloiigiii','    to    tlie     Parrot     family    (Psittacidip), 
Imt  of    verv   owl  like  appearance,    ami,   like   the 
owls,     nocturual,     or 
nearly  so,   concealing 
itself    in    holes     dur- 
ing the  day,  except  in 
very  gloomy  weather. 
The      kakapo     takes 
possession   of   a  hole, 
where      one       exists, 
among  stones  or  the 
roots    of     trees,     hut 
seems    also    to    have 
the  power  of  making 
a    burrow    for    itself. 
It   li\es  gregariously. 
The  Hesh  of  the  kaka- 
po   is    more   pleasant 
and  delicate  than  that 
of   any   other  parrot. 
It     has     disappeared 
fi-om      the      northern 
island    of     New    Zea- 
land, and  it  will  prob- 
alily  soon  be  extinct, 
unless    means    are 
adopted   for    its   pro- 
tection.      It    is    the 
only  Iviiown  bird  hav- 
ing large  wings  which  does  not  use  them  for  llight. 
Kakotlvle.    See  Cacodvle. 
killahari    Desert,  a   vast  tract   of  country 
lyin"  between  Great  Namaqualand  and  Ltechuaiia- 
land,  in  South  Africa,  extending  from  the  Gariei> 
or  Oran"e  Kiver  northwards  to  21°  S.  lat.,  or  the 
verge  of  the  Ngami  region,  a  distance  of  nearly  600 
miles,  with  an  average  breadth  of  about  3o0  miles. 
Although  called  a  desert,  it  is  not  entirely  sucli 
as  that  name  implies.     The  region  is  an  elevated 
basin,  3000  to  4000  feet  high,  with  numerous  de- 
pressions, and  bordered  in  most  parts   by  a  wide 
belt  of  sandy  waterless  country.      But  the  rainfall 
in  the  interior  is  sufficient  to  nourish  a  fair  amount 
of  vegetation.      Many   parts   are   thickly   covered 
with    hi"h,    thnrny   bushes,    which    harbour   large 
quantities  of  game.      The  inhabitants,  called  Ba- 
kalahari,  keep  cattle  and  grow  corn,  and  live  by 
these  and  bv  the  chase.     Wandering  Bushmen  are 
also  found  in  the  'desert.'     See  Farini,  Aa-unt:  the 
Kttluliari  Desert  { 188(3). 

Kalailiata,  or  K.\l.\ii.i?,  a  seaport  in  the  Pelo- 
ponnesus of  tirec'ce,  on  the  (4ulf  of  Koron,  is  the 
seat  of  an  archbishop.  Its  exports  (currants,  ligs, 
olive-oil,  and  soap)  have  an  annual  value  of  .some 
i'300,000  ;  its  imports,  of  £500,000.     Pop.  7609. 

Kalamazoo',  caiutal  of  Kalamazoo  county, 
Michi.'an,  is  tinelv  situated  on  the  river  of  the 
same  name,  14+  nules  by  rail  ENE.  of  Chicago 
It  is  the  seat  of  the  state  insane  asylum  and  of 
Kalamazoo  College  (Baptist).  The  city  is  the 
meeting-place  of  three  important  railways,  and 
has  some  tiftv  busy  manufactories  of  machinery 
pajier,  Hour,*  carriages,  windmills,  agricultural 
tools,  furniture,  &c.  Celeiy  is  grown_  in  large 
quantities  near  the  town.     Pop.  (1890)  17,853. 

Kallie,  a  town  of  Prussian  Saxony,  on  the 
Saale,  17  miles  S.  of  Magilelmrg.  It  has  manufac- 
tures of  textiles,  paper,  and  sugar.  Pop.  SS50. 
Kali',  or  BoiticcoLE.  See  tiREEN.s,  Sea  Kale. 
Kaleidoscope  (from  Gr.  J.-alot:,  'beautiful," 
eidii.i,  'image,'  and  skopco,  'I  see'),  an  ojitical 
instrument  invented  by  Sir  David  Brewster  in 
1H17.  It  consists,  in  its  sim]dest  form,  of  a  tube, 
thriiugli  whose  whole  length  pass  two  mirrors  or 
rellecUng  planes,  which  are  hiug(^d  together  along 
one  edge,   and   make   with  each   other  an   angle 


which  is  an  aliquot  part  of  180°,  whilst  the  one 
end  is  litted  up  with  an  eyeglass,  and  the  other  is 
closed  by  two  glasses,  at  a  small  distance  from 
each  other,  between  which  are  placed  little  frag- 
ments of  glass  or  other  \ariously-coloured  objects. 
The  eye  looking  into  the  tube  now  perceives  these 
objects  multi|die(l  as  many  times  as  the  angle 
which  the  retiecting  planes'make  with  each  other 
is  contained  in  the  whole  circumference  of  a 
circle,  and  always  .symmetrically  disposed;  and 
the  slightest  shaking  of  the  instrument  produces 
new  lit'ures.  There  are  various  modilications  of 
the  kaleidoscope,  by  some  of  which  its  power  is 
much  increased  ;  for  example  the  nurrors  may  be 
adjustable  at  various  angles  measured  with  respect 
to  a  \ariably  distant  centre,  so  that  arched  jiatterns 
may  lie  obtained  ;  and  it  is  not  only  a  ))leasing  toy, 
but  is  sometimes  used  by  pattern-drawers  and 
others,  to  whom  it  supplies  endless  varieties  of 
figures. 

Kalends.    See  Calends. 

Kalevala.    See  Fikland. 

Kalian,  a  Chinese  town,  110  miles  NW.  of 
Peking,  built  opposite  the  passage  through  the 
Great  Wall,  is  one  of  the  chief  emporiums  of  the 
Chinese  tea  trade  with  Mongolia  and  Siberia, 
some  •21,500,000  lb.  being  exported  from  here 
annually.  Textiles  and  smoked  provisions  are 
imported  from  Sil.ieria  and  Pussia.     Pop.  70,000. 

Kali.    See  Alkali. 

Kali,  an  Indian  goddess,  the  wife  of  Siva  (q.v.). 

K:ilid;isa,  the  greatest  ilramatisl.  and  one  of 
the  most  celebrated  poets  of  India.  He  is  known 
especially  through  his  drama  Sdl.uiitcila  ('The 
Lost  Kiiig'),  which,  first  introduced  to  the  notice 
of  the  western  world  by  Sir  William  Jones  (1789), 
created  so  great  a  sensation  throughout  Europe. 
A  recent  translation  is  Sir  M.  Williams'  (5th  ed. 
1887).  Another  drama  of  the  same  poet,  and  next 
in  renown  to  Sdlaintala,  is  the  Vilcramorvatii  ('The 
Hero  and  the  Nymph').  Besides  thc'^e  works 
Hindu  tradition  ascribes  to  his  authorship  a  third 
drama,  Mdlavikdgnimitra  ;  two  epics,  the  Haqhu- 
ruma  and  the  K mndra-smnhhdvd  :  the  Mi;i/ia-t/tita 
and  other  poems.  But  it  seems  incredible  that 
these  are  all  by  one  author,  dill'ering  as  they  do  m 
style  :  and  it  lias  been  assumed  that  there  were  at 
least  three  Kalidasas.  The  date  of  the  author  of 
Sdkitntala  is  also  extremely  debateable :  it  was 
in  the  reign  of  Vikranuiditya  of  U jjain.  I5ut  there 
have  been  several  sovereigns  of  Ujjain  bearing  the 
name  from  57  H.i-.  to  1050  A.I).  Most  likely  the 
Vikram;iditya  in  question  reigned  500-550  A.D. 

Kalif.    See  Cai.ie. 

Kalilali  wa  Itiiiiiiah.  See  Bidpai. 
Kalilljar.  a  liill  fortress  and  hill-shrine  in  the 
North-western  Provinces  of  India,  stands  on  an 
isolated  rock  (1230  feet  high),  the  termination  of 
a  spur  of  the  Vindhya  Mountains,  overlooking  the 
plains  of  Bundelkliand.  The  records  of  the  place 
go  back  to  a  period  of  great  antiquity,  the  name 
Kalinjar  occurring  in  the  Miil(dbluinitii  as  that  (it 
a  city  even  at  that  time  fai]iou>.  The  wli(de  rock 
is  th'ickly  studded  with  ruins  of  ancient  Hindu 
edifices  and  other  works,  including  gateways, 
temples,  tanks,  caves,  .statues,  inscriptions,  iVc., 
the  most  celebrateil  <if  all  being  the  remains  of  the 
superb  temple  of  Nil  Kantha  Mahadeo. 

Kalisz.  the  capital  of  a  government  (area, 
4890  s.|.  m.  ;  Jiop.  in  1897,  846,334)  of  the  same 
name  in  I!u>>ian  Poland,  lies  on  the  frontier  river, 
the  Prosna,  132  miles  WSW.  of  Warsaw,  and  has 
manufactures  of  cloth.  The  Kn/isdi  of  Ptolemy, 
it  is  one  of  the  oldest  t«wns  of  Poland  ;  in  its 
vicinity  numeious  relics  of  anticiuity  have  been 
discovered,  and  many  ancient  burial-mounds  exist. 


KALMAR 


KAMARAN 


389 


Pop.  (1802)  18,804.  Two  battles  have  lieeii  fought 
here  :  on  "iStth  October  ITOti  King  .\iigiistiis  of 
IViLmd  routed  the  Sweiles,  anil  on  13th  Keliruary 
lsl.{  the  Ivussians  <lefeat«l  the  Frencli  ami  Saxons. 
Here,  too,  \v.a.s  signetl  on  28th  February  1813  the 
treaty  of  alliance  between  Prussia  and  Russia. 

Kniniar,  a  town  and  seajiort  of  Sweden,  capital 
of  a  l:ia  or  county  (are.a,  4436  sq.  m. ;  ])op.  2.34,27.)) 
of  the  same  name,  is  situateil  on  an  island  in 
Kalm.ar  Sound,  opposite  the  island  of  t)land.  Tlie 
town,  which  was  formerly  strongly  fortiliod,  though 
the  fortilications  are  now  in  great  part  levelled,  has 
a  good  h.irl>our,  a  handsome  cathedral,  and  a,  fine 
castle,  in  whicli,  on  20th  .July  1.397,  the  '  Union  of 
Kalinar'  was  signed,  whicli  settled  the  succession 
to  the  three  northern  kingdoms  upon  Margaret  of 
Denmark  and  her  heirs  (.see  Denmark).  The 
commerce  of  the  town  is  considerable,  and  it  has 
manuf.acturesof  matches,  chicory,  and  lol)acco,  and 
some  shipbuii.ling.      Pop.  (1895)12,030. 

Knlniia,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural  order 
Erice:!'.  consisting  of  evergreen  slnubs,  mostly 
about  two  or  three  feet  high,  natives  of  North 
America,  with  red.  pink,  or  white  flowers,  generally 
in  corymbs.  The  flowers  are  very  delicate  and 
be-autifnl,  and  the  corolla  is  in  the  shape  of  a  wide 
ami  shallow  bell.  Some  of  the  species  are  frequent 
ornaments  of  gardens  in  Britain.  They  delight  in 
a  peat  soil.  A',  /ntifo/in,  the  Mountain  Laurel,  or 
Calico  Bush,  occupies  large  tracts  on  the  Alleghany 
Mountains.  It  grows  to  the  height  of  ten  feet,  and 
the  wooil  is  very  hard.  It  is  narcotic  and  danger- 
ous :  the  leaves  are  poisonous  to  many  animals. 
and  the  honey  of  the  flowers  possesses  noxious  pro- 
perties. A  decoction  of  the  leaves  has  been  used 
>vith  advantage  in  cutaneous  diseases,  but  taken 
intem.ally  it  is  fatal.  A  decoction  of  the  leaves  of 
K.  anf/ustifolia  is  used  by  the  negroes  of  North 
Carolina,  of  which  state  the  plant  is  a  native,  as  a 
wash  for  ulcerations  between  the  toes. 

Kalnincks«  a  Mongolian  race  of  people,  scat- 
tereil  throughout  central  Asia,  ami  extending 
westw.ards  into  southern  Russia.  The  name  is  not 
employed  bj-  the  people  themselves,  but  by  the 
Turkic  races  of  Asia  and  tlie  Russians  to  designate 
the  Diirbim  (Derbend)  Oirad  or  Four  Allied  tribes 
of  the  Zungars,  Torgod  (Iveraits  or  Eleuths), 
Khoshod,  and  Dorbiiil,  who  live  in  Zungaria  ; 
around  Koko-nor  in  north-east  Tibet  ;  in  the  dis- 
trict called  Ordus,  within  the  gre.at  loop  of  the 
Yellow  River  of  China ;  on  the  svestern  slopes  of 
the  Altai  (in  Kuldja,  &c.);  and  in  the  steppes 
lietween  the  Don  and  the  Volga  an<l  Ca.spian. 
These  tril>es  constitute  tliat  great  division  of  the 
Mongol  race  known  as  Western  Mongols.  They 
are  nomads,  possessing  lar^e  herds  of  horses,  cattle, 
and  sheep.     Their  physical  characteristics  are  those 

Fecniiar  to  the  ilongolian  r.ice  (see  Mongols). 
n  religion  they  are  nearly  all  adherents  of  Lama- 
ism.  Their  language  ditters  from  true  or  E,xstern 
Mongolian  only  in  being  more  phonetic  ;  but  they 
have  .an  alphabet  of  their  own.  Tlieir  literature 
consists  principally  of  religious  books  and  folk  and 
fairy  tales.  In  recent  centuries  the  most  note- 
worthy events  in  their  history  arose  out  of  the 
emigration  of  a  large  banrl  of  the  Torgod  from 
Zungaria  into  Russia  in  l(i.')0.  This  band  wa.s 
followed  Viy  others  composed  r)f  Diirhiid  in  1673  ami 
of  Klioshoil  in  1675.  I'nder  Ayuk.'i  Klian(1670- 
1724)  the  Kalmucks  figiired  as  ,an  important  factor 
in  Russian  politics,  sometimes  as  enemies,  some- 
times ,as  allies.  But  in  1771  a  large  bo<ly  of  them, 
chiefly  Torgod  and  Khoshod,  being  dissatlslieil  with 
the  treatment  they  received  at  the  h.inds  of  Russia, 
returned  to  the  empire  of  China ;  after  a  march  in 
which  they  endured  terrible  suirerings,  they  settled 
at    Hi    among    the    Altai    Mountains.      See    the 


brilliant  account  of  the  miseries  of  this  march  by 
De  Quincey  (vol.  vii.  of  Colleiled  ]\'(>rh:<:).  But 
there  still  remain  some  110,000  Kalmucks  in 
European  Russia;  in  Asiatic  Russia  there  are 
jirobaldy  ,55,000  more.  The  number  within  the 
Chinese  empire  is  not  known. 

Specimens  of  Kalmuck  fairy  talcs  can  lie  read  in  Jiilg's 
edition  of  the  Siildhi-Kur  (18(if>)  and  in  vol.  i.  of 
Bergmann's  Nomadische  Streifereien  unter  den  Kal- 
miihn  (1804). 

Kallia.  or  CVLN.V,  a  town  of  Bengal,  47  miles 
N.  of  Calcutta  and  28  E.  of  Bardwan,  on  the 
Bhagirathi  (Hooghly).  The  town  contains  numer- 
ous temjjles,  and  is  a  station  of  the  Free  Church 
(Scotliind)  Mission.  It  does  a  large  amount  of 
tratle  by  river,  chiefly  in  rice  and  other  natural 
products.  Tlie  population  li.as  decreased  from 
27,3.36  in  1871  to  almut  11,0IX). 

Kalocsa,  a  town  of  Hungarj-,  near  the  left 
bank  of  tlie  Danube,  86  miles  S.  from  Budapest  by 
rail.  It  is  the  seat  of  an  archbishop  (bislmp's  see 
from  1000  to  1135),  and  has  a  cathedral,  an  arch- 
bishop's palace  ( with  a  library ),  some  monasteries, 
and  an  observatory.  The  inhaliitants  grow  flax, 
wine,  &c.     Pop.  (  1881)  15,789  ;  ( 1891 )  18,167. 

Kaloiis:.    See  B.\T. 

Kalj[>i,  a  town  in  the  North-western  Provinces 
of  India,  stands  among  rugged  ravines  near  the 
bank  of  the  Jumna,  .50  miles  SW.  of  Cawnpore.  It 
figured  prominently  in  the  wars  waged  against  the 
Mogul  empire,  came  definitively  into  British  hands 
in  1806,  and  w.os  one  of  the  principal  agencies  of  the 
Ea-st  India  Comp.anv.  Here  on  23d  May  1858  Sir 
Hugh  Rose  ilefeated  12,000  of  the  rebels.  The 
town  is  mean  in  aimearance,  the  houses  being 
chiefly  mud  liuts.  The  population  is  decreasing — 
18,514  in  1865;  12,713  in  1891.  They  manuf.acture 
sugar-candy  and  paper,  .and  export  giain,  cotton, 
&c.  to  Cawnpore  and  to  Calcutta. 

Kalnga,  chief  town  of  the  Russian  government 
of  Kaluga,  70  miles  by  rail  NW.  of  Tula  and 
188  SSW.  from  Moscow.  Situated  in  the  centre 
of  the  empire  and  on  the  naviga1)le  river  Oka,  it 
carries  on  an  extensive  trade,  especially  in  corn. 
It  manufactures  leather,  oil,  bast  mats,  tallow, 
canities,  iS:c.  ;  but  its  speciality  is  '  Kaluga  cakes,' 
sold  throughout  Russia  to  the  extent  of  more  than 
£100,000  annually.  Pop.  (1896)  40,252.  Kaluga 
has  often  been  a  place  of  lianishment  for  poli- 
tical ott'enders,  among  others  of  Sliamyl,  the 
Circa.s.sian  chief.  Area  of  government,  11,942  sq. 
ni.  :  pop.  ( ls!)7)  1,178,8.3.x  The  surface  is  fl.-it  ;  the 
soil  sand}',  clayey,  and  only  moderately  fertile  ;  iron 
ore  is  >\orked. 

Kama,  the  principiil  attiuent  of  the  Volga,  rises 
in  the  Russian  government  of  \'yatka,  .ami  after  <an 
almost  circular  coui-se  (north-west  by  east  and  son  tli- 
e.ast  to  south-west )  of  10.30  miles  joins  the  Volga  from 
the  left  43  miles  below  the  town  of  Kazan.  Its 
chief  tributaries  are  the  Vyatka,  the  Tchussovaya, 
and  the  Bielaya,  all  navig.able.  The  Kama  is  navi- 
gable from  Perm,  a  distance  of  9.30  miles.  Area  of 
drainage  liasin,  177, .560  sq.  m.  The  river  is  free  of 
ice  about  200  clays  in  the  year,  and  constitutes  one 
of  the  most  important  highw.ays  of  communication 
between  Siberia  and  Nijni  Novgorod  and  St  I'eters- 
burg. 

Ksima.  or  KAmadeva,  the  Hindu  god  of  Love. 
In  later  Sanskrit  poetry,  he  is  the  favourite  tlieme 
of  descriptions  and  allusions;  and  mythology  exalts 
his  power  so  much  that  it  allows  even  the  gwl 
Brahmft  to  succumb  to  it.  .Acconling  to  some 
Pnr.'in.as,  he  was  originally  a  son  of  BraliniA. 

Kailia'rail.  a  little  island  in  the  Reil  Sea,  on 
the  Araliian  side,  nearly  opposite  Mn.ssowali,  with 
an  area  of  102  sq.  in.,  and  inhabited  by  a  few  fisher- 


. 


390 


KAMCHATKA 


KANAUJ 


men.  The  island  was  annexed  liy  Britain  in  ISJS, 
■\vliili'  the  teleyrapli  cal>le  was  lifinj;  hiid  tci  IJonihay. 
Killlicliatkil  ((•I'r.  Ktdiil.-irhidl.d),  a  peninsula 
of  eastern  Siberia,  stretches  south  into  tlie  I'aeilic 
between  I'.ehrinj;  Sea  on  the  east  and  the  Sea  of 
Okhotsk  on  the  west.  Area,  4(55,590  .sf|.  ni.  The 
peninsula  is  Ion;,'  and  narrow,  swelling  out  towards 
the  middle,  and  terminating  in  a  point  only  7  miles 
distant  from  the  northernmo.stof  the  Kurile  Islands. 
A  chain  of  volcanic  mountains  runs  down  the 
centre,  and  reaches  15,408  feet  in  Kojerevska  and 
1G,!IS8  in  Kluchefskaya.  The  latter  was  in  active 
eruption  at  least  twice  in  the  19th  century  ( 1854  and 
1885 ).  Hot  springs  al)ound.  The  coast  on  the  south- 
east is  formed  of  rugged,  precipitous  clitls.  The 
principal  river  is  the  Kamcliatka,  which  Hows  into 
the  I'aeilic.  The  climate  is  colder  than  in  corre- 
sponding latitudes  in  Europe,  and  very  humid : 
grass  and  tree  \egetation  are  consequently  lu.xu- 
riant.  The  principal  occupations  of  the  inhabitants 
ai'e  fishing  and  hunting.  Fum  are  the  most  valu- 
able ]iroduction  of  the  peninsula.  The  most  useful 
domestic  animal  is  a  peculiar  kind  of  dog,  which  is 
emidoyed  in  hunting  and  sledj^ing.  Kamchatka  was 
annexed  to  Russia  at  the  end  of  the  ITtli  century, 
after  the  expedition  of  the  Cos.sack  chief  AtUisuf. 
Pop.  6500,  made  up  of  Kamcliadales,  Koryaks, 
Lamuts,  and  a  few  Russians.  The  Kamcliadales — 
the  ])rei)onderating  race  (2000  in  number) — live 
mostly  in  the  scuith.  They  are  a  hardy  people, 
who  dwell  in  winter  in  earth  pits  and  in  sumnuu-  in 
light  huts.  Their  language  has  no  known  cognates  : 
hut  they  are  now  ahnost  completely  Russianised. 
The  fort  of  Petropaulovsk  (pop.  350),  with  a  magni- 
ficent harbour  that  is  covered  with  ice  only  during 
a  brief  period  of  the  year,  is  picturesquely  situated 
on  the  east  coast.  A  British  and  French  fleet 
made  an  unsuccessful  attack  upon  the  place  in 
1854 ;  since  then  it  has  not  been  fortified.  See 
Keniian,  Tfnl  Life  in  Siberia  (5tli  ed.  New  York, 
1879);  and  Guillemard,  Cniise  of  the  Marchesa 
(2  vols.  Ijond.  1887). 

Kaiiieiiet/>-Podolsk(  Polish  A"((/H/f  «/«_•),  capi- 
tal of  the  Ru.ssiau  government  of  Podolia,  is  pic- 
turesquely situated  near  the  frontier  of  Austrian 
Galicia,  on  a  steep  rock  al)ove  the  river  Smotritza. 
an  affluent  of  the  Dniester.  243  miles  NW.  of 
Odessa  and  40  NE.  of  Czernowitz.  There  are  a 
Roman  Catholic  cathedral  ( 1361 ),  a  Greek  cathedral 
(16lh  century),  and  an  Armenian  and  several  otiier 
churches.  The  town  was  destroved  bv  the  Mongol 
chief  Batu  in  1240;  taken  by  the  Turks  in  1672; 
returned  to  the  Poles  in  1699 ;  and  annexed  by 
Rus>ia  in  1795.  Previous  to  the  partition  of  Poland 
Kamenetz  was  one  of  the  stroniiest  liulwarks  of 
that  couiitrv  .-igainst  the  Turks.  Pop.  (1871) 
22,611  ;  (1897)  34,483,  one-half  .lew.s. 

KilllH'IIZ.  a  small  manufacturing  town  of 
Saxony,  22  miles  NE.  of  l)r(^sden  by  rail.  It  was 
the  birthplace  of  Lessing.     Poi'.  7211. 

Kitlllt'S,  the  name  given  by  geologists  to  banks 
and  riilgcs  of  gravel,  sanil,  I'v.c.  associated  with  the 
glacial  deposits  of  Scotland.     See  AsAR. 

KilllK's,  IlH.xl;^  Home,  Lorij,  a  Scotch  pliilo- 
sojiher,  was  born  in  Berwickshire  in  1696,  cdled  to 
the  bar  in  1723,  ami  by  his  merits  fought  his  way 
upwards  to  a  leading  iiosition  there,  bi'iiig  raised 
to  the  bench  as  Lord  Kames  in  1752,  and  maile 
lord  of  justiciary  in  1763.  He  divided  his  energies 
between  law  and  philosophy,  and  was  no  less  noted 
for  his  .amiability,   his  conversational   powers,  his 

Siblic  spirit,  and  his  agricultnr.-il  enterprise  at 
lair-Drummimd  in  Perthshire,  He  died  at  K<lin- 
burgh,  27th  December  1782.  Besides  books  on 
Scotch  law  he  published  a  series  of  W(uks  more 
ingenious  and  interesting  than  well  written  : 
Essays  on  the  J'rinciples  of  Morality  and  Natural 


IicUffiiiii  (1751),  a  defence  of  the  doctrine  of  innate 
ideas  at  the  expense  of  the  freedom  of  the  will  ; 
All  Iiitrmliirtioii  to  the  Art  uf  ThiiiLiiiri  (1761 ),  and 
E/emciit.s-  of  Criticiifiii  (nH2),  two  works  much  less 
satisfactory  than  ingenious  ;  and  ISlctchci  of  the 
History  of  Man  (1774),  a  miscellaneous  and  curious 
collection  of  .speculations  on  all  manner  of  subjects. 

KilllllM'll,  a  town  of  Holland,  situate<l  near  the 
mouth  of  the  ^'ssel,  5A  miles  by  rail  NW.  of 
Zwolle.  It  wa.s  formerly  a  Hanse  town  and  had  a 
considerable  trade,  which  gradually  left  it  as  the 
immth  of  the  Yssel  sanded  up.  But  since  the 
middle  of  the  19th  century  the  river  apinoaches 
have  been  improved,  and  the  trade  of  the  town  is 
reviving.  The  church  of  St  Nicholas  is  one  of  the 
linest  medieval  churches  in  the  countrv.  I'op. 
( 1840)  7760  ;  (  1876)  16,454  :  ( 1889)  18,767,"  who  are 
engaged  in  shipbuilding,  commerce,  tishing,  and 
toiiacco  manufacture.  Kanipen  is  the  tlotliam  of 
the  Dutch. 

Ki'illinrei*.  Engelbert,  German  traveller,  was 
Ixirn  at  Lemgo,  in  Lip)ie,  on  16th  September  1651, 
studied  medicine  at  Kiiuigsberg,  and  travelleil 
(1683-94)  in  India,  Java,  Siani,  and  Japan,  during 
which  time  he  s|ient  two  years  (1692-94)  in  the 
last-named  country.  He  died  cm  2d  November  1716. 
He  published  Aiiwnitates  E.tutieee  ( 1712),  an<l  after 
his  death  appeared  his  History  of  Japan  and  Sitini 
(Lond.  2  vols.  1727).  Most  of  his  writings  exist  iu 
MS.  in  the  British  Museum. 

ksilliplllliroil.     See  Fl.ooRCL<riii. 

Kniiiscliiitka.    See  K.\MfHATK.\. 

Knilltlli.  or  Kampti,  a  town  and  cantonment 
of  the  Central  Provinces,  India,  lying  9  miles  NE. 
by  rail  from  Nagpiir,  on  the  Kanhan  River,  here 
crossed  by  a  fine  stone  bridge,  has  a  trade  in  grain, 
timber,  cattle,  .salt,  and  j)iece-goods.  Pop.  (1881) 
50,987;  (1891)  43,1.59.  The  town  d.ates  from  the 
est.ablishment  of  the  cantonment  in  1821. 

KaiiauHM-a.    See  Yokohama. 

Kanakas.    See  Cooliks. 

Kaiiara,  Noi;th,  a  coast  district  of  Bombay, 
the  most  southerly  in  the  Koiikaii  ((|.v. ),  lies 
south-east  of  (loa,  .and  has  an  areaof  3911  s(|.  m.; 
pop.  ( 1891 )  446,351,  mostly  Hindus,  speaking  Kana- 
rese  (see  INDIA,  p.  103).      For  the  most   part  it  is  a 

wild  forest-country. — Softii  Kanaka,  ii ediately 

south  of  North  Kanara,  belongs  to  Madras,  lis 
area  is  .3902  scp  m.;  jiop.  (  1891  )  1,056,051,  overfour- 
fifths  Hindus.  This  district  also  contains  a  great 
extent  of  forest-land,  ami  numerous  wilil  animals. 
The  ctipit.al  is  Mangaloie.  Both  North  and  Soulli 
Kanara  are  partly  occupied  by  the  Western  (Jhiits, 
contain  numerous  rivers,  and  have  a  heavy  raintall. 
In  lioth.  also,  malaria  is  very  prevalent,  especially 
during  the  monsoon. 

Kaiiai'is,  Con.stantini-:,  a  hero  of  the  Grei'k 
w;n  of  inilelpcnilence,  was  born  in  the  Isle  of  Ipsara 
in  17,85,  am!  was  iiiiister  of  a  small  merchant-ve.ssel 
before  the  commencement  of  the  war.  In  1822  lie 
blew  up  tlie  Turkish  admiral's  shi|>  in  the  Strait  of 
Chios,  and  later  in  the  same  year  repeated  his  feat 
in  the  harb(mr  of  T<'ncdos.  In  August  1824  he 
aveiige(l  the  nivaging  of  Ipsara  by  burning  a  large 
Turkish  frigate  and  some  trausjiort-shiiis  whicli 
wiTc  carrying  troops  to  Samos,  and  next  year  was 
only  prevented  from  burning  the  Egyjitiaii  lleet  in 
the  harbour  of  Alexamlria  by  an  unfavmiiable  wind 
springing  up.  He  was  appointed  to  important 
commands  by  the  Greek  president.  Capo  d'Istria.s, 
was  made  senator  in  IS47.  and  was  minister  of 
marine  (1854  .55).  He  look  part  in  the  n'volutioli 
of  lsti2.  and  held  ollice  ri'peatedlv  under  the  new 
king.      He  died  15tli  September  1,S77. 

KaiiailK  one  of  the  gieat  legendary  centres  of 
Arvan  civili-satioii  iu  India,  to  which  the  HinduLsm 


KANAWHA 


KANGAROO 


391 


of  Lower  I!eiij;iil  attributes  its  ori^'iii,  stood  orifrin- 
ally  on  the  Uaiijjes,  Co  miles  N\V.  of  Liickiiow.  1 
At  ineseut  the  site  consists  of  a  vast  iimnlier  of 
ruins,  extemlin;,'  over  the  area  of  live  villaj;es, 
aliout  4  miles  from  the  Gant^es,  the  river  liavinj; 
sliiiUtly  altered  its  hed.  The  most  remarkable 
bnlldinjp  are  Mohammedan  mausoleums.  Its  most 
prosperous  era  was  the  6th  century  ;  early  in  the 
lUh  it  fell  before  the  sultans  of  Gluuui.  Among 
the  ruins  there  is  a  modern  town  of  some  17,000 
iuhaliitauts. 

Kanawha.  Sec  Charleston,  fJitEAT  Kana- 
wha. 

kaiiazawa,  a  town  of  Japan,  on  the  west 
.iiast  of  the  main  island,  NW.  from  Tokyo,  manu- 
iMiiuri's  porcelain  and  silk.      Pop.  ( ISUti)  8S,S"7. 

Kaiu-hiiijaiiga.    See  Kinchixjinoa. 

Kailllabar,  or  Candahar,  the  capital  of 
central  or  southern  Afghanistau,  situated  about 
•2(Hl  miles  to  the  SM'.  of  Kabul.  It  stands  in  32' 
37'  N.  lat.  and  66"  20'  E.  long.,  3484  feet  above  the 
level  of  the  sea.  It  is  in  the  form  of  an  oblong 
square,  while  all  its  streets  ran  straight,  and  cut 
one  another  at  right  anj;les.  At  the  point  of  inter- 
section of  the  two  main  streets  there  is  a  large 
dome  ( C/iar^ii ),  50  yards  in  diameter.  Pop.  vari- 
ously estimated  froni  25,000  to  100,000.  Kandahar 
is  well  watered  by  two  canals  drawn  from  a  neigh- 
bouring river,  which  send  to  almost  every  street  its 
own  adequate  supply ;  and  the  same  means  of 
irrigation  have  covered  the  immediate  vicinity  with 
gardens  and  orchards.  Kandahar  is  a  place  of 
great  commerce,  trading  with  Bombay,  Herat, 
Bokhara,  and  Samarcand.  Among  its  permanent 
residents  Kandahar  ha-s  a  larger  proportion  of 
Afghans,  cliiefly  of  the  Durani  tribe,  than  any 
other  city  of  Afghanistan.  There  are  numerous 
Hindu,  Tajik,  and  Persian  merchants.  About  2 
miles  to  tlie  northward  rises  a  precipitous  rock, 
crowned  by  a  fortress  impregnable  to  everything 
but  heavy  artillery.  Here,  amid  all  the  disasters 
of  the  war  iu  1839^1,  the  British  maintained  their 
ground  under  Bawliuson.  Kandahar  has  been  a 
pivot  for  the  history  of  that  part  of  Asia  during 
more  than  2000  yeai-s.  It  is  supposed  to  have  been 
founded  by  Ale.xander  the  Great,  although  the 
nauie  is  Pei'sian.  A  comparative  lilank  of  upwards 
of  thirteen  centuries  in  tlie  history  reaches  to  the 
famous  Mahmud  of  Ghazni,  who  wrested  the  .strong- 
hold from  the  Afghans.  From  that  epoch  down  to 
1747,  when  the  native  rule  was  permanently  estab- 
lishe<l,  Kandahar,  with  brief  and  precarious  inter- 
vals of  independence,  was'  held  by  Genghis  Khan, 
Tamerlane,  and  by  various  rulers  of  Tartary,  India, 
and  Persia  in  turn.  In  the  war  of  1878-80  the 
IJritisli  entered  Kandahar  unopjiosed,  and  they 
held  the  city  till  1881,  some  months  after  they  had 
evacuated  the  rest  of  Afghanistan  ((|.v. ).  Through 
its  being  touched  by  the  Sibi-Pishiu  Railway  (1891 ) 
on  the  south,  Kandahar  luvs  greatly  increased  in 
political  as  well  as  iu  commercial  importance. 

Kandavil.  one  of  the  Fiji  Islands  (q.v.). 

Kandy.  an  iidand  town  of  Ceylon,  on  a  beauti- 
ful little  lake  among  the  mountains,  74  miles  by 
rail  Nli.  of  Colombo.  It  is  1CG5  feet  above  the  sea, 
and  has  a  mean  annual  temperature  of  70"  I".  Here 
are  ruins  of  the  jialace  of  the  former  nati^e  kings, 
ami  a  temple  in  which  a  reputed  tooth  of  Buddha's 
is  jealously  preserved  (see  CeyloN').  Pop.  (1881) 
22,026;  (1891)  20,252. 

Kane.  Ef.isllA  Kknt,  an  Arctic  exidorer,  was 
boni  in  Philailelphia,  I'nited  States,  3il  February 
1820,  graduateil  in  medicine  at  the  university  of 
Pennsvlvaiua  iu  1842,  and  entered  the  navy  as  a 
surgeon,  in  which  eajiacity  he  visited  China,  the 
Ea.st  Indies,   .Arabia,   Egypt,  and  western   Europe, 


subse()uently  the  west  coast  of  Africa  and  Mexico  ; 
in  this  last  country  he  did  duty  on  the  coast 
survey.  In  May  1850  he  commenced  his  career  of 
.Vrctic  discovery  as  surgeon,  naturalist,  and  his- 
torian to  the  lirst  Grinnell  expedition.  His  account 
of  it  appeared  at  New  York  in  1854,  entitled  T/ic 
United  Sffilcn  Grinnell  Expedition.  In  the  spring 
of  1853  he  again  set  out,  this  time  as  commander 
of  an  expedition  ;  the  results  of  it  are  fully  detailed 
in  his  Sicontl  Grinnell  E.rpei/iliun  in  iSearcli  of  Sir 
Jo/in  Fran  LI  in  (2  vols.  Phila.  1856).  He  died  at 
Havana,  where  he  had  gone  for  his  health's  sake,  on 
February  16,  1857.  See  Life  by  W.  Elder  ( Phila. 
1858),  and  the  briefer  one  by  M.  Jones  (Lond. 
1890). 

Kane.  Sir  Kobert,  chemist,  was  bom  iu 
Dulilin,  24111  September  1809.  He  was  educated  for 
the  medical  profession,  in  IS.'Vi  was  received  as  a 
member  of  tlie  Royal  Iri.sli  Academy,  and  in  the 
same  year  projected  x\ie  Dublin  Journal  of  Mediedl 
Seienee,  which,  at  first  confined  to  chemistry  and 
pharmacy,  w;is  afterwards  extended  to  include 
practical  medicine.  In  1840  he  received  the  gold 
medal  of  the  Royal  Society  of  London  for  his 
researches  into  the  colouring  matter  of  lichens,  and 
in  1847  the  Cunningham  Gold  Medal  of  the  Royal 
Irish  Academy  for  his  discoveries  in  chemistry. 
From  1834  tiiri847  Kane  was  in-ofessor  of  Natural 
Philosopliy  to  the  Royal  Duldin  Society.  In  1846 
he  originated  the  Museum  of  Industry  in  Ireland, 
was  appointed  its  first  director,  and  the  same  year 
received  from  the  Lord-lieutenant  the  honour  of 
knighthood.  He  held  for  a  number  of  years  the 
office  of  president  of  the  Queen's  College,  Cork, 
which  he  resigned  in  1873,  together  with  the 
directorship  of  the  museum.  In  1877  ho  W!vs 
elected  president  of  the  Royal  Irish  Academy,  and 
he  died  16th  February  1890.  His  chief  books  are 
Elements  of  C/iernistr}/  (1842)  and  Industrial  Re- 
sources of  Ireland  ( 1844). 

Kangaroo  {Marropus),  a  genus  of  marsupial 
quadrupeils,  of  which  there  are  many  species,  almost 
all  Australian,  although  a  few  are  found  iu  New 
(iiiiuea  and  neighbouring  islands.  The  genus,  lU*- 
now  restricted,  contains,  according  to  the  most  reli- 
able estimate,  twenty-three  sjiecies.  The  kangaroos 
are  of  ditt'erent  sizes  ;  some  of  the  Wallabies,  which 


% 


■V^ 


The  Great  Kangaroo  ( Macropuf  giijanteua ). 

really  belong  to  the  same  "enus,  being  comparatively 
small,  while  the  Great  Kangaroo  \M.  ifii/anleus] 
attains  a  length  of  8  feet,  counting  the  long  tail. 


392 


KANGAROO    APPLE 


KANSAS 


They  .ire  pntiiely  hcilnvorons — mainly  grass  feeders 
—ami  tlie  twu  lower  iiu-isors,  wliicli  are  elongated, 
play  upon  each  other  like  the  blades  of  scissors  and 
croi)  the  grass.  The  tail  is  very  thick  and  strong. 
and  the  animal  uses  it  as  a  third  leg  when  moving 
slowly.  The  hind-legs  are  very  strong,  while  the 
forelimhs  are  short.  They  are  very  jiowerfnl 
animals,  and  the  hind  limb  forms  a  very  efVcctnal 
weapon  for  ri])ping  oi>en  the  bodies  of  dogs,  with 
the  aid  of  which  they  are  sometimes  hunted.  They 
make  enormous  hounds,  and  get  over  the  ground 
very  swiftly  and  gracefully.  Some  kangaroos  can 
jump  a  fence  1 1  feet  higli ;  most  can  jump  one  of 
9  feet.  In  the  districts  where  they  are  still  numer- 
ous, they  are  fornuilable  consumers  of  pasture  ; 
two  kangaroos  eat  .as  much  grass  .as  three  shee|i. 
They  are  treated  as  verujin,  being  hunted,  shot, 
poisoned,  or  killed  liy  means  of  extensive  battnes — 
'yarding'  or  'driving' — when  parties  of  horsemen 
chase  them  into  enclosures  and  kill  them  there, 
many  hundreds  at  a  time.  The  skin  is  valuable 
for  leather,  both  for  shoes  and  gloves.  The  llesh 
is  good  eating,  the  tail  being  a  delicacy,  and  pro- 
ducing excellent  souji.  The  great  kangaroo  was 
discovered  in  1770  on  the  coast  of  New  South 
Wales  during  Cook's  first  voyage.  One  of  the 
most  remarkable  types  of  kangaroo  is  the  Tree 
Ka.ng!ivoo  {Dent/rohir/iis),  in  which  the  hind-limbs 
have  become  proportionately  shorter  in  accord- 
ance with  its  arboreal  life.  The  kangaroos  and 
Wallabies  Ijreed  freely  in  the  Zoological  Gardens 
at  Ijondon,  and  the  young,  as  in  all  Marsupials 
(q.v. ),  are  born  in  a  very  imperfect  condition. 
They  remain  within  the  pouch  of  the  mother,  or 
retreat  there  in  case  of  danger,  long  after  they 
have  ceased  to  be  nourished  by  the  matern.al  milk. 

Kangaroo  Al>l>le,  a  species  of  Solanum  ((|.v.) 
{S.  laciniutiini),  with  a  somewhat  shrubby  succu- 
lent stem,  smooth  iiinnatilid  or  entire  leaves,  and 
lateral  r.acenies  of  Howers  ;  .a  n.ative  of  Peru,  New 
Zealand,  Austr.alia,  .and  T.asmania,  in  which  latter 
countries  its  fruit  is  called  kang.aroo  a])ide,  and  is 
used  a.s  food.  When  unripe,  it  is  acritl,  .and  pro- 
duces a  burning  sensation  in  the  throat ;  but  when 
perfectly  ripe,  it  is  wholesome. 

HailSaroo  HviiSS  (Anihistiria  aiisfrah'.'i).  the 
most  esteemed  fodder-grass  of  Austr.alia.  It  grows 
to  a  height  much  above  that  of  the  fodder-grasses 
of  liritain,  afi"ords  abundant  herb.age,  and  is  much 
relished  by  cattle.  Tlio  genus  is  .allieil  to  Anilro- 
l>ogon,  and  has  clusters  of  llowers  with  an  invcducre. 
The  awns  .are  very  long  and  twisted,  both  in  the 
kangaroo  grass  and  in  a  nearly  allied  species,  A. 
ciliafa,  which  is  one  of  the  most  esteemed  fodder- 
grasses  of  India. 

KailSfaroo  I.slaild,  an  island  of  South 
Australia,  at  the  mouth  of  the  ( iulf  of  St  Vincent 
(see  map  at  .\I1KI,AII)K),  is  S7  miles  by  34  broad, 
with  a  line  climate,  poor  and  sandy  soil,  and  379 
inhaliitants — all  white. 

Kailizsa.  the  name  of  two  towns  in  Hungary. 
(1)  Nagy  (or  Cireat)  Kani/sa,  l.Sti  miles  by  rail 
SW.  of  iiudapest,  ha-s  an  .active  tr.ade  in  agricul- 
tural products,  and  manufactures  bricks,  beer, 
and  spirits.  Pop.  18,47.3.  — (2)  Old  K.anizsa 
(-Kanizsa)  stan<ls  on  the  Theiss,  15  miles  SSW. 
of  S/egeilin.  It  grows  corn  .and  tobacco,  and  rears 
cattle  and  shee|i.      I'op.  l.ijOtiO. 

Kaiio'.  capit.al  of  a  province  of  the  s.ame  name, 
in  the  Negro  state  of  Sokoto,  Central  .-\fiica,  stands 
in  the  middle  of  the  country,  about  '2.")0  nules  SSE. 
of  the  city  of  Sokoto.  The  province,  estim.atod 
to  contain  .')00,()0()  iidi.abitants,  has  from  its  beauty 
and  wealth  been  called  the  'flarden  of  Central 
Africa.'  The  wall  which  surrounds  the  town  of 
Kano  Is  ]')  miles  in  ciicuit ;  but  the  w.all  embraces, 
besides  houses,  gardens  and  cultivateil  fields.     The 


place  is  the  chief  town  of  the  Haussa  (q.v.)  race. 
Pop.  (according  to  I'lobinson )  in  1S96,  IDU.OOO. 

Kansas,  the  centr.al  state  of  the  American 
I'nion,  and  the  eighth  in  area,  is  hounded  N.  hy 
Nebr.aska,  K.  by  Alissouri,  S.  by  copyrigiit  ipw  in  i-.a. 
Indian  Territory,  and  W.  by  by  j.  b.  i.ippincott 
Colorado.  It  is  about  400  mile's  comi«i,y. 
from  e.ast  to  west,  aiul  200  fiom  north  to  south, 
and  cont.ains  .an  area  of  S2,0S0  sc|.  m.  The  surface 
is  for  the  most  jiart  .a  rolling  prairie,  rising  in  the 
northwest  to  between  3000  and  4000  feet.  Along 
the  eastern  boundary  the  average  elev.atiiui  is  800 
feet,  and  the  rise  is  so  gradual  as  to  be  impercep- 
tible ;  there  are  no  mountains  in  the  state.  The 
bottoms  .along  the  Larger  streams  .are  commonly 
called  v.alleys,  and  v.ary  from  J  mile  to  .1  miles  in 
width  ;  in  eastern  Kansas  they  are  ileeply  de- 
pressed, and  .are  skirted  by  bold  blutfs  rising  to  .300 
teet,  Init  in  the  west  the  line  between  valley  and 
upland  can  hardly  he  distinguished.  Kansas  has 
no  uiivigable  river  except  the  Missouri,  which 
forms  a  portion  of  its  eastern  bmindary.  The 
Kansas  or  K.aw  drains  nearly  h.alf  the  st.ate,  and 
the  Arkansas  drains  another  large  portion ;  the 
Neosho  .and  M.arais  des  Cygncs  furnish  the 
water  system  of  south-eastern  Kans.as.  The 
Larger  streams,  as  the  K.ansas  and  Ark.ans.as,  .are 
rivers  of  the  plains,  with  light  banks  and  sandy 
bottoms ;  but  many  of  the  smaller  rivers  have 
rock  bottoms,  .and  supply  .abundant  w.ater-power. 
The  timber  of  the  state  is  found  in  ,a  narrow  belt 
.along  the  watercourses,  princijially  in  the  east. 

Kansas  has  .a  climate  subject  to  extremes  of 
temperature,  but  neither  excessive  cold  ncu'  he.at 
prev.ails  for  long  jieriods.  There  is  .a  gre.at  pro- 
])ortion  of  bright,  clear  weather  in  all  seasons  of 
the  year.  While  .a  record  of  106°  F.  above  zero 
h.as  been  observed,  cases  of  f.at.al  sunstr(d<e  are 
unknown,  .and  men  pursue  their  ordin.ary  outdoor 
avocations  with  scarcely  an  interruption  through- 
out the  year.  The  mercury  rarely  falls  below 
zero,  and  in  many  seasons  the  farmers  [ilough 
during  every  month  of  winter.  The  mean  annual 
lainfall  is  37'10  inches  ;  hut  in  the  west  the  sujiply 
is  nsuch  Tuore  .scanty,  and  in  the  u]iper  Ark.an.sas 
valley  irrigation  by  means  of  ditches  has  been 
introduced.  The  average  annual  tempeiature  is 
53°  F. 

The  minerals  of  K.ans.as  include  lead  and  zinc 
in  abund.ance  in  the  .south-east;  coal  of  excellent 
(|\iality,  the  coal  Held  occujiying  all  the  eastern 
portion  of  the  state  ;  lignite  in  the  west ;  immen.se 
l)eds  of  rock-salt  ;  and  mineral  paint,  gj'psum, 
good  building-stones,  brick  cl.ay,  .and  material  for 
hvdraulic  cement.  The  output  of  coal  in  the  vcar 
ISOO  was  2^  million  tons,  of  lead  50UU  tons,  and  of 
zinc  20,000  tons. 

Kansas  is  .an  agricultural  .and  pastor.al  st.ate. 
The  soil  throughonl  is  uniformly  fertile,  but  there 
is  a  considerable  diireren(!e  ill  actual  productive- 
ness owing  to  the  dillerence  in  the  rainfall.  The 
area  under  wheat,  maize,  and  oats  is  omt  10,000,000 
.acres  (1895).  The  annual  iirodiiceof  wheat  maybe 
set  down  as  upwards  of  70,000,000  bush(ds,  of  maize 
nearly  1.50,000  bushels,  of  oats  4.5,000,000  bushels, 
besides  rye,  barley,  buckwheat,  llax,  potatoes, 
bean.s,  peas,  sorghum  (foi- sugar),  and  tobacco.  (Jre.at 
rjuantities  of  prairie  h. ay  are  cut  on  the  still  un- 
cultiv.ated  jinihie  lands.  The  state  is  especially 
suitable  for  cattle  raising,  large  stocks  of  cattle 
and  swine  (.as  well  ;us  horses,  .sheep,  &c.)  are  kept, 
and  iiieat-iia(d<ing  is  .a  great  industry  in  Kansas 
City.  Creameries  are  numerous,  and  more  and 
more  attention  is  given  to  the  r.aising  of  blooilcd 
stock.  Forestry  al.so  has  engiiged  (he  attention 
of  the  farmers,  and  thous.uids  of  acres  of  pl.anted 
timber  now  break  the  surf.ace  of  the  prairie. 

The  manufacturing  industries  are  chiellv  lliosc 


KANSAS 


KANT 


393 


connecteil  with  atrriculture  ami  stock-raisinc:.  Of 
these  tlie  most  iinportaiit  is  liecf  ami  iiork  parkin;,', 
the  iinnci]ial  pstalilishments  bein;:  at  Kansius  City. 
The  tlouiin^inills  are  next  in  importance,  ami 
then  the  fonmlries,  and  the  manufacture  of  stoves 
and  agricultural  implements.  The  building  of 
railways  be^an  in  Kansas  in  ISfiO;  in  1890  every 
county  in  the  state  save  five  had  one  or  more  lines, 
their  total  length  exceeding  SSdO  miles. 

Kansas  is  ilivided  into  106  counties,  and  sends 
two  senators  and  seven  representatives  to  congress. 
State  otlicers  ami  menihei-s  of  the  legislature  are 
elected  every  two  years.  The  marked  features  of 
the  constitution  are  the  liberal  Homestead  (q.v.) 
exemption  ;  the  privileges  of  married  women,  who 
may  carry  on  Inisiness  and  ludd  jiroperty  as  if 
single  ;  the  sufTrage  provisions,  which  allow  women 
to  vote  at  school  and  municipal  elections  ;  .and  the 
prohibitory  st.atute  whicli  forldds  the  manufacture 
or  sale  in  K.ansas  of  intoxicating  liquoi-s  for  other 
than  medicinal  or  mechanical  purposes.  There 
are  insane  asylums  at  Topeka  and  (Jsawatoniie,  a 
hoys'  reformatory  at  Topek.i,  an  asylum  for  the 
blind  at  Kansas"  City,  a  Sohliers'  Orphans'  Home 
at  Atchison,  an  institution  for  the  education  of 
the  deaf  and  ilumb  at  Olathe,  and  an  a-sylum  for 
idiotic  and  imbecile  youths  at  Winfield  ;  and  the 
state  in  18S9  adopted  also  the  industrial  school  for 
girls  at  Heloit.  In  e.ach  township  two  sections 
(1280  acres)  have  been  given  to  the  common 
schools,  and  the  sale  of  these  lands  forms  the 
ba.sis  of  the  perm.anent  school  fund,  which  amotints 
to  about  S5.(X)0,000.  The  annual  expenditure 
is  also  about  S5,000,000.  In  1890  there  were 
12,1.5'2  teachers,  instnicting  389. .570  children  in  the 
elementary  schools,  besides  218  teachers  in  16 
secondary  schools,  with  3950  pupils.  The  state  also 
maintains  a  university  at  Lawrence,  which  had 
542  students  in  1890 ;  an  agricultural  college  at 
Manhattan  (.514  students):  and  a  normal  school 
at  Emporia  (1120  students).  There  are  also  a 
number  of  denominational  and  other  colleges  in 
the  state.  Co-education  prevails,  with  hardly  an 
exception. 

History. — Kansas  when  fii-st  known  to  white 
explorers  was  occupied  by  several  tribes  of  Indians, 
from  one  of  which,  the  Kaw  or  Kansa-s  Indians,  the 
river  and  the  state  derive  their  names.  The  state, 
save  a  small  fraction,  was  acquired  in  the  Louisiana 
purchase,  and  was  organisecl  as  a  territory  by  the 
passage  of  the  Kansas- Nebr.aska  Act  in  1854.  The 
act  provided  that  the  question  oF  the  existence  of 
slavery  as  a  permanent  institution  in  the  territory 
should  be  decided  by  its  people.  Kansas  at  once 
became  the  battle-ground  l>ptwpen  the  partisans  of 
slavery  and  freedom.  Large  p.arties  from  the  bor- 
dering slave-state  of  Missouri  repeatedly  invaded 
the  territory ;  and  armed  colonists  from  South 
Carolina  and  other  southern  states  came  to  take 
possession.  These  were  met  by  immigrants  from 
the  northern  states.  Both  parties  started  towns 
and  settlements.  Elections  were  attempted,  but 
resulted  in  the  seizure  of  the  polls  by  the  pro- 
slavery  party  and  the  refusal  of  the  Free  State 
party  to  abiile  by  the  declared  results.  Collisions 
necame  numerous,  and  robberies  and  murders  were 
committed.  The  Federal  .adniinistration  sided  with 
the  pro-slavery  party,  anil  used  the  government  of 
the  territory'  and  the  United  States  troops  against 
the  Free  State  party.  John  Brown  (q.v.)  took 
part  in  the  civil  war  which  prev.ailed,  and  many 
lights  that  were  almost  battles  took  place.  The 
Free  State  party  was  steailily  reinforced  from  the 
north,  and  by  the  year  1857  seemed  everywhere 
in  the  .ascendant  :  but  as  late  as  May  18.58  occurred 
what  is  known  in  Kansas  history  a.s  the  '  Marais 
lies  Cygnes  massacre,'  in  which  six  Free  State 
settlers  were  killed  and  four  badly  wounded  by  a 


party  from  Missouri.  After  several  futile  endeav- 
oui's  to  organise,  however,  the  A\'vandotte  con- 
stitution was  linally  adopted  in  18.59,  and  on  the 
29th  of  January  1861  Kansas  was  admitted  .as  a 
state  of  the  I'nion.  The  civil  war  immediately 
followed.  Out  of  a  pojjulation  of  100,000  Kansas 
sent  20.000  soldiei's  to  the  field.  Kansas  snflered 
greatly  throughout  the  war,  but  the  building  of 
railroads,  begun  during  its  continuance,  was  jmshed 
with  energy  at  its  close  ;  immigration  poured  in  on 
a  scale  before  unknown  in  America,  and  the  career 
of  the  state  has  since  been  one  of  almost  unin- 
teiTupted  prosperity.  The  population  of  Kansas 
ill  1860  was  107.206";  in  1890  it  was  1,427,096.  The 
jiopulation  of  the  |)rincipal  cities  in  189(1  was  : 
Kansas  City,  .^8.316  :  Topeka,  the  capital,  .SI. 0117: 
AVichita,  23,8.5:i  (.as  compared  with  4911  in  1880); 
with  Leavenworth,  Atchison,  and  Fort  Scott  below 
20,000  .and  above  10,000. 

Kansas  City,  the  second  city  of  Missouri,  and 
one  of  the  gieat"  towns  of  the  west,  is  situated  on 
the  south  bank  of  the  Missouri  (here  crossed  by  a 
line  railw.ay  bridge),  where  the  river  makes  a  sharp 
bend  to  tlie  east,  283  miles  by  rail  W.  by  N.  of 
St  Louis.  The  notable  part  of  the  city  is  built 
upon  a  series  of  steep  hills,  but  the  site  has  been 
greatly  improved  by  grading.  Large  sums  have 
lieen  spent  in  laying  sewers  and  water  and  gas 
pipes  ;  and  cable-tramways  extend  in  all  direc- 
tions, the  lines  having  a  total  length  of  at  least 
.35  miles.  The  state  frontier-line  bounds  the  city 
on  the  west,  and  consequently  a  large  sulmrb  on 
this  .side,  also  called  Kansas  City,  is  in  the  adjoin- 
ing state  of  Kansas.  This  suburb,  connected  with 
K.ansas  City  by  a  remarkable  elevated  railway, 
has  a  population  of  some  40,000,  and  contains 
great  stock  yards  and  pork-packing  establishments, 
'riie  larger  Missouri  town  possesses  numerous  line 
streets,  and  handsome  residences  on  the  hills. 
Its  public  buildings  include  many  well-designed 
churches,  a  fine  United  States  court-house,  the 
imposing  building  of  the  Board  of  Trade,  and 
several  hos)iitals  ;  there  are  two  medical  colleges 
here,  and  about  thirty  public  schools.  The  city 
is  the  terminus  of  a  number  of  important  railways, 
and  is  a  princip.al  distrilmting  centre  for  the  rich 
agricultural  region  to  the  south  and  west.  Tlie 
sales  of  farming  implements  alone  in  1887  reached 
815,000,000.  'i'here  are  great  grain-elevators  and 
stock-yards,  and  pork-packing  is  a  princijial  in 
dustry  ;  while  the  manufactories,  mostly  in  the 
lower  section  of  the  city,  turn  out  railroad  iron 
and  car-wheels,  shot,  flour,  beer,  butterine.  soap, 
fumiture.  iV-c.  Pop.  (1860)  4418;  (1870)  32,260; 
( 1880)  .55.785  :  (  1890)  132,61s.  The  .assessed  valua- 
tion in  this  Last  ye.ar  was  .§53,017,290.  See  a  jiaper 
bv  Charles  Dudley  AVamer  in  Harper  for  Octolier 
1888. 

Kansas  River  is  formed  by  the  junction  of 
the  Smoky  Hill  Fork  and  the  Solomon  Kiver,  in 
Kansas,  at  .about  97  25'  W.  long.,  and  Hows  gener- 
ally eastward  to  the  Missouri,  which  it  enters  just 
above  Kansjis  City.  Length,  nearly  300  miles,  or 
including  its  forks,  900  miles.  Its  chief  tributary, 
the  Heimblican  Kiver,  has  a  length  estimated  at 
.5.50  miles.  The  importance  of  tlie  Kansas  Kiver 
for  navigjition  is,  however,  not  great. 

Kail-SIl',  tlie  most  north-western  province  of 
China  (q.v.). 

Kant.  IMM.VNUEI.,  probably  reputed  at  luesenl 
tlie  greatest  of  all  modern  jihilosophers,  wius  born 
Aiiril  22,  1724,  at  Kiinigsberg,  in  Ejust  I'rnssia. 
where,  February  12,  1804,  in  the  eightieth  year 
of  his  age,  as  ])rofessor  of  Philosophy  in  the  uni- 
versity, he  died.  His  life,  as  that  only  of  a 
.student  and  a  teacher,  oilers  few  vicissitudes. 
His    parents    were    of    humble    life,    but    pious, 


394 


KANT 


lespt'ctable,  good  people — his  fatlier  a  saddler,  or, 
iiKiie  properly,  a  strap-maker.  Tlie  tradition  is 
tliat  tlie  family  was  of  Scottisli  descent,  and  tlial 
the  name  was  originally  spelt  Cant.  The  tradi- 
tion is  probably  perfectly  correct  as  regards  the 
descent;  but  even  Kants  grandfather  is  found  to 
have  had  his  name  already  spelt  Kand  or  Kant. 
So  far  as  school  and  college  arc  concerned  Kant 
may  be  considered  as  thoroughly  educated  ;  but 
during  the  whole  course  of  these,  up  to  his  twenty- 
third  year,  he  must,  as  regards  comfort,  have  had 
but  a  poor  and  struggling  time  of  it.  For  the 
following  nine  veal's  Kant  supported  himself  as  a 
family  tutor,  the  usual  resource  of  the  ordinary 
German  student,  or  indeed  of  the  poor  ambitious 
student  anywhere.  IJecoming  doctor  of  philosophy 
in  1755,  he  qualified  himself  in  the  same  year  as 
a  priralim  doceiis,  and,  as  such,  he  remained  for 
fifteen  years  what  we  would  call  a  private  lecturer, 
though  in  connection  with  the  university.  Not 
till  177(1,  when  he  was  forty-six  years  of  age,  did 
Kjiiit  liecome  an  ordinary  professor  there  (about 
four  years  before  that  he  had  been  promoted  to  a 
sub-librariaushi]),  with  an  annual  dole  of  some 
eleN'en  pounds  sterling).  For  nearly  fifty  years, 
then,  we  may  say  that  Kant  was  a  teacher  of 
philosophy  at  Konigsberg — a  very  general  one, 
for  he  had  to  embrace  in  his  lectures  mathematics, 
physics,  logic,  metaphysics,  natural  theology,  an- 
thropology, physical  geography,  and,  more  still, 
P/ii/osophical  E/icj/clojJUiha,  to  say  nothing  of 
pyroteclinics  and  the  art  of  fortification  !  There 
can  be  no  doubt  that  Kant  was  acceptable  as  a 
teacher,  ami  that  his  lectures  were  well  attended. 
We  have  an  interesting  testinnmy  from  Herder  to 
that  etl'ect.  His  most  iiopular  course,  however, 
was,  probably,  his  shallowest — that,  namely,  on 
physical  geography — though  not  without  features, 
as  well  curious  in  Kant"s  regard,  as,  in  themselves, 
interesting  and  instructive.  Only  during  the  hist 
twenty  years  of  his  life  can  it  be  said  tliat  Kant 
was  famous.  Before  that,  even  the  correspondence 
with  Lambert  and  Mendelssohn  is  insufticient  to 
show  that  his  excellent  reputation  locally  had 
ever  been  sensibly  more  general.  With  or  without 
name,  he  was  the  author  of  a  separate  work  or 
two  that  had  made  no  mark  ;  and  be  bail  occasion- 
all.y  written  creditalile  papers  in  the  i)ulilic  journals, 
principally  of  his  own  neigliI)ourhood.  lie  was  a 
small,  thin,  somewhat  rickety,  bundle  of  bones ; 
scarcely  5  feet  high  ;  as  the  Scotch  say,  an  au/c/- 
fdirnid  little  body  ;  honest,  tnitli-spcaking,  per- 
fectl.v  well  conducted,  though  nut  reuiarkable  for 
his  attendance  in  church  ;  kindly  and  gracious, 
and,  in  his  own  slender,  pedantic-easy  way, 
sufiiciently  hospitable ;  but,  as  evinced  by  the 
modest  request  he  refused  to  the  sorely-straitened 
Ficlite,  with  a  tight  enough  grip  on  his  own  little 
savings. 

The  writings  of  Kant  can  bo  respectively  assigned 
to  three  periods,  according  as  they  precede,  follow, 
or  belong  to  the  dates  of  his  three  great  Kritikcn 
(Critiques).  Of  these  the  first  is  <Ae  critical  date, 
17S1  :  and  of  the  wlude  period  that  precedes  it 
the  writings  are,  letters  included,  some  thirty  in 
nnmlier.  Now,  let  them  he  as  they  may,  it  is 
niil  perhaps  imiiroliable  that,  hail  K:iut  died  the 
author  of  these  writings  only,  both  he  and  they 
W(uild  have  been  long  ago  forgotten.  Neither  his 
Tliijiifjhts  OH  the  True  E.stinuile  of  Licimj  Furccs, 
nor  his  Ge>ie.r(tl  Natural  Hidori/  and  Theuri)  of  the 
Jicarens,  nor  his  Drcaiits  of  a  I  isionari/  illustrated 
Inj  Dreams  of  Mitaiilii/sies,  luir  even  his  Latin 
dissertation  I)e  Muiiili  SeiisiiilU  atiiiie  I/iliila/i/jilis 
Fur  ma  ct  J'riHcipiix,  would  have  availed,  ii  may 
be,  to  operate  a  diversion  whether  for  works  <m- 
workman.  There  is,  of  couise,  in  mie  of  the 
smaller  papers,  the  hint  on   Kant's  part  that  the 


opposing  course  of  the  tides  is  possibly  acting  in 
retardation  of  the  rotatory  motion  of  the  earth  ; 
but,  otherwise,  the  four  essays  named  form  all 
that  is  of  any  veritable  importance  in  the  first 
literary  period  of  Kant.  Not  but  that,  geneially, 
all  through  this  period,  there  is  evidence  of  nnich 
information  and  much  intelligent  curiosity  on  the 
part  of  an  earnestly-thinking  iiatun^  that  has 
already  attained  to  a  certain  largeness  and  freedom 
of  scope.  The  Thoii/jhta  on  the  True  Kstimate  <f 
Livitaj  Forces  was  Kant's  first  p\iblication,  jiml  is 
sufliciently  creditable  to  a  young  nuin  of  twenty- 
three,  though  on  a  question  that  at  that  mojiient 
had  been  for  S(une  time  already  authoritatively 
settled.  It  is,  however,  difficult  to  find  in  it  either 
the  comprehensive  inaugural  programme  of  bis 
idolaters,  or  even  the  prophetic  excellences  of  his 
more  moderate  admirers.  The  Thcori/  of  the 
Heavens  was  published  in  1755 ;  and  as  regards 
the  suggestion  of  a  nebular  hypothesis  in  that 
reference  Kant  deservedly  claimed  for  himself  the 
priority  whether  we  look  to  Herschel  or  La|)lace. 
Here,  too,  nevertheless,  Kant  only  met  with  bis 
usual  bad  luck  for  long.  The  little  anonymous 
booklet  of  two  hundred  pages  attracted  no  atten- 
tion, not  even  that  of  the  king,  to  whom  it  was 
dedicated.  It  may  be  attributed  to  Kant  iis  a 
merit  that,  at  this  early  date,  he  s]ieaks  of  the 
possibility  of  there  being  planets  in  existence 
l)eyond  Saturn,  as  there  is  to  be  found  in  the 
Fhysiad  Geoijraphi/  a  similar  conjecture  as  regards 
the  existence  of  what  are  now  called  the  asteroids. 
But  in  the  latter  reference  Kant  was  not  the  fiist  ; 
while  his  suggestion  in  the  former  was  an  inspira- 
tion from  an  idea  of  his  own  in  regard  to  comi'ts. 
What,  be  asked  himself,  if,  out  and  beyond  Saturn, 
there  were  planets  in  paths  increasingly  cccent lie 
which,  as  it  vcre,  would  tend  on  the  whole  to 
make  comets  of  planets  !  It  is  but  just  to  note 
that,  a  year  before  its  publication,  the  Thcori/  if 
the  Hcaeens  had  been  already  announced  in  the 
essay  that  cmicerns  the  earth's  rotation.  When 
one  thinks  of  what  speculations  must  have  occu 
pied  at  this  time  the  ndnd  of  Kant,  one  must 
acknowledge  that  all  this  speaks  volumes  for  the 
industrious  inquiries  and  the  ardent  and  original 
refiections  of  this  young  man  of  thirty. 

I'ublished  in  1700,  Kant's  Dreams  of  a  Vixionarif 
Ls  a  rather  remarkable  paper.  Kant,  all  his  life,  at 
least  longed  to  believe  in  the  innnortality  of  the 
sold  and  the  actuality  in  existence  of  a  world  of 
sjiirits.  He  was  very  much  imiuessed,  accordingly, 
by  all  those  stories  in  regard  to  the  supeiiiatural 
intuitions  of  Swcdenborg,  so  much  so,  indeed,  tliat 
he  had  actually  bought,  at  the  enormous  expense  of 
.seven  pounds  sterling,  the  eight  ipiarto  volumes  of 
the  Arcana  Cwlcstia.  And  it  is  in  conseiinence  of 
his  reading  in  these  volumes  that  he  is  led  to  write, 
half-seriously  and  half-ashamed,  this  little,  for  him 
excei>tional,  paper,  that  is,  however,  onlv  in  the 
air.  Not  but  that  there  are,  in  all  proiiability, 
signs  to  be  detected  in  it  of  that  study  of  Hume  at 
last  that  led  in  the  end  to  what  has  determined 
itself  as  his  proper  work  and  as  his  pHqicr  worth. 
These,  howe\  er,  are  but  ob.scure  and  .semi-articulate 
hints,  and  can  hardly  be  regardeil  as  sullicieiit  to 
justify  the  editors  of  Kant  in  characteiising  this 
writing  as  *  a/inoitncenient  uf  his  greater  cnter- 
])rises.  The  DUsertatio  dc  Miindi  Sensihilis  atijne 
Intclligibilis  Fornut  ct  Principiis,  published  in 
1770,  is  really  the  first  of  these,  his  critical 
endeavours.  It  professes  to  sjicak  of  the  form  and 
principles  of  both  of  the  worlds  to  which  we  may 
be  .said  to  belong  ;  anil  it  certainly  succeeds  tn  its 
own  wish  in  regard  to  one  of  them.  For  the  world 
of  the  senses,  namely,  it  does  find,  before  experience, 
and  in  anlicipatiim  i)f  experience,  actual  ehiiieiits 
of  experience  that  are  not   due  to  experience  at 


KANT 


30.- 


all,  pfic-eptions  of  thiugs  that  are  uot  due  to  the 
jtcrre/itioii  of  things,  but  only  to  the  iiiiiul  itself, 
only,  as  it  were,  to  projections  from  within  that 
throw  themselves  without,  and  stand  around  with- 
out. These  are  Time  and  Sp.-vce,  which,  original 
or  native  to  the  faculty  itself,  are  the  it  ^niuri 
forms  of  perceptive  sense.  That,  at  least,  is  the 
conclusion  of  Kant  ;  and,  in  that  regard,  he  is  now 
alpout  as  complete  in  the  iJissirtiitiun  as  he  was 
eleven  years  afterwards  in  the  Cn'tiijiir.  A  similar 
completeness  does  not  follow  him  at  present,  how- 
ever, in  respect  to  the  other  or  Intcllinible  world, 
the  world  of  ideas,  of  the  intellect,  the  name  of 
which  also  runs  in  the  title.  Prohahly  no  one 
reads  this  Latin  work  in  these  days;  but  if  any 
one  attempts  it,  most  assuredly  he  will  lind  him- 
self, in  regard  to  «  hat  of  the  ititdliglbh  world  he 
is  to  understand  he  ha-s  learned  from  it,  only  exas- 
perated. It  is  only  possible  to  suppose  of  Kant 
here,  that,  having  succeeded  to  his  mind  in  the 
discovery  of  a  priori  forms  of  sense,  he  can  as  yet 
only  search  anil  search,  and  fiml  himself  vaguely 
and  variously  bogged,  in  a  similar  attempt  witli 
reference  to  the  a  priori  principles  of  the  under- 
standing, the  intellect.  For  success  in  that  respect 
he  had  still  to  wait  for  the  coming  into  his  mind 
of  the  idea  of  school-logic  and  the  forms  of  the 
syllogism. 

That  was  the  triumph  of  the  great  work  of  1781, 
the  Critique  of  Pure  Jieason.  We  know  that  what 
le<l  to  the  whole  work  of  Kant  w;is  the  endeavour 
on  his  jjart  to  lind  in  the  proposition  of  causality 
that  apodictic  necessity,  anil  that  rationale  of  it, 
which  Hume,  as  against  his  own  solution  of  custom, 
habit,  challenged  trom  philosophy  and  the  w  (irld  at 
large.  Evcri/ change  must  have  a  cause.  Yes,  said 
Hume,  but  such  an  affair  as  change  can  only  be 
known  by  experience  ;  without  experience  it  would 
l>e  unknown.  Consequently,  then,  it  Is  but  a  fact 
of  experience,  and,  like  every  other  such  fact,  we 
know  that  it  is-,  but  not  that  it  must  be.  The 
necessity  we  attribute  to  its  appearance  is  only  a 
necessity  of  custom.  On  the  contrary,  says  Kant, 
we  really  do  attribute  to  any  apiiearance  of  change 
a  perfect  certainty  of  necessity,  a  necessity  abso- 
lute, a  necessity,  not  a  dot  or  a  jot,  not  one  iota 
less  apodictic  than  we  attribute  to  any  pioposi- 
tion,  to  any  axiom  of  the  mathematics.  That  the 
shortest  Hue  is  the  straight  line — our  conviction  in 
that  respect  is  not  more  fixed,  jussured,  immovable, 
than  our  conviction  that  every  effect,  every  change, 
must  have  a  cause.  And  so  far,  no  doubt,  Kant 
was  right.  But  what,  then,  further,  of  the  reason 
of  this  necessity,  the  rationale  of  it,  the  explana- 
tion of  it ':  Seeing  that  the  proposition  of  causality 
is  really  an  inferential  projiosition — a  proposition 
with  a  conclusion,  as  it  were,  from  premises — one 
would  have  tliimght  it  natural  on  the  part  of  Kant 
to  turn,  in  the  tirst  place,  to  the  consideration  of 
reason  and  reasoning  rather  than  to  the  considera- 
tion of  actual  perception  and  sense.  But,  probably, 
as  has  just  been  named,  it  Wiis  the  suggestion  of 
mathematics  that  led  ti>  this.  To  explain  the 
necessity  of  mathematics  might  be  to  exi>lain  also 
the  necessity  of  cau.sality.  We  can  leave  Kant's 
consequent  proceedings  to  be  pictured  here ;  it  Ls 
not  ditlicult  to  n^alise  how  he  came  to  his  con- 
clusion and  to  his  belief  in  it.  \  luathematical 
truth  dcpendeil  just  on  the  fa<-t  of  perception  ;  but, 
inasmuch,  again,  as  a  mathenuitical  truth  was  an 
apodictic  truth,  the  perception  on  which  it  de- 
pended could  not  1)6  a  perception  of  experience. 
Such  perception  could  not  hi;  ii  jiostcriori ;  it  must 
l)e  a  jierception  absolutely  independent  of  experi- 
ence ;  a  perception,  consequently,  then,  special, 
proper,  and  peculiar  :  a  jjerception  .vm;  gimris — a 
iierception  «  priori!  But  how  could  that  be? 
Why,  only  by  space,   which   was  the  source  and 


the  seat,  and,  so  to  speak,  the  blackboard  ami 
tablet  of  mathematics,  being  itself  ii  jiriori.  But 
if  space  were  a  priori,  so  would  time  be.  As  we 
have  seen  from  the  Uisscrlutioii,  this  of  u  jiriori 
perception,  was  probably  Kant's  fii-st  acquisition 
and  conquest — towards  the  rationale  he  sought. 
Evidently,  however,  it  was  still  inadecjuatc  to  the 
want.  Time  and  space  might  be  a  jiriori,  but 
change,  a  mere  experience  of  special  sense,  couM 
not  lie  there.  Could  we  not  adil  from  the  intellect 
an  inferential  a  jiriori  form,  which,  availing  itself 
of  the  '(  priori  perceptive  f  jrm,  might,  in  combina 
tiou  with  it,  gi^■e  biith  to  an  a  priori  scliemu  in 
supply  of  the  entire  virtue  of  necessity  to  every 
actual  instance  of  causality  that  could  possibly 
emerge?  It  was  here  now  that  the  suggestion  of 
logic  gave  to  Kant  his  whole  tree  of  Categories  as 
si/itthescs  in  correspondence  with  the  analyses  of 
tlie  functions  of  Judgment.  Judgments,  proposi- 
tions, were  universal,  particular,  singular;  attirnia- 
tive,  negative,  infinite  ;  categorical,  hypothetical, 
disjunctive  ;  problematic,  assertoric,  apodictic.  So 
far,  what  was  concerned  was  in  its  nature  analytic  ; 
but  if  we  supposed  an  equal  number  of  synthetic 
functions,  then  under  the  same  four  general  rubrics 
of  Quantity,  Quality,  Relatiim,  and  Modality,  we 
should  have  the  twelve  correspondent  categories  of 
unity,  multitude,  allne.ss;  reality,  negation,  limi- 
tation ;  substance,  causality,  reciprocity  ;  possi- 
bility, actuality,  necessity.  It  is  impossible  to 
follow  Kant  here  in  the  working-out  of  all  that  ; 
but  it  is  really  enough  to  understaiKl  as  much. 

These  categories  now  were  eonstitiitiee :  they 
actually  entered  into  the  composition  and  con- 
stitution of  things  as  these  presented  themseh  es 
for  the  Iierception  of  sense.  That  is,  as  acting  on 
the  a  priori  perceptive  matter,  or  manifold  of  space 
and  time,  they  (the  categories)  gave  rise  to  a  pure 
or  a  priori  perceptive-intellectual  schema  that, 
combining  with  the  sensations  of  sense  as  these 
came  into  consciousness  (from  whence  they  might), 
produced,  in  projection  around  us,  this  ruled  and 
regulated,  orderly,  intelligible  universe,  in  which 
the  necessity  due  to  the  categories  was  the  \ery 
source  of  law.  To  these  constitutive  materials 
there  were  ailded,  regu/ativc/i/,  the  three  hhns. 
Determined  by  the  Category  of  Kelation  in  the 
three  forms  which  are  found  under  it,  there  are, 
generically,  three  forms  also  of  the  logical  syllo- 
gism, applicable  respectively  to  the  unconditioned 
of  the  categorical  synthesis  in  a  subject,  of  the 
hypothetical  synthesis  of  the  terms  of  a  seiies,  and 
of  the  disjunctirc  synthesis  of  parts  in  a  system. 
And  these  results,  otherwise  named,  are  the  objects 
of  psychology,  cosmology,  and  theology',  or  the 
siml,  the  world,  and  Coil.  These,  however,  jire 
but  ideas — only  centres,  as  it  were,  for  further 
simi)lification  and  regulation  among  the  categories 
themselves.  It  is  for  the  Critique  of  I'ractical 
IleasoH  now  to  come  in  and  extend  at  least  the 
coiiriction  of  existence  to  these  transcendental 
objects  of  .soul.  World,  (iod  ;  and  what  suiiplies 
authority  and  fulcrum  to  this  critique  in  this  is 
the  categorical  imperative — the  fact  of  the  praitical 
ego  possessing  a  categorical  imperative  in  deter- 
mination of  its  own  will.  Considering  that  the 
ego,  theoretically,  was  declared  to  be  no  more 
than  an  ideal — no  more,  so  to  speak,  than  a  mere 
logical  diit  iin  a  mere  logical  / — it  is  hard  lo  undei- 
sland  how,  practically,  it  can  rise  at  once  into 
such  throne  of  an  autocrat.  But  this  is  certain  : 
it  is  for  his  practical  critique  that  Kant  deserves 
all  our  heartiest  praise.  So  nnich  has  Kant  what 
he  writes  at  heart  here  that  all  .■^eems  to  issue  at 
once  from  within  him  in  ,i  single  breath.  No 
purer,  no  more  li\iiig  morality,  has  ever  bfcn  pro- 
fessionally jiroducid  by  philosopher  than  glows  iu 
the  Ethics  of  Kant. 


396 


KANT 


KAOLIN 


It  would  iipppar  that  when  Kant  had  accoiii- 
plishcd  iu«  much  as  this,  lie  tuiiied  hack  to  hiok 
upon  it  anil  reflect.  I  have  foun<I,  lie  seems  to 
have  said  to  himself,  my  Catej^'ories  in  the  ri  priori 
of  the  understandiii!,',  and  my  Ideas  in  the  o  priori 
of  the  reason.  That  is  enonjrh  for  our  theoretical 
and  practical  interests  ;  hut  what  of  our  only  otiier 
jreneric  interest  that  remains — what  of  our  interest 
that  wfi  call  irxthrtir?  That  refers  to  a  function 
on  our  part  that  seems  intermediate  l»et\\'een  the 
other  two— the  theoretical  and  practical  functions. 
But  these  dependin;;  respectively  on  the  I'nder- 
standin<;  and  Reason,  is  there  nothing  similarly 
intermediate  hetween  these  two  again?  Yes,  there 
is  Juiignient.  And  so  it  wa-s  that  Kant  was  led 
to  his  third  great  critique,  the  subjects  of  which 
were  generally,  to  say  so,  the  products  of  .\rt — i.e. 
Beauty,  Suhlimity,  Design.  Beauty  originated  in 
the  harmony  of  our  own  two  constitutive  elements 
— sense  on  the  one  side  and  intellect  on  the  other. 
Sublimity  was  the  feeling  of  the  exaltation  in 
mind  above  every  menace  and  magnitude  of  sense. 
Since  design,  so  to  speak,  meant  evident  arrange- 
ment liy  another  hand  as  though  from  without,  it 
was  imiiossible  to  give  it  place,  on  such  terms,  in 
our  world  ;  which,  in  the  contributions  of  special 
sense  (mere  sensations),  in  time  and  space,  in  the 
<;.ategories,  the  ideas,  and  .all  else,  was  only  a  world 
within — a  world,  indeed,  all  but  wholly  of  our  own 
construction  witliin.  We  could  only  say  of  it 
(design),  in  such  circumstances,  that  we  ourselves 
were  so  fashioned  that  we  could  only  see  into  our 
world  as  thotigk  it  were  the  product  of  an  under- 
.standing. 

Among  the  remaining  works  of  Kant  there  are 
some  of  considerable  bulk  and  some  interest,  but 
little  value — at  least  so  far  as  originality  is  con- 
cerned. Such  are  the -f^jf^Aro/Wof/Zf  and  the  io7/A'. 
The  Streit  cler  FacnltMen,  liecht.slehrp.,  Tuqeiid- 
lelire.  Religion  innerhalb  der  Grcnzen  cier  blossen 
Vernmift — all  are  well  worth  reading,  and  will 
greatly  help  to  a  general  understanding  of  their 
author.  In  that  latter  respect  the  Prolrgomcna, 
the  criticism  of  Kberhard,  and  the  essay  on  the 
Progress  of  Metaphysics  since  Leilinitz  and  Wolff, 
are  specially  to  be  signalised,  and  may  even  he 
named  indispensable.  The  essay  in  the  jihilo- 
sophy  of  nature,  Mctnphysisrhe  Aiifciti(jsgriiti(lr, 
der  Kntiiririssentirhiift,  cannot  well  be  neglected, 
and  still  less,  perhaps,  various  little  essays  in 
natural  history.  Even  the  critique  of  Herder  will 
be  found  good,  and,  just  on  the  whole,  it  may  be 
said  that  no  work  on  Kant's  ]iart,  however  small, 
shoulil,  if  belonging  to  the  middle  or  concluding 
perioil,  fail  to  be  read.  The  little  essays  that  bi^ar 
on  natural  history,  for  example,  however  unimport- 
ant they  may  ajipear,  contain  more  than  one 
<leelarati(m  that  is  of  interest,  in  so  far  .as  K.ant, 
though  .averse,  lu-oh.abiy,  to  the  dogma  of  direct 
creation,  h.as  yet.  in  his  perception  of  the  existence 
of  ide.as,  .and  of  actual  cnncert  on  iile.as,  in  nature, 
never  .a  thought  of  even  the  suggestion  of  a 
mechanical  evolution  through  ch.ance. 

It  is  impossible  to  overr.ate  the  enormous  impulse 
which  Kaut  has  Iieen  the  means  of  giving  to  the 
stiiily  of  ])liilosopliy,  both  in  ( ierniany  .ami  every- 
where elsi'  (as  W(dl  in  .\meric.i,  and  the  East  .as  in 
Europe),  (^uite  a  host  of  names,  besides  those  of 
Jacobi,  Kichte.  Sclielliiig,  Hegel,  Ilerhart.  Kiause, 
Schopenh.iuer,  Schleieniiacher,  might  be  mentioned 
in  this  connection.  It  is  not  (piite  certain,  how- 
ever, that  Kant's  work  will  prove  to  h.ave  been 
more  in  the  end  than  one  princi|)ally  of  suggestion. 
We  know  not  but  that,  if  all  that  monstrous 
gaunt  m.aehinery — aslhetic,  analytic,  what  not 
— li.ad  been  oM'eied  precisely  as  the  machinery 
proper  for  the  ]>roduction  of  the  necessity  in 
causality — we    know    not    but    that,   if   all    that 


monstrous  waunt  machinery  ( time  and  space 
them.selves  .sliut  up  within  it)  had  been  seriously 
offered,  for  that  jiiirpose,  from  German)/,  and  in 
the  time  of  Hume — we  know  not  Tmt  that  it  might 
have  been  received  with  something  more  un- 
equivocal th.an  a  smile  1  But  be  that  as  it  may, 
and  .assuming  the  constructions  of  K.ant  to  jirove 
in  themselves  neither  a  solution  for  the  problem  of 
the  universe,  nor  yet  for  the  problem  of  causality, 
we  have  still  to  bear  in  mind  what  sin/f/extioii  in  his 
regard  means.  Apart  all  consideration  of  his  fol- 
lowers, the  truth  is  that  it  is  to  Kant  we  owe — with 
discount  only  of  .all  necessary  historical  addition 
— our  entire  metaphysical  m.aterial  at  juesent. 
Keally,  whatever  metal  of  speculation  is  anywhere 
turneil  now,  the  ore  of  it  «as  Kant's.  The  ( 'riliqiie 
of  Pure  Eeanon,  if  not  precisely  to  be  named  .a 
liberal  edxic.ation,  very  cert.ainly  is,  has  been,  and 
will  remain,  an  education  in  pliilosophy. 

Bibliography. — A  comjilete  liibliogr.iiiliy  of  Kant 
would  cover  pages,  and  is  beyond  tlie  proportions  of 
this  publication.  AVe  name  only  what  will  jirobably 
be  found  most  useful.  Of  the  whole  worl<s  four  edi- 
tions may  be  mentioned,  tliose  of  Rosenkraiiz  and 
.Schubert  "( Leip.  1838-42);  of  Hartenstein  (Leip.  l.SIW- 
.■5!>);  .again  of  Hartenstein  (Leip.  l.Sti7-69);  of  V. 
Kircliiiiann  (I.oip.  ISdS.  and  further).  Benno  Erdinaiin 
(Leip.  1880)  edits  a  notable  edition  of  the  Critique  of 
Pure  Heason,  and  Reclam,  of  Leipzig,  publishes  a  vei-y 
ii-^efnl  small  edition  of  the  same  work,  edited  by  Kehr- 
bach.  Of  translations  of  the  Critique  of  Pure  Iiia»o» 
into  English  there  are  those  of  Meiklejohn  and  Jlax 
Miiller,  and  the  text-book  to  Kant  of  Stirling.  Abbott 
and  Bax  also  translate  into  English  important  works  of 
Kant,  the  one  the  Et/iiex  and  the  other  the  Proleuomt'ua. 

Of  writers  generally  in  regard  to  the  philosophy  of 
Kant  the  following  may  be  mentioned — German  :  Hegel. 
Michelet,  Erdmann,  Ueberweg,  Schwegler.  Kiino  Fischer, 
L  H.  Fichte,  Chalybaeus,  I'lrici,  Biedeniiann,  Wcigelt, 
Fortlage,  Ritter,  Kirchner,  Drechsler,  Liebmann,  Ibiyin, 
Oischinger,  Schaarschmidt,  Zeller,  Drnhisch,  Stttl'.n, 
"Windelband,  V.  Hartmann,  Krause,  Volkelt,  llulder, 
Vaibinger,  Staudinger,  Lasswitz,  Spicker,  Paulsen.  Thiele, 
Cohen,  Riehl.  Stadler,  Thilo,  Lliihring,  Sigwart,  Falcken- 
berg.  French :  Ott.  Willin,  "U'ocquitT,  Fouclier  de 
Careil,  Barchou  de  Penhoen,  Saintcs,  Jlaurial,  Saisset, 
Villers,  Vacherot,  Cousin.  Italian  :  Oalupjii,  Testa, 
.Spaventa,  Lilla,  Cesca.  English  :  Nitsch,  M'illich.  Hodg- 
son, Laurie,  Montgomery,  Bolton,  Ingleby,  Adaiiison, 
Seth,  Hastie,  Bowen,  Morris,  Porter,  Caird,  Watson, 
JlahafTy,  JMaguire,  Monck,  Green,  Wallace,  Alansel, 
Lewes,  Nakashinia,  A.  J.  Balfour. 

Kaolin.  <ir  China  Clay,  is  fine  white  clay  used 
in  making  porcel.ain.  Like  less  pure  clays,  it  is 
essentially  a  hydr(ms  silicate  of  alumina,  l>nt  it  is 
.a  coniiiaratively  rare  substance.  The  cl.ays  found 
in  most  localities  contain  iron  in  sutlicient  quantity 
to  colour  them  red  or  bull' when  burned  in  .a  kiln,  but 
China  clay  is  of  a,  pure,  or  nearly  imre  Mhite  both 
before  .and  after  it  is  fired.  This,  together  with  its 
refr.actory  n.atnre,  m.akes  it  of  great  value  in  the 
m.auufacture  of  porcelain,  of  which  it  forms  the 
chief  ingredient.  It  is  .also  used  to  .a  cimsider- 
able  extent  by  p.aper-makers,  and  in  less  quantity 
in  the  m.aking  ot  some  chemical  products.  Ka(din 
is  .a  product  of  the  decomposition  of  the  felspar  of 
a  granitic  rock.  The  name  Kaolin  is  derive(l  from 
the  Chinese  Kiio-linij,  'high  ridge,'  the  name  of 
hills  near  King  tih-chin  in  Chiang  hsi,  .a  chief 
se.at  of  the  porcidain  manufacture  in  Chin.a.  Clay 
from  this  district  w.as  sent  to  Europe  early  in  the 
18th  century  by  .Jesuit  niissi(uiaries  ;  similar  clay 
was  discovered  in  S.axony  ;  anil  .about  17.").^  it  was 
discovered  in  Cornw.all,  whence  the  chief  English 
supplies  .are  obtaine<l,  some  being  also  obtained  in 
Devonshire  in  all,  about  SO.OOO  tons  a  year.  K.io- 
lin  is  found  in  France,  and  in  Xebr.aska  and  other 
.states  of  the  .\nierican  I'nion  ;  in  the  I'niti'il 
States  the  annual  consumption  is  some  18,()(H)  tons. 
See  Cornwall,  Eklspah,  Pottery. 


KAPELLMEISTER 


KARLINGS 


3'J7 


KapellllK'Islcr  ((lonuan),  the  iliieotor  of  uu 
orchestra  or  ehuir,  iiioie  especially  the  hand  of  a 
luliii;:  iniiice  in  lleiiiiaiiy. 

kapila,  the  founilev  of  the  S:inkhya  philo- 
sophy, one  of  the  philosophical  systems  of  the 
Hiniius.  He  is  nsually  leijuteil  to  have  been  a 
son  of  Hiahina  :  hut  he  is  otherwise  described  as  an 
incarnation  of  Vishnu. 

Ka|»p«'l*     See  Cappel. 

Kara,  the  name  of  a  gold-mining  district,  in  a 
dreary  \alley  in  eastern  Silieria,  about  .'JOO  miles 
from  Chita  and  nearly  5000  from  St  Petei'sburg. 
The  mines  are  the  private  property  of  the  czar,  and 
are  worked  by  convicts,  of  whom  there  are  gener- 
ally about  2000  stationed  here.  The  annual  yield 
is  6400  oz.  of  gold.  Since  1879  Russian  political 
prisoners  have  been  regularly  sent  to  this  remote 
region.  See  Kennan's  interesting  papers  in  the 
Coitiiri/  Miniuziiic,  June-August  1889. 

Ksirai'lii.    See  Kurrachee. 

Kara-<ieorge.    See  Czersy. 

Kara-liissar.    See  Afium  Kara-Hissar. 

karait«'!>.    See  Jews  (Bcligion). 

Kara-kol.    See  Bokhara. 

Karakorillll.  ( l )  a  name  given,  but  according' 
to  the  Ijcst  neu^raphei-s  erroneously,  to  the  Muzta^'h 
range,  in  the  western  Himalayas ;  sometimes  also 
it  is  given,  again  erroneously,  to  the  Knen-Lun 
ran<,'e  on  the  north  of  Tibet.  The  Mustag;!'  or 
Muztagh  range  is  that  part  of  the  Himalayas 
which  Ties  to  the  west  of  the  Indus  and  e.\tends  as 
far  as  the  head  of  the  Gilgit  Valley.  It  embraces 
some  of  the  loftiest  peaks  of  the  Himalayan 
system. — (2)  The  name  is  properly  apjiropriate  to 
a  pass  ( 18,550  feet),  the  culminating  point  of  the 
route  between  India  and  East  Turkestan,  in  .35°  33' 
N.  lat.  and  north  from  Leh. — (3)  Karakorum  is 
also  used  to  indicate  the  old  Mongolian  capital, 
to  the  north  of  the  desert  of  Gobi,  on  the  Orkhon,  a 
tributary  of  the  Selcnga  River.  The  ruins  remain. 
For  the  mountains,  see  Himalaya  ;  Asi.\,  p.  485 ; 
and  Conway,  Cliinbiny  in  tlic  Kumkoram  Muuntains 
(1894). 

Kara-kiiiii.    See  Kizil-kum. 

Karaiiiaii.    See  Caramania. 

Karailllia.sa.  a  river  of  India,  divides  Bengal 
from  the  N\V.  Provinces,  and,  after  a  course  of 
14t)  miles,  enters  the  Ganges  from  the  right.  The 
Hindus  hold  it  in  the  greatest  abhorrence,  and  will 
neither  drink  nor  touch  its  waters,  although  they 
an;  of  crystal  clearness  and  abound  in  lish. 

Karaiiisiii.  Xii-hol.\.s  :Michailovitch,  the 
greatest  of  Kussian  historians,  was  born  on  12th 
December  171)5,  at  Mikhailovka  in  Orenburg. 
His  father,  an  officer  of  Tartar  descent,  placed 
him  in  the  army,  but  he  soon  left  it  to  devote 
himself  to  literary  |)iirsuits,  and,  after  a  tour  in 
(lermany,  Switzerlaml,  and  France,  established 
the  Moscow  JoKi-iuil,  and  published  volumes  of 
tales,  critical  papers,  translations,  &c.  The  work 
whicli  tirst  gained  him  a  high  reputation  was  his 
Letters  of  a  Riisxinn  Traveller  (<>  vols.  1797-1801). 
In  1803  he  Wius  appointed  imperial  historiip^'rai)her, 
and  from  this  time  lalioured  uninterru]itciUy  at.  his 
Hi'.slori/  of  Jiiixsiii  (II  vf>ls.  IS  Hi  29);  but  he  only 
brou^'lit  it  ilown  to  1013,  <lying  on  3d  June  1820 
in  the  midst  of  his  labours.  In  this  great  work, 
the  lirst  really  critical  history  of  Russia,  Karamsin 
manifests  so  much  enthusiastic  lulmiration  for  men 
like  Ivan  the;  Terrible  that  it  has  been  called  the 
■  Kpic  of  Despotism.' 

Kara  Sen  is  the  portion  of  the  Arctic  Ocean 
lying  between  Nova  Zendilaaml  the  Yalmal  I'enin 
sula,  oil'  the  Siberian  coast.  The  river.s  Obi  anil 
Veni.sei    discharge    their    waters    into    its    north- 


eastern corner.  Since  Xordenskjold's  famous 
voya^'e  in  the  Vc;/a  (1875)  the  En;,disli  navi;,'at(ir. 
Captain  Wiggins  (who  lirst  demonstrated  the 
navigability  of  the  sea  in  the  previous  year),  has 
more  than  once  succeeded  in  carrying  a  cargo  of 
men^haiidise  to  the  mouth  of  the  Yenisei,  and 
getting  back  the  same  summer.  The  Kara  Sea 
being  thus  navigable  for  about  two  months  (.luly 
to  September)  in  the  year,  it  is  hoped  tli.it  it  can 
lie  made  available  for  an  important  trade  with 
Silieria.  Captain  Hovgaard  of  the  Danish  navy 
urged  in  the  Scottish  Ocor/nijj/iicdl  Mai/dziiie  {lUinn- 
ary  1890)  that  this  would  be  the  most  feasilile 
route  whereby  to  reach  the  North  Pole. 

KaratO^lill,  a  country  of  central  Asia,  forms 
the  easternmost  province  of  Bokhara,  and  has  the 
Ivussian  province  of  Ferghana  (Khokand)on  the 
north.  It  is  a  highland  region  (6000  7000  feet), 
and  is  traversed  from  east  to  west  by  the  Surkhab 
or  Kizil-su,  a  tributary  of  the  Ainu-Daria.  .'\rea, 
8310  sq.  m.  In  winter  (October  to  May)  the 
climate  is  very  severe ;  nevertheless  much  fruit 
and  corn  are  grown.  The  people,  Tajiks  by  race, 
number  about  100,000,  with  about  5000  luimad 
Kirghiz.  The  native  khans  claimed  to  be  descended 
from  one  of  Ale.xander's  captains,  and  only  lost 
their  independence,  to  Bokhara,  in  1808. 

Karailli  (Keroa-lee),  a  native  state  in  Uaj- 
pntana,  separated  by  the  river  Chambal  from 
Gwalior.  Area,  1208's().  m.  ;  population,  150,587, 
Dearly  all  Hindus.  It  is  a  hilly  country,  especially 
rich  in  timber. — The  capital,  Karauli,  75  miles  N^V . 
of  Gwalior,  is  defended  by  a  sandstone  wall,  2  miles 
in  e.vtent.     Pop.  25,607. 

Karozait'.  a  town  of  Hungary,  formerly  cajiital 
of  Great  Cumania,  is  sitnateil  99  miles  by  rail  E. 
by  S.  of  Budapest.     I'op.  15,825. 

Karolia.  an  old  name  for  the  south-east  part 
of  Finland,  annexed  to  Russia  by  Peter  the  Great 
in  1721.  The  Karelians  properly  so  calliul  are  a 
liranch  of  the  Finnic  race,  about  ,303,000  in  inimber, 
who  dwell  in  the  eastern  ]iarts  of  Fiidand  ami 
the  adjoining  provinces  of  Russia  from  Aiehangel 
to  Tver.     See  Rae's  White  Sea  Fcniusiila  ( 1882). 

Karens'.    See  Burma,  Vol.  II.  p.  564. 

Karikal.  the  second  in  importance  of  the 
French  possessions  in  India,  is  on  the  Coromandel 
coast,  12  miles  N.  of  Negapatam,  and  has  an  area 
of  nearly  53  sq.  m.  It  is  a  fertile  tract,  well  sup- 
plied with  rivers  and  canals,  and  larjiely  given  up 
to  the  cultivation  of  rice.  The  pleasant  little 
capital,  about  a  mile  from  the  sea,  has  been  four 
times  taken  by  the  British.  There  is  an  active 
trade  in  rice,  priiicip'illy  with  Ceylon  and  the 
.Straits  Settlements.  The  annual  revenue  is  about 
.tl6,000.      Poll.  (  1895)  00,376. 

Karli.  a  Chaitya  templecav(;  in  Bombay  Presi- 
dency, on  the  road  between  IJombay  and  Pocina. 
In  front  stands  a  lion-pillar,  sup]iortin.i;  four  lions, 
anil  bearing  an  inscription  whicli  asi'ribes  its  date 
to  the  1st  century  l!.c.  The  outer  porch,  52  feet 
wide,  is  closed  liy  the  remains  of  a  screen.  The 
dimensions  of  the  interior  are  120  feet  by  45  feet 
7  inches,  the  htught  being  not  over  45  feel.  'I'lie 
iiuildinj;  consists  of  'a  nave  and  two  side-aisles, 
terminating  in  an  apse  or  semi-dome,  round  which 
the  aisle  is  carried.'  All  the  pillars  aiv  octagonal, 
the  seven  behind  the  dagoba  or  Tojie  (q.v.)  being 
plain,  but  the  fifteen  on  either  side  of  the  nave 
having  richly  ornamented  capitals  bearing  elephants 
and  human  ligures,  all  admirably  executed.  Over 
the  entr.uice  is  one  gri'at  window  in  the  form  of 
a  hor.seshoe  directing  the  light  mainly  on  the 
dagoba.     See  Fergusson,  History  of  Indian  Arcki- 

trrtlirc. 

Karliii^s.    See  Carlovingians. 


398 


KARLSBAD 


KAKUN    RIVER 


Karlsbad,     l*'"'-  Kailsbail,  Kailskrona,  Karls- 
nilic.  i>v:l\,  see  CaklsHAD,  &C. 

Karlsblirs;  (Il""g-   Gyuhi-FMrvar)    a  town 
aiiil  fortress  of  Transylvania,  near  the  Maros,  1/0 
miles  E.  of  Szegediii  by  rail.     Pop.  73S8. 
Karma.    See  IUdduism,  Vol.  II.  p.  518. 
KariliatlliailS.    a   religions  an.l   coniMUinistio 
.sect   into   Nvhid.   the   Isnuulis   (q.v.)    ,levelopetl    in 
\sia  nnder  tlie  leail  of  Haiiidan  Kavniat,  a  peasant- 
prophet  in  the  re-ion  of  Kufa.     The  secret  society 
iooii    or-anise.!    itself    and    began    a    fo'-mulab  e 
peasant   war.     Bahrein   was  overrun     and   in  900, 
under  Abu  Said,  the  Kannathians  took  Hajr,  north- 
east of  Vambu,  and  made  it  their  capital.    Damascus 
had  to  ransom  itself :    Haalliec  was  taken  and  its 
inhabitants  put  to  the  sword.      Abu   haul  s   son 
\l)n  Taher,  succeeded  him.      In  923  he  took  antl 
plundered    Bassora ;    next   year    he    plundered    a 
caravan  of  20,000  pilgrims  returning  from  Mecca  ; 
and  in  025  captured   and  plundered   Kufa,   kiUing 
or  enslaving  the  inhabitants.      In  930  during  the 
Haii     he    took    Mecca,     killing    30,000    persons 
choked  the  well  Zem  Zera  with  corpses,  and  cavrie. 
awav    the    black    stone.       Then    he    tlireat_ened 
Bafflad  with  only  500  horse  from  among  his  10/, 000 
arined  zealots.     During  the  next  eight  years  there 
was  no  Hajj,  but  it  wa-s  resumed  on  a  payment 
of  25,000  dinars  by  the  calif  to  Abu   Taher.      Ihis 
leader  ilied  in  peace  iu  943,  leavin^,'  the  control  ot 
religion  and  politics  to  a  council  ot  seven.     After 
a  twenty-two  years'  absence  the  black  stone   was 
brou"ht'  back  to  Mecca  by  the  Karmathiaus  and 
ransomed.      During  the  next  hundred   years   the 
sect  gradually   succumbed   to  the   sword   and    to 
natural  causes,  but   not  until   it   had   acted  as  a 
powerful  dissolvent  on  the  califate. 
Kariiac.    See  Thebes. 

Kariiul.  capital  of  a  district  in  the  Punjab, 
India,  7  miles  W.  of  the  present  course  of  the 
.Jumna,  and  on  the  West  em  .lumna  Canal.  Ihe 
poiiulation  decreased  from  27,022  in  18U8  to  23,133 
in  1881,  and  to  21,963  in  1891. 
Kiiriitlien.    See  Carinthia. 

Karillll.  a  town  in  Madras  Presidency,  India, 
no  miles  S.  by  \V.  from  Haidarabad  (Hyderabad). 
Fever  is  endemic.  Pop.  (1871)  25,579 ;  (1891 ) 
24,576.  — The  rf/.vr;-/c<-  separated  on  the  north  by 
the  Krishna  from  the  Nizam's  dominions— contains 
•'440  so  m.,  and  in  1891  liad  apo]>uhitioii  of  683,718. 
The  canal  of  the  Madra.s  Irrigation  Company 
traverses  it  for  140  miles.  KarnuJ  sutt'ered  very 
severely  during  the  famine  of  1877-78. 

Karr,  Jean   Bapti.ste  Alphonse,   a  French 
novelist   who   long  survived    his   popularit.y,    w;is 
born    at    Paris,     November    24,    1808.       He    was 
educated    at    the    College    Bourbon      ami    early 
devoted    himself    to    journalism.       Ills    ,So»,<    te.-,- 
Tillcul.i  (1832),  the  (mtconie  of   a  disappointment 
iu    love,    by    its    originality    and   wit    found    its 
author   an  audience    for   a   long   series   of   novels, 
of    which     (UhckUvc    (1838)    only    need    be    men- 
tioned here.     In  1839  he  became  editor  of  Figaro, 
and   in   the   same    year  he  started   the    issue    of 
Leu  aiiepes,  the  gav  and  brilliant  but  sometimes 
bitter  satire  of  which  brought  bim  many  readers, 
no  little  ill-will,  and  attemiited  a.ssassination  from 
a    woman's   hand.      These   papers   he   collected   in 
seven    volumes    (1853'.->7)— an    attempted   revival 
iif  the  series  subse(|uently  to  1870  proved  a  miser- 
able failure.     In   1S.>5  Karr  went   to  live  at  Nice, 
where  he  occupied  himself  with  gardening.     His 
V'Jiiaqc  (ititour  dc  monJarclhi  (1845)  is  one  of  Ins 
best-known    books.       His    (Bwrcs   compliV,:^   were 
collected  in  1860.     He  died  Sejitember  30,  1890.— 
His  daughter,  TiiEi!i>i-;  Karr  (born   1835),  has 
published  tales  and  historical  books. 


Karroo,  a  generic  name  given  to  the  high 
plains  of  Cape  Colony.  But  the  word  is  more 
usually  iussociate.1  with  the  tireat  Karroo,  the 
elevated  basin,  more  than  .3000  feet  above  sea-level, 
and  350  miles  long  liy  70  to  80  wide,  which  lies 
between  the  Nieuwcveld  Beige  on  the  north  and 
the  Zwarte  Beige  on  the  south.  It  is  not  a  sandy 
desert ;  after  rain  its  rich  red  soil  is  covered  w  itli 
a  thick  carpet  of  gia-ss  and  llowers.  Ne\ertheless, 
during  nine  months  of  the  year,  when  rain  does 
not  fall,  it  has  a  parched,  barren  appearance. 
Lai'^e  herds  of  sheep  and  goats  (Angora),  with 
smaller  Hocks  of  ostriches,  cattle,  and  horses,  are 
pastured  on  it  during  the  season  of  grass.  The 
dearth  of  water  is  now  being  in  some  parts  obviated 
by  windmills  and  wells  for  procuring  the  water 
that  is  generally  found  at  some  distance  below  the 
surface.  Two  centuries  ago  this  district  was  a 
perfect  paradise  for  game,  which  e\en  yet  is  not 
quite  extinct.  See  H.  A.  Bryden,  Klunf  and 
karroo  {ISS9). 

Kars,  a  fortress  of  Russian  Armenia,  lies  about 
110  miles  NE.  of   Erzerum.     It  is  situated   on   a 
tableland  of  upwards  of  6000  feet  in  elevation  ;  the 
climate   is   therefore   rather  severe.     Pop.   (1890), 
since    the    Turks    and    Lazes    have    migi-ated    to 
Turkey,  8672,  mostly  Armenians,  who  carry  «ui  an 
active  "transit  trade."   In  1828  Kars  was  taken  tr.,m 
the    Turks    by    the    Kussians    under    Paskevitch. 
It  was   brilliantly   defended   by   the  Turks  under 
General  Williams  for  six  months  in  1855.     At   the 
beginning  of  the  war  of  1877-78  Kars  was  in\esteil 
by  the  Kussians,  but  relieved  in  July  by  Mukh- 
tav  Pasha;  besieged  again  in  the  autumn,  it  wa-s 
carried  by  storm  on  18th  November  1877  by  Ceneral 
Lazaretl'.     Kars,  long  a  bulwark  of  the  Ottoman 
empire  in  Asia,  was  ,me  of  the  Armenian  fortresses 
the  cession  of  which  to  Itussia  was  agreed  to  by 
the  Beriiu  Congress  in  1878.     It  forms  now  a  com- 
manding position  from  a  military  jioint  of  \iew  on 
the    plateau  of    Asia    Minor,    facilitating    luture 
a"<'ression  towards  Erzerum  and  Turkish  Armenia 
in'general.     Kars,  whose  fortitications  have  been 
recently  augmented,  is  nearly  imiuegnable.      See 
works  "on  the   sieg'e   of    1855   by  Sandwith  (18o6) 
and  Laurence  Oliidiant  (1856). 

Karshi  (anc.  XaJ./tshcb),  a  town  of  Bokhara. 
central  Asia,  stan.ls  in  a  plain  95  miles  SE.  of 
Bokhara  city  and  SO  SW.  of  Saniarcand.  It  is 
surrounded  by  well-cultivated  land  and  numerous 
I'ardens.  Conimercially  it  is  of  great  imoortance 
in  the  transit  trade  between  Bokhara,  Kabul,  and 
India.  Its  knives  and  firearms  arc  exported  to  all 
parts  of  central  Asia,  Persia,  Arabia,  and  Turkey. 
The  inhabitants,  estimated  at  25,000,  are  for  the 
most  part  Usbegs,  with  a  mixture  of  Tajiks, 
Indians,  Afghans,  and  Jews. 


Karst.    See  Croatia. 

Kartouni.    See  Khartoum. 

KArttikeya,  tbe  Hindu  Mai-s,  or  god  of  war,  a 
being  represented  by  the  I'nriinic  legends  as  sprung 
froufsiva,  after  a  miraculous  fjishion. 

KdrAll  River  ( Persian  Kurdn  ;  the  Ulai  of 
Daniel,  viii.  2),  the  sole  navigable  river  of  Pereia. 
Rising  in  the  Zanlah  Koh  Mountains,  near  Ispahan, 
it  Hows  west  thri>ugh  gorges  of  the  Bakhtiari  liauge 
to  Shuster,  the  capital  of  the  province  of  AnUjistan 
where  it  Ijeconu's  navigable.  At  Ahwiiz  a  reach 
of  rapids  and  broken  water  bars  the  coni-se  of 
vessels  to  the  Lower  Kanin,  and  a  canal  from 
Ahwiiz  to  a  point  about  lA  mile  down  stream 
will  have  to  be  cut  before  t'lircmgh  navigation  is 
possible.  A  tr.imway  was  in  1890  in  course  of 
construction  for  the  conveyance  of  piussengei-s  ami 
merchandise  from  the  limit  of  navigable  water  to 
\hwaz.     Below  Ahwilz  the  river  varies  in  breadth 


KARYOKINESIS 


KATER 


399 


from  31)0  ti>  500  yards,  jiml  Hows  for  117  miles 
without  an  obstacle  tlirougli  a  couiitrv  naturally 
ricli  anil  fertile,  but  now  entirely  uncultivateil. 
Mobammerah  lies  at  the  junction  of  the  Kanin 
with  the  watei's  of  the  Eui)lirates  and  Tigris 
{Slintcl-Arab).  As  long  ago  as  1842  Lieutenant 
Selby  ascended  the  Kariin  its  far  as  Shuster, 
and  made  a  report  urging  the  imjiortance  of  this 
waterw.ay  to  English  commerce.  But  it  was  not 
till  October  188S  that,  throngb  the  instrumentality 
of  Sir  Henry  Druminond  Wolli',  tlien  British  minis- 
ter at  Teheran,  the  navigation  was  thrown  oi>en  by 
royal  proclamation  not  to  England  only  but  to  the 
commerce  of  the  world.  It  is  difficult  to  exaggerate 
the  importance  of  this  new  trade  route  to  Pereia, 
to  British  India,  or  to  England. 

See  AY.  F.  Ainsworth,  The  Khcr  Kdrim  (1890);  Jom: 
Soil.  Geog.  Soc,  vol.  ix.  p.  26,  vol.  xiv.  p.  219.  and  new 
serie.s.  vol.  v.  p.  120  ;  and  the  Times  of  4tli  February  1890. 

Kar.vukinesis.    See  Cell. 

Masai.    See  Kass.\l 

Kasanlik,  or  Kez.wlik,  a  town  of  Eastern 
Koumelia,  at  the  foot  of  the  Balkans,  5  miles 
from  the  southern  eml  of  the  Shipka  Pass,  and 
87  miles  NW.  of  Adrianople.  It  manufactures 
otto  of  roses.  Its  capture  by  tlie  Russians  on  7th 
January  1878  led  to  tlie  surrender  of  the  Turkish 
defenders  of  the  Shipka  Puss.     Pop.  20,000. 

Haschail  ( Hung.  Kassa ),  one  of  the  oldest  and 
luindsomest  towns  of  Hungary,  is  situated  in  the 
beautiful  valley  of  the  Hernad,  surrounded  by  vine- 
clad  mountains,  130  miles  by  rail  NE.  of  Buda- 
pest. The  cathedral  of  St  Elizabeth  (built  1270- 
1468)  Ls  the  finest  Gotliic  editice  in  Hungary.  The 
town,  which  ranks  as  the  jirovincial  capital  of 
iiortliern  Hungary,  is  the  seat  of  a  Roman  Catholic 
bishop,  has  various  schools,  an  agricultural  insti 
tute,  and  a  royal  tobacco-factory  ;  stoneware,  furni- 
ture, starch,  nails,  and  paper  are  also  manufac- 
tured. Kaschau  is  celebrated  for  its  hams.  Of 
the  Jesuit  univei-sitv  founded  here  in  1659  all 
that  now  remains  is  tlie  law  academy.  Pop.  ( 1891 ) 
•?8.884.  Kaschau  figured  prominently  during  the 
Hungarian  revolution  of  1848. 

Kashan,  one  of  the  most  flourishing  towns  of 
I'ersia,  is  situated  in  a  well-peopled,  well-cultivated 
ilistrict,  3690  feet  above  sea-level,  and  92  miles  X. 
of  Ispahan.  The  vicinity  is  celebrated  for  its  fruit, 
particularly  melons  and  pears,  and  the  town  for  its 
extensive  manufactures  of  silk-stuHs,  gold  brocade, 
glazed  tiles  (called  all  over  Mohammedan  Asia 
ica-shi),  carpets,  ami  coiiiier- wares.  It  is  a  large 
town,  and  abounds,  like  all  Persian  towns,  in 
mosques,  bazaars,  and  baths.     Pop.  30,000. 

Kasbsar<  the  political  capital  of  ea-stern  or 
Chinese  Turkestan,  and,  ne.xt  to  Yarkand,  the 
second  place  of  importance,  is  di\iiled  into  Kuhna 
Shehir  ('old  city')  and  Yenghi  Sliehir  ('new city"). 
The  town  and  district  of  lv;ishgar  have  a  popula- 
tion of  120,000  souls.  Tiie  old  city  is  a  small  forti- 
fied place  overlooking  the  Kizil  River,  1>y  which  it 
is  sei)arated  from  the  new  city,  said  to  have  been 
built  in  1838.  In  this  last-mentioned  part  of  the 
town  stands  the  Orda — i.e.  the  palace  of  the  Clii- 
ue.se  governor  of  the  whole  j)rovince,  as  well  as 
the  Friday  Mosijue  (Juma  M^esjid).  The  |)eoi)le, 
mostly  Turks,  intermixed  witli  Tajiks.  Ka-sligaris, 
Hindus,  and  Andijanis,  e.xcel  in  certain  branches 
of  industr\',  as  the  making  of  cottons,  silks,  car- 
pets, saddlerj-,  &c.,  and  carry  on  trade,  chieHy 
with  Rassia  through  Almati  and  the  Terek  Davan 
Pa.ss,  a  trade  supported  by  a  pennanent  Russian 
consul,  the  only  European  dij>lomatist  in  this  part 
of  Asia.  Ka.s1igar,  the  centre  of  Mohammedan 
learning  in  ea.stern  Turkestan,  is  besides  a  famous 
pilgrimage  place  to  the  shrine  of  Hazreti  Appak 
Khodja,  who  died  here  in  1693.     The  capital  and 


the  country  round  it  are  noted  for  great  fertility 
anil  for  a  variety  of  excellent  fruits,  ow  ing  to  a  ricli 
irrigation  derived  from  several  rivers  and  canals 
flowing  from  the  north  and  the  west.  Its  most  flour- 
ishing period  embraces  the  time  from  the  ciUKiuesl 
of  Arabs  under  Kuteiba  until  the  appearance  of 
(ienghis  Klian,  from  which  time  it  experienced  all 
the  revolutions  ami  wars  raging  on  the  confines  of 
Islam  anil  Chinese  Buddhism.  In  1758  the  Chinese 
took  ]iossession  of  Kasligar,  and  witli  sliort  inter- 
ruption it  has  remained  in  their  power.  The  last 
successful  rebellion  was  that  of  Yakuli  Kushbegbi 
in  1864.  Kasligar  was  visited  by  the  mi.ssion  of 
Sir  T.  P.  Forsyth  in  1873,  resulting  in  a  treaty 
between  England  and  Yakub ;  but  since  the 
Mohauimedan  ruler  was  vanquished  and  the 
country  retaken  by  the  Chinese  in  1877,  Kasligar 
has  been  left  entirely  to  the  political  and  com- 
mercial influence  of  Russia.  See  Colonel  Kurojiat- 
kin's  Kitsh(jaria  (Eng.  trans,  from  Russian,  1883). 

Kaslikar.    See  Chitral. 

Kashmir.    See  Cashmere. 

Kaslioilbisll,  a  Slavonic  dialect  spoken  by 
200,000  jiersons  near  Danzig.  It  lias  been  debated 
wlietlier  it  should  be  regarded  a.s  a  dialect  of  Polish, 
or  as  a  form  of  the  extinct  Polabian. 

Kaskaskia,  a  river  of  Illinois,  rises  in  the  east 
centre  of  the  state,  flows  south-west,  and  enters  the 
Mississippi  at  Chester.  Length,  nearly  300  miles. 
On  its  riglit  bank,  a  few  miles  from  the  mouth,  is 
the  village  of  Kaskaskia,  which  was  the  tii'st  capi- 
tal of  Illinois  Territory. 

Kassai,  the  great  southern  tributary  of  the 
Congo  (q.v. ).  See  also  Batemans  First  Ascent  of 
the  Kascii  {\SS9). 

Kassala.  a  fortified  town,  formerly  the  capital 
of  the  Nubian  district  of  Taka,  stands  on  a  triliu- 
tary  of  the  .\tliara,  260  miles  S.  of  Suakiin.  It 
was  formerly  tlie  most  impoitant  commercial  centre 
between  the  Nile  and  Abyssinia,  and  previous  to 
the  Mabdi's  rise  had  a  population  (with  garrison) 
of  20,000.  When  taken  by  the  Italians  in  1894  it 
had  only  3000.  In  1897  it  was  restored  to  Egypt 
'  under  the  Anglo-Italian  convention,  and  has  accoid- 
I  ingly  been  garrisoned  by  Anglo- Egyjitian  troops. 
The  re-establishment  of  order  in  the  Egyptian 
Soudan  ( 1898)  has  restored  to  the  place  something 
of  its  old  importance. 

Kassasslll.  a  lock  on  the  canal  between 
Ismaiiia  and  Zagazig,  in  Egypt,  21  miles  AV.  of 
Ismailia.  In  the  Egyptian  campaign  of  1882,  Aralii's 
forces  were  routed  here  August  28. 

Kasscl.     See  Cassel. 

Hastainuni,  capital  of  a  province  of  the  s.ime 
name  in  .\sia  Minor,  stands  76  miles  SW.  of 
Sinope.  It  manufactures  cotton  goods,  leather, 
&c.  ;  its  famous  copper-wares  are  no  longer  made. 
Pop.  40,000.  Here  is  the  ancestral  castle  of  the 
Comneni ;  the  word  '  Kastaiiiuni '  is  said  to  be  a 
coriu))tion  of  '  Ciistra  Comneni.' 

kasviii.    See  Kazvin. 

Katalltlill.  the  highest  mountain  in  the  state 
of  .Maine  (q.v.),  5385  feet  high. 

Katpr,  Hexry,  an  Englisli  jihysicist,  was  born 
at  Bristol,  16th  April  1777.  Entering  the  arnjy 
in  1799,  he  went  out  to  India,  and  Wits  actively 
engaged  in  the  great  trigonometrical  survey.  Ill 
health  compelled  him  to  retum  home  in  1S08;  then, 
after  labouring  for  si.x  years  in  the  Royal  Military 
College,  Sandhurst,  he  retired  on  half-pay.  He 
died  in  London  on  20th  .April  1835.  His  contribu- 
tions to  science  are  chiefly  to  be  found  in  the  I'liilu- 
mijihir.al  Trii iisdctiou.i  hetwwn  1S13  and  18.32.  The 
most  important  of  his  memoirs  relate  to  the  deter- 
mination of  the  length  of  the  seconds  pendulum  at 


400 


KATHARINE 


KAULBACH 


tli(>  latitiiile  of  London;  tlic  '  lloatinj,'  colliniatoi-,' 
un  iiisinuiicnt  for  aiilin;,'  tlic  (leteniiiiiation  of  tlu; 
liorizontal  or  zciiilli  points,  for  wliicli  invention  lie 
received  the  gold  iiu-dal  of  the  Itoyal  Astronomi- 
cal Society  ;  the  British  standards  of  length  and 
mass  ;  and  compass  needles.  Conjointly  with  Dr 
I,ardni'r.  he  was  the  author  of  '  A  Treatise  on 
Mechaiiios'  in  the  Cahhiet  Ci/clo/jwdiu.  For  the 
emperor  of  Russia  he  verified  the  Russian  standards 
of  len-lh. 

Katharine.    See  Catharink. 

Katllia>var.  a  peninsula  on  the  west  coast  of 
India,  l.xiri;,'  lietween  the  Gulf  of  Camhay  and  the 
llulf  of  Cutch  ;  the  Brahman  and  native  name  for 
it  is  Siirashti-a.  Politically,  the  name  Kathiawar 
Afjeuey  (formed  in  1822)  is  gi\en  to  a  collection  of 
187  states,  some  independent,  some  tributary  to 
native  princes,  and  some  (lOo)  tributary  to  the 
Britisli  government  in  India,  which  between  them 
embrace  the  greater  part  of  the  Kathiawar  Penin- 
sula. .\rea  of  agency,  20,5511  sij.  m.  ;  pop.  (1891) 
2,752,4(14.  The  states  of  the  agency  supply  one- 
si.\th  of  the  total  quantity  of  cotton  exported  from 
Hoiubay.  The  resident  of  the  agency  lives  at 
KajUol'. 

Katkoff.  Michael  Nikifokovitch,  R>i.ssian 
journalist,  was  born  at  AIoscow  in  181S,  studied  at 
the  universities  of  Moscow,  Kiiuigsberg,  and  Berlin, 
and  for  some  time  tilled  the  chair  of  Philosophy  at 
Moscow.  In  1801  he  became  editor  of  the  Musruw 
Otizcttc,  the  organ  of  the  university,  and  eventu- 
ally made  it  the  most  intluential  journal  in  Russia. 
At  tirst  an  advocate  of  parliamentary  government 
and  reform,  Katkolf  was  converted  l)y  the  Polish 
rising  of  1803  into  a  leader  of  the  Panslavist  move- 
ment, and  a  fanatical  su))porter  of  reactionary 
government  in  Ru.ssia.  He  was  '  the  apostle  of 
national  Russian  ideas'  in  politics,  and  aci|uircd 
an  iuUucnce  in  the  government  eijual  to,  if  not 
greater  tlian,  that  of  the  ministers  (except  the 
chancellor),  and  is  said  to  have  been  mainly  iustru- 
meutal  in  determining  Alexander  III.  to  his  con- 
servative and  reactionary  policy.  As  the  champion 
of  the  idea  'Russia  for  the  Russians,'  Katkotl' 
urged  the  complete  Russihcation,  l>y  force  if  need 
be,  of  Poland  and  Lithuania,  and  of  the  Baltic  i)ro- 
vinces.  He  enjoyed  an  immense  popularity  its  tlie 
representative  of  Russian  Chauvinism.  He  died 
at  Snamcnsky,  near  Mo.scow,  1st  August  1887. 

Kutiiiaiulliii.    See  Khatmandi". 

Katrine*  Loch,  one  of  the  most  celebrated  of 
Scottish  lakes,  in  Stirling  ami  Perth  shires,  5  miles 
E.  of  Loch  Lomond  and  9i  W.  of  Callander. 
Lying  SU4  feet  above  sea-level,  it  curves  8  miles 
eastsouth-e;i.stwaril,  is  nowbei'e  quite  a  ndle  broad, 
and  has  a  maximum  depth  of  408  feet,  and  an  area 
of  .'JIl'.)  acres.  It  discharges  through  Lochs  .\chray 
and  \'ennachar,  to  the  Teith  ;  and  since  1S.")9  has 
supplied  tJlasgow  (q.v.)  with  water.  Huge  Ben- 
venue  (2.393  feet)  and  Ben  Aan  (1500)  rise  steei)ly 
at  its  lower  end,  whose  shores  are  beautifully 
wooded,  with  the  mountain  defile  of  the  Trossachs 
beyond.  Here,  too,  are  the  '  Silver  Strand  '  and 
Kllen's  Isle,  the  chief  scene  of  the  I.in/i/  nf  t/ic 
Luke.  Scott  wius  often  here  during  1790  1809, 
as  also  in  1805  was  Wordsworth  with  his  sister 
Dorothy.  See  her  Tour  in  UKuthind,  and  Sir  G. 
Airy's  T(}jioijruj)liij  of  tin;  Ladij  uf  the.  Lake  (1873). 

Kat  River,  a  branch  of  the  Great  Fish  River, 
ill  th<'  Cape  Colony,  rising  in  the  Didimaberg,  in 
the  fertile  valley  of  which  a  Hottentot  settlement 
wa-s  formed  in  1829.  It  was  broken  uji  after  the 
rebellion  of  1S51-52,  and  the  valley  now  forms  the 
district  of  Stockenstrom  (after  Captain  Sloi-ken- 
strom),  with  an  area  of  240  sq.  m.,  and  a  mixed 
population  of  about  7000. 


Kattiiniindoo,  a  substance  somewhat  resem- 
bling gutta-percha,  is  the  milky  juice  of  the  K;ist 
Indian  plant,  Kiipliurbiii  eitlti/nu/ii/uu,  useil  in  India 
as  a  cement. 

Katydid,  a  name  applied  to  numerous  American 
insects,  nearly  related  to  grasshoppers.  They  are 
arboreal  in  habit,  and  are  well  concealed  in  the 
foliage  by  their  green  colour.  The  true  katydid, 
abundant  in  the  central  and  western  states,  is  Ci/iio- 
ji/ti/lliif:  concani.'!,  hut  .Mii-njroiitriim  ntiiicm'.i  is 
yet  commoner,  and  there  are  several  other  species 
belonging  to  these  and  other  genera.  In  their 
general  habit,  e.g.  in  the  'song'  to  which  the  .syl- 
lables kat-y-did  refer,  and  in  the  egg-laying  accom- 
plished by  the  long  ovipositors  of  the  females,  these 
lively  insects  resemble  Grasshoppers  (q.v.). 

Katzbaoll.  a  river  in  the  Pr\issian  iiro\  ince  of 
Silesia,  which  falls  into  the  Oder  at  Parchwitz.  On 
its  banks,  in  the  vicinity  of  Liegnitz,  on  20th 
August  1813  the  French  iinder  Macdonald,  80,000 
strong,  were  defeated  by  Prussian  and  Russian 
troops  under  Blucher.  The  French  lost  12,000 
killed  anil  wounded,  and  18,000  prisoners,  with  103 
cannon. 

Kailb.     See  Caub. 

Kaillf'liailll.  Ani;ei,ica,  ]iainter,  was  horn 
30th  October  1741  at  Coire  in  the  Orisons,  Swit- 
zerlanil.  Whilst  still  a  child  she  painted  the 
portraits  of  notabilities  in  Italy,  and  in  Rome  fell 
under  the  good  iutluence  of  Winckelmann.  In  1700 
La<ly  Wentworth,  wife  of  the  British  resident  in 
Venice,  persuaded  her  to  go  to  Lcuulon.  There 
she  soon  became  famous  iia  a  painter  of  classic 
and  mythological  pictures,  anil  as  a  portrait- 
painter.  She  was  befriended  by  Reyiujiils,  and 
was  nominated  one  of  the  very  lirst  batch  of  Royal 
Academicians.  But  her  life  was  for  a  while  em- 
bittered by  a  marriage  (1707)  into  which  she  had 
been  tricked  by  a  mere  adventurer.  It  cost  her  a 
large  (lart  of  her  fortune  to  get  the  marriage  dis- 
.solved.  In  1781  she  nuirricd  the  Italian  i)ainter 
Zucchi  (1729-95),  and,  returning  to  Rome,  lived 
for   her  art   in   a  circle   of    distinguished   artists, 

S)ets,  and  .scholars.  She  died  5th  November  1807. 
er  numerous  paintings  are  well  known  from 
engravings  by  Bartolozzi  and  others.  As  a  painter 
she  fails  to  attain  to  tlie  lirst  rank.  Giaci'  and 
harmonious  colouring  do  not  atone  for  faulty  draw- 
ing and  lack  of  originality.  Angelica  was  also 
an  accomplished  singer.  Her  beauty  and  talents 
were  sung  by  such  poets  as  (loldsmith,  Klopstock, 
and  (Jessner,  and  lier  story  has  in  recent  limes 
furnished  a  theme  to  Miss  Thackeray.  See  Wes- 
sely's  Life  of  her  in  Dohme's  Kiinst  mid  Kuiistler 
(1877);  DiMiii  Univ.  Mug.,  1873;  Art  Junrnal, 
1890;  anil  the  Life  by  F.  A.  Gerard  (1892). 

Kaiirniann.  ConstantinE  VdN,  a  Russian 
general  of  Clerman  (Holstein)  descent,  wivs  horn 
Tiear  Ivangorod  in  Russian  Poland,  on  3d  May  1818. 
He  entered  the  army  as  lieutenant  of  engineers 
in  1838,  fought  agiiinst  the  Circassians  in  the  Cau- 
ca-sus,  and  especially  distinguished  himself  at  the 
siege  of  Kars  in  185,5.  In  1807  he  was  a|)i)oiiited 
governor-general  of  Turkestan,  and  iit  once  set 
himself  to  organise  this  province,  then  newly  con- 
(|uered  ;  in  1808  he  occupied  Sanuucand,  and  in 
1873  conducted  a  siicce.ssful  campaign  against 
Khiva.  Through  his  energetic  policy  Russia  be 
came  the  predomimiting  power  in  central  .\sia. 
General  Kanfuiann  died  on  10th  .May  1882  at 
T.ishkend.  See  Boulger's  Central  Asian  Purtraits 
(1880). 

Kaillbaell.  Wii.hei.M  von,  a  German  painter, 
was   burn   al    .Arolsen,   in  the  principality  of  W  al 
deck,    15th   October   1805,  and   in   his  seventeenth 
vear  entered  the  Academy  of   Arts  at  Diisseldorf. 


KAUNITZ 


KAY 


401 


He  was  one  of  Cornelius's  liest  pupils,  and  followed 
liiiu  to  Munich  :  from  18-4!)  down  to  the  yi-av  of  his 
death  lie  was  director  of  the  Acaih'Uiy  of  I'aintinj; 
in  that  city.  Althoii;.di  painting  in  the  sevendx 
ideal  and  allejjoncal  spirit  of  his  master.  Kaulliacli 
displayed  from  the  lirst  no  lack  of  individual 
genius.  Among  his  first  important  productions 
were  sixteen  mural  paintings  illnsi rating  the  myth 
of  Amor  and  Psyche,  in  the  palace  of  Duke  Maxi- 
milian, and  Apollo  amongst  the  Muses,  for  a  ceiling 
in  the  Odeon.  Then  he  executed  a  number  of 
designs  from  the  works  of  Klopstock.  ^^■ieland. 
and  Goethe  in  various  royal  apartments  in  Munich. 
In  1834  Kaulbach  completed  his  grandiose 'Battle 
of  the  Huns,'  representing  the  legend  of  the 
struggle,  continued  in  nnd-air,  between  the  souls 
of  tlie  Huns  and  Romans  who  had  fallen  before 
the  walls  of  Rome,  which  was  regarded  as  the  cul- 
mination of  tlie  new  German  school.  Neverthe- 
less, the  realistic  tendencies  of  his  genius  came 
out  in  his  illustrations  of  Schiller,  ('•oetUe's  Faii.st, 
and  Reiiii'ke  Fuchs,  ami  in  his  'Mad-house.'  In 
18-16  KauHiach  completed,  on  the  heroic  scale,  the 
'Destruction  of  Jerusalem  by  Titus.*  For  several 
years  from  1847  onwards  he  was  occupied  painting 
the  walls  of  the  vestibule  of  the  new  nmseum  at 
Berlin  with  a  cycle  illustrating  the  progress  of  civil- 
Lsation.  This  series  embraced  six  colossal  composi- 
tions— '  The  Tower  of  Babel,'  the  '  Glorious  Age  of 
Greece.'  the  '  Destruction  of  Jerusalem,"  the  'Battle 
of  the  Huns,'  the  'Crusades,'  and  the  'Reformation,' 
with  numerous  smaller  designs.  His  last  gi<;antic 
painting  is  the  '  Sea-tight  of  Salamis  '  in  the  Maxi- 
milianeum  at  Munich.  In  his  later  years  he  com- 
posed illustrations  to  Goethe  and  Shakesjjeare,  and 
painted  many  portraits.  He  died  of  cholera  at 
Munich,  7th  April  1874.  See  Mrs  Howitt-Watt's 
Art-Stiuloit  in  Mniiirh  (2d  ed.  1879). — His  son, 
Her.MANS,  born  at  Munich  on  '2ath  July  1846, 
studied  under  Piloty,  and  paints  historical  pictures 
of  the  genre  cla-ss — such  as  'Louis  XI.  and  Olivier 
le  Dain," '  Mozart's  Last  Days,'  '  Carousing  Knights 
Templars,'  '  Seba.stian  Bach  and  Frederick  the 
Great.' — A  nephew,   Friedrich   (born  1822),  and  a 

fraud-nephew,  Friedrich  August  (born  1850),  also 
ecame  painters  of  merit. 

Kauiiitz.  Wexzeliu.s  Anthony,  Prince  vox, 

Count  of  Rietberg,  Austrian  statesman,  was  born 
at  Vienna  on  ■2d  February  1711,  and  began  his 
public  career  under  Charles  VI.  Maria  Theresa 
employed  him  on  diplomatic  missions  to  the  courts 
of  Rome,  Florence,  and  Turin,  and  then  ajipointed 
him  nnnister  to  the  governcu'  of  the  Austrian 
Netherlands.  He  laid  the  foundations  of  his  per- 
manent fame  as  a  diplomatist  in  1748  at  the  con- 
gress of  Aix-la-Chapelle.  As  Austrian  ambassador 
at  the  French  court  in  1750-52  he  succeeded  in  con- 
verting the  century-long  enmity  of  the  two  states 
into  relations  of  amity  and  goodwill.  In  1753 
Kaunitz  wjis  appointed  state  chancellor,  and  in 
1756  chancellor  for  the  Netherlands  and  Italy,  and 
for  ahuost  forty  years  continued  to  have  the  prin- 
cipal direction  of  Austrian  iH)lilics.  On  account  of 
the  jiart  he  played  in  the  atl'airs  of  Europe  he  was 
jocularly  called  the  European  coach-driver.  As  a 
man  he  was  very  vain  and  confident  of  his  own 
abilities,  narrow  in  his  |MiUticaI  views,  regarding 
exclusively  the  sui)po.sed  interests  of  Austria,  yet 
sincere  and  upriglit  according  to  his  notions  of 
duty.  He  took  a  very  active  part  in  the  ecclesiasti- 
cal reforms  of  Joseph  II..  and  was  always  an  earnest 
and  lilicral  patron  of  the  arts  and  .sciences  :  he 
founded  the  art  school  of  Vienna,  and  several 
acatlemies  in  Lombardy  and  the  Low  Countries. 
He  retired  from  public  life  when  Francis  II. 
ascended  the  throne,  ami  died  27th  June  1794. 
See  Lives  by  Horniayr  (in  Ihr  oslciTtir/iisc/tc 
Flutiurh,  vol.  vL)  and  Beer  ( 1872). 
•286 


Kauri  Pine,  or  Kowrik  (Dammwaaitxtialis), 
a  sjiecies  of  Dammar  ( q.v.),  a  native  of  New  Zcahuid. 
It  is  a  tree  of  great  size  and  beauty,  attaining  a 
height  of  140  feet  or  more,  with  whorls  of  branches, 
the  lower  of  which  die  off  as  it  l)ccomes  old.  The 
timber  is  white,  close-grained,  durable,  flexible, 
and  very  valual)le  for  masts,  vards,  and  ]danks. 
The  Fiji  Islands,  New  Hebriiles,  and  Australia 
produce  other  species.  All  of  them  are  trees  of 
dark,  dense  foliage,  and  juoiluce  a  resin  called 
Kauri  Resin,  or  Kauri  Gum,  and  sometimes 
.Vustralian  Copal  and  Australian  Dammar,  of 
which  large  (|uantities  are  exported  from  Auck- 
land. It  is  sometimes  found  in  pieces  as  large 
as  a  child's  head,  of  a  dull  amber  cohmr,  where 
forests  of  these  trees  have  fcninerly  grown  ;  and  is 
now  known  to  lie  mingled  with  coal  strata  of 
'I'ertiary  age.  It  is  also  collected  from  the  trees 
from  w  hich  it  has  newly  exuded,  and  is  then  of  a 
whitish  colour.  D.  orieiitalis,  v.  native  of  the 
Jloluceas,  exmles  a  similar  resin,  which  is  at  lirst 
white  like  crystal,  and  Ls  called  white  dammar,  but 
with  age  it  assumes  a  yellow  amber  tint. 

Kava.    See  AvA. 

Kavanagll,  Julia,  novelist,  was  born  at 
Thurles,  in  County  Tipperary,  in  1824.  She  was 
the  daughter  of  Morgan  Kavanagh,  an  accom- 
plished Irishman,  author  of  various  philological 
works,  and  she  grew  up  a  girl  of  remarkable 
beauty  but  of  unusually  small  stature.  Great 
part  of  her  youth  was  s]ient  in  Normandy,  her 
later  life  in  Paris,  Rouen,  or  Nice,  where  she 
died,  October  28,  1877.  Her  first  work  which 
attracted  attention  was  Madeleine,  a  Talc  <;/' 
Auvergne  (1848);  of  its  numerous  successors  the 
best  were  Nathalie  (1850),  Daisy  Burns  (1853), 
Adilc  (1857),  Queen  Mab  (1863),  Beatrice  (1865), 
Silvia  (1870),  John  Dorrien  (1875),  and  The  Pear! 
Fountain  (1876).  The  scenes  of  almost  all  her 
stories  are  laid  in  her  ado|ited  country,  and  liir 
studies  of  French  life  and  character  po.ssess  a 
reality  and  truth  uidiappily  but  seldom  found  in 
the  fluent  novels  of  foreign  writers  who  ha\e  light- 
heartedly  essayed  these  themes.  Her  jilots  nuive 
quietly  but  naturally  forward  to  the  denouement, 
and  skilfully  preserve  the  interest,  if  they  do  not 
feed  the  excitement,  of  the  reader.  Other  well- 
known  books  are  A  Su7nmer  and  ]i'inter  in  the 
Two  Sieilies  ( 1858),  French  Women  of  Letters  (1862), 
English  Women  ojf  Letters  {IS6S),  Woman  iu  France 
during  the  Eighteenth  Century  (1850),  and  Women 
of  Christianit ij  ( 1852) — a  work  which  reveals  beauti- 
fully the  sympathetic  and  religious  nature  of  its 
authoress,  herself  a  devout  Catholic. 

Kaveri  (Cauccry),  a  river  of  southern  India, 
rises  in  the  Western  Gh:its,  and  flows  south  east, 
across  Mysore  and  Madras,  to  the  Hay  of  Mcngal, 
which  it  enters  through  two  princijial  mouths. 
Length,  about  475  miles  ;  drainage,  aliout  28,000 
.scj.  m.  :  flood  disch.arge  above  the  delta,  472,000  feet 
per  secoml.  The  Kaveri  is  of  no  value  for  navii;a 
lion,  its  bed  being  rocky,  with  numerous  rapids  and 
falls — as  those  at  the  island  of  Sivasamudram.  in 
My.sore,  famous  for  their  romantic  beauty.  Other 
islands  formeil  by  this  river  are  Seringapatam,  in 
Mysore,  and  Sriringam,  just  above  the  delta.  It  is 
of  importance  for  inigation  in  Mysore  and  in 
Coimbatore  district,  but  especially  in  the  nuirvel- 
lously  fertile  delta.  For  this  purpose  the  main 
stream  hits  been  dammed  since  the  4tli  century  A.D., 
the  Coleroon  (the  northern  branch)  since  1838. 

Katvi,  a  langmige  of  J..va  (cj.v.). 

Kay,  JiillN,  a  famous  Scotch  caricaturist,  was 
born  near  Dalkeith  in  1742,  and  from  an  early  age 
practised  pros|ieidusly  as  a  barber  in  I'Minburgh, 
until  in  1785  he  opened  a  jnint  shop  for  the  sale  of 
miniatures  and  sketches  of  local  celebrities  etched 


402 


KAYAK 


KEAN 


by  himself.  He  tlied  February  21,  1826.  Kay's 
portraits  have  but  little  artistic  merit  beyond  a 
<,'i'nuiiie  liuiiiour,  yet  he  possessed  somehow  the 
trick  of  catching  the  likenesses  of  his  sulijects,  and 
the  .series  forms  a  unique  and  invalualile  record  of 
the  social  life  of  the  Edinburgh  of  his  time.  His 
l)ortraits  were  collected  and  piihlisheil  as  A  Series 
of  Original  Portraits  and  Curicatiirc  Ktr/iiiiijs  by 
t/ic  late  John  Kai/,  with  Bior/raphicnl  Sketclica  and 
Illustratirc  Aiien/otcs  (2  vols,  quarto,  1S3S;  new 
ed.  with  additional  plates,  2  vols.  1S77). 

Kayak.    See  K.skimo. 

Kaye,  Sir  John  Willi.vm,  the  historian  of 
Englisli  India,  was  born  iu  1814,  and  educated 
at  Eton  and  Addiscombe  Military  College.  He 
served  for  some  years  in  the  Bengal  Artillery, 
but  retired  in  1841  to  devote  himself  to  litera- 
ture. In  1806  he  e  itered  the  service  of  the 
East  India  Coaipanj'  in  England,  and,  on  the 
transfer  of  the  government  of  India  to  the  crown, 
was  appointed  to  succeed  John  Stuart  Mill  as 
secretary  in  the  Political  and  Secret  Department 
of  the  India  Office,  a  post  which  he  retained  until 
failing  healtli  obliged  him  to  retire  in  1874.  Three 
Years  liefore  he  had  been  knighted,  and  two  years 
later  he  died,  .Inly  24,  1S7G.  Kaye's  works  are 
T/ic  Histort/  (if  the  War  in  Afyhanistan  (4  vols. 
1851-53);  Histurij  ufthe  Administration  0/ the  East 
Iitdia  Compant/ (\S5S) ;  The  Life  and  Correspoml- 
eiiee  of  Sir  John  M(dco/ ni  { IS56)  ;  Christianity  in 
India  ( 1859 )  ;  History  of  tlie  Sepoy  War  in  India 
in  1S57-SS  (2  vols.  1866-71);  and  Essays  of  an 
Optimist  (1870 ).  His  account  of  the  mutiny  struggle 
has  "iven  rise  to  much  embittered  controversy,  but 
despite  its  faults  is  a  nolile  monument  of  histori- 
cal industry  and  insight.  A  revised  edition  of  the 
Sepoy  War,  along  with  Colonel  Malleson's  history 
of  the  Indian  Mutiny,  together  forming  a  connected 
history,  was  completed  in  6  vols,  in  1890. 

Kayes,  or  Khayes,  a  town  of  the  French 
Soudan,  (m  the  river  Senegal,  is  the  terminus  of 
the  railway  being  constructed  froni  St  Louis  in 
1890.     Top.  GOOO. 

KavSliuttleworfli,  Sir  James.    See  Edv- 

CATKlX,   \'ol.    1\'.  p.  211. 

Kazan,  capital  of  the  Russian  government  of 
Kazan,  and  anciently  capital  of  the  Mongol  king- 
dom of  the  tiolden  Horde,  stands  3  miles  from  the 
north  bank  of  the  Volga,  and  200  miles  E.  by  S. 
from  Nijni-Novgorod.  The  Mongol  kingdom  was 
foundeil  in  llie  middle  of  the  15th  century  on  the 
niins  of  the  still  more  ancient  Bulgarian  empire 
(.see  Kll'Cll.VK.s).  .*\t  the  same  time  the  modern 
city  of  Kazan  was  built  28  miles  SW.  of  the  former 
city.  In  1552  the  Russians,  under  Ivan  the  Ter- 
rible, carrie<l  the  town  after  a  bloody  siege,  and 
put  an  end  to  tlie  Mongol  kingdom.  The  krendin 
or  fortress  embraces  williin  its  walls  the  cathedral 
(1552),  which  has  a  wcmder-working  icon  of  tlie 
Virgin,  a  magnilicent  monastery  ( 15.55),  an  arsenal, 
iVc.  The  houses  are  in  general  one-storied,  and 
stan<l  in  the  iniilst  of  gardens.  The  town  has  nearly 
fifty  churches,  a  dozen  moscjues,  and  the  Sumbek 
Ti>wer,  an  object  of  veneration  to  the  Tartars. 
Kazan  is  th(>  cliief  intellectual  centre  of  eastern 
Russia,  and  a  home  of  oriental  study.  The  univer- 
sity, founded  by  Alexander  I.  in  1S04,  has  four 
faculties  anil  nearly  1000  students;  the  institutions 
connected  with  it  include  a  library  of  80,000  vols., 
an  observatory,  a  botanical  garden,  an  anti(|uarian 
museum,  i*cc.  Kazan  is  the  seat  of  a  Greek  arch- 
bishop. The  jjrincipal  objects  of  industry  are 
leather,  soaj)  (made  from  nuire's  milk),  candles, 
gunpowder,  books,  hempen  goods,  cotton,  sacred 
pictures,  &c.  C'lo.se  to  the  town  are  the  shiiihuilding- 
yards  in  which  I'eter  the  Great  built  his  Ciuspian 


Sea  fleet.  The  Tartar  merchants  of  Kazan  trade 
as  far  as  Bokhara  and  Persia  on  the  one  side  and 
to  Asia  Minor  on  the  other.  TIk^  central  i>arts  of 
the  town  are  occupied  liy  Russians ;  the  Tartars 
dwell  f(U-  the  most  part  in  the  suburbs.  Pop. 
(1871)  8(j,2(!2;  (1805)  140,726.  The  town  w.-vs 
destroyed  by  lire  during  Pugatchetrs  leliellion 
(1774),  and  has  sutt'ered  severely  from  the  .same 
cause  more  than  a  dozen  times,  especially  in  1815 
and  1825. — The  government,  lying  west  of  that 
of  Nijni  Nov"orod,  is  traversed  l>y  the  navigable 
Volga  and  Kama,  with  their  tril)utaries.  The 
'black  earth  '  soil  produces  rye  and  oats,  with  other 
crops,  agriculture  being  the  main  occupation  of  the 
people.  One-third  of  the  total  area  (24,594  sq.  m.) 
is  under  forest.  Pop.  (1871)  1,739,909;  (18S7) 
2,113,9.54;  (1895)  2,2.34,957. 

Kazbek,  or  Casbeck.    See  Caucasus. 

Kazvill.  a  town  of  Persia,  95  miles  NAV.  of 
Teheran,  <m  the  road  to  Reslit,  manufacluies 
brocade,  velvet,  cotton,  and  iron-ware,  and  breeds 
camels  and  horses.  Kazvin  has  obtained  a  new 
commercial  importance  through  the  opening  of  the 
Transcaucasian  Railway  ;  the  route  c(uinecting 
Persia  with  Europe  goes  by  Kaz\in  to  Reslit  and 
Baku,  and  to  facilitate  this  communication  a 
ehaitssde  has  been  constructed  from  Teheran  to 
Kazvin.     Pop.  40,000. 

Kea  is  the  native  (New  Zealand)  name  for  a 
genus  of  parrots,  of  which  only  three  species  are 
known  ;  these  a.re  Nestor  notabilis,  A'.  7ncridionalis, 
and  iV.  prodnetus,  which  last  appears  to  have  just 
become  extinct.  N.  notahilis  is  a  mountain  s[iecies, 
confined  to  the  South  Island  ;  it  was  originally  a 
vegetable  and  insect  feeding  bird,  but  on  the  intro- 
duction of  sheep  it  began  to  frecpient  the  stations 
and  to  feed  on  oti'al ;  later  on  the  parrot  aciiuired  the 
more  objectionable  habit  of  destroying  live  sheep. 
A  number  of  birds  band  themselves  together  and 
hunt  out  a  weakly  member  of  a  flock,  generally  at 
night.  The  sheep  is  worried  to  death  by  the 
combined  ertbrts  of  the  parrots,  whicli  then  jpio- 
ceed  to  devinir  the  kidney  fat.  This  is  one  of  the 
most  reiiiarkalde  instances  known  of  a  rajiid  change 
of  habit. 

Kcail.  ErMT'ND,  actor,  w.as  born  in  London,  in 
Gray's  Inn,  4th  Nov.  (some  authorities  say  17th  Mar.) 
1787.  His  parentage  also  is  doulitful,  for,  though 
it  is  tolerably  certain  that  Nance  Carey,  ilaughler 
of  George  Savile  Carey,  was  his  mother,  it  is  quite 
uncertain  who  his  father  was.  Kean  is  .said  to  have 
declared  himself  to  be  an  illegitimate  son  of  the 
Duke  of  Norfolk,  but  common  trailition  assigns  to 
him  as  parent  either  a  tailor  named  Aaron  Kean 
or  a  builder  named  Edmund  Kean.  Nance  Carey 
being  an  actress,  Kean  from  his  infancy  made  occa- 
sional appearances  upon  the  stage,  and  when  about 
sixteen  years  old  became  a  regular  'stroller,' 
playing  in  Richardson's  show  ami  other  tcMi|>les  of 
the  itinerant  drama.  After  ten  years'  painfnl  ex- 
perience in  various  provincial  circuits  he  siii'ceeded 
in  obtaining  an  engagement  at  Drury  Lane  Theatre, 
where  he  made  his  famous  liist  appearance  as 
Shylock  on  "iOtli  January  1814.  His  success  was 
immediate,  and  he  at  once  took  rank  as  th<!  lirst 
actor  of  the  day,  displacing  even  John  l'hili|i 
Kemble,  whose  powers  were  by  this  time  declin- 
ing. A  period  of  wonderful  success  followed;  hut 
unlia])pily  Ki^an's  irregularities  were  as  great  as 
his  genius,  and  he  gradually  forfeited  the  public 
approval,  his  reputation  being  linally  ruined  by 
the  eaiise  eilt'-lire  of  Cox  r.  Kean  {.lannarv  18'25). 
In  this  wretched  case  Ke:in  wa.s  fiuiml  guilty  of  mis- 
conduct with  the  wife  of  one  .■\hlerni.aii  Cox  ;  and, 
although  he  seems  to  li.ave  been  at  least  as  much 
sinned  ag.ainst  as  sinning,  a  strange  outburst  of  popu- 
lar morality  literally  drove  him  off  the  stage,  Eclin- 


I 


KEARSLEY 


KEATS 


403 


burgli  ]iaiticularly  distinguishinj;  itself  in  vigorous 
denunciation  of  the  unfoi  tiinate  actor.  Kean  tlieu 
paid  a  long  \isit  to  America,  where  he  had  on  a 
previous  visit  been  very  popular.  He  remained  in 
America  till  the  end  ol  IS'26,  and  on  his  return 
liome  was  cordially  received  ;  Imt  Viotli  mind  anil 
boily  had  given  way  in  his  wild  career,  and  he  wa.s 
the  mere  wreck  of  jiis  former  self.  At  last,  on  '2.>tli 
March  IS.'iS,  he  broke  down  hopelessly,  while  play- 
ing Othello  to  the  lago  of  liis  son  Charles,  and 
never  acted  again.  He  died  at  Richmond  on  loth 
May  1833.  Regarding  Kean's  genius  as  an  actor 
there  can  be  no  question.  He  was  a  master  of 
passionate  expression,  and  excelled  in  characters 
where  the  emotions  are  kept  at  highest  tension. 
In  level  passages  he  wa-s  alisolutely  bad,  and  had 
no  power  to  represent  calm  clignity  :  but  in  the 
mental  agony  of  Othello,  the  w  ild  passion  of 
Shylock,  or  the  cynical  devilry  of  Richard  he  wa-s 
unapproachable.  No  better  idea  of  the  irregular 
grandeur  of  his  playing  can  be  given  than  is  con- 
tained in  Coleridge's  saying,  that  '  seeing  Kean 
act  was  reading  Shakespeare  by  flashes  of  light- 
ning.' Kean's  life  has  been  ^vritten  bv  Barrj'  Corn- 
wall (1835),  F.  ^A■.  Hawkins  (1869),  and  J.  F. 
Molloy  (2  vols.  1888). 

Chakles  John,  son  of  the  foregoing,  was  born 
at  Wateriord,  18th  January  181 1.  He  was  educated 
at  Eton  for  one  of  the  learned  professions  :  but 
his  father's  extravagances  and  dissipations  rendered 
it  neeessarj-  that  he  should  leave  school  and  do 
something  to  support  his  mother  and  himself.  He 
accordingly  became  an  actor,  in  spite  of  the  bitter 
opi)osition  of  his  father,  who  swore  that  he  him- 
self would  be  the  tirst  and  last  tragedian  of  his 
name.  Charles  Kean  made  his  Ih^t  appearance,  at 
Dniry  Lane,  on  1st  October  1827,  in  the  character 
of  Young  Xorval,  and  was  received  by  the  critics 
with  almost  universal  condenniation.  But  he 
worked  assiduously  in  the  provinces,  and  studied 
hard,  until  in  time  he  attaine<l  a  fair  position  in 
his  profession,  his  efforts  being  greatly  aided  by 
the  genius  of  Ellen  Tree,  whom  in  1842  he  married. 
In  1850  Kean  became  joint-lessee  with  Keeley  of 
the  Princess's  Theatre  in  Oxford  Street,  London, 
and  here  he  produced  the  long  series  of  gorgeous  '  re- 
vivals '  which  were  the  most  conspicuous  feature  of 
his  career.  In  these,  it  is  to  be  feared,  upholstery  was 
more  studied  than  acting.  In  1859  he  retired  from 
management,  and  virtually  from  the  London  stage, 
though  he  played  in  America  and  the  provinces  to 
within  a  few  months  of  his  death.  His  last  appear- 
ance was  made  in  Liverpool  on  29th  May  1867,  and 
he  died  in  London  22d  January  1868.  His  wife 
died  21st  August  1880.  As  a  tragic  actor  Kean 
was  not  in  the  tirst  or  even  the  second  rank,  but 
he  was  admirable  in  melodrama,  and  his  acting  in 
such  plays  as  Tlie  Corsican  Brutliers  aiul  Louis  XI. 
could  scarcely  be  .surpassed.  See  his  Life  by  J. 
W.  Cole  (2  vols.  1860). 

KpJir.sley,  a  town  of  Lanca-shire,  4  miles  SE. 
of  Roltou.  "Pop.  7253.  In  the  neighbourhood  are 
coal' mines  and  paper-mills. 

Keary,  Anmie,  novelist,  was  born  3d  March 
1825,  at  Hilton,  in  Yorkshire,  where  her  father  was 
recti>r,  liavin"  sold  out  of  the  army  and  taken 
orders  after  the  loss  of  his  estate  in  County  Gal- 
way.  Her  sympathetic  insight  into  the  hearts  of 
children  gave  her  the  fii-st  impulse  t<)  write,  and 
ma<le  the  success  of  Little  Wanderlin  and  the 
Hcrofs  of  Aif/ard  (written  together  with  her  sister 
Eliza),  a-s  well  as  the  later  books,  A  Yitrh  and  a 
LnnrnMcT  lioxr ,  Mia  tiiiil  Chiirhtj,  and  Hiidl  Kiiirjs. 
She  spent  her  life  at  Hull,  Trent  Vale  in  Stafford- 
shire, London,  Brighton,  and  Eastbourne,  wintering 
twill'  near  Cannes  and  once  in  Egypt.  Of  a  .sensi- 
tive and  impressionable  temperament  wedded  to  a 


strong  nnderstanding,  shepa.ssed  through  a  troubled 
spiritual  experience,  but  found  re.st  in  a  fervent 
Christianity  with  unwearied  devotion  to  her  friends 
and  to  the  pour.  She  died  after  a  year's  illnc^s  at 
Eastbourne,  3d  March  1879.  Two  admirable  books 
outside  her  usual  province  were  EnvUj  Egyptian 
History  and  The  Nations  Aruiuu/.  Her  first  novel 
was  Ihrouqli  the  Shadows,  and  this  was  followed 
by  Janet's  Hume,  Clemency  Frankly)),  and  ()ldh)ir)i. 
Castle  Daly  was  hailed  as  an  Irish  iioxel  of  unusual 
excellence — while  writing  it  she  paid  the  island  the 
one  brief  visit  of  her  life.  Her  latest  work,  and 
perhaps  her  greatest,  was  A  Doubting  Heart.  See 
the  Memoir  by  her  sister  (1882). 

Heats,  John  :  Oct.  1795— Feb.  1821.  Young- 
est to  rise  and  earliest  to  set  in  that  brilliant  con- 
stellation of  poets  who  ennobled  England  during  the 
tirst  half  of  the  Nineteenth  centuiy,  John  Keats, 
both  in  himself  and  in  his  work,  is  one  of  the 
most  ]irofoundly  interesting  and  attractive  figures 
in  literature.  In  character,  true,  magnanimous, 
modest,  and  tender;  much  tried  and  rarely  fail- 
ing :  throughout  training  himself  sedulously  for  the 
highest  achievement  in  poetry — his  life,  as  man 
and  as  artist,  was  one  of  persistent  growth  onward 
and  upward.  It  is  to  trace  this  develo]iment, 
under  both  aspects,  that  the  following  narrowly 
limited  sketch  will  be  mainly  devoted. 

John  Keats  was  born  in  Finsbury,  London,  son 
of  a  respectable  livery -stable  keeper  ;  sent  early  to 
school  at  Enlield,  where  an  elder  boy,  Cowden 
Clarke,  turned  his  boyish  energies  at  thirteen 
towards  literature.  Henceforward  Keats  read 
much  and  widely.  Greek,  like  Shakespeare,  he 
never  learned,  but  eagerly  sttidied  manuals  of 
classical  mythology'  ;  in  Latin  he  began  and  ( after 
leaving  school)  finished  a  prose  version  of  the 
Aeneid :  and  we  cannot  doubt  that  his  passion  for 
melody,  felicity  of  phrase,  tenderness  and  beauty 
in  style,  was  developed  or  inspired  by  Veigil's 
unequalled  magical  art.  Quitting  school  in  1810, 
Keats  was  first  apprenticed  to  a  surgeon  ;  then,  till 
1817,  practised  diligently  in  London,  and,  (for  bis 
age,),  with  success.  But  poetry  had  now  become 
paramount ;  and  his  high  sense  of  duty  withdrew 
iiim  from  a  profession  demanding  imperiously  a 
man's  entire  devotion. 

By  1816-17  Keats  had  found  many  friends  and 
associates;  notably  Leigh  Hnnt,  Haydon,  Hazlitt  : 
— men  of  early  promi.se,  and  ( Hunt  and  Hazlitt 
at  least )  of  real  ability,  though  sadly  marred  or 
blighted  by  bad  taste,  vanity,  and  weakness.  His 
youth  naturally  led  Keats  at  first  to  accept  their 
self-estimate  and  hence  overrate  their  worth  and 
powers.  Morally  and  intellectually  lie  could  gain 
little,  except  some  genial  literary  impulse,  fidiu 
natures  so  inferior  to  his  own  :  yet  though  famili- 
arity in  time  cooled,  he  remained  loyal  to  their 
better  qualities.  His  friendship  was  also  sought  by 
Shelley.  Their  names  have  been  united  through 
Aiiiinais  ;  but  the  wild  eloquence,  the  chill  Auroral 
splendour  of  that  "reat  Elegy  display  no  truth  in 
ttie  portraiture  of  Keats,  no  touch  of  human  pathos. 
The  two  men  were  in  fact,  (generally  speaking), 
antagonistic  in  nature,  princijiles,  conduct,  and 
ruling  ideas  upon  that  art  in  which  both  were  so 
richly  gifted  :  and  hence  familiarity,  on  the  part 
of  Keats,  now  and  later,  was  impossible.  Otlieis 
of  less  note,  Reynolds,  Dilke,  Armitage  Brown, 
were  more  to  Keats  :  but  al>ove  all  his  intense 
unwavering  affectionateness,  (one  of  several  points 
in  which  he  resembles  Catullus),  placed  his  two 
brothers  and  sister  by  far  highest  in  >  alue. 

This  was  the  poet's  student-period.  Vergil  was 
his  first — perhaps  liLs  most  influential — love. 
Clarke  led  him  to  Spenser  at  the  close  of  1813. 
Homer  in  the  fine  extravagance  of  Chapman's 
version,    Chaucer,    Shakespeare,    Milton, 


ipmaii  s 
\\'ord3- 


404 


KEATS 


worth, — '  the  best  sort  of  poetry '  as  he  said,  color 
chc  aaniio,  became  his  bosoni-friends.  Vet,  except 
ill  early  years,  he  imitated  none  :  literature  has 
no  poet  more  decisively  original. 

Thus  far  Eulield  and  Hami)stead  (then  un- 
s|ioiled )  were  the  landscape,  the  free  nature, 
whence  visions  of  beauty  had  been  created  by  the 
young  poet's  observant  eye,  ever  'on  the  object,' 
ami  his  vivid  imai,'ination.  liut  having  (March, 
1817)  published  his  hist  book,  Keats  found 
'pastures  new'  at  Carisbrooke,  in  tlie  island  now 
for  near  forty  years  a  home  of  the  one  modern 
poet  in  whose  genius  we  may  trace  a  certain  con- 
genital likeness  to  his  own.  Here  Keats  worked 
at  EiKljiiiiiuii  :  but  solitude  was  fever  to  that 
tropically  de\elopinK  nature ;  financial  anxiety 
also,  (so  badly  was  his  slender  fortune  liandled  by 
aj^uardian),  which  never  wholly  left  him,  threw 
the  tirst  cloud  of  dejection  over  his  sensitive  spirit ; 
and  he  returned  to  Hampstead  and  his  friends. 
Eminent  among  these  was  now  Bailey,  tlieu  study- 
ing at  Oxford,  where  Keats  visited  him  during 
Long  Vacation,  continuing  Emlymion  upon  the 
Isis.  This  may  have  been  the  sunniest  moment  of 
}iis  life.  Bailey  was  apparently  the  friend  who 
called  out  what  was  best  and  deepest  in  Keats : 
It  is  he  also  who  has  left  us  the  most  charming 
sketch  of  bis  cimvei'sation  :  {Co/i'ui,  p.  76). 

In  1818  Keats  freijueiitly  saw  Lamli  and  Words- 
worth, whose  poetry,  ( the  Excursion  especially ), 
amongst  that  of  his  contemporaries,  most  deeply 
atl'ected  him.  To  nurse  his  much-lo\ed  brother 
Tom,  rapidly  failing  under  consumption,  he  now 
moved  to  Teignmouth  ;  Eiidi/iiiiuii  was  finished; 
Isabella,  for  his  tliird  volume,  begun. 

These  were  tlie  last  good  days  allotted  to  Keats. 
His  character  and  his  aims  as  Poet  were  now 
f<uined  ;  both  have  been  much  misinterpreted  ;  let 
us  here  attempt  to  .summarize  theiii.  Manliness, 
magnanimity,  unsellishncss,  force  of  human  affec- 
tion, chivalry  to  Monian, — are  the  dominant  notes 
of  his  nature  :  Hatred  of  wrong  and  meanness, 
insight  and  generasity  in  act  and  judgment : — and 
all  f;uided  by  eminent  good  sense  :  Personally 
piou(l ; — as  to  his  abilities  and  work,  almost 
pathetically  humble-minded.  Keats  was  no  sen- 
sualist, as  has  been  erroneously  reported  ;  no  vague 
idealist  ;  for  the  first  too  un.seHish, — too  clear- 
headed for  the  latter :  and  from  ]ierversity,  in- 
stability, and  self-conceit  singularly  free. 

A  man's  art  is  inevitably  conditioned  by  his 
nature.  From  that  of  Keats,  sensitive  yet  strong, 
modest  yet  asiiiring,  when  we  add  a  freshness  and 
fullness  of  genius  «hich  recalls  Chaucer  and  Shake- 
speare, we  might  justly  anticipate  that  he  would 
not  fail  to  grasp  the  true  idea  of  poetry  under  its 
main  heads,  the  iiiter[uetatioii  of  nature  and  of 
humanity, — both  always  subordinate  to  beauty  in 
sound,  words,  and  form.  And  we  find  that  it  was 
in  such  wise  that  Keats,  like  Sophocles  and  Pindar, 
A'ergil  and  Milton,  consciously  or  not,  regarded 
poetry.  He  was  an  artist  in  the  rarest  and  traest 
sense  ;  this  makes  him  so  noteworthy ;  it  is  this,  not 
EndijmiuH  or  Ili/iiciioii,  which  ranks  him  with  the 
(ireeks.  Pursuing  Beauty  always  as  his  goal,  its 
sensuous  charm,  in  melody  and  in  wealth  of  ilescrip- 
tioii, — an  impulse  natural  to  a  youth  so  gifted — often 
largely  over-ilominates  his  verse  to  1818.  Vet  this 
style  from  the  first  he  felt  was  but  the  prelude  to 
the  higher  Muses  ;  the  transit  from  Kiiphrosyiie  to 
I'rania.  Keats  was  in  truth  a--  exi|in>itely  human 
as  Shakespeare;  alii'ady  in  the  final  piece  of  liis 
first  book  he  is  lio|iing  to  ijuit  the  mere  joys  of 
poetry 

for  a  nobler  life, 
Where  I  iimy  fllul  the  agonies,  the  .■itrife 
Of  huiimn  hearts. 

Uv  1818,  in  an  admirable  letter  comparing  Life  to 


a  many-chambered  house,  he  notes  how  he  has 
passed  from  M.aidcu-thought, — the  bower  oi  youth, 
pure  yet  pleasure-devoted, — to  a  ])lace  oi  dark- 
ness: 'We  iec\\.\\e  Burdenuf  the  Mi/stcni.'  Hence, 
though  he  dares  not  yet  '  [ihilosophise,'  lii^  finds 
that  the  only  worthy  ]iursuit  is  the  'idea  of  doing 
some  good  to  the  world  : '  that  he  '  can  have  no 
enjoyment  ....  but  continual  drinking  of  know- 
ledge : '  he  rejoices  that  he  luis  kept  his  old 
medical  books.  This  feeling  gradually  masters 
him  :  'Scenery  is  fine,  but  human  nature  is  liner:' 
his  longing  is,  not  for  vain  praise,  but  for  '  the 
glory  of  making,  by  any  means,  a  country  happier.' 
That  the.se  were  not  mere  words,  the  details  of  his 
life  prove  :  whilst  some  realization  of  his  liojies  iu 
poetry  is  gi\en  by  the  volume  of  1S'20.  Ami  if,  by 
twenty-four,  he  was  only  beginning  to  handle  the 
higher  human  interests ;  yet  may  we  not  truly 
say  that  his  country  has  been  made  lastingly 
happier  by  what  Keats  did  thus  leave  us  'i 

Returning  to  the  story  :  Henceforth,  in  quick 
sequence,  the  shadows  deepen.  (ieorge  Keats 
departed  for  America :  John  to  the  Lakes  and 
AVestern  Scotland,  Mhere  what  was  to  prove  con- 
sumption, developed  by  overfatigue,  claimed  him. 
Then,  (Dec.  1818)  came  the  death  of  his  brother 
Tom  :  Last,  the  passion  of  fh'st-love  for  Miss  Fanny 
Brawue.  They  ijecame  engaged ;  but  it  was  too 
late  : — Poverty,  bodily  decline,  and  above  all  his 
own  intensely  lo\  ing  heart,  morbidly  anxious,  grad- 
ually changed  what  should  have  been  suiiport  and 
comfort  to  agony.  Vet  Keats  struggled  bravely. 
As  if  purified  by  the  trial,  his  genius  now  rapiilly 
bore  its  rijiest  fruit  :  almost  all  that  his  third 
volume  contains — the  'treasures  for  ever'  be  be- 
queathed us — were  written  between  llamiisteail, 
Shanklin,  and  Winchester  before  Autumn,  1819. 
Even  yet  he  hoped  to  live  by  literature:  but, 
returning  to  Hampstead,  health  of  mind  and  body 
began  unmistakably  to  fail:  the  fatal  sign  of  lung- 
bleeding  ajipeared  in  February  18'20.  Except  the 
(me  swan-song  of  the  last  sonnet,  hencefcutii  it  is 
in  letters  only — letters  which  throughout  his  life 
often  rival  his  poetry  itself  in  loveliness  and  siirpiiss 
it  in  depth  of  thought — that  the  sorely -charged 
heart  finds  exjiression. 

In  September  Keats  sailed  for  Italy  ;  the  s,ad  and 
honourable  care  of  nursing  him  taken  by  a  ycmng 
artist  and  friend,  Severn.  From  Naples  they 
moved  to  Kome.  There  even  the  faint  delusive 
sun-gleams  of  consumption  were  soon  o\  erclouded. 
It  is  a  relief  to  the  gloom  that  the  generous 
wounded  spirit  now  found  meet  rewanl  from 
Severn's  devoteilness.  Nearing  death,  the  vague 
'sentimental  optimiMii '  which  fonued  lliint'ssub- 
stitnte,  and  ]icrliaps  his,  for  religiinis  faith,  proved 
umivailing  :  Keats  'contrasting  now  the  behaviour 
of  the  believer  Severn  with  his  own,  ackiio\vleilge«l 
anew  the  ])Ower  of  the  Christian  teaching  and 
example,  and  bidding  Severn  read  to  him  fnuii 
Jeremy  Taylor's  //"///  Liriiicj  ami  Dyimj,  strove  to 
l)ass  the  remainder  of  bis  days  in  a  temper  of  more 
peace  and  constancy  :'  (Culriii.) 

So,  though  the  bodily  sufi'ering  and  agonv  of 
remembered  love  were  intense,  calm  came  at  last. 
'He  lay  quiet,  with  his  band  clas]ieil  on  a  white 
cornelian,  one  of  the  little  tokens'  his  Fanny  'had 
given  him  at  starting.'  Thus,  '  loveable  and  con- 
siderate to  the  last,' — humbly,  after  his  wont, 
not  (as  misinter|ireted )  bitterly,  he  spoke  of  liis 
own  work  ami  name  as  'writ  in  water:'  until 
with  a  '  Thank  God,  it  has  come,'  his  soul  resigned 
itself  to  Him  in  peace  :  ('23  Feb.  1S'21.) 

Keats  lies  within  the  Aurelian  Wall  of  Kome  on 
its  southein  side,  where  the  faithful  Severn  was 
also  buried  in  1879. 

As  'Maker,'  Keats  presents  two  main  juspects:  ho 
is  far  more  an  artist  in  the  highest  sense  than  most 


KEATS 


KEBLE 


405 


iiiiMlem  poets  :  He  has  also  left  us  masterpieces  in 
tliat  stvle  of  art  wliicli  his  few  years  alloweil  liiiu 
tinallv  "to  reach.  The  development  of  his  character 
anil  ^teneral  aims  in  poetry  ha-s  been  traced  -.  the 
parallel  advance  in  his  writing  will  be  now  luieHy 
noticed. 

The  earliest  volnme  (1817)  is  frankly  experi- 
mental. Spenser  apparently  unsealeil  the  spring 
of  poetry  for  Keats  :  yet  his  three  imitative  pieces, 
althongh  Spenserian  in  musical  How  and  wealth  of 
imageni-,  are  coloured  everywhere  (i»  common  with 
a  few  short  lyrics)  by  the  sentimental  tone  of  the 
later  Eighteenth  century,  and  by  slipshoil  manner- 
isms caught  from  Hunt."  The  tender  chivaln'  of  his 
nature  glows  through  the  technical  inexperience  of 
the  Ode  to  Woman  :  Some  trochaic  lines  prelude  to 
his  later  success  in  that  rare  and  difficult  metre. 
Several  among  the  sonnets  rise  much  higher  :  that 
on  Chaimian's  Homer  alone  in  the  volume  shows 
hLs  final  mastery.  Most  interesting  however  are 
live  poems  in  the  free,  lovely,  heroic  metre  of 
Chaucer  and  the  Elizabethan  dramatists.  Here, 
dashed  with  youthful  extravagance,  bad  taste,  and 
confused  metaphor,  we  find  that  'fascinating 
felicity,"  that  'perfection  of  loveliness'  in  the 
interpretation  of  Nature— (yet  Nature  externally 
viewed,  without  reference  to  her  inner  or  human 
meanings) — which,  in  Matthew  Arnold's  estimate, 
is  not  less  than  Shakespearian.  Delight  in  beauty 
for  its  own  sake  only  is  the  leading  note ;  yet 
while  he  wrote  Keats  "had  before  him  the  image  of 
Poetry  by  Raphael  (in  the  Vatican  fresco), — with 
her  outstretched  wings  and  eager  glance  over  Thi/ii/s 
thfit  he  scarce  could  tell — things  that  lift  the 
thoughts  of  men  :  and  acknowledges  with  candour 
that  these  spiritual  ilepths  and  heights  of  the  art 
are  a-s  vet  beyond  him. 

J-:nrl'i/mion~,  {ISIS),  that  'feverish  attempt,  rather 
than  a  deed  accomplished '  (so,  with  his  delightful 
union  of  modesty  and  clear  judgment,  Keats  named 
it),  in  its  mairi  features  of  style  carries  on  the 
work  of  181.5-17.  We  have  "the  ovev-sensuous 
pictures,  the  fanciful  and  even  tasteless  coinage  of 
words  :  but  also  the  myriad  felicities  of  touch  ;  the 
'  morning  freshness  '  of  Chaucer  :  many  passages  of 
splendid  vividness.  Though  the  subject  be  Greek, 
the  treatment  lacks  Creek  sobriety,  finish,  unity  : 
It  is  Elizabethan-Romantic.  The  ground-legend  is 
hardly  traceable  :  a  vague  allegory  may  underlie 
the  whole — but  the  serious  purposi;  of  the  mediaeval 
allegorists  and  Spenser,  but  moral  beauty,  are 
wanting. 

Two  yeai-s  only  separate  Endymion  from  the 
concluding,  the  trea-sure-volume  of  18'20.  Keats  in 
this  is  not  yet  wholly  disengaged  from  youthful 
exuberance ;  Even  Lamia,  his  la-st  and  strongest 
poem,  is  too  Asiatic  :  Hi/pcrion,  with  pictures  of 
unsurpa-ssed  magniKcence,  fails  in  Epic  unity  and 
int<?rest.  That  supreme  beauty,  never  attained 
except  when  it  interprets  human  life  in  its  mi.sery 
and  its  greatness,  is  rarely  touched.  Yet  the 
growth  everj'way  is  tropical  :  and  praise  would  be 
idle  for  the  dignity  and  tenderness  of  the  Odes, 
the  ])ictorial  splendour,  the  atHucnce  of  charm 
diffused  throughout  this  little  volume.  One  of 
Pindar's  noblest  lyrics,  we  read,  was  written  in 
goM  upon  the  walls  of  a  Grecian  temple.  And 
not  a  few  of  the  poems  imw  before  us  might 
ieserve  a  like  honour. 

Keats  published  only  the  three  volumes  of  1817, 
i81S,  18'20,  and  in  one  edition  each.  \n  ab.solutely 
literal  reprwluction  of  them,  (the  reprints  to  1883 
teeming  with  errors),  with  notes,  has  been  edited 
by  the  writer:  including  .a  few  4irstrate  jiicces  from 
the  gieat  mass  of  incomplete  and  infi-rior  work, 
withheld  by  Keats  himself,  but  miule  ])ulplic  by  the 
cruel  kindness  of  admirers. 

S.e  the   Lives  by  Lord  Houghton  (1848)  and  Sidney 


Colvin  (1S86) ;  the  Letters,  edited  by  Mr  Colvin  (1891) ; 
and  the  Poem.i,  edited  by  Drury  ( 1896). 

Keble.  .Iohn,  son  of  the  Rev.  John  Keble  of 
Coin  St  .\lwyns,  Gloucestershire,  and  Sarah  Manle, 
a  lady  of  Scotch  descent,  wjus  born  at  Kairford, 
near  his  father's  living,  on  April  2.">,  17il'2.  His 
father,  a  divine  of  the  school  ol  Ken,  educated  his 
son  at  home,  and  with  such  success  that  at  the 
unusually  early  age  of  fifteen  he  was  elected  to  an 
open  scholai-ship  at  Corpus  Christi  College,  Oxford, 
then  a  small  college,  but  nunibering  among  its 
scholars  many  who  rose  to  eminence  in  after-life, 
such  as  Sir  J.  T.  Coleridge  and  Dr  .Arnold  of 
Rugby.  His  university  career  was  unusually 
brilliant,  for  in  1810  he  gained  a  lirst-cla.ss  both  in 
cla-ssics  and  matheriiatics ;  in  1811  was  elected 
Fellow  of  Oriel  College;  and  in  181'2  gained  both 
the  Latin  and  Englisli  prize  essays.  In  1815  he 
was  ordained  deacon,  and  priest  in  the  following 
year,  beginning  active  work  as  the  c\irate  of  East 
Leach,  near  his  father's  living,  while  still  con- 
tinuing to  reside  in  Oxford,  taking  pupils  and 
examining.  From  1818  to  1823  he  was  tutor  of  his 
college  ;  but  his  heart  was  mainly  in  parish  work, 
and  nis  mothers  death  was  the  occasion  v  Inch 
made  him  leave  Oxford  and  return  to  assist  his 
father.  There  in  the  coiiiitry  he  did  a  work  for 
(»xford  and  the  church  which  was  of  the  most  vital 
importance.  Three  points  need  specially  to  be 
singled  out  in  this  work.  ( 1 )  First  in  time  comes 
the  inlluence  of  his  poetry.  In  I8'27  he  published 
with  nnuh  diflidenee,  and 'only  in  deference  to  the 
wishes  of  his  friends.  The  Christian  Year,  or 
Thoughts  in  Verse  for  the  Sundays  and  Holydays 
throughout  the  Year.  The  influence  of  this  volume 
wa-s  not  very  great  at  first,  but  its  excellence  was 
recognised  by  true  critics,  and  later  on,  when  the 
Tractarian  movement  had  made  its  writer  well 
known,  and  had  stirred  a  deeper  interest  in  its 
theme,  it  had  an  influence  which  can  scarcely  be 
overrated.  For,  though  some  of  the  poems  are 
rather  obscure  and  somewhat  constrained  and 
artificial,  as  though  written  to  com]ilete  the  series, 
yet  the  greater  number  have  a  genuine  ring  of 
inspiration  in  them  :  the  love  of  home  life  and  of 
nature,  a  calming,  soothing  sense  of  the  ever- 
present  love  of  God,  a  sobriety  of  religious  feeling, 
and  a  sad  undertone  of  grief  for  the  nmral  antl 
spiritual  degeneracy  of  the  church  are  its  most 
striking  characteristics.  His  own  theory  of  jioctry 
— that  it  is  the  vehicle  for  the  cxprcs.sion  of  the 
poet's  deepest  feelings,  controlled  by  a  certain 
reserve — was  explained  in  an  interesting  article  in 
the  British  Critic  in  1838  on  Lockhart's  Life  of  Sir 
Walter  Scott.  It  was  worked  out  at  length  and 
illn.strated  by  an  examination  of  the  chief  (!reek 
and  Latin  poets  in  his  Latin  lectures  delivered  as 
jirofessor  of  Poetry  at  Oxford,  an  office  which  he 
held  from  1S31  tiiri841. 

(•2)  His  intercourse  with  Oxford  was  thus  kept 
up,  and  at  the  end  of  1827  many  of  his  friends 
wished  to  see  him  elected  to  the  vacant  jirovost- 
ship  of  Oriel,  and  he  himself  would  willingly  have 
accepted  sucli  a  recall  to  Oxford.  It  becanie,  how- 
ever, clear  that  a  majority  was  in  favour  of 
Dr  Hawkins,  and  Mr  Keble  withdrew  his  cniidiila- 
ture.  But  meanwhile  a  movement  was  in  pro- 
giess  which  ^^■as  to  affect  Oxford  to  its  centre. 
5lr  Keble  had  gathered  round  him  in  his  curacy  a 
small  knot  of  pupils,  of  whom  the  most  striking 
was  Hurrell  I-"rou(le.  In  that  knot  was  formed  the 
impulse  which  generated  the  Tractarian  movement. 
Starting  from  the  desire  for  a  moral  ami  spiiitnal 
revival  of  the  English  church,  revolting  from  the 
defects  of  learning  and  of  taste  which  characterised 
the  Evangelicals,  and  nnich  more  fnun  the  secular 
Erastianism  of  the  dominant  Whig  partj',  these 
friends    fell    back    upon    the    primitive    ideal    cj 


406 


KECSKEMET 


KEEWATIN 


the  church,  emphasising  its  essentially  spiritual 
character,  laying  stress  on  the  reality  of  the 
apostolical  succession,  of  the  jirerogatives  of  the 
priesthooil,  of  the  grace  conferreil  in  the  sacraments, 
and  insisting  on  a  high  spiritual  ideal  of  life.  In 
his  sermon  on  National  Apostivsy  ( 1833)  Keble  gave 
the  signal  for  active  movement,  and  for  the  next 
few  years  «as  husily  engaged  with  Newman, 
Pusey,  I.  AVilliams,  T.  Keble,  and  others  in  the 
issue'of  the  Trarts  for  the  Times,  until  the  series 
was  lirouglit  to  an  end  liy  the  puhlicatiim  of  Tract 
No.  90  in  1S41.  Meanwhile  Keble  had  in  1835 
married  Miss  Charlotte  Clarke,  the  daughter  of  an 
old  friend  of  his  father,  and  had  removed  to  the 
living  of  Hureley,  where  he  remained  until  his 
death. 

( 3 )  Keble  had  not  only  been  one  of  the  originators 
of  the  movement  ;  he  was  also,  with  Dr  Pusey,  the 
steadying  inthience  which  supported  it  under  the 
shock  caused  by  Newman's  secession  to  Rome. 
For  the  last  twenty  years  of  his  life  he  was  the 
trusted  correspondent  and  confessor  of  many  who 
were  in  intellectual  and  spiritual  anxietj-.  He 
was  the  constant  champion  of  the  church  at  each 
critical  moment,  taking  a  prominent  part  by  his 
pamphlets,  especially  on  questions  connected  with 
marriage  ami  divorce,  with  the  nature  of  Christ's 
presence  in  the  eucharist,  and  with  the  independ- 
ence of  the  church  tribunals.  He  also  eontrilnited 
much  to  the  cause  of  theological  knowledge  by  his 
careful  edition  of  Hooker's  works,  his  life  of  Bishop 
"Wilson,  and  his  translation  of  St  Irenieus.  Perhaps 
even  more  than  in  any  of  his  writings  he  has  in- 
fluenced the  church  by  his  character.  The  type  of 
dutilulne.ss,  whether  to  parents  or  to  his  church,  full 
of  atl'ection  for  home  life  and  of  reverence  for  chil- 
dren, generous  to  his  friends,  chivalrous  and  almost 
Quixotic  in  his  desire  to  saciihce  himself  for  the 
cause  of  the  tiuth,  indignant  against  injustice  or 
disloyalty,  with  an  indignation  tempered  by  severe 
self-restraint,  and  ever  striving  after  a  deep 
humility,  he  created  an  impre.-isiou  of  saintliuess, 
and  won  for  himself  a  rare  mixture  of  love  and 
reverence.  He  died  at  Bournemouth  on  March  29, 
18G6.  Besides  the  works  mentioned,  he  published 
the  Lyra  Innoeeittium,  Thoughts  in  Verse  on 
Christian  Children  (1846),  a  poetical  translation  of 
the  P.salter,  and  many  theological  pamphlets.  Since 
his  death  have  been  published  a  most  valuable 
volume  of  Letters  of  Spiritual  Counsel,  twelve 
volumes  of  parochial  sermons,  occasional  papers, 
reviews,  Studia  Sacra,  &c.  A  ])ermanent  memo- 
rial to  him  exists  in  Keble  College,  Oxford,  erected 
by  suljscription  after  his  death,  and  incorporated 
on  June  6,  1870.  This  was  founded  on  tlie  lines 
of  the  report  of  a  committee,  in  which  he  himself 
had  been  nmch  interested,  for  extending  the  uni- 
versity by  the  building  of  a  new  college  on  more 
economical  i)rinciples  :  and  it  aims  at  providing  an 
academical  education,  at  a  less  cost  than  the  older 
colleges,  for  members  of  the  Church  of  England. 

See  Memoir  of  Kehle,  by  Sir  J.  Coleridge  (1809) ;  J.  C. 
Shairp,  Essay  (1866),  and  his  Studies  in  Poetri)  aiuj 
Philosiipliy  (1872);  also  a  collection  of  nieinurials  by 
J.  F.  Moor  ( 1866 ) ;  and  a  short  Life  by  the  present 
writer  in  '  lingUsh  Leaders  of  Keligion '  (1893). 

Kocskeiliel.  a  Hungarian  town  on  a  plain  55 
miles  by  rail  SK.  of  Budapest.     Pop.  (1890)  48,493. 

Hedall.     See  I^ikdaii. 

Kedroil.  or  Kidron,  spoken  of  as  a  '  brook  '  in 
the  English  Bible,  should  rather  he  called  (iis  in 
John,  xviii.  1,  new  version,  margin)  'ravine'  or 
'winter-torrent.'  It  is  a  gorge  close  to  .Jerusalem 
(q.v.)  on  the  e.ist,  running  away  in  the  direction 
of  the  Dead  .Sea.  Water  never  flows  in  it,  save 
during  the  heavy  rains  of  winter.  At  other  times 
it  is  a  dry  wady. 


Keelliaillill^T.  a  punishment  in  use  in  the  navy 
during  the  ITtli  and  I8th  centuries.  The  culprit 
was  suspended  from  one  y.ird-arnj,  then  stiddenly 
droppi'd  into  the  water,  and  IuiuIimI  lieneatli  the 
keel  up  to  the  yard-arm  on  the  other  side.  This 
was  the  mode  adopted  on  large  sijuare-rigged  ves.sels. 
On  .small  fore-and-aft  vessels  the  delinquent  was 
let  down  over  the  bows,  and  was  drawn  aft  vinder- 
neath  and  along  the  keelson  by  a  hauling-line,  and 
brought  up  at  the  rmlder-chains.  (Cf.  Marryat's 
Dog  Fiend.)  Keelhauling  was  pra('tised  on  an 
Egyptian  corvette  so  recently  as  August  IS82. 

Keeling  (or  Kokos  Keelixc;)  Islands,  a 
grou]i  of  more  than  a  dozen  coral  atolls  in  the 
Indian  Ocean,  12  S.  lat.  and  abotit  500  miles  SW. 
of  Java,  are  attached  to  the  Straits  Settlements, 
are  covered  with  cocoa-nut  jialms,  whence  oil  is 
extracted,  and  are  inhabited  by  about  400  Malays, 
but  owned  b\-  a  Scotchman  named  Boss.  Pigs  and 
rats  are  the  oidy  mammals  ;  there  are  no  land-binis 
but  i)Oultry ;  crabs,  large  and  small,  abound.  Tlii'se 
islands  were  discovered  by  Captain  Keeling  in  1009 
and  were  visited  by  Darwin  in  1836 ;  it  was  upon 
his  study  of  them  that  he  based  his  subsidence 
theory  of  the  formation  of  coral-reefs  (see  Coral). 
Guppy  in  1SS8  found  here  confirmation  of  Murray's 
view.     See  CoR.\L. 

KccnC',  a  pretty  town  of  New  Hampshire,  the 
capital  of  Cheshire  county,  on  the  Ashuelot  River, 
92  miles  by  rail  N\V.  of  IJoston.     Pop.  6784. 

Keene,  Charles  Samuel,  an  inimitable  artist 
in  black  and  white,  born  of  Ipswich  ancestry  at 
Hornsey,  10th  August  1823,  was  educated  at  Bays- 
w.ater  and  Ipswich,  and.  having  tried  both  law  and 
architecture,  wa.s  at  nineteen  ap]ironticed  to  a 
wood-engraver.  He  worked  for  Punrh  from  about 
1S51  to  within  five  months  of  his  death  ;it  Hammer- 
smith, on  4th  January  1891.  See  I,ife  by  G.  S. 
Layard  (1893),  and  The  Work  of  John  Keene,  by 
Pennell  and  Ches.son  (1897). 

Keep.    See  Castle. 

Keener,  or  Lord  Keeper  of  the  Great  Seal, 
one  of  tlie  great  ollices  of  state,  nractic.ally  merged 
since  1757  in  that  of  Lord  Chancellor  (seeSE.\L).  A.n 
act  was  passed  at  the  instjince  of  Sir  Nicholas 
Bacon,  lord  keeper,  assigning  or  confirming  to  the 
hol.ler  of  that  office  rank  and  precedence  equal  to 
that  of  Lord  High  Ch.ancellor.  Fron>  1558  to  171K) 
there  were  eleven  lord  chancellors  and  twenty -one 
lord  keepers;  from  1700  to  1757,  six  chancellors 
and  four  keepers.  The  last  lord  keeper,  appointed 
in  1757,  was  LonI  Henley. 

Keewatin  is  little  more  than  a  geographical 
expression  for  a  part  of  the  country  lying  north  of 
the  province  of  Manitoba.  Its  extent  ha'*  been 
considerably  curtailed  of  late  years  by  the  delimi- 
tation of  the  western  and  northern  bounilarics  of 
Ontario  anil  the  e.astern  boundary  of  Manitoba, 
and  its  area  is  now  computed  at  282,000  sq.  ni. 
On  the  south  the  district  is  bounded  by  .Manitoba 
from  its  north-eiust  corner  to  the  western  shore  of 
Lake  Winnipeg.  The  western  boundary  is  along 
the  west  shore  of  the  lake  to  near  Norw.ay  House, 
whence  it  goes  in  a  northerly  direction  to  the  .'>5th 
degree  of  latitu<le,  at  the  iioint  where  it  intersects 
the  Nelson  River,  and  tiien  passes  west  to  the 
100th  degree  of  longitude,  which  it  follows  north 
to  the  limits  of  Canadian  territory.  On  the  east 
the  boundary  is  a  continuation  of  the  eastern 
boundary  of  Manitoba  until  it  reaches  Hudson 
Bay,  where  it  follows  the  coast-line  to  the  northern 
limits  of  the  Dominion.  Keewatin  is  but  little 
known.  It  is  nominally  .administered  by  the 
lieutenant-governor  of  Miinitoba,  but  is  nearly 
uninhabited,  excepting  by  Eskimos  in  the  nonli. 
Norway  House,  an  iuqiortant  station  of  the  Hud.Min 
Bay  Company,  and  one  or  two  other  posts  belonging 


KEF 


KEITH 


407 


to  tliat  corporatitiii,   are   the  only  settlements   in 
the    districts.      The    principal    attraction    is    the 

fame,  large  and  small,  witii  which  it  abounds, 
n  some  parts  valuahle  minerals  are  believed 
to  e.xist,  but  they  have  not  been  developed.  The 
country  is  well  watered  ami  timbereil  in  many 
places,"  but  is  not  suitable  for  cultivation  to 
any  extent.  It  embraces  the  northern  part  of 
Lake  Winnipeg,  with  it.s  important  fisheries,  ami 
includes  the  mouth  of  the  Saskatchewan  River, 
which  is  navigable,  except  for  a  short  distance, 
for  nearly  1000  miles.  The  Nelson  River  passes 
through  "the  province,  a-s  well  as  the  Churchill 
and  numerous  smaller  streams ;  and  the  Chester- 
field Inlet  on  the  western  side  of  Hudson  Bay 
penetrates  nearly  to  its  western  boundary.  The 
projected  Hudso'u  Bay  Railway  is  planned  to  pa.ss 
through  Keewatin.     See  HlLisON  B.W. 

Kef,  El,  a  walled  town  of  Tunis,  95  miles  SW. 
of  the  capital,  perched  on  the  side  of  a  steep  hill, 
was  noted  in  Carthaginian  times  for  its  temple  to 
Astarte.  There  exist  a  ruined  temple,  therma», 
and  cisterns  of  Roman  construction.  Pop.  4000, 
exclusive  of  a  small  French  garrison.  A  picture  of 
early  Christian  life  at  this  place  is  given  in  Cardinal 
Newman's  Cal/ista. 

Kelil.    See  Steasbcrg. 

lieiafhley  ( pronounced  Keetldey ),  a  market  and 
manufacturing  town  in  the  West  Riding  of  York- 
shire, on  the  Aire,  amid  the  moorland  scenery  of 
the  Brontes'  country,  9  miles  NW.  of  Bradford 
and  17  WNW.  of  Leeds.  It  has  a  parish  church 
(rebuilt  184Si,  a  (lOthic  mechanics'  institute  (1870- 
87),  the  Drake  traile  school  (1713;  rebuilt  IS60), 
extensive  water- works  ( 1876),  and  two  public  parks 
of  9  and  15  acres  gifted  in  1887-88  by  the  Duke  of 
Devonshire  and  Mr  J.  Lund.  The  manufactures 
of  worsted  and  woollen  goods,  worsted-spinning 
machinery,  and  sewing  and  wiishiiig  machines  are 
important.  KeiL'lilev  was  constituted  a  municipal 
borough  in  1882.  "Pop.  (1851)  13,050:  (1881) 
25,245;  (1891)  30.810.  See  R.  Holmes,  Keighley, 
Past  and  Present  ( 1858). 

Keis;htley,  Thojias,  a  busy  wTiter,  was  born 
in  Dublin  in  October  1789,  and  was  educated  at 
Trinity  College  there.  In  1824  he  settled  in  Eng- 
land to  a  life  of  lettei-s,  which  he  pursued  assidu- 
ously till  his  death,  November  4,  1872.  His 
histories  of  Rome,  Greece,  and  England  held  their 
place  as  school  manuals  until  superseded  by  better 
ix)oks  :  of  less  moment  were  his  notes  to  Virgil  and 
Horace.  But  his  Fairy  Mythology  (1850)  largely 
retains  its  value,  as  also  to  a  less  extent  does  his 
Life,  Writings,  and  Opinions  of  Milton  (1855),  and 
his  annotated  edition  of  Milton  (1859). 

Rei  Islands.    See  Key. 

Keilll.  TilKODOU,  a  distinguished  theologian, 
was  born  at  Stuttgart,  17th  December  1825, 
studied  under  F.  C.  Baur  at  Tubingen  :  and  wa-s 
in  turns  revetent  at  Tubingen,  vicar  in  Stuttgart, 
deacon  and  next  archdeacon  at  Esslingen,  ami 
profes.sor  of  Tlieologj-  at  Zurich  (IHGO),  and  at 
Giessen  (1873),  where  he  died,  17tli  November 
1878.  He  published  valuable  monographs  con- 
nected with  the  religious  history  of  I'lm,  Esslin- 
fen,  and  Swabia  ;  two  volumes  of  sermons,  entitleil 
'rciindesicorte  ziir  Gemcindc  (1861-62);  Cclsiis' 
wahres  Wort  (1873);  Aus  dim  Urcliristeiitnm 
( 1878) ;  but  the  work  by  which  his  name  will  best 
be  remembered  is  the  noble  contribution  he  added 
to  the  Lives  of  Christ.  The  preliminary  studies, 
Die  mensehliche  Enticiekeliing  Jcsit  Chrisli  ( 1861 ) 
and  Die  gesrhiehllichc  Wiirde  Jrsu  (181)4),  were 
Worked  U])  into  /><;;■  gesrhichlliihr  Christ  us  (M  cH. 
1866):  but  all  three  were  preliminary  to  the  great 
Geschirhte  Jesn  von  Nazara  (3  vols.  1867  72  ;  Kng. 
trans.  6  vols.  1873  S3),  a  truly  epoch-making  work, 


uneijualled  in  learning,  acuteness,  and  insiglit. 
Keim  eliminates  the  miraculous  element,  but  is  in 
the  highest  degree  reverent  and  spiritual  in  tone, 
regarding  the  person  itself  as  the  real  miracle,  tlie 
ilivinity  of  Jesus  us  depending  on  the  elevation  of 
his  humanity  attained  through  a  sinlessnos  which 
of  itself  evidenced  the  miracle  of  Clod  and  his 
presence  on  earth.  Keim's  Gesehiclite  Jesii  naeh 
den  Ergebnisscn  hetitiger  Wissensehafl  ( 1873)  was  a 
successful  popular  abridgment  of  his  great  work. 

Kei  River,  CiREAX,  a  river  of  South  Africa, 
which  in  1848  was  made  the  boundary  between 
Cape  Colony  and  Kaft'raria.  Transkei  is  a  magis- 
tracy of  Katl'raria,  comprising  Fingoland,  the 
Idutwya  Reserve,  and  ticalekaland,  and  lying 
between  the  Cireat  Kei  River  and  the  western 
boundary  of  Pondoland.  The  magistracy  forms, 
adnunistratively,  a  dependency  of  Cape  Colony. 
Pop.  1020  Europeans  and  152,550  natives. 

Keith,  Admiral  Lord.  George  Keith  Elphin- 
stone,  Viscount  Keith,  was  the  son  of  the  tenth 
Lord  Elphinstone,  and  was  named  after  his  grand- 
uncle  the  tenth  Earl  Marischal  Keith.  Born  at 
Elphinstone  Tower,  near  Stirling,  7th  January  1746, 
he  entered  the  navy,  saw  service  in  most  parts  of 
the  world,  and  distinguished  himself  in  numerous 
engagements  in  the  American  war  and  the  P'rench 
wars.  He  conmianded  the  expedition  in  1795-97 
whicli  took  Cape  Town,  and  was  made  Baron 
Keith :  and  having  had  the  command  of  the  fleet 
which  landed  Abercromby's  army  in  Aboukir  Bay 
( 1801  )  he  was  in  1814  made  viscount.  He  died  lOtli 
March  1823.     There  is  a  Life  by  Allardyce  ( 1882). 

Heitll,  James,  best  known  as  Marshal  Keith, 
was  born  at  the  castle  of  Inverugie.  near  Peter- 
head, 11th  June  1696.  He  came  of  a  family,  repre- 
sented now  by  the  Earl  of  Kintore,  «  hich  from  the 
12th  century  liad  held  the  hereditary  oflice  of  Great 
Marischal  of  Scotland,  and  whose  principal  seat 
was  Dunnottar  Castle  (q. v.).  Sir  William  Keith, 
the  tenth  in  descent  from  the  founder  of  the  line, 
was  created  Earl  Marischal  in  14.">S  :  and  (Jeorge, 
fifth  earl,  his  sixth  descendant,  in  1593  founded 
the  Marischal  College  in  Aberdeen.  His  fourth 
descendant,  William,  ninth  earl  (d.  1712),  married 
Lady  Maria  Drurnmond,  a  Catholic  and  strong 
Jacobite,  daughter  of  the  fourth  Earl  of  Perth, 
and  by  her  was  the  father  of  Marshal  Keith  and 
of  his'  elder  brother,  George,  tenth  Earl  Marischal 
( 1693-1778).  James  was  destined  for  the  law,  and 
had  studied  at  Aberdeen  and  Edinburgh,  when  in 
1715  he  engaged  with  his  brother  in  the  Jacobite 
rising,  and  in  1719  in  Alberoni's  expedition  to  the 
We.st  Highlands,  which  ended  in  the  'battle'  of 
Glenshiel  (q.v.).  Both  times  the  brothers  escaped 
to  the  Continent ;  and  James  held  for  nine  yeai-s 
a  Spanish  colonelcy,  and  took  i)arl  in  the  siege  of 
Gibraltar  ( 1726-27).  But  his  creeil,  the  Episcopal, 
was  against  him ;  and  in  1728  he  entered  the 
Russian  service  as  a  major-general.  He  distin- 
guished himself  in  the  wai-s  with  Turkey  and 
Sweden,  particularly  at  the  siege  of  Otchakotf 
(17.37)  and  the  reduction  of  the  Aland  Islands 
(1743).  To  be  healed  of  a  wound  received  on  the 
former  occasion  he  visited  Paris,  and  thence  crossed 
over  to  London,  where  he  made  his  peace  with  the 
Hanoverian  government,  and  had  more  than  one 
interview  with  George  II.  In  1747,  limling  the 
Russian  service  in  various  respects  disagreeable, 
he  exchanged  it  for  that  of  Pnissia.  Frederick 
the  Gre.at  knew  bis  merits,  ami  gave  him  at  once 
the  rank  of  field-marshal.  From  this  time  his 
name  is  associated  with  that  of  the  king  of  Prussia, 
wim  relied  .-is  much  on  Keith's  military  genius  as 
he  dill  on  the  iliplomatic  ability  of  his  brother,  the 
Earl  Marischal,  whom  he  despatclieil  on  emba.ssies 
to  Paris  and   >iadrid.      Keith's  talents  became  still 


408 


KEITH-FALCONER 


KELP 


more  conspicuous  upon  the  1)ieakin{;  out  of  the 
Seven  Years' War  (IToB).  He  sliare<l  Freilerick's 
<loubtful  foitiines  liefore  Prafjue,  was  present  at 
tlip  victories  of  I/otmsitz  and  Kossliacli,  and  con- 
ducted tlie  masterly  retreat  from  Olmiitz.  His 
last  battle  was  not  far  distant.  On  14th  October 
1758  at  Hochkirch  (ij.v.)  Keith,  who  commanded 
the  Prussian  right  wing,  was  shot  dead  wliile  for 
tlie  third  time  cliarfrin';  the  enemy.  The  Austrians 
buried  him  honourably  in  the  church  at  Hochkirch, 
whence  Frederick  next  year  translated  his  remains 
to  the  (iarrison  church'  at  Berlin.  There,  too,  in 
the  Wilhelmsplatz,  Frederick  in  1786  erected  a 
statue  of  the  marshal,  a  replica  of  which  in  bronze 
was  gifted  by  King  William  to  Peterhead  in  1868. 
Keith  died  poor  and  uninarried,  but  he  left  children 
by  his  mistress,  the  Swedish  captive,  Eva  Merthens, 
who  survived  him  till  1811. 

See  his  fragmentary  but  valuable  Memoir,  ITli-S/f 
(Spalding  Club,  1843);  the  Memoir  of  Marshal  Keith, 
Kith  a  Sketch  of  the  Keith  Famili/  ( >'eterlieart,  1S69 ) ; 
Carlyle's  Frederick ;  and  the  German  Lives  of  Keith,  by 
Varnhagen  von  Ense  (1844;  new  ed.  1888)  and  Lieut, 
von  Paczynski-Tenczyn  (1889). 

Keitli-Faleoner.    See  Falconee. 

Kckul«',FRiEDRiCH  August  ( 1829-96), chemist, 
born  atDariiistailt,  and  ennobled  as  Von  Stradowitz 
in  1895,  became  juofessor  at  Ghent  and  at  Bonn 
(1865).  He  made  important  researches  in  the 
chemistry  of  the  org.anic  substances,  and  jiublished 
a  famous'  handbook  of  organic  cliemistry  ( 1861-67 ). 

Keliit  (also  spelt  Khelat  and  Kalat),  the  capi- 
tal of  Beluchistan,  stands  at  an  elevation  of  more 
than  7000  feet,  in  28°  52'  N.  lat.  and  66°  33'  E. 
long., and  coutainsabout  14,000 inhabitants.  Seated 
on  the  summit  of  a  hill,  Kelat  is  a  place  of  great 
military  im|i(utance.  It  was  occupied  bj-  England 
(1839-41);  and  in  1877  a  treaty  was  concluded 
with  the  khan,  by  which  a  British  agent,  with 
military  escort,  became  resident  at  Kelat.  In  1893 
the  Iniiian  government  deposed  the  khan  for  mis- 
government,  his  son  being  proclaimed  kh.an  in  his 
stead.  See  Beluchistan.— Kel.\t-i-Giiii,zai  is  a 
fortress  of  Afghanistan,  75  miles  NE.  of  Kandahar. 

Kclati  \adiri.  one  of  the  strongest  natural 
fortresses  in  the  world,  in  the  Persian  province  of 
Kborassan,  and  close  to  the  Itussian  frontier  of 
Transcas])ia.  It  was  raised  by  Nadir  Shah  as  a 
defence  against  the  Turkomans  upon  an  elevated 
valley  in  tlie  Hezar  Musjid  Mountain,  and  shut  out 
from  external  (communication  by  lofty  hills  with 
])recipices  of  300  to  600  feet.  Owing  to  Russia's 
schemes  upon  Khorassan,  Kelati  Nadiri  has  re- 
cently gained  consider.ible  im])ortance. 

Kcllawsiys  Rock,  the  name  given  to  highly 
fossiliferous  beds  of  sand  and  calcareous  sandstones 
which  occur  near  the  bitse  of  the  Oxford  clay.  See 
Jurassic  System. 

KcIIci*.  (■iiTTFltlED,  German  poet  and  novelist, 
was  bom  at  (ilattfelden,  near  Zurich,  on  19th  July 
1819.  He  studied  at  first  landscape-painting  at 
Vienua(  1840-42),  but  shortly  afterwanls  abandoned 
jiainting  for  literature.  From  1861  to  1876  he  was 
st^ite  secretary  of  his  native  canton.  The  works 
on  which  Keller's  fame  rests  are  the  romance,  J)er 
ffriine  Hcinrich  (1804;  new  and  revised  ed.  1879- 
SO);  Die  Leiite  von  Sclelvyla  ( I8.">6),  a  collection  of 
short  tales,  of  which  .some,  !is  Itoiiiea  tuul  Juliet 
(inf  (lem  Dorf,  K/cidcr  mac/ieii  /.eiife,  and  Der 
.Sc/iinicfl  xeinen  Gliickcs,  are  excellently  told  ;  the 
liumoristic  Siehen  Leejenchn  (1872);  Ziirirhcr 
Norclkn  (1878) ;  a  volume  of  Gesammclte  Geilirhte 
(1883);  and  the  romance  j1/rt;-A/fl  Snieiiiilcr  (1886). 
Keller  has  a  warm  and  fertile  imagination,  a  rich 
huMiour,  and  true  poetic  feeling;  he  excels  in  the 
delineation  of  Swiss  character.    A  collected  eilition 


of  liis  works  appeared  in   1889-90.     He  died  15th 
July  1890.     See  Life  by  Brahm  ( 1883). 
Hellermanii,  Francois  Christoi-he,  linke 

of  Valmy.  liorn  28th  May  1735,  at  Wolfsbuch- 
weiler,  in  Alsace,  entered  a  French  regiment  of 
hussars  at  seventeen,  and  had  risen  to  the  rank 
of  major-general  before  the  Kevoluticui  broke 
out.  In  1792  he  received  the  (MUiimand  of  the 
Army  of  the  Centre  on  the  Moselle,  repelled 
the  Duke  of  Brunswick,  and  by  his  daring 
promptitude  delivered  France  by  the  famous  can- 
nonade of  Valmy.  Vet  on  .allegation  of  treason 
against  the  republic,  he  was  imprisoned  for  a 
year,  .and  only  lilierated  on  Robes])ierre's  fall. 
He  afterwards  rendered  important  services  in  Italy, 
.and  on  the  erection  of  the  Empire  he  was  made  a 
niiirshal  .and  a  duke.  In  the  campaigns  of  1809 
.and  1812  he  comm.anded  the  reserves  on  the  Khine. 
At  the  Bestor.ation  be  .attached  himself  to  the 
Bourbons.  He  was  moderate  .and  c(uislitutional 
in  his  views.  He  died  12tli  September  1820.  It 
w.as  his  son  (1770-1835)  whose  charge  turned 
Marengo  ( q.  v. )  into  a  victoiy. 

Kells  (originally  Kcnlis),  an  ancient  town  of 
County  Me.atli,  Leinster,  Ireband,  sitn.ated  on  the 
Bliickwater,  26  miles  liy  rail  \V.  of  Droghed.a.  It 
ha.s  sever.al  interesting  .antiquities,  including  St 
Columba's  house,  a  round  tower,  and  three  or  four 
stone  crosses.  Kells  w.as  made  the  centre  of  a 
bishop's  see  in  807  ;  this  was  united  to  the  see  of 
Me.atli  in  the  13th  centuiy.  Previous  to  the  Union 
Kells  returned  two  memliers  to  iiarliament.  Pop. 
2822.  A  manuscript  copy  of  the  gospels,  called  the 
Book  of  Kells,  is  beautifully  executed  with  coloured 
Celtic  orn.anientation,  and  is  believed  to  be  the 
work  of  the  9th  century.  It  is  now  i)reserved  in 
the  library  of  Trinity  College,  Dublin.  See  Illu- 
min.\tion'  of  Manuscripts. 

Kel|>(Fr.  rrireeh)  is  the  crude  alkaline  matter 
produced  by  the  combustion  of  seaweeds,  of  which 
the  most  valued  for  this  juirpose  are  FiiCKS  resini- 
losKS,  F.  nodosns,  F.  sci-raf>is,  Lcimineiriet  eiiijilutct, 
L.  hidbosei,  Hiniatit/iei/iei  lorcu,  and  Chordei  plum. 
These  .are  dried  in  the  sun,  .and  then  burned  in 
shallow  excav.ations  .at  a  low  heat.  About  20  or 
24  tons  of  seaweed  yield  one  ton  of  kelp.  The 
kelp  met  with  in  commerce  C(Uisists  of  b;ird,  d.ark- 
giuy  or  bluish  masses,  which  have  an  .acrid,  caustic 
tasie,  and  are  composed  of  chloride  of  sodium,  of 
carbonate  of  soda,  sulphates  of  .soda  .and  potash, 
chloriile  of  pot.a-ssium,  iodide  of  potassium  or 
sodium,  insoluble  salts,  and  colouring  matter.  It 
used  to  be  the  great  source  of  soda  (the  crude 
(■arbon.atc )  ;  but,  as  this  salt  can  now  be  obtained 
at  a  lower  price  and  of  a  better  (piality  from  the 
decomposition  of  sea-salt,  it  is  prepared  in  far  les.s 
quantity  than  formerly  from  ketji.  A  tiui  of  goo<l 
kelp  will  yield  about  8  II).  of  iodine,  large  quantities 
of  chhuide  of  potassium,  and  additionally,  by  de- 
structive distillation,  a  large  (|u;uilily  of  volatile  oil, 
from  4  to  15  gallons  of  paratlin  oil,  3  or  4  gallons 
of  n.ajditha,  and  from  U  to  4  cwt.  of  sulpliate  of 
ammonia. 

Till  1825,  liefore  the  remission  of  the  duty  on 
salt  .and  on  Spanish  barilla,  the  kelp  manufacture 
(introduced  into  Tyree  in  1746)  w.as  carried  on  to 
a  very  large  extent  in  the  north  and  west  of 
Scotland,  and  the  v.alue  of  many  estates  in  the 
Highlanils  and  lleOiridi-s  greatly  increased  in  con- 
•sequence.  About  the  beginningof  the  I9lh  century 
some  20,000  tons,  worth  from  f200.00ll  to  £3li0.00tt, 
were  m.ade  annually  <m  the  western  coasts  of  .Scot- 
land alone.  Now  the  total  annual  produce  in  the 
United  Kingdom  will  hanlly  exceecl  70(K>  tons,  at 
.about  f4  a  Icui.  The  greater  part  comes  from 
Ireland,  the  remainder  from  the  West  liigldands 
and  the  Channel  Islands.     The  French  supplies  do 


KELPIE 


KEJVIBLE 


409 


not  exceoil  those  of  Britain.  See  Soda,  Iodin?;, 
Seawkkks. 

Kclpio.     See  Demonolocv. 

Kolsoy  Beds,  a  sn1nlivisioii  of  the  Pleistocene 
acoiiiuulations,  consisting;  cliielly  of  <;iavel,  eliaif;ed 
with  marine  sliells  ami  remains  of  mammoth, 
rhinoceros,  \c.,  which  occurs  at  Kelsey  Hill  near 
Heilon,  and  other  places  in  tlie  neijjhbourliood  of 
Hnll.  The  gravel  rests  upon  and  is  covere<l  liy 
bouldcrclay,  and  was  probably  deposited  in  the 
sea,  near  the  mouth  of  a  river. 

Kelso,  a  pleasant  market-town  of  Roxburgh- 
shire. 23  miles  by  rail  WSW.  of  Berwick-onTweed 
and  .V2  (by  roail  42)  SE.  of  Edinburgh.  It  stands 
on  the  north  bank  of  the  Tweed,  here  joined  by 
the  Teviot,  and  spanned  by  Kennie's  noble  hve- 
arcli  bri.lge  ( 1803),  165  yardi  long.  In  1 12(i  David 
I.  translated  to  'Calchou'  a  Tironensi.nn  al>1iey, 
founded  by  him  at  .Selkirk  seven  years  before. 
This,  wrecked  by  the  English  under  Hertford  in 
lo45,  is  now  represented  by  the  stately  ruin  of  its 
cruciform  cliurch,  Romanesque  and  Fii-st  Pointed 
in  style,  with  a  ma.ssive  central  tower  91  feet 
high.  Across  the  river,  on  the  peninsula  formed 
by  the  Teviot,  stood  the  royal  castle  and  town  of 
Roxburgh,  ileniolished  in  1460  ;  and  1  mile  W.  is 
Floors  Castle  (171S-1849),  the  seat  of  tlie  Duke  of 
Iloxburghe.  Kelso  itself  has  a  town-hall  (1S16), 
corn  exchange  (1856),  high  school  (1878),  race- 
coui-se,  coach-building  and  other  industries,  and 
memories  of  the  '15,  Scott,  the  Ballantvnes,  and 
Sir  William  Kairbairn.  Pop.  (1851)  4783;  (1881) 
4687:  ils;)l)  417.5.  See  works  by  Haig  (1825), 
Cosmo  Innes  (1846),  and  Kutherfur'd  (1880). 

Kelt.    See  Salmon. 

Kelts.    See  Celts. 

K4-Iviii.  Lord.    See  Thomson  (William). 

Keillble,  John  Mitchell,  Anglo-Saxon  scholar, 
w,i-s  the  son  of  Charles  Kemble,  the  actor,  and  was 
>>orn  in  London  in  1807.  He  had  his  education 
partly  under  Dr  Richardson,  author  of  the  Enrjlish 
Dii-tionaiy,    and    partly    at    Buiy    St    Edmunds 

frammar-school,  whence  in  1826  he  passed  to 
riidty  College,  Cambridge,  graduating  B.A.  in 
1830.  While  an  undergraduate  he  spent  some  time 
at  (iottingen,  under  the  brothers  Grimm,  who  seem 
to  have  finally  determineil  his  natural  bent  towards 
Teutonic  studies.  The  lii-st  fruit  of  these  was  an 
edition  of  the  poem  of  Beowulf  (183.3-37),  to  a 
secoiul  edition  of  which  he  ailde<l  a  translation, 
with  a  glossary  and  notes.  Not  to  mention  several 
minor  publications,  he  edited  for  the  English  His- 
toiical  Society  a  valualile  collection  of  charters 
of  the  An"lo-Saxon  period,  entitled  Codex  Diplo- 
maticits  Jhvi  Saxonici  [Q  vols.  1839-48).  But  his 
most  important  work,  which  contains  the  chief 
results  of  all  his  researches,  is  his  untinisheil 
Hintnru  of  the  Saxons  in  Engluntl  (2  vols.  1849; 
new  e(!.  by  W.  de  (S.  Birch,  1876).  Fnrtlier  work 
was  interrupt(;d  by  sudden  de.ath  at  Dublin,  March 
26,  1857.  Kemble  w;us  for  a  good  numy  years 
editor  of  the  Britink  mid  Foreir/n  Review;  and 
also  held  the  olllce  of  Licenser  of  Plays. 

Kemble.  .Iohn  Philip,  eldest  .son  of  Roger 
Kemble,  a  well-known  countiy  nuinager,  was  born 
at  Pre.scot,  in  Lancashire,  on  1st  February  1757. 
His  father  intended  him  for  the  Roman  Catholic 
l>riesthooil,  aiul  with  this  view  he  wa-s  sent  to  a 
seminary  at  Sedgeley  Park,  in  Stallordshire,  and 
afterwanis  t<)  the  English  college  at  Donay.  But 
the  stage  mania  was  im  him,  and  he  became, 
despite  his  father's  earnest  prohibition,  an  actiu'. 
His  first  professional  apiiearance  wjis  made  at 
Wolverhampton  on  8th  .lanuary  1776;  he  after- 
wards joined  the  famous  V'ork  circuit,  uniler  the 
command  of  Tate  Wilkinson  ;  and  he  played  also 


in  Ireland.  The  success  of  his  great  sister,  Mrs 
Siddons  (q.v.),  gave  him  the  eagerly-covetid 
ch.ance  of  a  London  appear.ance,  and  on  .SOtii 
September  1783  he  played  Hamlet  at  Drury  Lane. 
His  reading  of  the  character  was  original  and  strik- 
ing, and,  tliough  his  acting  was  not  then  what  it 
afterwanis  became,  it  aroused  the  keenest  interest. 
He  continued  to  play  leading  tragic  characters  at 
Dnin-  L.ane  for  many  years,  until,  indeed,  the  shift- 
lessne.ss  of  Sheridan  forced  him  to  leave  tlie  tliejit  re. 
In  1788  Sherid.in  appointed  Kemlile  manager,  and 
his  control  of  the  theatre  was  notable  for  the  care 
and  completeness  with  which  Sh.akespeare  and  the 
legitimate  drama  were  produced.  When  driven 
from  Drury  Lane  in  1802  he  purchased  a  share 
(one-sixth)  in  Covent  Garden  Theatre,  for  which 
be  paid  £23,000.  He  became  manager  of  that 
theatre,  and  made  his  first  appearance  there  on 
24th  September  1803  as  Hamlet.  On  20th  Septem- 
ber 1808  the  theatre  wa-s  burned  to  the  ground,  and 
on  the  opening  of  the  new  building  (18th  Septem- 
ber 1809)  the  notorious  O.  P.  (i.e.  'Old  Price') 
Riots  broke  out,  in  which  the  Kemble  family  were 
the  specijil  objects  of  jjublic  execration.  Kemble 
retired  in  1817.  He  took  a  formal  farewell  of  the 
Edinburgh  public  on  29th  iNlarch  of  that  year, 
sjieaking  a  farewell  epilogue  written  by  his  warm 
friend.  Sir  W.alter  Scott.  His  London  farewell  was 
taken  on  23d  .lune  in  his  great  character  of  Corio- 
lanus.  He  afterwards  settled  down  at  Lausanne, 
where  he  died  of  apoplexy  on  26th  Feljrnary  1823. 
.\s  an  actor  Kemble  probably  has  had  no  superior 
in  the  dignified,  stately  characters  of  tragedy — 
he  was  '  the  noblest  Roman  of  them  all ' — and  his 
Coriolanus,  his  Brutus,  and  his  Cato  were  perfect 
imperson.ations.  He  wivs  a  magnificently  hand- 
some man  ;  stately,  if  rather  stilt',  in  bearing :  a 
thoroughly  intelligent  and  ediicated  speaker,  though 
labouring  under  the  disadvantage  of  a  weak  voice  ; 
and,  above  all,  a  man  of  remarkable  intellectual 
power.  He  was  also  emphatically  a  gentleman. — 
Stephen,  brother  of  the  foregoing,  was  born  in 
Herefordshire,  3d  May  1758.  As  an  actor  he  was 
chieHy  remarkable  for  his  enormous  bulk,  which 
enabled  him  to  pl.ay  Falstatl'  without  stuffing.  He 
was  for  some  eight  years  (1792-1800)  manager  of 
the  Edinburgh  theatre,  where  he  was  in  continual 
hot  water  through  lawsuits  ainl  other  troubles. 
He  died  in  1822. — Chakles,  younger  brother  of 
John  and  Stephen,  was  born  at  Brecon  on  27th 
November  1775.  In  1792  he  made  his  first  .appear- 
ance on  the  stage  at  Sheffield  .as  Orlando  in  As  You 
Like  If,  and  on  21st  April  1794  made  his  debut  in 
London,  playing  M>alcolni  to  John-  Kemble's  Mac- 
beth. He  continued  on  the  stage  till  1S40,  when, 
being  appointeil  Examiner  of  Plays,  he  retired  from 
the  active  exercise  of  his  profession.  He  dinl  on 
12tli  Noveml>er  1854.  As  an  actor  Kemble  chielly 
excelled  in  characters  of  the  second  rank,  .anil  his 
Laertes,  Cassio,  and  Jlacdutl'  were  scarcely  less 
j  interesting  than  his  greater  brother's  Hamlet, 
I  Othello,  and  Maclieth.  In  comedy  he  specially 
distinguished  himself,  and  his  name  is  even  yet  a 
tradition  Un-  gra<'e,  delicacy,  anil  joyous  Inightnes.s. 
No  man  could  i)lay  gentlemen  more  perfectly  than 
Charles  Kemble. — Two  of  Charles's  daughters  com- 
plete the  list  of  the  Kemhies.  Frances  Anne 
(Fanny  Kemble),  born  in  London,  27th  November 
1809,  nuade  her  debut  in  1829,  when  her  tragic 
acting  cicMteil  <a  great  sensation.  In  1832  slie 
went  with  her  father  to  .\merica,  where  two  years 
later  she  marrieil  Fierce  Butler,  a  Southern  ^danler. 
They  were  divorced  in  1848;  and,  resuming  her 
maiden  n<'ime,  she  gave  Shakespearian  readings  for 
twenty  years.  She  published  dram.as,  poems,  auto- 
biogi.apliv,  vKc,  and  died  in  London,  loth  .lanuary 
189.3.— Ai)KLAll)E  (1814-79)  wn.s  distinguished  as 
an  ojtera  singer,  but  retired  before  her  marriage 


410 


KEMP 


KEN 


witli  F.  Saitoris.  She  w;is  author  of  A  Il'ci/-  hi  a 
Freiirh  t'uiiutry  House  (1867)  anil  Hfediisa  and 
Vlhcr  Tti/is  (1S6S).  See  Percy  Fitzgerald,  'The 
Kcmblcs  (2  vols.  1871). 

Keill|>.  Geoege  JIeikle,  architect,  was  born 
at  Moortoot,  in  Peeblesshire,  26th  May  179.'),  and 
ii]!  to  the  aj;e  of  fourteen  assisted  his  father,  who 
was  a  shepherd.  IJecomiug  a  carpenter  and  mill- 
wright, he  afterwards  sought  work  in  England  and 
France,  everywhere  settling  in  towns  wliere  he 
could  study  fresh  specimens  of  Gothic  architecture  ; 
lint  his  intention  of  nraking  a  tour  of  Europe  was 
checked  by  news  of  liis  mothers  death,  and  he 
returned  to  Scotland  in  1S26.  There  he  ultimately 
became  adniughtsman  in  Edinburgh,  and  executeil 
drawings  of  Scottish  cathedrals  for  a  projected 
Glasgow  publication.  This  was  abandoned,  how- 
ever, .as  was  also  a  project  to  complete  Glas™w 
cathedral,  for  which  Kem])  had  prepared  a  model  ; 
but  in  183S  liis  second  ilesign  for  the  Scott  Monu- 
ment at  Edinbur<;h  was  accepted.  It  is  on  this 
work  alone  that  Kemp's  fame  rests,  for  before  the 
completion  of  his  fairy-like  structure  the  architect 
was  drowneil  in  the  canal  at  Edinburgh,  on  the  night 
of  6th  March  1S44.     See  Life  by  T.  lionnar  (1892). 

Kenilien,  a  town  of  Khenish  Prussia,  7  miles 
X\V.  of  Krefeld.  It  manufactures  silk  goods,  wax 
candles,  vinegar,  &c.  Pop.  5952.  There  is  another 
Kempen  in  the  Prussian  government  of  Poseu,  -tS 
miles  l>y  rail  NE.  of  Ureslau.     Pop.  5787. 

Kcinpis,  Thoii.\s  a,  was  so  called  from  Kem- 
pen, wliere  he  was  born  in  1379.  His  family 
name  was  Hiimerkeu  ( Latinised,  Mlalleolus, 
'  Little-hanmier ').  He  was  educated  at  Deventer, 
and  in  1400  entered  the  Augustinian  convent  of 
Agnetenberg  near  Zwolle,  of  which  his  brotlier  .lohn 
was  prior.  Here  he  took  the  vows  in  1406.  He 
entered  into  priest's  orilers  in  1413,  and  was  chosen 
sulp-prior  in  1429,  to  which  otlice  he  was  re-elected 
in  144S.  His  whole  life  appears  to  have  been 
spent  in  the  seclusion  of  this  convent,  where  he 
lived  to  an  extreme  old  age.  His  death  took  place 
in  1471,  at  which  time  lie  certainly  had  attaine<l 
his  ninetieth,  anil  most  probably  his  ninety -second 
year.  The  character  ot  Kempis  for  sanctity  and 
ascetic  learning  stood  \'cry  high  among  his  con- 
temporaries, but  his  historical  rejiutatiou  rests 
almost  entirely  on  his  writings,  which  consist  of 
sermons,  ascetical  treatises,  ])ious  biographies, 
letters,  and  hymns.  Of  these,  however,  the  only 
one  which  deserves  special  notice  is  the  celebrateil 
ascetical  treatise  On  the  Followhiii  [or  Iiiiitatiun) 
of  Christ,  the  autliorship  of  which  is  popularly 
ascribed  to  him.  In  its  pages,  says  Dean  Alilman, 
'  is  gathered  and  concentred  all  that  is  elevating, 
passionate,  profoundly  pious  in  all  the  older  mystics. 
No  book,  after  the  Holy  Scri|)ture,  hits  been  .so  often 
reprinted,  none  translated  into  so  many  languages, 
ancient  and  modern,'  extending  even  to  Greek  and 
Hebrew,  or  so  often  retranslated.  At  least  eighty 
editions  «ere  printed  between  1470  and  1500  ;  and 
the  total  number  of  eilitions  enumerated  by  Fr.  Aug. 
de  Hacker  (Exsai  Bibliorj.,  Liege,  1864)  w;is  about 
3000.  Before  his  death  in  1873  he  had  collected 
evidence  of  more  than  3000  additional  eilitions. 
The  earliest  English  translation,  by  Dr  .-Vtkinson, 
canon  of  Windsor,  w.os  printed  by  Pynson  in 
loO.'J.  It  is  strange  that  the  authorship  of  a 
book  so  popular,  and  of  a  date  comparatively  so 
recent,  should  still  be  the  subject  of  one  of  the 
most  curious  controvei-sies  in  literary  history.  The 
book,  up  to  the  beginning  of  the  17th  century,  had 
been  xscribed  either  to  Thomas  ;i  Kempis  or  to  the 
celel)rated  .John  (lerson  (q.v. ),  chancellor  of  the 
univcrsitv  of  Paris,  except  in  one  MS.,  which, 
by  a  paljiable  anachronism,  attributes  it  to  St 
Bernard  ;  but  from  that  time  another  claimant  has 


been  put  forward,  Gersen,  the  so-called  abbot  of 
A'ercefli,  whose  \ery  existence  has  not  been  satisf;ic- 
torily  )iroved.  His  claim  was  strongly  argued  by 
C'ajetan  and  many  Benedictine  writers,  and  later 
by  M.  lie  (Jregory  {Mi'iiio/rc  siir  Ic  vd-ituhle  Aiiteur 
(le  rimit.,  1830)  and  Renan,  but  the  arguments 
against  it  of  Father  Euseliius  Anu)rt  and  Mgr. 
Malou  (lircherrhcs  histor.,  Tournivy,  'id  ed.  18.58) 
remain  unanswered.  These  three  competitoi-s 
have  divided  the  voices  of  the  learned,  not 
alone  individuals,  but  public  bodies,  universities, 
religious  orders,  the  Congregation  of  the  Index, 
the  parliament  of  Paris,  and  even  the  French 
Academy ;  and  the  assertoi-s  of  their  respec- 
tive claims  have  carried  into  the  controvei'sy  no 
small  amount  of  polemical  acrimony.  Hilton,  an 
English  monk,  has  also  een  proposed  as  author ; 
but  the  learned  have  now  generally  come  to  con- 
cede the  honour  to  Kempis.  The  theology  of  the 
Imitation  is  almost  purely  ascetical,  and  (except- 
ing the  4th  book,  which  regards  the  euchiirist,  and 
is  based  on  the  doctrine  of  the  real  presence)  the 
work  has  been  used  indiscriminately  by  Christians  of 
all  denominations.  The  most  ancient  perfect  MS., 
written  by  Thomas's  own  hand,  is  in  the  ISourgoi'ne 
Library  at  Brussels,  and  bears  the  date  1441,  but 
we  know  that  this  was  not  the  protograph  MS., 
and  indeed  two  MS.  copies  exist  of  1425,  \Ve  may 
therefore  date  the  completion  of  the  work  between 
1415  and  1424.  An  exact  facsimile  was  published 
at  London  in  1879,  with  an  introduction  by  Charles 
Ruelens.  Dr  Carl  Hirsche  of  Hamburg  discovered 
that  in  this  its  original  form  the  work  w;us  character- 
ised by  rhythmical  periods,  cadenced  sentences,  and 
frequent  rhymes — a  device  not  uncommon  among 
mystical  writers.  He  found  also  upon  the  M.S. 
marks  of  a  peculiar  system  of  punctuation,  em- 
jdoyed  not  merely  to  mark  the  sense,  but  also 
to  indicate  these  rliytbms  to  a,  reader  :  and  in  1874 
he  printed  at  Berlin  an  edition  of  the  text  in  which 
these  were  set  forth  for  the  first  time  by  a  re- 
arrangement of  the  matter  in  the  paragraphs.  The 
present  division  of  the  chapters  into  paragraphs 
w!is  originally  made  by  the  Jesuit  H.  Soninialius 
(1.599);  the  further  division  into  versicles  was  the 
work  of  the  17tli-centurv  editors.  A  new  Eii'dish 
translation,  'now  for  the  tii'st  time  set  fortli  in 
Kliytlimic  Sentences  according  to  the  Griginal 
Intention  of  the  Author,'  was  published  in  London 
in  1889,  with  a  preface  by  Canon  Liddon. 

See  KettievreU,  Aut/torship  of  the  De  Imitntionc  (1877) 
and  his  7'homnn  a  Kempis  and  the  Brothera  of  tlie  Common 
Life  (1882);  Victor  Becker,  L'Auteur  de  V Imitation 
(l.«S):Hirsche,  Prnlniomriui  :h  drr  /mi'^n'i'o  (]87.'?-94) ; 
L.  "Wlieatley,  The  Storii  of  the  Imitatio  Clirisli  (l.'*!)1  >. 
'I'lie  translation,  with  introduction,  &c.,  by  I>r  Bigg  (1807 ), 
is  hased,  like  all  English  translations,  on  that  of  .■\ntliony 
Hoskins  the  Jesuit  ( 1568-1015  ',  itself  a  nioilemisation 
of  the  oilier  one  by  Richard  Whytford  (ed.  1520).  See 
the  Hliliography  in  Wolfsgruber's  f/cescn  (1880).  • 

KeillOteil.  a  town  of  I!;i\aria,  54  miles  S.  by 
E.  of  rim.  The  upper  town  grew  up  around  a 
monastery  (Slh  century)  founded  by  disciples  of  St 
Gall ;  the  abbot  became  a  prince  of  the  empire 
(1.3()0),  and  the  pl.ace  a  free  town  of  the  empire 
(1289).  There  are  some  mannfacture.s.  Pop.  (1875) 
12,682;  (1895)  17,35,3. 

Kcnipton  I'ark,  in  .Middlesex,  4  miles  W.  of 
KingstDii  on-Tliames,  once  a  royal  residence,  is  now 
noted  for  its  race-meetings.     See  HoKSKKACIMi. 

Ken,  Thoma.s,  an  English  bishop  of  saintly 
memory,  was  born  at  Little  Berkliampstead,  Herts, 
in  .Inly  1637.  His  step-sister  Anne  Ken.  twenty- 
seven  years  his  .senior,  was  the  second  wife  of 
Izaak  Walton.  He  had  his  education  at  \\  in- 
Chester,  and  at  Ilait  ll.all  and  New  College,  Oxford, 
obtained  a  fellowship  in  the  last  named  in  1657, 


KENDAL 


KENNEDY 


411 


and  proceeded  B.A.  in  1661  and  M.A.  in  1C64.  He 
took  oiders  at  twenty-live,  and  lielil  in  snccession 
the  country  livings  of  Little  Ea^iton  in  Essex, 
Brixton  in  the  Isle  of  Wi<;ht,  and  Eiist  Woodhav 
in  Hants.  Already  he  had  lieen  elected  a  Fellow  of 
Winchester  College,  and  he  now  became  also  chap- 
lain to  the  bishop,  Dr  George  Morley.  Here  it  was 
that  he  prepared  his  Manual  of  Prayers  for  the  use 
of  the  Sr/io/ars  of  Winehester  College  (1674),  and 
^vTote  his  famous  morning,  evening,  and  midnight 
hymns,  the  Krst  two  of  which,  'Awake,  my  soul, 
and  with  the  snn,'  and  '(Tlorv  to  Thee,  my  (Jod,  this 
night,'  are  perhaps  more  widely  known  than  any 
other  Englisii  hymns.  In  1674  Ken  visited  Rome, 
and  five  veai-s  later  was  appointed  b.v  Charles  II. 
cha]ilain  to  the  Prince-ss  itary,  wife  of  William  of 
Orange,  liut  offended  William  by  insisting  that  a 
relative's  promise  of  marriage  should  be  kept,  and 
returned  home  in  1680,  \\  hen  he  was  appointed  one 
of  the  chajilains  of  the  king.  It  was  in  March  1683, 
on  the  king's  visit  to  Winchester,  that  Ken  refused 
to  give  up  his  house  for  the  accommodation  of 
Nell  Gwynne.  Later  in  the  same  year  he  sailed 
to  Tangiers  as  chaplain  to  Lord  Dartmouth,  and 
seven  months  after  his  return  (in  A]iril  1684)  was 
appointed  Bishop  of  Bath  and  Wells.  It  is  said 
that  a-s  soon  as  the  king  heard  of  the  vacancy  he 
remembered  Ken's  fearless  honesty  at  Winchester, 
and  asked.  '  Where  is  the  little  man  who  wouldn't 
give  poor  Xell.v  a  lodging  ?  Give  it  to  him.'  He  was 
consecrated  in  January  1685,  and  one  of  his  first 
duties  was  to  attend  the  deatli-bed  of  Charles.  The 
chief  public  event  of  his  bishopric  was  his  trial  and 
acquittal  among  the  '  Seven  Bishops '  in  1688,  for 
refusing  to  read  the  Declaration  of  Inrlulgcnec. 
At  the  Revolution  he  found  himself  unable  in  con- 
science to  take  the  oath  to  William,  having  already 
sworn  allegiance  to  King  James,  and  was  therefore 
superseded  in  his  bishopric  by  Dr  Kidder  in  1691. 
He  spent  the  remainder  of  his  days  in  quiet  retire- 
ment at  Lord  Weymouth's  seat  of  Longleat,  re- 
fusing to  perpetuate  the  schism  by  consecrating 
non-juring  bishops.  On  account  of  his  growing 
weakness  he  declined  to  resume  the  duties  of  his 
diocese  on  Kidder's  death  in  1703,  and  gladly 
recognised  his  successor,  ceasing  to  si^  himself 
'Bath  and  Wells'  from  that  time.  He  died  at 
Longleat,  19th  March  1711,  and  was  buried  at  sun- 
rise of  the  21st,  beneath  the  chancel  window  in  the 
churchyard  of  Frome  Selwood. 

Bishop  Ken  was  esteemed  a  great  preacher  in  his 
day,  but  his  name  survives  now  only  from  his 
hymns,  and  from  liLs  saintlv  personal  character  and 
the  intensity  of  his  devotion.  And  his  morning 
and  evening  hymns  deserve  the  world-wide  reputa- 
tion they  enjoy,  from  the  transparent  sirM|)licity, 
fervour,  and  truth  with  which  throughout  they  are 
informed.  His  Exposition  on  the  Church  Catechism 
( 1685 )  is  his  most  important  work  in  prose. 

Ken's  poetical  works  were  collected  by  liis  great- 
nephew  and  executor,  W.  Hawkins,  in  four  volumes  in 
1721 ;  his  iirose  works  by  J.  T.  Kound  in  one  volume  in 
1838.  Hawkins  published  a  selection  from  the  works, 
with  a  Life,  in  1713.  A  convenient  collection  of  the 
prose  works  is  that  by  the  Eev.  W.  Benham  in  1889  for 
the  '  Ancient  and  Modem  Librar>-  of  Theol(igii:al  Litera- 
ture.' There  are  Lives  by  the  Rev.  W.  L.  liowKs  ( 2  vols. 
18:«)-31 ),  by  '  A  Layman'— Mr  Anderdon— (1851 ),  Dean 
Plmuptru  (2  vols.  1888),  and  F.  A.  Clarke  (1896). 

Kendal,  or  Kirby  Kexd.m,,  a  market-towTi 
of  Wf-,tniorlHnd,  on  the  Kent.  22  miles  by  rail  N. 
of  Lancaster  anrl  13  SW.  of  Ambleside.  It  is 
a  gray  straggling  place,  Avitli  an  ancient  Gothic 
church,  a  ruined  ca.stle  ( the  birthplace  of  Catharine 
Parr),  a  town-hall  (IS2S),  and  a  grammar-school 
(rebuilt  in  1887).  Flemings  .settled  here  in  1.3.37, 
ami  the  town  Ijecaine  famous  for  its  woollens  and 
'  Kendal-green '  buckram;  whilst  Pococke  in  17.54 


refers  to  its  '  manufacture  of  a  sort  of  frieze  call'd 
cotton,  at  8d.  a  yard,  sohl  mostly  for  the  ^^'est 
Indies,  for  the  slaves.'  Nowadays  the  industries 
include  heavy  textile  fabrics,  such  as  horse-cloths 
and  railway  rugs,  besides  leather,  snull',  paper,  &c. 
Incorpor.ated  as  a  inunici])al  borough  in  1575, 
Kendal  returned  one  member  to  parliament  from 
1832  till  188.5.  Pop.  (1851)  11,829;  (1891)  14,430. 
See  two  works  by  C.  Nicholson  ( 1832-75). 

Kenia.  MorxT.  an  isolated  mountain  mass  in 
eastern  Africa,  about  10'  south  of  the  equator, 
and  not  far  north  of  Kilima-Njaro,  nearly  in  the 
centre  of  British  East  Africa.  It  is  also  known 
as  Doenyo  Ebor,  or  White  ilountain,  because  its 
summit  is  covered  with  perpetual  snow.  The  crater 
wall  rises  up  to  a  height  of  16,(X)0  feet,  but  the 
loftiest  pinnacle  towel's  up  3000  feet  higher.  Count 
Teleki  partly  .iscended  it  in  1887,  and  Dr  Gregory 
got  to  beyond  17,000  feet  in  1893. 

Kenilworth.  a  market-town  of  Warwickshire, 
on  a  small  sub-affluent  of  the  Avon,  5  miles  X.  of 
Warwick  ami  5  SSW.  of  Coventry.  The  castle, 
founded  about  1120  by  Geoffrey  de  Clinton,  was 
defended  for  six  months  (1265-66)  by  Simon  de 
Montfort's  son,  and  passed  by  marriage  (1359)  to 
John  of  Gaunt,  and  so  to  his  son,  Henr>-  IV. 
It  continued  a  crown  possession  till  in  1563 
Elizabeth  conferred  it  on  Leicester,  -who  here  in 
July  1575  entertained  her  for  eighteen  days  at  a 
daily  cost  of  £1000 — that  sumptuous  entertainment 
described  in  Scott's  Kcnilvorth.  Dismantled  by 
the  Roundheads,  the  castle  has  belonged  since  the 
Restoration  to  the  Earls  of  Clarendon.  Its  noble 
ruins  comprise  '  Ca'sar's  Tower,'  the  original  Nor- 
man keep,  with  walls  16  feet  thick ;  Mcrvyn's 
Tower  and  the  Great  Hall,  both  buUt  by  John  of 
Gaunt  :  and  the  more  recent  but  more  dilapidated 
Leicester's  Buildings.  There  is  a  fragment  ;ilso  of 
an  Augustinian  priory  (c.  1122)  ;  and  the  parish 
church  has  a  good  Norman  doorway.  Tanning  is 
the  chief  industry.     Pop.  ( 1851 )  2886  ;  ( 1891 1  417.3. 

Kennebec,  a  river  of  Maine,  rises  in  Moose- 
head  Lake,  in  the  west  of  the  state,  and,  passing. 
Augusta,  runs  generally  south  to  the  Atlantic 
Ocean.  Its  length  is  over  150  miles.  It  is  navi- 
gable for  large  vessels  to  Bath,  12  miles,  and  for 
steamers  beyond  Augusta.  In  its  course  it  falls 
1000  feet,  affording  abundant  water-power.  Except 
for  a  few  miles  from  its  mouth,  the  river  is  closed 
by  ice  for  fiom  three  to  four  months  in  the  year ; 
and  many  companies  are  engaged  in  harvesting  and 
storing  tlie  ice. 

Kennedy.  Benjamin  Hall,  one  of  the  greatest 

of  modern  scluiolniasters,  was  born  in  1804,  son  of 
the  Rev.  Kann  Kennedy,  second  master  of  King 
Edward's  School,  Birmingham,  and  had  his  educa- 
tion there  and  at  Shrewsbury  under  Dr  Hutler, 
whence  he  passed  to  St  Jidin's  College,  Cambriilge. 
His  course  was  unusually  distinguished  :  he  carried 
off  the  Porson  prize  thrice,  the  medal  for  the  Latin 
ode  twice,  and  tor  the  Greek  ode  once,  and  graduated 
in  1827  as  senior  classic,  senior  Chancellor's  medal- 
list, ami  senior  optime.  Next  year  he  became 
Fellow  and  cla.ssiciil  lecturer  of  his  college,  in  18.30 
an  assistant-master  at  Harrow,  and  in  18."ili  w:us 
anpointed  to  sncceed  his  <dd  master,  Dr  Butler,  at 
Slirewsbury.  Here  for  thirty  years  lie  laboured 
with  assiduons  vigour  and  conspicuous  success, 
forming  for  almost  a  generati<ni  a  series  of  brilliant 
scholars,  of  whom  need  only  here  be  nanied  the 
greatest,  H.  A.  J.  Munro,  the  editor  of  Lucretius. 
The  famous  tSahrinac  Corolla  (18,50;  4th  ed.  18Sm) 
is  an  imperishable  memorial  at  once  of  his  own 
brilliant  scholarship  and  of  the  spirit  ho  could 
inspire.  There  never  was  perhaps  a  more  dexter- 
ous .and  clever  versifier  in  tiotli  (Jreek  and  Latin. 
In    1867   Dr   Kennedy   w.as   appointed    professor  of 


412 


KENNETH    MACALPIN 


KENSINGTON 


Greek  at  raiiibriflp;e  and  Canon  of  Ely.     He  died 
at  Toif|ua.v.  Apiil  6.  1889. 

Among  his  books  were  PaJacstra  Latina  (1S50)  ;  Curri- 
culum Stili  Latini  ( 1H58 ) ;  tlie  Public  School  Latin  Grnm- 
mar  { 1871 ) ;  an  admirable  school  edition  of  Virgil,  anno- 
tated ( 187(1 1 ;  and  editions,  with  verse  translations,  of  the 
7?/jv/.s'of  Aristophanes  (1874),  the  Aoamcumonof  -^Escliy- 
lus  (187S),  and  the  'Rlipus  T'tfj-nnni/.t  of  Sophocles  (1882). 
In  Between  Whiles  (1877)  are  collected  many  excellent 
poetical  pieces  in  Greek,  Latin,  and  English.  Other 
w(M-ks  were  Occnsional  Sermons  (1877),  Plato's  ThetFtetu^, 
witli  translation  ( 18SI  ),  and  Klii  Lrrtuns  on  the  Revised 
Translation  nf  the  Xcv  Tcstaincut  (1882). 

Keitiietli  Macalpin.    See  Scotl.\nd. 

K<'IIIli<>Ott.  P-EN.IAMIX,  .an  eminent  ISthcen- 
tnry  bililioal  si-liolar,  was  born  at  Totnes,  in  Devon- 
shire, -Vpril  4.  1718,  son  of  the  parish  clerk  and 
master  of  a  charity  school,  to  which  latter  office  lie 
succeeded  at  an  early  age.  Some  rich  friends  who 
recognised  his  promise  hidped  him  to  enter  Wadham 
College,  O.xford,  in  1744,  and  tliere  he  soon  distin- 
;;nished  himself  by  his  .acquirements  in  Hebrew  and 
theology,  publishing,  wliile  still  an  undergradu.ate, 
two  striking  dissertations.  On  the  'Tree,  of  Life  in 
Paradise  and  On  the  Oblntionx  nf  Cain  and  Abel. 
Soon  after  he  was  elected  Fellow  of  Exeter  College. 
In  1707  lie  was  appointed  Radclitl'e  librarian,  and 
in  1770  canon  of  cinist  Church,  Oxford,  where  he 
died,  August  18,  178.').  The  great  work  by  which 
Kennicott's  n.anie  will  be  remembered  is  Iii's  Vetus 
Testament Hin  Ilehrairum  enm  Variix  Leetionihim  (2 
vols,  folio,  17TG-80).  Already  in  17-53  .and  further  in 
1759  he  had  published  a  work  entitled  The  State  of 
the  Printed  Hebrew  Te.rt  of  the  Old  Testament  con- 
sidered. This  contained,  amoiio;  other  things,  obser- 
vations on  70  Helirew  MSS.,  willi  an  extract  of  mis- 
takes .and  various  readings,  .and  strongly  enf<n'ce(l  the 
necessity  for  .a  nincli  mure  extensive  coll.ation,  in 
order  to  ascertain  or  approximate  tow.ards  .a  correct 
Hebrew  text.  He  undertook  to  execute  the  work 
thus  projected  in  the  course  of  ten  years,  .and 
laboured,  until  his  health  broke  down,  from  ten  to 
fourteen  hours  a  d.ay.  In  spite  of  consider.able 
op]iosition  from  Bishops  Warlmrton,  Home,  and 
otiier  divines,  Kenuicott  succeeded  in  enlisting  the 
sympathies  and  olitaining  the  support  of  the  clergy 
generally.  Subscriptions  to  the  amount  of  .t'10,()00 
poured  in,  and  many  foreign  scholars,  .as  Hruns  of 
Helmsta<lt,  undertook  to  help  forward  the  work  by 
collating  MSS.  in  the  libraries  .abro.ad.  For  ten 
years  sulisequently  to  1700  accounts  of  the  progress 
of  tiie  work  were  issued,  and  from  first  to  host  no 
fewer  than  01.5  Hebrew  MSS.  .and  Hi  MSS.  of  the 
Samaritan  Pentateuch  were  collated.  The  text 
linally  printed  was  that  of  Van  der  Hooght  (with- 
out vowel-points),  with  the  various  readings  printed 
at  the  bottom  of  the  page.  The  Varia-  Lertioncs 
Vetcris  Tcslameiiti  {I'linna,  1784-88),  published  by 
He  Rossi,  is  a  v.aluable  addition  to  Kennicott's 
Hebrew  Bible,  .lalin  published  at  Vienna  ( 180G)  a 
very  correct  abridgment,  cmbracuiig  the  most  itii- 
jiortant  of  Kennicott's  readings. 

HoilllinstOII.  a  district  of  I„ambetli  parish, 
and  a  division  of  Laiiibeth  parliamentary  borough, 
London.  Kenninglon  Ov.al,  a  litth'  to  the  south 
of  \',au\liall  I'.ridge,  is  a  famous  cricket  ground. 

KonOSis.      See  ClIRISTOUKiV,  Jksus. 

Kciisal  <ire«'II.  a  cemetery  on  the  north-west 
of  liOiidon,  77  acres  in  extent,  was  consecr.ated  in 
November  I8;{2:  here  many  of  the  illustrious  sons 
of  England  h.ave  been  buried,  as  Thacker.ay,  Leigh 
Hunt,  Sydney  Smith,  Buckle,  Sir  Charles  Kastlake, 
.lohn  Leech,  Sir  .lohn  l{oss.  Brunei,  Mulre.idy, 
K.'Tiible,  l)r  Hilidiu,  Tom  Hood,  I'.alfe,  Liston, 
rii:iiles  M.-illiews,  .Madame  Vestris,  Tietjeiis, 
Wilkie  Collins,  the  Duke  of  Sussex,  and  his  sister 
the  Princess  Sophia. 


Hrnsinstoil.  a  straggling  parish  in  the  west 
of  London  adjoining  Westminster,  within  which, 
although  notice<l  here,  are  Kensington  I'alace  and 
tiardens.  The  former,  given  to  the  nation  in  1899, 
and  built  of  red  brick,  was  the  seat  of  Ileneage 
Finch.  E.arl  of  Nottingham  .and  Lord  Chancellor, 
from  whose  successor  Willi.am  lll.boughl  it  in  IG89: 
he  and  his  wife  Mary,  (Jneen  Anne  .and  her  consort 
Prince  (ieorge  of  Denmark,  .and  (o'orge  II.  all 
died  within  its  w,alls,  and  it  w.as  also  the  birthplace 
of  tjueen  Victoria.  Kensington  Gardens,  which 
at  lirst  only  consisted  of  the  grounds  of  '26  acres 
attached  to  the  palace,  have  been  frequently 
enlarged,  and  .are  now  2A  miles  in  circuit ;  they  are 
connected  with  the  northern  part  of  Hyde  Park  liy 
a  stone  bridge  over  the  Serpentine  built  by  Kennie 
in  1826.  At  their  southern  extremity  is  the  Albert 
Memorial  (1872),  designed  by  Sir  Gilbert  Scott, 
.and  consisting  of  a  bronze-gilt  statue  (by  Foley)  of 
the  prince  seated,  placed  beneath  a  gorgeous  <tanopy 
ISO  feet  high,  and  surrounded  by  works  of  scnl]iture 
illustrating  the  various  arts  .and  sciences.  D|)posite, 
in  Kensington  Gore,  is  the  Albert  Hall  (1807-71).  a 
huge  circular  building  in  the  moilern  Italian  style, 
of  red  brick  with  yellow  dressings,  useil  as  ,a  con- 
cert-room and  capable  of  holding  10,000  persons ; 
its  cost  was  £200,000,  and  the  interior  measures 
200  feet  by  180  feet  .and  is  140  feet  high.  Other 
buildings  in  the  vicinity  are  the  South  Ken- 
sington Museum,  Natural  History  Museum  (see 
BuiTIstl  MUSKUM),  Koyal  School'of  Art  Needle- 
work, Royal  College  of  Music  (1883),  City  and 
(iuilds  of  London  Institute  for  the  adv.ancement  of 
technical  education  (1884),  and  Imperial  Institute, 
the  opening  of  which  by  Queen  Victoria  took 
place  in  1893.  The  parish  church  of  St  M.ary 
Abbots — so  called  from  the  Abbots  of  .\bingdon,  to 
whom  in  1107  a  large  p.art  of  the  manor  ol  Kensing- 
ton was  granted — is  a  line  building  in  the  Gothic 
style,  designed  by  Sir  tiilliert  Scott  ( 18(i!l),  with  a 
s]iire  295  feet  high.  Close  by  is  the  town-hall 
( 1880),and  the  Roman  Catholic  I'ro-c.athedr.al  ( 1809). 
Next  to  Kensington  Palace,  the  most  intcrestini' 
building  from  a  historical  point  of  view  is  Holland 
House,  a  qnaint  mansion  in  the  Elizalx-than  style, 
erected  (1607)  by  Sir  Walter  Cope,  and  the  great 
resort  of  the  AVIiig  politicians  at  the  commence- 
ment of  the  19th  century.  Amongst  its  occupants 
have  been  Fairfax,  the  PailiameMtary  general  ; 
Addison,  who  died  in  it ;  Shippen,  the  famous 
Jacobite;  William  Penii,  the  founder  of  Pennsyl- 
vania; and  Charles  .lames  I''o\,  the  statesman. 
Campden  House,  ii'built  in  1862  on  its  destruction 
by  lire,  is  noteworthy  from  the  former  house,  erected 
in  1012,  having  been  the  residence  before  her  acces- 
sion, of  l^ueen  Anne.  Of  the  residences  occujiied  by 
Swift,  Sir  Isaac  Newton,  .lack  Wilkes.  Wilbeiforce, 
George  Canning  and  his  sou,  Dr  Dibdiii.  Sir  David 
"Wilkie,  William  Cobbett,  .Mrs  Im-hbald,  Count 
Ddrsay,  Talli'vr.and,  Lord  Macaulay,  Th.ickcniy, 
and  .loiin  Leech  but  few  (races  now  remain.  The 
borough  returns  two  membi'is  to  parliament.  IVqi- 
iilatiou  of  the  entire  civil  pari.sli,  which  includes 
Brompton,  (1871)  120,299;  (1891)  100,:108.  See 
Leigh  Hunt's  An  Old  Conrt  Suburb  (  18.55),  Loftie's 
I'ielitrrsiiue  Kensinijlon  { 1888),  and  Marie  Lichten- 
stein's  Holland  House  ( 1873). 

SofTll  KuNsi.NiiTON  MrsKt'M  was  at  lirst  a  tem- 
por.ary  edilice  of  iron  and  wooil  (po|nilarly  known 
as  '  tiie  Brompton  Boilers ')  which  was  erected  by 
government  (Science  and  .\rt  Deiiartment)  on  part 
of  the  estate  purch.ased  out  of  the  surplus  funds  of 
the  Exhibition  of  1851.  It  was  opened  in  1857,  and 
to  it  were  removed  various  collections  which  hail 
since  18.52  been  exhibiteil  in  .Marlbiuough  House. 
This    edilice    hits     been    superseded    by    ]icrmam'nt 

buildings— still  in( iplete.     The  institution  com- 

ini.ses  ( 1 )  the  Art  Museum,  (2)  the  India  Museum, 


KENSINGTON 


KENT 


413 


(3)  various  science  eollections.  The  National 
Art  Training  Scliool,  tlie  Noiiiiiil  School  of  Science. 
ami  the  offices  of  the  Department  of  Science  anil 
Art  also  form  [larts  of  the  .same  ^'rou)!  of  buildings. 
The  art  collections  comprise  original  works  of  deco- 
rative art  of  all  jieriods  and  countries  :  paintings, 
chietly  of  the  English  school,  hut  including  the  car- 
toon.s  of  Itaphael,  the  property  of  the  crown  :  and 
reproductions  in  pUister,  metal,  Ac.  of  sculpture, 
architectural  decoration,  and  silversmiths'  work. 
These  have  been  acquired  by  purch;use,  gift,  and  loan. 
Tlie  cost  to  the  nation  ha-s  been  about  £400,000, 
while  the  value  of  the  gilts  and  bei|uests  is  esti- 
mated at  one  million  sterling.  The  India  Museum, 
originally  belonging  to  the  East  India  Company, 
was  handed  over  to  the  department  iu  1879.  The 
science  collections  include  machinery,  naval  models, 
&c.,  and  api)aratus  for  scientific  teaching  and  re- 
search. The  museum  also  contains  art  and  science 
libraries.  The  visitoi-s  average  850,000  yearly. 
Monday,  Tuesday,  and  Saturday  are  free  days  ;  on 
the  other  three  days  admission  is  si.vpence.  A 
system  of  circulation  of  examples  on  loan  to  pro- 
vincial museums,  science  antl  art  schools  and  classes, 
forms  an  important  part  of  the  operations  of  the 
museum.  Numerous  catalogues,  handliooks  on  art 
subjects,  and  other  publications  have  been  issued. 
The  original  iron  building  was  removed  in  1865 
and  re-erected  as  the  branch  museum  at  Bethnal 
Green.  The  contents  of  this  are  chiefly  loans,  and 
are  changed  from  time  to  time. 

The  giadual  development  of  the  Science  and  Art 
Department  of  the  Committee  of  Council  on  Educa- 
tion has  been  sketched  at  Akt,  Vol.  I.  p.  457.  The 
department  grants  aid  in  connection  with  a  system 
of  annual  examinations,  in  which  piizes  and  Queen's 
medals  are  awarded  ;  payments  to  teachers  on  the 
results  of  examinations  and,  to  a  limited  extent,  on 
attendance  ;  scholarships  and  exhibitions  ;  grants 
for  buildings  and  apjiaratus  ;  and  aid  to  teachers 
while  attending  the  Normal  School  of  Science  and 
the  Royal  School  of  Mines,  South  Kensington.  The 
science  examinations,  for  which  an  annual  Directory 
is  published,  fall  under  twenty-live  heads ;  and  the 
science  division  of  the  department,  which  in  1872 
had  under  supervision  only  948  schools  and  36,783 
pupils,  passed  under  review,  in  1889,  2026  schools, 
giving  instruction  to  98,900  pui)ils  in  6856  classes. 

Kent,  a  maritime  county  in  the  SE.  of  Eng- 
land, is  bounded  liv  the  Thames  estuary,  the 
Strait  of  Dover,  Sussex  and  the  English  Channel, 
Surrey,  and  the  county  of  London,  whose  crea- 
tion in  1888  has  reduced  the  area  of  the  adminis- 
trative county  from  995,344  acres  to  971,849 
acres.  Greatest  length,  64  miles ;  breadth,  38 
miles.  The  surface  is  for  the  most  ])art  hilly, 
except  in  the  south-east,  where  lies  a  mar>liy 
tract,  some  14  miles  long  by  8  broad,  and  in  the 
north,  where  a  line  of  marshes  skirts  the  banks  of 
the  Thames  and  Medway  ;  these  last  are  backed 
by  a  succession  of  wooded  hills,  stretching  inland 
and  gradually  increasing  in  height  until  they 
culminate  in  the  North  Downs  (see  Downs),  a 
chalk  range  which  traverses  the  midille  of  the 
county  from  west  to  east,  attaining  at  Knocksholt 
Beeches,  near  Sevenoaks,  a  height  of  78'2  feet  aliove 
the  sea  level.  Below  tlie.se  downs  lies  the  Weald 
of  Kent,  a  district  abounding  in  beautiful  scenery, 
and  ixjcupying  nearly  the  whole  southern  side  of 
the  county.  Of  rivers  in  Kent,  besides  that  which 
forms  its  northern  lx)undary,  the  principal  are  the 
Medway,  Stonr,  and  Darent.  The  climate  i.--  in 
general  nald  and  healthy,  and  the  soil,  which  con- 
sists principally  of  chalk,  gravel,  and  clay,  Ls 
fertile,  particularly  in  the  south-east,  where  the 
rich  meadows  of  the  Ilomney  Marsh  all'onl  excel- 
lent pasturage  for  vast  Hocks  of  sheep.  All  branches 
of  agiiculture  are  extensively  can-ied  on,  cspeciKlly 


market  gardening  and  the  growth  of  Hops  (q.v.) 
and  fruit  of  various  kinds.  In  1889  the  extent  of 
land  under  cultivation  as  hop-gardens  was  .So, 487 
acres,  or  a  hop-lield  almost  live  times  larger  than 
that  of  any  other  hop-growing  cimnly  in  Englaiul, 
and  orchards  and  market-gardens  covereil  27,495 
acres.  (_)f  other  industries  the  princijial  are  the 
manufacture  of  paper,  bricks,  and  gunpowder.  In 
1890  coal  of  good  rjualitv  was  found  in  a  heading 
adjoining  the  Channel  lunnel  ((j.v.jat  a  di|ith  of 
1180  feet.  Large  numbers  of  hands  are  iMuploM-d 
iu  the  government  establishments  at  the  AVo(d«icli 
arsenal  and  the  dockyards  of  Chatham  and  Slieer- 
ness ;  whilst  at  Ashford  are  the  locomotive  and 
carriage  works  of  the  South-Eastern  Railway,  and 
at  Whitstable  and  Favershani  are  important  oyster- 
fisheries.  Kent  is  divided  into  five  lathes,  and 
comprises  73  hundreds,  the  Cinque  Ports  (q.v. )  of 
Dover,  Hythe,  Romney,  and  Sandwich,  the  cities 
of  Canterbury  and  Rochester,  and  18  muniiipal 
boroughs — in  all  4.35  civil  parishes,  almost  wholly 
in  the  dioceses  of  Canterbury  and  Rochester.  Vo]>. 
(1801)  307,624;  (1841)  .549,353;  (1881)  977,706; 
(1891 )  1.142,324  (in  administrative  county,  785,674). 
The  county  includes  eight  parliamentar^-  divisions, 
and  the  parliamentary  boroughs  of  Canterbury, 
Chatham,  Dover,  Gravesend,  Greenwich,  Hythe, 
Lewisliam,  Maidstone,  Rochester,  and  'Woolwich, 
with  jiart  of  the  borough  of  Deptford,  each  returning 
one  member.  The  county  council  numbers  96.  The 
chief  towns,  in  addition  to  tho.se  mentioned  above, 
are  Ramsgate,  Margate,  Folkestone,  and  Tunbridge 
'Wells,  all  popular  watering-places.  A  peculiarity  in 
the  tenure  of  land  in  Kent  is  that  of  Ga\  elkind  ( q.  v. ). 
In  historical  associations  the  county  is  unusu- 
ally rich.  The  earlier  incidents  down  to  the 
Heptarchy  are  noticed  at  EngL-\ND,  '\'o1.  III. 
pp.  348-49  :  subsequent  to  the  successive  occupa- 
tions of  the  Danes  and  Normans,  during  which 
the  county  was  the  scene  of  many  a  battle,  the 
princiiial  events  iu  its  history  are — the  murder 
of  Archbishop  Becket  at  Canterbury  (1170);  the 
submission  of  King  John  to  the  Poi)e's  Legate  at 
Dover  (1215);  the  invasions  by  Louis,  Dauphin  of 
France  (1216);  the  insurrections  of  Wat  Tv'.er 
(1381),  Jack  Cade  (1450),  and  Sir  Thomas  'Wyatt 
(1554);  the  encampment  at  Blackheath  of  the 
Cornish  insurgents  under  Lord  Audley  (1497) ;  the 
rising  of  royalists  at  Maidstone  ( 1648),  and  its  sub- 
sequent suppression  by  Fairfax  ;  and  the  destruc- 
tion of  shipping  in  the  Medway  by  the  Dutch  fleet 
under  De  Ruyter  (1667).  Dover  was  the  scene  of 
the  death  of  King  Stei^hen,  and  Favershani  of  his 
burial ;  at  GreenAvich  Henry  ^'III.  and  Queens  Mary 
aiul  Elizabeth  were  born,  and  Edward  VI.  died  ; 
Eltham  Palace  (now  in  ruins)  was  for  a  long  time 
a  royal  residence  ;  at  Saves  Court,  Dei)tford,  w  hiob 
occupied  a  portion  of  the  site  of  the  royal  victual 
ling  yard,  lived  Peter  the  tireat  whilst  learning  the 
trade  of  a  shipwright;  and  at  Chislehurst  Napoleon 
III.  died.  Of  its  early  inhabitants  Kent  has 
numerous  traces  in  the  shape  of  Roman  roads,  and 
many  camps  and  barrows  :  at  Aylesford  and  Harl 
lip  Roman  villas  and  baths  have  been  discovered, 
and  near  the  former  place  is  a  curious  dolmen 
known  as  Kits  Coily  House.  Of  edifices  of  a 
historical  or  antiquarian  interest  it  will  sutfice  to 
specify  here  the  cathedrals  of  Canterbury  and 
Rochester,  the  Norman  fortress  of  the  latter  jilace, 
with  those  of  Chilham  and  Dover,  ami  the  moated 
mansions  of  Hever  I  the  home  of  .Vnne  lioleyn), 
Ightham  Mote  (dating  back  to  the  14th  cen- 
tury), and  Leeds  Castle  (where  Richard  II.  and 
Joan  of  Navarre  were  impmoned ).  Amongst 
Kentish  worthies  are  included  Caxton  the  juinter, 
FJli/.al>eth  Barton  the  '  nun  of  Kent,' Sir  Nicholas 
Bacon,  Sir  F'rancis  Walsingliam,  Camden  the  anti- 
quary.  Sir   Philip  Sidney,  Harvey  the  discoverer 


414 


KKNT 


KENT'S    CAVERN 


of  the  circulation  of  blooil,  the  '  juilicinus'  Hooker, 
the  Earl  of  t'hatlwuu  ami  his  :son  William  Pitt, 
Oeneral  Wolfe,  llicharil  l.arham,  author  of  tlie  I)i- 
tjolilslni  I.i-jinids,  till'  historians  llallain  and  (irote, 
Charles  Dickens,  (iorilon  Ta-sha,  anil  Cameron  the 
African  explorer. 

See  the  county  histories  of  Hasted  ( 4  vols.  1778-9!) ; 
new  and  enlarged  ed.  1S86,  &c.)  and  Uunkin  (3  vols. 
185G-5K);  also  T.  Fn.st's  In  Kent  with  Charles  Dkknis 
1 1880 ) :  Ahell's  History  of  Kent  fur  the  Yi,n  mj  ( 1895 ) ;  and 
Bosworth's  Kent,  I'ast  and  Present  (1900). 

Kent,  Dike  of  (1767-1820),  fourth  son  of 
George  III.,  and  father  of  Victoria  (q.v.). 

Kent.  Ja:\ies,  an  American  jurist,  was  born  in 
New  York  state,  31st  July  17G3,  graduated  at  Yale 
in  1781,  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1787. 
After  serving  two  terms  in  the  legislature  he  was 
professor  of  Law  in  Columbia  College  from  1794 
to  1798,  when  he  was  appointed  a  justice  of  the 
supreme  court  of  Xew  York ;  and  in  1804  he 
became  chief-justice,  and  in  1814  chancellor  of  the 
state.  In  1823  he  retired  from  the  bench,  but  he 
continued  his  chamber  practice  for  many  years 
after.  Kent'.s  principal  publication  was  his  famous 
Cuiiimeniarics  on  American  Law  (4  vols.  New  York, 
1826-30;  14th  ed.  1894),  a  monumental  work,  which 
has  not  yet  been  superseded  in  the  United  States. 
He  died  i2tli  December  1847. 

Keiltigeril.  St,  the  apostle  of  Cumbria,  was  son 

of  the  Princess  Thenew,  who,  being  found  to  l>e  with 
child,  was  first  cast  from  Dunjiender  or  Traprain 
Law,  and  next  exposed  on  the  Firth  of  Forth  in  a 
coracle.  It  carried  her  out  to  the  Isle  of  May  and 
then  back  to  Culross,  where  she  bore  a  son  ( about 
the  year  518).  Mother  and  child  were  brought  liy 
shepherds  to  St  Serf,  who  baptised  them  both,  and 
reared  the  boy  in  his  monastery,  where  he  was  so 
beloved  that  bis  baptismal  name  Kentigern  ('chief 
lord ' )  was  often  exchanged  for  Mungo  ( '  dear 
friend').  Arrived  at  manhood,  he  planted  a  mon- 
astery at  Cathures  (now  Glasgow),  whither  he  had 
been  led  by  two  untamed  bulls  ;  and  in  543  he  was 
consecrated  Bishop  of  Cumbria.  In  553  the  acces- 
sion of  a  tyrannous  prince  drove  him  to  seek  refuge 
in  Wales,  where  he  visited  St  David,  and  where, 
on  the  banks  of  another  Clyde,  he  founded  another 
monastery  and  a  bishopric,  which  still  bears  the 
name  of  his  disciple,  St  Asajih.  In  573  he  was 
recalled  by  a  new  king,  Kederech  Hael  ( '  Roderick 
the  Bountiful');  and  first  at  Hoddam  in  Dumfries- 
sliiri',  then  at  Glasgow,  he  reni^wed  his  missionary 
labours.  About  584  he  was  cheered  by  a  visit  from 
Columba.  He  died  13th  January  603  ( '  when  he  was 
185  y<'ars  old'),  and  was  liuried  at  the  right-liami 
side  of  the  high  allar  in  ( Ilasgow  Cathedral.  .-V  frag- 
ment of  a  Life,  composed  at  the  desire  of  Herbert, 
Bisho])  of  Glasgow,  and  the  longer  Vita  Kcntie/cnii 
by  Joceline  of  Furness,  both  belong  to  the  later  half 
of  the  12th  century.  Bisho]i  Forbes  gives  transla- 
tions of  tliem,  and  we  have  ado)ited  his  rationalis- 
ing chronology.  Joceline's  Life  teems  with  mir.acles, 
whicli  were  rooted  so  deeply  in  the  ])o]iular  fancy, 
that  some  of  them  .s])rung  up  again  in  the  18th 
century  to  grace  the  legends  of  the  Cameronian 
martyrs.  Others  are  still  coninuMiKuated  by  the 
armorial  bearings  of  the  city  of  (U.isgow — a  frozen 
ha/el  branch  which  his  breath  kindled  into  tl.ime. 
St  Serf's  pet  robin  which  he  restored  to  life,  a  hand- 
bell whicli  he  brought  from  Kcuue,  and  a  salmon 
which  rescued  from  the  depths  of  the  Clyde  the 
lost  ring  of  Kederech's  frail  ipieen.  Nor  is  it  St 
Mungo  only  whose  memory  survives  at  Ghusgow  ; 
'St  Knoch's  Church  '  commemorates  his  mother,  St 
Thenew.  To  the  .s,iint  himself  there  are  eight 
dedications  in  Cumberland,  and  fourteen  in  Scot- 
land. 
See  Bishop  Forbes's  LivMof  SS,  Ninian  and  Kentirjem 


(1874);  .Skene's  Cdtic  Scotland  (vol.  ii.  1877);  and 
Beveridge's  Culross  and  Tulliallun  (1885). 

Kontisll  Fire,  a  form  of  applause  at  public 
dinners  or  meetings  of  a  political  character,  consist- 
ing in  clappiu"  the  hands  in  unison  in  a  peculiar 
rhythm  m  cadence,  thus  :  u-o-',  intensilied  occa- 
si()nally  by  the  cry  of  'rAh  at  certain  intervals. 
The  effect'  is  very  striking  if  the  clapping  is  w  ell 
led  and  kept  together,  and  may  be  taken  to  bear 
some  resemblance  to  the  rattle  of  musketry  tire. 
Hence  the  name.  The  origin  is  more  ob.scure.  but 
the  '  vollies '  were  probably  first  organised  at  the 
great  Kentish  meetings  in  1828-29  to  protest 
against  Roman  Catholic  emancipation.  In  18.34  at 
a  great  Protestant  meeting  in  Dublin  (August  15) 
Lord  Winchilsea  introduced  'his  Kentish  artillery' 
as  a  novel  and  stirring  feature,  and  Kentish  l''ire 
h.as  ever  since  been  a  favtiurite  mtide  of  apid.'uise 
at  Protestant,  Conservative,  or  '  Orange  '  meetings 
especially  in  the  north  of  Ireland. 

Kenti.sh  Rag  is  the  local  name  given  to  a 
gi'ayish  blue  ami  occasionally  arenaceous  and  clierty 
limestone,  which  occurs  at  Hythe  and  other  places 
on  the  coast  of  Kent,  in  the  Lower  Greensand 
Measures.     It  is  sometimes  CO  to  80  feet  thick. 

Kentish    Town,    a    district    in    St    Panoras 

parish,  in  the  north  of  London. 
Kent's  Cavern,  <>r  Kent'.s  Hole,  is  notable 

for  the  evidence  which  it  has  furnished  as  to  the 
contemporaneity  of  man  in  Britain  with  various 
extinct  or  no  longer  indigenous  mammals.  It 
is  situated  in  a  small  wooded  limestone  hill 
in  the  immediate  neighbourhood  of  ToKjuay,  and 
appeal's  to  have  been  known  from  time  imme- 
morial, although  it  diil  not  attract  the  attention 
of  scientilic  men  until  18'25.  The  early  exploiei-s 
of  the  cave,  Northmore,  Trevelyaii,  MacKncry, 
Godwin-Austen,  and  (in  1846)  a  committee  of  Ihe 
Torquay  Natural  History  Society,  all  succeedi'cl  in 
tinding  Hint  ini|denients  niixeil  up  with  the  remains 
of  extinct  animals.  But  these  discoveries  received 
little  attention  until  1858,  when  the  results  of  the 
systematic  exploration  of  Brixhain  Cave  by  a  com- 
mittee of  the  Itoyal  Society  led  to  the  aii])ointment 
in  1864  of  a  similar  committee  by  the  British 
Association  for  the  examination  of  the  ileposits 
in  Kent's  Cave.  The  results  of  tliis  exploration, 
carried  on  under  William  Pengelley  (  1812-94  I.  from 
March  1865  to  June  1880,  at  a  cost  of  £1963,  are 
of  the  hi'jhest  importance.  They  show  that  the 
bottom  of  the  cave  is  oaveil  willi  a  succession  of 
sheets  of  .stalagmite,  red  earth,  and  breccia— all  of 
wlii(di  have  yielded  relics  of  man  and  various  ex- 
tinct or  no  longer  indigenous  mammals.  Amongst 
the  former  are  paheolitliic  Hint  tools  and  ini])le- 
ments  of  bone,  such  as  a  needle  with  a  well-foriued 
eye,  an  awl,  a  harpoon,  \c.,  also  perforated 
badger's  teeth,  which  were  iirobably  used  for  orna- 
mental purposes.  The  animal  remains  comiirise 
those  of  li<m,  bear,  mamniotli,  machairodus 
latidens,  rhinoceros,  liya'na,  reindeer,  Irish  elk, 
red-deer,  wolf,  fox,  badger,  glutton,  beaver,  iVc. 
In  one  part  of  the  cave  there  occurred  underneath 
stalagmite  a  dark  laver  some  4  inches  thick,  which 
consisted  mainly  of  small  fragments  of  clianed 
wood.  This  doubtless  wa.«  an  old  hearth,  round 
which  the  paheolitliic  cave-dwellers  gathered  to 
roast  bones  for  the  sake  of  their  savoury  marrow. 
The  sheets  of  stalagmite  are  of  inconstant  thick- 
ness— the  lower  one  attaining  in  places  a  thickness 
of  12  feet,  while  the  upper  one  does  not  seem  to 
have  exceeded  5  feet,  and  was  frequently  very 
much  thinner.  The  general  character  and  struc- 
ture of  the  cave-di'posits  show  that  a  iniilonged 
time  was  re(|iiirerl  for  their  accuiniilation.  See  M. 
W.  Pengelley's  addre.ss  to  the  British  Association 
( 1883 ),  and  the  Life  of  him  by  his  daughter  ( 1897  I. 


KENTUCKY 


KEOKUK 


415 


Kentucky,  a  river  of  Kentiuky.  is  fi)niie(l  by 
two  lork>  which  rise  in  the  Cunilierlaml  Mountains, 
anil,  after  a  winilinj;  north-west  course  of  about 
■2o(l  miles,  enters  the  Ohio,  12  miles  above  Madison, 
Iniliana.  The  river  runs  through  part  of  its  course 
between  perpendicular  limestone  walls.  It  is 
navigable  ijy  steamboats  to  beyond  Frankfort. 

Kentneky.  a  state  of  the  American  Union,  in 
the  great  central  or  Mississippi  Valley,  lies  be- 
tween 36"  30'  and  39"  6'  X.  Lit.  cvpsTigiit  isso  in  d.s. 
and  between  82°  3'  and  89°  30'  W.  by  j.  b.  Lippincou 
long.  Its  greatest  length  from  Compuir. 
east  to  west  is  about  400  miles,  its  Vireailth  from 
north  to  south  about  175  miles;  its  area  is  40,400 
sq.  m.  The  eastern  and  south-eastern  i)arts  of  the 
state  are  mountainous,  broken  by  the  Cumberland 
Mountains  ( 2000-3000  feet )  and  their  oflTshoots. 
Westward  from  this  region  is  a  plateau  slojting 
gratlually  toward  the  Ohio  and  the  Mississippi 
rivers,  which  bound  the  state  on  the  north  and 
west.  Large  cypress-swamps  still  exist  in  some 
parts,  especially  in  the  south-west.  Kentucky  has 
a  river  Ijoundary  of  more  than  800  miles  in  length, 
including  a  stretch  of  nearly  650  njiles  along  the 
Ohio,  50  miles  on  the  Mississippi,  and  120  on  the 
Big  Sandy.  The  Cumberland,  Tennessee,  Licking, 
and  Kentucky  rivers  rise  among  the  mountains  in 
the  east,  and  cross  the  state  to  the  Ohio,  whose 
other  large  tributaries,  the  Green  and  the  Trade- 
water,  i-Lse  in  the  west.  The  consiilerable  extent 
of  water  thus  available  for  navigation  has  lately 
been  increased  by  a  sj-steni  of  river  improvements. 
Besides  these  natural  highways  of  commerce  Ken- 
tucky has  2800  miles  of  railroad.  Southward  fiom 
the  Ohio  River  extends  a  semicircular  tract  of 
land  of  Silurian  formation ;  here  the  soil  is  pro- 
duced by  the  disintegration  of  the  fossiliferous  blue 
limestone,  and  its  fertility  is  unrivalled.  This 
section  is  the  famous  Blue  Grass  (q.v.)  country,  in 
which  the  most  exhausting  crops,  such  as  tobacco 
and  hemp,  may  be  raised  continuously  for  a  series 
of  years  without  materially  impairing  the  pro- 
ductive value  of  the  soil,  the  constant  crumbling  of 
the  fossiliferous  shales  restoring  those  constituents 
which  have  been  withdrawn  by  the  rich  growth  of 
vegetation.  Surrounding  the  blue-grass  country  is 
a  somewhat  narrow  belt  of  Devonian  shale ;  its 
soil  is  also  very  fertile,  and  tiie  lower  strata  con- 
tain petroleum.  In  the  southern  and  south-eastern 
parts  of  the  state  there  are  other  trac^ts  of  De\-onian 
<leposits,  some  of  which  yiehl  heavy  lubricating 
oils.  The  eastern,  the  western,  and  the  southern 
portions  of  Kentucky  belong  mainly  to  the  Car- 
lH)niferous  age,  and  the  structure  consists  of  sub- 
carlM)niferous  limestone,  or  of  tnie  carboniferous 
deposits,  with  extensive  coalfields.  The  coal- 
measures  are  the  result  of  several  alternate  ex- 
posures and  submersions,  and  average  at  least  ten 
g(Mxl  beds  of  coal.  Through  the  central  part  of  the 
state  is  a  strip  of  land  which  appears  to  have 
remained  permanently  raised  above  the  sea  during 
the  CarIx>niferous  period,  and  thus  forms  a  divide 
lietween  the  eastern  and  the  western  coal-areas. 
The  eastern  coalfield  is  a  prolongation  of  the 
.Appalachian  deposits,  and  Ls  about  10,000  s<|.  m.  in 
extent.  The  western  belongs  to  the  Illinois  tract, 
and  measures  about  4000  so.  ni.  The  coal  is 
bituminous,  and  some  excellent  caiinel  occurs. 
Next  in  importance  to  coal  are  the  iron  ores,  which 
are  of  excellent  quality,  and  are  found  throughout 
a  <listrict  of  20,000  sq.  ni.  in  extent.  Neither  the 
coal  nor  the  iron  deposits  are  worked  as  thoroughly 
an  their  quality  and  their  abundance  would  seem 
to  justify,  but  the  output  is  increasing,  (ialena 
is  found  in  some  sections  ;  valuable  building-stones 
occur  almost  everywhere ;  and  salt  is  obtained  by 
boring  in  the  coal  and  the  oil  regions. 

Through  the  limestone  formations   the  streams 


have  cut  deep  gorges,  and  within  a  region  of  about 
HtHJO  sq.  m.  in  the  sub-carboniferous  structure, 
much  of  the  <Irainage  is  subterranean.  The  surface 
topography  is  peculiar,  ,as  there  are  many  round  or 
oval-shaped  'sinks'  through  which  the  water  reaches 
the  uniferground  streams.  The  long-continued 
erosive  action  of  the  water  has  undermined  a  large 
part  of  this  region,  and  produced  the  numerous  and 
often  extensive  caverns  which  form  one  of  the 
remarkable  physical  features  of  this  state.  Of 
these  the  best  known,  though  possibly  not  the 
largest,  is  the  Mammoth  Cave  (q.v.). 

Kentucky  is  densely  wooded,  except  in  those 
places  that  are  under  cultivation  ;  at  present  about 
two-thirds  of  the  state  is  covered  with  virgin 
forests.  Anion"  the  prevailing  species  of  trees 
are  the  blue  asli,  the  black  walnut,  various  kinds 
of  oak,  the  pine,  the  maple,  the  tulip-tree,  and  the 
sweet  gum.  Notwithstanding  this  large  proportion 
of  forest  land,  Kentucky  has  always  been  one  of 
the  leading  agricultural  states,  and  its  products  are 
noted  for  their  vaiiety.  It  is  the  princiiial  tobacco- 
producing  state  in  the  union.  The  state  has  always 
been  a  centre  for  rearing  domestic  animals,  and  for 
lireeding  the  finest  giades  of  stock.  A  \ery  large 
percentage  of  the  successful  racehorses  of  the 
L'nited  States  have  been  bred  in  Kentucky.  The 
peculiar  advantages  for  stock-raising  are  due  in 
part  to  the  excellent  quality  of  the  grass,  and  in 
part  to  the  mild  salubrious  climate,  which  jiermits 
the  cattle  to  remain  unhoused  in  the  jiastures 
during  the  greater  part  of  the  winter.  Kentucky's 
principal  manufacture  is  whisky,  which  is  made  in 
large  quantities  in  the  central  section.  The  smelt- 
ing and  working  of  iron  are  the  only  other  manu- 
facturing industries  of  any  consideralde  import- 
ance. 

Kentucky  is  divided  into  117  counties,  and  con- 
tains 19  cities  and  over  300  towns  and  villages. 
The  most  important  cities  are  Louisville,  Coving- 
ton, Newport,  Lexington,  and  Frankfort,  the 
capital.  The  governor  and  the  38  state  senators 
serve  for  four  years,  the  100  representatives  for 
two.  Besides  two  senators,  Kentucky  sends  eleven 
representatives  to  congiess.  The  state  is  practic- 
ally out  of  debt,  and  has  a  permanent  school  fund 
of  §1,799,447.  The  enrolment  of  pupils  in  the 
common  schools  exceeds  300,000.  There  arc  several 
important  colleges  and  schools  of  higher  education, 
some  of  them  atiiliated  with  the  Kentucky  L^ni- 
versitv  at  Lexington.  Pop.  of  the  state  (1860) 
1,155,684;  (1880)  1,648,690;  (1890)  1,858,635. 

History. — Numerous  remains  indicate  that  the 
mound-builders  lived  herein  considerable  numbers; 
but  at  the  time  of  its  first  occupation  by  the  whites 
this  region  seems  to  have  been  a  hunting-ground 
vLsited  by  both  the  northern  an<l  the  southern 
tribe.s  of  Indians,  and  not  permanently  occupied  by 
settlements.  The  name  Kentucky,  signifying  'the 
dark  and  bloody  ground,'  is  supposed  to  commem- 
orate the  cimtlicts  between  the  various  warlike 
tribes.  One  of  the  earliest  pioneei-s  was  Daniel 
Hoone  (q.v.).  This  whole  territory  was  included 
in  the  original  grant  to  the  cohuiy  of  Virginia, 
and  in  1776  received  the  name  of  Kentiuky  county. 
In  1790  it  was  made  a  separate  territory  of  the 
United  States,  and  in  1792  was  admitted  as  a 
state.  Kentucky  did  not  secede  during  the  civil 
war,  and  several  campaigns  were  waged  within  its 
borders. 

Ke'oknk,  a  city  of  Iowa,  is  situated  almost 
at  the  south-east  extremity  of  the  state,  on  the 
Mississippi  Kiver  ( here  crossed  by  a  railroad  briilge ), 
161  miles  by  rail  ESE.  of  Des  Moines.  Keokuk  has 
a  large  trade,  nine  lines  of  railway  touching  the 
town.  The  largest  steamboats  coul<l  always  come 
up  to  Keokuk,  and  the  '  Dcs  Moines  rapids,'  imme- 
diately above,  are  now  passed  by  a  great  canal,  11 


416 


KEPLER 


KER 


miles  long,  which  cost  some  5  million  <lollai-s. 
Tlie  town  contains  law.  meilical,  and  eomnieri'ial 
collejjes,  anil  has  several  fonmliies,  saw  and  Hour 
mills,  and  factories.     Poji.  (IS'JO)  14,101. 

Koplt'l*.  or  KeI'I'LEK,  Joh.VNX,  one  of  the  very 
};reatust  ;i.stronomers,  was  horn  at  M'eil  der  Stadt,  a 
village  in  Wiirtemlierj,',  10  ndlcs  from  Stuttgart, 
27tli  December  IJTl.  He  was  left  to  his  own  re- 
sources when  a  mere  child,  his  education  depending 
on  his  admission  into  the  convent  of  Maulbronn. 
He  afterwards  studied  at  the  university  of  Tiihiu- 
gen,  applying  himself  chietly  to  mathematics  and 
astroinjmy.  In  1593  he  was  appointed  professor  of 
Mathematics  at  Gratz,  and  about  1596  commenced 
a  corresjjondence  with  Tycho  Drahe  (q. v.),  which 
resulted  in  his  going  to  Prague  in  1599  to  aid 
Tycho  in  his  work.  Tycho  obtained  for  him  a 
government  appointment,  but  the  .salary  was  not 
paid,  and  Kepler  lived  for  eleven  years  there  in 
great  poverty.  He  then  obtained  a  mathematical 
appointment  at  Linz,  and  iifteen  years  afterwards 
was  removed  to  the  university  of  Kostock,  poverty 
still  pursuing  him.  He  died  shortly  afterwards  at 
Katisbon,  15th  November  1630. 

In  character  he  was  intensel.v  enthusiastic, 
imaginative,  laborious,  and  persevering,  all  qualities 
fitting  him  for  the  great  task  of  transforming 
astronomy  from  a  merely  fvnnal  into  a  true 
phijsiral  science.  Though  ('o[pernieus  (q.v. )  had 
transferred  the  centre  of  the  jdanets'  movements 
to  the  sun,  these  were  still  considered  as  com- 
pounded of  various  circles,  the  ouly  curve  thought 
tit  for  celestial  bodies  to  pursue.  No  cause  was 
assigned  for  their  movements,  and  no  unity 
observed  among  them,  e.xcept  in  the  one  fact  of 
the  sun  being  their  centre.  Kejder  says,  '  I  brooded 
with  the  whole  energy  of  my  mind  '  on  this  subject, 
asking  '  why  they  are  not  other  than  they  are — 
tlie  number,  the  size,  and  the  motion  of  the  orbits.' 
In  fact  he  had  lirst  to  determine  what  the  orbits 
were  before  answering  some  of  these  questions. 
But  one  question  lay  open  before  him.  The  perio<ls 
of  the  planets  were  fairly  well  known,  so  were 
their  proportionate  distances  from  the  sun.  Was 
there  any  invariable  relation  between  these?  In 
his  Mjfstcrhnn,  iiul>lished  in  1.596,  he  triumphantly 
proclaims  that  live  kinds  of  regular  polyhedral 
liodies  govern  the  live  jdanetary  orbits.  Yet  after 
l)ul)lication  he  still  continued  to  'brood,'  becoming 
at  length  convinced  that  this  theory  was  only  an 
eiTor,  until  after  twenty-two  years  of  patient  study 
and  numberless  speculative  failures,  he  was  able 
at  last  to  announce  ( in  his  Ilaniiniilcc  Miiiidi,  1619 ) 
that  the  ^s(/uarc  of  a  iditncCa  licfiotlic  time  is  pro- 
■poi'tioitfd  to  the  cube  of  its  iiicttn  (tistititrt'  fruni  the 
sun.'  This  rule  is  known  as  Kepler's  TIdrd  Law. 
He  saw  clearly  enough  that  it  implies  that  the 
planets  are  moved  by  a  force  greater  near  the  sun, 
and  le.ssening  with  dist.ance,  but  he  did  not  grasp, 
as  Newton  after  him  did,  the  truth  that  this  is  an 
attriietire  force  constantl.v  acting  towar<ls  tlie  sun, 
nor  could  he  therefore  guess  the  law  of  its  action. 
Finding  the  theory  of  epicycles  unable  to  bear  the 
strain  of  Tycho  lirahe's  accurate  observations, 
es]>ecially  in  the  case  of  the  planet  Mars,  he 
endeavoured  to  lind  a  law  for  the  planet's  move- 
ments which  would  be  simple  and  satisfactory. 
After  enormous  labour,  and  by  a  process  of  trial 
and  error,  he  found  that  ( 1 )  t/ic  jilaiiet's  orbit  irus 
an  ellipse,  uf  wliieli  the  sun  is  in  one  focus,  and  (2) 
that,  as  the  planet  (/escribes  its  orbit,  its  radius 
vector  traverses  cmiiil  areas  in  eipial  times.  These 
rules  (p\ihlished  in  1609  in  his  work  on  The  Motions 
of  Mars)  are  known  as  Kepler's  First  ami  SccoikI 
Laws  respectively.  These  laws  formed  the  ground- 
work of  Newton's  discoveries,  and  are  the  starting- 
point  of  modern  aatronoiny.  Uesides,  we  owe  to 
Kepler  many  discoveries  in  optics,  general  i)liysics. 


and  geometiT.     A  collected  edition  of  his  works 
was  published  by  Frisch  ( 1S58-71 ). 

For  further  information,  see  Brewster's  Liven  of  Galileo, 
Tiieho  Brake,  and  Kepler  { 1841 ) ;  Keitlinger,  Neumann, 
and  Gruner,  Johannes  Kepler  (1868);  and  Whewell's 
i/i.v«.  of  Inductive  Sciciices  ( voL  i.). 

Kcnpel,  Augustus,  Viscount,  English 
admiral,  wius  the  son  of  William,  second  Earl  of 
Albemarle,  and  was  born  on  'Jd  April  17'25.  Entering 
the  navy,  he  serveil  under  llawkc  in  1757,  caiitured 
tioree  in  1758,  took  jiart  in  the  battle  of  tj>uiberon 
Bay  in  1759,  and  in  the  ca]iture  of  Belleisle  in  1761, 
and  commanded  at  the  capture  of  Havana  in  1762. 
In  1778  he  encountered  the  I'rench  Uect  oil'  Ushant 
on  27th  July  ;  a  sharp  but  indecisive  action  ensued; 
hut  owing  to  a  disagreement  between  Keppel  and 
.Sir  Hugli  Palliser,  his  second  in  command,  the 
French  were  sull'eied  to  escape  without  a  renewal 
of  the  combat.  Both  admirals  were  brought  before 
a  court-martial,  but  both  were  acquitted.  The 
all'air  made  a  great  stir  in  the  country,  the  popular 
verdict  being  on  the  side  of  Keppel.  In  1782,  in 
which  year  he  was  created  Viscount  Keiqiel  of 
Elveden  in  Sutt'olk,  he  became  First  Lord  of  the 
Admiralty,  hut  resigned  on  Pitt's  accession  to 
govenuneiit.  Keppel  died,  unmarried,  on  3d 
October  1786.     See  Life  by  T.  Keppel  ( 1842). 

Keppel,  Sir  Hexrv,  British  admiral,  ayounger 
son  of  the  fourth  Earl  of  Albemarle,  was  born  14tli 
June  1809.  He  saw  service  as  captain  during  the 
war  against  China  in  1842,  and  in  the  campaign 
against  the  pirates  of  the  East  Indian  Archipela;.;o 
shortly  afterwards.  During  the  Crimean  war  he 
commanded  a  vessel  in  the  Baltic  and  Black  Seas, 
and  Hiially  the  operations  of  the  naval  hrig.ide  before 
Sehastopol.  In  1857  he  took  an  important  part  iu 
the  destruction  of  the  Chinese  lleet  in  Fatshan 
Bay.  He  was  promoted  to  he  vice-admiral  in  1867, 
full  admiral  in  1869,  a  G.C.B.  in  1871,  and  admiral 
of  the  lleet  in  1877.  Sir  Henry  Keii]iel  liius  written 
Exjjedition  to  Jiurncu  with  liajah  liroohc's  Journal 
(3ded.  1847),  Visit  tothc  Indian  Arehipelaijo  (185:ii, 
and  .-1  Sailor's  Life  under  Four  Horcreiyns  (1899). 

Ker,  The  Family  of,  supposed  to  be  of 
Anglo-Norman  extraction,  is  found  in  Scotland 
in  the  end  of  the  12th  century.  The  jiresent 
rejiresentatives  derive  their  descent  from  John 
Ker  of  Altonburn  in  1357,  whose  great  grandson 
Andrew  aci|uired  Ce.ssford  about  1440,  and  gave 
origin  in  his  three  sons  to  the  families  of  Ce.ss- 
ford, Linton,  ami  (iateshaw,  and  in  a  grand.sou 
to  that  of  F'ernihirst.  Sir  Andrew  Ker  of  Cessford 
(died  1526),  whose  younger  brother,  George,  was 
ancestor  of  the  Kers  of  F'amlonsiile,  had  two  sons 
— Sir  Walter,  whose  grandson,  Itobert,  WiUs  created 
Earl  of  Koxburghe  in  1616,  and  Mark,  cumnicndator 
of  Newbattle,  whose  son,  Mark,  was  created  ICarl 
of  Lothian  in  1606.  The  second  Earl  of  Itoxbniglie 
was  only  a  Ker  by  his  mother.  He  assumed  the 
surname  of  Ker,  and  his  grandson,  the  lifth  Earl 
of  Koxburghe,  was  created  duke  in  1707.  .lohn, 
third  Duke  of  Koxburghe  (1740-1804),  w;us  the 
famous  book-collector.  Koberl  Carr,  the  favourite 
of  James  VI.,  created  Viscount  Kochester  in  1611 
and  Earl  of  Somerset  in  1613,  belonged  to  the  family 
of  Fernihirst. 

Ker,  John,  D.D.,  Presbyterian  minister  and 
])rofes.sor,  was  born  in  1819  at  the  farndionse 
of  Bield,  in  Feeblesshire,  ami  early  in  life  re- 
moved with  his  parents  to  Edinburgh.  He  was 
educated  at  the  High  School  and  university,  and 
wa.s  for  a  time  under  Tholuck  at  Halle.  He  was 
licensed  as  a  preacher  in  1844,  and  onlained  at 
Alnwick  in  1845.  lie  acceptcil  a  call  as  a.ssisl 
ant  to  Eitst  Camidxdl  Street  Church,  Glasgow, 
in  1851,  where,  in  the  coui'se  of  a  few  years,  his 
[jopularity  and  the  demands  made  upon  his  services 


KERATIN 


KERNER 


41^ 


broke  his  health.  From  1863  onwards  ho  travelled 
iiimdi.  visiting'  America,  and  resiiUnj:  in  Italy.  He 
oeeupii'd  the  chair  of  Practical  Training'  in  the 
I'nited  I'reshvterian  Theolo{;ical  Hall  from  ISTti 
till  his  death!  October  3,  18S6,  and  his  al>iUly, 
culture,  large  heartedness,  and  (juiet  earnestness 
inaile  a  deeji  impression.  His  .s'c;-;;/i/h,s  ( ISGS,  14lh 
ed.  ISSS:  secon.l  series  ISSG,  M  ed.  ISSS),  by  their 
intellectual  power,  chastened  eloquence,  insight, 
and  spiritual  tone,  carried  his  n.ame  far  beyond  the 
bounds  of  his  own  denomination.  His  otlier  works, 
mostly  posthumous,  are  The  Psahns  in  History  and 
Bioura/t/ii/  (1886);  Lectures  on  the  History  of 
Prctirhinrj  ( 1888 ) :  Letters,  1SGG-S5  ( 1890 ) ;  Thouahts 
for  Hairt  and  Life  (1888).  See  Memorial  Dis- 
courses on  his  Death  (1886). 

Koratiii.    See  Horn. 

K4'I'lM'Iil,  a  town  and  holv  place  in  Asiatic 
Turke\-,  60  miles  SW.  of  Bagdad.  Pop.  60,000. 
The  pilgrims  number  at  least  200,000  ann\ially  ; 
and  a  railway  was  projected  by  Mitlhat  Pasha, 
when  governor  of  the  provinces,  from  Bagdad  to 
Kerbela  in  1869.  The  contractors,  however,  failed 
to  carry  out  tlie  works,  thou"h  actually  com- 
menced. The  sanctity  of  Kerbela  arises  from  the 
fact  that  it  is  built  on  the  site  of  the  battle- 
fiehl  on  which  Hussein,  son  of  Ali  and  Fatinia, 
lost  his  life  (680)  in  attempting  to  maintain  his 
right  of  succession  to  the  califate.  Every  Shiite 
Moslem  throughout  the  world  who  can  atTord  it 
seeks  sepulture  in  the  holy  ground.  Tlie  num- 
ber of  dead  Moslems  conveyed  from  Bombay 
alone  is  considerable.  See  Geary,  Asiatic  Turkey 
(1878). 

KorKiiclen's  Land,  or  De.sol.\tiox  I.sl.\nd, 
of  volcanic  origin,  situated  in  the  Antarctic  Ocean, 
between  -18=  39'  and  49"  W  S.  lat.  and  68°  42'  and 
70°  35'  E.  long.,  being  8.5  miles  long  by  79  wide. 
The  surface  is  mountainous  (Mount  Boss,  6120 
feet),  and  most  of  the  interior  is  covered  with  an 
ice-slieet  and  its  glaciers.  Numerous  islands  and 
rocks  encircle  the  coa-sts.  The  shores  are  very 
irregular,  long  fjords  penetrating  far  inland  and 
fonning  good  harbours.  The  climate  is  raw,  and 
storms  are  nearly  constant.  The  islaiul  was  dis- 
covered in  1772  by  a  Breton  sailor,  Kerguelen- 
Treniarec,  ami  was  visited  by  Captain  f'ooU  (who 
christened  it  Desolation  Island)  in  1776,  ami  in 
1S74  by  the  Challenficr,  and  by  English,  American, 
and  (Jerman  expeditions  to  observe  the  transit  of 
Yenus.      It  was  annexed  by  France  in  1892. 

Ki'i'Sfiielt'ii's  Land  Cabbage  {Princ/lea 
antiscorljiitica),  the  only  known  s])eeies  of  a  very 
curious  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural  order  Cruci- 
fer.T,  found  only  in  Kerguelen's  Land.  It  has  a 
long,  stout,  perennial  root-stock,  and  a  Ix/lled 
lieail  of  leaves  very  similar  to  those  of  the  common 
garden  cabbat'e.  "  Captain  Cook  lirst  disco\eied 
this  plant,  and  directed  attention  to  it.  The  root- 
stocks  have  the  flavour  of  liorse-radLsh.  The 
dense  white  heart  of  the  cluster  of  leaves  ta-stes 
like  mustard  and  cress,  but  is  coar.ser.  The  whole 
foliage  abounds  in  a  very  pungent  pale-yellow 
essential  oil,  which  is  coniined  in  vessels  that  run 

Eirallel  to  the  veins  of  the  leaf.  The  Kerguelen's 
anil  cabbage  is  n.sed  by  voyagei's,  boiled  either 
by  itself,  or  with  beef,  nork,  &c.,  ehielly  on  account 
of  its  anti.scorbntic  qualities. 

Kerki.  a  town  belonging  formerlv  to  Bokhara, 
central  .\sia,  about  120  miles  S.  of  Bokhara  city, 
on  the  left  bank  of  the  Amu  Daria  or  O.xiis. 
An  important  nlaee  both  commercially  and  strategi- 
cally, it  is  the  lialting-pl.ace  of  the  caravans  trailing 
•from  Bokhara  to  Herat,  ami  st.uids  near  tlie  iliii'f 
ferry  over  the  O.xus.  The  fortress,  consisting  of  a 
high  mud  wall,  Hanked  by  bastions,  was  in  188j 
287 


strengthened  by  Bussia,  who  in  May  1887  occnjiied 
it,  and  garrisoned  it  with  regular  troops. 

klTlliadoo  Islands,  a  group  of  volcanic 
islands  in  the  Pacific  Ocean,  70U  miles  NF.  from 
Auckland  in  New  Zealand.  It  consists  of  four 
jirinciiial  islands — Raoul  or  Sunday  (7200  acres), 
Macaulay  (756  acres),  Curtis,  and  li'Fs])erance — 
and  several  smaller  islands.  A  Mr  Bell  settled  in 
1878  on  the  islands,  wliich  in  1887  were  declared  jiart 
of  New  Zealand.  The  climate  resemliles  that  of 
New  Zealand.  The  group  was  discovered  in  1788, 
and  annexed  by  Great  Britain  in  18S6.  See  S. 
Percy  Smith's  Kermadcc  Islands  (1887). 

Kei'llian<  or  KarmaX  (ane.  Carmania),  one  of 
the  eastern  provinces  of  Persia,  lying  south  from 
Khorassan,  and  having  an  area  of  about  59,000 
sq.  m.  The  north  and  north-east  are  occupied  by 
a  frightful  salt  waste  called  the  Desert  of  Kerman, 
which  forms  a  part  of  the  great  central  desert  of 
Iran.  On  this  extensive  tract  not  a  Idade  of  grass 
is  to  be  seen.  The  southern  portion,  although 
mountainous,  is  e(|ually  arid  and  barren  with  the 
north,  except  the  small  tract  of  Niirmanshir,  to- 
wards the  east,  which  is  fertile  and  well  watered. 
Roses  are  cultivated  for  the  manufacture  of  otto 
of  roses  ;  silk  and  various  gums  are  exported.  The 
inhaliitants.  wlio  number  about  CiOO.OdO,  are  chiefly 
Persians  proper  :  the  rest  are  Guebres  or  Parsees, 
Beluchis,  and  other  wandering  tribes. 

Kernian,  the  chief  town,  is  situated  ne.ar  the 
middle  of  the  province,  in  the  central  mountain- 
range,  and  contains  a  population  estimated  at 
30,000.  The  trade,  though  still  considerable,  is 
verv  small  compared  with  what  it  was  during  the 
IStii  century,  when  Kerman  was  the  great  em- 
porium for  the  trade  by  the  Persian  Gulf  and  the 
Indian  Ocean.  In  1722  the  town  was  destroyed  by 
the  Afghans  ;  in  179-!  it  was  taken  and  idllaged  by 
Aga  Mohammed,  and  .30,000  of  the  inhabitants 
made  slaves.  But  the  chief  cause  of  the  decline  of 
its  trade  was  the  fall  of  CJombroon  (q.v. ),  its  port, 
before  the  rising  prosperity  of  Bushire.  At  present 
Kerman  is  only  noted  for  the  manufacture  of  the 
famous  Kerman  carpets  (a  sort  of  woollen  rugs), 
felts,  and  brass  cujis. 

Uermaiisliab  (also  Karmaxshah  and  Knt- 

MANsiiAiiAN ),  a  flourishing  town  of  Persia,  capi- 
tal of  Persian  Kurdistan,  near  the  right  bank  of 
the  river  Kerkhah.  It  is  the  centre  of  converg- 
ing routes  from  Bagdad,  Teheran,  and  Ispahan. 
Its  eonnnerce  is  considerable,  and  there  are  manu- 
factures of  carpets  and  weapons.  A  railway  has 
been  projected  from  Bagdad,  the  intei-vening 
country  presenting  no  engineering  diHieuUies. 
But  between  Kermansliah  and  Teheran  the  country 
is  mountainous.      Pop.  30,000. 

K«'I'III4'.S,  a  dyestulT  obtained  from  an  insect 
(see  l)VKIN(i).  The  name  is  .also  given  to  a  cherry- 
red  mineral,  usually  in  tufts  of  capillary  crystals; 
a  mixture  of  sesquioxide  and  sesquisul]diiile  of  anti- 
mony ;  approximate  composition  ( Sb.,S:i  l-jSbJJs. 
It  was  formerly  much  useu  for  the  .same  i>urposes 
as  .James's  Powder  (q.v.). 

Kernel*.  .Andreas  Justinu.s,  one  of  the  lead- 
ing members  of  the  '  Swabian  School '  of  jioets,  was 
born  at  Ludwigsburg.  in  Wiirtemberg,  18th  Sep- 
tember 17S().  lie  studied  at  Maullnoiin,  and  after- 
wards medicine  at  'I'iibingen,  and  sctlled  in  1818 
as  a  physician  at  Wildhad,  and  tinally  at  Weins- 
berg.  Here  he  died,  21st  February  1862.  Along 
with  Ids'  friends  I'hland  and  (!.  Schwab  he  pub- 
lished Dcr  jiuetischcr  Aiinanacli  (1812)  and  Dcr 
dentsehe  Divhtenrald  ( 1813).  But  his  chief  poetical 
works  are  lliiscsrhatten  ran  dem  Schattens/iieli  r  l.nx 
(1811);  Huiiiaiilisehe  ]>ii-htnnr)cn  (1817):  and  /ler 
letzte  Jiliitciislranss  ( 1852).  His  poetry  apjiroaches 
clo.sely  to  the  Volhslicdcr  in  freslmess  and  simpli- 


418 


KEROSENE 


KESTREL 


city,  and  is  lit  up  witli  fileains  of  IminDiir ;  but  it 
sometimes  drops  to  the  lower  levels  of  romaiiticisiii. 
He  took  a  keen  interest  in  the  phenomena  of 
animal  magnetism,  and  wrote  several  books  on  the 
subject,  one  of  which,  Die  Scherin  von  Prcvorst 
(IS-29:  Gth  ed.  1892),  excited  <;re.at  attention.  See 
Lives  by  Xiethamnier  ( IS77 )  and  Iteinh.'iid  (1880), 
and  Du  I'rel's  Die  Sc/icriii.  von  I'rcvorst  (1S86). 

Kerosene  (Gr.  ki'ros,  'wax'),  one  of  many 
names  under  which  petroleum,  jiaralfin,  or  shale 
oils  are  sold  in  dillerent  countries  for  burninj;  in 
lamps.  The  name  ori^'inated  in  America,  and  is 
still  much  used  there  in  reference  to  iietroleum  for 
domestic  use.  It  is  the  name  also  by  which  gener- 
ally these  mineral  oils  are  known  in  India,  China, 
and  the  colonies,  and  under  which  they  are  im- 
ported in  tins  and  ca.ses  from  America,  liussia,  or 
Great  Britain. 

Keroiinlle,  Louise  de.    See  Ch.\eles  II. 

Kerowlie.    See  Karauli. 

Kerr.V.  a  maritime  county  in  the  south-west  of 
Ireland,  in  the  province  of  ;\lunster,  is  bounded  on 
the  N.  by  the  estuary  of  the  Shannon,  and  on  the 
W.  by  the  Atlantic  Ocean.  Area,  1,185,918  statute 
acres,  or  1S.')3  sq.  m.  There  are  under  crops  about 
170,000  acres,  and  of  these  93,1100  are  laiil  down 
as  permanent  pasture,  some  30,000  are  planted 
Mitii  potatoes,  and  25,000  sown  «itli  oats.  One- 
fourth  of  the  area  is  barren  mountain  land,  and 
more  than  U  per  cent,  bog  and  maish.  Maxi- 
mum length,  north  to  south,  07  miles;  maximum 
width,  55  miles.  Its  coast-line  is  about  '2'20  miles 
in  length ;  is  fringed  with  islands,  of  which  the 
chief  are  Valentia  (pop.  2920),  the  Bl.asqnets,  and 
the  Skelligs  ;  and  is  deeply  indented  liy  Kenmare, 
Dingle,  and  Tralee  B.ays.  Between  these  and  the 
smaller  bays  are  cxtensiims  of  the  mountain-system 
which  stretches  westward  from  the  county  of 
AVaterford.  The  principal  grou])  is  Macgillicuddy's 
Keeks,  the  chief  summit  of  wliich,  Carran  Tual, 
3414  feet,  is  the  highest  in  Ireland.  The  rivers  are 
short  and  of  little  consequence.  The  county  con- 
tains numerous  lakes,  some  of  them,  especially  the 
Lakes  of  Killarney  (i|.v.),  of  ex(|nisite  beauty. 
The  climate  is  mild,  liut  moist,  especially  on  the 
coast.  The  soil  rests  on  slate  and  sandstone,  with 
limestone.  Iron,  cojiper,  and  lead  ores  abound,  but 
are  not  much  worked.  Slate  and  ilagstone  are 
quarried  in  Valentia.  The  manufactures  arc  in- 
considerable ;  oats  and  Imtter  are  the  chief  ex|>orts. 
The  fisheries  on  the  coast  employ  nearly  2000  men 
and  boys.  Since  ISS5  Kerry  returns  four  memliers 
to  the  House  of  Commons!  I'op.  (1841)  29;j,.SS(l  ; 
(1871)  196,014;  (1881)  201,039;  (1891)  179,136, 
nearly  all  Uoman  C.Uholics.  The  countv  is  rich  in 
ancient  ruins,  including  the  remains  of'  jMuckro.ss 
Abbey  and  lunisfallen. 

KersnntOII,  the  name  given  to  several  larioties 
of  igneous  rock  which  are  rich  in  jdagioclivse  fel- 
spar and  dark  mica,  and  contain  carbonates.  They 
occur  in  the  form  of  dykes  traversing  the  paheozoi'c 
rocks  of  Brittany.  The  name  is  from  Kerzanton, 
<a  small  hamlet  on  the  Brest  Roads.  Grainilar 
varieties  of  kersanton  are  called  kerstintite,  while 
those  which  have  a  marked  i)orpliyritic  structure 
are  known  as  micajiorphyrilcs. 

Kersey,  or  IvniiSKYMERE,  a  variety  of  woollen 
cloth,  diU'ering  from  ordinary /«-«rtrf  c/f/^/i  by  being 
woven  as  a  lirill  (see  Twil.l!).  It  is  ea.sily  distin- 
guished from  the  common  (doth  by  the  diagonal 
ribbed  appearance  of  its  upper  side,  where  the  nap, 
not  being  raised,  allows  its  structure  to  be  seen. 
A  very  thin  line  make  of  Kersey  is  called  c.issi- 
mere. 

Kei'tcll.  previous  to  being  levelled  with  the 
ground  by  the  allies  in  1855  the  most  important 


port  of  the  Crimea,  with  a  large  trade  in  the  export 
of  corn,  is  situated  on  the  eastern  shore  of  the 
peninsula,  on  the  strait  of  Katla  or  Venikale, 
which,  20  miles  long  and  3  to  25  wide,  connects 
the  Sea  of  Azov  with  the  Black  Sea.  The  port 
still  has  a  traile  to  the  extent  of  neariy  .i;200,000 
annually  in  grain,  linseed,  leather,  fish,  and  caviare 
(all  exported).  The  mn.seum  for  the  (ireek  and 
other  antiquities  <liscovered  in  the  neighbourhood 
w.os  removed  to  the  Hermitage  at  St  Petersburg 
after  having  been  partly  rilled  by  the  allied  soldiers 
in  1855  (cf.  U.  "SWcYXwY^tm,  Antiquities  of  Kerteh, 
1857).  Two  and  a  half  miles  to  the  south  of  the 
town  are  the  fortified  works  ilesigiied  to  i)rotcct 
the  passage  of  the  straits.  Kertch,  the  ancient 
Pantieiipaum  or  Bosporus,  founded  in  the  middle 
of  the  6tli  c,  n.r.,  by  Miletans,  w.as  tiic  caiiital  of 
the  ancient  kingdom  of  the  Bosporus,  and  subse- 
quently of  a  state  founded  by  the  son  of  Mithri- 
dates,  about  100  n.c.  From  "l318  to  1475  it  was 
a  depot  of  the  Genoese  ;  then  it  came  into  the 
hands  of  the  Turks;  and  finally,  in  1771,  it  wa-s 
accjiiired  bv  the  Russians.  Pop.  with  the  neigh- 
bouring Ye'nikale  ( 1890)  30,000. 

Kesteven,  The  Part.s  of,  the  south-west 
division  of  Lincolnshire  (q.v. ). 

Kestrel,  or '^VI^•DHO^•ER  [Falco  tinnmiculm), 
a  small  species  of  falcon  found  in  the  north  of 
Europe  in   the  warmer  months,   resident  in    the 


Kestrels  {Falco  linnunculus)  : 

1,  the  male ;  2,  tlie  female. 

south  all  the  year  round,  and  particularly  abund- 
ant in  Spain.  In  Britain  it  is  one  of  the  commonest 
birds  of  prey,  though  its  numbers  were  considerably 
reduced  by  persecution  before  its  harmlissness  and 
its  utility  as  a  check  on  the  too  rapid  multi|dicalioii 
of  mice  were  fully  recognised.  The  name  wind- 
hover refers  to  the  birds  graceful  habit  of  balancing 
itself  in  gale  or  calm,  ji-s  some  other  binls  do,  by 
a  slight,  continuous  lla])])iiig  of  the  wings.  JeH'eries 
thus  describes  the  iiiechaiiism  of  hovering :  '  While 
hovering  there  are  several  forces  balanced  :  first, 
the  original  impetus  onwards;  secondly,  that  of 
the  (lepres.sed  tail  dragging  and  stopping  that 
onward  ccmrse :  thirdly,  that  of  the  wings  beating 
downwanls  ;  and  fourihiy,  that  of  the  wing  a  little 
reversed  beating  forwards,  like  backing  water  with 
a  scull.'  The  food  of  the  kestrel  consists  cbielly  of 
mice,  but  it  also  eats  insects,  which  it  catches 
while  on  the  wing,  and  occjvsioually  small  birds. 
It  rarely  builds  a  nest  of  its  own,  but  ajipropriatcs 
one  forsaken  by  another  bird,  or  lays  its  eggs  in 
any    convenient   cavity.     The    eggs    arc   creamy 


KESWICK 


KEY 


419 


whito.  thickly  mottlcil  with  rethlish  brown,  or 
sometimes  entirely  reiUUsh  brown.  The  adult  male 
measures  about  13  inches :  the  prevailing  colour  is 
a  yiale  lirown  marked  with  black  :  the  head,  neck, 
and  tail  are  bluish  gray.  The  female  is  larger 
than  tlie  male,  and  is  reddish  brown  with  bars  of 
black.  The  Lesser  Kestrel  (/'.  ceiir/iris),  which 
has  occasionally  been  found  in  liritain,  closely 
resembles  the  common  species,  but  has  the  claws 
white  instead  of  yellow.  The  common  sparrow- 
hawk  of  the  United  States  (/•'.  sjxirfcn'iis)  h  also 
a  near  relative,  and  .allied  species  are  fonnd  in 
nearly  all  parts  of  the  world.  The  whole  group  is 
sometimes  separated  otl'  from  Kaico  as  a  sub-genus 
Tinnunenhis. 

Keswick,  a  market-town  of  Cumberland,  near 
the  conrtuence  of  the  (ireta  and  the  Derwent,  l(i 
miles  XNW.  of  Ambleside,  and  liy  a  branch-line 
(186.5)  18  W.  of  Penrith  junction.  3(i  SSW.  of 
Carlisle.  In  its  immediate  vicinity  are  wooded 
Castle  Head  and  beautiful  Derwentwater  (q.v. ), 
whilst  to  the  north  towers  Skiddaw  (305S  feet). 
A  great  tourist  centre,  it  is  a  pleasant  little  place, 
lighted  with  the  electric  light  in  1890,  and  possess- 
ing half-a-dozen  hotels,  ,a  good  public  library,  a 
recreation  ground,  a  town-hall  (181.S),  lead-pencil 
manufactories,  and  a  church  (1S.S9),  besides  the 
old  palish  church  of  Crosthwaite,  }  mile  north, 
with  Simtheys  grave.  Pop.  (1851)  2618;  (1891) 
,*?76(i.     See  Lake  Dlstrict. 

KoSZtliely*  a  market-town  of  Hungary,  on  the 
western  shore  of  Lake  Balaton,  11.3  miles  by  rail 
SW.  of  Pesth.     Pop.  .=5393. 

Kot,  Robert,  a  tanner  of  Wymondhani,  in 
Norfolk,  wlio  raised  the  standard  of  insurrection 
in  that  county  in  .Inly  l.">49.  Tlie  cause  of  the 
outbreak  was  a  widespread  dissatisfaction  of  the 
country-people  against  the  gentry.  SLxteen  thou- 
sand men  gathered  round  Ket,  who  raised  his 
mimic  throne  beneath  the  '  Oak  of  Reformation ' 
on  Moushold  Hill,  overlooking  Norwich.  This 
city  was  twice  captured  by  the  rebels ;  on  the 
second  occasion  they  held  it  until  they  were  driven 
ont  by  the  Earl  of  Warwick,  and  compelled  to  fight 
a  battle,  in  which  Ket  was  <lefeated  and  captured. 
He  was  afterwards  hanged  at  Norwich.  The 
insurrection  never  had  more  than  a  local  .signifi- 
cance. See  the  Rev.  F.  W.  Russell's  Rett's 
Eehelllon  (1860). 

Hetcll,  a  broad,  strongly-built  vessel  of  two 
masts — viz.  the  main  and  mizzen,  formerly  much 
nsed  for  canying  mortars,  and  called  a  bomb-ketch. 

Ketch,  J.vcK.    See  Execution. 

Ketclllip,  or  C.\T.sri>,  is  a  name  given  to^ 
certain  sjiuces  much  valued  for  tlavouring  soups, 
meats,  fish,  &c.  It  may  he  prepared  from  a  variety 
of  fruits  and  vegetables  ;  but  the  ketchups  in  most 
ordinary  use  are  those  m.ade  from  common  mush- 
rooms (Ar/nricus  mmpcstris),  unrijie  walnuts,  atid 
ripe  tomatoes.  The  fruit  or  vegetable  is  first 
broken  or  bruised  with  salt,  and  allowed  to  stand 
for  about  twenty-four  hours  to  extract  the  juice ; 
the  juice  must  then  be  expresscil,  )uit  into  a  pan, 
and  boiled  with  apjiropi-iate  seasonings  until  it  is 
reduced  to  about  half  the  (piantity.  It  should  be 
allowed  to  cool  before  it  is  bottled,  and  then,  if 
tightly  corked,  will  keep  for  years. 

Ketones.    See  .Acetones. 

Kettcrins,  a  market-town  of  Northami>ton- 
shire,  7.")  miles  NNW.  of  London  by  rail.  The 
parish  church,  dating  from  about  14.")0,  and  restored 
in  1862,  is  a  fine  I'erpendicular  structure,  with 
tower  and  spire.  A  town-hall  and  corn  exchange 
wa.s  built  in  1803;  and  Kettering  has  also  a  free 
grammar-school,  waterworks  (1872),  and  mann- 
factures  of  boot.s  and  shoes,  stays,  plush,  brushes, 


vtc.  The  charter  for  the  market  was  given  by 
Henry  111.  in  1227  to  the  monks  of  Peterborough. 
Pop.  of  iiarish  { 1861 )  5845  ;  ( 1891)  19,454. 

Kctlletlriiiii.    SeeDiuM. 

KcHper,  the  npper  division  of  the  Triassic 
System  (q.v.). 

Kew,  a  village  in  Surrey,  G  miles  W.  of  Hyde 
Park  Corner,  and  on  the  riglit  bank  of  the  Thaines, 
which  is  here  crossed  bv  a  line  granite  lindge, 
rebuilt  in  1899,  and  .55  feet  wide.  Foremost 
among  objects  of  interest  at  Kew  are  the  Royal 
Rotanic  (Tardens  and  Arboretutn.  containing  mag- 
nificent collections  of  plants  and  ferns,  both  native 
and  exotic,  and  of  trees  and  shrubs.  Established 
in  17()0  by  the  mother  of  George  111.,  and  made 
a  national  institution  in  1840,  the  gardens  now 
extend  over  70  acres,  and  the  arlioretum  178  acres, 
anil  the  annual  cost  of  keeping  them  up  amounts 
to  about  £20,000.  In  1882  there  were  1,244,167 
\isilors  to  the  gardens,  whilst  on  'VVbit-^londay 
1800  it  was  computed  that  nearly  100,000  persons 
were  jidmitted.  In  addition  to  numerous  hot- 
houses and  conservatories,  the  principal  features 
are  a  palm-house  362  feet  by  100  and  66  feet  high  ; 
a  temperate-house  of  the  same  height,  occupying 
three-fourths  of  an  acre  :  three  museums  ;  a  labor- 
atory :  the  North  gallery,  containing  sketches  from 
nature  taken  in  dili'erent  parts  of  the  world  ;  and 
the  Pagoda,  an  octagonal  ten-storied  Iniilding  163 
feet  high.  To  the  south-west  of  the  gardens  is 
an  oliservatory,  cliielly  used  as  a  meteondogical 
station  ;  here  are  kept  the  thermometer  .and  other 
meteorological  and  magnetical  instruments  which 
serve  as  standards  for  the  United  Kingdom. 
Close  to  the  northern  entrance  is  Kew  Palace, 
formerly  a  favourite  residence  of  George  III., 
and  of  "Queen  Charlotte,  who  died  there.  In  the 
church,  built  in  1714,  and  subsequently  enlarged, 
is  an  oi'gan  presented  liy  (ieorge  IV.,  and  said  to 
liave  been  used  by  Handel.  The  late  Duke  and 
Duchess  of  Cambridge  are  buried  in  the  vaults, 
and  in  the  churchyard  adjoining  are  the  graves  of 
Gainsborough,  the  painter,  and  two  less-known 
artists,  Meyer  (George  IIl.'s  miniature-painter) 
and  Zofl'any.  Sir  Peter  Lely  once  lived  on  the 
Green.     Pop-  ( ISOl )  424  ;  ( 1881 )  1670  ;  ( 1891 )  2076. 

Ketvatiii.    See  KEE\vA,TrN. 

Ke'weeiiaw  Point,  a  peninsula  of  Michigan 
(q.v.),  ])roj(M-ting  into  Lake  Superior,  and  coexten- 
si\e  with  Keweenaw  county  ( 350  sq.  ni.  ;  poj). 
4270).     It  is  famed  for  its  copper-mines. 

Kev,  in  Music,  the  series  of  notes,  or  scale, 
in  which  modern  music  is  written.  Each  note  on 
the  staN-e  may  form  the  tonic  or  keynote  of  a  scale, 
which  is  called  after  the  name  of  that  note  (see 
Ml'sic).  A  piece  is  said  to  be  in  such  and  such  a 
key  when  that  key  i)rediuiiinates  throughout  ;  and 
the  tonic  harmony  of  the  key  is  always  to  be  found 
at  the  close  of  tlie  piece,  unless  it  leads  to  some 
further  movement.  It  is  held  by  many  that  each 
of  the  various  keys  has  a  character,  or  colour,  as 
it  is  termed,  of  its  own.  In  connection  with 
music,  the  name  key  is  also  given  to  the  levers  by 
which  the  pianoforte,  organ,  v\.c.  are  jdayeil  ;  to 
the  levers  on  wind-instruments  for  ojiening  or 
closing  certain  of  the  sound-holes ;  and  to  the 
wrest  used  for  tuning  the  pianoforte,  drum,  \c. 

Key,  Fl!.\NCl.s  Scott,  autlior  of  '  The  Star- 
spangfeil  IJaiiuer,'  was  born  in  Marvland,  9lh 
August  1780,  |iractised  law  at  Frederidc  City  and 
at  Washington,  and  became  district  attcniiey  for 
the  District  of  Columbia.  It  was  during  the  Ihilish 
invasion  in  1814,  at  the  attack  on  IJaltimoie,  which 
he  witnessed  from  an  English  man-of  war.  that 
Key,  after  watching  through  the  gray  dawn  to 
see  which  Hag  lloalcd  over  tlie  ramparts  of  Fort 


420 


KEY 


KHASI 


McHeiiiy,  wiote  the  woirls  which  have  kept  his 
name  alive.  He  died  11th  Jainiarv  1843.  A 
cDlleclioii  of  his  poems  ajipeaveil  in  1S.")7.  There  is 
a  liandsoini'  monument  hy  Story,  erected  at  the 
expense  of  .lames  Lick,  at  San  Francisco. 

Key.  Tho.m.v.'s  Hewitt  ( 1799  IST.'i),  head- 
master of  University  College  School  and  jirofes^or 
of  roni];arativc  (Iramm.ar  in  I'niversity  ("ollef^e, 
London,  was  eminent  as  a  Latin  philologi.st  and 
author  of  a  Lalin  dnniniKO-  and  of  a  Lcitin-Kiigliah 
DictiQiinrji  (new  ed.  I.SSS). 

ttev,  or  Iiei,  IslaiKls.  a  small  grou)!  in  the 
East  Indies,  lyinf;  S.  of  Dutch  N'(!\v  (iuinea  and 
NE.  of  Timor",  consists  of  Great  Key,  Little  Key, 
and  some  sm.aller  islets.  Total  area,  680  sq.  m. 
I'op.  about  -20,0(10,  Malays  and  Alfuros;  three- 
fourths  on  Cleat  Key.  This  is  a  long  narrow 
island,  stretching  north  to  south,  volcanic  in 
origin,  and  with  a  rocky,  hilly  surface  that  rises 
to  nearly  .'1000  feet.  Little  Key,  situated  to  the 
west  of  Great  Key,  is  of  coral  formation,  and 
lies  low  :  it  is  said  to  have  made  its  appearance  in 
tlie  niiildle  of  the  I9th  century  during  an  earth- 
quake disturbance.  .Ml  the  islands  are  covered 
with  dense  j\ingle.  Valuable  timber  is  the  chief 
product.  Fishing  is  the  chief  occupation  ;  and 
bcche,-dc-mcr  is  gathered.  The  group  has  been  in 
the  hands  of  the  Dutch  since  1645.  See  (i.  Langen 
in  Proc  Roy.  Gcog.  Soc.  (1888),  and  Scot.  Geor/. 
Mar/.  (188S  and  1890).— The  islets  of  the  Bahama 
group  in  North  America  are  called  generally  keys 
or  cays  ( Span.,  '  rocks '  or  '  reefs  '). 

KcyilC.  St,  a  holy  virgin  said  to  have  lived 
about"490.  whose  name  survives  in  an  old  church 
in  Cornwall  near  Liskeard,  and  still  more  so  in  its 
famous  well.  Whichever  of  a  newly-manie<l  pair 
lirst  drinks  of  its  water  will  bear  rule  throughout 
their  life  together.  All  the  world  knows  from 
Southey's  ballad  the  story  of  the  bride  who  out- 
witted her  husliand  by  t.aking  a  bottle  (o  church. 
The  well  is  mcMtioneil  Viy  Fuller  an<l  Carow.  but 
the  reader  will  (ind  fuller  details  in  (.'yrus  Kedding's 
Illiisfmtfd  Itincruvi/  of  Cornwall  ( 184'2). 

Keys,  Tower  of  the.     See  Popk. 

Key  West,  a  jiort  of  entry  and  capital  of 
Monroe  county,  Floriila,  is  situated  on  the  islaiul 
of  Key  West  ( Span.  Cayo  Hucso,  '  Bone  Keef ' ),  60 
miles  SW.  of  Cape  Sable.  It  is  a  coral  island,  7 
miles  long,  2  to  3  wide,  and  nowhere  more  than  1 1 
feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  There  is  a  good 
harbour,  defended  by  a  casemaled  brick  fort ;  and 
the  buildings  incbnle  a  customhouse,  barracks, 
and  a  marine  hosjiital.  The  exports  are  salt, 
turtle,  sponges,  fruits  and  vegetables,  and  cigars. 
Dangerous  reefs  make  the  business  of  salvage  im- 
]>ortant.  The  warm  and  equable  climate  attracts 
consumptives.  The  jdace  was  a  great  military  and 
naval  centre  during  the  war  with  Spain  in  1S!)8. 
I'op-  (1S70)  5016;  (1880)9890;  (1890)  18,08.'). 

Khnbiirovka.  at  the  junction  of  the  Ussuri 
with  the  Amur,  is  the  capital  of  the  Maritime 
Province  (c|.v.)  of  Siberia.     Top.  30,000. 

Kliairimi*.  the  chief  town  of  Khairpur  state,  in 
Sind,  stands  among  marshes  about  15  miles  K.  of 
the  Indus.  It  wa.s  once  a  very  important  city. 
Pop.  7000.— Area  of  state,  6109  sq.  m.  ;  pop.  (1891 ) 
131,9.'i7.  mostly  Mohannuedans. 

Klialid.    See  M(is,\vi.iM.\,  Calif. 

Klialil'.     See  C.vi.iF. 

liliailia.  the  reforming  chief  of  the  Il.'imang- 
wato  in  the  Bechuanaland  (q.v.)  Protectorate,  was 
born  in  IS46,  ami  on  a  visit  to  England  in  1895 
secured  recognition  for  his  stringent  regulations  for 
exclusion  of  alcohol  .and  maintenance  of  order. 

Kliaiiisiii,  or  Khamasin.    See  Egypt. 


Kliail,  a  title  of  Mongolian  or  Tartar  sovereigns 
and  nobles.  A  kliiinati:  is  a  principality.  Khan  is 
also  a  name  for  Caravanserai  (q.v.). 

Hhaildeisll.  or  Candeish,  a  district  on  the 
northern  edge  of  the  Deccnn,  in  Bombay  Presi- 
dency, lies  south  of  the  Nerbudda  and  east  of 
Baroda,  and  is  intersected  by  the  Tapli  river. 
Area,  1(1,007  sq.  lu.  ;  pop.  1,460,851. 

Kliaiiia.    See  Canea. 

Kliarasiii.    See  Khiva. 

Kliarkofl'.  capital  of  the  Knssian  government 
of  KliaiUolV,  and  one  of  the  chief  towns  of  the 
Ukraine,  is  by  rail  312  miles  N\V.  of  Taganrog 
and  465  S.  by  W.  of  Moscow.  It  is  the  seal  of  a 
Greek  bishop  ami  of  a  university,  with  four  faculties 
and  about  900  students.  Attached  to  the  univer- 
sity I  rounded  in  1805)  are  an  observatory,  a  library 
of  56.000  volumes,  a  botanical  garden,  anatomical 
niusenm,  (."src.  This  university  was  a  centre  of  the 
Nihilist  movement.  The  chief  industrial  products 
are  su<;ar,  .soap,  candles,  felt,  brandy,  tobacco,  and 
iron  ;  but  the  place  is  princip.ally  celidnaled  for  its 
four  great  fairs,  at  two  of  which  (in  horses  and 
wool)  the  united  turnover  amounts  annnallv  to  the 
sum  of  nearlv  ,£3,000,000.  Pop.  (1873)  87,000; 
(1895)  196,500".— The  ;/0(rc;(mc»^  situated  in  Little 
Ru.ssia,  has  an  area  of  21,0.35  sq.  m.  ;  jiop.  (1893) 
2,537,900,  principally  Little  Rnssi.ans  and  Co.ssack.s. 
It  forms  a  plateau  of  moderate  elevation,  seamed 
by  the  deep-cut  river-courses  of  the  atlliients  of 
the  Don.  Nearlv  one-half  of  the  area  is  arable 
land. 

Kliarloillll.  or  KiiAirruM,  once  the  most  im- 
IKirtaiit  town  in  the  eastern  Soudan,  stands  on  the 
low  tongue  of  land  between  the  Blue  and  tiie  White 
Nile,  just  above  their  junction,  445  miles  SW.  of 
Suakiin  (  viA  Berber),  ami  1625  S.  of  Cairo,  f<dlowing 
the  windings  of  the  Nile.  It  w.-is  founded  under 
the  rule  of  Mehemet  Ali  (q.v.)  in  1823,  and  soon 
became  a  place  of  c(mimcrcial  importance,  and  was 
ma<le  the  cajjital  of  Egyptian  Soudan.  As  startin";- 
poinl  and  terminus  of  caravans  to  the  interior,  it 
was  notorious  for  its  great  activity  in  the  slave- 
trade.  Ivory,  ostrich  feathers,  gums,  and  tamarinds 
were  other  articles  of  commerce.  It  shared  the  evil 
fortune  of  the  Soudan  (q.v.)  ;  and  (ieneral  (iordon 
(q.v.)  defended  it  against  the  forces  of  the  iMalidi 
(q.v.)  in  1884-85.  Two  days  before  the  rescue 
army  reached  it  Khartoum  fell,  and  (Jordon  was 
amo'ngst  the  slain  (2()th  January  1S85).  Pop.  then, 
alxmt  (10,(100  ;  a  half  being  Turks,  (Ireeks,  Syrians, 
Arabs,  and  Kgy]ilian  cr.aftsmen,  the  rest  represent- 
ing the  varied  races  of  Eastern  Africa.  But  Khar- 
toum was  now  deserted  for  Omdnniian.  just  below 
and  on  the  left  bank  of  the  river,  which  was  the 
cajiital  of  the  Mahdi  and  his  successor,  the  Khalifa, 
till  the  advance  of  Kitchener's  force  in  1898.  On 
2<1  September  the  dervishes  were  routed  and  the 
Khalifa's  (lOwer  broken  at  OnuUirman  :  and  two 
days  after,  the  British  and  Egyidian  Hags  were 
hoisted  on  the  ruined  residency  where  Gin<lon  fell. 
The  pojuilalion  of  Gmdnrman  was  believed  to  be 
100,000.  After  the  occupation  the  administration 
was  rest(ued  to  Khartoum  :  ami  in  18!i9  the  (iordon 
Memoriiil  College  was  founded  at  a  (Mist  of  over 
.£100,000 -the  design  being  to  give  the  intelligent 
n.atives  of  the  region  a  good  education,  without 
alarming  their  religious  susceptibilities. 

Hlliisi.  .1  series  of  hills  or  step-like  plaleatis  in 
Assam,  on  the  watei-shed  between  the  Biahiiiapiitia 
and  the  Surma,  and  with  the  connectcil  .laintia 
Hills  giving  name  to  a  district.  The  rainfall  is 
enormous,  reaching  in  some  parts  in  1885-95  an 
annual  aveiage  of  over  500  inches.  Lime,  manges, 
and    potatoes    are    exported ;    coal   and    iion   ore 


KHATMANDU 


KHOI 


421 


exist,  liut  only  the  latter  is  extiaoted.  The  lau- 
guase  of  the  Ivhasis.  an  Indo-Chinese  race,  '  has  no 
analogy  elsewhere  in  the  whole  of  India:'  it  is 
deserilied  as  "  iiionosyllal)ic  in  the  agiilutinative 
stajre.'  The  pnneii)les  of  female  descent  and  female 
authority  are  the  most  marked  among  their  social 
customs.  See  Daltou's  Ktliiiolagij  nf  Beiujal 
{1S7-2I. 

KhatlliaiKlll.  Hie  cai>ital  of  Nepal,  stretches 
for  al)ont  a  mile  north  from  the  continence  of  the 
IJa^limati  and  Vishinimati  rivers.  It  contains  a 
great  nuirilier  of  temples,  many  in  pagoda  shape, 
with  roofs  of  hrass,  and  others  ilomed  ;  but  the 
houses  are  in  general  mean,  their  court  yards  tilled 
with  ruhliishdieaps,  and  the  streets  are  narrow  and 
filthy  in  llie  extreme.  The  principal  building  is 
the  imnien.se  ugly  i)alace  of  the  Maharaja  ;  close  to 
its  modern  darhdr,  or  reception-room,  is  the  large 
military  council-chamber,  the  Kot,  where  in  1846 
most  of  the  chief  men  of  the  state  were  ma.ssacred. 
The  population  is  about  oO,000. 

Kliaya,  a  genu.s  of  trees  of  the  natural  order 
Cedrelaceie.  The  Kassou-Khaye  of  Senegal  (A". 
Soxgalcnsis),  one  of  the  most  abundant  forest- 
trees  in  that  part  of  Africa,  attains  a  height  of 
eighty  or  one  hundred  feet,  and  is  much  valued  for 
its  timber,  called  cciilccdra,  or  African  mahogany, 
wldeh  is  reddish  coloured,  very  hard,  durable,  and 
of  beautiful  grain.  In  the  mai-shy  coast  regions 
of  (lambia  the  bark  is  administered  in  the  cure 
of  fever,  and  Cavcnton  has  extracted  an  alkaloid 
which  has  been  suggested  as  a  cheap  substitute 
for  Qiiinia,  a  product  of  the  bark  of  Hortia  brazil- 
iana. 

Khayyaiu,  Om.vr.    See  O.mar. 

Kliazars.    See  Ch.\z.\rs. 

Khedive,  a  title  granted  in  1867  by  the  Sultan 
to  his  triljiitary  the  \'iceroy  of  Egypt,  and  since 
then  used  by  the  latter  as  his  official  title.  The 
word  ( pronounced  as  a  dissyllable )  is  derived  from 
Persian  khidh\  and  means  '.sovereign.'  It  is  there- 
fore a  more  dignified  title  than  vali,  '  viceroy.' 

Klielat.     See  Kel.vt. 

Kher.son.  or  Cherson,  capital  of  the  Russian 
government  of  that  name,  stanifs  <m  the  Dineper,  19 
miles  from  its  mouth  and  .SI  NE.  of  Odessa.  The 
town  w;us  laid  out  by  Prince  I'otemkin  in  1778  as  a 
port  for  the  construction  of  shi|i>  of  war  ;  but  in  a  few 
years,  owing  to  the  unfavourable  character  of  the 
river,  it  was  supplanteil  liy  Odes.sa  and  NikolaieH', 
both  a.s  a  dock-yard  and  a  commercial  outlet.  It 
has  a  large  trade  in  timber,  an<l  manufactures 
soap,  tallow,  beer,  and  tobac'co.  \\'ool-cleaiising  is 
an  important  industry.  At  Kherson  Potenikin  is 
buried,  and  John  Howard,  the  prison  reformer; 
died.  Pop.  (1871)  46,3'20 :  (1898)  67,811.— The 
(joi-crnitieiit  bordei-s  on  the  Black  Sea,  having  the 
Dnieper  for  its  etustern  boundary  and  the  Dniester 
for  its  western,  while  the  interior  is  watered  by  the 
Hug,  Ingul,  &.C.,  which  form  shallow,  salt  lagoons 
next  the  sea.  The  soil  towards  the  south  is  steppe- 
land  ;  in  the  north,  where  it  touches  the  'black 
earth'  region,  it  is  more  fertile.  Area,  'J7,oI.5 
.•ill.  m.  ;  pop.  (1897)  '2,7"28,iV23.  There  are  seventy 
(lernian  (Swabian)  colonies,  with  about  ;'50,0()0 
inhabitants.  Agriculture,  gardening,  and  cattle- 
breeding  are  the  chief  occupations  ;  and  there  are 
iron-foumlries,  coriiunlls,  machine-factories,  tan- 
neries, carriage  -  works,  and  braiuly  -  ilistilleries. 
The  government  embraces  several  large  towns,  as 
Kherson,  Odessa,  NikolaieH",  Otcliakuti',  Yelisavet- 
grad,  Voznesensk,  and  Tiriuspol. 

Khiva,  also  called  KlIAK.i.SM,  Kiiw.vrizm,  or 
l'l!(iKNJ  (anc.  (.hiir/tsiiiiii),  a  khanate  of  Turke- 
stan in  central  Asia,  lies  between  'AT  4.')'— 44'  30' 
N.   lat.   and  50'   15' — 63*   E.   long.,   and   contains 


about  ■2.'), 000  sq.  m.,  the  surface  l)eing  mostly  a 
sandy  desert,  with  many  fertile  tracts  scattered 
over  it.  It  is  bounded  on  tlie  N.  by  the  Kussian 
territory  and  Sea  of  .\ral,  K.  liy  tlie  klianate  of 
Hokhara,  S.  by  Persia,  and  W.  by  the  ('as])ian 
Sea.  The  chief  oasis,  in  w  hich  the  cajiital  Kliiva 
is  situ.ated,  stretches  from  the  mouth  of  the  Oxus 
or  .\mu-I)aria  for  200  miles  along  its  banks,  and 
is  watered  by  artificial  canals  supplied  from  that 
river,  to  which  it  entirely  owes  its  fertility.  The 
inhabited  area  is.-iluiut  5000  sq.  m.  The  jioimlation 
hiis  been  estimated  to  consist  of  '200,000  settled 
inhabitants  and  nearly  as  many  nomads.  Amongst 
them  are  I'zbegs,  Karakalpaks,  and  Turkomans 
(all  rral-.\ltaic),  Aryan  Sarts  and  Tajiks,  prob- 
ably the  original  inhabitants  of  Khiva,  and  Kizil- 
bashes,  mostly  liberated  Per>ian  slaves. 

Khiva  in  ancient  times  was  nominally  subject 
to  tlie  Seleucida' :  subsequently  it  formed  a  part 
of  tl.e  kingdoms  of  Bactria,  Parthia,  Persia,  and 
the  Califate,  and  became  an  indeiiendent  monarchy 
in  109'2  under  a  lateral  branch  of  the  Seljuk  dynasty. 
The  Khivans,  or,  as  they  were  then  called,  the 
C'horasmians,  after  conquering  the  greatest  part 
of  Persia  and  north-western  Afghanistan,  were 
obliged  to  succumb  to  the  Moguls,  under  (Jenghis 
Khan,  in  1221.  In  1370  Khiva  came  into  the  hamls 
of  Timiir.  Timiir's  descendants  were  sulidued  in 
1511  by  Shahy  Beg  (called  Sheibani  Mehemmed 
Khan  by  western  writers),  chief  of  the  I'zbegs,  a 
Turkish  trilie,  and  his  successors  ruled  over  Khiva 
till  the  end  of  the  18th  century,  when  they  were 
suiqjlanted  by  Kirghiz  and  Karakalpak  princes, 
and  from  the  beginning  of  the  19th  century  by 
the  Kungrat  branch  of  the  I'zbegs.  Ever  since 
the  Russians  entered  central  Asia  they  have  com- 
plained that  the  Khivans  fostered  rebellion  among 
their  Kirghiz  subjects,  and  plundered  their  cara- 
vans. In  1717  Peter  the  Great  endeavoured  to  con- 
i|uer  Kliiva,  but  was  defeated,  and  in  1839  the 
attempt  was  renewed  by  the  Czar  Nicholas,  with 
no  better  success.  \\  ar  may  be  said  to  have 
recommenced  when  new  Kussian  forts  in  1869  and 
1871  were  founded  on  the  shores  of  the  Caspian. 
It  was  not,  however,  till  1873  that  a  great  efl'ort 
was  made  finally  to  crush  Khiva.  To  diminish  the 
difiiculties  of  crossing  the  deserts  the  Rus>iaii  force 
was  divided  into  five  columns,  each  about  3<J0O 
strong,  to  ap]>roacli  Khiva  liy  dill'erent  routes. 
After  enduring  with  admirable  fortitude  great 
lirivaticms  and  fatigue,  the  Russians  entered  Khiva 
on  the  loth  of  June.  The  khan  agreed  to  pay  a 
war  indemnity  and  to  cede  to  Bokhara  the 
Khivau  possessions  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Amu- 
Daria.  .Shortly  afterwards,  however,  these  pos- 
sessions, incliuling  the  seat  of  the  Karakalpaks 
near  the  embouchures  of  the  Oxus,  were  incor- 
porale<l  with  Russian  tenitory,  aiul  now  Kizil- 
kum  and  the  annexed  part  of  Khiva  form  the 
Russian  government  of  Aniu-Daria,  with  an  area 
of  39,H'20  sq.  m.,  and  an  estimated  pop.  of  109,600. 
The  re.st  of  Khiva  is  ruled  by  the  kiiaii,  under 
Russian  suzerainty.  —  Klliv,v,  the  capital  of  the 
khanate,  is  on  the  Ilazveti  Pehlivan  Canal,  in  the 
western  portion  of  the  great  oiisis.  It  consists 
almost  entirely  of  earth-huts,  not  excepting  the 
residence  of  the  khan,  the  only  brick  buiUlings 
being  three  mosipies,  a  school,  and  a  caravansarai. 
Pop.  20.000.  Other  towns  are  'i'enghi-rrgenj,  the 
commercial  centre  of  the  khanate,  and  Kungrat, 
not  far  from  the  Aral.  See  works  by  \'ambery 
(1864),  liurnabv  (1H76),  Stunim  (Eng.  tians.  1885), 
and  Lansdell  (1885). 

Khoi,  a  town  in  the  Persian  province  <if  Azer- 
bijan,  on  the  highway  between  Erzeroum  and 
Tabriz,  which  lies  75  miles  to  the  SE.  Here  .Selini 
I.  ilefeated  the  Persians  in  a  great  battle  in  1514. 
The  surroumling  ilistrict,  which  is  a  fertile  plateau, 


422 


KHOIKHOI 


KIACHTA 


yields    grain,    fruit    (especially    niulbeiries),    aiid 
cotton.     Top.  2J,0U0. 

Klioiklioi.    See  Hottentots. 

KIlojdHl.  ;i  walled  town  of  Uussian  Turkestan, 
on  llie  Si[-l);iria,  75  miles  S.  l)y  W.  of  Kliokand, 
and  I'M  K.  by  N.  of  Saniaroand.  It  stands  in 
the  midst  of  {,'ardens,  and  manufactures  silk.  At 
one  time  independent,  it  was  alternately  in  the 
hands  of  the  emirs  of  liokhara  and  Khokand  until 
the  Kn.-isians  seized  it  in  1S65.     Pop.  35,000. 

KIlwkaiHl.  once  a  khanate  of  Turkestan,  ex- 
tending east  of  lU'  long,  over  the  whole  of  the 
upper  basin  of  tlie  Jaxartes  or  Sir-Daria.  IJut 
long  previous  to  the  comiiiorcial  treaty  between 
Kussia  and  Khok.-unl,  in  ISfiS,  the  khanate  had 
been  coiilined  to  an  area  of  some  30,000  sq.  m. 
In  1875  a  rebellion  against  the  khan,  who  was 
already  ])ractically  a  Russian  vassal,  led  to 
Ru.ssian  intervention.  After  a  lierce  struggle  the 
immediate  result  was  the  annexation  to  Kussia  of 
all  the  territory  of  Khokand  lying  north  of  the  Sir- 
Daria.  Now  the  whole  khanate  forms  tlie  Russian 
government  of  Ferghana  ((|.v.),  a  name  under 
which  Khokand  was  famous  throughout  the  East 
during  the  nuddle  ages.  The  town  of  Khokand 
has  54,(XtO  inhabitants. 

KllOllsar.  or  Khun.s.\r,  a  town  of  Persia,  in  the 
province  of  Irak-Ajemi,  80  miles  NW.  of  Ispahan, 
and  on  the  route  from  that  city  to  Hamadan. 
Pop.  |-J,(»00. 

Kliorassail.  the  largest  province  of  Persia, 
bordering  on  Afghanistan,  contains  about  210,000 
sq.  m.,  of  which  nearly  one-third  is  a  vast  salt 
waste  ;  of  the  remainder  a  large  portion  con- 
sists of  plains  of  shifting  sand.  The  fertile  dis- 
tricts are  in  the  north,  where  the  lagh  range  of 
the  EUmrz  crosses  the  province,  throwing  out 
.spurs,  and  forming  a  mountainous  district,  abound- 
ing with  fertile  and  well-watered  valleys.  Arti- 
ficial fertilisation  by  means  of  canals  was  here 
carried  on  to  a  great  extent  in  ancient  times,  but 
the  incessant  disturbances  which  have  unsettled 
the  district  for  the  last  thousand  yeais  liave 
almost  jjut  an  end  to  this  system.  The  cldef  pro- 
ducts are  grain,  cotton,  silk,  hemp,  tobacco,  aro- 
matic and  medicinal  plants,  fruits,  wine,  salt,  gold, 
silver,  and  precious  stones,  especially  turi|Uoises, 
also  camels,  horses,  and  asses.  The  chief  towns 
are  Meshed,  the  capital,  Nishapur,  Kutchan, 
Shahrud,  Khaf,  Kain,  and  Tebbes. 

Khorassan  means  in  ancient  Persian  eastwards, 
and  is  saiil  to  have  extended  over  all  central 
Asia  in  the  north,  to  the  Ilclnmnd  on  the  S.,  to 
the  Pamir  on  the  K. ,  and  to  the  rasjiian  on  the  W. 
After  the  coiKjuest  of  the  Arabs  the  country  beyond 
the  Oxu.s  iH'canie  a  pos.session  of  the  Saujanide 
dynasty,  whilst  Kharasm  (the  modern  Khiva)  was 
taken  by  the  Seljuks.  Herat  and  tlie  adjoining 
districts  remained  in  the  ])ossession  of  the  'I'imur- 
ides,  though  sometimes  retaken  by  the  Persians, 
until  linally  it  fell  under  the  sway  of  the  Afghans. 
Khorassan,  being  sittiated  on  the  higliw;iy  of  the 
Turko-Tartar  inroads  into  the  west  of  Asia,  had 
always  to  bear  the  brunt  of  predatory  hosts  coming 
from  beyond  the  ( >xus,  and  its  chief  towns  repeat- 
edly sull'ereil  destruction.  Recently  the  invasion 
has  come  from  the  west ;  and  the  northern  slopes  of 
the  Kubbia  .Mountains,  together  with  the  oasis  of 
Merv,  incluiliiig  the  middle  course  of  the  Heri-rud, 
liave  been  annexed  by  Russia.  See  MacOregor's 
A'antrthx  uf  a  Jounici/  throiifih  Khonissaii  ( 1879) ; 
and   for  the   '  Veiled   Prophet  of   Khorassan,'  see 

MoKANN.\. 

Klior.saba«l.    See  Nineveh. 
Klio.srA.    See  Chosroes. 


KllOtail.  calleil  locally  Ii.ciii,  a  city  and  dis- 
trict of  eastern  Turkestan,  lying  at  the  northern 
ba.se  of  the  Kucn-Lun  -Mountains,  and  oidy  six 
miles  from  the  desert.  The  district  is  rich  in' gold 
and  jade,  manufactures  silk,  and  exports  silk  stull', 
carpets,  and  jade  ware.     Pop.  of  city,  40,000. 

Klllll'ja.  a  town  of  liritish  India,  lying  ,")0  miles 
S.  of  -Meerut  and  50  SE.  of  Delhi,  is  the  chief 
commercial  centre  in  the  district  of  Rulan.lshahr. 
There  is  a  large  ex[iort  of  raw  cotton  lo  Cawnpore 
and  Calcutta.  Pop.  (1801)  •_'(;,;!♦'.),  chiclly  I'athans 
and  lianiyas.  The  latter  have  banking' establish- 
ments all  over  Imlia.  They  are  Jains  in  religion, 
and  own  a  line  modern  temple. 

Klllizistail  ( anc.  Siisiana ),  a  ))rovince  of  Persia, 
having  Ears  and  the  Persian  Gulf  on  the  south,  is 
divided  into  two  almost  equal  portions — the  one, 
the  luirth-east,  very  hilly,  the  other,  the  southwest, 
so  level  as  to  be  almost  a  stagnant  sea  in  tlie  rainy 
season,  ami  an  arid  waste  in  sunnner.  Khu/istan 
contains  extensive  pastoral  districts,  on  which  vast 
herds  of  cattle  are  reared,  and  abouiuls  in  soil  lltted 
for  rice,  nuiize,  cotton,  sugar-cane,  indigo.  Under 
the  rule  of  the  califs  Khuzistan  was  one  of  the  riche.st 
provinces  of  the  empire,  and  Ahwaz,  the  capital, 
acquired  world-wide  reputation  for  its  sugar, 
carpets,  and  silk  tnannfactures.  With  the  down- 
fall of  the  califate  of  Bagdad  Khuzistan  ceased 
to  be  a  rich  province  ;  the  highway  of  commerce  on 
the  Kanin  was  shut  u\>,  and  has  been  only  recently 
reoiiened.     See  K.\EI:n. 

Kliyber  Pass,  the  great  northern  military  road 
between  the  Punjab  and  Afghanistan,  winds  in  a 
north-westerly  direction  for  33  miles  between  the 
projecting  spurs  of  two  enclosing  ranges  of  hills. 
The  ]iass  is  merely  the  bed  of  a  narrow  watercourse, 
and  varies  in  width  from  150  yards  to  '20,  though 
in  one  place  it  is  only  '  10  feet  or  less.'  It  is 
liable  at  times  to  be  suddenly  lloiwled.  The  nmiin- 
tains  on  either  side  are  in  many  places  iicrpemlicular 
walls  of  smooth  rock,  and  can  be  climbed  only  in  a 
few  places  ;  they  vary  in  height  from  1404  lo  3373 
feet.  Over  the  roughest  parts  of  the  jiass  artillery 
has  to  be  dragged  by  men.  The  Kliybcr  Pass  has 
been  the  key  of  the  adjacent  regions  in  either  direc- 
tion from  the  days  of  Alexander  the  tireat.  Dur- 
ing the  Afghan  wars  of  1839-42  it  was  twice 
traversed  by  a  British  army,  in  sjiite  of  an  obstinate 
defence  by  the  natives.  The  lirst  lighting  in  the 
Afghan  war  of  1878-80  was  in  for<Mng  an  entrance 
into  this  ])ass.  It  was  stipulated  in  the  treaty  of 
(Jandamak  ( 1879)  that  the  Anglo-Indian  authorities 
were  in  future  to  ha\e  full  conticd  of  this  pass. 

Kiai'hta.  or  Ki.vkhta,  a  town  of  the  Russian 

jirovince  of  Transbaikalia  in  Siberia,  stands  on  a 
tributary  of  the  Selenga,  105  miles  SE.  from 
Irkutsk,  and  close  to  the  Chinese  frontier,  being 
oidy  .separated  by  a  piece  of  neutral  ground.  I.-jO  or 
200  yards  broa<l.  from  the  Chiiu^se  town  of  .Maima- 
tchin.  The  jilace  stands  in  a  desolate  valley,  and 
along  with  two  other  settlements,  one  10  miles,  the 
other  2.^  miles  distant,  has  a  i>opulation  of  9000 
inhabitants.  Ki.achta  was  aiipointed  by  the  treaty 
of  Nertchinsk  in  1689  the  sole  trading  place 
between  Chiiui  iind  Russia:  b\it  down  to  1727  the 
general  trade  did  not  flourish  much,  because  the 
imperial  crown  reserved  the  fur  tr.ide  as  a  niono|ioly 
ill  its  own  hands.  Krom  1727  cclclnaled  fairs  were 
held  here  in  December,  when  Russian  furs  and 
cotton,  cloth,  and  leather  were  exchanged  for  tea, 
silk  goods,  iV-c.  But  since  the  treaty  of  Peking 
(1860),  when  the  treaty  ports  of  China'were  thrown 
open  to  Russian  vessels  and  trade  was  declared 
legitimate  all  along  the  Russo-Chinese  fnuitier,  the 
trade  at  Kiaclita  has  declined.  The  Itussian  goods 
are  valued  at  i;500,000  a  year,  the  Chinese  at 
£2,000,000. 


KIANGSI 


KIDNEYS 


423 


Kiaiiu;si,  kiail^SII.  provinces  of  China  (q.v.). 

li.i:io-t'liau,  or  Kiavchow,  a  port  on  the 
south  side  of  the  peninsuhi  of  .'^lian-tung  in  t'liina, 
leaseil  liy  Germany  iu  IS'JS.  The  liailiour  is  silted 
witli  saiiil,  but  ailvanta<;eously  situated.  In  and 
around  the  town  live  20U,0U0  souls. 

Ki«ld.  William,  pirate,  \v;is  a  native  of  Scot- 
land, bom  [irobably  at  Cireeuock,  and  is  supposed 
to  have  been  the  son  of  a  worthy  Covenanting 
minister  who  was  put  to  the  torture  of  the  boot, 
and  «ho  died  in  1G79.  The  lad  «ent  early  to  sea, 
saw  much  hanl  service  privateering  against  the 
French,  and  g.iined  a  high  reputation  for  stubborn 
courag'e,  and  in  1691  a  reward  of  £150  from  the 
council  of  New  York  city.  At  this  time  the 
American  colonies  were  supposed  to  be  nests  of 
pirates  who  infested  the  Indian  Ocean,  and  Coote, 
Earl  of  Bellamont,  was  sent  out  by  William  III.  as 
go\enior  of  New  York  and  Massachusetts  with 
special  instructions  to  suppress  the  pest.  A  ship  of 
30  guns  was  fitted  out  by  a  private  company  in 
Lomlon  and  given  to  Kidd,  who  was  furnished, 
moreover,  not  only  with  the  usual  letters  of  marque, 
but  with  commissions  under  the  great  seal  both 
to  act  against  the  French  and  to  seize  pirates.  In 
January  1G97  he  reached  iladagascar,  the  chief 
rendezvous  of  the  ])iiates,  but  eie  long  disquieting 
reports  reached  England  that  Captain  Kidd  was 
playing  the  game  of  pirate  himself.  After  a  two 
years'  cruise  he  returnetl  to  the  West  Indies,  and 
a  few  months  later  had  the  temerity  to  go  to 
Boston  without  securing  himself  by  a  satisfactory 
safe  conduct.  In  spite  of  the  halfinomises  that 
hail  been  made  him  he  was  arrested  and  sent  to 
England,  where  he  was  tried  for  piracy  and  the 
murder  of  one  of  bis  men.  Of  the  latter  charge  he 
wa-s  formally  found  guilty,  and  hanged  at  E.xecu- 
tion  Dock,  London,  -iitliMay  1701,  protesting  his 
innocence  to  the  hist.  He  had  buried  a  store  of 
trejtsure  on  Gardiner's  Island,  oil'  Long  Island, 
which  «as  recovered  and  seized,  amounting  with 
what  was  found  elsewhere  to  i'UjOOO. 

Kidderminster,  a  parliamentary  and  muni- 
cipal borough  and  market-town  of  Worcestershire, 
situated  on  the  Stour  4  miles  above  its  junction  with 
the  Severn,  and  14^  miles  by  rail  X.  of  Worcester, 
1'21  XW.  of  London.  It  Is  a  busy,  thriving-looking 
place,  chielly  noteworth.v  on  account  of  its  carpet- 
manufacture  (see  CARPET.S),  which  was  first  estab- 
lisheil  here  in  17So.  Worsted  spinning  and  dyeing 
are  also  carried  on.  Richard  Baxter  wa.s  for  four- 
teen years  vicar  of  the  parish,  and  there  is  a  statue 
of  him  ( 1875).  An  illustrious  native  was  Sir  Row- 
lanil  Hill ;  a  marble  statue  of  him  w;us  erected  in 
1881  at  a  cost  of  £1700.  Among  the  public  buildings 
are  the  parish  church.  Early  English  to  rerpemlicular 
in  style,  with  a  noble  pinnacled  tower ;  a  Renais- 
sance town-hall  (1H77),  a  corn  exchange  ( 1855),  a 
free  libnary,  and  a  free  grammar-school,  founded  in 
1637.  Kidderminster  w;vs  incorporated  as  a  muni- 
cipal borough  by  Charles  I.,  and  since  1832  returns 
one  member  to  parliament.  Pop.  of  the  entire 
parish,  which  includes  Lower  Mitton  or  Stour- 
port,  (1801)  9639:  (1881)  31,033;  (1891)  33,326, 
of  whom  24,803  were  within  the  municipal  limits. 

Hidliappinir.  the  ab.luction  specially  of  chil- 
dren :  the  word  being  derivcil  from  /.(>/, "slang  for 
'a  child,'  and  tmi,  or  mth,  cant  for  '  to  seize.'  The 
law  of  the  subject  is  given  at  AliULCTiOX  ;  the 
charge  of  kidnapping  frequenlly  nuule  against 
Gyp>ii's  is  dealt  with  at  i;vp.SIE.S. 

Kidiiey-beaii.    See  Bean. 

Kidneys,  two  glanrls  having  for  their  func- 
tion the  excretion  of  the  urine.  The  human 
kidneys  are  situated  in  tlie  region  of  the  loins, 
one  on  each  side  of  the  spine,  and  are  imheddetl 


in  a  layer  of  fatty  tissue.  Their  form  is  dis- 
tinctive. They  possess  a  convex  outer  border 
and  a  concave  inner  border,  the  extremities  are 
somewhat  enlarged,  and  the  organ  as  a  whole  is 
compressed  from  before 
backwards.  The  aver- 
age length  of  each  kiil- 
ne.v  is  a  little  nuire  than 
4  inches,  and  its  usiuil 
weight  is  from  4  to  6 
ounces.  The  left  kid- 
ney is  longer  and  nar- 
rower tliun  the  right, 
and  in  the  female  the 
weight  is  slightly  lo>- 
than  iu  the  male.  Tin' 
concave  inner  border 
presents  a  longitudinal 
iissure — the  hilum — at 
which  the  vessels  enter; 
in  front  there  is  .the 
renal  vein,  behind  it  the 
renal  artery,  and  most 
jiosterior  the  ureter, 
which  conveys  the  urine 
to  the  bladder.  When 
the  sides  of  the  biluni 
are  hehl  apart  a  deep 
indentation  is  seen — 
the  sinus  of  the  kidney  Fig.  1.— Vertical  Section  of 
— iu    which    the   ureter  Kidney  : 

dilates  to  form  a  large  a.  supra-renal  capsuK-;  W,  corti- 
sac,  the  pelvis  of  the  c.il  substance  of  kidm-y;  cc, 
1-1  I  ,.         ,,  lneduIhiry,-^ubstanceotkidnev; 

kidney.      Investing  the       ((,(,  tunica  albugiuea;  cee,  the 
kidney  there  is  a  tibroiis       sinus  or  pelvis ;  /,  tlie  ureter, 
coat— the   tunira  a/ltii-       proceeding  to  tlie  bladder. 
fjhtca  —  which     readily 

peels  oil'  from  the  sulistance  of  the  gland  to  which 
it  adheres  by  minute  processes  and  hue  blood- 
vessels. At  the  hilum  it  turns  inwards,  and 
becomes  continuous  with  the  sheaths  of  ihe  vessels. 
Lender  cover  of  this  capsule  there  is  an  incomplete 
layer  of  involuntary  muscular  fibre.  The  substance 
of  the  kidneys  Is  dense,  extremely  friable,  and  of  a 
deep  red  colour.  On  making  a  longitudinal  section 
of  the  kidney  from  the  convex  outer  border  to  the 
hilum  it  is  seen  to  consist  of  two  diH'eient  sub- 
stances, which  are  named,  from  their  position,  the 
external  or  cortical  and  the  internal  or  medullary 
substance,  anauged  in  pyramids  «ith  Iheii-  apices 
towards  the  hilum. 

The  cortical  substance  forms  by  far  the  greater 
part  of  the  gland,  and  sends  numerous  prolonga- 
tions inwards  between  the  pyramids  of  the  medul- 
lary substance.  It  is  soft,  granular,  and  contains 
numenms  minute  red  globular  bodies  diltused 
throughout  il,  which  are  called,  from  their  dis- 
coverer, the  Maljiighian  bodies.  Its  substance  is 
made  up  of  the  uriiiifiroiis  tubes,  capillaries,  lym- 
l>hatics,  and  nerves,  helil  together  by  an  interme- 
tliate  parenchymatous  substance. 

The  mediillai)j  substance  consists  of  pale  reddish, 
conical  mas.ses,  called  the  pyramids  of  Malpighi. 
They  are  usually  about  twelve  in  nundicr,  but  vary 
from  eight  to  eighteen,  and  theirapices(  the  W'y<(V/(r) 
point  towards  the  hollow  space  (termed  tlie  sinus 
m  jiclvis)  which  occupies  the  interior  of  the  gland. 
The  medullary  structure  is  lirmer  than  the  cortical, 
and  insteail  of  being  granular  presents  a  striated 
appearance,  from  its  being  coinpo.sed  of  minute 
diverging  tubes  (the  uriniferous  tubes),  whiidi  run 
in  straight  lines  through  this  portion  of  the  kidneys, 
after  having  run  in  a  highlyconvolnled  course 
through  the  cortical  portion.  From  the  base  of 
each  pyramid  streaks  pass  through  the  cortex, 
named  nieilullanj  rai/s,  and  the  portions  of  cortical 
.substance  between  tlie  rays  are  called  tUe /abj/rinlh 
of  the  cortex. 


424 


KIDNEYS 


Tlie  cavity  occupying  the  interior  of  the  kirlneys 
{the  sinus  or  pelvis)  is  linnl  liy  nmoons  nionilnane, 
whicli,  tluoii^li  the  medium  of  tlie  uietor,  is  con- 
tinuous  with  tliat  of  the  liKadder,  and  which  exten<l.s 
into  the  tissue  of  tlie  kidneys,  to  line  the  uiiiiifer- 
ous  tuhes.  The  mucous  memhrane  forms  a  cuiilike 
cavity  around  the  termination  of  each  pyramid,  and 
the  cavity,  termed  tlie  ca/i/.r,  receives  the  urine 
from  the  open  terminations  of  the  tuhes,  and  con- 
veys it  towards  the  pelvis,  from  whence  it  passes 
down  the  ureter  into  the  hladder. 

Each  kidney  is  su])idied  with  blood  by  a  renal 
artery,  a  large  trunk  which  comes  off  at  right 
angles  to  the  aorta.  The 
blood,  after  the  separation 
of  the  various  mattei-s 
which  constitute  the 
Urine  (q.v. ),  is  returned 
into  the  venous  system 
by  the  renal  or  emulgent 
vein,  which  opens  into  the 
inferior  vena  cava.  The 
nerves  are  derived  from 
tlie  renal  jilexus. 
jL^h^^  ^''^  Malpighian  bodies 

/^CT^x^V*  '  ^^^  found  in  all  vertebrate 

ff~i(V —  animals.      In    nianim,ils, 

W...    '^\  which  are  theonly  animals 

in  which  there  is  a  ilivi- 
sion  into  a  cortical  and  ,t. 
medullary  portion,  these 
bodies  are  only  found  in 
the  former.  They  are 
for  the  most  part  of  a 
spherical,  oval,  or  tlask- 
like  form.  Their  diameter 
in  man  may  range  from 
T5  to  i5i  of  'I'l  inch, 
the  mean  being  ji^-  A 
small  artery,  termeil  the 
afferent  vessel,  may  be 
traced  into  each  Malpigh- 
ian body,  while  a  minute 
venous  radicle,  the  rffcrent  vessel,  emerges  from  it 
close  to  the  point  ,at  which  the  artery  hail  eritereil. 
The  Malpighian  body  itself,  situated  in  the  laby- 
rinth, consists  of  a  rounded  bunch  or  tuft  of  capil- 
laries, derived  from  the  afferent  and  terminating 
in  the  efferent  vessel,  and  enclosed  in  a  cle.ar  ,and 
trans]>arent  capsule — the  capsule  of  Bowman — lined 
with  flattened  epithelium.  Each  capsule  is  con- 
tinuous with  the  uriniferous  tube  by  a  narrow 
neek. 

It  now  remains  to  consider  the  respective  func- 
tions of  the  .Malpighian  bodies  ami  the  tubes. 
From  the  researches  of  Bowman  and  othei'S  it 
appears  that  in  animals  in  which  the  urinary  excre- 
tion is  passed  in  an  almost  solid  form  (as  in  birds 
atid  reptiles)  the  tufts  are  small  and  simple  as 
conip.ireil  with  those  in  the  kidneys  of  animals 
which  (like  man  and  most  mammals)  pass  the 
urinary  constitiKuits  dissolved  in  a  large  ([uantity 
of  water.  On  these  grounds,  as  well  as  from  the 
fact  that  the  anatomical  arrangement  of  the  tufts 
is  well  calculated  to  favour  the  escape  of  water 
from  the  bloo  1.  Bowman  arrived  at  the  conclusion 
that  the  function  of  the  Malpighi.an  bodies  is  to 
furnish  the  lliiid  portion  (the  water)  of  the  urine. 
Recent  observations  tend  to  show  that  the  saline 
ingreilients  of  the  urine  are  also  excreted  by  Bow- 
man's capsule.  The  arr.angement  of  the  convoluted 
portion  of  the  lubes,  with  a  capillary  network  on 
one  side  of  their  basement  membrane,  and  secreting 
epithelial  cells  on  the  other,  is  the  exact  counter- 
liart  of  the  .arrangement  in  other  secreting  glands, 
and  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  functions  of  the 
cells  in  the  convoluted  portion  of  the  tuhes  is  to 
separate  from  the  blood  the  various  organic  con- 


Fig,  a— Plan  of  the  Renal 
Circulation  in  Man  and 
the  Mammalia  ( from 
Ludmg) : 
a,  tenniiial  branch  of  tlie 
artery,  giving  the  terminal 
twig,  a/  to  the  Malpighian 
tuft,  m,  from  which  emerges 
the  efferent  vessel,  c/  Other 
etrerent  vessels,  e.  e,  e,  are 
seen  proceeding  from  other 
tnfts,  and  entering  the  capil- 
laries surroumiing  the  urin- 
ilerous  tube,  (.  From  this 
plexus  of  capillaries  the 
emulgent  vein,  ev,  springs. 


Fig.  3. — Biagranimatio  View 
of  Tubules  ( rijiht  side,  A) 
and  IJlood-vessels  ( left  side, 
B)  of  Kidney. 

(From  Macalister.) 


stituents  (urea,  uric  acid,  creatinine,  ttc. )  which 
collectively  form  the  solid  constituents  of  the  urine. 
It  does  not  necessarily  follow  that  these  secreting 
cells  undergo  rapid  decay  and  renewal ;  it  is  more 
probable  that  they  have  the  power  of  selecting 
certain  materials  from  the  blood,  and  of  trans- 
mitting them,  without  the  disintegratimi  of  their 
own  structure,  to  the  interior  of  tlie  tube.  The 
physical  and  chemical 
characters  of  the  secre-  ■ 
tiou  yielded  by  the  kid- 
neys will  be  considered 
in  the  article  L'kixe. 

DlSE.\SES  OF  THE 
KiDNEY.S.— By  far  the 
most  important  are  the 
group  included  under 
the  general  name  of 
Bright's  disease,  which 
may  be  defined  as  com- 
prising cases  where 
structural  changes  in 
the  kidneys,  usually  in- 
llammatory,  but  with- 
out suppuriition,  lead 
to  the  presence  of  albu- 
men in  the  urine.  Dr 
Richard  Bright  pub- 
lished in  1827  researches 
showing  that  many 
cases  of  dropsy  are  at- 
tended by  albuminuria 
on  the  one  liaml,  and 
liy  marked  changes  in 
the  kidneys  on  the 
other.  His  observations 
have  been  confirmeil 
and  extended  by  many 
subser|uent  observers;  and  it  is  now  agreed  that 
there  are  three  dLstiiict  groups  of  cases,  differ- 
ing much  in  causation,  symptoms,  course,  and 
post-mortem  appearances,  to  wliicli  the  above 
definition  applies.  These  must  be  considered  separ- 
ately. 

{\)  Ciitarrliiil  or  Pureiielii/iiifitoiis  Xr/j/iritis  {in- 
llammatiim  of  the  kidneys).  — In  this  form  the 
inllammalion  affects  chielly  the  secreting  structures 
of  the  kidney — i.e.  the  cells  lining  the  tubules. 
The  kidneys  are  at  first  much  ciihirgeil ;  in  acute 
cases  in  the  early  stage  redder  than  in  health  ;  in 
later  stages  and  in  chronic  cases  paler.  If  the 
duration  of  the  disease  is  hmg,  however,  they  may 
ultimately  become  much  diminisbeil  in  size,  so  as 
much  to  resemble,  except  in  their  paler  cidour,  the 
kidneys  in  the  cirrhotic  form  of  Bright's  di.scase. 
This  disease  may  often  he  traced  to  exposure  to 
cold  :  frequentlv  complicates  pregnancy  ;  ami  occa- 
sionally oecui's  in  connection  w  ilh  most  of  the  erup- 
tive fevers,  but  particularly  scarlet  fever,  of  which 
it  is  one  of  the  most  common  ami  serious  comidi- 
cations.  In  acute  ca.ses  it  sometimes  begins  with 
a  rigor  and  elevation  of  temperature.  l)roi)sy  is 
almost  alw.ays  one  of  the  earliest  symptoms,  and 
often  appears  lli-st  in  the  skin  of  the  eyelids.  Pain 
in  the  region  of  the  kiilneys,  headache,  and  vomit- 
ing are  usually  luesent.  The  urine  is  scanty, 
often  bloody,  and  contains  albumen  and  tube-cjists. 
Symiitoms  of  I'rainia  (q.v.)  often  occur.  In 
favourable  cases  comidete  recovery  takes  jdace  in 
the  course  of  a  few  weeks,  all  the  .symjitonis 
gradually  subsiding.  Frequently,  however,  thouLdi 
the  severer  features  of  the  case  disajuiear,  the 
urine  continues  to  contain  albumen,  ami  tnedisea.se 
becomes  chronic.  Death  may  result  from  ura'Uiia, 
from  dropsical  etl'usiou,  especially  in  the  large 
serous  cavities,  frci|m'ntly  from  the  occunence  of 
some  acute  inllammalion,  particularly  of  lungs, 
jileura,  or  pericardium. 


KIDNEYS 


KIDNEY-VETCH 


425 


(2)  Cirrhosis  of  the  Kiilmys,  or  Iii/crstiliul  Xc- 
phrids. — In  this  form  tlie  morbid  process  consists 
chierty  in  chronic  iuHammalion  of  the  connective 
tissue  of  the  kiilney,  which  leads  to  destruction  of 
tlie  tuhuk's  and  glomeruli  by  cicatricial  contrac- 
tion. In  ailvanced  cases  the  kidneys  are  much 
diminished  in  size,  rough  and  nodular  on  the  sur- 
face, and  red  in  colour.  This  disease  is  often  trace- 
able to  gout,  either  inherited  or  acijuired,  or  to 
chronic  lead-poLsoning.  It  is  rare  before  the  age  of 
thirty,  most  common  after  forty  or  forty-live.  The 
chief  feature  of  this  aHection  is  its  extremely 
chronic  and  insidious  nature,  wliicli  is  so  marked 
that  it  is  almost  always  for  some  secondary  result 
of  the  disease  that  the  i)atient  seeks  medical  advice, 
and  not  for  symptoms  directly  referal)le  to  the 
kidneys.  The  earliest  symptom  is  usually  an 
increase  in  the  (juantity  of  urine,  which  contains 
albumen  only  in  small  quantities,  aud  may  some- 
times be  quite  free  from  it.  Hypertrophy  of  the 
heart,  with  a  hard  pulse,  is  one  of  the  most  con- 
stant features  of  the  disease ;  and  in  many  ca-ses 
.symptoms  due  to  heart  aftections  are  the  first 
wliich  excite  the  patient's  alarm.  Persistent  head- 
ache, unaccountable  vomiting  or  diarrhcea,  failure 
of  siglit  owing  to  albuminuric  retinitis,  simple 
debility,  symptoms  of  ura-mic  poisoning,  cerebral 
hremorrhage  (apoplexy),  or  the  occurrence  of  acute 
inllammation  of  some  internal  organ — all  these 
are  among  the  occurrences  which  may  lead  to 
the  discovery  of  this  singularly  insidious  disease. 
It  frequently  becomes  complicated  by  addition 
of  inllammation  of  the  kidney  tubules  (above 
described)  to  the  primary  process,  and  the  symp- 
toms are  modified  accordingly. 

(.*J)  U'ru!/  or  Larilaceous  Degeneration  of  the 
Kidiuij. — As  when  this  degenerative  process  ap- 
pears in  otlier  organs,  the  smaller  arteries  and 
capillaries  are  first  and  most  affected ;  later,  other 
portions  of  the  organ  partake  in  the  morbid  pro- 
cess. But  in  the  great  majority  of  cases  some 
degiee  of  iiiHammation  of  the  tubules  is  also 
present.  Like  waxy  degeneration  elsewhere,  it 
can  almost  always  be  traced  either  to  syphilis  or 
to  prolonged  sup|>uration.  The  flow  of  urine  is 
generally  increased  in  the  early  stage,  and  contains 
albumen.  Dropsy  is  usually  present,  with  some 
others  of  the  svmptoms  enumerated  above  as 
characteristic  of  tlie  lirst  form  of  Bright "s  disease. 
But  in  general  the  symptoms  are  rather  variable, 
and  could  hardly  lead  to  the  recognition  of  the  con- 
dition present  apart  from  the  clue  given  by  the 
previous  history  of  the  case  aud  the  occurrence  of 
signs  of  waxy  discjise  in  other  organs.  In  acute 
ease-s  (first  form)  prompt  and  active  treatment  is 
necessary,  and  is  often  signally  successful.  Con- 
finenient  to  bed  between  blankets,  li;'ht  diet, 
mainly  or  exclusively  of  milk,  and  tlie  production  of 
very  free  action  of  the  skin  and  bowels  are  usually 
the  chief  jioints  to  be  attended  to.  In  the  most 
severe  coses  wet-cupping  or  bleeding  from  the  arm 
Ls  sometimes  required.  Extreme  care  is  necessary 
till  perfect  recovery  has  taken  place.  In  chronic 
ca.ses  warm  clothing,  with  attention  to  the  action 
of  the  skill,  strict  regulation  of  the  diet,  avoidance 
of  alcohol,  and  where  possible  removal  to  a  warm 
climate  during  the  cold  .season  can  do  much  to  keep 
the  disease  in  check.  Kxiierience  has  shown  that 
under  favourable  conditions  the  course  of  the 
disease  may  lie  much  more  gradual  than  was  gener- 
ally believed  by  |)liysicians  thirty  years  ago. 

Alhiiininuria  without  Bright's  disea.se  may 
occur  in  the  course  of  fevers,  in  heart  disease,  and 
many  other  morbid  comlitions.  It  is  now  believed 
by  moit  observei-s,  though  the  subject  is  still 
iiniler  discii-sion,  that  it  may  also  be  pre.sent  with- 
out any  ai'tual  di.Hea.se.  Ihvmoijlohiimriit  (impreg- 
nation of  the  urine  with  the  colouring  matter  of  the 


blood )  is  a  troublesome,  but,  except  in  the  ca.se  of 
infants,  not  a  dangerous  disease.  Hnmaturia 
(blood  in  the  urine)  is  indicative  of  disease  in 
some  part  of  the  urinary  passages  ;  but  it  is  often 
dilhcult  to  be  certain  wliat  portion  is  at  fault. 
Besides  Bright's  disease,  the  most  common  con- 
dition leading  to  it  is  stone  in  the  kidney  or 
bladder.  Kor  0 1 ;/ i-os tin'a  ( sugar  in  the  urine)  and 
Pulijuria  (increase  in  the  quantity  of  urine),  see 

Dl.\BETES. 

aiunc  in  the  Kidney. — The  symptoms  attending 
the  pa.ssage  of  a  stone  from  the  kidney  to  the 
bladder  have  already  been  described  (see  Cal- 
Cl'LUS);  but  it  not  infrequently  happens  that  a 
stone  formed  in  the  kidney  remains  there,  or,  though 
it  entei's  the  ureter,  fails  to  escape,  blocking  it  and 
preventing  the  discharge  of  urine  from  that  kidney. 
In  either  case  the  symptoms  are  often  somewliat 
obscure  and  difficult  to  trace  to  their  true  cause. 
When  the  stone  remains  in  the  kidney  blood 
generally  appeal's  from  time  to  time  in  the  urine, 
and  there  is  pei-sistent  pain  in  the  loin,  often 
aggravated  by  such  movements  as  the  jolting  of  a 
carriage.  Medicinal  and  dietetic  treatment  may 
often  prevent  the  formation  of  fresh  stones,  where 
one  has  been  discharged ;  and  sometimes  even 
seems  to  lead  to  the  removal  by  solution  of  a  stone 
from  the  kidney.  Operation  has  frequently  been 
resorted  to  during  recent  years  for  the  removal  of  a 
stone  from  the  kidney,  and  ha.s  in  some  cases 
relieved  the  symptoms,  even  wlien  no  stone  has 
been  discovered.  Wlien  a  stone  becomes  impacted 
in  the  ureter  the  kidney  is  gradually  destroyed,  and 
either  atrophies  or  becomes  converted  into  a  large 
sac  containing  fluid.  The  remaining  kidney  gener- 
ally becomes  enlarged,  and  carries  on  the  function 
of  excretion  :  but  if  its  ureter  subsequently  becomes 
obstructed  in  the  same  way  death  rapidly  ensues. 

Supjiurativc  inflammation  of  the  lailncy  may 
occur  in  the  course  of  pyaemia,  but  usually  results 
from  disease  of  the  lower  urinary  ]ia.ssages  (bladder 
or  urethra,  hence  often  called  surgical  kidney),  and 
is  a  very  fatal  disease.  The  kidneys  may  become 
the  seat  of  tubercular  disease,  of  malirjnaut  tumours, 
of  hydatid  cysts.  But  none  of  these  conditions  are 
of  common  occurrence. 

Floating  or  Movable  Kidney. — One  kidney,  more 
rarely  both,  may  have  its  attachments  to  the 
posterior  wall  of  the  abdomen  so  loosened  ami 
elongated  that  it  can  move  about  in  the  abdominal 
cavity,  somewhat  as  the  intestines  normally  do. 
This  condition  is  much  more  common  in  women 
than  in  men,  and  may  either  produce  nosymi>tonis, 
or  lead  to  great  discomfort  and  distress.  In  the 
latter  case  it  is  usually  possible  so  to  adapt  a 
bandage  and  ])ad  as  to  restrict  the  movements  of 
the  organ  and  to  relieve  the  symptoms. 

Kidney-stones,  the  name  given  to  small 
nodules  of  reddish-brown  ironstone  veined  with 
calcite,  which  are  common  in  the  Oxford  cl.ay  in 
the  sea-clitt's  and  on  the  shore  north  of  Weymouth, 
Dorsetshire. 

Kidney-vetoll  (Anthyltis),  a  genus  of  plants 
of  the  natural  order  Leguminosa',  sub-order  Papilio- 
nace.'e,  containing  a  number  of  species,  some 
shrubby  and  some  herbaceous,  natives  chiefly  of 
the  Mediterranean.  They  have  the  petals  nearly 
equal  in  length,  and  an  oval  1-3  seeded  jmhI, 
enclosed  in  the  permanent  inflated  and  generally 
downy  calyx.  The  only  British  species  is  the 
Common  Kidney-vetch  (.1.  vulncraria).  al.so  called 
Lady's  Fingers,  a  herbaceous  perennial,  wilh  pin- 
nated unequal  leaves,  and  crowded  heads  of  yellow 
(or  .sometimes  scarlet)  flowers.  It  grows  on  very 
ilry  .soils,  and  is  eaten  with  avidity  by  cattle,  but 
does  not  yield  much  produce.  A.  I'arbajovis 
(Jupiter's  Beard),  from  the  south  of  Europe,  is  so 


426 


KIDRON 


KIERKEGAARD 


called  on  account  of  the  lony:,  silky  hairs  which 
clothe  the  leaves,  ami  conspicuous  bracts  that 
accDiiiiPHuy  the  Uowei-heads. 

Hhll'UII.     See  Keduox. 

Kicir,  one  of  the  oldest  towns  of  Russia,  and 
ecclesiastically  one  of  the  most  important,  stands 
on  the  Dnieper,  Ijy  rail  586  nules  S\V.  from  Mos- 
cow and  3S1  N.  from  Odessa.  Accordinj;  to  tradi- 
tion it  W!is  founded  liefore  the  Christian  era.  In 
882  it  was  made  the  capital  of  the  Kussian  princi- 
pality, and  reiuiuned  so  until  llli!).  Here  in  988 
Christianity  was  lii-st  preached  in  Russia  by  St 
Vladimir  ;  and  ever  since  that  date  Kiett'  has  been 
one  of  the  chief  ecclesiastical  and  intellectual 
ceuti-es  of  Russia.  The  town  was  captured  and 
nearly  destroyeil  by  the  Mongols  in  1240,  and  it 
remained  in  their  hands  for  eifjht}-  years.  Fiom 
1320  to  \M>9  it  was  in  the  possession  of  Lithuani-.i, 
then  of  Pcdand  down  to  1654,  in  which  year  it  was 
anne.xed  to  Russia.  The  town  is  built  on  elevated 
ground  (350  feet  above  the  river),  trenched  liy 
ravines,  and  is  connected  with  the  opi)osite  bank 
of  the  Dnieper  by  a  fine  suspension  bridye,  built 
in  1851.  The  most  notable  institution  in  the  town 
is  the  celebrated  Petchersk  monastery,  which  is 
visited  by  more  than  a  quarter  of  a  nullion  pil- 
grims annually.  Underneath  the  monastery  are 
a  number  of  caves,  containing  tombs  of  the  chief 
saints  of  the  Russian  Church.  The  cathedral 
of  St  Sophia,  erected  in  1037  on  the  spot  wliere 
Yaroslall'  defeated  (1030)  the  Petchenegs,  contains 
the  tombs  of  the  grand-ilukes  of  Russia,  and  a  mag- 
nificent altar,  ornamented  with  beautiful  mosaics; 
the  interior  of  the  cathedral  resembles  a  laby- 
rinth. The  cathedral  church  of  the  Assumption 
harbours  the  bones  of  seven  saints  brought  from 
Constantinople,  and  has  a  beautiful  belfry  with  a 
peal  of  twelve  bells.  Altogether  Kiell'  has  nearly 
seventy  churches,  many  of  tbem  with  gilded  domes 
and  pinnacles,  which,  seen  from  a  distance,  give 
the  city  a  striking  appearancf.  The  university,  re- 
moved here  from  Vilna  in  1833,  has  four  faculties 
and  (1883)  1700  students.  There  are  also  theo- 
logical colleges,  a  military  school,  and  an  arsenal. 
Tlie  industry  is  unimportant,  except  tiinning  and 
the  numufacture  of  wa.x  candles.  Considerable 
trade  is  done,  especial  I  v  at  the  fairs,  the  most 
celebrated  of  which  is  lield  during  the  last  half 
of  January.  Pop.  (1871)  79,773;  (1895)  194,300. 
The  fortress  of  Kiel!',  begun  by  I'eter  the  (jreat 
in  1706,  anil  now  fortiiied  in  modern  style,  occupies 
a  commanding  site  on  the  right  liank  of  the 
Dniejier,  and  .serves  as  a  cldef  depot  for  war 
material. — The  (/ovcrnincitt  endiraces  great  part 
of  the  Ukraine,  and  is  bounded  on  the  north-east 
by  the  river  Dniei)er,  which  with  its  tributaries, 
the  Priepet  and  others,  performs  the  functions  of 
drainage.  Area,  19,685  .sip  ni.,  more  tlian  one-half 
of  which  is  arable  and  one-liftli  under  wood.  Pop. 
(1897)  3. .'564, 433.  Agricullure  and  horlii-ulture  are 
the  chief  occupations.  The  staple  industry  is  the 
manufacture  of  beet-root  sugar  (23,000  men  em- 
ployed in  70  factories);  spirits,  tobacco,  flour, 
machinery,  and  leather  rank  ne.\t.  Trade  is  still 
very  largely  in  the  hands  of  the  Jew.s.  In  Peter 
the  Great's  time  the  government  of  Kiell' enjbraced 
tin;  eastern  part  of  the  Ukraine  and  a  large  portion 
of  middle  Ru.ssia. 

Kiokic  (Frcijcittctia  Banksii),  a  scandent  shrub 
of  the  natural  order  I'andanaceie,  yielding  an  eililde, 
aggregated  fruit,  .said  to  be  the  linest  indigenous 
fruit  of  New  Zealand.  The  kiekie  is  fo\ind  in  the 
northern  part  of  New  Zealand.  The  fruit  is  a  mass 
of  lleshy  berries,  and  the  jelly  made  of  it  tastes  like 
presiMved  strawberries. 

Kid,  chief  town  of  the  Prussian  i)rovince  of 
Sleswick-IIolstein,  stands  66  miles  N.  by  E.  from 


Hamburg  by  rail,  at  the  head  of  a  deep  fjord  (11 
nules  long)  of  the  IJaltic,  which  admits  large  ships 
to  anclior  close  to  the  town.  It  is  the  headi|uarlers 
of  the  Ceriuan  Haltic  Sea  navy,  and  has  imperial 
shipbuilding-yards,  slips,  dry  and  wet  docks,  \c., 
naval  marine  stores,  a  naval  academy,  a  naval 
otlicers' school,  and  an  <d)servatory  (removed  from 
Altona  in  1874).  It  is  also  an  important  commercial 
port,  some  1,100,000  tons  of  merchandise  passing 
in  and  out  annually.  The  chief  part  of  its  trade  Ls 
carried  on  with  the  towns  of  Denmark  and  Sweden; 
corn,  coal,  timber,  and  cattle  being  imported,  whilst 
coal,  tlour,  beer,  butter,  cheese,  and  Hsh  are  ex- 
ported. The  industrial  activity  is  considerable,  and 
is  mostly  exercised  in  iron-foundries,  shiidiuilding- 
yards,  corn-mills,  breweries,  and  ciibinet-iuakers' 
works.  Kiel  is  the  seat  of  a  university,  founded  in 
1665,  with  new  buildings  comideted  in  1876;  in 
1889  it  had  85  professors  and  teachers  and  463 
students.  The  castle,  Iniilt  in  thi;  13th  century 
and  enhuged  by  Catharine  II.  of  Russia  in  the  18th, 
shelters  the  uidversity  library  of  200.000  volumes 
and  a  museum  with  sculptures  by  Thorwaldsen. 
The  Thaulow  Museum  contains  Sleswick-IIolstein 
carveil  work  of  the  15th-18th  centuries.  The  bay 
is  defendeil  by  a  series  of  forts  placed  near  its  sea 
entrance.  For  the  IJaltic  Canal  to  connect  the 
Elbe  and  the  Day  of  Kiel,  see  P..\I,TIC  Sk.\  :  and 
C.VNAI..  Kiel  affords  good  facilities  for  batliing. 
The  old  town,  dating  from  before  the  10th  century, 
has  been  enlarged  by  the  .suburbs  of  P.runswick  and 
Diisternbrook  ;  the  latter  has  beautiful  [ironienadcs. 
Pop.  ( 1875)  37,270  :  ( 1890)  69,172.  Here  was  signed 
in  1814  the  treaty  between  Denmark,  Sweden,  and 
England,  by  widch  Sweden  exchanged  Pomeraiiia 
for  Norway. 

Kiclot',  the  smallest  of  the  Polish  govennueuts 
of  Russia,  on  the  Austrian  frontier.  Area,  3897  sq. 
m.  ;  poll.  (1887)  692,328.  The  cajiital,  Kielce,  85 
miles  NE.  of  Cracow,  has  10,650  inhabitants. 

Kit'pcrt,  IlKlXKIfH,  cartographer  and  geo- 
grapher, was  born  at  Rerlin  on  31st  duly  1818,  and 
lirst  established  his  reputation  as  a  map-maker  by 
jireparing  in  co-oi>eration  with  Ritter  the  Atlas  of 
llcllas  and  tin:  Ilrlhnic  Coluiiicx  ( 1840-40  ;  new  ed. 
1870).  Thereafter  he  gave  his  time  and  energy  to 
constructing  atlases  of  the  (Orient,  esiiecially  of  the 
Orient  in  ancient  times,  his  best-known  works  in 
this  connection  being  the  maps  of  Asia  Minor,  the 
Osmanli  empire  in  Asia,  Caucasus,  Palestine,  and 
Turkey,  and  atlases  of  the  Ancient  World 
(  historieo-geograiddcal )  in  various  forms,  of  which 
the  English  edition  (Atlafs  Aiili(jiii(s)  is  familiar  to 
nearly  everybody.  Kiepert,  who  conducted  the 
tjeographical  Institute  at  Weimar  from  1845  to 
1852,  and  from  1859  was  luofessor  of  Geography  at 
Iterlin,  wrote,  amongst  other  works,  Le/iiOiich  tier 
alien  Ge(yraphic  (1879),  J.cilfadcii  tier  alien  Uevrj- 
rap/tic  (iS79:  Eng.  trans.  1881),  and  numerous 
papers,  mostly  dealing  with  ancient  oriental 
geography,  in  the  I'raceetHnijs  of  the  Uerlin 
.Academy  of  Sciences.     He  died  in  April  1899. 

Kicrkojjajiril,  S6i:en  A.usv,  the  greatest 
thinker  of  Denmark,  was  born  at  Copenhagen,  on 
5th  May  1813,  led  the  simple  hut  bu.sy  life  of  a 
thinker"  and  writer,  and  died  on  11th  November 
1855.  He  was  :i  very  vohnninons  author.  His 
greatest  liooks  are  Either— Or  ( 1843)  and  Stadia  un 
life's    ]Vai/  (1845);   these  and    many  others   were 

'blisheil  under  lictilious  mimes.  Kierkegaard 
lied  the  Socratic  method  to  the  examination  of 
the  fundamental  philosophical  jirinciplcs  of  Chris- 
tianity, regarded  not  as  an  oiganised  t>r  church 
religion,  but  .as  the  religion  of  the  iinlividual  soul, 
liotli  his  thought  anil  style  are  singularly  original. 
In  dialectical  skill,  eloquence,  and  imaginative 
qualities  he  is  scarcely  inferior  to  I'lato ;  and  to 


pui 
appi 


KIESELGUHR 


KILKENNY 


427 


these  he  joineil  wit  anil  u  h)ve  of  irony  and  jiaia- 
dox.  He  hai  l)een  one  of  tlie  most  jiotent  inliu- 
ences  in  nioilern  Dano-Norwe^an  literature.  In 
his  last  years  he  nuule  a  Intter  attack  on  the 
otiieial  church.  See  Life  by  (Jeor^'  Urandes  (in 
Danish,  1877),  and  liio^irapiiical  studies  by  Biir- 
thold  (in  German,  1875-86). 

Kieselgiihr.    See  Di.vto.ms,  Dvnamite. 

Kilaili'il.  the  j;reat  volcano  of  Hawaii  (ij-v.). 

KilboMie.  in  Dunihartonshire,  4  miles  XW.  of 
Gla.-<;jro\v,  is  the  seat  of  the  hujje  .sewing-machine 
works  of  the  Singer  r'om|iany,  which  cover  46  acres, 
and  employ  about  SIMM)  hands.  The  town  is  part 
of  the  ii(diceburgh  of  Clydeliank,  whose  population 
increased  from  3830  in  1881  to  10,589  in  1891. 

Kilbiirii.    See  Kinbukn. 

KiUIarc,  a  county  of  the  ^irovince  of  Leinster, 
Ireland,  liuuuded  by  Dublin,  ^^  icklow,  Cineen's  and 
King's  counties,  Mcath,  and  Carlow.  Its  chief  town 
is  Xaas,  anil  the  otiier  nmnicipal  towns  are  Kildare, 
Kiloullen,  Maynooth  (where  is  the  Roman  Catholic 
College),  and  Athy,  besides  which  there  are  quite 
a  number  of  small  towns.  The  area  is  418,8.36 
acres,  or  654  sq.  m. ;  the  surface  is  generally  flat 
and  the  soil  very  productive.  A  great  portion  of 
the  county  belongs   to  the  central  Carboniferous 

Iilain  of  Ireland.  In  the  northern  ])art  there  is  a 
arge  extent  of  bog,  and  the  great  Bog  of  Allen 
covere  some  40,000  acres,  intersected  by  elevated 
ridges  of  diy  ground.  From  this  bog  rises  the 
Hill  of  Allen,  a  conical  rock  of  porphyry  and 
greenstone,  300  feet  higli.  Towards  the  south- 
east the  surface  rises  to  meet  the  hills  of  Dublin, 
and  in  the  south  to  meet  those  of  Carlow.  There 
are  a  few  small  woollen,  paper,  and  corn  mills, 
breweries  and  distilleries,  but  agricvilture  is  the  main 
occupation.  The  most  fertile  and  best  farmed  dis- 
tricts are  the  valleys  of  the  Lill'ey  and  the  Greese, 
besides  which  rivers  the  county  is  watered  by  the 
IJoyne  and  Blackwater  (both  having  their  source  in 
County  Kildare),  the  Barrow  and  the  Lesser  Bar- 
row. The  Royal  Canal,  connecting  Dublin  with 
the  Shannon,  traverses  the  northern  jiortion,  and 
the  Grand  Canal  traverses  the  valley  of  the  Litl'ey. 
To  the  south  of  the  town  of  Kildare  is  the  Curragh 
of  Kildare,  an  undulating  plain  of  bright  green 
grass  covering  about  8(K)0  acres  ;  a  portion  of  it 
forms  the  Newmarket  of  Ireland,  and  on  another 
portion  is  the  Curragh  Camp.  Kildare  returns 
two  nieiiibci-s  to  the  imperial  parliament.  Pop. 
( 1841 )  114,488;  (1891 )  70,206,  of  whom  87  Jier  cent. 
were  Catholics.  Kildare  is  noted  for  its  antiquities. 
There  are  old  giant  stone  jiillars  at  Punches- 
town,  Harristown,  Jigginstown,  and  Mullamast, 
and  remarkable  earthworks  near  Niuis  and  else- 
where. There  are  numerous  sepulchral  mounds 
on  the  Curragh,  anrl  also  the  remains  of  a  stone 
circle.  There  are  live  round  towers  in  the  county, 
and  the  ruins  of  a  great  many  religions  houses  and 
castles.  See  works  by  Uawson  ( 1807 )  and  U'Bvrne 
(1867). 

Kihiare.  a  town  in  Kildare  county,  .30  miles 
S\V.  of  Dublin.  St  Bridget  (q.v. )  foundeil  a  nun- 
nery here,  and  the  older  name  Dniiiii  Ciiriir/h  w.-is 
changed  to  Cildard,  the  cell  or  church  of  the  oak, 
from  an  old  tree  under  whose  shadow  the  saint 
built  her  cell.  There  are  remains  of  three  other 
monastic  in.stitntions,  ami  a  roun<l  tower,  the  linest 
in  the  county,  103  feet  high.  Kildare  was  one  of 
the  first  sees  founde<l  in  Ireland  ;  its  lirst  jirelate 
died  in  .")19.  The  I'rotestant  see  (15.50)  is  now 
nnited  with  Dublin,  ami  the  Roman  Catholic  sec 
foriM^  the  diocese  of  Kildare  and  Leighlin.  .After 
the  Norman  invasion  Kildare  became  a  place  of 
considerable  importance,  ami  a  parliament  was  held 
there  iu    1309.     It  suti'ered  severely,  liowever,  in 


the  wars  of  Elizabeth  and  during  the  great  Civil 
War,  and  has  never  recovered  its  former  standing, 
although  historically  one  of  the  most  interesting 
old  towns  in  Ireland.  The  reljellion  of  1798-99 
l)egan  in  Kildare,  where,  on  the  night  of  the  SSd 
May  1798,  a  number  of  ollicers  from  Dublin  were 
murdered  by  the  insurgents.  Prior  to  the  I'uiou 
it  returned  two  memljcrs  to  the  Irish  parliament. 
Pop.  (1861)  14-26;  (1S91)  1172. 

Kilia.  a  town  in  the  portion  of  liessarabia 
ceded  liy  Roumania  to  Russia  in  1878,  is  situated 
on  the  northern  bank  of  the  Kilia  branch  of  the 
Danube,  20  miles  NE.  of  Ismail.  It  has  some 
tishing  and  trade.  Pop.  (1SS4)  9079.  The  place 
was  captured  liy  the  Russians  in  1790,  and  ijoni- 
barded  by  the  allied  lieet  in  July  1854. 

Kiliail,  St,  the  apostle  of  Franconia,  a  native 

of  Ireland,  who,  sent  liy  the  jiojie  as  a  missionary 
bishop  to  the  heathen,  preached  at  Wiir/burg  about 
690,  and  was  slain  by  his  convert  Duke  tujzbert 
for  denouncing  his  marriage  with  (!eila,  his 
brother's  widow.  WUrzburg  claims  him  for  its 
first  liishop  ;  his  day  falls  on  8th  July. 

Kilillia-Xjaro,  an  isolated  mountain  mass  in 
East  Africa,  standing  between  Victoria  Nyanza 
and  the  coast,  just  within  the  northern  limit  of  the 
German  East  African  Company's  territoiy,  in  3'  20' 
S.  lat.  and  37'  50'  E.  long.  The  mass  consi.-ts  of 
two  peaks,  or  rather  craters,  Kilio  and  Kiniaweuzi, 
connected  by  a  broad  saddle  (14,000  feet)  studded 
with  lava  hills.  Kibo  was  climbed  by  Dr  Meyer 
in  October  1889.  Its  highest  jioint  is  about  19,680 
feet  above  sea-level ;  its  crater  is  650  feet  deep 
anil  6,500  feet  in  diameter.  At  the  same  time  he 
climbed  the  second  liighest  pinnacle  of  Kimawenzi, 
and  found  it  to  be  more  than  17,250  feet  high. 
The  crater  rim  of  both  peaks  is  covered  with  a 
thick  cnist  of  ice.  See  Petermanii's  MittiiliDij/cn, 
vol.  xxxvi.  No.  1 ;  also  H.  H.  Johnston's  Kilaiuui- 
jaro  Expedition  ( 1886 ). 

Kilkenny,  an  inland  county  of  Leinster,  border- 
ing on  (jMieen's  County,  Carlow,  Wexford,  Water- 
ford,  and  Tipperary.  Its  area  is  509,732  acres, 
or  796  scj.  m.  The  proportion  of  bog  is  small, 
and  owing  to  this  and  the  slope  of  the  country 
the  climate  is  dry,  salubrious,  and  temperate. 
Vegetation  is  earlier  here  than  in  the  rest  of 
Ireland,  and  the  soil  along  the  valleys  <if  the  Suir, 
Nore,  and  Barrow  is  very  rich.  In  the  northern 
part  there  ;ire  large  tracts  of  moor  devoted  to  sheep 
and  cattle,  but  almost  nothing  has  been  done  to 
improve  the  pasturage  in  the  hilly  districts.  Kil- 
kenny forms  for  the  most  part  a  continuation  of 
the  Carboniferous-limestone  jilain,  but  to  the  south 
ami  south-east  the  surface  rises  to  a  considerable 
elevation.  In  the  north  there  Ls  another  hilly 
reguin  forming  part  of  the  Castlecomer  anthracite 
coalfield.  At  present  the  output  is  about  80,0(X) 
tons  per  annum,  or  more  than  one-half  the  annual 
coal  ])roduction  of  Ireland.  In  the  western  district 
are  the  Walsh  Mountains.  The  princijial  rivers*  are 
the  Suir,  the  Barrow,  and  the  Nore,  which  all  rise 
in  the  Slieve  Bloom  Mountains,  and  after  widely- 
divergent  courses  empty  them.sclves  into  Watcrford 
Harbour.  The  chief  towns  are  Kilkenny,  Callan, 
Thomastown,  Freshfonl.  I'rlingford,  ami  Castle- 
comer. Pop.  (1841)  202.420;  (1891)  87,261,  of 
whom  94  per  cent,  were  Calholic>..  Prior  ti  the 
I'nioii  Kilkenny  returned  sixteen  members  to  the 
Irish  parliament,  but  now  the  county  returns  two 
and  the  city  one  to  the  imperial  parliameul.  The 
linen  manufacture  was  once  a  jirospcnms  imlustry, 
but  is  now  )iractically  extinct,  and  I  he  woollen 
manufacture  is  nearly  so.  There  are  a  few  brew- 
eries, distilleries,  tanneries,  flour-mills,  and  marble- 
polishing  works. 

Kilkenny,   anciently    part    of    the    kingdom   of 


428 


KILKENNY 


KILLIGREW 


Ossory,  was  formed  into  a  county  l>y  Kin^j  John 
in  1210,  and  ilniinj;  tlie  Revolution  wiis  lioUl 
by  the  Irish  for  James  II.  It  was  made  an  Enj;- 
lisli  settlement  after  the  Norman  invasion,  and 
was  the  scene  of  a  hin;,'  succession  of  contlicts 
between  tlie  two  races.  The  Norman  remains  are 
very  numerous,  and  among  other  anticjuities  are 
circular  {groups  of  stones  on  Slieve  (!rian  and  the 
Hill  of  Cloghmanta,  several  cromlechs  and  ratlis, 
numerous  forts  and  mounds,  live  round  towers, 
and  mona.-~tic  ruins  at  Jerpoint,  Hosljercon,  Thomas- 
town,  Knocktopher,  and  elsewhere.  The  most 
notable  castle  is  (Iraney,  in  Iverk,  supposed  to 
have  been  founded  Ijy  the  Earls  of  Ormonde  in 
1521,  and  of  which  three  towei-s  are  still  standing. 
The  cave  of  Dnnmore,  between  Kilkenny  and 
Ciistlecomer,  which  opens  with  a  natural  arcli  50 
feet  hij,'h,  is  noted  for  its  beautiful  stalactite 
chambers  and  its  subterranean  stream.  At  Silver- 
wooil  and  liallyguunion  are  the  remains  of  very 
ancient  lead-uunes.  Manganese,  marl,  pipeclay, 
nn^rble,  and  copper  are  still  found.  See  J.  t!. 
K<diertson's  Antiquities  and  Sccncri/  of  Kilkcnmj 
(1S5I  I. 

Kilkenny,  the  capital  of  the  county  of  that 
name,  is  also  a  county  oi  a  city  and  parliamentary 
burgh,  returning  one  member  to  parliament.  It  is 
situate<l  <m  the  Nore,  81  miles  S\V.  of  Dublin  by 
rail.  Top.  (ISol)  19,975;  (1891)11,0-18.  At  one 
time  it  was  the  seat  of  busy  linen  and  woollen 
manufactures,  but  very  little  of  either  now  remains. 
It  is  still,  however,  the  centre  of  a  considerable 
industry  in  marble-polishing.  In  tlie  neighlxmr- 
hood  are  e.\tensive  quarries  of  shelly  lilack  marble, 
which  is  in  extensive  reipiest  for  chimney-pieces, 
tond)stones,  and  other  purposes.  The  name  is 
Celtic — Cil-Canice — the  church  of  St  Canice  or 
Kenny,  a  building  dating  from  10.52  and  the 
largest  ecclesiastic.il  edifice  in  Ireland  except  St 
Patrick's  at  Dublin.  It  is  in  the  Early  English 
style,  226  feet  long  by  123  across  the  transei)ts. 
There  are  many  old  sepulchral  monuments,  and 
quite  close  to  the  simth  transept  are  the  re- 
mains of  a  round  tower  still  100  feet  high.  Other 
ecclesiivstical  remains  are  the  i)rece|)tory  of  St 
John's,  founded  in  1211:  the  Dominican  abbey, 
founded  in  1225,  still  used  as  a  Roman  Catholic 
church ;  and  the  Franciscan  abbey,  founded  in 
1230.  In  1857  was  erected  the  Roman  Catholic 
cathedral,  at  a  cost  of  £.30,000,  a  handsome  build- 
ing with  a  massive  central  tower  186  feet  high. 
On  a  precipitous  rock  above  the  Nore  is  the  famous 
castle  of  Strongbow  and  his  .son  ami  successor,  dat- 
ing from  about  1175,  and  restored  during  the  19th 
century  as  a  place  of  residence  for  the  Marquis 
of  Ormonde.  The  grammar-school,  founded  in 
the  lljlli  century,  also  stands  on  the  banks  of  the 
river,  fronting  the  castle,  and  here  Swift,  Congreve, 
ami  liishop  Berkeley  received  their  education. 
Near  the  city  is  the  Roman  Catholic  college  of  St 
Kyran.  Several  parliaments  were  held  at  Kilkenny 
in  the  14th  century,  and  even  down  to  Henry 
VIII.  it  was  the  residence,  occasionally  at  any- 
rate,  of  the  lord-lieutenant.  It  was  here  that  in 
1367  wius  p;i.';sed  the  stringent  'Statute  of  Kil- 
kenny,' meant  to  prevent  the  An;;lo-Irish  from 
becoming  more  Irish— forbiilding  intermarriage, 
&c. — and  here  that  in  1642  the  Assembly  of  Con- 
federate Catholics  gathered.  Cromwell  laid  siege 
to  the  city  in  1648,  and  in  1050  it  capitulated  on 
honour.ible  terms.  The  principal  trade  of  the  city 
is  now  in  provisions,  Ihrougli  the  port  of  Waterford, 
by  which  it  is  uniled  liotli  by  river  and  rail.  The 
faille  of  the  '  KilkiMiny  cats,'  which  fought  till 
nothing  but  the  tailsi  were  left,  was  a  satire  on 
the  contentions  of  Kilkenny  and  Irishtown  in  the 
17tli  century  about  boundaries  and  rights,  which 
went  on  till  both  towns  were  impoverished. 


KillaiMH'V.  a  small  market-town  in  the  ccninty 
of  Kerry,  1S5  iiiiles  by  rail  S\V.  of  Dublin,  47  WNW. 
of  Cork,  and  1  \  mile  fKUii  the  lower  Killarney  Lake. 
Its  importance  depends  on  the  crowds  of  tourists 
who  conio  to  visit  the  famous  lakes.  The  town 
has  been  jiractically  rebuilt,  and  now  jiossesses 
some  sjiacious  streets  with  a  number  of  good 
houses  and  public  buildings.  Most  notable  among 
the  latter  is  the  Roman  Catholic  cathedral,  a  very 
imposing  structure,  which,  along  with  the  liishop  s 
I'alace,  was  designed  by  I'ngin.  There  is  also  a 
large  Episcopal  church,  a  lunatic  asvlnm.  a  court- 
house, and  a  railway  hotel.  Pop.  ( 1851 )  7127  :  ( 1 S91 ) 
5510.  There  is  a  small  trade  in  making  fancy 
articles  to  attract  the  strangers,  principally  from 
the  wood  of  the  arbutus,  which  grows  on  the 
islands.  On  the  shores  of  the  lakes  are  marble- 
quarries,  yielding  several  varieties — green,  red, 
white,  and  brown — and  also  some  old  copper- 
mines.  Near  the  town  is  the  seat  of  the  Earl  of 
Kenmare,  whose  estates  were  the  scene  of  disturb- 
ances, in  connection  with  evictions,  during  the 
Irish  agitation  of  1888-89. 

Killnriiey,  Lakes  of,  are  a  series  of  three 
connected  sheets  of  «ater,  the  lowermost  of  which 
is  within  U  mile  of  the  town  of  Killarney. 
The  outflow  is  by  the  river  Laune  north  west  to 
Castlemain  Harlumr.  These  famous  lakes  are 
situated  in  a  basin  in  the  midst  of  the  mountains 
of  Kerry,  some  of  which  rise  abruptly  from  the 
water's  edge  densely  clothed  with  trees  from  base 
to  summit.  Arthur  Vouiig  called  those  which 
surround  the  upper  lake  '  the  most  tremendous 
mountains  that  can  be  imagined,'  and  said  that 
the  wooded  hills  along  the  margins  'form  the  most 
magnitlcent  shore  in  the  world.'  This  is  exaggera- 
tion, but  the  scenery  of  Killarney  is  very  beautiful, 
and  in  some  of  its  aspects  unique.  It  presents, 
as  Arthur  Young  quaintly  .saul,  an  admirable 
mixture  of  the  beautiful  and  sublime.  The  lower 
lake.  Lough  Leane,  covers  an  area  of  5001  acres, 
and  is  studded  with  richly-wooded  islaml-i.  The 
largest  of  the.se  is  Ross  Island,  on  which  is  situated 
Ro.ss  Castle,  an  old  stronglndd  of  the  O'Donoghues. 
Another  island  is  the  '  sweet  Iiinisfallen  '  of  Moore's 
.song,  and  on  this  is  the  picturesque  ruin  of  an 
abbey,  fouiuled  by  St  Einian  the  leper  in  the  Utii 
-century.  The  iijqier  lake  covers  some  430  acres, 
and  is"  also  studded  with  islands.  Between  the 
two  is  Lough  Tore,  covering  680  acres.  L'oiinect- 
ing  the  iipjier  with  the  lower  ami  middle  lakes  is 
the  Long  Range,  a  beautifully-wooded  and  jiictur- 
esquely-winding  stream  21  miles  hmg-  .\b(mt 
midway  in  its  course  occurs  the  famous  echo, 
caused  by  a  lofty  rock  called  the  Eagle's  Nest. 
Between  the  lower  and  the  miildle  lakes  is  the  line 
ruin  of  Miickross  Abbey,  founded  by  the  Francis- 
cans  in  1440.  -V  jieculiarity  of  the  scenery  is  the 
luxuriant  growth  of  arlmtnses  on  the  islanil>  of  the 
lakes,  which  add  such  richness  and  colour  to  the 
general  ell'ect.  See  works  by  Mr  and  -Mis  Hall 
(1843-78). 

Killicrrankio,  a  beautiful  wooded  pas.s^  in 
Perthshire,  on  the  (Jarry  River,  15  miles  NNW. 
of  Dnnkelil.  It  is  traversed  by  Wades  (ireat 
Highland  Road  (1732),  and  by  the  Highland 
Railway    (1803).      For    the    battle,   see   Oit.Ml.v.M 

(JOH.N). 

Killiifl'OV.  TiloM.vs.  b(un  in  1612,  served  as  a 
page  in  the  household  of  (h.-ules  I.,  and  was  after- 
w.irds  a  dissolute  companion  of  Charles  11.  in 
exile  and  his  groom  of  the  bedchamber  aflcr  the 
Restoration.  He  ]iiililished  in  1664  nine  indill'erent 
l)lays,  which  he  tells  \is  were  written  in  nine 
ditleient  cities.  He  was  some  time  manager  of  the 
king's  comiiaiiy,  and  in  his  jiatent  obtained  per- 
mission to  give  the  female  parts  to  women.     He 


KILMAINHAM 


KIMCHI 


429 


Sir  JdIiii  Denliaiii's  lines  form  his 


r  sjH.ke,  Killi^Tew  ne'er  writ, 
,  they'd  iimiie  a  matchless  wit. 


dieii  in   IG8S. 
l>est  ei>itaiili  : 

Hatl  Cowley  ne'e 
C"nil»ined  in  one, 

— Kn.i.iiiKKW,  Sir  'Wii.i.iam,  Iiis  brother,  was 
Lorn  in  ItitHi,  fon<;ht  in  the  Civil  War,  ami  ilieil  in 
169."i.  His  works  include  a  comedy,  Pcnidom,  and 
three  tragicomedies,  Sdindni,  Onnasdes,  and  The 
Siege  of  Urbhi. 

Killlinillliaill.  a  township  of  Dublin  couiitv 
and  a  western  sulmrli  of  D\il]lin  city.  To]).  539f. 
Here  is  tlie  Koyal  Hospital  for  the  reception  of 
wounded  ami  pensioned  soldiers.  It  was  orijj;iiially 
founded  hy  Charles  II.,  is  conducted  on  similar 
princijiles  to  the  sister  institution,  Chelsea  Hos- 
pital, and  provides  for  2')0  inmates.  Xear  it  is  the 
government  prison  of  Kilmainham.  The  phrase, 
'the  treaty  of  Kilmainliani,'  i>Iayed  a jnominent 
i-ole  ill  party  political  warfare  in  l'SS2.  The  plira.se 
pointed  to  an  allei;ed  arrangement  between  Mr 
Gladstone  and  Mr  rarnell  (then  in  Kilmainham 
gaol),  whereby  the  latter  promised  to  use  his  iidlu- 
ence  to  prevent  ajirarian  crime  in  Ireland  on  condi- 
tion that  a  lejrislative  iuea,sure  atlectinj;  the  Land 
Act  of  ISSl  was  introduced  into  parliament. 

KiIlliai*II»<-k.  the  largest  town  in  Ayrshire, 
on  Irvine  and  Kilmarnock  waters,  15i  miles  by 
rail  NXE.  of  Ayr,  and  2-t  SSW.  of  d'asgow.  It 
received  its  name  Ki/moEniiitocc  {Gae].,  'church 
of  my  little  Ernin ' )  from  the  dedication  of  its 
church  about  1200  to  an  Irish  saint  of  the  7th 
century  :  and  in  1591  it  was  made  a  burgh  of 
barony  under  the  Boyds,  from  which  date  its  ho.se 
and  bonnet  making  grew  into  thriving  industries. 
The  great  carpet  manufacture  was  introduced  in 
1777,  and  the  printing  of  calicoes  in  1770,  of 
shawls  in  1824;  tweeds,  winoevs,  boots,  &-c.  are 
also  manufactured  ;  and  the  Glasgow  and  South- 
western Itailway  works  were  transferred  hither 
in  18.5S.  The  staple  traile,  liowever,  is  in  connec- 
tion with  iron,  owing  to  Kilmarnock's  situation  in 
a  great  mineral  district :  and  the  October  chee.se- 
fair  (established  185."))  is  second  to  none  in  the 
kingdom.  The  Boyds'  Dean  Castle,  1  mile  \E., 
was  reduced  by  fire  to  ruin  in  1735  ;  and  the  town 
itself,  which  has  sull'ered  twice  from  fire  (IGGS  and 
1800),  and  once  from  llood  (ls.'>2).  has  few  build- 
ings of  interest.  The  town  hall  (1805),  the  court- 
house (1852),  the  corn  exchange  (1862),  with  its 
Albert  tower  110  feet  high,  and  the  new  academy 
(1876)  may  be  noticed,  as  also  may  a  statue  of  Sir 
James  Shaw  ( 1848),  ami  the  Kay  I'ark  of  41  acres 
(1879).  with  its  Burns'  monunjcnt,  a  tower  80  feet 
high,  of  Burns  (i|.v. )  and  of  the  Covenanters  Kil- 
marnock has  memories  ;  and  it  was  the  birthplace 
of  Alexander  Smith.  Since  is:i2  it  has  united 
with  Itutherglen,  Dumbarton,  I'ort-Glasgow,  and 
Renfrew  to  return  one  member  to  parliament,  its 
parliamentary  boun<Iarv  having  been  extemleil  in 
1885.  lielweon  1875  and  1890  its  valuation  in- 
creased from  ffil,847  to  i"9t;,495.  I'oi).  (1841) 
19,398;  ( 1881) '25,841  ;  (1891) '28,447.  SeeM'Kiiy's 
Jlislori/  of  Ktlmnrmvk  ( 1848  ;  4tli  ed.  1880). 

KilOj^H'ainilie,  a  thousand  grammes  =  22046 
lb.  See  .Miniiic  ii\>^rEM.—Ki/of/i-((iii)iir-/iirlrc  is 
the  amount  of  work  done  in  lifting  one  kilogramme 
one  metre  =  "•2:i;i08  footpounds.— A' //oiHc^rc,  a 
thousanrl  metres  =  .'aso-g  feet  =  0-6214  mile.— A7/o- 
icalt,  unit  of  activity  in  Mechanics  =  one  thousand 
watts  =  1  '3406  liorse-i)ower  =  1  -3591  cheval-vapcur. 

Kilriisll,  a  small  seaport  of  Ireland,  on  the 
northern  shore  of  the  Shannon  estuary,  :i(>  ndles 
W.  of  Linjerick.  It  is  resorted  to  for  seabathing, 
and  exports  grain  and  timber.      I'op.  3805. 

Hil.sytll',  a  town  of  Stirlingshire,  13  miles  NE. 
of  Glasgow,  with  quarries  and  coal  and  iron  mines. 


Founded  in  1665,  it  Mas  made  a  burgh  of  barony  in 
18'2().  Here,  on  15tli  August  1645,  .Montrose  with 
490(1  followers  almost  amiiliilatecl  700(1  Coveminteis 
under  Maillie  ((iardiner's  h'ndf  Ciril  War,  vol.  ii. 
1889).  A  remarkable  religions  revival  took  place 
here  in  1839,  originating  in  the  preaching;  of  W.  C. 
Burns,  afterwards  missionarv  to  China.  Top.  (1851) 
3949  :  ( 1881  )  54(J5  ;  (  1891  )  6073. 
Kilt.  See  HlGliL.\ND  Co.srUME. 
Kihva.    See  (Ji-ilo.v. 

kilwillllilisr,  a  town  of  Avrshiie,  on  the 
Garnock,  3A  miles  NNW.  of  Irvine  and  '26  SW. 
of  Glasgow.  The  stately  Tir(mensian  abbey, 
founded  in  the  12tli  and  dcnudislied  in  the  IGtIi 
century,  was  dedicated  to  "Winnin,  an  Irish  saint, 
who  is  said  to  have  founded  a  church  here  about 
715.  The  traditional  birthplace  of  Freemasonry 
(q.v.)  in  Scotland,  Kilwinning  has  also  been 
celebrated  since  1488  for  archery  ;  its  July  shooting 
at  the  popinjay,  placed  on  the  steei)le  (  1(J5  feet 
higli ),  is  deseriljed  in  Scott's  Old  Mortal itii,  and 
continued  till  1S70.  Eglinton  Castle  (1798),  the 
seat  of  the  Earls  of  Eglinton  (rj.v. ),  is  U  mile  S.E. ; 
and  the  Eglinton  Ironworks  ( 1S46)  atl'ord  employ- 
ment. Pop.  (  1 S61 )  .•i921  ;  ( 1881 )  .3469 :  ( 1891 )  3835. 
See  works  hy  \Vylie  ( 1878)  and  Lee  Ker  (1883). 

Killlberlt'y,  ca])ital  ami  chief  town  of  Clriqua- 
land  West,  South  Africa,  the  most  important  inland 
town  of  the  Cape  Colony,  is  situated  .540  miles  NE. 
of  Cajielown  by  rail  ( .'JO  hours ).  I'op.  ( 1891 )  '28,718, 
more  than  half  natives.  "The  British  (lag  was 
first  lioisted  at  Kimberley  in  November  1871  :  but 
(iriqualand  West  did  not  become  an  integral  por- 
tion of  the  Cape  Colony  tUl  Gctober  1880.  The 
climate  is  healthy,  though  hot  in  summer ;  the 
neighbouring  country,  in  all  jdaces  where  water 
can  Ije  olitaineil,  fertile.  The  wants  of  the  town 
have  been  abundantly  provided  for  by  water-works 
carried  out  at  a  cost  of  nearly  half  a  milli(m  sterling, 
for  which  water  is  obtained  from  the  Vaal  Kiver. 
(^)n  the  oiitlireak  of  the  Transvaal  war  it  was  in- 
vested by  the  Boers.  1ml  after  a  siege  of  over  three 
montlis  it  was  relieved  on  loth  February  1900. 
The  rise  of  Kimberley  has  been  raiiid  ;  and  its 
situalion  is  favourable  to  its  further  development. 
It  holds  the  direct  road  from  Capetown  and  the 
sea  to  the  Orange  Colony,  the  Trans\  aal,  and  the 
immense  territories  to  the  north  ;  an<l  is  important 
to  travellers  and  '  u])-country '  traders  as  the  em- 
porium and  starting-place  for  the  interior.  There  are 
a  handsome  town-hall,  post-office,  high  court,  public 
library,  and  botanic  gardens.  Kimlierley  owes  its 
existence  to  the  di;imond-miiies.  the  working  of 
which  dates  only  from  July  1.S71,  and  of  which 
the  most  important,  known  as  Du  Toils  Pan, 
Bultfonlein,  De  Beer's,  and  Kimberley  Central, 
were  amalgamated  into  one  huge  company,  with 
a  share  capilal  of  £3,950,(-100.  The  number  of 
diamonds  found  elsewhere  in  the  whole  worlil  is 
comparatively  insignificant  (see  Catk  Colon'V, 
Vol.  II.  p.  734:  also  Di-\Mi)Ni),  Vol.  III.  p.  7<)i  ). — 
Kimlierley  is  also  the  name  of  a  fertile  district  in 
the  Fitzroy  basin,  in  northern  West  Australia, 
where  gold  was  found  in  1893. 

Killl4*lli,  Daviii,  the  most  eminent  Jewish  gram- 
marian ami  exegete,  was  born  about  lUiO,  pridiably 
at  Narbimne,  where  he  spent  the  greater  part  of 
his  life,  and  died  about  l'2;i.5.  His  father,  Joseph 
Kimchl.  was  the  !iutlior  of  a  number  of  com 
nientaries  and  other  theological  works.  His 
brother  Moses  wrote  similar  wmks  and  a  Hebrew 
(iramiiiar.  His  own  celebrity,  however,  far 
exceeds  theirs,  and  even  with  competitors  like 
Kaslii  and  Ihn  Ezra  he  has  preserved  his  ]ilace  as 
the  most  popular  of  Jewish  commentators.  His 
Grammar,  Micklul,  and  his  I,exicon,  Sifcr  hash- 
orashim,  have  to  a  certain  degree  been  tiie  basis 


430 


KIMMERIDGE    CLAY 


KINCARDINESHIRE 


of  all  subsequent  Heliiew  grainniare  and  lexieous. 
His  niininciitaiies  iiicluile  almost  all  the  Ijixiks  of 
the  Olil  Testament.  That  on  the  Psalms  was 
editeil  liy  Sclnllei--Szin('ssy  (Canib.  1SS5). 

KiiiiiiU'ridiic  Clay,  the  lowest  series  of  the 
Upper  Oolite,  consists  of  dark,  hluishgray  slialy 
clay,  which  is  sometimes  ))ituminons  and  occasion- 
ally (as  at  Kimmeridge  in  the  Isle  of  Puiheck) 
passes  into  a  shale  so  rich  in  liitnniinoiis  matter 
as  to  he  used  as  a  fuel.  In  other  places  the  clay 
is  calcareous,  anil  contains  nodules  of  argillaceous 
limestone  or  septaria.  Near  its  base  it  some- 
times shows  sandy  layers  and  clay  ironstone.  The 
series  attains  a  maxinnim  thickness  of  COO  to  CGO 
feet. 

KillipoIllllS.  a  town  of  ^Vallachia,  stands 
in  a  valley  at  tlie  foot  of  the  Carpathians,  SO 
miles  N\V.  from  liucharest.  Pop.  9090. — .Another 
town  of  tills  name  exists  in  the  extreme  south  of 
Bukowina.     Pop.  5534. 

Kill.  Xext  ok.  When  a  person  dies  intestate 
his  real  property  devolves,  according  to  English 
law.  on  his  Ileir  (t|.v.),  and  his  personal  property 
is  distributed  among  his  next  of  kin.  The  degrees 
of  kindred  are  divided  into  lineal  and  collateral. 
The  lineal  consists  of  the  ascending,  such  a-s  father, 
mother,  grandfather,  grandmother,  ])aternal  and 
maternal,  ami  so  on  a/l  iiiJinHinn ;  and  the  descend- 
ing, such  as  son,  daughter,  grandson,  grand- 
daughter, and  so  on  lui  infinitum.  The  collateral 
kindred  consists  of  brothers,  sisters,  uncles,  aunts, 
&.C.,  and  the  children  of  .such  ml  infinitum.  The 
mode  by  which  the  civil  law  eomputeil  the  pro- 
pinquity of  degree  was  this  :  it  allowed  one 
degree  for  each  per.son  in  the  line  of  descent 
e.Kclusive  of  him  from  whom  the  computation 
begins,  and  in  the  direct  line  counted  the  degrees 
from  the  deceased  to  his  relative  ;  but  as  regards 
collaterals  it  counted  the  sum  of  the  degrees  from 
the  decea-sed  to  the  comnnm  ancestor,  and  from  the 
common  ancestor  to  the  relatives.  Thus,  a  brother 
was  in  the  second  degree,  counting  one  to  the 
father,  and  one  from  the  father  to  the  brother ; 
a  ne]ihew,  and  also  an  uncle,  a  great-grandfather 
and  a  great-grandson,  were  all  in  the  third  degree  ; 
a  son  and  a  father  weie  in  the  first  degree ;  and 
so  on.  This  mode  of  computing  the  degrees  of 
kindred  has  been  adopted  in  the  law  of  England 
and  Ireland. 

^VIlen  a  person  dies  intestate,  leaving  personal 
l)roi)erty,  there  are  two  classes  of  rights  to  which 
the  next  of  kin  are  entitled  :  one  is  the  right 
to  adniini-ster  the  estate,  or  to  take  out  letters  of 
administration  ;  the  other  is  the  right  to  a  share 
of  the  property  itself.  As  regards  the  right  of 
administration,  the  court  has  discretion  to  appoint 
a  lit  person,  but  a  [ireference  is  to  be  given  to 
the  widow  or  widower,  and  to  the  next  of  kin. 
Among  the  next  of  kin  those  are  to  be  preferred 
who  are  nearest  in  degree  according  to  the  above 
computation  :  thus,  a  .son  or  father  is  preferred  to 
a  brother,  grandfather,  or  grandson  ;  and  these  to 
a  nei)liew,  uncle,  great-grandson,  or  gri^at-giand- 
fatlier  :  and  so  on.  In  distributing  the  ])ers(malty 
the  willow  takes  one-third  if  there  be  children 
or  other  dcscendanls,  one-half  if  there  be  none. 
Sul)je(!l  to  this  claim  of  the  widow,  the  next  of 
kin  take  according  to  the  Statute  of  Distributions, 
which  slightly  dill'ers  from  the  order  of  the  civil 
law  as  to  the  degrees  of  priority  ;  thus,  the  children 
exclusively  take  the  whole  if  children  survive; 
if  some  of  the  chililren  are  dead,  leaving  issue, 
then  the  issue  collectively  of  each  dead  child  take 
an  equal  share  with  the  living  chiUlron,  by  what 
is  called  the  principle  of  re])resentation.  If  there 
are  none  nearer  than  grandchililren,  each  family  of 
grandchildren  take  the  share  of  tlie  child  whom 


they  represent,  and  the  issue  of  a  deceased  grand- 
child also  take  the  .share  of  their  parent.  If  there 
are  no  descendants,  the  father,  if  alive,  is  entilleil 
to  the  whole.  If  he  also  is  dead,  then  the  mother 
and  the  living  brothers  and  sisters  ( together  w  itli  the 
issue  of  deceased  brothel's  and  sisters  collectively) 
take  each  one  share.  After  these  are  dead,  then 
grandfathers  and  grandniotliei-s,  paternal  and 
maternal,  and  nephews  and  nieces,  if  alive,  take 
each  a  share.  The  right  of  representation— i.e.  the 
right  of  the  children  of  a  deceased  person  being 
one  of  a  class  (and  who,  if  alive,  wouhl  have  been 
one  of  the  next  of  kin  )  to  re)iresent  him,  and  take 
his  share — applies  as  far  as  the  children  of  brothers 
and  sisters,  (mt  no  further.  The  heir-at-law  is  one 
of  the  next  of  kin,  and  takes  his  share  of  the 
personalty,  thimgli  he  also  gets  all  the  real  estate. 
The  half-blood  counts  among  the  next  of  kin 
e<|ually  with  the  whole  blood  :  males  are  not  pre- 
ferred to  f(-males ;  and  the  rule  of  primogeniture 
has  no  applicaticm. 

in  Scotland  the  rules  of  priority  among  the  next 
of  kin  vary  considerably  from  the  above  onler, 
which  luevails  in  England  and  Ireland.  The  chil- 
dren, being  entitled  to  an  absidute  legal  share  calle<l 
Legitini  (q.v.),  take  the  father's  ])ioperty  in  two 
characters — one  part  as  le'dtim,  the  otlier  as  being 
next  of  kin — and  the  result  is  often  iliHerent  from 
what  olitains  in  England.  Moreover,  in  Scotland, 
though  the  heir-at-law  may  be  one  of  the  next 
of  kin,  still  he  is  not  entitled  to  take  such  share 
unless  he  collate  the  heritable  estate  (resign  it  to 
the  executors).  The  degrees  of  kindred  are  not 
counted  in  exactly  the  same  way.  The  father 
never  can  take  more  than  one-half,  nor  the  mother 
more  than  one-third,  while  any  of  the  brothers  and 
sisters,  or  their  issue,  are  alive.  The  half-blood 
does  not  share  e(|ually  with,  but  in  an  inferior 
degree  to  the  full  blood.  See  the  tabular  state- 
ment in  Patersons  Compendium  of  English  and 
Scolc/i  Lav. 

Kiiiabalii.    See  Borneo. 

Killbni'll.  or  Kll.lU'RX,  a  former  fort  of  south 
liussia,  situated  ojiposite  Otcliakolf,  on  a  long 
narrow  sandbank  which  forms  the  southern  bound- 
ary of  the  estuary  of  the  Dniejjer.  Paul  Jones  firet 
suggested  to  SuvarolT  that  it  sliould  be  fortified  ;  it 
ligured  promineiilly  in  the  Kusso-Turkish  wars  of 
1771-74  and  17S7  ;  and  during  the  Crimean  war 
it  fell  before  the  allies,  October  17,  1855.  The 
fortifications  were  razed  in  1860. 

Kiiioar(iiiie.<sliire.  or  Tin;  Mk.vrx.s,  a  mari- 
time county  of  Scotland,  with  .\berdeenshire  and 
the  Dee  on  the  N.,  Eoifarshire  .and  the  North  Esk 
on  the  S.  and  W.,  and  the  North  Sea  on  the  E. 
The  rocks  are  granite,  gneiss,  sandstone,  conglom- 
erate, mica-slate,  clav-slate,  limestone,  and  traji. 
Area,  .383  sq.  in.,  or  245,346  acres,  of  which  120,050 
are  in  cultivation,  and  23,153  in  wood.  The  county 
may  be  diviiled  into  four  sections — viz.  the  Coast, 
the  '  Howe  o'  the  Mearns,'  the  tlrampians,  and 
Deeside.  The  coast-laml  and  much  of  the  '  Howe  ' 
is  of  superior  (juality,  and  rents  frcmi  £2  to  £3,  UK 
an  acre.  The  '  Howe  '  forms  a  continuation  of  the 
Valley  of  Strathiii<ne  (q.v.).  The  (Iranqiians,  run- 
ning .across  the  country  from  e.ist  to  west,  parallel 
to  the  Dee,  with  an  average  breadth  of  from  7  to 
S  miles,  eo\er  about  80,000  acres  ;  one  of  the  peaks, 
M(mnt  Battock,  is  2555  feet  high.  The  Deeside 
jiortiim  of  the  county  is  a  comparatively  narrow 
strip  of  light,  sharp  soil.  There  are  few  manufac- 
tures in  the  county.  The  principal  towns  and 
villages  are  Stonehaven  (q.v.).  the  rounty  town; 
Itervie,  a  royal  burgh  ;  Laurencekirk,  a  bonmgli 
of  barony;  liancborv:  and  .lohnshaven.  Of  the 
objects  of  antiiinarian  interest  the  most  noted  are 
Duiiiiottar  Castle  (q.v.)  and  Kaedyke's  Camp,  an 


KINCHINJINGA 


KINEMATICS 


431 


entieiiclinient  seemingly  on  the  Homan  nietlioil,  in 
wliioh  it  has  been  suiiposcil  that  the  ancient  Cale- 
donians nniler  Galjjacus  encamped  prior  to  their 
liattle  with  the  Romans  under  Atrricola.  Kincar- 
ilineshire  was  the  birthplace  of  IJeorge  Wishart, 
Ko1)ert  Barclay,  Dr  J.  Heattie,  and  Dr  Thomas 
Keiil  :  and  the"  father  of  Rol>ert  Rums  was  born 
in  Dunnottar  parish.  Pop.  (1801)  26,349;  (1871) 
34,(>30;  (1881)34,460;  (1891)  34,647. 

kinrliinjiiiga,  or  K.vxciian.i.vnca,  a  peak  of 
the  Himalayas,  between  Sikkim  and  Nepal,  28,176 
feet  in  altitude. 

Kill4lerg:arteil,  the  name  of  a  kinil  of  school 
or  training-place  for  young  ehililren — name  and 
thing  imported  from  Germany.  The  principle  was 
first  propounded  (1S26)  and  the  system  invented 
by  Friedrich  Froeljel  (q.v. ).  He  wa-s  early  im- 
pressed with  the  insufficiency  of  the  teaching 
and  training  given  in  the  ordinary  infant-school, 
and  with  the  fact  that  the  loving  instinct  of  the 
mother  leniained  merely  an  instiixH,  which  re- 
quired for  the  training  of  the  child  thoughtful 
guidance  and  direction.  He  saw  that  the  teaching 
in  the  infant-school  wa.s  to  a  large  extent  tradi- 
tional ;  that  the  selection  of  subjects  and  exer- 
cises depended  on  fashion,  or  upon  the  likings  or 
prejudices  of  the  teacher,  and  not  n\mn  a  genuine 
Knowledge  of  the  nature  of  children  ;  and  that  the 
whole  inocedure  was  based  upon  an  induction  of 
facts  and  phenomena  which  had  been  hastily  made, 
and  rested  upon  no  firm  grouml  of  principle.  He 
therefore  set  to  work  to  study  the  ways  and  doings 
of  infants  from  their  birth,  and  to  note  down 
systematically  what  kind  of  mental  food  and  what 
kind  of  bodily  activity  Xature  prompted  them 
at  each  stage  of  their  existence  to  prefer.  He 
reached  the  following  principles:  (a)  That  Edu- 
cation means  a  liarmonioi;s  development  of  all  the 
bodily  and  mental  powere;  (o)  that  the  spontaneous 
is  the  raw  material  and  the  only  element  that  is 
valuable  in  education,  and  that  the  teacher  must 
connect  all  his  instruction  with  these,  and  graft 
it  upon  the  spoutaneons  activity  of  the  child;  (e) 
that  the  work  of  the  teacher  is  not  to  give  know- 
ledge ab  extra,  but  to  supjily  material,  means,  and 
opportunities  in  a  rational  anil  harmonious  order 
for  the  child's  mind  spontaneously  to  work  upon  ; 
and  ((/)  that  in  the  presentation  of  their  materials 
or  occupations  there  must  be  no  1>roak  (in Natun't 
non  (latnr  saltim),  because  all  occupations  which 
tiain  must  be  developed  out  of  each  other.  The 
early  materi.als  for  instruction  are  called  (/ifts, 
because  they  are  ])resented  to  the  child  only  W'hen 
his  nature  and  stage  of  develoiiment  call  for  them. 
The  province  of  the  educator  is  to  map  out  the 
world  of  early  childhood,  and  to  engineer — i.e. 
to  give  each  step  in — the  paths  to  knowledge  or 
power  in  each  subject ;  the  ])rovince  of  the  teacher 
IS  to  apply  this  general  knowleilge  to  particular 
ca-se.s,  and  with  loving  care  and  delighteil  jiatience 
to  provide  the  right  mental  food — the  most  suitable 
activities  for  each  hour  and  stage  of  development. 
His  complete  aim  is  the  systematic  cultivation  of 
all  the  powers  in  complete  e(|uilibriuiTi.  Hence, 
while  the  infant-school  goes  too  much  into  work 
and  drill,  Kroebel's  system  calls  for  attentiim  to  the 
individual  child;  he  weaves  the  work  into  'play' 
(spontaneous  activity),  and  he  evolves  'drill'  out 
of  the  free  individual  desire  for  society.  Ifence 
Froebels  large  use  of  song  and  ilanco.  He  respects 
freedom  and  the  right  onler  of  development  so 
mucli  that  he  would  not  give  a  vortl  to  a  child 
until  a  mental  necessity  and  desire  had  been 
createil  by  an  ordereil  set  of  experiences  for  that 
word  ;  and  he  cultivates  the  senses  ami  the  hand 
with  the  utmost  care,  so  that  perfectly  accurate 
perception  and  comparison  may  produce  true  and 


clear  conceptions,  which  again  give  rise  to  true 
and  just  judgiuonts.  'All  the  byways  to  untruth,' 
says  Miss  Shirrcll',  '  such  as  exaggeration,  confused- 
ness  of  mind,  inaccuracy  of  speech,  are  cut  off.'  The 
child  is  not  (aught,  but  /erf  by  a  set  of  ordered  ex- 
periences to  the  perception  of  the  principles  of  num- 
ber (Arit/tnietic.)  .and  of  space  (  Geometry) ;  and  his 
senses  and  powei's  of  hand  and  eye  are  cultivateil 
by  an  elaborate  series  of  exercises.  The  steps  in 
Froebel's  system  are  ( 1 )  Spontaneiti/  or  I'lay, 
which,  however,  in  a  child  is  always  serious  and 
never  frivolous;  (2)  direction  of  this  towards  ex- 
tern.al  fact  and  truth;  (3)  weaving  of  spontaneous 
powei's  into  ordinary  occupations;  (4)  develop- 
ment into  self-culture,  independent  action,  a  love 
of  knowledge,  beauty,  and  society.  The  pro- 
cess, like  the  process  of  Nature,  is  slow,  trantjuil, 
and  oiganic :  but  no  part  of  it  requires  to  be 
undone.  The  child  sees,  imitates,  or  reproduces 
and  invents  new  forms  :  these  are  the  three  steps 
in  each  subject  for  each  pupil.  Its  most  earnest 
disciples  give  to  it  the  name  of  The  Xeto  Edu- 
eati'on. 

The  system  has  made  great  way  in  America,  and 
is  now  making  way  in  England.  There  is  a  Fioebel 
Society,  which  consists  of  a  large  number  of  thinkers 
and  workers  in  education.  The  London  and  Bir- 
mingham school  boards  have  introduced  the  system  ; 
and  several  training-colleges  are  working  upon  its 
lines. 

The  best  Enghsli  books  as  yet  on  the  subject  are  Laurie's 
Eindfrijarten  Manual ;  Sliss  .ShirrcfTs  Kinderf/arten 
{l>i7l'))  and  Kindcrriarten  at  Home  (2d  ed.  1889);  Heer- 
wart's  Music  for  the  Kindcrynrten  (1877);  Kobler's 
Praxis  (trans,  by  Miss  Gumey,  4th  ed.  1889);  The 
Kindcniarten  ;  FrocM.  Soeietit's  Papers  ( 1880 ) ;  B.arnard, 
Proebci's  Kindergarten ;  Karl  Froebel,  Exptanalion  of  the 
Kinderffarten. 

KilldersCOUt  Grit,  name  given  to  the  coarse 
grits  and  llagstones  which  occur  towards  the  base 
of  the  Millstone  tirit  of  England  (see  C.arbonifer- 
ois  System).  The  rock  forms  the  tableland  of 
Kinderscout  in  the  Peak  country.  The  grit  is 
quarried  at  Eyam  iloor,  Derwent  Edge,  and  other 
places,  anil  is  used  for  engine-beds,  foundations,  and 
reservoir  work. 

Kindly  Tenaut.    See  Boeder.s. 

KilK'lliatics  is  the  science  which  treats  of  pure 
motion.  It  involves  the  fundamental  conceptions 
of  space  and  time  and  takes  no  direct  cognisance 
of  force  or  mass.  Strictly  speaking,  any  kineniat- 
ical  problem  dealing  with  motions  that  exist  in 
nature  is  at  bottom  dynamical,  and  every  dyna- 
mical problem  is  of  necessity  approached  in  the 
lirst  instance  on  its  kincniatical  si<le.  Thus,  to 
take  a  familiar  example,  Kepler's  laws  of  planetary 
motion  were  purely  geometrical  and  kinemalical 
statements,  from  wliich  Newton  deduced  the  dyna- 
mical law  of  universal  gravitation.  Again,  the 
Aaiitirnl  Almanac  is  essentially  a  book  of  kine- 
matical  st.atistics,  giving  the  po.sitions  of  the  im- 
portant heavenly  Ijodics  at  definite  successive 
intervals  of  time,  and  not  unfre<iuently  the  rates 
of  change  of  position  ;  and  the  calculation  of  these 
statistics  has  a  stiict  dynamic  basis. 

Kinematics  may  be  regarded  as  a  geometry  of 
position  into  which  the  idea  of  time  or  duration 
lias  been  introduced.  Thus,  change  of  position, 
regarded  a.s  taking  ]ilace  continuously  in  time, 
leads  to  the  iilea  of  velocity,  linear  and  angular. 
Velcxily  itself  is,  of  course,  subject  to  change,  and 
this  change,  regarde<l  .as  taking  place  continuously 
in  time,  leads  to  the  idea  of  acceleration,  linear 
and  angular.  The  distinction  of  linear  ami  angular 
an  applied  to  velocities  and  accelerations  is  very 
necessary  for  a.  cle.ar  study  of  the  kinematics  of 
.systems  of  ]>oinfs,  such  as  plane  .and  solid  Cigures, 
rigid  or  deforiuable,  or  of  the  kinematics  of  iluids. 


.f. 


432 


KINETICS 


KINGFISHER 


Rotation,  strain,  twist,  vortex  are  important  cases. 
The  kinoinatics  of  solid  lifjuros  is  a  sulijoct  of  grow- 
ing  iiii])ortance  to  the  nieclianician  and  cnjiineer  ;  so 
mucli  so  tliat  in  tlie  kinematics  of  macliinery  we 
liave  a  hij^lily-spccialisod  iirancli  of  the  sulijcct. 
A  glance  at  any  oidinarv  piece  of  iiiechanism,  I'rom 
a  steam-engine  to  a  sewinji-inachine,  shows  liow 
various  are  the  relative  motions  of  the  wheels, 
rods,  cranks,  belts,  and  other  pieces  that  build  it 
up.  The  function  of  a  machine  is  dynamic — viz. 
to  transform  energy  to  a  certain  end — but  this  must 
be  effected  by  suitable  kinematical  arrangements. 
In  .all  modern  treatises  on  dynamics  and  mechanics 
a  sei'lion  is  devoted  to  a.  |iicliininarv  study  of 
kinemalios.  Iteuleaiix's  Kiiirmtitics  i>f  Mtirliincry 
(trans.  IsTG)  deserves  particular  mention. 

Kinetics.  See  Dyx.\mics,  Energy,  Matter. 
Kiiu'toscopc.  See  Edison,  Zoetrope. 
King  (.\.S.  ci/iiiiiff,  from  cijn,  'a  kin,'  'a  tribe,' 
an<l  the  termination  -ixy,  'belonging  to.'  Hence 
ci/n-iiii/  is  'man  of  the  tribe,'  'chief').  For  the 
origin  of  the  kingly  power,  see  tlie  article  Gdverx- 
MENT;  for  the  relation  of  king  to  people  in  Britain, 
see  E.\f;L.\N-D  (Hi.stouv  of),  P.\rli.\ment;  and 
for  the  ])Osition  of  kings  in  other  countries,  see 
the  section  on  the  constitutions  of  these  countries. 

King,   WiLLi.\M  RuFU.s,  vice-president  of   the 

United   States,   was  born  in  North  Carolina,  0th 

April  1780,  and  was  admitted  to  the  liar  in  1800. 

He  was  a  member  of  the  legislature  for  three  years, 

was  returned   to  congress  as  a  War-Democrat  in 

1810,  and  represented  Alabama  in  the  senate  from 

1820  to  18-44.     He  was  then  minister  to  France  for 

two  years,  and  a  senator  again  from  1848  to  18j3, 

when  he  became  vice-president.    He  died,  liowever, 

en  ISth  April  of  the  same  year. 

Kin»-at-ai'nis.     See  Hei;.\ld. 

King  <'«iintry.    See  W.mkato. 

King-rmb  (Limnlns),   a  curious  animal,  the 

last  of  its  race,  usually  referred  to  a  special  gro\ip, 

Xiphosura,  within  tlie  sjiider  and   scorpion   class 

Arachnida.     \  huge 
^:i?T^^^^^^  convex         chitinous 

buckler    covers     the 
head    and   thorax,  a 
Hatter        hexagonal 
shield    protects    the 
abdomen,     while     a 
long  s|)ear  runs  out 
fidm   the    hind   end. 
There      are      twelve 
jiairs  of  ajipendages 
tn\   the  ventral   sur- 
face, a  pair  in  front 
of    the    month,    five 
pairs     of     legs,     the 
bases  of   which   sur- 
I'ound      tlie      mouth 
and  are  masticatory, 
anil  a  cover  or  oper- 
culum   which    over- 
laps    live     pairs    of 
llatteneil   abdominal 
ajipendiiges,   used  in 
swimming,  and  bear- 
ing peculiar  resiura- 
Fig.  1. — TTndcr-surface  of  King-  tory    organs    known 
crah  [Limiiliis  puhiplumus).      as    gill-books.       On 
the  top  of  the  large 
buckler  there  are   two   large  compound    eyes   and 
near  the  middle  line  two  simple  eyes.     The  internal 
structures    are    no    less    peculi,-ir.       The   sexes   are 
separate,  and  the  spineless  larva'  present  a  curious 
resemblance  to  Trilobites. 

The  king-crabs  attain  a  length  of  over  two  feet. 
They  live  on  muddy  bottoms  at  a  depth  of  2  to  6 


Kg.  2.— Young  King- 
crab,  just  liatclied 
(greatly  enlarged). 


fathoms,  where  they  sometimes  swim  slowly  about 

or  more  frequently  burrow  their  way  in   the  mud 

by  alternately   bending    .and    straigiitening    their 

shields  and  spine.     The  food 

consists  for  the  most  part  of 

marine     worms,     which     are 

sucked    into    the   mouth    and 

there    crushed.      Limulus    is 

restricted  to  the  warm  coasts 

of  the  Indian  Archiiielago  {L. 

moturainim)  and  the  east  of 

North    .-Vmerica  (L.  polijphe- 

niii.s).    The  genus  first  ajipears 

in    Jurassic    strata,    but    th(! 

allied  IJellinurichc,  represented 

by  Neolimulus  in  the  Up]ier 

Silurian  and  by  other  genera 

of  later  date,  seem  to  link  the 

king-crabs     to     the     ancient 

Trilobites.      In    some   of    the   Indian   islands   the 

spine  is  used  for  pointing  arrows,  and  in  tropical 

America   the  shell   .sometimes  serves  as  a   ladle. 

See   E.    Kay   Lankester,   'Jamulus   an  Arachnid,' 

Qiiiirt.  Jour.  Jlicr.  Sci.,  vol.  xxi.   18S1  ;  also  vols. 

xxiii.  xxiv. 

KinglisilCI*  (A /redo  ispiiht),  a  well-known 
British  and  European  bird,  in  the  order  of  pies 
or  Picaria>,  famous  for  its  brilliant  plumage  and 
lishlione  nest.  Though  it  measures  only  abcnit  7 
inches  in  length  from  the  tiji  of  the  beak  to  the 
enil  of  the  tail,  it  is  rendered  conspicuous  liy  the 
Hashing  feathers,  wliicli  are  predominantly  blue  and 
green.  To  watch  the  kingfisher  is  dillicuU,  for  it 
is  shy  and  wary,  and  the  jiowerful  wings  are  used 
ill  singularly  rapid  fitful  flight.  The  fish-catchin<' 
bill  is  large  and  strong;  the  legs  are  short  and 
weak,  but  the  toes  are  strengthened  by  being 
ioineil  for  the  greater  part  of  their  length,  'i'lie 
bird  freiiuents  the  banks  of  rivers  and  lakes 
throughout  Europe ;  and  in  Britain  is  most  at 
home  in  the  south  of  England.  The  cry  is  faint 
but  shrill,  like  ti-ti  often  repeated.  Tlie  king- 
fisher feeds  chielly  on  small  fishes,  which  are 
caught  by  a  dexterous  <livc,  carried  to  the  perch, 
killed  by  a  few  blows  on  ;i  br.anch,  and  swalloweil 
whole.  The  bones  are  afterwards  disgorged,  and 
used  in  part  to  form  the  nest.  This  is  hiilden  at 
the  end  of  a  hole  bored  in  the  bank,  and  is  often 
anything  but  clean.  The  birds  generally  live  in 
pairs  away  from  their  fellows,  whose  intrusion  on 
the   aiipropriated   jireserves  is  jealously  resented. 


Kingfislier  (AlceJo  ispida). 

The  .seven  or  eight  eggs,  which  are  laid  in  Ajnil, 
are  almost  s]diciical  in  form  and  very  white,  as  is 
often  the  case  in  hidden  nests.  Within  the  family 
Ah'cdinida',  of  which  the  common  kingfisher  is  type, 
there  are  numerous  genera  with  representatives  in 


KING   GEORGE'S   SOUND 


KINGS 


433 


most  parts  of  the  world.  The  pied  kiiifrlisher  of 
India  and  Africa  (Ccri/le  nidis)  and  the  belted 
kingfisher  of  North  America  ( Ven//e  /luU-i/on )  are 
coniinon  forms.  A  sub  family  (Dacelonina')  in- 
chides  numerous  more  omnivorous  kinj.'tishei's  with 
stouter,  Hatter  bills.  Of  these  the  great  laughing 
jacka-sses  of  Australia  (Dacelo)  are  notable  repre- 
sentatives. 

The  kingfisher  is  the  old  lialcvon,  '  whose  dead 
body  carefully  hung  by  a  single  thread  always 
turns  its  lieak  towards  the  wind,'  a  popular  and 
still  surviving  notion  to  which  Shakespeare  makes 
more  than  one  reference.  With  the  halcyon  the 
imagination  of  the  ancients  played  lovinj/ly,  for 
to  tlieni  the  bird  was  Alcyone  the  daugliter  of 
-■Eolus  and  wife  of  the  king  of  Trachis,  the  son  of 
the  morning  star,  '  who,  mourning  in  licr  youth  for 
her  lost  husband,  was  winged  by  divine  power,  and 
now  Mies  over  the  sea,  seeking  him  whom  she  could 
not  find,  sought  throughout  the  earth.'  'The  bird 
i  Ls  not  great,  as  Socrates  continues  in  Lucian  s 
I  dialogue  '  The  Halcyon,'  '  but  it  has  received  great 
.  honour  from  the  gods  because  of  its  lovingness ; 
I  for  while  it  is  making  its  nest,  all  the  world  has 
the  happy  days  which  it  calls  halcyonid;e,  excell- 
ing all  othei-s  in  their  calmness.'  So  Aristotle, 
cjnoting  Simonides,  says  that  the  halcyon  has  its 
young  alxmt  the  turn  of  the  year  in  winter,  '  when 
Zeus  gives  the  wisdom  of  calm  to  fourteen  days. 
Then  the  people  of  the  land  call  it  the  hour  of 
wind-hiding,  the  sacred  nurse  of  the  spotted 
halcyon.'  See  R.  Bowdler  Sharpe's  Munuf/rapk 
of  the  Alccdinidic  or  Kingfishers  ;  Kuskiu's  Eagle's 
Nest ;  and  H.A.LCYOX  Day.s. 

KinsT  Ceorge's  Sound,  an  inlet  5  miles  north 
and  south,  and  5  miles  broad,  at  the  .south-west 
angle  of  West  .\ustralia,  which  is  an  excellent 
roadstead,  and  contains  two  landlocked  recesses. 
Princess  Royal  and  Oyster  Harboui-s.  Albany 
(q.v. ),  on  Princess  Royal  Harbour,  is  a  port  of  call 
for  mail-steamers.  The  fortification  of  the  sound 
has  been  recommended  by  some  English  military 
authorities,  and  an  imperial  naval  depot  has  been 
proposed. 

Kinslioril.  a  royal  burgh  of  Fife,  on  the  Firth 
of  Forth,  3  miles  S.  of  Kirkcaldy  by  rail.  It  has 
shipbuilding-yards,  a  bleachtield,  manufactures  of 
dax  and  glue,  and  golf  links.  Alexander  III.  was 
killed  ( 1286 )  at  Kinghorn  Ness,  and  a  monument 
was  erected  on  the  .spot  in  1SS7.     Pop.  2036. 

Kingluko,  .Vlex.vxder  Willi.\m,  historian, 
was  liorn  at  Wilton  Hou.se,  near  Taunton,  in  1809, 
and  was  educated  at  Eton  and  Trinity  College, 
Cambridge.  He  was  called  to  the  bar  at  Lincoln's 
Inn  in  1S37,  and  speedily  acquired  a  lucrative 
practice ;  but  he  retired  from  the  [jrofcssion  in 
18.56,  in  order  to  devote  himself  to  literature  and 
politics.  He  lia<l  already  published,  in  18-14, 
Eollten,  a  work  of  eastern  travel,  written  in  a 
graphic  and  poetic  vein,  yet  with  great  truthful- 
ness to  nature,  wlii(-h  has  always  remained  one 
of  the  most  jiopular  books  of  English  travel.  He 
was  returned  for  Bridgwater  in  the  Liberal  interest 
in  18.>T.  tiKik  a  prominent  part  against  Lord  Palmer- 
ston's  Conspiracy  liill  in  1859,  and  in  1860  warmly 
denounced  the  anne.vation  of  Savoy  and  Nice  by 
France.  In  1S.j4  he  went  out  with  Lord  Raglan 
to  the  Crimea,  where  he  had  every  facility  for 
watching  the  progress  of  the  war.  .\fter  his 
return  he  undertook  the  defence  of  the  I'ritisli 
commander  in  liLs  lliitory  of  the  !('«;•  in  the 
Crimen  (8  vols.  1863-87).  As  the  history  was 
very  largely  based  upon  Lord  liaglan's  paiiers, 
it  lia.s  l)een  reganletl  by  some  a.s  a  prejuiliieil 
narrative  of  the  war ;  but  from  the  literary  point 
of  view  opinion  is  practically  unanimous  that  it 
is  one  of  the  finest  historical  works  of  the  19th 
288 


century.  The  criticism  of  Na|)oleon  HI.  and  the 
second  empire  was  so  searching  that  the  work 
gave  great  oft'ence  at  the  Tuileries,  and  its  circula- 
tion was  prohibited  in  France  during  the  Kmiiire. 
Replies  have  been  made  to  strictures  uiion  other 
actors  in  the  war,  and  occasionally  witli  success. 
Hut  the  history  remains  on  the  whole  a  wonderfully 
accurate,  brilliant,  and  minute  record  of  the  great 
struggle  with  Russia.  In  1868  Kinglake  was  again 
rt'turned  for  Bridgwater,  but  was  unseated  on  jieti- 
tion.  He  died  2d  January  1891.  See  Life  by  limes 
Shand  prefixed  to  the  new  edition  of  Eulhcii  (1896). 

Kinglet.    See  Golden -crested  Wren. 

Kings,  The  First  .\nd  Second  Books  of, 
in  the  English  Authorised  Version  titled  The 
first  Book  of  Kings,  rommoniy  called  the  Third 
Book  of  Kings,  and  2'he  Second  Book  of  Kings, 
coin  moldy  called  the  Fourth  Book  of  Kings.  In 
the  ancient  Rabbinical  enumeration,  implied  in 
Josephus  and  followed  in  the  Peshito  and  by 
Jerome,  the  Book  of  Kings  (J/c?«r/«'«i )  was  reck- 
oned one,  ranking  fourth  and  last  in  the  series  of 
the  'earlier  propliets'  (after  Joshua,  Judges,  and 
.Samuel) ;  the  division  into  two  first  appears  in  the 
.Septuagint  translation,  where  they  are  called  the 
third  and  fourth  'of  the  kingdoms'  (Basilcion, 
Heb.  Mclacliotli),  the  books  of  Samuel  forming  the 
lirst  and  second.  Tliis  division  was  copied  by  the 
Vulgate,  whence  it  passed  into  the  'common' 
usage  of  Christendom.  The  separation  between 
Samuel  and  Kings  is  itself  not  original  ;  for  the 
lirst  two  chapters  of  Kings,  concluding  the  life  of 
David,  are  consecutive  with  '2  Sam.  ix.-.xx.  and 
by  the  same  hand.  Tlie  books  of  Kings  as  we  now 
have  them  are  evidenth'  a  compilation,  and  careful 
examination  shows  that  they  have  passed  through 
more  than  one  redaction.  In  their  composition  at 
least  four  elements  can  be  distinguished  :  ( 1 )  In 
1  Kings,  xi.  41,  reference  is  made  to  '  the  book  of  the 
acts  (chronicles)  of  Solomon,'  ami  for  the  reigns  of 
subsequent  kings  there  is  very  frequent  mention 
of  '  the  book  of  the  chronicles  of  the  kings  of 
Judab,'  and  of  a  corresponding  book  of  the  kings 
of  Israel.  The  exact  nature  of  these  chronicles 
cannot  now  be  determined  ;  but  the  probability  is 
that  they  were  themselves  compilations,  chiefly 
digests  of  a  statistical  and  annalistic  character, 
further  epitomised  by  the  writer  of  the  canonical 
book.  (2)  The  official  records  of  the  temple  at 
Jerusalem,  though  nowhere  e.xpressly  named,  must 
have  been  directly  or  indirectly  the  source  of 
much  of  the  information  given  about  the  worship 
there,  especially  under  the  reigns  of  Solomon, 
Joasli,  Aliaz,  and  Josiah.  (3)  The  book  owes 
most  of  its  vividness  and  pietures(|ueness  to  mate- 
rials derived  from  a  .series  of  unollicial  narratives, 
having  their  origin  chiefly  in  the  northern 
kingdom,  and  in  which  the  acts  of  the  prophets 
had  special  prominence.  To  this  category  belong 
in  particular  the  history  of  Elijah  ( 1  Kings, 
xvii.-xix.,  xxL),  and  the  much  more  compliiated 
.series  of  passages  relating  to  Elisha,  for  the  northern 
kingdom  ;  and  the  story  of  the  man  of  Cod  from 
Juilali  (1  Kings,  xiii.),  for  the  southern.  (4)  The 
main  redactor  has  contributed  the  chronological 
scheme  of  synchronisms  in  which  the  histories  of 
the  two  kingdoms  are  brought  to<;ether  under  one 
view,  and  has  given  a  pragmatical  tone  to  the 
narrative  by  undertaking,  in  the  case  of  each  king, 
an  estimate  of  his  religious  character  an<l  work. 
This  is  done  in  the  spirit  of  the  Deuteronomic 
legislation,  and  it  may  be  inferred  with  certainty 
therefore  that  the  main  redaction  did  not  take 
l>lace  till  after  the  reformation  of  Josiah.  The 
i)hrii.seology  of  such  |ias.sages  as  2  Kings,  viii.  '22: 
xiv.  7:  xvi.  6  ('unto  this  day'),  implies  an  earlier 
date  than  the  fall  of  the  kingdom  of  J  udali ;  but 


434 


KING'S    BENCH 


KINGSLEY 


evidence  of  a  later  pen  is  found  in  2  Kings,  xvii. 
19,  20;  xxiii.  26,  27),  while  2  Kings,  xxv.  27 
seqq.,  biin>,'s  us  down  to  a  far  advanced  period 
of  the  exile.  Important  variations  (especially  in 
the  series  of  rather  disconnected  notes  which  form 
a  large  part  of  the  history  of  Solomon)  between 
the  existing  Hebrew  text  and  that  which  must 
have  lain  before  the  LXX.  translators  show  that 
the  book  was  still  in  a  somewhat  fluid  state  at  a 
very  much  later  date. 

For  discussion  of  the  critical  problems,  see  Wellliausen 
in  the  fourth  edition  of  Bleek's  Einleituiui  (1878),  re- 
printed in  his  C'omiJ'^sition  des  Bexateuchs,  &c.  (1889). 
Of  expo>itions,  those  of  Thenius  (2d  ed.  Leip.  1873), 
Keil  (2d  ed.  1876;  Eng.  trans.  1872),  Biihr  (in  Langes 
Bihelwcrk,  18()G ;  Eng.  trans.  1877),  RawILnson  (in 
Speaker's  Commentary),  and  Keuss  [La  Bible)  may  be 
mentioned. 

King's  Beiioli.    See  Common  L.wv. 

King's  C'ollege,  London,  an  institution  ad- 
joining Somerset  House,  Sti-aml,  founded  by  royal 
charter  in  1828,  and  confirmed  by  act  of  parlia- 
ment in  1882,  and  on  the  fundamental  principle 
'that  instruction  in  the  Christian  religion  ought 
to  form  an  indispensable  part  of  every  system  of 
general  education  for  the  youth  of  a  Christian  com- 
munity.' The  college  being  strictly  in  connection 
with  the  Church  of  England,  divinity  lectures  are 
a  regular  part  of  its  routine.  The  usual  university 
education  for  young  men  is  provided  in  theology, 
literature  ( ancient  and  modern ),  science,  engineer- 
ing and  applied  science,  and  medicine.  It  has  also 
a  school  of  line  art,  and  a  ilepartment  for  the  pre- 
paration of  candidates  for  the  civil  service.  The 
instruction  is  adapted  for  students  abo\e  the  age 
of  sixteen,  but  there  is  a  school  (1830)  for  boys  in 
fonnection  with  the  college,  with  workshops  for 
meclianical  training.  There  is  a  branch  at  Ken- 
sington for  the  higher  education  of  ladies ;  also 
evening  classes  for  students  occui)icd  during  the 
<lay.  The  museum  has  a  collection  of  models  and 
instruments.  For  a  sketch  of  the  ri.se  and  progress 
of  the  college,  see  The  Cdchndioti  of  the  Colkije 
Jubilee  (1881). 

King's  or  Queen's  €oHllsel  are  certain 
barristers  at  law,  in  England  and  Ireland,  who  have 
been  appointed  by  letters-i)atent.  The  office  is 
entirely  honorary,  but  it  gives  a  right  of  pre- 
audience in  all  the  courts,  according  to  the  date 
of  appointment.  The  appointment  practically 
belongs  to  the  Lord  Chancellor.  In  s]iite  of  their 
title,  they  are  not  prevented  from  being  retained 
and  acting  for  ordinary  clients,  except  that  in 
defending  prisoners  and  acting  in  suits  against  the 
crown  they  require  a  special  license  from  the 
crown,  which  is,  however,  never  refused.  In  Scot- 
land tlu're  is  no  such  distinction,  but  the  ollices  of 
Lord  .Ailvocate  and  Solicitor-general  are  practically 
ciiuivalent.  The  appointment  is  for  lite,  but  in 
case  of  disgraceful  conduct  the  letters-patent  are 
revoked,  as  was  done  in  1862  to  Edwin  James, 
■who,  in  1873,  applied  in  vain  for  restitution. 

The  Queen's  Counsels'  robes  are  of  silk  instead 
of  the  ordinary  (alpaca)  'stutV  of  which  the 
junior's  gown  is  nuide ;  and  'taking  silk'  is  thus 
the  common  phrase  signifying  that  an  'outer' 
barrister  has  become  a  t^)ueeirs  Counsel  or  t^.C. 
'Taking  silk'  is  frequently  injurious  rather  than 
advantageous  to  a  professional  career.  A  t^neen's 
Counsel  is  iirohibited  by  legal  etiquette  from  taking 
a  good  deal  of  minor  business  which  fell  to  his 
share  as  a  junior,  and  'silk,'  a  stciipiiig-stonc  to 
the  great  men,  is  a  stumbling-block  to  the  small. 
When  a  junior  has  reacheil  the  position  in  which 
he  feels  justified,  or  is  forced  by  the  public  opiinon 
of  his  circuit,  to  'apply  for  silk,'  his  demand  is 
very  rarely  refuse<l,  or  at  jiiost  postponed,  and  the 
lionour  is  little  mure  than  a  necessary  iuciduut  in 


every  successful  legal  career.  Henry  Brougliam, 
indeed,  was  debarred  for  some  years  from  what 
was  in  his  case  a  professional  right  by  the  pcison.al 
antipathy  of  tieorge  IV.  and  Lord  Eldon,  ami  it 
was  m)t  until  1827,  on  the  acce.'ision  to  power  of 
George  Canning,  that  Brougham  received  a  Patent 
of  prece<lence  wliich  clothed  him  in  silk  and  gave 
him  all  the  professiimal  advantages  without  the 
actual  title.  But  this  is  a  striking  and  almost 
a  solitary  exception.  Of  late  years  colonial 
barristers  have  been  gratified  with  the  title  of 
Queen's  Counsel  conferred  l)y  the  Lord  Chancellor, 
on  representation  made  by  the  governor  of  the 
colony  through  the  Secretary  of  State. 

King's  Connty.  an  inland  county  of  Inland, 
in  Leinster,  is  boundeil  on  the  W.  by  the  Shannon, 
which  separates  it  from  Koscommon  and  (lal^ay. 
It  is  20  miles  long  from  noith  to  south  by  ")8  « ide. 
Area,  493,985  statute  acres,  or  772  sq.  ni.  <tf  this 
l'22,Io4  acres  were  under  crops  in  1889  ;  ami  of  this 
again  nearly  one-half  was  grass,  whilst  '24^  per 
cent,  was  corn  and  green  crops  (oats,  barhiv,  pota- 
toes, and  turnips).  Twenty-three  per  cent,  ot  the 
total  area  was  covered  with  bogs,  including  a  large 
part  of  the  Bog  of  Allen.  The  population  hivs 
steadilvdecrea.sed— (1841)  146,857;  (1861)90,013; 
1 1881 )  "72,852  ;  ( 1891  )  65,563,  of  whom  .">8,'264  were 
Roman  Catholics.  The  surface  is  flat,  excciil  for  the 
Slieve  Bloom  Mountains  (17.33  feet)  on  the  south 
boundary.  The  soil,  a  light  loam  of  me<lium 
depth,  resting  on  limestone  gravel,  is  of  average 
fertility.  'The  Grand  Canal  traverses  the  northern 
])ortion  of  the  county,  and  joins  the  .Shannon. 
The  river  Barrow  separates  it  from  t,)ueen's 
County  on  the  south-east.  King's  County,  con- 
stituted a  shire  in  1557,  and  named  in  honour  of 
King  Philip,  returns  two  membei-s.  In  the  north- 
west is  Clonmacnois  Abbey,  founded  in  .548,  one 
of  tlie  most  interesting  ecclesiastical  ruins  in  Ire- 
land. At  Birr  Castle  Lord  Kosse  erected  his  great 
telescope.  The  chief  towns  are  Tullamore  (5098), 
Pars(mstown  or  Birr  (4955),  and  I'ortarlingtou 
(2357). 

King's   or  Qneeu's   Evidence.     See  Ap- 

PROVEK. 

King's  E>il.    See  Scrofula. 

Kingsley,  Charles,  born  at  Holne  vicar- 
age, Dartmoor,  Devon,  12th  .lune  1819.  .\fter 
education  p.artly  at  King's  College,  London,  he 
went  up  to  IMagdalen  College,  Cambridge,  and  took 
his  degree  in  1842 — Hrst-c-lass  in  classics,  senior 
optinie  in  mathematics — and  was  immediately 
ordaineil  to  the  curacy  of  Eversley  in  Hampshire, 
of  which  parish  he  became  rector  in  1844.  There 
he  lived  for  the  remainder  of  his  life,  having 
marrieil  a  daughter  of  Mr  I'ascoe  Grenfell  in  the 
year  in  which  he  was  presented  to  his  living. 

His  dramatic  poem.  The  SaitiVs  Tnii/eili/,  ur  The 
True  Hfuri/  of  Elizabeth  of  Hii»(jarj/,  an  'admir- 
able representation  of  medieval  piety,'  a|)peared  in 
1848,  and  was  immediately  followed  by  two  works 
of  a  verv  dillercnt  character,  Alton  Loehc  and  Yaist, 
both  puldished  in  1849.  These  brilliant  novels  are  the 
work  of  a  Kadical,  a  'Christian  Socialist, '  and  deal 
with  modern  social  questions  in  a  lM)ld  and  a  strik- 
ingly original  niiinner.  The  hero  of  Alton  Loehc, 
'  tailor  and  poet,'  is  found  in  a  London  winkshop. 
In  Fcf(6<  the  condition  of  the  English  agiicultnral 
lalxmrer  is  dealt  with  by  one  whose  sympathy  with 
the  peo|de  is  aristocratic,  not  democratii',  who.se 
radicalism  is  t'hristi.m,  and  not  scejjtical,  whose 
entliusiiisin  never  degenerates  into  nnrciu^on,  and 
whose  most  brilliant  invective  is  always  balanced 
by  common  sense.  The  influence  of  these  books 
at  the  time  was  enormous  ;  and  if  Kingsley  wrote 
nothing  more  of  the  same  character,  it  was  not  so 
luuch  that  time  had  modified  his  views  as  that  LLs 


KINGSLEY 


KINGSTON-UPON-THAMES     435 


views  had  moditieil  the  times.  For  two  or  tliree 
veai-s  previous  to  the  pulilication  of  these  novels 
Ivingsley  had  thrown  liinisell  with  all  the  ardour  of 
youth  and  of  his  own  impetuous  nature  into  various 
schemes  for  the  im|)rovenieut  of  the  condition, 
material,  moral,  and  religious,  of  the  workin^'classes, 
a  suhjeet  of  which  wc  all  hear  a  good  deal  at  the 
present  day,  hut  which  was  somewhat  strange  in 
1844.  In  tills  work  he  Wivs  associated  with  ^Ir 
Maurice,  the  recognised  leader  of  the  movement 
known  as  '  Christian  Socialism  ; '  and  he  publishe<l 
under  the  well-known  p.seudonym  of  •  Parson  Lot ' 
an  immense  number  of  articles  on  current  topics, 
especially  in  the  ClirUtiun  Socialist  and  Pulitirs  fur 
the  People.  In  1853  appeare<l  llijimtia,  one  of 
his  most  fascinating  works,  a  vigorous  and  brilliant 
picture  of  early  Christianity  in  conflict  with  Greek 
philosophy  at  Alexandria  in  the  beginning  of  the 
5tli  century.  Westumnl  Ho.'  followed  in  1855, 
and  the  presentment  of  Klizabethan  England  and 
the  Spanish  Main,  of  Devonshire  worthies  and  their 
Spanish  foemen,  is  as  lifelike  as  anything  to  be 
found  in  the  whole  range  of  romantic  literature. 
The  tone  of  the  hook  is  hearty,  Enjjlish,  Protestant, 
free,  and,  like  the  author  himself,  at  (mce  strong 
and  tender.  In  Tiro  Years  Ago  ( 1857)  he  sketched 
with  a  master  hand  the  North  Devon  scenery 
so  dear  to  the  west  countryman  ;  and  Here- 
ward  the  Wake  (1866),  a  novel  of  the  days  of 
the  Conqueror,  brought  the  noble  series  of  works 
of  fiction  to  a  close.  In  1860  the  university  of 
Cambridge  had  chosen  the  author  of  Hypatia  and 

Westward  Ho !  to  be  profe.s.sor  of  History,  and 
his  inaugural  lecture  was  published  at  the  end 
of  that  year  under  the  title  of  The  Limits  of 
Exaet  Scienee  as  applied  to  Historij.  The  Roman 
and  the  Teuton  (1864)  is  also  based  upon  his  Cam- 
bridge lectures. 

In  1869  Kingsley  resigned  his  professorship  and 
was  appointed  a  canon  of  Chester;  and  in  1871  he 
made  the  voyage  that  be  had  so  Ion"  contemplated, 
to  the  tropics,  of  whose  six'uery  ne  had  already 
written  so  enthusiastically  ;  and  on  his  return  to 
Eversley  from  the  West  Indies  he  gave  to  the  world 
one  of  its  most  charming  books  of  travel.  At  Last. 
In  1873  Kingsley  was  appointed  a  canon  of  West- 
minster and  chaplain  to  the  tjueen.  He  died 
at  Eversley  on  23d  January  1875.  His  Life,  by 
his  widow,  in  2  vols,  published  in  1876,  is  a  bio- 
graphy of  deep  and  sustained  interest.  Kingsley 
was  by  nature  hot-tempered,  enthusiastic,  ami  com- 
bative, yet  inhnitely  sympathetic  ami  tender  of 
heart ;  his  '  muscular  Christianity  '  (a  phrase  he  dis- 
liked )  was  cheerful  and  robust ;  he  had  great  and 
varied  information,  a  keen  wit,  and  a  mind's  eye 
that  ever  looke<l  below  the  surface.  His  collecte<l 
works  till  28  volumes  (1879-81).  .-Vmong  these, 
besides  those  already  named,  and  many  volumes  of 
sermons,  are  Glaneiis  ( 1854),  The  Heroes  ( 1856),  The 

Water  Babies  (1863),  Town  (ieoluqy  (1872),  Prose 
Idylls  (IH~3),  Health  and  Kdiiedtiou  (IH14).  Of 
a  sixpenny  edition  of  the  chief  books  (1889-90) 
millions  were  sold. 

Killi;»«ley,  Henrv,  brother  of  the  foregoing 
(jiorn  1830,  died  1876),  was  educatcMl  at  King's 
College.  London,  and  Worcester  Collegi-,  Oxford. 
From  1853  to  I8.'j8  he  resided  in  .Vustralia,  and  on 
his  retura  commenced  bis  <'!ireer  .us  a  writir  of 
tiction  with  a  vigorous  picture  of  colonial  life  in 
Geoffrey  Hanihjn  ( 1 859 ).  To  this  succeeded  liarens- 
/i<>e(1861),  his  masterpiece:  Austin  Elliut  (18(i3): 
The  Hillyiirs  anil  the  Burtons,  another  novel  of 
Australian  life  and  maimers  ( 1865),  iVc.  His  iileal 
of  life  Ls  a  noble  anil  a  iiealthy  one  ;  his  works, 
which  show  little  skill  in  the  (onstruction  of  the 
plots,  contain  much  that  is  pathetic,  without  any 
tinge  of  sentimentalisin.  His  stylo  Ls  rather 
vigorous  than  highly  cultivated.      I'Nir  two  years 


(1870-^71)    Kingsley    edited    the   Edinburgh    Daily 
Berieu: 
kiiiif's  Lynn.    See  Lyxn. 

kin^sniill    Islands,    another   name    for    the 

(lilbiTt  Islands  (i|.v.  i. 

King's    llonntain.     See  Ferguson   (P.vt 

RICK  ). 

Kingston,  chief  town  of  Frontenac  county, 
Ontario,  is  situated  at  the  head  of  Lake  Ontario, 
and  at  the  mouth  of  the  Cataraqui  Creek,  161  miles 
by  rail  EN'E.  of  Toronto.  It  has  a  number  o, 
handsome  |mblic  buildings,  and  is  the  .-eat  of  tin 
Koyal  Military  College  of  Canada  ( 1876 ),  of  t^ueen'^ 
University  (1841),  with  mu.seunis  and  an  observa 
tory,  and  of  the  Royal  College  of  Physicians  ami 
Surgeons  (1854)  and  the  Women's  Medical  College 
(1883)  affiliated  to  it.  Here  also  are  a  busines.- 
college  and  a  collegiate  and  training  institute  foi 
teachers.  The  city  has,  besides  excellent  lailwav 
facilities,  good  w-ater-communication  liy  the  lake, 
the  St  Lawrence,  and  the  Kideau  Canal,  which  las^t 
connects  it  with  Ottawa.  It  possesses  a  large, 
sheltered  harbour,  with  an  active  trade,  and  strongly 
fortihed  ;  and,  besides  busy  shiiiyards,  has  manu- 
factories of  locomotives  and  stationary  engines, 
machinery,  leather,  boots  and  shoes,  agricultural 
implements,  wooden  wares,  &c.  (Jrant  Allen  ami 
George  Komanes  are  both  Kingston  men.  Kingston 
is  the  seat  of  an  Anglican  bishop  and  of  a  Roman 
Catholic  archbishop.  Its  site  was  occupied  by  the 
old  French  fort  of  Frontenac.  The  town  was  the 
capital  of  Canada  from  1841  to  1844.  Pop.  (1881) 
14,091  :  (1891)  19,264. 

Kingston,  the  commercial  and  political  capital 
of  Jamaica  iq. v.),  stands  on  the  north  side  of  a 
landlocked  harbour,  the  best  in  the  island,  anil, 
for  its  size,  one  of  the  best  in  the  world.  Pop. 
(1891) -46,542.  It  was  founded  in  1693  1703,  after 
the  neighbouring  town  of  Port  Royal  had  been 
destroyed  by  an  earthquake.  From  tliis  place, 
afterwards  rebuilt,  Kingston  is  distant  6  miles,  the 
breadth  of  its  noble  haven;  while  with  S]ianish 
Town,  towards  the  interior,  it  has  since  1846  been 
connected  by  railway.  In  1758  Spanish  Town 
was  made  the  capital  of  Jamaica,  bul  in  IS72tlie 
.seat  of  government  was  removed  to  Kingston. 
Kingston  was  visited  in  1880  by  a  violent  hurricane, 
and  in  December  1882  well-nigh  consumed  by  fire. 
The  city,  having  a  slope  to  the  sea  of  1  in  60,  is 
well  drained,  but  the  harbour  is  lilthy.  With  a 
gravel  soil  and  a  dry  and  temperate  climate— 
ma.ximum  9.'}'  in  hot  season,  minimum  56'  in  cold 
— it  is  a  healthy  place.  The  most  interest  in;; 
])ublic  building  is  the  Old  Church,  where  Itcnbow 
the  'old  sea-dog 'is  buried.  There  are  tram-cars, 
and  the  w.iter-sujiply  is  good.  The  ini|iorts  have 
an  annual  value  of  from  £1, ,300,000  to  iLi'iOt^OOO, 
the  imiports  from  £.500,000  to  £700,000.  See  the 
annual  Handbook  ofJamaiea  and  Jauutiea  in  IS'JG, 
imblished  by  the  Institute  of  .lamaica. 

Kingston,  capital  of  I'lster  county.  New  York 
stall-,  stands  oil  the  right  bunk  of  the  Hudson,  54 
miles  S.  of  Albany.  It  is  a  railway  and  canal  ter 
minus,  and  is  the  centre  of  extensive  tnansit  trade 
by  steamer.  Enormous  quantities  of  blue-stone 
Hags  are  forwarded  from  Kingston,  which  is  ;ilso  a 
principal  centre  of  the  hydraulic  cement  busine.ss, 
and  contains  a  number  of  breweries,  tanneries, 
Hour  mills,  foundries,  brickvards,  and  other  mauu 
factories.      Pop.  (I8SII)  18,3-14;   (1890)  21,261. 

Kingslon-on-lliill.    See  Htm,. 

Kingston-ll|»UII-Tlianirs,  a  municipal  bor- 
ou;;li  .-iiid  iiiai  kct-town  of  Surrey,  12  miles  S\V.  of 
Londiin,  lies  on  the  right  liank  of  the  Tliames, 
here  crossed  by  two  bridges — one  of  stone  com- 
pleted   1828  and    freed    1870,   and    the  other    an 


436 


KINGSTON 


KINO 


iron  railway  viailuct.  Of  late  yearn,  with  its 
suburlis  of  Norliitoii,  Surbitoii,  ami  New  Mai- 
den, it  has  rapidly  increased  in  size,  its  eiisy 
access  to  London,  coupled  with  its  facilities  for 
boating  and  the  pleiusant  siirrunuilings  of  the 
ueiglibourhood,  notably  Hampton  Court,  Cushy 
ami  Kiclunond  Parks,  having  attracted  large  iiUMi- 
bers  of  residents.      I'opuhuioji  of  the  pai  ish,  ( ISOl ) 


-143S:   (1831) 


(ISSlI    3."),SL>il;    (l.SIII)    41„SS(i, 


of  whom  "27,059  weie  within  tbt-  municipal  limits. 
The  parish  church,  of  which  William  Coxe  the  his- 
torian was  once  rector,  has  some  tine  monuments  ; 
the  county  council  buildings,  costing  £36,000, 
were  undertaken  in  1S90.  In  history,  however, 
Kingston  has  figured  somewhat  consjiicuously  :  in 
S3S  it  was  the  scene  of  a  great  council,  convened 
by  Egbert,  king  of  Wesse.x,  and  his  son  Ethelwulf  ; 
seven  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  kings  were  crowned  here, 
as  recorded  on  the  coronation-stone  still  standing 
near  the  market-place  ;  King  John,  who  granted 
the  town  its  first  charter,  was  a  frei|uent  vLsitor 
in  120-1-15  ;  in  I'iti-l,  during  the  civil  war  witli 
Simon  de  Jlontfort,  Kingston  Ca.stle  (of  wliich  no 
traces  now  remain)  was  captured  by  Henry  111.; 
Fairfax  made  the  town  his  headquarters  in  1047  ; 
and  a  year  later  took  place  in  the  neiglibourhood 
tlie  last  tight  between  the  royalists  and  Round- 
heads, when  Lord  Holland  and  the  Duke  of 
Buckingluim  were  defeated.  At  Ham  Common 
liveil  Gay's  'Kitty,'  Duchess  of  yueensberry.  See 
Bidens  Histury  uf  Kinijston-upoiiTliames  (1852). 

Kingston,  William  Henry  Giles,  a  popular 

writer  of  boys'  stories,  was  born  in  London,  28tli 
February  1814.  His  father  was  a  uierciiant  in 
Oporto,  and  there  nnich  of  his  youth  was  spent. 
At  first  a  merchant,  he  iiad  already  ])nl>lished  two 
stories  and  a  book  of  Portuguese  travel,  when  in 
1851  he  found  the  work  of  his  life  in  the  immediate 
success  of  Peter  the  Whaler,  his  lirst  liook  for  boys. 
During  the  ne.xt  thirty  years  he  ])ublished  more 
tlian  120  similar  boidvs.  all  simple,  vigorous,  and 
healthy  in  tone  ;  full  of  daring  adventures,  hair- 
breadth escapes,  and  all  tlie  magic  of  the  sea 
which  he  not  only  loved  but  knew.  His  heart 
never  lost  its  wholesome  glow  of  admiration  for 
any  form  of  human  heroism,  and  the  simple  and 
sincere  veracit.v  of  his  style  easily  generated  a  corre- 
sponding sympathetic  enthusiasm  in  his  young 
readers.  And  he  possessed  in  no  small  share  the 
pictorial  imagination  which  enabled  him  to  borrow 
colour  from  travellers'  accounts  of  countries  he  had 
never  seen.  Amimg  his  most  popular  books  w'ere 
The  Three  Miilshipmen,  The  Three  Lieuteniint.s,  The 
Three  Cominanders,  and  The  Three  Adminils. 
Kingston  took  an  acti\e  interest  in  many  philan- 
thropic schemes,  as  the  mission  to  seamen,  and 
assisted  emigration.  He  was  knighted  by  the 
<|Ueen  of  Portugal  for  his  services  in  helping  to 
bring  about  a  commercial  treaty  between  Engl.ind 
and  Portugal.  He  died  at  Willesden,  5tli  August 
1N80. 

Kin;;stOWII.  a  populous  ami  iiLjportant  suburb 
of  Duldin,  7  miles  SSE.  from  lln^  (J.  P.O.  Trains 
run  in  15  minutes  to  Dublin.  Previous  to  1817, 
when  the  harbour  works  were  commenced,  it  was 
merely  a  lishing-village  known  as  Dunleaiy.  On 
the  occfusion  of  the  visit  of  Geoige  IV.  in  September 
1821  its  name  was  changed  to  Kingstown.  The 
situation  of  the  town  ami  the  invigorating  air 
have  made  Kingstown  a  favourite  resilience  for 
the  well-to-do  classes  having  business  in  Dublin. 
The  mail  packets  .sail  from  Kingstown  to  Holyhead 
twice  a  day,  morning  anil  evening.  Theie  is  little 
general  trade,  though  the  harbour,  com|ilete<l  by 
the  Admiralty  in  1.S.59  at  a  cost  to  the  imperial 
treasury  of  t'.S25,0OO,  is  one  of  the  linest  in  the 
United  ICingUuni.     The  east  pier  is  3oOU  feet  iu 


length  :  the  west,  ,5000  feet,  enclosing  an  area  of 
over  250  acres,  with  a  ilepth  of  from  13  to  27  feet. 
Vessels  drawing  as  much  as  24  feet  can  come  along- 
side the  quay  at  any  state  of  tlie  tide.  Kingstown 
is  within  the  parliamentary  divLsiou  of  South 
Dublin.     Pop.  (1890)  25,0(K).  ' 

Kingstown,  capital  of  the  British  island  of  St 
Vincent,  iu  the  West  Indies,  stands  at  the  south- 
west extremity  of  the  island,  on  a  large  bay,  at  the 
foot  of  one  of  the  simrs  of  Mount  St  Andrew  (about 
2000  feet).     Poj..  5593. 

Killg-tc-ohiu.  the  principal  seat  of  porcelain 
manufacture  in  China,  in  tln'  piovince  of  Chiang- 
hsi,  on  a  small  river  which  falls  into  i^ake  Po-vang 
from  the  east.      INip.  500,000. 

King  M'illiaiustown.  capital  of  a  division  of 
the  same  name  on  the  Buffalo  Kiver,  in  the  SE.  of 
Cape  Colony,  SO  miles  ENE.  of  Grahamstown,  and 
by  rail  (1877)42  W\W.  of  E;ist  London,  on  the 
coast.  It  has  considerable  trade,  military  barracks 
and  stores,  and  a  college.     I'op.  about  8000. 

KinlvajOU  (Cercoleptes  caudivulritliis),  a  quad- 
rujied  of  the  group  Arctoidea,  and  allied  to  the 
raccoons  and  coatis.  It  has  six  inci.sors,  one  canine 
tooth,  and  live  molars  in  each  jaw,  the  three  hinder 
molars  tuberculous.  The  kinkajou  is  larger  than  a 
polecat,  has  a  yellowish  woolly  fur,  climbs  trees, 
feeds  on  fruits,  honey,  iK:c.,  as  well  as  on  small 
animals.  It  is  a  native  of  the  warm  parts  of 
America,  from  central  Mexico  to  the  Kio  Xegro  of 
Brazil.  It  used  to  be  classilied  with  the  lemurs,  to 
which  it  bears  not  a  little  resemblance,  particularly 
in  its  habit  of  sitting  on  its  hindqmirters  and  feeil- 
ing  itself  with  its  hands.  Sir  K.  Owen  was  one  of 
the  first  to  show  that  here  aiipearances  are  decep- 
tive, and  that  the  animal  is  a  true  carnivore. 

Kinliel,  JoH.\NN  Gottfkiku,  a  German  poet 
and  writer,  was  born  at  Oberka-ssel,  near  Bonn, 
11th  .\ugust  1815.  He  studied  theology  at  Bonn 
and  Berlin,  and  then  lectured  on  theology,  after- 
wards on  poetry  and  the  history  of  art.  at  the  uni- 
versity of  Bonn.  But,  becoming  involved  in  the 
revolutionary  movement  of  1848,  he  wii-s  imprisoned 
in  the  fortress  of  Spandau,  wlience,  however,  he 
escaiied  with  the  hel])  of  his  wife  and  Karl  Schurz. 
Settling  in  London,  he  earned  his  living  by  teaching 
German  until  1800,  when  he  was  appointed  pro- 
fess(n'  of  Aich:cology  and  Art  at  Zurich.  There  he 
ilied,  13th  November  1882.  As  a  poet  Kiiikel's 
fame  rests  upon  the  ejiics  Otto  i/er  Schiit:  (1846; 
56th  ed.  1881 ),  a  graceful  poem  of  the  chivalry  of 
the  Hhine;  Dcr  (Irobschmicd  run  Aidurrnctt  (1872; 
4th  ed.  1887) :  Marfjret,  einc  Durfijesrhiehtr  ( 1872) : 
Tunaifra  (1883;  3il  ed.  1886);  two  volumes  of 
(r'«<//(7i<<;  ( 1843-68) ;  and  a  drama,  Nimrod  (1857). 
He  iilso  wrote  a  history  of  art  (1845)  ;  a  series  of 
essays  on  art  subjects  ( 1876) ;  and  monographs  on 
Kubens  (1874),  F'reiligrath  (1867),  &c.  See  Lives 
bv  Strodtnumn  (1850),  Am  Kliyn  (1883),  Liibke 
I  1893).— His  lirst  wife,  JoH.\NN.'v  (1810-58),  a  dis- 
tinguished  musician,  wrote  with  her  husband, 
h'r-iih/iiiii/iii  (1849).  After  her  dc.-iih  appeared 
her  novel,  Hans  lUeles  in  Lundun  (1860). 

Kinnaird  Head.    See  Fk.vsekuihgh. 

Kino,  an  a-triiigent  .substaiu'e  resembling  Cate- 
chu (q.v.),  the  concrete  exudation  of  certain  trop- 
ical trees,  esjiecially  of  I'teriiearpii.s  iiiarsii/iium,  a. 
native  of  the  forests  of  Madras  and  Cevlon.  East 
Indian  kino  is  the  kind  which  now  chietlv  occure  in 
commerce,  and  is  the  ordinary  kino  or  i/um  kiiiu  of 
the  shojis.  It  is  in  small  angular  glistening  frag- 
ments, the  smaller  reddish,  the  larger  almost  black. 
Thin  |)ieces  are  ruby  red.  It  is  brittle  and  eiusily 
powdered,  has  no  smell,  but  has  a  very  astringent 
taste.  Bengal  kino  is  a  similar  astringent  sub- 
stance, produced  by  Butea  froiidosa  (see  BUTEA). 


KINROSS-SHIRE 


KIPPIS 


437 


Botany  Bay  kiiio  is  the  produce  of  Eiirah/ptiis 
rcsini/cra.  The  astiinfrenoy  of  kino  is  due  to 
tannin  and  pyrooatechin.  It  is  employed  in  cer- 
tain forms  of  <liarrha\a  as  coi/i/i<iii>ii/  Kino  povclcr 
(with  opium  and  ciimamon).  The  tincture  of  kino 
forms  a  good  gargle  for  the  uvula.  Kino  serves 
in  India  as  a  yellowishhrown  cotton  dye. 

HilirOSS-sllire.  the  smallest  Scotch  county 
after  Clackmannanshire,  lies  lietween  I'ertlisliire 
and  Fife,  and,  measuring  9J  hv  I'iJ  miles,  has  an 
area  of  7H  sq.  m.,  or  49,812  acres,  of  which  X\i~t  are 
water.  Most  of  the  drainage  helongs  to  Loch 
Leven  (q.v. ),  from  which  the  surface  rises  to 
encircling  hills  ~'.M  to  1.573  feet  high.  A  separate 
county  since  12.V2  and  earlier,  Kinross-shire  unites 
with  Clackmann.anshire  to  return  one  memher  to 
parliament.  Pop.  ( 1801 )  6725 ;  ( 1S51 )  8924 ;  ( 1S8I ) 
6697  :  ( 1891 )  after  adjustment  of  areas  with  Perth 
and  Fife,  66.37,  of  whom  1920  were  in  the  county 
town,  Kinross,  27  miles  XNW.  of  Edinburgh,  and 
near  the  west  eml  of  Looh  Leven.  See  .lincas 
Mack.-vy's  Fife  and  Kinross-shire  ( 1890). 

KinsaICa  a  municipal  horough  and  seaport  of 
County  Cork,  at  the  head  of  Kinsale  Harbour, 
which  is  formed  bv  the  estuary  of  the  river  Bandon, 
24  miles  SSW.  of  Cork  by  a  railway  ( 1S6.3).  Down 
to  the  L'nion  Kinsale  returned  two  members ; 
tlienceforwaril  one  until  188.5.  The  harbour,  laml- 
locked,  is  about  2  miles  long,  .ami  is  capable  of  con- 
taining .300  ships.  Its  once  tionrishing  trade  h.as 
pa.s.seil  to  its  rivals  Cork  and  C^ueenstown.  On  the 
Ohl  Head  of  Kinsale,  a  promontory  stretching  south- 
w.ard  into  the  .-Vtl.antic,  stands  a  lighthouse  whose 
light,  2.36  feet  .above  high-water,  is  visible  for  21 
miles.  Pop.  (18.51  )  5506;  (1891)  460.5.  In  I60I, 
3000  Spaniards  landed  at  Kinsale  in  order  to  fight 
for  tiie  O'Neill  confederacy.  Here  James  II.  landed 
on  12th  Maich  16S9,  and  here  he  re-embarked  in 
July  1690.  In  the  following  October  the  fort  was 
captured  by  Marlborough. 

Killtyre,  or  C.\xtire  (Gael,  ceanntir,  'head- 
land '),  a  long,  narrow  peninsula  of  Argyllshire, 
between  the  .\tlantic  and  the  Firth  of"  Clyde, 
extending  42  miles  south  by  westward,  and  4i  to 
IH  miles  broail.  At  the  north  end  it  connects 
with  the  mainland  by  the  isthmus  of  Tarbert,  IJ 
mile  broad,  between  East  Loch  Tarbert,  a  bay  of 
Loch  Fyne,  and  West  Loch  Tarbert.  The  surface 
is  diversified  by  a  ridge  of  low,  moorish  bills,  with 
many  lochs,  the  highest  point  being  Ben  an-Tuirc 
(1491  feet).  Coal  is  found  at  Dnimlemble,  4  miles 
to  the  west  of  Campbeltown  (f|.v.).  Machrihanish 
Bay,  on  the  west  coast,  just  beyond,  possesses 
noted  golfing  link.s.  A  fair  proportion  of  the 
.soil  is  in  cultivation.  A  lighthouse  ( 1787),  297  feet 
above  .sea-level,  stands  on  the  .Mull  of  Kintyre 
(the  Epidiinn  Promontoriiim  of  Ptolemy),  which  is 
overhung  by  Ben-na-Lice  (1403  feet),  and  is  only 
\Z  miles  distant  from  Ireland.  The  ancient  seat  of 
the  kingdom  of  Halriada  (q.v.),  Kintyre  ranked  till 
tlie  17tli  century  as  part  of  tlu;  ll(d>rid('s,  being 
held  successively  by  Norsemen,  by  the  .Macdonalds 
I  of  the  Isles,  and  by  Campbells.  Its  antifjuities  in- 
clude the  ruins  of  the  Cistercian  abbey  ol  Sadilell, 
'  of  the  castles  of  Dunaverty,  Oundonald,  Saddell, 
and  Skipne.ss,  and  of  many  forts  and  pre  Hefmiiia- 
tion  chapels.^  See  T.  P.  Wliite'.s  Arclimotogical 
Sketches  in  Kintyre  ( 1873). 

Kioto.     See  Kyoto. 

kiprliaks,  a  Turkic  people,  who  in  the  Utli 
century  wen;  settleil  in  the  steppes  of  south-east 
Ku.ssia,  between  the  Cral  and  the  \)<m,  north  of  the 
river  Kunia.  .'Vfter  the  death  of  Cenghis  Khan,  one 
of  his  four  sons,  Batu,  compiereil  (  1238  43)  nearly 
all  the  central  anrl  southern  <listricts  of  Knssia,  ami 
founded  the  great  empire  of  thetiolden  Ilonleorthe 
Kipcliaks,  fi.\ing  his  magnilicent  cam])  ( Tu rkic.  nnln. 


'  camp,'  hence  the  word  Horde )  on  the  ^'olga.  They 
gradually  acipiired  the  rmliments  of  civilisation  as 
they  came  into  contact  with  the  cultured  peoples  of 
the  west  and  south.  The  (iohlen  Horde  and  the 
ea-stern  branch,  the  White  Horde  or  eastern  Kiji- 
chak,  were  united  about  1378  ;  but  this  joint  em- 
pire w.os  broken  up  by  Tamerlane  in  1390-95.  Out 
of  the  fragments  were  formed  the  small  khanates  of 
Astrakhan,  Kazan,  the  Crimea,  <.K:c.,  all  of  which 
were  eventually  absorbed  by  I'ussia.  The  modern 
descendants  of  the  western  Kipcliaks  are  the  Tar- 
tars of  Kazan,  Astrakhan,  the  Crimea,  iVc.  (see 
Takt.ar.s).  The  descendants  of  the  eastern  Kip- 
cliaks are  the  Kirghiz  (f|.v.),  of  whose  three  hordes 
the  middle  one  is  still  called  Kipcliaks.  See 
Howorth,  History  of  the  Jloiir/ols  { 1880). 

KiplillS.  RrDY.\RD,  story-teller,  was  horn  at 
r!<iiiili.iy,  3()tli  December  1865,  the  son  of  John 
Lockwood  Kipling,  C. I.E.,  princi]ial  of  the  Scliofd 
of  Alt  at  Lahore  in  the  Pnniab,  himself  the  .author 
of  llenst  and  Man  in  India  ( 1891  ).  liudyard  was 
educated  at  Westward  Ho  and  elsewhere  in  Eng- 
land, but  returned  in  1880  to  India,  where  he  liegan 
to  contribute  verses,  tales,  and  articles  to  Indian 
journals,  making  his  literary  debut  at  Lahore  in 
1884  (in  Echoes).  But  it  was  by  his  Departmental 
/)(7//<-s  (1st  ed.,  Calcutta,  \»HG)',  P/ain  Talcs  from 
the  Hills  (Calcutta,  1S88  ),  and  Soldiers  Three  { .Mla- 
habad,  1889),  that  he  became  well  known  in  Eng- 
laiiil,  and  sprang  at  once  into  the  front  rank  of 
]ioiiular  f.avoniites.  The  Sfori/  rjf  the  Gadsh/s,  In 
Black  and  White,  Under  the  Deodars,  Wee  Willie 
Winkle,  and  The  Phantom  liiekshrrir,  followed  close 
on  the  heels  of  Soldiers  Three,  and  like  it  formed 
part  of  an  Indian  Raihray  Lilirary  published  at 
.Vllahabad.  The  City  of  Dreadful  Xiifht  ilhi>trates 
certain  a.'^pects  of  Calcutta.  More  ambitions,  though 
hardly  so  successful,  wa.s  the  longer  tale,  'The  Lii/ht 
that  'Failed  (1891).  The  Barrack-Poom  Ballads 
( 1892 ),  in  verse  more  remarkable  for  \  igoiirof  diction 
and  swing  of  rhythm  than  for  the  refinements  of 
poetic  form,  were  amongst  his  most  brilliant  suc- 
cesses; and  Naulakha  (1892),  a  longer  tale,  wa.s 
produced  in  conjunction  with  Mr  Balestier.  Life's 
Handicap  (1891)  and  Many  Inrcvtiims  (1893)  are 
other  collections  of  short  talef^  and  sketches,  not 
exclusively  Indian  in  stibject  ;  and  the  magazines 
compete  for  contributions  from  his  pen.  lnJ892-96 
he  lived  mainly  in  the  United  States. 

From  the  fii-st  his  sketches  of  the  glories  ami 
disgraces  and  views  of  Tommy  Atkins  abroad, 
and  of  the  more  myslerions  and  unfamiliar  life  ol 
the  natives,  were  felt  equally  to  'palpitate  witli 
actuality.'  He  .seems  from  an  intimate  and  first- 
hand knowledge  of  the  minds  and  hearts  alike  of 
natives  and  sokliers  to  render  their  own  ideas  in 
their  very  words  ;  and  he  deals  directly  and  simply 
with  the  elemental  passions  of  human  nature,  witli 
love  and  hate,  with  shame  and  fear,  witli  joy  ami 
misery.  The  interlocutors,  both  high  and  low,  are 
freqm^ntly  far  from  refined,  reverent,  or  sinle.'^s  ; 
and  it  has  been  objected  to  his  tales  of  Anglo- 
Indian  life  that  the  tone  is  both  fli]>pant  and  cynical, 
and  that  too  many  of  both  his  men  and  women 
seem  to  be  '  (ilaying  at  tennis  with  the  seventh 
commandment,'  .as  he  himself  words  it.  But  un- 
questionably he  commands  true  i<'alistic  ])ower,  and 
in  his  smallest  niaster]iieces,  pathos  ami  biiminir, 
the  ghastly  and  the  comic,  are  combined  with  the 
vraiscndda'ncc  of  an  everyday  experience.  His  in- 
imitable Juneile  Hook  ( 1894)  was  followed  by  a 
Second  Jiinfjtc  Book  (1895).  There  were  inore 
Soldier  Stories  in  1896,  ami  the  poem  called  Scrcn 
Scax.  Captains  Conrar/coiis  (1897)  was  a  tale  of 
fishing  life  on  the  batiks  of  Newfoiimlland.  The 
Day's  Work  ( 1S98)  was  a  (■i.llection  of  stories. 

Ki|>|>is.  Am)I:i;w.  D.D.,  K.K.S.  ( 1 725-95 ),  horn 


438 


KIRBY 


KIRKCALDY 


at  Nottinj;liam,  studieil  at  Northanipton  uiuler  Dr 
Dodilridjie,  and  from  1753  was  minister  of  a  dis- 
sentiiij^  coni,'iegation  in  Westminister.  He  wrote 
niucli  for  the  m:ii,'azines,  lielpeil  to  t'onnd  tlie  A  iniiinl 
Register,  edited  Lardner's  worlcs  ( 1 1  vols. ),  wrote 
Lives  of  tlie  four  Karls  of  Sliafteslmrv  and  Dr 
Doddridf^e,  and  edited  tlie  new  edition  of  the 
B/nr/i'ii/i/ilii  Tirituiiiiira  (5  vols,  folio,  unlinislied, 
1778 -9:{). 

Kirby,  Wili.i.vm,  entomologist,  wa-s  Viorn  at 
Witnesliam  Hall,  Suttblk,  lOtli  September  175!). 
He  was  educated  at  Ipswich  j;rammar-scliool 
and  Cains  College,  Cambridge,  graduated  15. A. 
in  17SI,  took  orders  in  the  following  year,  and 
was  first  curate,  after  1796  rector,  of  the  iiuiet 
SutlblU  parish  of  Barliam,  where  he  died,  July  4, 
1850.  His  piincipal  works  are  Monographia  Apitm 
Auriliw  (Ipswich,  1802),  and  Introduction  to  Ento- 
moloqy  (4  vcds.  1815-26),  the  latter  written  con- 
jointly with  Mr  S]ience.  The  first  was  very  favour- 
ably received  both  at  home  and  abroad,  and  at  once 
secured  for  Kirby  a  distinguished  place  among 
European  .savants.  The  second  work  is  written  in 
the  form  of  letters  (fifty-one  in  number),  giving  a 
familiar  account  of  the  habits,  instincts,  and  uses 
of  insects,  and  remains  a  classical  masterpiece  of 
rtilgarisation  in  the  best  sense  of  the  word.  To 
the  seventh  edition  Spence  contributed  an  ap|ien- 
ilix  giving  the  history  of  the  book.  KirViy  also 
contributed  a  variety  of  very  important  entomo- 
logical papers  to  the  Linna^an  Transactions.  His 
greatest  tliscovery  in  this  department  of  science  is 
that  of  the  genus  Stylops — the  type  of  a  new  order 
of  insects,  livin"  in  the  larva  state  parasitically  in 
the  bodies  of  bees.  He  also  wrote  one  of  the 
Bridgewater  Treatises,  entitled  llahita  nnd  In- 
stiiii't.s  of  Animals  (1835).  Kirby  was  one  of  the 
lirst  members  of  the  l^inna^an  Society  (founded  in 
1788),  honorary  president  of  the  Entomological 
Society,  and  Fellow  of  the  Koyal  and  Geological 
Societies.  See  the  Life  by  the  Kev.  John  Freeman 
( 1852 ). 

Kirchor,  Ath.VXASH-s  (1601-80),  German 
Jesuit,  idiiliilogist,  jihysicist,  and  inventor  of  the 
magic-  lanh-rn.  See  HiEROGLYl'lllcs  ;  and  Life  by 
Brischar  (  Wiirzb.  1877). 

Kil'cllliott',  GusTAV  Robert,  physicist  ( 1824- 
S7),  became  professor  in  lierlin  I'luversity  in  1874. 
He  distinguished  himself  in  the  departments  of 
elasticity,  the  mechanical  theory  of  heat,  optics, 
and  especially  of  spectrum-analysis.  See  Spec- 
I'RUM  :  and  L'ife  by  lioltzmann  ( Leip.  1888). 

Kil'^flliz,  or  KiH(:illz-K.\ZAKS,  a  peojile  siiread 
over  till!  immen.se  territory  bounded  by  the  Volga, 
the  Irtisli,  Chinese  Turkestan,  Ala-tan  Mountains, 
the  Syr-l)aria,  and  Aral  and  Caspian  Seas.  A  few 
tribes  of  Kalmucks  also  live  within  these  bound- 
.iries.  Over  this  vast  tract  reigns  a  dismal  mono- 
tony ;  the  C(mntry  has  scarcely  any  imjiortant 
elevation  or  depression,  excepting  the  Mogudjar 
-Mountain  in  the  north-west ;  no  river  of  conse- 
iiuence  runs  through  it,  no  great  forest  breaks  the 
uniformity  of  the  scene  :  it  is  a  vast  stcjipe,  con- 
taining 850,000  s(|nare  miles,  sterile,  stony,  and 
slreamless,  and  covered  with  rank  herbage  of 
five  feet  high.  It  aboumls  in  lak<'s  and  marshes, 
the  water  of  which  is  generally  brackish  and  unlit 
for  use,  and  in  the  southern  jiortion  lies  the  Kara- 
Kum,  an  extensive  sjilt  desert. — The  Kirghiz  are 
a  Turkish  ra<'e,  and  s]ieak  a  separate  dialed  of 
the  eastern  'I'uikish.  Tliey  have  from  time  im- 
memorial been  divided  into  the  Crcat,  Middle, 
and  Little  Hordes.  The  first  of  these  wanders  in 
the  south-west  iiortion  of  the  Russian  steiijie, 
partly  in  the  Russian  po.ssessions  north  of  the  Ala- 
tan  and  Khokand,  and  jiartly  in  the  territory  of 
China.      They   are    subject  to  the   rulers  within 


whose  bounds  tliev  dwell.  The  Middle  Horde 
possesses  the  territory  (called  the  country  of  the 
Siberian  Kirghizes)  between  the  Ishini,  Irtish, 
Lake  lialkhash,  Khokatid.  and  the  territory  of  the 
Little  Honle ;  and  also  a  great  portion  of  the 
Russian  province;  of  Semipalatinsk.  Russia  has 
gradually  aUsorbed  them,  the  result  being  finally 
achieved  by  the  victory  over  Khiva  in  1873,  anil 
the  formation  of  the  new  province  of  Amu-Daria. 
The  Little  Horde  (now  more  numerous  than  the 
other  two  together)  ranges  over  the  country 
bounded  by  the  I'ral,  Tobol,  the  Siberian  Kiighiz, 
and  Turkestan.  Like  the  Middle  Horde,  they  are 
claime<l  as  sulijects  of  the  I'zar,  though  partly 
in<lependent.  This  horde  is  partly  agricultural, 
partly  nomad.  A  small  ofishoot  of  the  Little 
Horde  has,  since  1801,  wandered  between  the 
Volga  and  the  Ural  River,  and  used  to  be  under 
the  rule  of  the  governor  of  Astrakhan. 

The  total  number  of  the  Kirghiz-Kazaks  amounts 
to  2,500,000 — a  smaller  number  than  in  former 
times  when  unchecked  and  uncontrolled  they 
moved  from  one  end  of  central  Asia  to  the  other. 
The  Kirghiz  are  noted  for  their  unbounded  love 
of  adventure,  wit,  and  poetical  disposition.  As 
nomads  they  have  retained  most  of  the  character- 
istics of  their  race,  they  still  cling  to  their  ancient 
habits  and  customs,  and  Islam  has  never  taken  a 
firm  hold  on  them.  Since  the  sui)iuession  of 
haronfd  ('forays')  they  have  lost  tlieir  warlike 
spirit,  although  they  still  abhor  sedentary  life  and 
cannot  be  persuaded  to  settle  and  live  by  agii- 
cnlture.  Russian  schools  in  the  ste])pes  have 
hitherto  vainly  striven  to  transform  these  in- 
veterate nomads. 

Kara-Kieghiz,  called  by  the  Russians  Diko- 
kameni  Kirghiz  (' Wild  rock  Kirghiz'),  a  nonuidic 
people  living  mostly  in  the  mountains  between  the 
I.ssiK-kul  and  the  Knen-Lun,  and  extending  from 
the  eastern  frontier  of  Ferghana  to  the  Muzart, 
are  the  oldest  Turkish  nomads  of  historical  record. 
They  are  divided  into  C^i/ and  .SW  (right  and  left 
wings),  and  into  the  snb<livisioirs  of  Suit,  Sari- 
bagish,  and  Sajak.  Their  total  numl)er  amounts 
to  324,000  souls,  and  their  cattle  is  estimated  at 
upwards  of  700,000  head.  The  dialect  of  the  Kara- 
Kirghiz  has  retained  more  of  the  ancient  character 
than  that  of  the  Kirghiz- Kazak.s,  and  their  epic 
poetry  is  particnlaily  interesting.  See  M.  N. 
(Jrodekow's  linely  illustrated  Russian  work  on  the 
Kirghiz  an<l  Kara  Kirghiz  of  the  Province  of  the 
Syr-Daria  (Tashkend,  1889  cl  «■</.). 

Kirin,  capital  of  the  province  of  Kirin,  in  Man- 
chuiia,  stands  on  the  river  Sungari,  220  miles 
NE.  of  Moukden.  It  has  an  arsenal  and  powder- 
factory.     Fo]).  75,000  to  100,000. 

Kirkcaldy,  a  seaport  and  market-town  of  Fife, 
on  the  Firth  of  Forth,  15  miles  N.  of  I'Minburgh. 
Including  the  suburbs  of  Linktown  and  Newtown 
of  Abbotshall  on  the  west,  and  I'athhead,  Sinclair- 
town,  and  Gallatown  on  the  north-east,  it  is  nearly 
4  miles  in  length  ;  hence  the  name  '  The  Lang 
Toun.'  It  was  created  a  Kiyal  burgh  in  14.")0,  and, 
with  Dysart,  Kinghorn,  and  Itiirntisland,  sends  one 
member  to  p.arliament.  Its  harbour  is  small  and 
shallow,  but  there  is  wet-dock  accommodation  for 
ships  of  considerable  burden,  and  a  bill  was  passed 
in  1890  for  the  construction  of  an  entirely  new 
harbour  on  a  large  scale.  Its  manufactures  are 
.s]iinning  Max,  tow,  and  jute,  and  bleaching  and 
weaving  linen  yarns,  wliich  are  extensively  canied 
on,  the  products  being  the  usual  varieties  of  linen 
cloth;  mechanical  (including  marine)  engineering 
on  a  large  scale;  iron-founding;  an<l  tanning. 
There  are  also  several  potteries.  The  manufacture 
of  floorcloth  and  linoleum  has  been  developed  into 
a  great  trade,  and  Kirkcaldy  is  the  chief  scat  of 


KIRKCUDBRIGHT 


KISFALUDY 


439 


tins  growing  ami  iiiipoitant  iimiiufactnro.  There 
is  also  a  direct  exiiort  tiade  to  the  I'niteil  States, 
which  in  1884-90  averaged  over  £75,0(Ht  annually. 
Pop.  of  parliamentary  Imrgh  (1841)  .')704  :  (1871) 
12,422  :  ( 1891 )  17. 324  :  of  royal  Imrgh,  as  e.Mendeil 
in'lS76,  (1891 )  27,ir).V  Kirkcaldy  is  the  liirthplace 
of  Adam  Sniitli  :  and  Eilward  Irving  and  Thoma-s 
Carlyle  were  teacliers  here. 

Kirkciulhl'iulit.  Sticw.vutrv  of,  a  county  of 
south-west  Scotland,  wivslied  on  the  south  for  50 
miles  liy  the  Solway  Firth,  and  elsewhere  bounded 
by  Wigtown.  Ayr,  and  Dumfries  shires.  Measur- 
ing 41  by  .S8  miles,  it  h.is  an  area  of  954  sq.  m.  ; 
is  watered  by  the  Xitli,  Trr.  Dee,  Fleet,  and  Cree  ; 
and  in  the  soutli-ea.st  sends  up  conspicuous  Criflel 
(1867  feet),  on  the  north-west  border  Merrick 
(2764),  the  loftiest  summit  in  the  south  of  Scot- 
land. The  rocks  are  mainly  Silurian,  with  intru- 
sive granite  and  carboniferous  iiatches  ;  the  soil  is 
variously  extremely  fertile  and  extremely  barren. 
Little  liiore  than  a  fourth  of  the  entire  area  is 
in  cultivation,  though  great  improvements  liave 
lieen  etl'eeted  since  the  foundation  in  1809  of  the 
Stewartry  A''ricultural  Society.  Nearly  31  sq.  m. 
are  occupied  \v  woods.  Towns  are  Kirkcu<lbright, 
New  Galloway,  Castle-Douglas,  Dalbeattie,  Gate- 
house, Creetown,  and  Maxwelltown ;  and  the 
antiquities  include  the  Deils  Dyke,  Threave  Castle, 
and  the  eeclesiiistical  ruins  of  Dundrennan,  Lin- 
cluden,  New  Abbey,  St  Mary's  Isle,  and  Tongue- 
land.  The  history  of  the  Stewartry  is  sketched 
under  G.\llo\v.\y  :  among  its  worthies  have  been 
Samuel  Kutlieiford,  Paul  Jones,  Thomas  Brown, 
and  Alexander  Murray.  It  returns  one  member  to 
parliament.  I'op.  ( 1801 )  29,211;  (1851)43,121; 
(1881)  42,127;  (1891)39,985. 

KlRKCiDlilUiiHT,  the  county  town,  30  miles  SW. 
of  Dumfries  by  a  branch-line '( 1864),  is  beautifully 
situated  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Dee,  which 
soon  begins  to  broaden  into  Kirkcudbiight  Bay, 
opening  into  the  Solway  Firth  six  miles  below. 
Its  name  (pron.  Kirkcoo'bri/)  is  derived  from  the 
church  of  St  Cuthbert,  a-s  old  at  lea.st  as  1164  ;  and 
it  is  a  royal  burgh  (1455),  uniting  with  Dumfries, 
&e.  to  return  one  member.  Chief  buildings  are  the 
ctmrt-house  (1868)  and  town-hall  (1879);  and  a 
lattice-bridge  (1868),  500  feet  long,  spans  the  Dee. 
The  ivy-mantled  ruins  of  the  castle  built  by  Mac- 
lellan  of  Bonibie  in  1582  still  dominate  the  town. 
Pop.  (1841)  2606;  (1891)  2.'>33.  See  Maxwells 
Stcwartni  of  Kirh:iulbri<jht  (3d  ed.  Castle-Douglas, 
1878),  aiid  other  works  cited  at  G.\LLO\y.\Y. 

Kirkdalc  Tave.  i"  the  vale  of  l^ickering, 
Yorkshire,  28  miles  W.  of  Scarborough,  is  famous 
for  the  numerous  remains  of  Tertiary  mammals 
which  have  been  found  in  it.  It  was  discovered 
in  1821,  in  the  cutting  back  of  an  oolitic  lime- 
stone rock  in  which  it  is  situated.  It  was  examined 
by  Buckland,  and  fully  described  l)y  him  in  his 
lieliquire  iJiliivmnn:.  Its  greatest  length  Ls  245 
feet,  and  its  height  is  so  inconsiderable  that  there 
are  oidy  two  or  three  jilaces  where  a  man  can 
stand  erect.  The  fossil  bones  are  contained  in  a 
deposit  of  mud  that  lies  on  the  floor  of  the  cave  : 
this  is  covered  by  stalagmite  formed  \>y  the  water, 
highly  charged  with  carbonate  of  lime,  dropping 
from  the  roof.  The  remains  of  the  following 
animals  have  been  discovered  :  hy;i-na,  tiger,  bear, 
wolf,  wea-sel,  elephant,  rhinoceros,  hii)popot.amus, 
horse,  ox,  deer,  hare,  rabbit,  water-rat,  raven, 
pigeon,  lark,  and  duck. 

Kirke,  Coi.osei,  I'kkcy  («■.  1646-91),  served 
three  yeare  a-s  an  otlicer  in  Tangiers.  After  the 
battle  at  Sedgemoor  ( 1685),  his  men  inllicti-il  fearful 
atrocities  upon  the  unhappy  followers  of  Monmouth 
and  their  sus^iecteil  sympathlsei's,  a.s  to  make  their 
nickname,  '  Kirke '»  Lambs,'  a  byword  for  cruelty. 


Kirke  early  deserted  to  William's  side,  and  helped 
to  raise  the  siege  of  Londonderry. 

Kirklinill.  a  market-town  of  Lancashire,  84 
miles  W.  by  N.  <if  Preston.  It  has  a  grammar- 
school  (1673),  and  manufactures  of  cotton,  llax, 
sailcloth,  sacking,  and  cordage.  Pop.  ( 1851 )  2777  ; 
(1891)  400.3. 

KirkilltilhH'll.  a  town  in  Dumbartonshire 
(detached),  on  the  Forth  and  Clyde  Canal,  7  miles 
NNE.  of  Gliusgow.  Its  Celtic  name  Cacrpentu- 
lack  ( '  fort  at  the  end  of  the  ridge ' )  referred  to  a 
strong  fort  on  Antoninus'  A\all,  which  has  left 
some  remains;  and  as  early  as  1170  it  was  made  a 
burgh  of  barony.  Chemicals,  iron,  \c.  are  manu- 
factured. In  tiie  southern  suburb,  Lenzie,  are  the 
large  Barony  lunatic  a.sylum  (1875)  and  the  Glas- 
gow convalescent  home  ( 1864).  Pop.  (1851)  6342; 
(1881)  8029;  (1891)  10,312. 

Kirk-Kilissia  ( the  'forty  churches'),  a  town 
of  Turkey,  104  miles  NW.  of  Constantinople,  with 
which  it  lias  a  brisk  trade  in  butter  and  cheese. 
It  is  famed  for  its  confections.  Pop.  16,000,  of 
whom  two-thirds  are  Bulgarians. 

Kirkiiiaidoii.    See  John  o'  Gro.^t's. 

H.irk-seS!«ioil.  the  lowest  court  in  Presbyterian 
churches,  being  the  governing  body  of  a  particular 
congregation,  and  compo.sed  of  the  minister  and 
(dders  of  the  congregation.     See  Prksuvteriaxism. 

Kirkstall  Abbey,  a  Cistercian  abbey  in  York- 
shire, stands  3  miles  NW.  of  Leeds,  in  the  midst  of 
modern  manufacturing  establishments.  Next  after 
Fountains  Abbey,  it  is  the  best-preserved  monastic 
ruin  in  the  county.  First  founded  at  Barnolds- 
wick  in  the  same  neighbourhood  in  1147,  but  live 
yeai's  later  moved,  to  its  present  site,  the  abbey 
is  mainly  Transition  Norman  and  Perpendicular 
in  style.  The  church  Ls,  like  most  Cistercian 
churches,  long  and  narrow,  with  little  ornamenta- 
tion, and  a  low  tower.  The  abbey  was  presented 
to  the  town  by  Colonel  North  in  1889. 

Kirkwall,  the  capital  of  Orkney,  on  the  east 
coast  ot  Mainland,  49  miles  NE.  of  Thurso,  and 
225  N.  of  Leith.  St  Jlagnus'  Cathedral  (1137- 
1500)  is  a  stately  cruciform  pile,  mixed  Norman 
and  Gothic  in  style.  It  measures  253  feet  by  102 
across  the  transept,  and  ha-s  a  central  tower  133 
feet  high.  The  choir  serves  as  a  ]iaiish  church.  The 
last  vestige  of  the  royal  castle  was  demolished  in 
1865  ;  but  the  rootless  Earl's  Palace  ( 1607)  remains, 
and  a  tower  ( 1550)  of  the  Bishoi)'s  Palace,  in  which 
King  Ilaco  died  in  1263.  In  1876-79,  £10,500  was 
expended  on  drainage,  paving,  and  water-supply  ; 
and  the  harbour,  with  an  iron  pier  of  1866,  h.as  also 
been  much  improved.  Made  a  royal  burgh  in  1486, 
Kirkwall  unites  with  Wick,  v^c. ,  to  letum  one 
member  to  parliament.  Pop.  (1841). 3041;  (1891) 
3926.     See  Tudoi  's  Orkncya  and  ii/ui/anffs  ( 1883 ). 

Kirrioillllil*.  a  small  town  of  Forfarshire,  8J 
miles  N\\'.  of  Forfar  by  rail,  with  some  linen  weav- 
ing. It  is  the  birlbplace  of  J.  M.  liarrie,  and  the 
'  Thrums  '  of  his  stories.     Pop.  ( 1891 )  4179. 

Kirsrbwasser  (Or.,  'cherry-water')  is  a 
li.pieur  m.ide  from  cherries,  and  highly  esteemed 
in  t;erm,iny.  The  cherries,  gathere<I  when  quite 
ripe,  and  freed  from  their  stalks,  are  iiounde<l  in  a 
wo«ilen  vessel,  but  so  that  the  stones  are  not 
broken.  They  are  then  left  to  ferment,  and  when 
fermentation  ii.as  begun  the  ni.oss  is  stirred  two  or 
three  times  a  day.  The  stones  are  afterwards 
broken,  and  the  kernels  bruised  and  thrown  in. 
By  distillation  kii-schwasser  is  obtained.— For 
cliorry-brandy,  see  BRANDY. 

Kisrallldy.  Sandor  (.Ai.kXANDKR),  a  Hun- 
garian poet,  was  born  at  Siiineg,  in  the  county  of 
/ala,  on  2'2d  September  177'2.  He  served  in  the 
Austrian  army  from   1793  to  1801,  and   again   in 


440 


KISHINEFF 


KIT-CAT   CLUB 


1809.  The  rest  of  his  life  was  devoted  to  literature 
and  faniiiii";.  He  established  his  fame  hy  a 
collection  of  lyrics — his  best  work — entitled  Hiiitfys 
Luvcs  (1801-7),  which  created  extraordinary  en- 
thusiasm ;  and  his  fame  was  further  enhanced  by 
Legemls  nf  the  Ohlfii  'Time  in  Hiiiir/firi/  (1807  :  '2d 
ed.  181'2).  Kisfaludy  also  attempted  the  dnima, 
but  less  successfully  ;  his  best  dramas  are  ,/u/tit 
Hitnyadi  and  Litdislans  the  Cuiudiiian.  He  was 
one  of  the  founders  of  the  Hunjiarian  Academy  of 
Sciences,  which  has  rendered  inestimable  service  in 
the  advancement  of  the  literary  ami  intellectual 
life  of  Hunf^ary.  He  died  at  Slime^',  SOth  t)ct()ber 
1S44.  His  Collected  H'ocA-.s-  appeared  in  0  V(ds.  in 
1847',  to  which  4  vols,  of  Posthumuus  Writings  were 
added  in  1870. 

Kakoi.v  (Charles)  Kisfaludy,  younger  brother 
of  the  preceding,  and  regenerator  of  the  national 
drama  of  Hungary,  was  born  at  Tet,  in  the 
county  of  Gyiir  (Kaab),  on  6th  February  1788. 
By  quitting  the  army  in  1811  he  incurred  the  anger 
of  an  austere  father,  and  was  obliged  to  earn  a 
l)recarious  livelihood  as  an  amateur  artist,  until  in 
1819  the  success  of  a  drama.  The  Tartars  in  Hun- 
(/'try,  made  him  suddenly  famous.  This  was  fol- 
lowed by  several  others,  all  dealing  with  the  jiast 
history  of  his  country,  and  b\-  comedies  based  upon 
popular  life,  the  best  of  them  The  Student  Matthias. 
Kisfaludy  steadily  improved  as  a  dramatist  as  years 
went  on."  He  died  at  Pesth,  -ilst  November  1830. 
His  C'tllccted  Works  were  published  in  10  volumes 
in  18.31  (oth  ed.  8  vols.  1859).— The  Kisfaludij 
Society,  estal)lislied  in  honour  of  the  lirothers  in 
1837,  has  rendered  important  services  to  Hungarian 
literature. 

KisIlinefT.  capital  of  the  Russiau  government 
of  Bessarabia,  stanils  on  a  tributary  of  the  Dniester, 
16'2  miles  N\V.  of  Odessa  liy  the  railway  to  .lassy. 
When  it  came  into  the  possession  of  Russia  in  181'2 
it  was  a  place  of  only  7000  inhabitants  ;  since  then, 
however,  it  has  rapidly  increased  in  size  and 
prosperity.  The  old  or  lower  town  abuts  upon 
the  river ;  the  new  town  stands  on  clitl's  between 
400  and  fiOO  feet  above  the  river.  Pop.  (1832) 
Sn.dOO  :  (IS49)  42.(113:  (1871)  102,427:  (1897) 
10S,.">0(i,  composed  ii:  nearly  all  the  surrounding 
nationalities.  Fruit,  the  vine,  and  tobacco  are 
grown  :  and  tobacco  and  Hour  are  manufactureil. 
Kishinetr  is  an  important  trading  centre  for  Bess- 
arabian  native  products.  It  is  the  seat  of  an  arch- 
bishop, and  has  a  theological  seminary. 

Kislllll.  or  Tawilah  (the  ancient  Oaracta), 
a  parched  ami  barren  island  of  Persia,  situated  at 
the  entrance  to  the  Persian  Gulf.  It  is  55  miles 
long,  and  luis  an  area  of  515  sq.  m.  Salt  and 
sul|)hur,  an<l  the  food-products  of  a  few  oases,  are 
all  that  the  island  yields.  Poj).  ,5000.  The  island 
was  visited  by  a  severe  earthi{uaUe  in  18S4,  twelve 
villages  being  destroyed  and  some  two  liundred 
lives  lost. 

Kismet.    See  Katk,  Moiiammp:dani.sm. 

Kiss,  a  familiar  form  of  sahitation  by  touching 
with  the  lips  as  an  expression  of  respect  or  all'ec- 
tion,  in  earlier  times  and  still  in  uumy  countries 
used  in  the  common  intercourse  of  man  with  man, 
but  mostly  limited  by  modern  F.ngli.~hmen  to  the 
domestic  and  dearer  relationships  of  life.  The 
osciiliim  was  a  formal  syndtol  of  goodwill  among 
the  ancient  Itomans,  and  was  adopted  by  the  early 
Christians,  whose  'holy  kiss'  and  'kiss  of  charity' 
carried  the  wcught  of  apostolic  .sanction.  The  '  kiss 
of  peace'  at  the  mass,  in  the  E.astern  Clinrch  and 
tlu'  Mozaraliic  and  .Vmbidsian  liturgies,  is  given 
before  the  oll'ertoiy  and  consecration  ;  but  in  the 
Itoman  mass  it  follows  the  consecration  and  is 
closely  connected  with  the  communion.  About  the 
end  of  the  IStli  century  the  kiss  of  peace  in  the 


West  gave  way  to  the  osculatoriiim,  called  also  the 
inslrumentiim  or  tabcl/a  jxtcis,  l>ax,  porijirale,  or 
freda,  a  jilate  with  a  figure  of  Christ  on  the  cross 
stamped  on  it,  kissed  first  by  the  priest,  then  by 
the  clerics  and  congregation.  The  kiss  of  peace 
was  given  also  at  baptism,  and  is  still  given  liy  tlie 
other  bisho]is  to  a  bishop  newly  consecrated,  .iml  by 
the  bishop)  to  a  priest  at  his  ordination  ;  and  tln' 
tJreeks  still  preserve  the  rite  of  giving  the  kiss  of 
peace  to  the  dead. 

The  Christians  early  ailopted  the  iiractice  of 
kissing  the  altar  as  a  mark  of  reverence  to  the 
]ilace  on  which  the  eucharist  is  ofl'ere<l,  and  the 
olliciating  priest  still  (hies  so  reiieatedly  in  the 
Roman  mass.  It  is  usual  also  to  kiss  the  golden 
cross  of  the  sandal  on  the  pope's  right  foot  oh  his 
appointment  to  office,  by  newly-created  cardinals 
and  by  persons  on  being  granted  an  audience. 
Fven  royal  persons  in  former  times  paid  this  act 
of  homaite  to  the  Vicar  of  Christ ;  it  is  said  that 
Charles  V.  was  the  last  that  did  so. 

.See Kahle, Dc  Osculo Sancto  ( Konigsherg,  18G7) ;  Valen- 
tin!, De  Osciilatioiie  Pedum  Jionuttii  J^ontijicis  (Kome, 
1.5S-S):  and  Pougard.  Ih'l  Ikicio  ite'  Piedi  t/c'  ISommi 
Pontefici  (Kome,  1S07). 

Hissillgeilf  the  most  popular  watering-idace  in 
Bavaria,  is  situated  on  the  Saale,  UO  miles  K..  by 
N.  from  Frankfort-on-Main.  Of  its  three  mineral 
s]irings  (temperature  50'7'-51"2°  F. ),  the  Rakoc/y 
and  the  Pandur  furnish  saline  and  chalybeate 
waters,  while  the  Maxbrunnen  is  .acidulous  ami 
s.aline.  The  Solen-Sprudel  is  remarkable  for  the 
periodical  ebb  and  How  of  its  waters,  caused  appar- 
ently by  the  accumulation  and  discharge  of  car- 
bonic acid  gas.  Besides  these  there  are  two  other 
springs  near  the  town,  and  in  the  .same  valley  the 
s]ias  of  Bocklet  and  liriu-kenau.  The  waters  of 
Kissingen  are  both  drunk  and  used  as  liaths  by 
the  patients,  and  are  considered  specially  eHica- 
eious  ill  cases  of  dyspepsia,  skin  diseases,  afl'ectioiis 
of  the  bowels,  eyes,  and  ears,  gout,  &c.  The 
population  (40'24)  is  increased  by  an  influx  of 
13,000  to  14,000  visitors  annmilly."  Although  the 
existence  of  mineral  (.saline)  sjirings  at  this  s|iot 
was  known  as  early  as  the  9th  century,  it  was  not 
until  the  llilh  that  their  medical  projierties  were 
recognised,  and  not  until  the  I9th  that  the  springs 
came  to  be  in  great  repute.  Between  500,000  and 
600,000  bottles  of  the  Kissingen  waters  are  ex]iorted 
annually.  At  Kissingen  an  attempt  was  made  to 
assassinate  Prince  Bismarck,  by  Kullmanu,  on  13lh 
.lulv  1874.  See  guides,  all  in  (Icrman,  bv  Soticr 
('2d'ed.  1883),  Werner  (3d  ed.  1883),  Diruf  (5tli  ed. 
1884),  and  Ising  (3d  ed.  1885). 

KistllSI.  or  KlusHNW,  a  river  of  southern  India, 
rises  in  the  Western  Chats  within  40  miles  of  the 
Arabian  Sea,  at  a  height  of  4500  feet,  in  IS"  l' 
N.  lat.,  and,  flowing  eastward  across  the  peninsula, 
falls  into  the  Bay  of  Bengal  after  ,a  course  of  800 
miles.  Area  of  drainage  basin,  97,050  sq.  in.  'I'he 
river  forms  for  a  consideralile  distance  the  boundiuy 
between  the  Nizam's  dominicuis  and  .Madias  Presi- 
dency, and  has  a  delta  extending  100  miles  inlanil. 
It  is  Only  navigable  for  about  50  miles  during  six 
months  of  the  year. 

KistviM'ii.  or  ('1ST.    See  Bakrow,  BruiAi,. 

Kit-4'ilt  Clllll.  a  society  formed  in  London 
about  1700,  consisting  of  thirty-nine  iiolilemcn  and 
gentlemen  favourable  to  the  succession  of  the  House 
of  Hanover,  and  whose  ostensible  object  was  the 
enc<nira<'eiiient  of  literature  and  the  line  arts. 
Jacob  Tonson,  an  eminent  jiublisher,  was  founder 
and  .secretary:  ami,  not  to  mention  dukes  and 
earls,  it  included  Sir  Robert  Waljiole,  N'aiibrugh, 
Cougreve,  Aildison,  Sti'ele,  and  (iarth.  The  club 
derived  its  name  from  having  met  for  some  time 
in  the  house  of  Cliristoplier  Catt,  a  pasti'ycook. 


KITCHENER 


KLAGENFUKT 


441 


Before  its  dissnlntion  (about  17'20)  esieli  of  tlie 
iiieiiiliei-s  tjave  Tonsoii  his  half-len!,'tli  portrait, 
nainted  a  uniform  size,  by  Kneller.  Hence  a 
kit-cat  is  anv  portrait  of  that  size — about  36  in. 
by  iS. 

Kitclu'iior.  Hf.i;i!Ert,  Lord,  of  Khartonin 
anil  Aspall  in  SutTolk,  born  •22d  September  I80O 
at  Gnnslioron^h  Villa,  near  Ballyhm^fdnl,  Kerry, 
stndieil  at  Woolwich  Academy,  an<l  entered  the 
Eni;ineers  in  1871.  On  the"  Palestine  survey 
1874-7S,  and  then  on  that  of  Cyprus  till  1882, 
he  commanded  the  Ejiyptian  cavalry  1882-84, 
served  in  the  Souilan  campai^jn  188S-8.5,  was 
jiovernov  of  Suakin  1SS6-S8,  and  Sirdar  of  the 
Egyptian  arniv  from  1890.  As  such,  he  recovered 
Do'nL;ol,i(  18!)6),ilefeated  the  dervishesat  the  Atbara 
( Apiil  1898),  anil  by  the  final  victory  of  Oiiiduriiian, 
2d  Sept.  1898,  nmted  the  Khalifa,  and  won  back  the 
Soudan  for  Egypt.  He  was  raised  to  the  peerage, 
having  four  year's  before  been  created  a  K.t'.M.G. 
In  1899  ho  went  with  Lord  Roberts  to  South  .Africa 
as  chief  of  the  statt'in  the  Transvaal  War,  and  in 
November  1990  he  ivssuuieil  chief  command  with 
the  rank  of  lieutenant-general.  See  G.  W. 
Steevens's  U'it/i  Kitchener  to  Khartum  (1898). 

Kitchen -mi«I<Ien  (Dan.  IjiMcn-miJchling), 
mounds  in  Dtumark,  N.  Scotland,  \c.,  prehistoric 
refuse-heaps.  Tliey  are  mostly  lormed  of  oyster- 
shells  and  other  shelltish  ;  cont.ain  only  stone,  bone, 
or  wood  implements  ;  ami  bones  of  the  ilog  and  wild 
animals.  See  ANTHROPOLOGY,  Man,  Stone  Age. 
Kite*  one  of  the  long-w  ingeil,  small  footed,  sliort- 
beaked  Falcoiiido".  The  typical  genus  is  Milviis, 
confined  to  the  Old  World,  and  represented  by 
half-a-dozen  specie-s.  Of  these  the  Comumn  or 
Reil  Kite  {.Vi/ms  ictiniis),  found  throughout 
Enrope,  is  now  very  rare  in  Britain.     It  feeds  on 


Connnon  Kite-  or  Glead  {Mil tux  iclinua). 

ofl'al  and  small  vertebrates  of  all  kinds,  and  may  be 
ilestructive  to  young  game  and  poultry.  The  Black 
Kite  (.1/.  (HiV/cfcH*)  ha-s  been  recorded  in  Britain; 
the  Pariah  Kite  {^f.  fjorimhi)  of  India  is  a  useful 
scavenger:  M.  ixitriia  inhabits  .-\nstralia.  L'nder 
the  title  kite  are  also  included  the  Black-winged 
Kites  (Elanus)of  both  hemispheres  ;  the  beautiful 
Swallow  tailed  Kite  (ElaiioidesforJinituK),  occurring 
in  the  warmer  parts  of  Xortli  America;  the  Hook- 
billed  Kite  (  Kostrhamus )  of  South  America  ami 
Florida,  feecling,  curiously  enough,  on  fresh-water 
snails  ;  and  the  large  Bee-kite  or  Honey  Bnzzard 
{I'erni.i  ajiirorii.i),  inhabiting  Europe  and  Africa. 

Kits  €oity  House,  the  best-known  dolmen 
in  England,  stands  on  a  hillside  near  the  road 
fi-om    Uochester    to   Maidst<me,    I4   mile   NW.   of 


Aylesford.  Three  upright  blocks  of  samlstone  8 
feet  high  support  a  '  covering  stone '  12  feet  long 
so  as  to  form  a  chamber.  The  name  is  supposeil 
to  be  from  old  British  words  for  '  the  tomb  in  the 
wood '  (cf.  Welsh  coed,  '  wood ').  See  Dolmen. 
kittiMillie.     See  Gt-LL. 

KittO,  .IiinN,  an  industrious  and  praiseworthy 
writer  on  liiblical  subjects,  was  born  at  Plymouth, 
December  4,  1804.  In  his  twelfth  year  he  lost  his 
power  of  hearing  in  consequence  of  a  fall  from  a 
height  of  35  feet.  His  father's  circumstances  were 
at  'this  time  so  wretched  that  young  Kitto  was 
soon  after  sent  to  the  workhonse.  where  he  learned 
the  trade  of  shoemaking.  In  1824  he  went  to  Exeter 
to  learn  dentistry  with  a  MrGiove,  who  encouraged 
him  in  his  literary  a-,si)irations ;  and  in  1825  he 
published  Essays  ami  Letters  by  John  Kitto.  In 
the  same  year  he  was  sent  to  the  Missionary 
College  at  Islington,  where  he  learned  printing.  In 
1829-33  he  accompanied  Mr  Grove  and  family  on 
a  tour  to  the  East,  visiting  in  the  course  of  his 
travels  St  Petersburg,  Astrakhan,  the  Caucasus, 
Armenia,  and  Pei-sia.  The  rest  of  his  life  was 
spent  in  tlie  service  of  the  publishers,  chiefly  in 
that  of  Charles  Knight,  whose  failure  led  to  le.ss 
constant  employment  and  pecuniary  emb.arrass- 
ments.  In  1850  he  received  a  civil  list  pension  of 
£100  a  year.  Stricken  with  paralysis,  he  died  at 
Cannstadt,  in  Wiirtemberg,  November  25,  18.54. 
His  principal  works  are  The  Pieturinl  Bible  ( 18.38  : 
new  ed.  1855),  Pietorial  History  of  Palestine  ( 1839- 
40),  History  of  Palestine  (1843),  The  Lost  Senses— 
Daifness  and  Blindness  (1845),  Journal  of  Sacred 
Literature  (1848-53),  and  Daily  Bible  Hliixtrations 
(1849-53;  new  ed.  by  Dr  Porter,  8  vols.  18G7).  He 
also  edited  the  Journal  of  Sacred  Literature  ( 1848- 
53).  In  1844  the  university  of  Gie.s.sen  conferred 
on  him  the  title  of  D.D.  'Kitto  had  a  working 
knowledge  of  Hebrew,  Greek,  Latin,  and  the 
modern  tongues.  See  his  Life  by  Eadie  ( 1857 )  anil 
Ryland  (18.56). 

KiA-kiang,  or  CHIt:--CHl.\NG,  a  Chinese  treaty- 
port  on  the  Yang-tsze-kiang.     Pop.  53,000. 
Kiling-ehow,  chief  city  of  Hainan  ((j.v.). 
Kiwi.    See  Apteryx. 

Kizil-bashes,  Persianised  Turks.  See  Afgh.\N- 
LST.\N,  Khiva. 
Ki7.il-lriiink.  See  Asia  Minor. 
Ki7.il-Klllll  (meaning  'Red  Sands'),  a  sandy 
desert  in  Russian  Turkestan,  lying  between  the 
lower  courses  of  the  Amu-Daria  and  Syr-Daria. 
They  stretch  south-east  from  the  Sea  of  Aral,  and 
rise  from  an  elevation  of  150  feet  at  the  .sea  to 
2000  towards  Bokhara.  They  are  partly  of  shifting 
nature  and  partly  stationary,  and  are  diversified  by 
numerous  undulations  or  ridges  of  sand,^  between 
which  extensive  patches  of  clay  occur.  North-east 
of  the  Caspian  .stretches  the"  Kara- Kum  ('Black 
Sands')  desert,  a  former  bed  of  the  sea. 

Kjerilir,  Halfdan,  composer,  was  born  at 
Christiania,  1.5th  Seiitember  1815,  and  studied  law, 
but  devoted  himself  to  nuisic.  He  wrote  mnch  for 
the  piano,  but  is  best  known  feu-  his  charming 
.songs,  full  of  melody  and  true  Norwegian  feeling. 
Ho  died  nth  August  1868.  There  is  an  English 
album  of  his  songs,  the  translations  by  Marzials 
(1883). 
KjolK-iiliavii.  See  Copenhagen. 
klaueill'lll-t.  the  capital  (since  1518)  of  the 
duchy  of  Carinthia,  in  Austria,  on  the  Glan,  '262 
miles'  SW.  of  Vienna  by  rail.  The  palace  of  the 
Prince-bishop  of  <!urk  possesses  a  noteworthy 
chai>el ;  ami  in  the  town  there  are  schools  of  niinin,-, 
agriculture,  technical  arts,  &c.,  a  library  of  35,1)00 
vols.,  ami  the  Rudolfinum  museum.    Klagenfun  lias 


442 


KLAPKA 


KLEPTOMANIA 


a  large  wliite-lead  factory,  and  luanufactures  leather, 
cast-iron,  tobacco,  &c.  An  active  transit  trade  is 
carried  on.  Pop.  ( 1890 j  19,750.  The  fortifications 
were  dismantled  by  the  French  in  1S09,  and  now, 
converted  into  pronienailes,  separate  the  town  from 
its  four  sulmrlis. 

Klapka.  (JEoraiE,  one  of  the  most  heroic 
and  skilful  fjenerals  of  the  Hungarian  war,  was 
liorn  at  Teniesvar  on  7th  Ajiril  18'20.  He  rose 
to  the  rank  of  lieutenant-general  in  the  Austrian 
army,  but  on  the  outbreak  of  the  revolution  placed 
himself  at  the  .service  of  the  Hungarian  govern- 
ment, and  took  a  jironiinent  part  in  nearly  all  the 
battles  against  the  Austrians  between  February  and 
August;  in  more  than  one  the  fortune  of  the  day 
was  decided  by  the  troops  under  his  command. 
But  the  crowning  glory  of  his  career  was  his 
defence  of  Komorn,  w'liich  he  continued  to  hold  for 
some  weeks  after  all  the  rest  of  Hungar^'  had  sub- 
mitted. He  lived  in  exile  until  the  amnesty  of 
1867  let  him  return  ;  and  he  died  17th  May  1892. 
He  wrote  The  Xntiimul  War  in  Hiniijaiy  and 
Transtjlvania  (1851),  one  of  the  best  works  on  the 
subject;  The  War  hi  the  Ea.it  (1855);  and  two 
series  of  Memoirs  ( 1850  and  1886). 

Klaprotli.  HEixmfH  JrLir.s  vox,  orientalist, 
was  born  at  Berlin.  11th  October  1783,  tlie  son  of 
Profe-ssor  Martin  Heinrich  Klaprotli  (1743-1817), 
chemist  and  mineralogist.  At  fourteen  under- 
taking the  study  of  Chinese,  in  1805  he  w'as 
appointed  interpreter  to  a  Kussiaii  embassy  to 
China.  It  wa.s  stojiped  on  the  frontier,  when 
Klaprotli  took  the  opportunity  of  exploring  Siberia, 
as  afterwards  (in  1S07-8)  the  Caucasus  and  Georgia. 
Returning  to  Germany  in  1812,  he  settled  three 
yeai-s  later  in  Paris,  where  in  1816  he  was  appointed 
professor  of  .\siatic  Languages,  and  where  he  died, 
20th  August  1835.  From  1802  on«  aids  he  published 
innumerable  works,  in  tierman  and  later  in  French, 
on  the  subject  of  his  travels,  of  Asiatic  pliiUdogy 
and  ethnology,  of  Egyptian  hieroglyphics,  &c.  A 
lilot  on  their  erudition  and  acuteness  is  his  virulent 
;issaults  on  other  scholars.  His  Erfindung  des 
KoDipasses  was  edited  by  Wittstein  in  1885. 

Klaiiseilblirg;  (Hungarian  Kolozsrdr),  one  of 
I  he  chief  cities  in  Transylvania,  is  situated  95  miles 
liy  rail  E.  by  S.  from  Grosswardein.  It  consists  of 
the  inner  town,  fonnorly  fortified,  and  of  five 
suburbs.  Here  are  a  university,  w  ith  four  faculties 
(founded  in  1872).  and  a  Unitarian  College,  both 
with  libraries,  an  observatory,  a  music  school,  and 
numerous  other  educational  establishments.  The 
town  possesses  the  national  museuni,  with  anti- 
(juities,  scientific  collections,  and  a  library  of 
45,000  vols.  Klausenburg  was  cai>tured  by  the 
Hungarians  under  Bcm  on  Cliristnia,s  Day  1848. 
Machines,  oil,  and  spirits  are  manufactured.  Pop. 
(1880)  29,921  :  ( 1890)  32,729. 

KlailStlial,  the  chief  mining-town  of  the  north- 
ern liar/  Mountains,  stands  on  a  bleak  plateau 
(1985  feet),  25  miles  XE.  of  Gottingcn.  The  ores 
raised  are  silver,  lead,  copper,  iind  zinc.  There  is 
a  good  mining  acadeni)-,  with  library,  museum,  and 
laboratory.  Zellerfeld,  divided  from  Klausthal  by 
a  brook,  is  also  a  mining  centre.  The  mines  are 
the  |)ro])ertv  of  the  Prussian  government.  Pop. 
8871  ;  but  including  Zellerfeld,  13,278.  The  men 
are  almost  exclusively  employed  in  the  mines  and 
snielting-work;:. 

Kli'lUT,  -Ikvn  B.vptiste,  a  distinguished 
French  scddicr,  born  in  JIareli  1753  at  Stnusburg, 
where  his  father  was  a  builder.  He  was  destined 
for  an  architect,  but  his  opportune  a-ssistance  in  a 
Paris  tavern  brawl  to  two  young  (ierman  nobles 
obtained  him  a  nomination  to  the  military  .school 
of  Munich,  and  afterwards  a  commission  in  the 
Austrian  army.     Tliis,  however,  he  resigned  after 


a  few  yeai-s,  and  returned  to  France  to  become 
inspector  of  public  buildings  at  Belfort.  In  1792 
he  enlisted  in  the  Haut  Rliin  volunteei-s,  and 
rapiiUy  rose  in  rank,  becoming  general  of  brigade 
in  1793.  As  such  he  commanded  in  the  Vemlean 
war,  but  was  recalled  for  advocating  more  lenient 
measures.  Next  ye.-ir,  .as  general  of  division  in  the 
northern  army  under  Jourdan,  he  led  the  left 
wing  at  Fleurus,  and  captured  Maestricht :  and  in 
June  1796  he  gained  the  brilliant  victory  of 
Altenkirchen  over  the  Prince  of  Wiirtemberg. "  He 
accompanied  Bonaparte  to  Kgy|it  as  a  general 
of  division,  was  dangeronsly  wounded  at  the 
capture  of  Alexandria,  but  recovered  so  .is  to  take 
part  in  the  expedition  to  Syria,  and  won  the  battle 
of  Mount  Tabor  (1799).  "  When  Bonaparte  left 
Egypt  he  entrusted  the  chief  command  there  to 
Kleber,  who  concluded  a  convention  with  Com- 
modore Sidney  Smith  for  its  evacuation  ;  but  on 
Admiral  Keitli's  refusal  to  ratify  this  convention 
Kleber  adopted  the  bold  resoluti(m  of  rccoiKpieiing 
Egypt,  and  destroyed  the  Turkish  army  at  Helio- 
polis.  During  an  attempt  to  conclmle  a  treaty 
with  the  Turks  Kleber  was  assassinated  Viv  a 
Turkish  fanatic  at  Cairo,  14tli  .June  1800.  There 
are  Lives  by  Ernouf  ( 1867)  and  Paj«d  ( 1877). 

Klociio-bok.    See  Antelope. 

Kli-ist,  E\v.\Ln  CHRISTI.4N  vox,  German  poet, 
w.as  born  at  Zeblin,  near  Kiislin  in  Pomerania,  on 
7th  March  1715.  In  1740  Frederick  the  Great 
induced  him  to  enter  the  Prussian  army  ;  he  was 
severely  wcmnded  whilst  leading  an  attack  on  a 
hostile  battery  at  the  battle  of  Kuneisdorf,  and 
died  twelve  "days  later  (24tli  August  1759)  at 
Fiankfort-on-the-Oder.  The  lyric  poet  Gleim  fii-st 
tiiuglit  him  how  to  develn]i  his  poetic  talents.  His 
name  is  best  known  from  his  racmx,  especially  the 
one  entitled  EriiliUiig,  a  sort  of  descriptive  lyric. 
Besides  this  he  wiote  tales  (D/f  Freundxehaft  anil 
Arisf),  idylls  (Irin,  I'vrc. ),  fables,  and  hvnins.  The 
latest  edition  of  his  Works  was  issued  bv  A.  Saner 
( 1884).     See  Life  by  Einbeck  ( 1861 ). 

Kleist,  Heixrich  vox,  German  dramatist  and 
poet,  was  liorn  at  Frankfort-on-the-Oder,  on  18th 
October  1777.  At  fii-st  he  followed  the  family 
profession  and  entered  the  army  ;  but  left  it  in 
1799  to  study,  yet  science  he  soon  al)andoned  for 
literatnic.  As  a  writer  his  aims  and  desires  out- 
ran his  ability  to  execute,  and  his  w  oiks  are  marred 
by  want  of  clearness  and  artistic  comjdeteness ; 
in  fact,  he  has  some  of  the  woi-st  faults  of  the 
Romantic  school,  to  which  he  belongs.  Neverthe- 
less, his  best  jilays,  such  as  I)er  Priiiz  ran  Ham- 
burg, Das  hatehen  von  Ileilhronn,  llermanns- 
sehlaeht,  and  Der  zerhroehene  Kriig,  possess  sufli- 
cient  vigour  and  fidelity  to  life  to  make  them 
popular  even  at  the  present  day.  The  best  of  his 
tales  is  Mirhacl  Ko/dhaas,  a  story  of  Brandenburg 
in  the  middle  ages.  The  morbid  tendencies  in  his 
character  made  him  quail  before  the  adversities 
against  whicli  he  had  to  battle,  and  at  bust  brcmglit 
him  to  a  suicide's  grave.  lie  shot  himself,  after 
fii-st  shooting  a  woman  whom  he  loved,  and  who 
like  him  was  weary  of  life,  on  the  bank  of  Lake 
Wan  near  Potsdam,  21st  November  1811.  His 
works  did  not  gain  recognition  until  after  his 
death  :  they  were  fii"st  made  known  by  Tiirk,  who 
in  I82(i  ])ublislied  Kleist's  drsamnielte  Seliriften  (3 
vols.;  new  eil.  1874).     See  Life  by  Brahni  ( 1884). 

KIcpllls.  Greek  brigands.     See  BltlOANDS. 

Kloploiliailia  (Gr.  hleptd,  'I  steal  ').  Among 
the  plicnomcna  of  certain  minds  that  are  not  re- 
gard e<l  as  technically  insane  or  criminal  are  observed 
inordinate  tendencies  to  acquire,  to  collect,  and 
to  hoard.  All  young  children  desire  an<l  will  at 
once  appropriate  whatever  they  fancy.  So  long  as 
such  impulses  do  not  interfere  with  the  rights  and 


KLONDIKE 


KNEE 


443 


property  of  others,  or  involve  a  tlii!;raiit  breach  of 
law.  they  are  reailily  aiimitteil  ,is  an  imlication  of 
disease,  or  .as  an  absunlity  and  eiventricity  whieli 
may  help  to  consign  the  individual  to  an  asylum  or 
to  contempt,  hut  cimcern  no  one  else.  Bui  when- 
ever the  amount  of  the  object  appropriated.  <U'  the 
circumstances  under  which  it  is  purloined,  bring 
the  matter  into  a  court  of  law,  the  act  is  treated 
.as  a  theft.  .Such  conduct  is  often  the  result  of 
disea.se;  it  is  rarely  a  dise:ise  by  itself.  Tlie  in- 
clination to  steal  is  a  premonitory  indication  of 
some  forms  of  mental  disorder:  it  is  a  characteristic 
.symptom  of  many  others,  where  violence,  or  de- 
lusion, or  incoherence  leaves  no  doubt  as  to  the 
I  source  from  which  it  springs.  But  there  are  other 
'  cases  in  which  the  morbid  origin  cannot  be  so 
]  clearly  demonstrated— where  the  mind  is  clear  and 
cogent,  the  morals  pure,  and  where  theft  is  almost 
the  only  proof  of  insanity.  There  is  evidence  in 
favour  of  the  opinion  that  the  propensity  to  steal 
may  become  so  irresistible,  and  the  will  so  impotent, 
that  the  a|>propriation  is  involuntarj-,  and  the 
perpetrator  irresponsible.  It  then  forms  one  of 
the  varieties  of  insanity  (see  the  article  Insanity) 
characterised  by  defective  inhibition.  The  gratitica- 
tion  of  the  im]nilse  is  commonly  found  associated 
>vith  physical  changes  and  conditions  which  may 
be  regarded  as  incompatible  with  the  healthy  dis- 
charge of  the  functions  of  the  nervous  system ; 
but  that  connection  is  not  invarial)le.  and  the  best 
mode  of  establishing  the  reality  of  such  a  disease 
is  to  consider  marked  cases  in  relation  to  the 
character,  interests,  and  previous  deportment  of 
the  individual,  to  the  nature  of  the  articles  taken, 
.and  to  the  motives.  A  baronet  of  large  fortune 
stole,  while  on  the  Continent,  pieces  of  old  iron 
and  of  broken  crockery.  A  clergyman  of  great 
usefulness  abstracted  from  bookshops  anil  stalls 
hundreds  of  copies  of  the  Bil)le.  The  objects  are 
often  stolen  ostentatiously,  or  without  any  ade- 
quate precautions  to  conceal  the  attempt  ;  they 
are  often  of  no  value ;  the  act  is  without  motive, 
promptly  and  spontaneously  a\owe<l,  and,  if  over- 
looked, repeated.  The  article  acquired  is  restored, 
or  disregarded  :  and  although  money  is  raiely 
taken,  bright  and  coloured  objects  most  generally 
excite  cupidity. 

See  Bucknill  and  Tuke,  Pgi/cholor/ical  Medicine  (.1853) ; 
Clouston.  ^rllltat  Pi.ieuses  (2d  ed.  1887). 

Klondike,  or  Klondvkk,  a  small  tributary  of 
the  Yukon  river  in  the  Canadian  district  of  Yukon, 
separated  from  the  Xorth-West  Territories  in  1895. 
The  Klondike  (properly  Thrnn-duirk,  '  jdenty  of 
tish')  gives  name  to  an  extraordinarily  rich  auriferous 
region,  partially  known  ,as  early  as  IST.f.  (lold- 
mining  was  being  carried  on  on  the  Lewis  and 
Stewart  rivers  in  the  early  eighties,  l)Ut  only  in 
1896  was  gold  found  on  the  Klondike  in  such 
abundance  a-s  to  cause  the  desertiim  of  the  adjoin- 
ing digt^ings  and  to  create  a  rush  from  Europe, 
renewed  in  1897  and  1898.  Dawson,  where  the 
Klondike  enters  the  Yukon  liver,  is  60  miles  east 
of  the  Al.iskan  (U.S.)  frontier. 

klopstock,  Fkikduich  Gottlieb,  was  bom 
2il.luly  1724,  al  Qiiedliiiburg.  Incited  by  Virgil's 
jKne.iii  and  Milton's  I'arailisc  l.o.it,  he  resolved 
to  wiite  a  great  epic  ])oem  whilst  a  tluMdogical 
student  at  .lena  (I74.'>),  selected  for  his  theme  The 
Messiah,  and  while  at  J^eipzig  got  the  lirsl  three 
cantos  ]mblished  in  a  Bremen  magazine  (1748). 
Theyjwere  received  with  enthusia.sm,  except  by 
(Jottsched,  who  denounced  his  language  ami  verse 
structure  as  heretical  innovations.  He  settled  in 
Hamburg  in  1771  with  a  sinecure  ap]iointment, 
and  pensions  from  the  king  of  Denmark  (since 
17">1 )  and  the  margrave  of  ISaden.  In  1773  the 
last  cantos  of  7'hc  Messiah  were  published  ;  the  poet 


died  14th  .March  1S03.  His  name  has  (or  rather 
h.ad )  a  very  high  place  in  ( ierman  literature.  For  in- 
>tance,  he  was  taken  by  the  (iottinger  Dichterbund 
as  their  model  and  poetic  hero,  and  was  greatly 
admired  liy  young  Schiller.  Whatever  may  be 
thought  of  the  intrinsic  value  of  his  poetry,  it 
cannot  be  denied  that  he  helped  to  inaugurate  the 
golden  age  of  (lennan  literature,  anil  exercised  a 
very  beneficial  intlnence  on  the  national  taste. 
When  he  first  beg.an  to  write,  the  literature  of 
Germany  was  dominated  by  French  inthiences — a 
cold,  correct,  unimaginative  s]drit.  Klopstock 
broke  loose  from  this  despotism  and  breathed  the 
air  of  freedom  into  ( Ierman  poetry.  Odes,  tragedies 
— in  which  he  introduces  Arminiiis  as  a  national 
hero — and  biblical  dramas,  with  some  hymns,  con- 
stitute the  reniainder  of  his  poetry.  Of  these  his 
0(/es  alone  possess  interest  and  value  now.  His 
works  were  collected  and  publislied  in  12  vols.  ( 1798- 
1817),  and  in  9  vols.  ( 18.39).  The  Messiah  has  been 
translated  into  both  English  vei'se  and  prose.  See 
Life  by  Muncker  ( 1887-88). 

Kliiohevskayn.    See  K.\mch.\tk.\. 
Knjipweed.    See  Cextaukea. 

Kliare.^horoilgh,  a  market-town  in  the  West 
Riding  of  Yorkshire,  on  the  Nidd,  .3J  miles  NE. 
of  Harrogate  and  17  WNW.  of  Y'oik.  It  has  a 
church  (restored  1872),  with  interesting  monu- 
ments of  the  Slingsbys  ;  a  grammar-school  (1616); 
remains  of  a  castle  (1170).  in  which  Richard  II. 
was  imprisoned,  and  which  was  dismantled  in 
1648  ;  a  "  dropping  well,'  with  petrifying  properties  ; 
and  St  Robert's  Cave,  in  which  Eugene  Aram 
buried  his  victim  in  1745.  Mother  Shipton  is 
claimed  as  a  n.ative,  and  Jack  Metcalf,  the  blind 
ioad-sur\  eyor.  Linen  and  woollen  rugs  are  the 
staple  manufactures.  Knaresborough  returned  two 
members  from  1550  till  1867,  and  one  until  1885. 
Pop.  (1851)  5ob6:  (1881)  5000:  (1S91)  4770.  See 
works  by  Calvert  (1844)  and  Grainge  1 1871  ). 

Knee,  the  articulation  between  the  femur  or 
thigh-bone,  above,  and  the  tibia  or  shin-bone, 
below.  A  third  bone,  the  ])atella,  or  knee-cap, 
also  enters  into  the  structure  of  this  joint  ante- 
riorly. The  articular  surfaces  of  these  bones  are 
covered  with  cartilage,  and  connected  together  by 
ligaments,  some  of  which  invest  the  joint  and 
lie  external  to  it,  while  othei-s  occupy  its  interior. 
The  synovial  membrane  is  the  largest  in  the  body. 
It  lines  the  investing 
ligament,  and  is  \no- 
longed  on  the  front 
of  the  femur  above 
the  articular  surface, 
covers  certain  of  the 
ligaments  in  the  in- 
terior of  the  joint, 
and  forms  folds  on  a 
large  cushion  of  fat 
placed  between  the 
tibia  and  patella. 

The  most  im]iort- 
ant  of  the  external 
ligaments  .are  the  an- 
terior or  Lifiamctitiim 
I'atella:,  wliicli  is  in 
reality  that  portion  of  .,„.,„". 

the  Q„a,/r,rej,s  i:.c-  ^  ertical  Sagittal  Section  through 
(„..„„_    /•-...:   ..  1  ;,.i.       the    inner    half    of    the    Left 


tensor  Cruris  whici 
is  continued  from  the 
knee  -  cap  to  the 
tubercle  of  the  tibia  ; 
one  internal  and  two 
external  lateral  lig.i- 
ments ;  a  posterior 
ligament  ;  and  a  cap- 
sular ligament,  which 


Knee  (from  Macalister)  : 
(7,  ft'inur;  h,  tibia;  c,  patulla;  d, 
tendon  of  qiia(lrice|)s  muscle;  t, 
li^anicntutn  imtelliv  ;  /,  suhcrureai 
bursa;  g.  premlellar  bursa;  Kh, 
internal  semilunar  cartilage  ;  t, 
li^anicntum  iK)Hticum ;  k,  Inner 
head  of  gnHtrocueiuius. 

siiriiiunds   ihe  joint  in   the 


444 


KNEELING 


KNIOHT 


intervals  left  by  the  preceding  ligaments.  The 
positions  of  these  ligaments  are  suttieiently  in- 
uicateil  l>y  their  names.  Of  the  internal  ligaments 
the  two  crucial,  so  calle<l  because  they  cross  one 
another,  are  the  most  important.  The  e.\ternal 
and  internal  semilunar  cartilages  are  usually  placed 
amongst  the  internal  ligaments ;  they  arc  two 
crescentic  i>lates  of  fibrocartilage.  The  convex 
border  of  each  cartilage  is  thick ;  the  concave  free 
border  is  thin.  Each  cartilage  covers  nearly  the 
marginal  two-thirds  of  the  corresponding  articular 
surface  of  the  tiliia,  .and  by  its  form  <lpepens  these 
surfaces  for  tirnier  articulation  with  the  (Condyles 
of  the  femur. 

Tlie  chief  movements  of  this  joint  are  those  of  a 
hinge-joint — namely,  lle.xion  and  e.xtension  ;  but  it 
is  also  capable  of  slight  rotatory  motion  when  the 
knee  is  half-tle.\ed.  During  flexion  the  articular 
surfaces  of  the  tibia  glide  backwards  upon  the 
condyles  of  the  femur ;  while  in  extension  they 
glide  forwards.  The  whole  range  of  motion  of  this 
joint,  from  extreme  flexion  to  extreme  extension, 
is  about  135°.  Judging  from  its  articular  surfaces, 
which  have  comparatively  little  adaptation  for 
each  other,  it  might  be  inferred  that  this  was  a 
weak  and  insecure  joint ;  and  yet  it  is  very  rarely 
dislocated.  Its  real  strength  depends  on  the  large 
size  of  the  articular  ends  of  the  bones,  on  the 
number  and  strength  of  the  ligaments,  .and  on 
the  i)Owerful  nniscles  and  fascia-  by  which  it  is 
invested.  See  .J0INT.S,  where  also  the  excision  of 
the  knee-joint  is  discussed. 

The  KxEE-c.\p,  or  I*.\tell.\,  is  a  Sesamoid  Hone 
(q.v. ),  developed  in  the  sinrfe  tendon  of  the  rectus, 
cria-ciis,  ntstiix  /•xtennis,  and  vaitiis  iiitrniiis  muscles 
— the  great  quadriceps  extensor  muscle  of  the  leg. 
It  is  heart-shaped  in  form,  the  broad  end  Ijeing 
directed  upwards,  aiid  the  apex  downwards.  The 
anterior  or  external  surface  is  convex,  perforated 
by  snuill  apertures  for  the  entrance  of  vessels,  ami 
marked  by  rough  longitudinal  stria- ;  the  ])osterior 
or  internal  surface  is  sniootli  and  divided  into  two 
facets  by  a  vertical  ridge,  which  corresponds  and  fits 
into  the  groove  on  the  lower  articulating  surface  of 
the  femur  or  thigh-bime,  while  the  two  facets  (of 
which  the  outer  is  the  broader  .and  deeper)  corre- 
spond to  the  articular  surface  of  the  two  condyles. 

This  bone  is  liable  both  to  dislocation  and 
fracture.  Dislocation  may  occur  either  inwards 
or  outwards ;  but  it  is  most  frequent  in  the  out- 
waril  direction.  The  displacement  may  be  <'aused 
either  by  mechanical  violence,  or  by  too  sudden 
contraction  of  the  extensor  muscles  in  whose  con- 
joined tendon  it  lies  ;  and  is  most  liable  to  occur 
in  knock-kneed,  flabby  pers^ons.  Except  in  one 
ran!  v.ariety,  the  dislocation  is  capable  of  being 
reduced  without  any  difliculty.  Fracture  of  the 
patella  may,  like  dislocation,  be  caused  either  by 
niusc\ilar  action  or  by  mechanical  violence. 

Fr.acture  by  violent  muscular  action,  .•xs  when  a 
person  in  ilanger  of  falling  forwards  attem|)ts  to 
recover  himself  by  throwing  the  body  backwards, 
is  the  more  common  of  the  two  fcunis.  The  treat- 
ment consists  in  relaxing  the  opposing  muscles  by 
raising  the  trunk,  and  slightly  elevating  the  limb, 
which  should  be  kept  in  a  straight  position.  In 
consequence  of  the  great  diliiculty  of  bringing  the 
broken  surfaces  into  exact  apposition  it  is  very 
difficult  to  obtain  bony  reunion  of  the  ])arts,  and 
the  case  generally  results  either  in  mere  ligament- 
ous union  or  in  no  true  union  at  all. 

KlK't'Iill!;  was  probably  the  general  posture  of 
the  early  Christians  in  ]irayer  not  regnl.ated  by 
public  authority,  lint  the  early  church  made  no 
distinction  in  language  between  kneeling  and 
proslratii>n.  At  communion  the  first  prayer  was 
said  kneeling,  the  rest  of  the  liturgy  standing.  At 
other  times  of  service  the  rule  was  for  all  to  kneel 


in  prayer  except  on  Sundays  and  between  Easter 
and  Whitsuntide.  In  the  modern  Catholic  Church 
kneeling  is  the  usual  attitude  at  prayer,  as  in  the 
Church  of  England.  In  the  Ucunan  and  (!reek 
churches,  and  with  some  Anglicans,  the  celebrant, 
.after  kneeling  in  .adoration,  communicates  standing. 
In  the  Church  of  England,  and  in  the  Lutheran 
Church,  the  sacrament  is  received  kneeling; 
Lutherans  stand  .at  pr.ayer.  Presbyterians  sit  when 
receiving  the  comnmnion,  and  were  till  lately 
accust(uned  to  stand  at  prayer;  recently  kneeling 
at  prayer  has  become  the  usual  practice,  save  in 
the  remoter  districts  of  Scotland. 

Hlioller,  Sir  tioDFiiEV,  a  portrait-painter,  was 

liorn  at  l.libeck  on  Sth  August  l(>4t),  ami  learned 
l>ainting  under  Hembrandt  and  Ki'rdin.ind  llol. 
Whilst  studying  further  in  Italy  he  chose  historical 
subjects,  hut  afterwanls  gave  himself  entirely  to 
|iortrait  p.ainting.  In  1076  he  went  to  London,  and. 
on  the  death  of  Sir  Peter  Lely  in  KiSO,  was  appointed 
court-painter  to  Charles  II.  This  oflice  he  retained 
durini;  the  reign  of  .lames  II.,  and  ccirLlinued  to  lill 
it  after  the  Kevoluthm.  In  Kii)!  W'illi.im  III. 
knighted  him,  and  in  ITlo  Geoige  I.  m.ade  him  a 
b.aronet.  He  die<l  at  Twickenham,  Tlh  N'ovemher 
1723,  iind  a  monument  was  erected  to  him  in 
Westminster  Abbey,  with  a  highly  Laudatory 
inscription  by  Pope.  Kneller's  best-known  pro- 
ductions are  the  'Beauties  of  Hampton  Court' 
(painted  by  order  of  William  111.),  his  portraits 
of  the  'Kit-Cat  Club,'  and  of  nine  sovereigns 
(C'hailes  II.  to  George  I.  of  England,  Louis  .\|V., 
Peter  the  Great,  and  the  Emperor  ( 'harles  W. ).  He 
painted  avowedly  for  the  love  of  money,  and  hence 
never  did  justice  to  the  undoubted  talent  he  pos- 
se.ssed.  His  reputation  w,as  due  to  his  nipid  brush 
and  his  quick  eye  for  likeness,  .ami  to  the  fact  that 
there  was  nobody  to  dispute  supremacy  with  him. 
For  Kneller  Hall,  his  house  at  Twickenham,  see 
P.ANii  (Military). 

Kiiirkerboi'ker.  Herman  .Ianskn,  of  Fries- 
land,  Holland,  was  one  of  the  earliest  settlers  of 
New  York.  A  descendant,  .lohainies  (1749  IS'27). 
was  an  intim.ate  friend  of  Washington  Irving,  who 
immortalised  the  name  by  his  Ilist/iri/  of  Xcic  Yor/; 
by  'Diedrich  Knickerbocker '( •*<"!')•  It  ha.s  since 
been  used  as  a  generic  teiin  for  New  York  families 
descended  from  the  origin.al  Dutch  settlers. 

Klliu^llt.  Chari.es,  author  and  ]iublislier,  was 
born  in  17111.  The  son  of  a  Windsi>r  lioid^sellcr,  in 
ISll  with  his  father  he  established  the  Wniilsor  niitl 
Eton  Express,  s\ni\  continued  loeilit  it  until  I.S'21,at 
the  same  time  printing  the  Etoniini.  The  I'/aiii 
E)i<jlisliiiwn  (18'20-'2'2),  which  was  the  lirst  attemni 
to  i')roduce  cheap  literature  of  a  high  lone,  was  jointly 
edited  by  Ch.arles  Knight  and  Coniniissionnr  Locker 
of  (ircenwich  Hospital.  Ilcnioving  to  London  in 
1S2'2,  Knight  began  to  publish  imiioitant  works  in 
various  clas.ses  of  literature,  and  he  also  founded 
K>ii(//it's  (Jidtrlcrhj  Mdijdziiir,  to  which  .Macaulay, 
Praecl,  Moultrie,  and  other  writers  of  promise  con- 
tributed. In  1827  he  became  connecteil  with  the 
Soc-iety  for  the  Dill'usion  of  I'seful  Knowledge,  for 
which  he  iiublishcil  nianv  valuable  win  ks  and  si'rials, 
including  the  I'liiiii/  'Mmjazi)!,-  ( 18.32  -t.') ),  which 
attained  a  circulation  of  '2(H),0(M)  cojiies  weekly. 
Knight  began  to  issue  in  IS:{8  the  I'niinf  Ci/rld/iiii/in, 
upon  which  he  expended  for  contributions  alone  the 
sum  of  C-tO.OOO.  This  was  followed  by  the  E)i;j/is/i 
Oi/c/ojiirdiri  ( I8r)4  (il  ),  the  Ilrilis/i  Al minim-,  and  its 
Com/xtiiio)!.  Knight  edited  the  I'irlorid/  Shdlcr- 
sprare,  and  was  the  author  of  W'illiiun  ShiiI.e- 
sprarc:  (i  Hioqroplni.  He  likewise  issue<l  Tlif  Land 
(Co  [.in-  /(('and  other  w(uks.  In  1803  Knight 
published  Onrc.  I'/juii  a  Time,  whi(di  consiste<l  of  a 
collection  of  p.apers  from  the  periodicals;  and  in 
1855  Knowledge  is  Porter,  a  work  based  upon  two 


KNIGHT 


KNIGHTHOOD 


445 


smaller  viiluiiies  -liigiilts  of  Machincri/  ami  Hiffhtx 
u/  Iiidiistri/ — which  secured  a  large  sale  at  a  time 
when  the  imjnovemeiits  in  machinery  exciteil  a 
hostile  feeling'  and  the  relations  between  ca|>ital 
and  laliouv  were  consideral)ly  strained.  In  18t)2 
ICnit^'ht  cDMipleted  his  Pujni/ar  Hixtmij  of  EiKjland, 
ipon  which  he  had  been  eni;aj;ed  for  seven  veare. 
His  PassiKje^  uf  a  ]\'urkhi(j  Life  (/iirinij  itnlf  a 
Centunj,  which  appeared  in  lS6:i-(x>,  recounted  the 
strugjrles  of  his  own  life  its  well  its  gave  interestiii<' 
pictures  of  the  numerous  literary  and  political 
|iei-sonages  with  whom  he  had  been  associated. 
Kiiij^ht's  compilations,  Halfhuurs  iritk  the  Best 
Aiithoin,  Hulfhours  of  EnglUh  Hixtoii/,  and  Half- 
hours  u-ith  the  Best  Letter-writers,  have  become 
widely  pojiular.  Hy  his  appointment  in  18(X)  lus 
puldisher  of  the /.owrfoH  Cuzelte  .Cl-2("l  per  annum 
w.u-  assured  to  him.  He  <lied  at  Aibllestone.  Surrey, 
9tli  -March  1S73.     tjee  Life  by  goddaughter  (1S92J. 

Knighthood.  The  word  '  knight '  is  the 
modern  eiiuivalent  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  cniht, 
which  meant  originally  a  youth,  and  afterwards  a 
-ervaut  or  attendant,  and  .soon  came  to  be  lestricted 
to  the  military  attendants  upon  nobles  and  great 
oHicers  of  state.  Tliis  pei-sonal  relation  was 
subsequently  strengthened  by  the  feudal  relation 
of  tenancy,  in  virtue  of  wliich  the  knight  held 
land  of  his  superior  under  condition  of  rendering 
him  military  service  in  return  (see  Feudalism). 
The  origin  of  medieval  knighthood,  as  a  solemn 
investiture  and  profession  of  arms,  is  involved  in 
obscurity.  Embryonic  forms  of  the  institution  can 
Ije  traced  amongst  the  early  Teutonic  nations,  and 
especially  the  Franks.  The  customs  of  chivalry 
associated  with  King  Arthur  and  Charlemagne's 
jialadins  are  of  course  those  of  a  later  era,  the  epoch 
of  the  romance  writers.  The  custom  and  practice 
of  knighthood  were  established  in  England,  but  as 
an  essentially  feudal  institution,  by  the  Norman 
kings.  The  system  of  knight-service  empowered 
the  king,  or  a  su]ierior  lord  who  was  a  subject,  to 
compel  every  holder  of  a  certain  extent  of  land, 
called  a  knight's  fee,  to  become  a  member  of  the 
knightly  order,  his  investiture  being  accounted 
proof  that  he  posse.ssed  the  requisite  knightly  arms 
and  Wiis  sufficiently  trained  in  their  use.  "  After 
the  long  war  l>etween  France  and  England  it  be- 
came the  |jractice  for  the  sovereign  to  receive 
money  compensations  from  subjects  who  were 
unwilling  to  receive  knighthood,  a  system  out  of 
which  grew  a  series  of  grievances,  leading  eventu- 
ally to  the  total  abolition  of  knight-service  in  the 
reign  of  Charles  II. 

The  ceremonies  practised  in  conferring  knight- 
hood have  varied  at  diflerent  periods ;  but  two 
broadly-marked  ceremonial  forms  may  be  recog- 
nised, the  simj)le  dubbing  and  the  formal  investi- 
ture as  a  semi-religious  ceremony.  In  general,  in 
the  more  elaborate  ceremony,  fasting  and  bathing 
were  necessary  preparatives,  and  the  actual  crea- 
tion Wiis  jireceded  by  solemn  confession  and  a  mid- 
night vigil  in  the  church,  followed  by  the  reception 
of  the  eucharist.  The  new  knight  otl'ere<l  his  sword 
on  the  altar,  t<j  signify  bis  ilevotion  to  the  church 
anil  determination  to  lead  a  holy  life.  The  sword 
was  redeemed  by  a  sum  of  money,  had  a  benedic- 
tion pronouncerl  over  it,  and  wasgirded  on  by  the 
highest  ecclesi;i.sti<;  jiresent.  The  title  was  con- 
ferred by  biniling  the  sword  and  spurs  on  the 
candiilate,  after  which  the  |>erson  who  conferreil 
the  oriler  tlealt  him  a  lilow  on  the  cheek  or  sliouliler, 
.saying,  '  IJe  thou  a  good  and  faithful  knight.'  or 
words  to  that  ell'ect.  The  new  knight  then  took  an 
oath  to  protect  the  distres-sed,  to  maintain  right 
against  might,  and  never  by  wmd  or  ileed  to  stain 
his  (jharacu-r  a-s  a  knight  and  a  Cliristian.  The 
ridigious  character  of  the  ceremimy  .seems  to  have 
become  thus  prominent  in  and  after  the  foundation 


of  the  militant  monastic  ordei-s  in  Palestine,  as  the 
Knights  Templai-s  (see  Tkmi'L.vks)  and  Knights  of 
St  John  (see  Hosi-IT.VLLKl!.s).  A  knight  might  be 
degiaded  lor  the  infringement  of  any  iiart  of  his 
oath,  in  which  case  his  si)urs  were  chopiied  oil'  w  ith  a 
hatchet,  his  swcud  broken,  his  escutcheon  reversed, 
and  some  religious  obser\  ances  were  added,  tluring 
which  each  piece  of  armour  was  taken  off  in  suc- 
cession, and  east  from  the  recreant  knight.  This 
ceremony  «as  of  \ery  rare  occurrence,  but  was  per- 
formed in  ettigy  ;is  late  as  1814  in  the  case  of  Lord 
Dundonald  ( q .  v. ). 

'  Knights  errant '  were  they  who  wandered  seek- 
ing foemen  worthy  of  their  steel,  and  ac(|uiring 
fame  at  joust  and  tourney,  by  maintaining  the 
])re-eminence  in  beauty  and  virtue  of  the  ladies  to 
whom  they  had  vowed  service.  The  (  unhistoiical ) 
'Knights  of  the  Kound  Table' (see  Akthik)  and 
the  paladins  of  Charlemagne  (see  K(.)L.\XD)  are 
types  of  those  whose  mission  it  was  to  succour 
distressed  damsels  and  destroy  tyrants  ;  and  Amadis 
(q.v.)  may  be  taken  as  a  representative  hero  of 
those  romances  of  chivalry  which  Cervantes  satir- 
ised in  DoH  Quixote.  Sad  specimens  of  the  military 
knights  in  a  degraded  condition  were  the  robber 
knights  (Eaubritter)oi  Germany,  who  lived  largely 
by  levying  blackmail  on  merchants  or  by  sheer 
plunder. 

Knighthood,  originally  a  military  distinction, 
came,  in  the  16tli  century,  to  be  occasionally  con- 
ferred on  civilians,  its  a  reward  for  \aliiable  services 
rendered  to  the  crown  or  community.  The  tirst 
civil  knight  in  England  was  Sir  Willia'm  "Walworth, 
lord  mayor  of  London,  who  won  that  distinction  by 
slaying  the  rebel  \\a.t  Tyler  in  presence  of  the 
king.  Since  the  abolition  of  knight-service  knight- 
hood has  been  conferred  « ithout  any  regard  to  pro- 
perty, as  a  mark  of  the  sovereign's  esteem,  or  as  a 
reward  for  services  of  any  kind,  civil  or  militarj'. 
In  recent  times  it  has  been  bestowed  at  least  as 
often  on  administrative  officials,  scholars,  lawyer's, 
physicians,  artists,  and  citizens  as  on  soldiers. 
Although  knighthood  could  originally  be  conferred 
by  any  person  of  knightly  condition,  the  right 
to  bestow  it  was  early  restricted  to  persons  of  rank, 
and  afterwards  to  the  sovereign  or  his  representa- 
tive, as  the  commander  of  an  army.  In  England 
the  sovereign  now  bestows  knighthood  by  a  verbal 
declaration,  accompanied  with  a  simple  ceremony 
of  imiiosition  of  the  sword,  anti  without  any  patent 
or  written  instrument  (see  AccoL.iDt;).  In  some 
few  instances  knighthood  has  been  conferred  by 
patent,  when  the  pei-sons  knighted  could  not  con- 
yeniently  come  into  the  presence  of  royalty,  as  in 
the  case  (jf  governors  of  colonies,  or  other  jiei'sons 
occupying  i>rominent  situations  abroad.  The  lord- 
lieutenant  of  Ireland  also  occasionally,  but  rarely, 
exercises  a  delegated  power  of  conferring  knight- 
liood.  The  monosyllable  'Sir'  is  ])rehxed  to  the 
Christian  names  of  knights  and  baronets,  and  their 
wives  have  the  legal  designation  of  '  Dame,'  which 
in  common  intercmirse  becomes  'Lady.'  For  the 
existing  orders  of  knighthood,  see  ()KI)EK.s,  H.\TH, 
Gartek,  Thistle,  Golden  Fleeik,  \c. 

Pei'sons  who  are  simply  knights,  without  belong- 
ing to  any  order,  are  calleil  in  England  Knights 
Bachelors.  Knighthood  of  this  kind  is  now  only 
conferred  in  Great  Uritain.  A  degree  of  knighthootl 
called  Banneret  (q.v.)  formerly  existed  in  England 
an<l  France  ;  it  was  given  on  the  lield  of  battle  in 
reward  for  the  |)erforniance  of  .some  heroic  act. 
It  is  noticeable  that,  whereas  the  German  word 
for  knight  is  Bitter,  the  word  kneeht,  etymologic- 
ally  the  same  as  knight,  means  the  squire  or  a  still 
humbler  attendant  of  the  knight.  The  French 
knight  (see  LkchdN  ov  Hoxoih)  is  ihem/ier,  the 
Italian  curaliere.  The  form  of  helmet  which  the 
requirements  of  the  later  heraldry  have  apiiropri- 


446 


KNIGHT-SERVICE 


KNOTS 


atetl  to  knights  is  figured  under  Heraldkv  (fig. 
xi.).     For  Knights  of  tlie  Shire,  see  Parliament. 

See  Grose,  Militarij  Antiquities ;  Stubbs,  Constitutional 
Historu  :  Nicolas,  Britisk  Orders  of  Kniiikthood :  Hallaui, 
Europe  during  the  Middle  Aiies  ;  C.  Mills,  hist'irii  of 
Chivalry (\?:2i)\  Gautier,  La  C/ievahrie{lSSi):  Keibisch, 
Geschichte  des  Riltcrthnms  (1842);  Schreekeustein,  Vie 
Bittcrwurde  { 18>S4) ;  Major  Lawrence-Archer's  Orders  of 
Chicalri/  (XSSS). 

Kiiight-sorvice.    See  Tenihe. 

KnislltS  »f  Labour,  a  national  labour  organi- 
satiim  ill  Ihc  riiilcl  States,  founded  at  Pliiladelphia 
in  IStii).  It  is  to  lie  distinguished  from  trades-unions 
a-s  embracing  all  classes  and  kinds  of  labour,  even 
clerks,  sempstresses,  \-c.,  and  extending,  through 
its  local  assemblies,  over  the  whole  country.  The 
professed  objects  of  the  body  are  just  and  reason- 
able, and  such  as  appeal  strongly  to  public  syiii- 
patliy.  The  first  general  asseinlily  was  held  in 
1878  :  from  this  year  the  iiuinbers  rapidly  increased, 
and  the  oaths  of  secrecy  formerly  administered  were 
aiiolished  soon  after.  "  In  1883  there  were  5:5,000 
members,  in  1886  there  were  730,000  ;  in  1886  and 
18S7,  however,  the  system  of  'boycotting'  having 
been  introduced,  the  business  of  the  country  was 
greatly  disturbed,  ami  since  then  the  strength  of 
the  organisation  has  declined.  At  the  convention 
of  1888  the  total  was  admitted  to  have  fallen  below 
500,000  ;  and  dissensions  further  weakened  the 
body.  Unavailing  opposition  to  the  pcdicy  of  the 
leaders  led  to  many  witlidiawals,  and  the  power  of 
the  organisation  was  weakened.  See  GllANUEltS, 
INTET!NATI0NAL,  TUADE  UNION.S. 

Kniu;lits  Toiiiplai-s.    See  Templars. 
kllip|><'l'<l<>lliliu;.    r.KRNAKD,   a  noted  leader 

(1527-.36)  of  the  fanatical  Anabaptists  (4. v.). 

Kiiittiiig.    See  Hosiery. 

Kuoi-k,  a  village  in  County  Mayo,  Ireland,  17 
miles  ESE.  of  Castlebar,  where  an  alleged  lumin- 
ous apparition  of  the  Virgin  ajipeared  on  the  chapel 
wall  in  1880.  For  a  considerable  time  afterwards 
crowds  of  pilgrims  Hocked  to  the  scene,  and  numer- 
ous miraculous  cures  were  reported.  Pop.  of  parish, 
3241. 

Kiiock-kiiee.    See  Leg. 

kiiuh'.    Sec  Sevenoaks. 

Kliut  [Triiijja  aiinitiis),  a  wading  shore-bird  of 
the  family  Scolopacidie,  in  the  same  genus  as  the 
dunlin,  stints,  &c.  It  is  a  regular  autumn  visitor 
to  Britain,  esiiecially  to  the  eastern  estuaries,  but 
breeds  in  the  far  north,  an<l  ranges  a-s  far  south  as 
the  West  Indies.  The  general  colour,  in  sunimer, 
is  reddish  brown,  finely  mingled  with  black,  gray, 
and  white  :  in  winter  the  pluiii.age  becomes  mostly 
ash  gray,  and  on  the  under  parts  white.  The  total 
length  is  about  10  inches.  Its  food  consists  in 
great  part  of  small  bivalves,  but  buds  and  insects 
are  also  eaten.  The  bird  used  to  be  caught  and 
fattened  for  the  table. 

Knot,  the  divisicms  of  the  log-line  on  board 
ship  ( marked  by  l.nul.s),  (!acli  having  the  Mime 
rdalion  to  a  geographical  mile  as  twenly-eight 
.sec<iiids  has  to  an  hour.  Hence  the  nuniber  of 
knots  in  the  log-line  which  run  ont  in  twenty-eight 
.seconds  rejire.sents  the  number  of  geogiaidiical  or 
nautical  miles  an  hour  which  the  ship  is  going  at 
the  lime.  The  geogiajdiical  mile  is  ,};,{\\  of  a  mean 
degree  of  a  meridian  on  the  earth  (sec  1)K(u;ke), 
anil  is  therefore  r.'nth  of  GOO.m  English  statute 
miles  ;  hence  whi'ii  a  sliij)  is  going  '  13  knots, "  it 
is  travelling  really  at  llie  rale  of  about  l.")  I'^iiglish 
miles  an  hour.      Sec  1, 111;. 

Knots  and  Splircs  include  all  the  various 
methods  of  lying,  fastening,  and  joining  ropes  or 
cords.  From  l.W  to  200  dilVerent  kiiuls  of  knots 
may  be  enumerated,   mostly  used  on  shipboard, 


though  almost  all  occupations  using  ropes  or 
cordage  have  special  kinds  of  knots  adapted  to 
their  diti'erent  re<iuirenients.  \Vhile  the  great 
majority  of  these  are  ^mrely  technical,  there  are 
a  few  so  "'enerally  useful  in  the  e\eryday  occur- 
rences of  life  that  they  may  be  shortly  described. 
The  figures  represent  the  various  knots  before 
they  are  drawn  taut,  the  better  to  show  the 
method  of  tying.  Generally,  the  rci|uirenients  of 
a  useful  knot  may  be  stated  to  be  that  it  should 
neither  '  slip  '  nor  'jam' — i.e.  that,  while  it  holds 
without  dantjer  of  slijiping  while  the  strain  is  on 
it,  when  slackened  it  should  be  easily  untied  again. 
Tlie  simplest  knot  is  the  conimon  one  tii'd  on  the 
end  of  a  thie.ad  or  cord  to  prevent  it  slijiping.  By 
passing  a  loop  instead  of  the  end  of  I  lie  cord  the 
common  slip-knot  (fig.  1)  is  formed;  and  a  useful 
fixed  hiop  is  got  by  tying  a  siiii|)le  knot,  or  the 
'figure  of  8  knot'  (2),  on  the  loop  of  a  cord.  One 
of  the  simplest  and  most  useful  running-knots  for  a 


small  cord  is  made  by  means  of  two  simple  knots 
(3).  Tlie  most  secure  method  of  fastening  a 
line  to,  say,  a  bucket  is  the  standing  bowline  (4)  ; 
and  a  running  bowline  is  formed  by  pa.>^sing  the 
end  a  through  the  loop  h,  thus  making  a  running- 
loop.  Another  good  knot  to  make  fast  a  bucket 
is  tlie  anchor-bend  (o).  ~  Out  of  the  score  or  so 
of  methods  of  fastening  a  boat's  painter  the  one 
which  will  be  found  most  useful  is  the  well-known 
two  half-hitches  (6).  The  timber-hitch  (7)  is  use- 
ful for  attaching  a  line  to  a  spar  or  a  stone,  and 
the  clove-hitch  (8)  is  invaluable  for  many  purposes. 
It  is  very  simple  and  cannot  slip. 

A  siniple  method  of  fastening  a  rope  to  a  hook 
is  the  blackwall-hitch  (9),  where  the  strain  on  the 
main  mpe  jams  the  end  so  tightly  against  the 
liook  that  it  cannot  slip.  There  are  many  methods 
for  shortening  a  rope  temporaiily,  one  of  them 
being  the  sheepshaiiK,  the  simplest  form  of  which 
is  shown  in  fig.  10. 

Of    the   methods   for   uniting   the   ends   of    two 


^-     ,.     -3^ 


cords  the  simi>lest  and  one  of  the  most  secure  is 
the  common  reef-knot  (11),  which  must  be  cme- 
fnlly  ilistinguished  from  the  'granny '(  12),  which 
will  jam   if  it  does   not  slip;   the  reei'-knot  wiil 


KNOUT 


KNOW    NOTHINGS 


447 


do  neither.  For  very  small  cords  or  tliroad  tlie 
best  knot  is  the  weaver's  (1.'?).  The  lisheriiian's 
knot  is  a  very  useful  one  for  anjjlers,  and  is  formed 
by  a  simple  knot  in  each  cord  hein^  slipped  over 
the  other  { 14) ;  when  drawn  tant  it  is  very  secure, 
and  it  is  eiusily  separateil  l>y  pulling  the  short  ends. 
A  useful  method  of  uniting  larf;e  ropes  is  shown  in 
tig.  K")  :  tie  a  sim|de  knot  <)n  the  end  of  one  rope 
and  interlace  the  end  of  tlie  other,  and  draw  taut. 
This  tie  may  also  be  made  with  the  ligure  of  S 
knot.  For  very  large  ropes  the  carrick-bend  (  16) 
is  the  simplest  and  most  secure.  The  bowline- 
bend  is  formed  by  looping  two  bowline-knots  into 
each  other.  For  attaching  a  small  line  to  a  thick 
rope  the  becket-hitch  ( 17)  is  very  useful. 

Splwint/  is  the  process  em|doyed  to  join  two 
ropes  when  it  is  not  advisable  to  use  a  knot.  The 
three  chief  varieties  of  the  s]ilice  are  the  short- 
splice,  the  long-splice,  and  the  eye-splice.  The 
short-splice  is  made  by  unla\ing  tlie  ends  of  two 

ropes  for  a  short 
distance  and  tit- 
ting  tlieni  closely 
together  ;  then,  by 
the  help  of  a  niar- 
linspike,  the  ends 
are  laced  over  and 
under  the  strands 
of  the  opposite 
rope,  as  shown  in 
lig.  IS.  When  each 
strand  has  been 
passed  through 
once,  half  of  it  is 
cut  away  and  the 
remainder  passed 
through  again ;  half  of  the  remainder  being  also  cut 
away,  it  is  passed  a  third  time,  and,  when  all  the 
strands  are  so  treateil,  they  are  hauled  taut  and  cut 
close.  This  reducing  tlie  thickne.ss  of  the  strands 
tapers  off  the  splice.  The  long-splice  is  employed 
when  the  rope  is  used  to  run  through  a  block,  as 
it  does  not  thicken  it.  The  ends  of  the  two  ropes 
are  unlai<l  for  a  much  longer  distance  than  for  the 
short-splice,  and  similarly  placed  together.  Then 
one  strand  is  taken  and  further  unwound  for  a 
considerable  distance,  ami  its  vacant  place  (illed  up 
with  the  corresponding  strand  of  the  other  rope,  and 
the  ends  fa.stened  as  in  the  short-splice.  Other  two 
of  the  strands  are  similarly  spliced  in  the  opposite 
direction,  and  the  remaining  two  fastened  at  the 
original  joining-place.  The  eye-splice  is,  as  the 
term  implies,  used  to  form  an  eye,  or  round  a 
dead-eye,  and  Is  shown  linished  in  fig.  19. 

To  prevent  a  roi)e  fraying  at  the  ends  a  variety 
of  methods  are  employed,  the  simplest  being  to 
serve  or  whip  the  end  with  small  cord.  Other 
methods  are  by  interlacing  the  ends,  one  of  which, 
the  single- wall,  is  shown  at  lig.  '20,  the  ends  after- 
warils  being  drawn  taut  and  cut  short. 

The  theory  of  knots,  from  the  .scientilic  point  of 
view,  was  lirst  treated  of  by  Listing  in  his  '  Vor- 
studieii  zur  Topologie'  {Gijttiiiffer  Slui/ieii,  1847); 
and  the  subject  Ls  most  exhaustively  considered  by 
Professor  Tait  {Trans.  Itoi/.  Soc.  Edin.,  1870-77), 
in  a  paper  in  which  the  various  kinds  of  knots  are 
analysol  according  to  their  number  of  crossings, 
and  tludr  •  knottiness,' '  beknottedncss,'  and  '  knot- 
fulness  '  are  dealt  witli. 

Shu  Dana,  Svamitu^  Mnnnftl  {9th  ed.  ]8ti;i);  Tom 
Bowling,  Book  of  KikiU  (18(i(l):  <lHi>tain  Alston,  Seu- 
iiuinxhip  (new  ed.  1871);  J.  Tom  Burfea-s,  Knots,  Tiea, 
anil  SiJicu  (1884). 

Knout,  an  instrument  of  punishment  intro- 
.luc.-d  into  Russia  under  Ivan  III.  (14()2  1.")().5).  It 
was  a  w  hip  with  a  handle  !)  inches  long  and  one  com- 
ple.'w  lp>h,  comprising  a  lash  1(>  inches  long,  with  a 
metal  ring  ;  a  continuation  w  itli  another  ring ;  and 


finally,  a  Hat  lash  of  hard  leather,  21  inches  long,  and 
ending  in  a  beak  like  hook.  TheoH'ender  \v;is  tied  to 
two  stakes,  stripped,  and  received  on  the  back  the 
specified  number  of  hislies  ;  KHJ  to  120  were  etjuiva- 
lent  to  sentence  of  death,  but  in  manv  cases  the 
victim  died  under  the  o]ieratinn  long  "liefore  this 
number  was  completed.  Tlie  wliiiiping  wasinfiicted 
by  a  criiidnal.  For  the  knout  Nicholas  substituteil 
the  pleti,  a  tliiec-thonged  lash,  ami  this  was  dis- 
used, save  in  certain  penal  settlements,  by  Ale.\- 
ander  II.  ( Knout  is  the  French  spelling  of  a 
Russian  word  s|)elt  by  the  Germans  /,«»<,  and  by 
Russians,  Germans,  and  French  alike  pronounced 
kenoot ;  in  English,  usually  but  absurdly  lunrt). 

Kiiowlos,  J.VMES  Sheridan,  dramatist,  wjis 
born  at  Cork,  '21st  May  1784,  the  son  of  a  lexico- 
grapher and  teacher  of  elocution,  who  was  cousin- 
german  to  Richard  Brinsley  Sheridan.  The  family 
removed  to  London  in  1793,  and  here  young  Knowles 
became  intimate  with  Hazlitt  and  Lamb.  He  had 
early  shown  a  strong  bent  for  an  actor's  life,  and 
after  serving  a  while  in  the  militia,  and  studying 
medicine  for  a  time,  he  made  his  first  appearance 
at  the  Crow  Street  Theatre,  Dublin.  But  he  never 
attained  much  eminence  in  this  profession,  and 
subsequently  he  conducted  a  school  for  several 
years  in  Belfast  and  Glasgow.  It  was  at  this  time 
lie  lai<l  the  Inundation  of  his  fame  as  a  dramatist. 
His  Briuii  Boroihine  (1814)  and  Caius  Gracchus 
(1815)  were  first  performed  at  Belfast.  Virginhis, 
his  most  efi'ective  play,  had  been  a  success  in 
Glasgow  before  Macready  in  1820  produced  it  at 
Covent  Garden.  Besides  William  Tell,  in  which 
Macready  achieved  one  of  his  greatest  triumphs, 
Knowles's  best  ]days  are  Love,  Tlie  Hunc/ihatk, 
Tlie  Love  Chase,  and  The  Wife.  His  works  attract 
by  the  strong  human  feeling  that  beats  beneath 
their  antique  dress,  and  several  of  them  are  still 
among  standard  acting-plays.  Knowles  appeared 
with  fair  .success  in  many  of  his  own  pieces  ;  but  in 
his  later  years  he  forsook  the  stage  for  the  i)ulpit, 
became  a  Baptist  preacher,  and  drew  large  audiences 
to  Exeter  Hall.  His  earnestness  and  enthusiasm 
were  great,  and  two  controversial  works  written  to 
combat  Roman-  Catholic  doctrines  dis|ilayed  con- 
siderable acuteness.  From  1849  Knowles  had  a 
civil  list  pension  of  £200  a  year.  He  dieil  at  Tor- 
([uay,  30th  November  18()2. 

KllOWltOIlia,  a  genus  of  South  African  plants, 
of  the  natural  order  Ranunculacea-.  A',  rc.siraloria 
is  remarkable  for  its  acridity  and  blistering  power. 
The  bruised  leaves  are  used  at  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope  instead  of  cantharides. 

Know  IVotllilISS,  the  popular  name  for  the 
Native  .Vmerican  party  which  was  formed  in  the 
United  States  shortly  before  ISoo,  gained  consider- 
able .successes  in  that  year,  lost  its  ground  hope- 
lessly in  1856,  and  soon  after  disap|ieaied  from 
American  politics.  Its  distinctive  princi))le  was 
that  the  government  of  .America  must  be  in  the 
hands  of  Americans  ;  naturalisation  was  to  follow 
only  after  twenty-one  years'  probation,  and  allegi- 
ance to  any  foreign  potentate  lU'  power — presum- 
ably including  the  po]ie — was  to  be  a  bar  to  selection 
for  political  oHice.  The  order  was  a  secret  one,  and 
the  popular  name  arose  from  the  meniliei's  pro- 
fessing always  to  'know  nothing'  when  (|uestione(l 
about  it.  In  the  state  elections  of  18.55  the  (larty 
earned  most  of  New  England,  besides  New  Ymk, 
Kentucky,  and  California,  and  gained  some  successes 
in  other  stales.  In  1856  they  nominated  Mr  Fill- 
more (q.v.)  for  re-election  to  the  presidency,  and 
pidled  nearly  875,t)00  votes  ;  but  tliey  gained  the 
electoral  votes  of  Maryland  only,  and  this  defeat 
was  the  death-blow  of  the  ]i;irty.  Nevertheless, 
its  radical  piimipb-.  in  the  form  of  revolt  aj^ainst 
the  tendency  to  allow  political  (lower  to  fall  into 


448 


KNOWSLEY 


KNOX 


the  hands  of  a  particular  body  of  foreifjn-born 
citizens,  occasioually  reappeai's  in  American  politics. 
In  Boston,  for  instance,  in  1889  the  native-liorn 
citizens  combined  to  snatch  the  city  fjovernment 
from  Irisli  hands  ;  and  the  unsuccessful  attemiit  to 
defeat  the  Tammany  Hall  nominees  at  New  York 
at  the  same  time  exhibits  a  similar  reaction  at 
work. 

KllOW.sley.  a  village  of  Lanc:ishire,  5  miles  XE. 
of  Livfipool.  where — one  mile  from  the  village — is 
Knowsley  Hall,  the  seat  of  the  Earl  of  Derby,  which 
contains  valuable  paintings  by  Rubens,  Kembrandt, 
Teuiers,  Claude  Lorraine,  and  other  great  mastere. 

KilOX,  John,  the  great  Scottish  Reformer,  was 
born  at  tiiflbrdgate,  a  suburb  of  the  town  of 
Haddington,  in  1505,  the  year  preceding  the  birth 
of  his  famous  countryman,  George  Buchanan. 
Knox  ha.s  himself  told  us  in  a  single  sentence  all 
that  is  delinitely  known  of  his  family  connections. 
'My  lord,'  he  represents  himself  as  saying  to  the 
notorious  Earl  of  Bothwell,  'my  grandfather, 
grandsire  ( nuiternal  grandfather),  and  father  have 
served  under  your  lordship's  predecessoi's,  and  some 
of  them  have  died  under  their  standards.'  He 
received  the  elements  of  his  education  in  the 
grammar-school  of  his  native  town,  and  in  15'2'2 
was  sent  to  the  univei'sity  of  Glasgow.  St  Andrews 
was  nearer  his  home,  and  possessed  the  more 
famous  university  ;  but  he  was  probably  drawn  to 
Glasgow  by  the  fame  of  the  most  distinguished 
literary  Scotsman  of  his  generation — John  Major, 
the  schoolman.  For  this  reason,  at  least,  Buchanan 
was  sent  to  St  Andrews,  though  (!lasgo^^•  was 
nearer  his  native  place,  when  Major  had  migrated 
to  the  former  university.  At  Gla.sgow,  under 
Major,  Knox  could  have  been  subjected  to  none  of 
the  inlluenees  of  the  great  intellectual  revolution 
which  snlislituted  for  the  studies  and  methods  of 
medievalism  the  ideals  of  the  Revival  of  Lettere. 
Like  all  his  educated  contemporaries,  he  learned  to 
speak  and  write  Latin  with  perfect  lluency  ;  but  it 
was  always  with  an  idiom  that  showed  he  had 
none  of  the  humanist's  scruples  regaixling  purity  of 
language.  What  he  learned  from  Major  wius  the 
art  for  which  that  scholar  was  renowned  through- 
out Euro|)e — the  art  of  logical  exercitation  ;  and 
Knox's  writings  everywhere  show  that  all  through 
life  he  had  a  natural  delight  in  the  play  of  dialectic. 
He  left  the  university  witliout  taking  the  degree 
of  Ma-ster  of  Arts,  thus  by  the  con<litions  of  all 
the  medieval  universities  precluding  himself  from 
the  career  of  an  academic  teacher. 

During  the  eighteen  years  that  follow  his  leav- 
ing the  university  Kno.x  passes  completely  out 
of  sight.  All  that  is  known  of  him  during  this 
period  is  that  from  1540  to  1543  he  acted  as  notary 
in  his  native  town  of  Haddington.  As  in  the 
documents  that  establish  this  fact  liLs  nanu' 
appears  with  the  addition  of  'Sir,'  the  title  of 
priests  who  were  not  Masters  of  Arts,  Knox  niust 
iKive  been  in  orders  in  the  Gliurch  of  Rome  till  as 
late  ius  1543.  In  1544  we  lind  him  acting  as  tutor  to 
the  sons  of  Dougla-sof  Longniddry  and  t'ockburn  of 
Ormiston — families,  it  is  to  be  noted,  lioth  favour- 
ably ilisposeil  to  the  new  opinions  in  religion  now 
rapidly  making  their  way  in  Scotland.  Through 
these  families  he  Wiis  brought  into  contact  with 
(jeorge  Wishart,  who  had  lately  returned  from 
travelling  in  {jermany  and  England  with  the 
burning  zeal  to  gain  his  country  to  the  Lutheran 
reformation.  Krom  this  ])eriod  the  future  direction 
of  Knox's  life  was  decided,  and  tlienceforward  with 
an  intensity  and  self-devotion  never  surpjissed  he  is 
the  apostle  of  the  cause  with  which  his  name  is 
for  ever  identilied — the  establishment  in  Scotland 
of  what  he  deemed  the  only  true  conception  of  the 
primitive  church  ab  based  on  the  teaching  of  Christ 


and  the  apostles.  We  have  reason  to  believe  that 
even  before  this  date  his  sym])athies  were  on  the 
side  of  reform  in  leligion  ;  but  the  teaching  and 
example  of  Wishait  seems  lirst  to  have  bronght 
to  him  the  clear  consciousness  of  his  mi.ssion. 
Knox  identilied  himself  with  Wishart  with  all  the 
impetuosity  of  his  chaiacter,  and  was  in  the  habit, 
he  tells  us,  of  carrying  a  two-handed  sword  before 
the  preacher.  When  Wishart  wa.s  seized  by  the 
emissaries  of  Cardimil  Beaton,  Knox  would 
willingly  have  attended  him  to  the  la-st  ;  but 
Wishart,  who  knew  the  fate  in  store  for  him, 
rejected  the  offer.  '  Return  to  your  bairns  '  ( mean- 
ing Knox's  pupils),  he  saiil,  'and  God  bless  you. 
One  is  sufficient  for  one  sacrifice. ' 

^^'ishart  Wiis  burned  at  St  Andrews  in  March 
1541),  and  in  May  of  the  same  year  Cardinal  Beaton 
was  murdered.  The  cardinal's  nnnderers  held  pos- 
session of  the  castle  of  St  .\ndrews  ;  and,  as  Knox 
was  known  to  be  the  eneniy  of  Beaton  (though  he 
had  no  share  iu  his  assassination),  he  was  forced 
(1547)  for  his  own  safety  to  join  them  with  his 
]>upils.  Here  his  zeal  and  theological  attainments 
nuide  him  so  conspicuous  that,  at  the  instance  of 
the  leaders  of  the  reforming  party  (Sir  David 
Lyndsay  among  the  rest ),  he  was  formally  called 
to  the  ministry,  and  i>reached  with  much  accept- 
ance in  the  castle  and  parish  cinircli  of  St  Andrews. 
A  few  months  later  tlie  castle  surrendered  to  tiie 
French  :  and  in  the  teeth  of  the  express  terms  of 
capitulation,  the  more  prominent  of  the  besieged 
party  were  sent  as  prisoners  on  board  tlu'  French 
galleys.  For  eighteen  months  Knox  remained  a 
ca])tive,  his  first  winter  being  s|ient  in  a  galley  on 
the  Loire,  the  second  in  prison  in  Uoueii.  His 
constitution  was  not  naturally  robust,  and  his  hard 
exiierienee  during  these  two  years  seriously  im- 
paired his  health  for  the  rest  of  his  life.  The 
breach  of  faith  on  the  part  of  the  French,  ami  the 
ignominy  to  which  he  was  subjected,  were  never 
forgotten  by  Knox,  ami  nnist  in  jiart  explain  and 
justify  his  life-long  conviction  that  no  good  thing 
could  come  of  French  ]iolicy  or  French  religion. 

In  February  1549,  on  the  expre.-^s  intercessicm  of 
Edward  VL,  Knox  regained  his  lilierty.  As  it 
was  still  unsafe  for  him  to  return  to  Scotland,  for 
the  next  four  years,  till  the  death  of  Edward  VI., 
he  made  his  home  in  England.  From  all  that  is 
known  of  him  during  these  years  it  is  clear  that 
he  made  himself  a  person  to  be  reckoned  with  by 
those  at  the  centre  of  authority  in  the  country. 
By  his  preaching  at  Berwick  he  gave  such  offence 
to  the  Bishop  of  Durham  that  he  was  removed  to 
Newcastle,  where  it  was  supposed  his  inlluence 
would  be  less  mischievous.  In  1551  he  was 
appointed  one  of  six  chaplains  to  Edward  VI.,  and 
in  155'2,  at  the  suggestion  of  the  Duke  of  Northum- 
berland, he  was  offered  tlie  bishopri(M)f  Rochester. 
As  the  duke's  object  in  suggesting  the  aiipointment 
was  simi)ly  to  check,  sis  far  as  he  could,  what  he 
deemed  the  dangerous  activity  of  Knox,  the  offer 
was  unhesitatingly  rejecteil.  Knox's  importance 
in  Englaml  is  still  further  jiroved  by  the  tact  that 
along  with  five  others  he  was  ccmsulted  by  .Vrcli- 
bisho])  Cranmer  regarding  his  forty-live  (afterwards 
forty-two)  articles  of  religion;  and  it  has  been 
lately  established  that  largely  on  Knox's  repre- 
sentation the  thirty-eighth  article  was  so  couclied 
as  to  commit  the  Church  of  England  to  the 
Genevan  doctrine  of  the  eiu'liarist. 

On  Mary's  accession  Knox,  like  the  majority  of 
the  Reformed  ministers,  hail  to  seek  refuL'C  on  the 
Continent.  That  lie  ndglit  be  within  call  shonlil 
circumstances  ])ermit  bis  return  either  to  Scotland 
or  England,  he  took  np  his  aboile  at  Dieppe  till 
the  beginning  of  the  following  year  (1554),  when 
he  proceeded  to  Geneva.  In  July  of  this  year  he 
was  again  in  Dieppe,  '  to  learn  the  estate  of  Eng- 


KNOX 


449 


land;'  but  with  Mary  of  Lorraine  its  re''eiit  in  Scot- 
iaiul,  and  Mary  Tudor  as  queen  of  Knyland,  ho  was 
convinced  that  for  the  juesent  both  these  eountnes 
were  closed  against  liiui.  He  accordinj,'ly  accepted  a 
call  from  the  English  congregation  at  Frankforton- 
tlie-Main,  where,  however,  on  account  of  a  dispute 
regarding  the  use  of  the  Book  of  Common  Prayer, 
he  renuiined  only  a  few  months.  At  Geneva  he 
found  a  congregation  of  his  own  way  of  thinking  ; 
but,  eager  to  be  an  apostle  in  his  own  country,  he 
once  more  returned  to  Dieppe  (August  1.').'),')), 
whence  he  ventured  into  Scotland  in  September. 
He  remained  in  Scotlaml  till  July  of  the  ne.Kt  year, 
resiiling  chielly  iu  Ediuburgli,  but  making  preach- 
ing journeys  into  various  parts  of  the  country. 
Tl>e  new  doctrines  were  steadily  spreading  iu  Scot- 
land, but  as  yet  their  sujiportei's  were  not  strong 
enough  to  present  a  conliilent  front  against  the 
government.  It  was  at  his  own  risk,  therefore, 
tliat  Knox  remained  in  the  country ;  and  at  the 
prayer  of  the  congregation  in  Geneva  he  returned 
to  that  town  in  .July  15.50.  It  wa.s  probably  during 
this  visit  to  Scotland  that  he  married  his  first  wife, 
Marjory  Bowes,  to  whom  he  seems  to  have  been 
engaged  during  his  sojourn  in  Newcastle.  For  the 
next  two  yeai^  he  remained  in  Geneva,  ministering 
to  his  congregation,  and  seeing  much  of  Calvin, 
whose  influence  on  Knox  regarding  all  the  great 
questions  of  the  time  was  afterwards  to  bear  fruit 
in  the  ordering  of  affairs  in  Scotland.  To  this 
period,  also,  belong  several  of  his  minor  writings, 
and  notably  his  Firat  Blast  uf  the  Trumpet  arjainst 
the  monstrous  Se(ytmcnt  of  ]Vomeit,  the  publication 
of  which  he  must  afterwards  have  regretted  in  the 
interest  of  the  cause  he  had  most  at  heart. 

Meanwhile,  iu  Scotland  the  ground  was  being 
prepared  for  the  great  work  in  store  for  Knox. 
Under  Mary  of  Lorraine  as  regent,  the  I'rench 
influence  had  come  to  be  regarded  as  a  danger  to 
the  independence  of  the  country,  and  a  sense  of 
this  danger  threw  many  into  the  party  of  reform. 
The  unworthy  lives  of  the  old  clergy,  and  the 
cupidity  of  many  of  the  nobles,  worked  in  the 
same  direction.  In  1557  the  advocates  of  reform 
bound  themselves  by  what  is  known  as  the  First 
Coceiumt  to  do  all  in  their  power  to  etl'ect  a 
religious  revolution;  and  by  1558  they  felt  them- 
selves strong  enough  to  summon  Knox  to  their  aid 
iu  the  work  he  deemed  the  mission  of  his  life. 

In  M.iy  1559  Knox  found  himself  again  in  Scot- 
land, which  he  never  again  left  for  a  jirolonged 
period.  He  at  once  became  the  life  and  soul  of  his 
party.  -■Vt  the  moment  of  Ids  arrival  the  Lords  of 
the  Congregation,  as  the  Protestant  nobility  termed 
themselves,  were  in  open  revolt  against  the  regent. 
By  his  ]»reaching  at  Perth  and  St  Andrews  Knox 
•jained  these  important  towns  to  liLs  cause,  ami  by 
(lis  labours  in  Edinburgh,  of  which  he  was  ap 
pointed  minLster,  he  also  won  a  strong  party  against 
the  government.  But  the  Reformers  of  their  own 
resources  could  not  hold  their  ground  against  the 
regent,  suljsidised  by  France  with  money  and 
soldiers.  Maiidy,  therefore,  through  the  efl'orts  of 
Knox,  who  all  through  his  public  career  was  deep  in 
the  politics  of  the  time,  the  a.ssistance  of  England 
was  obtained  against  what  was  now  deemed  the 
French  invasion.  The  help  of  England  proved 
effective;  and  by  the  treaty  of  Leith  (1500),  and 
the  death  of  the  regent  the  same  year,  the  insnr- 

fent  party  became  masters  of  the  country.  The 
Istiitcs  of  Parlianumt  having  met  on  August  1st, 
the  miiiLsters  were  onlered  to  draw  up  a  Confession 
of  Faith  which  .should  embody  the  new  teaching  ; 
and  on  August  ITtli  Protestantism  was  formally 
established  iis  the  religion  of  the  country.  Having 
gained  thus  much,  the  ministers,  desirous  of  practi- 
cal results  from  their  victory,  drew  up  the  first  Boo/,- 
of  Disei/jline — a  document  ever  memorable  in  the 
289 


history  of  Scotland,  and  admirable  in  itself  for  its 
wise  and  liberal  suggestions  for  the  religious  and 
educational  organisation  of  the  country.  These 
suggestions,  however,  were  little  to  the  mind  of 
the  majority  of  the  Protestant  nobles,  who,  '  jier- 
ceiving  their  carnal  liberty  ami  worldly  commo- 
dity to  be  impaired  thereby,'  sneeringly  spoke  of 
them  as  'devote  imaginationis.'  In  the  revolution 
that  had  been  accoujplished  Knox  had  been  the 
lea<ling  sidrit  :  but  he  saw  that  the  victory  was  as 
yet  only  lialf  gained,  and  that  the  deadliest  struggle 
had  still  to  be  decided. 

The  return  of  the  young  queen  to  Scotland 
(August  15G1)  revived  all  the  old  di.ssensions,  and 
introduced  new  elements  into  the  strife  of  parties. 
By  every  oiuni<m  she  held  on  religion,  on  the  rela- 
tions of  prince  and  subject,  on  the  fundamental 
principles  of  life,  Mary  was  scjiarated  as  by  an 
abyss  from  the  party  represented  by  Knox.  If  we 
may  judge  from  the  langu,ige  which  each  held  of 
the  other,  Knox  and  she  failed  to  find  one  point 
on  which  genial  intercourse  was  possible.  As 
the  minister  of  St  Giles  (then  the  only  Reformed 
church  in  F^dinburgh ),  Knox  believed  that  Mary 
was  his  special  charge.  Iler  iiersonal  conduct, 
therefore,  no  less  than  her  public  policy,  was  made 
the  subject  of  his  most  stringent  criticism  ;  and 
during  the  six  years  of  her  reign  his  attitude 
towards  her  was  that  of  uncompromising  antagon- 
ism. The  celebration  of  mass  in  Holyrood  Chapel 
in  defiance  of  the  late  religious  settlement  first 
roused  his  wrath  ;  and  a  sermon  delivered  by  him 
in  St  Giles  led  to  the  first  of  those  famous  inter- 
views with  Jlarv,  the  record  of  which  makes  such 
a  remarkalde  portion  of  his  Hislor)/  of  the  Reforma- 
tion. The  division  of  ecclesiastical  property,  by 
which  those  in  actual  possession  received  two- 
thirds,  the  Reformed  ministers  one-third,  was  a 
further  ground  of  quarrel  with  the  new  govern- 
ment. The  delay  of  Mary  to  coidirm  the  late 
religious  settlement  also  gave  vise  to  the  gravest 
anxiety  on  the  part  of  Kno.x  and  his  brother 
nunlsters.  In  view  of  the  precarious  interests  of 
the  great  cause,  Knox  spoke  out  with  such  frank- 
ness as  to  alienate  the  most  powerful  noble  in  the 
country,  and  the  one  whom  he  respected  most 
— Lonl  James  Stuart,  afterwards  the  Regent 
Moray.  The  marriage  of  Mary  with  Darnley 
(1565)  again,  however,  led  them  to  common 
counsels,  as  both  saw  in  this  marriage  the  most 
serious  menace  against  the  new  religion.  In  the 
subscqvient  revolt,  headed  by  Moray  and  the  other 
J'rotcstant  nobles,  Knox  nevertheless  took  no 
part,  and  remained  at  his  charge  in  Edinburgh. 
But  afti'r  the  murder  of  Pii/zio  he  deemed  it  wise, 
considering  Mary's  disposition  towards  him,  to 
withdraw  to  Kyle  in  Ayrshire,  where  he  appears 
to  have  written  the  greater  part  of  his  History. 

The  events  of  the  next  two  years— the  murder 
of  Darnley,  Mary's  marriage  with  Botlnvell,  and 
her  subsecpient  flight  into  Knglaiul — again  threw 
the  management  of  attairs  into  the  hands  of  the 
Protestant  jiarty  ;  and  under  Moray  as  regent  the 
acts  of  15(i()  in  favour  of  the  Reformed  religion  were 
duly  ratilied  by  the  Estates  of  the  Realm.  As  in 
the  former  revolution,  Knox  was  still  the  same 
formidable  force  the  nobles  had  to  reckon  with  ; 
and  at  Stirling  at  the  conwiation  of  Janu!s  VI. 
( 1.5()7),  and  at  the  opening  of  parlianjent  the  .same 
year,  he  ))reacheil  in  that  strain  whiili  gave  his 
.sermons  the  character  and  imi)orlaMce  ol  public 
manifestoes.  The  assa,ssinali(>n  of  Moray  in  1570, 
and  the  consequent  formation  of  a  strong  party  in 
favour  of  Mary,  once  more  endangered  the  cause 
to  which  he  had  devote<I  his  life,  ami  the  possession 
of  the  castle  of  Edinburgh  by  the  (itiecn's  sup- 
porters forced  him  to  remove  to  St  Andrews  for 
safety.      He  had  already  had  a  stroke  of  apoplexy, 


450 


KNOXVILLE 


KOCH 


ami  he  was  now  but  the  wreck  of  his  former  self, 
Imt  his  spirit  was  as  indomitalile  a-s  ever.  The 
ilescriptioii  of  him  at  tliis  period  by  James  Melville 
can  never  lie  omitted  in  any  aioimnt  of  Knox. 
'  Heing  in  St  Andrews  he  was  very  weak.  1  saw 
him  every  day  of  liis  doctrine  <;o  linlie  and  fear,  with 
a  furriiij;;  of  martriks  aliout  his  neck,  a  .stall'  in  the 
one  hand,  and  j;ood  godly  llichart  Ballanden,  his 
servant,  holding  np  tlie  other  oxter,  from  the  aliliey 
to  the  parish  church  ;  and  be  the  said  Kichart  and 
anotlier  servant  lifted  uj)  to  tlie  jiulpit,  where  ho 
liehoved  to  lean  at  his  lirst  entry  ;  but  or  lie  had 
<lone  with  his  sermon,  he  was  so  active  and  vigor- 
ous that  he  was  like  to  ding  that  pulpit  in  blads, 
and  lly  out  of  it.' 

It  was  the  desire  of  his  congregation  of  St  Giles 
to  hear  him  once  more  before  he  died.  Accordingly, 
by  sliort  stages,  he  made  his  way  to  Edinburgh, 
and  on  the  9tli  November  1572,  at  the  induction 
of  his  successor  in  office,  he  made  his  last  public 
apjiearanee.  He  died  the  same  month  at  the  age 
ot  sixty-seven,  and  was  1)uried  in  the  churchyard 
then  attached  to  St  Giles,  behind  wliicli  churcli 
a  small  square  stone  in  the  pavement  of  Parlia- 
ment Square,  marked  'I. K.,  1572,'  now  indicates 
the  spot  wliere  he  is  supposed  to  lie.  The  saying 
of  the  Hcgent  Morton  at  his  grave,  '  Here  lyeth  a 
man  who  in  his  life  never  feared  the  face  of  man ' 
((,'aldiuwoi)d),  was  the  most  memorable  panegyric 
that  could  have  been  pronounced  to  his  memory. 

Knox  was  twice  married.  His  lirst  wife,  Mar- 
jory Bowes,  died  in  1560,  leaving  him  two  sons. 
15y  his  second  wife,  Margaret  Stewart,  daughter 
of  Lord  (Ochiltree,  wliom  (little  more  tlian  a  girl) 
he  married  in  lotU,  he  bail  three  daughtere.  His 
widow  and  ail  his  family  survived  him. 

In  their  broader  features  the  character  of  Kno.x 
and  of  till!  work  he  achieved  cannot  be  misread.  In 
himself  he  stands  as  the  pre-eminent  type  of  tiie 
religious  Reformer— dominated  by  his  one  tran- 
scendent idea,  indill'erent  or  hostile  to  every  in- 
terest of  life  tliat  did  not  subserve  its  realisation. 
He  is  sometimes  spoken  of  as  a  fanatic ;  but  the 
term  is  lianlly  a|)plical)le  to  one  wlni  combined  in 
such  degree  as  Knox  the  sinewdest  worldly  sense 
witli  an  ever-ready  wit  and  a  native  humour  that 
declares  itself  in  his  most  serious  moments  ami  in 
his  treatment  of  the  loftiest  subjects.  To  blame 
liim  fiu'  intolerance  or  harshness  is  but  to  pa.ss 
judgment  on  his  age  and  on  the  type  to  which  he 
belongs.  It  is  his  uni)uestioMable  tribute  tliat  the 
work  he  acconijilishcd  was  the  fashioiung  anew  of 
his  country's  destinies.  The  revolution  he  was  the 
main  instrument  in  effecting  was  not  merely  the 
sulistitution  of  one  set  of  dogmas  for  another:  it 
was  the  transformation  of  the  national  ideals,  the 
(piickening  of  t\w  national  life,  the  victory  of  \»in- 
ciples  wliicb  eventually  assureil  to  Scotland  the 
flee  and  natural  development  of  the  life  of  her 
peo])Ie.  It  has  to  be  added  that  by  his  Historn  of 
the  ltcfi>ri)i(itioH  in-  Scotliinil  Knox  holds  a  place  of 
his  own  in  tlie  liistorv  of  literature.  His  narrative, 
as  was  to  be  expected,  is  tliat  of  one  who  saw  only 
a  single  as[)ect  of  the  events  lie  chronicles  :  but  the 
impress  of  the  writer's  indiviihiality.  stamped  on 
every  |iage,  renders  his  work  possibly  unique  in 
English  literature. 

See  M'Crie,  Life  of  Knox  (1811;  7th  ed.  1835);  The 
Works  of  John  Knox,  edited  by  David  Laing  (6  vols. 
184G-64);  Carlyle, /ferocs  and  HooWorship  ;  Lorimer, 
John  Knox  and  the  Church  of  Enijland  (1875);  short 
works  by  Sirs  MacCiinn  ( 1S95)  and  Taylor  Iiines  (18UG); 
and  tlic  Life  by  the  present  writer  (1895). 

Kliowillc,  a  city  of  Tennessee,  stands  amid 
)iicluiesi|uc  scenery  on  the  Hcdston  Hiver,  at 
the  lieail  of  steamboat  navigation,  105  miles  E.  of 
Nashville.  It  is  a  railway  junction,  and  has 
manufactures  of  iron  goods,  wooden  wares,  flour, 


&c.  Here  are  the  state  university  and  the  agri- 
cultural college,  the  stiite  school  for  deaf-mutes,  an 
industrial  school  for  coloured  puiiils,  and  a  hand- 
some post-ollice.    Pop.  ( 1880)  10,917  ;  ( 1890)  22,.">35. 

liliur  ail«l  Spell  (called  by  Strntt  '  Northen 
Spell),  an  old  English  game  idayed  with  a  ball, 
which  is  '  risen  '  from  a  trap  and  bit  with  a  liat  made 
for  the  purpose.  The  ball,  called  the  'knur,'  is 
made  of  wood,  a  little  bigger  than  a  walnut.  The 
bat,  Ccalled  a  'tripstick,'  as  it  is  also  used  to  spring 
the  trap  or  'spell,'  consists  of  a  ]iiecc  of  liard  wood, 
6  by  4  inches,  and  1  inch  thick  (the  pommel), 
attached  to  a  supple  handle  from  .')  to  4  feet  long, 
which  the  |dayer  grasps  with  luitb  bands,  giving 
the  full  swing  of  his  body  with  the  stroke.  The 
game  consists  of  the  cumulative  distance  of  a  given 
number  of  strokes,  the  player  who  has  the  greatest 
numlier  of  yards  being  the  winner. 

Klllltsfoi'd  ('Canute's  ford'),  a  ]ilcasant-look- 
ing  town  of  Cheshire,  15  miles  SW.  of  Manchester 
by  rail,  the  Cranford  of  Mrs  Gaskell's  sketches, 
with  manufactures  of  cotton,  worsted,  and  leatlier 
goods,  and  a  pop.  of  (1851)  31'27;  (18S1)  4'290. 
In  1888  the  elder  .son  of  Sir  Henry  Holland  (q.v.) 
was  created  IJaron  Knutsford.  See  H.  Green's 
Jlistunj  of  Kiiiitsfurd  ( 1859). 

liu.VKIliU  a  forest  track  and  eleidiant-iueserve, 
extending  from  the  sea  to  the  Outenii|ua  Mountains 
in  Cape  Colony,  150  miles  W.  of  Port  Elizabeth. 

Kostlst  (Phascolarctus  cincrciis),  a  m;usupial, 
restricted  to  eastern  Australia,  of  the  family 
Phalangeridic,  and  pretty  nearly  resembling  the 
Phalangers  in  dentition,  but  having  tlie  molar 
teeth  much  larger.  The  toes  of  the  fore  feet  arc  in 
two  nppiisiible  groups,  of  two  or  three,  a  character 


Koala  [Phmcolarctua  ctnereua). 

not  found  in  any  other  <|uadniiied,  but  well  adapted 
to  grasjiing   the   brmichi's  of  trees,   on   which    (he 

koala  often   hangs  willi   its  back   under st,   lik(! 

the  sloth.  There  is  scarcely  any  rinliiiieiit  of  a 
tail.  The  general  form  is  not  unlike  that  of  a 
young  bear,  whence  the  name  of  'Native  Bear.' 
The  female  carries  her  young  on  her  back  for  a 
long  time  after  it  is  capable  of  leaving  her  ixmcli. 

KoltiM'.     See  1).\H-1'"C'U. 

li4»bolds.     See  tJoHI.IN,  DeMONOLOGY. 

KocIk  K.\ui„  botanist,  was  born  at  Weimar, 
6th  June  1809.  He  studied  at  the  universities  of 
Wiirzbuig  and  Jena,  and  in  1S;!6  undertook  a 
scientilic  journey  to  smithern  l!ns>ia.  In  l,S4."?-44 
he  visited  .Armenia,  Kurdistan,  Tianscancasia,  and 
the  Crimea.  He  was  a|ipoiiilcd  extra-ordinary 
professor  of  Botany  at  Jena  in  KS.Sti,  and  in  1S48  at 
Berlin,  where  he  died,  '25th  May  1879.  His  chief 
work  is  his  Doidro/orfic  (1869-72);  but  he  also 
published  several  books  of  travel,  Hcitriit/e  :ii  ehier 
riora  t/e.s  Oricn/.s  (6  jiarts,  1848-54),  anil  a  map  of 
Transcaucasia  and  Armenia. 


KOCH 


KOLA    NUTS 


451 


Koch.  KoHKRT,  an  eminent  bacteriologist,  was 
l)orn  at  Klaustlial,  in  tlie  Harz,  11th  December 
184.'!.  studied  at  Gottingen,  and  practised  medicine 
at  Hanover  and  elsewliere.  His  investigations  in 
connection  with  woiinds,  septica-mia,  and  splenic 
fever  g,ained  him  a  seat  on  the  imperial  board  of 
health  in  1S80  :  and  his  further  researches  in  micro- 
scopy and  bacteriology  led  to  his  discovery  in  1S82 
of  the  Baci/liis  tuberculosis.  In  1883  he  wa-s  made  a 
privy-councillor,  ami  appointed  leader  of  the  German 
expedition  sent  to  Egypt  and  India  in  quest  of  the 
choIeragerm(see  B.VCTKKIA,  lig.  o;  alsoC'lloLEU.\). 
In  18So  he  was  appoinletl  i)roIessor  at  Berlin,  and 
in  1891  director  ot  the  new  institute  for  infectious 
diseases.  He  made  valuable  investigations  on 
rinderpest  in  South  Africa,  leading  to  a  method  of 
propliylactory  inoculation  ;  and  in  1898  he  began 
a  two  years'  series  of  investigations  on  malarial 
fever  in  Italy,  Greece,  E.ast  Africa,  India,  and  New 
Guinea.  For  Koch's  jiostulates,  see  Ger.m  ;  and 
for  his  tuberculin,  see  Tubercle,  p.  317.  He  has 
written  on  splenic  fever  (1876  and  1882),  on  wound 
poison  ( 1878),  and  other  subjects. 

Hork,  Ch.\rles  Paul  de  (1794-1871),  born 
at  Pa.s.sy,  near  Paris,  was  the  son  of  a  Dutch 
banker  who  perished  on  the  scatl'old  during  the 
French  Revolution.  He  devoted  himself  to  litera- 
ture against  the  wishes  of  his  relatives,  and 
produced  an  endless  series  of  novels,  vivacious, 
piquant,  and  readable,  but  hardly  reaching  the 
dignity  of  literature.  However,  they  will  retain 
their  value  as  pictures  of  lower  middle-class  life  in 
Paris  in  the  first  half  of  the  19th  century,  especially 
in  its  shadier  sides  ;  and  they  display  a  marvellous 
fertility  in  the  invention  of  incidents,  more  or  less 
equivocal  in  character,  in  the  life  of  the  French 
bourgeoisie,  its  cabarets,  and  its  guingettes.  His 
undeniable  gifts  are  marred  by  a  coarse  vulgarity 
that  seems  in  grain,  and  an  utter  absence  of 
style.  Yet  his  stories  were  for  long  immensely 
popular,  and  we  know  that  for  thirty  years  they 
were  the  sole  reading  of  Major  Pendennis.  Here 
may  merely  be  named  Georgette  :  Giistare :  Le 
Barbier  <le  Paris  :  La  Femme,  le  .Mari  et  I'Amant  ; 
Mumrs  Paritiennes.  The  collected  edition  of  his 
works  fills  .56  vols.  (1844-45).  See  his  Memoirs 
written  by  ///hiav//"  ( 1899).— Henri  de  Kock,  his 
son  (born  1821  :  .lied  17th  April  1892),  followed  his 
father  as  closely  as  he  could,  with  a  series  of  far 
weaker  novels.  Another  work  is  his  Souvenirs  de 
A'fi/,„lfr,ii  in.  a   Wilhelinskulie  (1871). 

lio«liak.    See  Kadi.\k. 

Kohat',  the  headquarters  of  Kohat  district,  in 
the  Punjab,  is  plea.santly  situated  in  a  mountain- 
valley,  37  miles  S.  of  Peshawar.  It  is  surrounded 
by  a  wall  12  feet  high,  ami  has  cantonments  to  the 
east  and  a  fort  to  the  north.  Guns  and  rilie-barrels 
are  manufactured  near  by.  Pop.  (1881)  18,179; 
(1891  )  with  cantonment,  27,0(J3.— The  ili.striet  has 
an  area  oi  2771  sq.  ni.,  ami  a  iiop.  of  203,175. 

Koiiolrtli.    See  Ecclesi.\stes. 

Koll-i-liAr.     See  Dl\mond. 

Kollistail.  a  name  given  to  certain  mountain- 
ous r.giiiii>  in  Persia,  -Afghanistan,  and  Turkestan. 

Kohl.    See  Alcohol. 

Kohl,  .loHANN  OeokO,  traveller  and  author, 
was  born  .it  Bremen,  April  28,  I80H,  studied  at 
Oottingen,  Heidelberg,  anil  .Munich,  and  settled  in 
Dresden  in  1838.  From  this  point  he  nuule  e.\cur- 
sions  to  every  important  district  of  Europe,  and 
on  his  return  from  each  expedition  i)ublislied  his 
experience  in  a  series  of  works.  In  18.-)4  he  went 
t<i  America,  where  he  snent  four  yeai's,  .and  jire- 
pared  a  series  of  maps  for  the  government.  Ite- 
tiirning  to  ("Jermanv  he  became  city  librarian  at 
Bremen,  and  there  died  on  28tli  October  1878.     His 


writings  include  works  on  Austria,  Britain,  the 
Rhine,  the  Alps,  Rus.sia,  Denmark,  the  Nether- 
lands, Istria,  Dalmatia,  and  Montenegro  (all  be- 
tween 1842  and  1851 ) :  also  books  of  travel  in 
Canada  (1850)  and  the  United  States  (New  York, 
1857);  and  histories  of  the  di.scovery  of  America 
(18G1:  Eng.  trans.  1862),  of  the  north-eastern 
coast  of  America  ('Maine  Historical  Collections,' 
Portland,  1869),  and  of  Magellan  Strait  (1877). 

Kohler,  Reinhold,  a  learned  student  of  the 
history  of  literature,  was  born  at  Weimar,  24th  June 
18.30,  studied  philology  at  Jena,  Leipzig,  and  Bonn, 
and  accepted  in  1857  the  post  of  a  librarian  in  the 
ducal  library  at  AVeiniar,  of  which  he  became  the 
chief  in  1881.  Besides  numerous  contributions  to 
the  learned  journals,  such  as  his  admiiable  notes 
on  J.  F.  Camjibell's  tales  in  Benfey's  Orient  und 
Occident  (vol.  ii.  1864),  he  published  works  on  the 
Diotii/sialca  of  Nonnus  (1853),  on  Kleist's  AVorks 
( 1S62 ),  on  Herder's  Cid  and  its  sources  ( 1867 ) ;  and 
edited  Alte  Bcrgmannslicdcr  (1858),  four  dialogues 
of  Hans  Sachs  (1858),  Kunst  id)cr  alle  Kiinste  (a 
1672  translation  of  Shakespeare's  Taming  of  the 
Shi-cic),  Dante  and  the  German  translations  ( 1865), 
AVieland's  Oberon  { 1868),  and  Schiller's  ^Est/ietisclie 
Schriften  (1871).  His  admirable  notes  to  Kreuz- 
wald's  Estnische  3Iarchen  (1869)  and  Laura  Gon- 
y.enhach's  Siciliaiiisr/ic  Mrirr/ii-n  (1870)  are  known 
to  all  folklorists.     He  died  15tli  August  1892. 

Kobl-rabi  (Ger.  Ko/il-rUbe,  'Kale-turnip;'  so 
P'rench  Choii  Pave),  a  cultivated  variety  of  the 
Kale  or  Cabbage  {Brassica  oleracea),  distinguished 
by  the  swelling  of  the  stem  just  aliove  the  ground, 
in  a  globular  form,  like  that  of  the  turnip,  but 
with  the  leaf-stalks  si)ringiiig  from  the  swollen 
p.art,  and  adding  to  the  peculiarity  of  its  appear- 
ance. This  is  the  part  which  is  used,  and  its  uses 
are  similar  to  those  of  the  turnip.  It  is  a  common 
field-crop  in  Sweden. 

Koil.     See  Aligarh. 

Koko-nor,  or  Kuku-nor,  a  lake  of  Tibet,  near 
the  frontier  of  the  Chinese  province  of  Kan-su,  tills 
a  depression  surrounded  liy  mountains,  and  lies, 
according  to  Prjevalsky,  12,097  feet  above  the 
level  of  the  sea.  Its  very  salt  waters,  exquisitely 
blue  in  colour,  cover  66  miles  by  40.  It  contains 
five  islands,  one  with  a  Buddhist  monastery. 

Kok-ra  Wood,  or  Cocu.s  AVood,  the  wood  of 

an  Inillan  tree,  Lcj/idosta<-/ii/s  Roxburghii,  which 
belongs  to  a  very  small  natural  order,  Scepaceie.  It 
is  imported  into  Britain  in  logs  of  6  or  8  inches  in 
diameter,  havin"  the  heart-wood  of  a  rich  deep 
brown  colotir  and  very  hard  ;  and  is  much  used  in 
the  manuf.acture  of  Hutes  and  other  musical  in.stru- 
ments. 

Kokstadt.    See  Griqualand  E.\st. 

Kola,  a  place  of  only  770  inh.abitants,  but  worthy 
of  notice  its  the  most  northern  town  of  European 
Russia.  It  is  situated  fm  the  iieninsula  of  Kola, 
is  the  capital  of  Kussian  Laiiland,  and  h.-is  a  capa- 
cious harbour.  The  peninsula  of  Kola  is  a  dreary 
expanse  of  forests  and  lakes,  but  has  several  ranges 
of  mountains,  one  of  which,  the  Umbdek  Mountains, 
on  the  east  side  of  Lake  Imandra,  rising  to  .3.300 
feet,  is  the  second  highest  (after  the  Caucasus)  in 
Russia.     See  I{ae's  White  Sea  Peninsula  ( 1882). 

Kola  >'llts,  or  Guru  Nijts,  the  seeds  of  Ster- 
culia  acnininala,  a  tree  native  to  the  regions  of 
Africa  south  of  7°  30'  lat.  From  the  17th  century 
traders  brought  home  marvelhms  stories  of  these 
nuts;  but  it  was  in  1865  that  Dr  I  )aniell  discovered 
that  they  containiid  an  alkaloid  iilcntic.il  with  that 
found  in  tea,  cofl'ee,  mate,  and  guarana,  and  from 
that  time?  they  hiive  received  more  attention.  In 
the  Soudan  they  are  valued  so  highly  that  no 
gi'eater  honour  can  be  given  than  the  prt»eutation 


452 


KOLAPUR 


KONG 


Stcrculia  acuminata : 

u,  the  uut. 


of  some  of  the  nuts.     In  times  of  drought  a  single 

nut  has  bought  a 
slave,  while  a  hiide 
of  the  highest 
famil}'  has  often 
been  sold  for  a 
handful.  This  ex- 
cessive value  is 
due  to  the  pos- 
session of  reniaik- 
able  virtues,  the 
explanation  of 
Avhii-h  is  still  want- 
ing. The  natives 
chew  the  nuts,  ex- 
tracting the  juice 
and  spitting  out 
the  fibrous  matter. 
By  means  of  it 
they  profess  to 
>\  ithstaud  hunger, 
thirst,  sleep,  and 
exhaustion.  An- 
alysis reveals  only 
about  2  per  cent, 
of  theine,  tea  and 
cofl'ee  containing 
from  -J  to  .3  per 
cent.,  while  there  is  also  a  small  amount  of  volatile 
oil ;  hut  this  does  not  account  for  all  its  virtues, 
and  the  explanation  given  is  that  it  is  used  in  the 
fresh  state,  and,  like  coca,  loses  its  powers  on 
drying.  In  Africa  the  seeds  are  only  transported 
when  carefully  wrapped  in  leaves  resembling  lotus, 
and  are  frei|uently  moistened.  As  imported  into 
Europe  they  vimloubtedly,  like  tea  and  cofl'ee, 
po.ssess  a  stimulant  value,  but  beyond  that  their 
virtues  are  douljtful.  In  Africa  they  possess  a 
reputation  for  purifying  and  clarifying  muddy 
water,  but  it  does  not  appear  that  they  are  superior 
to  otiier  mucilaginous  seeds  for  this  pur[iose.  In 
certain  forms  of  diarrlnea  they  are  usetul,  and  may 
be  taken,  like  tea,  as  a  decoction.  They  have  been 
recommended  for  diiisomania,  but  their  utility  in 
this  respect  is  small.  The  rotten  nuts  and  those 
which  had  become  dry  began  to  be  exported  in  1877 
to  Germany  and  Fiance,  for  the  purpose  of  mixing 
with  chocolate  ;  and  in  recent  years  v.uious  pre- 
parations— kola  |);i.ste,  chocolate,  aerated  water,  i.S:c. 
—  have  been  introiluced,  the  value  of  winch  is  doubt- 
ful. Dilute  alcohol  extracts  most  colouring  ami 
extractive  matter  from  the  seeds,  and  this  tincture 
or  a  decoction  may  be  used  for  adniinisteriu"  them  ; 
but  the  best  and  simplest  way  is  to  cliew  tlie  seed 
by  itself,  or  take  the  powder  mixed  with  some 
sweetening  material. 

Kolilimr  {KuUiiijiiir),  the  cai)ital  of  a  tributary 
state  in  Bombay,  144  miles  S.  by  K.  of  I'oona, 
with  manv  handsome  modern  buildings  ami  an 
active  trade.  I'o|i.  (IS'Jl)  4.5,815.— Kolapiir  .sy«^e 
has  an  area  of  2Sl(i  sq.  m.,  and  a  poj).  of  SI13,131, 
nine-teiitlis  Hindus. 
Uulariaii.s.  See  Inui.v,  Vol.  VI.  p.  103. 
HolKllffi  "'■  Kalguef,  an  island  of  Kussia,  in 
the  .Arctic  Ucean,  belonging  to  the  government  of 
Archangel.  Area,  1350  .sq.  ni.  It  is  visited  in 
summer  by  fur-hunteis,  walrus-hunters,  and  fowlers, 
who  caiiture  cider  ducks,  swans,  and  other  sea- 
birds  tliat  yield  down.  The  only  permanent  in- 
hal>ilants  are  a  few  Samoyedes. 

Kolill,  or  KOLI.IX,  a  town  of  Bohemia,  on 
tlie  ICIbe,  38  miles  by  rail  E.  by  S.  from  Prague,  is 
a  centre  of  the  sugar  industry  of  the  country,  and 
manufactures  chendcals,  oil,  metal  wares,  <S.c. 
Poj).  11,630.  A  great  battle  was  fought,  .lune 
18,  1757,  in  its  vicinity  between  54.1)00  Austrians 
luider  Marshal  Daun  and  31,000  Piussians  under 


Frederick  II.  The  latter  were  defeated  with  a  total 
loss  of  14,(K)0  men  ;  the  Austrians  lost  8000. 

Kollar.  Jan,  Slavonic  poet  and  scholar,  was 
born  '29th  July  1703  at  Mossocz,  in  the  north-west 
of  Hungary,  studied  at  Presburg  and  Jena,  ami  in 
1819  became  (lastor  of  a  Protestant  congregation 
at  Pesth.  His  lii-st  work  w;»-s  a  volume  of  I'uems 
(1821);  tliis  wa.s  followed  by  an  eidargcd  edition 
of  the  same  entitled  The  Daiajlitn-  uf  Ulury  (1824), 
his  greatest  work.  He  also  published  a  collection 
of  Slavonic  Volk-sonys  (2d  ed.  1832  .33),  and  some 
books  on  the  Slavonic  peo|)les  and  languages.  He 
Wits  made  professor  of  Archaology  at  A'ienna  in  1849, 
and  died  there,  January  24,  1852.  See  the  Auto- 
biograjihy  included  Lu  his» CW/cc/Cf/  ^Yurks  (2d  ed. 
4  vols.  I'iague,  1868 ). 

Kolliker,  Albert  von,  anatomist  and  embry- 
ologi.st,  was  born  at  /urich  on  6th  July  1N17,  studied 
natural  sciences  at  Zurich,  Bonn,  and  Kirliii,  was 
ai)pointed  profes.sor  of  Physiology  and  Comparative 
Anatomy  at  Zurich  in  1845,  and  in  1847  exchanged 
this  for  the  chair  of  Anatomy  at  Wiirzburg.  He 
is  princijially  distinguished  by  his  labours  in  the 
department  of  microscopic  anatomy  and  on  the 
development  of  the  embryo.  Among  his  principal 
works  nmst  be  named  his  Hdiidbueli  ilcr  Inucbe- 
Ic/ire  tics  Mcnschoi  (translated  for  the  Sydenham 
Soci(!ty  by  Busk  and  Huxley  as .(  Mtm mil  oflliiman 
i  Histotofjfj),  Die  Sijt/tonojihortr  of/n- Sc/iirimuij)oii//}t'n 
vu)i  McKsiiiti.  the  Cliulhiirjcr  Pcporl  on  I'ennatulida 
(vol.  i.  1880),  and  Eiiiwivl.cliuitjxfjcscliicldc  lies 
Moixrhcii  u.  d.  Iwheren  Thicre.  1  n  association  with 
\im  Siehold  he  started  the  important  Zeitsehrift 
fur  vi.ssoiscftajt/ic/ic  Zooloi/ic, 

Kiilii.    See  Cologne. 

lioloilioa,  a  town  of  Austrian  Galicia,  on  the 
Prulh,  43  Uiilesby  rail  NW.  of  Czernowitz.  Situated 
not  far  from  a  rich  iietroleum  region,  il  has  works 
for  relining  petroleum  anil  for  making  ]iarallin  • 
candles.  Pottery  is,  however,  the  staple  manufac- 
ture.     Pop.  .30,160  (nearly  half  are  Jews). 

Koluilllia.  a  town  of  lUissia,  on  the  Moskva, 
08  miles  by  rail  SE.  of  Moscow.  It  manufactures 
silk,  linen,  leather,  soaii,  ami  machines.  Pop. 
(1894)  28,323.  Here  the  Mongols  under  Batu 
defeat(^d  the  Ivussians  in  1237. 

Ii«>lo.srsir.    See  Klausenbhrg. 

Kollxoli;  Alexei  Vassilievich  (1809-42),  a 
Kus.sian  jioet  of  the  people,  left  but  few  songs,  yet 
those  among  the  choicest  lyrics  of  Itussian  poetry. 

Kolyma',  a  river  of  ciustern  Siberi.i,  llowing  from 
the  Stanovoi  Mountains  995  miles  noith  east  to  the 
Arcl  ic  ( )ci'an.  It  is  only  free  from  ice  during  eleven 
weeks  in  the  year.     Its  waters  are  full  of  lisli. 

lioilioril,  a  town  and  fortress  in  Hungary, 
situated  on  the  island  of  Scluitt,  in  the  Danube, 
which  is  here  crosseil  by  a  bridge  of  boats,  48  miles 
N\V.  of  Pesth.  The  town,  which  is  irregularly 
built,  with  narrow,  gloomy  sUim'Is,  contains  (  1891) 
13,072  iidialiitants,  who  trade  in  com  and  tindier, 
cultivate  the  vine,  and  carry  on  fishing.  The 
fortress,  one  of  the  strongest  in  luirope,  com- 
menced in  the  end  of  the  131li  century,  W!i.s  greatly 
enlarged  and  strengthened  by  Matthiius  Corviinis  ; 
the  fortifications  were  again  restored  and  improved 
in  1805-9.  It  requires  for  its  defence  at  leiust 
15.000  men  aiul  4tM»  pieces  of  artillery.  Although 
taken  bv  I'erdinand  1.  in  1.V27,  it  successfully  with- 
stood the  Turks  in  1.543,  1594,  and  U163.  Klapka 
held  it  for  the  Hungarians  against  the  Austrians 
from  October  1848  to  September  1849. 

KoiliT.  a  distri<-t  of  \Ve-sl  .Africa,  stretching 
from  8'  30'  to  12'  N.  hit.  along  the  upper  cour.se  of 
the  Conioc  (mouth  at  Grand  I!ius,sam  on  the  Ivory 
Coast),  and  measuring  some  three  ilc;irecs  of  longi- 
tude.    The   district   is   a   plateau,   whose   average 


KONIEH 


KOOTENAY. 


453 


elevation  is  2300  feet  above  sea-level,  rising  in  a 
few  groups  of  peaks  up  to  6000  feet.  The  Kong 
Mountains  of  the  geographers  are  attirnieil  by  Binger 
to  be  merely  isolated  granitic  peaks  only  300  feet 
above  the  plateau.  The  people,  Maiuliiigoes  by 
race  ami  Mohainmeilans  by  religion,  manufacture 
cotton  .stulls  and  carry  on  indigo-dyeing.  The 
capital  of  the  state  is  the  town  of  Kong,  with  from 
12,000  to  15,000  inhabitant.s.  This  district  was 
declared  a  protector.ate  of  France  in  1889.  See 
Bull.  Soc.  G(ofj.  dc  Paris  (1889)  for  a  paper  by 
Captain  llinger. 

Koilioll.  or  Ivoxiv.v.     See  ICONirsi. 

Konigr,  I'kiedrich,  the  inventor  of  the  steam- 
pres.s,  was  born  at  Eisleben,  ITtli  April  1774.  He 
became  a  printer,  and  at  the  same  time  eagerly 

f)roseouted  scientific  stmlies.  Havin"  devoted 
limself  to  the  invention  of  means  of  printing 
by  machinery,  he  applied  in  vain  for  the  neces- 
sary pecuniary  a-ssistance  in  various  quarters,  his 
schemes  being  rejected  as  impracticable ;  but  at 
last  Thomas  Bensley,  a  printer  in  London,  came 
forward  to  his  support,  and  a  p.atent  was  obtained 
in  1810  for  a  press  which  ]irinted  like  the  haiul- 
press  by  two  Hat  plates.  \  second  patent  was 
obtained  in  ISII  for  a  cylinder-press,  and  others 
in  1813  and  1S14  for  improvements  upon  it.  This 
improved  machine  was  adopted  in  1814  by  the 
proprietors  of  the  Tinifi.  In  the  later  part  of 
his  life  Kfinig  was  a  partner  in  a  company  for 
making  steam  printing-presses  at  Oberzell,  near 
Wiirzburg,  in  Bavaria.  He  died  17th  January  18.S.3. 
See  Printinc;,  and  Goebel's  monograph  (Stutt. 
1883:  Fr.  trans.  Paris,  1885). 

Kollissrriitz,  a  town  of  Bohemia,  on  the  Elbe, 
73  miles  liy  lail  E.  by  N.  from  Prague.  It  is  the 
seat  of  a  bishop,  and  has  a  Gothic  cathedral. 
The  fortifications  erected  in  1780-89  have  been 
recently  rjizeil.  Here  Ziska  was  buiietl  in  1424. 
Pop.  ( 1890)  7815  :  with  its  four  suburbs,  16,500.  A 
signal  victory  was  gained  here  by  240,000  Prussians 
over  220,000  A ustrians  on  3d  July  1866.  The  Prus- 
sian loss  was  9000  men,  the  Austrian  21,000,  with 
22,000  prisoners.  The  Austrians  name  the  battle 
Si'uloxca  from  an  adjoining  village  nearer  the  centre 
of  the  battlcfiidd. 

Huiligsbors*  ^  town  and  fortress  in  East 
Prussia,  situated  on  the  river  Pregel,  4i  miles  from 
the  Frisches  Haft'  and  366  by  rail  NE.  from  Berlin. 
The  original  nucleus  of  the  place  was  the  block- 
hou.se  built  in  12.')5  by  tlu;  Knights  of  the  Teutonic 
Order,  but,  although  foundetl  so  long  ago,  Kiinigs- 
berg  is  ,a  modern  town ;  scarce  any  of  its  old 
buildings  now  exist.  The  castle,  which  grew  out 
of  the  blockhouse,  belongs  chiefly  to  the  16th  and 
18th  centuries.  It  wa-s  the  headquarters  of  the 
grandmaster  of  the  Teutonic  (Jrder,  and  from  1525 
to  1618  wiis  the  residence  of  the  Dukes  of  Prussia. 
In  the  ca.stle  chapel  (built  in  1592)  Frederick  I. 
crowneil  himself  tii-st  king  of  Prus.sia  in  1701,  and 
William  I.  was  crowned  in  1861.  The  cathedral, 
now  the  Kneiphof  parish  church,  is  a  Gothic 
stnicture,  erected  in  1333  and  thoroughly  restored 
in  18.56;  in  an  adjoining  building  Kant  (q.v.) 
lies  buried.  The  \iniversity  was  founded  as  a 
Lutheran  institution  in  1544,  and  rebuilt  in  1844- 
65.  Connected  with  it  are  an  observatory  ( 181 1 ), 
a  zoological  iim.seum  (1819),  a  botanical  garden 
(1809),  a  library  of  2(X),0(X)  volumes,  together  with 
the  usual  laboratories  and  collections.  The 
number  of  otlicjal  teachers  wa.s  96  and  the  number 
of  students  760  in  1M89.  {)nv  of  the  most  imposing 
edifices  in  the  town  Is  the  new  exchange  (1875). 
The  academy  of  painting,  a  music  school,  and  a 
commercial  school  m.ay  l>e  mentioned.  Of  the 
industries  the  foremost  place  belongs  to  the  iron- 
works, ca.sting  ami  machinery-making  ;  next  come 


the  m.anufacture  of  pianos,  thread,  tobacco,  beer, 
the  confection  marchpane,  i!v:c.  Printing  and  the 
preparation  of  meerschaum  (175  tons  annually)  are 
also  prosecuted.  Kiinlgsberg  is  one  of  the  chief 
continental  centres  for  the  tea  trade,  and  ships 
immen.se  quantities  of  corn.  The  exports  aver- 
age in  value  £8,118,670  annually,  and  consist 
mostly  of  grain,  flax,  and  hemp,  with  smaller 
quantities  ot  timber,  wool,  spirits,  sugar,  and  rags  ; 
the  imports  average  £10,117,800,  and  embrace,  be- 
sides grain,  flax,  and  hemp  for  transport,  tea, 
woven  goods,  metal  wares,  herrings,  timber,  chemi- 
cals, and  coals.  Large  merchant-vessels  which 
cannot  a]>proach  the  town  unload  and  load  at 
Pillau,  28^  miles  by  rail  to  the  west,  at  the  entrance 
from  the  Baltic  to  the  Frisches  Haft".  It  is  pro- 
po.sed  to  construct  a  channel  through  the  lagoon 
(haff),  with  a  depth  of  20  feet,  from  Pillau  to 
Kiinlgsberg.  Pop.  (1875)  122,636;  (1890)  161,066. 
The  town  w.as  first  fortified  in  1626;  but  was  con- 
verted into  a  modern  fortress  of  the  first  class  in 
1843  and  since.  Konigsberg  was  occupied  by  the 
Russians  in  1758  and  by  the  French  in  1807.  See 
works  by  Fabcr  ( 1840)  and  Schubert  (1855). 

KoiligslliittO,  a  rapidly  growing  centre  of 
great  coal,  iron,  zinc,  and  copper  works  in  Prussian 
Silesia,  110  miles  SE.  of  Breslau  by  rail.  It  was 
constituted  a  town  In  1869,  out  of  several  nnning 
villages.     Pop.  (1885)  32,072;  (1891)  36,502. 

Koiiigsiiiai'k.   count    Piiii.irr    Christoi'h 

VON,  a  Swede  by  birth,  born  about  1662,  who, 
having  entered  the  service  of  the  Elector  of  Hano- 
ver, was  accused  of  carrying  on  a  love  intiigue  with 
Sophia  Dorothea,  wife  of  the  Elector  George,  after- 
wards George  I.  of  Englan<l,  and  suddenly  dis- 
appeared on  1st  July  1694.  It  is  believed  that  he 
w,as  murdered.  Sophia  was  confined  in  the  castle 
of  Ahlden  until  her  death  in  1726.  See  a  Qnnrferh/ 
article  ( 1S85 )  ;  Vizetelly,  Count  Kuni</sinai/c  { lf>90 ) ; 
and  WiUium's  Loi-e  of  an  Uncrowned  Queen  (1900). 
— M.\RIE  -VuRORA,  Counte-ss  of  Konigsmark,  sister 
of  Count  Phllipp,  born  at  Stade  in  1670,  became 
in  1694  the  mistress  of  Augustus  II.,  Elector  of 
Saxony,  and  by  him  mother  of  the  celebnited 
Marshal  Saxe  (q.v.).  When  Augustus  grew  tired 
of  her  she  entered  Quedlinburg  nunnery,  and  died 
prioress  of  it,  16tli  February  172S. 

Koiligsteill,  a  fortress  of  Saxony,  once  re- 
garded as  impregnable,  but  now  of  no  military 
Importance,  stands  on  a  rock  800  feet  above  the 
Elbe,  24  nules  SE.  of  Dresden  by  r.ail.  Here  the 
Saxon  .army  yieliled  to  Frederick  tlie  Great  In  1756. 

KiilliiCS^Vill'tt  a  town  of  Bohemia,  14  miles  by 
rail  SE.  from  Eger,  is  situated  in  a  romantic  valley, 
has  a  line  c:ustle  belonging  to  Prince  Metternicli, 
chalybeate  and  acidulated  springs,  and  a  bathing 
establishment.     Pop.  2112. 

Koilkail.  the  name  given  to  the  strip  of  coast 
districts  In  liumltay  Presidency.  The  breadth  varies 
from  1  to  50  miles,  as  the  Western  Gluits  approach 
or  recede  from  the  sea.  Konkau  is  rather  a  geo- 
graphical than  an  administrative  <llvislon,  and  In- 
cludes, besides  North  Kanara,  the  Uiltish  districts 
of  Kiitnaglii,  Kolaba,  and  Tliana,  Bombay  Island, 
three  native  states,  and  Goa,  with  a  total  area  of 
17,00)  square  miles,  and  a  population  of  5,0(X),000. 
Tlie  .uiinial  rainfall  is  over  100  inches. 

Koiirad.    See  Coxr.vd. 
Koodoo.    See  Antelope,  Eland. 

Koo(4'lia.V«  a  river  of  British  Columbia  which 
lisi's  in  Canada,  )iasses  through  corners  of  Montana 
and  Idaho,  Imt  retuiiis  to  Canada  at;aln,  and,  after 
a  course  of  450  ndh'S  (during  which  it  forms  a 
lake ),  falls  into  the  Columbia  River.  (!old  is  largely 
fouml  in  its  basin,  especially  since  1894,  and  several 
mining  towns  have  sprung  up. 


454 


KOPECK 


KORAN 


Kopeck,  a  Russian  bronze  coin,  the  liiiiidredtli 
part  i)f  ii  KouMe  (q.v.),  and  equivalent  to  H 
fartliiiij,'  of  sterling  money. 

K«t|>I>:ii'lH'rg.     See  FALtN. 

Korais.    See  Corais. 

Kordll  ( Arab. ,  from  karaa,  '  to  read  ' ),  The 
Iic(i(li)i(j,  by  way  of  eminence ;  a  term  firet  applied 
to  every  single  portion  of  Mohammed's  '  Revela- 
tions,'used  at  a  later  period  for  a  greater  number 
of  these,  and  linally  for  their  whole  body,  gathered 
together  into  the  one  book  which  forms  the  re- 
ligious, social,  civil,  commercial,  military,  and 
legal  code  of  Islam.  The  Korftn  is  also  known 
under  the  name  of  Furgan  (' discrimiii.ation,' 
'test'):  further,  of  Al-Moshaf  (The  Volume),  or 
Al-Kitab  [The  Book,  in  the  sense  of  'Bible'),  or 
Al-Dhikr  ( '  the  Reminder,'  or  'the  Admonition'). 
The  Koran  is,  according  to  the  Moslem  creed,  coeval 
with  tjod,  uncreated,  eternal.  Its  first  transcript 
was  written  from  the  beginning  in  rays  of  light 
ui)()n  a  gigantic  tablet  resting  by  the  throne  of  the 
Almighty  ;  and  upon  this  tablet  are  also  found 
the  divine  decrees  relating  to  things  ]iast  and 
future.  A  copy  of  it,  in  a  book  bound  in  white 
silk,  jewels,  and  gold,  was  brouglit  down  to  the 
lowest  heaven  by  tlie  angel  tJabriel,  in  the  blissful 
and  mysteiious  '  night  of  power  or  destiny,'  in  the 
month  of  Ramadan.  Portions  of  it  were,  during 
a  space  of  twenty-three  years,  communicated  to 
Mohammed.  l)oth  at  Mecca  and  Medina,  either  by 
Gabriel  in  human  shape,  'with  the  sound  of  bells,' 
or  through  inspirations  from  the  Holy  Ghost  '  in 
the  Prophet's  breast,'  or  I)y  God  himself,  'veiled 
and  unveiled,  in  waking  or  in  tlie  dreams  of  night.' 
Traditions  vary  with  respect  to  the  length  of  the 
individual  jiortions  revealed  at  a  time,  between 
single  letters,  verses,  and  entire  chapters  or  Suralis 
(Arab.,  'cour.ses,'  as  of  bricks  in  a  wall).  The  lirst 
revelation  forms,  in  the  present  arrangement  of 
the  book,  verses  1-5  of  surah  xcvi. ,  and  begins 
with  the  words  :  '  Read  [[jreach],  in  the  name  of 
thy  Lord,  who  has  created  all  things  !' 

Moliammcd  dictated  man}-  of  his  inspirations  to 
a  serilie,  in  broken  verses  or  in  linished  chapters, 
ami  from  this  copy  the  followers  of  the  Prophet 
procured  other  copies — unless  they  i)referred  learn- 
ing the  oracles  by  heart  from  the  master's  own 
mouth.  TIk!  original  fragments  were  without  any 
attempt  at  a  chronological  or  other  arrangement, 
promiscuously  thrown  into  a  box,  and  a  certain 
number  were  entirely  lost.  A  year  after  the  death 
of  Mohammed  the  scattered  portions  were,  at 
the  instance  of  Abu-bekr,  collected  by  Zaid  Ibn 
Thaliit  of  Medina,  the  Prophet's  am.anuensis,  'from 
pahu-leaves,  skins,  blade-boniw,  and  th(^  breiists  of 
men,'  and  faithfully  copied,  without  the  slightest 
attemiit  at  mouhling  them  into  shajie  or  sequence, 
togetlier  with  all  the  variants,  the  repetitions,  and 
the  gaps.  This  volume  was  entrusted  to  the  keeji- 
ing  of  Maf/a,  one  of  the  Prophet's  wives,  the 
daughter  of  Unuir.  A  second  redaction  was  in- 
stituted in  the  thirtieth  year  of  the  Hegira,  by 
Calif  Othman,  to  lix  the  text  and  the  reading 
according  to  the  t^oraish  idiom  ;  many  dilleicnlj 
rea<liMgs  being  current  among  the  lielievers.  He 
ordered  new  copies  to  be  made  from  the  original 
fragiiuMils,  in  which  all  the  variants  were  to  i)e 
ex])unged,  but  without  any  further  alteration 
being  introduced  ;  and  the  old  copies  were  all  e(m- 
signed  to  the  llames.  With  respect  to  the  suc- 
cession of  the  single  chajiters — 114  in  nundier — 
no  attempt  was  made  at  establishing  continuity, 
but  they  were  ])laccd  side  by  side  .according  (ci  (heir 
res|iective  lengtlis  ;  so  that  immediately  after  the 
introductory  fatah  or  e.\ordium  follows  the  longest 
chapter,  and  the  others  are  ranged  after  it  in 
decreasing  size.     They  are  not  numbered  in  the 


manuscrii)ts,  but  bear  distinctive,  often  strange- 
sounding  headings,  as  the  Cow,  Congealed  Blood, 
the  Fig,  the  Star,  the  Towers,  Saba,  the  Poets.  \c., 
taken  from  a  particular  matter  or  person  treated 
of  in  the  respective  chaptei's.  Kvery  chapter  or 
surah  but  one  begins  with  the  introductory  for- 
mula :  'In  the  name  of  God,  the  Merciful,  the 
Com|)assionate. '  It  is  generally  stated  at  the 
beginning  whether  the  surah  Wius  revealed  at  Mecca 
or  at  Medina.  Every  chapter  is  subdivided  into 
smaller  portions  [AyCtt,  'ver.ses,'  lit.  'signs'),  vary- 
ing in  the  ancient  'seven  editions'  or  primitive 
copies  (of  Medina  [two],  Mecca,  Kufa,  Basra, 
Svria,  and  the  '  \'ulgar  Kilitiiui '-  reduced  by 
Is'oldeke  to  four  editions)  between  (iOOO  and  00,36. 
The  number  of  words  in  the  whole  book  is  77,639, 
and  an  enumeration  of  the  letters  shows  .3'2:i,015  of 
these.  Other — encyclical — divisions  of  the  book 
are  into  thirty  ajzfi  and  into  sixty  ahzfib,  for  the 
use  of  devotional  readings  in  and  out  of  the  mosque. 
Twenty-nine  surahs  commence  with  certain  lettei's 
of  the  alphabet,  '  of  which  God  alone  know  s  the 
meaning.' 

The  contents  of  the  KorAn  .as  the  basis  of  Moham- 
medanism will  be  considered  under  that  head, 
while  for  other  questions  of  authorship  and  ehnm- 
ology  we  nmst  refer  to  MollAMMKI).  But  the  chief 
doctrines  laid  down  in  the  book  are  that  there  is 
one  God,  one  true  religion,  and  a  day  of  juilgment. 
When  mankind  turned  at  diller<'nt  limes  from 
truth,  God  sent  pro|ihets  to  lead  them  back  to  it, 
Moses,  Christ,  and  Muhanimed  being  the  most  dis- 
tinguished. Both  ]iunisliments  for  the  sinner  and 
rewards  for  the  pious  are  dejiictcd  with  great 
dill'u.seness,  and  exemplified  chielly  by  stories  taken 
fiom  the  Bible,  the  Apocry]>hal  writings,  and  the 
.Miilrash.  S|iecial  laws  .and  direction.s,  admoni- 
tiims  to  moral  and  divine  virtues,  more  particu- 
larly to  a  coin|deteand  unconilitional  resignation  to 
(Joii's  will  ('Isl.am'),  legends,  principally  relating 
to  the  p.atriarchs,  .and,  almost  without  excepti(Ui, 
borrowed  from  th(^  .lewish  writings,  form  the  bulk 
of  the  book,  which  throughout  beais  tlie  most 
ji.alpable  traces  of  .lewish  iiilliiciice.  The  Hebrew 
serijitures  were  known  to  MohamiiH'd  by  oral  com- 
munication only  :  hence  fre(|Uently  odd  confusion 
in  stories  taken  from  that  source. 

The  general  tendency  and  aim  of  the  Koii'in  is 
foun<l  pretty  clearly  indicated  in  the  beginning  of 
the  second  chapter:  'This  is  (he  book  in  which 
there  is  no  doubt:  .a  guidance  for  the  jiioiis,  who 
believe  in  the  i>i>/ste?-ie.\  <if ftiHh,  who  ]ierforiii  their 
praycru,  give  alius  from  what  we  have  bestowed 
ui>(m  them,  who  believe  in  the  revelation  which 
we  made  unto  thee,  which  was  sent  down  to 
the  prophr.t.s  before,  thee,  and  who  believe  in  the 
future  life,'  &c.  To  unite  into  one  the  three 
principal  religions  which  he  found  in  his  ccuintry 
— .Iiidaism,  Christianity,  and  Hejithenism- was 
Mohammed's  ideal  :  and  the  Kor:iii,  properly  read, 
di.scloses  constantly  the  alternate  llalleries  and 
threats  aimed  at  each  of  the  three  ]iarties.  Cer- 
tain abrog.ations  niaile  by  the  Prophet  himself  of 
s])ecial  pa.ss,ages  in  the  Korj'in  are  due  to  the 
vacillating  relation  in  which  he  at  lirst  stood  to  the 
ditl'erent  creeds,  t<i  concessions  lirst  made  and  then 
revoked.  Witness  the  '  Kiblah.'  or  the  jilace  where 
the  believer  wius  to  turn  in  his  prayer,  being  at 
first  .Jerusalem  :  and  also  forbearance  to  idolaters 
forming  one  of  the  original  jirecepls. 

Tlie  K(uAn  ex])resses  the  thoughts  and  idea-s  of 
a  Bedawl  Arab  in  Bedawi  language  and  metaphor. 
In  the  mailer  there  is  endless  repclilion,  little 
iirdcr  or  coherence,  and  not  a  lilllc  iiiiiuisislency. 
Till?  style  is  vi'ry  uiiei|ual  :  often  nolde  and  torcible, 
often  familiar  or  dull.  Accejited  as  the  iiiiiaeuUuis 
utterance  of  the  Almighty,  tlie  Koran  stands  above 
criticism,  and  is  not  proved  but  assumed  to  be  the 


KORDOFAN 


KOSCIUSKO 


455 


unappioaoliable  staiulard  of  jriaiimiatical  ami  even- 
other  merit.  It  is  written  in  prose  wherein  the 
links  of  each  sentence  rhyme  with  one  another, 
anil  frenerally  the  same  rhyme  is  niaiiitaineil 
throiii;li  the  whole  chapter.  This  is  ami  wius  a 
coninnm  literary  form,  ami  to  it  the  Arabic  lan- 
guage Iiy  its  symmetrical  formation  of  words  lends 
itself  very  reailily.  Refrains  are  introduced  in 
some  surahs ;  and  plays  upon  words  are  not  dis- 
dained. 

The  outward  reverence  in  which  the  Korfin  is 
held  tlirouj;h()\it  Islam  is  exeeedin^'ly  fireat.  It  is 
never  held  lielow  tlie  girdle,  never  loueheil  without 
previous  ijurilication  ;  and  an  injunition  to  that 
ellect  is  <;enerally  found  on  the  cover  which,  in  the 
eastern  binding,  overlaps  the  boards.  It  is  con- 
sulted on  weighty  matters ;  sentences  from  it  are 
inscrilied  on  l)anners,  dooi-s,  and  tlie  like.  Cireat 
lavishne.ss  is  displayed  upon  the  material  and  the 
binding  of  tlie  sacred  volume  :  the  copies  for  the 
wealthy  are  sometimes  written  in  gold,  and  the 
covei-s  blaze  with  gold  and  |)reci(ms  stones.  Nor 
is  anything  more  hateful  in  the  eyes  of  a  Moslem 
than  to  see  the  book  in  the  hands  of  an  unbeliever. 

Ilie  Koran  has  been  commented  upon  so  often  tliat  the 
names  of  the  commentators  alone  would  till  volumes. 
Thus,  the  library  ot  Tripoli,  in  .Syria,  is  reported  to  have 
once  contained  no  less  than  20,000  diti'ercnt  comment- 
aries. The  most  renowned  are  those  of  ^^amachshari 
(died  .53'.t  H.),  Beidhawi  (died  6S.5  or  716  H.),  Mahalli 
(died  870  H.),  and  Soyuti  (died  911  H.).  The  principal 
editions  are  those  of  Hinckelmann  ( Hamburg,  1(!!I4 ), 
Marracci  (Padua,  1008),  Fliigel  (18.S4).  be.sides  many 
editions  (of  small  critical  value)  printed  in  St  Petei-s- 
burg.  Kasan.  Teheran,  Calcutta,  Cawnpore,  Serauipore, 
&c.  The  fir.-.t,  but  very  imperfect,  Latm  version  of  the 
Koran  was  made  by  Robertus  Retensis,  an  Englishman,  in 
114:1  ( ed.  Iia.sel.  1543 ).  The  principal  translations  are  : 
into  Latin,  that  of  Marracci  (1698);  into  Emjlish,  Sale 
(17:54  ;  ed.  by  Kev.  E.  M.  Wherrj-,  4  vols,  1882-86  ),  who 
expbtins  .somewhat  while  he  translates,  and  whose  notes 
are  voluminous  and  invaluable,  Rodwell  (1861;  2d  ed. 
1878),  and  Palmer  (1880),  whose  rendering  is  the  best; 
into  French.  Savary  (1783),  Oarcin  de  Tassy  ( 1829),  Kazi- 
mirski  (1840;  new  ed.  1884):  into  Gennan,  MegerUn 
(1772),  Wahl  (1828),  UUniaun  (1840);  besides  Pei-sian, 
Turkish,  Malay,  Hindustani,  and  other  eastern  transla- 
tions. Of  concordances  to  the  Koran  may  be  mentioned 
those  of  Flugcl  (1842)  and  Kazem-Bek  (St  Petersburg, 
18.59),  and  that  publisiied  at  Calcutta  in  1811.  Anion;.; 
authorities  whose  works  may  be  consulted  on  the  Konin 
are  Marracci,  .Sale,  Savary,  Wahl,  Ueiger.  Ainari,  Sprenger, 
Lane,  .Muir,  Weil,  Noldeke,  and  Lane  Poole. 

Kordofail.  or  the  White  Land,  lately  a  pro- 
vince III  the  Egyptian  Soudan  (q.v.),  is  separated 
from  Sennaiir  on  tlie  K.  by  the  White  Nile,  and 
from  lJarl'"(lr  <m  the  W.  by  a  stri)!  of  desert.  It 
extends  from  12'  to  16'  X.  hit.  and  from  29"  30'  to 
32'  .30'  E.  long.  ;  its  area,  ini^ludirig  Takalla  on  the 
S.,  lias  been  e.slimated  at  41,.jOll  scj.  in.,  and  its 
]iopulation  at  280,000,  of  whom  three-fourths  are 
slaves.  The  province  is  traverseil  by  no  rivers ; 
but  water  is  foiiml  almost  everywhere  at  a  compar- 
atively short  depth.  The  surface  is  inidulating. 
The  chief  produce  of  the  soil  is  millet,  the  |)rin- 
cipal  food  of  the  inhabitants.  tJiim  trees,  iiiimosius, 
thorny  plants,  and  |>rickly  grass  are  common,  but 
there  is  no  forest  timber,  (lunis,  hides,  ivory, 
ostrich-feathers,  ami  gold  are  exported.  Cattle  ami 
camels  are  bred  in  great  numbers.  Three-lifths  of 
the  jMipuiation  are  settled  :  the  rest  are  nomadic. 
The  aborigines  belong  mainly  to  the  Nuba  stock, 
but  use  a  negro  tongue  and  are  mostly  pagan.s. 
There  is  a  large  element  of  nomad  and  slave- 
hunting  '.Vrabs,'  Moslems  in  faith.  The  capital 
is  El-(.»lieid,  with  about  .30,000  inhabitants,  situated 
in  the  centre  of  the  country.  In  the  end  of  the  18tli 
century  Kordofan  wsls  conquered  by  the  ruler  of 
Seiinaar,  then  by  the  sultan  of  Dar-Kllr  ;  in  1821  it 
was  annexed  by  Mehemet  Ali  of  Egypt,  but  wius 


lost  to  the  Egyptians  by  the  Mahdi's  revolt  in 
1883.  Since  1899  it  has  "been  part  of  the  recon- 
stituted Egyptian  Soudan  (see  Soudan). 

Korea.    See  Core.v. 

Koriier,  K.vkIj  Theodou,  a  patriotic  German 
poet,  the  son  of  Schiller's  friend.  Christian  (!. 
Korner,  was  born  at  Dresden,  23d  September  1791. 
After  irregular  studies  at  Freiberg,  Leipzig,  and 
Berlin,  young  Kiirner,  through  Kotzebue's  inllu- 
ence,  was  apiuiinted  dramatist  to  a  Vienna  theatre; 
for  it  he  wrote  some  light  conie<lies,  such  jus  Der 
driine  Domino  and  Der  Nachtirachter,  and  some 
tragedies,  of  which  Zrhiy,  a  work  full  of  noble  en- 
thusiasm, was  the  most  successful.  Tlie  uprising 
of  the  German  nation  against  Napideou  inspired 
Korner  with  ])atiiotic  ardour.  He  joined  Liitzow's 
celebrated  corns,  and  not  only  displayed  heroic  |)er- 
sonal  courage  in  many  encounters,  but  encouraged 
his  comrades  by  fiery  patriotic  songs.  These,  pub- 
lished in  1814  under  the  title  of  Leicr  mid  Sc/iirert 
(  Eng.  trans.  Li/re  and SvorrI,  1839),  are  regarded  by 
the  Germans  with  a  kind  of  sacred  admiration,  and 
have  gone  through  a  great  number  of  editions.  The 
most  famotis  of  these  pieces  is  the  Schvert-lAed, 
composed  in  a  pause  of  battle,  and  only  a  few 
lioui-s  liefore  the  author  fell  in  a  skirmisli,  between 
Schwerin  and  Gadebusch,  on  26th  August  181.3. 
He  wa-s  buried  near  Wobbelin  ;  there  his  father 
an<l  mother  and  sister  were  also  interred.  A 
collected  edition  of  his  wcuks  in  one  volume 
(Berlin,  18.34;  new  ed.  1879)  was  iniblished  by 
Streckfuss.  A  biogr.aphy  of  the  poet,  written  by 
his  father,  has  been  translated  into  English,  '  with 
selections  from  his  poems,  tales,  and  dramas,'  by 
G.  F.  Richardson  (Lond.  2  vols.  184.5).  A  museum 
of  Kiirneiiana  was  formed  at  Dresden  in  1 873.  See 
Lives  bv  Lehmann  ( 1819),  Erliard  ( 1821 ),  and  Bauer 
( 1883 ) ;"  also  Jonas'  life  of  his  father  ( 1881 ). 

Koros,  Nagy  ( '  Great  Kiiriis ' ),  a  town  of 
Hungary.  .5.5  miles  SE.  of  Budapest  by  rail.  I'op. 
(1891)  '2.5,484— Kiss  Koros  ('Little  Kiiros'),  a 
small  town,  66  miles  by  rail  S.  by  E.  of  Budapest, 
is  tlie  birthplace  of  Petiifi.  Pop.  6734.  Both 
places  grow  wine.     See  Cso.M.v  DE  KoROS. 

KoroskO,  a  small  village  of  Lower  Nubia, 
with  a  few  wretched  huts  straggling  ahmg  the 
right  bank  of  the  Nile,  about  midway  between  the 
lirst  and  second  cataracts.  Here  tlie  Nile  boat* 
land  the  goods  that  are  conveyed  by  caravan  to 
the  Soudan. 

Kurvei.    See  Corvei. 

Kosciusko  (KasciuszKO),  Tadeusz,  a  Polish 
general  and  patriot,  wa.s  born  on  12tli  February 
1746  in,  Lithuania,  He  chose  the  career  of  arms, 
and  was  traitied  in  I' ranee.  In  1777  an  unlia|)py 
love  atl'air  drove  him  to  the  United  St.ites,  where 
he  fought  for  the  colonists  and  advanced  to  the 
rank  of  brigadier-general.  He  returned  to  Poland 
in  1786.  When  Russia  attacked  his  country  in 
1792,  Kosciusko  held  a  jiosition  at  Dnbienka  for 
live  days  with  only  4000  men  against  18,000 
Rus.sians.  In  spite  of  this  the  pusillaninnms 
King  Stanislaus  submitted  to  the  Empress  Cath- 
arine, whereupon  Kosciusko  resigned  his  comniand 
and  retired  to  Leipzig,  After  the  second  jiartitioii 
of  Pol.md  he  put  himself  at  the  head  of  tlie  national 
movement  in  Cracow,  and  Wits  appointed  dictator 
ami  commander-in-chief  (1794).  Ills  defeat  of  a 
greatly  su]ieiior  force  of  Russians  at  Raclawice 
WiUs  fiillowed  by  a  rising  of  the  Poles  in  Warsaw. 
He  established  a  provisional  government,  and  took 
the  field  against  the  Prussians,  but,  ilefeateil,  fell 
back  ujion  Warsaw  ami  maintained  himself  there 
valiantly,  until  the  approach  of  two  new  Russian 
armies  induceil  him  to  march  to  meet  them.  He 
wiLs  overpowered  by  superior  numbers  in  the  battle 


456 


KOSHER 


KOSTROMA 


of  Maciejowice,  10th  October  1794 ;  ami,  covered 
■with  wounds,  he  himself  fell  into  the  hands  of  his 
enemies— it  is  then  th.at  De  Sejjur  falsely  makes 
him  exclaim,  '  Finis  PoloniiC  ! '  Two  years  hater  tlie 
Emperor  Paul  restored  him  to  lilierty.  He  spent 
the  remainder  of  his  life  chietly  in  France,  jirose- 
cutins  agricultural  pursuits.  When  Napoleon,  in 
ISOti,  formed  a  phui  for  the  restoration  of  Poland, 
Kosciusko  refused  to  lend  himself  to  the  Frencli 
monarch's  designs.  The  achlress  to  the  Poles,  which 
Napoleon  ])uhlished  in  Kosciusko's  name  in  the 
Monitcur,  was  a  fabrication.  In  KSU  he  liesought 
the  Emperor  Alexander  to  grant  an  amnesty_  to 
the  Poles  in  foreign  countries,  and  to  make  him- 
self constitutional  king  of  Poland.  He  settled  at 
Solothuru  in  Switzerland  in  1810,  and  died  on 
loth  October  1817,  by  the  fall  of  his  horse  over  a 
precipice.  His  remains  were  removed  to  Cracow 
(q.v.)  by  the  Emperor  Alexander,  and  were  laid 
side  l)v"siile  with  those  of  John  Soliieski.  See 
the  blograiihies  by  Falkenstein  ('2d  ed.  1834), 
Chod/.ko  (1837),  and  Michelet  (in  La  Potuync 
Martyr,  1863). 

Kosher  (Heb.,  'right,'  from  i/ashar,  'to  be 
right'),  pure,  according  to  the  Jewish  ordinances. 
Thus  '  Kosher  meat '  is  meat  killed  and  prepare<l  by 
Jews  after  the  Jewish  manner,  and  so  lit  to  be 
eaten  by  Jews. 

Hoslill*  a  town  of  Prussia,  5  miles  from  the 
Baltic  Sea  and  8.5  NE.  from  Stettin.  There  are 
iron-founilries  and  manufactures  of  paper,  soap, 
bricks,  &c.  It  formerly  had  a  mint.  Pop.  (1885) 
17,277. 

KOSSOVO,  the  'Field  of  Blackbirds,'  a  plain  in 
Turkey,  near  the  Servian  frontier,  west  of  the 
Prishtina,  on  wliich  two  sanguinary  battles  were 
fought — ( 1 )  between  Sultan  JSIurad  I.  aiul  the 
Servians  under  their  Tsar  Laziir  on  Llth  June  1380  ; 
both  sovereigns  fell,  and  the  Servians  lost  their 
independence  in  conso(|Uence  of  their  defeat;  ('2) 
between  the  great  Hungarian  general  Hunyady 
and  Sultan  Murad  11.,  on  17th  to  llJth  October 
1448,  when  the  former  was  defeated.  See  Madame 
Mijatovich,  Herbiait  National  Songs  about  Kossovo 
(Lonil.  1881  ). 

Kossutb,  Lori.s,  the  leader  of  the  Hungarian 
revolution,  was  born  in  1802  at  Monok,  in  the 
county  of  Zeniplin,  in  Hungary.  His  family  was 
of  noble  rank,  Imt  his  parents  w<ne  poor.  He 
studied  law  at  tlu;  Protestant  college  of  Saros- 
patak,  and  jiractised  for  a  time.  In  18;{'2  he 
commenced  his  political  career  at  the  diet  of 
Presburg  as  the  deputy  of  absent  magnates, 
and  as  editor  of  a  journal  which,  owing  to  the 
state  of  the  law,  was  not  prinl(Ml,  but  tran- 
scribed aiul  circulated.  The  sulise<nu'nt  ]iulili- 
cation  of  a  lithograjihed  ]iaper  led,  in  May  I8.'!7, 
to  Kossuth's  imprisonment.  He  was  lil)erated 
in  1840,  anil  became  the  editor  of  the  I'csti  I/ir- 
lap,  a,  newspaper  in  the  modern  sense  of  the 
word,  in  which  lie  advocateil  views  too  extreme 
for  many  of  the  li!)erals  anuuigst  the  nobles, 
but  which  took  strong  hold  of  the  youth  of  the 
country.  In  IS47  he  was  sent  by  the  county  of 
Pcsth  as  deputy  to  the  diet,  and  soon  became 
the  leader  ot  the  opjiosition.  He  advocated  the 
emancipation  of  the  peasants,  the  abolition  of  all 
feudal  rights  and  privileges,  the  freedom  of  the 
press,  &(_:,  and,  after  the  French  revolution  of  1848, 
0|)enly  demanile(l  an  inilependent  government  for 
Ilungarv  ami  conslilutional  government  in  the 
Austrian  hereditary  territories.  To  his  speeches 
must  ill  great  p.art  be  ascribed  not  only  the  Hun- 
garian revolution,  but  the  insurrection  in  Vienna 
in  March  1848.  On  the  resignation  of  tlie  ministry 
in  September  IS48  he  found  himself  at  the  head 
of  the  Committee  of  National   Defence,  and   pro- 


secuted with  extraordinary  energy  the  measures 
necessary  for  carrying  on  the  war.  As  a  reply  to 
an  imperial  decree,  dated  4th  Marcli,  abolishing 
the  Hungarian  constitution,  he  induced  the 
National  Assembly  at  IJebrcczin,  in  April  184!), 
to  declare  that  the  llapsburg  dynasty  had  fcu'fi'itetl 
the  throne.  He  was  now  appointed  provisi(uial 
governor  of  Hungary  ;  but  being  ilisappointcd  in 
his  hopes  for  the  intervention  of  the  Western 
Powers,  and  finding  the  national  cause  jeopanli.sed 
by  the  interference  of  Kussia.  he  endeavoured  to 
arouse  the  peoi>le  to  a  more  desper.ate  efl'ort. 
The  attempt  was  vain.  F'indiiig  that  the  dis- 
sensions between  himself  and  Giugei  (q-v.)  were 
damaging  the  national  cause,  he  resigned  his 
dictatorship  in  favour  of  the  latter.  After  the 
defeat  at  Teniesvar  on  9th  August  1849  he  found 
himself  compelled  to  tlee  into  Turkey,  where  he 
was  made  a  prisoner;  but,  though  his  extradition 
was  demanded  both  by  Austria  and  Kussia.  the 
Porte  resisted  their  claims.  In  Seiitember  IS.'il  he 
was  liberated  by  the  iuHuence  of  Knglaml  ;ind  the 
United  .States,  and,  the  Kepublican  government  of 
France  refusing  him  a  passage  through  their  terri- 
tory, he  sailed  in  an  American  frigate  to  England, 
where  he  was  received  with  every  demonstration 
of  public  respect  and  sympathy.  In  December  of 
the  same  year  he  landed  in  the  I'nited  States, 
where  be  met  with  a  most  enthusiastic  reception. 
He  returned  in  June  1852  to  England,  and  there 
lie  chii^lly  resided,  until  Sardinia  and  France  pre- 
pared for  war  with  Austria  ;  when,  on  condition 
of  something  delinite  being  <buie  for  Hungarian 
independence,  he  proposed  to  Napoleon  to  arrange 
a  Hungarian  rising  against  Austria.  He  secured 
England's  neutrality  in  the  event  (if  the  war 
extending  to  Hungary.  The  peace  of  \'il!afranca 
bitterly  disappointed  Kossuth,  but  <lid  not  dis- 
hearten him.  He  made  two  other  attemjits  (in 
1860-61,  in  conjunction  with  Cavour  and  with  the 
help  of  Najioleon  ;  in  1866,  with  the  aid  of  Victor 
Emmanuel )  to  bring  about  ;i  risingagainst  Austrian 
rule  in  his  native  country,  but  without  llnal  success. 
When  in  1867  Deak  etVected  the  recoiuilialion  of 
Hungary  with  the  dynasty,  and  initiated  a  ttioi/ii.s 
vh-c)i(/i  between  the  two  parts  of  the  Austro- 
Hnngarian  monarchy,  Kossuth  retired  from  active 
political  life.  He  afterwards  lived  mostly  in  Turin, 
and,  although  never  tired  of  ilenouncing  the 
]iolitical  and  economical  alliance  between  Hungary 
and  Austria,  abstained  from  conspiring  or  agitat- 
ing against  it  ;  but  he  refused  to  .avail  hinuself  of 
the  general  amnesty  ( 1867),  and  to  return  to  his 
native  land  to  take  the  oath  of  fealty  to  the 
dynasty  he  had  once  dethroned.  In  1880-82  he 
published  thrire  volumes  of  Memories  of  iiii/  Exile 
(Elig.  ed.  vol.  i.  1880);  others  followi'd  ill  1890. 
He  died  in  Tuiiii,  2(lth  March  iS'.ll.  ami  on  1st 
April  was  buvieil  amiilsl  national  solemnities  in  the 
Protcst.-uit  church  at  Budapest.  See  bis  letters 
(  18(i2  and  1872),  and  works  on  him  (in  Oermaii)  by 
Horn  I  IS.-,I  ),  Fi('i  ( 1849),  and  Somogyi  ( 18114). 

Kostoildil.  or  Ki  STUN  1)1 1.,  a  town  of  liulgaiia, 
near  the  Struma  or  Strymon,  43  mih's  SW.  of  Solia, 
has  gold  ami  silviu'  mining,  warm  baths,  numcKuis 
ruins,  and  a  Creek  archbishop.      Pop.  11,383. 

KostroillU.  capital  of  a  Russian  government, 
stands  near  the  junction  of  the  Kostroma  with 
the  Volga,  216  miles  by  rail  NNE.  from  Moscow. 
Of  late  years  the  industry  of  the  town  has  shown 
great  ad\"anc('s.  The  spinning  ;ind  \\c;i\iiig  of 
cotton  and  linen,  the  manufa<'ture  of  brandy,  dye- 
ing, corn-grinding,  ami  tanning  are  the  chief 
industries.  Pop.  (1891)  28, 143. -The  tjorcrvment 
of  Kostroma  has  on  the  west  the  government  of 
Yarosl.alV  .and  im  the  east  that  of  Vyatka.  Area, 
32,490  sq.  m. ;  pop.  (1897)  1,428,89.3.  " 


KOTAH 


KRAKATOA 


457 


Hotall,  the  chief  town  of  a  native  state  of  the 
same  name  in  liajmitaiia,  standinj;  on  the  riulit 
bank  of  tlie  Chamhal,  is  a  hot,  unhealthy  city, 
with  a  poll,  of  40,270.  The  area  of  the  state  is 
3803  s.|.  ni.  :  pop.  ( 1891 )  ,520,267. 

Kotheil.  a  town  in  the  (Jerniau  duchy  of 
Anhalt,  down  to  18.53  capital  of  the  principality 
of  .\nhalt-Kothen,  stands  liy  rail  22  miles  N.  from 
Halle  and  31  SSE.  from  Magdehnrj;.  The  castle 
of  the  former  dukes  {the  line  became  e.vtinct  in 
1847)  w:us  rebuilt  in  1597-1B06  after  a  lire.  In 
the  cathedral  of  St  Jame.s  there  are  some  antiiiue 
glass  windows.  The  industries  embrace  iron- 
foundries,  sugar-factories,  iStc.  Pop.  (1875)  14,403; 
(1885)  17,473. 

Kotow',  the  ceremony  of  prostration,  with 
striking  of  the  forehead  on  the  ground  nine  times, 
performed  before  the  emperor  of  China.  The 
British  envoy.  Lord  Andierst,  in  ISIG  refused  to 
perform  the  degrading  ceremony,  and  the  point 
was  finally  conceded  by  the  Chinese  in  the  treaty 
of  1857.     Kotowing  is  unknown  outside  of  China. 

Kotzeliiie,  Aigt-st  Fkiedrich  Ferdinand 
VON,  a  (JerTuan  dramatist,  wa.s  born  at  Weimar  on 
3d  May  17GI,  filled  various  offices  in  the  public 
service  of  Russia,  and  from  an  early  age  was  a 
facile  writer  of  plays,  tales,  satires,  historical 
works,  \-c. ;  he  was  stabbed  to  death  at  Mannheim, 
23d  March  1819,  by  Sand,  a  Jena  student,  because 
he  had  ridiculed  the  Biirschenschdft  movement. 
Besides  iiuarrellin^'  with  (Joetlie,  Kotzebue  satir- 
ised the  leadens  of  the  Romantic  school.  Among 
his  dramatic  performances,  the  chief  merit  of  which 
consists  in  their  knowledge  of  stage-ett'ect,  their 
lively  dialogue,  and  clever  but  superficial  character 
drawing,  may  be  mentioned  Mrnschcnhtiss  tiiid 
Rene  ( known  on  the  English  stajje  as  The  Stnoujcr ), 
Die  Hussiten  vor  Xaiiiiibiirij,  Die  hriiirn  K/inr/s- 
berge,  Der  armc  Poet,  Arinnth  itnd  Eddsinn,  Die 
Kreuzfahrer,  Ol.iavia,  tkc.  Kotzebue  wrote  no  fewer 
than  two  hundred  dramatic  pieces,  which  have  been 
collected  in  editions  of  28  ( 1797-1823)  and  of  44  vols. 
(1827-20).— His  son.  Otto  von  KoTZEBtE,  born 
on  30th  December  1787  at  Revel,  accompanied 
Krusenstern  round  the  world  in  1803-6,  and  after- 
wards made  two  long  voyages  of  e.vploration  in 
the  Pacific,  discovering  amongst  others  the  Kru- 
senstern Islands,  Kotzebue  Sound,  and  the  Suwarotl' 
Islands  during  his  first  voyage  (181.5-17);  during 
the  second  expedition  (1823-26)  he  visited  the 
Samoa  group,  the  Philippines,  the  S.andwich 
Islands,  i<:c.  He  died  at  Revel  on  15th  February 
1846.  His  two  books,  descriptive  of  his  voyages, 
were  both  translated  into  English  ( 1821  and  1830). 

Koumiss  is  an  intoxicating  beverage  made  by 
the  Kalniiicks  from  fermented  mares'  milk;  and 
artificial  koumiss  made  of  .a.-;s's  and  cow's  milk  has 
been  used  in  cases  of  consuni|>tion. 

Kovalevsky,  Alex.\ni>ei!,  embryologist,  was 
born  19lh  November  1840,  and  liecame  jirofessor  at 
St  Petersburg.  He  is  known  foihis  researches  on  the 
embryology  of  invertebrates  which  led  to  Haeckel's 
Gastnea  theory  ;  for  hisdisco\ery  of  the  life-history 
and  true  position  of  the  .\sciiliaiis  ;  and  for  investi- 
gations of  the  development  of  the  .-Vmphioxus, 
IJalanoglossns,  Sagitta,  and  lirachiopods.  See 
Ascmi.\Ns,  Embryology.— His  bmther,  Wolde- 
MAIi  (1843-83),  professor  of  Pala-ontology  at  Mos- 
cow, became  bankrupt,  and  died  by  his  own  hand. 
— Woldemar's  wife,  SoN.;a  or  Soi'lIlK  (1850-91), 
daughter  of  a  Moscow  artillery  oHicer,  made  a  bril- 
liant name  for  herself  tlnoughiint  Europe  as  a 
mathematician,  was  professor  of  .Mathematics  at 
Stockholm,  and  left  a  brilliant  series  of  novels,  of 
which  Vera  Baiaiitzont  was  translated  in  1895. 
See  Leffler's  monograph  on  her  (trans.  1895). 


Kovno,  capital  of  the  Russian  government  of 
Kovno,  stands  near  the  conllucnce  of  the  \  ilia  and 
the  Niemen,  523  miles  by  rail  S\V.  of  St  I'oters- 
burg  and  94  EXE.  of  Kiinigsberg.  The  town, 
founded  in  the  11th  centurj-,  was  made  a  stronghold 
of  the  Teutonic  knight.s.  Long  the  chief  com- 
mercial town  of  Lithuania,  it  hail  lost  nearly 
all  its  trade  when  it  was  annexed  by  Russia  in 
1795;  but  since  the  construction  of  the  r.iilway  it 
has  recovered  its  commercial  imjiortance.  Grain, 
llax,  linseed,  rags,  and  timber  are  exported.  Pop. 
73,543,  about  one-half  Jews. — The  ijuvcniment  of 
Kovno  touches  Prussia  and  Poland.  Area,  15,690 
sq.  ni.  ;  pop.  (1897)  1,549,972,  of  whom  three- 
fourths  are  Lithuanians  and  14  per  cent.  Jews. 

Kowlooil.  the  Chinese  peninsula  opposite 
Hongkong  (ij.v.),  of  which  SJ  miles  were  ceded  to 
Britain  in  ISUl,  and  nearly  200  square  miles  addi- 
tional were  granted  by  China  to  Britain  on  lease 
for  ninety-nine  years  from  1S98. 

Koyillljik.    See  Assyria,  Nineveh. 

Kozlof.  a  town  in  the  Russian  government  of 
Tamboir,  is  the  meeting-place  of  the  railways  from 
the  Caspian,  the  Sea  of  Azov,  and  Moscow  (  123 
miles  N\V.).     Pop.  28,350. 

Km,  or  Krao,  the  isthmus  connecting  Siam 
with  the  Malay  Peninsula,  whose  minimum  breadth 
is  44  miles.  Most  of  the  schemes  for  a  ship- 
canal  propose  to  utilise  the  estuary  of  the 
Pakshan,  which  separates  British  from  Siamese 
territory,  and  penetrates  17  miles  inland.  A 
riilge  of  land  7i  miles  wide  and  250  feet  high  is 
all  that  then  separates  the  Pakshan  from  the  head- 
waters of  the  Chunipon,  which  Hows  eastwards 
to  the  Gulf  of  Siam.  A  canal  here  would  shorten 
the  journey  from  Ceylon  to  Hong-Kong  by  ,300 
miles,  and  "that  from  Calcutta  to  Hong-Kong  by 
540  miles.  A  railway  across  the  same  narrow  belt 
of  land  has  also  been  suggested.  See  Loftus, 
Journey  across  the  Isthmus  of  Kra  ( 1883). 

Kraglljcvatz,  a  town  of  Servia,  61  miles  S. 
of  Belgrade,  has  an  arsenal,  a  cannon-foundiy,  and 
a  small-arms  factory.  Till  1842  it  was  the  resi- 
dence ot  the  Servian  princes.     Pop.  (1895)  13,500. 

Kraill.    See  Carniola. 

Krajova,  a  town  of  Roumania,  154  miles  by  rail 
\s .  of  Bucharest.  In  the  neighbourhood  are  pro- 
ductive salt-mines.  Pop.  .33,000,  mostly  engaged 
in  commerce.  Here  the  woiwode  of  Wallacliia 
defeated  Sultan  IJajazet  in  1.397. 

Krakatoa,  or  Krakatau,  a  volcanic  island 
in  the  Strait  of  Sunda,  between  Java  and  Suuuitra, 
was  in  1883  the  scene  of  one  of  the  most  tremen- 
dous volcanic  disturbances  on  record.  From  May 
the  volcano  on  the  island  had  been  ejecting  its 
contents  in  showers  of  ashes;  during  26th,  27th, 
and  28th  August  the  crater  walls  fell  in.  together 
with  a  part  of  the  ocean  bed,  carrying  with  it  two- 
thirds  of  the  island  (total  area  before  the  eruption 
13  s(].  in.),  and  creating  two  small  islands,  which 
subsei|uently  disappeared.  At  the  same  time  a 
gigantic  ocean-w.ive  inundated  the  adjoining  coasts 
of  Java  and  Sumatra,  causing  a  loss  of  .36,.500  lives, 
anil  the  destruction  of  .300  villages,  and  then  careered 
round  the  entire  globe.  The  noise  of  the  eruption 
was  heard  for  a  distance  of  2000  and  even  .3000 
miles.  The  occurrence  likewise  set  u|)  a  series  of 
concentric  atmospheric  waves,  which  travelled  at 
least  three  times  round  the  earth.  The  dust  and 
other  finely-comminuted  debris  cast  up  by  the 
explosion  gave  rise  during  three  years  or  more  to 
weird  sun-glows  of  wondrous  beauty,  those  seen 
in  Great  Britain  in  November  1883  being  especially 
grand.  See  E.  Mef/.aer  in  I'llrnnann's  Mittcilu)if/cn 
(1886);  Jii/iurt  of  the  Kniktitua  Committee  of  the 


458 


KRAKEN 


KREUZER 


Royal  Society  (Lond.   1888);   and  G.   J.   Sjiiions, 
The  Erujition  of  Krakatoa  (1888). 

Krakoil.  a  futmlons  animal,  fii-st  described  liy 
tlio  Ncirwi><,'ian  lii>li()|)  Pontopiiidaii  in  IToO,  and 
from  time  to  time  said  to  have  liecn  seen  in  tlie 
Noiwe^'ian  seas.  Its  back  is  de.><cTil)ed  as  abont  a 
mile  and  a  lialf  in  ciicumfercnee  ;  it  rises  from  tlie 
sea  lilie  an  islaml,  stretches  out  niast-lil<e  arms, 
capabl),'  of  ilraf;j,'inj;  down  the  largest  ships,  and 
when  it  .sinks  again  into  the  deep  cau.ses  a  wliirl- 
)iool  in  which  large  vessels  are  involved  to  their 
destruction.  It  makes  the  waters  round  it  tliick 
and  tnrliid,  and  thus  is  .able  to  devour  the  shoals 
of  fishes  that  swim  to  the  jilace  .attracted  by  the 
nnisky  scent.  This  f.act,  together  with  its  numer- 
ous arms,  point  to  one  or  other  of  the  large 
class  of  cuttlclishes  as  the  true  original  of  the 
Scan<liiiavian  kr.aken.  The  fable  of  the  kraken 
has  considerable  analogy  t()  the  more  recent  stories 
of  the  great  sea-serpent.  See  John  Gibson's 
Monsters  of  the  tiea  (1S87). 

Krniiieria.    See  K.vttasy  Root. 

KraiiiH'li.    See  Ckanach. 

Kraii;u;aiiiir.    See  Cranganore. 

Krapotkiii.    See  Kropotkine. 

Krasiiovodsk,  a  Russian  military  station  and 
harbour,  on  the  east  side  of  the  t'aspian  Sea,  in 
the  Tianscaspian  territory.     Po]!.  427. 

Krasnoyarsk,  the  chief  town  of  the  Siberian 
government  of  Yeniseisk,  on  the  Upper  Yenisei, 
370  miles  E.  from  Tomsk,  is  the  centre  of  the  gold- 
washings  of  the  province.  Pop.  ( 1871 )  12,974  ; 
(1S94)  17,154. 

KraszeT.ski.     Kraziiiski.      See     Poland 

(LlTKltATURE  OK). 

Kraiise,  Karl  Christian  Friedrich,  a  Ger- 
man philosopher,  born  6th  May  1781  at  Eisenberg, 
stuilicd  philosophy  at  Jena  under  Fichte  an(l 
Schelling,  qualilicd  as  a  privid-dueent  in  that  uni- 
versity in  1802,  but  removed  in  ISO.)  to  Dresden, 
where  he  lived  till  181.S.  His  learned  work  on  the 
doctrines  of  Freemasonry  (1810),  advocating  their 
rational  reform,  drew  upon  him  the  resentment  of 
the  (iernian  Freemasons.  .-Vfter  residing  for  a  time 
in  Berlin,  lecturing  in  the  university,  he  settled 
in  Giittingen,  where  he  lectured  on  all  the  branches 
of  pliilosophy  (I823-.S0),  and  drew  around  him  a 
number  ot  enthusiastic  disciples,  including  tiie 
philosophical  jurist,  H.  .\hrens.  He  never  obtained 
a  i)rofessor.ship,  notwithstanding  his  success  and 
]iopularity  as  .a  dueetit.  his  incessant  industry, 
and  the  versatility  and  fertility  of  his  genius,  in 
1S31,  after  an  amelioration  in  his  circumstances,  he 
removed  to  Munich,  wlicre  Ilaailer  befriended  him, 
but  Sclielling  treated  him  with  coldness,  and  in  the 
midst  of  further  disajiixnutmeuts  and  struggles,  he 
suddenly  died  there  of  apoplexy,  27th  September 
ls:i2.  Krause  is  deservedly  ranked  with  Ficlite, 
Schelling,  Hegel,  Herbart,  and  Schopenhauer,  .a.s 
one  of  the  masters  of  the  German  philoso]jhical 
movement  inaugurated  by  Kant.  His  earlier  works 
(180;{-14)  are  written  in  an  elegant  and  Mowing 
style,  Imt  he  limited  the  circulation  and  popularity 
<if  his  later  w  ritings  by  the  excessive  ]iurism  of  his 
tierman  terminology,  which  eschewed  all  foreign 
terms  and  revelled  in  the  most  elaborate  native 
comiKUinds.  This  literary  idiosyncr.asy  has  made 
Krause  for  the  novice  the  most  unreadalile  of  all 
philosophical  writcis,  an<l  even  /.eller  declares  his 
German  to  be  at  times  '  a-s  unintelligible  to  (!er- 
mans  as  if  it  were  Sanskrit.'  The  most  popular 
of  his  writings  is  his  sketch  of  the  Ideal  of 
Hum.anity  (/>«  Urhild  tier  Meiisrhheil,  1812).  His 
svsteiu  of  philosophy  is  cxpoundi'd  in  various 
(sketches  and  outlines  of  the  philosophical  sciences 
(Logic,    1803,    1828;    Ethics,    1811;    Philosophy  of 


Right,  1803,  1828;  Sketch  of  the  System  of  Philo- 
sophy, 1828),  and  most  fully  and  delinitely  in  his 
'  Lectures  on  the  System  of  Pliilosophv'  (  182S)  and 
his  '  Lectures  on  the  Funclanienlal  Truths  of 
Science'  ( 182!) ).  Since  his  death  many  of  his  works 
have  been  edited  by  Leonhardi,  Ahrens,  lioder, 
Wiinsche,  an<l  Hohlfeld.  The  Ji/e<i/  of  Hitmanity 
has  been  summarily  rendered  into  Spanish  (by  Del 
Rio,  1860)  and  Italian,  and  an  Flnglish  transla- 
tion by  Hastie  appeared  in  ISiU).  Professor 
Tiberghien  of  liru.ssels  has  alily  summarised  and 
illustrated  Krause's  philosopliy  in  French.  Pro- 
fessor Flint  has  given  an  adniiralile  summary  of 
Krause's  philoso)>hy  of  history  in  his  Philusojihii 
uf  llislor)/.  and  Professor  Lorimer  shows  apprecia- 
tion of  Krause's  philosophy  of  ];iw  in  his  Institutes 
of  Lair.  The  translation  of  Plh-iilerer's  I'liilnso/iliy 
of  lietiyion  contains  a  sketch  of  Krause's  Absolute 
Philosophy  of  licligion.  I'.ut  Krause's  system  of 
Iihilosophy,  as  a  w  hole,  which,  as  regards  his  view 
of  the  relation  of  the  world  to  God,  he  called 
raiientheism  ('all-in-God'),  in  contradistinction  to 
the  Pantheism  of  the  other  schools  and  the  Dualism 
of  the  deistic  tradition,  has  not  yet  obtained 
adecpiate  expression  in  English.  Kroebcl,  the 
foumlcr  of  the  Kindergarten  system,  followed 
Krause's  doctrines.  There  are  monographs  in 
German  by  Hohlfeld  (1879),  Procksch  (1880),  and 
Martin  (1881). 

KroaSOtO.     See  CREA.S0TE. 

Kroatiiie.    See  Creatin. 

Krefeld.  one  of  tlie  most  imiKirlant  manu- 
facturing towns  of  (Jermany.  stands  abcnit  4  miles 
from  the  left  bank  of  the  Fthine  and  12  N^V.  of 
Diisseldorf.  It  owes  its  importance  to  the  settle- 
ment here,  in  the  17th  and  ISth  centuries,  of 
refugees  from  .Juliers  and  Berg,  and  the  neigh- 
bouring countries,  compelled  to  leave  their  homes 
by  religions  jiersecntion  ;  they  established  the  silk 
and  velvet  manufactures  for  which  Krefeld  is  now 
noteil.  In  1 885  the  number  of  looms  engaged  in 
these  manufactures  was  29,837,  and  the  value  of 
the  fabrics  exiM)rted  was  upwards  of  i.'2,975,000. 
Here  are  large  railw.ay  repair  shops,  iron-foundries, 
.and  works  for  making  machinery,  aiul  manu- 
factures of  chemicals,  soap,  sjiirits,  \c.  The  town 
possesses  ,a  technical  schoid  of  weaving,  &c.  Pop. 
(  1875)  (12,84(1  ;   (  1890)  105.370. 

Kroilieiirllllg.  a  town  of  Ru.ssia  on  the 
Dnieper,  74  miles  by  rail  SW.  of  Pullowa.  I'^rom 
1765  to  1789  it  was  the  chief  town  of  New  Russia  ; 
it  is  now  the  seat  of  great  industrial  activity, 
especially  in  wool,  timber,  and  tohacco,  and  of 
factories  t'oi  agricultural  machines,  leather,  tobacco, 
candles,  iVc.     Pop.  ( 1871 )  30,472  ;  ( 1897 )  57,879. 

Kremlin.    See  Mo.scow. 

Krcninit/.  one  of  the  oldest  towns  of  Hungary, 
in  the  co\inty  of  Bars,  lies  in  a  dee]i,  gloomy  valley, 
S3  miles  N.  from  Budajiest.  It  is  famous  for  its 
gold  and  silver  mines,  which,  however,  are  less 
productive  now  than  formerly,  and  its  mint.  Po]i. 
8550,  almost  entirely  of  Gernum  origin. 

KrcniS.  a  town  of  Lower  Austria,  at  the  con- 
tinence of  the  river  Krems  with  the  Danube,  47 
mill's  by  rail  W.  by  .\.  of  Yienna.      Pop.  11,042. 

Kroinsicr.  on<'  of  the  jircttiest  towns  of 
Moravia,  on  the  March,  35  miles  E.  by  N.  of 
Briinn.  It  is  the  summer  residence  of  the  .Arch- 
bishop of  tiliniitz,  whose  line  palace  contains  a 
tiicture-gallery,  a  numismalic  eollcclion,  and  a 
library  of  .37,000  vobnncs.  From  22d  November 
1848  to  7th  .Mandi  1849  this  town  was  the  seat  of 
the  .Austrian  Constitutional  Diet.     Pop.  12,816. 

Krou/or  from  (he  cross  {l.reiiz)  fcnincrly  con- 
spicuous upon  it  is  a  small  copjicr  coin  still  in  use 
in  Austria,  100  making  a  llorin  or  "uldcn  (ninninal 


KREUZNACH 


KRILOF 


459 


value,  2s.).  Till  1876  it  \va.s  current  also  in 
southern  Germany  as  the  60tli  jiart  of  a  f^ulden 
(see  Florin).  Tlie  kreuzer  was  hrst  coined  in  the 
13th  century,  in  Tyrol,  and  was  originally  of  silver. 

KrOllZIISM'll*  ii  town  of  Hhenish  Prussia,  dating 
from  the  (Hli  century,  on  the  Nalie,  3.")  miles  by 
rail  SSE.  of  Cohlonz.  Its  chief  manufacture  is 
clianiiiagne,  its  principal  tradi'  in  wine  .and  corn  : 
hut  it  is  most  notalile  for  its  salt  si)rin<;s.  These 
were  discovered  in  147S,  and,  being  serviceable  in 
scrofulous  and  other  affections,  attract  over  5000 
visitoi-s  annuallv.  Their  temperature  ranges  from 
about  50°  to  ilb'  K.  Pop.  (1895)  19..344.  !Se.- 
Engelnjann's  Wiitcis  of  Krciiziiach  (Lond.  ISSO). 

Kriofisspiel  ('war-game')  was  introduced  in 
18'2-l  by  Lieutenant  von  Keiszwitz  of  the  Prussian 
army,  after  several  veai-s  spent  in  perfecting 
the  game  as  originally  designed  by  his  father. 
It  aims  at  giving  interesting  representations  of 
military  nianceuvres  on  .a  contoured  map  of  suffi- 
ciently large  scale  to  show  all  the  features  of  the 
ground,  and  enable  their  effect  for  cover,  com- 
mand, or  concealment  to  be  duly  allowed  for.  The 
troo])s  are  represented  by  metal  blocks  coloured 
red  for  one  player  and  blue  for  the  other,  and  made 
to  the  same  scale  as  the  map.  One  officer  takes 
command  of  each  side,  assisted,  if  necessary,  by 
subordinate  ollicers.  An  umpire,  with  generally 
two  a.ssistants,  superintends  the  game.  A  '  general 
idea'  of  the  military  situatiim  is  issued  to  each 
side,  and  contains  wliatever  information  it  is  con- 
sidered ]>robable  that  each  would  have  under  the 
circumstance.s.  A  'special  idea'  follows,  giving 
such  details  as  the  strength  and  com|iosition  of 
each  force,  its  distribution  at  the  commencement 
of  the  game,  the  immediate  object  in  view,  the 
date  and  hour  of  the  imaginary  time  at  which 
operations  commence,  and  any  information  as  to 
the  enemy  which  may  be  in  the  possession  of  the 
commander-in-chief,  represented  by  the  framer  of 
the  scheme.  The  'special  idea'  for  one  player  will 
dili'er  from  that  for  the  other,  and  must  not  be  seen 
by  him.  The  wind,  weather,  state  of  the  country, 
&c.  are  usually  assumed  to  be  as  on  the  day  of 
playing. 

Each  player  tlien  frames  his  orders,  and  is  strictly 
lielil  to  them.  Three  copies  of  the  map  are  gener- 
ally used,  though  one  is  enough  if  the  jilavers  are 
only  allowed  access  to  it  in  turn  when  the  other's 
trooits  are  covered  up.  tjn  '  red's '  maj),  if  three  are 
available,  only  his  own  troons  are  shown,  until,  as 
the  game  progres.ses,  it  is  decided  by  the  umpire 
that  he  could  see  some  of  '  blue's'  men,  when  pieces 
representing  those  only  which  are  so  seen  are  placed 
on  it.  'Blue's'  map  is  similarly  treated,  but  on 
the  tliirrl,  or  umpire's  map,  both  sides  are  com- 
pletely represented.  The  game  proceeds  by  moves, 
each  of  two  minutes'  imaginary  time,  the  space  the 
dill'erent  arms  would  cover  in  that  time  at  ordinary 
marching  rate  being  laid  down  on  a  scale,  and 
thereby  transferreil  to  the  map.  The  player  points 
out  the  direction  in  which  he  wishes  each  body  of 
men  moved,  and  the  assistant  umpire  then  meiusures 
oil' the  rlistance  and  places  them.  The  same  num- 
l)erof  moves  is  given  siTiniltaneously  to  both  players, 
and  the  number  of  moves  given  at  a  time  grow"  less 
as  thi'V  come  nearer,  until  perhaps  only  half  a  move 
can  be  given,  or  the  rpiestion  ari.ses  whether  any 
ailvance  can  be  made  on  one  sirle  or  the  other.  This 
and  all  similar  jioints  must  either  be  decideil  by  the 
umpire  frou'  a  consideration  of  the  situation,  or  by 
a  tlirow  of  the  ilie.  Rules  are  laiil  down  for  the 
guid.mce  of  umpires :  thus,  '  re]iulsed  '  troops  cannot 
come  into  action  again  for  ten  minutes  ( live  moves), 
'defeated  '  troops  cannot  do  so  for  twenty  minutes, 
and  if  '  totally  defeated  '  are  removed  from  the  map. 
The  victorious  side  loses  half  as  manv  as  the  '  re- 


pulsed'  or  'defeated,'  and  one-third  as  many  as  the 
■  totally  defeated  '  troops.  If  the  die  is  used  a  table 
of  possil)iUty  decides  such  ijuestions  as  'can  guns 
come  into  action  under  infantry  lire,'  the  odds 
being  3:  "2  in  favour  of  the  infantry  at  500  yards; 
2  : 1  at  400,  and  so  on.  These  odds  also  determine 
the  loss  ]>er  battalicm  or  si|uadron  by  means  of 
another  table,  which  allots  certain  faces  of  the  die 
to  either  colour,  and  regulates  the  loss  in  ]iro])ortion 
to  the  miniber  of  dots  on  the  face  which  turns  u]>. 
Tims,  in  a  question  where  the  odds  were  5  :  1 
against  'red,'  if  the  single  dot  turned  up,  'bine' 
would  be  '  repulsed  '  with  a  lo.ss  of  si.x  per  battalion  ; 
if  two,  three,  or  four  dots  turned  u]>,  '  red  '  would  be 
'defeated'  with  losses  of  eight,  nine,  or  eleven  per 
battalion  :  and  if  live  orsi.x  dots  turned  up,  '  totally 
defeated'  with  losses  of  lifteen  and  eighteen  jier 
battalion.  Tables  of  losses  from  artillery  lire  an<l 
infantry  lire  at  various  ranges,  and  under  diii'erent 
conditions  are  also  used,  and  the  time  required  for 
destroying  or  constructing  bridges,  &c.  laid  down. 

Intelligence  of  the  enemy,  if  seen  by  a  scout,  is 
obtained  from  the  umpire,  w  ho  allows  himself  to  be 
questioned,  l)ut  frames  his  answeis  in  accordance 
with  what  the  scout  would  be  likely  to  know. 
Orders  sent  to  detached  bodies  of  troops  cannot 
take  effect  until  sufficient  time  has  elapsed  for  an 
orderly  to  reach  them  ;  and,  if  diiected  to  go  across 
country,  at  each  fence  the  die  must  be  thrown  to 
ilecide  whether  he  gets  over  without  a  fall.  Every- 
thing is  done  to  make  the  conditions  of  the  game 
.similar  to  those  of  actual  warfare,  with  the  result 
that  the  players  cannot  fail  to  realise  the  value  of 
time  in  military  operations,  the  difficulty  of  ascer- 
taining the  enemy's  movements,  anil  the  necessity 
for  clear  and  definite  orders.  The  umpire  decides 
w  hen  the  game  shall  cease,  which  is  generally  when 
one  side  has  clearly  obtained  the  mastery  or  gained 
his  object.  See  Vernois.  T/ic  Tuclical  Wiir  Guine 
(trans,  by  Macdonnell,  18S4). 

Krilof.  Iv.vx  Andkeevich,  the  La  Fontaine  of 
Russia,  was  born  at  Moscow,  February  14,  1768, 
the  son  of  a  penniless  infantry  captain.  At  fourteen 
he  lost  his  father,  next  Idled  f<u'  some  time  a 
post  in  a  public  office  at  St  Petersburg,  but  gave  it 
up  after  his  mother's  death  in  1788,  to  try  in  turn 
writin''  dramas,  and  the  joint  editing  ami  jiublish- 
ing  of  literary  magazines.  For  some  years  he  found 
shelter  at  the  country  seats  of  Prince  Sergius 
Cialitzin,  acted  till  1804  as  his  secretary  when 
military  governiu'  of  Livonia,  and  next  wandered 
aindessly  about  the  towns  of  Rirssia,  finding  his 
amusement  in  card-playing.  About  the  close  of 
the  year  1805  at  Mo.scow  he  showed  some  of  his 
fables  to  the  poet  Dmitrief,  who  jirinted  them  in 
the  Moscow  S//rr/iit(ir.  They  were  at  once  success- 
ful, and  thus  Krilof,  at  forty,  found  in  what  his 
strength  really  lay.  The  first  collection  of  his  fables 
(twenty-threi^  iji  number)  appeared  in  1809;  the 
second,  containing  twenty-one  more,  in  1811.  He 
returned  to  St  Petersburg  in  1806,  ami  soon  after 
obtained  a  government  a]ipointment  which  in  1821 
he  exchanged  for  a  congenial  jiost  in  the  lm|ierial 
Public  Library  under  bis  fiiend  (tleninc.  Honours 
were  now  shttw  ereil  upon  his  heful  ;  his  years  gliiled 
peacefullv  away  ;  he  was  comfortably  oil',  and 
much  beloved  liy  all  r.anks  of  society,  no  less  for 
his  kindliness  and  goodnature  than  for  his  care- 
lessness in  dress,  his  laziness,  his  excessive  smok- 
ing, ami  a  thousand  amiable  eccentricities.  He 
died  November  21,  1844,  and  the  vast  spontane- 
ous concourse  at  his  funeral  in  the  Nevsky  I'ros- 
]iect  sbowcil  bow  closely  he  hail  toucheil  the 
popular  heart  of  Russia.  A  line  bronze  statue  of 
liim  was  erected  in  the  Sunnncr  (iarden. 

Krilof  was  careless  of  fame,  but  could  not  help 
being  a  consummate  artist,  ami  the  Horalian 
niriosa  feliritns  is  one  of  the   most  characteristic 


460 


KRIMMITSCHAU 


KRUPP 


marks  of  his  versification.  His  shrewd  h\imour 
and  keen  thoniiih  •j'^'ii'i'  satire  are  all  liis  own,  no 
less  than  that  insif;lit  born  of  sympathy  which  has 
fjiven  snoh  reality  and  Irnth  to  his  {jfliniiisps  of 
Kussian  men  and  manners.  His  slijjhtest  fahles, 
however  li^'ht  and  nierely  hninorous  they  seem, 
are  stamped  lhroiij;hoiU  liy  bro.ad  humanity  and 
intense  althouj^h  enlij;htened  patriotism.  Yet  he 
is  never  d\ill  or  tedious,  and  his  moral  never  lacks 
the  saving  grace  of  spontaneity.  Withal  lie  is  a 
genuine  fabulist,  with  rich  measure  of  that  shrewd- 
ness wra|)]>e(l  in  simplicity,  that  sense  of  the  varied 
individuality  veiled  in  the  dumbne.ss  of  the  brute- 
world,  and  that  mastery  of  the  art  of  compressing 
the  essentials  of  a  story  into  a  few  concise  and 
straightforward  lines,  which  mark  only  the  greatest 
masters  of  the  art. 

For  Krilof" s  life  may  be  read  the  memoirs  in  Russian 
by  Pletnef  ami  by  Grot,  and  the  admirable  sketch  pre- 
fixed by  the  late  W.  R.  S.  Ralston  to  liis  Krilof  and  his 
Fables,  a  prose  translation;  in  its  first  edition  (1868),  of 
ninety-tliree  fables  ;  in  its  fourth  ( 1883 ),  of  Hfty-five  more. 
Tliere  are  good  translations  into  French  verse  by  Charles 
Parfait  ( 1867 ) ;  into  German  by  Ferdinand  Torney  ( 1842 ), 
and  an  anonymous  lady  (18tJ3).  See  also  chap.  vi.  voL  1 
of  ISutliLTland  Edwards,  The  Russians  at  Home  (1879). 

KriinillitSCliail,  a  town  of  Saxony,  45  miles 
S.  of  Leipzig  by  rail,  manufactures  buckskin 
and  vicuna  wool,  machinery,  (S:c.  Pop.  (1870) 
17,705;  (1885)  19,755;  ( 1895)  2.S,553. 

Kris,  a  dagger  or  ])oniard,  the  universal  weapon 
of  the  inhabitants  of  the   JIalayan   Archipelago. 


Malay  Kris. 

It  is  made  of  many  different  forms,  short  or  long, 
straight  or  crooked.  The  hilt  and  scabbard  are 
often  nnich  ornamented.  Men  of  all  ranks  wear 
this  weapon,  and  those  of  high  rank  when  in  full- 
dress  sometimes  carry  three  or  four.  In  Java  women 
sometimes  wear  it. 

Krisliiin.    See  Vishnu. 

UroiU'lllU'rg,  an  iron-manufacturing  town  of 
Rhenish  Prussia,  4  miles  S.  of  Elberfekl.  Pop. 
8858. 

Kronos.    See  S.vruRN. 

Kronstadt  (Magyar  Brassd),  an  important 
trading  and  irou-niannfacturing  town,  and  capital 
of  a  Hungarian  ccmnty  in  the  extreme  south-east 
of  Transylvania  ;  it  is'  261  miles  SE.  of  Pesth  by 
rail,  near' the  Carpathians,  and  18."i0  feet  above  the 
sea.  The  pop.  (30,7;J9  in  1890)  includes  Saxons, 
Szekler,  Magyars,  Koumanians,  Greeks,  Armenians, 
and    Gypsies. — For    the    Kussian    Kronstadt,   see 

('|;(>NSTAI)T. 

Ul'oonii'll,  or  Kliooiiovs  (also  s|)elt  Kriimcn 
and  Kniliiii/.s),  a  Negro  people  inhabiting  for  the 
most  part  tlie  Pepper  Coast  of  (iuinea,  \Vest  .\frica. 
They  belong  to  two  divisions,  the  tirebo  or  Ge<lebo 
and  the  Kroomeii  projier.  The  (Jrebo  are  agricul- 
turists and  traders  ;  the  Kroomen  are  bold  and  skil- 
ful boatmen,  and  are  emidoyed  for  the  surf-boats 
all  along  the  coast  of  that  part  of  .-Vfrica.  Their 
language  is  (dosely  related  to  the  Mandingo  tonglu^ 

KropoJkilie,  I'n'N''!';  I'ktki!,  Russian  Nihilist, 
was  born  at  .Moscow  iu  )84'2,  of  one  of  the  noblest 
houses  in  the  em))ire.  At  fifteen  lie  entered  the 
Corps  of  Pages  at  St  I'etersburg,  whither,  after  live 
years' service  and  exploration  iu  Siberia,  lie  returned 


in  1867  to  study  mathematics  for  four  years  at  the 
university,  whilst  acting  as  secretary  to  the  Geo- 
graphical Societ.v.  In  1871  he  explored  the  glacial 
deposits  of  Finland  and  Sweden  ;  in  187'2,  whilst  on 
a  visit  to  Belgium  and  Swit/crland,  he  associated 
himself  with  the  extremest  section  of  the  Inter- 
national. Two  years  after  his  return  to  Russia  he 
was  arrested  (March  1874),  but  in  .July  lS7(iescaped 
to  England.  From  Switzerland  ho  wiis  expelled  in 
1881  ;  and  at  Lyons  be  was  condemned  in  1SS3  to 
five  years'  imprisonment.  Release<l  in  1S8G,  he  re- 
turned to  England.  lie  is  author  of  I'aro/c.<:  (Vim 
IUco/tc{\l^s:^).fii  j:iiti!iiriHaiidFir)ickrn'.suiis{\HS7), 
Mcmoirx  of  a  licvotutionist  (1899).  and  articles  in 
the  Eiiri/.  Biitatiiiim,  the  present  work,  &c. 

HrJidoiicr,  Barh.vra  Juliaxa  von  (1766- 
1824),  daughter  of  H.aron  von  Vietingliofl",  was 
born  at  Iliga.  .Married  to  Baron  von  Kriidener,  a 
Livonian  nolilenian  who  was  lUissian  ambassador 
at  Venice,  she  for  years  lived  apart  from  him  in 
Riga,  St  I'etersburg,  and  Paris.  In  1803  she  pub- 
lished a  novel,  Vri/cric,  edited  by  Sainte-Benve  in 
1855,  supposed  to  be  jiartly  autobiographical.  Next 
her  thoughts  turned  to  religion.  She  came  in 
contact  with  .Jung-Stilling,  ami  ultimately  gave 
her.self  up  to  ex.aggerated  religious  mysticism.  She 
appeared  as  the  herald  of  a  new  religious  era, 
and  impressed  the  Emperor  Alexander  of  Ru.ssia. 
Obliged  to  withdraw  from  France,  she  retired  to 
her  paternal  estates  near  Riga.  See  Krug's  Con- 
rcrsdfiwin  irith  Madame  roii  Kriidi'ncr  (  1818),  and 
Lives  liv  Evnard  (1849),  Lacroix  (1880),  and 
Cl.arence  Ford  (1893). 

Kriiscr,  Stephanus  Johannes  Paulus,  born 
10th  Oct.  1825  at  Rastonburg  iu  Cape  Colony,  with 
his  fellow-Boers  'trekked'  to  Natal,  the  Orange 
River  Free  State,  and  I  he  Transvaal,  and  in  the  war 
against  England  (18S1)  was  appointed  head  of  the 
government.  In  1883  he  wiis  elected  president  of 
the  Transvaal  Republic,  ami  again  in  1888,  IS93, 
and  1898.  On  the  failure  of  negotiations  to  remedy 
the  Outlamlers'  grievances  he,  with  Mr  Steyn,  presi- 
dent of  the  Orange  Free  State,  on  9th  Oct.  1S99 
presented  an  ultimatum  which  was  virtually  a 
declaration  of  M'ar,  and  for  which  his  government 
had  liccn  preparing  for  years.  This  was  followed 
by  the  invasion  of  Natal  and  Cape  Cobmy  ;  an<l  the 
war,  which  lasteil  till  the  end  of  1900,  resulted  in 
the  annexation  of  the  Transvaal  and  Orange  Free 
State  as  British  colonies.  In  Nov.  1900  Mr  Krugev 
sought  nifuge  in  Europe.  See  Jameson  (  L.  S.); 
and  Slatham,  Paul  Kriajcr  and  liis  Times  ( 1898). 

Ki'iiiiiiuadicr.  FitiEDiticii  Wilhelm  (1796- 

1868),  anti-rationalist  theologian,  born  at  Mbrs- 
on-l!bine,  was  latterly  chaplain  to  the  Prussian 
court.  Translations  of  his  l)ooks  on  Holomoii  and 
Elijah  the  Tishbitc  were  popular.  See  bis  Auto- 
biographv  (1869),  .anil  the  Lehenscriiiiicriiiiijeii 
(1889)  of  his  brollier,  Emil  Wilhelm.  His  father, 
Fr.  .-Vdfdf  Krummacher  ( 1768-1845),  wrote  the  well- 
known  I'arahchi. 

Kl'lipp,  Alfred,  head  of  the  gigantic  iron  and 
steid  works  at  Essen  in  Prussia,  was  born  in  humble 
eircumsl.inccs  there  in  1812.  lie  succeeded  his 
father,  who  li;ul  founded  a  small  inm  forge  there  in 
1810,  and  took  control  of  the  works  in  1848,  when 
be  found  '  three  workmen  and  more  debts  than 
fortune.'  Almost  simultaneously  with  the  intro- 
duction of  the  Bessemer  .steel  process  in  1857  and 
the  use  of  the  steamhaminer  came  the  demands 
from  artillerists  for  larger  guns,  ami  from  railway 
companies  and  shiplmilders  for  more  ilurable 
materials  of  construction.  Enipp  established  at 
Es.sen  the  lii'st  Bessemer  steel  works  erected  in 
Germany,  and  the  first  forging  hammer  as  welj. 
The  first  steel  gun  manufactured  at  E.s.sen  (1847) 
was  a  3-i>ounder  muzzle-loader.     Krupp  showed  iu 


KRUSENSTERN 


KtfENEN 


461 


the  International  Exliiliition  of  1S51  a  (i-ixmndi'i' 
steel  gun.  To  Kiu|>ii  unilouliteilly  lielongs  the 
credit  ot  introilucinj;  steel  iis  a  material  for  gun 
coustrnrtion,  ami  of  pioneering  that  material  for 
many  years  when  it  was  disregarded  by  the  Govern- 
ments. In  1862  he  exliibited  a  cast-steel  block 
weighing  "20  tons,  which  w:is  designed  to  show 
wliat  the  Essen  works  were  capable  of  doing  in  the 
manufacture  of  ordnance.  He  showed  a  similar 
block  at  I'aris  of  50  tons  (1867),  and  a  block  of  52 
tons  at  Vienna  in  1S73.  At  the  Diisseldorf  Exliilii- 
tion  of  ISSO  he  showed  a  steel  gun  of  100  tons 
weight,  being  the  first  to  demonstrate  the  iiossibility 
of  producing  a  piece  of  ordnance  of  such  enormous 
size.  The  manufacture  of  cast-steel  axles  wiis 
begun  in  1S52,  and  of  tires  from  solid  forged  pieces 
in  1853.  The  subseijuent  history  of  the  Essen  works 
is  an  ei>itome  of  the  reeortls  oi  the  German  iron  and 
steel  industry.  In  all  mattei-s  of  technical  and 
industrial  development  Krupp  took  a  leading  part. 
He  acquired  large  mines  and  collieries,  and  every 
vear  saw  additions  made  to  his  establishment  at 
tssen  (q.v.).  The  works  cover  about  UMX)  acres, 
and  al>out  20,000  pei-sons  tind  employment  there  in 
all  departments.  Kru|)p  was  a  man  of  much  deci- 
sion of  character,  and  great  iienetration.  Naturally 
Germany  owed  him  much,  and  was  not  slow  to 
acknowledge  her  obligations.  The  late  Emperor 
AVilliam  frequently  visited  him,  and  it  was  prob- 
ably to  this  circumstance  that  the  popular  rumour 
of  his  ))artuei'ship  in  the  works  was  due.  Kru])]! 
supplied  artillery  to  almost  every  government  in 
Europe,  and  was  the  recipient  of  many  foreign 
orders  and  decorations.  He  died  14tli  July  1887, 
anil  sixty  thousand  people  attended  his  funeral. 
— His  sou,  Alfred,  succeeded  as  head  of  the  great 
house  at  Essen  :  and  under  him  was  manufactured 
in  18S8-90  the  135-ton  gtin  for  the  fortifications  of 
Cronstadt.  See  Cannon  ;  and  Alfred  Kiiijij>,  by 
Badeker  ( Es.sen,  1888 ). 

Kriisensterii,  Ad.am  John,  Baron  von,  a 

Russian  voyager,  was  born  8th  November  1770  at 
Haggud  in  Esthonia.  After  serving  for  some  time 
in  the  British  navy  he  was  commissioned  by  Alex- 
ander I.  of  Russia  to  command  a  naval  expedition 
for  exploring  purposes  in  the  North  Pacific.  In  the 
coui-se  of  a  three  years' voyage  ( 1803-6),  the  first 
made  round  the  world  by  a  Russian  navigator,  he 
discovered  the  Orloll"  Islands,  and  explored  the 
Marquesas  and  Washington  groups,  the  west  coast 
of  Yezo,  the  coast  of  Saghalien,  and  the  northern 
Kurile  Islands.  But  he  failed  in  the  second  object 
for  which  he  was  sent  out — the  opening  of  Russian 
trade  with  Japan.  He  published  an  account  of  his 
voya"e  (3  vols.  Petersb.  1810-12),  which  was  soon 
translated  into  the  principal  languages  of  Etirope 
(Eug.  ed.  1813);  and  to  this  lie  subsequently  addeil 
Coittribulionis  to  the  11  inlrorjrapltrj  of  the  J'ueific 
Ocean  ( 1819 ),  ,1  Has  oft/ie  I'ucijic  Oecau,  with  Recitcil 
den  Mimoires  Hydruijruitldqucs  ( 1824-27 ),  and  other 
works  on  the  same  subject.  Knisenstern  died  on 
12th  August  1846  at  his  estate  in  Esthonia.  See 
Memoir  by  Bernhardi  (Eng.  trans,  by  Sir  John 
Ross,  1856). 

Krylov.    See  KuiLOF. 
kshatriya.    See  C.v.ste. 

Kllbun.  a  river  of  the  Cauca;!ius  (q.v.),  and  the 
name  of  a  province. 

Kllblai  Khan  (called  by  the  Chinese  Cld- 
Tsu),  more  properly  KlllliiL.u  Kn.\N,  the  Grand 
Khan  of  the  Niongols  and  emperor  of  China,  was  llie 
ftrand.son  of  Gengliis  Khan  througli  his  fourth  son 
Tuli.  During  the  reign  of  his  brother  MatiGU 
(1251-59)  Kublai  completed  the  conquest  of  tlie 
northern  Chinese  (  Kin )  empire  ( begun  by  Genghis ) 
and  took  jios-^ession  of  north  China.  On  the  death 
of   Mangii,    Kublai    was   proclaimed    khakhan    or 


Great  Khan,  but  had  a  formidable  rival  in  his  own 
brother  Arikbuka,  and  after  he  had  suppressed  him, 
in  Kaidu,  a  descendant  of  Gengliis  Khans  third 
son  Oghotai,  who  struggled  against  Kiiblai  through- 
out the  whole  of  his  reign.  Kulilai,  who  was  an 
able  and  energetic  prince,  adopted  the  Chinese  mode 
of  civilisation,  greatly  encouraged  men  of  letters, 
made  Buddhism  the  state  religion,  creating  the 
office  of  Great  Lama  in  Tibet,  and  manifested  an 
enlighteiuKl  care  for  the  welfare  of  his  subjects. 
But  he  was  also  an  ambitious  sovereign  and  a  prince 
who  loved  magnificence.  He  overthrew  the  Sung 
dynasty  of  southern  China,  compelled  Corea,  Cochin 
China  (Champa),  Burma  (Mien),  Java,  and  some 
Malabar  states  in  India  to  acknowledge  his  suprem- 
acy. An  attempt  to  invade  Ja|ian  ended  in  disaster. 
He  established  himself  at  Tatu  or  Klian-baligh 
(Cambaluc,  the  modern  Peking),  and  there  founded 
a  new  dynasty — that  of  Yuen — the  first  foreign 
race  of  kings  that  ever  ruled  in  China.  Including 
the  western  Mongol  states  of  the  Golden  Horde  (m 
the  Volga  and  the  Ilkhans  in  Persia,  Kublai's 
dominions  extended  from  the  Arctic  Ocean  to 
the  Strait  of  Malacca,  and  from  Corea  to  Asia 
Minor  and  the  confines  of  Hungary — an  extent 
of  territory  the  like  of  which  had  never  before, 
and  has  never  since,  been  governed  by  any  one 
monarch  in  Asia.  The  splendour  and  ]iomp  of  his 
court  inspired  the  graphic  pages  of  Marco  Polo 
(q.v.) — who  spent  some  time  at  the  residence  of 
the  Mongol  emi)eror  of  China — and  at  a  later  date 
the  imagination  of  Coleridge.  See  Yules  Marco 
Polo  (1875),  and  Howorth's  Histury  of  the  Motujols 
(part  i.  1876). 

Klu-li  Beliar.    See  Behar. 

Kill'llt'H.  AbI!.\h.\m,  an  eminent  Dutch  theo- 
logian, w;us  born  at  Haarlem,  16th  September  1828, 
studied  at  Leyden,  and  became  at  the  close  of  1852 
an  e.xtra-ordinary,  in  1855  an  ordinary  professor 
there.  He  was  lector  of  the  university,  1861-62. 
His  fiist  important  work  was  \n&  Historisch-Crilisch 
Onderzoek  uaar  hct  Ontstaan  en  de  Verzamelinij  i-aii 
de  Boeken  des  Uuden  Vcrbuiids  (3  vols.  1861-65; 
trans,  iti  part  by  Colenso,  1865),  which  had  a 
great  intluence  on  Old  Testament  scholars  both  in 
Englarul  and  (iermany.  The  result  of  the  critii-al 
movement  which  he  inaugurated,  although  it  was 
first  suggested  by  Graf,  has  been  to  entirely  re- 
construct the  history  of  Israel,  the  priestly  code 
and  the  historical  portions  connected  with  it  being 
made  the  latest  element  in  the  Pentateuch.  This 
view  of  Old  Testament  criticism  has  since  been 
made  familiar  to  Englishmen  through  the  work  of 


iple   II 
•  K  uen 


was  develoi)ed  further  by  Kuenen  in  his  best-known 
book,  De  Godsdicnat  ran  Israel  tot  den  Ondergang 
van  den  Joodschen  Staut  (1869-70;  Enw.  trans. 
3  vols.  187;J-75),  and  in  the  carefully  revised  and 
considerably  fuller  second  edition  of  his  Vnderzoek 
(the  Hexateuch,  1885;  the  Proi)lietical  books, 
1889).  In  the  i)reface  to  the  latter  he  says:  'In 
setting  forth,  fi>r  the  first  time,  the  complete  and 
systematic  critical  justification  of  the  (iralian  hypo- 
thesis, 1  am  MO  longer  ailvocating  a  heresy,  but  am 
expounding  the  received  view  of  Euroi)ean  critical 
.scholarshi|>.'  Other  works  of  Kuenen's,  only  less 
important  than  these,  are  De  Profeten  en  de  Prvfetie 
onder  Israel  ( 1875  ;  Eng.  trans.  1877)  and  J^'atiunid 
Religioiis  mill  Universal  He/ii/ions,  the  Hihbert 
Lectures  fur  1882.  Besides  these  Kuenen  has  made 
countless  contributions  on  bililical  cpieslions  to  the 
learned  iimrnals,  especially  the  well-known  Theu- 
loffisch  'lijdsrhrift,  established  in  1867.  He  died  at 
Leyden,  10th  Uecember  1891.  In  critical  insight 
and  constructive  ability,  he  stood  at  the  bead  of  the 
Old  Testament  critics  of  his  time  ;  Ewald's  mantle 
had  fallen  on   hini.      His  firm  grtusp  of  historical 


462 


KUEN-LUN 


KUH-HORN 


nietlioil  has  jriven  an  unusual  lucidity  and  force 
to  liis  argument,  and  enaliled  him  to  bring  almost 
for  the  first  time  the  history  of  Israel  into  line  with 
the  history  of  other  peoples  of  the  ancient  world. 
For,  leaving  the  sjieoial  supernatural  question  aside, 
its  development  must  otherwise  have  been  organic 
and  normal,  and  this  Kuenen  was  the  firet  historian 
conclusively  to  demonstrate. 

Klieil-Lllll,  a  great  mountain-chain  of  central 
Asia,  wliich  forms  the  northern  wall  of  the  Tibetan 
phiteau,  as  tlie  Himalayas  do  the  southern.  Start- 
ing from  the  Pamir  phiteau  (82°  E.  long.),  the 
Kuen-Lun  extends  e;istward  as  far  as  94°  E.  long. , 
forming  an  arc  to  the  north.  The  entire  region, 
which  varies  from  100  to  150  miles  in  widtli,  is 
covered  with  snow,  and  in  many  places  with  gigantic 
glaciei-s.  Between  the  chains  lie  narrow  \alleys 
of  a  very  steep  inclination.  Storms  of  sand  and  of 
snow,  often  ot  both  commingled,  rage  violently  in 
winter.  The  peaks  of  this  region  measure  from 
1S,00U  to  '2.5, 000  feet  in  altitude,  and  the  passes 
from  1.3,000  to  18,000  feet.  These  mountains  were 
almost  unknown  until  the  explorations  of  the 
Russian  General  Prjevalski,  1876-S8. 

HllKc  Coins  are  the  early  Mohammedan 
coins  engra\ed  with  inscriptions  in  the  Kufic  or 
epigrapliic  Arabic  character,  as  distinguished  from 
the  Neskhi  or  cursive  writing  (see  AKAni.\,  Vol.  I. 
p.  367);  but  tlie  term  is  often  ajiplied  erronemisly 
to  Arabic  coins  in  general.  In  the  early  years  of 
the  califate  the  gold  and  copper  coinage  of  the 
Byzantine  emperors  and  the  silver  coinage  of  the 
Sassanians  were  used  and  imitated.  The  Arabic 
historians  refer  to  several  attempts  to  introduce  a 
distinctive  Mohammedan  coinage  prior  to  7(5  A.  II.  ; 
but,  witli  tlie  exception  of  two  or  tliree  isolated 
specimens  in  the  Paris  Biblioth6que  Nationale,  on 
which  unmismatists  are  not  agreed,  there  is  no 
numismatic  evidence  for  any  such  experiments.  In 
76  and  77  A.  H.  (695-96  A. D.)" the  Calif  'Abd-el-Melik 
issued  gold  coins  with  his  own  image  instead  of 
that  of  the  By/antine  emperor ;  but,  the  representa- 
tion of  living  creatures  being  opposed  to  the  law  of 
Moliannaed,  this  coinage  was  discontinued,  and  a 
reformed  gold  currency,  engraved  solely  with  Kuhc 
inscriptions,  was  inaugurated  in  77  A.  H.  This  was 
supplemented  with  a  silver  currency  on  similar  lines 
in  79  .\.H.,  and  the  earliest  dated  copper  coin 
appeared  in  SO  A.H.  The  gold  coin  was  called  a 
dhiiir  (from  the  denarius),  the  silver  a  dirhem 
(dr.achma),  and  the  copper  a  fc!s  (foUis).  The 
first  weighed  on  the  average  65  grains  troy,  "979 
fine,  or  rather  more  than  our  half-sovereign  ;  the 
dirhem  weighed  aliout  45  grains,  '970  line,  or  rather 
more  than  our  sixpence,  but  was  nuich  larger  and 
thinner ;  the  weight  of  the  fels  was  irregular. 
The  earliest  coins  present  chiefly  religious  formuhus 
and  the  year  of  issue,  to  which  the  silver  and  some 
of  the  copper  added  liie  name  of  the  mint-city. 
The  names  of  the  califs  first  appear  on  gold  and 
silver  under  the  'Abbiisis  ;  l)Ut  with  this  addition, 
and  sometimes  the  names  of  governors  and  viziers, 
the  gold  and  silver  currency  of  the  Moslem  empire 
remaineil  practically  unchanged  until  the  4th  cen- 
tury of  the  Ilegira  (f].v. ;  the  lOth  .\.I).),  and  even 
then  the  break-up  of  the  empire  of  the  califs  into 
numerous  minor  dynasties  did  not  bring  wilh  it  any 
more  serious  modllications  in  the  coinage  than  the 
introduction  of  the  names  of  princes  and  sultans 
and  some  variation  in  the  style  of  the  inscri])tions. 
During  the  whole  of  this  period  the  Araliic  char- 
acter on  the  coins  is  still  almost  universally  Kufic  ; 
but  in  the  4th  century  local  peculiarities  begin  to 
ai>pear,  and  various  styles  are  developed,  which 
may  be  termed  trnnxitiointl  Kufic.  Examples  of 
tlie.se  are  seen  in  the  coinage  of  the  Ghaznavis  of 
2{oi'th-\vest  India,  and  still  more  marked  in  the 


is.sues  of  North  Africa  and  Si>ain.  such  as  those 
of  the  I'Yitimi  califs.  Occa.sional  idio.syncra.--ics,  in 
the  introduction  of  Roman  an<l  Byzantine  images, 
and  even  of  the  figures  of  Glirist  and  the  \'irgin, 
are  seen  on  the  coins  of  the  Mest)i)otamian  dyn- 
asties of  Turcoman  race  in  the  (ith  century  of 
the  Hegira  ( l'2th  -V.  u. ).  wliich  also  present  beautiful 
examples  of  highly-decorative  Iraiisitioual  Kufic. 
In  the  7th  century  ( 13tli  A.V.)  the  Kufic  was 
generally  superseded  by  the  Neskhi  character 
throughout  the  coinage  of  the  Moliamniedan  world, 
and  attained  its  greatest  perfection  on  th(^  ciMiency 
of  tlie  dymists  of  Granada  and  Fez,  the  shahs  of 
Persia,  and  the  rulers  of  Delhi.  Mongol  and  Sans- 
krit inscriptiims  are  incorporated  wilh  Arabic  in 
the  legends  of  coins  struck  by  the  ilescenilants  of 
(Jenghis  Khan  in  Persia  and  the  Indian  kings. 
Kufic  coins  are  of  inestimable  value  to  the  his- 
torian, for  they  supply  him  generally  with  the 
names  of  kings,  governors,  and  califs,  and  those 
of  their  liege-lords,  heii-s-appaient,  and  viziers,  and 
often  a  short  pedigree  of  their  ancestry,  together 
with  the  city  where  they  struck  the  coins,  and  the 
year,  and  sometimes  even  the  month,  of  issue.  A 
complete  list  of  Mohammedan  coins  is  a  skeleton 
history  of  the  Moslem  emidre  in  all  its  ramifications, 
and  not  seldom  a  prince  or  dynasty  unknown  to 
history  is  revealed  by  the  coins  alone. 

Tiie  principal  modern  authorities  on  the  subject  are 
•■xizet.  lil' Hunts  de  la  JVumuynatiqiie  Musidmatu  (ISGS); 
Sauvaire,  Mat-'i-iaux  pour  scrvir  a  tliistoire  de  ht  Niimis- 
matique  Musulmiim'  (li^b,  &c.);  Tiesenliausen,  jl/onnaiM 
des  Khalifis  Orimtaux  (1873)  ;  I.avoix,  Cataloiiue  des 
Mommies  Musulmnnex  di:  la  Bibliotheque  Nationale  ( vol. 
i.  1S,S7);  Stickcl,  Hnndlntch  zar moriji'idiindischtn  Miinz- 
/i«n(/e  (1870);  S.  Lane-Poole,  Catalogue  of  the  Oriental 
and  Iiulian  Coins  in  the  British  Museum  ( 12  vols.  1875- 
90),  Catalogue  of  the  Mohammedan  Coins  in  the  Bodleian 
(  bS88),  Essai/s  in  Oriental  Jfumismatics  (1874  and  1877), 
I  'uins  and  lledals.  their  Place  in  History  and  Art  ( 1885) ; 
H.  .S.  Poole.  Cataloiiue  of  Persian  Coins  in  the  British 
Museum  (1888);  and  among  older  works,  .Marsden, 
Xuniismata  Oriental ia  (1825;  and  new  ed.  1874,  ff. ), 
I'"riieiiii.  /'errnsio  (1825). 

KlliJClcr.  Fkaxz,  a  German  historian  of  art,  was 
liorn  at  Stettin,  January  19,  1808,  studied  at  Berlin 
and  lleidellierg,  and  in  1833  became  a  professor  in 
the  .Vcademv  of  Art  and  a  docciit  at  the  university 
of  Berlin.  "He  died  March  18,  1858.  His  most 
valu.ible  work  is  a  Handbiirh  der  Gc.iv/iir/ife  dcr 
MakrrI,  ron  I\un.-ilantin  d.  Or.  Iii.s  (iiif  die  ticiicre 
Zelt  (2  vols.  1837).  (Jf  this  the  part  relating  to 
Italian  art  \v;\s  transl.vted  by  the  Eastlakes  (5th  ed. 
1887),  and  that  relating  to"  the  German,  Sjianish, 
French,  and  Dutch  schools  by  Head.  Kuglers 
other  principal  works  are  a  Hiiinlliiirli  dcr  Kiui.st- 
qc.ir/iirldc  (1841-42),  an  unfinished  Crsriiic/dc  dcr 
Hmduimt  ( 18.').")-60),  and  a  Life  of  Frederick  the 
Great  (with  ill.  by  Menzel,  1840;  new  ed.  1887; 
Eng.  trans.  1843  aiid  1877).  He  is  also  favourably 
known  as  a  poet  and  as  the  author  of  several 
dranuis. 

Kllll-lioril.  Ai.i'KNiioRX,  or  ALrHous,  a 
simple  musiial  instrument  made  of  wood  or  bark 
with  a  cu]>i)ed  mouthpiece,  formerly  emiiloyed  by 
the  mountaineers  of  Switzerland  and  other  countries 
to  convey  signals  or  alarms  in  war-time,  but  now 
only  used  by  cowherds— heme  the  name.  It  is 
varicmsly  maile  from  3  feet  to  about  8  feet  long, 
nearly  straight,  curving  at  the  end,  and  widening 
into  a  bell,  and  has  the  iieeuliarly  tender  sound 
produced  by  the  cupiied  mouthpiece  in  conjunclioii 
with  the  wooden  tube.  It  has  the  ojien  harmonics 
of  the  tube;  and  its  melodies,  which  among  the 
monnlains  have  a  cliarm  all  Ihcirown.  are  played 
(Ui  the  notes  (',  (1,  (',  E.  G.— A  similar  instrument, 
called  Lure,  is  used  in  Sweden,  ami  kimlied  ones 
ill  the  Himalayas  and  among  the  Indiana  in  South 
America. 


KUILENBURG 


KURDISTAN 


463 


Kiiiloiibiira;.    See  Cri.KNiiORc. 

Kllka.  '»■  KiKAWA.     See  BoRSU. 

kll-KllIX  Klail.  a  secret  organisation  wliicli, 
saiil  to  liave  Ijeen  foiiiulcd  in  1866  at  Pulaski, 
Tennessee,  orijrinally  for  jjurposes  of  amusement 
only,  soon  ilevelopeil  into  an  association  of  '  rej;u- 
latoi's,'  anil  became  notorious  for  the  lawless  deeds 
of  violence  i)erformed  in  its  name.  The  proceedin.i;s 
of  the  Kn-KUi\  in  the  southern  states  are  only  one 
feature  of  the  iletermined  stru;;gle  to  witlihold  from 
the  emancipateil  slaves  the  riglit  of  votinj;.  The 
outrajres  and  murders  which  convulsed  the  country 
in  1868-69  ended  in  the  calling  out  of  troops  aiul 
the  formal  disliandment  of  the  society  in  March  of 
the  latter  year;  but  its  name  and  often  its  disguises 
were  used  for  yeai-s  after  to  cover  the  violence  of 
political  ilesperadoos. 

Klllja<  a  town  of  Zungaria,  central  Asia, 
stands  on  one  of  the  great  highways  leading  from 
China  to  west  Turkestan,  and  on  the  Hi.  This 
river  rises  on  the  northern  slope  of  the  Tian-Shan 
Mountains,  and  Hows  north  and  north-west  into 
Lake  Balkhash,  after  a  coni-se  of  about  I'M 
miles.  Kulja  is  the  chief  town  of  a  fertile  district 
that  produces  excellent  corn,  rice,  cotton,  tobacco, 
wine,  an<l  fruits,  whilst  its  ]iastures  support  largf! 
herds  of  horses,  camels,  cattle,  and  sheep.  This 
district  (Kulja  or  Hi)  revolted  against  China  in 
1865,  wa.s  occupied  by  Kussia  in  1871,  but  ten  years 
later  restored  to  the  Chinese.  Kussia,  however, 
retained  4357  sq.  ni.  of  the  western  part,  now  incor- 
porate<l  in  the  province  of  Semirvetchensk.  Thi' 
Chinese  ]irovince  has  an  area  of  23,130  sq.  m.  and 
a  population  of  7(1,000.  In  1876  the  population  of 
tlie  entire  province  whilst  in  Russian  hands  was 
132,0(X).  The  town  of  Kulja  has  about  12,500, 
mostly  Chinese  inhabitants.  Xew  Kulja,  25  miles 
to  the  west,  was  destroyed  by  the  rebels  in  1866  ; 
previous  to  that  date  it  had  75,000  inhabitants. 
See  Proc.  Itoy.  Geog.  Soc,  August  1880. 

Kllllll,  a  village  of  Bohemia,  3  miles  NE.  of 
Teplitz,  was  the  scene  of  a  bloody  conliict  between 
tlie  French  and  the  allied  Prussians  and  Russians 
on  29th  and  .SOtli  August  1813.  The  French,  num- 
bering 40,000  men,  were  commanded  by  Ceneral 
Vandamme  ;  the  Ku.ssians,  during  the  tirst  day's 
condict,  were  15,000  strong,  and  were  commanded 
by  General  Ostermann.  During  the  night  the 
latter  were  heavily  reinforced,  and  on  the  second 
day  ISarday  de  Tolly  assumed  the  comman<l.  The 
result  w;is  the  complete  wreck  of  the  French  army, 
which  lost  in  these  two  days  little  sliort  of  20,000 
men  ;  Vandamme  capitulated  with  10,000  men. 

Kiiltiir-kaiiipt'.    See  Cermaxy. 

Klim.  next  to  Meshed  the  nu)st  sacred  city  of 
Persia,  is  a  straggling,  half-ruined,  uninviting 
town  on  the  commercial  road  between  Ispahan  and 
Teheran.  Its  many  shrines  and  tombs  dedicated 
to  Mohammedan  (Shiite)  s.aints,  especially  the 
reputed  tomb  of  Fatima,  the  daughter  or  sister  of 
the  great  imam  Riza,  annu.ally  attract  several 
thousands  of  pilgrims.     Pop.  20,(J00. 

Kliniailioto',  a  town  on  the  west  coast  of  the 
islaml  ol  Kiu  siu,  Japan.      Pop.  (1895)  69,828. 

kiiiiiaiiia.    See  Cumania. 

Klllliailll.  a  district  in  the  Northwest  Pro- 
vinces ol  India,  with  an  area  of  70OO  si|.  m.  It  lies 
chielly  on  the  south  slope  of  the  Himalayas,  anil 
comprises  a  number  of  summits  rising  to  over 
20,00f)  feet.  At  their  foot  a  great  waterless  forest, 
10  to  15  miles  in  breadth,  lills  the  country  with 
wild  jungle,  except  where  clearings  have  been  made 
by  the  liilltribe.s.  Mines  of  iron,  copjx^r,  and  lead 
exist,  but  few  have  yet  been  worked  at  all.  There 
are  numerous  important  tea-gardens  in  the  district. 


Almora(q.v.)  is  the  administrative   headquarters. 
Pop.  ( 1891 )  563,181,  nearly  all  Hindus. 

kllllliss.     See  KoUMl.ss. 

kiiniiiiel.    See  Liqueur. 

klllll-qiiat.     See  Oranim;. 

klllldllZ.  a  river  and  state  of  Afghan  Turkestan. 
See  Afcuanistan. 

klllier.sdorr,  a  village  in  Prussia,  4  miles  E. 
of  Frankfort-onthe-Oder,  was  the  scene  of  one 
of  the  most  remarkable  battles  of  the  Seven  Years' 
War,  fought  on  12th  August  1759,  in  which  Frede- 
rick the  Great  with  48,000  men,  after  gaining  a 
half  victory,  was  completely  defeated  by  the  allied 
Russians  and  Austrians,  78,000  men  strong.  The 
Prussian  loss  was  18,500  men,  with  almost  all  their 
artillerv  and  baggage,  while  their  opponents  lost 
16,000  inen. 

klinglir,  a  town  in  Kussia,  50  miles  SSE.  from 
Perm,  'carries  on  tanning,  boot-making,  and 
tallow-boiling.     Pop.  (1885)  11,882. 

klllliglllldc  St,  daughter  of  Count  Siegfried 
of  Luxemburg,  and  wife  of  Uuke  Henry  of  Bavaria, 
who  was  crowned  king  of  the  tiermans  in  1002,  and 
emperor  in  1014.  According  to  legend,  she  vindi- 
cated her  chastity  by  walking  barefoot  over  hot 
ploughshares.  After  her  husband's  death  in  1024 
she  retired  into  the  convent  of  Kaufungen,  near 
Ca.ssel,  which  she  had  founded,  .and  here  she  died, 
3d  March  1030.  Pope  Innocent  IIL  canonised  her 
in  1200. 

kupfcrsclliefer,  one  of  the  series  of  strata 
whicli  make  up  the  'Dyas'type  of  the  Permian 
System  ( ([.  v. )  as  it  is  developed  in  Germany.  The 
bed  consists  of  black  bituminous  shale,  about  2 
feet  thick,  abuiulantly  charged  with  well-preserved 
remains  of  various  tish,  coniferous  leaves,  fruits, 
i&c.  The  organic  remains  are  abundantly  coated 
and  even  re])laced  by  copper  ore  ( hence  the  name 
of  the  bed ),  which  has  been  extensively  worked 
along  the  Hanks  of  the  Harz. 

kura,  a  river  of  the  Caucasus  (q.v.). 

kliraill.  a  river  rising  in  Afghanistan  near 
the  northern  end  of  the  western  Suliman  range, 
and  Howing  through  British  territory  into  the 
Indus  near  Isakhel.  Its  valley  affords  a  famotis 
pass  into  Afghanistan. 

klirdistail'  ('the  Country  of  the  Kurds'),  an 
extensive  geographical,  though  iu)t  jiolitical,  region 
of  Asia,  for  tlie  most  part  included  within  a  line 
drawn  from  Sivas  in  Asia  Minor  by  way  of  Diar- 
bekr,  Sulimanieh,  Kermansbah  and  I'rmia  (in 
Persia),  Mount  Ararat,  and  Erzerdm,  bacdc  to  Sivas. 
Kurdistan  thus  lielongs  to  both  the  Turkish  and 
Persian  monjiicliies,  chietly  to  the  former,  and  I'on- 
tains  about  .50,000  sq.  m.,  with  a  population  esti- 
mated at  more  than  2;^  millions,  thus  ilislributed  — 
nearly  U  milliims  in  Turkey,  700,000  in  Pei-sia, 
45,000  in  Russian  Transcaucasia,  and  .about  .^OOO 
on  the  Afghano- Persian  frontier  ( trans|ilanted 
thitlier  by  Nadir  Shah).  The  country  embraces 
till-  mountain-chains  that  abut  n]ii>u  tbi^  .Armenian 
plateau  on  the  south,  and  upon  the  Iranian  jdateau 
on  the  east.  Thus  its  surface  ranges  fnnn  5000  up 
to  15,000  feet  in  altitude.  Between  the  mountain- 
chains,  the  summits  of  which  .are  generally  densely 
wooded,  lie  grassy  |)lateaus.  Numerous  rivers  force 
their  way  through  the  mountains  at  right  angles  to 
the  directions  ol  their  main  axes,  .-ind  go  to  feed  the 
Tigris  ami  the  Euphrates  ;  chief  of  these  tributaries 
.are  the  two  Zabs,  the  Batman  su,  ami  the  two 
branches  of  the  Euiihrates.  The  principal  pro- 
ducts of  the  soil  and  of  native  industry  are  wool, 
butter,  sheen,  gum,  gall-nuts,  hides,  raisins,  anil 
tob.acco,  which  .are  sold  out  of  Kurdish  districts 
to  the  annual  value  of  il  10,000.     The  bulk  of  the 


464 


KURFURST 


KUSI 


inliubitants  are  Kurds  ( the  ancient  Carduchi),  a  race 
partly  noniail  and  pastoral,  and  i)aitly  settled  and 
agricultural.  The  Kurds,  who  spt'ak  a  laii^'uage 
called  Kernianji,  derived  from  an  old  I'ersian  dialect, 
have  from  time  immemorial  stooil  on  the  same  level 
of  civilisation.  They  are  predatory  and  impatient 
of  political  subjection,  but  recognise  a  code  of  rude 
chivalrous  honour,  anil  are  hosj)itable  and  brave. 
They  live  under  chiefs  of  their  own,  hut  are  nomin- 
ally subject  to  the  Porte  and  the  Shall  of  Persia 
respectively.  Their  origin  is  traced  back  to  the 
Turanian  (iutu  or  Kurdu,  who  were  a  powerful 
people  in  Assyrian  limes.  After  the  fall  of  Nineveh 
they  gradually  became  niergeil  in  the  Medes  and 
were  Aryanised.  Kurdistan,  having  been  ruled  suc- 
cessively by  the  Persians,  Macedonians,  Partbians, 
Sassanians,  and  Romans,  is  exceedingly  rich  in 
antiquarian  remains,  most  of  which  are  still  un- 
examined. The  great  Saladin  was  of  Kurdish  de- 
scent. In  18S0  an  extensive  Kurdish  rising  again.st 
Persia  took  place,  apiiarently  in  the  hope  of  secur- 
ing independence.  The  inhabitants,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  certain  ])eeuliar  and  esoteric  sects,  and 
the  Nestorians  (ij.v. ),  |)rofess  Mohammedanism. 
They  have  cruelly  plundered  and  slaughtered  their 
Armenian  neighbours.  The  chief  towns  are  Bitlis, 
Van,  Urumia,  Diarbekr,  and  Kermansbah. 

See  Millingrn,  H'lW  Life  amomi  the  Koorda  (1X70); 
Lerch,  Forsehumjcn  icbcr  die  Kurdcn  (St  Petersburg, 
1857-58);  Jaba,  Recueil  de  Notices  el  Recita  Kourdcs 
(1860);  and  Jab.i's  Dictiomuiire  Kunk-Frani;aise,  with 
Justi's  valuable  preface  (  1879). 

Kurfurst.    See  Elector. 

Kiiria-lliiria    Islands,   a    group   of    li\e 

islands,  situated  21  miles  from  the  south-east  coast 
of  Arabia,  in  17' 30'  N.  lat.  and  5i>  10'  E.  long.: 
area,  21  miles ;  pop.  .34.  The  ancient  Insula 
Zenobii,  they  were  ceded  to  England  in  18.")4  by 
the  Imam  of  Muscat.  On  one  of  them  is  a  signal- 
ling station  of  the  Eastern  Telegraphs  Comiiany. 
(Juano  of  an  inferior  quality  is  obtained  from  them. 

Klirilcs.  a  sparsely-populated  group  of  islaiuls, 
nunjbering  twenty-six  in  all,  and  extending  like 
a  chain  from  the  southern  cape  of  Kaiucbalka  to 
the  eastern  extremity  of  Ye/o  in  daiian,  to  which 
empire  they  belong.  By  a  treaty  made  with  l!ussi;i 
in  1S75  the  Jajjanese  surrendered  claims  on  the 
southern  part  of  Saghalien,  and  received  in  ex- 
change the  more  northerly  jjortion  of  the  Kuriles. 
The  large.st  islands  of  the  group  ari'  Iturup  and 
Kunashiri,  frequently  visited  by  seal-hunters.  A 
migratory  race  of  |)it-ilwellers,  calling  themselves 
KurielsUy  Ainos,  and  numbering  about  sixly  souls, 
is  found  on  the  islands,  the  remnant  of  a  people 
which  formerly  iidiabited  Yezo  (see  Tniiisiicliuiis 
of  the  Asiatic  Hocicli/  of  Ja/iaii,  vol.  x.  p.  190). 
NVith  the  exception  of  these  pit-<lwellers  and  a  few 
Japanese  and  Aiiio  families  on  tlie  soutliern  isles, 
the  population  remains  in  this  misty  and  inhospit- 
alde  region  only  during  the  summer,  ius  long  a-s  the 
iishing  season  lasts. 

Ulirisclies  Hall',  a  fresh-water  lagoon  of  East 
I'russia,  extending  til  miles  south  from  Memel  ; 
width  in  the  south,  28  miles  ;  average  width,  14 
miles.  It  is  connected  with  the  Baltic  by  the 
'  Memel  Deeps,'  a  channel  about  .500  y.irds  wide 
and  20  feet  deep.  The  spit  of  sand-dunes,  oiu;  to 
two  miles  wide,  that  separates  it  from  the  Baltic, 
is  encroaching  on  the  hair  at  the  rate  of  eighteen 
feet  anuually. 

Kiirlaiitl.    See  CouKLANi). 

Klirrat'irce,  (Karachi),  the  capital  of  Sind  and 
of  K\irrachee  district,  and  the  chief  port  of  entry 
for  the  Punjab,  stands  at  the  northern  end  of  the 
great  Indus  delta,  and  close  to  the  frontier  of 
Beluchistan.  It  is  a  tenninus  of  the  Sind,  Punjab, 
and  Delhi  liailway,  and  is  1169  miles  by  rail  (about 


half  that  distance  direct)  SW.  of  Delhi.  Kurrachee 
has  an  extensive  harbour,  sheltered  by  a  lueak- 
water  and  a  long  reef.  >at  the  extremity  of  which  is 
a  lixed  light  120  feet  above  the  sea.  The  laiiding- 
]dacc  is  on  Kiamari  Island,  which  is  connected  willi 
the  town  by  the  Napier  mole,  3  miles  long.  The 
entire  cost  of  the  great  harbour  imi)rovements,  coui- 
jdeted  in  1873,  wa-s  £450,000;  and  there  is  now  a 
lowest  depth  over  the  bar  of  20  feet.  Kurrachee 
is  a  modern  town,  and  its  public  buildings  aiul 
churches  are  generally  uninteresting,  the  nujst 
attractive  being  the  Frere  municipal  ball  (with  a 
library  and  museum ),  named  after  Sir  liartle  Krere 
(q.v.),  of  whom  there  is  also  a  statue  here.  To  the 
east  .and  north  are  the  cantonments,  and,  close  by, 
a  public  garden  of  40  acres.  The  jdace  is  generally 
healthy,  and  not  so  hot  as  the  inland  districts 
of  Sind  ;  and  there  is  now  ,a  good  watersupi)ly. 
There  are  ironworks  and  several  large  cotton  presses 
in  the  town,  the  cotton  of  Sind  and  the  Punjab 
forming  an  iini)ortant  article  of  exjiort.  The  prin- 
ci])al  exports,  however,  are  wheat  and  oil-seeds. 
The  annual  trade  of  the  ]>ort  has  risen  to  aliove 
£7,000,000;  the  inland  tr.ade  extends  to  Afghan- 
istan and  lielucbistan.  Po]).  ( 1881 )  73,.5tj0  ;  (1801 ) 
10."), lO'J,  with  the  cantonnu'uts. — Kurrachee  district 
has  an  area  of  14,1  lo  sq.  m.  ;  pop.  500,880,  mostly 
Mohamnu'dans.  See  Baillie,  Kurrachee,  Fast, 
Present,  and  Fidurc  (1890). 

Klll'.sk.  thecbief  town  of  the  Kussi.an  government 
of  Kursk,  312  miles  by  rail  S.  by  W.  of  Moscow 
and  274  NNE.  of  Kietl.  The  chief  industry  is 
tanning;  but  soap,  tobacco,  candles,  and  spirits  are 
also  manufactured.  Kursk  is  celebrated  for  its 
orchards,  and  has  an  observatory.  Pop.  (1871) 
31,754;  (1897)  02,908.  Near  the  town  a  fair  is 
held  after  Easter,  when  more  than  £1.250,000 
worth  of  connnodities  are  disposed  of,  the  chief 
being  cotton,  silk,  and  woollen  fabrics,  sug.'ir,  tea, 
leather,  horses,  &c. — The  ejorernmcnt  of  Kursk,  in 
the  middle  of  south  Russia,  contains  17,931  s(|.  ni., 
three-fourths  fertile  arable  land  (black  eartli)- 
Pop.  (1897)  2,394,893.  The  i)rovince  is  watered  by 
luimerous  feeders  of  the  Dnieper  and  the  Don. 

Kurtz,  JiiiiANN  HElNliini,  tlu'ologian,wasb(un 
at  Montjoie,  near  Aix  la-Chapelle.  Kitli  Decemlier 
1809,  and  was  lirst  (U^stined  for  a  commercial  career, 
but  early  devoteil  himself  to  the  study  of  theology 
at  Halle  and  P.oun,  an<l  became  in  1835  religious 
instructor  at  the  gymn.asium  of  Alilau,  in  1850 
ordinary  professor  of  Church  History  (in  18.59  of 
Exegesis)  at  Dorpat.  He  retired  in  IK70,  and  lived 
at  Marburg  till  his  death,  2(jtli  Ajiril  1890. 

His  writings  are  numerous,  ami  scmie.  owing  to  their 
usefulness,  have  been  exceedingly  popular,  as  the  LcliHmch 
der  lieilinen  (Je.ichichte  (1843;  Kitli  ed.  1884),  Clirisll. 
Itiliaiwikelire  (1844;  13tli  ed.  ],S83),  JliUiselie  Geschiclile 
mit  Frlatdcrunijen  ( 1847  ;  iHtli  ed.  1882 ),  ami  AbriKx  der 
A'i>r/(tw/tS(7i!o/i<c  (1852  ;  11th  ed.  188(1).  His  works  ui 
the  department  of  biblical  criticism  include  iJas  Mosaische 
(>/)/«■  (1842),  mUl  u7hI  A.itronomie  (1842),  Zii'e  Einh<it 
der  (Icnesis  (1840),  Zi'r  Thmloiiic  der  J'mlmcn  (18(J5), 
and  especially  G'esehichtc  des  Allen  Jliindcs  (1848-55) 
and  Frkldruwj  des  Briefs  «»  die  Hebriier  (1809). 

His  most  iniportant  book.s,  however,  are  tliose  devoted 
to  church  history,  bis  Hnmlhiicli  der  allr/emeincn  Kirchen- 
iiesrliiehte  (18iJ3-.5(J),  and  the  invaluable  manual,  Lehrbuch 
drr  Kircliciir/isclnetite  fiir  titndiiniid'  (18411;  9th  ed. 
1885).     Of  tiie  last  there  are  three  Englisli  translation.s. 

lilirillliail,  a  niissicui-station  of  the  London 
Missionarv  Societv  in  Bechuanaland,  about  130 
miles  NW.  from  '  Kindierlev.  It  was  for  many 
years  the  scene  of  the  labours  of  Dr  Mollat,  and 
there  Livingstone  also  labourcil. 

Hiisi,  a  consider.able  tributary  of  the  Ganges, 
ri.ses  in  the  Nepal  Himalayas,  totbe  north-west  of 
Mount  Everest,  and  Hows  generally  south,  in  a 
rapiil  stream,  with  a  great  boily  of  water,  to  the 


KUSKOQUIM 


KYTHUL 


465 


main  river.  Its  length  is  about  3'25  miles,  and  it  is 
navigable,  although  with  dirticulty,  by  boats  of  ten 
tons,  to  the  Xejjal  frontier.  Its  beil  is  constantly 
shifting  to  tlie  westward,  and  its  Hoods  have  turned 
wide  tracts  into  sand  and  jungle. 

Klis  kuqililll.    See  Al.\sk.\. 

Kllstl'Ildji.  or  more  properly  since  1878  Con- 
ST.\NZ.\,  a  seaiiort  in  the  Dobrudja,  Koninania, 
stands  on  the  Black  Sea,  at  the  end  of  Trajan's 
wall  and  of  the  railway  to  Tchernavoda  on  the 
Danube.  The  harbour  is  e.xposed  ;  but  corn,  wool, 
cattle,  and  hides  are  exported.  Pop.  5000.  Not 
far  distant  from  the  town  was  Tomi,  the  place  of 
Ovid's  banishment. 

Kiist«'iilaii(l.    See  GoRZ. 

Kiistrill.  a  town  of  Prussia  and  a  fortress  of 
the  lirst  rank,  is  situated  in  the  midst  of  extensive 
marshes  at  the  oonlluence  of  the  AVarthe  with  the 
Oder,  51  miles  E.  of  Berlin  by  lail.  It  was  first 
fortified  in  1535-43,  and  was  held  by  the  French 
from  1806  to  1814.  Klistrin  is  also  an  important 
railway  centre.     Pop.  (1885)  15,105. 

Klltahia.  or  KiT-W.a.  (the  ancient  Cutiieiuu), 
:i  town  of  Asiatic  Turkey,  in  Anatolia,  stands  70 
miles  .SE.  of  Brusa,  at  a  point  where  great  com- 
mercial highways  cross.  Its  inhabitants,  variously 
estimated  at  30,000  to  60,000,  cultivate  opiuni, 
tobacco,  corn,  and  vegetables,  and  export  wool, 
mohair,  and  opium. 

Klltais.     See  Transcaicasi.^. 

lilltteilberST*  '■'■  mining-town  of  Bohemia,  185 
miles  by  rail  NXW.  of  Vienna.  Its  silver-mines 
were  worked  at  least  as  early  as  the  13th  century, 
and  the  lirst  silver  grosrhen  were  struck  here  about 
1300.  The  town  contains  a  number  of  fine  old 
buildings,  and  has  miscellaneous  manufactures. 
Close  by  is  an  imperial  tobacco  factory,  with  2000 
hands.  '  Pop.  (1890)  13,563. 

Kutll'soff.  Michael  Ilarioxovich,  Prince  of 
Smolensk,  a  Russian  field-marshal,  was  born  16th 
September  1745,  entered  the  Russian  army  at  the 
age  of  sixteen,  and  in  1784  became  major-general. 
He  distinguished  himself  in  the  Turkish  war,  and 
was  ai)pointed  in  1805  to  the  command  of  the  first 
army  corps  against  the  French.  In  1.S12,  notwith- 
standing his  advanced  age,  as  conimaiider-in-chief, 
he  fought  Napoleon  obstinately  at  Borodino  (i|.v.), 
and  obtained  a  great  victory  over  Da\oiit  aii<l 
Nev  at  Smolensk.  Tolstoi  calls  him  'the  genius 
of  llussia  and  of  the  war.'  He  died  28th  .\pril 
1813. 

K^villl.     See  Gaboon. 

K.vailisillK*  a  method  of  jireserving  ships  from 
Dry  Kot  ((i.v.),  by  injecting  into  the  pores  of  the 
wood  a  solution  of  corrosive  sublimate,  was  in- 
vented by  John  H.  Kyan  (born  at  Dulilin,  1774; 
died  in  New  York,  1850). 

Kyauite.    See  Cy.vnite. 

K>'d.  Tllo.MA.s,  dramatist,  born  in  the  autumn 
of  155s,  seems  to  have  been  educated  at  Merchant 
Taylors'  School,  and  was  most  likely  brought  up  as 
a  scrivener  under  his  father.  His  bloody  and  bom- 
bastic tragedies  of  the  Titus  Andruiiicus ovt\e.v  early 
brought  him  reputation.  Tlie.se  were  the  two 
plays  having  fm-  their  hero  Jeroiiimo,  marshal  of 
iipain.  The  lirst,  dealing  with  the  hero's  earlier 
history,  was  not  published  till  1605  ;  the  seconil 
was  licen.seil  in  1592  lus  The  Spunish  Tnu/cdy,  but 
the  earliest  extant  copy  is  dated  1594.  The  pro- 
duction of  both  may  perhajis  be  dated  lietween 
1584  anil  1589.  Ivyd  published,  in  1.594,  a  tedious 
tragedy  on  Pompey's  daughter  Cornelia,  translated 
290 


from  the  French,  almost  certainly  ])ioduccd  The 
Rare  Triumphs  of  Love  and  Fort  line  (1582)  and 
Soli/niaii  and  Pemcda  ( 1592),  and  has  been  credited 
with  a  greater  or  less  share  in  other  plays.  He 
was  a  close  friend  of  Marlowe,  shared  the  odium  of 
his  irreligious  opinions,  and  is  supposed  to  have 
died  in  poverty  in  1595.  His  name  now  survives 
only  ill  .Jonson's  'sporting  Kyd  and  Marlowe's 
miglity  line.'     F.  S.  Boas  edited  him  in  1901. 

Kjit",  the  central  district  of  Ayrshire  (q.v.). 

K>  dtu,  or  Ml.-VKO,  for  over  a  thousand  years  the 
ca|iital  of  Japan  (q.v.),  is  situated  on  a  Hat  jilain 
about  26  miles  inland  from  Ozaka.  A  high  range 
of  hills  to  the  east  separates  this  plain  from  Lake 
Biwa,  and  on  these  some  of  the  finest  temples  con- 
nected with  the  city  are  built.  The  city  is  rect- 
angular in  form,  the  longer  streets  running  north 
and  south,  parallel  to  the  Kamo  River,  w  liicli  tlows 
along  the  base  of  the  ridge.  At  the  northern  end 
are  situated,  in  an  enclosure,  the  plain  wooden 
buildings  where  the  emperors  of  Jajian  dwelt  so 
long  in  seclusion.  The  Honganji  temples  of  the 
Monto  sect  of  Buddhists,  fine  structures  of  their 
kind  and  the  centre  of  the  Buddhist  faith  in  Japan, 
rise  at  the  southern  end  of  the  city.  The  streets, 
though  narrow,  are  clean  and  attractive,  and  the 
whole  city  has  an  air  of  relinement.  The 
singing-girls  of  Kyoto  are  noted  for  their  graceful 
dances.  The  pottery,  porcelain,  crajies,  velvets, 
and  Virocades  of  Kyoto  are  highly  esteemed  ;  its 
embroideries,  enamels,  and  inlaid  bronze-work,  are 
marvels  of  skilful  handicraft.     Pop.  ( 1895)  318,280. 

Ky'rie  Elei'son  (Gr.  KuHc  dccson,  'Lord, 
lia\e" mercy  '),  a  form  of  prayer  which  occurs  in  all 
the  ancient  Greek  liturgies,  and  is  retained  in  the 
Roman  Catholic  nia-ss.  It  follows  immediately 
after  the  introit,  the  priest  and  the  server  saying 
alternately  '  Kyrie  eleison  '  thrice,  '  Cliriste  eleison  ' 
thrice,  and  again  '  Kyrie  eleison  '  thrice;  the  triplets 
are  understood  to  be  addressed  to  the  three  Persons 
of  the  Trinity.  The  Greek  words  have  always  lieen 
left  untranslated  in  the  Latin  liturgy.  In  their 
translated  form  they  are  known  to  Anglican  chnrcli- 
nien  as  the  'lesser  litany,'  and  occur  in  the  order 
for  morning  and  evening  prayer,  and  also  in  the 
Litany  ;  processional  litanies  in  the  early  church 
began  with  the  phrase,  and  sometimes  included  as 
many  as  a  hundred  repetitions.  The  First  Prayer- 
book  of  Edward  VI.  (1549)  retained  the  'lesser 
litany  '  after  the  introit ;  but  in  1552  it  was  em- 
bodied in  the  short  petition  that  follows  each  of 
the  commandments,  which  were  then  inserted  in 
the  communion  office. 

Kyrh',  John  (1637-1724),  philanthropist,  was 
styled  the  ilan  of  Ross  by  Pope,  having  resided  for 
the  greater  part  of  his  life  in  the  small  town  of  Ross, 
Herefordshire.  Hespenthistimeand  forluiieinliuild- 
ing  churches  and  hospitals,  on  an  income  amount- 
ing to  £600  a  year.  Pope  celebrated  his  praises  in 
his  third  Moral  Epistle,  and  Warlon  said  that  lie 
deserved  to  be  celebrated  beyond  any  of  the  heroes 
of  Pindar.  The  Kyrie  Society  is  a  modern  asso- 
ciation named  after  him,  and  was  started  by  Misses 
Miranda  and  Octavia  Hill  in  1875,  and  founded  in 
1877  by  Prince  Leopold  and  others.  The  society 
seeks  to  bring  the  infiuences  of  natural  and  artistic 
beauty  home  to  the  lives  of  the  People  by  means 
of  the  decoration  of  workmen's  clubs,  of  hospital 
warils,  and  of  dwelling-houses;  by  the  encimiagc 
ment  of  window-gardening  ;  providing  concerts  for 
the  people  :  and  by  .securing  open  spaces,  both  in 
town  and  country,  to  be  laiil  out  as  public  gardens. 
See  an  article  in  Good  Words,  1881. 

Kythlll.     See  Kaith.^L. 


L 


the  twelfth  letter  in  our  alpha- 
bet, is  descended  from  the  Phoe- 
nician character  called  the  '  ox- 
goad,"  lamed,  whence  the  Greek 
name  lambda  was  derived.  The 
letter  lamed  was  probahly  a 
do^jraded  form  of  the  Hiero- 
glyphic picture  of  a  recumbent 
lioness,  from  which  the  hind- 
quarters have  disappeared,  leaving  two  straight 
lines,  one  of  which  represented  the  outstreteheil 
fore-paws  and  the  other  the  chest  (see  Alphabet). 
The  early  Greek  form  J,  passed  o\er  to  Italy,  wliere 
it  became  L.  From  [,,  through  the  intermediate 
stage  I-,  the  Greeks  got  the  form  |\  (which  was 
transmitted  to  the  Runes),  and  this  finally 
became  A  in  the  Greek  capitals  and  \  in  the  minus- 
cules. Our  own  minuscule  form  1,  in  which  the 
horizontal  bar  is  evanescent,  was  derived  from  the 
old  Roman  cursive.  The  Roman  numeral  for  oO 
was  L,  but  this  is  not  the  letter  of  the  same  form, 
liut  was  obtained  from  the  western  form  of  the 
Greek  letter  chi,  the  successive  stages  being  X,  Y> 
■Xr-  ii  and  finally  L- 

The  letter  I  is  usually  termed  a  'liquid,'  but  is 
more  correctly  designated  as  a  'front  palatal.'  It 
has  a  great  affinity  with  r,  the  positions  of  the 
vocal  organs  for  forming  /  and  r  being  nearly  tlie 
same.  In  sounding  /•  the  breath  escajies  over  the 
tip  of  the  tongue,  while  for  /  the  tip  of  the  tongue 
touches  the  front  palate  or  the  base  of  the  gums, 
the  l>reath  escaping  over  the  two  sides  of  the 
tongue,  and  the  vibrations  of  the  soft  lateral  edges 
producing  slight  oscillations  in  the  force  of  the 
breath,  whereas  in  the  case  of  r  a  stronger  trill  is 
cause<l  by  the  vibration  of  the  tip  of  the  tongue. 
In  the  Spanish  //,  the  Italian  (jli,  and  in  the 
English  word  gloni,  the  contact  with  the  palate  is 
made  by  the  middle  of  the  tongue  instead  of  by  the 
tip. 

Owing  to  the  atlinity  between  I  and  r  they  are 
frequently  interchanged.  In  some  languages  the 
same  sign  was  used  for  both  sounds,  in  others  either 
/  or  r  is  wanting.  The  old  Egyijtians  seem  to  have 
made  no  distinction  between  the  two;  in  (dd  Pali 
the  signs  were  interchanged  ;  the  Japanese  sign  for 
r  was  borrowed  from  a  character  which  represented 
I  in  Chinese  ;  while  the  Polynesians  substitute  / 
for  ;■  in  foreign  words.  In  English  a  Latin  /•  has 
become  I  in  such  words  as  plum  [pruuun),  turtle 
(turtur),  j>ur/)le  (purpura),  marlili:  (marinor),  and 
pilgrim  (pcrrrjriiius).  We  have  the  converse 
change  in  cha/iter  from  i-apituliun,  and  larrudcr 
from  lavendula,  while  cutuiiel  is  now  pronounced 
curnel. 

The  letters  d  and  ;/  have  also  an  allinity  with  /. 
We  have  the  change  of  d  to  /  in  Inrruma  for 
dacrumfi,  liiujua  for  diiif/ua,  lapilhis  from  lajiidu- 
lus,  sella  from  sediila,  allufntor  from  ailloipidr.  In 
the  numerals  eteren  and  tirelrc  the  I  is  also 
believed  to  rejirescnt  a  primitive  f/.  We  finil  the 
change  of  «  to  I  in  asellus  for  asiiiulus,  collci/iitui 
for  conlei/ium,  and  liologiia  from  Bononia. 

In  the  spelling  of  several  English  words  the 
letter  /  has  fallen  out,  as  in  such  and  caeh,  from 
the  old  English  swilc  and  (elc.     Though  pre.served 


in  the  spelling,  it  is  not  heard  in  the  words  alms, 
palm,  calm,  yelk,  half,  would,  and  should.  A  linal 
/  is  often  nnite  in  the  Scotch  dialect,  as  in  «'  for 
all,  fa'  tor  fall,  fu'  ior  full.  In  modern  French  it 
sometimes  fades  to  ((,  as  in  au.c  for  a  Ics,  du  for 
de  le,  c/teraux  for  chcrals.  In  Italian  it  may 
become  /,  as  in  piano  from  planus.  On  the  other 
hand,  /  is  intrusive  in  u-indlass  from  <). E.  u'inda.is, 
and  in  nn/rtle  from  m>/rtus,  principle  from  princi- 
jiiuin,  and  participle  from  particijiium.  From  a 
false  analogy  with  would  and  shoulil,  where  the  /, 
derived  from  will  and  shall,  is  radical,  it  has  crept 
into  the  spelling,  though  not  into  the  pronuncia- 
tion, of  could,  which  is  the  past  tense  of  can.  The 
M. E.  form  coude  luis  no  /,  while  the  Dutch  hondc 
and  the  German  honnte  have  preserved  the  n  which 
belongs  to  the  root. 

Lailgor*  in  South  African  campaigning,  is  a 
camp  made  by  a  ring  of  ox -wagons  set  close 
together,  the  spaces  beneath  being  filled  up  «ith 
the  baggage  of  the  company. 

Laalaild.  or  Ldll.vnd,  a  Danish  island  in  the 
Baltic,  at  the  southern  entrance  to  the  Great  Belt, 
36  miles  long  by  9  to  15  broad,  with  an  area  of 
445  s(i.  m.,  and  a  pop.  (IStlO)  of  (i7,913.  The 
surface  is  remarkably  flat,  and  the  soil  exceedingly 
fruitful.  Forests  of  beech  and  oak  cover  ujivvards 
of  50  sq.  m.  The  capital  is  iMariho  (pop.  '2403); 
the  largest  town,  Nakskov  (pop.  5'278),  with  a 
good  harbour  and  considerable  trade. 

Lab'ariini.  the  famous  standard  of  the  Roman 
emperor  Constantine,  designed  to  commemorate 
the  miraculous  vision  of  the  cross  in  the  sky,  which 
is  said  to  have  a|ipeared  to  him  on  his  way  to 
attack  Maxentius,  and  to  have  lieen  the  moving 
cause  of  his  conversion  to  Christianity.  It  was  a 
long  pike  or  lance,  with  a  short  transverse  bar  of 
wood  attached  near  its  extremity,  so  as  to  form 
something  like  a  cross.  On  the  jioint  of  the  lance 
was  a  golden  crown  sparkling  with  gems,  anil  in 
its  centre  the  mysterious  monogram  of  the  cross 
and  the  initial  letters  of  the  name  of  Christ,  the 
letters  X  and  P— Gieek  for  CH  and  R— being 
combined  (see  CROSS,  Vol.  III.  p.  582).  From 
the  crossbeam  depended  a  squaie  purple  banner, 
and  surrouniled  by  a  rich  border  of  gold  eni- 
broiderv.  The  cross  was  substituted  for  the 
eagle,  formerly  perchetl  on  the  Roman  standards, 
and  there  were  sometimes  otlier  emblems  of  the 
Saviour.  Between  the  crown  and  the  cross  were 
heads  of  the  em|)eror  and  his  family,  and  some- 
times a  figure  of  Chi  i>t  woven  in  gold.  The  origin 
of  the  word  is  still  uncertain,  'in  spite,'  says 
Gibbon,  'of  the  etbirts  of  the  critics,  who  have 
inefl'ectually  tortiirc.i  the  Latin,  Greek,  Spanish, 
Celtic,  Teutonic,  Illyric,  Armenian,  I'i.c.  (and,  he 
nught  have  ailded,  Basque]  in  search  of  an  ety- 
mology. ' 

LalM'l.    See  Her.vldry,  and  C.\dkncy. 

Lahiata-  {Lamiacc(c  of  Lindley),  a  natural 
order  of  exogenous  plants,  containing  almost  '2500 
known  sjiecies,  mostly  natives  of  temperat<M-limates. 
They  are  herbaceous,  or  more  rarely  half  shnildiy, 
and  have  4cornered  stems  .-uid  o|ipo>ile  branches; 
also  opposite  leaves,  without  stipules,  abounding 


LABICHE 


LABOUR 


467 


in  receptacles  of  volatile  oil.  The  tloweis  are  often 
in  cymes  or  heads,  or  in  wliorls,  or  sometimes  soli- 
tary. .\  i;eneral  characteristic  of  thi.s  order  is  an 
aromatic  frajiraiice,  which  in  many  species  is  very 
agreeable,  and  makes  them  favourites  in  our 
gardens ;  but  some  are  weeds  with  an  unpleasant 
oilour.  Many  are  natives  of  liritain.  Some  are 
useil  in  medicine,  and  others  in  cuokery  for  flavour- 
ing. >[int.  Marjoram,  Rosemary,  Lavender,  Sage, 
Basil,  Savory,  fliyme,  Horehound,  Halm,  Pat- 
chouli, Germander,  and  Dead  Nettle  are  examples 
of  this  order. 

Labiohe,  Eugene  Marin,  a  French  dramatist, 
was  born  at  Paris,  oth  May  IHl.'j,  studied  at  the 
College  Bourbon,  and  ne.Kt  travelled  in  Italy.  His 
first  dramatic  piece  was  the  popular  farce  M.  de 
Coijllin  { 1838 ),  whioli  was  followed  during  the  ne.\t 
forty  years  by  a  long  series  of  over  a  hundred 
comedies,  farces,  and  vaudevilles.  These  were 
all  marked  by  rare  mastery  of  stage  technique 
despite  the  usual  droll  improbability  of  the  plots, 
intimate  knowledge  of  human  nature,  crLsp  and 
sparkling  dialogue,  and  a  lambent  humour  that 
is  often  caustic  but  never  unkindly.  He  collabor- 
ated at  one  time  or  another  with  Gondinet, 
Delacour,  Legouve,  Augier,  and  other  dranuatists. 
His  Frisette  (18-t(j)  was  the  original  of  Morton's 
'  Bo.^  and  Co.\.'  Among  the  most  important  of 
his  pieces  are  Le  C/iapeaa  de  PailU  d'ltalie  ( 1851 ) ; 
L' Affaire  de  la  Rue  de  Lourcine  ( 1857) ;  Le  Voyai/e 
de  M.  Perrichon  ( 1860 ) ;  Les  Fetitcs  Oiseaiix  ( 186.'5) ; 
Celiiitare  le  BieiiAime  ( 1863 ) :  La  Ccttjnoite  ( 1864 ) ; 
Le  p/us  Ilcureux  des  I'rois  { 1870) :  Doit-on  le  dire 
(1873);  Les  Trade  Millions  de  Gladiator  (1875); 
Le  Prix  Martin  ( 1876) ;  La  CU  ( 1877 ).  A  success- 
ful collection  of  bis  pieces  apjjeared  under  the  title 
Theatre  de  Labiche  (10  vols.  1879),  with  an  intro- 
duction by  Augier.  Labiche  wiis  elected  to  the 
Academy  in  November  1880,  and  died  23d  January 
1888. 

Lablaclie,  Luigi,  operatic  singer,  was  born  in 
Najdes  on  6th  December  1794  :  his  fiither  w.is  a 
Frenchman,  who  had  tied  from  Paris  tluring  the 
horrors  of  the  Revolution,  his  mother  an  Irish- 
woman. His  fii-st  eng.agement  as  a  singer  was  at 
the  San  Carlino  Theatre  at  Naples,  in  1812.  He 
afterwards  sang  with  much  success  at  Palermo 
(until  1820),  at  Milan,  Rome,  Turin,  and  Vienna; 
in  the  la.st-named  city  a  medal  was  struck  in  his 
liimcmr.  From  18.30  to  18.52  he  sang  nearly  every 
winter  at  Paris,  and  annually  maile  visits  to 
London,  St  Petersliurg,  ami  various  cities  in 
Germany.  In  London  lie  was  perhaps  a  greater 
favourite  than  even  the  wonderful  Grisi.  Lablache 
died  at  Naples  on  23d  January  1S58.  His  voice,  a 
deep  bass,  has  hardly  ever  lieen  eciualled  either  in 
volume  or  quality ;  and  his  acting,  particularly  in 
the  characters  of  Figaro,  L>on  I'.artolo,  Don  Pius- 
quale,  Leporello,  &c. ,  was  almost  as  remarkaljle 
as  his  singing.  He  gave  instruction  in  singing  to 
Queen  \'ictoria. 

Lnhoulayc,   EDnuARD   Rene    de,  a  distin- 

guisiied  French  jurist,  w.i-s  born  in  Paris  18th 
January  1811,  became  an  advocate,  and  in  1849 
was  a|>pointed  profes.sor  of  Cinnparative  Jurispru- 
dence in  the  College  de  France.  His  most  im- 
))ortant  works  are  on  French  law,  and  a  llixluirr. 
Politi'/iie  des  fyatsl'nis,  JOM-ITSO  (3  vols.  1855- 
66;  6tli  ed.  1876).  He  also  edited  the  Ileriie  Jlis- 
toriqiie  (I8.J.7-69),  ami  its  successoi-s,  the  lievtie  de 
Lttjtslation  (1870-76)  ami  Nonrelle  Jieriie  His- 
iori'iiie  (from  1877).  LalKHilaye  attJiined  some 
distinction  as  an  essayist  and  story-writer ;  some 
of  his  tales,  including  the  liiimoroiis  Paris  en 
Am^ririuK,  h.'ive  been  translated  into  English.  He 
took  up  a  consistently  modeiale  position  in  p(diliis. 
and  inconsequence  gained  the  enmity  of  extremists 


on  both  side.s.  He  w;us  elected  to  the  National 
Assembly  in  1871,  and  in  1876  became  a  life  senator. 
He  died  iltli  May  1883. 

Labour,  in  Pcditical  Economy,  may  be  delineil 
as  eti'ort  for  the  satisfying  of  human  needs.  It  is  on<! 
of  the  three  leading  factors  in  production,  the  other 
two  being  land  (or  natural  objects)  and  capital; 
and  it  is  more  fumlaiiiental  than  capital,  which 
originally  is  the  result  of  labour.  In  the  vast  circle 
of  industry  labour  has  a  great  variety  of  functions, 
which  may  be  tlius  chissified  :  ( 1 )  Producing  of 
raw  m.aterials,  as  in  mining  and  agriculture;  (2) 
manufacturing  in  the  widest  sense  of  the  word,  or 
transformation  of  raw  materials  into  objects  service- 
able to  man;  (3)  distribution,  or  transference  of 
useful  objects  from  one  place  to  another,  as  deter- 
mined by  human  needs;  (4)  personal  services 
rendered  by  physicians,  teachers,  &c. 

A  distinction  insisted  on  by  many  economists  is 
that  into  productive  and  unproductive  labour. 
The  former  consists  of  those  kinds  of  exertion 
which  produce  utilities  embodied  in  natural  objects. 
Unproductive  labour,  like  that  of  the  musician, 
while  both  useful  and  honourable,  does  not  add  to 
the  material  wealth  of  the  community.  Tlnnigh  it 
has  the  appearance  of  undervaluing  some  of  the 
highest  services  that  can  be  rendereil  to  the  com- 
munity, the  distinction  has  a  general  validity. 
Labour  directly  employetl  in  rendering  natural 
objects  serviceable  to  man  may  in  the  language  ol 
political  economy  be  distinctively  called  productive. 
Hut  in  order  to  obvi.ite  a  too  narrow  and  iilistract 
view  of  the  subject  it  Is  hardly  necessary  to  point 
out  that  the  labour  of  the  phj'sician  or  teacher  may 
be  indirectly  most  productive,  in.asmuch  as  it  in- 
creases the  efliciency  of  the  workman  by  promoting 
his  health  and  intelligence.  And  apart  from  the 
special  services  rendered  by  great  teachers  and 
artists,  and  which  cannot  be  mea.sured  in  material 
wealth,  they  raise  the  general  level  of  production, 
and  even  of  material  civilisation,  by  inspiring  men 
w  itii  liner  tastes  and  higher  needs.  For  the  wants 
to  which  productive  labour  ministers  vary  at 
diirerent  stages  of  social  development,  and  grow 
more  refined  as  the  human  race  advances. 

The  social  and  legal  forms  in  which  labour  has 
appeared  have  also  varied  with  the  |irogress  of 
civilisation.  In  the  early  stages  the  labour  of  the 
chase,  fishing,  &c.  was  performed  by  the  men, 
while  the  drudgery  devolved  on  the  women  and 
slaves.  But  at  that  stage  few  slaves  existed.  It 
was  not  till  the  agricultural  stage  was  reached  that 
coni|ueriiig  tribes  spared  the  conqiiere<l  in  order  to 
utilise  their  services  as  workers.  Ancient  civilisa- 
tion was  ba.sed  almost  entirely  on  compulsory 
labour.  The  pyramids  and  other  great  works  of 
Egy|)t  and  Babylonia  were  possible  only  because 
governments  could  command  forced  labour  on  a 
colossal  scale.  The  more  highly  develojied  societies 
of  (ireece  and  Rome  rested  on  the  same  basis. 

It  is  a  disputed  c|uestioii  bow  far  free  labour  ex- 
isted in  the  early  Teutonic  settlements  of  England 
and  other  countries.  The  question  is  evidently  one 
of  degree,  for  the  Germans  possessed  slaves  long 
bef(ue  the  great  emigrations  heg.an,  and  even  in 
Enjrland  they  did  not  entirely  exterminate  the 
natives.  The  medieval  organis.-ition  of  society, 
where  definitely  constituted,  rested  on  serfdom — 
i.e.  the  mass  of  the  workers  were  att;iched  to  the 
soil,  and  rendereil  fixed  services  in  labour,  in  kind, 
anil  latterly  in  money.  While  the  condition  of 
serfdom  greatly  varied,  there  can  be  no  doubt  that 
its  tendency  was  to  de|iress  the  free  and  raise  the 
servile  cultivators  to  something  like  a  common 
level.  The  free  workers  of  the  towns  organised 
tliem.selves  in  Guilds  (q.v.).  In  the  coui-se  of  the 
14tli  century  serfdom  began  to  pass  away  in  Eng- 
land.     Its  disappearance  was  followed   oy  euaut- 


468 


LABOUR    DAY 


LABRADOR 


nients  for  tlie  regulation  of  labour  in  the  interest  of 
the  niliiii;  classes.  The  lirst,  anil  one  of  the  greatest, 
I'xaniiiles  of  this  was  the  Statute  tif  Lahuiircrs  oei-a- 
sioneil  hv  the  scarcity  of  labour  eonse<iuent  on  the 
Black  Death.  The  'main  ol)ject  of  this  statute, 
Nvhich  wa-s  passed  in  1349  and  was  repealed  only  in 
the  early  yeai-s  of  Elizabeth,  wa-s  to  U\  the  amount 
of  wa.i,'es  ;  and  it  was  superseded  by  a  statute  of 
Elizabeth  which,  besides  ordaining  an  apprentice- 
ship of  seven  years,  empowered  the  justices  in 
.piarter  sessions  to  li.\  the  rate  of  wages  both  in 
imsbandry  and  handicrafts.  This  act  of  Elizabeth 
was  not  iei)ealed  till  1814.  The  i)oor  law  enacted 
at  the  close  of  her  reign  in  1601  may  be  described 
:is  a  metliod  of  supplementing  the  low  wages  li.\ed 
by  the  ju.stices  (see  I'oot!  L.WV). 

Towards  the  clo.se  of  the  18th  century  the  effect 
if  the  industrial  revolulion  was  to  organise  labour 
in  large  factories  and  similar  undertakings  ;  and  in 
the  early  ilecades  of  the  19th  the  growing  ideas  of 
freedom  had  begun  to  make  other  great  changes 
in  the  condition  of  the  workers.  The  riglit  of  com- 
bination received  in  18'24  was  utilised  in  the  forma- 
tion of  trades-unions  ami  co-operative  societies, 
and  the  admission  of  the  working-men  to  the 
franchise  has  given  them  a  .share  in  the  political 
life  of  the  country.  Changes  similar  to  those  in 
England  have  taken  phice,  only  much  later,  in  the 
countries  of  the  European  continent.  The  emanci- 
pation of  agricultural  labour  from  serfdom,  which 
was  effected  in  Fran(^e  at  the  Revolution  of  1789, 
was  not  conijileted  in  central  Europe  till  1848,  ami 
in  Ku.s.sia  not  till  IStil.  Laws  for  the  regulation 
of  labour  are  now  intended  not  to  fi.\  wages  as 
formerly,  but  to  protect  the  weaker  class  of  workers. 
Such  are  the  Factory  Acts  in  England,  which  also 
have  been  followed  by  a  corresponding  develoi)ment 
abroad.  Efforts  for  the  international  organisation 
of  labour  proceeding  from  socialism  have  been 
followed  by  the  international  conference  for  the 
regulation  of  labour,  which  met  at  Berlin  in  1890. 

Another  great  result  of  social  evolution  in  the 
most  advanced  countries  of  the  world  has  been  the 
more  or  less  conscious  and  delinite  constituting  of 
the  labouring  class  as  a  separate  class,  with  interests 
at  variance  with  those  of  the  ])ossessors  of  land  an<l 
capital.  The  solution  of  the  questions  connected 
therewith  is  now  universally  regarde<l  as  the  most 
pressing  duty  of  statesmen  and  economists  (see 
SOCIALI.SM).  In  this  connection  it  is  maintaineil 
on  the  basis  of  the  old  political  economy  that 
labour,  thus  narrowly  delined  as  the  attriljute  of  a 
special  cliLss,  is  the  source  and  measure  of  value. 
For  treatment  of  this  fallacy,  see  Valle.  See  also 
DiVl.SION  Of  LAIiOllt. 

Sec  Professor  Thorolil  Rogers'  Six  Centuries  of  Work 
and  Waijm;  also  popular  edition,  Wm'k  and  Wains;  and 
the  cliapters  on  labour  in  tlie  various  systematic  works  on 
political  uconuniy. 

Lsihoill*  Dsiy  is  a  legal  holiday  in  some  parts 
of  the  United  Slates,  as  in  New  York  (the  lirst 
Monday  in  September).  Tiie  banks  and  govern- 
ment ollices  are  closed,  labour  is  snsiiended,  and 
ihe  labour  organisations  parade  the  streets  and 
bold  meetings.  In  Europe,  as  a  result  of  the 
Labour  Conference  at  IJerlin  in  1890,  in  numy 
parts  of  the  Continent  the  1st  of  M;iy  was  to  some 
extent  observed  as  a  labour  holiilay. 

Labuiirdoiiiiai.s,  Bi;i: ihand  Francois M.uik 
1)E,  a  famous  French  naval  officer,  was  born  Feb- 
ruary 11,  1(199,  at  St  Malo,  and  alrea<ly  in  17'2.'iwas 
captain  in  the  naval  service  of  the  French  Indies. 
Next  year  he  distinguished  himself  so  greatly  at  the 
capture  of  Mabe  on  the  Calabar  coast  that  he  was 
permitted  to  add  its  name  to  his  own,  In  IT:14  he 
was  appointed  governor  of  the  islands  lie  de  France 
and  Uourbon,  and  his  wise  measures  ere  long  made 


them  tlourishing  colonies.  In  1740  he  was  given 
command  of  a  sipnulron  in  East  Indian  waters,  and 
during  the  ne.xt  live  years  he  inllicted  great  loss 
U)")!!  England.  In  September  174U  he  compelled 
Madras  to  capitulate,  but  failed  to  push  his  success 
in  consideration  of  a  contribution  of  nine  million 
livres.  Accu.sed  by  Dupleix  of  betraying  the  in- 
terests of  the  com])any,  he  returne<l  to  Fails  in 
1748,  where  he  languished  three  years  in  the 
Bastille,  but  was  set  free  and  declared  guiltless  in 
1732.  He  died  September  9,  17o3.  Like  most 
Fienchinen  he  wrote  Mcinoircs  ( 1750),  but  his  name 
best  survives  from  its  mention  in  Paul  ct  ]'in/iiiie. 
A  monunient  wa-s  erected  in  1859  at  Port  Louis 
on  the  lie  de  F'rance. — His  grand.son,  IJertrand 
Francois  Malic  de  Labourdonnais  ( 1795-1840),  w<is 
a  famous  chess-player,  and  wroti^  a  Life  of  his 
grandfather  (1827). 

Labwiirors.  The  only  peculiar  laws  atl'ccting 
labourers  are  where  they  come  within  the  de.scri])- 
tion  of  'wcirkmen'  given  in  the  Employers  and 
Workmen  Act,  1875.  The  act  delines  'workman' 
as  'any  person  who,  being  a  labourer,  servant  in 
husbandry,  journeyman,  artilicer,  handicraftsman, 
miner,  or  otherwise  engaged  in  manual  labour, 
whether  under  the  age  of  twenty-one  years  or 
above  that  age,  has  entered  into  or  works  under  a 
contract  with  an  employer.'  The  act  [uovides  such 
lalxmrers  a  speedy,  easy,  and  cheaj)  mode  of  re- 
covering their  wages  when  the  amount  is  small,  and 
aft'ords  masters  an  easy  method  of  correcting  mis- 
demeanours and  ill-beliaviour  on  the  jiart  of  the 
workmen.  Laliourers'  wages  are  iirohiliited  from 
being  jiaid  in  kind  or  with  goods  by  the  Truck  Act 
(q.v.).  Other  measures  affecting  labourers  are  the 
Factory  Acts  (q.v.),  the  extension  of  the  franchise 
(see  Parliament),  the  establishment  of  national 
Education  (ipv.);  the  Workmen's  Compensation 
Act,  1897  (see  LlAUlLiTV  OF  EMl'f.ovi:i:s)  :  see 
also  the  articles  Ali>oT.MENTS,  tlAXcs.  Trauks- 
INIOX.S,  MA.STEIi  AND  SERVANT.  Kumbeis  of  Irish 
labourers  still  come  over  to  England  and  Scotland 
at  harvest  time,  returning  again  Avhen  harvest 
is  ended.  Italians  to  the  number  of  87,000 
annually  leave  their  homes  for  unskilled  labour 
(as  on  railway  laying)  in  Austria,  Cermany,  and 
France.  A  )iromineiit  feature  in  the  social  economy 
of  .several  Russian  jirovinces  (Samara,  Saratoff, 
Yaroslav,  Vyatka)  is  the  huge  annual  migration 
of  their  male  iiopulation  to  work  in  more  iiojjulous 
centres  of  Russia  as  smiths,  masons,  plasterers, 
cai  iieiiters,  biiatmen,  gardeners,  iVc.  For  descriiition 
of  the  condition  of  English  agricultural  labourei-s, 
see  books  by  Jetl'eiies  (q.v.).  Heath's  KiKjIish  I'cas- 
antry  ( 1874)  and  Peusant  Life  in  the  West  of  Eng- 
laiai  (  1880),  and  Jessopp's  Arcady  (1887). 

Labrador  is  the  north-eastern  peninsula  of  the 
North  .\meiican  continent,  lying  between  Hudson 
Bay  and  the  (iulf  of  St  Lawrence.  'I'lie  coasts  were 
probably  visited  by  the  Norsemen  about  tlie  year 
1000;  they  were  again  sighted  by  Cabot  in  1498. 
In  1500  a  Portuguese  navigator,  Cortereal,  seems 
to  have  visited  it  and  to  have  given  it  its  name, 
which  means  '  labourers' land.'  Labrador  extends 
from  49'  to  (>.T  N.  lal.,  and  from  55"  to  about  79" 
W.  long.  The  greatest  length  from  the  Strait  of 
Belle  Isle  to  its  northern  cajie,  Wolstcnholme,  is 
1100  miles;  its  area,  4'20,0(IO  sq.  m.,  or  nearly  live 
times  the  area  of  Creat  Britain.  The  Atlantic 
coast  is  stern  and  i)recipitous  ( 1000  to  40(KI  feet 
high),  entirely  destitute  of  vegetation,  ili'cply  iii- 
ileTited  with  nai  row  fjords,  and  fringed  willi  chains 

of    rocky    islands.       'I'lie    i ■!    ]iarts    of    l.ahradcn- 

have  been  but  very  imperfectly  explored  ;  Ihe 
greater  liart  consists  of  a  plateau,  some  2000  feet 
above  sea-level,  and  mostly  covered  with  tine 
forest  trees,   lire,   birches,   die.     Numerous  lakes, 


LABRADORITE 


LABUAN 


469 


inclinlinp;  Mistassini  (q.v. ),  also  exist  iiilaml,  ami, 
connectin<;  with  the  rivei-s,  atl'ord  in  suiniiier  con- 
tinuous waterways  for  <;ieat  distances.  'I'he  only 
inhaliitantsof  this  interior  plateau  are  free  Indians, 
noiuads.  There  are  numerous  rivei-s,  2tK)  to  SOO 
miles  loni;  and  2  ami  3  miles  wide  at  their  mouths, 
flowing  towards  the  Atlantic  and  Hudson  liay. 
The  (Irani!  Kails  are  316  feet  in  perpendicular  heijiht, 
but  from  4  miles  ahove  this,  to  the  sea,  there  is  a 
magnilicent,  almost  continimus  fall  of  20(1(1  feet. 
These  rivers  ahcuind  in  lisli,  especially  salmon  and 
white-Hsh.  The  princijial  fur-hearing  animals  are 
hears,  wolves,  foxes,  martens,  otters,  heavers, 
lyn.xes,  \-c.  Of  the  mineral  resources  little  is 
known:  hut  iron  and  Laluailorite  (q.v.)  are  cer- 
tainly ahundant.  The  climate  on  the  coast  is  very 
rigorous,  owing  mainly  to  the  ice-laden  Arctic 
current  which  washes  the  .shores.  The  short 
three-months*  summer  is  marred  l>y  the  swarms 
of  mos<|uitoes  an<l  lilack  Hies.  The  mean  annual 
temperature  at  the  niission.ary  stations  varies 
from  22'  to  2S°.  The  winter  is  <liy,  bracing,  ami 
frosty.  The  part  ilraining  to  the  St  Lawrence 
belongs  to  Quebec,  and  fcuius  indeed  the  larger 
part  of  Quebec  province  ;  that  draining  to  Atlantic 
belongs  (since  1S09)  to  Newfoundland;  the  rest 
is,  since  Isi),"),  the  territory  of  L'ngav,a.  The  great 
wealth  of  Labradiu-  is  its  lish  —  cod,  salmon, 
herrings,  and  trout.  As  many  a.s  ."0,(X)(J  lislier- 
men  from  Newfoundland,  Caiuida,  and  the  United 
States  visit  its  Hshing-grounds  in  the  season.  The 
annual  catch  is  valued  at  more  than  £1,000,000. 
There  are  some  GUOO  permanent  settlers,  Kskimo 
and  French  Acadians,  in  the  coa.st  region,  collected 
chiefly  at  the  .Moravian  missionaiy  stations — Nain 
(founded  1770),  OkUak,  Hebron,  Hopedale,  &c. 

.See  A.  S.  Packard  in  Bnllelin  of  the  Ainfriran   Geo- 
graphical Sncielfi  ( 1.SS7  and  18S8),  and  his  Labrador  Coast 
!1S92);   Hind,  Ezplorations  of  ike  Labrador  Peninsula 
lS6:i);  and  R.  F.  Holme  in  P'ror.  Boii.  Oeog.  Soc.  (188S). 

Lilbradoi'ite  is  one  of  the  group  of  the 
Felspars  (fj.v. ),  ami  a  very  important  rock- 
forming  mineral.  Tlius,  it  is  a  principal  ingredient 
in  many  diorites,  b.i.salts,  gahbros,  and  andesites. 
It  is  met  with  also  in  certain  volcanic  tutt's  ( Etna). 
As  a  rule  it  is  colourless  or  gray,  and  seldom  trans- 
parent. Here  and  there  it  occurs  in  large  masses 
a.ssociated  with  schistose  rocks,  as  on  the  coast  of 
Labrador.  This  massive  kind  (Labrador  stone) 
often  shows  a  beautiful  play  of  rich  colours,  takes 
a  tine  pcdish,  and  is  cut  into  snu(t-bo.\es. 

Labridae.    See  \Vr.\.s.se. 

La  Bruyire,  -Ie.VN  DE,  was  born  at  Paris  in 
164.J.  He  belonged  to  a  middle-cla.ss  family,  and 
wa-s  educated  by  the  (Jratorians,  the  rivals  of  the 
Jesuits.  After  leaving  the  Oratory  he  was  chosen 
tf)  aid  Bossuet  in  educating  the  dauphin,  and  in 
1673  w.os  appointed  treastirer  of  France  for  the  city 
of  Caen,  a  post  which  he  resigned  through  ilisgust 
at  the  rap.ocity  of  his  fellow-otlicials.  He  became 
tutor  to  the  Due  de  I5ourlM)n,  the  grandson  of  the 
Great  Cimde.  and  spent  much  of  his  time  .it  Paris 
and  C'hautilly  witli  the  Comics,  from  whom  he 
receiveil  a  pension  until  the  date  of  his  death.  His 
Ctiractitri-s  appeareil  in  16SS,  ran  through  eight 
editions  in  seven  ve.ars,  and  gained  for  its  author 
a  host  of  implacable  enemies  as  well  a.s  an  immense 
reputation.  The  book  consisted  of  two  jiarts,  the 
one  being  a  translation  of  Theophr.astus,  the  other 
a  collection  of  maxims,  reflections,  and  cliar.icler- 
porlraits  of  the  men  and  women  of  the  time.  To 
these  portraits  has  been  mainly  due  the  wide  and 
Ia.sting  po|)ularity  of  the  I'liriirU'ren.  La  I'.ruyeri', 
hi.s  eilitor  Walckcnaer  Ili-s  truly  said,  '  made  mirrors 
on  which  by  some  magic  property  the  relleeteil 
face.s  of  a  whole  generation  of  men  and  wiunen 
have  become  indelibly  impressed.'    Bitterly  a.s.sailed 


for  his  personal  satires,  La  Bniyfre  found  a 
powerful  protectress  in  the  Duchesse  de  Bourbon, 
a  daughter  of  Louis  XIV.,  who  is  said,  with  what 
truth  cannot  be  determine<l,  to  have  aided  him  in 
the  composition  of  the  later  sketches  which  he 
embodied  in  his  work.  His  enemies,  headed  by 
Fontenelle  and  Tliom;us  Corneille,  were  twice  .able 
to  secure  his  rejection  when  he  tried  for  a  ch.air  in 
the  Academy.  In  ItiflS,  however,  he  was  elected, 
his  success  being  greatly  due  to  the  energetic 
ettbrts  made  on  his  behalf  by  his  patroness, 
who  is  said  to  have  resented  to  a  str.atagem  bv 
which  certain  .Vcademicians  were  prevented  from 
voting  against  him.  La  Bruycre  —  who  never 
married — died  on  May  11,  KiiMi,  his  death  being 
caused  by  <a  decoction  of  tobacco  administered  to 
him  by  the  king's  |>liysician  with  the  view  of 
relieving  him  from  an  attack  of  apo])lexy.  l>e|iorts 
that  he  had  been  poisoned  by  his  enemies  were  at 
one  time  current,  but  have  since  been  thoroughly 
disproved.  His  DinloipiCK  snr  le,  QiiiHisme  were 
issued  in  1699.  They  were  directed  against 
Fenelon,  and  show  none  of  the  literary  power  so 
conspicuous  in  the  Cararh^rcs. 

Though  he  cannot  rank  with  Montaigne  or  Pas- 
cal, La  Hniyere  is  .a  moralist  of  high  standing  and 
a  writer  of  the  highest  excellence.  Sainte-Beuve 
aflirmed  that  bis  book  should  be  at  the  hand  of 
every  author,  and  that  to  read  parts  of  it  d.aily 
would  be  no  less  helpful  to  every  critic  than  the 
study  of  the  Imitatio  to  every  one  of  a  tendei 
and  devotional  spirit.  In  his  style  the  clearness, 
precision,  and  chissic  elegance  of  the  Louis  XIV. 
men  are  united  with  a  [lithiness,  a  freshness  ol 
phnvse,  and  a  richness  of  cidour  suggestive  of  the 
prose  of  a  later  epoch.  Like  most  workers  in 
apothegm  and  epigram,  he  falls  at  times  into 
triteness  .and  exagger.ation  ;  but  he  has  singularly 
few  dull  pages.  His  book  is  built  on  no  regular 
plan,  and  to  this  its  peculi.ar  charm  is  in  no  small 
measure  due.  The  writer  perpetually  varies  his 
subject  and  bis  manner.  Vou  have  here  a  pregnant 
maxim,  a  cle.ar-cut  epigram,  .a  piquant  .anecdote, 
an  old  truth  reset  with  no\el  felicity  of  phrase — 
here  a  i).age  of  acute  literary  criticism — here  a  bit 
of  di.alogue  as  cris])  .and  bright  .as  the  talk  in  a 
sp.arkling  comedy — here  a  character-sketch,  racy 
with  ironic  malice,  and  humour,  and  wit — there  a 
pa.ssage  glowing  with  a  sombre  reiuessed  indigna- 
tion which  proves  how  deei)ly  the  author  resented 
his  countrymen's  wrongs.  A  great  writer  r.alher 
than  .a  great  thinker,  his  insight  into  character  is 
shrewd  r.ather  than  profound.  It  has  been  truly 
remarked  by  Snard  that,  while  Montaigiu-  has 
painted  man  .as  he  is  in  all  times  and  in  all  places. 
La  liruycre  h.as  oidy  painteil  the  courtier,  lawyer, 
financier,  and  hoiirrjeois  of  the  days  of  Louis  XIV. 

The  best  edition  of  La  Bruycre  is  that  inchulcd  iu 
the  series  Lea  Grands  Ecrivains  de  la  France,  edited  by 
G.  Scrvois  (3  vols.  1864-82);  a  recent  Knglish  transla- 
tion of  the  Cararti'rrH  is  that  by  Helen  Stott  I181K)). 
See  the  notice  by  Suard  prefixed  to  the  edition  of  1838,  an.: 
Life  by  Scrvois  in  tlic  'Grands  Ecrivains'  .scries  (1882). 

Lahliail.  an  island  30  sq.  m.  in  area,  lying  6 
mih^s  from  the  northwest  coast  of  Boiiieo.  Besides 
possessing  a  good  harbour  (\'ictoria),  it  has  an 
extensive  bed  of  excellent  coal,  which  has  been 
worked,  though  not  with  commercial  success. 
Labuan  is  an  active  market  for  the  products  of  the 
neighbouring  islands  (  Borneo  anil  tlie  Sulu  Archi 
pelago) — sago,  edible  binls'-iu'sts,  camiihor,  gutta 
])erch.a,  india-rubber,  r.attairs,  jicarls,  tortoiseshell, 
and  beesw.ax.  Sago-llour  is  manuf.ictured.  .Average 
value  of  exports,  i:.S3,K00  ;  of  imports.  .LSI  ,(MH).  The 
island  became  British  in  I.S46,  and  since  1891  is 
administered  by  the  British  North  Borneo  Com- 
pany. Pop.  (>()fl(),  nmstly  Malays  and  Chiinse. 
See  Brooke  (Silt  .Ia.mes). 


470 


LABURNUM 


LAC 


Laluil'lllllll  {Ci/tisHs  Lnbiiniiim),  a  small  tree, 
a  native  of  the  Alps  and  other  mountains  of  the 
soutli  of  Europe,  nnieh  planted  in  shruliberies  ami 
pleiUiiire<'roumls  in  Britain,  on  acconnt  of  its 
fjlossy  foliage  and  its  large  pendulous  racemes  of 
yellow  flowers,  which  are  i)roiluced  in  great  aliund- 
ance  in  May  and  June.  It  is  often  mixed  with 
lilac,  and  when  tlie  latter  preponderates  tlie  com- 
bination has  a  tine  etlect.  In  favourable  circum- 
stances laburnum  sometimes  attains  a  height  of 
twenty  or  even  forty  feet.  It  is  very  hardy,  and 
nowhere  tlourislies  better  than  in  the  north  of 
Scotland.  It  is  of  rapid  growth,  yet  its  wood  is 
hanl,  line  grained,  and  very  heavy,  of  a  dark-brown 
m  dark-green  colour,  and  much  valued  for  cabinet- 
work, inlaying,  and  turnery,  and  for  making  knife- 
handles,  musical  instruments,  &c.  The  leaves, 
bark,  and  particularly  the  seeds,  are  nauseous  and 
jioisonous,  containing  Ct/tisiiic.  an  emetic,  purga- 
tive, and  narcotic  princijde.  AocMents  to  children 
from  eating  laburnum  seeds  are  not  unfreipient  ; 
but  to  hares  and  r.abbits  laburnum  is  wholesome 
food.  A  fine  variety  of  laburnum,  called  Scotch 
Laburnum,  by  some  botanists  regarded  as  a  dis- 
tinct species  {C.  alpin  us),  is  distinguished  by  broader 


Labnrnmn  ( Ci/tisus  alpin  us ). 

leaves  an<l  ilarker  yellow  flowers,  which  are  pro- 
iluced  later  in  the  season  than  those  of  the  common 
or  English  laburnum.  Tlie  form  known  tis  Adam's 
Laburnum  (C  L.  adiiini),  now  occasionally  .seen 
in  British  gardens,  originated  in  the  ,Jardin  des 
I'lantes  at  Paris,  alxiut  1H40,  and  is  peculiar  in 
producing  the  ordinary  flowers  of  the  common 
laburnum  and  those  of  another  species  (C.  pur- 
piireits)  in  an  irregular  and  indiscriminate  way 
over  its  branches.  The  peculiarity  is  considered  to 
he  the  result  of  grafting  or  budding  the  one  species 
on  the  other. 

Laliyi'illtll.  the  name  of  some  celebrated  build- 
ings oi  aiitiipiity,  consisting  of  a  series  of  intricate 
chambers  or  ]iassag(^s.  Of  these  the  most  cele- 
brated were  the  Egyptian,  the  Cretan,  and  the 
Samian.  The  Egyptian  was  visited  by  Herodotus 
and  Strabo,  and  was  reckoned  one  of  the  wonder-s 
of  the  world,  containing  3000  chaniber.s.  It  was 
built  on  the  shore  of  L.ake  Mu;ris,  and  its  founda- 
tions werct  discovered  by  Lepsius  (see  Favv('.m). 
The  Cretan  labyrinth  was  supposed  to  have  been 
built  by  iJa'dabis  for  King  Minos,  to  contain  the 
Minotaur.  The  only  mode  of  linding  the  way  out 
of  it  was  by  meiinsof  a  hank  or  skein  of  linen  thread, 
which  gave  the  clue  to  the  dwelling  of  the  Minotaur. 
The  Samian  labyrinth  was  constructed  in  the  age 


of  Polycrates  (540  B.C. ).  Other  inferior  labyrinths 
existed  at  Nau|dia,  at  Sipontum  in  Italy,  at  Val 
il'Isuica  in  Sicily,  and  elsewhere;  and  the  name 
of  labyrinth  was  applied  to  the  subterraneous 
chambers  of  the  tomb  of  I'or.sena,  supi)oseil  to  be 
that  now  existing  as  the  I'oggio  (iazella,  near 
Chiusi.  Labyrinths  called  mazes  were  at  one  time 
fa.shionable  in  gardening,  being  imitations,  by 
hedges  or  borders,  of  the  Cretan  ;  the  best  known 
in  modern  times  is  the  Maze  at  IIam|)t<ui   Court. 


'i"raii.->ver&e  i,eutiuu  of  a  'IVtulli  of 
Mii.'ftodomfditntx  f/i{/atittu,-<,  en- 
larged (after  Owen). 


Maze  at  Hampton  Court. 

.\n  ancient  story  told  in  Fabyan's  C'/iroiiidc,  also 
in  Higden  and  other  early  historians,  and  blindly 
followed  by  their  successors,  makes  a  maze  at 
Woodstock  the  scene  of  Queen  Eleanor's  apo- 
cryidial  vengeance  upon  Fair  Kosamond. 

Labyriiitliodoiits.  or  Stkgoci:i'ii.\li,  a  race 
of  extinct  Amphibians,  the  remains  of  which  are 
found  in  the  Permian,  Carboniferous,  and  Tria.ssic 
stiata.  Many  of 
them  were  giants 
comjiarcd  with  our 
modern  amphibi- 
ans, from  which 
they  also  diH'ered 
nuirkedly  in  pos- 
sessing an  arma- 
ture of  bony  plates 
in  various  degrees 
of  completeness. 
The  order  includes 
numerous  genera, 
some  of  the  sala- 
mander type, 
otherslimblesslike 
sn.akes,  and  lead- 
ing on  to  the 
modern  Ca"cilians. 

The  name  Labyrinthodont  refers  to  the  mazy 
]iattern  exhibited  on  a  transverse  section  of  the 
teeth  of  some  genera.  .Sonie  of  these  ancii'ut  forms 
were  probably  responsible  for  footpiints  in  the 
rocks  which  u.sed  to  be  jilaced  to  the  credit  of  a 
more  or  less  mythical  animal,  C/icirut/icn'iim.  See 
7'c.rtliuu/i  u/ l'(i/av)itolv</i/  bv  Nichols(m  and  Lvdek- 
ker  (Edin.  1890). 

Ii<l(*a  best  known  in  tlie  form  of  shell-lac,  is  a 
coloured  resinous  substance  of  great  importance  in 
the  arts.  It  is  produced  by  a  small  insect— from 
j'jth  to  iSitli  of  an  inch  in  length — called  Cuiiiis 
larca  (Cartiria  lacat  of  Signoret),  belonging  to  the 
sub-order  Homopteia  of  the  Ilemiplera,  or  Bugs. 
Lac  is  found  in  India.  Burma,  Siam,  China,  and  in 
some  of  the  islands  of  the  Eastern  Archipelago. 
The  lac-insect  lives  upon  the  young  branches  of 
many  dill'erent  species  of  trees,  but  the  best  lac 
is  collected  from  two  or  three  sjiecies  of  lig, 
Zizjiphiis  and  Iliilea  fruiit/oxa. 

As  soon  as  the  young  are  hatched  they  crawl 
about  in  search  of  sappy  twigs.  To  these  they  lix 
tbeniselves  by  their  prolio.scides,  and  immediately 
begin  to  form  their  lac  cells  or  cocoons.  Tlie.se 
have  one  anal  aperture  and  two  others  for  the 
admission  of  air,  and  in  their  cocoons  the  insects 
remain  in  a  lethargic  state  for  two  and  a  half 
months.      The  females,  which  greatly  outnumber 


LAC 


LACE 


471 


tlie  males,  never  leave  the  spot  to  wliich  they 
attach  tlieiiiselves,  but  the  males  escape  liy  a 
ventral  opening  in  the  cocoon.  After  inijiregnation 
the  female  feeds  voraciously  on  the  juice  of  the 
twig  to  which  it  is  lixeil,  increases  in  size,  and 
continues  to  form  lac.  Tlie  lac  surrounds  all  parts 
of  the  insect  except  the  mouth  and  the  three  aper- 
tures already  mentioned.  When  the  young  are 
perfectly  formed  they  issvie  hy  the  anal  opening  in 
the  lac  incrustation.  Naturalists  are  ifivided  in 
opinion  as  to  whether  the  lac  is  secreted  hy  the 
insect  itself,  or  whether  it  is  not  merely  the  resin- 
ous juice  of  the  trees  altered  in  character  hy  the 
insect  while  making  its  puncture,  or  just  after  it  is 
made. 

The  appearance  of  the  incrustation  varies.  It 
often  takes  the  form  of  coalesced  rounded  pro- 
minences, at  some  places  surroumling,  at  others 
scattered  over,  the  branches  :  but  in  other  instances 
it  looks,  superficially,  more  like  a  thick,  irregular 
outer  layer  of  hark  roughened  on  the  surface.  The 
incrustation  is  cellular,  each  cell  indicating  the 
position  of  the  insect  which  formed  it.  SficK- 
iw  is  the  name  given  to  it  when  the  incrustation 
is  still  attached  to  the  twigs,  which  are  usually  cut 
into  pieces  from  three  to  six  inches  long.  The 
next  step  is  to  remove  the  lac  by  a  roller  moving 
on  a  platform,  the  detached  fragments  being  after- 
wards |)laced  in  tubs  of  water,  and  beaten  by  pestles 
or  trodden  by  men.  It  is  now  in  the  state  of  sced- 
lac.  The  water  left  in  the  tubs  is  coloured  red  by 
the  bodies  of  the  insects,  and,  after  this  water  is 
evaporated,  the  red  substance  is  made  into  cakes, 
forming  the  lac-dye  of  commerce  (see  Dyeing). 
After  drying  the  seed-lac  is  melted  in  cylindrical 
cotton  bags  before  charcoal  fires,  and,  by  twisting 
the  bags,  forced  through  the  pores  of  the  cloth.  It 
drops  into  troughs,  and  is  either  allowed  to  spread 
oat  itself,  or  is  spread  by  a  strip  of  leaf  upon  a 
roller,  into  a  thin  sheet.  After  the  impurities  are 
broken  out,  the  flakes  are  packed  in  bags,  forming 
the  shell-lac  oi  commerce.  Another  form  is  button- 
lac,  which  is  made  liy  letting  the  melted  lac  drop 
into  rounded  pieces  from  I-H  inches  in  diameter. 

In  India  a  good  deal  has  been  done  in  the  cultiva- 
tion of  lac  by  transporting  the  encrusted  branches 
to  suitaljle  forests  alxnit  a  fortnight  before  the 
young  insects  begin  to  move  about.  The  twigs 
with  the  insects  in  the  larval  state  are  tied  on 
branches  of  trees  whi<^li  have  been  selected  for  the 
rearing  of  future  broods.  Tlie  inland  trade  for  the 
year  1889  was  valued  at  101  lakhs  of  rupees. 

Lac  has  many  industrial  applicatiims.  Shell-lac 
varnish  is  more  extensively  employeil  than  any 
other  spirit  varnish.  One  variety  of  it  is  French 
Polish  (q.v. )  for  furniture  (see  also  L.\f'QUP;R).  Lac 
api>lieil  as  an  alcoholic  solution  is  used  to  stitt'en  the 
calico  frame  of  silk  hats  (see  H.\T).  In  fine  sealing- 
wax  it  Ls  the  most  important  ingredient,  and  either 
alone  or  mixed  with  other  bodies  it  forms  a  good 
Cement  (q.v.).  Personal  ornament-s,  such  as  chains 
and  bracelets,  are  largely  made  of  lac  in  India, 
and,  when  mixed  with  sulphur  and  some  colouring 
matter,  it  is  used  there  for  coating  wooden  toys. 
Anotli'T  mixture  of  lac  with  vermilion,  closely  re- 
sembling rerl  .sealin<'-wax  in  appearance,  is  applied 
by  the  <,"binese  to  the  surface  ilecoration  of  boxes, 
trays,  va.ses,  and  other  small  articles. 

LaCi  or  L.\KH,  from  a  Sanskrit  word  meaning 
'one  hundred  thousan<l,'  is  generally  em]iloycd  in 
India  to  indicate  100,000  rupees,  the  nominal  value 
of  which  is  £10,000  or  §48,600  :  but  in  conseijuence 
of  the  depreciation  in  the  value  of  silver  the  real 
value  is  only  £8333  or  $40,500. 

Laccadives  (Sansk.  LuLshu  Ihiinn,  'the 
Hundred  Thousand  Islamls'),  a  group  of  fourteen 
cural  islands  in  the  Arabian  Sea,  between  10'  and 


14°  N.  lat.,  and  about  200  miles  AV.  of  the  Mala- 
bar coast.  Area,  744  sq.  m.  ;  po]).  (1801)  14,440. 
They  are  low  and  Hat,  and  all  but  two  are  com- 
paratively barren.  The  cocoa-nut  is  the  chief 
jdaiit,  and  coir  (cocoa-nut  fibre)  the  staple  ]iro- 
diict.  This  and  jaggery,  cocoa-nuts,  copra,  tortoise- 
shell,  an<l  cowries  are  carried  over  to  the  mainland 
by  tlie  men,  who  are  brave  and  skilful  sailors. 
The  number  of  large  boats  owned  in  the  islands  is 
184,  of  small  craft  719  ;  the  annual  exports  average 
about  £17,000.  The  group  was  discovered  by  Vasco 
datiamain  1499.  The  northern  islands  are  attached 
to  the  Madras  district  of  South  Kanara  ;  the  rest 
belong  to  the  rajah  of  Cannanore,  but  since  1877 
have  been  administered  by  the  collector  of  Malabar. 
The  people  are  Mohammedans  of  Himlu  descent, 
their  language  Malayalam,  except  in  Jlinikoi, 
which  iiroperly  belongs  to  the  Maldive  group  and 
retains  its  language. 

Lace  is  an  ornamental  fabric  of  linen,  cotton, 
silk,  or  gold  and  silver  threads,  made  by  looping, 
knotting,  plaiting,  or  twisting  the  threiid  into 
<lefinite  patterns,  of  contrasted  open  and  close 
structure.  Three  distinct  varieties  of  lace  are 
made,  two  by  handwork,  known  respectively  a.s 
needle  or  point  lace  and  pillow-lace,  and  one  by 
machinery.  To  hand-made  lace  the  term  real  lace 
is  sometimes  applied,  and,  although  it  may  be  made 
in  all  or  any  of  the  varieties  of  thread  al)ove 
enumerated,  in  general  it  is  composed  of  white 
linen  thread  of  exceedingly  great  delicacy  and 
tenuity.  Machine-made  lace  on  the  other  hand 
usually  consists  of  cotton  thread  of  high  counts,  but 
it  cannot  lie  used  of  such  fineness  as  linen  ;  while 
with  machines  it  is  quite  impossible  to  rival  the 
combined  grace,  delicacy,  and  strength  of  orna- 
mental structure  obtainable  by  the  skill  and  patience 
of  the  handworker.  Nevertheless  niacliiue-made 
lace  is  a  marvellous  triumph  of  mechanical  in- 
genuity, and  more  inventive  genius  has  been  de- 
\oted  to  its  production  than  has  been  bestowed  on 
any  other  branch  of  textile  industry. 

Lace  on  one  side,  as  needle  or  point  lace,  is  closely 
allied  to  embroidery  ;  pillow-lace  is  derived  from 
and  merely  an  elaboration  of  plaited  fringe- work  ; 
and  machine-lace  is  a  development  of  fancy  weav- 
ing. Although  we  have  the.se  three  distinct  methods 
of  lace-making,  combinations  of  the  whole  may  be 
found  in  one  (liece  of  modern  lace,  and  frequently 
the  products  are  so  similar  that  it  requires  botli 
experience  and  close  observation  to  distinguish 
what  is  made  by  the  needle  from  the  plaited  pro- 
duct of  the  pillow,  or  even  the  twisted  lace  of  the 
machine.  Technically,  lace  consists  of  two  elements, 
the  pattern,  flower,  or  gimp  which  forms  the  closer- 
worked  and  more  solid  portion  of  the  fabric,  and 
the  ground  or  filling  which  serves  to  hold  the 
jiattern  together  and  in  its  proper  place.  In  some 
varieties  of  lace,  however,  the  ground  is  almo.st 
entirely  wanting,  and  the  jpattcrn  holds  together 
by  joining  at  the  eilges  where  two  portions  of  the 
design  meet  and  touch.  In  other  ca.ses  the  ground 
consists  of  ties  or  biiiles,  thin  loops  or  i>laits  passing 
from  the  eilge  of  one  portion  of  the  pattern  to 
another  contiguous,  and  thus  tying  them  together. 
More  fi('i|Ufntly  the  ground  consists  of  a  delicate 
filmy  honeycomb  called  a  rcseaii,  of  which  the 
simplest  form  is  the  bobbin-net,  now  nnide  by 
machinery.  On  the  riseau  the  ]iattern  is  some- 
times stitched  down  after  being  .separately  made, 
such  lace  being  known  as  appliqnf  or  aiqdicil  :  in 
other  ca-ses  pattern  and  re.seau  arc  formed  together 
by  needle  or  bobbin  or  by  both.  Other  technical 
terms  are  met  with  in  the  description  of  lace — as 
noidonnct.  a  stout  thread  or  several  threads  together 
em)doyed  to  outline  the  pattern  ;  picol,  a  minute 
loop  workiMl  on  the  edge  of  ties  or  flowers  for  their 
enrichment  ;    and    modes,    which    are    ornamental 


- 


472 


LACE 


fillings,  variations  of  the  reseau,  which  is  always  a 
plain  honevcDiiili  mesh. 

I'oi)it-lare  is  a  fiiliiic  which  appears  to  have  been 
arrived  at  thrDUgli  the  ell'orts  to  produce  light, 
graceful,  and  airy  etl'ects  in  embroidery.     It  is  not 


known  to  liave  been  made  earlier  than  tlie  first  half 
of  the  16th  centviry  ;  and  its  original  production,  ,is 
well  as  its  most  varied  triumphs,  are  associated 
with  Venice.  The  st.ages  by  which  it  developed 
from  embroiderv-work  can  lie  traced  from  the  illus- 


jj^fpiPPPfP^^ 


1^^^ 


Fig.  1. — Part  of  Liturgical  Veil  or  Cover,  '\\\  puulo  a  mw/lia 
or  lacis  work. 


t'ig.  3. — Kose-point,  \'enetiiin, 
18th  century. 


trated  pattern-books  for  embroiderers  which  were 
issue<l  early  in  the  16th  century.  In  these  books 
we  lind  two  styles  of  work  intermediate  between 
embroi<lery  and  lace-niaking,  one  of  which  consists 
of  patterns  cut  out  of  stuif,  and  liaving  the  cut 
edges  sewn  over  witli  a  l>iitton-bole  stitch,  sncli 
work  being  known  to  the  Venetians  as  piintu 
liirjliato.  The  second  method  of  pnxlucing  a  lace- 
like ell'ect  was  by  cutting  tlie  indiviilual  threads  in 
any  te.\ture  in  aci^onlance  with  a  dellnite  pattern, 
and  drawing  out  the  cut  portions,  the  resulting 
design,  partly  open  work  and  partly  close,  being 
known  as  /iiiiito  tinito.  The  converse  of  this  con- 
sisted  in  darning  in  iiatlcrns  on  a  gauze  m  other 


Fig.  2. — Keticclla  Needle-point  Lace,  Italian.  IGtIi  century. 

open  woven  te.\ture,  a  class  of  wmk  termed  by 
the  Il.ilians /)(/h7o  a  mar/lia  (see  fig.  I  ),  and  by  the 
Kretuh  Im-is  or  laxxis — whence  our  '  lace,'  whicli  lias 
taken  the  ))lace  of  the  earlier  name  pnti.'iniu-iit  or 
jjtisniienf.  The  earliest  true  needle-lace  of  \'enice, 
known  as  piiiifu  in  iiria  or  rcliccUti,  was  in  its 
ilesign  similar  to  the  cut  work  of  the  pattern  books, 
showing  only  rectilinear  and  geometrical  forms,  as 
in  fig.  2.  A  gradual  development  c.-m  be  tniceil 
from  such  sininle  forms  into  rich  lloral  ornaments 
aud  scrolls,  till  early  in  the  18th  century,  in  the 


very   delicate    needle-jioint  with    meshed    ground 
known  as  point  clc  Vhiise  d  ri'svnii,  we  come  to  the 
richest  and  most  elaborate  products  of    the  north 
Italian    needlewomen.       The    most    ch.aractcristic 
and  valuable  of  the  laces  of  Venice  is  that  known 
in  Britain  as  rose-point  (French  gros-poinl)   ( I'lg. 
3),   whii'h  consists    of   patterns   worked   in   relief 
like    .sculptured    work,    forming 
strong    and     solid    Ihiwcrs     and 
scrolls,   held    in    ])osition  by  lies 
or   brides   enriched   with    picot.'*. 
With    such    lace    the    i-olies    of 
great   ecclesiastics  and   wealthy 
nobles  were  adorned,  and  it  was 
also  eniploved  for  the  ornament- 
ation  of   altar  covers  and   other 
I'biucb  textures.     In  the  making 
of  point-lace  the  design  is  first  (Irawn  on  a  ]>iece  of 
l)arcbment,  which  is  then  stitched  down  to  a  back- 
ing of  stout  linen.     Over  the  lines  of  the  design 
one  or  more  threads  of  linen  are  stitched   lightly 
down,  and  the  slow  work  of  filling  up  the  pattern 
with    button-hole    stitches 
proceeds     on     the     thread 
outline  s(i  obtained.      The 
methods    of    working    are 
numerous,  and  some  of  the 
stitches  indeed  have  been 
lost,    but    commonly    the 
iialtern  or  cloth  is  obtained 
liy  laying  down  a  series  of 
threads    parallel    to    each 
otlier,    as    in    lig.    4,    and 
shown.      For  the    brides  or  reseau  a  single  tliread 
may   form   the   foundati(Ui,    it  also   being  clo.sely 
stitched   over,  as   seen    in    fig.   5.       When   pattern 
and  fillings  are  finished,  it  remains  only  to  cut  the 


LACE 


473 


stitclies  which  hold  the  outlining  thieails  to  the 
parchment  and  the  linen  hackinj;.  thus  lil)eiatin<; 
the  lace.  From  Venice  the  art  of  making  point- 
lace  travelled  out  to  other  Italian  towns,  and  west- 
ward to  France  and  Flanders.  Principally  owing 
to  the  elt'orts  of  the  minister  Colhert,  who  in  llitio 
chartered  a  company  with  exclusive  privileges  for 
ten  years  and  a  suhsidy  of  .'{6,000  livres,  the  art 
was  lirndy  estahlished  in  France,  ateliers  being 
e3tahlishe<l  in  several  of  the  ])rinciiial  towns. 
Among  these  places  Wivs  Alencon.  where  Venice 
lace  of  very  line  quality  was  being  made  by  a 
lady  named  Laperriere  prior  to  the  establishment 
of  Colbert's  company.  Alencon  lace  and  tlie 
closely-allied  fabric  maile  at  the  neighbouring  town 
of  Argentan  attained  great  perfection  during  the 
18tli  century.  The  dolgris  employed  were  dis- 
tinctively P'rench  in  character,  and  the  reseau  and 
modes  which  formed  the  filling  showed  a  minute 
and  filmy  delicacy  nnapproached  by  the  products  of 
any  other  district  (fig.  li).     I'oint-lace  also  formed 

one  portion  of 
the  manufac- 
ture carried  on 
at  Brussels. 
The  ground 
of  the  old 
r.russels  lace 
is  sometimes, 
though  rarely, 
of  needle- 
(loint,  but  the 
llower,  which 
is  made  sep- 
arately and 
sewed  on,  or 
a])iilie<l  to  the 
ground,  is,  in 
fine  specimens, 
I'  r  e  i|  u  e  n  1 1  y 
iiceille-made. 
['ilhiv  -  lacr. 
It  is  an  un- 
ilecided  ques- 
tion whether 
])i  1 1  o  w-lace 
originated  in 
Italy  or  in 
Flanders. 
From  a  picture  by  (inentin  Matsys,  painted  in 
1495,  we  liave  evidence  that  the  making  of  pillow- 
lace,  was  known  in  Flanders  at  that  early  date; 
but  about  the  same  time  it  was  also  being  worked 
in  Venice  nniler  tlie  name  of  Mrrlitti.  a  piombini. 
While  point-lace  making  lias  always  been  the  dis- 
tinguishing character  of  Italy  and  the  south,  the 
making  of  pillow-lace  became  and  remains  dis- 
tinctively a.ssociated  with  the  Flemish  towns  and 
with  Englaml.  For  the  jiroduction  of  pillow-lace 
the  pattern  is  first  drawn  in  full  size  on  a  piece  of 
parchment,  which  is  then  fastened  to  a  pillow  or 
cushion  niiule  to  rest  in  the  lap  of  the  worker,  and 
into  which  pins  may  be  ea.sily  and  firmly  stuck  at 
any  required  point.  The  paitern  is  then  pricked 
over  with  jiin-lioles  at  every  point  where  iiins 
rec^uire  to  i>e  inserted  in  the  subsetiuent  work  of 
twi.sting  anil  plaiting.  The  lace  maker  is  also 
provideil  with  a  series  of  small  bobbins,  round  the 
upper  part  of  which  the  threail  to  be  useil  is  wound, 
and  even  for  the  production  of  .i  half  inch  band  of 
lace  of  simple  pattern  a  va.st  numliiM  of  pins  and 
aa  many  a.s  fifty  bobbins  may  be  reijuircd,  while 
for  elaborate  patterns  twelve  hundred  l.obbins  may 
be  brought  into  requisition  on  a  single  ]iillow.  The 
whole  work  in  pillow-lace  is  the  result  of  twisting 
and  plaiting,  ami  the  pattern  is  often  outlined  and 
sometimes  filled  up  with  thread  of  a  stouter  char- 
acter than  that  used  on  the  mesh  and  fillings.     The 


Fig.  6. — Portion  of  Aleni,'on  Lappet ; 
French,  late  17th  or  early  18th 
century. 


to 


The   mesh  of 
that  of  Mechlin, 


simplest  ground  in   the  pillow-lace  consists  of  the 
twisted  net  or  bobbin-net,  originally  made  on  the 
pillow,  but  now  entirely 
made      liy      inachinerv 
(see     fig.     7).        More 
commonly   the     net    is 
partly       twisted       and 
partly  plaited  ;  and  the 
variations  in   the  mesh 
so   formed    are   charac- 
teristic of  the  difl'erent 
da.sses   of    pillow-lace. 
Thus,     the     mesh     of 
Mechlin  lace  consists  of 
four   twisted    and   two 
plaited    sides,   as  seen    in   fie 
Brussels  pillow-lace  is  similar 
lint  the  plaited 
sides  are  longer 
(tig.   9),   while 
the     V  a  1  e  u- 
ciennes     mesh 
is       plaited 
t  hrou  ghout. 
These      differ- 
ences    in     the 
form     of     the 
ground  of  pil- 
low-laces   give 
a    different 

appearance   to   the  recticulations. 
pattern  of  the  lace  is  worked  so  as  to  give 
appearance  of  plain  woven  cloth  (see  lig.  10), 
\  alenciennes  mesh  renders  that  vari- 
ety more  solid  and  durable  than  any 
of  the  others.     Much  of   the  modern 
Brussels  lace  has  now  a  machine-made 
ground  instead  of  the  ancient  pillow- 
meshes,  on  which  the  separately-made 
flowers  are  ajiiilied  or  sewed    by    the 
imperce]itible  line  joining-stitch.     The 
making  of  pillow-lace  in  Honiton  and 
other  localities  in  the  south-west  of  England  was 
begun   towards   the   end   of   the    16th    century    by 
refugees  from  the  Low  Countries.     In  166'2  parlia- 
ment, desirous  of  encouraging  native  lace-making. 


Fig.  8. 


The   flower  or 

it  the 
The 


Fig.  U. 
Border  of  Mechlin  IMlow-lace,  early  18th  century, 

prohibited  the  importation  of  all  laces  of  foreign 
manufacture.  Lace- workers  were  thereuiion  en- 
couraged   to  settle  in    England  :    but    as    the   line 


Fig.  12. 


-Valenciennes  Pillowlace,  with  reseau 
late  18th  century. 


;jiound, 


thread    necessary   for  their  work   was   not   forth- 
coming they  were  forced  to  return  to  their  native 


474 


LACE 


■f)r-.«;-:.-« 

'      .'?i!S!^^ 

■| '•>%'' 

*i^^^l 

^K'  - 

^K,.'- 

.  ■.•"3;4'-V:*^H 

^■(■^•.'^y 

-^-^■'.-    ■•:  ■ 

■  '-^B 

■i#'^;^ 

V-    : 

fc^^r- 

:.*-■•, 

, ■'■"-"-'« 

Rt^'-i>^ 

>-i../      '••- 

-Av'iM 

^te^: 

'.  ■  -      ^ 

^^^WW^^y 

V  • 

^^K^'/- 

.-r'-^^^H 

^^^^^Vn.  > .. 

-  *     ;■  /     ' 

^^^^^1 

^V^^v-:, 

"■'  '< '%..  •  ■ 

'^^H 

^^^E ; '~ ' 

J."-'  ■ 

'--r^^^l 

^^k'r-r,'/ 

J 

..^^H 

, .  __ 

"''^^H 

»-',/■■' 

/ 

~l^^l 

^•i^v. 

\  ^'-  '- 

I^^> 

^^Ib&^* 

'-' 'jii^^^l 

Fig.  13. — Portion  of  Honiton 
Lappet,  18th  century. 


land.  A  vigorous  smiigglinj;  trade  l)etween  Brussels 
and  England  ensued,  and  the  lace  so  introduced 
was  freely  sold  as  English  point,  whence  Urussels 
lace  came  to  lie  generally  known  as  Point  (f  Auijle- 
(erre.  Honiton  lace  from  the  17th  century  down- 
wanls  has  continueil  to  he  made  in  the  same  style 
as  the  Flemish  laces,  hut  at  no  time  has  it  attained 
the  celebrity  acquired  by  tlie  products  of  the  great 
centres    of    the    pillow-lace    making    in    Belgium 

and  the  north  of 
France.  Fig.  13 
is  ,1  line  example 
of  Honiton  lace- 
work. 

The  successful 
imitation  of  hand- 
made lace  hy 
machine-work, 
:iml  the  conse- 
i|uent  enormous 
cheapening  of 

material  which 
hears  a  super- 
(Icial  resemblance 
to  the  costly  pro- 
duct, has  proved 
almost  fatal  to 
1  he  arts  of  needle 
and  jnllow-laee 
making.  Of  late 
years  an  attempt 
has  been  made  to 
re-establish  the 
manufacture  of 
line  ])oint-laces 
ou  the  island  of 
15  u  r  a  n  o,  near 
Venice.  Similarly,  (^H'orts  have  been  made  to 
revive  the  iudustry  in  Honiton,  and  at  the  present 
time  much  is  being  done  to  encourage  the  develop- 
ment of  the  art  in  various  directions  in  conven- 
tual and  other  establishments  in  Ireland.  The 
stimulus  in  all  these  cases  is,  however,  obviously 
artilicial,  and  it  cannot  he  said  that  there  is  at 
jiresent  any  really  healthy  iiulicatiou  of  revived 
demand  for  these  supreme  products  of  patience  and 
ingenuity. 

Machine-hire. — The  ground  and  simplest  element 
of  pillow-lace  being  a  network  of  meshes,  the  earliest 
elibrts  of  inventors  were  directed  towanls  the  ]iro- 
ducing  of  machinery  for  fabricating  similar  netting. 
The  hosiery-frame,  which  had  been  invented  by 
William  Lee  towards  the  end  of  the  16th  century, 
was  the  lirst  ajiparatus  with  which  it  was  atlem|iteil 
to  make  a  lacenet,  and  about  1764  a  modilication 
of  the  frame  was  devised  by  which  an  ojien  loop- 
net  was  )irodnccd.  By  the  various  devices  familiar 
to  liand-kuiltcrs  fancy  jiatterus  could  be  [iioduced 
on  this  machine.  'I'he  loop  fabric,  howevei',  had 
the  great  disadvantage  of  unravelling  freely  at  any 
jioint  where  it  was  broken,  as  it  was  constructed 
of  a  continumis  single  tlireail.  At  a  suhsefjuent 
]ieriod  what  was  known  as  the  warp-lace  niachiiu' 
was  introduced,  in  the  use  of  which  a  separ.ate 
thread  is  su]i]>lied  to  each  hooked  needhMMuployed 
in  the  proiluction  of  (he  web.  On  these  war|p- 
threads  loops  are  formed  by  mechanical  iricans,  and 
as  they  can  he  moved  by  the  machine  either  to  the 
right  or  to  the  left,  neighbouring  warps  and  loops 
are  joined  together,  ami  in  this  way  a  solid  wei), 
which  can  he  cut  withoul  unravelling,  is  <ditained. 
Towards  the  end  of  the  I.Sth  century  a  great 
variety  of  ligurcd  lace  began  to  be  nuiile  on  the 
warp-machine,  and  in  a  greatly  improved  form  it 
si  ill  continues  in  use. 

A  new  era,  however,  in  niachiiu:  lace  making 
wa.s  inaugurated  when,  in  ISOO,  .lohii  Heathcoat 
patented  his  second  bobbin-net  machine,  by  which 


it  was  made  jiossible  to  twist  or  wrap  round  each 
other  an  indetinite  number  of  threads,  and  to  cause 
any  one  thread  to  traverse,  mesh  by  mesh,  every 
other  thread  in  the  width  of  the  fabric  being 
netted.  The  bobbin-net  machine  of  Heathcoat 
became  the  foundation  of  an  enormous  industry, 
and  the  inventor  reaped  both  honour  and  amide 
pecuniary  reward  for  his  reniarkalile  ingenuity. 
His  frame  has  been  modilied  by  many  inventors, 
but  the  most  important  im|iidvemenls  were  ett'ected 
by  .lohn  Levei-s  in  1813.  The  lace-making  machine 
now  principallv  used  is  known  as  the  Levei-s 
machine,  but  of  its  complicated  structure  it  would 
be  (|uitc  imiiossible  to  convey  any  idcar  concejition 
within  moderate  limits.  The  structure  of  the 
simjjlest  fabric  pro- 
<luced  by  it  is  shown 
as  it  appears  on  the 
frame  in  fig.  14 ;  and 
when  dressed  and 
linished  this  falnic  has 
the  appcaraiK'e  indi- 
cated in  tig.  7,  which  is 
c<inimon  liobbin-net.  It 
will  be  seen  that  the 
texture  is  formed  of  a 
series  of  vertical  paral- 
lel threads  which  may 
be  taken  to  represent 
the  warp  of  a  common  web,  these  lieing  diagon- 
ally crossed  and  intertwisted  with  others  which 
may  be  looked  on  as  weft-threa<ls.  The  frame  or 
loom  holds  the  warp-threads  vertically,  a  space 
being  left  between  each  sufficiently  wide  to  admit 
of  a  shilling  being  passed  edgeways  between 
them.  Bidiinil  these  threads,  and  cones]ioiuling  to 
the  interspaces,  is  a  row  of  ingeniously  c(iii>tiucteil 
Hat  bobbins  or  reels  resting  in  an  arrangement 
called  a  cumb-hur  or  holl-hai:  These  are  so  placed 
that  with  the  fir.st  movement  of  the  machine  each 
bobbin,  which  carries  its  (bread  with  it,  jiasses 
through  two  of  the  parallel  and  jierpendicular 
threads  of  the  warp,  and  is  lodged  in  .'inotber  and 
similar  bolt-bar  in  front  of  the  warp,  liut  this 
front  bolt-bar,  besides  an  advancing  and  leceding 
motion,  has  another  niovenient,  called  shoijqinei — 
from  right  to  left.  When  it  receives  a  bobliin  by 
its  forward  motion  it  draws  hack,  bringing  the 
bobbin  and  thread  through  two  of  the  upright 
threads;  then  it  shogs  or  moves  to  one  sidi',  and 
goes  forward  again,  taking  (he  thread  through  the 
next  two  warp-threads,  and  lodging  the  bobbin  on 
the  hack  holt-bar  again,  one  distance  beyond  its  last 
space  ;  this  it  recovers  by  the  next  niovenient,  and 
it  again  pa.sses  through  the  lirst  sjiace,  to  be  again 
received  by  the  front  bolt  bar.  By  these  move- 
ments the  bobbin- thread  istwisteil  iiuite  round  one 
upright  (bread  of  the  w  :irp  ;  another  movement 
then  shifts  the  bijbhin,  so  that  it  will  pass  through 
the  next  pair  of  upright  threads,  .■uid  so  carry  on  its 
work,  the  warp-threads  moving  at  the  same  time, 
unwinding  from  the  lower  beam,  and  being  rolleil 
on  the  upper  one.  There  being  twice  <as  many  hob 
bins  as  tliere  are  threads  in  the  warp,  <'ach  boll  bar 
having  a  set  which  it  exchanges  with  (he  other,  and 
all  being  regulated  with  great  ni<'ety,  a  w  idtb  of  lace 
is  made  in  far  less  time  than  has  been  rei|uireil  to 
write  this  short  ilescription.  The  additions  (o  anil 
variations  ujion  these  operatiims  (which  only  apjily 
to  bobbin-net),  for  the  production  of  |iatterns,  are 
numerous  and  com]ilicated— each  patlcin  recpiiring 
new  combinations  :  but  they  all  di'iieiid  u|i(Ui  (he 
variations  which  can  be  given  (o  the  movements 
of  the  flat  disc-like  bobbins. 

(luld  Liiee  and  Sili-n-  /,(fcc.— The  socalled  gold 
thread  which  is  used  in  textiles  c<insist.s  of  silver- 
gilt  wire,  or  for  coinnioner  purjioses  copper-gill 
wire,  either  round  or  tlattenen  into  a  fine  ribbon. 


LACE-BARK    TREE 


LACONIC 


475 


Tliese  wires  may  be  so  useil  for  wea\iny  and 
embroidery  purpcises,  but  generally  what  is  called 
gold  thread  consists  of  a  yellow  thread  of  cotton 
or  linen  round  which  the  llattened  j;old  wire  is 
s|iirally  wound  so  as  to  coiiiiilelely  eiicjvse  it. 
Silver  wire  is  similarly  i)re])are<l  ami  used,  bein" 
wound  on  a  white  insteait  of  a  yellow  luusis.  tJold 
and  silver  threads  may  be  used  in  onlinaiy  lace- 
makin'',  but  what  is  generally  termed  ^old  and 
silver  lace  consists  of  l)raids,  ribbons,  and  bands 
of  tliese  materials  employed  for  embroidery  and 
braiding',  and  for  the  ornamentation  of  uniforms 
and  ottii-ial  robes,  badges,  i*i:c.  The  use  of  gold 
and  silver  wire  in  textiles  is  of  great  antifjuity, 
and  sumptuous  garments  enriched  with  precious 
metals  must  have  lieen  used  in  Egypt  for  royal  and 
priestly  personages  in  the  time  of  Moses ;  for  we 
find  (Exod.  xxxix,  2,  3)  directions  for  making 
gold-embroidered  robes  for  Aaron  in  the  wilderness. 
The  making  of  gold  and  silver  lace  is  a-s.sociated 
with  the  ril)bon  industry,  and  it  is  usually  prose- 
cuted in  districts  where  that  trade  is  located. 
Lefebure,  Emhroiilery  and  Lore,  their  Manufacture 
and  Histonj  (Eng.  trans.  1888). 

.See  Felkin,  Machinf-urowiht  Hosiery  and  Lace  Marvu- 
facture  (18G7);  Palli.-ier,  Hiistory  of  Lace  (1875);  The 
Art  of  Lace  Makinij  ( 1881 ) ;  Seguin,  La  DenteUc 
(1874) ;  Despierres,  HiMoire  du  Point  d'Alcn^on  { 188S) ; 
Doumert,  La  Dentelle  (1889);  Lefebm-e,  Embroidery 
and  Lace  (Eng.  trans.  1888);  and  the  catalogue  of  Jlr 
Chick's  Collection  of  Antique  Lace,  to  which  this  article 
is  indebted  for  illustiations. 

Lace-bark  Tree  (Lagctta  Untearia),  a  tree 
of  the  natural  order  Thymele.aceie,  a  native  of  the 
West  Indies.  It  is  a  lofty  tree,  the  inner  bark  of 
which  lia.s  all  the  appearance  of  coarse  lace.  A 
"overnor  of  Jamaica  is  saiil  to  have  presented  to 
Charles  II.  a  cravat,  frill,  and  ruffles  made  of  it. 

LaoediPiuoii.    .See  Spaet.\. 

Lare-leaf.    See  L.\ttice  Le.\f. 

Laet'pede,  Bernard  de  la  Ville,  Count 
DE,  French  naturalist,  was  born  on  '2tith  December 
1756,  at  Agen,  and  was  appointed  curator  of 
Natural  History  in  the  Itoyal  (;ar<lens  at  Paris  in 
178.).  At  the  kevolulion  he  became  profes.sor  of  i 
Natural  History  in  the  .lardin  dcs  Plantes  and  \ 
at  the  university.  He  was  made  a  senator  in 
179<t,  a  minister'of  state  in  1809,  and  in  ,1814  a 
peer  of  France.  He  ilied  of  smallpox  at  Epinay, 
near  St  Denis,  6th  October  182.5.  Besides  con- 
tinuing Buffon's  Xatiirat  Histori/  at  BuH'on's  own 
request— in  Hixtoircdcs  Reptiles  (2  vols.  1788-89)— 
Lacepfede  wrote  Histuirc  Nutnrelle  dcs  Poisson.i 
(6  vols.  1798  1803),  which,  in  spite  of  numerous 
errors,  was  long  held  in  high  esteem,  and  works 
on  the  Cetacea,  the  Nedurctl  Histori/  of  Man,  Les 
Af/es  de  la  Nature,  and  a  (iencral  History  of 
Europe  (18  vols.  1826).  Lacepede  was  likewise 
a  highly-accomplisheil  musician,  and  published  La 
I'oHi'iue  de  la  Musioue  (2  vols.  1785).  An  edition 
of  his  works  appeared  at  Paris  in  3  vols,  in  1876. 

Laeertidae.    See  Lizakk. 

Larliaise,  Kkaxcoi.s  u'Aix  de,  a  Je.suit,  lx)rn 
of  a  nolile  family,  25th  August  1624,  in  the  castle 
of  Aix,  now  in  the  department  of  Loire,  made  his 
studies  at  llolian,  and  wjus  alreaily  a  provincial  of 
his  order  when  Louis  XIV.  selected  him  for  his 
cimfes.sor  on  the  death  of  Father  Ferrier  in  1675. 
His  jiosition  was  one  of  great  difliculty,  owing  to 
the  diO'erent  parties  of  the  court,  ai«l  the  strife 
lx!tween  .lansenists  and  Jesuits.  In  the  most 
important  <|uestions  of  hi.s  time  Father  Lachaise 
avoided  extreme  courses.  A  zealous  Jesuit,  and 
of  uKHlerate  abilities,  he  yet  sustaine<I  among  his 
contemporaries  the  reputation  of  a  man  of  mild, 
simple,  honourable  character.  Mailame  Maiiitc- 
nou  could   never  forgive   him   the   little   zeal  with 


which  he  opposed  the  reasons  urged  ag.iinst  the 
publication  of  her  marriage  with  the  king;  but 
during  the  thirty-three  years  that  he  lilled  his  ollice 
of  confe.ssor  he  never  lost  the  favour  of  the  king. 
He  died  20th  January  1709.— Louis  XIV.  built 
him  a  country-house  to  the  east  of  Paris,  the  large 
garden  of  which  was  in  1804  converted  into  a 
burial-place,  and  is  known  as  the  I'cre-la-C/iaise, 
the  resting-place  of  many  famous  men.     See  P.-\IilS. 

Laches,  in  English  law,  is  a  word  used  (from 
Fr.  Itichcr,  'to  loosen')  to  denote  negligence  or 
undue  delay,  such  as  to  disentitle  a  party  to  a 
particular  remedy,  or  to  relief.  According  to  the 
common  law  this  principle  has  no  application  ivs 
regards  the  crown  ;  but  various  statutes,  chiefly 
the  so-called  A'ullmn  Tempus  Act  (9  (!eo.  III. 
chap.  16).  have  restricted  the  rights  in  this  respect. 

Laclline,  a  town  of  Quebec,  Canada,  8  miles 
S\\'.  of  Montreal  by  lail,  a  favourite  summer  resi- 
dence. There  is  a  canal  hence  to  Montreal  to 
avoid  the  Lachine  liapids  of  the  St  Lawrence. 

Laclllan,  a  river  of  Australia,  a  tributai-j'  of 
the  Murrumbidgee,  which  itself,  a  little  farther 
down,  enters  the  Murray  (q.v.). 

Lachmaiiii.  Karl  Konrad  Feiedrk-h  Wil- 

HELM,  a  celelirated  (lernjan  critic  and  philologist, 
was  born,  4th  March  1793,  at  Brunswick,  studied 
at  Leipzig  and  (Jcittingen,  became  an  extra-ordinary 
profes.sor  at  Kiinigsberg  in  1818,  at  Berlin  in  1825, 
and  an  ordinary  professor  there  in  1827.  He  was 
admitted  a  member  of  the  Acaflemy  of  Sciences 
in  IS.W,  and  died  13th  March  IS.".].'  Lachmann's 
.scholarship  was  extraordinary  alike  in  profundity 
and  range.  He  wa-s  equally  devoted  to  chussical 
and  German  jjliilology,  and  illustrated  both  by  a 
singularly  subtle  and  sagacious  criticism  evolved 
in  strictly  scientilic  method.  Among  his  most 
important  productions  are  his  editions  of  the  Nibe- 
iunr/cnlied,  the  works  of  Walter  von  der  Vogel- 
weide,  Propertius,  Catullus,  Tibullus,  Babrius, 
Avianus,  Gains,  and  the  Agrimensores  Komani. 
In  his  Bctracldungen  iiber  die  Ilias  (supjilemented 
by  Haupt,  1847)  he  maintained  that  the  Iliad 
consisted  of  sixteen  independent  /«//.<  enlarged 
and  interpolated  in  vaiious  ways.  The  smaller 
edition  of  his  New  Testament  ajipeared  in  1831 
(3d  ed.  1846):  the  larger,  in  2  vols.,  in  1842-50. 
The  design  of  the  last  of  these  works  was  to 
restore  the  Greek  text  as  it  existed  in  the  Eastern 
Church  in  the  3d  and  4th  centuries;  and  Lach- 
mann  attached  the  greatest  value  to  the  readings 
found  in  the  old  Latin  and  Greek  western  uncials, 
where  he  found  ditl'erences  in  his  oldest  eastern 
texts.  His  latest  undertaking  was  his  edition  of 
Lucretius  (18.50),  which  Monro  styles  'a  work 
which  will  be  a  landmark  for  scholars  as  long  as 
the  Latin  language  continues  to  be  studied.'  See 
the  Life  by  Hertz  (Berlin,  1851 ),  and  also  J.  Grimm 
in  vol.  i.  of  his  Klcincrc  Sc/iriften. 

La<-Iir>  iiial  Orjiaiis.    See  Eve. 
Lackawanna    Kiver,    Pennsylvania,    is    a 

tributary  of  the  Sus(|uehanna,  and  its  valley  nearly 
coincides  with  tlie  Wyoming  and  Lackawanna  coal 
basin  (55  miles  long),  which  ])roduces  half  the 
anthracite  mineil  in  the  Vniled  Slates. 

La  <'oildaniine,  Cuaklks  >L\hik  i>k,  French 
geograiihiT  (  17111-74),  served  in  the  army,  travelled 
extensively,  «n<l  was  sent  with  others  to  Peru 
(17.35-43)  to  measure  a  degree  of  the  meridian 
there.  On  his  return  he  explored  the  Amazon, 
anil  brought  the  first  definite  information  as  to 
india-rubber.  He  also  brought  Curare  (q.v.)  to 
Europe,  and  wrote  in  favour  of  inoculation. 

Laconic.  The  Spartans,  or  Lacedanionians 
(whose  country  was  called  Laconia),  systemati- 
callv  endeavoured  to  confine  themselves  to  a  sen- 


47tj 


LACORDAIRE 


LACRETELLE 


tenlious  l>revity  in  speaking  and  writing ;  hence 
the  term  Iwonic  lias  been  applied  to  this  style. 

Lnrordaire,   Jeax    Baptistk    Hkmu,    was 

horn  at   lleceysurOurce,   in  the  departiiienl  Cote- 
d'Or,  March  12,  I80'2.     He  was  educated  at  Dijon, 
and  there  began   to  study  law.     In  1822   he  went 
to  Pari.s,  an<l  pr.actised  successfully  for  two  years 
as    a   barrister.       His    religious   views   were   quite 
unsettled  at  this  time.       'lie  was  a  deist,  like  all 
the  youth  of  his  day,   and  a  liberal,  like  almost 
every  Frenchman,  but  without  any  extreme  views.' 
The  .spiritual   change   in   him  caiiie  suddenly,  ami 
then  his  true  life  began.     He  gave  up  his  profes- 
sion, entered  the  college  of  St  Snipice  in  1824,  and 
was   ordaine.l  priest   in  1827.      In   1S28  he  became 
chaplain   of  the  convent  of  the  Visitation  and  in 
1829  cha]ilain  of   the  College  Henri  IV.      Marked 
out  by  his    Liberalism,   he  was  asked   to  help  the 
Abbe  Lamennais  and  Montalembert  in  the  estab- 
lishment   of    the    Ai-e>ni\    the    well-known    High 
Church  and  Radical   newspaper.      In   18.31   Lacin-- 
daire  and   Lamennais  were  summoned  by  Govern- 
ment,   but   acquitted,    for  writing   in    tl'ie  Arenir 
against    the    a])pointment    of    tliree     bishops    by 
Louis-Pliilippc.     Soon    after    this    Lacord.aire    and 
Montalembert  opencil  a  free  school  in  Paris,  claim- 
ing as  a  right  the  liberty  of  teaching  promised  in 
the   charter   of   IS.'iO.     The   school    was   closed  by 
the    police,    and     Lacordaire    and    ^Montalembert 
were  tried  and  fined  one   hundred   francs.     Thir- 
teen months  .after  its  first  appearance  the  jmblica- 
tion  of  the  Ai-eiiii-  was  suspended,  and,  being  con- 
•lemned  by  the  pope,  was  tlien  linally  given  up.     In 
IS."?-!:  Lacord.aire  gave  a  series  of  Conferences  to  the 
students  of  the  College  .Stanisl.as  which  attracted 
{ji-eat  attention,   and  led  the  wav  to   his   f.amous 
Conferences  in  Notre  Dame,  delivered  in  183,5  and 
1836.      His  .audiences  were  immense,  his  success  ,as 
a  preacher  was  at  its  height,  when  he  smldenly 
withdrew  and  went  to  Home,  feeling  the  need  for 
lumself  of  silence  and  solitude.     Jn  1839  lie  entered 
the  novitiate  of  the  Dominican  order,  and  in  1840 
reappeare<l  in  the  pulpit  of  Notre  Dame,  clothed  in 
the  habit  of  a  Dominican  monk.     The  ne.\t  three 
yeai-s  of  his  life  were  spent  partly  in  France  and 
partly  in  Italy.    In  1843  lie  lesnrned  his  Conferences 
in  Notre  Dame,  and  continued  them  till  18,51.     In 
the   revolution   of   1848   Lacordaire    accepted    the 
republic,    and    was    elected    to    the    Constituent 
Assembly,   but   resigned   his  seat   ten   days   after 
his  election,  as  he  found  he  was  nnsuited  for  the 
storms  of  parliamentary  life.    His  last  Conferences, 
delivered   at   Toulou.se   in    1854,   are  the  most  elo- 
quent of  all.     After  linisliing  these  Conferences  he 
undertook   the  direction   of   the   military  school  of 
.Sorreze,  and  at  this  post  lie  remained  till  his  ile.ath, 
which  took  place  in  IStil,  a  ye.ar  after  his  election 
as  Academician.    L.acoidaire  was  one  of  the  greatest 
of  modern   prcacdiers  and  orators.      He  laid  hold  of 
the   thoughts  of   the  day,   he  understood   the  dilli- 
culties  he   had   lo  deal  "with,  and   he  won   men  to 
the  truth   by   his  eloquent  reasoning   and    by    his 
love   for   their   souls.     A   collectcil    edition    df   his 
works  appeared  in   Paris  (9  vols.  1872).     See  Lives 
by  Montalembert  (I,8(i2;  Eng.  tran.s.   1863),  Dora 
Greenwell  ( 18(i7),  and  Lear  ( 1882). 

Laotllirr.  Mrnamental  or  useful  articles  of 
brass,  such  lus  gas-littings  an<l  .some  kinds  of  furni- 
ture, are  usually  laccpiered  to  preser\e  the  surface 
from  disi-oloration  or  corrosion.  Iron,  tinjilate, 
and  other  metals  and  alloys  are  also  sometimes 
Lacquered.  The  laccpicr  u.sed  is  composed  essenti- 
ally of  shelllac  or  seed-lac,  or  both,  dissolved  in 
spirits  of  wine.  ISut  its  composition  varies  con- 
siderably. One  kind  consists  of  2  iiarts  of  shell- 
lac dissolved  in  20  parts  by  weight  of  alcohol, 
less  than  1   part  of  turpentine  being  mixed  with 


it.  It  is  customary,  however,  to  add  small 
quantities  of  one  or  more  gum-resins,  sucli  as 
sandar.ach,  amber,  and  aniiiie,  to  the  lacquer, 
which  is  coloured  with  gamboge,  dragon's  blood,' 
and  other  substances.  The  brass,  which  is  first 
heated  till  the  hand  can  just  safely  touch  it, 
generally  receives  two  coats  of  lac(|uer":  but  some- 
times the  first  coat  is  put  on  when  the  metal  is 
cold.  In  the  case  of  dark  l.acqueiing  the  brass  is 
fii-st  bnmzed  and  coated  with  bl.ick  lead.  Coal  .and 
tobacco  smoke,  as  well  .as  the  vapour  or  fumes  of 
some  chemical  substances,  injure  lacquered  surfaces. 
Lai-qiicr-mirc—Yhii  laccpier  used  for  the  cele' 
brated  lacquer-ware  of  .lapan  ditlers  entirely 
from  the  lacquer  used  for  br.ass.  The  body  of  this 
wjvre  is  of  wood,  and  the  lacquer  or  varnish  with 
which  it  is  coated  is  the  juice  of  the  l.acqiier- 
tree  jli'/i IIS  veniidfcra),  sometimes  also  called  the 
varnish-tree.  This  remarkable  lacquer  not  only 
forms  a  very  hanl  surface,  but,  unlike  other 
y.arnishes,  it  stands  a  considerable  heat  without 
injury,  so  that  in  .lapan  lacquered  vessels  are  used 
for  hot  sou|is  and  hot  alccdiolie  drinks.  There  are 
numerous  kinds  of  .Japanese  lacquer-ware,  the 
simplest  kind  being  perhaps  that  with  the  grain 
of  the  wood  seen,  for  which  a  line  transparent 
lacquer  is  used.  For  black  l.acquer-ware  the  juice 
or  varnish  is  ilarkened  with  galls  and  a  salt  of 
iron,  and  for  red  it  is  mixedwith  ,about  20  per 
cent,  of  cinnaliar  ;  orpiment,  oxide  of  iron,  and 
Prussian  blue  being  also  used  as  colours.  In  the 
case  of  gold  .and  silver  lacquer- wares  the  varnish 
is  mixed  with  about  30  per  cent,  of  the  powder 
of  these  metals  in  a  fine  state  of  division,  so  that 
when  the  surface  is  polished  it  shows  a  metallic 
lustre.  Tin  is  used  to  imitate  gold,  the  yellow 
hue  being  given  by  colour  in  the  varnish. 

The  Lacquered  snrf.ace  of  the  best  ware  is 
pre|i.ared  by  a  very  tedious  process,  owing  to  the 
number  of  coatings  it  receives.  For  the  .several 
preliminary  ones  crude  lacquer  is  used,  together 
with  a  single  coating  of  powdered  biscuit  earthen 
ware  and  w.ater,  the  surface  being  rubbed  with  .a 
whetstone  after  e.aeh.  Two  or  three  more  coatings 
of  lacquer  .are  next  ajiplied,  e.ich  being  nibbeil 
with  ch.aicoal  and  water.  For  the  linishiiig  coal 
the  best  Lacquer  is  employeil,  and  this  is  piiiished 
with  calcined  deer-horn,  finely  iiowdere<l,  the  linger 
and  a  little  oil  bringing  up 'the  final  glo.ss.  The 
various  articles  made,  such  as  boxes,  ves.sels,  tr.ays, 
cabinets,  &c.,  are  decorated  either  by  inlaying 
^yitll  metal,  ivory,  or  mother-of-pearl,  by  speck- 
ling and  gilding  with  gohl  or  siher,  by  il'csigns  in 
colour,  by  relief  paintings,  or  by  carving.  The  art 
of  l,aci|uering  is  a  very  ancient'  one  in  .Japan,  and 
fine  specimens  of  old  work  bring  very  high  prices. 

La«'r«'t»'ll«'.  Je.vx  Cii.\I!i,i;.s  Dominkjue  de. 
jouinalist  and  liistorian,  was  born  at  Metz  on  3d 
Seplemlier  17<!6.  He  was  .attracted  to  Paris  on  the 
oullir<'ak  of  the  Kevolution  ;  but  there,  instead  of 
following  his  jnofession,  that  of  an  ailvocate,  he 
turned  liis  abilities  to  journalism,  and  helped  to 
edit  J.e  Joia-ind  ilcs  ijelnits  and  l.r  .Iniinial  di 
Paris.  He  managed  to  escape  the  Heign  of  Terror 
by  enlisting  in  tin-  army  ;  but  soon  inocnred  his 
release  and  relurne<l  to' journ.alislic  work  in  the 
capital.  In  1810  he  was  nominated  censor  of  the 
press,  having  the  year  pievious  been  appointed 
professor  of  History  in  the  university  of  Paris 
This  post  he  iMdil'down  to  18.53.  From  1811  .-i 
member  of  the  French  Academy,  he  became  its 
president  in  1816.  Lacretelle  died  near  M.lcon 
on  2(itli  March  18.5.5.  He  wrote  a  series  of  works, 
respectable,  but  of  no  very  onlstaiidiiig  merit, 
dealing  with  the  history  of  France  from  the  time 
of  the  ieli;;ious  wars  down  to  the  middle  ol 
the  19th  century.  Of  these  the  most  useful 
are  Histoire  du  Dix-huiti&me  Siicle  (6  vols.  1808), 


LACROIX 


LACTIC    ACID 


477 


Pr(cis  Historitiue  dc  la  Revolution  (3  vols.  1801-6), 
and  llistoire  ae  Frame peiiihiiit  Ics  Gitcrrcs  de  Jleli- 
ition  (4  vols.  1814-10).— His  eMer  broUiei.  PlKHKK 
Louis  (1751-1824),  ilistiiij;uislieil  liiinsolf  as  an 
aJvocate  and  journalist,  and  liv  his  writings  on 
law  subjects. 

LiU'roiv.  I'.ML,  Fieiuli  niiscfllaiieous  writer, 
better  known  by  bis  pen-name  of  1'.  L.  J.\('()li, 
BlBl.loi'Ull.i;,  was  born  at  I'aris,  on  27tli  l'\"bniarv 
180(5.  AVbilst  still  at  school  he  bejjan  to  edit 
editions  of  the  old  French  cliussics,  as  Marot,  Uabe- 
lais,  &c.  Hut  it  was  in  the  lield  of  tlie  historical 
romance  that  he  won  liis  spurs  as  a  writer.  His 
industry  was  iirodigious,  and  the  number  of  works 
that  issued  from  his  pen  immensi'.  Besides  activ(dy 
assisting  in  more  than  one  journalistic  enterprise, 
he  wrote  romances,  plays,  books  on  history,  on 
manners  and  customs,  and  on  bibliography,  and 
edited  memoirs,  biographies,  ^.c.  His  most  valu- 
able produi-tions  were  a  series  of  works  on  the 
liabits,  manners,  customs,  costumes,  arts,  sciences. 
and  intellectual  condition  of  France  from  the 
middle  ages  ilown  to  tlie  lOtli  century.  His 
bibliographical  works  are  also  valuable,  especially 
those  in  connection  with  Molibre.  He  wrote  two 
elaborate    works   on    the   Historji  of  Pro.stiti(fioii, 

Iiublished  under  the  name  of  Pierre  Uufour. 
•"roni  18,"),")  onwards  Lacroix  was  custodian  of  the 
Ai-senal  librarv  of  Paris,  and  died  in  that  city  on 
16th  October  1884. 

Lat'ruiv,  Sylvestre  Fr.\scois,  a  French 
mathematician,  w;is  born  in  Paris  in  1765,  taught 
mathematics  from  1787  in  different  educational 
establishments  connected  with  the  army,  then  in 
the  Normal  School,  the  Polytechnic,  the  University 
of  France,  and  the  College  de  France  successively. 
He  died  on  'iotli  May  184:j.  He  is  not  remarkable 
for  original  discovery  in  mathematical  science, 
but  deserves  to  be  remembered  for  his  Traite 
du  Calcul  Differentiel  el  Iiiter/ral  (Paris,  1797; 
7th  ed.  1867),  and  its  continuatioii,  Traite  dcs 
Diffifences  et  i/es  S^rie^  (1800),  which  are  com- 
plete compilations  of  the  results  of  all  previous 
research. 

La  Crosse,  a  Canadian  field  game  [dayed  with 
a  ball  and  a  long  stick  (5  or  6  feet)  of  light  hickory, 
lient  at  the  top  like  a  bishop's  cro/.ier  ( Fr.  crosxe). 
Strings  of  deerskin  are  stretched  diagonally  acro.ss 
the  hooked  portion  of  the  cros.-^e  in  ditlerent  ilirec- 
tious,  forming  a  network — not  so  lightly  as  in  a 
battledore  or  teimis  racquet,  nor  so  loosely  as  to 
form  a  bag.  Only  one  ball  is  employed,  made  of 
iudia-rubber,  and  8  or  9  inches  in  circumference. 


The  Crcsse  and  liail. 

Posts  or  poles  about  6  feet  high,  with  a  small  Hag 
at  the  top  of  each,  complete  the  equipment.  The 
players  are  usually  twelve  on  each  side,  but  their 
number,  as  well  as  the  distance  of  the  goals  apart, 
is  nearly  optional.  The  object  of  the  game  is  for 
one  side  to  drive  the  ball  through  their  opponents' 
goal.  The  ball  must  not  be  touched  with  the  hand 
or  foot,  but  is  scoopeil  up  fronj  the  ground  with  the 
bent  end  of  the  crosse,  on  which  it  is  carried  hori- 
zontally, while  the  ])layer  runs  towards  on<-  of  the 
goals,  trying  to  ilodge  las  antagonists.  If  it  seems 
prudent,  he  pitches  the  ball  oil'  his  crosse  towiirds 
one  of  his  own  .side  who  nniy  be  in  a  better  position 
to  cany  it  towards  the  goal.  The  players  must  not 
strike,  trip  uj),  or  gntxp  one  another,  nor  ninst  any 


<me  lay  hold  of  the  crosse  of  another  ;  a  player  may 
strike  the  ball  oil' an  opponent's  cro.sse  with  his  own 
cros.se,  and  not  by  any  other  means. 

The  National  La  t 'rosso  As.socialion  of  Canada 
was  founded  in  1867,  and  in  the  same  year  an 
Indian  team  visited  Great  Britain.  Afterwards 
other  Canailian  teams  ]dayed  in  England  and 
Scotland,  and  several  local  (dubs  were  formed  ;  in 
a  few  places  the  game  is  very  jiopular. 

Lsi  Crosse,  cajiital  of  La  Crosse  county,  Wis- 
consin, stands  on  the  Mississippi,  at  the  month  of 
l^a  Crosse  Kiver,  and  at  the  junction  of  si\  railways, 
195  miles  by  rail  WNW.  of  .Milwaukee.  It  con- 
tains a  Roman  Catholic  cathedral  and  over  a  .score 
of  other  churches,  a  convent,  an  orphanai'e,  two 
hospitals,  excellent  schools,  and  a  public  library. 
The  city  liiis  a  large  trade  in  lumber  and  grain. 
The  manufactures  include  farming-implements, 
engines  and  boilers,  sashes  and  blinds,  i*\.c.,  and 
there  are  several  large  lunil)er-mills,  iron-foundries, 
and  breweries.      Pop.  ( 1870)  7785  ;  (  1890)  25,090. 

Lacryilia  tiiristi,  a  wine  of  a  sweet  but 
piquant  taste,  ;uid  a  most  agreeable  bouquet, 
which  is  prt)iluced  from  grapes  grown  on  Mount 
Vesuvius.  The  kind  most  esteemed  is  the  light  red, 
the  dark  amber-coloured  coming  next.  But  the 
genuine  wine  is  \ery  expensive,  as  only  a  small 
((uantity  is  produced  ;  and  the  name  ( derived  from 
a  moniistery  on  the  mountain)  is  commonly  given 
in  Naples  to  Capuan  and  other  second-class  wines. 
See  Wine. 

Laetantiiis,  Ltciis  C.i;Liu.s  (or  C.«cilius) 
FlUllI.-VNl's.  an  eminent  Christian  ajiologist  who 
nourished  in  the  early  part  of  the  4th  century. 
His  Italian  descent  is  more  than  dubious,  but  it  is 
certain  that  he  was  brought  up  in  Africa,  although 
it  is  very  unlikely  that  he  was  a  pujiil  of  Arnobius. 
He  seems  to  have  .settled  as  a  teacher  of  rhetoric  in 
Nicomedia  in  Bithyuia,  and  most  likely  he  was 
converted  there  by  witnessing  the  marvellous  con- 
stancy of  the  Christian  martyrs  under  the  tenth 
and  most  savage  persecution  of  Diocletian.  About 
the  year  313  he  was  invited  to  Gaul  by  Constantine 
the  Great,  to  act  as  tutor  to  his  son  Crispus,  and  is 
supposed  to  have  died  .about  325.  His  principal 
work  is  his  Dii-hiormii  Iiistitutiviuiiii  Ubri  cii.,  a 
production  both  of  a  jiolemical  and  ajiologetic 
character.  His  theology  is  somewhat  crude,  and 
he  has  been  accu.Mid  of  error  in  his  treatment  of  the 
doctrine  of  the  Holy  S])iril — his  Chiliasm  and  his 
e.schatology  Mere  not  peculiar  to  himself.  Among 
his  other  writings  are  treatises  He  Ira  Del  and  De 
Mortibus  I'erseeutiiriiiii,  both  inscribed  to  his  dear 
friend,  the  famous  Donatus.  His  style  is  remark- 
ably i)Ure,  justifying  his  title  of  the  '  Christian 
Cicero.'  His  character  apjiears  to  have  been  ele- 
vated but  austere,  perhaps  somewhat  soured  by  the 
poverty  and  trials  of  his  life. 

Lactaiitius  was  remarkably  popular  in  the  noddle  ages, 
and  MSS.  an<l  jirinted  editions  of  lii.s  works  are  numerous. 
Dufresnoy  in  his  edition  (2  vols.  1748)  enumerates  as 
many  as  S(i  editions  of  his  entire  works,  besides  separate 
editions  of  his  ditTerent  treatises,  from  14()1  to  1739  .\.  D. 
The  best  editions  are  those  in  vols,  x.-xi.  of  tlie  DiU. 
Pat.  Keel.  /.at.  by  (Jersdorf  (Leip.  1842-44),  and  Miyne'!, 
I'atrijtoiiia  (vol.  vi.  1S44).  There  is  a  translation  in 
Clark's  .'Viite-Xieene  Library. 

Laetalioii.    See  Milk,  Breast. 

Ijacteals.     See  UujestioN,  Vol.  III.  p.  815. 

Lartir  Arid.  CH3CH(OH)CO.,ll,  the  acid  con- 
tained in  sour  milk.  In  the  pure  state  it  is  a 
c<ilouriess,  transjiarent,  syrupy  liquid,  of  specific 
gravity  1-215.  It  is  witjiout  smell,  has  a  sharp 
!iciil  taste,  and  is  niiscibli-  with  water,  al<-<diol.  and 
ether.  It  is  formed  in  milk  by  lhi>  fiuinenlalion  of 
the  milk-sugar  undc^r  the  influence  of  an  organised 
ferment.   On  a  large  scale  it  is  usually  iirepareil  from 


478 


LACTOMETER 


LADY 


cane-sugar  in  the  following  manner  :  7  U).  of  cane- 
sugar  and  A  oz.  tartaric  aciil  are  dissolved  in  4  gal.  of 
water  and"  allowed  to  stand  for  a  few  <lays  ;  then 
4  oz.  of  rotten  rheesc  ruhhed  up  in  a  gallon  of  sour 
niilU,  and  '24  Hi.  of  zinc  oxide  ( zinc  white)  are  adiled, 
and  the  mixture  is  tlioroughly  stirred  and  kept  at 
a  temjierature  of  ahout  105°  F.'for  eight  or  ten  days. 
The  liiiuiil  is  hoiled  to  stop  the  fermentation, 
filtered,  and  evajiorated  till  the  zinc  lactate  which 
it  contains  crystallises;  this  is  then  re-di.ssolved 
in  water,  decomposed  with  sulphuretted  hydrogen, 
the  mixture  filtered  to  free  it  from  zinc  sulphide, 
and  evajiorati'd  on  a  water-hatli. 

Lactic  acid  occurs  very  widely  distributed  as  a 
product  of  the  natural  fermentation  of  sour  vege- 
table materials,  such  as  sauerkraut ;  it  is  also  found 
in  the  stomach  and  intestines.  An  isomeric  acid 
of  the  sanie  composition  hut  slightly  different  pro- 
perties, called  sarco-  or  para-lactic  acid,  occurs  as  a 
product  of  waste  of  animal  tissues,  and  is  found  in 
mu.scle  of  all  kinds,  especially  after  violent  exertion 
or  artificial  tetanus.  Sarco-lactic  acid  has  been 
frequently  detected  in  Idood  soon  after  its  removal  | 
from  the  body,  in  quantities  usually  below  1  part 
per  1000,  but  it  apparently  does  not  occur  in  normal 
healthy  blood  while  in  the  body. 

The  tests  for  lactic  acid  are  not  very  satisfactory. 
On  addition  of  lead  acetate  and  alcoholic  ammonia 
to  a  solution  containing  lactic  acid  an  insoluble 
lead  lactate,  3PbO,2C3H.,03,  is  precipitated  as  a 
white  powder.  The  properties  and  ainount  of  water 
of  cry.stallisation  of  the  zinc  lactates  are  also  char- 
acteristic. Most  of  the  lactates  are  crystalline  and 
.soluble  in  water. 

Lactometer,  or  Galactometer,  a  very  simple 
instrument  for  testing  the  richness  of  milk  ;  it  con- 
sists of  a  glass  tube  graduateil  to  100  parts.  New- 
milk  is  )ioured  in  up  to  the  toji  of  the  graduated 
part  and  allowed  to  stand  ;  and  when  tlie  cream 
has  completely  separated  the  value  of  its  quaii 
tity  is  shown  by  the  niiiiiber  of  parts  in  the  100 
wliieli  it  occujiies.  Another  form  of  instrument 
was  invented  by  Doert'el,  consisting  of  a  small 
hydrometer  with  a  scale  2  inches  long  divided 
into  20  degrees,  the  zero  being  placed  at  the  point 
to  which  the  instrument  sinks  in  water,  ana  the 
20tli  degree  corresponding  with  the  density  103X3. 
This  instrument  is  preferred  by  the  continental 
chemists;  and  14' is  held  to  show  milk  undiluted 
with  water. 

Laetiicai'iiiiii.    See  Lettici;. 

Ladakll'.  one  of  the  outlying  goveruoiships  of 
Caslniicre,  in  the  valley  of  the  I'liper  Indus,  and 
behind  the  great  central  range  of  the  Himalayas. 
The  l.adakhis,  some  20,000,  are  of  Turanian  stock 
and  Ihiddhists  in  religion.  The  capital  is  Lcli 
(q.v.).     See  Casiimkiie. 

Lad'ailllin  (Arab.  Unli'oi;  Gr.  /edcnion),  a  curi- 
ous, delicately-scented,  resinous  gum  which  exudes 
from  certain  kinds  of  Cistus,  chielly  C.  crc(icu.i,  C. 
hdrin,  and  C.  hiKrifiiliiis,  growing  in  Crete,  Cyprus, 
and  i>arts  of  Asia  Minor.  C.  Ittilitiiiknis,  strange 
to  say,  does  not  produce  the  gum.  I,adanum, 
under  the  name  of  Labdanuni,  is  alluded  to  by 
liiowning  in  I'lirdcdxiis ;  and  there  are  interesting 
articles  under  Lui/ruiiiiii  and  L(''(/c  in  the  Krencli 
K>ir)/r.lo/)t-(/ie,  ix.  172  and  336,  in  which  the  gum 
is  .saiil  to  be  colleeteil  (Ui  fringes  of  leather  attached 
to  long  ]joles,  and  drawn  over  the  shrubs  in  the 
heat  of  the  day.  In  Cyprus  at  the  present  time 
the  gum  is  ai'tually  collected  from  the  beards  of 
the  goats  that  browse  among  the  bushes,  a  system 
mentioned  by  Ileroilotus,  iii.  112.  At  one  time 
ladanum  was  used  in  medicine  and  as  a  perfume  ; 
it  is  now,  in  the  form  of  small  black  balls,  a  costly 
toy  lingered  by  soft  handed  idlers  in  the  Levant. 

LadiUt    iSee  Enuauine. 


Ladiii;;,  Bill  of.    See  Bill  of  Lading. 

Ladu.     See  GoNDOKORO. 

Lad'ogfU  L.VKE,  the  largest  lake  of  Europe,  is 

situated  a  short  distance  N.  of  St  l\>tersburg,  in 
Russia,  being  crossed  by  the  frontier  line  between 
that  country  and  Finland.  It  is  12!)  miles  in  length, 
78  in  breadth,  and  0998  sq.  m.  in  area.  The  .south 
ern  and  eastern  shores  are  low  and  marshy  ;  but  on 
the  north-west  the  coast  is  broken,  ami  rises  into 
dill's.  There,  too,  are  numerous  islands.  The  lake 
receives  the  waters  of  Lake  Onega  and  Lake  llmcn 
in  Russia  and  of  Lake  Saima  and  other  lakes  in 
Finland;  and  its  own  waters  are  carried  oil' to  the 
(iiilfof  Finland  by  the  Neva  (q.v. ).  The  average 
depth  of  Lake  Ladoga  does  not  exceed  300  feet, 
except  in  the  north-west,  w  here  over  a  limited  area 
the  depth  is  about  730  feet.  The  navigation  is 
exceedingly  dangerous  owing  to  the  shallows,  saml- 
banks,  and  sunken  rocks  with  which  the  lake 
alionnds,  and  to  the  winds  and  gales  which  pre- 
vail during  the  months  it  is  free  from  ice  (May- 
October).  In  order  to  obviate  tlu!  dillicuUies  of 
navigation,  canals  have  been  constructed  to  con- 
nect the  mouths  of  the  rivers  that  reach  it  along 
the  south  and  south-east  slim-es.  The  principal 
is  the  Ladoga  Canal  (70  miles  long  and  (iO  feet 
wide).  This  canal  system  forms  the  thoroughfare 
for  a  very  extensive  traffic  (some  20,000  vessels  an- 
nually, carrying  merchandise  v:i,lued  at  .t'0, 000,000) 
between  the  Volga  and  the  Baltic,  so  extensive, 
in  fact,  that  the  government  have  recently  seen 
fit  to  construct  a  new  canal  parallel  to  the  old 
Ladoga  Canal.  Comiiiunication  by  water  subsists 
between  Lake  Ladoga  and  the  Wiiile  Sea  as  well 
as  the  Caspian.  The  fauna  of  tin;  lake  is  arctic 
in  character.  Two  of  the  islands  in  the  north-west, 
Valaani  and  Kone\elz,  are  each  the  seat  (if  a 
monastery,  founded  in  960  and  1393  respectividy, 
which  are  visited  by  thousands  of  iiilgrims  every 
year. 

Ladroiies.  or  Mariana  Isl.vnds,  a  groii)>  of 
fifti^eii  islaiiils  in  the  western    racilic,  north  of  the 
Carolines,  in  13—21   N.  hit.  and  144  — 14tr  K.  long., 
disposed   in   a   row   almost   iliie    north   and   south; 
their  united  area  is  about  420  ift\.  m.     They  were 
discovered  1)V  Magellan  ( 1521 ),  whose  sailors  calleil 
them  the  'thieves'  {Lfi<b-i>iie.s)  Islands,'  from  the 
thievish  proiiensity  displayed   by   the  natives  :  in 
lOOS  thev  received   the   nanie  of  Mariaii.a   Islands. 
In    IS99"tlicv   were   sohl    by    Spain    to    the    Uiiiteil 
States.     A  channel   divides    the   islands    into   two 
grouiis.     The   live   to   the  south  are  low  and   Hat, 
tboscMo  the  north  moiintaiuoiis  ;  most  are  thickly 
wooded,  and  all  are  well  watered,  fruitful  in  cocoa- 
nuts,  rice,  maize,  cotton,  sugar,  tobacco,  and  indigo. 
The  area  cultivated,   however,   is  small,   and    the 
trade    is   of   little   consequence.       The    iieople   are 
mostly    indigeiums    Chamorros    and    Tagals    from 
Luzon,    besides   a   mixed    race   of   partly    Spanish 
descent.     .\t  the  time  when  the  islands  were  dis- 
covered  the   inhabitants   were  reckoned  at  60,000, 
hut   the   present   iiopulation    is   only    about   8700. 
Under   the   Siianish   rule   their  former  gaiety  and 
cheerful   imlustry  have  changcil   to  chill,  apathetic 
indilleicnce  and' laziness,  and  their  heathenism  to 
an  outward  Christianity  which  places  no  chi'ck  on 
license   and    immorality.       The    largest   islanil    is 
Guam,   with  an   area  of    198  sq.    m.,   and   a   pop. 
of  nearly  7000  ;  on  it  is  the  only  town,  Agai'ia. 

Lady,  a  woman  of  distinction  correlatively  to 
Lui-d  (q.v.),  useil  in  a  more  extensive  seii.se  in 
common  parlance  correlatively  to  </C)ilkiiiriii.  As 
a  title  it  belongs  to  peeresses,  the  wives  of  peers 
and  of  lords  by  courtesy,  the  word  Lady  being  in 
all  these  cases  prelixed  to  the  pi^era^-e  title.  The 
daughters  of  dukes,  marquises,  ami  carls  are  by 
courtesy  desigaatcil  by  the  title  Lady  prelixed  to 


LADYBIRD 


LAENNEC 


479 


their  Christian  name  ami  surname  ;  a  title  not  lost 
by  niarriaj;e  with  a  commoner.  'Lady,'  prelixeil 
to  their  husbands  surname,  is  the  usual  title  of 
wives  of  Baronets  (((.v.)  and  knights.  See  COUR- 
TESY Titles,  Addkess  (Fokms  of). 

Ladybird  (Coccinelht).  a  genus  of  nretty  little 
beetle.s,  generally  of  a  brilliant  red  or  yellow  colour, 
with  l)lack,  red,  white,  or  yellow  spots.  The  form 
is  nearly  hemispherical,  the  under-surface  Hat,  the 
thorax  and  head  small,  the  antenna'  and  legs  short. 
When  handled  they  emit 
a  yellowish  tluid,  with 
a  disagreeable  smell. 
Adults  and  larva>  feed 
^A  -m         wm,'^  chiefly  on  aphides,  an<l 

/*^  ^   -  ••  V^         ^'''''  ""^*  most  useful  to 
i  ■m    ^^-v      liopK^owers   and    other 

jWk—  I    .''J*-  agriculturists.   The  eggs 

are  laid  under  the  leaves 
of  plants,  on  which  the 
larva;  afterwards  run 
about  in  pui-suit  of 
Ladybird(CoccijM'?/a  occHata),  aphides.  In  late  autumn 
magnified.  the  surviving  adults  find 

safe  corners,  and  hiber- 
nate till  spring.  Ladybirds  occasionally  occur  in  im- 
mense numbers,  and  from  ignorance  of  their  use- 
fulness have  sometimes  been  regarded  with  super- 
stitious dread.  The  family  of  which  the  genus  is 
type,  Coccinellida:,  includes  about  1.500  species,  of 
which  forty  or  so  are  Britisk  One  of  the  com- 
monest forms  (C  septem-punctata)  is  found  over  all 
Europe,  and  in  parts  of  Asia  and  Africa.  The 
name  is  apparently  a  modification  of  Ladijhug, 
lady  referring  to  the  Virgin  Mary,  a.s  the  German 
name  Maricnkafcr  suggests. 

Lady  Chapel,  a  chapel  dedicated  to  the 
Virgin  Mary  ('Our  Lady'),  and  usually,  but  not 
always,  placed  eastwards  from  the  altar  ^^•hen 
attached  to  catheilrals.  Henry  VI  I. 's  t'liapel  at 
Westminster  is  the  lady  chapel  of  that  cluircli. 

Lady-day,  one  of  the  regular  (juarter-days  in 
England  and  Ireland,  on  which  rent  is  generally 
made  payable.  It  is  the  "25111  of  March  in  each 
year ;  l>ut  in  some  districts  Old  Lady  Day  ( April 
6)  is  still  observed  as  the  terra  day.     See  Annun- 

CIATIOX. 

Lady  WemiAthyriumJilixfctmina,  or  Asplen- 
ium  filix  fuimitia),  a  beautiful  fern,  common  in 
nioLst  woods  in  Britain,  witli  bipinnate  fronds 
sometimes  two  feet  long.  Tlie  whole  plant  has  an 
extremely  graceful  appearani'e.  It  is  said  to  possess 
the  same  anthelnuntic  properties  as  the  male  fem. 

Lady's  Slautle  {AkhemUla),  a  genus  of  herb- 


cold  climates,  of  the  natural  order  Rosacea-,  sub- 
order Sangui.sorbea' ;  having  small  and  numerous 
Uowei-s,  an  S-cleft  calyx,  no  corolla,  and  the  fruit 
surnmnded  by  the  pei-sistent  calyx.  The  name 
lady's  mantle,  signifying  Mantle  uf  Our  Lti(/i/—i.e. 
of  the  Virgin  Mary— is  derived  from  tlie  form  of 
the  leaves. — The  Common  Lady's  Mantle  {A. 
i-ii/rjan's)  is  abundant  on  banks  and  in  pastures 
throughout  Britain.  Its  root-leaves  are  large, 
plaited,  niany-lobed,  and  serrated  ;  its  flowers,  in 
corymbose  terminal  clusters,  are  usually  of  a  yellow- 
ish-green colour.— The  Alpine  Lady's'  Mantle  (A. 
alpiiM)  grows  on  Scotch  mountains,  and  has  digi- 
tate serrated  leaves,  white  and  satinv  beneath. 
—A  common  Britisli  plant  is  the  Field  Lady's 
Mantle,  or  Parsley  Piert  (A.— ox  Aphancs  — 
anriisis),  found  in  jiastwres,  an  astringent  and 
diuretic,  said  to  be  u.seful  in  cases  of  stone  in  the 
bladder,  by  producing  a  large  secretion  of  lithic  acid. 
Lady's  .Slipper  ( Ci//>ripe(/iiim ),  a  genus  of 
lilanls  of  the  natural  order  Orchi(le;e,  of  which  one 
species,  C.  Culceol ii.i,  is  a  native  of  liritaiii,  li<'ing 
found  in  a  few  [daces  in  the  north  of  Kngland,  and 
is  reckoned  one  of  the  most  beautiful  of  the  British 
orchids.     The  genus  is  remarkable  for  the   large 


Alpine  Lady's  Mantle  {Alchemilla  alpina) : 
n,  a  flower. 

aceous   plants,   chiefly  natives  of   temperate    and 


"i  Ci/prijxdium  spectabilix :  b,  flower  and  leaf  uf 
C  bavhainm. 

inflated  lip  of  the  corolla.  Several  very  beautiful 
species  are  natives  of  the  colder  parts'  of  North 
America.  C.  s/jcctabilis  is  a  North  American 
species;  C.  barba/ iim,  a.  native  of  Java.  Both  are 
in  cultivation,  tlie  former  in  hardy  collections,  the 
latter  in  liotliouses. 

Ladysillitll,  a  small  town  in  Natal  (named 
from  a  colonial  governor's  wife),  14(1  miles  NW. 
of  Duiliaii  liy  rail.  On  the  outbreak  of  the  Trans- 
vaal War  in  1S99  it,  including  the  army  of  Sir 
George  White,  was  invested  by  the  Boer  forces, 
and  after  a  siege  of  one  hundred'  and  twenty  days, 
was  linally  relieved  bv  .Sir  Itedvers  Buller  on  I'Sth 
reliruaiy'lilOO.      I'op.' al l  '2000. 

Lnclit'll.  a  nortliern  suburb  of  Brussels,  with 
( IS'Jl )  2.'), '21 1  inhabitants.  In  it  is  the  ciypt  of  the 
Belgian  royal  family  in  the  new  Gothic  cliurch  of 
the  Virgin,  and  a  royal  palace  {built  in  ITS'J),  which 
previous  to  its  destruction  by  tire  on  1st  January 
1890  contaim«l  valuable  works  of  art  and  his- 
torical documents.  The  palace  has  been  rebuilt  in 
the  same  style  as  the  one  destroyed. 

LaeniKM*,  1{i:nk  TiitioDoiiK  h'vcintiie,  a 
distingnislii'il  physician,  was  Ikuu  at  lj>iiiiiiper,  in 
Lower  Brittany,  17th  February  I7S1.  He  stmlied 
medicine  under  his  uncle  at  Nantes,  and  at  Paris 


480 


L^TARE    SUNDAY 


LAFFITTE 


under  Coivisart,  to  whom  the  medical  profession 
is  mainly  indebted  for  the  introduction  of  percus- 
sion in  the  invest if;at ion  of  diseases  of  the  chest 
(althouj;li  tlie  orijiinal  discovery  is  due  to  Auen- 
lirugKer).  In  17!!!'  Laennec  was  an  army-doctor  in 
the  tield  ;  in  KSU  he  became  the  chief  editor  of  tlie 
Journal  dc  Mc(/cciiir :  in  1816  lie  was  appointed 
ciiief  physician  to  tlu?  Ilopital  Necker,  and  it  was 
there  that  lie  soon  after  nuide  the  discovery  of 
'  mediate '  auscultation,  or,  in  other  words,  of  the 
use  of  the  Stethoscope  (q.v. ).  In  LSI!)  he  published 
his  Tndfc  t/c  I'Ausctittation  Mediate,  which  has  un- 
doubtedly produced  a  greater  efiect,  in  so  far  as  the 
advance  of  dia<;iiosis  is  concerned,  than  any  other 
single  book.  His  treatise  had  not  long  appeared 
when  indications  of  consumption  were  discovered  in 
his  own  chest  1)V  means  of  the  art  of  his  own 
invention,  and  after  a  few  years  of  delicate  health, 
during  whicli  he  continued  to  practise  in  Paris,  he 
retired  to  die  in  his  native  province,  13th  August 
1826.     See  his  Life  by  Lallour  (Quimper,  1868). 

Ljetare  Sunday.    See  Golden  Uo.se. 

L;p>'iilo.se.    See  Sug.-ve. 

Laf'iiyottO,  ca|>ital  of  Tippecanoe  county, 
Indiana,  on  the  Wabash  River,  and  on  the  AV abash 
and  Erie  Canal,  6.3  miles  NW.  of  Indianapolis,  at 
the  intersection  of  live  railways.  It  is  a  flourishing 
city,  in  the  midst  of  a  rich  prairie  country.  Laid 
out  in  18"25,  it  contains  numerous  churches,  the 
Purdue  state  uidversity,  and  manufactories  of 
farndng-implements,  machinery,  cars  and  wagons, 
&c.      Pop.  (1880)  14,860;  (1890)  16,243. 

La  Fayette,  iI.\D.\ME  de,  the  reformer  of 
Freneli  romance-writing,  was  born  in  1634,  her 
lather  being  a  marshal  and  governor  of  Havre. 
She  married  tlie  Conite  de  La  Fayette  in  1655,  and 
was  a  mendier  in  her  youth  of  the  literary  circle 
which  met  in  the  Hotel  cle  Kambouillet.  She  was 
the  intimate  friend  of  Mine  de  Sevigue,  and  in  her 
thirty-third  year  formed  a  liaison  with  La  Koehe- 
foucawld,  whicli  lasted  until  his  death  in  1680. 
She  died  in  1693.  Her  novels  Zi^f/i;  and  the  iV//(- 
cesse  de  CUves  led  to  a  reaction  in  taste  against  the 
fantastic  and  long-winded  romances  of  such  writers 
as  La  Calprenc'de  ami  Mdlle  de  Scudery.  She  had 
a  genuine  command  of  (lassion  and  knowledge  of 
character,  and  in  her  I'riiieessc  dc  Clems  gave  a 
vivid  and  faithful  picture  of  the  court-life  of  her 
day.  She  commitleil,  however,  a  curious  ana- 
chronism in  transferring  the  men  and  women  of  Louis 
XIV. 's  age  to  the  court  of  Henry  II.  ;  for  example, 
her  Dnchessede  Valentinois  is  Mine  de  Montesiian, 
the  Prince  de  Clfcves  is  the  Comte  de  La  I'ayet te,  and 
the  Due  de  Nemours  is  La  Itochefoucauld.  Her 
novels,  says(!cruzez,  were  more  than  a  novelty,  they 
were  almost  a  revolution.  Her  Ouirret  t'utnjiUtes  lill 
5  vols.  (1812;  new  ed.  1882);  of  her  ,l/<«((/(Vfi' the 
bested,  is  by  Asse(  1890).  See  Hanssonville's mono- 
graph (  1891  ),  and  Ste-lieuve's  I'urtraits  dc  Feinmes. 

Lafayette,  M.\uie  Je.vn  P.vul  Koch  Yves 
(;ii.I!E1;t  -MoTiEK,  M.\1KH'IS  de,  was  born  in  the 
castle  of  Chavagiiac,  in  Auvergue,  Seiitember  6, 
1757.  He  belonged  to  an  ancient  family  :  came  to 
his  estates  at  thirteen;  married  three  years  later; 
entered  the  army,  and  sailed,  in  spite  of  the  at  least 
jirofessed  ojiposition  of  the  court,  for  America  in 
1777,  to  otter  his  sword  to  the  colonists  in  their 
struggle  for  incl<'j)cnd('iice.  He  became  an  intimate 
and  admiiiiig  friciid  of  Washington,  who  gave  him 
the  command  of  a  division  after  his  conduct  at 
the  battle  of  liraiicly  wine.  The  treaty  between  \\u: 
insurgents  and  I'' ranee  at  once  led  to  war  belween 
France  and  England,  ami  Lafayette  returned  to  his 
country  early  in  1779.  Six  months  later  he  again 
cro.ssed  the  Atlantic,  was  charged  with  the  defence 
of  Virginia,  and  had  his  share  in  the  battle  of 
Yorktown,  wliicli  practically  closed  the  war.      On 


a  third  visit  to  North  America  in  1784,  after  the 
conclusion  of  jieace,  he  was  received  in  such  a 
manner  that  his  tour  was  a  ccmtinual  triumph. 

Lafayette  had  imhiheil  liberal  principles  in  the 
freer  air  of  America,  and  was  eager  for  reforms  in 
his  native  country.  He  was  called  to  tlie  Assembly 
of  Notables  in  1787,  and  sat  in  its  successor, 
the  Assembly  of  the  States  (Jeneral,  and  in  that 
which  grew  out  of  it,  the  famous  National  Assendilv 
of  1789.  He  took  a  prominent  part  in  its  jiroceecf- 
ings,  and  laid  on  its  table,  on  the  9th  July  1789, 
a  declaration  of  rights  based  on  .IcH'crson's  Declara- 
tion of  Independence.  He  was  soon  appointed  to 
the  chief  command  of  the  armed  citizens,  where- 
upon he  formed  the  National  Guard,  and  gave  it 
the  tricolor  cockade.  Indeed,  in  the  first  stages  of 
the  llevolntion,  it  seemed  as  if  the  '  tiramlison- 
Crom  well -Lafayette'  had  the  destinies  of  France 
in  his  hands.  But  the  fever  of  revolution  soon 
surged  too  hotly  for  the  constitutional  channels 
in  which  he  would  have  had  it  How.  He  struggled 
incessantly  for  order  and  bniiianity,  yet  was 
mortified  to  the  heart  by  the  furious  violence  of 
the  mob  which  butchered  F'oulon  and  bi.inilished 
the  reeking  heart  of  the  commandant  lierthier 
before  his  eyes.  The  Jacobins  hated  his  modera- 
tion, while  the  court  abhorred  his  reforming  zeal, 
and  both  combined  to  defeat  him  in  his  canvass 
against  Petion  for  the  mayoralty  of  Paris.  Along 
with  Bailly  he  fimnded  the  club  of  the  Feuillants, 
and  he  supported  the  abolition  of  title  as  well  as 
of  all  class  privileges.  After  the  adoption  of  the 
constitution  of  1790  he  retired  to  his  estate  of 
Lagrange  till  he  received  the  command  of  the  army 
of  Ar<lciines,  with  which  he  won  the  first  victories 
at  Phili]jpeville,  .Maulieuge,  and  F'lorennes.  But 
the  hatred  of  the  Jacobins  increased,  and  at  length 
Lafayette,  who  had  come  from  the  army  to  Paris 
publicly  to  denounce  the  Jacobin  Club,  finding  on 
his  return  to  the  camp  that  he  could  not  persuade 
his  soldiers  to  march  to  Paris  to  save  the  consti- 
tution, rode  over  into  the  neutral  territory  of  Liege. 
He  was  seized  by  the  Austrians  and  imiiri.s(med  at 
Olmiitz  till  Bonajiarte  obtained  his  liberation  in 
1797  ;  but  he  took  no  jiart  in  public  atiairs  during 
the  ascendency  of  Bonaparte.  He  sat  in  the 
Chamber  of  De)iuties  from  1818  to  1824  as  one  of 
the  extreme  Left,  and  from  1825  to  IS.SO  he  was 
again  a  leader  of  the  opp(]silion.  In  1830  he  took 
an  active  part  in  the  revolution,  ami  coiiimanded 
the  National  Guards.  In  1824  he  revit^ited  America, 
by  invitation  of  Congress,  who  voted  him  a  grant  of 
2()0,000  ilollars  and  a  township  of  land.  He  died  at 
Paris,  20th  May  1834. 

See  his  M' moires  H  Corrcapondance  (8  vols.  1837^40); 
studies  by  Ket'iiaiilt  Wariii  (1824)  and  S;irraiic  (ISS'-M; 
Ijfe  l>y  li.  Tuckcrmaii  (  Nuw  York,  1889);  two  books  by 
Bardou-x  (1892);  tlie  Diary  and  Letters  of  OaueiTiieur 
jl/or7*w  ( 1 888 ) ;  and  lioniol's  7^rtr(/''i/'«''""  dc  la  France 
a  VStabli  use  incut  dtn  Etuts  Unis  (1889-91). 

Lallitte,  J.\<"i;ues,  a  French  banker  and  states- 
man, born  at  Bayonne,  24tli  October  1767,  began 
life  as  a  banker's  clerk  in  Paris,  and  in  1805 
began  business  on  his  own  account.  He  soon 
acquired  great  wealth  and  in  1814  was  maile 
governor  of  the  liank  of  France.  After  the  second 
restoration  he  joined  tlu^  opjiosition  in  tln^  Cham- 
ber of  Deputies,  and  enjoyed  the  highest  iio]uilarity 
in  Paris  ;  he  was  elected  by  all  twenty  .sections 
in  the  city  in  1817.  In  18.30  he  made  his  house  the 
hcadiiuarters  of  the  friends  of  the  revolution,  and 
out  ot  his  private  means  supiilied  great  part  of  the 
funds  for  carrying  tbnuigh  the  movement.  In 
November  he  was  entrusted  with  the  formation  of 
a  cabinet,  but  he  only  held  power  until  12tli  March 
following.  Mcanwhil(!  he  was  obliged  to  .sell  his 
jiroperty  to  pay  his  debts.  A  nalional  subscri|i- 
lion  preserved  him  his  hotel  in  Paris;  and  from  the 


LAFITE 


LAGOS 


481 


ruins  of  hi^  fortune  he  founded  a  new  Discount 
Bank  in  1837.  As  tlie  gDveinnient  receded  from 
the  princiides  of  the  revohition  of  1830,  Latlitte 
became  more  and  more  active  in  oiiposition.  In 
1843,  to  the  j;reat  displeasure  of  tlie  court,  he  was 
elected  president  of  the  Chamber  of  Deputies.  He 
died  at  I'aris,  ^eih  May  1844.  The  Sottroiirs  i/c 
J.  Ldffifte,  raconles  par  liii-mcme  (3  vols.  Paris, 
1844 ),  were  written  by  Marchal. 

Lalite.    See  Borde.vux. 

Lafontaine,  Je.\N  DE,  was  born  on  July  8, 
1621.  at  Chateau-Thierry,  in  Champagne.  His  early 
education  was  neglected.  He  was  placed  in  a 
clerical  seminary,  which  he  soon  quitted  to  under- 
take his  father's  duties  as  master  of  woods  and 
forests.  Early  in  life  he  devoted  himself  to  the 
study  of  Kabelais,  Marot,  and  other  old  writers, 
and  set  himself  to  the  composition  of  verses — all  of 
them  more  or  less  worthless.  In  16o4  he  published 
a  verse  translation  of  the  Eiinuclinsoi  Terence,  and 
then  went  up  to  Paris,  where  he  won  the  favour  of 
Foiujuet,  who  awarded  him  a  pension  of  1000  francs 
on  condition  that  he  furnished  a  piece  of  verse 
quarterly.  Tlie  vei'ses  thus  i)roduced  showed  con- 
siderable originality,  and  their  author  became  the 
darling  of  the  ladies  of  highest  distinction  in  Paris. 
During  six  years  he  wrote  little,  abandoning  him- 
self to  a  life  of  gallantry  and  to  social  meethigs 
with  Molicie,  Bofleau,  and  Racine.  His  Contes  et 
Nouvelles  en  Vers  appeared  in  1665 ;  his  Fables 
Choisics  mises  en  Vers  in  1668;  and  his  Ainours  de 
Psyche  et  tie  Cujtidon  in  1669.  Among  his  chief 
patronesses  were  Marguerite  of  Lorraine  and  the 
Duchess  of  Bouillon,  and  for  nearly  twenty  years 
he  was  maintained  in  the  household  of  Mine  de 
la  Sabliere.  In  1684  he  read  an  admirable  Dis- 
coiirs  en  Vers  on  his  reception  by  the  Academy,  to 
which  he  was  admitted  much  against  the  wish  of 
the  king.  In  her  later  years  Mine  de  la  Sabliere 
became  devout,  but  Lafontaine  attached  himself 
to  the  dissolute  Prince  de  Conti,  pursuing  in  his 
old  age  the  follies  and  dissipations  of  his  youth. 
She  died  in  1693,  and  for  his  two  remaining  years  he 
was  cared  for  by  Mine  d  Hervart,  who  maintained 
him  until  his  death,  which  occurred  at  Paris  on 
April  13,  1695.  During  an  illness  about  two  years 
before  he  had  allowed  himself  to  be  converted  in 
so  far  at  least  as  to  acknowledge  the  impropriety  of 
the  Contes  and,  it  is  .said,  destroy  a  new  play.  He 
was  one  of  the  idlest,  the  most  reckless,  the  most 
frivolous  and  dissipated  of  men,  but  he  wa.s  like- 
wise one  of  the  most  lovable  and  charming,  as  he 
was  assuredly  one  of  the  most  gifted. 

The  subjects  of  the  Contes  are  taken  from  Boc- 
caccio, Ariosto,  Machiavelli,  Kabelais,  the  Ilejila- 
meroH,  the  Cent  Nuurelles  iioiiviUcs,  Apuleius, 
Athen;eus,  and  other  writers.  The  stories  are  retold 
with  inimitable  skill,  Lafontaine  surpassing  in  wit 
and  in  narrative  dexterity  the  aulliors  with  whom 
he  challenged  comparison.  Nothing  could  be  easier, 
more  sparkling,  more  ingeniously  and  gracefully 
turned  than  his  verse.  The  language  h;is  a  racy 
archaic  llavour,  the  style  combining  the  elegance 
of  the  ITtli  century  writers  with  something  of  the 
Kabelaisian  richness.  The  subjects  are  nearly  all 
of  the  grossest  description,  and  their  ''rossness  is 
in  most  ca.ses  artfully  heighteneil  by  Lafontaine. 
His  story  of  Alaciel,  for  example,  is  a  deeply- 
degraded  versi(m  of  the  sombre  though  volu]itumis 
tale  told  by  Boccaccio.  As  for  the  Fuhhs,  their 
charm  is  undying,  and  they  are  free  from  the  impro- 
priety of  the  (yjulrs.  It  has  been  truly  said  of  lliciu 
by  Silvestre  de  Sacy  that  they  suiiiily  three  several 
delights  to  three  several  ages — '  flie  child  rejoices 
in  the  freshness  and  vividness  of  the  story  ;  the 
eager  student  of  literature  in  the  consummate  art 
vrith  which  it  is  told  ;  the  exiierienceil  man  of  the 


world  in  the  subtle  rellections  on  character  and  life 
which  it  conveys. '  Nevertheless  the  general  verdict 
of  Frcncli  critics  on  Lafontaine  can  hardly  fail  to 
seem  unduly  high  to  his  English  readers.  Theodore 
lie  Banville,  for  exanqde,  maintains  that  he  is  not 
merely  an  artist  suineme  in  lyric  cmiiedy,  but  a 
great  romantic  poet,  in  whose  work  tlipie  is  alwavs 
a  'window  mien  to  heaven.'  Such  praise  is  hardly 
judicious.  Lafontaine  was  a  siiarkling  satirist,  a 
brilliant  versitier,  a  well-nigh  incomparable  master 
of  the  ditlicult  art  of  telling  a  story  in  rhyme.  He 
combined,  as  another  critic  has  said,  tlie  Hower  of 
tiie  esprit  Ganlois  with  a  perfume  of  antiiiuity.  He 
was  a  great — not  merely  an  amusing — writer,  but 
he  was  not  a  great  jioet.  With  all  its  graces,  his 
verse  has  not  the  melody,  the  passion,  the  power  of 
suggesting  a  beauty  and  mystery  beyond  tne  exact 
meaning  of  the  words,  which  distinguish  all  high 
lyric  work.  But  on  the  other  hand  it  would  be  hard 
to  name  a  French  poet,  saving  Molicre,  who  has 
given  such  delight  to  others  than  his  countrymen  as 
has  been  given  by  Lafontaine. 

See  Sainte-Beuve's  Portraits  Littiraircs,  vol.  i.  ;  Ban- 
ville's  Petit  Traite  de  Pocsie  Fran^aise  :  Taine's  Essai  sur 
les  Fabtesde  La  Fontaine ;  and  Lucas  Collins'  La  Fontaine 
and  other  French  Fabulists  {VAii'2).  The  best  editionsare 
by  Marty-Laveaux  in  the  Bihlioiheque  Elzeinricnne  ;  A. 
Pauly  in  Leinerre's  Collection  des  Classiqaes  Frani;aises ; 
L.  Moland  in  the  Libraire  des  Bibliophiles ;  and  Uirard 
and  Dtsfeuilles  in  the  Grands  ^crirains. 

Lago  Maggiore.    See  M.\ggioee. 

LagOIIiys.  a  genus  of  rodents,  much  resembling 
hares  or  rabbits,  but  with  limbs  of  more  equal 
length,  more  perfect  clavicles,  longer  claws,  longer 
head,  shorter  ears,  and  no  tail.  There  arc  aliout  a 
dozen  species,  one  in  south-east  Europe,  one  on  the 
Kocky  Mountains,  and  the  rest  on  the  iiiountains  of 
northern  Asia.  They  are  about  the  size  of  guinea- 
pigs,  and  make  burrows,  but  are  particularly  in- 
teresting for  their  habit  of  stacking  choice  herbage 
for  winter  use.  The  stacks  of  the  Siberian  species, 
the  Alpine  Lagomys  or  Pika  (L.  alpiiiiis),  are  said 
to  be  utilised  bj-  the  sable-hnnters  for  fodder. 

LagOOH(Lat.  lacuna,  'ahollow,'  'ajiool'jisa 
species  of  lake  formed  by  the  inertlowing  eitlier  of 
the  sea  or  of  rivers,  or  by  the  iutiltration  of  water 
from  these ;  and  hence  lagoons  are  sometimes 
divided  into  fluvial  and  marine.  They  are  found 
only  in  low-lying  lands,  such  as  the  coasts  of 
Holland,  Italy,  the  Baltic,  and  the  east  coast  of 
South  America  ;  are  generally  shallow,  and  do  not 
always  jnesent  the  same  aspect.  In  some  cases 
they  are  completely  dried  up  in  summer  ;  in  others, 
after  being  once  formed,  they  jireserve  throughouf 
the  whole  year  the  character  of  stagnant  marshy 
pools;  and  in  others  again  the  sea,  which  re-iinites 
them  to  itself  in  winter,  is  sejiarated  from  them  in 
summer  by  a  bar  of  sand  or  shingle. 

LagO.s,  a  seaport  on  the  south  coast  of  Portu- 
gal, 30  miles  ENE.  from  the  extremity  of  Cape  St 
Vincent.  Pop.  7900,  mIio  lish  for  tunny  and 
sardines.  In  tlie  bay  of  La^os  Admiral  Boscawen 
defeated  the  French  Toulon  fleet,  August  18,  1759. 

Lagos,  a  British  colony,  an  island,  and  a  town 
on  till'  (iiiiiica  coast  of  Africa.  The  co/«h.i/ extends 
from  o  to  6  E.  long.,  and  comprises  the  islands  of 
Lagos  and  Iddo  (annexed  in  1851 ),  the  districts  of 
Palma  and  Leckie  ( 1862 ).  district  of  Badagry  ( 1863), 
Katanu  (1879),  .\ppa  (1883),  and  Maliiii,  (Jgbo, 
and  .lakri  (1885).  Area  of  colonv,  1071  sq.  m. 
Tlie  inhabitants  (85,607  in  1891 )  are "iiiostly  Negroes 
and  two-l birds  pagans,  though  Mdh.uiniiedanisni  i> 
making  great  headway.  Average  annual  value  ot 
exports  (palm  oil,  palm  kernels,  ivory,  giiiii  copal, 
cotton,  and  (luiiiea  grains),  i"582,04() ;  of  iiii]iorts 
(spirits,  tobacco,  cotton  goods,  and  hardware), 
£466,370.      Trade   is   carried   on    principally   with 


482 


LAGOSTOMUS 


LA    HOGUE 


England  and  Germany,  to  a  less  extent  with  the 
United  States,  France,  and  Brazil.  The  islniid  has 
an  area  of  S:l  sq.  ni.  ;  and  at  its  western  end 
stands  the  loicn,  the  principal  commercial  place  on 
this  part  of  the  coast,  and  the  onlv  safe  liaroour  for 
a  ilist<ince  of  1000  mik-s.  Pop.  40;000.  The  1)ishop 
of  the  Niger  territory  resides  here  ;  hut  Laf,'os  itself 
liclonfjs  to  the  diocese  of  Sierra  Leone.  Previous  to 
tlie  interference  of  the  British  La^os  was  one  of  the 
cluef  entrepots  for  the  e.xport  of  sl.aves.  Created  a 
separate  <,'"^ernnient  in  1863,  tlie  colony  formed 
part  of  the  West  African  Settlements  (from  1H66) 
and  of  the  ( !old  Coast  ( from  1874 )  successively.  In 
1886  the  present  colony  was  constituted. 

Laifustoimis.    See  CiiixcuiLL.v. 

La;£rail^4',  Joseph  Louk,  Comte,  the  great 
algeliraist,  was  born  at  Turin,  25th  January 
I7;i6.  His  father,  who,  as  well  as  his  mother, 
was  of  Fiench  descent,  was  war-treasnrer  to  the 
Piedmontese  government.  In  later  life  Lagrange 
explained  his  first  ajjplication  to  the  study  of 
nuithematics  by  the  fact  that  the  family  prop- 
erty ha<l  been  lost  in  speculations.  At  the  age 
of  seventeen  a  paper  of  Halley's  in  the  Phito- 
sophicdl  Trrinsactions  turned  him  towards  algebra 
and  analytical  geometry,  and  then  his  powers 
developed  with  striking  precocity.  In  1754  he 
was  ajipointed  mathematical  profe.ssor  in  the 
Koyal  Scliool  of  Artillery ;  at  the  same  time 
he  discovered  a  seiies  for  diHerential  exi)ansion 
analogous  to  the  binomial  theorem  of  Newton,  and 
attracted  Euler's  attention  by  a  letter  on  the 
general  solution  of  certain  isoperimetrical  problems 
which  had  been  proposed  to  the  best  mathema- 
ticians in  Europe.  He  also  corresponded  with 
DAlembert,  tlien  the  leader  of  French  scientific 
society.  At  Euler's  suggestion  Frederick  the  (Ireat 
appointed  Lagrange  to  succeed  him  as  director  of 
the  Academy  of  Berlin.  Before  leaving  Piedmont 
he  did  much  original  work  in  integration  and 
partial  dillerences,  applying  mathematical  methods 
to  physics  and  astronomy,  and  assisted,  in  1758, 
to  found  the  Turin  Academy  of  Sciences.  In  1762, 
by  his  completion  of  the  Calculus  of  Variations, 
the  main  tlii!ory  of  which  had  been  foreshadowed 
in  his  discussion  of  isoperimetricals,  and  his  in- 
vestigations of  sound,  harmonics,  &c.  by  new 
analytical  methods,  Lagrange  gained  a  European 
reputation,  though  at  the  expense  of  his  health, 
whicli  was  never  afterwards  robust.  His  memoir 
on  the  moon's  liljration,  which  in  1764  obtained 
the  pri/(!  of  the  French  Academy,  lironglit  into 
.I)rominc>uce  his  great  '  principle  of  virtual  veloci- 
ties,* which  was  presently  to  be  so  largely  utilised 
in  dynamical  problems.  Lagrange  gave  the  first 
complete  proof  of  Laplace's  generalisation,  that, 
so  far  as  the  laws  of  motion  are  concerned,  our 
solar  system  is  necessarily  stable  and  permanent, 
because  all  the  changes  of  the  iilanctary  orbits, 
caused  by  their  reciprocal  gravitation,  are  periodic. 
While  in  I'rnssia,  from  1766  to  1787,  Lagrange 
read  befcne  the  Berlin  Academy  about  sixty  disser- 
tations on  the  application  of  the  higher  analysis 
to  mechanics  and  dynamics.  From  the  leading 
results  of  these  nuMnoirs  and  of  his  previous  work, 
duly  marshalled  and  systematised,  arose  Lagrange's 
principal  work,  the  Micaiiique  Anal>/ti</iii\  which 
w:us  ]iublislied  (1788)  in  Paris  under  the  super- 
vision of  Legendre.  The  central  theory,  unifying 
tlie  science  of  dynanncs  in  all  its  developments, 
was  the  principle  of  virtual  velocities  wliich  he  had 
established  in  17<)4. 

Just  liefore  the  issue  of  the  M(canique  Anahf- 
ti</uc,  Lagrange  arrived  in  Paris,  to  be  welcomed 
by  the  court  and  lodged  in  the  Louvre  with  a 
jiension  of  (iOOO  francs.  In  1791  he  was  elected 
foreign  member  of  the  Royal  Society  of  London. 


He  comiuanded  univei'sal  respect  even  in  the  crisis 
of  the  Revolution,  and  was  a])))ointed  professor  in 
the  Normal  and  Polytechnic  Scho(ds,  one  of  the 
first  members  of  the  Bureau  des  Longitudes,  and 
was  enthusiastically  in  favour  of  the  new  decimal 
ami  metrical  system.  He  was  appointed  member 
of  the  senate  under  Bonaparte,  who  also  bestowed 
on  him  the  title  of  Count  and  the  Cnind  Cross  of 
the  Legion  of  Honour.  He  did  more  than  any 
other,  except  Euler,  to  develop  the  applications 
of  the  infinitesimal  calculus. 

Partly  owing  to  his  weak  cotistitntion,  Lagrange 
was  extremely  regular  in  his  habits,  abstemious 
in  food,  with  his  work  ever  most  systematically 
distributed.  His  various  treatises,  read  to  the 
Academies  of  Turin,  Berlin,  and  Paris,  now  fill 
seven  quarto  volumes.  Other  important  works 
are  Thiorie  des  Fonctions  (2d  ed.  1813),  Lr<:ons  sur 
le  Calcul  des  Fonctions,  Efsolutian  des  Equations 
Numeriqncs.  Lagrange  died  at  Paris,  lOth  April 
1813,  and  was  buried  in  the  Pantheon.  A  new 
edition  of  his  works,  in  16  vols.,  was  undertaken 
in  1867. 

La  Giiaira.    See  Gi-.vira. 

La  Hague,  the  north-west  extremity  of  the 
peninsula  of  Cotentin,  in  the  north  of  France,  over 
against  Alderney  of  the  Channel  Islands.  It  is 
crowned  by  a  lighthouse,  158  feet  high.  This 
must  not  be  confounded  with  La  Hogue  ( (j.  v. ). 

La  Ilarpe,  Jean  Francois  de,  French  writer, 
born  at  Paris,  November  20,  1739,  first  attracted 
attention  in  1763  by  a  successful  tragedy,  War- 
icak.  His  fame  was  further  enhanced  by  a  scries 
of  eloquent  E/or/cs.  But  his  other  plays  an  llie 
classic  model,  such  as  Tiinulcon,  I'haraiiwiit/,  and 
(liistave  Wasa,  entirely  failed.  MHaiiic,  I  hiloc- 
ti^tc,  and  Coriohoi  were  more  successful.  His  best- 
known  works  are,  however,  his  critical  lectures, 
liulilisbed  in  12  vols.  ( 1799-1805)  as  Liji-iu\  i>a  Cunrs 
dc  Littcndure,  which  long  remained  a  standard  of 
literary  criticism.  That  portion  which  relates  to 
ancient  literature  is  of  little  value,  and  that  which 
treats  of  contemporary  writers  is  entirely  worth- 
less, owing  to  the  bitterness  and  pride  of  the  critic  ; 
but  the  intervening  portion  gives  a  fairly  complete 
critical  history  of  F''rench  literature.  His  Cwre-s- 
pDiidance  Lifteraire,  puljlished  in  1801,  by  the 
bitterness  of  its  criticisms  rekindled  tierce  contro- 
versies. The  Revolution,  at  its  commencement, 
found  no  nmre  ardent  admirer  than  La  Ilarpe  :  but 
after  five  months'  imprisonment  for  refusing  to 
countenance  the  extremes  to  which  the  immoderate 
zealots  of  the  movement  pushed  nuitters  his  views 
entirely  changed,  and  he  became  a  firm  supporter 
of  church  anil  crown.  A  posthumous  work,  I.n 
Vi.si(jii  de  Cazvttc,  must  be  ranked  amongst  the 
best  achievements  of  his  ]ien.  His  graceful  style 
and  keenness  of  observation  are  perhaps  more  than 
counterbalanced  by  his  partiality,  vehemence  of 
judgment,  aiul  superficiality.  La  Harpe  died 
February  II,  1803.  See  Sainte-Beuve,  Cuuseries 
till  J.iDiili,  vol.  v. 

Lallll.  an  important  affluent  of  the  Rhine  (q.v.) 
in  its  middle  course. 

La  llou^lHN  a  roadstead  <in  the  east  side  of  the 
peninsula  ot  ( 'ulciilin,  in  the  north  of  France  (not 
to  be  confoiindcd  with  Cape  La  Hague,  q.v. ).  (In 
May  19,  1692,  the  Frencli  licet  of  forty-four  sail 
uruier  Tourville,  which  Louis  Xl\'.  had  collected 
for  the  purjiose  of  invading  England  in  support  of 
.lames  11.,  was  defeated  here  by  the  condiined 
Knglisli  and  l)ulcli  Iliads  of  ninety  vessids  under 
the  Ja<'obile  .\ilmiral  Iv'usscll.  Twelve  huge  Ficncli 
line  cif-batlh'  ships  wliich  took  refuge  in  the  sliallow 
roadstead  of  La  Hogue  were  destroyed,  under  the 
eyes  of  King  James,  by  boats'  crows  led  by  Admiral 
liooke.     See  Macaulay's  History. 


LAHORE 


LAIS 


483 


Lahore,  capital  of  the  runjal),  stiuuls  in  31° 
34'  N.  lilt,  ami  74  21'  E.  loiif,'.,  near  llie  left  bank 
of  the  Mavi.  I'op.  (l.SdS)  l'J5,4i:i  :  (  IWll  )  176,S54, 
of  whom  SG,413  were  Mussulmans.  Lahore  eoveis 
t>40  aeres  of  prouml,  ami  is  sunounded  bv  a 
brick  wall  11!  feet  IukIi-  The  city  is  entereil  by 
metalled  roads  thnmjxli  thirteen  gates.  The  fort 
occupies  a  commamlin^  position  to  the  north-east, 
and  near  it  are  the  mosque  of  Aurun^zebe  and 
Ruujeet  Singh's  tomb.  The  English  civil  station, 
some  3  miles  long,  is  called  Anarkalli,  and  a  broad 
road,  the  Mall,  connects  this  with  the  government 
house  and  the  Lawrence  Gardens.  'I'hree  miles 
farther  is  the  military  station  or  cantonment  of 
Mi;in  Mir,  one  of  the  dreariest  and  most  unhealthy  in 
India.  The  Punjab  University,  largely  endowed 
by  native  chiefs  and  gentlemen — Moslem,  Sikh, 
and  Hindu— is  one  of  the  most  nourishing  educa- 
tional establishments  in  India.  There  are  also  the 
Oriental  College,  the  (iovernment  College,  Govern- 
ment Medical  School.  Mayo  Hospital,  the  Roberts 
Institute,  and  a  good  museum  containing  many 
fine  specimens  of  Gru'co-Bactrian  sculpture. 

'The  origin  of  Lahore  is  uncertain,  but  is  certainly 
not  later  than  the  "tli  century  A.u.  Under  the 
Mogul  em]iire  the  city  reached  its  greatest  size 
and  magnilicence,  and  is  said  to  have  had  a  popu- 
lation of  over  1,000,000  souls.  Akbar  and  Jahan- 
gir  lived  at  Lahore,  and  the  remains  of  the  beau- 
tiful and  magniliceut  buildings  erected  by  them 
and  otlier  great  Mogul  emperors  are  still  consider- 
able, as  well  as  Jaliangir's  wonderful  gardens  at 
Sliiidra  and  Shalimar.  Since  the  time  of  Aurung- 
zebe  nothing  of  importance  has  been  constructed. 
In  1799  lianjeet  Singh,  the  Sikh  ruler  of  the 
countrv,  removed  the  seat  of  government  to  Am- 
ritsar,  "about  30  miles  to  the  south  ;  but  in  1846  a 
British  Council  of  Regency  (of  the  Punjab)  was 
established  in  Lahore,  in  1849  the  young  Maharaja 
Dhuleep  Singh  transferred  the  government  of  the 
state  to  the  East  India  Com])any,  and  Lahore  be- 
came the  capital  of  the  new  British  province  of  the 
Punjab.  Lahore  is  an  important  railway  centre  ; 
lines  from  Kurrachee  and  Peshawur  are  connected 
there  with  the  south  road  leading  to  Delhi  and 
Bajputana,  to  Calcutta,  and  to  Bomljay. 

"Tne  Laliore  district  is  one  of  the  most  important 
of  the  Punjab,  with  an  area  of  .3ti48  .sq.  m.,  and  a 
po|>ulation  of  abo\  e  a  million.  The  IJdri  Doali  Canal 
is  an  imi>ortant  government  irrit;ation  work,  and 
no  le.ss  than  500,000  acres  in  the  district  are  culti- 
vated by  means  of  artiticial  irrigation  of  some  sort. 

Lsihr«  a  town  of  Bailen,  on  a  small  affluent  of 
the  Rhine,  20  ndles  SSE.  of  Strasburg  by  rail,  with 
nianuf.-ictures  of  cottons,  pottery,  &c.,  and  printing 
establishments.     Pop.  9937. 

Laibacfa,  cai)ital  of  the  Austrian  crown-land 
of  Carniola,  and  formerly  of  the  kingdom  of  Illyria, 
lies  in  an  e.xtensive  plain  on  the  river  Laibach, 
7  miles  above  its  junction  with  the  Save,  and  92 
by  rail  NE.  of  Trieste.  The  streets  of  the  old 
town,  which  goes  back  originally  to  Roman  times, 
are  n.arrow  ami  irregular,  those  of  the  new  suburbs 
wide  and  handsome.  The  town  was  fortilie<l  from 
1416  down  to  the  beginning  of  the  lOtli  century. 
The  castle  is  now  used  as  a  ]irison.  Lailjach  has 
been  a  bishop's  see  since  1461,  and  hiis  a  cathedral, 
national  nmseum,  &c.  It  is  likewi-se  a  place  of 
some  commercial  and  industrial  importance,  hav- 
ing cotton-factories,  bell  anil  iron  foundries,  cloth 
and  woollen  goods  nianufiw^tories,  and  an  imperial 
tobacco-factorv.  To  the  south-west  of  the  tow'n 
is  the  Laibacli  Mora-ss,  ui)wards  of  HO  .so.  m.  in 
extent,  three-fourths  of  which  have  been  brought 
under  cultivation  ;  the  remainder  affords  a  su|pply 
of  turf.  Interesting  lake-dwellings  h.-ive  been  dis- 
covered  in   the   inora.s.s.     Pop.    (1890)   30,.505.      A 


congress  met  here  in  1821  to  regulate  the  affaii-s  of 
Italy. 

Laidlaw.  Wii.i.i.am,  the  friend  and  latterly 
amanuensis  of  Sir  Walter  Scott,  was  born  al 
lilackhouse  in  Selkirkshire  in  November  1780. 
After  farming  with  but  little  success  at  Traquaii 
ami  Libberton,  he  settled  in  1817  a-s  a  kind  ol 
factor  and  manager  on  the  estate  of  Abbotsford. 
and  was  Scott's  trusted  counsellor  in  all  hi^ 
.schemes  of  improvement.  Here,  with  the  e.xcep- 
tiim  of  but  three  years  after  the  disaster  in  Scott'.'- 
all'airs,  he  lived  till  Scott's  death  in  18.32,  his  con- 
stant companion  and  household  friend,  honoured  by 
an  affection  that  his  loyalty  deserved.  Laidlaw'.>- 
ac(]uaintauce  with  Scott  began  in  the  autumn 
of  1802,  and  he  sup])lied  some  of  the  materials  foi 
the  third  volume  of  the  Miiisirehi/  of  the  Sluttish 
Border.  The  sweet  and  simple  pathos  of  his  owi 
ballad,  '  Lucy's  Flittin','  would  alone  have  kept  th( 
name  of  '  Willie  '  Laidlaw  from  being  forgotten  evei, 
were  that  name  not  safely  enshrined  in  a  hundred 
pages  of  Lockhart's  Life  of  Scott.  After  his  great 
nuister's  death  Laidlaw  was  factor  successively  on 
two  Ross-shire  estates,  and  died  at  his  brotlier's 
farm  at  Contin  in  that  county,  18th  May  1845. 
See  two  papers  in  Chamhers's  Edinburgh  Journal 
for  July  26  and  August  2,  1845. 

Laillg,  David,  a  learned  antiquary,  was  the 
son  of  an  Edinburgh  bookseller,  and  was  born  in 
1795.  For  thirty  years  he  followed  his  father's 
trade,  earning  the  esteem  of  all  the  antiquaries 
and  .scholars  of  his  time  by  his  renuirkable  know- 
ledge and  his  readiness  to  communicate  it.  In 
1837  he  became  librarian  of  the  Signet  Library, 
a  post  which  he  held  till  his  death,  October  18, 
1878.  Laing  was  honorary  secretary  of  the  Banna- 
tyne  Club  throughout,  and  himself  edited  many 
of  its  Issues  ;  while  his  contributions  to  the  Trans- 
actions of  the  Society  of  Antiquaries  of  Scotland 
were  innumerable,  yet  all  stamped  with  character- 
istic thoroughness.  He  received  the  decree  of 
LL.D.  from  Edinburgh  in  1864,  and  left  1)eliind 
him  a  private  library  of  unusual  value  even  for 
bis  e-xceiitional  opportunities  ;  many  books  at  the 
sale  in  Londim  realised  unlieard-of  prices.  A 
valuable  collection  of  MSS.  was  bequeathed  to 
Edinburgh  University. 

David  Laing's  knowledge  of  the  ecclesiastical  and  liter- 
ary history  of  Scotland  was  profound,  and  his  more  im- 
portant works  will  long  retain  their  value.  These  were  his 
edition  of  Robert  Baillie's  Letters  and  Journals  (3  vols. 
1841-12),  the  works  of  John  Knox  (6  vols.  1846-64),  and 
of  the  Scottish  poets.  Sir  David  Lyndsay,  Dunbar,  and 
Henryson.  His  literary  Ufe  covered  the  long  period  of 
more  than  sixty  years,  and  death  surprised  him  busy  on 
Wyntoun  and  a  new  edition  of  Lyndsay. 

Laing.  M.\LC0LM,  a  meritorious  Scottish 
historian,  was  born  on  the  mainhind  of  (jrkney  in 
1762.  He  was  educated  at  Kirkw.iU  and  Edin- 
burgh University,  and  was  called  to  the  bar  in 
1785,  but  never  became  a  successful  advocate. 
He  died  in  November  1818.  He  wrote  in  1793  the 
last  volume  of  Henry's  Hintorij  of  Great  Britain, 
and  in  1800  published  his  own  llixtor;/  af  Seot/and 
from  James  VI.  to  Anne.  In  the  1804  edition 
occurs  his  attack  on  Queen  Mary  for  participation 
in  Daruley's  muriler.  His  I'oenis  of  Onsian  is  a 
liercc  oiisbuighl  on  Maci>bersoii. 

Laing's  Nek.    See  Colley. 

Lairesse,  Ger,\.rd  (1640  1711),  a  Dutch 
iiaiiiter  with  cla.ssical  sym]iathies,  e.'cerciseil  an 
inlUience  on  art  schools  through  his  Art  of  I'aintlug 
(Eng.  trans.  1738).  This  work  was  compiled  from 
notes  of  his  conversations  with  friends  an<l  pupils 
after  he  had  become  blind  (in  1690). 

Lais,  the  mime  of  one  or,  more  probably,  two 
(Jreek    courtesans,    celebrated    for    e.\traordinary 


464 


LAISSEZ    FAIRE 


LAKE    DISTRICT 


beauty.  The  eldei"  is  believed  to  liave  been  born 
at  Corinth,  and  nourished  during  the  Peloponnesian 
war.  Slie  was  supposed  to  be  tlie  most  graceful 
woman  of  her  time  m  Greece,  but  in  character  slie 
Wiis  ca|>ricious,  and  greedy  of  money,  and  in  her  old 
age  she  gave  way  to  intemperanee. — Tlie  younger 
appears  to  have  been  born  in  Sicily,  but  came  to 
Corinth  when  still  a  cliild.  Slie  sat  as  a  model 
to  the  painter  Ajielles,  and  is  .said  to  have  been 
stoned  to  death  by  some  Thessaliau  women  whom 
she  h;id  made  jealous. 

Lnis<«<'Z  Fairo  is  a  plira.se  which  expresses  the 
attitude  towards  the  State  of  the  school  of  political 
economists  founded  by  Adam  Smith.  The  phrase  is 
usually  traced  to  Gournay,  merchant  and  economist 
of  the  Physiocratic  school.  But  it  is  said  first 
of  all  to  have  been  the  renionstrance  of  French 
merchants  against  the  system  of  the  great  states- 
man l-'olbert,  who  established  a  minute  regulation 
of  industry  by  the  State.  They  believed  that  the 
best  thing  the  State  could  do  for  industry  was  to 
leave  it  alone.  The  phrase  therefore  embodied  the 
})rotest  of  private  industrial  enterprise  against 
minute,  vexatious,  and  oppressive  regulation  by  a 
French  state,  which  at  that  time  represented  only 
the  court  and  a  narrow  jirivileged  class,  which  was 
often  incapable,  and  always  engrossed  in  war, 
intrigue,  and  other  pursuits  alien  to  industry.  ]5ut 
in  England  more  than  any  other  country  it  has 
been  accepted  as  a  watchword  of  free  trade  and 
free  industry,  as  contrasted  with  the  prolecti\e 
sj-stem  and  state  regulation  generally. 

Lake,  Gei:.\i:u,  Viscount,  born  STth  July  1744, 
sei  veil  in  Germany  ( ITliO),  America,  and  at  Vinegar 
Hill  (ITOcS).  He  defealeil  the  forces  of  (Jwalior  at 
Aligarh  and  Delhi  (1803),  Sindia  at  Leswanee 
(KS03),  and  Holkar  near  Furruckabad  (ISU4). 
Created  a  baron  (1803)  and  viscount  (1807),  he 
died  in  London,  20th  l-'ebruary  ]S(J8. 

Lclke  ( Lat.  laciis)  is  a  portion  of  water  sur- 
rounded by  laud.  Lakes  are  of  two  kinils — fresh- 
water and  saline — and  have  been  formeil  in  various 
ways.  Takinjj  lirst  the  freshwater  la/.es,  tliese 
may  be  grouped  as  follows  :  ( 1 )  Obstruction  Lukes. 
—Some  of  these  are  more  or  less  temporary  sheets 
of  water,  such  as  the  lake-like  expansions  of  certain 
rivers,  ami  the  deserted  loops  of  river-channels. 
Other  temporary  lakes  are  due  to  the  operations  of 
the  beaver ;  to  the  choking  of  the  narrower  pass- 
ages of  a  river-channel  by  drifted  vegetable  debris 
or  river-ice  ;  or  to  the  advance  of  a  glacier  across 
tlie  mouth  of  a  lateral  valley.  Now  and  again 
roek-falls  and  landslips  olistruct  the  drainage  of 
valleys  and  give  rise  to  lakes  ;  and  similar  results 
have  been  brought  about  by  the  advance  of  lava 
across  a  valley.  (1)  Crater  Lakes. — These  occupy 
the  craters  of  extinct  or  quiescent  volcanoes.  (3) 
Sink  Lakes. — These  lie  in  hollows  caused  by  sub- 
siilence  of  the  surface  conseciuent  upon  the  removal 
of  underlying  soluble  rocks,  such  as  rock-salt,  and 
calcareous  and  gyjiseons  rocks.  (4)  Earth-movciiteut 
L^akes. — Uneipial  movements  or  warping  of  the 
earth's  crust  have  occasionally  originated  ludlows 
by  direct  subsidence.  It  is  possible  also  tliat  local 
elevation  by  aH'ecting  the  lower  ends  of  valleys 
may  sometimes  have  obstructed  the  How  of  rivers, 
and_  thus  given  rise  to  lakes.  (.5)  Gtarial  Lakes. 
— These  consist  of  («)  hollows  of  erosion  or  roek- 
bujiiits,  which  have  been  excavated  by  glacier-ice, 
and  (6)  hollows  caused  by  the  unequal  distribu- 
tion or  accumulation  of  glacial  detritus  during  the 
glacial  period.  (ti)  Siihtcrraiiean  7,((/,T.v.— These 
are  loiind  chielly  in  calcareous  regions,  where  they 
occupy  the  underground  channels  which  have  been 
exca\'ated  by  the  chemical  and  mechanical  .action 
of  water  (see  Caves).  Tliey  are  met  with  also  in 
volcanic   regions,   filling,   or  partially   iilling,   the 


cavities  which  are  sometimes  seen  in  lava-Hows 
(see  Lava). 

Fresh-«ater  lakes  are  very  unequally  distributed. 
They  are  most  numerous  in  those  regions  which 
were  overflowed  by  land-ice  during  the  glacial 
jicriod,  as  in  the  Ihitish  Islands,  Scandinavia, 
Finland,  &c. ,  Canada,  and  the  ailjoining  United 
States.  Lakes  occur  at  all  heigiits  above  the 
sea ;  the  most  elevated  being  Lake  Tsana  in 
Abyssinia  (7500  feet).  Lake  Titicaca  in  the 
Bolivian  Andes  (12,500  feet),  and  Askal  Chin  in 
Tibet  ( 16,600  feet).  The  largest  lake  in  the  world 
is  Lake  Superior,  which  covers  an  area  of  31,200 
sq.  m.,  and  has  a  mean  depth  of  about  475  feet. 
Lake  Baikal,  in  central  Asia,  is  the  largest  and 
deepest  mountain-lake,  its  area  being  13,500  sq. 
m.,  and  its  mean  depth  850  feet,  but  in  places  it 
reaches  a  depth  of  more  than  4000  feet.  Some  of 
the  mountain-lakes  of  Europe  also  attain  great 
depths  ;  thus,  Lake  tieneva  is  1000  feet,  Lago 
Maggiore  1158  feet,  and  Como  1358  feet. 

ScUt  Lakes. — Two  kinds  are  recognised  :  (a) 
portions  of  the  sea  cut  oil  from  the  general  oceanic 
area  liy  epigene  or  hypogene  agencies;  (b)  lakes, 
originally  fresh-water,  which  have  been  rendered 
saline  by  evaporation  and  concentration.  Those  of 
the  lirst  group  range  in  size  from  mere  pools  and 
lagoons  uji  to  inland  seas,  such  as  those  of  the 
great  Aralo-Caspian  depression.  The  Dead  Sea 
and  the  Great  Salt  Lake  of  Utah  are  good  examples 
of  the  second  group  of  saline  lakes,  which  might 
be  defined  shortly  as  lakes  which  have  no  outlet  to 
the  ocean.  The  Caspian  Sea  is  97  feet  below  the 
level  of  the  Black  Sea,  has  an  area  of  about  170,000 
sq.  m.,  and  is  from  2500  to  3000  feet  deep  in  the 
dee]iest  jiarts.  A  still  more  de]iressed  area  is  that 
of  the  Dead  Sea,  the  surface  of  which  is  1292  feet 
below  the  level  of  the  Mediterranean  Sea. 

Lake  DiiStru't,  the  name  applied  to  the 
])icturesque  and  niountainons  regmn  comprised 
within  the  counties  of  Cumberland,  Westmorland, 
and  a  small  ])ortion  of  Lancashire,  Milliin  which  are 
grouped  as  many  as  sixteen  lakes  or  meres,  besides 
innumerable  mountain  tartis  and  streams,  and  a 
series  of  mountains  rising  in  four  points  to  a  height 
of  over  3000  feet.  The  district  extends  aliout  30 
miles  from  north  to  south  by  about  25  from  east 
to  west,  and  contains  within  its  compass  the  utmost 
variety  and  wealth  of  natural  scenery,  soft  and 
graceful  beauty  ever  alternating  closely  with 
grandeur  and  sublimity.  Indeed  nowhere  else  in 
the  woild  perhaps  is  so  much  \aried  beauty  to  be 
found  within  so  narrow  a  space.  The  district  is 
visited  e\cry  year  by  thousands  of  tourists,  who 
are  able,  from  Keswick  or  Ambleside  as  a  centre, 
to  explore  the  whole  region,  and  climb  all  its  chief 
mountains  within  a  week.  But  it  must  not  be 
forgotten  that  many  of  the  most  lovely  spots  lie 
out  of  the  orilinary  routes,  and  that  for  tho.se 
travellers  who  can  alloid  the  time  tlieie  is  ample 
occupation  for  a  mncli  longer  period.  ITie  Lake 
District  is  fringed  by  such  consideralile  towns  as 
Penrith,  Kendal,  Lancaster,  Barrow,  Cockermoulh, 
and  Whitehaven  ;  and  already  railways  bring  the 
travidler.  from  ilill'ercnt  ]points  of  the  compa.ss,  to 
Keswick,  to  Windermere,  to  Coniston,  and  to  Boot. 
The  principal  lakes  are  Windermere.  Estlnvaite 
Wat<,'r,  and  Coniston  in  the  south  ;  niswalerand 
Hawes  Water  in  the  east;  l!:is.senthwaite  in  the 
north  ;  Wast  Water,  Ennerdale  Water,  liutter- 
mere,  and  Crummo<d<  Water  in  the  west  :  and 
Derwentwater,  Tliirlmere,  (Ira-sniere,  and  Kydal 
Water  ill  till-  be.arl  of  the  district.  The  highest 
mounlain-sumiiiits  are  Sc:ifell  I'iUe  (3210  fci't), 
Scafell  (3101  feet),  llelvellyii  (3118  feet),  and 
Skiddaw  (3000  feet),  all  easily  accessible,  in  great 
iiart  even  on  pony  liack.  liesiiles  these  there  are 
liundredsof  mountains  a-udj/ikcs,  many  clothed  witli 


LAKE    DISTRICT 


LAKE-DWELLINGS 


185 


the  richest  greenery.  The  hikes  are  feil  and  emptied 
by  beautiful  mountain-streams  and  hrc/:s,  often 
forming  noble  waterfalls  and  foircx,  like  Lodnre 
Falls,  near  Der\ventwat<^r ;  Dungeon  (nil  1-alls, 
near  Orasmere  :  Stoekgill  Korce,  near  Ambleside: 
Scale  Korce,   near  Crummock  Water ;  Aira  Force, 


near  Patterdale ;  and  Dalegarth  Force,  near 
Boot.  Among  the  place.s  most  visited,  besides 
these,  are  the  towns  or  villages  of  Keswick,  Conis- 
ton,  Bowness,  Hawkeshead,  Ambleside,  Ulverston, 
Rosthwaite,  Grasmere,  Patterdale,  and  Borrow- 
dale ;  the  Lanmlale  Pikes ;  the  Duddon  Valley, 
celebrated  in  AVordsworth's  series  of  sonnets ; 
Honister  Pass,  and  Kirkstone  Pass  ;  the  Castle 
Rock  of  St  John,  celebrated  in  Scott's  Bridal  of 
Triernmin ;  and  such  minor  but  imposing  mountain- 
peaks  as  Blencathara  or  Saddleback  (2847  feet), 
near  Keswick;  Coniston  Old  Man  (2633),  near 
Coniston  ;  and  the  Great  Gable  ( 2950 ),  near  Wa-st- 
dale  Head. 

But  far  more  even  than  its  romantic  natural 
beauty  is  the  rare  interest  that  ha,s  been  added  to 
this  district  by  the  group  of  illustrious  jioets  who 
made  it  their  home  aljout  the  beginning  of  the  19th 
century,  and  who  were  somewhat  unintelligently 
grouped  together  by  unsympathetic  critics  as  form- 
ing the  '  Lake  School '  of  poetry.  Of  these  the 
most  illustrious  was  Wordsworth,  who  has  inter- 

fireted  for  us  with  marvellous  fidelity  and  force  the 
ife — animate  and  inanimate  alike — of  the  country 
which  he  knew  and  loved.  His  Excursion  is  the 
best  of  all  guide-books  to  the  Lakes —  Wordsworth- 
shire,  as  Lowell  aptly  terms  the  district ;  and 
students  of  English  poetry  will  never  lose  an 
interest  in  those  hallowed  scenes  in  which  the 
modern  High-priest  of  Nature  first  expounded  tlie 
cooperative  spiritual  harmony  between  man  and 
nature  hei-self,  and  tauglit  how  the  mute  life  in 
nature  ever  leads  ujiwards  to  the  conscious  life  in 
man  and  the  creative  force  in  Goil.  He  wa-s  born 
at  Cockennouth  ;  lie  had  his  education  at  Hawkes- 
head school  ;  he  lived  thirteen  yeai^s  in  three 
houses  at  Gra.smere,  and  thirty-seven  at  Rydal 
Mount ;  and  he  lies  fittingly,  with  his  wife,  his 
children,  and  his  gifte<l  sister  Dorothy,  in  Gnus- 
mere  churchyard,  in  the  midst  of  the  scenery  he 
has  made  enchanted.  His  first  lioiisc  at  Gras- 
mere, Dove  Cottage  or  Town  Knd,  his  home  from 
December  1799  to  .May  ISOH,  and  of  De  Quincey 
for  more  than  twenty  years  thereafter,  w;us  bought 
in  1890  by  public  subscrii)tion  for  permanent  pre- 


servation a.s  a  memorial  of  Wordsworth.  His  life- 
long friend  and  brother-poet,  Southey,  lived  for 
forty  years  at  (Jrcta  Hall,  near  Keswick,  and  rests 
in  Crosthwaite  churchyard  bard  l)y.  Here  also  at 
Greta  Hall  Coleridge  lived  awhile,  often  visiting  the 
Wordsworths  ;  and  here  his  children  were  brought 
up  by  Southey.  The  hapless  Hartley  Cole- 
ridge lived  long  at  Nab  Cottage,  near  Rydal 
Water,  and  is  buried  besiile  Wordsworth 
in  Gra.smere.  Christopher  North  lived  at 
Elleray,  near  Windermere ;  Shelley  lived 
some  time  at  Keswick  after  his  marriage, 
and  .Mrs  Hemans  at  Dove  Xest  on  Winder- 
mere. Harriet  Martineau  had  her  home  at 
the  Knoll,  near  Ambleside  ;  and  not  far  off  is 
Fox  How,  where  Dr  Arnold  found  rest  from 
the  strain  of  Rugby,  and  where  he  died. 
James  Spedding  was  born  at  Bassenthwaite, 
and  here  was  visited  by  Edward  Kitztierald 
and  Tennyson  ;  and  tlie  latter  lived  some 
time  at  Tent  House  on  the  east  bank  of 
Coniston  Lake.  At  Brantwood,  near  Conis- 
ton Lake,  Ruskin  resided  during  the  later 
years  of  his  life.  The  poet  Gray  spent  a 
fortnight  of  1769  in  traversing  the  Lake 
District,  and  his  Journal  shows  that  he 
looked  before  his  time  at  nature  with  'dis- 
tinctness and  unaffected  simplicity,'  in 
Wordsworth's  phrase.  Hither  came  in  the 
.summer  of  1802  Charles  Lamb,  with  his  sister 
Mary,  to  spend  three  weeks  with  Coleridge 
at  Keswick.  He  appeai-s  to  have  thoroughly 
enjoyed  the  new  experiences,  yet  in  a  letter 
to  his  fr'ieiid  Manning  (24th  Septeiiiber  1802)  he 
writes  with  a  spirit  worthy  of  Dr  Johnson  :  'After 
all.  Fleet  Street  and  the  Strand  are  better  places 
to  live  in  for  good  and  all  than  amidst  Skiddaw.' 

Wordsworth  himself  wrote  a  Description  of  the  Scenery 
of  the  Lakes  in  the  North  of  Emjland  (1822),  in  which  it 
is  interesting  to  see  how  the  descriptions  glow  with  recol- 
lected love,  and  how  hot  is  his  imiignation  against  all 
wanton  attempts  to  artificialise  the  face  of  nature.  He 
would  have  denounced  the  Manchester  scheme  for  bring- 
ing water  from  Thirlmere,  and  actively  supported  the 
aims  of  the  '  Lake  District  Defence  Society '  ( establi.-ihed 
in  1883). 

See  Professor  Knight's  English  Lake  District,  as  inter- 
preted in  the  Poems  of  Wordsworth  (1878),  and  his 
Throiiyh  the  Wordsworth  Countri/,  with  56  engravings 
by  Harry  Goodwin  (1887);  also  Harriet  Martineau's 
Emjiish  Lakes,  with  illustrations  by  W.  J.  Linton  ( 1858), 
T.  G.  ]5onney's  English  Lake  Sccner;/  (1876),  and  Edwin 
Waugh's  Humbles  in  the  Lake  Countri/  (ISUl)  and  In 
the  Lake  Countri/  (1880).  Of  the  inmimeralde  guides 
maybe  iiieiitioncd  those  of  "W.  Hutchinson  (1776),  T.  West 
(1780),  J.  ltn(ls<.n  1 18-13),  Miss  Martineau  ( 18.55),  James 
Payn  ( l.Sail  and  l,si;7),  H.  I.  Jenkinson'.s  Practical  Guide 
and  his  Tourist  Guide  ( 1879),  Baddeley's  Thorouiih  Guide 
(1880),  and  G.  R.  MiU,  The  En;ilish  lAikes  (1896). 

Lako-dwclIinKS  (Ger.  rfahlbauten,  'pile- 
dwellings  ),  habitations  placed  on  platforms  .sup- 
ported by  jiiles,  or  other  substructures,  in  the 
shallows  around  the  margins  of  lakes,  have  only 
recently  become  known  to  arclu-eologists,  although 
the  fii'st  notice  of  a  lake-dwelling  community 
was  written  by  Herodotus  in  the  4tli  century 
B.C.  He  describes  certain  tribes  on  Lake  Prasias 
in  Macedonia  as  living  in  huts  on  platforms  sup- 
ported on  piles  which  were  approachetl  from  the 
land  by  a  single  narrow  bridge.  It  now  appears 
that  from  the  very  earliest  times  down  to  the 
commencement  of  the  historic  period  there  were 
lake-dwellings  of  various  descri^llions  in  the  lakes 
of  central  Europe,  and  that  a  similar  custom  con- 
tinued in  Scotland  and  Ireland  to  much  later  limes. 
Owing  to  an  extraordinary  subsidence  of  the  waters 
of  the  Swiss  lakes  in  1854  the  remains  of  a  lake- 
dwelling  were  discovered  at  Meilen  in  the  lake  of 
Zurich,   and   it   was  speedily   found   that    similar 


486 


LAKE-DWELLINGS 


remains  of  pile-dwellings,  each  indicating  the  site 
of  a  lelie-lioil  in  the  mud  of  the  lake-bottom,  ex- 
isted in  proximity  to  the  shores  of  most  of  the  lakes 
in  Switzerland.  Since  their  first  discovery  the  sites 
of  these  ancient  settlements  have  heen  thoroughly 
explored  and  systematically  desrrihed  by  I)r  Keller, 
F.  Troyon,  and  others.  The  relics  of  this  singular 
phase  of  early  civilisation,  which  have  been  care- 
fnlly  gathered  into  the  museums  of  Switzerland, 
di.sclose  the  comlition  of  the  industrial  arts  among 
the  lake-dwellers,  as  manifested  in  the  successive 
stages  of  the  stone,  bronze,  and  iron  periods  of 
their  culture  and  civilisation.  There  is  nothing- 
known  of  the  origin  of  the  lake-dwelling  iili.ase  of 
social  life.  It  has  been  suggested  that  a  desire  for 
greater  security  from  attack  than  could  be  all'orded 
by  a  cluster  of  dwellings  situated  on  the  m.ainland 
first  led  to  the  selection  of  natural  islets  .as  the  sites 
of  habitations,  and  when  this  h,ad  become  an  estab- 
lished custom  the  transition  w,as  easy  from  the 
selection  of  natural  islands  to  the  construction  of 
artilicial  islands  where  natural  sites  for  habita- 
tions isolateil  by  water  did  not  exist.  As  a  matter 
of  fact  there  are  several  varieties  of  artificial  lake- 


dwellings  of  which  the  sequence  is  not  certainly 
known.  The  .substructure  is  usually  all  that 
remains.  It  has  been  found  in  some  instances  to 
be  a  mass  of  stones,  and  in  others  a  mass  of  brush- 
wood, built  uj)  from  the  bottom  of  the  lake.  The 
more  common  form  in  Switzerland,  however,  is  a 
sulistructnre  of  jiilcs,  driven  into  the  lake-bottom, 
and  the  heads  brought  level  to  supjiort  the  platform 
for  the  huts.  Where  the  water  is  deep  and  the 
bottom  soft,  the  jiilcs  arc  driven  only  for  a  short 
distance,  and  stones  accumulated  around  and 
among  them  to  keep  them  in  iiositioii.  In  some 
cases  the  lower  ends  of  the  ]iiles  iiave  heen  mortised 
into  a  kind  of  horizontal  framework  of  logs,  to  give 
greater  stability  to  the  superstructure.  The  piles 
are  usually  tree-trunks  with  the  b.ark  on,  and  the 
]>latfornis  were  frequently  the  same,  though  some- 
times the  trunks  were  split  or  roughly  boarded. 
On  this  platform  the  huts  were  erected.  Nothing 
usually  remains  of  them,  but  in  son\e  instances  the 
remains  of  the  lower  tiers  of  lioarding  have  heen 
detected.  In  all  cases  in  which  the  form  of  the 
huts  could  be  determined  it  has  been  rectangular. 
But  it  seems  deducible  from  the  curvature  of  some 


■.,,..T^.-ir,rT.,>.,,i,   :..,3i..u^^.->x,.l.ni-.-i^"-^tL--"--:'-"i.j^;iil     L   ^  L      r-r_  I  J  ■-' 


niHllULUll  i.V.I  fm-TTtf 


SSfS 


Fig.  1. — Lake-dwelling  restored. 


pieces  of  hardened  clay,  witli  the  marks  of  inter- 
woven branches  upon  them,  that  circular  hu(s  of 
wattles  and  daub  were  also  constructed.  They 
were  doubtless  thatched  with  straw  and  reeds. 
There  were  many  huts  on  one  platform,  and  a 
narrow  gangway  was  generally  carried  on  piles 
from  the  jjlatform  to  the  shore.  Sometimes  a  ilug- 
out  canoe  seems  to  have  been  used  instead  of  a 
gangway,  but  as  they  seem  often  to  have  had 
horses,  sheep,  goafs,  and  cattle  on  tlie  ]ilatform, 
the  gangway  would  be  in  such  cases  a  necessary 
adjunct  to  a  settlement,  the  piles  of  which  ha\i' 
been  occasionally  found  to  indicate  a  superlici.al 
area  of  1()0,0U()  si|nare  feet,  and  which  w;is  therefore 
practically  a  village  on  piles,  'j'be  number  of  lake- 
ilwellings  discoveied  in  the  lakes  of  Swilzerlanil 
exceeds o!H'  Ininilrcd  and  forty.  The  Itest  known  of 
these  are  .MciliMi  in  the  lake  of  Zurich.  \Vangcn  in 
the  lake  of  Constance,  Kobenhausen  in  the  small 
and  partially  dried-np  lake  of  Pfiiflikon,  and 
Moosseedorf  in  the  snuiU  lake  of  that  name,  all 
stations  of  the  stone  age ;  Moringen  in  the  lake 
of  IJienne,  Estavayer  in  the  lake  of  Neuchatel,  and 
Morg(!s  in  the  lake  of  Genev.a,  all  stations  of  the 
bronze  age  ;  and  .Marin,  otherwi.se  known  as  La 
Tene,  in  the  ninth  end  of  the  lake  of  Neuchatel,  a 
station  of  the  iron  age. 
In  the  settlements  of  the  stone  age  the  cutting 


implements,  such  as  axes,  knives,  saws,  are  made 
only  of  stone.  As  Hint  is  not  abundant  in  Switzer- 
land, the  larger  iniplemenls.  such  as  axes,  are  gener- 
ally made  of  diorite,  serpentine,  and  other  hard  and 
tough  stones,  and  sometimes  even  of  nephrite  and 
jadeite.  The  smaller  implements,  .such  as  knives, 
saws,  arrow  points,  and  sjiear-heads,  are  usually 
made  of  chipped  Hint,  but  the  axes  are  cut  out  of 
the  block  by  a  sawing  process,  the  cuts  being  made 
to  some  dejith  on  oiiposite  sides,  and  the  parts  separ- 
ated by  a  blow,  riiose  axes  or  axe  hanjmers  that 
were  ])erforated  by  a  b(de  for  the  haft  were  bored  by 
a  drill  of  soft  wood  worked  with  sand.  The  stone 
axes  were,  however,  for  the  most  part  mere  wedges 
not  [Hnforated  for  the  haft,  but  fixed  in  a  .socket  in 
the  end  of  a  short  piece  of  stag's  horn,  through 
which  the  perforation  for  the  handle  was  made. 
Sometimes  the  handle  itself  was  perforated,  and 
oiu;  end  of  the  stag's  born  nu>unting,  which  carried 
the  stone  axe  socket(?d  into  its  other  end,  was 
mortised  into  the  handle.  IJitumen  was  used  as  a 
cement  to  fix  the  stone  tools  of  all  kinds  in  their 
handles  of  horn  or  wood.  .Arrow-iioints,  notclied 
or  bail)ed,  and  haj  poon-points  for  spearing  fish 
were  made  of  bone.  The  pottery  of  the  stone  a-ie 
settlements  wils  coai-se  but  plentiful,  and  the  cook- 
ing vessels  were  occasionally  of  large  size.  The 
lake-dwellers  of  tlie  stone  age  were  agriculturists, 


LAKE-DWELLINGS 


487 


cultivatiiij;  on  the  adjacent  mainland  tlieir  crops  of 
wheat,  liailey,  millet,  and  flax,  and  rearing;  flocks 
and  herds,  the  cattle  being  sonietinics  stalled  uj)on 
the  platforms.  They  were  hunters  and  lisliers,  and 
their  food  seems  in  consequence  to  have  been  both 
varied  and  plentiful.  Amongst  the  animals  they 
hunted,  .and  whose  remains  have  been  found  in  the 
relic-beds  underneath  the  dwellings,  are  the  urns 
and  bison,  the  elk,  the  ibex,  and  chamois,  the 
wild-boar  and  stag;  and  they  kept  the  domestic 
o.x,  the  liorse,  swine,  sheep,  goats,  and  dogs.  They 
stored  nuts  and  dried  apples  cut  in  halves ;  and 
among  the  charred  remnants  of  tlieir  food  frag- 
ments of  their  cakes  of  bread  have  been  discovered. 
To  the  same  charring  action  of  the  tire  which 
seems  in  several  cases  to  have  consumed  the  huts 
we  owe  the  preservation  of  many  specimens  of  their 
textile  fabrics,  woven  of  well-spun  tlaxen  threads, 
and  of  their  fishing-nets,  an<l  mats  made  of  ba-st  or 
fibre  of  the  lime-tree,  and  ropes  and  lines  of  plaited 
twigs,  or  cords  of  flaxen  thread. 

The  pile-dwellings  of  the  bronze  age  appear  to 
have  been  placed  fartlier  from  the  shore  than  those 
of  the  stone  age.  The  settlements  of  the 
bronze  age  also  exhibit  an  increase  in  the 
nural)er  of  domestic  animals,  and  a  corre- 
sponding decrea.«e  in  the  number  of  wild 
animals  used  for  food.  The  ])ottery, 
though    not    thrown    upon    the    ^^•lleel,    is  „ 

finer  in  form  and  much  more  highly  orna-  " 

men  ted,  often  with  patterns  of  great 
elegance,  painted  in  black  or  red,  and 
sometimes  inlaid  with  strips  of  tin.  In 
settlements  founded  in  the  bronze  age, 
such  as  that  at  Morges  in  the  lake  of 
Geneva,  bronze  is  almost  the  only  material 
used  in  the  manufacture  of  their  imple-  ^ 
nients  and  weapons ;  and  consequently  " 
stone  and  bone  implements  are  as  rare  in  > 
them  as  bronze  implements  are  in  the  o 
earlier  settlements.  But  there  are  a  i> 
number  of  settlements  which  seem  to  have  * 
existed  during  the  transition  period,  in  the  1 
relic-beds  of  which  the  implements  of  stone  o 
and  bronze  are  found  mingled  together. 
The  forms  of  the  l>ronze  objects  found  in 
the  lake-dwellings  do  not  materially  difl'er 
from  those  geneially  found  dill'used  over 
central  Europe.  One  feature  of  the  lake- 
dwellings  is  the  abundance  and  variety  of 
the  bronze  ornaments,  and  the  extraorilin- 
aiy  development  of  the  pins  with  orna- 
mental heads,  which  are  foun<l  of  all  sizes 
up  to  15  inches  in  length.  The  bracelets 
are  penannular,  often  hollow,  or  C-shaped  in 
section,  and  decorated  on  the  convex  surface 
with  a  variety  of  ■  sunk  patterns  composed  of 
combinations  of  straight  lines  and  circles.  The 
principal  varieties  of  the  implements  and  weapons 
of  bronze  are  axes,  chisels,  gouges,  saws,  sickles, 
knives,  daggers,  spear-heads,  swords,  hammei-s, 
and  anvils.  The  knives  are  very  abundant, 
and  there  is  one  large  variety,  with  a  curved 
and  almost  scythe-sliaped  blade,  haviii"  a  thick 
back,  whicli  is  characteristic  of  the  lalce-dwellings. 
There  is  a  smaller  knife  with  an  oval  or  cre.scent- 
shaped  blade,  so  thin  and  sharp  that  it  ha.s  been 
taken  for  a  razor.  The  swonls  are  mostly  of  the 
broail-bladed  and  slightly  tapering  form  found  in 
central  Europe,  and  often  have  their  handles  also 
of  bronze.  Moulds  of  stone  for  costing  the  diderent 
varieties  of  bronze  implements,  weapons,  and  orna- 
ments have  been  found  in  the  relic-beils,  showing 
that  the  articles  were  manufactured  in  the  settle- 
ments in  which  they  were  iLsed.  In  the  princijial 
settlement  of  the  bronze  age  at  Morges  the  inimber 
of  bronze  articles  found  exceeds  iiW. 

The  settlement  of  Marin  iu  the  lake  of  Ncu- 


chiitel  is  the  best  known  of  the  lake-dwellings  of 
the  iron  age.  As  the  area  occupied  by  the  piles  is 
about  1200  feet  long  by  2.")0  feet  wide,  the  settle- 
ment was  undoubtedly  a  large  one.  Several  cal- 
drons of  thin  bronze  with  iron  ring-handles  attached 
to  the  rim  were  found  here ;  and  a  number  of 
small  articles  of  bronze  were  also  found,  none 
of  which  were  of  bronze  age  types.  The  weapons 
were  all  of  iron.  They  consist  of  short  double- 
edged  swords,  the  edges  straight  to  within  a  short 
distance  of  the  point,  and  large,  broad,  and  thin- 
bladed  spear-heads,  sometimes  oval  or  leaf-shaped, 
but  usually  with  wa\y  or  indented  edges.  Several 
of  the  sword-blades  are  damascened,  after  the 
ancient  method  of  damascening  by  welding  together 
stri|)s  of  metal  difl'erently  prepared,  and  some  have 
makers'  marks.  The  sheaths  are  of  iron,  beaten 
very  thin,  and  are  remarkable  both  for  their 
elegance  of  form  and  the  peculiar  nature  of  their 
decoration.  This  has  been  sometimes  supposed  to 
be  Etruscan,  but  it  much  more  closely  resembles 
the  style  of  ornamentation  which  is  now  known  in 
France  as  Gaulish,  and  is  common  to  a  series  of 


•io 


0 


.0 

<3 


C 

«o 
% 

0 


'■CO 


Fig  2.  — Ground-plan  of  Crannog  in  Drumaleague  Lough. 


grave-mounds  occurring  both  in  France  and  Switzer- 
land. The  other  articles  found  at  Marin  are 
shield-mountings,  fibula',  I)uckles,  bridle-bits,  and 
hatchets,  all  of  iron,  a  number  of  rings  or  bracelets, 
be.ads,  iS:c.  of  coloured  glass,  ])laying  dice  and  other 
small  olijects  of  bone,  pieces  of  Roman  i)otterv, 
and  Komau  and  Gaulish  coins.  The  latest  of  the 
coins  is  of  the  reign  of  the  Koman  Emperor 
Claudius,  41  to  5-t  .\.I). 

There  is  no  means  of  computing  the  antiquity 
of  the  earlier  lake-dwellings  of  Switzerland,  but 
Dr  Keller  remarks  on  this  point  that,  'although 
the  actual  determinatioii  of  the  age  of  the  lake- 
dwellings  is  doubtful,  yet  we  may  say  with  perfect 
certainty  that  they  are  more  than  2000  years 
old,  and  with  a  considerable  amount  of  |iiob- 
aliility  that  they  reach  back  from  1000  to  2000 
years  before  Christ.'  Lake-dwellings  have  al!*o 
been  found  on  the  Italian  siile  of  the  .Mps  in  the 
lake  of  t;aida  and  the  I-ago  .Maggioie  :  in  Savoy  in 
the  lakes  of  Hourget  .and  I'alailru  ;  in  .Vustria  in 
the  beil  of  a  dried-up  lake  at  Laibach,  an<l  in 
several  small  lakes  near  Salzburg,  and  in  Itavaria 
and  I'omerania.     In  Scotland  and  Ireland,  where 


488 


LAKE-DWELLINGS 


LALANDE 


they  are  numerous,  tliey  are  known  as  Crannogs 
(q.v.),  from  the  Celtic  word  cranii,  'a  tree.'  The 
cranno^.  liowcver,  are  not  constructed  like  the 
Swiss  pile-villajres.  They  are  either  jialisaded 
refuses  on  small  islets  of  natural  formation,  or 
artilicial  islets  formed  of  lirusliwood,  stones,  and 
earth,  and  steadied  and  protected  by  piles  driven 
thnninh  and  around  the  mass.  The  problem  |ire- 
sented  to  the  crannof;-liuilders  was  to  construct,  in 
a  maximum  de]ith  of  10  or  12  feet  of  water,  a  solid, 
compact,  and  generally  circular  island,  with  a  radiu.s 
of  51)  feet  or  thereby,  apable  of  proviiling  a  jier- 
manent  means  of  reKig_  and  shelter  for  a  consider- 
able number  of  men  and  animals.  The  process  is 
thus  described  by  Dr  Munro  :  '  Over  the  site  chosen 
a  circular  raft  of  tree-trunks  laid  above  liranches 
and  brushwood  was  formed,  and  above  it  additional 
layers  of  logs,  together  with  stones,  gravel,  &c., 
were  heaped  up  till  the  mass  grounded.  As  this 
process  went  on,  poles  of  oak  were  inserted  here 
and  there,  the  rough  logs  forming  the  horizontal 
layere  were  pinned  together,  and  at  various  levels 
oak-beams  mortised  into  one  another  were  stretched 
across  the  substance  of  the  island  and  joined  to  the 
surrounding  piles.  When  a  sufficient  height  above 
the  v,ater-line  was  .attained,  a  prepared  pavement 
of  oak-beams  was  constructed,  and  mortised  beams 
were  laid  over  the  tops  of  the  encircling  piles  which 
bound  them  firndy  together.  The  margin  of  the 
island  was  also  slantingly  shaped  by  an  intricate 
arrangement  of  beams  and  stones,  constituting 
a  breakwater.'  Frequently  a  wooden  gangway 
stretched  to  the  shore  ;  in  other  cases  the  only 
means  of  access  was  by  canoes,  hollowed  out  of 
o.ak-tree  trunks.  Much  the  same  system  of  con- 
struction appeal's  to  have  been  followed  in  Ireland. 
The  plan  ( fig.  2,  p.  487 )  of  one  of  two  crannogs  in 
Drumaleague  Lough,  in  the  county  of  Leitrim,  given 
on  a  scale  of  I  inch  to  20  feet,  shows  a  circle  of 
piles  enclosing  a  space  of  60  feet  in  diameter,  with 
remains  of  supplementary  circles  at  several  points 
in  the  interior  of  the  main  or  outer  circle.  In  the 
centre  is  the  log-pavement.  A,  about  .So  feet  by 
25  feet,  probably  the  floor  of  the  log-house,  which 
was  the  principal  building  on  the  crannog.  In  the 
centre  of  this  pavement  is  a  hearth -pl.ace,  B, 
covered  with  tlal  stones,  still  showing  traces  of 
fire.  On  the  outside  of  the  pavement  is  another 
hearth-place,  C,  on  a  bed  of  still'  clay,  while 
around  a  large  tree-root,  D,  the  top  t)f  which  h.as 
been  dressed  with  a  hatchet,  and  which  ni.ay  have 
served  as  a  table,  were  found  the  refuse  of  the 
daily  fooil  in  the  shape  of  the  broken  and  split 
bones  of  deer  and  swine.  The  crannogs  are  gener- 
ally very  much  smaller  than  the  Swiss  lake-settle- 
ments, ami  from  the  uiiture  of  their  construction 
there  is  no  relic-bed.  Those  of  Ayrshire  and  Gallo- 
w.ay  in  Scotland  have  yielded  objects  iliiting  from 
the  time  of  the  Konian  occupation  of  Scotland  to 
quite  recent  times.  The  most  characteristic  objects 
recovered  from  the  Irish  crannogs  belong  to  the 
period  of  the  Norse  incursions,  ranging  from  the 
.Sth  to  the  loth  .and  1 1th  centuries.  There  have 
been  a  few  exceptional  instances  of  the  discovery 
of  implements  of  stone  and  bronze  age  types  in 
apparent  association  with  the  crannog  structures, 
but  so  far  as  is  yet  known  there  is  no  crannog  in 
Scotland  or  Ireland  thai  can  with  any  degree  of 
certainty  be  .assigned  to  the  age  of  stone,  or  to  the 
age  of  bronze.  They  seem  to  belong  (exclusively 
to  the  inui  .age  and  the  historic  period.  There 
are  frequent  references  to  the  use  of  crannogs  as 
refuges  and  strongholds  in  the  early  Irish  aiuials. 
and  in  Scottish  and  Irish  historical  documents  of 
the  IGth  and  ITtli  centuries.  The  first  traces 
found  in  North  .Vmcrica  of  anything  resembling 
the  laUe-dwellings  of  Eurojie  are  at  th(!  mouth  of 
Na  .luau's  Creek,  a  tributary  of  the  Delaware. 


The  custom  of  living  in  wooden  houses  erected 
on  piles  over  the  watei's  of  a  Lake,  river,  or  inlet 
of  the  sea  is  still  practised  by  barbarous  tribes, 
and  h.is  been  described  by  many  travellers  in  the 
Malayan  Archipelago,  New  Guinea,  Venezuela,  and 
in  central  Africa.  When  Ojeda,  Vespucci,  and 
the  other  discoverei's  entered  the  lake  of  ilarac.aybo 
in  1499,  they  found  an  Indi.an  village  coiistructal 
on  piles  above  the  water,  and  thence  calle<l  it 
Venezuela  ( '  little  Venice  ').  The  dwellings  of  the 
Pa)iuans  .along  the  coasts  and  river-banks  of  New 
Guinea  are  Iniilt  of  bamboo  .and  raised  on  st.akes, 
and  are  grouped  together.  Cameron  saw  regular 
vill.ages  of  pile-dwellings  on  Lake  Mohrya  in 
central  Africa,  each  separate,  and  accessible  only 
by  jealously-guarded  canoes. 

See  Munro,  The  Lake-dwellings  of  Europe  (1890); 
Keller,  The  Lake-dwdli»<js  of  Switzerland  (trans,  by 
Lee,  2d  ed.  1878);  Munro,  Anrimt  Scottish  Lakc-dieeli- 
iniis,  or  Crannogs  (1S82);  AVood-Martiu,  The  Lake- 
difellinfjs  of  Ireland  (18S(j). 

Lake  of  the  Tlioiisaii«I  Islands,  an  ex- 
pansion of  the  St  Lawrence  (q.v.)  extending  abimt 
40  miles  below  Lake  Ontario.  It  contains  some 
1500  rocky  islets,  the  largest.  Wolfe  Island  (48 
sq.  m.  ;  pop.  2383),  measuring  21  nules  by  7. 

Lake  of  the  Woods,  a  large  lake  of  North 
America,  studded  with  immerous  wooded  islands, 
mostly  in  Ontario,  but  touching  also  I\Iiinit(d)a  and 
Minnesota.  Gold  was  found  about  it  in  1897. 
The  lake  is  nearly  100  miles  long,  and  about  .300 
in  circuit.  It  is  fed  by  the  Rainy  I!i\er,  and 
drained  by  the  Winnipeg. 

Lakes  (originally  pre|iared  from  Iftc,  whence 
the  name)  are  pigments  or  colours  formed  by  pre- 
cipitating animal  or  vegetable  colouring  matters 
from  their  solutions  chiefiy  with  alumina  or  oxide 
of  tin.  Cochineal  and  madder  lakes  are  the  only 
ones  used  by  aitists.  The  former  are  prepared  with 
Cochineal  (q.v.)  and  alumina,  and  according  to  their 
shade  of  red,  or  purple  red,  are  known  as  carmine, 
crimson  lake,  scarlet  lake,  purple  lake,  and  Floren- 
tine lake.  These  were  formerly  much  employed  for 
landscape-work  by  water-colour  painters,  aiul  are 
still  in  request  for  flower-painting,  but  they  have 
not  much  stability.  The  madder  pigments  of  this 
kind,  called  rose  madder  or  niadiler  lake  and 
madder  carmine,  are  on  the  other  hand  (piite  per- 
manent, both  as  water-colours  and  oil-colours,  and 
are  much  prized  by  artists.  There  are  several 
yellow  lakes  made,  but  they  are  fugitive,  and  con- 
sequently but  little  useil. 

Paper-stainers  and  decorators  use  several  pink 
lakes  prepared  by  saturating  a  strong  decoction 
of  Braail-wood  ami  other  ilye-woods  with  chalk, 
starch,  and  a  little  alum.  To  these  such  names  as 
\'enetian,  Florence,  and  IJerlin  lakes  are  applied. 
The  two  best  lakes  used  by  decoratore  are  crimson 
anil  n]<u-one  lakes. 

Lakh.    See  L.vc. 

Lakshllli.  in  Hindu  Mythology,  tlie  name  of 
the  ccmsort  of  the  god  Vishnu  (q.v.),  and  considered 
also  to  be  his  female  or  creative  energy. 

Lahiiide.  Jcseph  .Ikkomk  Le-Fi;.\ncais  dk,  a 
French  astronomer,  w.os  born  at  liourg,  11th  July 
1732.  Sent  to  P.aris  to  qualify  for  an  advocate, 
he  was  attracted  to  astronomy,  whidi  he  studied 
under  Delisle  and  Lemonnier.  The  latter  per- 
suaded the  Academy  of  Paris  to  send  Lalande  to 
Berlin  in  1751,  to  <leterndne  the  moon's  parallax, 
whilst  Lacaille  was  sent  to  the  Cape  of  Good  Hojie. 
On  his  return  he  was  aiipointed  one  of  the  astron- 
oiuei's-royal,  and  in  17H2  succeeded  Lemonnier 
in  the  professorship  of  Astronomy  in  the  College 
de  France,  .a  post  whi(di  he  held  down  to  his  death 
on  4tli  April  1S07.  He  lectured  with  gri'at  success, 
and    published    several  astrouuiuical   works  of    a 


LALITA-VISTARA 


LAMAISM 


489 


popular  kind,  as  well  as  works  of  greater  scientific 
value  In  179:>  he  was  appointed  Director  of  the 
Paris  Observatory.  His  character  was  marked  l.y 
extreme  vanity :  nevertheless  he  contrihiited  jjieatly 
to  the  general  progress  of  astronomical  science. 
His  principal  work  is  Traite  d'Astroiiomic  ('2  vols 
1764-  .3d  ed.  3  vols.  1792).  In  1802  he  instituted 
the  Lalande  prize  for  the  most  notable  astrono- 
mical book  or  observation  of  the  year.  I 

Lalita-Vistara  is  the  name  of  one  of  the 
most  celebrated  works  of  Buddhistic  literature. 
It  belongs  to  the  nortliern  Buddliists,  but  is  of 
unknown  origin  and  anticinity,  existing  only  in  a 
debased  Sanskrit  version.  It  contains  a  narrative 
of  the  life  and  doctrine  of  the  Buddha  Sakya-mum, 
and  is  considered  bv  the  Buddhists  as  one  of  their 
nine  chief  works,  treating  of  Dharma,  or  religious 
law. 

LallyTolleiidal,  Thom.a.s  Arthi-r,  Count 
DE  L.A.LLV  and  B-\ROX  DE  TOLLEND.VL,  a  French 
ceneral,    was   born   at   Romans,   in   Danphine,   in 
January  1702.     His  father,  Sir  Gerard  Lally,  was 
an  Irish  Jacobite  refugee,  and  commander  of  an 
Irish  regiment  in  the  French  service.     Lally  distm- 
•^uished  himself  as  a  soldier  in  Flanders,  especially 
at  the  battle  of   Fontenoy ;    accompanied   Prince 
Charles  Edward  to  Scotland  in  1745  :  and  in  1756 
was  appointed  commander-in-chief  in  the  French 
East  Indian  settlements.     He  commenced  vigorous 
hostilities  against  the  British,  took  many  towns 
and  besieged  Madras  itself  :  but,  having  sustained 
a  severe  defeat,  he  was  compelled  to  retreat  to  Pon- 
dicherry,   which  was  attacked  in   March  1760  by 
land  and  sea  bv  a  greatly  superior  British  force. 
Lally,  however,"  held  out  for  ten  months ;   then, 
capitulating  on   16th  January  1761,   he  was  con- 
veyed as  a  prisoner  of  war  to  England.     But,  hear- 
ing  that  he  had   been   accused  of   treachery  and 
cowardice  in  India,  he  obtained  leave  to  proceed  to 
France  for  the  vindication  of  his  cliaracter.     There 
he  was  thrown  into  the  Bastille,  and  kept  two  years 
before  his  trial  took  place.    The  parliament  of  Paris 
at  last  condemned  iiini  to  death  for  betraying  the 
interests  of  the  king  and  the  Indian  Company,  and 
the  sentence  was  executed  on  9th  May  1766.     But 
his  son,  supportetl  by  the   powerful  assistance  of 
Voltaire,   (nocured   a'  royal   decree   on   21st   May 
1778,  declaring  the  cond'emnation  unjust,  and  re- 
storing all   the  forfeited  honoui-s.     See  Malleson's 
French  in  India  (new  ed.  1884),  and  Hamont's  Ftn 
dun  Empire  Franqais  aux  hides  (1887).  • 

That  son,  Trophimu.s  Ger.vrd,  M.\rquis  de 
L.^LLY-TOLLESDAL,  boin  in  Paris,  5th  March  1751, 
was  one  of  those  nobles  who  in  the  States  General 
of  1789  united  with  the  Third  Estate  ;  but,  alarmecl 
at  the  democratic  tendencies  of  the  National 
Assembly,  he  afterwards  allied  himself  with  the 
court.  He  laboureil  to  procure  for  France  a  con- 
stitution with  two  chambers  and  a  privileged  aristo- 
cracy ;  and  earnestly  sought  to  protect  the  king, 
but  wiis  himself  obliged  to  flee  to  England.  After 
the  Kevolution  of  18th  Brumaire,  he  returned  to 
France.  Louis  XVIIL  made  him  a  peer.  He  died 
at  Paris  on  11th  March  1830.  He  wa.s  the  author 
of  a  famous  Defence  of  the  French  Emigrants  ( 1794); 
and  a  Life  of  Wenttcorth,  Earl  of  Strafford  (2d  ed. 
1814). 
Lama.    See  Llama. 


Lailiai.sin  (from  the  Tibetan  bl.ama,  'spiritual 
teacher  or  lonl')  is  the  name  of  the  religion  pre- 
vailing in  Tibet  and  Mongolia.  It  is  Buddhism 
corrupteil  by  Sivaism,  and  by  Shamanism  or  spirit- 
worship.  As  ancient  ISuddhism  knows  of  no  wor-  j 
shi|)  of  God,  but  merely  of  an  adoration  of  saints, 
the  latter  is  also  the  'main  feature  of  Lamaism. 
The  es.sence  of  all  that  is  sacred  is  comprised  by  i 
this  religion  under  the  '  three  most  precious  jewels '  i 


—viz.    the   '  Buddha- jewel,'    the   'doctrine-jewel,' 
and   the   'priesthood-jewel.'     The   first   pei-s(m   of 
this   trinity   is   the    Buddha:    but   he   is   not    the 
creator,    or    the    origin    of    the    universe :    as    in 
Buddhism,  he  is  merely  the  founder  of  the  doc- 
trine, the  highest  saint^  though  endowed  with  all 
the  qualities   of   su)irenie  wisdom,   power,    virtue, 
and  beauty,  which  raise  him  Ijeyond  the  pale  of 
ordinary    existence.      The    second    jewel,   m    the 
doctrine,    is   the   law   or   religion— that    which   is, 
as   it   were,    the   incarnation   of  the   Buddha,   his 
actual  existence  after  he  had  disappeared  in  the 
Nirvfina.      The  third  jcAvel,  or  the  priesthood,  is 
the   congi-egation   of    the    saints,   comprising    the 
whole  clergy,   the   incarnate  as  well  as  the  non- 
incarnate  representatives  of  the  various  Buddhistic 
saints.      The    latter    comprise    the    live    Dhyani- 
Buddhas,   or  the  Buddhas  of  contemplation,   and, 
besiiles,  all   those   myriads  of   Bodhisatvas,   Prat- 
yeka-Buddhas,  and  pious  men,  who  became  canon- 
ised after  their  death.     Inferior  in  rank  to  these 
saints  are  the  gods  and  spirits,  the  former  chiefly 
taken   from   the   Pantheon  of  the   Sivaites.      The 
highest  position  amongst  these  is  occupied  by  the 
four    spirit-kings— /"(//•«,    the    god   of    tlie   firma- 
ment ;    Yama,  the  god  of  death  and   the  infernal 
regions  ;  Ytimihita/.a,  or  Siva,  as  the  avenger  in  his 
most   formidable   shape;    and    Vaisrarana,   or   the 
god  of  wealth.     The  worship  of  these  saints  and 
gods  consists  chiefly  in  the  reciting  of  prayers  and 
sacred  texts,  and  the  intonation  of  hymns,  accom- 
panied  by  a  kind  of   music   whicli  is   a   chaos  of 
the  mostunharmonious   ami   deafening  soumls  of 
horns,  trumpets,  and  drums  of  various  descriptions. 
During  this  worship,  which  takes  place  three  times 
a  dayf  the  clergy,  summoned  by  the  tolling  of  a 
little"  bell,  are  seated  in  two  or  more  rows,  accord- 
ino-  to   their   rank  ;    and  on  special  holidays  the 
temples  and  altars  are  decorated  with  symbolical 
figures,  while  oH'erings  of  tea,  flour,  milk,  butter, 
and  others  of  a  similar  nature,  are  made  by  the 
worshippers ;   animal  sacrifices  or  ofl'erings  entail- 
ing injury  to  life  being  forliidden,  as  in  the  Bud- 
dhistic faith.      Lamaism   has  three  great  annual 
festivals.     According  to  Hue,  there  are  rites  corre- 
sponding to  baptism   and   confirmation ;    and   the 
principal  religious  ceremony  closely  resembles  high 
mass.     Lamaism  does  not  allow  the  interment  of 
the  dead.     Persons  distinguished  by  rank,  learning, 
or  piety,  are  burned  after  their  death  ;   but  the 
ceneral'niode  of  disposing  of  dead  bodies  in  Tibet, 
as  in  Mongolia,  is  that  of  exposing  them  in  the 
open  air,   to  be  devoured  Ijy  birds  and  beasts  of 
prey.     The  Lama  must  be  present  at  the  moment  of 
death,  in  order  to  superintend  the  proper  separation 
of  body  and  soul,  to  calm  the  departed  sjunt,  and 
to  enable  him  to  be  reborn  in  a  happy  existence. 

One  of  the  most  interesting  features  of  Lamaism 
is  the  organisation  of  its  hierarchy.  Its  summit 
is  occupied  by  two  Lama  popes,  the  one  called 
Dalai-lama,  i.'e.  Ocean  priest,  or  priest  as  wide  as 
the  ocean— the  '  Grand  Lama.'  residing  at  Potala, 
near  Lhassa— an<l  the  other  bearing  the  titles  of 
Tesho-tama,  Ilof/du-lamti,  or  I'an-rhhi-n.  In  iheoiy, 
both  popes  have  the  same  rank  and  authority,  in 
spiritual  as  well  as  in  temporal  matters;  but,  as 
the  Dalai-lama  possesses  a  much  larger  territory 
than  the  other,  he  is  in  reality  much  more  power- 
ful. Next  in  rank  are  the  Khidiiktiii,  who  may 
be  compared  to  the  lionwin  Catholic  cardinals  and 
archbishops.  The  third  degree  is  that  of  the  Ivliu- 
bilghans  or  llobilghans.  Their  number  is  very 
gre'at.  These  three  degrees  represent  the  clergy 
that  claims  to  be  the  incarnation  of  the  Buddhistic 
saint-s.  The  Dalai-lama  and  the  Panchhen  were 
in  their  former  lives  the  two  chief  disciples  of  the 
great  Lamaist  reformer,  bTsong  kha  pa,  who  is 
reputed  to  have  founded  in  the   14th   century  of 


490 


LA    MANCHA 


LAMARCK 


the  Cliristian  era  the  present  system  of  tlie  Lama 
hierarchy.  Tlie  Kluituktus  were  in  tlieir  ]>rior 
existences  other  BucUIliistic  saints  of  very  great 
renown ;  ami  the  Kliulii|i,'hans  are  tliose  reborn 
hosts  of  saintly  patrons  wlioni  the  temples  and  con- 
vents of  Lainaisni  possess  in  boundless  numbei'S. 

In  order  to  ascertain  the  re-incarnation  of  a 
departed  Lama,  various  means  are  relied  upon. 
Sometimes  the  deoea-sed  had,  before  his  death, 
conlidentially  mentioned  to  his  friends  where  and 
in  which  family  he  would  reappear,  or  his  will 
contained  intimations  to  this  effect.  In  most  in- 
stances, however,  the  sacred  books  and  the  official 
astrologers  are  consulted  on  the  subject ;  and  if 
the  Dalai-lama  dies  it  is  the  duty  of  the  Pan- 
chhen  to  interpret  the  traditions  and  oracles.  It  is 
understood  that  the  imperial  court  at  Peking  has 
more  to  do  with  the  selection  than  is  admitted  by 
the  jiriests.  Down  to  1880  there  had  heen  no  fewer 
than  103  Dalai  lamas. 

Besides  these  three  classes  of  the  higher  clergy 
Lamaism  possesses  a  lower  clergy,  which,  having 
no  claim  to  incarnate  holiness,  recruits  its  ranks  on 
the  principle  of  merit  and  theological  prolicieney. 
It  has  four  orders  :  the  pupil  or  novice,  who  enters 
the  order  generally  in  his  seventh  or  ninth  year ; 
the  .assistant  priest ;  tlie  religious  mendicant ;  and 
the  teacher  or  abbot.  All  the  members  of  these 
orders  must  make  the  vow  of  celibacy,  and  by 
far  the  greatest  number  of  them  live  in  convents, 
the  nunil>er  of  monks,  in  proportion  to  the  popula- 
tion, being  enormous.  A  Lanialst  convent  consists 
of  a  temple,  wliicli  forms  its  centre,  and  of  a 
number  of  buildings  connected  with  the  tem]>le, 
and  a|)iiroi>riated  to  the  meeting-rooms,  the  librarv, 
refectory,  dwellings,  and  other  spiritual  and  worldly 
wants  of  the  monks.  At  the  head  of  the  convent  is 
a  Khubilglian,  or  an  abbot,  the  latter  being  elected 
by  the  chapter  and  appointed  by  the  Dalailama, 
or  tlie  ])rovincial  Khubilglian.  In  addition  to  these 
orders  of  monks  and  convents,  Lamaism  has  like- 
wise its  nuns  and  nunneries.  The  Lamaist  bible 
hears  the  name  of  bKa'g/iir  [or  Kaii(fjiir),  'trans- 
lation of  the  words,'  namely  of  the  Buddha.  It 
contains  not  less  than  1083  works,  which  in  some 
editions  (ill  102  to  108  volumes  in  folio. 

See  BCDDHISM.  Lh.\ssa,  Tibet;  Kiippen,  Die Lamaische 
Hitrarchie  (HSotl);  Hue,  Souvenirs  (1852);  Ritter's 
Erdkunde(\i81):  Rliys-Davids,  i'Mt/J/iwm  (1880);  E.  F. 
Knight,  Where  Thee  Emvires  Meet  (1893);  L.  Austin 
■\Vaddell,  The  Jliidtlliism  of  Tibet,  or  Lamaism  (1895); 
A.  H.  Savage  Landor.  In  ike  Forbidden  Land  (1898). 

La  llaiiclia.    See  Maxch.\. 

Laiiiaiitin.    See  Manatee. 

Laiiiai'ck,  Jean  Baptiste  Pierre  Antoine 
DE  MdNNET,  Chevalier  de,  evolutionist,  born  at 
Bazentiii  in  I'icardy,  1st  August  1744,  w-as  educated 
for  the  church  at  the  Jesuit  College  of  Amiens, 
which  he  left  at  the  age  of  seventeen  to  join  the 
French  army  then  warring  in  Germany.  Having 
gained  rapid  ]iroiii()tion  to  officer's  rank,  be  was 
sent  in  17()3  to  the  garrisons  at  Toulon  and 
Monaco,  wliere  he  became  impressed  with  the 
Mediterranean  flora.  Accidental  injuries  led  him 
to  resign  his  position,  and  brought  him  to  Paris, 
where  he  wa-s  forced  to  work  in  a  banker's  office, 
while  his  spare  energies  were  devoted  to  the  study 
of  plants.  In  1773,  thanks  in  part  to  Button,  he 
liublislied  a  Flore  FrcinQctise,  in  which  he  applied  a 
new  analytical  method  of  classification.  As  tutor 
to  Bulh)n's  son,  he  had  the  opportunity  of  visiting 
Holland,  (iermany,  and  Hungary.  In  1774  he  be- 
came a  member  of  the  Fiench  Academy  and  Carde 
de  I'Herbier  ilii  Jaidin  du  Koi — the  nucleus  of 
the  famous  |>ost-revolutionary  Jurclin  i/a  Pla/itcx. 
In  one  of  the  tnelve  chairs  a.ssociated  with  this 
'Jardin'  Lamarck  remained  for  twenty  five  years 
as  professor  of  what  we  would  now  call  Invertebrate 


Zoology.  In  1801  or  earlier  he  had  begun  to  think 
actively  about  the  relations  and  origin  of  species, 
ex])ressing  his  conclusions  in  1809  in  his  famous 
Philosophic  Zoologiqnc.  Of  his  other  great  work, 
Histoire  tics  Animaiix  sans  Vcrtcbrcs,  he  liublislied 
seven  volumes  between  1815  and  18'22.  Hard  worl; 
and  illness  enfeebled  his  sight  and  left  him  for  the 
bust  ten  years  of  his  life  not  only  blind  but  jioor. 
To  one  of  his  two  daughters  he  dictated  the  last 
volume  of  his  Invertebrate  Zo(dogy,  while  to  keep 
himself  alive  he  wa-s  forced  to  jiart  with  .some  of 
his  treasured  collections.  Greater  than  his  con- 
temporaries and  immediate  successors  dreamed, 
Lamarck  died  in  comparative  obscurity,  18th 
December  1829,  aged  eighty-five. 

Apart  from  his  contributions  to  classification  and 
descriptive  zoolog\-,  Lamarck  had  a  twofold  iiiiiiort- 
ance,  as  an  expositor  of  the  now  accepted  theory  of 
descent,  and  as  an  inquirer  into  the  still  debated 
factors  in  evolution.  It  is  easy  to  find  in  his 
Philosophic  Zoologiqnc  ]iassages  which  foreshadow 
many  modern  suggestions  in  regard  to  evolution, 
including  the  theory  of  natural  selection  ;  but  the 
gist  of  his  thinking  is  fairly  ex]iressed  in  the  follow- 
ing propositions  :  ( 1 )  Every  considerable  and  sus- 
tained change  in  the  conditions  of  life  produces  a 
real  change  in  the  needs  of  the  animals  involved  ; 
(2)  change  of  needs  involves  new  habits  ;  (3)  altered 
function  evokes  change  of  structure,  for  ])arts  for- 
merly less  used  become  with  incrca-^ed  exercise 
more  highly  developed,  other  organs  in  default  of 
use  deteriorate  and  finally  disappear,  while  new 
jiarts  gradually  arise  in  tlie  oiganism  by  its  own 
efforts  from  within  (c/forts  tic  son  sentiment 
interieur) ;  (4)  gains  or  losses  due  to  use  or  disuse 
are  transmitted  from  jiarents  to  ofl'sju  ing. 

There  can  be  no  doubt  that  Lamarck,  though 
beyond  doubt  an  indeiiendent  thinker,  was  in- 
fluenced by  Butlbn,  and  also  perhaps  by  Erasnms 
Darwin,  whose  Lores  of  the  Pltmts  li.ad  been  trans- 
lated into  French  in  1799.  On  his  cimtemporaries 
he  exercised  little  influence — in  fact  it  was  not  till 
the  Darwinian  revival  of  ;vtiology  that  the  worth 
of  Lamarck  began  to  be  justly  aiipreciated.  To 
those  who  deny  the  transmisj-ibility  of  all  char- 
acters individually  acquired  in  direct  response  to 
changed  functions  and  surroundings,  the  theory 
of  evolution  according  to  Lamarck  seems  to  he 
based  on  an  undenionstrated  if  not  erroneous  hypo- 
thesis ;  to  those,  on  the  other  hand,  who  believe 
that  individually  acquired  characters  are  trans- 
missible from  parents  to  ofl'spring,  Lamarck's  theory 
is  part  of  the  solution  of  the  evcdutionist's  puzzle. 
Thus,  while  the  majority  of  naturalists  in  Britain 
and  Germany  side  with  Darwin  and  Weisniann 
against  Lamarck,  there  is  in  France  a  distinctly 
Lamarckian  school,  and  a  Reunion  of  his  admirers 
has  been  instituted  ;  while  in  America  what  are 
called  '  Neo-Lamarckian '  views  are  vigorously 
upheld  by  many  naturalists  of  eminence,  such  as 
Cojie,  Hyatt,  and  Packard,  who  seek  to  explain 
evolution  according  to  fundamental  'laws  of 
growth,'  plus  the  inherited  effects  of  use  and 
disuse  and  of  environmental  influence. 

See  BuFFO.v,  Dakwix,  U.\rwinian  Theory,  Evolu- 
tion, Heredity,  &c.  S.  Butler,  Eeotution,  Old  and 
New  (Lond.  187'J) ;  J.  V.  Carus,  Gcschiehtc  der  Zoologie 
(1872);  C.  Claus,  Lamarek  ah  Bet/riimler  tier  Desctndenz- 
theoric  (1888);  E.  D.  Coiw,  The  Orit/in  of  the  Fittc-t 
( Lond.  and  New  York,  1887 ) ;  Cuvier,  '  filoge  de  M.  de 
Lamarck,'  Acad,  des  Sciences  (1832);  M.  Duval,  'Le 
Transforniiste  Franv^-iis  Lamarck,'  an  admirable  sketch  of 
his  life  and  work,  JIult.  Sim:  Anlhropol.  tome  .xii.  (I'aris, 
1889);  E.  Hacckel,  Die  JValiiranschaiimui  roji  Daruin, 
Goethe,  und  Lamarck  (1882),  and  translation  of  his 
NatUrliehe  Sehopfunfjsgeschichte  ;  Lamarck,  Jlistoirc  des 
Animavx sans  Vertibrcsi  1815-22),  rt-cdition  by  Dcshayes 
and  Milne-Kdwards  (1835-45);  P/iHusiijihir  'Zoolonitjue 
(1809),  re-edition  with  valuable  biographical  introduction 


LA    MARMORA 


LAMB 


491 


by  Ch.  Martins  (1873);  Lamarck,  par  tin  Groupe  de 
TransformiaUs,  sfs  Disciples  (1887);  A.  S.  Packard. 
Introduction  to  Staji^ard  Natiirai  Histort/  {ISH^i);  and 
R  Perrier,  La  Philosophic  Zooloyique  aiant  Daiicin 
(1884). 

La  Ular'iiiora,  Alfonso  Ferrero,  Marquis 
DE,  Italian  general  and  statesman,  lx)ni  at  Turin, 
ITtli  November  1S04,  wlio,  enterini;  the  army, 
became  known  as  a  zealous  reformer.  He  wivs 
decorated  for  distinguished  conduct  in  the  national 
war  of  1848,  and  jiromoted  to  general  of  brigade. 
In  1849  he  entered  tlie  cabinet  as  Minister  of  War. 
In  18.5.5  he  withdrew  from  the  ministry  to  assume 
the  command  of  the  Sardinian  troops  in  the  Ciimea, 
and  at  the  close  of  tlie  war  was  invested  with  the 
Order  of  the  Bath  and  the  Grand  Cross  of  tlie 
Legion  of  Honour,  and  reentered  the  ministry  in 
his  former  capacity.  He  took  part  in  the  war  of 
1859,  by  Avhicii  Loniliardy  wivs  acfjuired  by  Italy  ; 
and  was  appointed  commander-in-cliief  of  the 
Italian  army  in  18G1,  and  in  1864  prime-minister. 
In  the  campaign  against  Austria  in  1866  he  lost 
the  battle  of  Custozza,  and  had  to  sustain  unpleas- 
ant controversy  as  to  his  management  of  the  cam- 
paign. Latterly  he  was  intrusted  with  several 
diplomatic  missions ;  he  preferred  the  French  to 
the  Prussian  alliance;  and  his  publication  (1873) 
of  the  secret  negotiations  between  Prussia  and 
Italy  incurred  the  censure  of  Prince  Bismarck.  La 
Marmora  died  5th  January  1878.  See  a  monograph 
by  Massan  (1880). 

Lamartine,  Alphosse  M.\rie  Louls  he, 
French  statesman  and  author,  was  born  at  Macon, 
21st  October  1790.  He  came  of  an  ultia-royalist 
stock,  and  was  educated  in  royalist  principles. 
Up  to  1815  a  considerable  portion  of  his  time 
■was  spent  in  Italy,  a  country  for  which  he  had 
a  deep  attection.  On  the  fall  of  Napoleon  and 
the  establishment  of  the  Bourbons,  Lamartine 
proceeded  to  Paris  and  entered  the  ranks  of 
the  Garde  Koyale.  He  soon  returned  to  Italy, 
however,  which  he  traversed  on  foot ;  and  here, 
as  his  Ell-ire  and  Julie  testify,  he  e.\])erience<l 
a  i)assion  that  kimlled  into  energy  those  poetic 
gifts  which  ultimately  made  him  one  of  the  great 
singers  of  France.  His  first  JMeditations  were  pub- 
lished in  1820,  and  at  this  period  he  was  a])pointed 
Fii'st  Secretary  of  Legation  at  Najiles.  He  subse- 
quently became  churgi  d'uffuirca  at  Florence,  where 
he  remained  for  live  years,  acriuiring  a  witle  know- 
ledge of  internatii>nal  politics.  Lamartine  married 
an  English  wife,  .Marianne  Birch,  who  shared  in  her 
husband's  labours  and  aspirations.  In  1829  Lamar- 
tine, foreseeing  impending  diHiculties,  declined  the 
?iost  of  Secretary  ot  State  for  Foreign  Att'airs  in  the 
'oligiiac  ministry.  He  accepted  a  nji-sion  to  the 
new  king  of  Greece,  Leopold  of  Belgium  (elected 
iltb  l''el>ruan-  ISSO;  resigned  loihMay).  At  the 
same  lime  he  published  his  llaniiiDiie.s  Fuiliijties  ct 
Julir/ieiiscs,  wliicli  e.xcited  such  enthusiasm  that  lie 
was  unanimously  elected  to  the  Academy.  Lamar- 
tine, still  a  royalist  in  ]>iinciple,  disapproved 
of  the  revolution  of  July  18;i0.  His  frieii<ls  nomi- 
nated him  at  I)unkeri)ue  and  Toulon  for  election  to 
the  Chaniljer  of  Deputies,  but  h(^  was  defeated  at 
both  places,  an<l  went  on  a  tour  to  the  K:ust.  He 
wrote  an  account  of  his  travels,  entitled  Souvenirs 
cfOrie/it.  Recalled  to  France  in  1S:U,  he  was  re- 
turned for  both  Macon  and  Bergues,  and  elected  to 
sit  for  the  latter  place.  But  Macon  being  his  native 
place,  his  fellow-townsmen  would  not  be  denied, 
and  re-electe<l  him  almost  unanimously  in  18.'i7. 
Between  1834  and  1848  Lamartine  wrote  and  pub- 
lished his  Jorcli/ii,  La  Chute  dun  Anife,  and  the 
celebrated  work,  the  Histoirc  des  (lirondins,  «  hich 
the  Conservatives  erroneously  alleged  «  as  the  cause 
of  the  revolution  of  1848.  The  historian  merely 
saw  further  into  the  future  than  most  of  his  coti- 


temporaries.  The  Orleanist  rigime  was  repugnant 
to  him  because  of  its  du]>licity,  and  when  the 
monarchy  fell  he  accepted  the  inevitable.  It  was 
he  who  insisted  upon  an  ajipeal  to  the  )ieople. 
He  was  a  mcinlicr  of  the  I'nivision.-il  (Joveniment 
which  formally  iiroclaimed  the  Ki'|)ublic  at  the 
H6tel  de  N'ille.  The  new  ordi^r  having  been  estab- 
lished on  the  basis  of  liberty,  eipiality,  and  frater- 
nity, the  ministry  was  cimstituted  -with  Lain.utine 
a-s  >Iinister  of  Foreign  .Vtt'airs.  Lamartine,  who  was 
the  presiding  genius  of  the  government,  endeavoured 
to  rule  the  country  according  to  the  principles  of 
constitutional  liberty,  but  there  was  an  extreme 
party,  headed  by  Louis  Blanc  and  Lcdru  Itoliin, 
which  sought  to  establish  national  workshops  and 
to  etlect  social  changes  of  a  sweejiing  character. 
A  formidable  outbreak  on  the  15th  of  ^lay,  result- 
ing from  the  refusal  of  the  A.ssembly  to  ajipoint 
a  Minister  of  Labour,  and  which  eventually  led 
to  the  e.\pulsion  of  Louis  Blanc,  was  suppressed 
by  the  vigorous  elt'orts  of  Lamartine.  In  June, 
however,  a  more  serious  rising  occurred,  upon 
which  the  executive  committee  resigned  their 
functions,  and  conferred  the  command  of  the  forces 
on  Cieneral  Cavaignac.  After  a  terrible  conflict  the 
insurrection  was  suppressed.  Lamartine  had  already 
ste])j)ed  down  from  [jower,  and  from  the  time  when 
Louis  Napoleon  acquired  the  ascendency  through 
unscrupulous  means  his  political  career  practically 
closed.  He  now  devoted  himself  to  literature,  imb- 
lishing  in  the  order  named  the  two  series  of  the 
Confalcnccs,  his  Haphael,  Ocncvitrc,  the  Taillrur  de 
Pierres  de  St-Point,  and  that  valuable  contribution 
to  the  study  of  continental  politics,  the  Histoire  de 
la  Restauration.  He  likewise  edited  several  Col- 
lections of  his  former  writings,  Discours  divers,  and 
issued  monthly  his  Entretiens  Fumilicrs.  Lamar- 
tine continued  to  take  an  interest  in  public  atlairs, 
discussing  them  eloquently  with  his  friends,  but 
his  patriotic  spirit  re\'olted  against  the  iron  rule  of 
Napoleon  III.  In  consequence  of  his  straitened 
circumstances,  parliament  voted  Lamartine  a  mode- 
late  pension,  and  the  Paris  town-council  presented 
him  with  a  chalet  in  the  Bois  de  Boulogne.  He  died 
on  Feliniarv2S,  1869.  See  the  Life  bvLadv  JI.  Dom- 
ville(188S),  aud  by  Deschanel  (2  vols.  Par.  1893). 

Lainbt  Ch.\RLES,  essayist,  critic,  and  humorist, 
was  born  on  the  10th  of  February  1775,  in  Crown 
Oliice  Row,  in  the  Temple,  London,  where  his 
father  was  clerk  and  contidential  servant  to  Samuel 
Salt,  a  wealthy  bencher  of  the  Inner  Temple.  For 
this,  as  for  many  other  details  of  Lamb's  private 
and  domestic  life,  we  are  indebted  to  his  essays, 
which  form  the  best  of  all  coiiimentaries  on  his 
biography.  (His  father,  John  Lamb,  is  the  Lovel 
of  the  essay  on  the  'Old  Benchers  of  the  Inner 
Temple.')  There  were  seven  children  born  to  John 
Lamb  and  his  wife  in  the  Teiiqjle,  of  whom  three 
only  survived  their  early  childhood  —Charles  Lamb, 
his  sister  Mary,  ten  years  older  than  himself,  and 
a  yet  older  brother,  .lohn.  Charles  received  his 
first  schooling  at  a  humble  academy,  out  of  Fetter 
Lane,  but  at  seven  years  of  age  he  obtained, 
through  Samuel  Salt,  a  inesentation  to  Christ's 
Hospital,  where  he  remained  for  the  next  seven 
years.  His  school  experiences,  and  the  friendships 
he  formed,  notably  that  with  Samuel  Taylor 
Coleridge,  three  yeai's  his  senior,  are  again  f.uiiiliar 
to  all  readers  of  the  Essays  uf  Elia.  At  the  jige 
of  fourteen  he  left  school  with  a  fair  amount  of 
scholai'ship,  and  an  intensified  love  of  reading. 
He  might  have  stayed  and  become  a  drcriau — as 
the  higliest-cla-ss  boys  were  denominated  -and  so 
jnoeeeded  to  the  university.  lUil  the  ixhiliitions 
were  given  on  the  understanding  that  the  bolder 
was  to  take  holy  orders,  and  Lamb's  unsurinount- 
able  stammer  barred  him  from  that  profession. 

Lamb  left  Christ's  Hospital  in  November  1789. 


492 


LAMB 


At  that  time  his  brother  Jolin  lield  a  post  in  the 
South  Sea  House,  of  which  Sainuel  Salt  was  a 
deputy  governor,  and  Charles  was  soon  presented 
tlnouj;h  the  kind  oHices  of  this  frien<l  to  a  hunilile 
situation  in  the  same  company  ;  liut  early  in  17!t'i 
he  obtained  i)romotii)n  in  the  shape  of  a  clerkship 
in  the  accountant's  otlice  of  the  India  House,  where 
lie  remained  for  more  than  thirty  years.  In  this 
same  vear  Samuel  Salt  died.  The  occupation  of 
his  old  clerk  and  servant  was  at  an  end  ;  and  with 
his  legacies  from  his  employer,  Charles's  salary, 
and  whatever  Mary  Lamo  could  earn  by  needle- 
work, in  which  she  was  proficient,  the  family  of 
four  (for  John  Lamb  was  living  a  comfortable 
bachelor  life  elsewhere)  retired  to  hrimble  lodgings. 
In  179G  we  tind  them  in  Little  Queen  Street, 
Holhorn,  and  it  was  there  that  the  terrible  disaster 
occurred,  destined  to  mould  the  career  and  cliar- 
acter  of  Charles  Lamb  for  the  whole  of  his 
future  life.  There  was  a  strain  of  insanity  in 
the  children  inherited  from  the  mother.  The 
father,  who  had  married  late  in  life,  was  grow- 
ing old  and  childish  ;  the  mother  was  an  invalid, 
and  tlie  stre.ss  and  anxiety  of  the  many  duties 
devolving  on  Mary  Lamb  began  to  tell  upon  her 
reason.  In  an  attack  of  mania,  induced  by  .a  slight 
altercation  with  a  little  apprentice  girl  at  work  in 
the  room,  Mary  Lamb  snatched  up  a  knife  from 
the  dinner-table,  and  stabbed  her  mother,  who  had 
interposed  in  the  girl's  behalf.  Charles  was  him- 
self present,  and  wrested  the  knife  from  his  sister's 
hand.  It  w.as  a  critical  moment  in  the  young 
man's  history.  The  father  was  all  l)ut  imbecile  ; 
the  mother  was  no  more  ;  and  the  whole  direction 
of  all'airs  for  the  sister's  future  remained  with 
Charles.  The  inquest  resulted  in  a  verdict  of 
temporarj'  insanity.  Mary  would  in  the  natural 
course  have  been  transferred  for  life  to  a  public 
asylum  ;  but,  by  the  intervention  of  friends,  the 
brother's  guardianship  was  accejited  by  the  author- 
ities as  an  alternative.  To  carry  out  this  trust 
Charles  Lamb  from  that  moment  devoted  his  life, 
sacrificing  to  it  all  other  ties  and  ambitions,  and 
never  flagging  in  duty  and  tenderness  for  thirty- 
eight  years.  It  was  inevitalde  that  the  family 
should  leave  the  scene  of  this  '  day  of  horrors ; ' 
the  old  father  witli  his  son  Charles  reniove<l  to 
Pentonville,  where  at  successive  lodgings  they 
remained  until  the  father's  death.  The  house  in 
Little  Queen  Street  no  longer  stands.  With  two 
or  three  other  houses  .adjoining,  it  has  been  pulled 
down,  and  a  church  now  stands  >ipon  its  site — a 
not  unfitting  memorial  of  the  spot  where  Lamb 
con.secratcd  his  future  life  by  an  act  of  devotion  as 
remarkable  as  any  recorded  in  the  annals  of  litera- 
ture. .Mary  Lamb  remained  subject  to  attacks  of 
temporary  aberration  for  the  rest  of  her  life.  The 
attacks  were  usually  foreseen,  and  at  such  seasons 
she  was  removed  to  some  suitable  asylum.  The 
length  and  frer|ueney  of  these  periods  of  absence 
increased,  until  the  closing  years  of  her  luother's 
life,  when  she  was  e.\iled  from  him  during  the 
greater  part  of  each  year.  In  the  meantime 
Charles  Lamb  had  fallen  in  love,  but  renouneed  all 
ho|)e  of  marri.age  when  the  duty  of  tending  his 
otherwise  homeless  sister  had  ap|icared  to  liim 
paramount.  The  history  of  his  brief  attachment, 
to  which  there  is  frequent  pathetic  allusion  in  his 
writings,  is  ol)Scuie.  The  girl,  who  appears  in  his 
earliest  sonnets  as  Anna,  and  in  his  essays  as  Alice 
W.,  was  in  fact  named  Anne  Simmons,  and 
resided  with  her  mother  in  the  village  of  Wiilford, 
in  Hertfordshire — the  scene  of  Lamb's  early  ro- 
mance of  JiosaiHiinit  Gmi/.  Lamb's  grandniotlier, 
Mrs  Field,  was  housekeeper  at  lilakesware,  a 
dower-house  of  the  I'lumer  family,  closely  adjoin- 
ing Wiilford  ;  and  during  Lamb's  fiec|Uenb  visits 
to  Blakesware  (immortalised  in  one  of  the  loveliest 


of  his  e.ssays  as  '  Blakesnioor,  in  Hertfordshire  ) 
he  had  made  the  girl's  acquaintance.  She  after- 
wards married  a  jlr  liartrani,  a  London  silver- 
smith, and  is  referred  to  under  th.it  name  in  the 
essay  Dream  Children, 

Lamb's  earliest  poems,  written  in  1795,  were 
prompted  by  this  deep  attachment.  Two  simnets 
on  this  theme,  with  two  others  on  ditl'eient  topics, 
were  included  in  S.  T.  Coleridge's  earliest  volume 
of  poems,  issued  at  Bristol  in  1790.  In  the  follow- 
ing year  a  second  edition  of  Coleridge's  poems 
appeared,  '  to  which  are  now  added  poems  by 
C^iarles  Lamb  .and  Charles  Lloyd.'  The  latter 
w,as  a  young  man  of  kindri^d  poetic  tastes,  who.se 
acquaintance  Lamb  had  made  through  Ciileridge. 
Here,  as  before,  the  poetic  influence  under  which 
Lamb  wrote  was  the  same  that  had  so  stiangidy 
nioveil  Coleridge,  while  still  at  Christ's  Hospital — 
the  graceful  and  mel.anclioly  sonnets  of  \V.  L. 
Howies.  In  the  following  year  Lamb  and  Lloyd 
made  a  second  venture  in  a  slight  volume  of 
their  own  ( Blank  Verse,  by  Charles  Lloyd  and 
Charles  Lamb,  1798);  and  here  for  the  first  time 
L.amb's  individuality  made  itself  felt  in  the  touch- 
ing and  now  famous  verses  on  the  'Old  Familiar 
Faces' — like  so  many  of  his  memorable  utterances 
in  prose  and  verse,  full  of  autobiof^raphical  allusion, 
and  yet  gaining  rather  than  losing  in  permanence 
of  charm  through  the  circumstance.  It  was,  how- 
ever, in  prose,  not  in  verse,  that  he  was  to  find  his 
true  strength. 

In  the  same  year  as  the  Blank  Verne  just  men- 
tioned he  published  his  little  prose  romance.  The 
Tale  of  Iion(tniHiitl  Gray  and  ijltl  lil/nd  Margaret ; 
■anil  four  years  later  his  Jolin  Waodvil — the  fruit 
of  that  study  of  the  dramatic  poetry  of  the  Eliza- 
bethan period,  in  the  revived  study  of  which  he 
was  to  bear  so  large  a  part.  Lamb  hail  little  or 
no  dramatic  faculty.  The  little  phiy  was  crude 
and  valueless  as  a  drama,  but  with  detached 
pass.ages  reflecting  much  of  the  nnisic  and  quaint- 
ness  of  Fletcher  and  .Tonson.  .Meantime,  Lamb 
and  his  sister  were  wandering  from  lodging  to 
lodging,  too  often  forced  to  leave  through  the 
rumour  of  Mary  Lamb's  malady  which  followed 
them  wherever  they  went.  Thev  had  lived  at 
imu-e  than  one  house  in  Pentonville — they  were  in 
Southampton  Buildings  in  KSOO  and  ISdl— and 
then  removed  to  Lamb's  old  familiar  neighbour- 
hood, where  they  continued  forsi.xteen  years.  The 
early  years  of  their  residence  in  the  Tenqile  were 
among  the  hardest  and  saddest  of  their  lives. 
They  were  very  poor ;  Charles's  experiments  in 
literature  had  as  yet  brought  him  neither  money 
nor  reputation  ;  and  the  gradual  accession  of  new 
friends  that  might  have  brighlriicil  ihcir  jiath  had 
the  drawback  of  l)ringing  Charles  face  to  face  with 
social  temptations  which  he  could  not  resist.  A 
very  niodeiate  indulgence  in  wine  or  si)irits  seems 
to  liave  speedily  all'ected  him,  and  his  shyne.ss  and 
his  impediment  of  speech  made  him  eagerly  resort 
to  what  for  the  moment  made  him  forget  both. 
'  Wo  are  very  poor,'  writes  Mary  Lamb  in  1S04  ; 
and  again  in  ISO."),  '  It  h;is  been  sad  and  heavy 
times  with  us  lately.'  In  Lamb's  anxiety  to  raise 
a  few  ]iounds,  rather  than  from  any  coniidence  in 
his  dramatic  faculty,  he  began  to  write  a  farce, 
which  the  proprietors  of  Orury  Lane  accepted,  and 
))roiluced  in  December  ISOIi.  It  was  the  now 
famous  farce  Mr  //.  —  famous,  however,  not  for  its 
success,  but  for  its  failure.  His  love  for  things 
dramatic  soon  found  a  mure  prolilalile  outlet  in  a 
commi.ssion  from  William  (iodwiii  to  conlribule  to 
his 'Juvenile  Library,'  tlien  in  course  of  publica- 
tion. For  this  series  Ch.arles  and  Mary  wrote  in 
IH07  their  well-known  Talcs  from  Shakespeare — 
Mary  Lamb  making  the  version  of  the  coineclies, 
Charles  that  of  the  tragedies.     This  was  Lamb's 


LAMB 


LAMBALLE 


493 


fii'st  success.  It  brought  liiiii  sixty  guineas,  and 
what  wus  more  valuable,  liope  for  the  future,  ami  the 
increased  eontidunce  and  recognition  of  his  grow- 
ing circle  of  friends.  As  one  consequence  of  the 
success,  the  brother  and  sister  composed  jointly 
two  other  children's  books — Jlrs  Leicester's  Schuol 
( 1807 )  and  the  Poetry  for  CliiUlrcn  ( 1809).  Charles 
also  made,  single  handed,  a  prose  version  of  tlie 
Atlcentures  of  Uli/sses.  Another  more  important 
consequence  was  a  commission  from  the  Longmans 
to  edit  a  volume  of  selections  from  the  Elizalictlian 
dramatists.  The  volume  at  once  exhibited  Lamb, 
to  those  who  h,ad  eyes  to  see,  as  one  of  the  most 
profound,  subtle,  and  original  of  English  poetical 
critics.  Three  years  later  a  conviction  of  the  same 
fact  would  be  deepeneil  in  tliose  who  knew  that 
the  unsigned  articles  iu  Leigh  Hunt's  liej/eetur,  on 
Hogarth  and  the  tragedies  of  Shakespeare,  were 
from  the  same  hand,  and  that  a  ])rose  writer  of 
new  and  iiniqvie  <|ualit_\'  was  showing  above  the 
dull  level  of  tlie  conventional  essayist. 

Li  1817  Lamb  and  his  sister  left  the  Temple  for 
rooms  in  Great  Russell  Street,  Covent  Garden. 
Next  year  an  enterprising  young  publisher  induced 
him  to  collect  his  scattered  verse  and  prose  in  two 
neat  volumes,  as  the  Word's  of  Charles  Lamb,  and 
this  publication  naturally  paved  the  way  for  his 
being  invited  to  join  the  stall'  of  the  London 
Miifjazinc,  then  newly  started.  Lamb  was  re- 
quired to  contribute  light  prose  essays,  and  was 
wisely  allowed  a  free  hand.  His  first  essay 
apjieared  in  .\ugust  1820,  'Recollections  of  the  old 
South  Sea  House,'  the  public  oltice  in  which  his  first 
small  salary  was  earned,  and  where  his  elder 
brother  had  remained  a  high-placed  and  prosperous 
clerk.  Lanil)  signed  his  lirst  paper  £//((,  borrowing 
for  a  joke  the  name  of  a  foreigner  w  ho  had  been 
fellow-clerk  with  him  in  the  otlice.  The  signature 
was  continued  through  Lamb's  successive  con- 
tributions to  the  magazine ;  and  as  he  placed  it 
on  the  title-page  (without  his  own)  of  the  first 
collected  edition  of  the  essays  in  1823,  it  became 
indissolubly  connected  with  the  work.  The  series 
came  to  an  end,  ;is  far  as  the  London  3I(iijnzine 
was  concerned,  in  1825.  'f/ie  Lust  Essai/s  of  Ella 
were  collected  in  a  second  volume  in  1833. 

In  August  1823  Charles  and  ilary  quitted  their 
rooms  over  the  brazier's  in  Russell  Street,  and 
made  their  lirst  experiment  as  householders  in  a 
cottage  in  Colebrooke  Row,  Islington,  with  the 
New  River  (into  which  George  Dyer  walked  in 
broad  daylight)  flowing  within  a  few  feet  of  their 
frontdoor.  Moreover,  they  were  now  im  the  eve  of 
making  a  pleasr.nt  addition  to  their  liousehold  in 
the  form  of  a  young  friend,  the  orphan  daughter 
of  an  Italian  teacher  of  languages  at  Cambridge. 
Charles  and  Mary  Lamb  virtually  .a<lo]ited  Emma 
Isola,  ami  she  wn-s  treated  as  a  memlier  of  their 
family  until  her  marriage  with  Edward  Moxon  the 
publisher,  in  1833. 

Early  in  182o  Lamb,  who  had  been  for  some 
time  failing  in  health,  was  allowed  to  resign  his 
post  in  the  India  House,  the  directors  liberally 
granting  him  as  pension  two-thirds  of  his  then 
salary.  Having  now  no  tie  to  any  jiarticular 
neighbourhood,  the  brother  and  sister  were  free  to 
waniler.  They  took  lodgings — and  subsequently  a 
liouse— at  Enileld  ;  but  Mary  Lambs  health  be- 
coming gradually  worse  and  necessitating  constant 
su](ervision,  they  parted  with  their  furniture  and 
gave  up  hou.sekeeping.  They  finally  removed  to 
the  neighbouring  village  of  I'Mnionton,  where  in  a 
small  cottage,  hard  by  the  clmrch,  they  sjient  the 
la-st  year  of  thidr  joint  lives.  It  was  a  melancholy 
vear.  Lamb's  own  health  wa.s  sufl'ering.  They 
iiad  lost  their  young  friend  Emma  Isola.  The 
absence  of  settled  occupation  had  not  brought 
Lamb    all    the    comfort  he  had   looked  for :  the 


separation  from  his  London  friends,  and  the  now 
almost  continuous  mental  alienation  of  his  .sister, 
left  him  companionless,  and  with  the  death  of 
Coleridge  in  tlie  summer  of  1834  the  chief  attrac- 
tions of  his  life  were  gone.  In  December  of  the 
same  year,  while  taking  one  day  his  usual  walk 
on  the  London  Koad,  he  stumbled  and  fell,  slightly 
injuring  his  face.  The  wound  was  in  itself  trifling, 
but  erysipelas  ensued,  under  which  he  rapidly  sank, 
and  he  passed  quietly  away,  without  pain,  on  the 
29th  of  December.  He  was  buried  in  Eihnonton 
churchyard.  His  sister  survived  him  nearly  thir- 
teen years,  and  was  buried  by  his  side  in  May 
1847. 

Lamb's  place  in  literature  is  unique  and  unchal- 
lengeable. As  a  personality  he  is  more  intimately 
known  to  us  than  any  other  iigure  in  literature, 
unless  it  be  Samuel  Jolinson.  He  is  familiar  to  us 
through  his  works,  which  throughout  are  com]iosed 
in  the  form  of  personal  confidences  :  through  his 
many  friends  who  ha\e  loved  to  make  known  his 
every  mood  and  trait  ;  and  through  his  letters,  the 
most  fascinating  body  of  corresiiondence  in  our 
language.  It  is  a  dangerous  thing  to  say,  but  it  may 
be  doubted  whether,  outside  a  necessarily  limited 
circle,  his  works  are  read  so  much  for  their  own 
sakes  as  for  the  light  they  throw  upon  the  character 
of  their  author.  It  is  the  harmonious  concord  of 
dissonances  in  Lamb  that  is  the  secret  of  his 
attraction.  The  profound  and  imaginative  char- 
acter of  his  criticism,  which  at  its  best  is  unerring, 
and  with  it  the  reckless  humour  of  the  Bohemian 
and  the  fargcnr ;  the  presence  of  one  lamentable 
weakness  serving  to  throw  into  stronger  relief  the 
])atient  strength  of  his  Iifes:ruggle ;  his  loyalty 
and  generosity  to  his  friends,  even  when  they 
abused  it  most  ;  and  all  this  llowing  from  one  of 
the  most  beautiful  acts  of  devotion  in  the  records 
of  self-sacrifice :  the  wild  fun  of  Trinculo  and 
Stephano,  alternating  with  the  tenderness  of 
Miranda  and  Ferdinand,  or  the  profound  philo- 
sophic musings  of  Prospero — and  all  these,  like 
Ariel,  now  '  flaming  distinctly,'  n:)w  'meeting  and 
joining' — it  is  this  wondrous  blending  of  ojiposites 
that  has  made  Lamb,  save  to  the  'sour-coni- 
]dexi(med '  and  matter  of  fact,  one  of  the  most 
dearly  loved  among  EnglLsh  men  of  letters,  and 
with  every  sign  that  this  love  is  one  which  no 
changes  of  taste  are  likely  to  diniinish. 

Our  chief  authorities  for  Lamb  :ire  lii.s  own  writings, 
and  tile  Life  and  Letters,  and  Fimd  Memoriafit,  l>y  the 
late  ilr  Justice  Talfourd.  Later  editions  of  tliese  works 
have  appeared,  enlarged  by  Percy  Fitzgerald  and  AV.  C. 
HazHtt.  There  is  a  quite  separate  iiii'iuoir  of  Laiiih,  of 
considerable  interest,  by  the  late  B.  "\V.  Pnicter  ( '  Barry 
Cornwall ' ).  Another  memoir,  and  a  complete  edition 
of  Lamb's  works  and  correspondence,  by  tlie  writer  of 
the  present  article,  are  ])ublislied  by  Messrs  ^laciuillan. 
E.  V.  Lucas's  Lamb  wad  tlie  Lloinls  (1898)  should  also 
be  cited  as  an  interesting  work. 

Liiiiib,  WiLLi.\M.    See  Melbourne. 

Laiiiball«'.MAniKTniii!i:si;  Louise  ok  S.^voy- 
Cai;ic;nan,  I'ijincicsse  he,  was  bom  at  Turin,  8th 
September  1749,  the  ilaugliter  of  the  jirince  of 
(Jarignan.  Beautiful  and  charming,  she  was  made 
by  Marie  Antoinette  sii]ierinteiident  of  the  royal 
household,  and  her  own  intimate  friend  and  com- 
panion. I'rincess  Lamballe  jiroved  her  devotion 
to  her  royal  mistress  by  returning  to  France 
(whence  she  had  escaped  to  England)  after  the 
unsucces.sful  flight  from  Versailles,  by  sharing  the 
queen's  imprisonment  for  a  week  in  the  Temple, 
and  finally  by  refusing  to  take  the  oath  expressing 
detestatiiin  of  the  king,  quei^n,  ami  nionarcliy  (3d 
Se|>teniber  1792).  As  slie  stejiped  out  of  the  court- 
room on  that  fatal  day  she  w<is  cut  to  the  ground  ; 
lier  body  was  given  up  to  the  fury  of  the  populace, 
who  paraded  her  hea*l  and  heart  on  pikes  in  front 


494 


LAMBAYEQUE 


LAMENNAIS 


of  tlie  queen's  windows.  See  Lives  1)V  Leseiire  ( 1865), 
IJertin  ('2(1  ed.  189-t),  iuul  Sir  F.  Monluliore  (  KS96). 
Laillbayeqiie,  a  province  of  Peru,  with  a  (lo]). 
of  8G,000,  is  mostly  a  rainless,  barren  region,  with 
some  fertile  valleys. — The  capital,  Laniliayp(|np, 
situateil  7  miles  from  the  mouth  of  the  river 
Lamhayeque,  lies  128  miles  N\V.  of  Trujillo,  and 
has  manufactures  of  woollen  aud  cotton   fabrics. 

Poi>.  mm. 

Lambert,  D.w-ncL.    See  Obesity. 

Lambert.  Johaxx  Heinrich,  a  philosopher 
and  mathematician,  was  born  29th  August  1728, 
at  Miilliauseu  in  Upper  Alsace.  He  was  success- 
ively clerk,  secretary,  and  private  tutor,  studied 
assiduously  all  the  time,  and  at  last  lived  the  life 
of  a  private  gentleman.  In  170+  Frederick  the 
Great  made  him  a  member  both  of  the  Council  of 
Architecture  and  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences.  He 
died  at  Berlin,  2.5th  September  1777.  Lambert  was 
the  first  to  lay  a  scientific  basis  for  tlie  measure- 
ment of  the  intensity  of  light,  in  his  Plwtometria 
(1760);  and  he  was  especially  skilful  in  applying 
the  analytical  methods  of  mathematics.  A  work 
on  analytical  logic  from  his  pen,  Ncucs  Organon 
(2  vols. '  176-1),  was  greatly  valued  by  Kant,  with 
whom  Lambert  kept  up  a  correspondence.  Of  his 
other  works  we  may  mention  Kosmologische  Briefe 
(1761)  ami  Aiilage  ~iir  Architektoiiik  (XTiX).  See 
Hnber's  Life  of  him  (1829)  and  Lepsius's  mono- 
graph on  his  philosophy  (1881). 

Lambert)  Johx,  one  of  the  chief  soldiers  in 
the  great  Civil  War,  was  born  in  the  parish  of 
Kirkby  Malham,  in  Yorkshire,  September  7,  1619, 
studied  at  the  Inns  of  Court,  but  on  the  outbreak 
of  the  war  became  a  captain  under  Fairfa.v,  and 
thereafter  showed  such  conspicuous  capacity  and 
courage  that  he  rose  rapidly  in  rank.  At  Marston 
Moor  lie  led  Fairfax's  cavalry  on  the  right  wing, 
was  commissary -general  of  the  army  in  the  north 
after  the  formation  of  the  'new  model'  (1645), 
major-general  of  the  northern  counties  (1647), 
lielped  Cromwell  to  crush  Hamilton  at  Preston, 
captured  Pontefract  Castle  in  March  1649,  after  a 
three  months'  siege,  and  was  thus  absent  from 
London  during  the  trial  of  the  king.  In  1650  he 
went  with  Cromwell  to  Scotland  as  major-general, 
led  the  van  at  Dunbar,  next  traversed  Fife 
and  defeated  the  opposing  army  at  Inverkeithing, 
followed  Charles  through  the  western  shires  to 
Worcester,  and  on  the  day  of  Cromwell's  'crowning 
mercy  '  commanded  the  troops  on  the  eastern  bank 
of  the  Severn.  He  took  a  prominent  part  in  the 
installation  of  Oliver  as  protector,  but  actively 
opposed  the  ]iroposition  to  declare  him  king.  He 
was  unal)le  to  take  the  oath  of  allegiance  to  the 
Piotector,  and  became  completely  estranged  from 
him.  ,\fli'r  his  deutli  he  became  the  head  of  the 
cabal  of  malcontent  oliicers  which  overtluew  the 
feeble  administration  of  Richard  Cromwell.  Lam- 
bert was  now  looked  u|)on  as  the  leader  of  the  Fifth 
Monarchy  or  extreme  republican  party;  suppresseil 
with  considerable  vigour  the  royalist  insurrection 
in  Cheshire,  August  16.59;  and  two  months  after- 
wards, dismissing  tlie  remnant  of  the  lluriip  Parlia- 
ment, virtually  governed  the  country  along  with 
liis  oHicers  uiuler  the  title  of  tlie  'Committee  of 
Safety.'  Mcuik  frustrated  his  designs  ;  he  was  sent 
to  the  Tower,  tried  in  1662,  aud  banished  toCueiii- 
sey,  where  he  died  in  1683. 

Laillbessa.  or  LAMHiiSE,  an  Algerian  town  of 
1700  iiilialiilanls,  65  miles  SSW.  of  Coustantine, 
stands  ami(Ul  the  iiii|iosing  ruins  of  the  ancient 
l.amhe.sis,  capital  of  Numiiiiiu 

Lambeth,  a  meliopolitan  iiarliamentJiry 
borough  in  Surrey,  forms  j^iart  of  tlie  south-west 
ipiartiM-  of  London,  and  since  1885  returns  four 
members.     The   old   borough   of   Lambeth,    which 


had  a  much  larger  area,  returned  but  two  mem- 
bers. Lambeth  Bridge  dates  from  1862.  Lambeth 
Palace  luus  been  the  ollicial  residence  of  the  arch- 
bisliojis  of  Canterbury  since  1197.  It  contains  a 
splendid  .series  of  portraits  of  the  archbishops,  and  a 
valuable  library  of  .'iO.OOO  volumes,  with  many  tine 
MSS.  The  Lollards'  Tower,  so  named  in  com- 
paratively modern  times  from  the  notion  that 
heretics  were  here  imprisoned,  was  really  a  water 
tower.  It  dates  from  1434,  but  hits  been  restored 
and  modernised.  See  the  Kev.  .1.  Cave-Browne's 
Luinbi:th  Fatace  ( 1883).  For  Lambeth  Degrees,  .see 
Degrees.  The  Lambeth  Articles,  drawn  up  in 
1595  by  Archbi>-liop  Whitgift  and  others,  were  nine 
in  number,  and  pronouncedly  Calvinistic  in  doc- 
trine. They  were  disapproved  by  lilm^en  Elizabeth, 
and  were  never  iu  force.     See  also  Doultun. 

Lamb's  Lettiiee.    See  Corn  Salad. 
Laillb'.S->VUOl,  an  old  English  beverage,  com- 
posed of  ale  and  the  pulp  of  roasted  apples,  with 

sugar  and  spices. 

Lamellibraiiehiata,    See  Bivalves. 

Lamellieoriies,  a  very  numerous  family  of 
beetles,  fm-  illustration  of  which  see  COCKCHAFER, 
Dung-beetle,  &c. 

Lameness  is  commonly  due  to  some  abnormal 
condition  either  of  the  joints  or  of  the  muscles  and 
fascite  of  the  lower  limbs  :  mere  diH'erence  in  length 
between  the  two  limbs,  even  to  the  extent  of  an 
inch  or  more,  is  not  necessarily  incompatible  with 
a  natural  gait.  It  is  generally  one  of  the  earliest 
symptoms  of  disease  in  the  joints  :  and  permanent 
stiffne.ss  of  any  of  these,  whether  the  re-sult  of 
disease  or  of  injury,  always  involves  some  ilegree 
of  lameness.  The  weakness  and  imperfect  develop- 
ment of  the  muscles  which  usually  follows  infantile 
paraly.sis  Ls  one  of  the  commonest  muscular  causes. 
Severe  wounds  or  rupture  of  any  of  the  imiiortant 
mu.scles  must  also  be  mentioned.  L'nnaturally 
shaped  or  ill-fitting  boots,  with  the  corns,  Imnions, 
distortion  of  toes,  and  other  ill  etiects  they  produce, 
are  a  fertile  source  of  lameness  ;  but  conditions 
thus  pnxluced  are  generally  in  some  degree  amen- 
able to  treatment.  Among  the  causes  most  a)it  to 
be  overlooked  are  the  slighter  degrees  of  llat-foot, 
of  contraction  of  the  calf-muscles,  or  other  muscles 
whose  tendons  are  inserted  into  the  bones  of  the 
foot,  and  of  the  plantar  fascia.  See  also  the  articles 
Legs,  Artificial  Limbs,  Club-foot,  <S:c. 

Lameniiais,  Fei.iciti^-Robert  i>e,  was  born 
at  St  .Malo,  loth  June  1782,  the  fourth  of  the  si.ic 
children  of  a  merchant  and  shipowner,  who  was 
ennobled  in  1788  by  request  of  the  States  of 
Brittany  for  his  patriotic  services  and  for  supjdying 
cheapene<l  corn  to  the  poor  during  a  time  of 
.scarcity,  but  who  was  too  modest  lo  use  Ids  title 
or  the  privileges  it  bore.  His  mother  w;i.s  a  saintly 
woman  of  remarkable  ability  and  of  Irish  descent, 
who  died  when  he  was  but  live  years  old.  He  grew 
up  slender  and  small  in  stature,  nervous  and  weak 
in  health,  but  lively  and  restless  in  teuiiieratuent, 
and  from  a  very  early  age  he  took  to  books,  and 
read  widely  at  his  will  in  his  uncle's  library.  He 
loved  music,  and  bcciuiie  expert  iu  swimming, 
riding,  and  fencing,  anil  it  is  said  fought  a  iluel 
with  credit  in  1802  or  1803.  Hut  the  dominant 
]ia.ssion  of  his  youth  was  solitary  study,  and  Ids 
earliest  coni]ianioiis  were  doubt  and  melancholy. 
It  is  a  fact  not  without  significance  that  his  (irst 
coiiiniunion  wiis  deferred  till  he  was  twenty-two, 
at  the  time  when  his  eldest  brother  .lean  was 
ordained  a  jpricNt.  The  pair  retired  about  the  end 
of  lfSO.5  to  the  solitude  of  their  joint  estate  of  La 
Chesnaie,  two  leagues  from  Diiian,  and  there, 
amiilst  almost  savage  surroiimlings,  but  in  an 
ample   library,   the   real  education  of   Lameiinais 


LAMENNAIS 


i95 


began.  In  1807  he  translated  the  Guide  Spirituel 
of  Louis  de  Blois  :  Napoleon's  police  suppiessed 
his  Reflexions  siir  V  fit  at  ilc  I'fjjlisc  (1808).  He 
received  the  tonsure  in  March  1809,  and  his  letters 
of  that  period  reveal  a  vein  of  lofty  and  soniowhat 
mystical  devotion  ami  an  inward  joy  of  which 
he  was  to  taste  hut  little  in  later  years.  Hut 
study,  prayer,  and  meditation  could  not  satisfy 
all  tile  cravings  of  his  nature,  and  this  exaltation 
of  mind  soon  gave  place  to  the  malady  of  genius, 
that  vague  unrest  and  distaste  for  the  ]uesent 
which  was  the  fiuulaniental  undertone  in  the  con- 
stitution of  Lamennais.  The  years  from  1806  till 
1814  he  spent  in  a  narrow  range  of  stuilies,  shut 
out  from  the  world,  the  vultures  of  vague  unrest 
tearing  at  his  heart,  while  he  remained  forging  the 
weapons  of  controversy.  He  taught  mathematics 
in  his  brother's  seminary,  shared  his  quarrel  with 
the  new  university,  and  wrote  together  with  him 
the  ultramontane  and  anti-Gallican  Tradition  de 
l'£glisi'  SKI-  I' I  list  it  tit  ion  dcs  Eveqiics  (1814).  In 
1815,  during  the  Hundred  Days,  he  took  refuge 
in  London,  where  he  w.as  befriended  and  much 
influenced  by  the  Ablje  Carron.  In  November  he 
returned  to  Paris,  and  with  sore  misgivings  both 
before  and  after  he  was  ordained  priest  at  Vannes. 
At  Paris  in  March  1S16  he  wrote  the  first  volume 
of  his  famous  Essui  sur  I' Indifference  en  matii're  de 
lieliijion  ( 1818-24),  a  magnificent,  if  paradoxical,  <le- 
nunciation  of  the  right  of  private  judgment  and  the 
doctrine  of  toleration— itself  but  a  virtual  unbelief, 
'  a  new  kind  of  persecution  against  the  church. ' 
The  whole  is  a  polemic  against  the  individual 
reason  on  which  certitude  cannot  rest ;  its  con- 
elusion  that  the  unity  of  society  depends  ultimately 
on  the  unity  of  truth,  and  that  all  systems  but  the 
Catholic  destioy  one  another  and  lead  to  scepticism. 
Three  difi'erent  systems  of  indifference  are  in  turn 
examined  and  refuted  :  ( 1 )  that  of  those  who, 
repudiating  religion  for  themselves,  believe  that  it  is 
necessary  for  the  (leople — atheism,  and  the  organ- 
ised religious  polity  of  the  empire;  (2)  that  of 
those  who  believe  leligion  to  be  necessary  for  men, 
but  that  God  has  not  given  any  special  revelation 
of  how  He  would  be  woi-shipped — natural  religion, 
and  ISth-centnry  deism;  (3)  that  of  those  who 
believe  in  a  divine  revelation  through  a  book,  but 
hold  that  God  has  left  men  to  interpret  it  for 
themselves — Protestantism.  In  the  Defense  de 
rEssai  he  answered  opponents  of  the  most  opposite 
camps,  advocates  of  freeiiom  in  thought,  Galilean 
monarchists  who  refuse<l  to  admit  that  the  source 
of  all  authority  was  the  holy  see,  and  Ultramon- 
tanes  them.selves,  who  took  fright  at  a  bold  attempt 
to  find  support  for  the  ('hristian  revelation  in  an 
analysis  of  liuinan  tradition. 

Ill  1824  Lamennais  received  a  liattering  reception 
at  Koine,  and  it  is  said  that  Leo  XH.  was  anxious 
to  give  the  new  IJossuet  a  cardinal's  hat.  But 
soon  after  this  other  dreams  than  those  of  a  imre 
theocracy  enthroned  in  the  Vatican  began  to  fill  his 
mind,  and  already  notions  of  popular  liberty  ap|)i'ar 
in  the  I'mr/riis  de  la  Itccol ittion  ( I,S29 ).  The  revidu- 
tion  of  July  (IH.SO)  (juickened  his  pulse,  and  in  the 
famous  journal  L'Avenir,  founded  in  .Se|)teniber, 
with  his  young  friends  Lacorilaire,  Montalembert, 
and  the  .\hl>e  (lerbet,  i<le!us  strange  to  I  Itraiiion- 
tanism  were  eagerly  advocated.  Hut  the  ol<l 
cliini:era  refused  to  he  rejuvenised,  the  .Jesuits 
anil  bishops  took  fright  at  the  new  doctrines  of 
liberty  of  the  press,  of  instruction,  and  of  di.'^cus- 
.•>ioii,  and  the  journal  was  suspended  by  spiritual 
authority  in  1H31.  Lamennais,  Lacordaire,  and 
Montalemlicrt  set  out  for  Koine  to  lay  bare  their 
hearts  to  the  Holy  Father.  The  disiustrous  story 
hi  told  in  Les  Affaires  de  Home  (!8,S6).  one  of  the 
most  interesting  of  all  the  writings  of  Lamennais. 
Hia  Ilolinesa  liregory  XVI.  gave  the  ardent  tribune 


but  a  quarter  of  an  hour's  audience,  talked  to  him 
of  art,  pointed  out  the  claw  in  a  lion  of  Michael 
Angelo's,  and,  according  to  the  Abbe  Kicard. 
ofi'ercd  him  a  pinch  of  snutV.  After  waiting  in  vain 
for  an  opjiort unity  of  conference,  they  returned 
doubtful  and  dislieartened  at  the  cowardly  chicanery 
and  worldline^s  of  Kome.  A  severe  condemnation 
reached  them  at  Munich,  .•iOtli  .Vugust  IKi'i,  the  date 
of  the  beginning  of  the  second  life  of  Lamennais.  He 
signed  obedience,  but  the  iron  ha<l  entered  his  soul. 
He  retired  to  La  Chesnaie,  .and  there  watched  with 
sinking  heart  a  more  shameful  betrayal  still  of  his 
Ma.ster  by  the  Vicegerent  of  Christ  in  the  final 
extinction  of  Polish  nationalitv.  crushed  to  death 
by  Russia  with  the  sympathy  of  Austri,a  and  before 
the  approving  eyes  of  Kome.  Here,  in  one  week 
of  restless  walking  under  the  oaks,  he  ]ioured 
out  the  prophetic  inspirations  of  his  wliole  heart  in 
the  Paroles  d' un  Croyunt  (18.'?4),  a  glowing  poem 
rather  than  a  treatise,  expressed  in  rhythmical 
prose  arranged  in  short  verses  like  those  of  the 
Bible,  under  forms  now  parabolic,  now  direct,  at 
one  moment  recalling  the  gloom  of  the  Inferno, 
at  another  the  tenderness  of  the  Imitation.  The 
apocalyptic  empyrean  is  a  region  far  above  the  rules 
ot  logic,  and  it  is  impossible  to  set  forth  precisely 
the  doctrine  of  this  strange  book  further  than  to 
describe  it  as  an  illusion  of  a  perfect  society,  ideal. 
Paradisaic,  governed  by  love,  hindered  awhile  by 
the  wickedness  of  despots,  but  ultimately  to  be 
efi'ectuated  by  perfect  liberty.  The  book  made  an 
extraordinary  sensation  ;  Sainte-Beuve  tells  us  bow 
he  found  the  compositors  gathered  round  while  one 
of  their  number  read  the  MS.  aloud,  his  voice 
trembling  with  emotion.  To  churchmen  it  was 
'  the  apocalypse  of  Satan,'  '  the  bonnet  rouyc  planted 
upon  a  cross.'  It  brought  about  the  complete 
rupture  of  the  apostle  with  his  old  associates ; 
repulsed  by  the  pope,  he  had  made  his  appeal  to  the 
people  against  Rome,  itself  become  faithless  to  its 
mission,  and  henceforth  he  belonged  to  the  people 
alone.  His  further  books.  Le  Livre  dii  People, 
line  Voix  de  Prison,  Du  Passi  et  de  I'Arcnir  da 
Peuple,  were  but  weaker  echoes  of  his  masterpiece. 
For  one  he  got  a  year's  imprisonment  in  Sainte 
Pclagie.  In  the  revolution  of  1848  he  started 
paper  after  paper,  and  poured  forth  a  succession  of 
liamphlets  while  struggling  on  bravely  against 
broken  friendships,  ill-health,  and  poverty.  His 
l)iety  survived  the  shipwreck  of  his  faith  ;  he  had 
the  gift  of  attaching  friends  who  still  loved  the 
man  whatever  his  opinions,  and  to  these  he  poured 
forth  his  thoughts  in  impetuous  swiftness  as  he 
paced  up  and  down,  his  limbs  trembling  with 
emotion.  George  Sand  describes  his  austere  and 
majestic  face,  the  brow  an  unbroken  wall,  furrowed 
between  the  eyebrows  with  those  perpendicular 
wrinkles  which,  Lavater  says,  belon"  exclusively 
to  those  of  high  capacity  who  tliiiiK  justly  and 
mdjly — its  rigid  austerity  ever  lightened  and 
humanised  by  the  sudden  smile  of  tenderness.  To 
the  last  he  nMuained  a  Breton  even  to  his  accent. 
His  ideas  and  emotions  alike  ever  tended  towards 
excess  and  to  alisoluteness  of  conviction  ;  his  tem- 
perament was  framed  for  .sufleriiig,  and  his  iiassion- 
ate  devotion  to  truth,  the  foundations  of  which 
yet  slipped  from  uiiiler  him,  made  his  intellectual 
life  a  very  martyrdom.  Lamennais  .sat  in  the 
Constituent  .Assembly  till  the  runji  d'iiut  ended  his 
dreams  of  popular  liberty.  At  his  death,  which 
occurred  February  27,  18")4,  he  refused  to  make  his 
peace  with  the  churcdi,  and  wa.s  buried,  by  his  own 
desire,  without  religious  rites,  in  an  unmarked 
grave  among  the  poor  at  Perela-Chaise. 

In  liis  C<trre.tpond(ince,  edited  by  M.  Emile  ForKucs 
(2  vols.  1858  ;  lid  v<il.,ed.  by  his  son,  M.  lOugcne  Forgues, 
1886),  wu  see  the  ebb  and  flow  of  his  stormy  emotions  for 
twenty  years.      His  brother  and  sister  kept  back  from 


496 


LAMENTATIONS 


LAMMERGEIER 


publication  many  of  his  papers,  but  five  posthumous 
volumes  appeared  under  the  care  of  Foryues  ( 1855-58 ),  of 
whicli  at  least  one  volume,  that  entitled  Mflaniics  philo- 
sophiqu'S  it  littevains,  was  quite  wortliy  of  his  name. 
M.  Blaize,  the  nephew  of  Lamennais,  edited  his  (Kunre 
ImUlitts  (2  vols.  1S6G),  mainly  composed  of  additional 
letters.  Amid  the  storms  of  his  later  life  he  foiuid  con- 
solation in  writing  his  serene  and  large-minded  Esquinse 
d'uiic  Fhilomphie  (4  vols.  1840—40),  perhaps  the  most 
really  remarkable  of  all  his  works. 

See  lilaize's  A'ssai  iJi'«/r«/)Ai9«e  (1858);  Sainte-Beuve, 
in  Portraits  Contemporains,  vol.  i.,  and  Nouvtaux 
Linidis,  vols.  i.  and  xi. ;  Guizot,  in  vol.  iii.  of  his  Mimoires ; 
E.  Scherer,  in  vol  iv.  of  his  Etudes  sur  hi  LitUraturc 
Contemjiuniiiie ;  Eenan,  in  Essaw  de  Morale  et  de 
Critique  (1859);  K  Dowden,  in  Studies  in  Literature, 
17S9-1S77  (1878);  and  Paul  Janet,  La  Philusophie  de 
Lamennais  (1890). 

Lailieiltations,  Huok  of,  a  canouical  book 
of  tliu  (tld  Testament  whicli,  in  the  present 
arrangenieut  of  tlie  Hebrew  Bible,  occupie.s  the 
si.xth  place  auiong  the  Hagiographa  (uetweeu 
Ruth  and  Eccle.'^ia.stes ),  and  bears  the  superscrip- 
tion 'Ec/iK  ( '  Ah,  how  ; '  see  chaps,  i.  1  ;  ii.  1  ;  iv.  I ). 
In  tlie  Talmud  ami  elsewhere  it  is  called  the  book 
of  Kinoth  ('elegies'  or  'dirges'),  a  name  whicli 
reappears  in  the  Septuagint  title  Threnoi  ( Lat. 
Lamcntationes  or  Lnmcntu).  The  fuller  title, 
Lamentations  of  Jeremiah,  is  found  in  the  Syriac 
and  in  some  MSS.  of  the  Septuagint,  but  is  not 
so  old  as  the  shorter  foiin.  The  book  consists  of 
five  dirges  or  laments,  the  first  four  of  which  are 
alphabetical  acrostics  (like  P.s.  cxix.) ;  each  of  the 
five  consists  of  twenty-two  verees,  except  the  third, 
which  has  sixty-six.  In  general  character  the  first 
four  are  very  similar,  each  beginning  with  a  repre- 
sentation of  the  great  calamity  that  has  befallen 
the  city  and  people,  and  then 'rising  througli  the 
thought  of  Jeliovali's  righteousness  to  the  hope  of 
his  just  vengeance  on  the  enemies  of  his  people. 
The  fifth  dirt'ei-s  from  the  othei-s  in  that  it  taKes 
the  form  of  a  prayer  and  is  throughout  pervaded 
by  a  sense  of  Jehovah's  wrath,  which  is  spoken  of 
as  having  been  long  continued.  The  tradition, 
which  attributes  the  authorship  of  Lamentations 
to  Jeremiah,  can  be  traced  to  a  note  prefixed  to 
the  Septuagint  translation,  where,  as  in  the  Syriac, 
they  are  now  attaclied  to  the  book  of  that  prophet. 
Perhaps,  indeed,  this  tradition  is  already  imidieil 
in  '2  t'hroM.  xxxv.  ij,  in  which  case  the  supposed 
reference  to  Josiah  must  be  sought  in  Lam.  iv.  '20. 
The  internal  evidence  is  rather  against  the  atlriliu- 
tion  of  tlie  Book  of  Lamentations  to  the  jirophet. 
Niigelsbach,  following  Ewald,  has  shown  how 
completely  dill'erent  is  its  style  from  that  of  Jere- 
miah ;  some  of  the  indications  that  were  at  one 
time  supposed  to  make  for  his  authorship  dis- 
appear on  closer  examination  ;  and  the  anticipated 
restoration  of  Israel  is  somewhat  dissimilar  in  the 
two  works. 

See  Ewald's  Dichter  des  Alien  Bundes,  vol.  i.  (2d  ed. 
1866 ),  and  the  commentaries  of  Niigelsbach  ( 1868  ;  Eng. 
trans.  1871),  Keil  (1872;  Eng.  trans.  1874),  and  Payne 
Smith  (in  Speaker's  Commentary). 

Lailicttl'ic,  Jii.iKX  Offr.w  de,  French  philo- 
sopher, liorii  at  St  Malo  on  Christmas-day  1709, 
stuilicd  first  for  the  church,  but  subsi>(|uenliy  went 
over  to  medicine,  and  was  trained  liy  Bocrhaave 
at  Leyden.  He  entered  the  French  army  as 
surgeon  in  174'2;  but  the  publication  in  1745  of 
a  thoroughgoing  materialistic  work,  Vlli.stoirc 
Xuturelle  Uc  lAiiie,  traduite  dc  I'Ant/htis  <k  H/iarjt 
(a  fiititi(nis  name),  roused  such  a  feeling  of  odium 
against  him  that  he  was  compelled  to  seek  refuge 
in  Leyden  (174G).  The  work  was  of  course 
Lamettrie's  own.  But  in  Leyden  the  fear  of  per- 
Becution  still  dogged  his  footsteps  :  lie  published 
L' Homme  Machine  (1748),  and  was  glad  to  esca])e 
a   threatened  arrest    by  accepting   an   inxitation 


from  Frederick  the  Great  of  Prussia  to  settle  in 
Berlin.  In  Germany  Lamettrie  continued  his 
materialistic  studies  in  L' Homme  Plantc  (1748), 
L'Art  lie  Jonir  (1751),  La  Volitptf,  and  otlier 
works.  A  good  deal  of  the  enmity  exciteil  against 
him  wivs  occa.sioned  by  cynical  and  satirical  books 
which  he  published  against  the  medical  men, 
including  such  great  authorities  as  Bocrhaave, 
Linnaus,  Astruc,  Winslow,  Arc.  Lamettrie  died  at 
Berlin  on  lltli  November  1751.  Frederick  himself 
wrote  a  memoir,  which  he  caused  to  be  juefixed  to 
the  philosophical  works  of  Lamettrie  (2  vols.  1774). 
The  best  account  of  Lamettrie  is  in  Laiiges  i//»7or!/ 
of  Materialism  (1878-81).  See  also  the  studv  by 
Quepat  (  Paris,  1873 ),  and  that  by  Du  BoisKeviiiond 
(Berlin,  1875). 

Lamia.    Dkmosology. 

Laniiiiaria.    See  Se.vwekd.s. 

Lamination,  the  anangement  of  rocks  in  thin 
layers  or  laniina>,  the  condition  of  a  large  pro)>or- 
tion  of  the  earth's  strata.  Shale  dejiosits  exhibit 
this  structure  very  plainly,  being  frequently  easily 
separalde  into  the  thin  lamina'  in  which  they  were 
originally  deposited.  Shale  is  the  fine  sediment 
that  settles  down  at  the  bottom  of  some  traiuiuil 
or  sliglitly-nioving  water.  Tlie  lamime  indicate 
interruiition  in  the  supply  of  tlie  materials,  which 
may  lia\e  been  occasioned  by  successive  tides,  by 
fiei|uent  or  ])erio<lical  floods,  or  by  the  carrying 
medium  having  access  to  a  suiijily  of  ditt'erent 
material,  pa.s.sing,  e.g.,  from  mud  to  sand,  and 
back  again  to  mud.  The  lamiiue  of  the  brirk-clay 
dejiosits  are  separated,  in  many  places,  by  the 
finest  sprinkling  of  sand,  which  is  almost  invisible 
in  the  vertical  sections.  The  layei-s  are  occasion- 
ally obvious,  from  their  being  of  difl'erent  shades 
of  colour,  often  produced  by  the  bleaching  of  the 
layers  when  they  were  de])osited  ;  but  frequently 
the  various  lamina'  of  a  bed  are  so  united,  and  the 
bed  so  homogeneous,  that  except  when  the  face  is 
exposed  to  weathering,  the  laminated  structure  is 
not  visible.  This  condition  seems  to  have  resulted 
from  the  shortness  of  the  interruptions  in  the 
deposit  not  permitting  the  solidification  of  any  of 
the  layers  until  all  was  deposited,  when  the  whole 
set  cohered  together  as  a  single  bed. 

Lammas-day,  the  1st  of  August,  is  one  of 
the  cross  quarter-days,  or  half-quarter  days,  in 
England.  On  this  day,  whicli  is  the  feast  of  St 
Peter  ad  Vincula,  it  w;is  cuslomary  in  early  times 
to  make  otlerings  of  the  first-fruits  of  tlie  harvest, 
and  hence  the  feast  took  the  name  of  Hlafimcssc 
(lit.  '  loaf-mass'),  afterwards  corrupted  into  Lam- 
mas. In  Scotland  it  was  an  ancient  practice  with 
farmers  to  pay  the  half-year's  rent  iiue  at  Whit- 
sunday on  Lamiiuus-day. 

Lammer$;oi«>r  (Gypactos  barhatus),  a  large 
bird  of  ]irev.  also  called  the  Bearded  Vulture  or 
Bearded  (Iritlin.  The  full-grown  bird  is  of  a  shining 
brownish-black  colour  on  the  upper  )iarts,  with  a 
white  stripe  along  the  shaft  of  each  feather  ;  the 
head  is  w  hitisii,  with  black  stripes  at  the  eyes  :  the 
neck  and  under-]>art  of  the  body  are  rusty  yellow. 
It  Is  the  largest  bird  of  prey  in  the  Old  Wmld, 
measuring  almost  4  feet  high  when  sitting,  nearly 
5  feet  in  length,  and  from  9  to  10  feet  in  ex|ianse 
of  wing.  Though  liy  no  means  luave,  it  is  bold  and 
rapacious,  swoojiing  down  on  hares,  lambs,  young 
goats,  chamois,  \c. ,  and  sometimes,  it  is  said,  on 
infants.  But  a-s  the  feet  and  claws  are  compara 
tivelv  weak,  luily  young  and  light  animals  are 
lifted,  and  it  is  very  ilitlicult  to  bcdieve  the  circum- 
stantial tales  of  their  carrying  cliildreu.  The  usual 
food  consists  of  animals  nevvly  killed,  but  carrion 
and  even  ofi'al  are  not  despised.  Unce  common  in 
the  Alps,  it  is  now  very  rare,  but  occurs  not  un- 
frec]uently  in  Sardinia,  tlie  Pyrenees,  North  Africa.i 


LAMMERMOORS 


LAMPREY 


497 


moutitains,  and  the  Himalayas,  where  it  often  soars 
higli  above  tlie  loftiest  peaks.     'Die  liimnierj^'eier 


Luinmergcii.i 


I-  harbalui ). 


is  said  by  some  to  be  the  original  of  the  fabulous 
'  roc. ' 

Lailiuiorilioors.  a  l)roa(l  ran-ie  of  moorish 
hills  in  Haddinjjtoii  and  Berwick  shirts,  extend- 
in;;  east-north-eiustward  from  the  vale  of  (Jala 
Water  to  the  German  Ocean  at  St  Abb's  Head, 
ami  culminating  in  Lammer  Law  ( 1733  feet). 

Lainorici^re.  Christophe  Leon  Louls 
Jrcu.vULT  DE,  a  French  general,  was  born  at 
Nantes,  Gth  February  1806,  entered  the  army  as 
an  engineer  in  1826,  and  saw  active  service  in 
Algeria,  taking  part  in  nearly  all  the  military 
events  which  occurred  in  that  country  between 
1833  and  1847.  It  was  through  his  energy  chiefly 
that  the  war  against  Abd-elKader  was  brought 
to  a  successful  end  by  ilie  capture  of  that  chief 
in  1847.  In  June  1848  Lamoriciere  commanded  the 
attack  on  the  barricades  in  Paris,  and  quelled  the 
anarchic  tumults  of  the  Socialists.  He  was  war- 
minister  (hiring  the  government  of  Cavaignac  ;  but 
was  arrested  on  the  occjLsion  of  the  coup  d'eliit  of 
2d  December  18.51,  and  banished  from  France. 
AVhen  the  Italian  war  of  independence  threatened 
the  safety  of  the  liope,  LauKnioiere  ])rocee(led  to 
liome  in  1860,  and  was  appointed  by  PiiLs  IX.  com- 
mander of  the  pa]>al  troops.  He  was,  however, 
defeated  at  Castellidardo  by  the  Sardinian  general, 
Cialdini,  on  18th  September,  an<l  on  the  29th 
capitulated  at  Ancima.  He  dieil  near  Amiens  on 
lOili  Sei)tember  186,).  See  Lives  by  Keller  (2  vols. 
Paii>,  1873;   new  cd.  1S!)1  )  and  Ua'stoul  ( 18'J4). 

La  .llotte  Fuiiqii«'.    See  Foucjue. 

LaiUUblack  is  the  soot  or  amorphous  carbon 
obtained  by  burning  bodies  rich  in  that  element, 
such  as  resin,  jietroleunj,  and  tar,  or  some  of  the 
cheap  oily  products  obtained  from  it.  The  supply 
of  air  is  limited  or  eonlrolleil  .so  as  to  [iroduce  a 
smoky  llaiiie,  and  the  smoke  i)a.sses  into  a  chanil)ur 
with  some  arrangement  for  receiving  the  abundant 
deposit  of  soot.  For  some  of  the  liner  iiuaiilics  <if 
lampblack  this  soot  or  carbon  is  purilled  by  heat- 
ing it  in  closeil  vessels.  .V  large  i|uantity  of  l.imp- 
black  lia.s  been  made  in  the  liiited  .States  by  the 
imiierfijct  combustion  of  natural  gas.  Lampblack 
is  a  useful  jiigment  for  artists  both  in  oil  and  water 
colour,  a  coarser  kind  Iwing  employed  by  house- 
painters.  It  in  the  chief  ingredient  in  Indian  Ink 
292 


(q.v.),  and  along  with  boiled  linseed-oil  forms  print- 
ing-ink. Of  it  is  formed  the  i)igment  for  the  carbon 
paper  used  in  tlie  Autotype  I'rocess  (q.v.).  Lamp- 
black is  also  employed  in  the  preparation  of  some 
kinds  of  leather,  ami  for  other  purposes. 

Lailipodll'sa.  a  small  island  of  tin'  .Mediter- 
ranean, l.!)0  miles  S.  of  Sicily,  and  80  F.  of  Tunis. 
Belonging  physically  to  the  Afric.-in  continent,  it 
has  since  1843  been  ailministratively  reckoiied  ]iart 
of  the  Sicilian  commune  of  Licata.  It  has  19  miles 
of  coast,  and  a  small  harbour.  Fruits  are  grow  n, 
and  some  grain.     Po|i.  1074. 

Lampeter,  a  market-town  of  (.'ardigaushire, 
27  miles  by  rail  NXE.  of  Carmarthen.  It  is  the 
seat  of  St  David's  Theological  College  ( 1827 ),  which 
has  the  power  to  grant  B..\.  and  B.D.  degrees. 
Pop.  1443. 

Lamprey  (Petromyzon),  a  genus  of  round- 
mouths  ( Cyclostomata,  q.v.),  nearly  allied  to  the 
Hag  (q.v.),  and  like  it  dili'ering  markedly  from 
true  lisiies  in  the  absence  of  jaws,  paired  lins,  and 
.scales,  and  in  the  presence  of  peculiar  gill-pouches. 
An  eel-like  form,  a  slimy  skin,  a  gristly  skeleton, 
■a  primitive  brain  imperfectly  roofed  in,  a  single 
median  nostril,  a  suctorial  mouth  with  numerous 
horny  teeth  on  the  lips  and  on  the  large  piston-like 
tongue,  seven  pairs  of  gill-pouches  (whence  the  Ger- 
man name  neiiit-aiigc,  'nine-eyes')  opening  by  as 
many  apertures  to  the  e.xterior,  and  connected  inter- 
nally with  a  tube  lying  beneath  and  communicating 
with  the  adult  gullet,  and  the  striking  dillerences 
between  young  and  mature  forms  are  among  the 
less  technical  characteristics.  They  diU'er  from  hag 
in  the  development  of  a  dorsal  fin,  in  the  fact  that 
the  nasal  passage  ends  blindly  without  opening  into 
the  pharynx,  and  in  several  peculiarities  of  the 
respiratory  and  other  systems.  Along  with  Petro- 
myzon, there  are  several  genera — e.g.  Mordacia 
and  Geotria  from  the  coasts  of  Chili  and  Australia — 
differing  only  in  detail.  Lampreys  occur  both  in  the 
rivers  and  seas  of  the  north  and  south  temiierate 
regions,  and  at  least  some  of  the  nuirine  forms 
spawn  and  pass  part  of  their  long  larval  life  far  up 
rivers.  They  seem  to  represent  an  ancient  race, 
more  primitive  than  fishes,  and,  though  their  gristly 
skeletons  are  unknown  as  fossils,  certain  structures 
called  '  couodonts '  from  very  early  strata  are 
identified  by  some  as  lanjprey  teeth. 

The  habits  of  lampreys  are  in  many  ways 
curious.  Thus,  though  they  will  cat  worms, 
larva*,  small  crustaceans,  and  dead  aninuils,  they 
have  also  learned  the  audaciously  aggressive  habit 
of  fixing  themselves  to  fishes,  and  scraping  holes 
in  the  skin.  The  mouth  sticks  like  a  vacuum 
sucker,  the  toothed  ttingue  works  like  a  niston, 
and  both  flesh  and  blooil  are  thus  obtained  by  a 
sort  of  jiarasitism  which  reminds  one  at  once  of 
leech  and  hagfish.  ■  When  eng'aged  in  sucking 
they  are  carried  about  liy  their  \  ictims,  and  salmon 
have  been  ca])tured  in  the  middle  course  of  the 
Khine  with  the  marine  lamprey  attached  to  them  ' 
(Giinther).  As  the  name  Petromy/on  suggests, 
they  also  attach  themselves,  as  if  to  rest,  to  stones 
in  the  bed  of  the  stream,  or  it  nuiy  be  even  to  the 
bottom  of  boats.  Some  species  are  able  to  move 
stones  of  considerable  size  to  form  nests,  and  their 
grip  is  so  tirm  that  it  is  occasionally  dillicult  to 
detach  them  from  their  hold.  When  the  mouth  is 
occupied  in  its  suclmial  work,  water  passes  in  as 
well  as  out  by  the  respiratiuy  apertures.  The 
spawning  occurs  in  s|iriiig,  usually  far  up  rivers, 
and  according  to  sonu;  the  mature  forms  die  after 
reT)roduction.  From  the  snuill  eggs  young  develop 
which  live  wallowing  in  the  .sand  or  mud  of  the 
streams,  and  feed  on  miinite  animals.  They  are  so 
dilferent  from  the  parenls  that  in  the  ciiso  of  the 
small  lampern  {!'.  bnaichiulis)  tliey  were  for  long 


498 


LAMPREY 


LAMPS 


refen-ed  to  a  distinct  fjenus  Animocoetes.  The 
head  is  sniiill,  the  upper  lip  senii-ciiciilar,  the  lower 
lip  small  and  sepaiate,  the  mouth  toothless  and 
not  suctorial,  the  eyes  rudimentary  and  hidden, 
the  future  ^'ullet  (as  distin;;,'uished  from  the  alio\e- 
luentioned  respiratory  tuhe)  not  yet  developed,  and 
so  on.  There  is  in  fact  a  metamorphosis  in  the 
history   of   the  lamprey,    as    was    discovered    "200 


Laminuy  (l\lrui,u:zoii  mannits i. 

years  ago  l>y  a  Strashurg  fisherman  Baldner,  hut 
overlooked  till  August  Miiller  Avorked  out  the 
curious  story  in  185(5.  In  the  small  river  lampern 
— and  analogous  facts  are  prohahly  true  for  the 
others — the  change  to  the  adult  form  i>  frequently 
postponed  until  the  August  of  tlie  fourth  or  liftli 
year,  wlien  it  completes  itself  rapidly. 

There  are  three  British  species — the  sea-lamprey 
(P.  j)ian'iii(s),  over  3  feet  in  length,  mottled  green- 
ish hrown  ;  the  riveriamiiern  (P.  JIuvititilis), 
nearly  2  feet,  dark  hluish  with  silvery  .sides;  the 
sandpiper,  jiride,  stone-grig,  or  small  lampern  (7^. 
branchialis  m  planer i),  lianlly  one  foot  in  length, 
like  the  preceding  .species  in  colour.  The  marine 
and  river  lampreys,  though  despised  in  Scotland, 
have  heen  esteemed  as  good  eating  .since  Roman 
times,  heing  especially  palatahle  in  pies  and  potted 
preserves.  They  are  caught  in  halted  haskets 
or  traps,  and  their  eel-like  tenacity  of  life  makes 
them  useful  halt  stores. 

LuillIlS  are  contrivances  in  which  to  utilise  the 
illuminating  i)Ower  of  lluid  light-giving  material. 
The  most  primitive  lam))s  were  ]iroliahty  skulls  of 
animals,  or  certain  kinds  of  seashclls.  The  |irin- 
ciple  of  these  natural  lamjis  was  long  retained  in 
the  ancient  earthenware  and  metal  latnjis  of  Kgypt, . 
Greece,  and  Home,  and  in  the  stone  cujis  and  ho.\es 
of  northern  nations.  Such  lam])s  were  called  lychna 
by  the  (Jreeks,  and  hirrrnir,  hy  the  Romans.  Speci- 
mens ohtained  from  the  excavations  of  the  ruins  of 
Tarsus,  I'omjieii,  .and  llerculanenm,  and  from  other 
sources,  show  that  they  were  made  in  considciahle 
variety.  A  very  jirimitive  form  of  Lamp,  called  a 
'crusie,'was  in  use  in  Scotland  until  mineral  oils 
were  introduced  hy  James  Young  ahout  lS,5f). 
Animal  fats  and  hsh  oils  were  the  jirineipal  suh- 
stances  <ised  in  all  parts  of  the  world  for  hurning 
in  lamps  till  veg<'tal)le  oils  were  introduced —vi/. 
colza  or  rape,  and  other  seed  oils  .-ind  nnl  oils  of 
various  kinds.  The  vegetahle  oils,  Ijeing  more 
limpid  in  character,  admitted  of  improved  and 
more  complex  means  of  hurning  them.  Progress 
in  this  direction  liegan  in  Krancc;  with  Leger,  who 
in  ITS.'J  ado|iteil  Hat  rihhon  wicks  in  jilace  of  the 
old  round,  thick,  and  smoky  wi<-k.  He  was  fol- 
lowed in  1784  hy  .Aimc  .Aigand  (q.v.),  who  in- 
troduced rounil  cylindrical  hnrners ;  and  round 
hurner.s,  whether  for  oil  or  gas,  are  still  known  hy 
his  name  iis  Argand  hnrners. 

In  the  use  of  fatty  oil.s,  the  ordinary  ca]iillary 
attraction  of  the  wick  was  insullicient  to  maintain 
a  uniform  How  of  oil  to  the  flame,  and  various  con- 


trivances were  used  to  keep  the  oil  as  nearly  as 
possihle  at  one  level.  In  1S03  M.  C'.arcel  introduced 
an  excellent  mechanical  nielhoil  of  forcing  the  oil 
up  hy  means  of  clockwork.  This  lamp,  however, 
was  too  easily  disarranged,  and  too  expensive 
to  come  into  general  use.  It  was  not  till  183o 
that  Franchot  invented  his  lam]!,  known  as  the 
'French  Moderator.'  The  main  features  of  this 
lamp  are  a  cylinder  or  oil-container  with  a  tuhular 
piston  resting  on  the  surface  of  the  oil.  This  ]iiston, 
fieing  acted  ujion  hy  a  spiral  spring  ])laced  hetween 
it  anil  the  top  of  the  cylindi'r,  hnces  the  oil  up 
through  the  piston  and  so  maintains  a  constant 
supply  of  oil  to  the  fiame.  The  spring  was  wound 
uji  hy  rack  and  pinion.  The  unetjual  tension  of 
such  a  .spring,  ami  the  correspondingly  unenual 
flow  of  oil,  was  counteracted  (or  'moderated' — • 
hence  the  name  of  the  lamp)  hy  placing  a  tapering 
iron  rod  in  the  ascending  tuhe.  This  lamp  was 
simple  and  ell'ective,  and  soon  su])|ilanted  all  other 
mechanical  arrangements  for  cont Killing  the  How  of 
oil  to  the  hurner  ;  and  it  is  the  lamp  still  used  hy 
the  few  (leople  who  hum  colza  or  rape  oil  in  prefer- 
ence to  mineral  oils. 

Mineral  oils  are  known  under  various  names,  such 
as  parallin,  petroleum,  kerosene,  crystal  oils,  &c., 
for  the  lighter  sorts  :  and  for  the  heavier  or  speci- 
ally high  list  kinds  such  names  as  ndneral  s]ierm 
or  mineral  colza  are  used.  These  oils,  heing  nnich 
more  limpid  and  \olatile  than  the  fatty  oils,  rise 
freely  in  lamps  hy  the  onlinary  suction  of  the 
wicks,  and,  heing  rich  in  carhon,  a  plentiful  supply 
of  oxygen  is  ahsolutely  necessary  to  pirfccl  coni- 
hustion.  The  main  jnohlem,  therefore,  to  he 
solved  in  the  construction  of  a  good  jiarallin  or 
petroleum  lamp  was  to  secure  a  current  of  air 
powerful  enough  to  consume  the  carlxm  contained 
in  the  oil,  and  so  prevent  its  pa.ssing  oil'  in  the 
form  of  smoke. 

Previous  to  the  introduction  of  nuneral  oils, 
c,anii)hine,  which  is  ,a  volatile  hydroi'arlion  spirit 
distilled  from  turpentine,  wa.s  hurned  in  Young's 
■  Yesta  '  lamp,  introduced  in  \S'M.  His  lamp  was 
constructed  on  the  round  or  Argand  principle,  with 
a  hutton  or  dellector  over  the  centr.-il  air-tuhe,  and 
a  constricted  chimney.  The  leading  features  of 
this  lamp  have  heen  followed  in  many  of  the  later 
developments  of  mineral  oil  lamps  with  circular 
wicks.  But  the  common  tlatwiclc  jiarallin  lamps 
now  so  familiar  to  every  one  were  lirst  made  hy 
Stohwasser  in  lierlin,  and  introduced  into  (Ireat 
Britain  in  1S54.  Since  then  the  manufacture 
of  iiaraliin  lamps  has  grown  to  he  .an  industry 
of  great  importance,  and  is  carried  on  largely  in 
Fngland,  Ciermany,  and  the  Pniteil  States.  The 
numher  of  patents  in  all  these  countries  for  parallin 
or  kerosene  lamjis  has  heen  enormous,  hul  most  of 
them  refer  simjily  to  slight  modilicatlons  of  existing 
types.  AVe  cannot  do  more  here  than  mention  some 
of  the  chief  improvements  ellected. 

Mineral  oil  lamps  are  made  with  flat  wicks  and 
with  circular  wicks.  The  circular  or  Argand  form 
of  !am|i  has  heen  generally  adopted  in  continental 
countries.  The  hody  of  the  lamp  or  oil  container 
is  made  of  glassware  or  mclal,  mounted  on  a 
pedestal.  The  outward  ca.sing  of  the  hurner  is 
made  of  hra^s  perforated  for  the  admission  of  air. 
In  the  centre  of  the  hurner  the  wiek-tuhe  or  hohler 
is  inserted.  t)ver  the  wicktuhe  in  llatwiek 
hnrners  a  metal  dcnne  is  placed  to  ilellect  the  air 
into  the  llanie.  .\cross  the  dome  there  is  a  slit 
or  ohhmg  opening  for  the  ll.anie  to  pass  through, 
and  a  cliimney  8  or  10  inches  high,  resting  on  a 
gallery  at  the  hase  of  the  dome,  creates  the  current 
of  air  necessary  to  pinfect  comhuslion  of  the  oil. 

Flat-wick  hnrners  have  the  advantage  of  heing 
more  easily  trimmed  and  the  llame  more  easily 
controlled  than  round  hurners.     They  admit  also 


LAMPS 


LANARKSHIRE 


499 


of  a  better  supply  of  oxy<;en  to  all  parts  of  the 
tlanie  than  has  ueen  possible  with  orilinaiy  rouml 
burners,  and  are  in  conseiiuence  less  liable  to 
smoke.  The  most  snocessful  lamp  developments  in 
Great  liritain  have  tlierefore  hitlierto  been  in  Hat- 
wick  burners.  In  1865  Messrs  Hinks  of  liirmingham 
introduced  the  Duple.\  lamp,  with  two  i)arallel 
wicks  and  two  openings  in  the  dome,  producing 
two  tiames.  This  form  of  lamp  rapidly  became 
very  popular,  and  still  deservedly  continues  so. 
In  1874  Ca])tain  Doty  patented  his  Triplex  lamp, 
witli  three  liat  wicks  arrangeil  in  the  form  of  a 
triangle,  open  at  each  corner,  so  that  an  abund- 
ance of  air  circulates  freely  all  round  each  of  the 
three  wick-tubes.  There  are  three  openings  in  the 
dome,  and  three  llames  which  ilistribute  the  light 
nearly  equally  in  all  diiections ;  and  this  no  other 
flat-wick  burner  does.  This  is  a  powerful  burner  ; 
it  has  little  tendency  to  smoke,  and  is  easily 
managed. 

The  great  difficulty  with  round-wick  burners  has 
been  to  procure  a  sutScient  supply  of  oxygen  to 
the  inside  circumference  of  the  flame,  so  that 
they  are  very  liable  to  smoke  after  burning  for 
a  short  time.  To  obviate  this  very  serious  objec- 
tion a  round  burner  was  introduced,  with  a  circular 
air-channel  passing  up  from  the  base  of  the  lamp 
through  the  reservoir  and  through  the  burner, 
which  supplied  a  good  current  of  air  to  the  inner 
side  of  the  circular  lianie.  This  lamp  of  necessity 
was  made  of  metal,  and,  having  a  metal  tube  pass- 
ing from  the  burner  down  tinough  the  oil-con- 
tainer, was  thus  liable  to  raise  unduly  the  tempera- 
ture of  the  oil,  and  was  considered  too  unsafe  for 
general  use.  In  1885,  however,  Messrs  Defries 
introduced  an  improved  lamp  of  this  type,  with 
a  thin  metal  casing  enclosing  the  portion  of  the 
wick  inside  the  oil  reservoir,  and  open  only  at  the 
bottom,  so  that  no  oil  or  oil  vapour  can  escape  from 
the  lamp  except  by  passing  up  through  the  wick 
from  the  bottom  of  the  reservoir.  liy  this  means 
the  Defries  lamp  becomes  a  perfectly  safe  lamp  for 
domestic  use.  But  it  is  still  not  free  from  the 
drawback  which  attaches  to  all  circular  burners — 
viz.  the  difficulty  in  ordinary  domestic  use  of  trim- 
ming the  wick  quite  level  all  round. 

A  still  later  advance  in  lamps  for  burning  mineral 
oils  ectmomically  is  a  lamp  patented  by  Messrs  Ross 
&  Atkins,  which  applies  to  oil  illumination  the 
regenerative  inverted  Argand  (irinciple  so  success- 
fully employed  by  Siemens  in  gas-lighting.  The 
mechanical  difficulties  of  producing  an  inverteil 
shadowless  flame  with  oil  are  obviously  very  much 
greater  than  with  gas  ;  but  these  difficulties  have 
been  successfully  overcome  in  this  lamp,  now 
introduced  to  the  public  by  the  Wanzer  Conqiany, 
under  the  name  of  the  Down-flame  Shadowless 
Lamp.  The  essential  features  are  an  annular 
reservoir,  with  three  converging  (lat  wicks,  which 
unite  to  form  a  circular  flame  ;  a  gliiss  cu))  under- 
neath the  flame  :  and  a  compimnd  chimney  above. 
The  flame  curves  inwards,  and  the  products  of 
combustion  passing  up  through  the  centre  of  the 
burner  heat  the  fresh  air  on  its  passage  through 
the  burner  to  the  llame.  It  is  doubtless  this  feature 
which  gives  to  this  lamp  its  greater  economy  in  the 
consumption  of  oil,  considering  the  intensity  of 
light  proiluced. 

Mineral  oils  are  now  extensively  used  for  heating 
and  cooking,  anil  the  burners  employed  for  tliese 
purpo.ses  are  generally  ada]>tations  of  the  flat-wick 
type.  Captain  Doty  in  180H  jiatented  a  lightbou.se 
lamp  for  burning  mineral  oils,  and  this  nu^thod  of 
lighting  liiis  since  been  adopted  by  all  the  important 
lightliou.se  services  of  the  world,  with  much  advan- 
tage to  the  mariner,  and  great  economy  as  com- 
pared with  the  use  of  rape  or  colza  oil  (see  Light- 
HOCSE).      These    lamps   consist   of   one   or   more 


concentric  wicks,  and  are  capable  of  producing  a 
very  powerful  light ;  one  by  Sir  James  Douglass, 
engineer  to  the  corporation  of  the  Trinity  Iliuise, 
has  eight  concentric  wicks,  and  produces  a  flame 
whose  intensity  is  equal  to  1400  candles. 

COMPAK.VTIVE   TABLE. 

Consutnp-  Consuniptioo  of 
,.          ,  ,                           Candle-       ticiu  of  oil  oil  per  hour 

l>peoIl.aiiip.  power.         per  hour,  peronillepoKer, 

in  gruitu.  Id  i^iiia. 

1-in.  flat^wick  burner 13i  650  4S 

Duplex     II 25  1250  .50 

TripUx     „               39  1750  iS 

DelVies'  circular  burner, 

li-iu.  diameter 49  2290  17 

Waiizer  down-flame  burner, 

2J-in.  diameter 90  3050  34 

To  liurn  mineral  oils  successfully  both  theorj'  and 
experience  teach  the  absolute  necessity  of  keeping 
all  parts  of  the  burner  perfectly  clean,  so  that  the 
ingress  of  air  to  the  flame  may  not  be  lessened 
or  impeded  by  deposits  of  carbonised  wick,  which 
accumulate  unless  removed  from  time  to  time  \\  hen 
lam]is  are  in  use,  and  v\liicli  moreover  become  a 
source  of  danger  from  their  liability  to  ignite. 
Long  experience  has  also  .shown  that  a  most 
fruitful  source  of  annoyance  in  burning  these 
oils  arises  from  the  presence  of  water  or  moisture 
in  the  oil  or  in  the  lamp.  The  greatest  care  should 
therefore  be  taken  to  lieep  the  oil  and  the  lamps 
perfectly  free  from  water,  and  new  wicks  should 
be  carefully  dried  before  being  inserted  in  the 
burner.     See  also  Safety-lamp,  Ll'ciges. 

Lamp-shell  [Terchratula],  a  genus  of  brachio- 
pods,  or  a  popular  name  for  the  whole  class.     See 

BRACHIOPOD.S. 

Laiu'pyris.    See  Glow-worm. 

Lanarka  the  coitnty  town  of  Lanarkshire,  on  a 
slope  near  the  right  bank  of  the  Clyde  (q.v. ),  33 
miles  by  rail  SW.  of  Edinburgh,  and  31  SE.  of 
Glasgow.  It  has  an  interesting  ruined  cliurch,  a 
large  Catholic  chapel  (1859),  the  county  buildings 
(1836),  a  good  racecourse,  memories  of  Wallace, 
and  some  weaving  and  other  industries.  A  royal 
burgh  since  the  12th  century,  it  unites  with  Fal- 
kirk, &c.  to  return  a  member  to  parliament.  Pop. 
(1851). 5008;  (1891)  4.579.— Xew  Lanaek,  U  mile 
S.  by  W.,  is  a  manufacturing  village,  founded  in 
1783  by  David  Dale,  and  for  twenty-eight  years  the 
scene  ni  the  social  experiments  of  his  son-in-law, 
Kobert  Uwen.     Pop.  ( 1831 )  1901  ;   (1891 )  672. 

Lanarkshire,  or  Clydesdale,  a  Scottish 
county,  enclosed  by  Stirling,  Dumbarton,  Linlith- 
gow, Edinburgh,  Peebles,  Dumfries,  Ayr,  and  Ren- 
frew shires.  Its  length  is  50  miles,  its  gieatest 
breadth  32  miles,  and  its  area  889  sq.  ni.  Drained 
almost  entirely  by  the  Clyde  ( q.v. )  and  its  numerous 
affluents,  Lafiarkshiie  is  sulidivided  into  three 
wards,  of  which  the  upper  or  southern  comprises 
."{.32,3.38  acres,  the  middle  194,211,  and  the  lower 
42,319.  Tliese  otter  a  striking  diversity  of  Jispect 
— lonely  uplands,  smiling  orchards,  busy  coallields 
and  manufacturing  district.  The  principal  hills 
are  (Ireen  Lowther  (2402  feet)  and  far  seen  Tinto 
(2.3.35) ;  whilst  the  mining  village  of  Leadhills  ( 1300 
feet)  is  the  highest  in  Scotland.  The  luedominant 
rocks  are  Silurian,  old  red  .sandstone,  and  carbon- 
ifenuis,  and  the  county  possesses  great  mineral 
wealth — coal,  ironstone,  fireclay,  shale,  and  lead, 
with  some  silver  and  even  gold.  The  coal  alone 
in  the  Lanarkshire  coalfield  is  estimated  to  exceed 
2000  million  tons.  The  soil  is  as  various  as  the 
scenery  ;  and  b.irely  one-half  of  the  whole  ••uca  is 
in  culiivalion,  whilst  in  1888-89  woods  occupied 
20,148  acres,  orchards  591,  and  market-gardens 
1313.  The  orchards  of  Clydesilale  were  famous  as 
early  as  the  time  of  liede,  and  yiehled  into  the 
19tli  century  1'8(M)0  per  annum  :  but  now  the  ground 
is  more  profitably  employed  in   producing  straw- 


500 


LANARKSHIRE 


LANCASHIRE 


berries,  fjooseberries,  vegetables,  &c.  for  tlie  Glas- 
};ow  market.  Tlie  climate  is  moist,  mild  and  "enial 
in  many  of  the  lower  districts,  but  often  cold  and 
boisterous  on  the  uplands.  Lanarkshire  is  not  a 
great  grain  county  ;  but  much  of  it  is  excellently 
adajjtej  for  the  rearing  of  stock  ami  for  dairy  jiur- 
poses.  The  sheep  are  Cheviots  and  lilack-facod, 
the  cattle  Ayrshires  ;  and  tlie  celebrated  Clydesdale 
carthoi'ses  i.ssue  from  a  Flcniish  cross  (aliout  17'20). 
The  mineral,  textile,  and  other  industries  are  very 
extensive,  and  are  noticed  under  the  towns — Glas- 
gow, liutherglen,  Lanark,  Hamilton,  Airdrie,  Coat- 
bridge, Motherwell.  Wishaw,  i<;c.  Be.sides  pre- 
historic and  Uoman  remains,  Lanarkshire  contains 
the  castles  of  Bothwell,  Douglas,  and  Craignethan 
(Scott's  '  Tillietudlein '),  the  priories  of  IJlantyre 
and  Lesmahagow,  and  the  battlelields  of  Langside, 
Urumclog,  ancl  Bothwell  Brig.  Among  its  worthies 
have  been  Joanna  Baillie,  Dr  .lohii  Brown,  Sir 
Colin  Campbell,  Thomas  Campbell,  Lord  Dun- 
donald,  David  Livingstone,  and  Sir  John  Moore. 
Though  only  the  twelfth  in  size,  Lanarkshire  is 
far  the  most  populous  and  wealthy  of  all  the 
thirtv-three  Scottish  counties.  Valuation  (1875) 
£1,714,183;  (  189U)£2,'226,3j2.  Poi>.  ( ISOl )  U7,6!)2; 
(1841)  426,972;  (1881)  904,412;  (1891)1,105,899— 
an  increase  due  largely  to  the  transference  hither  of 
the  portions  of  Glasgow  formerly  in  Kenfrewsbire. 

See  works  by  Hamilton  of  "Wisliaw  ( 1S31 ),  Irviu};  and 
Murray  ( 1S61-G4),  and  otherb  cited  at  Gl.vsgow,  Clyde, 

CO.VTBItlDGE,  BlG(;.\K,  &c. 

LaUCIiSllire  is  a  county  palatine  of  England, 
ranking  sixth  in  point  of  area,  first  in  population, 
and  lirst  in  return  of  revenue  from  all  sources.  It 
forms  the  north-western  division  of  England, 
stretching  along  the  shore  of  the  Irish  Sea  from 
the  rivur  Duddon  and  the  mountains  of  Cumber- 
land on  the  north  to  the  river  Mersey  on  the  soutli. 
It  is  bounded  on  the  E.  by  Yorkshire,  on  the  W. 
by  the  Irish  Sea,  on  the  \.  by  Cumlierland  and 
Westmorland,  and  on  the  S.  by  Cheshire.  The 
extreme  length  from  N.  to  S.  ( including  the 
hundred  of  Furne.ss)  is  75  miles,  and  the  greatest 
breadth  at  the  south  end  43,  and  at  the  north  end 
10  miles.  The  ciicumference  is  240  miles,  and  the 
area  1905  sip  in.,  or  1,219,221  statute  acres.  Bop. 
(1801)()73,4S6;  (1821)  I,0.-)2,94S;  (1841)  1,667,054; 
(1861)2,429,440;  (1881)3,454,441;  (1891)3,926,760. 
The  ratable  value  increased  from  .£10,029,967  in 
1868  to  £18,623,910  in  1890. 

The  coast  is  level,  free  from  rocks,  and  has 
numerous  estuaries  stretching  far  into  the  main- 
land. Its  ports  are  the  only  ones  accessible  to 
large  vessels  betw'een  Milfoid  Haven,  in  South 
Wales,  and  the  estuary  of  the  Clyde.  This,  with 
the  ejise  with  wliich  the  coast  is  approached  from 
the  interior,  has  made  the  county  the  principal 
outlet  for  the  cimimerce  of  the  country  in  a 
westerly  direction,  one  third  of  the  wli<de  foreign 
trade  of  Great  Britain  being  carried  on  from  its 
ports.  The  chief  rivers  are  the  .Mersey,  Kibble, 
Lune,  Wyre,  Kent,  Leven,  and  Duililon.  The 
rainfall  in  Lancashire  is  sometimes  twice  as  great 
as  on  the  east  coast ;  the  climate  is  mild.  The 
lofty  hills  on  the  east  shelter  it  from  the  land 
winds,  while  the  prevailing  winds,  tliose  from  the 
south  and  west,  are  rendered  niihl  fnuji  tlieelb-ctof 
the  Gulf  Stream.  This  humidity  of  climate  is  said 
to  contribute  to  the  superiority  of  the  liner  kinds 
of  cotton  threads  mannfiictured  in  Lancashire.  An 
outlying  portion  of  the  county,  calleil  Furne.ss,  25 
miles  long  by  about  20  wide,  is  separated  from  the 
main  portion  by  Miueciimbe  Bay,  and  seems  as  if 
it  proiierly  ought  to  belmig  to  tiie  Lake  District. 
Conlston,  Eslliwaite,  and  Wimlerniere  lakes  lie 
within  the  Ixnders.  The  highest  i>oint  here  is 
'Coniston  Old  Man' — 'alt  niaen,'  or  the  'high 
rock  ' — 2633  feet  above  the  sea.     The  larger  division 


is  intei-sected  in  the  north  and  east  by  branches  of 
the  hill-system  which  runs  southward  tbrongli  the 
counties  of   'i'ork  and   Derbv,  the  chief  eminences 
being  Pendle  Hill  ( 1831  feet  ),'Bleasdale  Moor  (1709), 
Boulsworth     Hill    (1689),    and     Kivington     Moor 
(1545).     The   soil  is  peaty  in   the  upland  districts, 
but  for  the  most   jiart  a  fertih>  loam   in  the  Hats. 
Oats  and  jiotatoes  are  geninal  crops  ;  w heat  grows 
well  in  the  scmthern  division.       Coal   is  the  chief 
mineral  pixHiuct,  the  coallield  being  estimated   at 
217  sq.  m.  in  extent.     The  latest  estimate  of  the 
'quantity  raised  in  one  year  ani(uinted  to  I9,l'20,0()0 
tons.    Limestone  and  iron  are  common  in  the  north. 
Lead,  copper,  suliihur.  and  lircclay  are  also  found. 
The  whole  surface  of  the  county  is  covered  with  a 
network  of  canals  and  railways  which  connect  the 
principal   manufacturing    and    cominercial    centres 
(see  Manchestek,  Liveiu-odi,,  Pkk.st()n,  Bl..\ck- 
BURN,  &c. ).     Lancashire  is  the  great  centre  of  the 
cotton  manufacture  of  the  world,  having  about  two- 
thirds   of    the   entire    trade    (see    CoTTOX).     The 
other  textile  manufactures,  such  as  woollens,  silk, 
carpets,  are  likewise   of  considerable   importance. 
It  IS  pre-eminent  in  the  manufacture  of  engineers' 
tools;  and  the  making  of  all  kinds  of  iron  ;ind  steel 
machinery  is  extensively  carried  on.     Shipbuilding, 
sailmaking,   the   manufacture  of   boots  and   shoes, 
hosiery,  and  kindred  trades  are  also  in  a  lliuirishiug 
condition.     The  county  returns,  since  1885,  twenty- 
Ihree    members    to    parliament    (formerly    eight), 
besides    those    for    the     boroughs.       The    phrase, 
'  Lancashire   Witches,'   which   is   now  used  as  an 
expression  of  admiration  for  the  young  maidens  of 
the  county,  arose  from  the  prevalence  of  the  crime 
of  witchcraft  in  Lancashire  in  the  reign  of  James  I. 
So  many  as  twenty  witches  w  ere  trieil  and  executed 
at  the  Lancaster  Assizes  of  161'2.     Twelve  of  these 
were    the    witches   of    'Pendle  Forest,'   and   eight 
belonged  to  the  witches  of  'Samlesbury.'     A  few 
years  previously,  Ferdinand,   liftli  Earl  of  Derby, 
was  sup|iosed  to  liave  been  murdered  by  witchcraft. 
At  the  time  of  the  Beformation  the  Koman  Catholic 
party    was   extremely   strong   in    Lancashire,    and 
religions   houses  of    great    wealth    and    inlluence 
existed    in  every  district,   twenty-two    being   sup- 
jiressed  by   order  of  King  Henry  A'lll.  ;  this  in- 
cluded   the   abbeys  of   Furness  and   Whalley   (.see 
F'URNESS).     An  unusually  large  proportion  of  the 
land-ownei-s  still  adhered  in  the  reign  of  James  L 
to  their  old  faith,  and  in  1604  six  juiests  were  tried 
at   the    Lancaster   Assizes    and    executed.     Those 
connected   with   tin;  (innpowdcr   Plot  expected   to 
nnise   the   Catholics   of   l,ancasliire,    but    entirely 
failed   to   do   so.     The  whole  of   tin?   district   was 
continually    unsettled     and    full    of    discontented 
recusants,  .some  of  them   of   Koman   Catholic   and 
others  of  I'nritan  opiniims.     The  people  of  Lanca- 
shire have  long  been  noted   for  their  love  of  music 
anil    natural    history,    there    being   amongst   them 
many    working-men    who    are  botanists  and  ento- 
mologists   of    repute;     while    their    politics     and 
oiiinimis    have    had  such  inlluence  in    the   country 
that  the  |iroverb  has  arisen  that  '  A\  hat  Laiicjusliiie 
thinks  to-day  England  says  to-morrow.'     Amongst 
eminent  names  connccterl  with  Lancashire  are  those 
of  .MrsGaskell,  Mrs  (;.  L.  Banks.  Miss  Martineau  ; 
of  Koscoe,  De  t^)uiiicey.  Sir  Bobert  Peel,  Horrocks, 
Dalton,    Hodgkinson,    Joule,   Greg,    Bamford  (the 
weaver    poet,    1788-1S72),     William     Henry     the 
chemist.    Sir   W.     Fairbairn.    Sir  J.    Wliitworth, 
James  Martineau,  ( iladstone  ;  and  names  connected 
with  the  success  of  the  cotton  trade,  as  John  Kay 
(inventor    of     the    lly-shuttle ),     Crompton,     Ark- 
wriglit,     Ilargreaves.       The     Lancashire     dialect, 
renowned  for  tei'seness  and  vigour,  is  illustrated  iu 
works  by  J.  Collier  (' Tim  Bobbin).  Ben  Biierley, 
Edwin  Waugli.     See  maps  at  .M.VNcllEsTEK  and  at 
L.\KK  DiSTUlur. 


LANCASTER 


LANDAU 


501 


See  Baines,  Laiufuhire  (1836;  new  ed.  by  Croston, 
1888):  Espinasse, L«iicaxAice  7roW/iiM(187;>-77) ;  Nodal 
and  .Milncr,  Dialects  (1882) :  and  works  bv  Kutterwortli 
(1811),  lirimlon  (1806,  1882,  1892),  Axon  (1883). 

Lancaster,  the  capital  of  Lanoasliire,  is  pictur- 
esquelv  situatetl  on  an  eniinenoe  on  the  left  b.ank 
nf  tlie  Lune,  7  miles  from  its  mouth,  ,5U  NNW.  of 
Manchester  ami  231  \\V.  of  Lomlon  by  rail.  The 
ancient  castle,  which  overlooks  tlie  towTi,  was 
built  on  the  site  of  a  Roman  cistle,  and  wius 
restoretl  by  John  of  Gaunt,  '  time-honoureil  Lan- 
caster;' it  is  now  used  .t-s  the  county  ^aol.  The 
church  of  St  Mary  (15th  century)  contains  some 
■jood  oakcaninipj  and  stained  gla-ss.  The  Ripley 
Hospital  is  an  asylum  for  orplian  cluMrcn.  The 
houses  are  built  of  tlie  freestone  qriarried  in  the 
vicinity.  The  I.une  is  here  crossed  by  a  bridge  of 
five  arches,  erected  in  1788,  and  by  an  aquednct 
carrjinj;  tlie  Lancaster  Canal  across  the  river. 
Owing  to  the  sanding  of  tlie  Lune,  large  ve.ssels 
have  to  unload  at  Glasson.  5  miles  distant.  The 
chief  manufactures  are  furniture,  cotton,  silk,  oil- 
clotli,  table-covers,  m.achinerv,  ami  r.aihvay  plant. 
A  public  park  was  presented  in  1881.  Sir  I!. 
Owen,  the  anatomist,  and  Dr  Whewell  were  born 
at  Lancaster.  In  1098  the  town  was  nearly  burned 
to  the  ground.  A  ver>-  ancient  municipal  borough, 
it  returne<l  two  members  to  parliament  from  1.547 
to  1867,  when  it  wtis  disfranchiseil  for  corrupt 
practices  at  elections.  Pop.  (1881)20,663:  (1891) 
31,0:«.  See  works  bv  Hall  (1843)  and  Simps(m 
(1852). 

Lancaster, (1)  capital  of  Fairfield  county,  Ohio, 
on  the  Hocking  River  and  Canal,  .■>2  miles  SE.  of 
Columbus,  with  machine-works  and  railway  shops. 
Pop.  ( 1890)  7-555. — (2)  Capital  of  Lancaster  county. 
Pennsylvania,  69  miles  by  rail  W.  of  Philadelphia. 
Besides  a  large  court-house  and  numerous  churches, 
it  contains  the  Franklin  and  Marshall  (Germ.-in 
Reformed )  College,  and  a  theological  seminary  of 
the  .same  bmly.  There  are  large  cotton-mills,  and 
tanneries,  breweries,  potteries,  .and  a  number  of 
other  manufactories  ;  and  extensive  warehouses  for 
tobacco  have  been  built.  Founded  in  1730,  Lan- 
caster was  the  capital  of  the  state  from  1799  to 
1812.     Pop.  ( 1870)  20,2.33  :  ( 1890)  .32,011. 

Lancaster.  Dichy  of,  w.ns  created  in  the 
reign  of  Eihvard  111.,  the  dignity  of  county  palatine 
being  at  the  same  time  conferred  upon  the  duke. 
The  heiress  marrying  John  of  tiaunt,  son  of  the 
king,  the  duchy  w.as  settled  upmi  him  ami  his  heira 
for  ever  by  royal  charter  in  1362.  Heniy  IV.,  third 
Dnke  of  Lancaster,  on  his  accession  to  the  throne, 
pa.ssed  a  law  in  which  it  was  provided  that  the 
inheritance  of  the  house  of  Lancaster  should  be 
held  by  him  and  his  family  sei)arate  from  the  crown- 
lands.  E<lward  IV.  in  1461  ordained,  with  the 
consent  of  parliament,  that  the  duchy  of  Lanca-ster 
should  be  annexed  to  the  crown,  but  '  held 
separately  from  all  other  hereilitaments.'  Tlii.s 
arrangement  has  continued  until  the  present  time, 
and  the  affairs  of  the  duchy  have  thus  enjoyed 
an  independent  administration,  and  formed  no 
part  of  those  hereditary  revenue-s  in  view  of  which 
the  Civil  LLst  was  grantetl.  The  revenues  of 
the  duchy  have  increased  from  £29.(J0()  in  1847  to 
£86,284  net  at  the  eml  of  1888,  the  p.ayment  to 
Her  Majestv  at  these  two  periods  lieing  respectively 
£12,0(X)  and  £,50,000  sterling.  Tlie.se  proceeds 
are  wholly  exempted  from  parliamentary  control, 
except  that  the  annual  account  for  receipt  and 
expenditure  is  jiresented  to  parliament.  The 
chancery  cif  the  duchy  of  Lancaster  is  still  a  crowii- 
ollice.  and  was  at  one  time  a  court  of  appeal  for 
cliancerj-  of  the  county  palatine,  but  is  now  merely 
nominal.  The  oilministration  of  justice  lia.s  since 
1873    been    assimilated    to   that    of    the    rest    of 


England.  The  office  of  chancellor  is  a  political 
appointment  :  it  is  the  ]>ractice  to  confer  it  on  a 
statesman  of  eminence,  fref|uently  ,a  nieml>er  of 
the  cabinet,  who  is  expected  to  devote  his  time  to 
such  larger  (luestions  occupying  the  attention  of 
government  as  do  not  fall  within  otlier  depart- 
ments. The  emoluments  of  the  olVice  are  about 
£2(KM)  a  year.  For  the  House  of  Lancaster,  see 
Hknry  iV..  v.,  VI.  ;  and  Exgl.vnd,  Vol.  IV. 
p.  :{.5i. 

Lancaster.  !^llt  J.\mk.s,  an  English  navigator 
who  commauileil  the  first  lleet  of  the  East  India 
Company  that  visited  the  East  Indies  in  1600-3, 
and  on  his  return  home  was  knighted.  He  had 
previously  been  a  .soldier  and  a  merchant  in  P<h'- 
tugal,  had  visited  the  E.ist  Imlies  on  his  own 
accowiu  in  1.591-94,  ami  in  159.5  had  captured 
I'ernambuco  in  Urazil.  He  was  one  of  the  oiiginal 
board  of  directors,  and  afterwards  did  miicli  to 
)>romole  the  voyages  of  Wayniouth,  Hmlson,  and 
Rallin  in  search  of  the  Xorth-west  Passage  to  India. 
The  strait  leading  westwards  from  the  north  of 
Batlin  Bay  w.os  in  1616  named  Lancaster  Sound  by 
Baffin.  Lanc.ister  died  in  May  1618.  See  Sir  Clem- 
ents R.  Markham's  Voyages  of  Sir  James  Lancaster 
(Hakluyt  Soc.  1877). 

Lancaster.  Joseph  (1778-1838).  See  Bell 
( .Vndkew  ),  Educatiox. 

Lancaster  iinn.  a  species  of  rifled  cannon, 
named  after  its  inventor,  which  had  a  bore  of 
oval  section.  It  failed  during  the  Crimean  war, 
and  was  supei"seded. 

Lancaster  Sonnd,  a  western  outlet  of  Baliin 
Bay,  in  74'  20'  X.  lat.,  connected  with  Boothia 
Gulf  on  the  south  by  means  of  Prince  Regent  Inlet. 
Though  this  opening  into  the  Arctic  Ocean  was 
discovered  by  Baffin  in  1616,  it  was  first  navigated 
by  Parry  in  1819. 

Lance.  tlEORC.E,  painter  of  fruit  and  still-life, 
was  liorn  at  Little  Easton,  near  Duiimow,  in  Esse.x, 
on  24th  March  1802.  He  studied  uiuler  Haydon,  liut 
discovered  that  his  strength  lay  in  painting  fruit, 
game,  and  similar  subjects.  Specimens  from  his 
brush  in  this  line  were  exhibited  year  after  year  at 
the  Royal  Academy  and  British  Institution.  His 
admission  that  he  had  '  restored  '  parts  of  Velaz- 
quez' '  Bo.ar  Hunt'  caused  a  stir  of  controversy  in 
1853.  Lance  died  at  Sunnyside,  near  Birkenhead, 
on  18th  .lunc  1864. 

Lancelet.    See  .Vmphioxus. 

Lancers,  a  l>raiich  of  Cavalry  (q.v. )  introduced 
into  the  British  service  in  1816. 

Lancet-window.    See  E.vki.y  Enolish. 

Lancewood,  a  wood  valuable  for  its  great 
strength  and  elasticity.  It  is  produced  by  the 
small  tree  Gnottcria  rirgata  (natural  order  Anon- 
ace.-e).  -Another  species,  G.  lauri folia,  yields  the 
wood  called  White  Lancewood,  wliich,  however,  is 
not  much  used.  Lancewood  is  of  great  value  to 
coach-buildoi-s,  by  whom  it  is  used  for  shafts  and 
carriage-iiolcs,  for  which  it  is  especially  fitteil.  The 
part  usecl  is  the  main  trunk  of  the  tree,  which  is 
very  straight,  and  rarely  more  than  9  inches  in  dia- 
meter with  the  bark  on.  It  conies  in  small  quan- 
tities from  the  West  Indies,  chiefly  from  Jamaica. 

Lancins  Collesc.  or  Si  Niciiol.v.s  CoLi.wiK, 

a  well-known  Iioy>'  school,  conducted  on  High 
Church  principles,  .and  situated  at  Lancing,  8  miles 
W.  of  Brighton,  on  the  south  coast  of  Englaiul. 
Founded  in  1S4S,  it  lia-s  branches  at  Shoreham, 
Hurstpierpoint,  and  Ardingly,  all,  like  Lancing,  in 
Sussex. 

Land.  See  E.vrth,  Geology,  Cpiie.w.vl, 
W.vTEU  :  also  Land  Laws,  Agrici'LTVHe,  Soils. 

Landan.    See  Cahrlvge. 


502 


LANDAU 


LAND    LAWS 


Landau,  a  town  of  the  15:ivarian  Palatinate, 
11  miles  \\'.  of  the  lUiiiie  ami  17  SW.  of  Spires. 
Founded  and  made  an  iiiiiierial  eity  in  the  13th  cen- 
turj',  it  has  some  iiiteiestin<;  old  churches,  and 
played  a  prominent  pait  in  history  as  a  fortress. 
Durinj;  the  Thirty  Years'  War  it  was  taken  eight 
times;  in  1(588  it  was  fortified  by  Vaulian  for  Louis 
XIV.,  liut  surrendered  four  times  during  tlie  war 
of  the  Austiian  succession.  In  ISUi  IJavaria  became 
mistre.ss  of  it :  and  in  1S70-71  its  fortilications  were 
levelled  to  the  ground.  Poii.  11,395.— Landau, 
another  town  of  liavaria  on  the  Isar,  72  miles  NE. 
of  Munich,  has  31(j.")  inhabitants. 

Laiulaill*.  a  .sanitary  station  in  British  India, 
in  Dehra  IJiin  district.  North-west  Provinces,  form- 
ing part  of  the  toftn  of  Mussooree  (or  Masuri ; 
pop.  3106).  It  is  on  the  slope  of  the  Himalayas, 
7459  feet  above  the  sea. 

Land-crab.    See  Cr.\b. 

Lander.  Kich.\rd,  the  discoverer  of  the  mouth 
of  the  Xiger,  was  born  at  Trnro  on  8th  February 
1804,  and  in  1825  accompanied  Clapperton  as  his 
servant  to  Sokoto.  There  Cla|iperton  died,  and 
Lander,  returning  to  England,  pulilished  an  account 
of  the  exjjedition.  The  British  government  then 
entrusted  to  him  aiul  his  brother  John  (1S07-39) 
the  prosecution  of  further  researches  along  the 
lower  course  of  the  Niger.  In  1830  they  proved 
that  the  Quorra,  or  Niger,  falls  by  many  mouths 
into  the  Bight  of  Benin.  They  ])ublished  a  Journal 
of  an  Expedition  to  Exjilore  tlic  Niqcr  (3  vols. 
1832).  In  the  course  of  a  third  e.xpeilition  in  the 
same  quarter,  Richard  Lander  was  wounded  Ijy  the 
Niger  natives,  and  died  in  consequence  at  Fernando 
Po  on  2d  or  7th  Feb.  1834.  The  storv  of  tljis  tliinl 
journey  is  contained  in  Laird  and  OlJfield's  Narra- 
tive of  an  Expedition  into  the  Interior  of  Africa  hy 
the  Ilircr  Xiijer  [2  \-o\s.  1837). 

Landeriican,  a  small  seaport  of  France,  stands 
at  the  head  of  the  harbour  of  IJrest,  12  miles  by  rail 
NE.  of  Brest ;  it  has  linen  manufactures,  tanneries, 
candle-works,  and  shiidiuilding.     Po]i.  8003. 

Landes,  a  maritime  de[iartnient  of  southern 
France,  one  of  the  largest  and  most  thinly  peo]ded 
in  the  country,  is  bounded  on  the  W.  bv  the  Bay 
of  Biscay.  Area,  3598  sq.  m' ;  pop.  ( 1876)  .303,508  ; 
(1891  ) 297.842.  The  chief  river  is  the  Adonr(navi- 
gable).  The  greater  portion  of  the  department  con- 
sists of  the /amies,  tracts  of  barren  san<l,  interspersed 
with  marshes  and  forests  of  pine  and  oak  aiul  cork, 
forming  one  of  the  dreariest  regions  in  Europe.  The 
inhabitants  are  mostly  of  Gascon  race,  small  and 
the  reverse  of  robust  in  a]>pearance,  yet  capable  of 
great  endurance.  They  herd  sheep  (no  longer 
requiring  to  traverse  the  marshes  on  stilts),  grow 
wine,  and  extract  the  products  of  the  forests 
(timber,  resin,  cork,  charcoal,  I've. ).  Fowling  an<l 
fishing  also  yield  good  rt^turns.  The  Bayonne  hams 
are  obtained  from  pigs  bred  and  fed  in  the  lander:. 
Beside-s  wine,  the  .soil  is  made  to  yiidd  rye,  maize, 
wheat,  &c.,  especially  in  the  hilly  district  called 
Chalosse,  to  the  south  of  the  Adour.  By  nu'ans 
of  draining  operations  and  the  planting  (since 
1787)  of  forest  trees  rapid  progress  has  been  made 
in  the  reclamation  of  the  soil  and  its  cultivation. 
Although  it  has  a  coast-line  of  75  miles  long, 
the  department  does  not  po.sse.ss  a  single  harbour. 
A  belt  of  sand-dunes,  '2k  miles  wide  aiul  reaching 
300  feet  in  height,  fringes  the  seashore  from  north 
to  south.  About  20,000  tons  of  iron  ore  are 
smelted  annually.  The  mineral  sjirings  of  T)ax 
were  known  to  the  liomans.  The  railw.iy  frcmi 
Bordeaux  to  liayonnc  passes  through  the  district 
from  north  to  south.  The  department  is  diviiled 
into  three  arrondissements,  Montile-Marsan,  St 
Sever,  and  Dax.  Caiiital,  Montde-Marsan.  See 
France,  Vol.  IV.  p.  771. 


Landgrave,  a  title  of  superior  distinction  borne 
by  certain  counts  (ijraf) — e.g.  of  Thuringia  and 
Hesse — in  the  former  (Jernian  empire.  They  were 
the  constitutional  successors  of  the  old  rulers 
(counts,  grafe)  of  the  original  counties  (qaiie)  of 
the  (Jerman  empire,  and  as  such  claimed  the  rank 
of  princes  (of  the  first  class)  of  the  empire. 

Land$;unrd  Fort.    See  II.vRwicn. 

Land  Laws.  Land  being  the  universal  .and 
necessary  ba.sis  of  existence  of  the  human  race,  it 
has  in  all  countries  been  deemeil  to  be  subject  to 
rules  of  use  and  possessi(m  established  by  the  com- 
munity. Of  these  rules  in  the  earliest  stages  of 
society  we  have  no  written  record,  for  they  were 
in  force  before  writing  was  imented.  But  we  .'ire 
able  to  trace  their  proliable  origin  and  first  develop- 
ment partly  from  trailition.  partly  from  customs 
which  survive  in  later  i)eriods,  and  partly  from 
investigation  of  the  systems  in  force  in  rude  nations 
when  they  lirst  come  within  the  view  of  ccnupetent 
observers.  The  f(nniation  of  rules  begins  when 
civilisation  or  jiopulation  has  advanced  so  far  as  to 
render  the  regulation  of  contlicting  rights  desirable. 
Prior  to  that  time  the  only  law  was  that  of  the 
strongest  :  each  man  or  each  tribe  occupied  what  he 
or  it  eouhl  coniiuer,  and  so  much  as  it  w.os  within 
the  ]iower  of  either  to  defend  from  hostile  aggres- 
sion. Hunting,  and  afterwards  ]iastur,age,  were  the 
only  uses  to  which  land  was  then  devoted.  But 
as  the  tribes  grew  in  numbers,  and  a  nomad  life 
became  fatiguing,  or  inade(juate  to  .supply  the 
means  of  existence,  incipient  agriculture  led  to 
the  establishment  of  settlements  more  or  less 
permanent.  It  is  at  this  stage  that  we  begin 
to  meet  with  the  recognition  of  rules  for  the 
regulation  of  culture  and  jiossession.  The  Koman 
writers,  who  examined  with  marked  interest 
the  contemporary  institutions  of  their  (lerman 
enemies,  show  us  one  of  the  earliest  stages  of 
settled  life.  The  wealtli  of  the  tiilie  lay  still  in 
herds  of  cattle,  but  a  portion  of  the  laiul  around 
the  villages  was  cultivated.  This  land  wa.s  annu- 
ally allotted  to  heads  of  families,  and  was  changed 
in  rotation  from  one  to  another,  so  as  to  ensure 
equality.  Such  arrangements  survive  in  iMirojie  to 
the  present  day.  In  Servia  and  some  of  the  adjacent 
principalities  the  family  property  is  still  held  in 
some  degree  in  common,  and  every  member  of  the 
household  is  considered  to  have  a  riglit  to  reside  in 
the  familv  dwelling,  and  to  share  in  the  produce  of 
the  family  fields.  The  Kussian  niir,  or  villjige, 
]U('serves  similar  characteristics.  It  is  a  com- 
munity recognised  by  the  state  as  joint-proprietor 
of  the  village  lands,  and  jointly  responsible  for  the 
taxes.  The  lands  theuiselves,  with  their  ai)iiortion- 
ment  of  taxes,  are  allotted  by  the  ccuumunity  among 
its  several  families.  Where  the  land  is  ]ioor  the 
division  is  seldom  changed,  but  where  it  is  rich  a 
fresh  arrangement  is  made  at  frei|uent  intervals  or 
even  every  year.  This  \illage  system  prevails  al.so 
in  India,  though  there  t\m  division  lias  become 
permanent.  In  (ireat  liritain,  as  will  be  seen  here- 
after, its  existence  was  uncpiestionable,  and  traces 
of  it  survive  even  at  the  present  day  in  the  customs 
and  nomenclature  of  numerous  districts. 

Such  rudimentary  systems  are,  however,  from 
their  own  nature  destined  to  extinction  as  ]iopula- 
tion  increases.  The  family  grows  into  the  village, 
but  the  village  linils  its  bounds  restricted  more  and 
more  by  the  pressure  of  neighboui-s,  while  every 
year  the  numoer  of  mouths  to  be  fed  within  its 
limited  s]iace  becomes  larger.  Thus  more  labour 
and  more  luanure  must  be  given  to  the  soil  to 
extract  from  it  increased  return,  and  the  individual 
who  has  made  his  allotment  mine  fertile  than  his 
neighbour's  does  not  willingly  exchange  it  for  one 
which  lias  been  comparatively  neglected.     If  he 


LAND    LAWS 


503 


has  either  power  or  influence,  which  prohahly  liis 
natural  enerfjy  will  procure  for  him,  he  insists  on 
retaining:  his  own  plot,  and  on  lianilin;;  it  on  to 
his  own  family.  As  all  who  are  in  the  like  position 
will  make  a  li)ie  claim,  it  easily  becomes  establisheil 
as  a  right,  ami  the  more  that  labour  is  emjjloyed 
on  the  seiiarate  proper!  v  the  more  imprej;nablc  docs 
the  title  tend  to  become.  This  stage  has  always 
been  reached  by  the  time  that  the  nation  in  whicli 
it  prevails  comes  to  have  a  recognised  code  ami 
written  l.aws.  The  laws  of  the  Israelites  (it  matters 
nothing  whether  prescribed  by  Moses,  or  compiled  at 
■a  later  ilate  from  traditicm,  or  from  theories  of  sound 
policy  and  justice)  recognised  th.at  the  tribe  had  a 
title  to  a  certain  district,  but  that  e.ach  member  of 
the  tribe  hail  an  absolute  and  indefeasible  right  to 
his  own  separate  portion  of  land.  This  right  was 
gnardeil  by  a  law,  at  once  of  equal  partition  and 
of  entail,  under  which  alienation  was  only  valid 
for  a  term  of  forty-nine  years.  In  Greece  private 
ownership  w.is  fully  established.  In  Rome  every 
family  had  its  perm.anent  share  allotted  to  it.  The 
survival  of  the  idea  of  community  was  limited  to 
the  common  lands,  which  by  conquest  became  of 
immense  extent.  But  the  object  of  the  agrarian 
agitation  which  covei-s  so  many  pages  of  Roman 
history  w;».s  not  to  revert  to  the  original  com- 
munity of  possession,  but  only  to  secure  that  of 
the  remaining  common  lands  each  citizen,  however 
poor,  should  be  deemed  entitled  to  receive  a  grant 
for  his  future  posses-sion  in  e.xclusive  and  private 
property. 

From  this  general  sketch  of  the  origin  of  private 
property  in  land  we  may  now  proceed  to  consider 
its  tlevelopment  in  modern  times,  and  especially  in 
the  United  Kingdom. 

The  system  of  ownership  of  land  in  England 
under  the  Saxons  was  substantially  the  same  as 
among  their  Germanic  ■ancestoi's.  There  was  still 
ample  space  for  all.  The  village  community  re- 
mained the  unit  of  social  arrangements,  and  held 
generally  large  areas  of  forest  or  heath  in  common, 
on  which  every  villager  had  a  right  to  pasture  stock. 
The  small  area  of  land  uiuler  tillage  was  appro- 
priated to  individuals,  sometimes  in  undei'stood 
permanence,  especially  where  a  family  held  a  posi- 
tion of  pre-eminence,  sometimes  under  a  custom  of 
more  or  less  frequent  redivision  or  appropriation. 
This  village  system,  with  its  rights  of  common, 
survived  far  into  the  period  of  Xorman  occupa- 
tion :  anil  in  numerous  districts  it  may  still 
be  traced  in  the  divisions  and  names  of  fields, 
anil  in  the  local  customs.  15ut  a  vast  change  of 
principle  w.os  intnxluced  by  the  Xorman  Conquest, 
liringing  with  it  the  ideas  of  feudalism  which  had 
grown  up  on  the  (,"ontinent.  Under  this  theory 
the  whole  land  of  the  realm  w,as  deemed  to  be 
vested  primarily  in  the  sovereign.  By  him  it 
was  granted  in  knight-fee  t<i  certain  nobles  or 
gentlemen,  who  in  return  were  bouiul  to  perform 
all  cluties  of  a  vassal  to  his  lord,  and  in  especial 
to  furnish  a  contingent  of  armed  men  to  support 
him  in  war.  Default  in  these  duties  involved 
forfeitvire,  but  if  performed  punctually  (or  so  far 
as  the  lord  could  enforce  punctuality)  the  vassal 
wa.s  supreme  in  the  temtory  gianted  to  him.  By 
degrees  he  gained  the  right  of  subinfeudation — 
i.e.  of  making  similar  grants  of  portions  of  his  land 
to  others,  to  be  held  by  them  !is  his  vassals.  This 
privilege  was  abolished  in  England  Ity  the  statute 
Quia  Emptorc.i,  18  Edw.  I.,  which  recognised  the 
right  of  a  vassal  to  sell,  but  re(|uired  that  the 
purchaser  should  hold  subject  to  thi^  original  lord. 
At  a  still  later  jieriod  the  owner  of  land  in  England 
acquired  the  right  of  devising  land  by  will  (.'Ji 
Henry  VIII.  chap.  1).  But  the  system  of  feud.al 
tenures  was  swept  away  in  Englanil  by  the  statute 
12  Charles  II.  chap.  24,  which  abolisheil  all  services. 


already  long  fallen  into  disuse,  of  the  nature  of 
military  aid  to  the  sovereign.  Meantime  the  char- 
■acter  of  the  laml  laws  had  been  ehielly  all'ecteil  by 
the  struggle  between  parliament,  re|)resenting  the 
wishes  of  the  great  nobles,  the  courts  of  law, 
guided  by  judges  s]irnng  mainly  from  the  peo]>le, 
and  the  Court  of  Clianccrv,  which  in  its  earlier 
st.ages  Wiis  inspire<l  by  the  church.  The  statute  De 
Donis  established  entails.  But  these  were  defeated 
by  fictions,  called  fines  and  recoveries,  sanctioned 
by  the  courts  of  law.  Parliament  ]>assed  acts  for- 
bidding alienation  of  lands  in  mortmain,  ehielly 
in  order  to  prevent  the  aggrandisement  of  the 
church.  But  the.se  were  defeated  l)y  the  Court  of 
Chancery  giving  eflect  to  trusts  f<n-  religious  cor- 
porations. Parliament  by  the  Statute  of  Uses,  27 
Henry  VIII.  chap.  10,  annulled  such  trusts.  But 
again  the  judges  defeated  the  statute  by  declaring 
that  it  did  not  apply  where  a  trust  was  created  to 
hold  for  another,  «ho  again  wa-s  to  hold  for  a  third 
person.  At  last  a  device  was  hit  upon  by  the 
ingenuity  of  lawyers  under  which  the  etl'ect  of 
entails  h.as  been  attained  by  means  of  what  are 
called  Settlements,  under  which  the  operation  of 
natural  motives  is  brought  into  play  to  induce 
each  successive  owner  to  restrict  himself  to  a  life- 
interest  only.  By  this  system,  which  applies  to  a 
very  large  proportion  of  the  land  of  England, 
estates  are  preserved  in  families,  from  one  genera- 
tion to  another,  but  at  the  cost  of  grave  evils, 
arising  from  the  restraint  placed  on  the  powers  of 
the  actual  ]iossessor. 

In  Scotlanil  the  feudal  .sy.stem  supereeded  that  of 
clanship  ;  and  the  chief  of  the  clan,  who  was  at  first 
only  the  village  headman,  acquired  in  the  eye  of 
the  law  the  sole  title  to  the  land  which  supported 
the  community.  But  subinfeudation  was  never 
abolished  in  Scotland.  It  formed  the  basis  of  the 
system  of  conveyancing  till  past  the  middle  of  the 
19th  century,  and  it  is  still  in  practical  use  in  the 
creation  of  'feus.'  Entails  also,  in  all  their  strict- 
ness, were  recognised  as  \alid  from  the  year  1696, 
and  only  since  1S48  have  been  subjected  to  restraints 
resembling  those  whicli  were  from  the  first  imposed 
upon  them  in  England  by  the  hctions  which  were 
sanctioned  by  the  courts  of  law.  Legislation  sub- 
sequent to  1S4S  has  enabled  every  owner  under  an 
entail  to  acquire  the  fee-simple  on  paying  to  the 
ne.vt  hell's  the  estimated  value  of  their  interests. 

Eeudalism  held  sway  in  France  down  to  the 
Revolurion.  The  introduction  of  modern  ideas  of 
taxation  even  aggravated  its  hardsliiiis,  for  the 
great  nobles  secured  exemption  from  these  imposts, 
which  thus  fell  the  more  heavily  on  their  v.assals. 
Both  in  France  and  tiermany  the  vassals  were  also 
heavily  burdened  with  the  obligation  of  forced 
labour,  partly  due  to  the  st.ite  for  the  mainten.ance 
of  roads,  I'i.c.,  but  ehielly  to  the  immediate  lord, 
who  thus  obtained  the  ailvantage  of  gratuitous  cul- 
tivation for  his  own  lamls.  while  the  i>ea-^antrv  were 
left  to  devote  more  inconvenient  sea.soiis  to  the 
work  of  their  small  farms.  In  France  this  system 
was  swept  away  by  that  Revolution  to  which  it 
had  so  largely  contributiMl.  The  Coi/c  SujtolCoii 
now  regulates  the  law,  which,  except  that  on  death 
it  directs  the  conqiulsoiv  division  of  land  among 
the  whole  of  the  children,  practically  re>eMibles  the 
law  of  England.  In  Germany  the  feudal  system 
disapjieared  under  the  celebrated  legislation  of  Stein 
and  liardenberg.  To  purchase  their  relief  from 
the  duty  of  forced  labour  and  other  exactions  of  the 
lords  the  peasantry  surrendered  a  ])ortioii  of  their 
lands  to  the  lords,  and  were  declareil  to  hold  the 
remainder  free  from  any  service.  Laml  banks  were 
at  the  same  time  establisheil,  which  made  advances 
to  those  who  desired  to  bu>  up  rights  of  eiimmon 
aflecting  their  lands,  or  to  commute  rents  for  a 
payment  in  money. 


604 


LAND    LAWS 


In  northern  Europe  feudalism  took  no  root,  and 
land  has  generally  been  held  hy  small  freeholders 
who  were  the  cultivators.  The  system  passed  from 
Scandinavia  to  Orkney  and  Shetland,  where  the 
same  tenure  exists  to  a  considerable  extent  under 
the  name  of  udal  ri^dit. 

The  ]irinciiiles  which  are  involved  in  the  owner- 
sliip  of  land  receive  illustratiim  in  modern  systems 
where  new  or  Miia|i)iropriated  lands  have  to  be 
settled.  Generally  speaking,  lirst  occupation  is 
recognised  in  sucli  cases  as  a  suHieient  title  to 
exclusive  and  permanent  ownership.  There  is,  how- 
ever, an  unwritten  law  almost  universally  iti  force 
that  occupation  must  be  actual,  and  not  merely  an 
assertion  of  li.^ht  over  more  .•uea  than  tlie  settler 
can  actually  work.  This  understanding  crystallises 
into  the  rule  that  the  occu]>ati<)n  must  be  only  of  a 
limited  space  or  'claim,'  and  that  actual  labour  of 
a  sjiecilied  amotint  nnist  be  expended  on  it  within 
a  delinite  period.  Such  rules  are  instituted 
wherever  bodies  of  men  establisli  thenisehes, 
whether  as  miners,  shepherds,  or  farmers.  When  the 
connniinity  has  existed  for  a  short  time,  and  is  so 
far  permanent  .as  to  have  organised  a  government, 
these  or  similar  rules  are  enacted  as  laws,  and  the 
authority  of  the  whole  community  is  asserted  over 
such  portions  of  territory  as  lie  within  its  powers 
to  defend,  and  which  are  not  yet  appropriated  to 
individuals.  The  state  generally  sells  these  in 
plots  to  private  individuals  for  a  certain  fixed  price. 
This  system  prevails  both  in  15ritish  colonies  and 
in  the  United  States.  In  the  latter  the  remaining 
public  lands  are  vested  in  the  separate  states, 
several  of  which  have  established  a  '  Homestead 
Law,'  under  which  each  naturalised  citizen  is 
entitled  to  claim  a  free  grant  of  a  certain  portion 
of  unoccupied  land  on  conditicm  of  actually  culti- 
vating it.  ( For  the  present  division  of  land  in 
Britain,  see  Agriculture,  Vol.  I.  p.  102 ;  see  also 
United  St.\te.s,  itc.) 

From  the  foregoing  sketch  it  may  be  seen  th.at 
the  fundamental  idea  of  ownership  in  land,  in  the 
leading  systems  of  village  comnninities  and  of 
feudalism,  is  that  it  is  ultimately  vested  in  the 
state  or  nation.  But  it  is  equally  apparent  that 
individual  ownership,  subject  to  stich  services  or 
otlier  eipiivalent  as  the  state  may  ilcmaud,  is 
universally  recognised  as  the  most  useful  form  in 
which  land  can  be  employed.  It  applies  the 
stimulus  of  individual  prolit  and  enjoyment  to 
the  culture  and  imiirovement  of  the  soil.  Under 
this  influence  an  enormous  amount  of  capital  has 
in  all  countru's,  but  in  tlie  most  marked  degree  in 
(Jreat  Hritain,  been  invested  in  tlie  reclamation  of 
the  land  from  its  original  state  of  nature,  whether 
a-s  forest,  prairie,  or  swamp.  The  fee-simiile 
value  of  the  land  as  it  at  present  exists,  in  the 
majority  of  cases,  represents  not  the  original  value, 
but  little  more,  very  often  considciably  less,  than 
the  mere  expemliliire  of  capital  wifliiu  the  last 
century  on  erection  of  farm-boiiscs  and  farm-build- 
ings, cottages,  and  fences,  on  making  roads,  on 
draining,  levelling,  embanking.  war|)ing,  or  such 
otlier  im]irovements  ;vs  the  situation  demands. 
These  outlays  have  been  made  on  the  unileistanil- 
ing  that  the  state  would  deal  with  them  on  the 
same  jiriiicipli's  as  with  investments  in  factories, 
railways,  dwelling  houses,  or  other  species  of  recog- 
nised individual  |)ioperty — i.e.  that  it  would  apply 
to  them  the  general  rules  of  ownership  and  succes- 
.sion  establislii'd  in  the  community  at  large.  Such 
rules  permit  all  projieity  wliate\'er  to  be  taxed  and 
even  to  be  appropriated  by  the  state  «lieii  the 
)public  good  r<'i|iiin>s  ;  but  they  rei|iiire  that  no  one 
class  of  owners  shall  be  treated  dillerently  from 
otlierR,  and  that  if  anything  is  taken  for  the  public 
benefit  the  public  shall  ])av  its  fair  market  jirice 
to  the  uwner. 


A  number  of  schemes  have  been  proposed  for 
what  is  vaguelv  called  '  nationalisation  of  the 
land.'  Tlie.se  all  start  from  the  juinciple  which 
has  been  seen  to  form  in  most  countries  the  basis 
of  land  tenure,  that  the  land  is  the  property  of  the 
nation  :  and  their  object  is  to  assert  this  principle 
in  the  direction  of  recovering  possession  for  the 
nation  from  imlividuals.  The  first  of  these  pro- 
pos.als  in  the  present  d.ay  was  made  by  ^Ir  Herbert 
Spencer,  who,  in  his  ISon'al  Statics,  su-'gested  that 
lainl  should  be  behl  by  the  state  and  let  for  short 
terms  to  the  higliest  offerer.  Subsei|uently  Mr 
(ieorge  (q.v.)  iiro])osed  that,  without  divesting  the 
present  holders,  land  should  be  taxeil  in  their 
liaiids  to  the  amount  of  the  full  rental  value,  ex- 
cluding only  so  much  value  as  had  arisen  from 
imjirovements  effected  by  the  luesent  hol<lers  or 
their  ancestors.  Dr  Alfred  Ku.ssell  Wallace  1ms 
proposed  that  the  state  shouhl  acquire  the  land  of 
the  country  on  payment  of  compensation  to  present 
owners,  such  coiiipensali(Ui  in  his  lii-st  suggestion 
being  limited  to  their  life-interest,  but  in  later 
eilitiims  being  extended  to  the  value  in  fVe-simple. 
He  also  urges  adoption  of  a  modified  fortn  of  the 
Homestead  Law  ot  the  United  States,  by  which 
every  citizen  slunild  be  entitled  to  claim  ,a  sufficient 
extent  of  ground  for  a  house  and  garden  out  of 
land  in  any  situati(ui  not  already  devoted  to  that 
jiui'iiose.  For  this  be  would  ]iay  rent  to  the  state. 
The  agricultural  land  of  the  country  in  Dr  Wal- 
lace's scheme  is  to  be  let  by  the  state  to  tenants  in 
perpetuity,  subject  to  the  obligation  of  '  occupying 
ownership' — that  is  to  say,  of  being  farmed  by 
themselves  without  intervention  of  tenants.  Other 
ideas,  less  distinctly  f(uniulated  by  their  authors, 
contemplate  the  gener.al  division  of  the  land  into 
small  portions  suHicieiit  only  for  the  mainten.ance 
of  a  single  family,  wliiidi  is  recommended  as 
'restoring  the  jjeoiile  to  the  land  ;'  while  others 
suggested  the  ultimate  cultivation  by  the  com- 
munity, under  undefined  arrangements  of  a  .socialist 
character.  Thus  it  cannot  be  said  that,  as  yet, 
any  apjiroach  to  agreement  on  a  distinct  system 
has  been  arrived  at  by  the  advocates  of  the  idea  of 
nationalisation  of  tiie  land.  The  fundamental 
(piesti(m  whether  any  or  what  comjiensation  is  to 
be  made  to  existing  holders  has  yet  been  scarcely 
debated  ;  the  shock  to  the  security  of  property  if 
one  species  he  ccmfiscated  has  not  been  estimated  ; 
the  (litlieulty  of  discrimin.ating  between  original 
value  and  value  adde(I  by  outlay  of  capital  has  not 
been  ap|uoached  ;  and  finally  the  c|ii('stion  whether 
tlie  nation  woiihl  gain  on  the  one  b.-uid  by  the 
transfer  from  one  set  of  holders  to  another,  or  on 
the  other  by  the  substitution  of  state  for  individual 
cultivation,  has  not  in  any  quarter  been  entered 
on. 

As  a  midille  .scheme  between  existing  private 
ownershi]!  and  nationalisation,  Mr  Mill  brought 
forward  the  doctrine  of  the  right  of  the  state  to 
what  he  called  the  'unearned  increment'  of  land. 
His  idea  was  tliat  when  land  rose  considerably 
in  value  from  the  mere  fact  of  its  proximity  to  a 
town,  from  a  general  rise  of  (uices.  or  from  other 
circumstance  not  dependent  on  the  skill  or  capital 
of  the  owiu'r,  the  public  should  ln'  entitled  to 
appropriate  the  rise  In  itself  in  the  shape  of  ,a  rent 
or  tax.  The  idea  of  an  'unearned  increment'  in 
the  value  of  agricultural  land  is,  Imwever,  scarcely 
tenable,  as  it  is  the  fact  that  any  such  increment 
is  due  (as  has  been  shown  above)  mainly  to  the 
invcslnient  of  capital  by  successive  owners.  The 
application  of  the  doctrine  would,  therefore,  occur 
generally  in  the  c-i^i'  of  l.ind  adjoining  towns.  Hut 
the  growth  of  towns  is  largely  due  to  private  enter- 
]>rise  stimulated  liy  the  hojie  of  juolit.  The  confis- 
cation or  proliibition  of  .such  profit,  which  would  be 
involved  in  a  law  permitting  a  municipality  to  take 


LAND    LAWS 


505 


possession  of  land  or  buildings  at  its  original  value, 
would  annul  tlie  operation  of  private  enterjuise. 
This  is  an  entirely  novel  factor  in  modem  progress, 
and  one  of  which  the  full  ellects  can  hardly  be  fore- 
cast. 

Under  the  name  of  '  Betterment,'  the  increase  of 
value  due  to  municipal  improvements  in  restricted 
areas  (e.g.  a  new  street,  liriilge,  or  the  like)  ha.s  in 
America  been  subjected  to  a  "laduated  tax,  and 
this  proposal  has  also  been  lately  brought  forward 
in  Great  Britain. 

The  mischiefs  arising  from  the  aggregation  of 
large  extents  of  land  in  the  hands  of  one  owner 
have  also  been  the  subject  or  motive  of  legislative 
proposals.  The  statute  book  contains  one  notable 
effort  to  restrain  it,  in  the  Thcllusson  Act  (q.v. ). 
Such  aggregatitm  is,  however,  fostered  by  entails  and 
by  the  rule  of  primogeniture,  while  the  subdivision 
of  land  is  the  result  of  laws  of  succession  which 
prescril)e  that  land  shivll  be  divideil  equally  among 
children.  That  this  slnnild  be  done  in  cases  of 
intestacy,  while  the  parent  is  still  Jillowed  the 
option  of  be(|ueathing  the  whole  to  one  son,  would 
be  the  effect  of  merely  abolishing  the  rule  of  primo- 
jjeniture.  But  the  Code  yapolron  makes  equal 
division  among  children  a  compulsory  nile.  The 
rule  itself  is,  however,  much  older  in  many 
countries,  and  in  the  United  Kingdom  it  has  existed 
from  time  immemorial  in  the  Channel  Islands. 
Itne  evil  which  Hows  from  it  is  the  excessive 
morccllonent,  as  it  is  termed  in  France,  of 
estates  in  land.  But  this  result  is  partly  attribut- 
able to  the  system  of  subdividing  every  separate 
portion  of  the  paternal  estate,  which  obviously  is 
not  a  necessary  condition.  In  practice  a  restraint 
on  inconvenient  minuteness  of  subdivision  is  found 
in  the  habits  of  the  population.  AVhere  these  tend 
towards  emigration  (which  is  largely  the  case 
in  the  Channel  Islands,  but  not  in  France)  the 
inheritor  of  a  very  small  fraction  of  land  readily 
sells  it  to  a  neighbour,  ami  uses  the  price  to  set 
himself  up  in  trade,  or  for  the  purpose  of  emigra- 
tion. A  graver  e\il  is  that  the  same  family  eon- 
sequences  follow  from  compulsory  division  as  were 
shown  by  Bacon  to  attend  entails  on  the  eldest 
.son.  Children  are  apt  to  attend  with  impatience 
the  father's  death,  which  puts  them  in  assured 
possession  of  their  jiatrimony,  and  lilial  duty  is 
we.akened  by  the  knowledge  that  disobedience 
involves  no  penalty.  A  middle  course  has  been 
suggested — that  children  should  have  absolute  right 
to  only  a  portion  of  the  paternal  estate  ( as  is  the 
case  in  regard  to  personal  projierty  in  Scotland 
un<ler  the  law  of  Legitim,  q.v.),  but  that  the  parents 
should  have  power  of  bequest  over  the  remainder. 
To  arrest  aggregation  it  has  also  been  proposed 
that  no  owner  of  property,  whether  in  land  or  per- 
sonalty, shiHild  be  entitled  to  bequeath  more  than 
a  fixed  amount  to  any  single  individual,  though 
with  full  power  to  bequeath  tlie  whole  of  the  estate 
to  such  persons  as  he  chooses,  subject  to  the  above 
restriction. 

Land  has  also  been  employed  in  all  countries 
for  the  subsidiary  purpose  of  forming  a  security 
for  debt,  as  by  mortgage  in  Kngland  or  herit- 
able security  in  Scotland.  This  also  tends  to 
aggregation,  a.s  it  relieves  the  owner  from  the 
necessity  of  selling  a  part  when  in  need  of  reaily 
cash.  Estates  so  burdened  are,  however,  little 
better  than  leaseholds.  The  owner  is  neces.sarily 
short  of  capital  to  improve  them,  while  led  to  keep 
up  the  appearance  of  greater  wealth  than  he 
actually  possesses.  The  lender  of  the  money  is 
also  a  strict  creditor,  seldom  inclineil  to  grant 
indulgence  in  time,  and  never  to  concede  abate- 
ment in  amount  even  in  bad  .sea-sons.  The  evil  is 
very  ancient  and  very  widely  spread.  It  was  the 
occasion  of  many  insurrections  in  Uome,  and  at 


this  day  is  even  more  prevalent  on  the  Conti- 
nent than  in  Britain.  Vast  tracts  of  land  in 
eastern  Furope  are  passing  from  the  hands  of  the 
peasantry  into  those  of  money-lenders,  and  in 
India  the  same  class  of  speculat(u's,  availing  them- 
selves of  the  strictness  of  British  law  for  the 
recovery  of  <lebt,  are  becoming  a  scourge  of  the 
country.  The  .Jewish  law  met  the  mischief  by  the 
laws  against  usury,  and  by  the  law  of  restitution 
at  the  jubilee.  In  1880  the  suggestion  was 
offered  (Boyd  Kinnear,  I'rhiciplcs  of  Properfi/  in 
Land)  to  attack  the  evil  at  its  root  by  declaring 
that  land  shall  not  be  a  subject  of  preferential 
<lebt,  while  liable  like  all  property  to  sale  for  ]]av- 
ment  of  general  debt.  If  such  a  rule  were  estab- 
lished no  one  would  lend  on  land,  and  the  owner 
who  desired  to  raise  money  would  be  compelled 
to  sell  a  i)ortion.  What  he  retained  would  l>e 
free  from  debt,  what  a  purchaser  acquired  would  be 
equally  free,  and  every  possessor  would  be  a  real, 
instead  of  lictitious  owner  of  a  smaller  but  more 
beneficial  estate. 

The  cultivation  of  land  may  be  either  by  the 
owner  or  by  a  tenant.  The  former  is  the  natural, 
and  almost  always  the  most  advantageous  method, 
in  the  interests  of  the  comnuinity,  for  it  tends  to 
induce  the  largest  outlay  on  improvements  which 
bring  enhanced  returns.  The  first  departure  from 
this  idea  takes  the  form  (unknown  in  Britain, 
but  common  on  the  Continent,  and  not  infrequent 
in  the  United  States)  of  cultivation  on  shares,  or 
mHctirie.  Under  this  arrangement  the  landlord 
furnishes  land  and  generally  stock,  the  tenant 
gives  the  labour,  and  the  produce  is  shared  in 
certain  proportions,  frequently  in  moieties.  It 
involves  a  close  superintendence  by  the  land- 
owner or  his  steward  to  ensure  that  the  stock 
is  not  made  away  with,  ami  that  his  fair  share  is 
handed  to  him  either  in  kind  or  in  cash.  The 
next  stage  of  the  arrangement  forms  the  system, 
once  universal  in  Scotland,  of  'grain  rents,'  where 
the  tenant  binds  himself  to  pay  annually  the  value 
of  a  fixed  quantity  of  different  species  of  grain 
according  to  the  market  prices  then  prevailing, 
these  being  annually  ascertaineil  in  Scotland  by 
the  'striking  of  the  Fiars '  (q.v.).  The  last  stage 
is  the  agreement  to  pay  a  fixed  money  rent 
irrespective  of  crops  or  prices.  It  is  preferred  l>y 
tenants  in  times  of  prosperity,  as  it  leaves  them 
the  whole  benefit  of  increased  crops  or  rise  in 
prices.  The  term  during  which  the  arrangement 
continues  is  in  foreign  countries  very  generally 
seven  or  fourteen  years,  in  Scotland  usually  nine- 
teen :  while  in  England  it  has  been  most  freciuently 
only  from  year  to  year,  and  in  Ireland  it  was  often 
for  lives.  The  last  is  the  worst,  because  the  most 
uncertain  of  all.  The  lease  from  year  to  year  has 
gaineil  a  sort  of  expectation  of  iiermanency  ;  the 
lease  for  definite  terms  enables  the  tenant  to  make 
positive  arrangements,  but  it  h.is  the  dis,a<lvantage 
of  disposing  him  to  cultivate  le.ss  liberally  as  the 
termination  approaches.  To  meet  this  the  Agricul- 
tural Holdings  Act  entitles  him  to  payment  by  the 
landloril  for  the  unexhausted  value  of  certain  speci- 
fied beneficial  outlays  made  during  his  tenancy. 

In  Ireland  the  majority  of  the  tenants  prior  to 
18;i'i  held  under  lea.-^e  :  but  after  that  date  they 
were  gradually  converted  into  yearly  tenant.s.  The 
])revailing  rule,  however,  was  that  they  continued 
in  po.sse.ssion,  at  such  rents  as  they  could  l>ay,  from 
generation  to  generation.  In  1800,  and  subse- 
quently in  1870,  1881,  and  1887,  the  legislature 
introduced  successive  restraints  on  the  lamlliud's 
right  of  eviction.  The  position  of  t<'nants  sub- 
sequent to  the  last-named  statute  is  l>rielly  as 
follow.s.  They  all  hold  in  permanence,  subject  to 
evictiiui  only  in  the  event  ot  non-payment  of  rent. 
Even  if  evicted  on  that  ground  they  may  recover 


506 


LAND  LEAGUE 


LANDLORD  AND  TENANT 


possession  by  paying  the  arrears  within  six  montlis 
after  notice.  They  are  entitled  also,  althoujih 
evicted,  to  receive  payment  for  any  ])ornianent 
iniiiiDVLMuents  tliey  have  made.  They  may  sell  or 
hecpiealh  their  rij;)it  of  tenancy  at  pleasure.  The 
rent  is  lixed  (if  the  tenant  desires)  by  the  Land 
Commissioners,  after  examination  l>y  vahiere ;  but 
it  is  subject  to  revision  every  fifteen  years — so, 
however,  that  it  is  not  to  be  raised  in  respect  of 
any  improvements  made  in  the  interval  l>y  the  ten- 
ant. During  three  years  of  low  i)rifes  (18S6-8i)) 
the  tenant  was  entitleil  to  obtain  a  new  valuation 
and  reduction,  and  all  judicial  rents  were  further 
reduced  according  to  an  otticial  scale,  based  on 
current  prices  for  each  year.  In  ISS'2  an  Arrears 
Act  wiped  out  all  arrears  then  due  by  tenants, 
on  jmyment  of  only  one  year's  rent.  In  1870  the 
'  Brigiit  clauses  '  granted  advances  by  the  state  to 
the  extent  of  tw'o-thirds  of  tlie  price  to  enable 
tenants  to  purchase  the  fee-simple  of  their  holdings 
from  landlords  wlio  were  disposed  to  sell.  Tlie 
'Aslibourjie  Act'  in  1885  extended  this  boon  to  a 
sum  sufficient  to  cover  the  whole  price,  and  the 
tenant  paying  interest  on  this  at  4  per  cent,  jier 
annum  for  forty-nine  years  clears  himself  of  the 
full  amount.  The  amount  to  be  thu-*  advanced  bv 
the  st.-ite  was  at  first  limited  to  £.">,0()0,000.  In  ISSS 
£o,()()(),00U  more  were  granted ;  and  these  sums  being 
ab.sorbed,  a  bill  was  in  the  session  of  1890  intro- 
duced into  parliament  extending  the  sum  to  about 
£30.000,000,  under  some  slight  modilications.  The 
Land  Law  Act  of  1890  extends  :ind  siniplilies  the 
fixing  of  fair  rents,  .siniplilies  purchase,  and  extends 
the  powers  of  the  Congested  District  Bo.ard  and 
facilitates  advances  from  the  Land  Commission. 

For  the  land-tax  imposed  in  liritain  on  land  and 
houses  for  purposes  of  revenue  in  lieu  of  the  ancient 
subsidies,  scutages,  tallages,  tenths,  and  such 
occasional  taxes,  see  V.^hations.  The  land- 
taxation  and  land-revenue  of  India  are  discussed 
at  p.  11.5  of  this  vol. ;  for  the  i)roportion  of  the  land- 
ta.x  to  other  sources  of  revenue  in  various  countries, 
see  China,  Tikkkv,  &c.  See  also  the  articles  in 
this  work  on  : 

Agrarian  Laws. 

Afiricultural    Hold- 
ings Act. 

ARriculturo. 

Allotments. 

Capital. 

Commons. 

Communism. 

Conveyancing. 

Crofters. 

The  following  works  may  be  consulted :  Von  Maurer, 
Gescliiclttc  derMiD'kcn-Vcrfassioig  in  Dnitschland  [IS'iG), 
and  other  works ;  Na.sse,  Ueber  die  mitlclnlterUche  Fchl- 
gemdnschnft  in  Knijland  (1869;  Eng.  trans.  1871); 
Laveleye,  Primiliic  Propr Hi/  (Hiig.  trans.  1878);  Maine, 
Vil!a;ie  Communities  (1871);  Seebohni,  The  J'-yu/U.^h 
Villd'ic  Communilj!  (1883);  the  'Cobden  Club  Essays,' 
Systems  of  Land  Ten  ure  ( 1870 ;  new  ed.  18,81 ) ;  Brodrick. 
Ewilish  Tjund  and  Land  Laws  (1880);  Wallace,  Laml 
Nationalisation  (1882);  Prothero,  Tite  Piomrm  and  Pro- 
gress of  ICnijiish  Farminij  (1888);  the  present  writer's 
Principhx  of  Pi'opertii  in  Land  (1880);  l\,  iM.  Garnier, 
Tlic  KniiUs'li  Landed  Interest  (WJQ)  %  Shaw  Lcfcvre, 
Aqrarian  Tenuren  (1893);  Sir  F.  Pollock,  The  Land 
Laws  (188.S;  new  ed.  1896). 

liSIIld  LrailflK'.  in  Ireland,  founded  by  Davitt 
((j.v. )  ill  ).s,9,  111  purclia.se  land  fori  be  tenants,  and 
supiuessed  ill  1881  as  illegal.      See  IlilCI.AND. 

Luiidlord  and  Teiiaiiti    I'limitive  custom 

often  recognised  two  classes  of  tenants — those 
having  lixed  rights,  wbo  were  in  some  sort  owners 
or  part  owners,  and  those  who  derived  their  rights 
from  the  grant  or  contract  of  a  superior.  The 
British  authorities  in  India  b.ive  been  compelled 
to  take  note  of  these  ]iiiniitiv(!  forms  of  tenure; 
in   Bengal  and  elsewhere  tenancv  laws  have  been 


Entail. 

Ken. 

Feudalism. 

Game  Laws. 

George,  Henry. 

Heir. 

Homestead. 

Hypothec. 

Labour. 

Slortinain. 


Political  EcoiiuniN . 

nent. 

.Sale. 

Koeialism. 

Teinds. 

Tenure. 

Tithe. 

Village  Comniunities. 

Waste  Lands. 

Will. 


fa.ssed  for  the  protection  of  cultivating  occupiers, 
n  the  Roman  law  tenancy  appears  in  two  forms. 
Loration  is  an  agreement  of  letting  and  hiring; 
the  rights  of  tlie  jiarties  are  derived  fnim  the  con- 
tract between  them.  Kniji/ii/lrusi.'i  is  tenure  in 
[lerpetnity,  or  for  a  long  term,  at  a  lixeil  rent. 
Feudalism,  as  Sir  II.  Maine  has  shown,  combines 
Konian  ideas  with  primitive  custom.  The  duniiniis 
of  liiuiiiin  law  is  a  iniv.ate  person  ;  the  (/oitiitnis  of 
I  feudal  law  is  the  political  superior  of  whom  land 
is  held.  By  the  Knglisli  common  law,  which  was 
formed  under  feudal  inlluences,  the  dominium  of 
all  lands  was  vested  in  the  king  as  lord  paramount ; 
so  that  even  a  freeholder,  holding  to  liiniself  and 
his  heirs  for  ever,  is  technically  described  as  a 
tenant  in  fee-simple.  AVIien  the  freeholder  makes 
a  formal  lease  of  his  land,  the  lessee  on  entering 
acquires  a  limited  interest  which  is  protected  by 
rules  of  common  and  statute  law.  .\  mere  con- 
tract or  agreement  for  a  lease,  not  embodied  in  a 
formal  conveyance,  creates  rights  as  between  the 
jiarties,  but  it  gives  no  interest  in  the  land  at 
common  law.  Eipiity,  however,  compels  the  les.sor 
to  fulfil  his  contract  by  executing  a  formal  lea-se. 
\  formal  lea.se  must  be  made  by  deed,  unless  it  be 
a  lease  for  three  years  or  less  at  a  rent  ecpial  to 
two-thirds  of  the  improved  value.  An  agreement 
for  a  le.ase  must  be  proved  by  writing  ;  and  the 
Stamp  Act  requires  tliat  it  should  be  stamped  as 
if  it  were  a  lease.  A  tenant  who  has  no  formal 
leiusc  or  written  agreement  to  show  is,  in  strict 
theory,  only  a  tenant  at  will  ;  but  if  his  landlonl 
■accepts  rent  from  him  he  is  entitled  to  a  reason- 
able notice  to  (piit.  The  English  courts  held  long 
ago  that  a  tenant  from  year  to  ye<ar  was  entitled 
to  six  months'  notice,  terminating  with  a  year  of 
the  tenancy,  and  the  Agricnltur.al  Hohlings  \eX 
requires  twelve  months'  notice  in  the  case  of  agri- 
cultural tenants. 

I'nder  a  lease  or  agreement,  possession  is  trans- 
ferred to  the  tenant  during  the  term  agreed.  There 
is,  on  the  landlord's  jiart,  no  iiii]died  warranty  a.s 
to  the  state  of  the  premises,  except  in  the  case  of 
a  furnished  house.  A  person  wlio  lets  a  house 
furnished  is  taken  to  warr.ant  that  it  is  in  a  habit- 
able .state.  The  landlord  usually  reserves  the  right 
to  re-enter  and  put  an  end  to  the  tenancy  in  case 
of  non-]iayiiient  of  rent  or  other  breach  of  covenant ; 
but  he  is  not  now  permitted  to  take  full  advantage 
of  such  stipulations  in  cases  where  the  tenant  is 
inepared  to  make  iiecuniary  compensation  for  his 
default.  Rent  in  ariear  may  be  recovered  by 
action,  and  also  by  the  landlord's  special  remedy, 
Di-stress  (q.v.).  If  a  tenant  fraudulently  removes 
his  goods  in  order  to  avoid  .h  distress,  the  landlord 
may,  within  tliirty  days,  seize  ami  sell  .such  ;;o(ids 
wherever  found,  unless  they  have  pii.ssed  into  the 
hands  of  a  honitjide  purchaser  for  value.  The  ten.ant 
li.as  a  light  to  assign  his  interest,  or  to  sublet  :  but 
this  light  is,  in  practice,  re.stricted  by  providing 
that  the  tenant  shall  not  ;issign  or  sublet  without 
his  landlord's  consent.  An  agrii-ultural  tenant  bad 
a  coiiiiiion-l;iw  right  ti>  ciiiblcmcnts  -  i.e.  be  might 
reap  the  crop  he  had  sown,  even  if  liis  term  e.vpired 
before  harvest;  and  now  an  Act  of  18.51  enables  a 
tenant  to  keep  pos.sessioii  till  the  end  of  the  year, 
though  the  interest  of  the  |iersoii  under  whom  he 
holds  may  have  expireil.  Extensive  powers  of  leas- 
ing li.ive  been  given  to  tenants  for  life  .and  other 
limited  owners  of  settled  land.  In  tracing  the 
changes  m.ade  by  statute  in  the  law  of  landlord 
and  tenant,  we  observe  that  feuilal  and  customary 
ide.as  have  been  giving  way  before  the  aiiplication 
of  commercial  jirinciples.  So  far  as  England  is 
concerned,  the  results  of  the  change  have  been 
good  on  the  whole.  Landlords  ,ind  farmers  have 
been  encouraged  by  tb<"  contraci  system  to  invest 
large    sums   in   buildings,   drainage,   <S;c.  ;    and  a 


LANDON 


LANDOR 


507 


larj;e  amount  of  food  is  tliiis  raised  with  a  com- 
i)aratively  small  exiu'iidituie  of  labour.  In  Ire- 
land tlie  Enu'lisli  system  has  been  widely  intro- 
duced :  Imt  the  i)ea.sant  farmei-s  liave  always  chin}; 
to  primitive  idejis  and  customary  rij;lits.  'I'hey 
regard  themselves  as  owners  of  the  laiiil,  suhject 
to  a  triliute  rent,  and  they  think  it  unjust  that 
rent  shcmld  lie  raised  liy  coni|ielition.  .See  Lajjd 
Laws,  Kkpairs. 

For  the  Enghsli  law  of  landlord  and  tenant,  see  the 
standard  work  of  M'oodfall ;  Irish  legislation  on  this 
subject  is  expounded  in  Koche  and  Kearden's  Irish  Land 
Code.  See  also  the  Report  of  the  Duke  of  Richmond's 
Commission,  presented  in  1882. 

In  tlie  law  of  Scotland  a  lease  assumes  tlie  form 
of  a  contract,  Ijinding  on  the  parties  :  and  hy  a 
statute  of  1449  leases  were  made  binding  on  sin- 
gular successors — i.e.  on  those  who  may  purchase 
from  the  lessor.  If  the  lease  be  for  more  than  a 
year  it  must  he  in  writing,  the  term  and  the  rent 
should  be  specified,  and  possession  must  be  taken 
by  ilie  tenant.  A  written  obligation  to  grant  a 
lea.se  is  equivalent  to  a  lease ;  and  an  agreement 
for  a  lease  must  be  stamped  as  a  lease.  When  the 
term  of  a  lease  has  expired  it  may  be  continued 
from  year  to  year  by  'tacit  relocation.'  The 
remedies  given  to  a  landlord  in  respect  of  rent 
have  been  restricted  liy  an  Act  of  1880,  which 
abolishes  the  right  of  hypothec  in  respect  of  any 
lan<l,  exceeding  two  acres,  let  for  agriculture  or 
pasture.  It  h;is  long  been  the  practice  of  Scotch 
proprietors  to  grant  farming  leases  for  nineteen 
years.  The  Agricultural  Holdings  Act,  1883,  is 
designed  to  give  ailequate  security  for  tenants'  capi- 
tal invested  in  improvements :  and  the  Crofters' 
Holdings  Act,  1886,  has  conferred  on  small  tenants 
in  Highland  counties  rights  somewhat  analogous 
to  the  'three  Fs.'  as  understood  in  Ireland. 

See  Hunter  on  Landlord  and  Tenant,  and  the  Reports 
ot  the  Richmond  Commission  (1882)  and  the  Crofters 
Commission  ( 1884 ). 

In  the  United  States  the  law  of  Louisiana  is 
based  on  the  civil  law ;  in  all  the  other  states 
English  principles  seem  to  have  been  adopted. 
Distress  has  been  abolished  in  some  states,  but 
the  landlord's  remeily  is  prai-tically  iireserved  to 
him  by  the  law  of  liens  ami  attachments.  In  case 
of  non-payment  of  rent  the  landlord  may  enter 
and  dispossess  the  tenant,  on  giving  him  the  notice 
required  by  law  (see  Stimsons  American  Statiilc 
Lull).  Commercial  piinciples  have  been  more 
rigiuously  apjdied  to  land  in  America  than  they 
are  in  England  or  Ireland  :  no  special  protecticm  or 
favour  lia-i  been  extended  to  agricultural  tenants. 

Landoil,  Lktitia  Euzahetii,  was  born  in 
Chelsea.  August  14,  1802.  At  an  early  age  she 
contributed  short  poems  to  the  Literary  Gazette. 
Between  the  years  1824  and  1838  she  published 
several  volumes  of  poems,  and  three  novels,  liesides 
contributing  to  '  Annuals,'  the  A'cit-  Munthlii  Maf/a- 
ziiie,  anil  the  Literari)  Gazelle.  In  1838  she  married 
y\r  Maclean,  the  governor  of  Capt;  Coast  Castle, 
ami  went  out  there  with  her  husband  at  once. 
Two  months  after  her  arrival  she  died  suddenly 
from  having  taken  an  overdose  of  tinissic  acid, 
which  she  h.ad  been  in  the  habit  of  using  as  a 
remedy  for  spasmodic  atrections  to  which  she  was 
suhject.  Her  ]>oems  and  novels,  written  under 
the  initials  '  L.  E.  L.,'show  genius,  and  were  in 
their  day  exceedingly  popular.  See  Life  and 
Literary  Hemains,  by  Laman  Ulanchard  (1841). 

Landor,  WAt-TKR  Swace,  w.as  born  at  A\'ar- 
wick,  ."iOtli  January  177').  He  was  the  chlcst  son 
by  a  second  mariiage  of  I»r  Lamlor,  a  medical  jirac- 
titioner  in  that  town.  His  mother  was  Elizabeth 
Savage,  of  a  well-known  Warwickshire  family. 
At  the  age  of  ten  he  was  sent  to  Kugby  School, 


from  which  he  was  expelled  for  insubordination. 
After  two  years  spent  with  a  private  tutor,  Lamlor, 
now  in  his  eighteenth  year,  entered  Trinity  College, 
Oxford.  -At  the  university  he  gave  further  proof 
of  his  impracticable  temper — pursuing  his  own 
independent  course  of  stuily,  and  tl;iunting  lils 
political  opinions  so  ostentatiously  as  to  gain  for 
iiimself  the  name  of  'mad  .lacobin.'  For  liring  a 
gun  into  the  room  of  a  Tory  undergraduate,  and 
absolutely  refu.sing  to  nuike  any  statement  to  the 
president,  he  was  rusticated  in  1704.  He  pub- 
lished a  volume  of  Poems  in  1795.  Keturning 
home,  he  shoitly  afterwards  quarrelled  with  his 
father,  and  left  the  liousi'  'forever.'  A  reconcilia- 
tion having  been  eli'eeted,  Landor  retired  to  South 
Wales  on  an  allowance  of  £150  a  year,  with  the 
liberty  to  live  as  he  pleased.  As  the  result  of  a 
diligent  study  of  Milton  and  Pimlar  he  jiublished 
his  Gebir  in  1798.  The  poem  found  a  few  ardent 
admirers,  and  was  the  occasion  of  bis  lifehmg 
friendship  with  Soutliey  ;  but  it  failed,  as  it  has 
done  ever  since,  to  find  acceptance  with  the 
majoi-ity  of  those  interested  in  jioetry. 

tin  the  death  of  his  father  in  1805  Land(n-  settled 
in  Bath,  where  his  style  of  living  went  beyond  even 
his  now  considerable  income.  In  1808,  with  a  band 
of  volunteers  raised  at  his  own  expense,  be  went 
to  Sjiain  to  assist  in  the  emancipation  of  that 
country  from  the  yoke  of  Xapoleon  Bonaparte. 
The  following  year  he  purchased  the  estate  of 
Llanthony  in  South  Wales,  where  he  mainly  lived 
till  1814.  Landor  had  bought  the  estate  with  the 
intention  of  doing  all  in  his  jiower  for  the  good  of 
his  tenants  and  the  neighbourhood  in  general. 
Before  long,  however,  he  quarrelled  all  round  with 
his  neighbours  and  his  tenantry  alike,  and  adminis- 
tered his  afl'airs  with  so  little  judgment  that  ruin 
stared  him  in  the  face.  In  1811  he  had  married 
Miss  Thuillier,  a  step  he  took  in  the  true  Landorian 
manner,  after  a  casual  meeting  with  the  lady  at 
a  liall.  The  utiion  proved  an  ill-assorted  one, 
and  in  1814  he  quitted  her  and  cros.sed  to  F' ranee. 
Throughout  all  his  domestic  troubles  Landor, 
who  had  in  singtilar  clegree  the  faculty  of  for- 
getting the  actual  cares  of  life,  had  ne\er  ceased 
to  occupy  himself  with  literature.  The  most 
notable  production  of  this  period  is  his  tragedy  of 
Count  Julian,  which  De  (|luincey  has  jiraised  in 
the  strongest  terms,  but  which  the  maj<irity  even 
of  Lander's  admirers  find  defective  in  all  the  quali- 
ties indispensable  to  a  successful  drama. 

After  a  short  sojourn  in  Tours  Landor,  accom- 
panied by  his  wife,  who  had  rejoined  him,  pro- 
ceeded to  Italy,  where,  living  in  succession  at 
Como,  Pisa,  and  Fhuence,  he  remained  till  18.15, 
with  the  exception  of  a  short  visit  to  England.  To 
this  ])eriod  belongs  the  best  known  of  all  his  works, 
the  Iniiiiiinarii  I'lmrrrsalinns,  ,a  first  instalment  of 
which  was  jmlilislied  in  England  in  I8:{|.  A  second 
quarrel  with  his  wife  in  1835  led  to  liis  return  to 
England,  where  he  settled  in  liath  till  1858.  Dur- 
ing these  years  Landor  wrote  much  in  prose  and 
ver.se.  As  the  most  .solid  contributions  to  his  f.ame 
should  be  specially  mentioned  the  E.raminalio)! 
of  Sliakenpeare  (1834),  the  J'entaiiieron  (1837), 
Perirles  anil  Aftjtasiei.  and  his  llellenies.  The 
writing  of  Latin  verse  li.ad  from  Landor's  youth 
been  one  of  his  .serious  occupations,  and  in  1847 
he  ptiblished  a  collection  of  his  Latin  poems  under 
the  title  of  I'ormata  et  luseri/ilione.i.  In  1858  an 
uidiajqiy  scandal  (see  T)ri/  Stieks  Fatjolri/,  by  W. 
S.  Landor),  which  involved  him  in  an  action 
for  libel,  again  forced  him  to  make  his  home  in 
Italy.  .After  an  unsiu'ccssfnl  attempt  to  live 
with  his  family  in  Florence,  by  the  advice  and 
assistance  of  friends,  chief  among  whmn  was 
Browning,  he  took  rooms  by  himself  in  that  city. 
Here,    with    health    and    faculties    in    wonderful 


508 


LANDRAIL 


LANDSHUT 


preservation,  visited  '>y  men  who  have  since  lieoome 
lamous  in  literature  and  art,  Lamlor  lived  till  his 
death  on  17th  Sojiteinlier  1864,  jissiduoush-  compos- 
in-;  to  the  last  both  in  ]irose  and  verse. 

liy  liis  sinf;ularly  imjiosinp;  personal  appearance, 
his  iin|ii'rioMs  will,  and  his  massive  int('llij;once,  this 
'unsulidnalilo  oM  Uoman.'  as  Carlylc  called  him, 
was  one  of  the  most  ori^'inal  tij.Mm's  anions  his  con- 
temporaries. .-V  hrief  record  of  I,andor's  life  perhaps 
unduly  emiihasises  the  least  attractive  aspect  of  his 
character.  Irrational  in  the  hifrliest  degree  in  the 
everyday  conduct  of  life,  he  yet  ins]>ire(l  all'ection 
and  esteem  in  men  whose  opinions  cannot  ho  <lis- 
regarded.  Southcy  and  Francis  and  .lulius  Hare 
were  his  friends  of  many  years"  standint;,  an<l  in  the 
latter  ]>art  of  his  life,  .loiin  Forster  (afterwards  his 
biogr.apher),  Charles  Dickens,  and  others  all  testify 
to  the  essential  nobility  of  his  character.  By  a 
narrow  circle  of  admirers  Lan<lor  is  ranked  with 
the  <jreat  names  of  Euslish  literature.  In  the 
scul|itures(|ue  severity  of  his  verse  they  find  a 
perfect  reproductiim  of  the  finest  work  of  the 
ancients.  His  prose  they  place  even  higher  than 
his  verse,  asserting  that  a  judicious  selection  from 
the  IiiKif/iiinr//  C'oiin'nr(tin)is  wmM  he  'one  of  the 
most  beautiful  books  in  the  language — that  is  to 
say,  in  the  world.'  For  the  majority  even  of  culti- 
vated readers,  however,  Landor  holds  by  no  means 
so  supreme  a  pl.acc  either  as  a  poet  or  writer  of 
prose  ;  and  the  very  subordinate  place  assigned  to 
him  in  every  histcny  of  literature  clearly  marks 
where  he  stands  in  the  .aggregate  oi)inion  of  his 
countrymen.  While  it  is  admitted  that  there  are 
'.shining  elevations'  in  all  his  work,  the  general 
impression  seems  to  be  that  his  form,  .alike  in  his 
prose  .and  verse,  is  essentially  artificial  and  facti- 
tious, .and  that  the  subject-matter  of  both  is  l.irg(dy 
vitiated  by  the  same  irrationality  which  displayed 
itself  so  grotesfpiely  at  every  period  of  his  life. 

See  torstor,  Lt'/r  find  Wnrk-.'i  of  Lanilnr ;  Sidney 
Colvin,  jAnttltir  (*  English  Men  of  Letters'  scries) ;  Mrs 
Lynn  Linton,  Mem inisc( arcs  of  Landor  {Frasrr'x  Mnii., 
July  1870);  Lonl  Hdugliton,  Mmmimphs ;  H.  Wheeler, 
Lcttcra  and  UnjuiUt.s/ifd  Writiiii/a  of  Landor  {l.SI)7); 
Swinburne,  Jlim-i-l/anirit.  Mr  Jioythorii,  in  Jiifitk  Lfonai^ 
embodies  Dickens's  inipression.s  of  Landor  '  with  his 
intellectual  greatness  left  out.' 

Landrail.    See  Coex-crake. 

Laiul.shei'g'.  a  town  in  the  Prussian  [irovince 
of  ]{randenl)\irg,  on  the  Warthe,  80  miles  by  rail 
NNF,.  of  lic'rlin.  Its  industrial  establishments 
incluile  sawmills,  m.achine-works,  breweries,  dis- 
tilleries, i*s.c.  ;  there  is  .a  large  trade  in  timber. 
Pop.  (  18S.5) -Ji.SOO;  (IS!).'.)  30,483. 

liaildsrapc-sardciliim'  <leals  with  the  dis- 
|)ositii>n  of  ground,  water,  buildings,  trees  and 
other  plants  which  go  to  the  eomposilinn  of  venl.int 
land.scape.  Such  in  a  bro.ad  sense  is  tlie  diilinition 
of  the  art  ;  for  it  may  be  employed  to  create  a 
beautiful  and  harmonious  scene  wliere  only  nature 
in  barren  wildness  reigned  before,  or  to  merely 
imjjrove  and  adapt  existing  natural  beauties  and 
resources  to  the  rei|uirements  of  taste  and  conveni- 
ence. I.andsea|ic-ganlening  has  been  |iractiseil 
from  the  earliest  ilawn  of  civilisation,  but  little  of  .a 
reliable  kind  is  known  of  the  style  or  features  of 
the  gardens  of  the  .lews,  the  Phomicians,  As.syrians, 
or  even  those  of  the  ancient  Greeks.  All  that  we 
learn  from  (Jreek  writers  respecting  the  charac'ter 
of  their  gardens  is  that  they  all'oided  slnide,  co<d- 
ness,  repose,  fri'shness,  .and  fr.agrauee.  The  (ireeks 
cultivated  the  sister  art  of  architecture  so  well  as 
somewhat  to  neglect  gardening  -.  hence  Lord  li.acon's 
remark  in  his  JCsmii/  on  Gardens,  that  '  when  ages 
gi"o\v  to  civility  .and  elegance,  men  come  to  build 
stately  sooner  than  to  garden  finely,'  as  if  garden- 
ing were  the  greater  perfection. 


The  Romans  introduced  landscape-gar<lening 
into  Uritain  ;  but  the  art  was  lost  when  the 
country  was  abaiuhuied  by  them  to  the  Saxons. 
As,  however,  it  had  meantime  been  fo.stered  in 
Fr.ance,  it  w.as  probal)ly  reintroduced  by  the 
Normans.  Henry  I.,  .according  to  Henry  of  Htint- 
ing<lon  (lli.sl.  lib.  vii.),  hail  a  park  (hdhildliiiiirm 
firfirtiin)  at  \Voodstock,  and  it  is  conjectured  th.at 
this  park  may  have  surrounded  .a  m.agnilicent 
Roman  vill.a,  the  ruins  of  which— covering  about  6 
.acres  in  extent — were  discovered  (Ui  the  I'denheim 
estates  early  in  the  lOth  centuiy.  If  the  conjec- 
ture is  well  founded,  Blenheim  m.ay  be  regarded 
as  the  most  ancient  site  .as  well  as  the  granilest 
ex.ample  of  landscape-gardening  in  lirit.ain — .accord- 
ing to  many,  it  is  the  grandest  in  Kuropc.  William 
Kent  (lUS-t-1748)  an<i  L.ancelol  Brown  (171.'j  83), 
better  known  as  't'apability  Brown,'  may  be  ccm- 
sidered  as  the  foumlers  of  modern  English  land- 
scapeganlening.  See  works  by  Loudon  (1,8'22), 
Repton  (1840),  F.  R.  Elliott  (1878),  and  H.  E. 
Milner  (  1890). 

Laiidsoer,  Siii  Edwin  IIrxry,  an  English 
animal-painter,  son  of  the  engraver  .John  Landseer, 
A.E.R.A.  (1709-1.852),  w.as  born  in  London,  7th 
March  1802.  He  was  carefully  trained  by  his 
father  to  sketch  .animals  from  life,  and  beg.an 
exhibiting  at  the  Royal  .Ac.a<lemy  when  oidy  thir- 
teen :  but  the  first  work  that  brought  him  promi- 
nently licfoie  the  pulilic  w.as  'Fighting  I>ogs  get- 
ting Wind,'  exhibited  in  1818.  Down  to  about 
1823  he  w.as  content  to  reproduce  the  natur.al 
expression  and  ch.aracter  of  animals;  after  that 
d.ate  his  .anim.al  pieces  are  gener.ally  made  sub- 
servient to  some  sentiment  or  idea,  without,  how- 
ever, losing  their  correctness  .and  force  of  diaughts- 
m.anshi]).  Dogs  and  <leer  were  his  favourite  and 
best  sulijects;  the  scene  of  several  fine  ]iictui-es  is 
laid  in  the  Highlands  of  Scotland,  which  he  first 
visited  in  1824.     In  LS26  he  waselected  an  .V.  I!..\.,  in 


1830  an  R.A.,  and  in  18.50  w.as 


udited. 


Amon^ 

his  most  celebrated  pictures  are  '  'I'lie  Cat's  Paw, 
'The  Illicit  Whisky-still,'  'High  Life  and  Low 
Life,'  'King  Charles  Spaniels,'  '.lack  in  Olliee,' 
'Suspense,'  'Bolton  .\bbey,'  'Highland  Shepherd's 
Chiei  .Mourner,'  '  Dignity  and  Impudence,'  '  I'c.ace 
and  War,'  '  Laying  down  the  Law,'  '  The  ( 'liallenge,' 
'The  Sanctuary,'  'Monarch  of  the  (ilen,'  'Stag  at 
Bay,''Th('  Random  Shot,'  'Night  and  Morning,' 
'  The  Cliihlren  of  the  Mist,'  '  Deerstalking,'  '  Flood 
in  the  Highlands,'  'Man  Piopo.scs,  but  Cod  dis- 
|)oses,'  and  'Swannery  invaded  by  .Sea-eagles.' 
The  bronze  lions  at  the  foot  of  Nidson's  Monument 
in  Trafalgar  Sipi.are,  London,  were  modelled  by 
him.  Land.secr  w.as  elected  president  of  the  Uoyal 
Academy  in  l.SOU,  but  declined  the  honour.  The 
last  <lozen  years  of  his  life  were  clouded  by  inueh 
mental  suliering,  .and  he  died  October  1,  187.3. 
He  is  buried  in  St  Paul's.  Most  of  Landsi'cr's  best 
pictures  arc  well  known  from  the  excellent  engniv- 
ings  of  tliem  done  by  his  elder  brother  TlloM.XS 
(1790  1880).  Anothel-  brother,  ClI.MiUCS  (1799- 
1S79),  was  a  painter  of  historical  scenes.  .See 
LcDx/sccr  by  F.  C.  Stephens  (1880),  ami  Loftie's 
Laiidaeer  mid  Aiiiiiiril  I'liinliiiij  (1891 ). 

Land's  Lnd.    See  Cornwall. 

liandslint,  a  picturesque  town  of  I'pper 
Bavaria,  <mi  the  Isar,  44  miles  by  rail  NE.  of 
Munich.  Of  its  eleven  clmrches,  St  Martin's  ( 1477) 
has  a  stci'ple  430  feet  high.  The  castle  of  'I'laus- 
nitz  (c.  1'.'32)  was  jiartially  restored  in  1872  74. 
L.andshul  has  .several  breweries,  numufactories  of 
tob.aeeo,  wagons,  hats,  \c.,  and  .an  active  trade 
in  corn.  The  Dominican  monastery  (1271)  was 
the  seat  of  the  uidversity,  removed  hither  from 
Ingolst.adt  in  1800,  and  transferred  to  Munich  in 
18'2(5.     During  the  Thirty  Years'  War  and  the  war 


LANDSKNECHT 


LANE 


509 


of  tlie  Austiiivn  succession  Lanilslint  was  several 
times  caiitureil  ;  auil  here  on  16th  April  1S()9  the 
Austrians  ilrove  haik  the  lia\arians,  Imt  were  in 
turn  (lefeateil  bv  Napoleon  live  days  later.  I'op. 
(ISToi  14,780:  "  (ISSo)  17,873.  See  works  by 
■Wiesen.I  ( 1S,")S  7S)  and  Kaleher  ( 1887). 

LUIMlskllOCllt.      See  FlIEE  L.\XCES. 

LaiKlskruua.  a  seaport  of  Sweden,  stands  on 
the  Soiiuil,  lli  miles  NNE.  from  Cojienliaj^en.  It 
ha.s  a  good  harbour,  carrie.-^  on  su;,'arielininj;,  An\t- 
buildim,',  ami  the  manulaclure  of  toliaeco  ami 
leather,  e.\port.s  considerable  corn  and  butter,  and 
imports  raw  siijjar,  coal,  anil  grain.  Fop.  (1875) 
9084;  (1888)  20.354.  The  town  was  a  fortress 
down  to  1870.  Opposite  Landskrona  in  the  Sound 
lies  the  island  of  Hveni,  on  which  Tycho  IJrahe 
built  his  observatory  of  tlranieuborg. 

Laildslips,  large  portions  of  land  which  from 
some  cause  have  become  detached  from  their 
original  |)osition,  and  slid  down  to  a  lower  level. 
They  are  especially  commiui  in  volcanic  districts, 
where  the  tremlding  of  the  earth  that  frequently 
accompanies  the  eruption  of  a  volcano  is  sufficient 
to  split  oti'  large  portions  of  mountains,  which  slide 
down  to  the  jdains  below.  Water,  however,  is  the 
chief  agent  in  producing  landslips.  It  operates  in 
various  ways.  The  most  common  method  is  «hen 
water  insinuates  it.self  into  minute  cracks,  which 
are  wiilened  and  deepene<l  by  its  freezing  in  winter. 
AVhen  the  tissure  becomes  sutticiently  deej),  on 
the  melting  of  the  ice  a  rock-fall  or  landslip  is 
produced.  Sometimes,  when  the  strata  are  very 
much  inclined,  and  rest  on  an  impermeable  bed 
like  clay,  the  water  which  percolates  down  through 
the  more  porous  rocks  above  softens  the  clay, 
which  becomes  sli|)perv,  whereupon  the  superin- 
cumbent ma.ss  slides  over  it  to  a  lower  level.  This 
took  place  on  a  large  scale  in  Dorsetshire  between 
Lyme  and  Axminster  in  1839,  an  unusually  wet 
season  ;  a  nia.ss  of  chalk  ami  greensand  here  slid 
over  the  slipi>ery  surface  of  a  bed  of  liassic  clay 
down  into  the  sea.  Of  a  like  kiml  were  the  slip  of 
the  Hossberg.  in  Switzerland,  in  isoii  (see  GoLD.\u), 
and  that  which  overwhelmed  the  village  of  Elm, 
in  Glarus,  in  September  1881,  when  al)oul  200  lives 
were  lost.  Another  notable  landsliji  was  that  of 
the  Bocca  di  Brenta  in  south-we.st  Tyrol  in  the 
year  following ;  and  at  Zug  in  1887  a  landslip 
carried  twenty-seven  houses,  with  ele\en  persons. 
into  the  lake.  Landslips  of  a  ditl'erent  kind 
have  been  produced  in  peat-mosses,  which,  be- 
coming by  heavy  rains  thoroughly  saturated  with 
water,  have  burst  their-  natural  boundaries  and 
discharged  themselves  on  a  lower  level.  The 
most  remarkable  ciise  of  this  kind  is  that  of  the 
Solway  Moss,  which  in  1772,  owing  to  rains, 
spread  it.self  in  a  ileluge  of  black  mud  over 
400  acres  of  cultivated  lields.  In  1880  a  nmst 
<lestructive  landslip  occurred  at  Xaini  Tal,  a 
health-resort  on  the  southern  slopes  of  the  Hima- 
layas. The  town  wa.s  partly  built  on  a  gieat  slop- 
ing terrace  of  shaly  deposit  overhanging  the  lake, 
anil  this  becoming  saturated  with  the  heavy 
autumn  rains,  it  suddenly  slij)ped  forward,  burying 
many  houses  in  its  ilebri.s.  Forty  Euro])eans  and 
from"  lUO  to  200  natives  lost  their  lives.     See  Boo. 

Land-siirvi'jiiiK,    See  Sukvevin(;. 

Lail(l\v«'lir  ('Land-defence'),  a  military  force 
in  the  (Jcrman  and  Austrian  ein|)ires,  forming  an 
army  reserve,  but  not  always  retained  under  arms. 
Its  menil>ers,  although  can-  is  taken  that  they  are 
sulliclently  e.xercised,  .spend  most  of  their  time  in 
civil  pursuits  during  peace,  and  are  called  out  for 
nnlitarv  service  only  in  times  of  war  or  of  com- 
molioti.  (During  the  agrarian  clisturbance.s  in 
Galicia  in  1890  the  Laiidwehr  was  employed  for  the 
first    time  against   tiie   pea.sant  labour  movement.) 


The  Pnis.sian  system  of  land-defence  was  called 
into  existence  in  1813,  when  the  Landwehr  was 
organised  according  to  Scharnhorsts  plan.  At 
lirst  it  was  designe<l  solely  as  a  land-defence, 
properly  so  called,  ami  not,  what  is  now  the  case, 
its  an  integral  jiart  of  the  regular  army.  Every 
German  capable  of  bearing  arms,  after  serving  in 
the  standing  army  for  seven  years,  now  has  to 
enter  the  Landwehr,  and  remain  in  it  for  other  live 
yeai-s.  In  exceptional  cases  the  Landwehr  may 
be  tilled  up  from  the  Landsturm,  which  is  not 
reckoned  |)art  of  the  army,  and  is  called  out  only 
in  the  event  of  invasion  :  in  both  tiermany  and 
Austria  it  embraces  men  u]i  to  the  age  of  forty- 
two  (in  Austria,  for  retired  otficer.s,  till  sixty).  For 
the  period  of  service  in  the  Austrian  Landwehr, 
.see  Akmy,  Vol.  1.  p.  436. 

Laiio,  Ed\vard  AVilliaji,  the  most  eminent 
of  English  Arabic  scholars,  aiul  the  well-known 
translator  of  the  Arabian  Nigld.s,  was  the  son  of 
the  Kev.  Theophilus  Lane,  LL.  D.,  prebendary  of 
Hereford,  and  his  wife,  Sophia  (Gardiner,  a  niece 
of  Gainsborough  the  painter,  and  was  born  17th 
September  1801.  After  education  at  the  grammar- 
schools  of  Bath  and  Hereford,  he  began  life,  like 
his  brother  Bichard  (i|.v. ),  as  an  engraver;  but  the 
need  of  a  warmer  climate  took  him  to  Eg>])t,  and 
with  that  country  the  whole  of  his  sulisequent 
work  was  connected.  The  result  of  his  first  ( 1825-28 ) 
and  second  (1833-35)  visits  to  Egypt  wjis  his 
Manners  and  Customs  of  the  Modern  Egyptians 
(1836;  5th  ed.  1871),  a  work  immediately  recog- 
nised ;is  of  unrivalleil  accuracy  and  completeness, 
and  still  the  standard  authority  on  the  subject. 
This  was  followed  bv  the  translation  of  the  Thou- 
sand  and  One  Xi(//its  (1838-40:  2d  ed.  18.59,  and 
many  reprints),  which  was  the  lirst  accurate  render- 
ing of  the  tales,  and  (though  necessarily  abridged, 
on  account  of  the  olijectionable  nature  of  some  of 
the  incidents)  is  still  the  standard  library  edition. 
The  numerous  and  instructive  notes  on  Moham- 
med.an  life,  literature,  and  .superstition  apiiended 
to  the  translation  have  been  separately  issued 
under  the  title  of  Arabian  Soeietij  in  the  Middle 
Ages  (1883).  -A.  volume  of  iScleetions  from  the 
Koran  appeared  in  1843  (2d  ed.  1879).  Lane's 
third  visit  to  Egypt  (1842-49)  was  devoted  to 
laborious  preparation  for  the  great  work  of  his 
life,  the  limbic  Lrxicon.  for  which  his  extra- 
ordinary familiarity  witli  the  Aiabic  language  and 
literature  and  his  intimacy  with  the  learned  of 
Cairo  peculiarly  fitted  him.  The  cost  of  this  vast 
undertaking  was  borne  by  the  fourth  Duke  of 
Northumberland  and  afterwards  by  his  widow. 
Lane  toiled  without  cessation  for  twenty  yeai-s, 
with  the  zeal  of  a  Scaliger,  before  he  began  print- 
ing, and  then  his  lirst  five  ipiarto  volumes  came 
out  ( 1863-74).  The  Lexieun  was  instantly  accepted 
thnnighout  Europe  as  the  supreme  authority.  He 
died  at  Worthing,  10th  August  1876,  before  com- 
pleting it,  but  the  publicatiim  of  the  remaining 
portions  wiis  carried  on  (1876  90)  by  his  grand- 
nephew,  S.  Lane-I'ocde.  In  recognition  of  his 
unwearied  devotion  to  le:irning  he  received  a  Civil 
List  pension  ;  the  French  Institute  in  1804  elected 
him  a  correspondent  :  and  he  was  made  a  Doctor 
of  Literature  at  the  tercentenary  of  the  University 
of  Leyden.  bee  S.  Lane-I'oole,  Life  of  Edward 
Williant  Lane  {IS'~). 

Lane,  Kich.vkd  James,  engraver  and  litho- 
gia])hic  artist,  elder  brother  of  the  preceding,  was 
born  in  1800,  and  traineil  as  an  engraver  by  Charles 
Heath  so  successfully  that  at  the  age  of  twenty- 
seven  he  Wius  chosen  an  A.I!..\.,  jiartly  lui  the 
strength  of  a  fine  engraving  after  Lawrence. 
Litliography,  however,  was  just  tlien  coming  in, 
and   Lane  abandoneil   engraving  in   favour  of  the 


510 


LANERCOST 


LANGENSALZA 


new  art,  in  wliich  'he  displayed  a  dignity  and 
refinement  of  expression  and  an  instinctive  sym- 
pathy with  his  originals  which  have  never  been 
equalled.'  His  pencil  was  so  delicate  that  his 
lithographs  have  often  been  mistaken  at  the 
first  glance  for  line  engravings.  As  a  draughts- 
man in  pencil  or  chalk  he  was  very  successful. 
In  1820  he  executed  an  excellent  profile  of  tlie 
Princess  \'ictoria,  then  ten  yeai-s  of  age,  and  he 
afterwards  made  portraits  of  most  of  the  meni- 
bei-s  of  the  royal  tamily,  and  w;vs  ajipointed  litho- 
grapher to  the  Queen  "and  Prini-e  Consort.  His 
best  lithographs  (wliich  number  more  than  athou- 
sand)  include  Lawrence's  cycle  of  (leorge  IV.,  his 
own  grand-uncle  Gainsborough's  sketches,  and 
many  works  of  Leslie,  Landseer,  and  G.  Richmond. 
He  wiis  also  no  mean  sculptor,  and  attracted 
Chantrey's  hearty  admiration  by  such  modelling 
as  his  life-size  figure  of  his  brother  Edward.  In 
his  last  years  he  directed  the  etchini'-class  at  the 
South  Kensington  Art  Schools.  He  died  aist 
November  1872.     See  .Vag.  of  Art,  August  188L 

LanerCOSt,  an  Augustinian  priory,  founded 
about  1169,  lies  in  the  valley  of  the  Irthing,  16 
miles  NE.  of  Carlisle.  It  is  partly  in  ruins  :  but 
the  nave  has  been  restored  and  is  now  used  as 
a  parish  church.  The  Lanercost  C/irouide,  1201- 
1346,  a  valuable  source  for  Border  history,  was 
really  written,  not  at  Lanercost,  but  at  Carlisle. 
It  was  edited  in  1SS9  by  Joseph  Stevenson  for  the 
Bannatyne  and  Maitland  Clubs.  Naworth  Castle, 
1  mile '  S.  of  the  priory,  is  associated  with  the 
'  Belted  Will  Howard '  of  Scott's  Lay  of  the  Last 
Minstrel;  it  contains  old  armour,  tapestry,  &c. 
See  R.  S.  Ferguson's  Lanercost  (1870). 

LaiirrailC,  tlie  first  archbishop  of  Canterbury 
after  the  Norman  Conquest,  was  born  at  Pavia 
about  1005,  and  educated  at  Pavia  for  the  law. 
About  1039,  however,  he  left  Italy,  and  founded  a 
school  of  law  at  .\vranches,  which  soon  became  one 
of  the  most  po)iular  in  France.  Three  years  later 
he  took  the  monastic  vows  at  the  Benedictine 
monastery  of  Bee,  and  in  1046  wiis  chosen  its 
prior.  He  figured  prominently  in  the  Berengarian 
controversy  as  to  the  real  presence,  ranging  him- 
self against  Berengarius.  About  1053  he  came 
into  close  contact  with  William  of  Xormandy. 
Although  he  at  first  condemned  this  j)rince's  mar- 
riage with  his  cousin,  he  afterwards  (lO.iO)  went 
personally  to  Rome  to  procure  the  papal  disj)ensa- 
tion  for  it.  As  a  reward  for  this  service  William 
made  him  piior  of  his  new  foundation,  the  abbey 
of  St  Steiihen  at  t.'aen  ( 1(«)2).  and  in  1070  iironioted 
him  to  the  jirimacy  of  England  by  nuiking  him 
Archbislio])  of  Canterbury  in  place  of  the  (Icposed 
Stigand.  Lanfranc  still  continued  to  be  Williain's 
trusty  adviser,  helping  him  both  to  fill  the  English 
sees  with  Normans  ami  to  nuike  the  royal  power 
supreme  above  that  of  the  church.  He  died  in 
May  1089,  leaving  commentaries,  sermons,  letters, 
ami  a  work  against  Berengar  (ed.  1648  and  1844). 
See  Hook's  Luxs  of  the  Arc/ibislio/>s. 

Lailfrey,  Pikkke  (1828-77),  author,  born  at 
Chariiberv,"  wrote  on  the  church  and  the  philo- 
sophers (1855),  es.s.ays  on  the  Revolution,  and  a 
history  of  the  popes;  but  is  best  known  for  Jijs 
famous  (  hostile)  Ilistoire  de  Kajiulcon  I.  ( 1867-75  ; 
8th  ed.  1875;  trans.  1872-80).  He  wius  successively 
moderate  republican  deputy,  ambassador  to  Swit- 
zerland, ;uh1  senator. 

Laii;;.  .Vndkkw,  a  remarkably  versatile  writer, 
wjis  born  at  Selkirk,  March  :ji,  1844,  and  was 
educated  at  Edinburgh  Academy,  St  Andrews 
University,  and  Balliol  ('(dlege,  Oxford.  He  to(d< 
a  classical  first-class,  and  was  elected  Fellow  of 
Merton  College  in  1868.  Ere  long  he  plunged 
into  the  sea  of   literature,  and   soon  became  one 


of  the  busiest  as  well  as  the  brightest  writers  in 
the  world  of  London   journalism.     He  treats  the 
most  varied  subjects  with  the  same  light,  humorous 
touch,  and  he  touches  nothing  which  he  doe-s  not 
adorn,   although  on  serious  themes  he  sometimes 
falls  short  of  the  sericmsness  that  his  reader  has  a 
right  to  expect.     He  hius  taken  a  forenn)st  part  in 
tlfe  controversy  with  Max  iliiller  and  his  school 
about  the  inteVpretation   of   mythology  and  folk- 
tales, and  it  may  safely  be  said  that  to  his  brilliant 
polenuc  have  fallen  most  of  the  honours  of  the  field. 
He  was  made  LL.U.  of  St  Andrews  in  18S5,  ami  in 
1888  was  elected  the  first  Gitt'ord  lecturer  at  that 
university.       His    chief    books    are    Uallads    and 
L  i/rics  of  Old  France  ( 1872 ),  Ballades  in  Bine  China 
(1880),  Helen  of  Troy  (1882),  Myme^  a  la  Mode 
(1884),  Grass  of  Parnassus  (1888),  and  Ballades  of 
Books   (1888),    volumes   of   far  more  than   merely 
graceful    verse;    Custom    and    Mi/t/t    (1884),    and 
Mi/th,  Ritual,  and  Ilcliffion  (2  vols.  1887),  a  solid 
contribution   to  the  study  of   the  philosophy  and 
religion  of  primitive  man.   written   with  unusual 
directness  and  vigour,  and  lightened  up  by  a  wealth 
of   felicitous   ilbustration.     Admirably   clever   and 
entertaining   volumes,    on    subjects   ranging   from 
pure  literature,  as  well   as  folklore  and  iirimitive 
religion,   down    to   the   by-\vays  of   bibliographei-s 
and  gossip  of  the  ilay,  are  The  Library  (1881 ),  In 
the  n'ronr/  Paradise  (1886),  Books  and  Bookmen 
(1886),    Letters   to   Dead  Atdhors  (1886),   Letters 
on    Literature   (1889),   Lost    Leaders  (1889),    Old 
Friends:  Essays  in  Ejiiitolary  Parody  (1890).     He 
tianslateil  wilii  exquisite  skill  Aucassin  and  A /cu- 
lette  (1887),   produced  the  faultless  edition  of  Per- 
laulfs  Popular  Talcs  ( 1888),  and  selected  the  fairy- 
tales forming  the  Blue  Fairi/  Book  ( ISS9),  the  Atio 
Fairy  Book,  &c.      He  himself  translated  Theocritus, 
Bion,  andMoschus  (1880) :  and  shared  (with  Butcher, 
Leaf,  and  Myers)  in    brilliant  translations  of    the 
Odi/ssci/   and    the    Iliad.       He    was   edit(U-   of    the 
'  Ahbo'tsfor.l '  Scott ;  wrote  a  history  of  ^t  Andreas 
(1893).  a  novel.   The  Monk  of  Fife  (1895),  an  edi- 
tion of   Burns's  poems  (1896i),  a   Life  of  Lockhart 
(1896),  Pickle  the  ii>;/ ( 1897),  and   Prince  Charles 
Edirard  ( 1900 ).     He  contributed  Brii-N.S  and  SCOTT 
to  this  Eniyclopa'dia. 

Lanse.  Friedrich  Albert,  philosopher,  was 
bom  at  Wald,  near  Solingen,  28tli  September  1828, 
and  died  at  Marburg,  23d  November  1875.  He 
wrote  a  most  valuable  History  (f  MatcrialisM 
(Eng.  trans,  by  Thomius,  3  vols.  1878-81). 

Lailge,  Joil.\NN  Petkr,  theologian,  bora  10th 
Ainil  181)2,  at  Sonnborn,  near  Elberfeld,  studied  at 
Bonn,  aiul  after  holding  several  prustoral  charges 
became  professor  of  Theology  at  Zurich  in  1841, 
and  in  18.54  at  Bonn,  where  he  died,  9th  July  1884. 
He  wrote  many  works,  of  which  the  best  known 
are  a  Life  of  Jesus  Christ  (1839:  Eng.  trans,  by 
Marcus  "Dods),  treatises  on  dogmatics  (1849-52), 
Christian  ethics  (1878),  hermeneutics,  tlieoh)gical 
psNchology,  and  his  great  Bibchrcrk,  a  sern-s  of 
commentaries  on  the  gospels  (trans,  into  Englis^h), 
and,  with  other  scholai-s,  on  the  wliide  Old  and  New 
Testaments  (also  trans,  into  English). 

Lail^olaiul  (i.e.  'long  land'),  a  low,  fertile 
Danish  island,  .33  miles  long  by  5  broad,  situated 
at  the  .southern  entrance  to  the  Great  Belt,  be- 
tween Fiineii  and  Laaland.  Area,  106  sq.  m.  ; 
pop.  (1880)  19,9(K).  Princii)al  products— corn,  llax, 
cattle,  timber,  fish.  Chief  town,  Rudkjobing  (  poi). 
3179).  on  tin-  west  coast. 

Lail!i»'lisal/a,  a  town  of  the  Pins.sian  orovince 
of  Saxony,  13  miles  l.v  rail  N.  by  W.  of  (lotlia,  with 
a  pop.  of "( 1885)  10.924,  and  woollen  ami  cloth  manu- 
factures. Here  occurred,  on  27th  .Iniie  1866,  an 
encounter  between  19,0(H)  Hanoverians  and  8200 
Prussians;   the   latter  were  at  first  defeated,   but 


LANGHOLM 


LANGTON 


511 


beintr  reinforced  compelled  tfie  fovmer  to  capitulate 
two  ilays*  later.  Not  far  from  the  town  is  a  sulphur 
spring;  that  attracts  600  visitors  annually. 

Langholm,  a  market-town  of  Dumfriesshire,  at 
the  junction  of  Ewes  aud  Wauchope  Waters  with 
the  Esk,  23  miles  SSW.  of  Hawick,  aud  •>-2  (by  a 
luanohlinc)  N.  of  Carlisle.  Near  the  town-hall  is 
a  niarlile  statue  of  Adjuiral  Sir  I'ulteney  Malcolm 
(171W-1S3S),  and  on  Wliite  Hill  an  obelisk  to  his 
l)rotlier,  General  Sir  John  Malcolm  ( lTtilJ-lS33  ). 
Shepherd's  plaid  and  tweeds  have  been  numu- 
factui-ed  since  1832.  In  1890  Thomas  Hope,  a 
New  York  merchant  and  native  of  Langholm,  left 
£80,000  to  found  a  hospital  here.  Langholm  is  a 
burgh  of  barony  (1643),  under  the  Duke  of  Buc- 
cleuch.  whose  seat,  Langholm  Lodge,  is  close  by. 
On  the  site  of  the  town  the  Douglases  were  de- 
feated in  the  battle  of  Arkinholni  (1-155).  Pop. 
( 1831 )  2-2IH ;  ( ISSl )  4209  ;  ( 1891 )  3t)43. 

Lauglioruo,  John  (1735-79),  for  a  time 
rector  of  Ulagdon  in  Somerset,  devoted  most  of 
his  life  to  literature,  and  published  a  long  series 
of  ]H)ems,  tales,  translations,  &C.  He  is  best 
known  ;is  having,  with  his  brother  AVilliam 
(1721-77),  produced  what  has  always  ranked  as 
the  standard  translation  of  Plutarch. 

Laiiskat,  or  L.vxkh.vt,  a  port  on  the  east  coast 
of  the  NW.  part  of  Sumatra,  uear  the  borders  of 
Atcheeu,  is  famed  for  its  wells  aud  shipments  of 
petroleum. 

Lailglaiul.  or  Langley.  AVilli.vm,  the  sup- 
posed name  of  the  author  of  Piers  the  P/otvinan,  of 
whose  life  some  few  facts  have  been  constructed 
from  the  internal  evidence  ollered  by  the  poem, 
mainly  by  the  industry  of  Profes.sor  Skeat.  He 
was  born  a  fninklin  or  freeman "s  son  aliout  1332, 
probably  at  Cleobnry  Mortimer  in  Shropshire; 
went  to  school,  possilily  in  the  monastery  at  Great 
Malvern ;  became  a  clerk,  but,  having  married 
early,  could  not  take  more  than  minor  orders,  and 
earned  a  poor  living  by  singing  the  placebo,  cliriqe, 
and  '  seven  psalms '  for  men's  souls,  and  by  copying 
legal  documents.  He  lived  many  yeare  in  London, 
was  named  '  Long  Will '  from  liis  stature,  and  pro- 
longed poverty  seems  to  have  made  him  embittered 
and  somewhat  churlish  in  disposition.  The  la.st 
trace  of  him  is  in  his  poem  of  liiehard  the  Eedeles 
(850  lines),  from  wliicli  we  learn  that  he  was  at 
Bristol  in  1399. 

The  full  title  of  his  famous  poem  is  The  Vision 
of  WilliaiH  coneerning  Piers  the  Plotrmnn,  together 
with  Vita  de  Doiccl,  Do-bet,  et  Do-l)est  secundinn 
Wit  et  liesoun.  It  e.xists  in  three  different  forms 
or  recensions,  distinguished  l)y  Professor  Skeat  as 
the  A,  B,  and  C  texts.  Of  these  the  first  was  com- 
posed about  1.362,  and  contains  only  2567  lines.  In 
It  the  Vision  of  Piers  the  Plowman  is  (|uite  distinct 
from  the  Vision  of  Dowel,  Do-bet,  and  Do-best, 
the  former  consisting  of  a  prologue  and  8  passus 
( 18.33  lines ),  .and  the  latter  of  a  prologue  and  3  pas- 
sus (734  lines).  The  B  te.xt,  the  form  of  the  poem 
which  best  represents  the  genius  of  the  poet,  was 
written  after  1.377,  and  contains  about  7100  lines, 
consisting  of  the  two  Visions  as  before,  the  former 
arranged  in  a  prologue  aud  7  passus,  the  latter  in  3 
prologues  ;itid  10  jia^sus.  The  lirsi  part  of  the  1! 
text,  giving  the  Vision  of  the  Field  f\ill  of  Eolk,  of 
Holy  Cliurch,  and  of  L;idy  Meed,  next  the  Vision 
of  the  Seven  Deadly  Sins  anil  of  Piers  the  Plowman, 
was  adnnralily  edited  by  Profes.sor  Skeat  as  a 
school-book  in  the  Clarendon  Press  series  (1869). 
The  C  text  w.ls  jirobably  not  <'omposeil  till  l.'WO.  It 
adds  about  2.")0  lines  to  the  poem,  and  is  arr.inged, 
without  prologues,  continuously  in  23  passus. 

This  long  poem  has  great  defects  as  a  work  of 
art,  but  the  moral  earnestness  and  energy  of  the 
author  sometimes  glow  into  really  noble  poetry, 


particularly  in  his  invectives  against  injustice  an<l 
wrong,  the  idleness  and  jiride  of  the  clergy,  and 
especially  the  dissolute  habits  of  the  mendicant 
friars.  The  theological  discussions  are  not  s(ddom 
tedious,  but  are  brightened  by  vivid  glim])ses  of 
the  life  of  the  poorer  cla.sses  in  his  <l,'iy,  aud  some 
of  tin'  allegorical  representations,  as  of  the  Glutton 
and  Sloth,  have  sumething  of  the  reality  of  life. 
The  conception  of  the  Plowman  grows  as  the  poem 
proceeds,  and  from  a  mere  honest  labourer  he  passes 
into  a  personilication  of  the  reforming  spirit,  and  at 
one  moment  becomes  identified  with  ( 'hrist  himself. 
The  writer  is  no  precursor  of  Lollardism  on  its 
speculative  side,  or  s]iecially  a  Itet'ormer  other  than 
in  his  revolt  from  the  slavish  liypocrisy  of  form 
apart  from  tlie  inward  power  of  religion,  and  his 
longing  f<u'  a  return  to  simi)le  scripture  truth 
without  sacerdotal  domination. 

The  metre  of  the  poem  is  alliterative,  but 
irregular.  The  dialect  is  mixed,  but  mainly  Mid- 
land, with  occasional  introduction  of  Southern 
forms,  aud  the  vocabulary  is  of  unusual  extent. 

The  earlier  editions  of  Robert  Crowley  (1505),  Owen 
Rogers  (1561),  Dr  Whitakcr  (the  C  text,  1813),  aud 
Thomas  "Wright  ( 1842 )  were  superseded  by  Professor 
Skeat's  exhaustive  and  final  edition  for  the  Early  Knglish 
Text  Society  :  Part  I.  (A  text),  1867;  Part  II.  (B  text), 
1869  ;  Part  III.  (C  text,  with  Richard  the  Redder),  1873; 
Part  IV.,  Xotes,  1877  ;  Glossary.  &e.,  1884.  A  more  con- 
venient edition  of  this  was  issued  by  the  Clarendon  Press 
in  1886  ( 2  vols. ),  the  three  parallel  texts  being  printed 
together.  See  J.  J.  Jusserand,  La  Poesie  Mtigtique  de 
William  Laiii/land  (1893). 

LailSI'CS,  a  town  in  the  French  department  of 
Haute-ilarne,  is  situated  at  an  elevation  of  1530 
feet  above  sea-level  (one  of  the  highest  towns  in 
France*,  184  miles  ESE.  of  Paris  by  rail.  A 
place  of  ndlitary  importance  as  key  of  the  com- 
munication between  the  Seine  anil  the  Khone, 
it  has  been  strongly  fortified  since  1868,  and  has 
a  cathedral  of  the  12th  and  13th  centurv.  Pop. 
7157.  Langres  (anc.  Andentatiuinum)  in  Cicsar's 
time  was  tlie  capital  of  the  Lingoues,  a  name  cor- 
rupted into  Langres. 

Lail^side,  a  southern  suburb  of  Glasgow,  with 
a  pop.  of  6023.  Here,  after  her  escape  from  Loch 
Leven,  Queen  Mary's  forces  were  totally  defeated 
by  the  Regent  Moray,  13th  May  1568.  '  A  monu- 
ment (1887)  commemorates  the  battle. 

Lailg-SOIl.  a  town  in  Tongkiug,  situated  north- 
east of  Ha  noi,  near  the  frontier  of  the  Chinese 
province  of  Kwang-si.  It  was  a  centre  of  opera- 
tions in  the  Franco-Chinese  war  of  1884-85. 

Laiistou.  Stephen',  famous  in  the  history 
of  the  liberties  of  England,  was  born  about  11,")0, 
but  where  is  uncertain,  Lincidnshire,  Yorkshire, 
and  Devonshire  all  claiming  him.  He  received  his 
eilucation  in  the  univei-sity  of  Paris,  where  he 
was  the  fellow-student  aiul  friend  of  the  future 
Pope  Innocent  111.  :  he  rose  to  the  oHice  of 
chancellor  of  the  imiversity.  Innocent  after  his 
elevation  gave  Langton  a  post  in  his  household, 
and  afterwards  ma<le  him  a  cardinal  (1206). 
On  occashm  of  the  disputed  election  to  the  see  of 
Canterbury  in  120.5-7  Langton  was  recommended 
by  the  pojie  to  those  electors  wlni  had  come  to 
Rome  on  the  aiipeal,  and,  having  been  elected, 
was  consecrated  by  Innocent  himself  at  Viterbo, 
June  27,  1207.  His  a]ipointment  was  resisted 
by  King  .lolin  (o.v.);  and  for  six  years  Langton 
was  kept  out  of  the  see,  only  bein^  adnutted  when 
John  made  terms  with  Innocent  in  121.3.  In  the 
conflict  of  John  with  his  liarons  Langton  was  a 
warm  partisan  of  I  he  latter,  ami  his  nanu'  is  the 
first  of  the  subscribing  witnesses  of  .Magna  Charta. 
-\nd,  although  the  popeexcomnmnicated  the  barons, 
Langt(m  refused  to  publish  the  excommunication, 
and  was  in  consequence  suspendctl  from  liLs  fuuc- 


512 


LANGUAGE 


LANSDOWNE 


tions  by  the  pope  in  1215.  But  after  the  accession 
of  Henry  in.  he  was  reinstated  (1'21S)  in  his  see, 
anil  fioMi  that  time  chielly  oecii)iiecl  liiniself  with 
churcli  reforms  till  his  death,  which  took  place  July 
9,  \2'2S.  .See  I)r  Hook's  /.iccn  uf  the  ArchbklwjK  of 
Cuiitcrhuri/,  vol.  ii.  ( 18G1 ). 

Luusuage.  See  I'hilolocv  :  and  Universal 
L.VNGiAGK,  Voice,  Lkttkrs. 

Lailglieduc,  a  former  province  of  the  south 
of  France,  hounded  on  the  K.  hy  the  river  Khone, 
on  tlie  S.  hy  the  Mediterranean  and  the  counties 
of  Foi.\  and  Koussillon,  and  on  the  W.  by  Gascony 
and  Gnienne.  It  is  now  embraced  in  the  depart- 
ments of  Lozfcre,  Card,  Ardcche,  Aude,  Herault, 
Upper  Loire,  Tarn,  and  Upper  Garonne.  The 
name  is  derived  from  /dtir/iie  il'oc,  the  southern 
French  dialect,  or  Provencal  (ii.v.),  so  called  be- 
cause the  people  used  oc  instead  of  oui  for  'yes,' 
as  in  the  northern  provinces.  During  the  perioil 
of  the  Roman  empire  this  part  of  Gaul  was 
prosperous  and  wealthy,  a  home  of  enlighten- 
ment. In  412  the  Visigoths  founded  the  king- 
dom of  Toulouse  (one  of  the  chief  cities  of  Lan- 
guedoc,  Montpellier  being  the  other),  and  were 
only  overthrown  in  759  by  Pepin  the  Frank. 
Two  centuries  later  this  part  of  France  was 
immediately  subject  to  the  count  of  Toulouse,  one 
of  the  great  feudatories  of  the  kingdom.  The 
story  of  the  religious  wars  of  the  12th  and  13th 
centuries  has  been  already  recounted  under  Al- 
bigenses  (ij.v. ).  For  the  Languedoc  Canal,  see 
Canal. 

Lanidie.    See  Butcher-bird. 

Lailkfivatilra,  one  of  the  chief  religious  works 
of  the  J>uddliists,  which  treats  of  theii'  religious 
law,  and  of  some  of  their  most  abstruse  pliiloso- 
phical  problems. 

Lankester,  Edwin  Ray,  zoologist,  was  the 
son  of  l)r  Edwin  Lankester  (ISli-Ti),  scientilic 
writer,  and  was  born  in  London,  15th  May  1847. 
Educated  at  St  Paul's  School  and  at  Christ  Church, 
O.\ford,  he  was  fellow  and  tutor  of  E.Keter  College, 
and  in  1872  became  professor  of  Zoology  and  Com- 
parative Anatomy  in  I'niversity  College,  London. 
He  is  F. U.S.  ami  LL.L).  Among  over  a  Inuulred 
scientilic  jmblications  by  him  are  memoirs  on 
'Fossil  Fishes  of  tlie  Old  Ked  Sandstone'  in  the 
PhilusojMcal  I'ransactiuns,  and  works  on  Cum- 
paralicc  Longeviti/  (1871),  on  Degeneration  (1880), 
and  on  Advancement  of  Science  ( 1890). 

Laiiiier.    See  Falcon. 
^  Laniics,   Jean,    Duke   of   Montebello,    a 

F'rench  marshal,  was  born,  the  son  of  a  livery- 
stables  keepiM-,  on  11th  Apiil  1709,  at  Lectoure 
(tiers),  entered  the  army  in  1792,  and  by  Iiis 
conspicuous  bravery  in  most  of  the  battles  of  the 
Italian  cam])aign  fought  his  way  up  to  he  giMicral 
of  brigade  l)y  1790.  He  rendered  Napoleim  im- 
portant service  on  the  ISth  I'.rumaire.  On  9th 
June  ISOO  lu^  won  the  b.attle  of  .Monteliello,  whence 
Ills  title,  and  bore  a  princip.-d  share  in  the  battle 
of  Marengo.  He  commanded  the  left  wing  at 
Austerlitz,  and  the  centre  at  .lena,  and  distin- 
guished himself  at  Eyl.iu  and  Friedland.  Being 
sent  to  Spain,  he  defeated  General  Caatanos  at 
Tudela,  "22(1  November  1808,  and  took  Saragossa. 
In  IS()9  he  again  serveil  on  the  Danube,  and  com- 
manded the  centre  at  Asjiern  ('22d  May),  where 
lie  had  both  his  legs  taken  oft'  by  a  cannon-shot. 
He  was  carried  to  Vienna,  and  died  tlieie,  ;ilsl  May. 
He  was  interred,  lirst  in  the  Pantheon,  afler\v:uds 
in  PiMc  liiCliaise,  in  Paris. 

Laiillioil,  a  town  in  the  French  de]iartment  of 
Cotes-du-Nord,  im  the  (nier  (which  is  navigable  for 
sea-going  shi]>s  to  this  point ),  09  miles  bv  rail  EN  K. 
of  Brest.     Pop.  589:j. 


Laiisdowil.  a  hill  (813  feet)  to  the  north  of 
Bath,  comnuinding  a  prospect  of  exceptional  beauty. 
Here  stands  a  tower  of  130  feet,  built  by  Beckford, 
and  two  miles  bevond  was  fought  the  battle  of 
Lan.sib)wn,  5tli  Ju"ly  1043,  when  Waller's  entrench- 
ments were  stormed  by  the  Cornisli  royalists.  On 
the  spot  where  the  heroic  Sir  lievil  (irenville  fell 
Lord  Lansdowne  raised  a  monument  in  17"23. 

Laiisdowiic.  Henkv  Petty  Fitzmaukice, 
third  Mai!(,uis  of,  was  the  .son  of  the  lirst  marquis, 
better  known  as  the  Earl  of  Shelbnrne  ('i.v.),  and 
was  born  in  London,  July  2,  1780.  He  received 
his  education  at  'Westminster  School,  Kdinburgh 
University,  and  Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  where 
he  grailuated  in  1801.  Born  in  the  purple  of  politics, 
be  was  returned  for  the  burgh  of  Calneat  the  age  of 
twenty-two.  He  ranked  himself  among  the  o]ipo- 
nents  of  Pitt,  and  took  a  leailing  jiart  in  that  attack 
on  Lord  Melville  which  brought  home  to  him  the 
charge  of  corruption.  When  Pitt  died  Lord  Henry 
Petty — as  he  was  then  stvled— succeeded  him  as 
member  for  Cambridge  University,  and  also  as 
Chancellor  of  the  F^\che(|uer  in  Ihe  administration 
of  'AH  the  Talents'  formed  by  Lord  (Irenville, 
but  held  ofhce  for  about  a  year  only.  In  1809, 
and  after  having  represented  the  "  borough  of 
Canielford  for  a  slunt  time,  he  succeeded  by  the 
death  of  his  half-brother  to  the  nianjuisate  of 
Lansdo\™e.  .\  sincere  tho\igh  cautions  Liberal, 
he  in  18'20  entered  the  Canning  cabinet  :  ami  in 
the  short  Goderich  administration  he  ]iresided  at 
the  Foreign  Ottice.  Wlien,  in  1830,  the  Whigs 
came  into  power  under  Lord  CIrey,  Lansdowne 
became  President  of  the  Council,  "and  took  an 
active  part  in  the  jiassing  of  the  Keform  Bill  of 
1832.  He  held  this  otiice,  with  a  shmt  interval, 
till  September  1841.  Five  years  later,  under  Lord 
John  Kussell,  he  resumed  his  ]inst.  taking  with  it 
the  leadership  of  the  House  of  Lords,  and  held 
it  till  1852.  In  that  year  he  was  requested 
to  form  an  administration,  but  consented  to  serve 
without  otiice  in  the  coalition  cabinet  of  Lord 
Aberdeen.  When  that  ministry  fell  in  18.55,  Lans- 
downe was  again  asked  to  acceiit  the  premiership, 
but  he  once  more  declined,  .iltliough  he  conscnteil 
to  help  Lord  Palmerston  as  he  had  hcliicd  Lord 
Aberdeen.  He  refused  a  dukedom.  After  the 
death  of  the  Duke  of  Wellingtim  Lansdowne  was 
recognised  as  the  patriarch  of  the  House  of  Peers, 
while  almost  up  to  his  death  his  advice  was 
asked  at  his  scat  of  Bowood  hy  the  leaders  of  the 
Liberal  party.  He  w.as  the  attached  pers<mal 
friend  of  the  tjuceii.  Foml  of  literature  and  of 
the  coin])any  of  men  of  letters,  he  formed  a  great 
library,  and  one  of  the  best  collections  of  ])ictures 
and  statuarvin  the  kiug<lom.  He  died  January  31, 
180.3. 

The  political  biographies  of  the  ]>criod  in  which  Lans- 
downe livt'd  abound  in  rt'fercnctjs  to  him.  A  considurablo 
lunnber  of  his  letter-s  on  public  aH'airs  appear  in  Lord 
Mdboiiriic's  Paiiers,  wlited  by  Lloyd  C.  JSandcrs  (1889). 
The  Life  of  Lord  John  Jiti.tni/l,  by  Spencer  "NValpole 
( 1889),  illustrates  in  a  reniarkablu  niamier  the  quiet  but 
great  influence  exerted  by  Lansdowne  in  the  councils 
of  his  ]»arty. 

liaiisdowiio,  Henry  Charles  Keith  Petty 

FriZM  AiRirE,  litlh  Mai;(,iUisok,  was  b(irii  .l.inuarv 
14,  1845.  Educated  at  Eton  and  Balliol  College, 
O.xford,  he  succeeded  to  the  mar(|uisate  in  1800, 
anil,  attaching  himself  to  the  Liberal  |iarty,  was  a 
Commissioner  <if  Exch<M|uer  of  Great  liritain  and 
of  Treasury  of  Ireland  from  1808  to  1872.  Between 
1872  and  1874  he  was  Undersecretary  for  War. 
In  1880  he  .again  look  ollice  under  .Mi  (Jladstone 
as  Under-secietaiy  for  India,  hut  resigned  owing 
to  a  dill'erence  with  his  chief  over  the  Compensation 
for  Disturbance  (Ireland)  Bill.  In  1883  he  was 
appointed  tiovernor-general   of    the  Dominion    of 


LANSING 


LAODICEA 


SIS 


C;inatla,  iu  1888  Governor-geiieial  of  Indiii,  in  1895 
Secretary  for  W'lir,  ami  in  1900  Koreij^n  Secretary. 
See  a  liook  Iiy  (i.  W.  Forrest  on  liU  Indian  ail- 
iiiini>tnilion  ( IS'.l-l). 

LailsillS*  tl"'  capital  of  Michigan,  on  both  sides 
of  the  Grand  Uiver,  85  miles  WNW.  of  Detroit,  at 
the  meelin>;-^>oint  of  four  railways.  It  contains 
the  state  cajiitol,  lihrary,  reform  school,  and  a^'ri- 
cultural  collejre,  a  school  for  the  lilind,  and  sc^voral 
manufactories.  Lansinj;  «;is  settled  and  made  the 
state  capital  in  1847,  and  incoriiorated  as  a  city  in 
1859.      Pop.  ilSTO)  .VJ41  :   (IWIOi  IS, 10-2. 

Lillisiliuluil'g:.  a  town  of  New  York,  on  the 
Hudson,  10  miles  above  Albany.  It  contains  an 
.Vu^ustinian  priory,  and  has  extensive  manufac- 
tures of  brushes  and  oil-cloth.      Pop.  10,550. 

Lillltcrii,  in  Architecture,  an  ornamental  struc- 
ture raised  over  domes,  roofs,  &c.,  to  give  light  and 
ventilation.  The  dome  of  St  Paul's  Cathedral  and 
many  other  large  domes  are  crowned  with  a  lantern. 
Where  a  lantern  is  for  the  ])urpose  of  giving  light 
it  is  called  a /<(H<«;ni-/(V//(^  In  Gothic  architecture 
a  liiiiteniluirer  is  frequently  placed  over  the  centre 
of  cross  churches — the  vault  being  at  a  consider- 
able height,  and  the  light  admitted  by  windows 
in  the  sides.  York  and  Ely  cathedrals,  and  many 
churches  in  England,  have  such  lautern-towers. 

Lailtcrn-fly  (  Fulgom),  a  genus  of  Heniiptera, 
type  of  a  family  Fulgorida^,  allied  to  Cicadidie,  but 
with  legs  more  a<la]>ted  for  leajjing,  and  without 
organs  for  producing  sound.  There  are  aljout  a 
score  of  siiecies,  all  tropical,  most  from  South 
America,  the  rest  in  Asia  and  Africa.  The  fore- 
head bears  a  remarkable  empty  dilatation  or  '  lan- 
tern,' quaint  in  form,  sometimes  towards  an  inch 


■X!^jz^ 


Lantern-fly  {Fulyora  lanteiiiaria). 

in  lengtli.  The  name  lantern-fly  was  originally 
;;iven  to  /•'.  Innlernaria,  a  species  f(iun<l  in  Guiana, 
mea-suring  about  3  inches  in  length.  The  iritlated 
projection  of  the  forehead  is  said  by  some  to  be 
at  times  very  brilliantly  luminous ;  but  the  evi- 
dence is  contradictory,  and  most  naturalists  refuse 
to  believe  in  the  luminosity  of  any  of  the  species. 
It  is  possible  that  the  luminosity,  if  genuine,  is 
only  occasional  and  of  se.\ual  signilicance.  In  the 
Chinese  Lantern-fly  (F.  luiulclarln)  the  prolonga- 
tion of  the  forehead  is  comparatively  narrow. 

Lan'thaniini  (syni.  La,  equiv.  l.S9),  so  named 
from  the  (jreek  lanthimciii,  'to  lie  hid,'  is  a 
metal  which  was  dLscovered  by  Mosander  in  18.'J9  in 
Cen'te,  a  hydrated  silicate  of  Cerium  (q.v.).  It  is 
of  little  chemical  interest,  and  Ls  of  no  practical 
valui'.     See  DlDYMUM. 

Lanzi.  Lukji,  Italian  anti<inary,  was  born  at 
.Monte  deir  Glmo,  near  Maeerata,  June  14,  1732. 
He  entered  the  order  of  the  Jesuits,  but  devoted 
his  time  to  the  study  of  cl.tssical  antiquities  and  of 
Italian  jiainting.  He  re^idell  chiefly  at  Klorence, 
where  he  died,  .March  30,  1810,  and  was  buried  by 
the  side  of  Michael  Aiigelu  ia  tiie  church  of  Santa 
293 


Laocobn. 


Croce.  The  principal  monuments  of  his  learning 
are  the  works  tiai/i/io  i/i  Linqmi  Etrusca  (3  vols. 
1789),  in  which  lie  insisted  upon  the  kinship 
of  Etruscan  with  Latin,  Oscan,  Umhrian,  and 
Greek;  and  Sturia  I'lttorica  d' Italia  (1792-!8()fi; 
Eng.  trans,  by  Thomas  Roscoe,  G  vols.  18'iS). 
Lanzi  also  wroti^  works  on  Etruscan  vases,  an- 
ticjue  sculptures,  \c.  His  posthumous  works  were 
imblished  in  2  vols,  at  Florence  in  1817.  See  Life 
in  Italian  by  Cappi  (1840). 

Lao*'OOII<  according  to  classic  legend,  a 
priest  of  Apollo,  afterwards  of  Poseidon,  in 
Troy,  who  married  against  the  will  of  the  former 
god,  and  who  warned  his  countrymen  against 
admitting  the  wooden  horse  into  Troy.  Feu-  one 
or  both  of  these  reasons  he  was  destroyed  along 
with  his  two  sons 
by  two  enornn)US 
serpents  which  came 
up  out  of  the  sea. 
This  legend  is  not 
Homeric,  but  of  later 
origin.  It  was  a 
favourite  theme  of 
the  Greek  poets,  and 
is  introduced  in  the 
^Encid  ( ii. )  of  Virgil. 
The  subject  is  repre- 
sented in  one  of  the 
most  famous  works 
of  ancient  sculpture 
still  in  existence,  a 
group  discovered  in 
1506  at  Rome,  on  the 
side  of  the  Esquiline 
Hill,  and  purchased 
by  Pope  Julius  II. 
for  the  Vatican.  It 
was  carried  by  Bona- 
parte to  Paris  in  1790,  but  recovered  in  1814. 
The  whole  treatment  of  the  suliject,  the  anatom- 
ical accuracy  of  the  ligures,  aiul  the  representation 
both  of  bodily  pain  and  of  passion,  have  always 
commanded  the  highest  admiration.  According 
to  Pliny,  it  was  the  work  of  the  Khodian  artists, 
Agesander,  Polydorus,  and  Athenodorus ;  various 
dates  have  been  assigned  to  it,  from  200  B.C.  till 
200  A.D.  ;  but  the  be.st  authorities  place  its  date 
at  a  little  before  100  B.C.  F'oran  admirable  a'sthetic 
exposition  of  its  merits,  see  Lessing's  Laocobn  ( 1766; 
new  ed.  with  bibliography  by  Bliimner,  1880  ;  Eng. 
trans.  1836,  1853).  There  is  a  recent  German 
.Monograph  by  Kekule  ( 1883 ). 

Laodailli'a.  in  Greek  heroic  historj-,  the 
daughter  of  Acastus  and  wife  of  Protesilaus.  Her 
husband  was  the  first  of  all  the  Greeks  who  fell  by 
a  Trojan  hand,  being  killed  as  In-  leaped  on  shore 
from  bis  ship.  Laodamia  prayed  of  the  gods  to 
give  him  back  to  her  for  but  three  hours.  Her 
prayer  was  gianted  ;  Hermes  led  him  hack  to  the 
up])er  world;  ami,  when  the  fatal  moment  to  return 
had  come,  Laodamia  died  with  him.  This  ncdde 
story  has  lieen  treated  by  Wordsworth  in  veree 
worthy  of  the  theme. 

Laodiri^a*  a  name  given  to  several  cities— eight 
at  le.ist  can  be  distinguished — founded  or  rebuilt  by 
the  Seleucid  rulers  of  Syria ;  it  is  adapted  from 
Laodice,  a  favourite  name  for  the  female  relatives 
of  these  sovereigns.  Of  the  cities  so  called,  the 
most  famous  and  most  interesting  was  situ- 
ated 2  miles  from  the  banks  of  the  river  Lycus  in 
I'hrygia,  and  on  the  great  commercial  road  leading 
from  the  Ionian  cities  to  the  Euphrates.  'I'he 
district  in  which  it  stands  ha.s  fre<iuently  sufl'ered 
from  eartliquak<s,  and  the  city  was  more  than 
once  in  part  overthrown  by  them.  It  finally  began 
to  decay  at  the  period  of  the  Usnianli  iuvasions. 


514 


LAOMEDON 


LAO-TSZE 


and  is  now  a  heap  of  uninterestin<;  ruins,  known  as 
Eski-Hissar.  Art  and  science  liourished  among 
the  ancient  Laodiceans  :  it  was  tlie  seat  of  a 
renowned  medical  scliool,  produced  some  famous 
philosophers,  and  in  its  mint  was  struck  a  vahiable 
series  of  coins,  which  come  (U)wn  to  the  time  of 
Diocletian,  lint  its  ^'reatest  importance  is  due  to 
the  fact  that  it  was  one  of  the  chief  homes  of 
early  Christianity,  designated  one  of  tlie  seven 
churches  of  the  Apocalyjise,  but  doomed  to  unhappy 
niemoiy  as  '  lukewarm  and  neither  cold  nor  hot ' 
(Rev.  iii.  16).  Prohahly  the  fact  is  traceable 
to  the  -settlement  here  of  great  numbers  of  Jews 
at  that  period.  The  important  ecclesiastical 
council  of  I.aodicea,  held  here  in  363,  adopted 
resolutions  concerning  the  canon  of  the  Old  and 
New  Testaments,  and  concerning  ecclesiastical 
discipline.  A  second  council,  held  here  in  476, 
condemned  the  Eutychians. — Another  of  these 
cities  Laoilicea  Avill  be  found  described  under 
Latakia  (q.v. ). 

Laoill'edoil.  king  of  Troy  (q.v.),  and  father  of 
Priam. 

Laon,  chief  town  of  the  French  department  of 
Aisne,  is  situated  on  a  steep  isolated  hill  (594  feet), 
87  miles  by  rail  NE.  of  Paris.  Occupying  a  natur- 
ally strong  position,  it  has  been  a  fortress  since  the 
5th  centviry  ;  its  citadel  is  surrounded  with  ruinous 
walls.  From  515  to  1790  it  was  the  seat  of  a  bishop. 
The  cathedral,  a  Gothic  edifice  of  the  l'2th  centiiry 
Avitli  a  hanilsome  facade,  and  the  bishop's  palace, 
now  used  as  a  law-court,  still  remain.  The  inhabit- 
ants are  noted  market-gardeners,  producing  excel- 
lent artichokes  and  asjjaragus.  In  the  10th  century 
the  city  was  the  ])lace  of  resilience  of  the  Carlovin- 
gian  kings,  and  cajiital  of  Francia.  At  Laon,  on 
March  9  and  10,  1.S14,  Napoleon  I.  was  repulsed 
by  the  allies  under  BlUcher  and  Billow  ;  and  it 
surrendered  to  a  German  force  on  9tli  September 
1870,  when  the  explosion  of  the  ]>owder-magazine 
by  a  French  soldier  cost  some  500  lives.  Pop. 
(1872)  10,243;  (1891)  13,939. 

Laos.    See  Shans. 

Lfto-tSZC,  a  celebrated   philosopher  of  China, 

fenerally  ri'imted  to  have  been  tlie  founder  of 
'iioism,  which  ai  the  present  day  shares  the  allegi- 
ance of  the  Chinese  with  Confucianism  and  Bud- 
dhism under  the  appellation  of  San  Chiao,  '  the 
three  doctrines'  or  '  teachings.' 

According  to  the  most  likely  account,  Lao's  birth 
took  (ilace  in  604  li.c,  lifty-four  years  before  that 
of  Confucius.  His  surname  was  Li  (meaning  'Plum'), 
and  his  name  Erli  (meaning  '  Ear'),  whicli  after  his 
death  gave  place  to  Tan,  denoting  some  i)eculiarity 
in  the  form  of  his  ears.  He  comes  before  us  as  a 
curator  of  the  royal  library  in  the  cajiilal  city  of 
Loll,  not  far  from  the  present  city  of  Loh-yang  in 
Ho-naii.  The  designation  Lao-tsze  means  the  '  old 
philosopher.'  The  two  Chinese  characters  may  also 
be  translated  '  the  old  .son  or  boy  :'  and  the  k'g(Mid- 
ary  writers  have  taken  occasion  from  this  to  relate 
that  the  child  was  carried  in  his  mother's  womb  for 
seventy-eight,  .some  say  for  eighty -one,  yeai-s,  and 
that  he  was  born  witli  the  white  hair  of  an  old 
man.  Confucius  and  Lao  seem  to  have  met  several 
times.  One  interview  at  the  capital  in  517  H.c. 
is  pretty  well  established.  It  was  not  entirely 
amicable,  but  left  a  strong  impression  on  the  mind 
of  Confucius.  He  .said  at  the  close  of  it  to  his 
disciples,  '  To-day  I  have  .seen  the  Old  Philosopher 
(Lfto-tsze),  and  can  only  liken  him  to  the  dragon 
who  mounts  aloft  on  the  clouds,  I  cannot  tell  how, 
and  ri.ses  to  heaven.'  So  it  was  that  Li  firh  came 
to  be  denominated  '  Lao-tsze.'  Nothing  certain 
can  be  said  of  (he  length  of  LAo's  life.  Sze-ma- 
Ch'ien,  the  historian  of  ancient  China,  tells  us 
that  he  cultivated  '  the  T&oand  its  characteristics,' 


his  chief  aim  being  to  keep  himself  unknown  ;  that 
he  resided  long  at  the  capital,  and  then  seeing  the 
decay  of  the  dynast\'  of  Chan,  «ent  away  to  the 
gate  which  led  out  of  the  royal  domain  towards  the 
regions  of  the  n<ntli-west  ;  that  there  he  was  recog- 
nised by  Yin  Hsi,  the  keeper  of  the  gate,  the  place 
of  which  is  shown  in  the  present  Shan  Chan  of  Ho- 
nan,  and  was  prevailed  upon  to  write  out  for  him  the 
treatise  called  the  'J'uo  'J'e/i  Kin//,  which  luus  come 
doM'n  to  lis  as  the  only  reconl  of  his  teaching. 
Cli'ien  adds  that  after  giving  this  writing  to  the 
keeiier  '  he  went  away,  and  it  is  not  known  where 
he  died.'  Such  is  the  substance  of  all  of  importance 
whicli  the  great  historian,  writing  in  the  '2d  century 
B.C.,  cimid  tell  of  Lao-tsze.  He  says  nothing  of  the 
pre-existences  attributed  to  him,  nor  of  his  subse- 
quent travels  in  the  west,  where  he  became  ac- 
qiiaiiited  with  the  wisdom  of  India  and  even  Judea. 
These  and  other  marvels  are  later  and  fabulous 
additions  to  Ch'ieu's  brief  account,  and  arose  in 
imitation  of  the  legends  of  Buddhism  ami  through 
misconceptions  of  the  meaning  of  the  Tdo  Ti  h  Kiuif. 
Some  doctrine  of  the  T;io  had  come  down  from 
the  most  ancient  times,  and  a  father,  or  at  least  a 
most  important  teacher,  of  it  is  claimed  in  Hwang 
Ti,  the  mythical  sovereign  of  the  '27th  century  B.C. 
It  served  especially  as  a  discipline  adapted  to  ])ro- 
mote  longevity  and  to  preserve  life.  Lao-tsze 
entered  into  this,  and  the  doctrine  assumed  in  his 
hands  a  more  subtle  character.  It  is  not  ea.sy,  how- 
ever, to  say  what  he  meant  by  his  Tdo.  '  It  was 
the  originator  of  heaven  and  earth  :  it  is  the  mother 
of  all  things.'  At  the  same  time  it  is  not  a  personal 
being.  '  It  might  appear,'  he  says,  '  to  have  been 
before  God.'  'It  gave,'  says  Chwang-tsze,  the 
ablest  of  all  Lao's  followers,  '  their  mysterious 
[  existence  to  spirits  and  to  God  (or  to  gods).'  The 
character  T;*io  proj)erly  means  '  i)atli,'  'course,'  or 
'  way  ; '  and  it  is  in  this  sense  that  Lao  uses  it.  His 
'  great  way  '  is  but  a  metaphorical  expression  for  the 
way  in  which  things  came  at  lirst  into  being  out  of 
the  primal  nothingness,  and  how  the  phenomena  of 
nature  continue  to  go  on,  in  stillness  ami  iiuietness, 
without  striving  or  crying.  Of  the  same  kind 
should  be  the  inlluence  of  the  Tao  in  thi'  conduct 
of  individuals  and  of  government.  That  things  may 
come  to  the  rigiit  and  successful  issue  they  must  be 
carried  on  without  etl'ort  or  jiurpose.  The  secret  of 
good  government  is  to  let  men  alone.  The  appeal 
to  arms  is  hateful.  All  learning  is  injurious.  The 
wisdom  of  men  defeats  its  own  ends.  Tao  works  by 
contraries,  and  the  secret  of  its  strength  is  its  weak- 
ness. In  many  of  tlicse  teachings  Lao-tsze  may 
seem  to  be  only  a  visionary  dreamer,  but  he  enunci- 
ates many  lessons  of  a  very  high  morality.  Its 
fundamental  quality  is  humility,  which  he  compares 
again  and  again  to  water,  soft  and  weak  in  itself, 
yet  able  to  attack  and  overthrow  the  strongest  and 
lirmesl  things.  With  humility  he  associates  gentle- 
ness and  economy,  and  calls  them  his  •  three  juecious 
possessions.'  He  even  rises  to  the  greatest  of  all 
moral  principles,  the  returning  of  good  for  evil,  and 
enunciates  'recompensing injury  with  kindness.'  He 
nowln^re  speaks  clearly  of  the  state  of  man  after 
death  ;  but  Chwaiig  tsze  teaches  that  life  and  death 
f(dlow  each  other  in  endless  succession,  or  like  the 
sequence  of  the  four  sea.sons.  There  is  nothin" 
about  religion  or  religious  wor.shi])  in  the  Tiw  Teh 
Kiiin.  The  origin  of  Taoism  jis  a  religion  cannot 
be  placed  earlier  than  our  1st  century.  It  was  not 
till  after  liuddhism  found  its  way  to  China  tliat 
the  other  system  began  to  have  images,  temples, 
monasteries,  and  nunneries.  The  ]iui'suits  of 
alchemy,  communications  with  spirits,  concoctions 
of  the  cli.i:ir  ritw  and  pills  of  immortality  are 
among  the  phases  which  it  has  assumed  at  dill'er- 
ent  times;  but  such  things  have  no  connection 
with  the  teaching  of  Lilo-tsze. 


LA    FAZ 


LAPLACE 


515 


See  Stanislas  Julien,  Le  Litre  de  la  Vote  et  tie  la  Vertu 
(1^2);  Clialiiiers,  The  Spcculatiotis  of  the  Old  Philo- 
sopher (lH4(i);  F.  von  Strauss,  Lao-tse's  Tdo  Ti  Kinij 
(1870);  K.  von  Pliinckner,  Lao-tse,  Tdo  Ti  Kimj,  Dcr 
Wat  zur  Timeml  (1S70):  Douglas,  Confucutnism  and 
Taoism  (187U);  Leg'.'e,  Bcliyions  of  C/ii'na  (1880) ;  Bal- 
four, Taoist  Texts  (188i)  ;  and  CHINA,  Vol.  III.  p.  190. 

La  Paz,  ( I )  ii  elepartnieut  of  liolivia,  lionloriiit,' 
on  IV'iu.  witli  an  area  iit  171, '-'(in  s(|.  ni.,  and  a 
pull.  (189,"))  of  ,")n,'),(IUO,  nol  inclucliny  sonic  •-'oUO 
wild  Indians.  Tlie  La  Paz  coidillcia  contains  the 
loftiest  peaks  of  tlie  IJolivian  Andes,  and  much  of 
the  surface  of  the  department  is  a  dry  platean ;  but 
in  the  east  the  >ireat  mountains  sink  to  the  phiin, 
and  tlie  country  is  richly  watcreil.  — The  capital, 
La  I'az,  lies  at  the  foot  of  a  stee])  valley  1  l.D.Vi  feet 
above  tlie  sea,  42  miles  SK.  of  Lake  Titicaca.  It 
has  a  handsome  but  unlinished  cathedral,  and  a 
college,  seminary,  and  medical  school  ;  but  the 
liouses  are  mostly  of  mud,  and  owing  to  the 
extremely  uneven'  site  luesent  a  very  irregular 
appearance.  Tlu;  iuhabitants,  mostly  Indians  and 
half-breeds,  carry  on  an  active  trade  in  cojiper, 
alpaca- wool,  cinchona,  &c.  Pop.  (1889)57,000. — 
(2)  A  town  of  Entre  Kios  province,  in  Argentinia, 
on  the  Parau:!,  'iSO  miles  by  river  N.  by  W.  of 
Buenos  A\  res.     Pop.  tj800. 

La  P^rouse,  Jk.vn  Fr.-\ncois  de  G.\l.\up, 
Count  de,  a  French  navigator,  was  boru  near 
AIbi,  in  Languedoc,  on  22d  August  1741.  He 
distinguished  himself  in  the  naval  war  against 
England  (1778-83),  especially  by  destroying  the 
forts  of  the  Hudson  Bay  Company.  Two  years 
after  the  conclusion  of  peace  he  was  chosen  to 
commanil  an  expedition  of  discovery  sent  out  by 
the  French  government.  He  sailed  in  August  178.3 
with  two  ships,  visited  the  north-west  coast  of 
America,  explored  the  north-eastern  coasts  of  Asia, 
where  by  sailing  through  La  Peronse  Strait  between 
Saghalien  and  Vezo  he  discovered  that  each  of  these 
was  a  separate  island.  In  February  1788  he  sailed 
from  Botany  Bay  ;  after  tliat  all  trace  of  biin  was 
lost.  In  1826  it  was  fully  ascertained  by  the 
English  Captain  Dillon  that  both  of  La  Perouse's 
ships  had  been  wrecketl  in  a  storm  on  a  coral-reef 
oil'  Vanikcnd,  an  island  lying  north  of  the  New- 
Hebrides.  The  account  of  the  early  portions  of 
La  Perouse's  voyage,  preparcil  from  journals  sent 
home  by  him,  "was  published  under  the  title  of 
yoi/cir/e  aiitoiir  du  Aluni/e  (4  vols.  Paris,  17i)7  ; 
new  ed.  in  1  vol.  1888). 

Lapis  Laz'llli  (Lat.,  'azure  stone,"  the  lazuli 
being  for  .\raliic  hijward,  the  name  of  the  stone; 
azure  is  a  corruption  of  liiju-ard),  a  mineral  of  beau- 
tiful ultramarine  or  azure  colour,  consisting  chielly 
of  silica  and  alumina,  with  a  little  suljihuric  acid, 
.soda,  and  lime.  The  colimr  varies  niiicli  in  its  degree 
of  intensity.  Lapis  lazuli  is  often  marked  by  white 
.spots  and  bands.  It  is  generally  found  massive, 
and  is  translucent  at  the  edges,  with  uneven,  finely 
granular  fracture,  but  sometimes  apjicars  crystal- 
lised in  rhombic  dodecahedrons,  its  primitive  form. 
It  is  found  a.ssociated  with  crystalline  limestone 
amongst  schistose  rocks  ami  in  granite,  in  Silieria, 
China,  Tibet,  Chili,  &c.  The  liiiest  specimens  are 
brought  from  ISokhara.  It  seems  to  have  lieen  the 
only  stone  of  any  intrinsic  value  known  to  the 
Egyptians  under  the  Pharaohs.  The  ancients 
used  it  much  for  engraving,  for  va.ses,  &c.  (see 
King's  Xiituriil  Uistunj  nf  (Iriiia).  It  is  exten- 
sively employed  in  ornamental  and  mosaic  work, 
and  for  sumptuous  altars  and  shrines.  It  is  easily 
wrought,  anil   takes  a  good  polish.     The  valuable 

J)ignient  called   I'ltraiiiarine  (i|.v.)  is  made  from  it. 
t  is  one  of  the  minerals  sometimes  called  Azure 
Stone.  ' 

Lailitllil',  a  mythical  race  inhabiting  tlie  moun- 
tains of  Tliessaly.     They  were  riili-d  by  I'iritlious, 


a  son  of  Ixion  and  lialfbrotlier  of  the  Centaurs. 
At  the  marriage  of  ririthous  to  llipiiodaiiiia,  the 
Centaurs,  tlown  with  in.solence  and  wine,  attemiited 
to  carry  oil'  the  bride  and  the  other  women,  but 
were  overpowered  after  a  bloody  struggle  by  the 
Lapitlup. 
Laplace,  Pierre  Simon,  jM.\r()Ui.s  de,  the 

greatest  mathematician  and  theoretical  astronomer 
since  Sir  Isaac  Newton,  born  28tli  March  174H,  was 
the  son  of  a  jioor  farmer  at  Beaumont  near  Trou- 
ville,  in  Normandy.  He  studied  at  Caen,  through 
the  assistance  of  some  charitalile  neighbours,  and, 
after  teaching  mathematics  at  a  military  school  in 
his  native  town,  went  to  Paris  and  attracted  tlie 
notice  of  D'Alembert  by  a  paper  on  dynamics. 
Wlien  ajipointed  professor  in  the  Koyal  Military 
School  he  soon  aciinirecl  a  reputation  by  bis  mas 
tery  of  the  wliole  range  of  iiiatli<>inatical  science 
and  its  aiiplicatimi  to  certain  ililliculties  in  practical 
astronomy— solving  a  prolilein  which  both  Kuler 
and  Lagrange  had  grappled  with  in  vain.  Chosen 
an  associate  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences  in  177:!  anil 
member  in  178.'),  he  meanwhile,  by  his  powerful  grasji 
of  the  analytic  method  of  dealing  with  gravitating 
masses,  established  the  great  generalisation  that 
our  planetary  system  is  staljle — that  what  had  been 
termed  irregularities  were  not  disturbing  the  general 
equilibrium,  but,  on  the  contrary,  necessary  to  it. 
This  complete  solution  of  tlie  '  mechanical  problem 
of  the  solar  system,'  as  he  termed  it,  has  bestowed 
upon  astronomy  the  'Three  Laws  of  Laidace.' 
Here,  as  well  as  in  his  great  treatise  to  be  presently 
mentioned,  the  special  service  of  Laplace  w  as  that 
he  set  forth  comprehensively  in  one  homogeneous 
work  the  leading  results  which  had  severally 
lieen  attained  by  Newton,  Halley,  Clairaut,  and 
Euler,  at  the  same  time  proving  their  harmony  and 
interdependence.  The  singular  insight  of  Lajilace 
as  an  ivstronomer  was  apparent  in  his  exjilanation 
of  the  '  secular  inequalities  '  shown  by  ancient  and 
modern  observations  in  the  motions  of  the  planets 
Jupiter  and  Saturn.  He  was  the  first  to  construct 
a  complete  theory  of  the  satellites  of  Jupiter,  and 
his  investigation  of  the  tidal  theory  nas  been 
characterised  by  Airy  as  '  one  of  the  most  splendid 
works '  in  the  history  of  mathematics. 

The  successive  governments  of  France  agreed  in 
honouring  Laplace.  He  helped  to  establisji  the 
Polytechnic  and  Normal  Schools  in  Paris,  became 
one  of  the  liist  members  of  the  Bureau  des  Longi- 
tudes, and  soon  after  was  appointed  president. 
After  the  18th  Bruniaire  Bonaiiarte  made  Lajdace 
Minister  of  the  Interior,  thougii  only  to  supersede 
him  in  six  weeks'  time.  In  1799  Laplace  entered 
the  senate,  where  he  made  a  report  on  the  necessity 
of  returning  from  the  lievolution  calendar  to  the 
Cregoriaii  ;  in  1803  he  was  a]i|iointed  chancellor  of 
the  senate,  lie  was  created  count  under  the  empire, 
and  in  181;)  a  peer,  in  1817  a  marquis,  by  Louis 
XVIII.  His  opponents  attributed  the  latter  honour 
to  his  having  voted  for  the  deposition  of  Najioleon 
in  1814,  accusing  him  of  servility,  which  was  also 
alleged  in  1827  «hen  lie  liccame  an  'ultra-royalist.' 
Elected  to  the  .\cademy  in  IslO,  he  was  next 
year  a])poiiited  president.  In  bis  memoir  on  the 
'attraction  of  spheroids'  are  first  set  forth  the  two 
celebrated  means  of  applying  analysis  to  physical 
problems — Laplace's  coeilicients  and  the  poten- 
tial function — which  are  requisite  in  the  theory  of 
attractions  and  in  the  more  abstru.se  parts  of  elec- 
trical science. 

Besides  many  original  treatises  on  the  application 
of  mathematical  methods  to  lunar  and  planetary 
problems,  molecular  |)liysics,  electricity,  and  mag- 
netism— mostly  memoirs  to  the  French  academies — 
Laplace  published  the  four  following  books.  Tlie 
Micimir/uc  Cilrnlc,  with  supplements  ( o  vols.  Paris, 
1799-1825),  stands  alone  amongst  works  on  matlie- 


516 


LAPLACE 


LAPLAND 


inatical  astronomy  as  a  systematic  demonstration 
of  tlie  highest  results  in  natural  |ihilosi)]iliy.  Tlie 
E.vponilwn  tin  iSi/staiic  du  MimiU:  (  ITitti  ;  Oth  eil. 
1824)  was  written  for  non-mathematicians,  anil  has 
lieen  a<huire(l  for  the  excellent  style  as  well  as  for 
its  clear  anil  concise  statement  of  all  the  leailing 
astronomical  facts  and  theories.  In  a  note  at  the 
end  of  the  later  editions  occurs  the  famous  Nehular 
Hypothesis  (see  NiCIU'L.E),  which  many  have 
deemed  to  he  of  not  less  importance  than  many 
of  the  results  obtained  liy  great  niathematic  effort. 
As  early  jis  1784  Laplace  issued  his  Thcoric  du 
Mouvciuciit  et  de  la  Figure  dcs  Pliiiii'tcs,  and  in 
181'2-14-20  his  Th(one  aiialytiquc  dis  Fruhahiliivs. 
'I'he  last  remains  a  classical  work  to  algebraists, 
though  extremely  diHicult,  the  theory  being  applied 
not  only  to  ordinary  chances  and  avi;rages,  out  to 
causes  of  ]ilienomena  and  vital  statistics. 

Lajdace  was  gifted  with  great  power  of  memory 
and  keen  scientiHc  sagacity,  as  well  as  with 
singular  skill  in  interpreting  nature  by  means  of 
the  higher  mathematics.  He  showe<l  some  personal 
vanity,  but  was  of  an  amiable  disposition,  frequently 
assisting  young  men  of  promising  parts.  His  con- 
stant good  health  was  partly  attributable  to  his 
abstemiousness.  Lai)lace  died  at  Paris,  5th  March 
1827.  In  1878  the  Academy  undertook  a  13-vol. 
edition  of  his  (Eurrcs  compUics. 

LaplaiMl  is  neither  a  political  nor  a  geographi- 
cal unity  ;  it  is  simply  the  collective  name  for  the 
extensive  region  in  the  nortli  of  Europe  that  is 
inhabited  by  the  Lapps.  On  the  N.  it  is  bouniled 
by  the  Arctic  Ocean,  on  the  XW.  by  the  Atlantic, 
on  the  E.  by  the  White  Sea  ;  its  southern  limits 
coincide,  roughly  s]ieaking,  with  66"  N.  lat.,  tiimigh 
Lapps  are  sometimes  found  as  far  south  as  63°  N. 
lat.  Ill  Norway  and  Sweden.  Norwegian  Lapland 
is  of  course  a  mountainous  country,  its  coasts  cleft 
by  the  narrow,  steep-walled  fj<uds.  In  Swe<lish 
Lapland  the  most  characteristic  features  are  ridges 
with  narrow  valleys  between,  the  latter  generally 
partly  hllcd  with  long,  narrow  lakes.  Farther 
east,  in  Finnish  and  Kussian  Lapland,  the  surface 
is  more  level,  the  rivei>i  and  lakes  become  more 
numerous,  marshes  are  frequent,  and  ne.xt  the 
Arctic  Ocean  barren  tundras  ;  and  many  square 
miles  are  covered  with  forests  of  lir  and  spruce! 
N'et  low  ranges  of  iiills  occur  in  some  distri<'ts,  as, 
tor  instance,  the  I'mbdek  Mountains,  in  the 
peninsula  of  Kola.  .Some  of  the  lakes  are  of  large 
size  :  Lake  Enare  or  Inara,  in  Finnish  Lajjland, 
has  an  area  of  1147  scj.  m.  ;  Lake  Imandra  is 
05  miles  hmg  by  9  w  ide  ;  and  Lake  Nuot,  .'J5  miles 
hmg  by  7  wide.  The  ri\'er  Tana,  which  Hows 
nortli  to  the  Arctic  Sea,  is  the  second  longest  river 
of  Norway  ;  and  several  other  rivers  of  considerable 
size  How  into  the  White  Sea  and  the  tjulf  of 
Botlinia,  as  the  Tuloni,  the  Keiiii,  &e.  The 
summer  is  short  ami  coiii))aratively  hot,  owing  to 
the  fact  that  the  sun  scarcely  ever  sinks  below  the 
horizon  during  the  tliriH,'  months  that  summer  lasts. 
During  this  perioil  the  mosquitoes  are  a  terrible 
l)lagiie.  For  seven  or  eight  weeks  in  winter  the 
sun  does  not  rise  above  tlie  horizon  ;  comiiarative 
darkness  prevails  ail  the  time,  except  wlien  the 
snow-covered  landscape  is  illuminated  by  the 
weird  ccnuscations  of  the  aurora  borealis.  The 
i'.old  in  winter  is  excessive,  the  Iheiniomeler 
generally  indicating  sixty  degrees  of  fmst,  and 
sometimes  more  ;  but  owing  to  the  luevalent  still- 
ness of  the  air  the  cold  is  not  felt  so  severely  as 
might  be  expected.  Tli<!  total  Lapji  pojiulation  is 
:il)Out  28,000,  thus  distributed  :  18,000  in  Norway, 
7000  iu  Sweden,  nearly  800  in  Finland,  and  2(K)0  in 
Russia.  15ut  there  are  also  nuiiK'i'ous  settlers  be- 
hmging  to  these  four  nationalities  in  Laplaml, 
cliieHy  engaged  in  agriculture,  hunting,  trading, 
and  in  administrative  work,  some  of  them  uo  doulit 


.  the  descendants  of  the  criminals  transported  thither 
from  Denmark  three  centuries  ago. 

[  The  Lajqis,  who  call  themselves  Sabnie  or  Sabme- 
ladsjak  (the  Norwegians  call  them  Finns,  whilst 
the  Finns  they  call  Kva>ns  or  Qva'iis),  belong  to 
the  Ural-Altaic  stock,  and  are  consecpiently  closely 
related  to  the  Finns  (Suomi).  As  a  race  they  are 
the  shortest  ]ieo)de  in  Kurope  (4  or  5  feet  in 
height),  and  the  most  bracbycephalic.  In  other 
respects  they  are  sparer  of  body,  with  dark,  bristly 
hair  and  scanty  beard,  and  short,  often  bamly,  legs. 
Although  not  very  muscular  they  are  callable  of 
great  exertion  and  fatigue,  and  frequently  live  to  a 
great  age  (eighty  or  more).  The  mouth  is  large, 
the  lips  tliick,  and  the  eyes  small  and  piercing, 
but  not  obliquely  set.  The  Lapps  are  usually  dis- 
tinguished as  Mountain,  Sea,  Forest,  and  Kiver 
Lapps.  The  Mountain  La|ips,  the  backbone  of  the 
race,  are  nomads  ;  they  move  constantly  from  i>lace 
to  place  in  order  to  lind  sustenance  (Arctic  moss) 
for  their  reindeer  herds,  their  only  source  of  wealth. 
In  summer  they  go  down  to  the  fjords  and  coasts, 
but  spend  the  rest  of  the  year  in  the  mountains 
and  on  the  plains  of  the  interior.  The  Sea  Lapps, 
mostly  impoverished  ^Mountain  Lapps,  or  tiieir 
descendants,  dwell  in  scattered  hamlets  along  the 
coast,  and  live  by  lishing.  The  Forest  and  Kiver 
Lapps  are  nomads  who  have  taken  to  a  settled 
mode  of  life :  they  not  only  keep  domesticated 
reindeer,  but  hunt  and  fish.  The  nomad  Lapps 
live  all  the  year  round  in  tents.  The  reindeer 
supplies  nearly  all  their  wants,  exce]it  coll'ee, 
tobacco,  and  sugar.  They  li\e  on  its  llesh  and 
milk  ;  they  clothe  themselves  in  its  skin  ;  and  use 
it  as  a  beast  of  burden.  In  winter,  harnessed  to  a 
boat-sliajied  sledge  (pulk),  it  takes  them  the  long- 
est journeys,  across  frozen  hikes  and  rivers,  and  over 
the  mountains,  and  through  the  forests.  It  is  coni- 
])iited  that  there  are  400,000  reindeer  ill  Lapland, 
for  the  most  part  semi-wild.  In  his  personal  habits 
and  in  his  clothinij  the  Lapp  is  the  reverse  of 
cleanly.  He  is,  however,  very  good-natured, 
rather  prone  to  self-indulgence  when  the  oppor- 
tunity presents  itself  (which  is  not  often),  but  at 
other  times  sober  enough.  As  a  rule,  he  is  '  saving, 
almost  miserly,'  'sellish  and  'cute  in  all  his  deal- 
ings,' not  very  trustworthy  in  the  matter  of  speak- 
ing the  truth,  but  on  the  w  hole  inclined  to  take 
lif(!  easily.  His  imagination  is  easily  excited,  and 
he  is  reai^ily  susci^ptible  to  religious  impressions  of 
a  sensational  type;  a  notable  '  epidemic  '  occurred 
at  Koutokeiiio  in  Norwegian  Lajiland  in  1848-51. 
'I'he  Lajijis  all  profess  Christianity  ;  those  of  Nor- 
way ami  Swe<leii  belong  to  the  Lutheran  Church, 
those  of  Kussia  to  the  Greek  Church.  I^apland 
witches,  who  are,  more  correctly  sjieaking,  wizards, 
have  been  famous  from  very  early  limes.  The 
jirincipal  instrument  of  divination  was  a  curious 
oval-sliaiied  drum,  covered  with  a  variety  of  figures 
and  signs.  In  very  early  times  the  Lapi>s  ludbably 
came  much  farther  .south  in  both  Scandinavia  and 
Russia  ;  the  bones  of  men  of  a  short  race,  idcnlilied 
with  the  Lapps,  have  been  discovered  in  several 
ancient  Scandinavian  burial  mounds.  The  Norse- 
men treateil  the  Lapps  as  a  subject  race  as  early  as 
the  9lli  century,  but  had  to  recomiuer  them  ill  the 
14tli  ;  the  Russians  followeil  suit  in  the  lltli,  and 
the  Swedes  in  the  10th.  From  the  KUli  to  the 
I7tli  century  the  Lapjis  were  ke|il  in  a  state  little 
better  than  slavery  by  Swedish  adventurers  known 
as  nirkarlians.  lint  at  the  present  day  both  the 
Scandinavian  governments  bestow  upon  them  every 
kindness. 

See  Sir  Arthur  de  C'.ipell  Urooke,  A  Winter  in  Lapland 
(1827);  Lxstailius,  Jonrnul  (\>VM);  TroinliuU,  Under 
tlir  liaya  of  thf  Aurora  Boriaiia  (2  vols.  188.'));  Du 
t'liaillu,  7'iu  Land  of  the  Midnit/IU  Hun  (2  vols.  1881); 
Itee,  White  Sea  Peninmla  (1882)"and  Land  of  the  Nortli 


LA    PLATA 


LARAMIE 


517 


Wind  (1S75);  Lieutenant  Temple  in  Proc.  Boil.  Gcoft. 
.Soc.  (1S80);  Lcem,  An  Account  of  the  Ldplitnilcis  of 
Finmark  (Pinkerton's  Vopaijei)  ;  and  David  JlacKitchie, 
The  Testimony  of  Tradition  ( 18'J0 ).  For  folklore,  see  also 
Friis,  Lappish  Afi/lholoiji,  &c.  ( 1871 ) ;  Donner,  Lifder  der 
Lappen  (lfi'6) :  and  Poestion,  LappUindischc  Mdrchen, 
ic.  ( 1SS5).  Many  Lapp  and  Finnish  parallels  are  given  in 
Jones  and  Kropfs  Mwjmr  Folk-talcs  [li<S[>). 

La  Plata,  the  capital  of  the  Arjjeiitinian  pro- 
vince of  Buenos  Ayres,  was  foumleil  in  1S8'2,  after 
Buenos  Ayres  city,  from  whicli  it  is  aliout  30  miles 
SE.,  hail  been  niaVle  the  federal  capital.  The  new 
city  was  rapidly  liuilt,  with  wide  streets,  that  are 
now  mostly  paved,  and  over  a  score  of  open  squares; 
the  central  portion  is  lit  with  the  electric  light, 
the  rest  with  kerosene  lamps,  ami  there  is  a  service 
of  tramways.  The  only  liuildin.^s  of  note  are  the 
hai^dsonie  eapitol  and  other  oltices  of  the  govern- 
ment, an  observatory,  several  chapels,  and  a  line 
railway  station.  There  are  scores  of  hotels,  inns, 
and  cafes.  The  city  has  a  college,  and,  7  miles 
away,  a  hospital  and  an  a.sylum  for  the  insane. 
Among  the  manuf.actories  already  established  is 
one  of  cotton  and  woollen  tissues.  A  canal  con- 
nects a  harl)our  « Inch  has  been  constructeil  at  La 
Plata  with  a  larger  outer  harbour  at  Ensenada,  on 
the  La  Plata  Paver.  Pop.  (1888)  of  municipality 
(including,  however,  Ensen.-xila  and  a  country  dis- 
trict of  nearly  60  sij.  m.),  50,80.3. 

La  Plata,  Rio  dk,  a  wide  estuary  of  South 
America,  between  Uruguay  on  the  north  and  the 
Argentine  Republic  on  the  south,  through  which 
the  watei-s  of  the  Parami  and  the  I'ruguay  sweep 
down  to  the  ocean.  It  is  alxmt  '200  miles  long, 
•28  wide  at  Buenos  Ayres,  and  UO  miles  broad  at 
its  mouth,  between  Maldonado  and  Cape  Saii 
.Antonio.  The  northern  shore  is  somewhat  steep 
and  lofty,  but  that  aloni;  the  province  of  Bueno>- 
Ayres  is  low  and  Hat,  with  wide  sandbanks  that 
prevent  ships  from  approaching  closely  to  the 
shore.  The  estnary  ha-s  thus  no  shelter  from  the 
tempe.stuous  storms  that  come  from  the  sonlli- 
west  ;  and  even  the  only  good  harbour,  that  at 
Montevideo,  is  open  to  the  south-east.  The  afflu- 
ents of  the  La  Plata  drain  an  area  estimated  at 
1,600,000  sq.  m.,  anil  the  outHow  of  the  estuary  is 
calculated  at  about  ,J2,000,(MK)  cubic  feet  per  minute 
— a  volume  exceeded  only  by  that  of  the  Amazons  : 
the  yellow,  muddy  stream  is  recognisable  (iO  miles 
out  at  sea.  For  the  navigation  of  the  affluents,  see 
P.\R.\fil  AV,  P.\R.\N.i,  and  I'lUGCVY.  The  estuary 
was  discovered  in  l.il.5  or  1516  by  Diaz  de  Soils, 
who  was  shortly  afterwards  roasted  and  eaten  by 
the  Indians  on  its  bank.  See  Sir  Horace  Runi- 
bold's  (imtt  Silver  Bircr  ('2d  ed.  1890). 

La  Porte,  capital  of  La  Porte  county,  Indiana, 
at  the  junction  of  several  important  railways,  50 
miles  ESE.  of  Chicago.  It  manufactures  wooden 
and  woollen  goods,  and  ships  large  quantities  of 
ice.      Pop.  T19.J. 

Lappenbers,  .Iohann  Martin,  a  German 
historian,  was  born  30th  .Inly  1794,  in  Hamburg, 
and  pursued  liistorical  and  ijolitical  studies  in  Edin- 
burgh, London,  Berlin,  and  ( Idttingen.  He  became 
the  re])re.sentative  of  his  n.ative  city  at  the  Prussian 
court  in  18'20,  and  in  18'23  Wius  a]>pointed  keejier  of 
the  archives  to  the  Hamburg  senate,  an  appointment 
whicli  he  held  for  forty  years.  He  died  at  Ham- 
burg on  '28th  November  186.5.  The  book  by  which 
he  is  liest  known  is  the  careful  and  painstaking 
Genchichtc,  von  F-mjInml  (2  vols.  1834  37),  which 
wa-s  continued  by  Paiili  13  vols.  1853-58),  and 
translated  into  English  by  B.  Thorpe  (3  vols.  184.5- 
.57).  Besides  this  Lappenberg  com])leted  Sartoriiis" 
Hi.slorii  of  the  Oriffin  of  the,  ilemuin  Ilmisa  ('2 
vols.  1830),  wrote  Imoks  on  the  histoi-y  of  Heligo- 
land  and   the  Steelyard   in    London,    and    edited 


valuable  historical  documents  relating  to  Hambnrg 
and  Bremen,  and  old  cliroiiiclers,  such  lus  Thietniar 
of  Merselmrg,  Arnold  of  Liil>eck,  iS:c. — these  latter 
for  Pertz's  Moniimenta  (Icrmanice  Historica.  See 
Memoir  by  E.  H.  Meyer  (1867). 

Lapsed  ( I.dl'xi),  the  designation  applied,  in  the 
early  centuries  of  the  Christian  churcli,  to  those 
who,  overcome  by  heathen  persecution,  did  nol 
continue  faithful  to  the  Christian  religion.  They 
were  distinguished  .according  .as  they  had  s.acriKceil 
{sacrijiaili )  or  burned  incense  ifhnrijiruti)  to  idols. 
or  had  purcha.sed  a  certificate  (//tc/ZiM)  from  the 
authorities  to  the  efi'eet  that  they  had  done  so 
(libeUatici).  Afterwards,  during  "the  Diocletian 
persecution,  those  were  included  among  the  lapsed 
who  had  given  up  copies  of  the  Scriptures  ( ?r«(// 
tores).  The  lapsed  were  at  first  punished  by  ex 
communication,  .and  their  reception  into  the  church 
again  was  strenuously  resisted :  but  in  the  3i'i 
century  a  milder  course  was  generally  adopted 
with  regard  to  them.  The  treatment  of  the  lapsed 
was  one  of  the  practical  questions  most  earnesth 
discussed   in   the   early  church.     See   No\'.\tian  ; 

also  DllNATI.ST.S.  • 

Lapwilli;  ( Vanellus  vulgaris),  a  common  British 
bird  in  the  jilover  family  Char.adriid.a?.  The  familiar 
cry  is  eclioed  in  tlie  names  Pnirif,  Scotch  I're.s 
weep.  Old  English  Wi/jic,  and  French  Di:rhiiit : 
while  the  regular,  slow  ilapinng  of  the  long,  rounded 
wings    is    referred    to   in    the    title   lapwing.      It 


Lapwing  (  VaneUws  vulgaris ). 

usually  resides  in  Britain  all  the  year,  and  is  widely 
distributed  across  Europe  and  Asia.  Its  haunt: 
are  marshy  pastures  and  moorlands  ;  its  food  worms, 
slugs,  and  insects  ;  its  nest  little  more  than  a  depres 
sion  in  the  ground  ;  its  eggs,  four  in  number,  olive 
green  to  stone-buff  in  ground  colour,  with  blackish 
brown  blotches,  are  laid  in  .\pril.  When  dislurlieil 
the  female  runs  from  the  nest,  while  her  mate,  with 
devious  Hight  and  anxious  cries,  strives  to  divert 
attenlion  away  from  the  nest.  .After  the  young 
are  hatched,  tiie  parents  both  exhibit  loving  solici- 
tude. The  adults  are  about  a  foot  long,  with  crested 
head  and  very  beiiutiful  nluiiiage,  which  almost 
baffles  brief  description.  The  birds  themselves  are 
e.aten,  and  the  eggs  are  highly  esteemed.  Most  of 
the  plover  eggs  sold  in  Britain  are  lapwings'  eggs 
gathered  in  the  Nctbirlands  and  North  Gerniaiiy. 
See  Plovki:  ;  and  Howard  Saundei-s,  Manual  of 
liriti.'ih  Birds. 

Lar,  ca)>ital  of  the  district  of  Laiistan,  in  south 
Persia,  situated  on  a  well  wooded  phain,  60  miles 
from  the  Persian  (iulf  and  170  SE.  of  Shiiaz;  with 
tradi'  ill  toliacco,  cotton,  and  grain.      Pop.  12,(M)0. 

La  Kaiiiee.    See  Oiida. 

Laramie,  a  river  which  rises  in  northern 
Color.ido,  flows  generally  NE.  through  south- 
eastern Wyoming,  and  enters  the  North  Fork  of 
the  Platte  at  Fort  Laramie,  after  a  course  of  about 


518 


LARBOARD 


LARDNER 


200  miles.  If  <x""ps  name  to  a  large  couTity  <if 
Wvomiiii;;  to  the  Laiaiiiic  Plains,  a  treeless  [ilateau 
of  \Vyomin<;,  aUoiit  7->l>()  feet  aliove  sea-level,  ami 
some"30(Xl  sq.  m.  in  e.\tent :  ami  to  the  Laramie 
Mountains,  a  Rocky  Mountain  range  which  l)oun<ls 
this  plateau  on  the  north  and  east.  Laramie  City, 
Wyoming,  on  this  great  plain,  ami  on  the  Union 
I'acilic  itailroad.  ."iT:5  mile>  W.  of  Omaha,  has  a 
rolling-mill  an<l  lailway  shojis.      I'i>p,  GSSS. 

L.\li,\JllE  ISEU.'i,  the  name  given  liy  American 
geologists  to  certain  strata  wliieh  appear  to  be 
intermediate  in  age  between  the  Cretaceous  and 
Tertiary.  The  strata  are  well  developed  in  Utah 
and  Wyoming,  and  consist  chiefly  of  lacustrine 
strata  :  they  contain  numerous  se.ams  of  lignite, 
and  hence  '  are  often  called  the  lignotic  series. 
While  the  vertebrate  remains  of  the  Laramie  are 
essentially  Mesozoic  in  character,  the  plants  are 
just  as  iineiiuivocally  Tertiary.  It  would  seem 
from  this  that  a  Tertiary  flora  was  contempor- 
aneous with  a  Cretaceous  fauna. 

Larboard.    See  Steering. 
Larceii.v.    See  Theft. 

Lar<'ll  [/.Kri.r),  a  genus  of  trees  of  the  natural 
order  Conifera',  differing  from  lirs(  Abies)  in  having 
the  cones  ovate-oblong,  about  an  inch  in  length, 
the  scales  of  which  are  atteniiated  at  the  tip,  and 
not  falling  oft  from  the  axis  of  the  cone  when  fully 
ripe,  and  the  leaves  deciduous  and  in  clusters, 
e.Kcept  on  shoots  of  tlie  same  year,  on  which  they 
are  single  aiul  scattered.  The  Common  Larch 
{L.  eiintprra  or  Al/ics  Lari.c)  is  a  native  of  the 
mountains  of  the  south  and  middle  of  Europe,  and 

is  found  also 
in  Asia,  where 
it  extends 
much  farther 
north  than  in 
Eurojie,  even 
to  the  limits 
of  perpetual 
snow.  The 
date  of  the 
introduction 
of  the  larch 
into  Ih'itain  is 
lixed  by  some 
authorities  at 
about  l()29; 
but  it  was  for 
many  years 
treated  as  a 
rare  and  curi- 
ous plant,  and 
grown  in  ])ots 
in  green- 
houses  by  the 
few  that  pos- 
se.ssed  it,  till 
the 
f  the 


Coimuon  Larch  {Larix  europwa) 

t,  twig  with  slinots ;   h,  twig  with  male  (m)  "^•^■''^'' 

and  I'ciimle  (/)  fiowcr-s  :    c,  mature  eoiie;  ^  .^^^^^ 

d,  needle  with  section.  )niddle 


18th  century 
when  it  began  to  be  extensively  planted  ;is  .a  forest- 
tree.  It  has  changed  the  aspect  of  whole  districts, 
particularly  in  Scotland,  where  it  was  introiluced 
at  Dawick",  reeblesshire,  in  ITio,  and  at  Dunkeld 
and  lilair,  Perthshire,  in  1738.  The  ])erfectly  erect 
and  regularly  tapering  stem  of  the  larch,  its  small 
branches,  its  regular  conical  form,  and  its  very 
numerous  and  very  snuill  leaves,  m.ake  its  as])ect 
l)eculiar,  an<l  very  dillerent  from  that  of  any  other 
tree  seen  in  liritain.  It  attains  a  height  of  (10  to 
100  feet,  and  an  age  of  '200  years.  The  larch  grows 
rapidl,v,  and  is  usefnl  even  from  an  early  age  ;  the 
thinnings  of  a  jilanlal ion  being  emiiloyed  for  ho|)- 
poles,  palings,  \-c.,  and  the  older  timber  for  a  great 
variety  of  purposes.     It  is  very  resinous,  does  not 


readily  rot  (many  notable  Italian  pictures  are 
painted  on  panels  of  larch  ),  is  not  readily  attacked 
by  worms,  and  is  much  used  in  shipbuilding.  It  is, 
however,  very  apt  to  warp,  and  is  theiefore  not  well 
suited  for  planks.  Larch  hark  is  used  for  tanning, 
although  not  nearly  eijual  in  value  to  oak-bark.  In 
Siberia,  where  large  tracts  of  larch-forest  are  not 
unfrei|uently  consumed  by  accidental  lires,  the 
scorched  stems  yield,  instead  of  a  resin,  :i  gum  simi- 
lar to  gum-arabic,  reddish,  and  completely  soluble 
in  water,  which  is  known  as  Orniburrj  (ii(»),  and  is 
used  for  cementing  and  in  medicine,  ami,  notwith- 
standing a  somewiiat  resinous  smell,  even  as  an 
article  of  food.  In  warm  countries  a  kind  of 
Manna  (q.v. )  exudes  from  the  leaves  of  the  larch 
ill  the  hottest  season  of  the  year,  h;iving  a  sweetish 
taste,  with  a  slight  llavour  of  turpentine.  It  is 
gathered  principally  in  France,  and  is  known  as 
Bn'an^on  Mainia,  or  Larch  Mnntiti.  The  larch 
woods  of  Britain  liave  of  late  years  sufl'ered  greatly 
from  a  disease  in  which  the  centre  of  the  stem 
decays;  the  nature  and  causes  of  this  disease  are 
very  imperfectly  understood,  but  it  seems  to  be 
suliiciently  ascertaine<l  that  those  iilantations  are 
peculiarly  lial)le  to  it  which  are  formed  where  any 
kind  of  lir  has  ])reviously  grown,  and  those  least  so 
which  are  regularly  thinned,  so  that  the  trees  enjoy 
.abundance  of  fresh  air.  The  larch  does  not  dislike 
moisture,  but  stagnation  of  water  is  very  injurious 
to  it,  .and  thorough  drainage  is  therefore  necessary. 
There  are  varieties  of  the  comuuin  larch  remark- 
able for  crowded  branches,  for  pendulons  branches, 
and  for  other  jieculiarities,  wliich  are  sometimes 
planted  as  ornamental  trees.  The  Common  Ameri- 
can Larch  (L.  (imcricaiia) — the  Tamarack  or  Hack- 
m.itack — distinguished  by  very  small  cones,  is 
common  in  the  northern  jiarts  of  North  America, 
and  on  the  Alleghany  ^lountains,  often  cover- 
ing extensive  tracts.  It  is  a  noble  tree,  much 
resembling  the  common  larch,  .and  its  timber  is 
highly  valued.  t)ther  American  species  are  the 
AVestern  Larch  (L.  ocrideni(ili.i) — also  called  Tam- 
arack— and  the  smaller,  alpine,  L.  Li/ii//ii.  The 
Himalayan  Larch  (L.  Gn'/fi//isu)  abounds  in  the 
Himalayas,  but  is  generally  a  small  tree,  '20  to  40 
feet  high.  Its  cones  are  larger  llian  those  of  the 
common  larch.  The  Gohlen  Larch  (L.  Kdiiijijiri), 
a  native  of  Japan,  is  described  by  Fortune,  who 
introduced  it  in  1852,  as  a  beautiful  tree  grow- 
ing to  the  height  of  about  120  to  VM  feet,  with 
corresponding  girth  of  bole.  It  has  not  proved 
hardv  in  any  except  the  mildest  jiarls  of  liritain. 
SeeC.  Y.  I\Iichie,  The  Larch  (Edin.  1882). 

Lard,  the  fat  of  the  hog.  Until  after  the  first 
qn.artcr  of  the  10th  century  lard  was  only  used  for 
culinary  purposes  and  as  the  base  of  various  oint- 
ments in  nieclical  use.  The  enormous  extent,  how- 
ever, to  wliiili  jiork  was  raised  in  .-Vmcrica  rendered 
it  necessary  to  liml  some  other  apjdications  for  .so 
valuable  a  material,  and  large  qnantities  were 
])ressed  at  a  low  temjieratnre,  by  which  the  stearine 
and  oleine  were  scjiarated.  The  former  w  .o-s  used 
for  candle-making;  and  the  latter  soon  became  an 
imjiortant  article  of  coirimerce  as  a  lubricant,  under 
till"  name  'lard  oil,  which  was  f(mnd  to  be  a  valu- 
able lubricant  for  machinery.     See  Oil.,  Stkarine. 

LardlK'r.  Dionvsiu.s,  a  successful  i)o))ulariser 
of  physical  science,  was  born  in  Dublin,  lid  April 
17!t:t,  and,  after  four  years  as  clerk  to  his  father, 
a  solicitor,  entered  Trinity  College.  He  first 
attracted  attention  by  a  Treatise  on  Alficbraic 
CIciiiiictri/  (  18'2.'l),  and  a  work  on  J^iffcmitial 
and  Jiiicr/ra/  Calritlus  (182.">).  liut  he  is  best 
known  as  the  originator  and  editor  of  Larchier's 
Ci/cl/ipai/ia,  a  series  of  132  volunu's  on  .scien- 
tilic  subjects,  published  between  1830  and  1844. 
Lardner    liiniself  wrote    the  volumes  treating  of 


LARDNER 


LARK 


519 


mechaiiios,  hydrostatics,  geometry, aritlinietic,  heat, 
ami  electrioity.  This  was  followed  iiii  by  the 
historical  series  entitled  the  Cabinet  Lihrari/  (I'J 
vols.  lS30-3"2)  aud  Museum  uf  Science  and  Art 
(12  vcds.  I854~5l)).  He  also  wrote  several  useful 
liandbooks  of  vavio\is  branches  of  natural  philo- 
sophy, lu  1828  Lardner  had  been  appointed 
professor  of  Natural  l'hiloso|)hy  an<l  Astronomy 
in  I'niversity  Collejte,  London  ;  but  in  1840  lie 
lost  his  chair  tlirouj;h  ninninj;  away  with  the  wife 
of  an  army  oflieer,  who  claimed  i'SdOO  damages 
from  him.  However,  Lardner  went  to  the  United 
States,  and  there  made  live  times  that  sum  by 
lecturing;.  He  lived  in  Paris  from  1845  to  1859, 
and  died  at  Naples  on  29lh  April  1S59. 

Lardner.  N.\thaniei..  an  English  divine,  wa.s 
born  at  HawUslinrst,  in  Kent,  in  1084,  and  stmlieil 
in  London,  afterwards  at  Utrecht  and  Leyden.  He 
belonijed  to  a  body  of  English  Presliyterians  who 
had  become  Unitarians.  He  died  at  Hawkshurst 
on  24th  .luly  1768.  His  Creflihiliti/  of  the  Gospel 
Historif  (2  vols,  in  1727  and  12  vols,  in  1733-55) 
and  his  Jewish  and  Hcatlien  Testimonies  (4  vols. 
1764-67)  have  secured  for  him  a  jilace  amonf;  the 
inoilern  npoloijists  for  Christianity.  See  the  Life 
by  Kippis  preli.xed  to  his  works  (10  vols.  17SS1. 

Laroail.  Edmund,  Frencli  Canadian  author, 
was  born  at  St  (Jregoire.  Province  of  Quebec,  12th 
March  1848,  and  was  educated  at  the  college  of 
Ste  Marie  de  Mannoir,  at  Victoria  Ct)llege,  and  at 
M'Gill  University.  He  was  called  to  the  bar  in 
1870,  became  piofessor  of  Law  in  M'Ciill  Univer- 
sity in  1876,  and  in  1886  was  elected  in  the 
Liberal  interest  to  the  provincial  legislature.  Hi~ 
works,  written  in  French,  include  histories  ol 
Canadian  law  (1872)  and  literature  (1874),  and 
Melanges  historiqnes  et  litteraires  (1877). 

Lares,  Peiiate.S.  llaiies.  The  Lares  were 
tutelary  deities  lielonging  originally  to  the  Etruscan 
religion,  ami  worshipped  especially  as  the  pro- 
tectors of  a  particular  locality.  In  Roman  usage 
they  were  usually  regarded  as  tlie  tutelary  deities 
of  a  house  (familiares  or  domestici).  and  their 
images  stood  on  the  liearth  in  a  little  shrine 
(aetles),  or  in  a  small  chapel  (lararium).  We 
find  also  Lares  comjiitales  (of  cross-roads).  Lares 
ricoriim  [of  streets).  Lares  rn>r(lcs{oi  the  countrj'), 

&C.      See  ANCK.STOU  WflTISHIT'. 

The  Penates  were  the  old  Latin  guardian  deities 
of  the  Inmsehold,  and  of  the  state  regarded  as  a 
union  of  households.  Their  seat  was  originally 
in  Lavinium,  and  the  name  is  generally  joined 
with  Di.  By  a  natural  enough  case  of  metonymy 
both  the  words  Penates  and  Lares  came  to  be  used 
as  ei|uiv;ilent  to  a  home  or  a  hearth. 

The  .Manes  were  the  deified  souls  of  the  departed, 
the  gods  of  the  Lower  World  considered  its  benevo- 
lent spirits,  in  contrast  to  lame  .and  Icmiircs,  male- 
volent spirits  ;  but  the  name  frequently  applied 
merely  to  the  departed  spirit,  ghost,  or  shaile  of  a 
dead  person. 

These  divinities  were  by  no  means  exactly  differ- 
entiated from  each  other,  an<l  obviously  all  owed 
their  existence  to  the  fundamental  idoius  under- 
lying the  woi-ship  of  ancestors,  with  its  altar,  the 
domestic  he.arth — the  most  ])ersistent  and  perhaps 
the  oldest  of  all  the  religi<ms  of  man. 

Largo,  a  village  of  Fife,  on  Largo  Bay,  and  at 
the  biu-e  of  Largo  Law  (965  feet),  14  miles  NE.  of 
Kirkcalily.  It  has  a  bronze  statue  by  T.  Stuart 
Burnett  ( 1885)  of  Alexander  Selkirk,  who  was  born 
here.      Pop.  of  i)arish,  2324. 

Largo,  an  Italian  word,  used  in  music,  to 
denote  very  slow  time,  and  especially  in  composi- 
tions where  the  sentiment  is  rpiile  solemn.  J.ar- 
ghetto  is  the  diminutive  of  Lanju,  the  time  being 
slightly  quicker. 


Largs,  a  watering-place  of  Ayrshire,  on  the 
Firth  of  Clyde,  14  miles  S.  of  (Jreenoek,  and  11 
N.  of  Ardrossan  liy  a  railway  opened  in  1885. 
Here  on  12th  October  1263,  in  a  w,ar  between 
Scotland  and  the  Noi-se  colonies  of  Man  and  the 
Isles,  Alexander  111.  defeated  Ilaco  of  Norway, 
who  with  160  ships  and  20,000  men  had  descended 
nil  the  co.ast  of  Ayrshire.  I'op.  (1851 )  2824  ;  ( 1891 ) 
3IS7.   See  Wemi/ss  Bai/  ami  Largs  (VvaaXay,  1879). 

Larieio.    See  Pine. 
Larida-.    See  Cum,. 

Larissa  (called  by  tlie  Turks  Ycnisher),  f.amous 
in  ancient  times  .as  the  chief  town  of  Thes.saly, 
is  now  a  place  of  13,169  inhaliilants,  one-third 
Greeks  and  onethiid  Turks.  Larissa  was  ceded 
by  Turkey  to  Greece  in  1881.  It  stands  on  the 
Salambria  (anc.  I'cnrus).  in  the  fertile  |)lain  of 
Thessaly,  .anil  has  manufactures  of  silk,  cotton,  and 
tobacco.  It  was  the  centre  of  the  Turkish  opera- 
tions in  the  war  of  Greek  Lilieration,  and  was 
occupied  liy  the  Turks  in  the  war  of  1897. 

Laristan,  the  south-west  part  of  the  Persian 
province  of  Kernian  (ipv.).  Area,  22,954  sq.  m.  ; 
pop.  about  90,000. 

Lark  (Alamla  arvensis),  a  familiar  songster, 
otherwise  well  known  as  the  symbol  of  poets  and 
the  victim  of  epicures.  It  is  included  among 
Passerine    birds,    type    of   the   family  Alaudidte, 


Lark  [Alauda  arvensis  \. 

which  comprises  over  100  species,  widely  distrib- 
uted in  Europe,  Asia,  and  Africa,  with  spreading 
stragglers  in  Australia  and  North  America.  The 
plumage  is  usually  sandy  brown,  the  colour  of  the 
ground;  the  lower  legs  bear  scales,  behind  and  be- 
fore :  the  hind-claw  is  very  long  and  straight  ;  the 
bill  is  strong  and  conical.  The  skylark  measures 
about  7  inches  in  length  ;  the  males  and  females 
are  alike  in  plumage;  the  food  consists  of  in.seets, 
worms,  and  seeds.  It  nests  in  April,  making  a 
structure  of  dry  grass  in  a  hollow  in  the  ground, 
usually  among  growing  gra.ss  or  cereals.  The  eggs 
(three  to  five)  are  ilnll  gray,  mottled  with  olive- 
l>rown  ;  two  broods  are  usually  leareil  in  the  season. 
Great  crowds  of  larks  come  to  Britain  from  the 
Continent  in  autumn,  and  later  on  there  is  a 
general  movement  southwards.  It  Inus  been 
introduced  into  Australia  and  New  Zealand,  and. 
to  .some  extent  in  the  L'nited  States. 

'The  lark  is  a  ciealuie  of  light  and  air  and 
motion,  whose  nest  is  in  the  stublde  and  whose 
tryst  is  in  the  clouds."  Its  song  'at  heaven's  gale,' 
idealised  by  Shelley,  Wordsworth,  Hogg,  and  other 
poets,  'is  not  especially  melodious,  but  blithesome, 
sibilant,  and  unceasing.'  '  Its  type,'  Burroughs 
well  says,  '  is  the  grass,  wlicre  the  bird  makes  its 
home,  abounding,  multitudinous,  the  notes  nearly 
all  alike  ami  in  the  same  key,  liut  ra|iid,  swarming, 
prodigal,  showering  down  as  thick  and  fast  lus 
drops  of  rain  in  a  summer  shower.'    The  bird  very 


520 


LARKHALL 


LA    ROCHEFOUCAULD 


rarely  sings  on  the  ground,  but  when  soaring  or 
descemlinj,'. 

Tliere  is  no  doubt  that  larks  wlien  very  numer- 
ous, as  tliey  often  are,  may  do  considerable  damage 
to  autumn-sown  wheat  or  young  green  crops.  Tliis 
fact  is  sometimes  urged  to  excuse  the  custom  of 
catching  them  for  the  cage  or  table.  They  are 
caught  in  horsehair  nooses,  or  netted,  or  shot  after 
being  attracted  and  mesmerised  by  'twirling'  some 
bright  glistening  object.  '  It  is  estimated  that, 
during  last  century,  in  Leipzig  alone  over  live 
million  larks  were  received  annually  ;  in  1S54  there 
were  brought  to  the  London  markets  over  400,000; 
and  the  oliicial  returns  state  that  in  1867-G8  more 
than  a  million  and  a  quarter  were  taken  into 
Dieppe. ' 

In  Europe  there  are  several  other  common 
species  of  lark — e.g.  the  Wood-lark  (A.  arborca) 
and  the  ("rested  Lark  (.4.  cristata),  the  former  of 
which  is  locally  distributed  in  England  and  Wales, 
and  the  latter  a  rare  visitor.  Among  the  other 
genera  may  be  noted  the  Shore  or  Horned  Larks 
(Otocorys),  with  a  hornlet  over  each  eye;  these 
are  '  the  only  larks  which  occur  regularly  in  the 
western  hemisphere.'  One  species  (0.  alpestris) 
has  occasionally  been  found  as  a  straggler  in 
Britain,  just  as  the  species  of  -Uauda  occasionally 
wander  beyond  their  usual  range. 

Larkhull.  a  small  town  of  Lanarkshire,  3  miles 
SE.  of  Hamilton,  with  coal-pits  and  mills.    Top.  f>34SI. 

Larkliaiiat  the  capital  of  a  district  called  '  the 
Eden  III  .Siiid,"  stands  loO  miles  X.  of  Hyderabad 
by  rail.  It  manufactures  silk  and  cotton  cloth, 
and  has  a  great  cotton  market.     Pop.  13,1SS. 

Larkspnr  {Delphinium),  a  showy  and  ])opular 
genus  of  garden -flowers  of  the  natural  order 
Ranunculacere,  natives  of  the  temperate  and  cold 
regions  of  the  northern  hemisphere,  and  compris- 
ing both  annual  and  jjerennial  species.  The  well- 
known  Rocket  Larkspur  (D.  Ajacis),  a  native  of 
Switzerland,  and  the  Branching  Larkspur  (D.  con- 
solida),  a  native  of  most  parts  of  Europe,  doubt- 
fully so  of  Uritain,  are  fandliar  examples  of  the 
annual  species ;  and  Harlow's  Larkspur  ( D.  liar- 
loivii)  and  the  Great-llowered  Larkspur  (/J.  ijraii- 
dijloruiii)  are  not  unfrequent  examples  of  the 
perennial  species  ;  but  many  more  showy  varieties 
have  been  produced  by  cultivation  and  selection 
which  have  displaced  the  older-fashioned  .species. 
D.  (iluciali:  is  one  of  the  nujst  distinctively  alpine 
plants  in  the  world.  D.  Stap/iisar/ria,  corru])ted  to 
Stavesacre,  yi^hls  an  alkaloid  extract  from  its 
seeds,  named  Delphine,  which  is  highly  poisonous 
even  in  very  small  doses,  acting  ohietly  on  the 
nervous  system. 

Lar'llUka  (ancient  Citiiim),  the  chief  port  of 
Cyprus,  27.|.  miles  S.  of  Nicosia.  A  small  fort  built 
by  the  Turks  in  IG'2.")  is  now  used  as  the  ilistrict 
gaol,  and  Ihi:  English  have  built  a  convenient  court- 
house, custom-house,  and  other  public  ollices  on  the 
sea  front,  as  well  as  two  iron  jiiei's  accessible  at 
all  times  by  small  boats.  Seagoing  vessels  are 
obliged  to  lie  H  mile  from  the  shore  owing  to 
the  shallow  water.  The  Greek  church  of  St 
Lazarus,  an  ancient  Byzantine  building,  is  in  good 
preservation,  and  there  is  an  Knglisli  liurial-ground 
attached  to  it  with  monumental  inscriptions  as  oM 
as  KiS.).  Even  if  Cilium  be  not  the  Cliittim  of 
the  Old  Testament,  it  is  certain  that  the  king  of 
Citium  paid  tribute  to  the  .\ssyriaii  Sargon  in  707 
B.C.  as  appears  from  a  cuneiform  inscription  on  a 
bas-relief  dug  up  at  Fjarnaka  in  1846,  and  now  in 
the  mu.seum  at  Berlin.  C'arobs,  or  locust-beans, 
cotton,  and  grain  are  exported  ;  and  goods  of 
western  manufacture  of  all  kinds  arc  im|iorteil, 
chielly  from  Germany.  A  most  interesting  fair 
called  katakUtsmos,   '  the  deluge,'  and  held  every 


year  fifty  days  after  the  Greek  Easter,  is  tradition- 
ally sujiposed  to  be  the  anniversary  of  the  birth  of 
Aphrodite,  and  is  attended  by  Ortliodox  Christian 
Cvpriots  from  all  parts  of  the  island  in  immense 
numbers  (cf.  Jhrudotiis,  i.  199 1.     Pop.  78.3.'?. 

Lariie.  a  market  and  seaport  town  of  County 
Antrun,  at  the  entrance  of  Lou<;h  Larne,  2j  miles 
NE.  of  Belfast  liy  rail.  There  is  daily  communi- 
cation with  Stranraer  by  mail  steamer.     Pop.  4522. 

La  Roclieroiii-aiild.  I'i!.\xcois,  Die  de,  was 

born  at  Paris  on  the  l.">lh  September  1613.  He 
belonged  to  an  old  family,  and  his  father  was  made 
a  duke  by  LimisXUI.  in  1622.  During  his  youth 
he  was  known  as  the  Prince  de  Marsillac.  His 
education  was  .somewhat  neglected.  He  joined  the 
army  when  a  boy,  and  was  jircsent  in  liis  seven- 
teenth year  at  the  siege  of  Casal.  His  life,  says 
Sainte-Beuve.  might  lie  divided  into  four  periods, 
to  each  of  ^^•hich  might  be  assigned  the  name  of  a 
woman — viz.  Mme  de  Chevreuse,  Mme  de  Longue- 
ville,  Mme  de  Sable,  and  lime  de  la  Payette. 
As  a  young  man  he  showed  an  ultra-romantic 
temperament.  Under  the  influence  of  Mme  de 
Chevreuse  he  devoted  himself  to  the  cause  of  the 
queen  in  opposition  to  Richelieu,  ami  became 
entangled  in  a  series  of  love-adventures  and 
political  intrigues,  the  result  being  that  on  the 
flight  of  Mme  de  Chevreuse  he  w.as  forced  to  live 
in  exile  at  ^■erteuil  from  16.39  to  1642.  About  1645 
he  formed  a  liaison  with  the  beautiful  Mme  de 
Longueville.  He  then  joined  the  Frondeurs  and 
was  severely  wounded  at  the  siege  of  Paris.  He 
was  very  uiducky  in  his  political  schemings.  His 
father  died  in  1650,  and  in  1652  he  was  again  badly 
wounded,  whereupon  he  retired  to  the  country  to 
restore  his  health,  which  had  been  shattered  by 
twenty  years  of  battle  and  adventure.  On 
Mazarin's  death  in  1661  he  repaired  to  the  court 
of  Louis  XIV.,  and  abimt  the  same  time  began 
his  liaLson  with  Mme  de  Sabl^.  A  surreptitimis 
edition  of  the  Mrmoires,  which  he  had  written 
while  living  in  retirement,  was  published  by  the 
Elzevii-s  in  1662,  and  as  the  book  gave  wide  offence 
he  disavowed  its  authoi-shi]>.  without,  however, 
finding  many  to  acce|)t  his  denial.  His  lii'flrxiims, 
(III  &iitciices  ct  Mri:riiHi:s  Morii/r.i  apjieared  in  1665. 
Xo  book,  said  Voltaire,  did  more  to  form  the  taste 
of  the  nation.  The  first  edition  contained  316 
pcnsic'i,  which  were  afterwards  expanded  to  about 
700.  His  last  years  were  brightened  by  his  friend- 
ship with  Mme  ile  la  Fayette,  which  lasted  until 
he  died  at  Paris  <m  March  17,  I6S0.  In  his  early 
life  he  bad  married  Andrcc  de  \'ivonne,  by  whom 
he  had  five  sons  and  three  daughters. 

The  Maxiiim  vary  in  length  from  two  or  three 
lines  to  about  half  a  page.  For  brcvitv,  clcarne.ss, 
and  finish  of  style  they  could  hardly  lie  excelled. 
Their  writer  did  not  seek  to  play  the  part  of  the 
mere  epigrammatist,  though  he  has  now  aiul  then 
sai-riliced  his  thought  for  the  sake  of  striking  and 
pointed  ex|iression.  A  vein  of  melancholy  runs 
through  the  book.  It  is  the  work  of  a  man  of 
singularly  keen  and  subtle  intellect,  who  was 
deeply  verseil  in  life,  aiul  had  formed  independent 
judgments  on  most  of  its  relations.  He  was  a  re- 
nior.seIc.ss  analyst  of  man's  character.  '  Everything 
is  reducible  to  the  motive  of  self-interest  '—such  is 
us\ially  said  to  be  the  keynote  of  all  his  philosophy. 
That  is  not,  however,  exactly  correct,  ihnugh  it  is 
true  of  the  book  in  the  nuiin.  La  Kochefoucauld 
tracks  out  self-love  in  its  nu)st  elusive  forms  and 
under  its  cunningest  di-sguises.  He  lays  it  bare 
with  the  most  piercing  insight  and  pitiless  trench- 
alley.  But  he  oci-asionally  ovei-states  his  cii.se 
against  humanity,  tluiiii^;h  forgetluliiess  of  the  fact 
that  self-love  is  not  the  only  motive  by  which  men 
are  impelled.     Head  in  certain  niomls,  the  Maxinu 


LAROCHEJAQUELEIN 


LARYNX 


521 


seem  a  onisliitiju'  exposure  of  man's  baseness  and 
folly  :  read  in  otheis,  they  seem  little  l>etter  than 
a  iMorhiil  libel  on  human  nature.  But  of  their 
writer's  depth  and  keenness  as  a  thinker  there  ean 
be  no  more  (juestion  than  there  can  of  his  wonder- 
ful mastery  of  tei-se  and  incisive  phrase. 

Sec  French  Life  l)y  limiriltau  (  LSflo),  and  the  article  on 
'  La  UochcfoucaidJ'  inchuloii  in  Samte-Beiivc's  J'ortraits 
(/(■  Fcniinis.  The  best  cditiiin  of  Ids  works  is  that  by 
i;ilbert  and  (lourdault  (;i  vols.  lSi;8-S4),  in  the  series  of 
Ortntds  ]^i-rir(iiii.-<  i/c  fa  Fi-Kitce. 

LarooliojsMiueleiii,  Du  Verger  de,  an  old 
noble  family  of  France.  Tlie  name  Du  Verf^er  is 
derived  from  a  place  in  I'oitou.  (ruy  du  Verger 
married,  in  1.505,  the  heiress  of  the  seigneur  of 
Larochejaciuelein.  Several  of  his  descendants  dis- 
tinguished thcTuselves  by  their  devoted  loyalty  to 
the  old  royal  house  against  the  fury  of  the  French 
Revolution. — Hen'IM,  Comte  de  Laroeliejanuelein, 
born  in  1772,  was  an  otticer  in  the  guard  of  Lotus 
XVI.,  and  after  the  10th  of  August  1792  left 
Paris  to  put  himself  at  the  head  of  the  insurgent 
royalists  in  La  Vendee.  He  signali.sed  himself  Ijy 
many  heroic  deeds,  and  for  a  time  successfully 
repelled  the  republican  forces,  but  was  severely 
defeated  by  Westermann,  21st  December  1793,  and 
escaped  with  difficulty.  He  raised  a  new  liody  of 
troops,  however,  in  I'pjter  Poitou,  Init  was  killed 
in  a  battle  at  Nouaille,  4th  iLareh  1794.  His 
her(dc  words  to  his  soldiers  are  memorable  beyond 
most:  'Si  je  recule,  tuez-moi ;  si  j'avance,  suivez- 
nioi ;  si  je  meurs,  vengez-moi!' — His  brother, 
Louis  Dt"  Vekger,  Marquis  de  Larochejaqnelein, 
born  in  1777,  emigrated  at  the  commencement  of 
the  Revolution  ;  returned  to  France  in  1801,  but 
resisted  all  Napoleon's  efforts  to  win  him,  and  in 
1813  pl.aced  himself  at  the  head  of  the  royalists  in 
La  Vendee.  Louis  XVIIL  appointed  him  in  1814 
to  the  command  of  the  army  of  La  Vendee,  and 
during  the  Hundred  Days  he  maintained  the 
royalist  cause  there,  supported  by  the  British. 
He  fell  in  battle  at  Pont  des-Mathis,  4th  June 
1815.  His  wife,  ^Lvrie-Louise  Victoire,  Mar- 
quise de  Larochejaqnelein  (1772-1857),  published 
Memoirex  of  the  war,  of  which  she  was  an  eye- 
witne.ss  ( Hordeau.x,  1815),  which  are  of  real  value 
to  the  historian.  See  her  Life  by  Nettement  {3d 
ed.  Paris,  1S7('>). 

La  Rocliolle.    See  Rochelle. 

Larrey,  Dojiinique  Jean,  Baron,  a  cele- 
brated French  surgeon,  was  born  at  Beaudean,  near 
Bagneres-de-Bigorre,  in  the  Pyrenees,  in  .Inly  1760, 
studied  medicine  in  Toulouse,  and  after  graduating 
served  as  surgeon  in  the  navy.  But  in  1793  he 
transferred  his  skill  to  the  army,  an<l  introduced 
the  '  Hying  ambulance '  service.  After  teaching 
for  a  short  time  at  Toulon  and  Val  de  Grace,  he 
joined  Napoleon  in  It.ily  in  1797  :  and  frmn  that 
tiirii;  onwards  invariably  accompanie<l  the  success- 
ful Corsican  in  his  canipaigns.  In  1805  he  was 
placed  at  the  head  of  the  medico-surgical  depart- 
ment of  the  French  army,  and  a  few  years  later 
was  created  a  baron  of  the  empire.  Larrey  con- 
tinued to  till  important  offices  till  18.30,  when  he 
retired  from  that  i>f  surgeon-general  of  the  Hotel- 
des  Invalides.  He  died  at  Lyons,  25th  .Inly  1842. 
From  his  pen  came  valuable  treatises  on  army 
surgery  and  the  treatment  of  wounds  ;  they  were 
translated  into  most  Kuropean  languages.  .See  the 
(Jcrm.iu  memoir  by  Werner  ( 1885). 

Larva^  the  young  f<niii  of  an  animal  after 
leaving  the  egg,  but  before  acquiring  adult  charac- 
tcri.sties.  Tadpoles  of  Frogs  (q.v.),  caterpillars  of 
Insects  (q.v.),  nauplii  and  zoe.r  of  Crustaceans 
(q.T.),  the  quaint  young  of  Kchinoderms  (q.v.), 
&c.  are  good  illustrations.  There  may  be  no 
larral  stage,  when  the  embryo  grows  continuously 


into  the  adult  form  ;  on  the  other  hand,  the  larval 
life  nuiy  be  longer  than  that  of  the  adult.  Many 
larval  characters  are  recapitulations  of  ancestral 
forms  ;  others  are  special  modilications  .adaptive  to 
larval  life.  See  the  Rev.  J.  Seymour's  I.aiva 
CoUccliiiij  (I ml  Breeding  (1890). 

Larynx  (Gr.  larynx)  is  the  organ  of  voice,  and 
plays  an  important  |>art  in  the  respiratory  process, 
as  all  air  ]ia'*siiig  either  to  or  from  the  lungs  must 
pass  through  it.  It  is  a  conqdex  piece  of  mechan- 
ism, resembling  a  box  composeil  of  pieces  of  carti- 
lage which  are  capable  of  executing  movements, 
and  enclosing  the  vocal- cords  by  which  ]ihonation 
is  produced.  The  larynx  is  situated  between  the 
trachea,  or  windpipe,  and  the  ba.se  of  the  tongue, 
at  the  upper  and  front  part  of  the  neck,  where  it 
forms  a  considerable  projeoticm  (especially  in  nu'ii): 
it  opens  su]ieriorly  into  the  /i/iari/ii.r,  or  throat, 
and  inferiorly  into  the  windpipe.  The  principal 
cartilages  of  which  the  skeleton  of  the  larynx  is 
composed  are  five  in  number — viz.  the  thyroid 
and  cricoid  cartilages,  the  epiglottis,  and  the  two 
arytenoid  cartilages. 

The  t/n/roid  (dr.,  'shield-like')  consists  of  two 
square  plates  of  cartilage  united  in  front  at  an 
acute  angle,  which  forms  the  projection  com- 
monly known  as  the  pomiim  Adami,  or  Adam's 
apple.  Each  of  these  plates  is  piolonged  at 
the  upper  and  lower  posterior  coineis.  The  thy- 
roid cartilage  forms 
almost  the  whole  of 
the  anterior  and 
lateral  walls  of  the 
larynx.  The  cricoid 
(Gr.,  'ring-like') 
cartilage  is  a  ring 
the  lower  margin  of 
which  is  parallel  to 
the  first  ring  of  the 
trachea,  an<l  to  tin' 
last-named  it  is  unit 
ed  by  fibrous  mem 
brane.  Its  tippc  i 
border  is  connectiil 
in  front  with  the 
lower  border  of  the 
thyroid  cartilage  liy 
a  thick  yellow  fibrous 
tissue.  It  presents 
two  articular  sur- 
faces on  either  side 
— viz.  a  lower,  which 
articidates  with  the 
inferior  cornu  of 
the  thyroid  carti- 
lage, and  an  upper, 
winch  is  oval  in 
form,  and  supports 
an  arytenoid  carti- 
lage. The  ari/- 
tcnuid  (Gr.,  'ladle- 
like') cartilages  are 
pyramidal  bodies 
resting  on  the  oval 
articular  surfaces  at 
the  upper  and  pos- 
terior part  of  the 
cricoid  cartilage. 
When  in  nitu  they  present  a  concave  posterior 
surface.  From  their  connection  with  tlie  vocal 
cords,  and  from  their  great  mobility  as  compared 
with  the  two  larger  cartilages,  the  arytcncdds  play 
a  very  important  part  in  the  mechanism  of  the 
larynx.  The  e/ti</lutli.i  is  a  very  tlexible  cartilag- 
inous valve  (fig.  I,/),  siHiated  at  the  ha.se  of  the 
tongue,  and  covering  the  ojiening  of  the  larynx. 
Its  direction  is  vertical,  except  during  deglutition, 
when  it  becomes  horizontal.     It  is  attached  inferi- 


Fig.  1. 

Cartilages  of  larynx  and  epiglottis, 

and  upper  rings  of  trachea,  seen 
from  beliind  :  a,  arytenoid  carti- 
lages ;  h,  sviperior  cornu  of  thy- 
roid eartilage ;  c,  its  inferior 
cornu ;  t/,  posterior  surface  of 
cricniti  ;  /,  epiglottis,  with  its  per- 
forations ;  i,  upper  margin  of  thy- 
roid ;  h,  its  left  inferior  tubercle ; 
/,  trachea. 


522 


LARYNX 


orly  l)y  a  kind  of  pedicle  to  the  angle  of  the  thyroid 
cartilage.  Upon  removing  the  investing  niucons 
membrane  the  cartilage  is  found  to  be  (lerforated 
by  numerous  foramina.  Each  perforation  ailniits 
some  fasciculi,  of  yellow,  elastic,  ligamentous 
tis.sue,  which  expands  on  its  anterior  aspect,  and 
secures  the  return  of  the  epiglottis  to  its  vertical 
position,  independently  of  any  muscular  action. 
Such  is  the  skeleton  of  the  l;uyn.\,  han^'ing  as  it 
does  from  the  hyoid  bone,  witli  which  it  is  con- 
nected by  the  thyrohyoid  ligament  and  certain 
muscles. 

The  various  cartilages  which  have  been  described 
are  connected  with  one  another  by  ligaments, 
the  chief  of  which  are  those  known  as  the  true 
and  false  vocal  cords.  In  their  quiescent  state  the 
former  do  not  lie  parallel  to  each  other,  but  con- 
verge from  behind  forwards.  The  lenyfth  of  the 
vocal  cords  is  greater  in  the  adult  male  than  in 
the  adult  female,  in  the  ratio  of  three  to  two. 
In  infancy  they  are  very  short,  and  increase  regu- 
larly from  that  period  to  the  age  of  puberty.  The 
mucous  mcMiilirane  of  tlie  larynx  is  part  of  the  ex- 
tensive resi)iratory  tract,  and  is  remarkable  for  its 
extreme  sensibility.  The  length  of  the  chink  or 
aperture  of  the  glottis,  which  is  directed  hori- 
zontally from   before   backwards,   varies,   like  the 


Fig.  2. 

A,  larynx  an<l  trachea  on  deep  inspiration ;  B,  on  phona- 
tion ;  C,  during  falsetto  not«;  D,  appro.\iniation  of  the 
ventricular  hSLHils  or  false  cords  as  it  occurs  in  straining. 


vocal  cords,  until  the  period  of  puberty,  when  its 
length,  in  the  male,  undergoes  a  sudden  develop- 
ment, while  in  the  feinahi  it  remains  stationary. 
In  the  adult  male  it  is  about  eleven  lines  in  lenijth. 

The  larynx  is  provided  witli  two  sets  of  muscles  : 
the  extrinsic,  by  which  the  whole  organ  is  elevated 
or  depressed,  and  the  ititriimc,  whicli  regulate  the 
movements  of  the  various  segments  of  the  organ  in 
relation  to  one  anothci'.  By  the  action  of  tbe.se 
latter  muscles,  aideil,  in  some  cases,  by  the  ex- 
trinsic nm.scles,  the  tension  of  tiie  voc'al  cords  may 
be  increaseil  or  diminished,  and  tlie  size  of  the 
i)j)eningof  the  glottis  regulated  at  will  (see  VoiCK). 
The  nerves  of  the  larynx  are  derived  from  the 
superior  and  inferior  laryngeal  branches  of  the 
pneumogastric  or  vagus  nerve. 

That  the  larynx  is  the  organ  of  voice  is  easily 
proved.  Thus,  alteration  in  the  mucous  membrane 
covering  the  vocal  cords  causes  hoarseness  or  other 
change  of  voice ;  ulceration  of  the  vocal  cords 
ilestroys  or  injures  the  voice;  opening  the  tiachea 
below  the  vocal  cords,  or  section  of  the  infeiior 
laryngeal  nerves,  destroys  the  voice ;  and  sounds 
like  those  of  the  voice  may  be  ])roduced  by  experi- 
ments on  the  dead  larynx. 

DISEA.SK.S  OF  TllK  t^AKYXX. — Lnij/nffitis,  Or  in- 
flammation of  the  larynx,  may  be  either  an  acute 
or  a  chronic  affection.    Acute  laryngitis,  in  its  more 


severe  form,  which  is  fortunately  rare,  commences 
with  a  chill,  which  is  followed  by  fever,  with  a 
full  strong  pulse,  a  hot  skin,  and  a  Hushed  face. 
There  is  also  soreness  of  the  throat,  hoarseness  of 
the  voice,  great  difficulty  in  swallowing,  and  a 
feeling  of  extreme  constriction  of  the  larynx. 
There  is  a  i)ainful  stridulous  cough,  but  only  a 
little  niuois  is  ejected.  Great  ditticultv  in  breath- 
ing occurs  in  severe  cases,  the  act  ot'  inspiration 
being  prolonged,  and  wheezing  results,  in  conse- 
quence of  the  swollen  membrane  of  the  glottis  im- 
peding the  entrance  of  air.  On  examining  the 
larynx,  the  epiglottis  is  observed  to  be  of  a  bright 
red  colour,  erect,  and  may  be  so  much  swollen  as 
not  to  he  able  to  descend,  and  may  close  the  glottis 
during  deglutition  ;  the  other  parts  of  the  larynx 
are  seen  to  be  more  or  less  swollen  according  to  the 
severity  of  the  case.  The  patient  may  exhibit 
symptoms  of  "reat  anxiety  and  distress  ;  his  lips 
may  become  blue,  his  face  of  a  livid  paleness,  his 
pulse  irregular  and  very  feeble,  and  at  length  he 
may  sink  into  a  drowsy  state,  often  jueceded  l)v 
delirium,  and  quickly  followed  by  deatli.  The  dis- 
ease is  very  rapid,  ending,  when  fatal,  in  three  or 
four  days,  and  occasionally  in  less  than  <me  day. 
Although  we  have  here  described  what  may  occur 
in  exceptionally  severe  cases,  acute  laryngitis 
rarely  passes  beyond  hoarseness,  a  feeling  of  con- 
striction, slight  feverishness  associated  with  cough 
and  marked  hoarseness. 

Laryngitis  is  most  commonly  due  to  exposure  to 
cold  ;  but  the  intlammation  rarely  reaches  a  danger- 
ous height  in  these  cases.  The  dangerous  forms 
are  usually  the  result  of  injuiy  (e.g.  swallowing 
boiling  or  corrosive  substances) ;  or  they  may  be  a 
secondary  result  of  ulceration,  or  <lue  to  infectitm, 
such  as  erysiiielas.  In  simple  cases  c<uilinement  to 
a  warm  room,  with  soothing  steam  inhalations, 
will,  if  the  voice  be  reste<l,  usually  ellect  a  cure. 
In  severe  ca.ses  sucking  ice,  leeching,  scaiilicalion 
of  the  swollen  parts,  and  even  tracheotomy  may 
be  necessary.  In  persons  who  use  the  voice  much 
the  ati'ection  is  apt  to  become  chronic,  or  indeed  to 
be  chronic  from  the  beginning  without  the  super- 
vention of  an  acute  attack.  Laryngotomy  is  dis- 
cussed at  Tkachkoto.mv. 

Ulceration  may  occur  in  phthisis,  sypliilis, 
lupus,  and  after  tyjihoid  fever.  Cancer  of  the 
larynx  may  lead  to  ulceration,  but  the  primary 
disease  constitutes  a  tumour.  Innocent  growths 
are  also  met  with,  the  more  common  varieties 
being  pajiillomata  (warts)  and  libi-omata.  Par- 
alysis of  the  laryngeal  muscles  may  involve  those 
muscles  only  which  close  the  glottis,  in  which  case 
the  all'ecticm  is  often  due  to  hysteria  and  easily 
cured.  Paralysis  of  the  muscles  which  open  the 
glottis  or  allecting  all  the  muscles  is  usually  due  to 
some  grave  disease  of  the  nervous  system,  chest, 
or  throat,  and  is  often  incurable.  The  treatment 
must  dejiend  U]ion  the  condition  discovered  by 
larvngoscoi)ic  examination  in  each  case. 

'i'liK  Lakvngo.scoi'K. — -Altliough  successful  at- 
temjits  had  been  previimsly  made  by  Garcia  to 
explore  the  reces.ses  of  the  larynx  by  means  of  !i 
reliecting  mirror,  it  was  not  until  two  German  phy- 
siologists, Tiirck  and  Czermak,  took  U])  the  subject, 
in  18.57  and  18r>8,  that  the  great  im]iortance  of  laryn- 
gosco]iy  wa.s  first  generally  recognised.  The  laryn- 
goscope is  a  small  mirror  jilaccd  on  a  stalk  attached 
to  its  margin,  at  an  angle  of  from  120  to  l.W", 
the  stalk  being  about  six  inches  in  length.  The 
mouthpiece  of  .a  large  rellector,  with  a  central 
opening  through  which  the  observer  looks,  is  held 
between  the  molar  teeth  ;  or,  what  is  better,  the 
rellector  may  be  attached  to  a  spectacle  fnime 
or  forelieail  band  by  a  stiltly  working  ball-and- 
socket  joint.  The  rays  of  the  sun  or  of  a 
good    lamp  are   concentrated    by   means    of    this 


LA    SALETTE 


LAS   CASAS 


523 


reHector  on  tlie  larviij,'eal  minor,  wliicli  is  placed 
against  the  soft  palate  and  uvula.  The  larvum'oal 
mirror,  previously  warmeil,  and  introdueed  with  the 
riu'lit  hand,  whicli  rests  liy  two  iini.'ei's  on  the  jaw, 
is  maintained  at  such  an  inclination  thiit  it  throws 
the  li^ht  ilownwards  and  illuminates  the  parts  to 
he  examined,  while  at  the  same  time  it  rellerts  the 
imaijes  of  these  p.arts  into  tlie  e\e  of  the  observer 
thronjih  the  central  opening  of  the  rellector.  By 
this  means  we  can  look  throuj,'li  the  larynx  into 
the  trachea  or  windpipe,  and  can  see  the  actual 
position  of  small  tumours,  ulcers,  &c.,  whose  exist- 
ence would  otherwise  have  been  at  most  only  sus- 
pected ;  and  the  precision  and  accuracy  of  dia- 
jrnosls  to  which  we  can  thus  attain  enable  ns  to 
em]doy  rational  nieans  of  local  treatment  to  an 
extent  th.at  was  quite  impossilile  before  the  intro- 
duction of  larvnj^oscopy.  It  is  also  jiossihle  to 
illnuiinate  the  larynx  by  throwing  a  powerful  and 
concentrated  light  upon  the  front  of  the  throat,  and 
introducing  a  mirror  into  the  dark  mouth  (Durch- 
Ictirlilidiri  of  German  pliysicians). 

La  Salette.    See  Salette. 

La  Salle,  a  city  of  Illinois,  at  the  head  of 
steam-navigation  on  the  Illinois  River  (here  crossed 
by  bridges),  99  miles  by  rail  WSW.  of  Chicago, 
with  which  it  is  also  connected  by  the  Illinois 
Canal.  Bituminous  coal  is  mined  here,  and  the 
city  has  a  large  zinc-rolling  mill  and  smelting- 
furnaces,  besides  manufactures  of  glass  and  iron 
wares.      Pop.  7S47. 

La  Salle,  Abbe  de.    See  Schools,  Christian. 

La  Salle.  Kobert  Cavelier,  Sieiu  de,  one 
of  tlie  greatest  French  explorer.s  in  North  America, 
was  born  at  Rouen  in  1643.  Settling  in  Canada  at 
the  age  of  twenty-three,  he  began  his  travels  with 
an  attempt  to  reach  China  by  descending  the  Ohio 
River,  which  he  supposed  to  empty  into  the  Pacific. 
As  soon  as  he  found  that  the  great  .southern  streams 
drained  into  the  Culf  of  Mexico  he  formed  the  ])ro- 
ject  of  descending  the  Mississippi  to  the  sea.  After 
many  and  severe  hardships  tiiis  long  voyage  was 
concluded,  and  the  arms  of  France  set  up  at  the 
mouth  of  the  gre.at  river,  on  9th  April  1(582.  Two 
yeai-s  later  an  expedition  was  fitted  out  to  establish 
a  permanent  French  settlement  on  the  C!ulf,  whicli 
should  secure  France's  claims  to  the  Mississipju 
valley.  Hut  La  Salle's  had  fortune  pursued  him  ; 
he  mistook  Matagorda  Bay  for  a  moutli  of  the 
Mississippi,  landed  there,  and  then  spent  two  years 
in  unsuccessful  journeys  to  discover  the  great 
river,  while  his  colonists  and  soldiers  gradually 
dwindled  away.  His  harshness  of  manner,  more 
than  his  want  of  success,  embittered  his  followers, 
anil  he  was  a,ssassinated  by  some  of  them  in  March 
16S7.     See  works  by  Francis  Farkman  (q.v. ). 

Lascar,  in  the  East  Indies,  signilies  |iroperly  a 
camp-follower,  but  is  generally  ap|)lied  to  native 
sailore  on  board  of  British  ships,  as,  for  instance, 
the  large  steamers  of  the  Peninsular  and  Oriental 
("ompany.  The  Lascars  make  good  seamen,  being 
both  temperate  and  docile.  They  are  mostly 
Mohammedans,  and  speak,  besides  their  native 
dialects,  a  tinifiin  fmncn  based  on  Hindustani,  with 
English,  Arabic,  and  other  word.s. 

La.s'earis.  (.'o.nstantink,  a  Greek  scholar,  who, 
after  the  capture  of  Constantinople  by  the  Turks, 
Hed  to  Italy,  where  he  was  instrumental  in  reviv- 
ing the  study  of  Greek.  He  wits  a  descendant  of 
the  royal  family  of  Niciea.  Francesco  Sforza,  Dnke 
of  Milan,  made  him  tutor  to  his  daughter  Hip- 
polyta.  Hut  more  important  scenes  of  Lascaris' 
labours  were  Rome  ( where  he  settled  in  the  train 
of  Bessaiion ),  Naples,  and  Messina  ;  at  this  last 
city  he  taught  rlietoiic  and  (ireek  letters  until 
his  death  in  149.3.  His  Greek  grammar,  entitled 
Eroteiiiata,  and  dated  1476,  w.os  the  earliest  Greek 


book  printed  in  Italy.  His  library,  which  is  very 
valuable,  is  now  in  the  Escorial. — .loilN  or  .I.^Nl'S 
L.v.scaeis,  a  member  of  the  same  family,  siirnamed 
Uhynd.VCEXI'S,  born  about  144"),  who  also  found 
an  a.sylum  in  Italy  after  the  fall  of  Constantinople, 
was  employed  by  Lorenzo  de  Medici  in  the  collec- 
tion of  ancient,  especially  Greek,  classical  atithor.s. 
On  the  death  of  Lorenzo,  Lascaris  went  to  Paris, 
where  he  taught  (!reek  with  the  coniitenanco  of 
Charles  Vlll.  and  Louis  Xll.  ;  but  he  eventually 
seltled  in  Rome,  and  w.as  appointed  by  Leo  X. 
superintendent  of  his  (ireek  press  and  of  a  seminary 
for  young  Greeks.  He  was,  moreover,  employed 
as  ambassador  at  the  court  of  Francis  I.,  and  after- 
wards at  Venice,  and  died  in  Rome  in  15.35.  From 
Rome  he  edited  several  edifiones  jiriiiripcs  of  the 
Greek  classics.  His  own  works  were  chiefly  gram- 
matical, with  a  volume  of  letters  and  e|iigrams. 
See  Villemain's  Lascaris,  on  les  Grccs  clii  15'"  Siicle 
(Paris,  1825). 

Las  Casas,  Bartolo.me  de.  Bishop  of  Chiapa, 
in  Mexico,  surnamed  the  Apostle  of  Ihr  Indians, 
was  born  in  Seville  in  1474.  He  studied  at  Sala- 
manca, sailed  with  his  father  in  the  third  voyage 
of  Columbus,  and  again  in  1502  accompanied 
Nicolas  de  Ovando,  the  new  governor,  to  His- 
paniola.  Eight  years  later  he  was  ordained  to  the 
priesthood.  In  1511  he  was  summoned  to  accom- 
[lany  Diego  "\'elasquez  to  Culia,  and  he  a.ssisted  in 
the  pacification  of  the  island,  and  its  division  into 
repartimicntos  or  allotments  of  natives,  and  was  re- 
warded in  the  usual  way  by  an  e,ncomi(nd(t  or  com- 
mandery  of  Indians,  held  together  with  his  friend 
Pedro  de  Renteri.a.  But  ere  long  a  burning  love 
for  the  unhappy  natives  and  indignation  at  their 
sufferings  filled  his  heart ;  and  he  gave  up  his  own 
slaves,  and  went  to  Spain,  wdiere  lie  ])revailed  on 
Cardinal  Ximenes  to  send  a  commission  of  inquiry 
to  the  West  Indies.  Its  proceedings  by  no  means 
satisfying  his  zeal,  he  revisited  Spain  to  procure  the 
adoption  of  stronger  measures  for  the  protection  of 
the  natives.  Finally,  to  prevent  the  entire  extirpa- 
tion of  the  native  race  by  the  toils  to  whicli  they 
were  subjected,  he  proposed  that  the  colonists 
should  be  permitted  to  import  negro  slaves  for 
the  more  severe  labours  of  the  mines  and  sugar- 
jil.antations  ;  and  the  jnojiosal  was  adopted.  Las 
Casas  has  on  this  account  been  represented  as  the 
author  of  the  slave-trade,  although  it  has  been 
])roved  to  ha\e  existed  before  this  i)roposal  was 
made,  and  it  should  be  remembered  that  afterwards 
he  bitterly  repented  the  advice  that  he  had  given. 
He  al.so  attempted  to  carry  out  Castilian  peasants 
as  coloiii.sts  to  the  "West  Indies,  but  failed  in  his 
scheme,  and  spent  eight  years  ( I.'i22-.S0 )  of  mortilica- 
tion  in  austere  seclusion  and  devoted  .study  within 
the  walls  of  a  Dominican  convent  in  Hispaniola. 
In  15.30  he  again  visited  Spain,  and,  after  missionary 
travels  in  Mexico,  Nicaragua,  Peru,  and  Guatemala, 
returned  to  devote  four  years  to  advocate  the  cause 
that  lay  closest  to  his  heart.  During  this  jieriod 
he  wrote  his  Veyntc  Jiazones  and  his  Brcvissima  He- 
larion  lie  In  Drstrut'i-ion  dc  las  Indias,  which  w.as 
soon  translated  into  the  other  languages  of  Europe. 
The  rich  bishopric  of  Cuzco  was  oflered  to  him,  but 
he  iireferred  tlie  jioor  one  of  Chiapa,  and  reached 
its  chief  city,  Ciudad  Real,  in  1544.  He  was 
received  with  the  most  active  hostility  by  the 
colonists,  and  was  .soon  mortilied  to  the  heart  by 
(yliarles  V.'s  time  serving  revocation  of  the  New- 
Laws,  which  bis  own  devoted  energy  had  extorted. 
He  maintained  his  ground  that  the  granting  of 
encomieiidas  to  ])rivate  per.sons  was  llagrant  in- 
justice, but  bowed  his  head  to  the  storm,  returned 
to  Spain,  and  resigned  his  see  (1.547).  Three  years 
later  he  argued  befiue  a  Junta  at  \'iilladolid  with 
splendid  force  and  eloquence  against  Sepulveda, 
who  defended  the  right  of  carrying  on  war  against 


52* 


LAS    CASES 


LASSALLE 


the  Indians.  In  1555  he  appealed  in  terms  of 
marvellous  boldness  to  Philip  II.  not  to  sell  the 
claims  of  the  crown  to  the  reversion  of  the 
encomiendas,  and  was  snccessfiil  in  thns  avertin<; 
a  measure  which  would  have  l)roni;lit  final  and 
hopeless  slavery  upon  the  Indians.  His  last  work 
was  to  get  the  aiit/ioirin  or  court  of  justice  restoreil 
to  the  oppressed  natives  of  tluatemala.  He  ended 
his  life  in  a  convent  in  Madrid,  July  l."i66,  at  the 
a<,'e  of  ninety- two.  His  most  important  work,  the 
unlinished  Ilistnria  tic  his  Jm/inx,  was  printed  in 
1875-76.     See  the  adnurable  Life  by  Helps  (1SG8). 

Las  Cases,  Emm.vniel  Dieidoxne,  Comte 

HE,  the  historiof;rapher  and  companion  of  Napoleon 
in  St  Helena,  was  born  in  17i)(),  near  Revel  in 
Lanjjnedoc.  He  was  ,a  lieutenant  in  the  navy  be- 
fore the  Revolution,  but  then  fled  from  France, 
and  supported  himself  in  Enj,'land  l>v  [)riv,ate 
teachinj,'.  After  Napoleon  became  consul.  Las 
Cases  established  himself  as  a  bookseller  in  P.aris. 
A  work  that  he  wrote.  Alias  historiqiic  (180,'?-4), 
attracted  the  attention  of  the  emperor,  who  made 
him  a  baron,  and  employed  him  in  the  administra- 
tiim.  After  Waterloo  lie  obtained  leave  to  share 
the  exile  of  Napoleon  in  St  Helena,  and  there  the 
ex-emperor  dictated  to  him  a  part  of  his  Memoirs. 
In  1816  Las  Cases  was  sent  back  to  Europe,  and 
after  Napoleon's  death  pnldished  Memorial  tli- 
Ste-nmnc  (8  vols.  182I-2.S),  of  which  O'Meara's 
Napoleon  in  Exile  is  a  kind  of  continuation,  lioth 
works  attack  Sir  Hudson  Lowe,  Napoleon's  keeper, 
charginj;  him  with  undue  harshness  towards  his 
pri.soner.     Las  Cases  died  at  Passy,  loth  May  18-42. 

LaSCO,  JoH.\N'N-E.s  .\,  or  Jan  L.V.SKI,  Polish 
reformer,  was  a  man  of  high  family  and  was  born 
at  Lask,  in  the  modern  government  of  Piotrkow, 
about  1499.  He  was  educated  at  ("racow  by 
his  uncle,  chancellor  and  primate  of  Poland,  and 
chose  to  enter  the  church.  He  studied  further  in 
Rome  and  Bologna,  was  ordaine<l  in  15'21,  and  two 
years  later  at  Basel  came  in  contact  with  Erasmus 
and  Farel ;  the  former  by  his  will  left  his  library 
to  A  Lasco.  From  this  journey  the  young  Pole 
returned  in  15'26,  his  mind  greatly  exercised  with 
the  question  of  church  reform.  At  length  he  was 
caught  in  the  current  of  the  Reformation,  and, 
quitting  his  native  land  in  lo.'iS,  he  settled  at 
Louvain  in  the  Netherlands.  But  a  year  or  two 
later  he  moved  to  Emden  in  East  Friesland.  The 
countless  of  that  litlli!  province  appointed  him 
superintendent  of  church  all'airs,  and  he  used 
his  inlluence  to  establish  a  presbyterian  form  of 
church  government.  The  Emden  Cntce/tixm,  defin- 
ing the  religious  doctrines  of  the  East  Friesland 
Church,  was  in  great  ]iart  his  work.  But  in  1550 
he  accepted  an  invitation  by  Cranmer  to  visit 
Englaml — he  liad  already  passed  the  winter  of 
1548— 19  there  — and  became  heail  of  an  inlluen- 
tial  congregation  of  Protestant  refugees  in  Austin 
Friars,  London.  Mary's  accession  in  15.53  drove 
him  back  to  Emden  and  scattered  his  (lock. 
After  staying  a  while  in  Frankfort-on-Main,  he 
finally  returned  to  Poland  in  1.556.  There  the 
Reformation  v.as  m.akiug  rapid  headway,  and  was 
a.ssisted  in  no  inconsiderable  degree  by  the  labours 
of  A  Lasco  as  superintendent  of  the  churches  in 
Little  Poland.  He  died  at  Pirczow,  on  Sth  Jan- 
uary 1560.  See  DiiUon's  Jo/in  a  I.asro  {ling,  trans, 
from  the  German,  I8S6),  which  oidy  brings  the 
narrative  down  to  A  fiasco's  second  arrival  in 
England  ;  G.  Pascal,  Jean  cle  Lasco  (1894). 

Laslikar.    See  Gw.\hor  (city). 

Las  I'alnias,  iljlef  town  of  the  Canary  Islands 
(q.v.),  on  tln^  north  ejist  coast  of  Gran  Canada,  is 
the  seat  of  a  bishop,  ami  has  sea-bathing  and  ship- 
building-yards.    Pop.  17,754. 

Lassa.    See  Lha.ssa. 


Lassalle,  ?'EnniN'.\ND,  who  may  justly  be 
regarded  a-s  the  historic  originator  of  the  social- 
democratic  movement  in  (Jermany,  was  born  at 
Breslau,  April  11,  1825.  Like  Karl  Marx,  the 
founder  of  international  socialism,  he  was  of  Jewish 
extraction.  Lass.alle's  father  was  a  pros])erons 
merchant,  who  intende<l  that  his  son  also  should 
follow  a  business  career.  But  as  young  Ferdinand 
prcferreil  a  student  life,  be  went  to  the  uidversities 
of  Breslau  ami  Berlin,  where  he  devoted  his  time 
chiefly  to  philology  and  iddlosophy.  In  philosophy 
he  was  a  disciple  of  Hegel  ;  and  it  was  his  first 
literary  andiition  to  write  a  work  on  Heraclitus 
from  the  Hegelian  point  of  view.  During  a  stay 
in  Paris  be  made  the  acquaintaiu'e  of  Heine,  who, 
like  so  many  of  Lassalle's  friends,  formed  the 
highest  opinion  of  his  talent  and  energy. 

On  his  return  to  Berlin  in  1846  he  met  the 
Countess  Hatzfeldt,  a  lady  at  variance  with  her 
husband,  a  wealthy  German  ncdile  of  high  rank. 
Taking  \i\>  her  case,  Las.salle  prosecuted  it  before 
thirty-six  tribunals,  and  after  eight  years  of  litiga- 
tion forced  the  husband  to  a  compromise  on  terms 
most  favourable  to  the  countess. 

As  a  decided  ailberent  of  the  denuicratic  republic 
Lassalle  to<dv  a  part  in  the  revolution  of  1848,  and 
for  disobedience  to  the  authorities  at  Dii.sseldorf, 
where  he  then  resided,  spent  six  months  in  prison. 
He  lived  in  the  Rhine  country  till  1858,  when  he 
returned  to  Berlin  ;  and  .-it  the  .same  date  brought 
out  the  work  on  Heraclitus,  which  had  been  laid 
aside  during  the  Hatzfeldt  suit.  It  at  once  gave 
bim  a  high  [dace  in  the  learned  circles  of  Germany. 
In  conducting  the  Hatzfeldt  case  Lassalle  had 
gained  a  very  consideiable  legal  knowledge,  and 
this  he  now  utilised  in  writing  a  work  on  the  jdiilo- 
sophy  of  law,  entitled  Si/xfem  of  Anjiiiyed  Hieihts 
(18t)i).  It  was  an  attempt  to  ajqdy  the  historical 
method  to  legal  ideas  and  institutions,  but  we  may 
well  question  whether  he  has  not  often  re.'ul  into 
history  the(n-ies  of  very  doubtful  validity. 

For  many  years  after  1848  no  o]i])ort\inity  for 
fruitful  action  had  occurred  to  men  of  democratic 
opinions.  The  opening  of  the  Bismarck  era  in 
1862  was  therefore  a  welcome  event  for  I.ass.alle, 
the  aim  of  the  latter  being  ti>  resuscitate  the 
demwracy  in  face  of  the  half  hearted  Liberalism  of 
his  time.  His  first  effort  was  to  show  the  futility 
of  the  Liberal  jiolicy  in  o]iposing  army  reform. 
A  lecture  delivered  in  the  s]iring  of  ]8()2  'On  the 
connection  of  the  present  period  of  history  with 
the  idea  of  the  working-cdass  '  strongly  brought  out 
the  contrast  between  Lassalle's  position  and  the 
Liberalism  of  his  day.  In  his  Open  Letter  to  a 
comnnttee  of  German  workmen  at  Leipzig  (1863) 
he  still  more  clearly  expressed  his  dissent  from 
the  current  Liberalism,  and  in  luminous  and  com- 
])rehensive  language  exp(mnded  the  leading  points 
of  his  social  democratic  ]irogramnie.  His  success 
in  advocating  his  views  now  encouraged  him  at 
Leipzig  to  found  the  I'niversal  German  Working- 
men's  Association.  Its  jirogramme  was  .a  simple 
one — by  all  legal  means  to  agitate  for  universal 
sullrage.  In  the  autumn  of  1863  Lassalle  con- 
tinued his  agitation  on  the  Rhine,  and  in  the 
winter  of  1863-64  he  attemjited  to  gain  Berlin  over 
to  his  cause,  hut  without  success.  The  chief 
litcraiy  product  of  the  winter  was  his  liiixtiat- 
Sehulzc,  or  t'upital  iiiid  /.iilioiir,  in  which  he 
attacked  Schulze-Delitzsdi,  the  i]rondnent  repre- 
sentative of  German  Liberalism.  In  May  1864 
Lassalle  held  the  last  'glorioiis  review  of  his  army  ' 
on  the  Rhine. 

In  the  summer  of  1864  Lassalle  met  on  the 
Rigi  Helene  von  IXinniges,  a  laily  whom  he 
had  previously  known,  and  by  wliiuu  he  had 
been  fascinated.  They  resolved  to  marry,  but 
encountered    the    strongest    opposition    from    the 


LASSALLE 


LASSEN 


525 


lady's  parents.  UndiM-  pressure  from  them  the 
l:iily  at  last  reiiouiiceil  l.assalle  in  favour  of  the 
Walhu-hiau  Count  Kaoowitza.  Mad  with  raj,'e  and 
niortiliiation,  Liissalle  sent  lo  botli  her  fatlier  and 
lover  a  challenjje,  which  Wiis  accepted  by  the  latter. 
At  the  Carou^'e,  a  suhurh  of  Geneva,  Las.salle  fell 
mortally  wounded,  and  died  two  days  afterwards, 
Auj,'ust  31,  l.Sti4.  His  unworthy  end  in  such  a 
miserable  all'air  can  hardly  be  reirarded  as  an 
accident ;  it  was  the  outcome  of  the  weaker 
eleuieuls  in  a  remarkable  character. 

Liissalle  has  left  no  systematic  exposition  of  his 
views.  In  the  Ji((.ttiatKii/iiilzi\  Avhich  is  the  nearest 
approach  to  such  an  exi)o.sition,  we  lind  philosophic 
statement  too  frei|uently  interruided  by  unprofit- 
able controversy  and  unju.->tiliable  abuse  of  his 
opponeut.  We  can  only  fjlean  from  his  works  the 
most  important  points  of  his  teachiuf;.  Lassalle 
held  that  the  historical  development  of  Europe  is 
to  culminate  in  a  democracy  of  labour,  in  which 
political  interests  shall  be  subservient  to  social — 
the  social  democracy.  The  democracy  of  workers, 
who  are  destined  to  be  the  makers  and  repre- 
sentatives of  the  new  order,  are  to  be  guided  by 
science  and  tlie  hii;he>t  ideals  of  culture  and  nn>ral- 
ity.  But  they  cannot  by  their  isolated  efforts  fulfil 
this  high  mi.->iou  ;  they  need  organisation.  This 
organisation  they  will  lind  in  the  state,  which  is, 
and  shoulil  be,  simply  the  great  association  of 
workers,  inasmuch  as  they  constitute  the  over- 
whelming majority  of  every  community.  The 
Liberal  or  bourgeois  regime  has  degraded  the  state 
to  the  function  of  policeman  or  mere  protector  of 
property.  It  will  be  the  aim  of  the  new  epoch  to 
raise  the  state  to  its  high  and  ancient  position, 
iis  the  promoter  of  freedom,  culture,  morality,  and 
progress ;  its  mission  is  the  development  of  the 
iiumau  race  in  the  way  of  freedom. 

The  working-class,  however,  need  adequate 
material  means  to  enable  them  to  rise  to  the  high 
vocation  reserved  for  them.  At  present  they  are 
crushed  by  the  iron  law  of  u-ages,  the  law  which 
holds  the  central  and  decisive  position  in  the  sys- 
tem of  Lassalle,  and  which  therefore  requires  a 
more  lengthened  statement.  In  his  exposition  of 
the  law  Lassalle  founds  on  Uicardo  and  the  classi- 
cal economists  generally.  It  was  the  doctrine  of 
those  economists  that  the  workman's  wage  repre- 
sents what  is  necessary  for  his  subsistence  (in 
accordance  with  the  standard  of  living  usual  anmng 
his  cla-ss)  and  for  the  continued  supply  of  labour 
in  his  family.  It  is  not  a  lixed  (juantity  ;  it  ri.ses 
or  falls  according  as  the  sup]dy  of  labour  de- 
crea-ses  or  increiises  in  proportion  to  the  demand 
for  it.  A  rise  in  wages  leads  to  greater  comfort, 
more  marriages,  &c.,  and  thcM*  tend  to  increase 
the  supiily  of  labour,  and  thereljy  again  to  lower 
wages.  A  fall  in  wages  leads  to  want,  sickness, 
abstinence  from  marriage,  <.Vc. ,  and  these  teiul  to 
diminish  the  supply  of  labour,  and  thereby  to  rai.se 
wages.  There  is  contimial  oscillation,  but  it 
never  rises  permanently  above  or  falls  perman(Mitly 
below  the  point  necessary  for  subsistence  ami  the 
continuance  of  the  working-class.  Thus,  so  long 
as  the  present  economic  order,  of  which  the  ircm 
law  of  wages  is  an  implicate,  continues,  its  inevit- 
able operation  leaves  no  hoi)e  of  real  im]irovement 
for  the  working-d.-uss  ;  in  other  words,  it  follows 
from  till-  iron  law  that  the  existing  order  must  be 
fun<lamen tally  changed. 

For  the  iron  law  of  wages  is  merely  an  im]dicate 
in  the  rejgime  of  ca|iital,  the  exposition  of  which 
Is  the  main  theme  of  the  liaslkttSoliulzi;.  With 
La-ssalle  capital  is  a  liLstorical  category,  the  rise  of 
which  we  can  trace,  the  disappearance  of  which 
uuiler  altered  circumstances  we  can  foresee.  The 
historical  conditions  necessary  for  the  rise  of  capi- 
tal were  the  opening  of  the  world-market  through 


geographical  discovery,  colonisation  and  conquest, 
the  dcvcKipmeiit  of  machinery,  and  of  tlie  division 
of  labour,  and  aliove  all  the  approjiriation  of  the 
instruments  of  labour  by  a  class,  who,  employing 
another  cla.ss  of  labourers  free  but  destitute  of 
capital,  pay  them  a  subsistence  wage  and  ])ocket 
the  surplus.  Thus  the  general  exposition  of  capital 
leads  us  back  again  to  the  iron  law  of  wages. 

It  is  the  gist  of  Lassalle's  polemic  against 
Schulze-Delitzsch  that  the  working-class  cannot 
by  their  unassisted  elibrts  escape  from  the  iron  law 
of  wages.  The  state,  who.se  function  it  is  to  pro- 
nmte  and  facilitate  tlie  great  juogressive  movements 
of  humanity,  must  furnish  them  with  the  necessary 
cai>ital.  As  the  easiest  and  mildest  means  of  tran- 
sition Lassalle  brought  forward  bis  scheme  of  pro- 
ductive associations  with  state-credit,  by  which  the 
workmen  would  be  their  own  capitalists,  would 
secure  the  full  product  of  labcur,  ami  would  thus 
gain  for  themselves  the  entire  benelit  of  an  ever- 
increasing  production.  His  scheme  would  more- 
over ]irovide  the  organic  germ  of  an  ince.ssant 
de\elopment,  for  the  associations  would  themseh'es 
combine  into  credit  and  insurance  unions,  until  the 
industries  of  the  whole  country  should  form  a  well- 
ordered  unity,  superseding  the  present  anarchic 
condition  of  things  by  a  systematic,  rational  and 
equitable  organisation  of  labour.  As  the  associa- 
tions would  be  self-governing,  there  would  l)e  most 
adequate  guarantee  for  freedom  ;  the  state  would 
simply  see  that  its  credit  was  not  abused.  In 
ell'ect  the  socialism  of  Lassalle  is  a  collectivism, 
resembling  that  of  Kodbertus  and  JIarx,  but  in 
many  obvious  points  also  difl'ering  from  theirs. 
Since  La.ssalle's  time,  the  political  economy  of 
Geiniany  has  been  revolutionised,  and  the  social 
democrats  are  an  increasing  power  in  the  lleichstag 
and  the  country. 

Bernstein  edited  for  the  social  democratic  party  in  3 
vols,  an  edition  of  Lassalle's  socialistic  writings  ( 1891-94). 
See  the  articles  M.\R.X,  SOCIALISM :  monographs  on 
Lassalle  by  Bernstein  ( Eng.  trans.  1 S93 ),  Brandt  ( 1895 ), 
Aaberg  (18S3);  Brandes,  Ferdinand  Lassalle  (2d  Ger- 
man ed.  1888);  Muhring,  tieschichtc  dcr  iJvutschtn  iiocial- 
demokratie ;  Laveleye,  Le  SoHalisme  conianporain  (Eng. 
trans.  Socialism  of  To-day)  \  J.  Kae,  Conkiitjwrari/ 
Socialism ;  W.  H.  Dawson,  Gentian  Socitilisiti  and 
Ferdinand  Lassalle;  the  Countess  Kacowitza's  Memoirs 
( 1879);  and  George  Meredith's  Tnujic  Comedians. 

Lassoil.  AViLLl.VM,  astronomer,  born  at  I><dton, 
in  Lancashire,  on  18tli  June  1799,  '  belongs  to  that 
class  of  observers  who  liaxe  created  their  own 
instrumental  means.'  He  built  himself  a  private 
observatory  at  Starlield,  near  Liverpool,  about 
18'20,  and  observe<l  there  ilown  to  IStil.  There,  too, 
he  cimstructed  and  mounted  eiiuatorially  rellecl- 
ing  telesci>])es  of  9  inches  aperture  and  2  feet 
aperture  successively.  The  speculum  of  tlie  latter 
was  polished  by  means  of  a  machine  of  La-ssell's 
own  invention.  With  this  .same  telesciqie  he  dis- 
covered the  satellite  of  Neiitune  (1S47);  the 
eighth  satellite  of  Saturn  (1848),  simultaneously 
with  Prof.  Bond  of  Harvard;  and  two  new  satel- 
lites of  Uranus  (18.')1).  In  ISOl  he  went  out  to 
Malta,  and  there  set  up  a  rellectiiig  tidescope  of 
4  feet  a])erture  and  .■?"  feet  focal  length,  mounted 
e(|uatorially  ;  with  this  he  made  ob.servations  until 
Isiw,  chieliy  of  nebiihc  and  tlii'  satellites  he  had 
discovered.  After  his  return  to  ICiighuid  he  trans- 
ferred his  oli.servalory  to  near  Maiilenliead.  There 
he  died  on  5th  October  1880.  See  Mi moirs  of 
Aslron.  Sor.,  vol.  xxxvi.,  fin-  his  work  in  M.alta, 
anil  Trans.  Uni/.  Hoc.  ( 1874)  for  a  descri|ition  of  his 
polishing-machine 

Lassen.  <'11I;isiian,  orientalist,  was  born  on 
'12t\  Oi-lolin  ls(i(t,  111  Mcigen,  in  Norway,  and  studied 
at  (Jhrisliaiiia,  Heidelberg,  ami  Bonn.  He  assisted 
Schlcgel  in  the  imblicatiou  of  the  Jidindi/ana  and 


526 


LASSO 


LATHAM 


Hitopadesa ,  and  translated  into  Latin  Jayadeva's 
Gitagovinda.  He  also  associated  himself  >vitli 
Eugene  Buinouf  in  the  Essui  sur  le  Pali  ( I'aris, 
182t)).  In  1830  he  became  extraordinary  and  in 
1840  ordinary  professor  of  Ancient  Indian  Lan- 
guaj;es  and  Literature  at  Honii,  and  tau^lit  there 
until  liisahled  by  blindness  in  l.S(i-l.  He  edited 
many  Sanskrit  works,  deeply  investijjated  the 
relations  of  the  oriental  langna^^es  and  antii|uilies, 
and  published  several  very  important  books. 
Amongst  them  are  works  on  Persian  Cuneiforms 
(1836  and  18-15);  on  the  Greek  Kings  in  Bactria 
(1838);  Instilutioncs  Lingnw  Prao'iticm  {IS37); 
his  great  work  on  Iiidische  Altertlmmskunde,  a 
critical  history  of  Indian  civilisation  (1844-61  ;  new 
ed.  1867-74),  ^.c.  He  has  oontiibuted  much  to 
our  knowledge  of  the  cuneiform  inscriptions,  of 
the  inscriptions  of  ancient  Italy,  and  of  the  ancient 
and  modern  Iranian  dialects.  He  was  one  of  the 
co-founders  of  the  Zeitsi:lirift  far  die  Kiindc  dcs 
Mori/fii/atides.  Lassen  died  at  Boim,  9th  May 
1876. 

LilS.SO  (Spanish  l(izo),  a  tliin,  well-plaited 
rope  of  raw  hide,  used  in  Siianish  America  for 
catching  wild  cattle,  (tne  end  is  fastened  to  the 
saddle  gear  of  the  man  wlio  uses  it,  the  other  ends  in 
a  small  brass  ring,  by  means  of  which  a  running 
noose,  usually  8  feet  wide,  is  formed.  The  rider 
holds  a  coil  of  the  lasso  in  the  left  hand  ;  with  the 
right  he  dexterously  whirls  the  open  noose  round 
his  head,  and  burls  it  (to  no  great  distance,  but 
with  a  wonderfully  sure  aim)  so  as  to  fall 
over  a  given  object — round  the  horns  of  a  wild 
ox,  or  the  like.  In  Mexico  the  lasso  is  in  rcaia 
( '  the  rope  ' ) ;  thence  the  term  lai-iat  for  a  kind 
of  lasso  in  the  United  States.  The  lasso  has  been 
used  in  warfare  with  deadly  effect.     See  B0L.\.S. 

Lataki'a  (Turk.  Ladikii/cli),  a  <lecayed  seaport 
of  Syria,  Mith  a  sanded-u))  harbour,  stands  on  a 
rocky  cape  75  miles  N.  of  Tripoli.  It  possesses 
remains  of  Roman  buildings,  having  been  a 
flourishing  port  during  the  early  empire  ;  it  was 
still  a  wealthy  city  at  the  time  of  the  Cru-sadcs. 
The  present  town  occn|>ies  tlie  site  of  the  ancient 
Laodicca  ad  Mare,  which  was  founded  by  Selencus 
Nicator,  and  named  after  his  mother.  Pop.  esti- 
mated at  10,000,  who  export  tiie  Latakia  tobacco, 
grown  on  the  hills  in  the  interior,  and  some  grain, 
silk,  sponges,  oils,  &c. 

Latcaii,  Louise.    See  Stigmatis.vtion. 

Latt'OII-isail.  a  large  triangular  sail,  common 
in  the  .Mediterranean.     See  S.\II.,. 

Latent  Ilvat.    SeeHE.\T,  ami  Ev.vpohation. 

Latent  Life,  a  phrase  often  used  to  describe 
the  physiological  ('oiidition  of  organisms  in  which 
the  functions  are  for  a  lime  suspended,  without 
losing  the  jiower  of  futine  activity.  The  condition 
is  one  of  the  grades  between  full  life  and  total 
death,  and  was  contrasted  by  Claude  Bernard  with 
the  '  constant  life  '  of  most  organisms,  and  with  the 
'oscillant  life'  of  those  which  hil)ernate.  It  is 
illustrated  by  dry  seeds  and  (piiescent  spores,  by 
encysted  ova  and  Protists,  and  by  those  animals 
and  plants  (e.g.  paste-eels  and  lichens)  which 
survive  desiccation.     See  DKSirc.vno.N',  LlKK. 

Lateraii,  Ciitriicii  ok  St  John,  the  first  in 
dignity  of  the  Itonian  churches,  and  styled  in 
Roman  usage  'the  Mother  and  Head  of  all  the 
churches  of  the  city  and  the  world:'  as  cathedral 
church  of  Rome  it  sur|iasses  St  Peter's  in  dignity. 
It  is  called  Lateral!  from  its  occui>ying  the  site 
of  the  splendid  palace  of  Plautius  Lateranus, 
whii'li,  having  esi-heated  (66  .\.I). )  in  conserjuence  of 
Lateranus  being  iniplicated  in  the  conspiracy  of 
the    Pisos,    became    imperial    property,   and   wa-s 


I  given  to  St  Sylvester  by  the  Emperor  Constantine. 
It  was  originally  dedicated  to  the  Saviour;  but 
Lucius  II.,  who  rebuilt  it  in  the  middle  of  the  l'2tli 
century,  dedicated  it  to  St  John  the  Ba]itist ;  in 
1586  it  was  completely  demolished  by  Sixtus  V., 
and  rebuilt  from  plans  by  Fontana  It  has  been  the 
scene  of  five  councils,  regarded  as  o'cumenical  by 
the  Roman  Church  (see  Coi'Nt'll, ).  The  Lateran 
Palace  was  the  habitual  residence  of  the  popes 
till  the  I4tli  century.  It  is  now  under  the  control 
of  the  Italian  government.  Pius  IX.  converted  a 
portion  of  it  into  a  ninseum  of  classical  sculpture 
and  early  Christian  antiquities.  In  the  jiiazza  of 
the  church  stands  the  celebrated  relic  called  the 
'  S<'ala  Santa,'  or  '  Holy  Staircase,'  which  is  rejuited 
to  be  the  stairs  of  Pilate's  house  at  .leru.salem, 
miule  holy  by  the  feet  of  our  Lord  as  be  |i;issed  to 
juilgment. 

Laterite.  a  mineral  substance,  the  ])roduct  of 
the  disintegration  and  partial  decomposition  of  vari- 
ous igneous  and  schistose  rocks.  It  often  attains 
a  very  considerable  thickness,  es])ecially  in  tropical 
regions,  where  the  heat  is  extreme  and  the  rainf.all 
at  certain  seitsons  is  copious.  In  such  regions  the 
chemical  decomposition  of  rocks  is  more  or  less 
rapidly  eflfected,  and  the  resulting  i)roducts  may  bo 
swept  by  the  rains  over  wide  areas.  The  earth  so 
formed  is  generally  red  in  colour,  as  in  Ceylon, 
where  in  the  dry  season  it  is  blown  alxmt  iis  a  tine 
<lust,  and  imparts  its  hue  to  every  neglected  article 
and  to  the  dresses  of  the  inhabitants.  The  red- 
ness of  the  streets  and  roads  .-Utracts  the  notice  of 
every  stranger  at  Galle  and  Colondx).  In  the 
Deccan  laterite  derived  from  the  (hu-omposition  of 
the  basalts  of  the  great  plateaus  reaches  a  thick- 
ness in  many  places  of  u]iwards  of  150  feet.  The 
red  colour  is  due  to  the  presence  of  iron  oxide  ;  but 
when  this  is  absent  or  in  small  quantity  the  laterite 
may  be  whitish  or  yellowish. 

Latex,  in  Botany,  the  sap  of  i)lants  after  it  has 
been  elaborated  in  the  leaves.     See  S.\l'. 

Latliaill,  Roiiiciti'  (JoliDoN,  ethnologist  and 
philologist,  was  born  '24111  March  181'2,  at  the 
vicarage  of  IJillingborough,  in  Lincolnshire.  Kroni 
ICton  he  passed  in  182!)  to  King's  College,  Cam- 
bridge, of  which  in  due  course  he  was  elected 
fellow.  In  1842  he  took  the  degree  of  M.D.  ;  but 
nine  yi^ars  before  a  tour  in  Uenmark  and  Norway 
had  led  him  to  direct  his  attention  particularly  to 
Scandinavian  ]ihilology.  Prom  1842  to  1849  he 
held  appoiutinents  in  connection  with  London  lios- 
]iitals;  already  in  1839  lie  had  been  elected  )jro- 
fessor  of  the  Kuglish  Language  and  Literature  in 
ITniversity  College,  London  ;  ;ind  in  1852  he  became 
director  of  the  ethnological  ilepartment  of  the 
Crystal  Palace.  His  first  work  was  Aorwoi/  iiud 
the  Aorireifiaiis  (1840),  followed  by  translations 
from  Tegncr's  FrilJiiuf's  Siain.  His  well  known 
work,  Kiiijlisli  I.iDii/iiKifi'.  published  in  1841,  wi-nt 
through  numerous  editions.  Tlie  Xidiiral  Jli.tturi/ 
(;/'  l/ie  Varieties  of  Mniihiiiil  (1850)  was  justly 
accepted  as  a  valuable  contribnlion  to  ethmdogy. 
Among  his  other  works  may  lie  menlioued  his 
edition  of  Tacituss  (icniuitiia,  with  philological 
and  historical  not(^s  ( 1850) ;  Kt/iiiolur///  of  tlie  British 
Co/oiiies  (1851);  Kth/ioloi/i/  of  the  British  Islands 
(  1852);  Jtlaii  and  his  Mi'irtitiu>is{  1851 );  Jlesrri/itirc 
Ethiiolorin  ( 1859 ) ;  The  Bthiiolvi/i/  ofKiirojie  ( 1852) ; 
Natire  litices  of  the  lliissinii  Kiii/iire  ( 1854)  ;  a  new 
edition  of  Johnson's  Dietioiiiirii  ( 1870) ;  Oittlincs  if 
(r'ciieral  vr  /lerelojiiiotdal  I'hiluloi/i/  (1878).  The 
fact  should  be  s|iecially  emphasised  that  in  1862 
Latham  entered  the  lield  against  Lassen,  Bopp, 
I'ott,  (Iriiinii,  and  Max  .Miiller,  declining  to  accept 
the  central  .Asian  theory  of  the  'good  .\rvaii,'  and 
aHirmiiig  the  view,  since  advanced  by  Penka, 
Sclirader,  Isaac  Taylor,  and  Sayce,  that  the  Aryan 


LATHE 


LATIN    LANGUAGE 


527 


race  oriiiinated  in  Europe.  He  sutl'ereil  for  yeare 
from  apluisia,  and  died  at  I'ntnov  9lli  Maroli  18S8. 
Since  ISU3  he  had  been  in  reeeii>t  of  a  ^'overn- 
nieut  pension  of  £100.  See  the  lonj;  oliituary  l>y 
T.  Watts  in  the  Athcnivum  for  17th  March  1888. 

LatllO.     See  TrUNINO. 

LatllOIII  House,  the  seat  of  the  Earl  of 
Lathom,  in  Lancivshire,  45  miles  ENE.  of  Ormskirk. 
It  is  a  Grecian   mansion,   built  about   1750.     Its 

Sreilecessor  was  splendidly  defended  by  Charlotte 
e  la  Tremouille,  Countess  of  Derby,  against  Fair- 
fax in  1(U4. 

Laths.  Laths  are  small  strips  of  wood  of  vari- 
ous len^'tlis,  rarely  more  than  4  feet  ;  they  are  made 
either  by  splitting  latlnvood.  which  is  the  Norway 
spruce  Kr  (Piiius  ahirs),  or  else  they  are  sawn 
from  Canada  deal.  The  sawn  laths  are  a  modern 
introduction,  due  to  the  development  of  steam 
sawmills  in  Canada,  which  thus  use  up  the  small 
IX)rtions  of  the  lumber.  Laths  are  used  for  nailing 
to  the  uprights  of  partition-walls  and  to  the  rafters 
of  ceilings ;  they  are  placed  slightly  apart  to 
receive  the  plaster,  which,  by  being  pressed  into 
the  intervals,  is  retained,  and  when  dry  is  held 
securely  on  the  wall.  Slatei-s"  laths  are  longer 
strips  of  wood,  nailed  on  to  the  framework  of 
the  roof,  for  the  purpose  of  sustaining  the  slates, 
which  are  fivstened  to  the  laths  by  nails. 

Latliyriis.    See  Sweet-pea. 

Latil'iiii«iia.    See  Agraei.\n  Laws. 

Latimer,  Hugh,  Protestant  martyr,  was  born 
at  Thurcaston,  near  Leicester,  about  the  year  1485. 
'  My  father,'  he  tells  us,  'was  a  yeoman,  and  had  no 
lands  of  his  own  ;  only  he  had  a  farm  of  three  or 
four  pound  by  year  at  the  uttermost,  and  hereupon 
he  tilled  as  much  as  kept  half  a  dozen  men.  He 
had  walk  for  a  hundred  sheep  ;  and  my  mother 
milked  thirty  kine.  He  kept  me  to  scliool  .  .  . 
and  was  as  diligent  to  teach  me  to  shoot  as  to  learn 
nie  any  other  thing.'  An  only  son,  Hugh  was  sent 
at  fourteen  to  Cambridge,  in  1510  (while  still  an 
undergraduate)  was  elected  a  fellow  of  Clare,  and, 
haWng  taken  ordei-s  some  nine  years  Itefore,  was  in 
1523  apjiointed  a  univei-sity  preacher.  In  1524 
for  hisIj.D.  thesis  he  delivered  a  philippic  against 
Melanchthon,  for  he  w  ;is,  in  his  own  words,  '  as 
obstinate  a  papist  as  any  in  England.'  Next  year, 
however,  through  much  talk  with  liilney  (q.v. ), 
he  '  began  to  smell  the  Word  of  (!od,  forsaking  the 
school  doctors  and  such  fooleries,'  and  .soon  becom- 
ing noted  as  a  zealous  preacher  of  the  reformed 
doctrines.  The  consequence  of  this  new-born  zeal 
was  that  many  of  the  adherents  of  the  old  faith 
were  strongly  excited  against  him,  and  he  w;is 
embroiled  in  controversies.  The  question  of  the 
divorce  brought  Latimer  more  into  notice.  He  was 
one  of  the  Cambridge  divines  appointed  to  examine 
;i-s  to  the  lawfulness  of  Henry's  nuirriage.  and  he 
declared  on  the  king's  side.  This  secured  him  the 
royal  favour,  and  he  was  made  cha]ilain  to  .\nne 
Boh-yn  and  rector  of  West  Kington  in  Wiltshire. 
In  1.5.35  he  w;is  consecrated  Bishop  of  Worcester; 
and  at  the  opening  of  Convocation  on  9lh  June 
lo.'lG  he  preached  two  powerful  sermons  urging  the 
work  of  reformation.  After  a  while  that  work 
rather  retrograiled  than  advanced,  and  Latimer 
found  himself  with  his  bold  opinions  in  little  favour 
at  court.  He  retired  to  his  diocese,  and  laboured 
there  in  a  c<mtinual  round  of  'teaching,  preaching, 
exhorting,  writing,  correcting,  and  reforming,  either 
as  ability  wouhl  serve  or  the  time  would  bear.'  This 
was  his  true  vocation  ;  he  was  an  eminently  practi- 
cal reformer.  Twice  ilnring  Henry's  reign  he  was 
sent  to  the  Tower,  in  1539  and  1.54i),  on  the  former 
occa-sion  re-signing  his  bishopric.  At  Edward  VI.  s 
accession  he  peremptorily  declined  to  resume  his 


episcopal  functions,  but  devoted  himself  to  preach- 
ing and  practical  works  of  benevolcni'c.  The  |>ulpit 
was  his  great  power,  and  by  his  stirring,  homely 
sermons'  he  did  much  to  rouse  a  spirit  of  religious 
earnestness  throughmit  the  land.  At  length  by 
Eilward's  death  (155;})  he  was  stayed  in  his  course 
of  activity.  In  April  1.554  he  was  examineil  at 
Oxford,  and  committed  to  Hocardo,  the  common  gaol 
there,  where  he  lay  for  more  than  a  twelvemonth, 
feeble,  sickly,  worn  out  witli  his  hardships.  In 
September  15.35,  with  Kidley  and  Cranmer,  he  was 
brought  before  a  commission,  and  after  an  igno- 
minious trial  was  found  guilty  of  heresy  and  handed 
over  to  the  secular  power.  On  Ititli  October  he 
was  burned  with  Kidley  o]iposite  Balliol  College, 
exclaiming  to  his  companion,  '  lie  of  good  I'omfort, 
Master  Ridley,  and  play  the  man  :  we  sliall  thi.s  day 
light  such  a  candle  by  Cod's  giace  in  England  as  I 
trust  shall  never  be  put  out.' 

Latimer's  character  presents  a  combination  of 
many  noble  and  disinterested  qualities.  He  was 
brave,  honest,  devoted,  and  energetic,  homely  and 
popular,  yet  free  from  all  violence ;  a  martyr  and 
liero,  yet  a  plain,  simple-minded,  unpretendin" 
man.  Humour  and  earnestness,  manly  sense  and 
direct  evangelical  fervour,  distinguish  his  sermons 
and  his  life,  and  make  them  alike  interesting  and 
admirable. 

His  sermons,  letters,  &c.  were  edited,  with  a  memoir, 
by  the  Rev.  6.  Elwes  Corrie  (2  vols.  1844-45).  See  also 
TiiUoch's  Leaders  or  the  Reformation  (1859);  and  the 
Lives  Viy  Gilpin  (1755),  the  Kev.  it.  Demaus  (1809),  and 
R.  M.  and  A.  J.  Carlyle  ( 1900). 

Latin  Empire,  the  name  given  to  that  por- 
tion of  the  Byzantine  empire  which  was  seized  in 
r204  by  the  Crusadei-s,  who  made  Constantinople 
their  capital.  It  was  overthrown  by  the  Greeks  in 
1261.     See  BvzANTiXE  Empire. 

Latin  Language  and  Literature.  Latin 
is  one  of  the  members  of  the  Aryan  or  Indo- 
European  family  of  languages.  In  ancient  Italy 
several  languages  were  in  use ;  of  which  the  Etrus- 
can, spoken  in  Etniria  (q.v.),  and  the  lapygian, 
spoken  in  the  south-east  of  the  peninsula,  were 
non-Aryan,  and  very  ilistinct  from  one  another 
and  from  all  the  other  Italic  tongues.  The  latter 
fall  into  two  main  groujjs  :  the  Cmhrij-Siiltilliun, 
including  Umbrian,  Oscan  or  Sanmite,  and  Sabine  ; 
and  the  Latin,  spoken  in  Latium,  and  pndiably  at 
one  time  in  Campania  and  Lucania,  afterwards 
partly  Helleuised.  This  Italic  group  seems  to 
have  had  closer  affinities  w  ith  the  Celtic  tongues 
than  with  (Jreek  (see  Greece,  \'(d.  V.  ]>.  384).  Eor 
the  relation  of  tlie  Italian  tribes  to  (me  another, 
see  KciME.  Latin  was  the  language  <if  Home.  The 
growth  of  Itome  led  to  the  dominance  of  the  Latin 
over  the  others  ;  and  under  Greek  inlluence  Latin 
became  a  great  literary  tongue. 

Latin  has  played  a  great  part  in  the  history  of 
language,  entering  largely,  ius  it  did,  after  Kmne's 
conquests  into  tlie  dialects  of  Sjiain  and  (!aul, 
countries  thoroughly  permeated  by  Homan  life  and 
civilisation.  Thi?  liomance  languages  are  built  up 
on  Latin,  are  indeed  Latin  in  a  new  dress.  Italian 
may  be  described  as  modern  Latin  ;  French  and 
Spanish,  the  latter  es|)ccially,  are  based  mainly  on 
Latin  ;  and  English,  of  eoui'se,  has  borrowed  laigtdy 
from  Latin.  (See  Komance  I-axciages,  the  rele- 
vant sections  on  the  Italian,  French,  Spanish,  and 
other  Komance  tongues,  ami  English  L.vngiai;e.) 

Latin  rellects  admirably  the  leading  character- 
istics of  the  Koman  ])eople.  It  is  the  language  of 
a  practical,  hard-headed  people,  who  fell  them- 
selves called  to  rule,  to  give  laws,  and  to  establish 
order.  A'irgil's  famous  vei'se,  'Tu  regere  inqierio 
populos,  Komane,  memento'  {.Kncul,  vi.  852), 
happily  exjucssed  the  genius  of  Konie.  Latin,  it 
lin-s  been  said,  is  the  voice  of  Empire  and  of  Law; 


528 


LATIN    LANGUAGE    AND    LITERATURE 


it  Kuits  history,  pulitics,  jiirispnuieiice,  the  husi- 
ness  of  the  law-eouil,  hut  it  is  not  i)liaiil  oi-  lh'xil)le 
enough  to  lend  itself  to  the  sul>tleties  of  jihilosophi- 
cal  speculation  or  to  tlie  relinemenls  of  tlie  highest 
j>oetry.  Horace,  with  all  his  skill,  eviilently  found, 
in  the  composition  of  his  odes,  that  Latin  did  not 
run  very  easily  into  a  lyric  mould. 

Of  literature,  properly  so  calle<l,  there  was  nothinp; 
at  Home  till  the  3rd  century  l',.V.  It  then  took  the 
form  of  annals ;  we  can  hardly  diginfy  it  with  the 
name  of  'history.'  These  annals  were,  in  i)art  at 
least,  hased  on  old  family  clironicles,  which  the 
conservative  spirit  of  the  Homans  jealously  guarded. 
Family  life  in  the  great  houses  of  Rome  was  in- 
tensidy  strong;  a  funeral  was  .always  a  very  solemn 
and  impressive  ceremony,  and  was  never  complete 
without  an  oration  commemorating  the  merits  of 
the  deceased  man.  These  orations,  or  at  anyrate 
the  heads  of  them,  were  committed  to  writing  and 
treasured  in  the  family  archives,  and  in  them  the 
annalists  of  the  3d  century  n.c.  found  their  mate- 
rial.s.  The  early  history  of  Home  would,  in  fact, 
he  nuide  up  of  the  memorials  of  a  few  nohle  families. 
Tlie  systematic  treatment  of  it  was  undertaken 
towards  tlie  close  of  the  3d  century  by  Fabius 
Pictor  and  Cincius  Aliinentus,  who,  however,  wrote 
in  Greek,  feeling  no  doubt  that  as  yet  Latin  was 
hardly  equal  to  the  demands  of  literary  composi- 
tion. The  famous  jSIarcus  Porcius  Cato,  the  Censor, 
as  he  was  styleil,  who  had  fought  in  the  great  war 
with  Hannibal,  and  who  lived  on  into  the  middle  of 
the  2d  century  B.C..  seems  to  have  been  the  father 
of  Latin  prose.  His  history  of  his  own  time,  and 
his  Orighics,  in  which  he  <liscussed  the  origin  of 
Itonie  and  of  some 'other  cities  of  Italy,  were  the 
lii'st  iin])ortant  works  written  in  the  Latin  language. 
Only  a  few  meagre  fragments  have  come  down  to 
us. 

Contein]iorarv  with  these  men  were  two  poets, 
Na^vius  and  Knnius — metrical  annalists  we  may 
call  them — who  gave  the  Komans  histories  in  verse 
of  tlie  first  and  second  Punic  wars.  NiB\ius  wrote 
ill  the  old  native  Italian  metre — .Satnrnian,  as  it 
was  termed  ;  Knnius  (  half  a  (!reek  by  birth)  intro- 
duceil  the  Greek  hexameter.  With  these  two  poets, 
both  men  of  considerable  genius,  Latin  literature 
made  a  decided  advance.  A  few  poor  fragments 
of  their  works  are  still  extant,  sutlicient  to  show 
that  they  accepted  the  current  legends  and  tradi- 
tions about  the  origin  of  Home. 

Side  by  side  with  these  essays  in  ei)ic  poetry 
there  grew  up  .a  dramatic  literature,  to  whicli 
Enniiis  and  N:cvius  also  contrilmted.  This  aro.se 
in  the  3d  century  li.u.  out  of  rude  old  Italian  stage 
representations  connected  with  poijular  festivals,  and 
from  a  growing  actpiaintance  with  Greek  culture, 
which  by  this  time  was  widely  ilillused  throughout 
Italy.  The  rough  Latin  humour,  not  much  better 
than  a  sort  of  horseplay,  could  not  evolve  anything 
that  deservi'd  to  be  calleil  the  drama  till  it  had 
come  into  conta(tt  with  (Jieek  art.  The  lirst  play 
is  said  to  have  been  exhibited  on  a  Itoman  stage 
under  the  superintendence  of  Livius  Andronicus, 
a  Greek  from  Tarentum,  whom  we  may  regard  as 
the  father  of  Roman  dramatic  poetry.  From  that 
time  the  theatre  became  a  recognised  institution 
among  the  Romans.  Tiie  |)lays  of  Andronicus 
were  ada]>tations,  almost  translations,  from  the 
Greek  ;  for  the  most  part  they  seem  to  have  lieen 
clumsy,  inartistic  performances.  Still,  they  were 
popular  and  very  widely  cinMilated,  and  ga\e  the 
Romans  a  decided  taste  for  theatrical  entertain- 
ments. Ennius  and  N;rvius  improvc.'d  on  Ihcm  ; 
nor  did  they  conline  Ihemsidves  to  a  servile  imita- 
tion of  the  Greeks,  but  aspired  to  build  uj>  a  truly 
national  drama,  taking  their  subjects  Iroin  old 
Roman  legends  or  even  from  the  iiistory  of  their 
time.     Tragedy  as  well  as  comedy,  though  never 


enually  popular,    now  took   its    ])lace   at    Rome. 

Tnrough  Ennius  more  espeei;dly  the  rather  ijues- 
tionable  moral  inllnence  of  the  clever  an<l  subtle 
Euripides,  with  its  cosnio])olitan  an<l  denationalis- 
ing tendencies,  liltered  down  into  the  Roman  mind, 
with  the  result  of  somewhat  weakening  the  libra  of 
Roman  character.  Of  Ronuiii  tragedy,  however, 
we  know  but  little  ;  sensational  horrors  seem  to 
have  been  peculiarly  attractive,  fostering  perhaps 
the  vile  taste  which  subseipienlly  found  its  gratiii- 
cation  in  the  gladiatorial  combats.  Of  comeily  the 
chief  and  to  us  the  best-known  representative  is 
Plautus,  deservedly  a  most  jiopular  jioet  with  tlie 
Roman  peojile,  as  his  twenty  extant  plays  testify, 
full  as  they  are  of  original  huiijour,  of  luight,  witty 
dialogue,  and  funny,  laughable  incidents.  Plautus, 
it  seems,  was  exhibiting  his  plays  in  the  latter 
part  of  the  3d  and  the  early  years  of  the  2nd 
century  B.C.  Terence  followed  at  no  distant  inter- 
val ;  six  of  )iis  comedies  which  have  come  down 
to  us  show  that  a  rather  more  relined  ami  culti- 
vated taste  was  coming  into  fashion.  There  is 
something  of  a  moilern  tone  and  llavour  about 
Terence.  He  is  a  jjleasing,  graceful  w  riter,  w  itiiout, 
however,  much  originality  ;  lie  in  fact  did  little  more 
than  reproduce  Greek  comedies,  es2>ecially  those  of 
Menander. 

There  was  another  branch  of  literature  alongside 
of  the  drama,  distinctively  Roman,  so  that  Quin- 
tilian  (  x.  1,  93)  says  of  it  '  it  is  all  our  own.'  This 
was  satire — 'satura,'  as  the  Romans  called  it — by 
which  they  seem  to  have  meant  both  a  sort  of 
rude  iliamalic  medley  or  miscellany,  and  a  string  of 
reflection,  in  a  poetical  form,  on  mankind  and  the 
world  in  general.  Indeed  all  poetry  that  could  not 
be  classed  as  epic  or  dianiatic  came  under  the  head 
of  satire.  There  was  nothing  necessarily  satirical 
in  our  sense  about  it.  Ennius  was  a  writer  of 
'satires'  in  the  old  meaning  of  the  idira.>-e  :  but  it 
was  Lucilius,  in  the  latter  lialf  of  tlie  2d  century 
li.C,  wlio  introduced  what  we  understand  by 
'satires,'  and  jireiiared  the  way  for  Horace  and 
Juvenal.  It  was  from  the  poets  of  the  old  Greek 
comedy,  from  Aristophanes,  Eupolis,  and  Ciatinns, 
that  he  borrowed  the  idea  of  ]K>litical  satire,  in 
wdiicli,  it  seems,  he  allowed  himself  the  utmost 
freedom.  The  i)ublic  men  of  the  day  were  the  sub- 
jects of  his  attacks,  and  he  lashed  them,  it  is  said, 
with  merciless  severity.  His  versilication  wai 
rough,  but  he  was  undoubtedly  a  man  of  real  wit 
and  genius.  \Ve  have  unfortunately  only  a  few 
scraps  of  his  jioetry. 

Prose  lilciature  was  but  poorly  represented  in 
the  '2d  century  !!.<;.  by  a  few  inferior  historians,  or 


rather  annalists,  of  whom  Cicero  ami  Tacitus  express 
a  very  mean  oi>iiiion.  They  seem  to  Iuino  oeen 
utterly  uncritical  chroniclers,  ridiculously  preten- 
tious, and  always  straining  after  rhetorical  etlect. 
In  the  early  jiart  of  the  1st  century  was  a  historian 
of  some  merit,  Si.senna,  who  described  the  social 
war  and  the  civil  wars  of  Mariusand  Sulla.  Cicero 
speaks  of  him  with  considerable  praise  (Brutus, 
G4),  and  Sallust  (Jii(/iirt/iii,  O.'))  says  that  in  his 
treatment  of  the  period  of  Sulla  he  was  a  careful 
and  painstaking  writer. 

In  till-  1st  century  n.c.  Roman  literature  m.'ide  a 
great  ailvaiice.  A  man  of  jinidigious  learning  anil 
industry,  Marcus  Terentius  Varro,  poured  forth  a 
multitude  of  works  on  every  variety  of  suliject,  dis- 
cussing agriculture  in  a  treatise  which  has  come 
down  to  us,  and  idiilology,  grammar,  and  anti>|uities 
in  elaborate  dissertations  which  are  unhappily  lost. 
A'arro,  too,  was  .a  jirolilic  writer  of  'satires,"  which 
in  his  case  seem  to  have  taken  the  form  of  moral 
and  jihilosopliical  essays,  more  or  less  resembling  the 
jiajiers  in  ihiiliumhler  and  i'>//ctiat(jr,  or  Cicero's  short 
dialogues  on  'friendship'  and  'cddage. '  Varro's 
heart  was  with  the  old  lite  of  Rome,  and  he  liked  to 


LATIN    LANGUAGE    AND    LITERATURE 


529 


ridicule  the  new  lights  ami  (iieek  philosophy,  then 
liecouiinj^  fashionahle.  Indeeil  he  Wius  a  witty  ami 
lively  sjitiiist,  as  we  may  see  from  our  extant  fra;;- 
ments,  and  lie  must  certainly  have  been  one  of  the 
very  first  of  Konian  men  of  letters,  a  profoun<l 
stmlent  ami  a  clever  essayist. 

Cicero  w:us  ten  years  junior  to  A'arro.  It  was 
the  aim  of  his  life  to  create  a  perfect  prose  style, 
and  in  this  he  ha-s  j,'enerally  been  regarded  as  suc- 
cessful. As  head  of  the  lloman  bar  he  was  accejjted 
as.  an  arbiter  of  finished  rom])ositi(m  and  of  correct 
taste.  His  speeches  were  iiublished  after  careful 
revision  as  political  iianiphlets.  In  his  numerous 
lihil<)so]iliical  works  he  dexterously  adapted  Latin 
to  tireek  thought  and  speculation,  achieving  with 
considerable  success  a  ditHcult  work  which  had 
hitherto  been  but  very  imperfectly  accomplished. 
The  general  verdict  on  him  is,  and  as  far  as  we 
can  see  will  always  be,  that  he  was  a  consummate 
artist  in  style,  if  not  a  deep  or  fruitful  thinker. 

In  poetry,  in  the  first  lialf  of  the  1st  century, 
there  was  a  new  departure,  a  school  which  formed 
itself  on  the  model  of  the  Greek  fashionable  poets. 
At  the  head  of  this  movement  stands  Catullus,  the 
first  to  naturalise  tJreek  lyric  metres  at  Rome,  a 
man  of  genuine  poetic  feeling  and  with  true  pathos. 
There  is  a  more  hearty  ring  about  his  poetry  than 
in  the  more  elaborate  odes  of  Horace.  Catullus 
had  a  touch  of  genius  as  well  as  scholarship  and 
culture.  His  poems — the  coarse  ones  too,  it  must 
be  feared — accurately  reflect  the  tone  of  gay  Koman 
fashionable  society.  A  widely  ditt'erent  poet  was 
the  earnest  and  philosophical  Lucretius,  w  ho  in  his 
De  Rcriiin  Nutiira  puts  the  doctrines  of  Epicurean- 
ism, acceptable  no  doubt  to  many  of  his  contem- 
poraries, into  the  dre.-ss  of  hexameter  verse,  in  which 
lie  consideralily  improved  on  Ennius.  There  is  a 
stateliness  if  not  much  grace  about  the  hexameters 
of  Lucretius.  The  subject-matter  of  his  work  is 
decidedly  unpoetic,  but  the  genius  of  a  poet  makes 
itself  felt  in  several  passages.  In  the  midst  of  a 
dreary  wilderness  are  many  beautiful  spots  and 
resting-places. 

The  later  ]iart  of  the  1st  century  was  the  great 
age  of  Konian  poetiy,  the  age  of  Virgil,  Horace, 
and  Uvid,  familiar  names  throughout  the  whole 
civilised  world.  The  fact  that  we  happily  possess 
their  works  entire  is  a  proof  of  the  high  estimation 
in  which  they  were  held.  Much  of  what  is  best  in 
modern  poetry  is  distinctly  traceable  to  their  in- 
spiration. It  has  been  the  fashion  to  speak  of  this 
period  as  the  Augustan  age. 

Virgil  (70-19  B.C.),  said  to  have  been  a  great 
admirer  of  Lucretius,  to  whom  he  was  evidentl.y 
Indebted,  has  the  special  merit  of  having  brought 
Latin  hexameter  verse  to  exiiuisite  perfection. 
There  are  no  hexameters  in  the  whole  range  of 
Latin  poetry  to  com])are  with  those  of  Virgil.  His 
peculiar  charm  lies  in  a  nice  subtlety  and  refine- 
ment of  expression,  which  makes  the  work  of  a 
translator  almost  hoi)eless.  Every  sc-holar  recog- 
nises the  great  difficulty  of  \'irgil.  His  Fastoials 
(l!uc<dics)  and  his  four  Georr/irn,  poems  on  the 
various  pliases  of  agricultural  life,  and  written,  it 
would  seem,  to  stimulate  a  healthy  tiuste  for  rural 
pleasures,  were  direct  imitations  of  Creek  originals. 
Along  with  minute  descri[itions  of  lainiing  opera- 
tions, which  he  forces  into  verse  w  ilh  extraonlinary 
ingenuity,  are  beautiful  and  highly  poetic  episinles 
— as,  for  instance,  when  he  sings  tlie  prai.ses  of  the 
farmer's  life  by  way  of  C(mclusion  to  his  second 
Georgic,  or  tells  the  tale  of  Orpheus  and  Eurydice 
in  the  fourth  and  last  of  these  iioems.  In  his. /■,'«<■/(/ 
he  imitates  Homer  ;  here  he  writes  with  the  defin- 
ite purpose  of  stirring  lloman  patriotism,  tracing 
back  Home's  origin  to  Troy  and  to  the  ^ods,  while 
he  seeks  to  please  Augustus  by  suggesting  a  com- 
parison I»ctwcen  him  and  the  Trojan  hero  ^Eneas. 
2{)4 


Virgil  stood  high  in  the  emperor's  favour,  and  rose 
from  the  rank  of  rather  a  small  country  squire  to  a 
foremost  [dace  in  the  great  fasliionalile  world  of 
Home. 

Horace  (65-8  B.C.)  was  a  man  of  very  humble 
origin,  the  son  of  a  father  who  hail  been  a  slave, 
but  he  received  a  lilieral  education,  w  liicli  his  natural 
genius  enabled  him  to  turn  to  good  account.  His 
Odes  are  to  a  great  extent  imitations  of  Greek  lyric 
poetry,  his  metres  are  borrowed  from  the  Greek  ; 
still  there  is  much  that  is  truly  original  in  them, 
much  that  is  distinctly  Itonian,  and  there  is  an 
indescribable  charm  about  the  exijiiisito  linish  of 
the  language.  Their  peculiar  grace  .-uid  beauty, 
which  to  all  Latin  scholars  are  nio.st  delightful, 
seem  to  evaporate  even  in  the  most  skilful  transla- 
tions. In  his  satires  and  epistles,  the  most  poimlar 
of  his  writings,  because  so  full  of  homely  common 
sense  and  a  pleasant,  genial  humour,  there  is  a 
charming  lightness  of  touch,  an  easy  natural  style 
and  manner  w  hich  perhaps  have  never  been  equalled. 
His  laugh  has  no  bitterness  ;  of  satire  in  one  sense 
there  is  ne.xt  to  nothing  in  these  amusing  essays. 
'The  terseness  of  his  language,'  it  has  been  well 
said,  'is  that  of  a  proverb,  neat  because  homely.' 
Like  Virgil,  whose  friend  he  was,  Horace  enjoyed 
the  favour  of  Augustus. 

Ovid  (43  B.C.-18  A.D.)  is  the  most  voluminous  of 
the  Koman  poets,  and  his  facility  in  poetic  coni- 
I)osition  seems  to  have  been  absolutely  boundless. 
His  verse  is  a  marvel  of  cleverness  and  ingenuitj'. 
His  great  poem,  the  Metamorphoses,  is  a  collection 
of  mythological  stories,  turning  on  the  change  of 
men  and  women  into  animals,  trees,  plants,  or 
Howers.  His  Fasti  or  limnan  Calendar,  a  sort  of 
poetical  almanac,  abounding  in  well-told  stories 
of  old  Kome  and  her  heroes,  is  on  the  whole 
pleasant  reading.  His  love  poetry,  on  which  he 
specially  prided  himself  and  no  doulit  took  great 
delight,  are  very  bright  and  playful,  in  style  and 
expression  almost  perfect,  but  they  have  not  much 
depth  of  sentiment,  and  here  and  there  they  are 
so  sensuous  as  to  be  positively  offensi\e.  One  can 
well  understand  how  it  was  said  of  him  that  he 
corrupted  the  morals  of  the  youth.  He  luis  been 
fairly  well  described  as  the  poet  of  fashionable 
society.  From  some  cause  unknown  to  us  he 
was  forced  to  end  his  days  in  a  sort  of  Siberian 
exile  on  the  shores  of  the  Black  Sea. 

Two  poets,  writers  of  elegiac  verse,  contem- 
poraries of  Ovid,  deserve  a  ]iassing  mention — Pro- 
pertius  and  TibuUus  :  the  first  learned,  pedantic, 
anil  obscure,  yet  often  rising  with  true  poetic 
fervour  into  a  manly  dignity  and  nobleness  of 
thought;  the  latter  sweet  and  tender,  with  a 
decided  tinge  of  melancholy,  the  melancholy  of  a 
Koman  who  resigneil  himself  to  what  he  regarded 
as  the  fallen  fortunes  of  his  country,  and  who 
deliberatel.v  kept  aloof  from  the  inqierial  court. 
Tibullus  was  the  friend  of  Horace  and  Ovid. 

Prose-literature  in  the  1st  century  B.i'.  was  re- 
presented by  Ca'sar,  Sallust,  and  Livy.  The  great 
Citsar  wrote  the  history  of  his  camiiaigns  in  a  style 
admirably  suited  to  the  subject-matter,  and  recog- 
nised by  all  scholars  as  a  specimen  of  the  best  and 
purest  Latinity.  Sallust  (8G-:U  li.c. ),  whom  we 
know  through  his  narratives  of  the  Catiline  con- 
spiracy and  the  war  with  Jugurtha,  modelled  him- 
self <m  Thucydides,  and  like  liim  aimed  at  a  ]ihilo- 
sophical  treatment  of  history.  As  yet  Kome  had 
had  mere  annalists  ;  in  Sallust  she  found  a  man 
who  really  deserved  to  be  called  a  'historian.'  Of 
his  Histories,  a  work  which  is  said  to  have  treated 
of  the  ]icriod  iiiiiiii'diately  following  Sulla's  death, 
we  have  but  fragments. 

Livy  (59  li.c.-19  A.u.)  was  simply  a  man  of 
letters,  taking  no  part  in  polities.  His  great  work, 
the  history  of  Uonie  from  the  begiimiug  down  to 


530 


LATIN    LANGUAGE    AND    LITERATURE 


9  B.C.,  tlie  .year  of  tlie  last  campaign  of  Diusiis  in 
Germany,  and  of  liis  death,  written  durinj,'  tlie 
reign  of  Augnstus,  with  whom  he  Wivs  on  friendly 
terms,  tlnnigli  himself  a  re[)ublican,  was  comprised 
in  I4"2  books,  of  which  we  possess  35,  the  last  of 
these  bringinj;  ns  down  to  1G7  B.C.,  the  year  of  the 
anne.xation  of  Macedonia  as  a  jirovince  to  Konie. 
Livy's  treatment  of  his  snbjcot  evidently  became 
fuller  and  more  detailed  as  he  approached  his  own 
time.  Hence  the  loss  of  Ids  later  books  is  irre- 
parable. As  it  is,  we  have  not  adeqnate  material 
tor  a  thorough  history  of  Rome  in  the  1st  century 
B.C.  Livy's  style  is  all  that  can  lie  ilesired,  bright 
and  lively,  as  picturesque  as  that  of  our  own 
Macaulay,  but  he  is  not  a  learned  or  critical 
writer ;  he  wrote  for  the  public  generally,  not  for 
scholars  or  antiquaries  ;  Ids  aim  in  fact  was  to 
popularise  the  history  of  Home  and  to  magnify  her 
empire,  not  to  sift  the  legends  ^^•hich  had  gathered 
round  her  origin  and  early  growth. 

The  last  years  of  Augustus,  and  indeed  most  of 
the  1st  century  a.d.  ,  were,  as  regards  literature, 
almost  a  barren  desert :  no  poetry  of  any  account,  no 
forensic  oratory,  which  uncler  tlie  empire  had  little 
scope,  and  no  history.  With  Domitian,  tlie  last  of 
the  Caesars  (SI-9H  .\.  D.),  came  a  revival  of  lettei-s, 
the  silver  age  of  Latinity,  as  it  has  been  called, 
marked  by  the  names  of  Juvenal,  Tacitus,  Pliny 
the  Younger,  and  Quintilian.  Under  Nero  indeed 
there  had  been  a  few  minor  lights  in  literature  :  the 
satirist  Fer.sius,  spirited  and  dramatic,  but  obscure 
and  aftected,  reminding  one  here  and  there  of 
Browning ;  Lucan,  author  of  a  poem  once  read  in 
schools  and  universities,  describing  under  the  title 
Pharsalia  the  civil  war  of  Ca'sar  and  Ponipey  ; 
and  Seneca,  whose  numerous  essays  on  morals 
and  philosophy,  embodying  as  they  do  what  was 
best  in  Stoicism,  have  much  of  a  modern,  even  of 
a  Christian,  tone.  To  these  we  may  add  the 
witty  epigrammatist  Martial  and  the  learned  and 
laborious  Pliny  the  Elder  ('23-79  A.D.),  in  who.se 
Natural  Histori/  we  have  a  comprehensive  work 
on  geography,  botany,  zoology,  medicine,  wdth 
attempted  e.\])lanations  of  every  kind  of  natural 
phenomena.  A  coni|nlation  rather  than  an  original 
work,  it  is  very  useful  as  giving  us  an  insight 
into  the  physical  philosophy  of  the  ancient  world. 

Juvenal's  satires — satires  in  our  sense  of  the 
word,  bitter  and  savage — were  published  in  the 
early  part  of  the  '2d  century  .\.I).,  under  Trajan 
and  Hadrian.  The  man's  honest  indignation  against 
the  vulgar  rich  and  the  cringing  tribe  of  parasites 
and  fortune  hunters,  with  which  Uonie  swarmed, 
has  mir  hearty  symjiathy,  and  it  is  expressed  in 
pure,  vigorous  l..atin.  Johnson  has  imitated  two 
of  his  satires  in  his  London  and  his  Vanitij  of 
Human  Wishes. 

The  most  consiucuous  literary  ligure  of  the  age 
was  the  great  historian  Tacitus,  wlio  was  not,  like 
Livy,  a  man  of  letters  and  nothing  more,  liul  who 
was  practically  aciiuainteil  with  public  life,  and  had 
distinguished  himself  at  the  Konian  bar.  An  under- 
tone of  satire  runs  through  his  writings,  which  at 
many  points  remind  us  of  Carlyle.  He  sums  uji 
a  character  with  a  few  trenchant  epithets,  and 
throws  out  reflections  which  have  passed  into  ]iro- 
verbs.  There  is  pcrliaps  no  anciml  author  wlio 
has  sup])lied  more  material  for  the  modern  essayist 
and  historian.  His  concise  and  nervous  style  at 
once  arrests  the  reader,  and  again  and  again  de- 
mands from  him  a  very  considerable  mental  ten.-.ion. 
His  life  of  his  father-in-law,  .Agricola,  governor  of 
Hritain  under  Domitian,  a  m;ist('rpiece  of  bio- 
graphy, wits  written  in  !).S  A.l).  ;  so  too  was  his 
Ocrinaiii/,  a  descri|ition  of  the  native  jiopulation 
of  that  country,  with  a  ski^tch  of  its  geography — a 
Buliject  which  must  have  been  interesting  to  Komans 
who  knew  how  little  impression  their  arms  had  made 


on  tlio.se  wild  regions.  In  his  Annals  and  His- 
tories, much  of  which  has  been  unfortunately  lost, 
he  describes  the  period  from  the  accession  of  Tiberius 
to  that  of  Xerva  ( 14-OS  .\.l). ).  .-Vll  that  remains  to 
ns  is  his  history  of  the  reigns  of  Tiberius,  Claudius, 
Xero  in  jiart,  (iallia.  Otiio.  Vitellius,  and  of  the 
rise  of  Vespasian.  His  Hisiorics,  as  he  termed  the 
memoirs  of  his  own  time,  were  evidently  written 
with  great  fullness  of  detail,  and  the  lo.ss  of  the  later 
books  is  much  to  be  dejilored.  In  these  we  .should 
have  had  a  minute  and  trustworthy  narrative  of  the 
three  last  Ca'sars,  and  of  the  better  time  which 
began  witli  the  brief  reign  of  Nerva.  Suetcmius,  a 
writer  of  the  same  period,  tlie  author  of  biogiaiddes 
of  the  twelve  Ca-sais,  which  have  come  down  to  us, 
supplies  but  very  poorly  our  delicicncy. 

With  Tacitus  we  may  couple  his  intimate  friend, 
Pliny  the  Younger,  as  he  is  known  in  contradis- 
tinction to  his  uncle,  whom  we  have  already  men- 
tioned. The  name  is  generally  fannliar  as  that  of 
the  m.an  who  as  the  governor  of  a  Itoman  lu'ovince 
in  Asia  Minor  came  into  collision  with  the  early 
(.'brislians,  and  gave  his  opinion  of  them  in  a  letter 
to  the  Emperor  Trajan.  I'liriy's  letters,  dealing  as 
they  do  with  every  variety  of  to|ne — politics,  litera- 
ture, art,  society,  with  glimpses  into  his  home-life 
and  descriptions  of  his  villas— and  written,  too,  in 
a  plciusing  style  of  good  Latinity,  rank  among  the 
best  literary  sjiecimens  of  the  period.  They  are  of 
special  interest  as  illustrating  aspects  of  Roman 
life  which  would  otherwise  be  unknown  to  us. 

A  work  also  of  great  merit  lias  hajipily  come  down 
to  us  from  the  pen  of  an  eminent  professor  of 
rhetoric,  Quintilian,  who  is  said  to  have  numbered 
Pliny  among  his  juipils.  It  is  a  treatise  on  rhetoric 
and  liindred  subjects,  written  in  the  reign  of  Domi- 
tian, discussing  with  dee|>  learning  and  sound 
critical  taste  tlie  whole  subject  of  education,  and 
concluding  with  a  short  sketch  of  (ireek  and  Konian 
literature  in  its  special  connecticui  with  oratorical 
training.     Scholars  have  always  ailmired  its  diction. 

Latin  literature  is  from  this  time  almost  a  blank, 
re|>resented  only  by  a  few  feeble  writers  whose 
names  are  not  worth  noting  in  a  brief  summary. 
The  age  of  what  we  call  classical  liatin  was  tinally 
over.  Petty  rhetoricians  and  e|iitomisers  alone 
survived.  Coming  down  to  the  close  of  the  4th 
century  a.d.,  the  jieriod  of  the  Emperor  Theodosius 
(the  lirst  of  that  name),  we  light  on  a  writer  who 
has  been  described  as  '  the  last  subject  of  Koine 
who  composed  a  profane  history  in  the  r..atin  lan- 
guage,' Ammianus  .Marcellinus,  the  historian  of  the 
periotl  from  ttG  to  .'JTH  -V.I).  Katber  moie  than  the 
half  of  bis  work  is  extant;  in  this  we  have  a  full 
account  of  the  reigns  of  Julian,  Jovian,  N'alentinian 
I.  and  II.,  and  Valens — in  all  twenty-live  years  of 
the  history  of  which  he  bad  a  personal  knowledge. 
He  is  a  good,  ii.sefnl  writer,  but  hardly  a  man  of 
liHters.  The  last  of  the  classic  poets,  Claudianus, 
tlourislicd  about  the  same  time. 

In  the  last  years  of  the  otii  and  the  lirst  half  of 
the  Gtli  century  .\.l).  lived  the  learned  lioelhins, 
w  hose  work  on  the  consolation  to  lie  derived  from 
pliiloso])hy  {Dc  Consolatione)  was  translated  by 
King  Alfred.  There  is  something  of  a  mystery 
about  Koethius  :  whether  he  was  a  Christian  or 
halthcatlu'ii  philosopher  i>  uncertain  ;  he  seems  to 
liave  liovei'c<l  on  the  borderland  betwuin  the  rising 
and  the  decadent  belief. 

Latin  was  now  the  language  of  the  Christian 
church  of  the  West,  and  the  Vulgate  the  current 
\ersion  of  the  Scriptures  ;  in  Latin,  more  or  less 
cultured,  were  written  the  wdrks  of  the  Latin 
Kathers,  of  the  theologians  and  thinkers  of  the 
middle  ages;  sonorous  Latin  hymnologv  with 
rhyming  metres  grew  up  ;  and  l.aliii  remains  still 
the  language  of  the  services  in  the  ( 'atholic  Church. 

Learning    and    literature  almost  died    out    for 


LATIN    UNION 


LATITUDE    AND    LONGITUDE    531 


centuries,  tlie  period  we  call  the  dark  a;;es. 
Latin  in  its  fusion  in  the  ("ellic  and  Teutonic 
dialects  was  quite  losing  its  distinctive  character, 
although  it  is  true  that  Home  imposed  not  only 
her  yoke  li\it  her  language  on  Spain  and  tJaul  : 
still,  as  regards  language,  her  victory  was  won 
with  heavy  loss.  The  grammar  and  syntax  indeed 
were  to  a  gieat  extent  retained  :  hut,  with  the 
introduction  of  the  definite  and  indelinite  articles, 
of  the  auxiliary  verb,  the  addition  of  a  number  of 
words  from  the  barbarians,  and  the  utter  disregard 
of  quantity  in  pronunciation,  Latin  underwent  a 
conijilete  cliange,  ami  was  at  last  transmuted  into 
its  derivatives,  the  Romance  languages.  In  its 
corrupted  form,  however,  it  was  for  a  long  period 
a  living  language,  but  it  cejvsed  to  Ije  so  in  the  10th 
century.  With  the  revival  of  lettei-s  in  the  15th 
and  16th  centuries  Latin  recovered  itself:  Ciceron- 
ianism  became  the  f;isliion,  Enismus  being  one  of 
its  most  eminent  representatives.  Latin  for  tlie 
time  established  itself  as  the  recognised  medium  of 
communication  in  the  learned  world  ;  and  almost  all 
books  of  any  importance,  theological  and  scientific 
treatises,  were  written  in  that  language.  The  con- 
troversial works  of  the  English  and  Swiss  reformers 
were  written  in  Latin  ;  so  were  the  works  of  Bacon, 
and  Newton's  Principia — to  quote  but  a  few 
examples.  In  the  universities  professors  lectured 
in  Latin  :  candidates  for  degrees  disputed  in  Latin 
theses ;  the  giace  before  and  after  meals  was  in 
Latin — a  usage  still  surviving  at  Oxford  and  Cam- 
bridge and  in  the  Inns  of  Court.  Notes  to  editions 
of  the  cla-ssics,  both  critical  ami  explanatory,  were 
always  in  Latin ;  and  Dr  Arnold  thought  it  neces- 
s.^ry  to  apologise  in  the  preface  to  his  Thucijdides 
in  1830  for  deviating  from  the  universal  practice. 
It  was  indeed  a  true  instinct  which  assigned  the 
Latin  language  a  principal  place  in  our  schools 
and  universities.  Not  only  is  it  the  key  to  a  most 
important  literature,  but  it  throws  infinite  light  on 
the  history  of  language  in  general,  as  well  as  on 
the  particular  languages  of  modern  Europe.  Hence 
it  is  an  admirable  instrument  of  mental  discipline. 
See  the  articles  in  tliis  work  on  the  several  Latin 
authors  referred  to;  those  on  Alphabet,  Abvan  Race, 
Drama,  Church  History,  Fathers  of  the  Church, 
Graffiti,  Hvmxs,  Ixsckiptioxs,  Philology,  Renai.s- 
8ANCE,  Rome,  Romance  La.nguages  ;  the  grammars  of 
Roby,  Kennedy,  Madvi^',  Kiihner,  Stolz  and  Schinalz ; 
the  (Jeruian  works  on  the  history  of  the  language  and 
literature  by  Bahr  (new  ed.  1873),  Bemhardy  (1872), 
ilunk  (new  ed.lSSl ),  TeuH'el !  trans.  1873 ;  German  .")th  ed. 
IHDO);  .Simcox's  History  of  Latin  Literature  from  Ennius 
to  Boethiiis  (\S6'i) ;  CiatiyxeW's  Ifi^tori/  of  Moman  Liter- 
ature (187'J);  Browne's  HiKlorii  of  Roman  CUunical 
Literaturr  (new  ed.  1884);  .Sellar's  Roman  Poets  of  the 
Republic  (new  ed.  1881)  sniof  the  Aiiyustan  Age(new 
<d.  1884);  Wilkins's  trimcr ;  Tyrrell's  Latin  I'ortrii 
(1895) ;  and  Mackad's  Latin  Literature.  Mayor's  UiUio- 
ijraphic  Clue  to  Latin  Literature  (1875)  is  based  on 
Hiibner.  iSte  also  W.  M.  Lindsay,  Tlie  Latin  Lawjuaije, 
a  Hiniiirlnil  Arroiint  of  its  ."i'JUuUs,  Stfnu,  and  Flexions. 

Latin    I'llioll.      See    lilMKTALLlSM. 

Latitude  Uiul  Loilifitllde,  in  Geography, 
denote  the  angular  distane(-s  of  a  place  on  the 
earth  from  the  equator  and  first  meridian  respec- 
tive!}'. The  latitude  of  a  place  is  the  angle 
subtended  at  the  centre  of  the  earth  by  the  arc 
of  the  meridian  from  the  equator  to  the  place  in 
question.  The  hmgitiide  of  a  place  is  the  angle 
at  the  earth's  axis  between  the  plane  of  the  lir.st 
meridian  and  that  of  the  meriilian  of  the  place. 
Latitude  is  reckoned  from  the  ei|uat(U-  to  the 
poles,  the  equator  having  0^  lat.,  and  the  iioles 
90'  X.  and  90'  S.  respectively.  Longitmle  is 
reckoned  along  the  equator  or  along  a  parallel  of 
latitude  from  the  first  meridian  ;  but  jus  nature  lia.s 
not  in  thi.s  ca.se  supplied  us  with  a  fixed  starting- 
point,  it  is  necessary  to  fix  upon  one  in  an  arbitrary 


manner.  Cardinal  Hichelieu  in  the  17th  century 
proposed  to  use  the  meridian  of  Ferro,  one  of  the 
Canary  Isles,  for  this  )uirpose,  ;ts  this  meriilian 
lay  to"  the  west  of  all  the  Old  World  iuiil  to  the 
east  of  America.  The  -Aral)  geogra|diers  had  also 
reckoned  longituih-  from  the  '  Fortunate  Isles.'  For 
convenience  the  meridian  of  Ferro  was  sul)se(|uently 
reckoned  ;i-s  exactly  '20'  W.  of  Faris,  and  thus  lost 
its  independent  character.  The  meriilian  of  (ireen- 
wich  came  into  widest  use,  being  universal  as  the 
zero  of  longitude  in  sea-charts  .and  in  the  1,'ind 
maps  made  in  the  United  Kingdom  and  the  I'nited 
States.  Large  scale  m.aps  of  the  I'nited  States 
are  usually  marked  with  longitudes  west  from 
Creenwich  and  also  the  number  of  degrees  from 
W;t.sliington.  One  set  of  engraved  meridians 
serves  for  this  purpose,  as  Wasliington  lies  77°  W. 
of  Greenwich.  I?y  the  decision  of  a  conference  of 
delegates  from  almost  all  the  civilLsed  countries 
in  the  world,  held  at  Washington  in  1884,  the 
meridian  of  Greenwich  was  accepted  as  the  uni- 
versal prime  meridian,  from  which  longitudes  were 
mea-sured  to  +  180°  (or  18(J'  E.)  and  -  180°  (180' 
W. )  ;  the  French  delegate  dissented,  and  in  France 
maps  are  still  drawn  to  the  prime  meridian  of  Paris, 
although  reference  marks  to  Greenwich  longitude 
are  now  usually  added.  On  German  maps  the 
meridian  of  Berlin  was  .sometimes  employed,  in 
Italian  maps  that  of  Kome,  and  in  Russian  maps 
that  of  Pulkova  Observatory  (St  Petersburg)  is 
still  commonly  used  together  with  that  of  Ferro. 

The  determination  of  both  latitude  and  longitude 
depends  upon  astronomical  observation.  The  prin- 
ciple on  which  the  more  usual  methods  of  finding 
the  latitude  depend  will  be  understood  from  the 
following  considerations  :  To  an  observer  at  the 
earth's  equator  the  celestial  poles  are  in  the 
horizon,  and  the  meridian  point  of  the  equator  is 
in  the  zenith.  If  now  he  travel  northwards  over 
one  degree  of  the  meridian  the  north  celestial 
pole  will  appear  one  degree  above  the  horizon, 
while  the  meridian  point  of  the  equator  will 
decline  one  degree  southwards;  and  so  on,  until, 
when  he  reached  the  terrestrial  pole,  the  pole  of 
the  heavens  would  be  in  the  zenith,  and  the 
equator  in  the  horizon.  The  same  thing  is  true 
with  regard  to  the  southern  hemisphere.  It  thus 
appears  that  to  determine  the  latitude  of  a  place 
we  have  only  to  find  the  altitude  of  the  pole,  or 
the  zenith  distance  of  the  meridian  point  of  the 
equator  (the  complement  of  its  altitude).  The 
method  most  usual  with  navigators  and  travellers 
is,  by  means  of  a  sextant,  to  observe  the 
meridian  altitude  of  a  star  whose  declination  or 
distance  from  the  equator  is  known  ;  or  of  the  sun. 
whose  declination  at  the  time  may  be  found  from 
the  Aaufiidl  Alminnir  ;  the  sum  or  dill'erence 
(according  to  the  direction  of  the  declination)  of 
the  altitude  and  declination  gives  the  meridian 
altitude  of  the  equator,  which  is  the  co-I.-ititude — 
i.e.  when  subtracted  from  90°  leaves  the  latitude. 

The  determination  of  the  longitude  is  less  easy, 
and  long  presented  insuperable  practical  dilliculties. 
All  methods  depend  on  measuring  the  diU'erence 
between  local  time  and  the  time  of  the  liisi 
meridian,  which,  reduced  to  degrees  (at  the  rate  ol 
300°  per  day,  or  15°  for  every  hour,  or  1°  for  4 
minutes),  gives  the  longitude.  Eclipses  of  the  sun. 
moon,  or  Juiiiter's  satellites,  occultations  of  fixed 
stars  by  the  moon,  the  time  occupied  in  the  momi's 
transit  over  the  mi'ridian,  iVc.  are  occurrences  the 
e.xact  period  of  which  are  calculated  in  advance  in 
Greenwich  time.  When  om;  of  these  phenomena 
is  observed  the  true  (ireenwich  time  can  at  once 
be  obtained  from  the  Xuiitical  Aliiniiiar,  and  the 
local  time  Innn  direct  observation  is  the  only  other 
datum  rc(|uired.  Tiic  longitude  of  stathuis  on 
land  cimuect^'d   by  telegraph  with  an  observatory 


532 


LATITUDINARIANS 


LATTICE    LEAF 


is  most  readily  aiul  accurately  detennirieil  hy  an 
exchan<;e  of  time  sij;iials  ;  the  exact  iiositioii  of 
every  observatory  is  always  ascertained  to  a  lii^li 
decree  of  accnracv  liy  ri-]icatcd  oli^crvalioiis  of 
celestial  plicnoniena.  Tliu  two  methods  in  use 
■aiiiong  travellers  and  on  hoanl  ship  are  remarkahle 
for  their  eomliinatiim  of  simplicity  with  accuracy. 
The  lirst  ami  most  common  consists  merely  in 
deteriuininf;  at  what  hour  on  the  chronometer 
(which  is  set  to  (Jreenwich  time)  the  sun  crosses 
the  meridian.  If,  when  the  sun  is  on  the  meridian, 
at  the  i)lace  of  ohservation,  the  chronometer  points 
to  3  hours  52  minutes,  the  ditl'erence  of  longitude  is 
58°,  and  the  longitude  will  he  W.,  as  the  sun  has 
arrived  over  the  place  lati:r  tli.an  at  Greenwich  ; 
similarly,  if  the  sun  he  over  the  meridian  of  a  ]dace 
at  9  hours  40  nunutes  a.m.,  the  longitude  is  35°  E. 
(by  the  chronometer).  The  accuracy  of  this  method 
depends  evideutl.v  ujion  the  correctne.ss  of  time- 
keepers (see  HouOLOGY).  The  other  method — that 
of  'lunar  distances' — is  much  used  at  sea  in  order 
to  check  the  results  of  chronometer  measurements, 
and  uuxy  lie  thus  explained  :  The  angular  dis- 
tance of  the  moon  from  certain  lixed  stai-s  is 
calculated  with  great  aei^uracy  (about  three  years 
in  advance)  for  every  three  hours  of  Greenwich 
time,  cand  published  in  the  JS'iiiiticu/  AliiKtiiac. 
The  moon's  distance  from  some  one  star  having 
been  observed,  and  corrected  for  refraction  and 
parallax,  and  the  local  time  having  also  been 
noted,  the  ditt'ereuce  between  this  local  time  and 
that  time  in  the  table  which  corres/iottds  to  the  ^aiite 
distance  gives  the  longitude.  When  ajiplied  to  a 
heavenly  body,  the  terms  latitude  and  longitude 
h.ave  the  same  relations  to  the  ecliptic  and  its  i>oles, 
and  to  the  point  on  the  ecliptic  called  the  Equinox 
(q.v.),  that  terrestrial  latitude  and  longitude  have 
to  the  e((uator  and  a  lirst  meridian.  The  positions 
of  a  heavenly  body  relatively  to  the  equator  are 
called  its  Declination  (q-v.)  and  Kiglit  Ascension 
(q.v.).     See  also  DEciKEK. 

Liltitudiliariaiis,  a  name  applied  by  con- 
temporaries to  a  school  of  theologians  within  the 
English  Church  in  the  latter  lialf  of  the  ITtli 
century.  It  grew  out  of  the  earlier  mo\  ement  in 
favour  of  a  more  liberal  constitution  for  the  church, 
represented  by  the  names  of  Falkland,  Hales, 
Jeremy  Taylor,  and  Chillingworth.  This  earlier 
nmvement  w;is  mainly  ecclesiastical,  aiming  at  a 
wider  extension  of  the  Anglican  Church  system; 
the  later  Wiis  nulinly  philosophical,  and  had  still 
more  directly  in  view  the  interests  of  rational 
religion.  The  school  was  represented  by  a  succes- 
sion of  well-known  Cambridge  divines,  of  whom 
the  chief  were  Wbichcote,  Smith,  Cudworth.  and 
More.  Starting  from  the  same  ground  as  Hales 
and  Chillingworlh,  in  the  disregard  for  authority 
and  tradition  in  matters  of  faith,  and  the  a.ss(;rtion 
of  the  supremacy  of  reason  as  the  test  of  truth, 
their  liberalism  takes  a  higher  flight,  and  brings 
us  to  the  discussion  of  larger  questions  and  prin- 
ciples of  a  more  fundamental  aiul  far-reaching 
character.  The  Cambridge  divines,  nurtured  on 
Plato  and  the  later  I'lalonists,  sought  to  weil 
]ihilo.sophy  to  religion,  and  to  conilrm  the  union  on 
an  indestructible  basis  of  reason.  Theirs  was  the 
lii-st  attempt  to  link  together  ])hilosopliy  and 
('hristianity  ever  made  by  any  Protestant  school  ; 
and,  indeed,  the  (ii'st  true  attempt  since  the  days 
of  the  great  Alexandrine  teachers  to  ccmstruct  a 
]ihiloso]ihy  of  religion  at  once  free  and  conservative, 
in  which  the  rights  of  faith  and  the  claims  of  the 
speculative  intellect  should  each  have  free  scope 
and  blend  together  for  nnitual  elevation  and 
strength. 

See  the  articles  on  Chillinowobth,  Falkland,  Hales, 
Smith,  kc ;  and  Principal  Tulloch's  Rational  Theoloyy 
lit  England  in  the  Si-i^ciitei-nt/i  Ccntitri/  (2  vols.  1872). 


Laliiiiii.    See  Rome. 

Latoiia.  or  Leto.     See  Apollo. 

Latuiir    d'.luvorsiiM'.    Theoi-hile     JI.alo 

CdKRET  DE,  dulibcd  by  Najioleou  '  I'irst  (Jrenadier 
of  the  Armies  of  the  Re|)ublic,'  was  born,  23d 
November  17-13,  at  Carhaix  in  Finistere,  of  an 
illegitimate  branch  of  the  family  of  the  Dukes  of 
Latour  d'Auvergne.  He  eidisted  as  a  musketeer 
in  17C7,  and  distinguished  hinrself  at  the  siege  of 
Port  Mahon  in  17S2.  But  he  steadily  refused 
advancement  in  military  rank,  and  was  killed,  a 
simple  captain,  on  28th  June  18(W)  at  Uberhausen, 
near  Neuburg  in  Bavaria.  His  remains  were 
carried  to  Paris  and  interred  in  the  Pantheon  on 
4th  August  1880.  French  biograidiies  are  full  of 
instances  of  his  daring  v.-dour,  his  Spartan  sim- 
plicity of  life,  and  his  chivalrous  affection  for  his 
friends.  When  he  died  the  whole  French  army 
mourned  for  him  tliree  days  ;  his  sabre  was  placed 
in  the  church  of  the  Invalides  at  Paris  ;  and  every 
morning,  till  the  close  of  the  empire,  at  the  muster- 
roll  of  his  regiment  his  name  continued  to  be  called, 
and  the  senior  sergeant  answered  to  the  call :  '3Iurt 
ail  champ  rC  honiicur'  {Dead  on  the  held  of  honour). 
Latour  d'Auvergne  was  also  a  respectable  student 
of  languages,  and  wrote  licchcrches  siir  la  Luiigite, 
rOric/ine,  ct  les  Antiquitis  lies  Bretons  ( 1792).  See 
Li\  es  by  I'.ubot  dc  Ker.sers  ( 1S74 )  and  Simoud  ( 1895). 

La  Trai»|>e.    See  Tkai-i'ists. 

Latreille.  Pierre  Andre,  French  naturalist, 
was  Ijoru,  29th  November  1762,  at  Brives,  in  the 
department  of  Correze.  Though  he  completed  his 
education  for  the  church,  he  gave  himself  cliielly  to 
entomological  studies.  In  1798  he  w;is  commis- 
sioned to  arrange  the  entomological  colh'ctions  in 
the  Museum  of  Natural  History  at  Paris,  and  in 
18.30  was  appointed  to  the  chair  of  Natural  History 
(along  with  De  Blainville)  in  the  same  institution. 
He  died  at  Paris  on  6th  February  1833.  In  1796  . 
he  published  his  great  work.  Precis  des  Caractdres 
Oeiicrii/iics  des  Insectes — an  important  step  towards 
a  truly  natural  system  of  ent<uuology.  The  more 
important  of  his  other  works  are  the  i:>alainaiulrcs 
( 1800),  Si/ic/es  ( 1801 ),  Cnistaces  ct  Iii^ecles  ( 14  vols. 
\H02-ry),  lieptiles  (1802),  Genera  Cnistaceuriim  et 
Inseeturum  (4  vols.  1806-9),  Cun^derations  sur 
rOrdrc  Naturel  des  Animaux  (1810),  Families 
Katiirelles  du,  Hdijne  Animal  (1825),  and  Cours 
d'Kntuniolu(jie  (2  vols.  1831-33). 

Lattt'll  ( Fr.  laton,  'brass  '),  a  term  .s|)ecially 
■ajqilied  tn  sheet-brass,  but  also  used  for  sheet-tin 
and  tinned  iron-plate. 

Latter-day  Saiiit.s.    See  Mormons. 
Latti4'<^  Leaf,  also  called  Lace  Leaf,  AVater- 

VAM,  or  OfVlRAXIiKANO  {Oucinindra  fcncstralis), 
an  aquatic  plant  belonging  to  the  natural  order 
Juncagineu'.  It  is  best  known  as  the  lattice-leaf 
l)lant,  from  the  singular  resemblance  of  the  leaves 
to  ojien  lattice-work.  The  plant  is  a  native  of 
Madaga.scar,  and  wa.>  introduced  into  England 
about  1850  by  the  Rev.  \V.  Ellis.  It  grows  on  the 
margins  of  running  streams  in  shallow  water.  The 
leaves  grow  in  radiating  clusters,  and  lloat  im- 
mediately under  the  surface  of  the  water  ;  in  out- 
line they  are  oblong,  rounded  at  biuse  and  point, 
from  9  to  12  inches  long.  Their  peculiar  structure 
is  due  to  the  absence  of  the  cellular  tissue  which 
fills  u|>  the  spaces  between  the  nerves  or  vein>  of 
ordinary  leaves,  the  veins,  which  in  this  instance 
are  almost  geometrically  parallel  longitmlinallv  and 
transversely,  being  alone  coated  with  cellular 
matter  and  iiarenchyma.  The  tlower-stems  rise  to 
the  surface  of  the  water  and  there  divide  into  two 
spikes  of  flowers,  which  are  accompanied  by  con- 
spicuous while  bracts.  The  plant  is  not  only 
curious   but   useful    as   an    article   of   footl   to   the 


LATUDE 


LAUDANUM 


533 


natives,  who  cat  tlie  yam-like  roots.  The  native 
name  of  the  plant  is  Oiirirandraiio,  which  means 
literally  water  yam.  Tliere  are  several  other  species 
of  Ouviranilra,  hut  none  so  remarkalile  and  in- 
teresting as  the  lattice-leaf  plant,  which  is  fre- 
quently to  he  seen  growinj:  in  hothouses.  See 
AQIATIC  I'L.VSTS  for  illustration. 

Latlldo,  Henri  M.vzek.s  dk,  jnisoner  in  the 
Ba-stille,  w.-vs  born  at  Montajrnac,  in  Lanpueiloc,  2M 
March  1725.  A  younj;  .artillery  othcer,  he  sou};ht 
to  secure  Mailanie  ile  Pompadour's  favour  hy  le- 
vealing  to  her  a  plot  to  poison  her.  The  plot  was 
discovered  to  he  of  his  own  contriving,  .and  lie  was 
sent  to  the  Bastille  in  1749.  In  spite  of  inf;enious 
etTorts  to  escape,  he  remained  in  prison  till  1777, 
when  he  was  released  on  condition  of  living  in  his 
native  village.  But  having  come  to  Paris  again, 
he  w.as  imprisoned  till  17S4.  At  the  Revolution 
he  was  treated  as  a  victim  of  despotism  ;  but  he 
died  forgotten,  1st  .lanuarv  ISO.i.  See  the  mono- 
grapli  hy  Thierry  (  179'2  :  new  etl.  1889). 

Lilllbail*  an  ancient  town  of  Prussian  Silesia, 
on  the  Queiss,  15  miles  liy  rail  E.  of  (iiirlitz,  carries 
on  linen  ami  cotton  weaving,  i)rinting,  bleaching, 
&c.  Pop.  (  1895)  12,634.  It  was  destroyed  by  the 
Hussites  (1427  and  14.'?11,  and  hv  tiie  Swedes 
(1640). 

Land.  Willi.VM,  Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  was 
born  at  Ue.ading,  a  well-to-do  clothier's  son,  on  7th 
October  1573.  From  Heading  free-school,  where  he 
'  h.ad  the  happiness  to  be  eilucated  under  a  very 
severe  schoolmaster,'  he  passed  at  sixteen  to  St 
John's  College,  Oxford,  of  which  four  years  later  he 
was  admitted  a  fellow.  Ordained  in  1601,  lie  made 
himself  olmoxious  to  the  university  authorities  by 
his  open  antipathy  to  the  dominant  Puritanism  ; 
bnt  his  solid  learning,  his  amazing  industry,  his 
administrative  capacity,  his  sincere  and  unseltisli 
churchniansliip,  socm  won  liim  l>oth  friends  and 
patrons.  One  of  these  was  Charles  Blount,  Earl  of 
Devonshire,  whom  in  1605  Laud  married  to  tlie 
divorced  Lady  Rich  (an  otfence  that  ever  weighed 
heavy  on  his  conscience)  ;  another  was  Bucking- 
ham, to  whom  he  became  confessor  in  1622,  having 
a  month  previously  disputed  before  him  and  the 
counte,ss  his  mother  with  Fisher  the  Jesuit.  Mean- 
while he  rose  steailily  from  preferment  to  prefer- 
ment— incumbent  of  live  livings  (1607-10),  D.I). 
(1608),  president  of  Ids  old  college  and  king's  cliap- 
lain  (1611),  Prebendary  of  Lincoln  (1614),  Arch- 
deacon of  Huntingilon  (1615),  Dean  of  (iloucester 
(1616),  Prebendarv  of  Westminster  ami  Bishop  of 
St  Davids  ( 1621 ),  Bishop  of  Bath  and  Wells,  Dean 
of  the  Chapel  Royal,  and  a  |)rivy-councillor  (1626), 
Bishop  of  Londcm  (1628),  Chancellor  of  Oxford 
(1630),  and  finally  Arclibishop  of  Canterbury 
(1633).  That  very  week  he  received  two  oilers  of 
a  cardinal's  hat ;  Imt  '  my  answer,'  he  writes  in  liis 
Diary,  '  was  that  somewhat  dwelt  within  me,  which 
would  not  sull'er  that,  till  Rome  were  other  than  it 
Ls.' 

-Already,  after  Buckingham's  assassination,  he 
had  virtually  become  the  lirst  minister  of  the 
crown,  one  with  Strati'oid  and  Charles  I.  in  the 
triumvirate  whose  aim  was  ■absolutism  in  chunh  and 
state,  and  which  thus  stood  np]>osed  to  Puritanism 
•alike  and  democracy.  Laud's  task,  a  grateful  one, 
was  to  r.aise  the  English  Church  to  its  rightful  posi- 
tion of  a  branch,  if  a  younger  branch,  of  the  Church 
Catholic,  to  root  out  Calvinism  in  England  ami 
Presbyterianism  in  Scotland.  In  the  former  country 
he  ilrew  up  a  list  of  'Orthodox'  and  'Puritan' 
ministers,  wlioni,  the  wheat  and  the  tares,  he  pro- 
ceeded to  .separate  by  sc(dding,  suspending,  depriv- 
ing. Freedom  of  worslii|i  was  wilhdi.iwn  from 
W.alloon  and  French  refugees  ;  Englishmen  abroad 
were  forbidden  to  attend  Calvinistic  services  ;  and 


at  home  '  gosjiel  preaching,  justilicatiini  by  faith, 
and  Salibatananisni  wen^  to  bo  supersedeil  by  an 
elaborate  ritual,  by  the  doctrine  of  the  real  presence, 
celibacy,  and  confession,  and  by  the  Book  of  Sports 
(q.v.)— changes  rigorously  enforced  by  the  court  of 
High  Commission  and  the  Star  Chamber.  Nor  was 
a  policy  without  result  which  checked  the  develop- 
ment of  Puritanism  within  the  Anglican  com 
munion  ;  which  raiseil  up  a  school  of  such  Laudian 
clergy  .as  Cosin,  Nicholas  Ferrar,  George  Herbert, 
Juxon,  Manw.aring,  Montague,  .ami  Wren  ;  which 
has  borne  later  fruit  in  the  Nonjurors,  the  Trac- 
tarians,  .and  the  Ritualists  :  and  which  to-day  has 
a  standing  memorial  in  every  Anglican  church 
throughout  the  world — the  altar-wise  jiosition  of 
the  Holy  Table.  In  Scotland  it  was  otherwise. 
There  the  tentative  effort  maile  by  James  I.  and 
Laud  in  1617  to  give  back  life  to  dead  Episcopacy 
had  merely  failed.  Laud's  second  attemjit  (1635- 
37),  involving  the  thorough  Anglicising  of  the 
Scottish  Church,  gave  birth  to  the  riot  in  St  Giles', 
Edinburgh,  that  riot  to  the  Covenant  (<|.v.),  the 
Covenant  to  the  '  Bishops'  w.ar,'  and  this  in  turn  to 
the  meeting  of  the  Long  Parliament,  which  on 
18tli  December  1640  impeached  the  archliishop  of 
treason,  and  ten  weeks  later  sent  him  to  the  Tower. 
He  would  not  escape  ((Jrotius  urged  him  to  do 
so);  and  at  last,  after  a  tedious  and  complicated 
trial  before  a  handful  of  peers,  of  whom  never  more 
than  fourteen  were  present,  and  of  whom  the 
Speaker  alone  sat  through  the  whole  proceedings, 
after  a  defence  that  extorted  praise  even  from 
Prynne,  on  17th  December  1644  he  was  voted 
'guilty  of  endeavouring  to  subvert  the  laws,  to 
overthrow  the  Protestant  religion,  and  to  .act  .as  an 
enemy  to  parliament.'  The  judges  un.animously 
declared  that  this  was  not  treason  ;  but  under  an 
unconstitutional  ordinance  of  attainder,  ami  the 
g.allows  reluctantly  commuted  for  the  axe,  he  was 
beheaded  on  Tower  Hill,  lOtli  January  1645.  He 
was  buried  lirst  in  the  church  of  All-Hallows,  Bark- 
ing, and  in  1663  translated  to  the  ch.apel  of  St 
.John's  at  Oxford. 

To  Heylin  Laud  is  '  the  holy  martyr  ;'  to  Laud's 
accusers  'the  great  incendiary;'  to  Macaulay  just 
'a  ridiculous  old  bigot.'  To  us  he  seems  rather  a 
typical  college  don,  fussy,  restless,  high-handed, 
concerned  about  trifles,  cold  and  unsympathetic,  as 
little  in  mind  as  in  person.  Withal,  he  w,as  child- 
ishly superstitious,  Ids  Diary  teeming  with  omens 
and  silly  dreams,  as  '  Dreamed  of  the  m.arriage  of 
I  know  not  whom,'  and  '  Dreamed  of  the  burial  of 
I  know  not  whom,  and  wakeil  sad.'  .Superstition, 
of  course,  w,as  a  failing  of  that  age  ;  so,  too,  wa.s 
the  chief  sin  of  which  L.aud  stamls  accused — intol- 
erance. For  if  Laud  cut  oil  I'uritans'  ears,  the' 
Puritans  cut  oil'  Laud's  head.  His  great  ndsfortune, 
indeed,  was  that  he  rose,  like  the  parasite  ivy,  to 
eminence.  Had  he  lived  and  died  a  college  luesi- 
dent,  his  wiuspishness  would  h.ave  long  since  lost  its 
sting,  and  his  memory  survived  only  as  that  of  the 
founder  of  the  chair  of  .\rabic,  and  a  munilicent 
benefactor  of  the  liodlei.aii  Lihrary. 

Of  Laud's  works,  collected  in  the  Anglo-Catliolic 
Library  (  7  vols.  <l.xfonl,  1847-60),  by  far  the  most  inter- 
esting is  Ilia  Diary,  wliicli  was  published  hy  Wharton  in 
UiiH.  I*etcr  Heylin,  Laud's  chaplain,  first  wrote  his  bio 
graphy,  (.'t/pyitiituK  Anij/ininun  (1068);  ami  there  are 
modem  lives  hv  be  Has  f  lS;i(i).  Mozley  (1845;  repuhlisheti 
in  Essni/s^  1H78),  Hook  { Lifcx  nf  Airhhisfiojt.t,  1875). 
A.  V.  iienson  (1887),  C  H.  Sinipkinson  (18114),  an.; 
K.  H.  Hutton  (181)5).  See  also  the  articles,  with  work^ 
there  cited,  on  Ch.vklks  I.,  STRAtFuKi),  CniLLlNGWoiiTH, 
HALE.S,  Jerkmy  Taylor,  and  Fbvnne. 

Laildaillllll.  or  more  correctly  TlxcTt'liK  (iK 
Ol'UM,  is  the  most  gem-rally  used  of  all  the  |ircpara- 
tions  of  opium.  It  is  obtained  hv  macerating  the 
sliced  or  powdered  drtig  in  dilute  spirit,  and  filtering. 


534 


LAUDER 


LAUENBURG 


It  is  of  a  (leeji  lnownish-rod  colour,  and  possesses 

the  iH'oiiliar  (h1()\u-  ainl   s 11   of  opium.     One   of 

the  t,'''<''itt''<t  objections  to  it  is  that  it  is  liable  to 
tjreat  \ariatioiis  of  strenKtli-  When  the  tiuctuie 
of  o])iiini  is  ordered  a  delinite  strength  is  always 
obtaiiipil.  but  tinder  the  name  of  Idiuhiiiinii  various 
compounds  are  sold,  and  the  former  term  should 
therefore  alone  be  used.  liandanum  is  a  ]io\verful 
anoilyne  and  soporilic,  but  is  more  iialile  to  cause 
headache  than  the  solution  of  one  of  the  s.ilts  of 
morphia.  Its  {general  action  and  its  uses  will  be 
described  in  the  article  Ol'llM.  The  dose  for  an 
adult  varies  from  ten  minims  to  a  drachm.  To 
children  (as  is  the  case  with  all  opiates)  it  must  be 
piven  with  extreme  caution.  Our  minim,  or  about 
two  dro])s,  has  been  known  to  luove  fatal  to  an 
infant.     See  ToisdN. 

Lailtlei*.  a  i|uaiut  little  royal  burgh  of  Berwick- 
shire, ou  Leader  Water.  25  miles  SE.  of  Edin- 
liurjih.  Near  it  is  Thirlestane  Castle,  the  seat  of 
the  Earl  of  Lauderdale.  Till  188.3  it  united  with 
Haddington,  ^c.  to  return  one  member  to  jiarlia- 
nient.  Pop.  719.  See  James  IIL  ;  and  for  the 
town's  immemorial  tenure  of  Lauder  ('ommon, 
Gomme's  Village  Comminiitics  (1890). 

Lauder.  RonErtT  Scott,  subject  .and  portrait 
painter,  was  born  .at  Silvermills.  near  Ediuliini,'li, 
ill  ISO.'i,  studied  at  the  Trustees'  Academy  and  in 
London,  and  in  IS.SO  was  elected  a  member  of  the 
recently  founded  lioyal  Scottish  Academy.  lie 
lived  ill  Italy  .and  at  Munich  in  1833-38,  .and  then 
chietlv  in  London  till  1849,  when  he  returned  to 
Edinbur<,'b.  He  died  there,  Slst  Ainil  1869.  Amonf,' 
his  best  works  are  two  jiortraits,  'Christ  teachiui^' 
Humility,'  and  'Sentinels,'  all  in  the  National 
( lallery  of  Scotland  ;  scenes  from  '  The  Ibide  of 
Lammermoor,'  'The  Tri.al  of  EiHe  Deiins,'  and  'Me^' 
Meriilees.'— His  brother,  .I.\MKs  Eckford  Lauded, 
U.S.A.  (1811-69),  w.os  also  a  subject-painter.  His 
works  include  '  Hag.ar,'  in  the  National  tlallery  of 
Scotl.and  ;  'The  Unjust  Stew.ard;'  and  'The  Wise 
.and  Foolish  Virgins.' 

Lauder.  Sin  Thomas  Dick,  Bart.,  was  born 
in  1784,  the  eldest  son  of  Sir  Andrew  Lauder  of 
Fonntainhall,  Haddin{;toushiie.  He  served  for  ,a 
time  in  the  •26tli  (Caineicuiiau  )  regiment,  succeeded 
to  the  baronetcy  in  1820,  and  lived  at  the  Grange, 
near  Ivlinburgh,  from  1831  until  his  death  on  29lh 
May  1848.  For  the  last  nine  years  of  his  life  he 
was  .secretary  to  the  Hoard  of  Manufactures  and 
of  Fisheries.  Of  L.auder's  two  romances,  Tlic  Wolfe 
iif  Biideiiijcli  and  Lorliamlhii,  the  former  is  still  a 
popular  book.  His  best  works  are  not  these,  how- 
ever, but  his  Muniijsliirc  Floods  (1830)  ami,  especi- 
ally, Scottish  Jiiir.rs,  which  was  appearing  in  Tuit's 
Miifjiiziiie  when  his  death  cut  the  series  of  papers 
short.  His  Lcfjciitlarji  Tales  of  the  Hir/hlands  (3 
vols.  1841)  m.ay  .al-^o  be  mentioned.  In  ]>olitics  a 
Liber.al,  and  of  unwearying  public  spirit,  Laudiu- 
was  in  private  a  loval)le  ami  accf>m]ilished  gentle- 
man. liOrd  Cockburn,  who  describes  him  as  'the 
greatest  favourite  with  th<?  mob  that  the  Whigs 
li.ave,'  says  :  '  Lauder  coulil  m.ake  his  way  in  tli(! 
world  as  a  player,  or  a  ballad-singer,  or  a  street 
hddler,  or  a  geologist,  or  a  civil  engineer,  m  a 
surveyor,  and  easily  and  eminently  as  an  artist 
or  a  layer-out  of  ground.'  See  IJr  .lohn  Brown's 
preface  to  the  re]iriiit  of  Seottisli  Ilivcrs  ( 1874). 

Lauderdale.   .Idun    Maitlanh,    Dike   ok, 

who  eanieil  the  di'lestation  of  his  countrymen,  was 
liorii  at  J.elhinglon  (now  Lennoxlove),  near  Had- 
ilington,  '24tli  May  1616,  son  of  the  (iisl  Karl  of 
Lauderdale.  In  his  youth  he  simulated  anient  zeal 
fi)r  the  Covenanting  cause,  and  W!us  actually  one  of 
the  Scottish  commissioners  at  the  Westminster 
As.sembly  of  Divines.  He  succeeded  as  second 
earl  in  1645,  was  taken  i)risoner  at  Worcester  in 


1651.  anil  confined  nine  years  in  the  Tower.  Before 
the  IJestoration  he  had  gaine<l  the  king's  ear,  and 
he  now  became  Secretary  of  State  in  Scotland. 
He  founil  the  noljles  impoverished  and  corrupt 
lieyoud  all  luecedent,  and  for  the  lirst  seven  years 
he  was  engaged  in  an  incessant  struggle  to  main- 
tain his  |)lace  with  rivals  like  .Middleton  as  un- 
scrupulous as  himself,  as  well  as  with  more  ojien 
and  honourable  opiiosition  from  ('larendon  and 
others  in  England.  He  made  himself  indispensable 
to  Charles,  who  liked  his  clever  and  caustic  wit, 
and  felt  no  repugn.ance  at  his  sensuality,  his 
ribaldry  and  his  drunken  buffooneries,  his  slobber- 
ing mouth  and  heavy  face  brutalised  bv  vice,  ;is 
we  see  it  still  in  Lely's  portrait.  ilis  main 
(d)ject  was  to  bring  about  the  absolute  power  of 
the  crown  in  church  and  state,  and  for  this  end  he 
laboured  with  the  most  unceasing  iiersistence, 
using  p.atriotism,  honour,  and  religion  alike  as  mere 
ji.awiis  in  his  unscru]nilous  game.  He  wiis  ever 
l)oId,  full  of  resource,  and  quick  to  recognise  the  use 
to  be  made  of  such  creatures  as  the  brutal  Kothes 
and  the  '  Judas'  Sharp.  His  harsh  measures  goaded 
the  poor  peas.ants  of  the  west  country  into  the 
rebellion  of  1606,  but  the  greater  guilt  of  the  High- 
land inv.asion  during  the  winter  of  1677  .and  the 
.spring  of  1678  lies  on  the  shoulders  of  the  bishops 
no  less  than  of  the  ruthless  Lauderdale.  He 
formed  a  militia  of  '20,()t)0  men  re,a<ly  to  do  the 
bidding  of  the  king  anywhere,  and  drilled  the 
Episcopal  Chundi  into  complete  subservience.  He 
was  a  member  of  the  king's  ])rivy-council,  had  a 
seat  in  the  famous  C.abal  ministry,  and  was  created 
a  duke  in  167"2.  Fresh  intrigues  against  him  of 
the  Scottish  nobles,  in  concert  with  Sluaftesbury  in 
London,  reached  their  height  in  1674,  but  were 
foiled  by  his  own  aliility  in  counter-plots  and  the 
king's  persou.al  regard  for  him.  (In  the  7tli  May 
1(>78  a  vote  was  carried  in  the  House  of  Commons 
for  an  address  to  the  king  praying  for  Lauderdale's 
removal  from  the  roy.al  ])ieseiice  for  ever  ;  but  two 
days  later,  through  lavish  use  of  court  iutimidalicm 
and  the  Speaker's  corrupt  management  of  I  he  forms 
of  the  House  for  procuring  adjournments,  the 
address  when  i)reiiai"ed  was  thrown  out  by  a  single 
vote.  Another  short  struggU'  with  Hamilton  in 
the  Convention  of  Estates  left  him  again  trium- 
phant, and  for  two  years  more  he  held  his  jiower, 
until  unable  from  inlirmity  to  hold  it  hniger. 
Lauderdale  in  his  later  life  married  the  ambitious 
Lady  Dysart,  and  it  was  alleged  h.ad  cleared  the 
w.av  by  hastenin.g  the  di'ath  of  hi-<  countess.  He 
had  but  one  (laughter,  and  his  dukedom  died  with 
him,  while  the  earldom  and  family  titles  passed  to 
his  brother.  He  died,  worn  out  by  debaucheries  and 
the  .anxieties  of  constant  intrigue,  at  Tuiibridge 
Wells,  20th  August  1682,  and  eight  months  later 
was  lai<l  in  the  Abbey  Church  at  Haddiiigt(ui, 
but  not  to  rest,  accoriling  to  iiersistent  jiopukar 
tradition. 

Sec  two  athnirablc  articles  toj^ether  embracing  his 
whole  jmlilic  career,  by  Osimiinl  -Viry,  in  the  Qmirtciiy 
liieietr  (vol.  clvii.  1S.S4)  and  the  Kiit/liah  Hiatorical 
Itcriew  (  vol.  i.  1880  ),  based  on  the  .'<('>  voluines  of  Lauder- 
dale MSS.  in  the  Bntisli  Museum,  each  containini;  from 
100  to  l.'iO  documents.  A  selection  from  these  was  edited 
liy  Mr  Airy  for  the  C^amdeii  Society  (3  vols.  1884-85). 

Laudoil.     See  Ldt.DON. 

Lauds.    See  Bueviauv. 

Laueiihuru.  or  S.vxe-Laienhi'im;,  a  (ierman 
duchy,  fonmuly  united  to  the  crown  of  Denmark, 
and  lying  on  the  right  b.ank  of  the  I'^lbe  between 
Hidstein  and  Mecklenburg.  In  the  12th  century 
this  district  was  compiered  by  the  dukes  of 
Saxony.  In  1'260  .lohn  I.,  sou  of  Albert  1.  of 
Saxony,  foumled  the  dneal  House  of  Saxe-Lauen- 
burg.  After  the  extinction  of  this  line,  it  wji-s  in- 
herited by  the  Duke  of  BrunswickCelle  in  1702, 


LAUGHING    GAS 


LAUREATE 


535 


jxnd  iKisseil  into  the  possession  of  the  Hanoverian 
kinj,^  of  Ureal  liritaiii,  was  seizwl  alonj:  with 
Hanover  by  the  French  in  1!S03,  and  afterwards, 
with  some  ehan^'es  ot  iHumdarv,  wiu<  made  over  to 
Frnssia,  and  by  Prussia  transferred  to  Denmark 
(ISlti),  but  witli  reservation  of  all  rights  and 
privileges.  Hy  the  treaty  of  Giistein  (1S65)  it 
came  again  into  the  possession  of  Prussia.  It 
has  an  area  of  457  sq.  ni.,  and  (in  ISSo)  49,861 
inhabitants,  and  is  a  wellcultivated  and  fertile 
country.  In  ISTO  Lauenburg  was  finally  incorpor- 
ated with  the  province  of  Sleswick-Holstein,  of 
wliicli  it  is  now  a  district.  Prince  Bismarck  was 
oH'ered,  and  accepted  the  title  of  Duke  of  Lanen- 
bnrg  on  his  retirement  from  otiice  in  1S90. — The 
town  of  Lanenburg,  once  capital  of  the  duchy, 
stands  on  the  Elbe,  25  miles  SE.  of  Hamburg.  It 
has  a  pop.  of  474S.  It  contains  the  old  ducal  palace, 
dating  from  1182.— Lavenbvrg,  in  Pomerania,  38 
miles  N\V.  of  Danzig,  has  flax  and  woollen  spin- 
ning, iron-founding,  and  inaehine-making.  Pop. 
7214.  It  was  originally  a  town  of  the  Teutonic 
Knights  (from  1322),  tlien  of  Poland  { 1454r-1657), 
and  linally  of  Brandenburg. 

Laii^liius  Gas.    See  Nitrogen,  and  An.es- 

THE.SI.\. 

Langliing  Jarkass.  or  Great  Kingfisher 
( Daccio  ijigas ),  a  bird  belonging  to  the  Alcedinida? 
(see  Kingfisher),  but  in  some  respects  an  aberrant 
form.  It  has  the  general  build  of  a  kingfisher,  but 
is  not  a  fisher.  It  feeds  upon  insects,  reptiles,  and 
even  small  mammals.  The  peculiar  hoot  which  it 
utters  has,  of  course,  given  to  it  its  name.  It  lajs 
its  iiearl-white  eggs  in  a  hole  in  a  gum-tree.  There 
is  another  closely  allied  species  (D.  tenrliii),  of  iden- 
tical habits  ;  both  birds  inhabit  Australia. 

Laiince.    See  Eel. 

Laillioeston.  till  1838  the  county  town  of 
Cornwall,  on  tlie  Kensey,  a  tributary  of  the  Tamar, 
36  miles  NW.  of  Plymouth  and  50  W.  of  Exeter 
by  branch-lines  opened  in  1865  and  1886.  It  has  a 
liandsome  granite  church  ( 1511 ) ;  the  circular  Nor- 
man keep  of  a  castle  which  figured  mucli  in  the 
Great  Rebellion,  and  in  which  Fox  the  Quaker 
was  imprisoned  (1656):  an  old  gateway;  and  a 
new  town-hall  ( 1887 ).  A  municipal  liorough  since 
aliout  1227,  l..aunceslon  returned  two  members  till 
1  s:i2,  one^  till  1 885.  Pop.  ( 1851 )  3397  ;  ( 1891 )  4345. 
See  A.  F.  Bobbins,  Lauiiceston,  J^ast  and  Present 
(Launceston,  1885). 

Laiincrstoil.  the  second  city  of  Tasmania,  is  to 
the  north  of  the  island  what  Hobart,  tlie  ca]iital,  is 
to  the  south — the  chief  ]iort  of  entry  and  mart  of 
trade.  It  .stands  in  a  valley  enclosed  by  hills  at  the 
junction  of  the  Esk  with  tlie  Tamar,  whicli,  after  a 
course  of  40  miles,  enters  Bass  Strait  (q.v. )  at  Port 
Dalryniple.  It  is  accessible  to  ships  of  considerable 
burden,  and  carries  on  a  thriving  commerce  with  the 
jirincipal  Australian  ports,  having  steam  communi- 
cation twice  a  week  with  Melbourne,  and  with 
Sydney  fortnightly.  There  is  a  railway  ( 133  miles) 
to  Hobart.  Tlie  town  is  supplied  witli  water  from 
St  Patrick's  River,  15  miles  E.  The  principal 
buildings  are  the  government-house,  new  |>ost- 
oflice,  convent,  theatre,  town-hall,  .md  mechanics' 
institute  ^vitll  a  library  of  13,000  volumes. 
Launceston  was  incorporated  in  1858,  and  rai.sed  to 
a  city  in  1889.      Pop.  (1881)  12,753  :  (  1891 )  17,208. 

Launch,  the  largest  l)oat  belonging  to  a  ship, 
p'or  steam-launch,  see  Boat  ;  for  the  process  of 
launching  ship.s,  see  ShipuI'ILDING. 

Laura.    See  Moxachlsm. 

Laurai'Cil*.  a  natural  onler  of  exogenous 
plants,  consisting  of  trees  or  shrubs  which  have 
leaves  without  stipules,  and  Howers  in  panicles  or 
umbels.     The  perianth  i.-  4  6-cleft;  the  stamens  are 


opposite  to  its  .segments,  and  twice  as  many.  The 
fruit  is  a  one-seeded  berry  or  drupe  ;  the  fruit-stalk 
often  enlarging  and  becoming  lleshy.  This  order 
contains  about  4.50  known  species,  mostly  tropical. 
The  Laurel  (q.v. )  is  the  only  Eurojiean  species. 
An  aromatic  and  fragrant  character  pervades  the 
order,  and  amongst  its  products  are  cinnamon, 
cjvssia,  and  other  aromatic  barks,  also  a  number  of 
aromatic  fruits  somewhat  resembling  nutmeg  (see 
Nl'T.MKG).  The  timber  of  some  species,  as  green- 
heart,  is  valuable ;  some  are  esteemed  for  their 
medicinal  barks,  as  greenheart  (bebeeru)and  sa.ssa- 
f ras  :  some  for  their  secretions,  of  which  camphor 
i=;  the  most  important.  Oreodaphiic  opifrra,  a 
South  American  tree,  yields  a  camphoraceous 
volatile  oil  in  great  r|uantity  if  mere  incisions  are 
made  in  its  bark.  The  fruit  of  some  species  is 
agreeable,  as  the  Avocado  Pear  (q.v.).  A  very  few 
remarkable  species,  forming  the  genus  Casytha, 
have  been  tinited  with  this  order  by  many  botanists, 
although  others  separate  them  as  a  distinct  order. 
They  are  climbing  parasites,  like  dodders,  found 
in  the  woods  of  the  hottest  parts  of  the  globe. 

Lauroate.  Poet,  an  otKcial  attached  to  the 
household  of  the  English  sovereigns.  His  early 
history  is  inv(dved  in  some  obscurity.  In  the  Dumcs- 
(hty  Booh  we  linil  one  Berdic  described  as  '  Joculator 
Regis,'  anil  a  certain  Roger  or  Rahenis,  king's 
minstrel,  is  said  to  have  fonnded  the  monastery  of 
St  Bartholomew  in  Smithfield  under  Henry  I.  We 
read  of  Richard  I.  canying  William  the  Foreigner  to 
Palestine  to  sing  hisex]iloits,  and  of  Edward  I.  tak- 
ing the  Carmelite  friar,  Robert  Baston,  with  him  to 
Scotland  in  1304.  The  latter  ap|i<arently  went  also 
for  the  same  purpose  with  Edward  11.  to  Bannock- 
burn,  but  was  captured  by  the  Scottish  soldiers  and 
forced  to  celebrate  their  prowess  instead,  as  the 
price  of  his  freedom.  The  badness  of  his  verses 
(rhymed  hexameters)  was  humorously  ascribed  by 
the  next  century  Scottish  writers  to  the  unw  illing- 
ness  of  his  conscience.  We  read  of  one  John  Kaye 
attached  to  Edward  IV.  as  versifier  {versijicator), 
and  before  this  period  we  meet  the  term  '  laureate ' 
applied  on  the  one  hand  to  one  who  had  earned  the 
lauiel  wreath  at  one  of  the  universities  for  rhetoric 
and  versification  in  Latin,  and  on  the  other  to  any 
poet  of  surpassing  merit.  Skelton  was  one  of  the 
former,  and  proudly  styled  himself  '  Poeta  Skelton 
Laureatus'  in  the  headings  of  his  Latin  poems; 
the  term  'laureate  poete'  applied  by  Chaucer  to 
Petrarch  bears  the  latter  sense.  The  lirst  i)oet- 
laureate  in  the  modern  sense  was  Sjienser,  who  w.as 
granted  a  pension  of  £50  l)y  Queen  Elizabeth  in 
1591 ;  but  tlie  first  who  received  the  office  b\  formal 
letters-i>,atent  was  Ben  Jonsoii.  His  salary  was 
100  marks,  raised  by  Charles  I.  to  the  same  number 
of  pounds  sterling,  witli  the  addition  of  a  tierce 
of  canary.  James  11.  was  mean  enough  to  dis- 
continue the  allowance  of  wine,  but  it  was  after- 
wards resumed,  until  commuted  for  £27  a  year  in 
the  laureateship  of  Pye.  It  was  long  the  duty  of 
the  poet-laureate  to  write  an  ode  on  the  king's 
birthday — 'his  quit  rent  ode,  his  peppercorn  of 
])raise,'  in  Cowper's  |jlirase ;  but  this  task  fell 
into  abeyance  towards  the  end  of  the  reign  of 
;  (Jeorge  III.  The  list  of  poets-laureate  preserves  the 
memory  of  a  few  names  else  almost  forgotten ;  but  it 
contains  Spenser,  Ben  Jon.son,  Dryden,  Southey, 
Wordsworth,  and  Tennyson.  Tliecom]dele  list,  with 
the  years  of  olliee,  is  as  follows  -.  Edmund  Spenser 
(1.59I-99),  Samuel  Daniel  (  l.")99  1619 ),  lien  J(ms<m 
(1619-.37).  followed  by  an  interregnum  until 
1660;  William  Davenant,  knight  ( 1660  68),  .lohn 
Dryden  (l(i70-89),  Thomas  Shadwell  (1689-92), 
Na'hum  Tail  ( 1692-1715),  Niclxda-  Ro«e  ( 1715-18), 
Laurence  Eusilen,  clerk  (1718-.'!0),  Colley  Cibber 
(1730-57),  William  Whitehead  (1757-85),  Thomas 
Warton,  clerk  (1785-90),  Henry  James  Pye  ( 179l>- 


536 


LAUREL 


LAURUSTINUS 


1813),  Robert  SouUiev  (1813-43),  ■\Villiam  Wonls- 
woitli  ( 1S43 -,■)()),  Alfivil  Ti-iiriv>ciii  (  18.".ii-!)i'),  Aifre.l 
Austin  (apixiinleil  in  1S9B).  Sih;  W.  Hamilton,  The 
Poets  Laureate  of  Etirjland  ( 1878) ;  Kenyon  West, 
The  Lanreiitcs  of  England  ( 1896). 

Laurel  ( /.ff»r»«),a  genus  of  Lauraceip,  lestiicted, 
containiiij;  only  a  single  species,  the  Noble  Laurel 
or  Sweet  I?ay  (L.  nobilis),  a  native  of  Asia  Minor, 
but  now  (lill'used  over  a!l  the  countries  around  the 
Mediterranean  Sea.  It  is  often  a  mere  bush  of 
15  feet  or  less,  Imt  sometimes  becomes  a  tree  of  .SO  or 
even  60  feet  high.  It  has  rather  large,  lanceolate, 
leathery,  shining  leaves,  reticulated  with  veins, 
and  axillary  clusters  of  yellowish-white  tlowers  of 
no  beauty.  The  fruit  is  oval,  bluish-black,  and 
about  half  an  inch  long.  Both  the  leaves  and  the 
fruit  are  bitter,  astringent,  and  aromatic,  and  were 
formerly  much  \ised  in  medicine  as  a  stomachic 
and  stimulant.  The  leaves  are  still  used  in  cookery 
for  llavourmg.  They  contain  a  volatile  oil  (oil  of 
sweet  hail),  and  a  bitter,  gummy  extractive.  See 
the  article  B.vv,  and  the  illustration  there. 

By  the  ancient  (Jreeks  the  laurel  was  called 
daphne:  it  was  sacred  to  Apollo.  Berry-bearing 
twigs  of  it  were  wound  round  the  forehead  of 
victorious  heroes  and  poets ;  and  in  later  times 
the  degree  of  Doctor  was  conferred  with  this  cere- 
mony— whence  the  term  laiireation  ;  and,  accord- 
ing to  some,  the  term  Bachelor  (q.v. ).  And  to 
this  day  a  laurel-crown  is  the  emblem  of  the  honour 
to  which  poets,  artists,  and  Avarriors  aspire. 

The  Noble  Laurel  is  connnon  in  shrubberies  in 
Britain,  but  not  nearly  so  common  as  the  species 
of  Cherry-laurel,  which  share  with  it  the  name 
Laurel,  a-s  do  not  a  few  other  shrubs  botanically 
very  different,  but  somewhat  similar  in  their  ever- 
green foliage. 

Laurel-cherry,  or  C'herry-l.\urel,  i.s  a  name 
given  to  those  species  of  Prunus  ( sub-genus  Cerasus ) 

(see  Cherry) 
which  have 
evergreen 
leaves.  They 
have  small 

flowers  in  long 
racemes,  and 
small  fruit — the 
fruit  of  a  naus- 
eous taste — and 
most  parts  of 
the  plant,  but 
particularly  the 
buils,  leaves, 
and  kernels, 
r  e  m  a  r  k  a  b  1  y 
abounding  in 
liyd  rocyan  ie 
(prussic)  acid, 
and  therefore 
N'ery  poisonous. 
The  t^ommon 
Cherry-laurel  j 
(often  spoken 
of  sinijily  as  the 
Laurel  or  Com- 
mon Laurel,  or 
even  more  er- 
roneously as  the  Bay  Laurel),  Pruniis  {Cerasus) 
LanrocerasiiSy  is  a  shruli,  sometimes  of  the  very 
largest  size,  with  large  ovate-lanceolate,  convex, 
smooth,  remotely  serrated,  shining,  light-green 
leaves,  and  erect  racemes  of  (lowers.  It  was  dis- 
covered towards  the  middle  of  the  16th  century 
by  Belon,  at  Trebizond,  and  thirty  years  later 
introduced  by  Clusius  through  the  iiuperial  am- 
ba,ssador  at  Constantinople,  and  planted  at  Vienna, 
whence  he  soon  widely  ilistrihuted  it.  Ceranl 
thus    mentions    it    as  a  choice  garden   shrub   in 


Common  Cherry-Laurel 
( Pr units  LauroceraMts), 


England  before  the  end  of  the  century.  It  is 
now  natur.alised  throughout  the  south  of  Europe, 
and  is  one  of  the  most  conimon  ornamental  shrubs 
in  Britain,  where  it  sullcrs  only  from  such  severe 
frosts  as  are  of  rare  occurrence.  It  is  propa- 
gated by  seeds,  layers,  and  cuttings.  Its  leaves 
resemble  bitter  almomls  in  smell  and  taste,  and 
have  in  great  abundance  the  same  essential  oil 
(.see  Almonds,  Oil  of),  and  hydrocyanic  acid. 
Erom  these  loaves,  by  maceration  iii'  water  for 
twenty-four  hours,  and  subsequent  distillation,  is 
obtained  the  Luiarhuatcr,  or  Chcrri/dnnrrl  irater, 
formerly  employed  in  medicine  tis  a  substitute  for 
hydrocyanic  acid.  The  leaves  are  sometimes  em- 
ployed also  for  flavouring  puddings,  sauces.  &c., 
and  are  safer  for  such  purposes  than  oil  of  bitter 
almonds,  but  ought  to  be  used  with  caution,  fatal 
accidents  being  on  record.  A  bottle  of  clierry- 
laurel  leaves  bruised  and  moistened  is  often  carried 

{  by    entomologists    to    kill    their     captured    prey. 

j  Neither  the  essential  oil  mir  the  hydrocyanic  acid 
seems  normally  present  during  tjie  life  of  the 
leaf ;  both  are  believed  to  be  produced  by  the 
decomposition  of  amygdalin,  or  by  a  ferment,  but 
neither  of  these  has  been  successfully  isolated. 
Several  varieties  are  in  cultivation — notalily,  e.g., 
var.  latifolki,  large  leaved  ;  eoU-hica,  dwarf,  with 
narrow,  shapely  serrate  leaves ;  and  caueasica,  w  Inch 
is  said  to  be  the  handsomest,  hardiest,  ami  most 
vigorous  of  all.  Another  species,  also  very  common 
as  an  ornamental  shrub  in  Britain,  but  not  (piite  so 
hardy,  is  the  Portugal  Laurel  (I'ruiins  or  Cerasus 
lusitaniea  ),  a  large  shrub — sometimes  a  tree — with 
smaller  dark-green  leaves  ami  lateral  racemes.  It 
does  not  grow  so  well  under  the  shade  of  trees  as 
the  common  cherry-laurel.  From  the  dissimilarity 
of  form,  size,  and  tint  of  their  leaves,  these  species 
contrast  well  in  the  shrubbery.  The  variety 
myrtifolia  is  small  and  compact.  Tiie  North 
American  cherry-laurels  are  Priiniis  earoliiiiana  of 
tlie  southern  states,  and  P.  ilinfolia  of  (.'alifornia, 
both  small  .and  handsome  evergreens. 

Laiirciltinil  System,  the  name  given  to  the 
lower  division  of  the  Arch;ean  System  (ij.v. )  in 
Canada.  For  the  Laurentian  Kange  of  nu)untains 
(also  named  from  the  St  Lawrence),  see  C.\X.\D.\. 

Laiii'i.stoii,  Alex.\xi)I!k  .LvcguEs  Behn.vrd 
L.vw,  M.Mtijtis  i)E,  marshal  and  peer  of  France, 
was  a  grand  nephew  of  .John  Law,  the  linancier, 
and  was  born  at  I'ondiclierrv,  1st  February  1768. 
He  was  Napoleon's  comr.ade  at  the  Artillery  School, 
received  rapid  preferment  in  the  army,  aiul  held 
di]domatic  apiiointnu'nts  .at  Copenhagen  ami 
London.  After  Austerlitz  ( ISO.'i )  he  took  possession 
of  Venice.  He  held  high  commands  at  ^\'agram 
(ISO!))  and  in  the  retreat  from  Moscow  (1812). 
He  fought  at  Bautzen  (1813)  and  Katzbach,  and 
was  taken  prisoner  at  Leipzig.  Already  ennobled, 
he  was  maile  a  peer  by  Louis  Will,  as  not  having 
joined  Naiioleon  during  the  Hundred  Days,  .iiid 
l)ecame  marquis  in  1817  anil  marshal  in  18'21.  He 
died  lOth  June  1828. 

Laiirilllll.  a  nnuinlain  (1171  feet)  of  Attica, 
NW.  of  Cape  Coloinia,  and  connected  by  a  railway 
with  Athens.  It  was  famous  in  ancient  times  for  its 
silver-mines,  but  these  were  already  exhausted  in 
Strain)  s  ilay.  Since  IS74.  however,  the  great  heaps 
of  slag  have  been  prolitably  worked,  and  fresh 
deposits  of  argentiferous  lead  and  of  zinc  oic  have 
also  been  found,  so  that  the  nmst  important  mining 
in  the  kingdom  is  carried  on  here.  In  1887  neaily 
60,000  tons  of  ores  of  every  kind  were  ex]iorted, 
besides  2779  tons  of  jiig-lead.  The  mining  town 
that  has  sprung  u])  has  a  pop.  of  over  oO(H).  See 
Xdtioiial  lorliir  for  .luly  1888. 

Laiiriistilllis  (  Viliumum  Tinu.i,  see  VrBt:R- 
NTM  I.  .1  iMaiilitiil  evergreen  shrub,  a  native  of  •' 


LAURVIK 


LAVATER 


537 


south  of  Europe  ami  Noitli  Africa,  ami  beloiijiing 
to  the  natural  order  t'aprifoliacea-.  Its  beavity  is 
enhanced  by  its  habit  of  thjwering  in  winter.  The 
Howers  are  white,  in  corymbs,  and  are  succeeded 
by  small  black  berries  with  a  bhie  bloom,  which 
inriame  the  mouth,  if  eaten,  like  those  of  Mezeron 
(q.v.),  and  are  siiid  to  be  violently  purgative,  yet 
are  the  favourite  food  of  certain  birds.  Laurus- 
tinus  sutlers  from  severe  winters  in  Britain,  and 
will  not  endure  the  winters  of  northern  Europe  and 
the  colder  regions  of  America. 

Laurvik.  a  seanort  of  Norway,  at  the  head  of 
a  small  fjord  on  tlie  western  side  of  Christiania 
Fjord,  98  miles  bv  rail  SSW.  of  Christiania.  It 
has  several  sawmills,  ,and  exports  timber  and  other 
products  to  the  value  of  £155,000  annu.allv  ;  annual 
imports,  t'170,510.     Pop.  ( 1886)  11,196. 

Lausanne,  ca|)ital  of  the  Swiss  canton  of 
Vaud,  is  picturesquely  situated  on  the  sotithern 
slope  of  the  Jura  ^lountains,  close  to  the  northern 
shore  of  the  Lake  of  Geneva,  on  which  the  village 
of  Oucliy  (where  Hyron  wrote  The  Prisoner  of 
Chi/Ion)  forms  its  harbour.  Two  principal  parts 
of  the  city  are  separated  by  a  valley,  across  which 
a  Hue  bridge  (617  feet  long  and  82  feet  high)  wius 
thrown  in  1844.  Lausanne  is  famous  for  its  educa- 
tional institutions  ;  amongst  these  institutions  are 
the  new  cantonal  university,  opened  in  May  1891, 
and  an  industrial,  music,  and  other  schools.  The 
cathedral,  a  beautiful  Gothic  building,  begun  in 
the  lOtli  century'  and  com]deted  in  the  13th,  is  the 
greatest  ornament  of  the  city  ;  this  church  was  the 
scene  of  the  disputation  between  Calvin,  Farel,  and 
Viret  in  1536,  which  led  to  the  introduction  of  the 
Reform,ation  in  the  city.  Here  are  the  cantonal 
museum  of  natural  history  and  antiquities,  and 
the  Arlaud  Museum  (1846)  of  Art,  &c.  Since 
1875  Lausanne  has  been  the  seat  of  the  Federal 
Tribunal,  which  decides  all  questions  pending 
between  the  several  cantons,  and  between  the 
cantons  and  the  federal  government.  Lausanne  is 
much  frequented  by  visitoi-s  from  all  parts  of  the 
world.  Here  Giblum  resided  for  many  yetare,  and 
the  house  in  which  he  wrote  the  greater  part  of 
the  Deelinc  and  Full  is  still  shown.  John  Kemble, 
the  actor,  died  and  w.os  buried  here.  The  town 
has  little  industrv,  but  considerable  trade.  Pop. 
(1888)  31,049,  of  whom  86  per  cent,  are  Reformed, 
and  78  per  cent,  speak  French.  Benjamin  Constant 
was  a  native  of  Lausanne. 

Lail.sitz.     See  LusATi.v. 

Lailt«'l*brunnen,  the  name  of  an  Alpine 
valley  in  the  Swiss  canton  of  Bern,  tlirough  which 
Hows  the  Welsse  Liitscliine,  one  of  the  principal 
feeders  of  the  Aar.  The  valley  is  surrounded  by 
perpendicular  walls  of  sandstone  from  1000  to  160<) 
feet  in  height,  down  which  pour  about  a  score  of 
waterfalls.  Of  the.se  the  finest  is  the  Staubbach 
( '  dust-stream  ' ),  866  feet  in  height. 

Laiitvorscliiebnns.    See  Grimm's  Law. 

Laiiziin.    See  BiRox. 

Lava,  any  rock  ejected  from  a  volcanic  orifice  in 
a  state  of  fusion.  Lavas  ditfer  mucii  in  liquiility  at 
thetiiiie  of  eruption — the  basic  laviis  being  more  liuid 
generally  than  those  that  contain  a  high  percentage 
of  silica.  The  surface  of  a  lava-stream,  which 
speedily  cools  and  hardens,  is  generally  moie 
or  le.ss  porous  and  vesicular,  from  the  escape  of 
the  confined  t;ases  ;  but,  as  rock  is  always  a  bad 
conductor  of  fieat,  the  interior  often  remains  long 
in  a  liquid  condition,  permitting  the  continued 
How  of  the  stream  sometimes  to  a  very  great 
distance  from  the  orilice  from  which  it  has  been 
discharged,  notwithstanding  its  indurated  covering. 
The  end  of  the  stream  is  a  slowly-moving  nia.s» 
of  loose  porous  blocks,  rolling  and  tumbling  over 


each  other  with  a  loud  r.attling  noise,  being  pushed 
forward  in  fits  and  starts  by  the  viscid  lava,  when 
it  hursts  the  hardened  crust  and  rushes  on.  The 
structure  of  the  interior  of  a  solid  lava-stream  shows 
a  compact  and  homogeneous  rock,  a.ssuming  a  more 
or  le.ss  crystalline  structure  as  the  cooling  has 
been  the  work  of  a  longer  or  shorter  period  of  time. 
Caverns  are  sometimes  formed  in  lava-stre.ams  by 
the  escape  of  the  molten  mass  below,  leaving  the 
cooled  crust  standing  like  the  roof  of  a  tunnel. 

Laval,  capital  of  the  department  of  Mayenne, 
and  one  of  the  most  picturesque  towns  of  France, 
is  situated  on  the  river  Mayenne,  46  miles  by  rail 
E.  of  Rennes.  Its  chief  buildings,  both  dating  from 
the  12th  centurj-,  are  the  cvuciform  cathedral  and 
the  old  ducal  castle  of  the  Tremouilles  (a  pri.son 
now),  in  whose  courtyard  young  Philip  de  la  Tre- 
mouille.  Prince  de  Talmont,  was  guillotined  by 
the  Republicans  in  1794.  Since  the  13th  century, 
when  Flemish  weavers  settled  here,  the  town  h.as 
been  the  centre  of  a  district  noted  for  its  linen- 
manufactures — linen,  ticking,  sackiu",  &c.  In  the 
vicinity  the  Vendeans  defeated  the  Re[iublicans  in 
1793.    'Pup.  11872)24,255:  (1891)38,405. 

La  VaU'tta.    See  Valetta. 

Lavalette,  Father.    See  Jesuit.s,  p.  314. 

La  Valliire,  Loulse  Feancoise  de  Lacaime 
Leblanc  i>e.  a  celebrated  mistress  of  Louis  XIV. 
of  France,  was  born  at  Tour's,  in  1644,  of  an  ancient 
and  noble  family.  At  an  early  age  she  lost  her 
father,  and  was  brought  to  court  by  her  mother, 
who  had  manied  a  second  time.  She  was  not  a 
great  beauty,  and  was  slightly  lame  ;  but  the 
winning  charm  of  her  manners,  and  the  sweetness 
of  her  face,  quickly  took  captive  the  iitlections  of 
the  king.  She  really  loved  Louis,  and  bore  him 
four  children,  of  whom  two  died  in  infancy  ;  but, 
altliough  she  and  they  received  wealth  and  titles 
of  honour,  she  never  lost  her  sensitiveness  to  the 
dishonour  of  their  birth.  AVhen  Madame  de  Montes- 
pan  became  the  royal  f.avourite  she  retired  into  a 
Carmelite  nunnery  in  Paris,  where  she  took  the 
veil  in  1674.  She  died  6th  June  1710,  after  having 
spent  more  than  thirty  years  in  penances  ancl 
religious  austerities.  Her  Reflexions  snr  la  Miscri- 
corde  de  Dieu  par  line  dame  pcnitcntc  (1680)  was 
re-edited  in  18^.  A  collection  of  her  letters  was 
published  in  1767. 

There  are  Lives  of  the  Duchesse  La  Valliere,  by  Quatre- 
mere  de  Koissy  ( 1823 ).  Cai>efigiie  ( 1859 ),  Houssaye  ( 18ti0 ), 
and  Duclos  ('4th  ed.  1890).  See  also  Lair  (1881),  and 
Pauthe  (1891). 

La'vater,  Joh.xxn  K.\.spar,  writer  on  physiog- 
nomy, was  born  on  15th  November  1741,  at  Zurich, 
studied  there  under  IJodmer  and  Breitinger,  and 
iu  1769  received  Protestant  ordei's.  He  early 
gained  a  high  reputation  by  a  volume  of  poems, 
ent\t\ed  Schweizerlicdcr  (liai }.  His  next  juiblica- 
tion  w,\s  A ussichten  in  die  EtciijKrit  (ivol-^.  1768-78), 
of  which  several  editions  were  soon  called  for.  The 
tone  of  this  and  similar  works  is  one  of  high 
relignous  enthusiasm,  mingled  with  asceticism  and 
a  considerable  leaven  of  mysticism.  From  1769 
he  ofiiciated  in  the  or]>hanage  church  in  his  native 
city,  and  from  1778  in  the  church  of  St  Peter. 
He  brought  his  keen  powei-s  of  observiition  and  his 
skill  in  judging  character  to  bear  upon  physiog- 
nomy, which  he  attempted  to  elevate  into  a  science, 
in  his  most  celebrated  work,  J'/iysiot/noinisrhc  Frag- 
menle  ziir  Br/ordiriin;/  der  Mcnschenkennt niss  and 
.Mensc/ien/iebe  (i  \oh.  1775-78).  This  work,  which 
Holcroft  first  translated  into  English  (3  vols.  1793), 
is  written  in  an  e.vtrav.igant  and  iiiilaled  style. 
It  gave  rise  to  much  discussion,  was  bitterly 
attackeil,  as  by  Nicolai,  although  (Joethe  greeted 
it  with  luai.se,  and  occasioned  not  a  little  display 
of  wit  and  humour  from  Lichtenberg  and  otliersi. 


538 


LAVAUR 


LAVOISIER 


Lavater  was  the  clinseii  spiritual  adviser  of  many 
|iei-sons  in  Switzerlaml  and  Ccimany,  witli  wIkhii 
lie  maintained  an  unwearied  e<)rre.s]ii>ndenee.  On 
liis  tours  in  (Jermauy  lie  was  received  with  extra- 
ordinary marks  of  popular  esteem  ami  honour. 
Whilst'tendinj,'  the  wounded  on  the  street  at  the 
capture  of  Zurich  by  Massona,  "iGth  Se])teniber 
1799,  he  received  a  wound,  of  tlie  ell'ects  of  which 
he  ultimately  died  on  '2d  January  IStll.  His  IV;- 
mischtc  Schr'ificit  appeared  in  2  vols.  (1774-81 )  and 
his  SammUiche  kleinerc  promische  Scliriftcn  in  3 
vols.  (1784-85).  See  Lives  by  Gessner  (1802), 
Heisch  (English,  1842),  and  Muncker  (1S83),  and 
mono^M-aphs  bv  Steck  (1884)  and  Von  der  Hellen 
{1SS8I. 

Lavaiir.  a  town  in  the  Fiencli  department  of 
Tarn,  on  the  Ajjout.  2.5  miles  ENE.  of  Toulouse. 
A  bishop's  see  from  1317  to  1801 ,  it  was  the  stron<,'est 
fortress  of  the  Albi;,'enses,  but  in  1211  was  taken  by 
Simon  de  Montfort.     Poj).  4G51. 

Laveleyc,  Emile  Loris  Victor  de,  political 
economist,  was  born  at  Bruges  on  5th  April  1822, 
studied  at  Paris  and  Ghent,  and  was  appointed  to 
the  chair  of  Political  Economy  at  Liege  in  1864. 
His  works  include  De  la  ProprifU  et  de  ses  Formes 
Primitives (\ii~i  ;  Eng.  trans.  1878) ;  Lettres (V Italic 
(1880-84);  Le  Sueiaiismc  Catitrmpurain  (\^S\  ;  3d 
ed.  1886;  Eng.  trans.  1885);  Moments  d' Economic 
Politique  ( 18S-2) ;  Jm  I'eiiinsulc  des  JIuUmiis  (18S6  ; 
curtailed  trans.  1887);  and  works  on  'rural 
economy'  iu  the  Netherlands,  and  on  current 
topics  of  the  day,  such  as  education,  luxury,  the 
gold  question,  and  democracy.  He  contributed  to 
ihe  Jicriic  dcs  IJciu;  Mvinirs  and  some  of  the 
English  reviews.  He  was  made  a  baron  just  before 
his'deatli,  2d  January  1892.  See  Life  by  Count 
Goblet  d'Alviella  (1892). 

La  Vl'lldi'e.    See  Vendee. 

Lavender  {Larandnla),  a  genus  of  labiate 
|>lauts,  having  the  stamens  and  style  within  the 
tnhe  of  the  corolla,  the  upper  lip  of  the  corolla  bilid, 
the  lower  triiid.  The  Comnion  nr  Narrow  leaved 
Lavender  (/,.  rem  or  L.  (tn(fu.itifolia),  grows  wild 
on  stony  mountains  and  hills  in  the  south  of 
Europe,  and  in  more  northern  regions  is  very 
generally  cultivated  in  gardens.  It  has  a  delight- 
ful aromatic  fragrance,  and  an  aromatic  bitter 
taste,  and  contains  a  great  quantity  of  a  volatile 
oil,  oil  of  liircnder.  The  whole  i>lant  ])Ossesses 
stimulant  pro|)erties,  and  is  used  in  medicine,  but 
particularly  tiie  s])ikes  of  the  tlowers,  as  a  tonic, 
stomachic,  nervous  stimulant,  iKrc.  Lavender- 
lloweis  are  often  put  into  wardrobes  to  keep  away 
moths,  and  are  much  used  in  perfumery.  Oil  of 
Lavender  is  procured  by  distillation  of  lavender- 
llowers  with  water,  and  is  rather  lighter  than 
water,  pale  yellow,  very  lliiid,  and  very  fragrant ; 
it  requires  70  lb.  of  tlowers  to  yielil  I  lb.  of  oil. 
,S/)irit  of  Lnn/idir  is  made  by  distilling  lavender- 
flowers  with  rectilied  spirit;  I.nvcndir  ]Viiter,  mn'. 
of  the  most  popular  of  all  jierfumes,  by  dis.solving 
oil  of  lavender  with  smaller  quantities  of  other 
volatile  oils  in  rectilied  sjiirit.  Lavender  is  exten- 
sively cultivaleil  for  its  tlowers  .at  and  near  Mitcham 
in  Surrey,  and  at  Hitcldn  (q.v.)in  Hertfordshire, 
liroadleaved  Lavender  (  /..  lutifolia  or  /,.  spicii)  is 
also  a  native  of  the  south  of  Euro|)e,  but  is  more 
tender  than  common  lavender.  It  is  also  le.ss 
flagrant,  and  the  oil  which  it  yields  is  called  Oil 
of  Spike,  and  sometimes  Foreign  Oil  of  Lavender. 
This  oil  is  used  by  jiainters  on  porcelain,  and  in 
the  preparation  of  varnishes. 

Layer,  a  name  given  to  a  number  of  kinds  of 
seaweed,  which  are  used  as  food,  especially  Por- 
jihyra  vuli/aris  anil  P.  lariniata,  of  the  sub-gro\ip 
Floridete,  or  red  seaweeds  (Alga-).  These  plants 
grow  on  rocks  and  stones  in  the  sea,  and  are  not 


unfrequent  on  the  Hritish  shores.  They  consist 
of  a  very  thin,  flat,  jiurple  frond,  which  is  not 
gelatinous.  The  frond  of  /'.  rnli/aris  is  wavy  and 
undivided,  that  of  /'.  lariniata  (sometimes  called 
Sloke)  is  deeply  cleft,  and  h;us  the  segments  lobed 
and  cut  .at  tlie  edges.  La\  er  is  sometimes  stewed 
and  brought  to  table  ;  also  ]iickleil  and  eaten  with 
|ie]iper.  vinegar,  and  oil,  or  with  lemon-juice.  It 
is  regarded  as  u.-el'ul  in  scrofulous  atlVctions  and 
glandular  tumours,  a  ])roiierty  widoli  it  (irobably 
owes  to  the  iodine  which  it  contains.  Porphyra 
is  the  'red  laver'  of  commerce.  The  name  of 
Green  Laver  is  given  to  U/ra  latissima,  of  the  sub- 
group Chlorophycea",  or  green  alga'.  It  is  a  com- 
mon seaweed  of  the  British  shores,  the  frond  of 
which  is  green,  mcudiranous,  broail.  Hat,  wavy, 
anil  sometimes  inllaled.  It  is  bitterish,  but  is 
often  used  in  the  same  way  ius  the  true  laver,  and 
possesses  sindlar  ]iroperties. 

La  Villeiiiartnie.  TmioDoitE  Cl.wdk Henri 
Hei;s.vut,  \ii'iiMTi;  de,  Celtic  antiiiuary  and 
scholar,  was  born  of  an  aiudent  Breton  family 
at  Quim])erlc,  6th  July  1815,  and  became  in 
due  time  a  member  of  the  Institute,  and  a  corre- 
sponding member  of  the  Berlin  .\cademy.  His  lirst 
important  work  was  Jlar:a:i:rri:  (2  vols.  1839; 
Eng.  trans,  by  Tom  Taylor,  18(i5 ).  a  collection  of 
]ioi)ular  Breton  songs  and  melodies,  with  a  French 
translatiiui  and  notes.  Lnfmtumitely  the  scientific 
value  of  this  wink  was  seriously  impaired  by  the 
embellishments  added  to  the  ballads  by  the  editor, 
and  the  composite  product  of  artilicially made  his- 
tory and  allei'ti'd  archaisms  can  he  accepted  neither 
assouiul  litciaturi^  nor  as  sale  pliilology.  The  author 
was  insi)ircd  by  glowing  p.itiiotisni  and  a  loo  f;u'ile 
imaginaticui,  but  his  conscience  failed  to  teach  him 
the  respect  that  is  due  to  the  grave  dignity  of  his- 
tory. Ibit  Brittany  is  not  the  .Scottisii  Highlands 
of  Macpherson's  day,  ami  iireton  schol.irs  are  too 
learned  for  such  iniposilions.  An  admirable  ex- 
posure of  the  defects  of  M.  de  la  N'illemarqucs 
work  is  Luzel's  paper.  Lrs  Chants  du  BarzazBreiz 
(  1872 ).     He  died  9tli  December  1895. 

Later  works  are  Contcs  populaircs  deji  Anciens  Bretons 
(2  vols.  1842),  Poemes  des  lianlts  Brcluns  (  1850),  Noticea 
des  PrincipiiHX  Manuscrits  des  Anciiiis  Bretons  i\So6), 
Le  Grand  Sliistire  de  Jdsus  (iStio),  La  Li'i/ciide  Ctlliqut 
en  Irlaiide,  e»»  Cainbrie  et  en  Bretagnc  ( 1859),  Myrdhinn 
on  VEncluinteur  Merlin  (1861),  Les  Romans  de  la  Table 
romlc  (3d  ed.  1S60),  and  J'oemes  Bretons  du  Moi/eH'dffe 
(1879).  He  also  edited  Le  Gonidtc's  Dielionnaire 
Frcin'ais-Brcton  (Saint-lJriuUc,  1857). 

Lavoisier.  Antdine  L.vlrent,  the  founder  of 
the  antijililogistic  or  modern  chemistry,  was  born 
in  Paris,  on  26tli  August  1743,  and  devoted  himself 
to  seientilic  studies,  particularly  to  chemistry.  In 
order  to  obtain  means  for  more  fully  prosecuting 
his  investigations  he  accepted,  in  1769,  the  ollice 
of  farmer-general.  In  17(i8  he  was  made  an  acade- 
mician. .As  director  of  the  government  jiowder- 
mills,  he  discovered  in  1776  a  way  of  greatly  im- 
proving the  quality  of  gunpowder  ;  and  in  1791  he 
was  appointed  a  commissioner  of  the  treasury.  He 
rendered  great  .service  in  the  aiiplication  of  chemis- 
try to  agriculture.  A  statement  of  his  ]irincipal 
discoveries,  and  of  the  gre.it  (lart  he  i)laved  in  the 
establishment  of  modi'rn  chemistry,  will  be  found 
under  CllEMIsriiV  :  his  discovery  of  oxygen  wius 
wholly  indiqiendent  of  Priestley  {see  Nature,  xxvii., 
also  W.VTEK).  Lavoisier's  services  to  science  could 
not  save  him  from  the  jiopular  rage  against  farmei-s 
of  the  taxes  during  tlie  Heign  of  Terror,  ami  he 
died  by  the  guillotine,  8th  May  1794.  His  princi- 
p,al  work  is  the  Traiti-  flli' mental  re  ilc  t'himie 
(1789).  His  Comjilcte  Works  were  |mlilished  in 
4  vols,  in  1864-68.  See  his  Life  by  Grimaux  (  Paris, 
\HHH);  Kdinhurffh  Hcvieu;  July'  18!M) ;  Berthelot, 
Ln  Rivohitiun  Vliimiquc:  /.ai'oijticr  (1890). 


LAW 


LAWFELDT 


539 


Law  is  a  term  wliicli  must  l>e  variously  delineil, 
accoriling  to  its  apiilicatiou.  The  laws  of  nature, 
as  exixiuniloil  by  men  of  science,  are  general  l)ro- 
iiositions  as  to  the  order  in  which  physical  events 
liave  occurred,  and  will  i>rohal>ly  recur ;  the  moral 
law,  or  the  law  of  God,  is  a  hody  of  truth  thrown 
into  the  form  of  rules  for  the  fiuidance  of  human 
conduct.  But  when  we  speak  of  law  we  usually 
mean  to  indicate  the  law  which  is  set  and  enforced 
liy  civilised  states.  Law,  in  this  sense,  derives  its 
sanction,  or  binding  force,  from  the  penalties  by 
which  men  are  constrained  to  obey  it  or  punished 
for  breaking  it.  The  earliest  source  of  law  is  cus- 
tom :  the  customary  rules  of  a  primitive  community 
formed  tlie  basis  of  the  Civil  Law  at  Home,  as  they 
form  the  basis  of  the  Common  Law  (c].v.)  in  Eng- 
land. Customary  law  is  rigid  and  formal  :  in  a 
progi'e.ssive  society  it  is  relaxed  and  iinprovcil  by 
the  u.se  of  legal  fictions,  by  the  inlluence  of  Ei|uity 
(<|.v.),  and  by  legislation."  At  Rome,  for  example, 
the  growing  commerce  of  the  city  compelled  the 
praetor  to  go  beyond  the  civil  law  (which  was  a 
law  for  Romans  "only ),  and  to  devise  a  new  law  of 
nations,  ba-sed  on  principles  of  equity,  such  as  all 
civilised  men  could  understand.  When  the  Romans 
began  to  study  Creek  they  identilied  this  law  of 
nations  with  the  law  of  nature,  as  expounded  by 
the  Stoics.  The  civil  law,  amended  and  rational- 
ised by  successive  pr*tors  and  emperors,  has  fur- 
nished most  of  the  nations  of  modern  Europe  with 
the  greater  part  of  their  legal  rules  and  ideas  ;  even 
England,  while  refusing  to  liorrow  directly  from 
the  Corjni.-<  Juris  Cin'/ia,  has  derived  no  small  part 
of  her  law  from  that  source.  Scots  law  has  largely 
ilrawn  its  principles  and  nomenclature  from  Roman 
law. 

It  is  usual  to  distinguish  puldic  law  (constitu- 
tional and  criminal)  from  private  law  (which 
applies  to  personal  status,  family  relations,  pro- 
perty, and  contract).  Canon  Law  (q.v.)  is  not 
received,  as  an  entire  system,  by  any  modern 
state;  but  its  rules  are  followed  in  defining  the 
powers  and  functions  of  ecclesiastical  persons.  The 
Law  of  Nations,  or  International  Law  (q.v.),  is  also 
divided  into  public  and  private. 

See  such  works  as  Maine's  Ancknt  Law,  Colquhoun's 
Cirif  Law,  Austin's  Jurisprudence,  and  Pollock  and 
Maitland's  Histoni  of  English  Law  ( 1.S95 ) ;  also  the  articles 
Code,  Congre.ss,  Cbiminai.  Law,  Jirlsprudesce,  Jury, 
Jo.sTisi.vx,  L\xD  La'vs,  Parliament,  &c. 

Law,  .John,  originator  of  the  Mississippi 
Scheme,  and  famous  for  his  credit  oi)erations 
during  the  minoritv  of  Louis  XV.,  was  Ixirn  at 
Kdinburgh,  21st  April  IHTl.  His  father  was  a 
goldsmith  and  banker,  and  jiroprietor  of  the  estate 
of  Lauriston,  near  Edinburgh.  Law  early  showed 
a  most  remarkable  talent  for  arithmetic,  algebra, 
and  kindred  sciences.  At  twenty  he  removed  to 
London,  where  he  found  admission  into  good 
society,  but  was  soon  compelled  to  Uee,  in  conse- 
quence of  a  duel  in  which  he  killed  his  .-idversary. 
He  went  to  Amstenlam,  and  spent  his  time  in 
studying  the  credit  ojierations  of  tlie  bank.  About 
the  year  1700  he  returneil  to  Edinburgh,  a  zealous 
arlvocate  of  a  ]>a|)er  currency  :  but  his  proposals  to 
the  Scottish  parliament  on  this  subject  met  with 
an  unfavouraide  reception.  He  now  visited  difl'er- 
ent  parts  of  the  Continent,  where  he  won  and  lost 
vast  sums  in  gambling  and  speculation,  but  sought 
in  vain  to  win  the  favour  of  governments  for  bis 
linancial  schemes.  At  bust  he  settled  in  I'aris,  and, 
in  company  with  his  brother  William,  set  up  in 
171t)  a  private  bank.  This  Wiw  soon  so  successful 
anil  |)rosperou»  that  the  Duke  of  Orleans,  the 
regent,  adopted  in  1718  Law's  i)lan  of  a  national 
bank,  ami  issued  prodigious  quantities  of  bank- 
not<!.s,  which  enjoyed  perfect  credit,  whilst  the 
ordinary   national  \>onds    remained,   as  they   had 


long  been,  at  a  juice  far  below  their  nominal  value. 
In  1719  Law  originated  his  Mississippi  Sc/icmc 
(q.v.),  and  the  following  year  Wiis  made  a  Coun- 
cillor of  Stale  anil  Comptroller-general  of  Finances. 
When  the  bubbles  burst  he  became  an  object  of 
popular  hatred,  and  found  it  best  to  quit  France. 
After  wandering  here  and  there  he  tinally  settled 
in  Venice,  where  lie  spent  his  last  yeai-s  poor  and 
forgotten,  yet  to  the  very  end  occupied  with  plans 
for  restoring  himself  to  power  and  prosperity.  He 
died  Slst  March  17'29.  See  Wooil's  Life  of  Law 
(Edin.  1824),  and  Thiers,  Law  ct  son  !iystemc  des 
Finances,  of  wliich  there  is  an  .\merican  transla- 
tion (New  York,  1S59).  An  edition  of  his  works 
wa-s  i)ublished  at  I'aris,  184.S. 

Law.  William,  one  of  the  ablest  controversial- 
ists of  the  18th  century,  was  born  a  grocer's  son  at 
Kingsclitt'e,  in  Northam]itiuishire.  in  lliSfi,  entered 
Emmanuel  College,  Cambridge,  in  170,'j,  and  be- 
came a  fellow  in  1711.  At  the  accession  of  George 
I.  he  found  himself  unable  to  subscribe  the  oath  of 
allegiance,  and  consequently  forfeited  his  fellow- 
ship. About  17'27  he  became  tutor  to  the  father 
of  Edward  Gibbon  at  Putney,  and  here,  or  at  Cam- 
bridge Avitb  his  pu|iil,  be  sjient  ten  years  'the 
much  honoured  friend  and  spiritual  director  of  the 
whole  family.'  Gibbon,  in  his  autobiography, 
speaks  of  the  unworldly  thinker  with  unusual 
warmth  as  'a  worthy  ancl  pious  man  who  believed 
all  that  he  professed,  and  practised  all  that  he 
enjoined.'  'I'lie  elder  tUbbon  died  in  1737,  and 
three  years  later  Law  retired  to  his  native  village, 
and  there  was  .soon  joined  by  his  disciples,  Miss 
Hester  Gibbon,  sister  of  his  pupil,  and  Mrs  Hutche- 
son,  a  wealthy  widow.  The  two  ladies  had  a 
united  income  of  about  £3000  a  year,  and  most  of 
this  they  sjient  in  those  works  of  charity  to  which 
they  devoted  themselves  in  their  seclusion,  which 
lasted  over  twenty  years.  Law  rose  at  live,  and 
spent  many  hours  of  every  day  in  silent  meditation 
:aul  in  exercises  of  devotion.  About  the  year  1733 
he  had  begun  to  study  the  writings  of  Jacob 
Boelime,  and  most  of  his  later  books  are  more  or 
less  expositions  of  his  mysticism.  Law  died  in  his 
retreat,  April  9,  1761.  "  AVilliam  Law,  however 
unworldly  in  his  theology,  was  a  strong  thinker 
and  a  consummate  dialectician.  He  won  his  first 
uiumphs  against  Uisbop  Hiiadly,  in  the  famous 
Bangorian  controversy,  with  his  Tiirec  Letters 
(1717).  His  Jiemar/:s'on  Mandevillc's  Fable  of  the 
Bees  (1723;  republished  by  F.  D.  Maurice,  1844) 
is  a  masterpiece  of  incisive  logic,  caustic  wit,  and 
tei-se  and  vigorous  English.  Only  less  adinirable 
is  the  Case  of  Reason  (1732),  in  answer  to  Tindal's 
able  book,  Christianiti/  as  old  as  thc_  Creation.  But 
the  most  famous  of  his  works  remains  the  Serious 
Call  to  a  Dei-oiit  and  lloUj  Life  (1729),  to  which 
Dr  Johnson  a.scribed  his  lir.st  religious  convictions, 
and  wliich  profoundly  influenced  the  Wesleys,  and 
earned  the  praises  lit"  (iilibon.  Of  Law's  mystical 
works  may  be  n.imed  Tlie  W'aij  to  Divine  Know- 
ledi/c,  and  The  Sjiirit  of  Lore  (1752). 

There  arc  two  collected  editions  of  his  works,  each  in 
9  vols.— tliat  of  171)2  and  that  of  Jloreton  (1893  c<  »(?.). 
See  C  Walton's  Nol'S  and  Materials  for  a  Complete  Jiio- 
graiihy  (1848),  Canon  Overton's  William  Law,  Nonjuror 
and  Mi/stic  (1881),  and  i)r  Wliyte's  Characters  and 
Cliaracierislicsuf  ]yilliain  Law  ( 1892).  See  also  Lecky's 
Uistorii  of  Kn'/I'ind  in  the  ISth  Century;  and  Leslie 
Stephen's  Eivjlish  Thomjhl  in  the  ISth  Centurij. 

Law  Ait«'ii<.    See  SoLirrroii,  Agent. 

La» burrows,  Lkttku.s  of,  in  Scots  law,  a 
writ  coniniaiiiling  a  person  to  give  security  against 
oll'ering  violiiiie  against  another.     See  Pe.\('E. 

Law  <'oiirts.    See  C'ouKi's  of  L.wv. 

LawlVldt,  or  Lavkli),  close  to  Maestriclit 
in    IJelgium,   wius    the   scene  of   the  defeat  of   the 


540 


LAW-MERCHANT 


LAWRENCE 


coniliined  Austrian,  Dutch,  and  English  forces 
under  tlio  Duke  of  Cumberland  by  tlie  Krench, 
commanded  by  Marslial  Saxe,  on  '2d  .Inly  1747. 

Law-llier«'ll!lllt,  a  name  often  used  in  law  to 
denote  tlie  ciistoiMs  wliieli  h.ave  <;rown  up  among 
merchants  in  reference  to  mercantile  documents 
and  business,  such  as  bills  of  exchange,  bills  of 
lading,  «S.-c.  These  customs  become  incorporated 
with,  and  form  part  of,  the  common  law,  and  are 
binding  as  snoh. 

Lawn,  a  line  kind  of  Linen  (q.v.),  from  which 
bishops'  sleeves  are  made.  For  grass-lawns,  see 
Gakdexinc. 

Lan  II  Tennis.    See  Tennis. 

Lawrence.  ( l )  capital  of  Douglas  county, 
Kansas,  on  the  Kansiis  Kiver,  34  miles  SSW.  of 
Leavenworth  by  rail.  It  is  the  seat  of  the  state 
univei-sity  (1864),  and  has  mannfactures  of  flour, 
eastings,"  furniture,  &c.  Pork-packing  is  exten- 
sively carried  on.  Lawrence  was  founded  in  1854 
by  Free-soil  settlers,  shared  in  the  viident  struggle 
against  slavery  (see  K.\XSAS),  and  was  partly 
burned  by  (iuantrell's  guerillas  in  18G3.  Pop. 
(1885)  10,'6'25.— (2)  One  of  the  capitals  of  Essex 
county,  Massachusetts,  and  an  important  manu- 
facturing city,  on  both  sides  of  the  Merrimack 
River,  2G  miles  N.  of  Boston,  with  which  it  is  con- 
nected by  two  railways.  The  river,  which  here 
falls  28  feet  in  half  a  mile,  is  crossed  by  two  rail- 
way and  two  otlior  bridges,  and  by  a  dam  of 
granite,  900  feet  long  and  40  high  ;  and  canals  on 
either  bank  conduct  the  water  to  the  mills.  The 
mills,  some  of  which  are  amongst  the  largest  in  the 
world,  manufacture  cotton  and  woollen  goods, 
cloth,  and  paper ;  and  engines,  boilers,  machinery, 
clothing,  hats,  &c.  are  also  produced  here.  Pop. 
(1870)  28,921  ;  (1880)  39,151 ;  (1885)  38,845. 

Lawrence,  St.    See  St  Lawrence. 

Lawrence.  Sr,  the  Deacon,  a  m.artyr  of  the 
early  church,  tlie  subject  of  an  elaborate  hymn  by 
Prudentius.  According  to  the  legendary  account,  he 
was  born  at  Huesca  in  Spain,  and  became  a  deacon 
of  Rome  in  the  pontificate  of  Sixtusl.  (.3d  century). 
In  the  persecution  of  Valerian,  being  summoned 
before  the  pr;etor  as  a  Christian,  and  tieing  called 
on  to  deliver  up  the  treasures  of  the  church,  he  pro- 
duced the  poor  and  the  sick,  who  were  his  special 
charge ;  and  on  his  persisting  in  his  refusal  to 
sacrifice,  he  was  condemned  to  be  broiled  on  a 
gridiron.  The  martyrdom  is  umiuestionably  his- 
torical, its  probable  date  258.  His  day  is  the  10th 
August.     The  Escorial  (q.v.)  is  dedicated  to  him. 

Lawrence.  Ceouge   Alfked,   novelist,  wa-s 

born  in  1827,  and  from  Rugliy  passed  to  Balliol 
College,  Oxford,  where  he  grailuated  with  a  second 
in  cl.assics  in  IS.jO.  He  was  called  two  years  later 
to  the  bar,  was  also  a  mililia  oHi(-('i-,  au<l  died  in 
Edinburgh,  23d  September  1S70.  Of  liis  nine  or 
ten  novels  the  best  is  Oiiij  Llrhii/x/ntic  ( 1857). 

Lawrence.  Lonn.  .John  Laird-Mair  Lawrence 
was  one  ol  twelve  children  of  Lieut. -col.  ,-Vlexander 
Lawrence,  an  Irish  I'rotestanl,  who  served  in  the 
Mysore  campaign  and  at  the  storming  of  Seringa- 
patani.  Born  at  Kichmond,  Yorkshire,  4tb  March 
1811,  he  obtained  in  1S27  a  presentation  to  Hailey- 
blirv  Collegf!,  where  he  carried  oil'  the  chief  prizes. 
His  first  years  in  the  Indian  civil  service  were  spent 
in  Delhi  anil  tlie  neighbourliood.  On  the  annexation 
of  the  Punjab  Lawrence  was  ajipointed  commis- 
sioner, and  afterwards  lieutenant-governor.  His 
administration  of  this  once  anarchic  jirovince  maile 
him  deservedly  popular  willi  Kuropeaiis  ami  natives 
alike.  He  useci  every  ellort  to  I'lirh  the  ojipression 
of  the  people  by  their  chiefs,  devised  a  ration.il 
system  of  land  tenure,  and  devoted  his  whole 
time  and  energy  to  the  work  of  restoring  peace  and 


prosperity.  It  was  through  the  influence  which  he 
then  acquireil  over  the  native  population  that  he 
was  able  to  render  such  eflective  service  during  the 
Indian  Mutiny.  Indeed,  it  is  no  exaggeration  to  s,ay 
that  he  then  pi<ived  himself  to  be  tlie  mainstay  of  the 
Hritish  dominion  in  India.  The  once  restless  Sikhs 
had  become  so  .attacheil  to  his  linn  and  beneficent 
rule  that  Lawrence  was  en.'ibh'd  to  disarm  the 
mutineers  in  the  Punjab,  to  raise  an  army  of  .59,000 
men,  .and  to  capture  the  city  of  Delhi  from  the 
rebels  after  an  eventful  siege  of  three  months.  So 
timely  was  this  succour,  and  so  great  had  been  his 
foresight,  that  he  wius  thereafter  styled  '  the  saviour 
of  India.'  On  his  return  to  England  he  re<'eived  the 
thanks  of  parliament,  with  the  grant  of  a  pension  of 
£1000  a  year.  He  was  made  a  baronet  in  1858,  and 
a  privy-councillor  in  1859.  In  1801  Lawrence  was 
nominated  one  of  the  knights  of  the  '  Star  of  India,' 
In  1863  he  succeedeil  Lord  Elgin  as  Governor- 
general  of  India ;  he  was  ma<le  .a  member  of  the 
Indian  council,  and  the  Court  of  Directors  of  the 
East  India  Company  granted  him  .a  life  pension  of 
£2000  a  year.  His  live  years'  administration  of 
the  Indian  empire  was  marked  by  the  same  wisdom, 
foresight,  an<l  iirudence  as  distinguished  his  career 
in  the  Punjab.  His  financial  jiolicy  was  based 
upon  sound  principles;  he  tocdc  a  strong  per- 
sonal interest  in  the  many  social  problems  which 
Indian  statesmen  h.ave  to  confront ;  and  his  foreign 
jiolicy  w;is  generally  approved  of.  He  diil  not 
believe  in  British  interference  in  .Asia  beyond  the 
frontier  of  Imlia,  and  was  especially  ojijiosed  to 
intriguing  in  Afghanistan.  In  1869  lie  was  raised 
to  the  House  of  Peers  as  P.aron  Lawrence.  Lord 
L.awrence  was  chairman  of  the  London  School-board 
from  1870  till  1873.  He  devoted  the  last  days  of 
his  life  in  parliament  (1878)  to  an  exposure  of  the 
policy  which  led  up  to  the  disastrous  Afgli.an  war, 
and  which  he  had  vainly  striven  to  counteiact  in 
his  retirement.  He  died  27tli  .Inne  1879.  See  his 
Life  bv  I'.osworth  Smith  ( 1883),  Sir  Richard  Temple 
(  1889),  ami  Sir  C.  Aitchison  ( 1892). 

His  elder  brother,  Siu  Henry  Montgomery 
Lawrence,  was  born  at  .Matuia,  Ceylon,  28th 
June  1806.  In  1823  he  joined  th(!  Bengal  Artillery 
near  Calcutta,  where  Havelock  w,as  stationed  at  the 
same  time.  He  took  part  in  the  lii-st  Burmese  war 
in  1828,  in  the  first  Afghan  war  in  1838,  and  in 
the  Sikh  wars  of  1845  and  1848;  and  in  1848  he 
was  made  K.C.  B.  In  18.'>6,  while  in  charge  of 
the  Kaj]iutana  province.  Lawrence  published  two 
articles  pointing  out  the  <langer  of  reducing  the 
strength  of  the  British  army  of  oc<'upalion  in  India, 
and  the  latent  causes  of  mutiny,  which  might  burst 
forth  at  any  time.  These  warnings  were  more  than 
jnstilied  by  subsequent  events.  In  March  1857  he 
was  appointed  to  tlie  charge  of  atl'aiis  in  Lncknow, 
and  clid  all  that  he  could  to  restore  <-onteiitment 
there.  But  the  mutiny  broke  out  in  May,  and 
Lawrence  saw  that  it  would  inevitably  spread 
throughout  India.  He  made  extensive  prep.aratiims 
at  Lncknow,  and  it  was  owing  to  his  wonderful 
foresight  that  it  wa-s  made  possible  for  a  mere 
handful  of  Eunqiean  soldiers  todefend  tITe  liesidency 
for  about  four  months  against  an  army  of  the  rebels 
which  was  in  possession  of  the  town.  Sir  Henry 
Lawrence  himself  was  injured  by  the  explosicm  of 
a  shell  on  2il  .luly  1857,  .and  died  two  days  after- 
wards from  the  effects  of  the  wound.  His  death 
was  a  gre.at  blow  to  the  little  garrison,  but  they 
held  out  bravely  till  the  end  of  Sejitemher,  when 
relief  came  from  Cawnjiore.  In  addition  to  bis 
reputation  as  a  statesman  ami  soldier.  Sir  Henry 
Lawrence  is  known  as  a  pliilantliropist,  and  wa.s 
the  founiler  of  the  Lawrence  .Military  .\sylums  in 
the  Punjab,  Kajputana,  and  Madras.  He  devoted 
the  most  of  his  income  to  these  and  other  deserving 
institutions.     A  marble  statne  has  been  erected  to 


LAWRENCE 


LAYARD 


541 


liis  nieiiiorv  in  St  Paul's  Catlieilral.  Sfe  liis  Life 
l>y  Sir  lli'itiiTt  Kclwunlfs  ami  Hi'iiuan  ileiivale 
(is?;!),  anil  lliat  liy  .M'l.uod  Iniiu.--  0S9S). 

Lawr«'llfe.  Sir  Thomas,  portiaitiiainter  and 
I'resiileiit  of  the  Hoyal  Acadeiiiy,  was  Ixnu  at 
Bristol,  an  innkeeper's  son,  on  4th  May  176'J,  and 
at  the  early  ajje  of  ten  yeai-s  hetjan  to  draw  portraits 
in  crayonsat  Oxford,  afterwards  at  liath.  At  the 
age  of  eijjhteen  lie  entered  as  a  student  of  the  Royal 
Academy,  havinjx  a  little  while  previously  taken  to 
painting;  in  oil.  In  1791  he  was  elected  associate, 
and  in  1798  full  member.  After  Ueynolds'  death  he 
wius  appointed  limner  to  the  kinj;  in  179'2,  and  was 
knighted  in  181.5:  and  on  IVnjamin  West's  death 
in  1820  he  succeeded  liim  as  President  of  the  Royal 
Academy.  He  died  in  London,  7th  January  1830. 
Lawrence  was  the  favourite  portrait  painter  of  his 
time,  had  an  immense  jiractice,  and  obtained  higher 
l)rices  perhaps  than  were  paid  to  any  pievious  por- 
trait-painter. His  talent  was  overrated  during  his 
lifetime ;  his  work,  in  siiite  of  the  elegance  and  taste 
that  often  distinguish  it,  scarcely  rises  above  the 
conventional  level.  See  Life  and  Correspom/ence 
vf  Sir  T.  LauTencc,  by  Williams  (1831 ) ;  and  Lord 
R.  Gower's  Romneji  and  Laicience  ( '  (Jreat  Artists  ' 
series,  18S2)  and  Sir  T/iomns  Lawrence  (19U0). 

Lawrence,  Sir  Willi.vm,  Bart.,  F.R.S.,  a 
distinguished  surgeon  ( 1783-lSli7),  became  in  1815 
one  of  the  professors  of  Anatomy  to  the  Koyal 
College  of  Surgeons,  and  in  1829  a  lecturer  on 
Surgery  to  St  Bartholomew's.  He  wrote  important 
works  on  The  Treatment  uf  Hernia  (1807),  An 
Introduction  to  Comparative  Aneitomu  and  Physi- 
ology (1819),  and  A  Treatise  on  the  Venereal  Dis- 
cuses of  the  Eijc  ( 1S3I ). 

Lanreuceburg,  a  city  of  Indiana,  on  the 
Ohio,  22  miles  below  Cincinnati.     Pop.  4284. 

Lawsoil,  Cecil  (1851-82),  landscape-painter. 
e.\hibited  at  the  Academy  in  1870,  but  remained 
obscure,  many  of  his  |)ictures  being  rejected  by  the 
Academy,  till  1878,  when  his  '  Minister's  Garden  ' 
and  a  '  Pastoral '  at  the  Grosvenor  made  him 
famous.  The  short  remainder  of  his  life  was  a 
brilliant  success.     See  his  Life  by  Gosse  ( 1883). 

Lawsouia.    See  Henna. 

Law-terms.    See  Tek.ms. 

Lawyer,  in  the  United  Kingdom,  Ls  not  a 
technical  term  of  law,  but  a  ])opular  name  given  to 
those  who  are  either  practitioners  of  the  law  or 
intimately  coimected  with  its  administration.  \n 
(jreat  Britain  and  Ireland  lawyers  are  subdivided 
into  two  main  classes  (see  Attokneys,  Solicitok, 
Barristers,  Advocates).  In  the  United  States 
an  attorney  acts  as  counsel,  and  vice  vcrsil,  there 
being  no  similar  subdivision  of  the  profession,  and 
the  expediency  of  the  subdivision  has  often  been 
canvassed  in  tiie  United  Kingdom  of  late  years. 

LayaillOII,  the  son  of  Leovenath,  calleil  in  the 
later  text  of  his  poem  Laweman  the  son  of  Leuea, 
was,  as  he  himself  tells  us,  a  priest  at  Ernley  (now 
Arley ),  on  the  banks  of  the  Severn,  near  Bewdley, 
and  apjieai's  to  have  nourished  about  the  close  of  the 
12tli  century.  Nothing  more  is  known  concerning 
liim.  He  produced  an  amidilied  imitation  of  Wace's 
Brut  d'Anijlcterrc,  the  value  of  whiih  is  not  so 
much  literary  a.s  linguistic,  althongh  it  is  the  earliest 
existing  poem  of  considerable  length  in  llic  English 
tongue.  It  wa.s  ctrnfcs-sedly  a  compilation  from 
Bede,  St  Albin,  and  Au.stin,  and  more  jiarticularly 
W'ace.  Wace's  lirut  contains  15,:J(XJ,  and  Laya- 
mon's  .32,250  lines,  the  additions  consisting  of 
dramatic  speeches  jmt  into  the  mouths  of  the  ligures 
and  of  an  extension  of  the  Arthurian  riinian<-e 
with  names  of  persons  and  ]>laces  sujiplied.  The 
author  seems  to  have  been  a  .simple,  pious,  and 
patiiutic  priest — iu  his  own  words  '  it  came  U>  liim 


in  mind  and  in  his  chief  thought  that  he  would  tell 
the  noble  deeds  (it  the  lOnglisb.'  The  versillcation 
is  very  arbitrary  and  riule,  exhibiting  sometimes 
the  alliteration  of  Anglo  Saxon,  ami  .sometimes  the 
rhyme  of  French  poetry.  The  language  shows  us 
the  Anglo-Saxon  changing  or  changed  into  Early 
English,  and  a  study  of  its  peculiarities  of  grammar 
and  phraseology  enables  us  to  trace  the  jiroce.ss  by 
which  the  Saxon  of  .\lfred  and  the  Chronicle  became 
transformed  into  the  English  of  Chaucer  an<l  Wyclif. 
Sir  Frederick  Madden  pointeil  out  that  in  the  earlier 
of  the  two  MSS.  (13th  century  )  of  Layamon's  iJ;-»^, 
there  were  less  than  iifty  words  derived  from  the 
Normans  ;  while  in  the  second  (written  about  1250) 
twenty  of  these  are  dropped  and  only  about  forty 
more  added.  There  are  thus  but  ninety  words  of 
French  origin  in  the  two  texts,  together  nmre  than 
5(),S(10  lines. 

The  work  was  edited,  with  a  literal  translation,  notes, 
and  a  t;raniniatical  glossarj',  for  the  Society  of  Antiquaries 
of  London  by  Sir  Fred.  MaddeTi  (3  vols.  Lund.  1847).  See 
vol.  iii.  cliap.  (i  1 1888)  of  Morley's  Enrjlisk  Writers. 

Layard,  Sir  Austen  Henry,  G.C.B.,  English 
traveller  and  diplomatist,  was  born  in  Paris,  March 
5,  1817,  and  ])assed  his  boyhood  in  It.aly.  At  six- 
teen he  was  sent  to  London  to  stu<ly  law.  In  1839 
he  set  out  on  an  overland  journey  to  Ceylon.  Trav- 
elling along  the  banks  of  the  Tigris  in  1840,  he  was 
struck  with  the  rnins  at  Nimrud,  jioiuted  out  by 
tradition  as  the  site  of  Nineveh  (q.v. ),  and  felt  an 
irresistible  desire  to  exiimine  the  remains.  In  1842 
Botta,  consul  at  Mosul,  conducted  some  extensive 
excavations  at  Ivhorsabad  ;  and  Layard,  returning  to 
the  region,  again  directed  his  attention  to  Nimrud. 
It  was  1845  before  he  could  obtain  the  requisite 
means  and  facilities  for  his  search,  and  he  then,  with 
the  help  of  some  Arabs,  began  secretly  to  dig  in  the 
mound  supposed  to  contain  the  ruin.s.  His  excava- 
tions were  resumed  in  184G  and  1847,  and  his  energy 
and  perseverance  were  rewarded  by  the  discovery  of 
the  ground  remains  of  four  distinct  jjalatial  edifices. 
The  most  remarkable  discoveries  were  made  in  the 
North-west  Palace,  supposed  to  have  been  built  by 
Sardanapalus.  The  walls  had  been  lined  with  large 
slabs  of  gypsum  or  alabaster,  co\ered  with  bas- 
reliefs  and  cuneiform  inscriptions.  Many  of  these 
were  sent  to  England  by  Layard,  together  with 
gigantic  winged  liuman-headed  bulls  and  lions, 
and  eagle-headed  deities.  They  were  placed  in  the 
British  Museum,  of  which  they  have  since  remained 
the  chief  attraction  (see  ASSYRIA).  Layard  at 
first  conducted  his  search  at  his  own  expense  ;  he 
was  in  1845  liberally  assist e<l  by  Lord  Stratford 
de  Kedclitl'e,  then  British  ambassador  in  Constan- 
tinople; and  eventually,  as  the  value  of  these 
s|)eciniens  of  the  Assyrian  art  began  to  be  known, 
tiie  House  of  Commons  voted  a  sum  of  £.3000, 
which  was  applied  by  the  trustees  of  the  British 
Museum  in  continuing  the  excavations  under  Lay- 
ard's  superintendence.  On  his  return  to  England 
he  published  a  narr.ilive  of  his  ex|dorations  under 
the  title  of  Xincrc/i  and  its  laniuins  (1849),  and 
another  work  entitled  Mijnumentsiif  Xincrcli(  1853). 
He  was  presented  with  the  freeilom  of  the  city  of 
London,  received  the  honour  of  D.C.L.  from  the 
university  of  Oxfonl,  and  was  Lord  Rector  of  Aber- 
deen University  in  I8.")5-,">G.  In  1852  he  Ijecanie 
M.P.  for  Aylesbury,  ami  in  1800  for  Southwark  ; 
in  1801-(itj  he  was  Undersecretary  of  State  for 
Foreign  Ad'airs,  and  thereafter  Chief  Commi.ssioner 
of  Works.  In  I8G9  he  went  as  British  ambas- 
sador to  Spain  ;  and  in  1877-80  he  was  ambas.sador 
to  Conslanlinople.  His  nnirkedly  philo-Turkish 
sympathies  iluring  and  after  the  war  with  Russia 
|)rovoked  comment  at  home.  In  1878  he  received 
the  Order  of  the  Bath.  In  1887  he  published 
his  Early  Adrcntiircs  in  Persia,  Babylonia,  and 
Suaiana.     He  died  5tli  July  1894. 


542 


LAYING 


LEAD 


LayinS.  or  Laykhing,  a  mode  of  propiigating 
trees,  slirubs,  and  iicreniiiiil  lii'il>aeeous  iilatits 
wliicli  is  very  fre<|iU'Mtly  eiiii)loyed  liy  gardeners 
and  niirservnien.  It  consists  in  bending  and  t';ust- 
ening  a  branch,  so  tliat  a  portion  of  it  is  imbedded 
in  earth,  tliere  to  throw  out  roots,  the  extremity 
being  macle  to  grow  erect  in  order  to  form  a  new 
phmt.  The  se])aration  from  the  parent  phuit  is 
not  elVected  till  the  Layer  is  sntliciently  provi.led 
with  roots.  Any  injury  which  prevents  tlie  free 
return  of  tlie  sap  greatly  promotes  the  formation  of 
roots,  and  a  notch  is  therefore  usually  made  in  the 
under  side  of  the  branch,  at  the  i)lace  where  the 
formation  of  roots  is  desired  :  it  is  also  often  a  little 
split  up  from  the  notch  :  and  sometimes  a  ring  of 
bark  is  cut  otf,  or  a  wire  is  twisted  round  it.  Tlie 
time  which  must  elapse  before  the  layer  should  be 
separated  from  the  parent  plant  is  very  various  ;  a 
few  weeks  being  sutlicient  for  some,  and  two  years 
requisite  for  others.  Many  plants  which  cannot 
readily  be  propagated  by  cuttings  are  more  easily 
and  si'icccssfully  propagated  by  layers. 

Lav-rcatler.  in  the  .\nglican  Church,  is  a  lay- 
man who  receives  authority  to  read  the  lessons  or  a 
part  of  the  service.  The"  incumbent  can  permit 
any  one  to  read  the  lessons,  but  for  authority  to 
reail  the  morning  or  evening  prayer  a  license  from 
tlie  bishop  of  the  diocese  is  required.  The  absolu- 
tion, of  course,  cannot  be  read  by  a  lay-reader,  nor 
any  part  of  the  communion  service,  but  he  may 
receive  permission,  especially  in  connection  with 
missions,  to  preach,  or  to  read  the  sermons  of 
others.  Readers  ( Uvtures,  ancif/nditai )  have  existed 
as  an  order  in  the  church  from  at  least  the  M  cen- 
tury :  in  the  Greek  Church  they  constitute  the  lirst, 
in  the  Latin  Church  the  second  of  the  minor  (nders 
that  lead  to  the  priesthood.  (The  oHice  was 
anciently  a  favourite  one  with  wellborn  youths  : 
Julian,  afterwards  the  Apostate,  was  in  his 
younger  years  a  reailer  in  the  church  of  Xicomeilia. ) 
Their  duty  at  first  was  only  to  read  (  and  perhaps  to 
interpret  f  the  lessons;  afterwards  they  were  often 
employed  also  as  bishops'  secretaries,  and  had  siime 
other  functions  assigned  to  them.  The  appoint- 
ment of  readers  in  the  Anglican  Church  received 
the  .sanction  of  the  bishops  in  ISGG  ;  but  they  were 
not  to  be  ordained. 

Lazarus.  Moiarz  (born  1824),  Hebrew  philo- 
sophical writer,  is  since  1873  professor  at  Berlin. 

La/.ai'ftr,  Pout,  a  line  natural  harbour,  40  to 
60  feet  deep,  and  8  s(i.  m.  in  extent,  in  liroughton 
Bay  on  the  east  si<le  of  Coiea.  It  is  .•{90  miles  trom 
Vladivostok  to  the  north  and  4S0  from  Fort  Hamil- 
ton to  the  south,  and  is  free  from  ice  in  winter. 

Lazaretto.    See  Leprosv,  and  Ql-.\r.\ntine. 

La/.arists.    See  Vincent  ve  Paul. 

La/.istail.  a  coast  strip  at  the  south-east  corner 
of  the  iilaek  Sea,  partly  Turkish,  partly  Russian, 
inbaljited  Ijy  the  rough  Lazes.     See  UeoHGIA. 

La/.lllitC,  or  AZUKITE,  a  mineral  long  con- 
founded with  Lapis  Lazuli  (ipv.),  but,  although 
sonu'what  similar  in  colour,  very  dillerent  in  com- 
position ;  consisting  chiefly  of  phosphoric  acid  ami 
alumina,  with  magnesia  and  protoxide  of  iron.  It 
occurs  imbeddeil  in  iiuartz,  or  in  lis.sures  in  day- 
.slate,  in  Styria,  North  Carolina,  Brazil,  &c. 

Lazzaroili  (Ital.  Inzzaro,  'leper;'  probably 
from  their  being  outcasts  or  separate  from  otlier 
citizens),  until  lately  a  special  cla.ss  of  the  in- 
habitants of  Naples.'  They  had  no  lixed  habita- 
tions, regular  occupation,  or  secuic  means  of  suli- 
sistence,  but  occasionally  obtained  employment  as 
messengers,  iim-tcrs,  boatmen,  itinerant  vendors  of 
food,  &C.  They  performed  an  important  part  in 
all  tlie  revolutions  and  niovenients  in  Naples,  and 


were  wont  annually  to  elect  a  chief  ( Capo  Lazzaro), 
who  was  formally  recognised  by  the  government. 

Le,  or  Leii,  the  walled  caiiital  of  Ladakh  (q.v.). 
stands  3  miles  from  the  bank  of  the  Indus.  ll,5:iS 
feet  above  the  sea.  Pop.  estimated  at  about  4000. 
Le  is  one  of  the  chief  markets  of  the  trade  between 
Tibet  and  Chinese  Turkestan  on  the  one  hand  and 
the  Punjab  on  the  other. 

Lea.  a  tributary  of  the  Thames,  rises  near 
Houghton  Regis  in"  P.edfordshire,  Hows  south-east 
through  Hertfordshii-e,  then  south  between  Middle- 
sex and  E.ssex,  and  joins  the  Thames  near  Black- 
wall,  after  a  course  of  46  miles. 

Lead  i«  one  of  the  metals  which  have  been 
known  from  early  times.  It  is  nienlioned  in  Job, 
xix.  '24,  and  articles  made  of  it  by  the  ancient 
Romans— some  of  them  inscribed  and  dated— such 
as  water-pipes,  «-ater-tanks,  weights,  rings,  and 
small  ornamental  cylinders,  are  still  preserved. 
As  examjiles  found  in  the  grounds  of  some  of  the  old 
abbeys  and  cathedrals  show,  the  Roman  method  of 
making  pipes  from  sheet-lead,  which  ditl'ers  from 
the  modern  way,  continued  in  use  till  late  in  the 
middle  ages.  Small  lead  weights  of  curious  forms 
have  been  found  among  Viking  remains  dating 
as  early  as  the  10th  century.  l)f  lead  compounds, 
litharge  and  red  lead  were  known  to  the  ancients. 

Lea<l  (symbol  Pb,  atomic  weight  'JOT)  is  a  soft 
metal  of  a  bluish-white  colour,  tending  to  gray, 
and  having  also  a  bright  metallic  lustre  when 
newly  cut  or  melted.  Its  .surface  soon  tarnishes, 
however,  when  exposed  to  the  air,  by  taking  on  a 
thin  film  of  what  is  sujipo-sed  to  be  suboxide.      But 

ti xiilation  increases  .so  slowly  that  lead  suH'eis 

less  than  most  ordinary  metals  i-ither  by  exposure 
to  atmosjiheric  agencies  or  by  being  |>laced  in  damp 
soils.  Lead  can  be  scratched  with  the  nail,  and 
easily  cut  with  a  knife,  and  it  nuikes  a  streak  upon 
paper.  Its  specifii^  gravity  varies  from  ir3.52  in 
the  in"ot  to  11-36.3  "when"  rolled  into  sheets,  ami 
its  meUing-])oint  is  633''  P.  (334'  C).  It  is  highly 
malleable  and  in  a  less  degree  ductile,  but  its 
tena<'ily  is  small— a  wire  ^'A\>  of  an  inch  being  un- 
able to  carry  a  load  of  20  lb.  I.eail  is  not  a  good  con- 
ductor of  heat  or  electricity.  When  gently  heated 
it  can  be  forced  by  jiressure  thrmigh  ijcrfoiations, 
so  that  jiijies  and  slilid  rods  for  rillebuUets,  i^c.  are 
in  this  way  nianufacture<l.  It  is  well  to  bear  in 
mind  that  jiipes,  gutlors.  and  cisterns  made  of  lead 
are  iniiired  by  hot  water.  The  two  former  are 
often  twisted  and  ren<leied  useless  by  the  constant 
How  of  hot  li(niids  through  them.  Neither  sul- 
phuric nor  hydrochloric  acid  in  the  dilute  state 
has  any  action  upon  lead. 

The'Action  of  Lead  ii/)ii>i  Wider  is  of  great  im- 
portance, because  the  metal  is  so  much  employed 
tor  iiipes  and  cisterns,  ami  because  le.id  salts  dis- 
solved even  in  minute  (|uaiitilies  in  drinking-water 
act  as  cumulative  poisons,  and  are  therefore  in- 
jurious when  taken  for  some  length  of  time  into  the 
system.  Lead  is  rapidly  acted  upon  by  pure  water 
to  which  air  has  access,  such  as  rain  ;  and  it  is  also 
dis.solved  to  an  appreciable  extent  by  the  water  of 
rivers  or  lakes  wlii<-h  is  practically  free  from  lime. 
In  these  cases  the  water  after  passing  through  lead 
pipes  has  an  alkaline  reaction.  The  combined 
action  of  air  (i.e.  of  its  free  oxygen)  and  water 
oxidises  the  lead.  After  a  lime  this  hydrated 
oxide  which  dissolves  is  cmiverted  by  atmospheric 
carbonic  acid  into  an  insoluble  basic  carboiiat<' of 
lead.  The  oxiile  is  again  lonned  and  the  corrosive 
a(dion  continues  or  may  continui\  Bicarbonate  or 
suljihate  of  lime,  which  are  c(mimon  salts  in  potable 
waters,  prevent  water  acting  on  lead.  So  do  some 
other  salts;  but  ammonium  nitrate,  on  the  other 
han<l,  assists  the  solution  of  the  lead.  Sir  Robert 
Cluistison  found  that  a  very  small  amount  of  peat- 


LEAD 


543 


extract  in  solution  prevents  the  action  of  an  other- 
wise pure  water  upon  lead.  15ut  in  the  case  of  even 
a  soft  and  almost  pure  water,  like  that  supplied 
to  Glivsgow  from  Loch  Katrine,  the  action  is  so 
slow  that  short-service  ]>ipes  of  lead  when  con- 
stantly used  are  harmless. 

Native  lead  is  of  rare  occurrence,  but  it  has  been 
found  very  sparinj;ly  in  a  few  places.  The  metal 
is  obtained  chiell;  from  f;alena  or  sulphide  of  lead, 
which  forms  veins  in  ditl'ereut  <;eoloj;ical  formations. 
There  are  several  o.xides  of  lead,  two  of  which, 
plumbic  oxide  and  red  oxide,  are  of  importance 
in  the  arts. 

Plumbic  Oxide  (monoxide  of  lead,  massicot, 
litharjje),  PbO.  Ma.ssicot,  from  which  red  lead  is 
manufactured,  is  obtained  in  the  form  of  a  yellow 
powder  by  heating  lead  to  dull  redness.  Litharge 
IS  produced  when  lead  is  oxidi.sed,  a.s  in  the  cupella- 
tion  furnace,  at  a  high  temperature  in  a  current  of 
air.  The  melted  litharge  flows  from  the  cupel  into 
iron  pots,  and  after  cooling  breaks  up  into  crystal- 
line scales  of  a  lolour  varying  from  a  pale  to  a 
reddish  yellow.  This  is  called  flake  litharge,  and 
when  ground  it  is  termed  butt' or  levigated  litharge. 
Both  massicot  ami  litharge  enter  into  the  com- 
position of  Cements  (q.v. ).  Litharge  is  used  in 
the  fabrication  of  oil-varnishes  to  increase  their 
power  of  drying,  in  the  preparation  of  leail 
plaster,  and  for  glazing  earthenware.  Red  Oxide 
of  Laid  (red  lead  or  minium),  PboOj,  is  occasion- 
ally found  native.  Its  manufacture  is  referred  to 
below.  There  is  another  kind  of  red  lead,  called 
orange  lead,  containing  more  oxyn;en  than  minium. 
Plumbic  Peroxide  (binoxide  of  lead,  puceoxide), 
PbOj,  is  obtained  by  treating  the  red  oxide  with 
dilute  nitric  acid.  This  oxide,  which  is  of  a  brown 
colour,  is  used  mixed  with  sul])bur  along  with  other 
ingredients  for  tipping  some  kinds  of  matches,  the 
mi.xture  of  puceoxide  with  sulphur  being  spon- 
taneously innainmable  when  rubbed. 

The  most  important  lead  salts  are  the  follow- 
ing:  Plumbic  Carbunate  (carbonate  of  lead,  white 
lead ),  PbfJOj  :  the  cerussite  of  mineralogists,  and 
now  largely  mined  iu  the  I'nited  States  as  an  ore 
of  leaU.  White  lead  is  manufactured  on  a  large 
scale  by  the  process  described  below.  Plumbic 
Chloride  (chloride  of  lead),  I'bCl...  The  minerals 
niatlockite  and  mendipit«  are  both  oxychlorides  of 
leatl.  By  a  process  introduced  by  H.  L.  Pattinson, 
a  basic  chloride  of  lead  is  made  for  use  as  a  white 
pigment,  which  is,  however,  not  so  serviceable  as 
ordinary  while  lead.  Lead  Acetate  (sugar  of 
lead  ),  Pb(C\.H30.^)„,  .3H.,0,  is  prepared  by  dissolving 
mas-sicot  in  dilute  acetic  acid.  It  can  be  obtained 
in  transparent  crystals  or  iu  scales  by  evajiorating 
the  solution.  It  is  soluble  in  U  part  of  cold  water, 
and  in  eight  parts  of  alcohol.  Like  litharge,  it  is 
used  in  the  manufacture  of  oil-varnislies,  and  it  is 
an  important  substance  in  medicine.  For  the 
chroniate  of  leail,  which  is  employed  as  a  yellow 
pigment,  see  under  Chko.mum. 

The  following  are  some  of  the  tests  for  leiul 
compounds  in  solution  :  An  addition  of  hydro- 
chloric acid  produces,  unless  in  very  dilute  solu- 
tions, a  white  precipitate  of  lead  chloride  unaltered 
on  ailding  ammonia.  Sul|)huretted  hydrogen  |)ro- 
dnces  a  black  precipitate,  and  this  precipitate 
when  heatwl  with  strong  nitric  acid  is  converted 
into  insoluble  white  sulphate  of  lead,  f'hromate 
of  potiush  ])roduces  a  yellow  precipitate,  which  lias 
the  .same  appearance  as  the  |>recipitate  this  clirom- 
ate  gives  with  baryta,  but  the  chromate  of  lead 
Ui  soluble  in  caustic  potash,  while  chromate  of 
baryta  is  insoluble.  Lead  compounds,  when  mixed 
with  a  little  carbonate  of  soda,  are  ea.sily  reduced 
U)  the  metallic  state  if  heated  on  charcoal  in  the 
inner  blowpipe  llanie. 

Ores  and  Smelting. — Until  recent  years  only  a 


small  quantity  of  lead  was  obtained  from  any  other 
ore  than  (lalena  (i].v.).  This  is  a  sulphide  of  lead 
(lead,  86  (J ;  sulphur,  13'4),  and  is  found  exten- 
sively, more  or  less  pure  or  associated  with  other 
ores,  in  Great  Britain,  Germany,  Spain,  and  other 
European  countries.  About  one-third  of  the 
British  supply  is  obtained  from  the  Crossfell  dis- 
trict, where  the  counties  of  Cumberland,  Durham, 
and  Nortliumlierland  meet.  A  few  other  KiigUsh 
counties,  Wales,  the  Isle  of  .Man.  and  Scotland, 
also  yield  lead.  The  total  qtiantity  of  ore  now 
annually  raised  in  Great  Britain  is  about  50.000 
tons,  yielding  nearly  40,000  tons  of  lead — less  than 
was  formerly  usual. 

The  United  States  is  now  a  large  producer  of 
lead,  the  Colorado  smelting-works  alone,  which 
first  rose  into  importance  in  1S7S,  yielding  a.s  much 
as  70,000  tons  in  the  year  1887.  The  works  and 
mines  of  this  state  are  chiefly  at  Leadville,  where 
much  of  the  ore  obtained  is  cerussite  or  native 
carbonate  of  lead.  The  earlier  discovered  Nevada 
lead-veins  produced  31,000  tons  of  lead  in  1877, 
but  only  34U0  tons  in  1887.  L'tali,  Idaho,  Montana, 
New  Mexico,  ilissouri,  and  Kansas  also  produce 
lead.  The  total  lead  produce  of  the  United  States 
in  ISSHi  w;is  187,000  .short  tons  (of  -2000  lb.). 

Some  of  the  rarer  lead  minerals,  not  already 
mentioned,  are  auglesite  or  sulphate  of  lead, 
lanarkite,  which  is  a  basic  sulphate,  pyromoridiite 
or  phosphatocbloride  of  leail,  and  bournonite, 
consisting  of  the  sulphides  of  lead,  copper,  and 
antimony.  All  galena  is  more  or  less  argentif- 
erous. 

Galena  when  taken  from  the  mine  is  broken  up 
into  small  jiieces  or  reduced  to  powder,  and  the 
impurities,  in  so  far  as  these  can  be  removed 
mechanically,  separated  by  machines  noticed  under 
Metalluegy.  If  the  dressed  galena  is  nearly 
pure,  as  it  often  is,  the  smelting  operation  is  simple. 
A  charge  of  ore  amounting  to  at  least  20  c«  t.  is 
first  partially  roasted  or  calcined  for  about  two 
hours  on  the  bed  of  a  reverberatory  furnace,  such 
as  is  shown  in  tig.  1,  which  results  iu  one  portion 


I'it'.  1. — Section  of  a  Reverberatory  Lead-furnace : 
a,  hearth  on  wtiicll  ore   is  .spread ;   b,  tlie  fireplace  or  grate ; 
c,  the  lire  bridge ;  d,  cliiinncy  ;  f,  e,  workiuy  doors ;  /,  open- 
iug  for  supplying  ore ;  g,  tap-hole. 

being  converted  into  oxide  and  another  into  sulphate 
of  lead,  while  s(une  of  the  sulphur  goes  to  form 
sulphurous  acid,  which  escapes  as  gas.  There  remain 
on  the  hearth  of  the  furnace  oxide,  sul|>bate,  and 
some  unaltered  sulphide  of  lead.  These,  when 
the  heat  is  raiseil  .ind  tli<!  furnace  doors  closed  to 
practically  stop  the  supjily  of  air,  react  upon  each 
other,  forming  sulphurous  acid  and  metallic  lead. 
Towards  the  end  ot  the  process  some  lime  is  thrown 
in  to  aid  in  the  manipulation  of  the  slajr  and  unile- 
composed  tue  ;  and  when  a  further  portion  of  metal 
is  extracteil  from  these  the  iiieltcd  lead  is  run  oil 
into  a  vessel,  and  the  slag  removed  from  the  fur- 
nace.    The  changes  which  take  place  iu  the  later 


544 


LEAD 


or  melting  stage  of  the  process  are  shown  by  the 
following  equations : 

( 1 )  2PbO    +  PbS  =  rbj  +  SO.,. 

(2)  PbSOj  +  PbS  =  Pbj  +  2SO2. 

In  the  nortliern  lead  ilistricts  of  Great  Britain  the 
calcined  ore  is  lemoved  from  the  revorberatoiy  fur- 
nace and  .siueUed  witli  the  aid  of  a  blast  of  air  ou  a 
separate  ore-hearth  called  the  '  Scotch  furnace.' 

Owing  to  lead  being  to  some  extent  volatile  at  a 
red  heat,  a  consiilerable  iiuantity  of  the  metal  would, 
if  not  prevented,  pass  from  the  suielting-furuaces 
into  the  atmos])here  as  smoke  or  fume,  anil  cause  a 
loss  of,  sometimes,  10  per  cent,  of  what  the  ore 
should  yield.  Moreover,  lead  smoke  destroys 
vegetation  for  some  distance  around  the  furnaces, 
and  herbage  on  whicli  the  fume  condenses  is  apt 
to  i)ois(>n  animals  feeding  upon  it.  At  Holywell  in 
Flintshire,  Alston  Moor  in  Cumberland,  and  at  other 
lead-works  this  smoke  is  conveyed  through  a  system 
of  flues  whose  combined  length  amounts  in  some 
eases  to  several  miles.  Sometimes  it  is  one  very  long 
tlue.  The  fume  condenses  on  the  sides  of  these  Hues, 
openings  being  left  to  collect  it.  Condensing  cham- 
bers are  also  used,  in  one  form  of  which  the  lead 
fume  is  precipitateil  liy  being  forced  through  water. 
These  condensei's  are  constructed  to  save  the  expense 
of  long  Hues,  but  sometimes  both  are  employed. 
The  lead  is  of  course  extracted  from  the  collected 
fume.  In  the  Harz  ilountains,  and  in  some  other 
lead-mining  and  smelting  districts  lead  is  extracted 
from  complex  ores — that  is  to  say,  from  argentif- 
erous galena  associated  with  comparatively  small 
quantities  of  the  sulphides  of  copper,  iron,  zinc, 
and  antimony,  togetiier  with  a  gangue  of  quartz 
(silica),  alumina,  calcspar,  heavy-spar,  and  brown- 
spar.  For  such  ores  what  is  called  the  precipita- 
tion hij  iron  or  the  iron-reduction  process  is,  in 
some  cases  at  least,  more  suitable  than  the  air- 
reduction  process  described  above.  A  certain 
lirojiortion  of  iron  is  added  to  the  charge  of  ore 
in  a  blast-furnace,  with  charcoal  or  coke  for  fuel, 
because  the  sulphide  of  lead  is  completely  reduced 
when  heated  with  metallic  iron,  since  this  metal 


i'lg. 


Vertical  Section  of  tlio  Pilz  Blast-funiace  for 
lueltini;  Lead : 
a,  liL'artli ;   b,  tuyeres,  by  wtiicli  air-blast  enters;  c,  watcr- 
jacliet ;  d,  tap-hole;  e,  cover;  /,  flue. 

has  a  greater  athnity  for  sulphur  than  lead.  The 
reduction  of  these  complex  ores  is,  however,  rather  ,i 
combination  of  processes  than  a  single  one.  IJesiiles 
lead  aiul  silver,  copper  and  sometimes  other  metals 
are  obtained  as  accessory  products. 


As  an  example  of  a  water-jacketed  blast-furnace 
for  lead  smelting  we  give  in  iig.  2  a  vertical  section 
of  the  cupola-slia|)ed  one  called  the  I'ilz  furnace 
now  in  use  at  Freiberg,  and  which  has  also  been 
adopted  in  the  United  States.  It  has  eight  tuyeres, 
and  varies  in  size  from  4  feet  in  internal  diameter, 
and  14  feet  high  from  the  hearth-plates,  up  to  20 
feet  in  height,  with  a  proportional  width  acros.s. 
In  the  United  States,  liowever,  the  Kachette  or 
rectangular  form  of  blast-furnace  seems  to  be  pre- 
ferred, because  its  capacity  can  be  increased  by 
lengthening  it  on  i)lan  without  also  increasing  the 
height,  as  must  be  done  if  a  circular  furnace  is 
made  larger  in  diameter.  The  pressure  of  the  blast 
in  these  furnaces  is  from  i  to  1  lb.  per  square  inch. 
The  ore  smelted  at  Leadville,  Colorado,  is,  as 
already  stated,  largely  cerussite  or  carbonate  of 
lead,  and  this  is  easily  reduced  in  a  blast-furnace 
by  coke  or  charcoal. 

De.silrrrisiiiij,  A-c. — Lead  usually  contains  anti- 
mony, tin,  zinc,  and  other  metals  as  impurities. 
These  are  .sei>arated  by  fusing  the  metal  in  shallow 
pans,  when  the  foreign  metals  form  oxi<les,  ami  as 
such  are  skimmed  oil'.  Le.ad  reduced  from  galena 
always  contains  a  little  silver,  of  which  8  or  10 
oz.  to  the  ton  of  lead  is  a  very  common  \>vo- 
portion,  although  it  often  exists  in  much  larger 
quantity,  and  as  little  as  2  oz.  to  the  ton  can  now 


Fig.  3. — Desilverising  Pot : 

«,  pot ;  6,  tireplace ;  c,  main  flue. 

be  profitably  extracted.  The  desilverising  process 
patented  by  H.  L.  Pattinson  of  Newcastle-on- 
Tyne  in  1S33  is  still  much  used.  A  series  of  ('ast- 
iron  pots  about  6  feet  in  diameter  (see  Iig.  3) 
is  used  in  the  process.  The  argentiferous  l(>ad  from 
the  smelting  furnace  is  melted  in  one  of  these  and 
alloweil  to  cool  slowly,  and  at  the  same  time  it  is 
briskly  stirre<l.  A  portion  of  the  lead  is  thus  made 
to  separate  in  small  crystals,  which,  as  ]pure  lead 
solidilies  at  a  higher  temperature  than  when  it  is 
alloyed  with  silver,  loaves  the  lluid  jiortion  richer 
in  silver.  Suiipose  that  the  lead  to  begin  with 
contains  10  oz.  of  silver  to  the  ton  ;  ihi'ii  if  two- 
thirds  of  the  charge  of  this  pot,  which  is  usually 
the  centre  one  of  several,  is  transferred  as  crystals 
to  another  pot  it  will  onitain  only  about  5  oz. 
of  silver  to  the  ton.  The  one-third  remaining  in 
the  liquid  state  will  contain  20  oz.  of  silver  to  the 
ton.  \Vith  both  portions  this  i>rocess  is  rejieated 
several  times,  the  one  becoming  poorer,  and  the 
other  richer  in  silver  after  eacli  crystallisation. 
AVIien  the  lead  is  enriched  to  the  extent  of  from 
250  to  .'iOd  oz.  of  silver  to  the  ton  the  concentration 
is  usually  stopped,  although  it  is  sometimes  carried 
a  good  deal  further.  The  silver  is  then  obtained 
from  this  rich  hwd  by  melting  it  on  a  Mat  bone  lush 
cu]iel,  ]ilaced  in  a  reveiberatory  furnace,  and  ex- 
]iosing  it  to  a  ciini'nt  of  air  which  reduces  the  lead 
to  the  oxide,  or  lillitinic  of  eoiiiTiierce,  leaving  the 
silver  on  the  cu]iel.  Fully  320.000  oz.  of  .silver  are 
in  this  way  annually  separated  from  I'.ritish  lead, 
the  latter"  at  the  same  time  being  improved  in 
quality. 


LEAD 


545 


Tlie  Kozaii  process  for  desilverisiug  leail  is  tlie 
same  in  principle  as  PattinsonV,  except  that  steam 
is  used  iiisteail  of  manual  labour,  the  result  being 
that  there  is  a  considerable  saving  in  the  cost. 

Another  method  of  desilverisiug  lead,  known  a-s 
Parkes'  process,  was  patented  in  1S50.  IJy  this 
method  the  silver  is  separated  by  adding  to  the 
melted  lead  from  1  to  2  per  cent,  of  zinc,  which  has 
a  greater  artinity  for  silver  than  lead.  The  zinc 
carrving  the  silver  with  it  forms,  on  cooling,  crusts 
on  tlie  surface.  From  these  crusts  the  zinc  is  after- 
wards distilled,  leaving  silver  mixed  with  some 
lead  a.s  a  residue.  A  raodilication  of  Parkes' 
method  was  patented  in  France  by  Condurie  in 
186G.  He  uses  superheated  steam  for  the  separa- 
tion of  the  zinc  from  the  crust  or  scum,  and  for 
getting  rid  of  any  foreign  metals  remaining  in  the 
desilverised  lead.  It  is  said  that  a  very  pure  com- 
mercial lead  is  obtained  by  Condurie's  process. 

Rolled  out  into  sheets,  lead  is  largely  used  for 
rooting  houses  and  for  water-cisterns ;  and  water- 
pipes  are  now  made  from  it  without  soldering,  a.s 
already  stated.  It  is  also  of  great  service  in  the 
construction  of  large  chambei's  for  the  manufacture 
of  sulphuric  acid.  Its  value  for  the  manufacture  of 
shot  is  well  known.  Alloyed  with  antimony,  vVc, 
it  is  largely  consumed  for  type-metal,  and  w  ith  tin 
for  solder.  Much  lead  is  also  required  for  the 
manufacture  of  pewter,  Britannia  metal,  &c.  See 
Alloy. 

White  Lctul  or  Carbonate  of  Lead  is  a  substance 
very  extensively  used  as  a  white  pigment,  as  a 
cement,  and  for  pottery  glazes.  White  lead  is  still 
largely  made  by  the  old  Dutch  proces-s.  Metallic 
leail  is  cast  into  the  form  of  stars,  gratings,  or  thin 
perforated  slabs  in  such  a  way  as  to  facilitate  its 
conversion  into  the  carbonate.  These  pieces  of 
lead  placed  in  earthenware  vessels,  like  flower-pots, 
containing  a  little  weak  acetic  acid,  are  built  u|) 
in  tiers  in  the  form  of  a  stack,  and  surrounded 
with  spent  tan  or  hoi-se-dung.  The  heat  given  out 
from  the  dung  volatilises  the  acid,  which  along 
with  the  air  changes  the  surface  of  the  lead  into 
the  basic  acetate,  and  this  is,  in  turn,  converted 
into  the  carbonate  by  the  carbonic  acid  given  oil' 
from  the  hotbed.  Metallic  lead  requires  from  four 
to  eight  weeks  for  conversion  into  white  lead,  dur- 
ing which  a  repetition  of  these  reactions  goes  on. 
In  1S90  a  company  was  formed  in  London  to  work 
K.  Maclvor's  process,  which  consists  in  acting  upon 
oxide  of  lead  (litharge)  by  a  solution  of  acetate  of 
ammonia,  and  then  precipitating  carbonate  of  lead 
from  the  solution  by  injecting  carbonic  acid.  By 
this  ])rocess  white  lead  is  veiy  quickly  made.  The 
acetate  of  ammonia  is  recovereel  and  used  again. 

Minium,  lieil  Lead,  or  Red  Oxide  of  Lead,  is 
much  consume<l  in  the  manufacture  of  Hint-glass, 
as  a  cement,  and  as  a  pigment.  For  ghuss-making 
it  requires  to  be  made  of  very  pure  lead,  as  a 
slight  trace  of  copper  would  impart  a  colour  to  the 
glass.  Minium  is  prepared  by  heating  massicot 
or  monoxide  of  lead  to  a  temperature  of  600°  F. 
in  iron  trays,  in  an  oven,  carefully  avoiding  fusicm. 
More  oxygen  is  thus  gradually  absorbed  ;  and  a 
bright-red  conqiound  is  formed  which  is  the  red 
leail  of  commerce.  Orange  lead,  made  from  white 
lead  instead  of  from  massicot,  is  a  very  pure  kind 
of  reil  lead. 

Yellow  Lead. — TliLs  name  is  sometimes  given  by 
manufacturers  to  a  mixture  of  the  oxides  of  lead 
and  antiniriny,  which  is  to  some  extent  u.sed  to 
give  a  yellow  colour  to  earthenware  and  as  a 
pigment. — The  so-called  Black  J^ead  (q.v. ),  of 
which  pencils,  &c.  are  made,  contains  no  lead. 

Leau-poisoning,  or  Plumblsm. — Minute  doses 
of  lead  introduced  into  the  system  for  some  time 
bring  on  peculiar  and  distinctive  symptoms.  In  the 
ISth  centurv,  before  its  cause  was  a.scertaine<l,  the 


disease  was  well  known  in  Poitou  ( hence  called 
'coliea  pictonum'),  in  Devonshire,  and  in  th<^  West 
Indies.  It  was  proved  Ijy  Sir  George  Baker  in  1767 
that  it  was  due  in  each  cxse  to  the  ])resence  of  lead 
in  the  ])revalent  alcoholic  drink  of  these  regions — 
wine,  cider,  rum  respectively,  owing  to  its  intro- 
duction during  the  process  of  manufacture.  It  is 
occasionally  met  with  in  consequence  of  the  action 
of  water,  generally  very  soft  water,  on  the  lead 
pipes  through  which  it  passes  to  the  consumers, 
liut  it  most  often  attacks  persons  brought  much 
into  contact  with  lead  compounds,  such  as  makers 
of  white  lead,  workers  in  the  glaze  of  potteries, 
painters,  and  pluml>ers.  The  intestinal  canal  and 
the  nervous  system  are  aft'ected  ;  gout  also  occure. 
See  W.  D.  Prendergast's  monograph  on  lead- 
lioisoning  (1898). 

( 1 )  Lead  or  painter's  colic  is  much  the  most 
connuon  form  of  the  disease.  It  consists  in  more 
or  less  severe  attacks  of  pain  in  the  abdomen  ( see 
Colic),  not  differing  much  except  in  their  per- 
sistency and  frequent  recurrence  from  pains  other- 
wise produced,  attended  by  obstinate  constipation 
and  frequently  by  vomiting.  They  may  be  so 
slight  for  some  time  that  they  do  not  interfere  with 
the  sufferer's  continuing  his  work.  Lead-colic  is 
rarely  fatal ;  but  may  be  so  if  the  cause  of  the 
affection  is  not  recognised. 

(2)  The  commonest  affection  of  the  nervous 
system  is  paralysis  of  some  of  the  voluntarj' 
muscles ;  usually  those  first  and  most  aft'ected  are 
the  exten.sor  and  supinator  muscles  of  the  forearm, 
and  the  muscles  of  the  ball  of  the  thumb  ;  and 
from  the  characteristic  deformity  thus  arising  the 
condition  is  termed  irriMt-droji.  Uther  mu.soles  may 
be  (ii'st  or  alone  affected  :  but  in  almost  all  cases 
the  muscles  of  the  upper  limbs  are  those  where  the 
disease  manifests  itself.  It  is  not  certain  whether 
the  nerve-trunks  or  the  centres  in  the  spinal  cord 
are  the  primary  seat  of  morbid  change.  Atrophy 
of  the  brain-substance,  or  of  the  optic  nerves, 
epileptic  attacks,  and  coma  occasionally  occur  as 
results  of  lead-poisoning.  All  the  nervous  dis- 
orders are  generally  preceded  by  lead-colic. 

(3)  The  association  of  gout  with  lead-poisoning 
is  frequent :  and  the  former  is  certainly  sometimes 
]iroduced  by  the  latter.  But  it  is  probable  that 
gouty  subjects  are  specially  sensitive  to  the  action 
of  lead.  Cirrhosis  of  the  kidneys  (see  Kidnkv.s, 
DISE.4SES  OF )  occure  in  some  cases ;  but  whether 
it  is  ever  a  primary  effect  of  lead-poisoning,  and 
not  due  to  induced  gout,  is  not  quite  certain. 

Besides  the  more  obvious  effects  of  the  poison 
above  described,  there  are  others  of  great  import- 
ance, as  they  aid  in  the  discovery  of  the  cause  ot  the 
di.sease.  The  most  distinctive  is  the  formation  of 
a  dark  line  along  the  edges  of  the  gums  close  to  the 
teeth,  due  to  precipitation  of  lead  in  the  form  of 
sul^)liide  in  the  tissues.  The  general  health  usually 
sutlers,  the  complexion  is  sallow  and  the  skin  dry 
and  harsh. 

Prevention. — The  most  important  point  to  be 
attended  to  is  that  those  exposed  to  the  cause  of 
the  di.sease  should  ])ay  scrujiulous  attention  to 
cleanliness  ;  should  never  eat  in  their  workrooms, 
or  without  washing  their  hands  ;  and  where  dust 
containing  lead  is  present  should  wear  respirators 
during  their  work.  Lemonade  or  some  other  drink 
.slightly  acidulated  with  sulphuric  aci<l  should  be 
useil  as  .1  beverage,  for  it  forms  the  insoluble  and 
inert  sulphate  of  lead  with  any  other  lead  com- 
pound which  has  obtained  access  to  the  stomach. 
Where  the  watersuiqjly  is  at  fault  lead  pipes  must 
be  discarded,  or  means  must  be  taken  to  render 
the  water  hard  before  it  is  admitted  to  the  pipes. 

Treatment. — When  lead  is  present  in  the  system 
and  causing  any  of  the  symptoms  above  described, 
its  removal  can  be  effected  by  the  ailmini.stration  of 


546 


LEAD 


LEAF 


iodide  of  potassium  (see  loDIXE).  Sulphuretted 
batlis,  formerly  recommended,  are  of  doubtful 
etticacy.  Lead-colio  rerniiros  the  free  adnuiiistra- 
tion  of  castor-oil  or  otiier  purjratives ;  and  lead- 
paralysis  is  often  henelited  by  stimulation  of  the 
atlected  muscles  by  electricity. 

Load,  on  shipboard.     See  SOUNDING. 

LoUiUlills.  a  villafte  of  Lanarkshire,  the  highest 
in  Scotland,  being  about  i:)()Ofeet  above  sea-level, 
on  Glengonuer  Water,  45  miles  SSW.  of  Eilinburgh. 
-Vllan  Uamsay  was  a  native.  T>ead  has  been  nnned 
here  for  at  least  six  hundreil  years,  the  annual 
output  ranging  between  700  and  IMIO  tons  of  lead. 
Pop.  99S.     See  Irving's  Laiicirishire  {18G4). 

Leadiliu;  <tll<'slioil  is  a  technical  expression 
in  law  to  denolc  a  (picstion  so  put  to  a  witness 
as  to  suggest  the  answer  that  is  desired  or  expected. 
Thus,  if  a  witness  is  asked  :  '  Was  he  dressed  in  a 
black  coat  ? '  it  is  supposed  the  witness  will  answer, 
'  Yes  ;'  whereas  the  proper  way  of  putting  tlie  cpu's- 
tion  is  :  '  How  was  he  dressed  ? '  or.  '  ^\"hat  kind  of 
coat  ? '  \c. 

Leadvillc.  a  mining-town  of  C'oli)rado,  capital 
of  Lake  county,  stands  in  a  valley  10,'200  feet 
above  the  sea,'  70  nules  {1,51  by  rail)  SW.  of 
Denver.  Its  mines  produce  gold,  silver,  and  lead 
(see  i)age  544).  The  town,  which  was  incorporated 
in  1878,  cont.ains  nvimeious  smelt ing-furnaces  and 
stamp-milU      Pop.   (I8S0)  U.S20;  (1890)  10,384. 

Leaf*  Leaves  are  lateral  organs  develoi)ed  from 
the  stem  or  Axis  (q.v. )  of  the  )dant  below  its  grow- 
ing |)oint.  They  never  bear  flowers,  ,and  after  reach- 
ing llieir  full  development  they  retain  their  form 
and  size  unchanged  until  deatli,  after  which  they  are 
removed  from  the  stem  either  by  graibial  decay 
(most  monocotyledons)  or  by  breaking  oil'  at  a 
distinct  articul.ation  (most  dicotyledons).  They 
normally  consist  of  two  main  parts,  a.  stalk  or 
petiole,  and  a  blade  or  lamina,  the  latter  being 
usually  flattened  and  expanded.  They  may  also 
possess  lateral  appendages  or  stipules  at  the 
base  of  the  petiole.  Physiologically  considered, 
they  .are  of  tlie  highest  inii)ortance,  as  can  liest 
be  understood  after  examination  of  their  minute 
anatomy.  The  petiole  resembles  a  stem  in  struc- 
ture ;  tiie  blade,  however,  is  distinguished  by  the 
great  development  of  cellular  tissue,  through  which 
the  hbro-vascular  bundles  pursue  a  course  usually 
similar  to  that  which  they  possess  in  the  stem, 
thus  exhibiting  tlie  parallel  and  reticulated  vena- 
tion so  characteristic  of  Monocotyledons  (q.v.) 
and     Dicotyledons     (q.v.)     respectively.      Taking 


Fig.  1. — Transverse  Microscopic  Section  of  a  Leaf : 
a,  upper  epidermic  l.iyer  witli  cuticle  :  h,  palisiulc  pareiieliyina; 
c,  spongy  i>arencli>nnu  ;  d,  lower  epidermic  layer  witli  stuiiiata  ; 
e,  libro-vascular  bundle. 

common  exam]>les  of  such  leaves,  it  is  easy  to 
make  out  all  tlie  juincipal  tissues  (see  15.\i!K); 
(1)  thus,  by  tearing  the  leaf  obliquely,  we  can  re- 
move shreils  of  dry,   colourless,   transparent  epi- 


lirrmis,  which  exposes  the  subjacent  (2)  cellular 
ground  tissue  or  ipaicnchyma.  which  is  ilark  green 
on  tlie  u|i])er,  ami  paler  because  of  looser  texture 
on  the  lower  side,  while  (3)  the  iibro-vascul.ar 
bundles  can. readily  be  ]uepared  as  a  skeleton  by 
scraping,  ux  better  by  maceration.  .\  thin  trans- 
verse section  placed  under  the  microscope  shows, 
proceeding  fnuu  above  downwards,  (1)  the  uinier 
eiiidermis.  a  continuous  layer  of  empty  cells,  with 
walls  often  considerably  thickened,  especially  on 
the  ujipcr  surface,  to  form  the  so-called  cuticle; 
(2)  the  iiarenchyma,  which  contains  the  tibro- 
v;i,scular  bundles,  and  which  is  readily  distinguish- 
able into  two  chief  layers.  Above  is  the  .so-called 
'palisade  ]iarenchyma,'  in  which  the  cells  are  elon- 
gated vertically  and  placed  close  together  like  the 
posts  of  a  palisade,  and  below  this  lies  the  loose 
Iiarenchyma  of  tlie  middle  and  lower  surface  of 
the  leaf,  in  which  the  cells  are  pidyhedral  and 
loosely  arranged,  leaving  irregular  air-jtassages. 
Kinaliy  we  have  the  lower  epidermis,  in  which 
numerous  o]ienings,  the  IStomata  (q.v.),  )ilace  the 
spaces  in  the  parenchyma  in  continuity  with  the 
external  atmosphere. 

The  essential  function  of  leaves  resides  in  their 
chlorophyll-containing  parenchyma,  in  which,  in 
]iresence  of  light,  carbonic  acid  (('<>;)  is  decomposed 
with  evolution  of  oxygen  into  the  atmosphere  and 
formation  of  starcli  (see  L'HLOKdrilvi.l.,  VKiilo- 
TAiii.K  Pnvsioi.ooY).  This  proce.>is  has.  of  course, 
nothing  to  do  with  the  function  of  llespiration 
(q.v.) — oxidation  of  protoplasm  with  formation  of 
carbonic  acid  which  is  going  on  constantly  during 
life  in  all  the  tissues  of  plants  as  well  as  of 
animals  ;  it  is  a  compensatory  process  whereby  the 
green  plant  is  enabled  to  repair  its  respiratory 
losses  of  matter  and  eneig.v,  and  jirovide  for  its 
continued  growth  by  the  lixing  of  new  matter  from 
the  atmosphere  and  new  energy  from  the  sun. 
The  newly-formed  starch  is  lirst  distinguishable 
in  the  form  of  granules,  which  are  visible  in  the 
substance  of  the  chloiophvll  grains,  is  then  digested 
into  a  soluble  body,  probalily  glucose,  an<l  carried  off 
by  the  descending  Sap  ((pv. ),  to  be  either  directly 
assimilated  to  form  new  ]iroto|ilasni.  or  to  be  recon- 
verted into  starch  and  stored  for  future  use. 

The  functions  of  the  blade  of  tlie  leaf  are  .shared 
to  some  extent  by  the  petiole,  by  the  green  cel- 
lular onvelojie  of  the  stem  and  branches  (which 
thus  not  unfrequently  come  to  replace  the  leaves 
altogether,  good  res]iective  instances  being  fur- 
nished by  cactuses  and  acaciivs),  and  often  by  the 
calyx  and  ovaries;  in  short,  every  part  of  the 
plant  exposed  to  light  tends  to  utilise  it  by  ])ro- 
ducing  cliloropbyll,  excejiting  only  those  jiarts  of 
the  tlower  wtiere,  in  current  phia.se,  more  con- 
spicuous colouring  matters  are  required  for  the 
attraction  of  insects. 

The  forms  of  leaves  arc  greatly  varied,  often 
obviously  in  adaiitation  to  the  habit  of  the  jilant, 
large  and  free-growing  jdants  which  obtain  un- 
obstructed light  most  frequently  bearing  simple 
or  slightly  lobed  leaves,  while  the  smaller  vegeta- 
tion generally  produces  leaves  either  long,  simple, 
and  narrow  (e.g.  grasses),  or  highly  com]iound,  with 
small  leallets  (e.g.  ferns),  so  as  to  seize  as  many 
as  possible  of  the  bi(d<en  sunbeains  which  have  not 
been  intercejited  by  the  lotlier  plants,  while  casting 
a.s  little  shadow  as  jiossible  U]ion  each  other. 
Again,  the  leaves  of  aipiatic  plants,  if  lloating,  are 
simph?  and  largely  ex|iande<l,  .so  as  to  maintain 
their  position  and  obtain  the  niaxinium  of  light 
(e.g.  water-lily  and  piuid  weed),  but  if  submerged 
are  usually  di.ssected  into  lilifonii  segments  (water- 
primrose),  so  as  to  allow  the  water  to  How  un- 
obstructed, .ind  thus  constantly  renew  tli<?  supplies 
of  carbonic  acid.  .Again,  where  in  one  and  the 
same  plant  the   leaves  on    the   lower  and   upper 


LEAF 


547 


portion  of  the  axis  are  in  difl'erent  circumstances, 
their  form  is  also  varied,  and  we  liave  tlie  hetero- 
phyllous condition,  which  can  be  seen  in  many 
mndplants,  Init  perhaps  most  conveniently  in  the 
water-buttercup  ( Ranuticnl its  aiimttilis),  which 
possesses  l>oth  floating  leaves  which  are  sim]il(', 
and  suhnierjied  leaves  which  are  highly  dissected. 
So,  too,  plants  which  grow  in  dry  and  sandy  situa- 
tions, and  obtain  scanty  supplies  of  water,  either 
owing  to  drought  or  to  too  pervious  soil,  very  fre- 
quently store  their  water  in  their  leaves,  which 
tlius  become  succulent,  and  preserve  it  from  the 
evaporative  action  of  the  sun  by  the  aid  of  a 
thickened  epidermis  containing  unusually  few 
stoniata. 

A^ain,  leaves  may  acquire  entirely  new  functions, 
and  liave  their  form  altered  in  correspondence  with 
these.  Where  tlie  plant  is  a  climber  the  whole  or 
part  of  the  leaf  may  be  modified  into  a  tendril ; 
where  it  is  insectivorous  it  may  be  converted  into 
a  fly-trap  (see  lNSECTivoRor.s  Plants)  ;  or,  a.s  in 
the  very  highly  specialised  Nepenthes,  we  may  have 
the  base  of  the  leaf  of  ordinary  form  and  function, 
the  middle  twining  as  a  tendril,  and  the  tip  hol- 
lowed  and   enlarged   into  a  complicated    pitcher. 


cal,  and  so  on.  Innumerable  variations  in  detail 
arise,  however,  according  to  the  shape  assumed  by 
the  ape.x,  the  margin,  or  the  base  of  the  leaf.  The 
apex  may  be  ofitiisr  or  ariitc,  refuse  or  acuminate ; 
1 


Fig.  2. 

A,  B,  fonus  of  leaves— a,  circular;  h,  elliptical;  c,  oval; 
</.  linear;  f,  spathulate;  /,  ovate;  g,  oblong;  h,  reuiform; 
i,  liaiitat«  ;  k,  sagittat« ;  I,  pointe<l  ovate ;  m,  ovate-lanceolate. 

C,  Leaf-tips — a,  acute  ;  h,  obtuse ;  c.  retuse  ;   e/,  acuminate. 

D,  Leaf-margins— c,  entire :  /  serrate ;  ij,  dentat* ;  li,  crenatc ; 
i,  undulate;  k,  labulate  ;  t,  divided. 

Where  protection  Ls  required,  new  modifications 
present  themselves ;  if  herbivorous  mammals 
threaten  the  existence  of  the  plant,  the  leaves  or 
leaf-tips  may  become  converted  bodily  into  thorns, 
or  covered  with  epidermic  prickles.  Bitter  or  acriit 
secretions,  too,  may  develop,  or  stinging  haii-s  he 
produced  ;  while,  if  ants  are  to  be  guarded  again.st, 
a  hairy  or  glandular  epidermis  is  the  surest  pro- 
tection. Such  at  least  are  the  interpretation.s 
.  ommonly  current  (.see  D.vrwini.vn  Tukdrv). 

Such  ]iiiysiological  considerations  being  gnusped, 
irimparatively  little  stress  need  be  laid  (save  for 
purposes  of  specific  description)  upon  the  elaborate 
nomenclature  of  leaf  forms  with  which  botanical 
ttxt-books  are  apt  to  lie  overburdened. 

The  parenchyma  oT~the  blade  may  be  either  in 
one  continuous  jiiece,  when  the  leaf  is  said  to  be 
simple,  or  cut  u])  into  separate  leaflets,  >\  hen  it  is 
termed  eomjiouuil.  Simple  leaves  may  be  con- 
veniently reduced  to  three  main  form.s,  the  eir- 
culnr,  the  cllijiticnl,  or  the  oeal,  according  to  the 
respective  length  and  position  of  the  longitudinal 
and  the  transverse  diameter  ;  the  linear  leaf  being 
thus  regarded  as  an  elongated  variety  of  the  ellipti- 


a,  peltate  leaf  derived  from  A  b.v  backward  prolongation  of  the 
lobes;  6,  ainplexicaul  leaf;  h' ,  perfoliate;  6",  connate — all 
derived  from  B  ;  c.  pedate  leaf,  its  branching  represented  dia- 
granunatically  in  d. 

the  margin  ma.v  be  serrate  or  waci/,  or  parted  into 
lobes  so  deep  as  to  furnish  transitions  to  the  eoni- 
potind  leaf;  the  base  may  be  hastate  or  rcniforni, 
and  so  on.  If  the  leaf  base  be  prolonged  beyond 
the  insertion  of  the  petiole  and  its  lobes  unite,  we 
obtain  the  peltate  condition  familiar  in  the  com- 
mon Indian  Cress  (Tropa'olum  ).  If  the  petiole  be 
absent,  the  leaf  becomes  sessile  upon  the  axis  ;  if 
its  lobes  are  produced  downwards,  as  in  the  reni- 
form  leaf,  they  clasp  the  axis,  and  the  leaf  is 
termed  amplexicaul :  if  the  lobes  coalesce  on  the 
other  side  of  the  axis,  it  becomes  perfoliate  :  and 
if  they  unite  with  those  of  a  similar  leaf  aiLsing  on 
the  opposite  side,  the  [lair  are  said  to  be  rotiiKite. 

In  compound  leaves  the  leaflets  may  arise  one 
from  another  on  each  side  of  a  median  lobe,  as  in 
the  pedate  leaf  of  Hellebore,  or  may  ra<liate  in 
palmide  fashion  from  a  common  point — the  end  ol 
the  petiole,  as  in  horse-chestnut ;  or,  as  is  most 
frequent,  tliey  may  be  placed  at  intervals  along 
the  miilrib,  like  the  ribs  of  a  feathei-,  when  ve 
have  the  pinnate  arrangement,  of  which  the  ash 
furnishes  a  fanuliar  example.  The  simjilest  case 
of  pinnate  structure  is  where  the  lateral  loljes  or 
pinnie  are  only  two,  as  in  the  ternate  leaf  of  clovei- : 
complex  cases  also  are  frequent,  termed  bipinnate, 
tripinnate,  or  decompound,  according  as  secondary, 
tertiary,  or  even  quaternary  series  of  leaflets  aie 
develo]ied. 

How  little  morphological  iiuportance  can  be 
attached  to  these  countless  variations  of  form  is 
well  illustrated  by  the  study  of  the  development 
of  the  apparently  similar  'pinnate'  leaves  of  palms, 
dicotyledons,  and  ferns.  In  the  palm  the  pinnate 
character  is  seen  to  be  due  to  a  mere  tearing  of  a 
primarily  simple  leaf,  by  the  midrib  continuing  to 
clongat<'  after  the  parenchyma  is  developed  ;  in 
dic(ityledons  the  lobes  develop  separately,  but 
sometimes  from  above  downwards,  and  sometimes 
from  below  upwards  :  while  in  ferns  the  leaf  is  pro- 
duced by  a  series  of  regular  bifurcations  of  the 
growing  point  alternately  to  right  and  left,  the 
lii'st  ])iiina  being  thus  eqniviilcnt  to  all  the  rest  of 
the  leaf,  and  the  .'ipparcnt  midrib  ji  false  axis,  re- 
sulting from  numerous  separate  dichotomies. 

The  comparatire  inorpnotoijn  of  leaves  is  of  the 
greate.st  interest.  The  es.sential  conception,  which 
floated  before  the  eyes  of  Wolfl'  and  of  Linnaeus, 
wius  renewed  by  Goethe,  and  systemalised  bv  De 
Tandollo,  is  that  of  a  fundamental  corresponilcnce 
or  seri'd  hoinnlui/i/  among  all  the  outgiowtlis 
from  the  sides  of  the  axis— from  the  lowest  and 
earliest,  the  seeil  leaves  or  cotyledons,  upwards 
through  the  leaves  ])roper  to  the  bracts,  and  even 
thence  through  the  ])arts  arranged  u]i(>n  the  floral 
axis — the  se/i(ds,   composing   the    ealyu:,   and    the 


548 


LEAF 


LEAGUE 


petals,  forming;  the  inner  floral  envelope  or  curolla, 
bein"  still  nioililieations  of  the  leaf  type,  which  we 
linally  lind  most  liij,'hly  nietaniorphoseil  in  the 
staiML-ns  ami  jiistils  (see  Flowkk)- 

The  transition  from  leaf  to  liract  can  he  seen  in 
any  Howeriug  |>laiit,  that  from  bracts  to  calyx  may 
he  conveniently  stmlieil  in  tlie  mallow,  that  from 
sepals  to  petals  in  the  cactus,  that  fronr  petals  to 
stamens  in  almost  any  jjarden  rose  (which  indeed 
appears  to  have  su>Cf;ested  the  whole  theory),  and 
that  from  leaves  to  carpels  in  many  monstrous 
llowers,  especially  the  double  cherry.  Our  con- 
sideration of  the  pinnate  type  of  leaf-formation 
having  shown  that  such  apparent  resemblances  in 
adult  anatomy  are  not  necessarily  real,  it  becomes 
necessary  to  test  our  theory  by  actual  observation  of 
the  development  of  flowers.  Embryology  here  fur- 
nishes an  absolute  confirmation — leaves  and  sepals, 
petals,  stamens,  and  carpels,  are  all  seen  to  develop 
as  precisely  similar  proce.sses  of  cellular  tissue  from 


Fig.  4. 
a,  developmeut of  coinpouud  from  simple  leaf;  6,  imiaripinnute 
leaf:    c,  trifoliate  leaf;  d,  palmate  leaf;   e,  development  of 
pinnate  leaves.  /,  of  palm  by  tearing,  ff.  of  dicotyledons  by 
development  either  ( 1 )  basifuj,'al,  or  (2)  basipctal. 

the  sides  of  the  axis  ;  and  when  the  forms  of  leaves 
are  fairly  borne  in  mind,  the  apparent  anomalies 
of  flower  structure  become  clear.  Thus,  the  outei' 
caly.x  (epical ij.c)  of  a  strawl)errv  is  readily  seen  to 
lie  composed  of  the  united  stipules  of  the  .sepaline 
leaves,  the  numerous  stamens  in  five  bunches  of 
the  St  John's  wort  become  resolved  into  a  whorl 
of  compound  staminal  leaves,  anil  so  on.  While 
petals  are  obviously  modifieil  leaves,  there  is  groun<l 
both  developmental  and  analogical  for  regarding 
them,  in  some  if  not-  all  cases,  as  liarren  stamens 
specialised  Ui  the  attra»;tion  <tf  insects  ;  llieir  rela- 
tion to  the  leaf  tyjie  becoming  more  remote  (see 
Stamen  ;  and  Grant  Allen  in  Xatiirc,  July  1882). 

The  arrangement  of  leaves  upon  the  axis  (termed 
lihyliotaxis)  is  always  definite,  and  possesses  a  high 
degree  of  interest,  although  perliaps  rather  mathe- 
matical than  morphological.  An  a.scending  sjiiral 
line  may  in  all  CiLses  he  traceil  round  the  axis 
through  successive  leaf  bases,  and  these  are  found 
to  occur  at  fixed  ilistances,  including  a  certain 
fraction  of  the  circumference,  most  commonly  i,  J, 
i,  I,  or  /i,  although  higher  fractions  of  the  same 
'  convergent  series ' — viz.  5"^,  J  J,  &c. — or  fractions  of 
diirerent  .series,  and  even  transitions  from  one  system 
to  another,  also  not  unfrei)uently  occur,  especially 
in  such  complex  arrangements  as  the  scales  of 
fir  cones,     ^\^len  leaves  are  opposite  there  are  two 


primary  generating  spirals ;   when   whorled  there 
are  three  or  more.     Ihe  mode  in  which  leaves  are 


folded  in  the  bud,  termed  prcj'uliatioii  or  reriKiliuii 
is  of  interest,  since  it  is  definite  for  each  species. 


termeit  pn 
ce  it  is  defi 
See  A'an   Tieghem's,   Sachs's,    \  ines's,  and   other 
text-books;    also   Lubbock's  Flowers,  tYuits,  and 
Leaves  ( '  Nature  '  .series). 
Leaf-insect,  or  '\V.\lkisg-lkaf  {PhylUum), 

a  very  remarkable  genus  of  orthopterous  insects, 
of  the  family  l'hasmid;e  (q.v. ),  natives  of  the  East 


Leaf -insect  ( Phi/Ilium  siccifolium ). 

Indian  region.  The  abdomen  is  flattened  out,  and 
covered  in  the  wingless  females  by  a  ]iair  of  wing- 
coveis  which  together  look  exactly  like  a  leaf. 
The  colour  is  green,  and  the  suggestion  of  midrib 
iind  netted  veins  is  marvellously  mimetic.  The 
legs  are  also  flattened,  green,  and  leaf-like.  The 
male  has  functional  wings,  Ijut  is  also  remarkably 
mimetic.  As  the  insects  live  among  leaves,  and 
are  sluggish,  their  detailed  resemblance  to  the 
surroundings  cannot  but  he  usefully  jirotective. 
The  name  of  the  commonest  .species  (P.  siecifolium) 
refers  to  the  fact  that  when  the  insects  die  the 
green  colour  changes  into  that  of  a  withered  leaf. 
See  Ml.MlcKV. 

League  (Lat.  Icucu,  'a  Gallic  mile,'  a  word 
of  Celtic  origin),  a  measure  of  length  of  great 
anticiuity.  The  Komans  estimated  it  as  equivalent 
to  1500  Uoman  paces,  or  1'376  modern  Kuglish 
miles.  The  league  wa.s  introduced  into  England 
Ijy  the  Normans,  jirobably  before  the  battle  of 
Hastings,  and  had  been  by  then  lengthened  to  two 
English  miles  of  that  lime,  or  '2^^  modern  English 
miles.  At  the  present  day  the  league  is  a  nautical 
measure,  and  signifies  the  "JOlh  jiart  of  a  degree — 
i.e.  .■?  geographical  miles,  or  ;{45G  statute  miles. 
The  French  and  other  nations  use  the  .same  nautical 
league,  hut  the  former  nation  had  (until  the  intro- 
duction of  the  metrical  system)  two  land-me;i«ures 
of  the  same  name,  the  legal  pcstingleague  =  '2'42 
English  miles,  and  the  league  of  25  to  the  decree  = 
270  statute  English  miles.  For  the  tierman  league 
or  Meilc,  see  IMlLE. 

League,  a  term  employed  to  designate  a 
political  alliance  or  coalition.  The  niosl  famous 
leagues  were  the /Etolian  and  Achaian  Leagues,  the 
Lombard  League,  the  Hanseatic  League  (<j.v. ),  the 
leagues  of  C'ambray  ( '  Holy  League'),  Sclnnalkald, 
Nuremberg  (' Catholic  League'),  and  Wiir/.hurg  in 
the  Thirty  Years'  War  (q.v.);  also  the  Solemn 
League  and  Covenant,  the  .Anti-corn-law  League, 
the  Land  League.  Hut  the  name  has  a  peculiar 
importance  in  the  history  of  F'rauce,  as  ajiplieil  to 
the  op|)osition  organised  by  the  IJuke  of  Ciulso 
(q.v.)  to  the  granting  of  the  free  exercise  of  their 
religicm  and  iiolitical  nghts  to  the  Huguenots. 
This  league,  known  as  the  Holy  League  (•Sainte 
Lifi'ir),  was  formed  at  IVronne,  in  l.">70.  to 
maintain  the  predominance  of  the  Koman  Catholic 
religion ;  but  the  object  of  the  Guises  was 
rather  to   exclude  the   Protestant  piinces  of  the 


LEAKE 


LEATHER 


549 


blooil  from  the  succession  to  the  throne.  For  an 
account  of  the  civil  war  that  ensued,  see  Hkxuy  III.. 
llENRY  IV.,  and  CuLSK;  and  for  its  full  history, 
see  Mifrnet's  Histoirc  dc  In  I.igiie  (.5  vols.  1829). 

Lonke,  William  Martin,  tonofiraiiher  _of 
Greece,  was  born  in  London  on  14th  .lanuary  1777, 
and,  having  in  179-t  obtained  a  commission  in  the 
artillery,  was  sent  out  five  years  later  to  instruct 
the  T\irks.  He  was  employed  on  various  other 
missions  in  the  Levantine  countries,  till  in  1S'2;5 
he  retired  a  lieutenant  colonel  from  the  army ; 
in  1S:IS  he  married  the  widow  of  Marsden,  the 
orientalist  :  and  he  died  at  I!rii;hton  on  tith  Jan- 
uar\'  18G0.  With  critical  acnteness  and  soundness 
of  Judijment  he  combined  great  learning  and  an 
admirable  power  of  clear  statement.  His  principal 
works  are  Researches  in  Greece  (1814);  The  2'o/iu- 
graph  1/  of  Athens  (1821);  Journal  of  a  Tour  in  Asia 
Minor  ( i824 ) ;  Travels  in  the  Morea  ( 18.30 ) ;  Travels 
in  Northern  Greece  (1835);  Greece  at  the  End  uf 
Twenty-three  Years'  Protection  {\Sol);  and  Xu/nis- 
matica  Helleniea  ( 1854).  See  Memoir  by  the  I{e\-. 
J.  H.  Marsden  (1864). 

Leaillington.  a  fashionable  watering-place  of 
j     WarwicksliiVe,  is  beautifully  situated  on  the  Leam, 
!    a  tributary  of  the  A\on,  2  luiles  NE.  of  Warwick. 
I     It  is   wholly    of   modern    growth,    having   become 
i    important  only  since  the  rediscovery  of  its  mineral 
;    waters  in  17S4.     They  are  saline,  sulphureous,  and 
'    chalybeate ;    ami   the  watering-se;vson  lasts   from 
October  till  May.     The  town,  too,  stands  in  the 
centre  of    a    good   hunting  countiy.       Among  its 
buildings   are   the  Pump-room  ( 18G8),  the  Warne- 
ford  Hospital (1832),  a.'^sembly-rooms  ( 1813),  music- 
hall    (1821),    the   tennis-court   (1847),   the  college 
(1844),   the    new  municipal  offices,   and   the   line 
old  parish  church.     The  manufacture  of  cooking- 
ranges  is  an  ini]iortant  industry.     Visited   by  the 
Duchess   of   Keut    and    the    Princess   Victoria  in 
I     1830,  Leamington   eight  years  later  received   the 
\    name  of  'Royal  Leamington  Spa.'     It  was  incor- 
porated  in   1875,  and  since    1885   has  united   with 
Warwick    to   return    one    member    to    parliament. 
Pop.    (1811)    543;    (1851)    15,092;    (1891)   26,9.30. 
See  F.  W.  Smith's  Leaminr/ion  IVaters  (1884). 

Leaiider.    See  Heko. 

Leap-year.    See  Calendar. 

liCar,  Edward,  author  of  the  inimitable  Tlook 
of  Xonsoise,  was  born  at  Holloway,  London,  12th 
May  1812.  From  his  boyhoo<l  he  had  a  passion  for 
painting,  and  from  the  ago  of  lifteen  he  had  lo  make 
{lis  own  living.  Later  he  was  sent  by  the  Earl  of 
Derby  to  Italy  and  tireece,  where  he  jiainted  many 
lamlscapes  in  AUiania,  Athos,  the  Morea,  and  the 
islands  of  the  .Egean.  He  exhibited  at  the  Koyal 
Academy  from  18.50  until  1873.  His  later  years 
were  spent  in  Italy,  and  at  San  Kemo  he  died, 
January  .30,  1888.  Lear  made  himself  better 
known  by  his  illustrated  books  of  travels  than  by 
his  p.aintings.  Of  these  the  most  important  were 
his  Sketches  of  Rome  and  its  Environs  (1842); 
Illustrated  Excursions  in  Itali/  (ISilj);  Journal  in 
Greece  and  Albania  (1851),  wliich  called  forth  the 
praises  of  Tennyson  in  a  well-known  |ioem — '  I 
read  and  felt  that  I  w;us  there  ;'  Journal  of  a  Land- 
scape Painter  in  Vidahria  (  1852) ;  In  Corsica  ( 1S69). 
The  Hook  of  Xonsensc  (1846;  25tli  ed.  18H8)  went 
at  once  to  the  heart  of  all  English  children. 
The  extraordinary  facility  and  felicity  of  the 
rhymes,  and  the  high  level  of  humour,  wit,  and 
good  sen.se,  maintained  throughout,  have  kept  for 
it  ita  place  in  popular  favour.  More  Xonsensc 
Jiliynics  followed  in  l)S7l  ;  Nonsense  Honr/s,  Stories, 
ami  JJotany  in  1870;  Laughable  Lyrics  in  1876. 

Leil.se<  the  contract  establishing  the  relati<m 
Ijctween   landlord    and   tenant.     The  granting  of 


leases,  commonly  for  a  term  of  nineteen  years,  has 
become  common  in  Scotland  since  1312,  .and  to  this 
system  is  largely  to  he  a.-^cribed  the  rajiiii  imiirove- 
ment  in  agriculture  in  Scotland  during  the  past 
century.  Every  lea.se  has  its  own  peculiarities  jis 
drainage,  to  houses,  cropping,  iVc.  See  litlLDINfi 
Lease,  Landlord  and  Tenant,  Land  Laws; 
and,  as  to  the  compensation  for  unexhausted 
improvements,  Aiii;icuLTtn!Al,  llDLiiixii.s  Act. 

LEASEllf)!,])  is  a  dependent  teinire  derived  either 
from  a  freehold  or  a  copyhidil,  and  held  by  lease. 
Schemes  for  the  enfranchisement  of  leaseholds 
(allowing  persons  having  long  leases  of  small 
portions  of  land  a  right  to  purchase  the  fee  simple) 
concern  m.ainly  Building  Leases  (q.v.).  See  also 
ORorND-ra;NT. 

Leasillj^f-lliaking,  in  Scotch  law,  meaiis  sedi- 
tious words,  which  constituted  an  oU'ence  punishable 
with  death  by  statutes  of  1.584  and  1585.  The 
punishment  was  afterwards  mitigated  to  tine  and 
imprisonment,  or  both,  at  the  discretion  of  the  coui  t. 

Leather  consists  of  the  skins  of  animals  chemi- 
cally modilied  by  tanning  and  otherwise,  so  as  to 
arrest  that  proneness  to  decomposition  which  char- 
acterises unprepared  skins,  and  to  give  to  the 
substance  greatly  increased  strength,  toughness, 
and  pliancy,  with  insolubility  and  inalterability  in 
water.  Some  method  of  preparing  skins  so  as  to 
make  them  wearable  must  have  been  known  from 
the  very  earliest  times,  and  there  yet  exist  remains 
of  tanned  leather  made  in  Egyjit  not  less  than  900 
years  B.C.  In  modern  times  the  methods  and  prin- 
ciples of  leather-making  have  come  to  be  well 
understood;  but  the  processes  employed  in  the 
manufacture  have  not  been  seriously  modilied  ;  the 
attempts  made  to  hasten  the  essentiallj'  slow  pro- 
cesses having  met  with  but  limited  success.  There 
are  three  methods  by  which  leather  is  prepared 
first,  and  by  far  the  most  important,  with  tan 
barks  and  other  vegetable  substances  cimtainiii;: 
tannin  ;  second,  by  tawing  with  alum,  bichromate 
of  potash,  and  other  mineral  salts;  and  third,  b,\ 
shamoying  or  impregnating  the  law  skin  with  oil. 

The  skins  of  all  animals  used  for  leather-making 
consist  chielly  of  a  fibrous  gtdatigenous  sulistance 
called  collagen,  which  on  being  boiled  forms  the 
ordinary  gelatin  of  commerce,  with  an  interlilirous 
compound  called  coriin,  insoluble  in  water,  but 
which  in  common  with  collagen  tmites  with  tannin 
to  form  the  insoluble  an<l  unalterable  compound 
tanno-gelatin,  the  chemical  basis  of  tanned  leather. 
The  compounds  are  similarly  acted  on  liy  bichm- 
mate  of  potash  and  other  mineral  salts  in  tawing, 
whereby  insoluble  combinations  are  formed. 

The  skins  of  all  animals  may  be  made  into 
leather;  but  in  practice  the  raw  materials  of  the 
manufacturer  consist  of  the  skins  of  certain  animals 
which  are  reared  and  slaughtered  i)rimaiily  for 
other  purposes,  and  of  which  the  supply  is  sufli 
ciently  large  to  form  the  basis  of  a  great  industry. 
Large  skins,  it  may  be  remarked,  such  as  those  of 
oxen  and  horses,  are  in  tr.ade  termed  hides  ;  those  ot 
calves,  sheep,  goats,  and  other  smaller  creatures  arc 
called  skins.  Of  all  leather-making  hides  the  most 
important  are  those  of  oxen,  which  are  primarily 
distinguished  a-s  ox,  cow,  aiul  bull  hides,  ami  call 
skins.  To  the  tanner  they  coim;  in  several  forms 
and  from  many  i|uarters.  The  first  source  oi 
supply  is  the  local  slanghtcr-honse,  from  which  tbi' 
newly-llayed  skins  calleil  market  hides  are  ob 
tained.  From  abroail  ox-hides  come  either  as  wet  oi 
dry  salteil  hides,  or  as  simply  dried  hides,  the  great 
sources  of  supply  being  Australia,  the  Cape  of  Oooii 
Hope,  the  Itiver  Plate  and  South  .\merica  gener 
ally,  and  China  ami  .lapan.  From  the  East  Indies- 
there  come  vitst  i|uantities  of  small  hides  termed 
kips,  both  .salted  and  tanned.      liud'alohides  are 


550 


LEATHER 


imported  in  lar<re  quantities  from  Singapore, 
Uatavia,  Bombay,  Kurraolieo,  ami  Calcutta.  Hoi-se- 
liides  are  liroufilit  in  cunsiilerable  quantities  from 
South  America,  and  the  knacker's  yards  at  home 
supply  fresh  hides,  whieli,  however,  are  generally  in 
had  condition.  Sheep-skins,  from  the  v;ist  quan- 
litie.s  yearly  availalile  in  nearly  all  parts  ol  tlie 
world,  are  a  most  important  source  of  leather. 
Heside.s  native  supjilies  llie  British  market  chielly 
obtains  them  from  Australia  and  New  Zealand,  the 
Cape,  .and  Buenos  Ayres.  (Joatskins  and  kid  skins 
come  from  tlie  Cape,  the  East  Indies,  Asia  -Minor, 
.•ind  Switzerland  ;  out  m.any  of  the  East  Indian  and 
.-Vsiatic  skins  are  when  imported  already  tanned, 
and  require  only  dressing-.  A  now  important  source 
of  leather  is  from  seal-skins,  the  supply  of  which  is 
derived  from  the  (ireenkand  an<l  Newfoundland 
lisheries.  Other  skins  which  have  only  a  local  or 
a  limited  market  are  tlie  walrus,  rhinoceros,  and 
elephant,  from  wldcli  leather  of  ureat  tliickness, 
suital)Ie  for  polishing-wlieels  and  other  meclianical 
purposes  is  ol)tained  ;  and  lioj;  or  ]iig  skin  is  .an 
important  .source  of  leatlier  for  saddle-making  and 
other  purposes.  The  .skins  of  various  species  of 
deer  and  antelope,  i)orpoise  and  kangaroo,  .are  also 
sources  of  leather ;  and  from  the  Cape  there  are 
occasionally  sent  to  the  London  market  skins  of 
the  gnu  and  zelna.  As  sources  of  leather  for 
fancy  articles  there  may  be  mentioned  the  alligator 
(a  leather  now  extensively  imitated  ),  an<l  certain 
snakes'  and  sh.arks'  skins. 

Tiniiiiiiii. — The  operations  of  tanning  and  the 
duration  of  the  process  vary  very  widely  according 
to  the  n.ature  of  the  tanning  materials  employed, 
the  nature  an<l  thickness  of  the  hides  anil  skins 
under  treatment,  and  the  class  of  leather  being  pro- 
duced. The  sources  of  Tannin  (q.v.  ;  and  see  B.MiK) 
are  exceedingly  numerous,  but  oak-bark  is  the  most 
important,  and  that  which  produces  the  most  v.alu- 
able  and  substantial  of  all  leathers.  Oak  tannage 
is,  however,  a  very  tedious  process,  and  the  common 
practice  is  now  to  hasten  the  completion  of  the 
operatiim  by  mixed  tann.age,  in  which  more  rapidly 
acting  agents  play  a  ])art.  In  America  hemlock- 
b.ark  from  Alt/rs  (■inmilnixis  is  the  most  important 
tanning  material ;  .and  the  mimosa  or  wattle  barks 
of  Australia  are  very  largely  used  in  the  colonies 
as  well  <as  in  Britain.  .Stamlard  extracts  con- 
taining a  tixe<l  jjercentage  of  tannin  have  also  come 
into  favour  for  rajud  tannage.  But,  with  all  the 
devices  which  h.ave  been  suggested,  tanning  is 
essentially  a  slow  operation,  and  it  cannot  be 
forced  through  without  injury  to  the  resulting 
leather,  any  more  than  can  the  operations  of  roast- 
ing Ijeef  or  toasting  bread  lie  hastenc<l  tmduly. 
The  many  proce.sses  which  have  been  suggested, 
involving  chielly  the  use  of  strong  tan  liquors,  or 
ooze  , as  it  is  technically  called,  anil  the  transfusion 
of  these  lii|Uors  through  the  hides,  have  resullcd 
generally  in  the  production  of  hard  and  intractable 
leather,  or  of  .a  .superlicial  tanning  only.  Such 
imjierfectly  made  leather  gets  an  aiipe.ar.anee  of 
uniformity  and  linish  by  being  impregnated  with 
grape-sug.ar,  or  with  sulphate  of  magnesia,  chloride 
of  barium  and  other  salts,  which  add  weight,  but 
which  otherwi.se  are  the  most  rank  and  deleterious 
adulterants. 

In  the  treatment  of  ox-liide.s  for  tlie  production 
of,  say,  sole-le.ather,  the  lii'st  object  of  the  tanner 
i.s  to  clean  and  soften  the  hide.  This  is  done  by 
washing  with  water,  and  if  necessary  working 
the  hide  under  stocks  (ill  the  whole  is  uni- 
formly soft  and  pliant.  The  unliairing  and  re- 
moval of  the  scarf  skin  is  the  next  operation, 
for  which  in  English  tanneries  the  hides  are 
steeped  in  ])its  containing  lime-water,  while  in 
America  the  plan  adopted  con.sists  of  sweating 
the  bides,  or  artificially  iieating  them  till  incipient 


putrefactive  fermentation  is  set  up.  The  hides  are 
afterwards  stretched  over  a  t.anner's  be.am,  and 
the  hair  and  scarf  skin  are  removed  by  .shaving 
with  ,a  tleshing-knife.  At  the  same  time  the  fle.sli 
side  is  gone  over,  and  any  fr.agments  of  lihie  or  fat 
ailhering  to  it  are  )iared  away.  .Ml  traces  of  lime 
in  the  hides  must  lie  got  rid  of,  and  that  .sometimes 
is  ert'ecteil  in  the  tirst  tan-]iit,  containing, acid  liquors 
weak  in  tannin,  .and  sometimes  by  '  bating '  in  '  pure ' 
— which  is  ,a  warm  decoction  of  jiigeons'  or  other 
fowls'  dung.  The  tiuxhof  opemni/i  of  actual  tan- 
ning varies  endlessly,  but  in  general  it  m.ay  be  said 
to  consist  in  suspending  or  depositing  in  Layers  the 
hides  in  a  successive  series  ot  pits  containing  tan 
liquor  or  ooze  which  is  weak  at  liist,  but  which  as 
the  tanning  proceeds  is  made  increasingly  rich  in 
t.annin.  In  the  early  stages  of  the  t.anning  the 
hides  are  frequently  h.andled  or  turned  over  in  the 
t.an-pits,  as  often  .as  two  or  three  times  daily  at 
first;  but  as  the  tanning  ]u'ogresses  this  handling 
becomes  less  and  less  frequent,  till  in  tlie  final  pits, 
in  which  strong  liquor  is  used,  and  where,  more- 
over, the  hides  are  interstratilied  with  raw  hark, 
they  may  rest  for  six  weeks  without  being  dis- 
turbed. When  linally  taken  from  the  t.an-pit  the 
hides  are  carefully  drained  in  a  hea]i  covered  over 
from  the  light,  after  which  they  are  suspended  in 
the  loft  for  drying,  in  which  condition  ihey  form 
rough  leather,  h.aid,  uneven,  ami  refractory.  To 
finish  the  hides  they  are  damped  and  softened  in 
water,  scoured  to  remove  the  Iplooni  from  their 
surface,  then  liberally  oiled  and  the  whole  sur- 
f.ace  worked  over  by  pressure  with  .a  three-sided 
steel  implement  called  a  striking-pin.  This  oper.a- 
tioii  removes  all  creases  and  smooths  out  .and 
solidifies  the  leather — an  operation  carried  further 
and  finished  after  renewed  oiling,  by  rolling  the 
hide  on  a  smooth  floor  under  a  heavy  hand-roller. 
For  both  these  operations  very  eflicient  machinery 
is  now  generally  substituted  for  the  old  method  of 
hand  labour.  The  different  portions  of  an  oxhide, 
and  of  .all  hides  in  some  degn'C.  jiossess  distinct 
qualities  which  render  them  available  for  special 
applications;  hence  in  the  trade  they  receive 
distinctive 

n.ames,       .and  /\       j  \ 

frequently  are  J     K    J     ^^ 

sejiaratelv  ,-^^  ..^AJL?s/|_kj_ 
dealt  in.  An  \'',/'V^ 
entire  hide  ^  <■-  -' 
is  termed  a 
(■/■o/)(sce  fig.); 
one  -  half  the 
cro|>cut  longi- 
t  u  d  i  n  a  1  1  y 
forms  a  side  ; 
the  pieces 
around  the 
ni.ugins  are 
d(!signated  as 
on  the  dia- 
gram, .and  col- 
lectively form 
the  iilfal :  the 
n  e  cli  an  d 
shoulilcrs  are 
sometimes  de- 
tached from  the  Imtt,  which  forms  tlie  hide  minus 
tlie  qff'ic/,  and  half  a  butt  cut  lengthways  makes  a 
Ound. 

Dressed  Leather.  —  I'lidcr  this  head  there  is 
embraced  a  great  range  of  leathers  which  after 
tanning  undergo  a  varied  series  of  finishing  opera- 
tions at  the  hands  of  the  currier  and  Icathcrdresser, 
to  fit  them  for  the  diverse  uses  to  wliidi  dres.sed 
leather  is  applied.  The  currier  has  to  do  with  the 
paring  down  of  the  flesh  .side  of  the  leather,  to 
smootli  its  surface,  and  to  equalise  its  thickness ; 


Z'-JJ 


LEATHER 


LEATHERWOOD 


551 


ami  he  also,  when  desirable,  splits  hides  by  means 
of  ii  luaohine  into  two  or  more  useful  layei-s  or 
splits.  His  further  and  jirincipal  operations  liavo 
for  their  objects  the  rendering  of  the  leatlier  soft, 
Hexible,  and  waterproof,  and  givinj;  it  the  tinished 
surface,  grained  or  smooth,  waxed  or  blackened, 
glace  or  enamelleil,  dyed,  iVc.  For  stulling  the 
leather,  which  is  the  most  essential  operation  of 
the  currier,  it  is  hrst  softened  in  water,  then  the 
surface  is  gone  over  with  a  scraping  tool  or  slicker, 
and  while  still  wet  it  is  liberally  covered  with  a 
dubbing  composed  of  mixed  tallow  and  cod-oil. 
As  the  moisture  evaporates  from  the  leather  the 
grease  penetrates  and  thoroughly  permeates  the 
whole  texture.  For  the  numerous  operations  of 
currying  and  tinishing  leather  elaborate  machinery 
is  now  employed,  which  h.os  almost  entirely  super- 
seded hand  work. 

Morocco  leather  is  a  term  whicli  now  applies 
rather  to  the  tinish  of  a  certain  class  of  goods  than 
to  the  source  of  the  skin  of  which  it  is  formed.  It  is 
a  richly  grained  and  dyed  leather,  originally  and 
projierly  miule  from  goat-skins  tanned  in  sumach  ; 
but  now  sumach-tanned  split  calf-skins  and  sheep 
skins  are  the  source  of  much  so-called  morocco. 
Sheep-skins  roughly  tanned  and  undressed  are 
termed  basils  ;  dressed  and  dyed  as  for  morocco, 
but  linished  smooth,  they  form  roans ;  and  split 
sheepskins  (the  tlesh  sides  of  which  go  to  be 
shamoyed  to  form  wash-leather)  tanned  and  dressed 
are  known  as  skivers.  Russia  leather  is  now  any 
smooth  finished  thin  leather,  impregnated  with  the 
empyreumatic  oil  of  birch-bark,  which  gives  the 
substance  its  peculiar  odour  and  insect-resisting 
qualities.  Originally  it  wa-s  made  in  Russia  of 
dressed  calfskins. 

2'awing  consists  in  dre.ssing  skins  with  certain 
mineral  salts,  and  is  useful  principally  for  glove 
leathers  and  the  so-called  kid-leather  employed  for 
the  uppers  of  lailies'  boots.  It  is  also  by  tawing 
that  furriers'  skins  are  prepared,  and  hides  and 
skins  in  the  hair  generally  preserved.  The 
process  of  tawing  a  lamb-skin  may  be  taken  as  a 
typical  e.\ample  of  the  process,  which,  however, 
is  much  varied,  as  experience  suggests.  The 
.skins  are  generally  limed  on  the  tlesh  side  with 
cream  of  lime  to  detach  the  wool,  which  Ls  removed 
as  in  ordinary  hide-tanning.  After  thorough  cleans- 
ing, the  pelts  are  steeped  for  two  or  three  weeks 
in  a  pit  lilled  with  water  and  lime,  being  taken 
out  from  time  to  time,  and  draine<l  on  sloping 
benches.  When  removed  finally  from  the  lime-pit, 
the  skins  are  worked  with  tlie  knife,  to  render 
them  still  more  supple,  and  they  are  then  put  into 
the  branning  mixture.  This  consists  of  bran  ami 
water,  in  the  proportion  of  two  pounds  of  bran  to 
a  gallon  of  water.  From  this  mixture,  in  about 
two  days,  they  are  transferred  to  another  bath, 
consi>ting  of  water,  alum,  and  salt.  After  the 
proper  amount  of  working  in  this  nnxture,  they 
umlergo  what  is  called  the  |>asting,  if  intended  to 
form  white  leather.  The  jiaste  is  a  mixture  of 
whi-aten-bran  and  sometimes  Hour  and  the  yolks 
of  eggs.  They  are  usually  worked  in  a  rotating 
cylinder  with  this  paste  and  water,  and  are  found 
in  time  to  have  absorbed  the  p!i.ste,  leaving  little 
more  than  the  water.  If  the  skins  are  not  intended 
to  he  white,  other  materials  are  often  useil,  and 
much  pigeons'  and  dogs'  dung  is  employed.  Liistly, 
the  skins  are  dried  and  exandned,  and,  if  necessary, 
the  pasting  is  repeated  ;  if  not,  they  are  dippiMl 
into  pure  wat<!r  and  worked  or  stakeil  by  pulling 
them  backwards  and  forwards  on  what  is  called  a 
stretching  or  softening  iron,  and  smoothed  with  a 
hot  smoothing  iron.  Numerous  other  tawing  jiro- 
ce8.Hes  are  in  use  and  have  been  suggested,  one  of 
the  most  promising  of  which  was  the  chrome  tan- 
ning of  Dr  Heinzerling,  introduced  about  1876.     In 


this  tlie  active  agent  is  bichromate  of  potash  ;  after 
treatment  with  which  the  leather  is  st\itted  with 
paratlin  :  but  the  expectaticms  of  the  j)romoters  of 
this  method  of  treating  leather  have  not  been 
fullilled,  the  demand  for  chrome-tanned  leather 
appearing  to  have  nuile  fallen  away. 

Sluiiiioi/iiiri  consists  simply  in  impregnating  and 
saturating  skins  with  oil.  The  name  is  deriveil 
from  the  fact  that  the  process  was  originally 
applied  for  the  preparation  of  the  skins  of  the 
Alpine  chamois,  and  as  it  was  also  viseil  for  other 
deerskins  the  name  buck-leather  or  buckskin  was 
also  given  to  the  preparation.  Sliamoy-leather 
now  consists  principally  of  the  llesh  splits  of  sheep- 
skins. The  oil  is  worked  by  means  of  stocks  slowly 
into  the  interstices  of  the  skin  and  there  becomes 
oxidised,  forming  a  kind  of  conddnation  with  the 
gelatinous  constituents,  and  yielding  a  iieculiarly 
soft  and  spongy  texture.  A  good  deal  of  the  buti- 
leather  of  commerce  is  piepared  by  a.  i)rocess  which 
jiartakes  of  the  features  of  both  tawing  and 
sh.inioying. 

( )w  iiig  to  the  fact  that  tanners  derive  a  large 
proportion  of  their  hides  and  skins  from  local 
sources,  and  dispose  of  most  of  their  leather  in  the 
home-markets,  it  is  not  possible  to  gauge  the 
extent  of  the  trade  by  published  returns.  That 
the  international  movements  of  the  trade  are  on  a 
great  .scale  is,  however,  ni.ade  plain  by  the  follow- 
ing figures.  Into  the  I'nited  Kingdom  in  1SH9  the 
imports  were:  dry  hides,  57"),  158  ewt.  :  salted 
hitles,  647,250  cwt".  ;  leather,  104,916,924  lb.,  of  a 
value  of  £6,667,265 ;  boots  and  .shoes,  100,487 
dozen  pairs.  The  exports  were  :  dry  hi<les,  365,701 
cwt.  ;  salted  bides,  52,76S  cwt.  :  foreign  leather 
unwrought,  19.214,996  lb.  ;  ISritish  leather.  143,140 
cwt.  :  and  wrought  leather,  value  £413,600;  boots 
and  shoes,  11,127  dozen  pairs  ;  saddlery  and  harness, 
value  £574,401.  The  imports  into"  the  United 
States  in  1887  were:  hides  and  skins  (other  than 
furs)  §24,219,101  ;  leather  and  leather  manufac- 
tures, §10,9.33,570.  Exports  :  hides  and  skins, 
8765,655 ;  leather,  .§10,4.36, 13S.  See  separate  articles 
on  Parchmext,  Veli.uii,  Fir.s  ;  works  bv  Collins 
1 1876),  Hunter  ( 1885),  and  Watts  (1885)  ;  and  C. 
T.  Davis's  Manufacture  of  Leather  (Phila.  and 
Lond.   18S5). 

Leutliei'-dotll.  sometimes  called  American 
leather-cloth,  or  more  brielly  American  cloth,  is  a 
textile  fabric  coated  on  one  face  with  certain  mix- 
tures of  a  Hexible  nature  when  dry  .so  as  to  re- 
send)le  leather.  Unbleached  calico  is  the  most 
common  grimnd  or  backing  employed,  and  this  is 
coated  with  boiled  oil,  dark  ]iignients,  driers,  and 
sometimes  other  ingredients,  made  uji  to  such  a 
consistency  that  the  mixture  can  be  uniformly 
spread  on  the  cloth  by  rollers.  Another  method 
of  making  leather-cloth  is  by  coating  calico  with 
■  lincdenm  cement'  (see  Fi.ouKCLOTH  ).  A  third 
and  extensively  used  coating  consists  of  gelatine 
rendered  insoluble  by  some  chendcal  agent,  to 
which  glycerine  is  sometimes  added.  ^  But  the 
dill'erent  ndxtures  which  are  or  have  been  employed 
in  nuiking  leather-cloth  are  numerous,  and  many 
of  them  h.ave  been  patented.  .V  good  (juality  of 
leather-cloth  when  employed  for  covering  chairs 
and  sofas  h.ts  considerable  duiability.  As  a  cover 
to  writing-tables  it  is  even  more  durable  th.an 
morocco  leather,  and  it  is  not  one  fifth  of  its 
price.  A  thicker  kind  of  leather-cloth  than  that 
manufactured  for  upholstery  purposes  is  made  of 
coated  linen  and  used  for  covering  coaches,  anil 
there  are  other  ajiidicatioiis  of  this  substance.  It 
is  more  dur.able  when  glazed  with  a  varnish  than 
when  liidshed  in  iiidtation  of  morocco  leather. 

Leatlierwood  (D/rcn  /in/ustn.s),  a  deciiluous 
shrub  of  .3-6  feet  higli,  with  the  habit  of  a  miniature 


552 


LEATHES 


LE    BRUN 


tree,  a  imtive  of  North  America.  It  belongs  to 
the  natural  onler  Tliynieleace;!'.  The  bark  and 
wood  are  exceedinjily  "toaj;h,  and  in  Canada  the 
bark  is  >ised  for  roiies,  baskets,  &c.  The  leaves 
are  lanceolate-oblonj; ;  the  (lowers  are  yellow,  and 
appear  before  the  leaves. 

Leatlies,  Staxlev,  was  born  at  Ellesboroii<rli, 
Bucks,  where  his  father  was  rector,  March  'Jl,  ISSO. 
He  was  educated  at  Jesus  College,  Cambridge; 
graduated  15.  .V.  in  1852;  took  orders  four  yeai-s 
later  :  and,  after  serving  several  curacies,  became  in 
1863  professor  of  Hebrew  in  King's  College,  London, 
and  in  1869  minister  of  .St  Philip's,  Regent  Street. 
He  was  Boyle  lecturer  (1868-70),  Hulsean  lecturer 
at  Cambridge  in  1873,  Banipton  lecturer  at  O.xford 
in  1874,  and  Warburtonian  lecturer  at  Lincoln's 
Inn  (1876-80).  Further  preferments  were  a  pre- 
bend in  St  Paul's  ( 1876)  and  the  rectory  of  Cliffe  at 
Hoo,  near  Gravesend  (1880).  Leathes  was  made 
D.D.  by  Edinburgh  in  1878,  and  sat  on  the  01<1 
Testament  Hevision  Committee.  His  books  in- 
clude The  Witness  of  the  Old  Testament  to  Christ 
(Boyle  Lectures),  The  Gospel  its  own  Witness 
( Hulsean),  Religion  of  the  Christ  (Bampton), 
Studies  in  Genesis  (1880),  The  Foundations  of 
Moralit;/  (1882),  Christ  and  the  Bible  (188.5),  and 
several  vohiines  of  sermons.     He  died  in  May  1900. 

Leaven.    See  Ye.v.st,  Bread. 

Leavenworth,  fourth  largest  cily  of  Kansa,s, 
and  capital  of  Leavenworth  county,  on  the  Missouri 
River,  2,5  miles  N\V.  of  Kansas  City  by  rail.  First 
settled  in  1854,  it  is  now  a  handsome  town,  of 
broad  avenues,  and  contains  a  Soldiers'  Home,  the 
state  normal  school,  and  large  factories  and  nulls. 
Eight  lines  of  railway  centre  here,  and  the  river  is 
crossed  by  a  line  iron  bridge.  Adjoining  the  city 
is  Fort  Leavenworth  (1827),  an  important  depot 
for  troops  and  supplies,  with  large  barracks,  <S.'c. 
Pop.  (KSSO)  16,r)-)0;  (ISnO)  19,768. 

Leaves.     See  Leaf. 

Lebanon,  a  nnnintain-range  in  Syria,  e.xtend- 
ing  from  tlie  latitude  of  Horns  in  the  north  (.34°  43' 
N.)  to  that  of  ilount  Hermon  (33"  24'  N.)  in  the 
south.  The  word  Lebanon  is  derived  from  a  Semi- 
tic root  meaning  '  white  ; '  and  this  name  is  given 
to  the  mountains,  not  because  their  peaks  are 
covered  with  snow  (as  they  are  even  in  sum- 
mer), but  because  of  the  whitish  colour  of  their 
rocks.  The  mountains  belong  geologically  to  the 
Cretaceous  system,  and  consist  principally  of  lime- 
stones and  chalks.  They  are  divided  into  two 
parallel  ranges,  the  Lebanon  on  the  west  and  the 
Anti-Lebanon  (or  more  correctly  .\nti-Libanus)  on 
the  east.  Between  them  lies  the  deep  valley  of 
the  Buka'a  (the  ancient  Crele-Syria),  which  is  from 
4  to  6  miles  wide,  and  is  watered  by  the  rivers 
Litany  and  El-Asi  (the  ancient  Oroiites).  The 
former  Hows  soutii-westwards,  then,  turning 
abruptly  to  the  west,  reaches  the  sea  a  little 
north  of  Tyre ;  whilst  the  latter  flows  in  the 
opposite  direction,  and,  after  crossing  the  plains 
of  Hamath,  likewise  turns  to  the  west  to  the 
.Mediterranean.  The  highest  summits  occur  in 
the  north  in  both  ranj^es,  but  are  higher  in 
Lebanon  than  in  Anti-Lebanon  :  in  the  former 
they  vary  from  10,018  (El  Kazil>)  to  7000  feet  and 
less,  antl  in  the  latter  are  about  8(HX)  or  9000 
feet.  In  both  ranges  the  eastern  versant  is  the 
steeper  and  sterner.  The  western  slopes  of 
Lebanon  are  broken  by  numerous  deep  tr.ansverse 
valleys,  running  between  the  spurs  that  the  main 
chain  sends  down  to  the  very  edge  of  the  sea, 
where  they  often  terminate  in  bold  headlands. 
The  western  slopes  of  Anti- Lebanon  are  not  so 
much  cut  up  by  valleys  as  those  of  Lebanon,  but 
are  more  barren  and  nu)re  broken  hy  crags  and 
bare  rocks.     The  valleys  and  the  lower  slopes  of 


the  hills  are  generally  verdant  with  vegetation. 
The  vine  is  extensively  grown,  and  wine  is  made, 
but  is  all  consumed  at  home.  Mulberry-trees 
hgure  prominently  ;  for  the  manufacture  of  silk  is 
one  of  the  most  important  industries  <it  the  moun- 
taineers— it  was  introduced  from  China  in  .Jus- 
tinian's time.  Olive-groves  and  orchards  (nuts 
aiul  tigs)  abovind  everywhere.  The  higher  slopes 
are  in  many  districts  covered  with  forests  of 
oak,  cypress,  pine,  plane,  iS."c.  Contrary  to  the 
current  belief,  remains  of  the  great  cedar  forest  of 
Solomon's  time  exist  in  more  ])laces  than  the  single 
grove  of  377  trees  .at  the  head  of  Kedisha  Valley 
(see  Cedar).  Thickets  of  low  scrubby  bushes, 
generally  thorny,  and  often  aromatic,  are  found  at 
nearly  a\\  altitudes.  Tobacco,  wheat,  barley,  and 
millet  are  the  chief  crojjs  cultivated.  Owing  to  the 
elevated  situation,  the  clinuite  is  healthy  and 
l)racing.  Streams  of  clear  water  are  numerous.  The 
inhabitants  ( estimated  at  221,000  in  all )  are  a  hardy, 
ruddy  race  of  people,  of  Syrian  ( .Vraiua'an)  descent, 
who  keep  large  herds  of  sheep  and  goats.  The 
]ire(loininating  element  is  the  Maronites  (q.v.), 
more  than  two-thirds  of  the  total ;  next  come  the 
Druses  (q.v.).  Besides  these  there  are  Moham- 
medans, members  of  the  Greek  Church,  Metawild 
(a  sect  of  Shiite  Moslems),  and  a  few  converts 
of  the  American  Protestant  and  the  Roman  Catholic 
missionaries  of  Eeyrout.  After  the  bloody  ijuarrels 
of  the  Druses  and  Maronites  in  1860,  the  district  of 
Lebanon  was  separated  (1861)  from  the  Turkish 
pashalik  of  Syria,  and  put  under  a  Christian 
governor,  the  European  jiowers  constituting  them- 
selves the  'guardians'  of  the  new  province.  See 
Conder's  Palestine  (1889)  and  Baedeker's  Palestine 
by  Dr  A.  Socin. 

Lebedin.  a  town  of  Russia,  87  miles  NW.  of 
Kharkotr.     Pop.  14,788. 

Lebrija  (anc.  Nebrissa-Veneria),  a  town  of 
Spain,  44  miles  by  rail  S.  by  W.  from  Seville. 
Pop.  12,864. 

Le  Brnn.  Charles,  French  historical  painter, 
born  in  I'aris,  24th  February  1619.  He  was  jiatron- 
ised  in  his  youth  by  Nicolas  Poussin,  who  took  him 
to  Rome,  where  he  was  kindly  treated  by  the 
Barberini,  and  studied  for  four  years.  He  then 
returned  to  Paris,  and  was  employed  by  Fouijuet 
on  his  chateau  of  Vaux,  and  afterwards  hv  Cardinal 
Mazarin,  Anne  of  Austria,  and  Louis  XlV.  He 
was  the  hrst  director  of  the  Goljelins  Tapestry 
Works  on  its  foundation  by  Colbert  in  1662.  For 
nearly  forty  yeare  ( 1 647-83 )  Le  Brun  exercised  an 
immense  anil  despotic  inlluence  over  French  art 
and  artists,  and  is  usually  considered  the  founder 
of  the  French  school  of  painlitig,  Poussin  being 
rather  an  Italian  than  a  French  artist.  From 
1668  to  1683  Le  Brun  was  employed  by  Louis 
XIV.,  and  given  an  absolutely  free  hand  in  the 
direction  and  management  of  the  decoration  of  the 
palace  of  Versailles;  but  Mignard  being  favoured 
by  Louvois  on  his  accessinii  to  pnwer,  and  the 
younger  artist  consulted  by  the  King  as  to  the 
c()m|)letion  of  the  work,  Le  Ihun,  who  could  brook 
no  rival,  retired,  sickened,  and  died.  Pith  February 
1690.  See  works  by  Genevay  (1885)  and  Jouin 
(1S89). 

Le  Itrnil.  Maiuk,  born  in  Paris,  llilli  ,\pril 
1755,  was  a  daughter  of  one  Vigce,  a  painter  of 
little  note,  and  in  1776  married  J.  B.  P.  Le  Brun,  a 
picture-dealer  and  grandnephewof  Charles  Le  Brun. 
ller  great  beauty,  as  well  as  the  charm  of  licr  paint- 
ing, speedily  made  her  the  fashion  in  Paris  and  at 
\'ersailles.  '  Le  Brun  de  la  beaiite  le  peintre  et 
le  modfele '  was  the  friend  of  La  Harpe  and 
D'.Membert,  cojjied  (ireuze,  and  jiainted  all  the 
line  ladies  and  gentlemen  of  the  ilav.  Her  first 
portrait  of   Marie   Antoinette   (in   1779)  led   to  a 


LECCE 


LECONTE    DE    LISLE 


553 


lasting  fiieiulship  witli  the  queen  of  France.  She 
subsLM[uently  paintoil  iiuiiierous  ipoitraits  of  various 
nieuibers  ot  tlie  royal  fauiily,  and  in  1783  was 
admitted,  on  the  proposition  of  .iosepli  Vernet — 
thougli  after  much  opposition  on  account  of  her 
sex — a  member  of  tlie  Koyal  Academy  of  Paintinij. 
She  became  more  than  ever  the  fashion,  but  h>ft 
Paris  for  Italy  at  tlie  outbreak  of  the  Itevolution 
in  17SS),  and  after  a  species  of  triumplial  progress 
through  Eurone,  being  admitted  a  member  of  the 
principal  academies  of  painting,  incluiling  that  of 
bt  Petersburg,  she  .arrived  in  London  in  1802. 
There  she  painted  pcutraits  of  the  Prince  of  Wales, 
Lord  Byron,  and  other  celebrities.  In  1805  she 
returned  to  Paris,  where  she  lived  until  her  death 
(30th  March  1842),  and  where  her  siitun  was  ever 
the  resort  of  artists,  amateurs,  and  people  of 
fashion.  Of  unblemished  character,  of  great 
industry,  and  of  immense  charm  both  of  manner 
and  of  jiei'sonal  appearance,  Madame  Vigee  Le 
Brun  enjoyed  a  lifelong  popularity.  Her  drawing 
is  correct,  her  imagination  moderate,  her  colouring 
delicate,  graceful,  and  pleasing.  Her  delightful 
portrait  of  hei-self,  gay  and  smiling,  now  in  the 
Uffizi  gallery  at  Florence,  is  well  known.  Many  of 
her  best  works  are  in  the  Louvre  gallery  in  Paris. 
See  her  Souvenirs  (3  vols.  1837),  a  work  illustrated 
with  662  portraits  and  200  landscapes,  chiefly  taken 
in  England  and  Switzerland. 

Lecce  (formerly  called  Tekrv  DI  Otranto), 
a  town  of  S(mthern  Italy,  7  miles  from  the  Adriatic 
and  24  liy  rail  SSE.  of  IJrindisi.  As  Lycia  (hence 
Lecce)  it  w;vs  the  seat  of  a  countship  in  Norman 
times.  Here  tobacco,  cotton,  woollens,  and  linen 
are  manufactured,  and  there  ls  a  large  trade  in 
olive-oil  and  wine.  Lecce  has  a  cathedral  and 
numerous  churches,  one — St  Nicholas — dating  from 
the  12th  century.     Pop.  22,051. 

Lech,  a  right-hand  tributary  of  the  Danube, 
rises  in  the  Alps  in  Vorarlberg,  flows  northward 
past  Augsburg,  and  after  a  course  of  177  miles 
loins  the  Danube  a  few  miles  east  of  Donauworth. 
It  is  a  mountain-stream  and  not  navigable.  Near 
Kain,  not  far  from  its  mouth,  the  imperialist 
general  Tilly  was  defeated  and  killed  on  5th  April 
16.32  by  the  Swedes  under  Gustavus  Adolphus. 

Leclller,  Gottii.\rd  Victor,  theologian,  wa-s 
born  at  Kloster  Keichenbach  in  Wiirtemberg,  18th 
April  1811,  and  after  various  preferments  came  to 
Leipzig  in  1858  as  professor  of  rheology.  There  lie 
died  26tli  December  1888.  His  flrst  "book  was  a 
history  of  English  Deism  (1841).  The  Apostolic, 
and  Postapostolic  Times  (1851  ;  3d  ed.  1885)  was 
translated  into  English  in  1886,  and  John  JViclif 
and  his  English  Precursors  (1873),  by  Lorimer,  in 
1878.  He  also  wrote  a  history  of  jjresbyterian  and 
synodal  church  organisation  (1854),  and,  with 
Oerok,  a  Commentary  on  Acts  (Eng.  trans.  1879). 

Lecky,  Wii.i,i.\M  Edward  Harti'of.k,  a 
historian  and  philosopher,  was  born  near  Dublin, 
March  2(i,  18.38,  and  educated  there  at  Trinity 
College,  where  he  graduated  B.A.  in  l.H.')9  and 
M.A.  in  1863.  Already  in  1861  he  had  publLshed 
anonynmusly  The  Leaders  of  Public  Oiiinion  in 
Jrelaml,  four  brilliant  essays  on  Swift,  Floo<l, 
Grattan,  anil  G'Connell.  Later  works  were  his 
learned,  luminous,  .and  di.spa-s.sionate  Ilistorii  of  the 
Pise  and  Influence  of  the  Spirit  of  Pationalism  in 
Europe  (2  vols.  1865),  History  of  European  Morals 
from  Auffu-itus  to  Charlcmar/ne  {2  vols.  1869),  and 
Ilistori/  of  Enijlaml  in  the  Eighteenth  Centuri/  (8 
Tola.  1878-90).  The  l,a.st  is  not  a  history  in  strict 
chronological  form,  but  rathera  philosophical  study 
of  events  and  their  causes,  relieveil  by  an  admirable 
series  of  lini.sbeil  historir'.al  portraits.  Perhaps  the 
ablest  and  most  original  portion  of  the  work  is  the 
treatment  of  the  American  war  of  in<lependence : 


the  pages  on  Ireland  are  very  valuable.  A  volume 
of  poems  (  1S91  )  hardly  raised  his  repulation. 
Dcinocrarij  and  Lilierli/  (1891))  is  anli-Kadical  in 
tone.  Lecky,  who  througliout  the  HomeUulo  con- 
troversy was  a  decided  Unionist,  was  elected  M. P. 
for  Dublin  I'niversity  in  1895. 

LeHairf,  I'.hmk-Jean,  was  born  at  .-\isysur- 
Annancon,  100  miles  S.K.  of  Pails,  !4tli"  May 
1801.  Fii-st  eng.aged  in  farm-work,  and  afterwards 
as  a  mason's  ajiprentice,  he  started  for  Paris,  where' 
lie  arrived  friendless  and  ]icnniless,  and  apprenticed 
himself  to  a  house-painter.  He  provetl  a  capable 
and  industrions  workman,  .and  in  his  twenty  sixth 
year  began  business  on  his  own  account.  By  energy 
and  by  doing  good  work  he  soon  secured  .a  large 
business  and  took  the  front  rank  in  the  trade.  His 
desire  to  lienelit  his  workmen  and  do  away  with 
the  existing  ant.agonism  between  employer  and 
employed  led  him  to  take  M.  Fregier's  advice,  ami 
allow  the  workmen  to  participate  in  the  prolits  ol 
the  master.  Besides,  he  compelled  people  to  be 
honest  by  issuing  pamphlets  exposing  the  tricks  ol 
the  painting  trade  by  means  of  which  bad  and 
scamped  work  was  passed  oil'  for  good.  He  also 
discovered  a  method  of  utilising  white  of  zinc, 
instead  of  white  of  lead,  much  to  the  benefit  of  the 
workmen's  health.  His  system  of  Profit-sharing 
(q.v.),  which  worked  most  successfully,  was  begun 
in  1842.     He  died  ]3tli  July  1872. 

Le  Clerc.  Jnux,  better  known  as  .lOHANNES 
Clericu.s,  a  Reformed  theologian  of  somewhat  free 
opinions,  was  born  at  Geneva,  19th  March  1657, 
made  his  studies  there  in  philosophy  and  theology, 
next  repaired  to  (Jrenoble,  Saumur,  Paris,  and 
London,  gradually  adopted  the  Itemonstrant  theo- 
logy, and  became  in  1684  professor  of  Philosophy 
in  the  Remonstrant  seminary  at  Amsterdam.  In 
1728  a  stroke  of  apoplexy  robbed  him  of  speech  ; 
he  died  on  8tli  January  1736.  His  works  were 
over  seventy  in  numbei',  many  of  a  polemical 
character.  In  his  controversy  with  Richard  Simon 
he  revealed  opinions  which  were  startling  then, 
however  innocent  now,  on  the  composition  and 
Mosaic  authorship  of  the  Pentateuch,  an<l  on 
inspiration  generally,  and  especially  as  applied  to 
Job,  Proverl>s,  Ecclesiastes,  and  Canticles.  His 
commentaries  on  the  Bible  began  with  Cienesis  in 
1693,  and  were  not  completed  till  1731.  Another 
important  contribution  to  its  subject  w.as  his 
edition  of  the  Apostolic  Fathers  of  Cotelerius 
(1698).  No  less  valuable  were  his  serial  publica- 
tions— Bibliothique  Unirerselle  et  Historique  (25 
vols.  1686-93),  Bibliothique  Choisie  (28  vols. 
1703-13),  and  Bibliothique  Ancienne  et  Moderne 
(29  vols.  1714-26). 

Leeliise.    See  Cusia. 

Leeooq,  .\lexandre  Charles,  composer  of 
comic  operas,  w.as  bom  .at  P.aris,  3d  June  1832,  and 
trained  at  the  Conservatoire.  From  his  tirst  sue 
cessful  opera,  I.c  Docteiir  Miracle  (1857),  he  shows 
Ott'enbiich's  inlluence  and  tendency.  His  best 
known  works  are  La  Fillc,  de  Madame  Anqot 
(1872),  Girofic-Girojla  (1874),  Le  Petit  Due  (1877). 

Lecoiite  de  Lisle.  Charle.s  Makik,  a  great 

French  poet,  was  born  on  the  island  of  Reunion, 
October  23,  1818.  He  was  carefully  educated,  and 
after  some  years  of  travel  settled  to  a  literary 
life  in  Paris.  His  early  enthusiasm  for  Fourier's 
dreams  soon  ilisajipcared  before  the  wisdom  learned 
of  experience,  but  his  ardent  temperament  found 
a,  more  lasting  poetic  impulse  in  Greek  ideals 
and  in  the  sympathetic  study  of  oriental  \>a!i- 
theism.  He  succeeded  to  Victor  Hugos  chair  at 
the  Academy  in  1886.  Ilesides  bis  original  poems 
he  translated  Theocritus,  An.acreon,  the  Iliad  and 
Odijsscij,  Hesiod,  the  Orphic  lli/iniis,  ^'Eschylus, 
Horace,   Sophocles,   and    Euripides.      His   Poemea 


554 


LECOUVRBUR 


LEDRU-ROLLIN 


Antiques  (185*2)  and  Poisies  Nouvelles  (1854) 
he  collected  as  Poisics  Completes  (1858).  Otlier 
voliiiiies  :ire  Pocnics  Bfirbares  (1862),  Poenirs  J'la- 
ffiqiics  ( 1S84),  Dcniiers  Pohncs  ( 1895).  He  died  17th 
Jiily  1894.  He  exercised  a  profound  inllneiice  on 
a.11  the  voiinjjer  (iciets  of  his  time,  and  was  head  of 
a  school  ealled,  fidni  theii  orj,'an,  '  Lcs  I'aniassiens.' 
He  has  a  j;reat  ^lower  of  .sjinpathy  with  the  dunih 
emotion  in  the  life  of  nature,  the  va.ster  aspects  of 
which — the  viri;in  forest,  the  immense  sea,  the 
profound  sky — the  readei-  ever  feels  the  presence 
of,  like  the  {;ronnd-i>lan  on  which  his  poetic 
phantasies  are  hiiilt.  He  stands  aloof  from,  yet 
comprehends,  the  hot  emotions  that  perplex  the 
heart  of  man,  and  surveys  the  drama  of  the 
ages  not  with  the  eye  of  a  Michelet  or  a  Hugo, 
but  with  the  calm,  uninipassioned  intuition  of 
pure  intellect.  His  vei-sihcation  is  marked  by 
classic  regularity  and  by  serene  faultlessuess  of 
form. 

See  the  admirable  essays  by  Paul  Bourget  in  Nouveaux 
Essais  de  Fsttchologie  Contempoyalnc,  and  Jules  Lemaitre 
in  the  first  series  of  Les  Cmitemporains. 

Lecoiivreiir.  Adrienne,  actress,  was  born 
near  Chalons,  5th  April  169'2,  made  her  debut  at 
the  Comedie  Fiancaise  in  1717,  and  soon  became 
fauums  for  her  power  as  an  actress,  her  fascinations, 
and  the  niiml>er  and  eminence  of  her  admirers, 
amongst  whom  were  Marshal  Saxe,  Voltaire,  and 
Lord  reterborougli.  Her  deatli,  -iOth  March  17.30, 
was  ascribed  to  poison  administered  by  a  rival, 
the  Duchess  Uouillon.  This  is  the  plot  <\t  the  play 
by  Scribe  and  Legouve,  in  which  Itachel,  Sarah 
Bernhardt,  and  others  have  won  distinction.  See 
her  Lettres,  edited  by  Monval  (1892). 
Lectern  (Lat.  lectori  mn  or  lectn'ciiini),  a 
reading-desk  or  stand, 
properly  movable,  from 
which  the  Scri|)ture 
/ijisDiif:  {/i'i-ti(jiics),  which 
form  portion  of  the 
various  church-services, 
are  chanted  or  read. 
The  lectern  is  of  very 
ancient  use,  of  various 
forms,  and  of  ditlerent 
materials.  The  most 
ancient  lecterns  are  of 
wood,  a  beautiful  ex- 
ample of  which  is  that 
of  Kamsay  Church, 
Huntingdonshire  (about 
Ib^O),  represented  in 
the  woodcut;  but  they 
were  fre([neiitly  also 
made  of  brass,  and 
often  in  the  form  of  an 
eagle  (the  syndxd  of  St 
.lolin  the  Kvangelist), 
the  outspread  wings  of 
which  form  the  frame 
supporting  the  volume. 
Sometimes  a  '  pelican 
in  her  piety '  takes  the 
place  of  an  eagle. 
Lcrtioiiary.     See  Lessons. 

L«'«"flir»'S.  At  most  liritish  universities, 
lectureships  have  been  endowed  for  the  |H'rpetnal 
dis.scmination  of  opinions  favoured  by  the  founder; 
and  to  these,  which  were  originally  almost  always 
of  a  theological  or  religious  kind,  have  lately  heen 
addeil  some  of  a  wider  interest,  embracing  science, 
philosophy,  archa-ology,  history,  and  the  like. 
Among  theological  lectureships  in  Englaml  of 
greater  or  less  antiquity  are  the  15ami)ton,  delivere<l 
at  Oxford  ;  the  Hulseau,  at  Cambridge  ;  the  IJoyle, 
at  London;  the  Warburtonian,  at  Lincoln's  Inn; 


Lectern. 


the  Congregational  Union  lectures,  instituted  in 
1873  in  continuation  of  the  former  Congregational 
lectures  ;  and  the  llibbert  (in  comparative  religion), 
at  Oxford  and  Lonilon.  TheDonnellan  lectures  are 
given  at  Dublin  ;  the  l!ainl,Croall,  and  Cunningham 
lectures,  at  Kdinbuigh.  The  Fernley  lecturers  folh)W 
the  place  of  meeting  of  the  NVeslevan  Methodist 
C(mference.  Courses  of  tiitlbrd  lectures  on  natural 
religion  are  delivered  at  all  the  Scotch  universities, 
while  the  Burnett  lectures — hardly  now  to  be 
recognised  as  identical  with  the  original  foundation 
— are  connected  with  Aberdeen.  At  Cambridge 
are  the  Itede  lecture  ami  the  Clark  lectures  m 
English  literature ;  at  Edinburgh,  the  Hhind  in 
archieology  ;  while  the  chief  towns  in  Scotland  are 
visited  by  the  Combe  lecturers  on  jihysiology,  and 
I)eripatetic  Unitarians  of  the  M't^uaker  founda- 
tion. Distinct  from  these  are  such  professoi-ships 
for  a  fixed  period  as  those  of  poetiy  and  art  at 
Oxford ;  the  endowed  readersluiis,  as  in  ancient 
history  and  the  like,  at  the  uiaversities ;  the 
courses  of  lectures  given  at  the  Koyal  Institution 
or  the  Edinburgh  IMiilosophical  Institution ;  or 
endowments  for  special  inir])oses,  as  the  Harvey, 
Croonian,  and  Plumian  orations.  The  Lowell 
Institute  at  Boston  provides  annual  courses  of  free  I 
public  lectures  on  religion,  science,  and  the  arts,  I 
and  since  its  toundation  (lS.39-40)  has  found  \ 
audience  for  ni.any  <listinguished  English  as  well 
.OS  American  lecturers.  See  separate  articles  on  the 
more  important  of  the  above  lectures. 

Lecytllidaoea',  a  natural  order  of  exogenous 
plants,  or  sul)-order  of  Myrtaeea',  the  distinguish- 
ing characteristic  being  that  the  fruit  is  a  large 
woody  capsule,  with  a  nundjcr  of  cells,  which  in 
some  species  renuiins  closed,  and  in  some  ojiens 
with  ,a  lid.  All  the  known  species,  about  forty, 
are  natives  of  the  hottest  parts  of  South  America. 
Brazil  Nuts  (q.v. )  and  Sapucaia  Xuts  (i|.v.)  are  the 
Acccls  of  trees  of  this  order.  The  Cannon-ball  Tree 
(q.v.)  belongs  to  it. 

Ledil.  in  Greek  Mythology,  the  wife  of  the 
Spartan  king  Tyndareus,  whom  .lupiter  visited  in 
the  disguise  of  a  swan.  The  commonest  legend 
makes  her  the  mother  of  both  Castor  and  Pollux 
(q.v.)  by  the  god.  The  story  has  supplied  a  theme 
for  many  works  of  art. 

Ledhliry.  a  pleasant,  (dd-fashioned  market- 
town  of  Herefordshire,  13  miles  ESE.  of  Hereford. 
It  has  an  interesting  church,  Romane.s(|ue  to  Per- 
l)endicular  in  stvle,  St  Catharine's  Hos]>ital  ( 12.32  ; 
rebuilt  1822),  and  a  clock-tower  (1890)  to  the 
memorv  of  Mrs  Browning  (q.v.).  P<q).  of  parish 
1  18.31  )'42ti4;  (  1S!H  )  4;{(».3. 

Ledrii-Rolliii.  .\lex.\xdre  Auouste,    'the 

triliune  of  the  revolution  of  Kebruary  (1848),  as 
Louis  Blanc  was  its  a]iostle  and  Laniartine  its 
orator  ■(  Victor  Hugo),  was  born  in  the  house  of 
Scarron  at  Fontenay,  near  Paris,  2d  February  1807. 
Admitted  to  the  liar  in  1830,  he  made  a  name 
!us  defender  of  Republican  journalists  ,and  men  of 
like  views  during  tlie  reign  of  Louis-Philippe, 
anil  subsequently  obtained  a  great  reputation  as 
a  democratic  at;itator  ami  leader  of  the  working- 
men's  jiarty.  He  was  electcil  in  1841  deputy  for 
Le  Mans,  and  sat  of  coui'se  on  the  extreme  Left. 
Visiting  Ireland  at  the  height  of  O'Connell's 
agitation  for  repeal  of  the  L^nion,  he  was  present 
at  several  of  the  Liberator's  monster  meetings,  and 
at  Tara  was  hailed  as  a  delejjate  from  France. 
In  lS4(i  he  ]iublishe(l  an  A/i/iii  (iii.r  'J'i<irfn//ciii:i, 
in  which  he  declareil  'universal  sull'rage'  to  be 
the  only  panacea  for  the  miseries  of  the  working- 
cljus.ses.  lie  wjis  an  active  promoter  of  the  reform- 
meetings  that  jireceded  the  commotions  of  1848. 
t)n  the  outbreak  of  the  revolution  he  became  a 
member  of  the  Provisional  Government,  as  minister 


LEDUC 


LEE 


555 


of  the  Interior,  and  in  May  was  elected  one  of  tlie 
five  in  whose  hands  the  Constituent  Asseinhly 
placed  the  interim  i,'overnnient.  But  he  oll'ended 
his  supporters,  his  colleagues,  and  the  moderates  hy 
his  arhitrary  and  iniudioious  conduct,  and  resigned 
his  portfolio  on  istli  .June.  He  next  ventured  on 
a  candidature  for  the  presidency  against  Louis 
Xa|>oleon  in  Decemher.  hut  was  ignoniiniously 
beaten.  An  unsuccessful  attempt  to  ]irovoke  an 
insurrection  against  his  fortunate  rival,  on  13th 
June  lS-19.  put  an  end  to  his  jxditic.al  activity 
and  his  intluence.  He  tied  to  Englaml,  where  he 
hecame  one  of  the  leailers  of  the  party  who  sought 
to  control  from  one  centre  the  democratic  agitations 
throughout  Eurojie,  and  so  give  unity  and  consist- 
ency of  ]iur])ose  to  their  etl'orts  ;  and  he  signed  the 
manifestoes  of  the  revolutionary  committee  along 
with  Kossuth,  ilazzini,  and  Kuge.  Hut  in  les.s 
than  a  year  he  jiuhlished  a  passionate  invective 
against  the  land  which  had  given  him  an  asylum, 
Dc  la  Dicadcncc  de  VAiiglcterre.  For  the  ne.xt 
twenty  years  he  lived  alternately  in  London  and 
Brussels,  being  only  amnestied  in  l!S70.  After  his 
return  to  France  he  was  elected  to  the  Assembly 
in  1871,  and  again  in  1874.  He  died  on  31st 
December  1874,  at  Fontenay.  His  Discotirs 
Politi'jiics  ct  Hcrits  Divers  appeared  in  2  vols.  1879. 

Ledlir.     See  VlOLLET-LE-Dlf. 

Ledum,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  order  Ericaceae, 
suborder  Khodorea^,  consisting  of  small  evergreen 
shrubs,  with  comi)aratively  large  flowers,  of  which 
the  corolla  is  cut  into  live  deep  petal-like  segments. 
The  species  are  natives  of  Europe  and  North 
America  ;  some  of  them  are  common  to  both.  The 
leaves  of  L.  latifoUiiin  are  said  to  be  used  in  Lab- 
rador as  a  substitute  for  tea,  whence  it  is  sometimes 
called  Labrador  Tea.  Sir  John  Franklin  and  his 
party,  in  the  arctic  expedition  of  1819-22,  used  in 
the  same  way  the  Leditm  pahistre,  which  produced 
a  beverage  with  a  smell  resembling  rhuljarb,  yet 
they  found  it  refreshing.  The  leaves  of  both  these 
shrubs  possess  narcotic  jiroperties,  and  render  beer 
heady.  They  are  regarded  as  useful  in  agues, 
dysenteiy,  and  diarrhtea. 

Lee,  Axs.     See  Shakek.s. 

Lee,  Frederic  Rich.\1!D,  an  English  landscape- 
painter,  was  bom  at  15arnstai>le,  Devonshire,  in 
•lune  1798,  and  cho.se  the  army  for  his  profession. 
But  being  obliged  by  ill-health  to  <init  it,  he  turned 
his  attention  to  painting  ( 1818)  and  w.-us  a  constant 
exhibitor  at  the  Koyal  Academy  from  1824  till  1870. 
He  was  elected  an  A.K.A.  in  1834  and  K.A.  in 
18.38,  retiring  in  1871.  Lee  was  one  of  the  most 
thoroughly  national  painters  of  his  day,  the  river 
scenery,  parks,  leafy  lanes,  and  picturesque 
villages  of  his  native  country  forming  the  favourite 
subjects  of  his  pencil.  He  died  in  t'ape  Colony, 
4th  June  1879. 

Lee.  UoiiKRT,  D.  U.,  wa.s  born  at  Tweedmonth, 
11th  November  1804,  and  educated  at  Berwick 
(where  he  was  also  for  a  time  a  boat-builder) 
and  St  Andrew.s.  In  1833  he  became  minister 
of  a  chapel  of  ea.se  at  Arbroath  ;  in  18.30  he  was 
transferred  to  Campsie,  and  in  1843,  after  the  Di.s- 
ruption,  to  the  vacateil  charge  of  Old  (Jrcy friars, 
Edinburgh.  In  1S4()  he  was  ajipoinled  aUo  pro- 
fe.ssor  of  Biblical  Criticism  in  Edinburgh  Lniver- 
.sity,  de.an  of  the  Chapel  itoyiil,  :iriil  uiie  of  the 
Queen's  chaplains.  In  1844  he  riiceivcd  his  doctor- 
ate from  St  Andrews.  In  1857  he  began  his 
reform  of  the  Presbyterian  church-service.  He 
restored  the  reading  of  prayei-s,  as  well  ius  the 
custom  of  kneeling  at  prayer  and  standing  during 
the  singing;  and  in  1803  lie  introduccil  a  harmonium, 
in  18fw  an  organ,  into  his  church.  These  'innova- 
tions '  brought  down  U|)on  him  bitter  and  hanussing 
attacks,   extending  over  many    years ;    and    '  the 


Greyfriai-s  case'  was  still  jiending  before  the 
(lencral  Assembly  when,  on  22d  May  18ti7,  Lee 
fell  from  his  hoi'se  in  Princes  Street,  struck  with 
paralysis.     He  died  at  Torquay,  14th  March  1868. 

His  works  include  a  Hnndhook  of  Jh  volioix^  Pfaijrnt  for 
Public  Worship  (3d  ed.  1803).  a  i.V/fj-cnce  BiUe'ilSoi), 
Tlw  Famihi  and  its  Duties  (1803).  and  The  Jieform  of 
the  Church  (1864).  See  Life  by  R.  H.  Story  (2  vols. 
1S70). 

Lee,  Robert  Edw.vrd,  was  fifth  in  descent 
from  Kichard  Lee  of  Shropshire,  England,  who 
emigrated  to  Virginia  in  the  copyright  isno  in  us. 
reign  of  Charles  I.  The  ancestor  by  j.  b.  Lippbicott 
of  the  Lee  family  in  Virginia  company, 
receiveil  large  grants  of  land  located  between  the 
Potomac  and  Itappahaniiock  rivers,  known  ;is  the 
Northern  Neck,  and  here  he  built  the  original 
Stratford  House,  which  was  burned  some  years 
after.  In  the  liiter  edifice,  erected  hy  his  giand- 
.son.  Thomas  Lee  of  Stratford,  were  born  the 
distinguished  brothers,  Kichard  Henry  Lee  ( 1732- 
04),  mover  of  the  resolution  in  favour  of  American 
Independence  and  a  signer  of  the  Declaration  ; 
Francis  Lightfoot  Lee  (17.34-97),  a  signer  of  the 
Declaration;  and  William  (1737-95)  and  Arthur 
Lee  (1740-92),  diidomatists.  There  also,  on  19tli 
January  1807,  was  born  the  subject  of  this  sketch, 
the  son  of  (ieneral  Henry  Lee,  a  cousin  of  the 
preceding.  At  the  age  of  eleven  he  lost  his  father, 
and  at  eighteen  he  entere<l  the  Jlilitary  Academy 
at  "West  Point.  He  graduated  second  in  his  class 
in  1829,  and  received  a  second-lieutenant's  com- 
mission in  the  engineers.  In  18.32  he  married  Mary 
Custis,  daughter  of  George  \\'ashington  I'arke 
Custis,  adopted  son  of  George  Washington,  and 
grandson  of  his  wife  by  her  t'lrst  marriage.  He 
became  first-lieutenant  in  1830,  and  captain  in 
1838.  At  the  beginning  of  the  Mexican  war  in 
1846  he  was  appointed  chief-engineer  of  the  central 
army  in  Mexico.  General  Winfield  Scott  praised 
him  highly  in  official  reports  for  his  services 
at  the  siege  of  Vera  Cruz.  At  the  storming  of 
Chajiultepee  he  was  severely  wounded,  and  for 
meritorious  services  received  his  third  brevet 
■promotion  in  rank.  In  1852  Colonel  Lee  was 
in  command  of  the  United  States  Military 
Academy,  and  in  the  three  years  of  his  adminis- 
tration greatly  improved  its  efliciency  as  a 
training  school  for  officers.  His  ne.xt  service 
was  as  an  officer  of  cavalry  on  the  Te.xan  liorder 
in  1855-59.  ^Vhen  on  a  furlough  in  October 
1859,  the  time  of  the  John  Ihown  raid,  lie  was 
put  iti  command  of  a  small  force  and  ordered 
to  Harper's  Ferry  to  capture  the  insurgents. 
Colonel  Lee  was  in  ccunmaml  of  the  ilepartment 
of  Texas  in  1860,  but  was  recdled  to  Washington 
early  in  1861  when  the  '  irre]uessible  conflict' 
between  the  free  and  the  slave  states  seemed 
imminent.  When  Lee  reached  the  capital  in 
March  1861,  .seven  states  had  passed  ordinances 
of  secession  from  the  Cnion,  and  h.aci  formed 
the  Southern  Confederacy.  Virginia  seceded  from 
the  I'nicm  on  Ajiril  17,  .and  Cidoriel  Lee,  believ- 
ing that  his  supreme  jiolitical  allegiance  was  due 
to  his  state  rather  than  to  the  Union,  felt  com- 
pelled to  send  his  resignation  to  tieneral  Scott, 
which  he  did  on  the  20th  of  A|.ril.  The  hitter 
struggle  between  his  personal  preferences  and  his 
high  .sense  of  duty  is  shown  in  the  words  of  his 
wife,  written  to  a  friend  at  the  time.  '  My  hus- 
band hiis  wept  tears  of  blood  over  this  terrible 
war ;  but  he  must  as  a  man  and  a  Virginian  share 
the  destiny  of  his  state,  which  has  solemnly  pro- 
nounced for  independence.'  Williiii  two  days  after 
his  resignation  from  the  United  .States  army  he 
was  made  coiiimaniler-in-chief  of  the  military  and 
naval  forces  of  Virginia. 

General  Lee  was  devoutly  religious,  and  a  life- 


556 


LEE 


LEECH 


long  member  of  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church. 
His  purpose  to  draw  his  sword  only  in  di^fence  of 
liis  native  state  was  niodilied  l>y  its  joining  the 
Southern  Confederacy,  and  the  chan^'e  of  the 
capital  from  Montgomery,  Alaliaina,  to  Kicliniond, 
Virginia.  Whi'U  the  Confederate  Congress  met  in 
Kichmoiid,  with  representatives  from  eleven  .states, 
in  May  l.SOl,  live  lirigadier-generals  were  appointed, 
of  whom  Lee  ranked  third.  He  had  at  (irst  no 
active  conmiand,  l)Ut  remained  at  Richmond  to 
superintend  the  defences  of  the  city  till  the  autumn, 
when  he  was  sent  to  oppose  (ieneral  Kosecrans  in 
West  Virginia.  In  the  spring  of  1862  he  was  .sent 
to  supervise  the  co.ast  defences  of  Ceorgia  and 
South  Carolina ;  but  when  .McClellan's  '  on  to 
Richmond  '  advance  with  100,000  men  was  .assured, 
Lee  w.as  summoned  to  the  capital.  General  Joseph 
E.  .Jolniston,  chief  in  comnifind,  w,as  disabled  by  a 
wound  at  the  battle  of  Seven  Pines,  May  31,  1802, 
and  Lee  was  put  in  comm.and  of  the  army  .around 
Richmond.  The  masterly  strategy  displayed  by 
Lee,  and  the  desperate  lighting  of  his  army  in  the 
famous  seven  days'  b.attles  around  Richmond,  de- 
fe.ated  the  purposes  of  McClellan's  Peninsular  cam- 
paign, and  belong  rather  to  the  history  of  the  war 
than  to  personal  biography.  The  s.ame  ni.ay  be 
said  of  his  battles  and  strategy  in  opposing  Cener.al 
Pope's  movements,  his  inv.asion  of  M.aryland  and 
Pennsylv,ani.a,  .and  other  prominent  events  of  the 
war.  The  incre.asing  resources  of  the  North  .and 
the  decreasing  resources  of  the  South  could  only 
result  in  the  final  success  of  the  former.  It  was  no 
news  to  Lee  to  be  told  of  '  the  hopelessness  of 
further  resistance'  by  General  Gr.ant  in  his  note  of 
April  7,  I860,  and  the  common  desire  of  both  com- 
manders '  to  avoid  useless  efl'usion  of  blood  '  was 
creditable  to  both.  On  April  9,  186.5,  Lee  surren- 
dered his  army  of  al)out  27,80.5  men  to  General 
Grant  at  Appomattox  Courthouse,  Virginia,  and 
the  four  years'  war  was  practically  ended.  That 
General  Lee  undertook  ill-judged  movements,  as  his 
advance  into  Pennsylvania,  and  that  he  trusted  too 
much  to  his  lieutenants  in  matters  of  importance, 
has  been  the  opinion  of  .some  critics ;  and  prob- 
ably his  unwillingness  to  throw  blame  on  govern- 
ment officials  who  i)lanned,  and  on  subordinates  to 
whom  he  entrusted  the  execution  of  the  plans  or 
parts  of  them,  has  given  more  apparent  than  de- 
served grounds  for  such  criticisms,  .\fter  the  close 
of  the  w.-ir  he  frankly  accepted  the  result,  and 
although  di'|>rived  of  his  former  property  at  Arling- 
ton on  the  I'otomac,  and  the  White  House  on  tlu; 
Pamunky,  he  declineil  proffered  offers  of  pecuniary 
aid,  and  .accepted  the  presidency  of  Washington 
College,  since  called  the  Washington  and  Lee 
University,  at  Lexington,  Virginia.  Here  he  de- 
voted hinlself  assiduously  to  the  proper  duties  of  a 
college  president,  gaining  the  affectionate  esteem 
of  the  faculty  and  stmlents  as  he  had  of  the  officers 
and  soldiers  of  two  armies  in  former  jears. 

Ex))osure  in  the  Held  in  1863  had  resulted  in 
rheumatic  inllamm.ation  of  the  pericanlium,  which 
became  more  painful  and  freiiuent  from  exposure 
to  cold  or  violent  exercise,  till  a  severe  attack  in 
1869  greatly  impaired  his  heart's  .action.  Prom  a 
second  attack,  in  September  1870,  be  did  not  re- 
cover, but  grew  weaker  till  his  death,  Oololier  12, 
1870.  His  widow  died  in  Lexington,  \'iigiiiia, 
November  6,  187.'5.  Generjvl  Lee  had  three  .sons 
and  four  claughlers.  The  eldest  son,  <!eorge 
Washington  ('ustis  Lee,  graduated  at  the  head 
of  his  cla.ss  at  West  Point  in  1.8.54,  resigned  as 
first-lieutcn.ant  in  the  I'niteil  States  army  in  I8(il, 
was  an  ai<le-de-camp  to  .lefferson  Davis,  1801  6.'!, 
major-general  of  a  division  of  the  army  of  northern 
Virginia  in  1864,  and  successor  of  his  father  as 
president  of  the  Washington  and  Lee  University  in 
I87L     William  Henry  Kitzhugh   Lee,  the  second 


son,  was  an  officer  in  the  United  States  army,  and 
major-general  of  cavalry  in  the  Confe<lerate  army. 
He  was  elected  to  the  .50tb  and  .51st  congresses. 
Captain  Itoliert  K.  Lee  of  the  Confederate  cavalry 
was  the  tliinl  son. 

.\  bronze  equestri.an  st.atue  of  (Jeneral  Lee,  by 
Mercie  of  Paris,  erecteil  mainly  by  the  women  of 
the  South,  was  unveiled  in  Iticiimond,  Virginia,  in 
1890.  The  height  of  the  whole  structure,  including 
,an  elaborate  monumental  pedest.al,  is  61  feet  2 
inches,  the  equestrian  ligure  being  22  feet  2  inches. 
See  the  Life  i>v  .1.  K.  CooUe  (  18^1  1,  that  by  Long 
( 1887  ),and  that  by  his  nephew,  Kitzhiigb  Lee  ( 1894). 

Lee,  S.VMl'EL,  an  English  orientalist,  was  born, 
14th  M.ay  1783,  at  Longnor.  in  Shropshire,  studied 
at  tjueen's  C(dlege,  Cambridge,  in  1819  was  chosen 
professor  of  Arabic,  and  in  1831  rcgiiis  professor 
of  Hebrew,  and  died  rector  of  ISarley,  in  Hertford- 
shire, 16th  December  1852.  His  reputation  rests 
upon  a  Grammar  of  tlie  Hfbrciv  LdnfpiiKjr.  (1827) : 
Bonk  of  Job,  translated  from  the  Orii/iiail  Hebrew 
(3  vols.  1837);  Ilebrcu;  Chaldrr,  aiii/Kiiii/ish  I.eri- 
con  (1840):  a  translation  from  the  .Vrabic  of  the 
Travels  of  Ibn-B.atnta  ( 1833)  and  from  the  Syri.ac 
of  the  J'heophania  of  Ensebius  (1843).  He  also 
wrote  Sermons  on  the  Stmhj  of  the  Holij  Scriptures 
(1830),  Erents  and  Times  if  tlic  Visions  of  Daniel 
and  St  John  (18.51),  .and  an  fn</)(iri/  into  Propheeij 
( 1849).  He  took  charge,  for  tlu-  Ihitisb  and  Foreign 
Bible  Society,  of  editions  of  the  Syriac  Old  Test.a- 
ment,  the  Syriac  New  Test.ament  or  Peshito,  the 
Malay,  Persian,  and  Hindustani  llibles,  and  the 
P.salms  in  Coptic  and  .\rabic. 

Locoll.  •ToHN,  humorous  draughtsman,  was 
born,  of  Irish  descent,  in  Lond<m,  29th  August 
1817,  his  father,  a  cultured  .and  excellent  man, 
being  Landlord  of  the  London  Coffee  lIou.se,  Lud- 
gate  Hill.  He  w.as  educated  at  the  Charterhouse, 
where  he  was  a  fellow-iuipil  of  Thackeray's,  his 
friend  throughout  life,  who  .at  school  was  deemed 
the  better  caricaturist  of  the  two,  ami  who  after- 
wards published  an  .admirable  estim.ate  of  Leech's 
art  [Qiiarterhj  lieriew,  December  18.54).  He 
next  studied  me<licine  ,an<l  surgery,  and  during 
his  attendnnce  at  St  P.arlholomcw's  Hospital  his 
artistic  skill  found  exercise  in  the  ]iroduction  of 
.anatomical  drawings.  Before  long  he  adopted  .art 
as  a  profession,  and  at  the  age  of  eighteen  pub- 
lishetl  Etchinqs  and  Shefchiutjs,  bij  A.  I'oi,  Esq. 
.\bout  1838  iie  was  contril'uting  to  Bell's  Life: 
and  in  the  fourth  number  of  Punch,  7tli  Augn.st 
1841,  we  find  his  first  contribution  to  the  journal 
with  which  his  name  is  mosi  closely  .as.sociateil, 
.and  with  which  he  was  connecte(l  till  the  time  of 
his  death.  The  cartoons  which  be  designed  for 
Punch,  especially  those  dealing  with  inciilents  in 
the  pcditical  life'of  Lonl  lirougbam,  Lfud  Palmer- 
ston,  and  Lord  .lolin  Kusscll,  and  tlie  powerful  ami 
terrible  'General  Fevrier  turned  'rraitor,'  are 
full  of  high  qualities,  and  have  been  published 
separately.  But  even  more  delightful  are  the 
smaller  woodcuts,  drawn  easily  and  freely,  ami 
dealing  in  gently  humorous  fashion  with  sulijects 
of  everyday  life".  In  thc-c.  as  it  has  been  truly 
.said,  'lie  has  entered  with  genial  sympathy  into 
every  i)hase  of  the  many-sided  English  life  of 
the  hunting-field,  the  seaside,  the  b.allroom,  the 
drawing-room,  and  the  nursery,'  'he  h.a.s  turned 
caricature  into  cbar.acter,  .and  left  behind  him 
not  a  little  of  the  history  of  his  time  and  it-s 
follies  sketched  with  inimitable  grace.'  Various 
series  of  these  designs  have  been  ccdlecteil  in 
volumes  entitled  Pictures  of  Life  and  Charaeter 
from  the  Collection  of  Mr  Punch;  and  in  1862 
a  collection  of  them,  enlarged  by  a  mechanical 
process,  and  coloured  by  the  artist  himself  in  a 
combination  of  oil-  and  water-colours,  was  brought 


LtEE~CHEE 


LEECHES 


557 


together  in  the  Egyptian  Hall,  London,  and  formed 
an  excejitionallv  popular  exhibition.  In  tlie  inter- 
vals of  work  for  I'liin/i  Leech  contributed  much  to 
other  journals  and  publications,  iucludin;;  woodcuts 
in  Once  a  U'lik  ( lSo9-G'2)  and  The  l/lti;itratcti  Lun- 
'lou  Sews  (1S.')6),  in  The  Cuinic  English  and  Ltitiii 
(iramimirs  (  LS4(n,  Hooil's  Comic  Ami iial  {\Si2), 
.Smith's  ]\'ussuil  liuirl  (  1S43),  ..I  Little  'Tour  in 
Ireland  (lSo9);  etchings  in  Bcntlci/'n  Miscellany 
and  JerroUVs  iSliillintj  Maijazine,  in  the  Christmas 
books  of  Dicken.s,  the  Comic  History  of  England 
[  1847-48),  the  Comic  Histort/  of  Hume  { 1852),  and 
the  Hanitlcy  Cross  sporting  novels  ;  and  also  drew 
several  lithogra|>hed  series,  of  which  Portraits  of 
the  Children  of  the  Mobility  (1S41)  is  the  most 
Important.  At  length  the  artist's  health  began 
to  sutler  from  incessant  overproduction,  he  fell 
into  a  state  of  nervous  irritaoility  and  prostra- 
tion, and  died  at  Kensington,  29th  October  1864. 
See  Dr  John  Browns  John  Leech  (1882),  F.  G. 
KittoiVf  Biographiccd  Slctch  (1883),  and  the  Life 
by  W.  V.  Frith,  W.X.  (1891). 
Lee-€hce.    See  Litchi. 

Leeches  ( A.S.  hvce,  '  a  physician  : '  Hirudineti 
or  Discojihora ),  a  class  of  worm-like  animals, 
usually  suctorial  parasites,  sometimes  genuinely 
carnivorous.  They  are  widely  distributed  in  fresh 
and  salt  water,  and  occasionally  on  land.  The 
body  is  extensile  and  ringed,  but  the  superficial 
rings  do  not  correspond  to  the  tme  segments ;  no 
appendages  are  present,  but  there  is  a  posterior 
attaching  sucker,  and  the  mouth  is  powerfully 
suctorial ;  the  body-cavity  is  almost  obliterated 
by  a  spongy  growth  of  connective  tissue ;  the 
animals  are  hermaphroilite. 

The  Medicinal  Leech  (Hiriido  medicinal  is), 
formerly  much  used  in  blood-letting,  has  a 
slightly  flattened  body  2  or  3  inches  in  length, 
greenish  black  in  colour,  mottled  on  the  under 
side,  and  with  six  rows  of  reddish  and  yellowish 
spots  along  the  back.  The  skin  is  slimy  and 
frequently  cast.s  its  cuticle  ;  there  are  102  super- 
licial  skin-rings,  with  sense-spots  on  every  lifth, 
while  ten  distinct  eve  simts  are  bonie  on  the  head. 


TliL  ilediciii.J  I.- mi  >  Ih 


•i- 


Tire  animal  is  very  nniscular,  moves  rapidly  by 
alternately  fixing  its  oral  and  posterior  suckers,  and 
swims  with  graceful  nmlulations.  The  nioutli  con- 
tains three  semicircular  'saws,' each  with  eighty 
to  ninety  minute  teeth  of  lime  and  chitine,  by  tlie 
.saw-like  action  of  which  the  leech  gives  its  char- 
acteri.stic  triradiatc  bite.  From  animals  thus 
bitten  the  leech  sucks  blood,  and  falls  oil  when  its 
many-pouched  gut  is  gorged.  A  secretion  from 
the  pharynx  .seems  to  keep  the  blood  from  coagu- 
lating, and  after  a  heavy  meal  the  leech  can  I;ist 
and  digest  for  a  year.  Its  opportunities  arc  in 
many  circumstances  few  and  far  between,  but  it 
certainly  makes  the  most  of  them.      About  the 


leech's  own  blood,  it  is  worth  noting  that  it  is 
coloured  red  with  luemoglobin.  Leeches  are  at 
home  in  slow  streams  and  in  marshes,  sometimes 
venturing  ashore  in  search  of  victims  higher  than 
the  insect  larva-,  fishes,  and  amjihibians  wTiich  they 
may  hit  upon  in  the  water.  The  eggs  are  laid 
about  June  in  the  moist  ground  by  the  side  of  the 
water,  and  are  enclo.sed  in  cocoons  which  are 
secreted  from  the  skin.  The  growth  of  the  young 
leech  is  slow,  may  continue  in  fact  for  four  or  five 
years,  while  the  total  length  of  life  sometimes 
reaches  a  score.  The  medicinal  si)ecies  occurs  in 
Britain,  but  is  much  commoner  on  the  Continent. 
When  the  medical  use  of  leeches,  which  is  of 
ancient  origin,  was  a  constant  practice,  the  swamps 
of  western  France  were  \ery  important  sources  of 
supply.  There  the  vamjiires  \\ere  sometimes  fed 
by  driving  old  horses  or  cattle  into  the  enclosures, 
and  the  primitive  custom  of  wading  in  the  water 
till  the  leeches  fix  on  the  bare  legs  is  still  practised 
by  collectors.  It  is  calculated  that  thirty  millions 
used  to  be  employed  annually  for  medical  purposes 
in  France  and  Enghmd,  but  nowadays  they  have 
gone  much  out  of  fashion  ;  yet  a  hatchery  near 
Hildesheim  still  raises  some  3A  millions  annually. 
When  kept  by  apothecaries  they  ought  to  be 
alloweil  free  play  in  a  closed  glass  auuariuni  with 
water-plants,  instead  of  Ijeingliuddled  together  in 
a  dark  vessel. 

Leeching,  or  the  application  of  leeches  for  the 
purpose  of  abstracting  blood,  is  sometimes  used 
instead  of  venesection,  where  general  depletion  is 
indicated,  particularly  in  children  ;  but  much  more 
often  for  the  purpose  of  local  depletion  in  localised 
intlammations.  In  the  diseases  of  infants  and 
young  children,  leeches  must  be  apjilied  with 
caution.  In  applying  leeches  the  part  should  be 
thoroughly  cleaned,  and  the  leeches,  after  being 
dried  by  rubbing  them  in  a  clean  linen  cloth, 
should  be  placed  in  an  open  pill-box,  or  in  a  wine- 
glass, and  applied  to  the  spot  at  which  it  is  desired 
that  they  should  attach  themselves.  When  it  is 
wished  to  affi.x  a  leech  to  the  inside  of  the  mouth, 
it  is  placed  in  a  narrow  tube  called  a  leech-glass. 
When  the  animals  will  not  attach  themselves 
readily  they  may  sometimes  l)e  induced  to  bite  by 
moistening  the  part  with  milk  or  blood.  They 
usually  dro|i  ott'  when  tilled  ;  if  they  do  not,  they 
njay  be  induced  to  do  so  by  sprinkling  them  with 
conmmn  salt  ;  thev  must  never  be  i)ulled  awav. 
The  quantity  of  blood  w  hich  a  leech  is  capable 
iif  drawing  may  be  estimated  on  an  average  at 
ubijut  a  drachm  and  a  half,  besides  what  flows 
from  the  wound  after  it  has  fallen  oil'.  It  is  usually 
desirable  to  promote  to  some  extent  this  How, 
which  is  readily  done  V>v  the  application  of  warm 
fomentations  or  poultices.  The  bleeding  generally 
slops  spontaneously  after  a  short  time ;  if  it  goes 
(in  longer  than  is  desirable,  the  application  of  the 
Ihili  of  a  hat,  or  of  a  bit  of  cobweb,  will  usually 
check  it.  If  these  means  fail,  a  little  cone  of  lint 
should  be  inserted  into  the  bite,  over  which  a  com- 
press should  be  laiil  and  a  bandage  applied  ;  or  the 
bite  should  be  touched  with  a  stick  of  nitrate  of 
silver  (lunar  caustic)  scraped  to  a  point.  Leeches, 
when  applied  to  the  mouth  or  interior  of  the  nose, 
have  been  occasionally  swallowed,  and  have  given 
rise  to  very  unpleasant  symptoms.  A  nn)derately 
sti'ong  sidution  of  common  salt  readily  dishulges 
them.  The  'artificial  leech,' .sometimes  used,  is  a 
mechanical  arrangement  for  jiroducing  a  small 
freely-bleeding  wouml  in  the  skin. 

The  Horse-leech  (llainuvis  sangiiisiiya),  whose 
'  daughters  '  ( whether  of  this  precise  sjiecies  or  not) 
'cry  (jive,  give,'  is  common  in  Hritain  and  else- 
where. It  is  aliout  -ik  inches  iji  length,  feeds 
largely  on  earthworms,  but  has  blunt  teeth,  and  is 
not  used  medicinally.     Another  horse-leech  is  the 


558 


LEECHES 


LEEDS 


voracious  Aulastoma,  which  is  camivorous  rather 
than  parasitic.  Among  tlie  numerous  land-leeches 
which  attack  liorses,  cattle,  and  men,  one  of  the 
most  trouljlesonie  is  llaminiipso  rei/lo/ih'ci,  graplii 
eally  described  hy  Sir  James  S.  Tennent.  It  is 
only  aliout  an  in<-h  lonf;  and  as  thin  a.s  a  knitting- 
neeiile.  Imt  it  imrsues  its  desired  victims  with  con- 
sideralile  rapidity,  and  makes  itself  most  irksome 
both  to  man  and  beast.  So  abundant  are  laud- 
leeclies  in  some  warm  and  moist  parts  of  the  East 


lIorsL-  Leech. 

that  soldiers  and  workmen  are  sometimes  fatall>' 
weakened  l>y  the  mirnite  but  pers^istent  lilood- 
lettin^'.  All  the  above  and  some  other  genera, 
such  as  the  eight-eyed  Xephelis  of  our  ponds,  are 
called  Guathobdellida",  being  usually  provided 
with  three  tooth-plates,  but  without  a  'proboscis.' 
In  another  set,  Khyncobdellid;c,  the  forepart  of 
the  body  is  retractile  and  forms  a  proboscis.  Here 
are  included  many  interesting  forms  :  the  little 
fresh-water  Cleiisine.  sometimes  found  with  the 
young  attached  to  the  parent  ;  the  large,  warty, 
marine  I'ontobdella.  which  fastens  on  rays  ;  Pisci- 
cola  on  fresh-watei-  fishes,  such  as  ijeich  and  carp  ; 
and  Branchellion,  with  numeious  lateral  leallets  of 
skin.  The  largest  leech  known  is  the  South 
American  Macrolx/c/hi  valdiviaiui,  a  carnivorous 
form  living  in  moist  earth,  and  sometimes  said 
to  measure  two  feet  and  a  half. 

See  C.  O.  Whitniai)  in  Quart.  Juui:  Micr.  Set.  for 
1886;  Moquin-Tandoii,  Monographic  de  la  Famillc  ties 
Hirudin^es,  with  Atlas  ( 2d  ed.  1846) ;  Verill,  Fresh-water 
Letches  (Washington,  1875). 

Leeds,  the  lirst  t<iwu  in  Yorkshire,  and  fifth  in 
England  in  jioint  of  populaticm.  is  a  parliamentary 
and  municipal  liorongb,  returning  since  188."!  five 
members  to  the  House  of  Commons.  I5v  rail  it 
Ls  25*  miles  SW.  of  York,  196  NNW.  of  London, 
and  il2  SSE.  of  Carlisle.  It  is  situated  in  the 
north-west  of  the  AVest  Itiding  of  Yorkshire,  in  the 
valley  of  the  Aire,  ami  is  the  seat  of  important 
manufactures,  especially  of  ch>thing  in  all  its 
branches.  The  ready-made  clothing  industry, 
especially,  gives  employment  to  more  hands  than 
anything  else.  The  woollen  trade  carried  on 
here,  and  in  the  surrounding  towns  and  villages, 
exceeds  in  extent  that  of  any  other  part  of 
England.  It  has  been  estimated  tliat  general 
goods  to  the  anntial  v.alue  of  t'l  1.000,000  pass 
through  the  warehouses  in  Leeds.  The  iron  in- 
dustries, which  have  been  largely  developccl. 
employ  about  .')0,000  persons,  and  are  now  as 
important  as  the  woollen  manufactures.  The 
manufacture  of  leather  is  carried  on  in  some  of 
the  largest  tanneries  in  the  kingdom,  and  about 
100  firms  are  engaged  in  making  boots  and  shoes. 
The  other  chief  manufactures  are  those  of  loco- 
motives (both  for  rail  .and  tramway),  agricultural 
machines,  gla.ss,  paper,  ti)l)ac(o,  oil,  chemicals, 
earthenware,  worsted,  and  silk.  Kormerly  llax- 
spinning  was  extensively  carried  on,  but  it  is 
now  fast  dying  out.  H  will  thus  be  seen  that 
Leeds  depends  for  its  prosperity  not  upon  any 
one  staple  industry,  but  upon  tlie  great  variety 
of  its  manufactured  products.  The  goods  tralllc 
by  rail,  canal,  and  river  is  immen.se. 

There  are  thirty-four  churches  in  Leeds,  eight 
Koman  Catlndic  and  about  eighty  dis,senting 
places  of  worship.  The  chief  church  is  St  I'eter's, 
which  is  in  Kirkgjite,  and  wa-s  rebuilt  in  1888 
at   a  cost  of   £29,770.      It  is  180  feet  long  by 


86  wide ;  the  tower  is  139  feet  high,  and  con- 
tains a  peal  of  thirteen  bells.  The  church  also 
ccmtains  some  fine  monuments,  one  of  which  wa.* 
erected  in  memory  of  those  natives  of  Leeds 
who  fell  in  the  Crimea.  The  most  interesting 
church  in  the  town  is  St  John's,  New  liriggate, 
consecrated  by  Archbishop  Ncile  in  lti.'34,  an  al- 
most tiniijue  example  of  a  "  Lauilian '  church, 
and  still  retaining  the  original  fittings.  The 
other  principal  building's  are  chieHy  of  recent 
erection.  The  town-hall,  comiileted  in  1858,  is 
'2oO  feet  long,  200  feet  broad,  ami  the  tower 
is  225  feet  high.  It  covers  "iliOO  square  yards. 
The  great  hall  is  161  feet  long,  72  feet  wide, 
and  75  feet  high.  It  is  richly  decorated,  and 
contains  one  of  the  largest  aiul  most  powerful 
organs  in  Europe,  besides  statues  of  Edward 
Baines  and  Robert  Hall,  formerly  members  for 
the  borough.  There  arc  also  colossal  statues  of 
Queen  Victoria  and  the  I'rince  Consort  in  the 
vestibule,  and  of  Wellington  in  the  front  of  the 
building.  Contiguous  to  the  town-ball  are  the 
municijial  buildings  (comprising,  besides  the  vari- 
ous corporate  offices,  reading-room,  free  library, 
and  tine  art  gallery),  and  the  schocd-board  olliccs, 
the  whole  forming  two  handsome  and  substantial 
blocks  of  buildings. 

The  Ceiieral  Infirmary  was  erected  in  1868  from 
designs  by  Sir  C.  (i.  Scott,  at  a  cost  of  £120,000, 
and  contains  acL'ommodation  for  .SOO  in-patients. 
The  mechanics'  instilute,  erected  in  1867  at  a 
cost  of  l'2.j,000,  contains  a  Icclure-liall  accommo- 
dating 1700  persons.  The  grammar-school,  bnilt 
in  IS.')!),  at  a  cost  of  t'Ki.OlMt.  from  designs  by 
ISarry,  is  a  cruciform  Dccuratcd  stiucture.  Other 
buildings  are  the  Corn  Exchange,  a  handsome 
structure  of  an  oval  form  :  the  new  post-ollicc 
(fronting  tlie  handsome  City  Scjuare) ;  the  York- 
shire Penny  Bank  ;  Brown's  Bank  ;  the  Coli.seum, 
the  most  convenient  public  hall  in  the  town  : 
the  Philosophical  Hall,  with  a  line  museum;  the 
Wcslevan  training-college,  erected  in  186S  ;  Turkish 
i;allis'(cost  I'll, 0011)  ;  Beckclfs  Bank,  a  line  work 
by  Sir  (;.  C.  Scott.  There  is  also  a  library  of  80,000 
volumes,  founded  by  Priestley  in  1768.  Among 
charitable  institutions  may  be  menlioned  the 
I)is]icnsary  ;  Hospital  for  Women  :ind  Children  ; 
Tradesman's  Benev(dent  Society  ;  Industrial 
Scliocds  ;  Convalescent  Home:  a  handsome  work- 
house; the  Ueformatory  at  .\del,  where  about 
sixty  juvenile  criminal  arc  usefully  em|doyed  in 
agricultural  ami  other  occupations.  Leeds  has  also 
a"l!oyal  Exchange,  which  was  opened  in  1875,  a 
Stock  Exchange,  two  general  markets  —  one  of 
which  is  a  handsome  structure  of  iron  and  gla.ss— a 
new  cattle-market,  white  cloth  hall,  three  terminal 
railway  stations  giving  access  to  seven  railway 
companies,  eleven  lianks,  and  four  theatres.  The 
ohl  colonred-cloth  hall  was  pulled  ilown  in  1889. 
ThcYorkshireCidlege.  an  impoi  lant  centre  of  higher 
education  established  in  1874,  has  now  nearly  forty 
professors  and  instructors  in  its  two  dei>arlmcnts 
of  science,  techimlogy,  aiul  arts  ami  of  meilicine ; 
it  is  alliliated  to  the  Victoria  Cnivcrsity.  A  large 
and  imposing  jiile  of  (Jothic  buildings  was  devoted 
to  its  use  in  188r>;  the  new  School  of  Medicine, 
opened  in  1894,  cost  flO.IMIO.  Some  sixty  Board 
schools,  accommodating  6."), 0110  children,  have  been 
erected  since  1870,  iiu-lmling  the  Central  Higher 
Crade  School  for  20(M)  scholars,  opened  in  1889, 
and  the  Southern  lligher  (Ji.ole  School.  A  com- 
plete system  of  tranr lines  radiates  from  tin-  centre 
of  the  'town  to  all  the  outlying  snbmbs,  electricity 
(on  the  trolley  system)  being  the  motive-power. 
Kirk.stall  Abbey  ('(.v)  is  about  :{  ndles  from  Leeds. 
Binindhay  Park,  ."?  miles  from  Leeds,  was  bougbl 
by  the  corporation  in  1872,  at  a  cost  of  £140,IK)0, 
aiul   converted  into   a   recreation  ground  for   the 


LEEDS 


LEEUWENHOEK 


559 


use  of  tlie  ]inblic.  Adel  t'huicli,  about  4  miles 
from  r.ei'ils.  \v;i,s  erected  11-10.  Near  it  liave  been 
found  remains  of  a  Itoman  station.  I'oii.  (ISol) 
172, 270  :  ( ISSI  )  309, 112  ;  (  KS9I )  liop.  of  borou^rli— 
since  1888  a  '  county  borough  ' — :ili7,505.  Since  1893 
the  mayor  is  styled  Lord  Mayor. 

Amongst  Leeds  wortliies  are  Dean  Hook  (q.v.), 
who  wajs  vicar  of  I,eeds;  Priestley,  theologian  and 
cliemist ;  Cope  anil  Kliodes,  the  artists  ;  the  Teales, 
physicians,  ic.  ;  besides  the  Uecketts,  the  Raines's, 
the  (Jotts.  tlie  Fairbairns,  the  Denisons,  the  Kit 
sous,  and  other  prominent  families,  which  have  been 
closely  identilied  with  the  interests  of  the  town, 
and  whose  memlters  liave  been  noted  for  their 
public  spirit  and  philanthropy.  Among  the  books 
on  Leeds  may  be  mentioned  lt,ilph  Thoresby's 
Difdttas  Lco(/it:it6'i.s,  or  To/to(/nt/j/ti/  of  Old  Leeds 
(1713);  Haines's  Historic  Sketch  of  Leeds  (1822); 
and  Jackson's  Guide  to  Leeds  ( 1889). 

Leed.s,  Tho.m.vs  O.sborne,  Dike  of,  better 
known  in  history  as  Earl  of  Danby,  English  states- 
man, was  the  son  of  a  Yorksliire  baronet,  and 
was  born  in  1631.  He  entered  parliament  for 
York  in  1661  as  a  warm  supporter  of  the  king  and 
of  the  Established  Clinrch.  He  first  held  office  in 
1667  as  an  auditor  of  the  Treasury  ;  after  that  his 
|iromotion  was  ra]iid  :  in  1671  he  was  appointe<l 
Treasurer  of  the  Navy,  in  1673  Viscount  Latimer 
and  Baron  Dauby,  and  in  167-t  Lord  High  Treas- 
urer and  Earl  of  Danby.  He  endeavoured  to 
enforce  the  laws  against  Roman  Catholics  and 
Dissentei's  ;  and,  though  be  disliked  French  aggres- 
sion, and  so  far  favoured  the  Dutch  party  that 
he  effectively  used  his  intluence  to  get  Princess 
Mary  married  to  'William  of  Orange  in  1677,  he 
lent  himself  to  be  the  agent  of  Charles,  and  on  his 
behalf  negotiated  with  Louis  XIV.  for  bribes  to  the 
English  king.  Louis,  however,  intrigued  success- 
fullyfor  Danby'sdownfall:  the  Commons  impeached 
hiiu  in  1678  on  si.x  different  counts,  the  chief  of 
which  weie  treating  traitorously  with  foreign  powers 
without  the  con.sent  of  council,  aiming  at  the  in- 
troduction of  arliitrary  power,  and  squandering 
public  money.  He  was  not  brought  to  tiial,  but 
kept  in  the  Tower  until  1683,  juthough  Charles 
gave  him  at  once  a  full  pardon.  This  the  Com- 
mons refused  to  recognise,  and,  in  spite  of  a  dissolu- 
tion, still  persisted  in  the  impeachment.  Danby 
is  chielly  remembered  in  history  for  the  part  he 
jdayed  at  the  revolution  of  1688.  When  James 
began  to  threaten  the  Established  Church  Danby 
returned  to  active  political  life.  He  signed  the 
invitation  to  William  of  Orange  and  secured  York 
for  him.  His  reward  was  a  rise  in  rank  from  earl 
to  marquis  (of  Carmarthen )  and  the  presidency  of 
the  council,  virtually  the  chief  |dace  in  the  govern- 
ment. Hut  he  again  bribed  as  he  had  done  ihiring 
his  lirst  administration,  and  pr.'ictised  the  same  un- 
scrupulous method.s  of  government.  He  was  createil 
Duke  of  Leeds  in  1694.  15ut  in  1695  he  was  im- 
pejvched  a  second  time,  for  having  himself  accepted 
oOtK)  guineius  from  the  East  India  Comiiany  iis  the 
])rice  of  liis  influence  in  .securing  an  i-xtension  of 
their  chartered  privileges.  He  again  managed  to 
stave  off  condemnation  ;  but  his  power  Wiis  now 
virtually  gone,  and  in  !\Iay  1699  he  hnally  retired. 
After  tliat  his  jirincipal  public  appcanuice  Wiis  to 
speak  in  defence  of  Sacheverell  in  1710,  when  he 
stnltifieil  himself  by  condemning  the  iirinciple  of 
the  revolution.  He  died  at  Easton,  in  Xortliamj)- 
tonshire,  on  26th  July  1712.  See  Life  bv  T.  P. 
Courtenay  (18.38). 

Leek  (Allium  Porrum  of  some ;  see  Allium),  a 
biennial  plant,  believed  now  by  many  of  the  best 
authorities  to  be  a  cultivated  variety  of  the  liritish 
s^iecies  Allium  Auipeloprasum,  a  well-known 
biennial  »j>ecie8  of  the  Onion  family,  much  esteemed 


for  culinary  purposes.  In  gardens  much  attention 
is  given  to  its  cultivation.  The  more  liberal  the 
culture  the  more  delicate  and  tender  is  the  jiroduce  ; 
therefore  it  is  generally  grown  in  trenches,  which 
have  a  liberal  supply  of  manure  dug  into  them  in 
the  same  way  as  celery.  The  stems  are  blanched 
by  earthing  up,  which  increases  their  delicacy. 
Scotland  is  famous  for  the  spleiulid  (|uality  of  its 
leeks,  and  Musselburgh  is  the  centri'  in  which 
the  most  ajiproved  kinds  are  grown  for  seed-saving. 
Seeds  grown  there  have  a  special  commercial 
\alue,  which  is  due  entirely  to  care,  year  after 
year,  in  selecting  only  the  best  types  for  the 
purpose  of  seed-saving.  St  David,  patron  saint  ol 
Wales,  is  credited  with  having  advised  the  Britcms. 
on  the  eve  of  a  battle  with  the  Sa.xons,  to  wear 
leeks  in  their  caps,  so  as  easily  to  distinguish 
friends  from  foes,  and  thus  to  have  helped  to 
secure  a  great  victory.  Hence  the  Welsh  custom 
of  wearing  leeks  in  their  hats  on  St  David's  Day. 
See  Shakespeare's  Heiiri/  I'. 

Leek,  a  manufacturing  and  market  town  of 
Staffordshire,  on  the  Churnet,  13A  nules  SSE.  of 
Maccleslield,  and  24  NNE.  of  Stafford.  The  parish 
church,  dating  from  IISO,  but  mainly  Decorated  in 
style,  was  restored  by  Street  in  1867-75.  There  are 
also  a  grammar-school  (1723),  a  cottage-hospital 
(1870),  and,  \h  mile  distant,  the  ruined  Cistercian 
abbey  (1214)  ()f  Dieulacres  (De  la  Croix).  Leek 
manufactures  sewing  and  embroidery  silks,  and  is 
the  chief  English  centre  for  dyeing  silk  (see  Silk). 
The  Nicholson  Institute  comprises  a  Free  Library, 
and  Art  School,  \-c.  Pop.  (1851)  1877;  (1S9'|) 
12,760.  See  Sleigh's  Hisfon/  of  Leek  (2d  ed.  1884), 
M.  H.  Miller,  Old  Lee/ce  (  Leek.  1891 ). 

Leer,  a  commercial  town  and  port  on  the  Leda 
iu?ar  where  it  enters  the  Ems,  in  the  Prussian  pro- 
vince of  East  Friesland,  32  miles  N  W.  of  Oldenburg. 
Pop.  10,.399. 

Leet.  The  court  leet,  in  England,  was  a  court 
of  a  manor,  townshiji,  iSrc.  for  election  of  certain 
officers  and  trial  of  minor  offences.  The  import- 
ance of  these  courts  is  now  very  sm.ill,  but  there 
are  manors,  \-c.  w  here  they  are  regularly  held. 

Leeiiwardeil.  capital  of  the  Dutch  jirovince  of 
Friesland,  stands  on  the  Harlingen  and  Croningen 
Canal,  113  miles  by  rail  NNE.  of  Ctrecht.  It 
contains  handsome  law-courts  and  town-hall,  has 
an  ancient  palace  of  the  Princes  of  Orange,  a 
library  with  valuable  archives,  and  a  dozen 
churches.  Linen  fabrics,  mirrors,  pianofortes,  and 
w.agons  are  manufactured.  Leeuwanlen  is  one 
of  the  largest  fruit  and  cattle  markets  in  Holland, 
and  does  considerable  trade  in  agricultural  produce, 
groceries,  wine,  and  brandy.  Pop.  (1873)  27,108; 
( 1896)  31,398.  In  the  13tli  century  it  was  situated 
on  an  arm  of  the  sea,  which  subsequently  samled 
up.  See  Ha\ard,  Dead  Cities  of  the  Zuydcr  Zee 
(1876). 

Leeiiweiilioek.  .Xxtox  van,  one  of  the  most 
successful  pioneer  mieroscopists.  was  born  at  Delft 
on  24tli  October  1632,  enthusiastically  ]iursued 
microsco]iic  work  with  self-made  instruments  in 
1634,  ma<le  many  important  discoveries,  ;ind  ilicd 
at  Delft  on  27th  August  1723.  Hi'  supplemented 
Harvey's  discovery  of  the  circulation  of  the  blooil 
by  tracing  the  caijillarii's  in  the  frog's  foot,  defined 
the  red  blood-corpuscles  of  \'ertebrates,  was  the 
lirst  to  notice  definitely  what  arc  now  called  uni- 
cellular organisms,  ami  corroborate<l,  though  with 
erroneous  interpretation,  the  discovery  of  male 
elements  or  spermatozoa  by  his  stmlent  Liidwig 
Hainm.  His  investigations  of  minute  structure 
led  him  to  detect  the  fibres  of  the  lens,  the  fibrils 
anil  striping  of  muscle,  the  structure  of  ivory  and 
hair,  the  scales  of  the  epidermis,  the  distinctive 
characters  of  Kotifers,  and  many  interesting  histo- 


560 


LEEUWIN 


LEG 


logical  facts  in  regard  to  insects.  Much  of  his  time 
and  attention  was  given  to  a  long  series  of  investiga- 
tions into  spontaneous  generation,  of  whicli  tlieory 
he  was  a  decided  opiwnent.  In  the  course  of  these 
studies  he  ascertained  and  i)roveil.  amongst  other 
results,  that  oak-galls  are  primarily  caused  hy  tlie 
ilevelopment  of  an  insect's  egg  deiiositeil  in  the  bark  ; 
that  weevils  are  hatched,  not  frum  wheat,  but  from 
an  insect's  eggs  deposited  in  wheat ;  that  the  Ilea  is 
jiropagated  in  a  similar  manner  to  other  insects, 
not  originated  from  (hist,  or  sand,  ur  tlie  dung  of 
pigeons,  as  was  commonly  believed  ;  that  Apliides 
;ire  viviparous  -,  that  ei-ls,  instead  of  being  produced 
from  dew,  are  likewise  viviparous  ;  and  that 
mussels  are  not  generated  from  mud  or  sand,  but 
from  spawn.  He  also  extended  his  inquiries  to  the 
growth  of  trees,  and  showed  the  ditl'erences  that 
exist  in  tlie  structure  of  the  stem  of  monocotyledons 
and  dicotyledons.  The  greater  part  of  his  dis- 
coveries and  investigations  were  described  in  papers 
(112)  contributed  to  the  Philosujiliii-nl  Tntiisnctidns 
of  the  Koyal  Society  aud  jjapers  ( '2t) )  printed  in  the 
Memoirs  of  the  Paris  Academy  of  Sciences,  of  both 
which  bodies  Leeuwenhoek  was  a  member.  The 
most  complete  collection  of  his  Works  appeared  at 
Leydeu  in  4  vols,  in  1719-22.  A  selection  of  these 
was  translated  into  English  by  S.  Hoole  (2  vols. 
Loud.  1798-lSUl).  See  the  "Life  in  Dutch  by 
Uaaxmau  (Leydeu,  1875). 

Leeiiwill,  Cape,  the  south-west  corner  of 
Australia,  notable  on  account  of  the  tempestuous 
weather  usually  encountered  there. 

Leeward  Islands.  See  Antigua,  AVest 
Indie.s. 

Lcfebvre,  Francois  Joseph,  Duke  of  Danzig 
and  Marshal  of  France,  was  born  at  Kull'ach,  in 
Alsace,  25th  October  1755.  He  entered  the  army 
at  the  age  of  eighteen,  and  was  a  sergeant  in  the 
French  Guards  when  the  Kevolution  broke  out. 
He  was  engaged  for  some  time  on  the  Moselle  and 
Hhine,  fought  at  Fleurns,  Altenkirchen,  and  Stock- 
ach,  and  rose  in  rank  with  wonderful  rapidity.  In 
1799  lie  took  part  with  IJonaparte  in  the  overthrow 
of  the  Directory,  and  in  1SU4  was  made  a  Mar- 
shal of  the  Empire.  He  also  conducted  the  siege 
of  Danzig,  and  after  its  capture  was  created  Duke 
of  Danzig.  He  distinguished  himself  in  the  early 
part  of  the  Peninsular  war,  aud  suppressed  the 
insurrection  in  the  Tyrol.  During  the  Russian 
campaign  he  had  the  command  of  the  Imperial 
Guard,  and  in  ISU  of  the  left  wing  of  the  army 
which  resisted  the  advance  of  the  allies  in  France. 
Subnutting  to  the  liourbons  after  Napoleon's  abdi- 
cation, he  was  niadt'  a  peer,  a  dignity  restored  to 
him  in  1819,  though  lie  had  sided  with  his  old 
master  during  the  Hundred  Days.  He  died  in 
Paris,  1  Ith  September  1820. 

Leilio.sia.    See  Nicosia. 

Lcfort,  Fkanoois  Jacob,  favourite  of  Peter 
the  Great,  was  born  at  Geneva  in  1653,  being 
descended  from  a  family  of  Scottish  extraction 
which  had  settled  in  Piedmont,  afterwards  ( 1585) 
in  Switzerland.  He  served  for  a  time  with  the 
Swi.s3  Guard  at  Paris;  but  went  to  Kus^-ia  in  1075, 
and  attracted  the  notice  of  Prince  Galizyn,  who 
made  him  a  commander  of  the  new  troops  raised  to 
counteract  the  inlluence  of  the  'strelitzes'  or  old 
militia.  Having  taken  a  leading  jiart  in  the 
intrigues  which  made  Peter  sole  ruler  after  the 
death  of  his  brother  Ivan,  Lefort  was  advanced  to 
to  be  first  favouriti:  of  the  czar,  and  next  to  him 
the  most  important  personage  in  Kussia.  .\  man 
of  great  ability,  Lefort  hacked  up  Peter  in  his 
projects  of  reform,  remodelled  the  army  and  laid 
the  foundation  of  the  navy,  and  in  l(>!t4  was  made 
admir.'il  and  generalissimo.  When  Peter  umler- 
took  his  visit  to  foreign  countries  in  1097  Lefort 


was  made  chief  of  the  embassy  in  the  train  of 
wliicli  the  czar  travelled  incognito.  He  died  12th 
March  1699.  See  Lives  (in  German)  by  Posselt 
(1866)  and  Blum  (1867). 

Left-handed.  See  Rioht  -  handedness; 
BltAiN,  Vol.  11.  pp.  391,  392. 

Leg.  the  lower  limb,  or,  in  the  usage  of  anato- 
mists, that  part  of  the  lower  extremity  which  lies 
between  the  knee  and  the  ankle.  It  consists  of 
two  bones,  the  Tibia  and  Fibula  (see  SKELETON, 
Foot),  and  of  masses  of  muscles  (together  with 
nerves  and  vessels)  which  are  held  in  jiosition  by 
coverings  of  fascia,  and  are  enveloped  in  the  general 
integument.  The  shaft  of  the  tibia  is  of  a  triangular 
prismoid  form,  and  presents  tlirce  surfaces  and  three 
borders.  The  internal  surface  is  smooth,  convex, 
and  broader  above  than  below  ;  except  at  its  upper 
third,  it  lies  directly  under  the  skin,  and  may  be 
readily  traced  by  the  hand.  The  external  and  the 
posterior  surfaces  are  covered  by  numiTous  muscles. 
The  muscular  ma-ss  forming  the  calf  (formed  by 
the  fiaAtrocnemius,  salens,  and  p/antitris  muscles)  is 
peculiar  to  man,  and  is  directly  connected  with 
his  erect  attitude  and  his  ordinary  mode  of  pro- 
gression. The  anterior  border  of  tin?  tibia,  the 
most  prominent  of  the  three,  is  po]iularly  known 
as  t/n:  sltiii,  and  may  be  traced  down  to  the  inner 
ankle.  The  libula.  or  small  bono  of  the  leg,  lies  on 
the  outer  surface  of  the  tibia,  and  articulates  with 
its  upper  and  lower  extremities,  and  with  the  astra- 
galus inferiorly.  It  atl'ords  attachments  to  manj' 
of  the  muscles  of  this  region. 

This  region  is  nourished  by  the  anterior  .and  pos- 
terior tibial  arteries  into  which  the  |ioplitcal  artery 
divides.  Both  these  arteries  occasionally  renuiie 
to  be  lied  by  the  surgeon  in  cases  of  wounds  or 
aneurism.  The  blood  is  returned  towards  the  heart 
by  two  sets  of  veins — the  deep,  which  accompany 
the  arteries,  and  the  superticial,  which  are  known 
as  the  internal  or  long  saphenous,  and  the  external 
or  short  saphenous  veins.  These  superficial  veins 
are  very  liable  to  become  permanently  dilated  or 
varicose  (see  Varicose  Veins),  if  there  is  any 
impediment  to  the  free  transmission  of  the  blood, 
or  even  from  the  mere  weight  of  the  ascending 
column  of  blood,  in  persons  whose  occupation 
requires  continuous  standing.  The  iier\'es  of  the 
leg,  both  sensory  and  motor,  arc  derived  from  the 
great  sciatic  ner\  e  and  from  its  terminal  branches, 
the  internal  popliteal  and  the  external  popliteal  or 
peroneal  ner\e. 

In  eases  of  fracture  or  bruhoi  hij  the  two  bones 
are  more  frequently  broken  together  than  .singly, 
and  the  most  common  situation  is  at  the  lower 
third.  AVIiat  is  known  as  Pott's  fracture  consists 
of  fracture  through  the  lower  third  of  the  libula, 
with  fracture  of  the  projecting  lower  end  of  the 
tibia. 

Ulceration  of  the  leg  is  a  frequent  consequence 
of  varicose  veins,  and  the  very  condition  wliicli 
causes  the  veins  to  dilate  (continuous  standing)  is 
an  etl'ectnal  preventative  of  the  healing  jirocess,  to 
ensure  which  complete  rest,  with  the  leg  raised  so 
as  to  assist  the  return  of  the  blood,  is  neces.sary. 

Bandy,  or  bow,  leg  is  a  condition  which  may 
a]i|iear  as  the  result  of  muscular  contraction  before 
a  child  has  been  placed  on  its  feet.  In  .such  a  cjuie 
the  natural  curve  of  the  tibia  is  merely  exaggerated. 
It  is  associated  with  Rickets  (i.e.  a  deliciency  of 
lime  salts),  in  which  the  child  li.as  the  habit  of 
sitting  tailor-wise,  and  thus  bending  the  tibia 
forwards  and  outwards  in  its  lower  (liiid.  Some- 
limes  one  leg  is  bandy  and  the  other  in  kneed. 
This  is  produced  in  a. soft-boned  child  by  the  mother 
or  nurse  always  carrying  the  child  upon  the  .xame 
arm  and  using  the  other  arm  to  clasp  the  child's 
legs  across  the  front  of  her  body.    See  I'oor,  Knee, 


LEGACY 


LEGEND 


561 


HiPJoiNT,  Clubfoot,  Achilles  Tesdon,  &c.  ; 
also  Ami-utatiox,  Artikicial  Limbs. 

Lesacv  i*  "■  lH'i|uest  or  gift  of  pei-sonal  property 
by  will.  Ill  EnglanJ  it  is  provided  by  the  Wills 
Act  of  1837  that  if  a  legacy  is  given  to  the  wit- 
ness of  a  will,  or  to  his  or  her  wife  or  husband, 
the  legacy  is  void  ;  also  becpiests  to  supei-stitious 
uses  are  "void,  as,  for  exanipU^  to  maintain  a 
priest,  or  an  anniversary  or  obit,  or  a  lamp  in  a 
cliurcli,  or  to  say  masses  for  the  testator's  soul, 
or  to  circulate  pamphlets  inculcating  the  pope's 
supremacy.  Legacies  of  money  for  charitable 
pur|)oses,  as  for  the  use  of  scliools,  chuiihcs,  v^c. , 
are  valid,  but  if  tlie  money  is  directed  to  be  laid 
out  in  the  purchase  of  Ian<l  for  such  purposes  the 
legacv  is  void  by  what  is  called  the  Mortmain  Acts 
(amended  and  consolidated  by  the  Mortmain  and 
Charitable  Uses  Act,  1888).  Certain  favoured  in- 
stitutions and  charities  are  exempted  from  the 
operation  of  these  acts. 

Legacies  are  divided  into  specific,  general,  de- 
monstrative, and  cnmulntive.  A  sperific  legacy 
means  a  legacy  of  a  delinite  thing,  as  a  particular 
liorse,  picture,  silver-plate,  v*tc.,  or  a  sum  of  stock 
in  the  funds.  A  general  legacy  means  a  sum  of 
money,  without  it  being  stated  out  of  what  fund 
it  is  to  come,  and  it  is  payable  out  of  the  assets 
generally.  The  important  difference  between  these 
two  kinds  of  legacy  is  this,  that  if  the  subject- 
matter  of  the  speciHc  legacy  fail,  as  if  the  horse  die 
or  be  previously  sold,  &c.  (adem])tion),  the  legacy 
is  gone,  and  no  compensation  is  given  for  it  after 
payment  of  the  testator's  debts.  But  legacies  given 
for  valuable  consideration  do  not  sutTer  abatement ; 
while,  on  the  other  hand,  if  there  is  not  enough 
to  pay  all  the  general  legacies,  then  they  must 
abate-^i.e.  share  the  loss — whereas  the  specilic 
legacy,  if  it  e.\ist,  must  still  be  paid  in  full.  A 
demonstrative  is  something  like  a  general  legacy, 
but  a  particular  fund  is  named  from  which  it  is  to 
be  satislied.  It  is  not  liable  to  ademption  by  any 
act  of  tlie  testator,  nor  Ls  it  liable  to  abatement 
with  general  legacies  as  long  as  it  does  not  e.xceed 
the  fund  from  which  it  Ls  to  be  paid.  A  cumulative 
or  substitutional  Ls  a  second  legacy  given  to  the  same 
person,  ami  the  question  for  settlement  in  that 
case  is  whether  the  later  gift  is  in  addition  to  or  in 
place  of  the  first.  A  legacy  is  not  payable  by  the 
executor  till  a  year  has  elapsed  after  tlie  testator's 
death,  for  it  is  presumed  he  requires  this  time  to 
inquire  into  the  state  of  the  property  ;  and  tliLs  is 
true  even  tliougli  the  testator  has  ordered  the 
legacy  to  be  paid  within  six  months  after  the 
death.  If  a  legacy  is  left  to  an  infant  under 
twenty-one  it  cannot  be  paid  to  the  father  or  any 
other  relative  without  the  sanction  of  the  Court  of 
Chancery.  Formerly,  if  a  legacy  was  left  to  a 
married  woman  the  hu.sband  was  entitled  to  claim 
it,  unless  it  was  left  to  her  separate  use,  or  unle.ss 
she  was  unprovided  for  by  the  husband  ;  but  now  in 
all  cases  the  wife  gets  for  her  separate  use  all  pro- 
perty coming  to  her.  Interest  is  due  on  legacies 
from  the  time  when  the  principal  sum  is  payable — 
i.e.  one  year  after  the  death — unle.ss  otherwise 
snecilieil.  If  the  legatee  die  before  the  testator 
tlie  legacy  lapses — Le.  becomes  void  ;  hut  there  are 
some  exceptions,  a-s  wliere  tlie  legatee  is  a  child  or 
grandchild  of  the  testator.  A  legacy  to  a  creditor, 
if  equal  to  or  greater  than  the  debt,  Ls  presumeil  to 
be  in  satLsfaction  thereof.  If  the  estate  from  wliicli 
a  legacy  is  claiiue<l  do  not  exceed  £50(),  an  action 
to  compel  payment  may  be  brought  in  the  county 
court.  The  person  to  whom  the  remainder  of  the 
property  is  left  after  all  claims  are  di.scharged  is 
called  the  residuary  legatee. —  In  Scotland  the 
rules  as  to  legacies  are  mainlv  the  same,  but  a 
verbal  legacy  up  to  £100  Scots  (£8,  6s.  8d.)  L*  valid. 
In  Scotland  a  legacv  can  be  enforced  in  six  months 
2W. 


after  the  testator's  death,  and  bears  interest  at  5 
per  cent,  from  such  death.  If  a  legacy  is  left  to  a 
married  woman,  the  property  in  it  vests  in  her; 
she  can  enjoy  the  income,  but  cannot  dispose  of 
the  corpus  without  the  concurrence  of  her  hus- 
band. 

In  the  United  Kingdom,  where  the  whole  per- 
sonal estate  is  under  £100  there  is  no  legacy  duty, 
and  for  under  £300  the  fixed  inventory  duty  of 
.SOs.  '  is  deemed  to  be  a  full  satisfaction  of  any 
claim  to  legacy  duty. '  In  other  cases  the  rate  is 
inversely  as  the  degree  of  relationship.  The  bus- 
baiicl  or  wife  of  the  testator  pays  no  duty  ;  the  child 
or  lineal  descendant,  a  parent  or  lineal  ancestor, 
pays  1  per  cent.  ;  a  brother  or  sister,  or  their 
descendants,  3  per  cent.  :  othei-s,  in  priqiortion  to 
their  remoteness,  5  and  6  and  10  per  cent.  The 
last  is  in  all  cases  the  maximum  rate.  The  royal 
family  are  exempt  from  legacy  duty.  See  Jarman 
on  Wills,  and  ^Villiams  on  Executors. 

Legal  Fiction.    See  Fiction. 

Legal  Tender.    See  Tender. 

Legate,  the  name  of  the  ambassador  or  repre- 
sentative, whether  temporar^•  or  permanent,  sent  by 
the  pope  to  a  particular  church.  In  the  later  con- 
stitution of  the  church  three  classes  of  legates  are 
distinguished  :  ( 1 )  Legati  a  latere,  '  legates  de- 
spatched from  the  side '  of  the  pontitT,  who  are 
commonly  cardinals ;  (2)  Legati  missi,  called  also 
'apostolic  nuncios,'  and  including  a  lower  giade 
called  'internuncios;'  (3)  Legati  nnti,  'legates 
born,'  whose  office  is  not  personal,  but  is  attached 
bv  ancient  institution  or  usage  to  the  see  or  other 
ecclesiastical  dignity  v.hich  they  hohl.  Of  the  last 
class  there  were  examples  in  most  national  churches ; 
thus,  the  Bishop  of  Thessalonica  was  legate  born  for 
lllyricum,  the  Bishop  of  Aries  for  Gaul,  the  Bishop 
of  Mainz  for  Germany,  the  Bishop  of  Toledo  ( thouwh 
his  claim  was  often  disputed)  for  Spain,  the  Arcli- 
bishop  of  Canterbury  for  England,  &C.  ThLs  insti- 
tution, however,  has  gone  entirely  into  abeyance  ; 
and,  indeed,  the  authority  of  legates  is  nuicli  modified 
in  tlie  modern  church.  In  the  medieval  times  the 
legate  claimed  full  papal  jurisdiction  in  the  country 
assigneil  to  him,  even  overruling  the  local  jurisdic- 
tion of  the  bishops  of  the  national  church.  This 
led  to  many  disputes  ;  to  refusals  to  receive  legates, 
;is  in  France,  where  the  legate  was  obliged  to  wait 
at  Lyons  till  his  credentials  should  have  been  ex- 
amined and  approved  at  court ;  and  to  counter  legis 
lation,  as  in  England  to  the  statute  of  16  Richard 
II.,  commonly  known  as  the  Statute  of  Premunire. 
The  Council"  of  Trent  removed  the  ground  of 
contention  by  abolLshing  all  such  claims  to  local 
jurisdiction  as  trenched  upon  the  authority  of  the 
bishop.s.  The  legate,  in  the  modern  church,  is  little 
other  than  the  ambassador,  mainly  for  spiritual 
purposes,  of  the  pope.  He  is  hehl  as  belonging  to 
the  dii)lomatic  body,  and  by  the  usage  of  Catholic 
courts  enjoys  precedence  of  all  other  ambassadors. 
The  legates  at  the  more  important  courts  have  the 
title  of  nuncio,  at  minor  courts  of  internuncio. 
In  1800  there  were  apostolic  nuncios  at  Vienna, 
Munich,  .Mailrid,  Paris,  Lisluui  ;  internuncios  at 
the  Hague  and  Rio  Janeiro,  and  an  apostolic 
delegate  at  t^uito.  In  the  States  of  the  Church 
(q.v.)  the  governors  of  the  Legations  were  called 
legates. 

Legato  ( Ital.,  'tied'),  in  Music,  means  that  the 
pa.ssage  is  to  be  performed  in  a  smooth  manner, 
the  notes  being  played  as  if  Imund  or  tied  together, 
or  in  such  a  manner  that  the  one  note  is  as  it  were 
rouniled  oil',  or  Hows  into  the  fidlowing  one. 

Legend,  a  name  somewhat  loosely  ajiplied  on 
the  one  hanil  to  the  creations  of  mythology,  ami  on 
the  other  to  the  more  or  less  historical  accretions 
that  ever  tend  to  grow  around  the  names  of  heroes 


562 


LEGENDRE 


LEGHORN 


who  impress  the  popular  imagination.  Interesting 
examples  of  entirely  baseless  le<;enils  in  their  turn 
hecoining  historical  may  he  seen  under  the  names 
Pope  Joan  ami  Williaiii  Tell.  It  is  ever  the  fate 
of  a  great  name  to  he  enshrined  in  falde,  and  this 
fact  all'ordod  a  l>a.sis  for  Strauss  in  his  lamous  , 
attempt  to  reconstruct  the  history  of  Christianity. 
The  term  legend  was  early  ajiplied  to  those  religious 
traditions  which,  in  the  earlv  ilays  of  Clirlstianity. 
clustered  round  the  gospel  history  :  this  tendency 
to  mythic  emhellishment  having  further  showed 
itself  in  connection  with  the  later  saints  and 
martyrs.  This  curious  practice  of  interweaving 
truth  with  fahle  no  ilouht  arose  from  a  credulous 
love  of  the  wonderful,  an  exaggeraticm  of  fancy, 
and  an  ecclesiastical  enthusiasm,  at  times  even 
pious  fraud  helping  to  <lisseniinate  such  embellished 
and  unreliable  narratives.  But,  intermixed  with 
falsehood  as  these  so-called  legemlary  tales  were, 
they  gradually  crei)t  into  the  Eastern  and  Western 
Churches,  and  in  the  course  of  centuries  gained 
an  entrance  into  the  national  literature  of  Christian 
nations.  Already  the  same  process  had  made  the 
Talniml  the  strange  medley  of  sense  and  nonsense 
that  it  is.  It  should  be  added  that,  in  the  Koman 
Catholic  Church,  the  lives  of  saints  and  martyrs 
were  commonly  known  as  Icr/rndi,  because  chapters 
were  to  be  read  (/lyeiidit)  'out  of  them  at  matins 
and  in  the  refectories  of  the  religicuis  houses.  One 
of  the  best-known  medieval  i-ollections  is  that 
known  as  the  tJolden  Legend  (ii.v.).  Capgrave's 
Lcf/enda  Aiiglitr,  printed  by  Caxtou  in  the  15th 
century,  was  a  kind  of  precursor  of  the  monumental 
Acta  Hancturum  of  the  Bollandists  ((|.v.). 

See  the  articles  FoLKLOUE  and  SIVTHOLOGY.  An 
admirable  discussion  of  the  ancient  Greek  heroic  legends 
and  their  relation  to  mythology  will  be  found  in  the  first 
volume  of  Grote's  lii.stury. 

Loaciulre.  .'\di:if,S  M.\1!IE,  a  very  disliii- 
guisheil  mathematician,  was  born  at  Toulouse  in 
175'.>.  After  studying  at  the  College  Mazarin  in 
Paris  he  gained  the  attention  of  D'Alembert,  ami 
through  him  was  aiil)ointed  i)rofessor  of  Mathe- 
matics at  the  Military  School.  After  several  jiroofs 
that  he  had  mastered  the  modern  analysis,  and 
especially  on  account  of  his  memoir  on  the  attrac- 
tion of  spheroids  of  revolution,  Legendre  was  in 
1783  chosen  member  of  the  .Academy  of  Sciences. 
Appointed  in  17H7  one  of  the  commissioners  to  con- 
nect (;reenwich  and  I'aris  by  triangulation,  he  was 
chosen  member  of  the  lioyal  Society  of  Loiulon. 
In  his  rejiort  Legendre  gave  the  lirst  enunciation  of 
the  '  proposition  of  spherical  excess,'  now  con.sidered 
an  essential  theorem  of  trigonometry,  just  ;vs  in 
180()  he  gave  out  the  lirst  proposal  to  use  the 
'method  of  least  .sijuares'  in  las  ^ouvelks MHhoden 
pour  hi  DHeriniiuttivn  r/rx  Orhilca  tics  Cotnt'te.s. 
Under  the  empire  Legendre  was  aiipointed  hoimrary 
member  of  council  for  life,  and  member  of  the 
Commission  of  I'uldic  Instruction,  having  already 
been  ajijiointed  to  the  llureau  iles  Longitudes  ami 
examiner  at  the  INdytechnic.  In  18'27  api)e,-ir(Ml 
his  'J'niilr  (/rs  FniirlioH.s  Ellljiti<jues,  a  suhje<>t 
with  which  his  name  must  remain  permanently 
associated.  He  wrote  several  other  mathemalic;(l 
treatises,  some  of  the  highest  importance.  His 
Thiorie  des  Nnmhres  (18;«))  is  still  a  classical  work 
and  evinces  much  original  power.  His  best  known 
book  is  his  Elrmnttx  dc  (U'omHric  (1794),  which 
has  been  translated  into  many  languages— by 
Thomas  Carlyle  into  Knglish  ( 1824 ).  It  is  probably 
due  to  an  attempt  to  supersede  Eucli<l  as  a  text- 
book ;  and  if  so  it  is  one  of  the  most  successful. 
Legendre  died  in  Paris  on  lOtli  January  IS.'JS. 

L«';ilJ<'.  James,  an  eminent  Chinese  scholar,  was 
born  at  lluntly  in  Aberdeenshire  in  181.'),  and  was 
educated  at  King's  College,  Aberdeen,  where  he 


graduated  in  1835.  He  passed  afterwards  to  High- 
bury Theological  College,  London,  ami  went 
out' to  Malacca,  arriving  in  Decendier  1839,  a.s  a 
missionary  to  the  Chinese  in  connection  with  the 
London  Missionary  Society.  For  some  time  he  took 
charge  of  l)r  K.  Alorrison's  Anglo-Chinese  college 
there;  next  laboured  fin-  thirty  years  at  Hong- 
k(mg;  and  Wiis  appointed  in  1.S7(J  to  the  newly- 
fou!ided  chair  of  the  Chinese  Language  and  Litera- 
ture at  Oxford  with  a  Corpus  Christi  fellowship. 
His  gieatest  works  have  been  his  editions  of 
C/iincac  Classics  and  books  about  Confucius  and 
Jlencius  (18()-2-93).  The  Confucian  texts  and 
Taoist  texts  form  six  vols,  in  the  Sacred  BooLs  of  the 
East.  A  Life  of  Confucius,  the  works  of  Mencius, 
ami  the  Shc-Kin(j  are  separate  publications.  He 
published  also  a  series  of  lectures  on  'llic  licliiiiuns 
iifC/iitia  (1880),  and  wrote  many  important  articles 
on  Chinese  matters,  including  tlie  arliides  on  China, 
Confucius,  Lao-Tsze,  Mencius,  the  Taii>ings,  &c. 
in  this  work.  He  received  the  degree  of  D.D.  from 
New  York  (1841),  and  of  LL.D.  from  Aberdeen 
(187U)  and  Edinburgh  (1884).  Of  the  C/iinese 
C/d-ssu-s  (arranged  in  7  vols.),  a  second  ed.  of  vol.  i. 
appeared  in  1893.     He  died  •29th  November  1897. 

Lr^lioril  (Ital.  I.iriiruo)  runs  Naples  very  close 
for  the  rank  of  seconil  busiest  seaport  of  Italy 
(Genoa  being  the  lirst) :  it  is  situated  on  the  west 
coast,  by  rail  13  miles  8W.  of  Pisa  and  &1  W.  by 
S.  of  Florence.  Its  impmtance  as  a  connnercial 
emporium  dates  from  the  decline  of  I'isa  ;  its  growth 
was  esiiecially  rajiid  after  it  fell  into  the  hands  of 
Florence  in  1421,  for  tlie  Medici  |)rinces  encouraged 
its  ]irosperitv  in  every  way.  Cosimo  1.  declared 
it  a  free  )iort,  the  lirst  in  the  Mediterranean, 
and  invited  forei'Mi  traders  to  settle  there,  and 
there  is  still  a  large  foreign  element  amongst 
its  merchants.  Early  in  the  19th  century  it  wiis 
a  great  depot  for  the  British  trade  with  the 
Lev.-mt,  but  slowly  lost  this  position  aftei  the  3d 
decade,  because  the  British  merchants  began  to  send 
their  goods  to  their  destinations  direct.  Leghorn 
ceased  to  be  a  free  jiort  in  18()8.  At  the  present 
moment  its  foreign  commerce,  which  is  carried  on 
chietly  with  Britain  (Newcastle  and  CarditV), 
France  (Marseilles),  and  the  United  States,  is  le.ss 
in  both  bulk  and  value  than  its  coa-sting  trade, 
and  since  1873  the  former  has  been  decrejusing, 
whilst  the  latter  has  been  incrcasiu'r.  The  foreign 
commeice  was  carried  on  in  1885-95  by  a  total  of 
about  10(10  vessels  per  annum,  entered  and  cleared, 
of  near  .TOO, 000  tons,  whereas  the  home  trade  en- 
gaged tiOOO  vessels  of  '2,000,000  tons.  The  imports, 
principally  spirits,  sugar,  dyeing  materials,  woven 
goods,  corn  and  Hour,  and  macldnery,  may  have 
an  annual  value  of  over  .f2. 000, 000  ;  the  exports, 
embracing  wine,  silk,  marble,  olive-oil,  boracic 
acid,  hemp,  inm,  preserved  fruits,  leather,  coral, 
and  straw-hats  ('Leghorn  hats;'  see  Sth.vW), 
average  £l,,i00,000  annually.  The  harbour  (im- 
proved in  1854-63)  is  an  enclosed  ba-sin,  on 
which  stand  ar.senals  and  shipbuilding  yanls.  One 
yard  employs  1'200  men,  an.l  builils  the  great 
Italian  ironclads.  The  roadsleail  is  |irotecled  by 
an  ;utilicial  breakwater,  built  in  1S.S3,  which  sheltei-s 
vessels  against  .all  winds  excei)t  the  southerly. 
There  is  a  lighthouse  (since  l;i03)  between  the 
harbour  basin  and  this  outer  breakwsiter  ;  and  on 
I  he  shore,  outside  the  harbour,  stands  a  laz.-irelto. 
liesides  shipbuilding,  the  most  important  industry 
is  the  manufactuie  of  coral  ornaments,  by  some 
0001)  women  who  work  in  their  own  homes.  The 
value  of  the  coral  ornaments  exiiorted  has  sunk,  how- 
ever, from  upwards  of  .f3(K),000  per  annum  to  less 
than  half  that  vabu',  in  conseijuence  of  the  fall  in  the 
price  of  coral.  The  houses  of  Leghorn  aic  for  the 
most  part  nn)dern  and  widl  built,  lofty,  ami  roomy; 
the  streets  are  broad  iind  clean  ;  and  there  are  some 


LEGION 


LEGITIM 


563 


fine  squares  wlonied  with  statues  of  tlie  };ranil- 
ilukes  of  Tuseaiiy.  Tlie  iiortli  westcni  iiortion  of 
the  city  is  inteix'cteil  liy  imnieious  canals  ;  henoc 
it  is  calk'il  'New  Venice.'  Tlie  most  interest iiij^- 
of  the  puhlie  Imililinfp  are  tlie  cathedral  {17th 
century),  its  facade  ilesigned  hy  Inijio  Jones,  the 
Jewisli  synajjogue  (ranking  for  size  next  in  Europe 
to  that  of  Amsterdam),  the  former  grand-ducal 
palace  (1605).  iS:c.  The  Academy  of  Sciences. 
with  a  lilirary  of  40,tKX)  volumes,  'and  the  naval 
academy  deserve  mention.  The  sulphur-springs 
and  sea-hathing  attract  a  large  concourse  of  visitors 
in  the  season.  Leghorn  is  defendeil  both  land- 
wards and  seawards  by  forts,  bastions,  and  other 
fortitications,  constructed  for  the  most  jiart  in 
1835-37.  Smollett  and  Krancis  Horner  lie  buried 
in  the  cemetery  of  the  English  church.  Pop.  of 
the  city  (IStii)  83,543;  (lS71)  SO,  948 ;  (1S81) 
78,988  ;■  of  the  commune  (1S71)  97,096:  (ISSl) 
97,615:  (1895)  104,500. 

Les^iou.  in  the  Koman  military  system,  corre- 
s(punded  in  force  and  organLsiition  to  what  in  modern 
times  we  should  call  a  vorjix  d'arm(e.  It  diii'ereil 
in  constitution  at  diU'erent  periods  of  Koman 
history.  In  the  time  of  the  republic  a  legion 
comprised  4500  men.  thus  divided  :  1200  liustafi, 
or  inexperienced  troojis  ;  I'JOO  jirinrijjcs,  or  well- 
trained  soldiers;  1200  vditcs,  or  skirmishers;  600 
triarii,  or  pi/rim',  veterans  forming  a  reserve;  and 
300  equites,  knights  who  acted  as  cavalry,  and 
belongeil  to  families  of  rank.  During  this  period 
the  legions  were  formed  only  for  the  season  ;  stand- 
ing armies  being  of  later  growth.  The  hastati, 
principes,  and  triarii  formed  three  sejiarate  lines, 
each  divided  into  10  ntaiiijiloi  or  companies,  of  1'20 
men  e.ich  in  the  c;ise  of  the  two  front  lines,  and 
of  60  men  in  the  triarii.  A  maniple  wius  com- 
manded by  a  centurion  or  captain,  who  had  a 
second-ceuturion,  or  lieutenant,  and  two  sub- 
officers,  or  sergeants,  iiniler  him  ;  as  non-commis- 
sioned ofiicer  there  was  a  ilcranus,  or  corporal,  to 
every  si|uad  or  teut  of  ten  men.  The  jjriinijjilii.i, 
or  senior  centurion  of  the  triarii,  was  the  most 
important  regimental  otlicer,  and  commanded  the 
legion  in  the  absence  of  the  tribunes.  The  300 
cavalry  formed  a  regiment  of  ten  titrma-,  or  troops 
of  30  horsemen,  each  uniler  three  (Ifcurioits,  of 
whom  the  .senior  had  the  command.  The  stall'  of 
the  legion  consi.^ted  of  .six  tribunes,  who  managed 
the  paying,  quartering,  |irovisioning.  &c.  of  the 
troops,  and  who  commanded  the  legion  in  turns 
for  a  period  each  of  two  months.  This  changing 
command,  although  inconvenient,  lasted  till  the 
times  of  the  civil  wars,  when  a  hr/ii/iis,  or  lieu- 
tenant-general, w;is  appointed  as  permanent  com- 
mandant of  the  legion.  In  thi-  time  of  Marius 
the  mani|iular  form.ition  w;is  abolished,  the  three 
lines  were  assimilated,  ami  the  legion  Wiis  divided 
into  10  cohorts,  each  of  3  maniples.  Soon  the 
cohorts  were  raised  to  600  men,  making  the  legion 
6000  infantr>-,  besides  ca\alry  an<l  velites.  Jt  was 
ranged  in  2  lines  of  5  cohorts  each  ;  but  C;esar 
altered  the  formation  to  3  lines,  of  respectively  4, 
3,  anil  3  cohorts.  During  the  later  emiiire  "the 
legion  became  complex  and  unmanageable;  many 
sorts  of  arms  being  thrown  together,  and  balist;e, 
calapuh-.  and  onagers  added  by  way  of  artillery. 

lif<;ioii  ol"  Honour,  an  order  of  merit 
in.-titiilid  liy  Napoleon  in  1802  as  a  recompense 
for  military  and  civil  .services.  It  w,us  ostensibly 
founded  for  the  protection  of  republican  princijiles 
and  the  laws  of  equality,  every  social  gr.ade  being 
equ.illy  eligible.  The  constitution  and  incidents 
of  the  order  have  been  repeatedly  changed  by  the 
successive  executive  iiowers  of  France  during  tlie 
coui-se  of  the  19th  century.  At  its  first  institution 
the  order  embraced  four  cla.s.ies ;  to  these  a  liftli 


was  added  in  1852.  .■\t  the  same  time  the  original 
star  was  changeil  into  a  cross.  .\t  the  present 
time  there  are  live  cla.sses — granil  crosses,  ol 
whom  there  are  70;  grand  odlcers,  llxed  at  200 
members ;  1000  commanders  ;  4000  oliicers ;  and 
25,000  chevaliers  or  knights.  Eoreigners  are 
eligible  as  members,  but  they  are  not  counted  in 
their  resjiective  cla.sses.  In  each  cla.ss  three-lifths 
of  the  members  must  be  .soldiers  or  sailors.  On 
the  obvei.se  of  the  live-ra>ed  white  enamelled 
cross  is  a  female  head  representing  the  republic, 
surrounded  by  the  words  lujjitl/lir/uc  Fnairaixc, 
1S70 :  on  the  reverse  are  two  crossed  Hags  and  the 
motto  Honiictir  ct  I'atrie.  The  cross  is  suspended 
In-  a  wreath  half  of  oak,  half  of  laurel,  leaves. 
The  ribbon  is  watered  scarlet  silk.  The  military 
members  receive  each  a  pension  :  those  of  the  fir.-."t 
class  get  3000  francs  a  year,  those  of  the  second 
2000.  of  the  third  1000,  of  the  fourth  500,  and  of 
the  lifth  250  francs.  Candidates  in  time  of  peace 
must  lia\e  served  in  some  military  or  civil  capacity 
for  twenty-five  years  ;  exploits  in'  the  lield  or  severe 
wounds  constitute  a  claim  in  time  of  war.  Two 
distributions  take  place  in  the  year.  The  nomi- 
nation of  military  [lersons  takes  place  on  parade, 
and  of  civil  in  the  supreme  courts  of  justice.  No 
ignoble  punishment  can  be  indicted  oil  a  member 
of  the  order  so  long  as  he  belongs  to  it.  To  rise 
to  a  superior  rank  it  is  indispensable,  at  least  for 
natives  of  France,  to  have  passed  tlirougb  the 
inferior  grades.  In  addition  to  the  order  40,000 
medals  are  distributed  amongst  the  rank  and  file 
of  the  army.  Each  medal  entitles  its  bearer  to 
a  pension  of  100  francs  annually.  The  total 
annual  expenditure  of  the  order  amounts  to  seven 
million  francs.  The  vast  numbers  holding  this 
order,  and  the  insignilicance  of  many  of  the  per.sous 
on  whom  it  has  been  conferred,  have  detracted 
much  from  its  value.  At  the  date  of  the  battle  of 
Waterloo  there  were  48,000  members,  of  whom 
only  1400  were  civilians.  In  the  reign  of  Napoleon 
III.  the  order  embraced  64,800,  and  in  1872,  69,179 
persons  ;  but  a  law  was  passed  in  that  year  that 
only  one  new  member  shoulil  be  added  for  ever\ 
two  vacancies  in  the  civilian  ranks  and  one  fcii 
every  three  or  four  in  the  military.  This  reduced 
the  membership  to  53,848  l>y  1890.  The  order 
gives  free  education  to  401)  of  the  daughters, 
sisters,  and  nieces  of  its  membeis. 

Leg-irous.    See  HAXDcrpFs. 

Lcgitilll,  or  Bairn's  Pakt,  in  the  Scotch  law, 
is  the  legal  provision  which  a  chiUl  is  entitled  to 
imt  of  the  movable  or  personal  estate  of  the 
deceased  father.  The  extent  of  the  jirovision 
varies  according  as  the  wife  of  the  f;Ulier  of  the 
child  survives  or  not.  If  a  wife  survive,  and  also 
children  survive,  the  movable  estate  is  divided 
into  three  equal  jiarts.  One  is  the  widow's  Jus 
7ic/((to-  (see  Husband  and  Wife),  another  is 
the  children's  legitim.  the  other  third  is  the 
Dead's  Part  (q. v.),  whicli  the  father  may  be(|ueath 
by  will  if  he  jileases  ;  lint  if  he  make  no  will,  then 
it  goes  to  the  children  as  next  of  kin.  If  the 
wife  is  dead,  then  half  is  legitim,  and  the  other 
half  is  dead's  part.  Moreover,  a  father,  though 
in  his  lifetime  he  may,  without  any  check  from 
bis  children,  squander  his  pnqierty,  still  is  not 
allowed  on  his  death  bed  to  make  gifts  so  as  to 
lessen  the  fund  which  will  supply  legitim.  The 
children's  claim  to  legitim  may  be  qu.ilirn'd  by 
an  antenuptial  contract  of  marriage,  wliicli  pro- 
vides some  other  provision  to  the  cliildicn  in  lien 
of  legitim  ;  but,  as  a  general  rule,  the  children's 
claim  cannot  be  defeat<'d  by  anything  the  father 
can  do  by  means  of  a  will  or  what  is  equivjilent 
to  a  will.  The  legitim  is  claimable  by  all  the 
cliildren  who  survive  the   father,    but   mit   liy   the 


J 


564 


LEGITIMATION 


LEIBNITZ 


issue  of  those  children  who  have  predeceased.     It 

is  iniiiiateiiiil  what  tlie  a;;e  of  this  child  may 
lie,  ami  whether  nuirriod  or  not.  Children  claim- 
ing legitim  must,  however,  give  credit  for  any 
provision  or  advance  made  by  the  father  ont  of 
his  movable  estate  in  his  lifetime.  All  the 
cliildrcn,  though  of  dill'erent  marriages,  share  in 
the  k'gilim.  In  England  and  Ireland  there  is 
no  similar  right  to  legitim,  for  the  father  can 
l)equeath  all  his  property  to  strangers  if  he  pleivse  ; 
nut  a  similar  custom,  now  aholislied,  once  existed 
in  the  citv  of  London  and  York.  By  the  Married 
Women's 'Property  Act,  1881,  the  (children  of  any 
woman  who  dies"  domiciled  in  Sctjtland  has  the 
same  right  of  legitim  in  regard  to  her  movable 
estate  as  tliey  have  in  the  movable  estate  of  their 
father. 

LfUitillliltioil.  in  Law,  is  the  act  by  which 
children  liorn  Bastards  (q.v.)  are  made  lawful  chil- 
dren. By  the  common  law  of  England  bastardy  is 
indelible.  The  maxim  is  '  Once  a  bastard,  always 
a  bastard.'  By  the  civil  and  canon  law,  on  the 
other  hand,  the  subsequent  marriage  of  jiarents 
who  have  children  begotten  and  born  out  of 
lawful  wedlock  legitimates  the  children.  This 
principle  of  legitimation  by  subsei|ucnt  marriage 
prevails,  with  modilications,  in  the  law  of  France, 
of  Germany,  of  Holland,  an<l  of  Scotland.  It  also 
jirevails  in  most  of  the  states  of  the  American 
Union  ;  in  some  it  has  been  adojjted  by  statute. 
In  the  reign  of  Henry  III.  the  bishops  of  England 
sought  to  introduce  the  rule  of  the  canon  law  into 
the  law  of  England,  and  petitioned  the  lords  to 
consent  that  persons  born  before  wedlock  should  l)e 
legitimate  so  far  as  regarded  inheritance.  The 
earls  and  barons  returned  the  famous  answer  of 
the  Statute  of  Merton,  123.5  :  'We  will  not  change 
the  laws  of  England,  wliich  u]<  to  now  have  been 
used  and  approve<l.'  The  Legitimacy  Declaration 
Act  of  1858  provided  that  any  native-born  British 
subject,  domiciled  in  England  or  Ireland,  or  claim- 
ing any  estate  in  England  or  Ireland,  may  apply  to 
the  High  Court  of  Justice  for  a  decree  declaring 
that  the  jietitioner  is  the  legitimate  child  of  his 
parents.  In  the  I'nited  States  cases  have  occurred 
in  which  bastards  were  legitimated  by  special  acts 
of  the  legislature.— There  is  another  kind  of  legiti- 
mation, known  as  legitimation  l>y  royal  letters. 
This  does  not  confc^r  upon  bastards  the  full  rights 
of  lawful  children,  but  only  gives  up  such  rights  to 
the  jirojierty  of  bastards  as  the  law  confers  upon 
the  crown. 

Legitimists,  the  followers  of  the  elder  Bourbon 
line,  as  opposed  to  the  Orleanists.  See  BOURBOX, 
Ekance. 

Le^llilSO.  one  of  the  four  fortified  towns  of 
NoitlK'rn  Italy  known  as  the  t^iadrilatcral  (q.v.), 
is  situated  on  the  A<lige,  Xi  miles  by  rail  SE. 
from  Verona.  It  has  a  considerable  trade  in  rice, 
corn,  and  silk.  Pop.  3514.  The  fortilications  were 
razed  by  Napoleon  in  1801,  but  rebuilt  fourteen 
\  ears  later. 

Lotfro.S,  .Vl.l'llONSE,  i)aintcr  and  etcher,  was 
born  at  Dijon  in  1S37  of  jioor  parents,  who  appren- 
ticed him  to  a  house-i)aiiiter.  He  lirst  attrai-ted 
attention  by  pictures  exhibiteil  in  the  Paris 
Salon  between  Ks.")!)  and  ls(i:>.  But  three  years 
later  he  settled  in  London,  and  becoming  a  nalnral- 
ised  Englishman  was  in  1876  ai>poiiitcd  Slade  Pro- 
fessor of  Fine  Arts  in  University  College,  London. 
The  subjects  he  paints  best  are  the  rural  scenes, 
and  the  peasants  ami  huinlilc  jniests,  of  Erance. 
His  admirable  artistic  method  and  the  austere  sim- 
plicity and  reserve  of  his  style,  though  they  secure 
liim  warm  admirers  amongst  artists,  have  not  made 
him  ])opiilar.  See  DiMiii  UniBersity  Miirjuziitc 
■880)  and  AH  JovrnrU  ( 1881 ). 


Leguiue  (Legumen),  in  Botany,  a  fruit  con- 
sisting of  a  single  carpel,  two-valved,  and  with  the 
seeds — one  or  many— attached  to  the  ventral  suture 
only.  It  is  commonly  called  a  jmd,  and  occurs  in 
most  of  the  species  "of  the  great  natural  onler 
Leguminosa'  (q.v.),  of  which  the  bean  and  pea  are 
familiar  examples. 

Leglllllill.     SeeC.v.SLlN. 

Li'UIIIllillOsa'  (Fabaccw  of  Lindley),  a  great 
natural  (jider  of  exogenous  plants,  containing  her- 
l)aceous  plants,  shrubs,  and  trees,  many  of  the 
latter  of  the  greatest  magnitude.  The  leaves  are 
alternate,  usually  compound,  and  have  two  stipules 
at  the  base  of  the  leat-stalk,  which  often  .soon  fall 
off.  The  inflorescence  is  various.  The  calyx  is 
inferior,  live-parted,  toothed  or  cleft,  the  segments 
often  uneiiual.  The  petals  are  live,  or,  by  abortion, 
fewer,  inserted  into  the  base  of  the  calyx,  usually 
unequal,  often  Papilicmaceons  ((|.v.).  The  staniens 
are  lew  or  many,  distinct  or  variously  united.  The 
ovary  is  one-celled,  generally  of  a  single  caniel ; 
the  style  simple,  the  stigma  simple.  The  fruit 
is  a  legume,  which  is  simply  a  pod  comiioseil  of 
two  valves,  as  in  the  i)ea  and  the  bean.  The 
seeds  are  generally  nnmennis,  rarely  solitary,  occa- 
sionally with  an  "aril,  often  curved:  the  cotyle- 
ilons  very  large.— There  are  three  sub-orders : 
( 1 )  Papiiionacea",  with  i)apilionaceous  Howers ; 
(•2)  Ca'salpinete,  with  irregular  Mowers  and  spread- 
ing |ietals :  (3)  Mimo.sea-,  with  small  regular 
flowers.— Tills  natural  order  contains  almost 
7000  known  species,  of  which  about  ."iOOO  belong 
to  the  sub-order  Papiiionacea- ;  it  is  therefore, 
after  the  great  order  Composila',  the  most  ex- 
tensive of  all  the  natural  orders  of  tlowering 
plants.  They  are  spread  over  all  (larts  of  the 
worhl,  fiom  the  equator  to  the  poles,  but  their 
number  is  greatest  in  tropical  and  subtropical 
regions.  They  are  applied  to  a  great  variety  of 
purjioses,  and  some  of  them  are  of  great  im])ortance 
in  domestic  economy,  the  arts,  medicine,  Oi:c.  To 
this  order  belong  the  Bean,  Pea.  Kidney-bean,  and 
all  kinds  of  pulse :  Clover,  Li(|Uorice,  Broom, 
Laburnum,  Lui)ine,  Senna,  and  many  other 
medicinal  plants.  Tamarind,  Logwood.  Indigo, 
and  many  others  which  alliiril  dyes,  &c.  ;  the 
Acacias,  jlimosas,  &c.  Many  siiecies  are  interest- 
ing on  account  of  their  beauty  of  form,  foliage,  or 
llowcrs.  In  the  see<ls  of  many  is  found  a  nitrogen- 
ous substance  called  Lq/ioiuiic  (q.v.)  or  Vegetable 
Casein. 

Le'lli$;ll,  a  river  which  Hows  120  miles  through 
eastern  Pennsylvania  to  the  Delaware  Kiver.  Some 
of  its  scenery  is  very  pictures(|ue,  but  the  valley  is 
more  famous"  for  its  "rich  mines  of  anthracite  coal. 

L<'il>llit7.  (more  accurately  but  less  commonly 
Leiuni/.),  GoTTFlUKii  Wii.iiEi.M,  distinguished 
for  almost  universal  scholarshiii,  esjiecially  in 
l)hilosoi>hy  and  mathematics,  was  born  on  1st  July 
I04G  at  Leipzig,  where  his  father  (died  1652)  was 
professor  of  Moral  I'hilosoiihy.  He  attenile<l  the 
Nicolai  school  in  L<'iiizig,  but  learncil  much  more 
from  indeiiendent  stuily— he  taught  himself  to  read 
Livy  whilst  still  a  b"oy  of  eight- and  at  lifteen 
entered  the  university  of  Leii>zig  to  study  law.  He 
spent  some  time  also  at  Jena  working  at  matlie. 
niatics.  Being  refused  his  iloctor's  degree  at  Leipzig 
on  account  of  bis  youth  in  llUiG,  he  graduated  at 
Altibnf,  the  university  town  of  Nuremberg.  In  the 
following  year  he  gained  a  warm  and  admiring 
]iatron  in  Baron  von  Boineburg,  formerly  chief 
minister  to  the  archbishoii  elector  of  Mainz.  At 
Boineburg  s  suggcstiim  he  pre.scnte<l  to  the  elector 
bis  Suva  Met/iudus  DovciuU  DiscctK/ii/ite  Ji(ris,  con- 
taining a  i)ropo.sed  reform  of  the  Corjnis  Jiijis  and 
of  the  teaching  of  jurisprmlence  ;  and  the  elector 
took  the  young  scholar  into  his  service.     Amongst 


LEIBNITZ 


565 


other  duties  iu  which  Leiliiiitz  eiiii)loyed  his  pen 
■was  to  advocate,  in  161)9,  tlie  claims  of  the  count 
palatine  of  Nenburg  to  the  crown  of  Poland. 
Three  years  later  he  was  summoned  to  I'aris  to 
explain  at  greater  length  the  views  he  had  laid 
down  in  an  essay  entitled  Consilium  ^gi/ptiaciiiii, 
which  elahorated  a  plan  for  the  conquest  of  Eg>-pt ; 
though  the  real  object  of  the  work  wa.s  to  divert 
the  attention  of  Louis  from  projects  in  and  upon 
the  tierman  states.  This  plan  of  Leibnitz  is  believc<l 
to  have  sugge-sted  the  invasion  of  Egj-pt  which 
Napoleon  attempted  in  1798.  The  tour  was  extendeil 
to  (joniion,  where  Leibnitz  became  actjuainted  with 
Oldenburg,  Boyle,  and  Newton  :  in  Paris  lie  had 
already  learned  to  know  Arnauld.  Malebranche, 
and  Huygens.  His  intercourse  with  Huygens  and 
Newton  stimulated  his  interest  in  mechanical  and 
mathematical  questions  :  he  invented  a  calculating 
machine  and  devised  wh.at  was  in  many  respects  a 
novel  method  of  tlieralculus(q.v. ;  and  see  Newton. 
Fluxions).  This  gave  rise  to  a  controversy  with 
Newton  as  to  which  of  them  first  invented  this 
valuable  mathematical  method.  In  1676  Leibnitz 
quitted  the  service  of  Mainz,  and  entered  that  of 
Hanover.  The  duke  .appointed  him  custodian  of 
the  library  at  Hanover;  and  tliis  city  was  hence- 
forth Leibnitz's  headquarters.  But  liis  energies 
found  scope  outside  the  library  :  he  effected  im- 
provements in  the  drainage  of  the  mines  in  the 
Harz  and  in  the  coinage,  arranged  tlie  lilirary  at 
Wolfenbiittel  (where  Lessing  afterwards  laboured  ), 
and  in  16S7  visited  various  cities  in  Germany, 
Austria,  and  Italy  to  gather  materials  for  an 
exhaustive  historj-  of  the  Brunswick  ducal  liouse. 
The  pope  offered  him  the  headship  of  the  Vatiean 
Librarj' ;  but  Leibnitz  declined  the  offer,  since  the 
acceptance  of  it  W(mld  have  compelled  him  to  be- 
come a  Roman  Catholic.  The  ta.sk  of  working  up 
his  materials  into  connected  history-  employed  a 
good  deal  of  his  time  in  subsequent  years.  Philo- 
sophy, too,  absorbed  .a  large  proportion  of  his  most 
serious  thought.  -\nd  in  the  discussions  that  were 
carrietl  on  with  a  view  to  the  reconciliation  of  the 
Protestant  and  Koman  Catholic  churches  Leibnitz 
took  a  prominent  part,  his  princi|)al  correspondent 
being  Bossnet.  In  1686  there  was  published  from 
his  pen  the  Systemo  T/ico/o/jiciim,  composed 
a.s  a  response — conciliatory — from  the  Protestant 
side  to  Bossuet's  Exposition  tie  la  Foi.  Subse- 
quently, on  the  failure  of  these  negotiations,  Leib- 
nitz endeavoured,  but  with  the  same  want  of 
succe.ss,  to  reconcile  the  Lutheran  and  the  Reformed 
churches  of  Prussia.  He  wa.s  more  successful 
in  enlisting  the  interests  of  reigning  ]irinces  in 
scientific  societies.  He  induced  Frederick  I.  of 
Pnissia  to  found  (in  1700)  the  Society  of  Sciences 
at  Berlin,  and  was  himself  m;i<Ie  first  president;  and 
he  suggested  the  establishment  of  similar  societies 
in  St  Petersburg,  Dresden,  and  Vienna,  which  were 
afterw.ards  instituted  in  e.acli  of  those  ca)iitals. 
Whilst  on  a  visit  to  Vienna  in  1712-14  he  was 
created  a  i)rivy-councillor  of  the  empire  ;  he  was 
also  made  a  b.aron  (  Freiherr)  of  the  emiiire.  When 
George  of  Hanover  ascended  the  thion(!  of  England 
Leibnitz,  who  some  yeai-s  before  had  vigorously 
supported  his  father'.s  claims  to  the  elector's  hat, 
was  disappointed  at  not  being  invited  to  .acconipanv 
liim.  But  shortly  afterwards  he  died,  on  Htii 
November  1716,  at  Hanover. 

The  philo.sophy  of  Leibnitz  holds  an  inter- 
mediate place  between  the  dualism  of  Descartes 
and  the  monism  of  Spinoza  (whom  he  visited  at 
Ain.tterdam  in  1676).  His  system  is  individual- 
istic anrl  dogm.atic.  He  taught  that  the  primary 
and  e.s.sential  quality  of  all  substance  is  active 
force.  Sulistance  exists  only  in  the  form  of  atoms 
or  niona<ls,  which  are  simple  and  similar  in  con- 
stitution, but  differ  qualitatively  :  each  is  a  self- 


contained  individuality.  AH  monads  jxissess  two 
intrinsic  properties — perception,  or  the  capacity  to 
mirror  the  universe,  and  appetite  or  striving.  The 
degree  of  perfection  with  which  each  monad  retlects 
the  nnivei-se  depends  upon  its  individual  character 
— i.e.  u])on  the  peculiar  consensus  or  balance  of 
relations  th.-it  exist  between  the  active  .ami  the 
pa.ssive  elements  in  its  nature.  And  the  entire 
scries  of  monads,  from  the  very  highest  ((lod)  to 
the  very  lowest,  were  so  constituted,  and  so 
arranged  from  the  first,  that,  whilst  each  obeys 
the  laws  of  its  own  self-determined  devekqunent 
independently  of  all  othei's,  it  is  at  every  mimient 
in  complete  accord  and  harmony  with  .-ill  the 
rest.  The  body  of  man  is  a  complex  of  separate 
monads ;  his  soul  is  a  single  monad,  the  sub- 
stantial centre  of  his  being.  Yet  no  monad  can 
act  upon  another  monad  ;  the  active  force  of  each 
cannot  p,a.ss  out  of  itself.  But  the  doctrine  oi 
general  'pre-established  harmony'  explains  howand 
what  relations  do  subsist  between  them,  and  so 
between  liody  and  soul.  He  compares  body  and 
soul  to  two  clocks  wbicli  have  been  constructed 
in  the  beginning  in  such  a  w.ay,  and  so  perfectly, 
that  both  can  be  depended  ujion  to  keep  exact 
time  with  each  other  without  any  bond  of  con- 
nection or  any  interference  from  without.  (Jod  is 
the  primary,  supreme,  perfect  monad  ;  from  Him 
all  others  proceed  as  '  fulguvati<ms '  or  radiations. 
Plants  and  stones  are  likewise  monads;  but  in 
their  case  the  perceptive  capacity  is  more  or  less 
blurred  or  slumbering — an  adumbration  of  the 
modern  doctrine  of  uncf)nscious  perception.  Since 
God  is  the  contriver  of  the  universal  harmony  that 
prevails  amongst  all  created  things,  this  world 
must  be  the  best  of  all  possible  worlds  (see 
OcTiMiSM).  The  real  cogency  of  Leibnitz's  argu- 
ment depends  upon  his  great  logical  instrument,  tlic 
princii)le  of  sufficient  reason  :  there  is  a  sufficient 
reason  why  this  worlil  should  be  the  best  of  all 
possible  worlils,  and  there  is  no  sufficient  rea-son 
why  it  should  be  otherwise.  His  theory  allowed 
him  to  demonstrate  that  there  is  a  substantial 
agreement  between  faith  and  the  deliverances 
of  reason.  The  Leibnitzian  ethics  are  deduced 
from  the  i)ro]ierty  of  striving  inlierent  in  ever) 
monad— the  final  aim  being  perfection,  reached 
through  individual  freedom. 

Leibnitz  was  also  a  ]noneer  in  the  science  of  com- 
parative philology.  He  took  stejis  to  collect  speci 
mens  of  various  distant  languages,  in  Asia  and 
elsewhere,  and  studied  them  in  a  scientific  manner. 
He  recognised  two  great  divisions  of  s|)eech,  tlir 
Aramaic,  which  included  Arabic  and  Hebrew,  and 
the  .laphetic  or  Celto-Scythian,  which  coincideil 
])retty  nearly  with  what  was  subse(|uently  called 
the  Indo-Germanic  or  Aryan  family  of  speech.  Cf. 
M.ax  Midler.  Srienceo/Lanf/noi/c. 

l.cibnitz  left  no  complete  systematic  accoimt  of  Ins 
philosupliical  views.  They  have  to  be  gathered  from 
several  collections  of  lettei^s,  essays  contributed  to  the 
journals  Acta  EritdiUn'itm,  Journal  <tes  Savantg,  &c., 
and  a  few  treatises,  such  a.s  He  Principio  Indiridiii 
(16631;  Exxai  tic  Tlu'oil icr'r  sur  la  Jlonte  de  Vieu,  la 
Liberie  tie  V Homme,  el  V Oriiiine  du  Mai  { 1710);  Princij,i- 
de  la  Nature  it  dc  la  Grdce  (1718 ) ;  ilonaitolotjie  ( 1714 ) . 
and  Nouvetiux  Esstaitf  xnr  I'Enteudemenl  (176.5).  In  this- 
last  work  he  closely  criticises  Locke's  celebrated  Exsat/  in, 
the  Human  Understanding/ ;  and  supplements  the  English 
pliilosoplier's  tnaxiii)  of  Nihil  eat  in  intellectii  ipmd  n<n, 
fuei'it  insiu.fu,  by  adding  n>.si  ipjie  inlellerlus.  I''dition> 
of  Leibnitz's  writings  have  been  ptd>lislied,  tliongli  none 
is  conqilete,  by  I'litens  (li  vol.s.  (ieneva,  1 768 ),  by  Pel  tz 
and  Gerhar(lt"(19  vols.  184;i-U0),  and  bv  O.  Klopp  (II 
voh.  1862  84).  The  best  Life  is  Guhrauer's  (2  vols. 
1842-46).  See  also  biographical  works  by  Kirchner 
(1877)  and  E.  Pflcidcrer  ( 1870).  and  I'.odeniann  on  lii> 
Correspondence  (188*.*).  Feuerbach  ( 1837),  Zinimerniann 
(1847,  &C.),  and  K.  Fischer  (1867)  have  written  on  hie 
philosophy. 


566 


LEICESTER 


LEICESTERSHIRE 


Leicester,  tlie  county  town  of  Leicestersliire, 
a  iiinnieip.il,  pailiaiiientaiy,  and  county  l>nrnu};li, 
is  situatoil  on  tlie  Soar,  a  tiiliutary  of  tlip  Trent, 
■2-2  miles  S.  of  Nottiii;;liani.  .'!S  ENE.  of  liiiiiiinn 
'lani,  20  NNE.  of  Ku^^liy.  ami  97  NNW.  of 
London.  Traditionally  founded  Ijy  tlii'  Itrilisli 
kinj;  Lear,  it  occupies  the  site  of  tin?  Honian 
liatw :  and  pavements,  urns,  and  other  Roman 
relics  have  heen  found,  while  the  '.Jewry  Wall,' 
•20  feet  hij;h  and  7")  long,  which  f,'ot  its  name 
from  the  medieval  •ghetto,  is  composed  of  rnbhle 
and  Itoman  hricks.  Its  present  name  conies 
from  the  An;;lo-S,axon  Lrirrea.ttir,  or  '  fortress 
of  the  1,1'ire,'  ivs  the  river  was  calle<l  of  old. 
The  Norman  castle,  dismantled  l>y  Charles  I. 
in  1645,  is  represented  chiellv  hy  the  modernised 
assize  hall,  and  hy  an  artiheial  earthwork,  the 
Mount  or  Castle  View,  on  which  stood  the  doiijon- 
keep  ;  the  Abbey  of  Black  Canons  (114:i),  where 
Wolsey  died  in  1530.  is  au  insiijnilicant  if 
l)ictures(|ue  ruin.  In  tlie  Blue  Boar  luu,  demolished 
about  l.S'2i),  Itichard  111.  slept  the  ni^dit  before 
Bosworth  (  US.i) ;  and  his  corpse  was  hrought  back 
hither  for  burial.  A  handsome  memorial  cioss  or 
clock-tower  (186S)  bears  the  effigies  of  Simon  de 
.\Iontfort,  Earl  of  Leicester,  Sir  Thon\as  White, 
.^Ideriuan  Newton,  and  William  of  Wyggeslon. 
There  is  a  statue  also  of  Robert  Hall :  and  anumg 
the  other  edilices  are  the  old  town-hall,  with  good 
carving  and  stained  glass  of  Henry  VIL's  time  ;  the 
new  nninicipal  buildings  (1876),  Queen  Anne  in 
stvle,  with  a  clock-tower  134  feet  high  :  the  post- 
otiice  (1887),  public  baths  (1879),  free  library 
(1870),  scho.il  of  art  (1876),  opera-house  (1877), 
poor-law  otHces  (188,3).  corn  e-X change  ( 18.V2),  lunatic 
asylum  (183G),  the  museum  (1848),  rich  in  local 
antiquities  ;  the  Wyggeston  Hospital  Schools  ( 1513 ; 
rebuilt  1877-78);  and  live  interesting  old  churches 
— St  Nicholas',  St  Mary's,  All  Saints',  St  Margaret's, 
and  St  Martin's,  the  last  with  a  spire  218  feet 
high.  The  New  Walk  is  a  pleiisant  tree-shaded 
promenade;  the  iacec(mr.se  of  1806  is  now  a 
recreation  ground,  known  as  the  Victoria  I'ark, 
its  succes.sor  being  at  Oadhy,  3.^  miles  distant ; 
the  --Mjhey  public  park  was  o])ened  by  the  Prince 
of  Wales'in  18S2:  and  there  is  a  third  ))ublic  i)ark 
called  the  Siiinney  Hill  Park.  The  abnormally 
rapid  growth  of  Leicester  has  been  dne  to  its 
central  position,  to  its  transit  facilities  by  three 
railway  com])!inies  and  by  water,  and  to  the  great 
extension  of  its  industries.  The  manufacture  of 
]>lain  and  fancy  hosiery,  introduced  in  lOSO,  is 
equalled  only  by  Nottingham  ;  in  th.at  of  ]>egged 
iind  riveted  boots  and  shoes  Leicester  vies  with 
Nortliamiiton.  Iron-founding  is  also  cariied  on, 
with  mannf.actures  of  elastic  welibing,  sewing- 
cotton,  lace,  lambs-wool.  \c.     There  is  co.al  in  the 

neighbouvh I,   and    a    Large   sewage-farm.       First 

cliartereil  by  King  .lohn,  Leicester  has  returned  two 
members  to  parliament  from  Edward  I. 's  time.  It 
has  ligured  prominently  in  the  anti-v.accinalion 
contest.  l>o|i.  ( 1801  )  17,Vi05  :  ( 1861  )  68,056  :  ( 1871  ) 
95,084;  (1881)  122,351  :  (1891)  174,624. 

See  local  histories  by  Throaby  (1777-i'l),  T.  Kubinson 

1793),    James    Thompson    (l.S4!l-71),    Hollin>;.s    (  lS:Vi), 

Itobcrt  l!ca<l  (1881 ),  ami  Mrs  T.  Fiddiiif;  Johnston.-  ( 1 MI2 ). 

Leicj'stcr,  RoisKitr  Dudlkv,  Eaiu,  of,  born 
abiuit  1.5:12,  was  the  liftli  son  of  John  Dudley, 
Duke  of  NcirlhuMilicrlanil,  and  grandson  of  tlie 
notorious  EdMiiind  Dmlley,  who  was  belieadeil  for 
treason  by  Henry  VI 11.  His  father  was  execntid 
for  the  iiarl  which  he  took  in  the  c;uise  of  I,ady 
•lane  (!rey  (<|.v. ),  and  he  was  himself  sentenced 
to  death.  He  was  libi-rated  in  1.5.54  ;  ami  in  15,58, 
on  the  acce8.sion  of  Elizabeth,  ,a  great  career  openeil 
before  him.  He  was  nia<le  Miister  of  the  Horse, 
Ivnight  of  the  Garter,  a  I'rivy-councillor,  High 
Steward  of   the  university   of  Cambridge,   Baron 


Dudley,  and  Hnally  in  1564  Earl  of  Leicester.  For 
these  high  honours  he  seems  to  have  been  indebted 
mainly  to  a  handsome  person  and  a  courtly  manner. 
In  1,550  be  had  married  .Vniy.  daughter  of  Sir  .lohn 
Uobsart.  She  liveil  in  the  cnunlry.  and  early  in 
1560  removed  to  Cumnor  I'lacc,  Berkshire,  the 
house  of  Anthony  Eorster,  a  creature;  of  her 
husband's,  where,  on  8tli  September,  she  was  found 
lying  dead,  with  her  neck  broken,  at  the  foot  of  a 
staircase.  It  was  generally  believeil  at  the  time 
that  she  was  murdered,  and  that  Duilley,  if  not 
Elizabeth  herself,  was  an  accessory  to  the  crime. 
This  belief  receives  some  support  from  certain 
discoveries  made  in  the  archives  at  Simancas, 
which  indicate  that  a  plot  to  poison  her  w.a-s 
actually  entered  into  before  her  death.  Elizabeth 
continued  to  favour  Leicester  in  spile  of  his  un- 
]K)pularity  in  the  country  and  of  his  secret  marriage 
in  1573  to  the  Dowager  L.ady  Shetlield.  In  1563 
she  had  suggested  him  .as  a  husband  for  Mary, 
l^ueen  of  Scots,  and  in  1575  she  consented  to  be 
m.agnificently  entertained  by  him  at  his  castle  of 
Kenilworth  (q.v. ).  In  1.578  he  bigamously  married 
the  widow  of  AValter,  Earl  of  Essex,  and  when 
the  fact  wius  revealed  to  Eliz.abeth,  she  was  gre.atly, 
but  only  temporarily,  olVended.  In  15S5  lie  com- 
manded ,an  expedition  to  the  Low  Countries,  of 
which  ne.xt  year  be  was  apiioiiited  governor — an 
expedition  that  is  notable  chietly  for  tlie  unsuccess- 
ful siege  of  Zutidien,  in  the  course  of  which  Sir 
Philip  Sidney,  his  ne])hew,  met  with  his  death. 
In  1587  he  ag.ain  showeil  liis  military  incapacity 
in  the  s.ame  field,  and  had  to  be  recalled.  Vet  in 
1.588  he  was  a]iiioiii(ed  to  command  the  fences 
.assembled  at  Tilbury,  to  defend  England  against 
the  Spanish  Armada.  He  died  suddi'idy  on  4th 
Se])temberof  the  s.auie  year  at  Cornbury,  in  Oxford- 
shire, of  ]M)!son,  siiid  rumour,  intended  for  his  wife. 
See  Eliz.miki'H,  with  works  there  cited  ;  and  the 
article  'Robert  Dudley'  by  Mr  S.  L.  Lee  in  vol. 
xvi.  of  the  Dictioiian/  of  S\'i(liiiii(i/  liitujntjiliy 
(1888). 

Leicester  of  Holkliaiii.  I'iium as  Wh.i.iam 

CoKK,  E.MiL  OF,  was  born  on  4th  May  17.52,  a 
descendant  of  the  famous  lawyer  Coke.  He  was 
one  of  the  liist  agriculturists  of  England  ;  by  his 
ellbrts  for  the  improvement  of  farming  norlh-west 
Norfolk  was  converted  from  a  rye-growing  into  a 
wheat-growing  district,  its  system  of  cultivation 
was  entirely  revolutionised  for  the  better,  ami  more 
stock  and  of  better  breeals  was  kejit  on  the  farms. 
When  in  1776  be  su(a-eedcd  to  his  estates  they 
yielded  an  annual  rental  of  t'22(l(i:  at  his  deatli 
they  brought  in  .£'20,000  and  more.  Thesheep  shear- 
ing festivals  at  Ilolkham  were  celebrated  the  country 
over.  Coke  represented  Norfolk  in  the  House  of 
Commons  during  the  greater  part  of  the  period 
from  1776  to  1833.  He  was  a  st.aunch  Whig,  and 
a  striuig  su^iporter  of  Fox.  In  1837  he  was  created 
I'^arl  of  Leicester  of  Ilolkham,  to  distinguish  the 
title  from  the  Earldom  of  Leicester,  already  held  by 
the  Townshend  family.  Coke  refused  every  other 
title  exceiit  that  of  Earl  of  Leicester,  because  that 
title  had  been  borne  by  his  great-uncle,  but  on  his 
death  in  1759  had  become  extinct.  He  died  at 
Longf(M.l  Hall,  Derbyshire,  30tli  June  184'2. 

Leicestersliire.  a  midland  conntv  of  England, 
surrounded  by  Nottingham.  Lincoln,  Rutland, 
Northainjiton,  Warwick,  and  l)eiby  shire.s.  It  ha.s 
a  maximum  length  and  breadth  of  44  miles  by 
40,  and  contains  803  sq.  m..  or  514,164  acres. 
Pop.  (  ISOl  )  131,081;  (1841)215,867;  (1881)321,258; 
( 1891  )  373,984.  Its  surface  is  mainly  undulat- 
ing tableland,  the  highest  ground  being  at  Cham- 
wood  Forest  in  the  north-west,  where  B.uilon  Hill 
rises  to  a  height  of  8.53  feet  above  sea  level.  The 
Soar,  itself  an  affluent  of  the  Trent,  which  for  a 


LEICHHARDT 


LEIGHTON 


567 


short  distance  Tiordei's  tlie  oonntv  <>n  the  north, 
is,  with  its  tributary  tlie  Wreak,  tlie  iiriiicinal 
river.  The  soil,  viminj;  in  fertilitv,  is  ;,'ein'rally 
loamy  :  in  the  north-west  are  vahial)k'  coal  mines, 
also  pranite,  slate,  and  limestone  ipiarries,  but, 
the  fireater  jiart  of  the  lounty  bein^'  under  pas- 
lure,  the  (juaiitity  of  corn  i^rown  is  coni|iaratively 
small.  According  to  the  agrieultunil  returns 
for  1889  the  area  under  corn  crops  was  (mly 
73,.'>82  acres,  ami  under  j,'reen  crops  'iO.D.'i.')  acres, 
whilst  341,90.5  acres  were  laid  dowu  as  permanent 
pasture  or  jrrass.  Hence  the  jirincipal  objects  of 
ajjriculture  practised  in  the  county  are  grazing  and 
sheep  and  cattle  breeding,  Leice-.tershire  being 
especi.ally  noted  for  its  breed  of  the  former.  Of 
manufactures  the  principal  are  those  of  hosiery 
and  boots  ami  shoes;  basket-making  is  carried  on 
at  Castle  Donnington  ;  and  Stilton  cheeses  are  for 
the  most  part  made  in  this  cimnty.  Leicestershire 
comprises  six  hundreds,  the  parliair.entary  and 
municipal  borough  of  Leicester,  and  332  parishes, 
almost  entirely  in  the  diocese  of  Peterborough,  and, 
for  judicial  pur|>oses,  in  the  Midland  Circuit. 
Leicester  is  the  a-ssize  town,  and  other  towns  are 
Ashby-de-la-Zouch,  Hinckley,  Loughborough,  Lut- 
terwortii,  Market  Harborough,  and  Melton  Mow- 
bray, the  last  two  being  great  hunting  centres. 
Si.'v  niembei-s  are  returneil  to  parliament,  and  the 
county  council  consists  of  fifty-one  members.  In 
historical  annals  the  principal  event  associated 
with  the  county  is  the  battle  of  IJosworth  Field 
(1485),  in  which  Kichard  IlL  lost  his  life.  Amongst 
persons  of  note  identified  with  Leicestershire  may 
l)e  mentioned  Wyclif,  Cardinal  Wolsey,  Lady  Jane 
Grey.  Mary  t^ueen  of  Scots,  Iteaumont  the  drama- 
tist, George  Villiers,  Duke  of  Buckingham.  Cleve- 
land the  poet,  tieorge  Fox,  Simpsdu  the  mathe- 
matician, Dr  Johnson,  Lord  Macaulay,  HoVart 
Pasha,  Colonel  Burnabv,  and  ht-^t,  but  not  least, 
Daniel  Lambert.  See  the  histories  of  the  countv 
bv  Burton  {16'22:  id  ed.  1777),  Nichols  (4  vols. 
1795-181.5),  and  Curtis  (1831 ). 

LeiHiIinrdt.  Friedrich  Wiluklm  Lidwr;, 
explorer  in  Australia,  w;is  born  at  Trehatsch,  south- 
east of  Berlin,  on  23d  October  1813,  and  studied 
philology  at  Giittingen  and  natural  science  at 
Berlin.  In  1841  he  ]in)ceeded  to  Australia.  There 
he  conducted  an  expe<lition  ( 1843-48)  from  Moreton 
Bay,  in  Queensland,  north-westwards  to  the  (Julf 
of  Carpentaria,  and  then,  skirting  its  south  and 
west  shores,  finally  reached  Port  Kssington.  In 
the  end  of  1846  he  maile  an  unsuccessful  attempt 
to  cross  the  ba.se  of  Cape  York  Peninsula.  In 
November  1847  he  again  started  from  Moreton  Bay 
with  the  intention  ol  cros>iiig  the  entire  continent 
from  east  to  west,  but  he  wjis  lost  in  the  interior. 
Nothing  authentic  ha-s  been  heard  of  him  since 
.\pril  3,  1848.  The  Joiinitil  of  bis  first  journey 
wa-s  published  in  London  in  1847.  and  his  Letters 
in  German  in  1881. 

Leigh,  a  town  of  Lancashiie,  21  miles  NE.  of 
Liverpool  and  16  AV.  of  Manchester.  Silks  and 
cotton  goods  are  extensively  manufactured  ;  iron- 
foundries,  breweries,  malt  kilns,  and  ghiss  works 
count  amongst  the  |irincipal  industrial  establish- 
ments. In  the  vicinitv  are  productive  coal-mines. 
Pop.  ( 1861  )  10,621  ;  (i8Hl  >  21,734  ;  ( 1891 )  28,702. 
See  Worsley's  Hittorij  uf  Lciyl't  ( 1870). 

LeiKlltOII,  FliKDKKicK,  Loitl),  p.  Pv.A.,  was 
born  at  Scarborough  3d  December  18.30.  His 
father  was  a  doctor,  but  he  early  recognised  his 
son's  bias  towards  iiaiiiting,  and  g.ave  him  what 
he  deemeil  the  best  training  for  his  jpiofession. 
Frederick's  early  years  were  spent  in  a  series  of 
grand  tours.  He  visit<'il  Uonu;,  Florence,  Frank- 
fort, Berlin,  Paris,  and  Bru.ssels,  and  everi-wliere 
he  received  instruction  from  the  most  distinguished 


mastei's.     At  fourteen  he  was  already  a  promising 

stmlent  at  the  .Accademia  di  liellc  .\ni  at  Florence. 
.Vt  Frankfort  he  came  under  tlie  inlliieiice  of  Steinle. 
a  frigid  Teuton,  the  friend  and  disciple  of  (Jverbeck  ; 
and  there  remained  a  certain  coldness  in  his  colour 
which  proved  that  he  never  (inite  lived  down  the 
results  of  Steinle's  tuition.  He  made  his  first 
appearance  at  the  Uoyal  Academy  in  1S.55  with 
his  famous  pictiire  'Cimabue's  Madonna  carried  in 
Procession  through  the  Streets  of  Florence.'  This 
work  was  an  immediate  success  and  was  purchased 
by  the  tjueen.  Of  his  later  works  m,ay  be  men 
tioned  'The  Triumph  of  Music'  (1856),  'Paolo 
and  Francesca'  (bsiil),  'The  Odalisque'  (1862), 
'  .-Ariadne  '  ( 1868),  '  Hercules  wrestling  with  Death 
(1871),  'The  Harvest  Moon"  (1872),  'The  Daphne 
l)lioria'  (1876),  '  Weddeil  '  (1882),  'Cymon  and 
Iphigeneia'  (1884),  '  .-Viulromache '  (1888),  'The 
Bath  of  Psyche '( 1890).  He  also  won  consider- 
able  distinction    ixs   a   sculjitor,    and    in    1877    his 

J  'Athlete  struggling  with  a  Python  '  was  purchased 

'  out  of  the  funds  of  the  Chantrey  Bequest.  In  1864 
he   was   elected  Associate   of   the  Royal    .•\cademy. 

[  Five  years  later  he  took  his  place  among  the  forty. 
On  the  death  of  Sir  Francis  Grant  in  1878  he  was 
elected  President  and  was  knighted.  He  was 
created  a  baronet  in  1886.  He  received  a  grand 
medal  of  honour  for  sculpture  at  the  Paris  Exhibi- 
tion of  1889,  and  the  universities  of  Cambridge, 
Oxford,  anil  Edinburgh  conferred  u|>on  him  their 
honorary  degrees.  He  was  created  Lord  Leighton 
of  Strettcm  on  1st  January  1896,  died,  unmarried, 
on  the  '25th  of  the  same  month,  and  was  buried  in 
St  Paul's.  Lord  Leighton  was  a  scholar  and  a  man 
of  the  world  as  well  as  a  painter,  and  discharged  the 
duties  of  his  onerous  position  with  marvellous  tact 
and  success.  Under  his  presidency  the  Academy 
enjoyed  a  material  prosperity  and  soci.al  influence 
which  it  attained  under  no  (me  of  his  ]iredecessors. 
As  an  artist  he  was  always  inspired  by  the  loftiest 
ideals,  and  assiduously  cultivated  the 'grand  style.' 
Neither  realism  nor  archaeology  ever  availed  to  turn 
him  aside  from  the  straight  path  ;  but  it  may  be 
objected  that  his  temperament  was  rather  that  of 
the  scholar  than  of  the  .artist.  Of  his  I)a]dine- 
phoria  (sold  in  1893  fiu-  £3700)  Holman  Hunt  said, 
■  It  is  the  very  noblest  painting  jiroduced  in  modern, 

[  if  it  does  not  excel  all  of  ancient,  times.'  See  Mrs 
.Andrew  Lang  in  the  Ail  Aiiiiiik/,  1S85,  and  ,a  mono- 
giaph  liy  Eriiest  Uhys  (1900). 

Lei^lltOU.  RoiiERT,  perhaps  the  rarest  Howei 
that  has  grown  out  of  Scotch  theology,  was  born  in 
1611,  but  where  is  as  yet  ipiite  unc-ertain.  He  w;is 
the  second  son  of  Dr  Alexander  Leighton  ( 1.568 
c.  1649),  Presbyterian  minister  in  Lonilon  and 
Utrecht,  the  autlior  of  A  n  A/>jiiitl  tu  the  Parlitmcnt : 
or  fawn's  Plcti  anninst  thr  J'rc/iiric  (I6'28),  which 
earned  him  from  the  tender  mercies  of  Lauil  the  cruel 
punishment  of  scourging,  the  pillory,  luanding  and 
mutilation,  heavy  fine,  and  c\i»v  ini]irisonment. 
At  si.Nteen  the  boy  went  to  the  university  of  Edin- 
burgh, where  be  gra<luated  M.A.  in  1631.  The 
only  record  of  his  college  d.ays  is  a  sarcastic  and 
obvious  epigram  on  Aikeidiead,  the  ])rovost  of 
Edinburgh.  He  next  s]ient  some  years  in  France, 
aiul  wideneil  his  spiritual  .'^ymiiathies  by  living 
some  tinie  with  Koman  Catholic  relativesat  Douay. 
Hi?  was  ordained  Presbyterian  minister  of  New 
battle  in  ll>41,  signed  the  Coven.ant  .along  with 
his  parishioiu'rs  two  year;-  later,  and,  in  .-pite  of 
Burnet's  account  of  his  lack  of  sympathy  with  his 
brethren,  ajipears  to  have  t.iken  his  part  in  all  the 
Presbyterian  policy  of  the  time,  and  even  to  have 
represented  the  Synod  of  I/ithian  in  a  inissicm  to 
Lon<lon.  The  famous  story  of  his  being  questioned 
'whether  he  pleached  to  the  times'  and  of  his 
retort  that  surely  they  might  '  permit  a  poiu' 
brother  to   preach   Jes\is  Christ  and   eternity '  is 


568 


LEIGHTON 


iinauthenticated.  At  tliis  periinl  he  was  a  fre- 
(luent  visitor  to  Loudon,  and  after  1646  lie  went 
thither  once  a  year.  About  the  chise  of  16,V2  lie 
applied  for  leave  to  resign  his  charge,  on  the  plea 
of  inability  to  perform  its  duties  from  ill  health 
and  weakness  of  voice,  and  early  next  year  he  «as 
allowe<i  to  do  so  on  being  apjiointeil  Principal  of 
the  univei-sity  of  Edinburgh. 

Here  he  remained  nine  years,  and  Burnet  testilies 
to  his  remarkable  influence  over  the  students. 
Elsewhere  he  tells  us  of  the  wonderful  effect  of 
his  preaching,  which  yet  displeased  Presbyterian 
zealots  from  its  haranguing  method,  without  heads. 
Leigliton's  Prwlect tones  Theologicfv  are  extant 
to  show  the  kind  of  Latin  orations  which  he 
delivered  weekly.  Most  of  the  Scniioii.s  and  the 
Coinmcidurii  on  tlic  First  Epistle  of  Peter  were 
the  work  of  the  Newbattle  period.  The  Restora- 
tion placed  oil  the  throne  an  absolute  king  with 
a  rooted  determination  to  force  Episcopacy  on 
Scotland.  Leighton  after  nuich  reluctance  was 
forced  by  the  king  himself  to  become  one  of  the 
bishops  of  the  new  ecclesiastical  regime,  but  with 
characteristic  modesty  chose  for  himself  Diinhlane, 
the  poorest  of  tlie  new  dioceses,  although  the 
elevation  was  to  him  'a  mortilication  greater 
than  a  cell  and  haircloth.'  The  worldly  minded 
.Sharp  at  first  had  his  scru]des  about  receiv- 
ing new  ordination  ;  to  the  saintly  Leighton,  in- 
different to  the  mere  externals  of  religion,  this 
was  a  detail  of  no  great  moment.  On  the  north- 
ward journey  he  discovered  the  true  motives  of 
Sharp  and  his  brother  bishops,  and  left  them  at 
.Morpeth  to  avoid  their  hateful  triumphal  entry 
into  Kdinburgh.  For  the  next  ten  years  the 
beautiful  little  town  of  Dunblane  was  his  home, 
an<l  here  he  Laboured  with  a  sinking  heart  to 
build  up  the  shattered  walls  of  tlie  cliurcli, 
although  he  soon  lost  all  hope  of  success,  while 
his  work  'seemed  to  him  a  lighting  against  God.' 
It  was  characteristic  of  the  man  that  he  never 
would  permit  him.self  to  be  addres.sed  as  'my  lord,' 
and  that  he  only  apjieared  in  parliament  when 
church  matters  were  in  dispute.  His  conception 
of  Episcopacy  w,as  similar  to  that  suggested  by 
Archr)isho|)  llssher,  and  his  aim  was  to  preserve 
what  was  best  in  the  two  systems  as  a  basis  for 
comprehensive  union,  'reconciling  the  devout  on 
different  sides.'  But  nowhere  among  his  unworthy 
associates  did  he  liml  any  '  such  appearance  of 
seriousness  or  juety  as  became  the  new-modelling 
of  a  church,'  and  he  only  succeeded  in  being  mis- 
understood by  both  sides,  his  moderation  being 
misread  by  the  fiercer  I'resbyterians  as  'pretended 
holiness,  humility,  and  crncilixion  to  the  world,' 
assumed  as  'a  cloak  under  which  to  creep  toward 
iironiotion' — 'a  mere  hetiaval  of  religion  with  a 
kiss.'  The  severity  of  Ids  life,  his  unworldliness, 
;i,nd  even  his  cidibacy,  were  thought  to  savour  of 
Romanism,  .and  already  his  recommendation  of  his 
favourite  bo(d<,  Tlie  Imitiition,  to  the  Edinburgh 
students,  had  given  oflence  to  rigid  Presbyterians 
like  Dickson,  who  refused  it  because  '  self  and 
merits  run  through  it.'  Row  characterises  him  .as 
'carrying  like  a  pawky  prelate,' and  says  that  his 
condescensions  madi'  the  Dunbl.ane  clergy  think  '  he 
was  but  striihinfi  cicam  in  their  mouths  at  lirst.' 
The  continued  )iersecutions  of  the  government,  bent 
on  playing  out  '  a  forlorn  after-game,'  drove  him  to 
London  in  U)6.5  to  resign  his  see.  He  told  the 
kinjj  he  'could  not  concur  in  the  (ilanting  the 
Christian  religion  itself  in  suiOi  a  m.anner,  much 
less  a  form  of  government.'  Charles  apjiarenlly 
listeneil  with  respect,  and  the  good  bishop  w,-is 
persuaded  to  return.  Again  in  166!t  he  went  to 
London  to  advocate  his  scheme  of  Accommodation, 
and  after  his  return  voted  in  favour  of  the  unjusti- 
fiable Assertory  Act — a  weak  piece  of  compliance 


which  lie  repented  all  his  life.  Immediately  after 
he  assumed  the  duties  of  commendator  of  the  arch- 
diocese of  Glasgow,  while  still  continuing  for  some 
time  Bishop  of  Diinljlane.  Next  followed  his  fruit- 
less conferences  at  Edinburgh  in  107O  and  1671 
with  leading  Presbyterians  on  behalf  of  Accommo- 
dation, and  his  sending  through  the  western 
counties  itinerant  advocates  of  the  ciiuse.  In 
despair  of  success  he  begged  fin-  permissiiui  to 
retire,  and  at  length  about  the  close  of  1674  was 
lieniiitted  to  lay  down  his  archbishopric.  His 
letter  to  Lauderdale  (December  17,  1674 )  describes 
his  sickness  and  sense  of  his  own  unworthiness, 
iuid   his  desire  to  sjiend   the  remainder  <if  his  life 

in   ipiiet  retirement,  as  well  as  'pity  to  si'c  a  | r 

i-hurcli  doing  its  utmost  to  destroy  both  itself  and 
religion  in  furious  zeal  and  endless  debates  alii>ut 
the  empty  name  and  shadow  of  a  ditterence  in 
government,  and  in  the  meanwhile  not  having  of 
solemn  and  orderly  public  woisliip  so  much  as  a 
shadow.'  Ilis  last  ten  years  he  spent  in  calm 
preparatiim  for  his  end,  in  the  house  of  his  widoweil 
sister,  Jlrs  Lightmaker,  at  Broadhurst  Manor  in 
Sussex,  frequently  preaching  in  the  church  of 
Horsted  Keynes,  in  the  south  transept  of  which 
he  lies.  His  death,  which  was  the  result  of  an 
attack  of  pleurisy,  came  suddenly.  S.'ith  .lune  U).S4, 
ill  an  inn — as  he  often  said  he  wished  it  should- 
iu  Warwick  Lane,  London,  whither  he  had  been 
summoned  by  Burnet  to  an  interview  with  Lord 
Perth,  just  aiipointed  Lord  Chancelhu- of  Scotland. 
No  man  ever  lived  more  intensely  absorbed  in 
the  love  of  God  than  Leighton  :  no  saint  was  ever 
filled  with  a  greater  measure  of  the  s])irit  of  Christ. 
It  was  characteristic  of  him  that  he  never  Ihouglit 
his  writings  of  any  value,  that  he  ]irinted  nothing 
liimself,  and  that  he  left  orders  for  his  MSS.  to 
lie  destroyed  ;  yet  no  religious  hooks  reveal  adei^per 
spirituality,  a  more  heavenly  exaltation  and  devo- 
tion. And  no  less  womlerful  is  their  sweetness 
ami  beauty,  wedded  to  sincerity  and  intellectual 
strength,  as  well  as  their  broad  catholicity  of 
spirit — tlie  direct  outcome  of  a  large  mind  mouldni 
in  Christian  charity.  He  saw  the  good  that 
underlay  all  ecclesiastical  systems,  and  yet 
recognised  how  jirofitless  all  might  become  if 
allowed  to  interpose  between  the  human  soul  and 
Gotl.  Love  of  peace  was  with  him  a  |iassion, 
thmigli  unluqipily  he  fell  on  evil  days  and  unhapiiy 
methods  of  conciliation.  The  best  tribute  to  his 
memory  is  from  the  pen  of  Burnet,  wlio  says  at 
the  coiudusion  of  his  I'astonil  Cure,  'in  a  free  and 
fre(|uent  conversation  with  him  for  above  two  and 
twenty  years,  I  never  knew  him  say  an  idle  word 
that  had  not  a  direct  tendency  to  edification  ;  and 
I  never  once  saw  him  in  any  other  tem]ier  but  that 
which  1  wished  to  be  in  in  the  last  moments  of  my 
life.'  And  ag.ain  in  the  llisturij  of  11  is  Uirn  'lime 
he  says:  '1  bear  still  the  greatest  veneration  for 
the  niemory  of  that  man  that  1  do  for  any  person  ; 
and  reckon  my  early  knowledge  of  him,  which 
haiipened  the  year  after  this  [  Leighton 's  ]iromotion 
to  a  bishopric],  and  my  long  and  intimate  C(Uiver- 
sation  with  him,  that  continued  to  his  death,  for 
twenty-three  years,  among  the  greatest  blessings 
of  my  life ;  and  for  which  1  know  I  must  give 
account  to  (iod,  in  the  great  day,  in  a  most  par- 
ticular manner.'  Of  great  modern  Englishmen 
none  has  esteemed  Leighton  more  higlily  than 
Coleridge,  whose  Aids  to  Refieetion  indeed  is  based 
on  aphorisms  culleil  from  his  writings. 

Leighton  k-ft  his  library  to  Dunblane,  whicli  has  another 
memorial  of  its  great  bisliop  in  the  'Bishop's  Walk'  along 
the  Iianks  of  the  Allan  Water.  In  tlie  liihtiothccn  Lciiiliton- 
iaiia  there  were  originally  more  than  l.^iOO  volumes,  and 
upwards  of  1200  still  remain,  more  than  200  of  which 
have  interesting;  marginalia.  His  first  editor  was  his 
friend  Dr  Fall,  who  printed  most  of  the  works  from  1692 


LEIGHTON-BUZZARD 


LEIPZIG 


569 


to  1703.  The  chief  later  editions  are  those  of  Doddridije 
( 174S ),  Jermeiit  ( 1805-8 ),  Pearson  ( 1825),  and  Aikiuan 
( 1831 ).  The  last  three  editions  have  Uves  of  the  author,  of 
which  Pearson's  is  full  and  gooiL  The  best  and  most  com- 
plete edition  is  that  of  tlie  K«v.  William  West,  although 
the  method  of  editing  is  nut  entirely  to  be  connnended,  and 
the  anti-Presbytorian  prejudice  ill  befits  the  subject.  The 
work  was  tlie  labour  of  a  (luarter  of  a  century,  and  vols. 
ii.-vi.  were  issued  1809-70  ;  vol  vii.,  '  Remains,'  in  1875. 
Vol,  i.,  to  include  the  Life  and  Letters,  is  not  yet  pub- 
lished. There  is  an  admirable  volume  of  Select  i'-tiis  from 
the  Writings,  witli  a  brief  Memoir  (1883),  by  the  Kev.  Dr 
Blair  of  Dunblane.  .See  also  the  last  scholar's  *  Biblio- 
graphy of  .A.rchbishop  Leighton '  in  the  British  ami 
Foreign  Evangelical  Mcvieic  for  July  1883. 

Leigllton-BllZZnrd.  a  maikettuwn  (if  Bed- 
foril.sliire,  uu  thf  (hi^e,  41  njik's  liy  mil  NW.  of 
Louilon.  Its  line  erucifonn  cluircli,  mainly  Kaily 
English,  lias  a  spire  of  193  feet,  ami  was  lestoreil 
in  1886;  in  the  market-place  is  a  jientangnlar 
cross  ;  tlie  com  excliani^o  was  built  in  18G2.  Straw- 
plait  is  the  staple  industry.  The  sulli.x  Buzznni 
is  a  corruption  of  Beamlesert  or  Bosard,  a  great 
family  here  in  tlie  14th  century.  Pop.  (1851) 
4465;"  (1881)  5991. 

Leinillgen.  a  mediatised  princely  House  of 
Germany,  dating  back  to  1096.  In  1779  the  head 
of  one  of  the  branches  into  which  it  liad  become 
di\"ided,  the  Count  of  Leiiiiiigen-Dachsburg- 
Hardenbnrg,  was  raised  to  the  rank  of  a  prince 
of  the  empire  ;  but  the  peace  of  Luneville  deprived 
him  of  his  ancient  possessions,  about  •25"2  square 
miles  in  extent,  on  the  left  b.ank  of  the  Kiiine. 
Though  no  longer  an  independent  prince,  the  head 
of  the  House  retains  liis  rank  and  wealth,  and 
owns  extensive  possessions  in  Bavaria  and  Hesse. 
The  mother  of  Queen  Victoria  had  for  her  tirst 
husband  the  Prince  of  Leiningen. 

Lfinster,  one  of  the  four  provinces  of  Ireland, 
occuiiies  the  south-east  portion  of  the  country. 
See  IREL.yxD. 

Lcipa,  a  town  of  Bohemia,  40  miles  N.  by  E. 
of  Prague.  It  has  some  niaiiufactuies  of  woollens, 
cotton,  glivss,  and  steel.     Po]i.  9090. 

Leipzig  (  Fr.  Lrljisic),  the  third  commercial  city 
of  Germany,  is  situated  in  a  large  and  fertile  plain 
in  tlie  kingdom  of  Saximy,  80  miles  by  rail  WNW. 
of  Dresden,  and  101  SSW.  of  Berlin,  within  6A  miles 
of  tlie  Prussian  border,  and  3  miles  above  the  June 
tion  of  the  three  small  streams,  Elster,  Pleisse,  and 
Parthe.  The  inner  or  ancient  town,  the  centre  of 
the  Imsiness  acti\ity,  with  narrow  and  crooked 
.streets  and  quaint  houses,  is  separ.ateil  liy  a  broad, 
tree-shaded  promenade  (laid  out  since  1784  on  tlie 
site  of  the  old  walls)  from  the  much  more  extensive 
modern  suburbs,  bounded  in  their  turn  by  a  girdle 
of  busy  manufacturing  'village.s.'  Uf  these  last, 
lieudnitz,  Eutritzsch,  (johlis,  and  others  were  incor- 
porated with  the  city  in  1889  and  1890.  The  \m\i. 
within  the  official  city  limits  was  in  1800,  3'2,14ii: 
in  1860,  8.5,394;  in  issO,  149.081;  and  in  188.5, 
170,.342,  incluiiing  a  garrison  of  3373  ;  in  1895,  in- 
cluding all  the  villages  incorporated  in  the  pre 
ceding  yeai^,  the  population  was  399,963.  Many 
handsome  edifices  have  been  erectecl,  numercnis 
line  streets  laiil  out  and  buill,  and  great  civic 
ini])rovementsefrected  at  Leiiizigin  the  last  (juartei 
of  the  19tli  centniy  ;  but  few  of  the  public  build- 
ing.s  are  specially  icmarkable.  'I'lie  two  l^rinl■i|>al 
city  churclies,  the  Thoniaskirche  .mil  the  Nicolai 
kirche,  date  resiiectively  from  1496  and  1525  ;  the 
quaint  old  Kathliaus,  or  town-hall,  from  1.556.  The 
old  Pleissenbiirg  (  built  in  1213,  rebuilt  1.551)  was 
leiieatedly  besieged  (in  tin- Thirty  Veais'Wnr)  and 
taken  ;  all  but  the  lower  was  deniolislied  since  1895. 
Amongst  the  modem  buildings  an;  the  .Mniiicipal 
Theatre  ( 1868),  one  of  the  largest  and  handsomest 
in  (ieriimny  ;   the  Museum  (1856-.58;   enlarged  in 


1883-86);  the  new  Exchange  (1884-86):  the 
Observatory  ( 1861 )  ;  the  Booksellers'  Exchange 
(1888),  with  an  interesting  museum;  St  Peter's 
Church  (1885),  a  line  specimen  of  modern  German 
(Jotliic;  and  the  magnilicent  Imperijil  Law-courts, 
opened  in  1895.  I'lie  noble  New  (icwandhans 
has  .since  1884  superseded  the  old  Gewandhaus  (so 
called  bec.-uise  originally  a  drapers'  hall),  in  which, 
since  1781,  some  of  the  best  concerts  in  Euroiie 
were  given.  Leipzig  contains  numerous  squares 
and  open  spaces,  atl'oriling  ample  room  for  the 
stalls  and  booths  of  the  retail  dealers  .at  the  fairs. 
The  largest  is  the  Augustus-Platz ;  the  quaintest 
the  Market-place,  in  which  a  large  war  monument 
for  1870-71  was  unveiled  in  1888.  The  Rosenthal 
and  the  Johanna-Park  are  line  parks  on  the  out- 
skirts ;  while  farther  out  are  line  oak  and  beech 
woods. 

Leipzig  resembles  Edinburgh  in  being  an  im- 
portant legal,  educational,  and  book-publishing 
centre,  though  in  its  other  commercial  interests 
it  far  outilistances  the  .Scottish  capital.  It  has 
been  the  seat  of  the  sujueme  court  of  the  German 
em]iire  since  1879.  'I'he  foundation-stone  of  a 
new  building  for  this  trilmnal  was  laid  here  in 
1888.  The  univer.sity,  founded  in  1408  by  a 
secession  from  Prague,  has  182  professors  and 
lecturei's,  and  more  .students  (averaging  over 
.3000)  than  any  other  (iermaii  university  except 
Vienna,  Berlin,  and  Munich.  The  Augusteum,  or 
main  building,  is  in  the  old  town  ;  but  it  is  supple- 
mented by  spacious  medical  and  physical  laliora- 
tories  and  other  'institutes'  (forty-eight  in  num- 
bei)  in  other  parts  of  the  town,  including  a  new 
liluary-building  containing  350,000  vols,  and  4000 
MSS.  The  City  Library  has  100,000  vols,  and  1500 
MS8.  Among  the  numerous  other  educational 
establishments  are  two  gymnasia,  a  justly  famous 
School  of  Commerce,  a  conservatory  of  music  (400 
pupils),  reckoned  amongst  the  lirst  in  Europe,  and 
many  literary,  artistic,  and  scientific  institutions. 
The  hospital  system  of  Leipzig  is  one  of  the  best 
developed  in  Europe,  and  has  largelj-  benefited  the 
medical  faculty  of  the  university.  As  a  seat  of 
trade  Leipzig  is  inferior  only  to  Hamburg  and 
Berlin  among  the  towns  of  Germany.  The  chief 
articles  of  commerce  are  fure  and  skins,  cloth, 
leather,  and  books.  The  famous  Leipzig  fairs  are 
held  at  Easter,  Michaelmas,  and  the  Nmv  Year, 
and  last  from  three  to  live  weeks.  Their  origin 
is  traced  as  far  hack  as  1180;  their  importance 
dates  from  about  1,5(M),  and  they  reached  their 
greatest  jirosperity  at  the  end  of  the  17th  and  the 
end  of  the  18lli  centuries.  The  accession  of  Saxony 
in  1833  to  tlie  German  Customs  Union  (Zoll- 
verein)  gave  another  tillip  to  the  business  of  these 
fairs;  but  since  1865  the  growth  of  railways  and 
telegraphs,  and  the  greater  numbers  of  com- 
mercial travellers  have  gradually  reduced  their 
imjiortance,  though  tliey  are  still  attended  by 
about  30,(X)0  strangers,  including  Jews,  Turks. 
Greeks,  Armenians,  Persians,  ;ind  even  (of  late  I 
Chinese.  Transactions  to  the  extent  of  over 
£10,000,000  sterling  are  .said  to  take  place  at  the 
Kiister  fair.  Leijizig  ranks  next  to  London  and 
Paris  as  a  seat  of  the  bookselling  and  publishing 
trade.  Nearly  ,500  houses  are  eng.iged  in  the 
book-trade,  and  there  are  also  about  eighty 
printing  establishments;  while  type-founding  has 
lieri!  its  chief  centre  in  Germany.  The  (Jerman 
booksellers  liave  established  a  common  exchange 
and  clearing  house  at  Leipzig;  and  at  the  annu.il 
settlements  of  .accounts  at  the  Easter  or  Jubilate 
fair  six  thousand  principals  are  said  to  be  here 
represented  by  their  lommissioners.  The  wool- 
market,  in  .lune,  is  still  imirh  fie(|Ueiitcd,  tliough 
the  amount  of  wool  odered  for  .sale  in  1888  (alKiiit 
218,000  lbs.)  wa.s  less  th.in  half  that  otlered  in  1878. 


570 


LEITH 


LEITRIM 


Aniuiig  tlie  chief  iniiiiutiictures  (canieil  on  iniiiiily 
in  the  'villages')  are  pianofortes,  iiai)er,  chemicals, 
oils,  scientilic  instruments,  sjiirits,  beer,  tobacco, 
and  some  textiles.  Iron  founding  is  also  carried 
on.     The  waxcloth  industry  is  dccliiung. 

Leipzig,  formerly  Lil>/k  or  Mjizlc  (from  the 
Slavic  Lip  or  lAiia,  a  'lime-tree'),  originally  a 
Wendish  settlement,  is  first  mentioned  as  a  town 
in  1015.  In  the  latter  part  of  the  l'2th  century  it 
had  from  5t)00  to  60(K)  mlialiitants,  iind  it  rapidly 
grew  in  importance  and  prosperity  under  the 
fosteiing  care  of  the  margraves  of  ^leissen,  who 
granted  it  numerous  commercial  privileges.  Leip- 
zig siillcred  greatly  in  the  Thirty  N'cars'  War,  in 
which  it  was  live  times  besieged  and  taken,  anil 
again  in  the  Seven  Years'  War;  and  although  the 
commercial  changes  connected  with  the  French 
Revolution  at  lii-st  all'ected  it  very  favourably,  yet 
it  suti'ereil  not  a  little  amidst  the  terrible  struggles 
of  the  yeai-s  ISI'2  and  1S1.3,  when  it  was  alternately 
in  possession  of  the  French  and  of  the  allies.  In 
1866  it  was  occupied  for  some  months  by  Frnssian 
troojis.  In  recent  year.s  Leipzig  has  been  noted 
as  the  head(iuartei-s  of  the  Socialistic  party  in 
Germany.  The  famous  Leipzig  Conference  be- 
tween Luther,  Eck,  and  Carlstadt,  which  took 
place  in  the  Pleissenburg  in  loIO,  an<l  the  Leipzig 
Interim  (see  IXTEItlM)  of  1548  are  important  in 
the  history  of  the  Reformation.  Leipzig  was  the 
birthplace  of  Leibnitz  and  of  Waguer ;  J.  S.  Bach 
was  director  of  music  in  the  two  chief  churches, 
and  'cantor'  in  the  Thomasschule  from  17'24  till 
1750;  and  Mendelssohn  was  director  of  the 
(iewandliaus  Concerts  from  18.15  till  1841.  In 
literary  history  Leipzig  is  famous  as  the  seat  of 
the  Saxon  or  Leipzig  school  of  criticism,  headed 
by  Gottsched  (q  v.).  One  of  the  scenes  in  Goethe's 
Faust  is  placed  in  Auerbach's  Keller,  in  Leipzig, 
still  shown,  with  old  frescoes  illustrating  the  legend 
used  by  the  poet. 

The  Innnediate  neighbourhood  of  Leipzig  has 
been  the  scene  of  two  battles  of  great  importance 
in  the  history  of  Germany  and  of  Kurope — the 
battle  of  Leii)zig,  or  of  Hreitenfeld  ('|.v.),  on 
September  7,  lO.'ii  :  and  the  great  battle  of  Leipzig 
— called  the  Batik  of  Nations— irinn  the  16th  to 
the  18th  of  October  1813.  The  latter  was  one  of 
the  most  bloody  and  decisive  of  those  which 
effected  the  deliverance  of  Europe  from  French 
domination.  The  troops  under  Na)i<deon  in  this 
battle  amo\inted  to  .-iliout  bSO.dOlt  men,  iuid  those 
of  the  allies,  commanded  by  Prince  Schwarzenberg, 
Marshal  IJliicher,  and  Bernadotte,  Crown-prince  of 
Sweden,  to  almost  .100,000.  The  loss  of  the  French 
was  reckoned  at  about  30.000  killed  and  wounded, 
and  18,000  prisoners;  that  of  the  allies  at  about 
52,000.  The  vii'tory  of  the  allies  was  complete, 
and  the  French  had  to  evacuate  Leipzig. 

See  works  on  Leipzig  by  Grosse  (1817-42),  Sparfeld 
(1851),  Knescliku  (1870),  Wuttke  (1873),  Hasse  (1878), 
Hirschfeld  ( 1887 ),  Moser,  Benndorf,  &c. 

Lritll.  the  fifth  largest  tow^n  in  Scotland,  an 
important  seaport,  and  a  municii)al  and  parlia- 
mentary burgh,  stands  on  the  southern  shore  of  the 
Firth  of  Forth,  at  the  mouth  of  the  \V,-iler  of  Leitli, 
2  miles  N.  of  F.dinburgh  (c|.v.),  with  which  it  is 
now  connected  by  a  continuous  line  of  street.  It 
is  even  less  attractive  than  most  seaport  towns; 
still,  great  ini])rovements  have  been  ell'ected  since 
1877,  and  some  of  the  public  buildings  are  not  bad. 
Among  them  are  the  court-house  or  town-hall 
(1827),  customhouse  (1812),  exchange,  corn 
exchange  (IsO'i),  Trinity  House  (1816),  hospital 
(18.50),  S.iilors'  llomi'  (18,8.1-84),  and  St  James's 
Episcopal  Churcli  (18(12-69),  by  Sir  G.  G.  Scott, 
with  a  spire  180  feet  high.  Leith  Fort  (1779) 
is  now  the  artillery  headiiuarters  in  Scotland. 
The     harbour-works"  have    cost    upwards    of     a 


million  sterling.  They  comprise  five  docks,  con- 
structed between  1801  and  1881,  with  an  area  of  43 
acres,  besides  a  sixlh(I892-1901),  wilhan  area  of  60 
acres;  seven  graving-docks;  and  two  piers.  1177 
and  1041  yards  long.  The  foreign,  colonial,  and 
coasting  tr.ade  of  the  port  is  great  and  increas- 
ing. In  1896,  4282  ships  with  an  aggregate 
tonnage  of  1,5,56,917  tons  entered,  and  4038 
ships  of  1,544,050  tons  cleared.  The  imports 
(corn,  chemicals,  sugar,  wooden  and  linen  yarn, 
timber,  fruits,  i.S;c.)  have  an  annual  value  of  more 
than  £8,000,000;  the  exports  (coal,  iron,  cotton 
goods,  i<.-c.  )of  about  .f3,000.00(l  There  is  regular 
steamboat  commuiiicalion  witli  London,  tlie  north 
of  Scotland,  several  continental  ports,  ;uul  New 
York.  Slii|pbuilding  has  of  recent  years  become  a 
large  and  iiiipoi  taut  industry  :  and  extensive  em- 
ployment is  also  all'orded  by  larj^e  flour-mills, 
sugar-relineries,  distilleries,  breweries,  engineer- 
works,  sawmills,  rope-works,  chemical  works, 
<S:c.  Leith  w.as  constituted  a  iiarli.-imentary 
burgh  in  1833,  and  with  Fortobello  and  Mussel- 
burgh returns  one  member.  Its  nine  months'  siege 
by  the  Protestants  (1559-60),  the  surprise  of 
it's  citadel  by  the  Jacobites  (1715),  and  royal 
visits,  innumerable  are  the  chief  events  in  its 
history.  Home,  the  author  of  Ihnifihis,  w.-us  a 
native;  John  Logan  was  a  minister:  and  Robert 
Nicoll  is  buried  here.  Pop.  (1841)  '26,026:  (1881) 
59,485  ;  ( 1891  )  (i8,707.  See  works  by  A.  Campbell 
(1827),  D.  II.  Roberl.son  (  1851),  J.  Marline  ( 1888), 
and  J.  C.  Irons  (1898)  ;  see  also  EDlNr.fUGH. 

Leitlia*  an  Austrian  stream  rising  in  Lower 
Austria,  and  flowing  NE.  to  join  the  Danube 
nearly  along  the  frontier  of  Lower  Austria  and 
Hungary.  Since  the  reorganisation  of  the  empire 
in  1867,  it  has  become  usual  to  sjieak  of  Hungary 
and  the  lands  belonging  to  the  Hungarian  crown 
as  TraHS-leit/iaii,  and  the  rest  of  the  enijiire  as  Cis- 
Icithan — thus  giving  the  stream  a  factitious  im- 
portance. 

Leitllieritz,  an  old  town,  i)artly  walled,  of 
Bohemia,  at  the  liejul  of  steamboat  navigation  on 
the  Elbe,  here  cros.sed  by  a  bridge  1805  feet  wide, 
34  miles  W.  by  N.  of  Prague.  Here  are  a  cathe- 
dral ( 1671 )  and  a  bishop's  palace  ;  and  in  the  town- 
house  (1535)  valuable  archives  are  ]irescrved. 
Brewing  is  tlie  st;iple  industry.  Fruit,  wine,  and 
hops  .are  extensively  grown.     Pop.  10,8.54. 

Leitmotiv.    See  Motif,  "Wauneh. 

li4'itoiuis4'llK  an  old  town  of  Bohemia,  85 
miles  ESE.  of  Prague,  with  a  fine  castle,  a  Piarist 
college,  and  manufactures  of  linens,  woollens,  jute, 
\-c.      Pop.  5'2.58. 

I>4'itrilll.  a  county  in  the  north-east  of  the  pro- 
vince of  Connaught,  in  Irelaml.  Its  greatest 
length,  north-east  to  south-west,  51  miles;  greatest 
width,  21  miles.  Area,  37t>,212 acres,  or  588  sq.  m., 
of  which  282,400  are  arable,  11  )ier  cent,  barren, 
and  7  per  cent.  bog.  The  county  touches  the  ocean 
on  the  north,  and  is  divided  into  two  |iarts  by 
Lough  Allen  (q.v.),  from  which  the  Shannon  forms 
the  south-west  boniid.'iry  of  the  county.  The 
southern  division  contains  numerous  small  lakes. 
The  northern  division  is  intciscctcd  by  several 
ridges.  To  the  north  of  Lough  Allen  the  soil, 
except  at  rare  intervals,  is  unfavourable  for  agri- 
culture, and  the  climate  damj)  and  ungenial. 
Leitrim  is  more  a  grazing  than  a  tillage  district, 
53  iier  cent,  of  its  area  being  glass  land.  Potatoes 
and  oats  are  the  only  criqis  of  consequence. 
Coal  is  found  in  the  Lough  ."Mien  biusin  :  and 
iron  and  lead  ores  are  abundant,  although 
mining  operations  arc^  very  sparingly  carried  on. 
Linens  and  coarse  woollens  are  manufactured  for 
domestic  use.  The  county  town  is  Carrick-on- 
Shannon.      Leitrim   returns  two   mendjers.      Poi>. 


LEKIN 


LEMMING 


571 


1S41)  155.297:  (18G1)  104,744;  (1881)  90,372; 
I IS91 )  7S,6I.S.  Leitriiii  wa-s  reiluoed  by  tlie  Eiifilisli 
in  the  rei^;ii  i>f  Eli/;ilii'tli.  l>ut  levcilted  in  1588,  siil)- 
mittiug once  more  in  1UU3.  The  confiscations  «hicli 
lolloweil  tlie  Civil  War  practically  extingnished  the 
]iative  proprietary  and  tlie  family  of  (I  Koiirk  to 
whom  it  had  once  belonj;ed. 

Lekill  (  Li-hin  ),  the  transit  duos  of  China  ( q.  v. ). 

Leiaild,  Charles  Godfrey,  an  American 
antlior,  \v;is  horn  in  Phil.adelphia,  15th  Auj;ust 
1824,  graduated  at  Princeton  in  lS4(i,  and  after- 
wards studied  at  Heidelberg,  Munich,  and  Paris. 
He  wa-s  admitted  to  the  Philadeliihia  bar  in  1851, 
but  turned  from  law  to  journalism.  From  1809  he 
resided  chietiy  in  England,  .and  investigated  the 
language  and  customs  of  the  Gypsies,  a  subject  on 
which  between  187.3  and  1890  he  jmblished  four 
valuable  works.  Leland  is  most  widely  known, 
however,  for  his  dialect  poems  in  '  Pennsylvania 
Dutch,'  the  famous  Hans  Breitmann  Ballads 
(1871).  Other  works  are  The  Pod r;/  and  Mystery 
of  Dreams  (1855),  Meister  Karl's  Sketch-book 
(1855),  Legends  of  Birds  (1864),  Fit-Sang  (1875), 
Algonquin  Legends  ( 1884),  Etruscan  Remains  and 
Popular  Tradition  (1892),  Hans  Breitmann  in 
TV/ro/ ( 1895),  besides  a  translation  of  Heine.  See 
his  autol>iogra|ihical  Memoirs  ( 189.3). 

Leiaild.  John,  horn  in  London  about  1506. 
was  ciiucated  at  St  Paul's,  then  at  Christ's, 
Cambridge,  and  All  Souls',  Oxford.  He  became 
chaplain  to  Henry  VIII.,  who  in  15,33  commissioned 
him  as  '  king's  antiquary,'  with  power  to  search  for 
records  of  antiquity  in  the  cathedrals,  colleges, 
abbeys,  and  priories  of  England.  The  next  six 
years  he  devoted  to  his  tour  with  unresting  dili- 
gence, and  collecteil  '  a  whole  world  of  tilings  very 
memorable,'  to  the  arrangement  of  which  he  gave 
the  remainder  of  his  life.  His  church  preferments 
were  the  rectories  of  Pofeling,  in  the  marches  of 
Calais,  and  Haseley  in  Oxfordshire,  a  canonry  of 
King's  College  (now  Christ  Church),  Oxford,  and 
a  prebend  of  Salisbury.  His  la-st  five  years  were 
darkened  by  insanity,  from  which  he  found  relief 
in  death,  April  18,  1.5.52.  He  had  laboured  in  vain 
with  gigantic  industry  to  arrange  and  digest  his 
vast  collection  of  materials,  into  which  burrowed 
his  sncces.«ors,  Stow,  Camden,  William  Burton, 
and  Dugdale. 

ilost  of  his  papers  are  now  in  the  Bodleian  and  British 
Museum.  Besides  his  Commentarii  de  Scriptorihus  Bri- 
tannicis  (ed.  by  Anthony  Hall,  2  vols.  1709),  his  chief 
remaining  works  are  The  Itinerary  (ed.  by  Thomas 
Hearne,  9  vols.  1710-12)  and  De  Jifbus  Britannicis  Cot- 
Icctanfa  (ed.  by  Hearne,  6  vols.  1715).  For  his  life,  see 
the  Lireg  of  Ltland,  Hearne,  and  Wood,  edited  by  W. 
Huddesford(2  vols.  1772). 

Lclsind.  John,  an  eminent  ISth-century  Eng- 
lish a|)ologist  for  Christianity,  wa-s  born  at  Wigan, 
in  Lanciusliire,  in  1691,  and  educated  at  Dublin, 
where  he  was  a  Presbyterian  minister  from  1716 
till  his  death  in  1766.  His  first  jmblication  wius  A 
Defence  of  Christianity  ( 17.33),  in  answer  to  Tindal's 
ileistical  work,  Christianity  as  Uld  as  the  Creation. 
Thi-s  wa-s  followed  by  2'he  Divine  Authority  of  the 
Old  and  New  Testaments,  in  answer  to  ^Io^gan's 
Moral  Philosopher.  Hi.s  most  imiiortant  work  is 
.1  View  of  the  Prineipal  Dcistical  ll'ritrrs  that  hare 
appeared  in  England  (1754-.56).  Leland  wa.s,  in 
Leslie  Stephen's  phrjuse,  the  '  most  worthy,  pains- 
taking, and  commonplace  of  divines,'  and  many 
more  than  the  few  that  read  it  still  regard  his 
work  as  a  .satisfactory  demolition  of  deism.  To 
his  Discourses  on  Various  Subjects  (4  vols.  1768- 
89)  was  prelixed  a  Life. 

Leiy.  SiK  Pktkr,  painter.  wa.s  the  son  of  Captain 
Van  der  Fae.s,  nicknamed  Du  Lys,  or  Leiy,  from 
having  been  bom  in  a  house  the  front  of  which  wa-s 


decorated  with  a  flcnr-de-lis.  The  future  painter 
was  born  at  Socst.  in  \\'estplialia,  in  16IS.  lie 
settled  in  London  in  1641  ami  took  to  portrait- 
painting,  having  hitherto  essayed  landscapes  and 
historical  subjects.  He  was  employed  successively 
by  Charles  I.,  Cromwell,  and  Ciiarles  II..  the  last 
of  whom  nominated  him  court-painter  and  con- 
ferred on  him  the  honour  of  knighthood.  From 
the  death  of  Vandyck  he  was  the  first  painter 
of  the  day  in  England  down  to  the  arrival  of 
Kneller.  Lely,  'a  mighty  pnnid  man,  and  full  of 
state'  (Pejiys),  had  great  skill  in  execution,  especi- 
ally in  painting  female  portraits,  though  he  failed 
to  m.aster  the  secrets  of  individuality.  His  best- 
known  |iieces,  apart  from  portraits  of  his  royal 
jiati'ons,  are  the  Beauties  of  the  court  of  Charles 
II.  at  Hampton  Court.  He  died  in  London  in 
1680. 

Leiiinii.  Lake.    See  Geneva  (Lake  ok). 

Le  .linns.     See  Mans. 

Leinberg  (formerly  Lciirenburg ;  Polish  name 
'Lwow'),  the  capital  of  the  Austrian  kingdom  of 
(Jalicia  and  Lodonieria,  is  situated  on  a  small 
tributary  of  the  Bute,  in  a  nanow  basin  among 
hills,  212  miles  E.  of  Cracow.  It  is  defended  by 
a  citadel,  around  which  the  modern  town  lias 
grown  up.  Pop.  (1869)  87.109  :  (  1890)  128,419,  ot 
whom  about  40,000  are  Jews,  ^^  hilst  nearly  100,000 
speak  Polish.  Lemlieig  is  the  seat  of  a  lloni.an 
Catholic,  a  Greek  United,  and  an  Armenian 
archbishop,  and  has  nearly  thirty  churches  and 
several  monasteries ;  in  the  17th  century  .and 
earlier  it  was  called  the  'town  of  the  monks.' 
Severiil  of  the  churches  are  fine  buildings,  .as  the 
Dominican,  which  contains  a  gre.atly  vener.ated 
image  of  the  Virgin  ;  the  Greek  cathedral,  built 
in  tlie  Italian  style  in  1740-79  :  the  Gothic  Kom.an 
Catholic  cathedral  (1350-1460) ;  and  the  Armenian 
cathedral,  dating  from  the  14tli  century.  The  uni- 
versity, founded  in  1784  and  reorganised  in  1817, 
ha.s  more  than  900  students.  Its  library  contains 
86,000  volumes  and  470  MSS.  Here  .also  is  the 
seat  of  the  national  institute  founded  (1817)  by 
Ossolinski,  with  a  library  of  81,000  volumes  and 
3000  MSS.,  chieiiy  of  Polisli  literature,  and  large 
collections  of  med.als,  coins,  antiquities,  paintings, 
engravings,  &c.  There  is  a  considerable  trade  in 
Hax,  hemp,  cloth,  leather,  and  agricultural  pro- 
ducts. The  niannf.actures  embrace  machinery, 
earthenware,  oil,  beer,  i*i;c.  Foundeil  in  12.59, 
Leniberg  w;is  an  imi)ortant  city  of  Poland  from 
1;J40.  It  has  been  several  times  besieged,  on  the 
la.st  occasion  in  1848.  It  fell  to  Austria  at  the 
tirst  partition  of  Poland. 

LeiUluillK  (Myodes),  a  genus  of  rodents,  nearly 
allied  to  voles,  but  with  much  shmter  eai"s  and 
tail,  larger  and  stronger  claws,  and  a  heavier  body. 
The  most  noted  s]iecies  is  .1/.  Imtmus,  an  animal 
about  the  size  of  a  rat,  with  variegated  black  and 
tawny  fur,  an  inhabitant  of  the  northern  Scandi- 
navian mountains,  where  it  ordinarily  feeds  on 
reindeer-moss  and  other  lichens,  gr.iss,  catkins  of 
birch,  iV'c.  Bleeding  several  times  in  the  course  of 
a  year,  .and  producing  four  or  live  at  a  birth,  it 
multiplies  so  much  that,  periodically,  v.ost  troops 
migrate  from  their  native  mountains.  They  pro- 
ceed persistently  in  a  straight  line  (according  to 
some  alw.ays  westwards ),  swimming  rivers,  cross- 
ing mountains,  entering  towns,  devouring,  breed- 
ing, anil  dying  as  they  hurry  on.  They  move 
clued v  in  the  niglit  or  early  morning.  Bears, 
wolves,  foxes,  lynxes,  hawks,  and  owls  follow  and 
prey  upon  them,  .and  most  of  the  survivors  finally 
drown  thcnisehcs  in  the  sea.  thus  pitifully  re- 
ailjusting  the  balance  between  iiopiil.ation  and 
subsistence.  For  ingenious  tliecuies  and  curious 
details  alH>ut  the  migration,  see  Romanes,  Mental 


572 


LEMNOS 


LEMON 


Evolution  in  Animals  (1883).  In  times  of  preva- 
lent superstition  lemmin<rs  were  often  exorciseil 
by  tlie  priests,  and  tlie  peasantry  of  Norway 
supposed  tlieni  to  fall   from   the  clouds.     During 


Lemming  {Miiodes  lemmus). 

the  Ice  A"e  tlie  lemming  extended  as  far  south  as 
the  Alps,  liut  it  now  is  distinctly  arctic.  An  allied 
species  [31.  ufiensis)  occurs  in  Siberia  and  North 
America.  Another  quite  distinct '  lemming'  (  Cioii- 
cuius  forffKritnx},  inhabiting  the  arctic  regions  of 
both  hemispheres,  turns  white  in  winter. 

Lcilino.S  a  Turkish  island  in  the  northern 
part  of  the  .Egean  Sea,  is  situated  40  miles  SE. 
of  Mount  Atlios  and  about  the  same  distance  S\V. 
of  the  Dardanelles.  It  is  nearly  split  in  two  by 
a  large  bay  on  the  south  coa.st  and  anotlier  nn  the 
north  coast.  The  interior  consists  of  an  undulating 
plateau.  None  of  the  hills  exceed  1400  feet  in 
height.  Area,  180  s().  m.  ;  pop.  about  .SO, 000,  all 
Greeks,  except  5000  Turks.  Tlie  principal  pro- 
ducts are  corn,  wine,  and  tobacco.  In  antiijuity 
and  all  through  tlie  middle  ages  tlie  most  notable 
producit  of  the  island  was  the  '  Lemnian  earth '  or 
'sealed  earth,'  which  was  in  general  request  as  an 
antidote  ag.ainst  snake-bites,  also  as  a  remedy  in 
cases  of  plague,  dysentery,  &c.  It  was  extracted 
only  on  one  day  in  the  year,  August  6,  with  an 
accompaninient  of  religions  ceremonies,  from  a 
spot  near  the  ruined  site  of  the  ancient  city 
Hepha'stia,  in  the  north-east  of  the  island.  It 
has  now  gone  out  of  repute,  and  very  little  is 
extracted  every  year.  It  consisted  of  silex  to  the 
extent  of  two  parts  in  three,  with  some  ,aluiiiina, 
oxide  of  iron,  w.-itcr,  an<l  natron.  In  .ancient  times 
the  island  is  stated  to  have  possessed  an  active 
volcano  ;  at  the  (iresent  date  there  exist  no  traces 
of  volcanic  action.  Lesbos  was  regarded  by  the 
Greeks  as  sacred  to  Heplia'stus.  It  was  comiuered 
by  the  Persians  in  the  reign  of  Darius  Ilystasjies  ; 
but  Miltiades  wrested  it  from  them  for  the 
Athenians.  In  16.57  it  passed  into  the  bands  of 
the  Turks,  from  the  Venetians.  Tiie  chief  town 
is  Kastro  (the  ancient  .Myrina),  a  fortilied  place 
on  the  west  coast,  with  .'iOOO  inhaliitants.  Lemnos 
is  a  place  of  banishment  for  Turkish  political 
otlenilers.  See  Tozer's  Islands  of  the  Mgian 
(1S90). 

Lo  .lloilie,  .James  MacPhersox,  Canadian 
author,  was  born  in  t^uebec,  '24th  J.anu.ary  \'S'27>, 
and  practised  as  a  successful  barrister  there  for 
some  years,  but  quitted  the  active  work  of  bis  pro- 
fession in  18.58,  on  being  appointed  superintendent 
of  Inland  Hevenue  at  t^uebec.  He  writes  with 
equal  facility  in  Kiiglish  or  Krench,  and  is  the 
most  prolific  author  that  Canada  has  produce<l. 
He  has  made  special  studies  of  ornithology,  ardue- 
ology,  and  other  branches  of  science  j  and  liLs  works 


er  thirty  in   number — include  some  valuable 
sketches  of  Canadian  history. 

Lcilioilllie.  doilN  Emii.i;,  Eremh  journalist, 
was  born  in  Lonilon  on  17th  Octolier  1815  of 
French  parents,  and  joined  the  stafl'of  the  Journal 
dcs  Debats  as  English  correspondent  in  1840.  Sub 
sequently  he  was  appointed  editor  of  that  news- 
]iapcr,  and  guideil  it  skilfully  and  succe.-;sfully 
through  all  the  vicissitudes  of  political  strife.  In 
1870  he  was  elected  a  member  of  the  Academy,  and 
in  1888  a  life  senator.  He  died  14th  December  189'2. 
His  Jitudcs  Critiqnes  (18,5'2)  and  Noufellcs  i,'/udes 
( l.SlVi)  contain    specimens  of  his  best  style. 

LoillOIU  the  fruit  of  a  small  tree  {Citnis 
Limonum)  belonging  to  the  same  natural  order  as 
the  Orange  (Anrantiaccir).  The  general  character 
of  the  leaves  and  flowers  and  fruit  of  the  IcMKmtree 
is  so  well  illustrated  in  the  accompanying  cut  that 
description  may  be  dispensed  with.  There  arc  many 
varieties  of  the  lemon,  but  they  may  all  be  in- 
cluded under  the  following  four  <listinct  types  :  ( 1 ) 
The  Commim  or  Genoa  Lemon,  which  is  tlie  most 
plentiful  in  the  shops.  (2)  The  Thin-skinned  Lemon, 
which  is  of  large  size,  having  a  thin  smooth  .shining 
fragrant  rind,  with  an  almost  entire  absence  of 
white  spongv  matter  beneath  it.  The  pulp  is  very 
delicate  and  juicy,  with  a  delicious  aroma.  (3) 
The  Sweet  Lemon,  which,  while  having  the  ex- 
ternal appearance  of  the  lemon,  has  the  pulp  sweet 
like  that  of  the  orange.  (4)  The  Citron  Lemon,  or 
the  Ligurian   Lemon  of  commerce.     It  is  a  large 


I 


Lemon  ( Citrus  Limonum ). 

oblong  fruit,  with  a  thick  rough  warted  rind,  which 
is  eatable.  The  pulp,  however,  is  the  least  delicate 
of  all  lemons. 

The  iieculiar  and  grateful  flavour  of  the  juice  of 
the  lemon  is  mainly  due  to  citric  acid.  It  forms, 
when  properly  diluted,  an  agreeable  and  refreshing 
drink  (see  Lkmonade),  and  is  useful  in  febrile  and 
inflammatory  di.seiu^es.  The  most  valuable  of  its 
properties,  however,  is  the  prevention  and  cure 
of  scurvy  ;  hence  it  or  the  very  similar  lime-juice 
(see  Ll.ME)  is  an  important  article  in  sea  stores. 
The  well-known  uses  of  the  rind,  either  fresh  or 
preserved,  in  the  cook's  and  the  confectioner's  arts 
for  flavouring  and  ornamenting  dishes,  cakes,  and 
candies  need  only  be  alluded  to,  to  show  the  im- 
portance of  the  lemon  to  civilised  man.  The  essen- 
tial oil  (see  lielow)  is  obtained  from  the  rind.  The 
lemon  is  largely  cultivated  in  all  the  warmer 
countries  of  the  south  of  Euro])e  and  those  border- 
ing on  the  Me<literrancan,  and  it  is  naturalised  in 
.some  parts  of  South  America  and  in  the  East  and 


LEMON 


LEMURES 


573 


West  Indies,  and  in  parts  of  Australia.  See  Bon- 
avia,  'I'he  Cii/tirtitci/  Oriimjes  and  Lemons  of  India 
■ind  Cei/lun(lS90). 

The  Oil  or  Essence  of  Lemons  is  extracted  from 
the  fresli  lemon  peel  either  by  pressure  or  hy  dis- 
tillation. The  former  is  the  usual  method.  The 
peel,  removeil  from  the  fruit,  is  bent  so  as  to  rupture 
tlie  oil  vesicles,  and  the  oil  is  collecteil  in  sponges, 
or  the  peel  is  sometimes  riusi)ed  with  short  needles, 
and  the  exuding  oil  collected.  The  yield  is  vari- 
able, amounting  on  the  average  to  10  oz.  of  oil  from 
400  fruits.  The  oil  has  the  same  composition  as 
tliat  of  turpentine — viz.  Ci„H,6,  hut  it  contains  a 
small  cjuantity  of  cyniene  and  other  oils.  While  it 
is  often  adulterated  with  turpentine,  there  is  no 
doubt  that  the  fragrant  portion,  even  in  genuine 
oil,  can  be  removed,  leaving  about  90  per  cent,  of 
liquid  having  a  decided  turpentine  odour.  This 
fragrant  portion,  according  to  some  authorities,  is 
an  oxygenated  substance,  and  therefore  ditfei's 
distinctly  from  the  bulk  of  the  oil,  which  has  the 
composition  pre\iously  stated.  Its  chief  use  is  as  a 
flavouring  agent,  the  ordinary  essence  of  lemon  of 
the  shops  consisting  of  a  solution  of  the  oil  in 
alcohol.  It  also  enters  into  most  perfumes,  such 
as  eau  de  Cologne,  \c. 

The  so-called  Salt  of  Lemons,  or  Salt  of  Sorrel,  is 
the  binoxalate  of  potash.     See  Oxalic  Acid. 

LeniUU,  Mat.K,  born  in  Loudon,  ."0th  Xovember 
1S09,  was  educated  at  Cheara  near  Kiisom,  and 
in  1835  wrote  a  farce,  the  lirst  of  a  Ion"  series 
of  lueloJranias,  operetta-s,  iVc.  He  produced,  more- 
over, several  novels  ( the  best,  perhaps,  F'alkner Li/le, 
1866),  children's  stories,  and  essays,  and  appeared 
as  a  lecturer  and  public  reader.  In  18-tl  he  helped 
to  establish  Punch  (q.v.),  of  which  for  the  first  two 
years  he  was  joint-editor  with  Henry  Mayhew,  and 
thereafter  sole   editor  till  his  death,   which   took 

5 lace  at   Crawley,    Sussex,   23d   May    1870.      See 
osepli    Hatton's    Reminiscences  of  Mark  Lemon 
(1871). 

Lemonade  is  formed  by  adding  two  lemons 
sliced,  and  two  ounces  of  white  sugar,  to  a  rpiart 
of  boiling  water,  ami  digesting  till  cold.  It  is  a 
useful  drink  for  allaying  thirst,  and  a.s  a  refrigerant 
in  febrile  and  inHammatory  complaints,  and  in 
luemorrhage,  in  which  cases  it  should  be  given  iced. 
Aerated  Water  (q. v. )  flavoured  with  sugar  and 
essence  of  lemons  is  also  called  lemonade. 

LeiIIOII-gra.SS  (Andropogon,  schicnanthus),  a 
perennial  gra,ss,  a  native  of  In<lia,  Arabia,  &c., 
three  to  four  feet  high,  and  possessing  a  strong 
lemon-like  fragrance.  .\n  essential  oil  is  obtained 
from  it  which  is  used  in  perfumery.  See  Gr.\SS- 
01 L. 

Le  Moyne,  Ch.^RLES,  French  ])ioneer,  was  born 
in  Normandy  in  1626,  and,  piDceeding  to  Canada  in 
1641,  lived  among  the  Huron  tribe  of  Indians,  and 
foui'ht  with  the  Iroquois.  In  1068  Louis  XIV. 
made  him  .Seigneur  de  Longueuil,  and  afterwards 
also  de  Chateaugiiay.  He  was  for  some  years 
captain  of  Montreal,  and  ilied  in  I6s.'i.  Of  liLs 
eleven  sons,  nearly  all  became  distinguished.  The 
eldest,  Charles,  Baron  de  Longueuil,  was  born  in 
16.56,  and  in  his  youth  served  in  the  Krcnch  army. 
He  was  made  governor  of  Montreal  and  liaron  in 
1700,  and  became  commandant  general  of  the 
colony.  He  ilied  at  Montreal  in  1729.  His 
descendant,  Charles  Colmor  (Jraiit,  had  his 
Canaflian  title  of  seventh  Baron  de  Longueuil 
Kfficially  recognised  by  the  Queen  in  1S80. 
.Vnother  son,  Jose^>ll,  became  an  otlicer  in  the 
French  navy,  and  in  1694-97  brought  ves.sels  to 
Hudson  Bay  to  co oper.-itt;  with  land  forces  under 
Ills  brother  Iberville.  He  subsequently  conveyed 
colonists  U)  Ix>uisiana,  surveyed  its  coast,  and 
aided  in  capturing  I'ensacola. 


Leilipriire,  .Iohn,  was  born  in  Jersey  about 
176o,  and  ciluiatcd  at  Winclieslcr  and  PembioUe 
College,  Oxford,  lie  was  in  luiii  liead-niaster  of 
Abingdon  and  Exeter  grammar-schools,  rector  of 
Meeth  in  Devonshire  ami  of  Newton-Petrock,  and 
died  February  1,  1824.  His  famous  Classical  Die- 
tionarij  ( 1792 )  remained  for  many  years  the  standard 
work  of  reference  in  England  on  ancient  mythology, 
biography,  and  geography.  Another  work  of  Lem- 
prierc's  was  Viuccrsal  Bioijrajjhy  (1808). 

Lemur  (Lat.  lemur,  'a  ghost'),  a  genus  which 
has  given  its  name  to  a  large  group  of  mammals, 
the  lemurs.  These  animals  appear  to  stand  be- 
tween the  Insectivoraand  the  monkeys.  The  hand 
with  an  opposable  thumb  is  fashioned  after  that  of 
the  monkeys,  but  in  most  structural  features  they 
either  show  atfinitics  to  lower  grou])s  or  are  peculiar. 
The   German  name,   '  Halb-Aflen  '  ( '  Half-.Vpes'), 


Ring-tailed  Lemur  ( Lemur  catta ). 

as  also  the  term  '  I'rosimii,'  which  has  been  applied 
to  the  group,  indicates  its  position  at  the  base  of 
the  Primates.  The  Lemurs  are  forest-dwellers,  and 
mainly  nocturnal  in  their  habits.  They  can  be  for 
the  most  part  readily  tamed.  One  of  the  chief 
points  of  interest  attaching  to  the  group  is  its  pecu- 
liar geographical  distribution.  By  far  the  major- 
ity of  the  genera  are  confined  to  the  island  of  Mada- 
gascar ;  a  few  forms  are  found  in  the  Orient,  and 
on  the  African  continent.  Their  range  from  Malaya 
to  Madagascar  has  been  accounted  for  by  the  sup- 
posed former  existence  of  a  continent  (for  which  the 
name  'Lemuria'  was  projxjscd  by  Mr  Sclater) 
connecting  these  now  widely-.separated  regions. 
Undoubted  remains  of  tlie.se  animals  have,  how- 
ever, been  found  in  Kurope  and  in  America ;  this 
of  course  indicates  their  wider  range  in  ancient 
times  ;  the  isolation  of  genera  at  the  present  day 
is  therefore  probably  clue  to  the  disappearance  of 
forms  occupying  the  intermediate  liacts  of  country, 
and  no  Lenniria  is  necc.s.sary.  liesiiles  Lemur,  the 
"enera  Imlris,  Pro|jithecus,  Ilapalemur,  Sepilemur 
Cheirogaleus,  and  the  curious  and  aberrant  Cheir- 
omys  (see  Aye-.WE)  are  confined  to  Mailagascar. 
The  Angwangtilo  (Arctocebus)  and  Peroilicticus 
and  Oalago  (q.v.)  are  .\frican.  TIk;  Tarsier  and 
Nycticebu-^  are  found  in  Malava,  and  the  Loris  in 
Ceylon.  Some  of  the  fo.ssil  ^orms  show  allinities 
with  the  Insectivora,  others  with  the  Ungulata. 

Le'llllires,  the  general  designation  given  by  the 
Kiiiiians  to  all  spirits  of  dcparli'd  persons,  of  whom 
the  good  were  honoured  ius  J. arcs  (ii.v.),  and  the 
batl  (Larvte)  were  feared  as  capable  ui  their  night 


574 


LEMURIA 


LKNORMANT 


journeys  of  exerting  a  malignant  influence  upon 
mortals.  The  festival  called  Lcmun'a  was  lii'lil  on 
the  'Jth,  11th,  anil  l.Sth  of  May,  ami  was  accom- 
panied with  ceremonies  of  washing;  hands,  throwini;; 
black  licaiis  over  the  head,  <.S:c. ,  and  the  [ironuncia- 
tion  nine  times  of  tliese  words :  '  Bej^one,  you 
spectres  of  the  house  ! '  wliich  deprived  the  lemures 
of  their  power  to  harm.  Ovid  describes  the  Lemuria 
in  tlie  lifth  l)ook  of  liis  Fasti. 

Li'lllliriu.    See  Lemlk. 

LciISI^  a  river  of  eastern  Siberia,  rises  amid  the 
mountains  on  the  north-west  shore  of  Lake  Baikal, 
in  the  government  of  Irkutsk,  Hows  tirst  north-eiu-t 
to  the  town  of  Yakutsk,  where  it  is  6i  miles  wide, 
then  north  to  tlic  Arctic  Ocean,  into  wliich  it  falls 
by  several  mouths,  formini;  a  delta  '250  miles  wide. 
Its  course  is  3000  miles  in  len^'th,  the  area  of  its 
basin  772,000  sq.  ni.  Its  chief  affluents  are  the 
Vilui  (1300  miles)  on  the  left,  and  the  Vitim 
(1400),  the  Olekraa  (SOO),  and  the  Aldan  (1300) 
on  the  right.  Navigation  on  the  Lena  is  o]ien 
from  Yakutsk  upwards  from  M,ay  till  October. 
During  spring  tlie  waters  of  the  river  regularly 
overflow  their  banks.  The  Lena  is  a  priiici]ial 
artery  of  the  trade  of  eastern  Siberia.  The  river- 
ine sand  of  the  Vitim  and  Oleknia  yields  richly 
in  gold  ;  salt,  coal,  iron,  copper,  and  argentiferous 
lead  exist.  Large  ((uantities  of  mammoth  ivory 
have  been  found  in  the  delta.  See  G.  W.  Melville's 
In  the  Lena  Delta  { 1SS5). 

Leiiail,  Nicoi.AUs,  the  pen-name  of  NlC0L,\u.s 
NiK.Mii.scil  vox  Stkichlexau,  German  poet,  who 
was  born  at  C'zatad,  near  Temesvar  in  Hungary, 
13th  August  1802,  an<l  studied  law,  then  medicine, 
at  Vienna.  But  his  was  a  '  melancholy  nature  ;  the 
conn)ass  of  his  soul  ever  trembled  back  to  the  pain 
of  lite.'  Although  a  num  of  deep  feeling,  and  with 
a  good  deal  of  the  true  lyric  inspiration,  his  life 
wa,s  rendered  unhappy  by  his  morbid  )ioetic  dis- 
content. In  1S32  he  travelled  to  the  United  States, 
hojjing  to  lind  there  the  peace  and  satisfaction 
which  he  could  not  get  in  Europe  ;  but  he  returned 
in  the  following  year  a  still  further  disappointed 
man.  From  tliis  time  he  lived  alternately  in 
Vienna  and  in  Stuttgart,  in  the  latter  city  in  close 
intimacy  with  the  writers  nf  the  Swabian  school 
(Schwab,  Kerner,  Mayer).  On  the  eve  of  his 
marriage  in  18-t4,  he  was  suddenly  struck  down  by 
insanity  ;  he  lived  in  an  .asylum  at  Oberdobling 
near  Vienna  until  his  death, On  22d  August  18o0. 
Lenau's  poetic  power  is  shown  to  best  advantage 
in  his  sh<H-t  lyric  etrusions,  especially  those  (e.g. — 
Sehitflicder)  associateil  with  the  land  of  his  birth. 
His  best  longer  jiieces,  as  Faust  ( 1836),  Sacuiiavola 
(1837),  Die  Albiuenser  (1842),  cannot  claim  the 
merits  of  artistic  completeness  and  unity,  in  sjnte 
of  the  rich  fancy  and  feeling,  anil  the  tiery  temiier 
of  the  poet,  dis]>layed  in  individual  passages.  Ills 
Sdiiiintlirlie  Werhe  appeared  in  4  vols,  in  1855,  with 
a  biography  by  Aiuistasius  Criin.  See  Lives  by 
Schnrz  ( 18,55)  ;iiid  Frankl  ( 1885). 

Loiiclos,  NiNDN  l)K,  one  of  those  characters 
that  could  have  ap])eared  oidy  in  the  French  society 
of  the  17th  century,  was  born  of  good  family  at 
Paris.  15th  May  lUlC.  Even  as  a  child  she  wa.s 
remarkable  for  her  beauty  and  grace.  She  was 
carefully  educatt^l,  spoke  several  foreign  languages, 
excelled  in  nmsic  and  dancing,  and  had  a  great 
fund  of  sharp  and  lively  wit.  At  the  age  of  ten 
she  read  Montaigne's  Essays.  Six  years  later  she 
commenced  her  long  career  of  licentious  gallantry 
by  an  amour  with  the  Conite  do  Chatillon— to 
whom  succeeded  innumerable  favourites,  but  never 
more  than  one  at  a  time.  Among  her  lovers  we 
nniy  mention  the  Marciuis  de  Villareeaux,  (he 
Marquis  cle  Sevignc,  the  great  Conde,  the  Due 
de    Larochefoucauld,    Marshal    d'Albret,    Marshal  , 


d'Estrees,  the  Abbi  d'Effiat,  and  La  Chatre.  She 
had  two  sons,  but  never  showed  in  regard  to  them 
the  slightest  instinct  of  maternity.  The  fate  of 
one  was  horrible.  Brought  up  in  ignorance  of  his 
mother,  he  followed  the  rest  of  the  world,  and  con- 
ceived a  passion  for  her.  When  she  informed  him 
of  the  relation  that  subsisted  between  them,  the 
unhappy  youth  was  seized  with  horror,  anil  blew 
out  his  brains  in  a  frenzy  of  remorse — a  calamity 
which  did  not  seriously  affect  Ninon.  She  was 
nearly  as  celebrated  for  her  manners  as  for  her 
beauty.  The  most  lespectable  women  sent  their 
children  to  her  house  to  a<'(|nire  tiiste,  style,  jiolite- 
ness.  So  great  was  her  nqmtation  that,  when 
t^ueen  Christina  of  Sweden  came  to  Paris,  she  said 
she  w  ished  particularly  to  visit  the  French  Academy 
and  Ninon  de  Lenclos.  We  may  gather  some  idea 
of  her  wit  and  sense  from  the  fact  that  Laroche- 
foucauld consulted  her  npon  his  maxims,  Molicre 
j  upon  his  comedies,  and  Scarron  upon  his  romances. 
She  ilied  17th  October  1706,  at  the  age  of  ninety, 
having  preserved  some  remains  of  her  beauty 
ahuost  to  the  last.  Mirecourt's  Memoircs  is  a 
romance  ;  the  letters  attributed  to  her  are  mostly 
spurious,  but  there  is  a  notice  of  her  letters  to  St 
Evremond  in  Sainte-Beuve's  Caii.ieries  du  Lundi. 
See  also  Capeligue's  Ninon  de  Lenclos  ( Paris,  1864). 

Lencorail,  a  Russian  seaport  on  the  Caspian 
Sea,  130  miles  S.  of  Baku.  In  the  vicinity  are 
celebrated  sulphur-springs.  Pop.  5540.  It  was 
surrendered  to  Ku.ssia  by  Persia  in  1813.  Excava- 
tions carried  on  here  in  1890  yielded  important 
prehistoric  remains. 

LeiK'Ziza.  an  ancient  Polish  town,  SO  miles 
WSW.  of  Warsaw.     Pop.  15,546. 

Lending.    See  Loan. 

Lennep.  a  town  of  Rhenish  Prussia,  18  miles 
E.  of  Diisseldorf  and  9  S.  of  Barmen,  with  manu- 
factures of  cloth,  iron,  &c.     Pop.  8844. 

Lcnneu,  .lACon  van,  born  at  Amsterdam, 
25lh  .March  1802,  i^  proudly  called  by  his  country- 
men the  "Walter  Scott  of  Holland.'  The  .son  of 
a  professor  of  rhetoric  w ho  was  distinguished  as  a 
Latinist  and  as  a  ]ioet,  he  was  educated  f(jrthebar, 
pas.sed  as  a  barrister,  and  soon  achieved  a  great 
reputation  for  legal  knowledge.  Yet  witliout 
neglecting  his  extensive  practice  he  for  more  than 
thirty  years  cultivated  literatuie  with  assiduity 
and  success.  Lennep  first  ajqicared  ,as  an  author 
shortly  before  1830  in  a  work  on  national  legends, 
immediately  followed  by  his  comedies.  His  most 
popular  works  have  been  comedies,  Ilet  Durji  aan 
die  lirenzen  and  Jlet  Durji  urer  die  Grenzen.  Of 
his  numerous  novels  several  (including  The  Hose  of 
Tkkania  and  'I'he  Adoiited  ,S(/» )  have  been  trans- 
lated into  English,  French,  and  (Icrnian.  He 
wrote  much  for  the  stage,  translated  from  Hyron 
and  other  English  poets,  ami  |iublished  a  Dutch 
history  for  the  young.      He  died  August  25,  1868. 

Lennox  {Lennaehs,  '  lields  of  the  Leven  ' ),  an 
anciciil  Scottish  tenilory,  c(imii]i>ing  the  basin  of 
the  Leven  and  Loch  Linnond — the  whole  of  Dum- 
bartonshire, great  part  of  Stirlingshire,  and  por- 
tions of  Perth  anil  Kenfiew  shires.  It  gave  name 
to  an  earldom  (1174  I5S1  ),  and  then  to  a  dukedom, 
conferred  by  Charles  II.  (q.v.)  in  1680  on  one  of  his 
illegitimate  sons,  Cliailcs,  Duke  of  Richmond  and 
Lenniix,  wlm  in  1702  .~old  ibe  l.enno.v  e.--tates  to 
the  Marquis  (if  Montru.se.  Sec  (ioiiDoN;  ami  The 
Lenno.e,  by  Sir  W.  Fra.ser  (3  vol.s.  1874). 

Lenno\tO>rn.  a  village  of  Stirlingshire,  11 
miles  N.  by  K.  of  (Hasgow  by  rail,  with  bleach- 
works,  ]i]int-works,  and  alum-works.     Pop.  2838. 

Lenorniaut.  Fka.Ncois,  an  archaologist  and 
.scholar  of  altogether  exceptional  genius,  was  born 
in   i'aris,  17th  January   1837,   the  son  of  Charles 


LENS 


LENSES 


575 


Lenomiant  ( 1802-59),  himself  profoundly  learned  in 
Egyptology,  nmnisniatics,  and  archiiMAogy  gener- 
ally, moreover,  a  fearless  defemler  of  tlie  faith. 
The  boy  w;is  early  initiated  into  the  studies  of  his 
life,  at  twenty  carrying  ntl'  the  prize  in  nninis- 
maticM  of  the  Acadt'inie  des  Inscriptions  with  his 
Essai  ywr  Al  Chmsijii-iftiuit  ih\i  Jfonudirs  (/f.v  LmjitU'fi 
( lSr>ti ).  At  twenty-three  he  was  digging  at  Eleusis, 
and  his  explorations  he  continued,  in  the  intervals 
of  his  work  as  sublibrarian  at  the  Institute  ( 1862- 
72),  and  professor  of  Archaology  at  the  Bihliotheque 
Nationale  (1874-83),  until  his  robust  health  hnally 
broke  down  in  Calabria  from  sheer  over-work, 
together  with  the  effects  of  a  wound  received  when 
serving  its  a  volunteer  during  the  siege  of  Paris. 
He  returned  to  Paris  to  die — a  true  martyr  to  science 
— December  9,  1883.  I'erhaps  there  was  never  a 
scholar  who  gained  laurels  from  so  many  fields  as 
Lenomiant,  and  certainly  no  man  ever  brought 
to  the  study  of  the  paat  a  greater  combination 
of  exhaustive  learning,  wide  grasp  of  detail,  and 
brilliant  intuition, with  unwearying  enthusiasm  and 
luminous  power  of  exposition.  From  numismatics 
and  arclueology  proper  he  passed  perhaps  too  easily 
to  -Assyriology,  comparative  philology,  ancient 
history,  and  biblical  antiquities  ;  still,  he  has  left 
behind  works  of  the  greatest  interest  and  value  in 
these  widely  ditt'erent  fields.  His  divination  rather 
than  discovary  of  the  existence  of  a  non-Semitic 
element  in  the  language  of  the  cuneiform  inscrip- 
tions— the  Accadian — was  perhaps  Ids  greatest  con- 
tribution to  science,  but  it  would  be  diflicult  to 
overpraise  his  essay  on  the  propagation  of  the  Plue- 
nician  alphabet,  and  his  {jreat  and  brilliant  con- 
structive work — one  of  the  best  attempts  ever  made 
to  buttress  the  historical  value  of  the  early  books 
of  the  Bible — Lcs  Origincs  tic  I'Histoire  d'apris  la 
Bible  (3  vols.  1880-84). 

Other  works  are  Manucf  tCHiKtoirc  Ancicnne  de  rOrient 
(3  vols.  18IW-t;9 ;  9th  ed.  1881,  with  a  4th  vol.  by  Babelon, 
1885);  Lettres  Assi/rioloiiiques  (5  vols.  1871-79);  Les 
Premieres  Cin'hsatioiin  (2  vols.  1874);  Les  Sciences 
Occulted  en  Asie  (2  vols.  1874-75);  La  Monnuic  dans 
FAntiquite  (3  vols.  1878-79);  Monnaies  et  Midailles 
(1883);  and  La  Grande  Grece  (3  vols.  1881-84)  and 
A  travers  fApufie  tt  la  Lucanie  (2  vols.  1883). 

Lens,  a  town  of  France,  in  the  department  of 
Pas-de-C'alais,  1"  miles  by  rail  SW.  from  LUle. 
Here  are  coal-mines,  sugar  factories,  sail-works, 
&c  Pop.  (1891)  13,862.  At  Lens  Conde  defeated 
the  Archduke  Leopold  on  20tli  August  1648. 

Lenses.  A  lens  is  a  piece  of  ghvss  so  shaped  as 
to  refract  rays  of  light  really  or  aiiparently  radiat- 
ing from  a  jxiint,  and  make  them  deviate  so  as  to 
pass,  or  to  travel  on  as  if  they  had  passed,  through 
another  point.  Every  system  of  lenses,  however 
complicated  and  whatever  lie  the  mutual  distances 
of  the  lenseji,  will,  if  the  whole  be  centred  on  a 
common  axis,  inoduce  a  real  image  somewhere  in 
front  of,  or  el.se  will  apjiear  to  luoduce  a  virtual 
image  somewhere  behind,  the  last  refracting  surface. 
The  rays  on  lieing  traced  through  the  complex 
combination — e.g.  a  telescopic — undergo  numerous 
deviations  :  ultimately  there  is  a  deviation  which 
might  have  been  ec|ually  produced  by  an  equivalent 
lens ;  ei|aivalent,  however,  in  no  other  .sense  than 
as  producing  an  equal  ultimate  deviation,  for  the 
image  is  not  formed  in  the  same  place  is  the  single 
'equivalent  lens'  would  have  formed  it  in.  The 
system  of  lenses  is  approximately  equivalent  in  its 
action  to  a  simjde  lens  u/k*  a  determinate  shifting 
of  the  focus.  llencea.simple  lens-diagram,  modilied 
so  ius  to  represent  this  shifting,  will  represent  the 
aggregate  effect  of  the  most  complex  .system  of 
lenses.  When  the  subject  was  looked  at  from  this 
point  of  view  it  was  found  by  (!auss,  followed  up 
by  Listing,  that  the  whole  theory  of  lenses  can 
be  treated  generally ;  the  most  couiple.Y  system  of 


lenses  can  be  replaced  in  every  case  by  a  region  of 
space  traversed  by  the  common  axis  of  the  lenses, 
at  right  angles  to  which  axis  there  are  six  char- 
acteristic iilanes,  the  relative  positions  of  which  to 
some  extent  depend  upon  the  refracting  media  and 
their  forms  iind  mutual  distances,  but  which  also 
juesent  certain  invariable  properties  and  mutual 
relations.  Tlie.se  six  planes  are  ( 1 )  the  incidental 
focal  plane  (F,  lig.  1 ) ;  (2)  the  incidental  iirincipal 
idane,  P,  and  (3)  the  incidental  nodal  plane,  N  ; 
(4,  5,  and  6)  the  refractional  principal,  nodal,  and 
focal  planes,  P',  N',  and  F'.  The  princijial 
properties  of  these  planes  are  :  all  pencils  of  rays 


Fig.  1. 

converrfng  from  any  point  on  the  incidental  focal 
plane  F  (provided  in  this  as  in  all  other  cases 
that  no  ray  is  so  far  from  the  axis  as  to  give  rise 
to  spherical  aberration )  emerge  parallel  to  one 
another ;  conversely,  all  rays  incident  parallel  to 
one  another  come  to  a  focus  at  a  point  in  the 
second  focal  plane  F'.  An  object  on  one  inincijial 
plane,  P,  has  an  equal-sized  image  on  the  other,  P'. 
Any  ray  appearing  on  incidence  to  make  for  the 
point  where  one  nodal  plane,  N,  cuts  the  axis, 
emerges  parallel  to  its  former  course,  but  apparently 
coming  from  the  corresponding  point  in  the  second 
nodal  plane,  N'.  Rays  arriving  parallel  to  the 
axis  pass  on  emergence  through  tlie  axial  point  of 
the  focal  plane  F';  rays  passing  through  the  corre- 
sponding point  in  plane  F  emerge  parallel  to  the 
axis.  These  a.xial  points  are  the  Foci  of  the  lens- 
system.  These  jiroperties  are  diagrammatically 
shown,  with  exaggeration  of  the  distances  of  the 
rays  from  the  axis,  in  tig.  1. 

In  this  diagram  the  six  planes  are  represented 
as  equidistant ;    they  are  generally  not  so ;  their 


I'ig.  2. 

position  has  to  be  calculated.  The  calculation 
(see  Pendlebuiy,  Lenses  and  Si/stcmjs  of  Lenses) 
necessitates  the  use  of  standard  fomiulic  involving 


576 


LENSES 


continued  fractions ;  the  pliysical  principle  under- 
lying these  is  that  the  imaj,'e  (real  or  virtual) 
produced  liy  one  refraetin-;  surface  is  taken  as 
the  object  of  the  next,  and  so  on  in  succession 
until  the  position  ami  deviation  of  the  enierj;ent 
rays  is  estahlished.  Tlie  tixed  relations  between 
the  mutual  distances  of  these  planes  are  :  FN  = 
PF' ;  F'N'  =  PF  :  and  PF  =  PF'/ai,  where  /*  is 
the  ratio  l>etween  the  refractive  index  of  the  linal 
and  that  of  tlie  original  medium.  The  matter  is 
greatly  simplilied  when,  as  in  the  ordinary  case, 
the  linal  and  tlie  original  media  are  the  same  (lens 
or  tehwcope  in  «//■);  then  m  =  1.  each  nodal  plane 
coincides  with  tlie  corresponding  principal  phme,  and 
FP  =  F'P'.  Tlie  diagram  takes  the  form  indicated 
by  lig.  2.  If  we  come  now  to  the  simplest  case, 
that  of  a  single  thick  lens  in  air  (fig.  3),  the 
standard  formula^,  according  to  this  method,  are 
AF  =  -  ixrr'  -  (fi  -  I)  trji^ifi  -~1 )  ;  A'F'  = 
iurr'  -  (M  -  1 )  <»7 A (^  -  1 ) ;  AP  =  -  <r/A  ;  A'P'  = 
-  tr'lh  andPF  =  -  P'F'  =  -  ni-r'/i\{fj.  -  1) ;  where 
A  stands  for  {m('''  -  '')  +  (m  -  1)  t}.  In  these 
formuUe  »■  is  the  radius  of  the  .\  surface,  measured 
towards  the  centre  and  towanls  the  right ;  /■'  that 


Fig. ;'. 

of  the  A'  surface,  measured  in  the  same  way  ;  f  is 
A.\',  the  thickness  of  tlie  lens  :  fj.  is  its  refractive 
index  as  compared  with  tliat  of  the  surrounding 
medium  (air)  =  1.  As  an  example,  let  us  apply 
these  formuUe  to  a  biconvex  lens  of  crown-glass, 
/u  =  1  -oOO  :  let  the  radii  be  c  =  -t-  4  inches  at  A 
and  ;•'  =  -  6  (negative  because  measured  ti>  the 
left)  at  A'  ;  and  let  the  thickne.ss  be  1  inch.  Put- 
ting these  numerical  values  instead  of  the  letters 
in  the  formuhi',  we  get  AF  =  -  4'69  inches  ;  F  is 
469  inches  from  (to  the  left  of)  tlie  A  surface. 
A'F' =  +  4o5  inches;  F'  is  455  inches  from  A'. 
AP  =  -I-  028 ;  the  principal  plane  is  to  the  right 
of  A,  inside  the  lens.  A'P'  =  -  0'41  :  the  second 
principal  plane  is  to  the  left  of  A',  inside  the  lens. 
The  two  iirincipal  planes  are  therefore  both  insiile 
the  lens,  0-."?l  inch  apart,  and  are  nearer  the  more 
curved  face  of  the  lens.  The  distance  Fl'  =  F'P', 
between  either  focus  ami  the  corresponding  princi- 
pal plane,  is  4''J()  inches,  and  this  is  the  focal  (lia- 
tance  or  the  focal  length  of  the  lens  ;  this,  not  the 
distance  between  the  focus  and  the  centre  or  the 
surface  of  the  lens.  The  two  focal  distances  are 
equal  ;  hence  if  we  could  by  reversing  the  lens 
make  the  jn  iiic-ipal  ]ilanes  exchange  places,  the 
action  of  the  lens  would  be  the  .same  in  both  posi- 
tions ;  but  this  cannot  be  done  with  an  unsyni- 
metrical  thick  lens  by  simply  revei-sing  it  in  its 
setting,  on  account  of  the  unsymmetrical  |iosition 
of  the  planes  within  the  lens.     If  we  take  the  ten 


Fig.  4. 


cases  in  which  the  lenses  are  respectively  :  ( 1 )  bicon- 
vex (;•  positive,  r'  negative;  erjuicimvex  if  -  r  = 
r' ) ;  (2)  planoconvex  (r  =  infinity  and  1/r  =  0  ;  r' 


negative);  (3)  eonve.xo-plane  (r+,  c' =  inlinity, 
l/r'  =  0);  (4)  biconcave  (r  - ,  r' +)  ;  (5)  plano- 
concave (r  =  oo,  >•'+)•,  (6)  concavo-plane  (r  - , 
r'oo);  (7)  convex  meniscus  (c  -t-,  /-f ,  /'  greater 
than  ;■) ;  (8)  concave  meniscus  ()■-,;•'-,)■  numer- 
ically greater  than;');  (9)  convexo-concave  (r -f, 
r'  + ,  r  greater  than  »■' ) ;  (10)  concavo-convex  ( r  — , 
)•'  -,  )■'  numerically  greater  than  r) — we  lind,  on 
giving  the  proper  signs  to  the  respective  terms 
in  the  standard  forniuhe  above,  that  ni  lenses  with 
a  flat  face  one  of  the  ]irincipal  planes  coincides 
with  the  vertex  of  the  curved  surface;  that  in  all 
double  concave  and  practically  in  all  double  convex 
lenses  the  principal  planes  arc  within  the  lens  itself ; 
that  in  lenses  7  and  8  the  planes  lie  oulsiile  the 
conve.x  face  until  the  concave  face  is  tlatteneil  so 
far  as  to  draw  one  of  them  uiion  the  lens;  and 
that  in  lenses  9  and  10  tlie  jilanes  lie  outside  the 
concave  surface  until  its  curvature  increases  so  far 
as  to  draw  the  nearer  plane  into  the  lens.  We 
also  lind  that  in  all  simple  lenses  whose  edges  are 
thinner  than  their  centres  PF  is  negative  (i.e.  F  is 
to  tlie  left  of  P),  and  the  lens  makes  parallel  rays 
incident  upon  it  to  converge  upon  some  point  in 
the  opposite  focal  idane ;  while  in  thick-edged 
lenses  PF  is  positive  and  PF'  negative,  and  the 
planes  lie  in  the  order  F'PP'F,  tho.'^e  rays  which 
were  parallel  before  incidence  being  divergent  on 
emergence,  and  holding  a  coui-se  <is  if  they  had 
come  from  some  point  on  that  focal  plane  which 
lies  on  the  same  side  of  the  lens  as  the  source  itself. 
When  the  incident  rays  are  parallel  to  the  axis  and 
to  each  other,  on  emergence  they  converge  really 
upon  the  opposite  focus  of  a  thin-edged  lens  or 
appear  to  diverge  from  the  virtual  focus  of  a  thick- 
edged  lens. 

When  the  incident  rays  diverge  from  a  point  not 
on  the  focal  plane  they  come  to  a  focus  at  a  definite 
point  elsewhere  than  on  the  second  focal   plane. 


'""[F  T*^ 


Fig.  5. 

Fig.  5  diagramniatically  illustrates  this  for  a  con- 
vergent lens.  A  pencil  from  X  converges  on  X'  : 
the  geometry  of  the  figure  shows  ( by  similar  tri- 
angles) that  FP/XP  +  F'P'/X'P' =  1.  Hence,  if 
PF  or  P'F',  the  focal  length,  be  written  /,  and  the 
distances  XP  and  X'P'  be  written  d  and  rf',  then, 
numerically, /(1/rf-f  1/rf')  =  1.     Fig.   6  illu.strates 


the  same  thing  for  a  divergent  lens  :    FP/XP  - 
F'P'/X'P'  =  -  1,  or,  numerically, //rf  -f/d'  =  -  I. 


LENSES 


577 


These  equations  ^\e,  nuiiieiically,  the  relations 
between  </  ami  rf',  the  distances  of  the  oljject  X 
and  the  iniaj^e  X'  resjiectively  from  the  oonespond- 
ing  priuoipal  phines  P  and  P'.  The  j,'eneral  num- 
erical formula  which  covers  these  relations  is  that 
if  rf  =  XP  and  rf'  =  XT'  and  PF  =  PF' =/,  / 
being  taken  as  numerically  nej,'ative  in  convergent 
and  positive  in  divergent  lenses,  then 


/a 


rf+rf'j " "  '• 


If  an  object  occupy  a  plane  passing  through  X  at 
riijlit  angles  to  the  axis,  the  corresponding  image 
will  (aberration  .apart)  be  in  a  similar  plane  passing 
through  X'.  Fig.  7  shows  rays  from  tliree  points 
of  an  object  passing  through  the  nodal  points  P 
and  P'  and  emerging  parallel  to  their  former  coui-ses. 


Fig.  7. 

The  size  of  the  image  is  easily  seen  to  be  to  that  of 
the  object  as  (/'  is  to  d.  In  a  convergent  lens  the 
image  of  a  distant  object  is  inverted  and  real;  there 
is  a  real  crossin"  of  rays  in  the  image,  and  the  real 
image  is  formed  suspended,  as  it  were,  in  space, 
invisible  from  points  not  in  the  path  of  the  rays  ;  a 
screen  of  card,  of  ground  glass,  or  of  tissue  paper 
may  be  placed  so  as  to  coincide  with  the  real  image, 
which  then  becomes  visible  on  the  screen  :  if  the 
eye  be  removed  to  a  sufficient  distance  in  the  path 
of  the  rays  the  inverted  real  image  in  space  itself 
becomes  visible  as  an  object  in  space  between  the 
lens  and  the  observer,  an  inverted  reproduction  of 
the  original  object ;  and  this  inverted  copy  is,  for 
all  distances  between  the  object  and  the  lens  e.x- 
ceeding  twice  the  focal  length,  smaller  than  the 
original  object,  and  for  all  such  distances  between 
twice  and  once  the  focal  length  it  is  greater  than 
it.  AVhen  the  object  is  placed  within  the  focal 
distance  d  is  less  tlian/,  and  d'  is  therefore  numer- 
ically negative;  the  image  is  virtual;  no  screen 
will  at  any  place  receive  an  image ;  but  the  rays 
come  to  the  eye  as  if  they  had  proceeded  from  a 
larger  object  more  remote  from  the  lens  on  the 
original  side  of  it ;  whence  such  lenses  are  com- 
monly emiiloyed  a.s  magnifying  glasses.  Whenever 
the  image  formed  is  a  real  one  the  object  and  the 
image  are  interchangeable  ;  an  object  placed  in 
the  positi(m  of  the  real  image  will  produce  a  real 
image  on  a  screen  placed  in  the  jiosition  of  the 
original  ol)ject.  A  comparison  of  fig.  C  with  figs. 
5  and  7  will  .show  that  the  virtual  image  formed 
by  a  divergent  lens  is  smaller  than  the  object  and 
is  not  inverted. 

In  all  these  cases  the  lenses  are  supposed  to  have 
an  ai>i)reciable  thickness.  If,  however,  we  assume 
that  tlie  thickne.ss  Ls  negligible,  the  forinulie  given 
above  are  nio<lified  by  suppression  of  all  terms  con- 
taining t;  they  become  simply  PF  =  AF=_/'  = 
-  r/fia  -i)^/^l■'),  or  1//=  -  (m  -  1 )  ( !/'•  -  i//-'); 
and  AP  =  0.  \\  hence  the  principal  planes  coalesce 
and  blend  with  the  surfaces  ;  and  the  ordinary  lens- 
formuhe  are  obtained,  in  which  /,  the  focal  dis- 
tance, means  half  the  distance  between  the  two 
focal  points.  The  result  is  only  approximate,  as 
the  numerical  example  already  di.scusseil  will 
show  when  treated  in  this  way.  There  ;•  =  -^  4  ; 
r"  =  fi  :  M  ==  1 -500  ;  whence /'=  -{i(5  +  S)J"'  = 
•><17 


-  4  "8  inches,  and  the  distance  between  the  two 
foci  is  inferred  to  be  96  inches  ;  whereas  we  have 
previously  seen  this  distance  (including  PP')  to  be 
10''24  inches.  On  the  a.-isum]ition  now  made,  a 
lens  is  reversible  ;  for  in  tlie  formula  we  find  that 
when  the  radii  exchange  places  both  change  their 
signs,  the  result  being  the  same.  On  giving  the 
proper  signs  and  numerical  values  to  r  and  r'  in 
the  simplified  formula,  it  is  easy  to  arrive  at  the 
numerical  value  oif  for  a  lens  of  any  form  :  iff  be 
negative,  the  lens  is  convergent  (thin-edged);  if 
positive,  it  is  divergent.  Tlien,  /  having  been 
found,  the  relation  between  /",  d,  and  d'  can  he 
found  by  giving  d  and  /"  their  ])roper  signs  and 
numerical  values  in  the  general  ei|uation//rf  +  fjd' 
=  -  1.  If  we  find  d'  negative  we  infer  a  virtual, 
if  positive  a  real  image.  For  example,  a  ciown- 
glass  lens  (/t  =  I'oOO),  biconcave  ;   r  =  -  4  inches  ; 

/  =  +  4;    1//=   Ml-5  -  1)  (-:^^  -  j)  =  +  i;  /  = 

-f  4,  a  divergent  lens.  Object  at  distance,  saj', 
d  =  196  inches  ;  .-.  d'  =  -  196/50  =  -  3-92  inches  ;  a 
virtual  inuvge,  smaller  than  the  object  in  the  ratio 
of  392  to  196,  or  one  to  fifty.  Again,  a  similar  lens, 
but  biconvex  ;  ;■  =  4  ;  r'  =  -  4  ;  ..y"  =  ~  4  inches,  a 
convergent  lens.  Let  the  object  be  at  204  inches  ; 
d  =  204  ;  /=  -  4  ;  .•.  rf'  =  4  08  inches — a  real  image, 
smaller  in  the  ratio  of  4'08  to  204,  or  one  to  fifty. 
Let  the  object  be  at  d  =  3^  inches  :  .".  d'  =  -  28  and 
the  image  is  virtual,  enlarged  in  the  ratio  of  28/3J, 
or  eightiold,  by  the  use  of  the  lens  as  a  magnifying 
glass.  The  nearer  the  object  to  the  focus  the 
greater  the  enlargement.  To  nuike  the  image 
equal  in  size  to  the  object,  d  nuist  be  eqiial  to  d' : 
then  -  fid  +  -  fjd  =  -  \  =  -  2f/d;  and  d'  =  d  = 
2f.  With  a  convergent  lens  adjust  the  positions  so 
tha.t  the  object  and  its  image  on  a  screen  are  of  the 
same  size  ;  then  they  are  at  a  distance  of  four  times 
the  focal  length  from  each  other.  In  this  way, 
neglecting  the  thickness,  the  focal  length  of  a  con- 
vergent lens  may  be  ascertained.  It  may  also  be 
ascertained  by  means  of  an  ol)ject  (spider-threads 
or  a  piece  of  nuislin),  and  a  telescope  focussed  for 
a  very  distant  object ;  diiect  the  telescope  towards 
the  spider-threads ;  interpose  the  lens  to  be  ex- 
amined ;  shift  it  until  the  spider-threads  are  dis- 
tinctly seen  in  the  telescope  ;  the  spider-threads 
are  then  in  the  focus  of  the  lens,  which  causes  the 
rays  from  them  to  pass  parallel  into  the  telescope. 
Adivergent  lens  has  its  focal  length  measured  by 
conjoining  it  with  a  convergent  one,  which  neu- 
tralises or  overbalances  its  efl'ect :  if  -  F  be  the 
focal  length  of  the  convergent  combination,  -  / 
that  of  the  convergent  lens,  and/'  (unknown)  that 

of  the  divergent  lens,  -  j.  +  y,  =  -  y '•  t'»^  devia- 
tion produced  by  a  lens  is  inversely  proportional  to 
its  focal  length,  and  the  equation  states  the  pro- 
position that  the  convergence  produced  by  the  one, 
together  with  the  divergence  produced  by  the 
other,  is  (^ijual  to  the  convergence  produced  by  the 
combination. 

When  the  light  from  an  object  is  mixed  the 
refractive  index  m  differs  for  each  colour ;  the  dis- 
tance of  tlie  image  is  diflerent  for  each  snectral 
colour  ;  thus  a  series  of  images  are  formed  behind 
one  another,  the  violet  in  front  and  the  red  l>eliin<l: 
those  behind  are  larger  and  overlap,  and  therefore 
the  image  appears  to  have  a  spectral  fringe  of 
colour,  red  outside.  To  jirevent  this  chromatic 
aberration  images  of  two  or  more  colours,  say  the 
blue  and  orange,  shouhl  be  brouf;ht  to  the  same 
plane  and  he  of  the  same  size  ;  this  is  done  for  two 
colours  or  wave-lengths  by  comI)ining  a  crown- 
ghuss  convergent  of  excessive  power  with  a  flint- 
glass  divergent  lens  ;  the  curvatures  are  so  chosen 
that  the  spectral  dispersion  produced  by  the  one 


578 


LENT 


LENTIL 


is  compensated  by  the  re-corabination  produced  by 
the  otlier ;  but,  since  in  the  two  materials  the  re- 
fractions and  dis])ersions  are  not  proportional  to 
one  anotlier,  tliere  remains  a  bahince  of  deviation 
accomplished  without  chromatic  dis|ii>rsion.  New- 
ton thought  dispersion  and  deviation  to  be  always 
proportional  to  one  another,  an<l  a<-hromatism 
therefore  impossible;  IJr  Hall  in  17:!3  found  this 
not  to  be  so,  and  made  achromatic  lenses,  hut  did 
not  publish  his  discovery.  Dollond  in  1757  first 
introduced  achromatic  lenses.  When  two  colours 
are  achromatised  there  is  still  some  chromatic 
aberration  as  regards  the  rest ;  to  bring  a  greater 
number  of  colours  to  the  same  focus  requires  a 
greater  number  of  refracting  surfaces. 

In  all  the  preceding  it  has  been  assumed  that  the 
lenses  are  narrow,  or  that  the  pencils  of  rays  fall 
on  the  centre  of  the  face,  and  that  the  objects  are 
small.  When  the  object  is  viewed  by  the  lens 
under  a  wide  angle  a  plane  object  gives  an  ellip- 
soidal, paraboloidal.  or  hyoerboloidal  image,  which, 
when  real,  cannot  be  wholly  received  in  focus  upon 
a  plane  screen  ;  and  oblique  rays  fail  to  converge 
upon  precise  points,  and  hence,  even  on  a  screen 
so  curved  as  to  receive  the  oblique  pencils  of  rays 
when  at  their  greatest  concentration,  the  image 
will  not  be  equally  distinct  all  over.  Further 
(spherical  aberration),  if  the  lens  be  too  wide,  or 
its  curvature  too  considerable,  the  rays  falling  on 
diflferent  zones  of  the  lens  are,  as  it  were,  received 
by  prisms  of  different  angle  ;  those  incident  on 
exterior  zones  are  more  sharply  refracted  than 
those  nearer  the  axis,  ami  their  focus  lies  at  a  point 
some  distance  nearer  the  lens  than  the  geometrical 
focus  (longitndinal  aberration),  and  the  image  is 
thus  distorted,  so  that  the  image  of  a  square  object 
formed  by  a  single  convex  lens  ajipears  to  be  draw-n 
out  at  the  corners,  and  that  formed  by  a  concave 
lens  appears  to  have  its  corners  squeezed  in  ; 
besides  which  there  is  blurring,  for  pencils  incident 
near  the  edge  have  their  foci  not  even  on  the  axis, 
but  short  of  it.  To  remedy  these  defects,  which 
cannot  all  be  thoroughly  dealt  with  at  the  same 
time,  various  '  aplanatic  '  combinations  of  lenses  of 
different  curvatures  have  to  be  employed  to  build 
up  a  compound  'equivalent  lens;'  and  these  com- 
binations have  to  be  adapted  to  the  particular  i)ur- 
pose  for  which  the  lens-system  is  to  be  used  (see 
Parkinson's  and  Coddington's  Optics).  The  pro- 
perty of  refracting  light-rays  possessed  by  lenses 
necessarily  applies  also  to  heat  and  actinic  rays ; 
whence  the  use  of  lenses  as  burning-dasses  (in 
which  parallel  heat-rays  from  the  sun  are  brought  to 
a  focus  at  the  principal  heat-focus  of  the  lens)  and 
photographic  lenses.  The  heat-focus  is  somewhat 
farther,  the  actinic  focus  somewhat  nearer  to  the 
lens  tiian  the  light-focus  is  ;  but,  by  the  api)lica- 
tion  of  the  i)rinciples  of  correction  for  chromatic 
aberration,  the  visual  and  the  actinic  forms  are, 
in  the  last  case,  made  to  coincide. 

Lent  (A.S.  Loirtcii  =  Get:  Lciiz,  'the  spring;' 
Gr.  Tessarakoste  :  Lat.  Q uMlraijesima — hence  Ital. 
Quaresima,  Sp.  Cunrcsma,  Fr.  'Carcme),  the  period 
of  fasting  before  ICaster.  Such  an  observance  was 
old  even  in  the  days  of  Ireuiius,  but  without  any 
uniformity— some  fasted  one  day,  others  two;  but 
the  period  was  gradually  extended  by  the  4th  cen- 
tury to  about  forty  days.  The  Greeks  from  the 
6th  century  have  commenced  their  alistinence  from 
meat  on  the  Monday  in  Sexagesima  week,  and 
from  cheese,  <.K:c.  on  the  Monday  in  IJuinquagesima 
week;  Sundays  and  Saturdays  and  the  I'east  of  the 
Annunciation  being  deducted.  In  the  West  only 
Sundays  were  excejited  from  the  fast,  which  .some- 
times began  with  Sexagcjsima  or  IJuinquagesima, 
until,  in  the  8th  or  i)th  century,  it  was  linally  hxed 
to  commence  with  Ash  Wednesday  ('|.v.),  between 
which  day  and  Easter-Sunday  (omitting  the  Sun- 


days, on  which  the  fast  is  not  observed )  forty  clear 
days  intervene.  The  rigour  of  the  ancient  observ- 
ance, which  excluded  all  tlesh,  and  even  the  so- 
called  'white  meats,'  is  now  much  relaxed;  but 
the  |>rinciple  of  ]H>rmitting  but  one  meal,  with  a 
slight  refection  or  collation,  is  every  where  retained. 
In  the  Anglican  Ghurch  Lent  is  retained  a-s  a 
church  season  of  the  calendar,  with  s]iecial  ser- 
vices, and  proper  collects  and  prayers ;  but  the 
observance  of  the  fast  is  left  to  the  discretion  of 
each  individual.     See  F.\ST  ;  also  Holy  Wkkk. 

Leutball.  William  (1591-16ti'2),  barrister,  was 
born  in  Henley,  entered  St  AIl)an  Hall,  Oxford, 
and  was  Speaker  of  the  Long  Parliament  ( llltO-.i:!). 
He  was  again  made  Speaker  in  IG.Ii,  and  in  llioG 
iiecame  one  of  Cromwell's  peel's. 

Lentiblllariacea'.  a  natural  order  of  exogen- 
ous plants,  allied  to  Primulaceie.  It  has  also 
intimate  relations  with  Scrophulariacea-.  It  con- 
tains nearly  '200  known  siiecies,  all  herbaceous, 
and  all  living  in  water  or  marshes.  They  abound 
chierty  in  the  tropics.  A  few  species  of  Bladder- 
wort  "(see  Insectivorous  Pl.vnts)  ami  Huttcrwort 
(q.v.)  are  its  only  representatives  in  Britain. 

Leutk'els.    See  B.\rk. 

Loiltil  {Erviim  /ens),  an  annual  plant  belonging 
to  the  natural  onler  Leguminosa'.  It  is  a  native 
of  the  countries  bordering  on  the  Mediterranean, 
and  has  been  cultivated  from  the  very  earliest 
times.  In  Egypt  and  Syria  it  is  still  made  into 
pottage,  and  another  favourite  mode  of  cook- 
ing it  in  those  countries  is  by  parching  it  in  a 
frying-pan.  The  lentil  is  extensively  cultivated  in 
the  warmer  parts  of  Germany,  France,  and  the 
south  of  Europe  generally.  It  is  also  cultivated 
to  some  extent  in  Asia.  The  Hindus,  in  common 
with  the  Egyptians,  regard  it  as  the  best  food  on 
wliich  to  undertake  long  journeys  or  laboriinis 
work.  Flour  of  lentils  is  highly  nutritious  and 
contains,  according  to  Playfair,  more  nitrogenous 
matter  than  any  other  edible  legununous  plant. 
Einhoff  found  iii  3840  parts  of  lentils  1'260  parts 
starch  and  14.'J3  parts  analog(ms  to  animal  matter. 
The  foods  known  as  Beva/enio  arahica  and  Krni- 
lenta  arubica  (words  compounded  of  the  botani- 
cal name  of  lentil)  are  simply  specially  prepared 
forms  of  the  tlour  of 
lentils,  in  no  way 
suiierior  to  the  ordin- 
ary Hour  which  can  be 
purchased  at  gieatly 
less  prices.  Mixed 
with  peas  in  tlie  mak- 
ing of  i)easou|),  lentils 
diminish  the  ten<lency 
to  liatuleiu'C,  and  lentil 
soup  is  much  esteemed 
l>y  vegetarians  and 
others  in  Britain.  By 
Roman  Catholics  len- 
tils are  eaten  during 
Lent,  both  in  soups 
and  in  the  form  of  hari- 
cot, as  a  substitute  for 
llesh-food.  The  lentil 
is  a  weak,  straggling 
)dant,  rarely  exceeding 
18  inches  Vigh,  often 
much  more  dwarfed, 
having  |)innate  leaves 
terminating  in  tendrils. 
The  llowei-s  .-ire  white, 
lilac,  or  pale  blue,  small, 
and  formed  like  tliose 
of  a  i)ea.      There  are 

three  varieties  of  lentil  recognisetl  in  the  couiitries 
in  which  it  is  cultivated  :  the  small  brown,  which  is 


Lentil. 


LENTINI 


LEO 


579 


the  lightest  flavoured  ami  the  best  esteemed  for 
souiis  and  haricots;  the  veHow  variety,  whieli  is 
slightly  larger ;  and  the  lentil  of  I'rovence,  which 
has  seeds  as  large  as  a  small  jica,  hut  is  better 
appreciated  as  fodder  for  cattle  than  for  the  grain 
as  food  for  man.  It  has  been  fre(iuently  suggested 
that  lentil  might  be  {jrown  as  an  agricultural  crop 
in  Uritain,  and  its  cultivation  has  been  attempted, 
but  without  success,  not  so  much  from  ilehciency 
of  warmth  as  from  excess  of  atmospheric  moisture. 
It  is  sown  at  the  rate  of  about  H  bushel  per  acre, 
and  its  cultivation  and  harvesting  are  similar  to 
those  of  the  Tare  (q.v. ),  to  which  it  is  related. 
The  produce  in  grain  is  fully  a  fourth  less  than 
that  of  the  tare,  and  in  respect  of  straw  it  does 
not  yield  a  third  of  tlie  weight  of  that  crop.  The 
grain,  however,  on  the  Continent  sells  at  twice 
the  price  of  pe;is. 

Leiltini,  a  town  of  Sicily,  stands  east  of  Lake 
Lentini,  near  the  site  of  the  ancient  Leontini,  17 
miles  by  rail  S.  by  AV.  of  Catania.     Pop.  12,740. 

Leo,  the  fifth  sign  of  the  Zodiac  (q.v.). 

Lro.  the  name  of  thirteen  among  the  popes  of 
the  Koman  Catholic  Church,  of  whom  the  following 
call  for  particular  notice. — Leo  I.,  suruanied  'the 
Great.'  who  is  held  a  saint  of  the  Koman  Catholic 
Church,  and  is  one  of  the  most  eminent  of  the 
Latin  Fathers,  was  born  of  a  distinguished  family  j 
at  Rome  about  the  end  of  the  -ith  century.  On  ! 
the  death  of  Si.\tus  III.  in  440  Leo  was  chosen 
as  his  successor.  It  is  in  his  pontihcate  that  tlie 
regular  series  of  papal  letters  and  decretals  may  be 
said  to  commence.  Leo's  letters,  addressed  to  all 
parts  of  the  church,  exhibit  prodigious  activity  and 
zeal,  and  are  used  by  Roman  controversialists  as 
an  evidence  of  the  extent  of  tlie  juri.sdiction  of  the 
Roman  see.  In  a  council  held  at  Rome  in  449  he 
set  iiside  the  proceedings  of  the  Council  of  Ephesus, 
which  had  pronounced  in  favour  of  Eutyches  (q.v.), 
summoned  a  new  council  at  Chalcedon,  in  which 
his  legates  presided,  and  in  which  Leo's  celebrated 
'  Dogmatical  Letter  '  was  accepted  '  as  the  voice  of 
Peter.'  He  interposed  with  Attila  (q.v.)  in  defence 
of  the  Roman  city  and  people,  ancl  subsequently 
with  Genseric  (q.v.).  Leo  died  at  Rome  in  461. 
His  works,  the  most  important  of  which  are  his 
Letters  and  Sermons,  were  first  printc<l  in  1479, 
and  afterwards  by  Que.snel  (2  vols.  Paris,  1675); 
but  much  Ijetter  editions  are  those  of  Cacciari 
(1703-55)  and  Ballerini  (1757).  See  books  by 
Areudt  ( 1835),  Perthel  ( 1843),  Saiiit-Cheron  ( 1846), 
Gore  (ISSO),  and  Feltoe  {Lih.  Fidhas,  xii.,  1896). 

The  pontiticate  of  Leo  III.  is  chiefly  noticeable 
as  the  epoch  of  the  formal  establishment  of  the 
Empire  of  the  West.  He  w.us  a  native  of  Rome, 
and  succeeded  Hadrian  I.  in  795.  During  the 
greater  part  of  the  8th  century  the  pojies, 
through  the  practical  withdrawal  of  the  Eastern 
emperors,  had  e.xerci.sed  a  temporal  supremacy 
in  Rome,  which  was  fully  recofiiiised  by  the  gift 
of  Pipiii.  and  placed  under  the  protectorate  of 
the  Frank  sovereigns,  who  received  the  title  of 
Patriiian.  The  pontiticate  of  Leo,  however,  wa.s  a 
troubled  one.  and  in  799  he  was  treated  with  much 
violence,  and  obliged  to  flee  to  Spoleto,  whence  he 
afterwards  reijaired  to  Paderborn,  in  order  to  hold 
a  conference  with  Charlemagne.  <  )n  his  return  to 
Rome  he  Wits  received  with  much  honour  by  the 
Romans,  and  the  chiefs  of  the  conspiracy  against 
him  were  sentenced  to  banishment.  In  the  follow- 
ing year  (800)  Charlemagne,  having  come  to  Rome, 
was  solemnly  crowned  and  saluted  emjieror  by  the 
po[)e,  and  the  temporal  sovereignty  of  the  i)ope 
over  the  Roman  city  and  state  was  form.ally  estab- 
lished, under  the  suzerainty,  however,  of  the  em- 
peror. In  804  Leo  visited  Charlemagne  at  his 
court  at  Aix-la-Chapelle.      With    Charlemagne's 


successor,  Louis  le  Dcboiinaire,  Leo  was  embroiled 
in  a  dis))ute  about  the  right  of  sovereign  jurisdic- 
tion in  Rome,  which  had  not  been  brought  to  a 
conclusicm  when  Leo  died  in  816. 

Leo  X.,  (iiovanni  de'  Medici,  the  second  son 
of  Lorenzo  the  Magnilicent,  was  born  at  Florence 
in  December  1475.  From  his  cradle  he  was 
destined  to  the  ecclesiastical  career.  His  educa- 
tion was  entrusted  to  the  ablest  scholars  of  the 
age ;  and  through  the  influence  of  his  father 
with  Pope  Innocent  VIII.  he  was  created  cardinal 
at  the  unprecedented  age  of  thirteen  years,  in 
1488.  In  the  expulsi(m  of  the  Medici  from  Flor- 
ence, after  the  death  of  Lorenzo,  the  young 
cardinal  w;is  included,  and  he  u.sed  the  occasion  as 
an  (qqiortunity  for  foreign  travel.  He  was  em- 
ployed as  legate  by  Julius  II.  :  and  during  the  war 
with  the  French,  he  was  taken  prisoner  in  the 
battle  of  Ravenna,  but  socm  afterwards  eflected 
his  escape.  t)n  the  death  of  Julius  II.,  in  1513, 
Carilinal  de'  Medici  was  chosen  pope  at  the  early 
age  of  thirty-seven,  under  the  name  of  Leo  X.  His 
first  appointment  of  the  two  great  scholars  Bembo 
and  Sadoleto  as  his  secretaries  w;i,s  a  jiledge  of 
the  favour  towards  learning  which  was  the  charac- 
teristic of  his  pontificate  ;  but  he  did  not  neglect 
the  more  material  interests  of  the  church  and  the 
Roman  see.  He  brought  to  a  successful  conclu- 
sion the  fifth  Council  of  the  Lateran  (see  Council) 
and  the  schism  which  was  threatened  by  the  rival 
Council  of  Pisa.  He  concluded  a  concordat  with 
Francis  I.  of  France,  which  continued  to  regulate  tlie 
French  church  till  the  Revolution.  In  the  political 
relations  of  the  Roman  see  he  consolidated  and, 
in  some  degree,  e.xtended  the  re-conquests  of  his 
warlike  |)redecessor,  Julius  II. ,  although  he  also  used 
his  position  ami  his  influence  for  the  aggrandise- 
ment of  his  family.  His  desertion  of  the  alliance 
of  Francis  I.  f(n-  that  of  his  rival,  Charles  V., 
although  the  subject  of  much  criticism,  was  dictated 
by  a  sound  consideration  of  the  interests  of  Italy. 
But  it  is  most  of  all  as  a  patron  of  leaiiiing  and 
art  that  the  reputation  of  Leo  has  lived  with 
posterity.  Him.self  a  scholar,  he  loved  learning  for 
its  own  sake  ;  and  his  court  was  the  meeting-jioint 
of  all  the  .scholars  of  Italy  and  the  world.  Hi' 
founded  a  Greek  college  in  Rome,  and  established 
a  Greek  press,  which  he  endoweil  nninilicently  (see 
Rex.VISS.\NCE  ).  In  the  enccmragement  of  art  he  w'as 
no  less  munificent.  Painting,  sculpture,  architec- 
ture were  equally  favoureil ;  and  it  is  to  his  vast  pro 
ject  for  the  rebuilding  of  St  Peter's,  and  to  the  step 
to  which  he  had  reccnir.se  for  procuring  the  neces.sar.\ 
funds — his  )iermitting  the  preaching  of  an  indul 
gence,  one  of  the  conditions  of  obtaining  which  was 
the  contribution  to  this  work— that  the  first  rise 
of  the  Reformation  in  tiermany  is  ascribed.  He 
himself  seems  to  have  regarded  the  movement  as 
of  little  importance,  descriliing  it  ivs  'a  squabble 
anmng  the  fiiars ; '  ami  though  he  comlemneil 
the  ]iropositions  of  I.,uther,  and  issued  a  commis- 
sion to  inquiie  into  his  iloetrines,  his  measures 
on  the  whole  were  not  marked  by  much  severity. 
His  iiersonal  habits  were  in  kecjiing  with  his  taste 
— splendid  and  nninificent  in  the  highest  degree  ; 
but  in  his  moral  conduct  he  maintaineil  a  strict 
propriety,  and  his  character,  although  not  free 
from  the  stain  of  nepotism,  the  \  icts  of  that  age. 
and  more  modelled  on  the  ideal  of  an  enlightened 
prince  than  on  that  of  a  zealous  and  ascetic 
churchman,  was  beyond  .ill  imputation  of  unworthi- 
ness  or  irregularity.  His  ileath,  which  occurred 
rather  suddenly  on  1st  December  1521,  during  the 
public  rejoicings  in  Rome  for  the  taking  of  Milan, 
W'as  by  some  iuscribed  to  poison;  but  there  seems 
no  solid  rea.son  for  the  suspicion. 

See  Koscoo,   Li/c  and  I'oidijUate  of  Leo  X.  (1805); 
Audin,  H Moire  de  Lion  X.  (6th  ed.  1886);  Hcrgenriither, 


580 


LEO 


LEON 


Leonis  X.  Retjesta  (1884  et  seq.) ;  Eanke,  Hutorp  of  the 
Popes;  Syuionds,  Reiiaiasance  in  Italii  (1875-86);  M. 
C'reightou,  History  of  the  PajMeii  duriiuj  the  Period  of 
the  Iteformation  (vols.  Ui.-v.  1887-91). 

Leo  XIII.,  the  '258tli  Koiiian  ])ontiH",  was  born 
at  Caipineto,  the  sdu  of  Count  Ludovico  Pecoi, 
2il  March  1810.  EJueateil  first  at  the  Jesuit 
College  of  Viterbo  and  the  schools  of  the  CoUegio 
Komano,  he  proceeded  to  the  College  of  Noble 
Kcclesiastics.  He  greatly  si''iialised  liiniself  in 
inatheniatics,  physics,  and  imilosophy.  In  1830 
he  sustaineil  a  public  disputation  in  the  last- 
named  branch  of  learning,  and  carried  oti'  the  lirst 
prize.  He  also  frequented  the  schools  of  the 
jionian  University  to  learn  canon  and  I'ivil  law. 
Having  became  Doctor  of  Laws,  he  was  appointed 
by  Pope  (iregory  XVI.  a  domestic  prelate  and 
Keferendary  of  the  Segnatura  in  1837.  He  then 
took  holy  orders,  received  from  the  pope  the 
title  of  prothonotary  apostolic,  and  was  appointed 
in  succession  apostolic  delegate  at  Benevento, 
I'erugia,  and  Spoleto.  He  was  a  vigorous  ad- 
ministrator, and  while  at  Benevento  put  a  stop 
to  brigandage.  Sent  to  Belgium  as  imncio  in 
1843,  lie  was  created  archliishop  of  Damietta  to 
qualify  him  for  the  ofiice.  Three  years  later  he 
was  nominated  archbishop  of  Perugia,  and  in  the 
consistory  of  December  19.  1853,  lie  was  created 
a  cardinal  by  Pius  IX.  He  was  a  member  of 
.several  of  the  congregations  of  cardinals — includ- 
ing those  of  tlie  (Jouncil  of  Kites  and  of  Bishops 
anil  Regulars — and  in  Heptember  1877  he  was 
selected  by  the  pope  to  fill  the  office  of  Cardinal 
Camerlengo  of  the  Holy  Koman  Church,  lu  that 
important  capacity  he  liad  control  of  all  business 
except  foreign  afl'airs.  Upon  the  death  of  Pius 
IX.  in  1878  Cardinal  Pecci  was  elected  as  the 
representative  of  the  Moilerates.  He  assumed 
the  title  of  Leo  XIII.,  and  adopted  an  opposite 
policy  to  that  of  his  pretlecessor.  He  restored 
the  hierarcliy  in  Scotland,  and  composed  the 
religious  difficulty  with  Germany,  so  that  when 
a  dispute  arose  in  1885  between  Cermany  and 
Spain  a-s  to  the  ownership  of  the  Caroline  Islands 
he  was  requested  by  Prince  Bismarck  to  act  as 
arbitrator.  In  political  matters  Leo  has  per- 
mitted the  Irish  bishops  to  indulge  their  own 
views.  In  May  1888  the  pope  issued  a  decree  de- 
nouncing the  methods  adopted  in  the  Irish  Plan  of 
Campaign.  He  has  nianifestcd  enlightened  views 
in  many  directions,  but  on  questions  afiecting  the 
church  and  his  own  status  as  pontifl  he  has  held 
staunchly  to  his  rights.  He  regards  himself  as  the 
despoileii  sovereign  of  Kome,  and  as  a  prisoner  at 
the  Vatican  ;  has  refused  the  income  voted  him  by 
the  Italian  parliament ;  and  persistently  declines  to 
recognise  the  law  of  guarantees.      He  has  protested 

against  here.sy    and   'goiUess'  scl Is,   ami   in   his 

encyclicals  has  allirmed  that  the  only  solution  of 
the  socialistic  problem  is  the  influence  of  the 
papacy.  He  constrained  the  French  clergy  and 
the  Krencli  monarcliists  to  accept  the  republic, 
but  encouraged  the  Hungarian  Catholics  to  oppose 
the  civil  marriagi;  law  {l.sn4).  In  1883  he  opened 
the  archives  of  the  Vatican  for  historical  inves- 
tigations, and  he  has  made  himsidf  personally 
known  as  a  jioiit,  chiefly  in  the  Latin  tongue. 
The  jubilee  of  liis  ejiiscopate  in  1893  was 
celebrated  with  even  greater  pilgrimages  to 
Kome,  congratulatory  aildresses,  iVc,  than  lliat 
of  his  priesthood  in  1887.  In  189l>  he  issued  an 
encyclical  pronouncing  Anglican  orders  null  and 
void. 

Siee  Leonis  XIII.  Pont.  Max.  Carmina  (1883),  and  tlie 
Lives  by  De  W.ial  (Munster,  1878),  A'idicn  (Pari»,  1K79), 
O'Ri-illy  ((.'olognc,  1887),  Scrclaes  (Paris,  1894),  Jc-yus 
( 1896  ),  M'Cartliy  ( 189<> ),  Narfoii  ( trans.  1899 ) ;  see  also 
liis  Addresses,  iic,  in  Tlic  Pope  and  the  People  (1895). 


Leo  III.,  'the  Isaurian,' ruler  (718^1)  of  the 
Byzantine  Empiie  (q.v.). 

Leo  Afrii'UIIIIS  (properly  Ai.HA.ssAN  IBN 
MoH.VMMEl)  Alwazz.\N),  a  Cordovan  Moor,  who 
at  the  close  of  the  15th  century  made  extensive 
travels  in  northern  Africa  and  Asia  Minor.  P.iUiiig 
into  the  hands  of  jiirates,  he  was  sent  to  Kome, 
and  accejited  Christianity  ;  but  afterwards  he 
returned  to  his  old  faith."  He  left  an  account  of 
his  African  travels  in  Italian,  which,  first  printed 
by  Ramusio  in  1559,  was  for  long  the  chief  source 
of  information  as  to  the  Soudan. 

LcobseilUtZ,  a  town  in  Prussian  Silesia,  24 
miles  by  rail  X\V.  of  Katibor,  has  large  corn- 
markets.      Pop.  (1875)  11,425;  (1895)  l-2,(jU4. 

Leo'ohares  one  of  the  most  distinguished 
sculptors  of  the  Attic  school  of  the  4tli  century 
B.C.,  w,as  a  pupil  of  Scopas,  and  Pliny  ascribes  to  him 
the  sculptures  on  the  west  side  oi  the  Mausoleum 
(q.v.).  He  was  one  of  the  privileged  artists  who 
were  permitted  to  make  portraits  of  Alexander  the 
Great.  Three  statues  of  Zeus  are  known  to  have 
been  executed  by  him.  His  '(ianymede  carried 
ofi'  by  an  Eagle '  Avas  famous  throughout  the 
ancient  world.  In  collaboration  witli  Lysippus  he 
produced  a  colossal  group  in  bronze,  >vhich  repre- 
sented Alexander  at  a  lion  hunt,  while  he  him- 
self was  responsible  for  clnyseleiihantiiie  statues 
of  Alexander  and  his  family.  The  wcnks  of 
Leochares  are  all  lost,  but  there  is  a  coiiy  of  the 
Ganymede  in  the  Vatican;  and  a  bust  of  Alexander 
may  be  a  cojiy  of  one  of  his. 

Leo  Ilebr:eus.    See  Abarhanel. 

LeoiIlillStei*  dmuKmnced  Lousier),  a  market- 
town  of  Herefoidshire,  on  the  Lug,  13  miles  N.  of 
Hereford.  A  monastery  was  founded  here  in  658  ; 
and  the  fine  church  of  a  later  jiriory  presents  every 
style  from  Norman  to  Per|iendicular.  It  was 
restored  by  Sir  G.  G.  Scott  in  1801),  and  enlarged 
in  1879.  The  quaint  old  timber  Butter  Cross 
(1633)  was  in  1855  transferred  to  a  new  site  to 
make  room  for  an  Italian  town-hall ;  there  is  al.so 
a  corn  exchange  (1859).  Leather  gloves  are  the 
staiile  manufacture,  and  there  is  a  great  trade  in 
hops  and  cider.  Incor]ioiated  as  a  municipal 
borough  by  l^ueen  Mary,  Leominster  till  1868 
returned  two  memliers,  and  till  18S5  one.  Pop. 
(1851)5214;  (1881)6044;  (1891)5675.  See  his- 
tories  by  Price  (1795)  and  Townsend  (1863). 

Leon,  an  ancient  kingdom  of  Spain,  ei|uivaleut 
generally  to  the  moclerii  provinces  of  Leon, 
Palencia,  Valladolid,  Zaniora,  and  Salamanca.  It 
was  the  earliest  Christian  kingdom,  next  after 
A.sturias,  to  be  formed  in  Spain,  after  the  Moorish 
wave  of  conquest  began  to  recede.  It  dates  from 
the  Kttli  ceiilnry,  and  was  united  with  Castile  first 
by  Eenlinand  the  (ireat  in  1037,  and  finally  in 
1230.  The  modern  province  has  an  area  of  6165 
so.  111.  and  (1887)  a  pop.  of  380,229.  The  country, 
which  is  intersected  by  the  Douro  and  the  Minim, 
is  mountainous,  being  invaded  on  the  north  by 
the  Cantalirian  Mountains.  The  soil  is  generally 
fertile.  The  inhabitants  are  for  the  most  part 
uneducated  and  lazy,  but  honourable,  hosjiitable, 
and  good-natured  ;  they  have  many  jieculiar  cus- 
toms, and  all  the  pride  of  pure  Spanish  descent. 
In  the  high  districts  south  of  Salamanca  there  are 
remnants,  as  is  believed,  of  the  old  Gothic  tribes, 
and  at  Astorga  the  MariKjaios  are  v.-iriously  .sup- 
|)oseil  to  be  descendants  of' the  Ccltibcri,  the  Visi- 
goths, or  the  Moors. — Leon  is  also  the  name  of  a 
part  of  BliiTTANY. 

Leon  ( the  Lr<ii(i  srptima  qemina  of  the  Komans), 
caiutal  of  the  former  kingdom  and  of  the  modern 
province  of  the  same  name,  but  now  a  sleepy 
agricultural  town,  is  situated  in  a  i>lain,  250  miles 


LEON 


LEONARDO    DA    VINCI 


581 


by  rail  N\V.  of  Madiiil.  The  lioautiful  cathedral 
(c.  1195-1512),  a  spociinen  of  th<!  ]mii'st  Early 
Pointoil,  is  French  in  character  ami  prciliahly  in 
origin,  Imt  was  so  much  'restored'  during  1.S55- 
86  that  it  is  hard  to  say  what  is  old  and  what 
modern  ;  it  contains  the  tonihs  of  many  sovereigns 
of  Leon,  saints,  ami  martyrs.  Leon  is  the  centre 
of  the  Spanish  linennianiifacture,  and  has  a  cele- 
brated horse-fair  ;  it  was  formerly  the  chief  seat  of 
the  Spanish  wool-trade.      I'op.  l.'!,4-16. 

Leon,  a  city  of  Nicaragua,  on  an  extensive 
plain,  32  miles  by  rail  (1SS2)  SK.  of  its  port, 
Corindo.  Once  the  hoa.st  of  Spaiiish  America, 
founded  at  the  heail  of  Lake  Managua  in  1523, 
removeil  hither  in  1610,  and  sacked  hy  Dampier  in 
1685,  it  is  now  partly  in  ruins,  and  of  its  noble 
buildings  only  the  churches  remain.  The  massive 
cathedral  has  been  several  times  employed  as  a 
citadel  during  the  civil  wars,  but  has  suffered 
very  little.  Pop. ,  including  the  contiguous  Indian 
pueblo  of  Subtiaba,  about  25,(MJ0. 

Leon,  PoxcE  DE.  See  Ponce  de  Leon. 

Leonardo  da  Vinci,  painter,  sculptor,  archi- 
tect, and  engineer,  was  born  in  14.i2,  at  Vinci,  a 
village  in  the  Val  d'Arno,  between  Pisa  and  Flor- 
ence, the  natural  son  of  Ser  Piero  Antonio  da 
Vinci,  notary  to  the  Signoria  of  Florence.  His 
mother,  named  Caterinji,  afterwards  married  a 
villager  of  Vinci.  He  was  educated  in  his  father's 
house,  and  soon  began  to  show  signs  of  that 
bright  and  versatile  genius  which  distinguished 
him  through  life.  As  a  child  he  was  especially 
remarkable  for  his  aptitude  tor  arithmetic,  and  for 
his  skill  in  music  and  drawing.  xVbout  1470  he  was 
placed  by  his  father  in  the  studio  of  Andrea  del 
Verrocchio,  by  whom  he  was  instructeil  in  painting 
and  modelling,  and  where  he  had  Perugino  and 
Lorenzo  di  Credi  as  fellow-pupils.  So  rapid  was 
his  progress  that  before  hmg  he  began  to  take  part 
in  the  production  of  his  masters  pictures,  and  his 
hand  can  still  be  traced  in  Verrocchio's  '  Baptism 
of  our  Loril,'  in  the  Academy  at  Florence.  In 
1472  his  name  appears  in  the  books  of  the  guild  of 
painters  as  an  independent  artist,  and  he  was 
patronised  hy  Lorenzo  de'  Medici.  His  cartoon  of 
'The  Fall,'  mentioned  hy  Va.sari  as  designed  for 
tapestry,  has  di.sappcared  ;  indeiMl  of  his  work  of 
this  i>eriod,  which  iiicduded  various  marble  figures 
and  terracotta  heads,  all  that  now  remains  is  an 
unfinished  canvas  of  '  The  Adoration  of  the  Kings, 
in  the  Utiizi,  and  a  kneeling  figure  of  '  St  Jerome, 
in  the  Vatican. 

He  would  appear  to  have  been  about  twenty-eight 
when  he  visited  the  Ea.st,  serving  as  engineer  to 
the  sultan  of  '  Babylon '  or  Cairo,  and  visiting 
Cypnis,  Constantinople,  and  Armenia  ;  and  in  1482 
he  settled  in  Milan,  and  attached  himself  to 
Loilovico  Sforza,  then  guardian  of  his  nephew  the 
Duke  (iian  Galeazzo,  whom  he  afterwards  suji- 
planted.  An  autograph  memorandum,  intended 
for  presentati(m  to  his  patron,  still  exists,  in  which, 
after  staling  his  various  (jnalilications  as  an  archi- 
tect and  engineer,  he  concludes,  '  I  can  execute 
.sculpture,  whether  in  marble,  bronze,  or  terra- 
cotta; also  in  painting  I  can  do  as  niuch  as  any 
other,  be  he  who  he  may,'  and  particularly  specifies 
his  reailiness  to  undertake  the  execution  of  a  bronze 
eouestrian  statue  of  Lodovico's  father,  Francesco 
Sior/.a,  the  celebr.ated  condottiere.  Drawings  for 
the  general  de.sign  and  various  det.ails  of  this  statue 
exist  in  the  royal  collection  at  Windsor.  The 
model  wan  exhibiteil  in  1493;  but  the  statue  was 
destined  never  to  he  completeil  in  metal,  for  the 
I0O,(K)0  pounds  of  bri>nze  which  Leonardo  rcquireil 
for  its  ca.sting  were  never  forthcoming.  The  model 
still  existed  in  1501,  but  since  then  all  trace  of  the 
work  has  been  lost. 


During  the  progress  of  this  statue  Leonardo  was 
also  engaged  upon  a  picture  which,  even  in  its 
present  faded  and  dilajiidated  condition,  remains 
the  best  monument  of  his  genius  and  one  of  the 
masterpieces  of  the  world.  This  is  the  famous 
'Last  Supper,'  commissioned  jointly  by  the  Duke 
and  the  monks  of  S.anta  Maria  delle  Urazie,  to  he 
painted  on  a\\all  of  the  refectory  of  the  convent. 
It  was  ccuuploted  in  1498,  but  its  execution  prob- 
ably extended  over  several  previous  ye.-us.  Ban- 
dello,  in  one  of  his  novels,  lias  given  us  a  vivid 
glim]ise  of  Leonardo  at  work  upon  this  great 
.subject;  of  the  hushed  voices  of  the  monks  and 
their  visitors  as  they  watched  the  busy  figure 
painting  there  from  early  dawn,  wholly  absorbed 
in  bis  pursuit,  and  forgetting  even  to  eat ;  and  of 
how  the  artist  would  sometimes  leave  the  mounted 
figure  of  F'rancesco  which  he  was  modelling  in  the 
citadel  and  return  to  the  convent  by  the  shortest 
way,  merely  that  he  might  add  to  his  picture  a 
single  touch  or  two.  The  moment  of  Ins  chosen 
scene  upiui  which  the  painter  has  seized  is  that 
when  Christ  has  just  pronounced  the  words  '  One 
of  you  shall  betray  me,'  and  their  effect  upon  the 
disciples  is  portrayed  with  the  most  <lelicate  and 
subtle  truth.  There  is  an  elaborate  description 
and  criticism  of  the  work  from  the  pen  of  Goethe. 
The  after-history  of  the  '  Last  Supper '  is  a  sad 
one.  Owing  to  the  dampness  of  the  wall,  and 
to  the  method  of  oil-painting — not  fresco — upon 
plaster  that  had  been  adopted,  it  .soon  showed 
signs  of  deterioration,  and  it  has  repeatedly  been 
found  necessary  to  repaint  it ;  yet  still,  through  all 
the  retouching  of  others,  the  profound  feeling  and 
dignified  composition  of  the  master  do  not  fail  to 
assert  themselves.  His  sketches  for  various  of  its 
parts  still  exist  at  'Windsor,  in  the  Brera  Gallery  at 
Milan,  and  in  the  Louvre.  It  has  been  very  fre- 
quently cojiied,  and  it  was  chieffy  from  a  drawing 
made  by  M,atteini  from  the  copy  by  Marco 
d'Oggionno  that  Kaphael  Moighen  executed  his 
celebrated  line-engraving,  published  in  1800. 

Among  other  paintings  done  in  Mil.an  were 
portraits  of  Lucrezia  Crivelli  and  Cecilia  (iailerani, 
mistresses  of  the  duke,  works  that  cannot  now  be 
identified,  though  '  La  Belle  Ferronnieie '  of  the 
Louvre  has  been  regarded  by  some  as  the  former 
likeiie.s.s.  The  intluenee  of  Leonardo  upon  art  in 
Milan  was  clearly  marked  and  lasting,  for  he 
founded  an  academy  there  in  which  Beltiafiio  and 
Andrea  Salai,  his  favourite  pupil,  received  instruc- 
tion ;  .and  the  great  Bernardino  Luini,  whether  or 
not  he  actually  studied  under  the  master,  certainly 
imbibed  and  turned  to  his  own  uses  many  of  the 
characteristics  of  his  method.  Leonardo  was  aK" 
much  eniploye<l  by  his  patron  as  an  engineer.  He 
devised  a  system  of  hydraulic  irrigation  of  the 
plains  of  Lomhardy,  and  acted  as  <lirector  of  the 
court  festivities  and  pageants. 

After  the  fall  and  imprisonment  of  the  Duke  Lodo- 
vico  in  1,")()()  Leonardo  retired  to  I'hucnce,  and  by 
I.'>02  he  had  eiiti'ied  the  service  of  C:esar  Borgia, 
then  Duke  of  Komagna,  as  architect  an<l  engineer. 
in  which  ca]),acity  he  was  entrusted  with  the  niosi 
amide  authority.  Records  of  his  work  during  t\n> 
[leriod  apjiear  in  the  notehooksand  maps  preseried 
at  Windsor.  In  the  following  year  In?  returned  to 
F'lorenee,  when  he  commenced  a  Madonna  and 
(Jhilcl  with  St  Anne  for  the  Servile  monks,  a 
subject,  however,  of  which  only  the  noble  cartocui 
now  in  the  Diploma  Gallery  of  the  Koyal  Academy. 
London,  was  comideted. 

We  now  reach  the  iieriod  of  Leonardos  famous 
contest  with  Michael  Angelo,  an  artist  who  a]i[>ears 
always  to  have  regardeil  his  elder  rival  with  dislike 
and  jealousy.  Both  painters  received  commission- 
to  decorate  the  Sala  del  Consiglio  in  the  P.ilazzi 
della  Signoria  with  important  historical  compo.si- 


582 


LEONARDO    DA    VINCI 


LEONINE    VERSES 


tions.  Mieliael  Angelo  chose  a  subject  of  '  Sokliei-s 
smprised  while  Hathin^,'  an  jnciilent  from  tlie 
Florentine  wars  with  the  Pisans.  Leonardo  dealt 
with  'The  Battle  of  Antrhiari,'  1440,  in  which  the 
Florentines  vanquished  the  armies  of  Milan.  Two 
veal's  were  spent  in  the  preparation  of  his  cartoon  ; 
hut,  having  employed  a  methoil  of  paintiiiy;  iijion 
the  plaster — prohahly  with  wax — wliich  proved  a 
failure,  lie  in  loOli  abandoned  the  work.  The 
cartoim  is  now  lost,  hut  its  gfi'^ral  composition 
may  be  gathered  from  Lucensi's  engraving  (1558), 
and  from  '  The  Battle  of  the  Standard,'  engraved  by 
Kdelinck  from  a  free  copy  by  Kubens  of  its  prin- 
cipal group.  About  1504  was  completed  tlie  most 
celebrated  of  Leonardo's  easel-j^iictures,  the  half- 
length  of  .Mona  Lisa,  third  wife  of  Zanobi  del 
(Jiocondo,  upcm  which  he  had  been  engaged  at 
intervals  during  four  years — a  work  purchased  by 
Francis  L  for  4(X)0  gold  tlorins,  and  now  one  of  the 
chief  treasures  of  tlie  Louvre.  The  colour  here,  as 
not  seldom  in  tlie  artist's  work,  has  darkened  with 
time,  but  still  the  picture  remains  a  triumph  of 
subtle  .and  relined  ]iortiaiture.  Another  work, 
now  lost,  ]iortrayed  the  celebrated  beauty  (Jinevra 
Benci ;  and  Pacioli's  Dc  ilivina  VroportiDiie,  pub- 
lished in  1500,  containeil  si.vty  geometrical  hgures 
irom  Leonardo's  hand.  As  had  been  the  case 
in  Milan,  so  here  in  Florence  he  powerfully  influ- 
enced contemjiorary  artists.  Fra  I'artolommeo, 
Jacopo  da  I'ontormo.  (Jliirhmdajo,  and  the  sculji- 
tor  Bandinelli  all  prolited  by  his  ex.amjde. 

The  linal  period  of  Leonardo's  life  was  spent  in 
the  service  of  France.  In  1506  be  visited  INIilan  ; 
and  in  the  same  year  he  was  em])loyed  by  Louis 
XIL,  who  died  in  1515,  when  Leon.ardo  was  in 
Rome,  competing  witli  Michael  Angelo  for  the  execu- 
tion of  the  fac.ade  of  San  Lorenzo  in  Florence.  The 
young  French  king,  Francis  L,  bestowed  on  him, 
in  1516,  a  yearly  allowance  of  seven  hundre<l  scudi, 
and  assigned  to  his  use  the  Chateau  t'loux,  near 
.\mboise ;  and  it  was  here  that  the  great  artist 
expired,  2d  May  1519.  The  well-known  story  that 
he  ilied  in  the  royal  arms  is  untrue.  Among 
his  later  works  is  'The  Virgin  of  tlie  Kocks,' now 
in  the  National  (iallery,  London,  of  which  a  vary- 
ing version  is  jin'scrved  in  the  Louvre,  where  also 
is  another  of  bis  works  of  the  time,  a  figure  of  '  St 
John  the  Baptist,'  and  a  'Saint  Anne,'  somewhat 
similar  in  ilesign  to  the  Royal  Academy  cartoon. 

In  his  art  Leonardo  was  hardly  at  all  iiilluenceil 
by  tlie  anticjue;  his  ]iractice  was  founded  upon  the 
most  iiatient  and  searching  study  of  nature.  He 
occu]iii's  a  su])reme  pl.ace  as  an  artist  in  virtue  of 
his  unrivalled  jiower  of  delicate  draughtsman- 
ship, of  his  nobility  of  style  ami  command  over 
the  subtleties  of  expression,  of  his  skill  in  cliiar- 
oscnro  and  easy  m.astery  of  the  comiilexities  of 
light  and  shade,  of  modelling  and  relief,  and  of 
aerial  peis|iective.  So  few  in  number  are  the 
autlieiitic,  comideted,  and  well-preserved  works  by 
his  hand  that  have  reached  us  that  he  may  be 
most  fully  studied  in  his  drawings.  Bicli  collec- 
tions of  these  are  preserved  in  the  Ambrosian 
Library,  Milan  ;  the  Louvre,  Paris ;  the  Boyal 
Gallery,  Florence;  the  Albertina  (ialleiy,  Vienna; 
the  Academy,  Venice;  the  British  .Museum;  and 
the.  I'oyal  Library,  Windsor.  Mis  (-(debrated 
'Trattaio  della  Pittura,'  dealing  with  all  dcpavt- 
ments  of  the  jiainter's  art,  was  iiiiblishe<l  in  Italian 
in  1651,  translated  into  l'"ieiich  in  the  same  year, 
.and  into  Knglisli  in  17'21  :  but  a  more  coniidete 
manuscript  was  discovere<l  by  M.aiizi  in  the  Vati- 
can. an<l  by  him  publisheil  in  ISIV.  His  contem- 
poraries bear  witness  to  tin'  splendid  personal 
apjiearance  of  Leonardo;  but  the  only  undoubted 
portrait  of  him  that  survives  is  the  iwdile  beanled 
liead  in  the  Koyal  Library,  Turin,  a  red  chalk 
drawing  by  his  own  hand. 


The  voluminous  manuscripts  of  Leonardo,  written  from 
right  to  left — for  the  painter  was  left-lianded — and 
evincing  his  profound  research  in  almost  every  branch 
of  science,  are  jiroserved  at  Paris,  Milan,  Windsor, 
in  the  Britisli  iliiseuni,  in  the  South  Kensington 
Museum,  anil  at  Hulkham.  See  Kichtcr's  Literary 
Work»  of  Lronnrdo  fin  17/iri' (ISS.S),  and  \\\s  Leonardo 
(  Lond.  1880);  Mrs  Heaton's  Xco?trir(^)  dn  Vinri  ami  his 
Worku  (1874) ;  the  fac-siinile  reproduction  of  his  manu- 
scripts by  Ravaisson-MoUien  (Paris,  18S1-'.K>)  and  by  the 
Italians  (18fl4  ctso/.);  and  books  by  t'zielli  (1S72-85), 
Seailles  ( 18'.t2),  and  KugOne  Miintz  (trans.  1808). 

LoonfortC  a  walled  Sicilian  town,  49  miles 
by  rail  \V.  liy  N.  of  Catania.     Poji.  15,()45. 

Leoili.  Lkone  (1509-90),  goldsmith,  medallist, 
and  scul|itor,  worked  at  Milan,  (5enoa,  Brussels, 
and  ^Madrid,  and  w.as  the  rival  of  Beiivcnnto  Cellini 
in  talent,  in  vice,  and  in  violence.  See  the  nnmo- 
graph  by  Phm  (Paris,  1SS6). 

Leoil'idns  I.,  son  of  Anaxandrhles,  king  of 
Sparta,  succeeded  his  half-brother,  Cleomenes  I., 
about  491  B.C.  When  the  Persian  monarch  Xerxes 
approached  with  an  immense  army  Leonidas 
opposed  him  at  the  narrow  pjuss  of  Thernio|iyl<'e 
(480  li.c.)  with  a  force  of  .SOO  Sjiartans,  and  rather 
more  than  5000  auxiliaries.  The  Persians  .attempted 
in  vain  to  win  over  Leonidas  by  the  ]iiomise  of 
making  him  ruler  of  the  whole  of  Cireece ;  and 
when  Xerxes  sent  a  herald  calling  the  Greeks  to 
Lay  down  their  arms,  the  Spartan  answered  :  '  Let 
liim  come  and  take  them.'  The  treachery  of  one 
Ephialtes  having  made  it  impossible  to  bar  any 
longer  the  progre.ss  of  the  foe,  Leonidas  and  his 
little  band,  having  sent  away  the  auxiliary  force, 
threw  themselves  on  the  swarming  myriads,  and 
found  <a  heroic  death. 

Leonine  <'ity.    See  It.\ly,  p.  247. 

LeOIlillO  Ver.ses,  irregular  forms  of  Latin 
verse  which  arose  in  the  middle  .ages  under  the 
influence  of  the  minstrels,  who  ajiplied  the  accentual 
system  of  verse  to  Latin  in  deliance  of  quantity. 
They  were  used  for  ejiigranis,  satires,  and  also  for 
the  hymns  of  the  church,  and  were  fairly  natuiiil- 
ised  in  Kuiope  by  the  end  of  the  11th  century. 
Tlie  name  specially  apidies  to  verses  rhymed  as 
well  as  accentual,  and  more  especially  to  groups 
of  altern.ate  hexameter  and  pentameter  verses, 
rhymed  at  the  middle  and  end.  They  owe  their 
name  to  Leoninus,  a  canon  of  the  church  of  St 
Victor,  in  Paris,  .about  the  middle  of  the  12tli 
century,  or,  as  otliers  say,  to  Po)ie  Leo  II. ,  who 
was  a  lover  and  improver  of  iiiusic.  The  linest 
])oeiii  in  this  form  is  the  famous  J)c  Vvnttmjitu 
Mtmdi  of  Bernard  of  Morlaix.  A  familiar  example 
is  the  couidet : 

lliiiiion  languf^af,  mouaclius  tunc  esse  vole&af, 
.\st  ubi  ctiio'ahoV,  iimnsit  ut  ante/iiif. 

Another  is  the   famous   eiiit.aph   of  Bede   in    the 
Galilee  Chapel  of  Durham  Cathedral  : 

Hac  sunt  in  iossa  Ba-diu  venerabilis  ossa. 
Traces  of  this  kind  of  versification  appear  here 
and  there  in  the  Boman  pools,  espc<'ia,lly  in  Ovid, 
in  some  of  whosi^  Kpistles,  indeed,  they  are  as 
coMimon  on  an  average  as  once  in  every  eight  lines. 
An  examide  from  Uvid  is 

Quot  ca'lum  sUUtis,  tot  liabet  tua  Roma  puf//(is. 
Camden  gives  some  curious  specimens  from 
Walter  de  Mapes,  Michael,  the  Cornish  Jioet,  and 
Dan  Kliiigham.  a  monk  of  Linton.  The  story  of 
the  Jew  who,  having  fallen  into  a  refuse-iiit  on 
Saturd.ay,  would  not  be  helped  out,  becau.se  it  was 
/lis  Sabliath,  while  the  Christian,  who  offered  him 
assistance,  refused  to  do  so  7icjt  day,  because  it 
was  /lis,  runs  thus  in  Leonine  verse  : 

Tciiile  inatuis,  Salovioji,  epo  te  de  st«rcorc  tntlam  ; 
Sabbata  nostra  colo,  dc  at^ircore  surcere  noltt. 
Sabbata  nostra  ijuidtm,  Salomon,  cclebrabis  ibidem. 


LEONTIUS   OF   BYZANTIUM 


LEOPARDI 


583 


We  find  the  same  nietiical  device  employed  in 
many  En;,'lisli  poems,  as  in  iSlielley's  Cluml. 

LeontillS  of  Byzailtillin.  a  monk  who  wrote 
against  various  licresies  in  tlie  Otli  century.  There 
is  a  mono^'raph  on  liim  ( in  German )  hy  Loofs  ( 1S87 ). 

Leopard  (Fells  pardu.t),  one  of  the  larger 
Felida'  (q.v.),  now  generally  supposed  to  be 
identical  witli  the  jian'tlier.  Great  confusion  has 
prevailed  in  the  nomenclature  :  the  panther  and 
pardalls  of  the  ancients  are  not  certainly  know-n  : 
the  jaguar  was  erroneously  described  as  the  panther 
by  Button  ;  the  puma  is"  often  called  panther  in 
America ;   the  leopard  is  known   by  the  name  of 


Leopard  ( Fctii  pardus ). 

tiger  in  Africa  ;  and,  as  Sir  .J.  E.  Tennent  tells  us, 
it  is  by  mistake  often  called  cheetah  in  Ceylon. 
The  leoi)ard  is  at  lionie  in  Africa,  from  Algeria  to 
Cape  Colony  ;  it  is  also  found  in  Asia,  from  Pales- 
tine through  central  Asia  to  Manchuria.  The 
ancients,  distinguisliing  the  leopard  by  non-existent 
attributes  from  the  panther,  gave  it  the  name  on 
the  supposition  that  it  was  a  hybrid  between  the 
lion  [leo)  and  the  pard  or  panther  (pardiis) ;  as  the 
girafle  or  camelopard  was  thought  to  be  a  hybrid 
of  the  camel  and  the  pard. 

Supposing  the  leopard  and  panther  to  be  one 
species,  we  may  describe  it  as  characterised  by  a 
peculiar  gracefulness,  slenderness  ami  llexibility 
of  form,  with  a  very  long  tail,  and  spotted  fur,  the 
spots  being  arranged  in  numerous  rows  along  the 
sides,  anil  each  spot  composed  of  live  or  six  small 
spots  arranged  in  a  circle  or  rosette.  The  general 
colour  is  yellowish  ;  the  lower  parts  lighter  ;  the 
spots  darker  than  the  general  colour  of  the  fur. 
A  black  variety  is  known  which  is  not  a  distinct 
species.  The  leopard  is  extremely  agile,  and 
possesses  the  power  of  leaping  and  also  that  of 
climbing  trees  in  great  perfection.  It  haunts 
womled  places,  and  is  seldom  to  be  found  in  open 
regions  of  long  grass,  like  the  tiger.  Deer  and 
antelopes  are  its  habitual  prey  ;  but  it  is  equally 
ready  to  feed  on  pigs,  ]ioultry,  or  whatever  animals 
may  be  found  in  the  vicinity  of  a  farm  or  village. 
The  size  and  strength  of  the  leopard  render  it  as 
dangerous  to  man  as  any  of  the  Feliihc  ;  but  it 
generally  seems  to  dread  and  flee  from  man,  unless 
a.s.sailed.      It  is  very  ca))able  of  domestication. 

Leopardi.  (il.vcoMo,  the  most  distinguished 
poet  r>f  modern  Italy,  was  born  at  Hecaiiati,  in  the 
Slarch  of  Ancona,  attli  June  17i)8.  I'.oth  his  parents 
were  noble;  but  both  were  poor.  The  cciticlitions 
of  Leopardi's  early  life  were  certainly  uiiccnigcMial, 
though  his  inheritt^l  temper  disposed  him  to  exag- 
gerate evervthing  distasteful  to  his  own  instincts. 
His  father  \iad  tTie  predilections  of  a  scholar  :  but 
in  religion  and  ])olitics  he  was  a  reactionary, 
and  in  the  management  of  his  family  unsym- 
pathetic   and    arbitrary.      From    the    first    there 


was  no  real  V)ond  of  sympathy  between  father 
and  son,  and  the  mother,  thongli  kindly  and 
conscientious  in  the  dischar-'o  of  lier  duties,  does 
not  seem  to  have  touched  her  son's  heart.  All 
through  his  l)oyhoo<l  Leopardi  was  an  omnivorous 
reader ;  and  his  faculty  ot  aoi|uisition  can  be  com- 
pared only  to  that  of  the  younger  Scaliger.  15y  the 
age  of  sixteen  he  luul  read  tlirough  all  the  Latin 
and  Greek  classics,  and  could  w  rite  with  accuracy 
French,  Spanisli,  English,  and  Hebrew.  That  he 
also  read  with  insight  is  pro\ed  by  the  fact  that 
at  sixteen  he  wrote  a  commentary  on  I'lotiiuis,  of 
which  Sainte-Beuve  could  say  that  '  one  who  had 
studied  Plotinus  all  his  life  could  fuid  something 
useful  in  this  work  of  a  lioy. ' 

Leopardi  was  unbajipy  at  home;  and,  conscious 
of  his  own  extraordinary  gifts,  he  eagerly  desired 
to  visit  Rome,  where  he  hoped  to  find  the  ideal 
world  of  the  scholar  and  man  of  letters.  From 
ccmscientious  though  petty  scruples,  his  father  long 
iilHiosed  this  wish  ;  but  at  length,  in  the  strangely 
mistaken  hope  that  Giacomo  might  at  liome  be  led 
to  enter  the  church  (for  which  he  had  been  origin- 
ally intended),  he  gave  his  permission  (1822).  A 
year's  residence  in  Rome  wrought  in  Leopardi  a  dis- 
illusion, which  gave  the  final  bent  to  his  fundamen- 
tal views  of  life.  It  was  the  time,  it  is  to  be  remem- 
bered, when  Italy  was  demoralised  by  the  French 
domination  ;  and'  in  Rome  itself  the  tone  even  of 
the  best  society  was  despicable.  An  acquaintance 
« itli  Niebulu-  and  Bunsen,  both  of  whom  spoke  of 
him  as  a  prodigj-,  was  almost  the  sole  redeem- 
ing experience  in  the  capital  of  Italy.  It  was 
with  feelings  of  relief,  therefore,  that  in  1823  he 
returned  to  Recanati.  For  the  next  ten  years, 
partly  of  choice,  but  also  largely  of  necessity,  he 
devoted  himself  to  literature.  From  his  earliest 
days  he  had  been  of  feeble  .and  sickly  constitution, 
anil  as  he  grew  older  his  ill-health  Ijecame  more 
frequent  and  overmastering.  As  a  confirmed  in- 
valid, he  lived  successively  in  Bologna,  Florence, 
Milan,  and  Pisa,  and  finally  quitted  Recanati  in 
1830.  In  18.33  he  accompanied  his  devoted  friend 
Ranieri  to  his  house  in  Xajdes,  and  there  in  con- 
stant bodily  anguish  and  hopeless  despondency  he 
lived  till  1837.  He  died  on  the  14th  of  June  in 
that  year. 

Leopardi  claims  recognition  at  once  as  a  scholar, 
a  poet,  and  a  thinker.  Had  his  health  permitted, 
and  had  he  so  chosen  to  devote  his  powei-s,  there 
can  be  no  question  that  he  would  have  taken  his 
place  in  the  front  rank  of  the  students  of  antiquity. 
Immediately  subsequent  to  his  death  the  original 
productions  of  Leopardi  were  classed  %yith  the 
highest  creative  eflbrts  the  world  has  seen.  His 
Opcrette  Monili,  cimsisting  mainly  of  dialogues  in 
which  he  expounds  his  peculiar  philoso]ihy,  were 
compared  for  originality  and  power  with  the  writ- 
ings of  Pascal,  the  writer  whom  he  at  least  nmst 
closely  resembles  in  tone  of  mind  as  well  as  in 
l)hvsical  constitution.  .\s  a  jioet  it  was  as.serted 
that  Dante  alone  of  all  the  Italians  \yas  his  eoual 
in  expressiveness  of  character  and  genius.  Of  late 
years,  however,  a  more  sober  estimate  has  been 
formed  of  Leopardi's  claims  both  as  a  poet  and 
thinker.  It  is  now  generally  recognised  that  his 
narrow  range  of  symi>athy  and  the  essentially 
feeble  spring  of  his  nature  debarred  him  from  the 
highest  creative  effort.  The  pessimism  of  which 
he  is  the  recognised  exponent  in  poetry,  and  which 
is  equally  the  burden  of  his  prose,  was  unquestion- 
ably the'  genuine  expression  of  Leopardi's  deepest 
nature  as  well  as  of  liis  reasoned  conviction.  The 
note  of  i)essimisni  has  often  been  sounded  by  other 
poets  besides  Leopardi  ;  but  it  remained  fi>r  him 
to  extract  its  full  poetic  context  from  a  jihilosophy, 
the  first  and  last  word  of  which  is  the  'void  and 
nothingness'  of  all  human  life  and  ett'ort. 


584 


LEOPOLD    I. 


LEPROSY 


The  works  of  Leopard!  were  edited  in  1845  at  Florence 
by  Ranieri  in  six  volumes.  The  most  noteworthy  of  liis 
writings  are,  in  poetry,  his  Caitte  and  Can-oni,  and  a 
piece  entitled  '  Continuation  of  the  Battle  of  the  Frogs 
and  Mice  ;'  and,  in  prose,  the  Dialogues  and  Essays  classed 
under  tlie  title  Operette  Morali.  His  Essays  and  Dia- 
logues were  translated  intu  English  by  Charles  Edwardes 
in  1882,  his  Poems  by  Fredericlt  Townsend  in  1888.  See 
Gladstone's  Glcanbvjs,  vol.  ii.  ;  Sainte-Beuve,  Portraits 
Contemporains^  torn.  iii. ;  and  Antona-Traversi,  Studj  8U 
Giacomo  Leopardi  (Naples,  1888). 

Leopold  I.,  kiiiji  of  tlie  Belgians,  son  of  Francis, 
Duke  of  Saxe-Cobiirf,',  and  uncle  of  Queen  Victoria, 
was  l)orn  at  ColmrR  on  16th  December  1790.  After 
receiving  an  excellent  literary  and  scientific  edu- 
cation, lie  became  a  ;,'eneral  in  the  Ku.ssian  army, 
and  was  present  at  tlie  battles  of  Liitzen,  Bautzen, 
and  Leipzig.  Whilst  on  a  visit  to  Englanil  after 
the  peace  of  1815  lie  won  the  afTections  of  the 
Princess  Charlotte  (q.v.),  tlie  heire.ss  of  the  throne, 
married  lier,  and  was  naturalised  by  act  of  parlia- 
ment in  1816.  The  princess  died  in  1817 :  and 
Leopold  twelve  years  later  married  moiganatically 
Caroline  Bauer  (q.v.).     He  received  in  February 

1830  the  offer  of  tlie  crown  of  Greece,  accepted  it 
uhder  conditions,  Init  abdicated  in  May.     In  .Inne 

1831  he  was  elected  king  of  the  Belgians,  and 
crowned  at  Brussels  '21st  July.  As  a  monarch  he 
conducted  himself  with  great  prudence,  firmness, 
and  moderation,  with  constant  regard  to  the  prin- 
ciples of  tlie  Belgian  constitution.  He  died  loth 
December  186.5,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son, 
Leopold  II.     See  Belgiu.m,  Congo. 

Leopold,  Prince.    See  Alb.vny. 

Lepage.    See  B.-vstien-Lepage. 

Lepanto  (anc.  Naupadus),  now  called  by 
the  Greeks  Epakto,  a  small  town  of  Greece, 
and  the  seat  of  a  bishop,  is  situated  on  the 
north  side  of  the  entrance  to  the  Gulf  of  Corintli. 
During  the  Peloponnesian  war  it  wa-s  one  of  the 
chief  naval  stations  of  the  Athenians.  In  the 
middle  ages  it  was  given  by  the  Byzantine  emperor 
to  the  Venetians,  wlio  fm'tified  it  so  strongly  that 
in  1477  it  stood  a  siege  of  four  months  by  .30,000 
Turks,  and  in  14!)!)  was  only  taken  by  Bajazet  II. 
at  the  head  of  150,000  men.  Near  Lepanto  took 
place  the  celebrated  naval  battle  between  the  Turks 
on  the  one  side  and  the  Papal  galleys,  and  those 
of  the  Venetians  and  the  Spaniards,  on  the  other, 
on  7th  October  1571,  in  which  the  Christians, 
commanded  by  Don  John  of  Austria  (q.v.),  achieved 
a  decisive  victory.  Of  the  Turks  30,000  fell  or 
were  taken  prisoners,  whilst  1.30  Turkish  vessels 
were  captured,  and  12,000  Christi.an  slaves  liberated  ; 
the  Christians  lost  8000  men  and  15  galleys.  In 
this  battle  Cervantes  lost  an  arm.  The  town 
became  Greek  in  1829. 

L'Ep«5e.     See  EpiiE. 

Lcpidodeiidroii,  a  genus  of  fossil  plants 
which  occurs  in  Carboniferous  and  Upper  Devonian 
strata.  Several  species  are  recognised,  most  of 
which  attained  a  large  size — 40  or  50  feet  long  and 
more  than  4  feet  in  iliameter.  They  were  tree-like 
lycopods — their  living  representatives  being  th(^ 
low-growing  club-mosses  of  our  mountains.  The 
stem  tapered  upwards  and  blanched  dicliotomously, 
and  was  either  covered  with  linear  one-nerved 
leaves,  or  where  these  had  fallen  was  marked  with 
more  or  less  prominent  ovate  or  lozenge-sh.aped 
leafscai-s,  arranged  in  a  spiral  mtmner.  The  fruits, 
whi(di  were  either  terminal  or  lateral,  were  elon- 
gated, cylindrical  bodices,  composed  of  a  conical  axis, 
around  which  a  great  quantity  of  scales  were  com- 
pactly imbricated.  The  fos.sils  described  under  the 
name  Kiwrria  are  now  known  to  be  the  decorticated 
stems  of  Lepidodendron.  So  again  the  fruiting 
branches  were  formerly  included  under  the  genus 


Halonia,  while  the  cones  were  named  Lepidostrobus. 
Some  of  the  roots  (Stigmaria)  met  with  in  the 
underelays  of  the  coal-inea-sures  also  appear  to 
belong  to  Lepidodendron. 

Lepidop'tera  (Gr.,  'scaly- winged'),  an  order 
of  Insects  (q.v.).  See  also  BuTTKHFI.V,  CATER- 
PILLAR, Moth. 

Leyidosireil  (Or.  'scaly  siren;'  L.  paradoxci), 
one  of  Ihe  mudlislies  or  Di|)noi,  a  native  of  Brazil, 
Paraguay,  itc,  but  rather  rare.  It  measures  about 
4  feet  in  length,  and  is  probably  carnivorous.  lis 
general  cliaracters,  along  with 'those  of  the  two 
other  genera,  Ceratodus  (q.v.)  and  Protoiiterns, 
will  be  described  under  Mud-fi.siies. 

Lepidosteiis.    See  Bonv  Pike. 

Lepi'dll.S,  an  illustrious  Roman  family  of  the 
ancient  -■Emilian  gens.  .M.\RCUS  .Emilius  Lepi- 
DUS,  when  war  broke  out  (49  B.C.)  between  Caesar 
and  Pompey,  declared  for  Cfesar.  During  his  own 
absence  in  Spain,  Ca'sar  made  Lepidus  dictator  of 
Rome  and  his  colleague  in  the  consulate  (46  li.c). 
He  afterwards  supported  Antony,  and  became  mie 
of  the  triumvirate  with  Octaviiuuis  and  Antony; 
liut  bis  weakness  of  character  made  him  inferior  to 
the  other  two,  who  assigne<l  him  .\frica  as  his  iiro- 
vince  (40-39  B.C.).  I'ltiniately  his  legions  deserted 
to  Octavian,  who  allowed  him  to  retain  his  wealth 
and  the  dignity  of  pontife.x  maxinius.  He  died 
13  li.c. 

Lc  Play,  Fredkrio  (lS06-82),  engineer  and 
economist,  w;us  professor  in  the  School  of  .Mines  at 
Paris,  and  a  senator.  He  was  a  commissioner  at 
several  exhibitions,  and  wrote  Lcs  Oia-riers  Euro- 
pcens  (1855),  La  Rrformc  Soriale  (1864;  7th  ed. 
1887),  L'Orr/amsation  (In  Trnvnil  (1870;  5tli  eil. 
1888),  on  the  family,  on  the  English  constitu- 
tion, La  Constitution  csscnticllc  de  I'Humnniti 
(1881),  &c. 

Leprosy.  The  terminology  of  this  disease  is 
somewhat  confused  ;  it  was  called  by  the  ancients 
c/c/j/ianliii.iis  and  lepra,  but  the  latter  term  at  least 
was  also  used  of  other  forms  of  disease  ( of  psoriasis, 
for  example).  In  modern  times,  too,  both  these 
names  have  been  applied  to  other  disea-ses  as 
well ;  E/c/i/iantiasis  Aralium  (q.v.)  is  distinct  from 
leprosy,  which  is  distinguished  as  Elephantiasis 
Gncconiin,  or  Lepra  Arabnm.  It  is  also  some- 
times called  Leuntiasis. 

History  and  Distribution. — It  is  liiglil.y  probable 
that  what  is  now  known  as  leiuosy  was  one  of  the 
diseases,  though  certainly  not  the  only  one,  s]iokon 
of  by  that  name  in  the  Engli.-h  Bible;  Leviticus 
xiii.  deals  specially  with  the  rules  for  the  detec- 
tion and  isfdation  of  cases  of  leprosy.  It  is  not 
mentioned  there  prior  to  the  S(ij<Mirii  of  the  Israelites 
in  Egypt.  It  is  worthy  of  note  that  it  was  regarded 
by  the  earlier  Greek  and  lioman  writers  a.s  an 
Egyptian  disease.  But  it  certainly  existed  in  India 
and  China  at  very  early  periods.  Kegarding  its 
first  apiiearance  in  Eurojie  nothing  is  known.  It 
has  been  supposed  that  it  was  brought  from  the 
East  by  the  Crusaders  ;  but  there  is  evidence  that 
it  was  prevalent  long  before  the  first  crusade. 
During  the  middle  ages  it  was  extremely  common  ; 
lazar-houses,  dedicated  to  St  Lazarus  (from  whom 
lei)ers  were  called  also  lazars),  existed  throughout 
Europe,  including  the  British  Islands,  for  the  recep- 
tion of  lepers,  though  in  all  likelihood  not  for  them 
exclusively.  Etl'orts  were  made  to  secure  stringent 
isolation.  The  <dd  .lewisli  lejier  with  his  rent 
garments  and  melaiudioly  cry,  '  I'nclean  1  unclean  !' 
was  rejiroduced  in  the  medieval  leper,  with  a  gray 
gown  and  a  clapper  to  announce  his  approach. 
Since  about  the  14tli  century  leprosy  has  been 
steadily  declining  in  Euro|)e.  From  Shetland 
wliere  (as  also  in  Cornwall )   it   lingered   long,  : 


LEPROSY 


LEPSIUS 


585 


leper,  of  a  leprous  stock,  w.os  sent  to  Eilinbursli 
Iiifirinary  in  179S,  anil  a  fow  I'itses  occurred  in  tlie 
beginning  of  the  19th  century.  Liherton,  near 
Edinburgh,  is  believed  to  take  its  name  from  the 
leper-house  established  there. 

At  the  present  day  the  only  part  of  Kurope  where 
it  is  common  is  Norway  ;  but  it  also  occurs  in  Ice- 
land, on  the  Russian  coasts  of  tlie  Baltic  and  Gulf 
of  Finland,  in  south  Russia,  in  Portugal,  8iiain, 
Italy,  Turkey,  (irccce,  and  many  of  the  MeJiter- 
ranean  islands.  Kccrywhere  in  Europe,  however,  it 
Ls  found  only  in  liniiteil  districts.  In  Africa  it 
is  met  with  almost  all  round  the  coast  and  in  the 
adjacent  islands.  In  Asia  it  occurs  in  all  the 
countries  and  most  of  the  islands  on  the  south, 
from  Arabia  and  Persia  to  China  and  .Japan.  In 
America  it  occurs  in  New  I>runswick,  in  Central 
America,  the  West  Indies,  and  the  northern  and 
eastern  parts  of  South  America.  In  the  United 
States  and  in  Australia  ciuses  have  occurred,  but 
almost  all  among  the  Chinese  immigrants  ;  in  New 
Zealand  it  is  much  more  common  anumg  the  natives. 
In  the  Sandwich  Islands  it  seems  to  have  first  ap- 
peared about  1S.")0,  but  has  spread  with  alarming 
rapidity  ;  it  is  also  met  with  in  some  others  of  the 
Pacilic  islands  ( for  the  leper  island  of  Molokai  and 
its  institution,  see  H.\w.\ll).  The  .seclusion  of 
lepers  is  in  most  places  carefully  aimed  at.  Larger 
or  smaller  leper-hospitals  are  found  in  all  countries 
where  lepers  are  numerous  ;  notalile  ones  being  at 
Bergen,  Tracadie  (in  New  Brunswick;  adminis- 
tered by  devoted  religious  sisters ),  Robben  Island 
(near  Cape  Town);  there  are  upwards  of  a  dozen 
in  India. 

Cause  and  Mode  of  Spreading. — The  above  list  of 
localities  is  enough  to  show  that  the  disease  is  not 
dependent  upon  climate.  There  has  been  a  general 
belief  from  time  immemorial  in  countries  where  it 
occurs  that  it  is  contagious  ;  but,  though  numerous 
ca.ses  are  met  with  of  persons  temporarily  residing 
in  districts  where  the  disease  is  prevalent  who  have 
become  affected  by  it,  instances  are  extremely  rare 
in  which  they  have  communicated  the  disease  to 
others  in  countries  where  it  is  not  endemic;  and  if  it 
is  contagious,  it  must  be  under  very  rare  and  excep- 
tional condition.s.  Almost  all  (|ualitied  observers, 
however,  believe  that  the  disease,  or  a  constitutional 
tendency  to  it,  is  strongly  hereditary.  Evidence 
has  recently  been  adduceil  which  seems  to  show  that 
it  may  be  communicated  by  vaccination  from  a 
leprous  child.  In.sanitary  conditions,  lilthy  habits, 
and  unwholesome  food  are  generally  believed  to 
favour  its  occurrence  ;  though  persons  in  comfort- 
able circumstances  are  by  no  means  exempt.  Some 
authorities,  among  whom  Mr  .Jonathan  Hutchinson 
is  prominent,  think  that  'in  .some  way  fish-food, 
and  especially  when  either  salted  or  deconijiosed,'  is 
the  main  cause  of  its  origin.  In  1.S74  Hansen  of 
Bergen  found  a  bacillus,  extremely  like  the  bacillus 
of  tubercle,  afterwards  discovered,  in  the  att'ecteil 
tissues  ;  and  his  observations  have  been  confirmed 
by  many  other  observers,  so  that  there  is  no  doubt 
that  this  organism  is  a  constant  feature  of  the 
disea.se. 

Symptoms  and  Course. — The  disease  is  usually 
very  sfow  and  insidious  in  its  ai)pearance  and  ]iro- 
gres.s.  The  earliest  symi)tonis  are  debility,  depres- 
sion, loss  of  appetite,  and  general  constitutional 
disturbance.  Two  forms  of  the  disease  are  rec'og- 
ni.se<l,  tuliercular  and  uiiw.sthclii;  leprosy,  according 
to  the  tissues  first  and  chielly  involved.  In  the 
tubercular  form  the  earliest  recognisable  change 
consists  in  the  appearance  of  reddish-brown  spots 
on  the  skin,  usually  of  the  lindis,  tender  to  the 
touch,  and  somewhat  swollen.  They  may  dis- 
appear, leaving  the  skin  only  slightly  thickened  ; 
but  repeateil  attacks  occur  and  ali'ect  wider  areas  ; 
ultimately  the  skin  of  the  face  becomes  thickened. 


puckered,  and  nodulated,  giving  a  '  peculiar,  heavy, 
moros(»  expression;'  the  hands  and  feet  become 
similarly  ailected  ;  some  of  the  nodu!ale<l  spots  form 
into  deep  intractable  ulcers  ;  owing  to  changes  in 
the  cornea  the  sight  is  dimmed  or  lost ;  the  niucons 
membrane  of  the  mouth  and  throat  becomes  thick- 
ened, anil  the  voice  reduced  to  a  hoarse  whisper. 
In  the  ana>sthetie  form  certain  of  the  nerves  are 
cbielly  att'ected,  and  before  any  visible  changes 
occur  sensation  is  lost  in  the  areas  of  skin  supplied 
by  them.  Mutilation  of  the  fingers  and  toes  often 
occurs,  the  bones  being  destroyed,  or  the  whole 
parts  dropping  oil',  often  without  pain.  This  form 
is  generally  slower  in  its  ])rogress  than  the  tuber- 
cular form,  but  freiiuently  leads  to  the  develop- 
ment of  the  latter.  In  whatever  way  the  disease 
begins,  the  constitution  is  slowly  enfeebled,  and 
the  sutl'erer  falls  a  ready  victim  to  .some  intercurrent 
malady  ;  for  leprosy  is  seldom  itself  the  direct  cause 
of  death. 

Treatment. — The  disease  may  under  favourable 
conditions  remain  quiescent  for  long  periods.  In 
the  Tracadie  lazaretto  there  have  been  patients 
who  have  suft'ered  from  lepiosy  for  fifty  years. 
Cases  have  even  been  reported  of  complete  recovery. 
Improvement  has  sometimes  followed  the  use  of 
tiurjun  (q.v.)  and  Chauhnoogra  oils.  But  in  the 
vast  majority  of  eases  no  treatment  h.as  proved  of 
any  use  in  arresting  the  progress  of  the  disease. 

See  a  monograph  on  True  Leprosy  by  Liveing  {ISZ.*?) ; 
and  the  works  on  ,Skin  Diseases  by  Wilson,  Hutchin.son, 
and  others.  For  medieval  leprosy,  see  Sir  J.  Y.  Simpson 
in  Edin.  Med.  and  Sun/.  Jour.  (1846-47);  for  leprosy 
in  India  (where  in  1888  there  were  13o,0U0  lepers,  or, 
according  to  other  estimates,  250,000),  see  Vandyke 
Carter's  work  (1873);  for  leprosy  on  Kobben  Island, 
see  Btackivood's  Mai/azine  for  1889. 

LepsillS,  K.\RL  Rl(_'H-VRD,  Egyptologist,  was 
born  at  Naumburg,  ^Sd  December  1810.  His  father, 
Karl  Peter  Lepsius  ( 1775-1S.")3),  a  magistrate  there, 
was  himself  a  zealous  antiquary,  and  published 
learned  treati-ses  on  the  local  antiquities.  The 
younger  Lepsius  studied  at  Leipzig,  Gcittingen, 
Berlin,  and  Paris.  His  first  work  was  Die  Palrio- 
(jraphie  als  Jlittel  iter  Siinirlifor.srhuiig  (18.34),  for 
which  he  obtained  the  \  olney  prize  of  tlie  French 
Institute.  This  was  followed  by  works  on  the  most 
ancient  alphabets  and  other  kindred  subjects.  In 
1836  he  a.ssociated  himself  intimately  with  Bunsen 
at  Rome,  and  eagerly  prosecuted  his  favourite 
studies  there.  Between  1834  and  1842  he  published 
his  I.ettre  a  31.  lioscUini  sur  V Alphabet  liifrdgly- 
pliiqne,  and,  in  the  Tran.iactions  ol  the  Arclueologi- 
cal  Institute,  a  number  of  dissertations  on  the  monu 
nients  of  Egyptian  art  and  their  general  architec 
tural  style.  He  also  apiilied  himself  to  the  study 
of  the  ancient  Etru.scan  and  Oscan  languages,  the 
remains  of  which  he  published  in  his  Inseriptioncs 
L'Dihrica;  et  Osca;  (\^^\)  ;\nA  other  works.  In  184'2 
he  was  |)l,'iced  at  the  head  of  an  antiquarian  expedi- 
tion sent  to  Egyi't  by  the'  king  of  Prussia,  and  on 
his  return  three  years  later  was  apiiointed  ordinary 
professor  in  Berlin.  IWs  Dciikinidir  iiiis  yligi/plfii 
luiil  Acthiopicn  (12  vols,  folio,  with  903  plates. 
1849  GO)  was  published  at  the  expen.se  of  the  king 
of  Prussia,  and  remains  a  masterpiece  of  patient 
genius  and  erudition.  His  Clirunolugie  dcr  .li-gi/p- 
iir  and  l.^ehcr  dru  cr.itcn  Acgi/pt.  Uiittcrhrrix  hiid 
the  foundation  for  a  scientific  treatment  of  the 
earlier  parts  of  Egyptian  history.  To  the  study 
of  Egyptian  aiclueology  he  joined  the  investigation 
of  the  languages,  history,  and  monuments  of  the 
regions  farther  up  the  Nile.  Other  works  are  his 
letters  from  Egypt,  Ethiopia,  and  Sinai  (ISiVi);  a 
commiinieation  on  the  Egyptian  iiioinimeiits(  18.53); 
the  work  in  whieli  he  e\|iounds  the  Stiinilanl 
Alphabet,  a  modified  Roman  alphabet  for  hitherto 
unwritten   languages,    now   used    in    many   ca-ses 


586 


LEPTOSPERMUM 


LE    SAGE 


( 1855 ;  in  its  second  edition,  published  in  English  in 
1863,  adapted  to  120  languages);  a  work  on  the 
Egyptian  ell  and  other  measures  ;  the  Kuiiitishurli, 
a  list  of  kings  (1858);  the  Tot/leiihtieh  (1867),  the 
Egvjitian  Book  of  the  Dead  (q.v.).  He  wrote  alsoon 
Chinese,  Araliic,  and  Assyrian  philology;  wa-s  editor 
of  the  Berlin  Zeitsclirift  of  Egyptology,  nienilier 
of  the  Royal  Academy,  ilireetor  of  the  Egyptian 
section  of  the  Royal  Museum,  and  chief-lilirarian 
of  the  Royal  Library  at  Berlin.  He  w.os  a  creator 
of  Egyptology  as  a  scientific  study,  and  a  devoted 
and  single-minded  scholar  of  the  best  type.  He 
died  10th  July  1884.  iSee  Ebers,  Richard  Lcp^iiis, 
cin  LcbcnshiM  (1885;  Eng.  trans.  New  York, 
1887). 

LeptOSltrrilllllll.  a  genus  of  trees  and  shrubs, 
natives  of  Australia,  New  Zealand,  ike,  of  the 
natural  order  Myrtaeea",  sub-order  Leptospermea^. 
They  are  evergreen,  with  leaves  somewhat  resem- 
bling those  of  myrtles.  Some  bear  the  name  of 
Tea-tree,  as  L.  Icnif/crmn,  L.  beicciitiim,  L.flexuosum. 
and  X.  iiriiiiilifloruiii,  because  the  leaves  have 
been  used  as  a  substitute  for  tea.  L.  scoparinm 
is  sometimes  called  the  Ncii-  Zealand  Tea-plant, 
sometimes  the  Broom -tree  or  Duqicood-tree.  It  is 
common  both  in  New  Zealand  and  Australia. 

Lerida.  a  town  of  Spain,  cai)ital  of  the  province 
of  Lerida  (area,  4762  s(|.  m.  ;  pop.  285,417  in  1887, 
having  decreased  from  .314,530  in  I860),  on  a  tribu- 
tary of  the  Ebro,  114  nules  by  rail  W.  by  N.  of 
Barcelona.  The  second  city  of  Catalonia,  Leriila 
has  a  castle  and  two  cathedral  churches,  one  an 
ancient  Byzantino-Moorish  edifice,  now  used  as  a 
barracks,  the  other  a  modern  GracoRoman  build- 
ing. It  carries  on  manufactures  of  woollens, 
cottons,  leather,  paper,  and  glass.  Pop.  ( 1877 ) 
20,369;  (1884)  17,672.  Near  Lerida,  the  Celti- 
berian  Ilcrda.  Scipio  Africanus  defeated  Hanuo 
(216  li.c.)  and  Ca'sar,  the  lieutenants  of  Pompey 
(49  B.C.).  The  (ioths  made  it  a  bishop's  see  .and 
held  here  a  council  of  the  church  in  the  6th 
century.  In  1300  a  university  was  founded  here  ;  it 
is  now  extinct.  The  town  has  been  several  times 
besieged,  on  the  last  occasion  by  the  French  in  1810. 

Lf^I'ill.S,  a  small  grouji  of  French  islands  in  the 
Mediterranean,  2^  miles  SE.  of  (.'annes.  t)n  Sainte- 
Marguerite  ( the  ancient  Leroiia  ).  4  miles  in  circum- 
ference, st.-mds  a  fortress  in  which  the  Man  with 
the  Iron  Mask  and  Marshal  Bazaine  were  at  ditl'er- 
ent  times  confined,  and  from  which  Bazaine  escaped 
in  1874.  On  Saint-Honorat  (anciently  Lerina),  2 
miles  in  circuit,  are  the  ruins  of  the  once  famous 
monastic  school.  Vincent  Lerinensis,  a  monk  here 
(died  450),  was  the  author  of  the  famous  definition 
of  Catholicism  (see  ('ATUOLlc  Church). 

Leriuoiitolf,  Mikh.vii,  Yi-rkvitch,  one  of 
Russia's  greatest  poets,  called  the  '  ]inet  of  the 
Caucasus,'  was  born,  of  Scotch  e.\tracti(5n  ( Lear- 
mont ;  jirobably  traci>alile  back  to  Thomas  the 
Rhymer),  in  Moscow  on  15th  October  1814.  Hewas 
educated  at  Moscow  and  in  the  school  of  pages  at 
St  Petersburg,  and,  entering  the  army,  was  sent  on 
active  .service  in  the  Caucasiis.  There  he  was  shot 
dead  in  a  duel  on  15th  July  1841.  The  death  of 
Pushkin  gave  him  his  first  i)c)etic  inspiration,  which 
took  shape  in  an  impa-sioued  appeal  for  vengeance 
on  I'usbkin's  slayer,  lint  it  w.as  the  sublime  scenery 
of  the  Caucasus  that  insjiired  his  best  poetic  pieces, 
such  as  Tlic  Novice,  The  l)eiiion,  I.tinail  Bey,  Valerik, 
&c.  One  poem  from  his  pen,  J'lte  Son//  il/thc  Czar 
Ivan  Vasilie'riteh,  is  highly  jiraised  as  a  successful 
attcm])t  to  reproduce  the  s]iiritof  the  Little  liussian 
pojpular  iioclry.  A  Byronic  note  runs  thrdugli  most 
of  Lermontofl's  poetic  work.  In  1839  he  ijulilislied 
a  good  novel,  A  Hero  of  Vnr  Time :  this  is  said  to 
have  occa.sioned  the  duel  that  cost  him  his  life. 
See  Turner,  Studies  in  Russian  Literature  (\99i^) ; 


Blaekwond's  Magazine  ( 1884);  and  George  Brandes, 
Impressions  of  Russia  ( 1890). 

Lern<pidi<P.  a  family  of  Copepod  crustaceans, 
of  which  the  females  are  parasitic  on  fishes  and 
grotesquely  degenerate,  the  adults  showing  hanlly 
a  trace  of  crustacean  structure.     See  F'tSH-LOt'SE. 

Leroy  de  St  Ariiaiid.    See  Sr  Arnaid. 

LerM'ick,  the  county  town  of  Shetland,  on  the 
east  coast  of  Mainland  and  on  liressay  Sound,  116 
miles  NE.  of  Kirkwall.  Demolished  and  refounded 
in  the  17th  century,  it  has  lieen  greatly  imi)roved 
since  1850,  and  has  a  town-ball  (1883),  county 
buildings  ( 1872 ),  water  and  diainage  works ( 1871 ) ; 
whilst,  to  meet  the  rapid  growth  of  its  shipping 
and  fisheries,  extensive  harbour-works  ( jiier, 
wharves,  <.<.c. )  were  carried  out  during  1883-86. 
Pop.  ( 1831 )  2750  ;  ( 1881 )  4045  ;  ( 1891 )  3930. 

Le  Sage.  Alain-Rene,  was  born  in  1668  at 
Sarzeau  in  Brittany.  His  father  ilied  in  1682, 
leaving  him  to  the  care  of  an  uncle,  who  .so  mis- 
managed his  afi'airs  that  he  began  life  with  little 
more  capital  than  genius  and  an  education  received 
at  the  Jesuit  school  at  A'annes.  In  1692  he  went 
to  Paris  to  study  law,  but  an  early  marriage  drove 
him  to  seek  a  less  tardy  livelihood  in  litciature. 
His  first  work  was  a  translation  of  the  letters  of 
Arista»netus  in  1695,  ami  about  the  same  time  he 
made  the  friendship  of  the  Abbe  ile  Lionne,  who 
was  owner  of  a  good  Spanish  library  collected  by 
his  father  the  ambassador,  of  which  he  made  Le 
Sage  free,  with  a  pension  of  600  livres  to  enable 
him  to  profit  by  it.  The  first  fruit  was  the  project 
of  a  Thcfitrc  Espaijnol ;  but  all  that  came  of  it  was 
one  volume  in  1700  containing  two  plays,  the 
Traitre  puni  and  Don  Felix  de.  Mendoee,  imit.ated 
from  Rojas  and  Lope  de  Vega.  In  \'{Y2  Le  jioint 
f/'honnciir,  from  A'o  hoy  amigo  para  aiiiigo  of 
Rojas,  failed  on  the  stage.  His  next  venture 
(1704)  was  a  rifacimento  of  Avellaneda's  Don 
Qiti.rote.  The  year  1707  was  the  turning-point  in  his 
fortunes.  Do7i  Cesar  l^rsin,  from  Calderon's  I'eor 
cstei  que  csfaba,  was  played  with  success  ,at  cimrt, 
and  Crispin  rind  de  son  maitre  in  the  city  ;  and 
more  successful  than  either  was  the  Diabte  lioitcux, 
the  framework,  title,  and  first  chapter  of  which  he 
took  from  the  Diablo  Cojuclo  of  Guevara.  In  1708 
he  ofVered  the  Theatre  Francais  two  ]days ;  La 
Tontine  was  accepted,  but  shelved,  and  not  pro- 
duced until  1732;  Les  Ktrennes  was  lejected,  as 
rules  (lid  not  allow  one-act  pieces  before  Easter. 
Le  Sage  toiik  it  back,  and  altered  and  expanded  it 
into  Tnrearet :  but  the  financiers  it  satirised,  after 
an  attempt  to  buy  him  off  with  100,000  livres, 
organised  such  an  oi)position  against  it  that  it  was 
.saved  only  by  an  ortler  from  the  Daiiiihin.  Le  Sage 
was  not  a  man  to  submit  to  cajirice.  It  is  told  of 
him  that  when  the  Duchesse  ilc  Bouillon,  at  whose 
house  he  w;is  to  have  rea<l  'J'lireiirrt .  received  him 
with  a  hauglity  reprimand  fur  kcc]iing  her  waiting, 
be  rei)lied,  '  \'ery  well,  madame,  if  1  have  made  you 
lose  an  hour  I  will  make  you  gain  two,'  and  with  a 
bow  walked  out  ;  and  it  was  no  doubt  the  same 
spirit  of  independence  th;it  made  him  go  over  in 
1709  from  the  Thci'itre  Francais  to  the  ojiposition 
Thcfttre  de  la  Foire.  Inle.ss  the  Amants  ,/atoux 
of  1736  be  his,  he  made  no  attemjit  after  this  to 
return  to  the  regular  drama,  but  cuntinued  to 
supply  the  F'oire  stage  with  slight  ])ieces  of  the 
kind  it  was  restricted  to,  which  he  published  from 
time  to  time  in  the  volumes  composing  the  ThfAtre 
de  la  Foire.  For  these  the  Persian  tales  which  he 
helpeil  bis  friend  Pelis  de  la  Croix  to  put  into  shajie 
in  the  Miltr  el  iiit  jaurs  were  of  great  service  to  him. 
But  the  success  of  the  Diable  Boitenx  was  too 
encouraging  to  allow  him  to  neglect  the  Simnish. 
In  1715  ail  Blax  (vols.  i.  and  ii.)  came  out,  followed 
in  1717-21  by  an  attempt  at  an  Orlando.     In  1724 


LE    SAGE 


587 


came  the  thin]  and,  lus  it  seemed,  hist  vol.  of  Git 
Bias,  and  in  1726  a  new  edition  of  the  Diahic 
Eoitnijc,  doubled  in  bulk  by  additions  of  his  own 
and  from  Santos.  In  1732  be  {;ave  Ids  (hizmmi  de 
Alfarnche,  'purged  of  suiierlluous  moralities,'  and 
lioherf  Chevnlier  de  Beaiichcnc,  the  life  of  a 
buccaneer  wliose  widow,  he  savs,  furnished  the 
memoirs.  In  1734  he  took  the  title  of  Estehaiiilln 
Gonzalez,  hut  very  little  else,  from  the  original 
Spanish.  In  173.>  the  fourth  vol.  of  Gil  Bias 
appeared,  and  also  the  Journfe  lies  J'arqin's  :  in 
1736-38  the  Bachetier  de  Salamatiijue,  the  'remain- 
der biscuit'  of  Gil  Bias:  in  1739  liis  |)lays,  in  two 
vols. ;  in  1740  La  Valise  trouvce,  a  volume  of  letters ; 
ami  in  1743  the  Milamje  Amiis'iiif,  a  collection  of 
faceti:e  from  his  memory  or  his  notebook.  Tiiat 
yejvr  brought  his  tii-st  sorrow,  tlie  ileath  of  his 
eldest  son  Itene.  otherwise  Montmenil  the  come- 
dian. Le  Sage  had  a  contempt  for  actors  and 
their  calling,  and  when  his  son  adopted  it  he 
disowned  him.  Hut  in  time,  Itrought  round  to 
see  him  in  Tiireaiet,  he  was  conquered  by  his 
own  creation  alive  in  the  genius  of  his  son,  and 
the  estrangement  ended  in  their  being  drawn 
together  more  closely  than  ever.  The  death  of 
liis  son  and  his  own  increasing  infirmities,  particu- 
larly his  deafness,  made  hiin  abandon  Paris  and 
literary  life,  ami  retreat  with  his  wife  and  daughter 
to  Boulogne,  where  his  second  son,  Julien,  held  a 
cauonryin  the  cathedral ;  and  there,  in  the  Hue  du 
Chateau,  he  died  in  1747,  in  his  eightieth  year.  Of 
himself,  pereonally,  there  is  very  little  on  record. 
He  was  withdrawn  from  society  by  bis  deafness, 
from  which  lie  was  a  sufferer  as  early  as  1709,  and 
lived  a  quiet,  retired,  industrious  life,  surrounded 
by  his  family  ;  and  j)erliaps  their  devotion  and  the 
loving  care  with  which  they  tended  him  in  bis  last 
days  are  more  eloquent  than  any  eulogy  of  his 
character  and  virtues  that  preacher  could  pro- 
nounce. 

Le  Sage's  reputation  as  a  dramatist  and  as  a 
novelist  rests  in  each  case  on  one  work.  The 
author  of  Tvrenret  might,  under  favouring  circum- 
stances, liave  done  anything  in  comedy  short  of 
dethroning  Moliere,  but  a-s  it  is  he  has  no  claim 
to  a  place  in  the  iii-st  order  of  dramatists.  But 
whatever  severe  critics  may  say,  the  author  of  Gil 
Bias  stands  in  the  front  rank  of  the  novelists  by 
the  common  ctmsent  of  the  great  ma-ss  of  readers 
of  all  nations.  On  the  other  hand  there  are  some 
who  deny  originality  to  one  who  borrowed  ideas, 
incidents,  and  tales  from  othei's — Espinel,  Kojas, 
Mendoza,  Quevedo — as  Le  Sage  did  ;  and  some 
who  go  still  further,  and  deny  that  the  author  of 
Gil  Bias  was  anything  more  than  a  transbitor. 
The  question  of  what  constitutes  originality  would 
he  out  of  place  here,  but  the  other  is  simply  a 
question  of  evidence  which  may  be  brielly  summed 
np.  It  was  primarily  Voltaire  who  raised  the 
issue.  Le  Sage  had  juit  him  into  Gil  Bias  as  Don 
Oaltriel  Triaquero,  and  he  in  return  said  in  his 
Siecle  de  Louis  XIV.  tliat  Gil  Bias  wna  'entirely 
taken  from  y,«  VidaU  de  lo  Ksciidiero  Dom  Uliircns 
(f  Oljrego,'  showing  that  he  had  never  seen  the 
book  he  quoted,  and  could  not  read  it  if  he  had. 
Backed  by  his  name,  the  ligment  had  a  wide  circu- 
lation, especially  in  Spain,  and  the  I'adre  Isia  was 
set  on  to  develop  it,  which  be  did  in  his  own 
peculiar  fashion  (see  I.SL.v).  The  Comto  de  Neuf- 
ch.'iteau  liaving  taken  iiji  Isha  seriously,  was  replied 
to  by  Llorente,  wlm  maintained  that  though  Isla 
w.as  in  jest  he  had  truth  on  bis  side.  His  own 
theory  was  that  in  the  Lioniie  library  Le  Sage 
found  a  MS.  novel,  called  the  B/tehelor  of  Sala- 
maiira,  written,  proliably  by  Solis  the  historian,  in 
165.5,  and  that  out  of  this  he  carved  Gil  Bias, 
serving  up  the  remainder  afterwards  under  the 
original   title.      The   argument,    in   brief,    is   that 


Gil  Bias  is  cro\viled  with  details  of  a  kind  that  Le 
Sage,  who  never  was  in  Spain,  could  have  b.ad  no 
knowledge  of,  .and  could  not  have  got  from  books. 
Of  these  det.ails,  howevi-r,  a  good  many  need  not 
have  had  any  more  recondite  source  than  ]Jo7t 
Quixote:  and  for  the  rest  Le  Sage  would  have 
said  that  he  only  womlered  at  his  own  modera- 
tion, for  be  could  have  taken  ten  times  as  many 
from  tlie  jilays  and  picaresque  novels  in  the  abbe's 
liluarv,  and  from  bocd<s  of  travclleis  like  -V.aissens 
van  Sommelsdyck,  I'.ertaut,  and  .Mme  I)'.\ulnoy. 
Hut  1/lorente  jmiuts  out  that  over  a  hundred 
places,  often  oliscure  hamlets  that  few  Spaniards 
even  ever  heard  of,  are  named,  in  general  correctly, 
wliieli  is  a  proof  of  some'  exceptional  source  of 
information  ;  but  sometimes  incorrectly,  a  proof 
that  tlie  source  was  a  MS.  not  a  juinted  one. 
But  a  plain  tale  will  put  liim  down  ;  the  names 
are  in  old  French  ni.aps.  Of  a  score  picked  out 
as  manifest  misreadings  from  a  ^IS.— Giajal, 
Kodillas,  Luceno,  t'astil  Bla/o,  t^c,  all  but  one 
are  in  the  map  of  Spain  juiiited  in  Paris  by  Jaillot 
eirca  1695,  and  all  the  notalilo  ones  in  that  of 
1713.  just  two  years  before  Gil  Bias  appeared. 
From  maps,  too,  come  Le  Sages  blunders  in 
topography — e.g.  putting  Penatlor  on  the  road  to 
Salamanca,  Alcalii  between  ALadrid  .and  Segovia, 
Penafiel  between  Segovia  and  Valladolid,  Liria 
'sur  les  bonis  du  Ouadalaviar.'  Finally  be  urges 
Le  Sage's  familiarity  with  secret  history  and 
the  private  .atl'airs  of  Olivares,  his  daughter's 
man-iage  (.\i.  9),  and  his  a<loption  of  JIargarita 
Spinola's  son  (xii.  4) ;  and  asks  how  C(mld  he  have 
known  matters  and  names  not  to  lie  found  in  ]irint, 
save  from  a  contemporary  MS. ;  which,  as  before, 
bis  misreadings,  Niebles  for  Xiebla,  Abrados  for 
Abiados,  Valeasar  for  ^'alcaicel,  liear  witness  to? 
But  again  the  answer  is  simple.  He  found 
'Niebles 'and  'Abrados,'  as  well  as  the  marriage 
story  in  the  translated  Anecdotes  du  miiiistire 
d'Ulii'aies  (Paris,  1722),  and  put  the  very  words 
of  the  book  into  the  mouth  of  Oliv.ares,  whose 
portrait  (xi.  2)  is  word  for  word  from  the  Anec- 
dotes. '  A'aleasar '  he  found  in  the  Relation  de  ce 
qui  s'est  pass6  it  la  disgrace  d'  Olieares  ( Paris,  1 650 ), 
from  which  he  took  the  Count  Duke's  curious  'con- 
fidence' to  Gil  Bias,  and,  also,  sundiv  names  cited 
l)y  Llorente.  <.)ne  by  one,  in  sliort.  the  suiqiorts 
give  way,  and  the  MS.  theory  falls  to  the  ground. 
Nevertheless,  in  tlie  absence  of  rebutting  evidence, 
its  ))lausibility  imposed  u]ion  some  good  critics, 
the  author  of  'Wlio  Wrote  Gil  Bias.''  in  Blacl:- 
v<iod  (1844),  A.  H.  Everett,  and  Ford,  among 
others.  All  admit,  however,  that  the  translator 
has  left  the  stamp  of  bis  nationality  indelibly 
impressed  upon  the  work  ;  the  mystery  lies  in 
its  wealth  of  detail.  Llorente  puts  the  matter 
in  a  nutshell  when  he  asks  why  did  Le  Sage,  if 
he  was  the  original  author,  give  himself  so  much 
needless  trouble?  Why  so  particular  to  name 
'Toralva,'  when  it  would  have  done  just  as 
well  to  say  'a  village  near  Cuenca'/'  The 
answer  is  that  Le  Sage  was  before  all  things 
an  artist,  aii<l  knew  the  value  of  details  in  j>ro- 
ducing  the  verisiinilituile  he  aimed  at.  In  this 
resjiect  and  many  others  he  was  like  bis  great 
contemporary  Defoe.  He  spared  no  pains  to  make 
his  conception  a  reality  to  his  reader.  When  lie 
sent  (lil  Bias  on  a  ionrney  he  was  not  content  to 
gener.alise  his  road,  lint  lookeil  up  the  villages  he 
bad  to  jiass  through  on  the  best  map  lie  could 
linil.  \\'ben  he  brought  him  to  an  inn,  he  went  to 
the  novels  and  plays  for  inn  furniture  and  com- 
pany and  conversation.  This  is  the  rationale  of 
'lis  borrowings,  and  it  is  this,  a-s  much  ivs  his 
delightful  style,  that  makes  him  the  prince  of 
raconteui-s.  He  was  the  first  to  jierceive  the  capa- 
bilities of    the    picaresque    novel,    and    with   tlie 


588 


LESBOS 


LESLIE 


culinary  genius  of  his  nation  (by  no  means  con- 
fined to  artists  like  him  wlio  could  make  a 
savoury  rafjout  out  of  an  old  boot)  he  got  riil 
of  its  crudities,  brought  out  its  flavour,  and 
served  it  uii  with  a  sniirc  piijudntc  of  liis  own. 
In  so  doing  lie  advanced  the  novel  of  real  life  an 
important  stage,  and,  to  his  honour  be  it  said, 
no  abuse  of  realism  can  be  laid  to  his  charge.  In 
the  words  of  Scott,  '  Ilis  muse  moved  with  an  un- 
polluted ste]),  even  where  the  path  was  somewhat 
miry.' 

Lesbos,  or  Mytilene,  a  Turkish  island  in  the 
.il'igean  Sea,  lies  10  miles  from  the  coast  of  .Vsia 
Minor,  north  of  the  Gulf  of  Smyrna.  It  is  tri- 
angular in  shape,  with  two  deep  inlets  on  tlio 
south-east  and  south-west,  and  is  for  t!ie  most 
part  mountainous,  reaching  3079  feet  in  Ilagios 
Elias  (Olympus).  The  soil  is  fertile  and  yields 
good  crops  of  olives,  the  oil  being  the  chief  ex- 
port. In  ancient  times  wine  was  a  specialty. 
The  climate  is  delightful.  Tlie  chief  drawback 
of  the  island  is  the  earthquakes,  which  occur 
pretty  frequently.  Area,  676  sq.  m.  :  pop.  30,000, 
mostly  Greeks.  The  ancient  capital  was  .Mitylene 
(on  coins  Mytilene)  ;  the  existing  town,  called 
Castro,  '  a  straggling  dirty  village,'  has  a  jiopulation 
of  about  12,000.  It  stands  on  a  peninsula  on  the 
east  coast,  is  defended  by  a  medieval  castle,  and 
has  a  shallow  harbour.  Other  ancient  cities  were 
Metliynma,  Pyrrha,  Antissa,  and  Eresus.  The 
modern  town  of  Agiasso  has  7000  to  8000  in- 
habitants. The  island  was  early  colonised  by 
/Eolian  immigrants.  Between  700  and  500  B.C. 
it  was  the  flourishing  home  of  poets  and  literary 
men,  as  the  names  of  Alc;eus,  Sappho,  Ter- 
paniler,  Pittacus,  Theophrastus,  Theophanes,  and 
others  will  attest.  The  Lesbians  made  themselves 
masters  of  considerable  territory  on  the  opposite 
mainland  of  .\sia  Minor.  But  in  the  6th  century 
B.C.  it  was  for  about  sixty  years  siibject  to  Persia. 
In  476  it  joined  tlie  Athenian  league,  but,  revolting 
in  429,  was  promptly  reduced  to  obedience  again. 
Then  it  belonged  s\iccessively  to  Macedonia, 
Pontus,  Rome,  and  Byzantium.  From  1355  to 
1462  it  was  owned  by  a  Genoese  merchant  family, 
who  lost  it  to  Sultan  Mohammed  II.  Of!'  its  shores 
the  Turks  were  defeated  by  the  Venetians  in  1690 
and  169S,  and  by  the  Greeks  in  1821.  The  island 
has  been  called  Mytilene  from  the  middle  ages 
down  to  the  present  time. 

See  Couze,  Reise  auf  Lesbos  (1865);  C.  T.  Newton, 
Trarels  and  Disroiri'irs  in  the  Levant  (2  vols.  1865); 
Koldewcy,  Die  autism  Ilaureste  der  Insel  Lesbos  (ISOO); 
and  Tozer,  [slands  of  tlie  .Eyean  (1890). 

liCsczyiiski.    See  Pol.\nd,  Louis  XV. 
Le.s<;liians.    See  C'.\uc.\sus. 

Li'slic,  a  town  of  Fife,  12  miles  SW.  of  Cupar, 
and  3  \V.  of  Markinch  by  a  branch-line  ( 1861 ).  It 
has  llax-spinniiig,  bb^acliing,  and  paper  works. 
Pop.  3421. 

L«'sli«'.  Lesly,  or  Lksi.ey,  The  F.\mii,v  ok,  is 
first  found  between  1171  and  1199,  when  .Malcolm, 
son  iif  liartholf,  obtained  Lesslyn  or  Leslie,  a  wild 
pastoral  parish  in  .MxM-deenshire.  Ilis  ilescemlants 
took  their  surname  from  their  lands. 

Earls  and  iJnl.c  of  Ratltci. — The  family  was 
ennobled  in  1457,  when  George  Leslie  of  Kothes 
was  made  Earl  of  Kothes  and  Lord  Leslie.  The 
fourth  earl  w;is  father  of  Norman  Leslie,  Master  of 
Kolhcs,  the  chief  actor  in  the  murder  of  Cardinal 
Beaton.  John,  the  sixth  earl,  who  ilied  in  1641, 
distinguished  himself  as  one  of  the  ablest  of  the 
Covenanting  leaders.  Ilis  son  became  Lonl  Chan- 
cellor of  Scotland  in  1607,  and  in  1080  was  created 
Duke  of  Rothes,  Marquis  of  Ballinbreich,  Karl  of 
Leslie,  &c.  These  honoui-s  became  extinct  upon 
his  death  without  male  issue  in  1681.     The  earldom 


of  Rothes  went  to  his  elder  daughter,  in  whose 
family  the  title  has  continued. 

Earls  of  I.crciK  —  Before  the  family  left  .Micr- 
deenshire  it  had  thrown  oil"  braiu'hes,  some  of 
which  still  nourish  there.  The  chief,  that  of  Bal- 
qnhain,  gave  birth  to  several  men  of  mark,  such  iis 
the  learned  John  Leslie,  Bishop  of  Ross  ( 1.527-96), 
the  devoted  champion  of  Mary  (Jueen  of  Scots ; 
Sir  Alexander  Leslie  of  Auchintoul,  a  general  in 
the  Muscovite  service,  who  died  govenmr  of 
Smolensko  in  1663;  and  Charles  Leslie  (q. v.).  A 
still  more  distinguished  man  w,as  Alexander  Leslie, 
who  rose  to  be  a  field-marshal  of  Sweden  under 
Gustavus  .\dolphus.  Recalled  to  Scotland  in  16.39, 
be  took  command  of  the  Covenanting  army,  and  in 
1641  was  made  Earl  of  Leven  and  Lord  I'.algony. 
He  died  in  1661,  and  his  honours  and  lands  eventu- 
ally passed  to  his  great-grandson,  David  Melville, 
third  Earl  of  Leven  and  second  Earl  of  Melville. 
His  descendant  succeeded  as  eleventh  Earl  of  Leven 
and  tenth  Earl  of  Melville  in  1889. 

Lords  Lindures. — The  second  son  of  the  fifth 
Earl  of  Kothes  was  createil  Lonl  Lindores  in  1600. 
The  title  has  been  dormant  since  the  death  of  the 
seventh  lord  in  1775. 

Lords  Xeurir/:. — David  Leslie,  fifth  son  of  the 
first  Lord  Linilores,  served  with  distinction  under 
Gustavus  Adolphus,  and,  returning  to  Scotland  in 
1640,  acted  as  lieutenant-general  to  the  Earl  of 
Leven.  He  was  present  at  Marst<m  Moor,  ami 
surprised  and  routed  Jlontrose  at  Phili^lhaugll. 
Taken  prisoner  by  Cromwell  at  Worcester  m  l(i51, 
he  suffered  imprisonment  in  the  Tower  till  the 
Restoration.  He  was  made  Lord  Newark  in  1(161, 
and  died  in  1682.  The  title  has  been  dormant  since 
the  death  of  his  great-grandson,  the  fourth  lord,  in 
1791. 

Coiint.i  Leslie. — Walter  Leslie,  a  younger  son  of 
the  House  of  Balqnhain,  distinguished  himself  in 
the  Austrian  army,  and  in  1637  was  created  a 
count  of  the  empire,  as  a  reward  for  his  services 
in  the  niurder  of  Wallenstein.  He  ilied  with- 
out issue  in  1667,  when  he  was  succeeded  by  his 
nephew,  James,  a  fielil-marshal  in  the  -\ustrian 
service,  who  died  in  1694.  The  title  became  extinct 
in  1844. 

Leslie,  <-'HAi;i,l'.s,  nonjuring  divine,  was  liorn 
at  Dublin  on  the  17th  July  1650,  studied  at  Trinity 
College,  Dublin,  and,  having  taken  orders  in  1680, 
became  chancellor  of  the  cathedral  of  Connor  in 
1687.  Dei)rived  at  the  Revolntion  for  declining 
the  oath  of  allegiance,  he  retired  to  England  and 
wrote  against  Papists,  Deists,  Socini.'ins,  .lows, 
and  (^)uakers,  as  well  as  in  supjiort  of  the  n(m- 
juring  interests.  He  went  with  the  Pretender  to 
Italy  after  1715,  but  returned  to  Ireland  in  1721, 
and  died  13th  April  1722.  His  ,S'/(oj-(!  and  Kasi/ 
Method  irilh  the  Jocv  ajqieared  in  1684;  h\^  Short 
and  h'asi/  Method  with  the  Deists  in  1694  :  he  issued 
a  collected  edition  of  his  Theolorjieal  ]\'nrhs  in  two 
folio  volumes  in  1721  (new  ed.  7  vols.  1832).  See  :\ 
Life  by  R.  J.  Leslie  ( 1885). 

Leslie.  Charles  Robert,  genre  painter,  wiis 
born  in  London  on  19th  October  1794,  his  parents 
being  Americans.  lie  was  educated  at  Phila- 
delphia, to  which  city  his  i)arents  took  him  in 
1800.  In  1811  he  returned  to  England,  and  entered 
a-s  a  student  in  the  Royal  Academy,  West,  Fuseli, 
and  Allstcm  exercising  the  earliest  influence  over 
him.  The  first  i)icture  that  brought  him  into 
notice  w,as  'Sir  Roger  de  Coverlev  going  to 
Church '  (1819).  In  1821  'May-day  in  the  Reign 
of  t^neen  Elizabeth '  secured  his  election  as  an 
.'Vs.sociate  of  the  Academy ;  and  '  Sancho  Panza 
and  the  Duchess,'  exhibited  in  1824,  obtained  for 
him  the  rank  of  Academician.  Leslie's  principal 
pictures  are  scenes  from  the  works  of  Sliakespcare, 


LESLIE 


LESSEPS 


589 


Cervantes,  Le  Sage,  Jlolicie,  AdJison,  Swift, 
Sterne,  Fielding,  and  Smollett.  (iieat  jKiwer  of 
expression,  and  a  delicate  perception  of  eliaracter 
and  of  female  beauty,  are  bis  strongest  points.  In 
18.33  be  accepted  tlie  appointment  of  professor  of 
Drawing  at  tlie  military  academy  of  West  Point, 
New  York;  but  gave  np  tbe  post  early  in  tbe 
following  year,  and  returned  to  England.  From 
1S4S  to  1852  be  was  professor  of  Painting  at  tbe 
Koyal  Academy.  He  died  in  London  on  .")lb  Jlay 
ISoi*.  His  lectures  were  puldislied  in  IS.V)  in  tbe 
useful  Handbook  for  Yuuiitj  Painters  ;  be  also  wrote 
an  able  Life  of  Constable  (1843),  and  began  tbe 
Life  and  Times  of  Sir  Joshua  lieyno/ds,  completed 
by  Tom  Taylor.  Tbe  Autobiographical  liceollcr- 
tioHs  of  Leslie  were  edited  by  Tom  Taylor  (18G0). 
— His  son,  (Jeoege  Dl'NLOl'  Leslie,  born  in  Loudon 
in  ls:>d,  whose  aim  lias  been  "to  jiaint  pictures  from 
(be  sunny  .side  of  English  domestic  life,'  was  elected 
.\.K.A.  in  1808  and  K.  A.  in  ISTG.  See  his  Letters 
to  Marru  ( 1893)  and  Overside  Letters  (1896). 

Leslie.  Fk.\xk,  ])ublisber,  wa.s  born  at  Ipswicb 
in  1821,  bis  proper  name  being  Henry  Carter,  ami 
at  seventeen  was  placed  in  a  mercantile  bouse  in 
London.  '  Frank  Leslie "  was  tbe  name  be  adopted 
in  sending  in  sketches  to  tbe  Illustrated  London 
News,  and  tbe  success  of  these  determined  liim  to 
join  the  stall'  of  tbat  paper.  In  1848  be  proceeded 
to  tbe  L'nited  States,  where  he  assumeil  tbe  name 
of  Frank  Leslie  by  a  legal  process,  and  in  18o4 
founded  tbe  Gazette  q/  Fashion  and  tbe  Nev;  York 
Journal.  Frank  Leslie's  Illustrated  Neuspapcr 
was  commenced  in  1855  (German  and  Spanish 
editions  later),  tbe  Chimney  Corner  in  1865 ;  and 
afterwards  the  Boys'  and  Girls'  Weekly,  the  Lculy's 
Journal,  aiul  a  number  <if  other  periodicals  were 
published  by  him.  He  died  lOtb  .January  1880 ; 
his  widow  then  assumed  bLs  name  and  carried  on 
his  business. 

Leslie.  Sir  John,  a  celebrateil  natural  philo- 
sopher, was  born  at  Largo,  Fife,  16tb  April  1766. 
He  studied  at  St  Andrews  and  Edinburgh  univer- 
sities, and  in  1788  became  tutor  to  two  young 
Ajnericans,  with  whom  be  proceeded  to  Virginia 
and  other  parts  of  America,  returning  to  London 
in  1790.  Duriug  the  next  fifteen  years  be  was 
variously  employed  in  scientitic  writing  or  travel- 
ling on  the  continent  with  pupils,  but  all  tbe  wliile 
engaged  in  experimental  research.  The  fruits  of 
his  laboui-s  during  this  period  of  bis  career  were  a 
translation  of  Button's  Xatural  History  of  Birds 
(1793),  tbe  invention  of  a  diflereutial  thermometer, 
a  hygiometer,  and  a  photometer,  and  the  j>ublica- 
tion  of  bis  important  Experimental  /m/uiry  into 
the  Nature  and  Propagation  of  Heat  (1804). 
For  this  latter  work  tlie  Koyal  Society  awarded 
Leslie  tbe  Rumford  ineiial  for  scientific  research. 
In  1805  be  obtained  tbe  chair  of  Mathematics 
at  Edinburgh,  in  spite  of  a  good  deal  of  opposi- 
tion from  tbe  clergy,  who  objected  to  bis  ajiproval 
of  Hume's  theory  of  causation.  He  occupied 
it  for  fourteen  years,  but  most  of  bis  leisure 
time  was  occupied  in  scientitic  experiments.  In 
1810  be  iuventeil  tbe  process  of  artificial  refrig- 
eration, which  has  since  been  put  to  so  many- 
practical  uses.  In  1819  be  was  transferred  to  the 
chair  of  Natural  Pbilosophy,  where  bis  peculiar 
talents  found  their  proper  spliere.  During  tbe  next 
few  vears  be  wrote  numerous  articles  and  jiub- 
lisbed  several  works  on  natural  philosophy  and 
matliematics  ;  but  bis  chief  claim  to  the  gratitude 
of  tbe  scientific  world  lies  in  bis  useful  inventions, 
sucli  as  the  pyroscope,  atmometer,  athrio.scope, 
and  the  iirominence  which  be  gave  to  experimental 
illustration  in  bis  university  lectures.  In  18.32  be 
was  created  a  Knight  of  tbe  Guelpbic  Order ;  on 
CU   November  of   the  same  year  be  died,  at  liis 


estate  of  Coates,  in  Fife,  near  bis  birthplace.     See 
Memoir  by  Macvey  Napier  (  1838). 

Leslie,  Tiidmas  Emv.Mii)  Ci.ikfe,  political 
economist,  w;is  born  in  County  Down,  Ireland,  in 
1827,  and  educated  at  Trinity  College,  Dublin. 
He  qualilied  for  tbe  bar,  but  in  1853  was  appointed 
to  tue  chair  of  Economics  and  Jurisprudence  at 
Belfast.  In  tbat  city  be  died  on  27tb  January 
1882.  His  writings,  mostly  fragmentary  in  char- 
acter, were  collected  in  two  books  entitled  IVie 
Land  Systems  (1870),  containing  studies  on  tbe 
land  question  in  Ireland,  Belgium,  and  France, 
and  Essays  in  Political  and  Moral  Philosophy 
( 1879),  which  treat  piincipally  of  the  gold  question 
and  economic  method.  Leslie  was  a  strenuous 
advocate  for  tbe  study  of  economic  problems  in  tbe 
light  of  tbe  historic  method,  instead  of  tbe  purely 
analytic  method  of  liicardo.  He  introduced  tbe 
works  of  continental  economists,  such  as  Koscher 
and  Laveleye,  to  tbe  notice  of  English  students. 

Lespiuasse,  Cl.mre  Francoise,  or  Julie 
jEAXXEELEONORE,wiisborn9tb  Nov.  1732,at  Lyons, 
an  illegitimate  daughter  of  the  Countess  d'Albon. 
At  first  a  teacher,  she  became  in  1754  a  companion 
to  Madame  du  Dett'and,  whose  friends,  especially 
D'Alembert.  she  quickly  attached  to  bersell.  After 
tbe  inevitable  rupture  tbat  followed,  she  was  en- 
abled by  tbe  bounty  of  her  friends  to  maintain  a 
modest  salon  of  lier  own.  The  charm  she  exercised 
was  in  no  wise  due  to  beauty,  for  she  was  jilain  in 
face,  and,  moreover,  disfigured  by  smallpox ;  yet 
convei-sation  was  brighter  and  more  harmonious,  and 
wit  more  brilliant  in  ber  circle  than  anywhere  else 
in  Paris.  Unfortunately  for  her  jieace  she  had  a 
heart  sensitive  to  love,  and  the  passion  she  was 
capable  of  at  foi'ty  for  the  young  Spaniard,  the 
Marquis  de  Mora,  and  two  years  later  for  M.  de 
Guibert,  cost  ber  tbe  deepest  pangs,  when  tbe  fu-st 
died  and  the  second  was  separated  by  marriage. 
The  famous  D'Alembert  had  long  admired  and 
loved  her,  but  her  aliection  for  the  pbiloso]:iber 
never  cost  her  tears.  She  died  at  Paris,  23d  ^lay 
1776.  ]Many  of  ber  letters  to  her  two  lovers  have 
been  published,  and  these  are  aglow  with  fire  and 
passion.  Indeed,  in  their  first  editor's  metaphor, 
her  phrases  buru  tbe  paper  on  which  they  are 
written. 

Tlie  famous  Ltttrea  were  published  in  two  volumes  in 
1809.  Later  editions  are  by  J.  Janin  ( 1847 )  and  Isambert 
(1877).  M.  Charles  Henry's  Ltttres  infilites  (1887)  were 
mostly  addressed  to  Coudorcet.  The  editor's  introduc- 
tion is  much  too  high-i>itched.  A  justcr  judgment  will 
be  found  in  vol.  ii.  of  Sainte-Beuve's  Causeriei  du  Luiiji. 

Lesseps.  Ferdix.\sd,  Vicomte  de,  engineer, 
w,as  born  at  Versailles,  November  19,  180.5.  Edu- 
cated for  the  diplomatic  profession,  he  filled  suc- 
cessive appointments  at  Lisbon,  Cairo,  Barcelona, 
and  Madrid.  In  1854  he  conceived  bis  great  scheme 
for  cutting  tbe  Suez  Caiuil,  and  in  January  1856 
he  received  a  letter  of  concession  from  the  Viceroy 
of  Egypt.  Kobert  Steiibenson  and  other  English 
engineers  questioned  tbe  luacticability  of  the 
scheme,  but  De  Lesseps  overcame  all  obstacles. 
A  com])any  was  formed,  and  tbe  works  were  begun 
in  1860.  The  great  uiulertaking  was  completed 
(see  Canal,  and  SlEZ)  in  August  1869,  the  canal 
being  formally  opened  on  17tb  November  following. 
The  successful  engineer  was  created  K. C.S.I,  by 
t^ueen  Victoria,  ami  received  tlie  honorary  freedom 
of  tbe  city  of  London  in  1870.  The  Paris  Societe 
de  Geograidiie  awarded  him  10,(KK)  francs  :  he  was 
appointed  a  Grand  Cross  of  the  Legion  of  Honour; 
and  after  the  publication  of  bis  History  of  the 
Canal  he  was  awarded  5000  ftjuics  by  the  French 
Academv.  In  1873  the  Paris  Academy  of  Sciences 
elected  liini  a  free  member,  and  in  1881  he  was 
elected  president  of  tbe  French  Geographical 
Society.       In    1883    be    sought    to    conclude   an 


590 


LESSEPS 


LESSING 


anangement  with  the  Britisli  government  for  a 
second  Seuz  Canal.  Meanwhile,  work  ha<l  begun 
on  his  stupendous  scheme  for  a  I'anania  Canal  (see 
Canai,,  and  Panama  ),  a  scheme  destined  to  issue  in 
disaster  and  disgrace.  For  in  1S92-03  the  maiiage- 
nient  was  charged  with  breach  of  trust,  and  live 
directors  were  condemned — Lessees,  now  a  broken 
old  man,  to  five  years'  imprisonment  and  a  line, 
as  was  also  his  .son  Charles.  The  sentence  was 
ultimately  quashed  ;  but  he  fell  into  dotage,  and 
died  7th  December  1894.  He  wiote  Uuciiineuts 
pour  scrcir  i'l  I'Histuirc  dii  Canal  tic  ^ucz  (4  vols. 
1875-79;  trans.  187ti),  a,ii<l  SoiiDcnirx  i/e  Qnnrante 
Alls  (1SS7;  trans.  1887).  See  books  by  Ferricr 
(18S7),  G.  B.  Smith  (L'd.  ed.  1895),  Bridier  (1899). 

LessillS,  GoTTHciLD  Epukai.m,  reformer  of  Ger- 
man literature,  wiis  born,  the  son  of  the  pastor  of 
Kanienz,  in  Saxony,  on  22d  January  1729.  From 
the  school  of  St  Afia,  at  Meissen,  where  he  had 
spent  live  years,  he  entered  in  1746  as  a  theological 
student  at  Leipzig.  But,  instead  of  studying 
theology,  he  made  haste  to  acouire  a  knowledge  of 
men  and  of  the  world,  to  polish  his  manners,  to 
learn  bodily  and  social  accomplishments,  and  to 
improve  his  taste,  and  developed  that  strong, 
manly  independence  which  was  always  one  of  the 
most  striking  traits  in  his  character.  Moreo\er, 
he  cultivated  a  love  for  the  stage,  and  began  to 
write  plays,  mostly  comedies,  in  the  French  style. 
All  this  sorely  grieved  his  strictly  orthodo.x  parents. 
And  yet,  both  at  Meissen  and  at  Leipzig,  Xessin" 
manifested  an  ardent  thirst  for  knowledge  and 
truth ;  he  had  great  intellectual  parts,  and  read 
hard.  But  his  mode  of  life  at  the  university  ran 
him  into  debt — a  state  that  was  more  or  less  chronic 
to  him  throughout  his  life  ;  then  in  1748  the  theatre 
was  closed  ;  and  he  sufl'ered  from  an  innate  restless- 
ness that  never  let  him  abide  long  in  one  place. 
Accordingly,  braving  his  father's  serious  dis- 
pleasure, he  Quitt(!d  Leipzig,  having  resolved  to 
earn  a  li\ing  by  his  jien,  notwithstanding  that  the 
calling  of  author  was  held  in  little  or  no  repute. 
After  a  few  months'  stay  in  AVittenberg,  he 
travelled  to  Berlin  to  join  Mylius,  a  clever  man, 
but  branded  as  a  freethinker  by  the  orthodox. 
Along  with  him  Lessing  published  Bcitraf/e  ziir 
Historic  (Ics  T/icaters  (175(1),  and  independently 
wrote  plays,  translated,  did  literary  hack-work  ; 
but  his  cidef  stay  was  the  Vossischc  Zcitung,  to 
whicli  he  contributed  criticisms.  He  soon  felt, 
however,  that  he  himself  stood  in  need  of  greater 
culture,  and  in  the  end  of  1751  he  withdrew  to 
AVittenberg  to  study  at  leisure  ;  at  the  same  time 
he  pleased  his  father  by  taking  his  master's  degree. 
The  result  of  his  toil  in  the  Wittenberg  library  was 
a  series  of  Viiii/iiyitiuns  { 1751 )  of  unjustly  maligned 
or  forgotten  writers,  such  iis  Cardan,  Lenuiius,  iVc, 
in  which  he  gave  bolil  utterance  to  his  strong  love  of 
justice  ami  his  scorn  of  narrow  intolerance.  Later, 
in  Eiii  Vadcineciiin  fill-  Hcrrn  S.  O.  Lanyc  (1754) 
he  displayed  as  unrelenting  an  lio.stility  to  jire- 
tentious  and  self-satislied  ignorance.  Keturning  to 
Berlin  after  a  year's  absence,  he  resumed  his  former 
occupations.  At  this  time  too  he  became  intimate 
with  Moses  Mendelssohn,  Nicolai,  and  Kander. 
He  also  pulilislied  four  volumes  of  his  colhicted 
writings,  and,  along  with  Memlelssohn,  an  essay 
on  Pope,  ciii  ]ihtajjhi/in7:cr  (1755).  Hut  he  still 
strove  to  make  the  tlieatre  an  engine  of  popular 
culture  :  he  wrote  the  tragedy  3Iiss  Sara  Saiiiji.iuii 
(1755),  in  which  he  revolted  against  French 
theatrical  traditions  in  favour  of  English  nioilel.s. 
For  dramatis  pcrsomr  he  took  jieople  of  tnidille- 
cl;i>s  life,  and  so  carried  on  the  movement  begun 
by  Lillo,  the  dramatist,  and  Kichard.son,  the  nove- 
list, in  England,  and  by  Diderot  in  France.  Tlie 
success  of  this  work  tempted  Lessing  back  to  the 
theatre,  reopened,  at  Leipzig ;  but  he  only  stayed 


there  a  short  time.  In  May  1756  he  set  off,  as  com- 
panion to  a  young  gentleman  ( Winkler)  of  that  city, 
<in  an  extended  tour  ;  but  they  had  only  reached 
Holland  when  they  were  hastily  summoned  home 
by  the  outbreak  of  the  Seven  Years'  War.  Lessing 
then  remained  some  time  in  Leipzig,  to  be  near  his 
friend  the  jioet  Ewald  von  Kleist. 

In  1758  he  was  once  more  in  Berlin,  assisting 
Mendelssohn  and  Nicolai  to  bring  out  a  new 
critical  journal,  Littcratiirbriefe.  In  the  work  he 
did  for  tliLs  publication  Lessing  takes  a  distinctively 
higher  place  :  he  refu.ses  any  longer  to  sulmiit  to 
the  degrading  dictatorship  of  French  literary  ta.ste, 
combats  the  inllated  pedantry  of  the  (lottsched 
school,  and  extols  Shakespeare  above  Corneille  as 
the  hi'diest  type  of  dramatic  writer.  In  these 
letters  he  displays  most  of  the  admirable  (|ualities 
of  his  mature  style ;  his  insight  is  penetrating 
and  sure  ;  his  manner  vivacious,  often  ironical  or 
satirical ;  his  intellect  is  strong  and  logical,  yet 
supple,  and  works  easily  :  and  his  language  is  clear, 
forcil)le,  and  elegant.  He  always  possessed  the 
power  of  making  dry  subjects  interesting.  From 
November  1700  to  the  spring  of  1705  Lessing 
enlarged  his  knowledge  of  men  Ijy  acting  as 
secretary  to  (General  \'on  Tanentzien,  go\erm>r  of 
Breslau.  During  these  years  he  wrote  two  of  his 
greatest  works,  Laocoon  (1766)  and  31  i una  von 
Barnhdm  (1767).  The  former  is  a  critical  treatise 
defining  the  limits  of  poetry  and  the  jilastic  arts. 
It  affords  an  admirable  illustration  of  Lessing's 
critical  procedure.  He  plunges  at  once  into  the 
midst  of  the  argunjent,  takes  up  various  \ie\vs  one 
after  another,  examines  them,  contrasts  them, 
searches  and  sifts  lliem  from  all  sides,  and  exhausts 
upon  them  the  lesources  of  the  dialectical  njethod  ; 
then  out  of  what  survives  this  intellectual  contlict 
he  constructs  his  final  conclusions.  Yet  the  move- 
ment of  thought  is  simple,  natural,  and  logical  ; 
we  are  led  to  <liscover  the  trutli  by  the  .same  paths 
by  which  the  author  arrived  at  it  originally.  His 
essays  on  the  Fable  (1759)  and  the  E/ji'/rani 
(1771)  are  both  adnnrable  instances  of  the  same 
method.  The  comedy  Minna  von  Barn/iclm  show  s  no 
trace  of  imitation  of  foreign  models  :  it  is  the  first 
national  comedy  of  the  Germans  on  the  grand 
scale,  and  is  a  great  ad\ance  on  Lessing's  early 
dramatic  efforts.  After  Frederick  the  Great  had 
refused  to  nominate  him  keeper  of  the  Koyal 
Library  at  Berlin,  Lessing  was  glad  to  accej)!  the 
post  of  critic  to  the  new  national  theatre  at  Ham- 
burg in  1767.  Out  of  thesi;  new  duties  grew  the 
celebrated  llainhargiscia'  J)vainatiivf/ic  (1769),  in 
■which  he  overthrew  finally  the  dictatorship  of  the 
French  drama  and  worked  out  the  thoughts  that 
had  for  many  years  bi'cn  ripening  in  liis  ndnd. 
This  theatre  too  soon  faileil,  and  Le.ssing  was  again 
left  without  fixed  occupation.  Y'et  he  was  never 
long  idle,  especially  so  long  as  there  was  error  to 
combat,  and  ignorance  and  pedantic  vanity  to  ex- 
pose. For,  though  a  scholar  himself,  he  always 
regarded  learning  not  as  an  end  in  itself,  but  as  a 
means :  he  always  accounted  truth  superim-  to 
mere  knowlcilge.  He  was  n.aturally  fond  of  dis- 
jiutation,  and  .so  we  soon  find  him  in  the  thick  of 
another  controversy,  this  time  with  Klotz,  a  \oung 
Halle  professor.  On  this  occ;usion  he  had  a  double 
])urpose  to  serve — to  defend  his  Laoroon  and  to 
expose  the  inetensions  of  the  men  who  set  them- 
selves up  ius  leaders  of  (ierman  scholarship.  The 
chief  fruits  of  this  ccmlroversy  from  Lessing's  pen 
vare  Brie/e  anti(juarisclan  /H/(f</<4- (1769)  and  iVie 
die  Allen  den  Tod  ijehildrt  ( 1769). 

In  October  1769  the  Duke  of  Brunswick  olfereil 
Lessing  the  librarianship  of  the  Woll'enbiiltel 
library  ;  he  accepted  it  and  entered  upon  his  liuties 
in  the  following  .May.  Here  at  last  lie  settled  for 
good,  and  in  1770  married  Eva  Konig,  the  widow  of 


LESSON 


LETTERS 


591 


a  Hamburg  merchant,  but  lost  her  after  little  more 
than  a  year  of  happy  married  life.  He  at  once 
began  to  publish  some  of  the  less-known  treasures  of 
the  library  in  a  series  of  volumes  entitled  Zur 
Gcichif/tte  iiiid  Litteratiir  (6  vols.  1773-Sl ).  Hut  in 
177'2  he  wrote  the  tragedy  Emilia  Gulotti,  wliich  in 
spite  of  grave  faults,  notably  the  absence  of  dramatic 
necessity  for  the  catastrophe,  is  one  of  the  greatest 
tragedies  in  German  literature,  certainly  the  greatest 
Lessing  wrote.  Shortly  before  his  marriage  he 
carried  out  a  long-cherished  desire,  by  spending 
eight  months  in  Italy,  though  a;?  companion  to  the 
hereditary  Duke  of  Brunswick.  His  hist  veai-s  were 
occupied  with  theological  controversies.  In  1777  he 
published  the  famous  Wolfcnbiittdsclic  Fragmcnte, 
a  rationalist  attack  on  Christianity  from  the  pen  of 
Keimarus  (q.v. ).  This  book,  wliich  wa-s  almost 
universally  attributed  to  Lessing,  provoked  a  storm 
of  replies  from  orthodox  Lutherans.  The  best  of 
Lessing's  counter-attacks  were  the  polemical  Anti- 
Goeze  (177S),  directed  against  his  chief  assailant, 
and  the  tine  dramatic  poem,  Xatliaii  dcr  Wcise 
( 1779 ),  one  of  the  noblest  pleas  for  tolerant  humanity 
ever  penned.  This  last  was  supjdementeil  by 
Die  Erziehung  dcs  Meitscltengcschlcchts  (1780), 
which  is  extremely  rich  in  suggestive  thought. 
Le.ssing's  last  work  was  Ernst  und  Fcdk  ( 1778- 
80),  five  dialogues  on  freemasonry.  He  died  loth 
February  1781.  The  best  edition  of  his  Sdniml- 
liihe  Schriftoi  is  Lachmaun's,  reissued  by  Muncker 
in  1886  serj.  His  chief  works  have  been  often  trans- 
hiteil  into  English.  8ee  Kont's  Lasiiig  ct  rAuli- 
ijiiite  (1899)  ;  Lives  hv  Danzel  and  Gulnauer  ('id 
ed.  1880),  Erich  Schiiiidt  (2il  ed.  1889),  Sime  ( 1877), 
Helen  Zimmern  (1878),  and  Kolleston  (1889) — the 
last  three  in  English. 

Lesson  ( Lat.  lectio ),  a  reading,  especially  a 
portion  of  Scripture  appointed  to  be  read,  as  in  the 
Common  Prayer-book.  Tlie  oldest  Latin  lection- 
ary — a  service-book,  either  containing  the  les.sons 
for  the  year  in  full,  or  noting  their  beginning  and 
end — was  called  the  Comes  ('companion'),  and 
dates  from  the  5th  century.  The  Roman  Lection- 
ary  wiis  remodelled  in  the  Sth  century.  The 
changes  in  the  Anglican  calendar  of  lessons  were 
sanctioned  by  act  of  parliament  in  1871.  Formerly 
the  lessons  consisted  invariably  of  full  chapters — a 
rule  that  was  sometimes  embarrassing,  as  in  the 
case  of  Act.s  xxi. — but  in  the  revised  lectionary 
they  are  frequently  shortened  and  diti'erently 
arranged ;  also,  nearly  all  the  lessons  from  the 
A]>ocrypha  have  been  left  out. 

L'E.Strailge.  Sir  Kooer,  a  busy  royalist  pam- 
phleteer under  Charles  II.,  was  born  at  Hunstanton 
in  Norfolk  in  1616.  He  narrowly  escaped  hanging 
as  a  spy  for  a  ])lot  to  seize  Lynn  in  1644,  and  was 
instead  imprisoned  in  Newgate,  whence  he  escaped 
after  four  yeai-s.  Pardoned  by  Cromwell  in  16.5.3 
through  personal  entreaty,  he  lived  quietly  till  the 
Kestoration  made  him  licenser  of  the  press.  He 
carried  out  his  functions  rigorously,  but  it  should 
be  remembered  that  such  were  his  instructions.  He 
fought  in  all  the  quarrels  of  the  time  with  a  shower 
of  pamphlets,  vigorous,  and  at  least  not  coarser  than 
those  of  his  antagonists  ;  and  he  holds  a  place  in  the 
history  of  journalism  by  his  successive  papers.  The 
Public  Intelligencer,  The  London  Gazette,  and  The 
Obserx-ator.  In  the  intervals  of  controvei-sy  he 
showed  that  he  was  not  without  a  taste  for  better 
things  by  translating  .'Ksop's  Fables,  Seneca's 
Morals,  Cicero's  Offiirs,  the  Colloquies  of  Erasmus, 
Quevedo's  Visions,  and  Josephus.  He  died  in 
1704. 

Le  Sueiir,  Elsiache,  painter,  was  born  in 
Paris  in  1617,  and  died  there  in  1655.  The  Louvre 
pas.sesse8  3C  religious  pictures  by  him,  and  1.3 
mythological,  the  former  including*  his  great  series 


of  20  paintings  illustrating  the  life  of  St  Bruno 
( 1645-48),  and  his  '  Preaching  of  St  Paul '  ( 1649). 

Letlie.  in  Greek  mythology,  the  .stream  of 
forgetf Illness  in  the  lower  world,  from  which  souls 
ilrank  before  passing  into  the  Elysiaii  Fields,  that 
they  might  lose  all  recollection  of  eartlily  .sorrows. 

Letliington.    See  M.\itl.\ni). 

LetO.     See  A I'l  11,1,(1. 

Lettor  of  .lljirqilO  (Fr.  Icttre  de  marque, 
'a  commission  to  plunder;'  cf.  Littr^,  iii.  4.56),  the 
commission  authorising  a  privateer  to  make  war 
upon,  or  .seize  the  property  of,  another  nation. 
Letters  of  marque  were  abolished  among  European 
nations  at  the  treaty  of  Paris  in  1856.     See  Pliiv.v- 

TEER. 

Letters  are  conventional  marks  or  visible  si''iis 
of  the  elemental  sounds  of  spoken  language.  The 
earliest  symbols  of  sounds  represented  syllables 
rather  than  sini|)le  sounds,  and  it  was  only  gradu- 
ally that  syllables  were  reduced  to  their  ultiiiiate 
elements,  all  alphabets  yet  bearing  marks  of  the 
syllabary  origin  and  displaying  various  imjier- 
fections  of  e.xcess  and  defect.  The  distinction 
between  vowels  ( ^uvotvTa  and  ^av-qevTa )  .and  con- 
sonants (Hfwva  ypafx/iara)  is  as  old  as  Platos 
Crati/liis,  but  the  earlier  methods  of  classification, 
which  ofl'ered  no  definite  line  of  demarcation, 
have  given  place  to  a  more  scientific  method  and 
more  precise  terminology.  A  consonant  is  the 
sound  or  noise  resulting  when  the  breath  is  closely 
squeezed  or  stopped  at  some  part  of  the  mouth  or 
breath  passage.  This  passage  has  two  outlets ; 
one  at  the  lips,  the  other  at  the  nose.  In  the  case 
of  some  consonants  the  passage  is  closed  at  a  given 
point — e.g.  at  the  lips  in  j>,  l>  :  at  the  teeth  in  t, 
d ;  at  the  palate  in  /.-,  ;/  ;  while  the  nose-passage  is 
closed  by  the  bottom  ( iicida )  of  the  soft  palate.  In 
the  case  of  other  consonants  the  passage  is  not  closed 
but  only  narrowed,  and  the  breath  sounds  against 
the  narrow  walls,  as  in  /,  s,  ch,  &c.  The  nose 
channel  is  left  open  in  pronouncing  «,  m.  In  the 
case  of  vowels  the  breath  is  not  checked  or  closely 
narrowed  at  a  given  point,  but  passes  freely 
through  the  mouth-pa.ssage,  aud  they  may  be 
classified  according  to  the  place  of  their  articula- 
tion in  this  passage  owing  to  the  horizontal  or 
vertical  movements  of  the  tongue.  They  nuiy 
also  be  distinguished  as  open  (or  wide)  and  shut 
(or  narrow) ;  in  the  latter  there  is  more  convexity 
of  the  tongue  and  a  sense  of  ettbrt  in  pronuncia- 
tion. Consonants,  again,  are  classified  according  to 
the  point  in  the  mouth-passage  at  which  they  are 
articulated.  Furthest  liack  we  have  the  gidtiiral 
sounds,  with  articulation  of  the  tongue  and  the 
soft  palate  ( velum ),  hence  called  the  Velar 
Gutturals,  as  tlie  sounds  of  /.■  and  g  before  the  vowel 
sounds  a  and  o,  ch  in  German  nch,  and  ng  in  sing. 
Further  forward  we  lla^e  the  Pahitals,  which 
result  from  the  contact  of  the  tongue  and  lianl 
palate,  as  k  and  g  before  c  and  /'.  Next  come  the 
Dentals,  where  the  tongue,  teeth,  and  front  of 
the  palate  are  the  instruments  of  articulation — 
e.g.  t,  th,  d,  sh,  r.  The  Labials,  or  lip-sounds, 
are  those  which  are  formed  eitlier  by  Ijotli  the  lips 
or  by  the  under  li]i  and  upper  teeth,  ji,  h,  m,/,  r. 

Again,  consonants  m:iy  also  be  cliussified  acc<ird- 
ing  to  the  form  of  their  articulation.  When  there 
Ls  a  complete  check  or  closure  of  the  mouth ■pa.s.sage 
at  the  point  of  articulation,  consonants  are  called 
Mutes  or  Stopped  or  Explosives,  as  k,  g,  t,  d,  j>,  b. 
The  ancient  grammarians  divided  mutes  into  Tenucs 
and  Mcdiir,  the  former  including  /,',  t,  j>,  the  latter 
g,  d,  li.  When  the  month-passage  is  narrowed  but 
not  completely  clo.sed  at  the  jioint  of  articulation, 
we  have  the  Open  or  Fricative  consonants,  such  as 
r,  »•,  /,  z,  r,  the  last  four  of  which  are  al.so  called 
Spirauts.     When  the  passage  is  stopped  iu  the 


592 


LETTERS 


middle  but  kept  open  at  tlie  sides,  we  Ijave  a 
Divided  sound,  such  as  /.  AVlieu  the  nosepassage 
is  left  open  we  have  tlie  Kanals  m  ami  ii.  N  takes 
its  character  from  the  nature  of  the  nei^'lihourinj: 
sounds — e.g.  it  is  guttural  in  sink,  but  dental  in 
tent. 

Again,  consonants  may  be  di\ided  into  Voiced 
and  Voiceless.  The  voiced  or  soft  consonants  are 
pronounced  with  a  vibration  of  the  vocal  clionls. 
To  this  class  belong  the  Nasals  h,  m  ;  the  Liquids 
I  and  r ;  the  Medi;e  ij,  d,  h ;  the  Aspirated  Media; 
gh,  dh,  bh  ;  and  the  S|)irants  z,j,  i\  The  Voiceless 
or  Surd  consonants  are  the  Tenues  p,  t,  k,  y,  the 
Aspirated  tenues  /•/(,  th,  ph,  and  the  Spirants  s,/. 

There  are  some  sounds  which  can  play  the  jiart 
of  either  consonants  or  vowels,  as  the  Semi-vowels 
/  and  It.  In  the  same  way,  m,  n,  i-,  I  between 
voweis  are  purely  consonantal,  but  before  or  after 
consonants  they  can  be  vocalised  or  made  sunaiit. 
Besides  all  these  difterent  sounds  we  have  the 
introductory  (jlidcs,  represented  by  the  smooth  and 
rough  breatliings. 

Such  is  the  variety  and  complexity  of  the 
different  sounds  which  are  attempted  to  be  repre- 
sented in  the  letters  of  alphabets.  These,  how- 
ever, merely  satisfy  roughly  jnactical  needs,  and 
in  no  case  represent  all  the  sounds  actually  em- 
ployed in  any  language.  Accentuation,  which  is 
an  important  element  of  speech,  is  rarelj'  denoted, 
and  still  more  rarely  is  quantity.  The  alphabetic 
symbols  remain  comparatively  unchanged,  while 
the  souiuls  they  represent  are  constantly  changing. 
Hence  the  literary  spelling  often  corresponds  but 
inditlerently  with  the  actual  soiinds  of  tlie  words, 
and  in  English  especially  this  has  grown  into  so 
heavy  an  additional  burden  on  the  memoiies  of 
learners  tliat  many  scholars  have  been  led  to 
advocate  the  adoj)tion  of  a  seientilic  jilumctic 
system  of  spelling.  Thus,  in  Knglish  there  are  at 
least  forty-three  easily  distinguished  sounds,  ^^•hile 
the  written  alphabet  has  only  twenty-six  letters 
or  symbols  to  repre.sent  these.  Again,  our  alphabet 
is  redundant,  containing  three  superlluous  letters, 
c,  q,  X,  so  that  there  are  actually  Ijut  twenty-three 
letters  wherewith  to  represent  forty-three  sounds  ! 

Many  persons  amongst  ourselves  are  unable  to 
pronounce  certain  letters,  as  /  and  ;• ;  others  change 
r  or  /  to  d,  and  we  observe  that  children  foi'  some 
time  habitually  substitute  dentals  for  "utturals,  as 
tat  for  cut,  ti.'is  for  /./iw.  This  is  iiuite  distinct  from 
phonetic  diversiru-alion  which  follows  certain  delin- 
ite  laws,  the  observation  of  which  formed  the  basis 
of  scientific  etymology.  We  find  that  some  lan- 
guages lack  certain  sounds  which  to  us  seem  indis- 
pensable. Thus,  the  Mohawks  and  Hurons  em])loy 
no  labials  ;  the  Society  Islanders  are  destitute  of 
gutturals  (the  name  of  Captain  Cook  became  Tutc), 
and  the  Australian  dialects  of  .v,  as  are  also  several  of 
the  I'olynesian  languages,  where  its  place  is  taken 
by  h  (cf.  Lat.  sal  and  (ir.  hals).  Again,  d  is  never 
used  in  Chinese,  Mexican,  or  Peruvian  ;  n  is  absent 
in  the  language  of  tlie  Hurons  ;  and  even  in  so  per- 
fect a  languagi!  as  Sanskrit  we  have  no  /',  no  soft 
sibilants,  no  short  i;  and  u.  Greek  has  no  //,  no 
w,  no  soft  sibilants  :  Latin  has  no  soft  sibilants, 
no  native  8,  <P,  x<  English  is  deficient  in  guttural 
breathings  like  the  (lerman  arh  and  ic/i,  although 
tliese  are  plentiful  enough  in  Scotland.  High  (icr- 
man  has  no  w  like  the  English  w  in  wind,  no  t/i, 
dh,  eh,  j.  While  Sanskrit  has  no  /,  Arabic  has 
no /A  The  letter  y  is  absent  in  Finnish  (despite 
the  name — given  it  by  its  neighbours),  Lithuanian, 
Tamil,  Mongolian,  and  Burmese.  No  Chinaman 
ever  ju'onounces  r,  Christ  being  rendered  Ki  li  ssi: 
111.  It  is  also  absent  in  tlie  language  of  the  Hurons, 
Mexicans,  and  Kallirs.  Max  Miiller  gives  the 
following  enumeration  of  the  consonants  in  a  few 
alphabets  :  Hindustani  has  48  consonants,  of  which 


13  are  classical  Sanskrit  aspirates,  nasals,  and 
sibilants,  and  14  Arabic  lettei-s.  Sanskrit  has  37 
consonants  (or  with  the  Vedic  I  and  lli,  39); 
Turkish,  32  (of  which  only  25  are  really  Turkish)  ; 
and  Persian,  31  (of  which  22  are  really  Persian,  the 
rest  Arabic ).  Arabic  has  28  ;  the  Kattir  ( Zulu ),  26, 
besides  the  clicks.  Hebrew  has  23  :  English,  20 ; 
Greek,  17  (3  compound) ;  Latin,  17  (1  compound); 
Mongolian,  17  or  18;  Finnish,  11  :  Polynesian,  10 
native  consonantal  sounds  ;  some  Australian  lan- 
guages, 8;  of  the  Melanesian  languages  the  poorest, 
the  Duauru,  has  12,  others  13,  14,  and  more.  Again, 
some  races  find  exceeding  ditticulty  in  distinguishing 
some  of  our  sounds.  Thus,  the  Sandwich  Ishinders 
habitually  confuse  /.■  and  i,  and  we  find  the  .same 
word  written  by  Protestant  missionaries  with  k,  by 
French  missionaries  with  t.  Even  in  Canada  the 
lowei'  classes  say  inikicr  and  itwikii  for  metier  and 
moitii.  And  even  so  respected  a  lexicographer  as 
Noah  Webster  actually  says  in  the  Introduction  to 
his  Dictionary  that  in  English  the  letters  c/  are  pro- 
nounceil  as  if  written  tl,  and  (jl  ius  if  dl. 

Tlie  foregoing  is  mainly  taken  from  the  following :  J. 
E.  King  and  C.  Cooksim's  admirable  Principles  of  Sound 
and  Iiiflexion  (18iS8),  tlieir  Introduction  to  the  Compara- 
tirs  Grammar  of  Greek  and  Luti7i  (1890),  and  Max 
Midler's  Lectures  on  the  Science  of  Lamiuaiie  (2d  series, 
lect.  iv.  1864).  8ee  also  the  articles  in  the  present  work 
on  Alphabet,  Guammae,  Grijim's  Law,  Phonetics, 
Spelling,  and  on  each  of  the  lettei's  of  the  alphabet. 

Letters  forms  one  of  the  most  delightful 
branches  of  literature,  and  one  moreover  in  which 
English  possesses  abundance  of  the  finest  examples. 
Most  biographies  that  are  now  written  contain  the 
letters  of  tlie  hero,  and  these  usually  oiien  up  his 
heart  to  the  rea<ler  far  better  than  pages  of  descrip- 
tion of  his  qualities  ;  while  they  also  supply,  by  con- 
scious or  unconscious  self-revelation,  something  of 
tlie  peculiar  interest  that  belongs  to  autobiography. 
But  here  may  he  remembeied  tlie  warning  words  of 
Dr  Johnson  written  d prujios  of  Pope:  'Tliere  is  no 
transaction  which  oti'ers  stronger  temptations  to 
fallacy  and  sophistication  than  epistolary  inter- 
course. In  the  eagerness  of  conversation  the  first 
emotions  of  the  mind  often  burst  (Uit  before  they  are 
considered  ;  in  the  tumult  of  business  interest  and 
passion  have  their  genuine  ett'ect ;  but  a  friendlj' 
letter  is  a  calm  and  deliberate  performance  in  the 
cool  of  leisure,  in  the  stillness  of  solituile,  and 
surely  no  man  sits  down  to  deiireciate  by  design  his 
own  character.'  It  is  unlia]i]iily  the  fact  that  the 
conditions  of  modern  lite  are  generally  unfavour- 
able to  the  ]iroduction  of  letters  of  the  best  class, 
which  are  the  fruit  of  calm  and  ample  leisure  no  less 
than  of  sympathy.  The  railway,  the  iienny  post, 
the  telegram,  and  the  postcard  have  combined  to 
destroy  letter-writing  as  a  pursuit  and  an  art. 
There  is  nowadays  scarcely  such  a  thing  as  eurrc- 
spoudcncc  in  its  good  old  sense — what  Southey  calls 
'  perhaps  the  greatest  gratification  which  the  pro- 
gress of  civilisation  has  given  us  ; '  letters  are  only 
written  when  necessary,  and  consequently  are  too 
often  completely  impersimal  and  entirely  uninter- 
esting. Hence  familiar  letters,  intimati^  and  ca-sy 
in  tone,  fluent  and  seemingly  careless  in  style,  have 
almost  disappeared,  ami  in  their  stead  we  have  only 
the  ephemeral,  bald,  disjointi^il,  essentially  unliter- 
ary,  and  it  may  even  be  ungrauimatical  productions, 
which,  the  moment  their  immediate  purpose  is 
served,  are  straightway  consigned  to  the  extinction 
for  which  they  are  lilted,  and  to  which  end  indeed 
they  were  designeil. 

(.if  letters  Bacon  says  '  such  as  are  written  from 
wise  men  are  of  all  the  words  of  man,  in  my  judg- 
ment, the  best;  for  they  are  more  natural  than 
orations  and  public  speeches,  and  more  advised 
than  conferences  or  present  speeches.  So  again 
letters  of  state  from  such  aa  manage  them,  or  are 


I 
I 


LETTERS 


593 


privy  to  them,  are  of  all  others  the  best  instruc- 
tions for  history,  ainl  to  a  diligent  reader  the  best 
histories  in  themselves.'  Undoubtedly  this  is  true, 
and  the  letters  of  such  men  as  Cassiodorus,  Crom- 
well, Marlborough,  Nelson,  Washington,  and  Wel- 
lington, as  well  as  such  vast  collections  as  the  Cecil 
Correspondence,  and  the  like,  will  remain  documents 
of  the  lii^t  importance  to  the  historian  ;  while  the 
theologian  will  never  cease  to  count  the  epistles  of 
Gregory  Xazianzen,  Basil,  Chrysostoni,  Ambrose, 
Augustine,  and  Jerome  among  the  richest  sources 
available  for  a  close  study  of  the  development  of 
doguia  and  the  movement  of  ecclesiastical  history. 
Again,  such  collections  as  Pascal's  Proiu'}i<:i'ct/ 
Letters,  Swift's  Drapiers  Letters,  and  the  Letters  of 
Junius  only  belong  in  a  secondary  sense  to  this  de- 
partment of  literature,  and  lack  the  peculiar  pereonal 
charm  that  belongs  to  such  letters  as  those  of  Cicero, 
Horace  Walpole,  or  Madame  de  Sevigne. 

Of  all  the  favourite  letter-writers  of  the  world 
Cicero  is  both  the  earliest  and  remains  almost  the 
greatest.  More  than  800  of  his  letters  are  extant ; 
and  all  are  natural,  sincere,  outspoken.  The  very 
frankness  of  his  vanity  and  an  almost  feminine 
desire  to  please  give  a  siugular  pleasure  to  his 
reailer ;  and  his  own  phrase  in  one  of  his  letters — 
'  lit  enim  nescio  quid  ut  quasi  coram  adesse  videar 
cum  scribo  aliquid  ad  te ' — reveals  in  a  single  sent- 
ence the  secret  of  hb  perennial  charm.  And  he 
was  singularly  happy  in  a  correspondent  so  sym- 
pathetic and  intelligent  as  Atticus,  to  whom  alone 
he  sent  as  many  as  400  lettei's,  for  Montaigne  tells 
us  how  the  want  of  such  a  judicious  and  indulgent 
friend  to  whom  to  address  kept  him  from  adopting 
the  epistolary  method  for  publishing  his  whimsies 
which  otherwise  he  would  have  preferred.  The 
only  other  important  Latin  letter-writers  are  Seneca 
ami  Pliny,  but  the  one  ofi'ends  by  prosy  and  tedious 
moralising,  the  other  by  a  prolix  and  grandiose 
manner  that  soon  proves  tiresome. 

The  Paston  letters,  over  1000  in  number,  are  lucid 
and  unallectod  and  give  us  our  best  insight  into 
the  inner  domestic  life  of  the  loth  century  ;  but  the 
earliest  English  letter-writer  of  high  rank  is  James 
Howell,  whose  Familiar  Letters  shared  with  Mon- 
taigne the  honour  of  being  one  of  Thackeray's  two 
'  bedside  books.'  Howell  says  '  familiar  letters  may 
be  called  the  larum  bells  of  love,'  and  elsewhere 
ailmirably  describes  his  own  compositions  in  the 
sentence — 'that's  a  true  familiar  letter  which  ex- 
presseth  one's  mind,  as  if  he  were  discoursing  with 
the  party  to  whom  he  writes,  in  succinct  and  short 
terms.'  Nowhere  can  we  find  more  shrewdness, 
wit,  wisdom,  and  keenness  of  observation,  all  com- 
bined with  heartiness  and  sincerity  ;  none  knows 
belter  how  to  brighten  his  page  with  a  men-y  quip 
or  a  lively  storj'. 

15ut  our  greatest  letter-writers  remain  but  three, 
or  at  most  four :  Cray,  Horace  Walpole,  Cowper,  and 
Charles  Lamb.  Gray's  work  is  fastidious,  precise 
perfect,  but  never  laboured,  and  always  completely 
sincere.  It  suggests  the  finished  scholar  unbending 
to  please  a  friend,  and  the  perfection  is  a  consum- 
mation that  came  of  itself,  unstudied  and  unsought. 
Pope  and  IJolingbroke  wrote  for  fame — their  writ- 
ing ever  suggests  an  intellectual  exercise,  and  even 
the  letters  between  Pope  and  Swift  are  never  entirely 
free  from  consciousness ;  but  Gray  wrote  for  love, 
and  Ills  letters,  with  those  of  Cowper  and  Chitrles 
L-imb,  stand  by  themselves.  Horace  Walpole  said 
of  himself  that  he  lived  'a  life  of  letter-writing,' 
and  he  remains  pre-endnent  alike  in  the  number 
and  the  remarkable  felicity  of  his  letters.  He  is 
by  turns  gay,  goorlhumoured,  piquant,  keen,  sar- 
ca.stic,  but  is  always  clever  and  often  even  genial, 
although  not  seldom  the  reader  detects  the  presence 
of  ellort  and  atl'ectation.  Still,  all  defects  apart, 
judged  in  respect  of  both  quantity  and  quality,  aud 

2as 


of  the  extraordinary  range  of  subjects  handled,  he 
remains  without  a  rival  the  prince  of  English  letter- 
writers. 

Lady  Mary  Wortley  Montagu's  letters  are 
unusually  lively,  clever,  and  amusing,  but  are 
marred  by  a  constitutional  indelicacy  of  tone  as 
W'ell  as  a  vanity  and  a  consciousness  of  skill  that 
will  not  hide.  Chesterlield's  letters  to  his  natural 
son  show  great  shrewdness  and  powers  of  observa- 
tion in  a  finished  if  over-elaborated  style,  but  reveal 
a  iiioral  meanness  of  view  that  stamps  the  linislied 
man  of  tlie  world  as  but  a  sorry  gentleman.  The 
letters  to  his  godson,  written  in  later  life,  and  first 
published  by  the  late  Lord  Carnarvon  in  USKO,  show 
a  higher  tone,  but  are  poor  performances  if  judged 
from  the  point  of  view  of  letters  written  to  a  child. 
The  letters  of  Dorothy  Osborne  to  Sir  William 
Temple  are  delightful  bej'ond  most ;  those  of  Sir 
William  himself,  so  long  admired  as  models  of 
serene  and  stately  English,  have  ceased  to  interest 
the  modern  reader.  But  Lady  Kachel  Russell's 
lettere,  the  apologetic  scraps  written  by  Steele  to 
his  wiie  Prue,  and  Swift's  letters  to  Stella  preserve 
a  charm  that  defies  the  touch  of  time.  Other  18th- 
century  letters  of  interest  are  those  of  Mrs  Delaney, 
covering  half  a  century,  Fanny  Burney,  Miss  Berry, 
one  of  Walpole's  later  correspondents,  and  Harmah 
More.  Dr  Johnson's  letters  are  always  admirably 
vigorous  and  direct,  and  one  at  least  is  among  the 
most  memorable  things  in  English  literature ;  but 
he  never  put  his  strength  into  this  form,  anil  indeed 
disliked  to  write  freely  in  letters  from  the  after-use 
that  might  be  made  of  them.  Jane  Austen's  letters 
are  not  characteristic  of  her  unique  genius;  Burns's 
are  artificial  aud  disappointing  ;  Sterne's  mawkish 
and  unreal  ;  Goldsmitlis  good,  but  few  and  unim- 
portant. But  the  century  closes  well  with  the  in- 
imitable masterpieces  of  Cowper,  throughout  full  of 
tenderness,  grace,  vivacity,  wit,  and  sense. 

Of  19th-centuiy  letters  the  characteristic  ex- 
amples of  Charles  Lamb  stand  first.  Even  the 
slightest  show  the  peculiar  charm  of  his  touch, 
and  all  are  stamped  with  the  sign-manual  of  genius. 
Scott's  letters  are  hearty,  genial,  and  honest; 
Byrou's  clever,  trenchant,  aud  somewhat  unreal. 
There  are  many  good  letters  of  Southey,  Crabbe, 
Sydney  Smith,  Leigh  Hunt,  De  Quincey,  Lockhart, 
^iacaulay,  Dr  Arnold,  Hood,  Washington  Irving, 
Emerson,  Carlyle,  Lady  Dull'  Gordon,  and  Kuskin. 
Thirlwall's  Letters  to  a  Friettd,  and  Thackeray's 
Letters,  published  in  1887,  are  unusually  good 
collections.  Shelley  is  an  author  not  yet  judged 
sensibly  by  either  set  of  readers,  but  it  is  enough 
to  say  of  his  letters  that  they  are  neither  so  much 
above  his  poetry  as  ]\Iatthew  Arnold  would  place 
them  nor  as  far  below  it  as  they  ajqicar  to  Mr 
Swinburne.  The  letters  of  Mary  Godwin  to  Imlay, 
written  towards  the  close  of  the  ISlb  century,  are 
deeply  interesting;  those  of  Keats  to  Fanny 
Brawne  do  injustice  to  the  memory  of  a  sovereign 
poet,  and  should  never  have  been  printed.  But 
indeed  the  love-letter  is  almost  always  a  flower 
that  will  not  bear  being  plucked  from  the  stalk 
on  which  it  grew,  and  those  that  are  nowadays  too 
often  read  aloud  in  breach-ofpromise  cases  are 
almost  always  as  unreal  as  the  shortlived  passion 
that  inspireil  them.  Of  later  19th-century  English 
letters  none  stand  out  greater  than  those  of  Mrs 
Carlyle  an<l  Edward  I'it/gcrald,  which  have  indeed 
already  been  lifted  into  the  rank  of  the  English 
classics  in  this  kind. 

Of  German  letter-writers  it  may  be  enough  to 
name  Schiller,  (Joethe,  and  Humboldt  ;  of  French, 
\'oiture,  Madame  de  Maiiilinon,  Mailame  du  Def- 
fand,  Sainte-Bcuve,  (Jeorgc  Sand,  .Mcrimce,  and  the 
unapproachalile  luime  of  Ma<lame  de  Sevigne.  The 
sovereign  quality  of  this  great  letter-writer  is  her 
naturalness  and  goodness  of  heart,  combined  with 


594 


LETTERS 


LETTUCE 


an  unmatclied  facility  of  sympathetically  realising 
the  emotiimal  e.\|)eriences  of  others,  and  of  adilini^ 
reality  and  life  to  everything;  she  tonelied.  None 
ever  possessed  in  richer  measure  the  woman's  gift 
of  that  warmer  interest  in  the  smaller  commerce  of 
life,  and  that  aptitude  for  treating  social  or  pulilic 
matters  from  the  ]irivate  .ind  personal  point  of 
view  which  give  half  their  charm  to  the  Icttei-s  of 
women.  She  tells  her  daughter,  to  whom  she  wrote 
with  overllowing  atlection  for  twenty  live  years, 
that  she  lets  her  pen  '  run  on  and  take  its  own 
way.  ...  I  commence  always  without  knowing 
how  far  I  shall  go;  I  know  not  whether  my  letter 
will  he  long  or  short.'  Horace  Walpole  says  of  her, 
'  She  h  ,s  tlie  art  of  making  you  acquainted  with  all 
her  acquaintance,  and  attaches  you  even  to  the  spots 
she  inhabited.'     There  is  no  writer  whose  inherent 

foodness  has  been  repaid  with  a  warmer  love  than 
ladame  <le  Sevigne,  or  whose  supremacy  upon  an 
intellectual  throne  is  less  likely  ever  to  be  shaken. 

The  EnglLsh  reader  will  find  the  form  of  the  ancient 
Roman  letter  in  the  example  preserved  in  Acts  xxiii.  The 
modern  Englisii  letter  differs  from  the  older  only  in  being 
somewhat  less  ceremonious  and  less  varied  in  form.  Tlius, 
*sir'  alone  was  once  nearly  miiversal  as  the  form  of  ad- 
dress, but  is  now  considered  cold.  Again, '  bonoirred  sir' 
and  '  respected  sir '  have  almost  disappeared,  and  un- 
happily also  such  beautifiU  forms  as  *  heart '  and  '  sweet- 
heart.' Howell  often  ends  with  'yours  inviolably,'  'yours 
entirely,' '  yours  in  no  vulgar  way  of  friendship  ;'  Horace 
"Walpole  says  *  yours  very  mucii,'  '  yoiU"S  most  cordially,' 
and  once,  to  Hannah  More  ui  1789,  'yours  more  and  more.' 
Puritan  writers  often  used  forms  strange  to  modem  ears, 
such  as  '  yours  in  the  bowels  of  Christ.'  Ba.\ter  in  his 
certamen  epistolare  with  Peter  Heylin  delightfully  sub- 
scribes hunself  '  yours  in  so  far  as  you  are  for  the  truth.' 
In  earlier  times  it  was  customary  to  add  on  the  outside 
directions  to  tlie  bearer,  as  '  Haste,  ba^te,'  and  in  otficial 
lettei-s  even  such  pointed  provocatives  of  speed  as  '  Hide, 
ride,  for  your  life.'  Underlining  is  a  detestable  practice, 
equivalent  to  a  confession  of  weakness  in  being  forced  to 
borrow  sti-ength  from  adventitious  aid,  and  crossing  is  a 
device  happUy  practised  by  but  few  men  at  least,  although 
it  had  its  use  in  days  of  dear  postage.  Many,  however, 
indulge  in  a  postscript,  without  which  it  is  said  no  lady's 
letter  is  complete. 

The  earliest  guide  to  letter-writing  extant  is  Angel 
Day's  Ewjlisli  Hecntary  (15U9).  Ajiother,  by  Gervase 
Markham,  is  entitled  Conceited  Letters ;  or  a  most  Excellent 
Bundle  of  New  WU  (11)18).  Forms  of  letters,  with  much 
else,  were  also  given  in  the  popular  Academic  of  Compli- 
ments (1071).  Of  such  books  there  is  now  great  abund- 
ance ;  but,  while  occasionally  helpful,  they  are  by  no 
means  an  unmixed  blessing,  being  no  doubt  responsible 
for  many  ridiculous  j)hrases  that  are  in  too  conunon  use. 
But  to  them  the  world  owes  the  masterpieces  of  Richard- 
son, who,  in  his  labours  upon  a  guide  to  correspondence, 
discovered  tliat  he  could  write  novels  that  could  melt 
the  hearts  of  the  women. 

See  W'iUiam  Roberts,  History  of  Letter -mnting,  from 
the  Earliest  J'criod  to  the  Fifth  Ccntur//  ( 1S43) ;  Charles 
Knight,  Naif-hours  with  the  best  Letter-writers  aiidAuto- 
hiot/rapkcrs  (two  series,  lS(i7-08);  George  Seton,  Gossip 
about  Letters  and  Letter-writers  (1870);  W.  IJaptisto 
Scoones,  Four  Centuries  of  Enr/tish  Letters  (1880)  ;  and 
Robert  Cochrane,  The  BritUh  Letter-writers  (ISS'i).  The 
two  last  books  are  excellent  collections,  full,  yet  adnnrably 
selected.  There  is  a  collection  of  Love  Letters  of  Famous 
Men  ant  Wuiin  n  of  Past  and  Present  Centuries  {'2  vtil^. 
1888 )  by  Mr  Merydew.  The  copyright  of  letters  remains 
with  the  writer  (see  COPVKIUHT). 

Letters.  For  Lettei-s  Patent,  see  Paten T.S ; 
for  Letter  of  .Vttorney,  see  Attouxey. 

Letter-wood.    See  Buead-nut. 

Lettre.s  de  Claeliet,  the  name  given  to  the 
famous  warrants  of  imprisimment  issued  hy  the 
kings  of  France  Ijefore  the  Itevolutioii.  All  roy.il 
letters  (letircs  roi/ati.r)  were  either  Icttres  paleutrs 
or  let'  Ks  de  car/ict.  Tin;  former  were  o|ien,  signed 
by  the  l.ing,  and  countersigned  hy  a  minister, 
and  liad   the  great    seal   of    state  ai>pended.     Of 


this  kind  were  all  oidinances,  grants  of  privilege, 
&c.  Hut  these  checks  on  arbitrary  power  did 
not  exist  with  regard  to  lettres  de  cachet, 
also  called  lettres  c/o.vc.v,  or  sealed  letters,  which 
were  folded  up  and  sealed  with  the  king's  little 
seal  (ceiclict),  and  hy  which  the  royal  pleasure  was 
made  known  to  individuals  or  to  corporations 
and  the  administration  of  justice  was  often 
interfered  with.  The  use  of  lettres  de  cachet 
became  much  more  frequent  after  the  accession  of 
Louis  XIV.  than  it  had  been  before,  and  it  wa-s 
very  common  for  ])ersons  to  he  arrested  ujion  such 
warrant,  and  cla|)ped  into  the  Ihustille  (c|.v.)  or 
some  other  state-juison  ;  where  smne  ot  tliem 
remained  for  a  very  long  time,  and  scune  for  life, 
either  because  it  was  .so  intended,  or,  in  other 
cases,  because  they  were  forgotten.  It  was  not 
always  for  political  reasons  that  lettres  de  cachet 
were  obtained  ;  sometimes  private  pei-sons  got 
troublesome  members  of  their  families  hrcnight  to 
reason  in  this  way.  The  lieutenant-general  of  the 
police  ke]it  forms  of  lettres  de  cachet  ready,  in 
which  it  was  only  necessary  to  insert  the  name  of 
the  indiviilual  to  be  arrested.  Sometimes  an  arrest- 
ment on  lettres  de  cachet  was  a  resource  to  shield 
criminals  from  justice. 

Letts*  a  hratich  of  the  Lithuanian  race,  who  in 
manners,  customs,  aud  nuxle  of  living  do  not  dill'er 
much  from  the  Lithuanians  jiroper.  They  live  in 
south  Livonia,  in  Courland,  and  Vitebsk,  and  in 
the  north  of  Kovuo  in  Itussia,  and  number  about 
1, '200,000  i)ersons.  Early  converted  to  Christianity 
by  the  Teutonic  Knights,  they  are  now  mostly  Luth- 
erans, though  some  50,000  have  been  won  o\er  to 
the  Greek  Church.  All  are  peasant  agriculturists  ; 
since  the  abolition  of  serfdom  they  have  uuule 
remarkable  progress,  both  socially  and  intellectu- 
ally. Their  language  is  not  so  archaic  as  Lithuan- 
ian ;  but  they  posse.^  valuable  treasures  of  juqudar 
poetry,  proverbs,  riddles,  ivrc.  See  I'hnann,  Lcltinrhe 
Volkslicder  (1874),  and  iiielenstein.  Kin  Tdusoul 
Lcttische  Eutsel  ( ISSl ) ;  also  Von  Dorneth,  Die 
Lcttcn  unlcr  den  Deutxehen  ('2d  cd.  1887),  and  C.  F. 
AVatson,  Uebcr  den  Icttischcii  VvHsstaiiim  (IS'22). 

Lettuee  (Lactaea),  a  genus  of  plants  belong- 
ing to  the  natural  order  Composita-,  sub-order 
Ciehorace;e.  The  Garden  Lettuce  (X.  .satirit)  is 
supposed  to  he  a  native  of  the  East  Indies,  but  is 
not  known  to  exist  anywhere  in  a  wild  ^tate,  and 
from  remote  antiijuity  has  been  cultivated  in  Kun)|)e 
as  an  esculent,  and  particularly  as  a  sahul.  It  has 
a  leafy  stem,  oblong  leaves,  a  s])reading,  llatto]ii)ed 
panicle,  somewhat  resembling  a  c(M'yinb,  with  yellow 
Howers,  ami  a  fruit  without  margin.  It  is  now 
generally  cultivated  in  all  parts  of  the  Morld  where 
the  climate  adndls  of  it  ;  and  there  are  many 
varieties,  all  of  which  may,  however,  he  regarded 
as  sub-varieties  of  the  Cos  Lettuce  and  the 
Cabbage  Lettuce,  the  former  having  the  leaves 
nmre  oblong  and  ui>right,  requiring  to  be  tied 
together  for  blanching— the  latter  with  rounder 
leaves,  which  spread  out  nearer  the  ground,  and 
afterwards  hi}ll  or  roll  together  into  a  head  like  a 
small  cabliMge.  The  lettuce  is  ea-^y  of  iligotiou, 
gently  laxative,  and  moderately  nutritions.  The 
white  .and  somewhat  naicolic  milky  juice  of  this 
plant  is  inspissated,  and  used  under  the  name  of 
LaHitcariam  or  'I'hriiltirc  as  an  anodyne,  sedative, 
opiate  medicine.  The  best  and  most  useful  kind 
ot  this  juice  is  obtained  by  making  incisions  in  the 
dowering  stems,  ami  allowing  the  juice  which 
Hows  to  <lrv  <ipon  them.  In  uiihl  winters  lliey 
may  be  kept  reaily  for  planting  out  in  spring. 
The  other  species  of  this  genus  exhibit  nothing 
of  the  bland  quality  of  the  garden  lettuce.  The 
Strong-scented  J.ettuce  (L.  virosci)  is  distin- 
guished hy  the  prickly  keel  of  the  leaves,  and 


LEUCADIA 


LEUKAS 


595 


by  a  black,  smootli  seed,  with  a  rather  broad 
niar;j;iii.  It  is  found  in  some  ^larts  of  liiil^iin. 
Lacliiairiitiii,  is  prepared  from  its  fresh^'alhcrcd 
leaves  in  the  lloweriuj;  season.  The  U'aves  have 
a  strong  and  nauseous,  uarootio  and  opium  like 
smell.  L.  percitiiU  adorns  with  beautiful  bhic 
llowera  the  stony  declivities  of  mounUiiusaiid  clefts 
of  rocks  in  some  parts  of  Germany,  as  in  the  Harz, 
&c.,  but  is  not  a  native  of  Britain,  whicli,  however, 
posses.ses  one  or  two  otlier  species  in  (lualities 
resembling  L.  virosa. 

LeiK'adia.    See  Leukas. 

Leiu'litonbers.    See  Beaiii.\kn.\i.s. 

Leucine,  or  Amido-capkoic  Aciu,  a  pro- 
duct of  the  decomposition  of  albumincms  materials 
occurrinj;  in  many  of  the  juices  of  the  aiiinial  body  : 
formula  CjIIiiO.NH,.  A  substance  isomeric,  hut 
not  identical,  with  uatural  leucine  can  he  prepared 
artilitially. 

LeUcippiISa  the  founder  of  the  Atomic  School 
of  Greek  philosophy,  and  forerunner  of  DemiK'ritus 
(q.v),  was  born  in  Abdera,  and  llourLshed  ill  the 
be^^inninj;  of  the  tith  century  B.C. 

LeiieiseilS,  a  j;enus  of  fresh-water  fishes,  of 
the  family  Cyprinid^,  containini,'  a  ^'reat  number 
of  species,  anmng  which  are  the  Koach,  Dace, 
Chub,  Minnow,  &c. 

Leiieite  (Gr.  leukos,  'white'),  a  rock-forming 
mineral  which  occurs  in  the  form  of  icositetrahedra 
belonging  to  the  cubical  system.  It  has  a  hard- 
ness =  5  J  -  6,  and  a  specific  gravity  =  245  -  250. 
The  colour  is  white,  a.sh-gray,  or  smoke-gray.  It 
usually  contains  many  inclusions,  such  as  (divine, 
augite,  and  other  minerals,  together  with  glass 
enclosures,  gii-s-bubbles,  and  occasionally  fluid 
lacuna'.  Unlike  culiical  minerals,  it  exliibiis  a  cer- 
tain ilegree  of  double  refraction,  believed  to  he  due 
to  conditions  of  unequal  tension  existing  within 
the  crystals.  When  exposed  to  a  temperature 
of  500"  C  the  crystals  become  perfectly  isotropic. 
Leucite  occurs  only  in  volcanic  nx-ks,  and  those 
in  which  it  occurs  have  a  restricted  distribution. 

Leiiekart,  Ri'Dolf,  zoologist,  was  Ijorn  7th 
October  182'J  at  Helinstadt,  and  studied  at  Gottin- 
ilGn.  In  1S5*)  he  became  professor  of  Zoology  at 
Gies.sen,  and  in  1S(J9  at  Leipzig;  he  specially  dis- 
tinguished himself  by  his  study  of  the  Entozoa. 
His  great  work  is  The  Piinisites  of  Man  { Eng.  trans, 
by  Hoyle,  188H).      He  died  6th  February  ),S!)H. 

LeiK'OCytheillia  (Gr.  leukos,  'wh'iie,' eytos,  'a 
cell,'  and  luKiiiii,  '  blood')  is  a  disease  in  which  the 
number  of  white  corpuscles  in  the  blood  is  greatly 
increased,  while  there  is  a  simultaneous  diminution 
of  the  red  corpuscles.  The  disease  was  noticed 
almost  at  the  same  time  (in  184.5)  by  .loliu  Iluglies 
liennett  of  Edinburgh  an<l  Virchow  of  Wiirzhurg; 
the  former  giving  in  1852  the  name  l.eucucythwmia, 
while  the  latter  gave  it  in  18-47  the  less  expressive 
name  of  Leuhemia  or  Wliile  lilooil.  The  increase 
of  the  white  or  colourless  cor|JUscdes  seems  to  be 
always  accompanied,  and  pniliably  causeil,  by 
changes  in  some  of  the  lym]dialic  tissues  of  the 
hotly.  Of  thi'se  by  far  the  most  common  Is  en- 
largement of  the  spleen,  which  sometimes  attains 
an  enormous  size.  In  many  cases  this  is  as.sociated 
with  eidargement  of  lymphatic  glands,  and  less 
commonly  with  a  peculiar  change  in  the  marrow 
of  the  bones ;  and  occa.sionally  one  or  both  of 
these  conilitions  may  be  present  without  enlarge- 
ment of  the  spleen. 

The  first  symjitom  usually  noticed  by  the  patient 
is  enlargement  of  the  abdomen,  in  coiiseinK'nce  of 
the  increase  in  size  of  the  spleen.  Weakness, 
breath lessness,  hii-morriiages  in  various  situations, 
an<l  often  enlargement  of  the  liver  succeed  ;  and 
the  dLsease  almost  always  proves  fatal  in   two  or 


three  years  at  iiu>st.  It  may  occur  at  any  age ; 
but  is  most  common  between  twenty  and  fifty,  and 
in  the  male  .sex.  Nothing  is  known  as  to  its  cause, 
except  that  a  considerable  proportion  (one  lifth  or 
more)  of  those  atl'ected  have  at  .some  previous  time 
sullercil  from  ague.  Treatment  seems  sometimes  to 
have  proved  eflectual  in  the  early  stages  ;  cases  have 
been  recorde<l  where  iiuinine,  iiliosidiorus,  cod-liver 
oil,  iodide  of  iron  have  arresteil  what  appeared  to  be 
1  commencing  leucocytbemia.  I!ut  after  the  diseiise 
i  is  fully  established  all  treatment  has  as  yet  pruveil 
unavailing. 

LeiH'ol,  C^HyN,  is  au  organic  base  olitaiued 
by  the  distillation  of  coal-tar,  and  is  isomeric  with 
<|uiiioHne. 

LeiK'Ollia  is  the  term  applied  to  a  wliite 
ojiacity  of  the  cornea  (see  Eye).  It  is  the  result 
ot  acute  inllamnuUion,  giving  rise  to  the  formation 
of  cicatricial  tissue  <m  the  ulcerated  surface,  or 
between  the  layers  of  the  cornea.  It  is  sometimes 
re-absorbed  on  the  cessation  of  the  inllammation, 
and  the  cornea  recovei-s  its  transparency;  but  in 
many  eases  it  is  persistent  and  incurable. 

LeucorrllOPa  (Gr.  leukos,  'white,'  and  rheo, 
'  I  How ' ),  ])i)pularly  called  vltit.rs,  is  the  name 
ai)plied  to  an  abnormal  mucous  or  muco)iurulent 
discharge  from  the  female  generative  organs.  It 
is  a  prominent  symptom  in  many  foruis  of  female 
disease  ;  and  the  treatment  must  Ije  directed  to  the 
morbid  condition  on  which  it  depends.  Antiseptic 
or  astringent  vaginal  douches  are  generally  of  use 
in  diminishing  the  excessive  secretion  and  the 
annoyance  caused  by  it. 

Leiictra«  a  village  of  Bo'otia,  in  ancient  Greece, 
famous  for  the  great  victory  which  the  Thebaus 
under  E|>amiuondas  (([.v.)  here  won  over  the  Spar- 
tan king  Cleombrotus  (371  li.C). 

Leilk  (Fr.  Loiche],  a  town  (])op.  1411)  in  the 
Swiss  canton  of  Valais,  on  the  right  liank  of  the 
Khone,  15  miles  above  Sion.  It  is  the  railway 
station,  on  the  Simplon  railway,  for  the  But/is  of 
Leuk  (4U43  feet  above  sea-level),  situated  5  miles 
northward  at  the  hejul  of  the  Dala  gorge  and  the 
foot  of  the  ascent  over  the  Genimi  pass.  At  this 
hamlet  of  O.JO  inhabitants  there  are  lodging-houses 
and  hotels  for  the  accommoilation  of  jiatients  and 
tiavellers.  The  springs  have  a  high  temperature 
(1"2-1'-199'  F. ),  are  saline,  chalybeate,  and  sul 
phureims,  and  are  used  both  for  ilrinking  and  bath 
ing,  chielly  in  skin  and  stomachic  diseases.  The 
patients  (mostly  J'rench,  Swi.ss,  and  Italians)  le 
main  many  hours  in  the  water,  talking,  reading, 
iv;c.  See  guide-books  by  Brunner  (0th  cd.  1887), 
Wolf  ( I8sa),  and  Von  Werra  ( 1886). 

Leiika.s.  Leucadia,  or  Santa  Maura,  one  of 
the  Ionian  Islands,  lies  close  to  the  west  coast  of 
Greece  ;  about  660  B.C.  the  Corinthians  cut  through 
the  peninsula  that  joined  it  to  the  mainland.  It 
resembles  the  Isle  of  Man  in  shape,  and  is  "20  miles 
long  by  8  wide,  with  an  area  of  110  stj.  m.  The 
backbone  of  the  island  is  a  riilg<;  of  white  lime- 
stone ;  bcnci'  the  name  (leukos,  'white').  \\'ine, 
olive-oil,  and  currants  are  the  principal  pKjducts. 
The  island  is  much  subject  to  earthi|Uakes.  I'op. 
'25,0(K),  cliielly  (iiceks.  The  west  coast  is  bold  and 
preciidtous.  and  terminates  south  in  the  alirupt 
headland  (•2(K)  feel)  known  to  the  ancients  as  the 
Leucadian  rork.  on  wbich  stood  a  temple  to  .\pollo, 
and  from  wliicli  oni'c  a  year  a  crijiiinal  was  bulled 
into  l\w  sea  liy  way  of  sicrilice.  It  was  from  the 
same  point  that  Sappho,  the  poetess,  and  .-\rtenMsia 
of  Ilalicarnxssus  threw  themselvc^s  into  the  waves. 
— The  capital,  .-Vmaxichi  or  l,eukas,  on  tlu;  east 
coast,  is  the  seat  of  an  archbishop,  and  has  a 
population  of  3800.  It  was  nearly  de-troyeil  iiy 
an  carthipiake  in  18'2.j.      \'enice  was  mostly  mistress 


59G 


LEUTHEN 


LEVEN 


of  this  island  from  1684  to  1800  ;  it  was  occiii)ied 
liy  Hritiiiii  in  ISIO.  See  IONIAN  Islands;  also  an 
in'oount  of  the  island  by  Paitsch  in  K>y(i>izuu(/s- 
hi'/t,  9j,  to  I'ctennanns  Mittcilumjcn  (1889). 

Lcntbeili  a  village  of  Prussia,  in  Lower  Silesia, 
10  miles  AV.  of  IJreslau,  celebrated  for  the  victory 
won  there,  .5tli  December  1757,  by  Frederick  the 
(ireat,  witli  .'54,000  men,  over  the  Austrians  under 
Prince  Charles  of  Lorraine  at  the  head  of  90,000. 
The  Austrians  lost  10,0110  killed  and  wounded, 
12,000  jirisoners,  and  ll(j  pieces  of  artillery;  the 
Prussians,  6500  killed  and  wounded.  The  result 
was  the  reconquest  of  the  greater  part  of  Silesia  by 
the  Prussians. 

Leiltzo,  Em.\nuel,  painter,  was  born  at 
Graiind,  in  Wiirtemberg,  in  1816,  was  brought 
up  by  his  parents  in  America  (at  Philadelphia 
and  at  Fredericksburg,  Virginia),  and  afterwards 
studied  and  ])ainted  in  Europe  from  1841  to  1859, 
his  home  for  fourteen  years  being  at  Diisseldorf. 
He  settled  in  New  York  city  in  1859,  and  died  at 
Washington,  18th  July  1868.  His  works  include 
three  scenes  from  the  life  of  Columbus,  .several 
from  English  history,  and  a  number  depicting 
events  in  the  war  of  the  Kevolutiou,  including 
'Washington  crossing  the  Delaware.'  One  of  his 
last  works  was  the  '  Westward  Ho  '  mural  picture 
for  the  staircase  of  the  capitol  at  Washington. 

Lcuwcuhoek.    See  LEEi\vf;NHOEK. 

Levaillaut.  Fr.VNCOIS,  traveller  and  ornitho- 
logist, was  born  in  1753  of  French  parents  living 
at  Paramaribo,  in  Dutch  Guiana.  In  1777-80  he 
studied  natural  history  in  Paris,  and  then  spent 
more  than  two  years  in  exploring  the  southern 
parts  of  South  Africa  (1781-84).  His  death 
occurred  at  Sezanne,  south  of  Epernay,  on  22d 
November  1824.  He  published  accounts  of  two 
of  these  e.xjieditions,  not  altogether  free  from 
imaginative  details  and  exaggerations,  under  the 
title  Voi/tiffcs  daits  riiiUricur  de  I'Afriquc  ( 1 790-96 ). 
Several  books  by  him  on  birds  are  marred  hy  the 
same  faulty  tendencies ;  those  on  African  binls,  on 
the  new  and  rare  birds  of  America  and  India,  and 
on  paroquets  are  the  most  valuable. 

Levant  ( from  the  Ital.  Lcvuiitc,  the  'Orient,' 
or  'Rising' — i.e.  the  East),  a  name  employed  to 
designate  the  eastern  parts  of  the  Mediterranean 
Sea  and  the  coast  regions  of  Syria,  Asia  Minor, 
and  Egypt.  In  a  wider  sense,  it  is  applied  to  all 
the  regions  eastward  from  Italy,  as  far  as  the 
Euphrates  and  tlie  Nile. — f.eniii/iiies  is  a  name 
given  to  per.sons  mainly  of  Krank  extraction  born 
in  Turkey  and  the  towns  <if  the  Levant. — Levanter 
is  a  stormy  wind  blowing  up  the  Mediterranean 
from  the  Levant. 

Lev^C  the  French  name,  u.sed  also  on  the 
Lower  Mississippi  (q.v.),  for  an  embankment. 

Lev'ce,  originally  a  reception  held  in  the  mon- 
arch's bedchamlier  at  the  hour  of  rising  (Fr.  Iccer). 
See  Court,  Pkivshntation  at. 

liCVcllt'rs.  an  ultra-republican  sect  or  ]iartv 
which  became  noticeable  in  the  ]>arliamcntary 
army  in  1647,  and  two  years  later  produced  a 
formiilable  mutinous  outbreak.  Tlie  chiitf  leader 
was  .lolin  Lilburne  (1618-57),  who,  whipped  and 
imprison(Ml  by  the  Star  Chamber  in  1638,  bad  risen 
in  the  army  to  be  lieutenant-colonel.  He  became 
an  indefatigable  agitator;  thought  t^romwell's  re- 
])ublic  too  aristocratic,  and  ilemanded  greater  liberty 
of  conscience  anil  numerous  ]>arlianientary  reforms  ; 
and  was  repeatedly  imiirisoned  for  the  trejison  in  his 
jiamphlets.  A  jiart  of  the  army  mutinied  in  April 
1649  in  support  of  lik(!  views,  and  soon  there  were  a 
thou.-iind  insurgiMils,  wlio  were  speedily  surrounded 
near  London  and  forced  by  Cromwell  into  surrender. 


Similar  risings  elsewhere  were  also  swiftly  dealt 
with. 

Levelling.  Level  is  a  term  ap]ilied  to  sur- 
faces that  are  parallel  to  that  of  still  water,  or 
perpendicular  to  the  direction  of  the  iilumb-line ; 
it  is  also  applieil  to  the  instrument  employed 
in  determining  the  amount  of  variation  from  per- 
fect levelness.  The  instrument  is  a  cylindrical 
glass  tube  very  slightly  convex  on  one;  side,  and 
so  nearly  filled  with  water,  or.  what  is  better,  with 
alcohol,  that  only  a  snuill  bulible  of  air  remains 
inside.  The  level  is  then  mounted  on  a  three  or 
four  legged  stand,  with  its  convex  side  upwards, 
and  by  means  of  a  pivot  and  elevating  screws  is 
made  ca|iable  of  assuming  anj-  required  position. 
If  the  level  be  properly  constructed  the  bubble 
should  lie  exactly  in  the  middle  of  the  tube  when 
the  instrument  is  properly  adjusted,  and  at  the 
.same  time  the  line  of  sight  of  the  telescojie  attached 
to  the  level  should  be  accurately  ])arallel  to  the 
surface  of  still  ^^ater.  In  ordinary  levels  this 
lirst  condition  is  seldom  seen,  and,  instead,  two 
notches  are  made  on  the  glass  to  mark  the  position 


of  the  two  extremities  of  the  bubble  when  the 
instrument  is  level.  The  tube  and  bubble  should 
be  of  considerable  length  to  ensure  accuracy.  The 
leveller  requires  two  assistants,  each  furnished  with 
a  pole  from  10  to  14  feet  higli,  and  graduated  to 
feet  and  inches,  or  feet  and  tenths  of  feet.  If  he 
wishes  to  measure  the  height  of  A  above  B,  he 
may  do  this  by  beginning  either  at  A  or  B.  Let 
the  latter  be  the  case  :  then  one  assistant  is  placed 
at  B,  holding  his  pole  upright ;  the  other  is  sent 
forward  to  C  (which  nnist  be  below  the  level  of  the 
tojiof  the  pole  at  B);  the  surveyor,  who  places  him- 
self between  them,  reads  oil'  the  height  B/<,  which  he 
puts  down  in  the  back-sight  column  of  his  book,  and 
then  turns  the  level  to  C,  reading  ollC/«,  which  is 
entered  in  the  front-sight  column.  The  surveyor 
and  his  assistant  at  B  then  take  u])  n(^w  po.sitions, 
the  latter  at  D;  the  backsight  i'c  and  tne  front- 
siglit  D«  are  rea<l  oil',  aiul  the  juoces-s  is  repeated 
till  one  of  the  a.ssistants  reaches  A.  The  e.xce-ss  of 
the  sum  of  the  back-sights  over  that  of  the  front- 
sights  gives  the  height  of  A  above  15.  A  little  con- 
sideration shows  that  this  method  only  holds  true 
when  pra('ti.sed  on  a  small  scale,  and  ccmseirnently 
in  extensive  surveys  the  level  (ius  found  by  the 
above  method)  must  be  reduced  by  an  allowance 
for  the  earth's  curvature.  See  works  by  F.  W. 
Simnis(1884)  and  T.  llolloway  (1887). 

Leveil.  a  small  seaiiort  and  police-burgh  (1867) 
of  Fife,  on  the  Firth  of  Porth,  at  the  mouth  of  the 
river  Leven,  11  miles  bv  rail  NE.  of  Kirkcaldy. 
Pop.  (1841)  1827:  (188i)  .3568;  (1891)  4577.  A 
good  golf-links  adjoins  the  town. 

Leveil,  Locil,  a  saltwater  loch,  between 
Argyll  and  Inverne-ss  shires,  extending  lU  miles 
westward  to  a  junction  with  Loch  Linidic,  near 
Itallachulish,  and  broadening  to  24  niilcs.  Its 
scenery  is  savage,  and  the  How  and  ebb  of  the  tide 
very  strong.     See  also  LucULEVKM. 


LEVER 


597 


Fig.  L 


Lever.  ^t>  inflexible  roil— straight  or  bent,  as 
the  ca«e  may  be — supported  at  some  point  of  its 
length  on  a  prop  which  is  called  the  fulcrum,  and 
having  a  resistance  to  be  overcome  ami  power  to 
overcome  it  applied  at  other  two  points.  The 
general  principle  governini;  levers  ot  all  sorts  is 
that  the  power  and  the 
resistance  mnst  tend  to 
produce  opposite  rotations 
round  the  fulcrum,  and 
that  their  monient.s — the 
product  of  either  of  them 
into  the  shortest  distance 
between  the  line  of  the 
direction  of  its  applica- 
tion and  the  fulcrum — 
must  be  numerically 
equal ;  or,  in  other  words,  the  power  and  the  re- 
sistance are  in  the  inverse  ratio  of  their  resjiective 
shortest  distances  from 
the  fulcrum.  When  this 
is  the  case  there  is  equi- 
librium ;  when  either 
'  moment "  predominates 
Fig.  3.  there  will    be   rotation. 

These  conditions  may  be 
fulfilled  whether  the  power  P,  the  fulcrum  F,  and 
the  resistance  W  stand  in  the  order  PFW,  PWF, 
or  WPF ;  and  hence  levers  are  popularly  divided 
into  three  classes.     In  the 
first  class   (PFW)— fig.    1 
for  a  straight  lever,  fig.  2 
for  a  bent  one,  equivalent 
to  a  straight  lever  since  P 
and    W    are    parallel — we 


and   he   is   thus   able  to  exert  his   fnll  muscular 
strength. 


Af      have    the    Balance   (q.v.), 
the  spade  (when  used  for 
raising  earth ),  the  seesaw ; 
I  or,  as  (louble  levei-s,  scissoi-s 

and  pincers.    In  the  second 
Fig.  3.  class    (PWF,    fig.    3)    we 

have  crowbars  ( P  the  hand, 
W  the  resistance  of  the  body  pushed,  F  the  ground ), 
hoat-oars  ( P  the  hands,  W  at  the  rowlock,  the 
resistance  of  tlie  boat,  F  the  comparatively  fixed 
position  of  tlie  oar-tip  in  the  water),  wheelbarrows; 
and,  as  double  levei-s,  nutcrackers  ( P  the  hand,  W 
the  nut,  F  the  hinge).  In  the  third  chiss  (WPF, 
fig.  4)  we  have  fishing- 
rods,  whips,  umbrellas, 
and  most  instruments  used 
with  the  hand  alone,  and 
coal-  and  sugar-tongs  ;  and 
many  instances  in  the 
muscular  system — e.g.  the 
biceps  muscle  and  fore- 
arm  of  man  (fig.  5),  his 
^^W  deltoid      muscle      and 

^^  shouliler,      the       pectoral 

Fig.  4.  muscle  and  wing  of  birds. 

Levei-s  of  the  third  class 
always  work  at  a  mechanical  disadvantage  as 
regards  power  ;  but  what  is  lost  in  power  is  gaineil 
in  speed  and  range  of  nmvemcnt — e.g.  the  biceps 
mu.'icle,  since  CA,  fig.  5,  is  about  one  sixth  of  tlio 
distance  between  tlie  elbowjuint  and  tlie  palm  of 
the  hand,  must  exert  a  6  lb.  pull  on  A  in  onler  to 
raise  a  1  II).  ma-ss  in  the  hand  (setting  ivside  the 
weight  of  the  forearm  it~sclf ).  Levers  of  the  second 
order  always  act  at  a  mechanical  .'ulvantage  as 
regards  power;  and  in  those  of  the  first  order  a 
given  pressure  may  overcome  a  greater,  an  ei|ual, 
or  a  less  resistance,  according  to  the  ratio  of  the 
arms.  A  subsidiary  advantage  of  levers  of  the 
.second  order  Is  that  when  a  man  lifts  weiglit  by 
one  of  the  first  order  liis  power  is  limited  to  his 
own  weight  hung  on  the  lever,  whereas  with  one 
of   the  second  order  his  push  or  pull  is  upward, 


When  a  large  mechanical  advantage  is  required 
this  may  be  obtained,  without  using  bai-s  inordin- 
ately long,  by  means  of  a  conibiuation  of  tlieni 
(as  m  fig.  6).  Here  the  levei-s  have  their  arms  in 
the  ratio  of  .S  to  1,  and  a  little  consider.ation  will 
make  it  plain  that  a  power,  P,  of  1  lb.  will  balance 
the  weight  of  27  lb.  But  in  this  instance  the 
particular  defect  of  the  lever  as  a  mechanical 
power  shows  itself  prominently  ;  for  if  the  "27  Ui. 


Fig.  6. 

mass  has  to  be  lifted  two  inches,  the  power 
requires  to  act  downwards  through  (2  x  27  or) 
54  inches ;  and,  as  the  extent  of  sweep  of  the 
power  cannot  be  largely  increased  without  incon- 
venience, the  advantages  of  this  contrivance  are 
confined  within  narrow  limits. 

Lever,  Charles,  a  jiopular  novelist,  chietly 
remembered  for  the  rollicking  fun  of  his  Irish 
stories,  was  born  in  Dublin,  31st  Augtist  1H06. 
He  graduated  at  Trinity  College,  Dublin,  in  IS27, 
and  then  removed  to  Gottingen,  where  he  studied 
medicine,  and  sulisequently  returned  to  Dublin  to 
complete  his  academic  career.  His  most  popuLar 
work,  Charles  0'MaUe>i,  is  a  reflex  of  his  own  col- 
lege life  in  Dublin,  and  many  of  the  incidents  in 
the  novel,  as  in  many  of  his  late  productions,  are 
drawn  from  his  own  experiences  of  the  world.  Prob- 
ably in  1824,  and  certainly  at  .some  time  between 
1S27  and  I8.'i2,  he  spent  a  considerable  time  in  the 
b.ackwoods  of  Canada  and  Xorth  .-\merica,  and 
subsequently  eniliodiod  his  experiences  in  Can 
Cregan  undArthur  V'Lrdnj.  Keturned  to  Ireland, 
he  practised  medicine  first  at  Kilrush  in  County 
(iahvay,  and  afterwards  at  various  other  country 
towns,  collecting  material  for  his  stories  of  Irish 
country  life.  Having  married  a  Miss  Baker,  he 
went  in  1837  to  piactise  medicine  at  Brussels,  and 
while  there  wrote  llarnj  I.orrequer,  and  afterwards 
Charles  0'Ma//eit  for  the  Dtibliii  I'liicersih/  Ularfii- 
zine,  then  recently  started.  Heturning  to  Dublin, 
he  published  Jarl;  lliiiton  in  1841,  and  from  1S4'J 
to  1845  acted  iis  editor  of  the  Dublin  Unicersitij 
Magetzine,  and  wrote  Nuts  and  Xutcraekers,  Arthur 
G'Learij,  Tuiii  Ihirke.  of  Ours,  and  The  O'Douoghuc. 
In  1845  lie  again  went  oil'  to  the  Continent,  going 
first  to  Brussels,  then  to  lionn  .ind  t'arlsrulie, 
where  he  liveil  for  siime  time,  and  pulilishcd  the 
Knight  of  (iiri/nne.  He  then  moved  cm  to  Florence, 
and  wrote  Jiolanil  Cashel,  anil  thence  to  Spez/ia, 
where  f.uttrel  of  Arran,  Con  Cregan,  Sir  Jasper 


598 


LEVERET 


LEVITA 


Carcir,  ami  The  Dodcl  Fcimilii  Abroad  were  pio- 
(lueeil  ill  rapid  sucei'ssion.  Tlieii,  siuiilenly  and 
completely  elianfrinf;  his  style,  lie  wrote  tlie 
Fortunes  of  Glencore,  follinveil  liy  a  tnily  liisli 
story,  'I'hc  Martitts  of  I'm-Miirfhi.  ami  'J'/ie 
Daltnu.i,  the  hero  of  which  is  an  Enfjlislmian 
travelliii;;  on  the  Continent.  Lever  wivs  then, 
in  185'2,  appointed  liy  l^ord  Derhy  to  he  British 
vice-consul  at  Sjiezzia,  ami  continued  to  write, 
pulilishins  l>iwnijmrt  Dinni,  One  of  Them,  Geraltl 
yUzfienild,  Sir  liniol.e  Fvshnnihe,  Tliid  liojl  of 
Noreritt.'i,  and  contrilmting  some  racy  ]iapers  to 
Blac/.wunii'ti  Mitgetzhie  under  the  sohriipiet  of  '  Cor- 
nelius O'Dowd.'  On  May  2,  1867,  he  was  promoted 
hy  his  old  ]iatron  Lord  i>erl>v  to  the  consulslii])  at 
Trieste,  where  he  died  1st  June  187"2.  Lever's  later 
hooks,  tlioiiL;!!  marked  hy  j^reater  care  and  more 
thonjiht  than  those  of  the  Lfjrreqner  school,  ami 
even  that  strange  and  hrilli.ant  composition  entitled 
A  Daifs  Hide,  are  alrea<ly  dead  ;  and  it  is  only  hv 
his  hrilliant  and  racy  sketches  of  a  phase  of  Irisli 
life  which  was  passinj;  away  even  as  the  sym- 
pathetic young  chronicler  caught  its  features 
that  Lever  still  lives,  and  may  continue  to  live 
when  Ireland  is  as  dull  as  Lincolnshire  ami  as 
(U'deily  as  Claphani.  Lever's  wandering  life  on  the 
continent  of  Europe,  and  especially  in  Helginm, 
where  he  fell  in  with  a  great  iiumher  of  Peninsular 
and  Waterloo  officers,  and  collected  a  vast  store  of 
traditions  of  the  great  hattles  and  of  those  who 
fought  them,  gives  an  additional  zest  to  many  of 
his  books.  They  are  all  something  more  than  mere 
sketches  of  rollicking  in  Ireland,  and  their  boister- 
(Mis  fun  is  relieved,  and  even  retined,  hy  constant 
changes  of  scene,  the  rellex  of  J,ever's  own  wander- 
ing and  wayward  life,  and  of  his  own  restless 
genius. 

One  unfortunate  result  of  Lever's  novels  has  been 
to  create  a  false  idea  of  Irish  society,  and  still  more 
of  the  Irish  character.  The  Irish  of  to-d.ay  at  least 
are  singularly  unlike  those  ]>ortrayed  in  the  novels 
of  the  O'Miillei/  type,  and,  much  as  the  social  con- 
ditions of  the  country  have  altered  in  the  last 
sixty  years,  a  great  deal  of  what  was  carelessly 
dashed  off  by  Lover,  .and  which  at  any  time  w,is 
but  brilliant  caricature,  has  U'en  curiously  enough 
accejited  by  most  of  his  readers  as  an  accurate 
reinesent.ation  of  life  in  Ireland.  Apart  from  his 
powers  as  a  writer.  Lover  was  one  of  the  most 
iirilliant  conversationalists  and  one  of  the  most 
.agreeable  companions  of  his  tinie ;  a  striking  per- 
sonality, lie  w.is  at  home  everywhere,  knowing 
everybody,  a  welcome  guest  in  all  societies  and  in 
.all  countries.  The  only  ]iiiblished  .authority  for 
Lever's  life  is  a  poor  memoir  by  l''itzpatrick  (  187!) : 
new  ed.  189(i).  See  also  Satnrdm/  Ilcricie,  vol. 
lxi.\.  p.  743. 

Leveret,  the  young  of  the  hare  during  the  first 
year  of  its  age. 

Leverrier.  TTrhain  .Ii;.\n    .lo.sKrn,  a   great 

Krencb  astronomer,  Wius  born  .at  St  Lo,  in  Niu'- 
mamly,  11th  Alaicli  ISll.  He  wa.s  admitted  into 
the  Kcole  l'olytechnii|ue  in  bs.'il,  w.as  subseiiuently 
em]doye<l  for  some  time  under  the  board  for  the 
.administration  of  tobaccos,  and  as  early  as  183H 
distinguished  himself  by  his  papers  on  the  com 
binations  of  phos])horiis  with  hydrogen  and  o.xygen. 
Next  year  the  ]d.ace  of  te.acher  of  astronomy  at 
the  l*olyleclini(jue  was  ofreied  him,  and  in  this  w.ay 
Leverrier  was  led  to  become  an  astronomer.  His 
Tables  da  Mcrenre,  and  .several  memoirs  on  'the 
secular  inequalities,'  ojieneil  to  him  the  door  of  the 
Aoadi'iny  in  184(i.  At  the  instigation  of  Arago  he 
applieil  himself  to  the  examination  of  the  disturb- 
ances in  the  motions  of  I  he  planets,  from  which 
the  existence  of  an  umliscovered  planet  could  be 
inferred  ;  and,  as  the  result  of  his  laborious  calcula- 


tions, directed  the  .attention  of  a.strononiers  t«  the 
point  in  the  heavens  where,  a  tew  days  .afterw.ards, 
the  planet  Neptune  was  .actually  discovered  by 
tialle  at  Berlin  (see  also  An.vMs,  .1.  ('.).  Fo'r 
this  Leverrier  was  rewarded  with  the  (irancl  ('ross 
of  the  Legi(m  of  Honmir,  a  professorship  of  .as 
trononiy  in  the  Faculty  of  Sciences  at  Paris,  ami 
v.arious  lesser  homnirs.  When  the  rev(dutioii  of 
1848  broke  out  Leverrier  sought  distinction  .as 
a  democratic  politician  ;  the  department  of  La 
Manche  chose  him  in  May  lS4'.t  to  be  a  member 
of  the  Legislative  Assembly,  where  he  at  once 
became  counter-revolution.ary  ;  and  in  18.52  Louis 
Napoleon  made  him  a  senator.  In  18,54  Leverrier 
succeedeil  Ar.ago  as  director  of  the  Observatory 
of  Piiris,  <an  otHce  which,  save  during  an  interval 
of  three  years  (1870-7.S),  he  held  till  his  de.ath, 
2:)d  September  1877.  See  Bertrand's  Flogc  in  the 
Mem.  de  TAead.  des  Seirneex. 

Levi,  the  third  son  of  .lacob  and  Leah  (lien. 
xxix.  .34).  He  is  conspicuous  through  the  p.art  he 
took  with  his  brother  Simeon  in  the  .slaughter  of 
the  inb.abilants  of  Shechem  ((Jen.  xxxiv.).  .J.acob 
pronounced  this  curse  on  them  both,  that  they 
should  be  scattered  among  Isr.ael  ((ien.  xlix.  7). 
In  Kg.vpt  the  House  of  Levi  had  divided  itself  into 
three  families,  those  of  (iershon,  Koliath,  and 
Merari.  At  the  distribution  of  Palestine  no  tribal 
territory  was  allotted  to  them,  but  only  forty- 
eight  scattered  cities.  In  the  Pentateuch  they 
are  .set  apart  as  the  servants  of  the  sanctuary,  but 
they  might  not  perf(uni  .any  priestly  function,  the 
priesthood  being  reserved  fiu' one  Levitical  family, 
that  of  A.aron.  The  history  of  the  Leviles  has 
been  matter  of  controversy.  Some  have  assumed 
that  Levi  is  sim]dy  t  he  eponynums  .ancestor  of  the 
Levitical  caste,  and  unsuccessful  etr<n'ts  have  been 
made  to  denv  that  Levi  was  originally  a  tribe  at 
.all.     See  Wellhausen's  Jfixtor;/  of  Israel  (1885). 

Levi,  Leone,  b(un  6th  ,lu!y  1821  at  Ancona, 
settled  in  Liverpool  in  1844,  and  in  1.S.52  became 
professor  of  the  Principles  and  Practice  of  Com- 
merce in  King's  College,  London.  He  died  7tli 
May  1888.  Among  his  works  were  Coiiiinereinl 
I.dir  of  the  World  (1850;  re|)nblished  as  Jiitenni- 
tionul  Commercial Lau;  187.'^);  On  Taxation  ( 1870); 
History  of  Jii'itisli  Co/jniierre  {\H'2) ;  ll'ar  and  Its 
CUmseqiicnres  ( 1881 ) ;  Warjes  of  the  JVorhinij  Classes 
(18.S5):  Jiitrrnedional  Luu'  (\mT). 

Leviatiinil,  a  term  that  occurs  hve  times  in 
Scripture,  in  every  case  but  <me  (  Ps.  civ.  2())  de- 
noting the  crocodile.  Some  think  that  in  Isa. 
xxvii.  1  it  !( presents  the  great  ]\v(lion  which 
appears  in  Egyptian  monuments. 

Levttil,  El. IAS,  a  Jewish  grammarian  and 
exegele,  was  born  at  Neusliidt  on  the  Aisch, 
near  Nuremberg,  in  14(i.5.  One  of  the  then 
frequent  exjuilsions  of  the  Jews  forced  him  to 
seek  refuge  in  Italy,  where  he  held  a  high  iiosi- 
tion  as  teacher  of  Hebrew,  first  in  \'enice,  next 
in  I'adu.a,  finally  in  lionie  (1.514).  Cardinal 
Egidio  here  became  his  patron  and  Jiupil,  but 
even  he  could  not  prevent  Levit.a's  ag.iin  being 
expelled  this  city,  together  with  his  .lewish 
brethren,  in  1.527.  He  then  returned  to  ^'enice, 
where  he  lived  for  the  most  part  until  his  death, 
154!l.  His  ]iiincipal  exegetical  works  .are  on  .lob, 
the  PsaliMs,  Pnivi'ilis,  and  Amos.  Other  im- 
]iorlant  works  arc  his  Massorelh  Jfainniasorrlli,  a 
treatise  on  the  vowel-points  ;  a  Hebrew  gram 
mar;  and  a  Talmudic  and  Targumic  Dictionary. 
Most  of  his  works  have  been  repeatedly  edited  .ami 
[lartly  IraTislated  by  Buxtorf,  Miinster,  l''agius, 
and  others,  who  owed  most  of  their  Hebrew  know- 
ledge to  Levila  exclusively.  He  is  called  not  only 
J/a/eri,  \>\il  AshAenasi  ('the  Cernian '),  y/"''(f'/(Mr 
('the  master'),  i"tc. 


LEVITES 


LEWIS 


599 


Lovitos.     See  Levi. 

Leviticus.    See  Pentateuch. 

Levkosia.    See  Nico.si.v. 

Levilksu  till  188-2  the  capital  of  Fiji  (q.v.). 

Le^iilose.    See  Sugar. 

Lew  (Fr.  ler^e)  is  the  compulsory  raising  of  a 
body  of  troops  from  any  specitieil  class  in  the  coni- 
miinity  for  par|)oses  of  general  defence  or  otience 
when  the  existiiij;  military  forces  are  insufficient 
to  meet  the  necessities  of  the  case.  When  a 
country  is  in  danger  of  instant  invasion  a  Icree 
en  tnassc  is  sometimes  made — i.e.  every  man 
capahle  of  hearing  arms  is  re(jaired  to  contribute 
in  jjoi-son  towards  the  common  defence.  On  less 
urgent  occasions  the  levy  may  be  restricted  to  a 
class,  as  to  men  between  eighteen  and  forty  years 
of  age. 

Lewald,  F.vxny,  German  novelist,  was  boni 
of  .Jewisli  parents  »';  Konigsl)erg,  on  24th  March 
1811,  but  professed  i 'hristianity  in  her  seventeenth 
year.  She  bej'an  to  write  when  about  thirty,  and 
from  1S40  liv-xl  in  Berlin ;  in  18.5.5  she  married 
Adolf  Stahr  :  1805-76),  the  literary  critic.  She  died 
at  Dresilei?  .)n  .1th  August  1889.  Fanny  Lewald 
wa-s  perhap.<  the  most  important  woman  novelist  in 
Irt-'rmany  luring  the  middle  of  tlie  19th  century. 
She  wa?  posse-ssed  of  keen  powers  of  observation, 
anL  wrote  in  a  sober,  matter-of-fact  style,  which, 
1'  jwever,  wa,s  not  incompatible  with  a  strong 
.ludercurrent  of  restrained  feeling.  She  wa.s  an 
especially  enthusiastic  champion  of  the  emancipa- 
tion of  her  sc-\.  Her  realistic  tendencies  brought 
her  into  conflict  with  the  Countess  von  Hahn- 
Hahn,  whose  unreal  sentinientalism  she  success- 
fully parodied  in  Dioqenn  (1847).  Her  best  book 
is  perhaps  Vuii  Gmi:hleelit  :it  Gcschlecht  (186.3-65). 
An  English  translation  of  Stella  (1884)  appeared  in 
the  same  year.  At  ditlerent  times  she  visited  many 
parts  of  Europe  with  her  father  and  her  husband  : 
Iier  books  ou  Italy  (1847)  and  Great  Britain  ( 1852) 
were  the  most  valuable  outcome  of  these  journeys. 
See  her  Mcine  Lcbetugescliiclitc  (6  vols.  1861-63). 

Lewes,  the  county  town  of  Sus.sex,  50  miles 
S.  of  London,  is  picturesquely  situated  on  the 
ea-stern  declivity  of  one  of  the  South  Downs,  at 
the  foot  of  which  Hows  the  navigable  river  Ouse 
on  its  course  to  the  sea  at  Newhaven,  7  miles 
distant.  Pop.  ( 1801 )  4909  ;  ( 1881 )  11,199  ;  ( 1891 ) 
10,997.  The  chief  objects  of  intere.st  are  the 
ruins  of  a  priory  and  castle  which  once  stood 
here,  the  former  built  (1072-78)  by  William  de 
Warenne,  Earl  of  Surrey,  who  with  his  wife 
Gundreda,  a  daughter  of  William  the  Conqueror, 
was  buried  within  its  precincts.  Of  the  cjistle 
which  stood  on  high  gnmnd  in  the  centre  of  the 
town,  the  keep  and  gateway,  the  only  portions 
now  remaining,  are  occupied  by  the  Sussex  Archai- 
ological  Society  as  a  museum.  Lewes  has  seven 
churches,  mostly  Perpendicular  in  style,  .a  county 
liall  (1812),  free  library  (1802),  .school  of  science 
and  art  (1868),  and  a  town  hall  (1872).  The 
chief  tratle  is  in  corn,  malt,  co.ils,  anil  lime,  whilst 
new.spai)er-printing  and  tanning  are  extensively 
carried  on.  Till  1867  the  town  returned  two 
members  to  parliament,  till  1885  one.  \  charter 
of  incorporation  was  granted  in  I8S1.  liace-meet- 
ings  are  held  three  times  a  year  ni\ar  Mount  H.-irrv 
on  the  Downs,  where,  on  the  14th  .May  12IU.  a  great 
battle  was  fought  between  Heiuy  III.  .uid  the  in- 
surgent barons  under  Simon  de  .Montfort.  See 
works  by  Horsfield  (2  vols.  1824-27),  Mantell 
(1846),  and  Lower  (3d   ed.  1880). 

Lewes,  (;koroe  HenrV,  litterateur,  was  born 
in  London,  a  popular  comedian's  gr.andson,  18th 
April  1817.  Eilucateil  partly  at  (Jreenwii-h  nniler 
Dr  Burney,  and  partly  in  Jersey  and  Brittany,  lie 


left  school  early  to  enter  first  a  notary's  office,  and 
then  the  house  of  a  Russian  merchant.  He  next 
tried  walking  the  hospitals,  but  could  not  stand 
the  horrors  of  the  operating-room;  so  in  18.38  he 
proceeded  to  (Jermany,  and  remained  there  nearly 
two  yeai-s,  studying  the  life,  language,  and  litera- 
ture of  the  country.  On  his  return  to  London  he 
fell  to  work  writing  about  aiivtliing  and  every- 
thing as  a  Penny  Encyclopa'Aist  and  Morning 
Chronicler,  as  a  contributor  afterwards  to  a  dozen 
more  journals,  reviews,  and  mag.azines,  and  as 
editor  of  the  it7K/(r(  1851 -.54).  and  of  the  Fortnir/htli/ 
(1865-66),  which  he  himself  had  founded.  He 
'began  life,'  says  Mr  F'rederic  Harrison,  'as  a 
journalist,  a  critic,  a  novelist,  a  dramatist,  a 
liiographer,  and  an  essayist ;  he  closed  it  as  a 
mathematician,  a  physicist,  a  chemist,  a  bi<dogist, 
a  psychologist,  and  the  autluu'  of  a  system  of 
abstract  general  philosophy.'  The  change  was 
rendered  piissiblo,  Mv  Leslie  Stephen  points  out, 
l)y  Ge<uge  Eliot's  liter.ary  successes.  Lewes  was 
married  unhappily  and  had  children,  when  his 
connection  with  her  began  in  July  1854;  it  ended 
only  with  his  death  at  their  house  in  Regent's 
Park,  .30th  November  1878.  An  intellect  clear 
and  sharp,  if  not  remarkably  strong,  a  wit  lively 
and  piquant,  if  not  very  rich,  syniiiatliies  warm, 
if  not  wide,  and  a  style  as  firm  as  it  is  graceful, 
made  Lewes  one  of  the  best  of  critics  and  bio- 
graphers ;  as  a  populariser  of  philosophy  he  was 
inferior  to  none,  as  a  populariser  of  science  inferior 
to  very  few. 

His  works,  besides  a  tragedy  and  a  couple  of  novels 
(1841-48),  include  the  Bioijrttpfticdf  Hinttn-it  of  Pliilostq^hii 
(1845  ;  recast  in  the  3d  edition  of  18C7  as  The  ffintori/  of 
PkUosophy  from  Thales  to  Comte) ;  The  Spanish  Drama, 
Lope  de  Vtya  and  Calderon  ( 1846 ) ;  a  Life  of  Robes- 
pierre (1848) ;  Comtc's  Philosophy  of  the  Sciences  (1853), 
which  is  much  more  than  a  mere  translation ;  tlie  admir- 
able Life  and  Works  of  Goethe  (1855) ;  Seaside  Studies  at 
Ilfracombe  (1858);  Phvsiolo'i'i  of  Common  Life  (1859- 
1)6)  ;  Studies  in  Animal  Life  (1862) ;  Aristotle  (1864) ; 
On  Actors  and  the  Art  of  Acting  (1875) ;  and  Problems 
of  Life  and  Mind  { 1874-79),  its  five  volumes  dealing  with 
'  The  Foundations  of  a  Creed,'  '  The  Physical  Basis  of 
Mind,'  '  The  Study  of  Psychology,'  and  '  Mind  as  a  Func- 
tion of  the  Organism.'  See  Eliot  (George),  with  work.s 
there  cited,  and  an  article  by  Anthony  Trollope  in  the 
Fortnirjhtlii  for  January  1879. 

Lewis,  or  Sn.\ke  River,  the  great  southern 
branch  of  the  Columbia  (q.v.).     See  Id.\HO. 

Lewis.    See  Louis,  and  Lewi.s-with-Harris. 

Lewis.  Sin  George  Coknewall,  state^sman 
and  author,  was  born  in  London,  21st  October 
1806,  son  of  Sir  T.  F.  Lewis,  Bart.,  of  Harpton 
Court,  Radnorshire ;  and  « as  educated  at  Eton 
and  Christ  Chinch,  Oxford,  where  in  1828  he 
took  a  lirst-cl.ass  in  classics  and  a  second-class 
in  mathematics.  A  i)ii]>il  of  Austin's,  he  was 
called  to  the  bar  of  the  .Middle  Temple  in  1831, 
and  succeeded  his  father  as  Poor-law  Commis- 
sioner in  18.'59.  He  sat  for  Herefordshire  from 
1847  to  1852,  and  for  tlie  Radnor  Boroughs  from 
1855.  After  holding  minor  government  oflices, 
he  rose  rajiidly  to  be  linancial  secretary  to  the 
Treasury,  Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer  under 
Palmei-ston  (18,55-58),  Home  Secretary  (1859-61), 
and  Secretaiy  at  War.  He  .succeeded  his  father  as 
second  baronet  in  18.55,  and  died  13tli  April  1S63. 
He  was  an  earnest  and  sincere  politician,  and  his 
business  capacity,  sound  sense,  vaiieil  knowledge, 
and  moral  and  intidlectual  i|ualities  made  him  a 
notable  figure  in  tlie  |uiblic  and  political  life  in 
Enghand. 

His  e.\traordiiiary  versatility  may  be  gathered  from  a 
list  of  his  works,  whicii  include  a  trcati.se  on  the  Orifjin 
and  formation  of  the  Romance  Lani/uaijc  (1835),  The 
Fables  of  liabriiia.  The  Use  and  Abuse  "/  Political  Terms, 
The  Injiuence  of  Authority  in  Matters  of  Opinion  (1850), 


600 


LEWIS 


LEYDEN 


his  famous  Inquiru  into  the  Crcdibililii  of  Ancient  Roman 
Historic  (1855— against  Niebuhr),  The  Met/tod  of  Obser- 
vation and  Keasoninff  in  Politico,  Local  Diiturbanets 
and  the  Irish  Church  Question  (ISSU),  The  Government 
of  Dependencies,  Herefordshire  (flossar;/.  The  Astronomii 
of  the  Ancients  (1859),  and  Dialo;iue  on  the  Best  Form  of 
Government  (1859).  He  was  editor  of  tlie  Kdinburiih 
Rerieio  from  1852  to  1855.  See  liis  Letters  (1870),  and 
Basehofs  Literarii  Studies  (1S79). 

Lewis,  M.\TTiiEW  Gregory  (' Monk  Lewis ' ), 
was  born  in  Lnnilon,  fltli  July  1775,  ami  educated 
at  Westminster,  at  (Mirist  Church  Colle^'e,  ( )xfovd, 
and  at  Weimar,  where  he  was  introduced  to  (Joethe. 
In  1794  he  went  as  an  attache  to  the  Ha^ue,  and 
there,  inspired  hy  Ulanvill  (his  mother'.s  favourite 
author)  aud  the  Mysteries  of  Udolpho,  wrote  at 
nineteen  Amhrosio,  or  the  Monk  (1795),  the  grue- 
some, unclean  romance  which  made  him  so  famous 
that  in  179S  Ids  invitation  to  dine  at  an  Edinhurjjh 
hotel  could  elate  Scott  as  nothing  before  or  after- 
wards. A  musical  drama,  The  Castle  Spertre 
(1796),  The  Bravo  of  Venire  (1804),  and  a  host 
more  of  blood-and-thunder  plays,  novels,  and  tales 
are  happily  forgotten  ;  but  two  lines  at  least 
survive  of  one  of  his  ballads,  Alonso  the  Brave. 
In  1796  lie  entered  parliament  as  a  silent  member, 
aud  in  1812  he  inherited  from  his  father  two  large 
estates  in  Jamaica.  So  to  better  the  condition  of 
his  slaves  there,  good-hearted,  lachrymose,  clever 
little  '  Mat '  forsook  the  society  of  the  I'riuce 
Regent,  Byron,  and  all  his  other  great  friends,  and 
m.ade  the  two  voyages,  in  1815  and  1817,  which 
furnished  materials  for  his  one  really  valuable 
work,  tlie  jiosthumous  Journal  of  a.  West  India 
Proprietor  (IS.'U).  On  his  way  lumie,  in  the  Gulf 
of  Florida,  he  died  of  yellow  fever,  13th  May  1818, 
and  was  buried  at  sea.  See  his  Life  and  Corre- 
spondence (2  vols.  1839). 

Lewisliaill.  in  Kent,  6  miles  SSE.  of  Charing 
Cross,  since  1885  a  parliamentary  borough,  with 
07,500  inhabitants. 

I  Lovisia.  a  genus  of  jilants,  of  the  natural  order 
I  Portnlacace;e  (see  PURSLANE),  named  in  honour 
of  the  American  traveller,  Meriwether  Lewis 
(1774-1809).  /-.  rrUiriva  is  found  in  the  regions 
of  his  explorations,  on  the  west  side  of  the  Kocky 
Mountains.  Its  tliick,  branching  roots  are  gathered 
and  are  highly  valued  by  the  Indians  as  nutritive, 
and  also  a.s  restorative.  It  has  a  showy  rose- 
coloureil  (lower.  Another  species,  L.  liraehij-eali/x, 
is  found  in  I'tah. 

LowistOII,  a  city  of  Maine,  on  the  Andro- 
scoggin Kiver,  35  miles  N.  of  Portland.  The  river, 
■which  is  crossed  by  several  bridges,  has  here  a  fall 
of  50  feet,  and  the  water-power  is  distributeil  by  a 
dam  an<l  canal  to  numerous  mills  and  factories. 
The  principal  manufactures  are  woollens  and 
cottons,  and  these  are  jjroduced  in  very  large 
quantities.  Lewiston  contains  a  Uaptisl  college. 
Pop.  (ISSO)  19,08:!;   (1890)21,701. 

Lovis-witll-IIarriS.  an  island  of  Scotland, 
the  largest  ami  most  northerly  of  the  Outer 
Hebrides,  separated  from  the  mainland  by  tiie 
Jliuch,  and  containing  the  town  of  Stornoway 
(q.v.),  43  miles  N\V.  of  Poolewe  and  180  N.  by  W. 
of  Oban.  Its  length  is  (iO  miles;  its  greatest 
breadth  is  28  miles  ;  and  its  area  is  8.')9  miles,  of 
which  683  belong  to  Lewis,  the  Hoss-.shire  portion, 
in  the  north,  and  176  to  Harris,  the  Inverness-shire 
portion,  in  the  south.  The  coasts  are  wild  aud 
rugged,  the  chief  indentations  being  liroad  l!ay 
and  r.,ochs  Krisort,  Seafcnth,  Resort,  and  Koag. 
The  Butt  of  Lewis,  a  jjromontory  at  the  extrenu' 
north,  rises  sheer  from  the  sea  to  a  height  of  142 
feet.  Gneis.s  is  the  predominant  rock ;  and  the 
surface,  attaining  2662  feet  in  Harris  and  1750  in 
Lewis,  consists  mainly  of  hill,   moor,  and  moss, 


treeless  and  almost  shrublcss,  with  nnich  peat  and 
fresh-water  lakes  innumerable.  Less  than  4  per 
cent,  of  the  entire  area  is  in  cultivation.  In  1844 
'the  Lews' was  purchased  for  .£190,000  from  the 
Maekenzies  of  Seafortli  by  Sir  .James  .Matlie.son 
(1796-1878),  who  expended  i'330.000  on  improve- 
ments. Pop.  (1801)  12,104:  (1831)  18,440:  (1891) 
30,726,  mostly  Gaelicsiieaking.  See  C.VLI.ER- 
NI.SI1,  CiioFTERS,  Hebrides  ;  and  W.  A.  Smith's 
Lcxcsiana  ( 1875). 

Lexicon.    See  Dictionary. 

Levillgtoil,  ( 1 )  capital  of  Fayette  county. 
Kentucky,  stands  in  the  fertile  blue-grass  region, 
at  the  junction  of  four  railways,  77  nnles  S.  of 
Cincinnati.  It  is  a  handsome  city,  its  principal 
edifices  the  court-house,  the  state  university, 
and  the  state  lunatic  asylum.  The  fine  Henry 
Clay  monument  also  is  noteworthy.  There  are 
manufactures  of  spirits,  hemp,  and,  especially,  of 
tobacco.  Pop.  (1S80)  16,0.56.— (2)  A  village  of 
Mas.sachusetts,  11  nules  WNW.  of  Boston,  where 
the  lirst  blooci  of  tlie  Revolution  was  shed,  Aju-il 
19,  1775.  A  monument  has  lieen  erected  in  memory 
of  the  eight  minute-men  who  fell  in  this  first 
confiict. — (3)  Capital  of  Lafayette  county,  Missouri, 
on  the  Mi.s.souri  Kiver,  42  miles  by  rail  (84  by 
water)  E.  of  Kansa.s  City.  It  contains  Baptist  iind 
Methodist  ladies'  colleges,  and  has  muniilactures 
of  hemp  and  woollen  goods.  Pop.  3996. — (4)  A 
pretty  village  of  Virginia,  on  the  North  River, 
32  miles  NNW.  of  Lynchburg,  is  the  terminus  of 
the  James  River  and  Kanawha  Canal,  and  contains 
the  Washington  and  Lee  University  and  the 
\'irginia  Military  Institute.  Here  Roliert  K.  Lee 
aud  '  Stonewall '  Jackson  are  buried.     Pop.  2771. 

Lex  TalioiliS,  the  law  of  retaliation,  common 
among  all  ancient  and  barbarous  nations,  by  wliidi 
an  eye  for  an  eye  and  a  tooth  for  a  tooth  \vas  con- 
sidered the  appropriate  punishment. 

Leyden.  or  Leidex,  a  town  of  ILdland,  st;ind3 
on  tlie  Old  Rhine,  5  miles  from  the  North  Sea,  and 
by  rail  9  miles  N.  by  W.  of  the  Hague  and  31 
W.  of  Utrecht.  It  is  a  typical  Dutch  town, 
spotlessly  clean,  with  canals  bordered  by  avenues 
of  trees,  and  sleepy  squares  and  streets.  Its  pre- 
dominant (diaracteristic  is  an  air  of  academic  repose ; 
anil  the  town  is  the  seat  of  a  celebrated  nnivei'sity, 
which  formerly  attracted  students  from  all  parts 
of  Furope,  including  Sir  Thomas  ISrowne.  Evelyn, 
Boswell,  Goldsmith,  Jolin  Wilkes,  .Vlexamler 
Carlyle,  .-Vlexander  Monro,  and  several  other  dis- 
tinguished Scottish  surgeons,  and  numbered 
amongst  its  professors  some  of  the  greatest  names 
in  the  world  of  learning:  Grotins,  Descartes, 
Salmasiiis,  Scaliger,  Boerliaave,  Henisterliuis, 
Ruhnken,  Valckenaer,  I've,  besides  Arminius  aud 
Gomarus,  have  all  either  studied  or  tau,L;lit  at 
Leyden.  It  was  founded  in  1575  by  WilHam  of 
Orange  as  a  reward  to  the  citizens  (tlu'y  them- 
selves selecting  this  boon  in  preference  to  a  re- 
mission of  taxes)  for  their  heroic  defence  .against 
the  Spaniards  from  October  1.573  to  October  1574. 
At  the  present  time  it  is  frequented  by  about  800 
students,  and  h,as  some  fifty  professors  and  teachers. 
Its  collateral  institutions  include  a  lilirary  of 
160,000  volumes  and  5000  MSS.,  many  of  them 
valuable  oriental  and  Greek  MSS.  ;  a  botanic 
garden,  which  has  counted  Linna-us  ,ind  I'.oerhaave 
amongst  its  directors  ;  ,a  museum  of  natural  historv, 
<me  of  the  finest  .and  best  .arr.anged  in  luiriqie  ;  a 
museum  of  antii|nities,  with  especially  valuable 
Egyptian  monuments;  an  ethnographical  museum, 
the  nucleus  of  which  was  Siebidd's  .Japanese  collec- 
tion ;  and  .an  observatory.  The  senate-liall  is  hung 
with  the  portraits  of  more  than  a  hundred  celebrated 
Leyden  ]irofessors.  The  t^)wn  art  museum  contains 
pictures  by  Rembrandt,  Jan  Steen,  Gerard  Douw, 


LEYDEN 


LHASSA 


601 


Lucas  of  Leydeii,  the  family  jSIieris— all  natives  of 
the  town,  and  othei's.  Hi'ic  too  were  born  some  of 
the  Elzevirs,  the  C('lcl)rate(l  printers,  wtiooavrieil  on 
a  branch  of  their  li\isiness  in  l,ey<hMi.  ami  Jolin  of 
Leyilen,  the  Anal)a])tist.  Tlie  nuaint  and  iiietur- 
esque  town-hall  dates  from  1574-98.  There  are 
nearly  a  score  of  churches,  the  most  notable 
among  them  being  St  Peter's,  with  monuments 
to  Boerhaave,  Scaliger,  Camper,  Arminius,  «!v.c. , 
and  St  I'ancras,  with  a  monument  to  Van  der 
Werf,  the  hero  of  the  siege.  In  the  centre  of 
the  town  stands  an  old  nmnd  tower,  which  is 
said  to  date  from  the  lloman  occupation.  Leyden 
was  in  the  1.5th  century  famous  all  over  Europe 
for  its  manufactured  cloth,  baize,  and  camlet. 
The  same  industries,  but  to  ,a  much  less  extent, 
together  with  the  manufacture  of  cotton,  twine, 
and  y.arn,  the  dyeing  of  cloth  aiul  leather,  &c., 
are  still  carried  on.  Leyden  is  the  seat  of  a  school 
of  navigation.  In  16o0  the  population  numbered 
100,000  ;  I)ut  a  century  later  it  had  fallen  to  three- 
quarters  of  that  number,  and  by  the  beginning  of 
the  I9th  century  to  .30,000.  In  1876  it  was  40,724, 
and  46,379  in  1SS9.  In  1S07  a  portion  of  Leyden 
was  destroyed  liy  the  explosion  of  a  barge  laden 
with  gunpowder  on  one  of  the  canals. 

Lcyd«'ll.  John,  [loet  and  oriental  .scholar,  was 
born,  the  son  of  a  shepherd,  at  the  vilhage  of  Den- 
holm,  Koxburghshire,  8tli  September  1775.  In  1790 
he  entered  EdinV)urgh  University,  and  was  licensed 
as  a  preacher  or  '  probationer '  of  the  Church  oi 
Scotland  in  1798.  He  proved  an  ardent  and  enthu- 
siastic student,  with  a  hunger  for  knowledge,  whicli 
led  him  into  studies  out  of  the  routine,  inclnding 
many  European  and  oriental  languages.  His  strong 
n.ative  talent  and  varied  gifts  and  attainments, 
in  spite  of  his  uncouth  manners,  secured  him  the 
attention  of  some  of  the  most  eminent  persons  of 
the  day,  including  Constable,  Henry  Maclcenzie, 
Kitson,  the  Duchess  of  (t<ndon.  Lady  Charlotte 
Campbell,  and  Richard  Heber,  by  whom  he  was 
introduced  to  Scott.  He  aided  the  latter  in  gather- 
ing materials  for  his  Border  Mitiatrr/si/,  contributing 
an  article  on  fairy  superstitions,  and  on  one  occa- 
sion he  walked  between  40  and  .K)  miles  to  procure 
the  words  of  a  ballad  which  were  awanting.  He 
■was  also  a  contributtu-  to  Lewis's  Talcs  of  Wonder. 
His  first  prose  work  was  Discurcrici  iind  Settlements 
of  Eurojicnns  in  Xortlicrn  rind  ]Vcstcrn  Afrirtt 
(1799).     Meanwhile   his   translations  and  original 

Eoetical  contributions  to  the  Ei/in/mrij/i  Magazim- 
ad  attracted  attention.  For  a  period  of  six  months 
(1802)  he  edited  i\\e  Scots  Mcojazine.  Before  leav- 
ing his  native  country  he  had  compUtted  his  Scenes 
of  Iiifancif,  de.irn'jithr.  of  I'ci-wtdrt/c  { 1803).  In 
1803  he  sailed  for  India  as  assistant-surgeon  on  the 
Madnxs  establishment.  After  four  months'  service 
in  Madra-s  general  hospital  he  was  appointed 
surgeon  and  naturali-st  to  the  commission  for  the 
survey  of  My.sore  and  Travancore  (1804).  His 
health  gave  way,  he  was  live  tinies  given  up  by  the 
phj'sician,  but  sick  or  well  he  continued  his  acquisi- 
tion of  languages.  He  resided  for  a  time  at  Pena)ig : 
came  back  to  ('alcutta  (18(J6);  wrote  .an  essay  on 
Hindustani  di.alects;  was  appointed  professor  in  the 
Bengjil  College,  ami  afterwards  jmlge  at  Calcutl.a. 
Through  the  intluence  of  Lord  .Minto  he  was 
appointed  comniLssioner  of  the  Ccmrt  of  Uequests, 
then  assay  master  of  the  mint.  Meanwhile  he 
translated  the  (!osi)els  into  live  ditVerent  languages. 
When  the  expedition  against  Java  w.is  undertaken 
Leyden  accompanied  Lord  Minto  thither  as  inter- 
preter ;  anil  at  liatavia,  in  th(!  exploration  of  a 
musty,  unventil.ited  library,  which  cmitained  many 
In<lian  manuscri[)ts,  he  contracted  a  fever,  of  which 
he  died,  August  27,  1811. 

Leyden's  versilication  is  soft  and  musical,  but 
hi.s    ballads   with    their   marvellous    melo<ly   have 


taken  a  higher  place  than  his  longer  poems.  Next 
after  Scott  ancl  Hogg,  s.-iys  Principal  Shairp,  he 
has  done  most  to  illustrate  his  native  region.  His 
attainments  as  an  urienl.alist  were  extracudinary  ; 
he  had  a  greater  or  less  aci|uaintance  with  at  least 
thirty-four  languages  or  dialects.  Lord  Cocklpurii 
speaks  of  him  as  ever  in  a  state  of  excitement, 
and  ever  panting  for  things  unattainable  by  onlin 
ary  mortals.  .V  monument  to  Leyden  has  been 
erected  at  Denholm  (1S61).  Scott  descrilies  him 
as  of  middle  statuic,  of  athletic  build,  features 
well  proportioned,  lively  dark  eyes,  a  clear,  some- 
what rud<ly  comph^xion,  and  light-brown  hair. 
Leyden's  chief  liter.ary  remains  are  a  preliminary 
dissertation  to  an  etlition  of  the  Coiiiplai/nt  of 
Scot/and  ( 1801  )  ;  an  ess.ay  on  the  '  Languages  ami 
Literature  of  the  Indo-Chinese  Nations,'  printed 
in  Asiotic  Hescarr/ics,  vol.  xix. ;  his  3Iemoirs  of 
Bahcr  (q.v. ),  partly  by  Er.skine  (1826):  MrdKi/ 
AiDiu/s  (1821).  See  his  Poetical  Ilcmcdns,  by 
Morton  (1819);  I'ocms  itnd  Ballads,  with  reprint 
of  memoir  by  Scott  (1875);  and  Poetical  Works, 
with  memoir  by  T.  Brown  (1875).  See  also  A. 
Constable  and  his  Literary  Correspondents  (3  vols. 
1873)  ;  and  Calcutta  lieriew.  No.  61. 

Leyden.  Lucas  Van.     See  LtcAS. 

Leydeiibiii's.  or  Lydenburg,  a  town  in  the 

Transvaal  (l>op.  2000),  on  aTi  elevated  plateau,  .about 
ISO  miles  NW.  of  Delagoa  Bay.  The  district  is  rich 
in  minerals,  and  gold  has  been  worked  since  1873. 

Leyden  Jar.    See  Electkicity. 

Leys,  Heniu  Jean  Auguste,  Belgian  painter, 
was  born  on  18tli  February  1815  at  Antwerp,  in 
which  city  most  of  his  life  was  spent,  ami  where 
he  died  on  26th  August  1869.  He  was  created 
baron  by  Leopold  I.  in  1862.  Leys  is  one  of  the 
best  modern  artists  in  the  style  of  the  (dd  Flemish 
masters.  His  most  valuable  and  nuist  character- 
istic pictures  are  inspired  by  the  private  life  and 
stirring  history  of  his  native  land — '  Itembrandt's 
Studio'  (1837'),  'A  Flemish  Wedding'  (18;i9), 
'  Public  Worship  in  Antwerp  Cathedral,'  'A  Village 
Fete,'  'A  Musical  Party'  (1846),  'liubens  Fe.asted 
by  the  Ciunsniiths  of  Antwerp'  (1851),  'New- 
year's  Day  in  Flanders,'  'Luther  Singing  in  the 
Streets  of  Eisenach  '  ( 1862),  '  Erasmus  in  his  Study,' 
'Institution  of  the  tiiddeu  Fleece, '  and  .a  scries  of 
frescoes  in  his  own  dining-room  repiesenting  the 
history  of  a  'Flemish  Festival.'  The  last  jears  of 
his  life  were  occupied  in  painting  six  scenes  from 
the  liistcny  of  Antwerp  in  the  16th  century  on  the 
walls  of  the  great  hall  in  the  town-house  of 
-•Vntwerji.  Alma  Tadenia  studied  under  Baron 
Leys.     See  Sulzberger's  Henri  Leys  (  Brus.  1885). 

Lezc  Majesty  (Nornnm  I'r.  ;  Lat.  hcsa  niajes- 
tits),   an    ofl'ence    against  sovereign    power.      See 

TliKASON. 

LliassaCthe  Seat  of  the  Cods'),  the  capital 
of  Tibet  and  sacred  (dty  of  the  Lamaist  Buddhists, 
is  situated  in  a  fertile  plain,  11,910  feet  above  the 
sea,  and  surrounded  by  mountains  ranging  from 
'2000  to  1000  above  that'.altitu.le.  The  city  stands 
in  29'  :i9'  N.  lat.  and  90'  r,''  E.  long.,  about  45 
miles  NE.  of  the  junction  of  the  Ki-chu  with  the 
Yaro  San-po  :  the  former  river  flows  past  the  city 
westwards  about  a  mile  to  the  south.  The  city 
proper  is  surrounded  with  a  wall,  and  consists  of 
a  clo.sely-packed  .issembl.age  of  good  stone  ami 
brick  houses  and  shops,  with  ecclesiastical  build- 
ings, chielly  temples,  sandwiched  in  between. 
•  lutside  this  central  city  lie  extensive  suburbs,  the 
bouses  standing  in  gardens,  ranged  on  each  side 
of  broad,  tree-.-haded  streets.  The  mona.-<teries, 
some  lifteen  in  number,  are  .scattered  over  the 
jilain  and  in  the  suburbs.  Just  outside  the  central 
city  on  the  northwest  stands  a  conical  hill,  Potala, 
which  is  thickly  encrusted  with  palaces  and  tcmiiles. 


602 


LHERZOLITE 


LIANAS 


their  roofs  all  gilded  ;  this  is  the  abode  of  the  Grand 
Lama  (see  Lamaism).  If  Potala  is  the  Vatican  of 
the  IJiuUlhists,  they  have  their  St  Peter's  in  the 
temple  of  Labvang  "or  Clio-kluui';,  which  overh)()ks 
the  trreat  square  in  the  very  heart  of  tlie  city.  The 
most  sacred  of  its  shrines  contains  a  life-size  ima^'e 
of  Buddha  and  images  of  several  other  notal)ilities 
of  the  liuddhist  faith.  Near  the  north  end  of  the 
citv  stanil  two  famous  teniple.s,  known  as  Kamo- 
C'hhe  and  Morn,  tlie  monks  of  which  practise 
sorcery  and  magic,  and  grant  degrees  in  the  same. 
The  n'lost  celebrated  of  tlie  monasteries  are  perhaps 
those  known  as  the  Four  Ling,  from  the  heads 
of  which  the  regent  of  Til)et  is  always  chosen  : 
Chiakpori,  the  medical  university  ;  Dai-pung,  the 
school  of  Buddhist  philosopliy  ;  and  the  Gahlan 
Laiuiuserai  ('2.5  miles  NE.  of  the  city),  the  abbot 
of  which  is  one  of  the  highest  dignitaries  in 
the  Buddliist  church.  But  Lha-ssa  is  sometliing 
more  than  the  ecclesiastical  and  religious  centre 
of  the  Buddhist  faith  ;  it  is  an  important  trad- 
ing centre,  a  terminus  for  caravans  to  and  from 
India,  Caslimere,  liiirma,  China,  Mongolia,  and 
Turkestan.  The  principal  article  of  commerce  is 
tea ;  next  to  this  come  silks,  carpels,  rice,  tobacco, 
horses,  sheep,  musk,  European  and  Indian  manu- 
factured goods,  iS:c.  There  is  an  important  colony 
of  Kaslimiris,  who,  though  Mohammedans,  are 
tolerated  because  of  their  usefulnes.s  as  traders. 
The  resident  population,  e.vclusive  of  the  garrison 
and  the  monks,  is  about  15,000.  The  number  of 
inmates  in  the  individual  monasteries  ranges  from 
3000  to  7000,  or  even  more.  The  Chinese  maintain 
a  small  garrison  (some  500  men  ) ;  and  the  Chinese 
emperor  is  represented  by  two  resident  oliicials, 
who,  though  they  do  not  sit  on  the  supreme 
council  of  the  Grand  Lama  ( who  is  also  the  civil 
ntler  of  Tibet),  e.xercise  considerable  influence  on 
the  government  indirectly.  The  resident  popula- 
tion is,  however,  generally  augmented  by  a  lloat- 
ing  po])ulation  of  pilgrims  and  traders,  in  numbers 
varying  from  40,000  to  S0,000.  The  women  of  Lhassa 
go  about  with  jierfect  freedom  ;  they  stain  their 
faces  with  black  spots.  Tibet  became  tributary  to 
China  about  1720,  and  has  never  since  shaken  off  the 
yoke.  Owing  to  the  jealous  exclusiveness  of  the 
Tibetan  and  Chinese  authorities,  and  the  close 
watch  thev  keep  all  along  the  frontiers,  it  is  be- 
lieveil  that  only  three  Europeans  have  entered 
Lhassa  during 'the  19th  century,  namely  the 
Englishman  Manning  (in  181I-1'2)  and  tlie  Frencli- 
men  Hue  and  Gabet  (1846),  though  several  Euro- 
peans reached  the  city  in  previous  centuries.  But 
since  about  1866  specially  trained  Indian  explorers 
have  from  time  to  time  been  sent  into  Tibet  by 
the  Calcutta  authorities  ;  to  them  we  owe  mo.st  of 
our  newer  information  about  that  strange  country. 

See  Hue's  Tmrels  in  'J'ttrUirii,  T/iibil,  <tc.  (2  vols. 
1844);  Narmthw  of  the  Mission  uf  O.  linrik  mid  of  the 
Joiinu'i/  of  T.  Manninij  to  Lhasa,  edited  by  C.  Markliam 

( 187<) ) ;   'Explorations by  A k  in  'J'ibot,'  in  Proc.  Roij. 

Gcoii.  Soc.  (1885);  and  papers  by  G.  Sandberg,  in  Nine- 
teenth Century  (October  1889)  and  Contemp.  Review 
(July  ISIK)). 

lilici'xolitc.  an  igneous  rock  consisting  (if  a 
granular  or  line-graineil  aggregate  of  olivine, 
pyroxene,  enstatite,  and  picotite.  It  derives  its 
name  from  Lake  Llieiv.  in  tiie  Pyrenees. 

L'llApitnl.  .Micilici,  DK,  French  statesman,  \yas 
born  at  Aigueperse  in  Anvergne  in  1504,  studied 
law  at  Toulouse  and  I'adiia,  and  settled  as  an 
advocate  in  Paris  when  about  thirty  years  of  age. 
In  1547-48  he  represented  Henry  II.  at  the  Council 
of  Trent;  then  for  some  years  he  held  high  MWf 
in  the  houseluild  of  MargaVet  of  \'alois,  Duchess  of 
Herri.  His  apiiointiiicnt  in  1.554  as  superintendiail 
of  linauces  was  but  the  i>relimiiiaiy  to  his  nomina- 
tion as  chancellor  of  France  six  years  later.     His 


policy  was  one  of  moderation  ;  especially  did  he 
endeavour  to  assuage  the  lierce  rancour  of  the 
religious  quarrel  by  slaying  the  hand  of  the 
Calliolie  persecutors,  by  resisting  the  introduction 
of  the  Inquisition,  and  by  promoting  such  con- 
ferences, i.Vc.  !us  that  of  'Poissy.  But  after  the 
peace  of  Amboise  (1.563)  he  lost  ground  with 
Catliarine  de'  Medici,  and  in  15GS  he  resigned  the 
chancellorship.  He  sjient  the  rest  of  his  life  in 
retirement  on  his  estate  of  Vignay  near  Etampes, 
and  died  there  (or  at  Bclesbat)  on  I3tli  .March  1573. 
His  Latin  poems,  speeches,  memoirs,  \c.  were 
pulilislied  in  5  vols,  in  1824-2.5.  See  Life  by  Ville- 
ni.ain  (newed.  1874  land  monographs  by  Taillandier 
(181)1 )  and  Dupre-La.sale  ( 1875). 

Liability  (Liiiiiled)  .Vfts.    See  Company. 

Liability  of  Llliplo.ver.s.  An  emidoyer  is 
in  law  responsilile  for  reparation  of  wrongs  or 
injuries  done  to  str.angers  by  his  servants  while 
they  are  acting  within  the  course  and  scope  of 
their  service.  But  where  a  master  has  forbidden 
the  doing  of  the  thing  from  which  damage  arises, 
or  where  a  servant  wilfully  or  maliciously  does  an 
injurious  act  to  serve  his  own  private  ends,  Hie 
master  will  not  be  liable.  The  Employer's  Liability 
Act  of  IS80  so  far  extended  the  favour  of  the  law 
to  workmen  as  to  make  employers  answerable  to 
their  servants  for  the  negligence  of  those  to  whom 
they  have  delegated  their  authority.  It  gave,  in 
certain  cases  of  injury  specilied  in  the  act,  the  same 
right  of  nqiar.ation  to  workmen  against  their  em- 
ployers as  is  enjoyed  by  strangers.  But  it  was 
limited  in  its  sciqie,  and  did  not  apply  to  ser- 
vants not  engaged  in  manual  labour  ;  nor  w.as 
any  ])rovision  made  against  employers  and  work- 
men contracting  tliems(dves  out  of  the  act.  The 
Workmen's  Compensation  Act  of  1807  still  further 
extended  the  liability  of  employers  by  making  them 
liable  to  their  workmen  for  all  injuries  arising  out 
of  their  employment  from  whatever  cause,  except 
their  own  wilful  misconduct.  '  Negligence  "  is  not 
necessary  to  create  liability,  and  even  where  the 
greatest  care  is  taken  the  employer  is  still  liable, 
as  he  is  also  to  workmen  eiiijdoyed  by  ,a  sub-con- 
tractor.  Any  scheme  of  'contracting  out'  of  the 
.act  must  be  cei  tilled  by  the  Ilegisiiar  of  Friendly 
Societies  to  be  as  f.-ivourable  lo  the  workmen  as 
the  .act  itself.  The  act  was  (uigin.-illy  limited  to 
certain  specified  industries,  but  practically  included 
all  workmen  exce|it  agricuUural  labourers,  seamen, 
and  domestic  servants;  and  the  amending  act  of 
1900  exteniled  its  apiilication  to  agricultural 
labourers  in  the  widest  sense  of  the  term.  The 
amoniit  of  compensation  is  as  follows:  when  a 
workman  is  killed,  leaving  dependents,  a  sum  from 
.-tl.'iO  lo  £300;  when  no  dependents  are  left,  a  sum 
not  exceeding  .-CIO  for  medieal  and  funeral  exjienses; 
when  total  or  partial  disablement  results,  a  weekly 
payment  not  exceeding  t'l.  The  liability  thus  im- 
posed has  been  met  by  various  forms  of  insurance, 
mainly  supjilied  by  accident  insurance  companies. 
See  Damages;  an'd  Ma.stku  and  Servant. 
Lia  Fail.  See  ('(ikonation. 
■iiakhov  Islands.    See  Nkw  SiniiRiA. 

Lianas,  a  term  lirst  used  in  the  French  colonies, 
in  Ihe  form  linnes  (from  Her,  to  bind),  for  the 
woody,  climbing,  and  twining  i)lants  which  abound 
in  tropical  forests.  Such  plants  are  comiiaratively 
rare  in  colder  climates.  aUhough  the  honeysuckles 
and  some  species  of  ('leiiiatis  all'ord  familiar  ex- 
amples of  them  :  but  the  lianas  of  liopieal  countries 
overtop  the  t.allest  trees,  descend  again  to  the 
ground  in  vast  festoons,  jiass  from  one  tree  to 
another,  and  bind  the  whole  forest  together  in  a 
maze  of  living  network,  and  often  by  cables  as 
thick  as  those  of  a  man-of-war.  Many  part.s  of  the 
forest,  as  in  the  alluvial  regions  of  the  Amazons 


LIAS 


LIBEL 


603 


ami  Orinoco,  thus  boponip  im|ienetialile  without 
the  aid  of  the  hatcliet,  and  the  heasts  which  inliabit 
them  eitlier  pass  tlirou^h  narrow  covered  paths, 
kept  ojien  l>y  continual  use,  or  from  houfih  to 
liou^h  far  above  the  ;:round.  Many  lianas— a-s 
some  of  the  species  of  Wri^ditia— become  tree-like 
in  the  thickness  of  their  stems,  and  often  kill  by 
constriction  the  trees  wliich  ori^rinally  supjiorted 
them  :  and  when  tliese  have  decayed  tlie  convolu- 
tions of  the  liana-s  exhibit  a  womlerful  ma-ss  of 
confusion  majmihcent  in  the  luxuriance  of  foliage 
and  flowers.  Xo  tropical  flowei-s  excel  in  splendour 
those  of  some  liana.s.  Amonj;  them  are  found  also 
some  valuable  medicinal  jilants,  as  sarsaparilla 
(Smilax,  order  Liliacea-).  'I'he  rattans  (Calamus, 
order  Palmacea^)  and  vanilla  (order  Orchidacea?) 
are  lianas.  Botanically  considered,  lianas  belong 
to  orders  which  are  often  quite  ditterent.  Trop- 
ical plants  of  this  descriiition  are  seldom  seen  in 
our  hotiiouses  owing  to  tiie  dilliculty  of  their  cul- 
tivation. 

Lias.  The  lias  is  the  lowest  division  of  the 
Jurassic  System  (q.v.).  The  beds  composing  it 
may  be  considered  a-s  the  argillaceous  basis  of  tliat 
series  of  rocks,  consisting  of  more  than  a  thousand 
feet  of  alternations  of  clay  and  limestone,  with  but 
a  few  unimportant  deposits  of  sand.  It  consists  of 
the  following  groups  :  Upper  Lias  (400  feet),  Marl- 
stone  (-2001, 'Lower  Lias  (900). 

The  Upjier  Lias  consists  of  thin  limestone  beds 
scattered  through  a  great  thickness  of  blue  clay, 
more  or  less  imhirated,  and  so  aluminous  that  it 
lias  been  wrought  for  alum  at  Whitby.  Above 
this  clay  come  sandy  dejiosits.  The  Marlstone  is 
an  arenaceous  deposit,  bound  together  either  by 
a  calcareous  or  terrnginous  cement,  in  the  one 
case  passing  into  a  coarse  shelly  limestone,  and  in 
the  other  into  an  ironstone,  winch  has  been  exten- 
sively wrought  both  in  the  north  and  .south  of 
England.  The  Lower  Lias  beds  consist  of  an 
extensive  thickness  of  blue  clays,  intermingled 
■n-itli  layers  of  argillaceous  limestone.  In  weather- 
ing, tlie  thin  beds  of  blue  or  gray  limestone  become 
light  brown;  while  the  inter-stratified  shales  retain 
their  dark  colour,  giving  the  (piarries  of  this  rock 
at  a  distance  a  stripe<l  or  ribbon-like  appear.ance, 
whence  it  is  supposed  the  miner's  name  lias  or 
layers  is  derived. 

The  Lias  is  highly  fossiliferous,  the  contained 
organisms  being  well  preserved  ;  the  fishes  are  often 
so  perfect  as  to  exhibit  the  complete  form  of  the 
animal,  with  the  lins  and  scales  in  their  natural 
position.  Numerous  remains  of  ])lants  occur  in 
the  lignite  and  in  the  shales.  The  mime  Gryphite 
Limestone  has  been  given  to  the  Lias,  from  tlie 
great  quantities  of  Unjjilicii  i)iriirva,  a  kin<l  of 
oyster,  found  in  it.  Fish-remains  are  frequently 
met  with ;  the  reptiles,  however,  are  the  most 
striking  forms.  They  are  remarkable  for  the 
great  numbers  in  wliich  they  occur,  for  the  .size 
which  many  of  the  species  attain,  and  for  the 
adaptations  in  their  structure  which  fitted  them 
to  live  ill  water.  The  most  noteworthy  are 
species  of  Ichthyosaurus  and  I'lcsiosaurus  (q.v.). 

The  Liassic  rocks  extend  in  a  belt  of  varying 
breadth  across  Kiigland,  from  AVhitby,  on  the  coa-st 
of  Yorkshire,  .south  to  Leicester,  then  south-west 
b)-  (iloncester  to  Lyme  Hegis  in  Dorsetshire. 

Libilllilis,  a  Greek  Ho|)hist  or  rhetorician,  was 
born  at  .\iiti<ich,  in  Syria,  about  .314  .\.I).  He 
studied  at  Alliens,  and  began  to  teach  there  so 
successfully  that  he  soon  moved  to  Constantiiio]de. 
There  his  prelections  were  so  attractive  that  he 
emiitii'd  the  benches  of  the  other  teachers  of 
rlietonc,  who  had  him  exiielled  from  the  city  on 
a  charge  of  'magic'  He  tlien  proceeded  to  Nico- 
mcdia ;   but  after  live  years  returned  to  Constan- 


tinople. Ultimately,  in  3o4,  he  -settled  down  in 
his  native  city,  where  he  died  about  393.  I..il>anius 
was  the  instructor  of  St  Clirysostom  and  St  lia-sil, 
who  always  remained  his  friends,  though  Libanius 
was  himself  .a  pagan,  aii<l  a  great  friend  of  the 
Empenu-  .Inlian.  His  works,  whicli  are  mostly 
extant,  consist  of  orations,  declamations,  lettere, 
\c.  The  most  conijilete  edition  of  the  orations 
and  declamations  is  tliat  by  Heiske  (4  vols.  1791- 
97),  and  of  the  letters  that  by  .J.  C.  Wolf  (1738). 
See  Lives  by  Petit  (Paris,  IStiC)  and  Sievers  ( lierlin, 
IS(iS). 

Libanon.    See  Leb.wox. 

Libation  (Lat.  libwc,  'to  pour  out'),  literally, 
anytliing  poured  out  before  the  gods  as  an  act  of 
homage  or  worship;  a  drink-offering.  The  term 
was  often  extended  in  signification,  however,  to  the 
whole  offering  of  which  this  formed  a  part,  and  in 
which  not  only  a  little  wine  was  poured  upon  the 
altar,  but  a  .small  cake  was  laid  njion  it.  This 
custom  prevailed  even  in  the  houses  of  the  Romans, 
who  at  their  meals  made  an  otl'ering  to  the  Lares 
in  the  fire  which  burned  upon  the  hearth.  The 
lil)ation  was  thus  a  sort  of  lieathen  'grace  before 
meat.'  Even  so  late  as  the  last  quarter  of  the  19tli 
century  Mr  Bent  found  at  Samos  the  sponde  or 
libation  poured  out  on  the  floor  before  drinking. 

Libail.  a  seajiort  of  Courland,  Kussia,  on 
the  Baltic,  by  rail  14t>  miles  W.  by  S.  of  Riga.  It 
possesses  a  fine  harbour,  admitting  vessels  that 
draw  17  and  18  feet,  and  free  from  ice  except 
for  less  than  a  fortnight  in  the  year.  Its  impoi-t- 
ance  as  a  ]ioint  of  export  luis  greatly  increased 
of  late  years.  Its  exports,  consisting  of  grain,  lin- 
seed and  linseed  oil-cake,  petroleum,  eggs,  spirits, 
flax,  hemp,  Ike,  have  an  annual  value  of  £.3,000,000 
or  more  (British  trade  constituting  a  fourth);  its 
inqiorts,  chiefly  coals,  herrings,  artificial  manures, 
cotton,  dyewood,  and  iron,  under  £2,000,000  ( British 
trade  nearly  half  of  that).  In  1890-95  tlie  Russian 
government  sjient  £'2,500,000  on  constructing  a  lii-st- 
cla-ss  naval  and  commercial  harbour.  Tiieie  already 
existed  shipbuilding-yards  and  .-i  school  of  naviga- 
tion. The  industries  include  iron  founding,  brew- 
ing, oil-jiressing,  &c.  Lihau  is  much  frequented  as 
a  sea-side  resort.  One  of  the  churches  contains  an 
organ  ( 1886),  one  of  the  largest  hi  the  world.  Pop. 
( 1874)  10,707  ;  ( 1880)  27,418  ;  ( 1895)  39,000,  mostly 
of  Cierman  nationality. 

Liltol  is  any  imblication  by  printing,  A^Titing, 
l)aiiiting,  or  the  like  signs,  tending'  to  injure  the 
reimtation  of  any  one  or  expose  him  to  hatred  or 
contemirt.  A  blasphemous,  treasonable,  or  sedi- 
tious publication  is  also  termed  a  libel.  Slander 
(q.v.),  on  the  other  hand,  is  defamatory  spoken 
matter.  An  acti(m  for  libel  will  lie  though  it  can- 
not be  shown  tli.at  any  ajipreciablc  pecuniary  loss  or 
(lainage  has  resulted  from  the  ]mlilication  :  such 
lo.ss  or  damage  is  an  inference  of  law  when  the 
writing,  v^vc.  either  is  obviously  defamatory  or  was 
so  in  the  circumstances.  Any  definite  loss  is  called 
special  damage,  and  if  jiroperly  brought  before  the 
court  is  taken  into  account  when  coniiiensation  is 
awarded. 

In  England  the  libelled  jiarty  may  seek  redress 
civilly  or  criminally.  If  civilly  he  must  jirove  that 
the  matter  Wiis  published  of  him  falsely  and  mali- 
ciously, for  the  truth  of  the  alleged  libel  (jiistifirn- 
tioit)  is  an  .absolute  defence  to  a  civil  action.  The 
defendant,  besiiles  repelling  these  pleas,  may  also 
bring  forward  some  special  defences.  Thus,  he  may 
allege  privilege,  which  is  either  ijiialijitii  or  uli.sultilc. 
Qualified  privilege  arises  wlieri;  maiteis  of  private 
interest  are  concerned.  So  a  communication 
between  cm]doyei-s  as  to  the  character  of  a  servant 
is,  if  made  iii  good  faith  and  without  express 
malice,  inotected.     Ab.solute  privilege  arises  where 


604 


LIBEL 


LIBERIA 


the  ailniinistration  of  iustico  or  affairs  relating  to 
the  ])ublu>  service  are  involved.  Thus,  statements 
in  a  judicial  allidavit,  or  in  a  reiiort  ^jroperly  made 
by  an  otKcer  to  his  superior  cannot  allord  a  cause  of 
action  (see  Coxfidkntiality).  The  Statute  of 
Limitations  also  provides  that  actions  for  liUel  must 
be  commenced  within  six  years  of  the  occurrence  of 
the  act  comiilaine<l  of.  Criminally,  the  remedy  for 
a  libel  is  bv  indictment  (usually  after  iiroce<'din;;s 
before!  a  in.a^'istrate ),  or  (though  more  rarely)  by 
criminal  information.  This  last  is  either  filed  by  the 
Attorney-general  himself,  in  which  case  it  is  called 
an  ex  ojjicio  information,  or  by  the  queen's  coroner 
and  attorney  by  the  direction  of  the  t^ueen's  Bench 
Division  oii  the  application  of  some  private  indi- 
vidual. An  ex  officio  information  is  usually  for  a 
libel  that  seems  to  threaten  some  danger  to  the 
state  ;  in  the  otiier  kind  of  criminal  infornuitiim, 
a,s  the  alleged  otVence  is  against  a  private  person, 
it  must  be  .shown  that  the  ordinary  remedy  is  in- 
applicable. 

The  net,  so  to  speak,  of  the  criminal  law  is 
much  more  comprehensive  than  that  of  tlie  civil 
law.  Thus,  a  prisoner  may  lie  prosecuted  for 
libelling  a  dead  person,  if  an  attempt  to  bring 
contempt  ami  scandal  on  the  deceased's  relatives 
can  be  proved  ;  the  libel  need  not  have  been  pul)- 
lislied  to  a  third  party  ;  it  may  have  been  directed 
against  a  company  or  sect,  and  not  against  any 
particular  individual ;  it  may  be  quite  true,  but 
unless  its  pul)lication  was  for  the  public  advan- 
tage (even  this  limited  defence  was  only  intro- 
duced by  Lord  Campbell's  Act  of  1843)  this  is  no 
answer.  In  all  these  cases  the  civil  law  affords 
no  remedy.  Previous  to  1792  the  judges  took  upon 
themselves  to  decide  whether  the  matter  was  libel- 
lous or  no,  leaving  merely  to  tlie  jury  the  (luestion 
of  publication  ;  but  in  that  year  Fox's  Act  declared 
and  enacted  that  tlie  jury  should  have  power  to 
'give  a  general  verdict  of  guilty  or  not  guilty  upon 
the  whole  matter  put  in  issue  upon  the  indictment 
or  information.'  ISesides  the  common  law  various 
statutes  make  libels  against  private  persons,  and 
also  seditious  and  blasphemous  libels,  punishable 
by  fine  or  imiuisonment.  But  ju-o.secutions  for  the 
la-st  kind,  except  under  very  special  circumstances, 
are  not  at  the  present  day  of  probable  occurrence. 
'If,'  said  Loril  Coleridge,  in  tlie  modern  case  (1883) 
of  theQueen  r.  Hams.iy  and  Foote,  'the  decenciesof 
controversy  are  observed,  even  the  fuiulamentals  of 
religion  may  be  attacked  without  a  person  being 
guilty  of  blasphemous  libel.'  Though  this  dictum 
has  been  questioned,  it  m,ay  safely  be  taken  as  a 
correct  exjiosition  of  the  present  state  of  the 
matter.     See  r.i.Asi'illCMV,  Skditiox. 

The  law  of  libel  as  it  affects  newspapers  requires 
some  special  notice.  Under  Lord  Campbell's 
Libel  Act  of  1843  the  defendant  in  any  action  for 
libel  containe<l  in  a  public  newspajicr  may  plc.-ul 
absence  of  gross  negligence  ami  malice,  and  that 
he  published  an  apology  at  the  earliest  moment 
possible.  He  is  also  at  liberty,  on  filing  such  ]ilea, 
to  pay  into  court  a  sum  of  money  by  way  of 
amends.  The  Newspaper  Libel  and  llegistration 
Act,  1881,  as  amen<led  by  the  Law  of  Libel  .Vmend- 
ment  Act,  1888,  provides  that  fair  reports  of  proceed- 
ings at  public  meetings  and  in  the  law-courts  sliall  be 
rivilcged  :  that  .actions  against  various  defendants 
ibels  ]uactically  the  same  may  be  consolidated  ; 
that  before  criminal  proceedings  are  taken  against 
persons  connected  with  a  newspaper  for  a  libel 
therein  the  leave  of  a  judge  at  chambers  must 
be  obtained  ;  that  defenclaiits  in  lilxd  actions  and 
their  wives  are  coni])etent,  though  not  compellable, 
witnesses;  that  in  jiroceedings  Ix't'ore  magistrates 
matters  of  justilication  may  be  gone  into,  .and  Ih.i,! 
there  may  lie  a  summary  conviction  followed  liy  a 
fine  not  exceeding  £50  for  libels  'of  a  trivial  char- 


I 


acter.'  In  Scotland  the  law  of  libel  is  different  in 
some  im])ortant  respects  from  that  of  England.  The 
chief  points  are  :  ( I )  there  is  no  nulical  distinction 
lietween  liV)el  and  slander,  both  are  equally  de- 
famation; (2)  damages  are  awarded  as  a  solatium 
for  wounded  feelings;  (3)  libel  and  slander  are 
actionable,  though  not  what  is  technically  termed 
in  England /j»6//.«/(ff/  i.e.  communicated  to  a  third 
person;  (4)  reports  of  public  meetings  .are  more, 
protected  by  the  common  law  of  Scotland  than  by 
the  common  law  of  England,  though  the  exact 
limit  has  not  been  judicially  settled  ;  (.5)  the 
Scotch  system  of  public  prosecution  renders 
criminal  charges  for  libels  on  individuals  extremely 
rare. 

In  the  LTnited  States  the  law  of  libel  follows  the 
common  law  of  England,  exceiit  that  the  so-called 
Se<lition  Law  (1798)  expired  in  1801,  and  li.as  never 
been  renewed,  and  that,  generally  speaking,  it  is  a 
valid  defence,  whether  in  civil  or  criminal  prosecu- 
tions, to  show  that  the  matter  coni|ilained  of  was 
true  and  w.as  published  for  justifiable  ends.  Privi- 
lege, however,  is  much  further  extended  than  in 
England. 

Libel  has  several  speci.al  legal  meanings.  In 
the  English  spiritual  courts  it  is  '  a  declaration 
or  charge  drawn  up  in  writing  on  the  part  of 
the  plaintiff  which  the  defendant  is  obliged  to 
answer.'  In  the  civil  and  criminal  courts  of  Scot- 
land it  is  the  form  into  which  the  complaint  against 
the  defender  or  panel  is  |)ut.  It  is  also  the  name 
for  the  written  charge  against  an  accused  person 
in  a  church  court  in  Scotland. 

The  leading  English  text-book  on  libel  is  Odgers  ( 2d 
cd.  1887 ;  supplement,  1 890 ).  Earlier  treatises  by  Starkie 
and  Folkard  are  now  out  of  date.  Eraser's  Law  of  Lihel 
in  its  relation  to  the  J'rrss  (1889),  and  Sliortt's  Law 
reUitinf}  to  works  of  Literature  and  Art  (2ded.  1884)  are 
useful  for  reference.  In  [Scotland  the  special  treatise  by 
Borthwick  (1826)  is  antiquated;  the  last  editions  of 
Erskine  &  Bell  supply  the  best  information.  Guthrie 
Siaith's  Law  of  Damaijes  (2d  ed.  1889)  in.ay  also  be  con- 
sulted. 

Libellnln.    See  Dragox-i'i.v. 

Liber.    See  Bast. 

Liberals.    See  Whio.s. 

Liberia,  a  Xegro  republic  on  the  Pepper  (7oast 
(tiuinea)  of  West  Africa,  extending  north  and  east 
of  Cape  Palmas.  The  coast-line  measures  about 
500  miles.  The  boundaries  in  the  interior  are  not 
determined,  but  the  republic  is  considered  to 
extend  inland  for  a  distance  of  "200  miles.  The 
coast-region  consists  of  mangrove  swamps,  lying 
behind  a  belt  of  sand-dunes,  is  traversed  by  numer- 
ous rivers,  and  interrupted  by  projecting  headlamls 
of  rock.  About  20  miles  or  so  inland  the  surface 
begins  to  rise  into  undulating  uplands.  The 
climate  and  vegetation  are  tropical.  The  temiiera- 
ture  is  pretty  even,  scarcely  ever  less  than  75"  F. 
or  more  than  88'  F.  The  rainy  season  lasts  about 
seven  and  the  dry  season  five  months.  The  soil  is 
well  adapted  for  the  cultiviitioii  of  coffee,  the  prin- 
cipal crop  grown  after  the  food-plants  rice  and 
manioc.  The  more  important  articles  of  export 
are  coffee,  sugar,  palm-oil  and  palm-kernels,  cocoa, 
arrowroot,  caoutcliouc,  ivory,  kola  nuts,  i<:c.  The 
total  value  of  the  trade  does  not  probably  much 
exceed  half  a  million  sterling.  The  iiojiulation 
amounts  to  1,0()8,(J00,  of  whom  18,000  are  liberated 
American  slaves  and  their  descendants,  the  re- 
mainder indigenous  Negroes,  including  I  lie  Kroo- 
men  (q.v.).  Capital,  Monrovia  (pop.  ."{OOO),  now 
greatly  decayed.  Liberia  owes  its  origin  to  the 
American  Colonising  Society,  wdiicli  in  1821 
bought  land  on  this  coast  and  settled  a  small 
body  of  freed  .\frican  slaves.  The  cidony  grew 
and  prospered  ;  newcomers  arrived  in  large  num- 
bers   from    the    United    States,    and    fresh    lands 


LIBERIUS 


LIBRARY 


605 


continued  to  be  bought.  In  1847  tlif  free  and 
independent  republii',  of  Liberia  was  constituted  ; 
and  it  lias  enlarged  its  boumlarics  at  least  four 
tiiues  since  then,  beinj;  joineil  ten  yeai-s  later 
by  the  Negro  republic  Maryland  (founded  as  a 
colony  in  IS'21,  as  a  republic  in  lSo4),  to  the  east 
of  Cai>e  Palnuis.  The  constitution  of  Liberia  is 
modelled  on  that  of  the  United  States  :  there  are 
a  president  and  House  of  Representatives  ( 13 
members),  elected  lor  two  years,  and  a  Senate  (S 
members),  elected  for  four  years.  No  white  man 
is  allowed  to  acquire  citizen's  rights  or  to  hold  pro- 
perty. There  is  no  standing  army,  but  all  citizens 
capable  of  bearing  arms  are  enrolled  in  the  militia. 
Slavery  is  declared  illegal.  Complete  religious 
toleration  exists,  the  ilethodist  forms  prevailing. 
The  state  debt  amounts  to  £100,000,  but  no  in- 
terest has  ever  been  |iaid  since  the  loan  was  made 
in  1871.  English  money  is  current,  though  accounts 
are  kept  in  dollars  and  cents ;  and  English  weights 
and  measures  prevail.  The  republic  does  not  enjoy 
much  favour  in  the  eyes  of  the  native  Negroes,  nor 
yet  of  those  in  the  United  States,  although  a  few 
immigrants  still  continue  to  arrive  from  year  to 
year.  Not  only  have  the  Liljerians  failed  to  make 
any  impression  on  the  aboriginal  inhabitants,  tlie 
])eople  they  were  sent  to  civilise,  but  they  them- 
selves are  relapsing  in  numy  respects  towards  bar- 
barism :  they  are  lazy  and  quarrelsome,  and  ape 
the  woi-se  manners  of  the  whites,  though  there  are 
some  honourable  exceptions. 

See  Biittikofer,  Rcisebikfer  aus  Liberia  (2  vols.  Leyden, 
18yO ) ;  Bourzeix,  La  Ripublique  de  Liberia  ( Paris,  188" ) ; 
and  AVauwermans,  Liberia  (Brussels,  1885). 

LiberillS,  a  native  of  Rome,  succeeded  to  the 
see  of  his  native  city  in  352,  on  the  death  of  Pope 
Julius  1.  For  refusing  to  conlirm  the  decree  \\hich 
condemned  Athanasius  he  was  in  .335  banished  to 
Thrace  by  the  Emperor  Constantius.  Hut  three 
vears  later  he  returned  to  Rome,  expelled  his  rival, 
Felix  II.,  and  reseated  himself  on  the  papal  throne. 
He  died  on  24th  September  366.  See  Arils,  and 
Ath.\x.\siu.s. 

Liberty,  Eqiialit.v,  Frateruity  {Libert^, 
Egalite,  FraternUe),  the  motto  of  the  French 
Republic,  dates  from  the  time  of  the  fii-st  revolu- 
tion. Equality,  it  should  be  noted,  merely  means 
equality  before  the  law  ami  tlie  absence  of  class 
pri\-ileges.  The  motto  gives  title  to  a  Mork  by  Sir 
J.  F.  Stephen  (1873).  For  the  Cap  of  Liberty,  see 
Bonnet.  The  custom  of  planting  trees  of  liberty, 
crowned  with  a  bonnet  rouf/c,  uecame  common 
during  the  Revolution. 

LilKTty  of  the  Press.    See  Pke.ss. 
Libidibi.    See  Diviuivi. 

Libonriie,  a  town  in  the  French  dei]artment 
of  Cironde,  at  the  continence  of  the  Isle  with  the 
tidal  Dordogne,  22  miles  by  rail  NE.  of  lionleaux. 
It  is  one  of  the  ancient  free  towns  founded  by 
the  English,  about  1269.  Woollens  and  ndlitary 
clothing  are  manufactured.  Pop.  (1872)  12,713; 
(1891)  14,24.5. 

Libra,  the  seventh  sign  of  the  Zodiac  (q.v.). 

Library.  As  soon  as  men  were  so  far  advanced 
in  civilisation  its  to  commit  their  thoughts  to  writing 
in  any  portable  form,  whether  on  papyrus,  bricks, 
])archment,  or  i)aper,  there  were  books  and  con- 
secpiently  libraries.  The  lirst  of  such  libraries 
wouM  probably  be  the  collection  of  sacred  books 
belonging  to  the  temples  of  the  gods,  and  under  the 
care  of  priests.  The  archives  of  the  state  wouhl 
al.so  be  gathered  together  in  the  palaces  of  princes 
jiccessible  only  to  a  privileged  few.  But  public 
libraries  in  the  modem  sense  of  the  ti.'rm  in- 
stituted for  the  purjjoses  of  research  in  all  branches 
of  knowledge— nave  existed  in  the  most  remote 


antiquity.  As  early  as  3800  years  B.C.,  according 
to  Professor  Sayce,  Sargon  I.,"  the  Semitic  ruler  of 
Accad,  founded  such  a  library  in  that  city.  Here 
was  de|josited  the  great  work  of  llabylunfan  astro- 
nomy, 'TIte  Observations  (if  lid,  which  in  later  recen- 
sions has  come  down  to  our  day.  Thi^  luime  of  the 
keeper  of  Sargon's  library,  Ibni-sarru,  the  most 
ancient  librarian  on  record,  is  ]ireser\cd  to  us  on 
his  seal,  which  is  still  extant.  Libraries  of  a 
similar  kind  were  formeil  in  all  the  chief  cities  of 
Babylonia.  Their  contents,  or  copies  and  transla- 
tions made  from  them,  were  linally  gathered  together 
to  enrich  the  more  famous  Assyrian  library  estab- 
lished in  the  palace  of  Koyunjik  at  Nineveh 
by  Assurbanipal.  This  great  library  was  rich  in 
history,  astronomy,  grammar,  sacred  hymns,  and 
legends,  and  the  science  of  divination  and  demon- 
ology.  The  books  were  on  briclc  tablets,  papyrus, 
and  leather.  The  number  of  tablets  is  estiinated 
by  M.  Mcnaut  at  about  10,000,  making  some  500 
of  our  modern  volumes  of  ."jOO  pages  in  4to.  The 
greater  portion  of  these  tablets,  as  is  well  known, 
have  been  recovered  and  dei)osited  in  the  British 
Museum.  The  library  of  Assurbanipal  was  in- 
tended for  the  puldic  good.  In  a  note  apjiended 
to  a  grammatical  treatise  the  king  says  :  'I  have 
written  it  upon  tablets  ...  I  have  placed  it  in 
my  ])alace  for  the  instruction  of  my  subjects.' 
The  books  were  methodically  arranged  and  num- 
bered, and  the  rea<ler  requiring  a  volume  handed 
to  the  librarian  a  ticket  inscribed  w'itli  the  requisite 
number. 

In  ancient  Egypt  there  was  an  immense  litera- 
ture, and  Diodorus  Siculus  describes  the  library  of 
King  Osymandyas,  identified  with  Rameses  I.,  as 
having  over  its  door  the  inscription,  '  Dispensary 
of  the  Soul.'  At  a  later  period  the  Ptolemies  of 
Egyi)t  vied  with  the  kings  of  Perganius  in  forming 
magnilicent  collections.  An  account  of  tho.se  estab- 
lished in  Alexandria  has  already  been  given  (see 
Alex.\ndrian  LlBR.\BY).  Of'  the  libraries  in 
Greece  we  know  very  little.  Pisistratus  is  the  most 
ancient  collector  named  by  Greek  historians,  and 
Aristotle,  who  left  behind  him  a  large  library,  is 
said  to  have  inspired  the  so\ereigns  of  Egypt  with 
the  taste  for  collecting. 

It  is  characteristic  of  ancient  Rome  that  the  first 
great  libraries  of  the  city  should  have  been  formed 
of  the  spoils  of  war.  .tmilius  Paulus  brought  to 
Rome  al)out  168  D.c.  the  libraiy  of  the  king  of 
Macedonia.  LucuUus  formed  a  large  collection  of 
books  which  he  liberally  threw  o|)en  to  all  scholars; 
but  the  first  public  library,  luoperly  so  called, 
appears  to  have  been  that  established  by  Asinius 
Pollio,  39  B.C.,  which  he  appropriately  placed  in 
the  temple  of  Liberty.  Julius  (':csar  intended  to 
erect  a  public  libraiy,  but  left  his  design  to  be 
carried  out  by  Augustus,  who  founded  two,  the 
Octavian  and  the  Palatine.  Other  emperors  were 
zealous  in  aihling  to  the  number.  The  chief  of 
these  was  the  Ul])iau  Lilirary,  instituted  by  Trajan. 
At  Byzantium  Constantine  began  to  collect  the 
('hristian  books  which  had  escaped  the  destructive 
inquisition  of  Diocletian. 

After  the  irruption  of  the  barbarians  the  work  of 
building  up  libraries  had  to  be  begun  de.  noru.  The 
ravages  of  fire  and  war  had  substantially  destroyed 
the  ancient  collections.  The  classical  literature  was 
naturally  negh^'tcd  liy  the  Christians,  whose  own 
literature  had  sullered  largely  from  the  hostility  of 
the  pagans.  Hut  the  genus  of  our  modern  libraries 
were  laiil  in  the  cloister.  The  monks  of  the  order 
of  St  Benedict  especially  were  the  collectois,  trans- 
lators, and  bookmakei's  of  the  early  middle  ages. 
England  may  be  said  in  this  matti'r  to  have  led 
the  way.  The  moiuusteries  of  Canterbury,  York, 
("royland,  Whitby,  anil  Durham  were  at  an  early 
date  possessed  of  good  libraries.     Alcuin,  when  at 


606 


LIBRARY 


Toure,  urged  Cliarleniagne,  who  was  zealous  in 
the  restoration  of  learuiug,  to  send  iuto  Uritaiu 
for  books.  Among  the  more  famous  liliraries 
abroiid  may  be  mentioned  those  of  the  monxslie 
communities  at  Fiilda,  L'orvei,  and  St  (Jail  in 
Geruiauy,  Monte  Cassino  in  Italy,  Fleury  and 
Clugny  in  l'"rance.  The  books  here  stored  were 
naturally  in  large  part  theological,  though  the 
Latin  cla&sics  were  not  neglected.  A  good  idea 
of  the  contents  of  such  libraries  may  be  gathereil 
from  the  catalogue  of  Christ  Church,  Canterbury, 
and  some  otlier  similar  lists  printed  by  Edwards 
in  his  Mfiiir/ir.i  of  Lihrwics.  It  is  said  that  no 
less  than  GOO  catalogues  of  monastic  collections  are 
preserved  in  the  liljrary  of  Munich. 

The  period  of  decline  in  monastic  learning  in 
Eurojie  generally  coincided  with  the  revival  of 
classical  studies  and  of  secular  literature  ;  ami  the 
collecting  of  books  once  more  became  the  honour- 
able ambition  of  princes  and  private  persons. 
Italy  was  in  this  respect  especially  distinguished. 
Colucciii,  chancellor  of  Florence,  himself  a  gi'eat 
collector,  wrote  a  treatise  urging  the  establishment 
of  public  libraries.  Xiccolo  Nicoli  at  his  death  in 
1436  bequeathed  his  library  for  public  use.  Fol- 
lowing these  examples  Lorenzo  de'  Medici  formed  a 
magnificent  library.  I'rederick,  Duke  of  Urbino, 
did  the  same  ;  and  Corvinus,  king  of  Hungary,  left 
at  his  death  in  1400  a  collection  of  50,00)  volumes. 
Among  ])rivate  collectors,  at  an  earlier  date  in 
Great  Britain,  Richard  Aungerville  (q.v.),  Bishop 
of  Durham,  nuist  not  be  omitteil,  nor  Guy  de  Beau- 
champ,  Earl  of  Warwick,  who  in  1315  be<|ueatli<'d 
a  collection,  chietly  of  romances,  to  Bordesly 
Abbey,  Worcestershire. 

Britain  was,  however,  but  slightly  touched  with 
the  spirit  of  the  literary  revival  which  elsewhere  le<l 
to  the  zealous  gathering  together  of  the  relics  of 
antiquity.  The  destruction  of  monasteries  and  the 
prejudices  of  the  Keformei's  led  rather  to  a  reckless 
destruction  of  books,  and  the  ICith  century  was  a 
dark  age  in  the  library  history  of  the  nation. 
Henry  \'ll.  had  possessed  a  collection  of  three  or 
four  hundred  choice  volumes.  Henry  VIII.,  while 
he  was  disbui'sing  nearly  £11,000  on  jewellery,  w;is 
content  to  spend  £124  on  books  and  binding. 
Edward  VI.  did  something,  Mary  and  Elizabeth 
very  little,  towards  increasing  the  royal  library. 
Archbishop  I'arker  ami  others  made  a  great  etl'ort 
to  induce  Queen  Elizabeth  to  form  a  pulilic  library 
after  the  pattern  '  set  us  by  the  more  civilised 
nations,  as  Germany,  Italy,  and  France,'  but 
without  success.  The  want  of  a  national  library 
continued  to  be  felt  for  another  century  and  a  half. 
In  the  reign  of  William  111.  the  writer  of  a 
pamphlet,  .said  to  be  Richard  IJentley,  then  keeper  of 
the  royal  library,  describes  it  as  having  l)een  in  a 
flourishing  condition  in  tlie  time  of  .lames  I.,  and 
since  '  fallen  into  decay  to  the  gre.-it  ilisliononr  of 
the  crown  and  the  whole  nation.'  He  proposes  that 
there  should  be  a  new  royal  library  erected  and 
supj)orted  by  a  yearly  revenue  settled  on  it  by 
parliament.  The  proposal  was  not  carried  out,  but 
in  17."i!)  George  If.  incorporated  the  lil>rary,  then 
containing  about  12.0(10  volumt's,  with  the  recently- 
foumied  collection  of  the  Rrilish  Museum  (q.v.). 

Meanwhile,  during  the  17th  century,  many  im- 
portant collegiate  and  local  libraries  were  founded 
throughout  the  kingdom.  Sir  Thomas  Itodlcy 
founiled  the  great  library  wliich  bears  his  name 
at  the  0,\ford  rnivcrsity  in  HiO'i;  and  while  he 
was  r.ansacking  the  Lomlon  bookstalls  for  liis  pur- 
pose he  encountered  .•Vrclibishop  I'sshcr,  who  was 
bent  on  the  same  errand  on  behalf  of  the  newly- 
established  librarv  of  Trinity  College,  Dublin 
(  KiOl ).  The  Bodleian  Library  contains  over  4(K),0(I0 
printed  volumes  and  30,000  .MSS.  The  university 
of    Edinburgh,    a    little   later    (1627),    received    a 


valuable  accession  to  its  collection  from  Drumniond 
of  Uawthornden,  and  at  the  close  of  the  century 
( 1082)  the  Faculty  of  Advixiates  entrusted  to  Sir 
George  ilackenzie  the  task  of  buihiing  up  their 
library.  The  uuivei-sity  liluary  of  ('.•imbriclge  had 
been  founded  in  the  loth  century,  but  received  a 
considerable  addition  by  a  benefaction  of  Cieorge  I. 
It  is  now  estimated  to  contain  more  than  200,000 
volumes.  In  London  Archbishop  Bancroft  f<uinded 
the  Lambeth  Library  in  1010  ;  and  Sioii  Ccdiege,  a 
guild  of  the  clergy  of  London  and  its  suburbs, 
loundeil  a  library  in  1629.  tJnod  libraries  were 
also  established  in  some  of  the  English  towns 
— Leicester,  Norwich,  Bristol,  and  notably  Man- 
chester, where  Humi)lirey  Clietham  in  1053  ifounded 
for  public  use  a  library  which  at  one  time  was 
larger  than  any  out  of  London  and  the  two  uni- 
versity cities.  The  minor  libraries  of  the  several 
colleges  of  the  universities,  and  of  the  Inns  of 
Court,  also  deserve  mention,  for.  though  not  always 
large  in  number  of  volumes,  they  often  contain 
valuable  collections  on  special  subjects,  manu- 
scripts, rare  printed  books,  and  incunabula. 

All  these  libraries,  as  a  rule,  passe.s.sed  little  or 
no  endowments,  and  depended  largely  for  their 
growth  u|)on  pri\ate  donations.  BiKlley,  however, 
obtained  from  the  Stati(uiers'  Hall  in  1610  a  grant 
of  all  books  there  entered.  By  an  act  of  iiarliament, 
14  Clias.  II.  chap.  33  (1662),  printers  were  ordered 
to  present  copies  of  such  hooks  to  both  universities 
and  the  royal  library.  The  Coi>y  right  Act  of  8 
Anne,  chap.  20  (1710)  re(|uired  nine  copies  to  be 
]irovided  for  the  royal  library,  then  at  St  James's, 
th(!  two  English  universities,  the  four  Scottish 
universities,  the  Faculty  of  Advocates,  Edinburgh, 
and  Sion  College,  London.  The  iirivilege  attached 
to  the  royal  library  passed  with  the  gift  of  its 
books  to  the  British  JIuseuni.  After  the  legisla- 
tive union  with  Ireland  it  Wiis  extended  (41  Geo. 
III.  cliap.  107)  to  the  libraries  of  Trinity  College, 
and  the  King's  Inn,  Dublin — thus  making  in  all 
.1,  tax  upon  publishers  of  eleven  copies.  The  num- 
ber was,  however,  in  1S.35  reduced  to  live  :  and  a 
yearly  grant  in  compensation  was  made  to  the 
other  six  libraries,  based  on  a  calculation  of  the 
average  value  of  the  books  received  by  tlieiu 
thnmgh  the  copyright  ta.\  during  the  three  pre- 
ceding yeai's.  From  this  grant  IMinburgh  I  ni- 
versity  receives  £575  :  Glasgow,  £707  ;  St  .Vmlicws, 
£630:  Aberdeen,  £320;  King's  Inn,  Dublin,  £435; 
ami  Sion  College,  £363. 

.-\bout  the  middle  of  the  IStli  century  we  hear  of 
the  lii-st  circulating  lilirary  established  in  London. 
Gne  was  opened  in  Birmingham  by  Hntton  in  1757. 
-Vbout  the  s.ime  time  ,a  prtqirietai  v  librarv  made 
its  apjiearance  in  Liverpool.  'I'lie  Leeds  library,  in 
the  estalilishment  of  which  Dr  I'riestlcy  took  a  pro- 
minent part,  dates  from  176H.  It  now  contains  about 
80,000  volumes.  Great  Britain  still  remained  in  the 
early  years  of  the  19th  century  far  beliiml  the 
rest  of  Europe  in  the  number  and  value  as  well  as 
the  accessibility  of  its  libraries.  Mine  than  three 
hundred  years  .ago  Bishop  Bale  lamented  that  there 
was  not  in  each  county  .at  least  one  librarv  '  for  the 
preservation  of  noble  works,  and  preferment  of 
good  learning.'  In  the  ne.xt  century  Jidin  Evelyn 
ileclared  that  Paris  ahuie  was  able  to  show  more 
libraries  than  all  the  three  nations  of  ( Ireat  Britain ; 
and,  even  after  the  foundation  of  the  British 
Museum,  (Jibbon  was  so  little  contented  with  its 
abundance  that  he  reciuded  his  opinion  that  "the 
greatest  city  in  the  world  is  still  destitute' of  a  public 
library.'  But  in  the  middli'  of  llie  lOtli  century 
interest  in  the  subject  was  awakened,  and  a  great 
movement  took  place  in  the  directiiui  of  extemling 
anil  popularising  libraries.  While  a  royal  com- 
mission w.as  enquiiing  into  the  management  of  the 
British  Museum,  iu  1849  a  .select  committee,  on  the 


t 


LIBRARY 


607 


morion  of  William  Ewait,  M.P.  for  Dumfries,  was 
appoiiiteil  by  the  House  of  Cominons  to  rejiort  on 
tlie  best  means  of  '  extending  tlie  establishment  of 
libi'aries  freely  open  to  the  public,  especially  in 
large  to^^^ls  in  Great  Britain  and  Ireland.'  IJefore 
this  committee  was  laid  a  map  of  Europe  (printed 
in  the  report)  exhiliitinj;  by  various  shades  tlie 
relative  provision  of  books,  in  lilirarics  publicly 
accessible,  as  compared  with  the  population  of  tlie 
several  countries.  On  this  map  the  smaller  Ger- 
man states  are  represented  by  tlie  lij;htest  lines, 
indicating  the  richest  supply,  and  Great  Britain 
^^•ith  the  darkest  shade  or  poorest  provision.  The 
statistics  furnished  in  illustration  showed  that  in 
Saxony  for  everj-  hundred  inhabitants  there  were 
417  books  ;  in  Denmark,  412  ;  in  Bavaria,  359  ;  in 
Tuscany,  261  ;  in  Prussia,  200  ;  in  Austria,  167  : 
in  France,  129 :  in  Belgium,  95 ;  while  in  Great 
Britain  there  were  only  53  books  to  every  hundretl 
inhabitants.  It  may  be  remarked  that  in  1S50  the 
British  Museum  in  point  of  magnitude  stood  fourth 
in  the  list  of  European  liluaries.  It  now  holds  the 
second  place.  The  following  table  shows  the 
increase  of  the  European  libraries  at  that  time 
containing  over  400,000  \olumes  in  the  coui'se  of 
the  next  thirty-one  veal's  : 

1890.  1S3I. 

Paris,  Xational  Library 824,000 2,370.000 

Munich,  Royal  Library 600,000 1,026,000 

.St  Petersburg,  Imperial  Library 446,000 1,026,000 

London,  British  Museum 435,000 1,550.000 

Copenliagen,  Roral  Library 412,000 490,000 

Berlin,  Koval  Library 410,000 766,000 


.1 


Mr  Ewart  s  bill,  giving  power  to  certain  districts 
to  establish  free  libraries  and  to  tax  the  inhabit- 
ants for  that  purpose,  passed  into  law  in  1850,  and 
has  since  been  supplemented,  amended,  and  ex- 
tended to  Ireland  and  Scotland  bv  the  acts  of  1855, 
1866,  1871,  1877,  1SS4,  I.SS7,  and  1889.  It  is  applic- 
able to  any  borough,  ilistrict,  or  parish,  whatever 
the  amount  of  pdjiulatinn  :  a  meeting  of  the  rate- 
payers may  be  obtained  by  the  requisition  of  ten 
of  their  number  addressed  to  the  town-council  or 
other  local  board,  and  the  adoption  of  the  act  is 
decided  by  a  majority  of  those  present  at  the  meet- 
ing, or,  if  the  local  authorities  prefer  it,  the  will  of 
the  majority  may  be  obtained  by  the  issue  of 
voting  papei'S,  insteail  of  the  convening  of  a  public 
meeting/.  All  such  libraries  are  to  be  open  to  the 
public  nee  of  charge.  Some  of  tlie  larger  towns  at 
once  took  advantage  of  tlie  act.  Manchester  led 
the  way  in  1S52.  The  libraries  of  Liverpool  and 
Birmingham  were  opened  in  1860.  Each  of  these 
libraries  now  contains  more  than  100,000  volumes. 
Yet  the  movement  did  not  become  general  for  many 
years.  In  1868  there  were  only  fourteen  libraries 
established  under  the  acts.  Ten  years  later  the 
number  had  increased  to  eighty-one.  A  complete 
list  of  places  where  the  acts  have  been  adopted, 
with  the  dates  of  their  ailoption,  furnished  by  Mr 
Greenwood  in  his  '  Public  Libraries,'  brings  the 
number  in  June  1890  up  to  208.  Before  1886  there 
were  only  two  parishes  in  London  jirovided  with 
free  libraries.  In  1 890  there  were  twenty-one  estab- 
lisheil  within  the  boundaries  of  tlie  metropolis. 

The  English  act  was  extendeil  to  Scotland  in 
18.54,  and  the  Krst  town  to  profit  by  it  was 
.\irilrie.  The  free  liliraiy  of  Dundee  was  founded 
in  ISWi,  and  has  70,0(X)  volumes,  spending  annu- 
ally £KKX).  Edinburgh  was  compar.itivcly  rich  in 
libraries  belonging  to  professional  boiiies  ami 
learned  societies,  and  wsui  slow  to  adopt  the  acts. 
There  Ls  in  Edinburgh  or  elsewhere  in  .Scotland  no 
national  librarj-  sujiported  by  the  exchef|uer  as  in 
Irelan<l  ;  but  the  Advocates'  I^ibrarv,  now  (•ounting 
320,0(X)  volumes,  being  lilierally  thrown  open  to  all 
stinlenU,  served  many  of  the  purposes  of  such  a 
library ;  and  the  Signet  Library,  a  general  collec- 


tion as  well  as  a  legal  libraiy  {82,000  vols,  in  all), 
founded  and  maintained  by  the  Society  of  \Vriters 
to  II.  M.  Signet,  was  easy  of  access  to  strangers. 
The  university  library  contains  180,000  volumes. 
In  1886,  however,  the  city  was  persuaded  by  the 
munificent  donation  of  Mr  Amlrew  Carnegie  to 
establish  the  Free  Public  Library,  which  was 
opened  with  ,50,0(10  volumes  in  .liiiie  1S90.  Glas- 
gow is  still  without  a  library  under  the  acts,  but 
the  deficiency  is  in  small  part  sujiplied  liy  the 
Mitchell  Liliiary,  founded  by  a  beijuest  of  the  late 
Stephen  Mitchell,  .and  opened  in  1877.  This 
library,  which  has  rapidly  grown  and  is  specially 
rich  in  local  literature  and  Scotti.-h  poetry,  now 
contains  over  80,000  volumes.  It  is  open  to  all 
pei-sons  over  fourteen  years  of  age. 

In  Dublin  the  libraiy  of  Trinity  College  retains 
the  copyright  privilege,  and  has  223, (KlO  volumes. 
The  King's  Inn  libraiy,  founded  in  1787,  which, 
as  has  been  said,  had  the  copyright  tax  commuted 
for  an  annual  sum,  is  comparatively  small  (tiO,(K)0), 
and  restricted  to  members  of  the  legal  profession. 
The  National  Libraiy  of  Ireland,  established  in 
Dublin  in  1877,  and  transferred  to  a  new  building 
in  1890,  w.os  formed  in  part  by  the  collection  of  the 
Koyal  Dublin  Society,  and  now  numbers  100,000 
volumes.  It  was  placed  under  the  Science  and  Art 
Department  of  South  Kensington,  and  is  in  receipt  of 
an  annual  grant  of  £1000  for  the  purchase  of  books. 

France  is  remarkable  for  the  number  and  excel- 
lence of  its  provincial  libraries  open  to  the  public, 
while  its  capital  is  better  provided  than  any  other 
city  in  Europe.  The  Bibliotlicque  Xationale, 
which  is  the  largest  in  the  world,  is  of  ancient 
origin,  and  contains  the  collections  of  many  French 
kings.  Its  modern  liistory  may  be  said  to  date 
from  the  librarianship  of  De  Thou.  In  1617  it 
obtained  the  right  of  two  copies  of  every  book 
published  in  the  kingdom,  and  at  the  eml  of  the 
century  it  was  thrown  open  to  the  public.  At  the 
beginning  of  the  19th  century  it  contained  250,t)00 
printed  books,  83,000  JISS.,'aiid  1,5(X),000  eugrav- 
ings.  The  Revolution  enricheil  it  with  many  for- 
feited collections  of  private  persons  ami  religious 
communities;  anil  Napoleon  augmented  the  gov- 
ernment grant  for  purchases.  The  number  of  its 
volumes  is  now  well  over  three  million.  Fourteen 
other  libraries,  most  of  which  are  open  to  the 
public,  and  to  all  of  which  access  can  be  obtained 
without  ditliculty,  add  about  1,200.0<H)  to  the 
number  of  volumes  available  to  the  Parisian  reader. 
There  are,  moreover,  a  number  of  niiinicipal 
libraries  in  the  city.  The  most  notable  provincial 
libraries,  from  many  of  which  books  are  lent  out, 
are — taking  tliein  in  tlie  order  of  magnitude — 
those  of  Bordeaux,  (iieiioble,  Aix,  Nantes,  Besan- 
con,  Kouen,  Troyes,  and  Douai ;  the  lii'st  iiiimlier- 
ing  300,000  volumes,  and  the  last  over  100,000. 
An  important  feature  of  the  bibliotliecal  system  of 
F'rance  is  the  school  lilirary.  In  1862  it  was 
ordered  that  to  every  |irimarv  school  in  the  country 
there  should  be  attached  a  lilnarv,  under  the  care 
of  the  schoolmaslcr,  for  the  use  of  the  children,  their 
parents,  and  others.  They  are  supported  partly 
by  the  department  and  partly  by  a  government 
giant.  In  1882  there  were  already  established 
under  this  system  20,000  of  these  school  libraries. 

Throughout  the  German  empire  the  several  slate 
libraries  and  the  universities  are  well  jirovided 
with  books,  which  in  many  cases  can  be  borioweil 
for  use  outside  the  libraries.  Berlin  has  over 
seventy  libraries.  The  royal  libiaiy,  founded  in 
16.59,  was  openeil  to  the  public  in  IWil.  A  few  years 
later  it  became  entitled  to  a  copy  of  every  l«)ok 
publisheil  within  the  royal  dominion,  ami  it  spends 
.f48(K)  a  year  on  purcha.ses.  It  now  contains  alMint 
800,000  volumes.  The  royal  library  at  Munich 
owes  its  origin  to  Albert  V.,  Duke  of  Bavaria,  iu 


608 


LIBRARY 


the  niiiWle  of  the  16th  century.  It  is  the  largest 
collection  in  Germany,  and  is  j)articularly  rich  in 
incunabula.  The  nuniher  of  juinted  volumes  con- 
tained in  it  is  estimateil  to  exceed  a  million,  and  it 
possesses  some  2G,000  MSS.  In  Dresden  there  are 
forty-nine  libraries.  The  royal  library,  founded 
in  the  IGth  century,  now  contains  oUO.OOO  volumes. 
About  10,000  volumes  are  annually  lent  out  to 
500  borroweis.  The  royal  library'  of  Stuttgart 
is  an  e.\ample  of  rapid  growth.  It  was  estab- 
lished in  17U.>,  .■uid  in  1880  boasted  of  possessing 
about  425,000  i)riiited  books  and  3800  .MSS.  It 
enjoys  the  copy  jirivilege  of  Wiirtemberg.  The 
annual  number  of  borrowers  is  about  1800,  and  the 
books  lent  out  17,000.  In  the  Darmstadt  library 
there  are  half-a-million  volumes,  and  as  many  in 
the  university  of  Leipzig.  The  universities  of 
Bonn,  Berlin,  Bre.slau,  Gottingen,  Halle,  Heidel- 
berg, Munich,  Tiiliingen,  and  Wurzburg  contain 
from  200,000  to  400,000  volumes  each  ;  wliile  Stras- 
burg  University  library,  burned  in  1870,  in  twenty 
years'  time  counted  640,000. 

In  Austria-Hungary  the  universities  of  Cracow 
and  Gratz,  both  open  to  the  public,  contain 
over  100,000  volumes,  and  that  of  Budapest 
nearly  half-a-million.  In  Vienna  the  imperial 
library,  foun<leil  by  the  Em]>eror  Frederick  III. 
in  1440,  acquired  a  large  portion  of  the  famous 
library  of  Corvinus,  and  since  1808  has  been 
entitled  to  the  copy  pri\ilege  of  all  books  pub- 
lished within  the  empire.  It  is  estimated  to  con- 
tain about  500,000  volumes,  of  which  20,000  are 
MSS.  The  university  in  the  same  city  is  also  in 
possession  of  the  co])y  privilege,  and  has  about 
300,000  volumes,  which  are  freely  lent  out.  Alto 
gether  there  are  in  Vienna  more  than  a  humlred 
libraries. 

Italy,  as  might  be  expected,  is  rich  in  old 
libraries,  in  incunabula,  and  manuscripts.  The 
national  library  of  Florence  has  over  400,000 
volumes,  the  national  liljrary  of  Milan  has  .300,000, 
and  lh;it  of  Venice  has  the  same.  The  royal  library 
of  Parma  has  nearly  200,000,  and  Milan  ])ossesses 
two  libraries  with  as  manv.  The  universities  of 
Bologna,  Genoa,  Naples,  tisa,  and  Turin  have 
libraries  of  the  first  class.  But  all  these  yield  in 
interest  to  the  Vatican  Library  at  Rome,  which  is 
probably  the  oldest  in  Europe.  In  mere  number 
of  books  it  is  exceeded  by  numy,  but  its  220,000 
printed  volumes  are  of  the  greatest  value,  and 
its     2.">,000     MSS.     include     some    of     the     most 

Jireciou.-*  in  the  world.  The  Vatican  is  the  private 
ibrary  of  the  pope,  but  scholars  can  gain  access 
to  it  by  jiermission.  As  yet,  tinfortunately,  the 
want  of  catalogues  is  a  drawback  to  its  usefulness. 
In  Kome,  also,  the  pulilic  lilirary,  Vittorio  Eman- 
uele,  to  which  has  Ijeen  joined  the  Bibliutheca 
Ca.sanalense,  founded  by  Cardinal  Casauata  in 
1700,  was  made  up  in  great  part  from  the  old 
Jesuit  library  of  the  Collegio  Romano  and  other 
suppressed  religious  institutions,  and  now  contains 
about  half-a-million  printed  volumes  and  7500 
MSS.  The  conliscated  monastic  libraries  helped 
largely  to  swell  the  aggregate  number  of  volumes 
available  for  ])ublic  u.se.  In  1875  it  apjicars  that 
650  of  these  collections  were  added  to  the  contents 
of  public  libraries  already  in  existence,  while  lus 
many  as  1050  were  used  for  the  formation  of  more 
than  400  new  comnninal  libraries.  In  Italy  all 
the  i)ublic  libraries,  thirty-two  in  number,  including 
the  national  libraries,  the  university  libnirics,  ami 
the  collections  of  certain  academies,  are  under  the 
authority  of  the  minister  of  Public  Instruction, 
and  their  internal  management,  even  to  the 
comi)ilation  of  their  catalogues,  the  keeping  of 
registei-s,  and  the  ])urch;ise  of  books,  is  regulated 
by  a  code  of  rules  emanating  from  the  state. 

Ill  iSpain  the  national  library  at  Madrid  is  of  the 


largest  class,  with  10,000  MSS.  and  more  than 
400,000  printed  vohimes.  It  enjoys  the  copy- 
right jirivile™  for  all  books  published  in  the 
kingdom.  The  Escorial,  thougli  much  smaller, 
is  valuable,  and  the  same  may  be  said  of  the 
university  library  of  Salamanca.  The  national 
library  of  Lisbon  has  as  many  ^ISS.  as  that  of 
Madrid,  and  half  as  many  printed  books.  The 
large  municipal  library  of  Oporto,  founded  in  1833, 
was  enriclie<l  by  the  collections  of  sujipressed 
religious  houses.  Both  these  libraries  claim 
copies  of  all  books  published  in  Portugal. 

In  Belgium  there  are  ten  large  libraries  open  to 
the  public.  The  Bibliotheciue  Royale  at  Brussels 
(with  which  were  incorporated  the  ancient  library 
of  the  dukes  of  Burgundy  and  a  large  part  of  the 
Bollandists'  collection  )  contains  more  than  350,000 
volumes,  30,000  MSS.,  and  100,000  prints.  The 
privilege  of  coi)ynght  is  accorded  to  publishers 
only  on  the  condition  of  their  presenting  copies 
of  their  publication  to  this  library.  The  university 
libraries  of  Ghent  and  Louvain  contain  over  250,000 
vohimes,  and  that  of  Liege  more  than  100,000. 

In  Holland  there  are  libraries,  o]ien  to  all 
inquirers,  containing  from  100,000  to  more  than 
double  that  number  in  Amsterdam,  the  Hague 
(royal  library),  Leyden,  and  Ftrecht. 

In  IX'iimark  the  royal  Hbr.irv  of  Coiienhagen, 
begun  in  the  middle  of  the  lOtli  centurv,  has  more 
than  half-a-million  of  vidumes,  including  a  rich 
collection  of  incunabula  and  18,000  MSS.  It 
was  opened  to  the  public  in  1793,  and  exacts 
two  copies  of  all  books  published  in  the  kingdom. 
The  university  librarv  in  the  same  city  has  about 
250,000  printed  volu'nu's  and  4000  MSS.,  and  also 
enjoys  the  privilege  of  the  national  coj)y  tax. 

The  largest  collection  in  Sweden  is  the  royal 
library  of  Stockholm,  with  about  270,000  volumes. 
The  university  librarv  of  Upsala  is  not  far  behind. 
The  university  library  of  Christiania,  in  Norway, 
contains  about  250,000  volumes. 

In  Russia  the  universities  of  Dorpat,  Helsingfors, 
Kieff,  Moscow,  and  St  Petersburg  have  libraries 
of  more  than  100,000  volumes  each,  but  they  are 
not  generally  open  to  other  than  members  of  the 
several  bodies.  The  imiierial  library  at  St  Peters- 
burg, founded  at  the  beginning  of  the  18th  century, 
is,  however,  open  to  all  ])ersoiis  over  twelve  years 
of  age,  and  in  the  number  of  its  |irinled  books  as 
well  its  manuscripts  it  sur|iasses  the  royal  library 
of  Munich,  posse.ssing  as  it  does  about  1,1.52,000 
printed  volumes  and  about  26,000  jSISS.,  some  of 
which  are  of  the  highest  \  alue.  Here  is  preserved 
the  famous  Code.x  Sinaiticus.  This  library  has 
grown  largely  since  the  beginning  of  the  19th 
century.  It  lias  more  than  <loubled  since  1850. 
In  1810  the  law  re(|uired  two  copies  of  every 
publication  in  the  emiiiie  to  l>e  deposited  here. 

The  United  States  of  .\merica  liave  not  had  the 
o^)l>ortunities  of  Euroiie  in  the  gradual  accumulation 
oi  princely  collections  in  the  course  of  centuries, 
or  the  advantages  possessed  by  France  or  Italy  in 
the  more  recent  ai)|>ropriation  of  the  books  and 
treasures  of  monastic  houses.  Moreover,  the 
States,  until  1850,  showed  comparatively  little 
interest  in  the  institution  of  public  libraries  outside 
the  universities.  In  that  year  the  total  number  of 
libraries  containing'  5000  volumes  or  ujjwards  which 
could  be  said  to  \>e  accessible  to  the  public  was 
estimated  at  eighty-one,  containing  among  them 
an  aggregate  of  980,413  volumes — considerably  less 
than  the  total  number  of  volumes  to  be  found  in 
the  single  city  of  Paris.  The  movement  in  favour 
of  free  public  libraries  took  place  in  America  about 
the  .same  time  as  in  Englatid,  and  since  that  date 
nowhere  ha.s  the  accumulation  of  books  been  80 
rapid  as  in  the  States,  ami  nowhere  ha.s  the 
economy  and  management  of  free  public  libraries 


LIBRARY 


LIBRETTO 


609 


been  carried  to  greater  perfection.  In  1876  the 
nuiiilier  of  public  libraries  rejrfstered  was  3842, 
ccmtaiiiing  upwards  of  12,u69,0l»0  volumes.  In 
the  middle  of  the  century  there  wa.s  no  library 
in  the  States  with  a.s  many  as  75,000  volumes. 
In  1890  there  were  at  least  a  dozen  witli  over  100,000. 
Among  the  older  collections  the  most  notable  is 
that  of  Harvard  I'niversity,  established  in  1638. 
In  18r)0  it  was  estimated  to  contain  in  all  72,000 
volumes.  The  number  has  now  risen  to  more  than 
250,000,  and  it  increases  at  the  rate  of  7000  volumes 
annually.  Yale  College,  New  Haven,  which  had  in 
1850  some  21,000  volumes,  miw  has  about  180,000. 
Official  libraries  have  been  formed  in  eoimectiou 
with  every  state,  to  which  admission  is  free.  The 
largest  of  these  is  the  libr.ary  of  the  state  of  New 
York  at  Albany,  numbering  about  140,000  volumes. 
The  library  of  congress  at  Washington,  which 
includes  the  scientilic  collection  of  the  Smith- 
sonian Institution,  is  the  national  library  of  the 
United  States.  It  claims,  under  the  copyright 
laws,  two  copies  of  every  publication,  and  has  in 
addition  an  annual  grant  from  congress  of  nearly 
S60,000.  The  building  now  in  course  of  erection 
will  when  completed  be  the  largest  national  library 
in  any  country.  Of  the  free  town  libraries  the 
most  important  is  that  of  Boston,  founded  in  1852. 
In  1881  it  had  395,000  volumes,  and  now  has 
620,000.  In  Pennsylvania  there  are  433  libraries, 
with  a  gross  total  of  about  two  million  volumes. 
Other  great  libraries  have  been  established  and  en- 
dowed for  public  use  by  the  munificence  of  private 
individuals.  The  Astor  Library  at  New  York, 
founded  by  Jacob  Astor  and  augmented  by  his  son 
and  gramfson.  w.os  opene<l  in  1854,  and  was  able 
to  spend  on  books  §18,000  a  year.  The  Lenox 
Library,  also  at  New  York,  was  established  in 
1870  by  Mr  James  Lenox,  who  left  an  endowment 
of  over  a  million  dollars.  The  Astor,  Lenox,  and 
Tilden  Libraries  were  incorporated  liy  a  law  of 
1895  into  one  having  4,000,000  volumes  and  an 
endowment  of  88,000,000.  Another  notable  dona- 
tion was  the  Newberry  bequest,  which  became 
available  in  1885,  of  more  than  two  million  dollare 
for  the  establishment  of  a  free  public  library  in  the 
north  division  of  Cliieago. 

In  Canada,  as  vet,  there  are  but  few  public 
libraries.  That  of  Toronto,  established  in  1883, 
has,  however,  been  a  marked  success.  It  now 
contains  about  58,000  volumes.  The  library  of 
parliament  at  Ottawa,  founded  in  1815,  has  over 
100,000  volumes.  In  ^Australasia  the  library  move- 
ment is  striking  deeper  root.  It  was  calculated  in 
1887  that  there  was  a  i)ublic  library  in  Victoria  for 
every  4H00  of  the  inhahitants,  as  against  one  for 
every  277,000  in  the  United  Kingdom.  There  are 
in  Victoria  425  libraries.  The  Melbourne  public 
library,  founded  in  1853,  has  by  the  Copyright  Act 
of  Victoria  privileges  like  tho'se  possessed  by  the 
IJritish  Museum,  and  contains  430,000  volumes, 
pamphlets,  and  parts.  In  South  Australia  there 
are  140  imblic  libraries,  ami  in  New  South  Wales 
160.  In  1896  there  were  in  New  Zealand  304,  and 
in  Tasmania  40  libraries. 

The  literature  of  the  subject  is  a  large  one.  Mono- 
gra])hs  have  been  written  on  the  principal  libraries, 
ancient  and  modem  ;  and  reports  on  the  national  libraries 
have  been  issued  from  time  to  time  by  the  governments 
of  France,  Italy,  United  .States,  &c.  The  most  complete 
general  history  will  be  found  in  the  valuable  series  of 
works  by  Mr  Edwards,  already  referred  to,  Memoirs  of 
Libraries  {2  vols.  8vo,  18.~>1>),  Libraries  and  Foundcm 
of  Librariei  (18C5),  Free  I'oun  Libraries  (1869);  and 
Free  Public  Libraries,  by  T.  Greenwood  (3d  ed.  Lond. 
ISy^J ).  See  also  the  Report  from  the  Select  Committee 
on  Public  Libraries  (1849,  3.">7  pp.  fol. );  an  international 
U.st  of  libraries  ( Leip.  1890 ),  by  P.  E.  Riehtcr ;  How  U> 
Form  a  Librar;/,  by  H.  B.  Whoatley  (1880);  The 
Lihrani,  by  A.  Lang  (1888) ;  G.  F.  Chambers,  Digest  of 
299 


the  Lavs  of  Piihlic  Libraries  (1889);  the  little  treatise 
of  Mr  J.  r>.  Mullins  on  Free  Libraries  and  JVeics  Rooms, 
On  the  subject  of  librarj*  manaj;enient  and  cognate  sub- 
jects nmch  practical  information  will  be  found  in  the 
volumes  of  The  Librari/  Journal  (1876  to  the  present 
time),  >fcw  York;  the  Transactions  and  Proceedings 
of  the  Librari/  Associxitlon  of  the  United  Kiniidom,  and 
in  The  Lihrarii,  the  present  organ  of  the  association, 
edited  by  Mr  M'Alister.  Petzhuldt's  Katechismas  der 
Bibliothekenlehre  will  be  found  a  useful  hand-book. 
Compare  also  the  articles  Bibliography,  Books,  Book- 
Bi.vDiNG,  Indexing,  &c. 

Libratioil  (from  Lat.  Jihrci,  '  a  balance,'  mean- 
ing an  oscillating  motion),  a  term  denoting  certain 
movements  of  the  moon,  chiefly  aj/jxirc/it,  which 
have  an  important  effect  on  the  ajiparent  position 
of  the  lunar  formations.  A  short  study  of  the.se 
reveals  puzzling  changes  in  their  place  from  night 
to  night.  Those  near  the  ed^e  of  tlie  disc  disappear 
and  reappear  in  a  seemingly  irregular  way,  while 
central  formations  approach  or  leave  the  centre  in 
harnu)ny  with  this  motion.  These  appearances  are 
due  to  an  apparent  motion  of  the  moon  by  which 
its  globe  seems  to  turn  slightly  round  to  each  side 
alternately,  so  that  we  see  a  little  further  round 
lier  globe  on  all  sides  in  turn  than  we  would  do 
if  she  kept  absolutely  the  same  face  towards  us. 
This  motion,  as  it  refers  to  the  north  and  south 
edges  of  the  moon's  disc,  is  called  libration  in  lati- 
tude ;  as  it  refers  to  the  east  and  west  edges,  it  is 
called  libration  in  longitude.  The  libration  in  lati- 
tude arises  from  the  inclination  of  Ijoth  the  lunar 
equator  and  orbit  to  the  ecliptic.  From  the  relation 
between  these  two  factors  tlieir  eflects  always  rein- 
force each  other,  so  tliat  when  the  moon  rises  above 
the  ecliptic  in  her  orbit  she  also  inclines  her  under 
side  to  us,  and  when  below  the  ecliptic,  her  upper 
siile.  The  libration  in  longitude  arises  from  the  un- 
equal speed  of  the  moon  in  her  orl)it  (see  MooN') 
condjined  with  her  sensibly  uniform  rotation.  She 
is  thus  sometimes  before  or  behind  her  mean  place, 
and  we  can  see  a  little  round  her  west  or  east  edge 
respectively.  An  observer  at  the  north  or  south  pole 
of  tlie  earth  will  also  from  his  jiosition  see  a  little 
nmnd  the  north  or  south  edge  of  the  moon's  disc,  and 
for  intermediate  positions  the  etiect  has  intermediate 
values.  In  the  same  way  an  observer  in  the  tropics 
will  see  further  round  the  west  or  east  edges  of  the 
moon,  as  he  is  carried  from  west  to  east  by  the 
earth's  rotation.  These  effects  are  known  as  the 
diurnal  or  pnredlactic  libration.  The  maximum 
libration  in  lon'gitude  is  nearly  6°  50'.  That  in 
Latitude  equals  7"  53'.  The  diurnal  libration  may 
rise  to  1  2'.  These  numbers  refer  to  the  apparent 
displacement  of  lunar  markings  in  lunar  latitude 
and  longitude. 

Lihrotto  (Ital.,  'little  book'),  the  book  of  an 
opera.  lu  too  many  cases  it  is  deplorable,  from 
the  absence  of  any  literary  quality,  plot,  or  con- 
sistency ;  and  this  largely  because,  almost  from  the 
lieginning,  any  j)oetic  or  dramatic  powers  were 
forced  into  the  I'rocrustes'  beil  formed  by  the  re- 
quirements of  the  musician's  art.  The  Italian 
librettos  are  especially  jmor,  but  many  of  their 
English  and  German  rivals  run  them  hard  in  this 
respect.  Among  the  most  noteworthy  librettists 
havelieen  Metastasio,  Calzabigi,  ami  I-'clice  Romano 
in  Italy  ;  Quinault,  Marmontel,  Scribe,  Harbier, 
Meilhac  and  Halcvy,  as  well  a,s  Sardou,  in  France; 
the  poet  tieibel  ( who  wrote  I^ordctj  for  Mendels- 
sohn) and  Schikancder  (who  wrote  the  Zauber- 
fldte,  !kc.  for  Mozart)  in  Ciermany  ;  and  (iay, 
Alfred  liunn,  Kdward  Fitzball,  Theodore  Hook, 
Phanch(^,  and  (iilbert  in  England.  Wagner  stands 
alone,  in  that,  after  the  Fli/ini/  Dutchman,  he 
himself  wrote  the  liljrettos  of  liis  great  music- 
dramas,  becoming,  to  use  his  own  wonls,  *  first 
of  all  a  poet.'     IJryden,  Addison,  Fielding,  Chat- 


610 


LIBRI-CARRUCCI 


LICENSING   LAWS 


teiton,  '  Monk '  Lewis,  Voltaire,  and  Rousseau, 
besides  Sheridan,  Diclvcns,  and  Marie  Lemon,  have 
attempted  liliretto-writing ;  while  numerous  sub- 
jects tor  operas  have  been  taken  from  the  works 
of  Shakespeare,  Goldsmith,  tioethe,  Scott,  Hugo, 
&c. 

Libri-Carriirci,  Guii.laume  Brutus  Icilius 
TiMOLEON',  C'olXT,  matlicmatioian  and  biblio- 
^aplier,  was  born  at  Klorence,  '2d  Jainiary  1803. 
AVhen  only  twenty  years  of  age  he  was  appointed 
professor  of  Mathematics  in  the  university  of  Pisa. 
But  in  1830,  being  compromiseii  in  the  Liberal  poli- 
tical nuivement,  he  llect  to  France  as  a  refugee,  and 
there  fouinl  a  patron  in  Arago  ( whom  he  afterwards 
attacked  in  a  most  spiteful  manner).  He  was 
naturalised,  and  in  1833  elected  member  of  the 
Academy  of  Sciences,  professor  at  the  Sorbonne, 
Chief  Inspector  of  Public  Instruction,  and  Super- 
intendent of  the  State  Libraries.  He  was,  more- 
over, decorated  with  the  Legion  of  Honour,  and 
appointed  editor  of  the  Journal  des  Savants,  &c. 
An  enthusiastic  bibliomaniac,  he  found  means  to 
collect  a  magnificent  library  for  himself:  but,  be- 
ing accused  of  abstracting  hooks  and  valuable  MSS. 
from  the  pul>lic  libraries,  he  lied  to  England.  In 
his  absence  he  was  tried,  and  condemned,  in  June 
1850,  to  ten  years'  inii)risounient.  Lihri-Carrucci 
was  the  author  of  a  learned  Histoire  des  Sciences 
MatlUmatiqucs  en  Italie  (4  vols.  1838-11),  of 
MImoires  de  Muthimatiques  et  de  Physique  (\%29), 
and  other  works.  He  died  on  28th  September  18G9 
at  Fiesole  in  Italy. 

Libi'is,  Ex.    See  Bookpl.vtes. 

Libya,  the  name  given  by  the  ancient  geo- 
graphers to  that  portion  of  Africa  (q. v.)  between 
Egypt,  Ethiojiia,  and  the  Atlantic. 

Lice  {Pa/iculidm),  a  family  of  small,  wingless, 
parasitic  insects,  included  beside  bugs,  aphides, 
Coccidie,  &c.  in  the  order  Hemii)tera  or  Hhynchota. 
The  body  is  tiat,  thc^  legs  are  short  and  furnished 
with  firmly -grasping  claws,  the  mouth  is  suctorial, 
the  eyes  are  simple.  They  live  on  or  partly  in  the 
skin  of  vertebrates,  usually  mammals,  and  suck 
the  blood  of  their  hosts.  The  pear-shaped  eggs  or 
'  nits '  are  attached  to  hairs, 
feathers,  and  the  like ;  the  young 
have  no  metamorphosis,  thougii 
they  may  moult  as  usual.  Three 
species  occur  on  man.  The  head- 
louse  (Pediculus  capitis)  occurs  on 
the  scalp  ;  the  body-louse  (P.  eesti- 
7nenti)  lays  its  eggs  in  clothes,  and 
is  the  P.  tabcscnitium  of  the  '  lousy 
di.sease'  in  regard  to  which  many 
fabulous  reports  are  on  record. 
Both  multiply  rapidly  and  give 
PerficuZus  capitis,  great  annoyance,  usually  prevent- 
magnified.  able  by  cleanliness,  and  removable 
by  various  (e.g.  white  precipitate) 
ointments  in  the  first  case,  by  destroying  the  clothes 
in  thesecond.  The  'crab-louse'  {PIdhirius  jiiibisox 
inguimdis)  is  fortunately  rarer;  it  occurs  on  various 
parts  of  the  body — pubic  regions,  a.\illa,  eyebrows, 
■&c.  The  true  lice  harboured  by  dogs,  horses, 
cattle,  swine,  &c.  are  referred  to  the  genus  Hicman- 
topinus.  The  'bird-lice'  (  Mallophaga)  have  mouths 
aila))ted  for  biting,  and  are  not  included  in  the  above 
family  or  even  (mler,  being  more  nearly  allied  to 
the  termites  than  to  the  bugs.  A  common  and 
large  genus  infesting  birils  is  Philopterus  ;  species 
of  Tricliodectes  occur  on  dogs  and  sheep. 

Lieen.SC.  See  G.vme,  Doo,  Marriage,  Ex- 
cise, vV.C. 

Lieeiisili;;  La>V.S.  From  an  early  ])erioil  the 
English  parliament  devoted  special  attention  to  the 
trade  in    intoxicating   liquors.      That  trade  was 


always  the  chief  source  of  the  revenue  derived  fronj 
excise  duties  and  licenses.  A  "eneral  scheme  of 
excise  formed  part  of  Pitt's  budget  of  1784,  and 
was  embodied  in  the  Consolidation  Act  of  18'26, 
which  is  the  basis  of  the  existing  law.  In  1880  the 
malt  duty  was  abolislieil ;  but  brewei's  and  distillers 
are  still  recpiired  to  take  (mt  an  excise  license  and 
to  j)ay  duty  according  to  the  quantity  manu- 
factured. Wholesale  or  retail  dealers  in  beer, 
spirits,  or  wine  must  also  take  out  a  license.  The 
duties  on  retailei's'  licenses  were  transferred  to  the 
county  councils  by  the  Local  Government  Act  of 
1888. 

In  the  case  of  the  manufacturer  and  the  whole- 
.sale  dealer  only  the  excise  license  is  required  ;  but 
the  retail  trade  in  liquor  has  been  placed,  for  more 
than  three  centuries,  under  the  supervision  of  the 
justices  of  the  peace.  Every  person  who  keejjs  or 
intends  to  keep  a  public-house  must  obtain  a  license 
from  the  magistrates  before  taking  out  bis  excise 
license.  An  act  of  1830  ])ermitted  beer  licenses  to 
be  taken  out  without  applying  to  the  magistrates  ; 
but  later  acts  have  brought  all  beerhouses  and 
refreshment-houses  under  their  control.  I'luler  the 
general  Licensing  Act  of  18'28  special  sessions  aie 
held  once  a  year  for  the  grant  and  renewal  of 
licenses,  and  at  intervals  throughout  the  year  to 
hear  applications  for  transfer.  In  counties  new 
licenses  are  granted  Ijv  the  special  sessions,  but 
they  must  be  conlirmed  by  a  committee  of  the 
county  justices.  In  boroughs  ha\  ing  ten  or  more 
acting  justices,  new  licenses  are  granleil  by  a  com- 
mittee and  confirmed  by  the  whole  body  of  justices. 
The  license  thus  granted  and  confirmed  is  in  force 
for  a  year.  On  applying  for  a  renewal  the  a]ipli- 
cant  need  not  attend  in  person  unless  rei|uirc'd  by 
the  justices  to  do  so  ;  objectors  are  not  heard  unless 
due  notice  has  been  given  to  the  aiqilicant,  and 
evidence  must  be  given  on  oath.  jVIagistrates  in 
licensing  se.ssions  are  deemed  to  be  acting  judici- 
ally ;  they  must  hear  the  ])arties  fairly  ;  but  they 
have  discretion  to  grant  or  refuse  any  ajqilication, 
and  there  is  no  appeal  from  their  decision  on  the 
application  for  a  new  license.  Even  a  license-holder 
cannot  claim  renewal  as  a  right ;  he  has  no  vested 
interest.  But  renewal  is,  in  fact,  veiy  seldom 
refused  to  persons  of  decent  character,  occujiying 
suitable  premises ;  and  the  practice  of  the  magis- 
trates has  made  license-bidders  so  far  secure  that 
a  license  is  treated,  for  certain  purposes,  as  if  it 
were  a  vested  interest.  Probate  ihity  is  paid  on 
the  value  of  a  license  held  bv  a  deceased  person  ; 
but  his  representatives  may  oljtain  a  return  of  the 
duty  if  the  magistrates  refuse  to  renew.  Licenses 
for  the  sale  of  drink  to  be  consumed  oil'  the  i)remises 
are  subject  to  rules  less  strict  than  those  which 
apply  to  the  publican's  license.  The  'oil'  license' 
rcipiires  no  confirmation  ;  and  the  groniuls  on 
which  it  may  be  refused  are  limited  and  delined  by 
the  Wine  and  Beerhouse  Act  of  bstifl.  For  the 
detaileil  jirovisions  of  the  acts  relating  to  this  sub- 
ject, see  Stone's  Justices'  Manual. 

The  English  licensing  acts  are  complicated  and 
confused  ;  hut  parliament  is  unable  to  deal  with 
the  subject  as  a  whole,  by  reason  of  the  cimtro- 
versies  which  have  been  raised  on  jiarticular  points. 
There  are  now  very  few  ad\ocates  of  '  free  trade  in 
litpior  ;'  nor  is  there  any  strong  body  of  opinion  in 
favour  of  the  American  high-license  .system,  or  of 
the  'Gothenburg  system,'  under  which  the  munici- 
palities would  take  over  the  liquor  shiq>s  and 
manage  them  in  the  interest  of  the  comnnmily. 
In  England  all  parties  seem  to  ailmil  that  the 
trade  must  be  restricted  as  far  as  possible.  Mr 
Bruce's  Act  of  187'2  ( modified  in  some  of  its  details 
by  the  Act  of  1S74)  restricted  the  is.sue  of  new 
licenses,  subjected  tlie  publican's  tra<lo  to  stricter 
supervision,  increased  the  penalties  for  misconduct, 


LICENTIATE 


LICHENS 


611 


ami  shortened  tlie  lioni-s  within  wliicli  liquor  may 
be  sold.  Since  the  passinj;  of  the  Ait  ot  1S7'2  no 
very  important  change  lias  been  made  in  the  law  ; 
Imt  the  temperance  party  has  put  tcnward  \arious 
schemes  of  local  option,  by  which  it  is  proposed  to 
enable  a  majority  of  the  ratepayers  in  a  district  to 
reduce  the  numlier  of  licensed  houses,  or  even  to 
prohibit  the  sale  of  liriuor  altogether.  In  1890 
the  government  projiosed  to  arm  the  county 
councils  with  powers  which  might  have  enabled 
them  to  reiluce  the  inimlier  of  iniblic-honses.  But 
the  scheme  of  compensation  p\it  forward  by  the 
government  was  so  ill  received  tliat  they  were  com- 
pelled to  drop  their  proposals. 

In  Scotlanil  the  licensing  arrangements  intro- 
duced by  the  Home  Drummond  Act  of  1S'2S  bear  a 
general  resemblance  to  those  which  were  estab- 
lished by  the  English  act  of  the  same  year.  The 
Forbes  ^^ackenzie  Act  of  1853  introduced  a  new 
form  of  magistrates'  certilicate  (since  amended  by 
acts  of  1862  and  1887),  the  effect  of  which  is  to 
prohibit  the  sale  of  liquor  between  the  liours  of 
11  P.Jr.  in  large  towns,  or  10  P.M.  in  the  country, 
and  8  A.M.,  and  during  the  whole  of  Sunday.  The 
question  of  grocers'  licenses  has  been  much  dis- 
eu.ssed  in  Scotland,  and  in  1878  a  Royal  Commis- 
sion reported  on  the  subject.  See  Dewar's  Liquor 
Laws  for  Smtland. 

In  Ireland  licensing  authority  is  exercised,  as  a 
general  rule,  by  justices  of  the  peace,  and  the  law 
is  similar  to  that  of  England  :  it  is,  however,  in 
some  points  more  favourable  to  the  publican.  The 
defects  of  the  law  and  the  la.xity  with  which  it  is 
administered  have  led  to  the  multiplication  of 
licensed  houses  of  an  infeiior  character.  '  Six-day 
licenses'  were  introduced  by  an  act  of  1874  ;  and  in 
1878  total  closing  on  Sunday  was  made  part  of  the 
law  for  all  Ireland,  except  in  the  five  largest  towns 
in  the  island.  See  Exci.SE,  Inn,  Temperance  ;  and 
for  restrictive  legislation  with  regard  to  the  sale 
of  intoxicating  drinks  in  the  British  colonies  and 
in  portions  of  the  United  State.*,  see  LiQUOR  L.A.WS. 

Licentiate,  one  of  the  old  univei-sity  Degrees 
(q.v. ).  Among  Presbyterians  a  licentiate  is  a  per- 
son licensed  or  authorised  by  a  ijresbyteiy  to  preach, 
and  who  thus  becomes  eligible  to  a  pastoral  charge. 

Licben.  the  name  of  a  group  of  skin  diseases, 
very  variously  employed  b}-  ditlerent  writers,  but 
now  "enerally  restricted  to  cases  characterised  liy 
'  the  development  of  solid  persistent  papules  which 
undergo  but  little  change  till  they  gradually  dis- 
appear.' The  commoner  Ekin-eruptions  formerly 
called  lichen,  L.  simplex  and  L.  tropicus  (or 
'prickly-heat'),  are  abortive  forms  of^  eczema. 
Jsone  of  those  retained  under  this  name  is  common. 
L.  eircumsrriptus  occurs  in  bright  red  ])atches  on 
the  back  or  front  of  the  chest  in  adults,  apparently 
from  the  irritation  of  thick  woollen  garments  worn 
next  the  skin.  L.  xrrofutosorum  is  a  pale,  very 
chronic  papular  eruption,  sometimes  seen  in  deli- 
cate children.  L.  planus  or  ruber  is  the  most 
characteristic  and  important  of  the  group :  it 
manifests  itself  in  raised  Hat  patches,  of  a  dull- 
red  colour,  usually  very  chronic  in  their  course, 
often  somewhat  itchy.  It  does  not  usually  inter- 
fere much  with  the  health  :  ocelli's  generally  in 
adults,  never  in  young  children  ;  and  commonly 
yields  to  treatment  by  arsenic. 

Liehenill  is  a  starch  like  body  found  in  Iceland 
moss  an<l  other  lichens,  from  which  it  is  extracted 
by  digesting  the  moss  in  a  cold,  weak  solution  of 
carbonate  of  soda  for  some  time,  and  then  boiling. 
In  most  of  its  relations  it  corresponds  with  ordinaiy 
starch. 

Lii'hen.S,  familiar  plants  which  form  encrusting 
CTowths  on  rocks  and  stones,  on  the  stems  and 
branches  of  trees,  on  walls  and  fences,  and  on  the 


earth  itself.  They  are  common  in  every  zone,  and 
at  all  levels  from  the  .seashore  to  the  numntain 
summit.  Usually  the  tirst  plants  to  settle  on  a 
bare,  stony  surface,  they  slowly  hide  the  naked- 
ness of  the  rock  with  their  (lat  incrustations  or 
shaggy  tufts,  generally  "ray  or  greenish,  yellow  or 
red  in  colour.  Especially  familiar  are  the  yellow 
patches  which  beautify  old  walls,  the  hoary  tufts 
which  grace  decaying  trees,  and  the  gray  elniiips 
which  raise  their  cup-like  fructifications  on  damp 
rocks.  They  are  hardy,  long-lived  plants,  able  to 
survi\'e  prolonged  desiccation. 

In  18GG  I)e  Bary  hinted  that  lichens  were  not 
single  plants  in  a  class  by  themselves,  but  that 
they  were  double  plants,  each  made  up  of  an 
intimate  combination  of  an  alga  and  a  fungus. 
Two  years  later 
S  c  h  w  e  n  d  e  n  e  r  a 

virtually  estab- 
lished this  so- 
called  '  dual 
hypothesi  s. ' 
'  As  the  result 
of  my  re- 
searches,' he 
says,  'all  these 
growths  ( lich- 
ens )  are  not 
simple  plants, 
not  individuals 
in  the  ordinary 
sense  of  the 
word  ;  they  are 
rather  colonies, 
consisting  of 
hundreds  and 
thousands  of 
individual  s, 
among  which, 
however,  one 
dominates, 
while  the  rest 
in  perpetual 
captivity  pre- 
pare the  nutri- 
ment for  them- 
selves and  their  master.  This  master  is  a  fungus, 
a  parasite  which  is  accustomed  to  live  upon  others' 
work ;  its  sla\es  are  green  alga>,  which  it  has 
sought  out,  or  indeed  caught  hold  of  and  com- 
pelled into  its  service.  It  surrounds  them,  as 
a  spider  its  prey,  with  a  fibious  net  of  narrow 
meshes,  which  is  gradually  converted  into  an  im- 
penetrable covering;  but,  while  the  spider  sucks 
its  prey  and  leaves  it  dead,  the  fungus  incites 
the  algal  found  in  its  net  to  more  rapid  activity, 
indeed  to  more  vigorous  increase.'  This  view  has 
been  corrobonitcil  by  many  botanists,  especially  by 
Hornet,  Treub, 
Kees,andStahl, 
and  is  accepted 
by  most,  though 
it  is  only  fair  to 
say  that  it  is 
still  denied  and 
resented  by 
some  distin- 
guished licheno- 
logists.  The 
l)roof  of  the 
theoiy  is  two- 
fold :  the  two 
component  sets 
of  cells  have 
been  studied  apart  and  referred  to  their  position 
among  Alg.c  and  Fungi  :  while,  on  the  oilier  hand, 
it  is  possible  to  manufacture  lichens  by  bringing 
together   the  respective  alga;  and  fungi  which  in 


Fig.    1. — Usnea   larbata,  a  fruticose 

lichen,  natural  size  : 
a,  fructificatioiis ;  /,  disc  by  wliicli  it  is 
attached  to  the  bark  of 'the  tree. 


Fig.  2. — Section  through  Colhma 

putjjoifumj  niagniticd  350  diameters  : 

The  tlireads  are  the  fungus;  the  round 

colts  thcalKn^ 


612 


LICHFIELD 


LICHTENSTEIX 


nature  are  wont  to  grow  in  jiartnership.  For  these 
reasons  liolu'ns  are  regariIo(l  not  as  single,  l>ut  as 
double  organisms — as  an  intimate  union  of  algal 
and  fungal  cells,  living  in  mutual  helpfuluess  or 
symbiosis.  Some  at  least  of  the  algal  cells  can  live 
apart,  and  some  hccome  a.ssooiatod  with  several 
fungi  to  form  ilillerent  liclieiis ;  hut  it  must  he 
clearly  recognised  that  the  customary  conihinations 
are  of  long  standing,  since  the  partner  fungi  do  not 
and  cannot  Uvc  independently.  As  to  the  physio- 
logical conditi  us  of  the  partnershi]),  it  is  enough 
here  to  notice  that  root-like  filaments  from  the 
fungal  cells  absorb  water  and  salts  from  the  rain 
and  the  substratum,  and  pass  this  inorganic 
material  to  the  alga' ;  that  the  latter,  like  all  green 
plants,  are  able  in  sunlight  to  split  up  the  carbonic 
acid  absorbeil  from  the  air,  and  to  build  up  organic 
compounds  like  starch  ;  that  these  organic  products 
pass  by  osmosis  from  the  algal-cells  to  the  fungus, 
while  it  is  likely  enough  that  the  waste  products 
of  the  fungus  are  in  turn  utilised  by  the  alga. 
(It  is,  however,  quite  probable  that  the  fungi  of 
some  lichens  in  favourable  situations  among  decom- 
posinr'  vegetable  matter  absorb  this  in  the  usual 
lungiil  fashion.)  To  the  curious  complementary 
association  of  fungi  and  algae  to  form  lichens,  a 
parallel  has  been  demonstrated  by  Geddes,  Brandt, 
and  others,  in  regard  to  Radiolarians  and  some 
other  animals,  with  which  'yellow  cells,'  or  '.sym- 
biotic alg;e,'  live  in  habitual  partnership  (see 
SvMBlosi.s).  Lichens  propagate  by  spores  de- 
veloped in  various  ways  from  the  component 
fungus,  but  with  these  the  partner  alg.'e  uuist  be 
speedily  associated.  In  some  cases,  indeed,  fungal- 
spores  and  algal-cells  are  liberated  together.  An- 
other frequent  mode  of  multiplication  is  by  means 
of  brood-buds,  which  consist  of  a  few  algal-cells 
plus  a  separated  portion  of  the  fungus. 

Most  of  the  lichen-forming  fungi  are  Discomy- 
cetes  or  Pyrenomycetes ;  the  associated  alg;e  are 
very  varied — e.g.  Palmellacea>,  Chroolepideu",  Nos- 
tocaceaj,  Confervacea^,  &c.  There  are  about  6000 
species  of  lichens,  for  the  classitication  of  which 
reference  nuist  be  made  to  the  cited  literatuie. 

Lichens  assist  in  weathering  the  surfaces  of  rocks, 
into  the  substance  of  which  the  fungi  sometimes 
send  numerous  filaments,  and  they  are  thus  the 
preparers  of  soil  and  the  forerunnere  of  higher 
vegetation.  'Iceland  ^SIoss'  {Cetraria  islandica) 
is  used  for  food  and  medicine ;  '  Reindeer  Moss ' 
( Cliidonia  ranqifcrinn )  is  the  fodder  of  the  reindeer, 
and  is  also  utilised  in  Scandinavia  for  the  manufac- 
ture of  a  sort  of  brandy ;  pigments  known  as 
Litmus,  Orseille,  &.c.  are  procured  from  Roccella 
tinctoria  and  E.  fuciformis,  both  marine. 

See  ALG.e,  Fungi,  Stmbiosis.  See  also  De  Bary,  Com- 
paratire  Morphology  of  Futuii,  &c.  (trans.  1887);  A. 
W.  Bennett  and  G.  Murray,  Handbook  of  CrypUujamic 
Botany  (1880);  Bornet,  Michcyc/ics  aur  lea  (ronidics  dfs 
Lichens  (Ann.  Sc.  Nat.  xvii.  and  xix.  1873-75);  K. 
Goebcl,  Outlines  of  Classif.  and  Morph.  (trans.  1887); 
Cli.  Luersson,  Med.  Phann.  Botanik  (1878);  Schwen- 
dener.  Die  Al'jenti/pen  d.  FiechUnqonidien  (ISGO);  Sachs, 
Text-book  of  Botany  (trans.  1882);  Stahl,  Beitr.  z. 
Entwiekelung  d.  Flechten  ( 1877-78 ) ;  W.  A.  Leij,'hton, 
Liehen-fiora of  Crreat  Britain  and  Ireland  {3d  ed.  1884). 
For  the  works  of  Johow,  Kees,  Treub,  Tulasno,  and  for 
the  systematic  works  on  lichenology,  see  references  in  the 
above.  For  a  protest  against  the  '  dual  hyi)othesis,'  see 
il.  C.  Cooke,  Britisli.  Fresh-water  Alga  ( Inter.  Sc.  Series, 
1890). 

Licllfii'ldt  a  municipal  (and  till  1885  parlia- 
mentary )  borough  of  StalVordshire,  and  the  seat  of 
a  bishopric,  is  pleasantly  situated  in  a  valley 
watered  by  an  allluent  of  the  Trent,  15  miles  Sh. 
of  Stafh)rd  and  118  NW.  of  London.  Population 
(1801)  4712;  (1881)  8;J49.  Its  cathedral— a  noble 
pile,  measurini'  411  feet  by  G6  (or  149  across  the 
trausepta),  and  surmounted  by  three  to  were  with 


spires,  the  central  258  feet  high — dates  from  the 
13th  century,  when  the  Mercian  see,  founded  in 
656,  and  constituted  an  archbishopric  786-800,  was 
after  its  translation  to  Chester  in  1075,  and  siibse- 
cpiently  thence  to  Coventry,  reestablished  here  at 
its  original  seat.  Despoilecl,  and  with  its  central 
tower  beaten  down  during  the  siege  of  Lichfield  by 
the  parliamentarians  (1043),  the  cathedral  was 
subsequently  (1661-70)  etl'ectively  repaired,  and  of 
late  years  (1860-84)  both  the  e.\terior  and  interior 
have  been  most  ably  restored  at  a  cost  exceeding 
£40,000,  whilst  in  1885  a  statue  of  Queen  Victoria 
by  the  Princess  Louise  was  i)laced  in  a  niche  of 
the  building.  At  the  north-east  angle  of  the  Close, 
adjoining  the  cathedral,  is  the  Bishop's  Palace 
( 1687 ),  and  hard  by  once  stood  the  castle  ( of  which 
no  traces  now  remain)  in  which  Kichard  II.  held 
high  revelry  at  Christmas  1397,  and  where  two 
years  later,  after  his  deposition  from  the  throne, 
he  was  confined  a  prisoner.  Amongst  other  edifices 
may  be  noted  the  grammar-school,  at  which 
Addison,  Dr  Johnson,  and  Garriek  were  educated  ; 
two  hospitals  founded  1495  and  1504 :  the  theo- 
logical college  (1857);  and  a  concert  hall  occupy- 
ing the  site  of  the  theatre  at  which  ^Irs  Siddons 
made  her  first  appearance  after  her  marriage.  In 
the  history  of  tlie  town  the  i)rincipal  incidents, 
other  than  those  noticed  above,  have  been  its 
partial  destruction  by  fire  ( 1291 ) ;  five  visitations 
of  the  plague,  which  in  1594  claimed  1100  victims, 
and  821  in  1645-46;  a  "reat  storm  (1593)  which 
blew  down  the  steeples  of  two  of  its  churches  ;  and 
seven  royal  visits.  Its  87  bisho])s  include  St  Chad, 
De  Clinton  (who  commenced  the  cathedral),  De 
Langton  (who  added  the  Lady  Chapel,  now  thrown 
into  the  choir,  and  rich  in  stained  glass  brought  in 
1802  from  the  dissolved  monastery  of  Herckenrode 
in  Belgium),  Abbot,  afterwards  Archbishop  of 
Canterlinry  ;  Hacket  ( who  carried  out  the  restora- 
tions of  1661-70),  Hurd  (the  tutor  of  George  IV.), 
and  George  Augustus  Selwyn.  A  statue  of  Dr 
.Johnson  was  erected  in  1838  in  the  market-place, 
opposite  the  house  in  which  he  was  born,  and  which 
was  bought  by  a  Mr  Johnson  in  18S7  'to  save  it 
from  the  hands  of  spoilers'  {jS'utcs  and  Queries, 
November  19,  1887).  Among  residents  or  natives 
have  been  Ashmole  (founder  of  the  Ashmolean 
Museum  at  Oxford),  i$Lshop  Newton,  Dr  Darwin, 
and  his  biographer  Miss  Seward,  and  llonora 
Sneyd,  afterwards  ^Irs  Edgeworth.  Lichfield 
gives  the  title  of  Earl  to  the  family  of  Anson. 
See  Harwood's  Lichjidd  (1806),  Erdeswick's  Staf- 
fordshire (revised  ed.  1844),  and  Beresford's  Lich- 
field ( '  Dioce-san  Histories '  series,  1883). 

Licliteiiborg,  Georc  Chiustoph,  physicist 
and  satirist,  was  born  on  1st  .luly  1742,  at  Oberram- 
stadt  near  Darmstadt,  and  educated  at  (iottingen, 
where  he  held  the  chair  of  Mathematics  from  1770 
till  within  a  few  years  of  his  death,  on  24th 
February  1799.  Two  visits  to  England  (1769  and 
1774)  inspired  him  with  a  love  for  things  English  ; 
he  had  a  great  admiration  for  (Jarrick,  and  wrote 
a  witty  commentary  on  Hogarth's  copperplates, 
Ausfiihrliche  Er/ctiiriinff  der  Hogartlisclien  hnjfcr- 
stiche  (1794  et  scq.).  In  Germany  he  enjoys  a  high 
reputation  as  a  satirist,  Lavater  being  an  esjiecial 
sufferer  at  his  hands.  All  his  writings  were  desul- 
tory and  occasional,  and  mostly  seini-i>hilosopbical 
in  spirit ;  they  show  a  keen  insight  into  human 
nature.  The  best  collected  edition  is  that  by  his 
sons,  14  vols.  1844-53.  See  Grisebach's  Gedanhen 
und  Maximal  aus  Lichtenberg' s  Sclirifteii  (with 
biography,  1871),  and  Meyer's  comparative  study 
of  Swift  aiul  Lichtenberg  (1886). 

LicllteilSteill.  a  town  of  Sa.\ony,  on  the  Rod- 
litz,  45  miles  SSE.  of  Leipzig.  Pop.  5395.  See 
also  LlECHTK.NSTEIX. 


LICK    OBSERVATORY 


LIEBIG 


613 


Lick  Observatory  is  'milt  on  the  lowest 
(4227  feet)  of  the  three  summits  of  Mount  Hamil- 
ton, 20  miles  hy  a  line  mountainioad  E.  of  San 
Jose,  California.  For  its  erection  and  equipment 
$700,000  were  left  by  James  Lick  (1796-1876),  an 
American  millionaire,  whose  remains  are  interred 
in  a  vault  within  the  foundations  of  the  pier  that 
supports  the  great  telescope.  This  instrument  ha-s 
an  object-glass  of  36  inches  in  aperture,  the  founder 
requiring  it  to  be  '  superior  to  and  more  powerful 
than  any  telescope  ever  yet  made ; '  and  it  is  pro- 
vided with  a  photographic  attachment  which  enables 
it  to  be  used  as  a  gigantic  camera  in  the  photo- 
grajiliy  of  stars.  "When  completed  the  observatory 
was  made  over  to  the  University  of  California.  See 
Professor  Holden's  Handbook  of  the  Lick  Observatory 
(San  Francisco,  1888). 

Lietors.    See  Consul,  Fasces. 

Liddell.  Hexry  George,  joint  author  of 
Lidtlell  and  Scoffs  Greek  Lexicon,  was  born  in 
1811,  and  educated  at  Charterhouse  and  Christ 
Church,  Oxford,  where  he  took  a  double  first 
in  18.33.  He  was  made  tutor  of  his  college,  and 
in  1845  professor  of  Moral  Philosophy  in  his 
university.  After  acting  for  nine  years  ( 1846- 
55)  as  head-master  of  Westminster  School,  he 
returned  to  Christ  Church  as  dean.  From  1870 
to  1874  he  was  vice-chancellor  of  the  university. 
The  Lexicon  (1843;  7th  and  delinitive  ed.  1883) 
was  based  on  the  German  one  of  Passow.  It  soon 
became  indispensable  to  students  of  Greek,  and  a 
smaller  edition  was  issued  for  the  use  of  school- 
boys, an  intermediate  one  in  1S90.  Dr  Liddell's 
fellow-worker  was  Robert  Scott,  D.D.  (lSll-87), 
master  of  Balliol  (1854-70),  and  Dean  of  Rochester. 
Dr  Liddell  wrote  a  useful  History  of  Rome  (lUba  ; 
abridged  as  Tin:  Student's  Home).  He  resigned  the 
deanship  in  1891,  and  died  ISth  January  1S98.  See 
Life  Ijy  Thompson  (1S99). 

Liddesdale,  Kuxburghshire,  the  valley  of  the 
Liddel,  which  flows  27  miles  SSW.  near  or  along 
the  Border  (q.y. )  to  the  Esk  12  miles  X.  of  Carlisle. 

Liddon,  Henky  P.\rey,  D.D.,  was  born  at 
North  Stoneham,  Hampshire,  20th  August  1829, 
the  son  of  a  naval  captain,  and  at  the  age  of  seven- 
teen went  up  from  King's  College  School,  London, 
to  Christ  Church,  Oxford,  where  in  18.50  he 
graduated  B.A.  with  a  second-class  in  classics, 
and  in  1851  obtained  the  coveted  Johnson  theo- 
logical scholarship.  Ordained  in  1852  as  senior 
student  or  fellow  of  Christ  Church,  from  1854  to 
1859  he  was  vice-piincipal  of  Cuddcsdon  Theological 
College.  He  was  appointed  prebendary  of  Salis- 
bury Cathedral  in  1864,  and  was  select  preacher  at 
Oxford  in  1863-65,  1870-72,  1877-79,  and  1884. 
Dr  Liddon  was  a  member  of  the  Hebdomadal 
Council  at  Oxford  from  1866  to  1875.  In  tlie 
former  year  he  delivered  Iiis  famous  Eampton 
Lectures  on  tlie  Diciniti/  of  Our  Lord  (1867  ;  13th 
ed.  1889).  In  1870  Dr  i.iddon  was  created  Canon 
Kesidentiarj-  of  St  Pauls  Cathedral,  and  in  the 
same  year  was  appointed  Ireland  professor  of  the 
Exe^'esis  of  the  Holy  Scripture  in  Oxford  Uni- 
versity, when  he  was  created  D.D.  and  honorary 
D.C.L.  He  resigned  the  Ireland  profcssorshi])  in 
October  1882  in  consequence  of  ill-health,  and 
owing  to  the  same  cau.se  it  is  understood  that  he 
m'lre  than  once  aftej-wards  declined  a  bishopric. 
In  1869  he  republished  from  the  Guardian  a 
sketch  of  'Walter  Kerr  Hamilton,  Bishop  of 
Salisbury.'  He  eilited  in  1874  liishop  Andrcices' 
Manual  for  the  Sick,  Dr  Pusey's  Prayers  for  a 
School  liny  in  1883;  issued  a  selection  of  Private 
Prayers  in  1884;  and  in  conjunction  with  Dr 
William  Bright  wrote  the  Enyltsh  Church  Defence 
Tracts.  Canon  Liildon's  senimns  have  exercised 
a   profound    iulluence   upon    the    thought    of    the 


time,  and  many  of  them  have  been  published, 
including  those  upon  his  friends  Pusey  and  Bishop 
Wilberforce,  the  sermons  preached  before  the  uni- 
versity of  Oxford,  Lent  lectures,  and  discourses  on 
church  troubles.  Dr  Liddon  strongly  opposed  the 
Cluircli  Discipline  Act  of  1874,  and  as  warmly 
supported  (by  letters  in  the  I'imcs)  Mr  filadstones 
crusade  against  the  Bulgarian  atrocities  in  1876. 
He  took  a  great  interest  in  the  Conference  for  the 
Reunion  of  the  Churches  held  at  Bonn  in  1875,  and 
translated  Professor  Reusch's  account  of  the  con- 
ference, writing  also  a  preface  for  the  same  work. 
Canon  Liddon  was  the  most  able  and  eloquent  expo- 
nent of  Liberal  Hi^h  Church  ]5rincii)les.  He  had  Ion" 
been  engaged  on  the  Life  of  Dr  I'usey,  when  he  died 
suddenly  at  Weston-super-Mare,  9tli  September  1890. 

Lie.  Jox.\s,  the  most  popular  novelist  of  Norway, 
was  horn  at  Eker,  near  Drammen,  on  6th  November 
1833.  He  studied  law  at  Christiania,  and  practised 
as  an  advocate  for  a  few  years  at  Kongsviiiger  ;  but 
at  length  he  abandoned  his  profession  for  literature. 
His  novels  give  admirable  realistic  j)ictures  of  life  in 
Norway,  especially  of  the  fisher-folk  of  the  west 
coast.  His  popularity  is  due  to  the  sunshine  of 
kindliness  and  delicate  poetiy  that  lights  up  his 
books,  to  the  healthy  tone  of  his  writing,  his  fidelity 
to  nature,  and  his  genial  humour.  His  best  novels 
include  The  Visionary  (1870,  trans.  1S94),  wliich 
rapidly  ran  through  half-a-dozen  editions ;  The 
Three-master  'Future'  (1872):  The  Pilot  and  his 
Wife  (1874;  Eng.  trans.  1877),  of  which  five 
editions  were  exhausted  in  the  first  year ;  Go  on 
( 1SS2) ;  A  Prisoner  for  Life  ( 1883) :  The  Fami/i/  at 
Gdje  {iSS3],  his  best  novel;  A  Whirlpool  (l»Si) ; 
The  Cmnmander's  Bauffhtcrs  (\SSG) :  the  excellent 
Married  Life  {,1%^',) ;  and  Maisa  Jons  (1889),  the 
life  of  a  Christiania  seamstress.  Jonas  Lie,  more- 
over, has  published  two  collections  of  Short  Stories 
(3d  ed.  1880,  and  1885),  a  vohime  of  popular  Poems 
( 1866 ),  and  a  successful  comedy,  Gralou-'s  Cat  {ISSO). 

Liebig.  Justus,  Feeiheer  vox,  chemist,  was 
born  at  Darmstadt  on  12th  May  1803.  The  bent 
of  his  mind  showed  itself  early.  He  studied 
chemistiy  at  Bonn  and  Erlangen,  and  in  1822  went 
to  PaiTS  to  perfect  his  studies.  There  he  was 
introduced  by  A.  von  Humboldt  to  Gay-Lussac, 
who  took  him  into  his  private  laboratory,  and 
along  with  him  proved  that  the  fulminates  are 
identical  in  composition  with  the  cyanates.  Hum- 
boldt two  years  later  secured  for  Liebig  the  appoint- 
ment of  professor  of  Chemistiy  at  the  uni\ersity  of 
Gies.sen.  This  chair  he  exchanged  in  1852  for  the 
corresponding  one  at  JVIunich.  He  died  on  18th 
April  1873.  In  1845  he  had  been  created  Baron 
(Freihcrr).  Liebig  was  one  of  the  most  illustrious 
and  fruitful  chemists  of  his  age,  not  less  renowned 
for  his  investigations  and  discoveries  in  i>urc 
chemistry  than  for  his  researches  in  ap]ilied 
chemistry,  and  not  less  honoured  for  the  reforma- 
tion he  efl'ected  in  chemical  method  than  for  his 
hijj;hly  important  applications  of  chemical  know- 
ledge to  the  furtherance  of  the  arts  of  life.  As  the 
inventor  of  the  extract  of  beef  and  the  prepared 
infant  food,  his  name  is  known  almost  everywhere 
throughout  the  civilised  world.  He  was  the 
founder  of  agricultural  chemistry,  and  thus  the 
greatest  reformer  of  practical  agriculture  in  the 
19th  century.  Closely  connected  with  his  work 
in  this  department  were  his  researches  into  the 
nutrition  of  plants.  He  taught  that  each  of  the 
nonvolatile  saline  ingredients  found  in  the  ash  is 
essential  to  the  life  and  growth  of  the  plant,  and 
that  the  plant  gets  them  from  the  soil  ;  this  in 
coni-se  of  time  exhausts  the  soil  and  nuikes  it 
barren,  unle.s.s  the  elements  which  go  to  nourish 
the  plant  be  resupplied  to  it,  whether  by  means  of 
manure   or   through   the  chemical   action    of    the 


614 


LIEBRECHT 


LI^.GE 


weatlier.  Tims  he  directed  attention  to  tlie  cycle 
of  transmutation  between  tlie  mineral,  the  ve^'c- 
table,  and  the  animal  kingdoms.  In  the  depart- 
ment of  animal  physiology  he  made  notalile  con- 
trihntions  to  chemical  science,  demonstratin;;, 
amongst  other  things,  that  the  heat  of  the  animal 
body  is  wholly  produced  by  the  processes  of  internal 
combustion  attendant  upon  the  disintegration  of 
nutritive  niattei-s ;  that  ditl'ercnt  kinds  of  food 
serve  dillerent  purposes  in  the  body,  and  so  adnut 
of  classiKcation  :  tlial  animal  fat  is  produced  within 
the  animal  organism  from  sugar  and  starch  ;  and 
that  spontaneous  combustion  in  the  human  body  is 
an  impossibility.  The  phenomena  of  fermentation 
he  explained  as  being  purely  chemical.  He  also 
investigated  the  constituents  of  the  juices  of  tiesli, 
and  (along  with  Wfilder,  q.\'.)  of  uric  acid,  with 
most  important  results.  Tliis  brings  us  to  the 
region  of  pure  organic  cliemistry.  One  of  the  most 
brilliant  instances  of  the  application  of  the  methods 
of  organic  analysis  in  chemistry  was  Liebig's  and 
Wohler's  discovery  of  the  compound  radicle  benzoyl 
from  the  study  of  oil  of  bitter  almonds  and  its 
derivatives.  His  investigations  into  the  constit- 
uents of  alcohol  and  its  derivatives  led  him  to 
o|)pose  the  existing  view,  that  of  the  French  chemists 
Dumas  and  BouUay,  who  regarded  alcohol  and 
ether  as  hydrates  of  olefiant  gas ;  whereas  Liebig 
denied  the  existence  of  the  olefiant  gas,  and 
believed  these  compounds  to  be  derivatives  of  a 
radicle  ethyl,  consisting  of  carbon  and  hydro- 
gen. In  the  course  of  tliis  inquiry  he  elicited  for 
the  first  time  chloroform  and  chloral  ;  and  it  was 
whilst  investigating  the  conversion  of  alcohol  into 
acetic  acid  that  he  discovereil  the  compound 
aldeliyde.  Tlien,  by  the  clever  use  of  the  idea  of  the 
polybasic  iiroi)erties  of  certain  acids,  he  succeeded 
in  determining  the  constitution  of  organic  acids. 
Among  the  practical  discoveries  and  apiilications 
of  Lielng  may  be  mentioned  the  invention  of  silver- 
coated  mirrors,  an  easy  method  for  the  preparation 
of  potassic  cyanide,  now  so  largely  used  in  electro- 
plating, his  plan  for  making  unfermented  bread, 
and  his  methods  for  analysing  mineral  waters. 

When  Liebig  began  to  teacli  there  were  no  public 
chemical  laboratories  in  (lermany.  By  his  initiative 
one  was  established  at  (Jiessen  ;  and  from  that  have 
grown  the  admirably-eiiuipped  physical  laboratories 
of  the  (Jerman  and  other  universities.  Besides 
stimulating  the  study  of  chemistry  in  this  way,  he 
vastly  extended  the  use  of  the  method  of  organic 
analysis,  and  invented  such  useful  chemical  ai)par- 
atus  as  the  appliances  for  analysis  by  combustion, 
the  tube  for  deternuning  molecular  weight,  and 
Liebig's  condenser.  His  most  important  treatises, 
all  translated  into  English,  were  Anlcitunfj  ziir 
Atialyse  organischer  Korper  (1837);  Die  Chemie 
in  Hirer  A  nivendung  auf  At/ricultur  vnd  Pliysiologie 
(1840);  Die  Thierchemie' (\8i2) ;  Handbuch  der 
orgtcniichcn  Chemie  (1843);  Cliemischc  Untersuch- 
ungeii  iiber  das  FleiscJi  uiid  seine  Znbereitung  zum 
Nahrungsmi/tel  (imi);  Die  Gru/idmifze  der  Agri- 
cttlturcheinic  (1855);  Cliemisehe  Briefi;  (1S44);  be- 
sides numerous  papers  in  scientific  iournals  (317 
in  the  /?«»/.  Soc.  Ti-ans.).  See  works  bv  A.  W. 
Hofm.-mn  ('l876)  and  W.  A.  Slienslone  (1895). 

Liehrccllt,  Felix,  a  learned  linguist  and  folk- 
lorist,  was  born  at  Namslau,  in  Silesia,  13tli  .March 
1812;  studied  at  Breslau,  .Munich,  and  Berlin  ;  an<l 
became  in  1S40  professor  of  the  German  Language 
at  the  Athenee  Koyal  in  Lie''e,  from  whicli  he 
retired  in  1867.  Liebrecht  early  made  his  name 
known  by  a  series  of  admirable  articles  in  various 
learned  journ.als  on  the  origin  and  d illusion  of 
popular  stories,  and  by  translations  enriched  with 
ample  annotations  no  less  valuable  than  the 
original  works  themselves.  Among  these  are 
Baaile's    Pentamerone,    uder    das    Miirchen    alter 


Miirchen,  with  a  preface  by  Jakob  Grinnn  ('2  vols. 
1846);  the  Jtiirlaani  und  JositpJiut  of  Joannes 
Damascenus  (1847);  Dunlojj's  Gcschic/itc  der  I'to- 
sadichtinigcn,  with  large  a<lditions  (1851);  and 
an  edition  of  the  non-historical  mythological  por- 
tions of  GerviLse  of  Tilbury's  Otiii  Jm/icrialia 
(1856).  Professor  Liebrecht  collected  his  scattered 
papers  in  Ztir  Volksl.iindc  (1S79),  a  work  which 
lias  a  place  on  the  shelves  of  all  scientific  students 
of  comparative  folklore.  He  died  at  St  Hubart,  in 
Belgium,  in  August  1890. 

Lie<'llt<'nst<'in.  an  independent  principality  of 
Euroipe,  separated  from  Switzerland  on  the  west 
by  the  Bhine ;  on  the  civst  it  is  bounded  by 
A'orarlberg.  Area,  61  sq.  m. ;  pop.  9124.  It  is  "a 
mountainous  district  made  up  of  the  lordshi])  of 
Vaduz  and  the  countship  of  Schellenberg.  The  chief 
town,  Liechtenstein,  formerly  called  Vaduz  ( poj). 
1018),  lies  28  miles  SSW.  of  Bregenz  on  Lake  Con- 
stance. The  inhahit.-uits  carry  on  agriculture,  rear 
cattle,  and  cultivate  the  vine.  They  are  exempt 
from  military  duty.  Liechtenstein,  with  several 
other  small  states,  formed  the  fifteenth  member  of 
the  German  Confederation  until  its  dissolution  in 
186G;  but  in  the  I'lrnmn,  or  full  Couiu-il  of  the 
Diet,  it  had  a  separate  vole.  The  Prince  of  Liech- 
tenstein, whose  family  is  one  of  the  most  ancient 
in  central  Europe,  possesses  extensive  estates  in 
Austria,  Prussia,  anil  Saxony.  The  little  state  is 
a  constitutional  sovereignty,  and  is  ruled  by  the 
prince  and  a  legislative  assembly  of  fifteen  mem- 
bers, twelve  elected  by  the  people  and  three  by  the 
prince.  Liechtenstein  belongs  to  the  Austrian 
customs,  postal,  legal,  coinage,  judicial,  and  taxa- 
tion svstems.  See  works  by  I""alke  (3  vols.  Vienna, 
1868-83)  and  Kratzl  (4th  ed.  Brunn,  1884). 

Li«'gC  (tier.  Liittich,  Flemish  Luih),  a  city  of 
Belgium,  occupies  a  picturesque  site  at  the  con- 
fluence of  the  Onrtlie  with  the  Meuse,  by  rail  62 
miles  S.  by  E.  of  Brussels  and  47  SAV.  of  Aix- 
la-Chai)elle  in  Germany.  It  consists  of  the  old 
town,  built  on  the  hills  that  overlook  the  Meu.se  on 
the  left,  the  new  town,  down  below  on  the  right 
bank,  and  several  suburbs.  Notwithstanding  its 
great  manufacturing  industry,  it  is  a  beautiful 
city,  with  elegant  bridges,  handsome  sqiiares  and 
gardens,  and  fine  churches  an<l  private  houses.  Its 
defences  consist  of  a  ring  of  nuidern  forts  and  the 
old  citadel,  built  in  1650,  on  the  high  ground  on 
the  left  bank  of  the  Meuse.  The  cathedral  church 
was  originally  St  Lambert's,  founde<l  in  712, 
destroyea  by  the  Frencdi  reptiblicans  in  1794,  and 
wholly  renuived  in  1802.  Since  that  date  St  Paul's, 
founded  in  968  and  complete<l  about  1528,  with  a 
good  carved  pulpit  by  Geefs,  has  been  the  church 
of  the  see.  Amongst  the  remaining  churches 
are  two  (St  Denis  and  Holy  Cross)  which  date 
from  the  lOth  century,  and  three  (St  James',  1016- 
1528;  St  Bartholomew's,  lltli  and  12th  centuries, 
with  a  beautiful  brass  font  of  1112;  and  St  Martin's, 
IGtIi  century)  with  some  architectural  pretensions. 
The  most  notable  amongst  the  .secular  buildings 
are  the  former  bishop's  palace,  built  in  the  Late 
Gothic  style  in  1508-40,  and  now  converted  into 
law-courts  and  administrative  olliccs,  ami  the 
university.  This  last  was  founded  in  1817,  and 
has  about  70  teachers  and  1210  studenl.s.  The 
usual  adjuncts  are  attached,  including  a  museum 
with  valuable  cave  remains,  ,i  library  of  110,000 
vols.,  a  school  of  mining,  and  a  ])olytecliiiic  school. 
Situated  in  the  centre  of  the  east  Belgian  coal- 
mining district,  Liege  is  one  of  the  first  manu- 
facturing cities  in  Belgium.  Its  great  slajde  is 
the  making  of  firearms,  of  which  it  turns  out 
annually  (an  average  of  nearly  9(X),00(I)  mure  than 
twice  the  number  of  liirmingham  and  St  Ktienne 
together.     But  manufactories  of  wool,  leather,  and 


LIEGNITZ 


LIEUTENANT 


615 


iron-plates,  together  with,  in  a  secondary  degree, 
iron  and  other  metal  works,  breweries,  and  distil- 
leries, give  eniiiloynient  to  large  numbers  of  men. 
The  government  have  heie  a  cannon-foundry  and  a 
small-arms  factory.  At  Seraiiig  (q.v.),  3  miles  dis- 
tant, are  the  manufacturing  establishments  founded 
bv  the  Englishman  Cockerill  (q.v.).  Pop.  (ISTfi) 
llo.SjI;  (ISiU)  160,!S4S,  mostly  Walloons.  The 
Bishop  of  Maestricht  transferredthe  see  to  Liege  in 
720 ;  his  successors  afterwards  attained  to  the  dig- 
nity of  princes  of  the  empire  and  bore  the  title  of 
Duke  of  Bouillon.  The  histoiy  of  Liege  is  a  long 
struggle  between  the  bishop-priucesand  the  liberty- 
loving  burghers  of  the  city.  The  latter  rose  in  oi)en 
revolt  in  1407  and  1464,  and  on  subsequent  occa- 
sions ;  and  it  frequently  happened  that  a  new 
bishop  could  only  gain  entry  into  the  city  when  he 
came  with  .a  foreign  army  at  his  back,  as  in  1648 
and  1684.  The  city  was  seized  by  t'liarles  the  Bold 
of  Burgundy  in  1467  :  but  he  had  to  do  his  work 
over  again,  and  did  it  with  ruthless  severity,  in 
the  following  year.  Liege  was  again  conquered  in 
1691  by  the  French,  in  1702  by  ^larlborough,  and 
once  more  by  the  French  in  1792.  The  Congress 
of  Vienna  ai^signed  the  city  and  the  episcopal 
territories  to  the  Netherlands ;  but  in  18.31  they 
were  incorporated  in  the  new  kingdom  of  Belgium. 
See  Histories  by  Gerl.iche  (.3d  ed.  1875)  ;  Henaux 
(3d  ed.  1876);  and  Hock  (1885);  and  compare 
Scott's  Quentin  Durward. 

The  proinnce  of  Li6ge,  with  an  area  of  1117  sq.  m. 
and  a  pop.  (1888)  of  738.694,  lies  between  the 
Belgian  provinces  of  Limburg  on  the  north  and 
Lu.xemburg  on  the  south.  In  industry  it  ranks 
second  among  the  provinces  of  Belgium,  with  one- 
fifth  of  the  total  output  of  the  kingdom.  Amongst 
the  industries  must  be  mentioned  the  woollen, 
iron,  coal,  steel,  zinc,  lead,  silver,  cotton,  cloth, 
machinery,  firearms,  straw-hats,  &c.  Cheese  ( Lim- 
burg) and  butter  are  the  most  valuable  of  the 
agricultural  products.  Very  large  numbers  of 
pigeons  are  reared  eveiy  year  as  messenger  birds — 
ui  1886  nearly  a  million. 

LiegllitZ.  a  town  of  Prussian  Silesia,  on  the 
Katzbach,  38  miles  W.  by  N.  of  Breslau.  The 
town  dates  from  the  end  of  the  10th  century.  In 
1163  if  was  chosen  by  the  Dukes  of  Lower  Silesia 
as  their  place  of  residence,  and  from  1241  to  1675 
it  was  the  capital  of  the  princii)ality  of  Liegnitz. 
In  the  neighbourhood  fWahlstadt)  the  Jlongols 
in  1241  defeated  the  Poles,  and  filled  nine  sacks  with 
the  ears  of  their  slaughteri'd  foes.  Liegnitz  came 
into  the  hands  of  Prussia  in  1742.  Here  in  1760 
Frederick  the  Great  routed  the  .\nstiians  under 
Loudon,  and  in  1813  Bliiolier  defeated  the  French 
(Katzbach).  It  is  now  a  place  of  great  and  varied 
industrial  activity  :  iron-foundries,  machine-shops, 
pianoforte-factories,  and  manufactures  of  woollens, 
cloth,  hats,  and  gloves,  with  turnery,  brick-making, 
and  potierv.  indicate  the  chief  branches.  Pop. 
(1875)  31,442;  (1890)46,874. 

Lien  (the  tacita  hyjiotheca  of  the  civil  law),  in 
English,  Irish,  and  American  law,  means  the 
security  or  hold  over  goods  or  lan<l  for  a  debt 
which  is  due  from  the  owner  of  the  goods,  &c. 
to  the  person  in  whose  possession  they  are  for 
the  time.  Possession  is  in  general  essential  to 
constitute  a  lien,  for  the  nmnient  the  goods 
are  voluntarily  parted  with  the  lien  is  gone. 
There  is  an  e.xception,  however,  in  the  oa.se  of 
traders  like  factors,  and  a  lien,  though  lost, 
may  revive  if  the  property  comes  again  into  the 
possession  of  the  creuitor.  Liens  an;  geneial  or 
particular.  Thus,  a  solicitor  has  a  general  lien 
over  his  client's  money,  jiapers,  and  title-deeds  till 
the  .amount  of  his  bill  of  costs  is  paid.  So  have 
bankers,  dyers,  calico-printei-s,  factors.  A  particular 


lien  is  a  lien  over  goods,  for  a  debt  contracted  in 
respect  of  such  goocfs,  as  for  the  price  of  them,  or 
some  labour  expended  on  them.  Thus,  a  miller  has 
a  lien  on  the  Hour  he  has  ground,  a  trainer  on  the 
horse  he  has  traine<l,  &c.  A  general  lien  is 
favoured  by  law  ;  a  particular  lien  is  construed 
strictly,  for  it  acts  in  favoiir  of  one  creditor  as  against 
the  others.  There  are  also  maritime  liens  and 
equitable  liens,  which  <lo  not  require  possession  to 
constitute  the  right.  The  Statute  of  Limitations 
does  not  affect  a  lien,  since  it  does  imt  take  away 
the  right,  but  only  bars  its  ordinary  enforcement 
by  action.  In  Scotland  lien  is  generally  called 
either  Hetention  or  Hypothec  (see  Hypothec). 
See  works  by  D.  Y.  Overton  (New  York,  1883) 
and  L.  A.  Jones  (2  vols.  Boston,  1888). 

Licrre,  a  town  of  Belgium,  11  miles  by  rail 
SE.  c)f  Antwerp,  has  manufactures  of  silk,  lace, 
shoes,  beet-root  sugar,  with  salt-works  and  breweries. 
The  Gothic  church  of  St  Gumniar  ( 1425-1557)  has 
a  tine  rood-loft  and  a  picture  by  Mending.  Pop. 
(1896)  19,300. 

Lieutenant  (Fr.,  from  Lat.  locum-tenens, 
'holding  the  place  of  another'),  a  term  applied  to 
a  vai'iety  of  offices  of  a  representative  kincf.  Thus, 
in  military  matters,  a  liev.tenunt-yeneral  is  next  in 
rank  to  a  general,  a  lieutenant-colonel  next  to  a 
colonel.  But  the  title  lieutenant,  without  quali- 
fication, denotes  the  second  officer  and  deputy,  or 
locum-tenens,  of  the  trooji,  battery,  or  company 
commander.  In  the  horse  and  field  artillerv-  he  has 
a  distinct  command — viz.  one  section  of  the  battery, 
consisting  of  two  guns  with  the  men,  horses,  and 
wagons  belonging  to  them. — Captain-lieutenant,  an 
obsolete  rank,  was  the  subaltern  who  commanded 
the  '  colonel's  company '  in  each  regiment.  The 
pay  of  a  lieutenant  varies  from  6s.  6d.  a  day  in  the 
line  to  1  Os.  4<1.  in  the  Life  Guards.  Second-lieutenant 
is  the  rank  given  to  officers  on  first  joining,  corre- 
sponding to  that  of  Cornet  (q.v.)  and  Ensign  (q.v.) 
which  formerly  existed. 

In  the  British  navy  lieutenant  is  a  misnomer, 
and  conveys  no  adequate  idea  of  the  rank  of  the 
officer  bearing  that  title.  His  functions  from  the 
time  of  his  promotion,  and  for  some  eight  years 
afterwards,  conespond  generally  to  those  of  a 
captain  in  the  army,  with  whom  he  ranks,  and  his 
ordinary  pay  is  lOs.  a  day.  On  attaining,  how- 
ever, eight  year.s'  seniority  he  ranks  with  a  major 
in  the  army,  and  wears  .•m  additional  stripe  of  gold 
lace  on  his  sleeve  and  a  star  on  his  epaulettes  as 
the  distinguishing  marks  of  his  increased  rank,  and 
he  now  also  receives  pay  at  the  rate  of  12s.  a  day, 
which  is  further  increase<l  to  14s.  after  twelve  years' 
service.  The  anomaly  of  the  title  now  conies  in, 
for,  although  holiling  field  officer's  r.ink,  he  is  still 
only  styled  lieutenant.  In  foreign  navies  the 
ditficulty  is  met  by  there  being  an  intermediate 
rank  between  lieutenant  and  commander.  In  the 
German  and  Austrian  navies  these  officei's  are 
styled  'captain-lieutenant,'  in  the  American 
'  lieutenant-commander,'  and  in  the  French 
'lieutenant  de  vaisseau.'  Half-pay  ranges  from 
4s.  to  8s.  6d.  a  day.  Six  years'  service  alloat  as 
naval  cadet  and  midshi|)man  are  requisite  to 
qualify  an  officer  for  the  rank  of  lieutenant,  and 
the  candidate  for  that  rank  has  also  to  pa.ss  a  satis- 
factorv  examination  in  seamanship  and  general  pro- 
fessional knowledge,  which  in  these  days  includes 
navigatifm  and  pilotage,  gunnery  in  all  its  branches, 
including  battalion  anil  lield-gun  drill,  electricity 
and  torpedo  work,  including  laying  down  submarine 
mines,  and  also  a  fair  general  knowledge  of  steam. 
As  leaders  in  all  miiujr  enterprises,  such  as  boat 
expeditions,  cutting  out,  &c.,  lieutenants  in  war- 
time carry  otT  most  of  the  laurels  awarded  to 
actions  of  singular  personal  daring. 


616 


LIEUTENANT 


LIFE 


Sublieutenant — formerly  mate  or  pjissecl  midship- 
man— is  the  intermediate  rank  in  the  na^T  between 
midsliipman  and  lieutenant.  When  a  midshipman 
has  completed  the  necessary  sea-service,  lie  p.osses 
his  examination  in  seamanship  for  the  rank  of 
lieutenant  ;  if  successful,  he  liecomes  an  acting- 
sub-lieutenant,  and  is  sent  home  to  join  the  Naval 
College  at  Greenwich,  where  he  studies  for  nine 
months  previous  to  passing  his  final  examination 
in  navigation,  mathematics,  &c.  ;  he  then  has  to 
pass  through  the  jjunnerv  and  torpedo  schools,  and 
also  an  examination  in  pilotage.  Should  he  suc- 
ceed in  obtaining  a  first  class  in  all  the  subjects 
for  examinatiim,  he  is  promoted  at  once  to  lieu- 
tenant, otherwise  he  is  confirmed  in  the  rank  of 
sub-lieutenant,  and  has  to  serve  at  sea  in  that 
rank  until  his  turn  for  promotion  comes  round. 
Unless  specially  promoted,  sublieutenants  have 
to  serve  about  four  years  before  obtaining  their 
promotion.  The  obtaining  of  a  first-class  in  all 
subjects  is  therefore  an  object  of  considerable 
importance. 

Lioiiteiiaiit,  Lord-.    See  Lord-lieutenant. 

Lieilteiiaut-OoloueL  in  the  British  army, 
is  nominally  the  second  ofiicer  of  a  regiment ;  but 
virtually  a  lieutenant-colonel  commands  every 
battalion  of  infantry  and  regiment  of  cavalry,  the 
post  of  colonel  being  merely  an  honourable  sine- 
cure, \\\X\\  usually  £1000  a  year  attached,  awarded 
to  a  general  ofiicer.  The  lieutenant-colonel  is 
responsible  for  the  discipline  of  his  battalion,  the 
comfort  of  his  men,  and  ultimately  for  every  detail 
connected  with  their  organisation.  In  this  he  is 
allied  by  two  majois,  an  adjutant,  and  a  quarter- 
master.' In  the  artillery  and  engineers,  where  the 
rank  of  colonel  is  a  substantive  rank,  with  tangible 
regimental  duties,  the  functions  of  lieutenant- 
colonel  are  more  limited,  one  having  charge  of 
every  two  or  three  batteries  of  artillerj-,  or  two 
companies  of  engineers.  The  pay  of  a  lieutenant- 
colonel  varies  from  17s.  per  diem  in  the  infantry  of 
the  line  to  £1,  9.'.  '2d.  in  the  H  jsehokl  Cavalry. 

JLieiitcnant-KeueraL    See  General. 

ILioiiteuaiit-governor.    See  India. 

Lif6<  in  Biology,  is  a  general  term  for  the  exter- 
nal r.nd  internal  activities  of  an  organism  in  rela- 
tion to  its  environment.  These  relations  may  be 
referred  to  the  organism  as  a  unity,  or  they  may 
be  expressed  more  fundamentally,  though  incom- 
pletely, in  terms  of  the  physical  and  chemical 
changes  in  the  living  matter.  Between  the  habits 
of  an  organism  and  the  changes  in  the  protoplasm 
there  are,  for  higher  plants  and  animals,  three 
intermediate  grades  of  interpretations — in  terms  of 
the  functions  of  or"ans,  the  properties  of  tissues, 
and  till"  phases  of  cell-life.  But,  beyond  the  higher 
and  lower  limits  of  observable  organism  (m  the  one 
hand  and  of  analvsable  protoplasmic  changes  on 
the  other,  the  biologist  can  speak  with  no  special 
authority,  whatever  liis  opinions  may  be  as  to  the 
common  denominator — matter  and  energy,  or  about 
the  transcendental  interjiretation  of  an  intelligent 
organism  (see  BioLocy,  Cell,  Protoplasm). 

Characteristics  of  Ortfanisms. — The  boundary 
between  living  and  not-living  matter  is  much  less 
distinct  than  rough  ins]iection  suggests,  but  it  is 
quite  possible  to  i>oint  out  certain  characteristics 
which  distinguish  living  organisms  from  other 
objects  of  our  experience  which  are  not-living. 
Some  of  the  most  striking  of  these  characteristics 
may  be  summed  u]>  in  the  three  words — Contin- 
uity, Khythm,  and  Freedom.  (« )  So  far  as  our  ex- 
perience goes,  all  organisms  originate  from  other 
organisms,  and  in  normal  cimditions  become  them- 
selves parents.  This  fact  of  continuity  is  real  aii<l 
liternl  enough  to  Ien<l  a  certain  attribute  of  immor- 
tality to  life,  as  may  be  gathered  from  the  articles 


Heredity,  Embryology,  Evolution.  (6)  Organ- 
isms take  in  matter  and  energy  as  they  live  and 
grow,  while  on  the  other  hantl  they  also  expend 
energy  and  are  subject  to  material  waste  ;  they  fee<l 
and  work,  rest  and  act,  grow  and  reproduce,  in  fact 
pass  through  a  rhythmic  cycle  of  changes  such  that 
waste  and  repair  are  for  variable  periods  kept  in 
approximate  eiiuilibriuni.  From  wliat  we  know  of 
the  living-matter  or  'physical  basis  of  life,"  it  seems 
that  two  vital  processes  of  upbuilding  and  down- 
breaking,  of  composition  and  decomposition,  of 
synthesis  and  analysis,  of  anabolism  and  kata- 
bolism,  sum  up  the  changes  in  the  protoplasm  (see 
Anauoli-sm,  Function,  Protoplasm).  (<■)  As  to 
freedom,  while  organisms  are  mudi  more  dejiendent 
upon  their  environment  than  are  inorganic  bodies, 
it  is  equally  true  that  they  attain  more  apjiarcnt 
freedom.  The  sustained  equilibrium  of  an  organism 
is  unified  and  dynamical :  it  admits  of  direct  action 
U]ion  surroundings,  of  active  thrust  as  well  as  more 
[liussive  pariT.  of  activity  which  is  sometimes  called 
'  automatic  '  or  '  spontaneous,'  because  it  does  not 
occur  in  direct  or  traceable  response  to  stimulus 
from  without  (see  Environment). 

Definitions. — Life,  like  other  fundamental  facts, 
eludes  definition.  Bichat  described  it  as  '  the  sum 
of  the  functions  which  resist  death,'  a  definition 
superficially  contradictory  to  Claude  Bernard's 
epigram,  'La  vie,  c'est  la  mort.'  According  to  l)e 
Blainville,  'life  is  the  twofold  internal  movement 
of  composition  and  decomposition,  at  once  general 
and  continuous,'  while  Spencer's  often-qunled  de- 
finition describes  it  as  'the  definite  combinatiim  of 
heterogeneous  changes,  both  simultaneous  and  suc- 
cessive, in  correspondence  with  external  coexist- 
ences  and  setjuences.'  Lewes  defines  life  as  'a 
series  of  definite  and  successive  changes,  both  of 
structure  and  composition,  which  take  place  within 
an  individual  without  destroying  its  identity  ; ' 
while  Joseph  Cook  as  a  transcendentalist  calls  life 
'  the  invisible,  individual,  co-ordinating  cause 
directing  the  forces  involved  in  the  i>ro<luction  and 
activity  of  any  organism  possessing  individuality.' 
l''inally,  Lafitte,  as  an  expositor  of  Comte,  regards 
life  as  'a  general,  internal,  and  continuous  jihcno- 
menon  of  composition  and  decomposition,  occurring^ 
in  a  definite  organism,  placed  in  a  fit  medium.' 
For  practical  purposes,  life  is  the  internal  and 
external  activity  of  an  organism  in  relation  to  its 
environment. 

The  conditions  of  life  vaiy  enormously,  for 
organisms  are  able  to  adapt  themselves  to  most 
diverse  environment,  including  under  that  term 
conditions  of  space  and  pressure,  moisture  and 
oxygen,  food,  heat,  and  light,  <S;c.  The  animal  life 
of  the  deep-sea  illustrates  interesting  ,ada]ilati(ins 
to  great  though  doubtless  unfcit  jjrcssure,  to  d,-uk- 
ness,  and  other  peculiar  conditions  ;  the  miniiiiuni 
life  of  dried-up  spores,  Proto/oa,  ova,  small  aninuils, 
and  seeds  shows  the  possibility  of  persistence  for 
prolonged  periods  without  water ;  the  fauna  and 
flora  of  arctic  snows  and  seas  on  the  one  haml, 
and  of  hot  springs  on  the  other,  illustrate  extreme 
adaptations  to  diverse  temperature  conditions  :  and 
there  are  abundant  illustrations,  from  fasting  men 
upwards,  of  the  length  of  time  during  which  life 
may  continue  without  food.  A  few  facts  may  be 
cited  :  small  nematodes  will  survive  desiccation  for 
fourteen  years,  and,  tlumgh  the  tales  of  germinating 
mummy  'wheat  are  highly  unsatisfactory,  it  is 
certain  that  cereal  grains  may  germinate  after  ten 
years'  desiccation,  and  seeds  of  lieguminosa'  alter 
several  decennia.  Seeds  rich  in  ferments  and  oils 
have  much  less  po\\er  of  surviving  than  those  in 
which  starch  predominates.  As  to  temperature, 
dry  yeast  will  live  after  exi)osure  to  70°  C.,  an<l  a 
portion  survives  even  at  100°  C. ;  Pasteur  heated 
dry  fungoid  spores  without  fatal  results  to  120°  C, 


LIFE 


LIFEBOAT 


617 


but  the  same  when  moist  were  killed  at  the  lioiling- 
point.  Some  bacteria  are  said  to  resist  boiling, 
out  the  reverse  is  usually  true.  Kiihne  killed 
marine  Amoeba?  at  35°  C,  while  freshwater  forms 
stood  10°  more.  Kven  seeds  have  been  known 
to  withstand  )00°  C,  but  it  is  familiar  that  a  longer 
exi>osure  to  much  lower  temperature  is  usually  fatal. 
Higher  plants  have  been  known  to  survive  burial 
umler  a  glacier  for  four  yeare ;  and  fishes,  frogs, 
&c.  have  often  revived  after  being  frozen  hard  in  ice. 
Dry  yeast,  according  to  Cagniard  de  la  Tour  {quoted 
by  Huxley),  siir\'ived  -  60°  C,  but  when  moist 
was  killed  at  -  5°  C. ;  yet  Cohn  cooled  bacteria  to 
-  1S°  C.  without  death,  and  seeds  have  suivived  such 
an  extreme  as  -  120'  C.  To  illustrate  the  diverse 
sensitiveness  of  animals.  Semper  notes  that  a  tem- 
perature about  tlie  freezing-point  of  fresh  water  kills 
Infusoria  but  not  pond-snails,  that  the  minimum  of 
vital  activity  in  the  former  was  seen  at  4°  C. ,  in  tlie 
latter  at  12°  C,  yet  the  optimum  for  both  is  the 
same — viz.  about  25°  C.  No  better  instance  of 
experimental  work  can  be  referred  to  than  l)r 
Dallinger's  researches,  in  which  he  was  able  slowly 
to  educate  Monads  which  normally  lived  at  a 
temperature  of  18°  C.  to  thrive  at  over  70'  C.  Of 
the  internal  conditions  of  chill-coma,  and  of  the 
vita  minima  under  extremes  of  heat,  desiccation, 
&c.,  we  know  almost  nothing. 

See  Desiccation,  Exvironment,  HrBEBNATiON ;  also 
Huxley's  Anat.  of  Invert.  Animals  (Lond.  1S77),  Sem- 
per's  Aninial  Life  {Inter.  Sc.  ^^e^ies,  Lond.  1881),  and 
NViesner's  Bioloijie  der  Pfianzcn  {Vienna,  1889). 

Origin  of  Life. — It  is  not  a  dogma,  not  yet  a 
'law  of  Biogenesis,'  but  a  fact  of  experience 
that  all  living  organisms  arise  from  other  living 
organisms — omne  vivum  e  vivo.  See  Abiogenesis, 
Bathybius,  Heredity,  Spoxtaneous  Genera- 
tion. 

But  those  who  advance  beyond  an  agnostic 
position  as  to  this  problem,  and  speculate  beyoml 
the  limits  of  our  experience,  give  the  following  four 
answers  to  the  question  of  the  historical  origin  of 
living  organisms  :  ( 1 )  Life  originated  under  condi- 
tions beyond  the  sphere  of  scientific  inquiry.  Thus, 
Alfred  Russel  AVallace  postulates  a  '  spiritual 
inllux '  at  the  origin  of  life,  while  theologians  are 
usually  more  explicit  {see  Cre.\tion).  (2)  Organ- 
isms or  germs  of  organisms  were  brought  to  the 
earth  by  meteorites  from  elsewhere.  This  hypoth- 
esis, supported  by  Sir  Williatii  Thomson,  shifts  the 
responsibility  of  the  problem  ofl"  the  shoulders  of  our 
planet,  and  leaves  the  problem  of  origin — elsewhere. 
(3)  '  The  question  as  to  the  origin  of  life,'  Professor 
\V.  Preyersays,  'is  not  less  transcendental  than  that 
as  to  the  origin  of  matter  and  energy.  In  regard  to 
the  latter,  it  is  axiomatic  that  they  had  no  origin, 
but  are  eternal,  otherwise  matter  and  energy  have 
arisen  out  of  nothing.'  So  in  regard  to  life,  he 
argues  that  it  had  no  thinkable  beginning,  and  that 
it  is  as  legitimate  to  suppose  that  the  inorganic 
originated  from  organisms  as  to  suppose  the  con- 
verse. In  regard  to  this  suggestion  it  may  he 
noted  that  while  it  is  quite  true  that  nnicli  of  the 
inorganic  on  the  earth  has  arisen  from  the  work  and 
waste,  remains  and  decomposition  of  organisms,  the 
forms  of  life  supposed  to  have  ])ersisted  in  the 
ancient  'tracts  of  fluent  heat'  must  have  been 
extraordinarily  different  from  any  which  we  now 
observe.  (4)  Living  matter  evolved  of  itself  from 
matter  which  was  not  living,  as  the  outcome  of 
unexplained  processes  of  chemical  upbuilding  or 
synthesis.  Professor  Ray  Lankester  suggests 
further  that  the  firet  protoplasm  fed  upon  '  the 
antecedent  steps  in  its  own  evolution,'  '  ujion  the 
albuminoiils  and  .such  other  compounds  that  ha<l 
been  brought  into  existence  by  those  proce.'<ses, 
which  culminated  in  the  development  of  the  first 
protoplasm.'     This  hypothesis  is  most  in  harmony 


with  the  general  theorj'  of  evolution,  of  which  how- 
ever it  forms  no  integral  part.  It  has  against  it 
the  constant  fact  of  experience  and  rcstilt  of  experi- 
ment that  all  life  .springs  from  life,  besides  serious 
difficulties  in  connection  with  that  chemical  upbuild- 
ing or  synthesis,  which  it  is  so  easy  to  postulate  and 
so  dilficult   to  understand.     See  also  LONGEVITY, 

iMMdHTAI.ITV,  TrANSMIGRxVTION,  I'IIK-KXISTIC.NCE; 

and  for  Life  .Vssurance,  see  In.suranck. 

Lifeboat*  a  boat  adapted  to  live  in  a  stormy 
sea  with  a  view  to  the  saving  of  life  from  ship- 
wreck. Its  qualities  must  be  buovaucy,  to  avoid 
foundering  when  a  sea  is  shijuiecl  ;  strength,  to 
escape  destruction  from  the  viol(>nce  of  waves, 
from  a  rocky  beach,  or  from  a  collision  with  the 
wreck  ;  great  lateral  stability,  or  resistance  to  up- 
setting; speed  against  a  heavy  sea;  facility  for 
launching  and  taking  the  shore ;  immediate  self- 
discharge  of  any  water  breaking  into  her ;  the 
important  advantage  of  self-righting  if  upset ;  and 
stowage  room  for  a  large  number  of  passengers. 
Although  Henry  Greathead  (1757-1810),  a  boat- 
builder  at  South  Shields,  has  very  generally  been 
credited  with  designing  and  building  the  first  life- 
boat about  the  year  1789,  yet  it  is  certain  that  Lionel 
Lukin,  a  coach-builder  in  Long  Acre,  who  was  not 
a  resident  at  a  seaport  but  a  native  of  an  inland 
town,  Dunmow,  in  Essex,  designed  and  fitted  a 
boat  which  he  called  an  '  unimniergible  '  boat,  for 
saving  life  in  cases  of  shipwreck,  some  four  or 
five  years  before  Greathead  brought  forward  his 
plan  for  a  lifeboat.  Lukin  took  out  a  patent  for 
liis  boat  in  November  1785,  and  a  liamborough 
coble  which  he  fitted  up  was  reported  to  have 
saved  several  lives  in  the  course  of  the  first  year  of 
its  use.  Nothing  eft'ectual,  however,  was  done  for 
the  shipwrecked  mariner  until  the  year  1789,  when 
a  terrible  wreck  took  place  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Tyne,  all  hands  being  lost  at  a  short  distance  from 
the  shore,  in  the  presence  of  thousands  of  specta- 
tors who  were  powerless  to  render  any  assistance. 
As  the  result  of  the  strong  feelings  which  this 
(lisa.ster  aroused,  a  committee  was  formed  at  South 
Shields,  and  premiums  ofl'ered  for  the  best  model 
of  a  lifeboat.  From  the  ])lans  sent  in  two  were 
selected,  one  by  William  ^^'ouldhave,  a  painter, 
and  the  other  by  Henrj'  Greathead ;  the  latter 
eventually  received  the  premiuni,  and  Greathead, 
being  a  boat-builder,  was  employed  to  construct  a 
boat  on  his  own  plan  with  some  of  Wouldhave's 
ideas  introduced.  This  boat  was  30  feet  long  by 
10  feet  wide,  and  rowed  ten  oars  double  banked  ; 
it  was  of  the  form  of  a  steamer's  ))aildlebox  boat, 
with  stem  and  stern  alike,  and  had  a  curved  keel, 
which  was  entirely  Greathead's  invention.  It  had, 
however,  no  means  of  freeing  itself  of  water  or  of 
self-righting  in  the  event  of  being  upset.  Life- 
boats on  this  plan  were  promptly  placed  on  dillerent 
parts  of  the  coast,  and  were  the  means  of  s.aving 
altogether  some  hundreds  of  lives,  and  even  now  a 
few  boats  of  this  type  are  to  be  found  on  the  north- 
east coast. 

In  the  year  1823  Sir  William  Hillary  pub- 
lished a  powerful  appeal  to  the  nation  on  the 
subject  of  the  great  lo.ss  of  life  from  shij)wrecks  on 
our  coast,  and  in  the  following  year  lie  induced 
Thomas  Wilson,  M.P.  for  the  city  of  Londcm,  to 
take  stejis  to  convene  a  meeting  at  the  Lomlon 
Tavern,  which  lesulled  in  the  establishment  of  the 
Uoyal  National  Institution  for  the  Preservation  of 
Life  from  Shipwreck  {now  known  as  the  Koyal 
National  Lifeboat  Instituticm ),  under  the  patron- 
age of  George  IV.  and  other  members  of  the  royal 
family,  the  two  archbishops,  the  princi|ial  bishops, 
and  many  noblemen  and  gentlemen.  For  many 
years  the  society  diil  good  work  on  the  coast  in 
providing  and  maintaining  lifeboats,  and  reward- 
ing their  crews,  &c.,  but  after  a  time  its  work 


618 


LIFEBOAT 


laiifjuislied.  In  December  1849,  liowever,  another 
deplorable  accident  took  place  at  the  mouth 
of  the  Tyne,  when  the  South  Shields  lifeboat, 
on  the  Greatliead  plan,  which  went  out,  manned 
by  twenty-four  pilots,  to  tlie  iu^sistance  of  a  sliij)- 
wrecked  crew,  was  ujiset,  and  drifted  ashore 
bottom  up,  no  less  tli;in  twenty  of  her  brave 
crew  being  drowned  under  the  boat.  This  lament 
able  disiister  once  again  called  public  attention  to 
the  lifeboat  work,  and  in  IS.'iO  Admiral  the  Duke 
of  Northumberland  oll'ered  the  sum  of  a  hundred 
guineas  for  the  best  model  of  a  lifeboat.  In 
response  2S0  models  and  plans  were  sent  in,  a 
selection  of  which  was  afterwards  sliown  in  the 
Great  Exhibition  of  iSol.  James  Beeching  of 
Great  Yarmouth  proved  to  be  the  successful 
candidate  for  the  ottered  premium,  and  he  con- 
structed a  twelve-oared  boat  on  his  plan ;  it  was 
36  feet  long,  and  was  the  lirst  self-righting  lifeboat 
ever  constructed.  Others  followed  ;  but,  this  type 
of  boat  not  proving  altogether  satisfactory,  the 
Lifeboat  Committee  requested  one  of  their  number, 
James    Peake,    Assistant-master    Shipwright    in 


Profile. 


Fig.  2  —Deck  Plan. 


Body  Plan. 


Woolwich  Dockyard,  to  embody  as  many  as  pos- 
sible of  the  good  <)\ialilies  of  the  best  ]dans  into  a 
new  design.  This  was  accordingly  done,  and  such 
a  lifeboat  was  built  in  M'oohvich  Dockyard,  at  the 
expense  of  the  government.  Many  moditications 
anil  alterations  were  afterwards  made  in  the  boat, 
and  this  design  of  lifeboat  Ikus  been  gre.atly  im- 
proved of  late  years  by  the  officers  of  the  Uoyal 
National  Lifeboat  Institution,  so  that  the  self- 
righting  lifeboat  can  truly  be  designated  an 
omnium  f/at/tcriiiii,  and  cannot  be  looke<l  upon  as 
any  one  mau's  design  or  invention. 

The  following  drawings  show  the  general  outline 
an<l  princiiial  fittings  of  a  34  feet  by  TJ  feet  self- 
righting  boat.  Fig.  1  gives  (he  profile  or  bro,i<l- 
siue  view,  the  shaded  \>tirt  showing  that  devoted  to 
the  air-cases,  which  give  extra  buoyancy.  The 
letter  A  shows  the  deck,  and  the  unshaded  p.irts 
the  relieving- tubes,  by  which  any  water  that 
breaks  on  board  escapes.     The  shaded  part  of  the 


keel,  B,  represents  the  ballast,  composed  of  iron. 
The  festooned  lines  are  the  life-lines  outside  the 
lioat,  for  men  to  catch  liold  of  when  overboard. 

in  fig.  2  the  unshaded  space.  A,  represents  the 
uncovered  part  of  the  deck  ;  H,  the  relieving- tubes; 
C,  the  side  air-ca.ses  above  the  deck  ;  D,  the  end 
air-ca.ses :  E,  the  ventilating  scuttles ;  E,  the 
water-ballast  tanks  ;  U,  the  plugs  ;  and  H,  the 
pumps  of  the  balla.st  tanks.  lig.  3  represents  the 
l)ody  plan  or  cross-sections  at  various  distances 
from  stem  to  stern.  Fig.  4  gives  the  midship 
section. 

The  lifeboat  transporting-carriage  is  a  very  im- 
portant au.xiliary  to  the  boat.  Nearly  every  life- 
boat, except  a  lew  of  the  larger  size,  is  iirovided 
with  a  carriage,  on  which  she  is  kept  in  tlie  boat- 
house  ready  for  immediate  transportation  to  the 
most  fa\i>urable  position  for  la\inching  to  a  wreck. 
A  lifeboat  is  thus  made  available  for  a  greater 
extent  of  coast  th:in  she  otherwise  would  be  :  and 
even  when  launched  from  abreast  of  the  boat-house 
she  can  generally  be  much  quicker  conveyed  to  the 
water's  edge  than  without  a  carriage.  In  addition 
to  this  ordinary  use,  a 
carriage  is  of  inmiense 
service  in  launching  a 
l)i)at  from  a  beach ; 
iiiileed,  to  such  an  ex- 
tent is  this  the  case 
tliat  a  boat  can  be 
readily  launclied  from 
a  carriage  in  a  high 
surf,  when  without  one 
it  would  often  be  very 
dilhcult  to  do  so.  The 
carriage  consists  of  a 
fore  and  main  body. 
The  latter  is  formed  of 
a  keelway,  and  of  bilge- 
wavs  attached  to  it, 
.tnd  resting  on  the  main 
axle,  the  boat's  weight 
being  entirely  on  the 
rollers  of  the  keelway. 
Its  leading  character- 
istics are  that  while  for 
launching  it  forms  an 
inclined  plane,  down 
which  the  boat  can  be 
launched  oil'  the  rear 
end  with  consiilerable 
impetus  ;  it  can  also  be 
used  for  replacing  the 
boat,  the  incline  plane 
being  reversed  by  re- 
moving the  fore-car- 
riage. A  very  full 
equipment  of  stores  is 
supplied  to  the  lifeboats  of  the  Institution,  such 
as  cork  life-belts,  anchors  and  cables,  grapnels  and 
lines,  life-buoys,  lanterns,  rockets,  and  many  other 
articles,  together  with  |iortalile  or  launching  skids. 
The  boats  of  the  National  Lifeboat  Institution, 
and  all  belonging  to  them,  are  kept  in  roomy  and 
substantial  boat-houses,  under  lock  and  key,  in 
charge  of  paid  coxswains,  under  the  general  super- 
intendence of  local  honorary  committees  of  resi- 
<lents  in  the  several  localities.  Each  boat  has  its 
a]ipointed  coxswain  at  a  salary  of  iS,  and  an 
a-ssistant  at  £2  a  year,  with  further  allowances 
under  special  circumstances.  The  crew  consists,  in 
addition,  of  a  bowman,  and  as  many  boatmen  as 
the  boat  pulls  oars.  The  members  of  the  vohuiteer 
crews  are  registered,  and,  wliercver  practicalile,  at 
leiist  double  the  innuber  of  men  rec|uire(l  are 
i-ntered  on  the  register.  Such  men  are  mostly 
resident  boatmen,  fishermen,  or  coa.«tguardmen. 
On  every  occasion  of  going  afloat  to  save  life  the 


Fig  4 — Midship  Section. 


LIFEBOAT 


LIFE-SAVING    APPARATUS    619 


coxswain  and  each  of  tlic  crew  receive  alike  from 
tlie  funds  of  the  Institutinn  (whether  siuecssful  or 
not)  10s.  if  by  Jay,  and  fl  if  hy  ni;,'ht :  and  usually 
4s.  each  for  every  time  of  fioiiig  alloat  for  exercise. 
A  reward  of  7s.  is  given  to  the  man  wlio  lirst  lirings 
intelligence  of  a  wreck  at  such  a  distance  along  the 
coast  as  not  to  be  in  sight  of  the  cojustgnard 
station  or  other  lookout.  A  flag  hoisted  by  day, 
and  the  firing  of  a  c.arronade  (or  other  alarm 
signal)  b}'  niglit,  are  the  well-known  signals  for 
calling  the  crew  to^retlier.  On  boardini;  wrecks, 
the  preservation  of  life  is  the  sole  consideration. 
Should  any  goods  or  merchandise  be  brought  into 
the  lifel)oat,  contrary  to  the  coxswain's  remon- 
strance, he  is  authorised  to  throw  them  overboard. 

The  average  cost  of  a  lifebo.-it  station  is  £10.50, 
and  is  made  up  as  follows  :  Lifeboat  and  her  equip- 
ment, £700  ;  boat- lumse,  £.350.  The  average  annual 
expense  of  maintaiinng  a  lifeboat  station  is  £70. 
The  Royal  National  Lifeboat  Institution  in  1890 
liad  297  lifeboats  under  its  management  on  various 
])arts  of  the  co.osts  of  the  United  Kingdom.  They 
were  instrumental  during  1SS9  in  saving  4'20  lives 
from  different  wrecks,  besides  preserving  a  va.st 
amount  of  property,  and  assisting  to  save  or  abso- 
lutely saving  17  vessels  from  partial  or  total  destruc- 
tion. Besides  the  launches  resulting  in  the  saving 
of  life  or  property,  the  lifeboats  went  out  141  times 
in  response  to  signals  of  distress  or  what  were  sup- 
posed to  be  such,  only  to  lind  either  that  the  vessels 
were  out  of  danger  or  that  inconect  signals  had 
been  made.  During  the  year  the  Institution  also 
granted  rewards  for  the  saving  of  207  lives  by 
means  of  shore-boats,  lishing-boats,  or  by  other 
means,  so  that  the  committee  bestowed  rewards, 
in  the  year  1889,  for  the  saving  of  627  lives,  mak- 
ing a  grand  total  of  .34,670  lives,  for  the  saving  of 
which  the  society  has  granted  rewards  since  its 
estahlisliment  in  1824.  Kvery  effort  is  made  by  the 
committee  to  place  and  maintain  the  lifeboat 
service  in  the  highest  state  of  efficiency,  but  this 
cannot  possibly  be  done  without  a  very  large 
annual  outlay.  In  1890  the  Institution  produced 
the  latest  novelty  in  shi])building  in  the  shape  of 
a  steam  lifeboat,  which  was  named  the  '  Duke  of 
Northumberland,'  and  stationed  at  Harwich  for 
trial.  The  Institution  ha<l  for  several  years  been 
earnestly  endeavouring,  by  the  offer  of  gold  and 
silver  medals  and  in  other  ways,  to  find  a  means 
of  propelling  lifeboats  mechanically.  A  steel  steam 
lifeboat  of  1890  was  propelled  by  a  turbine  wheel. 
To  the  end  of  1896  the  total  number  of  lives  saved 
was  40,.544 ;  in  1896  alone,  461  lives  and  20  vessels. 
The  expenditure  for  the  year  wjls  .£75,417. 

Lifebi>at  societies  have  been  successfully  organ- 
ised on  tlie  principles  of  the  Koyal  National  Life- 
boat Institution  in  France,  Germany,  Spain, 
Russia,  Austria,  Italy,  Turkey,  Holland,  and  Den- 
mark. In  the  United  States  the  life-saving  service 
is  a  government  organisation,  under  the  Treasury 
Department  at  Washington,  and  extends  to  both 
the  sea  and  lake  coasts.  There  are  three  classes  of 
stations  :  ( 1 )  complete  life-saving  stations,  with 
resident  crews ;  ( 2 )  lifeboat  stations,  with  a  resident 
keeper  only  and  volunteer  crews;  and  (.3)  pro- 
visioned houses  of  refuge,  in  charge  of  a  keeper,  for 
the  desolate  ea.stern  coast  of  Florid.i.  At  many  of 
the  stations  the  Lnglish  lifeboat  is  used,  but  its 
weight  and  draught  are  too  great  for  use  .along  the 
Mat  Atlantic  sand-beaches,  and  there  it  has  been 
superseded  hy  the  light  American  surf-boat  of  cedar, 
fitted  with  air-ca.ses  at  the  ends  and  cork-fenders. 
The  (irst  lifeboat  station  wa."  built  at  Cohasset, 
.Massachusetts,  in  1807  ;  the  lirst  stations  erected 
liy  the  government  were  eight,  placed  on  the  New 
•lersey  coast,  between  Sandy  Ilocdi  and  Little  Egg 
Harbor,  in  1848.  The  whole  coast  is  now  divided 
into  12  districts,  and  the  splendid  conception  of  a 


girdle  of  stations  round  all  the  sea  and  lake  shores 
promises  to  be  fuHilled.  On  the  Atlantic  coast 
they  are  place<l  5  miles  ai).art,  on  an  average,  and  a 
system  of  patrol  is  carefully  maintained.  The  cost  of 
a  fully  equipped  station  is  about  .?6000,and  of  a  house 
of  refuge  about  half  that  amount.  The  keepers 
receive  §700  a  year,  the  crow  each  SoO  a  month. 

Life  Canards.    See  Gu.-\iu)s. 

Liferent,  in  Scotch  law,  means  a  right  to 
use  a  heritable  estate  for  life,  the  person  enjoying 
it  being  called  a  liferenter.  For  life-estate,  in 
English  law,  see  E.state. 

Life-saving  Apparatus.  Life-buoys  and 
life-belts  and  other  life-saving  ap])liances  are  inven- 
tions for  the  iireserv.ation  of  life  in  cases  of  ship- 
wreck. In  the  meicantilo  marine  and  passenger 
ships  there  are  now  life-belts  for  every  man  and  to 
spare.  Buoys  are  carried  on  the  bridge  and  at  the 
stern  of  most  ships  in  the  mercantile  marine.  The 
danger  to  ships'  ordinary  lifeboats  is  that,  from 
being  so  long  out  of  the  water,  unless  attended  to 
they  get  so  dry  that  when  floated  they  fill. 
Altliough  against  regulations,  these  boats  have  been 
known  to  be  filled  with  cargo.  Sometimes  the 
handiest  lite-buoy  is  an  empty  water-cask,  well 
bunged  U]),  and  with  ropes  around  it  to  hold  on  by. 
There  are  various  kinds  of  buoyant  pillows,  life- 
jackets  of  india-rublier  cloth,  and  mattresses.  The 
cork-mattress  of  Admiral  Sir  A.  P.  Kyder  can  float 
three  men  in  an  upright  position. 

The  life-belt  ot  tlie  Koyal  National  Lifeboat 
Institution,  designed  by  AJmiial  Ward  in  1854,  is 
made  of  cork  covered  with 
canvas,  an<l  is  both  strong 
and  Inioyant.  It  has  four 
separate  compartments, 
so  that  if  one  should  be 
Itunctured  and  burst  the 
belt's  buoyant  power  is 
not  entirely  destroyed.  It 
is  represented  in  the  fig. 
Each  lifehoatmans  life- 
l)elt  must  have  sufficient 
e.xtra  buoyancv  to  su])port 
a  man  lieavi"ly  clothed, 
with  his  head  and 
shoulders  above  the  water, 
and  to  enable  him  to  sup- 
port another  person  be- 
sides liiiii.self.  It  must  be 
flexible  in  order  to  fit 
tightly  into  the  shape  of 
the  wearer.  There  is  a 
division  between  the  upper 
and  lower  ])!irts  so  that  it  can  be  securely  fastened 
round  the  waist,  and  not  impede  breathing  or  the 
muscular  action  of  the  chest  or  arms. 

The  Merchant  Sliipping  Life-saving  Appliances 
Act,  1888,  stipulates  that  the  owner  and  master 
of  every  British  ship  must  see  that  it  is  provided 
with  such  boats,  life-jackets,  and  other  appliances 
for  saving  life  at  sea  as  .ire  best  adapted  for  securing 
the  safety  of  the  crew  and  passengers.  The  penalty 
to  the  owner  if  in  fault  in  proceeding  on  a  voyage 
without  the  necessary  life-saving  appliances,  or. if 
these  have  been  lost  or  destroyed,  is  .£100;  to  the 
master  .£.50,  if  in  fault.  The  rules  which  came  into 
force  on  1st  Ncivember  1890  were  drawn  u|i  by  ii  com- 
mittee ai)]ioiiitiMl  liy  the  I'resident  of  the  Board  of 
Trade,  and  may  be  made,  rescinded,  and  varied  by 
the  Board.  The  niles  under  this  .act  give  the  num- 
ber of  boats  for  steamships  carrying  emigrants,  tlie 
boats  under  davits  being  sufficient  to  accommodate 
all  pei'sons  on  l)oard.  If  the  boats  under  davits  do 
not  furnish  sufficient  accommodalioii,  then  addi- 
tional wood,  metal,  collapsible,  or  other  boats  of 
approved  description,  or  approved  life-rafts  shall  be 


Life-belt. 


620    LIFE-SAVING    APPARATUS 


LIGHT 


carried.  Ships  of  tliis  class  must  also  carry  not  less 
tliaii  one  approved  lifelmoy  for  every  boat  jilaced 
under  davits,  and  lifebelts  sufficient  for  each  pei^son 
on  board  ship. 

The  same  regulation  as  to  boats  and  life-belts  and 
buoys  applies  to  sailing-ships,  to  steamships  carry- 
ing passengei'S  between  jilaces  in  the  United  King- 
dom and  ports  in  Europe  between  the  Elbe  and 
Brest,  e.\cei>t  that  a  ddiciency  of  boats  or  life-rafts 
may  be  made  up  by  an  equivalent  number  of 
approved  buoyant  deck-seats  or  deck-fittings.  Not 
fewer  than  six  approved  life-buoys  must  also  be 
carried,  and  life-belts  sufficient  for  every  one  on 
board.  The  same  applies  to  other  steamships 
carrying  pa.ssengers  within  certain  specified  limits 
of  the  lionie  trade  :  there  are  also  rules  for  steamers 
going  short  excursions,  and  for  those  plying  on 
rivers  and  lakes.  The  boats  must  be  of  lifeltoat 
construction,  -with  api)roved  appliances  for  lowering 
them.  A  life-raft  must  for  every  person  carried 
have  3  cubic  feet  of  strong  and  serviceable  enclosed 
air-tiglit  compartments.  Approved  buoyant  ajjpar- 
atus  shall  be  deemed  sufficient  for  a  numlier  of 
pers(ms  to  be  ascertained  by  dividing  the  number 
of  pounds  of  iron  which  it  is  capable  of  supporting 
by  thirty-two.  An  approved  life-belt  shall  mean  a 
belt  which  does  not  require  to  be  inllated  before 
use,  and  which  is  capable  of  floating  in  the  water 
for  twenty-four  hours  with  15  II).  of  iron  suspended 
from  it.  An  approved  life-buoy  shall  be  built  of 
solid  cork,  and  fitted  with  life-lines  and  loops, 
and  capable  of  floating  in  the  water  for  at  least 
twenty-four  hours  with  32  lb.  of  iron  suspended 
from  it.  All  life-belts  and  life-buoys  must  be  so 
placed  on  board  ship  as  to  be  reailily  accessible  to 
passengers. 

Mortars  and  Rochets. — ^When  a  lifeboat  is  not 
at  hand,  or  a  raging  sea  and  shoal  coast  render 
its  use  impracticable,  a  distressed  ship  may  often 
receive  help  from  shore  by  means  of  the  mortar  or 
rocket-apparatus.  Captain  IManby  in  1807  invented 
his  life- mortar,  to  discharge  a  shot  with  curved 
barbs  that  would  lay  hold  of  the  rigging  or  bulwarks 
of  the  ship ;  the  rocket-apparatus  is  based  upon 
this.  Sergeant  Bell  of  the  Royal  Artillery  had 
previously  ( 1791 )  devised  a  method  of  liriiig  a  shot 
and  line  from  a  distressed  ship.  Colonel  Boxer, 
Trengrouse,  Dennett,  Carte,  and  othei-s  made 
variations  and  improvements  in  line-throwing  ap- 
paratus. (The  Lyle  gun,  the  invention  of  Captain 
D.  A.  Lyle,  United  States  army,  weighs  only  18.5 
lb.,  has  a  much  longer  range  than  the  epouvrette 
mortar,  and  combines  the  other  advantages  of  great 
strength  and  simplicity,  requiring  only  the  inser- 
tion of  a  cartridge  with  a  line  attached  to  the 
shot.)  The  usual  method  of  procedure  is  to  fire  a 
rocket  over  the  wreck  ;  by  the  light  line  attached 
the  wrecked  crew  haul  out  the  whip  or  double 
or  endless  line  rove  through  a  tail-block.  A 
thicker  rope  is  pulled  over  to  the  ship  by  means 
of  the  line,  and  a  hawser  by  means  of  the  rope,  on 
which  articles  can  be  slung  and  drawn  to  and  fro. 
The  life-buoy  being  run  out  along  the  rope,  the 
crew  can  be  saved  one  by  one ;  or,  by  the  life- 
car,  introduced  in  America  about  1848,  seven  or 
eight  can  be  drawn  ashore  at  a  time.  The  IJfe- 
rocket  Department  is  under  the  Board  of  'I'rade. 
There  were  '292  rocket-stations  in  (Ireat  Britain  in 
1889,  7  cliiriadder  stations,  and  4  heaving-line  an<l 
life-buoy  stations ;  and  220  lives  were  saved  by 
means  of  the  rocket-apparatus  in  1888-89.  In  1881 
6.57  lives  were  saved.  The  coasts  of  the  United 
Kingdom  are  classified  into  coastguard  divisions  or 
wreck-registrars'  districts,  and  the  coastguard- 
inspector  has  control  overall  the  rockets,  mortars, 
buoys,  belts,  anil  lines  kept  at  the  various  seaside 
Stations  in  his  district.  At  each  station  is  kept  a 
cart,  expressly  made  to  contain  all  the  requisites  for 


the  rocket-apparatus,  ready  packed.  The  Board  of 
Trade  now  gives  a  sum  of  money  for  every  life 
saved,  besides  medals  for  special  acts  of  braver}'. 

Liffcy,  a  river  of  Ireland,  wimling  50  miles  west- 
ward and  east-northeastward  through  Wicklow, 
Kildare,  and  Dublin  counties,  to  Dublin  Bay. 

Lifts»  Under  this  term  are  included  numerous 
contrivances  for  raising  weights.  Such  machines 
have  various  names  :  hoists — usually  hand-worked 
and  for  lifting  light  goods  in  warehouses  ;  elevatore 
— chiefly  used  for  taking  passengers  or  their 
luggage,  &.K.  to  the  upper  floors  of  large  hotels, 
business  ])remises,  ttc. — and  so  on.  There  are  also 
special  Elevators  (q.v. )  for  grain.  Lifts  are  often 
on  a  large  scale,  such,  for  example,  as  occur  on 
certain  canals  in  iilace  of  locks  at  changes  of  level 
— where  jiracticatly  a  section  of  the  canal  is  alter- 
nately raised  and  lowered  ;  and  again  on  under- 
ground railways  to  bring  passengers  to  the  surface 
level  (there  are  notable  examples  at  the  Mersey 
Tunnel ). 

Lifts  consist  primaiily  of  a  cage  for  the  people 
or  goods  raisecl,  a  shaft  in  which  this  cage  worKs, 
and  the  necessary  machinery  for  raising  or  lowering 
the  cage.  There  are  two  chief  methods  in  use  for 
this  latter  purpose ;  in  the  (me  the  cage  has 
attached  to  its  top  ropes  or  chains  whieli  are 
wound  up  on  a  barrel  or  drum  :  in  the  other  the 
cage  is  lifted  by  hydraulic  pressure  ai>plied  directly, 
or  through  the  iutervention  of  chains  and  ropes. 

The  ropes  in  use  are,  for  light  work,  hempen  ;  for 
heavy  work,  steel-wire  ropes  or  chains.  It  is  usual 
to  counterbalance  the  dead-weight — i.e.  the  weight 
of  the  cage ;  in  this  case  the  rope  attached  to  the 
top  of  the  cage  is  generally  not  the  lifting  rope. 
The  cage-rope  is  simply  carried  up  to  the  top  of  the 
shaft,  over  a  pulley  tluMe,  and  has  suspended  at 
its  other  end  the  counterbalance ;  the  working  ro))e 
operates  the  shaft  of  this  pulley,  and  so  lifts  tlie 
cage.  This  saves  a  good  deal  of  waste  work,  since 
the  load  lifted  each  time  is  only  the  net  load, 
passengers  and  goods. 

Hoists  all  require  to  be  provided  with  some  auto- 
matic clutch  arrangements  in  case  the  chains  or 
ropes  lireak,  water  leaks  off,  the  rams  or  pistons 
fracture,  Ike,  otherwise  the  cages  would  run  down 
«itli  destructive  velocity.  These  clutches  are 
iisually  some  form  of  catch  kejit  clear  of  the  side 
guides  in  ordinary  working,  but  set  in  .action  by 
compressed  springs  wheti  <an  accident  liajqiens. 
They  should  always  be  regularly  tested  to  see  if 
they  are  in  working  order. 

Liisaineuts  are  cords,  bauds,  or  membranous 
expansions  of  white  fibrous  tissue,  which  iday  an 
extremely  important  ])art  in  the  mechanism  of 
joints,  seeing  that  they  ])ass  in  fixed  directions 
from  one  bone  to  another,  and  ser^•e  to  limit  some 
movement  of  a  joint,  while  they  freely  allow  others. 
Ligaments  have  been  arranged  in  three  cla.s.ses  :  ( 1 ) 
Fnniciilur,  rounded  coids,  such  as  the  external 
lateral  ligament  of  the  knee-joint,  the  perpen- 
dicular ligament  of  the  ankle-joint.  Sec.  ;  (2) 
Fti.tcicular,  fiattened  baiuls,  more  or  less  expande<l, 
svich  as  the  lateral  ligaments  of  the  elbow-joint, 
and  the  great  majority  of  ligaments  in  the  body ; 
(3)  Capsuhir,  which  are  barrel-shaped  expansions 
attached  by  their  two  ends  to  the  two  bones 
entering  into  the  fmination  of  the  joint,  which 
they  comiileloly  but  loosely  invest :  they  constitute 
one  of  the  chief  characters  of  the  ball  andsocket 
joint,  and  occur  in  the  slioulder  and  hip  joints. 
See  JoiNT-S. 

Lisan.    See  Flotsam. 

LisiatlirOt  iu  Surgery.     See  BLEEDING. 

Liifbt.  The  general  doctrine  of  Light  is  now 
only  a  part  of  tTie  general  theory  of  Badiatiou, 


J 


LIGHT 


621 


wliicli  comprises  Radiant  Heat  and  Actinic  and 
Electric  Kadiation  as  well  as  Lit;lit ;  but,  since  the 
battle  as  to  the  nature  of  radiation  in  general  was 
first  waged  round  light  itself,  it  is  convenient  to 
consider  light  as  representing  all  the  forms  of 
railiation.  By  elementary  obser\ation  it  is  found 
that  light  travels  (Avithin  a  uniform  medium)  in 
straight  lines  in  all  directions  :  that  it  accordingly, 
when  proceedin-;  from  a  pointora  very  small  source, 
covers  areas  which  vary  as  the  squares  of  the  dis- 
tance ;  that  shadows  obey  a  similar  law  ;  that  it  is 
seen  some  time  before  the  corresponding  sound  is 
heard  :  all  which  points  to  a  quick  propagation  of 
something  in  straight  lines.  What  is  this  which 
is  propagated — matter,  motion,  or  condition?  The 
simplest  explanation  was  that  luminous  bodies 
emitted  something  material  whose  impact  aftected 
the  sensitive  eye ;  that  the  reflection  of  light  at 
surfaces  was  due  to  elastic  rebound  of  this  quick- 
travelling  material.  These  phenomena  niignt  he 
equally  well  explained  by  waves  travelling  and 
being  reflected  ;  but  Sir  Isaac  Newton  could  not 
reconcile  himself  to  the  notion  of  waves  travelling 
in  straight  lines  and  not  spreading.  This  difficulty, 
which  we  now  know  not  to  be  a  real  one,  inasmuch 
as  it  is  only  a  question  of  proportion  between  the 
breadth  of  the  wave-front  and  the  distance  between 
succes-sive  waves  whether  a  wave-motion  shall  or 
shall  not  travel  in  straight  lines,  led  him  to  adopt 
and  develop  the  corpuscular  or  emission  theory  of 
light.  According  to  this  all  luminous  bodies  emit 
with  equal  velocities  (a  troublesome  postulate, 
since  the  retarding  attraction  of  the  sun  is  so  much 
greater  than  that  of  a  candle-flame)  a  number  of 
elastic  corpuscles  (whose  mass  must  be  extremely 
small,  otherwise,  with  the  velocity  of  more  than 
186,000  miles  per  second,  theii-  momentum  would 
be  destructive),  which  travel  in  straight  lines,  are 
reflected,  and  are  refracted  (provi<leil  that  they 
travel  more  rapidly  in  the  denser  medium  than  in 
air  or  in  vacuo,  in  a  direction  at  right  angles  to  the 
bounding  surface  between  the  rarer  and  the  denser 
medium ).  But  here  begin  the  difficulties  :  refrac- 
tion is  always  accompanied  by  reflection,  whence 
some  corpuscles  enter  the  denser  medium,  some 
rebound  ;  hence  a  theorj-  of  easy  fits  of  reflection 
and  transmission  had  to  be  developed,  and  this 
involved  as  its  explanation  a  theorj-  of  vibration 
of  a  general  medium  some  way  in  advance  of  the 
travelling  corpuscles,  so  as  to  aid  or  check  their 
entrance  into  the  denser  medium.  Newton  dis- 
covered that  the  different  colours  of  the  spectrum 
were  unequally  refracted  in  glass ;  from  this  he 
liad  to  infer  that  there  were  as  many  diflerent 
kinds  of  molecules  emitted  as  there  were  colours 
in  the  spectrum.  Then,  again,  shadows  are  not 
absolute ;  the  shadow  of  a  hair  produced  liy  sun- 
light pa-ssing  through  a  minute  pinhole  in  which 
stands  a  droplet  of  water  is  bright  in  the  centre ; 
hence  explanations  had  to  be  provided  to  account 
for  the  bending  of  rays  round  an  object  :  then 
these  explanations  failed  to  account  for  similar 
phenomena  ol)served  when  light  was  reflected  from 
two  mirrors.  The  theory  became  loaded  with  a 
ma.ss  of  hypotheses  devised  to  explain  each  par- 
ticular phenomenon ;  but  the  great  authority  of 
Newton  maintained  its  vitality  down  to  the  time 
and  person  of  Sir  David  Brewster. 

The  wave-theory  of  light  was  suggested  by  Grim- 
aldi,  Hooke,  and  others ;  was  formed  by  Huygens 
(1678),  who  explained  douV)le  refraction;  lay  in 
abeyance  until  Young  revived  it  at  the  beginning 
of  the  19th  centurj' ;  was  developed  by  Fresnel 
(1815  onwards);  and  ha.s  now  definitely  disjilaced 
the  eniLssiontheorj'.  According  to  it  light  consists 
of  vibrations  in  an  all-pervading  ela-stic  jelly- 
like ether ;  the  vibrations  are,  unlike  those  of 
BOiuid,  in  directions  at  right  angles  to  the  direc- 


tions of  i)ropagation  ;  and  '  rays  of  light '  are  mere 
lines  showin";  the  direction  of  propagation  of  (and  in 
isotropic  media  at  right  angles  to )  the  corresponding 
portions  of  the  wave-front.  This  theory  involves  the 
admission  of  a  vibrating  ether;  so,  indeed,  did  New- 
ton's. The  transmission  in  straight  lines  is  easily 
explained  ;  ^)oints  lying  to  one  side  are  not  affected, 
because  diflerent  parts  of  the  wave-front  neutralise 
one  another's  eft'ects,  if  the  wave-length  be  rela- 
tively small  :  even  sound  travelling  through  large 
apertures  travels  in  straight  lines.  The  wave- 
theory  readily  explains  renection  ;  in  refraction  it 
assumes  that  the  waves  travel  less  rapidly  in  the 
denser  medium  (which  is  found  to  lie  true,  and 
therefore  disposes  crucially  of  the  eniission-theoiy ), 
and  it  explains  the  accompanying  reflected  wave ; 
it  explains  double  refraction,  polarisation,  inter- 
ference, colour  (different  wave-lengths),  difl'raction, 
&c.  Dispersion  is  not  yet  completely  explained, 
because  data  are  wanting,  though  Cauchy  s  ideas, 
as  developed  by  Sir  William  Thomson,  have  shown 
that  this  is  a  phenomenon  of  waves  of  dift'erent 
lengths  passing  through  finely  non-homogeneous 
matter.  The  wave-theorj'  has  also  proved  the 
means  of  forecasting  most  recondite  and  unexpected 
phenomena. 

But,  then,  what  is  a  'wave?'  It  is  not  neces- 
sarily a  wave  of  motion.  All  the  phenomena  are 
explicable  as  phenomena  of  rhythmical  disturbance 
of  some  kind,  and  the  '  wavetheoiy '  really  goes 
no  further  than  to  state  this.  The  rhythmical  dis- 
turbance may  be  one  of  position  (wave-motion),  of 
stress,  of  electrical  condition,  possibly  of  twist  in 
the  ether.  According  to  Clerk-Maxwell's  theory 
eveiy  portion  of  the  ether  in  the  path  of  a  beam 
of  light  is  subject  to  rapidly-alternating  stresses 
transverse  to  the  ray,  and  is  therefore  in  a  rapidly- 
alternating  electric  and  also  in  a  rapidly-alternating 
magnetic  condition  :  and  the  curious  relations  now 
known  to  exist  between  beams  of  light  and  the 
field  of  force  of  a  magnet  lend  the  greatest  prob- 
ability to  this  theorj-.  Besides,  Hertz's  dLscoveiies 
(see  SIagxetism)  have  shown  that  phenomena  of 
exactly  the  same  character  as  those  of  light,  and 
differin"  only  in  wave-length,  exist  in  the  magnetic 
field  while  induction  is  going  on ;  and  all  the 
phenomena  of  light,  radiant  heat,  and  actinic 
radiation  are  reduced  to  phenomena  of  electro- 
magnetic radiation  between  certain  limits  of  wave- 
length. 

The  velocit.v  of  light  is  found  by  timing  the 
eclipses  of  Jupiter's  satellites  when  they  are  at 
the  greatest  and  the  least  distance  from  the  earth, 
by  astronomical  abenation-observations,  by  findin" 
(Fizeau)  what  speed  must  be  given  to  a  cog-wheel 
to  make  it  rotate  one  tooth's-breadth  while  light  is 
going  to  a  given  distant  mirror  and  returning,  by 
finding  (Foucault)  what  positi(m  is  ultimately 
assumed  by  a  ray  which  travels  from  a  source  to 
a  rotating  mirror,  thence  to  a  distant  mirror,  and 
thence  back  to  the  original  mirror,  which  by  this 
time  has  been  rotateil  somewhat.  In  the  last 
method  it  is  found  that  the  interjiosition  of  optic- 
ally denser  or  more  refractive  media  retards  the 
light.  The  mean  of  all  observations  is  that  light 
of  all  wave-lengths  travels  in  vacuo  with  a  velocity  of 
30,057,400,000  centimetres  or  186,772  miles  "per 
second  ;  in  air  with  a  velocity  less  than  this  in  the 
ratio  of  10.000  tr)  IO,00;i.  The  length  of  waves  can 
be  ascertained  from  measurement,  at  a  suHicient 
distance,  of  the  fringes  produced  by  Interference 
(q.v.),  or  by  the  u.se  of  difl'ractiongratings  ruled 
with  H  lines  to  the  centimetre,  in  which  case  the 
wave-length  for  any  particular  colour  is  in  centi- 
metres the  »th  part  of  the  .sine  of  the  angle  of  de- 
flection of  that  colour  in  the  first  'difl'raction- 
spectnim,'  a  result  easily  reached  through  the 
general  theory  of  waves.      The   wave-lengths  of 


622 


LIGHT    AND    AIR 


LIGHTHOUSE 


radiant  heat,  light,  ami  actinic  radiations  rani'e 
from  T,U  cm.  or  xT.sTnr  incli(tlie  longest  invisihle 
heat-rays,  Lant,^ley)  to  nnraTruu  <""••  <"'  ujrsWsii  i"ch 
(invisible  actinic  rays) ;  the  visible  limits  are  TjJnr 
and  TTiJs  J  cm.  The  frequencies  or  number  of  waves 
per  s'econd  accordingly  range  from  '20  millions  of 
millions  to  40,000  millions  of  millions  per  second, 
the  extreme  visible  limits  being  392  and  757  millions 
of  millions  per  second. 

See  ABEER.1TI0N,  Diffraction,  Dispersion,  Ether, 
Interference,  Optics,  Photogr.aphy,  Polarisation, 
Radiation,  Reflection,  Refraction,  Shadows, 
Spectrum;  and  Tait's  Lifiht,  Glazebrook's  Phi/sical 
Optics,  Stokes's  Burnett  Lectures  on  Light. 

Light  and  Air,  RinUTS  to.  An  owner  of  land 
has  a  right  to  tlio  light  and  air  which  pass  over  it ; 
he  has  idso  the  right  to  obstruct  the  light  and  air 
by  erecting  walls  and  l)uildings.  If  my  neighbour 
builds  a  house  on  the  edge  of  my  land,  lie  does  not 
thereby  acquire  any  right  against  me  ;  I  may  build 
on  my  land  so  as  to  darken  his  windows.  But  I 
may,  1)V  express  or  implied  gi-ant,  vest  in  him  the 
rigiit  which  is  called  a  Servitude  or  an  Easement— 
tlie  right  to  forbid  the  erection,  on  my  land,  of  any 
building  which  obstructs  his  lights.  Up  to  this 
point  the  Roman,  Scotch,  and  English  law  are 
alike  in  principle.  Tlie  English  law  ( as  amended 
by  the  Prescription  Act  of  1832)  allows  an  ease- 
ment of  light  to  be  acquired  against  a  neighbour 
by  twenty  years'  enjoyment,  without  any  grant. 
In  Scotland  such  rights  are  not  acquired  by  lapse 
of  time  ;  unless  a  servitude  has  l)een  created,  an 
owner  may  at  any  time  build  so  as  to  darken  his 
neighbours  windows,  provided  he  does  not  act 
wantonly,  emulously,  or  so  as  to  cause  a  nuisance. 
Rights  to  air  generally  go  along  with  rights  to 
light ;  and  the  right  is  confined  to  air  coming 
through  windows,  &(■.  The  Englisli  law  does  not 
recognise  any  <'eneral  right  to  air,  such,  e.g.,  as  the 
right  to  forbid  buildings  which  i>revent  air  from 
reaching  a  windmill.  Roman  law  permitted  an 
owner  to  acquire  a  servitude  of  prospect— i.e.  the 
right  to  forbid  buildings  which  shut  out  a  tine 
view  ;  but  the  English  law  regards  this  as  a  fanci- 
ful and  inadmissible  right.  In  the  United  States 
rights  of  view— i.e.  rights  to  open  windows  and  to 
forbid  buildings  which  obstruct  theui— may  be 
acquired  by  one  owner  against  another ;  and  in 
some  states"  they  may  be  acquired  by  uninteirupted 
enjoyment  for  twenty  or  fifteen  years.  See  Ros- 
coe's  Difiest  of  the  Law  of  Linht  (Lond.  1881),  and 
Stimson's  Amcrk-an  Statute  Law. 

Lighter.    See  Barge. 

Liglltfoot,  John,  one  of  the  earlier  Hebrew 
scholars  of  England,  was  boru  in  1602  at  Stoke- 
upon-Trent,  in  StaHbnlshire,  son  of  the  vicar  of 
Uttoxeter.  He  had  his  education  at  Christ's 
College,  Cambridge,  and,  after  taking  orders, 
became  chaiilain  to  Sir  Rowland  Cotton,  himself 
a  fair  Hebraist.  In  1629  appeared  his  Entbhiii,  or 
JSUscellanics  Christian  aiiel  Judaical,  dedicated  to 
Sir  R.  Cotton,  who  in  1630  presented  him  to  the 
rectory  of  Asliley  in  Stall'ordshire,  where  he 
laboured  with  ince-ssaiit  zeal  for  twelve  years.  He 
next  removed  to  London,  and  was  chosen  minister 
of  St  BartholoTuew's,  to  the  parishioners  of  which 
he  dedicated  his  lluiulful  of  Gkaiiinija  out  of 
the  Book  of  Exudus  { 1()43).  Liglltfoot  was  one  of 
the  most  inlluential  members  of  the  Westminster 
Assembly  in  1643,  but  often  stood  alone,  as  in  the 
Erastiau  controversy.  In  the  same  year  he  was 
chosen  Master  of  Catharine  Hall,  Cambridge,  and 
rector  of  Much  .Mundcn  in  Hertfordshire,  and  in 
165.5  vice-chancellor  of  the  university.  At  the 
Restoration  he  comi)lied  with  the  terms  of  the  Act 
of  Uniformity.     He  died  at  Ely,  IJecember  G,  1675. 

The  chief  works  of  this  great  Rabbinical  scholar  were 


the  imfinished  Harmony  of  the  Four  Evangelists  among 
themselres  {16ii^oO);  Commentary  upon  the  Acts  of  the 
Apostles  (lti45);  The  Harmon;/,  Chronicle,  and  Order 
of  the  Old  Testament  (1G47);  of  the  NVw  (1().55);  and  the 
Horce  Hebraicw  et  Talmiidicic  (Ui.")S-74;  last  part  post- 
humously), the  great  labour  of  lus  life.  The  best  edition 
of  his  whole  works  is  that  edited  by  the  Rev.  J.  R.  Rit- 
niati,  with  a  Life  (13  vols.  I8'2--25). 

Lightfoot.    Joseph    Bauiikr,    D.D.,    Bishop 
of  Uurliam,   was  born  at  Liverjiool  in    1828,   and 
was    educated    at    Trinity    Coilego,     Cambridge, 
wliere  he  graduated  B.A.  in  1851  as   a  wrangler, 
senior    classic,    and    Chancellor's    medallist.      lie 
was  elected  a  Fellow  of  his  college  in   1852,  and 
gained  the  Norris  University  prize  in  1853.     Or- 
dained in  1854,  he  became  tutor  of  Trinity  College 
in  1857,  Hulsean  professor  of  Divinity  at  Cambridge 
in  1861,  canon  of  St  Paul's  Cathedral  in  1871,  and 
Lady  Rlargaret  professor  of  Divinity  at  Cambridge 
in   1875.     He  received  bis  doctor's  degree  in  1864, 
was  Whitehall   preacher   in    1SU6,   was  appointed 
examining  cliaplain  to  the  Archbishop  of  Canter- 
bury in  1868,  honoiary  Fellow  of  Trinity  College, 
Cambridge,   in    1872,  "select    preacher  at  Oxford, 
1874-75,  and  one  of  the  Depnty-clerks  of  the  Clo.set 
to  Her  Majesty,  February  1875.    In  1879  Dr  Light- 
foot  accepted  with  great  reluctance  the  bishopric  of 
Durham,  in  succession  to  Dr  Baring.     Although 
confessedly    the    most    learned    New    Testament 
scholar    in   tlie    church,    his    powers   of   adminis- 
tration had  not  been  tested ;  but  in  the  end  his 
appointment  wa-s  not  only  justified  so  far  as  the 
diocese  of  Durham  was  concerned,  but  in  the  wider 
interests  of  the  Church  of  England  at  large.    While 
pursuing    in    private    his   own   studies,   ho   made 
Bishop-Auckland  a  centre  of  learniu''  and  teaching 
for  his  clergy.     He  likewise  devoted  himself  with 
untiring  energy  to  the  practical  work  of  his  see,  and 
speedily  gained  the  all'ection  and  confidence  of  all 
with  w'liom  he  came  into  contact.     The  work  of  the 
Church  Temperance  Society  and  the  White  Cross 
Army  was  specially  furthered  by  his  exertions.    His 
munificence  was   unbounded,    and   one  of  his  last 
acts   was  to   build   a  church  at  Sunderland  as  a 
thank-idl'ering  for  what  seemed  to  be  his  recovery 
from  a  serious  illness  in  1888.     Dr  Lightfoot's  in- 
fluence at  Cambridge  as  a  great  Christian  teacher 
was  of  incalculable  importance,  his  high  personal 
character  as  well  as  his  learning  having  immense 
weight  and  influence.     A  supreme  grammarian  and 
painstaking  textual  critic,  he  gave  the  world  admir- 
able commentaries  on  the  epistles  of  Paul  to  the 
Galatiaiis  ( 1865 ),  Philippians  ( 1 868 ),  Colossians  and 
Philemon  (1875),  to  eacdi  of  which  were  apiiended 
interesting  dissertations.    Unhaiipily  he  was  unable 
to  complete  the  Pauline  Epistles,  and  his  exhaus- 
tive work  on  the  Apostolic  Fathers  remains  also  a 
splendid  fragment,  embracing  luily  the  two  ci)istles 
ascribed   to   Clement   of  Home   (1869;    Appendix, 
1877;  new  ed.    1890),  and  Iijuatiiis  and  Polyearp 
(1885  ;  2d  ed.  3  vols.  1889).     Other  works  were  On 
a  Fresh  Revision  of  the  Enqlish  New   Testament 
( 1871 ),  an  edition  of  Dean  Mansel's  treatise  on  The 
Gnoslie  Heresies  of  the  First  and  Second  Centuries 
( 1875),  and  four  volumes  of  sermons  published  pos- 
tlinmously  in  1890.     He  contributed  to  the  Journal 
of  Philolotjy,  Dr  Smith's  Dietionarics  of  the  Bible, 
()f  Christian  Antiquities,  and  Christian  Biography, 
and  published  in  succe.s.sive  numbers  of  the  Content- 
porari)  Review  a  crushing  and  detailed  answer  to  the 
anonvnious  writer  of  Supernatural  Ri'lii/iou  (col- 
lected 1S89  ).    Dr  Liglltfoot,  who  was  never  married, 
died  at   Itournennuith  on  December  21,   1889,  and 
was  buried  at  Durham. 

Lighthouse,  a  building  erected  on  sonie  con- 
spicuous iiart  of  the  coast  from  which  a  light  is 
siiown  at  night  to  guide  mariners,  and  which  serves 
as  a  landmark  by  day.    Aids  to  navigation  comprise 


LIGHTHOUSE 


623 


lighthouses,  lightsliips,  Iieaoons,  buoys,  fog-signals, 
ami  huuiuiaiks.  Lighthoust-s  are  generally  placed 
on  salient  points  of  tlie  coivstline,  islamls,  isolated 
or  sunken  rocks,  low  promontories,  ami  sandbanks, 
each  requiring  stiiictures  specially  designeil  to 
meet  the  exigencies  of  such  varied  sites.  When 
placed  on  lieadlands  or  large  islands  lij'hthouses 
are  very  much  alike  in  general  features,  tlie  differ- 
ences being  mainly  in  the  height  of  the  towei^, 
depeuiling  on  the  distance  at  which  the  light  requires 
to  be  seen,  and  the  lighting  apparatus.  Towere 
erecte<l  on  isolated  wave-swept  rocks  in  the  open 
sea,  such  as  Smeaton's  Eddystone  (now  superseded 
by  Sir  James  Douglass's  tower),  Stevenson's  Bell 
Rock,  Walker's  Bishop  and  WoltV  Rocks,  Alan 
Stevenson's  Skerryvore,  David  Stevenson's  North 
Unst,  and  Messrs  Stevenson's  Dhuheartach  and 
Chickens  Rock  lighthouses,  Alexander's  Jlinot's 
Ledge  and  Spectacle  Reef  in  America,  and  Brehat 
in  France,  are  triumphs  of  engineering. 

The  history  of  lighthouse  construction  and 
illumination  may  be  said  to  extend  over  a  period 
of  more  than  two  thousand  yeai-s ;  but  the  regularly- 
organised  life-preserving  system  of  modern  light- 
house engineering  goes  hack  very  little  further  than 
the  beginning  of  the  19th  centuiy.  None  of  the 
early  lighthouse  buildings  now  exist.  The  Pharos 
of  Alexandria  (.S31  B.C.)  gave  its  name  to  its  suc- 
cessors. The  Romans  built  lighthouses  at  Ostia, 
Ravenna,  Puteoli,  and  other  ports.  The  Phoenician 
Pharos  at  Coruua  was  reiiaired  during  the  reign 
of  the  Emperor  Trajan,  was  re-established  as  a 
Iiglitliou.se  about  1634,  and  in  1847  had  a  dioptric 
apparatus  placed  in  it.  On  the  cliff  at  Boulogne 
there  are  the  remains  of  a  liglithouse  ascribed  to 
Caligula  (40  .^.D. ),  and  at  Dover  there  are  remains 
of  another  Roman  pharos.  Corduan,  at  the  mouth 
of  the  Garonne,  has  seen  all  the  improvements,  from 
the  open  chauffer,  in  wiiich  billets  of  wood  were 
burned,  to  the  dioptric  liglit  combined  with  a  four- 
wick  lamp.  Until  the  end  of  the  18th  century  the 
lighthouses  of  Britain  and  America  were  few  in 
number,  and  of  an  inferior  description  in  the  great 
essential  of  a  lighthouse — viz.  sending  the  greatest 
numl)er  of  rays  of  light  towanls  the  horizon.  !Man}' 
of  the  public  lights  in  England  were  private  pro- 
perty, as  was  also  the  case  with  the  Isle  of  May  in 
Scotland,  the  patent  for  which  was  ratified  in  lt>41. 
There  were  only  twenty-hve  lighthouse  stations  and 
si.x  lloating  lights  in  England  at  the  beginning  of 
tlie  19th  century.  In  1786  the  Northern  Lighthouse 
Board  was  constituted  by  act  of  parliament,  but 
such  was  the  then  state  of  commerce  that  the  act 
provideil  for  only  four  lighthouses  ;  now  there  are 
no  fewer  than  sLxty-seven  lighthouses  under  the 
Board's  jurisdiction.  The  Irish  Lighthouse  Board 
wa-s  constituted  about  the  same  period.  The  coast 
anil  harbour  lights  in  Great  Britain  and  Ireland 
are  now  upwards  of  880  in  number.  In  the  United 
States  of  America  the  lirst  act  of  congress  relating 
to  lighthouses  was  i)assed  in  1789,  and  there  are 
now  in  American  waters  2375  lights  and  lightships 
and  246  fog-signals. 

The  early  lighthouse  towers  had  on  their  summits 
grates  or  chauffers,  in  which  billets  of  wood  or  coal 
were  burned,  but  though  expensive  to  maintain — 
some  of  them  using  400  tons  of  coal  yearly — were  un- 
certain in  their  ajipearance,  varying  with  the  ever- 
changing  character  of  the  atmosphere.  Such  coal- 
lights  survived  in  Scotland  till  1816,  in  England  till 
1822,  and  on  the  iSaltic  till  1846.  As  an  example 
of  a  modern  lighthouse  tower  we  may  take  Skerry- 
vore, which  is  139  feet  in  height  an(r42  feet  in  dia- 
meter at  the  base,  containing  a  nia.ss  of  .')8,.i80  cubic 
feet  of  granite.  The  foundations  of  all  the  towers 
exposed  to  the  .sea  are  quarried  out  of  the  solid 
rock,  and  all  the  courses  are  dovetailed  or  joggled 
together  into  each  other  by  various  devices,  and 


they  are  made  soliil  feu-  about  20  or  30  feet  above 
the  foundaticm,  where  they  become  divided  off  into 
rooms,  one  above  another,  access  to  which  is 
obtained  by  means  of  ladders.  The  dithculties  of 
building  are  very  great,  as  may  be  judged  from  the 
following  facts  :  Winstanley's  Edily stone  took  four 
seasons  to  erect,  and  was  finally  swept  away, 
Rudyerd's  and  also  Smeaton's  Kddystones  took 
each  tliroe  years,  the  Bell  Rock  took  four  years, 
the  Skerryvore  live,  and  Dhuheartach  three  and 
a  half,  the  great  dilliculty  being  to  effect  a  landing 
of  men  and  materials.  At  Minot's  Ledge,  off  the 
Massachusetts  coast.  General  Alexan<ler  got  only 
30  hours  of  work  in  the  first  year  and  137  in  the 
second,  and  the  histmies  of  the  Bell  Rock,  Skerry- 
vore, Dhuheartacli,  Chickens,  E<ldystone,  and  some 
others  tell  the  .same  tale.  The  cost  of  lighthouses 
may  vary  much ;  for  instance,  the  Bell  Rock 
cost  £61,000,  Skerryvore  £86,000,  Spectacle  Reef, 
on  Lake  Huron,  £60,000,  Bishoj)  £3.i,000,  Dhuhear- 
tach £80,000,  and  North  Unst  £32,000 ;  and  it  will 
be  easily  seen  that  an  ordinary  land  station,  fully 
equippeil,  will  cost  much  less — as  a  matter  of 
fact,  about  £5000  to  £10,000.  Liglit- vessels  cost 
about  £9000. 

Oil-lamiis  were  used  in  lighthouses  at  the  end  of 
the  16th  century ;  but  liquid  fuel  often  gave  way 
to  candles  of  tallow  or  wax.  Smeaton  s  famous 
Eddystone  was  lighted  with  twenty-four  candles, 
five  of  which  weighed  2  lb.  The  use  of  lamps  led 
to  reflectors.  The  early  ones  were  about  18  inches 
in  diameter,  and  made  of  small  squares  of  mirror 
glass,  set  in  plaster  of  Paris,  the  lamps  having 
torch-like  wic-ks,  the  fuel  ordinary  whale-oil. 
These  lamps  did  not  give  good  results,  and  the 
flat  wick,  though  an  improvement,  was  still  un- 
satisfactory. It  was  reserved  for  Argand  (q.v.)  to 
devise  the  cylindrical  wick-burner.  The  height  of 
the  flame  in  the  argand  lamp  varied  with  the 
level  of  the  oil  in  the  fountain,  anil  Carcel  ilevised 
the  arrangements  for  supplying  a  su)ierabundance 
of  oil  to  Keep  the  burner  cool.  Argand's  inven- 
tion is  said  to  have  been  also  discovered  by 
Teul^re,  who  combined  his  lamp  with  the  use  of 
reflectors. 

By  placing  a  parabolic  mirror  behind  a  flame 
(fig.  1)  all  the  rays  of  light  proceeding  from 
the  focus  and  falling 
upon  its  surface  are 
reflected  parallel  to 
the  axis,  and  emerge 
in  a  beam  of  light. 
Such  reflectors  are 
generally  21  inches 
in  diameter  for 
fixed  and  25  inches 
for  revolving  lights, 
their  power  being 
equal  to  350  to 
450  times  the  un- 
assisted flame.  By 
arranging  a  number 
of  rellectoi-s  on  a 
frame  there  can  be 
sent,  all  round  the 
horizon,  a  number  of 
beams  of  light  of 
practically  eciual  in- 
tensity, thus  producing  a  Jircil  light;  and  by 
assembling  tliem  on  a  frame  having  three  or  more 
faces,  and  making  this  frame  revolve,  a  rerolving 
light  results,  the  rotation  of  the  frame  thus  pro- 
ducing a  succession  of  light  ami  dark  intervals. 
These  reflectors  are  used  in  some  of  the  most 
characteristic  lighthouses  in  Britain.  By  arranging 
reflectors  in  a  certain  manner  on  a  frame,  ami 
causing  it  to  revolve,  a  group-lhushing  light  can  he 
produced — i.e.  one  giving  two  or  three  Hashes  in 


Fig.  1. 


624 


LIGHTHOUSE 


quick   succession,   followed  by  a  long  interval  of 
itarkness. 

The  ordinary  parabolic  reflector  allows  about 
one-tliiril  of  the  rays  to  escape  pa.st  the  lips  by 
natural  divergence.  To  prevent  this  wsiste  Mr 
Thomas  Stevenson,  in  1849,  devised  the  holophotal 


reflector  (fig.  2),  whicli  consists  of  a  lens,  L,  with  a 
parabolic  mirror,  «,  and  a  hemispherical  mirror,  bb, 
which  returns  all  the  rays  falling  upon  it  back  to 
the  flame. 

To  Augustin  Fresnel  (q.v. )  belongs  the  honour 
of  inventing  and  first  employing,  in  1822,  the 
dio])tric  system  for  lighthouse  pur])oses  in  com- 
bination with  a  central  lamp  having  four  con- 
centric wicks.  He  was  apparently  ignorant  of  what 
Iiad  been  done  by  Button  and  Condorcet  in  propos- 
ing, for  burning  purposes,  to  build  up  lenses  in 
separate  pieces  with  the  view  of  reducing  the 
thickness  of  glass  and  correcting  to  a  large  extent 
spherical  aberration.  So  he  devised  the  lighthouse 
lens,  which  is  plano-convex,  3  feet  3  inches  in  heiglit 
by  2  feet  6  inches  in  breadth,  composed  of  a  central 
disc,  surrounded  by  annular  rings  gradually 
decreasin"  in  breadth  as  they  recede  from  the 
centre.  If  these  lenses  be  assembled  on  a  frame 
with  eight  or  more  sides,  having  a  lamp  in  their 
common  focus,  and  be  made  to  revolve,  a  dioptric 
revolving  light  is  produced.  The  lens  implied  a 
central  lamp  and  a  flame  of  great  intensity,  whicli 

Fresnel  and  Arago 
devised,  and  in 
which  they  ad- 
hered to  Argand's 
principle  of  the 
double  air-cur- 
rent ;  and  they 
also  took  advan- 
tage of  Kuniford's 
idea  of  a  lamp 
with  concentric 
wicks.  The 
lenses,  however, 
not  interce]iting 
the  rays  of  light 
proceeding  from 
the  flame  above 
and  below  them, 
Fresnel  designed 
an  arrangement 
of  inclined  lenses, 
and  mirrors  above 
the  lenses,  and 
silvered  mirrors 
Fig.  3,— Stevenson's  Holophotal  below  them, 
Kevolving  Light  of  the  first  order,   which,     to     some 

extent,  obviates 
this  defect.  When  designing  the  revolving 
apparatus  for  Skerryvore,  Mr  Alan  Stevenson 
substituted  prisms  for  tlie  mirrors  below  the 
lenses,  and  also  introduced  totally  reflecting 
prisms    for   first   order    lightvs,  and,  in   1849,  Mr 


T.  Stevenson  dispensed  witli  the  double  agents 
above  and  below  the  lens,  and  substituted  holo- 
photal prisms  which  parallelise  tlie  rays  in  every 
plane  (lig.  3).  The  holophotal  ap]iaratus  is  now 
universally  adopted  for  revolving  liglits.  Fresnel 
devised  the  fixed  light  varied  by  flashes  by 
placing  straight  refracting  jirisms  on  a  revolv- 
ing frame  outside  a  fixed  apparatus.  An  exten- 
sion of  this  is  the  condensing  revolving  apjiar- 
atus  whicli  has  been  carried  to  such  perfection 
in  Scotland,  whereby  straight  refracting  or  re- 
flecting prisms  revolve,  and  intercept  the  rays 
from  a  central  fi.xed  apparatus,  so  as  to  pro- 
duce darkness  over  the  section.s  they  subtend, 
while  they  spread  the  rays  which  they  intercept 


£■•■■■ 

m 

;::y 

Fig.  4. 


uniformly  over,  and  thus  strengthen,  the  inter- 
mediate sections  (fig.  4).  The  power  is  in- 
creased in  proportion  to  the  duration  of  the 
intervening  periods  of  darkness.  There  have  been 
devised  by  Dr  Hopkinson  group-flashing  lights  by 
splitting  up  the  lens  into  two  or  three  portions  so 
as  to  give  two  or  more  flashes  (tig.  5). 

The  most  notable  improvement  of  recent  times  in 
revolving    apparatus    is    what    Messrs    Stevenson 


Fig.  5. — Holophotal  Triple-Hashing  Light,  first  order. 

suggested  in  1869,  ami  to  which  they  have  given 
the  name  hypcr-radiuiit.  The  radius  >vhicli  they 
adopted  was  1330  mm.,  that  of  Fresnel  lieiiig  920 
mm.  The  first  lens  of  this  size  was  made  to  Messrs 
Stevenson's  design  by  Messrs  Harbier  and  l''eiicst  re, 
Paris.  AVIien  combined  with  the  large  tlanics  de- 
veloped by  the  increased  size  of  burners  now  used, 
this  apparatus,  when  completed  with  the  enlarged 
prisms  above  and  below  the  lenses  (fig  6),  leaves 


LIGHTHOUSE 


625 


little  to  be  desired,  as  all  the  rays  of  light  are  acted 
on,  excessive  heat  is  avoided,  and  biforiii  and  tri- 
form arrangements  are  rendered  unnecessary,  as 
one  central  tlame  is  alone  required.  It  is  optic- 
ally tlie  most  efficient  apparatus  yet  made. 


Stevenson's  Hyper-radiant  Light. 

Fresnel  not  only  gave  us  the  dioptric  revolving 
light,  but  also  the  fixed  dioptric  apparatus,  show- 
ing all  round  the  horizon  a  vertical  strip  of  light, 
depending  on  the  diameter  of  the  central  Hame. 

It  is  said  that 
owing  to  difficul- 
ties of  construc- 
tion Fresnel 
adopted  a  poly- 
gonal form  of 
thirty-two  nar- 
row lenses  for  the 
refracting  hoop ; 
but  -Mr  Alan 
Stevenson,  when 
introducing  the 
dioptric  light  in- 
to Britain,  de- 
signed a  truly 
cylindrical  belt, 
to  the  different 
sections  of  which 
he  i;ave  a  rhom- 
boidal  form  with 
oblique  joints 
( fitj.  7 )-  He  also 
had  executed  on 
the  large  scale 
totally  reUeoting 

i>rismatic    rings, 
'"ig.  8  is  a  iliop. 
trie  spherical  mirror,  which  shows  a  dioptric  liolo- 

fdiote,  and  lig.  9  the  dioptric  mirror  as  imjiroved 
)y  Mr  J.  T.  Chance,  which  is  largely  used  in  light- 
houses, a-s  is  also  the  azimuthal  condensing  light, 
iniroduceil  by  Me.ssrs  Steven.son  in  1857,  to  suit 
the  requirement.')  of  narrow  sounds  on  the  west 
coast  of  Scotland,  where  the  light  did  not  require 
to  be  of  equal  power  in  all  directions.  .As  shown 
by  the  chart  (fig.  10),  it  is  obvious  that  on  the  siile 
next  the  shore  no  light  is  required,  acros.s  the  .sound 
a  feeble  light  is  all  that  is  necessary,  while  up  and 
.300 


7. — Fixed  Light,  first  order. 


down  the  sound  the  sea  to  be  illuminated  is  of 
greater  or  loss  extent,  requiring  corresponding  in- 
tensity. Various  ap|ilications  of  Stevenson's  con- 
densing princii)k'  are 
now  extensively  used 
in  lighthouses.  The 
apparent  light  is 
another  of  ^Ir  T. 
Stevenson's  devices 
for  indicating,  by 
means  of  a  beam  of 
parallel  rays  thrown 
from  the  shore,  the 
position  of  a  rock 
lying  at  some  dis- 
tance off.  By  means 
of  apparatus  placed 
on  a  l)eacon  on  the 
rock,  the  rays  of  light 
from  the  shore  are 
reflected  seawards  so 
as  to  give  the  appearance  of  a  light  on  the  beacon 
( fig.  1 1 ).  Dioptric  apparatus  were  divided  into  six 
orders  until  Jlessrs  Stevenson  designed  the  hyper- 
radiant  apparatus ;  the  following  table  gives  the 
internal  diameter  and  height  of  the  optical-glass 
of  each  : 


Fig.  8. 
Dioptric  Spherical  Mirror. 


Iut«nial  Diameter. 

Hyper-radiant. ..8  feet  8'72  inches. 

l.st  Order 6  „  0-44  .. 

•2d         4  ..  712  .. 

3d         3  "  3-37  ., 

4th      1  ..  7-68  ., 

5th      1  ..  277  .. 

6th      ..    0  ..  11-81  i. 


Height  of  Glass-work. 

11  feet  10-28  inches. 

8  ..  8-5 

7  ..  0 

5  ..  1-5 

2  ..  8-06 

1  „  10 

1  „  55 


Lanterns. — The  lantern,  or  framewoik  of  glass 
and  metal  which  contains  the  lighting  apparatus, 
is  an  important  part  of  lighthouse  economy.  The 
early  lanterns  had 
vertical  and  hori- 
zontal sash-bai-s, 
but  in  1835  Mr 
Alan  Stevensim, 
when  he  introduced 
diagonal  frame- 
work for  the  diop- 
tric light,  extended 
it  to  the  lantern. 
The  diagonal  astra- 
gals do  not  inter- 
cept light  in  any  - 
azinmth  through- 
out their  whole 
height,  and  this 
trigonal  arrange- 
ment secures  a 
structure  of    great 


Fig.  9. 
Chance's  Improvement  on  Fig.  8. 


rigidity  and  strength.  The 
astragals  are  of  gun-metal,  1  inch  section,  glazed 
with  plate-glass  J  incli  in  thickness,  unless  in 
peculiarly  exposed  situations,  where  it  is  used  J 
inch  thick.     The  first  order  lantern  is  12  feet  in 


Fig.  10. 

diameter,  and  10  feet  in  height  of  daylight,  with 
an  outer  and  inner  dome  of  coi)per.  Mr  Alan 
Stevenson  designed  a  helical  lantern  in  184G,  but  it 
was  not  executed.  Sir  James  Dougla.ss,  however, 
recently  designed  a  lantern  with  helical  a.stragals 


626 


LIGHTHOUSE 


Fig.  11. 


14  feet  in  tliametei',  glazed  with  glass  ^  inch  in 
thickness,  bent  to  the  proiier  curve.  In  the  Scot- 
tish liglitliouses  'storm-panes,'  which  are  glazed 
copper  frames,  are  always  in  readiness  in  ciuse  of 
breakage  of  a  pane.  They  arc  Hxed  to  the  astragals 
by  screws.  There  is  no  instance  in  the  Northern 
Lighthonse  service  of  a  lantern-pane  being  broken 
by  the  force  of  the  wind,  l)ut  they  are  occasionally 
broken  by  birds  or  by  stones  being  driven  against 
them  (hiring  strong  gales. 

Lamps. — The  earliest  lighthouses  had  lamjis  with 
two  or  more  spouts  each  with  a  skein  of  cotton, 
until  Argand  and  Teul^re  gave  us  the  cylindric 
burner,  Carcel  the  arrangement  for  causing  a 
How  of  oil  over  the  burner,  Kumford  the  idea 
of  concentric  wicks,  and  Arago  and  Fresnel  the 
four-wick  lamp.  Mr  Alan  Stevenson  added  a 
fifth   wick,  and  other  lighthouse   engineers   have 

increased  the 
number.  These 
burners  were 
suitable  for  con- 
suming animal 
or  vegetable  oils. 
The  extensive 
use  of  parathn 
led  to  its  adop- 
tion in  light- 
houses, but  suc- 
cess was  only 
attained  with 
the  one-wick 
burner  until 
Captain  Doty, 
in  1868,  devised 
burners  which 
develop  a  flame  of  great  purity  and  intensity  in 
concentric  wick  lamps.  Single-wick  burners  draw 
their  supply  by  the  capillary  action  of  the  ■nick, 
but  with  multiple-wick  burnei's  the  oil  is  supplied 
by  cisterns  placed  above  the  level  of  the  Inirner,  or 
from  below  by  ])umps  worked  by  clockwork,  or  by 
pressure  exerted  by  a  weighted  piston.  When 
vegetable  or  animal  oils  are  employed  with  multiple- 
wick  lamps  the  burner  requires  to  be  kept  cool  and 
the  wicks  |)revented  from  charring  by  causing  a 
superabundant  sujiply  of  oil — nearly  three  times 
greater  than  is  consumed — to  flow  over  the  wicks, 
the  overflow  rumiing  back  to  the  cistern.  AVhen 
]iaiatlin  is  used,  however,  the  fluid  is  not  allowed  to 
rise  beyond  a  certain  height  in  the  wick-cliambers, 
the  overflow  being  returned  by  a  tube  to  the 
fountain.  The  satisfactory  results  in  increiused 
l)hotogenic  power  and  economy  arising  from  the 
use  of  i)arallin  have  led  to  the  diameters  of  the 
burners  being  much  increased.  Sir  James  Douglass 
has  devised  burners  having  seven,  eight,  and  nine 
concentric  wicks,  which,  of  course,  greatly  increase 
the  candle-power.  Messrs  Stevenson  pointed  out, 
in  1809,  that  much  of  the  light  from  burners  of 
greatly  increased  diameter,  when  used  with  revolv- 
ing apparatus,  was  not  condensed  by  the  lenses, 
and  not  i)roperly  utilised,  and  that  special  apjaratus 
was  necessary,  and  hence  their  proposal  of  the 
hyper-radiant  ajiparatus  already  referred  to. 

lUuiiiiiKints. — Almost  every  kind  of  oil,  .animal 
and  vegetable,  has  been  used  in  liglitliouses — 
whale,  sperm,  seal,  lard,  olive,  cocoa-nut,  hempseed, 
colza  -but  these  have  been  supersedeil  by  |)araMin, 
not  only  on  financial  but  on  iihotogenic  groniuls. 
Sperm-oil  was  long  the  illuminant  used  in  British 
lights,  but  it  gave  way,  in  184.5,  to  colza  at  a  saving 
of  one-half  the  cost,  while  it  has  been  succeeded  by 
paraflin,  which  has  raised  the  power  of  the  lamps 
Iroin  10  [ler  cent,  in  the  four-WKdc  burner  to  over 
100  per  cent,  in  the  one-wick  lamp.  Messrs 
Stevenson,  in  1870,  set  at  rest  the  comparative 
merits  of  colza  and  paraflin,  and,  when  the  isolated 


rock  station  of  Dhubeaitach  came  to  be  lighted  in 
1872,  they  introduced  paraflin  as  the  illuminant. 
It  may  be  stated  that  in  the  Scottish  liglitliouses 
alone  a  sum  of  between  £4000  and  £.50(10  is  annu- 
ally saved  by  the  use  of  paraflin,  while  the  jiower 
of  the  lights  has  been  exalted;  and  most  light 
liou.se  authorities  have  followed  their  exam|ile. 
Paraflin  can  be  readily  obtained  with  a  specillc 
gravity  of  0'8'2,  and  a  flashing-point,  close  test,  of 
125°  to  150°  F.,  and  even  as  high  as  250'  F.  The 
following  is  the  consumption  in  gallons  per  hour  of 
the  Dotv  ])araflin  buriieis  :  1  wick,  015  ;  2  wicks, 
■055  ;  3  wicks,  126  :  4  wicks,  -205  ;  5  wicks,  ■373  ;  6 
wicks,  '499.  The  use  of  gas  was  suggested  ^^  hen 
giis-lighting  was  in  its  infancy,  and  the  experiments 
did  not  succeed.  Wherexer  gas  can  be  had,  and 
proper  precauticms  are  taken,  there  can  be  no 
doubt  of  its  utility  for  lighthouse  purpo.*cs  ;  but 
when  it  requires  to  be  specially  made  at  a  light- 
house station,  either  from  coal  or  paraflin.  it  is  ex- 
pensive. Fm-  harbour-lights,  where  the  sup^dy 
can  be  readily  had,  it  has  long  been  used  witli 
satisfactory  results.  In  1827  ISlr  Wilson  erected  a 
very  simide  ]iiece  of  m.achinery  at  Troon  for  ]iroduc- 
ing  an  interiiiiltent  light  from  gas,  whereby  the 
alternations  of  light  and  darkness  were  got  by 
shutting  oft'  the  "as  so  as  to  extinguish  the  light, 
and  again  as  suddenly  letting  on  the  full  sii|)ply, 
the  gas  being  re-ignited  by  a  separate  small  burner 
supplied  by  a  '  bypass  yalve.'  Mr  T.  Stevenson 
propo.seil  to  make  intermittent  gas-lights  by  causing 
the  flow  of  gas  to  produce  intermittent  action  by 
means  of  a  dry  meter.     The  meter  is  so  made  as  to 

Eass  gas  suflicient  to  keep  a  small  jet  constantly 
nrning.  The  full  flame  of  the  large  jet  continues 
to  burn  until  the  action  of  the  meter  cuts  oti'  the 
supply,  and  the  small  jet  is  again  kept  burning 
alone  until  the  full  supply  flows  to  the  larger  jet. 
Mr  Wigliam  of  Dublin  has  devised  a  system  of 
gas-burners,  having  live  rings  of  28,  48,  68,  88,  and 
108  jets,  the  diameter  of  the  rin^s  varying  from  4 
to  11 J  inches,  the  power  being  250,  680,  990,  1400, 
and  2300  standard  candles  respectively.  These 
burners  require  no  glass-chimney,  and  all  or  any 
of  the  rings  can  be  used  to  suit  the  state  of  the 
atmosphere.  He  has  also  strongly  advocated,  and 
has  introduced  at  some  lighthouses  in  Ireland,  a 
.system  of  superposed  lenses,  which  have  been 
styled  biforni,  triform,  and  quadriforni  lights,  each 
tier  of  lenses  having  an  inde|)endent  burner.  Sir 
James  Douglass  ha-s  devised  six  and  ten  ring 
gas-burners,  the  gas  issuing  from  surface  holes,  as 
in  the  ordinary  argand,  the  power  being  850  and 
2500  camlles  respectively.  These  burners  require 
a  glass-chimney.  The  result  of  the  South  Foreland 
experiments  is  that,  for  ordinary  lighthouse  pur- 
iioscs,  paraflin  is  the  most  suitable  and  economical 
illuminant,  and  this  agrees  with  the  conclusions 
arrived  at  by  Messrs  Stevenson  in  1870. 

Electric  Lig/it.— The  electric  light  was  first 
shown  to  the  mariner  in  1858  from  the  Foreland 
lighthouse,  the  generating  machine  being  that  of 
I'rofessor  Holmes;  but  since  that  date  more 
powerful  machines  have  been  devised.  The  alter- 
nate current  machines  of  liaron  de  Meritcns  have 
been  used  with  good  results  at  the  Isle  of  May 
and  other  lighthouses.  The  Isle  of  May  machines 
are  of  the  L  type,  of  the  largest  size  hitherto  con- 
structed, and  weigh  about  4?;  tons  each.  The  in- 
duction arrangement  of  each  of  the  two  machines 
consists  of  5  sets  of  12  iiermanent  magnets,  each 
magnet  being  made  up  of  8  [dates.  The  armature, 
which  makes  OtM)  revolutions  ])er  niinute,  is  driven 
by  a  belt  from  the  engine — 16  horsepower — is  two 
feet  six  inches  in  diameter,  and  is  composed  of  5 
rings  with  24  bolibiiis  on  each,  arianged  in  groii|>s 
of  4  in  tension  and  6  in  quantity.  With  the  circuit 
open  each  niachine  develops  an  electromotive  force 


LIGHTHOUSE 


627 


of  80  volts,  iiieasiii-ed  at  tlie  distribiitoi- ;  ami  with 
the  circuit  closetl  tliroujih  an  arc,  40  volts.  An 
average  current  of  220  amperes  is  developed,  thus 
vielding  an  electrical  enerjrj-  of  8S00  watts,  or  11 '8 
lioi-se-power  in  the  external  circuit.  The  five  rings 
are  so  arranged  that  J,  ;,  f,  i,  or  the  whole  of  the 
current  of  a  machine  can,  at  pleasure,  be  sent  to 
the  distributor  for  transmission  to  the  lantern,  and 
the  two  machines  can  be  coupled  and  the  full  cur- 
rent from  both  be  employed  <luring  hazy  weather. 
The  current  is  conveyed  to  the  lighthouse — a 
ilistance  of  880  feet^ — by  solid  copper  conductoix 
1  inch  in  diameter,  with  scarphed  joints  bolted 
and  soldered  together.  The  lamps  are  of  the 
Serrin-Berjot  type,  with  some  modifications — 
notably  the  shunt  or  by-pass,  whei-eby  a  large 
percentage  of  the  current  goes  direct  to  the  lower 
carbon.  The  carbons,  which  are  16  inch  in  dia- 
meter, have  a  core  of  pure  graphite,  and  burn  with 
gieat  steadiness  at  the  rate  of  2  inches  per  hour. 

The  dioptric  apparatus,  originally  used  with  the 
electric  arc,  was  too  sniall,  and  Messrs  Stevenson 
in  1865  suggested  that  it  should  be  third  order, 
and  this  was  generalh'  adopted  ;  but  at  the  Isle  of 
May  it  was  made  second  order  condensing,  so 
as  to  give  a  group  of  fovir  flashes  in  quick  succes- 
sion, with  intervals  of  darkness  of  thirty  seconds, 
the  whole  light  being  condensed  into  three  degrees, 
the  resulting  beams  being  equal  to  three  million 
candles  with  single  power,  and  six  million  with 
double  power.  It  is  seen  thirty  per  cent,  oftener 
than  a  first-class  revolving  dioptric  light.  At 
Souter  Point,  the  Forelan<ls,  Lizard,  the  apparatus 
is  third  order.  At  St  Catherine's  and  Tino  it  is 
second  order,  while  at  Mac<iuarie  it  is  first  order. 

Characteristics. — The  following  are  the  main 
distinctions  in  use:  (1)  li.xed  lights;  (2)  the  re- 
volving light,  which  at  equal  periods  comes  into 
view  and  gradually  attains  its  full  power  and  then 
giadually  di-sappears  ;  (3)  revolving  red  and  white, 
showing  alternately  flashes  of  red  and  white  light ; 

( 4 )  flashing,  showing  flashes  at   short   intervals ; 

(5)  intermittent,  which  bursts  instantaneously  into 
full  power,  and,  after  remaining  as  a  fixed  light  for 
a  certain  period,  is  suddenly  eclipsed;  and  (6) 
group  flashing,  consisting  of  two  or  more  fla.shes 
separated  by  short  eclipses,  the  groups  being 
separated  by  a  longer  eclipse.  The  use  of  colour 
is  resorted  to  for  danger  arcs,  or  when  another 
characteristic  Ls  not  available.  The  two  colours 
employed  are  red  and  tjreeu,  generally  i)roduced  by 
coloured  chimneys  over  the  lamps.  Experiments 
made  at  Edinburgh  show  that  light,  in  passing 
through  red  glass,  should  be  4A  times  stronger 
than  for  a  light  of  the  natural  colour — a  loss 
slightly  redeemed  in  thick  weather  owing  to  the 
red  rays  not  being  so  nmch  absorbed. 

Machines. — If  the  apparatus  revolves,  motion  is 
generally  produced  by  clockwork  and  by  the  fall 
of  a  weight.  In  the  case  of  small  apparatus, 
Messrs  Stevenson  produced  motion  by  means  of 
the  heat  from  the  burner  causing  a  fan  to  revolve, 
which  has  since  been  adopted  in  the  Trotter- 
Linberg  system. 

Distribution. — The  coa-sts  of  all  countries  have 
three  lines  of  defence.  There  are  first  great  sea 
lights  which  indicate  imi)ortant  '  landfalls,'  and 
require  the  most  powerful  apparatus ;  secondary 
liglits  which,  tliougli  not  requiring  to  be  so 
powerful  as  those  of  the  first  order,  are  of  great 
importance,  as  indicating  turnin^'-jioints  in  the 
navigation  ;  and,  lastly,  harbour  lights  to  guide 
sliips  into  havens  of  safety.  It  has  Vjeen  laid  down 
a.s  an  axiom  by  lighthouse  engineers  that  over-sea 
lights  of  similar  character  should  not  be  placed 
nearer  each  other  than  100  miles,  and  that  if 
possiVde  lights  near  coastlines  much  frequented  by 
shipping  should  be  designed  to  overlap  each  other. 


Lirfhtships. — Light -vessels  are  moored  in  situa- 
tions where  it  would  be  im])ossible  to  erect  a  light- 
house. They  are  generally  wooden  sliijis,  ICS  feet 
in  length  between  perpendiculars,  and  23J  feet 
beam,  strongly  built,  copper  fastened,  and  sheathe<l 
w-ith  muntz  metal.  The  North  Carr  Lightship,  at 
the  entrance  of  the  Forth,  is  moored  by  a  Ig-inch 
studileil  chain  cable  and  3-ton  anchor,  as  it  is  in  a 
very  exposeil  situation,  and  the  eii'dnes  for  the  fog- 
signal  are  driven  by  steam.  The  lantern  is  8  feet 
in  diameter,  of  .steel,  carried  on  a  steel  mast.  The 
api)aratus  ccmsists  of  eight  fixed  dioptric  apparatus, 
each  of  180',  fitted  with  spherical  mirrors  and 
argand  lamps.  Each  apparatus,  with  its  fountain 
I  and  lamp,  is  hung  on  gimbals,  so  balanced  as  to 
hang  vertically  in  any  position  of  the  mast  within 
30  degi-ees  of  the  vertical. 

Early  light-vessels  had  small  lanterns  suspended 
from  the  yard-arms.  Mr  K.  Stevenson,  in  1807, 
introduced  a  lantern  which  surrounded  the  mast, 
and  all  subsequent  lightship  lanterns  have  been 
made  on  his  plan.  All  floating  lights  had  catop- 
tric appar.-itus  until  Messrs  Stevenson,  when  de- 
signing the  Hooghly  lightships,  employed  diojitric 
apparatus.  Sir  James  Douglass  has  done  much  to 
improve  the  lanterns  of  light-vessels,  and  intro- 
duced two- wick  lamps  instead  of  single  argands. 

Fo/jf-sir/nals. — The  average  duration  of  fog  on 
the  whole  coast  of  England  is  only  slightly  over 
400  hours  yearly,  though  in  some  parts  it  reaches 
1080  hours.  In  Scotland  the  average  is  under  400 
hours  yearly,  while  at  some  parts  of  the  coast  of 
the  United  States  the  average  is  2226  hours  yearly, 
the  higliest  being  2454  hours.  There  are  few  coast 
lighthouse  stations  where  a  phonic  signal  would 
not  be  a  useful  auxiliary,  as  tfiere  are  times  when 
the  most  powerful  lights,  even  the  electric,  are 
obscured  by  dense  fog,  when  the  sailor  must  be 
guided  by  signals  addressed  to  the  ear.  Various 
instniments  have  been  used,  .such  as  bells,  gongs, 
steam-whistles,  guns,  sound-rockets,  tonite  charges, 
I  reed  trumpets,  and  sirens  sounded  by  compressed 
I  air  or  steam.  The  Daboll  fog-horn  and  siren  are  of 
American  origin,  the  siren  being  the  most  powerful 
in  use ;  but,  though  it  has  Tieen  heard  at  distances 
of  upwards  of  20  nautical  miles,  there  are  certain 
conditions  of  the  atmosphere  when  its  efl'ective 
range  is  limited  to  2  or  3  miles.  Though  bells  are 
not  efl'ective  signals,  no  fewer  than  55  of  them 
are  used  in  British  and  158  in  American  waters  ; 
and  since  1811,  when  Stevenson  introduced  fog- 
bells  at  the  Bell  Rock  Tower,  all  subsequent  rock 
lighthouses,  owing  to  the  want  of  space  for  other 
signals,  have  been  supplied  with  them.  Such  rock 
towel'  bells  vary  from  3  cwt.  to  2  tons.  It  has 
been  found  that  when  struck  by  a  hammer  outside, 
instead  of  by  a  clapper,  the  sound  is  heard  at  a 
greater  distance,  and  when  the  lilows  are  struck  in 
rapid  succession  for  a  short  time  the  sound  is  more 
penetrative.  For  the  sake  of  distinction  two  bells 
of  different  tone,  struck  after  each  other,  are  some- 
times used.  Gongs,  struck  by  hand,  are  still  em- 
ployed on  board  some  lightships  ;  but  though  the 
sound  is  distinctive  it  is  nut  lieard  at  any  great 
distance.  Steani-wbistles  are  hugely  used  in  the 
United  States,  and  guns  are  still  employed  at  a 
few  stations.  Sound-rockets  are  charged  with  the 
ordinary  composition  to  carry  the  rocket  up  to  a 
height  of  600  feet,  when  a  charge  of  cotton  powiler 
is  exploded  with  a  report  like  the  discharge  of  a 
piece  of  ordnance.  The  charges  of  cotton  powder 
are  generally  4  ounces,  but  12-ounce  chaiges  are 
sometimes  useil  when  there  is  wind  along  with  the 
fog.  Tonite  signals  are  used  at  eleven  stations  in 
Britain.  The  charges  consist  of  small  cylindrical 
discs  of  dry  cotton  jiowder  (tonite),  4  ounces  in 
weight,  each  having  a  hole  up  the  centre  for  re- 
ceiving  the   detonator,   which   is   a   copper   tube 


628 


LIGHTHOUSE 


LIGHTNING 


containiiij;  fulminate  composition.  The  charge  is 
tireil  liy  connectiuj;  it  witli  an  electric  calile  attached 
to  a  small  electro-niajxnetic  macliine  ^.tandinj;  in 
the  li<;ht-room.  A  liglit  framework  or  jib  is  fixed 
outside  the  lantern,  counterbalanced  and  raised  by 
means  of  wheel-work  to  about  12  feet  above  the 
lantern.  When  the  charge  and  detonator  are 
attached  to  the  ends  of  an  electric  cable,  the  jib 
is  hoisted,  the  firing  handle  of  the  electric  machine 
is  raised  and  smartly  pushed  down,  when  the  fuse 
anil  detonator  lires  the  charge,  whicli  gives  ,1  loud 
report.  An  arrangement  is  made  so  that  the 
circuit  cannot  be  closed  until  the  jib  and  charge 
are  raised  to  the  full  height  above  the  lantern. 
The  Daboll  born  is  a  metal  trumpet  in  wliich  a 
metallic  reed  or  tongue  IS  inches  long,  '2A  inches 
broad,  and  varying  from  {  to  ^  inch  in  thickness  at 
the  free  end,  is  ma<le  to  viljrate  l)y  compressed  air 
or  steam  being  lilown  through  it.  This  signal  is 
effective,  though  not  so  powerful  as  that  of  the 
siren.  The  siren  ccmsists  of  a  trumpet  having  two 
discs,  12-inch  diameter,  one  of  which  is  fi.\ed,  and 
one  rotating  with  radial  slits  cut  in  them.  The 
rotation  is  from  loOO  to  2000  times  a  minute,  with 
air  at  20  lli.  pressure  per  square  inch.  Holmes'  siren 
is  automatic,  consisting  of  two  cylinders  having 
angular  slots,  one  being  li.\ed  and  the  other  free  to 
rotate  within  the  fixed  cylinder ;  the  compressed 
air  impinging  against  the  inclined  sides  of  the 
slots  causes  the  inner  cylinder  to  revolve,  the  rapid 
passage  of  one  row  of  slots  over  the  other  produces 
a  series  of  vibrations  which  give  the  note  desired, 
and  notes  of  different  pitch  can  also  be  produced. 
Sirens  are  used  at  41  stations  in  British  waters. 
At  Ailsa  Craig,  Messrs  Stevenson  adopted  a  central 
station,  the  compressed  air,  at  75  lb.  i)er  square 
inch,  being  conveyed  to  distances  of  J  and  A  mile 
respectively.  The  south  signal  gives  3  blasts  in 
quick  succession  every  3  minutes,  the  first  a  high 
note,  the  second  a  low  note,  the  third  a  high  note  ; 
while  the  north  gives  one  blast  of  5  seconds  duration 
every  3  minutes.  These  signals  are  so  arranged  as 
to  begin  to  sound  about  li  minute  before  each 
other,  and  never  together.  The  motive  power  is 
live  gas-engines,  one  being  spare,  the  gas  being 
made  from  the  paraffin  used  in  the  lighthouse 
lamps.  As  regards  the  distance  to  which  the 
com|iressed  air  is  carried,  this  was  a  new  departure 
in  fog-signalling.  These  signals  are  actuated  by 
compressed  air,  the  motive-power  being  hot  air, 
steam  or  gas  engines,  or,  as  at  Corse-wall  in  Scot- 
land, by  Priestiuan's  oil-engines,  with  ordinary 
lighthouse  paraffin  oil  as  the  exidosive. 

Administiation. — liritish  lighthouses  are  man- 
ageil  by  three  boards — the  Trinity  House  for 
England,  the  Commissioners  of  Northern  Lights 
fur  Scotland  and  the  Isle  of  Man,  and  the  Ballast 
Hoard,  Dublin,  for  Ireland  ;  the  Hoard  of  Trade, 
by  the  Mercantile  Marine  Act  of  1854,  having 
control  over  the  three  boarils  in  finance  and  other 
matters.  Some  colonial  lights  are  also  und<'r  the 
control  of  the  lioanl  of  Trade.  For  tlie  I'nited 
States  of  America  a  Lighthouse  Hoard  was  cim- 
stituted  in  1S52,  the  Treasury  defraying  the  cost 
of  erecting  and  maintaining  lighthouses  and  other 
aids  to  iiavigati(m.  In  France  the  lighthouse 
service  is  under  the  minister  of  Public  Works  and 
a  special  'Commission  dcs  Fhares.'  In  Sweden, 
Norway,  Holland,  Denmark,  Russia,  and  Aiistria 
the  lighthou.se  administration  is  under  the  Admir- 
alty or  minister  of  Marine.  In  Spain  the  system 
of  administration  is  similar  to  that  of  France. 

Litjhtkeepers. — At  lighthouse  stations  on  shore 
there  are  two  keepers,  while  at  rock  stations 
there  are  generally  four,  one  being  always  on 
shore  by  rotation.  Where  there  is  a  fog-signal 
at  any  station  there  aie  generally  three  keejiers, 
and  at  electric  light  station.s  there  are  five,  one 


of  them  being  a  mechanical  engineer.  The  crews 
of  light-ships  are  eleven  in  number,  three  of  the 
crew  and  the  master  or  mate  getting  on  shore  by 
rotation. 

See  J.  Smeaton,  Eddystone  Lighthouse  (171I1);  K. 
Stevenson,  Bdl  Rock  Lighthouse  (1824);  Alan  Steven- 
son, Skrrri/vore  Lighthouse,  with  Notes  on  Lighthouse 
Illumination  (1848),  and  Treatise  on  the  Histuni,  Con- 
struction, U7id  Ifluniination  of  Lighthouses  (1850); 
IJavid  Stevenson,  Lighthouses  (18G4);  M.  L.  Keynaud, 
Memoire  snr  VEclairmie  et  le  Balisatie  dcs  CCtes  de 
France  (18(!4);  L.  Renard,  Les  Phare's  (18G");  G.  H. 
Elliott,  European  Lighthouse  St/stems  (1875);  M.  E. 
Allard,  Mcntoire  snr  flntcnsit^  et  la  Portee  des  Phans 
(1876);  Thomas  Stevenson,  Lighthouse  Construction  and 
lUumination  ( 1881 )  ;  M.  L.  Keynaud,  Phares  et  Balises 
( 1883 ) ;  Sir  Jaines  Douglass's  Opening  Address  to  tlie 
British  Association  (1886) ;  E.  P.  Edwards,  Our  Seamarks 
(1886);  1).  P.  Heap,  Ancient  and  Modern  Linhlliousts 
(1889) ;  and  Minutes  of  Proceedings  of  the  In.^titntiim  uf 
Ciril  Engineers. 

Liglltlliug  (Fr.  Mciir,  Ger.  Blitz),  the  name 
gi\eu  to  the  visible  discharge  of  electricity  between 
one  group  of  clouds  and  another,  or  between  tin; 
clouds  and  the  ground.  Thunderclouds,  well 
known  by  their  dark  and  heavy  look,  belong 
usually  to  the  <'umulus  ty])e  (see  Ci-OIDS),  and  are 
found  at  all  heights  from  close  to  or  almost  touching 
the  ground  up  to  about  6000  feet.  Hut  most  of  the 
summer  thunder-clouds  in  Great  Britain  float  at 
an  altitude  of  from  1000  to  3000  feet.  On  elevated 
mountain-tops,  12,000  feet  high  or  more,  lightning 
and  hail  showers  accomjiany  the  passage  of  cirrus 
clouds  over  them.  Li'ditning  oc^curs  in  three  dis- 
tinct forms,  commonly  called  forked-lightning, 
sheet-lightning,  and  ball- lightning,  the  last  class 
serving  also  as  a  convenient  term  for  unexplained 
phenomena. 

For/:cd-h'(/litiii)tij  apjiears  as  long  Hashes  pass- 
ing from  cloud  to  cloud  or  between  clouds  and  the 
ground.  It  gets  its  name  from  the  apparently  sharp 
bends  it  makes,  but  most  photograjihs  of  lightning 
show  it  in  a  wa\y  or  ribbon-like  form.  Occasionally 
it  splits  into  several  Ijranclies  at  one  or  both  ends. 


1 


I 


Photograph  nf  I.iglitning  (from  Kuou'lrdgc,  June  1889). 

These  flashes  fre(|uently  piuss  between  clouds  .several 
miles  apart,  lengths  of  6,  8,  and  even  10  miles  having 
been  oi>served.  The  thunder  whicli  accompanies 
this  finni  of  lightning  is  due  to  the  intense  and 
sudden  heat  developed  in  the  path  of  the  dischiirge 
ex[ianding  the  air  with  ex]ilosive  ra]iidity.  As 
sound  travcds  slowly  com|iared  with  electricity  and 
light,  the  noise  from  dill'erent  ]iarts  of  Hie  flash 
reaches  the  ear  in  succession,  .anil  aided  by  echoes 
from  the  clouds,  produces  the  proliuiged  rolling  of 
the  thunder-peal.  The  distance  away  of  the  flash 
can  be  cstiiiialed  by  the  time  between  the  flash  and 
the  beginning  of  the  thuiuler,  every  5  .seconds  being 
equivalent  to  1  mile ;  50  seconds  or  10  miles  is  the 


LIGHTNING 


629 


gieatt'st  observed  interval  at  which  thunder  has 
been  hcaril. 

S/teet/iijkliii/ig,  sometimes  called  siimmer-liglit- 
ning,  is  a  frequent  accompaniment  of  warm  weather 
in  temperate  climates  and  an  almost  daily  pheno- 
menon in  most  tropical  regions.  It  appears  as  a 
dilVuse  glare  lighting  up  a  whole  cloud,  is  often  of  a 
reddisli  colour,  and  is  believe<l  to  be  due  to  dis- 
charges of  feebler  intensity  than  those  causing 
forked-lightning.  It  may  occasionally  lie  merely 
the  rellection  on  the  cloud  of  a  distant  thunderstorm 
invisible  to  the  spectator. 

Balllirihtning  is  an  as  yet  unexplaine<l  pheno- 
menon ;  forked  and  slieet  lightning  are  the  gigantic 
analogues  of  the  spark  and  glow  from  an  electric 
machine,  but  nothing  resemliling  the  slow-moving, 
luminous  globe  described  by  those  who  have  seen 
ball-lightning  has  ever  been  produced  artiticially. 
The  hall  has  been  estimated  at  from  a  few  inches 
to  over  a  yard  in  diameter;  and,  while  not  atlectiiig 
anything  that  it  does  not  directly  touch,  acts  like 
an  explosive  shell  on  any  solid  body  in  its  track, 
throwing  tlown  walls,  making  holes  several  feet 
deep  in  the  ground,  or  ploughing  long  trenches  : 
sometimes  disappearing  with  a  loud  report,  at 
others  gradually  getting  smaller  till  it  vanishes. 
This  destructive  and  dangerous  form  of  lightning  is 
happily  very  rare.  Allied  to  lightning  is  St  Elmo's 
Fire  (q.v. ).  See  Arthur  Parnell,  The  Action  of 
Lightning  (1882). 

Death  b)/  Lightning  is  always  instantaneous, 
and  is  probably  always  caused  by  the  shock  to 
the  brain  and  nervous  system.  The  post-mortem 
appearances  are  extremely  variable.  Sometimes 
no  marks  of  injury  are  found  :  but  more  often 
lacerations,  bruises,  bums,  and  occasionally  even 
fractures  of  bones  are  present.  The  clothes  may 
be  burnt  or  torn,  even  when  the  surface  of  the  body 
is  not  injured  ;  metallic  substances  on  the  person 
may  be  fused,  and  steel  magnetised.  Wlien  the 
accident  is  not  immediately  fatal,  the  consequences 
are  still  more  variable :  insensibility,  paralysis, 
burns,  wounds,  loss  of  hair,  eruptions  on  the  skin, 
hemorrhages,  loss  of  speech  or  of  one  or  more  of  the 
special  senses,  may  all  occur.  Tlie  treatment  must 
be  directed  to  the  special  symptoms,  which  are  liable 
to  great  variations.  Sir  B.  Brodie's  advice  is  as 
follows  :  '  E.xpose  the  body  to  a  moderate  warmth, 
so  as  to  prevent  the  loss  of  animal  heat,  to  which 
it  is  always  liable  when  the  functions  of  the  brain 
are  suspended  or  impaired,  and  inflate  the  lungs,  so 
as  to  imitate  natural  respiration  as  nearly  as  pos- 
sible.' These  means  should  be  fully  tried,  as 
respiratory  action  has  been  restored  after  more 
than  an  hour's  suspension. 

LlGHTSlSG-CONDUCTOli  ( Fr.  paratounene,  Ger. 
Blitzableiter).  The  object  of  a  lightning-con- 
ductor is  twofold  :  first,  and  most  important,  to 
drain  away  the  electricity  from  |iassing  clouds  and 
thus  inevent  tlie  occurrence  of  lightning  in  its 
neighbourliood  ;  and  secondly,  when  unable  to  do 
this,  to  receive  and  convey  to  earth  tin;  lightning- 
flash  without  damage  to  the  building  to  wliich 
it  is  attached.  The  first  oVjject  is  best  secured 
by  the  lightning-conductor  being  a  sharp-pointed 
metallic  rod  standing  clear  above  all  surrounding 
buildings,  trees,  vtc.  ;  while  the  second  necessitates 
its  having  considerable  diameter  to  carry  the  short- 
lived but  intense  current  produced  by  the  Hash  : 
both  require  that  it  should  be  in  thorough  metallic 
connection  with  tlie  earth.  Tlie  action  of  tlie 
lightning-conductor  may  lie  illustrated  by  an 
electric  machine.  When  the  machine  is  in  action 
the  prime  conductor,  wliicli  corresponds  to  the 
thunder-cloud,  <lischarges  a  rapid  succession  of 
flashes  or  .sjiarks ;  but  if  a  pointed  metallic  rod  is 
belli  near  it  all  sparking  cea.ses,  the  electricity  is 
drawn  ott'  silently  as  fast  as  it  is  generated  by  the 


machine,  while  if  a  ball  or  blunt  rod  is  placed  near 
the  conductor  in  tlioron^li  connection  with  the 
ground  the  sparks  will  pass  to  it  as  the  easiest  jl-iss- 
age  to  earth.  Good  copper  is  almost  six  times  better 
a  conductor  of  electricity  than  iron,  and  therefme 
lightning-conductors  are  usually  made  of  copper ; 
but  they  may  be  equally  well  constructed  of  iron  if 
made  2i  times  the  diameter,  so  as  to  eipialise  their 
c(mducting  power.  For  ordinary  buildings  tlie  dia- 
meter of  the  rod  should  be  at  least  A  incli  for  copper 
or  IJ  inch  for  iron  :  lighthouses  and  similar  exposed 
buildings  are  usually  fitted  with  copper  conductors 
1  inch  in  diameter.  Instead  of  ,a  solid  rod,  wire- 
rope  of  equivalent  size  is  frequently  used  for  con- 
venience of  adjustment  to  the  buildings.  The  top 
of  the  conductor,  always  a  solid  rod,  ends  in  a  blunt 
point  surrounded  a  few  inches  down  by  three  or 
tour  sharp  points  projecting  obliquely  upwards,  Imt 
not  rising  as  high  as  the  toj5 ;  these  points  ought  to 
be  platinised  or  gilded  to  prevent  oxiilation.  The 
rod  must  project  higher  than  any  other  part  of  the 
buililing.  It  has  been  found  that,  roughly  speaking, 
a  liglitning-conductor  protects  from  (lirect  Hashes  a 
conical  space  equal  to  its  heiglit  with  a  radius  at 
the  base  of  double  its  height.  Thus,  a  rod  standing 
6  feet  above  the  gable  end  of  an  (Uilinary  house 
will  protect  the  roof  ridge  for  12  feet  along,  but  if 
the  house  is  more  than  12  feet  broad  will  not  pro- 
tect the  other  gable.  All  large  masses  of  metal  in 
a  building,  more  especially  the  roof-gutters,  should 
be  connected  with  tlie  lightning-conductor,  as  they 
may  otherwise  form  a  broken  connection  to  eartli 
and  conduct  the  lightning  with  dangerous  sparking 
at  the  breaks.  Sharp  bends  must  be  avoided  in  the 
conductor,  and  any  joins  in  it  should  be  biased,  or 
embedded  in  a  large  mass  of  solder,  so  as  to  avoiti 
any  lisk  of  heating  at  the  junction  by  imperfect 
contact.  Perhaps  the  most  important  part  of  the 
lightning-conductor,  and  certainly  the  part  in  wliich 
it  is  most  difficult  to  ensure  satisfactory  arrange- 
ment and  workmanship,  is  the  connection  to  earth. 
Dry  earth  is  practically  a  non-conductor  of  electri- 
city ;  damp  earth  is  a  moderately  good  conductor, 
and,  being  of  infinite  area  compared  with  any  light- 
ning-conductor, can  safely  receive  any  discharge. 
Tlie  problem  therefore  is  to  make  a  satisfactory 
junction  with  a  sufficiently  large  area  of  dani])  soil. 
This  is  usually  done  by  attaching  to  the  lower  end 
of  the  lightning-conductor  a  brass  plate  about  a 
yard  square,  and  burying  it  in  a  damp  spot  sur- 
rounded by  gas-coke.  Sometimes  the  lightning- 
conductor  is  connected  to  an  iron  water  or  chain 
pipe,  but  not  a  gas-pipe,  as  the  risk  of  setting  fire 
to  the  gas  from  a  spark  at  a  break  must  not  be 
incurred.  A  faulty  earth  connection  makes  a  light 
ning-conductor  worse  than  useless.  Every  large 
building  requires  more  than  one  conductor,  and 
perfect  safety  can  only  be  ensured  by  a  town  or 
district  having  a  sufficient  number  of  conductors  to 
drain  passing  thunderclouds  of  their  electricity 
and  prevent  flashes  from  ever  occurring.  The 
first  lightning-conductor  was  erected  by  lienjamin 
Franklin  on  his  own  house  in  I'hiladelphia  in  1752. 
See  Kiliiihiivgh  llci-icw  for  July  18S4  ;  and  (>.  .1. 
Lodge,  Liglitning  Conductors  ( 18'J2). 

LlOHTNlXii-rKlNT.s  are  apiiearances  sometimes 
found  on  the  skin  or  clothing  of  men  or  animals 
that  citber  have  been  struck  by  lightning  or  have 
been  in  the  vicinity  of  the  stroke,  and  are  currently 
believeil  to  be  pictorial  representations  of  surrounil- 
ing  (dfjects  or  scenery.  The  existence  of  such 
prints  appeal's,  from  a  theoretical  point  of  view, 
highly  imiirobable,  as  the  essential  conditions  of 
forming  a  |ihotographic  image  are  wanting  ;  still, 
several  ap]iarently  well-authenticated  instances 
have  been  recorded,  one  or  two  of  wliich  may 
serve  to  give  a  general  idea  of  what  are  meant  by 
lightningprints.      On  the  14th  of  November  1830 


630 


LIGHTS 


LIGONYI 


lir;litning  struck  the  Chateau  of  Benatonniere,  in 
La  \'enilee ;  at  the  time  a  laily  ha[:ipene<l  to  be  seated 
<iu  a  chair  in  the  salon,  and  on  the  back  of  her  dress 
were  printe<l  minutely  the  ornaments  on  tlie  liack 
of  the  chair.  In  September  1857  a  peasant-girl, 
while  herding  a  cow  in  the  department  of  Seine- 
et-Marne,  was  overtaken  by  a  tliunderstorm.  She 
took  refuge  under  a  tree  ;  and  the  tree,  the  cow, 
and  herself  were  struck  witli  lightning.  The  cow 
w;i.s  killetl,  but  she  recovered,  and,  on  loosening 
her  dress  for  the  sake  of  respiring  freely,  she  saw 
a  picture  of  the  cow  ui)on  her  breast.  Tliese  anec- 
dotes are  typical  of  a  great  mass  of  others.  They 
tell  of  metallic!  objects  printed  on  the  skin,  of 
clothes  while  Ix'ing  worn  receiving  impressions  of 
neighlionring  olijccts,  or  of  the  skin  being  pictured 
with  surrounding  scenery  or  objects  during  thunder- 
storms. One  object  very  generally  spoken  of  as 
being  ])rinted  is  a  neighbouring  tree.  This  may 
be  accounted  for  by  supposing  that  the  lightning- 
discharge  has  taken  place  on  the  skin  in  the  form 
of  the  electric  brush  (see  ELECnaciTY),  which  has 
the  strongest  possible  resemblance  to  a  tree,  and 
that  this  being  imprinted  on  the  skin  by  a  slight 
charring  of  the  tissues  in  its  track  has  led  observers 
to  confound  it  with  a  neighbouring  tree.  Of  other 
prints  it  would  be  difficult  to  give  a  satisfactory 
account,  though  observers  have  done  something  in 
imitation  of  tlieni.  When  a  coin  is  placed  on  glass 
and  a  stream  of  sparks  poured  on  it  from  a  power- 
ful electrical  machine,  on  the  glass  being  breathed 
u])on  after  its  removal  a  distinct  image  of  the  coin 
is  traced  out  by  the  dew  of  the  lireath.  The  parts 
of  the  glass  surface  in  contact  with  the  metal 
liaving  received  a  ditl'erent  charge  from  the  rest, 
a  selective  action  by  the  glass  on  the  dew  of  the 
breath  takes  place  ;  but  this  is  very  difl'ereut  from 
the  permanent  image  of  the  anecdote.  With  all 
due  allowance  for  the  possible  printing-power  of 
lightning,  the  accounts  given  of  it  in  most  cases 
bear  tiie  stamp  of  exaggeration. 

Lights,  Use  of,  in  Public  Worship,  a  practice 
which  prevailed  in  the  .Jewish  (Exod.  xxv.  31-39) 
and  in  most  of  tlie  ancient  religions,  and  which  is 
retained  both  in  tlie  Roman  and  in  the  Oriental 
churches.  The  use  of  lights  in  tlie  night-services, 
and  in  subterranean  churches,  such  as  those  of  the 
early  Christians  in  the  catacombs,  is  of  course  easily 
intelligible  :  but  the  pr.actice,  as  bearing  also  a  sym- 
liolical  allusion  to  the  '  Light  of  the  World '  and  to 
the  '  Light  of  Faith,'  was  not  contined  to  occasions 
of  necessity,  but  appears  to  have  been  from  an  early 
time  an  accompaniment  of  Christian  worship,  espe- 
cially in  connection  with  the  sacraments  of  baptism 
and  the  eucharist.  The  time  of  the  service  in  which 
lights  are  used  has  varied  very  much  in  dillbrent 
ages  ;  but  eventually  it  was  extended  to  the  entire 
time  of  the  mass.  In  other  services,  also,  lights 
have  been  used  from  an  (!arly  period  :  e.g.  lighted 
tapers  were  jilaced  in  the  hand  of  the  newly  baptised, 
a  usage  still  retained  in  the  Roman  Catholic  Church. 
Two  candles  are  de  ri(/iiei(r  at  nia.ss,  and  four  ivt 
high  mass  ;  but  the  most  profuse  use  of  lights  is 
reserved  for  Benediction,  and  other  services  con- 
nected with  the  Exposition  of  the  Host.  The  usage 
of  blessing  the  Pa.schal  Light  is  describeil  at  IIoLY 
Week.  The  material  used  for  lights  in  churches  is 
either  oil  or  wax  ;  the  latter  in  jienitential  seasons, 
and  in  services  for  the  dead,  being  of  a  yellow  colour. 
.An  oil  lamp  always  burns  in  a  lionian  Catholic 
church  to  indicate  the  iiresence  of  the  Host  in  the 
tabernacle  on  the  altar.  In  the  Anglican  Church 
candlesticks,  and  in  some  instances  candles  them- 
selves, are  retaine<l  in  many  churches,  on  the  com- 
munion talile,  but  in  the  majority  of  instances  they 
are  nut  lighted.  The  use  of  lights,  excejit  wlii^re 
required  for  giving  light,  has  been  declared  illegal 
more  than  once  since  1855.     In   the   Presbyterian 


and  Independent  churches  the  symbolical  use  of 
lights  is  rejected  as  superstitious. 

Liinie,  Ch.vkles  .Toseph,  Prince  pe,  son  of  an 

imperial  tield-iii.ushal  whose  seat  wa.s  at  Ligne, 
near  Tournai,  was  born  at  Brussels,  23d  jlay 
1735,  and  as  an  Austrian  soldier  served  at  Kolin, 
Leuthen,  Hochkirch,  &c.,  in  the  war  of  the  Bava- 
rian succession,  and  under  Loudon  at  the  siege  of 
Belgrade  (1789).  Meanwhile  he  hail  undertaken 
various  diplomatic  missions  and  received  numerous 
distinctions.  A  Belgian  liy  birth,  an  .Austrian 
subject,  the  favourite  of  Maria  Theresa  and  Cath- 
arine of  Russia,  the  friend  of  Frederick  the  Creat, 
Voltaire,  Rousseau,  he  wa-s  always  a  most  welcome 
guest  at  the  court  of  Versailles  and  in  the  Paris 
salons.  He  died  13th  December  ISI4.  Of  his 
literary  remains  there  were  published  Mdongen 
(34  vols.  1795-1811),  (Euvrrs  Posthiimcs  (6  vols. 
1817),  a  life  of  Prince  Eurane  (1809),  and  a  collec- 
tion by  ALtdaine  de  Stael  of  his  Lettrcs  ct  Peiisee-f 
(1809).  A  new  edition  of  his  works  in  4  vols,  was 
pulilislied  at  Brussels  in  1860.  See  a  monograph 
by  Thiirheim  (Vienna,  187G),  and  the  Edinburgh 
Eci-kn-  for  July  1890. 

Ligniu.    See  Cellulose. 

Lignite,  or  Brown  Co.al,  a  mineral  substance 
of  vegetable  origin,  like  common  coal,  but  diU'ering 
from  it  in  its  more  distinctly  fibrous  or  woody 
formation,  which  is  sometimes  so  perfect  that  the 
original  structure  of  the  wood  can  lie  discerned  with 
the  microscope,  whilst  its  external  form  is  also  not 
unfrequently  preserveil.  In  this  state  it  is  often 
called  Wood  Coed ;  and  it  sometimes  occurs  so 
little  mineralised  that  it  may  be  used  for  the  pur- 
poses of  wood,  as  at  Vitry  on  the  banks  of  the 
Seine,  where  the  woodwork  of  a  hotise  has  been 
made  of  it.  From  this  to  the  most  perfectly  min- 
eralised state  it  occurs  in  all  difl'ei'ent  stages.  It 
is  often  brown  or  brownish  black,  more  rarely  gray. 
It  burns  without  swelling  or  running,  with  a  weaker 
llame  than  coal  ;  emits  in  burning  a  smell  like  that 
of  peat,  and  leaves  an  ash  nuire  resembling  that  of 
wood  than  of  coal.  Wherever  it  occurs  in  sullicient 
abundance  it  is  used  for  fuel,  although  as  a  rule 
very  inferior  to  common  coal.  Lignite  occurs  spar- 
ingly in  Britain — the  chief  locality  being  Bovey 
Tracey  in  Devonshire,  where  it  has  long  been 
worked.  The  principal  repository  of  lignite  in 
Euro])e  is  the  Oligocene  System  (q.v.)  of  (leriiiany, 
in  which  some  of  the  beds  attain  a  great  thickues.s. 
Over  the  eastern  slopes  of  the  Rocky  Mountains 
lignite  is  widely  distributed,  but  the  beds  are  rarely 
thick  enough  to  be  of  economic  importance.  Thin 
beds  of  lii'uite  are  associated  with  the  oligocene 
basalt  rocKs  of  Iceland  (where  it  is  known  as 
'Surtnr-brand ')  and  the  Faroe  Islands,  just  as  is 
the  case  with  the  similar  formations  in  Antrim  and 
Mull. 

I'nlike  wood,  it  is  soluble  in  nitric  acid  and  in 
alkaline  hypochlorites,  and  refractory  to  catistic 
potash  solution  ;  in  the  latter  respect  it  resembles 
coal,  which  is,  however,  not  .soluble  in  hypo- 
chlorites. 

Ligiiiiiii  RIio«lii.    See  CoNVoLyuLUS. 

Ligiiiiiii  Vitii'.    See  Guaiacum. 

Ligliy.  a  Belgian  village,  13  miles  by  rail  \E. 
of  Charleroi,  famous  for  the  defeat  of  the  Prussians 
under  Bliicher  by  the  French  under  Xaiioleon,  Kith 
June  1815,  the  same  day  on  which  Ncy  s  ciimiii.ind 
was  engaged  with  the  British  under  \\  eliingtoii 
at  Qnatre-Bras.  The  Prussians  lost  12.(M«)  men 
and  "21  cannon  ;  the  French,  7000  men.  See  (iard- 
n(!r's  Qiiatre  liras,  Liyny,  anil  IVatcrloo  (1882). 

Ligonyi.  or  Elgon,  a  mountflin,  14,000  feet 
high,  situated  to  the  west  of  Lake  Baringo  in  East 


LIGULATE 


LILLE 


631 


Equatorial  Africa,  with  extensive  artiticial  caves, 
some  iiihabiteil. 

Liglllate.  in  Botany.     See  Composit.e. 

Li^liori.  St  Alfonso  Maria  de,  founder  of 
till'  iinli'r  of  LiiiHoriiVns  or  Keileiiiptorists,  was  born 
of  a  nolile  family  at  Naples,  '27th  September  1C96, 
ami  embraced  the  profession  of  the  law,  which, 
however,  he  suddenly  relimiuishcd  to  devote  him- 
self entirely  to  a  reli^'ious  life.  He  received  priest  s 
orders  in  1725,  and  in  173'2,  with  twelve  com- 
panions, foundeil  the  association  now  called  by  his 
name.  In  1762  he  was  ajipointed  Bishop  of  Sanl" 
Ajjata  dei  Goti,  in  the  kingdom  of  Naples,  and  his 
life  as  a  bishop  was  a  model  of  the  pastoral  char- 
acter ;  but  shrinking  from  the  responsibilities  of 
such  an  otfice  he  resigned  his  see  in  1775,  after 
which  date  he  returned  to  his  order  and  continued 
to  live  in  the  same  simple  austerity  as  had 
characterised  his  early  life.  He  died  at  Nocera  dei 
Pagani,  August  1,  1787,  and  was  canonised  in  1839. 
Liguori  is  one  of  the  most  voluminous  and  most 
popular  of  Catholic  theological  writers.  His  works 
embrace  almost  every  department  of  theological 
learning — divinity,  casuistry,  exegesis,  history, 
canon  law,  hagiognaphy,  asceticism,  and  even 
poetry.  His  correspondence  also  is  voluminous, 
Ijut  is  almost  entirely  on  spiritual  subjects.  The 
principles  of  casuistry  explained  by  Liguori  have 
l)een  received  Avith  much  favour  in  the  modern 
Roman  schools ;  and  in  that  church  his  moral 
theology,  which  is  a  modification  of  the  so-called 
'  probaljilistic  system '  of  the  age  immediately 
before  his  own,  is  largely  used  in  the  direction  of 
consciences  (see  CASUISTRY).  Liguori's  r^eo/ogr/re 
Moi-alis  (8  vols.)  has  been  reprinted  numberless 
times,  as  also  most  of  his  ascetic  works.  The  most 
complete  edition  of  his  works  ( in  Italian  and  Latin ) 
is  that  of  Monza  (70  vols.).  They  have  been  trans- 
lated entire  into  French  and  German,  and  in  great 
part  into  English,  Spanish,  Polish,  &c. 

The  LiGfORiAXs,  called  also  Redemptorists, 
are  a  congregation  of  missionary  priests  founded 
by  Liguori  in  1732,  and  approved  by  Pope  Bene- 
dict XIV.  in  1759.  Their  object  is  the  religious 
instruction  of  the  people  and  the  reform  of  public 
morality  by  periodically  visiting,  preaching,  and 
hearing  confessions,  with  the  consent  and  under  the 
direction  of  the  parish  clergy-.  Their  instructions 
are  ordered  to  be  of  the  plainest  and  most  simple 
character,  and  their  ministrations  are  entirely 
without  pomp  or  ceremonial.  The  cono;regation 
was  founded  originally  in  Naples,  but  it  afterwards 
extended  to  Germany,  Switzerland,  and  Austria. 
In  France,  England,  Irelaml,  and  America,  though 
houses  of  the  congregation  have  been  founded,  their 
place  is  in  great  measure  occupied  by  tlie  more 
active  congregation  of  the  Lazarist  or  Vincentian 
Fathers  (see  Vixcest  de  Paul). 

.See  Fabcr,  Life  of  St  Alphonso  de  Liguori  (4  vols. 
1840) ;  Meyrick,  'Moral  and  Devotional  Theology  (1857); 
and  a  short  Life  published  by  Sinipkin  in  1880. 

Lig^iiria.    See  Genoa,  Rome. 

Li  Hung  CIiaUK,  Chinese  statesman,  was  born 
2lith  .January  1H23,  rose  to  be  governor  of  Kiangsu 
( ISOl  ),  and  with  '  Chinese  '  Gordon  (q.v. )  drove  out 
the  Taipings.  He  founded  the  Chinese  navy,  pro- 
moted tlie  mercantile  marine,  and  at  the  disastrous 
war  with  Japan  (1894)  was  chief  minister.  He 
was  disnii.sse<l  and  restored,  negotiated  peace, 
and  visited  Europe  in  1896.  He  intrigued  with 
Russia,  .and  in  1900  left  his  post  at  Canton  to  take 
a  conspicuous  (but  suspected)  part  in  the  negotia- 
tions after  the  relief  of  the  Legations.  See  Life 
by  R.  K.  Douglas  (1895). 

Lilac  (S>/rinf/a),  a  genus  of  Oleaccie  (n.v.). 
Bnsbecq  (q.v.)  it  was  who  introduced  tlie  Com- 
mon  Lilac  (S.   vulgaris)  from   Persia  as  well  as 


the  tulip  into  European  gardens.  From  ^'ienna 
it  soon  spread,  so  that  it  is  now  to  be  found 
lialf  wild  in  the  hedges  of  some  parts  of  Europe. 
There  are  nianj'  varieties.  The  llowers  grow  in 
large  conical  panicles ;  are  of  a  bluish  '  lilac ' 
colour,  jiurple  or  white,  and  have  a  very  delicious 
odour.  '1  he  leaves  are  a  favourite  food  of 
cantharide-s.  The  bitter  extract  of  the  unripe 
capsules  has  very  marked  tonic  and  febrifugal 
properties.  The  wood  is  fine-grained  an<l  is  uscil 
tor  inlaying,  turning,  and  the  making  of  small 
articles.  A  fragrant  oil  can  lie  obtained  from  it  by 
distillation.  The  Chinese  Lilac  (iS'.  c/ihicimis)  has 
larger  flo^^ ers,  but  with  less  powerful  odour,  and  the 
Persian  Lilac  (S.  jicrsica)  ha.s  narrower  leaves. 
Both  are  often  planted  in  gardens  and  pleasure- 
grounds.     There  are  several  other  species. 

Lilburiie,  Joliii.    See  Leveller.?. 

LiliaoCJr.  a  natural  order  of  endogenous  plants, 
containing  about  1200  known  sjiecies.  They  are 
most  numerous  in  the  warmer  parts  of  the  tem- 
perate zones.  They  are  mostly  herbaceous  plants, 
with  bulbous  or  tuberous,  sometimes  fibrous  roots  ; 
rarely  shrubs  or  trees.  The  shrubby  and  arbores- 
cent species  are  mostly  tropical.  The  stem  is  simple, 
or  blanching  towards  the  ton,  leafless  or  leafy.  The 
leaves  are  simple,  generally  narrow,  sometimes 
cylindrical,  sometimes  fistular.  The  flowers  are 
generally  large,  with  six-cleft  or  si.x-toothed  peri- 
anth, and  glow  singly  or  in  spikes,  racemes,  umbels, 
heads,  or  jianicles.  The  stamens  are  six,  oii])osite 
to  the  segments  of  the  perianth  ;  the  pistil  has  a 
superior  three-celled,  many-seeded  ovary,  and  a 
single  style.  The  fruit  is  succulent  or  capsular ; 
the  seeds  packed  one  upon  another  in  two  rows. 
This  order  contains  many  of  our  finest  garden, 
"reenhouse,  and  hothouse  flowers,  as  lilies,  tulips, 
dog"s-tooth  violet,  lily  of  the  valley,  tuberose,  crown 
imperial  and  other  fiitillaries,  hyacinths,  Glvriona 
supcrba  ;  many  species  useful  for  food,  as  garlic, 
onion,  leek,  and  otlier  species  of  Allium,  asparagus, 
the  Quaniash  or  Biscuit  Root  (Camassia  escii/oita) 
of  North  America,  the  Ti  {Dracwna  tenniiialis  or 
Cordyline  Ti )  of  the  South  Seas,  &c. ;  many  species 
valuable  in  medicine,  as  squill,  aloes,  iS:c. ;  and 
.some  valuable  for  the  fibre  which  their  leaves  yield, 
as  New  Zealand  Flax,  and  the  species  of  Bowstring 
Hemp  or  Sanseviera. — This  natural  order  has  been 
the  subject  of  a  number  of  splendid  works,  such  as 
Redoute's  Xcv  Liliacies  (8  vols.  Paris,  1802-16). 

Lilitli.    See  Adam. 

Lille  (Flemish  Rysscl),  a  manufacturing  town 
and  fir.stclass  fortress  of  France,  chief  town  of  the 
department  of  Nord,  is  situated  on  a  sub-tributary 
of  the  Scheldt,  in  a  fertile  district,  66  miles  by  rail 
SE.  of  Calais.  Lille  derives  its  name  from  the 
castle  around  which  it  originally  arose,  and  which 
from  its  position  in  the  midst  of  niai-shes  was  called 
L'Isle.  It  was  founded  early  in  the  Uth  centurj' 
by  the  counts  of  Flanders.  From  1305  it  was 
mortgaged  to  France,  but  passed  to  Burgundy  in 
1365.  Louis  XIV.  conquered  the  town  in  IG67, 
and,  though  it  was  recaptured  by  Marlborough  and 
Prince  Eugene  in  1708,  the  Austrians  restored  it 
in  1713.  In  1792  it  successfully  resisted  the  deter- 
mined attacks  of  the  Austrians.  Its  present 
defences  consist  of  a  pentagonal  citadel,  the  work 
of  Vauban,  and  a  .series  of  seven  forts  encircling  the 
town.  The  old  fortifications  were  for  the  most  part 
levelled  from  1858  onwards.  The  town  is  modern 
liuilt  and  i)OSsesses  few  notable  buildings  except 
the  church  of  Notre  Dame  (1S55),  and  the  town-hall 
with  the  museum,  the  famous  ^Vicar  collection  of 
drawings  by  the  Old  Mastei-s,  and  a  library  of 
41,000  volumes.  The  principal  institutions  are  a 
Catholic  '  free  university,'  imlependent  faculties  of 
medicine   and   science,  technical   schools,  a  music 


63l> 


LILLEBONNE 


LILY 


school,  and  an  academy  of  art.  Lille  is  a  jrieat 
centre  of  textile  industries  :  the  spinning  of  linen 
and  cotton,  the  manufacture  of  thread,  damask, 
cloth,  tulle,  tickinf,'s,  iSrc. — these  textile  industries 
give  employment  to  nearly  20,000  workpeople — of 
toliacco,  heer,  paper,  and  sugar,  dye-works,  l)leach- 
ing-tields,  the  fabrication  of  machinery,  and  oil- 
works  indicate  the  chief  industries.  Pop.  (1S72) 
152,77.') :  ( 1886)  I.5I,.397  :  (1801  )  UiO.OOG.  See  Van 
Hende,  Histoire  etc  Lille  (2d  ed.  187.")). 

Lilleboiinc,  a  town  of  Normandy,  on  the 
Bolliec,  28  miles  WXW.  of  Rouen  hy  "r.ail.  The 
Julia  Bona  of  the  Romans,  it  liiis  very  interesting 
remains  of  a  Roman  the.atre,  laid  open  in  1812;  a 
l.ithcentury  church ;  and  a  ruined  castle  of  William 
the  ('on(|ueror.     Po|).  5852. 

LillilHlIlero.  the  famous  political  balLad  that 
'sung  .lames  II.  out  of  three  kingdoms.'  A  scur- 
rilous attack  on  the  Irish  recruits,  it  is  said  to  have 
been  written  hy  Lord  Wharton  in  1686,  and  the 
setting  is  ascribed  to  Henry  Purcell. 

Lillipilt.  the  name  of  a  fabulous  kingdom 
described  by  Swift  in  Gidlircr's  Travels,  of  which 
tlie  inhabitants  are  not  greater  in  size  than  an 
ordinary  man's  finger. 

Lillo,  Georoe.  English  dramatist,  was  liorn  in 
London  on  4th  Fe1>ruary  1693,  and  died  on  ."M 
Sejitember  1739.  Whilst  carrying  on  the  Inisiness 
of  a  jeweller  in  London  he  wrote  seven  plays, 
two  of  which  are  frequently  printed  in  collections 
of  acting-pLays.  These  are  Fatal  Curiosity  (\'iSQ) 
and  George  Barnwell  (1732),  both  admiral)ly  con- 
structed and  with  truly  tragic  conclusions,  though 
the  languiige  is  inflated  and  conventional.  His 
Arden  of  Fcvcrsha m  (wnitun  in  17.36,  not  published 
till  1762)  is  a  weak  version  of  an  old  anonymous 
plaj-  bearing  the  same  title,  written  in  1592  and 
reprinted  by  A.  H.  Bullen  in  1888.  Apart  from 
the  tr.agic  'quality  of  his  pla^^s,  Lillo  deserves 
mention  as  oeing  almost  the  first  English  play- 
■wTight  to  take  his  characters  from  middle-class 
life.  For  long  it  was  an  old  custom  to  act  Georqe 
Barnicell  in  certain  London  theatres  on  the  niglit 
after  Christmas  and  on  Easter  Monday.  See  Lillo's 
Dramatic  Works,  with  Life  (2  vols.  1772). 

Lilly,  William,  astrologer,  was  born  at  Dise- 
wortli,  Leicestershire,  1st  May  1602.  He  was 
educated  at  Ashby-de-la-Zouche,  and  in  1620  found 
his  way  to  London,  where  for  seven  years  lie 
served  an  ancient  citizen,  married  his  widow,  an<l 
on  her  death  in  1633  obtained  a  fortune  of  £1000. 
He  now  turned  to  astrology,  soon  acquiring  a 
consideral)Ie  fame  and  large  profits  as  a  ca-ster 
of  nativities  and  a  predictor  of  future  events. 
In  1634  he  obtained  permission  from  the  Dean 
of  Westminster  to  search  for  hidden  treasure 
in  the  cloister  of  Westminster  Abbey,  but  was 
driven  from  his  midnight  work  by  a  storm,  which 
he  ascri1)('s  to  demons.  From  1644  till  his  de.ath 
he  annually  issued  Ida  3Icrlinus  A/igticus,  Junior, 
containing  vaticinations,  to  which  no  small  im- 
portance was  attaclied  by  many.  In  the  Civil 
War  he  attached  himself  to  tlie  parliamentary 
l)arty  as  soon  as  it  promised  to  be  successful,  and 
was  rewarded  with  a  pension,  but  it  is  highly 
unlikely  that  his  own  .accounts  of  his  intimacy  with 
Lcnthall,  Whitelocke,  Aslimole,  and  others  are 
true.  After  the  Restoration  he  was  for  some 
time  imprisoned,  on  the  supposition  that  he  was 
acquainted  with  the  secrets  of  the  Rei)ublicans ; 
but  being  set  free,  he  retired  to  the  country.  He 
w.as  ag.ain  a]i)irehended  on  suspicion  of  knowing 
something  of  the  causes  of  the  great  fire  of  London 
in  1666.  He  died,  9th  .lune  1681,  at  hi.s  estate  at 
Hersham  in  Surrey.  Lilly  wrote  nc^arly  a  score  of 
works  on  his  favourite  subject,  which  are  of  no 
value  whatever,  except  to  illustrate  the  knavery 


of  their  author  and  the  credulity  of  his  country- 
men. Dr  Nash's  judgment  of  him  .as  'a  time- 
serving r.ascal '  may  be  allowe<l  to  stand — he  was 
gibbeted  by  Butler  under  the  name  of  Sidrophel. 
See  his  History  of  his  Life  and  Times  { 1715). 

Lily  {LJliiim),  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural 
order  Liliace;e,  ccmtaining  a  number  of  s))ecies  much 
prized  for  the  size  and  beauty  of  their  llowers. 
The  perianth  is  bell-shaped,  and  its  segments  are 
often  bent  back  at  the  extremity.  The  root  is  a 
scaly  bulb,  the  stem  herb.aceous  and  simple,  often 
several  feet  high,  hearing  the  llowers  near  its 
summit.  The  White  Lily  (X.  candiduni  ),  a  native 
of  the  Levant,  has  been  long  cultivated  in  gardens, 
and  much  sung  by  poets.  It  has  large,  pure 
white  flowers,  as  nuich  prized  for  their  fragrance 
as  for  their  beauty.  The  Orange  Lily  ( L.  tndhi- 
ferum),  a  native  of  the  south  of  Eurojie,  with  large, 
erect,  orange-coloured  flowers,  is  a  well-known  and 
very  showy  ornament  of  the  flower-g.ardcn.  Tlie 
Mii'rtagon  '  or   Turk's   Cap  Lily  ( L.  Martugon  ),  a 


f 


a,  Lilium  teetaceum ;  b,  Lilium  chaiccdoniciim,  Scarlet 
Turk's  Cap. 

native  of  the  south  of  Europe,  and  allied  species 
with  verticillate  leaves  and  droojiing  flowers,  are  also 
common  in  gardens.  L.  chalccdonicum,  a  native  of 
the  Levant,  is  a  very  brilliant  species,  and  has  been 
in  cultivation  about  300  years.  Tin;  Tiger  Lily  (L. 
tigrinum)  is  a  native  of  China,  remarkable  for  the 
axillary  buds  on  the  stem ;  and  some  very  fine 
species  are  natives  of  North  America,  .as  L.  sujicrOuni, 
which  grows  in  marshes  in  the  L'nited  .States,  has 
a  stem  6  to  8  feet  high,  and  reflexed  orange  flowers, 
spotted  with  black  ;  L.  canadcnsc,  &c.  Several 
very  fine  species  have  been  introduced  from  Japan, 
.as  L>.  juponicum,  L.  spcciosum,  and  L.  lancifolinm. 
The  bulbs  of  L.  pomponium,  L.  Martagon,  and 
X.  hamtschacense  are  roasted  and  eaten  in  Siberia. 
Tliat  of  L.  candidum  loses  its  acridity  by  dryiii", 
roasting,  or  boiling ;  when  cooked  it  is  viscid, 
pulpy,  and  sugary,  and  is  eaten  in  some  parts  ojt 
the  East.  Lilies  are  generally  pronagatcd  by  olfsct 
bulbs.  A  single  scale  of  tlie  bulb  will,  however, 
suffice  to  prodtice  a  new  plant,  or  even  part  of  a 
scale,  of  wliich  skilful  gardeners  avail  themselves.— 
The  name  lily  is  i)fton  popularly  extended  to  flowers 
of  other  genera  of  the  same  order,  and  even  of  allied 
orders.  For  Lily  of  the  Nile,  see  ARUM.  See  also 
Fleub-de-lis. 


LILY 


LIMBORCH 


633 


Lily  of  the  Valley  ( CanraUaria 
majalis ). 


Lily.  Gigantic  { Diin/anthes  crccha),  of  Aiis- 
ti;ili:i.  ;i  plant  of  the  natural  oiiler  AnuuvlliiU'a\ 
with  llowerinjjsleni  10  or  14,  sometimes '20  feet  high, 
hearing  at  ton  a  cluster  of  large  crimson  blossoms. 
The  stem  is  leafy,  hut  the  largest  leaves  are  near 
the  root.  This  plant  is  fouml  cui  both  the  mountains 
and  the  sea-coast  of  New  So\ith  Wales,  and  is  of 
spleniliil  beauty.  The  libre  of  its  leaves  has  been 
found  excellent  tor  ropes  and  for  textile  faluics. 

Lily  of  till'  Valley  {ConraUrayi),  a  genn.s 
of  plants  of  tlie  natural  order  Liliacea',  having 
terminal  racemes  <if  llowers  ;  a  white,  bell-shaped, 
or  tubular  6-cleft  or  G-toothed  periantli ;  a  3-celled 
gennen,  with  two  ovules  in  eacli  cell,  and  a  succu- 
lent fruit.  The  species  commonly  known  as  the 
Lily  of  tlie  Valley  (C.  majei/is),  tlie  MaihUimc  or 

!Maytiower  of 
the  Germans, 
grows  in  bushy 
places  and 
woods  in 
Europe,  the 
North  of  Asia, 
and  North 

America,  and 
has  a  leafless 
scape,  with  a 
raceme  of  small 
flowers  turned 
to  one  side.  It 
is  a  universal 
favourite,  on 
account  of  its 
pleasing  ap- 
pearance, the 
fragrance  of  its 
flowers,  and 
the  early  sea- 
son at  which 
they  appear.  It  is  therefore  very  often  cultivated 
in  gardens,  and  forced  to  earlier  flowering  in  hot- 
houses. Varieties  are  in  cultivation  with  red, 
variegated,  and  double  flowers.  The  berries,  the 
root,  and  the  flowers  have  a  nauseous,  bitter, 
and  somewhat  acrid  taste  and  purgative  and 
diuretic  eft'ects.  The  smell  of  the  (lowers  when  in 
large  quantity,  and  in  a  close  apartment,  is  nar- 
cotic. Dried  and  powdered,  they  become  a  ster- 
nutatory. The  esteemed  E(,ni  d'or  of  the  French  is 
a  water  distilled  from  the  flowers. — Allied  to  Lily 
of  the  Valley  is  Solomon's  Seal  (q.  v.). 
Lily,  John,  eujihuist.  See  Lyly. 
Lilyba-iiin.  See  .M.\1!.s.\l.\. 
Liiye,  or  Lily,  AVii,i,i.\m,  classical  grammarian, 
was  born  at  Odiliam,  in  Hampshire,  about  1466, 
and  graduated  at  Oxford,  being  elected  demy  of 
Magdalen  in  1486.  Having  taken  his  B.A.  degree, 
he  travelled  to  the  E.ust ;  and  at  Rhodes,  then  the 
home  of  the  Knights  Hospitallers,  he  learned 
Greek  from  refugees  from  Constantinople.  He 
afterwarils  spent  some  time  studying  Greek  and 
Latin  in  Konie  and  Venice,  and  returned  home  about 
1509.  After  teaching  for  a  while  privately  in  Lon- 
don he  w;vs  aiii)oi-iteil  ( 151-J )  by  Dean  Colet  the  first 
hea<l-m<%ster  of  the  new  St  I'aul's  school  ;  this  [jost 
he  held  till  he  was  carried  oil'  by  the  plague  towards 
the  enil  of  ir>22.  Lilye,  who  has  good  claims  to  be 
considered  the  first  who  taught  Greek  in  L)ndon, 
had  a  hand  in  Colet's  Brcvhshmt  IiLstUiitio,  which, 
as  corrected  by  Lilye's  friend  Era-smus,  and  re- 
dacted by  Lilys  himself,  was  known  a.s  the  Eton 
Latin  Gramnwr.  Lilye's  share  embrac:ed  the  lines 
on  the  genders  of  nouns,  beginning  *  Propria  (|u:c 
maribus,'  and  those  on  the  conjugation  of  verbs, 
'  As  in  pra-senti,'  if  no  more,  liesides  this  he  wrote 
Latin  poems,  i)rinted  along  with  those  of  another 
great  friend,  Sir  Thonaas  More,  at  Basel  in  1518, 


and  a  volume  of  Latin  veree  against  a  rival  school- 
master, entitled  Antibossicon  ad  Gulielmiim  Hor- 
manniiin  ( 1521 ). 

Lilllil.  the  cajiital  of  Peru,  lies  in  a  broad  valley 
6  miles  E.  of  Gallao,  its  jiort,  with  which  it  is  con- 
nected by  two  railways  (9  miles).  A  small  stream, 
the  lliniac,  flows  through  the  city,  which  is  laid 
out  in  regular  lines,  with  wide,  straight  streets, 
thirty-three  plazas,  and  houses  mostly  of  one 
story.  The  scat  of  an  archbishop,  it  contains  not 
less  than  seventy-two  sacred  huildings.  and  the 
cathedral  (rebuilt  1746)  is,  after  that  of  Mexico, 
the  most  noteworthy  in  Spanish  America.  Among 
other  buildings  that  call  for  mention  are  the  Fran- 
ciscan an<l  Dominican  monasteries,  the  latter  ]ios- 
sessing  the  loftiest  tower  in  the  city;  and  the 
houses  of  congress,  formerly  the  headquartei,s  of 
the  Inquisition  and  of  the  university.  The  uni- 
versity (l.WI)  is  now  housed  in  the  old  .Jesuits' 
college ;  and  there  are  also  a  theological  seminary 
and  several  special  schools,  besides  a  botanical 
garden  and  a  national  library.  The  last  institu- 
tion was  looted  during  the  Chilian  occupation 
(1881-83),  and  numerous  statues  and  works  of 
art  found  their  way  at  the  same  time  to  Santiano. 
This  disaster,  added  to  earthquakes  and  revolu- 
tions, has  wrought  sad  havoc  in  Lima,  Avhicli 
remains  still  picturesque  and  beautiful,  but  some- 
what shabby  and  very  dirty.  The  trade  is  left 
almost  entirely  in  the  hands  of  foreigners.  The 
manufactures  are  not  of  importance,  but  include 
the  casting  of  iron,  copper-smelting,  and  the  pre- 
jiaration  of  furniture,  silver-ware,  gold-lace,  and 
stampeil  leather.  There  is  a  railway  to  Oroya 
( 128  miles ).  Lima  was  founded  as  Ciudad  dc  los 
Beyes  (the  monarchs  of  Spain  and  the  Three 
Magi),  on  18th  January  1535,  by  Pizarro,  who 
was  murdered  here  in  1541,  and  sleeps  in  the  crypt 
below  the  cathedral.  The  name  was  afterwards 
changed  back  to  that  of  the  Indian  village  that 
had  occupied  the  site.  Earthquakes  have  been 
numerous,  the  most  disastrous,  that  of  1746, 
destroying  5000  out  of  the  60,000  inhabitants. 
The  climate  of  Lima  is  agreeable  and  on  the  whole 
healthy,  althou;;h  consumption  and  fm'eis  are  com- 
mon.   'Pop.  (1876)  101,488;  (1895)  100,194. 

Lima,  capital  of  Allen  county,  Ohio,  71  miles 
N.  of  Dayton,  on  the  Ottawa  River,  where  several 
railways  cross.  It  has  steam-mills  and  manufac- 
tures of  engines,  furniture,  &c.     Pop.  7567. 

Liinasol.  or  Limassol  (Gr.  Lemisou),  the  chief 
seaport  of  Cyprus.  It  has  no  harbour,  but  the 
water  is  not  so  shallow  as  at  Larnaka ;  and  there 
is  a  large  trade,  chiefly  with  France,  in  wine  and 
carobs.  Limasol  is  the  only  place  in  Cyprus  where 
English  troo])s  are  permanently  (jtiartered — some 
in  the  town  and  300  three  miles  inland.  Pop. 
( 1878)  6000  ;  ( 1S90)  nearly  10,(100. 

Lillia->VOO<l.  a  name  of  the  dye-wood  also 
called  Pernandiuco-wood  and  Nicaraguaw.ood. 
See  BllAZlL-wooii. 

Lilllb.M'll.  a  Saxon  town,  10  miles  WNW.  of 
Chemnitz,  with  hosiery  manufactures.    Pop.  10,494. 

LillllU'I'  is  half  the  iield-equipage  of  a  Cannon 
(q.v.). 

Lillli»OI*<>il.  I'mi.ll'  v.\x.  Remonstrant  theo- 
logian, was  born  at  Amsterdam  in  1633,  studied 
there  ami  at  I'trecht,  and  afterwards  served  as  a 
preacher  at  Gouda  and  Amsterd.am,  and  became 
in  1668  |)rofe.ssor  in  the  Remonstrant  college  at 
Amsterdam,  where  he  died  in  1712.  Of  his  numer- 
ous and  learned  works  most  valuable  for  the  fnll- 
nes.s  and  clearness  of  its  exposition  is  his  Jiisfifii- 
tioncs  Theiilorfitv  Christiaiiw  (1686;  .■>th  ed.  1735). 
An  English  translation  of  this,  1)y  W.  .lones,  Wius 


634 


LIMBCRG 


LIME 


])rinteil  in  1702  :   ami  of  liis  History  of  the  Inquisi- 
tion, by  S.  Chandler,  in  1731. 

Liinlllirg,  <a  tenitoiy  on  the  Mense,  lying 
Ijetween  the  provinces  of  Liege  and  Urabaut,  was 
create<l  a  conntship  soon  after  its  annexation  by 
the  German  king  (870).  Shortly  after  1151  it 
was  made  a  dnchy.  The  battle  of  Woeringen 
( 1288 )  gave  it  to  the  Dnkes  of  Brabant,  after  which 
it  shared  the  fortunes  of  that  state.  At  the  peace 
of  Miinster  (1648)  it  was  divided  between  tlie 
I'nited  Provinces  and  Spain,  but  was  again  united 
under  French  rule  from  1794  to  1830,  and  from  1830 
to  1839  under  the  Belgian  king.  In  1839  it  was 
once  more  divided,  the  lands  to  the  west  of  the 
Meuse  remaining  with  Belgium,  whilst  a  long 
narrow-  strip  on  the  east  side  of  the  river  was  con- 
stituted the  Dutch  province  of  Limburg.  The  soil 
of  both  provinces  is  in  parts  fertile,  though  large 
portions  of  the  area  are  covered  with  moors.  The 
marshy  district  of  the  Peel  intrudes  into  the  north 
of  Dutch  Limburg.  The  Belgian  province  has  an 
area  of  931  sq.  m.  and  a  pop.  (1891  )  of  223,531. 
Capital,  Hasselt.  The  area  of  the  llutch  province 
is  930  sq.  ni.  ;  pop.  ( 1891 )  259,593.  Capital,  Maes- 
tricht. — The  well-known  Limhiirtj  c/ieese  is  made 
at  the  little  town  of  Limburjr  (pop.  4768),  the 
former  capital  of  the  duchj',  wiicli  is  now  in  the 
province  of  Liege,  19  miles  E.  of  the  city  of  Liege. 
The  old  castle  was  destroyed  by  the  French  in 
1(575. — Limburg-.\n-der-Lahx,  a  town  of  Hesse- 
Xassau,  32  miles  E.  of  Coldenz  bv  rail,  has  a  fine 
Catholic  cathedral  (1243).     Pop.  6485. 

LiinbllS,  the  name  assigned  by  Roman  Catholic 
theologians  to  that  place  on  the  fringe  of  hell 
{Limhiis  patriim)  in  which  the  just  who  died  be- 
fore Christ  were  detained  till  His  resurrection,  and 
also  where  infants  are  kept  who  die  in  original  sin 
without  baptism  {Limbii^  infantimn).  Limbus  is 
not  a  place  of  torture,  but  of  a  joy  imperfect,  and 
therein  unlike  the  joy  of  heaven.  Infants  suffer 
only  the  '  pain  of  loss,'  and  in  no  respect  the  '  pain 
of  sense,'  tlie  most  aggravated  of  tlie  tortures  of 
Hell  (q.v.). 

Lime  is  tlie  monoxide  of  the  metal  Calcium 
( q.  V. ),  and  is  known  in  chemistry  as  one  of  the 
alkaline  earths.  Its  symbol  is  CaO,  its  equivalent 
is  56,  anil  its  specific  gravity  is  3'08.  In  a  state  of 
purity  it  is  a  white  caustic  powder,  with  an  alka- 
line reaction,  and  so  non-fusiljle  as  to  resist  even  the 
bent  of  the  oxyhydrogen  Hame  (see  LiME-LIGHT). 
It  is  obtained  by  heating  pure  carl)onate  of  lime 
(as,  for  instance,  white  Carrara  marble  or  Iceland 
spar)  to  full  redness,  when  the  carbonic  acid  is 
expelled  and  lime  is  left.  This  compound,  CaO, 
is  known  as  quicklime,  or,  from  tlie  ordinary 
method  of  obtaining  it,  as  l)iir)icd  lime,  to  distin- 
guish it  from  tlie  hijilrnte  of  lime,  or  slaked  lime, 
which  is  represented  by  the  formula  CaO,H20.  On 
pouring  water  on  quicklime  there  is  an  augmenta- 
tion of  bulk,  and  the  two  enter  energetically  into 
combination  ;  and,  if  the  proportion  of  water  be  not 
too  great,  a  light,  white,  dry  powder  is  formed,  and 
a  great  heat  Ls  evolved.  On  exposinj^  the  hydrate 
to  a  red  heat  the  water  is  expelled  and  quickiime  is 
left. 

If  quicklime,  instead  of  being  treated  with  water, 
is  simply  exposed  to  the  air,  it  slowly  attracts  both 
aqueous  vapour  and  carbonic  acid,  and  becomes 
what  is  termed  air-slaked,  the  resulting  compouiul 
in  this  case  being  a  powder  which  is  a  mixture  of 
carbonate  and  hydrate  of  lime.  (Jwing  to  this  pro- 
perty quicklime  is  employed  to  prevent  instruments 
and  otlier  objects  from  being  rusted  or  otherwise 
injured  by  damp.  A  jar  is  |)artly  tilled  with  lime 
and  placed  beside  the  articles  in  a  glass  case  or  box. 

Lime  is  about  twice  as  solul)le  in  cold  as  in  boil- 
ing water,  but  even  cold  water  only  takes  u])  about 


--J3  of  its  weight  of  lime.  This  solution  is  known 
as  lime-water,  and  is  much  employed  both  as  a 
medicine  and  as  a  test  for  carbonic  acid,  which 
instantly  venders  it  turbid,  in  conseijuence  of  the 
carbonate  of  lime  that  is  formed  being  insoluble. 
It  must,  of  course,  be  kept  carefully  guarded 
from  the  atmosphere,  the  carbonic  acid  of  which 
would  rapiilly  afiect  it.  If  in  the  preparation  of 
slaked  lime  considerably  more  water  is  used  tlian 
is  necessary  to  form  the  hydrate,  a  white  semi-lluid 
is  produced,  which  is  termed  milk  of  li)ite.  On 
allowing  it  to  stand  there  is  a  deposition  of 
hydrate  of  lime,  above  which  is  lime-water.  Milk 
of  lime  is  much  used  as  a  whitewash. 

Lime  prepared  for  building  and  other  purposes 
by  burning  limestones  in  kilns  often  contains  a 
considerable  amount  of  impurity.  15ut  certain 
kinds  of  slightly  impure  are  better  than  pure  lime 
for  making  mortar.  On  the  other  hand,  the  lime 
which  enters  into  the  composition  of  plate  and 
sheet  glass,  and  which  is  used  in  some  chemical 
industries,  requires  to  be  obtained  from  a  nearly 
pure  limestone.  Chalk  and  white  marble  consist 
of  almost  pure  carbonate  of  lime,  but  many  of 
even  the  dark  coloured  limest<mes  from  ditt'erent 
geological  formations  do  not  contain  more  than 
from  2  to  5  per  cent,  of  foreign  bodies,  and  these 
when  burned  generally  yield  a  lime  sufficiently 
pure  for  most  purposes.  Some  limestones,  again, 
contain  from  20  to  30  per  cent,  of  impurities,  which 
commonly  consist  of  silica,  clay,  magnesia,  oxide 
of  iron,  and  other  bodies.  These  impure  kinds 
often  yield  excellent  hydraulic  lime,  which  is  very 
generally  made  by  burning  a  limestone  containing 
from  12  to  20  per  cent,  of  silica,  or  of  clay  in  which 
silica  predominates.  A  less  valuable  hydraulic 
lime  is  prepared  from  a  limestone  containing  a 
consider;u)le  amount  of  magnesia  as  well  as 
clay.  According  to  the  absence  or  presence  of 
foreign  bodies,  their  nature  and  extent,  limes  are 
clas.sed  as  (1)  rich,  fat,  or  pure  lime:  (2)  im- 
pure or  poor  lime;  and  (3)  hydraulic  lime  (see 
Ce.MENTs).  When  the  percentage  of  magnesium 
carbonate  in  a  limestone  is  high  it  is  called  a 
magnesian  limestone,  and  this  requires  less  fuel 
to  burn  it  than  a  pure  or  nearly  pure  limestone. 
See  Dolomite. 

Besides  the  uses  of  lime  noticed  above,  it  is 
emi)loyed  in  the  purilication  of  coal-gas,  in  the 
unhairing  of  hides  tor  tanning,  in  the  preiiar.ation 
of  stearic  acid  for  candlemaking,  for  caustirising 
alkalies,  in  the  smelting  of  some  metals,  .S.C.  Lime 
jirecipitates  organic  impurities  from  vegetable 
solutions  c<mtaining  sugar. 

The  followinc'  are  the  most  important  of  the  salts 
of  lime.  Sid/mate  of  lime  (calcium  sulphate)  is 
found  native  free  from  water,  CaSO^,  as  the 
mineral  Aidii/drite  (q.v.),  but  more  abundantly  in 
the  hydrated  form,  CaSOj,2II.jO,  as  Gijpsiim.  Sul- 
phate of  lime  is  a  constituent  of  sea-water,  and 
IS  also  frequently  present  in  drinking-water.  For 
laboratory  use  a  solutiim  of  .sulphate  of  lime  is 
made  by  sh.aking  up  the  powder  of  burnt  gypsum 
in  water.     See  C.\LCHM.  and  GvpsiM. 

Carbonate  of  lime  (calcium  carbonate,  CaCOj)  is 
abundantly  present  in  Ijoth  the  inorganic  and 
organic  kingdoms.  In  the  innrg.mic  kingdom  it 
occurs  in  a  crystalline  form  in  Iceland  spar, 
Aragonite,  and  marble :  while  in  the  amorphous 
condition  it  forms  the  dill'erent  varieties  of  common 
limestone,  chalk,  \c.  It  is  always  present  in  the 
ashes  of  i)lants,  and  it  is  the  main  constituent  of 
the  shells  of  crustaceans  and  molluscs,  and  occui's 
in  considerable  quantity  in  the  bones  of  man  and 
other  vertebrates.  See  Li.me.stone  ;  an<l  BllLIMNO 
Stone,  M.vkble. 

Chloride  of  Calcium,  CaCl..,  is  a  remarkably 
deliquescent  substance  and  one  of  the  most  soluble 


LIME 


LIME-LIGHT 


635 


of  salts  on  account  of  its  peat  attraction  for 
nmisture.  In  tlie  solid  state  it  is  much  uscil  lor 
drying;  jjases,  and  the  pipes  of  freezing  machines 
arc  lilled  with  a  solution  of  it  to  convey  the  low 
temperature  produced  to  the  cooling  vessels. 

There  is  a  comliination  of  lime  with  an  organic 
acid — viz.  o.xalate  of  lime — which  is  of  great  im- 
portance in  pathology  as  a  frequent  constituent  of 
urinary  calculi  and  sediments ;  for  a  description  of 
it.  seeOxAUC  Acid. 

I'here  are  several  compounds  of  pliosphoric  acid 
and  lime,  of  which  the  most  important  is  the 
trihnsic  phosphate  of  lime  ( tricalcium  ortho- 
phosphate),  sometimes  termed  bone  phosphate, 
from  its  being  the  chief  ingredient  of  hones.  This 
phosphate  is  represented  l>y  the  formula  Ca^PoO^, 
and  occurs  not  only  in  bones,  but  also  in  the 
minerals  apatite  and  phosphorite,  and  in  the 
rounded  nodules  termed  Coprolites  (q.v. ).  It  forms 
four-fifths  of  the  ash  of  well-burned  bone,  the 
reuiaining  fifth  being  chietiy  carbonate  of  lime.  This 
ash  is  kno^vn  as  hone-earth,  and  is  emjiloyed  as  a 
manure  and  in  tlie  preparation  of  phosphorus,  &e. 

The  soluble  salts  of  lime  give  no  precipitate  \\\t\\ 
caustic  alkalies,  but  yield  a  white  precipitate  with 
their  carbonates.  These  reactions  are  also  common 
to  the  salts  of  barium  and  strontium.  Solution  of 
sulphate  of  lime  gives  a  white  precipitate  with  the 
Silks  of  barium  and  strontium.  The  most  delicate 
test  for  lime  is  oxalate  of  ammonia,  which,  even  in 
very  dilute  solutions,  throws  down  a  white  pre- 
cipitate of  0-\alate  of  lime.  This  precipitate  is 
insoluble,  except  in  mineral  acids. 

For  the  suostance  commonly  designated  as 
ehloride  of  lime,  see  Bleachixcj  Powder.  For 
lime  as  manure,  see  M.\nl"RES. 

Lime-compounds  in  Materia  Medica. — Quicklime, 
in  association  with  potash,  either  a-s  the  Potassa 
CUM  calcc,  or  as  Vienna  Paste,  is  occasionally  used 
as  a  caustic.  Lime-ieater,  mi.xed  with  an  equal 
quantity  or  an  e.xcess  of  milk,  is  one  of  our  best 
remedies  for  the  vomiting  dependent  on  irritability 
of  the  stomach.  From  halt  an  ounce  to  two  or 
three  ounces  may  be  thus  taken  three  or  four  times 
a  day.  Its  use  as  a  constituent  of  CaiTon  oil  in 
burns  Ls  noticed  in  the  article  Liniment.s.  Chalk, 
oi-  carbonate  of  lime,  when  freed  from  the  impurities 
with  which  it  is  often  a-ssociated,  is  used  as  a 
dusting-powder  in  moist  excoriations,  ulcers,  &c.  ; 
and,  in  the  form  of  chalk  mixture  and  compound 
poirtlcr  of  chalk,  is  a  pojmlar  remedy  in  various 
fortns  of  diarrhoea.  A  mixture  of  an  ounce  of 
precipitated  carbonate  of  lime  and  a  (piarter  of  an 
ounce  of  finely-powdered  camphor  is  sold  as 
Camphorated  Cretaceous  Tooth-powder. 

Lime,  or  Linden  (Tilia),  a  genus  of  trees  of 
the  natural  order  Tiliaceie,  natives  of  Europe,  the 
north  of  Asia,  and  North  America.  Tlie  species 
are  very  similar ;  graceful  umbrageous  trees,  with 
deciduous,  heart-shaped,  serrated  leaves,  and  cymes 
or  panicles  of  rather  small  yellowish-green  flowers  ; 
each  cyme  or  panicle  accompanied  with  a  large, 
oblong,  yellowish  membranous  bractea,  with  netted 
veins,  the  lower  part  of  which  adheres  to  the 
Hower-stalk.  The  wood  Ls  light  and  soft,  but 
tough,  durable,  and  particularly  suitable  for  carved 
work.  It  is  much  used  Ijy  turners,  and  for  makin" 
l>illboxes.  The  charcoal  made  of  it  is  often  u.seu 
for  tooth-powder.  It  Ls  regarded  by  the  makers 
of  gunpowder  as  beinij  superior  to  every  other 
for  their  purpose ;  it  is  used  also  for  medicinal 
purposes  and  tor  crayons.  The  use  of  the  fibrous 
inner  bark  for  making  ropes,  mats,  and  other 
plaited  work  is  noticed  in  the  article  I'ast.  It  is 
also  u.sed  as  a  healing  application  to  wounds  and 
sores,  being  very  mucilaginous,  and  abounding  in 
a  bland  sap.  The  leaves  are  in  some  countries 
used  as   food    for  cattle,   bnt  cows  fed   on   them 


produce  bad  butter.  The  Howei-s  have  an  agree- 
aide  oilour,  and  abound  in  honey,  much  sought 
after  by  bees.  The  celebrated  Kocno  Honey, 
much  valued  im  medicinal  use  and  for  making 
liqueurs,  is  the  produce  of  great  lime  forests  near 
Kovno,  in  Lithuania.  The  infusion  and  distilled 
water  of  the  dried  flowers  are  gentl,\'  sudorific  ami 
antispasmodic.     The  former  is  in  France  a  popular 


Lime-tree  (  Titia  eitroptea): 
a,  a  ttower. 

remedy  for  catarrhs.  The  seeds  abound  in  a  fixed 
sweet  "oil.  The  European  Lime,  or  Linden  {T. 
curopwa),  often  attains  a  large  size,  particularly 
in  rich  alluvial  soils.  Some  botanists  distinguish  a 
small-leaved  kind  {T.  parvifolia  or  microphi/lla) 
and  a  large-leaved  {T.  grandifolia)  as  different 
species ;  others  regard  them  as  mere  varieties. 
The  Hooded  or  Capuchin  Lime  is  an  interestiuf' 
monstrous  variety.  The  lime-tree  Ls  often  planted 
for  shade  in  towns ;  and  the  principal  street  of 
Berlin  is  called  Unter  den.  Linden,  from  the  rows 
of  lime-trees  which  line  it.  The  lime  is  a  very 
doubtful  native  of  Britain,  although  indigenous 
on  the  Continent  from  Scandinavia  to  the  Medi- 
terranean. In  Britain  the  lime-tree  is  generally 
propagated  by  layers.  The  American  Lime  (2. 
americana,  or  T.  ylahra),  commonly  called  Bass- 
wood  in  America,  has  larger  leaves  than  the 
European  species.  It  abounds  on  the  shores  of 
Lakes  Erie  and  Ontario.  Other  species  take  its 
place  in  more  western  and  more  southern  regions. 

Lime,  the  fmit  of  Citrus  Liinrtfa,  similar  to  the 
Lemon  (q.v.),  but  usually  globular,  with  a  nipple- 
like protuberance  at  the"  apex.  It  is  regarded  by 
many  botanists  as  a  hybrid  between  the  orange  and 
the  lemon.  There  are  many  varieties,  varying 
more  or  less  in  slia])e  and  size,  and  in  the  more 
essential  characteristics  of  relative  thickness, 
flavour,  acidity,  and  juiciness  of  the  rind  and 
pulp.  The  tree  varies  as  much  in  dimensions  as 
the  fruit,  according  to  kind.  It  appeare  to  lia\e 
originated  in  the  East,  but  in  some  of  the  varieties, 
such  as  the  Bcrr/amottc  lime  and  Adam's  Ajwle — 
which  is  often  liut  erroneously  confounded  witli  the 
Shaddock  (q.v.)— and  others,  it  has  been  cultivated 
from  the  remotest  times  in  Italy,  the  south  of  France, 
and  the  Mediterranean  region  generally.  The  uses 
of  the  fruit  are  the  same  practically  a-s  those  of  the 
lemon,  the  juice  being  equally  efficacious  as  an 
antLscorbutic  (see  ScfUVY). 

Lime-iiKllt<  l^^'''t  produced  by  a  blowpipe- 
flame  directeil  against  a  block  of  pure,  compressed 
quicklin\e.     Tin'  lime,  which  ought  to  be  warmed 

I  lieforehand,  becomes  brilliantly  incandescent.  The 
blowpipe-llame  may  be  produced  in  various  ways  : 

'  ( 1 )  blowing  oxygen  through  a  spirit  flame — light 


636 


LIMERICK 


LIMESTONE 


obtained,  about  150  eandles ;  (2)  oxygen  under 
inessure.  and  coal-gas  from  the  mains,  biouglit  in 
concentric  tubes  to  a  nozzle,  where  the  mixture  is 
burned  in  a  Hne  jet — light,  about  200  candles  ;  (3) 
oxygen  and  coal-gas,  both  under  pressure — liglit, 
about  400  candles;  (4)  the  same,  the  coal-gas  or 
the  oxygen  saturated  with  benzoline  or  ether  or 
both  lienzoline  and  ether — light,  up  to  800  eandles 
when  botli  are  employed  ;  (.5)  warm  oxygen,  satur- 
ated with  benzoline,  gives  light  up  to  13.50  candles; 
(6)  oxjgen  and  hydrogen,  nj)  to  aoout  800  candles. 
The  mixed  gases  at  the  nozzle  are  explosive,  and 
the  greatest  care  must  be  taken  to  see  that  the 
flame  is  not  allowed  to  run  back  or  the  mixture  to 
take  place  elsewhere  tlian  at  the  nozzle.  In  tlie 
Ciise  where  oxygen  is  saturated  with  combustible 
material  the  apparatus  is  so  stuti'ed  as  not  to 
allow  an  explosion  to  travel  backwards  in  it.  Lime- 
light was  used  on  the  stage  as  far  back  as  1837-38. 
but  was  inii)roved  in  1851-52.  Thomas  Drummond 
( q.  V. )  gave  his  name  to  an  improved  type. 

Limerick,  a  county  of  the  province  of  JNIunster, 

in  Ireland,  separated  by  the  Shannon  on  the  N. 
from  Clare,  and  bounded  JE.  by  Tipperary ,  S.  by  Cork, 
and  W.  l)y  Kerry.  Its  extreme  length  is  35  miles, 
its  extreme  breadth  54  miles ;  area,  680,842  acres, 
or  1063  sr|.  m.  Pop.  ( 1841  )  330,029  ;  ( 1861 )  217,223  ; 
(1S81)  180,632;  ( l.Slll  )  158,912,  seven-eiglillis 
Catliolics.  It  is  an  undulating  plain,  except  on  its 
extremities,  north  and  south.  The  soil  in  general 
is  fertile,  especially  the  district  called  the  Golden 
Vale,  which  comprises  upwards  of  150,000  acres, 
and  a  portion  beside  tlie  Shannon  below  Limerick. 
Of  the  entire  area  578,240  acres  are  in  culti\  ation  : 
61  per  cent,  is  grass-land,  whilst  barren  soil  and 
bogs  cover  only  6  per  cent.  Potatoes  and  oats 
are  the  principal  crops,  wheat  and  clover  occupy- 
ing the  second  place.  Dairy-farming  flourishes ; 
woollens,  flour,  and  paper  are  manufactured.  The 
county  returns  two  members  to  the  House  of 
Commons.  Limerick  is  the  only  town  of  any 
size.  The  county  formed  part  of  the  territory  of 
Thomond,  the  princi|)ality  of  the  O'Briens.  After 
the  English  invasion  it  fell,  after  many  vicissi- 
tudes, in  great  part  to  the  Desmond  Fi'tzgeralds 
— the  confiscated  estates  of  the  last  earl  (1586)  in 
Limerick  containing  96,165  acres.  Limerick  is 
more  than  usually  rich  in  antiquities,  both  ecclesi- 
astical and  civil,  of  the  Celtic  as  well  as  the 
Anglo-Norman  period.  There  are  a  great  number 
of  mon<astic  ruins  at  Adare,  Askeaton,  &c.  See 
the  county  history  by  Fitzgerald  and  M'Gregor 
(2  vols.  Dublin,  1826-27). 

Limerick,  ea])ital  of  Limerick  county,  Ireland, 
stands  at  the  head  of  the  estuary  of  the  Shannon, 
120  miles  Ity  rail  WSW.  of  Dublin.  It  constitutes 
both  a  county  of  a  city  and  a  parliamentaiy 
borough,  returning  one  member  to  parliament ; 
l)revious  to  1885  it  returned  two.  The  town 
consists  of  English  Town,  the  original  English 
.settlement  made  in  the  reign  of  King  .John, 
on  King's  Island  ;  Irish  Town,  which  lies  imme- 
diately to  the  south,  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
river ;  and  Newtown-Pery,  to  the  south  of  Irish 
Town,  the  newest  and  handsomest  jiart  of  the 
city,  dating  from  1769.  There  are  few  objects  of 
interest  except  the  Protestant  cathedral  of  St 
]\Iary,  founded  in  1180,  and  rebuilt  in  1490;  tlie 
Konian  Catholic  cathedral,  a  Gothic  structure 
erected  in  1860;  and  the  line  bridges  acro.ss  the 
Shannon.  Limerick  manufactures  a  little  lace, 
grinds  Hour,  and  cures  bacon.  Fourth  among  Irish 
seaports,  it  has  a  graving  and  a  floating  dock,  and 
extensive  quays;  imports  grain,  petroliMim,  wine 
and  spirits,  and  timlicr  to  the  annual  value  of 
.1683, (K)0  ;  the  exports  lluctuate  from  i"18,000  to  nil. 
Poj).  ( 1851 )  53,448  ;  ( 1881 )  38,555  ;  (1891 )  37,155. 


In  the  9th  century  Limerick  wa.s  an  imjiortant 
Danish  settlement,  and  remained  so  for  two 
centuries  longer;  but  the  Danes  were  then  ex- 
pelled by  the  Irish.  In  1174  the  town  fell  into 
JEnglish  hands.  Ireton  made  himself  master  of 
it  in  1651.  At  the  Revolution  Limerick  was 
the  last  stronghold  of  James  II.  in  Ireland. 
William  III.  himself  unsuccessfully  assaiilted  it  in 
1000;  but  in  the  f(dlowing  year  his  general 
tUnckel  had  better  fortune  :  the  place  was  C(mi- 
pelled  to  capitulate  on  3d  October.  By  the  terms 
of  the  treaty  of  Limerick  the  bulk  of  the  Irish 
army  was  permitted  to  enter  the  military  service 
of  France,  and  the  Koman  Catholics  were  guar- 
anteed full  religious  and  political  liberty.  The 
violation  of  the  civil  part  of  this  treaty  by  the 
dominant  Protestant  party  during  the  "reigns  of 
William  III.  and  Anne,  down  to  the  19tli  century, 
has  given  to  Limerick  the  title  of  the  '  City  of  the 
Violated  Treaty.'  See  lRKI..\Nr),  p.  205;  and 
Linahan's  history  of  the  town  ( 1866). 

Limestone,  the  popular  as  well  as  technical 
name  for  all  rocks  which  are  composed  in  whole, 
or  to  a  large  extent,  of  carbonate  of  lime.  Few 
minerals  are  so  extensively  distributed  in  nature  as 
this,  and,  in  some  form  or  other,  limestone  rocks 
occur  in  every  geological  system.  Carbonate  of 
lime  is  nearly  insoluble  in  pure  water,  but  it  is 
rendered  easily  soluble  by  the  i)resence  of  carbonic 
acid  gas,  which  occurs  in  a  varialjle  quantity  in  all 
natiiral  waters,  for  it  is  absorlied  liy  water  in  its 
passage  through  the  air  as  well  as  thniugh  the  earth. 
Carbonate  of  lime  in  solution  is  consequently  found 
in  all  rivers,  lakes,  and  seas.  In  evaporation  water 
and  carbonic  acid  gas  are  given  oft,  but  the  car- 
bonate of  lime  remains  uniidluenced,  becominj' 
gradually  concentrated,  until  it  has  supersaturated 
the  water,  when  a  jirecipitation  takes  place.  In  this 
way  are  formed  the  stalactites  whicli  hang  icicle- 
like from  the  roofs  of  limestone  caverns,  ;ind  the 
stalagmites  which  rise  as  columns  from  their  flooi-s. 
Travertine  (Tiber-stone  ),  or  Calcareous  Tufa  (q. v.), 
is  similarly  formed  in  running  streams,  lakes,  and 
springs,  by  the  ileposition  of  the  carbonate  of  lime 
on  the  beds  or  sides,  where  it  encrusts  and  binds 
together  shells,  fragments  of  wood,  leaves,  stones, 
&c.  So  also  birds  nests,  twigs,  and  other  objects 
become  coated  with  lime  in  the  so-called  petrifying 
wells,  as  that  at  Knaresborough.  From  the  same 
cause  pipes  conveying  water  from  boilers  and 
mines  often  become  choked  up,  and  the  tea-kettle 
gets  lined  with  '  fur.' 

AVhile  water  is  thus  the  great  storehouse  of 
carbonate  of  lime,  very  little  of  it,  however,  is  fixed 
by  precipitation,  for  in  the  ocean  evaporation  does 
not  take  place  to  such  an  extent  as  to  permit  it  to 
dei)osit ;  besides,  there  is  five  times  the  quantity  of 
;  free  carbonic  acid  gas  in  the  water  of  the  sea  that 
is  required  to  keep  the  carbonate  of  lime  in  it 
in  solution.  Immense  quantities  of  lime  are  never- 
theless being  abstracted  from  the  sea,  to  form 
the  hard  portions  of  the  inimerons  animals  which 
inhabit  it.  Crustacea,  mollusca,  zoojihytes,  and 
foraminifera  are  ever  busy  separating  the  little 
particles  of  carbonate  of  lime  from  the  water,  and 
solidifying  them,  and  so  sujiply  the  nuUerials 
for  forming  siilid  rock.  It  has  been  fouml  that 
a  large  portion  of  the  bed  of  the  Atlantic  between 
Eunqio  and  North  America  is  covered  with  a  light- 
coloured  ooze,  composed  cliielly  of  the  jicrfect  or 
broken  skeletons  of  foraminifera,  forming  a  .sub- 
stance, when  dried,  which  in  appearance  ami  struc. 
ture  closely  resenildes  chalk.  In  tropical  regions 
corals  are  building  reefs  of  enormous  magnitude, 
correspomling  in  structure  lo  many  of  the  lime- 
stones mcl  with  in  various  geological  systems. 

The  chief  varieties  of  limestone  are  Chalk  (q.v.); 
Oolite  ((I.V.);  Comjxtct  Limestone,  a  hard,  smooth. 


LIME-TREE 


LIMPET 


637 


finegrained  rock,  generally  of  a  bluish-gray  colour ; 
Cn/sta/linc  Limestuiic,  a  rock  which,  Iroiii  nieta- 
niorphic  action,  has  become  granular  ;  liiio-graineil 
white  varieties,  resenil)ling  loaf-sugar  in  texture, 
called  Sacc/tarine  or  ^tatuta-i/  Marble.  Particular 
names  are  given  to  some  linu'stones  from  the  kind 
of  fossils  that  abound  in  them,  as  Numiinilite, 
Ililipuritc,  and  Crinoidal  limestones  ;  or  the  pres- 
ence of  impurities  or  admixtures  of  other  mineral 
matter  may  give  rise  to  varieties,  as  argillaceous, 
ferruginous,  siliceous,  carbonaceous,  and  nuigncsiau 
limestones.  Hydraulic  limestones  contain  a  cer- 
tain proportion  of  silica  and  alumina  which 
forms  a  mortar  that  sets  in  water.  Many  lime- 
stones, again,  derive  their  name  frotu  the  system 
to  which  they  belong,  as  Silurian,  Devonian, 
Carboniferous,  Jurassic,  &c. 

Lime-tree.    See  Lime. 

Liiiiriord.    See  Denmark. 

Lilllitiltion  is  a  term  used,  in  English  law,  in 

two  senses  :  ( 1 )  A  limitation  of  propcrtij  is  a  form 
of  words  used  in  a  deed  or  will  to  mark  out  the 
extent  of  the  interests  given.  Thus,  if  land  be 
granted  to  A  and  his  heirs,  the  words  '  and  his 
heirs  '  are  words  of  limitation  ;  they  indicate  that 
an  estate  of  inheritance  is  given  to  A. 

(2)  Limitation  of  Actions. — To  protect  persons 
in  possession  of  property,  and  to  prevent  the  raking 
up  of  old  disputes,  a  time  is  lixed  within  which 
actions  must  be  brought.  An  action  to  recover 
land  must  be  brought  within  twelve  years ;  if  the 
owner  allows  that  time  to  elapse  without  asserting 
his  right  his  title  is  taken  away.  Actions  to 
recover  debt  or  damages  mvist  be  brought  within 
six  years;  for  assault,  within  four  years;  for  slander, 
within  two  years.  In  Scotland  actions  to  recover 
land  must  be  brought  within  forty  years ;  for 
ordinary  debts,  within  three  years ;  and  for  bills 
of  exchange,  within  six  years.  See  Pre.scription  ; 
and  Buswell's  Statute  of  Limitations,  vnth  English 
^c/6- ( Boston,  1889). 

Limited  Liability.    See  Company. 

Limits,  Method  of.    See  Calculus. 

Limma.  an  interval  which,  on  account  of  its 
exceeding  smallne.ss,  does  not  appear  in  the  practice 
of  modern  music,  but  which,  in  the  mathematical 
calculation  of  the  proportions  of  dill'erent  intervals, 
is  of  the  greatest  importance.  The  limnia  makes 
its  appearance  in  three  dilVcreut  magnitudes — viz. 
the  great  limma,  which  is  the  dillerence  between 
the  large  whole  tone  and  the  small  semitone,  being 
in  the  proportion  of  27  to  25 ;  the  small  limma, 
which  is  the  difference  between  the  great  whole 
tone  and  the  great  semitone,  being  iti  the  propor- 
tion of  135  to  138  ;  and  the  Pythagorean  limma, 
which  is  the  dillerence  between  the  great  third  of 
the  ancient.s  ( which  consisted  of  two  whole  tones ) 
and  the  perfect  fourth,  the  proportion  of  which  is 
a-s  25(3  to  243. 

LilllllieilS  (tir.  limne,  'a  swamp'),  a  genus  of 
]>ulmouate  Ga.steropods,  living  in  fresh  water  in 
all  parts  of  the  wr)rld,  and  feeding  on  vegetable 
matter.  The  shell  is  thin  and  pale,  capable  of 
containing  the  whcde  aiumal  when  retracted  in 
danger  or  burie<l  in  the  mud  during  ilrought.  It 
is  a  somewhat  elongated  spire  in  Limna-ns,  coiled 
in  one  jjlane  in  the  allied  genus  I'lanorbis,  and 
limpet-like  in  Ancylus.  An  anatomical  ))e(uliarity 
of  interest  in  the  ailnit  aiumal  is  the  persistcni'C  on 
the  head-region  of  a  structure  directly  derived  from 
the  embryonic  '  velum  '  (see  Gasteropou.s).  Lim- 
HiHus  amU  other  freshwater  snails  often  lloat  and 
glide  shell  downwards  at  the  surface  with  the  foot 
expanded  like  a  boat,  the  lung-sac  being  partly 
u>ed  an  a  hydrostatic  apparatus.  Semper  has  maile 
numerous  experiments  on  Limmeus,  showing  how 


they  vary  in  relation  to  their  suiToundings.  Thus, 
he  was  able  to  rear  a  dwarf  brood  by  kec|)ing  them 
in  coidineil  vessels.  Most  fresh. water  snails  come 
to  the  surface  periodically  to  breathe  the  air 
directlv,  <aiul  then  return  to  their  gra/.ing-grounds 
heneatli ;  some  are  said  to  utilise  the  air-bubbles 
on  water-plants  ;  while  others  have  become  ad:i|ited 
!  to  deep  water,  renuxin  at  the  bottom,  and  use  skin 
1  and  lung-chamber  as  substitutes  for  gills.  Jlore 
over,  in  the  young  forms  the  lungsac  at  lirst  contains 
water.  The  eggs,  enveloiied  in  a  glairy  substance, 
are  laid  on  stones  or  aquatic  plants,  and  atlbrd 
convenient  opportunities  for  the  study  of  develop- 
ment. Limna'us  is  a  u.seful  inmate  of  a  fresh-water 
aquarium,  keeping  the  water  clean  ami  unchokcd 
by  alg;e.  The  immerous  and  prolilic  species  per- 
form a  similar  function  in  pontfs  and  streams,  and 
furnish  food  for  fishes  and  birds.  They  are  often 
infested  by  parasites,  of  which  many  eom])lete  their 
life-liistory  in  higher  hosts.  Thus,  Limnaus  staij- 
rutlis  lodges  for  a  while  the  Liver-Uuke  (q.v. )  of 
the  sheep. 

Limiioria.    See  Boring-animals. 

Limoges,  capital  of  the  French  department 
of  Haute-Vienne,  and  of  the  former  pro\-iuce  of 
Limousin,  is  picturesquelv  situated  on  the  Vienne, 
by  rail  248  nules  S.  Iiy  "W.  of  Paris  and  21 S  N. 
of  Toulouse.  Its  most  imposing  building  is  the 
Gothic  cathedral,  begun  in  the  13th  century  and 
completed  in  1851.  The  staple  industry  is  the 
manufacture  of  porcelain,  which  employs  more 
than  5000  people.  One-half  of  this  product  is 
exported  annually  to  America.  The  enamel-work, 
for  which  Limoges  was  formerly  celebrate<l,  is  now 
no  longer  carried  on.  There  is  a  fine  ceramic 
museum  (1867).  The  manufacture  of  flannel, 
cotton,  paper,  &c.  are  the  chief  secondary  indus- 
tries. Pop.  ( 1826 )  48,862  ;  ( 1891 )  67,817.  Limoges 
was  the  birthplace  of  DAgue.sseau,  Vergniaud,  and 
Marshals  Jourdan  and  Bugeaud.  It  was  an  im- 
portant town  under  the  Romans,  and  in  spite  of 
plagues,  fires,  and  sieges  (the  worst  that  by  the 
Black  Prince  in  1370),  from  all  of  which  it  has 
suffered  severely,  it  is  still  a  place  of  note.  It  had 
its  own  mint  from  the  4th  century  down  to  1837. 

See  an  article  in  Harpers  Monthhi  for  October  1888  ; 
the  article  Enamel  ;  and  Rupui's  L'(Eurre  de  Limoges 
(1890). 

Limoil.  a  port  of  Costa  Rica,  founded  in  1861, 
on  the  (.'aribbean  Sea.  The  railway  begins  here, 
and  the  place  has  a  landing-pier.  There  are  con- 
siderable exports  from  this  place  of  cotl'ee,  caout- 
chouc, cocoa-nuts,  sarsaparilla,  vegetables,  wood, 
and  hats.      Pop.  1400. 

Limuiiite.  or  Brown  Iron  Ore,  hydrous 
ferric  oxide.  This  ndneral  occurs  most  frequently 
in  the  form  of  librous  aggregates,  or  earthy  and 
amorphous  masses,  and  never  in  that  of  delinite 
ciystals.  It  has  a  hardness  of  5'5,  a  specihc 
gravity  of  3-3 -39,  and  a  yellowish-brown  streak. 
It  is  the  yellow  colouring  niatter  of  chalybeate 
springs.  Rocks  containing  iron  are  often  stained 
brown  or  yellow  from  the  conversion  of  the  iron 
into  limonite. 

Limousin,  or  Limosin,  Leonarp,  painter  in 
enami-i,  was  horn  eirea  1505,  and  llovirished  from 
1532  to  1574  at  the  French  court.  He  was  <Mie  of 
the  Limousin  school  of  enamellers.     See  E.N'.vmel. 

Limpet  ( Patella),  a  genus  of  Gasteropod 
Molluscs,  in  the  Zygobranch  section.  The  animals 
are  most  fandliar  objects  between  tide-marks  on 
rocky  coa-^ts,  are  covered  by  a  conical  shell,  with 
the  apex  directed  slightly  forward,  and  remain  lirndy 
fixeil  when  the  tide  is  out,  adln'ring  by  the  large 
oval  or  circular  'foot,'  which  acts  like  a  vacuum- 
sucker  on  the  rock.     How  lirndy  tliej-  adhere,  unless 


638 


LIMPOPO 


LINCOLN 


taken  by  surprise,  every  wanderer  on  tlie  shore 
has  tested,  yet  the  'oyster-catcher'  (  H;ematopus ) 
nianajjes  with  adroitness  to  detach  tlieni.  They 
move  slowly  abont  under  water,  browsing  on  crust - 
in;;  seaweeds  with  the  hel])  of  a  peculiarly  lony 
'  radula  '  or  ras|>inf;  ribbon,  which  m  the  common 
limpet  (P.  rii/f/dfis)  is  nnich  lon^'iT  than  the  bixly, 
and  beai-s  IGOrows  of  teeth,  12  in  each  row,  19-2H 
in  all.  It  is  noteworthy  that  the  limpets  show  a 
certain  local  memory,  for  they  return  after  a  short 
journey  to  their  old  resting-iilaces,  which,  after 
prolonged  usage,  may  be  marked  by  distinct  de- 
pressions, especially  if  the  rock  be  calcareous. 
The  -'ills  form  a  circle  of  leaflets  between  the  foot 
and  the  edge  of  the  mantle  ;  the  internal  structure 
is  comi)le.\  after  the  fashion  of  gasteropods ;  the 
sexes  are  distinct,  and  breed  in  spring.  Limi)ets 
are  occasionally  used  for  food,  but  oftener  for  bait. 
'  A  species  found  on  the  western  coast  of  South 
America  has  a  shell  a  foot  wide,  which  is  often 
used  as  a  basin.'  There  are  numerous  species  of 
Patella,  and  many  allied  genera,  though  it  is  not 
yet  demonstrated  that  all  the  forms  usually  associ- 
ated with  Patella  deserve  the 
place  which  their  shells  and  raspers 
suggest.  The  key-hole  limpets 
(Fissurellid.f)  form  an  adjacent 
family,  marked  e.\terually  by  a 
hole  at  or  near  the  ape.x  of  the 
shell,  or  by  a  notch  on  the 
anterior  margin.  Another  e.xter- 
nally  similar  but  more  remote  set 
of  '  limpets '  are  united  in  the 
family  Acraieidte,  of  which  Aciiiaii 
testmlinaik  is  very  common  on  the 
northern  coasts  of  North  America. 
They  are  often  called  'slipper-lim- 
pets,' from  the  presence  or  an  in- 
ternal flange  on  the  ineipiently 
spiral  shelf,  and  are  generall.\ 
attached,  sometimes  as  commen- 
sals, to  other  molluscs.  The  genera 
Calyptra>a  and  Crucibulum,  nearly 
related  to  the  above,  are  known 
as  '  cup-and-saucer-limpets.'  For 
anatomy,  see  K.  J.  Harvey  Gibson, 
Traiisaclions  Royal  Society,  Edin., 
1SS4-S3. 

Limpopo.    See  Ooiti. 

Liiiiiiliis.    See  King-crab. 

Liiisicre,  or  Lynakei;, 
THOMA.S,  physician  and  scholar, 
was  born  at  Canterbury  about 
1460,  studied  at  O.xford,  and  was  elected  Fellow  of 
All-Souls'  College  in  1484.  Shortly  afterwards  he 
went  to  Italy,  where  he  learned  (jreek  from  Chal- 
condylas  aiul  studied  under  Politian  ;  he  graduated 
in  meiliiine  at  Padua.  About  1501  Henry  VII. 
made  him  tutor  to  Prince  Arthur  and  king's  physi- 
cian. This  latter  ollice  he  continued  to  lill  during 
the  reign  of  Henry  VIII.  At  the  same  time  he 
practised  in  London  ;  he  also  founded  the  Royal 
College  of  Physicians.  Late  in  life  he  entered  the 
church  and  held  several  henelices.  He  died  20tli 
October  1524.  Liiuvere  was  one  of  the  earliest 
champions  in  England  of  the  New  Learning.  He 
translated  several  of  the  works  of  Galen  into  Latin 
tluvt  was  praised  for  its  elegance  and  i)urity,  and 
wrote  some  grammatical  treatises — the  most  im- 
portant, De  Emcmhtta  Stnirttira  Latini  Scrinonis 
( 15-24).     See  Life  by  l)r  Noble  Johnson  (1835). 

liillSires.  a  town  of  southern  S]iain,  90  nnles  by 
rail  KXK.  of  Cordova,  is  celebrated  for  its  mines 
of  lea.1  and  copijer,  which  yielil  40,000  to  50,000 
tons  of  argentiferous  ore  annually.  There  are  in 
the  town  lead  and  iron  foundries,  and  gunpowder 
and  ilynamite  factories.     Pop.  31,000. 


Lilicllldeil*  a  ruined  abbey,  H  mile  NNW. 
of  Dumfries,  at  the  Cluden's  influx  to  the  Nith. 
It  was  founded  about  1164  for  Benedictine  nun.s. 
See  M'Dowall's  Chronicles  of  Liiicliiden  (1886). 

Lincoln,  a  city  of  England,  the  capital  of  I.hi 
colll^l^re,  and  a  parliamentary,  county,  ami  nunu 
eipal  liorough,  is  situated  on  the  Wilh.am,  42  nules 
S.  of  Hull,  33  NE.  of  Nottingham,  and  130  N.  by 
W.  of  London.  Built  on  the  slope  of  a  hill,  which 
rises  210  feet  above  the  river,  and  is  crowned  liy 
the  cathedral,  the  city  is  im|)osing  in  efl'ect,  and 
can  be  seen  from  afar  in  the  flat  fen-country.  It  is 
very  aiu:ient,  is  irregularly  laid  out,  and  contains 
many  interesting  specimens  of  early  architect\ire— 
nota^ily  the  castle,  commenceil  in  1086  by  AVilliam 
I.  :  the  Newport  Gate,  or  Kcunan  arch,  on  the 
north  side  of  the  city  ;  the  Exchequer  and  Stone- 
bow  gateways,  the  latter  su]iportiiig  a  guildhall  of 
medieval  architecture  :  the  Jew's  House  (Norman), 
associated  with  the  legend  of  Hugh  of  Lincoln  (ci-v.); 
St  Mary's  Guild  ( Nornuin ) ;  ami  the  middle  gram- 
mar-school (to  which  additions  have  recently  been 
made),  founded  in  1567  in  the  Grey  Friars.     I!ui 


ap.W  Hi 


I  t^m^^mw^ 


Lincoln  Cathedral. 

the  chief  glory  of  Lincoln  Ls  its  cathedral,  ad- 
mittedly one  of  the  linest  in  England.  Erected 
between  1075  and  1501,  it  measures  5'24  feet  by  S2 
(or  '250  across  the  transepts),  ami  in  style  is  mainly 
Early  English.  Its  matchless  central  tower  ( 1235 
131  li  and  265  feet  high)  was  previous  to  1547  sur- 
mounted by  a  spire,  as  till  1808  were  the  two 
western  towers  (comjileted  1450).  (Jther  notice- 
able features  are  the  west  front  (partly  Norman), 
with  its  three  doorways  (1123);  the  Galilee  or 
south  ]ioich  (eircii  1'240);  the  I)cc(U'ated  choir 
(1'2.'>4),  with  its  rich  sculpturing;  the  decagonal 
chapter-house  (restoreil  since  1888);  Norman  font 
(1075-93);  and  (ireat  Tom  of  Lincoln  (see  article 
ISm.I. ),  hung  in  the  central  tower,  which  also  con- 
tains a  mellow-chinnng  clock  ( 1880).  Besides  the 
cathedral,  there  are  fourteen  churches  of  various 
dates,  a  county  hall  (1823-'26),  theological  college, 
Kcho(d  of  .science,  .and  bishop's  palace  ( 1886-87)  em- 
bodied with  a  former  palace  of  1149.  Several  iron- 
foundries  and  important  manufactories  of  agricul- 
tural machinery  aie  in  ojieratioii  here,  and  an  active 
trade  is  done  in  flour.  The  horse-fair,  held  annu- 
ally in  the  spring,  is  one  of  the  largest  in  the  world, 


LINX'OLN 


639 


ami  the  race-meetinj)^,  which  take  i)lace  on  the 
Carholnie,  date  back  to  at  least  the  leijjn  of 
.James  I.  One  memher  is  returned  to  parliament 
for  the  city,  which,  moreover,  is  the  depot  of  the 
Lincolnshire  rejrinient,  and  gives  the  interior  title 
of  earl  to  the  Duke  of  Newcastle.  In  the  history  of 
Lincoln  the  most  noteworthy  incidents  have  been 
frequent  invasions  bv  the  Danes  ( 786-875);  great 
fires  (1110  and  1124);  a  battle  (1141)  between 
the  adherents  of  Stephen  and  the  Empress  Matilda 
during  their  struggle  for  the  English  crown  ;  the 
second  coronation  of  Henry  IL  (115.V58);  an 
earthquake  ( 1185),  which  did  much  dami\ge,  especi- 
ally to  the  ciithedral  :  the  b.attle  of  Lincoln,  or 
Lewis  Fair,  fought  4th  June  1218 ;  five  parlia- 
ments held  here  between  LSOl  and  1.386;  six  royal 
visits  ;  and  lastly,  the  siege  of  the  town,  and  dese- 
cration of  the  cathedral,  by  the  parliamentarians 
under  the  Earl  of  Manchester  ( 1(544 ).  Among  the 
sixty-four  bishops  of  Lincoln  were  Kemigius,  who 
in  107.3  transferred  the  see  hither  from  Dorchester 
in  Oxfordshire  ;  St  Hugh  of  Avalon  ;  Robert  Gros- 
seteste ;  Cardinal  Beaufort ;  Fleming  and  Smith, 
the  respective  founders  of  Lincoln  and  Briisenose 
colleges  at  Oxford :  Cardinal  Wolsev ;  Tenison 
and  Wake,  afterwards  archbishops  of  Canterbury ; 
Thiirlow,  a  brother  of  the  Lord  Chancellor ;  and 
Christopher  AVordswortli,  the  founder  of  the  theo- 
logical college.  Pop.  (1801)  7398;  (1831)  11,873; 
( 1881 )  37,313  ;  ( 1  Sfll )  43,983.  See  the  works  cited 
at  the  article  Lincoiashiee. 

Lincoln.  ( l )  capital  of  Nebraska,  stands  in  a 
fertile  j>rairie  country,  on  Salt  Creek,  66  miles  by 
rail  SAA .  of  Omaha.  Laid  out  in  1867,  it  is  a 
handsome  and  tliri\-ing  city.  The  public  buildings 
include  the  state  capito],  university,  prison,  and 
insane  asylum,  and  the  L'uited  States  court-house. 
There  are  numerous  manufactories ;  limestone  is 
largely  quarried,  .and  there  are  great  salt-works 
near.'  Pop.  (1880)  1.3,003;  (1890)  55,154.— (2)  A 
town  of  Khode  Island,  6  miles  N.  of  Providence, 
comprising  several  cotton  manufacturing  villages. 
Pop.  (1890)  20,355.— (3)  Capital  of  Lojj.an  county, 
Illinois,  28  miles  NNE.  of  Springfield,  manufiic- 
tures  f.arm-implements,  and  is  the  seat  of  Lincoln 
Univei-sity  (Cumberland  Presbyterian)  and  of  an 
imbecile  asylum.     Pop.  6725. 

Lincoln.  Moint,  a  pe<ak  of  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tains, in  Colorado,  about  8  miles  NE.  of  Leadville, 
reaching  a  height  of  14,297  feet.  A  railway  has 
been  constructed  to  the  silver-mining  works  at  the 
summit,  and  here  is  a  meteorological  station  con- 
ducted by  Harvard  College,  another  station  being 
placed  at  a  lower  level  (13,500  feet). 

Lincoln.  Abr.\ii.\m,  sixteenth  president  of  the 
Inited  States,  was  born  in  Hardin  county,  Ken- 
tucky, 12th  February  1809.  He  copyright  isoo  in  u.s. 
w  as  descended  in  the  si.xth  genera-  by  j.  b.  Lippincott 
tion  from  Samuel  Lincoln,  who  compiiir. 
emigrated  from  Norwich  in  England  to  Massa- 
chusetts about  1638.  Samuel's  grandson  removed 
to  Berks  county,  Pennsylvania,  and  died  there  in 
173.5.  The  family  history  henceforward  marks  the 
•advancing  wave  of  settlements,  first  south-west- 
ward, skirting  the  eastern  slope  of  the  AUeghanies, 
then  surmounting  these  mountains  ami  spreading 
over  the  Ohio  v.alley.  Samuels  great-grandson 
rested  in  A'iri^nia ;  his  son,  Abraham,  followed  the 
])ioneer  Daniel  Boone  to  Kentucky,  and  while 
clearing  a  farm  in  the  forest  was  killed  by  Indians 
in  1784.  Abraham's  son,  Tliomjis,  theii  but  .six- 
years  old,  grew  ui)  without  educatiim,  and  in  1806 
niaiTied  Nancy  Ilanks  of  the  same  pioneer  stock. 
Abraham,  the  future  president,  wa.s  their  secoml 
i'hild,  but  lost  his  mother  Ijefore  he  was  ten  years 
olil.  His  restless  father  had  crossed  the  Ohio  in 
1816,   and   made   a   new  home  in  the   forests  of 


Indiana,  just  before  its  admission  as  a  state.  In 
1819  he  brought  from  Kentucky  a  second  wife, 
Sarah  (Bush)  Johnston,  a  worthy  woman,  who 
trained  her  step-children  as  faithfully  as  her  own. 
Abraham  learned  the  little  that  was"t.aHght  in  the 
backwoods  schools,  and  was  employed  in  rough 
farm-work  until  at  the  age  of  nineteen  he  took  on 
a  flat-boat  a  cargo  to  New  Orleans.  His  first  close 
view  of  slavery  made  a  lasting  impression  on  his 
mind. 

When  Lincoln  was  twenty-one  his  father  re- 
moved to  central  Illinois,  where  the  son  assisted  in 
felling  trees,  building  another  log-cabin,  and  split- 
ting rails  for  fences.  After  a  second  trading  voyage 
to  New  Orleans  he  returned  to  be  a  clerk  in  a 
country  store  at  New  Salem,  Illinois.  When  the 
Indian  chief  Black  Hawk  disturbed  the  northern 
part  of  that  state  in  18,32  Lincoln  served  a  few- 
weeks  as  captain  in  an  uneventful  campaign. 
Being  defeated  as  a  candidate  for  the  legislature, 
he  purchased  a  small  store,  but  its  failure  left  him 
burdened  with  debt.  However,  he  was  made 
village  postmaster,  and  also  deputy  to  the  county 
surveyor,  and  the  light  duties  allowed  him  time  to 
study  law-  and  grammar.  Elected  to  the  legisla- 
ture in  1834,  he  served  until  1842,  when  he  declined 
further  nomination.  He  had  become  leader  of  the 
Whigs,  and  was  influential  in  having  the  state 
capital  removed  in  1839  from  A'andalia  to  Spring- 
field, where  he  had  fixed  his  residence.  Tliither, 
too,  came  Mary  Todd  (1818-82),  the  daughter 
of  Robert  To<ld  of  Lexington,  Kentucky,  and 
in  November  1842  she  was  maiTied  to  the  rising 
lawyer.  In  1846  Lincoln  was  elected  to  con- 
gress, but  his  service  was  limited  to  a  single 
term.  '  Professional  work  was  steadily  drawing 
him  from  interest  in  politics  when  in  1854  Stephen 
A.  Douglas,  by  his  Kansas-Nebraska  bill,  repealed 
the  Missouri  Compromise  of  1820,  and  reopened 
the  question  of  slavery  in  the  teriitories.  The  bill 
roused  intense  feeling  throughout  the  North,  and 
Douglas  resolved  to  defend  his  position  in  a  speech 
at  the  state  fair  at  Springfield  in  October.  Lincoln, 
invited  by  his  Whig  friends  to  reply,  delivered  on 
the  same  day  a  speech  which  first  fully  revealetl 
his  power  as  a  political  deliater.  Against  his  wish 
'  Honest  Abe '  was  then  elected  to  the  legislature, 
and  the  Whigs  of  that  body  endeavoured  to  send 
him  to  the  United  States  senate,  but  finally  at  his 
request  joined  in  electing  Lyman  Trumbull,  an 
anti-Douglas  Democrat.  When  the  Republican 
party  was  organised  in  1856  to  oppose  the  exten- 
sion of  slavery  Lincoln  was  its  most  prominent 
leader  in  Illinois.  At  its  first  national  convention 
in  the  same  year  the  delegates  of  his  state  presented 
him  as  a  nominee  for  the  vice-presidency.  But  he 
did  not  attain  a  national  reputation  until  1858. 
Then  Douglas,  seeking  re-election  to  the  United 
States  senate,  began  a  canvass  of  Illinois  in  advo- 
cacy of  his  views  of  '  pojiular  sovereignty. '  Lincoln, 
as  candidate  for  the  same  position,  arranged  with 
Douglas  for  a  series  of  clebates.  The  contest 
attracted  the  attention  of  the  w-liole  country  ;  but 
though  the  general  verdict  was  in  favour  of  Lincoln 
and  Ills  cause,  the  peculiar  arrangement  of  the 
legislative  districts  gave  Douglas  the  immediate 
a<fvantage,  and  secured  his  election. 

In  another  memorable  oration  in  the  Cooper 
Union,  New  York,  in  February  \S&),  Lincoln 
proved  that  the  founders  of  the  repuldic  hail 
desired  the  restriction  of  slavery.  In  Alay  of  that 
.year  the  Republican  convention  was  held  in 
Chicago,  ami  on  the  third  ballot  nominated  him 
for  the  presidency.  The  Democratic  party  held  its 
convention  in  (Charleston,  but  w;vs  unalile  to  agree 
on  a  candidate.  Dougliis  was  nominated  by  one 
wing,  Breckinridge  by  the  other.  After  an  in- 
tensely-   exciting    campaign    Lincoln    received    a 


640 


LIXCOLN 


LINCOLNSHIRE 


popular  vote  of  1,866,462;  Douglas,  1,375,157; 
P.ieckinriajie,  cS47,95;{ ;  and  Bell,  590,631.  Of  the 
electors  Lincoln  hail  ISO ;  Breckinridge,  72 ;  Bell, 
39  ;  and  Douglas,  12. 

Tlie  pro-slavery  leaders  forthwith  put  in  execu- 
tion their  plans  for  the  secession  of  their  states. 
South  Carolina  moved  lirst,  and  with  the  six  Gulf 
states  formed,  in  February  1861,  the  Confederate 
States  of  America.  Lincoln,  leaving  Springfield  on 
1st  February,  passed  through  the  |)iincipal  northern 
cities,  making  brief  addresses  at  \arious  points, 
and  reaching  Wasliington  on  tlie  24tli.  His  in- 
augural address  on  411i  JIarch  declared  the  Union 
perjietual,  argued  the  futility  of  secession,  expressed 
his  determination  that  tlie  laws  should  be  faithfully 
executed  in  all  the  states,  deprecated  the  impend- 
ing evils,  and  made  a  touching  appeal  to  all  friends 
of  the  Union.  Of  the  seven  members  of  Lincoln's 
cabinet  four  had  been  Democrats,  three  Wliigs ; 
two  were  from  1)order  slave-states.  The  chief 
places  were  given  to  W.  H.  Seward  of  New  York 
( secretary  of  state ),  and  Salmon  P.  Chase  of  Ohio 
(secretary  of  the  treasury).  Edwin  M.  Stanton 
was  made  secretary  of  war  in  1862. 

On  April  12,  1861,  the  Confederate  general  Beau- 
regard attacked  Fort  Sumter  in  Charleston  har- 
bour. The  civil  war  being  thus  commenced,  Lin- 
coln called  a  special  session  of  congress,  summoned 
7.3,000  militia  foi-  three  months,  and  ordered  the 
enlistment  of  65,000  regulars  for  three  years.  He 
proclaimed  a  blockade  of  the  southern  ports,  and 
endeavoured  to  make  it  effective.  The  Southern 
Confederacy  soon  had  control  of  eleven  states,  and 
put  in  the  field  100,000  men.  The  tiist  important 
battle  was  fought  at  Bull  Run,  Virginia,  July  21, 
1861,  and  resulted  in  a  disgraceful  rout  of  the 
Union  army.  Further  account  of  the  military  and 
naval  events  of  the  war  belongs  to  general  history. 
The  struggle  which  sanguine  statesmen  predicted 
could  be  ended  in  a  few  months  was  prolonged  over 
four  years,  with  dreadful  sacritices  of  men  and 
means.  Foreign  intervention,  wliicli  seemed  immi- 
nent at  the  outset,  was  with  difficulty  averted. 
After  si.xteen  months,  in  which  the  disasters  to 
the  Union  army  had  outnumbered  tlie  victories, 
Lincoln  declared  to  Horace  Greeley  the  line  of  his 
conduct :  '  My  paramount  object  is  to  save  the 
Union,  and  not  either  to  save  or  destroy  slavery. 
If  I  could  save  the  Union  without  freeing  any  slave, 
I  would  do  it ;  if  1  could  save  it  by  freeing  all  the 
slaves,  I  would  do  it :  .and  if  I  eoiihl  do  it  l)y  free- 
ing some  and  leaving  others  alone,  I  would  also  do 
that."  One  month  later  the  time  had  come  for 
decision,  and  on  September  22,  1862,  just  after 
-McClellan's  victory  at  Antietaiu,  Lincoln  pro- 
claimed that  on  and  after  January  1,  1863,  all 
slaves  in  states  or  jiarts  of  states  tlien  in  rebellion 
should  be  free.  On  the  following  New-year's  Day 
the  linal  proclamation  of  emancipation  was  made. 
This  greatest  achievement  of  his  administiation, 
wrung  from  him  by  the  exigencies  of  civil  war,  was 
completed  and  made  immutable  by  the  passage 
of  the  Thirteenth  .A.inendinent  of  the  Constitution, 
M-hicli  he  ])laiined  and  urged,  though  it  was  not 
fully  ratilied  until  December  1865. 

In  July  1863  Grant's  capture  of  Vicksburg 
restored  to  the  Union  full  control  of  the  Missis- 
sippi River,  while  Meade's  defeat  of  Lee  at  Gettys- 
burg destroyed  the  last  hope  of  the  Confederates 
to  transfer  the  seat  of  war  north  of  the  Potomac. 
In  November  of  that  year,  at  the  dedieation  of  the 
National  Cemetery  at  tlettysbnig,  Lincoln  delivered 
a  brief  address,  closing  with  these  words  :  '  We 
here  highly  resolve  that  these  dead  shall  not  have 
ilied  in  vain — that  this  nation,  under  God,  shall 
have  a  new  birth  of  freedom — and  that  government 
of  the  j)eo]de,  by  the  jieople,  for  the  peojile,  shall 
not  iierish  from  the  earth.' 


General  Grant  was  called  to  the  chief  command 
of  the  Union  army  in  March  1864,  and  entereil 
ujion  that  policy  of  persistent  attriticm  of  the  Con- 
federate forces  which  linally  brought  peaie.  In 
the  Republican  Convention  at  Baltinioie  in  .lune 
Lincoln  was  unanimously  nominated  for  a  second 
term.  The  Democrats  at  Chicago  in  August 
declared  the  war  a  failure,  yet  nominated  (■cncial 
McClellan.  In  November  Lincoln  received  of  ilie 
popular  vote  2,216,000,  and  JNIcClellan  1,800,000; 
of  the  electoral  votes  Lincoln  had  212,  McClellan 
21.  In  his  second  inaugural  address,  in  March  1865, 
Lincoln  rose  above  the  ordinary  range  of  such  occa- 
sions, and  like  an  inspired  pioiihct  set  forth  the 
luofimnd  moral  signilicaiu-e  of  the  treniendous  war 
which  he  saw  drawing  to  a  close.  A  niontli  later 
he  had  entered  Richmond,  from  which  Grant  had 
driven  Davis  and  Lee.  Lincoln  returned  to  ^Vasll- 
iiigton  to  consider  the  new  problems  presented  by 
the  overthrow  of  the  Confederacy.  But  his  work 
was  already  finished.  While  seeking  relaxation 
with  his  family  at  Fords  Theatre  he  was  assassi- 
nated by  J.  Wilkes  Booth,  an  actor,  and  died  on 
the  next  morning,  Ajiril  15,  1865.  The  national 
rejoicing  over  the  retuin  of  peace  was  turned  into 
grief  for  the  martyred  president.  The  whole 
civilised  world  joined  in  expression  of  sorrow  for 
his  fate. 

Lincidn  was  6  feet  4  inches  in  height,  with  long 
limbs  and  large  hands  and  feet,  daiTc  complexion, 
broad,  liigli  forehead,  deep-set  gray  eyes,  ami  coarse 
black  hair.  He  was  slender,  wiry  and  strong,  mild 
and  patient,  fair  and  direct  in  speech  and  action, 
scorning  all  tricks  and  subterfuges,  steadfast  in 
principle,  sympathetic  and  charitable.  He  was 
a  man  of  strict  morality,  abstemious,  and  familiar 
with  the  Bible,  though  not  a  professed  member  of 
any  church.  His  pulilic  life  was  devoted  to  the 
good  of  his  fellow-men,  and  his  fame  is  established 
as  the  saviour  of  his  countiy  and  the  liberator  of  a 
race. 

Of  liis  four  sons,  Robert  Todd  Lincoln,  born 
August  1,  1843,  was  the  only  one  to  reach  m;in- 
hood.  He  was  secretary  of  war  in  the  years 
1881-85,  and  was  United  States  minister  to  England 
in  the  years  1889-93. 

.See  Arnukl,  The  Life  of  Abraham  Lincoln  (1885); 
Henidon  and  AVeik,  Tlir  Histoyf/  and  Personal  Rtrolhc- 
tiirns  of  Afira/iaiti  Lincoln  (3  vols.  1889);  Nicolay  and 
Hay,  Abraham  Lincoln:  A  History  (10  vols.  IMill )  ; 
J.  T.  Morse.  Abraham  Lincoln  (2  vols.  1893). 

Lincoln.  Benjamin,  an  American  general,  was 
born  at  Hingliani,  M.assachusetts,  24tli  .lanuary 
1733 ;  in  1776  reinforced  Washington  after  the 
defeat  on  Long  Island,  and  served  with  him  that 
year;  in  1777  was  appointed  major-general,  was 
wounded  in  October,  and  disabled  until  the 
following  August  ;  then  received  command  of  the 
soiitlieni  department,  and  in  1780  was  besieged  by 
Clinton  in  Charleston,  and  compelled  to  ca]>itulate. 
He  was  exchanged  a  year  later,  took  part  in  the 
siege  of  Vorktown,  and  was  dejiuted  to  receive 
Coniwallis'  sword.  Hi;  was  secretary  of  war  from 
1781  to  1784,  and  died  9th  May  1810. 

Lincolnshire  a  maritime  countv  of  England, 
.and,  after  Yorkshire,  tlie  largest  in  tlie  coiintrv,  is 
bounded  on  the  N.  by  the  estuarv  of  the  Humrier; 
E.  by  the  North  Sea,  the  Wash"  and  Norfolk;  S. 
by  Cambridge,  Northampton,  and  Rutland  shires; 
and  W.  by  Leicester,  Nottingham,  anil  York  shires. 
Measuring  75  miles  from  north  to  south  and  48 
miles  from  east  to  west,  it  has  a  .seaboard  of  .about 
90  miles,  and  contains  2672  srj.  in.,  or  1,767,879 
acres.  Pop.  ( 1801 )  208,.557  ;  ( 1881 )  469,919  ;  (  ISIII  ) 
472,878.  The  surface  is  comparatively  Hat:  along 
the  coast  stretches  a  line  of  low-lying  marshes, 
varying  in  breadth,  from  which  in  places  the  sea  is 


f 


LINCOLNSHIRE 


LINDSAY 


G-11 


only  kept  out  l>y  means  of  earthen  emliaiiknients. 
To  the  west  of  these  marshes  lie  the  Wolds,  aranj;e 
of  elialk  downs,  which,  commencin;,'  near  Bartou- 
on- 1  lumber  in  the  north,  extend  thence  in  a  south- 
easterly direction  for  ahout  40  miles  to  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  Spilsby  and  Horncastle.  The  western 
siile  of  the  county,  from  the  Humlier  in  tlie  north 
through  Lincoln  to  Crantham  in  the  south,  consists 
]irincipally  of  light  uplands,  whilst  in  the  soutli- 
e;ust  are  fens  forming  part  of  the  ISedford  Level 
(q.v.).  The  etfort,s  to  drain  the  Kens  and  the  Isle 
of  Axholme  encountered  great  opposition  from  the 
'  stilt- walkere,'  from  the  reign  ot  Charles  I.  down 
to  the  first  quarter  of  the  18th  century.  The 
chief  rivers  of  Lincolnshire,  l>esides  that  which 
forms  its  northern  boundary,  are  the  Trent, 
Witham,  and  Welland  ;  and  a  noticeable  feature 
of  the  county  are  the  numerous  canals  which 
intersect  it — Car-dyke  and  Koss-dyke,  the  two 
largest,  being  probaldy  the  work  of  the  Komans. 
Clay,  sand,  loam,  chalk,  or  peat,  varying  with  the 
locality,  are  the  ))revailing  soils.  Near  Ancaster 
limestone  is  extensively  quarried,  and  in  the  west- 
ern districts  ironstone  abounds.  The  chief  crops 
are  corn  and  turnips,  and  in  places  flax  is  culti- 
Aated  ;  but  from  an  agricultural  point  of  view  the 
county  is  best  known  for  its  rich  'warp-lands' 
along  the  banks  of  the  Trent,  and  for  the  immense 
flocks  of  sheep  grazed  on  its  pastures.  Horse- 
breeding,  too,  is  extensively  prosecuted,  the  horse- 
fairs  at  Horncastle  and  Lincoln  attracting  many 
foreign  and  London  dealers ;  and  amongst  other 
industries  may  be  noted  the  manufacture  of  agri- 
cultural implements  and  machinery,  and  the  great 
shipping  trade  and  fisheries  connected  with  the 
port  of  tirimsby. 

Lincolnshire  is  divided  into  three  distiicts  or 
'  Parts,'  as  they  are  called — viz.  the  Parts  of 
Holland  in  the  southeast,  comprising  the  greater 
part  of  the  Fens,  the  Parts  of  Kesteven  in  the 
south-west,  and  the  Parts  of  Lindsey,  which  is 
by  far  the  largest,  oceu|)ying  the  remainder  of  the 
county.  These  Parts,  each  of  which  has  its  own 
county  council,  are  sulxlivided  into  thirty-one 
wapentakes  or  hundre<ls,  the  city  of  Lincoln  and 
the  municipal  boroughs  of  Boston,  Grantham, 
(Ireat  (irimsby,  and  Louth,  with  part  of  that  of 
Stamford  (the  remainder  being  in  Northampton- 
shire), and  contain  in  all  757  paiishes,  almost 
entirely  situate  in  the  diocese  of  Lincoln  and  mid- 
land circuit,  the  assizes  being  held  at  Lincoln. 
For  parliamentary  purjjoses  the  county  is  divided 
into  .seven  divisions,  and  the  lioroughs  of  Boston, 
tirantham,  Grimsby,  and  Lincoln,  each  of  which 
returns  one  member.  Other  towns  are  Cleethorpes 
(practically  a  suburb  of  Grimsby),  Gainsborough, 
Sleaford,  .Spalding,  and  Sutton. 

The  history  of  the  county  apart  from  Lincoln 
is  soon  told.  It  was  here  that  in  1536  first  broke 
out  the  insurrection  known  a-s  the  '  Pilgrimage 
of  Grace,'  which  had  for  its  object  the  restoration  j 
of  popery  and  re-establisliment  of  dissolved  monas- 
teries ;  and  in  164.3,  during  the  Civil  War,  Ancaster,  [ 
Gainsborough,  Grantham,  and  Winceby  were  the 
scene  of  contests  between  the  rival  forces.  To 
the  antiquarj'  Lincolnshire  is  of  special  interest  on  j 
a<>count  of  the  beanty  of  its  many  churches —  , 
Moston,  Crowle,  Grantham,  Heckington,  Louth, 
Long  Sutton  and  Tattersh.all  amongst  them  ; 
whilst  of  other  places  of  interest  it  will  suffice  to 
mention  here  the  ruined  abbey  of  Crowlaml, 
and  liolingbroke  Castle  (of  which  but  little 
remaitLs),  the  home  of  John  of  Gaunt  and  of 
his  son  Henrj'  IV.,  who  was  bom  there.  Other 
eiiiiii(!Mt  pei-sons  a.ssociated  with  the  county  include 
.lolin  Fo.ice,  the  inartyrologist ;  William  CecU, 
Lord  Burghley  ;  Ca|)tain  John  Smith  ;  Archlnshop 
Whitgift  ;     Hevwood,    the    dramatist;    Sir    Isaac 

■.m 


Newton  ;  Thomas  Sutton,  founder  of  the  Charter- 
house:  I)r  Busby,  headmaster  of  Westminster; 
John  Wesley  ;  Scott,  the  commentator ;  Sir  John 
Fraitklin  ;  Dr  Dodd,  the  forger  ;  Dr  Lingard  ;  Lord 
Tennyson  ;  and  Profe-ssor  Conington.  See  works 
by  Allen  (2  vols.  1834)  and  Sir  Charles  Anderson 
(1880),  and  Mnrrav's  Uandbuok  to  Lincolnshire 
(1890). 

Lincoln's  Inn.    See  Inns  of  Couut. 

Liucrusta.  a  decorative  material  invented  by 
Walton  (see  Flookcloth ),  is  a  compressed  sheet 
of  cellulose,  paper,  cork,  &c. ,  imjjregnated  with 
linseed-oil  and  resin,  and  while  still  plastic,  im- 
pressed with  moulils  so  as  to  make  raised  patterns. 
It  is  tough,  leathen,%  impervious  to  water,  and 
much  cheaper  than  embossed  leather. 

Liud,  Jenny.    See  Goldschmidt,  Madajie, 

Liiulan.  P-VUL,  man  of  lettei-s,  was  liora  on  .3d 
June  IS.'i',)  at  ^lagdeburg.  He  trained  himself  for 
journalistic  \\ork  in  Paris,  returned  to  Germany 
in  1863,  and  has  since  edited  various  journals,  in- 
eluding  Die  Gcgemcart  and  Xonl  itnd  iSiitl,  both  of 
which  he  founded.  He  has  laboured  in  three  or 
four  other  fields  of  literarj-  activity.  Amongst  the 
earliest  fruits  of  his  industry  were  the  pleasantly- 
written  books  of  travel,  A  us  reHc/(e«  ( 1864)  and 
Alls  Paris  (1865),  and  later  Aits  der  Nciien  Welt 
(1884).  His  skill  as  a  writer  of  critical  sketches 
in  a  satirical  and  humorous  manner  is  shown  in 
Hannlusc  Briifc  eincs  dcutsrhen  Kleiitstctdters 
( 1870)  and  Litcrarischc  Eiiclcsichtslosifjkcitcn  (1871 ), 
and  his  calilne  as  a  literary  critic  in  studies  on 
Molii^rc  ( 1871 )  and  Alfred  de  Miisset  ( 1877),  and  in 
Dramaturgischc  Blatter  ( 1875-78 ),  Niichternc  Bricfe 
aiis  Baireitth  (1st  and  7th  ed.  1876),  Baireiitlier 
Briefc  (5th  ed.  1883),  and  Aitfsat:c  (1875).  But 
he  is  perhaps  better  known  as  a  writer  of  plays  and 
novels,  the  subjects  of  which  are  taken  almost 
exclusively  from  modern  life.  The  former  possess 
the  merits  of  lively  dialogue  and  a  fair  degree  of 
dramatic  power ;  the  most  successful  wa-s  perhajjs 
Maria  iind  Mugdalena.  A  collection  of  his  thea- 
trical pieces  was  published  in  three  volumes  as 
Theater  (1873-81).  The  novels  include  Herr  iind 
Frail  Bcu-cr  (7th  ed.  1882),  Togfjenburg  (3d  ed. 
1883),  Mai/o  (5th  ed.  1884),  a  romance  cycle, 
Berlin  (188'6-HO),  and  Die  Brudcr  (lS9i).  He  has 
written  works  of  travel,  and  in  1895  became 
manager  of  the  court  theatre  at  Meiningen. 

Linden.    See  Lime. 

Lin«lisfarne.    See  Holy  Island. 

Lilldlc.V.  John,  botanist,  was  born  on  5th  Febru- 
ary 1799  at  Catton,  near  Norwich.  His  father,  the 
author  <tf--l  (iitide  to  Orchard  atid  Kitfhen  Gardens, 
owned  a  nursery  garden.  Botany  attracted  young 
Lindley's  attention  at  an  early  date.  When  little 
more  than  twenty  he  went  to  London,  and  wrote 
for  the  Encyclojxedia  of  Plants.  In  1822  he  was 
appointed  sussistant-secretary  to  the  H<u  ticultural 
Society,  and  in  1829  professor  of  Botany  in  I'ni- 
versity  ( 'ollcgc  London.  He  retired  from  this  chair 
in  1860,  and  ilie<l  at  Turnham  Green  on  1st  November 
1865.  His  works  include  the  Synopsis  of  British 
/•Vor«  ( 1 829 )  ;  lidrodnrtidii  to  the  \atural  System 
of  Botany  (1830):  Outline  of  the  Structure  and 
Physiologii  of  Plants  (2  vols.  1832)  ;  Flora  Medico 
(1838);  the  Vegctatdc  Kingdom  (1846),  a  standard 
work  on  the  subject  of  chi-ssification  :  and  2'heory 
and  Pravtiii:  <f  llortiridtnre  (2il  ed.  1855).  Along 
with  W.  Hutton  he  published  The  Fossil  Flora  of 
Great  Britain  (3  vols.  1831-37). 

Lindsay,  a  Scottish  historical  house  of  Xorman 
extraction.  Sir  Walter  de  Lindsaj-,  settling  in 
Scotland   under  David   I.,  acquired   Ercildoun   in 


G42 


LINDSAY 


LINEN 


BeiwicUsliive.  ami  Lutliiess  in  East  Lotliian.  His 
descemlaiit,  William  Lindsay,  J usticiaiy  of  Lothian 
in  the  I'JtIi  ci'iituiy,  acciuiieil  Crawfonl  in  Cly<les- 
dale,  niairied  Princess  Marjory,  sister  of  King 
William  tlie  Lion,  and  had  three  sons.  The  two 
elder  lines  of  these  eniled  in  heiresses,  and  <"iaw- 
ford  eventually  came  to  the  descendants  of  William 
of  Luftness,  the  third  son. 

EarU  of  Crawford  atul  Duke  of  Montrose. 
—Sir  Alexander  Lindsay,  youn<;er  brother  of  Sir 
James  of  Crawford,  the  hero  of  Utterburn,  acquired 
Glenesk  and  Edzell,  and  his  son  David  married  the 
sister  of  Robert  IIL,  and  was  created  in  1398  Earl 
of  Crawford.  Their  chief  seat  was  Finhaven,  in 
Angus.  The  family  attained  its  climax  of  power 
under  David,  lifth  earl,  who  was  made  Duke  of 
.Montrose  in  USS.  The  grand-nephew  of  the  duke 
was  known  as  '  The  Wicked  Master;'  and  his  C(ui- 
duct  leil  his  father  to  transfer  the  earldom  to  David 
Lindsay  of  Edzell,  the  next  heir.  He,  however,  left 
it  at  his  death  to  the  son  of  the  'Wicked  Master.' 
This  line  ended  in  the  sixteenth  earl,  and  by 
arrangement,  Lord  Lindsay  of  the  Byres  succeeded 
to  the  earldom  of  Crawford  in  preference  to  the 
descendants  of  the  uncle  of  the  sixteenth  earl, 
who  bad  been  created  Lord  Spynie,  and  the  inter- 
mediate cadets  of  Edzell  and  Balcarres. 

Lord  Lindsay  of  t/ic  Byres,  Viscount  Garnocl: 
— Sir  William  Lindsay,  younger  brother  of  the 
first  Earl  of  Crawford,  acquired  extensive  estates 
with  his  wife,  a  daughter  of  Sir  William  Mure 
of  Abercorn.  His  grandson  was  made  Lord  Lind- 
say of  the  Byres,  county  Haddiuglon,  in  1445, 
but  their  priiu'ii)al  residence  was  Struthers  Castle 
in  Fife.  The  tenth  lord  was  in  1644  created  Earl 
of  Lindsay  ;  and,  as  slated  above,  under  a  new 
patent  of  Charles  I.  he  became  seventeenth  Earl  of 
Crawford.  He  ^^as  High  Treasurer  of  Scotland. 
His  grandson  l>y  a  younger  son  was  created  Vis- 
count Garnock  in  17u3.  The  fourth  Visccmnt  Gar- 
III  ick  succeeded  as  twenty-lirst  F.arl  of  Crawford  ; 
and  his  son,  the  twenty -second  Earl,  dying  in  1808, 
was  the  last  of  the  direct  line  of  the  Byres. 

Earls  of  Balcarres  and  Crauford. — The  Lind- 
says of  Balcarres,  in  Fife,  weie  a  branch,  and 
eventually  the  representatives,  of  the  Lindsays  of 
Edzell.  The  first  was  Lord  Menmuir,  Secretary  of 
State  to  James  YL  His  son  David  was  created 
Lord  Lindsay  of  Balcarres  in  1033,  and  his  grand- 
son, Alexander,  Earl  of  Balcarres  in  1651.  On  the 
death  of  the  twenty-second  Earl  of  Crawford, 
James,  seventh  Earl  of  Balcarres,  became  twenty- 
third  Earl  of  Crawford.  A  further  claim  was  pre- 
ferred without  success  to  the  dukedom  of  Montrose, 
conferred  by  James  IIL,  by  the  late  Earl  of  Craw- 
fonl (q.v.).  See  his  Lires  af  the  Linilsai/s  {\Hi'i}, 
and  Jervise's  Land  iftlie  Lindsays  ('2d  ed.  1882). 

Lindsay,  Sir  David.    See  Lyxdsay. 

Lindsay  of  Pitscottie.    See  Pit.scottie. 

Lindsey,  Pakts  of.    See  Lincolnshiue. 

Lindsey.  Thkoi'hii.u.s  (1723-1808),  one  of  the 
first  English  Lnitarians  (q.v.),  was  a  native  of 
.Middlcwich,  Clioshire,  a  Fellow  of  St  John's 
College,  Cambridge,  an  Anglican  clergyman  till 
1773,  and  author  of  several  works.  See  his 
Memoirs  by  Belsham  (1812). 

Lino.  Breaking  the.  See  Clerk,  John  ;  and 
Tactrs,  Naval. 

Linen.  Flax,  like  wool,  has  been  used  a.s  a 
material   for   woven   fabrics    from   a  very   remote 

fieriod.  Not  only  are  there  frequent  references  to 
inen  in  the  Bible  and  other  ancient  records,  but, 
owing  to  the  wonderful  clurability  of  the  fibre, 
many  linen  mummy-cloths  of  great  age  and  .some 
of  extremely  line  texture  have  been  found  in  Egypt. 
That  country  must  have  been  long  celebratecl  for 


its  linens,  because  it  is  known  that  sonu>  of  the 
finest  sorts  used  by  the  ancient  Greeks  and  Komans 
were  woven  on  Egyptian  looms.  Just  Ijefore  the 
Christian  era  the  cultivation  of  tiax  was  extensive 
in  Italy,  and  it  was  probably  by  the  Uomans  that 
the  growth  of  tlax  for  textile  purposes  was  intro- 
duced into  Britain.  Since  that  tinu?  the  art  of 
spinning  and  weaving  this  fibre  by  ])rimitive 
methods  luus  no  doubt  been  continuously  juactised 
in  countries  that  were  occupied  by  the  Romans, 
and  at  all  events  it  can  be  traced  over  the  greater 
part  of  Europe  from  the  6th  or  7th  century,  till  in 
comparatively  recent  times  it  almost  entirely 
ceased  to  be  a  domestic  industry,  and  became 
located  in  certain  centres  a-s  an  important  textile 
manufacture.  Interesting  specimens  of  figured 
stufis,  such  as  Damask  (q.v.),  comi)ose<l  entirely  of 
linen  and  also  of  silk  and  linen,  and  made  in  Italy 
and  Siiain  as  early  as  the  14th  century,  may  be 
seen  in  one  or  two  industrial  art  nniseums  in  Eng- 
land and  on  the  Continent.  Tlie  ground  of  the  cele- 
brated Bayeux  Tapestry  (q.v.),  made  in  the  11th 
century,  is  of  linen,  wliich,  by  means  of  careful 
cleaning,  is  now  of  an  alnuist  snow-white  colour. 

Flanders  seems  to  have  acquired  some  celebrity 
for  the  weaving  of  table-linen  as  early  as  the  11th 
century,  and  from  that  time  till  long  afterwards 
Flemish  weavers  were  occasionally  settling  in 
England.  Among  the  Huguenots,  who  in  the 
17th  century  sought  refuge  in  England  and  other 
countries,  were  many  workmen  skilled  in  the  mak- 
ing of  linen  fabrics,  and  these  artisans  did  much 
to  help  this  and  other  industiies  wherever  they 
settled.  A  government  boanl  of  manufactures  was 
established  in  Ireland  in  1711,  and  another  in 
Scotland  in  1727,  both  of  whicii,  by  a  system  of 
bounties,  encouraged  the  linen  trade  in  several 
ways.  In  England  the  linen  manufacture  was 
also  a-ssisted  bv  bounties,  which  did  not  finally 
cease  till  1832."  The  year  17S7  nutrks  the  firs't 
introduction  of  a  mil!  for  sjiinning  linen-yarn  by 
machinery  in  the  I  nited  Kingdom.  It  was  built 
at  Darlington,  and  the  i)atentees  of  the  nuichines 
were  J.  Kendrew  and  T.  Porthouse.  In  Scotland 
the  lirst  fiax  spinning-mill  was  erected  near  Glamis 
in  1790,  and  one  or  two  others  were  set  agoing 
in  Fife  very  soon  afterwards.  Although  the  power- 
loom  of  Cartwright  was  applied  to  tlie  weaving  of 
cotton  in  1785,  it  was  not  till  1S12  that  the  first 
factory,  which  had  any  real  success,  for  weaving 
linen  by  power,  «as  established  by  C.  Turner  &  Co. 
of  Limehouse,  London.  Speaking  generally,  the 
improvements  in  the  machines  for  spinning  and 
weaving  cotton  have  been  more  rapid  than  in  those 
employed  for  the  manufacture  of  linen. 

ilendiuii. — The  piepiiration  of  the  fibre  of  the 
flaxplant  into  the  state  in  which  it  is  sent  to 
si)inning-mills  is  described  under  the  heading 
Fl.\x.  At  the  mill  it  gets  a  rough  sorting,  and  is 
then  heckled,  a  process  which  has  been  in  use  for 
centuries.  A  han<l  heckle  is  an  oblong  stock  of 
wood  studded  with  strong  steel  teeth  about  7 
inches  long  in  the  case  of  the  first  or  'rufier' 
heckle.  The  heckler  takes  a  handful  or  strick  of 
Hax  by  the  middle  and  draws  the  root  end  several 
times  through  the  teeth.  He  then  turns  the  strick, 
and  in  the  same  way  heckles  the  opposite  end. 
The  llax  is  next  similarly  treated  on  a  heckle  with 
finer  teeth,  and  if  it  is  to  be  spun  into  due  yarn  it 
is  further  combed  on  still  finer  heckles.  The 
object  of  the  process  is  to  separate  the  tlax  into 
two  portions — viz.  '  line,'  whicli  is  the  long  and 
best  pcutitm,  and  '  tow,'  which  is  the  short  and 
ravelled  portion.  What  are  called  vertical  sheet- 
heckling  machines  are  now  extensively  employed. 
This  kind  of  machine  consists  of  emlle.ss  leather 
sheets  nmving  over  rollers  placed  at  some  distance 
apart   with   jiroper  driving-gear.      A    number    of 


LINEN 


LINGA 


643 


liet'kle-stocks,  placed  at  regular  intervals,  are 
lixeil  on  the  surface  of  these  sheets  or  bands,  two 
of  which  are  placeil  opposite  to,  and  so  near  each 
other  that  their  respective  heckle-pins  intei-sect 
wliore  the  actual  heckling  takes  place.  At  this 
part  of  their  course  the  sheets  move  in  a  nearly 
vertical  ilirection  downwards,  and  heckle  the  llax, 
which  is  fixed  in  a  holder  and  han^  down  between 
the  sheets.  There  are  other  kinds  of  heckling- 
niachines. 

Pref>nriiig. — After  the  heckling,  the  llax  'line' 
is  carefully  sorted  into  qualities,  and  tlien  uniler- 
goes  a  treatment  on  certain  machines  called  '  pre- 
paring.' These  are  of  the  same  nature  as  the 
machines  used  in  the  corresixinding  stages  of  the 
spinning  of  jute,  under  which  head  they  are  brielly 
noticed :  but  they  will  be  more  fully  described  under 
.SrixxiXG.  They  are  (1)  the  spreadiny-frainc, 
where  the  llax  is  first  formed  into  a  continuous 
ril>l)on  or  sliver.  (2)  The  dnnrinrj-frames,  on  each 
of  which  this  sliver  is  '  doubled  '  and  drawn  out  by 
rollers  through  travelling  gills  with  steel  teeth,  a 
sinnlar  arrangement  forming  part  of  the  spreadiiig- 
frame.  There  are  generally  three,  and  occasionally 
four,  drawing- frames,  each  successive  frame  having 
finer  gill  teeth  than  the  one  before  it,  and  from 
eight  to  fifteen  slivers  delivered  by  one  of  these 
machines  are  drawn  out  into  one  sliver  by  the 
next.  The  object  of  so  much  dotibling  and  draw- 
ing Ls  to  produce  a  sliver  of  very  uniform  size 
throughout,  and  with  the  fibres  all  parallel.  ( 3 )  The 
ivi-intj-fmme  through  which  the  sliver  is  pa-ssed 
singly  ;  it  is  so  far  similar  to  the  drawing-frame 
in  construction,  but  with  a  flyer  and  bobbin  for  tlie 
now  greatly  attenuated  sliver,  wliich  is  slightly 
twisted  by  the  former  and  wound  upon  the  latter. 
Flax-tow  is  carded  in  the  same  way  as  Jute  (q.v.), 
and  then  goes  through  the  preparing  processes  just 
described. 

Spinning. — The  '  rove'  or  '  rovings'  are  spun  into 
yarn  on  the  'throstle'  invented  by  Arkwright. 
This  machine  is  also  used  in  spinning  cotton,  and 
it  does  not  differ  in  principle  for  either  fibre  (see 
Spixsixg).  a  peculiarity  in  flax-spinning  is  that 
for  all  fine  yarns  the  fibre  is  spun  wet — the  tem- 
perature of  the  water  used  being  120'  F.  By  this 
treatment  a  given  weight  of  flax  can  be  spun  into 
a  much  greater  length  than  formerly,  and  a  better 
yarn  is  produced.  Dry  spinning  is,  however, 
adopted  for  coarse  and  heavy  yarns. 

Weavittfi. — The  hand-loom'  is  still  applied,  to 
some  e.xtent,  to  the  weaving  of  fine  linens,  but  for 
linen  fabrics  generally  tlie  power-loom  is  in  almost 
universal  use.  It  was  found  to  be  a  nmch  more 
difficult  task  to  adapt  the  power-loom  to  linen  than 
to  cotton  owing  to  the  want  of  elasticity  in  flax- 
yarn.  The  construction  of  looms  is  explained 
under  We.wixg,  and  the  bleaching  and  calendering 
of  linen  and  other  fabrics  are  described  under  these 
several  heads. 

Linen  is  manufactured  in  most  European  coun- 
tries, but  on  the  Continent  the  industry  attains 
much  importance  only  in  France,  Belgium,  and 
(ierniauy.  Tlie  neiglibourliood  of  Court  rai  in 
Belgium,  and  Westphalia  in  Germany,  have  long 
had  a  reputation  for  producing  yams  of  extreme 
fineness  lor  costly  lace.  France  is  celebrated  for 
her  cambrics  and  beautiful  damaaks.  In  the 
United  Kingdom  the  finest  linens  are  made  at 
IJelfiust  and  other  places  in  Ulster,  the  ela-sses  of 
goods  made  being  lawn  and  cambric  handkerchiefs, 
surplice  linens,  printed  linens  for  dresses,  damask 
table-linen,  shirtings,  sheetings,  and  towellings. 
At  Dunfermline  and  several  other  places  in  Fife, 
Scotland,  linen  dama-sks,  diaper  towelling,  an<l 
plainer  fabrics  of  medium  weight  are  largely  manu- 
lactured,  upholstery  linen  being  chiefly  made  at 
Kirkcaldy.     Linen  goo<ls  of  similar  character  are 


extensively  woven  at  Barnsley,  in  Yorkshire. 
Heavy  fabrics,  such  as  sailcloth,  canvas,  and 
sacking,  are  made  at  Dundee,  Arbroath,  and  a  few 
mori!  Forfarshire  towns. 

Of  our  great  textile  manufactures  the  making 
of  linen  fabrics  is  the  only  one  that  shows  signs 
of  becoming  a  contracting  industry.  For  sever;il 
kinds  of  heavy  goods  it  has  to  compete  with  jute, 
and  for  certain  medium  and  fine  fabrics  with 
cotton.  Compared  with  these,  linen  is  a  costly 
textile,  and  its  advantages  of  strength,  glossiness, 
and,  in  the  fine  qualities,  of  not  being  easily  soiled 
seem  insufficient  to  keep  np  the  former  demand  for 
it  for  some  purposes.  The  great  fault  of  llax  is 
that  the  steeping  process  does  not  remove  all  the 
natural  gum  in  the  fibre.  It  has  been  stated  by 
experts  of  high  standing  that,  if  the  gum  could  be 
completely  taken  out  by  some  inexpensive  process, 
there  is  no  reason  why  flax  should  not  be  spun  as 
easily  as  cotton.  For  some  fabrics,  such  as  sheet- 
ings, which  not  many  years  ago  were  most  largely 
made  of  linen,  cotton,  owing  to  its  greater  warmtli 
atid  cheapness,  is  now  preferred  ;  and  for  others, 
such  as  damasks,  the  two  materials  are  of  late 
years  often  used  together. 

The  total  annual  value  of  the  linen  manufactures 
exported  from  the  United  Kingdom  has  for  some 
yeais  past  averaged  between  five  and  six  million 
pounds  .sterling. 

The  manufacture  of  linen  in  the  LTnited  States 
has  never  been  extensive,  the  limited  quantity  of 
flax  grown  there  being  raised  more  for  the  seed 
than  the  fibre. 

Line  Spectriiin.    See  Spectrum. 

Lilies^  of  Force.    See  Magnetism. 

Ling  (Moh-a  vulgaris),  a  fish  of  the  family 
Gadida>,  abundant  on  most  parts  of  the  British 
coa-sts,  and  elsewhere  throughout  the  northern 
seas,  and  in  value  almost  rivalling  the  cod.  In 
form  it  is  much  more  elongated  than  the  cod,  and 
even  more  than  the  hake,  with  which  it  agrees  in 
having  two  dorsal  fins  and  one  anal  lin,  tiie  anal 
and  second  dorsal  long  ;  but  it  ditt'ers  from  the  hake 
in  having  a  barbel  below  the  chin,  and  teeth  of 
unequal  size  on  the  jaws  and  vomer.  The  ling  is 
generally  three  or  four  feet  long,  sometimes  nu)re, 
and  has  been  known  to  weigh  seventy  pounds.  The 
colour  is  gray,  inclining  to  olive,  the  belly  silvery, 
the  fins  edged  with  white.  The  tail-fin  is  rounded. 
The  gape  is  large,  and  the  mouth  well  funushed 
with  teeth.  The  ling  is  a  verj-  voracious  lish, 
feeding  chiefly  on  smaller  fishes.  It  is  also  very 
prolific,  and  deposits  its  spawn  in  June ;  the  ova, 
as  usual  in  the  Gadidte,  are  jielagic.  It  is  found 
chiefly  where  the  bottom  of  the  sea  is  rocky. 
Great  numbers  are  caught  in  the  same  manner  as 
cod,  by  hand-lines  and  long  lines,  on  the  coasts  of 
England,  Scotland,  the  Orkney  ami  Shetland 
Islands,  &c.  ;  considerable  numbers  are  also  taken 
by  the  trawl.  Most  of  them  are  split  from  head 
to  tail,  cleaned,  salted  in  brine,  washed,  dried  in 
the  sun,  and  sent  to  the  market  in  the  form  of 
Stock-fish.  They  are  largely  e.xporteil  to  Spain  and 
other  countries.  The  air-bladders  or  suiiiuls  are 
pickled  like  those  of  cod.  The  liver  also  yields 
an  oil  .similar  to  cod-liver  oil,  which  is  used  for  the 
supply  of  lamps  in  Shetland  and  elsewhere.  Two 
other  species  of  Molva  from  the  coasts  of  Europe 
have  been  described. 

Ling.  I'Kiiii  Uexkik.    See  Gymnastics. 

Linga  (a  Sanskrit  word  which  literally  means  a 
sign  or  symbol)  denotes,  in  the  sectarian  woi-ship 
of  the  Ilinilus,  the  Fhallus  (q.v.),  as  emblem  of 
the  male  or  generative  power  of  nature.  The 
Linga-worship  prevails  with  the  Sivaites  (.see 
India,  p.  106).  Originally  of  an  ideal  and 
mystical  nature,  it  has  degenerated  into  practicea 


644 


LINGARD 


LINLITHGOW 


of  the  grossest  description  :  thus  taking  the  same 
course  as  the  "siiniUir  worsliip  of  the  Clialdoeans, 
Greeks,  and  other  nations  of  the  east  and  west. 
The  manner  in  which  tlie  Linga  is  represented 
is  cenerallv  inoll'eiisive— a  pillar  of  stone  or  other 


.    ^ Pil 

cvliudrical' objects  heing  held  as  appropriate  sym- 
bols of  the  generative  power  of  Siva.  Us  counter- 
part is  Yoiii,  or  the  symbol  of  female  nature  as 
productive.  See  Muir's  Sniishrif  JVxts  (vol.  iv.), 
and  Kittel's  moiiograpli  (Basel,  1870). 

Lill''ard.  .Iohn,  historian,  was  born  at  Win- 
cheste"  5th  February  1771.     Both  his  parents  were 
Lincolnshire  Catholics,  his  father  a  carjienter,  his 
mother  the  daughter  of  a  respectable  farmer  who 
had  been  ruined  bv  the  penal  laws.     A  promising 
boy   he  was  sent  in  1782  by  Bishoj)  Talbot  to  the 
Kii'dish  College  of  Douay  (q.v.),  where  he  remained 
tiirin  1793  it  was  broken  up  by  the  Kevohition. 
The   Catholic  Relief  Act    enabling    Catholics    to 
open  schools  in  England,   the  Douay  comnuinity 
was  transferred  lirst  to  Crook  Hall,  near  Durham, 
anil  in  1808  to  I'shaw.     Lingard,  who  had  accepted 
the  office  of  tutor  in  Lord  Stourton's  family,  in  1794 
resumed   his   theological  studies,    and,   next   year 
receiving  priest's  orders,  became  vice-president  of 
the  collei-fe,  prefect  of  the  stuilies,  and  professor  of 
Philosophv.     In    1811    he    accejitcd    the    secluded 
mission   of  Hornby,  near  Lancaster,  declining  the 
otter  of  the  presidency  of  Maynooth,  as  fourteen 
years  later  of  a  cardinals  hat ;  and  here  he  '  grew 
old    in    illustrious    obscurity.'     He    twice    visited 
Rome,   in   1817   and   1825;    in   1821    obtained  his 
doctorate  from  Pius  VII.  :  and  in  IS.TO  received  a 
crown  pension  of  £300.     He  died  at  Hornby,  17th 
July  1851,  and  was  buried  in  the  cloister  at  Ushaw. 
His  lirst  important   work,   the  Antiquitii   of  the 
Avnlo-Saxon  Cliun-h  (2  vols.    1806;  3d  and  much 
enlarged  ed.   1845),  was  but  the  pioneer  of  what 
eventually  became  the  labour  of  his  life— a  History 
of  England  to  16SS  (8  vols.  1819-30;  6tli  ed.   10 
vols.    1854-55).     This  from    the    outset   attracted 
much  attention  :  and  the  first  two  editions  brought 
its  author  £4133.     It  was  fiercely  assailed  m  the 
Kdinburqh  Revicv: :  but  Dr  Lingard  in  his  reply 
displayeii  so  much  erudition,  and  so  careful  a  regard 
for  original  authorities,  that  the  result  was  to  add 
materially   to   his  reinitation  as   a  scholar  and  a 
critic.     The  chief  mark  of  its  Catholic  origin  is  not 
seldom    the   absence   of    Protestant  bias   and   pre- 
judice ;  .still,  it  is  as  declaring  the  views  of  a  candid 
and  judicious  Catholic  that  the  later  volumes  retain 
a   permanent  value.      The   earlier  volumes    have 
been   largely    .superseded.      For    Lingard  s    minor 
writings,  which  were  numerous,  see  the  ISIemoir  by 
Canon  Tierney,  prefixed  to  vol.   x.  of  the  dth  ed. 
of  the  Hisliinj. 

Lillgua-Fraiica,  the  corrupt  Italian  which 
has  been  employed,  since  the  jieriod  of  the  Geimcse 
and  Venetian  s'upremacy,  as  the  language  of  coni- 
mcrcial  intercourse  in  tlie  Mediterranean,  especi- 
ally the  Levant.  Any  language  which  serves  a 
sin'iilar  purpose,  as,  for  instance,  Swahili  and 
Haussa  in  Africa,  and  the  Chinook  jargon  in  the 
north-west  of  the  United  States,  is  called  gener- 
ically  a  linrjiia-fninca.  Compare  '  pigeon  English, 
under  China. 

Lilltfllla.  a  genus  of  Bracliiopoda  (q.v.). 
Liii;:iila  Flass.  See  Cambrian  System. 
LillinicntS  (from  tlic  Latin  word  liniir.  'to 
besmear')  may  be  regarded,  in  so  far  as  their  physi- 
cal i)roperties  are  concerned,  as  ointments  having 
the  consistence  of  oil,  while,  chemically,  most  of 
them  are  soaps— ihul  is  to  say,  compoumls  of  oils 
and  alkalies.  In  consequence  of  their  slighter  con- 
sistence, they  are  lublied  into  the  skin  more  readily 
thiin  ointments.  Among  the  most  important  of 
them  arc  :  Liniment  of  Ammonia,  popularly  known 


as  Hartshorn  and  Oil,  which  is  prepared  by  niixing 
and  shaking  together  .solution  ot  ammonia  and 
olive-oil,  and  is  employed  as  an  external  stimulant 
and  rubefacient  to  relieve  neuralgic  and  rheumatic 
pains,  sore  throat,  &C.  :  Soap  Liniment,  or  Opodel- 
doc, the  constituents  of  which  are  soai>,  camphor, 
and  spirits  of  rosemary,  and  which  is  used  in 
sjn-ains,  bruises,  rheumatism,  v*i:c.  ;  LininirnI  of 
Lime,  or  Carrou  Oil.  which  is  prepared  by  mixing 
and  shaking  together  equal  measures  of  olive  i)r 
linseed  oil  and  lime  water  ;  it  is  an  excellent  appli 
cation  to  burns  and  scalds,  and   from  its   Keneral 


enqdoyment  for  this  purpose  at  the  Canon  iron 
works'  has  derived  its  popular  name  :  Camphoi 
~  inimcnt,  consisting  of  camphor  dissolved  in 


niilior 
olive- 


oil,  which  is  used  in  sprains,  bruises,  and  glandular 
enlargements,  and  which  must  not  be  confoumled 
with  Compound  Camphor  Liniment,  which  contains 
a  considerable  quantity  of  ammonia,  and  is  a 
powerful  stimulant  and  rubefacient  :  and  tlie 
Opimn  Liniment,  which  consists  of  soaji  liniment 
and  tincture  of  opium,  and  is  much  enqiloved  as 
an  anodyne  in  neuralgia,  rheumatism,  ^.c.  These 
are  the  chief  liniments  according  to  the  old  delini- 
tion.  but  the  term  has  gradually  come  to  be  ajqilied 
to  tinctures  intended  for  external  use.  Such  .are 
the  liniments  of  aconite,  belladonna,  cantharides, 
iodine,  Ac,  which  are  made  by  treating  the  drugs 
with  alcohol,  and  thus  obtaining  a  concentrated 
tincture. 

Lillkopillg.  one  of  the  oldest  towns  in  Sweden, 
capital  of  East  tiothland  and  the  seat  of  its  liishop, 
stands  3^  miles  S.  of  Lake  Roxen  and  142  miles  by 
rail  SWr  of  Stockholm.  The  Romanesque  cathe- 
dral, which  dates  from  the  12th  century,  is  one  of 
tlie  finest  churches  in  Sweden.  Since  1887  Linkiip- 
iiig  has  had  direct  communication  for  vessels  with 
the  Baltic,  and  now  exports  timber  and  gildc.l 
mouldings.  Pop.  (1875)  8112;  (1890)  12,649. 
Links.    See  tioLF. 

Lilllcy,  THOMA.S,  English  musical  composei, 
was  liorii  at  Wells  in  17.")2.  He  first  gained  a 
reputation  at  Bath  as  teacher  of  singing  and 
conductor  of  the  concerts  in  the  Assembly  Rooms. 
P.ut  in  1775  his  son-in-law  Sheridan  induced  him 
to  compose  great  iiart  of  the  music  for  his  opera 
The  Duenna,  and  persuaded  him  to  go  to  LoikIoii 
to  superintend  its  performance.  In  the  following 
year  the  two,  in  conjunction  with  R.  Kord,  bought 
Garrick's  share  of  Diury  Lane  Theatre.  During 
the  next  fifteen  years  Li'nley  was  musical  director 
of  this  theatre,'  composing  numerous  occasional 
iiieces  and  the  music  of  the  operas  Ventle  Shep- 
herd (1781),  Carnival  of  Veniec  (1781),  Selima 
and  Azor  (1784),  Strangers  at  Home  (1786),  Lore 
in  the  East  (1788),  &e.  Linley's  name  stands 
highest,  however,  as  a  composer  of  music  for  songs 
and  elegies — it  is  simple,  sweet,  melodious,  and  yet 
lively.    He  died  in  London  on  lOlh  November  179."). 

Two   of   his   sons   inherited   his  musical    talent. 

Thomas  (1756-78),  who  possessed  real  genius  and 
was  a  friend  of  Mozart  in  Italy,  and  AVlLl.l.\M 
(1767-1835),  who  composed  a  number  of  glee.-, 
songs,  &c. 

LilllitllKOW.  an  ancient  royal  burgh,  the 
county  town  of  Linlitligow.shire,  lies  16  miles  A\  . 
of  EdinburL;h,  near  the  southern  shore  of  Linlithgow 
Loch,  which,  l."iO  feet  above  sea  level,  covers  102 
acres,  .and  deejiens  westward  from  10  to  50  feet. 
On  a  promontory,  66  feet  high,  stands  the  stately 
ruin  of  Linlilligow  Palace,  mostly  rebuilt  between 
1425  and  1628,  and  fin'd  by  Hawley's  dragoons  in 
1746.  It  w.as  the  birthplace  of  James  V.  and  Mary 
Stuart.  The  neighbouring  parish  church  of  St 
'Michael's  is  a  very  good  Decorale.l  structure  of 
mainly  the  15th  and  lOtli  centuries :  within  its 
south' transept  James  IV.   received   the   lltidd.ii 


LINLITHGOWSHIRE 


LINNET 


G45 


warning.  Another  event  in  Linlitligow's  liiston-  was 
the  nuirder  of  the  Regent  Moray.  The  Cross  Well 
(rel)uilt  in  1SU7)  anil  the  new  town-hall  (1889)  are 
al>o  noteworthy.  With  Falkirk,  &c.,  Linlithgow 
returns  a  niemher.  Pop.  ( 1831 )  .•JIST  :  { 1x91 )  4155. 
See  Wahlie's  llistonj  of  Linlitlitjuu-  (M  eil.  1879). 

Liulitligowsliiro.  or  West  Lothi.vn,  a 
Scottish  county,  washed  on  the  north  for  17  miles 
by  the  Firth  of  Forth,  and  elsewhere  hounded  by 
Edinburgh,  Lanark,  and  Stirling  shires.  Its  length 
south-westward  is  '22  miles,  its  average  breadth  7 
miles,  and  its  area  127  sq.  ni.  The  only  large 
streams  are  the  Almond  on  the  south-eastern,  and 
the  Avon  on  the  western  boundary  ;  and  the  prin- 
cipal eminences  are  Cairnuaple  (1016  feet).  Cockle- 
rue  (912),  Dechmont  Law  (686),  and  Glower-o'er- 
'em  (559),  the  last  with  a  monument  to  General 
Adrian  Hope,  who  fell  in  the  Indian  Mutiny.  The 
rocks  are  carboniferous,  with  igneous  intrusions ; 
and  coal  has  been  largely  mined  since  the  12th 
century,  as  also  are  ironstone,  fireclay,  and  shale. 
Excellent  sandstone  is  quarried  at  Biuny.  The 
soil  is  generally  fertile,  except  to  the  south  and 
south-west,  where  it  is  moorish  or  rocky  ;  and  a.s 
much  as  73  per  cent,  of  the  whole  area  is  in  cultiva- 
tion, whilst  woods  cover  4982  acres.  Towns, 
noticed  separately,  are  Linlithgow,  South  Queens- 
ferry,  Bathgate,  Bo'ness,  and  Broxburn ;  among 
the  mansions  are  Hopetoun,  Dalmeny,  Dundas, 
and  Kinneil :  and  the  antiquities  include  prehistoric 
and  Roman  remains,  the  Romanesqtie  church  of 
Dalmeny,  the  castles  of  Barnbougle,  Blackness, 
Niddry,  &.C.,  and  the  preceptory  at  Torphichen  of 
the  Knights  of  St  John.  The  county  returns  one 
member  to  parliament.  Pop.  ( ISOl )  17,844  :  ( 1841 ) 
26,872;  (1891)  52,808.  See  Sibbald's  History  of 
Linlithgowshire  (1710),  and  Small's  Castles  and 
Mansions  of  the  Lothians  (1883). 

Liuiiiea.    See  Caprifoliacele. 

Linnifns,  Carl,  ennobled  in  1757  as  Carl  vox 
LixxE,  the  founder  of  modern  botany,  was  born  at 
Rashult,  in  the  Swedish  province  of  Smaland,  on 
2.3d  May  1707.  His  father,  the  rector  of  the 
parish,  destined  him  for  his  own  profession,  the 
church.  But  whilst  still  a  child  Carl  showed  a 
jj.ossion  for  flowers.  He  was  sent  to  school  at 
Wexio,  then  pa.ssed  on  to  Lund  ( 1727 )  and  L'psala 
universities  to  study  medicine  ;  but  his  real  study 
was  botany.  In  17.30  he  was  appointed  assistant 
to  the  professor  of  botany  in  Upsala.  The 
greater  part  of  1732  was  occupied  m  executing 
a  commission  from  the  L'i)sala  Academy  of 
Sciences — an  exploring  trip  through  Swedish 
Lapland,  the  botanical  results  of  which  were  pub- 
lished .as  Flora.  Lapponica  in  1737.  His  diaiy  of 
this  journey  was  translated  into  English  and  pub- 
lished by  Sir  .1.  E.  Smith  in  181 1  a.s  Lachexis 
Lapjionica.  Then  followed  a  journey  of  scientilic 
exploration  and  survey  through  the  province  of 
Dalecarlia.  In  1735  he  went  abroad  to  take  his 
doctor's  degree  at  Harderwijk  in  Holland.  Pass- 
ing on  to  Leyden  and  Amsterdam,  he  founil  en- 
cf)uragement  in  Gronovius,  to  wlioin  he  showed 
the  -MS.  of  the  Si/ste»ia  Natitnv,  .and  helpful 
patronage  in  Boerhaave,  who  introduced  him  to 
the  wealthy  Dutch  banker,  Clillbrd.  CliH'ord,  who 
had  a  m.agniticent  garden  and  greenhouses  and 
botanical  collections,  employed  the  young  Swede 
to  arr.ange  them  for  him.  It  was  the  .autunm  of 
1737  before  he  w,as  done  with  the  work.  But  in 
the  meantime  he  had  paid  a  visit  to  England,  and 
puljlished  some  of  his  most  famou.i  books,  such  as 
the  Hiistemn  Xatiirw,  Fundamenta  Botaniiu,  Genera 
Plantfiritm,  Critira  Botanica,  in  which  he  expounded 
his  celebrated  system  of  cla-wsification,  based  on 
dilfeiences  in  sexual  characteristics.  This  system 
of    Linmeu.s,    although   intentionally   an   artificial 


one,  was  predominant  for  a  long  time  in  the 
botanical  schools  of  Europe  (see  BoTAXy).  On 
his  way  home  he  was  tempted  to  stay  nearly  a 
year  at  Leyden  to  help  to  arrange  the  botanical 
garden  belonging  to  the  university.  Then  he  paid 
a  flying  visit  to  Paris,  where  he  became  acquainted 
with  Bernard  and  Joseph  de  Jussieu.  On  reaching 
home  he  practised  as  a  physician  in  Stockholm  for 
three  years  with  brilliant  success.  In  1741  he  was 
appointed  professor  of  Physics  and  Anatomy  at 
L  i>sala,  but  exchanged  this  chair  for  that  of 
Botjiny  in  the  following  year.  With  this  post  was 
combined  the  directorship  of  the  botanical  gardens. 
During  the  many  yeare  that  Linnanis  taught 
botany  his  fame  and  his  lectures  increased  the 
number  of  pupils  attending  the  univereity  from 
Hve  to  fifteen  hundred.  Tlie  years  1745-46  were 
marked  by  the  publication  of  the  Flora  Utiecica  and 
Fauna  Succica,  the  latter  embodying  the  results 
of  fifteen  yeare'  labour;  1751  by  the  Philosophia 
Botanica;  and  1753  by  the  appearance  of  Species 
Plantarum,  in  which  he  lirst  rally  established  the 
custom  of  using  a  second  or  trivial  name  in  addition 
to  the  generic  name,  by  which  to  identify  a  plant. 
Just  previous  to  his  appointment  as  professor  he 
conducted  a  scientific  journey  through  the  islands 
of  Oland  and  Gothland,  in  1746  a  similar  journey 
through  the  province  of  West  Gothhand,  and  in 
1749  another  in  the  province  of  Skane,  of  all  of 
which  he  wrote  descriptive  accounts  in  Swedish. 
Linnfeus  died  on  10th  Januaiy  1778.  See  Thronnh 
the  Fields  with  Linnmus,  by  Mrs  Florence  Caddy 
(2  vols.  1887),  which  supersedes  the  Life  (Eng. 
trans.  1794)  by  Stoever. 

The  LixxEAX  Society  was  formed  in  London  in 
1788,  and  obtained  a  royal  charter  in  1802.  Its 
founder  and  first  president  was  Sir  J.  E.  Smith, 
who  jjurchased  the  books  and  MSS.  and  botanical 
collections  of  Linnseus  after  the  death  in  1783  of 
the  great  botanist's  son,  and  from  whom  they 
passed  into  the  hands  of  tlie  society  in  1828. 

Liniiell,  Johx,  artist,  was  born  in  Loudon  in 
1792,  in  1805  entered  as  a  student  at  the  Royal 
Academy,  and  distinguished  himself  greatly  during 
his  course,  not  only  in  painting,  but  in  sculpture 
and  engraving.  He  was  a  pupil  of  lienjamin  West 
and  Varley,  and  himself  taught  drawing  to  Mary 
Wollstonecraft  Shelley.  He  painted  many  portraits 
of  eminent  men,  as  his  friend  Blake,  Malthas, 
Whately,  Peel,  and  Carlyle.  His  Landscapes  were 
mostly  painted  from  the  sweet  scenery  of  Surrey. 
Of  these  need  only  be  named  '  Harvest  Showers,' 
'A  coming  Storm,'  '  Autumn,' and  'The  Heath.' 
Linnell  died  at  Reilhill,  January'  20,  1882.  See  his 
Life  by  A.  T.  Story  ( 1892). 

LilUiet  (Acanthis),  a  genus  of  Passerine  birds  in 


"^^^V 


,:^ 


^. 


.i^ 


Linnet  (Acanthii  cunnabina). 

the  finch  family  Friiigillida^,  familiarly  represented 
by    the    Grey,    Red,    or    Rose    Linnet    (Acunthis 


646 


LINOLEUM 


LION 


cannabiiia).  This  bird  is  coinnion  in  Britain,  and 
wiilely  distributed  in  Europe  and  in  nortli-wcst 
Afiica.  It  is  ratlier  under  6  inclies  in  len^lli, 
and  exhibits,  as  its  common  names  suggest,  a 
marked  seasonal  chanj^e  of  phimage.  It  feeds 
on  soft  seeds,  and  breeds  in  spring.  Tlie  nest, 
made  of  soft  stems  and  moss,  lined  with  wool 
anil  down,  is  especially  common  in  furze  and  other 
low  bushes.  The  eggs  (4  to  6)  have  a  bluish- 
white  ground,  speckled  with  reddisli  Ijrown  or  pur- 
i)lish  red  ;  two  l)roods  may  be  reared  in  the  season. 
The  linnet  or  'lintie'  sings  well,  is  amenable  to 
e<lucati(>n,  and  is  but  too  often  caged.  In  the 
mountain-regions  of  Scotland  it  is  represented  by 
the  'Ticile  or  Mountain-linnet  (A.  flavirostris), 
while  other  Hritish  species  are  the  Mealy  Kedpole 
{A.  linaria)  and  the  Lesser  Redpole  (A.  riifexceiis), 
the  smallest  of  British  linches.  The  Green  Linnet 
is  the  Greenlincli  (Ligurmiis  chloris). 

Liiioloiiiii.    See  Floorcloth. 

Linsceil.  the  seed  of  flax,  largely  imported  from 
the  t'ontinent  and  India,  for  ma"lcing  linsced-oil 
and  rii/-rf(/,-i:  In  making  these  tlie  seeds  are  lirst 
bruised  or  crushed,  then  ground,  and  afterwards 
subjected  to  pressure  in  a  hydraulic  or  screw  press, 
sometimes  without  heat,  and  sometimes  with  the 
aid  of  a  steam  heat  of  about  200°  {93-4°  C). 
Linscedoil  is  usually  amber-coloured,  but  when 
perfectly  pure  it  is  colourless.  It  has  a  peculiar 
and  rather  disagreeable  odour  and  taste.  It 
is  chielly  used  for  making  varnishes,  paints,  &c. 
That  made  without  heat  (cold-drnwn  iinsccd-oil) 
is  p\ucr,  and  less  apt  to  become  rancid,  than 
that  in  making  which  heat  is  applied.  By  cold 
exjiression  the  seed  yields  from  18  to  20  per 
cent.,  and  with  heat  "from  22  to  27  per  cent,  of 
oil.  Linseed-oil  boiled,  either  alone  or  witli 
litharge,  white  lead,  or  sulphate  of  zinc,  dries 
much  more  rapidly  on  exjiosure  to  the  air  than 
the  unlioiled  oil  ;  and  boiled  or  dri/inff  oil  is 
particularly  adajited  for  many  uses. — The  Oil-cake 
(cj.v. )  made  in  expressing  linseed-oil  is  very  useful 
for  feeding  cattle.  Linseed  itself  is  excellent  food 
for  cattle  and  for  [loultry.  The  seed  coats  abound 
in  mucilage,  which  forms  a  thick  jelly  with  hot 
water,  and  is  very  useful  for  fattening  cattle. — 
JJiisred-iiicfd,  nuioii  used  for  poultices,  is  generally 
ma<le  by  grinding  fresh  oil-cake,  but  it  is  better 
if  made  by  grinding  the  seed  itself. 

Lint  was  the  name  given  to  linen  cloth  or  rags 
when  shredded  or  scraped  down  so  as  to  form  a  soft 
material,  suitable  for  dressing  wounds  and  soaking 
u])  discharges.  This  is  now  su])erseded  by  a  cotton 
cloth  s]iecially  wo^•en  for  the  purpose,  witli  one  side 
.soft  iind  lluHy.     See  also  Flax. 

Linton,  Sir  Jame.s  Drumgole,  water-colour 
and  oil  painter,  was  born  in  London,  26lh  Decem- 
ber 1840.  He  laboured  with  success  to  elevate  the 
status  of  his  favourite  branch  of  art,  painting  in 
water-colours;  and  in  I8S3  the  Institute  of  Water- 
colour  Painters,  of  which  he  had  been  elected  a 
member  in  1 867,  was  reorganised,  its  title  being 
lienceforth  the  lioyal  Institute  of  Painters  in 
AVater-colours,  and  its  exhibitions  being  thrown 
open  to  everybody,  not  confined,  as  hitherto,  to 
members.  Linton  himself  was  chosen  president  in 
1884,  ami  in  the  following  year  wa-s  knighted.  His 
most  successful  pictures  are  those  of  single  lignres. 
As  a  painter  in  oil  his  most  notalde  jirodurlions 
are  the  'Marriage  of  the  Duke  of  Alliany,'  painted 
by  royal  command  in  188"),  and  a  series  illustra- 
tive of  the  Kith  century  f(M'  a  |)rivate  house  at 
Notlingliam. 

Linton.  \\'ii.i.iam  .Iamks,  wood-engraver  and 
author,  Wius  born  in  London  in  1812.  As  a  wood- 
engraver  he  may  be  said  to  be  the  most  artistic 
who  ever  lived.     Some  of  his  finest  work  may  be 


found  in  the  pages  of  the  Illustrated  London  Neuv. 
to  which  he  frequently  contributed,  from  its  com- 
mencement till  he  linally  went  to  the  I'nited 
States  in  1867.  As  an  author,  the  zealons  chartism 
of  his  youth  tinged  nnich  of  his  work.  Among  his 
various  works  may  be  mentioned  'J'/ic  I'luin  of 
/Vcer/oHt  ( 1852),  Clnrihcl  and  other  Poems  (1865), 
several  volumes  of  T/ic  English  liepuhlic.  Home 
Practical  Hints  on  Wood-enr/ravinff  (1879),  Life 
of  Thomas  Paine  (1879),  A  Manual  of  Wood- 
cngruiunt/  {188i),  Poe7ns  and  Translations  (1889), 
and  7'Jic  Musters  of  IVood-engraring  (  1890).  He 
died  2ntb  Dec.  1897.  See  bis  Memories  (18951.— 
His  wife,  Eliza  Ly.xn,  bom  at  Keswi.'k.  loib  Feb. 
1822,  had  ijublisbed  lier  Kr.st  novel  a  dozen  years 
before  their  marriage  in  1858.  Together  tliey  prc> 
pared  a  volume  on  The  Lake  Countri/  (1864),  hf 
lurnishing  the  ilhistr.ations  jind  she  the  letterpress  ; 
in  1867  they  separated.  Mrs  Lynn  Linton  was  an 
indefatigaljle  worker,  and  her  novels  were  many  : 
'The  True  History  of  Joshua  Davidson  (1872)  and 
The  A utohioejreiphti  of  Christopher  Kirldanil  ( 1S85 ) 
are  of  heavier  calibre  than  the  rest.      She  did  a 

freat  deal  of  magazine  work,  and  her  '  (iirl  of  tbi' 
'eriod'  articles  in  the  Saturda;/  Jierieu-  appeared 
in  a  collected  form  in  1883.  Slie  died  in  London 
14th  July  1898. 

Linz,  capital  of  the  crown-land  of  Ujiper  Austria, 
is  situated  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Danube,  which 
is  here  crossed  by  an  iron  bridge  7S0  feet  long.  117 
miles  liy  rail  W!  of  Vienna.  Pop.  (1890)  47.685. 
It  h.as  a  si)lendid  new  tlotbic  cathedral  (1862-90), 
the  old  catliedral  church  ( 1670),  the  bishop's  palace, 
the  national  museum,  a  library  of  33,000  vols., 
a  bishop's  seminary,  a  commercial  school,  &c. 
Owing  to  its  situation  on  the  Danube  and  to  its 
being  an  important  railway  centre,  Linz  is  a  bn.sy 
commercial  place  ;  its  industries  include  the  manu- 
facture of  woollen  goods,  tobacco,  linen,  leather, 
machinery,  &c.  Shipbuilding  is  likewise  carrieil 
on.  As  a  place  of  some  strategic  imjiortance  Linz 
has  been  besieged  on  several  occasions,  notably  by 
the  peasants  in  1626,  and  <luring  the  war  of  I  lie 
Austrian  succession  in  1741  anil  again  in  1742. 
Here  peace  was  signed  between  the  Kmpenn-  Fenli 
nand  III.  and  George  Kakoezy  of  Transyhania  in 
1645,  and  in  the  vicinity  Bernadotte  defeated  the 
Austrians  in  1809.  See  works  by  Krackowizer 
( 1875)  and  Hiptmair  (1885). 

Lion  {Felisleo),  the  largest  and  most  majestic 
of  the  Felida\  It  is,  -vvhen  mature,  of  a  nearly 
uniform  tawny  or  yellowish  colour,  ]ialer  on  the 
under-parts  ;  the  young  alone  exliiliiting  spots  like 
those  connnon  in  the  Felida'.  The  male  lias  usually 
a  great  shaggy  and  flowing  mane;  and  the  tail, 
which  is  pretty  long,  terminates  in  a  tuft  of  hair. 
The  wliole  frame  is  extremely  muscular,  giving, 
with  tlie  large  head,  bright-Hashing  eye,  ami 
copious  mane,  a  noble  Jippearance  to  the  animal, 
w  liich,  with  its  strength,  has  led  to  its  being  called 
the  '  king  of  beasts,'  and  given  rise  to  fancies  of  its 
noble  and  generous  disposition,  having  no  founda- 
tion in  reality.  A  lion  of  the  largest  size  measures 
about  8  feet  from  the  nose  to  the  tail,  ami  the  tail 
about  4  feet.  The  lioness  is  smaller,  has  no  mane, 
and  is  of  a  lighter  colour  on  the  under-parts.  The 
strength  of  the  lion  is  such  that  he  can  carry  oil'  a 
heifer  as  a  cat  carries  a  rat. 

The  lion  is  an  inhabitant  of  the  troiiical  and 
subtropical  regions  of  Africa  and  Asia.  It  was 
anciently  much  more  common  in  Asia,  and  was 
f(nind  in  some  ])arts  of  lMiro|)e,  ]iarticularly  in 
Macedonia  and  Thrace,  according  to  Herodotus  and 
other  authors.  Tlie  Cave  Lion  ( Felis  spcla'a).  whose 
bones  are  met  with  in  cavi 


L.ion  [re/is spc/a'd )•  wnose 
,-e-denosits  of  England  and 


the  Continent,  hardly  did'ers  from  Felis  leo.     Tlie 
lion  is  not  in  general  an  inhabitant  of  deep  foichts 


LION 


LIPOGRAM 


64V 


but  rather  of  open  plains,  in  whicli  the  slielter  of 
ocoa-sional  luislies  or  thickets  may  be  foiuul.  The 
breeding-place  is  always  in  some  much  scchuleil 
retreat,  in  which  the  young — two,  three,  or  four  in 
a  litter — are  watched  over  with  great  assiduity  by 


Lion  ( Felis  Ico ). 

both  parents,  and,  if  necessary,  are  defended  with 
great  courage — although,  in  other  circumstances, 
the  lion  is  more  disposed  to  retire  from  man  than 
to  assail  him  or  contend  with  him.  When  met  in 
an  open  country  the  lion  retires  at  first  slowly,  as 
if  ready  for  battle,  but  not  desirous  of  it ;  then  more 
swiftly  ;  and  finally  by  rapid  bounds.  If  compelled 
to  defend  himself  he  manifests  great  courage. 
The  lion  often  springs  upon  his  prey  by  a  sudden 
bound,  accompanied  witli  a  roar ;  and  it  is  said 
that  if  he  fails  in  seizing  it   he  does  not  usually 

fiursue,  but  retires  as  if  ashamed  ;  it  is  certain, 
lowever,  that  the  lion  also  often  takes  his  prey  by 
pursuing  it.  and  with  great  perseverance.  The 
animal  singled  out  for  ])ursuit,  as  a  zebra,  may  be 
.swifter  of  foot  than  the  lion,  but  greater  power  of 
endurance  enables  liim  to  make  it  his  victim.  Deer 
and  antelopes  are  perhaps  the  most  common  food 
of  lions.  The  lion,  like  the  rest  of  the  Feliihe, 
is  pretty  much  a  nocturnal  animal  ;  its  eyes  are 
adapted  for  the  night  or  twilight  rather  than  for 
the  day.  It  has  a  horror  of  tires  and  torchlights  ; 
of  which  travellers  in  Africa  avail  themselves, 
when  surrounded  by  jirowling  lions  in  the  wilder- 
ness by  night,  and  sleep  in  safety.  Lions  rapidly 
disappear  before  the  advance  of  civilisation.  In 
India  they  are  now  confined  to  a  few  wild  districts  ; 
anil  in  South  Africa  their  nearest  haunts  are  far 
from  Capetown  and  from  all  the  long  and  fully 
settled  regions. 

The  mane  of  the  lion,  and  the  tuft  at  the  end  of 
the  tail,  are  not  fully  developed  till  he  is  six  or 
seven  years  old.  The  tail  terminates  in  a  small 
prickle,  the  e.xistence  of  which  was  known  to  the 
ancients,  having  been  discovered  by  Didymus  Alex- 
andrinns,  one  of  the  earliest  commentators  on  the 
Iliufl :  it  was  supposed  bv  them  to  be  a  kind  of 
goad  to  the  animal  when  lashing  liiuiself  with  his 
tail  in  rage.  The  prickle  has  no  ronncctidn  with 
the  caudal  vertebra-,  but  is  merely  a  little  nail  or 
honiy  cone,  about  two  lines  in  length,  adhering  to 
the  skin  at  the  tip  of  the  tail.  It  has  been  stated 
to  occur  also  in  the  leopard. 

There  are  several  varieties  of  the  lion,  slightly 
dillering  from  each  other  in  form  and  colour,  but 
particularly  in  the  development  of  the  mane.  The 
largest  lions  of  the  south  of  Africa  are  remarkable 
for  the  large  size  of  the  head  ami  the  great  and 
black  mane.  The  Persian  and  other  Asiatic  lions 
are  generally  of  a  lighter  colour,  and  inferior  in 
size,  strength,  and  ferocitv  to  the  African  lion. 
Guzerat  and  the  south  of  tersia  produce  a  some- 


what smaller  variety,  remarkable  as  being  almost 
destitute  of  mane. 

The  lion  is  easily  tamed,  at  least  when  taken 
young,  anil  when  abundantly  supplied  with  fooil 
is  very  docile,  learning  to  perform  feats  which 
excite  the  admiration  of  the  crowds  that  visit 
menageries.  The  greatest  of  lion-tamers,  Van 
Amburgh,  died  in  liis  bed  at  lMiiladeli)hia,  29th 
November  1865  ;  still,  exhibitions  of  this  kind 
are  not  unattended  with  danger,  as  too  many 
instances  have  proved.  Lions  were  made  to  con- 
tribute to  the  barbarous  sports  of  the  ancient 
Komans ;  a  combat  of  lions  was  an  attractive 
spectacle,  and  vast  numl>ers  were  ini|)orted  into 
llome,  chiefly  from  Africa,  for  the  supply  of  the 
amphitheatre.  Pompey  exhibited  600  at  once. — 
Lions  were  kept  in  the  Tower  of  London  from  the 
13th  century  till  1834  ;  and  one  died  here 
in  1770  after  seventy  years'  conlinement.  They 
have  not  unfrequently  bred  in  the  menageries 
of  Europe  (with  i)articularly  good  results  in  the 
Dublin  Zoological  Gardens ),  and  a  hybrid  between 
the  lion  and  the  tiger  has  occasionally  been  pro 
duced.     For  the  lion  in  heraldry,  see  Hekaldry. 

Lioiiardo  da  Vinci.    See  Leonardo. 

Lions,  ( in.F  ok  (  Golfc  dn  Lion  ),  the  large  gulf 
of  the  Mediterranean  on  the  south  of  France,  ex- 
tends from  the  frontier  with  Spain  eastwards  to  the 
Hyeres  Islands. 

Lipari  Islands,  known  also  as  the  .lioLlAN 
ISL.VXDS,  a  volcanic  group  in  the  Mediterranean, 
consi-sting  of  half-a-dozen  larger  and  numerous 
smaller  islands,  with  an  aggregate  area  of  116  sr|. 
m.,  and  situated  oil' the  north  coast  of  Sicily,  north- 
west of  Messina.  They  rise  to  3170  feet  above  the 
level  of  the  sea  ;  many  of  the  smaller  islands  form 
part  of  the  rim  of  a  gigantic  crater.  The  ancient 
classical  poets  localised  in  these  islands  the  abode 
of  the  fiery  god  Vulcan — hence  their  ancient  name, 
Viilrriniif  Iiisnhv.  Their  collective  population  is 
18,000,  of  whom  neariy  8000  belong  to  the  island  of 
Lipari  (area,  .32  sq.  m.),  the  most  impoitant  uf  the 
group.  The  ne.xt  in  size  are  A'ulcano,  Stromlioli, 
Salina.  Filicudi,  Alicudi,  and  Panaria.  The  |n-in- 
cipal  products  of  the  islands  are  grapes,  figs,  olives, 
wine  (Malmsey),  borax,  pumice-stone,  and  sulidiur. 
The  warm  springs  are  much  resorted  to,  ami  the 
climate  is  delightful.  Lipari,  the  chief  town,  is  a 
bishop's  see  and  a  seaport,  and  has  4968  inliabit- 
ant.s.  Stromboli  (.3022  feet)  is  almo.st  constantly 
active;  Vulcano  (1017  feet)  is  so  intermittently; 
the  rest  are  extinct. 

Liparitc.  an  igneous  rock,  so  called  from  its 
occurrence  in  the  island  of  Lipari.  It  has  a  wide 
geographical  distribution,  and  is  also  known  as 
Rhyolite  and  t,)uartz-trachyte.  It  is  a  highly  acidic 
rock,  and  has  a  ghissy  base,  often  more  or  less 
devitriiied.  Throughout  this  base  are  scattered 
qu.artz,  sanidine,  |)lagioclase,  and  biotite  ;  and 
other  minerals  may  al.so  lie  present.  The  more 
compact  varieties  often  exhiliit  sphenditic  and 
tluxion  structures,  which  occasionally  impart  a 
kind  of  laminated  or  b.'indcd  iis))ect  to  the  rock. 
Other  varieties  of  texture  range  from  compact  up 
to  coarse-gr.iined  and  granitoid. 

Linetzk.  a  town  in  the  Russian  government  of 

Tamfiofl',  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Voronezh,  a 
tributary  of  the  Don,  and  .3<K)  nnles  by  rail  SSE. 
from  Moscow,  was  founded  in  1700  by  I'cter  the 
(Ireat,  but  only  began  to  llourish  at  the  commence- 
ment of  the  19th  century,  when  the  admirable 
qualities  of  its  chalybeate  springs  became  known. 
It  h.os  a  large  annual  influx  of  visitors  during 
summer.      Pop.  (1894)  15,860. 

Lipourani  (Gr.  hipO,  'I  leave  out,'  and 
i/rmiiiiiii.   '.a  letter')  is  a  species  of  verse  charac- 


648 


LIPPE 


LIQUEUR 


terised  by  the  exclusion  of  a  certain  letter,  either 
vowel  or  consonant.  The  earliest  known  author  of 
lipograniniatic  vei'se  was  the  Greek  i)oet  Livsus 
(born  53S  B.C. ) :  anil  it  is  recmiled  of  one  Tryphio- 
(lorus,  a  Gr;i'co-Ef;yptian  writer  of  the  same  period, 
that  lie  composed  an  Odyssey  in  '24  hooks,  from 
each  of  which,  in  succession,  one  of  the  letters  of 
the  Greek  alphabet  was  excluded.  Fabius  Claudius 
Gordianus  Kulgentius,  a  Christian  monk  of  the  Gth 
century,  performed  a  similar  feat  in  Latin.  In 
modern  times  tlie  Spaniards  have  been  most 
addicted  to  this  laborious  frivolity.  Lope  de  Vega 
wrote  five  novels,  from  each  of  which  one  of  the 
vowels  is  excluded  ;  and  several  French  poets  have 
also  practised  the  trick.  See  Henry  B.  Wheatley's 
book  on  Anagrams  (ISG'2). 

Lil>l)e«  or,  as  it  is  generally  called,  but  in- 
correctly, Lippe-Detmold,  a  small  principality  of 
northern  Germany,  lying  between  \Vesti)halia  on 
the  W.  and  Hanover  on  the  E.  The  Weser  touches 
it  on  the  N.  and  the  Teutoburger  Wood  crosses  it 
in  the  S.  Area,  475  .sq.  m.  :  pop.  (1875)  112,442; 
(  ISSH))  12S,4!)5,  of  whom  only  4332  were  Catholics. 
The  (iresent  constitution  of  Lippe  dates  from  1853  ; 
capital,  Detmold  (q.v.);  other  towns,  Lenigo  and 
Horn.  The  surface  is  hilly ;  woods  cover  28  per 
cent.,  and  are  well  cared  for.  The  principal  oceu]ia- 
tion  is  agriculture,  with  the  rearing  of  cattle  and 
swine.  The  products  of  these  callings,  with  tim- 
ber, salt,  meerschaum  pipes,  tobacco,  and  starch, 
are  the  chief  results  of  the  industrial  activity  ex- 
ported. Every  sjiring  some  12,000  of  tlie  inhabit- 
ants spread  themselves  over  central  Europe,  as  far 
as  south  Russia,  to  burn  bricks,  and  return  lionie 
in  the  autumn.  The  little  country  is  governed  by 
an  administrative  college,  and  a  House  of  ( twenty- 
one)  Representatives,  elected  directly  by  the  penide, 
who  are  for  that  purpose  divided  into  three  classes. 
The  piinces  of  Lipjie  belong  to  one  of  the  oldest 
sovereign  families  of  Germany,  and  can  he  traced 
back  to  the  10th  century.  The  first  who  took 
the  name  of  count  of  Lippe  was  Bernhard  in  1129. 
Tlie  family  split  into  three  branches  in  1013 — 
Lippe,  Brake,  and  Schaumburg.  The  second  of 
these  became  extinct  in  1709.  For  the  third,  see 
ScH.^lMlirKa-LlPPE.  See  historical  works  (1847- 
87)  by  Falkinann. 

Lippi,  Fra  Filippo,  commonly  known  as  Lippo 
LiPPi,  a  Florentine  painter,  was  born  in  1412  ;  but, 
losing  his  parents  whilst  still  an  infant,  he  was 
entrusted  to  the  Carmelite  friars  of  Florence  when 
only  eight  years  of  age.  In  the  story  of  his  life 
as  told  by  Vasari  there  are  several  romantic 
incidents ;  but  most  of  them  are  now  discredited, 
except  that  he  alxlucteil  Luerezia  Buti,  a  ward  or 
novice  of  the  coment  of  St  Margaret  at  Prato,  and 
afterwards  married  her.  Lippo  Lippi,  who  studied 
jirincipally  Masaccio,  (lainted  religious  subjects, 
which  he  conceived  and  designed  from  a  hiinian 
standpoint.  His  greatest  work  wjus  done  on  the 
choir  walls  of  the  cathedral  of  Prato  —illustrations 
of  the  lives  of  John  the  Baptist  and  St  Stephen. 
He  was  busy  executing  a  series  of  incidents  from 
the  life  of  the  Virgin  in  the  cathedral  ajise  at 
Spoleto,  when  death  arrested  his  hand  for  ever, 
alpout  8th  (Jctobcr  H(i9.  Besides  these  works  he 
painted  several  Madonnas  and  altarpieces.  amongst 
these  hist  one  for  the  nunnery  chapel  of  S.  Am- 
brogio,  Florence,  the  subject  of  Browning's  poem. 
Lipjio  Lippi  liad  a  staunch  patron  in  Cosinio  de' 
Mi'dici.     See  Cmwe  in  XinctceutU  Ceiitiinj,  I89G. 

His  son,  FiLlPPlNi)  Lippi,  wa.^  born  at  Florence 
in  1460,  and  educated  at  Prato.  His  artistic  style 
has  a  strong  element  of  originality,  but  also  shows 
the  influence  of  his  father  and  Botticelli.  His 
most  celebrated  frescoes  are  scenes  from  the  lives 
of  St  Peter  and  St  Paul  in  the  Brancacci  chai>el  at 


Florence  (cf.  Masaccio),  incidents  illustrating  the 
character  of  St  Thomas  Aquinas  in  the  Minerva 
church  at  Koine,  and  subjects  from  the  legends 
of  St  .lohn  and  St  Philip  in  Sta  Maria  Novella 
at  Florence.  His  best  easel-pictures  include  '  The 
Virgin  and  Saints"  (in  the  I'flizi  at  Florence),  'The 
Adoration  of  the  Magi,'  'The  Vision  of  St  Francis.' 
Filippino  died  in  April  1504  at  Florence. 

Lippincott,  Joshua  Bai.lixger,  an  American 
publisher,  was  born  of  Quaker  parents  in  Bur- 
lington,  New  Jersey,  in  181(j,  had  charge  of  a  book- 
seller's business  in  Philadelphia  from  1834  to  1831), 
when  he  founded  the  house  of  J.  B.  Lipjiincott  .S: 
Co.,  and  by  1850  was  at  the  head  of  the  bocd<- 
trade  in  Philadelphia.  He  died  January  5,  ISSfi, 
and  the  firm  was  converted  into  the  J.  B.  Lipiiin- 
cott  Company,  the  authorised  American  publishers 
of  the  present  edition  of  this  work.  Lippincott' s 
Magazine  was  established  in  IS08. 

Lippstadt,  a  town  of  Prussia,  on  the  river 
Lippe,  30  miles  E.  by  N.  from  Dortmund.  It  has 
manufactures  of  spirits,  beer,  cigars,  brushes,  ropes, 
inm,  &c.  Founded  in  1  UiS,  it  Ma-s  captured  by  the 
Spaniards  in  1620,  and  by  the  French  in  1757. 
Pop.  11,. 304. 

Lipsilis,  Richard  Adelbert,  a  great  German 
theologian,  was  born  at  Gera,  February  14,  18.'J0, 
studied  theology  at  Leipzig,  and,  after  serving  there 
as  nrivat-docent  and  professor  extraordinary,  was 
called  to  fill  a  chair  at  Vienn.a  in  1861,  at  Kiel  in 
1865,  and  at  Jena  in  1871-  He  died  19tli  August 
1S92.  Lipsius  made  contributions  of  the  greatest 
importance  to  theological  science  in  the  lields  of 
dogmatics  and  the  history  of  dogma,  the  philosophy 
of  religion,  and  New  Testament  exegesis  and  criti- 
cism. In  1875  he  founded  the  Jahrhuchcr  fin- 
Protest.  Theologie.  Among  his  books  are  O'/aiibc 
and  Lchre  (1871),  Die  Qtiellen  der  Rom.  Petrus- 
sage  (1872),  Lehrbuch  der  Evangeliscli-Protcst.  Dog- 
matik  (1876),  Die  apoknjphen  Aposte/gcschic/itcii 
itiid  Apo.itellegenden  (1883-87),  and  Philusophie 
und  Religion  (1885).— Of  his  brothei-s,  Justus 
Herm.vsn  (born  at  Leipzig,  9th  May  1834) 
is  eminent  as  a  philologist.  After  teaching 
at  Leipzig,  Meissen,  Grimma,  he  became  in  1S69 
extra-ordinary  professor  of  Classical  Philology  at 
the  university  of  Leipzig,  and  in  1S77  ordinary 
professor  of  the  same,  and  director  of  the  Russian 
l)liilological  seminary.  His  books  are  an  edition  of 
the  De  Corona  of  Demosthenes  ( 1876),  and  of  Meier 
and  Schomann's  work,  Der  Attischc  Prozess  (1883- 
85).  He  also  collaborated  with  Curtius,  Lange, 
anil  Ribbcck  in  the  well-known  Leipziger  Stiidicn, 
established  in  1878.  Their  si>tcr  >IaI!1E  (born  at 
Leipzig,  ."iOtli  December  1837)  hius  made  valuable 
contributions  to  music  ami  its  history,  under  the 
])Seudonyni  of  La  Mara,  the  most  important  being 
.Mnsil.erl.  IStudienkopfe  (5  vols.  1868-82),  Gedankcn 
lirrithmtcr  Miisiker  iibcr  Hire  Kunst  (1873),  and  a 
(Jerman  translation  of  F".  Liszt's  Chopin  ( 1880). 

Li<|lieiII*>  This  name  is  given  to  the  very 
numerous  alcoholic  preparations  which  are  flavoured 
or  perfumed  and  sweetened  to  he  more  agreealde  to 
the  taste.  Aniseed  Cordial  h  prepared  liy  flavour- 
ing weak  spirit  with  aniseed,  coriander,  and  sweet 
fennel  seed,  and  sweetening  with  linely-clarilied 
synip  of  refined  sugar.  Clove  Cordial  is  fiavourcd 
with  cloves,  bruised,  and  coloured  with  burnt 
sugar.  Kiimmel  (a  Russian  and  (Jernian  liqni'ur, 
named  from  the  German  name  of  the  herb  cumin) 
is  made  with  sweetened  spirit.  Ilavoured  with  cumin 
and  caraway  seeds,  the  latter  usually  so  strong  as 
to  conceal  any  other  flavour.  It  is  chiefly  made  at 
Riga.  Maraschino  is  distilled  from  cherries  bruised, 
but,  in.stead  of  the  wild  kind,  a  fine  delicately- 
flavoured  variety  called  Marazqnes  are  used  m 
Dalmatia.     Xoi/au,  or  Crime  de  Notjaii,  is  a  sweet 


I 


LIQUIDAMBAR 


LIQUOR    LAWS 


649 


conlial  flavoured  with  bruised  bitter-almomls.  Pep- 
ixnuiiit  is  usually  sweetened  gin,  flavoured  with 
essential  oil  of  peppermint.  Chartniise,  Ciini^oa, 
and  Kiisc/iwasscr  have  separate  articles.  Bene- 
(lietine  is  made  at  Fecamp.  Absiiit/tc  ((j.  v. )  is  not  a 
li(iueur  ;  Vcrmniith  isalcoliolised  white  wine,  aroma- 
tised  with  wormwood,  gentian,  angelica,  germander, 
and  oranges.  Clierrv  Brandy  and  Sloe  Gin  are 
sweetened  spirits  tlavoured  with  cherries  and  sloes. 

Licillidambnr,  a  genus— the  only  genus — 
<if  the  order  Altingiaceie.  They  are  tall  trees, 
reinarkable  for  their  fragrant  balsamic  products. 
L.  styraciflua,  the  American  Lic^uidambar,  or  Sweet 
Cluni  tree,  is  a  beautiful  tree  with  palmate  leaves, 
a  native  of  Mexico  and  the  United  States.  It 
grows  well  in  the  milder  parts  of  Britain.  Its 
wood  is  of  a  hard  te.\ture  and  fine  grain,  and  makes 
good  furniture.  From  ciacks  or  incisions  in  the 
bark  a  transparent,  yellowisli  balsamic  fluid  exudes, 
called  Liquid  Liqiiidambar,  Oil  of  Liquidambar, 
American  Storax,  Copahn  Balsam,  and  sometimes, 
but  erroneously,  White  Balsam  of  Peru.  It  gradu- 
ally becomes  concrete  and  darker  coloured.  Its 
l)roperties  are  similar  to  those  of  storax.  That  of 
commerce  is  mostly  brought  from  Mexico  and  New 
Orleans. — L.  oriciitale,  a  smaller  tree  with  palmate 
leaves,  is  a  native  of  the  Levant  and  of  more  eastern 
regions,  and  yields  abundantly  a  balsamic  fluid, 
which  lias  been  supposed  to  be  the  Liquid  Storax 
ini]]orte.l  from  the  Levant ;  but  on  this  point  there 
is  a  divei-sity  of  opinion. 

Liqnidation,  the  winding-up  of  any  business, 
but  applied  more  particularly  to  joint-stock  com- 
panies. The  liquidation  of  insolvent  firms  is  treated 
under  BANKRUPTCY  ;  that  of  registered  companies 
is  regulated  by  the  Companies  Acts,  which  provide 
three  modes  of  liquidation:  (1)  by  the  court,  (2) 
viduntarj-,  and  ( 3 )  subject  to  the  court's  supervision. 
Compulsory  liquidation  may  be  ordered  on  petition 
by  a  creditor  or  contributory  ;  voluntary  liquidation 
iiiay  be  resolved  upon  by  an  extraordinary  or  a 
special  resolution  of  the  shareholdei-s  ;  and  a  super- 
vision order  may  on  petition  and  cause  shown  be 
pronounced  in  a  voluntary  liquidation. 

In  any  case  the  liquidation  is  conducted  by  a 
liquidator,  who  in  court  liquidations  is  appointed 
)iy  the  court  and  called  'orticial  liquidator,'  but  in 
voluntary  liquidation  is  chosen  by  the  shareholders. 
The  liquidator's  duty  is  to  wind  up  as  speedily  as 
possible,  but  he  may  cany  on  the  business  tempor- 
arily should  that  appear  necessa-y  for  a  favourable 
realisation.  He  must  also  prepare  a  list  of  con- 
triljutories,  if  the  capital  is  not  fully  paid  uii  or  the 
company  is  unlimited.  This  list,  which  is  made  up 
from  the  register  of  shareholdei-s,  consists  of  members 
in  their  own  right  and  those  liable  as  representatives 
of  others.  In  addition  to  these,  there  is  a  list  (H) 
of  those  who  have  been  members  within  a  year  of 
the  winiling-up  and  who  are  liable,  if  the  existing 
meiiibers  are  unable  to  satisfy  the  necessary  con- 
tribution. They  can  only,  however,  be  called  upon 
to  contribute  in  respect  of  unpaid  debts  incurred 
liefore  they  cea-sed  to  l>e  members.  A  contributorj' 
cannot  set  off  a  ileht  due  to  him  by  the  company 
against  calls  by  the  liquidator  so  long  Jis  any  credi- 
tors remain  unpaid.  The  claims  are  ranke<l  and 
adjudicated  upon  very  much  a.s  in  bankruptcy,  and 
the  surplus,  if  any,  is  divideil  among  the  sliare- 
liiilders.  Unregistered  companies,  except  railway 
companies  incorporated  by  act  of  ]>arlianieiit,  may 
he  wound  up  under  the  provisions  of  the  Companies 
.\.t^. 

Li<|Uids.  See  articles  on  Boiling,  Capillaritj', 
Cohesion,  Diflusion,  Evaporation,  Heat,  Ilyilro- 
dynamics.  Hydrostatics,  Matti^r,  Melting-point, 
(.isiiiosis,  Solution,  Spheroidal  Cimdition,  Surfac(!- 
teiision,  and  Viscosity. 


Liquorice  ( Oliici/n-liiza ),  a  genus  of  perennial 

herbaceous  plants  of  the  natural  order  Leguminosw, 
sub-order  Papilionaceic,  having  long,  pliant,  sweet 
roots,  and  generally  creeping  root-stocks :  pinnate 
leaves  of  many  leaflets,  and  terminating  in  an  odil 
one  ;  flowers  in  spikes,  racemes,  or  heads  ;  a  5-cleft, 
■2-Iipped  calyx,  and  a  '2-leaved  keel.  The  ancient 
Greelv  name,  now  the  botanical  name,  signifies  xwcet 
root,  and  from  it,  by  corruption,  liquorice  and  other 
modern  names  are  derived.  The  roots  of  liquorice 
depend  for  their  valuable  |iroperties  on  a  substance 
called  Gli/ci/rr/iiziuc,  allieil  to  sugar,  yellow,  trans- 
parent, uncrystallisable,  soluble  in  both  water  and 
alcohol,  and  forming  compiniuds  both  with  acids 
and  with  bases. 
They  are  a  well- 
known  article  of 
materia  inedica, 
and  were  used  by 
the  ancients  as 
in  modern  times, 
being  emollient, 
demulcent,  very 
useful  in  catarrh 
and  irritations  of 
the  mucous  nieni- 
b  r  a  n  e.  —  The 
roots  of  the  Com- 
mon Liquorice 
{G.  f/labra)  are 
chietiy  in  use  in 
Europe.  The 

plant  has  st«nis 
3  to  4  feet  high, 
and  racemes  of 
whitish  violet- 
coloured  floweis. 
It  is  a  native  of, 
the  south  of 
Europe  and  of 
many  parts  of 
Asia,   as    far   as 

China.  It  is  cultivated  in  many  countries  of 
Europe,  chiefly  in  Spain,  ami  to  some  extent  at 
Mitchaiu  in  Surrey  and  at  Pontefract  in  Yorkshire. 
The  roots  are  extensively  employed  by  porter- 
brewers.  They  are  not  imported  into  Britain  in 
considerable  quantity,  but  the  black  inspissated 
extract  of  them  {Black  Sugar  or  Sticl:  Liquorice)  is 
largely  imported  from  the  south  of  Europe,  in  rolls 
or  sticks,  packed  in  bay-leaves,  or  in  boxes  of  about 
2  cwt.,  into  which  it  has  been  run.  Liquorice  is 
sometimes  used  in  the  manufacture  of  sweet  tobacco. 
Liquorice  is  propagated  by  slips  ;  and  after  a  planta- 
tion has  been  made  almost  three  years  must  elMise 
before  the  roots  can  be  iligged  up  for  use.  The 
whole  roots  are  then  taken  uj).  Liquorice  requires 
a  deep,  rich,  loose  soil,  well  trenched  and  manured  : 
the  roots  penetrating  to  the  ilepth  of  more  than  a 
yard,  and  straight  taproots  being  most  esteemed. 
The  old  stems  are  dearwl  ofl'  at  the  end  of  each 
season,  and  the  root-stocks  so  cut  away  as  to  prevent 
overgrowth  above  ground  next  year.  The  plant  is 
projjagated  by  cuttings  of  the  root-stocks. — The 
roots  of  the  Prickly  Liquorice  (  G.  echinata )  are  used 
in  the  same  way.  chiefly  in  Italy  and  Sicily,  liussia, 
and  the  East.— The  only  .\merican  species  is  G. 
Ic/iiilota,  which  grows  in  the  plains  of  the  Missouri. 
Liquor  Laws.  Restrictive  legislatiun  with 
reg.ird  to  the  sale  of  intoxicating  drink  is  almost 
confined  to  the  Englisli-si)eakin<'  peoples,  and  has 
been  carried  further  in  some  of  the  British  colonies 
and  in  portions  of  the  United  States  than  it  has 
gone  as  yet  in  the  United  Kingdom.  Sunday 
closing,  forexamjde,  which  is  partial  in  themolher- 
countrv,  is  very  general  in  the  ihiughter-lanils,  and 
the  principle  of  local  ojition  with  reganl  to  li(|uc 
licensing  is  widely  spread  in  the  colonies 


Liquorice  (Glycprrhiza glabra) 
a,  root. 


I  to  li(|uor 
ies,   wliilo 


650 


LIQUOR    LAWS 


LISBON 


total  prohibition  exists  in  the  state  of  Kansas  and 
in  some  otlier  Anieiican  couiniunilie.s. 

In  those  of  tlie  United  States  in  wliicli  tliere  is 
not  a  local  majority  in  favour  of  i)roluliilive  le^'is- 
lation,  the  Hijih  License  system  is  lieiiij,^  gradually 
adoiited,  with  the  eft'eet  of"  destroying  disreputable 
saloons. 

The  Dominion  of  Canada  has  a  local  ontion  law, 
under  which  the  localities  have  ])ower  by  a  bare 
majority  of  votes  to  close  without  compensation  all 
places  for  tlie  sale  of  drink.  The  act  provides  for  a 
reversal  of  the  operation  upon  a  change  of  local 
opinion,  and  while  tlie  act  has  been  largely  put  in 
force  it  has  been  snbsci|uently  suspended  in  many 
districts.  In  addition  to  this  law,  which  is  known 
as  the  Scott  Act  (1878),  and  applies  to  the  whole 
Dominion,  there  are  restrictive  laws  in  several  of 
the  jirovinces.  In  some,  as  in  Ontario,  the  maximum 
numlier  of  licenses  that  can  be  granted  is  regulated 
according  to  po])ulation,  and  sale  of  drink  is  for- 
bidden on  Saturday  evenings  as  well  as  on  Sundays. 
(Jenerally  speaking,  it  may  be  said  that  in  all  tlie 
)iro\inces  of  the  Dominion,  except  Quebec  and 
British  ('(dumbia,  there  is  a  good  deal  of  restriction, 
and  in  the  North-west  Territories  there  is  total  pro- 
hibition of  the  sale  of  alcoholic  drink — a  prohibition 
which,  however,  was  originally  imposed  by  the 
Dominion  government  for  the  jmrpose  of  preventing 
sale  of  drink  to  Indians,  but  which  has  been  con- 
tinued ill  sjiite  of  the  ]>resent  existence  of  a  very 
large  white  majority.  Throughout  the  ''reater  part 
of  Canada  two  provisions  prevail,  wliicli  exist  also 
in  many  states  of  the  American  Union  and  in  some 
of  the  Australasian  colonies.  The  one  is  that 
known  as  the  Civil  Damages  clause,  which  provides 
that  wherever  any  person  comes  to  his  death  by 
suicide  or  ollierwise  during  intoxication  the  seller 
of  the  lit[Uor  that  caused  the  intoxication  Is  liable 
to  an  action  for  damages.  The  other  is  a  provision 
that  the  relatives  of  intemperate  persons  may 
notify  sellei-s  of  drink  not  to  sell  it  to  such  jiersons, 
and  that  magistrates  may  put  such  persons  under 
notice  as  habitual  drunkanls,  to  whom  also  drink 
cannot  be  sold.  This  last  law,  with  re.gard  to 
putting  persons  under  special  prohibition,  is  being 
gradually  ado|)ted  in  all  new  liquor  acts  passed  by 
British  colonies  and  by  American  states,  nut  there 
are  considerable  variations  in  the  mode  of  ajiplica- 
tion.  In  some  cases  the  law  is  so  severe  that  both 
the  publican  and  the  habitual  drunkard  are  subject 
to  punishniont  if  the  drunkard  is  found  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  the  licensed  house.  In  certain 
colonies  and  inovinces,  in  addition  to  relatives  and 
magistrates,  ministers  of  religion  may  put  the 
law  in  force ;  and  there  is  a  general  teiulency  to 
strengthen  clauses  sharply  restricting  the  liberty 
allowed  in  the  llnited  Kingdom  for  the  consuni|i- 
tion  of  drink  by  persons  who  are  given  to  the 
immoderate  use  of  lii|Uor,  and  who,  owing  to  such 
use,  waste  their  projierty,  endanger  their  health, 
and  diniinish  the  comfort  of  those  aliout  them. 

Turning  to  the  Australasian  colonies,  Victoria 
]iossesses,  alone  among  English-speaking  countries, 
the  )irinciide  of  local  option  accKimpanied  by  com- 
pensation. New  Zealand  and  (,>uecii-laiid  pos- 
sessed in  1890,  when  South  .Australia  and  Tasmania 
were  entering  ujion,  legislation  more  similar  to  that 
of  Canada.  The  New  Zealand  act  creates  elective 
Jit^ensing  committees,  but  no  new  licen.ses  can  be 
granted  until  the  ratepayers  have  deteiniined  on  a 
poll,  by  a  bare  majority,  that  the  number  of  licenses 
may  lie  increaseil.  In  Queensland  two-tliirds  of 
the  ratepayers  in  any  locality  have  jxiwer  to  close 
all  houses,  and  a  bare  majority  jiower  to  reduce 
the  number  of  licenses  or  to  put  a  stop  to  the  issue 
of  fresh  licenses.  In  New  South  Wales  tliere  exists 
a  mild  form  of  local  ojilion  as  to  new  licenses  or  the 
increase  of  licenses,  which,  however,  can  scarcely 


he  said  to  exceed  an  expression  of  local  opinion  for 
consideration  by  the  licensing  magistrates. 

The  South  African  colonies  have  stringent  legis- 
lation, not  very  well  enforced  in  jiractice,  against 
the  sale  of  drink  to  the  aborigines,  but  interfere 
less  than  does  the  I)omiiiion  of  Canada  or  than  do 
the  Australasian  colonies  with  the  drinking  habits 
of  the  white  population. 

In  the  crown  colonies  there  is  an  extraordinary 
variety  of  legislation  upon  the  licensing  of  lumses 
for  the  sale  of  intoxicating  liquors.  In  many  there 
is  Sunday  closing,  some  imitate  the  .>^elf-governing 
colonies  in  forbidding  the  sale  of  drink  to  niincu-s, 
but  few  of  them  possess  any  form  of  local  o]ition. 
although  that  sy.stem  exists  in  sonic,  as,  for 
example,  the  liahamas. 

Throughout  Canada  and  Australia,  as  in  the 
Ihiited  States,  there  is  a  large  party  in  fa^■our  of 
total  prohibition;  and  the  example  of  the  state  of 
Kansas  is  pointed  to  as  shoving  the  ad\anta"es 
of  the  system.  On  tlie  other  liaud.  in  CMiiaila, 
Australia,  and  some  of  the  United  Slates  there  i^ 
much  evasion  of  the  present  laws  ;  and  this  evasion 
has  been  in  the  Dominion  one  of  the  chief  causes 
which  have  led  to  the  jibandonment  of  the  prohibit- 
ive provisions  of  the  Scott  Act  in  districts  where  it 
had  previously  liecn  put  in  force.  Generally  sjieak- 
ing,  however,  it  must  be  noted  that  the  tendency  of 
legislaticm  and  of  opinion  in  the  ICiiglish-speaking 
countries  is  towards  an  extension  of  the  principles 
either  of  local  option  or  of  prohibit  ^'in. 

Much  attention  has  been  called  m  iiarliamcnt  to 
the  li(jUor  question  in  India  and  Cevlon,  and  it  has 
been  asserted  (and  the  House  of  Commons,  to 
judge  by  a  vote  in  which  the  government  was  de- 
feated ill  1889,  seems  to  have  credited  the  assertion) 
that  the  Indian  government  has  tried  to  stiniiilatr 
the  sale  of  drink  among  natives  with  a  view  to 
the  improvement  of  the  revenue  ;  while  a  simihu 
.attack  lias  been  made  upon  the  ccdonial  government 
of  Ceylon.  The  Indian  government  stoutly  denies 
the  charge,  and  maintains  not  only  that  it  has  had 
no  such  intention,  but  that  the  measures  which 
have  been  taken  of  recent  v cars  are  rather  calcu- 
lated to  decrease  than  to  stimulate  the  .sale  of 
drink.  On  the  other  hand,  there  can  be  little 
doubt  that  the  sale  of  drink  in  India  has  increa.sed, 
the  government  maintaining,  however,  that  this 
has  been  only  a  consequeiure  of  a  change  in  the 
h.abits  of  the  people  and  of  the  increase  in  the  rate 
of  wages.  All  organs  of  native  o)iinioii  ajiipcar, 
nevertheless,  to  su|)))ort  the  view  taken  by  the 
majority  of  the  House  of  Commons.  Some  otlicial 
writers,"  and  others  friendly  to  the  government  of 
India,  have  argued  that  there  has  in  fact  been  no 
increase  in  the  consumption  in  India  of  intoxicating 
li(|Uois,  and  that  the  increase  shown  bv  statistics  is 
only  the  result  of  the  sujipre-ssion  of  illicit  distilla- 
tion. It  is,  however,  obvious  that,  in  face  of  the 
strong  opinion  which  exists  uiion  the  subject  in 
India  and  in  the  House  of  Commons,  government 
will  have  to  take  steps  to  check  that  consumption 
of  strong  drink  which  is  obnoxious  to  the  religious 
views  of  most  of  the  Indian  people.    See  Lli'liNsiNG 

L.\W.S,  GOTHENHURO.  TEMPER.ANCK. 

Lira  (Lat.  libra  )■     See  Fr.-VNC. 

Lil*ia<  a  town  of  Spain,  stands  on  a  fertile  plain 
14  miles  NW.  of  Valencia.     Pop.  9445. 

Lii-iodciulrou.    See  Titlip-trkk. 

Lisbon  (I'ort.  IJshmt),  cajiital  of  Portugal, 
stands  on  tlie  northern  shore  ol  the  Tagus  ( 7V7»), 
.•it  the  slioulder  of  its  bottle-shaped  bay— an  expan- 
sion of  the  river — and  9  miles  from  the  river's 
mouth;  it  is  41'2  miles  liy  rail  WSW.  of  Madrid. 
The  city  extends  for  some  7  miles  along  the  shore, 
and  climbs  up  the  slopes  of  a  low  range  of  hills, 
occupying    a  site  which  for  imposing  beauty  is 


LISBOX 


LISKEARD 


651 


surpa-sseil  by  only  two  other  cities  in  Europe — 
Constantinople  and  Naples.  The  oldest  part  of 
Lisbon  is  tliat  whioh  escaped  the  earthquake  of 
1755;  it  lies  on  the  east,  round  the  citadel,  and 
consists  of  narrow,  intricate  streets,  not  over  clean. 
It  is  still  known  by  its  Moorish  name  of  Alfania. 
The  western  portions  were  Iiuilt  after  the  eartli- 
quake,  with  wide  and  regular  streets,  fine  squares, 
and  good  houses.  The  sunnuits  are  nu)stly  crowned 
with  what  were  formerly  large  montusteries,  now 
dissolved.  The  cathedral  of  the  '  patriarch,'  built 
in  1147,  restored  after  1755,  has  a  Gothic  facade 
and  choir;  its  interior  is  gloomy.  The  large 
church  of  St  Vincent  contains  the  tombs  of  the 
royal  (Braganz.i)  family.  The  church  of  Estrella 
has  a  dome  of  white  marble,  and  is  a  reduced 
copy  of  St  Peter's  at  Rome.  In  San  Eoque 
is  a  chapel  thickly  encrusted  with  mosaics  and 
costly  marbles ;  it  was  first  erected  in  Rome,  and 
consecrated  by  the  po])e  saying  mass  in  it,  before 
it  was  set  up  in  Lisbon.  But  the  linest  structure 
in  the  city  is  the  mona-stery  and  church  of  Uelem, 
a  monument  to  the  great  seamen  of  Portugal ;  it 
was  begun  in  1500  on  the  spot  from  which  Vasco 
da  Gaiua  emliarked  ( 1497 )  on  his  momentous 
voyage.  It  is  constructed  for  the  most  ]iart  in  the 
Gothic  style,  with  an  abundance — a  superabund- 
ance— of  decorative  ornament,  and  has  magnificent 
cloisters.  Inside  the  church  aie  new  tombs  ( ISSO ) 
to  Camoens  and  Vasco  da  Gama,  and  the  grave  of 
Catharine,  wife  of  Charles  II.  of  England.  The 
monastery  is  now  used  as  an  orphanage  and  found- 
ling hos])ital.  Neither  of  the  royal  palaces,  that 
of  the  Necessities,  or  that  of  Ajuda  at  Beleni, 
possesses  features  of  great  interest.  A  fine  S(piare 
facing  the  bay  is  sunounded  with  government 
offices,  the  handsome  custom-house,  and  the  marine 
arsenal.  The  arts  and  sciences  are  not  in  a 
flourishing  condition,  notwithstanding  the  exist- 
ence of  an  academy  of  sciences  (1779),  with  a 
library  of  60,000  vols.,  an  academy  of  arts,  a 
polytechnic  school  (chiefly  fen-  the  technical 
branches  of  the  army ),  .a  medical  school,  a  con- 
servatory of  mnsic,  a  pulilic  library  of  200,000  vols. 
and  9500  M.SS.,  natural  history  and  other  museums, 
two  observatories,  &c.  There  are  also  a  military 
arsenal,  a  mint,  a  large  lazaretto,  a  military  and 
a  naval  .school,  &c.  A  magnificent  aqueduct, 
completed  in  1738,  brings  water  to  the  city  from 
springs  14  miles  to  the  north-west.  It  withstood 
the  shock  of  the  great  earthquake,  although  it 
crosses  a  valley  263  feet  above  its  lowest  point, 
and  on  thirty-five  arches,  the  longest  110  feet. 
In  the  cemetery  of  the  English  church  Fielding 
was  buried  in  1754.  The  population  of  the  city 
■Wixs  246,.S43  in  1S78;  but  the  munici]ial  boundaries 
were  enlarged  in  18S5  so  as  to  include  Belem 
and  other  suburbs,  and  in  ISOl  the  po]inlation  Mas 
308,700.  The  figures  quoted  include  :j5,000  Gallegos 
or  natives  of  Galicia,  \\  ho  serve  as  water-carrieis, 
j.ortei-s,  &e.  A  series  of  forts  protect  the  seaward 
approaches  to  the  city.  The  harbour  is  one  of  the 
finest  in  the  woild,  lieep,  well  sheltered,  and  large 
enough  to  hold  all  the  n.tvies  of  Europe.  Never- 
theless, in  1890  1900,  the  government  were  sjiending 
£2,400,00(1  in  improving  the  port,  which  is  entered 
annually  by  2.")00  to  .3000  vessels  of  about  2,000,000 
tons  burilen  (of  which  50  i)er  cent,  is  Biitish),  im- 
l>orting  i>rincipally  corn,  cotton  goods,  sugar,  fish, 
coal,  timber,  tobacco,  coffee,  and  petroleum  lo  a 
value  of  between  £5,(XK),000  and  £(i. 000,(100  a 
year.  The  exports,  whose  armual  value  mav  be 
£4.IMJ0.(P00,  embrace  wine,  cork,  fish,  cattle,  oil, 
salt,  anil  fntit.s.  Much  ol  the  total  trade  is  from 
anil  with  the  Portuguese  colonies— such  imjiorLs 
as  cocoa,  colVee,  andindia-nibber  coming  llience. 
But  the  trade  of  Lisbon  is  small  compared  with 
«•!,„.  it  wn,.  ;.,   1'.,.. r     palmy  days.     The  .share 


what  it  was  in  I'orti 


of  the  Portuguese  in  this  trade  is  exceeded  not  only 
by  the  share  of  Great  Biitain,  but  by  that  of  France 
and  that  of  tiermany.  The  nmst  important  indus- 
tries of  the  city  are  in  gold  and  silver  wares  and  in 
jewellery  ;  next  come  cotton-spinning  and  weaving, 
the  manufacture  of  silk,  hemp,  chemicals,  hats, 
boots,  tobacco,  soap,  cutlery,  and  stoneware,  and 
iron  founding. 

Lisbon  is  a  contriiction  of  Olisipo,  the  name  by 
which  the  place  was  known  when  it  was  the  caiiital 
of  the  Lusilanians  ;  it  was  also  sometimes  called 
l'lyssi|ii)o,  to  connect  it  with  a  myth  about  Ulysses. 
From  the  Romans  it  passed  to  the  Goths,  and  from 
them  was  wrested  by  the  Moors  in  71(i.  They 
called  it  El-Oslibuna,  and  kept  their  hold  of  it 
down  to  1147,  when  Alphonso  I.  of  Portugal  seized 
it  with  the  help  of  English,  Gernum,  and  Flemish 
crusaders.  In  J373  the  city  was  captured  and  in 
gre.at  part  burned  l)y  the  Castilians,  who  again 
laid  siege  to  it  eleven  years  later,  bnt  without 
success.  It  w.xs  made  the  capital  of  the  kingdom 
by  John  I.  in  1422.  In  1580  it  was  seized  by  Alva  for 
Philip  II.  of  Spain  ;  and  it  Avas  from  this  port  that 
the  '  invincible  '  Armada  set  sail.  When  the  Duke 
of  Br.a^anza  roused  his  countrymen  to  shake  otl'the 
Spanish  yoke  (1640),  he  recaptured  Lisbon,  and 
once  more  it  was  made  the  capital.  But  the  city 
was  doomed  to  misfortune  :  it  had  been  three  times 
taken  from  the  Moors  by  the  Christians  previous 
to  1147,  it  had  suffered  from  a  severe  earthquake  in 
1344,  and  had  been  visited  by  the  plague  in  1.348; 
but  the  greatest  disaster  overtook  it  on  1st  Novem- 
ber 1755,  when,  in  less  than  ten  minutes,  the 
greater  part  of  the  city  was  made  a  heap  of  ruins, 
from  .30,000  to  40,000  persons  were  killed,  and 
damage  done  to  the  extent  of  nearly  20  millions 
sterling — one  of  the  greatest  earthquake  convul- 
sions on  record,  the  shock  being  jierceptilde  in  one 
direction  as  far  as  Scotland,  in  another  at  Mitylene 
in  Asia  Jlinor,  .and  in  a  third  at  Fez  in  Morocco. 
The  French  were  in  possession  of  the  city  for  ten 
months  during  1S07-8.  The  tale  of  Lisbon's  mis- 
fortunes Avas  completed  by  a  series  of  milit.ary 
revolts  during  the  second  quarter  of  the  19th 
century,  especially  in  1831,  and  by  a  bad  attack 
of  yellow  fever  in  1859.  St  Antony  of  Padua, 
Camoens,  and  Pope  John  XXI.  were  natives  of 
Lisbon.     See  Macedo,  Guide  to  Lisbon  (1875). 

Lisbliru,  a  market-town,  partly  in  Antrim, 
partly  in  Down,  on  the  Lagan,  93  miles  by  rail  N. 
by  E.  of  Dublin  and  8  SW.  of  Belfast.  The  im- 
port.-mce  of  tlie  place  is  due  to  the  Conway  family, 
who  liuilt  a  castle  here  in  the  time  of  Charles  I. 
and  introduced  the  existing  industries.  It  is  a 
clean  and  well-ordered  town,  and  manufactures 
linens,  damasks,  muslins,  &c.,  and  has  flax-spin- 
ning and  lileaching.  Its  parish  church  is  the 
cathedral  of  Down,  Connor,  and  Dromore,  and  con- 
tains a  nu)numcnt  to  Bishoj)  Jeremy  Taylor,  who 
died  here  in  l()(i7.  Till  1885  Lishnrn  retuiiicd  one 
member  to  parliament.  Pop.  (1851)  6569;  (1881) 
10,755;  (1891)  12,2.'>0. 

LisieilX  (ancient  Aoriomar/us  Lexovioiiim),  a 
town  in  the  French  department  of  Calvados,  .30 
miles  by  rail  E.  by  S.  of  Caen.  In  the  church  of 
St  Pierre  (1045-1233;  a  cathedral  down  to  1801), 
Henry  II.  of  England  married  (1152)  Eleanor  of 
(inienne.  Lisieiix  is  the  centre  of  an  extensive 
m;iiiufacture  of  coarse  linens  {crcioiDic.i.  from  the 
original  maker),  woollens,  flannels,  cottons,  \c. 
Pop.  ( 1872)  12,520  :  ( 1891 )  16,260.  Four  miles  dis- 
tant is  Val  Richer,  where  stood  the  abbey  of  which 
Thomas  Bccket  was  first  abbot,  and  the  ruins  of 
which  were  made  into  a  summer  residence  for 
Guizot. 

Liskenrd,  a  municipal  borough  in  Cornwall, 
stands  on  steep  hills  oveilooking  the  Looe,  18  miles 


6.52 


LISLE 


\VX\V.  of  Plymouth.  It  has  manufactures  of 
leather  and  iron,  and  a  lively  trade  with  the  neij,di- 
bourini;  mines.  St  Martin's  oluirch,  Perpendicular 
in  style,  and  restored  in  1879,  is  one  of  the  largest 
in  Cornwall,  and  has  a  tower  of  the  14th  century. 
The  town-hall  (18.59)  is  a  good  Italian  building. 
A  stannary  or  coinage  town,  Liskeard  was  made  a 
free  borough  in  1250  by  Richard,  king  of  the 
Konians,  wlio  built  a  castle  here.  Till  18.32  it 
returned  two  ineinbei-s  ( Coke  and  Gibbon  the  most 
illustrious),  and  then  till  1885  one  member.  Pop. 
( 1851 )  4380  ;  ( 1881 )  4531)  :  ( 1891  )  3984.  Two  miles 
.south  is  the  spring  of  St  Keyne  (q.v.).  See  Allen's 
Hi'sfori/  of  L  hi  card  { 1856). 

Lisle*  Alicia,  the  aged  widow  of  one  of  Crom. 
well's  lords,  was  beheaded  at  Winchester  on  2(1 
September  1685  for  having  sheltered  one  Nelthrop, 
a  rebel  fugitive  from  Sedgeraoor.  Thirty-six  years 
before,  at  Charles  I.'s  execution,  she  had  said  that 
her  '  blood  leaped  within  her  to  see  the  tyrant  fall.' 

Lisle.    See  KotGET  DE  Lisle. 

Lisinore,  a  town  on  the  Blackwater,  in  Ireland, 
in  the  two  coiinties  of  Cork  and  AVaterford,  and 
43  miles  SW.  of  Waterford  city.  Tlie  cathedral, 
the  jiarish  church  since  the  see  was  united  to 
Casliel,  was  rebuilt  in  1663,  on  the  site  of  a  monas- 
tery founded  before  540,  and  a  celebrated  school 
of  learning  from  635  till  its  destruction  by  the 
Danes  in  833.  The  castle,  originally  founded  by 
John  Lackland  in  1185,  was  the  residence  of  the 
bishops  till  the  16th  century.  In  1587  it  wiis  given 
to  Sir  W.  Raleigh,  who  sold  it  to  the  '  great '  Earl 
of  Cork,  and  in  it  his  son,  Robert  Boyle  (q.v.), 
was  born.  It  was  twice  besieged  during  the  Great 
Rebellion,  and  on  the  second  occasion  (1645)  it 
yielded  to  the  parliamentary  forces.  In  1753  it 
passed  to  the  Duke  of  Devonshire.  Lismore 
returned  tw'o  members  from  Charles  I.'s  reign  to 
the  Union.     Pop.  1660. 

Lismore  (Gael.,  'great  garden'),  an  island  of 
Lorn,  Argyllshire,  in  Loch  Linnlie,  1  furlong  from 
thejnainland,  and  8  miles  N.  of  Oban.  It  rises  to 
417  feet,  and  is  lOA  miles  long,  IJ  mile  broad,  and 
6014  acres  in  area.  Besides  a  lighthouse  (1833),  it 
contains  several  interesting  remains — the  choir  of 
the  cathedral  ( 1236)  of  the  pre- Reformation  diocese 
of  Lismore  or  Argyll  (since  1749  used  as  the  parish 
church);  Achanduin  Castle,  the  residence  of  the 
bishops ;  and  Castle-Rachal,  a  Scandinavian  fort. 
Pop.  (  1831)  1790;  (1891)  561,  mostly  Gaelic  speak- 
ing.    See  also  G.\eltc  L.vsgu.vge. 

LiSSa  ( Pol.  LeszHO ),  a  town  of  Prussia,  40  miles 
S.  by  W.  of  Posen,  was  during  the  16tli  and  17th 
centuries  the  headr|uarters  of  the  Bohemian  Brethren 
in  Poland  ;  here  were  their  most  celebrated  school, 
a  seminary,  a  printing-oflice,  and  their  archives. 
The  town  grew  u[)  round  a  colony  of  that  sect,  to 
whom  the  Leszczynski  family  afforded  an  asylum 
early  in  the  16th  century.  It  wa.s  burneil  by  the 
Poles  in  16.56,  and  again  by  the  Ru.ssians  in  1707  ; 
but  is  now  a  jilaee  of  ( 1890)  13,116  inhabitants. 

Li.SSSl,  an  island  of  Dalmatia,  in  the  Adriatic 
Sea,  32  miles  SW.  of  Spalato.  It  has  an  area  of 
40  sq.  m.,  is  mountainous,  grows  good  wine  and 
olive-oil,  and  has  7871  inbaliitants — 4317  at  the 
capital,  Lissa.  The  island  was  held  by  Great 
Britain  from  1810  to  1815.  OH'  it  the  Italian  lleet 
was  defeated  bv  the  Austrians  under  TegetthoH'on 
•iOth  July  lS(i6."    See  T.VCTICS  (NaVAL). 

Lissajoiis'  Figures.    See  Solxd. 

Lister.  Joskpii,  Loud  (ere.  1897),  P.R.S. 
(from  1895),  kniglit  of  the  Prussian  order  1' our  If 
Md'itc  anil  of  other  foreign  orders,  was  born  at 
I'pton,  Essex,  5th  April  1827,  the  son  of  the 
micifwcopist  .loseph  J.  Lister,  F.R.S.  (1786-1869). 
He  graduated  at  London  University  in  arts  (1847) 


LISZT 

and  medicine  (1852),  and  became  a  Fellow  of  the 
Royal  College  of  Surgeons,  England,  in  1852,  and 
of  the  Royal  College  of  Surgeons,  Edinburgh,  in 
1855.  He  was  successively  assistant-surgeon  and 
lecturer  on  surgeiy,  Eilinburgh  :  regius  luofessor 
of  Surgery-,  Gla.sgow;  professor  of  Clinical  Surgery, 
Edinburgh ;  professor  of  Clinical  Surgery,  King's 
College  Hospital,  Loudon  (1877);  and  was  maile 
surgeon  extra-ordinary  to  the  (jueen.  In  aildition 
to  important  observations  on  the  coagulation  of  the 
blood,  the  early  stages  of  intlanimation,  and  other 
matters,  his  great  work  has  been  the  introiUiction 
of  what  is  known  a-s  the  Antiseptic  (q.v.)  .system 
of  surgery.  This  system  and  the  tlieory  upon 
which  it  is  based  are  now  almost  universally 
accepted ;  and  their  acceptance  has  in  great 
measure  revolutionised  modern  surgery,  removing 
some  of  its  most  serious  ilangers,  and  thus  greatly 
widening  its  field  of  usefulness.  Lister  has  been 
awarded  many  foreign  honours,  and  received  the 
medal  of  the  Royal  Society  in  1880,  the  prize  of 
the  Academy  of'Paris  in  1881.     He  is  LL.D.   of 


Glas; 


ow,  and  Cambridge,  and  D.C.L. 
has  written   various  papers  and 


Edinliurgh 

of    Oxford;    anc 

lectures.     He  was  made  a  baronet  in  1883. 

Listoil.  John  (1776-1846),  low  comedian, 
played  from  1805  to  1837  at  the  Haymarket,  Drmy 
Lane,  and  the  Olympic.  '  Paul  Pry  '  ( 1825 )  was  his 
most  popular  creation.  See  H.  B.  Baker,  Our  Old 
Actors  (new  ed.  1881). 

Liston.  Robert,  a  celebrated  surgeon,  was 
born  at  Ecclesniachan  manse,  near  Linlithgow,  in 
1794.  He  studied  at  Edinburgh  .and  London, 
and  settled  in  Edinburgh  in  1818  as  lecturer  on 
surgery  and  anatomy.  His  surgical  skill,  and 
the  rapidity  with  which  his  operations  were 
performed,  soon  acquired  for  him  a  European 
reputation ;  and  in  1835  he  accepted  the  invita- 
tion of  the  council  of  I'niversity  College,  Lomlon, 
to  till  the  chair  of  Clinical  Surgery.  He  soon 
acquired  a  large  London  practice;  in  1840  be  was 
elected  a  member  of  the  council  of  the  College  of 
Surgeons  ;  and  in  1846  he  became  one  of  the  Board 
of  Examiners.  In  the  veiy  climax  of  his  fame, 
he  died  7th  December  1847.  His  most  important 
works  are  Elements  of  Suri/cri/  ( 1831 )  and  Pmctieal 
Surgery  (1837).  His  uiicontrollable  temper  and 
strong  language  involved  him  in  various  (piarrels 
with  his  profession.al  brethren,  yet  he  always  suc- 
ceeded in  obtaining  the  regard  and  esteem  of  his 
pupils. 

Liszt.  Fr.\nz,  pianist  and  composer,  was  born 
at  Raiding,  in  a  Germ;iii-si)eakiiig  district  of 
Hungary,  on  October  22,  1811.  His  father,  Adani 
Liszt,  steward  of  Prince  Esterhazy's  estates,  luul 
himself  musical  gifts,  and  guided  the  precocious 
talents  of  his  son  with  great  judgment.  At  the 
age  of  nine  Franz  played  in  i)iil)lic  at  Oedenlmrg, 
and  afterwards  ;it  Presbiirg.  when  several  Hun- 
garian noblemen  offered  the  means  for  liLs  educ.it  ion, 
and  he  was  taken  to  Vienna,  where  he  studied 
under  Czerny  and  Salieri.  On  Decemlier  1,  1822,  he 
appeared  at  a  concert  there,  and  the  audience  were 
in  raiitures  with  his  playing;  April  13,  1823,  was 
the  date  of  a  memorable  concert,  after  which 
Beethoven  ascended  the  plallorm  and  kissed  the 
boy — a  reminiscence  to  which  he  always  alluded 
with  veneration.  He  proceeded  to  Paris,  and, 
though  admittance  to  the  ('(m.servatoire  wits  denied 
by  the  inllexible  Cherubini,  he  continued  his 
studies  under  Paer  and  Reicha.  "  He  soon  became 
a  favourite  in  Paris  salons,  and  made  a  tour  to 
Vienna,  Munich,  Stuttg.irt.  and  Strasburg,  with 
unmistakable  success.  He  visited  England  thrice 
in  1824-27.  but  met  with  scarcely  so  much  apiuecia- 
tion.  In  1827  his  father  died,  ami  he  entered  on  a 
He  was  repelled   by  the 


LISZT 


LITANY 


653 


then  low  estate  of  musical  art  and  artists,  and  his 
stronj;  religious  feelintjs  drew  him  towards  tlie 
church.  He  was  also  fascinated  by  Saint  Sinion- 
ianism,  and  at  intervals  the  attractions  of  the 
world  influenced  him  strongly.  In  18.S1  he  heard 
Paganini,  and  was  lired  by  the  resolve,  which  he 
carried  to  triumphant  issue,  to  become  the  Paga- 
nini of  the  pianoforte.  He  became  intimate  with 
most  of  the  great  /ittfrateiirs  then  in  Paris,  more 
especially  with  Lamennais,  Lamartine,  Victor 
Hugo,  and  Geor™  Sand,  who  exercised  a  marked 
influence  upon  liim,  as  did  also  Chopin.  From 
1835  to  1845  dates  his  relationshi])  with  the 
Countess  d"Agoult  (q.v. ),  known  in  literature  as 
Daniel  Stern,  who  bore  him  three  children,  one 
of  whom,  Cosima,  became  the  wife  of  Von  Billow, 
and  subsequently  of  Kichard  ^Vaguer.  The 
enthusiasm  which  his  playing  e.xcited  in  Paris,  as 
elsewhere,  has  been  graphically  depicted  by  Heine. 
In  1849,  at  the  height  of  j)opularity,  he  retired  to 
AVeimar  to  diiect  tlie  opera  and  concerts,  and  to 
devote  his  time  largely  to  composition  and  teach- 
ing. Here  he  brouglit  out  remarkable  works  denied 
a  hearing  elsewhere — e.g.  Wagner's  Lohengrin  and 
Berlioz's  Bcnvetutfo  Cellini;  and  the  little  town 
became  the  centre  of  musical  life  in  Germany. 
Here,  too,  commenced  the  close  relationship  with, 
and  incalculable  services  rendered  to,  "Wagner. 
In  1861  he  resigned  his  appointment,  and  Ids  life  was 
subsequently  diviiled  mainly  between  Weimar, 
Rome,  and  Budapest,  in  which  latter  city  he  was  in 
1870  appointed  president  of  the  Academy  of  Music. 
In  1865  he  received  minor  orders  in  the  Church  of 
Rome,  and  was  afterwards  known  as  Abbe.  The 
record  of  his  visit  to  London  in  1886  is  that  of  a 
triumphal  progress.  His  influence  was  irresistible. 
Passing  through  Paris,  he  travelled  to  Baireuth, 
where,  after  attending  several  of  the  festival  per- 
formances, he  was  attacked  by  hopeless  illness, 
and  breathed  hLs  last  on  July  31,"  1886. 

All  things  considered,  he  may  be  regarded  as 
at  the  time  the  foremost  figure  in  the  musical 
world.  As  a  pianist  he  was  simply  unapproach- 
able ;  he  exercised  a  charm  bordering  on  the 
fabulous.  HLs  supreme  command  of  technique  was 
forgotten  by  hearers  in  admiration  of  the  poetic 
qualities  of  his  playing.  That  he  Avas  equally 
unique  as  a  teacher  is  amply  evident  from  the  en- 
thusiastic veneration  of  his  pupils,  among  whom 
are  many  of  the  greatest  living  masters  of  the 
pianoforte.  His  literary  works  on  music,  though 
rather  rhapsodical,  are  of  real  value  ;  they  include 
monographs  on  Chopin  and  Franz,  and  a  volume 
on  the  music  of  the  (Jypsies.  His  influence  in 
bringing  to  a  hearing  some  of  the  gi'eatest  works  of 
other  musicians  was  invaluable.  As  a  composer 
there  is  some  difficulty  as  yet  in  properly  estimating 
his  work.  His  transcriptions  for  the  [)iano,  at 
leiist  the  livter  ones,  are  universally  considered  the 
finest  ever  made ;  his  Hungarian  rhapsodies  may 
be  deeme<l  the  highest  reacli  of  this  form  of  com- 
position. His  pianoforte  works  are  of  enormous 
numlier,  and  not  yet  completely  known.  All  his 
original  works  have  a  very  distinct,  sometimes  a 
very  strange  individuality.  He  has  the  merit  of 
creating,  in  his  twelve  synirihonic  poems,  a  new 
form  of  orchestral  music.  Their  most  distinctive 
features  are  the  carrying  out  of  a  dehnite  'pro- 
gramme,' and  the  VVagnerian  use  of  the  ieit- 
viotiv,  by  which  unitv  is  given  to  the  whole  i)iece. 
One  or  two  masses,  the  'Legend  of  St  Elizaoeth,' 
and  a  few  other  works,  embody  his  religious 
a-spiratioiis,  Avitli  reverence  for  old  forms.  His 
songs  have  a  peculiar  charm.  As  a  man  he 
])Os.se.-i.sed  a  most  striking  personality,  and  exer- 
cised a  powerful  fa-scination  on  all  who  came  in 
contact  with  him.  To  call  his  generosity  princely 
is  to  do  houour  to  the  title.     The  whole  proceeds 


of  every  one  of  his  concerts  subsequent  to  1847, 
which  must  have  amounted  to  an  enormous  sum, 
were  devoted  to  the  benefit  of  othere. 

See  his  Letters  ( trans.  1894 ) ;  the  Lives  by  Miss  Ka- 
mann  (2  vols.  I.eip.  1880-93,  trans.  1882),  Nohl  (trans. 
Chicago,  1884),  M.irtin  (1886),  Uu  Beaufort  (1886),  and 
A.  GoUerich  ( Leip.  1888):  the  Eecolkctions  (1888)  of 
iliss  Janka  AVohl ;  and  the  Corre^yjondencef  lS41-t>lt 
betireen  Ww/nfr  and  Liiszt  (£ng.  trans,  by  F.  Hueffer,  2 
vols.  1888)." 

LitHIiy  (Gr.  litaneia,  'supplication'),  a  form 
of  prayer  in  which  the  same  thing  is  repeated 
several  times  at  no  long  intervals.  Hence  in  Latin 
the  word  is  always  used  in  the  plural,  litaniw. 
The  common  formula,  Kijrie  ctei.mn,  Chriatc 
cici.ion,  Kyrie  cleison — 'Lord,  have  mercy  upon  us 
— Christ,  have  mercy  upon  us — Lord,  have  mercy 
upon  us' — is  the  simplest  ('lesser')  litany.  The 
word  may  be  properly  applied  to  the  forms  common 
among  the  Eastern  Christians  at  different  points 
during  the  celebration  of  the  eucharist  ( see  LITURGY) 
and  other  services,  in  which  the  deacon  recites 
a  number  of  short  supplications,  and  the  jjeople 
reply  after  each  ' Kyric  elcison.'  This  practice 
formerly  existed  in  the  West  at  the  commencement 
of  the  liturg\- :  it  is  still  preserved  in  the  Ambrosian 
rite  during  Lent ;  and  the  ninefold  Kyric  of  the 
Roman  rite  is  merely  a  sun-iWng  remnant  of  the 
same  thing,  the  responses  having  been  presened, 
although  the  prayers  have  been  dropped.  Owing 
to  the  litany  being  a  form  of  public  prayer 
specially  adapted  for  and  used  in  public  processions, 
the  word  litaneia  has  now  obtained  among  the 
Greeks  the  secondaiy  and  technical  meaning  of  a 
procession,  and  the  word  regularly  applied  by  them 
to  the  forms  of  united  jjrayer  conducted  by  the 
deacon  is  ektene. 

In  the  Latin  churches  the  word  litany  is  now 
used  to  indicate  a  special  service  or  form  of  suppli- 
cation of  medie\  al  origin,  in  which,  after  the  simple 
Kijrie  and  the  invocation  of  Christ  and  of  the  Holy 
Trinity,  follows  a  very  long  string  of  saints'  names, 
each  followed  by  the  response  '  Pray  for  us  ;'  then 
a  series  of  clauses  naming  difl'erent  evils,  and  a 
series  of  adjurations  based  on  events  in  the  life  of 
Christ,  both  followed  in  every  instance  by  the 
response  '  Deliver  us,  O  Lord  ; '  and  next  a  series 
of  supplications,  beginning  '  That  it  may  please 
Thee,'  to  all  of  which  the  response  is  'We  beseech 
Thee,  hear  us.'  After  this  comes  the  triple  invoca- 
tion of  Christ  as  the  Lamb  of  God,  tlie  simple 
Kyrie  again,  the  Lord's  Prayer,  Psalm  Ixx.,  a 
series  of  pieces  of  an  intercessory  character,  and  a 
very  large  number  of  prayers  or  collects.  It  may 
be  observed  that  in  the  medieval  editions  the 
names  of  local  saints  are  generally  found  mingled 
with  the  others.  According  to  the  present  Roman 
nile  the  use  of  the  litany  is  only  absolutely 
commanded  upon  the  Monday,  Tuesday,  and 
Wednesday  before  Ascension  Day,  when  a  \>\n 
cession  is  made  to  implore  a  blessing  tipon  the 
fniits  of  the  earth,  and  which  are  thence  called 
Rogation  (or  'asking')  Days,  and  upon  St  Mark's 
Day  ( April  25 ),  when  a  procession  is  made  to  pray 
for  public  health  during  what  is  in  the  south  an 
unhealthy  jiart  of  the  year.  The  litany  is,  how- 
ever, ordered  ujion  nearly  every  occasion  of  public 
supplication,  such  as  war,  famine,  pestilence,  &c. , 
and  is  subject  to  great  alterations,  especially 
after  the  Lord's  Prayer,  to  meet  the  special 
occasions.  It  is  also  used  on  all  si)ecial  occasions, 
such  as  ordinations,  consecrations,  iSjc,  with  special 
alterations,  and,  in  an  abridged  form,  before  the 
Mass  on  the  eves  of  Ejuster  ami  Pentecost. 

The  form  of  the  litany  used  by  Anglicans  i-. 
a  translation  of  the  pro-Keformarion  one,  but 
extremely  free.  The  invocations  of  saints  and  the 
psalm  are  entirely  omitted.     Its  use  is  prescribed 


654 


LITCHI 


LITHOGRAPHY 


upon  all  SimJays,  AVednesilays,  and  Fridays,  when 
it  is  used  either  as  a  special  service  or  apneiuled  to 
morning  prayer.  It  is  also  used  at  ordinations. 
It  does  not  possess  the  same  elasticity  as  the 
Roman  for  adaptation  to  ditl'erent  occasions. 

It  may  be  worth  adding  that  in  the  Latin 
churches  there  are  also  two  other  litanies,  the  use 
of  which  is  permitted  in  jiuhlic  worship,  but  which 
do  not  fin-m  any  part  of  the  church  service.  Both 
begin  like  the' litany  proper.  The  first  is  called 
that  of  the  Holy  Name  ( or  sometimes  '  of  Jesus  ' ). 
In  this  the  invocation  of  the  Trinity  is  immediately 
succeeded  Ijy  a  lon^  series  of  invocations  of  Christ 
under  dili'erent  titles  (such  as  'Jesus,  Good 
Shepherd,'  'Jesus,  King  of  all  the  Saints'),  with 
the  constant  response  '  Have  mercy  upon  us.'  The 
other  litany  is  called  that  of  the  Blessed  Virgin 
( or  .sometimes  'of  Loretto').  In  it  the  invocation 
of  the  Trinity  is  succeeded  by  a  series  of  titles 
addressed  to  the  Blessed  Virgin. 

There  are  also  a  v.ast  variety  of  other  so-called 
litanies,  mostly  of  French  origin,  and  generally 
designed  to  invoke  some  particular  saint  under  "a 
string  of  complimentary  epithets,  on  the  model  of 
the  litany  of  the  Blessed  Virgin.  Their  public  use  is 
prohibited,  and  there  is  no  more  guarantee  of  tlieir 
doctrinal  soundness  than  may  attach  to  the  approval 
of  any  bishop  given  to  the  book  of  prayers  for  per- 
sonal use  in  which  they  may  happen  to'be  found. 

Litclli,  or  Lke-chee  (Xephelium  Li-tchi),  one 
of  the  most  delicious  fruits  of  China,  Cochin-China, 
and  the  Malay  Archipel.igo.  The  tree  which  pro- 
duces it  belongs  to  the  natural  order  Sapindacea?, 
and  has  pinnate  leaves.  The  fruit  is  of  the  size  of 
a  small  walnut,  and  grows  in  racemes.  It  is  a  red 
or  laeen  berry,  with  a  thin,  tough,  leathery,  scaly 
rind,  and  a  colourless,  semi-transparent  pulp,  in  the 
centre  of  which  is  one  large  dark-brown  seed.  The 
pulp  is  slightly  sweet,  subacid,  and  verv  grateful. 
The  Chinese  preserve  the  fruit  by  drying,  and  in 
the  drieil  state  it  is  imported  into  Britain. 

Literary  Fund,  Royal,  was  founded  in  1790 
by  David  Williams,  an  ex-dissenting  minister,  the 
friend  of  Franklin,  Mackintosh,  &c.,  and  was  in- 
corporated in  181S,  its  object  being  to  relieve 
literary  men  of  all  nations.  In  1889  grants  to  the 
amount  of  £'209.5  were  made  to  forty  authors. 
From  1790  till  1889  a  sum  of  £109,000  has  been 
thus  distributed.  The  expenditure  is  met  by  the 
subscriptions  at  the  anniversary  dirmer,  and  invest- 
ments ;  the  income  was  £.3850  in  1889. 
Litharge.    See  Lk.\ii. 

LitllUfOW,  AViLLl.v.M,  Scottish  traveller,  was 
born  at  Lanark  in  1.58'i.  He  had  already  visited 
the  Shetlands,  Bohemia,  Switzerlaiul,  \-c. ,  when, 
in  1010,  he  set  out  from  Paris,  by  way  of  Italy  and 
(ireece,  to  Palestine  and  Egypt,  i)erforming  most  of 
this  and  his  subse<iuent  journeys  on  foot.  His 
second  tramp  led  him  through  North  Africa  from 
Tunis  to  Fez  and  back,  and  home  by  way  of  Hun- 
gary and  Poland.  In  his  third  and  last  journey 
( 1U19-'21 )  to  Spain  ciA  Ireland,  be  was  seized  as  a 
spy  at  Malaga,  tortured  both  by  his  jailers  and  by 
in(|uisitors,  and  only  released  through  the  agency 
of  the  English  consul.  After  he  returned  to  Lon- 
don he  became  an  object  of  commiseration  to  the 
king  and  las  court,  (iondomar,  the  Spanish  am- 
bas.sadiir,  promised  him  reparation,  but  contented 
himself  witli  promising.  So  Lithgow  assaulted,  or 
by  another  account  was  as.saulted  by,  him  in  the 
king's  ante-room,  for  which  he  was  clapt  into  the 
.Marshalsea.  He  died  at  Lanark,  perhaps  in  164."). 
His  enphuistic  but  most  interesting  liarc  Ai/rcii- 
turcx  uiiil-Frtine/iil  J'crii/i-iii(i/in>i)i  was  published  in 
a  complete  form  in  1032  (  l'2th  eel.  1814),  though  an 
incomplete  version  came  out  in  1014.  IJesides  this 
he  wrote  accounts  of  T/ie  iSiegc  of  Breda  (1637)  and  ! 


the  Siec/e  nf  Newcastle  ( 1645  ;  new  ed.  1820),  i'oc;,,,- 
(ed.  by  James  MaidTneut,  186.3),  and  other  works. 

Lithic  Acid.  See  Vmr  Acni.—Lithir  Acid 
I)ti(tlicsis  is  the  term  enijiloyed  in  medicine  to 
designate  the  condition  in  which  there  is  an  excess 
of  lithic  (or  uric)  acid,  either  free  or  in  combina- 
tion, or  both,  in  the  Urine  (q.v.). 

LitllillUI  (.syni.  Li:  equiv.  70;   sp.  gr.   0-59:iG) 
is  the  metallic  base  of  the  alkali  lilliia,  and  derives 
its  name  from  the  Greek  word  lithus,  'a  stone.'     It 
was  discovered    by   Arfvedson    in   1817    in    some 
Swedish   minerals;    but  since  the  introduction  of 
spectroscopic    research    it   has    been    found    to    be 
widely  ])rescnt  in  many  mineral  waters,  in  the  a.>h  of 
plants,  Ac.    The  metal  is  of  a  white,  silverv  appear- 
ance, and  is  much  harder  than  .sodium  or  pota.ssium, 
but  softer  than  lead.     It  admits  of  being  welded  at 
oidinary   temperatures,  and  of  being  drawn   out 
into  wire,  which,  however,  is  inferior  in  tenacity  to 
leaden  wire.     It  fuses  at  356°  (180'  C).     It  is' the 
lightest  of  all   known   solids,  its  .specific  gravity 
being  little  more  than  half  that  of  water  ;  it  decom- 
poses water  at  ordinaiy  temperatures.      It  buins 
with  a  brilliant  light  iii  oxygen,  chlorine,  and  the 
vapours  of  iodine  and  bromine.    It  is  easily  reduced 
from  its  chloride  by  means  of  a  gahanic  battery. 
When  lithium  is  burned  in  air  it  forms  an  oxide, 
lithia,  Li„0,  along  with  a  trace  of  a  higher  oxide. 
This   o.xide,   when    treated   with   water,     yields  a 
hydrate,   LiOH,    having   alkaline    properties    and 
resembling  soda  and  jiotash.     Lithia  forms  a  series 
of  salts  (carbonate,  chloride,  citrate,  &c.)  analogous 
to  the  potash  and  soda  salts,  and  all  of  these,  when 
placed  in  the  tlame  of  a   Bun.sen  burner  and  ex- 
amined with  the  spectro.scope,  show  characteristic 
red  bands  by  which  their  presence  can  always  be 
asceitained. 

In  medicine  the  salts  of  lithia  hold  a  high  jdace 
as  solvents  of  uric  acid.  The  carbonate  an<l  citrate 
are  used  for  this  purpose,  and  are  said  to  be  much 
more  efficient  in  cases  of  gout  and  gravel  than  the 
potash  salts. 

LitilOgraphy  (Gr.  llthos,  'a  stone,'  and 
ijniji/ic/ii,  'to  write'),  the  art  of  printing  from 
stone,  and  one  of  the  most  important  of  the  repro- 
ductive arts,  was  invented  in  1796  by  Aloys  Sene- 
fehler  ( 1771-1834).  In  thatyeara  piece  of  music— 
Senefelder's  first  work— was  piintcd  from  the  stone, 
and  in  1800  he  ])atented  his  invcnti(m  in  Bavaria, 
most  of  the  German  states,  and  Austria.  After- 
wards he  opened  establishments  in  London  and 
Paris,  Ijut  did  not  succeed  \cry  well.  The  great 
secrecy  and  jealousy  with  which  the  new  art  was 
guarded  by  its  patentees  pre\ented  progress  being 
made,  and  it  was  not  till  many  years  afterwards 
that  their  complicated  manipulation  became  suf- 
ficiently simplified  for  the  rapid  advance  which 
tlien  became  possible.  Senefelder,  on  whom  the 
king  of  Bavaria  settled  a  iiensicm,  lived  to  .see  his 
invention  brought  to  complete  perfection. 

The  principles  on  which  lithography  is  founded 
are  ( 1 )  the  strong  adhesion  of  greasy  substances 
to  calcareous  stone  ;  (2)  the  atfinity  of  one  greasy 
body  for  another,  and  their  antipathy  to  water"; 
(3)  the  facility  with  which  calcareous  stone  imbibes 
water.  It  follows  that,  if  a  greasy  line  be  drawn 
on  a  prepared  stone,  its  adhcsicui' is  such  that  it 
can  only  be  erased  by  entirely  removing  the  surface 
of  the  stone  so  far  a,s  the  grease  has  |)enetrateii. 
If  water  be  i)Ut  on  the  surface  of  the  stone  it 
remains  on  those  parts  not  covered  with  grea.se  ;  a 
roller  charged  with  greasy  ink  may  then  be  passed 
over  the  stone,  the  ink  ailhcring'  to  the  greased 
portions,  while  the  parts  wet  with  water  will  repel 
the  ink  and  reniain  clean.  A  iiicce  of  |i,iper  jmt  on 
the  stone,  if  pressure  be  applied,  will  receive  an 
imi)re»sion  in  ink  of  the  greasy  line.     The  covering 


LITHOGRAPHY 


Gj5 


of  tlie  stoue  witli  a  solution  of  gum-arabic  (to  be 
afterwards  described)  is  an  almost  indispensable 
aid  to  the  water  in  resistint;  the  ink. 

There  are  various  methods  employed  in  litho- 
{rniphy — drawing  on  stone  with  pen  or  brush  with 
liijuid  ink  ;  ilrawing  on  paper,  and  transferring  to 
stone  :  engraving  on  stone  ;  drawing  on  stone  with 
crayons  or  solid  ink,  transferring  from  en;rrave<l 
plates  or  woodcuts,  &c.  These  ditter  only  in  the 
manner  of  api)lying  the  greased  drawinjjs  to  the 
surface  of  the  stone.  The  printing  from  them  is  in 
nearly  all  cases  identical. 

'The  Stones. — The  immense  quarries  of  Solenhofen 
in  Bavaria  furnish  the  best  stones ;  others  of 
inferior  quality  are  obtained  in  France  and  Italy. 
The  stones  are  composed  of  lime,  clay,  and  sili- 
ceous earth,  and  are  of  various  hues,  from  a 
pale  yellowish-white  to  a  liglit  butt',  reddish,  pearl- 
gray,  blue,  and  greenish  colour.  Tho.se  of  a  vini- 
form  gray  colour  are  the  best.  They  are  found  in 
beds,  commencing  with  Layers  of  the  thickness  <>t 
paper  :  the  thickness  required  for  printing-stones 
i)eing  from  alxiut  2  to  4  or  5  inches.  When  in 
the  quarry  they  are  soft  and  easily  cut  to  any 
required  size.  They  are  afterwards  ground  face  to 
face  with  sand  and  water,  and  when  quite  level 
polished  with  pumice-stone,  and  tinally  with 
smooth  polishing  stoue.  Sheets  of  zinc  faced  A\-ith 
thin  coatings  of  artificial  stone  have  been  intro- 
duced, Init  not  as  yet  with  nuich  success. 

The  writing  and  drawing  inks  and  crayons 
are  composed  of  lard,  hard  soap,  wliite  wax, 
shell-lac,  Venetian  turpentine,  carbonate  of  soda, 
and  Paris  black.  The  proportions  used  and  the 
methods  of  manufacture  vary  considerably.  All 
descriptions  can  be  purchased  ready  prepared. 
The  greasy  ingredients  are  the  important  parts ; 
the  black  is  only  added  to  enable  the  artist  to  see 
the  effect  he  is  producing  as  he  goes  on. 

Writing  or  drawintf  on  stoue  is  performed  with  a 
fine  pen  or  brush,  or  a  niling  pen  lor  straight  lines. 
The  ink  is  rubbed  down  witn  a  little  water  and 
under  gentle  heat,  in  the  same  manner  as  China  ink, 
and  the  subject  may  be  traced  as  for  a  drawing 
on  paper.  Great  care  is  necessary  in  handling  the 
stone,  as  its  affinity  for  grease  is  so  keen  that  a 
finger-mark  would  develop  into  a  black  blot  in 
printing.  When  the  drawing  is  finished  it  is 
covered  over  with  a  solution  of  gum-arabic  in 
water.  This  gumming  fills  up  the  pores  of  the 
st(me  on  the  undrawn  parts,  and  prevents  the 
greasy  lines  of  the  drawing  from  spreading.  The 
stone  is  then  removed  to  tlie  printing-press  and 
prepared  for  printing.  The  giim  is  fii-st  washed  oH' 
with  clean  water,  enough  remaining  in  the  pores  of 
the  stone,  however,  to  assist  the  water  to  resist 
the  ink  in  the  subsequent  printing.  The  stone  is 
then  damped  with  a  canvas  cloth,  and  a  roller 
(made  of  wood  or  iron,  covered  with  one  or  two 
thicknesses  of  llannel  and  an  outer  covering  of  fine 
leather)  charged  with  printing-ink  is  passed  over 
the  stone  till  ever}'  part  of  the  drawing  is  thoroughly 
inked.  Any  accidental  grease  or  finger-marks  will 
now  become  vLsible,  and  must  be  removed  with 
acid,  scraping  with  a  knife,  or  ])olishing  with 
polishing  stone.  When  the  drawing  is  made  satis- 
factory the  stone  Ls  washed  over  with  a  weak 
.solution  of  nitric  acid  in  gum-water.  This  etching, 
as  it  is  called,  is  a  very  important  operation.  If 
applied  too  strong  the  acid  would  remove  the  draw- 
ing completely  from  the  stone  ;  but  when  diluted  to 
the  pr(ii>er  strength  it  gently  eats  away  the  surface 
of  tlie  bare  parts  of  the  stone,  opening  up  the  pores 
fur  the  better  ri<'e|>tion  of  the  gum  to  be  afterwards 
applied,  thoroughly  cleans  it  from  greiusesoils,  and 
sliar|)ens  the  lines  of  the  drawing.  When  the 
stone  is  sntficiently  etched  the  .acid  is  washed  oil' 
a!id  another  coating  of  jrniii  .ipplied  :  when  this  is 


dry  it  is  again  washed  oft",  and,  usually,  to  clean 
the  stone  from  the  dmwing-ink,  the  surface  is 
washed  with  turpentine.  For  all  that  can  be  now 
seen  on  the  stone  the  work  is  quite  lost ;  but  it 
is  only  the  black  ink  that  is  washed  oil':  the  grease 
lines  are  in  the  stone,  wliich  is  all  that  is  necessary. 
The  stone  is  now  damjicd  with  a  cloth  and  inked 
with  a  roller  till  all  the  drawing  is  black  again  :  a 
piece  of  paper  is  placed  on  the  top,  passed  through 
the  press,  and  when  taken  oil'  has  received  an 
impression  of  the  drawing.  The  damiiing  and 
inking  is  repeated  for  every  impression,  and  when 
the  stone  is  put  away  or  left  for  a  time  it  is,  for 
preservation,  covered  with  the  indispensable  gum, 
which  is  again  washed  off  when  printing  is  resumed. 
The  ink  for  black  printing  is  composed  of  Paris 
black,  ground  up  with  varnish  made  from  boiled 
linseed-oil. 

Writings  and  drawings  made  on  prepared  paper 
and  transfeiTcd  to  stone  for  printing  are,  perliaps, 
the  most  important  items  in  general  litliograpliic 
work.  The  transfer  paper  is  prepared  on  one  side 
with  a  coating  of  isinglass,  Hake-white,  and  gam- 
boge, and  afterwards  smoothed  by  passing  several 
times  through  a  press  over  a  heated  stone.  The 
writing  or  drawing  is  made  on  this  preparation  with 
a  pen  or  fine  bnish  with  the  lithographic  transfer 
ink,  and  when  finished  is  transferred  to  the  stone 
in  the  following  manner.  The  paper  is  put  for  a 
few  minutes  between  ilamped  blotting-paper.  A 
warmed  polished  stone  is  put  in  the  press,  the 
paper  is  placed  with  the  coated  side  upon  it,  and 
passed  several  times  through  the  press,  after  which 
the  paper  is  damped  with  water  and  gently  rubbed 
with  the  fingers  till  it  comes  easily  off,  leaving  the 
drawing  adliering  to  the  stone.  The  stone  is 
gummed  over  and  proceeded  with  as  already 
described.  After  the  first  inking-up,  and  before 
etcliinw,  any  defects  in  the  transfer  can  be  touched 
up  witli  a  pen  or  brush.  In  France  and  some  other 
countries  this  cla.ss  of  work,  however,  is  generally 
either  directly  drawn  or  engraved  on  the  stone. 

Fresh  impressions  of  lithographs,  of  engravings 
on  wood,  steel,  or  copper,  and  of  letterpress  may  be 
transferred  to  and  printed  from  the  stone  by  the 
above  process,  the  paper  used  being  prepared  with 
a  special  composition,  and  the  ink  a  mixture  of  the 
writing  and  priming  inks.  Many  subjects,  such 
as  music  titles,  \c.,  are  engraved  cheaply  on  zinc, 
e.vpressly  to  be  transferred  to  stone.  When  the 
design  is  small  and  required  in  large  numbers,  it 
may  be  transferred  many  times  on  one  stone, 
and  many  printed  on  one  sheet  of  paper  at  every 
impre.ssion. 

Engraving  on  stone,  so  called,  is  another  method 
of  putting  a  drawing  on  stone,  and  is  as  follows. 
A  polished  stone  is  covered  with  a  coating  of  gum 
slightly  coloured ;  this  is  afterwards  roughly 
washed  off,  leaving  only  a  very  thin  film  of  the 
gum,  wliich  can  be  easily  cut  thnmgh.  On  this 
ground  the  drawing  is  executed  with  etching-jioints 
of  diamond  and  steel  of  various  breadths,  exactly 
its  in  etching,  the  surface  of  the  stone  being  cut 
through  the  gum  in  making  the  lines.  When  the 
drawing  is  finished  any  greasy  matter  is  rubbed  into 
the  lines  and  allowed  to  remain  an  hour  or  two  till 
the  stone  has  imbibed  enough  at  the  lines.  The 
gum  is  then  washed  oil',  and  the  stone  damped  and 
inked  and  proceeded  with  as  above,  except  that 
engraved  stones  are  generally  inked  with  a  dauber 
— i.e.  a  i)iece  of  wood  covered  with  one  or  two 
pieces  of  llannel,  with  which  the  ink  is  nilibed  into 
the  lines. 

The  following  modification  of  this  process  is  very 
useful  when  a  photograph  or  ilrawmg  has  to  be 
copied  in  line  for  the  stone.  A  thin  sheet  of 
gelatine  is  placed  over  the  subject  to  be  copieil, 
and,  it  being  transparent,  a  careful  ilrawing  nmy 


656 


LITHOGRAPHY 


LITHOMARGE 


be  made  on  it  with  etching-points.  M'hen  linisheil, 
lithogiapliic  ink  is  rubbed  into  tlie  lines  and  the 
fielatine  placed  on  the  stone  and  the  drawing' 
transferred  by  passing  tlirougli  the  press.  The 
weak  point  of  tliis  process  is  that  the  gehitine 
is  apt  to  warp  on  the  stone  and  spoil  the  transfer  ; 
in  which  case  the  drawing  is  lost. 

Clwll;-iliaivi>i{is  were,  before  the  invention  of  the 
steam  lithographic  press,  and  still  on  rare  occasions 
are,  drawn  on  grained  stones.  The  giain,  coaree  or 
line  as  required,  is  imparted  to  the  stone  by  grind- 
ing with  sand  of  varying  degrees  of  fineness.  The 
drawing  is  made  on  the  stone  with  lithographic 
crayons  in  the  same  manner  a-s  the  ordinary  draw- 
ing clialUs  on  ordinary  crayon-paper;  when  linished 
it  is  proceeded  with  as  before.  Very  beautiful 
work  can  be  jiroduced  in  this  way  ;  bnt  as,  owing 
to  various  causes  which  are  too  technical  for  mir 
space,  the  grained  stone  cannot  be  printed  at  the 
steam-machine,  and  hand-press  printing  is  too  ex- 
jiensive  for  modern  requirements,  such  woik  is  now 
almost  invariably  executed  by  the  f/raiticd-pupcr 
process.  A  sheet  of  copper  or  other  metal  is 
grained  on  the  surface  by  aijuatint,  stipple,  or 
ruling-machine  ;  paper,  coated  with  a  white  trans- 
ferring ground,  is  passed  tlirough  a  press  on  the 
face  of  the  prepared  plate,  becomes  impressed 
with  the  grain,  and  may  be  drawn  on  with  litho- 
graphic chalks  in  the  same  way  as  a  grained 
stone.  This  drawing  is  transferred  to  a  Jfat  or 
polished  stone  in  the  same  manner  as  writing  or 
pen  drawing,  and  printed  in  any  lithograi)hic  ])ress. 
Very  good  work  is  produced  by  this  process,  l)ut  the 
result  of  the  somewhat  artificial  grain  of  the  copper- 
jilate  is  inferior  to  the  beautiful  grain  of  the 
ground  stone.  In  the  United  States  drawings  are 
made  on  grained  stones  and  impressions  trans- 
ferred to  Hat  stones  for  printing  ;  but  this  process 
has  not  found  much  fa\'our  in  Great  Britain. 

Photo- lil/io(/r(iph)j  Is  a  very  useful  method  of  re- 
])roducing  in  any  size,  for  stone  printing,  exist- 
ing drawings,  such  as  architects'  plans,  maps,  &c. 
A  photo-negative  of  the  required  size  is  taken 
from  the  drawin"  to  be  reproduced,  and  is  exiioscd 
to  light  over  a  tliin  film  of  bichromatised  gelatine 
on  paper.  The  paper,  after  being  soaked  in  water, 
which  takes  out  the  bichromate  unaltered  by  the 
liglit,  is  stretched  on  a  sheet  of  glass  and  carefully 
inked  with  a  velvet  roller.  The  ink  only  adheres 
to  the  ])arts  rendered  insoluble  by  the  light,  anil 
which  have  remaineil  dry  during  the  soaking,  and 
leaves  the  solulile  parts,  which  are  wet,  quite  clean. 
This  is  transferred  to  stone  in  the  ordinary  manner. 

C'hro»ii>ltt/ioi/rap/ii/  in  the  most  beautiful  of  all 
the  methods  of  printing  from  stone.  The  object 
V>cing  to  produce,  as  nearly  as  possible,  fac-siiniles 
of  pictures  in  colour,  it  is  necessary  to  emi)loy  a 
number  of  stones,  in  some  eases  as  many  as  twenty 
or  thirty,  each  jjrinting  a  sei)arate  tint,  to  i)rodnce 
tlie  inlinile  variety  of  colovir  in  a  finished  colour- 
dr.awiiig.  The  usual  method  of  piocedure  is  as 
follows.  A  careful  outline  of  the  entire  design  is 
drawn  on,  or  transferred  to,  a  stone  ;  from  this, 
called  the  /:ci/,  as  many  copies  are  printed  as  there 
are  colour-stones  required.  These  impressions  are 
dusted  with  dry  blatd;  or  raddle,  and,  being  .set  olf 
on  the  colour-stones,  form  guides  to  the  artist  in 
drawing  in  the  various  colours  ;  after  which  the 
key  lines  can  be  wa-shed  away  with  water.  On  one 
of  the.se  stones  the  general  etl'ect  of  the  picture  is 
sometimes  drawn,  and  this,  printed  in  a  neutral 
gray,  forms  the  basis  of  the  linished  print.  The 
other  stones  ar(!  drawn  separately  to  corrcsjiond 
with  the  ditl'erent  colours  required  to  produce  the 
neces.sary  ell'ect.  It  will  be  easily  understood  that 
in  arranging  the  various  colouis  with  their  varying 
degrees  of  de|)th  on  the  ililVerent  stones,  the  projjer 
amount  of  force  to  be  given  to  each,  and  the  elVecl 


likely  to  be  produced  by  printing  one  tint  over 
another,  have  to  be  considered,  and  gi\e  scope 
for  a  great  deal  of  professional  skill.  There  are 
many  difl'erent  methods  of  drawing  the  tints  on  the 
stone  which  are  too  technical  for  our  limits.  The 
finest  work  is  done  by  stipple,  drawn  by  hand  with 
a  line  brush,  a  method  in  which  French  and 
German  artists  on  stone  are  very  skilful.  The 
colour  stones  are  printed  in  the  manner  already 
described,  except  tnat  coloured  inks  are  used  in- 
stead of  black.  The  ditVerent  colours,  varying  in 
number  from  imir  or  five  to  twenty  or  thirty,  being 
printed  by  separate  impressions  on  the  same  ])aper, 
it  is  obvious  that  great  care  is  neces.sarv  to  see  that 
every  impression  is  exactly  fitted  to  the  others,  or 
exactly  registered,  as  it  is  called.  Several  mechani- 
cal appliances  are  used  to  secure  this  exactness. 
When  the  necessary  number  of  impressions  have 
been  printed  and  the  stone  has  to  be  cleaned  for 
another  subject,  tlie  surface  must  be  laboriously 
polisheil  down  till  every  vestige  of  grease  is  re- 
moved. 

Such  is  a  brief  outline  of  the  difl'erent  methods 
employed  in  lithography,  Imt  each  method  is  cajiable 
of  infinite  number  of  variations  in  the  hands  of 
ditt'erent  operators. 

Lit/iof/rapliic  presses  vary  as  much  in  constrncliim 
as  those  for  the  letterpress.  The  hand-pres-  is 
very  simple.  The  stone  is  placed  on  a  movable 
table,  and  a  tympan,  an  iron  frame  covered  with 
leather,  folds  down  over  the  paper  when  placed 
on  the  stone.  It  is  then  rolled  under  the  srnijjcr, 
generally  a  piece  of  boxwood  fixed  in  an  upright, 
which  ap])lies  the  pressure.  The  damping  and  ink- 
ing are  done  by  hand. 

The  first  self-acting  lithographic  machine,  intro- 
duced into  Britain  by  Sicliel  of  Berlin  and  Vienna, 
failed  from  the  fact  that  it  was  constructe<l,  like 
the  hand-press,  with  a  scraper  arrangement  for  the 
impression.  This  produced  too  much  friction, 
rendering  speed  dangerous,  and  work  dillicult  to 
keep  on  the  stone ;  and  it  was  not  till  about  IStiO 
that  the  machine  as  at  present  in  use,  with  a 
cylinder  for  the  pressure,  was  introduced  from 
France.  It  is  somewhat  an  adaptation  of  the 
letterpress  single-cylinder  machine  ( see  PRlNTlN<i ), 
and  a  very  Ijrief  description  will  suffice.  The 
stone  is  placed  on  a  movable  bed,  which  can  be 
raised  or  lowered  according  to  the  thickness  of  the 
stone.  The  sheet  is  fed  in  at  the  top  of  the 
cylinder,  whence  a  gri|qier  arrangement  leads  it 
over  the  stone.  At  one  end  are  the  dampins;- 
rollers,  which  are  covered  with  some  soft  absorb- 
ent fabric ;  and  at  the  other  the  inking-rollers, 
covered  with  the  finest  French  leather,  with  ink- 
ing-tablo,  duct,  and  distributors.  The  stone  passes 
first  under  the  dampers,  then  to  the  inking-rollei's, 
thence  back  to  the  cylinder  to  print  the  imjiression, 
and  so  on  ad  infinitHm. 

Zincography,  the  invention  of  Klierliard  ot 
Bavaria,  is  an  application  of  lithography  to  zinc 
plates  instead  of  stones,  with  some  necessary 
modification  of  the  etching  and  i)rinting.  Its  only 
advantage  is  in  connection  with  very  large  subjects, 
as  the  zinc  is  more  portable  and  le.ss  liable  to 
Ijreakage  than  stone. 

See  G.  A.  Audsley,  Chronw-lithoiirafthii,  a  popular 
treatise  (44  plates),  and  W.  D.  Richmond,  TluOramm<ir 
of  Lithoyraphii  and  Colour  and  Colour  Prinlimj  us 
applied  to  Lithoyraphy  (6th  ed.  1887),  both  in  Wyinan's 
Tcchn.  Scrii'S. 

Litholosy  (llthos,  'a  stone')  is  a  name  some- 
times used  for  that  division  of  geology  which  con- 
siders the  constitution  and  structure  of  rocks,  apart 
from  their  relations  in  time  or  position  to  each 
other.     See  (ii;c)l.oGY. 

liitlioiliar;;!'.  an  earthy  or  elay-like  mineral 
substance,    sometimes    called    Mountain .  Morrow 


1 


LITHOPHAGID^ 


LITHUANIA 


657 


(Ger.  Steinmarl-),  consisting  chietly  of  silica  and 
alumina,  with  oxiile  of  iron  and  various  colouring 
substances,  derived  from  tlie  decomposition  of 
various  minerals.  It  is  soft,  greasy  to  the  toucli, 
and  adheres  stnmgly  to  the  tongue.  It  is  generally 
white,  yellow,  or  red,  often  exhibiting  very  beauti- 
ful colours.  It  is  found  in  (ieriiiauy,  Russia,  &c., 
also  in  the  tin-mines  of  Redruth  in  Cornwall. 

LitllOI>lias:i<l:C  (Gr.,  'stone-eaters'),  a  term 
sometimes  applied  to  the  molluscs  which  bore  holes 
for  their  own  residence  in  rocks.     See  BORIXG- 

ANI.M.VLS. 

Lithotomy  (Gr.  Utfios,  'a  stone;'  tome,  'the 
act  of  cutting '),  the  teclinical  name  for  the  surgical 
operation  popularly  called  cutting  for  the  stone. 
As  most  of  the  symptoms  of  stone  in  the  bladder 
( which  are  noticed  in  tlie  article  C.^LClLf.s )  may  be 
simulated  by  other  diseases  of  the  bladder  and 
adjacent  parts,  it  is  necessary  to  have  additional 
evidence  regarding  the  true  nature  of  the  case 
before  resorting  to  so  serious  an  operation  as 
litliotomy.  This  evidence  is  aflorded  hy  munding 
the  patient — a  simple  preliminary  operation,  which 
Consists  in  introducing  into  the  bladder,  through 
the  natural  urinary  passage  ( the  urethra),  a  metallic 
instrument,  by  means  of  which  the  stone  Ciin  be 
plainly  felt  and  heard. 

Lithotomy  has  been  performed  in  various  ways  at 
difterent  times,  both  in  the  perineum  and  above 
the  pnbes.  The  earliest  form  of  lithotomy  is 
known  as  cutting  on  the  gripe,  or  Cehus's  method. 
It  received  the  former  name  from  the  stone,  after 
being  tixed  by  the  pressure  of  the  fingers  in  the 
anus,  being  directly  cut  tipon  and  extracted.  The 
Marian  method,  founded  on  the  erroneous  idea  that 
membranous  parts  would  not  heal  after  incision, 
while  their  dilatation  Wiis  comparatively  harmless, 
was  the  operation  mainly  in  vogue  "for  nearly 
200  years,  till  Frere  Jacijues  introduced  what  is 
essentially  the  method  now  in  use.  Cheselden 
(1727)  and  Liston  in  the  first  half  of  the  19th  cen- 
turj-  perhaps  most  deserve  mention  among  the 
many  surgeons  who  have  subsequently  improved 
upon  the  original  operation. 

The  lateral  operation,  so  called  from  the  lateral 
direction  in  wliich  the  incision  is  made  into  the 
skin  of  the  perineum  and  the  neck  of  the  bladder, 
in  order  to  avoid  wounding  the  rectum,  is  tliat 
which,  with  various  minor  modifications,  is  gener- 
ally employed  at  the  present  day.  Frcre  Jacques 
seems  to  have  devised  the  method  and  to  have 
practised  it  with  much  success;  and  in  1702  he 
I)ublished  a  description  of  it.  The  advantage  of 
this  operation,  by  which  a  free  opening,  sufficiently 
large  for  the  extraction  of  all  but  verj'  large  stones, 
can  be  maile  into  the  bladder  Avithout  laceration  of 
the  parts  or  injury-  to  the  rectum,  was  immediately 
recognised  by  the  leading  surgeons  of  the  time,  and 
the  Marian  process  was  at  once  universally  given 
up.  Other  varieties  of  the  perineal  operation  are 
termed  median,  bilateral,  &c. 

The  suprapubic  or  high  operation  was  first  per- 
formed by  Pierre  Franco  in  1561,  and  has  occa- 
sionally been  employed  ever  since.  It  has  recently 
been  proposed  by  some  surgeons  to  use  it  in  pre- 
ference to  perineal  lithotomy  in  the  majority  of 
cases ;  but  it  Ls  generally  reserved  for  stones  of 
large  size  which  cannot  be  crushed  and  are  difficult 
to  remove  through  the  outlet  of  the  pelvis. 

From  the  shortness  of  the  female  urethra  and  tlie 
extent  to  which  it  can  \x;  dilated,  and,  ailditionally, 
from  the  comparative  rarity  of  calculous  atl'ections 
in  women,  the  operation  of  lithotomy  is  seldom 
reqiiireil  in  the  female  sex. 

The  danger  of  the  operation  increases  with  the 
age  of   the   patient.     Statistics   of   1827   cases   of 
lateral   lithotomy  in    England,    collected    bv   Sir 
302 


Henry  Thomson,  show  a  mortality  gradually  rising 
from  5-7  per  cent,  in  the  patients  under  twelve 
years  of  age  to  more  than  31  jier  cent,  in  those  over 
seventy.  The  more  general  adojition  of  lithotrity 
has  greatly  diminished  the  number  of  cases  in 
which  lithotomy  has  to  be  resorted  to. 

Lithotrity  ( Gr. ,  '  stone-crushing ' ),  the  surgical 
operation  of  breaking  up  a  stone  in  the  bladder  into 
such  small  fragments  that  they  may  readily  be 
expelled  by  tlie  urethra.  Although  the  importance 
of  such  an  operation  has  been  recognised  from  the 
earliest  time,  a  Frenoli  surgeon,  Civiale,  who  com- 
menced his  researches  in  I.S17.  but  did  not  perform 
his  first  operation  till  1824,  may  be  regarded  as  the 
discoverer  of  lithotrity.  The  instrument  by  which 
the  disintegiatiou  of  the  stone  is  eflected  is  intro- 
duced in  the  same  manner  as  a  catheter  or  sound 
into  the  bladder,  and,  after  catching  the  stone, 
either  bores,  hammers,  or  crushes  it  to  pieces.  The 
stone  is  grasped  by  the  blades  of  such 
an  instrument  as  that  shown  in  the  figure, 
auu  tlie  blades  are  then  forcibly  approxi- 
mated to  each  other  by  means  of  a  screw. 
The  various  fragments  are  gradually 
broken  down  in  the  same  way  till  tliev 
are  small  enough  to  be  discharged  througli 
a  catheter  introduced  for  the  purpose. 

Since  the  operation  was  first  intro- 
duced, the  instruments  employed  both 
for  crushing  the  stone  and  for  evacuating 
its  fiagments  have  gradually  been  im- 
proved ;  and  experience  has  shown  that 
this  method  is  capable  of  superseding 
lithotomy  in  the  adult  in  the  vast 
majority  of  cases  where  an  operation  for 
stone  is  necessaiy. 

It  used  to  be  considered  advisable  in 
the  case  of  all  but  very  small  stones  to 
crush  and  remove  only  a  portion  of  the 
calculus  at  one  time.  To  Bigelow  of 
New  York  belongs  the  credit  of  recom- 
mending (in  1878)  the  method  now 
adopted  by  almost  all  surgeons.  He 
gave  it  the  name  of  /itholapa.ii/  ( '  stone- 
evacuati(m'),  but  it  only  ditTers  from  lithotrity  in 
that  the  procedure  is  completed  at  one  sitting. 
This  improvement  was  an  outcome  of  the  teaching 
of  Otis  of  New  Vork,  who  found  it  possible  to 
introduce  instruments  of  larger  size,  and  therefore 
more  effective  than  had  been  previously  considered 
safe. 

In  adults  the  only  conditions  which  generally 
make  lithotrity  unadvisahle  are  'extreme  size,  with 
hardiie.»s  of  structure  in  the  calculus  it.self,  and 
conlirmed  narrowness  or  other  obstruction  in  the 
urinary  passages,  rendining  the  employment  of 
adequate  instruments  impossible'  (Sir  11.  Thom- 
son). In  chiUlren  the  risk  attending  lithotomy 
is  much  less  than  in  adults  ;  but  the  ditticulties  of 
lithotrity,  in  consequence  of  the  small  size  of  the 
uretlira,  are  much  greater :  in  boys,  therefore,  tlie 
former  operation  is  still  generally  preferred,  except 
in  the  case  of  very  small  stones. 

Lithuania,  a  former  giand-duchy  of  Europe, 
conqiosed  of  three  groups  of  territory  :  ( 1 )  Lithuania 
projier,  or  Lilva,  corresponding  to  the  modern 
Ru.ssian  government  of  \ilna,  with  Troki ;  (2)  the 
duchy  of  Samoghitia  ;  (3)  Rus.sian  Lithuania,  com- 
prising I'olesia,  HIack  Russia  or  Novogrodok,  White 
Russia  or  .Minsk,  .Mcislav,  Vitebsk.  Smolensk, 
Plotsk,  and  Polish  I.ivonia.  But  in  the  loth  cen- 
turj-  Lithuania  extended  as  far  south  as  Oiles.sa  and 
the  .Sea  of  Azov,  and  as  far  east  as  the  river  Moskva. 
The  Lithuanians,  a  race  to  whom  belong  the  Letts 
(q.v.)  of  Livonia,  the  Cours  of  Courland,  and  the 
BonLssians  or  ancient  inhabitants  of  East  Prussia, 
constitute  one  of  the  main  divisions  of  the  Indo- 


658 


LITMUS 


LITTORAL    DEPOSITS 


Europeiin  stock  ;  to  them  are  sometimes  added  the 
Yatvyags  or  yadz\  iiijrs,  who  dwelt  on  the  upper 
tributaries  of  the  15uy  and  Niciiien,  thus  making 
about  3i  millions  in  all.  The  .Iniiuls,  700,000  in 
number,  are  a  branch  of  the  Lilhuauians  proper. 
The  Lithuanian  tongue  is  spoken  liy  about  IJ 
million  ;  in  some  respects  it  conies  nearer  Sanskrit 
than  any  other  Aryan  language,  though  it  contains 
a  strong"  admixture  of  Slavonic  words.  Along  with 
Lettish  and  the  extinct  Old  l^russian  it  constitutes 
the  Baltic  family  of  the  Aryan  branch  of  languages. 
Owing  to  its  many  archaic  forms  and  the  early 
stage  of  its  development,  it  possesses  wi-eat  value  for 
students  of  comparative  philology.  The  literature 
is  exceptionally  ricli  in  poetry,  popular  tales,  &c. 
The  poetry  is  frecpiently  full  of  the  very  breath  of 
nature.  See  works  by  Schleiclier  (18.54  to  1S76) 
and  Bezzenberger  (1S77  and  1882),  and  collections 
of  songs  by  Kliesa  and  Ivui-schat  ( ISl,"! ),  Nesselmann 
(1853),  Brugmann  and  Leskien  (1882);  Vecken- 
stedt's  Mi/t/icii,  Sar/eii,  &c.  (1883);  Ch.  Bartsch, 
Litauischc  Mclodien  ('Z  parts,  1887-90).  A  Lithu- 
anian literary  society  was  formed  in  Tilsit  in  1879. 

As  a  race  the  Lithuanians  are  fair  and  \\ell 
built,  with  fine  features  and  Ijlue  eyes.  They  have 
strong  religious  temperaments,  and,  though  they 
belong  to  the  Roman  Catholic  an<l  Greek  Catholic 
churches,  they  cling  tenaciously  to  heathen  re- 
miniscences and  customs.  They  have  l>een  kept 
in  a  state  little  superior  to  serfdom  by  German  and 
Polish  landowners,  but  since  1803  the  Russians 
have  allowed  them  to  become,  to  some  extent, 
ownei~s  of  the  soil.  Agriculture,  cattle-breeding, 
and  bee-keeping  are  the  principal  occupations. 
The  country  they  inhabit  is  covered  with  vast 
primeval  forests  aiul  with  numerous  marshes  and 
lakes.  These  circumstances  have  impressed  traits 
of  peacefulness,  melancholy,  and  loneliness,  but  at 
the  same  time  of  sweetness,  upon  both  the  national 
character  and  the  national  songs.  For  many  cen- 
turies woi-ship  was  performed  in  the  forests,  and 
great  oaks  are  still  objects  of  religious  veneration. 
They  have  never  had  any  towns,  only  \illages, 
and  have  always  relied  for  protection  ujion  the 
dense  forests  and  the  extensive  marshes.  Nothing 
authentic  is  known  as  to  the  history  of  this  people 
prior  to  the  13th  century.  The  first  jnince  to  gather 
the  scattered  tribal  chiefs  around  him  was  Ringold 
(1230-3.5);  his  policy  of  centralisation  was  con- 
tinued by  his  son  Mindovg  (died  12G3),  who  even 
consented  to  be  bajjtised,  but  afterwards  apos- 
tatised. During  these  reigns  the  Lithuanians 
waged  almost  incessant  war  against  the  Ijivonian 
Older  and  the  Teutonic  Ivnights  (see  Livoxi.v). 
Olgerd  (1345-77),  after  reviving  (along  with  his 
brother  Keistut,  the  legendary  national  hero  of 
the  Lithuanians)  the  principality  of  Lithuania, 
extended  his  comiuests  into  southern  Russia.  His 
son  .Jagiello  (1377-14.34)  married  the  heire.ss  of 
Poland  (q.v.),  thus  forming  the  lirst  link  of  connec- 
tion between  these  two  states  ;  the  last  link  was 
welded  in  1.569  by  their  complete  political  unity. 
In  the  interval  Lithuania  had  been  governed  by 
grand-dukes  appointed  by  the  king  of  Poland.  By 
the  three  partitions  of  Polaiul  Hussi.a  acquired  the 
bulk  of  the  grand-duchy  (Polotsk,  Troki,  Brest, 
Novgorod-Syeversk,  and  the  governments  of 
Groilno,  Kovno,  Vilna,  Moghileff,  Vitebsk,  Minsk); 
the  rest  fell  to  Prussia,  liut  pa-ssed  in  1814  to 
Russia.  See  Histnrics  bv  Schliizer  and  Gebhardi 
(Berlin,  1785)  and  Leiewel  (Paris,  1861). 

Litiniis  is  a  well-known  colouring  matter, 
wllich  is  obtained  from  several  lichens,  but  chielly 
from  Lerniiora  tartnrcn.  The  lichens  are  powdered 
and  digested  with  ammoniacal  fluids  (urine,  for 
ex.ample)  till  they  umlergo  decomposition.  Alum, 
potash,  and  lime  are  then  added,  ami  the  mixture  is 
allowed  to  stand  till  the  maximum  degiee  of  colour 


is  observed.  Sand  and  chalk  are  added  to  give  a  due 
degree  of  solidity,  and  the  nuuss  is  then  dried  in 
cubes,  and  is  ready  for  the  market.  The  exjiot 
nature  of  the  changes  which  ensue  is  not  altogether 
known  :  it  is,  however,  certain  that  the  pigment 
is  originally  red,  and  that  it  only  becomes  lihie 
on  the  addition  of  alkalies  or  of  lime.  This  hUie 
colour  is  again  changed  into  a  red  on  the  additiim 
of  a  free  acid.  The  use  of  litmus-paper  and  tinclure 
of  litmus  for  the  purpose  of  detecting  the  acidity 
of  fluids,  &c.  is  known  to  every  student  of  chemistry. 
See  Test-papehs. 

Litre,  the  unit  of  the  French  measures  of 
capacity,  both  dry  and  liipiid.  It  is  the  volume 
of  a  cubic  decimetre  (see  Mt:TRE),  and  contains  a 
kilogramme  of  water  at  392"  (4°  C.)  in  a  vacuum  ; 
it  is  equal  to  O"2200967  British  imperial  gallon, 
and  is  therefore  less  than  a  quart — 4^  litres  heiiig 
roughly  equal  to  a  gallon.  Tlie  litre  is  subdivided 
decimally  into  the  decilitre,  centilitre,  and  millilitre 
(respectively  TTrth,  -rJirth,  and  -rtruntb  of  a  litre). 
Ten  litres  make  a  decalitre;  100,  a  Itectolitrc;  1000, 
a  kilolitre.  The  hectolitre  is  the  common  measure 
for  grain,  and  is  equal  to  034.39009  British  imperial 
quarter,  or  nearly  2^  imperial  bushels. 

Little,  Tilo.M.\.s.     See  MooRE. 

Littleboroiisll,  a  town  of  Lancashire,  3J 
miles  NE.  of  Rochdale,  of  which  it  is  virtually  a 
suburb,  and  in  the  manufacturing  industries  of 
wliicli  it  shares.      Pop.  of  parish,  10,406. 

Little  Falls,  a  post-village  of  New  York,  on 
the  Mohawk  River,  73  miles  '\VN^V.  of  Albany,  on 
the  line  of  the  Erie  Canal  and  of  two  railways. 
The  Mohawk  here  passes  tliroii";h  a  narrow  rocky 
gorge,  with  falls  of  44  feet,  gi\ing  water-power  to 
several  mills  and  factories.     I'op.  8910. 

LittlehailiptOII,  a  seaport  and  watering-place 
on  tlie  coast  of  Susse.v,  18  miles  W.  of  l!right<m 
and  63  SW.  of  London.  It  is  the  port  for  Arundel. 
Pop.  3926. 

Littlemore,  a  hamlet  2Jl  miles  SSE.  of  Oxford, 
famous  for  its  as.sociations  ( 1828—13)  with  Newman. 

Little  Rock,  the  capital  of  Arkansas,  is 
situated  on  the  south  bank  of  the  Arkansas  River, 
2S0  miles  from  its  month,  and  345  miles  by  rail 
SS\V.  of  St  Louis.  It  contains  the  state  capitol, 
pri.son,  and  asylums  for  the  blind  and  deaf  mutes, 
a  United  States  arsenal,  a  Roman  Catholic  cathe- 
dral, court-houses,  a  university,  a  medical  school, 
&c.      Pop.  (  I8S0)  13,138  ;  ( 1890)  25,874. 

Littleton,  or  Lvttleton,  Sik  Thomas,  Eng- 
lish jurist,  was  born  in  1402  at  Fiankley  House, 
near  Bromsgrove,  Worcestershire,  his  motiier  being 
the  heiress  of  Thomas  de  Littleton,  lord  of  the  manor 
of  Fiankley.  He  was  recorder  of  Coventry  in 
14.50,  king's  sergeant  in  14.55,  in  1466  judge  of  com- 
mon ])leas,  and  in  1475  a  knight  of  the  Bath.  He 
died  on  23d  .\ngnst  1481.  Littleton's  •  authelitical 
reputation'  (Fuller's  phiiise)  rests  on  his  work  on 
'J'ciuirc.i,  which  was  originally  written  in  Norman- 
French,  or  rather  law  French.  It  treats  of  the 
English  law  relating  to  rights  over  land,  and 
was  the  first  scientific  attemjit  to  cla-ssify  the 
subject.  It  seems  to  have  been  first  printed  in 
the  year  of  its  author's  death,  if  not  before, 
and  passed  through  numerous  editions.  The  lirst 
translation  into  English  was  made  jucdialily  as 
early  as  1.500.  It  was  the  original  text  that  Coke 
commented  upim  in  his  famous  C'vI.e  upon  I.itthtuii 
(see  Coke).  The  changes  in  the  laws  relative  to 
property  have  greatly  diniinisheil  its  value,  and  it 
IS  now  Utile  studied  by  lawyers:  yet  it  is  con 
sideied  a  model  from  the  clear  ami  logical  manner 
in  wllich  the  snliji'ct  is  handled. 

Littoral  Deposits,  accumulations  formcil  ii 
.shallow    water    along    a    shore    line.      They    ai 


LITTRE 


LITURGY 


659 


generally  gravelly  and  arenaceous  in  character, 
anil  exhibit  rapiit  alternations  of  finer  and  coarser 
grained  materials. 

Littrt',  Maximihen  Pail  Emile,  an  eminent 
Fremli  iiliilologist  ami  philosopher,  was  bom  in 
Paris,  1st  February  1801.  He  lirst  stiulied  medi- 
cine, but  ere  long  gave  himself  to  philology,  master- 
ing Sanskrit,  Arabic,  Greek,  and  the  chief  modern 
languages.  One  of  his  tii-st  tasks  was  a  translation 
of  the  works  of  Hippocrates  (10  vols.  1S.39;-61). 
which  at  onto  opened  for  liim  the  door  of  the 
Academy  of  Inscriptions.  Littri;  held  democratic 
opinions,  distinguished  himself  on  the  barricades  in 
1S30,  and  was  one  of  the  principal  editors  of  the 
Xatiuiud  down  to  1851.  He  embraced  Comte's 
Positivism  with  great  ardour,  and  defended  it  ably 
in  pamphlets  and  in  journal  articles,  but  he  did  not 
sliiire  the  disciples"  undi.scriniinating  enthusiasm 
for  the  Mjister's  later  works.  Disappointed  at  the 
results  of  1S4S,  he  retired  from  active  politics,  re- 
signing even  his  oliice  of  municipal  councillor  of 
the  city  of  Paris.  Keturning  to  a  life  of  study. 
Littre  continued  his  researches  in  the  history  of 
medicine,  at  the  same  time  working  ardently  at 
the  history  of  the  French  language.  His  article, 
La  Pofsie  Homcriijuc  et  /'Anciemie  Poesie  Fraii- 
caise  (1847),  attracted  great  attention.  It  was  an 
attempt  at  the  translation  of  the  first  book  of  the 
Iliad  m  the  style  of  the  Trouvferes.  The  Academy 
of  Insc^riptions  chose  Littre,  in  place  of  Fauriel,  in 
1844,  to  be  one  of  the  commission  charged  with 
continuing  VHistoire  LltKraire  de  France,  and  he 
is  one  of  the  authors  of  vols,  xxi.-xxiii.  In  1854 
he  was  appointed  editor  of  the  Journal  dcs  Savants. 
Littre's  pi-incipal  work  is  his  Dictionnaire  de  la 
Langtie  Francaisc  (4  vols.  1863-72;  supplement, 
1878),  a  monitnient  of  patience  and  erudition. 
This  splendid  work — the  real  thesaurus  of  the 
French  language — did  not  prevent  the  French 
Academy  in  1863  from  rejecting  its  author,  whom 
Bishop  Diipanloup  denounced  puV)licly  as  holding 
immoral  and  im))ious  doctrines.  Just  before  the 
siege  of  Paris  Littre's  friends  compelled  him  to 
quit  the  capital.  In  January  1871  Gambetta 
appointed  him  professor  of  History  and  Geography 
at  the  ficole  Polyteehnique.  Xext  month  he  wa.s 
chosen  representative  of  the  Seine  department  in 
the  National  Assembly,  where  he  sat  with  the 
party  of  the  Left.  On  the  30th  December  1871  the 
French  Academy  at  last  admitted  him  to  member- 
ship ;  whereupon  Bishop  Dupanloup  resigned  his 
seat.  Littre  published  Medecitie  et  Medecins  in 
1872.  In  1875  he  receiveil  honours  from  Leyden 
ami  from  the  Austrian  Academy.  He  died  at 
Paris,  2d  June  1881. 

Other  works  of  Littre's  were  :  French  translations  of 
Strauss's  Life  <if  ./m«s  (1,^39—40)  and  of  Pliny's  Nutwal 
HiMorp ;  Histt-'ire  de  la  Larujue  Fran^-aixe  (2  vols.  18G2), 
Faiolea  de  I'kiluaupliie  Foaitive  (1859),  Aiujuste  Comte  ct 
la  Fhilogopkie  Po*i£/rc  ( 1863 ),  Awjuste  Comte  et  Stuart 
Mill  (1866),  La  Science  au  Point  de  Viie  F/ulomphique 
(1873),  Littirature  et  Histoire  (1875),  Fnt'iments  de 
Fkilox'/phie  Positive  et  de  Sociolotfie  CfntemjM/raine 
(187G),  and  (Eiirret  Comptiles  WArniand  Carrel  (1857). 
His  £t\ide8  it  Olanurea  pour  faire  unite  d  CHiMoire  de 
la  Laiiffiie  Prancaiae  (1880)  contains  an  interesting 
account  of  the  origin  of  his  great  Dictionary.  See  also 
Saintc-Beuve's  Notice  sur  M.  Littri  (liHaA) ;  the  Ldin- 
l.iinih  Renew  (1882) ;  and  the  Cenlurii  (1884). 

Litlirg)'*  ''■  word  derived  from  the  Greek  leitonr- 
t/ia,  signifying  originally  a  'service,'  such  as  those 
remlered  by  citizens  to  the  state.  By  the  trans- 
lators of  the  Septuagint  it  was  anplied  to  public 
worshii),  and  among  the  Greeks  tlie  sense  is  now 
limited  to  the  celeliration  of  the  eucharist.  The 
woril  at  one  time  enjoyed  a  wider  signilication, 
and  in  English  the  term  liturgy  is  still  sometimes 
loosely  used  to  indicate  a  general  body  of  forms 


for  public  worship  prevailing  in  a  particular  com- 
munity ;  but  by  the  more  correct  writers  it  is  used 
in  the  same  exclusive  sense  as  is  the  original  by 
the  Greeks.  The  present  article  is  designed  briefly 
to  sketch  the  history  and  development  of  the  forms 
used  in  the  celebration  of  the  eucharist  or  Lord's 
Supper,  exclusive  of  those  employed  only  by 
Protestants. 

With  regard  to  the  form  used  by  Christ  Himself 
(Matt.  xxvi.  2t>-'28;  Mark,  xiv.  22-24 ;  Luke, 
xxii.  19,  20;  1  Cor.  xi.  23-'25)  only  three  features 
are  recorded,  besides  the  taking  hold  of  the  bread 
and  the  cup.  These  are  that  lie  ( 1 )  gave 
thanks  (cucharisfi-siis)  and  blessed,  that  (2)  He 
brake,  and  that  (3)  He  administered.  To  these  we 
must  necessarily  prefix,  on  any  subsequent  occa-sion, 
the  layin"  of  the  table  and  the  placing  upon  it  of 
bread  and  wine.  It  appears  from  Acts,  x.x.  7-12, 
that  the  ceremony  was  preceded  by  a  sermon  or  dis- 
course, and  from  1  Cor.  xiv.  16  that  the  blessing 
was  regarded  as  identical  with  or  part  of  the  thanks- 
gi\'ing  (etichuristia),  which  was  tlie  name  given  to 
the  whole  of  the  principal  formula  :  while  we  learn 
from  Tim.  ii.  1,  2,  that  the  thanksgiving  contained 
a  prayer  for  all  men,  and  from  1  Cor.  xiv.  16  that 
at  the  conclusion  of  the  thanksgiving  the  word 
'Amen' was  answered.  The  Xew  Testament  also 
contains  no  less  than  five  directions  (Rom.  xvi.  16, 
1  Cor.  xvi.  20,  2  Cor.  xiii.  12,  1  Thess.  v.  20,  1  Pet. 
V.  14)  with  regard  to  the  giving  of  a  religious  kiss, 
and  it  is  hard  to  escape  the  conclusion  that  this 
ceremony  must  have  been  associated  with  the  prin- 
cipal act  of  worship,  the  eucharistic  celebration. 

Whether  any  such  thing  as  a  liturgy  had  yet 
been  committed  to  writing  in  the  time  of  the 
apostles  is  unknown.  At  anyrate  it  is  evident 
from  1  Cor.  xiv.  16  that  the  use  of  a  fixed  form  was 
not  obligatory.  Moreover,  there  are  certain  p;issages 
that  occur  both  in  the  writings  of  St  Paul  and  in  the 
so-called  Clementine  liturgy,  which,  in  the  judgment 
of  some  of  the  most  eminent  critics  (notably  Dr 
Neale),  appear  from  the  context  in  each  case  to  be 
quoted  in  the  epistles  from  the  liturgy,  and  not  in 
the  liturgy  from  the  epistles.  It  is  a  plausible 
conjecture  that  a  form  or  forms  may  have  been 
drawn  up  as  models,  without  the  celebrant  being 
tied  to  their  strict  use. 

The  martyr  Justin  in  his  first  defence  of  Christi- 
anity gives  a  scanty  and  confused  account  of  the 
liturgy,  from  which,  however,  it  is  possible  to 
gather  the  si.x  points  above  mentioned,  with  three 
additional  facts — viz.  that  portions  of  the  Old  and 
Xew  Testaments  were  read  before  the  sermon, 
that  after  the  sermon  there  were  prayers  of  an  in- 
tercessory character,  and  that  the  kiss  was  given 
after  these  prayers  and  before  the  bread  and  wine 
were  jilaced  upon  the  table.  Justin  also  mentions 
that  the  thanksgi\ing  was  very  long. 

Some  words  used  by  Justin  may  mean  that  in  his 
day  a  custom  already  prevailed  which  in  any  case 
was  certainly  in  force  very  soon  after.  This  was 
the  rule  of  secrecy  {Disrijtlina  Arcani,  q.v.)  by 
which  all  uubaptised  persons,  including  those  who 
were  actually  under  preparation  for  baptism  ( cate- 
rJioumenoi),  were  dismisseil  from  the  assembly  as 
soon  as  the  sermon  was  o\er,  and  which  was  later 
extended  so  as  to  conceal  from  them  as  far  as  pos- 
sible the  knowledge  of  what  afterwards  took  nlace. 
This  rule  h;us  caused  Western  writers  to  divide  the 
liturgy  into  two  parts,  the  first,  up  to  the  sermon 
inclusive,  being  termed  the  Mass  of  the  Catechumens 
{Missa  Cateihunienuram),  and  the  rest  the  M;iss 
of  the  Faithful  [Mi.ssii  Fidelnim).  Other  persons 
unfit  to  be  present  at  the  celebration  were  disnussed 
at  the  same  ]H)int.  This  twofold  division  made  by 
western  writers  must  not  be  confused  with  a  two- 
fold division  made  by  the  Easterns,  who  call  all  the 
portion  which  follows  the  commencement  of  the 


660 


LITURGY 


thaiiksf^ivini;  by  the  tlistinotivc  name  of  tlie  A»a- 
p/iont  ( '  ort'eriiij; '),  wlieiico  the  leniis  I'lo-Aiiaphora 
ami  Anaphora  to  ilistin;,'uisli  the  two  portions. 

The  t'lementiiie  liturgy  is  found  enibeilded  in 
the  compilation  called  the  Ajmstolic  Conslitulions 
(q.v.).  It  is  not  known  where  it  was  used,  but 
as  it  is  in  striking  harmony  with  the  account  given 
by  Justin,  wlio  was  writing  at  Rome,  it  seems 
probable  that  it  is  tlie  form  once  used  iit  anyrate 
in  that  city. 

The  rule  of  secrecy  is  jirobably  the  main  reason 
for  the  e.xtraordiuary  scantiness  of  allusions  to  the 
eucliarist  among  early  Christian  writers.  Into 
these  it  is  needless  to  enter  here.  It  suffices  to  say 
that  all  known  liturgies  later  than  the  so-called 
Clementine  are  divisible  into  five  distinct  schools, 
called  res]ieotively  the  Roman  and  the  Ejdiesian, 
which  are  Western,  and  the  Ilierosolymitan,  the 
Babylonian,  and  the  Ale.vaiidrian,  which  are  Eastern. 
All  these,  however,  show  their  comnu)ii  origin  by 
consisting  of  certain  main  parts,  although  all  do 
not  contain  all  these  parts,  and  the  parts  them- 
selves are  not  always  arranged  in  the  same  order. 
These  parts  are  of  course  called  by  ditt'erent  names 
in  ditt'erent  countries ;  those  u.sed  liy  English 
scholars,  wliidi  are  mostly  <lerived  from  those  of 
the  Roman  liturgy,  will  be  here  given  in  lirackets, 
and  generally  employed.  The  ceremony  ordinarily 
begins  with  some  opening  hymn  (introit),  and 
there  is  often  a  short  litany,  always  with  the 
Greek  response  of  Ki/n'c  lici.ion.  There  is  often, 
also  some  confession  or  acknowledgment  of  sin  and 
prayer  for  pardon.  There  is  then  a  jirayer  or 
prayers,  and  some  jiortions  of  the  Scriptures  are 
read,  interspersed  with  psalms  (U'  hymns,  and  end- 
ing with  a  reading  from  the  (iospels,  after  which  is 
usually  preached  the  sermon,  if  there  be  one.  The 
ne.\t  stage  (ott'ertory)  is  the  spreading  u])on  the 
altar  of  apiece  of  linen  or  silk  (corporal),  and  the 
placing  of  the  bread  (host)  and  vane  upon  it,  except 
in  the  case  of  the  pure  Alexandrian  form,  where 
this  is  done  first  of  all.  Except  among  the  Ar- 
menians, a  few  drops  of  water  are  added  to  the  wine. 
There  are  in  any  case  some  prayers.  After  this, 
e.xcept  in  the  Roman  school,  the  kiss  ( Pax,  '  kiss  of 
peace ' )  is  given.  The  thanksgiving  is  then  intro- 
duced with  some  form  of  the  words,  '  Lift  up  your 
hearts'  {Sur.iiim  corda) — Answer,  'We  lift  them 
up  unto  the  Lord  :'  'Let  us  give  thanks  unto  our 
Lord  God' — Answer,  'It  is  meet  and  right.'  The 
first  part  (preface)  of  the  thanksgiving  always 
closes  with  some  reference  to  the  angels  who 
never  cease  to  cry  aloud — aiul  here  the  people  join 
in  singing  some  short  hymn,  beginning  '  Holy, 
holy,  holy.  Lord  (Jod  of  Sabaoth '  (liiincttis  or 
Triumphal  Hymn)-  The  continuation  (canon)  of 
the  thanksgiving  then  comes  to  a  rehearsal  of  the 
circumstances  of  the  institution  of  the  eucharist, 
reciting  the  words  of  Christ  (consecration),  and 
this  again  is  followed  by  a  brief  remembrance  of 
His  life,  and  by  a  particular  jirayer,  which  will  bo 
.spoken  of  hereafter.  The  thanksgiving  closes  with 
a  short  doxology,  and  'Amen'  Ls  answered.  The 
Lord's  Prayer  is  then  said,  either  before  or  after 
which  the  Sacrament  is  broken,  and  a  portion  put 
into  the  chalice.  About  this  point  the  .sacrament 
in  both  kinds  is  often  lifted  up  (a  ceremony  jiro- 
perly  termed  the  Elevation,  but  now  often  the 
Little  Elevation),  as  though  to  invite  the  com- 
municants to  ap|iroach,  and  the  words  '  the  holy  to 
the  holy '  are  usually  uttereil.  In  the  Roman 
school  the  kiss  is  given  now.  Next  conies  the 
administration  of  the  communion,  [jreceded  by 
some  prayers  of  preparation,  and  accompanied  or 
followed  by  a  psalm  or  hymn.  The  whole  service 
ends  with  prayei's  of  thanksgiving  for  the  com- 
numion  received  (post-comnuinion),  and  a  bencilic- 
tion.     It  will  be  remarked  tliat  in  the  above  sketch 


one  im])ortant  feature  is  not  mentioned — viz.  the 
prayer  for  all  men  (the  Great  Intercessi<m ).  It 
occm-s  in  all  the  liturgies,  but  it  is  placed  at  dif- 


ferent points,  and  it  is  in  the  i)articular  point  at 
which  this  prayer  occurs  that  the  ditt'erence  l)etween 
them  mainly  consists.  All  the  liturgies  also  have 
adopted  the  use  of  the  Nicene  Creed,  though  they 
ditt'er  as  to  the  point  at  which  they  interpolate  it  ; 
but,  as  the  creed  itself  dates  oidy  from  the  ^th  cen- 
tury, and  forms  no  integral  part  of  the  ceremony, 
this  is  a  matter  of  little  moment.  It  is  to  be  re- 
marked that  in  all  the  rites  some  portions  of  the 
service  (even  such  as  are  not  pei'sonal  to  himself) 
are  said  by  the  priest  inaudibly  (secreto),  a  singular 
custom  which  may  perhaps  have  arisen  after  the  in- 
troduction of  congregational  singing,  and  owe  its 
origin  to  the  desire,  on  the  one  hand,  not  unduly  to 
protract  the  service,  and,  on  the  other,  not  to  omit 
either  the  singing  or  the  prayers. 

In  the  West  the  use  of  the  word  liturgy  has  been 
almost  entirely  superseded,  except  in  the  disquisi- 
tions of  the  learned,  by  some  form  of  the  word  which 
a]ipeais  in  Latin  as  missa  and  in  English  as  mans. 
The  derivation  of  this  word  has  been  disimted,  but 
it  is  admitted  that  it  is  connected  with  the  pro- 
clamation, Itc ;  miasa  est,  often  nuide  at  the  end  of 
the  lionum  mass,  and  it  may  now  be  regarded  as 
certain  that  it  is  a  mere  corniption  of  misxin,  and 
means  simply  a  dismissal.  In  the  Western  rites 
the  bread  is  always  unleavened.  The  language  is 
normally  Latin,  which  was  the  common  literary 
tongue  when  these  rites  were  com])ose<l,  and  has 
never  been  changed.  They  have  a  custom,  intro- 
duced about  1100  A.D.,  that,  immediately  after  the 
utterance  of  Christ's  words  of  institution,  in  each 
case  the  celebrant  should  lift  the  sacrament  above  his 
head,  and  this  is  now  commonly  called  by  Westerns 
the  elevati(m,  while  the  true  elevation,  or  lifting  of 
the  .sacrament,  as  though  to  intimate  that  the 
moment  of  comnuinion  is  at  hand,  is  by  them 
called  the  Little  Elevation.  Hv  a  custom  sanctioned 
in  the  loth  century,  the  cele'lmint  only  (with  the 
exception  of  the  kings  of  France  at  their  corona- 
tion, and  a  few  of  the  assistants  at  a  papal  high 
mass)  comnuuiicates  from  the  chalice.  The  manner 
of  conducting  the  service  is  divided  into  High, 
Sung,  and  Low  Mass.  A  High  Mass  is  sung,  with 
a  deacon,  sub-deacon,  and  other  assistants,  and  the 
use  of  incense.  A  Sung  Mass  is  sung  by  the  priest 
and  choir  or  congregation,  but  there  is  only  one 
clerk  and  usually  no  incense.  A  Low  Ma-ss  is  read 
by  the  priest  with  one  clerk,  and  without  either 
music  or  incense.  A  Low  Mass  occupies  .about  half 
an  hour,  the  othei's  ( with  simjile  music )  about  three- 
(juarters  of  an  hour.  Very  many  priests  celebrate 
it  every  day,  so  thai  it  sometimes  takes  place  scores 
of  times  in  the  same  church  on  the  same  day. 

(A)  The  Roman  liturgical  famUy  is  often  called 
the  Petrine,  and  is  traditionally  ascribed  to  the 
apostle  Peter.  It  is  certain,  however,  that  the 
early  Roman  Church  was  a  lireek  church,  ^^"hen 
its  liturgy  became  Latin  is  unknown;  possibly 
the  Latin  liturgy  is  of  African  origin.  There 
is  no  trace  of  tlie  change  before  the  4th  century. 
The  distinctive  features  of  the  Roman  family  are 
the  peculiar  position  of  the  Pax,  and  that  the 
great  intercession  (except  the  prayer  for  the  dead, 
which  hasi)erhaps,  however,  been  misplaced )  occurs 
between  the  Sanctus  and  the  Consecration.  It  is 
represented  by  two  main  litcs. 

(a)  The  Roman.  This  is  the  common  Roman 
mass  familiar  in  most  i)arts  of  the  world.  The 
Rouum  liturgy  has  .several  varying  forms,  such 
as  that  used  by  the  Dominicans  (who,  as  in  the 
Alexandrian  sdiool,  jdace  the  bread  €anil  wine  on 
the  alt.ar  at  the  beginning)  .'ind  the  Carthusians. 
These  jneserve  the  usages  of  particular  times  and 
places  in  the  middle  ages,  as  was  also  the  case  with 


LITURGY 


661 


the  Saruiii,  the  Aberdeen,  and  other  medieval  rites. 
There  are  also  some  French  variations,  especially 
that  of  the  chnrch  of  Lyons,  hut  tlii'ir  peculiarities 
may  have  to  do  with  survivals  from  the  (iallican  (see 
below).  It  has  also  been  translated  into  Slavonic, 
into  Armenian  by  the  Dominicans,  and  into  Chinese 
by  the  Jesuits,  but  of  these  the  Chinese  has  never 
come  into  use,  and  the  Armenian  is  extinct. 

(6)  The  Ambrosian  liturgy  is  tliat  of  the  ecclesi- 
astical province  of  Milan.  Its  main  interest  for 
scholai-s  lies  in  the  fact  that  it  is  a  development, 

fiarallel  to,  but  independent  of,  the  present  Koman 
itnrg>%  from  some  earlier  form  of  the  lattei',  which 
has  been  the  common  parent  of  both,  and  that  it 
preserves  some  features  of  this  jiarent  which  have 
been  lost  or  much  obscured  in  the  Koman  use. 

(B)  The  origin  of  the  Epiiesian  or  Ephesine 
family  of  liturgies  is  tr.aditionally  ascribed  to  St 
John.  Its  distinctive  feature  is  that  the  great 
intercession  does  not  form  part  of  the  thanks- 
giving, as  directed  by  the  apostle  Paul,  but  is 
placed  after  the  close  of  the  otTertory,  and  immedi- 
ately followed  by  the  Pax,  before  the  thanksgiving 
begins.  It  is  almost  extinct,  but  was  once  repre- 
sented by  at  least  three  branches,  of  which  one 
oidy  survives.  («)  The  Mozaraliic  liturgy  is  the 
ancient  liturgy-  of  Spain,  and  owes  its  present  name 
to  the  fact  that  those  who  continued  to  practise  it 
had  lived  mixed  with  the  Arab  population.  It 
would  have  died  out  altogether  had  not  the  cele- 
brated Cardinal  Xiraenes  established  a  special 
chapter  to  celebrate  it  in  the  cathedral  of  Toledo, 
and  sanctioned  it  for  the  holders  of  a  few  isolated 
benefices,  so  that  the  practice  of  this  liturgv"  is  now 
confined  to  a  side-chapel  in  the  cathedral  of  Toledo, 
and  the  use  of  a  few  individuals.  It  is  written  in 
a  verii'  peculiar  dialect  of  degraded  Latin,  and  the 
existing  texts  are  corrupt,  some  portions  having  been 
avowedly  added  by  Cardinal  Ximenes,  under  whose 
care  all  the  service-books  of  this  rite  were  edited. 
(6)  The  (iallican  or  ancient  liturgy  of  Gaul  is 
totally  extinct.  Xo  copy  of  it  is  known  to  exist, 
and  tKe  attempt  to  reconstnict  it  from  fragments 
and  incidental  notices  has  largely  exercised  the 
industry  and  ingenuity  of  the  learned,  (c)  The 
Celtic  liturgy,  as  imported  by  Patrick  into  Ireland 
and  by  Coluraba  into  Scotland,  was  undoubtedly 
(Iallican  in  form.  (lililas  the  Wise  introduced  the 
Roman  liturg>"  in  the  Ttii  century,  and  it  gradually 
took  the  place  of  the  other,  which  was  finally 
stamped  out  in  Scotland  liy  St  Margaret,  and  soon 
afterwards  in  Ireland,  where  it  lingered  a  little 
longer.  Its  remains  are  more  .scanty  than  those  of 
the  (Iallican.  What  litnrgv-  was  used  by  the  early 
British  (i.e.  Cymric)  Christians  is  unknown.  It 
may  liave  been  either  Roman,  (jallican,  or  both. 
There  is  even  a  mention  of  a  ( ireek  liturgj'  in  Wales. 
In  the  three  Eastern  families  the  bread  (except 
among  the  Armenians)  is  always  leavened.  They 
are  celebrated  as  a  rule  in  the  cla-ssical  literary 
tongvie  of  their  respective  countries.  With  regard 
to  them  it  luus  to  be  observed  that,  while  the  majority 
of  the  Christians  who  use  them  belong  to  the  Ortho- 
dox (vulgarly  called  the  Greek),  the  Xestorian,  or 
the  .Monoi)hysite  communions,  there  is  everywhere 
a  minority  who  adhere  to  the  communion  of  Rome, 
and  that,  while  employing,  with  only  very  slight 
did'erences,  the  same  liturgies,  there  is  between 
them  a  very  grave  doctrinal  difference  as  to  the 
con.secration  whidi  cannot  l)e  ignored  by  the  liturgi- 
cal schoLar.  In  each  of  these  families  the  place  of 
the  prayer  which  fidlows  the  remembrance  of  the 
life  of  Christ  in  the  Roman  liturgy  is  occupied  by  a 
form  invoking  the  Holy  (Jhost  to  descend  upon  the 
elements  that  they  may  be  tlie  body  ami  blood  of 
Christ.  The  Catholics  maintain  that  the  consecra- 
tion is  effected  solely  by  tiit;  words  of  Christ,  and 
that  this  prayer  is  therefore  to  be  understood  in 


the  same  sense  as  in  the  corresponding  one  in  the 
Roman  liturgy — viz.  as  merely  asking  that  the  sacra- 
ment may  be  blessed  to  the  receivei-s,  and  that  the 
Holy  Ghost  is  invoked  to  descend  upon  it  in  order 
to  enable  the  communicants  to  'discern  the  Lord's 
body'  (1  Cor.  xi.  29),  in  a  manner  somewhat 
similar  to  that  in  which  He  descended  ujion  Christ's 
natural  body  at  tlie  time  of  His  baptism,  in  prepara- 
tion for  tlie  work  of  His  ministry.  On  llie  contrarj', 
the  bulk  at  least  of  the  Easterns  outside  the 
communion  of  Rome  maintain  that  this  invocation 
is  essential  (if  not  indeed  the  sole  essential)  to  the 
consecration,  which  is  not  efi'ected,  or  at  least  com- 
pleted, until  it  has  been  uttered.  It  may  be  added 
that  the  Eastern  Catholic  clergy  are  in  the  habit 
of  saying  low  masses  without  music  and  generally 
without  incense,  and  that  their  celebrations  are  as 
frequent  as  those  of  Latins ;  while  among  the  Ortho- 
dox and  Monophysites  there  is  a  daily  celebration 
in  monasteries  and  cathedrals,  but  in  ordinary 
churches  only  on  Sundays,  holy  days,  and  special 
occasions ;  and  among  the  Nestorians,  although 
the  celebration  is  nominally  presciibed  for  all  Sun- 
days, Fridays,  and  holy  days,  it  is  not  uncommon 
to  find  only  a  sort  of  Mass  of  the  Catechumens  per- 
formed even  upon  many  Sundays. 

( C )  The  origin  of  the  Hierosolymitan  or  Jenisalem 
family  of  liturgies  is  ascribed  to  the  apostle  James. 
Its  distinctive  feature  is  that  the  gieat  intercession 
occurs  just  before  the  closing  do.xology  of  the  thanks- 
giving. («)The  earliest  existing  form  is  a  liturgy 
in  Greek,  called  by  the  name  of  the  ajiostle,  which  is 
now  obsolete  everywhere,  though  it  is  said  to  have 
long  lingered  on  in  some  of  the  Greek  islands,  for  St 
James's  Day  only.  However  ancient  may  be  some 
portions  of  it,  especially  in  the  thanksgiving,  it 
contains  in  its  present  form  comparatively  recent 
features,  the  dates  of  which  are  known.  {/>)  The 
Constantinopolitan.  There  is  a  liturgy  (originating 
from  the  Church  of  Cajsarea)  called  by  the  name  of 
St  Basil,  abridged  from  that  of  St  James,  and  of 
which  the  inaudible  parts  of  the  anaphora  have 
again  been  abridged,  under  the  name  of  St  John 
Chrysostoni,  although  it  is  very  uncertain  how  far 
B;»sil  and  Clirysostom  are  really  to  be  credited  with 
the  work.  These  liturgies,  or  rather  this  liturgy 
(since  the  ditt'erences  are  only  in  the  inaudible  part), 
is  the  only  one  in  use  in  the  Orthodox  communion, 
and  is  celebrated  in  Greek,  Arabic,  Slavonic,  and 
Georgian.  A  stranger  entering  a  Greek  church  is 
liable  to  be  struck,  if  not  confused,  by  the  way  in 
which  the  actual  liturgy,  mostly  inaudible,  is  over- 
laid with  litanies  and  hymns  of  varying  length,  and 
still  more  by  the  almost  entire  concealment  of  the 
altar  behind  the  screen  called  the  eil.oiiostdsion 
('image-stand'),  (c)  The  Greek  rite  in  Italy.  A 
good  many  Italians,  especially  in  the  south,  belong 
to  the  tireek  rite.  They  now  use  the  Constantino- 
politan liturgs'.  There  was  once,  however,  a  native 
Sicilian  (ireek  liturgy,  of  which  a  text  has  been 
published  by  Assemani,  and  of  which  certain  pecu- 
liar local  practices  are  probably  survivals.  The 
members  of  the  Basilian  order  in  Italy  had  also  a 
peculiar  form  of  Greek  liturgy,  which  may  now  be 
regarded  as  extinct,  a.s  the  i)resent  government  has 
suppressed  all  their  mona.steries,  and  the  surviving 
members  have  mostly  if  not  universally  adoi>ted 
the  pure  Constantinopolitan.  Their  liturgy  was 
generally  regarded  as  tho  Constantinopolitan 
allected  by  Wcsternisms,  but  this  point  has  not 
been  sudiciently  investigateil.  (</)  'I'he  Armenian 
liturgy  is  an  adapted  translation  of  the  (Ireek  St 
Ba-sil.  The  language  is  Armenian.  There  is  no 
eikotiostasioii ,  but  a  veil  is  sometimes  drawn  round 
the  altar.  The  celebration  of  this  rite  is  far  more 
pom])ous  and  spectacular  than  that  of  any  other 
used  among  Christians,  (c)  The  Syriac  liturgy  of 
St  James  ai)i)ears  to  be  a  free  translation  from  an 


662 


LITURGY 


early  form  of  the  Greek.  Devout  Syrian  ecclesi- 
astics seem  to  have  had  a  sort  of  passion  for  coni- 
posinji;  paraphrases  of  the  inanilihle  parts  of  the 
anajihora.  ami  there  exist  at  least  some  forty  sueli 
compositions,  sometimes  (lijriiilieii  Ijy  the  name  of 
liturgies.  Tliis  liturgy  of  St  .lames  is  that  used 
by  the  section  of  the  native  Christians  of  India 
(' Christians  of  St  Thonuis')  who  have  abandoned 
tlie  communion  of  Rome  and  their  own  ancient 
Babylonian  rite,  and  embraced  Monoiihysitisni. 
(/)  The  Constantinopolitan  rite  has  hail  a  great 
effect  upon  the  forms  of  the  Alexandrian  or  Egyp- 
tian liturgy,  which  is  treated  below  under  E. 

(D)  The  origin  of  the  liabylonian  scliocd  of  the 
liturgy,  otherwise  called  the  Assyiian  or  Chaldean, 
is  ascribed  to  the  apostle  Thaddeus.  The  language 
is  Syriac.  The  distinctive  feature  is  that  the  great 
interces.sion  occuis  after  the  remembrance  of  the 
life  of  Christ  and  before  the  invocation,  which 
immediatoly  precedes  the  closing  doxology  of  the 
thanksgiving.  The  oldest  e.xistiug  form  is  that  of 
the  liturgy  called  'of  the  Apostles,' and  is  certainly 
of  profound  antiquity.  There  are  two  paraphrases 
of  the  anaphora  of  this  liturgy,  one  of  which  is 
called  the  liturgy  of  Theodore  of  Mopsuestia ;  the 
other  is  named  by  the  Nestorians  in  honour  of  the 
founder  of  their  sect,  l)ut  they  appear  to  be  as  a 
whole  older  than  the  time  of  these  persons.  In  the 
churches  of  this  rite  the  sanctuary  is  a  separate 
room,  somewhat  after  the  manner  of  the  Holy  of 
Holies  of  the  Jewish  temple,  and  the  whole  cere- 
mony is  of  severe  simplicity.  The  liturgy  of  Mala- 
har,  or  original  liturgy  of  the  native  Christians  of 
India  ( '  Christians  of  St  Thomas  '),  is  a  form  of  the 
Babylonian  liturgy  of  the  Apostles,  but  is  said  to 
have  suffered  much  ignorant  meddling,  under  the 
influence  of  the  Portuguese,  at  the  synod  of 
Diamper  (1.599). 

( E )  The  Alexandrian  litiirgical  family  represents 
the  form  of  the  liturgy  belonging  to  the  Church  of 
Egj-pt,  and  its  origin  is  .ascribed  to  the  evangelist 
Slark.  The  properly  distinctive  feat\ire  is  that  the 
gre.at  intercession  occurs  between  the  Siirsum  corda 
and  the  Siindiis — viz.  in  that  part  of  the  thanks- 
giving called  the  preface.  Its  existing  monuments 
have  all  been  corrupted  by  divers  e.xternal  inlluences, 
anil  tlieir  history  is  very  obscure,  (a)  The  normal 
or  original  form  is  called  the  liturgy  of  St  Mark,  and 
is  in  Greek.  Like  that  of  St  James,  it  contains 
passages,  especially  in  the  thanksgiving,  of  which 
It  would  be  rash  to  measure  the  antiquity,  but,  as 
we  now  have  it,  it  h.as  undoubtedly  been  modified 
under  Constantinopolitan  inlluences,  and  probably 
since  the  triumph  of  Monojihysitism  in  Egypt.  It 
contiimed  to  be  used  for  many  centuries  by  the 
Orthodox,  but  is  now  extinct,  iis  they  have  adopted 
the  full  rites  of  Constantinople,  (h)  Kenaudot  h;is 
published  what  he  believed  to  be  an  Alexandrian 
edition  of  the  Constantinopolitan  liturgy  of  St 
Basil,  (c)  At  wli.at  period  the  Coptic  or  native 
langu.age  was  substituted  for  the  Greek  is  uncertain, 
and  the  i)resent  writer  is  inclined  to  the  belief  that 
it  w.os  a  device  of  the  Monophy. sites  to  iii)|ml.arise 
their  heresy  and  emph.asise  their  separation  from 
the  Orthodox.  But  whoever  the  translators  may 
have  been,  they  were  confronted  by  the  fact  that 
the  population  were  to  a  great  extent  bi-lingual  ; 
many  fornuihe  were  familiar  in  Greek,  and  the 
theolo"ical  terminology  was  mo.stly  Greek.  Accord- 
ingly the  liturgy  was  translated  into  a  sort  of  jargon 
of  Coptic  mixed  with  Greek  words,  many  fornniUe 
were  left  in  Greek,  and  the  deacon  was  providc^d 
with  a  set  of  biddings  in  Greek  so  ample  as  nearly 
to  amount  to  a  translation  of  the  prayers.  The 
liturgy  so  produced  w.as  tli.at  which  bears  the  name 
of  St  Cyril.  It  is  a  free  translation  and  .adaptation 
from  that  of  St  Mark,  but  from  a  recension  earlier 
than  that  of  wliich  we  possess  any  Greek  text.     It 


is  now  almost  extinct.  (<!)  A  fresh  anaphora  was 
composed,  called  by  the  name  of  St  Basil,  and  in 
which  the  gre.at  intercession  is  transferred  to  the 
latter  part  of  the  thanksgiving,  as  in  the  Hieroso- 
lymitan  family.  It  is  now  used  only  on  some  rare 
occasions,  (c)  A  third  .anaphor.a  w.as  conipo.sed, 
called  by  the  name  of  St  (iregory,  and  this,  joined 
to  the  pro-anaphora  of  St  Cyril,  constitutes  the 
ordinary  Coptic  liturf;y.  A  fresh  linguistic  difli- 
culty  has  however  arisen.  Coptic  is  totally  dead, 
and  Ar.abic  has  become  the  language  of  Egypt. 
Hence  the  sermon  is  of  course  in  Arabic,  some  parts 
of  the  liturgy  are  always,  and  the  Creed  ami  Lord's 
Pr.ayer  often,  said  in  Arabic  ;  each  ]>ortion  of  Scrip- 
ture is  read  in  .Vrabic  as  well  .as  Coptic,  and  Arabic 
hymns  are  introduced.  The  service  is,  in  fact,  tri- 
lingual. Coptic  churches  .are  generally  very  plain, 
the  altar  is  surrounded  by  a  wooden  partition,  and 
tlie  ceremony  is  not  showy.  Incense  is  l)urneil  almost 
without  ceasing  from  the  beginning  until  the  con- 
secration, (f)  The  Abyssinian  liturgy  is  in  Ethiopic, 
and  is  called  that  of  the  Ajiostles.  It  is  an  adapted 
translation  of  the  Coptic  St  Cyril.  Here  also  tliere 
has  been  a  considerable  tendency  to  comjiose  para- 
phrases of  the  anaphora,  of  which  as  many  ii-s  ten 
are  known  to  Western  scholars. 

It  remains  to  mention  a  few  extern.als  which  are 
common  to  all  these  families.  All  light  wax  tajiei'S 
during  the  celebration,  however  bright  may  be  the 
natural  light  (see  Lights),  and  Incen.se  (q.v.)  is 
universally  burned.  Fans  (q.v.)  came  into  use  in 
the  southern  countries  where  flies  are  triuiblesonie, 
liut  as  a  rule  they  have  now  become  mere  orna- 
ments carried  in  processions.  As  to  vestments, 
the  Chasuble  (q.v.)  is  univereally  worn  by  the 
celebrant ;  nor  is  there  any  trace  of  a  time  wlu>n  it 
was  not.  As,  however,  it  is  origin.ally  a  mere  round 
piece  of  stuff  with  a  hole  in  the  middle  for  the  head, 
the  hands  can  only  be  used  while  wearing  it  by 
raising  it  at  the  sides  or  in  front.  Hence  in  the 
Koman,  Ephesian,  and  Babylonian  families  it  is  cut 
up  at  the  sides  and  hangs  down  before  and  behind  ; 
among  the  Orthodox  the  front  part  below  the  breast 
is  cut  aw.ay  ;  in  the  Alexaiulrian  rite,  and  by  the 
Armenians  and  some  of  the  Syrians,  it  is  entirely 
split  up  the  front,  and  becomes  a  mere  cloak.  In 
.all  the  families  is  also  worn  a  long  gown  down  to 
the  feet,  which  is  in  English  called  an  .-l/i  (q.v.). 
This,  with  its  accompanying  girdle,  of  course  re- 
presents the  long  tunic  worn  by  orientals.  The 
stole  is  a  strip  of  stuff  worn  by  the  priest  round  his 
neck,  and  by  the  de.acon  over  his  left  shoulder.  It 
seems  to  be  the  tulith  or  religious  gainient  of  the 
Jews,  which  must  of  course  ha\e  been  worn  in  prayer 
by  Christ  and  His  earliest  disciples,  .and  which,  as 
usually  arranged,  exactly  resembles  a  stole.  The 
mriiilplrs  ( in  Greek,  i'/)i/ii<iiu7:ia )  are  cull's  seemingly 
used  simjily  to  conline  the  sleeves  of  the  alb ;  the 
corresponding  object  worn  by  Latins,  however,  is 
])ut  on  the  left  arn\  only,  and  luus  a  long  flaj) ;  and 
some  have  maintained  that  it  wiis  originally  a 
pocket-handkerchief.  The  ((mice  is  really  a  veil  or 
covering  for  the  head,  and  by  the  Copts  it  is  so 
worn  until  the  thanksgiving.  In  the  other  families 
it  is  generally  pushed  ilown  upon  the  neck,  and  the 
Armenians,  by  embroidering  it,  have  made  it  into 
iv  sort  of  ornamental  collar. 

The  liturgies  used  by  Protestants  are  either,  as 
among  Anglicans,  adaptations  of  the  Homan  rite, 
or,  as  among  Presbyterians,  forms  altogether  newly 
invented,  biuicd  upon  Scripture  and  convenience 
only.  The  latter  process  has  resulted  in  some  in- 
teresting coincidences,  such  as  the  general  intro- 
duction among  Presbyterians  of  the  ceremonial 
in-bringing  of  the  bread  and  wine  at  the  offertory, 
called  by  the  Greeks  'the  (ireat  Entrance;'  while 
one  schocd  g.ained  the  ]iopular  name  of  '  Liftei's,' 
from  iiractising  the  Elevation.     It  may,  however. 


LIUTPRAND 


LIVER 


663 


be  remarkeil  that  Spanish  Protestants  liave  always 
shown  a  great  leaning  to  the  Mozarahic  liturgy, 
tlie  reivson  for  which  is  plain  enough,  since  it  is 
not  Roman,  ami  is  nndonhteiUy  ancient  and  in- 
tensely national  ;  anil  it  is  not  inii)rol>al)ly  owing 
to  the  inHuence  of  Spanish  refugees  in  London 
tluit  in  the  second  (and  present)  Anglican  liturgy 
tlie  great  intercession  (the  'Prayer  for  the  Clnircli 
Militant')  has  heen  placed  in  the  otVertory.  The 
liturgy  used  by  the  body  commonly  known  as 
Irvingites  is  reiiiarkable  for  its  literary  merit. 

Litorgical  literature  is  exceedingly  voluminous.  For  a 
single  volume  the  reader  may  be  referred  to  the  Rev.  C. 
E.  Hammond's  TJturriics  Eastern  and  Western  (0.\f.  Clar. 
Press,  1878).  Much  matter  will  be  found  in  the  late  Dr 
Xeale's  Introduction  to  the  Historii  of  the  Holy  K(i.-<te.rii 
Church.  As  regar<ls  the  Roman  and  Constantinopolitan 
rites,  books  are  plentiful;  as  to  the  Armenians,  the 
Armenian  Church,  by  the  Rev.  E.  F.  K.  Fortescue ;  for  the 
Indian  Jfonophvsites,  The  Christians  of  St  Thomas  and 
their  Litur'ji(.%'hy  the  Rev.  G.  B.  Howard;  for  the  Nes- 
torians  and  Chaldeans,  The  A'cstorians  and  their  Biluals, 
by  the  late  Ur  Badger;  and  for  the  Copts,  The  Coptic 
Sunday  M:>rninir  Service,  by  the  present  writer,  will 
supply  information  of  a  practical  kind :  while  for  other 
or  more  recondite  studies  recourse  may  be  had  to  the 
authors  cited  by  Mr  Hammond.  Ihe  doctrine  of  the 
eucharist,  and  its  history  before  and  after  the  Reforma- 
tion, is  treated  in  the  articles  Lord's  Sdpper.  Prayer- 
book  ;  see  also  S.\cra51ent,  Transl'Bstastiatiox. 

Lintpraildt  or  Luitprand,  an  author  to  whom 
■we  owe  much  of  our  knowledge  of  the  history  of 
the  10th  century,  was  horn  of  a  distinguished 
Longobard  famiiy  in  Italy  about  the  year  922. 
He  entered  the  service  of  Berengar,  king  of  Italy  ; 
but,  lia\-ing  fallen  into  disgrace,  he  repaired  to 
Germany,  and  served  the  Emperor  Otto  L,  with 
whom  he  returned  to  Italy  in  901.  Otto  made 
him  Hishop  of  Cremona,  and  afterwards  sent  him 
on  an  embassy  to  Constantinople.  He  died  about 
972.  His  Aiiteipodoxis  treats  of  the  period  fiom 
886  to  950.  He  wrote  also  Dc  Rebus  Gestis  Ottonis 
Magni  Imperatoris,  covering  the  yeare  960  to  964, 
and  De  Legatione  Constantinopolitand,  a  satire  on 
the  Greek  court.  The  best  edition  of  liis  works  is 
printed  in  Pertz's  Monumoita  GermcuncE,  vol.  iii. 
See  Kcipke,  Dc  Vita  Liiitprcmeli  ( 1842). 

Livadia  (anc.  Lehndeia),  a  town  of  Greece, 
60  miles  NW.  of  Athens,  destroyed  by  earthquake 
in  1894.  Pop.  5000.  From  it  the  northern  part  of 
modern  Greece  used  to  be  called  Livadia. 

Livadia,  the  name  of  an  estate,  with  a  couple 
of  palaces  and  magnilicent  gardens  and  vineyards, 
belonging  to  the  empress  of  liussia,  situated  on 
the  south  coast  of  the  Crimea,  30  miles  SE.  from 
Seba-stopol.  The  entire  neighbourhood  is  sprinkled 
with  the  ca.stles  and  villa.s  of  Russian  notabilities, 
who  come  here  for  seabalhin;;  in  the  autumn. 

Liver.  The  liver  is  the  largest  gland  in  the 
body.  It  weighs  from  3  to  4  lb.,  and  measures 
alM)ut  12  inches  from  side  to  side,  ami  G  or  7  inches 
from  its  anterior  to  its  jiosterior  bonier.  It  is 
situated  in  the  right  hypochondriac  region,  and 
reaches  over  to  the  left ;  being  thick  liehind,  convex 
on  its  upper  surface,  where  it  lies  in  the  concavity 
of  the  diaphragm,  and  concave  below,  where  it  rest.s 
against  the  stomach,  colon,  and  right  kidney. 
This  lower  surface  pre.sents  a  fi.ssnre  diviiling  the 
organ  into  a  right  and  a  left  lobe.  The  liver  ia 
retained  in  its  position  by  live  ligaments.  Be- 
siiles  the  right  and  left  lobes,  there  are  three  smaller 
lobes.  Tin  great  bulk  of  the  organ  is,  however, 
made  up  of  the  right  lobe,  wliicli  is  si.\  times  as 
large  .as  the  left.  The  vessels  of  the  liver  are  the 
liep.-itic  artery,  which  comes  otV  from  the  co'liae 
axis,  and  sniiplies  the  organ  with  nutrient  blood  ; 
the  portal  vein,  which  conveys  to  the  liver  the 
venous  blood  of  the  intestines,  spleen,  an<l  stoniaeli, 


and  from  which  (after  the  vessel  has  ramified  like 
an  artery)  the  hepatic  veins  arise  and  convey  the 
blood  from  the  liver  into  the  inferior  vena  cava. 

In  fact,  the  liver  is  a  great  glandular  mass  placed 
in  the  path  of  the  veins  passing  from  the  stomach 


Fig.  1.— The  Liver : 
A,  right  lobe  ;  B,  left  lobe  ;  a,  depression  for  colon ;  b,  depres- 
sion for  right  kidney  and  capsule  ;  cc,  coronary  ligament, 
inferior  layer  :  dd,  surface  uncovered  by  peritoneum  ;  «,  gall- 
Itladtier;  ff,  fissure  for  gall-bladder;  gg,  transverse  fissure; 
h.  lobulus  quadratus ;  i,  umbilical  vein  ;  j,  hepatic  duct ;  k, 
hepatic  artery ;  I,  ductus  venosus ;  mm,  fissure  for  ductus 
venosus;  n,  vena  portje;  o,  lobulus  caudatus ;  jt,  lobulus 
Spigelii :  g,  inferior  vena  cava ;  r,  fissure  for  inferior  vena 
cava  ;  ss,  longitudinal  fissure. 

and  intestines  towards  the  heart.  The  blood,  laden 
with  nutritious  matter,  has  to  pa.ss  through  the 
liver  before  it  can  get  into  the  general  circulation  ; 
in  its  passage  it  comes  into  intimate  relationship 
with  the  minute  hepatic  cells,  which  alter  its  con- 
stitution, abstracting  or  adding  various  constit- 
uents. The  bile  is  one  of  the  pro- 
ducts of  the  liver  cells,  which,  ob- 
taining their  raw  material  from 
the  blood,  secrete  this  Uuid  into 
tiny  ducts  (drains).  These  join 
with  other  vessels  to  form  larger 
and  larger  ducts  (just  as  veins  join 
with  other  veins  to  form  larger 
vessels),  which  finally  leave  the 
liver  and  pass  towards  the  gall- 
bladder. Here  the  Bile  (q.v.),  which 
is  constantly  secreted,  is  stored  nj) 
ready  to  be  discharged  into  the 
intestine  during  digestion.  The 
bile,  which  is  of  a  brown,  or  in 
some  animals,  of  a  green  colour,  is 
coloured  by  ]iigments  (liilirubin, 
biliverdin),  which  are  undoubtedly 
decomposition  products  of  lianio- 
"lobin,  the  colouring  matter  of  the  Fig.  2.— Diagram 

of  Liver  : 
intestines ;    p, 
portal  vein 

Ijreaking  up  in- 
to cai)illaries  a- 
mong  liver  cells 
(c);blood  subse- 
quently passes 
to  heart  (A). 


blood.  It  a|)pears,  therefore,  that 
the  red  corpuscles  of  the  blood 
which  contain  this  pigment  are 
continually  Kufl'erin<;  di.-^solution, 
probably  the  old  and  useless  cells 
being  destroyed  within  the  body 
by  the  agency  of  other  cells. 
\Vhether  their  destruction  actually 
takes  place  within  the  liver  is  not  yet  alisolntely 
certain,  but  it  is  certain  that  the  liver  removes  their 
colouring  matter  from  the  system.  Occasionally  it 
hapi)ens  that  the  liver  may  have  a  heavier  task 
thrown  upon  it  than  it  can  undertake.  Thus,  a 
rapid  dissolution  of  corpuscles  may  take  jilace  from 
various  conditions;  for  instance,  there  may  be  an 
exce.ss  of  blood  after  a  bloodless  ami)Utati<m,  where 
the  blooil  of  a  limb  before  the  operation  has  Ix-en 
driven  into  the  rest  of  the  body;  or,  again,  when 
the  blood  from  the  after-birth  has  been  allowed  to 
How  into  the  buily  of  a  baby.  In  the.se  ea.ses  the 
liver  may  be  unalJle  to  excrete  all  the  i)ign)eiit  and 


664 


LIVER 


jaundice  will  arise.  A  similar  ooiulition  will  follow 
any  obstriictinn  to  llio  outHow  of  liile  from  the 
liver  (gallstone,  inflammation  of  iliicts,  iS-o. ).  The 
already  secreted  bile  will  in  tliat  case  jiass  l)ack 
into  the  system  tlirou'.'h  the  alisorlient  lymiihatics. 
In  the  bile  are  certain  orjranic  salts,  taurocholate 
and  glycocholate  of  sodium.  It  is  probable  that 
these  result  from  the  destructiini  of  albumen,  per- 
haps that  of  the  red  blood-corpuscles.  Oi  these 
salts  and  their  role  in  the  economy  there  is  much 
to  be  learned ;  they  are  probably  in  part  reabsorbed 
from  the  intestine  into  the  blood. 

The.se  functions  of  the  liver  commence  at  an 
early  peiiod  of  intrauterine  life,  the  excreted  bile 
aceuuuilatinj;  in  the  intestine,  and  forminj,'  the 
greenish  substance,  meconium.  After  birth  the 
bile  m.-iy  be  looked  upon  not  only  as  an  excretion 
from   the  body,   but  as  performinj;  in  its  outward 

Sassage  throngh  the  intestine  the  part  of  an  aid  to 
inestion  and  al>sorption  ( see  lilLE,  Dige.stion  ). 

]?ut  the  liver  has  other  and  jierhaps  equally  im- 
portant functions  to  perform.  It  is  a  great  store- 
house of  food  material.  When  the  body  is  well 
nourished  the  liver  cells  store  a  certain  quantity  of 
fat,  which  they  can  part  with  during  starvation. 
In  stall-fed  animals,  beer-drinkers,  &c.  the  liver 
is  loaded  with  fat,  while  the  liver  {p{it(  dc  foic 
gras)  of  the  Strasbnrg  goose  is  a  mass  of  fat,  with 
hardly  any  vestige  of  the  original  tissue  left. 

Claude  Bernard  was  the  discoverer  of  one  of  the 
greatest  functions  of  the  liver.  It  ap]iears  that 
carbohydrates  and  protcids  absorbed  in  a  solulile 
form  into  the  blood  are,  for  the  most  part,  seized  by 
the  liver  andprevented  from  entering  the  general 
circulation.  The  liver  retains  them  chiefly  in  the 
form  of  glycogen  or  animal  starch,  C,oH;„0,oHoO  ; 
and  after  a  good  meal  as  much  as  5  per  cent,  of 
the  organ  may  consist  of  it  alone.  This  glycogen 
is  then  discharged  from  the  liver,  proljably  in  the 
form  of  a  soluble  sug:ir,  as  the  economy  is  in  need 
of  it.  Wo  have  here  a  wonderful  provision  for 
regulating  the  food-sni)ply  to  the  tissues,  for  it 
would  be  of  obvious  disadvantage  to  them  were 
they  inundated  with  pal>ulum  directly  after  each 
meal,  and  then  left  without  any  at  all.  Many 
parts  of  the  body,  the  muscles  for  instance,  are 
capable  of  storing  glycogen  on  their  own  account ; 
but  this  power  is  limited,  and  the  great  glycogen 
storehouse  is  the  liver. 

We  have  already  seen  that  there  is  evidence 
that  proteid  substances  are  broken  down  in  the 
liver.  The  greater  part  of  the  nitrogen  of  the 
proteid  is  excreted  by  the  kidneys  in  the  form 
of  urea,  which  substance,  .is  has  experimentally 
been  sliown,  has  its  primary  origin  in  the  liver 
itself.  If  carbonate  of  ammonia  be  injected 
through  the  organ  it  is  converted  into  urea, 
which  appears  in  increased  quantity  in  the  blood, 
and  is  excreted  by  the  kidneys.  After  a  highly 
nitrogenous  diet  urea  in  like  manner  appears 
in  the  blood,  the  nitrogen  having  sejiarated  from 
the  proteiil  molecule.  In  birds  and  reptiles,  where 
the  nitrogen  waste  of  the  body  is  uric  acid,  not 
urea,  the  former  substance  is  also  formed  by  the 
liver,  extiriiation  of  the  organ  causing  a  marked 
diniinuticm  in  the  uric  acid  formation. 

DiSK.vSE.s  OF  THE  LlVEl!.— The  liver,  like  other 
organs  of  the  body,  is  subject  to  disorder  and  dis- 
ease. It  is  subject  to  congcsti(Ui  from  exposure  to 
cold,  and  it  is  certain  to  suller  from  any  pro 
longed  violation  of  the  laws  of  dietetics.'  The 
European  living  in  India  who  persists  in  tlie  food 
habits  of  a  cold  climate,  although  he  lives  in 
a  warm  one,  is  certain  to  develop  a  'liver.'  The 
beer-drinker  acquires  a  fatty  liver,  and  the  dram- 
drinker  an  organ  in  which  the  cellular  elements 
have  ^'reatly  diminished,  the  mass  of  the  organ 
becoramg  mere  (ibrous  tissue.     The  most  important, 


because  the  commonest,  malady  connected  with 
disorder  of  the  liver  is  that  known  as  biliousness. 
The  acute  form,  or  'bilious  attack,'  has  been 
shortly  noticed  under  Bile  (q.v.);  but  many 
persons  suil'er  habitually  or  for  long  periods  from 
an  allied  condition.  The  symptoms  are  very 
various;  but  the  most  common  are.duU  pain  with 
a  feeling  of  weight  in  the  region  of  tiie  liver,  and 
pain  in  the  right  shoulder,  usually  worst  after 
nieals ;  a  bitter  taste  in  the  month,  with  coated, 
yellowish  tongue,  dull  headache,  giddiness  ;  some- 
times drowsiness,  sonuHimes  sleeplessness ;  and 
generally  more  or  less  depression  of  spirits.  The 
condition  is  most  apt  to  occur  in  those  who  take 
too  much  or  too  rich  food  or  drink,  with  too  little 
exercise.  It  is  i)robably  caused  not  merely  by 
deficient  secretion  of  bilo,  but  by  imjierfect  per- 
formanc^o  of  the  other  functions  of  the  liver,  especi- 
ally the  disintegration  of  albumiiuiid  bodies.  For 
the  removal  of  the  condition  the  most  important 
mea.sure  is  proper  regulation  of  the  patient's 
habits.  Great  care  in  diet  must  be  enjoined, 
particularly  as  regards  alcoholic  drinks.  Of  these 
malt  liquors  and  sweet  or  strong  wines  are  the 
most  injurious  :  but  it  is  generally  best  to  abstain 
from  them  altogether.  Iticli  dishes  must  be 
avoided,  and  sugar  and  meat  be  taken  in  moderate 
amount.  Exercise  in  the  open  air  is  very  im- 
portant :  riding  is  the  most,  walking  probably 
about  the  least,  useful  form.  With  regard  to 
dmgs,  mercurials  (e.g.  blue  pill)  often  give  great 
relief;  but  their  liabitual  use  is  dangerous.  A 
daily  draught  in  the  morning  of  some  saline 
aperient  is  generally  desirable  ;  and  nitro-h^dio- 
chloric  acid  in  small  doses,  with  some  bitter  tonic, 
is  often  very  useful.  Biliousness  seldom  seriously 
shortens  life,  but  it  often  grievously  interferes 
with  its  enjoyment,  and  with  the  power  of  doing 
work  with  any  vigour  or  satisfaction. 

Cotigcstiijii  of  tlie  liver  occurs  in  at  least  some 
cases  of  biliousness,  and  in  intlammation  of  the 
organ ;  but  also  in  consequence  of  disease  of  the 
heart  or  lungs  causing  interference  with  the  return 
of  blood  through  it.  In  long-standing  cases  of  this 
disease  the  substance  of  the  liver  j)rcsents  a  pecu- 
liar mottled  apjiearance,  Mhence  it  is  called  >iul»ie<j 
liver. — lii(ll-stoitcs  (see  CALCULUS)  and  Jaundice 
(q.v.)  have  already  been  considered. 

Acute  infainination  (hcpntitis)  and  abscess  may 
occur  in  the  course  of  other  diseases,  especially 
pya>mia ;  but  in  their  most  characteristic  form  they 
are  much  more  common  in  hot  countries,  and  in  a 
large  proportion  of  the  cases  accompany  or  follow 
dysentery.  The  symptoms  are  extremely  variable  ; 
there  may  be  fever,  p.-iin,  or  weight  in  the  liver  and 
right  shoulder,  and  (iisturbance  of  digestion  ;  but  in 
some  cases  all  these  are  absent.  If  the  abscess  be 
in  the  anterior  part  of  the  liver,  its  presence  may 
be  indicated  by  bulging,  or  enlargement  with 
alteration  of  shape  of  the  organ  ;  but  if  deeply 
seated  no  indication  of  its  presence  may  be  found. 

Treatment. — In  the  early  stages  the  disease  some- 
times seems  to  be  checked  by  the  administration  of 
large  doses  of  ipecacuanha  and  the  application  of 
poultices  or  hot  fomentations  ;  and  even  when  an 
abscess  is  present  it  may  subside  spontaneously,  or 
may  discharge  through  lung,  stomach,  bowels,  or 
skin  with  a  favouralde  result.  Such  cases,  how- 
ever, are  exce]itional  ;  and  the  introduction  of  tlie 
aspirator  and  of  antiseptic  methods  has  shown  that 
surgical  interference  in  such  cases  need  not  be 
dreaded  as  it  once  was.  Evacuation  and  opening 
of  liver  abscesses  have  in  fact  in  recent  years  sa\ed 
many  lives  that  would  otherwise  in  all  ])robability 
have  been  sacrificed. 

Acute  i/rllow  atro/ili;/  of  the  liver  is  a  curious  and 
hapjiily  rare  disease,  chiefly  aH'cctinj;  young  women, 
in  which  rapid  ami  intense  jaundice,  attended  by 


LIVER 


LIVERPOOL 


6G5 


severe  nervous  symptoms  (headache,  ileliriiim, 
coma,  &c.),  but  without  fever,  ahuost  invariably 
leails  to  a  fatal  issue  in  a  few  days.  After  deatli 
the  liver  is  found  much  diminished  in  size  ;  and  its 
secreting  cells  are  rciUicetl  to  a  mass  of  oily  debris. 
The  symptoms  much  reseuible  tliose  of  phosphorus 
poisoniug  ;  but  the  causes  of  the  disease  are  as  yet 
obscure. 

Cirrhosis  of  the  liver,  or  interstitial  lirpittitis  ( Gr. 
kirrhos,  'yellowish'),  begins  as  an  intlainmatory 
atlection,  in  which  lymph  (see  Ixfl.\M.m.vtion)  is 
ertused  in  the  areolar  tissue  surrounding  the 
branches  of  the  portal  vein.  The  smaller  branches 
become  obliterated  by  the  ]iressuie,  and,  as  the 
lymph  subsequently  contracts,  larger  branches  of 
the  veins  and  ducts  become  strangulated,  and  the 
surface  of  the  organ  a-ssumes  the  uneven  or  bossed 
appearance  known  as  hobnailed,  in  this  aft'ectioii 
the  liver  is  i>robably  at  fii'st  somewhat  enlarged, 
and  occasionally  remains  so,  but  in  general  as  the 
contraction  of  the  eftusion  goes  on  it  at  length 
becomes  considerably  smaller  than  the  natural  size. 
The  ordinary  cause  of  this  disease  is  si)irit(lrinking, 
and  it  is  popularly  known  a.s  the  giii-driitlcer's  liver. 
The  obstruction  to  the  portal  circulation  occasions 
the  etlusiou  of  serum  into  the  peritoneal  cavity ; 
and  this  eftusion  often  goes  on  so  rapidly  as  soon 
to  force  up  the  diaphragm  and  impede  respiration. 
The  lower  extremities  may  become  anasarcous,  but 
the  arms  and  face  are  never  affected.  The  portal 
obstruction  often  also  gives  rise  to  hemorrhage 
from  the  bowels  or  stomach.  In  a  fully  developed 
case  of  cirrhosis  the  liver  is  so  altered  in  stnicture 
that  p.-illiative  treatment  is  all  that  can  be  at- 
tempted. ThLs  must  be  directed  to  the  relief  of 
the  dropsy,  and,  if  medicines  fail  to  remove  or 
diminish  it,  temporary  relief  may  be  olitained  by 
tapping  ;  but  the  disea.se  is  a  very  hopeless  one. 

Amongst  the  other  affections  of  this  organ  are 
the  fatty  liver.  The  liver  in  this  case  is  much 
enlarged,  of  a  pale  colour,  and  rounded  at  the 
edges  ;  the  disease  is  most  commonly  found  associ- 
atetl  with  phthisis  and  in  cases  of  general  obesity. 
Closely  allied  to  this  is  the  lanlaceoiis  or  ivaii/ 
liver  (see  Waxv  Dlsease).  Tubercle,  syphilitic 
disease,  and  different  forms  of  cancer,  generally 
secondary  to  cancer  elsewhere,  are  not  unfre- 
quently  fouml  in  this  organ.  It  is  also  much  the 
most  frequent  -seat  of  Hydatids  (q.v. ). 

Liverpool,  situated  on  the  north  bank  of  the 
Mersey,  in  Lanca-shire,  is — if  we  include  Birken- 
head, on  the  opposite  side  of  the  river — the  second 
largest  town  in  the  United  Kingdom.  A  port 
not  only  for  the  adjacent  manufacturing  districts, 
but  for  the  commerce  ^^'ith  America,  it  ranks  in 
maritime  importance  before  the  metropolis  itself 
— a  circumstance  due  to  its  position  on  the 
west  coast  of  England.  It  is  situated  at  three- 
quarters  of  an  hour's  distance  by  railway  from 
Manchester  (3U  miles),  four  and  "a  quarter  houi-s 
from  London  (201  miles),  si.\  hours  from  Edin- 
burgh (•220  miles),  and  seven  houi-s  by  rail  and 
steamer  from  Dublin.  The  rise  of  Liverpool  is 
remarkable.  In  the  middle  of  the  14tli  century 
it  contained  only  840  inhabitants  and  IGS  cottages; 
whilst  in  1561  its  population  was  only  090.  'JThis 
I  deca<leiice  accounts  for  the  circumstance  that 
though  the  town  was  represented  in  ])arliament 
in  1'2!»6  and  1.306,  there  were  no  membei-s  sum- 
moned between  the  last-named  date  and  1547. 
It  is  interesting  to  note  here  that  Francis  Bacon 
(afterwards  Lord  Chancellor)  was  M.P.  for  Liver- 
jiool  in  the  years  15S8-92.  It  was  not  until  1647 
that  Liverpool  was  made  a  free  port  ( having  been 
subject  down  to  that  date  to  the  Chester  officers) ; 
anil  it  was  Hot  erected  into  a  separate  parish  until 
1C97,  when  its  jmpulation  niiintered  about  5(KJ0 
souls,  and  its  shipping  about  80  vessels.     Between 


1710  and  1760  its  jjopulation  increased  from  8160 
to  25,780,  and  its  commercial  navy  from  84  ve.ssels 
to  1245.  In  1700  its  lii-st  regular  dock  was  built 
on  the  site  where  the  custom-house  stands  at  the 
present  day.  From  1760  to  1800  the  population 
advanced  from  25,700  to  77,700  inhabitants,  the 
shiiiping  from  1200  ve.ssels  to  5000,  and  the  amouiil 
of  dock-dues  collected  from  £2300  to  £28,300, 
nearly  two-thirds  of  the  increase  taking  i)lace 
during  the  last  fifteen  years  of  the  period.  The 
chief  cause  of  this  extraordinary  progress  was  tlie 
rapid  growth  of  the  cotton  industry  :  the  consump- 
tion of  raw  cotton  having  risen  from  5,000,000 
lb.  in  1781  to  48,000,000  lb.  in  1801  ;  while  the 
oihcial  value  of  cotton  products  exported  had,  in  the 
meantime,  increased  from  £355,000  to  £7,051,000. 
Simultaneously  with  the  mechanical  revolution 
brought  about  by  Hargreaves,  Arkwright,  Cromp- 
ton,  and  others,  there  came  an  increased  foreign 
trade,  and  an  augmented  inland  business,  owing 
to  the  opening  of  the  Bridgewater  (q.v.  j  Canal  in 
1771.  About  the  same  period,  too,  a  great  start 
was  given  to  the  shipbuilding  trade  of  the  port  by 
several  extensive  orders  received  from  government : 
some  15  vessels  of  war  being  launched  between 
1777  and  1782,  of  very  considerable  tonnage,  and 
ranging  between  16  and  50  guns.  Liverpool  as  the 
leading  port  connected  with  the  African  trade, 
almost  monopolised  the  traffic  in  slaves  between 
Africa  and  the  West  Indies,  iS:c.  As  late  as  1807 
her  shipowners  had  185  vessels  engaged  in  the 
business,  capable  of  carrying  about  44,000  slaves. 
By  the  close  of  the  last  century  Liverpool  had  far 
outstripped  Bristol  in  coniiiiereial  importance. 

But  great  as  was  the  progress  made  during  the 
closing  twenty  years  of  the  ISth  century,  it  was  far 
exceeded  in  the  19th  ;  in  1881  the  population  with- 
in the  municipal  boundary  was  552,508,  and  within 
the  parliamentary  boundary  601,050.  In  the  next 
decade  there  was  however  an  apparent  decrease, 
the  population  of  the  city  at  the  census  of  1891, 
after  some  readjustment  of  areas,  was  517,951,  ancl 
of  the  parliamentary  borough,  584,471.  Adding  to 
this  the  ])opulation  of  Birkenhead  (q.v.),  on  the 
opposite  side  of  the  river,  we  get  684,328  ;  so  that, 
with  other  adjoining  places,  the  total  population  of 
what  may  be  termed  the  port  of  Liverpool  is  about 
700,000.  A  \ery  large  number  of  merchants, 
brokers,  tradesmen,  clerks,  and  working-men, 
whose  daily  occupations  are  in  Liverpool,  have 
their  residences  on  the  Cheshire  side  of  the  river. 
The  ]iassenger  traffic  between  the  two  sides  of  the 
river  averages  69,000  per  day,  of  which  44,0(K)  are 
by  the  various  ferries  and  25,000  through  the  iSIersey 
railway  tunnel.  The  progress  in  population  and 
tonnage  compares  as  follows  : 

Population. 


Liverpool,    Birkeubead. 


SbippiniT.       Dock  Due& 
Tona.  £. 


1781....  39,000  1,500  40,500  200,000  6.000 

1801....  85,300  3,100  88,400  469,700  28,."i00 

1821 144,700  4,700  148,400  839,800  94.600 

1841... 311,700  21,900  333,000  2,426,400  176,500 

1861....  477,000  73,000  660,000  4,997,200  444,400 

1881.... 686,400  103,400  789,800  7,893,900  705,600 

1891 730,000  130,500  8(>0,50O  9,772,.'iO0  1,117,900 

The  figures  include  the  suburbs  of  both  places.  Of 
the  entire  i>opulalion  it  is  estimated  that  150,000 
are  Irish  aii<l  al>out  the  same  number  Welsh. 

The  effect  of  the  .Manchester  Ship  Canal  on  the 
trade  of  Liverpool  has  not  lieeu  so  injurious  as  was 
at  one  time  expecteil.  It  does  not  follow  that  what 
Manchester  secures  Liverjiool  loses  ;  and  the  more 
economical  management  of  tlie  Dock  Estate,  and 
the  reduced  railway  charges  which  the  competition 
of  the  canal  enforces,  may  in  the  long-run  actually 
bring  more  liusiness  to  Liverpool. 

In  1894  the  total  tonnage  of  ships  that  entered 
and  cleared  at  Liverpool  (excluding  coastwise  sail- 


666 


LIVERPOOL 


ings)  was  10,489,578,  as  comparetl  with  14,433,580 
at  Loiiilon,  and  10,478,301  at  CariUn'.  The  iiiiiMiits 
of  colonial  ami  foieij;n  meiohandise  at  Livoiiiool 
show  a  valne  of  £9r),G30,489  :  the  o.\i)Oils  of  lionie 
produce  to  foreign  iKHts,  £78,080,3.")!),  and  of  foreign 
and  colonial  in-oiluce,  £1,2.")4,037.  The  wliolo 
foreign  liadeof  ljiveii>ool  in  189.')  was  £186,250,875, 
as  coinpaved  with  a  total  at  Lomlon  of  £'224,718,320; 
all  other  ports  dividing  amongst  them  the  re- 
maining 40  per  cent,  of  the  trade  of  the 
whole  countrv.  I^iverpool  accounts  for  al)o\it 
one-liftli  of  the  IJritish  tonnage,  one -tenth  of 
the  foreign,  an<l  one-sixth  of  tlie  total,  and  only 
falls  behind  London  in  respect  of  the  foreign. 
Liverpool  ligures  for  one-fourth  of  the  imports, 
more  than  two-fifths  of  the  exports,  and  nearly 
one-third  of  the  entire  foreign  trade  of  the  United 
KingiUim.  Of  145  million  cwt.  of  bread -stuH's 
imported,  28  million  came  through  IJverpool ;  as 
did  also  3A  million  out  of  6  million  cwt.  of  bacon, 
hams,  beef,  pork,  and  lard  ;  3  million  out  of  (5 
million  cut.  of  rice  ;  6),  million  out  of  175  niilUon 
cwt.  of  nnrefined  sugar  ;  and  23  million  out  of  40 
million  lb.  tobacco.  Liverpool  shipped  £4G,342,0t)O 
out  of  £71,986.000  worth  of  cotton  i)roducts  ex- 
ported ;  £9,232,000  out  of  £25,006,(K)0  wortli  of 
woollens:  £2,942,000  out  of  £5.5.V2.(I00  worth  of 
linen.s;  £11,705,000  out  of  £;io.,sii(i.(lOO  woith  of 
metals ;  £4,502,000  out  of  £12,939,000  worth  of 
machinery:  and  £1,489,000  out  of  £3,168,000 
wortli  of  hardware  and  cutlery. 

This  gigantic  trade  has  given  rise  to  the 
magnificent  system  of  docks  extending  along  the 
margin  of  the  river  for  a  distance  of  nearly  61 
miles,  containing  25  miles  of  quay-space  and  380 
acres  of  water-space,  besides  9  miles  of  quay- 
space  and  164  acres  of  water-space  at  Birkenhead, 
making  a  total  of  34  miles  and  544  acres  respec- 
tively. There  are  also  17  acres  of  water-space  in 
the  docks  worked  by  the  various  canal  companies, 
and  tliere  are  besides  14,920  feet  of  graving-docks, 
of  which  2430  feet  are  in  Birkenhead.  The  total 
area  of  the  Dock  Estate  is  1083  acres  in  Liverpool 
and  506  acres  in  Birkenhead.  The  whole  of  the 
docks  (except  the  Saltbouse,  King's,  and  part  of 
the  George's  and  Queen's)  have  been  Imilt  since 
1812,  and  are  regarded  as  amongst  the  greatest 
engineering  triumphs  of  the  19th  century.  Several 
of  the  docks  are  enclosed  with  large  warehouses  : 
the  erection  of  those  round  the  Albert  Dock  cost 
£.358,000.  The  dock  itself  cost  £141,000.  The 
warehouses  round  the  Waterloo  Dock  contain 
large  gr.aiii -elevators,  which  are  a  wonder  in  them- 
selves. For  the  accommodation  of  tlie  river  traffic 
(pas.senger,  goods,  and  mails)  there  is  a  floating 
landing-stage,  2063  feet  long  and  80  feet  wide, 
with  seven  large  bridges  connecting  it  with  the 
shore  ;  also  a  lloating  bridge,  550  feet  long  and  35 
feet  wide,  by  means  of  which  an  ea.sy  incline  for 
carriage  traffic  is  maintained  at  .all  stages  of  the 
tide.  The  steamer  traliic,  conducted  bv  regular 
liners  with  every  port  of  importance  in  tlie  world, 
draws  large  numbers  of  emigrant  and  other 
jiassengers  to  the  town.  The  total  amount,  of 
capital  invested  in  the  Dock  Estate  is  £17,088,683. 
See  the  article  1  )0CK. 

Of  the  seven  railways  in  direct  connection  with 
the  city,  the  North- Western,  Lancashire  and 
Yorkshire,  and  Midland  have  handsome  passenger 
stations,  and  nnmerons  "oods  stations  are  s])rea<l 
over  the  town  and  on  the  line  of  docks.  There  are 
live  tunnels  under  the  town.  The  jMeisey  lailw.ay 
tunnel,  12.30  yards  long,  connecting  Liverpool  with 
liiikenheail,  was  begun  in  1881,  and  opened  by  the 
Princi^  of  Wales  in  1886.  Tlie  capital  invested  in 
the  Mersey  Railway  amounts  to  £2,224,000. 
Kumlier  of  i),assengers  in  1890,  9,318,235.  Prior  to 
1857   the  water-supply   of  tlie  town  was  derived 


chiefly  from  the  works  at  Bootle  and  Harring- 
ton. In  1850  steps  were  taken  to  erect  the  ^orks 
at  Kevington  ( near  Bolton ),  whicli  were  opened  in 
1857.  In  1881  the  foundation  of  new  water- works 
was  laid  at  Lake  Vyrnwy,  about  25  miles  from 
Oswestry  and  45  miles  in  a  straight  line  from 
Liveij)aol.  Liverpool  has  several  extensive  ship- 
building-yards, iron  and  br.ass  foundries,  chain- 
cable  and  anchor  smithies,  engine-works,  tar  and 
turpentine  distilleries,  rice  and  Hour  mills,  tobacco, 
cigar,  and  soap  manufactories,  breweries,  sugar- 
relineries,  roperies,  glass-works,  chronometer  and 
watch  manufactories. 

Tiie  architecture  of  the  town  has  been  gieatly 
improved  in  the  latter  half  of  the  19tli  century, 
and  it  now  possesses  many  tine  thoroughfares, 
thron"ed  with  numerous  splendid  edilices.  The 
domed  Town-hall,  in  the  Corinthian  style,  was 
originally  built  in  17.54,  but  has  since  been  con- 
siderably enlarged.  St  George's  Hall  is  a  grand 
building  in  the  Gra^co-Boman  style,  nearly  500 
feet  long,  built  between  18.'18  and  18.54.  It  com- 
prises the  assize  court,  a  great  liall  !69  feet  in 
length,  87  feet  in  width,  and  74  to  82  feet_  high  ; 
and  a  smaller  concert-room.  The  organ  in  tlie 
great  hall  cost  .£10,(X)0,  and  the  entire  building 
£:S30,000.  Municipal  Offices,  Customhouse,  Sailors' 
Home,  Bolice-courts,  Workhouses,  Baths  and  Wa.sh- 
houses.  Water-works,  ,and  Gas-otlices  are  ,a!so  note- 
worthy. The  Free  Library  and  Museum,  o|iened 
in  1860,  and  presented  to  the  town  liy  Sir  \\'illiain 
Brown,  cost  £40,000  ;  with  it  are  incorporated  the 
Museum  of  Natural  History  presented  by  the 
thirteenth  Earl  of  Derby,  and  the  Museum  of 
Antiipiities  presented  by  Mr  Mayer.  Other  in- 
stitutions are  the  Walker  Art  Gallery,  iircsented 
by  Sir  A.  B.  Walker,  Bart.,  at  a  cost' of  £35,000: 
the  I'icton  Keading-rooni,  erected  by  the  coriioration 
at  a  cost  of  £25,000  ;  the  Botanic  Gardens,  01)ser\  - 
atory,  the  Liverpool  College,  Liverpool  Institute, 
Queen's  College,  Medical  Institute,  Royal  Institu- 
tion, the  various  schools  attached  to  the  national 
and  other  churches.  Academy  of  F'ine  Arts,  the 
Kxcliange,  Lyceum,  and  Atheiueum,  news  rooms 
and  libraries,  and  numerous  associations  devoted 
to  commercial,  political,  philosophical,  scientific, 
and  religious  atlairs.  University  College,  on  the 
model  of  (J wens  College,  A\as  inaugnrated  in  1882  ; 
the  endowment  is  over  .£125,000.  The  college, 
afliliated  to  the  Victoria  University,  Manchester 
(see  Owens  College),  had,  in  1890,  sixteen  pro- 
fessors and  lecturers  in  the  literature  and  science 
ilepartmeiit,  and  fourteen  chairs  in  the  medical 
department.  There  are  about  one  hundred  chari- 
table institutions  in  the  city.  There  are  some  270 
churches  and  chapels,  of  which  92  belong  to  the 
Established  Church,  29  to  Koman  Catholics,  25  to 
Welsh  Nonconformists,  24  to  Presbyteiians,  21  to 
Wesleyans,  18  to  Methodists,  17  to  Ijaptists,  14  to 
Independents,  and  30  to  various  bodies,  including 
6  Unitarian  chapels,  3  .synagogues,  a  F'riends' 
meeting-house,  ami  a  Greek  cliurch.  The  see  of 
Liverpool  was  create<l  in  1880,  with  an  endowment 
of  £100,000,  raised  by  public  subscription.  There 
are  seven  cemeteries,  only  one  of  which  is  situated 
within  the  city. 

The  buildings  devoted  to  commercial  pursuits 
are  also  very  fine  and  numerous.  Amongst  them 
are  the  Exchange,  Liverpool  and  London  Insurance 
Chambers,  Royal  Insurance,  ami  t^ueen  Insur- 
ance buildings  (all  local  companies),  and  many 
others.  The  Exchan>'e  was  originally  built  in 
1803-8,  but  was  rebuilt  and  enlarged  in  I86-M)7. 
The  cost  of  tlie  new  building,  which  st.-inds  upon 
about  two  acres  of  ground,  was  about  £600,000. 
The  general  merchants  and  brokers,  shipowners 
and  brokers,  metal  merchants  and  brokers,  wool 
brokei-s,   leather  brokers,  &c.   meet  daily  in  tlie 


LIVERPOOL 


LIVERWORTS 


667 


news-room — 175  feet  lon<;,  90  feet  wide,  and  50  feet 
higli.  The  cotton  iiiercliants  and  brokers  meet 
(according  to  the  cnstom  of  nearly  a  ci'iitury)  in 
tlic  o])en  air,  in  the  spacious  area  or  '  Hags.'  Tlie 
style  of  the  buildin-'  is  French  Renaissance.  Of 
eliibs  there  are  the  licform,  Junior  Keforni,  Con- 
servative, Palathie,  E.xchange,  &c.  There  are 
fourteen  banks  in  the  town,  and  several  of  them 
are  possessed  of  very  large  and  handsome  business 
premises.  Amongst  these  may  be  nameil  the 
branch  of  the  Bank  of  England,  and  the  Liver- 
pool, Union,  North-Western,  Parr's,  District. 
Commercial,  National  Provincial,  and  North 
and  South  Wales  l)anks.  Of  monuments  the 
chief  are  those  of  the  Queen,  Prince  Albert, 
William  IV.,  Nelson,  Wellington,  Iluskissou,  and 
Beaconstield,  besides  several  in  the  Town-hall, 
St  George's  Hall,  Free  Library,  and  parks.  The 
parks  are  eight  in  number — tlie  Stanley,  Sefton, 
Prince's,  Botanic,  Kensington,  Newshani,  Sheil, 
and  Wavertree. 

The  market-days  are  Wednesday  and  Saturday, 
for  general  agricultural  produce,  and  Tuesday  and 
Friday  for  corn.  The  fairs  for  horses  and  cattle 
are  held  July  25th  and  November  11th.  The 
corn  trade  transacts  its  business  in  the  Cora  Ex- 
change, Brunswick  Street,  and  there  is  an  exten^^ 
sive  market  for  the  cattle-dealers  in  Kensington. 
For  agricultural  produce  there  is  the  Northern 
Hay  Market.  For  edibles  of  all  kinds  there  are 
St  John's,  and  St  James's,  Gill  Street,  and  St 
Martin's  markets.  There  are  six  daily  (four 
morning  and  two  evening)  and  four  weekly  news- 
papers, besides  the  Daily  Telegraph  and  Bill  of 
Entry,  exclusively  devoted  to  shipping  mattei's, 
three  weekly  literary  periodicals,  and  one  scientific 
monthly  magazine.  Since  1SS5  Liverpool  returns 
nine  members  to  parliament. 

The  name  Liverpool  first  occurs  in  a  deed  of 
1190  :  the  etymology  is  not  improbably  the  Cymric 
Llyvrpwl,  '  the  expanse  at  the  pool,'  or  '  the  pool  at 
the  confluence.'  The  Derby  (Stanley)  and  Sefton 
(Molyneux)  families,  whose  mansions  are  only  a 
short  distance  from  the  town,  have  from  the  earliest 
times  been  intimately  connected  with  the  borough 
and  city.  Several  members  of  both  families  serveil 
the  oftice  of  mayor  in  the  16th,  ITtli,  and  18th 
centuries.  Amongst  other  worthies,  natives  of  the 
town,  may  be  mentioned  Jeremiah  Horrocks,  the 
eminent  a-stronomer ;  George  Stubbs,  eminent  as 
an  animal  painter ;  John  Deare,  sculptor :  John 
Sadler,  inventor  of  jiainting  on  pottery ;  Peter 
Letherland,  inventor  of  the  patent  lever  watcli ; 
Mrs  Hemans,  the  jioetess ;  Benjamin  Spence, 
sculptor :  and  William  Roscop,  poet,  historian, 
and  banker.  Other  '  Liverpudlians  '  of  eminence 
in  various  departments  of  life  were  Viscount 
Carilwell,  Bishop  Liglitfoot,  General  Earle,  Mr 
(iladstone.  Sir  James  Picton,  A.  H.  Clough, 
Meadows  Taylor,  the  actor  Sothern,  Ansdell, 
(hunter,  Waterliouse,  A.  W.  Hunt,  Walter  Crane, 
W.  S.  Jevons,  and  the  new  '  Liverpool  .school  ' — 
a  term  held  to  comprLse  J.  A.  Noble,  William 
Watson,  Hall  Caine,  R.  Le  tJallienne,  and  othera. 

See  Baincs,  HMory  of  the  Commerce  and  Tovti  of 
Liverpool  ( 1852) ;  Picton,  A/emoririh  of  Liverpool  (2  vols. 
187:i;  2d  ed.  1876);  and  The  Cotton  Trnde  of  Ureal 
Britain,  v:ith  a  Higtort/  of  the  Lirtrpool  Cotton  Market, 
by  tlie  writer  of  the  present  article  ( 1886). 

Liverpool,  Robkrt  B.vxks  Jkxkin.son, 
E.Mtl,  OF,  statesman,  was  born  7th  June  1770,  the 
son  of  the  first  Flarl  ( 1727-1808).  He  wjus  educated 
at  the  Charterhouse  and  Christ  Chunh.  Oxford,  and 
entered  parliament  in  1791  .is  member  for  Rye. 
Like  his  fatlier  he  wa.«  a  Tory,  but  with  Liberal 
ideas  on  trade  and  finance.  In  1794  he  became  a 
member  of  the  India  Hoard,  and  in  IHOI  foreign 
secretarj'   in   the    Addiiigtou    ministry,   when   Tie 


negotiated  the  unpopular  treaty  of  Amiens.  In 
180.3  he  was  createil  Lord  Hawkesl>«i> ,  and  on 
Pitt's  return  to  power  he  went  to  the  Home  Office, 
as  it  was  thought  desiialile  he  should  ccmtinne  to 
lead  the  House  of  Lords.  On  the  death  of  Pitt 
he  was  invited  to  form  an  iidministiatiim,  but 
declined  in  consequence  of  the  schism  in  the  Tory 
party.  In  1807,  however,  he  again  took  the  Home 
Office,  under  the  Duke  of  Portland,  and  ne.xt  year 
succeeded  his  father  as  Earl  of  Liverjiool.  In  Per- 
ceval's ministry  of  1809  he  was  Secretary  for  War 
and  the  Colonies,  and  in  this  ca])acily  was  charged 
with  pusillanimity  in  connecti(m  with  the  Penin- 
sular war.  After  the  assassination  of  Perceval  in 
1S12  Lord  Liverpool  formed  an  administration 
which  it  was  predicted  would  not  last  for  six 
months,  but  which  in  fact  existed  for  nearly  tifteen 
years,  and  then  fell  only  through  the  illness  of  the 
juemier  himself.  The  first  ten  years  of  the  Liver- 
pool ministry  (1812-22)  iiave  been  severely  criti- 
cised. The  partition  of  Saxony,  the  abandonment 
of  Poland,  the  union  of  Holland  and  Belgium,  the 
Austrian  establishment  in  Italy,  the  alleged 
connivance  of  England  in  the  suppression  of  the 
revolutionary  agitation  in  Naples,  the  mismanage- 
ment of  the  finances,  the  increase  in  the  duty  on 
foreign  corn,  the  coercive  measures  adopted  for 
dealing  with  discontent  in  England,  are  all  pointed 
to  as  so  many  proofs  of  the  incapacity  or  despotic 
sympathies  of  the  English  government  of  this 
period.  Lord  Liveijjool  himself  was  a  Free  Trader, 
and  regarded  the  Corn  Law  of  1815  as  merel}"  an 
experiment;  and  when  he  was  joined  by  Htiskisson 
ana  Canning  he  began  to  liberalise  the  tarift".  He 
also  desired  to  retain  a  portion  of  the  property  tax, 
wliicli  would  have  obviated  the  necessity  for  fresh 
taxes  ;  and,  as  it  only  afl'ected  men  with  incomes  of 
upwards  of  £200  per  annum,  its  retention  would 
iiave  been  a  distinct  boon  to  the  working-classes. 
But  Whigs  and  Tories  alike  opposed  it.  Notwith- 
standing the  blunder  of  the  sinking  fund,  Lord 
Liverpool's  financial  policy  generally  was  of  a 
sound  and  enlightened  character ;  and  his  admin- 
istration was  an  economical  one.  As  a  states- 
man, his  chief  title  to  remembrance  lies  in  the  fact 
that  he  united  the  old  and  the  new  Tories  at  a 
critical  period,  and  in  a  manner  which  neither 
Canning  nor  Wellingtcm  could  accomplish.  On 
February  17,  1827,  he  was  stridden  with  apoplexy, 
but  he  remained  nominally  prime-minister  until 
-\pril,  when  Canning  formed  a  new  government. 
He  died  4th  December  1828.  See  the  Life  h\  C. 
D.  Yonge(3  vols.  1868). 

Liver-rot.    See  Fhke. 

Liverworts  {Hejuitica;)  are  green  flowerless 
jilants  closely  allied  to  mosses.  They  grow  pro- 
tusely  on  damp  rocks,  not  unfrequentlv  on  leaves 
and  stems  in  moist  tropical  regions,  anil  sometimes 
even  in  the  water.  The  majority  are  prostrate 
creepers,  but  others  raise  themselves  in  upright 
leafy  growths,  intermediate  between  the  wholly 
leaf-like  Thallopliytes  (e.g.  seaweeds)  and  the 
higher  Cormophytes  (e.g.  fern)  in  which  distinct 
stemstructures  are  developed.  There  is  a  marked 
dill'erence  in  structure  between  the  upper  and 
lower  surfaces  :  thus,  the  fonner  turneil  towards 
the  light  bears  cliimney-like  openings  {stomata), 
while  the  under  side  next  the  substratum  gives  off 
attaching  ami  absorbing  unicellular  outgrowths 
(rhizoi(ls)  which  are  jihysiologically  comparable  to 
the  roots  of  higher  plants.  If  a  young  plant  float- 
ing in  water  be  illumined  wholly  from  beneath, 
the  rhizoids  will  develop  on  the  up]ier  surface — i.e. 
away  from  the  light  as  usual.  The  growth  is 
usually  forked  or  diehotomous,  and  is  often  re- 
markably profuse  by  the  nniist  river-side  or  in  the 
dam))  greenhouse.      The  plants  die  awaj'   behind 


668 


LIVERY 


LIVINGSTON 


as  they  push  ahead  with  fresh  growth,  and  apart 
from  tliis  tliey  multiplv  asexually  l>y  means  of 
detaehahle  clumps  of  ce^ls  (ov  gc/»mrc],  which  are 
often  formed  in  special  cups  on  the  npper  surface. 


Life-history  of  Liverwort  {Marchantia  pol>iinorpha) : 
1  and  2,  developing  thallus ;  2  shows  the  cup  with  gemnicc ; 
3,  section  across  thallus,  showing  cliiiuney-shaped  stoma  and 
sreen  cells  under,  and  mucilage  cell  on  left;  4,  male  hats; 
5,  development  of  antheridia  ;  6,  antheridium  nearly  ripe  ;  7, 
antherozoid ;  8,  female  hat ;  9, 10,  archegonia  before  fertilisa- 
tion ;  11,  12,  13,  fertilised  egg  di\iding ;  14,  immature  sporo- 
gonium,  containing  spores  and  elaters. 

Like  the  Hydra  among  animals,  liverworts  may  be 
artificially  propagated  hy  being  cut  into  fragments, 
and  they  have  remarkable  powers  of  surviving  pro- 
longed desiccation. 

On  the  vegetative  thallus  male  and  female  hats 
or  leproductive  organs  are  borne,  on  the  same  or  on 
diftWrent  plants,  often  with  a  quaint  umbrella-like 
or  niusliroom-like  form.  From  a  female  cell  fer- 
tilised by  an  actively  motile  male  element  there 
arises  a  new  spore-bearing  veneration,  but  this,  as 
in  mosses,  remains  connected  with  the  sexual  plant. 
Within  the  spore-cases  of  the  spore-])roducing 
generation  there  are  long  spring-like  cells  [elaters], 
which  twist  anil  iintwist  as  moisture  is  absorbed  or 
given  off,  and  in  so  doing  help  to  scatter  the  iii)e 
spores.  From  the  latter  the  new  liverworts  are 
established,  the  life-history  thus  illustrating  the 
usual  alternation  of  generations  between  oophvte 
and  sporophyte.  The  cla.ss  Hepatica?  includes  five 
orders  :  ( 1 )  Jungermanniaceoe — e.g.  Jungermannia 
and  Pellia  ;  (2)  Monocleacea; — e.g.  Mimoclea  ;  (3) 
Anthoceroteie — e.g.  Anthoceros  ;  (4)  Kicciacea' — 
e.g.  Kiccia  and  Kiella — the  latter  remarkable  for 
its  submerged  liut  erect  thallus,  which  forms  a  con- 
tinuovis  spiral  round  a  central  axis  ;  (5)  March.m- 
tiacea?. — e.g.  Marchantia,  Lunularia,  and  Fegatella. 
The  al)undant  Marchaidia  puiymorpha  is  a  con- 
venient type  for  the  i)ractical  study  of  the  cla-ss. 
See  Bennett  and  Hurray,  llamlhook  of  Crtjpto- 
gamic  Botaiii/  (hoi\d.  I8S9). 

Livery  ( through  the  Fiench  from  Lat.  Uberare, 
'to  deliver'),  a  word  derived  from  the  custom 
which  prevailed  under  the  Merovingian  and  Car- 
lovingian  kings  of  dclivcrinii  splendid  habits  to 
the  members  of  their  hou.seholds  on  great  festivals. 
In  the  tlays  of  chivalry  the  wearing  of  livery  was 
not  as  now  confined  to  domestic  servants.  The 
duke's  son,  as  page  to  the  iirince,  wore  the  prince's 
livery,  the  earl's  son  bore  the  duke's  colours  and 
badge,  the  son  of  the  esquire  wore  the  livery  of 
the  linight,  and  the  son  of  the  gentleman  that  of 
the  esiiuire.  Cavaliers  wore  the  livery  of  their 
mistresses.  There  was  also  a  large  class  of  armed 
retainers  in  livery  attached  to  many  of  the  more 
powerful  nobles.  The  livery  colours  of  a  family 
are  taken  from  their  armorial  bearings,  being 
generallv  the  tincture  of  the  field  and  that  of  tlie 
princip.ll  charge,  or  the  two  tinctures  of  the  field 
are  taken  instead  where  it  has  two.  They  are 
taken  from  the  first  quarter  in  etise  of  a  quartered 


shield.  These  same  coloui-s  are  alternated  in  the 
'  wreath '  on  which  the  crest  stands.  The  royal 
family  of  England  have  sometimes  adopted  colours 
varying  from  the  tinctures  of  the  arms.  The  Plan- 
tagenets  had  scarlet  and  white ;  the  House  of  Y(U'k, 
murrey  and  blue  ;  white  and  blue  were  adopted  by 
the  House  of  Lancaster ;  white  and  green  by  the 
Tudors  :  yellow  ami  red  by  tlie  Stuarts,  and  by 
William  III. ;  and  scarlet  and  blue  by  the  House 
of  Hanover.  An  indispensable  part  of  the  livery 
in  former  times  was  the  Ba<lge  (q.v. ). 

Tlie  freemen  of  the  T.'i  city  guilds  or  corporations 
wliidi  embrace  the  cliU'erent  trades  of  London  are 
called  liverymen,  because  entitled  to  wear  the  livery 
of  their  respective  companies.  In  former  times  the 
wardens  of  the  companies  used  yearly  to  deliver  to 
the  Lord  Mayor  certain  sums,  twenty  sliillings  of 
which  was  given  to  individuals  who  petitioned  for 
the  money  to  enable  them  to  procure  sufficient 
cloth  for  a  suit,  and  the  companies  juided  them- 
selves on  the  sidendid  appeaiance  which  their 
liveries  made  in  the  civic  train.  Till  the  IJcform 
Bill  in  1832,  the  liverymen  had  tlio  exclusive 
privilege  of  voting  for  members  of  parliament 
for  the  City.  The  twelve  chief  corporations  are 
the  Mercers,  Grocers,  Drapers,  Fishmongers,  tlold- 
smitlis.  Skinners,  Merchant  Tailors,  Ilabciilashei's, 
Salters,  Ironmongers,  ^'intners,  and  Clotiiworkers. 
A  royal  commission  was  appointed  to  inquire  into 
the  City  companies  in  I8S0,  when  their  charitable 
or  trust  income  was  returned  at  £200.000  a  year, 
their  corporate  income  at  ui>wards  of  £.550,000,  .iiul 
the  capital  value  of  their  projierty  (in  the  Citv,  in 
the  funds,  in  estates  all  over  England  and  in 
Ulster)  at  £15,000,000.  The  annual  cost  of  the 
hospitality  exercised  by  the  coni]ianies  w;is  esti- 
mated at"  £100,000;  aiid  of  the  20,000  hereditary 
members  about  12,000  were  said  to  belong  to  the 
working-classes.  The  commission's  gigantic  Report 
was  issued  in  1884. 

Liviiigstou.    See  Guatejial.v. 

Livingston,  an  eminent  American  family, 
descended  lineally  from  the  fifth  Lord  Livingstcm, 
the  guardian  of  Mary  (Jueen  of  Scots,  an<l  fnun 
his  grandson,  the  Rev.  John  Livingston  (l(i03- 
72),  minister  of  Ancrum  in  Teviotdale,  who  was 
banished  for  refusal  to  take  the  ojith  of  allegiance 
to  Charles  XL,  and  from  16U3  was  pastor  of  the 
Scots  kirk  at  Rotterdam.  His  son  Robert  was 
born  at  Ancrum  in  1G54,  went  to  America  in  1073, 
settled  at  Alliany,  and  received  a  giant  of  a  \a.st 
tract  of  land,  which  he  had  erected  into  the  m.inur 
and  lordship  of  l^ivingston.  He  died  in  172.5. 
One  of  his  grandsons  was  Philip  Livingston  ( 171()- 
78),  who  sat  in  the  fii-st  Continental  congress, 
and  was  one  of  the  signei-s  of  the  Declaration  of 
Independence.  Another  was  William  Livingston 
(1723-90),  the  'Don  (Quixote  of  the  Jerseys.'  who 
was  the  first  governor  of  New  Jersey  (1770  !H)), 
and  conspicuous  for  the  energy  and  ability  of  his 
administration.  The  most  distinguished  of  the 
family,  however,  were  the  brothers  Robert  R.  and 
Edward  Livingston,  great-gr<andsons  of  the  first 
Robert. 

Robert  R.  LiviNr..sTON"  was  born  in  Xew  York 
city,  27th  November  1740,  graduated  at  King's 
(now  Columbia)  College  in  I7().5,  and  was  admitted 
to  the  bar  in  1773.  Sent  to  congress  in  1775,  he 
was  one  of  the  fi\e  members  of  the  committee 
charged  with  drawing  up  the  Declaration  of  In- 
deiiendence.  AVhen  the  ciuistitution  of  the  state 
of  New  York  was  settled  he  was  api)ointed  chan- 
cellor, a  dignity  he  retained  till  ISOl.  He  wiis 
then  sent  to  Paris  as  minister  iilenipotentiary,  and 
successfully  negotiated  the  ce.s>ion  of  Louisiana  to 
the  United  States.  He  enabled  Fulton  to  construct 
his   first  steamer,  and  introduced  in  America  the 


LIVINGSTON 


LIVINGSTONE 


669 


use  of  sulpliate  of  lime  .as  a  niamire,  and  the 
merino  sheep,  ami  in  many  other  ways  distin- 
guisheil  himself  as  a  national  benefaclor.  He  died 
on  26th  Fehruarv  1813.  There  is  a  biography  bv 
F.  De  Peyster  (New  York.  1876). 

Edw.vrd  Livint.stox.  jurist  and  statesman,  \va.« 
born  at  Clermont,  New  York,  '26111  May  1764,  and 
gi'aduated  at  Princeton  in  1781.  He  was  called 
to  the  bar  in  1785,  and  soon  obtaineil  an  extensive 
practice.  He  had  spent  his  youth  among  the 
loumlei's  of  American  independence,  all  of  whom  he 
hail  known  as  visitoi-s  of  his  father — a  justice  of  the 
New  York  Supreme  Court — and  he  at  once  attained 
a  prominent  position.  He  sat  in  congress  from  1795 
to  1801,  when  he  became  U.S.  district  attorney  for 
New  York,  and  mayor  of  New  York  city ;  but  in 
1803,  owing  to  the  niisappropriiitions  of  a  subordi- 
nate, he  found  himself  considerably  in  debt  to  tlie 
federal  government.  He  at  once  lianded  over  his 
whole  jiroperty  to  his  creditoi-s,  threw  np  both  his 
appointments,  and  resolved  to  quit  New  Y(U'k. 
Louisiana  had  just  been  annexed  to  the  United 
States  through  his  brother's  negotiations ;  and  in 
1804  he  settled  in  New  Orleans,  where  he  at  once 
obtained  lucrative  piactice  at  the  bar.  During  the 
second  war  with  England  he  was  aide-de-camp  and 
secretary  to  General  Jackson  ;  and  from  1822  to 
1829  he  represented  New  Orleans  in  congress.  In 
1823-24  Livingston  was  employed  in  reducing  to 
system  the  civil  code  of  Louisiana — for  which  task 
Ills  wide  acquaintance  with  juiTsprudence  rendered 
him  peculiarly  fitted.  He  was  also  coinniissioned 
to  jnepare  a,  new  criminal  code,  and  in  a  prelimin- 
ary treatise  he  laid  down  the  principles  on  which 
he  was  to  proceed.  He  proposed  the  abolition  of 
the  punishment  of  death,  and  a  penitentiary  system, 
which  at  once  drew  general  attention  to  his  labours. 
His  book  was  repiinted  in  London,  translated  into 
French,  and  was  very  favourably  received  in 
England,  France,  and  Germany.  His  code  of 
crimes  and  punishments  was  completed,  but  not 
directly  adojited.  Livingston  was  elected  in  1829 
to  the  United  States  senate,  and  in  1831  ap- 
pointed secretary  of  state.  Two  years  later  he 
went  to  France  as  minister  plenipotentiary,  and 
succeeded  in  securing  payment  of  the  indemnity 
on  account  of  French  sjioliations.  He  died  on 
2.3d  May  1836.  See  the  Life  by  C.  H.  Hunt  (New 
York,  1864). 

Livingstone.  Dv^aD,  missionary  and  traveller, 
was  bom  at  Blantyre  in  Lanarkshire,  19th  March 
181.3.  His  parents,  who  were  in  humble  life,  were 
of  devout  and  exemplary  character  ;  his  father  in 
]>articular  being  a  great  reader,  especially  of  travels 
and  missionary  intelligence,  and  much  interested 
in  the  enterprise  of  the  19tli  century.  At  the  age 
of  ten  David  became  a  worker  in  a  cotton-factory 
at  Blantyre,  and  continued  in  that  laborious 
occupation  for  fourteen  years.  Ills  thirst  for  know- 
ledge led  him  to  read  all  that  he  could  lay  his 
hands  on  ;  be  used  also  to  attend  a  night-class, 
after  the  long  hours  of  the  fattory,  for  the  study  of 
Latin.  The  reading  of  Dick's  I'/iilosophi/  of  a 
Future  State  was  not  only  the  means  of  a  profound 
impression  on  liLs  own  mind,  but  kindled  tlie  desire 
to  devote  his  life  iis  a  missionary  to  the  service  of 
Christ.  Deeply  impressed  with  the  advantages  of 
medical  training  to  a  missionari,',  lie  resolved  to 
qualify  him.self  in  medicine,  as  well  as  the  other 
attainments  looked  for  in  a  missionary.  The 
Lonilon  Mi-ssionary  Society  having  accepted  the 
offer  of  Ills  services,  he  went  to  Lomlon  to  complete 
his  stuilics.  His  first  desire  was  to  labour  in 
China,  but,  war  having  broken  out  between  that 
country  and  (Jreat  Britain,  this  wish  could  not  be 
fulfilleil.  The  Hev.  Kobert  MoH'at's  visit  at  this 
time  to  England  turned  many  hearts  to  Africa — 
Livingstones  among  the  rest;  altimately  he  was 


appointed  to  that  field,  and,  having  been  ordained 
on  20tli  Novemlier  1840,  he  set  sail  for  Africa, 
reaching  Lattakoo  or  Kuruman,  Moffat's  settle- 
ment, on  31st  July  1841. 

For  several  years  Livingstone  laboured  as  a 
niissi(mary  in  the  Bechuana  country,  at  Mabotse, 
Chonnana,  and  Kolobeng,  places  that  were  chosen 
by  him  just  because  they  were  in  the  heart  of 
heathenism.  The  convei'sion  of  Sechclo,  chief  of 
the  Bakwains,  and  several  of  his  tribe  was  a  great 
encouragement.  Repulsed  l)v  the  Boei-s  in  an 
efl'ort  to  plant  native  missionaries  in  the  Transvaal, 
he  directed  his  steps  northward,  discovered  Lake 
Ngami,  and  found  the  country  there  travei'sed  by 
fine  rivei's  and  inhabited  by  a  dense  population. 
His  anxiety  to  benefit  this  region  led  llMally  to  his 
uiulertaking  to  explore  the  whole  count ry  west- 
wards to  tlie  Atlantic  at  St  Paul  de  Loanda  and 
eastward  to  the  Indian  Ocean  at  Quilimane.  Liv- 
ingstone had  married  at  Mabotse  Mary,  eldest 
daughter  of  the  Rev.  R.  Moft'at,  and  now  he  found 
it  necessary  to  send  her,  with  their  cliildren,  to 
England,  tliat  he  might  be  free  for  this  vast  and 
perilous  undertaking.  To  aceomidish  it  occupied 
Irom  8th  June  1852,  when  he  left  Capetown,  to 
26th  May  1S56,  when  he  arrived  at  t^uilimane. 
This  journey  was  accomplished  with  a  mere  handful 
of  followers,  and  a  mere  pittance  of  stores,  amid 
sicknesses  and  other  bodily  troubles,  perils,  and 
difficulties  without  number.  But  a  vast  amount 
of  valuable  information  was  gathered  respecting 
the  country  and  its  products',  its  geography  and 
natural  history,  the  native  tribes,  the  regions  that 
were  favourable  to  healtli,  and  some  great  natural 
wonders,  such  as  the  Zambesi  Falls.  Livingstone, 
however,  found  that  the  Londf)n  Missionary  Society 
were  not  willing  that  he  sliould  be  to  so  large  an 
extent  an  explorer,  and  some  time  after  returning 
to  Britain  he  resigned  his  office  as  one  of  their 
missionaries. 

At  home  Livingstone  was  welcomed  with  extra- 
ordinary enthusiasm,  receiving  the  acknowledg- 
ments and  honours  of  scientific  societies,  universi- 
ties, town-councils,  and  other  iniblic  bodies  in  every 
quarter  of  the  country.  In  addition  to  these  tokens 
of  honour  the  fifteen  months  spent  at  home  were 
signalised  by  three  things  :  the  writing  of  his  book, 
3iissio)iari/  Travels  ( 1857 ),  which  was  received  with 
the  liveliest  interest ;  his  visit  to  Cambridge,  awak- 
ening the  enthusiasm  of  many  of  the  students,  and 
leading  to  the  formation  afterwards  of  the  '  Uni- 
versities Mission;'  and  his  appointment  by  Her 
Majesty's  government  as  chief  of  an  exjiedition  for 
exi)loring  tlie  Zambesi  and  its  tributaries  and  the 
regions  adjacent. 

On  this  expedition  Li^'ingstone  set  out  on  10th 
March  1858.  While  successful  in  many  ways,  it 
led  to  not  a  little  disappointment.  Livingstone 
explored  the  Zambesi,  the  Shire,  and  the  Rovunia ; 
discovered  lakes  Shirwa  and  Nvassa,  ami  came  to 
a  decided  conclusion  that  Lake  Nyassa  and  its 
neighbourhood  was  the  best  Held  for  both  com- 
mercial and  niLssionary  operations.  His  disap- 
poiiitinents  arose  from  the  grievous  defects  of  a 
steamer  sent  out  to  him  by  government;  from  the 
death  of  comrades  .and  helpers,  including  his  wife 
and  Bishop  .M.ickenzie  ;  from  the  abandonment  of 
the  Universities  Mission  ;  from  the  oiiposition  of 
the  Portuguese  authorities  ;  but  mainly  from  the 
distressing  discovery  that,  encourageil  by  Portu- 
gue.se  traders,  the  slave-trade  was  extending  in 
the  district,  and  the  slave-traders  using  his  very 
discoveries  to  facilitate  their  infamous  traflic.  At 
length  a  despatch  recalling  the  expi'<lition  was 
received,  2d  .luly  1863.  Livingstone  at  his  own 
cost  had  brought  out  a  new  steamer,  but  she 
could  not  be  ]>ut  on  the  lake.  l)enres.sed  though 
he  was,  he  ex|iloi'ed  the  northern  lian'ks  of  Lake 


670       LIVINGSTONIA    MISSION 


LIVRE 


Nyassa  on  foot ;  then  in  his  own  vessel  and  under 
his  own  seauianslui)  crossed  the  Indian  Ocean  to 
Bombay  ;  and  after  a  brief  stay  there,  returned  to 
Britain,  reaching  London  on  "iSd  July  1864. 

At  home  Livingstone  had  two  objects — to  expose 
the  atrocious  deeds  of  the  Portuguese  slave- 
traders,  and  to  find  means  of  establishiug  a  settle- 
ment for  missions  and  commerce  somewhere  near 
the  head  of  the  Kovuma,  or  wherever  a  suitable 
locality  could  be  found.  His  second  book,  Tlie 
Zambesi  aiui  its  Tributaries  ( 1865),  was  designed  to 
fnrther  these  objects.  He  wa.s  again  received  with 
every  demonstration  of  honour  and  regard.  A  pro- 
posal was  made  to  him  on  the  part  of  the  Royal 
Geograjihical  Society  to  return  to  Africa  and  settle 
a  disputed  ([uestion  regarding  the  watershed  of 
central  Africa  and  the  sources  of  the  Nile.  He 
said  he  would  go  only  as  a  mLssionary,  but  was 
willing  to  help  to  solve  the  geographical  problem. 
He  set  out  in  August  1865,  rid  Bombay  and 
Zanziljar.  On  19th  March  1866  he  started  from 
the  latter  place,  first  of  all  trying  to  find  a  snit.ible 
settlement,  then  striking  westward  in  order  to 
solve  the  geographical  prolilem.  Througli  the 
ill-behavi<nir  of  some  of  his  attendants  a  report  of 
his  death  was  circulated,  but  an  expedition  headed 
by  Mr  E.  D.  Young,  R.N.,  ascertained  that  tlie 
report  was  false.  Livingstone  pressed  westw.ird 
amid  innumerable  hardships,  and  in  1869  discovered 
Lakes  Meoro  and  Bangweolo.  .-\11  the  wldlo  he 
was  doing  what  he  could  for  the  religiims  euligliten- 
ment  of  tlie  natives,  (jl)liged  to  return  for  I'est  to 
Ujiji,  where  he  found  his  goods  squandered,  he 
struck  westward  again  as  far  as  the  river  Lualaba, 
thinking  it  might  possibly  be  the  Nile,  hut  far 
from  certain  that  it  was  not  what  it  proved  after- 
wards to  be,  the  Congo.  Returning  after  severe 
illness  once  more  to  Ujiji,  Livingstone  found  Mr 
H.  IL  Stanley  there,  who  had  been  sent  to  look 
for  him  by  the  pro|irietor  of  the  Xriv  York  Heriild. 
But  no  consideration  would  induce  him  to  return 
home  till  he  had  maile  one  more  etl'ort  to  solve 
the  geographical  problem.  He  returned  to  Lake 
Bangweolo,  but  fell  into  wretched  health.  His 
sufferings  always  increasing,  when  he  reached 
Chitambo's  village  in  Ilala  he  was  obliged  to  give 
in.  On  the  morning  of  1st  May  1873  he  was 
found  by  his  attendants  on  his  knees,  dead.  His 
faithful  peo))]e  embalmed  his  body  as  be.st  they 
could,  carried  it  amidst  the  greatest  perils  to  the 
shore,  where  it  was  put  on  board  a  Britisli  cruiser, 
and  on  18th  April  1874  it  was  buried  in  West- 
minster -Abbey.  Among  the  remains  brought  home 
were  his  Last  Journals,  brought  ilown  to  within  a 
few  days  of  his  death  ;  these  were  published  in 
1874.  Stanley  suggested  the  name  of  Livingstone 
for  the  main  stream  of  the  C(mgo  (hence  tin? 
Baptist  Mission  on  the  Lower  Congo  was  called 
the  'Livingstone  Inland  Mi.ssi<m'),  and  Mr  H.  H. 
Johnston  propo.sed  that  )iart  of  the  East  African 
teirilory  accjuired  by  Britain  in  1890 — the  lo\\i'r 
drainage  area  of  the  Zambesi — should  be  called 
Livingstone  Land. 

See  Professor  Blaikie's  Personal  Life  of  DaritI  Lii'imi- 
stone  (1880);  the  short  Life  by  Thomas  Hughes  (18811) ; 
and  8ir  H.  H.  Johnston,  Licinyatonc  and  the  Keploralivii 
of  Central  Africa  ( 1891). 

LiviiiKstoiiia  Mission  was  based  im  a  sug- 

ge.stion  made  by  Dr  Livin:;st()iie  tlial  Lake  Nya.-sa 
(ci.v.)  was  the  best  position  for  the  establishment 
of  a  mission  with  a  view  to  the  annilnlalion  of 
the  Forluguese  and  Arab  slave-trade  on  the  east 
of  -Vfrica.  Its  first  settlement  Wiis  at  Ca])i' 
Maclear  at  the  .south  end  of  the  lake;  but  this 
was  abandoned  in  1883  for  a  healthier  site  at 
Bandawe.  half-way  U])  the  west  shore.  An  exjiedi- 
tion,  coslin''  about  £1)000,  was  equipped  in  1875  by 
the  Eree  Cliurch  of  Scotland  for  establishing  the 


mission  here ;  and  another  station,  called  Blan- 
tyre,  after  Livingstone's  birthplace,  was  planted 
in  1876  by  the  Established  (liurch  of  Scotland 
in  the  Shir6  Highlands,  witldu  easy  distance 
of  the  lake.  As  yet  the  chief  iiulustries  are 
iron  manufacture,  basket-making,  and  cloth  manu- 
facture from  the  bark  of  trees  and  cotton.  With 
the  exception  of  the  70  miles  of  the  Jlurchison 
Kails,  there  exists  nubroken  water -communica- 
tion between  the  bead  of  Nyassa  and  the  Indian 
Ocean.  The  African  Lakes  Company  has  done 
much  to  pronn)te  missions,  civilisation,  and  c(nn- 
merce.  It  blasted  a  road  from  the  north  end  of 
Nyassa  up  the  heights  to  tlie  ]dateau  between  it 
and  Tanganyika,  at  a  cost  of  i'4000,  supidieil  by  .Mr 
Stevenson,  after  whom  the  road  is  nameil.  It 
launched  steamers,  educated  the  natives  in  handi- 
crafts, and  liad  to  stand  the  brunt  of  attacks  from 
savage  neighbours,  Arab  slave-traders,  and  I'ortu- 
guese  hostility.  But  since  1890  the  country  is 
under  the  British  flag,  and  is  part  of  Nyassaland 
(see  NvASS.i)  or  British  Central  Africa. 
Living.    See  Livv. 

LivillS  Alldronicns,  the  father  of  Roman 
dramatic  and  epic  poetry,  was  a  Greek  by  birth, 
]M-obably  a  native  of  Tarentum,  and  was  carried  a 
slave  to  Rome  in  272  B.C.,  but  afterwards  liber- 
ated by  his  master.  He  translated  the  Odi/ssey 
into  Latin  Saturnian  verse,  and  wrote  tragedies, 
comedies,  and  hymns  after  Greek  models.  Mere 
fiagments  are  extant,  collected  in  L.  Midler's 
Livi  Andronici  ct  Cn.  Nwri  Fabidarum  Bcli(jiii(e 
(1885).     See  L.vrtN. 

Livonia  (Ger.  Livland),  one  of  the  three  Baltic 
provinces  of  Russia,  to  whicli  belong  also  the  islands 
of  Oesel,  Mohn,  and  Kuno,  contains  an  area  of 
18,153  sq.  m.  It  forms  the  eastern  side  of  the  Gulf 
of  Riga,  and  lies  Ijetween  Esthonia  on  the  north 
and  Courland  on  the  south,  being  separated  from 
this  latter  by  the  river  Dwina.  The  country  is 
mostly  Hat,  and  nearly  one-fourth  of  it  is  covered 
with  forests.  Lakes  and  streams  and  marshes  are 
common.  The  soil  is  only  of  moderate  fertility  ; 
nevertheless  agriculture,  the  chief  occupation,  is 
carried  on  in  a  skilful  manner,  rye,  liaiiey,  oats, 
flax,  and  potatoes  being  the  inincipal  crops.  Dis- 
tilling, brewing,  iron-founding,  oil-pre.ssmg,  and 
cork,  wool,  and  paper  manufacture  are  the  more 
important  industries.  Sawmills  are  active.  The 
fisheries  are  valuable.  Pop.  ( 1870)  1,000,876) :  ( 1893) 
1, '270,530,  of  whom  43  per  cent,  are  Letts,  41i  i)er 
cent.  Estbonians,  S  per  cent.  Germans,  and  5  per 
cent.  Russians.  The  Livonians  jiroper,  a  Einnic 
ra(«  akin  to  the  Esthonians,  have  dwindled 
down  toaliout  2400.  Capital,  Riga;  other  towns, 
Dcnpat,  Pernau,  Wenden.  In  the  first  decade  of 
the  13th  century  the  principality  was  given  to  the 
Knights  of  the  Order  of  the  Sword,  who  in  1237 
were  merged  in  the  order  of  the  Teutonic  Knights, 
and  maintained  their  sovereignty  against  the  .Arch- 
bishop of  Riga,  anij  against  Sweden,  I'oland, 
Lithuania,  and  Ru.ssia  down  to  past  the  middle  of 
tlie  16th  century.  Krom  that  time  Livoida  was  a 
bone  of  contention  between  I'olaml,  Sweden,  and 
Russia,  until  its  incor[ioration  with  the  last-named 
country  in  1721.  Since  the  middle  of  the  19th 
century,  and  especially  since  1881,  the  Russians 
have  made  determined  efforts  to  'russify'  the 
province. 

Livorno.    See  Leohorn. 

Livro,  the  name  of  an  ancient  French  coin, 
derived  from  the  Kouum  Libra.  There  were  livres 
of  different  values,  the  most  inqiortant  being  the 
Lirrr  Toiirnois  (of  Tours),  which  was  considered 
the  standard,  and  the  Lirrc  I'arisis  (of  Paris), 
which  was  equal  to  five-fourths  of  a  livre  Tonnioi.s. 
It  was  divided  into  '20  sous,  each  of  12  deniers.     In 


LIVY 


LIZARDS 


671 


I'Q-)  the  livre  was  supersedeil  by  the  franc  ( 80  francs 
=  81  livres  Tournois).  — LiVRE  wius  also  tlie  ancient 
French  unit  of  weight,  and  was  equal  to  about  1  lb. 
avoirdupois;  the  kilo<;raninie  (see  GRAMME)  has 
talvLMi  its  place. 

Livy.  Titus  Livirs  (59  B.C.-17  a.d.),  Rome's 
greatest  historian,  was  born,  according  to  St  Jerome, 
at  Putaviuui  (now  Padua)  in  the  Venetian  province, 
in  Julius  Ca?sar"s  first  consulshiii.  Of  a  noble  and 
wealthy  family,  he  received  the  usual  education  in 
rhetoric  and  philosophy,  and  on  coming  to  Rome 
was  admitted  to  the  court  of  Augustus.  Inde- 
pendent in  character  and  means,  lie  never  flattered 
the  emperor  like  \'irgil  and  Horace,  but,  avowing 
his  jirelerence  for  the  re|)ublic  over  the  nuuiarcliy, 
he  foresaw  in  the  giowth  of  lu.xury  the  fall  of  the 
empire,  and  in  the  loss  of  freedom  the  end  of  Rome. 
He  praised  Brutus  and  t'assius  and  sympathise<l 
with  Pompey,  at  the  same  time  stigmatising  Cicero, 
an  accessory  to  the  murder  of  C;rsar,  as  having  got 
from  Antony's  bravoes  only  his  deserts.  Of  the 
great  C;esar  himself  he  doubted  whether  he  was 
more  of  a  curse  or  .a  blessing  to  the  common- 
wealth ;  and  throughout  his  history  he  seems  to 
have  mentioned  Augustus  but  twice,  and  that  inci- 
dentally— though  in  reply  to  the  Greek  Timagenes, 
the  detractor  wliile  the  guest  of  Augustus,  he  says 
that  by  restoring  peace  and  allaying  civil  strife  the 
emperor  had  reinvigorated  Rome  to  overcome  a 
thousand  armies  more  formidable  than  the  Mace- 
donian Alexanders.  Such  frieiuiship  as  they  had 
for  each  other  Livy  and  Augustus  never  lost — 
Augustus  taking  a  lively  interest  in  the  progress  of 
Livy's  work,  while  Livy  seems  to  have  been  still 
intimate  enough  at  court  to  e.xhort  the  future 
Emperor  Claudius  (born  10  B.C.)  to  the  study  of 
history.  Livy  had  a  son,  also,  it  is  believed,  a  man 
of  letters,  and  a  daughter  married  to  Magius  the 
rhetorician.  He  visited  various  parts  of  Italy — 
among  them  Campania  and  the  Neapolitan  sea- 
tward,  and,  probably  in  disgust  at  the  aliasemeut  of 
the  senate  and  the  cruelties  of  Tiberius,  he  returned 
to  his  native  Patavium  to  die. 

Li\-j-s  work,  recording  the  history  of  Rome  from 
her  foundation  to  the  death  of  Drusus,  9  B.C.,  was 
published  in  instalments,  and  comprised  142  books, 
of  which  those  from  the  Iltli  to  the  20th,  and  from 
the  46th  to  the  142d,  have  been  lost.  Of  the  35 
that  remain  the  4lst  and  43d  are  imperfect.  The 
last  writer  to  notice  the  history  as  still  entire  is 
PrLscian  the  grammarian  (otli  century).  Its  volu- 
ininousness,  the  labour  and  cost  of  transcription, 
and  i)ossibly  the  vindictive  hatred  of  emperors,  like 
Caligula,  to  its  republican  spirit,  combined,  it  is 
supposed,  to  lessen  the  number  of  copies,  till  those 
that  snrWved  must  have  perished  in  whole  or  in 
part,  with  such  pagan  liliraries  as  Gregory  the 
Great  is  known  to  have  burned.  The  hope,  re- 
newed at  intervals,  of  recovering  the  lost  books 
has  never  been  realised  ;  the  '  perioch.'e,'  or  sum- 
maries of  the  contents  of  each  book,  composed  in 
the  wane  of  Roman  literature,  to  catalogue  names 
and  events  for  rhetorical  purposes,  have  all,  how- 
ever, come  down  to  us,  except  those  of  books  136 
and  137.  But  what  has  been  spared  is  more 
than  enough  to  confirm  in  modern  days  the 
judgment  of  antiquity  which  jilaces  Livy  in  the 
forefront  of  Latin  writers.  His  impartiality, 
subject  always  to  a  conviction  just  esca|)ing 
Chauvinism  that  Rome  morally  and  materially 
was  the  gieatest  '  birth  of  time,'  is  not  less  a 
note  of  his  work  than  his  veneration  for  the  good, 
the  generous,  the  heroic  in  man.  His  style,  save 
where  the  text  still  delies  the  commentator,  is  as 
nearly  perfect  as  is  compatible  with  his  ideal  of 
the  historian.  The  narrative  Hows  deep  and  full, 
never  straying  beyond  its  banks  nor  growing  turbid 
within    them,   picturesque  on   all   due    occasions, 


interesting  and  animated  tlirou"h  historic  tracts 
often  dreary  in  themselves.  Niebuhr  found  in  his 
rich,  at  times  sombre,  glow  of  colour  another  proof 
of  his  Venetian  origin  :  certainly  for  portraiture  of 
character  he  is  the  Titian  of  historians.  The 
fastidious,  ]>ossibly  jealous,  Asinius  Pollio  detected 
in  his  Latinity  a  i)rovincialism  redolent  of  Patavium, 
but  latter-day  scholars  seek  for  this  '  Patavinitas ' 
in  vain — find,  in  fact,  nothing  more  than  the  lii'st 
faint  streaks  of  the  silver  age  revealed  in  an  occa- 
sional preference  for  poetic  diction.  His  defects 
in  the  'fierce  light'  of  modern  research  are  more 
apparent  to  us  than  even  to  his  contemporaries,  por 
investigation  of  facts  he  did  not  go  far  afield  ;  our 
own  Hume  is  not  more  of  an  arm-chair  historian. 
He  declined  even  at  the  instance  of  Augustus  to 
verify  an  important  inscription  in  the  temple  of 
Jupiter  Feretrius,  and  he  omitted  to  consult  the 
epigraphs  inscribed  in  the  temple  of  Diana  on  the 
Aventine,  the  treaties  concluded  by  Itome  with 
Gabii  and  Ardea,  even  the  Icilian  law  which 
Dionysius  examined  with  such  pains.  Acccjiling 
history  as  fine  art  rather  than  as  science,  he  was 
content  to  take  his  authorities  as  he  found  them, 
and  where  they  difVered  to  act  the  eclectic,  guided 
by  taste  or  predilection.  Yet  his  work  remains 
monumental,  in  spite  of  all  the  streaks  in  the 
marble,  and  the  modern  reader  never  fails  to 
appreciate  that  impulse  of  the  Spaniard  from 
Gades  who  made  a  pilgrimage  to  Rome  just  to  see 
Livy,  and  having  done  so  returned  satbfied. 

The  bibliography  accumulated  round  Livy  is  a  hbrary 
in  itself.  Gronovius,  Drakenborcb,  Kuddinian,  and,  in  our 
own  day,  Madvig,  Alscliefski,  "Weissenborn,  and  Cocchia 
have  contributed  much  to  piu-ify  his  text  and  illustrate 
his  meaning.  He  has  yet  to  find  an  adequate  translator 
in  English,  though  meritorious  versions  of  parts  of  his 
history  ( that  of  Church  and  Brodribb  for  example.  Books 
xxi.-xxv.)  have  been  pubHshed,  and  there  is  a  transla- 
tion of  the  wliole,  in  fine  Elizabethan  Englisli,  br  Phile- 
mon Holland  (1600).  See  the  book  by  the  Eev."W.  W. 
Capes  in  '  Classical  Writers  '  1 1879) ;  J.  H.  Taine's  Essai 
sur  Tite Lire  {li-60) ;  and  Prof.  Seeley's  introduction  to 
his  edition  of  Book  i.  (1871). 

Lixiviation  ( Lat.  lix,  'ashes' ),  a  term  employed 
in  chemistry  to  denote  the  process  of  washing  or 
steeping  certain  substances  in  a  fluid,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  dissolving  a  portion  of  their  ingredients, 
and  so  separating  them  from  the  insoluble  residue. 
Thus,  wood-ash  is  lixiviated  with  water  to  dissolve 
out  the  carbonates  of  soda  and  potash  from  the 
insoluble  parts.  The  solution  thus  obtained  is 
called  a  lixivium,  or  ley. 

Lixouri,  a  thriving  town  in  Cephalonia,  on  the 
west  side  of  the  Gulf  of  Argostoli.  It  lies  opposite 
the  capital,  Argostoli  (q.v.),  at  a  distance  of  less 
than  3  miles,  though  the  road  round  the  gulf  is 
nearly  20  miles  long.     Pop.  8000. 

Lizard  Poiut.    See  Cornwall. 

Lizards  ( Lacertilia ),  an  order  of  reptiles  occupy- 
in;;  a  somewhat  central  position  in  that  class.  The 
body  is  visually  well  covered  with  scales,  reaching 
a  climax  in  the  tubercles  and  spines  covering  the 
Australian  moloch,  but  very  much  reduced  in  the 
geckos  and  amphisba-nas.  There  are  generally  fore 
and  hind  limbs,  but  either  pair  may  be  lo>t,  or 
both  in  such  serpent-like  forms  iis  the  slow-worm 
(Aiif/iiis fniiiitis)  and  the  aniphisba'iias.  Shoulder 
and  liip  girdles  are  always  present,  in  rudiment  at 
lejLst.  Unlike  snakes,  lizards  have  non  expansible 
mouths,  aiul  almost  always  movable  eyelids  ami 
external  ear-openings.  The  teeth  are  fused  to  the 
jaws,  not  olanted  in  sockets;  the  protrusible  tongue, 
broad  anil  short  in  geckos,  aganias,  and  ignamus, 
long  and  tiMiiiinally  clubbed  in  channi  Icons,  is  ill 
most  lizards  a  narrow,  worm-like,  biliil  organ  of 
touch.  There  is  a  transvei-se  cloacal  .iperture,  a. 
urinary  bladder,  and  a  double  copulalury  organ. 


672 


LLAMA 


LLANDUDNO 


Most  are  oviparous,  Imt  a  few — e.g.  the  slow-worm 
ami  our  Hritisli  Xoirj/d  (Zuufurii)  vifi/iiini — briiij; 
forth  their  young  living.  Lizards,  though  most 
abundant  in  the  tropics,  and  absent  from  very  cold 
countries,  are  virtually  world-wide  in  distribution. 
There  is  one  marine  form,  Orcoccj)/i(tl  us  (AiiiMi/rhi/ii- 
chiis)  cnstatiis,  from  the  Galapagos:  most  of  the 
rest  are  terrestrial.  Yet  the  geckos  climU  on  rocks 
and  trees,  the  giant  \'aranida'  are  semi-aquatic, 
the  amphisbiena-s  are  subterranean,  and  the  arboreal 
dragons  (Draco)  take  long  swoops  through  the  air 
from  branch  to  branch.  The  food  generally  con- 
sists of  insects,  worms,  and  similar  small  animals, 
but  some  prey  upon  larger  animals,  and  others  are 
vegetarian.  "Lizards  are  usually  active,  agile  ani 
mais,  lieautifully  and  often  protectively  coloured. 
They  are  noteworthy  for  britlleness  in  the  caudal 
region,  and  for  their  power  of  reproducing  lost  tails 
or  even  legs.  Amoii"  the  most  remarkable  form> 
may  be  noted  the  Geckos  (q.v.) ;  the  large  monitors 
(Varanus),  which  attain  a  length  of  six  feet,  and 
prey  ujion  small  mammals,  birds,  frogs,  fishes,  and 
eggs ;  the  jioisonous  Mexican  lizard,  lleloderiiut  /tor- 
riJiiin,  with  large  poison-gland  and  fang-like  teeth  ; 
the  worm-like  Amphisbasnas ;  the  Slow-worm, 
whicli  illustrates  so  well  the  tendency  lizards  have 
to  break  in  the  spasms  of  capture ;  the  large  Iguanas, 
which  frequent  tropical  American  forests,  and  feed 
on  leaves  and  fruit ;  the  sluggish  spiny  '  Horned 
Toads'  (Phrynosoraa) ;  the  Aganuis,  taking  the 
place  of  the  iguanas  in  the  Old  \^'orld  ;  the  Flying 
Ihagon  ( q.  V. ) ;  the  Australian  frilled  lizanls  (t'hlamy- 
dosaurus),  with  a  peculiar  collar  of  skin;  the  re- 
pulsive molocli ;  and  the  divergent  Chama'leons 
(q.v.).  The  unique  New-  Zealand  lizard,  Sphenodim 
or  Hatteria,  with  its  remarkable  persistent  pineal 


of  foraging  for  itself  make  it  most  valuable  for 
transport  in  the  rough  and  steej)  mining  regions  of 
the  Andes.  In  many  places,  however,  mules  have 
to  some  extent  replaced  the  llamas.  The  males 
carry  a  hundredweight  about  twelve  miles  in  a 
day.     The  females,  which  are  kept  for  breeding. 


Coniinoii  Lizard  {Laeerta  vivipara). 

eye,  is  to  be  regarded  as  the  sole  survivor  of  a 
distinct  order — Khyncocephalia  (see  Si'HENODOM). 
There  are  four  British  lizards,  the  commonest 
being  Laccrta  vivipara  and  the  Slow-worm.  Two 
otlier  species  of  Lacerta— Z^.  a/jilii:  and  the  green 
L.  viridis — have  a  local  distribution  in  the  south  of 
England  and  the  Channel  Islands.  The  modern 
forms  are  cla-ssilied  in  twenty-one  families,  includ- 
ing over  1600  species.  Though  Lacertilia  i)robably 
began  about  the  I'ermian  times,  their  remains  are 
not  numerovis  before  Tertiary  strata.  See  (.;.  A. 
Boulenger,  Catalogue  of  the  Liz.ards  in  the  British 
Museuin  (3  vols.  1885-87). 

Llama,  or  L.vm.v  (Auchenia  lama),  a  most 
tiseful  South  American  ruminant  of  the  camel 
family.  It  is  probably  a  domesticated  variety  of 
the  guanaco  (Anchcnici  haaiiaru),  whose  herds 
roam  with  the  rheas  on  the  plains  of  Patagonia, 
or  climl)  on  the  Cordillera.s.  As  a  beast  of  burden 
the  llama  wius  in  general  use  at  the  time  of  the 
Spanish  conquest,  and  its  sure-footedness  and  power 


J_l._:._    ,_.  l'(  lama). 

are  smaller  and  less  strong  than  the  males.  The 
animal  is  larger  and  stouter  than  the  allied  species 
the  Alpaca  (q.v.),  stands  aliout  three  feet  high  at 
the  shoulders,  and  keeps  its  head  raised.  It  is 
gentle  and  docile,  but  is  likely  enough  to  squirt  its 
yellow  spittle  in  the  face  of  tormentius.  Tlie  hair, 
which  may  be  black  or  white,  reddish  or  yellowish, 
Ls  too  roilgh  to  be  much  used  except  for  coarse 
materials  and  string ;  the  flesh  of  the  young  animal 
is  good  to  eat. 

Llailbcris,  the  'Chamonix  of  Wales,' 9  miles 
ESE.  of  Carnarvon,  lies  at  the  north-west  base  of 
Snowdon,  and  near  the  foot  of  the  wild  Pass  of 
Llanberis.  The  two  lakes  of  Llanberis,  2  and  \\ 
miles  long,  ai-e  sadly  disfigured  by  slate-quarries. 
Pop.  of  parislu  ISen  1364;  (1881)3033;  (1891)2818. 

Llaildair.  a  small  town  of  Glamorganshire,  on 
the  right  bank  of  the  Tatt',  2  miles  N\\'.  of  Cardiff 
(q.v.).  It  is  the  seat  of  a  very  ancient  bishopric, 
said  to  have  been  founded  by  St  Duljricius,  who 
died  in  612,  and  among  whose  successoi-s  have  been 
St  Teilo  and  Bishops  Godwin,  Shute  Barrington, 
Richard  Watson,  Sumner,  and  Copleston.  The 
cathedral  church,  in  virtue  of  which  LlandatV  is 
a  'city  ' — one  of  the  smallest  in  Britain — was  built 
between  1120  and  the  first  half  of  the  13th  century, 
and  is  mainly  Early  English  in  style.  It  had  fallen 
into  utter  ruin  in  1575,  but  in  1735-52  w;us  barbar- 
ously patched  up  into  an  '  Italian  temple.'  In  1843- 
69  it  was  thoroughly  restored.  Pop.  2747.  See 
works  by  E.  A.  Freeman  ( 1850),  Bishop  Ollivant 
(18601,  and  R.  J.  King  •  1873). 

Llaildilo.  a  town  of  South  Wales,  on  the  Towy, 
14  miles  K\K.  of  Carmarthen.  It  gives  name  to  a 
group  of  Silurian  strata.     Pop.  1533. 

Llandovery,  a  municipal  borough  (1484)  of 
South  Wales,  oil  the  Bran,  25  miles  ENK.  of  Car- 
marthen. It  gives  name  to  a  groui)  of  Silurian 
strata.     Pop.  1728. 

Llandudno,  a  fiishionable  watering-place  in 
Carnarvonshire,  North  Wales,  is  situated  on  the 
level  neck  of  a  promontory  between  the  Great  and 
Little  Urine's  Heads,  48  niiles  by  rail  WNW.  of 
Chester.  Its  bracing  and  delightful  climate,  its 
goo<l  sea-bathing,  and  its  picturesque  surroundings 
—the  Great  Orme's  Head  (700  feet)  commanding 
views  of  Snowdon  and  Angle.sey,  and  even  (if  -Man 
and  the  Cumberland  mountains— have  combined  to 
raise  Llandudno  since  1841  from  a  small  fishing- 
village  to  a  yearly  resort  of  some  20,000  visitors, 


LLANELLY 


LLOYD'S 


673 


with  many  hotels  and  boarding -houses,  hydro- 
pathies, a"  fine  promenade,  a  pier  (1250  feet),  a 
'ni.iriiio  drive'  (oA  miles),  iK.o.  Resident  pop. 
(ISol)  ini  :  (1SS1)'4S39:  (1891)0065. 

Llailt'lly*  •I  manufacturing  town  and  seaport  of 
Carmanlieii>liire,  South  Wales,  11  miles  WNW.  of 
Swanseju  The  mineral  wealth  of  the  vicinity,  and 
the  easy  access  to  the  sea,  have  raised  it  from  a 
mere  village  in  1  SI 3  to  a  town  of  considerahle  eoui- 
mercial  imiiorlauce.  The  C'auiUriaii  copper-works 
employ  a  great  number  of  the  inhabitants  ;  there 
are  also  silver,  leail,  inm,  an<l  tin  works,  potteries, 
chemical  works,  &c.  Large  docks  have  heen  eon- 
structeil,  and  coal  is  largely  exported.  With  Car- 
iiiartheu  it  returns  one  member  to  parliament. 
Top.  ( 1S51  )  N71U  :  ( 18S1 )  19,655  ;  ( 1S91  )  24,307. 

Llanfairrefliail,  a  pleasant  little  watering- 
place  of  Carnarvonshire,  North  Wales,  at  the  base 
of  Penmaeumawr,  7  miles  WSW.  of  Conway. 
Pop.  of  parisli  ( 1S51 )  809  ;  ( 1891 )  2407. 

Llansollen,  a  town  of  Denbighshire,  Nortli 
Wales,  picturesquely  situateil  on  the  Dee,  22  miles 
SW.  of  Chester  and  26  XW.  of  Shrewsbury.  It 
has  a  town  hall  (1866)  and  flannel  manufactures, 
and  is  \  isited  by  tourists  on  account  of  the  beauty 
of  the  famous  Vale  of  Llangollen,  and  for  its  anti- 
quities, among  which  are  Dinas  Bran  or  Crow- 
Castle,  Valle  Crucis  Abbey  (1200),  and  Eliseg's 
Pillar  (8th  or  9th  century).  Plas  Newydd,  i  mile 
S.  of  the  bridge,  was  for  half  a  century  the  resi- 
dence of  the  two  Irish  recluses,  the  '  Ladies  of  the 
Vale,'  or  '  Maids  of  Llangollen,'  Lady  Eleanor 
Butler  (174.5-^1829)  and  Miss  Sarah  "Ponsonby 
( 1755-1831 ),  who  were  visited  here  by  Madame  de 
Genlis,  Miss  Seward,  De  Quincey,  and  many  other 
celebrities.  Pop.  5546.  See  Simpson's  History  of 
Llangollen  (3d  ed.  1852). 

Llanidloes,  a  municipal  and  parliamentaiy 
borougli  of  Slontgomeryshire,  North  Wales,  on  tlie 
Severn,  5UA  miles  NW.  of  Herefoid  by  rail  and  56 
SW.  of  Shrewsbury.  Its  interesting  church,  built 
partly  with  materials  from  Cwmhir  Abbey,  was 
restored  in  1882.  Considerable  manufactures  of 
flannel  and  other  woollen  fabiics  are  carried  on ; 
and  in  the  neiglihonrhood  are  extensive  lead-mines. 
With  Montgomerv,  &.C.,  Llanidloes  returns  a  mem- 
ber.     Pop.  ( 1851  )'3045  ;  ( 1881 )  3421  ;  ( 1891 )  2574. 

Llanos  (Span.,  'plains,'  from  Lat.  planus, 
'  level ; '  pron.  li/a'nos)  are  vast  plains  in  the  north- 
ern portion  of  South  America,  in  some  parts  barren 
and  sandy,  in  othei-s  covered  with  luxuriant  grass 
and  stockeil  with  itmumerable  herds  of  cattle.  (Jver 
great  portions,  however,  there  is  a  lieavy  growth  of 
timber.  The  Uaneros  resemble  the  Gauchos  ( q.  v. ) 
farther  south. 

Llanthoiiy,  on  the  Honddu,  in  Monmouth- 
sliire.  20  miles  N.  of  Abergavenny,  a  Cistercian 
abbey,  founded  in  1108.  Its  church  and  chapter- 
house form  a  tine  ruin  in  the  Transition  Norman 
style.  In  the  Prior's  Lodge,  now  an  inn,  Walter 
Savage  Landor  lived  for  three  years  after  his  mar- 
riage, until  driven  away  by  worries  that  harassed 
all  his  life.  He  had  spent  much  toil  and  money 
on  attempts  to  improve  the  natural  sterility  of 
the  soil.  Four  miles  up  the  valley  is  Llanthony 
'  Monastery,'  founded  by  '  Father  Ignatius.' 

Llcrena«  a  town  of  Si>ain,  83  miles  by  rail  N.  of 
Sc-ville.  Near  here  the  British  cavalry  routed  the 
French  cavalry  on  April  11,  1812.      Pop.  .").VJ2. 

LU'W«'l.vn.    See  Bkkcknock.siiike. 

Llorcnte.  Ju.vn  Antonio,  the  historian  of 
the  Spanish  Inquisition,  wa.s  born  at  Kincon  del 
Soto,  near  Calahorra,  in  1756.  He  was  trained  for 
the  priestluH)d  and  took  orders  early,  but  his  studies 
were  cliielly  secular — history,  arelueology,  and  juris- 
prudence—and in  his  memoirs  he  confes.ses  an 
303  


inclination  to  the  French  philosophv  of  the  day. 
His  advancement,  howe\er,  was  rapid.  He  became 
vicar-general  of  the  tlioce.se  in  1782,  agent  of  the 
Inquisition  at  Logrofio  in  1785,  and  canon  of  Cala- 
horra and  secretary  to  the  Inquisition  in  1789. 
The  projected  reforms  in  the  i>roccdure  of  the  Holy 
Office  brought  him  into  close  connection  with 
Jovellanos,  and  the  imprisonment  of  the  minister 
drove  him  into  retirement  for  a  time  ;  but  in  1805 
he  found  favour  with  Goiloy,  whom  lie  served  by 
justifying  uu  historical  grounds  his  attack  on  the 
fueros  of  tlie  Basque  Provinces.  In  1806  he  was 
made  canon  of  Ttdedo,  and  was  on  the  high  road 
to  a  bishopric  when  Napoleon  put  a  stop  to  his 
|)romotion.  He  was,  however,  included  among  the 
Notables  assembled  at  Bayonne  to  ratify  the  French 
u.surpation.  King  Joseph,  who  stood  in  need  of 
ailaptable  Spaniards,  gave  him  a  seat  in  his  council 
of  state,  and  appointed  him  to  sundry  posts  m(U-e 
or  less  connected  with  conliscation  ;  and  in  1809, 
when  the  Inquisition  was  sup[)ressed,  i)laced  all  its 
archives  in  his  hands  that  he  might  write  its 
liistory.  But  the  times  aft'orded  little  leisure  for  the 
task.  The  ebb  and  How  of  war  kept  Joseph  always 
on  the  move,  and  Llorente  followed  his  fortunes 
with  a  fidelity  that  would  be  admirable  but  for 
the  fact  that  his  life  was  not  safe  among  his  own 
counti-jnien.  After  the  battle  of  Vitoria  he  effected 
his  retreat  to  Paris,  and  there,  translated  into 
French  under  his  own  eyes  by  Alexis  Pellier,  the 
work  came  out  at  last  in  1817-18.  The  Sjjanish 
edition  did  not  ajijiear  tUl  1822,  as  the  Inquisition, 
restored  by  Ferdinand,  survived  till  1820.  The 
\  alue  and  importance  of  the  book,  notwithstanding 
its  want  of  method,  were  recognised  at  once. 
There  was  a  2d  edition  in  1818,  and  translations  in 
German,  English,  and  Italian  followed  si)ee<lily ; 
but  it  provoked  bitter  feeling,  to  which  Llorente 
added  in  1822  by  his  Portrait  Politique  ties  Popes, 
and  at  the  instance  of  the  clerical  jiarty  he  was 
ordered  to  quit  France  forthw  itli.  He  set  out  for 
Madrid,  and  a  few  days  after  his  arrival  died 
(Februaiy  5,  1823),  broken  down  by  the  fatigues 
of  a  hasty  journey  in  severe  winter  weather. 
Llorente's  time-serving  char.acter,  his  animus 
against  the  Inquisition,  the  Church,  and  the  pope, 
and  his  admi.ssion  of  having  burned  documents 
have  been  urged  as  reasons  against  his  trust- 
worthiness. But  the  most  learned  of  his  opponents, 
Hefele,  can  bring  no  graver  charge  against  him 
than  tliat  the  number  he  gives  for  the  victims  at 
I  Seville  in  one  year  should  have  been  distributed 
over  several  years  and  among  several  cities.  His 
account  of  tlie  burning  of  some  of  the  paiiers  is 
perfectly  straightforward,  and  his  sentiments  as  to 
the  Inquisition  are  always  frankly  declared.  It  is 
open,  of  course,  to  its  apologists  to  say  that  he 
may  have  kept  hack  facts  in  its  favour,  but  critics 
of  unimpeachable  impartiality  and  competence, 
Prescott,  Ticknor,  anil  Buckle,  to  name  no  others, 
testify  to  the  accuracy  ami  honesty  of  his  work. 
His  minor  works,  some  twenty  or  thirty  in  number, 
include  an  account  of  the  origin  of  the  fueros  of 
the  Basijue  Provinces  ;  the  Annals  of  the  Inquisi- 
tion as  far  as  the  year  1530  ;  a  short  autobiography, 
in  which  he  defends  his  F'rench  partisanship  as 
prudent  patriotism  ;  and  his  Critical  Obserrations 
on  Gil  Bias  ( 1822).     See  Lsi.A  and  Le  S.\GE. 

Lloyd's  is  in  the  first  ])lacc  an  association  of 
underwriters,  each  of  whom  conducts  his  business 
according  to  his  own  views.  For  those  view  s,  or  for 
the  business  transacted  hy  individual  underwriters, 
Lloyd's  as  a  corpmation  is  in  no  way  responsible, 
except  that  the  cuiumiltce  of  l,li>yd's  before  the 
election  of  any  underwriting  member  requires  that 
the  candidate  shall  place  in  the  hamis  of  the 
committee  .security  to  meet  his  underwriting  liabili- 
ties.    For  many  years  this  custom  has  prevailed, 


674 


LLOYD'S 


and  the  total  secuiities  thus  placed  at  the  disposal 
of  the  coiniiiittee  of  Ll()y<l  s  ainount  to  al)Out 
£4,000,000.  It  is  dilliciilt  to  cstiniate  the  value 
of  piopertv  annually  insured  at  IJoyd's,  hut  it 
probably  amounts  to"  about  £400,000, (ioo.  Lloyd  s 
a-s  a  corporation,  and  the  committee  as  its  execu- 
tive, have  little  to  do  with  marine  insurance. 
Their  business  is  to  conduct  tlie  ali'airs  of  Lloyd's 
in  its  corporate  capacity,  to  carry  out  the  sujiply 
and  distribution  of  ship])int;  intelligence,  and  to 
guard  a.s  trustees  the  cor|)orate  funds  and  corporate 
pro])erty. 

The  name  of  Lloyd's  is  derived  from  a  coft'ee- 
hou.se  kept  by  Mr  Edward  Lloyd  in  the  17th  cen- 
tury. In  1692  Lloyd's  cotleebouse  moved  from 
Tower  Street  to  Lombard  Street,  where  it  became 
the  centre  of  shipping  and  underwriting  business ; 
and  in  1774  Lloyd's  moved  from  the  coiree-house 
in  Lombard  Street  to  the  north-eastern  premises  of 
the  Royal  Excliange,  where  it  occupied,  on  the  first 
floor,  the  rooms  hitherto  held  by  the  East  India 
Company  The  wars,  which  lasted  from  1775  with 
but  short  pauses  till  1815,  raised  Lloyd's  to  the 
high  position  which  It  now  holds,  bringing  home 
to  merchants  the  necessity  of  covering  their  risks 
as  elt'ectually  as  possible.  High  premiums  a<le(]uate 
to  high  risks  were  ottered.  Merchants  of  wealth 
became  insurers  of  property  alloat,  and  tens  of 
thousands  w-ere  written  in  the  names  of  single 
underwriters  at  Lloyd's.  The  wars  had  the  effect 
of  bringing  foreign  marine  insurance  from  all  parts 
of  the  world  to  Great  Britain,  since  the  security 
of  Lloyd's  then,  as  now,  was  unequalled  in  the 
world.  The  membership  of  Lloyd's  has  greatlj- 
increased  :  in  1S.")0  there  were  210  underwriting 
membei-s  ;  in  1800,  592. 

In  the  second  jilace,  Lloyd's  is  an  enormous 
organisation  for  the  collection  and  distribution  of 
marine  intelligence.  The  intelligence  department  of 
Lloyd's  was  originally  established  at  Lloyd  s  cott'ee- 
liouse  to  meet  the  imblic  desire  for  information 
with  regai'd  to  vessels  at  sea.  Lloyd's  Neics  was 
established  in  1696,  and  resuscitated  in  1726  under 
the  name  of  Lloi/d'n  List,  which  is  thus  the  oldest 
newspaper  e.xLsting  in  Europe  at  the  present  time, 
with  the  e.xception  of  the  London  Gazette.  The 
intelligence  department  at  Lloyd's  ha.s  continually 
developed.  During  the  Napoleonic  wars  the 
government  was  often  indebted  to  the  committee 
of  Lloyd's  for  the  earliest  information  of  trans- 
actions all  over  the  world. 

The  great  wealth  of  Lloyd's,  and  the  fortunes 
made  there,  attracted  general  attention,  and  in 
1810  parliament  appointed  a  committee  to  inquire 
into  the  atl'airs  of  the  institution.  From  this  in- 
quiry Lloyd's  emerged  victoriously,  and  since  that 
time  has  "continued  to  assist  in  the  promotion  of 
every  measure  which  might  aid  in  the  preservation 
of  life  at  sea,  the  ]irevention  of  fraud  in  connection 
with  marine  insurance,  an<l  tlie  rapid  collection  and 
distribution  of  maritime  intelligence  to  all  interested. 
The  corporation  luis  its  agents  in  every  port,  and 
there  is  no  line  of  sea-coast  in  the  whole  world 
which  is  not  watched  by  some  repre.'^entative  of 
Lloyd's.  In  1871  Lloyd's  was  incorporated  by  act 
of  parliament.  The  general  introduction  of  tele- 
graphy has  caused  an  enormous  development  of  the 
information  received  atanddistributeil  from  Lloyd's. 
Various  works  are  i)ublished  by  the  cor|)oration  for 
the  benefit  of  the  mercantile  community,  such  as 
Lloyd' s  List,  Lloyits  Weekly  Stiipjiinij  Index,  and 
Lloyd's  ConfideHliul  Index.  The  Mereantilc  Navy 
IJst,  International  Code  List,  and  British  Code 
List  are  edited  by  the  UegisI rar-general  of  Seamen, 
and  published  by  Lloyd's.  At  Lloyd's  is  also  main- 
tained a  Captains'  Iteyister,  showing  the  services 
of  every  master  in  the  mercantile  marine ;  and 
much  coniidential  information   of  great   value  to 


underwriters  is  collected  in  the  secretary's  office 
fm-  the  benelit  of  members  and  subscribers  to  the 
corjjoration. 

The  value  of  signal-st<ations  as  a  means  of  i)ro- 
viding  early  shi|)piiig  information  is  great,  not  only 
to  underwriters,  but  to  owners  of  vessels  and  car- 
goes, as  it  is  frequently  of  advantage  that  a  vessel 
making  for  some  particular  port  should  be  inter- 
cepted ami  ordered  to  some  other  ])ort.  Vessels 
arriving  off  outlying  signal-stations  bring  imiiortaiit 
intelligence  as  to  derelicts  and  wrecks  passed  on 
their  voyages  ;  as  also  information  of  vessels  in  dis- 
tress and  requiring  assistance.  Vessels  arriving 
from  long  voyages  overdue  are  also  rejHJrted  at  these 
stations.  Not  one  vessel  in  ten  bound  to  ]iorts  in 
the  United  Kingdom  from  distant  ports  arrives  at 
her  terminal  port  without  fust  being  reported  from 
one  of  Lloyd's  signal-stations.  The  corporation  of 
Lloyd's  now  holds  a  similar  position  with  regard  to 
signal-stati<ms  to  that  occupied  by  the  corjioration 
of  the  Trinity  House  with  regard  to  lighthouses. 
These  valuable  aids  in  the  preservation  of  life  and 
property  are  one  of  the  latest  developments  of  this 
great  corporation.  Lloyd's  also  maintains  an  '  In- 
quiry OHice,'  where  the  relations  of  the  crew  or 
passengers  in  any  vessel  may  obtain  information 
without  cost  concerning  the  movements  of  that 
vessel  or  any  other  matter  of  interest  to  them. 

Lloyds  KisiiisTiiit  is  a  society  voluntarily 
maintained  by  the  shipping  comnmuity  with  the 
primary  object  of  classifying  vessels  according  to 
their  strength  and  etiiciency  for  the  safe  carriage  of 
cargoes.  It  is  the  recognised  authority  on  such 
matters  in  the  United  Kingdom,  and  also  to  a  very 
considerable  extent  iu  foreign  countries.  The 
society's  atl'airs  are  managed  by  a  committee  of 
fifty  members,  composed  of  merchants,  shipowners, 
and  underwriters,  elected  to  rei)resent  the  important 
shi|jping  centres  of  the  country.  The  numerous 
duties  of  the  society  are  executed  nnder  the  control 
of  the  committee  by'  a  stall' of  134  ship  and  engineer 
surveyors  in  the  United  Kingdom,  and  of  121  ap- 
pointed at  the  principal  foreign  ports.  Kules  are 
published  annually  by  the  society,  embodying  the 
best  current  practice  in  the  construction  of  ships 
and  engines.  Both  new  and  old  vessels  can  be 
classed  nnder  these  rules.  In  the  case  of  a  new 
vessel  the  plans  for  construction  are  in  the  first 
in.stance  submitted  to  the  committee,  by  whom 
they  are  examined  and  returned  with  such  modi- 
fications as  are  considered  requisite.  The  build- 
ing of  the  vessel  then  proceeds  under  the  super- 
vision of  the  local  surveyor,  and  when  she  is 
completed  the  surveyor  forwards  a  detailed  re- 
|iort  for  the  consideration  of  the  committee  by 
whom  the  character  is  assigned. 

Wood  .sliii)s  are  a.ssigned  the  character  Al  as  a 
lirst  class  for  a  term  of  years  varying  according  to 
the  materials  and  fastenings  used  in  their  con- 
struction. Lower  grades  of  character  are  expressed 
by  the  .symbols  Al  in  red  and  .E.  Iron  anil  steel 
vessels  are  cla.ssed  for  an  indefinite  jjeriod  under  a 
system  of  frequent  surveys,  the  varying  degrees  of 
strength  being  indicated  by  the  characters  lOOAl, 
90A1,  and  SOAl.  Nearly  90  per  cent,  of  tlie  ton 
nage  constructed  in  the  United  Kingdom  is  built 
under  the  supervision  of  the  society's  surveyoi> 
and  classed  in  the  register-book.  Altogether, 
over  8000  vessels  of  nine  and  a  quarter  million 
tons  hold  a  classilication  assigned  by  Lloyil's 
Kegister,  subject  to  periodical  inspection  by  the 
society's  oflicers. 

The  inspection  of  the  machinery  and  boilers  of 
steam-vessels  during  and  after  construction  comes 
also  within  the  scope  of  the  society's  functions. 
Under  the  authority  of  government  it  controls  the 
testing  of  anchors  and  chains  at  eight  out  of  the 
nine  provinghouses  iu  the  country,  in  accordance 


LLOYD'S    BONDS 


LOAN 


675 


with  the  provisions  of  the  Chain  and  Anchor  Act  of 
1871.  It  tests  tlie  steel  iiitemled  for  use  in  con- 
struotiiig  ships  and  lioilers,  and  inspects  hirge  forc- 
ings and  eiustings  ;  it  provides  for  the  survej'  and 
chissilication  of  yachts  ;  ami  it  has  been  entrusted 
by  government  with  the  fixing  of  niaxiniuni  load- 
lines  to  merchant-vessels. 

Lloyd's  Register  issues  annually  to  its  sub- 
scribers a  register  containing  particulars  of  the 
classification  of  vessels  to  which  characters  have 
been  assigned,  together  with  many  other  details, 
constituting  a  very  full  record  of  their  construction, 
history,  iS.c.  All  other  s("agoing  vessels  of  the 
world  of  100  tons  and  upwards  are  included  in  the 
work,  which  contains  jjarticulars  of  the  age,  builil, 
tonnage,  dimensions,  ownei-ship,  iS.c.  of  some  32,000 
vessels.  The  society  ha.s  existed  in  its  present  form 
since  1834,  when  it  superseded  two  rival  institutions 
having  a  similar  object.  The  offices  of  the  society 
are  situated  in  White  Lion  Court,  Cornhill,  London. 

Amongst  several  marine  institutions  bearing 
the  name  of  Lloyd  in  dillerent  parts  of  the  worhl, 
the  most  important  are  the  Austrian  and  the  North- 
(iernian  Lloy<l.  The  former  has  its  seat  at  Trieste. 
It  was  organised  as  a  marine  insurance  society  in 
1833,  but  three  yeare  later  enlarged  the  sphere  of 
its  activity  by  founding  also  a  sliare  company  for 
steam-navigation  to  the  Levant  and  Black  Sea. 
Its  vessels  also  traverse  the  Ked  Sea  and  the  Indian 
Ocean,  going  as  far  as  Hongkong.  The  North- 
(Jerraan  Lloyd  is  primarily  a  shipping  companj', 
whose  headi)uarters  are  at  Jiremen.  It  was  founded 
in  1857,  and  maintains  communication  by  means 
of  lar^e,  swift,  and  excellently  e(|uii)ped  ocean 
steamsliips  with  New  York  and  Baltimore,  Brazil 
and  the  River  I'lale,  and  (since  1885)  with  eastern 
Asia  and  Australia.  See  V.  Martin's  Ilialory  of 
Lloyd's  (1875),  Aiuials  of  Lloyd' a  liaji.ster  (1884), 
and  Chambers's  Jottnud  i  1880). 

Lloyd's  Bonds  are  obligations  by  railway 
companies  undei-  their  seal,  puiporting  to  be  for 
work  done,  or  for  materials  supplied  for  the  pur- 
poses of  an  undertaking,  and  covenanting  to  pay 
the  debt  and  interest  thereon.  Thej'  were  devised 
by  the  eminent  English  coun.sel,  John  Horatio 
Lloyd,  to  enable  railway  companies  to  exceed  the 
powers  of  borrowing  money  granleil  to  them  by 
parliament.  The  Lssue  of  these  bonds  has  some- 
times been  abused,  being  made  without  consent  of 
the  shareholders  or  of  the  statutory  debenture 
holders  of  the  company  ;  but  they  are  valid  only 
when  granted  in  lumd  Jide  to  contractors  and 
others,  for  work  actually  done,  or  materials  sup- 
plied. They  cannot  be  given  for  a  mere  loan  of 
money  to  the  company  ;  and  a  company  issuing 
them  otherwise  than  authorised  by  statute  forfeits 
to  the  crown  the  amount  of  the  bond. 

Llywarrh  Heii.    See  W.ai.es  (LiTKR.\TURii). 

Loacll,  a  name  applied  to  the  members  of  a 
group  of  fresh-water  lishes  in  the  carp  family 
( CyprinidiB ).  The  mouth  bears  six  or  more  barbels ; 
the  scales  are  small  or  absent;  the  air-bladder 
is  more  or  le.ss  enclosed  in  bone.  Most  belong  to 
the  genus  Nemachilus,  which  includes  numerous 
carnivorous  and  edible  forms  freijuenting  rapid 
streams,  and  represented  in  Britain  Ijy  iV.  bar- 
Uilidiis,  called  in  Scotland  the  Beardie.  It  is  a 
small  lish,  about  4  inches  long,  of  a  yellowish-white 
colour,  with  bnjwn  spots.  The  largest  Kuropean 
form,  Misi/iiniiis  J'ussil/s,  not  uncommon  in  ('•er- 
maiiv,  approaches  a  foot  in  length.  A  rare  British 
species  is  Cobilis  tu/iiii.  See  Giinther's  Iiitrodiir- 
tiiin  lij  titc  ,'iliuhj  of  Fishes  (  Edin.  1880). 

Load-line.    See  Plimsdi.l. 

Loadstone,  or  Maonivtic  Ihon  Oki:,  a 
mineral  consisting  of  a  mixture  of  the  ferric  and 
ferrous  oxides,  FeOFejOj  or  FcjOj,  remarkable  for 


its  highly  magnetic  qiuility.     The  name  loadstone 

or  lodestone  ('leading-stone')  is  derived  from  its 
power  of  drawing  or  leailing  bits  of  iron  ;  the 
earliest  magnets  were  pieces  of  loadstone,  and  the 
value  of  the  ore  for  making  a  mariner's  compass 
(see  CoMl'.vss)  was  early  known  :  '  the  lodestarre 
[polestar]  dr.-iweth  the  lodestone  as  llie  lodestone 
the  steel.'  Loadstone  is  black,  and  has  a  metallic 
lustre  ;  its  hardness  =  5"5  to  tj'5,  and  its  specific 
gravity  =  4'9  to  5'2.  It  is  one  of  the  most 
common  constituents  of  eruptive  rocks,  occurring 
in  these  generally  in  the  form  of  small  octahedra 
or  irregular  grains.  Some  rooks,  such  as  certain 
ha.salts,  contain  so  much  magnetite  as  strongly  to 
affect  the  compass.  Larger  and  well-defined  crys- 
tals are  met  with  in  the  crystalline  schists,  more 
especially  in  chloriteschist.  Magnetite  also  occurs 
massive,  associated  with  other  iron  ores,  forming  in 
some  places  irregular  bedded  sheets  amongst  the 
crystalline  schists,  and  in  other  [daces  entering 
largely  into  the  composition  of  mountains,  as  in 
.Sweden — one  of  the  richest  iron-bearing  regions 
in  the  W(nld.  The  iron-.sands  which  occur  here 
and  there  in  river- be<ls  and  along  certain  sea-coasts 
consist  of  magnetite  which  has  been  dciivcd  from 
the  degradation  of  eruiitive  nx'ks. 

Many  strange  beliefs  have  been  held  about  the 
properties  of  the  loadstone,  and  an  interesting 
account  of  the  true  and  untrue  among  these  is 
given  by  Sir  Thomas  Browne  in  his  Vidr/ur  Errors 
(book  ii.  chaps.  2,  3).  Thus,  one  species  was  said 
to  attract  tlesh  ;  again,  its  operation  was  hindered 
by  garlic,  b^-  the  diamond,  by  quicksilver.  Heavy 
bodies  such  as  chariots  of  iron  could  be  suspended 
in  the  air  by  systems  of  magnets  arranged.  Again, 
it  possessed  valuable  medicinal  properties  in  cases 
of  dropsy,  ruptures,  and  gout ;  and  bad,  moreovtM-, 
magical  cllicacy  to  detect  incontinence  and  theft, 
to  divine,  and  to  atl'ord  means  of  communication 
with  absent  friends. 

Loam.    See  Soils. 

Loan,  an  express  or  implied  contract  whereby 
the  property  of  one  person  is  transferred  into  the 
|)Ossession  of  another,  the  borrower  undertaking  to 
return  the  thing  or  money  lent  to  the  owner.  The 
delivery  of  chattels  (movable  property)  by  way  of 
loan  or  dei)osit  is  in  English  law  called  a  bailment. 
When  goods  are  thus  delivered  merely  for  the  con- 
venience of  the  owner,  as  in  the  case  of  goods  kept 
by  a  friend  without  charge,  the  depositary  is  liable 
only  for  gross  negligence.  If  they  are  delivered 
merely  for  the  advantage  of  the  bailee,  as  in  the 
case  of  a  gratuitous  loan,  the  depositary  is  bound 
to  use  the  strictest  diligence.  Wliere  the  arrange- 
ment is  for  the  advantage  of  both  parties,  as  in  tlie 
case  of  furniture  hired  from  a  shop,  ordinary  dili- 
gence will  sutlice. 

A  loan  of  money  is  usually  made  on  an  under- 
taking by  the  borrower  to  rejiay  the  money  lent, 
and  to  pay  interest  thereon.  The  rate  of  interest 
was  formerly  restricted  by  the  laws  against  Usury 
(q.v.),  but  there  is  now  no  law  in  the  United 
Kingdom  to  prevent  a  lender  from  stipulating 
for  any  interest,  however  exorbitant.  A  lender 
has,  of  cour.se,  a  right  of  action  against  the 
borrower ;  but  he  generally  emleav  ours  to  secure 
himself  by  obtaining  some  special  and  easily- 
enforced  right  against  the  debtiu-  and  his  proiierty. 
He  may,  f<n-  example,  take  a  bill  of  excliange 
or  |jronii.ssory  note  for  the  .amount,  so  as  to 
acquire  the  special  rights  which  the  law  confers 
on  the  holder  of  a  negotiable  instrument.  Or 
he  may  .secure  himself  by  obtaining  specific  rights 
over  some  part  of  the  debtor's  pmiierty.  Thus, 
the  debtor  may  give  him  posse.ssh)n  of  some  part 
of  his  property  by  way  of  Pawn  (q.v.);  or,  it  he 
retains  possession  of  liis  property,  he  may  make  a 


676 


LOANDA 


LOBSTER 


formal  conveyance  of  it  to  the  ci-editor  by  way  of 
Mortgage  (q.v. ). 

Loans  are  contracted  not  only  by  inilividuals,  but 
by  governments  and  iiublic  bodies..  Tlie  aggregate 
debts  of  municipal  corporaliims  in  the  Liiited 
Kingdom  is  very  large,  and  the  National  Debt 
((|.v.)  amounts  to  nearly  700  millions  sterling. 
Loans  of  this  class  con.sist  of  cajiital  sums,  advanced 
fur  the  mo.^^l  part  by  jirivate  perMjn.s,  in  considera- 
tion of  payment  of  jirincipal  and  interest  oi'  in 
consideration  of  annuities  paid  to  the  lender. 
When  the  subjects  of  one  state  lend  money  to  the 
government  of  another,  as,  for  e.\ample,  when 
English  investors  buy  Turkish  bonds,  international 
(piestions  may  arise  in  regard  to  payment.  But  it 
is  now  an  acce|)ted  ma.xim  that  investoi-s  as  such 
liave  no  claim  to  the  assistance  of  their  govern- 
ment. When  people  lend  money  to  Turkey  they  do 
so  to  obtain  a  higli  rate  of  interest ;  and  they  know, 
or  ought  to  know,  that  '  high  interest  means  bad 
security.'     See  C.  Cotton's  Loans  Maiiual  ( 1S91). 

Loailda,  S.\ixt  P.vil  de,  chief  town  of  the 
Portuguese  possessions  on  the  West  Coast  of  Africa, 
lies  on  a  small  bay,  some  210  miles  S.  of  tlie  mouth 
of  the  Congo.  It  has  broad,  tree-shaded  but  dirty 
streets,  several  churches,  forts  (1578),  and  tlie 
residences  of  the  governor  and  bishop.  The  harbour 
is  gradually  sanding  up,  so  that  vessels  lie  H  mile 
from  sliore.  In  1888-92  a  railway  wa;5  made  to 
Anibaca,  140  miles  inland :  gas  was  introduced 
in  1893.  Pop.  50,000,  of  whom  about  15,000  are 
Europeans. 

LoangO,  a  coast  district  of  West  Africa,  stretch- 
ing northwards  from  the  mouth  of  the  Congo  to  about 
4'  S.  lat.  By  the  Berlin  conference  of  1885  it  was 
divided  between  the  Congo  Free  State,  Portugal, 
and  France.  The  natural  features  and  productions 
do  not  ditter  from  those  of  the  adjacent  i)arts  of 
Africa  (see  Coxuo,  (;.\Boox).  The  inhabitants, 
who  call  themselves  Batiotes,  are  fetich- worshipi)ers. 
The  town  Loango,  formerly  a  jilace  of  15,000  people, 
consists  now  of  only  a  few  mercantile  establishments. 

Loasaccif,  a  luitural  order  of  calycitloral 
e.xogens,  natives  of  America,  and  chielly  from  the 
temperate  and  warmer  parts  of  it.  There  are  about 
seventy  known  species,  herbaceous  plants,  hispid 
with  stinging  hairs.  The  genus  Loasa  sometimes 
receives  tlie  pojuilar  name  of  Cliili  Nettle. 

Lobail.  a  town  of  east  Saxony,  12  miles  SE.  of 
Bautzen,  has  mineral  springs  and  manufactures 
of  linens,  cottons,  woollens,  <S.c.     Pop.  0977. 

Lobclia«  a  genus  of  corollitloral  exogens  of  the 
natural  order  Lobeliaceie,  named  after  the  French 
botanist  Matthias  .le  Lobel  (15.S8-1616).  This 
order  is  nearly  allied  to  Canipanulacea",  one 
of  the  most  consjucuous  dili'erences  being  the 
irregular  corolla.  It  contains  almost  400  known 
species,  natives  of  tropical  and  tempeiate  climates, 
aliounding  chiefly  in  damp  woods  in  America  and 
the  north  of  India.  They  are  generally  herb- 
aceous or  half-slirubl)V,  and  have  a  milky  juice 
which  often  contains  much  caoutchouc.  A  poison- 
ous character  lielongs  to  the  order,  and  some  are 
excessively  acrid,  as  Tiipa  fncUlci,  a  Chilian  and 
Peruvian  plant,  of  which  the  very  smell  excites 
vomiting ;  yet  the  succulent  fruit  of  one  species, 
Centro/ioi/uu  surhiamr.n.six,  is  eatable. — The  genus 
Lobelia  is  the  only  one  of  this  order  of  which  any 
sjiecies  are  British.  The  Water  Lobelia  (  J-.  Diiit- 
•inaniii)  is  frec|uent  in  lakes  with  gravelly  bottom, 
often  forming  a  green  carnet  underneath  the  water 
with  its  densely-matted  sun-cylindrical  leaves.  The 
(lowers  are  blue,  the  llowciing  stems  rising  above 
the  water.  To  this  genus  belong  many  favourite 
girden-llowers,  as  the  beautiful  Cardinal  Flowers 
(  L.  airdiiiiilis,  L./nlfjciis,  and  /,.  .yilciii/ciis)  ami  the 
Blue  Cardinal  (/..  si/j)hilitka),  natives  of  the  warmer 


parts  of  North  America,  perennials,  which  it  is  usual 
to  protect  during  winter  in  Britain.  To  ibis  genus 
belongs  also  the  Indian  Tobacco  of  North  America 
(L.  iiijlata),  an  annual,  with  an  erect  stem,  a  foot 
high  or  more,  with  blue  llowei-s,  which  has  been 
used  as  a  medicine  from  time  inuueniorial  by  the 
aborigines  of  North  America;  both  the  llowerin"- 
herb  and  the  seeds  are  im])orled  into  Britain.  It 
is  the  former,  compressed  in  oblimg  cakes,  which  is 


Lobelia  erimis  (garden  variety). 

chiefly  employed.  A  liquid  alkaloid,  Lobelina,  and 
a  peculiar  acid,  Lohclic  acid,  have  been  obtained 
from  it.  In  small  doses  it  acts  as  di.iphoretic  and 
expectorant  ;  in  full  doses,  as  a  powerful  nau.seating 
emetic ;  while  in  excessive  doses,  or  in  full  doses 
too  often  repeated,  it  is  a  powerful  acro-narcotic 
poison.  It  is  the  favourite  remedy  of  a  special 
class  of  empirics,  and  consequently  deaths  from  its 
administration  are  by  no  means  rare.  I'hysicians 
seldom  prescribe  it  now,  except  in  cases  of  asthma. 

Lob  Xor,  a  dried-up  lake  of  central  .■\sia,  in 
the  desert  of  tlobi.  I'rjcvalski  in  1S85  found  4U0 
l)ersons,  mixed  Turks  and  Mongols,  settled  on 
its  conlines.     See  Asi.v,  Vol.  I.  p.  480. 

Lobo,  Jeeonimo,  a  Jesuit  missionary,  born  at 
Lisbon  in  1593,  went  out  to  India  in  1G21,  but 
travelled  back  to  Abyssinia  in  1625,  an<l  was  for 
nearly  ten  years  superintendent  of  missions  in  Tigre. 
He  died  at  Lisbon  in  1678.  From  Lobo's  Portu- 
guese MS.  account  of  his  travels  in  Abyssinia  the 
Abbe  Le''rand  imblished  a  French  translation  in 
1728,  and  of  this  again  iJr  .lohnson  produced  an 
abridged  English  version  in  1735 — his  lirst  work. 
Sir  Peter  Wvche  also  translateil  into  English  parts 
of  Lobo's  MS.  in  1669. 

Lobos  Islands,  two  small  groups  of  rocky 
islands,  about  12  miles  of!"  the  coast  of  Peru,  famous 
for  the  great  quantity  of  guano  which  they  pro- 
duced. 

Lobster  (Honiarus  vulgaris),  a  species  of 
Crustacean,  of  the  order  Decapoda,  sub-order 
Macrura  (see  Ce.W'KI.sh ).  It  diil'ers  from  the  cray- 
fish princii)ally  in  the  following  characters  :  the 
last  ring  of  the  thorax  is  not  movable,  but  continu- 
ous with  the  rest ;  the  scale  of  the  antenna  is  small ; 
there  are  twenty  branchia'  on  each  side,  and  the 
claws  are  very  powerful  and  unequal.  (Jne  claw, 
usually  the  left,  is  thicker,  more  globo.se  and 
heavier  than  the  other,  the  bitingeilges  being 
furni>.he<l  with  blunt  tubercles  of  ditlereiit  sizes: 
the  other  claw  is  more  slender  and  elongated,  and 
its  biting-edges  are  furnished  with  numerous  snuiU 
teeth.  As  an  exception  two  claws,  both  of  one 
kiml  or  the  other,  may  occur  in  the  same  indi- 
vidual. The  colour  during  life  is  a  beautifidly 
clouded  and  varied  bluisli  lil;ick,  which  changes  to 
a  nearly  uniform  red  on  boiling.  It  sometimes 
attains  "to  the  weight  of  12  or  14  lb.  when  loaded 


LOBSTER 


LOCAL    GOVERNMENT 


677 


with  spinvii,  altlioiijj;h  a  lobster  of  1  11>.  weight  or 
even  less  is  tleeined  verv  lit  for  the  market.  The 
eggs  (2000  to  1'2,000.  of  which  perhaps  1000  are 
hatched) are ilepositeil  from  the  ovidiicts  in  autumn, 
and  then  become  attached  by  adhesive  threads  to 
the  swimnierets  or  abdominal  appendages  of  the 
female.  They  are  carried  by  the  parent  in  this 
manner  for  .several  niontlis,  finally  hatching  about 
June  and  July  of  the  following  summer.  When 
hatched  the  young  swim  al>ont  actively  in  the 
water,  not  .at  fii'st  crawling  or  walking  like  the 
adults.  They  dilTer  from  the  .adults  in  structure, 
chiefly  in  having  outer  appe.ndages  to  the  thoracic 
limbs :  when  fii-st  hatched  they  are  about  half  an 
inch  in  length.  Lobstei's  are  exclusively  carnivor- 
ous and  very  voraciotis.  They  are  also  very 
pugnacious,  and  in  their  combat.s  often  lose  their 
limbs.  But  they  exhibit  in  a  remarkable  degree 
the  phenomenon  of  recrescence,  limbs  rapidly 
gron-ing  again  of  the  same  form  and  structure  as 


Norway  Lobster  (Ifephrops  norvegicus). 

those  that  ha\e  been  removed,  though  several 
moults  are  required  before  the  full  size  of  the  new 
member  is  attained.  Moulting,  or  the  casting  of 
the  shell,  occurs  in  adult  lobsters  once  a  year,  in 
the  young  much  oftener,  in  very  old  individuals 
not  .so  often.  The  creatures  are  fairly  abundant 
on  the  coasts  of  the  IJritish  Lslands  and  other  parts 
of  Europe.  They  are  caught  for  the  market  in 
traps  made  either  of  basket-work  or  of  netting 
stretched  on  wooden  frames,  each  trap  having  one 
or  more  reentr.int  orifices  for  the  entrance  of  tlie 
lobsters.  The  traps  are  baited  «-ith  dead  fish.  In 
ISS.1-9.5  the  number  of  lobsters  landed  annually  on 
the  coasts  of  England  and  Wales  varied  between 
500,000  and  700,000.  The  landing  price  is  from 
£4,  .5s.  to  £4,  10s.  per  100.  In  isno  a  lobster-pond 
w,a.s  undertaken  at  Loehbuie  in  .Mull. — The  Ameri- 
can Lobster  ( //.  iimcrirmni.i)  and  the  Cape  Lobster 
( //.  capenxis)  are  the  only  other  species  kno«ai  of 
the  genns  Ilomams.  The  former  is  as  valuable  as 
the  European  species  ;  its  claws  are  much  larger 
than  those  of  tiie  latter.  (!reat  ijuantities  are 
canneil  and  exiiorted  from  Xova  Scotia  and  Xew 
Brunswick,  an(I  from  Portland,  Maine,  i*cc.  The 
Norway  LoV)ster  ( A>/)/((o;<.«  nonxgicus)  is  frequently 
taken  on  the  British  coasts,  and  .ap]ii'ars  in  the 
markets.  The  eyes  are  kidney-shaiii'd.  and  not 
round,  as  in  the  common  lobster.  Tlio  claws  have 
also  a  more  slender  and  prismatic  form,  and  the 
colour  is  a  pale  llesh  odour.  It  is  said  by  some  to 
be  the  most  delicate  of  all  the  cru.st.aceans ;  by 
others,  to  be  inferior  to  the  common  lobster.     The 


Spiny  Lobster,  or  Sea  ('r.ayfish  ( Peiliniinis  vtilijarii), 
is  not  uncommon  on  the  rocky  coa-sts  of  Britain, 
particularly  in  the  south.  It  is  believed  to  be  the 
jCarabijs  of  the  (ireeks,  and  the  Lorusta  of  tlie 
Homans.  It  att.ains  a  length  of  about  18  inches. 
The  shell  is  very  hard,  and  the  whole  body  is  rough 
witli  short  si)ines.  The  antenn:o  are  very  long, 
much  longer  than  those  of  the  common  lobster. 
There  are  no  claws  or  pincei-s,  the  first  pair  of  feet 
being  very  similar  to  the  others.  The  Spiny 
lolistcr  is  brought  to  m.arket  in  London  and  else- 
where, but  is  inferior  to  the  common  lobster. 
Other  species  of  these  genera  are  found  in  other 
p.arts  of  the  world.  For  anatomy,  &c.,  see  Iluxlev, 
2'Ac  C'ra ////.?// (1880). 

Lobworm,  or  Li'cAVORM  (Arcnicola  pisca- 
ioriim),  one  of  the  more  sedentary  Cha'topods,  ex- 
tremely abundant  on  the  British  shores,  and  very 
valuable  as  bait.  It  lives  head  down- 
wards in  a  hole  in  the  sand,  which  is 
partly  lined  by  a  yellowish-green  agglu- 
tinating secretion  from  the  skin  of  the 
worm.  The  hole  is  made  as  the  animal 
e.ats  its  way  in  earthworm-like  fashion, 
and  the  devoured  material,  from  which 
small  organisms  and  organic  debris  are 
extracted,  is  passed  out  on  the  surface  as 
spiral  coils  or  'casts,'  familiar  to  every 
one  who  has  walked  over  a  low-tide 
stretch  of  sand.  The  animal  is  larger 
tlian  the  earthworm,  sometimes  a  foot 
in  length,  and  greenish  brown  in  colour. 
The  body  is  divided  into  a  thickened 
anterior  region,  a  median  part  with 
thirteen  pairs  of  gill-tufts  brightly 
coloured  by  the  red  blood,  and  a  thinner 
jjosterior  portion.  Tlie  appendages  are 
degenerate,  but  are  re])rcsented  by  two 
rows  of  weak  bristles  on  to  the  end  of 
the  gill-bearing  region. 

Local  Goveriiiiieiit  is  a  term 
used,  in  the  United  Kingdom,  to  express 
the  control  and  administration  of  the 
local  affaii-s  of  separate  divisions  and 
districts  of  the  country  by  subordinate 
authorities.  It  is  thus  contrasted  with 
imperial  government,  or  the  control  and 
.administration  of  aH'airs  for  the  wliole  country  by 
the  supreme  legislative  and  executive  authority. 
Prior  to  the  Reform  Act  of  18,3'2  local  govern- 
ment in  the  United  Kingdom  was  of  a  very  rudi- 
mentary character.  The  management  of  local  alVairs 
was  almost  entirely  in  the  hands  of  the  propertied 
and  privileged  classes  ;  the  great  mass  of  the  people 
bad  little  or  no  participation  in  it.  As  reg.ards  the 
counties  and  rural  ilistricts,  the  justices  of  the  peace 
in  Englan<l,  the  commissioners  of  supply  and  justices 
in  Scotland,  and  the  gr.andjury  and  (.ustices  in  Ire- 
land were  the  exclusive  governing  autliorities ;  while 
burghal  all'aii's  were  pr.actically  in  the  bands  of  close 
corporations,  either  self-elected  or  chosen  by  privi- 
leged classes  of  burgesses.  The  first  step  towards 
realising  local  self-government  Wiis  the  reform  of  the 
municipal  corporati(uisin  1832  , So,  whereby  the  town- 
councils  were  made  elective.  Since  then  the  coui'se 
of  legislation  in  this  direction  has  been  one  of  steady 
progress.  Thus,  in  settling  the  government  of 
urban  communities — such  as  the  local  board  dis- 
tricts of  England  .and  the  police  burghs  of  Scotland 
— the  legislature  ha.s  given  them  ii-s  full  control  of 
their  all'airs  as  the  reformed  nninicipal  boroughs. 
So  the  establishment  of  the  ]ioor  law  systems  for 
each  of  the  three  kingdoms  between  ls:i.')  and  184,"), 
and  the  creation  of  poor-law  unions  in  England  an<l 
Ireland,  first  introduced  life  and  .activity  into  the 
rural  districts.  The  great  area  of  local  administra- 
tion is,  especially  since  the  Local  Government  Act 


Lobworm 
( A  rcnicola 
piscator- 
um). 


G78 


LOCAL    OPTION 


LOCK 


of  1888,  the  county,  anil  is  fully  treated  under  that 
head.  Other  important  areas,  separately  treateil, 
are  the  parish  and  horough,  for  both  England  and 
Scotland.  In  Ireland,  besides  the  county  and  town, 
the  union  liad  exce|)tion.al  iinportanee ;  and  till  the 
Irish  Local  Government  .\<M<)f  ISilS  s\ipprscded  it 
by  County  Councils,  the  ^'rand-jury  (see  JvitV)  had 
wide  adniiuistrative  powers.  The  (optional)  trans- 
fer of  most  of  tlie  proceedings  in  Scottish  juivate 
bill  legislation  to  Scotland  (  hy  act  of  1899)  increases 
tlie  autonomy  of  the  northern  kingdom. 

The  Local  Government  I'.oard,  to  which  in  1S71 
tlie  powers  of  the  English  I'oorlaw  Board  (18:U) 
were  transferred,  is,  in  form,  a  committee  of  the 
Privy-council,  but  the  work  is  .lone  by  the  political 
heads  of  the  department  (the  president  and  parlia- 
mentary secretary,  both  usually  members  of  the 
House  of  Commons)  and  a  staff  of  clerks.  Among 
the  matters  placed  under  the  supervision  of  the 
IJoavcl  may  be  mentioned  the  areas  of  parishes,  &c., 
local  ta.\ation  returns,  the  administration  of  the 
po(M-law,  sanitary  improvements,  baths  and  wash- 
houses,  vaccination,  and  tlie  prevention  of  disease. 
The  Local  Government  Board  of  Scotland  is  pre- 
sided over  by  the  Secretary  for  Scotland.  From 
the  nature  of  the  case,  the  nmltiiilicity  of  .subjects 
inclnded  in  Local  Government  are  best  treated  in 
a  large  numlier  of  separate  articles,  some  of  which 
are  noted  below. 

Hee  I'robyn,  Local  Gorernmcnt  ami  Taxation  (1882); 
Goudy  and  Smith,  Loml  Government  in  Scotland  ( 1880  ) ; 
.Mackenzie  Chalmers,  Local  Gorernmcnt  ( '  Citizen  Series,' 
1871-83);  Lor.al  Government  and  Taxation,  by  various 
authors,  in  'Imperial  Parliament  Series'  (188.5);  H 
Odgers,  Local  Govern  ment  (1899);  also  the  several 
articles  : 


.Advocate  (Lord). 

Appeal. 

Borough. 

liui-ial. 

Cliaiinel  Islands. 

City. 

Coroner. 

County. 

Coiiuly  Courts. 

CrinlhKil  L:i«-. 

education. 


Government. 

Hygiene. 

Ireland. 

Jury. 

Justice  of  the  Peace. 

Licensing  Acts. 

Lonl-Heuteiiant. 

Man  ( Island  ). 

Nuisance. 

Parish. 

Police. 


Poor-laws, 

Prisons. 

Privy-council. 

Procurator-fiscal. 

Pro.secutor. 

Roads. 

Scotland. 

Sheriff. 

Socialism. 

Tax. 

AVarrant. 


Local  Option  is  a  term  for  the  power  which 
temperance  reformers  have  of  late  sought  to  secure 
for  the  ratepaying  inliabitants  of  any  community, 
enabling  them  to  regulate  the  liipior  trafbc  within 
their  bounds  as  to  a  certain  majority  of  them  shall 
seem  best,  either  by  maintaining  unchanged, 
increasing,  diminishing,  or  wholly  suppressing  the 
himses  for  the  sale  of  intoxicating  liquor.s.  See 
LicEN.siNG,  Liquor  Laws,  and  Temperance. 

Loclia'bcr,  a  district  in  .southern  Inverness- 
shiie.  The  Lochaber  Axe  is  a  variety  of  the 
Ilalhcrt  ((|.v.),  with  a  long  handle  and  a  bill  like 
blade,  behind  which,  on  the  other  side  of  the  shaft, 
is  a  formidable  hook.  This  weapon  was  formerly 
used  by  tlie  Highlanders  of  Scotland  and  by  the 
native  Irish,  and  'is  believed  to  have  been  intro- 
duced into  both  countries  from  Scandinavia '  (.see 
Si'otl's  ]V(irn-li:ij).  It  was  carried  by  the  ohl  city 
guard  of  Edinburgh.  The  song  '  Farewell  to 
Lochalicr'  is  by  Allan  IJamsay. 

liOClllcvcil,  a  beautiful  oval  lake  of  Kinross- 
shire,  23  miles  NNW.  of  Edinburgh.  Lying  353 
feet  above  sea-level,  and  engirt  by  Benarty  (1167 
feet),  the  West  Lomond  ( 1713),  and  other  hills,  it 
measur(\s  3J  miles  by  2  ;  discharges  by  the  Leven, 
flowing  10  miles  eastward  to  the  Firth  of  Forth  ;  is 
10  to  90  feet  dee|) ;  and  has  an  area  of  340li  acres, 
drainage  operations  having  reduced  its  si/e  by  one- 
fourth  in  182(j-36.  Of  seven  islands,  the  largest 
are  sandy,  treeless  St  Serfs  Inch,  an  early  seat 
of  till-  Cnldees  (q.v.),  and  Castle  Islam!,  with  the 
14tLccutury  keep  of  a  ciustle  which  in  lo07-68  was 


for  ten  months  the  prison  of  Mary  Queen  of  Scots. 
Since  1G33  and  earlier  the  loch  has  been  famous  for 
its  delicate  )iink-flcslied  trout,  and  since  IS.'iO  for  its 
lly -fishing,  there  now  being  twenty  boats  on  it.  and 
some  fifty  annual  angling  competitions,  whilst  the 
vcarlv  take  has  varied  from  W.Yl  tnmt  of  r)38.">  lb. 
ill  1877  to  '23,516  of  21,074  lb.  in  1888.  and  10,9.33  of 
9201  lb.  in  1890.  See  Robert  Burns-Begg's  History 
of  Lochlcvcn  Castle  (2d  ed.  Kinros.s,  1877).  See 
also  LUVEX  (Locn) ;  and  for  Lochs  Lomond,  Long, 
&c.,  see  Lomond,  &c. 

Lorllllia'ben,  a  market-town  of  Aniiandale, 
Duiiifrie.sshire.  10  miles  by  rail  NE.  of  iJumfries. 
It  stands  amid  seven  lochs,  two  of  which  contain 
the  rare  vendace,  and  hius  a  town-hall  (1878),  with 
a  statue  ir  front  of  it  of  Robert  Bruce,  and  the 
mined  castle  of  the  Bruces.  A  royal  burgh,  it 
unites  with  Dumfries,  &c.  to  return  one  member. 
Pop.  1039.     See  W.  Gialiams  Lochmabcn  (18G5). 

Lock,  an  arrangement  for  fastening  doore, 
drawers,  &c. ,  and  requiring  a  key  or  other 
similar  contrivance  to 
open  it.  The  early 
Egy]itians  used  locks 
of  rude  construction, 
generally  made  of 
wood;  and  locks  and 
keys  of  bronze  and 
iron  have  been  found 
in  large  numbers  in 
Pompeii  and  Hercu- 
laneuiii.  Fig.  1  re- 
presents the  ancient 
Egyptian  lock  in  section  :  ri  is  the  case,  fastened  to 
the  door  ;  b,  tlie  holt ;  in  the  njiper  jiart  of  the  case 
are  three  openings,  c,  each  containing  a  ]iin  with  a 
head  to  prevent  its  falling  too  far  down.  When  the 
bolt  is  pushed  home  towards  h,  the  pins  fall  into  the 
corresponding  three  holes,  d,  preventing  its  being 
withdrawn.  The  key  is  a  piece  of  wood,  c,  which 
is  pushed  into  the  ojiening, /,  in  the  bolt,  and  by 
means  of  its  three  pins  the  pins  in  the  case  are 
jmshed  up  while  the  bolt  is  witiidrawn.  An  exactly 
similar  lock  is  still  used  in  the  F'aroe  Islands,  ami 
one  very  like  it  in  St  Kilda.  The  Chinese  for 
many  hundred  years  have  had  a  ninch  superior 
wooden  lock  with  tumhler.s. 

During  the  15th,  10th,  and  17th  centuries  very 
ingenious  and  complicated  locks,  richly  ornamented 
with  hammered  iron-work,  were  made,  especially 
in  (Jermany,  and  in  every  collection  may  lie  seen 
more  or  less  fine  specimens.  These,  however,  were 
necessarily  \'ery  e-xjicnsive,  and  could  only  be  used 
by  the  wealthy,  and  the  lock  in  ordinary  use  up  to 
the  beginning  of  the  19th  centurv  was  the  common 


-ft>-a^(fc>^ 


Fig.  1. 


Fig.  2. 


Fig.  3. 


spring-lock  shown  in  fig.  2,  and  which  is  still  used 
for  ordinary  purposes.  The  bolt,  o,  passes  Ihroiigh 
an  ojiening  in  each  side  of  the  case,  an<I  is  held  in 
position  by  the  two  notches,  bb',  which  are  pressed 
against  the  bottom  of  the  oiieniiig,  c,  by  the  spring, 
i/,  as  the  bolt  is  locked  or  unlocked.  The  key, 
acting  in  the  semicircular  notcli,  e,  in  the  boll, 
pushes  it  either  to  one  side  or  the  other  as  rci|uiiccl  ; 
the  fig.  represents  the  bolt  midway  between  open 
and  locked.  Certain  notches  in  the  key  filling 
into  corresponding  wards,  /,  fasteneil  to  the  plate 
of  the  lock,  arc  supposed   to   prevent  any   other 


LOCK 


079 


iiKtiuiiient  l>nt  its  own  koy  from  openiii!;  tlie  lock. 
The  Hi^t  im]ii(>venieiit  on  tliis  was  the  common 
tumhlerlock  (lit:.  3),  which  represents  the  simplest 
form  of  it  :  "  is  the  holt :  h.  the  tumliler,  with  a 
projectiini,  c,  which  is  jiresseil  by  the  sprinj;,  (/, 
into  the  notches,  f,  e,  aeconling  as  tlie  Iock  is  open 
or  slint.  The  key,  t)y  the  one  movement,  raises 
the  tnmWer  and  moves  tlie  holt. 

Barron's  lock,  patented  in  1778,  was  a  develop- 
ment of  the  tnmbler  ]>rinciple.  By  putting  the 
notches  in  the  centre  ot  the  l«dt  instead  of  on  the 
top  edge,  the  pin  in  the  tumbler  had  to  be  lifted  to 
an  exact  hei-icht  to  pa.ss  the  bolt,  rendering  it  much 
more  ditlicull  to  i)ick.  Barron  subsequently  added 
a  .second  tumbler  which  had  al.so  to  be  jiassed  by 
the  bolt.  Barron's  form  of  construction  is  still  in 
use,  and  it  may  be  consiilered  the  parent  of  the 
inoilern  manv-tnmbler  or  \vver  lock,  of  which 
Mo.ses  Bird  s  (1780)  was  the  first. 

The  lock  patented  by  Joseph  Bramjili  in  1788, 
and  still  one  of  the  recogntsed  best  locks  for 
certain  purposes,  is  of  a 
ililterent  construction.  An 
inner  barred  turning  inside 
.1  fixed  cylinder  hivs  a  cen- 
tral ])in  on  which  the  key 
works.  Tlie  key  (fig.  4)  is 
a  simple  pipe  with  geiiei- 
ally  four  slits,  a,  a,  and  a 
pin,  h ;  when  it  is  inserted  and  pressed  down,  the 
slits  press  on  corresponding  slides  working  in  the 
inner  barrel,  till,  arriving  at  a  certain  ]ioint,  the 
banel  is  released  and  can  be  turned  round  by  the 
pin,  6;  another  pin  on  the  barrel  moves  the  bolt. 
A  spiral  spring  on  the  central  pin  keeps  the  slides 
in  their  original  position  till  pressed  down  by  the 
key.  The  varying  depths  of  the  slits  in  the  key 
agree  with  the  distance  which  the  difl'erent  slides 
have  to  be  pressed  down  ;  and,  as  no  two  loclvs  are 
alike  in  this  respect,  each  key  can  only  open  its 
own  lock.  So  nnich  conlidence  had  the  Alessrs 
Bramah  in  this  lock  that  during  the  Great  Exhibi- 
tion of  1851  they  ottered  a  prize  of  two  hundred 
guineas  to  any  one  picking  it,  which  prize  was 
f;ained  by  Jlr  Hobbs,  an  American,  who  occupied 
fourteen  days  in  devising  and  making  tools,  and 
liftv-one  hours  actually  at  work  on  the  lock. 


Fig.  5. 

Chuldi's  lock,  originally  J>atenteil  in  1818,  is 
a  further  development  of  the  many-tumbler 
princij)le.  It  is  shown  in  tig.  5,  which  re- 
jire.sents  it  unlocked,  and  with  tlie  inner  plate 
removed  the  better  to  show  the  movement :  a  is 
the  bolt ;  b,  the  tumblei-s,  six  in  this  instance, 
w  liich  move  inile|iendently  on  the  common  pin,  c, 
each  having  one  of  the  six  springs,  (/,  to  keep  it  in 
po.sition.     Tlie  slump,  c,  riveted  to  the  holt,  must 


pass  through  the  r/afc,  f,  in  all  the  tumblers  before 
the  bolt  call  he  shot.  .As  this  gate  is  in  a  did'eient 
position  in  even'  tumbler,  they  must  be  raised  to 
correspondingly  different  heights  bct'ore  they  coin- 
cide for  the  stump  to  pass.  For  this  jnirpose  the 
key,  /■,  has  difl'erent  steps  so  arranged  that,  when 
it  is  turned  in  the  lock,  each  step  raises  its  own 
tumbler  to  the  projier  height,  and  the  step  nearest 
the  end  of  the  key,  /,  shoots  the  Imlt;  the  stump 
p.assing  through  the  coinciding  gatings  and  sli]i- 
ping  into  the  .space,  (/,  ■■i.-<  the  tuml)leis,  lelea.sed 
liy  the  key,  resume  their  original  position.  In 
opening  the  lock  the  rever.se  of  this  movement- 
takes  place.  A  pin,  /(,  fixed  on  the  backmost 
tumbler  and  reaching  over  the  tops  of  the  others 
is  called  the  detector.  Should  any  false  key  be 
tried  in  the  lock  when  locked,  or  any  other  means 
used  which  should  raise  either  of  the  tumblers 
too  high,  an  ingenious  arrangement  fixes  it 
so  that  the  lock  is  obstructed  and  cannot  be 
opened,  even  with  its  own  key,  till  the  fixed  tnm- 
bler is  released.  This  is  done  by  making  an  extra 
forward  movement  of  the  key,  wIk-ii  the  tnmbler 
will  resume  its  normal  position.  This  detector 
movement  is  intended  as  a  prepuution  against 
hurglai-s,  and  also  to  record  any  attempt  to  pick 
the  lock.  False  notches,  i,  i,  are  made  in  the 
tumblers  to  defeat  attempts  to  pick  the  lock  by 
feeling  for  the  different  gatings  by  backward  pres- 
sure of  the  b(dt  ai)plied  by  ingenious  instruments — 
a  method,  difficult  as  it  may  seem,  which  has  been 
successfully  used  against  all  tumbler-locks,  unless 
specially  safeguarded.  A  movable  circular  curtain 
attached  to  the  keyhole  in  the  inner  plate  is  moved 
by  the  aftermost  step  of  the  key,  //(,  as  it  is  turned 
round.  This  prevents  an  inspection  of  the  tumblere 
for  picking  i>urposes  by  means  of  a  reflector  intro- 
duced into  the  keyhole,  while  they  are  moved  by 
any  instrument,  as  nothing  can  be  turned  round  in 
the  lock  without  also  turning  the  curtain. 

Hobbs's  jirotector  lock  has  a  series  of  tnmblevs  as 
in  Bird's  and  Chnlib's  locks,  but,  in  addition,  has 
what  is  termed  a  protector,  shown  in  fig.  6.  It 
consists  of  a  shaped  lever, 
ij,  h,  working  on  the  pin,  f, 
which  is  riveted  into  the 
bolt.  A,  and  it  is  ke]it  in 
position  by  the  friction 
spring,  e.  The  stum]),  li 
is  fixed  to  the  protect  m-, 
and,  passin"  through  a 
licde  in  the  bolt,  acts  on 
the  tumblers  (not  seen  in 
the  fig.)  at  the  other  side 

of  the  bolt.  This  arrangement  entirely  prevents 
feeling  for  the  gatings  of  the  tumblers  by  pressing 
l)ack  the  bolt.  If  any  attempt  is  made  to  push 
back  the  bolt  when  locked,  it  only  moves  the  pro- 
tector enough  to  bring  down  the  long  arm,  a,  in 
front  of  the  pin,  d  (fixed  in  the  back  plate  of  the 
lock),  as  shown  in  the  fig.  This  prevents  any 
further  movement  of  the  bolt  till  the  protector  is 
set  free  by  a  slight  turn  of  the  i)roper  key.  This 
lock,  when  in  combination  with  another  ingenious 
anangenient  calleil  the  rcro/riiir/  nozzle,  which 
prevents  tampering  \\  ith  false  keys,  has  success- 
fully resisted  all  attempts  to  pick  it. 

Lord  Urimthoipe  (formerly  Beckett  Denison) 
invented  a  modification  of  the  tumbler  lock  which 
locks  with  a  h.indh-,  only  leijuiring  a  small  key 
to  open  it.  The  keyhole  is  so  narrow  that  no 
instrument  strong  enough  to  injure  the  lock  can 
be  introduced.  It  has  other  advantages,  and  its 
inventor  claims  that  it  is  uniiickable.  It  has  not 
been  iiatcmted.  He  is  also  the  inventor  of  a  dust 
excluder  for  the  key-holes  of  locks,  operated  by  a 
spiral  spring. 

Many   other   varieties  of   the  tumldcr   or   le\ur 


680 


LOCK 


LOCKE 


lock  have  been  invented  wliicli  we  have  not  space 
to  ilescrihe. 

Coiiihimit/OH  locks  are  somotiiiies  nsed  for  burglar- 
proof  safes.  In  these  locks  tlie  tniiil)k"rs  are  reiire- 
senteil  by  wheels,  generally  four  in  nunibor,  which 
can  be  turned  indeiiendently  in  connection  witli  an 
index  on  the  outside  of  the  safe.  The  lock  can  only 
be  opened  by  niakinj;  certain  movements  of  the 
handle  on  the  index,  which  cause  the  gatings  in  the 
wheels  to  coincide.  The  combination  of  numbers 
on  the  index  with  tlie  dillcrcnt  wluels  can  bo  altered 
at  pleasure,  and,  of  course,  the  lock  can  only  bo 
opened  by  those  knowing  this  combination.  The 
weak  point  of  this  lock  is  that  the  combination 
may  be  forgotten.  The  Yale  time-lock  is  an  im- 
provement, by  Mr  Yale  of  Pliiladclphia,  on  the 
time-lock  invented  by  Kutherford  of  Jcdljurgh, 
Scotland,  in  IS.'M.  A  watch  in  combination  witli 
the  lock  may  be  set  so  that  the  lock  can  only  lie 
opened  at  a  i)articuhir  hour  even  by  the  owiu-r. 

Chanr/cable-hc}!  locks  were  first  introduced  into 
England  by  Mi-  Hobbs,  who  brought  Day  aiul 
Newell's  parnutojitic  lock  to  London  in  1S5I. 
After  many  improvements,  Mr  Hobl)s  ])erfocted 
this  lock  in  ISGi,  and  in  1865  the  lirni  of  Hobbs, 
Hart,  &  ("o.  introduced  a  simpler  and  cheaiier 
form  of  it.  By  an  ingenious  niodihcation  of  the 
tumblers,  which  we  have  not  space  to  describe, 
the  lock  may  be  locked  by  any  one  of  a  great 
number  of  keys,  but  can  only  be  opened  by  means 
of  the  one  which  locked  it.  Some  of  these  locks 
afford  a  possible  choice  from  about  1)0,000,000 
keys,  any  one  of  which  will  lock  it,  and  which 
must  be  used  to  open  it  again.  To  avoid  the 
necessity  of  having  a  number  of  ke.\s,  dili'erent 
webs  are  supidied  which  lit  on  the  key-pipe  to  form 
the  key.  The  welis  may  be  kept  in  tlie  safe,  one 
taken  out  at  random  to  lock  up  with  ;  the  web 
removed  from  the  key  carried  away  in  the  waist- 
coat jiocket,  and  the  key  hung  up  anywhere,  use- 
less till  the  wel)  is  1>rouglit  back. 

In  the  ordinary  safe  locks  tlie  bolts  are  neces- 
sarily on  a  large  scale,  anil,  to  prevent  the 
carrying  about  of  a  key  of  corresponding  magni- 
tude, the  bolts  are  usually  shut  by  means  of  a 
handle,  and  a  small  lock  with  a  small  key  locks 
one  of  them  and  fastens  them  all. 

/,«<(7(-locks  used  on  street  doors  which  shut  of 
themselves,  and  are  oi>ened  by  means  of  a  handle 

inside  and  a  key 
outside,  do  not 
cliller  in  prin- 
ciple from  other 
locks.  The  Yale 
latch-lock  is  an 
iigenious  luodi- 
licatiou  of  the 
)rinciide  of  the 
Egyptian  lock 
(lig.  1).  It  is 
shown  in  sec- 
ti<m  in  lig.  7  ; 
II,  h  is  the  key, 
full  size  :  h.  i; 
d  is  n  movable  barrel  turning  inside  the  lock ; 
1,  2,  3,  -t,  5  are  live  pins  pressed  down  by  spiral 
springs  working  in  holes  in  the  fixed  part ;  c, 
/,  g,  /(,  i  are  five  corresponding  pins  moving 
in  holes  in  the  inside  barrel:  they  are  of  irregu- 
lar lengths,  and  when  the  key  is  out,  c,  /',  i/, 
h,  i  drop  down,  as  shown  by  {\ii'.  dotted  lines, 
allowing  1,  2,  3.  4,  f)  to  drop  into  the  holes  in  the 
barrel,  lixing  the  lock.  As  the  key,  which  has 
indentations  exactly  correspond  in"  with  the  vary- 
ing lengths  of  e, /,  g,  /(,  /,  is  pushed  in,  it  raises 
those  jiins  till  they  and  1,  2,  3,  4,  5  coincide  at  the 
junction  of  the  barrel  and  the  fixed  jiart  of  the 
lock.     The  barrel  may  then  be  turned  and  a  pin  on 


it  shoots  the  bolt,  not  shown  in  the  fig.  The  key 
is  a  thin  piece  of  tem|iered  steel  weighing  only  a 
small  fraction  of  an  ounce,  and  the  keyhole  corre- 
spondingly narrow. 

Locks  made  for  various  purposes,  such  sus  dooi-s, 
drawers,  writing-desks,  portfolios,  cupboards,  iSrc, 
however  dirtering  in  arrangement,  are  all  con- 
structed on  the  same  princiide.  The  jun/loc/:,  in 
which  the  lock  is  a  se|iarate  arrangement,  is  pre- 
ci.sely  similar  to  other  locks  excejit  in  slia])e.  It 
has  also  a  movable  bow  wliich  is  hooked  into  £ 
staple  or  other  fastening  and  then  locked. 

Locks  for  drawers,  cupboards,  and  the  like, 
wliicli  only  require  to  be  opened  on  one  side,  an' 
generally  made  with  a  central  pin  on  which  tin- 
key,  with  a  pipe,  works;  but  in  locks  which  must 
be"  opened  from  both  si<les  this  arrangement  is 
iinpossilil(',  and  the  key  is  s(did,  working  tliroiigli 
a  hole  in  the  lock.  It  must,  however,  be  symmetri- 
cal, so  as  to  exactly  reach  the  turning  ]dace  of  the 
lock  fnun  either  side.  Locks  which  are  mortised 
into  the  thickness  of  the  door  are  called  mortise 
locks. 

Many  ingenious  automatic  hatches  have  been 
invented  for  cabinets  and  the  like,  which  shut  of 
themselves  when  the  door  is  closed,  and  can  be 
pulled  open  without  a  key  or  turning  a  handle : 
they  are  used  when  security  is  not  rerjuired,  only  a 
means  of  keeping  the  door  closed. 

See  Price's  Treatke  on  Locks  aiid  Kci/s  ( 1856) ;  Sir  E. 
Beckett  (Dinison),  Treatise  on  Locks;  Hol)bs  and  Toin- 
liiison,  Treatise  on  the  Construclinn  of  I^ocks  {new  ed. 
1868);  and  G.  H.  CSiubb,  Protection  from  Fire  mid 
Tliiurs  (1878). 

Lock,  on  a  river  or  canal,  is  an  arrangement  of 
two  iiarallol  tloodgates,  by  which  communication 
is  secured  between  two  reaches  of  dili'erent  levels. 
Without  locks,  canals  are  an  impossibility  in  any 
but  exceptionally  level  country.  The  ])riiiciple 
of  locks  is  explained  in  the  article  Can.\l,  \o\. 
II.  p.  697.  The  invention  of  the  lock  has  been 
claimed  for  the  great  Leonardo  da  \"iiici  or  other 
Italian  engineer  of  the  loth  century  :  but  there 
seems  ground  for  affirming  that  the  luinciple  was 
known  and  used  in  Holland  a  hiimlied  years 
earlier. 

Lock   of   a  gun.       See   GrN,  FlRE.\KMS,   and 

Iil!EECII-I.O.\l)IN(;. 

Locke,  John,  mie  of  the  most  cons])icnous 
figures  in  the  intellectual  history  of  modern 
Europe,  in  whom,  directly  or  indirectly,  the  course 
of  oi)iiiion,  especially  in  the  18th  century,  is 
probably  more  represented  than  by  any  other  man. 
Locke  was  a  native  of  Somerset;  jieliiton,  the 
rural  home  of  his  youth,  is  6  miles  from  liristol. 
It  was  at  Wringtoii,  10  miles  from  Heluton,  that 
he  was  born,  on  the  29th  of  .Vugn.st  16.'i2.  Our 
liicture  of  his  boyhood  is  faint.  He  lost  bus  pious 
mother  when  he  was  a  child.  His  father,  a  country 
attorney,  was  a  considerable  factor  in  the  forma- 
tion of  his  mind,  during  fourteen  years  of  hninc 
training  in  the  small  Puritan  lumseliold,  which 
c(uisisted  of  the  father  and  an  only  brother,  who 
died  young.  In  Locke's  tenth  year  the  Civil  War 
broke  out.  He  was  at  Westminster  School  in  the 
years  in  which  the  a.ssemlily  of  Puritan  divines  was 
discussing  Calvinistii-  theology,  and  ill  oiii'  of  wliicli 
he  may  liave  seen  the  tragedy  at  Whitehall  in 
which  the  Pnritan  revolution  ciilmiiiated.  In  Ki.Vi 
we  find  Locke  at  (Jxford,  after  which  the  i>ictiire 
becomes  more  ilistinct.  Christ  Church  was  then 
ruled  by  John  Owen,  the  Puritan  divine,  and 
Cromwell  was  chancellor  of  the  university.  The 
.\ristotle  of  the  schoolmen  still  determined  the 
course  of  study,  much  to  the  dissatisfaction  of 
young  Locke,  who  preferred  facts  to  words,  and 
persons  to  books,      liut  free  experiential  iiKjuiry 


LOCKE 


681 


was  finding  its  way  into  Oxford,  tliougli  not  into 
coUejiC  leotviies,  and  Locke  afterwanls  confessed 
the  early  inlluence  of  the  spirit  of  Descartes  njion 
himself.'  The  Restoration  fonnd  him  in  16G0  a 
senior  stndent  in  Christ  Clinrch.  For  a  time 
lie  lectured  as  a  college  tutor,  till  the  little 
property  of  Belnton  became  his  by  inheritance 
.after  the  de.ath  of  his  father  in  1661 .  He  h.ad 
now  to  determine  his  career.  Notwithstanding 
an  inclination  to  theology,  his  growing  sympathy 
with  free  inquiry,  in  reaction  against  scholasticism, 
and  against  the  intolerance  and  fanaticism  of 
which  he  complained  among  the  Puritans,  dis- 
cour.aged  an  ecclesiastical  career.  '  I  fonnd,'  he 
says  sarcastically,  '  tli.at  a  general  freedotn  is  but 
a  general  bondage,  and  that  tlie  popular  jisserters 
of  liberty  .are  the  greatest  engrossers  of  it  too,  and 
not  unjustly  called  its  keei)ers.'  Experiments  in 
medicine,  which  much  engaged  him  in  these  years, 
show  his  bent  to  the  inductive  interpretation  of 
external  nature,  ami  aversion  to  the  '  vermicul.ate ' 
questions  of  the  schools.  I'efore  1666  he  wa-s  in  a 
sort  of  am.ateur  pr.actice  in  Oxford,  and,  although 
he  never  took  this  degree,  he  was  in  after-life 
familiarly  known  among  his  friends  as  '  Doctor 
Locke.'  The  philosophic  temperament  is  apt  to 
make  a  merely  professional  career  irksome ;  and, 
besides,  he  inherited  a  delicacy  unfavourable  to 
medical  pr.actice,  which  ended  in  the  chronic  con- 
sumption and  a-sthma  ag.ainst  which  he  br.avely 
struggled  in  later  yeai"s.  Thus  medicine  did  not 
absorb  his  attention.  Pioblems  of  society,  the 
relations  of  church  and  state,  and  above  all  the 
right  and  <lnty  of  religious  toleration,  as  his  com- 
monplace books  prove,  were  revolved  in  his  thoughts 
in  those  Oxford  years,  always  in  sympathy  with 
individual  freedom  and  in  a  spirit  of  prudential 
utilitarianism. 

It  w.as  in  the  summer  after  his  return  from 
Germany,  where  he  had  spent  the  winter  of  1665, 
that  an  incident  occniTed  which  finally  determined 
this  last  disposition,  for  thenceforward  he  w.os 
'often  a  man  of  business,  and  always  a  man  of  the 
world,  without  much  undisturbed  leisure.'  Medical 
prjictice  accidentally  brought  him  into  connection 
with  Lord  Ashley,  soon  after  fii-st  Earl  of  .Shaftes- 
bury, who  was  visiting  Oxford  for  his  health. 
The  meeting  ended  in  a  lasting  friendship,  sus- 
tained by  common  interest  in  lilierty  ;  and  in  the 
following  year  Locke,  at  Exeter  House,  became 
Lord  Asldey's  confidential  secretary.  The  change 
did  not  check  his  scicntilic  experiments,  in  which 
he  was  encouraged  by  Sydenliam  and  other  savants 
with  whom  life  in  London  opened  intercourse, 
while  the  political  experience  of  Exeter  House 
was  in  the  line  of  previous  interests.  It  was  not 
long  after  he  entered  it  that  the  turning-point  in 
Ills  intellectual  career  was  reached.  A  reunion 
of  friends,  meeting  in  the  winter  of  1670-71  for 
the  di.seussion  of  problems  social  and  theological, 
perplexed  in  certain  inquiries,  welcomed  Locke's 
suggestion,  that  before  |mrsuing  them  they  should 
face  a  previous  investigation — .as  to  what  questions 
the  human  understanding  was  or  w;vs  not  fitted 
to  deal  with.  This  problem,  then  undertaken  by 
Locke  himself,  proved  unex]>ectedly  large.  His 
best  energies,  given  to  it  during  the  seventeen 
following  years,  issued  in  1690  in  the  famous  Essay 
(Joncerning  Human  U ndemtantlinc). 

Those  seventeen  years  were  spent  partly  in 
England,  amidst  the  tumult  of  public  atj'airs, 
])artly  on  the  Continent  in  comparative  retire- 
ment. In  1672,  when  .Shaftesbury  became  chan- 
cellor, Locke  was  made  .Secretary  to  the  JJoard  of 
Tr<ade.  The  fall  of  Shaftesbury  three  years  later 
enable<l  his  secrctarv  to  retire  to  France,  where 
he  lived  till  1679,  /or  health  .and  study,  cliietly 
at    Montpellier   and    at    Paris.      In    France     he 


formed  friendships  witli  physicians,  naturalists, 
.and  travellei's  more  than  with  metaphysicians; 
although  it  w.as  the  brilliant  era  when  French 
metjipiiysic  was  represented  by  Arnauld  and 
M.alebr.anche,  whilst  Spinoza  was  (till  1677)  in 
HoU.and  .and  Leibnitz  in  Germany.  In  1679 
Locke  returned  to  Lonilon  and  to  Sh.aftesbuiy,  who 
W'as  restored  to  power  for  a  short  time,  and  lived 
with  him  in  the  ye.ars  of  plots  and  counterplots 
which  preceded  the  earl's  tlight  to  Iloll.and  in 
November  1682.  Locke,  under  suspicion  in  Eng- 
land, as  the  confidant  of  Shaftesbury,  became 
before  the  end  of  16S3  .an  exile  in  Holland,  then 
the  European  home  of  religious  and  civil  liberty. 
There,  during  live  years  of  exile,  he  resumed  the 
studies  which  atl'airs  in  Kngl;ind  had  often  inter- 
rupted, and  m.atured  voluminous  writings  for  the 
pre.ss.  At  Amsterdam  Limborch,  the  leader  of 
liberal  theology  in  Holland,  and  Le  Clerc,  its  most 
eminent  man  of  letters,  became  his  intimate 
friends.  The  intercourse  strengthened  Locke's 
theological  liber.alism,  and  soothed  the  pains  of 
exile,  .aggravated  by  the  witlulrawal  of  his  senior 
studentship  in  Christ  Church,  of  which  he  was 
suddenly  deprived  in  1684  by  the  king's  command. 
His  first  home  in  Holland  was  at  Amsterdam : 
his  last  was  at  Rotterdam,  where  the  Essay  was 
finished. 

The  political  struggle  which  had  been  going  or 
for  half  a  century  in  England  was  consummated 
by  the  Revolution  of  1688-89,  of  which,  then  un- 
known to  fame,  he  was  to  be  the  philosophical 
defender.  This  opened  the  way  for  his  return, 
to  play  his  part  in  authorship,  with  Lon<lon  at 
first  as  the  stage  of  operations.  Immediately 
afterwards,  in  Febniary  1689,  he  declined,  for 
health's  sake,  the  post  of  ambassador  at  Branden- 
burg, contented  with  a  modest  Commissionershi]i 
of  Appeals  as  otlicial  recognition  by  the  new 
government.  The  coui-se  of  atiairs  after  the  Revolu 
tion  fell  short  of  his  hopes.  The  Toleration  Act 
of  1690  was  inadequate,  and  the  withdrawal  of 
the  Comprehension  Bill,  for  uniting  England  in 
ii  liberal  national  church,  was  another  disjippoint- 
nient.  Locke  made  his  first  ai)pear<ance  as  an 
author  late  in  life.  He  turned  to  authorship  in  the 
public  interest  of  individual  freedom — religious, 
political,  and  intellectual.  An  Epistola  cle  Toler- 
anlia  was  his  first  contribution,  written  in  1685, 
addressed  to  his  Dutch  friend  LimI)orcli,  published 
.anonymously  at  Gouda  in  Holland  in  1689,  a  few- 
weeks  after  his  return  to  England,  and  translated 
into  English  in  the  following  summer  by  'William 
Popple.  A  treatise  on  Viril  Government,  ready 
for  puldic.ation  when  he  came  home,  followed  early 
in  1690 ;  this  w;is  also  .anonymous,  and,  like  the 
Epistolu,  a  defence  of  in<lividu.al  liberty  in  another 
relation.  Its  economical  ]irinci]iles  anticipate  Hume 
and  .-Vdam  Smith,  and  its  principles  of  jurisprudence 
are  in  .advance  of  Grolius  and  Puffendorf.  The 
Essay  Conceniiiir/  Ihuiuin  TJinlcrstaniihuj  appeared 
in  March  1690,  unfolding  the  philosophy  of  which 
the  tr.actates  on  Toleration  and  on  Ciovernment 
were  special  .applications.  The  Essay  was  Locke's 
first  public  acknowledgment  of  autlmrship.  His 
philosoi)hy  is  embodied  in  these  three  wcuks. 

His  ailments  b.id  incre.a-sed  in  London.  It  was 
then,  in  I(i9l,  that  the  home  of  his  old  age,  the 
brightest  of  all  his  homes,  opened  to  receive  him. 
This  was  the  manor-house  of  Oates  in  Essex,  near 
Epping,  the  country-seat  of  Sir  Francis  Miisham. 
Lady  Masham  wjis  the  accomplished  daughter  of 
Cudworth  (q.v.),  the  philosophical  theologian: 
Locke  had  known  her  family  before  he  went  to 
Holland.  Here,  for  the  fourteen  remaining  yeare 
of  bis  life,  he  enjoyed  as  much  iloinestic  peace, 
literary  leisure,  and  social  intercourse  a.s  wfis  con- 
sistent with  broken  health  and  occasional  public 


682 


LOCKE 


service  in  London,  and  his  work  in  the  study  was 
resunu'il  witli  oliaracterislic  industry  and  method. 
The  ahundant  authorship  of  tlie  two  iireceiliiif; 
years  now  involved  him  in  controversies  which 
lasted  to  the  end  of  his  life.  Tlie  Aiiswei-  of  a 
certain  Jonas  Proast  of  Queen's  College,  Oxford, 
to  the  Episto/a  cic  Tolcnmtia  had  led  to  Locke's 
SeroHil  Letter  in  1690.  A  rejoinder  in  I6!)l  was 
followed  by  an  elaborate  Third  Letter  in  1602. 
tjucstions  of  economics  and  the  currency  were 
subjects  of  other  tractates  in  1691  and  1G9."), 
\Vhen  he  was  in  Holland  he  had  corresponded 
with  his  friend  Edward  Clarke  of  Chipley  in 
Somerset  about  the  education  of  his  son,  and 
those  letters  made  the  substance  of  the  TItoiifilits 
on  Kdiieation  in  1693,  a  characteristic  work  wliich 
still  holds  its  place  anionj;  educational  classics. 
Proposals  for  ecclesiastical  coMi]irehension,  and  liis 
own  desire  for  union  amon^  Chri.stians,  made 
him  anxious  to  show  how  few  and  simple  the 
essential  facts  of  Christianity  were,  and  to 
bring  men  to  .agree  to  difl'er  about  all  beyond. 
One  result  was  the  anonymous  volume,  in  169.5,  on 
the  Reasonableness  of  Christianity,  in  which  he 
tried,  in  the  spirit  of  the  Essay,  to  recall  Cliristi- 
anity  from  the  verbal  reasonings  of  dogmatic 
ilivines,  wliich  had  disturbed  the  unity  of  the 
church,  to  its  original  simplicity  in  Scripture. 
This  theological  departure,  followed  by  excursions 
in  criticism  in  the  last  years  of  his  life,  vhich 
ai)peared  as  ])osthumons  Commentaries  on  St  L'uid's 
Epistles,  was  a  distinctive  feature  of  the  literary 
life  at  Oates.  In  1696,  as  a  Commissioner  of  the 
]>oard  of  Trade,  with  an  income  of  £1000  a  year, 
he  was  again  involved  for  the  four  following  years 
in  official  cares.  Hut  they  were  not  years  of 
literary  idleness.  Successive  editions  of  the  Essay, 
in  1694,  1695,  and  1700,  with  important  additional 
cha|)ters  in  the  lirsl  and  last ;  defence  of  its  philo- 
sophy against  the  adverse  criticism  of  Xorris, 
Stillinglleet,  Sergeant,  Burnet,  Lee,  and  Leilmitz : 
an  Examination  of  RLalebrancIie,  and  Hemarks  on 
Norris,  published  posthumously  ;  vindications  of 
tlie  Heasonableness  of  Christianity  against  theo- 
logical critics  ;  and  the  well-known  tractate  on  the 
Conduct  of  tlie  Uiidcrstandinij,  kepi  him  busy  in 
the  study  at  Oates.  The  Essay,  translated  into 
Latin  and  French,  was  spreading  over  Europe. 
IJul  he  was  now  gathering  himself  for  the  end. 
In  1700  he  ceased  to  publish.  One  attack  only 
moved  him  in  the  four  years  which  followed.  In 
1704  his  old  adversary  Pr<iast  renewed  the  con- 
test, and  the  fragment  of  a  Fourth  Letter  on  Toler- 
(dion,  published  in  llie  i>ost]iumous  volume,  ex- 
hausted Locke's  remaining  strength  upon  the 
theme  tluit  had  engaged  him  at  Oxford  forty  years 
before,  and  had  been  the  ruling  idea  ever  since. 
All  tliat  summer  he  declined,  nur.sed  by  Lady 
Masham  and  her  step  daughter  Esther.  On  the 
28tli  October  170-4  he  pas.sed  away,  as  he  said,  'in 
perfect  charity  with  all  men,  and  in  sincere  com- 
munion with  the  church  of  Christ  by  whatever 
names  Christ's  followers  call  themselves.'  His 
tomb  may  be  seen  on  the  .south  side  of  the  parish 
church  of  High  Laver,  a  mile  from  Oates,  bearing 
a  l.,atin  inscription  prepared  liy  his  own  hand. 

Locke's  Essay  presents  the  philosophical  founda- 
tion of  the  right  of  the  individual  thinker  to 
follow  freely  the  lindings  of  experience;  ami, 
partly  even  by  its  met.i])hysical  defect.s,  it  has 
suggested  the  chief  problems  which  have  occupied 
mcxiern  thinkers  since  it  appeared.  Its  'design,' 
according  to  its  own  words,  was,  '  to  inquire  into 
the  original,  certainty,  and  extent  of  human 
knowledge,  together  with  the  grounds  and  degrees 
of  belief,  opinion,  and  assent;' — and  this  as  a 
means  to  correct  the  chief  cause  of  human  error, 
which  its  author  found  in  men's  proneness  to  ex- 


tend their  inquiries  to  matters  beyond  their  reach, 
and  then  to  cover  their  ignorance  by  empty  phrases, 
or  1)V  dogmas  which  they  assumed  to  be  "innate,' 
and  therefore  out  of  the  re;u'li  of  criticism.  He 
wanted  to  make  a  faithful  report,  fouiuled  simjily 
upon  mental  facts,  as  to  how  far  a  merely  human 
understauding  can  go,  in  the  way  either  of  certain 
knowledge  or  of  more  or  less  probable  presum]ition; 
and  in  what  man  must  be  contentei!  with  ignor- 
ance. Although  a  true  report  might  show  that 
human  knowledge  must  for  ever  '  fall  far  short  of 
perfect  comprehension  of  whatsoever  is,'  it  might 
be  'sufficient  for  our  state;'  and  at  anvrate  we 
cannot  overcome  facts. 

The  Essay  is  divided  into  four  books.  Only 
the  fourth  deals  directly  with  its  'design.'  The 
(irst  book  is  a  preliminary  argument  against  the 
innateness  of  any  part  of  our  knowledge,  meant 
to  oiien  the  way  for  the  statement  of  Locke's 
main  ]iosition — that  whatever  any  man  can  know, 
or  reasoualily  believe  in,  or  even  conceive,  is 
dependent  on  human  experience.  The  essence 
of  the  Essay  is  in  its  proof  that  knowledge  cannot 
in  any  degree  have  been  consciously  innate  in 
e.ich  man  ;  for  it  must  be  in  all  cases  a  gradual 
growth,  dependent  upon  experience,  in  which  we 
are  liable  to  error.  The  argument  might  be  thus 
jiut :  All  truths  and  all  errors  are  expres.sed  in 
propositions,  and  every  proposition  contains  two 
terms,  which,  if  the  proposition  is  intelligible, 
must  each  contain  an  'idea'  <u'  meaning.  We 
may  have  ideas  without  having  knowledge,  but 
we  cannot  have  knowledge,  or  even  opinion,  with- 
out having  ideas;  for  'having  ideas,  Locke  tells 
us,  means  'speaking  intelligibly.'  Propositions 
which  contain  ielealess  terms  cannot  exjiress  truth, 
or  even  error,  and  only  connect  empty  sounds. 
Now,  how  do  the  ideas  or  meanings  which  ean 
form  the  subjects  and  predicates  of  our  jiroposi- 
tions  enter  into  human  consciousness?  All  our 
ideas,  the  most  complex  and  abstract,  as  well  as 
the  sim]ilest,  Locke  undertakes  to  show,  are  ideas 
which  refer  either  to  data  that  happen  to  have  been 
presented  through  our  live  senses,  or  to  o]ierations 
of  mind  which  have  been  made  objects  of  reflection. 
If  we  pretend  in  words  to  extend  our  range  further, 
'  W("  shall  succeed  no  better  than  if  we  went  about 
to  clear  the  darkness  in  the  mind  of  one  born  blind, 
talking  into  him  the  ideas  of  light  and  colours.' 
Words  which  do  not  mean  either  what  is  sensuous 
or  what  is  mental  must  be  empty  words.  The 
proof  of  this  fundament;il  thesis  is  ofiered  through- 
out the  .second  ami  third  books,  which  thus  prepare 
for  the  settlement  of  the  imqier  problems  of  the 
Essay  in  the  fourth.  Much  of  the  proof  consists 
of  logical  and  psychologic;il  analysis  of  the  meta- 
physical ideas  of  space,  duration,  inlinity,  sub- 
stance, personality,  causality,  and  power,  which 
are  taken  as  'crucial  instances.'  If  even  those 
ideas  must  depend  upon  experience  in  order  to 
become  ideas,  a  fortiori  none  others  can  have 
been  consciously  born  with  us  before  we  had  ex- 
perience. The  proof  is  that,  if  all  elements  due  to 
experience  are  left  out,  the  ideas  now  mentioned 
must  disappear.  In  the  \'M\\  and  most  of  the 
remaining  chapters  of  the  second  book  this  argu- 
ment is  worked  out.  liut  here  Locke  seems  too 
ready  to  take  for  granted  that,  if  those  crucial 
ideas  are  unrealisable  without  data  of  ex]ierience, 
it  necessarily  follows  that  they  involve  nothing  else 
than  accidents  of  external  or  spiritual  experience. 
He  was  led  to  interpret  'innateness'  as  he  did 
p.utly  by  his  assumption  that  nothing  can  be  '  i/i 
a  mind  '  of  which  the  mind  is  not  at  the  moment 
conscious.  He  thus  overlooks  the  fact  that  we 
are  conscious  at  each  iiKiment  only  of  a  small 
part  of  what — because  potentially  involved  in,  and 
presupiiosed    by,   our  spiritual  experience  of   the 


LOCKE 


LOCKHART 


683 


universe — responds  consciously  in  each  man  s  iniiul 
on  an  ailequate  ajipeal. 

After  tliis  analysis  of  the  possilile  range  of  man's 
iJeas,  Locke  passes  to  the  intuitive  iiml  demon- 
strable, the  prohahle,  ami  the  erroneous  judgments 
into  which  ide;\s  enter.  AVe  are  thus  led  into  the 
fourth  hook,  which  reports  upon  the  intuitive 
facts  and  principles  which  constitute  knowledge. 
Locke's  refusal  of  innatene.ss  (in  his  meaning  of 
'innate")  to  ideas,  .and  a  furtiori  to  knowledge 
which  dejiends  upon  ideas,  does  not  imply  that  he 
ignores  intuition.  t)n  the  contrary,  after  arguing 
strenuously  against  tlie  innateness  of  our  ideas  of 
morality  and  of  (mmI.  he  is  not  le-ss  strenuons  in 
arguing  for  our  having  an  intuitive  certainty  of 
the  truths  of  ])ure  mathematics  and  abstract 
ethics,  and  for  our  being  intuitively  certain  of 
the  individual  fact  of  our  own  existence  as  self- 
conscious,  as  well  as  of  the  existence  of  external 
things,  as  far  as  they  are  actually  felt,  and  above 
all  for  our  having  a  denxmstrable  knowledge  of 
the  existence  of  God  or  Eternal  ilind  '  as  certain 
as  any  conclusion  in  pure  mathematics.'  Indeed, 
in  his  '  demonstration  '  of  Gods  existence  lie  pre- 
supposes in  oui-  idea  of  causality  transcendental 
elements  with  which  his  description  of  that  idea 
in  the  seconil  book  can  hardly  lie  reconciled.  On. 
the  whole,  we  have  intuitive  knowledge  (so  Locke 
reports)  in  abstract  logic,  in  abstract  mathematics, 
and  in  abstract  ethics;  and  we  have  also  an  in- 
tuitive knowledge  of  the  facts  of  our  own  existence, 
of  the  existence  of  actually  fell  things  of  sense, 
and  of  the  existence  of  an  Eternal  Spirit  :  it  is  on 
the  light  of  intuition,  he  says,  'that  all  the  certainty 
of  this  kimwledge  depends.'  But  all  else  upon 
which  human  understanding  cjin  be  exercised  is 
referred  by  the  Essny  to  the  spheres  either  of  moie 
or  less  probable  "resumption  or  of  ignorance.  All 
judgments  abon  absent  things  of  sense  ;  about  the 
relations  among  the  qualities  of  matter,  primary 
and  secondary,  or  about  its  laws ;  and  about  the 
attributes  of  spirits  human  or  divine,  can  at  the 
most  be  probable  jiresumptions.  Hence  jirobability 
is  virtually  the  guide  of  human  life.  Science  of 
absent  facts  of  sense  (if  science  means  intuitively 
demonstrated  truths)  is  beyond  man's  reach.  Tlie 
chief  exercise  of  a  human  understanding  must  be 
bal.incing  of  probabilities  and  comparing  the  rela- 
tive weight  of  objections,  alike  in  the  so-called 
physical  .sciences  and  in  common  life.  'Whether 
physical  science,  or  even  the  probalile  jiropositions 
of  ordinary  life,  could  be  f<UMii!d  without  the  latent 
presence  in  experience  of  universal  and  necessary 
judgments,  presupposed  in,  while  incai>al)le  of 
being  referred  to,  its  contingencies,  Locke  does 
not  inquire.  His  aversion  to  ijresuppositions  and 
maxims,  to  which  he  traced  the  empty  verbalism 
and  dogma  against  which  he  constantly  warred, 
seems  here  to  influence  him.  He  sometimes  wrote 
a.s  if  he  failed  to  see  that,  without  presu])positions 
and  principles  of  some  sort,  intellectual  and  moral, 
being  ready  to  spring  out  of  their  latency  into 
ex])ei'ipnce,  there  ccmid  be  neither  rea.soned  scepti- 
ci-m  nor  rea.sonable  faith.     The   most  significant 

{)hilosophical  discussions  of  the  last  two  centuries 
lave  been  about  the  presence  or  absence  of  trans- 
cendental presuppositions  and  principles  in  our 
experience  ;  and  about  mans  c(msei|uent  relation 
to  the  infinite  and  the  eternal.  IJcrkeley's 
I'rinriitles  of  Uiiinmi  Knuwlcih/':,  Hume's  Jinjniri/ 
into  tlie   understanding,    Keid's   Inrjiiii;/  into   the 

?rincipli*s  of  common  sense,  Kant's  Kriti/.  of  Pure 
Icasoii,  Hegel's  ontological  dialectic,  Comte's 
positivism,  and  Herliert  Spencer's  generalisations  of 
universal  evolution  and  inv(duti>m,  are  all  in  their 
respective  ways  concerned  with  qnesliuMs  aliont  the 
roots  of  experience  which  Locke  left  indeterminate. 
Locke's   teaching  in    bis  other  works   is  influ- 


enced by  what  is  taught  in  his  Essatf.  Thus,  his 
fav(nirite  idea  of  free  toleration  for  tlie  individual 
expression  of  religious  belief— then  a  paradox,  now 
a  commonplace— is  founded  on  the  dependence 
of  man's  knowledge  on  experience  and  on  the 
unfitness  of  iiersecution  as  a  means  of  introduc- 
ing truth  to  a  human  mind  ;  Avhile  his  refusal  of 
toleration  to  atheists  is  in  harmony  with  that 
'  mathematical  certainty  of  God's  existence"  which 
he  reports  to  be  attainable  by  every  man  who 
uses  his  f.aculties  enough.  The  same  intellectual 
individualism  pervades  what  he  wrote  about 
government,  the  education  of  the  young,  and  the 
reasonableness  of  Christianity. 

Locke's  character  is  reflected  in  his  works.  In 
all  that  he  wrote  and  did  he  is  privemineiUly  him- 
self, in  his  caution  and  calculation  with  an  ajiproach 
to  timidity,  steady  adherence  to  the  concrete  of  ex- 
perience, indifl'erence  to  abstract  speculation,  sus- 
picion of  mystical  entliusi,-ism,  calm  reasonableness, 
love  for  truth,  and  ready  submission  to  facts  even 
when  they  could  not  be  reduced  to  system  in  a 
human  understanding.  His  temperate  aim  was 
not  to  explain  the  univei-se,  but  to  adapt  his  own 
intellectual  life  and  that  of  others  to  the  actual 
conditions.  He  sought  to  awaken  the  intellectual 
spirit,  and  to  bring  about  an  amendment  of  the 
operations  of  the  understanding,  more  than  to  solve 
the  enigmas  of  existence.  Hence  the  lasting  educa- 
tional value  of  his  authorship. 

Niuuor.nis  editions  of  Locke's  works,  individually  and 
coUectivcly,  have  appeared,  about  40  of  tlie  Essnii  alone, 
besides  tran.slations  into  Latin,  French,  and  German.  Of 
the  collected  editions  none  are  adequate,  but  the  best  is 
probably  that  of  Bishop  Law  in  4  quartos  ( 1777 ).  .^iiiong 
criticisms  of  the  Essay,  the  Noureaux  Essais  of  Leibnitz 
(176.5)  still  takes  the  foremo>;t  place.  Cousin'.s  Lectttres 
on  Locke  (1829).  Webb's  Inttlkrtualism  of  Locke  (1S.57), 
and  Green's  criticism  in  his  Introduction  to  Hume  ( 1874 ) 
are  noteworthy.  .See  also  Fowler's  Locke  { '  English 
Men  of  Letters,'  18ti0),  and  the  present  writer's  Locke 
(1890),  and  his  critical  edition  of  the  Essay  ('2  vols. 
1894). 

Lockerbie,  a  market  town,  with  a  great 
August  lamh-fair,  in  .Aniiandale,  Dumfrie.sshire,  15 
miles  ENE.  of  Dumfries  and  '26  N\\'.  of  Carlisle. 
Pop.  2:«1. 

Loeker-Lainpson,    Frederick,    son    of    a 

naval  ofhcei,  was  born  in  18'21,  served  some  yeai's 
as  precis  writer  in  the  Admiralty  office,  and  made 
his  name  widely  known  as  a  writer  of  unusually 
bright  and  clever  vers  ile  socictc  by  his  Lone/on 
iyr/'/w  ( 1857),  collected  from  the  various  papers  in 
which  they  had  appeared.  Later  books  are  Lyi-a 
E/i'f/cDitiariim  (1867)  and  Palf/iwor/:  (IS79).  In 
IS.'jO  he  married  a  daughter  of  the  seventh  Eiirl  of 
Elgin,  who  died  in  187'2  ;  and  in  1874  the  daughter 
of  Sir  Curtis  Lampson,  when  Locker  adileil  the 
name  of  Lampson  to  his  own.  In  1878  his  daughter 
was  m.arried  to  Lionel  Tennvson.  He  died  SOth 
May  ISil.-).  See  My  Confidences  (1896),  which  is 
an  autohiograiihy. 

Loekharta  John  Gib.sox,  was  horn  in  Cambus- 
nethan  manse,  near  Wisliaw,  14th  July  1794.  All 
his  boyhood  was  spent  in  <!hisgow,  where  at  eleven 
he  pa.ssed  from  the  high  school  to  the  college,  and 
whence  at  thirteen,  with  a  lialliol  Siiell  exhibition, 
he  went  up  to  Oxford.  In  18i:j  he  look  a  lirsicl.ass 
in  classics  ;  then,  alter  a  visit  to  the  Contiiient  (to 
Goethe  at  NVeimar),  studied  law  at  Edinburgh,  and 
in  1816  wiis  called  to  the  Scottish  bar.  But  he  was 
no  speaker;  and  having  while  still  at  Oxford 
written  the  article  'Heraldry'  for  the  Eilinhiirf/h 
Encyclopniliii,  and  soon  after  Iranslated  Sclilegel's 
Lectures  on  llic  History  if  Literal iirc,  from  1817  he 
took  more  and  more  to  literature,  and  with  Wilson 
became  the  chief  main.stay  of  HlnckirooiVs  Moyaziiie. 
In  its  pages  he  first  exhibited  the  sharp  and  caustio 


684 


LOCK    HAVEN 


LOCRI 


wit,  his  most  salient  cliaracteristic,  that  made  him 
the  terror  of  liis  Wliij;  oiiponents.  Peter's  Letters 
to  /lis  Kinsfolk  ('2il  pil.'  18101,  a  clever  skit  on 
Scottish  society,  was  followed  hy  four  novels  — 
Valerius  (\^1\).  a  romance  of  the  times  of  Trajan  : 
Ailam  BIfiir  (1822):  Urrjivnlil  Dalton  (1823),  a 
tale  of  iinivei-sitv  life:  and  Mnlthew  Wrild  (1824). 
Of  these  Aiffim  iiluir  alone  retains  its  vitality— the 
strong,  sad  storv  of  a  <;<>"il  nian's  fall  and  repent- 
ance :  Heniy  James  has  likened  it  to  Hawthorne's 
Searlet  Letter.  The  spirited  Aneient  S/ninish 
Ballads  appeareil  in  1.S23;  Lives  of  Burns  and 
N:ipoleon  in  1828  and  182!);  and  the  Life  of  Scott, 
Loiddiart's  masteriiiece,  in  1837-38.  He  had  met 
Scott  first  in  >Lay  1818,  in  April  1820  had  married 
his  eldest  d.aughter.  Sophia,  and  for  five  and  a  half 
years  had  divided  his  time  ]iretty  enually  hetween 
'Edinliurgh  and  Cliiefswood,  near  Abbotsford.  In 
1825  he  removed  to  I>ondon  to  assume  the  editor- 
ship of  the  Qiiarterly  L'crieir,  at  a  salary  of  £1  00 
per  annum  ;  and  tliis  post  he  retained  till  1853, 
in  1.843  hecomin','  also  auditor  of  the  dncliy  of 
Cornwall,  a  sinecure  worth  £400  a  year.  But  his 
closing  years  were  clouded  by  illness  and  deep 
dei>ression  :  by  the  secession  to  Rome  of  his  only 
daughter,  with  her  husband,  Mr  Hope-Scott  (i\.\:): 
and  by  the  loss  of  his  wife  in  1837,  of  his  two  boys 
in  1831  and  1853.  The  elder  of  them  was  the 
'Hugh  Littlejohn'  of  Seotts  Talcs  of  a  Grand- 
father :  the  younger,  Walter,  was  a  scapegrace  in 
the  army.  Like  Scott,  Lockliart  visited  Italy  in 
search  of  health  :  like  Scott,  he  came  back  to 
Abbotsford  to  die— 25th  November  1.854.  He  is 
buried  in  Dryburgh  at  Sir  Walter's  feet.  See  his 
Life  (dill  Letters,  by  Andrew  Lang  (1896). 

Look  Haven,  capital  of  Clinton  county, 
Pennsylvania,  is  situated  in  a  beautiful  mountain 
valley',  on  the  south  bank  of  the  West  Branch 
of  tiie  Susr|uehanna  lUver  (here  crossed  by  a 
briilgo),  and  on  the  West  Branch  Canal,  09  miles 
NE.^of  Altoona  by  rail.  It  contains  a  state 
normal  school,  large  foundries  and  tanneries, 
macliine-shops  and  mills,  an<l  has  an  active  trade 
in  lumber.     Pop.  7.'!45. 

Lock  nospital.  in  Loncbm,  for  female  con- 
tagious diseases,  was  founded  in  174(5,  the  chapel 
in''l764,  and  the  a-sylum  in  1787.  The  Loke  or 
Lock,  in  Southwark,  from  which  it  derives  its 
name,  was  an  ancient  lazar-house,  and  was  itself 
perhaps  so-called  from  Fr.  lui/iies,  'rags'  or  'lint.' 
Lock-jaw.  «eo  Tkt.vnus. 
Lockport.  cai)ital  of  Niagara  county.  New 
"Vork,  on  tlie  Erie  Canal,  25  miles  NNE.  of  Bull'alo 
by  rail.  Tlie  canal  here  passes  tlirouyb  a  deep 
cfiannel,  several  miles  long,  cut  in  the  soliil  lime- 
stone, and  falls  GO  feet,  liy  ten  combined  doubh>- 
locks.  Its  surplus  water  drives  a  number  of  lumber, 
flour,  and  wo(dleu  and  cotton  mills,  besides  other 
factories,  foundries,  machine-shops,  &c.  Pop.  ( 1880) 
13,522;  (1890)  10,038. 

Lockyer,  Sin  Joskph  Normax,  K.C.B.  (since 

1897),  w,as  Ijorii  at  Hugby  on  17th  May  18.30,  and  in 
1857  became  a  clerk  in  thi>  War  Ollice,  being  subse- 
quently transferred  to  the  Science  and  Art  Oepart- 
ment.  "  In  1869  he  was  elected  an  F.R.S.,  juid 
in  1870  wasappointed  secretary  to  the  Royal  Com- 
mission on  Scientilic  Instruction,  made  lecturer  r>n 
Astronomy  at  the  Normal  School  of  Science  at  Soutli 
Kensington,  and  sent  out  to  Sicily  as  head  of  the 
eclipse  exjiedition.  In  tlie  following  year  he  headed 
a  similar  expedition  to  India  and  was  elected  liede 
lecturer  at  Cambridge.  Ho  had  already  in  1866 
discovered  a  new  metliod  of  observing  the  son  :  and 
in  1874  he  gained  the  RunifonI  modal  of  the  Royal 
Society,  and  w,as  appointed  eilitor  of  Nature.  He 
is  an  able  popular  lecturer  on  astronomical 
physics,   and   has  written   Elcinentary  Lessons  in 


Astronomy  (1868),  Stxidies  in  S/teetrum  An<ili/sis 
(1878),  Contributions  to  Solar  P/ii/sies  (1873),  7'/ic 
Speetroseope  and  its  Appl ieat ions  {iH~3),  a  primer 
on  Astronomii  (1875),  StarGazinr/  (1878),  and 
Chemistry  off  he  .s'(ni.  (1887).  In'  1888  he  was 
Bakerian  lecturer. 

Loclc,  a  Swiss  town,  10  miles  NW.  of  NeuchAtel, 
is  one  of  the  chief  seats  of  the  Swiss  watch 
making  industry.     Pop.  10,464. 

Locomotion.    See  Flying,  Horse,  &c. 

Locomotives.    See  Stkam-exgise  and  Rail- 

WA\. 

Locomotor  Ataxia,  or  Tabes  Doesalis,  is 

a  remarkable  disease  of  the  nervous  system,  the  most 
characteristic  symptom  of  whicli  is  a  want  of  jiowei 
of  co-ordinating  the  muscles.  The  lower  linilis  .are 
almost  always  first  and  most  severely  alTected,  and 
the  patient  walks  with  a  peculiar  gait ;  he  lifts 
the  feet  high  and  brings  them  down  with  a  stamp  ; 
he  has  dilliculty  in  baiancing  himself :  iind  though 
lie  m.ay  be  able  to  walk  prc'tty  well  in  a  stiaiglit 
line  on  level  ground,  ,any  more  complicated  move- 
ment (turning  round,  surmounting  or  avoiding 
obst.-icles,  iVc. )  much  increases  his  unsteadiness. 
When  deprived  of  the  aid  of  sight  (in  the  dark,  or 
on  closing  the  eyes)  these  dilliculties  are  much 
aggravated.  In  tlie  great  majority  of  cases  sensa- 
tion is  early  afVected  ;  and  he  may  complain  that 
he  .always  feels  as  if  he  were  w.alking  upon  a  thick 
carpet.  The  power  of  the  muscles  is  in  many 
ca.ses  (|uite  unimpaired. 

Besides  the  symptoms  of  incoordination,  .and 
often  hmg  preceding  them,  are  others,  someof  which 
are  so  characteristic  that  they  m.ay  lead  to  the 
recognition  of  the  disease.  Severe  shooting  pains, 
especially  in  the  lower  limbs  (called  liyhtninq 
pains),  are  frequent.  Similar  pains  in  the  region  of 
the  stom.aeh,  associated  witli  vomiting,  faintncss, 
(S:c.  (ifa.strie.  eriaes):  paralysis,  often  transient,  of 
one  of  the  eye-muscles  ;  extreme  contraction  of  the 
pupil  ;  atrophy  of  the  optic  nerve  ;  a  peculiar  form 
of  inllammation  of  one  or  more  joints,  are  all  met 
with  in  .a  certain  proiiortion  of  cases. 

The  progress  of  the  ilisease  is  always  slow  and 
uncert.ain  ;  it  may  ^'ciu'rally  be  nu'as\ired  by  years, 
often  by  decades  :  but,  altlnmgh  in  some  cases  the 
condition  of  the  patient  may  remain  stationary 
for  years,  it  generally  becomes  gradually  worse. 
Death  usually  results  from  some  intercurrent 
disease.  Locomotor  ataxia  gener.illy  begins  be- 
tween the  ages  of  thirty  and  fifty,  ami  is  much 
more  common  in  the  male  sex.  It  seems  some- 
times traceable  to  severe  acute  illness,  to  chill, 
over  fatigue,  injury,  &c.,  .and  many  of  those  who 
sutler  from  it  have  previously  had  syphilis  ;  but 
in  a  large  number  of  cases  no  cause  is  discoverable. 

After  death  a  fibrous  degeiieraticm  (sclerosis)  of 
the  whole  or  part  of  the  posterior  columns  of  tlie 
.spinal  cord  is  found.  The  extremely  uncertain 
course  of  the  disease  renders  it  very  difiicult  to  lie 
certain  of  the  eU'ect  of  treatment,  though  many 
dillerent  methods  have  been  advocated,  .and  asserted 
to  produce  amendment  if  not  cure.  The  most 
hopeful  ca-ses  are  those  which  follow  syphilis  ;  for 
in  them  a  prolonged  .antisy))hilitic  treatment  not 
nnfretiuently  seems  to  lead  to  great  improvement 
or  even  disappearance  of  the  symptoms. 

Loci*i«  .1  peoide  of  ancient  (ireece,  ilivided  intc 
two  distinct  tribes,  ililleriiig  in  customs  and 
I  civilisation.  The  one,  known  as  Locri  Epicnemidii 
and  Opuiitii,  dwelt  on  the  mainland  overag.ainst  the 
island  of  Eulwea,  whilst  the  other,  c,allc<l  Locri 
Ozobe,  lived  on  the  northern  sliore  of  the  (iiilf  of 
Corinth.  The  chief  town  of  the  eiislorn  Locri  was 
Opus,  of  the  western  .\mpliissa.  -.A  colony  from 
one  or  the  other  of  these  tribes  founded  (eirea  710 
B.C.)  in  South  Italy  the  celebrated  city  of  Locri, 


LOCUS 


LOCUST 


685 


wliich  stoiKl  near  the  sDiitlieni  extremity  of  the 
Hruttiaii  |>eiiiiisula.  Locri  wiis  geneiully  in  opposi- 
tion to  Homo,  lirst  as  tlie  allj-  of  the  Syracusaus, 
then  of  the  Carthajjinians.  Excavations  were 
carrioil  out  here  in  18S9-90. 

Locus,  in  (Jeometry,  ileiiotes  tlie  line  or  surface 
traversed  hy  a  point  which  is  constrained  to  move 
in  accordance  with  certain  determinate  conditions. 
Thus,  the  locus  of  a  point  wliicli  must  always  pre- 
serve the  same  uniform  distance  from  a  lixed  point 
is  the  surface  of  a  sphere  :  hut  if  the  motion  he 
at  the  same  time  confined  to  a  plane,  the  locus 
then  will  be  a  circle  :  this  is  an  illustration  of  the 
division  into  so/id  and  jihine  loci  which  prevailed 
among  the  ancients.  In  moilern  Geometry  plane 
loci  are  treated  under  the  name  of  Curves  (q.v.). 

Locust,  a  name  applietl  to  the  members  of  a 
family  (Acridid;p)  of  orthopterous  insects  nearly 
related  to  j;rasshoppei"s.  It  is  unfortunate  that  the 
family  LocustitUe  and  the  genus  Locusta  do  not 
include  what  are  usually  called  locusts,  but  the 
related  gnu-^shoppei-s,  katydids,  &c.  Locusts  in 
the  popular  sense,  members  of 
the  family  Acridid;e,  are  large, 
ground-loving  insects,  of  world- 
wide distribution,  famous  for 
their  voracious  vegetarian  ajipe- 
tite.  In  size  they  vary  frnni  \ 
inch  too  inches  in  length.  They 
have  strong  hind-legs  with  great 
leaping  powers,  large  heads  with 
formidable  mouth-organs, 
shorter  antenna-  and  robuster 
bodies  than  gra.'-shoppei-s.  Both 
winged  and  wingle.<sforms  occur, 
the  form(!r  with  strong  powers 
of  flight,  though  tliey  are 
doubtless  aided  in  travei'siiig 
seas  and  continents  by  the  prevailing 
The  females  have  strong  ovi|>ositoi-s  by 
they  bore  holes  for  their  eggs ;  the  males  are 
witliout  the  grasshoppers'  stridulatiii"  organ  at 
the  base  of  the  wings,  but  rub  their  thighs 
against  the  edges  of  the  wing-covers.  The 
numerous  eggs  are  laid  in  holes  drilled  in  the 
ground  ;  the  youu"  develop  with  incomplete  meta- 
morphosis, and  wlieu  hatched  generally  resemble 
the  parents  except  in  the  absence  of  wings.  From 
the  first  they  are  gregarious,  and  excessively 
voracious  except  during  their  repeated  moults  ; 
they  devour  all  green  things,  and  even  one  another, 
and  are  often  forced  by  stress  of  hunger  and  ex- 
cessive multiplication  to  migrate  in  great  swarms, 
'  which  have  been  traced  over  a  stretch  of  country 
many  hundreils  of  miles  in  length.'  They  periodi- 
cally appear  in  destructive  hordes,  '  thick  as  snow- 
flakes,'  darkening  the  sky  in  '  myriads  numherle.«s, 
the  rushing  of  whose  wings  is  as  the  sound  of  a 
broad  river.'  Their  ceaselessly  moving  jaws  make 
a  noise  comiiarable  to  a  spreading  ilanie  or  to 
'  chariots  in  battle;'  in  a  few  hours  cornlields  are 
reduced  to  bare  stalks  or  stubble  ;  '  the  land  is  as 
the  garden  of  Eden  before  them,  and  behind  them 
a  de-solate  wilderness.'  The  prophet  Joel's  descrip- 
tion is  at  once  vivid  ami  accurate.  Their  ravages 
somi-lijues  cause  wi(h?spreail  famine  anil  ruin  ; 
their  rotting  corp.ses  jiroduce  pestilential  ellluvia. 
In  many  countries  they  are  eaten,  roa-^teil  or  frieil 
in  butter,  preserved  in  brine,  plain  boilecl,  or  dried 
in  the  sun.  '  In  taste  the  red  locust,  which  is  the 
female,  resembles  green  wheat,  having  a  very 
deli(«ite  vegetable  flavour.'  One  of  the  most 
famous  and  ilestructive  forms  Ls  the  Hocky  Moun- 
tain Locust,  Vuliiiitcnux  simliis ;  the  most  abundant 
niigratorj'  species  of  the  Ea-nt,  so  often  mentioned 
in  the  Scriptures,  is  I'licliHtj/liis  viii/rttluriiin. 
Acridium,  CEUipoda,  Stcnobotunis  are  among  the 


numerous  other  genera  of  importance.  See  Gr.a,SS- 
Hol'l'EK  :  and  for  a  complete  account  of  the  Kocky 
Mountain  Locust,  see  C.  \'.  Kiley  in  Reports  of 
United  States  Entomological  Conimi.ssion  ( Wash- 
ington, 1877-8"  ).  For  the  '  seventeen  years'  locust ' 
or  harvest-fly  of  North  America,  see  ClCAD.\. 

Locust  Destruction. — Numerous  systems  both  in 
the  Old  and  the  New  World  have  been  adopted 
for  destroying  these  terrible  swarms.  The.v  were 
beaten  down  as  they  flew  ;  they  were  pushed  into 
hat's  as  they  crawled,  and  their  eggs  were  collected 
ana  burned  on  a  very  large  scale  before  the  young 
were  hatched.  A  bounty  has  been  ottered  for  their 
destruction,  in  Minnesota,  for  instance,  so  nmch 
a  bushel  being  |)aid,  and  thousands  of  1)ushels 
brought  in.  But  no  method  was  of  any  practical 
avail,  until  in  Cyprus,  under  British  administra- 
tion, a  system  w;i.s  perfected  which  has  been  so 
completely  successful  that  it  may  be  saiil  to  be 
the  only  one  worthy  of  notice  or  consideration.  It 
was  suggested  as  early  as  1870  by  an  enterprisin" 
land-owner  in  Cyprus,  Mr  Richard  Mattel,  ana 
was  modilied  and  perfected  by  Mr  Samuel  Brown, 


winds, 
which 


Locust  (Pachijtylus  migratorius). 

government  engineer-in-chief  in  the  island  in  1881. 
Sir  Mattei  wits  created  a  C.M.G.  in  1886. 

By  his  system,  based  upon  a  close  observation  of 
the  nature  and  habits  of  the  Insects  during  many 
years,  the  locusts  are  caught  w  bile  they  are  '  on 
the  march  ' — that  is  to  say,  while  ( some  ten  days 
aftei'  they  are  hatched )  they  march  across  the 
country  in  countless  hosts  or  '  armies.'  Mr  Mattei, 
having  observed  that  no  obstacle  causes  them  to 
turn  back  in  their  onward  progress,  but  that  they 
climb  and  crawl  over  everything  that  bars  their 
direct  course,  and  that  furthermore  they  are 
unable  to  obtain  foothold  on  any  perfectly  smooth 
or  ]polislied  surface,  hit  upon  the  ingenious  ex- 
pedient of  barring  their  ])rogress  by  means  of  long 
canvas  screens  put  up  on  stakes  and  furnished  at 
the  top  with  a  iiand  of  varnished  leather  or  what 
is  called  American  cloth.  Deep  pits  are  dug  at 
intervals  of  some  few  yards  on  tlxe  side  of  these 
screens  facing  the  advancing  hosts,  and  the  locusts, 
reaching  the  obstacle  and  being  unable  to  surmount 
it  owing  to  the  polished  surface  on  the  upi)er  edge, 
fall  down  and  are  cau'dit  in  the  pits,  which  are 
theniseUes  ed''ed  and  lined  to  a  dei>th  of  a  few 
inches  with  polished  zinc.  Finally,  the  locusts  as 
they  fall  into  the  pits  an-  rendered  ineai)able  of 
crawling  out,  not  only  by  the  smooth  surface  of  the 
zinc,  but  by  the  superincumbent  weight  of  the 
tens  of  thousands  of  fresh  victims  that  are  Jier- 
petually  ]iouring  in  upon  them.  By  tliLs  system 
the  locusts  in  Cyprus  were  in  live  years  entirely 
destroyed,  and  at  a  cost,  though  large  for  Cy])rus, 
certainly  not  excessive,  amounting  to  less  than 
£13,000  a  .vcar.  But  the  magnitude  of  the  opera- 
tions conducted  for  this  comiiarativelv  moderate 
sum  of  money  may  be  gatliereil  from  the  statement 
that  there  were  employed  over  half  a  million  yards 
of  canva--  screen,  and  thirteen  Ibou.sand  zinc  traps, 
with  stakes,  tools,  and  tents  for  the  men  engaged, 


G86 


LOCUST-TREE 


LODGINGS 


in  proportion.  Locusts  were  trapped  (in  1883)  in 
about  "26,000  pits,  anil  a  far  lar^'er  iiinnber  of  holes 
were  actually  iliij; :  while  a  sjjecial  stall'  of  no 
less  than  "iGSl  persons  was  employed  during  the 
campaign.  Nor  was  the  destruction  on  a  scale  in- 
commensurate with  these  immense  preparations. 
The  numlier  of  the  slain  in  1S!S3  is  estimated,  after 
careful  calculation  hv  .Mr  Brown,  a.s  heinj,'  nearly 
20l).000,()00,0()(),  with'an  expenditure  of  only  £12,300. 
And  in  tlie  following  year  the  enemy  still  remained 
sutlieientlv  numerous  to  supply  a  list  of  casualties 
numherini;  over  56,000,000,000  locu.sts.  Taking 
these  nun'ihers  together  at,  say,  '2.")0,000,000,000  for 
the  two  years  ISSS:?  and  1884,  and  the  expenditure 
during  the  same  period  at  £27,000,  we  lind  the 
cost  of  slaying  locusts  has  been  2s.  a  million,  which 
i.s  perhaps  as  economical  a  slaughter  of  living 
creatures  as  is  recorded  in  the  history  of  nature  or 
art.  Locust  destruction  on  this  .system  was  only 
commenced  in  1881,  and  in  18S6  there  were  few  if 
any  locusts  in  Cyprus  left  to  he  destroyed.  See 
the  National  Review  for  March  1888. 

L«CUSt-trcC.  a  name  given  in  diflerent  parts 
of  tlie  world  to  ilifferent  trees  of  the  natural  (Uiler 
Leguminos.-i'.  The  Carob-tree  (  Ceratuniii  xi/iqua )  is 
often  so  called  in  the  countries  bordering  on  the 
Mediterranean,  and  its  pods  are  tlie  locust-beans 
of  our  shops  (see  C.\EOB).  The  Locust-tree  of 
America  {Itobinia  pseud-acacia),  also  called  the 
False  Acacia,  or  Thorn-acacia,  and  on  the 
continent  of  Europe  and  in  Britain  very  generally 
the  Acacia,  is  a  valual)le  and  (extremely  be;uitifiil 
tree  (see  RouiNlA).  The  wood,  known  as  i,ac«*<- 
■wooil,  is  useful  for  all  purposes  in  which  great 
strength,  and  especially  toughness,  Ls  remured : 
'locust,'  indeed,  is  the  slang  term  in  the  United 
States  for  a  policeman's  baton.  Tlie  Honey 
Locust-tree  (q.v.)  of  America  is  a  (ileditschia. 
The  Locust-tree  of  the  West  Indies  is  Iliiiiienwa 
courharil,  a  gigantic  tree  whose  pods  also  supply 
a  nutritious  matter,  a  mealy  substance  in  which 
the  pods  are  embedded.  The  bark  of  the  tree  is 
anthelmintic;  it  yields  a  kind  of  resin  called 
Aiiime  (cj.v. ),  and  it  is  valuable  as  a  timber-tree, 
the  timlier  (also  known  as  Locust- icuod)  being 
close-grained  and  tough. 

Lode,  a  miner's  term  for  Veins  (ij.v.)  in  which 
minerals  occur.     See  OKK-lHiPOSlTS. 

Lodestar  (lit.  '  way-star,' or  star  tliat  shows 
the  course),  an  old  name  for  the  Pole-star  (q.v.). 

Lodestoiie.    See  Loadstone,  JLvonetism. 

Lodi^VC  (anc.  Luteva),  a  town  in  the  French 
department  of  llerault,  at  the  foot  of  the  ('evennes, 
43  miles  by  rail  NW.  of  MoiitpelHtM',  .A  bislio|)'s 
see  till  17!J0,  it  has  a  cathedral,  founded  in  950, 
but  rebuilt  in  the  14th  century.  Cardinal  Fleury 
was  a  native.     Pop.  9225. 

Lodge,  Edmunij  (1756-18.39),  successively 
Lancaster,  Norroy,  and  Clarenceux  herald,  pub- 
lished lUustratioiis  of  British  Histori)  (3  vols. 
1791),  a  Life  of  Julius  Caisar  (1810),  and  an 
annual  Pceraije ;  but  is  best  known  as  author  of 
the  /Portraits  of  Illustrious  I'ersonar/es  of  Great 
Britain  (4  vols.  fol.  1821-34),  the  cost  of  engraving 
and  printing  which  exceeded  £40,000. 

Lodife,  Tuo.MA.s,  English  dramatist,  romance- 
writer,  and  poet,  was  born  at  West  Ham  aliout 
15.')6.  After  studying  at  Trinity  College,  Oxford, 
he  entered  at  Lincoln's  Inn,  but  seems  to  have  led 
a  wild  and  rollicking  life,  using  his  pen  occa-sionally, 
a.s  in  a  duel  with  (Josson,  against  whom  he  defended 
stagephiys  in  a  couple  of  pamphlets  ( edited  by  1). 
Laing  for  the  Shakespeare  Society  in  18.i3).  In 
l.j89  !)l  he  varied  his  life  by  taking  part  in  two  sea- 
expeditions  against  the  Spaniards,  in  the  neigh- 
bourhuud  of  the  Azores  and  Canary  Islands.     On 


the  liret  of  these  voyages  he  wrote  an  euphuistic 
romance,  Eosalyude  ( 1590 ;  reprinted  in  Hazlitt's 
S/ia/:es/)care's  Library,  vol.  ii.,  and  again,  separ- 
ately, in  1887),  which  supplied  England's  great 
dramatist  with  the  chief  inciileiits,  and  even  more 
than  the  chief  incidents,  of  .Is  Vau  l.ihe  It.  Lodge 
himself  wrote  two  second-rate  dramas.  The  Wounds 
of  Civil  ir((r{1594;  reprinted  in  Hazlitt's  Dodsley's 
Select  Collection  of  Old  Plays,  vol.  vii. ),  and  A 
Loolcing.ylass  for  London  and.  Knr/land  (1594), 
written  in  collaboration  with  Kobert  Greene  (q.v.), 
another  dissipated  author.  He  wius  generally 
stated  to  have  been  a  player,  until  the  point  was 
eliectively  disproved  by  C.  M.  lugleby  in  1868. 
But  he  is  believed  to  have  taken  a  meilieal  degree 
at  Avignon,  and  to  have  written  a  History  of  the 
Plague  {1603).  He  died  himself  of  the  plague  in 
1625.  Of  his  remaining  writings  we  may  mention 
A  Fig  for  iI/o«uM  ( 1595  ;  reprinted  in  Sir  ,\.  Bos- 
well's  Frondes  Cailuca;  1817);  translations  of 
Seneca  (1614)  and  Josephus  (1602);  Life  of 
W'iUiani  Lonijheard  (1593);  History  of  Boh  in  the 
Divcll,  Wits Miserie,  and  Glaucus  and Silla  {\H)(;ms, 
one  of  wiiicli  suggested  the  plan  of  Shakespeare's 
Venus  and  Adonis,  1589).  See  the  Works,  edited 
by  Gosse  (4  vols.  4to,  1884). 

Lodgings  in  another  person's  house  consti- 
tute the  relation  of  landlord  and  tenant.  It  is 
not  necessary  that  the  contract  shoulil  be  in 
writing,  though  it  is  liiLjhly  exiiedieiil.  In  Eng- 
land, unless  there  has  been  ])art  ])erforniaiice,  a 
verbal  contract  to  let  lodgings  cannot  he  enforced, 
since  it  is  an  agreement  relating  to  land,  and  so 
void  by  the  Stiitute  of  Frauds.  But  where  a 
furnished  house  is  let,  and  a  written  agreement  or 
lease  is  used,  it  is  absolutely  necessary  that  there 
should  be  a  stamp  on  such  writing,  which,  if 
adhesive,  must  lie  cancelled  by  the  parties  under 
a  penalty  of  £10.  One  of  the  risks  which  the 
lodger  in  England  ran  was  that  if  his  laii<llord, 
L,  were  himself  a  tenant  to  A,  then,  if  Ls  rent 
were  in  arrear,  the  lodger's  goods  might  be  taken 
by  A  to  pay  this,  for  the  rule  was  that  all  goods 
found  on  the  premises  (witli  certain  delinite  excep- 
tions, of  which  this  was  not  one)  C(mld  be  taken 
uniler  a  distress  for  rent;  but  by  the  34  and  .35 
Vict.  chap.  79.  1871,  it  was  |)rovided  that,  if  the 
lodger  has  ]iaid  the  mesne  (or  intermediate)  lanil- 
lord,  the  su]ierior  landlord  must  leave  his  goods 
ahme  ;  if  he  has  not  paid  the  mesne  landlord,  then 
he  may  jiay  the  supeiior  landlord  in  lieu  of  the 
mesne  landlord,  and  again  obtain  protectiim  for  his 
goods.  Tbesl.-itute  2  and  3  Vict.  chap.  71,  sect.  38, 
provides  that  a  police-magistrate  may  award  eoni- 
pen.sation  up  to  £15  for  wilful  damage  done  by 
lodgers.  The  Larceny  Act,  1801,  makes  the  steal- 
ing of  chattels  or  fixtures  by  lodgers  a  felony 
punishable  by  imprisonment  for  two  years  or 
jieiial  servitucle  for  .seven  years,  according  to  the 
value  of  the  thing  stolen. 

A  lodger  is  entitled  to  the  use  of  the  door-bell 
and  knocker,  and  the  hindloid  impliedly  jiiomises 
that  the  rooms  are  fit  f(U-  oeeuiiation.  In  letting  an 
unfurnished  house  there  is  no  such  implication.  A 
lodging-house  keeper,  even  where  he  keeps  a  board- 
ing-house, which  iie.irly  resembles  an  Inn  (q.v.),  is 
not  liable  for  the  s;ife  custody  of  the  lodger's  goods. 
He  is  merely  liable  for  ordinary  care  :  but  he  does 
not  warrant  at  all  hazards  that  the  goods  will  not 
be  stolen.  Even  if  the  lodger's  goods  are  stolen  by 
a  servant  of  the  house,  the  lodginij;-house  keeper  is 
not  liable.  The  notice  to  <[uit  depends  on  how 
the  lodgings  were  taken.  It  they  were  taken  by 
the  week,  a  week's  notice  is  sullicient ;  if  by  the 
month,  a  month's  ;  and  if  by  the  quarter,  a  ([uarler's 
notice,  unless  smne  other  agreement  was  made. 
Hence,  if  the  lodger  quits  without  notice,  he  is 
'  liable  for  one  week's,  or  month's,  &o.   rent,  even 


LODT 


LOG 


687 


thougli  the  landlord  put  a  notice  in  tlie  window. 
The  lodging-house  keeper  may  distrain  the  lodger's 
goods  for  Hnpaid  rent.  When  a  lodger  refuses  to 
ijuit  the  lodgings  after  a  notiee  has  exjiired  he 
eannot  he  put  out  hy  force,  but  in  many  cases  a 
summary  renu'dy  is  gisen  for  recovering  possession. 
Since  ISOS  a  lodger  is  entitled  to  vote  for  members 
of  parliament  in  boroughs,  if  he  pays  rent  of  the 
clear  annual  value  of  £10,  provided  also  that  he 
has  resided  twelve  mouths  in  the  district,  and  \n\t 
in  his  claim  to  be  registered.  The  lodger-franchise 
wius  e.vteniled  to  counties  by  the  Representation  of 
the  People  Act  of  1884.  In  Scotland  the  lodgers 
goo<ls  cannot  be  taken  by  the  landlord  of  the 
lodging  house  keeper  for  rent,  nor  is  it  yet  decided 
whether  the  householder's  lia1)ility  in  case  of  loss 
of  the  lodger's  goods  is  equal  to  or  less  than  that 
of  an  innkeeper.  "" 

Common.  Loi/ffiiiff-ftoKseii,  where  poor  people  lodge 
by  the  night,  are  subject  to  police  supervision. 
The  Public  Health  .Act,  1875,  movides  (in  continua- 
tion of  earlier  statutes)  for  their  registration  and 
inspection,  and  enacts  that  they  are  only  to  be 
kept  by  registered  keepers.  Before  being  licensed 
they  are  inspected  by  the  medical  officer  of  health, 
every  room  being  uu^iisured  and  restricted  to  a 
specitied  number  of  lodgers.  Every  room  has  this 
number  painted  on  the  door,  and  a  copy  of  the 
police  regulations  Is  posted  up  in  a  conspicuous 
part  of  it.  The  keepers  are  bound  to  thoroughly 
cleanse  all  the  rooms,  stairs,  &c.,  as  often  as  by- 
laws shall  direct,  and  to  keep  a  proper  supply  of 
water.  If  fever  break  out  notice  must  be  given  to 
the  local  authority.  These  duties  are  enforced  by 
means  of  penalties.  The  same  act  directs  that,  if 
any  ])erson  sulfering  from  any  dangerous  infectious 
disorder  has  lodged  in  any  rooms,  such  rooms  must 
be  disinfected  to  the  satisfaction  of  a  legally  rjuali- 
lied  meilical  practitioner,  as  testified  by  a  certificate 
signed  by  him,  before  they  are  agaiu  let.  Similar 
provisions  are  in  force  in  Scotland  ami  Irelaiul. 
Of  recent  years  very  great  improvements  have  been 
etl'ecteil  in  common  lo<lging-liouses.  In  most  large 
towns  in  Great  Britain  'model  lodging  houses ' 
have  been  erected  on  approved  plans,  wherein 
greater  privacy  is  ensured  in  the  sleeping  quarters, 
and  a  complete  system  of  ventilation  secured. 
The  latest  inventions  in  cooking  apparatus,  wash- 
ing-houses, &c.  have  been  introduced  ;  while  read- 
ing, recreation,  and  bath  rooms  form  indispensable 
parts  of  these  establishments.     See  V.vgrants. 

Lodi>  a  town  of  North  Italy,  stands  on  the 
Adda,  18  miles  by  rail  SE.  of  Milan.  It  has 
a  Romano-Gothic  cathedral  dating  from  the  l'2th 
century  ;  manufactures  of  linens,  silks,  and  Ma- 
jolica porcelain;  and  a  great  trade  in  Parnie.san 
and  Stracchino  cheese  an<l  wine.  Pop.  18,G8i). — 
LoDl  Vecciiio,  a  ruined  village,  4  miles  W.,  was 
ilestroyed  by  the  Milanese  in  1111-58.  Here 
Bonaparte,  on  10th  May  1796,  forced  the  long 
and  narrow  bridge  in  the  face  of  a  tremendous  lire 
from  the  .Vustrian  batteries. 

Lodoilirria  ( l-at.  for  Vladimir),  fonuerly  an 
indepenilent  i)rincipality  in  Volhynia,  has,  since 
the  division  of  I'olaml  in  177"2,  constituted  an 
integral  |)art  of  the  Austrian  'kingdom  of  Galicia 
and  Liidomeria.'     See  (i.M.lciA. 

Lodz,  sometimes  calleil  'the  Manchester  of 
Poland,'  lies  76  miles  S\V.  of  Warsaw  on  a  branch 
railway.  It  consists  chiefly  of  one  main  street,  6 
ndles  or  more  long,  and  ha.s  luore  than  1'20  manu- 
factories making  cotton  and  woollen  stulls.  Pop. 
( 1870)  39,078  ;  ( 1881 )  49,.09'J  ;  (1895)  with  enlarged  j 
boundaries,  140,300,  nearly  half  Gernian.s. 

Litrss.    See  L6.SS. 

Locwc,  .loiiANN  Carl  C!ottfrikd,  composer, 
was  iMjrn   .'JOth  Xovcndier  1796,  between  Kotiien 


and  Halle,  the  twelfth  son  of  a  schoolmaster.  He 
becanu'  a  choir-boy  at  Kiithen,  later  stu<liod  music 
and  theology  at'  Halle,  and  in  18'21  settled  at 
Stettin,  where  he  became  successively  profe.s.sor 
in  the  gjinnasium,  nuisical  director  to  the  city, 
and  organist.  He  made  visits  to  Norway,  Swedeii, 
and  France,  aiul  in  1847  sang  and  ]daVed  before 
the  English  court  in  Lon<lon.  He  died  'JOth  April 
1869.  He  composed  five  operas  (of  which  only 
one,  jf'/ie  Tlircc  Wishes,  was  performed),  sixteen 
oratorios  (several  of  Ihetn  for  voices  oidy,  without 
accompaniment),  and  numerous  symphonies,  con- 
certos, duets,  and  other  works  for  the  pianoforte. 
But  his  ballads  are  his  most  notable  bequest  to 
posterity ;  they  are,  many  of  them,  remarkable 
dramatic  poems,  and  in  some  respects  Loewe  may 
claim  to  liave  done  for  the  ballad  what  Wagner 
(lid  for  opera.  Gehring,  in  (i rove's  lUitinnarii 
( 1880),  said  that  Loewe's  '  nmsic  has  gone  for  ever  ; ' 
but  more  recently  a  good  ileal  of  attention  lia.s 
been  called  to  the  liatlads.  See  The  Art  liallad, 
Loeire  ctnd  ^rhiiherf,  by  A.  Bach  (  Edin.  1890). 

Lofl'tt  Capel,  described  by  Byron  in  Eiirjllsh 
Bards  as  '  the  Maecenas  of  shoemakers  and  preface- 
writer-general  to  distressed  versemen  :  a  kind  of 
gratis  accoucheur  to  those  who  wish  to  be  delivered 
of  rhyme,  but  do  not  know  how  to  bring  forth.' 
This  description,  though  iu)t  the  ill-nature  of  it, 
was  so  far  jvist  that  Lotlt  was  the  patron  of  Bloom- 
tield,  and  stood  sponsor  to  his  Farmer's  Boy.  Lotlt 
himself  was  a  London  banister  of  the  M'hig  per- 
suasion, with  a  ta.ste  for  letters,  esjiecially  ])oetry  ; 
he  wrote  some  legal  treatises  and  magazine  articles, 
and  books  on  theological,  astriinoniioal,  political, 
and  poetical  subjects.  All  are  now  forgotten.  He 
was  born  in  London  on  14lh  November  1751,  and 
died  at  Moncalieri,  near  Turin,  on  '26th  May  1824. 
See  GcHtlcman's  Mayazine  (1824). 

Lwro'dcil,  or  Lofoten,  a  chain  of  islands  on 
the  north-west  coast  of  Norway,  between  67°  and 
69"  15'  N.  lat.,  and  stretching  south-west  and 
north-east  for  150  miles.  Tliey  include  the 
Lofoten  proper  and  the  Vesteraalen,  lying  farther 
north.  The  largest  islands  are  Hind,  Ami,  and 
Lang  in  the  Vesteraalen  grou]>,  and  East  Vaag, 
West  Vaag,  Flakstail,  and  Moskenfis  in  the 
Lofoden  proper.  Total  area,  2247  sq.  m.  All  of 
them  are  rugged  and  moinitainous,  many  of  the 
summits  being  crater-shaped.  In  several  pl.aces 
they  present  walls  of  bare  rock  rising  sheer  from 
the  ocean.  The  highest  point  is  3090  feet  above 
sea-level.  The  waters  on  the  east  side  of  these 
islands  are  visited  in  .lainiarv  to  March  every  year 
by  vast  shoals  of  codlish,  which  attract  a  large 
licet  of  fishermen.  The  average  number  of  boats 
is  5000  to  6000,  manned  by  28,000  to  .•J0,()00  men  ; 
and  the  produce  of  the  fishery  is  about  30,000,000 
fish,  24,(J00  barrels  of  cod-liver  oil,  and  '25,000  to 
'26,000  barrels  of  roe.  The  fishing  is  attended  with 
considerable  danger,  on  account  of  the  sudden  and 
violent  stoiins  from  the  west,  and  of  the  strong 
currents  which  set  in  between  the  islands  (see 
Maelstrom  ).  Besides  fishing,  sheep-farnnng  is 
also  carried  on,  ius,  owing  to  the  inlluence  of  the 
(julf  Stream,  the  winters  are  mild  ami  grass  grows 
abundantly.  The  permanent  ]Jopulation  inimber 
about  '20,000. 

Lo{;  is  the  instrument  by  which  a  shi|p's  rate 
of  motion  through  the  water  is  measured.  In  it.s 
oldest  and  simplest  form  it  is  a  ouadranlal  piece  of 
teak-wodd  called  a  log-ship,  loa<li'd  in  the  arc  .--o  a.s 
to  float  vertically,  point  ui>wards.  Every  hour  or 
two  hours  it  is  hove  overboard  for  twenly-pight 
seconds,  or,  if  the  ship  is  going  veiy  fast,  for  four- 
teen seconds.  It  is  attache<l  to  a  line  called  the 
log-line.  The  sup|>osili<m  is  that  wheu  lii>ve  into 
the  sea  it  will  remain  stationary  in  the  water  while 


688 


LOG 


LOGAN 


the  log-line  is  freely  paid  out  from  a  reel  held  by 
hand  cm  lioard.  In  actnal  practice  a  conical  canvas 
bag,  called  a  log-bag,  with  its  open  mouth  facing 
the  vessel.  Is  often  used  instead  of  the  log-ship. 
The  log-line,  whicli  is  .attached  to  the  log-ship  or 
to  the  log-bag,  is  divided  into  ecinal  sections  by 
pieces  of  marline  which  are  tucKed  througli  its 
strands,  each  section  being  tliat  |iart  of  a  geogra- 
pliical  mile  whicli  twenty-eight  seconds  is  of  an 
hour,  so  that  tlie  number  of  sections  of  the  log-line 
which  rnn  out  dnrhig  twenty-eight  seconds  is  the 
same  .as  the  nnMd)er  of  geograpldcal  miles  which 
tlie  ship  is  going  per  hour  at  the  time  of  testing 
the  speed.  To  facilitate  counting  the  number  of 
sections  of  the  log-line  which  have  been  ])aid  out, 
one,  two,  three,  I'vrc.  Knots  (((.v.)  are  tied  on   the 


Fig.  1.  — Rotator  with  four  vanes. 

tails  of  the  pieces  of  marline.  In  practice,  each 
section  is  made  46  feet  8  inclies  long,  which  is 
designedly  rather  shorter  than  the  tlieoretical 
length. 

A  ship's  ])rogress  through  the  water  is,  however, 
much  more  generally  obtained,  especially  near 
land,  by  towing  continuously  a  small  cylindrical 
tube  to  which  are  attached  ol)lique  vanes,  usually 
four  in  number.  This  rotator,  as  it  is  called, 
revolves  as  it  is  towed  with  a  speed  which  is  pro- 
portional to  the  speed  of  the  vessel.  This  propor- 
tion is  ascertained  liy  experiment  by  the  makers, 
aiul  a  registering  apparatus,  consisting  of  the  usual 
cog-wheels  and  i)inions,  records  the  revolutions  of 
the  rotator,  and  so  records  the  progress  of  the  shij). 
In  the  older  foi-m  of  this  log  the  registering  gear  is 


not  justitied  in  regarding  any  form  of  log  as  an 
instrument  of  ])recision. 

Log-buuh. — The  courses  steered,  distances  run, 
wiiul,  state  of  tlie  weather  and  sea,  leeway,  daily 
employment  of  the  crew,  .and  other  incidents,  which 
in  the  liist  instance  are  noted  at  the  moment  in  the 
bridge-liook  or  deck-hook,  are  daily  entered  in  the 
log-book,  which  thus  becomes  the  diary  of  the  ship. 

Official  Log-book. — The  otiicial  loghook  is  a  book 
issued  by  the  Board  of  Trade  at  the  beginning  and 
returned  to  that  department  at  the  end  of  each 
voyage.  It  contains  a  record  of  the  crew  and  their 
chara(!ters,  ship's  draught  of  water,  otlences  com- 
mitted, deserti(ms,  sickness,  deaths,  medical  treat- 
ment, collisions,  \c. ,  and  is  thus  a  .sort  of  civil  or 
police  record  of  the  voyage. 

Logan.  John,  poet  and  sermon-writer,  was 
born  at  Soutra,  in  Midlothian,  in  1748.  His 
father  was  a  small  farmer,  but  was  able  to  send  his 
son  to  college.  In  l""."}  he  was  licensed  as  a 
preacher,  and  from  his  eloquence  and  fervour  in 
the  pulpit  soon  hecame  so  popul.ar  that  he  was 
chosen  nnnister  of  the  second  charge  of  South 
Leith  parish  that  same  yeai-.  In  ITSli,  however, 
owing  to  intemperate  habits,  and  for  kindred 
reasons,  he  was  constrainetl  to  lesign  his  charge, 
after  which  he  proceeded  to  London,  and  there 
engaged  in  literary  work.  He  died  there,  December 
■28,  1788.  Besides  two  volumes  of  sermons  and 
lectures  which  were  ])nblisheil  after  his  death,  he 
was  the  author  of  a  tragedy  called  liiiiimi/iia/c,  hut 
this,  after  a  single  ]ierform.ance  at  the  Edinburgh 
Theatre,  was  withdrawn  from  the  stage.  In  1781 
he  published  a  volume  of  poems,  which,  though 
coldly  received  in  critical  circles,  speedily  reached 
a  second  editi(Ui.  His  name  is  best  known  now  in 
connection  with  that  of  Michael  Ihau'e  and  the  con- 
troverted authorship  of  the  'Ode  to  the  Cuckoo' 
and  certain  of  the  I'araphrases.  The  nu)st  elTective 
statement  in  behalf  of  Logan's  claims  which  has  yet 
appeared  will  be  found  in  two  papers  by  the  Kev. 
Robert  Small,  Edinhurgh,  which  were  published  in 
the  Brit.inh  and  Foreign  K  run  gel  teal 
Rerlew  for  1879.  Tli.at  Logan  is  en- 
titled to  a  place  among  the  miniu'  poets 
of  Scotland  is  sulliciently  attested, 
though  there  were  nothing  more,  by 
his  exquisite  lyric,  '  The  Biaes  of 
Yarrow. ' 


Fig.  2.  — Log  Register  ( A ),  with  governing  fly-wheel  ( B )  attached, 
the  tow-line  being  hooked  on  at  C. 


attached  directly  to  the  rotator,  and  is  towed  with 
it  through  the  w.ater.  The  progiess  of  the  ship  can 
in  this  case  only  he  ascertained  by  hauling  the  log 
on  board.  In  the  newest  forms  the  rotator  alone  is 
in  the  water.  The  registering  gear  is  contained  in 
a  small  case  which  is  secured  to  the  tall'rail  of  the 
ship,  or  to  an  outrigger,  so  that  it  can  be  con- 
veniently read  at  any  nu>ment,  the  revcdutions  of 
the  sulunerged  rotator  being  transnutted  to  the 
tall'rail  register  by  the  tow-line  which  also  rotates. 
A  lly-wheel  or  rotating  triangle  or  dumli-bells  are 
placed  on  the  tow-line  between  the  rotator  and  the 
register,  but  close  to  the  register,  to  secure  greater 
smoothness  in  the  working  of  the  latter.  The 
registering  dial  is  usually  graduated  to  knots 
(nautical  miles)  up  to  100,  and  a  smaller  dial  gives 
subdivisions  of  a  i|uarter  of  a  nautical  ndle.  An 
automatic  bcdl  rings  at  every  rciile.  But  even  under 
the  most  favourahle  circumstances  a  navigator  is 


Logan,  John  Ai.ex.vnder,  an 
.\merican  statesman,  was  born  in 
Illinois,  the  son  of  an  Irish  doctor 
there,  in  1826.  He  served  in  the 
Mexican  war,  was  admitted  to  the 
bar  in  18.i2,  and  was  electeil  to  ciui- 
gress  as  a  Democrat  in  1858.  He 
raised  an  Illinois  regiment  at  the 
begiiming  of  the  civil  war,  and 
served  with  credit  to  the  hist  battle,  retiring 
with  the  rank  of  major-general.  In  IS(iU  he  was 
returned  to  congress  .as  a  Ucpnblican,  and  was  one 
of  the  managers  of  the  impeachment  of  I'resident 
Johnston.  He  was  chosen  a  United  States  senator 
in  1871,  an<l  was  returned  to  the  senate  in  IH79  and 
in  1885.  In  1884  he  was  nominated  by  the  Itepul)!!- 
cans  for  the  vice-presidency  of  the  United  States, 
but  was  defeated  along  with  .lames  (I.  Blaine 
(q.v. ).  He  died  in  Washington,  'iOtli  December 
188(i.  There  is  a  Life  by  G.  E.  Dawson  (Chicago, 
1887). 

Logan.  Sii!  AViLLi.vM  EdM()NI>,  geologist,  was 
born,  a  Scotch  baker's  son,  at  Montreal,  in  Canada, 
im  20lh  .\pril  1798,  and  in  1814  was  sent  over 
to  Ediid)urgh  High  School.  Eor  ten  years  he 
worked  in  a  commercial  countinglnnise  in  London, 
and  was  then,  about  1828,  sent  to  Swansea  to 
take  charge  of   the  linances  of  a  copper-smelting 


LOGAN 


LOGARITHMS 


fi89 


coni|)any.  Whilst  living  in  South  Wales  lie  ])re- 
pareii  {reological  maps  of  the  coal-liiisins  in  that 
part  of  the  country,  and  liis  work  «a.'-  so  well  done 
that  it  wius  incorporated  in  the  1-ineh  maps  of  the 
Geological  Survey.  In  1842-71  Logan  wius  director 
of  the  Canadian  Geological  Survey.  He  was  the 
discoverer  of  the  Stigmaria  underclays  and  of  the 
EozooH  Canadcnse  (q.v.).  He  was  knighted  in 
1856,  and  died  in  Wales,  2'2d  June  1875.  See  the 
Life  by  Harrington  ( 1883). 

Logan.    See  RocKiXG-SToxE. 

LoganiaceaP,  a  natural  order  of  corollilloral 
exogens,  consisting  of  trees,  shrubs,  and  hcrliai'tMius 
plants,  with  opposite  entire  leaves,  and  usually 
with  stipules,  which  adhere  to  the  footstalks,  or 
form  sheaths.  A  few  species  of  this  order  occur 
in  Australia  and  in  the  temperate  parts  of  North 
America :  the  rest  are  all  tropical  or  subtropical. 
No  natural  order  of  plants  is  more  strongly 
characterised  by  poisonous  properties.  It  includes 
the  genus  Strychnos  (q.v.  ;  and  see  Nux  Vomica) 
and  the  Curari  Poison  (q.v.).     See  also  Spigelia. 

Logansport,  capital  of  Cass  county,  Indiana, 
ia  75  miles  N.  by  W.  of  Indianapolis,  at  the  cross- 
ing of  three  railways,  where  the  Eel  River  joins 
the  Wabash.  There  are  extensive  railway-shops, 
besides  flour  ami  luml)er  mills  and  foundries  ;  and 
the  town  has  a  large  shipping  trade  in  grain,  pork, 
&e.      I'op.  (1880)  11.198:  (ISOfl)  l.S,32S. 

Logarithms,  a  series  of  numbers  having  a 
certain  relati(jn  to  the  series  of  natural  numbers, 
by  means  of  which  many  arithmetical  operations 
are  made  comparatively  easy.  The  nature  of  the 
relation  will  be  underetood  by  considering  two 
simple  series  such  as  the  following,  one  proceeding 
from  unity  in  geometrical  progression,  the  other 
from  0  in  arithmetical  progression  : 

Geom.  series,  1.  2,  4,  S,  16,  32,  64,  128,  256,  512,  &c. 
Arith.  series,  0,  1,  2,  3,    4,    5,    6,      7,      8,      9,  &c. 

Here  the  ratio  of  the  geometrical  series  is  2,  and 
any  term  in  the  arithmetical  series  expresses  how 
often  2  has  been  multiplied  into  I  to  produce  the 
corresp<mding  term  of  the  geometrical  series  ;  thus, 
in  proceeding  from  1  to  32,  there  have  been  5  steps 
or  multiplications  by  the  ratio  2  ;  in  other  words, 
the  ratio  of  .32  to  1  is  compounded  five  times  of  the 
ratio  of  2  to  1.  It  was  this  concejition  of  the 
relation  that  led  to  giving  the  name  ot  Logarithms 
to  the  terms  of  the  arithmetical  series,  the  word 
logarithm  (Gr.  lofjon  aritUmo.i)  meaning  'the 
number  of  the  ratio.s.'  As  to  the  use  that  may 
be  made  of  such  series,  it  will  be  observed  that  the 
sum  of  any  two  logarithms  (as  we  shall  now  call 
the  terms  of  the  lower  series)  is  the  logarithm  of 
their  product — e.g.  9  (=  3  -i-  6)  is  the  lugarithiu  of 
512  (=8  X  64).  Similarly,  tlie  diti'erence  of  any 
two  logaritluns  is  the  logarithm  of  the  (juotient  of 
the  numbei's;  a  multiple  of  any  logarithm  is  the 
logarithm  of  the  corresponding  number  raised  to 
the  power  of  the  multiple— e.g.  8  (  =  4  >;  2)  is  the 
logarithm  of  256  (=  16-),  and  a  submultiple  of  a 
log.arithm  is  tlie  logarithm  of  the  corresponding 
root  of  its  number.  In  this  way,  with  complete 
tables  of  numbers,  and  their  correspoiuling  log- 
arithms, a<ldition  is  made  to  take  the  place  of 
multiplication,  subtraction  of  division,  multiplica- 
tion of  involution,  and  division  of  evolution. 

In  or<ler  to  make  the  series  above  given  of  ])rac- 
tical  u.se,  it  would  lie  necessary  to  comjilete  them 
by  interpolating  a  set  of  means  ))etween  tlu?  several 
terms,  as  will  l>e  explained  below.  We  have  chosen 
2  as  the  fundamental  ratio,  or  ba.'^e,  as  being  most 
convenient  for  illustration  ;  but  any  other  number 
(integral  or  fractional)  mi;.'ht  be  taken  ;  and  every 
different  ba.se,  or  radix,  gives  a  different  .-ystem  of 
lognriilims.  The  system  now  in  use  has  lU  for  its 
3U4 


base ;  in  other  words,  10  is  the  number  whose  log- 
arithm is  1. 

The  idea  of  making  use  of  series  in  this  way 
would  .seem  to  have  been  known  to  Archimedes  and 
Euclid,  without,  however,  resulting  in  any  practical 
scheme;  but  by  the  end  of  the  IGtli  century  trigo- 
nometrical operations  had  become  so  complicated 
that  the  wits  of  several  mathematicians  were  .at 
work  to  devise  means  of  shortening  them.  The 
real  invention  of  logarithms  is  now  universally 
ascribed  to  John  Napier  (q.v.).  Baron  of  Mercliis- 
tonn,  who  in  1614  printed  his  Canon  Mirabilis  Loij- 
arithmorum.  His  tables  only  give  logarithms  of 
sines,  cosines,  and  the  other  functions  of  angles ; 
they  also  labour  under  the  three  defects  of  being 
sometimes  -I-  and  sometimes  -  ,  of  decreasing  as  the 
corresponding  natural  numbei's  increa.se,  and  of 
having  for  their  ?Y(f//.c(the  number  of  which  the 
logarithm  is  1 )  the  number  w  hich  is  the  sum  of 

I  -I-  1  -).  _ — -  -f  - — jj— =-f,  &c.   In  many  calculations, 

however,  the  latter  is  an  advantage  rather  than  a 
defect.  These  defects  were,  however,  soon  re- 
medied :  John  Speidell  in  1619  amended  the  tables 
in  such  a  manner  that  the  logarithms  became  all 
jiositive.  and  increased  along  with  their  correspond- 
ing natural  numbers.  He  also,  in  the  sixth  edition 
of  his  work  ( 1624),  constructed  a  table  of  Napier's 
logarithms  for  the  integer  numbers,  1,  2,  3,  &c. ,  up 
to  1000,  with  their  differences  and  arithmetical 
complements,  besides  other  improvements.  S]ieid- 
ell's  tables  are  now  known  as  hi/jicrholir  lofiarithma. 
liut  the  greatest  imi)rovenkent  was  made  in  1615, 
by  Professor  Henry  Briggs  (q.v.),  of  London,  who 
substituted  for  Napier's  inconvenient  '  radix  '  the 
number  10,  and  succeeded  before  his  death  in  cal- 
culating the  logarithms  of  30,000  natural  numbers 
to  the  new  radix.  Briggs's  exertions  were  ably 
seconded  ;  and  before  1628  the  logarithms  of  all  the 
natural  numbers  up  to  100,000  had  been  computed. 
Computers  have  since  chiefly  occupied  themselves 
rather  in  repeatedly  revising  the  tables  already 
calculated  than  in  extending  them. 

Construction  of  Tables. — The  following  is  the 
simplest  method  of  constructing  a  table  of  log- 
arithms on  Briggs's  system.  The  log.  of  10  =  1  ; 
the  log.  of  100  (which  is  twice  compounded  of  10) 
=  2  ;  the  log.  of  1000  =  3,  &c.  ;  and  the  logarithms 
of  all  powers  of  10  can  be  found  in  the  same 
manner.  The  intermediate  logarithms  are  found 
by  continually  computing  geometric  means  be- 
tween two  numbei's,  one  ":reater  and  the  other  less 
than  the  number  required.  Thus,  to  find  the  log. 
of  5,  take  the  geometric  mean  between  1  and  10, 
or3'162...,  the  corresponding  aritliTin'tic  mean  (the 
log.  of  1  being  0,  and  that  of  10  liciiig  1 )  being  05  ; 
the  geometric  mean  between  3162...  and  10,  or 
5'623..,,  corresponds  to  the  arithmetic  mean  be- 
tween 0'5  and  1  or  075;  the  geometric  mean  be- 
tween 3162...  and  5'623...,  or  4'216...,  hius  its  log- 
arithm =  i  (0'75 -t- 5)  or  0'625  ;  this  operation  is 
continued  till  the  result  is  obtained  to  the  neces- 
.sary  degree  of  accuracy^  In  this  example  the 
twenty-first  result  gives  the  geometric  mean 
=  5000,003,  and  the  corresponding  arithmetic 
mean  =  0'698,970,  w  hich  is  in  ordinary  calcula 
tions  used  as  the  logarithm  of  5.  Since  division 
of  numbers  corresponds  to  subtract  ion  of  logarithms, 
and  since  2  =  V',  the  log.  of  2  =  log.  10  log.  5  = 
1  -  0-698970  =  0-301030.  The  logarithms  of  all 
])rime  nuniViei-s  are  found  in  the  .same  way  Jis  that 
of  5  :  those  of  composite  numbers  are  obtained  by 
the  addition  of  the  logarithms  of  their  factors ; 
thus  the  log.  of  6  =  log.  2  -t  log.  3  =  O.StllOIiO  + 
0-477121  =0-778151.  This  method,  though  simple 
in  iirinciplc,  involves  an  enormous  .-imonnt  of  calcu 
latum  ;  and  the  following  methoil,  which  depends 
on  the  modern  algebraic  analysis,  is  much  to  be 


690 


LOGARITHMS 


LOGIC 


preferred.  Aceordin^'  to  this  iiietliod,  lo^'aritlims  are 
oiiiisiderod  as  iiidicfs  or  jiowers  of  tlie  radix  :  thus, 
10"  =  1,  10"--»'™  =  2,  10»-^'''-'  =  'A.  10-  =  100,  &c.  ; 
and  the  laws  of  lo^'arithms  then  become  the  same 
a-s  those  of  indices.  Let  r  represent  the  radix,  y 
the  natural  luimber,  x  its  logarithm  ;  tlien  y  =  »•', 
or,  piittinj;  1  +  a  for  r,  y  =  ( 1  +  « )' ;  and  it  is 
sliown  by  the  binomial  and  exponential  theorems 
(see  the  ordinary  works  on  Algebra)  that  ?/  =  1  + 


p-^c-        px' 


+    &c.,    where    p  =  r  -  \  - 

i(r  -  1  y- +  J(i- -  1)'- ,  ^c,  the  former  equation 
expressing  a  ininilier  as  the  sum  of  diH'erent 
multiples  of  its  logarithm  and  the  radix.     If  1//)  be 

1  1 

substituted  for  x,  then  y  =  1  +  1  +  - — ^  +  - — ^j— ^  + 

&c.  =  2'7I8'2S18'2...  wliieli,  as  before  mentioned,  is 
Napier's  radix,  and  is  generally  called  e.  Hence 
r  =  e'',  or  /)  is  the  logarithm  of  >■  to  the  base  or 
radix  e.  Then,  referring  to  the  above-mentioned 
value  of  p,  we  have  log,  ;•  ( i.e.  log.  of  r  to  the  base 
c)  =  /•  -  1  -  i(r  -  1)-  +  \(r  -  1)'  -  &c.,  or,  as 
before,  putting  1  +  «  for  r,  log,  (1  +  a)  =  a  —  a-/2 
+  a'jS  -  &c.  ;  a  series  from  which  log„(l+a) 
cannot  be  found,  unless  a  be  a  proper  fraction.  But 
if  we  put  -  a.  for  a,  log,  (!-«)=-«-  a-/2  - 
a73  -  &c.  ;  and,  subtracting  this  expression  from 
the  former,  log,  ( 1  +  a )  -  log,  (I  -  a)  or  log, 
1  +  a/1  -  «  =  2(«  +  ci'/S  +  a^/o  +  iSic);  and,  for 
the  sake  of  convenience,  putting  (  h  +  1 )/«  for 
(1  +  «)/(!  -  (t),  in  which  case  a  =  ]/{2h  +  1),  we 
finallv  obtain  log,  (u  +  l)/«  =  2^1/(2«  +  1 )  + 
l/3(2«  +  !)■'  +  l/r)(2«  +  1  )5+  &c.  ;■,  or  log,  («  +  !)  = 
log,  u  +  2'1/(2h  +  1)  +  1/3(2!J  4-1)-;  +  \/5{'2u  +  1  )■"• 
+  &c.\.  If  1  be  put  for  u  in  this  formula,  the 
Napierian  logarithm  of  2  is  at  once  obtaiiieil  to  any 
degree  of  accuracy  re(iuired  ;  if  2  be  put  for  ii,  the 
Napierian  logarithm  of  3  can  be  calculated,  \c. 
Now,  as  logarithms  of  any  system  have  always  the 
same  ratio  to  one  another  as  the  corresponding  loga- 
rithms of  any  other  system,  no  matter  what  its  base, 
if  a  number  can  be  found,  which,  when  niultiidied 
into  the  logarithm  of  a  certain  number  to  one  base, 
gives  the  logarithm  of  the  same  number  to  anotlier 
base,  this  multiplier  will,  when  niulti|died  into  iiiii/ 
logarithm  to  the  Ihst  base,  j)ro<luce  the  correspon(l- 
ing  logarithm  to  the  other  base.  The  multiplier 
is  called  the  modulus,  and,  for  the  conversion 
of  Napierian  into  common  or  Briggs's  logarithms, 
is  equal  to  0 •4342944 ...  ;  so  that,  I u  find  the  commott 
liujnrHhin  (if  itiiif  iiiniihcr,  first  fiiiil  the  Napierian 
loiinrithiii,  mill  midtiplii  it  hij  04342!I44... 

As  in  Briggs's  system  the  logarithm  of  10  is  1, 
and  that  of  100  is  2,  it  follows  that  all  numbers 
between  10  and  100  have  for  th<!ir  logarithms  unity 
-I-  a  proper  fraction  ;  in  other  words,  the  integer 
portion  of  the  logarithms  of  all  numbers  of  two 
ligurcs  is  unity  ;  similarly,  the  integer  ]iortion  of 
Ihe  logarithms  of  numbers  between  10(1  and  1000 
is  2,  ami,  in  general,  the  integer  jiortion  of  the 
logarithm  of  any  number  expresses  a  number  less 
by  unity  than  the  nundxsr  of  ligures  in  that 
nuinlier.  This  integer  is  called  the  clMracterintic, 
the  decimal  portion  being  the  maiiti.isa. 

As  the  logarithm  of  1=0,  the  higarilbms  of 
quantities  less  than  unity  would  naturally  !"•  nega- 
tive ;  thus,  the  logarithm  of  l  would  he  0:i0103. 
But,  for  convenience  in  working,  the  mantissa 
is  kei)t  always  positive,  and  the  negative  sign 
only  atl'eets  the  charaeteristie  ;  the  logarithm  of 
A  or  0  5  would  thus  be  1  (iySOT,  the  characteristic  in 
this  and  similar  cases  expres.sing,  when  the  frar 
tion  is  reduced  to  a  decimal,  the  number  of  pl.u-es 
the  lirst  figure  is  removed  from  the  decinuil  i>oint  ; 
thus,  the  logarithm  of  00005  is  4-69897. 

TMrections  for  the  use  of  logaritlinis  in  calculation  will 
he   found   preti,ved   to   any  set   of   nKithcniaticut  tables. 


The  tables  most  distinguishuii  for  accuracy  are  the  French 
ones  of  Callet,  balalide.  liagays ;  Mutton's,  tllose  which 
liabhage  produced  with  the  aid  of  his  calculating  niaclnne, 
JShortrede's,  and  Sang's  ;  and  the  German  ones  of  Gauss, 
Schriiu,  Bruhns,  Von  Vega,  Hreiniker.  A  serviceable 
handbook  is  CluimhenCi  Mathematical  Tables,  editetl  by 
Pryde. 

LoSjS'iila  an  Italian  word  signifying  an  o]ien 
arcade,  enclosing  a  passage  or  open  .-Lpaitment..  It 
is  a  favourite  class  of  building  in  Italy  and  other 
warm  countries.  The  Loggia de'  Lanzi  at  I'lorence 
is  one  of  the  finest  examples  extant ;  and  the 
Loggie  of  the  Vatican,  whicli  are  arcaded  passages 
nmnd  the  interior  of  the  eortile  of  the  jialace, 
ornamented  with  beautiful  jiaintings  and  arab- 
esques by  Raphael  and  his  pupils,  are  well-known 
specimens. 

Logic  may  be  most  briefly  defined,  in  accord- 
ance with  the  etymology  of  the  word,  as  the 
.science  of  reasoning  or  '  the  art  of  thinking.'  It 
is  a  scientific  account  of  the  laws  which  regulate 
the  passage  in  thought  from  one  statement  to 
another,  and  which  must  be  observed  if  the  think- 
ing process  is  to  be  valid.  The  theory  of  every 
operation  is  later  than  its  ]ierformance,  and  men 
were  accustomed  to  think  correctly  long  before 
they  began  to  reflect  upon  their  thinking  faculties 
and  the  processes  by  which  their  results  were 
reached.  The  attention  which  Socrates  devoted 
to  the  meaning  and  justificatiim  of  general  names 
is  signalised  by  Aristotle  as  the  beginning  of  logi- 
cal theory.  It  was  Aristotle  himself,  however, 
who  first  elaborated  the  idea  of  the  science,  and 
defined  its  sphere  by  separating  it  from  tlie  meta- 
physical questions  with  which  logical  discussions 
are  always  associateil  in  his  predecessors.  The  six 
treatises  afterwards  collected  under  the  name  of 
the  0]-ijano)i  contain  the  gist  of  what  is  still  taught 
as  formal  logic  ;  but  the  term  logic  was  probal)ly 
first  used  by  the  Stoics  in  the  wide  sense  with 
which  we  are  familiar.  Aristotle  himself  possessed 
no  single  name  for  the  science  of  which  he  w;is  the 
founder. 

The  independence  which  Aristotle  conferred  upon 
the  new  science  has  enabled  it  to  survive  to  the 
l>resent  day  almost  without  change,  and  with  very 
few  additions  of  im])ortance.  But,  while  the  edifice 
of  Aristotle  remains  architectonically  complete 
upon  its  own  basis,  it  has  liecome  customary  to 
add  to  this  science  of  logic  proper  a  second  part, 
called  Mixed,  Material,  or  Inductive  Logic,  em- 
bracing an  account  of  the  methods  of  science  and 
the  ciunliti<ms  of  scientific  ]irciof.  The  modern 
version  of  the  Aristotelian  Logic  is  then  c-illed.  by 
way  of  distinction,  I'ure  or  Formal  Logic.  The 
meaning  of  this  designaticui  is  that  logic,  as  such, 
takes  no  accmmt  of  lhc*/;/'///c/'  of  our  reasonings— 
i.e.  of  the  things  reasoned  about  :  it  deals  solely 
with  the  form  or  skeleton  of  the  rea-soning  jirocess 
itself.  Thus,  if  we  say,  '  Knglishmen  are  white- 
skinned,'  logic  has  no  occasion  to  ccuisider  the 
truth  of  this  statement  as  a  matter  of  fact  or 
sciences  ;  it  deals  only  with  the  form  of  the  pro- 
])osition  or  judgment  as  a  geiu'ral  logii'al  nn)nld 
into  which  any  pair  of  notions  nuiy  be  litleil.  It 
treats  the  )iroposition,  in  short,  only  so  far  .a.s  it  is 
expressible  in  the  form,  'X  is  Y.'  'I'o  this  abstrac- 
tion from  all  questions  regarding  the  ade(|uacy  of 
our  notions,  and  the  material  truth  of  our  asser- 
timis,  fornuil  logic  owes  its  ciunpletene.ss  as  a 
science.  It  looks  upon  thought,  not  as  the  ex- 
pressi<m  of  the  truth  of  things,  but  as  a  series  of 
mechaniisal  operations,  and  its  aini  is  to  lay  down 
the  general  or  symbolic  forms  which  these  opera- 
tions must  assume  in  order  to  insure  that  the  end 
shall  be  consistent  with  the  beginning.  It  is 
apparent,  then,  that  in  any  reasoning  process 
formal   logic  only  guarantees   that  the  conclusion 


LOGIC 


G91 


is  tiiie  if  the  premises  from  wliieli  we  started  were 
true.  It  lias  iioforiliii<,'ly  been  called  llie  lo^ic  of 
co.isistency,  ;is  opposed  to  iiuluclioii,  wliidi  seeks 
to  lie  a  lo^^ic  of  tnitli.  I'lire  lo^'ic  takes  ils  material, 
as  it  were,  rea<ly-maile  from  tlie  hands  of  t)hser\'a- 
tion,  and  merely  watches  over  its  correct  manipula- 
tion. Reasoning  in  the  strict  loj;ical  sense  is,  in 
fact,  merely  analytic  ;  the  conclusion  only  brings  to 
explicit  consciousness  what  was  implied  or  involved 
in  the  premises.  Formal  lo<;ic  is  thus,  in  its  most 
general  aspect,  an  application,  by  means  of  many 
subordinate  rules,  of  the  laws  of  identity  and  non- 
ci)ntradiction.  Practically,  however,  it  is  of  great 
service  in  clarifying  tlie  thought  of  the  individual, 
though,  in  a  sense,  merely  teaching  him  what  he 
knows  already. 

Formal  logic  is  usually  treated  under  the  three 
heads  of  Notions,  Judgments,  and  Rea-sonings  ;  or, 
if  regard  be  had  to  the  verbal  expression  of  thought, 
the  Notion,  Ju<lgment,  and  Reasoning  appear  re- 
siiectively  a.s  Term,  Proposition,  and  Syllogism. 
Though  pure  logic  has  strictly  nothing  to  say 
about  the  formation  of  general  names  or  the 
ailcijuacy  of  our  notions,  it  is  customary  for  logi- 
cal writers  to  expound  uiuler  the  lirst  head  the 
nature  of  generalisation  and  definition — the  pro- 
cesses bv  which  our  notions  are  forme<l  and  tested. 
The  Judgment,  however,  may  be  taken  as  the  unit 
in  logic,  for  it  is  only  in  their  relation  as  subject 
and  predicate  of  a  judgment  that  notions  become 
susceptible  of  logical  treatment.  The  combination 
of  two  judgments  (inv<dving  three  notions),  in  such 
a  form  that  a  thiid  judgment  is  deduced  from  them, 
constitutes  a  Syllogism — e.g.  'All  fishes  are  cold- 
blooded. The  whale  is  not  cold-blooded.  There- 
fore the  whale  is  not  a  fish.'  The  variations  of 
this  fundamental  type  of  reasoning  constitute  the 
scholastic  doctrine  of  the  moods  and  figures  of 
the  Syllogism.  As  an  a])]iendix  to  this  exposition 
of  the  normal  forms  of  inference  there  follows  a 
discussion  of  the  ditt'erent  classes  of  fallacies  to 
which  any  deviation  from  them  may  give  ri.se. 
It  is  in  this  ;ispect  that  logic  vindicates  its  claim 
to  be  'a  cathartic  of  the  human  mind.'  F"or,  like 
ethics,  logic  is  a  normative  science ;  that  is  to  say, 
it  does  not,  like  the  physical  sciences,  or  like  psy- 
chology, simply  gener.alise  facts.  Its  laws  are  not 
statements  of  what  always  happens,  but  rules  of 
what  ought  to  be  done.  This  distinctiim  contains 
the  answer  to  the  fpiestion,  <mce  much  debated, 
whether  logic  is  a  science  in-  an  art.  The  question 
is  essentially  a  dispute  about  words. 

The  iierception  that  jjure  logic  treats  thought 
simply  .as  a  process  of  comparison  and  cla-ssiCcation 
li.us  induced  a  number  of  recent  logicians  ( chiefly 
English)  to  attem])t  an  extension  of  Aristotle's 
scheme  by  a  thoroughgoing  ap]ilication  of  the 
notion  of  logical  quantity.  Thus,  Sir  W.  Hamilton 
maintained  that  the  relation  between  subject  and 
predicate  in  a  jiroposition  is  that  of  logical  equation. 
The  proposition,  '  All  men  are  mortal,'  means,  when 
fully  expressed,  'All  men  are  some  mortals.'  If 
the  predicate  be  thus  ex|)licitly  quantilieil,  it  is 
eviilent  that  we  may  substitute  for  the  coiiula  the 
algebraical  symbol  of  equaticm.  This  doctrine, 
which  is  known  as  the  Quantilication  of  the  Predi- 
cate, was  expounded  by  Archbishop  Thomson, 
Spencer  Baynes,  and  others.  It  leails  to  a 
multiplication  of  the  old  propositional  and  syllo- 
gistic forms,  but  in  its  Hamiltonian  form  it  has 
been  shown  by  Venn  to  rest  on  a  confusion  of 
views.  A  sinnlar  line  of  thought  has  been  worked 
out  by  .levons,  who  defines  iiiference  as  '  the 
substitution  of  similars.'  He  would  make  the  iiro- 
jiosition  run — 'All  men  are  mortal  men'  (.All  a 
is  ith).  De  Morgan's  formula  for  the  propositiim 
resembles  this;  b\it  his  innovations,  as  well  as 
lioole's    development    of    logic    into   a    branch    of 


mathematics,  are  rather  specimens  of  the  ingenuity 
of  their  authors  than  tran.scripts  of  actual  tliought- 
proces.ses.  They  show  no  signs  of  taking  their 
place  as  a  permanent  ad<lition  to  logical  doi'trlne. 
The  same  may  be  said  of  Jevons'  Method  of 
Indirect  Inference,  hy  which  he  claims  to  have 
reached  the  same  results  as  Boole  without  the  use 
of  mathematics.  The  Method  consists  in  "develop- 
ing '  all  the  possible  combinations  of  the  terms 
mentioned  in  the  premises,  and  then  proceeding, 
by  eliniination  of  tho.se  which  violate  the  comli- 
tions  there  laid  down,  to  reach  those  combinations 
which  are  consistent  with  our  data.  Jevons 
ajiplied  his  princiide  in  the  invention  of  a  logical 
machine  which  effects  this  process  of  counting 
out  with  unerring  accuracy  ;  but  where  the  terms 
are  multiplied  to  any  extent  the  operation  is,  of 
course,  cuml)rous  in  the  extreme. 

Bacon  is  commonly  regarded  as  the  founder  of 
Inductive  Logic.  In  his  Ni>i'um  Vrganum  he  put 
himself  at  the  head  of  the  revolt  against  the  schol- 
astic logic  which  marked  the  men  of  the  Renais- 
sance, and,  though  his  own  apprehension  of  scien- 
tific method  was  gravely  defective,  his  eloquence 
and  his  position  made  him  the  most  influential  pro- 
phet of  the  scientific  movement  which  Galileo  and 
others  had  initiated.  In  ])oint  of  fact  he  came  to 
supplement  the  old,  not  to  supersede  it ;  but  he 
allowed  his  dislike  of  the  abuses  of  the  Aristotelian 
logic  to  carry  him  away  into  indiscriminate  denun- 
ciation. Bacon's  animus  is  perhaps  excusable  as 
the  zeal  of  the  reformer :  and  it  may  be  granted 
that  in  the  Aristotelian  logic,  as  in  Greek  philo- 
sophy generally,  there  is  a  tendency  to  let  the 
study  of  words  usurji  the  place  of  the  investigation 
of  facts.  The  middle  ages  had  exaggerated  this 
tendency  by  habitually  assuming  the  distinctions 
existing  among  things  to  be  correctly  and  ade- 
quately rendered  by  traditional  names.  Beyond 
this.  Bacon's  diatribes  against  'syllogism'  betray 
a  misapprehension  of  the  real  function  of  formal 
logic,  which,  as  has  been  seen,  makes  no  preten- 
sions to  be  an  instrument  of  scientific  discovery. 
Inductive  theory  has  received  many  developments 
sitice  the  time  of  Bacon,  notably  at  the  hands  of 
J.  S.  Mill.  The  progress  of  science  has  made  it 
easier  to  formulate  its  methods  and  to  determine 
the  conditions  of  valid  scientilic  proof.  It  is  sulii- 
cient  here  to  ])oint  (Uit  that,  whereas  in  fonnal  or 
deductive  logic,  reasoning  juoceeds  fnmi  a  whole 
to  the  particulars  included  under  that  whole,  we 
seem  in  inductive  logic  to  rise,  in  reliance  on  the 
uniformity  of  nature,  from  observation  of  par- 
ticulars to  the  enunciation  of  a  universal  proposi- 
tion. The  nature  of  the  certainty  which  belongs 
to  such  scientific  generalisations  is  one  of  the  sub- 
jects which  the  pliilosojihy  of  indiii'tiou  has  to  deal 
with.  The  profound  interest  and  value  of  these 
investigations,  when  compared  with  the  rigid 
framework  of  symbols  with  which  ]>nre  logic  i)re- 
sents  us,  may  well  lead  men  to  overestimate  the 
former  at  the  expense  of  the  latter.  But  the  two 
disciplines  are  essentially  distinct;  and  the  exact- 
ness and  .scientific  completeness  of  pure  or  formal 
logic  will  always  constitute  it  a  valuable  educa- 
tional instrument. 

BlBi.lOGB.\PHY. — The  liandiest  elementary  manuals  of 
logic  are  tho.-^e  by  Jevons  and  Fowler — Jevons'  Etement- 
arij  Letigtms  in  Lof/ic,  Fowk-r's  JJeductive  ami  Inductii-c 
Lofjic — to  which  may  be  added  M'liately's  Lo(/ic,  an  older 
book,  and  Keynes's  Formal  Loyic^  which  is  somewhat 
more  advanced.  .'Vniong  larger  treatises  in  l-.nglish  of 
comparatively  recent  date  may  be  mentioned  Mill's  Loffic, 
Hamiltr>n'.s  Lrrtures  on  f^/ic,  Ueberweg's  J.ot/ic  (trans- 
lated ),  Hradley'a  J-'ritifipleit  of  Loijic,  liosanquet's  Loifir^ 
Venn's  Empirical  Lot/ic,  Jevons'  I'rincipUi  of  Scienrc^ 
Ijotze's  Lof/ic  (translated).  The  (feniiaii  works  of  Sig- 
wart  and  M'uiult  sliould  also  be  named,     'i'honison's  Oul- 


692 


LOGOGRAM 


LOIRE 


lines  of  the  Laws  of  Thowjht,  Baynes's  New  Analytic  of 
Loyical  Forms,  .Tevons'  Pure  Loijie  and  Other  Papers, 
Venn's  Si/mbolic  Loijie,  and  the  works  of  De  Morgan  and 
Boole  deal  with  proposed  developments  of  logic  on  alge- 
braic lines.  There  is  an  elaborate  history  of  logic  by 
Prantl  in  German ;  and  the  works  of  Trendelenburg  in 
German  and  of  Hamilton  and  ilausel  in  English  are  also 
valuable  in  this  connection. 

Logosraill  (Or.  logos,  'a  word,'  and  gramma, 
'a  letter')  is  simply  a  complicated  or  multiplied 
form  of  the  Anagram  (q.v.),  where  the  puzzle- 
monger,  instead  of  contenting  himself  with  the 
formation  of  a  single  new  word  or  sentence  out  of 
the  old  by  tlie  transposition  of  the  lettere,  racks  his 
brain  to  discover  all  the  words  that  may  be  ex- 
tracted from  the  whole  or  from  any  portion  of  the 
letters,  and  throws  the  wliole  into  a  series  of  verses 
in  which  synonymic  expressions  for  these  words 
must  be  used.  'The  puzzle  lies  in  ascertaining  what 
the  concealed  words  are,  and,  througli  them,  what 
is  the  primary  word  out  of  which  they  have  all 
been  extracted.  A  specimen  is  given  in  Henry  15. 
Wheatley's  book  on  Anagrams  {186'2),  in  which, 
out  of  the  word  '  curtains,'  no  less  than  ninety-three 
smaller  ones  are  framed. 

Logos  (Gr.,  'word,'  and  al.so  'reason, 'correspond- 
ing in  Latin  to  both  oratio  and  ratio)  is  a  term 
that  has  played  an  important  part  in  philosophical 
and  theological  speculation,  long  ere  the  '  Word  of 
God  '  came,  tlirougli  the  fourth  gospel,  to  be  ideuti- 
lied  with  the  second  person  of  the  Cnristian  Trinity. 
The  notion  of  a  certain  self-manifestation  or  revela- 
tion of  the  Godhead,  standing  in  some  way  between 
the  infinite  and  the  Unite,  has  from  time  imme- 
morial been  the  property  of  the  whole  East.  With 
the  Stoics  the  Logos  is  the  active  principle  living 
in  and  determining  the  world  (see  Stoics).  The 
apocryphal  writers  of  the  Old  Testament  personify 
the  '  Wisdom  '  spoken  of  in  Prov.  viii.  22,  and  give 
it  the  functions  of  a  Logos.  In  tlie  Targunis  Mcmra, 
'Word,'  is  constantly  used  instead  of  God  or  Jeho- 
vah. In  the  Jewisli- Alexandrine  philosophy  (see 
Pmi.O)  the  Logos  is  the  Divine  Reason,  the  Power 
of  all  Powers,  the  Spirit  of  God.  The  doctrine  of 
the  Logos  reaches  its  fullest  development  in  St 
John's  Gospel,  where  it  is  the  Word  of  (iod  incar- 
nate.   See  John  (Go.spel  of),  Christ,  Trinity. 

Lo^rono  (Lat.  Julia  Briga),  the  capital  of  a 
Spanish  province,  on  the  Ebro,  65  miles  E.  by 
N.  of  Burgos.  It  has  manufactures  of  woollens, 
machinery,  and  leatlier  goods.     Pop.  13,393. 

Logwood,  the  dark  red  heart-wood  of  llama- 
torglon  campechianiiiii,  a  tree  of  the  natural  order 
Leguminosse.  This  tree,  which  is  a  native  of 
Mexico  and  Central  America,  and  has  been  natur- 
alised in  some  of  the  West  Inilia  Islands,  grows  to 
a  height  of  20  to  50  feet.  Tlie  tree  is  generally 
felle<l  when  about  ten  years  old,  and  the  sapwood 
being  worthless  is  hewed  oil'  with  the  bark.  The 
heart-wood  is  slightly  heavier  than  water,  hard, 
anil  close-grained.  It  has  a  slight  smell  resembling 
that  of  violets,  is  astringent,  and  has  a  sweetisli 
taste.  The  source  of  the  colouring  pro]ierties  of 
logwood  is  a  crystalline  substance  called  liiematoxy- 
lin,  CjbHijO,,,  itself  colourless  when  |)urc,  but  in  an 
alkaline  solution  in  the  presence  of  oxygen  (air) 
it  become-s  converted  into  hienuitein,  1'i,J1i^.<>b, 
which  iw  of  a  purple-red  colour.  For  dyers'  use 
ground  or  ra.sped  logwood  is  moistened  and  made 
ui)  into  heaps  or  layers  in  a  moderately  warm 
place,  where,  turned  over  at  intervals,  it  undergoes 
lermentation,  ammonia  being  one  of  the  ijroducts 
of  the  i)rocess.  The  result  is  that  Incniatoxylin  is 
iirst  formed  and  afterwards  Incniatein,  crystals  of 
which,  of  a  reddish-brown  colour  and  greenish 
lustre,  coat  the  particles  of  wood.  The  Inematein 
or  colouring  matter  is  easily  dissolved  by  placing 
the  rasped  wood,  .so  treated,  in  hot  water.    Extracts 


of 


id    als 


ogwood  also  are  made  for  dyeing  purposes. 
Logwood,  although  itself  dark  red,  does  not  produce 
red  colours  either  alone  or  with  any  of  the  ordinary 
mordants  in  use  for  it.  Shailcs  of  purple,  blue, 
lavender,  drab,  and  gray  are  obtained  from  it  with 
suitable  mordants,  but  none  of  these  are  ]iermanent. 
Its  most  important  application  is  for  dyeing  black 
eohmrs  (see  Dyeinc  ).  It  is  also  used  iii  the  manu- 
facture of  writing  Ink  (cj.v.).  As  a  medicine  log- 
wood is  sometimes  given  in  cases  of  chronic  diar- 
rluea.  The  introduction  of  coal-tar  colours  has  not 
as  yet  materially  diminished  the  use  of  logwood  as 
a  dyeing  substance,  as  the  (juantity  sent  to  Great 
Britain  in  1888  (62,306  tons,  valued  at  .£366,131) 
rather  exceeded  the  aimual  average  imports  twenty 
years  earlier. 

LolHMIgrill.  the  hero  of  an  old  High  German 
poem,  written  in  the  end  of  the  Kith  century.  He 
was  the  son  of  Par/.ival,  and  a  knight  of  the  Grail. 
At  King  Arthur's  command  he  was  taken  by  a 
swan  through  the  .air  to  Mainz,  where  he  fought 
for  Elsa,  daughter  of  the  Duke  of  Brabant,  over- 
threw her  persecutor,  and  married  the  lady.  Then 
he  accompanied  the  emperor  to  light  against  the 
Hungarians,  and  subsequently  warred  against  the 
Saracens.  On  his  return  home  to  Cologne,  Elsa, 
contrary  to  his  prohibition,  persisted  in  .asking  him 
about  his  origin.  After  being  asked  a  third  time 
he  told  her,  but  was  at  the  s.ame  time  canied  away 
by  the  swan  back  to  the  Grail,  lliickert's  edition 
(1857)  of  the  poem  is  the  best.  The  poem  is  a 
continuation  of  Wolfram  (q.v.)  von  Eschenb.acirs 
Parziral.  Wagner  made  it  the  subject  of  his  great 
opera,  Lohengrin  (1.S48). 

Loir.     See  DoR.MOfSE. 

Loire  (ane.  Liger),  the  longest  river  in  France, 
has  its  source  in  the  Cevennes,  in  the  department 
of  Ardf'che,  at  an  elevation  of  4511  feet,  flows  in 
a  north  and  north-western  direction  through  the 
centre  of  Fiance  as  far  as  Orleans,  where  it  bends 
round  to  the  south-west  and  continues  on  to  Tours ; 
thence  it  follows,  in  general,  .a  western  course  to 
its  embouchure  in  the  Bay  of  Biscay.  It  is  ti<lal 
to  Nantes  (q.v.),  35  miles  from  its  nioiith.  Entire 
length,  620  miles.  It  becomes  navigable  a  little 
above  Koaiine,  550  miles  from  the  sea.  At  one  time 
the  depth  of  the  water  at  its  mouth  was  IHA  feet  .at 
ebb-tide  ;  now  it  is  oiily  about  Ol  feet.  This  is  due 
to  the  vast  quantily  of  sedimentary  matter  the 
river  brings  down  with  it.  To  the  same  cause  are 
due  the  numerous  islands  that  obstruct  its  lower 
course  and  the  sandbanks  that  lie  athw.art  its 
mouth.  The  Loire  is  notorious  for  the  destructive 
inundations  it  causes,  although  the  lower  part  of 
its  course  is  protected  by  large  dykes  or  lerres,  20 
feet  high.  The  ])riiicipal  triliutaries  are  the  Nievre 
and  the  Maine  (which  is  formed  by  the  Sarthe,  its 
allluent  the  Loir,  and  the  Mayenne)  on  the  right; 
and  the  Allier,  Clier,  Inilre,  and  Vienne,  on  the  left. 
The  Loire  is  canalised  along  considerable  stretches 
of  its  course,  and  is  connected  with  the  Seine,  the 
Saoue,  and  the  harbour  of  Brest  by  canals.  Its 
valley  is  extremely  fertile.  Area  of  drainage  basin, 
44,450  sq.  m.  See  'J7te  Seine  anil  the  Loire,  with 
sixty  one  illustrations  by  Turner  (new  ed.  1886). 

Loire,  a  de|)artment  in  the  southeast  of  France, 
formerly  jiart  of  the  province  of  Lyonnais  and  the 
comity  of  Forez,  comprises  the  arrondi.ssements  of 
^lonlbrison,  Koanne,  .and  St  Etienne,  with  .St 
Etienne  for  its  capital.  Area,  l.S.'W  s(|.  m.  :  pop. 
(1872)550,611;  (1801)616,227.  The  biusiii  of  the 
Loire  in  this  department  is  a  rather  unfruitful 
valley,  but  the  moiiutains  yield  iron  and  lead, 
and  the  coalfields  an^  the  richest  in  Fr.ance. 
Some  17,000  miners  are  employed  in  the  extr.action 
of  nearly  3,000,000  tons  of  coal  annually,  25,000  in 
the   iron    industries,    12,000  in  the    silk,   and  5500 


LOIRE 


LOLLARDS 


693 


in  the  cotton  industries.  'Woollens,  linen,  glass, 
paper,  leather,  &c.  are  likewise  inanufactureil. 
Wine,  fruit,  fmlder,  and  potatoes  are  the  principal 
agricultural  products,  liniher  anil  turpentine  are 
yielded  bv  the  pine  woods.  .Mineral  springs  abound, 
;l-*  at  St  CJalniier,  St  A11)an.  &c. 

Loire,  Haitk,  a  dciiartment  of  central  France, 
formed  out  of  the  former  province  ui  Languedoc, 
the  duchy  of  Auvergne.  and  the  district  of  Forez, 
and  bounded  on  the  south  by  Lozere  and  Ardeche. 
The  Loire  crosses  it  going  northwards,  the  AUier 
going  north-westwards.  Area.  1915  sq.  in.  ;  pop. 
1 1S72)  308,732  ;  ( 1891 )  316,735.  The  .surface  forms 
a  plateau,  deeply  trenched  by  river-courses ;  it 
ranges  in  elevation  from  2000  to  .3000  feet,  and 
rises  in  peaks  and  domes  uj)  to  5755  feet  above 
sea-level  (Mount  Mezenc).  In  spite  of  the  un- 
generous nature  of  the  soil,  agriculture  is  the 
chief  calling  of  the  inhabitants.  But  about  120.000 
persons  find  employment  at  home  in  making  lace 
from  wool,  cotton,  flax,  silk,  gold,  and  silver. 
Some  thousands  of  the  inhabitants  leave  their 
bouses  for  a  time  every  year,  to  work  in  other  parts 
of  France.  Coal  and  building-stone  are  worked. 
The  arrondissements  are  Lo  Puy,  Yssingeaux,  and 
Hrioude  ;  the  capital,  Le  Puy. 

Loire-Inf^rieure.  a  maritime  department  in 
the  west  of  France,  formed  out  of  the  southern 
portion  of  the  old  province  of  Brittany,  and  com- 
prising the  arrondissements  of  Nantes,  Ancenis, 
Paimbffiuf,  Chateaubriant.  and  St  Xazaire,  with 
Nantes  for  its  capital.  Area.  2654  sq.  m.  ;  pop. 
(1872)  602,206;  (1891)  645,26.3.  It  has  a  coast- 
line of  78  miles.  The  l^oire,  flowing  westwards, 
intersects  it  and  forms  a  wide  estuarj' ;  the  Vilaine 
skirts  its  north-west  boundary.  In  the  south  of  the 
department  lies  the  lake  of  Crand-Lieu,  26  sq.  m. 
in  extent.  The  interior  is  on  the  whole  flat,  and 
the  soil  fertile,  producing  cereals,  potatoes,  beet- 
root, hemp,  and  fodder.  Bees  are  kept.  There 
are  fine  oak  and  pine  forests.  Salt  marshes 
are  numerous  along  the  shore.  The  vineyards 
yield  annually  about  ,30  million  gallons  of  wine, 
and  the  orchards  some  44  million  gallons  of  cider. 
Granite,  slate,  and  limestone  are  quarried.  The 
industrial  establishments  include  ironworks,  sugar- 
refineries,  glass-works,  factories  for  tinning  fruits 
and  sardines,  &c.  St  Nazaire  has  grown  into  an 
important  seaport,  having  taken  the  place  formerly 
occupied  by  Nantes.  Shipbuildini;  is  carried  on  at 
Nantes.  The  coast-fisheries  ana  general  export 
trade  are  extensive. 

Loiret,  a  department  of  central  France,  formed 
out  of  the  old  provinces  of  Orle.anais  and  Bern,  and 
comprising  the  arrondissements  of  Orleans,  Mon- 
targis,  Oien,  and  Pithivieis,  lies  on  the  northern 
loop  of  the  Loire.  .Area.  2614  sq.  m,  :  pop.  (1872) 
355.021:  (1891)  377.718.  The  <-ounlry  is  for  the 
most  part  an  elevated,  fertile  ])laiii,  proilucing  corn 
and  wine  in  abundance,  except  in  the  sandy  dis- 
trict of  Sologne,  lying  south  of  Orleans,  the  chief 
town.  Loiret  contains  several  large  forests.  Cattle, 
sheep,  and  bees  are  e.xtensively  reared.  Pottery 
and  porcelain,  sugar,  vinegar,  and  soap  are  the 
principal  industrial  products. 

Loir-Ot-riier.  a  department  of  France,  formed 
out  of  the  old  province  of  Orleanais,  comprises  the 
arrondi.s.sements  of  Blois,  Vendome,  and  Komoran- 
tin.  The  Loire  flows  through  it  south-westwards, 
almost  bisecting  it.  The  south-eastern  portion 
belongs  to  the  infertile  district  of  Sologne.  The 
Loir  crosses  it  parallel  to  the  Loire  farther  to  the 
north-west.  Area.  24.52  sq.  m.;  pop.  ( 1872)  268,801  ; 
(1891)280,958.  The  depart nt  is  almost  a  uni- 
form plain.  The  chief  products  are  corn,  fruits, 
wine,  beetroot,  and  timber.  Fish,  poultry,  and 
bees  aliound.     Principal  town,  Blois. 


Lojsi,  a  decayed  town  of  Spain,  on  the  Genii, 

32  miles  by  rail  W.  of  Cranada.   It  sutfered  severely 
from  cartliciuake  in  1885.     Pop.  18,249. 

Lokoroil.  a  town  of  Belgium,  11  miles  by  rail 
NE.  of  (Thent,  with  manufactures  of  linen,  cotton, 
and  woollen  goods,  lace,  chemicals,  and  tobacco, 
and  large  bleach-fields.     Pop.  (1890)  19,667. 

IjOki*  a  demigod  in  the  Si:iiidii]a\  iaii  inytbologA'. 
He  did  not  belong  to  the  race  of  the  ,Ksir,  but  to 
an  older  dynasty.  His  ajqieaiance  is  beautiful, 
and  be  is  pos.ses.sed  of  great  knowledge  and  cunning. 
He  often  brings  the  new  gods  into  ilitficulties,  from 
which,  however,  he  again  extricates  them.  Hence 
he  is  to  be  regarded  as  the  principle  of  strife  and 
disturbance  in  the  Scandinavian  mythology  ;  the 
'  Spirit  of  Evil,'  as  it  were,  mingling  freely  with, 
yet  e.ssentially  oyiposed  to,  the  other  inhabitants 
of  the  Norse  heaven,  very  much  like  the  Satan  of 
the  Book  of  Job.  By  his  artful  malice  he  caused 
the  death  of  Balder  (q.v.).  See  SCANDINAVIAN 
Mythology. 

Loklliail.  the  reputed  author  of  a  certain 
number  of  Arabic  faliles,  who  gives  a  title  to  a 
Siort  of  the  Koran.  He  is  variously  said  to  have 
been  a  Nubian  slave  contemporary  with  David,  and 
the  son  of  Job's  sister  or  daughter  ;  but  others  again 
follow  M.  Derenbourg  ( /'rfWcs  de  Loqmiin  le  Sage, 
18.50)  in  identifying  him  with  Balaam,  both  names 
signifying  '  devourer. '  It  is  now  geneially  admitted 
that  the  fables  attributed  to  his  name  are  late  and 
of  Greek  origin.  See  The  Thousand  Nights  and  a 
Night,  Lady  Burton's  edition,  vi.  p.  260. 

Loliiiiii.    See  Darnel,  and  Rye-grass. 

Lollards,  a  name  given  to  the  followers  of 
Wvclif.  Lo//ardiis  was  a  Latinised  form  of  the 
old  Dutch  lollacrd,  literally  'a  singer  of  psalms,' 
a  term  which  had  been  applied  to  a  sect  in 
Brabant  akin  to  the  Fraticelli  and  Beghards ;  but 
in  English  u.sage  it  was  confounded  with  the 
native  word  toiler,  'a  lazy  fellow.'  Wyclif's 
Bible  had  supplied  England  with  the  phraseologj' 
and  the  seminal  ideas  of  a  popular  theology,  and 
his  peripatetic  '  poor  priests'  ])ip:iclied  evangelical 
religion  fearlessly  throughout  the  land.  Oxford 
University  was  a  stronghold  of  the  new  doctrines, 
which  were  most  widely  sprea<l  in  the  district  be- 
tween the  Thames  and  the  Trent.  The  Lollards' 
petition  to  parliament  in  1395  contained  the  famous 
twelve  Concltis^ions  against  temporal  possessions  of 
the  church ;  the  ordination  of  unfit  priests,  the 
celibacy  of  the  clergj',  and  all  vows  of  chastity  : 
exorcism,  and  blessing  of  inanimate  objects  ;  tian- 
substantiation,  the  holding  of  secular  offices  b)' 
priests,  prayers  for  the  dead,  pilgrimages,  image 
worship,  compulsory  auricular  confession,  war. 
capital  punishment,  and  such  trades  as  fostered 
luxury,  like  those  of  the  goldsmith  and  the 
armcmrer.  ^lany  also  objected  to  oaths,  denied 
the  necessity  of  bajitism  for  salv.ation,  .and  held 
marriage  a  mere  civil  contract.  The  corruptness 
and  ignorance  of  the  preaching  friai's  made  the  pro- 
gress of  the  new  doctrines  the  easier,  and  ere  long 
they  had  obtained  enormous  influence.  There  is 
no  doubt  that  Lollardism  prepared  the  soil  for 
the  Peasant  revolt  of  1.381.  Its  popularity  was 
imperilled  by  the  extravagance  of  its  devotees,  and 
its   adherents    fell   oil'  iapi<lly   uiuler    Henry    I\'.. 


being  vigorously  persecuted  by  Archbisho])  Arundel, 
ute,  T)c  Ihrretico  Comhitrrndo,  was  passed, 
liam  Sawtre,  a  Norfolk  priest,  was  burned 


The  statute, 
and  \Vi 

in  1401,  .lohn  Bu.lby  in  1410.  'Yet  the  Lollards 
remained  numerous  enough  to  be  foriidilable  al  the 
accession  of  Henry  V.  Its  most  prominent  sup- 
porter at  that  period  was  the  martyr  Sir  .lohn  I  Hd 
castle  (q.v.),  of  Cobham,  on  whom  many  mocking 
ballads  were  written, and  whose  name  was  travestied 
for  nearly  two  centuries  after  as  a  fat,  dissolute  old 


694 


LOLOS 


LOMBARD 


knit;lit,  his  month  full  of  Scripture  phrases  :  lie  was 
the  prototype  of  KalstafI'.  Karly  in  1414  oeeurred 
tlie  ohscure  attempted  rising  near  London,  which 
sent  forty  Lollards  to  their  doom  and  proveil  the 
death-hlow  of  the  cause,  but  it  was  not  till  four 
years  later  that  Oldcastle  himself  was  eajitured 
anil  put  to  death.  During  the  early  years  of  Henry 
VI.  the  Lollards  were  sharply  ])ersecuted  in  London 
and  the  eastern  counties,  ,and  some  imlividuals 
were  burned  at  London  and  Norwich.  Hut  ere  hing 
the  government  ceased  to  be  strong  enough  for  any- 
thing beyond  self-preservation,  though  it  need  not 
be  supposed,  because  the  persecution  ceased,  that  the 
opinions  had  died  out.  After  the  accession  of  Henry 
^  IL  the  ])er.secuti(ni  was  renewed,  and  hencefor 
ward  the  Lollards  appear  as  a  secret  brotherhood, 
called  the  '  known-men '  or  '  jiist-fast'  men,  marrying 
only  among  themselves,  and  instructed  by  itinerant 
readers  in  conventicles.  Aniersham,  Colchester, 
and  Newbury  are  noted  as  strongholds.  From  the 
time  of  Henry  VIIL  Lollardy  becomes  merged  in 
the  rising  Protestantism,  but  it  is  worth  noting 
that  most  of  the  Marian  martyrs  came  from  Lollard 
districts,  and  that  mu(-li  of  their  spirit  and  teach- 
ing reappears  strongly  in  Puritanism.  Lollardism 
made  its  way  into  Scotland  in  the  l.")th  centuiy,  and 
became  especially  strong  in  the  south-weslern  coun- 
ties, in  later  times  the  strongholil  of  the  Covenant. 
In  1494  thirty  persons  belonging  to  the  district  of 
Kyle  in  Ayrshire  were  tried  before  James  1\'.  in 
person,  ancl  dismissed  with  a  caution  to  adhere  to 
the  doctrines  of  the  church.  Piers  Plou-man  reflects 
closely  the  religious  unrest  of  its  time  ;  but  the 
same  is  by  no  means  true  of  Chaucer,  whose  Parson, 
when  he  objects  to  profane  swearing,  is  denounced 
as  a  Lollard. 

An  interesting  account  of  Lollard  principles  may 
be  gathered  from  Keginald  Pecock's  Peprcssm-  of 
Ocerinui-li  JS/iuiiiii;/  of  the  Clcrijii  ( ed.  by  Churchill 
Babington,  Itolis '  series,  18ti6),  written  about 
1450.  Here  the  writer  assails  the  three  erroneous 
'trowings'  maintained  by  Lollardists,  or  liiblemen, 
as  he  styles  them.  These  were  ( 1  )  that  ('hi'istian 
men  owe  allegiance  to  nothing  but  the  law  of  (lod 
as  stated  in  Holy  Scripture  ;  (2)  that  any  Christian 
is  capable  of  grasping  its  plain  meaning,  if  meek 
and  willing  to  understand;  (;j)  that  no  one  who 
has  so  grasped  the  meaning  of  Scri|>ture  need 
listen  to  any  clerk's  interpretation  from  Scripture 
or  reason,  especially  the  latter.  In  the  Lolhirdist 
assertion  that  there  was  no  need  of  human  learning 
to  open  upSciipture,  they  but  antii-ipated  a  delusion 
not  \inknown  among  Iflth-cenlui y  evangelicals. 
Their  claim  that  none  but  those  enlightened  by 
grace  could  umlerstand  Scripture  opened  a  wider 
door  for  self-delusion  and  error. 

See  Shirley's  Fasciailus  Zizammum  (Rolls  series, 
18.58);  two  i).'Lpers  by  James  Gainhier  in  Stmiica  in 
Eiiiilixli  Ifi.ilarii  (  IHSl);  and  the  article  Wyclifkk. 

Lolos.  a  fair-complexioned  aboriginal  jieople  on 
the  frontiers  of  China  and  'i'iliel.  mainly  in  Sze- 
chwan  ami  Yunnan. 

Loillhard.  PkticI!,  one  of  the  most  famous  of 
the  Schoolmen,  was  born  about  the  beginning  of  the 
12th  century,  at  a  village  near  Novara,  in  L(un- 
bardy.  He  was  educated  at  Bologna,  and  canu»  to 
France  witfi  recommendations  to  ISernard  of  Clair- 
vaux.  Mis  uMc'ommon  talents  soon  procured  him 
a  chair  of  thiiology  in  Paris.  In  ll.">!l  he  was  ap- 
pointed IJishoji  of  i'aris,  but  he  ilied  in  the  fcdlow- 
ing  yt-ar.  He  was  very  generally  styled  Mar/it^lrr 
Senioiliwiim,  or  the  '  Master  of  Seuten<-es.'  from  his 
work  Sciife.iitirinim  I.ihri  IV..  an  arranged  collec- 
tion of  sentences  from  .Augustineand  other  l''athers. 
on  points  of  Christian  iloclrine.  willi  cJpjei'tions  and 
replies,  also  collected  from  other  authors  of  repule. 
The  tirst  book  treats  of  God  ;  the  second   of  the 


^^ 


Fig.  1. 


creature  ;  the  third  of  the  incarnation,  redemption, 
and  the  virtues  ;  the  fourth  of  the  seven  sacraments 
and  eschatology.  A  subtle  heresy,  Niliilianism, 
was  detected  by  some  in  Peter's  teaching,  and  the 
theological  docl(us  of  Paris  in  i;i()0  denounced  it  in 
sixteen  jiropositions  culled  from  his  writings.  Peter 
Lombard's  work  was  the  subject  of  many  commen- 
taries down  to  the  time  of  the  Heformation.  His 
writings  were  edited  by  Aleaume  (L(mvain,  1541)). 

Lombard  Aroliitootiire  is  the  style  which 

was  invented  ami  used  by  tiie  Cothic  invaders  and 
colonists  of  the  north  of  Italy,  from  about  the  age 
of  Charlemagne  till  it  was  superseded  by  the  im- 
portatiim  of  the  Pointed  style  from  France  in  the 
beginning  of  the  Kith 
century.  The  architecture 
of  the  Lombards  was 
derived  from  tin,'  debased 
Roman  style  which  they 
found  in  the  country — 
the  general  plan  of  the 
churches,  and  the  general 
form  of  the  pillars,  arches, 
&c. ,  being  almost  identical 

with  those  of  the  Uoinaii  liasilicjis  (q.v. ).  Putin 
detail,  l{oman  traditions  are  almost  entirely  aban- 
doned, and  instead  of  the  debased  acanthus  leaves 
ami  fragments  of  entablatures  the  Lombanls 
adopted  a  freer  imitation  of  natural  forms  in  their 
foliage,  and  covered  their  buildings  with  repre- 
sentations of  the  lights  and  lHinting-exi>editions 
in  which  they  delighted. 
The  north  lif  Italy  be- 
longed at  the  time  of 
Charlemagne  to  the  great 
German  empire,  and  thus 
we  find  nearly  the  same 
style  of    architecture    in 

Lombardy    and    in    Ger- 

nianv  as  far  north  its  the 

Baltic      (see      Rhenish 

Architecture).       Few 

early  examples  of  Lom- 
bard   architecture    exist. 

In  the  unruly  times  when 

the  style  originated,    the 

buildings  were   no  doubt 

frequently    destroyed    by 

fire  ;   this  seems  to  have 

led  to  the  desire  to  erect 

fireiiroof    structures,    and 

thus    the    earlier    as   well 

as   almost    all    the    later 

examples  are  vaulted  with 

stone.  The  earliest  ex- 
ample  is  a   small    chapel 

at   Friuli,   built  jirobably 

during   the    Sth   century, 

and  it  is  coveted  with  an 

inter.sectiug  vault.  Ex- 
amples  of    this   date   are 

rare    in     Italy;      but    in 

Switzerland,     where    the 

style   is  alnH)st  identical, 

several  interesting  speci- 
mens of  early  architec- 
ture remain,  such  as  the 

churches       of        llomain- 

Motier,  Granson.  i'.iyerne, 

iS;c.       We   tliere    lin'd   the 

|)eculiar  arch-ornament  so 

characteristic  of  Lom- 
bardy and  the  Rhine  (fig. 

1 ),  ami  we  can  trace  the 

timid  steps  by  which  the 

Gntbs  ailvanccd  in  the  art  of  vaulting. 

The  vaulting  is  the  leading  featiiie  of  Lombard 

architecture,  and  from  it  spring  the  other  distinguish- 


Fit'.  -'■ 

Plan  of  the  I'alliedral  of 

Novara. 

Scale  1  incli  =  100  fi-ot. 


LOMBARDS 


LOMBARDY 


695 


in;;  forms  of  the  style.  Thus,  the  plain,  round 
pillars,  with  a  sinii>le  base  ami  capital,  wliicli 
served  to  support  the  side-walls  anil  roof  of  a 
Inisilica,  are  chan^'ed  for  a  iMinipoinul  pier,  made 
up  of  several  shafts,  each  restin;^  on  its  own  base, 
and  eacli  provideil  witli  a  capital  to  carry  the  par- 
ticular part  of  tlie  vanltinj;  assi<;ncd  to  it.  This 
change  is  deserving  of  particiihir  notice  as  the  fii'st 
j;erni  of  that  i)rinciple  which  Wius  afterwards  de- 
veloped in  the  (!othic  (q.v. )  styles.  Buttres.ses  are 
also  introduced  for  the  first  time,  although  with 
small  projection. 

The  cathedral  of  Xovara  is  one  of  the  most 
striking  examples  of  l.omliard  arcliitecture.  It 
helonp;  to  tlie  lltli  century.  The  plan  (lit;.  '-) 
is  derived  from  the  olil  basilican  type,  havin;,'  at 
the  west  end  an  open  atrium,  with  arcade  around, 
from  wliicli  the  church  is  entered  by  a  central  door. 
The  interior  is  divide<l  into  central  and  side  aisles, 
with  vaulted  roof,  and  terminated  with  an  apsidal 
choir.  At  tlie  end  of  the  atrium  opposite  tlie 
church  is  situated  the 
baptistery.  The  same 
general  arrangement  of 
plan  was  common  in 
the  German  churches, 
where  the  atrium  was 
.sometimes  at  a.  later 
period  roofeil  over  and 
included  iu  the  nave, 
and  the  baptistery 
changed  into  the  west- 
ern apse  of  the  double- 
apsed  churches. 

San  Micliele  at 
Pavia  and  San  Am- 
brogio  at  Milan  are 
also  good  early  ex- 
amples of  this  style. 
In  l)oth  the  grouping 
of  the  piers  into 
vaulting  .shafts,  wall- 
"  arch  shafts,  &c.  is 
complete,  and  that 
beautiful  feature  of 
the  style,  the  arcade  round  the  apse  (lig.  3),  is 
fully  developed.  The  atrium  and  west  front  of 
San  Ambrogio  form  one  of  the  hnest  groujis  of 
Lombard  architecture. 

Lombards,  a  [people  of  Germanic  descent,  who 
were  called  by  the  Latin  writers  Longobardi  or, 
more  correctly,  Langobanli,  a  name  which  is 
dill'erently  derived  by  ditl'erent  authorities.  '  Long 
beard,'  Latige  lirirdf  —  'a  long  fertile  plain  beside 
a  river,'  borde  being  used  iu  that  signilication  in 
the  Lower  Elbe  district,  and  /oiiga  pnrta  or 
barte  =  'a  long  battle-axe,'  have  all  been  suggested 
as  original  forms  of  the  name.  The  people  so 
designated  fii"st  apjiear  in  history  as  settled  about 
the  Lower  Elbe,  in  Hanover  and  western  I'riissia,  at 
the  dawn  of  the  Christian  era.  In  the  two  centuries 
that  followed  they  came  more  than  once  into 
conllict  with  the  Romans  :  and  then  till  the  end  of 
the  5tli  century  nothing  more  is  known  about 
them.  When  next  mentioned  (rirca  45.5)  the 
I/ongobardi  were  settled  in  Moravia,  and  were 
tributary  to  the  Herulians.  The  opi)ression  of 
these  ma-sters  stung  them  into  revolt  :  they  sub- 
dued the  Herulians,  and  after  tlieiii  the  Gepid:i>, 
and  established  themselves  as  the  ruling  race  in 
I'annonia.  I'nder  .Allioin,  their  king,  they  invaded 
Italy  in  SOS,  and  at  the  end  of  three  years  had 
pos.ses.sed  themselves  of  the  greater  part  of  Northern 
and  Central  Italy,  Pavia  being  the  last  city  to 
submit.  They  subse<|Uently  extended  their  power 
as  far  south  fus  Spoleto  and  Heiievento,  both  of 
which  duchies  were  held  by  Lombard  dukes. 
His  second  .successor,  Authari,  a-ssunieil  the  Koinan 


title  of  Flavius,  and  under  the  influence  of  his 
queen,  Theodelinda,  a  Prankish  princess,  the  nation 
began  to  change  its  Arian  faith  for  the  Catholic. 
The  Longoliardi,  though  never  a  numerous  race, 
were  distinguislinl  above  most  of  their  Germanic 
brethren  lor  their  lieice  love  of  war  and  their 
rude  mannei's.  IJut  in  Italy  they  soon  fell  nn<ler 
the  influence  of  the  existing  civilisation  :  they 
adopted  the  Latin  language,  began  to  Imild 
churches  and  found  mon.a-steries,  and  gradually 
became  a.ssimilated  with  the  Italians.  King 
Rothari  in  64,3,  and  his  successors,  embodied 
the  legal  customs  of  the  Liunbards  in  a  code, 
written,  iKjwever,  in  Latin — Li'ip's  Lijutjnhftrtlornm. 
Liutprand,  king  from  712  to  744,  made  an  un- 
successful attempt  to  subdue  all  Italy.  His 
strongest  opponent  was  the  pope,  who  summoned 
the  Franks  to  his  assistance.  Charlemagne  in 
774  overthrew  the  Lombard  dynasty,  and  hail  him- 
self crowned  king  of  the  Franks  anil  the  Lombards  ; 
and  thenceforward  the  Lombards  were  entirely 
merged  in  the  Italians.  The  only  traces  extant  of 
the  Longobard  language  are  a  few  names.  Their 
earliest  historian  whose  works  survive,  Paul  the 
Deacon,  wrote  in  Latin.     See  Lomb.vrdv. 

The  'Lombards^  in  Enghind. — In  the  13th 
century  Italian  merchants  from  Lucca  (even  as 
early  as  the  9th  century),  Florence,  and  Piacenza, 
and  at  a  later  date  from  \'enice  and  Genoa 
also,  visited  England  for  pur]inses  of  trade.  They 
came  originally  to  collect  the  taxes  and  dues 
payable  to  the  pope,  which  they  tiansmitted  in 
large  part  in  the  shape  of  wool.  They  also  traded 
on  their  own  account,  and  in  course  of  time,  settling 
in  the  country,  were  granted  special  privileges,  such 
as  the  right  to  farm  the  customs  and  to  conduct  the 
transactions  on  exchange.  The  niercliants  of  Flor- 
ence, for  instance,  had  branches  at  P>oston,  Lynn, 
and  Northamiiton,  as  well  as  at  London,  and 
regularly  bought  the  wool  of  some  '200  mona-steries 
in  England  and  Scotland.  On  occasion  they  lent 
large  sums  on  loau,  and  gradually  took  up  the 
business  of  banking,  as  it  was  understood  in  those 
days:  Edward  III.  owed  the  Florentine  hou.se  of 
Bardi  the  sum  of  900,000  gold  ducats,  and  another 
house  of  the  same  city,  that  of  Peruzzi,  600,000 
ducats.  The  Jews  even  took  ailvantage  of  the 
favourable  position  of  these  It.alians  :  many  of  them 
braved  Edward  I."s  edict  of  expulsion  (1290),  and 
stayed  behind  under  the  character  of  Lombard 
merchants,  the  name  by  which  these  Italians  were 
generally  known  to  the  English.  In  London  the 
Lombards  dwelt  principally  in  the  street  now  called 
Lombard  Street,  still  the  chief  centre  of  the  banking 
interest.  They  eventually  incurred  as  much  odium 
a.s  the  Jews,  not  only  becau.se  they  exacted  interest 
for  their  loans,  but  also  because  the  commercial 
privilege.s  accorded  to  them  were  lielieved  to  injuri- 
ously afi'ect  the  native  English  merchants. 

LMIIlltai'dy.  that  jpart  of  Upper  Italy  which 
lies  between  the  Alps  ami  the  Po,  having  the 
territory  of  V^enice  on  the  east,  and  Piedmont  on 
the  west.  Its  geographical  characteristics  are  dis- 
cus.sed  under  It.M.y.  Its  history  begins  with  the 
conquest  by  the  Romans  in  222,  who  called  it  Gallia 
Cisalpina.  After  the  break  up  of  the  Honian 
empire  it  was  successively  in  the  hands  of  Odoacer, 
the  Ostrogoths,  the  liyzantine  emperors,  and  the 
Lombards  (q.v.).  Charlemagne  incorporated  it  in 
his  empire,  but  from  .H43  it  was  ruled  by  ,i  sciiarate 
line  of  kings,  though  before  the  kingdom  ended  (9lil  ) 
it  hiul  liKiken  U|i  into  a  number  of  independiuit 
duchies  and  civic  republics.  The  Lombard  cities, 
like  those  of  Flanders  at  a  later  epoch,  grew  wealthy 
by  industry  and  trade,  and  niiitured  a  vigorous 
love  of  freeilom  iiml  independence.  They  resisted 
sturdily  and  successfully  the  attempts  of  the  em- 
perors Frederick  I.  and  11.  (q.v.)  to  curtail  their 


696 


LOMBOK 


LONDON 


lilierties,  forminj;  themselves  into  strong  lea^'ies, 
wliicli  were  iiowcrful  oiiougli  to  rci\it  the  eiMjierors 
in  pitched  battles.  But,  freeil  from  tliieatening 
danger,  they  l>egan  to  quarrel  amongst  themselves, 
and  the  country  was  for  many  years  more  or  less 
distracteii  hy  internal  dissensions.  After  the  death 
(1447)  of  the  last  duke  of  Milan,  whose  ancestor. 
Count  Azzo,  had  Mcc|uired  the  sovereignty  over 
nearly  all  Lombardy  in  13.37,  the  country  was  made 
an  object  of  contention  between  the  king  of  France 
and  the  emperor.  The  last  named  having  got  the 
li(!ttor  in  the  contest.  Lombardy  pa.ssed  through 
Charles  V.  to  Sjiain,  which  held  possession  of  it  till 
1713,  when  tlie  duchies  of  Milan  ami  Mantua  came 
into  the  bands  of  .\ustria.  Napoleon  made  it  iiart 
of  the  Cisalpine  republic,  the Trans])adaMe republic, 
and  the  kingdom  of  Italy  successively.  But  in  1815 
it  was  restored  to  Austria,  and  associated  with  the 
newly-acqtiired  Venetian  territory.  In  ISoQ  Loni- 
l)ardy  was  given  up  to  Italy,  and  divided  into  the 
)>rovinces  of  Bergamo,  Brescia,  Conio,  Cremona, 
Mantua,  Milan,  Pavia,  and  Sondrio.  See  Hodg- 
kins,  Itrili/  rnid  her  Invaders  (vols.  v.  and  vi.) ;  W. 
K.  Williams,  The  Communes  of  Lombardy  (1891). 

Loillbok.     See  SUNDA  IsL.\NDS. 

Loiiibroso.    See  Criminolooy. 

Loilinild,  Loch,  the  'queen  of  Scottish  lakes," 
in  Dumbarton  and  Stirling  shires,  lies  23  feet  above 
sealevel,  and  is  22  miles  long,  J  mile  to  5  miles 
wide,  6  to  ()3()  feet  deep,  and  27  sq.  m.  in  area.  It 
is  studde<i  with  thirty  wooded  islands  ;  receives  the 
Endrick  and  six  other  principal  streams  ;  sends  otl" 
the  Leven  7  miles  .southward  to  the  Clyde  ;  con- 
tains trout,  pike,  and  perch  ;  is  sometimes  frozen 
over  as  far  northward  as  Loss  ;  and  is  engirt  by 
bills  and,  towards  its  head.  Highland  mountains, 
the  highest  of  which,  Ben  Lomond  (q.v.),  attains 
3192  feet.  In  1263  Norsemen  launched  their  galleys 
on  Loch  Lomontl,  having  drawn  them  across  the 
narrow  isthmus  of  Tarbet ;  on  Inchcailloch  stood 
of  old  a  nunnery  :  and  a  cave  is  associated  with 
both  Bruce  and  Kob  Koy. 

LoillZSl.  the  capital  of  a  government  in  Poland, 
80  miles  NE.  of  Warsaw,  was  formerly  one  of  the 
most  important  cities  of  the  country,  hut  is  now 
of  seconiiary  rank  only.     Pop.  15,000. 

London  is  situated  on  the  north  or  left  bank 
of  the  Thames,  about  60  miles  from  the  sea,  in 
,51°  30'  48"  N.  lat.  and  5'  48"  W.  long.  It  may  he 
reckoned  the  capital  of  the  British  empire,  hut  the 
Houses  of  Parliament  and  the  offices  of  government 
ar(!  in  the  adjoining  city  of  Westminster.  The 
Thames  at  London  Bridge  is  about  900  feet  wide, 
being  much  wider  both  above  and  below.  This 
fact  ])rol)ably  accounts  for  the  original  foundation 
of  the  city,  which,  according  to  many  authorities, 
took  place  in  43  A.D. ,  when  Aulus  Plautius  was  the 
Roman  governor  of  Britain.  The  name  is  Celtic, 
and  would  appear  to  signify  a  fort  on  a  lake  or 
lagoon,  the  'riiames  being  here  a  tidal  estuary 
which  coviMcd  all  the  low-lying  land  on  wliicli 
Kotlierbitbc,  Xowington,  Southwark,  .and  Lambeth 
are  now  situated.  It  seems  likely  that  the  easiest 
fonl  across  the  river  was  at  Westminster,  where  it 
was  widest  (more  than  1200  feet),  and  that  by  the 
building  of  London  Bridge  at  the  narrowest  place 
the  old  Watling  Street  from  Dover  toward  Chester 
was  diverted.  The  olil  line  led  from  Edgware 
through  Totliill  Fields  to  Westminster,  where 
Stane  (iate  still  marks  the  place  of  crossing.  The 
newer  road  turned  eastward  at  what  we  call  tin; 
Marble  .\rch,  and,  pa-ssing  diagonally  from  Newgate 
through  the  city,  crossed  by  the  briilge,  and  wa.s 
carried  on  towards  Dover  on  embankments  among 
the  shallows,  the  sites  of  which  are  still  markeil  by 
such  local  names  as  Stone  Street  and  Newington 
Causeway.     The  course  of  Watling  Street  in  the 


city  was  again  diverted,  probably  in  the  13tli  cen- 
tury, to  make  way  for  the  extension  of  St  I'aulV 
Cathedral,  and  now  no  longer  leads  in  the  dir(H:tioii 
of  Newgate. 

During  the  greater  part  of  the  Roman  occupation 
of  Britain  London  consisted  of  two  forts,  one  at 
either  end  of  the  bridge :  and  Ptolemy,  the  geo- 
grapher, puts  London  in  Cantium,  where,  and  not 
on  the  left  bank,  it  is  very  possible  the  largest 
of  these  forts  may  have  stood.  The  )inwalled 
suburbs  seem  to  have  heen  iionnlous  and  wealthy 
from  an  early  period  ;  and,  wlien  abandoned  l>y 
Suetonius,  thev  were  burned  by  lioadicea  in  61  A.D. 
They  were  stift  undefended  in  2.S()  and  t  he  subse- 
quent years,  when  the  rebel  em|i(Mors,  Carausius 
and  Allectus,  held  both  sides  of  the  channel, 
making  Clausentum  (Bittcrne,  near  Southampton) 
their  headquarters  in  Britain.  Asclepiodotus,  the 
general  of  Constantius,  defeated  Allectus  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  London,  .and  under  one  of  the 
Constantines  the  place  began  to  he  looked  upon 
with  favour  and  to  be  extensively  fortiheil. 
The  wall  which  for  so  many  centuries  wi\.s 
destined  to  defend  the  boundaries  of  the  city  was 
built  between  350  and  369,  and  enclosed  a  space 
which  has  been  computed  at  380  acres.  In  this 
Roman  wall  there  was  a  gate  due  north  of  the 
l)ridge  in  what  is  now  Canmmile  Street,  and 
another  at  the  spot  at  which  the  Watling  Street, 
crossing  the  Fleet  or  Holborn,  took  its  course 
towarils  Tyburn.  The  new  city  was  defended  on 
the  east  Iiy  the  Lea  and  its  extensive  marshes, 
and  on  the  west  by  the  Fleet,  whose  waters  were 
tidal  as  far  up  as  wh.at  we  call  King'.s  Cross. 
Traversing  the  middle  of  the  city  was  the  narrow 
stream  of  the  Wallbrook,  with  the  harbour  of 
Dowgate  at  its  confluence  with  the  Thames,  and 
from  the  remains  which  have  been  discovered  it  is 
probable  that  the  chief  Roman  fort,  before  the 
l)uilding  of  the  outer  w.all,  was  on  the  east  or  left 
bank  of  the  Wallbrook,  and  extended  far  enough 
eastward  to  cover  the  approaches  to  the  bridge. 
Some  bastions  of  peculiar  strength  where  the  wall 
reached  the  Thames  on  the  site  of  the  Tower  gave 
rise  to  the  medieval  tradition  that  the  Tower  of 
London  was  built  by  Julius  Caesar.  From  369  till 
412  London  was  reckoned  the  capital  of  Britain, 
and  enjoyed  the  title  of  Attifiixta.  .\fter  the 
Roman  departure  London  disapjiears  from  history 
until  457,  when  the  Britons,  fleeing  before  the 
victorious  Hengest,  took  refuge  behind  the  Roman 
wall.  How  far  it  availed  them  for  defence  we 
know  not.  London  does  not  again  emerge  from 
complete  obscurity  for  about  a  century  and  n,  half, 
but  in  604  we  find  it  named  as  the  'Metropolis' 
— i.e.  the  ecclesiastical  cai>ital — of  the  East  Saxons. 
Mellitus  was  appointed  first  bishop,  but  the  Saxons 
soon  expelled  him,  and  Christiiinity  did  not  make 
much  way  with  them  until  F.thclbert.  king  of 
Kent,  the  over-lord  of  the  K:ist  Saxon  king,  took 
the  matter  in  hand.  A  little  later  we  hear  for  the 
first  time  of  a  tribe  of  Middle  Saxons,  but  London 
was  evidently  a  place  of  but  small  importance, 
apart  from  its  bridge,  as  the  Saxons  preferred  to 
fight  without  walls,  and  as  no  doubt  the  Roman 
defences  had  become  greatly  dilapidated.  At 
length  during  the  Danish  wars  they  became  com 
pletely  ruinous,  and  London  was  abandoned  and 
lay  desolate  during  the  long  period  of  thirty  years, 
the  lifetime  of  a  whole  generation. 

To  King  Alfred  we  must  look  as  the  real  foumler 
of  modern  Lomhm.  He  saw  the  possibilitie.s  of 
the  place  a.s  a  bulwark  against  the  Danes,  and, 
repaning  the  wall  .and  gates,  ni.ade  the  ])lace  again 
habitable.  There  is  a  tradition  that  he  specially 
rebuilt  anil  slreiigthened  a  work  on  the  silc^  of  the 
Tower.  During  the  long  period  of  ilisastcr  which 
followed    his   reign,   the    kingdom    of   some   of   liis 


LONDON 


G97 


successors  consisted  of  little  else  lint  Lomloii,  which 
the  Danes  were  never  ahle  to  take,  men  thoii;xh 
they  made  a  canal  round  Soutlnvark,  and  half 
ro»"ed,  half  dra-igeil  their  ships  tn  Westminster. 
Undoubtedly  the  settlement  made  in  London, 
whether  hy  Alfred  or  hv  one  of  his  immediate 
successors,  formed  the  <rerm  of  the  sul)se(|uent 
municipal  Government.  Athelstan  is  often  pomted 
to  as  tiie  kinj;  who  chiefly  restored  London,  and. 
as  we  have  nothing  else,  tradition  must  lie  received 
\\  ith  some  respect.  The  Roman  lines  of  road  and 
the  gates  were  abandoned.  New  gates  at  .Milers- 
gate,  Newgate,  and  Bishopsgate  were  constructed, 
anil  posterns  seem  to  have  been  opened  at  Lndgate 
(A.S.  Lyd/jatt,  'a  ])ostern'),  Cripplegate  (A.S. 
Crepulgeat,  '  a  covered  w.av  ' ),  anil  possibly  at  wh.it 
was  afterwards  Moorgate.  There  were  two  great 
market-places,  one  near  the  western  gate,  in  which 
the  folkmote  was  held,  and  where  stood  the  church 
of  St  Paul  :  and  the  other  in  East  Cheap,  of  which 
the  only  modern  remains  are  Leadenhall  Market  and 
the  fisli-market  at  Billingsgate.  The  West  Cheap 
wiu^  bordered  by  the  highway  still  called  Cheapside, 
which  led  from  Comhill,  the  northern  extremity  of 
the  East  Cheap,  by  a  bridge  over  the  Wallbrook 
t<)  the  Westgate.  now  Newgate.  There  were  niany 
empty  spaces  within  the  circuit  of  the  walls,  and, 
if  we  may  judge  by  the  comparative  size  of  the 
local  divisions,  the  first  settlers  chose  the  shores  of 
the  Thames  and  the  lines  of  the  two  great  roads 
for  their  habitations.  It  is  very  probable  that 
ecclesiastically  the  city  was  divided  into  three 
great  parishes;  one,  of  which  St  Paul's  was  the 
church,  to  the  westward  ;  a  second,  of  which  St 
Mary  Aldermarj-  was  the  church,  in  the  centre ; 
atid  a  third,  possibly  dedicated  to  All  Saints,  or 
All  Hallows,  in  the  east. 

The  municipal  government  before  the  Norman 
conquest  was  not  very  complicated  in  form,  and 
may  \>e  compared  to  that  of  a  county  elsewhere 
in  England.  The  lords  of  manors  in  the  city 
were  represented  by  aldermen  of  wards,  and  the 
ward  division  is  the  oldest  with  which  we  are 
acquainted.  Everj-  magnate  had  his  ward  ;  and 
the  government  was  carried  on  by  the  bishop 
who  was  alilerman  of  the  ward  about  St  I'aul's, 
and  the  portreeve  who  had  the  Portsoken  outside 
the  city  to  the  east.  It  Ls  not  ea-sy  to  unravel  the 
knot  presented  to  us  by  the  names  we  meet  with 
in  ola  records  of  city  officials  in  and  before  the 
11th  century.  A  guild,  composed  chiefly  or  wholly 
of  aldermen,  was  perhaps,  under  the  n.ame  of 
Knighte.n  Guild,  the  governing  body  :  but  this  is 
bv  no  means  certain,  nor  is  the  tra<lition  that  King 
K<lgar  was  their  first  founder.  Some  such  body 
existed  ;  its  members  transmitted  their  rights  to 
their  sons,  and  they  may  or  may  not  have  become 
the  governing  guild  of  tlie  city.  The  king's  reeve, 
or  portreeve— /;o/y  probably  denotes  a  market — 
answered  to  the  shentf  or  shire-reeve  of  a  county  ; 
and  the  aldermen  of  wards  had  many  and  extensive 
powers  on  their  respective  estates,  answering  to 
those  exercised  in  a  county  by  the  lords  of  manors. 
The  reeve  vinited  in  his  own  ])erson  m.iny  oHices 
afterwards  separated.  He  was  chamberlain  or 
trea.surer ;  he  was  'vicecomes,'  and  accounted  to 
the  king's  exchequer  for  the  fanu  of  the  city  ;  he 
was  coroner  ;  he  was  e.sclieator  ;  and  he  often  bore 
office  .OS  a  royal  niini.ster,  like  .\nsgar,  '  the  staller,' 
who  fought  and  was  woun<led  at  I  listings.  Wil- 
liam recognised  the  great  i>osition  ami  ancient 
rights  of  London  in  a  special  charter  by  which  the 
|)rivileg&s  enjoyed  hy  the  citizens  uniler  Eilward 
the  ConfftH.s«r  were  contirmed  to  them  ;  but  the 
most  important  grant  from  the  crown  w:is  that  of 
llcnrj'  I.,  who,  in  1101,  in  recognition  no  doubt  of 
the  assistance  Lmdon  ha<l  given  him  in  his  success- 
fal    attempt   to  seize  the   crown,    allowed    them. 


among  other  things,  ( I )  the  right  to  elect  their  ovm 
chief-magistrate,  and  (2)  the  farm  of  Middlesex 
at  an  annual  rent,  with  power  to  appoint  a  slieriH' 
of  that  county.  These  extraordinary'  grants,  with 
that  of  leave  to  hunt  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
London,  are  so  unlike  what  we  should  expect  from 
a  Norman  king,  that  some  have  been  tempted  to 
suppose  that  they  were  all  renewals  of  privileges 
enjoyed  under  the  Saxon  kings,  and  there  is  much 
plausibility  in  this  view,  but  their  recognition  led 
eventuall.v  to  the  establishment  of  the  mayor. 
The  sheriiTs  of  London  and  sheriff  of  Middlesex 
were  no  longer  '  high '  sheriffs  :  they  were  the 
nominees  and  deputies  of  the  whole  body  of  the 
citizens.  As  at  Winchester,  and  some  other  places, 
the  mayor  does  not  seem  to  have  received  any 
royal  acknowledgment  during  his  first  years  of 
office;  but  the  date  1189  is  generally  assigned  as 
that  of  the  first  year  of  Henry,  the  son  of  .Vilwin, 
an  alderman  of  old  family.  There  seems  to  be  a 
question  whether  this  Ailwin  is  to  be  iilentilied 
with  a  citizen  of  that  name  who  in  1125,  with  all 
his  brethren  of  the  Knighten  Guild,  became  canons 
of  the  priory  of  Holy  Trinity  at  the  newly-opened 
Algate  (now  corruptly  called  Aldgate),  and  con- 
ferred, with  the  king's  leave,  the  title  of  an  alder- 
man (of  the  ward  of  Portsoken)  on  their  prior, 
Norman.  Be  this  as  it  may,  the  necessities  of  the 
kingdom,  and  the  difficulties  consequent  on  the 
payment  of  the  ransom  of  Richard  I.,  must  be 
taken  as  causes  for  the  recognition  of  the  new  chief- 
magistrate  ;  and  down  to  our  own  day,  when 
(Local  Government  Act,  1888)  this  ancient  custom 
was  abolished,  the  citizens  elected  annually,  on 
Midsummer  Day,  two  sheriffs  for  the  city,  one  of 
whom  was  sheriff  also  of  Middlesex  on  alternate 
days.  They  are  now  elected  for  the  city  only. 
They  enter  on  their  office  on  Michaelmas  Day,  and 
the  citizens  then  proceed  to  choose  the  Lord  Mayor. 
Legally  any  citizen  is  eligible  for  the  mayoralty, 
but  for  many  generations  the  senior  alderman  who 
has  not  passed  the  chair  is  chosen. 

This  may  be  the  most  convenient  place  in  which 
to  name  the  chief  municipal  officers.  The  mayor, 
who  has  been  called  'Lord  Mayor'  from  time 
immemorial,  is  held  to  rank  as  an  earl,  but  within 
the  city  boundaries  next  to  the  sovereign.  In 
commissions  of  Oyer  and  Terminer  bis  name  pre- 
cedes even  that  of  the  Lord  Chancellor,  and  since 
the  reign  of  Edward  III.  he  has  sat  as  a  ju<lge. 
At  first  the  Lord  Mayor  was  a  representative  of 
the  city  in  the  House  of  Commons,  and  he  still 
takes  a  seat  at  the  opening  of  parliament  on  the 
ministerial  bench.  He  attends  at  the  Law  Courts 
to  be  sworn  in  on  the  9th  November,  and  holds 
office  for  a  year.  He  is  in  tlie  city  in  the  position 
of  the  Lord-lieutenant  of  a  county,  and  a  com- 
mission of  lieutenancy  is  issued  to  him  and  the 
magistrates  he  may  nominate.  The  Chamberlain 
is  tlie  city  treasurer.  The  ottice  was  separated  from 
that  of  mayor  when  the  mayoralty  was  temporarily 
superseded  in  the  reign  of  Edward  I.  He  is  the 
oflicial  guardian  of  the  orphans  of  citizens,  ami  li.us 
special  charge  of  apprentices.  He  is  annually  re- 
elected during  good  conduct.  The  Recorder  is  the 
legal  adviser  of  the  Court  of  Aldermen,  (ieoffrey 
Hartpole,  elected  in  13()4,  was  the  first  Recorder. 
The  Common  Serjeant  stands  in  the  same  ])osi- 
tion  toward  the  Coinmon  Council,  who  have  also 
their  Common  Clerk,  now  called  town  clerk.  The 
fii"st  Conunim  Serjeant  was  Thonies  .luvcnal,  elected 
in  1290.  The  Court  of  .Aldermen  now  con.sists  of 
twenty-six  members,  of  whom  the  senior  sits  for 
the  ward  of  Bridge  without,  or  the  borough  of 
Soutlnvark.  The  others  are  elected  by  the  city 
wards. 

The  Common  Council  was  first  elected  in  1200, 
when    twenty-five    citizens    were    chosen    by   the 


698 


LONDON 


wards  to  take  council  with  the  aldermen.  There 
are  now  'iiKi  lomninn  councillors. 

The  Coinnion  Hall  consists  only  of  mcniliers 
of  the  Ijivery  Companies,  and  has  olitaiiicd  or 
usurped  many  of  the  rights  of  the  whok'  body 
of  citizens.  An  act  passed  in  172.")  regulates 
admission  to  the  franchise  of  the  city  through  the 
livery,  Imt  seems  to  have  been  foundeil  on  a  mis- 
apprehension, as  the  Act  of  1475  which  it  was 
supposed  to  (M>nihin  does  not  seem  to  have  ever 
existed.  Admission  to  the  citizenship  could  be 
obtained  by  application  to  the  Hustings  Court, 
as  well  as  by  joining  a  company,  but  the  latter 
course,  being  the  easiest,  became  usual,  and  so 
was  supi)osed  necessary. 

The  hustings,  a  meeting  of  the  whole  liody  of 
the  citizens,  was  called  in  other  cities  Portmanni- 
niote,  and  was  an  assembly  under  cover,  as  dis- 
tinguished from  the  folkmote,  held  at  first  in  the 
open  space  between  St  Paul's  and  West  Cheap, 
and  afterwards  in  Smithtield. 

The  growth  of  tliis  municipality  was  slow.  At 
first  the  rights  of  the  aldermen  possessed  of  heredi- 
tary jurisdiction  interfered  «itli  its  jjrogress  ;  but 
by  degrees  all  the  wards  were  able  to  elect  their 
aldermen.  The  interference  of  the  crown  also 
greatly  retarded  the  prosperity  of  the  city.  Never- 
theless, commerce  increased,  and  the  settlement 
of  such  foreign  merchants  as  tho.se  of  the  so-called 
Steelyard,  ,and  of  the  Lombard  and  other  Italian 
bankers,  raised  London  by  the  time  of  Edward 
IIL  to  a  wealthy  and  prosperous  condition.  In 
reading  a  detailed  history  it  is  observed  that  weak 
sovereigns  caused  a  depression  of  trade,  while 
under  a  strong  government  confidence  was  re- 
stored and  capital  was  safe.  Henry  III.  was 
constantly  at  feud  with  tlie  citizens,  wliom  hi; 
greatly  opjiressed,  leaving  to  his  successor  tlie 
task  of  dealing  with  the  disorder  he  had  created. 
Edward  I.,  to  use  the  language  of  contemporary 
chroniclers,  'took  the  city  into  his  own  hands,' 
and  his  ministers.  Sandwich  and  Breton,  govern- 
ing like  mayors,  with  the  help  of  the  ahlermcn 
and  the  common  council,  brought  everything  into 
order.  In  1'2S)0  tliey  expelled  the  Jews.  After 
twelve  years  the  mayoralty  was  restored.  Under 
Edward  II.,  again,  there  was  disorder  and  dis- 
content in  the  city,  the  great  body  of  the  citizens 
adhering  to  the  party  of  the  queen.  Under 
Edward  III.  London  prospered,  new  privileges 
were  granted  to  the  mayor,  and  the  French  wars 
were  extrem(dy  jiopular.  In  the  end,  however, 
a  reaction  ensued,  and  under  the  weak  govern- 
ment of  Richard  11.  things  did  not  improve.  The 
usiirpation,  as  many  deemed  it,  of  Henry  IV. 
could  hardly  have  succeeded  had  it  not  been  for 
the  support  of  the  city;  and  Henry  V.,  whose 
I''rencli  victories  inllated  trade,  was  most  popular 
witli  the  citizens.  Henry  VI.  was  unable  to 
grapjile  with  the  inevitiihle  period  of  dc]iression 
whi(di  naturally  followed;  and  his  (pieen,  .Margaret 
of  Anjou,  failing  to  gain  the  confidence  of  London, 
whose  importance  to  the  Lancastrian  cause  she 
did  not  kin)\v,  contrived  to  divert  the  weight  of 
the  city  influence  into  the  opposite  scale.  The 
reign  of  Edward  IV.,  with  his  .strong  conuuercial 
instinct,  by  reviving  and  creating  outlets  for 
foreign  trade,  restored  the  prosperity  of  tlie  city. 
Under  the  Tudors  there  were  great  (luctuations. 
Although  the  settled  government  of  Henry  \i\. 
tended  on  the  whole  to  the  satisfaction  of  the 
city,  his  continual  exactions  and  the  heavy  fines 
ho  imposed  for  trivial  ollenees,  alienated  its 
loyalty.  The  accession  of  Henry  VIII.  was  au 
occasion  of  rejoicing.  The  tenets  of  the  Hefor- 
m;Ltion  were  \\"arml_\'  welcoined  in  London,  w  liei'e 
the  priests,  monks,  and  friars  lia<l  lieconie  a  heavy 
burden  ;  and  at   first  the  high-handed  i)roc('cdings 


of  the  king  in  the  sni)pression  of  the  religious 
houses  and  the  confiscation  of  their  endowments 
was  a  popular  measure.  The  further  suppression 
of  guilds  under  his  successor  led  to  a  considerable 
change  in  the  feeling  of  the  citizens,  many  of 
whom,  but  for  the  religious  ]ier.secuth)n  under 
(,)ueen  Mary,  would  have  been  very  willing  to 
return  to  the  old  faith. 

The  guilds  had  for  centuries  been  an  integral 
part  of  the  social  life  of  the  citizens.  The  muni- 
cipal guild,  or  what  we  know  of  it,  has  already 
been  mentioned.  At  an  early  |)(uiod  after  the 
Conquest  we  hear  of  'trade  guilds,'  that  is,  of 
combinations  of  men  of  one  calling  for  leligious 
and  other  purposes.  The  many  attem|)ts  made  of 
late  to  distinguish  between  trade  guilds  and 
religions  guilds  have  ended  in  failure,  for  all  guilds 
were  religious,  and  most  religious  guilds  were  trade 
guilds  as  well.  As  time  went  on  the  governing 
body  occasionally  found  it  convenient  to  consult  a 
trade  guild  on  the  regulation  of  their  particular 
business.  This  was  especially  th<'  case  under  such 
mayors  as  Walter  Harvey  (l'271-7'2),  who,  indeed, 
made  an  endeavour  to  enrol  every  citizen  under  the 
banner  of  a  guild  of  his  trade,  and  to  fornnilatc  rules 
for  each.  Though  he  failed,  his  ideas  took  root ; 
and  in  a  few  years  many  of  the  guilds  obtained 
royal  chartere  forming  them  into  companies,  able 
to  bold  lands,  and  in  some  cases,  as  that  of  the 
goldsmiths  and  that  of  the  fishmongers,  to  regu- 
late the  conduct  of  their  res|)ective  trades.  The 
old  guilds  were  thus  generally  merged  in  the  com- 
panies «hose  governing  bodies  acted  as  trustees 
of  the  fniuls  of  the  guilds.  There  was  ]u-obably 
a  good  deal  of  confusion  between  the  guild  pro- 
perty and  the  companies  jiroperty,  but  for  the 
most  part  that  of  the  guild  couhl  lie  ilistinguished, 
because  it  was  applied  to  religious  purposes.  The 
act  which  confiscated  these  fun<ls  made,  of  course, 
a   profimnd    impression    on    the   city.     Some  com- 

{lanies  were  wholly  ruined,  having  perhaps  no 
unds  but  those  which  nught  be  ai)plieii  to  a 
'guildable  use:'  and  others,  more  pros]ierous, 
fcmnd  it  expedient,  and  even  necessary,  to  sell 
their  company  estates  in  order  to  buy  the  guild 
estate  which  they  had  administered.  The  com- 
panies which  recovered  from  this  heavy  blow 
prospered  for  the  most  part  eventually,  and  those 
now  extant  deal  with  large  charitable  funds  and 
hohl  large  estates,  to  the  great  benefit  of  their 
tenants  aiul  their  pensioners. 

Under  Queen  Elizabeth  the  work  of  the  Kcfor- 
ntation  \\as  contijiued  and  conipleted.  The  history 
of  the  church  in  Lcmdon  was  gnMtly  complicated 
with  that  of  the  nninicipality.  We  have  .seen 
that  the  bishop  was  an  aldernum  ;  but  at  a  very 
early  peiiod,  a  period  in  fact  so  early  that  no 
record  of  its  date  survives,  the  ecclesiastical  and 
lay  administrations  drifted  ajiart,  and  the  church 
had  less  and  less  concern  in  tli(Millairs  not  strictly 
religious.  There  are  historical  reasons  for  believ- 
ing that  St  Paul's  was  at  first  a  parish  church, 
but  before  the  end  of  the  12th  century,  perhaps 
as  a  consei(nence  of  the  great  fire  of  ll.'?6,  the 
parochial  arrangements  of  the  whole  city  were 
readjusted,  new  parishes  were  formed  and  their 
boundaries  marked,  and  a  gicat  number  of  new 
churches  were  built.  The  dean  ami  the  loidly 
camnis  of  St  Paul's  no  huiger  cared  to  have  the 
common  people  worshipping  in  their  church,  and 
built  St  l'eter-le-t,)uerne,  at  the  corner  of  Clieap, 
with  St  (Jregory  an<l  St  Kaith  closely  adjoining 
St  Paul'.s,  the  one  at  the  east  end,  the  other  at 
the  west.  The  canons  of  St  Marlins  built  St 
Ved.-ist's,  and  the  friars  of  Newgate  Street  St 
I'^ven's  ;  and  ]irivate  individuals  or  wealthy  alder- 
men incri'ased  the  number  of  churohes  as  long  iis 
the.y   could   obtain   parishes   to    attach    to    them. 


LONDON 


699 


I 


When  land  failed  for  this  purpose,  they  founded 
chantries,  some  in  St  Pauls,  some  in  otlier  mon- 
astic and  parochial  churches.  No  doubt  tl\e  act 
Quia  JCiiintorcs.  which  in  1290  prai-tiiiilly  forliade 
the  suhdivision  of  manoi's,  had  its  inlluence  in 
restrictinj;  the  niulti]>licatii>n  of  churches,  but  the 
number  of  city  parishes  (114)  was  out  of  all  pro 
portion  to  the  population,  great  comparatively  as 
that  must  have  been  ;  and,  since  churches  were 
built  ratlicr  as  chapels  where  m;vss  might  be  cele- 
brated than  for  any  other  purpose,  the  later 
Puritan  and  Protestant  idea,  that  they  should  be 
places  where  a  large  number  of  people  could  listen 
to  sermons,  had  no  intluence  on  their  dimensions. 
Although  there  was  no  abbey  in  the  city,  if  we 
except  St  Mary's  in  East  Smitlitield,  a  Cistercian 
house  founded  by  Edward  III.,  and  sometimes 
called  Eastminster,  which  never  tiourished,  the 
number  of  priories,  colleges,  and  hospitals  was 
immense.  The  AVhitefriars  had  a  large  Inmse  on 
the  south  side  of  Fleet  Street  in  the  western 
suburb.  The  Blackfriars  occupied  the  south- 
western corner  of  the  city,  and  had  leave  to 
divert  the  course  of  the  wall  between  Ludgate 
and  the  Thames.  The  Greyfriars  were  within 
Newgate,  on  the  site  noAv  occupied  by  Christ's 
Hospital.  Close  to  them  was  St  ^lartin-le-Grand, 
a  very  ancient  foundation  for  canons,  which,  in 
the  later  yeai-s  of  monasticism,  having  fallen  into 
decay,  was  attached  to  AVestniinster  Abbey. 
Close  to  the  FrancLscans  on  the  north,  but  with- 
out the  wall,  was  the  Austin  Canons'  house  in 
Smithtield.  Elsing  'Spital  was  within  Cripple 
gate.  The  Austin  Friai-s  had  great  buildings 
near  Moorgate,  and  St  Helen's  Priory,  for  nuns, 
occupied  tlie  eastern  side  of  Bishopsgate  Street. 
The  canous  of  the  Holy  Trinity  held  Aldgate, 
and  south  of  their  priory  was  that  of  the  Crutched 
Friars.  The  suburlis  teemed  equally  with  re- 
ligious houses,  and  there  were  several  minor 
foundations  within  the  city.  The  number  of  mass 
priests  attending  altars  in  St  Paul's  alone  was 
reckoned  at  over  one  hundred  ;  and  the  great  pesti- 
lence of  1348  iidded  largely  to  the  chantries  and 
chapels.  In  the  15th  century  this  state  of  things 
Ijccame  an  intolerable  burden,  ami  contem|iorary 
literature  is  full  of  complaints.  Unfortunately,  in 
abolishing  mon.asticism  the  beautiful  churches  of 
the  monks  and  friars  were  not  respected,  and 
although  one  or  two  were  named  as  worthy  of 
])reservation  as  preaching-houses,  all  ])erislied 
e.\ee]it  a  portion  of  Austin  l'riai"s  ami  the  nnns' 
aisle  of  St  Helen's.  The  Austin  Friars'  church, 
wholly  disgui.sed  under  a  niist.aken  idea  of  'restora- 
tion,' still  remains  ;is  a  Butch  church.  Even  St 
Paul's  was  mutilated  :  the  campanile  and  the 
cloisters  known  its  Pardon  Churchyard  were 
ruined  ;  and  after  the  destruction  of  the  lofty 
spire,  520  feet  high,  by  lire  in  l.'jtil,  the  whole 
cliurch  fell  into  a  very  dilapidated  condition. 

The  intluence  of  the  churph  t<dd  also  upon 
London  in  another  way.  The  addition  of  suburbs 
to  the  city  as  '  wards  without '  wiis  prevented  l>y 
the  ring  of  ecclesiastical  estates  which  grailually 
elo-sed  round  it.  On  the  east  was  Stepney,  a 
manor  lielonging  to  the  bishop.  The  mayor  and 
corporation  obtained  a  leiuse  of  the  manor  of  Fins 
bury  from  a  prebendary  of  St  Paul's  in  1.315,  and 
held  it  till  1807,  when  it  w,as  taken  up  by  the 
Ecclesia-stical  Commission.  To  the  westward  there 
were  several  preliendal  manors,  and  outside 
Temple  Bar  was  the  great  ])arisli  and  manor  of 
St  Margaret,  Westminster,  which  belonged  to  the 
abbey.  Southwark  was  annexed  to  the  city  in 
l.'i27,  and  w;is  made  .a  'ward  without'  in  1550. 
But  in  a<ldition  to  Porlpool  (nowCoay's  Inn),  St 
Pancras,  Hugmere  (now  St  Giles's),  and  Blooms- 
bury,  the   .Moor  (or  Mora),  at  Cripplegate,  Fslinp- 


ton,  Hoxton,  and  Eald  Street  (now  Old  Street), 
St  Luke's,  all  of  which  were  manors  belonging  to 
canons  of  St  Paul's,  the  Knights  of  St  John  had 
Clerkenwell ;  the  canons  of  St  Bartholomew, 
I  Canonbury  ;  the  abbey  of  Barking  had  Tyburn, 
!  or  the  eastern  half  of  the  parish  of  St  Marylebone  ; 
I  the  Knights  of  St  .lohn  had  the  western  half, 
or  Lylleston ;  the  alibey  of  Westminster  owned 
Paddington  and  Westbourne  ;  and  the  abbey  of 
Abingdcm,  Kensington.  Finally,  the  abbey  of 
Westminster  held  Chelsea  for  a  time.  It  will  l>e 
seen  that  every  extension  of  the  city  jurisdiction 
was  effected  with  great  ditiicult\',  and  the  ft'ects  of 
the  division  of  the  monastic  estates  by  the  Tudor 
dynasty  did  not  greatly  benefit  the  city,  which  in 
fact  only  ol)tainecl  St  Bartholomew's  Hospital  and 
the  Grey  Friar's  from  Henry  Vlll.,  and  Bridewell 
from  Edward  VI. 

The  accession  of  Queen  Elizabeth  "ave  a  con- 
siderable impetus  to  London  trade.  Her  reforma- 
tion of  the  coinage  was  only  one  item  of  a  settled 
policy  :  and  the  Merchant  Adventurers,  chartered 
iiy  her  father,  now  stepped  into  the  place  previ- 
ously occupied  by  the  Germans  of  the  Steelyard, 
which  was  abolished  at  the  instance  of  the  famous 
Gresham.  The  last  charter  of  Queen  Elizabeth 
was  granted  to  the  East  India  Company.  The 
silk  manufacture,  driven  out  of  Flanders  by  the 
cnielties  of  the  Spaniards,  was  naturalised  in 
England  ;  and  even  the  short-sighte<l  policy  of 
the  first  Stuart  could  not  rejire.ss  the  lajadly- 
growing  enterprise  of  the  Londoners,  whom  the 
discovery  of  America  and  of  a  sea-passage  to 
India  stimulated  to  greater  and  greater  exertions. 

While  the  wealth  and  population  of  London 
thus  increased  during  the  Kith  and  part  of  the 
17th  century,  the  city  itself  became  less  and  less 
fit  for  habitation.  Its  unhealtliiness  was  partly 
caused  by  the  ileficiency  of  the  water-supply, 
partly  by  overcrowding.  The  plague  .scarcely  ever 
left  its  narrow  streets  and  filthy  alleys.  Th- 
sanitary  arrangements  of  the  time  of  Edward  1. 
were  scarcely  suited  to  the  needs  of  the  time  of 
James  and  Charles.  But,  known  only  to  a  few 
Londoners,  Sir  Hugh  Myddelton.  by  bringing 
clean  water  to  the  city  in  aliun<lant  i|uantity. 
bestowed  upon  it  the  greatest  possible  boon.  This 
was  in  16'20  ;  but  some  forty  or  fifty  veal's  ela|>se<l 
before  the  New  River  was  made  generally  avail- 
able. In  the  meantime  the  citizens  were  over- 
whelmed with  one  great  misfortune  after  another. 
James  I.  ha<l  reverted  as  far  as  he  c<ml(l  to  the 
mistaken  policy  of  such  kings  as  Henry  III.  and 
Kichard  II.  ;  but  it  was  reserved  for  Charles  I., 
after  a  long  series  of  highhanded  ])roceediiigs,  t<) 
seize  the  money  of  the  city  goldsmiths  ilcposited 
in  the  Tower.  His  downfall  was  certain  when  the 
city  turned  against  him  :  but.  excejit  for  a  very 
brief  period,  the  Commonwealth  found  litlle  favour 
in  London,  and  Cromwell  imposed  one  humiliatiiui 
after  another  upon  the  citizens.  Charles  11.  was 
warmly  welcomed,  and  it  was  mainly  owing  to  the 
co-()i>eiation  of  the  wealthy  nierchants  with  M<uik 
that  his  return  was  jwssible.  But  Charles  followed 
in  the  footsteps  of  his  father.  Extortion  and  op- 
]>ression  were  the  instruments  of  his  policy,  ami  in 
lt>72  he  closed  the  Exche(|uer,  and  ruineil  nearly 
all  the  London  bankers  at  a  blow.  He  never 
afterwards  was  able  to  win  the  confidence  of  the 
citizens,  on  whom  two  other  di.saslei-s  of  even 
greater  vehemence  had  already  come — the  Great 
Pl.ague  of  1665  and  the  (!ieat  Fire  of  1606. 

There  had  been  many  ]uevious  visitations  of  the 
plague,  and  to  that  of  16'25,  long  known  as  the 
(ireat  Phigiie,  .35.000  deaths  were  attributed.  But 
the  ciudeniic  of  1665  threw  all  others  into  the 
shade.  It  commenced  at  St  Giles's,  in  the  suburbs, 
and  the  official  statements  enumerated  the  deaths 


700 


LONDON 


during  the  year  at  97,306.  As  the  population  was 
reckoned  at  about  r)()0,000,  it  will  be  seen  that 
nearly  a  fifth  perished. 

There  had  also  been  many  great  fires,  but  tliat 
of  16()6  exceeded  them  all.  "  It  commenced  on  tlie 
2(1  September,  at  1  o'clock  A.M.,  in  Pudding  Lane, 
and  raged  for  live  days.  It  was  estimated  that  396 
acres  of  houses  were  destroyed,  fifteen  city  wards 
were  coiisumcil  utterly,  and' eight  others  damaged, 
comprising  400  streets,  13,200  private  houses,  88 
churches  and  St  Paul's  Cathedral,  and  4  city 
gates.  The  loss  in  mere  money  was  estimated 
at  about  4  million.  It  took  London  many  years 
to  recover  from  this  terrible  misfortune.  Sir 
Christopher  Wren  built  a  new  St  Paul's,  and 
also  gave  us  St  Stephen's,  Wallbrook  (until 
1.SS8,  when  it  was  in  great  part  ruined  by  the 
])arocliial  authorities),  the  chief  monument  of  his 
powers  after  the  cathedral,  the  spire  of  St  Mary- 
leBow  in  Cheapside,  and  many  other  beautiful 
buildings,  including  the  Monument,  -set  up  near 
where  the  fire  began.  This  is  a  Tuscan  Doric 
tinted  column  202  feet  high.  St  Pauls  has  a  dome 
404  feet  high  and  145  feet  in  external  diameter ; 
the  length  of  the  building  east  and  west  is  500  feet. 
Street,  commenting  on  tlie  superiority  of  St  Paul's 
to  St  Peter's  as  an  architectural  composition,  say.s  : 
'The  great  magnitude  of  the  latter  may  strike  the 
vulgar  eye  with  admiration  in  the  contrast ;  but 
the  rudest  taste  must  appreciate  the  surpassing 
merit  of  the  former  in  the  form  and  arrangement 
of  the  cui)ola  and  the  noble  peristyle'  (see  Wrkn  ). 
It  contains  many  memorials,  the  best  of  which  are 
Wellington's,  in'tlie  Consistorial  Court,  on  the  south 
side  of  the  nave,  by  Stevens  ;  Lord  Melbourne's, 
by  Marochetti ;  and  a  recumbent  figure  of  (leneral 
(iordon,  by  Hoehm.  In  the  crypt  are  buried  Lord 
Nelson  (1805),  Reynolds  (1792),  Turner  (1851), 
Wellington  (1852),  Land-seer  (1873),  and  Wren 
him.self  ( 1723).  The  Exchange  (q.v.)of  Sir  Thomas 
Gresham  was  burned,  rebuilt,  and  tlien  biirned 
again,  and  fin.ally  relniilt  in  1844  by  Sir  William 
Tite.  The  (iuildhall,  partly  of  the  13th  century, 
partly  of  the  15th,  which  had  been  the  scene  of  so 
many  historical  events,  was  damaged  in  1666,  but 
not  destroyed,  and  was  handsomely  restored  first  by 
Jarman,  an  eminent  contemporary  of  Wren,  and 
more  recently  by  Sir  Horace  Jones.  Among  the 
churches  s])ared  by  the  fire  is  St  Bartliolomew's, 
in  part,  a  fine  Norman  structure;  St  Giles's,  Cripple- 
gate,  built  1545,  in  which  .John  Milton  (born  in 
IJread  Street,  1608)  was  buried,  1674;  St  Helen's, 
Hishopsgate,  full  of  fine  monuments  ;  St  Katharine 
C'ree,  said  to  have  been  designed  by  Inigo  Jones, 
1631  ;  and  St  Andrew  Undershaft,  in  which  is 
Stow's  monument. 

During  the  rest  of  the  reign  of  Charles  II,  and 
tlie  whole  of  that  of  his  successor,  the  city  and  the 
ccnirt  were  more  or  less  at  variance;  and  in  16S3 
Charles  took  London,  to  use  the  old  ])liras(',  into 
his  own  hands.  The  Lord  Mayor  was  deposed,  the 
charter  was  seized,  and  both  aldermen,  and  also 
a  so-called  Lord  Mayor,  in  reality  a  warden,  were 
appointed  by  the  king.  At  first  James  II.  carried 
r)n  his  brother's  ijolicy  towards  the  city.  .At  the 
news  of  the  landing  of  the  Prince  of  Urange  the 
charter  was  sent  hack,  but  the  concession  came 
Loo  late,  and  the  judicial  murder  of  Alderman 
Cornish  was  too  fresh  in  the  minds  of  the  citizen.s. 
In  December  1688  they  formally  petitioned  William 
to  assume  the  crown,  and  in  a  few  hours  found 
ample  funds  for  his  use.  Subserpient  events  were 
largely  inlluenced  by  the  city,  and  it  has  often 
been  observed  that  the  opposition  of  London,  in 
old  times  fatal  to  a  king  or  his  family,  has  of  late 
(•(jujilly  all'erted  the  fortunes  of  a  ministry.  King 
(leorge  III.  was  galled  by  the  .su]nemacy  of  the 
citizens  as  Henry  III.   had  been  before  him  ;  but 


he  made  no  way  against  them.  The  last  events 
that  need  be  noticed  here  are  the  establishment 
of  the  Bank  of  England  in  1694  ;  the  removal  of 
the  old  wall  and  its  gates  in  1760;  the  clearing 
of  the  houses  from  London  Bridge  about  the  same 
time,  and  its  complete  rebuilding  in  1831,  when 
it  was  only  one  of  a  large  number  of  bridges.  A 
great  number  have  been  built  since  then  ;  the 
latest  addition,  a  bridge  below  the  Tower,  is  an 
engineering  work  of  great  importance,  which  will 
add  greatly  to  the  picturesque  jispect  of  the  east 
of  London."    See  Bridge,  Vol.  II.  p.  446. 

The  population  of  the  city  has  dwimlled  year  by 
year,  and  especially  since  the  multiplication  of 
railways.  Few  tradesmen  now  live  in  their  place 
of  liusiness,  and  the  dill'erence  between  the  number 
of  people  who  actually  reside  within  the  ancient 
boundaries  and  of  those  who  only  come  in  to 
business  is  immense.  In  1881  there  were  6493 
inhabited  houses  and  a  jiopulation  of  50,526  ;  but 
25,143  houses  were  used  during  the  day,  when  the 
population  rose  to  261,061.  Tlie  ratealde  value  of 
property  was,  in  1887,  no  less  than  £3,7(i7,000.  Mean- 
while the  suburbs  have  si)read  in  all  ilirections, 
and  the  houses  of  Londoners  are  found  in  Berkshire, 
Buckinghamshire,  Hertfordshire,  and  Sussex,  as 
well  as  in  Kent,  Surrey,  Essex,  and  Middlesex. 

The  city  has  its  own  police  force,  in  six  di\isions, 
with  seven  stations  and  two  courts — one  at  the 
Mansion  House,  the  official  residence  of  the  Lord 
Mayor,  and  one  at  the  Guildhall.  Several  railway 
stations  have  been  made  within  the  precincts  of 
the  city,  as  the  Temple,  RIackfiiars,  the  Mansion 
House,  the  Monument,  and  Mincing  Lane  on  the 
Metropolitan  Railway,  with  ('annou  Street  Termi- 
nus, which  stands  exactly  on  the  site  usually 
claimed  for  the  Roman  jiretorium.  Thi;  diocese 
of  London  has  varied  very  frequently  in  extent, 
having  at  one  time  comprised  Middlesex,  Essex, 
and  Hertfordshire,  besides  the  city.  It  now  con- 
sists of  the  city  Avith  Middlesex,  and  that  part  of 
the  new  county  of  London  which  was  formerly 
reckoned  in  Jliddlesex.  The  bishop  resides  in 
Westminster,  and  at  an  ancient  manor  house  of 
the  see  at  Fulliam.  There  is  a  dean  of  St  Paul's 
who  resides  close  to  his  church,  on  the  site  of  the 
old  brewhouse  of  the  chapter.  He  is  assisted  by 
four  residentiarj'  or  stagiary  canons,  and  by  a 
precentor,  a  chancellor,  and  two  an-hdeacons,  and 
there  are  thirty  canons  of  the  old  foundation,  now 
usually  called  prebendaries,  an<l  a  college,  incor- 
por.ated  by  Richard  II.,  of  minor  canons. 

Lonilon  formerly  returned  as  many  as  six  mem- 
bers to  parliament,  of  whom  two  were  supposed 
to  be  on  duty  at  a  time.  From  about  l.'i57  the 
number  was  usually  four.  Under  the  Reform  Act 
of  1885  it  Wius  reduced  to  two. 

Like  other  ancient  towns  the  city  of  London  had 
its  own  customs,  some  of  which  still  have  the  force 
of  law.  Thus,  by  the  custoin  <if  London,  everj' 
shop  is  deemed  an  '  open  market '  for  the  goods 
usually  sold  there.  There  were  also  special  rules 
.IS  to  the  pnisecution  of  certain  cl.-isses  of  oll'enders, 
i.*i:c.  The  London  custom  which  governed  the  suc- 
cession to  personal  proiierty  was  taken  .'iway  in 
1 856.  There  is  a  customary  right  of  foreign 
Attachment  (q.v.). 

TllK  CdUNTY  OF  LdMidN.  I'lider  the  Local 
Government  Act  of  1888  a  new  county  w.is  defined, 
to  consist  of  the  suburban  parishes  of  Middlesex, 
Surrey,  and  Kent^  These  parishes,  or  a  great 
])art  of  them,  h;id  ]ircviously  been  described  in 
certain  .acts  as  'the  Metropolitan  Area,'  a  term 
(|uite  inapiiro])riate.  By  the  .Act  of  I88S  a  county 
council  was  provided  f<ir  Ibis  ilistricl,  and  the  juris- 
dictions formerly  existing  of  the  city  of  London,  and 
the  authorities  of  the  tliree  counties  were  aliolislie<l. 
Before  describing   the   new  county   we   may  point 


LONDON 


701 


out  that  uinler  this  act  the  county  of  Middlesex 
(([.v.)  was  removed  from  the  sheritisliip  of  the 
citizens,  and  divided,  one  part  forniiiit;  a  new 
county  of  Middlesex,  and  the  otiier,  united 
with  parts  of  Surrey  and  Kent,  forming  the 
new  county  of  London.  The  work  of  the  County 
Council  has  been  multifarious  and  far-reachiii<;, 
and  has  evoked  a  correspondiii<;  amount  of  criti- 
cism. By  the  London  Governmeul  Act  of  1899 
the  administrative  county  of  Loudon,  with  the 
exception  of  the  City,  which  had  licretofore  been 
under  the  authority  of  more  tlian  a  hundred  and 
twenty  local  authorities  (vestries,  district  boards. 


burial  hoards,  &c.),  was  reorganised  into  twenty- 
eight  municipal  lioroughs,  each  under  a  municipal 
council.  These  boroughs  are  :  Battersea,  Hermond- 
sey,  Bethualljreen,  Caniberwell, Chelsea,  Deplford, 
Fiusbury,  Fulliam,  Greenwich,  Hackney,  Hammer- 
smith, Hampstead,  Holborn,  Islington,  Kensing 
ton,  Lambeth,  Lewisliam,  Haddington,  l*o|dar.  Si 
Maryleljone,  St  Pancras,  Shorcditcli,  Soulhwark 
Stepney,  Stoke Newington,  Wandsworth,  Weslmin 
stcr,  Woolwich.  The  councils  have  all  the  powei 
and  duties  of  the  old  vestries  and  district  boards 
and  some  of  those  of  the  Londou  County  Council. 
The  suburbs  form  a  ring  round  the  city,  and  the 


ell'orta  of  the  medieval  rulers  were  directed — first, 
to  restricting  as  much  as  possible  their  growth ; 
and  secondly,  to  bringing  them,  when  they  were 
settled,  under  the  control  of  the  city.  In  this  policy 
the  Londoners  were  unsuccessful.  The  suburbs 
grew  in  spite  of  city  and  parliament ;  ami  by  1222 
a  continuous  street  united  Westminster  with  Lon- 
dou ;  another  stretched  beyonil  the  T<iwcr  to 
Slepnev  ;  and  a  third,  (lowing  out  of  ISishopsgate, 
reached  northward  to  Islington.  In  the  same  LHIi 
century  the  city  made  its  linal  attempt  to  keep  the 
suburbs  under  control.  A  great  'ward  without  was 
formed  westward,  extending  to  the  Tem|pl(e  and 
lioll)orn  Bars;  and,  on  the  north,  iiart  of  Moor- 
tields  was  ni;ule  a  '  wanl  without '  in  the  jurisdiclio;i 
of  the  alderman  of  Bishopsgate.  But,  except  for 
the  formal  addition  of  Southwark  in  Surrey,  made 


in  1327,  eonlirmed  and  delined  in  1550,  no  further 
extension  of  the  city  liberties  took  place.  The 
estates  of  the  churcli  stopped  the  way.  London 
was  surrounded  by  manors,  of  which  ecclesiastical 
dignitaries  and  monastic  bodies  were  the  lords. 
Foremost  among  these  were  the  canons  of  St  I'aul's 
and  the  Bishop  of  London.  Stepney,  an  immense 
parish  to  the  eastward,  belonged  to  the  bishop,  all, 
that  is,  except  such  parts  of  the  precinct  of  the 
Tower  as  were  taken  out  of  it.  On  the  west  the 
Abbot  of  Westminster  had  the  parish  of  St  Mar- 
garet, which  at  liret  came  up  to  the  Fleet,  at  what 
we  know  as  Ludgate  Circus,  and  was  with  (liffi- 
culty  ]ire.ssed  biu-k  beyond  Temple  liar.  The  abbol 
ccmtinued  to  hold  the  cliurchcs  iu  the  new  ward, 
and  the  dean  and  chapter  still  present  to  St 
Bride's,   Fleet  Street.     On  the  north,  the  canons 


702 


LONDON 


of  St  Paul's  held  Cantlei's,  now  Kentish  Town, 
Eal<l  Street,  Hoxton,  Islington,  and  St  Pancnus, 
while  Mora  and  'VVenlocksharn  were  parts  of  the 
)>arisli  of  St  (Jiles,  Cripplesate.  (Hher  canons, 
monks,  and  friars,  and  the  Knights  of  St  John  and 
of  the  Temple  had  holdings  in  Smitliliidd  and 
Canonhiiry,  at  Clerkenwell  and  in  St  Johns  Wood, 
and  in  the  Temple.  All  these  church  estates  were 
in  hands  which  hitterly  resented  any  interference 
on  the  part  of  the  city  ;  and  when  the  monastic 
orders  were  aholished,  their  estates  were  for  the 
most  part  granted  to  individuals  at  least  as 
tenacious  of  their  independence.  The  canons  of 
St  Paul's  had  already  for  the  most  part  ceased, 
owing  to  the  prevalence  of  a  corrupt  system  of 
le;using,  to  own  except  in  name  the  manors  of  which 
they  had  heen  the  lords.  In  the  more  distant 
parishes  sinular  influences  were  at  work,  and 
except  in  Westminster,  where  the  abbot  and  his 
successor,  the  dean,  held  the  reins  of  local  govern- 
ment, the  parishes  of  the  so-called  Jletropolitan 
Area  were  governed  by  elected  vestries  and  other 
such  institutions,  and  tlie  lands  were  divided  and 
parcelled  out  in  freeholds,  some  large  and  a  few 
small,  .among  ownere  who  had  little  general  control 
or  influence. 

The  precinct  of  the  Tower,  eastward  of  the  city 
wall,   was   formed   partly  by  aggressions  on  the 


'I'hi--  'lower  of  LoBilon  from  the  River. 

citizens,  partly  by  acquisitions  from  the  loid  of 
Sti'imcy,  an<I  ]>artly  by  reclamations  from  the 
'rh:niies.  Two  bastions  of  the  olil  wall,  generally 
called  Itoman,  and  certainly  dating  back  to  the 
reiga  of  Alfred  (see  above,  p.  696),  were  removed, 
and  the  White  and  Wakefield  towers  were  built 
on  them.  They  were  fenced  round  by  a  palisade 
at  first,  hut  by  the  end  of  the  12th  century  the 
piecincts  comprise<l  26  acres,  about  12  being  covcreil 
with  buildings.  lhin<lulf,  a  monk  of  lice,  designed 
the  White  Tower,  begun  in  1078.  Tlie  works  went 
on  steadily,  the  chapel  of  St  John  in  the  White 
Tower  being  supplemented  by  the  parish  or  pre- 
cinct church  of  St  Peter  '  ad  Vincula '  on  the 
(Jreen  in  the  reign  of  Henry  II.  The  keep  is 
!il)proximately  in  the  centre,  and  is  snrroiinded 
by  walls  and  towers  formiug  the  inner  an<l  outer 
wards.  The  towers  of  the  inner  ward  were  those 
chiefly  used  for  prisoners'  lodgings,  but  a  cont- 
plete  royal  palace  was  in  the  soutli-ea.stern  corner. 
Of  this  palace,  from  which  Queen  Anne  Boleyn 
went  to  her  death  on  the  adjoining  green,  scarcely 
a  vestige  remains.  The  lieutenant's  lodgings, 
where,  or  in  the  chief- warder's  hou.se  next  door, 


Lady  .lane  (Grey)  Dudley  lived,  is  in  good  pre- 
serv.-ition,  but  is  now,  for  some  unknown  reason, 
called  the  Queen's  House.  The  ISeaucbamp  and 
Devereux  towers  seem  to  have  held  the  most  illus- 
trious prisoners ;  they,  with  the  Hell  Tower,  in 
whicli  Fisher,  liisho))  of  Kochester  (1534),  and 
Mary,  Countess  of  Lennox  (156.5),  were  conlined, 
form  the  western  side  of  tlie  inner  ward,  being 
united  by  a  curtain  wall,  on  wiiicli  the  ]>risonei-s 
walked.  Unfortunately,  the  inscriptions  from 
many  dirt'erent  chambers  have  been  brought  to- 
gether in  the  princip.al  room  of  tlie  lieauchamp 
Tower,  by  which  their  histiuical  significance  has 
been  in  some  cases  wholly  lost.  Here  we  see, 
among  others,  memorials  of  the  incarceration  of 
the  six  sons  of  John  Dudley,  Duke  of  Northumber- 
land (beheaded  1,553).  Of  them,  John,  the  eldest, 
was  released  and  died ;  Ambrose,  the  second, 
became  Earl  of  Warwick,  and  lived  till  1599; 
Guildford,  the  third,  w.as  liclieaded  on  the  same 
day  as  his  wife,  12th  February  15.54  ;  Robert,  the 
fourth,  is  best  known  a-s  Queen  Elizabeth's  Earl 
of  Leice.ster,  and  died  in  1588;  and  Henry,  the 
youngest,  was  killed  in  the  French  wars  in  1558. 
Other  illustrious  prisoners  were  Edw.ird,  Earl  of 
■\Varwick,  called  the  last  of  the  I'lantagenets, 
beheiided  1499,  and  his  sister  Margaret,  Countess  of 
Salisbury,  beheaded  1541 ;  Edward  Seymour,  Duke 
of  Somerset,  beheaded  1552 ;  Sir 
Thonuvs  More,  1535;  Thomas  Crom- 
well, Earl  of  Essex,  1540;  Queen 
Catharine  Howard,  1.541  ;  Henry 
Howard,  Earl  of  Surrey,  1547: 
Henry  Grey,  Duke  of  Sutl'olk,  1.5.'J4  : 
.Sir  "\Valter  Raleigh,  beheaded  at 
Westminster  in  1618;  Thomas 
Wentworth,  Earl  of  Strallbrd, 
1641  :  William  Laud,  Archbishop 
of  Canterbury,  1645;  James  Scott, 
Duke  of  Monmouth  and  Buecleuch, 
16.85 :  James  Radclill'e,  Earl  of 
Derwentwater.  1716  ;  and  the  Scots 
birds  implicated  in  the  risings  of 
1715  and  1745 — Kenmure.  1716; 
ilmarnock  and  Balmerino.  1746; 
id  Lovat,  1747.  Many  of  these 
i-ioners  were  buried  in  St  Peter's 
lunch,  which  having  been  burned 
1  1512  was  rebuilt  in  time  to 
reive  the  bodies  of  t^ueen  Anne 
oleyn  and  other  victims  of  the 
Tudor  times.  It  wius  '  restored ' 
some  years  ago  in  a  very  thorough 
manner,  every  vestige,  except  some 
monuments,  of  the  period  which  witnessed  these  sad 
scenes  being  carefully  obliterated.  The  crown  jewels 
were  long  kept  in  the  Brick  Tower,  at  the  north- 
eastern corner,  but  in  1867  were  removed  to  a 
chamber  in  the  Wakefield  Tower.  This  chamber, 
in  which  they  are  now  exhibited,  b.as  shareil  the 
fate  of  the  chapel,  every  vestige  of  its  occupation 
by  Henry  VI.,  probably  at  the  very  time  of  his 
death,  having  been  carefully  ■  rest<ned  '  aw;iy.  The 
great  collection  of  armour,  founded  by  Henry  \'II1. 
in  his  palace  at  Greenwich,  is  on  the  upper  tloor  of 
the  White  Tower.  Two  or  three  pieces  date  from 
before  the  time  of  the  Tudors.  'Ihe  ticket -olfice, 
by  which  the  visitor  enters  the  fortress,  is  on  the 
site  of  a  men.agcrie  which  ilates  back  to  the  time 
of  Henry  I.,  whence  the  saying  'to  seethe  lions,' 
meaning  to  visit  the  Tower.  The  piincipal  feature 
of  the  outer  ward  is  St  Thom.as's  Tower,  or  the 
Traitor's  (Jate,  facing  the  Bloody  or  Ganlen  Tower, 
the  entrance  of  the  inner  ward.  The  view  of  the 
Tower  from  the  westward  is  miicli  interfered  with 
l«r'  the  m^w  bridge,  hnt,  exceiit  for  some 
h.arraeks  and  the  demolition  of  tin;  palace,  has  .' 
very  much  the  .aspect  it  bore  in  the  17th  century. 


K  still 


LONDON 


703 


The  new  briJge  just  mentioned  starts  from  the 
iMiundary  between  tlie  jirecincls  of  the  Tower  ami 
that  of  St  Katharines  Hosiiital.  an  institution 
founded  hy  Matilda,  the  i|ue('n  of  Ste|dien,  and 
refounded  in  V2''.i  by  Eleanor,  ipieen  of  Henry  III. 
It  still  subsists,  liavinfi  been  spared  at  the  Kefornia- 
tion,  but  was  removed  in  1827  to  the  Regent's 
Park,  and  St  Katharine's  Dock  made  on  the  old 
site.  A  little  farther  east,  still  on  the  Thames 
bank,  we  come  to  one  of  the  numerous  divisions, 
known  a.s  the  Tower  Handets,  into  which  the 
original  parish  of  Stepney  ha.s  been  parcelled.  This 
used  to  be  Ratolift'e  and  Wapping,  but  has  long 
been  known  a.s  St  George's  in  the  East.  Next  to 
it  is  Limehouse.  .a  name  whose  original  fomi,  Lime- 
hurst,  surticiently  denotes  the  old  character  of  the 
region.  Next  to  Limehouse  is  Poplar,  which 
includes  the  Isle  of  Dogs,  ;i  kind  of  delta  formed 
by  the  river  Lea.  which  derives  its  name  from  its 
docks.  Farther  inland  are  Bethnal  Green,  a  vast 
district,  chiefly  covered  with  factories  and  with 
the  houses  of  the  lower  cl;uss  of  artisans  and 
lalwiurers.  Mile  End,  Old  and  New  Towns,  whose 
names  show  their  situation  on  the  great  eastern 
road  made  through  Aldgate  (see  above)  in  the 
l'2th  century,  which  led  to  an  arched  bridge, 
locally  known  as  the  Bow,  where  there  had 
previouslj'  been  only  the  dangerous  Stratford  over 
the  Lea.  These  parishes,  with  Whitechapel  north 
of  the  Tower,  form  a  complete  ring  ronnd  Stepney, 
where  an  ancient  church,  dedicated  to  St  Dunstan, 
still  stands  among  surroundings  very  different 
from  those  which  marked  the  district  when  the 
bishojis  of  London  had  .a  |ialace  here,  with  wide 
parks,  and  the  noble  hunting-gnmnds  of  Hackney 
and  Homsey  on  the  hills  beyond  ;  when  Edward  1. 
held  a  parliament  in  1299  at  the  house,  near  the 
church,  of  the  mayor,  Henry  le  Waleys  ;  when  the 
good  Dean  Colet  had  a  country  house  here,  where 
he  wa-s  visited  by  More  and  Era.'^mus  ;  and  when 
Bishop  Ridley,  the  martyr,  surrendered  the  manor 
to  Lord  Wentworth,  the  same  whose  loss  of  Calais 
is  said  to  have  been  the  proximate  cause  of  the 
death  of  Queen  Mary  I.  Since  Wentworths  death 
the  estate  has  been  divided  among  many  owners, 
and  there  are  few  traces  of  antiquity  anywhere. 
The  Bethnal  Green  Museum  of  the  Science  and  Art 
De])artment  is  in  a  style  not  likely  to  improve  the 
architectural  ta.ste  of  the  neighViourhood,  but  has 
housed  and  exhibited  various  line  collections  of 
pictures  and  works  of  art.  Much  of  Hackney, 
which  adjoins  Stepney  on  the  north,  has  been 
kept  open  ;  an  old  park  of  the  bishops  being  now 
laid  out  as  Finsbury  Park,  and  the  commons  and 
fields  eastward  to  the  Lea  having  been  rescued 
from  the  builder.  South  of  this  ilistrict,  which 
stands  high,  are  Haggerston  and  Hoxton,  densely 
populated  parishes,  comprising  the  ancient  Shore- 
ditch,  and  reaching  to  the  city  wall.  Westward 
are  the  two  divisions  of  Finsbury,  St  Luke's  and 
Clerkenwell.  In  St  Luke's  wiis  the  '  .Vrtillery 
Ground,'  or  place  of  exercise  for  volunteer  bowmen, 
from  which  the  modern  .\rtillery  Comp.my  took  its 
rise.  In  Clerkenwell,  liut  not  strictly  speaking  of 
it,  is  the  Carthusian  monastery,  now  :i  kind  of 
refuge  for  decayed  gentlemen',  known  as  the 
Charterhouse.  here  wa-s  formerly  a  schoid,  in 
which  John  Leech  was  eilucated  as  well  sus 
Th.ackeray,  who  de.scribe.s  the  place  under  the 
name  of  the  Slaughterhouse.  In  the  Lilierty  of 
Saffron  Hill  Wiis  a  palace  of  the  bislio|is  of  Kly, 
and  their  chapel,  a.  beautiful  building  sold  to 
the  Roman  Catholics  in  1H74,  still  exists  in  Ely 
Place.  Clerkenwell,  the  site  of  the  lion.se  of  the 
Hospitallers,  has  still  its  St  .loiin's  Ciate,  with 
memories  of  Di'  ,Jolinson.  Northward  and  west- 
ward, we  come  to  a  group  of  old  prebendal 
manors.      Islington    has    a  very   ancient    history 


extending  back  to  the  time  of  the  Conquest ;  Stoke 
Newington  with  a  curious  ol<l  church  ami  a  new 
one  :  St  Andrews,  Holborn.  in  whicli  Lord  Beacons- 
field  was  liaptiseil,  and  in  the  cenietery  of  which, 
in  Shoe  Lane,  Chatterton  was  buried  in  1770; 
Portpo<d,  the  original  name  of  the  grouml  now 
covered  by  Gray's  Inn,  whose  great  ornament 
w.a.s  Lord  Bacon  ;  and  Rugmere,  now  known  as 
St  (iiles's  and  Bloomsbury.  The  last  named  dis- 
trict, in  which  the  British  Museum  is  situated, 
was  brought  l)y  the  good  Lady  Uiichel  Wriothesley 
to  her  second  husband,  William,  Lord  Russell 
(beheaded  in  Lincoln's  Inn  Fields  in  1083),  and 
still  Ijelongs  to  her  descendants,  the  dukes  of 
Bedford.  The  celebrities  of  Bloomsbury  have  been 
too  numerous  to  mention  :  but  we  cannot  forget 
HichanI  Baxter,  who  lived  in  Southampton,  now 
Bloomsbury  Square:  Charles  Dickens,  who  lived 
long  in  Gower  Street  and  in  Tavistock  Square ; 
and  Charles  Lamb,  who  lived  in  Little  Queen 
Street. 

In  St  George  the  Martyr,  a  small  parish  taken 
out  of  Holborn,  is  Queen  Square,  called  after 
t^ueen  Anne.  Macaulay  lived  at  50  Great  Ormond 
Street  while  he  was  a  boy.  St  Giles's,  long  a 
rookery  of  wretched  tenements,  has  been  greatly 
dean.sed  and  improved  of  late,  but  the  too  famous 

i  Seven  Dials  continue  to  deserve  an  evil  reputation. 

I  Some  of  the  streets  and  squares  of  the  district  were 
places  of  repute  two  centuries  ago.  Nell  Gwynn 
lived  in  Wardour  Street,  the  Duke  of  Monmouth 
in  Soho  Si|uare,  Dryden  in  Long  Acre  and  in 
(Jerard  Street.  The  small  parisli  of  St  Paul, 
Covent  tiarden,  boasts  of  a  church  designed  by 
Inigo  Jones,  of  the  greatest  vegetable  and  flower 
market  in  London,  and  of  innumerable  literary 
associations.  In  Bow  Street  w.is  Willss  Coflee- 
liouse,  where  Pei)ys  met  Dryden ;  Turner,  the 
lanilscape-painter,  was  born  in  Maiden  Lane ; 
Charles  Lamb  lived  in  Russell  Court  :  and  Pope, 
Sheridan,  Butler,  and  Prior  are  among  the  names 
we  meet  with  in  the  history  of  the  locality. 

We  now  reach  the  Strand.  Beginning  at  its 
eastern  end,  next  to  Temple  Bar,  we  have  the 
colossal  buildings  of  the  New  Law  Courts  ( 1874- 
82),  of  which  George  E.  Street  was  the  original 
designer  ;  but  so  thwarted  by  meddling  authorities, 
that  only  the  best  features,  such  as  the  noble  hall 
(2.S8  feet  long)  and  the  tower,  can  lie  considered 
his.  North  of  the  courts  is  Linccdn's  Inn  Fields, 
the  largest  square  in  London.  Here  is  situated 
the  College  of  Surgeons,  with  its  museum,  and  the 
museum  of  Sir  John  Soane.  Clo.se  to  the  Law 
Courts  is  the  church  of  St  Clement  Danes,  by 
Wren,  in  winch  a  brass  tablet  marks  the  .seat 
habitually  occujued  by  Dr  Johnson.  On  the  south 
side  .are  Arundel  and  Norfolk  streets  on  the  old 
site  of  Arundel  House.  Essex  Street  i-ommemo- 
rates  the  residence  of  Queen  Klizaheth's  unfortu- 
n.ate  favimrite  in  the  Outer  Temple.  A  brook 
ran  through  Milford  Lane,  and  in  Strand  Lane  is 
a  bath  of  Roman  origin.  Next,  to  the  westw.ard, 
we  come  to  the  charming  littl(>  church  of  St  Mary, 
by  (Jibhs,  .'Uid  to  Somerset  House,  now  full  of 
government  offices,  built  by  Ghambei-s  (178G), 
after  a  design  of  Inigo  Jones.  Here  Anne,  ijueen 
of  James  I.,  resided.  The  name  is  derived  fnnn 
the  Duke  of  Somerset  (beheaded  IS.'iS),  who  built  a 
hou.se  here.  The  streets  on  the  north  side  comnete 
with  Fleet  Street  as  the  headquarters  of  periodical 
literature.  Before  we  reach  Waterloo  Bridge  (see 
BltltJCK)  we  are  in  the  precinct  of  the  Savoy,  con- 
tenninons  with  a  manor  grante<l  by  Henry  III.  to 
Peter  of  S.avoy,  uncle  of  Queen  Eleanor.  Here 
John  of  (iaunt  resiiled  till  the  palace  wils  burned 
by  the  rioters  of  I.'j81.  Chaucer,  who  married  a 
sister  of  the  iluke's  third  wife,  Wiis  much  here.  It 
afterwards  became  a  hospital,  of  which  the  chapel, 


704 


LONDON 


dedicated  to  St  John  the  Baptist,  only  reinaiiis. 
In  it  (iaviii  Dou-^las,  Bisliop  of  Dunkeld  (died 
lo'22),  lies  liuried.  Fuller  otticiated  here  dnrinjjthe 
rei^'ii  of  Charles  I.  The  lios|iital  was  suppressed 
in  170;j,  and  the  chapel  made  '  royal '  in  I'TS. 

The  Thames  Emhankment  (lSG-l-70)  horders 
the  Strand  from  the  city  round  a  ^reat  bend  of  the 
Thames  at  Charing'  Cross  to  Westminster.  When 
we  pass  the  city  lioundary  near  the  Temple,  we  are 
abreast  of  the  liuilding  of  the  London  School  Hoard, 
by  Mr  Norman  Shaw,  K.A.,  next  to  which,  with  a 
short  interval,  is  the  river-front  of  Somerset  House, 
by  Chambers,  one  of  the  best  elevations  in  London. 
Gardens  beautifully  laid  out  conduct  us  past  the 
Savoy,  the  Adelphi  Terrace,  an  Egyptian  obelisk 
bearing  the  names  of  Thothmes  IIL  ( 18th  dynasty) 
and  Rameses  II.  (19th  dynasty),  and  the  old  gate- 
way which  marks  the  site  of  Buckingham  or  York 
House,  where  Bacon  was  born  in  1561.  Charing 
Cross  station  occupies  the  site  of  Hungerford 
Market.  The  cross  in  the  court  toward  the  Strand 
is  believed  to  be  a  copy  of  the  Eleanor  Cross 
erected  by  Edward  I.  The  statue  of  Charles  I. 
stands  on  its  exact  site.  Northumberland  Avenue 
was  made  in  1874  over  the  site  of  the  last  of  the 
great  riverside  palaces  with  which  the  Stranil  was 
formerly  lined  on  the  south.  Trafalgar  S(|uare  is 
on  the  site  of  the  old  King's  Mews.  Its  chief 
ornament  is  the  church  of  St  Martin  '  in  the 
Fields,'  bv  Gibbs  ( 1726).  The  National  Gallery  is 
a  poor  building  (by  Wilkins,  18.38).  The  National 
Portrait  tiallery  behind  it  was  opened  in  1895. 

The  monumental  Corinthian  column  to  Nelson  is 
very  conspicuous,  with  four  lions  by  Landseer  at 
its  base.  Behind  it  is  a  statue  of  (ieneral  Gordon 
by  'Thornycroft.  There  are  other  statues,  all 
poor.  For  Whiteliall,  see  Westminster.  A 
statue  of  George  III.,  by  Wyatt,  is  in  Cockspur 
Street,  wliich  leads  us  past  the  Haymarket  and  its 
great  opera-house  to  \Vaterloo  Place,  where  is 
Bell's  Guards'  Memorial,  a  very  poor  figure  of 
Victory  in  bronze,  the  Uuke  of  York's  (Tuscan 
red  granite)  column  with  statue  by  Westmacott ; 
and  monuments,  mostly  very  bad,  to  Franklin, 
Lord  Clyde,  Lord  Lawrence,  iVc.  The  clubs  in 
Pall  Mall  are  in  many  cases  justly  admired,  and, 
except  those  most  recently  liuilt,  are  in  good  pro- 
portion, especially  the  Reform,  designed  by  Barry, 
and  the  Carlton,  by  Smirke,  and  give  a  stateliness 
to  the  street,  sadly  wanting  as  a  rule  in  London. 
At  the  War  Otlice  is  part  of  Schomberg  House, 
occupieil  by  Gainsborough,  the  painter.  When  we 
reach  St  James's  Palace  (in  Westminster)  we  turn 
uf>  St  .James's  Street,  noting  at  the  corner  a  beauti- 
ful insurance-otlice  by  Mr  Norman  Shaw.  ( Ipposite, 
on  the  west  side,  are  .several  well-iiroportioned  clubs, 
but  some  new  buildings,  covered  with  ornament, 
intended  apparently  to  conceal  weak  dcwigns,  go 
far  to  s|poil  the  view.  Near  the  top  of  the  iuscent 
are  White's,  Boodle's,  Brooke's,  and  Arthur's  clubs, 
all  celebrated  in  the  social  annals  of  the  century, 
and  on  the  site  of  Crockford's,  the  Devonshire.  In 
Bennett  and  Arlingtim  streets  we  are  reminded  of 
one  of  the  members  of  the  Cabal.  Lord  Salislniry's 
obtrusively  ugly  house  looks  on  the  Green  Park. 
In  Arlington  Street  resided  another  iirime-minister, 
Walpole,  an<l  afterwards  his  son,  Horace  Walpolc. 

Piccaililly  begins  a  little  to  the  eastwanl  of 
Waterloo  I'hure  (see  above)  and  its  continuation 
Regent  Street,  and  is  called  from  .a  kind  of  tea- 
garilen,  Peccadillo  Hall,  which  stood  where  the 
CriUirion  is  now.  The  formation  of  Regent  Street, 
which  was  t<)  lead  from  Carlton  House  (where  the 
York  column  now  stands)  to  the  Regent's  Park, 
which  was  beautifully  laid  out  on  the  old  Mary- 
lehone  common,  must  be  ascribed  to  Nivsh,  to 
whom  must  also  be  assigned  the  street  frcmts, 
often   very   beautiful,   although   executed  only   in 


stucco.  In  the  Regent's  Park  are  situat^ed  the 
Zoological  and  Botanic  Gardens.  In  Piccadilly 
there  are  still  .some  tine  ]ialaces,  as  Devonshire 
House,  Northampton  House,  the  residence  of  I,ord 
Rothschilil,  an<l  Apsley  House,  but  the  tine.st  of 
all,  Burlington  House,  has  been  altered  and  added 
to  in  a  wretched  style,  and  the  architect-earl's 
design  can  hardly  be  made  out.  Here  are  lodged 
the  Royal  Academy,  the  Royal,  the  Antii|uarian, 
the  Linnean,  and  several  other  learned  societies. 
The  gardens  are  covered  by  the  exhibition  nH)ms 
of  the  academy,  and  liy  the  olliccs  and  theatre  of 
the  university  of  London,  in  a  very  debased  style, 
overloaded  with  ornament.  The  only  church  in 
Piccadilly  is  St  dames's,  the  parish  having  been 
taken  out  of  Westminster  in  1684.  It  was  built 
by  Wren,  at  the  expense  of  Jermyii,  Earl  of  St 
Albans,  who  is  generally  believed  to  have  been  the 
second  husband  of  t^ueen  Henrietta  Maria,  and  who 
is  commemorated  in  the  adjoining  Jerniyn  Street. 
The  exterior  is  ])lain,  but  the  interior  is  the  nmdel 
and  criterion  of  what  a  Protestant  church  should  be. 

Northward  an<l  westward  is  the  great  parish  of 
St  (ieorge,  Hanover  Square,  separated  from  West- 
minster in  1724,  which  comprises  Mayfair,  Grosvenor 
Square,  and  Belgravia,  extending  from  Oxford 
Street  on  the  north  to  the  Thames  on  the  south. 
It  contains  many  churches,  more  or  less  dependent 
on  St  George's,  but  though  some  of  them  are  Tery 
costly,  not  one  calls  for  separate  mention.  The 
mother-church  is  heavy  in  design,  except  the 
portico.  It  is  by  .lohn  James.  The  parish  nearly 
all  belongs  to  the  Duke  of  Westminster,  whose 
ancestor.  Sir  Richard  Grosvenor,  married  in  1676, 
Mary  Davies,  the  heiress  of  two  city  families,  by 
which  these  then  open  fields  had  been  acquired, 
not  without  litigation,  in  the  reign  of  Queen  Eliza- 
beth. The  whole  estate  consists  of  an  almost 
circular  portion  around  Grosvenor  Square,  extend- 
ing along  Oxford  Street  from  Davies  Street  to  Park 
Lane,  and  bounded  on  the  east  by  the  w.iter- 
course  of  the  Tyburn  :  and  a  southern  portion, 
bounded  on  the  west  by  the  Westbourne,  which 
divides  it  from  Chelsea,  and  on  the  east  by  Grosvenor 
Place,  Vauxhall  Bridge  Roa<l,  and  some  irregular 
streets  down  to  St  George's  Sipuire,  which  is  on  a 
site  named  in  a  map  of  172,'i,  as  -Mr  Weston's 
garden.'  The  new  churches  on  this  niagnilicent 
estate  are  typical  of  the  other  li\iildings.  There  is 
not  one  which  can  be  named  as  of  good,  or  even 
tolerable,  design.  Belgrave  S(|uare  and  Eaton 
Place,  and  the  adjacent  region  are  all  in  stucco. 
Grosvenor  Place  is  in  a  French  style,  very  debased. 
Dorchester  House,  iu>t  on,  but  bordering  the  estate 
in  Park  Lane,  is  handsome,  having  been  designed 
by  its  owner  with  the  as.sistanee  of  Vulliamy.  In 
Stanhope  Street  is  Chesterfield  House,  nnich  (lulled 
about,  but  still  line,  and  worthy  of  its  designer, 
Ware.  Grosvenor  House  has  few  architectural 
features,  but  the  picture-gallery  in  I'ark  Lane  in  in 
a  fair  classical  style,  and  the  screen  in  (Jrosvenor 
Street  has  been  admired. 

Of  St  Pancras,  large  as  the  parish  is,  there  is 
very  little  to  be  told.  It  contained,  apparently, 
several  of  the  manors  of  the  canons  of  St  I'aul's, 
and  a  curious  little  church,  much  injured  by 
modern,  and  indeed  recent,  restorations,  shows 
Norman  features.  It  is  close  to  the  St  Pancras 
terminus  of  the  Midland  Railway,  and  is  well 
worth  a  visit  for  the  sake  of  the  graveyaril  adjoin- 
ing, wliich,  though  much  curtailed  by  the  railway, 
still  comprises  some  interesting  nionument.s,  those, 
for  examjde,  of  the  (ireys,  lords  of  Porlpool,  now 
Gray's  Inn;  of  Walker,  the  lexicogr.apher ;  and  of 
Sir  John  Soane.  Many  refugees  during  French 
and  Italian  troubles  were  buried  here.  In  the 
parish  is  Kentish  Town,  the  olil  prebendal  manor 
of    '  Cantler's '    or    Cantelupe's,   called     after    au 


LONDON 


705 


ancit'iit  ciiiioii,  and  now  the  estate  of  Loiii 
t'aniilen.  Soniprs  Town  used  to  belon;:  to  the 
family  of  Soiiiei's  Cooks.  Tlie  new  ])ai'ish  church 
of  St  Pancras  is  a  very  conspicuous  ol>ject  in 
the  Euston  Hoail.  Tt  was  liuilt  in  what  wjus 
thouiiht  to  he  a  Grecian  style  in  lS-2'2.  by  the 
Inwoods.  Another  renuukahle  Ipuildinj;  is  the 
Midlanil  terminus  with  a  hotel,  liy  Sir  G.  G. 
Scott,  one  of  the  largest  liuildin.us  of  the  kind. 

Tiibiini  was  anciently  the  name  of  the  jiarish 
which  we  know  as  St  JIarylehone.  It  presents 
some  curious  and  interestinj;  features.  Unlike 
most  parishes  it  seems  never  to  have  been  con- 
tained in  a  sinirle  manor,  hut  was  divided  hefore 
the  dawn  of  history  into  two  at  least,  if  not  three. 
This  divisiim,  nr  inclusion,  may  have  heen  caused 
hv  it.s  remote  ami  lonely  situation.  A  hrook  ran 
through  it,  '  the  hourne  from  which  no  traveller 
returns,*  its  source  hid<len  auumg  the  wooded  hills 
of  Middlesex  :  and  the  little  church  of  St  .John  was 
in  14fM)  pulle<l  down  because  it  had  been  so  often 
broken  into  ami  robbed.  A  new  church  was  built 
higher  up  tlii'  brook,  where  there  were  a  few 
houses,  and  the  place  is  still  known  from  its  new 
dedication,  St  Maiy  Me  Bourne,'  The  brook  was 
known  as  the  Tyburn,  the  earlier  form  of  which 
points  to  a  double  stream,  and  the  original  church 
probably  stood  on  a  kind  of  island,  a  site  now 
covered  by  the  bookseller's  shop  of  Mr  Bunipus. 
The  ea.stern  part  of  the  parish  lornied  the  manor 
of  Tyburn,  and  belonged  to  the  abljey  of  Barking. 
It  was  leased  out  to  various  people,  and  in  the  l.^th 
century  wa-s  held  I)y  Thomivs  Hobson.  Henry 
VIII.  held  the  manor,  and  t^ueen  Elizabeth  granted 
it  on  le.ose  to  Forset,  who  in  the  succeeding  reign 
bought  it  His  descendants  sold  it  to  .John  Holies, 
Duke  of  Newcastle,  for  £17,o00,  and  it  has  ever 
since  descended  in  his  family,  Lady  (Jssington 
being  the  i)resent  owner.  The  western  part  of  the 
paiTsh  was  the  manor  of  Lilleston,  now  commemo- 
rated in  Lisson  Grove,  and  descended  much  like 
the  eastern  half,  through  lejiseholdei-s,  Avho  held 
from  the  Knights  of  St  .John  (whence  St  John's 
'\A"ood),  down  to  Sir  William  Portnuin,  whose 
descendants  now  own  the  greater  jiart  of  it.  The 
western  boundary  is  the  Kdgware  Koad.  The 
place  of  execution  for  the  city  of  London  and  the 
county  of  Middlesex  was  at  first  by  the  burnside, 
where  in  1.3.30  Koger  Mortimer,  Earl  of  March,  was 
handed.  As  the  suburbs  increased  and  crept  to- 
wards St  Marylebone,  the  gallows  were  removed 
farther  we.st.  In  1.512  they  stood  in  the  adjoining 
manor  of  Lilleston,  close  to  the  modern  Marble 
Arch,  and  eventually  they  were  set  up  for  each 
execution  at  the  foot  of  Edgware  Road.  A  house, 
recently  rebuilt,  the  New  Inn,  is  ]>ointed  out  as 
the  place  where  the  stout  beams  of  the  triangular 
gibbet  were  kejit.  At  one  or  other  of  the  jdaces 
thus  indicated,  the  Holy  Maid  of  Kent  (1.5:J4), 
many  priests  in  the  reign  of  Elizabeth,  Felton,  the 
a-ssassin  of  Buckingham  (lU'JtS),  .Jack  Sliejipard 
(1724),  .lonathan  \\\\,\  (172o),  Lord  Ferrers  (ITCO), 
Mrs  Brownrigg  (1767),  and  the  IJev.  \V.  Dodd 
( 1777)  were  hanged,  with  an  innumerable  company 
of  less  notable  criminals.  The  last  execution  here 
was  that  of  .John  .\usten  (17n.'l|.  It  mav  be  worth 
while  here  to  note  that  Tyburnia  is  not  in  Tyburn, 
nor  yet  in  Lilleston,  but  in  Faddington.  The 
number  of  eminent  inhabitants  ami  natives  of  St 
Marylebone  is  very  great.  Hogarth  rej>resented  the 
church,  now  a  parish  ch-ajiel,  in  his  Uake's  Progress. 
(Jibbs,  the  architect,  Giblion,  the  historian,  Hoyle, 
who  wrote  on  games,  and  Charles  Wesley,  the 
liymn-writ<!r,  ni.ay  be  mentioned  as  having  liveil  or 
died  in  the  iiarish.  Besiiles  these,  we  must  not 
omit  the  Harley  family  ami  their  famous  colli'ction 
of  MS.S.  now  in  the  liritish  Museum  ;  Oxford 
Street  is  called  after  E<lward  Harlev,  second  Earl 
305 


of  (Jxford  and  Mortimer,  who  manned  the  Holies 
heiress. 

North  of  St  Marylebone  is  Hamjistead  (q.v.), 
with  its  splendid  open  heath,  some  parts  of 
which  are  as  much  as  4."i(t  feet  above  the  sea. 
Paildington  lies  wholly  westward  of  the  Edg- 
ware Hoad.  It  was  early  divided  into  two  manors, 
I'adilington  and  Westbournc,  the  latter  named  after 
a  little  stream  the  origin.-tl  soiiice  of  the  Serpentine, 
lioth  belonge<l  to  Westminster  .\bliey,  t>nt  the 
eastern  manor  having  been  appropriated  to  the 
■  bishojiric  of  Westminster,  with  most  of  the 
other  estates  of  that  short-lived  see,  went  to  the 
see  of  London,  while  Westbourne  is  still  the  ]>ro- 
perty  of  the  abbey.  There  is  little  of  intc>rest  in 
either  clivision.  The  threat  Western  Kaihvay  and 
its  terminus  cover  a  large  part  of  both,  olilitcrating 
Westbourne  (ireen  where  ills  Sidilons  once  liveil. 
A  small  part  of  Kensington  (Jardens  is  in  ^\■est- 
l)0unie,  and  in  the  adjoining  manor  is  a  cemetery 
which  belongs  to  St  George's,  Hanover  Square,  and 
contains  the  grave  of  Lawrence  .Sterne. 

Westward  of  Kensington  (i|.v.)  is  Hammersmith, 
.a  populous  suliurb,  taken  out  of  Fulham,  which 
reaches  down  to  the  Thames,  ami  forms  the  western 
extremity  of  the  county.  A  very  interesting  church, 
St  Paul's,  built  here  in  1631  by  Sir  Nicholas  Cris]ie, 
has  recently  been  pulldl  down,  ami  a  new  church 
of  great  size,  but  otherwise  unworthy  of  the  site, 
has  been  built  in  its  jdace.  It  is  designed  in  a 
mock-Gothic  style.  In  a  better  style  are  some 
nunneries  and  other  institutions  nf  the  Koman 
Catholics. 

Fulham  boasts  of  an  ancient  church  and  of  the 
so-called  'palace 'of  the  bishops  of  London.  The 
manor  which  is,  or  was,  conterminous  with  the 
parish,  has  Ijeen  the  jnnperty  of  the  see  from  time 
iinmemoiial,  and  remains  the  one  residential  estate 
of  the  Ipishoji.  The  house,  which  lias  sometimes 
been  described  as  the  ohlest  inhabited  house  in 
England,  surrounds  a  courtyaril.  A  chapel,  conse- 
crated by  liishop  (afterwaril  Archlushop)  Tail  in 
1867,  is  adjoining  the  house  in  the  grounds.  The 
exterior  is  unnecessarily  ]ilain,  but  the  interior  is 
handsome.  The  house  contains  a  hall  built  by 
Bishop  Fletcher  ( lo95),  and  the  arms  of  Bishoji  Fitz- 
james  (dieil  l.")22)  are  in  the  conrtyanl  and  in  the 
garden,  which  lies  veiy  low  but  contains  many  tine 
trees  and  shrubs.  Tlie  church  of  Fulham  is  very 
plain  but  contains  a  few  line  monuments.  In  the 
churchyard  are  the  graves  of  eight  bishops.  Close 
to  them  is  a  tomb  which  bears  the  name  of  Theodore 
Hook  (died  1841),  who  had  a  house,  now  removed, 
in  the  village.  Of  late  years  the  numerous  pleasure- 
grounds  and  open  spaces  of  Fulham  have  lieen 
covered  with  second-class  hotises,  and  we  have  but 
.scanty  remains  of  Parson's  Green,  North  EmI,  and 
other  cla-ssical  localities.  Chelsea  (q.v. )  adjoins 
Fulham. 

Crossing  the  Thames,  we  reach  that  ]iart  of 
Surrey  which  h.as  lieen  incluiled  in  the  new  county, 
liatterse.a  is  cliielly  remarkalile  now  for  the  beauti- 
ful park,  oiiened  in  IfS.VJ,  close  to  which  was  the 
residence  ot  Henry  St  .lohn,  Viscmint  Bolingbroke 
(died  17.>1 ).  Westward  of  Baltersea  is  Wands- 
worth, south  of  it  is  Clapbam,  and  beyoml  that 
Peuge,  in  which  is  the  Crystal  Palace,  usually 
called  from  the  neighbouring  Sydeidiam.  .\11  these 
are  covered  with  streets,  iiitcrspcrsi'il  here  ami 
there  with  villas.  Kennington,  thesite  of  a  manoi 
house  of  the  jninces  of  Wales,  Brixton  a  little 
farther  scnith,  and  Niu"wood,  on  the  summit  of  the 
.southern  line  of  hills  which  enclose  what  is  called 
the  London  Basin,  come  next,  and  the  manor  of 
Lambeth  faces  Westminster.  The  archbishops  at 
lirst  renteil  the  house  from  the  see  of  Kochesler,  on 
account,  no  doubt,  of  its  convenient  situation. 
They  linally  acquired  it  by  exchange  in  ll'.Ui.     The 


706 


LONDON 


clcmiestic  ]iarts  of  tlie  liouse  .are  iiiodein,  but  the 
fli;i]M'l  \v:i.-  Imill  :ili(mt  12.30,  tlie  'Ijiillanb'  Tower,' 
144(1,  the  ^'ateway,  1490,  anil  the  hall,  now  the 
lihrary,  in  16G3.  There  are  many  beautifiil  MSS. 
anil  rare  printed  hooks  in  the  lihrary.  The  assooi- 
atiims  of  Laniheth  with  the  greatest  men  in 
Kn;.'laiiil  are  too  nunierons  to  he  iletaileil  here,  Imt 
wo  may  remember  that  llisho]!  I'arker  (ilietl  1575) 
is  Imrieil  in  the  ehajiel,  anil  tliat  this  was  the  scene 
of  More's  refusal  to  accept  the  kinjj's  supremacy. 
St  Mary's  parish  chnrch  is  close  to  the  -late  ami 
contains  monnments  of  archbishops  IJancroft, ' 
Tenison,  ami  Seeker.  Two  moilern  buildings  are 
very  conspicuous  at  Lambeth — Doulton's  terra- 
cotta factory,  sonth  of  the  palace,  and  St  Thomas's 
llos|iital,  which  unl'orliinately  faces  the  Hoitses  of 
Parliament,  havinj;  been  removed  to  this  site  in 
IS71  to  make  way  for  London  Bridge  station.  The 
architecture  is  unusually  ngly,  even  in  London. 

l'"rom  this  point  eastward  to  Southwark  (see 
above)  the  low  peninsula,  formerly  submerged  at 
every  high  tide,  is  occupied  «ilh  mean  streets  and 
lanes,  and  with  great  -warehouses,  stores,  and 
wharves  ;  the  only  point  of  interest  being  that  on 
which  Shakespeare's  Hankside  Theatre  tlio  Globe 
stood.  'J'he  apjiroaclies  to  Waterloo  ISridge  prob- 
ably cover  the  site.  Eastward  of  Southwark  are 
Berniondsey,  where  a  tine  and  famous  alibey 
nourished  liefore  tlie  Reformation,  of  which  nothing 
remains,  and  Kotherhithe,  at  an  abrupt  bend  of 
the  Thames.  Both  districts  are  densely  covered 
with  factories  and  labourers'  dwellings.  Farther 
inland  and  to  the  southward  are  Newington, 
Walworth,  the  immense  parish  of  Camberwell,  with 
Dulwich  College  and  picture-g.allerv,  and  Peckham. 
.All  are  densely  populated,  but  present  few  objects 
of  .antiquarian  or  picturi'sque  interest. 

Eastward  of  Canilierwell  we  enter  those  p.arishes 
which  are  taken  from  Kent.  They  comprise  Lewis- 
ham,  a  good  part  of  which  is  still  open  ;  Deptford, 
(ireenwich,  and  Woolwich,  which  includes  some 
tields  on  the  north  side  of  the  Thames.  There  are 
many  interesting  sites  in  this  district.  At  Dejit- 
ford  was  Sayes  Court,  which  John  Evelyn  lent  to 
Czar  Peter  ;"  Eltliam  Palace,  with  its  ancient  hall, 
built  by  Edward  IV.:  the  Woolwich  Academy,  for 
Koyal  Engineers  and  Artillery  :  and  Creenwich 
(q.v.),  with  its  magnilicent  hospital  and  its  p.ark. 
and  the  observ.atory  from  which  we  and  most 
civilised  nations  reckon  longitude. 

The  commerce  of  the  vast  area  thus  briefly  de- 
scribed is  in  great  part  carried  on  in  the  City  ;  but 
the  best  retail  shiqis  .are  in  the  Strand,  Itegent 
Street,  and  Bond  Street.  The  statistics  of  the 
cattle-markets  are  published  at  intervals,  and  show 
a  constantly  increasing  demand  and  supply.  The 
tonnage  of  the  ixnt  now  exceeds  6  millions,  and 
the  total  trade  e.xceeds  226  millions  sterling.  The 
rateable  value  of  the  whole  county,  including  the 
city,  amounts  to  over  30  nuUions  sterling.  The 
annual  consumption  of  food  includes  2  million 
quarteis  of  wheal,  400.000  oxen,  l,.'iOO,000  sheep. 
8  million  head  of  poiiltiy,  400  million  pounds  of 
lish,  .500  million  oysters,  180  million  iiuarts  of  beer, 
8  million  qu.irts  of  spirits,  and  .'{()  million  quarts  of 
wine,  besides  coal  to  the  amount  of  (i  million  tons. 
The  following  tables  show  some  London  statistics  : 
POP.    IN   V.\RIOU.S   A1!E.\S   IN    189L 

Acres.  P.ip. 

Citv  of  Lonilon 868  37,094 

County  of  I.oinloii(  with  City) 75,442  232,118 

London  School  Hoard  District •  ,. 

ReKistrav-gcniirar.s  Tables  of  Mortality..  7.1,334        4,211,0,% 
Metropolitan  and  City  Police  Districts.. 441, iJ5'.)        5,633,332 

London  within  the  Kegistr.ar  gener.al's  district  : 
( 1801  )  !r)S,8(i:f  ;  (  1S41  )  1.948,417  ;  (  ISOl  )2,0.S3,9S9  ; 
(1871  i:i,2.'>4,2()0;  (  1881  )  .S,81ti,4s:! ;  (  1S91  )  4,21  l,0."iU. 
Uatable    value     within    .Metroiiolis    Management 


Act:  (1859)  £12,045,476;  (1869)  £16,2.')7,643 ; 
(1879)  £23,960,109;  ( 1889)  £31,592,387.  Miles  of 
streets :  ( 1801 )  470  ;  ( 1821 )  610  ;  (  1841 )  905 ;  ( 1861 ) 
1290;  ( 1881)  1740.  Houses:  (1801 )  130,000;  (1881) 
520,000. 


IiuporU  of  Foreign 

and 

Produce  of  United 

Foreign  Aud  Colonial 

C'otoufat  MenrhHIkdUe. 

Kingdom  exiwrted. 

Produce  exported. 

1885. 

. .  £132,699.036 

£,50,517,252 

£34,845,773 

1886. 

. .     128,008,767 

46,126,495 

34,456,430 

1887. 

..     129,430,751 

46,023,152 

35,339.715 

18SS. 

. ..     13.S,1S3,4(>6 

60,211,258 

37,572,768 

1895. 

. . .     145,047,445 

44,613,355 

35,057,5211 

The  customs  revenue  was:  (1865)  £10,942,913; 
(1885)  £10,584,956;  (1895)  £9,479,788  (as  ag.aiust 
£3,0.30,405  at  Liverpool).  The  total  foreign  trade 
of  London  is  over  a  fourth  of  th.at  of  the  I'niteil 
Kingdom,  and  is  to  that  of  Liverpool  as  £225,000,000 
is  to  .£187,000,000,  For  some  industries  Loudon  is 
more  important  than  any  other  town  in  the 
kingdom.  In  1891  there  were  83,448  dressmakers, 
milliners,  &c.,  in  London,  52,346  tailors,  35,009 
printers,  and  31, ,867  cahinelmakers. 

The  death  rate  of  London  in  1855  wa-s  24'3  per 
1000  ;  in  1881-90  it  was  21  -4  ;  it  is  now  little  over 
17.  In  London  in  1891,  65  per  cent,  of  the  popu- 
lation were  London  born,  and  there  were  59,390 
]ier.sons  of  Scottish  birth,  .and  66,465  of  Irish  birth. 
Of  95,053  foreigners,  26,920  were  German,  12,034 
Russian,  14,708  Polish,  10, .366  French,  5138  Itali.au, 
4903  American  (U.S.).  42.S9  Dutch,  3041  Austrian, 
2244  Spanish,  2044  Belgi.an,  1432  Swedish,  1011 
Norwegian,  827  Danish. 

See  Stow's  .S'uri'c/y  (1599);  Maitland's  fi't'ston/  (1756); 
Newcourt's  Rei>ertorium  (2  vols.  1708);  Cunningham's 
Handhonk  (1849;  new  ed.  by  AVheatley,  3  vols.  1891); 
Wharpe's  London  and  the  KintHlum  (1894);  Paul's 
Vanishing  London  (1896);  Thome's  Environs  (2  vols, 
1877);  'VTalford's  Greater  London  (2  vols.  1885); 
Baedeker's  Htimlhonk  (1,'<89);  Button's  Litrrarii  Land- 
marks (4th  ed.  18.S8);  CasseU's  Old  and  A'cic  London 
( 6  vols.  1887 )  ;  Loftie's /.o/k/oh  (1890);  the  larger  ( 1892) 
and  smaller  ( 1893)  works  by  \V.  Besant ;  and  many  local 
histories.     See  also  the  following  articles  in  this  work  : 


I 


naiiking. 

liiidge. 

British  Museum. 

I'haiierliouse. 

rii.-lsi-a. 

I'tirist's  Hospital. 

Club. 

Covent  Garden. 

Deptford. 

Dock. 

Fire. 

Fleet  Prison. 


Greenwich. 

GuiM. 

Hanipstead. 

Hospitals. 

Immigration. 

Kensington. 

Kew. 

King's  College. 

Mint. 

National  Gallery. 

Newgate. 

Newsiiapcrs. 


Obelisk. 

Parliament. 

Poliee. 

Koyal  Acadclny. 

Uoyal  Woriety. 

Sydenham. 

'IVniple  liar. 

Thames. 

Tlieatre. 

Water.supply. 

Westminster. 

Woolwich. 

This    title    was 


l.oiulon,  Univeksitv  of. 
originall.v  assumed  by  the  non-sectarian  institution 
afterwards  known  as  I'niveisity  College,  London, 
the  line  building  of  which,  situated  in  Gower 
Street,  W.C.,  was  opened  in  the  autumn  of  1828. 
The  functions  of  the  college  were  conlined  to  teach- 
ing ;  but  in  1834  its  promoters  ap]ilied  to  the 
government  of  the  ihiy  for  power  to  grant  degrees. 
.Meanwhile,  King's  College  (q.v.)  had  been  founded 
by  .adherents  of  the  Church  of  England:  and  it 
seemed  not  improbable  th.at  other  colleges  of 
similar  character  would  be  (as  indeed  they  were) 
established.  If,  therefore,  the  degree-giving  power 
li.ad  been  accorded  to  Iniversity  College,  there 
would  have  been  no  excuse  for  refusing  it  to  Kings 
and  other  colleges.  Hence,  to  avoid  the  multipli- 
cation of  little  universities,  the  government  fe- 
solved  to  institute  a  body  which  should  examine, 
but  not  teach,  leaving  the  colleges  to  teach,  but 
not  examine— at  lea.st,  not  for  degrees.  A  charter 
constituting  such  a  body  ( the  University  of  London ) 
was  issued  by  the  crown  on  November  28.  1836, 
and  this  charter  was  up  to  that  of  1S63  (valid  till 
11)110)  followed  by  four  other.s,  as  well  as  by  two  or 
three  supplemental  charters,  varying  the  consti- 
tution or  extending  the  powers  of  the  university. 


LONDON 


707 


For  the  first  twenty-two  years  of  its  existence  the 
university  comprised  («)  the  yoverninj,'  body,  or 
senate,  made  up  of  a  ("hanccUor,  a  Vice-chancellor, 
and  thirty-six  '  Kellows  ; '  ami  (6)  tlie  athliated  col- 
lejjes  and  medical  scliools.  At  lirst  University 
and  Kini^'s  were  the  only  alliliatcd  collej^es  ;  but  in 
twenty  years  the  number  of  the  arts  ci>lle^es  had 
<;rown  to  about  lifty,  and  of  tlie  medical  schools  to 
nearly  twice  ;i.s  many  ;  and  of  each  class  only  a 
small  minority  were  in  London.  Almost  a  revolu- 
tion in  the  university  was  ert'ecled  by  the  charter 
of  1858  (of  which  the  charter,  dateil  18ti3,  iuid  in 
force  till  190U,  was  an  amended  form).  I'revionsly 
candidates  for  decrees  in  arts,  althou^di  they  might 
matriculate  from  aii\  where,  had  been  required  to 
l)roduce  a  certilicate  of  two  years'  study  at  an 
atliliatecl  collej;e  ;  but  now  this  reiiuirement  was 
abolished,  and  cainlidates  mij;lit  acquire  their 
knowled<;e  when,  where,  and  as  they  chose.  The  re- 
<|uirenients  from  medical  candiilates,  however,  were 
not  relaxed,  and  imleed  were  subsequently  made 
more  stringent.  The  same  charter  also  introduced 
the  graduate  body,  under  the  title  of  'convocation,' 
into  the  constitution  ;  and  all  masters  of  arts,  all 
<loctors,  and  all  bachelors  of  a  certain  standing, 
upon  payment  of  a  trilling  fee,  became  memliers  of 
i-onvocation.  This  body  became  the  parliamentary 
<;onstituency.  Again,  this  charter  instituted  the 
.Science  faculty  :  and  it  took  away  from  the  fellows 
the  power  (which  some  of  them  had  exerci.sed)  of 
acting  iis  examiners.  The  chief  organic  changes 
between  1S5S  and  1899  were  the  institution  of 
degrees  in  music  and  the  opening  of  the  university 
to  women.  The  latter  change  was  a  gradual  pro- 
cess :  at  first  women  were  admitted  to  a  series  of 
special  examinations  under  a  supplemental  charter 
of  1867  :  but  uniler  a  later  supplemental  charter 
(1878)  all  the  examinations  and  degrees,  and  all 
the  exhibitions,  scliolarships,  prizes,  and  medals 
were  thrown  open  to  them  upon  precisely  the  .same 
conditions  as  to  men.  The  held  covered  by  the 
operations  of  the  university  nuiy  be  described  as 
imperial  rather  than  local.  Its  charter  declares  it 
to  have  been  founded  for  the  l>enetit  of  all  classes 
and  denominations  of  Her  .Maji'>ty's  faithful  sub- 
jects, without  any  di>lin<:tion  whatsoever,  both  in 
the  United  Kingdom  and  elsewhere.  In  conformity 
with  the  character  thus  profe.s.sed,  certain  examina- 
tions were  to  be  held  at  numerous  provincial  centres 
ill  Great  Britain  and  at  a  few  colonial  centres. 
Hut  the  university  itself  originateil  none  of  these  ; 
they  were  instituted  only  upon  the  application  of 
recognised  authorities  at  the  .several  centres. 

Tlds  very  feature,  however,  and  the  <letachment 
of  the  university  from  the  otice  attilialed  colleges, 
were  the  immeiliate  cause  of  a  lively  .agilatioii  for 
a  'Teaching  I'niversity '  for  Londim,  which  s]irang 
up  in  1884,  and  led  to  negotiations  which  in  liHK) 
issued  in  the  reconslitution  of  the  university. 
The  senate  in  1887  made  some  con<;essions,  but 
rejected  the  claim  of  the  colleges  to  be  represented 
at  its  own  board.  University  and  King's  Colleges, 
in  comliination,  thereupon  petitioned  the  Pdvy- 
council  for  a  university  charter  of  their  own  :  while 
the  Koyal  ('olleges  of  I'hysicians  anil  Surgeons, 
also  in  combination,  petiii<nied  for  the  power  of 
granting  degrees  iti  metlicrine  cuily.  To  investigate 
the  merits  of  the  points  at  issue,  a  Koyal  Com- 
mission was  appoinleil  in  the  spring  of  1888.  The 
report  of  the  conimi.ssiou,  issued  in  May  1889,  ])ro- 
poundeil  a  scheme  for  the  reorganisation  of  the 
university  which  otlered  harsher  terms  to  the  senate 
than  tho.se  that  were  rejected  in  1M87,  without, 
however,  satisfying  tin-  two  great  London  collegi^s. 
The  senate  therefore  reopened  negotiations  with 
these  colleges,  and  otlered  still  nnin;  extensivt;  con- 
cessions than  those  prescribed  by  the  commission. 
The  University  of  London  Act  of  1898  made  pro- 


vision for  its  reconstitution  as  a  teaching  body,  and 
for  the  appointment  of  a  commission,  whose  statutes 
for  the  reorganisation  and  regulation  of  the  uni- 
ver.sily  received  the  royal  sanction  in  1900.  The 
senate  now  consists  of  a  chancellor,  a  cliairnum  of 
convocation,  and  lifly-four  persons  nominated  by 
the  crown,  by  convocaticm,  by  University  College, 
Kings  College,  the  Itoyal  Colleges  of  Physician.s 
and  Surgeons,  Lincoln's  and  (iray's  Inns,  and  the 
Inner  and  jNIiddle  Temples,  by  the  Incorporate<l 
Law  Society,  and  the  ( luilds  Institute.  Convocation 
consists  of  the  chancellor,  the  vice-chancellor,  all 
members  of  the  three  standing  ccnnmittees  of  the 
senate  not  already  on  convocation,  and  the  regis- 
tered graduates.  .Members  of  convocation,  not 
being  women  or  otherwise  disqualilied,  constitute 
the  parliamentary  cimstitneucy  (4000  in  number). 
Instead  of  four  there  are  now  eight  faculties — ■ 
Theology,  Arts,  Laws,  Music,  Me<licine,  Science, 
Engineering,  and  Economics  and  Political  Science. 
The  faculties  consist  of  university  teachers,  nomi- 
nated by  the  Koyal  Commission,  appointed  by  the 
university,  aiul  admitted  by  the  senate.  The 
schools  of  the  university  in  1900  were  in  the  several 
faculties,  or  in  one  or  more  faculties  :  University 
College  and  King's  College,  in  London,  for  all  the 
faculties  ;  Hackney  College,  New  College  (  H.unp- 
stead ),  Regent's  Park  College,  Cheshunt  College, 
the  Richmond  Wesleyan  College,  and  the  London 
College  of  Divinity  in  theology  ;  Holloway  College 
and  Bedford  College  in  arts  and  science;  the  Royal 
College  of  Science  in  its  one  faculty  ;  the  South- 
eastern College  of  Agriculture  at  Wye  ;  the  medi- 
cal schools  of  St  Bartholomew's,  the  London,  (hiy's, 
St  Tlionias'.s,  St  George's,  the  Middlesex,  St  Clary's, 
Charing  Cross,  and  Westminster  Hospitals,  and 
the  London  School  of  Medicine,  for  women  ;  the 
Central  Technical  College  of  the  City  and  (Juilds 
of  Lomlon  Institute  in  engineering  ;  the  London 
School  of  Economics  and  Political  Science  in  that 
faculty.  The  Royal  College  of  Music  and  the 
Royal  Academy  of  !Music  were  not  willing  to  be- 
come a  school  of  the  university  save  on  inadmis- 
sible conditions  :  the  commissioners  therefore  ex- 
cluiled  al.so  Trinity  College  and  the  (iuild  Hall 
School  of  Music,  but  recognised  teachers  of  the 
three  first- mentioned  institutes  as  teachers  of  the 
university.  They  regretted  that,  guided  by  the 
Gresham  Commission,  they  felt  precluded  from  re- 
cognising the  training  colleges  of  London  and  its 
neighbourhood,  as  giving  too  much  piominence  to 
elementary  teaching  and  to  training  for  eh-mentary 
teaching.  Boards  of  studies  consisting  of  teachers 
of  the  university  and  others  are  appointed  by  the 
senate  to  deal  with  groups  of  subjects.  Thirty-two 
boards  were  provided  for.  The  series  of  examina- 
tions f<u-  both  sexes  begins  with  matriculation, 
from  which  IhiMe  is  no  exemption.  Numerous  ex- 
hibitions and  other  prizes  are  open  to  competition 
ammig  honours  camlidates  at  many  of  the  exam- 
inations. The  regnlalioirs  for  these  examinations 
and  all  bylaws  are  laid  ilown  by  the  senate,  often 
u|)on  the  recommendation  of  colleges,  examiners, 
or  convocation  ;  but  no  such  rules  are  valid  until 
they  have  been  approved  by  the  Home  Secietary. 

The  growth  of  the  university,  at  least  in  point  of 
numbers,  was  rapiil,  es|iecially  after  IS.'iS.  In  1838 
there  were  "j;!  candiilates  for  matriculation,  of  whom 
22  jiassed  ;  in  I8.")8  there  were  299  candidates,  of 
whom  249  ]ia.sseil  ;  in  189')  there  were  .S420  candi- 
dates, of  whom  1710  passed;  and  the  increase  in 
the  higher  examinations  ha.s  been  on  a  similar 
scale.  For  the  liist  thirty  years  the  university  had 
no  fixed  abode;  but  in  1808  the  government  ordere<l 
the  erection  of  a  new  building,  specially  for  it, 
in  ISiirlington  Gardens,  W.  ;  this  was  completed, 
opened  by  the  l^neen,  and  occuiiied  in  1870.  In 
1900  arrangements  were  made  and  sanctioned  by 


708 


LONDON 


LONDON    PRIDE 


tlie  Treasiiiv  for  lioiisim;  the  iie«ly  ie(>r^:aiiisiHl 
tliiiversity  in  parts  of  the  liuililiiigs  of  tlie  liii]ierial 
Institute  at  South  Kensiiijjton.  As  the  university 
was  the  ehild  of  tlie  j;overnnieul  of  1X3(5,  holh  that 
anil  sneceediiij;  rrovernnieiits  ieco;.'nise(l  the  iluly  of 
sii|i]>orlin^'  it;  ami  year  liy  year  an  estimate  of 
expenses  has  lieeii  hiiil  before  ]iarliamenl,  ami 
covered  liy  a  vote.  On  the  other  hand,  all  the 
receipts  from  fees  have  been  elaimed  by  tlie 
Kxeluvjiier  ;  but  up  to  the  year  ISTfi  these  searcely 
equalled  a  third  of  the  total  cost  of  the  university. 
Owinfc,  however,  to  the  increase  in  the  nnmlier  of 
candidates,  the  fees  recei veil  in  1SS!I{  nearly  fl.'i.Odll) 
more  than  covered  the  whole  vote  for  workinj;  ex- 
penses, leaving  the  Treasury  chaij;eable  with  the 
costs  of  the  Iniililing.  stationery,  i^tc,  altogether 
equal  to  perhaps  another  £8000.  The  grant  in 
180il   1900  was  £18,840. 

rxiVEIiSITV  Coi.LEcE,  at  the  time  of  the  re- 
constitution  of  the  university,  had  in  its  fa<-uUies 
of  arts  and  laws,  and  of  science,  forty-four  jirofessoi- 
ships,  and  in  that  of  medicine  twenty  more.  Its 
governing  bodies,  under  president  and  A'ice-presi- 
deiit,  are  a  council  and  a  senate — the  latter  com- 
])rising  all  the  professor.s.  King"s  College  (q. v.)  is 
the  subject  of  a  sejiarate  article. 

On  the  reconstituted  university  see  besides  the  Calendar* 
tlie  reports  of  the  Commission,  and  the  statutes.  Professor 
Karl  Pearson's  The  New  ITniifrsitii  of  Lnmiim  (18!)3), 
di.scussiiij^  the  various  schemes  till  tlien  projtosed. 

liOlldoil.  a  city  and  port  of  entry,  capital  of 
Middlesex  county,  Ontario,  is  situated  at  the  junc- 
tion of  the  two  branches  of  the  Thames,  116  miles 
by  rail  S\V.  of  Tcuonto.  It  is  a  handsome  city, 
regularly  built,  and  contains  many  line  buildings; 
anil  the  aim  of  its  founders  is  visible  in  the  names 
of  the  principal  streets— I'all  Mall,  Oxford  Street, 
Piccadilly,  Cheapside,  iV-e. — as  well  as  of  the  river, 
«lii(di  is  crossed  by  a  Westminster  and  a  Hlack- 
friars  liridge,  and  of  the  Covent  (iarden  Market, 
Hyde  I'ark,  and  St  Paul's  Cathedral.  The  centre 
of  a  rich  agricultural  district,  and  connected  by 
railway  with  all  parts  of  Canada.  London  carries 
on  an  extensive  traile  in  the  produce  of  the  country  ; 
while  it  has  also  large  iietrcdeum  relineries,  and 
many  foundries,  mills,  tanneries,  and  other  manu- 
factories. It  has  several  colleges  (including  the 
\Vesterii  University)  of  gooil  standing,  lunatic  and 
orphan  asylums,  a  convent,  and  a  hospital  ;  and 
its  white  sulphur-springs  attract  many  invalids. 
Londiui  is  the  seat  of  Anglican  and  Itoman 
Catholic  bisho]is,  and  returns  one  member  to 
parliament  and  one  to  the  provincial  legislature. 
Pol),  (issl  )  l!l,74(i:  (  1891)  31, OUT. 

LoihIoii  <'lay.     See  Eixkm:  Sv.stem. 

LoildtMldorr.V,  a  maritime  county  of  the  pro- 
vince of  lister,  in  Ireland,  40  miles  long  by  34 
broad,  is  bounded  N.  by  the  .Atlantic,  and  elsewhere 
bv  -Antrim,  Lough  Neagh,  Tvnuie,  and  Donegal. 
Area,  816  sq.  m.  l'<q).  (1841)  222,174:  (1861) 
184,206;  (1881)  164,001  :  (1801)  l.VJ.OOO,  of  wli.nii 
67,748  are  Catholics,  48,!).'{6  Picsbyleri.ins.  and 
27.730  are  Protestant  E]iiscop:ilians.  The  sur- 
face list's  the  farther  one  travels  inland,  .Mount 
Sawell,  on  the  southern  border,  being  2236  feet 
high.  The  coastline  (.'50  miles  long)  is  generally 
bolil  ami  jneeiiiitons  ;  lint  tin-  shore  of  Lough  Koyle 
is  in  most  places  an  unvarying  jdain,  large  tracts 
having  been  reclaimeil.  The  river  15anii  from 
Lough  Xeagh  forms  part  of  the  eastern  border  of 
the  county.  The  river  Koyle  intersects  its  western 
extremity.  The  prin(i|ial  crops  are  oats,  potatoes, 
llax,  and  turniiis.  Thirty -seven  jier  cent,  of  the 
area  is  permanent  gnuss,  and  a  huge  proportion  of 
the  cultivated  soil  is  meadow  land  and  clover. 
Linen  (shirt-making)  is  the  staple  industry. 
The    lislierles,     both    oil'    the    coivst    and    in    the 


rivers  aiul  lakes,  are  valuable.  The  county 
returns  two  members  to  parliament,  and  the 
county  town,  Londonderry  (q.v.),  returns  one. 
The  other  towns  are  Coleraine  and  Limaviuly. 
The  county  owned  in  ancient  limes  the  sovereignty 
of  the  (CNeil  sept.  It  was  subjected  to  English 
authority  in  the  end  of  Elizabeth's  reign.  In  1600 
the  confiscated  estates  of  the  native  Irish  chieftains 
were  granted  by  the  crown  to  the  ccuporation  of 
London,  the  management  being  vested  in  the  Irish 
Society,  a  body  twenty -six  in  number,  electeil  by 
the  common  council,  one-half  retiring  each  year. 
Portions  of  the  cininty  were  assigned  to  twelve  of 
the  livery  ciuiijianies.  At  tliei)resent  time  the  Irish 
Society  anil  half  a  dozen  of  the  Lmidon  companies 
own  more  than  one-fourth  of  the  entire  county  ;  but 
several  of  these  last,  notably  the  Drajiei's'  Company, 
have  .sold  their  estates  to  the  occupying  tenants 
under  the  .\slibourne  Act. 

LoihIoiuIc rry.  or  Dekrv,  a  city,  seaport,  and 
parliamentary  bonnigh  in  the  north  of  Ireland,  is 
situated  on  an  eminence  overlooking  the  ri\er 
Foyle,  3  miles  from  its  month  and  18  miles  from 
the  entrance  to  Lough  Kovie,  bv  rail  163  miles 
NNAV.  of  Dublin  and  95  NW.  of  Helfast.  Pot.. 
(18.51)19,888;  (1871)24.242;  (1881)29,162;  (1891> 
33,200.  Loiidondeny  grew  up  round  a  monastery 
fiumdeil  here  in  o46  by  St  Colnmba.  It  was  fre- 
quently held  by  the  Danes  from  tlie  9tli  to  the  11th 
century.  The  town  formed  part  of  the  escheated 
territory  granted  to  the  London  companies,  and 
under  their  management  rose  to  some  im]iortance, 
and  was  strongly  fortified.  In  the  Irish  war  of 
the  Hevolution  thirteen  Londonderry  a]ipientices 
closed  its  gates  against  James  11.  ;  and  the  towns- 
ftdk.  sliimting  'No  surrender,'  manned  the  w;ills. 
The  105  days'  siege  that  then  ensued,  from  April 
to  August  1689,  is  one  of  the  most  celebrateil 
events  in  Irish  history,  and  its  memories  are  aimmg 
the  most  Stirling  causes  of  party  animosity.  The 
walls  still  surround  a  part  of  the  town  one  mile  in 
circunifeience,  but  now  the  greater  part  of  the  cit.v 
lies  outside  them.  The  four  main  streets  diverge 
from  a  square  in  the  centre  of  the  city  calleil  the 
Diamond.  The  left  bank  of  the  river  is  connected 
by  an  iron  bridge,  1200  feet  in  length,  with  an 
extensive  suburb  called  Waterside.  The  Protestant 
cathedral  dates  from  1633  ;  it  was  restored  in  1886. 
A  handsome  Homan  Catholic  cathedral,  the  court- 
house, guildhall  (erected  in  1890  at  a  cost  of 
t'20,000),  harboiir-ottices,  post-office.  custom-lMUise, 
and  banks  are  the  other  idiief  buildings  of  note. 
The  histmical  events  of  the  siege  are  ciiiimemorated 
by  a  triumidial  arch  -one  of  the  gates  of  the  city 
— erected  in  1789  and  a  column  in  honour  of  the 
Hev.  George  Walker,  w  ho  was  governor  of  the  city 
and  the  soul  of  the  defence.  The  Presbyterian 
theological  Magee  College  was  fnnndeil  in  ISii.'). 
The  industrial  establishments  include  linen  (shirt- 
making)  factories,  distilleries,  iron-foundries.  Hour- 
mills,  and  shipbuilding-yards.  There  are  valuable 
salmon-lisheries  in  Lough  Eoyle.  The  harbimr  is 
ilecp,  extensive,  and  safe.  The  great  Atlantic 
liners  (Allan,  Anchor,  and  State)  stop  at  the 
entrance  to  Lough  Eoyle  both  in  going  to  ami 
coming  from  .America.  The  im|ioits  (which  in- 
clude grain.  Hour,  timber,  and  spirits)  reach  an 
annual  aver.ige  value  of  £76,480 ;  the  exports, 
chietly  agricultural  jiroduce,  vary  in  value  from 
l'6(KI0  to  £3.')0  annually.  This  is  exclusive  of  an 
extensive  coiusting  trade.  Londonderry  returns 
one  member  to  the  House  of  Commons.  See 
■)ohn  Hempton's  Siege  ami  Jlistury  uf  Lontlomlerry 
(1861  ). 

LoiuloiHlorry,   M.Mii;i'is  ok.      See  Ca.sti.k- 

liEAi.ll. 

London  I'ridf.    See  Saxifkaoe. 


LONG 


LONGEVITY 


709 


LoilS*  Loi'll.  !i  lieautifiil  Scottish  sea-locli, 
striking'  otl'  from  the  KiitU  of  I'lydi'.  17  iiiih's  north- 
iiortli-ejvstwaril  between  the  eounties  of  Arfiyll  aiul 
I)iniiliarton.  ami  3  lurlon<,'s  to  2  miles  liroail.  It 
semis  oH"  Loch  Coil  (i|.\. )  :  is  llanUeil  tiy  stee])  anil 
faiitiustie  miiuiitains,  'J()00  feet  liifili :  and  at  Arroehar, 
near  its  head,  a|i])roaches  to  within  Ijf  mile  of 
Tarhet  on  Loeh  Lomond.  A  railway  from  Helens- 
Imrgh  to  Fort  William,  eommenced  in  1SS9,  skirts 
its  eiistern  shore.  Since  18G2  the  loeh  lia.s  been 
Hiefiled  with  the  dredjriiigs  from  the  Clyde  at  the 
rate  of  I  ,'Jo(),000  tons  a  year. 

LoilS.  (iKouc.E.  scholar,  was  Imni  at  I'oulton, 
Lancashire.  4th  November  1800,  and  from  Maccles- 
tielil  went  nji  in  ISIS  to  Trinity  Collejre,  Cambridge. 
In  IS'il  he  was  bracketed  with  Maiden  ami 
Macanlay  for  the  Craven  scholarshij) ;  in  IS'2'2 
<.'raduated  as  a  wrangler  and  senior  Chancellor's 
medallist,  and  in  1823  was  made  Kcllow  of  his 
<'ollege.  In  1824  he  accepted  the  chair  of  .Ancient 
Languages  in  the  university  of  Virginia,  United 
States;  btit  he  returned  to  England  in  1828  to 
becmne  (Ireek  |>rofes,sor  in  London  I'nivei'sity. 
Subse<)uently,  at  different  perioils  of  his  life, 
lie  taught  iis  |irofes.sor  of  Latin  at  Universit.v 
<'<dlege,  London  (  1842-46).  reader  in  jurisprudence 
and  civil  law  to  the  Miildle  Temjile  (1846  40 »,  and 
<lxssical  lecturer  at  Hrigbton  College  (1849-71). 
He  had  a  share  in  founding  the  Koyal  (Jeograpliical 
S<K-iety  (1830).  and  from  1831  took  an  active 
interest  in  the  Society  for  the  Ditlnsion  of  I'seful 
Knowledge,  writing  books  for  its  library  and 
editing  its  Jiiiiniul  nf  Eihirrttimi.  I>ut  the  /iiiif/mim 
o/iits  of  his  life  was  the  editing  (183:j-46)  of  the 
I\-iiiitf  i'tirhipd'tHii,  to  which  he  was  one  of  the 
most  valuable  conlrilmlors.  Besides  this  he  eilited 
the  liioijiiijiliinil  DirliiitKirji  (1842-44),  Knight's 
Politiriii  DiitioiKirii  {  1845  46 ),  the  excellent  liih/io- 
tlierit  C/(iistrii  series,  and  many  admirable  versions 
■of  cla.ssic  anthoi-s.  He  also  translated  Selections 
J'lom  Pliildieh's  /.irex.  Thoughts  of  M.  Aurelitis 
(1862),  and  fUseoiirses  of  E/iictetii.s  (1877).  con- 
tributed extensively  to  Smith's  Cliussical  diction- 
aries, ami  wroti'  fln/iiir  of  the  Itoiuan  JtepiiUir  in 
5  vols.     He  ilied  lOtli  August  1879. 

Luilgail  {ycjiheliiiin  Loniinii ),  one  of  the  finest 
•of  fruits,  of  the  same  genus  with  the  Litchi  (q-v. ), 
but  reckoned  superior  to  it. 

Loim  Braiiril.  a  fashionable  bathing-place  of 
New  Ji-rsey.  on  the  .\tlaiitic  Ocean,  some  30  miles 
S.  of  New  York  lity  and  13  S.  of  Sanily  llook. 
Here  are  many  costly  'cottages,'  occupieil  only  in 
i^nmnjer.      Pop.  7231. 

liMimcliailip.  the  racecoui'se,  lying  on  the 
south-wot  side  of  the  Bois  du  Boult)gne,  on  the 
west  of  Bans,  where  tlii'  race  for  the  (h-diiil  I'rlx  is 
run.  It  was  formerly  the  custom  fiu'  the  great 
fidk  of  Paris  to  drive  out  in  this  direction,  as  far 
as  the  old  nunnery  of  Longcliamp  ( founded  in  1260), 
during  the  week  prece<ling  Kiistcr. 

Lwilifl'liailip.  Wii.i.rAM  |)K.  a  Norman  of  low- 
birth,  and  a  favourite  of  King  IJichard  I.  The 
latter,  on  his  acces.sion,  maile  Longcliamp  Bislion 
of  Kly,  and  in  1  l!K)  joint-justiciar  of  Knglaml  with 
Hugh  de  Piidsey  ;  in  nil]  he  was  likewise  maile 
papal  legate.  But  his  ambition,  bis  .■irrog.iiice,  and 
liis  unpopular  mannei-s,  combined  wiib  bis  oppres- 
sive taxation,  made  him  greatly  disliked,  and 
Itichard  wa-s  obliged  to  send  him  back  to  Nor- 
iimiidy.'"  He  regaineil  the  royal  favour  by  bis 
energy  in  raising  the  king's  ransom  ;  his  reward 
oaiiie  in  the  appointment  of  chancellor.  He  died 
in  1197,  having  been  overthrown  by  the  parties 
of  .John,  (leotl'rey  Plantageni't,  the  Barons,  and 
AValter  de  Coutances,  some  time  before.  He  <lis- 
liked  till-  Knglish,  and  disphiveil  his  contemiit  for 
them  in  llie  coarsest  way,  declaring  thai  he  ilid  not 


understand  their  language  and  would  not  speak  it. 
Nevertheless  be  \v,as  a  clever  and  energetic  ruler, 
administered  strict  justice,  and  was  faithful  to  his 
|)rince.  .See  the  French  monogra]ih  by  L.  Boiviii 
Cbamjieanx  (Evreux,  1886). 

Loilg«'vit>'.  A  term  which  in  popular  usage 
has  come  to  mean  great  length  of  life  instead  of 
merely  length  of  life  :  therefore,  after  a  discussion 
of  centenarianism,  will  follow  a  short  account  of 
the  general  theory. 

The  wide-spread  belief  that  there  are  cases  on 
record  of  persons  living  to  the  age  of  l.M)  or  even 
200  years,  and  that  centenarians  are  iiuiiierons,  is 
owing  to  a  general  love  of  the  marvellous  backed 
by  superstition,  and  also  to  the  fact  that  noteil 
writers,  such  as  Haller  the  physiologist,  accepted 
and  reasoned  u])(m  many  such  stories.  But  in  1862 
Sir  G.  C.  Lewis  wrote  in  Notes  and  Queries  an 
article  in  which  lie  professed  disbelief  in  any  case 
of  a  life  exceeiling  100  years  ;  he  pointed  out  that 
neither  the  peerage  and  baronetage  nor  the  books 
of  insurance  companies  contained  any  evidence  of 
such,  and  further  that  the  current  stories  were 
nearly  all  of  persons  of  humble  rank,  careless  of 
registration,  so  that  their  statements  could  not  he 
verilied.  This  led  to  great  coiTespon<leiice  in  Xotes 
anil  Queries  and  elsewhere  :  the  editoi ,  Mr  Thonis, 
took  the  matter  up,  went  into  it  with  great  care, 
and  compiled  his  work  on  longevity  which  is 
authoritative.  He  examined  many  stories  of  very 
ancient  pei-sons,  showing  them  to  be  baseless:  while 
as  to  stock  historical  cases  of  Thomas  Parr,  Henry 
Jenkins,  and  the  Countess  of  Desmond,  reputed  to 
be  152,  169,  and  140  respectively,  he  found  th.-it 
there  was  no  satisfactory  evidence.  For  .lenkins 
there  was  none  save  his  own  assertion.  Parr  was 
before  his  death  a  celebrity,  the  poet  Taylor  wrote 
his  life  with  numerous  dates  of  various  events,  and 
Harvey  in  bis  post-mortem  report  repeats  the  popu- 
lar hearsay — this  is  all  the  eviilence  to  be  found. 
As  to  the' Countess  of  Desmond.  Mr  Thonis  gives 
conclusive  reasons  for  believing  that  the  stories 
from  which  her  age  is  deduced  really  relate  to  two, 
if  not  three,  ladies  of  that  title. 

The  evidence  which  is  often  said  to  exist  in  the 
registers  has  been  proved  in  many  eases  to  refer 
to  two  pei-siuis  of  the  same  name :  and  in  one 
noted  c.Tse,  Carr  of  Sluueditch,  said  to  be  207,  the 
2  wa.s  found  to  have  been  written  upon  the  top 
of  1.  As  to  tombstones,  the  age  .309  in  one  ca.s(' 
being  certainly  some  village  chiseller's  manner  of 
writing  39,  will  serve  as  an  example.  In  fact, 
a  review  of  the  evidence  shows  that  while  Lewis 
was  right  in  renouncing  his  contention  that  no 
certain  instances  of  a  greater  age  than  100  existed, 
a  belief  in  lives  of  l.'iO  years  is  no  longer  imssible. 
It  remains  to  add  that  there  is  no  scientilic  evidence' 
to  su]iport  the  belief  that  the  length  of  human  life 
was  once  much  greater  than  it  is  in  modern  times, 
nor  the  converse  opinion  that  the  length  of  life  has 
been  increasing  since  the  Psalmist  cited  it  at  three- 
score and  ten.  All  that  we  certainly  know  is  that 
in  civilised  countries  the  average  length  of  life  has 
been  for  many  obvious  reasons  emphatically  on  the 
iiicrciuse  for  se\  eral  centuries. 

There  is  another  i|uestion  of  common  interest : 
How  shall  we  live  to  attain  great  age?  There  have 
lieen  many  teachers  with  many  fads;  but  from  the 
varieil  modes  of  life  of  those  who  have  liveil  long 
it  is  jirobable  that  as  no  amount  of  fee<ling  will 
make  a  man  tall  who  is  destined  to  lie  short,  so  no 
amount  of  care  will  prolong  the  life  of  one  destined 
Iodic  young.  St  .Antony  lives  a  life  of  excessive 
austerity  and  he  dies  at  105.  Titian  is  all  his 
life  about  a  court  and  he  paints  a  line  picture  at 
ninet.y-si.x. 

Statistics  have  been  accumulated,  and  such 
general    facts   a.s    that    married   people   live  longer 


710 


LONUEVITY 


LONGFELLOW 


tlinn  iiniiiaiTieil,  that  women  live  longer  tliaii  iiioii.  ' 
anil  tliat  tlie  clergy  have  loiijjer  lives  than  othei- 
))iofessi(inal  men  have  heen  estalilislu'd  :  hut 
(leduitions  from  facts  such  as  these  are  unsafe  in 
the  present  state  of  scieuce — the  whole  suhject  is 
too  complex. 

Turning  now  to  the  general  question  of  the 
length  of  life  of  plants  ami  animals,  we  inay 
notice  at  the  outset  that  the  unicellular  organisms 
cannot  and  ilo  not  die  after  the  fivshion  of  those 
ill  which  death  seems  to  be  the  necessary  p'ice  paid 
for  a  '  hody  ; '  that  increase  of  intelligence  natur- 
ally tends  to  lengthen  life  ;  that  perfecting  of  the 
reproductive  processes  has  the  same  result ;  that 
many  males  live  much  longer  than  their  mates, 
and  so  on.  More  than  one  popular  adage  makes 
size  the  criterion  of  longevity,  but  it  is  at  most  a 
partial  factor;  for  wlule  an  elephant  lives  '2()()  years 
and  a  mouse  only  6,  carp  and  pike  may  attain  the 
age  of  the  former,  and  one  of  Sir  John  Lubbock's 
queen  ants  surpassed  the  mouse  by  almost  9  years. 
A  horse  often  lives  40  yeai-s,  but  the  donkey  may 
exceed  this,  while  lioth  are  o\itstripped  by  the 
gohlen  eagle  (CO),  by  an  almost  centenarian  captive 
raven,  by  a  toad,  or  even  by  Sir  .John  DalyeH's 
sea-anemone  'Grannie,'  which,  after  its  removal 
from  the  Firth  of  Forth,  lived  in  an  aquarium 
for  .59  years— from  1828  till  4th  August  1887. 
Flourens  supposed  that  the  length  of  life  was  live 
times  the  period  of  growth,  but  this  does  not  hold 
even  approximately  for  the  majority  of  animals. 
Rapidity  of  life  is  another  factor;  thus  the  sluggish 
amphibian  is  lung-lived,  and  trees  may  survive  over 
2000 years,  in  contrast  to  the  transient  life  of  many 
of  our  rapidly  growing,  brightly  Howering  anrnials, 
or  the  yet  more  ephemeral  existence  of  many  in- 
tensely "active  insects.  But  on  the  other  hand  ants 
and  bees  often  live  for  many  years,  and  some  of  the 
most  active  birds  attain  a  great  age.  According  to  ' 
SVeism.ann,  '  Duration  of  life  is  really  dependent 
upon  adaptation  to  external  conditions  ;  its  length, 
whether  longer  or  shorter,  is  governed  by  the  needs 
of  the  species,  and  is  determined  by  precisely  the 
same  mechanical  process  of  regulation  as  that  liy 
which  the  structure  and  functions  of  an  organism 
are  adapteil  to  their  environment.'  In  other  words, 
he  maintains  that  the  duration  of  life  is  lixed  | 
by  natural  selection  ;  that,  given  the  rate  of 
reproduction  ami  the  average  moitality,  the 
length  of  life  characteristic  of  any  species  is 
such  that  the  numbers  under  fixed  conditions  will 
remain  constant.  His  essay  is  suggestive,  but 
natural  selection  is  at  present  called  upon  to 
exjdain  too  much  :  for  instance,  he  believes  that 
that  principle  has  determined  that  no  creature  sliall 
long  survive  the  period  at  wliich  its  reproductive 
activity  ceases  ;  but  he  does  not  seem  to  ol)serve 
that  a  cn^ature  may  not  have  sutiicient  energy  for 
reproduction  and  yet  quite  enough  to  maintain  life 
in  an  ordinary  way  for  many  years,  as  is  notably 
the  co-se  with  women.  It  may  be  note<l  that  the 
unicellular  animals  in  natural  conditions  probably 
never  or  hardly  ever  die  a  natural  ileatli  :  they 
may  be  eaten  uj),  but,  violence  apart,  they  are 
virtually  immortal  ;  they  divide,  but  in  this  there 
is  no  death.  In  fact,  death  probably  began  with 
the  multicellular  organisms,  as  the  price  paid  for  a 
body. 

For  general  aspects  of  human  longevity,  see  'VV.  .T. 
Thonis,  Lotnieviti/  of  Man  ;  G.  M.  Humphrey.  OhI  Af/f  ; 
Burn  IJaiU-y,  Moilern  Mrthusdahs.  For  Rcnural  theory, 
pee  E.  Kay  Lankester,  Comparntire  Lonfftfiti/  :  and 
Au^st  Weismann.  Easnt/s  vpon  Hrrcditii  (trans  by 
I*oult<)n,  &c.),  which  contain  abundant  references  to  other 
literature  on  the  suhject.  .See  also  Infi'sokia,  PRr)To7,fi.\, 
KEPItoDfCTIOX,  iNsKCTs;  F.  Ilildebrand, /'i> /.(■'<ci(.w/''»»r, 
tic.  iter  I'tianzai^  in  Engler's  Botan.  Jahrfnteh,  Bd.  ii. 
(  Lei|i.  1881 ) ;  and,  for  furtlier  literature,  Geddes  and 
Thomson,  Bmliition  of  Sex  (1889). 


L(>ll£tVllu>v.  Hexrv  Wad.sworth,  born  in 
rurtland.  Maine,  I'.S.A.,  February  27,  1807,  and 
died  in  t'aniliridge,  Ma.ssachusetts,  copj-right  is*  in  u.s, 
.March  24,  1882.  He  inherited  the  i.y  J.  b.  Lirpincvtt 
best  blooil  of  the  two  Massa-  '■,.ii,|«u,.v. 
chusetts colonies — Pilgrim  and  I'uritan.  His  parents 
were  in  ea-sy  circunistances,  and  gave  him  the  best 
education  which  the  schools  of  the  time  afforded. 
At  the  early  age  of  eighteen  he  graduated  fron> 
Bowdoin  College  in  Brunswick,  Maine,  in  the  class 
with  Hawthorne,  his  life-long  friend.  His  rank  in 
col'ege  was  lii«;h,  especially  in  languages,  ancient 
and  modern.  His  translaticms  then  and  afterw.ird 
were  noted  for  a  felicity  and  point  ([uite  beyond 
the  reach  of  ordinary  scholars.  In  1,820  the  trustees 
of  the  college  sent  him  to  Furojie  to  (|nalify  for  the 
chair  of  Foreign  Languages  and  l,iter;itnres  ;  and 
he  spent  a  year  and  three-ciuai teis  with  this  end 
in  view  in  France,  Spain,  Italy,  and  (lermany. 

After  his  return  home  he  married  in  1831  Miss- 
Potter  of  Portland,  who  died  in  Rotterdam  ii» 
ISS."),  while  they  were  making  a  tour  in  Europe;; 
she  is  commemorated  in  the  touching  jioeni,  T/i' 
Fditlstcps  of  An(i>is.  He  h.ad  written  poems  while 
at  college,  and  published  them  in  magazines, 
cliietly  in  the  United  Stutix  l.iti  niry  Hiizi'.ttr.  His 
tirst  book,  omitting  his  numerous  linguistic  works,^ 
was  a  version  of  T/ic  Co/i/as  nf  Dmi  Jorfje  Max- 
ritiiie,  a  grave  and  stately  ]>oeiii,  in  itself  probably 
interior  to  Longfellow's  fortunate  translation. 
Oiiire  Mei\  an  account  of  his  liist  tour,  aijpeared 
in  1835;  and  Hi/periiiii.  which  is  a  journal  of  a 
later  trip,  in  1839.  Moth  are  interspersed  with 
translations  of  German  ]ioems,  and  both  have  a 
permanent  value  as  indicating  the  develoiunent  ot* 
the  poet's  mind  and  art. 

In  November  1831)  he  became  jirofessorof  Modern. 
Languages  and  Literature  in  Harvard  College,  and 
held  the  chair  nearly  eighteen  years,  being  suc- 
ceeded by  Mr  Lowell.  Co/era  nftln-  Xitpit.  his  tirst 
book  of  <iriginal  verse,  appeared  in  18.39.  This- 
gave  to  the  world  a.  distinctly  new  impression  of 
tenderness,  manly  sentiment,  and  melody,  and  tiv 
the  author  an  assured  place  among  poets.  The- 
impression  was  deepened  by  the  Jltil/iii/s  (1841), 
including  'The  Skeleton  in  Armour.'  'The  AV reck 
of  the  Hesperus,'  'The  Vill.age  Blacksmith,'  '  Kx- 
celsior.'  and  others,  rmiiis  on  !^/iiriii/  ajipearerf 
in  184'2.  By  this  he  gave  evidence  of  his  moral 
convictions  and  courage,  for  at  that  time  anti- 
slavery  poets  and  oiatiu's  were  unpoimlar  to  the- 
last  degree.  In  1843  was  published  T/ie  Spa7iis/i 
Student,  a  drama  slight  in  sulistancc,  but  full 
of  movement  and  gaiety,  and  brilliant  in  local 
cohnir. 

He  made  a  third  visit  to  F.nmpe  in  1842,  and  on 
his  return  the  following  year  was  married  to  Miss 
Frances  Ajipleton  of  Boston,  a  beautiful  and 
accomplished  woman,  the  mother  of  his  live  chil- 
dren. He  made  cidlections  of  poems,  including 
some  of  his  own  transl.-itions :  j'/ie  !)'<((/(  1845), 
'J7ie  Ksli-dii  ( 1847) — both  now  very  scarce — and  The 
Poets  (niff  I'oetrii  of  Eniiiiir  (  184o').  This  la.st  is  a 
large  and  important  work,  in  which  he  was  aided 
by  his  friend  C.  C.  Felton.  The  Jie/fri/  of  Bnieiex 
and  other  J'oeinx  i\.\il»Muetl  in  1846.  In  the  follow- 
ing year  he  gave  to  the  world  what  is  ])ndjably  his 
most  pcqiular  ]ioem,  Ke<ini/eline,  a  tale  of  the 
French  exiles  of  .-Xcadia,  known  and  admired  by 
reailers  of  every  degree,  and  translated  into  most 
modern  tongues.  Opinions  may  dilVer  as  to  the 
use  of  the  hexameter  measure  ;  but,  while  critics- 
debate,  the  vital  interest  of  the  |pathctic  story 
seizes  upon  all  hearts.  Kiimiifii/h.  a  juose  tale, 
aiqieared  in  1849.  The  Seoxio'e  iiiid  the  Fireside 
(18.')0)  contains  'The  Building  of  the  Sliip,' one  of 
the  linest  of  his  iioenis,  which  hius  a  great  hold  upon 
tlie  people  of  the  I'nited  States  on  account  of  the 


LONGFELLOW 


LONGINUS 


711 


i,'rainl  ]ianiotie  invocation  with  wliicli  it  closes. 
Till'  Gnhlrn  Ldjetiii  (\SM),  liaseil  upon  an  ancient 
(iernian  ballad,  Dn-  Amir  Hiinrirli,  by  Haitniann 
von  Alio,  is  a  striUinu'  ["'em,  nieilicval  in  tone  and 
well  sust.iiin'd.  tlionj,di  not  a  iMastcr|nece.  His 
j;enius  is  sliown  at  its  best,  in  Iliiiinithn  (18r>.'i), 
fonndi'il  n|>on  tiailitions  and  li'ircnds  of  tlio  North 
American  Indians.  The  li^'ht  and  tiiiipiiiL;  tneasure, 
the  sinijilicity  of  phiaso,  and  the  well-calcnlated 
repetitions  at  lirst  give  an  ini|>ression  of  artlessness, 
almost  of  baldness  ;  bnt  whoever  reads  the  poem 
with  enlighteneil  eyes  finds,  nnder  this  easy  flow  of 
j  worils,  a  series  of  poetic  conceptiinis,  the  suggestion 
I  of  noble  and  enduring  images,  and  the  mastery  of 
just  expression.  'The  Courtship  of  Mi/es  Struidi.s/i 
'  (18.5S)is  a  story  in  hexameters  of  the  early  days 
;  of  tlie  Plymoutli  colony  in  Massachusetts.  To  the 
people  of  New  England  this  jioem  has  an  inexpres- 
sible charm  on  accmint  of  its  liistorioal  associations  : 
it  is  a  mirrcn'  of  the  life  of  the  I'ilgiims.  The  story 
is  interesting  in  itself,  and  is  told  with  easy  grace. 
The  poet  was  descended  from  the  Priscilla  of  this 
poem,  whose  well-known  question,  '  Why  don't 
you  speak  for  yourself,  John?'  i.s  the  keynote  of 
the  hook.  Tah.i  of  a  H'lii/.i/'ilc  Inn  is  a  poem  which 
appeared  in  parts,  in  ditl'erent  volumes  ( 186.S,  187'2, 
1874) — its  plan  suggested  evidently  by  the  Canter- 
burl/  Tales.  The  Inn  was  in  Sudbury,  Massa- 
chusetts, famous  a  century  ago.  and  the  poet  has 
gathered  there  acomp.my  of  well-known  men  whom 
lie  portrays,  ami  who  in  turn  tell  stories,  some  of 
which  are  from  Boccaccio  and  other  early  writers, 
and  some  original.  Floirr.r-ile-Lucc  ( 1867),  though 
not  so  famous  as  other  collections,  shows  in  its 
twelve  short  poems  some  of  the  poets  most  ex- 
quisite workmanship.  The  New  Eiuflund  Tragedies 
(1868),  in  blank  ver.se,  treats  mainly  of  the  Salem 
witchcraft  in  the  latter  part  nf  the  17tli  century. 
The  next  work  was  a  complete  and  faithful  trans- 
lation of  the  three  parts  of  Dante's  Divine  Conicdn 
(1867-70).  Christ ns,  a  Mi/stiri/,  being  the  gospel 
story  in  blank  verse,  appeared  in  1872.  This  was 
afterwarils  printed  with  The  Golden  Ler/end  and 
The  Xen-  England  Tragedies  consecutively.  Three 
Books  of  Song,  containing  the  conclusion  of  Tales 
of  a  Wayside  Inn,  Judas  ]\Iarrah<nii.<<,  &c. ,  was 
published  in  1872  :  Aftermath,  \n  K'i -,  The  Masque 
of  Pandora,  in  1875.  This  last  volume  contains  a 
poem,  '  Morituri  Salutamus,'  written  for  the  fiftieth 
anniversary  of  the  poet's  gradualion  from  college. 
The  occa.sion,  which  was  noticed  throughout  tlie 
United  State.s,  was  most  imiiressive  and  all'ecting. 
/Ccra/«os(1878)  an'd  Ultima  Thule  (1880)  were  the 
last  of  the  long  series.  No  menti(m  is  made  of 
his  many  contributions  to  magazines  and  reviews. 
Poems  of  Places,  a  collection  undertaken  by  the 
poet  without  too  niui'h  thought  of  the  magnitude 
of  the  tivsk,  reached  .'U  v(dumes. 

He  paid  a  l.a-st  visit  to  Europe  in  1868-69,  and  was 
received  in  England  with  honour  and  love.  The 
greater  and  most  fruitful  part  of  Longfellow's  life 
was  passed  at  (,'ambridge,  .Mass.achusetts,  where 
he  lived  in  a  stately  colonial  house  wliicli  had 
been  the  headquarters  of  Washington  during  the 
siege  of  Boston,  ami  which  remains  as  he  left  it. 
His  striking  features,  his  full  lieard,  and  his 
massive  lieail,  crowned  with  abundant  silvery  hair, 
gave  him  a  singularly  noble  look.  He  wa.s  free 
from  the  faults  of  many  literary  men — never 
exhibiting  envy  or  jealousy,  and  ]ireserving  always 
a  serenity  and  amiability  that  won  the  hearts  of 
all  who  met  him.  His  rel.itions  with  his  conteiri- 
|ioraries — Emerson,  Hawthorne,  Holuies,  Lowell, 
and  Ag.i-ssiz — were  intimate  and  hearty,  and  the 
literary  society  in  which  he  moved  was  simple 
and  ch.ariiiing. 

He  began  as  a  translator,  and  in  many  respects 
his    translations    were    his    best   work.      He   was 


!  not  a  minute  or  methodical  observer,  but  w.o-s 
open  to  all  the  impressions  of  nature,  and  his 
vei-se  has  a  general  rather  than  a  particular 
truth  in   reganl  to  the   external   world.     He  was 

I  not  a  profound  student  of  human  nature,  and 
seldom  throws  any  startling  light  into  its  secret 
rifts  and  contradictions ;  but  he  knew  mankind 
in  general,  esjiecially  in  their  tender  fibres,  their 

j  interior  life  of  alternate  hope  and  depression, 
and  in  all  that  makes  the  delight  of  home.  Of 
modern  jmets  he  is  the  one  w  ho  has  best  ex])ressed 
the  feelings  of  natural  men  in  reg.-ird  to  love  and 
maternity,    ]ieace    and    goodwill,    death    and    the 

I  future  life.  The  wide  gamut  and  ]ierfect  accord  of 
his  symjiathies  have  made  him  the  poet  of  the 
peojjle  without  losing  the  regard  and  the  respect 
of  the  cultiv.ated  few.  How  large  a  place  he  fills 
can  best  be  estimated  by  consideiing  the  void  that 
would  be  left  if  the  Voices  rjf  the  Night,  Erangeline, 
and  lliairatha,  and  the  long  succession  of  poems 
could  be  blotted  out  from  the  memories  of  men. 
He  did  not  consider  himself  one  of  '  the  grand  old 
masleis,'  nor  one  of 

the  bards  su1)]iiiie, 
Wlinse  distant  footsteps' echo 
In  the  corridors  of  Time. 

If  he  was  not  gre.at  among  the  half-dozen  great 
poets,  he  was  amimg  those  who  have  made  the 
iiest  use  of  their  talents.  The  faculty  of  full  and 
just,  as  well  as  of  delicate  and  suggestive  expres- 
sion, developed  by  patient  study,  gave  to  hi.s 
thoughts  ami  sentiments  a  value  and  currency  for 
which  greater  men  have  sought  in  v.ain.  After  all 
<leductions  there  remains  a  gre.at  and  almost  in- 
comparable treasure  in  his  varied  and  beautiful 
works. 

Sec  his  Life  by  his  brother,  the  Eev.  8.ainiiel  Long- 
fellow {o  vols.  l88fi-87);  and  the  nieinorial  volume 
published  shortly  after  his  death  by  the  present  writer. 

Loiiju;  Finn.    See  Fr.\ud. 

Loii;;ror<l.  an  inland  county  of  Leinster, 
Ireland,  bounded  on  the  W.  by  the  Shannon  and 
on  the  S\V.  by  Lough  Ree.  Its  maxiiiiuiu 
length  is  29  miles,  its  maximum  breadth  2(1. 
.-Vi-ea,  421  sq.  m.  Pop.  (1841)  11.1.4!l[-,  (ISCI) 
71,604;  (1881)61,009;  ( 1891  )  .52,647— 01  jier  cent. 
Rom.an  Catholics.  The  surface  is  fm-  the  most  part 
flat,  and  the  soil  on  the  whole  fertile,  though 
extensive  tracts  of  bog  exist.  Oats  and  l)otatoes 
are  the  principal  crops  ;  51  per  cent,  of  the  area 
is  permanent  grass.  The  ccmnty  is  stnddeil  with 
numerous  small  lakes,  and  is  crosse<l  by  the  Koyal 
Canal.  Marble  of  good  quality  is  found.  Linen 
and  coarse  woollens  aie  manufacliiicd,  and  laige 
i|uantities  of  butter  are  made.  The  ccninty  returns 
two  members  to  p.arliament.  Loiigfoul  anciently 
f(U'med  part  of  the  kingdom  of  Meatli,  ami  was 
included  in  Heniy  Il.'s  grant  to  Hugh  de  Lacy. 
It  was  erected  into  a  county  in  1564.  The  an- 
tiquities are  of  much  interest,  the  islands  of  Lough 
Itee  being  esijccially  rich  in  monastic  remains. — 
LiiXCKDiti),  the  county  town,  on  the  river  C.-iiiilin 
anil  a  liianch  of  the  lio.val  Canal,  76  miles  N\V. 
of  Dublin  liv  rail.  Its  best  building  is  the  m>w 
llomau  Calhcdic  cathedral  (1840-9:1).     Pop.  :1.S27. 

Luimilllis,  Dionysus  C.vssiis.  a  famous  I'la- 
tonic  philosopher  and  rhetorician  of  the  ltd  centurv, 
born  at  Eniesa  or  at  .Vtliens,  about  21;!  A.Ii.  lie 
studied  at  .Mexandria,  under  .Amnionius,  and  he 
himself  taught  rhetoric  in  .Athens,  wheie  the 
famous  I'orpliyrv  w.as  a  pupil.  Later  he  settled  at 
Palni\"i;t.  and  bee.'inie  chief  counsellor  lii  the 
eclebniteil  (jiueen  Zenobja,  whom  he  abelti'd  in  her 
determination  to  shake  ofl'  the  liomaii  yoke.  Kor 
this  he  was  beheaded  ii-s  a  traitor,  by  comman<l  of 
the  Emperor  ,\iireli,an,  273  A.l>.  The  only  work  of 
his  that  icniains  is  the  famous  treatise  /'(•(■('  Ili/jisons 


712 


L,ONG    ISLAND 


LONG    PARLIAMENT 


('On  the  Siililiiiie '),  the  authenticity  of  which  has 
been  iniimjincil.  'I'liere  are  editions  hy  Kj;j;er  ( 1S.S7  ) 
and  Otto  Jahu  (18G7).  See  Vancliei's  AVhi/cs 
criliqiics  siir  le  Traitc  tin  Sublime  ((leneva,  1854). 

LoilS  Island,  an  ishmd  which  fonus  three 
counties  of  the  stale  of  New  VorU,  lioumied  N.  by 
Lon;;  l>lanil  Sounil.  K.  and  S.  l)y  tlie  Atlantic 
Ocean,  and  W.  Iiy  the  Ea.st  Kiver  (spanned  1)y  the 
Brooklyn  suspension  liridge).  It  is  115  miles  long, 
and  from  12  to  24  in  width,  with  an  area  of  1(582 
sq,  m.  On  its  .south  shore  is  a  series  of  lagoons, 
the  largest  40  miles  long  and  5  or  (i  wide.  A  line 
of  low  hills  rises  in  the  interior  to  384  feet.  There 
are  numerous  small  lakes  ami  watercourses,  and 
market-gardening  especially  is  carried  on  with 
success — for  the  most  part  liy  ( o'rnians.  l>ut 
much  of  the  island  is  waste  land  or  foiest,  and  such 
po|iular  watering-places  as  Coney  Island  (i|.v.)  are 
idanted  among  deserts  of  sand.  There  is  still  a 
good  deal  of  game,  and  the  lisheries  and  oyster- 
beds  are  very  valuable.  The  island  has  nearly 
100  miles  of  railway.  The  principal  towns  aie 
Hrooklyn,  Long  Island  City,  and  Flushing.  Creed- 
moor  (ipv.)  is  the  principal  American  riHerangc. 
Long  Island  was  the  scene  of  a  campaign  in  ITTIi, 
in  which  Sir  Hemy  Clinton  lin.illy  ccimjielled 
Washin.ulon  to  eviicuate  the  island.  Pop.  (1870) 
.540,048;    (  1890  )  l,02n.(l!17.      See  Xkw  'S'uIIK. 

L(>N(;  I.SLANU  Siirxii,  lying  lietween  Long 
Island  and  the  mainland  of  New  Vork  and  Connec- 
ticut, is  from  2  to  20  miles  wide,  ami  from  75  to 
about  200  feet  in  depth.  It  is  navigated  by  an 
immense  number  of  coasting-vessels  and  steamers. 
and  receives  the  Thames,  Connecticut,  Housatonic, 
and  other  rivers  on  its  northern  shore. 

Long  Island  City,  on  Long  Island,  separated 
from  New  Vork  city  by  the  East  Itiver  and  from 
Hnxdvlyn  by  the  navigable  Newtown  Creek,  was 
formed  in  1870  from  live  villages.  It  is  a  railway 
terndnus,  and  has  some  extensive  manufactories, 
including  oil-relineries,  and  carjiet  and  piano  works. 
Pop.  I  1880)  17,1211;  (181I0)  .30,,S96. 

Lon;;itud<-.    See  L.vtitidk. 

L<»n<j:laii4l.  W  illi.v.m.    See  L.wiiL.WD. 

Lon;i;nians.  a  well-known  tirm  of  London 
publi.vjiers,  whose  name  has  been  associated  with 
high  i-la.ss  literature  for  five  generations.  Thonuis 
Longman  (UiilO  17.)5),  descended  from  .a  line  of 
Bristol  merchants,  was  Imiinil  apprentice  to  .lohn 
Osborne,  bookseller,  Lomliard  Street,  whosedaughter 
he  married.  The  earliest  tille-])age  bearing  the 
imprint  of  T.  Longman  is  the  Countess  of 
Moreton  s  Daili/  E.rcrcisc  (1065).  The  name  of  T. 
Osborne  also  appears  on  the  title.  Longman  bought 
the  business  of  William  Taylor,  |iulilisher  of 
Iiuhiiisiiii  Vnisdf,  conducted  in  Paternoster  How. 
and  in  1726  moved  there,  the  i>iesent  site  of 
the  lirm.  As  was  the  custcmi  at  that  time,  the 
first  Longman  held  shares  in  many  imjiortant  pub- 
lications, such  as  lioyle's  Works,  Ainsworth's  I.ritiii 
Diftidiiiirji,  the  VijrUijxvdia  of  Ephraim  Chambers, 
and  rlohnsnn's  htrtionart/.  His  nephew  and  suc- 
cessor Thom.'is  Longm.an  (17.'il  07)  brought  out  a 
new  edition  of  Chambers's  Ciirlopn-ditt.  Cnder 
Thomas  Norton  Longman  (1771  1842)  th<'  firm 
reached  a  high  point  of  literary  and  commercial  suc- 
cess, anil  from  time  to  time  fresh  blooil  was  iiitro- 
diieeil  in  the  partners,  Me.ssi-s  Hurst,  Kees,  Orme, 
Brown,  Oreen,  and  Hidierts.  When  the  govern- 
ment was  about  to  impose  an  additional  (bity  on 
paper,  siibsei|uent  to  that  of  1704,  the  Longman 
firm  used  such  arguments  as  averted  that  calamity. 
At  that  time  the  house  had  ne.-irly  lloo.ooil  surik 
in  various  schemes.  Liinlley  Muriay's  (•iiiuiiinir 
was  a  good  ])roperty,  while  the  firm  li.id  a  literary 
connection  with  Wcudsworth.  Soulhev.  Coleridge, 
Scott,  .Moore  (who  received  f.SOWfor  j.id/d  Jtoo/Ji ), 


Sydney  Smith,  and  others.  Byron's  Etii/Zi-sli  Biiri/s 
was  rejected  because  of  its  severe  handling  of  the 
Lake  ]>oets,  whose  works  were  issued  by  Longman. 
After  t 'onst.able's  (ipv.)  failure  in  ls2t)  the  J-Jt/iii- 
b((iy/i  Urriiw  became  the  property  of  the  lirm.  Some 
of  tiie  forenu)st  authors  of  the  day  were  contributors 
to  Lardner's  Vubiiict  Ciiclojjdiliu  (1,829-46)  in  132 
volumes.  The  ne.\t  guiding  .s]iirits  of  the  firm  were 
Thomas  Longnuui  (1804-79),  eldest  son  of  T.  N. 
Longman,  who  issued  umler  his  special  care  a 
beautifully-illustrated  New  Testament,  and  William 
Longman  (1813-77),  the  third  son.  The  latter 
figured  as  an  author  and  historian,  and  printed 
privately  a  Six  Wirl.s  Tour  in  Sti-it:crluiitl,  con- 
tributed to  the  A/jiiiic  Joiinnd,  was  a  president 
of  the  Al|>ine  Club,  and  wrote  Lcrtiircs  t»i  the 
History  vf  Etiqittiiil  (  bS.59),  Ilisfun/  of  the  Life  and 
Times  of  Edintnl  HI.  (1869),  .ind  Uixtoii/' of  the 
Three  VotlietlraU  of  St  I'util  {  1873).  The  event 
of  this  generation  was  the  publication  in  succes- 
sion of  Slacaulav  s  Iaujs  ( 1842)  ami  Essai/s  ( 1843), 
and  History.  Tlie  famous  chei|Ue  for  £20.000  paid 
to  Macaulay  'on  account'  of  his  share  of  the  profits 
of  the  third  ami  fourth  volumes  for  the  first  few 
months  (18.55)  is  still  i)reserved.  The  absorption 
of  the  stock-in-tiade  and  business  connection  of 
the  Parkers  in  1863  intro<liKed  the  works  of  .1. 
S.  ilill,  Froude,  aiul  Sir  <'ornewall  Lewis.  The 
Trareller's  Library  was  an  excellent  cheaj)  serie.s. 
The  partners  of  the  fifth  generation  are  now 
Thoina,s  Norton  Longman  and  (leorge  lienrv 
Longman,  son.s  of  Thom:is  Longman,  and  Charles 
James  Longman  and  H.  11.  Longman,  sons  of 
\Villiam  Longman.  One  of  the  earliest  ventures 
of  this  generation  was  Lord  Beaconslield's  Eiii/y- 
mion,  for  which  they  gave  the  author  1"  10,000. 
Lord  Beaconsfield's  other  works  had  come  into 
possession  of  the  firm  in  1870,  when  they  published 
Lotliair.  Since  the  stoppage  of  Eraser's  JIayazine 
a  si.vpenny  magazine  has  been  published  by  the 
house— /,o«i//;(((/i.v.  A  paitner,  Thomas  Brown, 
left  in  1869  £10,000  each  to  Hut  l!ooksellei>'  Provi. 
dent  Itetreat  and  Institution,  in  which  the  lirm  hius 
since  been  nntch  interested.  In  1890  Kivingtou's 
business  ami  stock  was  bought  by  the  Longmans. 
Uivington's  was  the  only  business  which  exceeded 
that  of  the  Limgmans   in  anti(|uity,  and  by  this 

j  purchase  a  friendly  rivalry  of  over  150  yeais  came 
to  an  end. 

Long  ParliaUK'nt.  the  mime  by  which  the 
liftb  parliament  summoned  by  Charles  I.  is  known. 
It  succeeded  the  Short  Parliament,  dissolved  after 
three  weeks,  and  met  November  3,  1640.  It  began 
its  work  by  reversing  all  the  tyrannical  and  illegal 
acts  of  the  i>ast  eleven  years,  with  the  abolition  of 
the  Star  Chamber  anil  High  Commission,  and  the 
impeachment  of  Stiall'ord;  while  it  secured  it.self  by 
an  act  that  it  could  not  be  dissolved  without  its 
own  consent.  Just  befoie  Charles  I.'s  trial  it  was 
'  purged  '  by  Colonel  Pride  of  96  members  displea.s- 
ing  to  the  army,  and  the  remnant— the  '  Kump  ' — 
continiu'd  to  sit  until  its  tnembers  were  turned  out 
by  the  Lord  (ieneral  Cromwell,  April  20,  1653. 
The  "Bumi)'  was  recalled  by  the  oilicers  on  the 
failure  of  Hichard  Cromwell  to  maintain  his 
authority,  and  of  the  160  members  who  had  con- 
tinued   to    sit    after    the    king's   death    about    90 

I  returned  to  their  seats.  Proving  once  nM>re  dis- 
pleasing to  the  army,  they  were  again  turned  out 
liy  (ieneral  Lambert.  Tliey  were  restored  amid 
the  ilissensions  of  the  otticers,  as  the  only  body  in 
the  country  having  any  kind  of  legal  atithority, 
anil,  on  the  motion  of  .\shlev  Cooper,  the  members 
ejected  by  '  Pride's  I'urge  '  returned  to  their  seats. 
.•\fter    issuing    the    writs   for    a    new   election    it 

I  dissolved   itself,  March   16,    1660.     Thus  ended  the 

j  Long  Parliament,  which,  twice  expelled  and  twice 
restored,  had  lasted  for  twenty  years. 


LONGKIDUE 


LOOCHOO 


ri3 


Longridst'*  •'  ^"'i'"  iniiiiufacturin;.'  town  of 
Laueiisliiie,  tjj  milt's  !»■  rail  NE.  of  I'rt'stoii,  on  the 
>iile  of  the  Louj;ij(lf.'e  Fell,  wliifli  fxti-rnls  .);.  miles 
N  E.  to  the  Uoiinilarv  of  Voiksliiie.  Here  are 
I're.-ton  reservoirs,  ami  manufaetures  of  roiloii 
•^ooils,  nails.  Oi:e.  Top.  4101.  See  Toiii  (_'.  Sinilli, 
llitl'ny  of  Luntjrkliic  (  1S!S9). 

Loiiuships.    See  SciLi.Y  Islands. 

LongStrt'Ot.  James,  an  American  general, 
Itoru  in  South  Carolina  in  IS'21,  -iradnated  at  West 
I'oint  in  1842,  foujilit  in  the  Mexican  war.  and  in 
IMtil  entered  the  (  imfederale  service.  He  took 
iiart  in  both  bailies  ui  l!ull  Itun,  thai  of  Williams- 
iiurg,  those  around  Kichmond,  and  at  Fredericks- 
buri;,  CiettYsburg,  ('hickamauga,  and  the  \A'ilder- 
ness.  Known  to  the  soldiers  jvs  '  OUl  Pete,'  he  '  was 
considered  the  hardest  lighter"  in  the  Confederate 
service.     He  was  minister  to  Turkey  in  ISSO-Sl. 

LoilgtUII.  a  municipal  borough  of  Stafford- 
shire, is  situated  at  the  southern  extremity  of 
the  Potteries.  -IK  miles  SE.  of  Stoke-ujion-Trent, 
and  included  within  its  )iarHamentary  boundary. 
It  was  incoriMiraied  as  a  niuniciiial  borough  in 
lS(io,  and  its  municipal  bimndaries  were  extended 
in  188:^.  The  prosperity  of  the  town  is  due  to  the 
manufacture  of  chi-ia  and  earthenware,  though 
malting,  brewing,  and  brick-making  are  also 
♦■arrieil  on.  Close  bv  are  ironworks  and  collieiies. 
Pop.  I  1S51 )  lo.l4'.» :  ■(  IS81 )  KS.O'iO  ;  ( 1891 )  :M,327. 

Loiiguenil.  Bakoxv  of.    See  Le  ^NIoyxe. 
Loiiuiieville,  Di"che.ss  df  (1619-79),  the  soul 

4if  the  Fronile  (ij.  v. ). 

LoilgWOOll.     SeeSr  Hki.ena. 

Longwy,  a  sm.-ill  town  and  fortress  in  the 
extreme  north  of  the  French  department  of  Meurthe- 
et-Moselle,  18  miles  WSW.  of  Luxemburg.  The 
fortress  capitulated  to  the  Prussians  in  1792,  1815, 
and  1871.     Pop.  5(j().5. 

Lonnrot.  Ei.IAS,  a  great  Finnish  scholar  and 
folklorist.  was  born  at  Samnuitti  in  Nyland.  9th 
April  1802.  He  studied  medicine,  and  ])ractised 
for  twenty  years  in  Kajaini,  but  in  1853  on  Castrens 
4leath  succeeded  to  the  ch.air  of  Finnish  at  Helsing- 
fors,  from  the  duties  of  which  he  retired  in  1802. 
He  helped  to  fonnil  the  Finnish  Literary  Society 
at  Helsinglors  in  KS.'il.  and  made  throughout  his 
life  journeys  through  the  whole  of  Finland,  as  well 
as  the  neighbouring  parts  of  Lapland,  Hussia,  and 
Sweden,  in  order  to  colli'ct  the  remains  of  poetry 
and  tradition  lingering  among  the  [leople.  The 
Jirst  fruit  of  the.se  iniiuiries  \\:us  a  collection  of 
more  or  less  ancient  linnish  folk-songs,  Kaiitc/f 
<I829-.31),  after  which  followed  in  18:i5  the  great 
■epic  of  the  KaUrnln.  His  Kmitclitiir  (1840)  wtis 
a  collection  of  hrical  folk-poetrY :  Sona/uskiijti 
(1S42),  of  proverbs;  .  I /-(iv«V  »/.*/«'(  1844  ;  2d  ed., 
much  enlarged,  18(51  ),  of  ridilles.  No  le.ss  important 
were  the  contributions  to  Finnish  ]ihiloIogy  which 
bis  profound  knowledge  of  the  popular  dialects 
♦■nabled  him  to  make.  His  latest  work  Wius  the 
great  Finnish  Dictionary  (2  vols.  I8G0-80).  He 
died  at  his  native  place,  i9tli  March  1884. 

Lou.s-Ic-Suiiuier,  capital  of  the  French  de- 
partment of  the  Jura,  stands  in  a  basin  of  the  Jura 
Alountains,  surrounded  with  vine-clad  hills,  42 
miles  by  rail  E.  by  S.  of  Ch.'ilonsur  Saone.  It 
wa.s  fonniled  in  the  4th  century,  when  its  salt- 
springs  were  discovered  ;  these  are  still  in  use  for 
liathing,  and  salt  Ls  manufactured  from  them. 
Mi-lons,  white  wine,  ami  mathematical  instruments 
are  produced.  Pop.  (1H72)  10,(528;  (1891)12.427. 
li'iuget  de  Lisle,  the  author  of  the  Miiistilkiijie, 
V  as  lioni  here. 

LoO«  a  rouml  game  at  cards,  formerly  callcil 
lanterloo.  .About  live  players  make  the  best 
j.':i!Ne.      Each   |iiits   down  a  st.ike   to  form  a  //ox/ ,• 


the  dealer  stakes  ilouble.  Three  cards  are  dealt 
to  each  ])layer  as  at  whist,  and  an  e.xtra  hand, 
called  miss.  The  top  canl  of  the  stock  is  then 
turned  up  for  trumps.  Each  player  in  rotation 
looks  at  his  hanil,  and  ilrrUurs  whether  he  will 
jilay,  resign,  or  take  miss.  If  he  takes  miss  he 
must  play  it.  The  declared  players  i)lay  one  card 
j  each  m  rotation,  the  carils  thus  played  forming  a 
I  trick.  The  highest  whist  card  wins,  or  if  trumped, 
the  highest  trump.  The  winner  of  a  trick  leads 
to  the  next.  The  cards  |ilayed  remain  face  tip- 
wards  before  the  players.  If  the  leader  holds  ace 
1  of  trum]is  (or  king  when  ace  is  turned  up),  he 
I  must  lead  it :  if  he  has  two  trumps,  he  must  lead 
,  one.  He  is  not  obliged  to  lead  ibi'  highest,  unless 
(«)  it  is  the  ace  (or  king,  ace  being  turned);  or 
\  (h)  there  are  only  two  declareil  players.  Subse- 
quent players  nnist  follow  suit,  and  must  head 
the  trick  if  able.  If  not  able  to  follow  suit,  ami 
holding  a  trump,  they  must  lieail  the  trick  by 
trumping.  The  winner  of  the  first  trick  nuist  lead 
a  trump  if  able.  In  other  respects  the  play  is  as 
at  whist.  The  winners  of  the  tricks  divide  the 
pool,  one-third  for  each  trick.  If  only  one  declares 
to  play,  the  dealer  plays  miss  for  the  pool  :  tricks 
won  l>y  miss  remaining  in  to  auj;ment  the  next 
pool.  If  only  the  dealer  declares  to  jday,  he  takes 
the  poid.  If  each  declared  player  wins  a  trick  it 
is  a  suir/le,  and  a  fresh  pool  is  staked  as  before,  the 
deiil  [lassing  to  the  left  of  the  i)revious  dealer. 
If  any  declared  player  fails  to  win  a  trick,  he  is 
Iviieil  the  anumnt  in  the  jmioI  ;  the  player  who  now 
deals  ])uts  in  a  single  stake,  no  one  else  contribut- 
ing. It  is  advisable  to  lix  a  limit  beyond  which  a 
player  cannot  be  looed.  If  there  is  more  in  the 
])ool,  the  player  is  only  looed  up  to  the  limit. 
There  are  no  recognised  laws  of  loo.  The  Blen- 
heim Club,  for  mauY  years  the  best  authoritY  on 
I  loo,  issued  laws  for  ilie  use  of  the  members.  These 
,  laws  are  re)niblished  in  Ituinid  (itnnis  at  Cards 
( De  La  Hue  &  Co. ). 

Lo«».  The.     See  Apeldorn. 

LooclloO  (otherwise  Lliihiii  m-  lHn  Kin),  a 
gr«mp  of  thirty-seven  islands,  of  which  the  most 
considerable  are  Dshima  and  Okinawa.  The 
islands  extend  at  irregular  intervals  in  a  south- 
westerly direction  from  Kyushu  in  Japan,  .and 
form  the  prefecture  of  ()kinawa  in  that  empire. 
Their  aggregate  area  is  1863  scj.  m.,  an<l  the 
population  amounts  to  only  160,000.  Linguist- 
ically and  ethnically  the  Loochooans  are  almost 
identical  with  other  Japanese,  and  their  mannei's, 
eiistoms,  and  religious  observances  (Shintoist  )  bear 
a  close  affinity.  They  were  formerly  subject  to 
the  lord  of  Satsuma.  and  |iaid  an  annual  tribute, 
having  been  comjiletely  subjected  in  1609.  China 
has  made  a  claim  iijion  the  islands,  which  she 
still  holds  in  reserve,  but  they  are  essentially 
.lapanese  soil.  The  men  do  not  shave  the  hair 
like  the  .lapanese  ;  they  pin  it  (m  the  crown  of  the 
bead,  with  a  star  in  front.  The  women  tattoo 
iheir  hands.  The  streets  are  paved  with  stone, 
and  stone  walls  ten  or  twelve  feet  high,  giving 
the  streets  a  desolate  appearance,  enclose  the 
houses,  which  are  similar  in  structure  and  arrange- 
ments to  Japanese  houses  ;  the  tiles  used  for 
roohng,  however,  are  not  black,  but  reil  in  colour. 
There  are  no  shops  in  Loochoo.  oidy  a  market  place 
in  ea<b  town.  The  food  of  the  people  consists 
principally  of  sweet  potatoes,  pork,  and  li>h,  a 
pig  being  usually  kept  by  each  family.  <  Ishima 
po.ss"s.ses  a  good  harliour,  but  Nafa,  the  imrt  of 
Shinri,  capital  of  (Ikinawa,  is  an  unsafe  anchorage. 
Sugar  is  largely  raiseil,  also  the  sagop;ilm,  and  an 

aromatic   variety  of  orange  :  the  'oa  nut   palms 

do  not  .seem  to  yield  fruit.      -A  small  breed  of  ponies 
is  found  on  the  islands. 


7U 


LOOFAH 


LOKD-LIEUTENANT 


Loofall.  EcvpTlAN.  Umlei-  this  name  the 
filirinw  |Hiition  of  tlie  fruit  of  one  or  two  species  of 
Liiff'i  (n,xt.  ord.  Cucurliitaoe;v)  is  sold  in  Knf^laml 
for  use  as  a  Uatll-sjion^re  or  Hesh-ruMier.  Tiiere  are 
about  ten  species  of  the  genus  known,  hut  tlie 
'towel  gourd,'  as  this  liath-sponge  is  sometimes 
called,  appears  to  be  obtained  chielly  from  L. 
cecfijptini-n.  In  the  West  Indies  the  fruit  of  L. 
acutunrjula  yields  a  similar  network  of  (ihres,  and 
it  is  there  Jised  as  a  sponge  or  dislicloth.  The 
fibrous  portion  of  these  gourds  is  also  worked  up 
into  liaskcts  ami  small  ornamental  articles. 

Lookiiiii'-alnss.    See  Mirror. 

Lookout  Hoillltnill.  a  ridge  extending  from 
near  Chaltaiiiiog.i,  in  Tennessee,  across  the  norlh- 
west  corner  of  (Georgia,  and  into  Alaliama,  and 
rising  to  1600  feet  above  the  Tennessee  Kiver.  It 
was  carrieil  bv  General  Hooker  in  the  battle  of 
24tli  November  1863. 

Loom.    See  Weaving. 

Looillis.  Elias,  an  American  physicist,  was 
born  at  Willington,  Connecticut,  7th  August  181 1, 
graduated  at  Yale  in  18.S0,  and  was  tutor  there  in 
1833-36.  After  a  year's  study  in  Paris  he  was 
professor  (18,37-44)  of  Mathematics  in  Western 
Reserve  College,  Ohio,  of  Natural  Philosophy 
(1844-60)  in  the  University  of  New  York,  and  of 
Natural  I'hilosophv  and  Astronomy  (from  I860)  at 
Yale.  He  died  "  loth  August  iS89.  Professor 
Loomis  devoted  much  of  his  time  to  origiiuil 
research,  was  the  author  of  over  a  hundred  scientific 
treatises,  and  published  a  series  of  text-books  on 
matliematics,  natural  |ihilosophy,  astronomy,  and 
meteorology,  oi  which  more  than  ,")(HI,000  copies 
were  sold. 

Loon,  or  Loom.    See  Diver. 

Loo.sostrife.    See  Lythrace.k. 

Lope  «lc  Vega.    See  Yega. 

L4»l»e/..     See  Paraguay. 

Lo|>liol»rniieIiii.    See  Bosv  Fishes. 

Lo<|lint  (Eridholrjid  Jajionini),  an  esteemed 
Chinese  and  Japanese  fruit,  of  the  natural  order 
Rcsacea",  sub-order  Kosea",  and  of  a  genus  closely 
allied  to  Mespilus  (Medlar).  It  has  been  intro- 
duced into  Australia  and  is  now  abund.-int  there. 
The  tree  or  shrub  which  produces  it  attains  a 
height  of  20  or  30  feet,  but  in  cultivation  is  seldom 
allowed  to  exceed  1'2  feet.  It  is  a  beautiful  ever 
green,  with  large  oblong  wrinkled  leaves,  and 
white  flowers  in  terminal  woolly  ]ianicles,  having  a 
fragrance  like  that  of  hawthorn-blossom  ;  the  fruit 
is  downy,  oval,  or  pear-shaped,  yellow,  and  about 
the  size  of  a  large  gooseberry.  'The  seeds  have  an 
agreeable  flavour  which  they  impart  to  tarts.  The 
loquat  lives  in  the  open  air  in  the  south  of 
England,  ,aud  (n'oduces  fruit ;  but  a  warmer  climate 
is  rei|uired  for  fruit  of  line  f|uality.  It  is  hardy 
about  London  and  southward  in  England.  It  may 
be  grafted  on  any  species  of  Mespilus. 

Loraiitliaeea'.    See  Mistletoe. 

Lorea.  a  town  of  Spain,  36  miles  SW.  of  Murcia. 
The  gloomy  and  decayed  Mocu'ish  part  of  the  town 
is  picturesquely  situated  on  an  eminence  crowned 
by  a  fortilied  castle,  whilst  the  modern  town  spre.-ids 
ovit  on  the  fertile  plain  at  its  foot.  Here  are  salt- 
petre, gunpow(l(>r.  and  lead-smelting  works,  and 
manufactures  of  clotli,  and  in  the  neighbourhooil 
silver  and  sulphur  mines,  \-c.     Pop.  ( 1884)  28,4'22. 

Lord  (A.S.  hlafiird :  from  hinf.  'loaf,'  and, 
probably,  ireard,  'keeper,'  '  ni.aster ' — i.e.  master 
of  the  house),  a  title  given  in  (Ireat  Britain  to 
persons  noble  by  birth  or  by  creation.  Peers  of  the 
realm  are  so  styled,  including  such  archliishojis  or 
bishops  as  are  memliers  of  the  House  of  Lords,  who 
are   Lords   Spiritual.      I!y  comtesy,   the  title   Lord 


,  (  IS.MD.SdO;  (18a'>) 

Islands    bears    the 

■'s   Island    is  one  ot 


is  given  to  the  eldest  sons  of  ilukes,  marquises,  anil 
earls,  prefixed  to  an  inferior  title  of  the  peerage, 
and  to  the  younger  sons  of  dukes  and  marquises, 
prefixed  to  their  Clirisl ian  name  and  surname  (see 
CofHTESYTlTI.Esi,  The  following  perxius,  amon;.'st 
others,  bear  the  title  Lmil  in  virtue  of  their  employ- 
ments— the  Lord-lieutenant  of  Ireland  and  Ijords- 
lieutenant  of  counties,  the  Lord  Chancellor,  Lord 
Privy  Seal,  Lords  <if  tlie  Treasury  and  of  the 
Aduiirally,  the  Lord  High  Ailniiral.  Lord  C.reat 
Chanilierlaiu  and  Lord  Chamlicrlain,  Lord  lli<.'li 
Consialile,  Lonl  High  .\luiorier,  Lord  High  Stewaid, 
Lord  Steward  of  tlie  Household,  Lords  in  Waiting, 
Lords  of  the  Bedchamber,  Lords  , Justices,  the  Lord 
Chief-justice,  the  Lonl  Mayors  of  London,  York, 
and  liulilin,  and  the  Lord  Provosts  of  Edinburgh, 
(ilasgow,  Aberdeen,  and  Perth,  and  the  Lord 
Advocate  of  Scotland  (see  special  articles  on 
Tkeasi-rv,  Justice,  Mayhr,  &c.).  The  judges 
of  the  Courts  of  Session  and  Justiciary  in  Scotland 
have  the  title  'Lord'  pretixecl  to  Iheir  surname  or 
some  territorial  designation  assumcil  by  tliein  :  and 
throughout  the  three  kingdoms  judges  are  addressed 
as  'Mv  Lord'  when  presiding  in  court.  See  Ad- 
dke.ss"(I<\)rms  OF),  Nolill.lTV,  an<l  Pakmament. 

Lord  Howe  Islands,  a  main  island.  ">  sip  m. 
in  extent,  witli  some  small  islets,  Iving  in  the 
Pacific  in  31  33'  S.  lat.  and  l.^)!!  .')'  E.  long.,  :i'lll> 
miles  E.  of  Port  Macquarie  in  New  South  Wales. 
It  was  discovered  bv  Lieutenant  Hall  in  I7^s, 
colonised  in  1840.  and  is  attached  administratively 
to  New  S(mth  Wales.  The  llora  is  very  rich, 
banyan-trees  being  particularly  consiiicuous.  The 
surrounding  waters  are  full  of  lisli.  The  island 
consists  of  three  volcanic  ridges,  rising  to  '2840  feet, 
and  is  crescentic  insha]ie.  Pup. 
60. — A  group  of  the  Solomon 
same  name  ;  and  a  Lord  Howe 
the  Society  Isle.s. 

Lord-lieutenant  of  a  County,  a  per- 
manent provincial  governor  appointed  bv  the  sove- 
reign by  p.atent  under  the  Creat  Seal.  The  ollice  in 
England  arose  from  the  occasicuial  commissions  of 
arra.v  issued  by  ihe  crown  in  times  of  danger  or 
disturbance,  re(|uiring experienced  persons  to  muster 
theinliabitants  of  the  counties  to  which  the  commis- 
sioners were  sent,  and  set  them  in  military  order. 
The  rigid  of  the  crown  to  issue  such  commissicms 
was  denied  by  the  E(mg  Parliament,  this  question 
proving  the  immediate  cause  of  the  breach  between 
Charles  1.  and  his  .snbjects.  Their  legalit.y  was 
established  at  the  liestHiation  by  a  declaratcuy  act. 
'I'he  lord-lieutenant,  who  is  nsu;illy  a  ]ieer  or  other 
large  land-owner,  as  a  rule  is  also  the  Ciislos  Jiulii- 
/oniiii  (q.v.).  He  is  at  the  head  of  the  magistracy, 
and  is  the  chief  executive  authority.  Under  him, 
and  of  his  ai)iiointing,  are  ]iermanent  deputy- 
lieutenants.  He  rec(unmends  (|ualified  persons  for 
the  olfice  of  justice  of  the  peace.  Militia  jurisdic- 
tion formerly  belonged  to  him,  1ml  is  now  re- 
invested in  the  crown  in  1871  (seeCouNTV). 

Lord-Ii4'ntenaiit  of   ltiEi,AM),   the  viceroy 

or  ilepuly  of  the  so\rrei;;ii  to  whom  the  government 
of  Ireland  is  nominally  committed.  The  olfice  has 
existed  from  a  remote  ])erio(l,  the  appointmc^nt 
having  been  made  under  ilitl'erent  designations. 
The  powers  of  the  lord-deputy,  as  the  viceroy  was 
frequently  called,  were  in  e.irly  times  very  exten- 
sive, almost  regal.  In  the  latter  part  of  the  ISth 
century  the  lord  lieutenant  resideil  litlh'  in  Ireland, 
visiting  it  only  once  in  two  years,  to  hold  the 
session  of  parliament.  Some  lords-lieutenant  ni'ver 
went  to  Ireland  at  all,  and  occjisicuially,  instead  of 
a  viceroy,  lords  justices  (  see  JusTIci-;s.  LiiHDs)  were 
appointed.  Since  the  I'niiui  the  lonl  lieutenant  lia« 
constantly  resided  in  Duidin. 

The  lord-lieutenant  is  a|q>ointe<l  nridei   the  liieat 


LORD    OF    THE    ISLES 


LORD'S    SUPPER 


715 


Seal  of  the  I'niteil  Kiii'r<lom,  and  lieai-s  the  sword 
of  state  as  the  synihol  of  his  vicere;i,'iil  ollice.  He 
lias  the  assistance  of  a  inivv -fouiuil.  at  ]iieseiit 
eonsistiti";  of  lifty-live  meniiiei-s,  apimiiitcd  hy  the 
S(»verei;ni.  and  of  otticers  of  state.  He  is  <'oiiiiiiis- 
sioned  to  keep  the  peace  and  the  hiws  and  customs 
of  Ireland,  and  to  see  that  justice  is  impartially 
administered.  He  has  the  control  of  the  police, 
and  may  issue  orders  to  the  general  commandini; 
the  troops  for  the  support  of  the  civil  authority, 
the  protection  of  the  public,  the  defence  of  the 
kin<:dom,  and  the  suppression  of  insurrection.  He 
is  the  t;rand  .Master  of  the  Onler  of  St  Patrick,  and 
may  himself  ciuifer  simple  knighthood  :  and,  pre- 
vious to  the  disestablishment  of  the  ('hurch  of 
Ireland,  had  the  disposal  of  much  preferment,  as 
well  as  all  the  other  patronage  of  the  country. 
The  granting  of  money,  lands,  and  pensions,  of 
all  titles  of  honour  except  simple  knighthood,  the 
appointment  of  privy-councillors,  judges,  law- 
othcers,  and  governor  of  forts,  and  the  a])point- 
ment  to  military  commissions  are  reserved  to  the 
sovereign,  acting,  however,  on  the  lord-lientenant's 
a«lvice  and  recommendation.  In  recent  years, 
more  especially  since  his  chief-secretary  h.as  been 
a  member  of  the  cabinet,  the  position  of  the  lord- 
lieutenant  has  become  little  more  than  .an  '  orna- 
mental'  one:  and  the  abolition  of  the  ollice  is 
now  contemplated.  A  memori.al  signed  by  ahnost 
all  the  Irish  peers  was  presented  to  Lord  Sails- 
bury  in  1S,S!1  praying  for  such  .abolition,  which 
Iiail  been  .actually  arr.anged  for.  as  long  ago  ,as 
184,S,  by  Lord  .lolin  Russell,  Lord  Clarendon  hav- 
ing accepted  oHice  in  th.at  year  on  the  uiuler- 
standing  that  he  was  to  be  the  Last  lord-lieutenant 
of  Ireland.  On  the  occasional  or  temporary 
absence  from  Ireland  of  the  lord-lieuten.ant, 
lords  justices  are  ai>iiointed,  who  are  usually  the 
Lord  ("liancellor,  the  Vice-chancellor,  and  the 
Comm.ander  of  the  Forces.  The  .salary  is  £'2(),(X)y, 
with  .a  residence  in  Dublin  Castle,  as  well 
a.s  one  in  the  I'hienix  Park.  His  tenure  of  ollice 
depends  on  that  of  the  ministry  of  which  he  is  a 
member.  By  Act  HI  (leo.  IV.  chap.  7,  .a  Roman 
Catholic  is  ineligible  for  the  lord-lieutenancy  of 
Ireland.  There  have  been  over  thirty-five  lords- 
lieuten.ant  since  the  I  nion. 

Lord  of  the  Islos.  a  title  borne  by  a  r.ace  of 
chiefs  who  nileil  the  Western  Islands  of  Scotland 
with  .almost  regal  authority.  They  were  descended 
from  Somerled  the  Lord  of  Argyll,  on  whom  David 
I.,  having  in  1135  expelled  the  Norwegians  from 
Arran  and  Hute,  conferred  these  islamls.  After- 
wards, however,  he  qu.arrelled  with  Malcolm  IV., 
and  with  a  powerful  force  sailed  up  the  Clyde,  and, 
near  Renfrew,  encountering  the  royal  army  under 
the  High  Steward  of  Scotland,  was  defeated  and 
killed,  1  l()4.  His  three  sons.  Dugal,  Angus,  and 
Kegin.ald.  by  his  m.arriage  with  the  d.aughter  of 
Olaf  the  Red,  the  N'orwegi.in  king  of  the  Isles,  in- 
herited the  south  isles  along  with  a  share  of  his 
mainland  pos.sessions.  One  of  his  grandsons  left  a 
danghter  and  heiress,  married  to  .\lexander,  son 
and  iieir  of  W.ilter,  High  Stewanl  of  Scotland,  who 
in  her  right  obtaineii  the  isle  of  liute.  Sonierled's 
sons  alternately  siiled  with  the  Norwegians  and 
the  Scots  in  their  contests  for  the  sovereignty  of 
the  Western  Isles,  which  repe.ateilly  ch.aiiged 
masters.  Hut  after  the  defeat  of  Haco,  his  suc- 
cessor in  l'J(i«)  ci'iled  all  the  Western  Islamls  to 
Scotland,  on  condition  that  a  certain  annual  sum 
should  be  ]iaiil  to  Norway.  Henceforward  the 
descendants  of  Somerled  held  their  ])ossessions  as 
vnss.als  of  the  Scottish  crown.  They  were  re]ire- 
senteil  at  this  time  by  three  great  nobles  -thi-  Lord 
of  Lorn,  who  in  the  war  of  indepemlence  took 
part  with  Comyn  ami  lialiol,  .Angus  of  Isla,  and 
.Mian  of  the  North  Ish-s,  who  supported  the  claims 


of  Bruce.  Angus  fought  at  Bannockburn,  and  it 
is  said  that  Bruce,  when  he  was  alxuit  to  bring 
up  the  reserve,  addressed  him  in  worils  adojited  .as 
a  motto  Ijy  some  of  his  descendants,  'My  trust  is 
constant  in  thee.'  .lohn,  his  son  and  hi'ir,  joined 
the  iiarty  of  Edward  Haliol,  but  he  w,as  ultiiiiately 
p.ardoned  by  David  II.,  and  coulirnu'd  in  his  posses- 
sions. By  his  first  m.arriage  he  obtained  the  isles 
of  Uist,  Barra,  Eigg,  and  Rum,  and  assumi'd  hence- 
forth the  title  of  Lord  of  the  Isles.  He  married, 
secondly,  M.argaret,  daughter  of  liobert.  High 
Stew.anl  of  Scotland  (.afterwards  Robert  II.),  who 
bore  him  three  sons.  Donald  the  eldest,  second 
Lord  of  the  Isles,  in  right  of  his  wife  cl.ainied 
the  e.arldom  of  Ross  in  opposition  to  the  Regent 
Alb.any,  and  in  attempting  to  make  good  that 
claim  he  fought  in  1411  the  celebrated  battle  of 
Harlaw".  His  son  Alexander,  third  LonI  of  the 
Isles,  w.as  .allowed  liy  .lames  I.  to  inherit  the 
earldom  of  Ro.ss  from  his  mother;  but  notwith- 
standing he  took  up  arms  .ag.ainst  the  king,  w.asted 
the  crown-lfinds  near  Inverness,  and  burned  that 
town.  James  promptly  attacked  and  routed  the 
rebels,  .and  their  leader  was  fain  to  throw  himself 
on  the  mercy  of  his  sovereign.  He  presented  him- 
self before  the  king  in  the  church  of  Holyrood, 
clothed  only  in  bis  shirt  and  tirawers,  and  hold- 
ing his  unsheathed  sword  by  the  ])oint,  and  fall- 
ing upon  his  knees,  surrendered  his  sword  and 
implored  the  royal  clemency.  His  life  was  spared, 
but  he  was  imprisoned  for  two  yejirs  at  T.antallon. 
During  the  minority  of  J.ames  II.  he  held  the 
ini|>ortant  office  of  .Justiciar  of  Scotland  north  of 
the  Forth.  In  1-14,")  he  entered  into  a  secret  .and 
tri'asonable  league  with  the  F.arls  of  Douglas  .and 
Crawford,  but  died  .at  his  castle  of  Dingwall  before 
any  overt  acts  of  rebellion  h.ad  been  committed. 
His  eldest  son  John  succeeded  to  his  titles  and 
est.ates.  and  carried  on  similar  insurrectionary 
proceedings.  But  after  the  nuirder  of  the  Earl 
of  Douglas  liy  James  II.  he  took  fright,  and 
entreated  the  forgiveness  of  the  king,  which 
with  some  hesitation  was  granted  to  him,  and 
he  was  made  one  of  the  w.ardens  of  the  Marches. 
After  the  death  of  James  II.,  the  earl,  .along  with 
the  exiled  Dougljvses,  entered  into  a  treasonable 
league  with  Edward  IV.  of  England  for  the  con- 
quest .and  p.artition  of  Scotland,  and  raised  the 
standard  of  reliellion.  His  est.ates  were  in  conse- 
fiuence  forfeited,  but  on  his  submission  he  wils 
restored  to  the  lordship  of  the  Isles ;  the  earl- 
dom of  Ko.ss  Av.as  annexed  to  the  crown.  In 
his  old  age  his  nephew  and  heir,  apparently 
with  his  approl)ati(m,  at  the  head  of  his  v.ass.als 
endeavoured  to  recover  pos.session  of  that  e.arldom. 
.lames  IV.,  who  at  this  time  filled  the  throne, 
availed  himself  of  the  opportunity  to  break  uji 
that  confederacy  of  the  islanders,  which  had 
jiroved  so  troublesome  to  the  pe.ace  of  the  country  ; 
and  in  the  parliament  of  Jlay  1403  John,  fourth 
and  last  Lord  of  the  Isles,  wa.s  forfeited  and 
deprived  of  title  and  estates.  He  retired  to  the 
monastery  of  Paisley,  and  dying  about  149.S,  w.oa 
buried  beside  his  ancestor  Robert  II.  In  l.')40  the 
Lordship  of  the  Isles  w.xs  annexed  to  the  Scottish 
(Town,  and  from  it  the  Prince  of  Wales  derives  one; 
of  his  titles.  See  A.  Mackenzie's  Histon/  of  the 
MaetlonaliU  (uid  /.f,nh  o/ !/„■  /.v/..v(Inv.  1882). 

Lords-aiHl-Lildies,  a  popular  name  for  the 

common  .\rMm  (i|.v. ). 

Lord's  nay.    Sc-  SAimATH. 

Loral's  Sll|>p<*r.  one  of  the  sacraments  of  the 
Christian  religion,  so  called  from  its  being  instituted 
at  su|)per  by  the  Lord  .lesus  Christ.  It  receives  also 
the  names  of  Kucharist  and  Communion.  With 
the  ex(a'|)tion  of  the  (,|uakers,  all  sects  of  Chris- 
tians, however  ilifl'erent  their  views  as  toils  nature, 


716 


LORD'S    SUPPER 


!    _- 


ajiii'ee  in  celeliratin^'  it  as  one  of  the  most  saeieil 
rites  of  relif;ioii.  The  present  article  is  written 
from  the  point  of  view  of  tliose  wlio  admit  more  or 
less  tlie  iilea  of  a  historical  ilHveh)pmeMt  of  the 
<loctrines  conm^eleil  with  the  Lord's  Supper:  the 
views  of  Koman  Catholies,  who  hold  that  the 
iloctrines  of  their  church  (m  the  subject  were 
delivered  hy  our  Lord  and  His  ajiostles,  and  have 
from  the  first  centuries  been  tau;:ht  in  substance  in 
the  church,  will  be  found  under  TltAN.SlliSTANTlA- 
TION. 

The  circumstances  of  sorrow  aniiil  which  it  was 
instituted,  and  its  intimate  relation  to  the  crown- 
ing work  of  Jesus,  His  death,  liad,  at  the  very 
outset,  made  a  dee])  impression  upon  the  early 
church.  We  have  four  accounts  of  the  institution, 
one  from  each  of  three  evangelists,  ami  one  from 
St  I'aul  ( 1  Cor.  x.,  xi.):  and  those  who  holil  the 
iloclrine  of  the  Ileal  Presence  see  in  .bdm  vi. 
an  allusion  to  the  Eucharist.  Not  only  was  the 
solemnity,  in  conformity  with  the  original  institu- 
tion, re|)eated  daily  in  conjunction  with  the  so- 
called  'Love-feasts"  {Affu/i'V,  q.v.),  and  retained  as 
a  separate  rite  when  these  feasts  were  set  aside,  but 
at  a  very  early  jieriod  it  was  believeil  to  possess  a 
peculiar  eflicacy,  and  soon  ideas  of  the  wonderful 
and  mystical  became  associated  with  it.  The  Lord's 
.Supper  was  celebrated  on  every  important  occa-sion 
of  life — a.s  when  entering  on  marriage — or  Bo 
commemorate  departed  friends  and  martyrs ;  to 
those  that  could  not  be  present  at  the  meeting 
4if  the  congregation,  s\uh  as  prisoners  and  sick 
persons,  the  indis|H'nsable  food  of  heaven  was 
carried  liy  the  ileacons,  and  in  .some  churches  the 
communicants  took  part  of  the  materials  of  the 
feast  home  with  them,  that  they  might  welcome 
the  "ift  of  a  new  day  with  consecrated  food. 
Heathens  and  unworthy  persons,  and  Catechuniens 
(q.v.)  also,  were  excluded  from  this  lioly  mystery. 
As  early  as  tlie  2d  century,  Ignatius.  .lustin  Martyr, 
and  IrenM'us  ailvance  the  (ipiMii>M  thai  the  mere 
bread  and  wine  become,  in  the  Kiicliarist,  some- 
thing higher — the  earthly,  something  heavenly — 
without,  however,  ceasing  to  be  bread  anil  wine. 
Though  tlie.se  views  were  opjiosed  by  some  eminent 
indiviilual  Christian  teachers,  such  as  Urigen,  who 
took  a  iigurati\e  conception  of  the  sacrament,  and 
depreciated  its  etlicacy,  yet  both  among  the  people 
and  in  the  ritual  of  the  church,  more  particularly 
after  tlie  4tli  century,  the  miraculous  or  super- 
natural view  of  the  Lord's  Supper  gained  ground. 
After  the  3d  century  the  oliice  of  presenting  the 
bread  and  wine  came  to  be  coiiKiied  to  the  ministers 
or  priests.  This  juactice  arose  from,  and  in  turn 
strengthened,  the  notion  which  was  gaining giound, 
that  ill  this  act  of  ])reseiitation  by  the  priest  a 
sacrihce,  similar  to  that  once  olt'ered  up  in  the 
death  of  Christ,  though  liloodless,  was  ever  anew 
presented  to  God.  This  still  deepened  the  feeling 
of  mysterious  signilicance  and  importance  w^itli 
which  the  rite  of  the  Lord's  Sujiper  was  vieweil, 
and  led  to  that  gia<lually  increiusiiig  splendour  of 
celebration  which  under  Gregory  the  Great  took 
the  fciriii  of  tlie  mass.     See  Lnincv. 

For  a  long  time  there  was  no  formal  declaration 
of  the  mind  of  the  church  on  the  presence  of  Christ 
in  the  Eucharist.  At  length,  in  the  first  half  of 
the  9tli  century,  a  discussion  on  the  point  was 
raised  by  the  Abbot  of  Corvei,  Paschasiiis  I{ad 
bertus,  anil  Katiamiius,  a  learned  monk  of  the 
same  convent  ;  they  exchanged  several  violent  con- 
troversial writings,  Ih'  S(ii((inii(r.  et  Cariiurr  Duiiiiiii, 
ami  the  most  distinguisheil  men  of  the  time  took 
part  in  the  discussion.  I';uscliasius  maintained 
that  the  bread  and  wine  are,  in  the  act  of  coii.secra- 
tion,  transformed  liy  the  omnipotence  of  God  into 
that  very  body  of  Christ  which  was  once  born  of 
Mary,  nailed  to  the  cross,  and  raised  from  the  dead. 


I 


According  to  this  concepti<m  nothing  remains  ot 
the  bread  and  wine  but  the  milward  form,  the 
taste,  and  the  smell:  while  Katiamnus  would  not 
allow  that  there  is  any  change  in  llii'  brca<l  and 
wine  themselves,  but  granted  that  an  actual  trans- 
f<Mniation  of  their  jiower  and  etlicjicy  takes  place. 
The  greater  accordance  of  the  lirsl  siew  with  the 
credulity  of  the  age,  its  love  of  the  wiiiiderful  and 
magical,  as  well  as  with  the  natural  desire  for  the 
utmost  iios>ilile  nearness  to  Christ,  in  order  to  be 
unfailingly  saved  by  Him,  ami  the  aiipareiitly 
logical  character  of  the  inference  that,  wiieie  the 
power,  according  to  universal  admission,  wjis 
changed,  there  must  be  a  change  also  of  the  sub- 
stance— all  these  concurring  inilncnces  brought  it 
about  that,  when  the  views  of  Kalramnus  were 
in  substance  revived  by  lieieiigarius,  Canon  of 
Tours,  in  o)ipositioii  to  Lanfranc,  .\ichbi>hnp  of 
Canterbury,  and  Cardinal  Humbert,  the  doctrine 
of  Transubstantiatioii,  as  it  came  to  be  called, 
triumpheil,  and  was  olticially  ap]iroved  by  the 
Council  of  Koine  in  1079.  In  the  fourth  Lateran 
Council  at  Koine  (1'215),  umler  Innocent  III., 
Transubstantiatioii  was  declared  to  be  an  article 
of  faith  :  and  it  has  continued  to  lie  so  held  by  the 
Homan  Catholic  Church  to  the  present  day.  The 
(ircck  Catholic  Churi'li  sanclioni'd  the  same  view 
of  Transubstantiatioii  at  the  Synod  of  .Jerusalem  in 
1072.     Kor  the  Calixtines  and  Taboiites,  see  Hl'ss. 

The  Keformation  of  the  IGth  century  again  raised 
the  question  of  the  nature  of  the  Eucharist.  The 
Lutheran  C'hnich  rejected  from  the  first  the  Catholic 
doctrine  of  Trausubstantiatiim,  as  widl  as  of  the 
iiia.-s-  i.e.  the  constant  renewal  of  the  sacrilice  of 
Christ  -;uid  merely  taught  that,  through  the  jiower 
of  (iod,  and  in  a  way  not  to  be  explained,  the  liody 
and  blood  of  Christ  are  present  in,  with,  and  under 
the  unchanged  bread  ami  wine  ('Coiisubstantia- 
tion').  Ill  opposition  to  this  doctrine,  it  was  laid 
down  by  Zwingli  that  the  Lord's  Sii]iper  is  a  mere 
commemoration  of  the  death  of  Clirist,  and  a  ]iro- 
fession  of  belonging  to  His  church,  the  bread  and 
wine  being  only  symbols  :  a  view  which  is  adopted 
in  substance  by  Soeinians  and  Arminians.  Luther 
bitterly  o)iposed  the  symbolical  view,  especially 
towards  the  latter  jiart  of  his  career;  Zwingli's 
iloctrine  was  more  lepugnant  to  him  than  the  deeper 
and  more  mystic  Cathidic  dud  line. 

Calvin  sought  to  strike  a  mi(hlle  course,  which 
has  been  substantially  followeil  by  the  Uefonued 
Churches.  According  to  him,  the  body  of  Christ  is 
not  actually  present  in  the  bread  and  wine,  which 
he  also  holds  to  be  mere  symbols.  But  the 'faith- 
ful '  receiver  is,  at  the  moment  of  partaking, 
brought  into  union  with  Christ,  through  the 
meiliuiii  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  and  receives  of  that 
heavenly  )iower  (etlicacy)  which  is  always  emanat- 
ing from  His  glorified  body  in  heaven.  Melanch- 
thon,  in  this  controversy,  was  inclined  to  the 
views  of  Calvin  :  but  he  thought  a  iiiiiim  might  he 
efVected  by  adopting  the  declaration  tliat  Christ 
in  the  Eucharist  is  ■truly  and  really'  present  (not 
merely  in  faith).  The  endeavours  of  .Melanchthoii 
and  ills  Jiarty,  by  arbitrary  alterations  of  the 
Augsburg  Confession  ami  other  means,  to  efleet 
a  public  reconciliation  only  served  to  rouse  among 
the  ]iartisans  of  Luther  a  furious  theological  storm, 
and  the  result  was  the  establishment  of  the  views 
of  Luther,  and  the  final  separation  of  the  Lutheran 
and  Keformcd  Chuichiw. 

Tlie  whole  cimtroversy  relates  to  the  mode  in 
which  the  body  and  blood  of  Christ  are  presimt  in 
the  Lord's  Supper:  for  it  was  agreed  on  all  hands 
that  they  are  present  in  some  way.  The  Iteformed 
theologians  argued  that  jjir/niiir  is  a  relative  term, 
opposeil  not  to  distance,  but  to  ab.sence  ;  and  that 
presence,  in  this  ca.se,  doe-s  not  mean  local  near- 
ness, but   presence  in   eflicacy.      Here  they   parted 


LORD'S    SUPPER 


717 


co!ii]inny  both  with  the  Kmiian  Catholic  Church  and 
with  the  Lutherans.  Tliey  were  williiij;  to  call  tliis 
presence  •  real' ( •  i'  ('""y  ^^•»it  words,'  as  Zwin^li 
said ).  nieaniut;  true  and  ethcacious.  hut  they  would 
not  admit  cor|ioral  or  essential  presence.  Hut  while 
the  Uefornied  Churches  were  at  one  in  holding'  tliat 
by  receivint:  the  hoily  and  blood  of  Christ  is  meant 
reeeivinj;  their  virtue  and  etiicacy,  there  is  some 
difference  in  their  way  of  e.xpicssin'.;  what  that 
efficacy  is.  Some  said  it  was  their  ethcacy  as 
broken  and  shed  i.e.  their  sacrificial  eflicacy  ; 
otiiers,  in  addition  to  this,  speak  of  a  mysterious 
supernatural  efficacy  tiowinj;  fiom  the  {;lorilied 
body  of  Christ. 

With  refiard  to  the  Iteformed  Churches,  it  may  he 
remarked  that  their  Confessions  on  this  iioint  were 
mostly  formed  for  the  express  ]iur])ose  of  compro- 
mise, to  avoid  a  hreach  with  the  Lutherans.  Hence 
the  lanjrnage  of  tliese  Confessions  contains  more  of 
the  mystical  element  than  the  framers  of  them 
seem,  in  other  parts  of  their  writing's,  to  favour. 
And  it  is  remarkable  that  the  An;L,'liean  Confessions, 
which  were  framed  under  different  circumstances, 
lean  nn>re  to  the  symbolical  view  of  Zwinjjli  than 
ilo  those  of  most  of  the  Reformed  Churclies.  The 
Thirty  nine  Articles,  after  layiiif;  down  that,  'to 
sueli  as  with  faith  receive  the  same,  it  is  a  p.artak- 
ing  of  the  boily  of  Christ,"  repudiate  the  notion 
of  Transiibstantiation,  and  add,  '  The  body  of 
Christ  is  >;iven,  taken,  and  eaten  in  the  Supper 
only  after  an  heavenly  and  spiritu.al  manner.  And 
the  mean  whereby  the  Ijody  of  Christ  is  received 
and  eaten  in  the  Supper  is  faith.'  Tlie  Anfjlican 
Church  is  divided  on  this,  as  on  several  kindred 
topics,  into  two  parties  :  with  one  the  symliolical 
view  of  the  rite  is  predominant ;  the  other  party 
reprobate  this  view  as  'low,"  and  maintain  an 
uhjectire  '  mystical  presence  '  of  the  thiiif;  signified, 
along  with  tiie  sign.  The  view  of  the  latter  party 
a.s  to  the  sacriticial  nature  of  the  Sacrament 
approaches  very  closely  that  of  the  Church  of 
Rome.  For  the  various  points  of  difference 
amongst  Anglicans  as  to  vestments,  the  eastward 
position,  &c.,  reference  must  be  made  to  the  liooks 
cited  below.  In  the  Mackonochie  case  (1869)  it 
was  decided  that  the  celebrant  had  no  right  to 
kneel  chiring  the  prayer  of  consecration  :  in  the 
Purchas  case  ( 1S71 ).  that  he  had  no  right  to  adopt 
the  eastward  position. 

The  Presbyterian  Church  adopted  substantially 
the  views  of  Calvin.  The  words  of  the  West- 
minster Confession  are  :  '  That  doctrine  w  hicli 
maintains  a  change  of  the  substance  of  bread  and 
wine  into  tlie  substance  of  Christ  s  oody  and  blood 
(commonly  called  Transubstantiation )  by  conse- 
cration of  a  priest,  or  by  any  other  way,  is  repug- 
nant not  to  Scripture  alone,  but  even  to  common 
sense  and  reason.  .  .  .  Worthy  receivers,  out- 
wardly partaking  of  the  visible  eleincnts  in  this 
.sacrament,  do  then  also  inwardly  by  faith,  really 
and  indeed,  yet  not  carnally  and  corjiorally,  but 
s]iiritiially,  receive  and  feeil  u|ion  Christ  crucilied, 
and  all  l>enelits  of  His  death  :  the  body  and  blo<id 
of  Christ  being  then  not  corporally  or  carnally  in, 
witli,  or  under  the  bread  and  wine  ;  yi'l  as  really, 
but  spiritually,  present  to  the  faith  of  believers  in 
that  ordinance  a-s  the  elements  themselves  are  to 
their  outwanl  senses.'  But  the  tendency  is  nowa- 
days to  regard  the  rite  in  its  commemorative 
character,  and  the  signs  as  means  of  working  uiion 
the  mind  and  feelings  siibji'ctividy,  rather  llian  as 
the  vehicle  of  any  objective,  mystically  operating 
grace. 

This  variety  of  dogmatical  njiinion  its  to  the 
Kiicharist  naturally  gave  rise  to  variety  in  the  cere- 
monials of  its  observance.  The  Catholic  notion  of  a 
mysterious  transformation  jiroduced  the  flrearl  of 
allowing  any   of  the   bread   anil  wine  In  drop,  and 


led  to  the  substitution  of  wafers  (fiontitr,  obhil(i')  for 
the  breaking  of  breail.  The  doctrine  of  the  'real 
union,'  which  declares  that  in  the  bread  a.s  well  as 
in  the  wine,  in  each  singly  and  by  itself,  Christ 
entire  is  present  and  tasteil— a  doctrine  which  was 
attested  by  wafers  visibly  bleeding-  causeil  the  cup 
to  be  gradually  withdrawn  fnun  the  laity  and  noii 
officiating  priests  (see  LlTt'ROY) :  this  practii'e  was 
lirst  aMthoritatively  sanctioned  at  the  Council  of 
Constance,  141").  All  the  I'leformeil  Chuiches 
restored  the  cup  :  in  the  Greek  Churcii  it  had  never 
been  given.  From  the  same  feeling  of  deeji  rever- 
ence for  the  Eucharist  the  communion  of  children 
gradually  came,  after  the  I2th  century,  to  he  dis- 
continued :  the  (ireek  Church  alone  ailmits  the 
]iractice.  (irounded  on  the  doctrine  of  Transub- 
stanti.ation,  the  Creek  and  I  toman  Catholic  Chuiches 
hold  the  ■elevation  of  the  host"  {/lostiii,  'victim  or 
sacrifice')  to  be  a  symbol  of  the  exaltation  of  Christ 
fnuu  the  state  of  humiliation  :  connected  with  this 
is  the  '.adoration  of  the  liost,' and  the  carrying  it 
about  in  solemn  procession.  The  use  of  leavened 
bread  in  the  (ireek  Church,  and  of  unleavened  in 
the  Roman  Catholic  and  Lutheran,  of  water  mixed 
with  wine  in  the  Konian  Catholic  and  (ireek 
Churches,  and  of  unmixed  wine  in  the  I'rotestant 
Churches,  iniignified  into  importance  liy  .symbolical 
explanations,  have  given  occasion  to  the  hottest 
controversies.  The  greater  part  of  the  Keformeil 
Churches  agree  in  breaking  the  hreail  and  letting 
the  conniiunicants  take  it  with  the  hand  (not  witli 
the  mouth);  and  this  practice  is  owing  to  the 
original  tendency  of  those  CInircbes  to  the  sym- 
bolical conce])tion  of  the  Eucharist,  in  wliich  the 
breaking  of  the  bread  and  the  pouring  out  of  the 
wine  are  essential  elements. 

It  has  been  contended  that  the  early  Christians 
celebrated  the  Lord's  Supper  daily,  but  a  weekly 
celebration — originally  in  the  evening  along  with  ' 
the  agapee — is  more  probable.  Abuses  at  the 
AgaiKV  (i|.v.)  led  to  the  separation  friun  them  of 
the  Lords  Supper,  which  now  took  place  in  the 
morning.  Early  synods  ordained  that  the  faithful 
should  receive  the  comnninion  at  all  the  higher 
festivals— Eidphany,  Easter,  Pentecost,  Christmas. 
Early  morning  c<unmunion,  received  fasting,  is  the 
rule  with  Catholics  and  High  .\nglicans,  mid-day 
coirimunion  being  allowed  to  aged  a7id  invalid 
persons.  The  JMoravians  always  celebrate  the  com 
miinion  in  the  evening.  In  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church,  it  is  usual  to  reserve  ]iortions  of  the  Sacra- 
ment after  celebration  for  the  purpose  of  permitting 
the  sick  to  comnninicate  in  their  own  houses.  As 
to  knei'ling  or  sitting  at  communion,  see  KNKKLIXti. 
In  the  Kiiglisli  Church  it  was  usual  to  exclude  non- 
communicants  fr(un  being  present  during  the  rite, 
as  the  ancient  church  excluded  catechumens:  but 
neither  the  inoileiii  Catholic  Church,  the  High 
Anglican,  nor  the  Presbyterian  i>ractise  this  ex- 
clusion. In  the  Highlands  of  Scotland,  through  a 
morbid  awe  of  eating  and  drinking  unworthily, 
it  is  custiuuary  for  <levo\it  Christians  to  postpone 
commnnicaling  till  late  in  life.  (If  late  some 
teetotalers  insist  on  the  use  of  unfermented  wine 
ill  the  Lord's  Supper. 

Rut  although  the  great  divisions  of  the  Christian 
worhl  have  ccmtinued  as  churches  to  adheie  to 
those  ibiclrines  about  the  L(ud's  Suii|ier  wliich  were 
fixed  and  stcreoty]ied  in  .Acts  of  Council  and  .\ilicles 
and  ( 'onf<'ssioiis  about  the  time  of  the  Retoriiiation, 
we  are  nol  to  >iip|iose  that  the  opinions  of  indivi- 
ilnals  within  those  churches  continue  e(|ually  uni- 
form and  fixed.  Even  Roman  Catholic  theologians. 
like  Rossuet,  have  sometimes  endeavoured  to  under- 
staml  the  doctrine  of  the  church  in  a  philosophical 
.sensi> :   and   in   the   Lntlieraii    ('linii'h   the  greatest 

variety  of  opinion  prevails.     Scmie  uphohl  uni li 

lied  tlie  dogmas  of  Luther;  others  accept  them  with 


718 


LORELEI 


LOKKAINE 


ex|ilanation  ;  Hegel  even  iincleitook  to  jrvouml  tliciii 
on  siicoulative  reason.  Otliers,  as  Si-lilcicrniaolier, 
wiiiilil  have  rec-ourse  to  the  views  of  Calvin  as  a 
means  of  reconciliation  with  the  Itefornietl  Churches. 
Even  all  'supernatiirar  theoloj'ians  do  not  ailhere 
strictly  to  the  formulas  of  the  church :  while 
rationalism  in  all  its  pluises  tend.s  to  the  pure 
symholisni  of  /winj,'li. 

.See  the  relevant  works  of  Hooker,  Barrow,  Jeremy 
Taylor,  Waterlaud,  Burnet,  Calvin,  Hodge,  Oosterzee, 
Dorner,  Schmid ;  and  Hagenbach's /fi^tori/  of  Doflriiic ; 
Willierforce,  Durtriiie  of  the  Hull/  Eucharist  (1845); 
Pusey.  Dtirtriiie  of  the  Heal  Presence  (1.S55);  Scudamore, 
y<jliti<i  Kncharisticn  (1875);  J.  H.  Blunt,  ijirtionarii  of 
Doclriiial  and  Historical  Theoloijii  (1870);  Ebrard,  iJu* 
DoijitM  vom  Abembuahl  (ISiS);  Kahnis,  Die  Lehre  vom 
Abendmahl  (1851);  Ruckert,  Das  Abendmahl  (18.56); 
Howson,  Before  the  Table  (1875);  Armstrong,  The 
Siicriiinents  of  the  JV^civ  Testament  (New  York,  1880); 
Dean  Stanley,  Christian  Institutions  ( 1881 )  ;  Bridgett, 
HiMonj  of  the  Holy  Eucharist  in  Great  Britain  (1881)  ; 
and  a  Clerical  Siimposinni  on  the  Lord's  Supper^  by 
Luthardt,  Pressenso,  Littledale,  and  others  (1881). 

Lorelei,  or  LlUiLEl  {h-.i  =  slate-rock),  a  rock 
which  rises  jierpendicularly  from  the  IJliine,  to  the 
height  of  427  feet,  near  St  Coar.  It  used  to  he 
dangerous  to  boatmen,  and  has  a  celebrated  echo. 
But  the  name  is  best  known  from  Heine's  song  of 
the  siren  who  sits  on  the  rock  combing  her  long 
tresses,  and  singing  so  ravishingly  that  the  boat- 
men, enclianted  by  the  music  of  her  voice,  forget 
their  duty,  and  are  drawn  upon  the  rock  and 
perish.  The  legend  is  not,  however,  '  a  mdrchen 
of  olden  days;'  the  first  form  of  it  was  an  inven- 
tion of  Clemen.s  Drentano,  published  in  his  ballad 
'  Zu  Bacharach  am  Kheine  wolint  eine  Zauberin ' 
(1800).  It  soon  passed  into  a  popular  legend,  and 
has  suggested  several  variants  to  modern  Ger- 
man poets.  See  Leirabach,  Die  Lorclei-DicldiuKjcn 
(1879). 

Lorenzo.    See  Medici. 

Loreto.  an  interior  department  of  Pern,  watered 

for  thousands  of  miles  by  the  Maranon  and  its 
tributaries.  Area,  3.3,000  sq.  m. ;  pop.  61,12.5.  The 
quickest  route  from  the  coast  to  this  province, 
which  is  only  some  700  miles  distant  in  a  direct 
line,  is  round  the  north  coast  of  South  America 
and  up  the  Amazons,  a  journey  of  G500  miles.  The 
cai)ital  is  Iquitos  (ipv. ). 

Loretto  diroperly  LoRETO),  a  city  of  Italy, 
stanils  '.i  miles  from  the  Adriatic  and  15  by  rail 
SSK.  from  .\ncona.  It  has  a  royal  pala(te  (designed 
by  liramante),  and  4134  inhabitants  ;  but  is  chiefly 
noticeable  as  the  site  of  the  sanctuary  of  the 
Blessed  Virgin  Mary  called  \... ;  Sitiitit.  Camt,  or 
Holy  House,  wliicli  is  reputed  to  be  the  house  in 
which  the  Virgin  lived  in  Na/areth.  It  was  miracn- 
lously  translated,  tirst,  in  1201,  to  the  neighbour- 
hood of  Fiume  in  Dalmatia,  thence  in  1204  to  a 
wood  near  Recanati  in  Italy,  and  was  finally  trans- 
ferred to  its  present  site  in  120.5.  The  churcli  of  the 
Santa  Casa  stands  near  the  centre  of  the  town, 
before  it  a  colossal  bronze  statue  of  Pope  Si.xtus  V. 
Its  great  central  door  is  surmounteil  by  a  s|)U'ndid 
bronze  statue  of  the  Mailonna ;  and  in  the  interior 
are  three  bronze  doors  with  bas-reliefs,  represent- 
ing the  priin-ipal  inents  of  scrijitnral  and  ecclesi- 
astical history.  The  Holy  House  itself  is  a  single 
apartment  of  no  great  size,  originally  of  rndc 
material  ami  construction,  but  now  cased  with 
white  marble,  and  exquisitely  sculptured,  after 
Bramante's  designs,  by  Sansovino,  Bandinelli,  and 
other  artists.  The  subjects  of  the  bas-reliefs  are 
taken  from  the  history  of  the  Virgin  Mary,  with 
the  excejition  of  three  <m  the  eastern  side,  which 
are  devoted  to  the  legends  of  the  Holy  House 
itself.  The  image  of  the  Virgin  w  hicli  it  contains 
is  traditionally  believed  to   have  been  carved  by 


St  Luke.  The  rest  of  the  interior  of  the  church  is 
rich  with  bas-reliefs,  nios.-iics  (liy  Domenichino  and 
tJuido  Keni),  frescoes,  paintings,  and  carvings  in 
bronze.  This  shrine  is  visited  by  about  50,000 
pilgrims  annually,  though  formerly  the  number 
averaged  20(1,000.' 

L'Orieilt.  a  seaport  in  the  French  deiiartment  of 
Morliihan,  situated  on  a  good  bay,  116  miles  by 
rail  N\V.  of  Nantes,  is  a  well-built  town,  with  a 
deep  and  spacious  harbour.  It  was  fmuided 
in  1()64  liy  the  French  East  India  Company:  but, 
after  the  ruin  of  their  trade  by  the  English  towarila 
the  close  of  the  next  century,  their  jdant  wjis 
acquired  by  the  government,  who  since  1815  have 
made  L'Orient  the  principal  naval  shipbuilding-yard 
in  France.  The  dockyard  .ami  arsenal  are  conse- 
quently among  the  best  and  largest  in  the  country, 
and  the  jilace  ranks  as  a  fortress  of  the  .second 
class.  LDrient  hits  schools  of  n.avigation  and 
m.arine  artillery,  ami  an  ob.sSrvatory.  The  inhabit- 
ants are  engaged  chiefly  in  shi]diuilding  and  its 
cognate  trades,  and  in  fishing  (especially  sardines). 
The  trade  does  not  exceed  a  total  of  100,000  tons 
aninnilly.  Pop.  ( 1872)  30,028  ;( 1801  )  41,065.  Oil' 
this  port  the  British  lleet  under  Eord  Bridport 
defeated  the  French  under  ^"illaret-Joyeuse  on  23d 
June  1705. 

Loriiner  (Fr.  lunnier,  from  l,at.  lorinii,  'a 
thong'),  a  maker  of  bits,  spurs,  stirrup-irons,  nu'tal 
mountings  for  saddles  and  bridles,  and  generally 
of  all  articles  of  horse-furnitnre.  In  London  the 
lorimers,  who  had  previously  formed  part  of  another 
guild,  were  incorporated  by  letters-patent  in  1712; 
in  Scottish  burghs  they  have  been  comprehended 
as  a  branch  of  the  corporation  of  Hammermen. 

Loriiner.  .I.\mes,  jurist,  was  born  at  Aber- 
dalgie,  in  Perthshire,  on  4th  Novenrber  1818, 
studied  .at  Edinburgh,  Geneva,  Bonn,  and  Berlin, 
was  called  to  the  Scottish  bar  in  1845,  and  in  1862 
appointed  profes.s(n-  of  Public  ami  International 
Law  in  the  university  of  Edinburgh.  In  1873  he 
took  a  principal  share  in  founding  the  Institute  of 
Internatiiuuil  Law.  He  dii'd  on  13th  Febru.ary 
1800.  Besides  being  a  busy  ccmtributor  to  the  lirst 
edition  <if  this  Enrijclopwdia  and  to  the  Eiliiihiinih 
and  Sortli  British  L'cricics,  he  wrote,  from  tlie 
standpoint  of  the  historico-])olitical  school,  lluml- 
hook  of  the  Law  of  Urothmd  ( 1862  ;  5tli  ed.  1885) ; 
Coiislitiitionulisiii  of  the  Future  ( 1865  ;  2d  ed.  1867); 
JiCftsous  for  the  Stud)/  of  Jurisjyrudniec  as  a  Seicuce 
( 1868) ;  Iiislifulrx  of  Law  ( 1872  ;  2d  ed.  1880) ;  and 
Jiistitutrs  (fthc  Law  of  Nations  (188.3-84),  besides 
The  I'liircrsitics  (f  Scotland  (\i\iSi)\  Political  I'ru- 
r/ress  not  iiecrssarily  Democratic  ( 1857 ) ;  and  Studies, 
Xational  and  1  iiternationed  ( 1891 ). 

Loris.  a  genus  of  Leinurida',  with  rounded  heads 
and  ]pointcd  snouts,  slender  bodies,  very  large  eyes, 
and  rudimentary  tail  or  none  at  all.  The  genus 
h.as  twii  other  names,  Stenops  and  Nycticebus. 
The  twi>  species  known  aie  iiotli  natives  of  the 
East  Indies.  The  largest  species,  L.  tardir/radus, 
is  not  so  large  as  a  cat  ;  the  other,  Z.  tjracilis,  is 
much  snniller.  They  spend  the  day  asleep  on  a 
br.inch,  the  body  rolled  up,  .and  the  head  liidilen 
lietween  the  legs.  Their  fur  is  rich  and  soft.  Their 
motions  are  slow,  and  they  advance  stealthily  on 
the  insects  and  birds  on  which  they  prey. 

l/<iril«-.    See  .AlidVLl,  and  AUUVLL  (Dt'KES  OK). 

Lorraine  was  incorporated  in  the  (lerman 
empire  in  8.55,  when  Lothair  II.,  son  of  the  Em- 
peror Lothair  I.,  (ditained  the  lands  between  the 
Scheldt,  Meuse,  and  Bliine,  called  Lotharingia,  or 
Lorr.aine  (Gcr.  Lothrii(ijeii).  It  at  first  inclmled 
Alsace  and  Friesland  ;  but  tbese  provinces  were 
separated  from  it  in  870.  .\liout  Oil  the  ruler 
was  eh^vated  from  the  <lignity  of  count  to  that 
of  duke.     Ill  054   Lorraine  was  ilividi'd   into  two 


LORRAINE 


LOST    PROPERTY 


•19 


duchies.  Upper  ami  Lower  Lorraine.  The  latter 
came  into  the  haiuls  of  tlie  DuUes  of  IJralwiit 
in  the  hefiiiiuintr  of  the  ISth  century,  ami  from 
that  time  was  known  ius  15rahant.  It  was  in- 
oorjioraleil  in  Bnr^'nmly  (q.v.)  by  Philip  the  (iood 
in  U'J9,  anil  now  forms  j>art  of  the  l<in;;ilom  of 
Bel;;ium,  and  the  provinces  of  Brahant  and 
c;uclderlaml  in  Holland.  Upper  Lorraine  con- 
tinned  to  be  i;overned  by  its  own  dukes  till  17."ti, 
when  it  w;i.s  given  to  Stanislas,  exd<ing  of  Poland, 
ami  on  his  ileatli  in  ITliti  was  uniteil  to  !•" ranee.  It 
was  afterwards  .snbdivideil  into  the  departments  of 
Meuse,  Moselle,  Menrthc,  and  Vosjjes.  The  dis- 
trict lying  between  .Metz  and  the  Vosges,  which  is 
called  German  Lorraine,  was  ceded  to  Geiuiauy  at 
the  peace  of  1871.     See  ALSACE-LORR.ilNE. 

Lorraine,  <-'l.\iue.    See  Cl.\ude  Lokraixe. 

Lory,  a  common  name  for  the  members  of  a 
family  "of  parrots,  technically  known  ii-s  Tricho- 
glossiihc,  rigidly  coulined  to  tiie  Australian  region. 
They  are  beautiful,  gregaricnis,  noisy,  quick-tlying 
birds,  feeding  on  fruits,  and  gathering  the  nectar 
of  rtowei-s  with  their  brush-like  tongues.  The  two 
largest  genera  are  Trichoglossus  and  Lorius ;  alto- 
gether there  are  about  ninety  .species.  The  name 
lory  is  also  e.\tenile<l  to  the  genus  Eelectus,  in  a 
different  family  of  parrots. 

Los  Anseles.  the  most  populous  city  of 
^ontliern  California  and  capital  of  Los  Angeles 
county,  is  4S3  miles  SE.  of  San  Francisco  by 
the  Southern  Pacitic  Itailroad.  It  is  one  of  the 
<ddest  towns  in  the  western  states  of  America,  and 
wa-s  already  a  thriving  place  when  the  Franciscan 
fathers  established  a  mis.sion  here  in  17S1  ;  its 
full  name  being  I'nehli)  de  la  Reina  de  los  Anrjcles. 
In  1S35-47  it  wjvs  the  capital  of  the  state  of 
California.  To-day  it  possesses  a  handsome  opera- 
house,  the  University  of  southern  California,  a 
magnificent  observatory,  a  Roman  Catholic  cathe- 
dral, and  over  one  hundred  Protestant  churches. 
There  are  magnilicent  botanic  gardens,  parks, 
many  line  public  buihlings,  and  a  crematory.  The 
Spanish  population  is  ra[iiilly  disappearing,  and  of 
the  50,935  inhabitants  in  1S91  they  formed  an  in- 
-significant  minority.  The  i)op.  in  187tl  was  only 
.')7"28  ;  in  1880,  11,183.  Los  Angeles  is  the  centre 
of  the  orange-growing  industry,  and  in  the  city 
alone  are  two  reservoii-s,  with  a  capacity  of  850,000 
gallons,  used  solely  for  pnrjioses  of  irrigation.  The 
residents  are  principally  occupied  in  the  cultivation 
and  e.\port  of  oranges,  grapes,  and  other  fruits,  as 
well  as  the  manufacture  of  wine.  A  great  number 
of  invalids  and  others  seeking  a  fine  climate  le.sort 
to  Los  Angeles  in  the  winter.  See  California  of 
the  South,  by  Lindley  and  Widney  (1888). 

Los.s,  or  LoE.s.s,  a  loamy  deposit  of  Pleistocene 
age,  abundantly  developed  in  the  valleys  «f  the 
Khine,  the  Danube,  the  Rhone,  and  many  of  their 
tributaries.  It  is  a  pulverulent  yellowish-gray  or 
Virownisli  loam,  homogeneous  and  noii-|dastic,  and 
consists  iirincipally  of  clay  with  small  angular 
grains  of  quart/,  and  e.\tremely  ndnute  scales  of 
mica,  t<igetner  with  a  larger  or  smaller  admixture 
of  carbonate  of  lime  and  some  iron  o.xide.  It  has 
a  tendency  to  cleave  in  verticiil  ])lanes,  ami  thus 
forms  clitis  where  streams  intei-seet  it.  The  or- 
ganic remains  of  the  lo.ss  consist  princiijally  of  land- 
shells  of  existing  species,  but  now  and  again  fresh- 
water shells  are  met  with.  (Occasionally,  also,  the 
remains  of  man  and  the  Pleistocene  niannnals  are 
encountere<I,  such  as  mammoth,  woolly  rhinoceros, 
reindeer,  glutton,  &c.  In  some  places  again  are 
found  ridii-s  of  lemming,  marmot,  jerboa,  &c.,  and 
other  forms  which  are  suggestive  of  steppe  condi- 
tions. Geologists  are  still  in  some  doubt  ;us  to  the 
oriu'in  of  the  liisH.  The  deposit  is  of  such  variable 
thickness  (from  a  few  feet  up  to  100  yards),  and 


occurs  at  such  very  different  levels,  that  it  seems 
l>robable  that  more  than  one  agency  w;is  concerneil 
in  its  formation.  Much  of  the  lii.ss  was  i)idbably 
deposited  from  the  Hood-waters  that  escaiied  from 
the  great  ice-fields  and  melting  snows  of  glacial 
times.  Some  of  it  again  seems  to  have  been  the 
result  of  the  weathering  and  disintegration  of  ]ire- 
existiiig  accumulations,  and  the  washing  down  of 
the  disintegrateil  material  by  rain.  .Vnd  it  seems 
likely  enough  that  the  superficial  portions  uf  Ihivio- 
glacial  loams  may  have  been  modified  to  some 
extent  by  the  action  of  wind.  Kichthofen,  indeed, 
has  maintained  that  the  liiss  is  essentially  a  wind- 
blown accumulation — a  conclusion  he  came  to  fioni 
a  studyof  the  liiss  of  China  (q.v.,  p.  184).  This  theory, 
however,  does  not  explain  many  of  the  phenomena, 
and  the  general  ojiinion  of  geologists  is  in  favour 
of  the  aqueous  origin  of  loss  as  a  whole.  The 
Knropean  loss  is  undoubtedly  associated  with  the 
glacial  deposits  of  the  Continent,  and  in  North 
America,  where  loss  is  strongly  develojied,  the 
same  relationship  obtains.  The  geologists  of  the 
United  States  Geological  Survey  maintain  that  the 
liissic  accumulations  which  cover  enormous  areas 
in  the  great  basin  traversed  by  the  Mississijipi  and 
its  aitiuents  are  es.sentially  of  Huviatile  origin. 

For  a  general  account  of  the  Eui'opean  loss,  see  J. 
Geikie,  Prehistoric  Europe  (1881),  and  Address  to  Geol. 
Sictiim,  Brit.  Assoc,  Newcastle  Meclimj  (1889).  For 
American  loss,  see  Sixth  Annual  Report,  U.S.  Geol.  Siirreti 
(188.")).  For  Chinese  loss,  see  Kichthofen's  great  work 
on  China;  also  Geol.  Matjaziite  (p.  293,  1882). 

Lo.st  Property.  In  point  of  law.  the  finder 
of  lost  property  is  entitled  to  keep  it  until  the 
owner  is  found ;  but  there  are  certain  circum- 
stances in  w  liich  the  keeping  of  it  will  amount  to 
larceny.  The  rule  in  England  is  that,  if  the  finder 
find  the  property  in  such  circumstances  that  he 
either  knows  the  owner,  or  has  reasonable  grounds 
for  believing  that  he  can  be  found,  then  the  taking 
of  the  property  with  intent  to  keep  it  will  be  lar- 
ceny. If,  for  example,  a  ser\ant  finds  a  sovereign 
in  her  masters  house,  anil  keeps  it,  that  is  larceny  ; 
so,  too,  where  the  prompter  on  the  stage  of  a 
theatre  picked  up  a  £50  note  which  had  been 
drop])cd  by  one  of  the  actors.  On  the  other  hand, 
if  at  the  time  of  finding  there  be  no  reasonable 
]Mobability  of  ever  discovering  the  true  owner,  then 
there  is  no  larceny,  even  though  the  finder  does 
afterwards  acquire  knowledge  of  or  reasonable 
probability  of  discovering  the  true  owner.  Again, 
there  cannot  be  a  conviction  if  the  finder  did  not 
when  he  took  the  goods  intend  to  convert  them,  or 
if  he  was  under  the  reasonable  im]>ression  that  the 
owner  had  abandoiieil  his  right  of  property  therein. 
It  has  also  been  decided  that  the  mere  keeping  of 
a  lost  article,  in  hopes  of  getting  a  lew  ard  for  giving 
it  up,  though  the  owner  be  known,  <loes  not 
amount  to  larceny.  There  is  also  no  <d)ligation  on 
the  finder  of  lost  pro]jertv  to  incur  expen.se  in 
advertising  for  the  owner  ;  and  it  is  to  be  borne  in 
ndncl  that  the  real  owner  is  not  divested  of  his  pro- 
jierty  by  the  loss,  but  can  demand  it  from  whoso- 
ever is  ill  possession  of  it.  But  lost  bills  of  ex- 
change and  notes,  if  transferred  for  valuable  cou- 
.sideraticm  without  notice,  become  the  property  of 
the  transferee.  Moreover,  the  loser  of  a  bill  or 
note  |)ayable  to  bearer  could  not  at  Englisli  com- 
mon law  sue  the  party  liable  either  on  llie  bill  or 
note  itsi'lf,  or  on  the  indoi-semeiit,  but  by  sec.  ti9 
of  the  Bills  of  Exchange  Act,  1882,  the  cinirt  may 
order  that  the  loss  of  the  instrument  shall  be  no 
defence  to  the  action  if  a  proper  indemnity  be  given. 
In  Scotland,  also,  the  tenor  of  a  lost  bill  may  be 
establi.-,hed  by  a  ]iroce.ss  for  proving  the  tenor.  The 
finder  of  lost  projierly  is  not  entitleil  to  it,  where 
the  ]U'operty  con.sists  of  gold,  silver,  &c. ,  hiilden  in 
the  earth,  in  which  case  the  treasure-trove  l>elong8 


720 


LOST    TRIBES 


LOTZE 


to  tlie  crown ;  and  the  liniler  is  Ipounil  to  '/isp 
notice  thcieof,  under  a  iieiialty,  tliou^di  he  is 
not  guilty  of  theft  till  'oHice  he  f(mn<l,'  or  till 
the  coroner's  jury  have  declared  it  crown  proiierty. 
It  is  not  theft  to  convert  unclaimed  wreck. 
Lost   Tribes.    See  Babylonish   Cai'tivity, 

ASCI.ci-IsUAKI.ITE  THKORY. 

Lot  (anc.  0/ti.s).  one  of  the  largest  tributaries 
of  the  (Jaronne  in  Krance,  rises  in  Mont  Lozcre, 
u  section  of  tlie  Cevennes,  Hows  in  a  {renerall.\- 
western  direction,  hcinfr  known  at  first  as  the  Olt, 
through  the  (leiiartnients  of  Lozeve,  Aveyron,  Lot. 
and  Cotet-Caronne.  and  joins  the  (Jaronne  from 
the  right  at  Aiguillon.  after  a  course  of  nearly 
."JOO  miles,  nearly  two-thirds  being  navigable. 

Lot,  a  dciiartment  in  the  south  of  France, 
formed  out  of  the  old  jirovince  of  (iuienne,  ami 
comprising  the  .arrondissenients  of  Cahors,  (lour- 
don,  and  Kigeac,  is  watered  by  the  Dordogne  and 
the  Lot.  Area,  2012  sij.  m.  ;  jiop.  (1872)  2M1,4(14: 
(1891)  2.J3,S85.  The  eastern  disiricts  are  invaded 
by  the  Causses  plateaus  of  the  Cevennes.  The 
valleys  are  fertile.  Wheat,  maize,  tobacco,  fruits, 
chestnuts,  and  wine  are  the  more  important  pro- 
ducts. .Slieep-breeding  is  largely  carried  on.  bul- 
ling, tanning,  and  the  manufacture  of  woollens  are 
the  only  branches  of  industry.     Caiiital,  Cahoi-s. 

Lot.      Sec  DiVIX.VTIOX,  SOETES  ViRCII.I AX.-K. 

Lot-«'t-(>aronnO,  a  department  in  the  south- 
west of  France,  formed  out  of  the  old  provinces  of 
(iuienne  .and  (lascony.  It  comprises  the  arron- 
di.ssemcnts  of  Agen,  Villeneuve,  Marmande,  and 
Ncrac,  and  is  watered  by  the  Garonne  and  its  triliu- 
taries,  the  tiers  and  Lot.  Area,  2067  s(|.  m.  ;  pop. 
( 1841 )  :?47.07:! ;  ( 1801 )  295,560.  The  department  is 
a  rolling  plain  .and  extremely  fertile,  except  in  the 
south-west,  where  it  is  iinaded  by  the  Landes 
(q.v. ).  The  j)rinciiial  products  are  wheat,  maize, 
wine  (20  million  gallons  annually),  hemp,  fruits 
(the  plums  (if  Agen  are  particularly  celebrated), 
tobacco,  ])otatocs,  tlax,  and  oil-plants.  I'ine,  cork, 
and  chestnut  woods  are  numerous.  Poultry  are 
reared  in  great  numbers  for  exportation.  Manu- 
facturing imlustry  is  exhibite<l  chielly  in  metal- 
works,  |>aper-niills.  woollen  and  cork  factories, 
distilleries,  jind  tanneries. 

Lotlliilll,  the  whole  territory  anciently  between 
the  Tweed  and  the  Firth  of  Forth,  which,  from  547 
a  ]iortion  of  liernicia  or  Xorthumbria.  was  not 
liinilly  annexed  to  Scotland  till  101 S.  The  name 
is  now  restricted  to  Haildington,  Edinburgh,  and 
Linlithgow  shires,  which  are  called  respectively 
East,  Mid,  and  West  Lothian.  From  it  the  Kers 
(q.v.)  take  the  titles  of  Earl  .ami  Manpiis  (if  Lothian. 
See  ScKTLAXri  and  Bokdkrs. 

Loti.  PlKliKK.     See  VlAlIJ. 

Littions.  or  Washes,  are  remedies,  usually 
(lilulc,  (if  a  liipiid,  but  not  of  an  oily  nature,  which 
are  applied  to  circumscribed  portions  (if  the  surface 
of  the  body.  The  oidy  ]ireparations  described  umler 
this  name  in  the  Urilish  PharmacoiHcia  are  the 
yellow  and  black  mercurial  lotions,  used  genenilly, 
particularly  the  latter,  in  cases  of  syphilitic  migin. 
lnn\imerable  lotions  are  used,  however,  foi'  various 
cdnditions  and  diderent  parts  of  the  body.  The 
most  important  groujis  are  antiseptic,  solutions  of 
corrosive  sublinnite,  carbolic  acid,  boracic  acid, 
\c.  ;  sedative,  containing  opium,  belladonn.'i, 
acetate  of  lead,  iKi:  :  stimulating,  containing  cap- 
sicum, sulphur,  chloride  or  suljihate  of  zinc,  I've. 

|jOto'|tl><l>i  •''''■'  'lotus-eaters'),  a  name  applie(I 
by  the  .iiiiicrits  to  a  peaceful  and  hospitable  people 
inhaliiting  a  district  of  ("yrenaica,  on  the  north 
coast  (if  .Africa,  and  much  depending  for  their  sub- 
sistence on  the  fruit  of  the  lotus-tree,  from  which 
they  also   m.ide  wine.     According  to  Homer,  they 


received  Tlysses  hospitably,  when,  in  the  coni'se 
of  his  wanderings,  he  visited  them  along  with  his 
companions,  on  whom,  however,  the  sweetness  of 
the  lotus-fruit  exercised  such  an  intluence  that 
they  forgot  all  about  their  native  country,  and  had 
no  desire  to  return  lumie.  This  feeling  of  happy 
languor  has  been  expressed  with  marvellmis  felicity 
by  Tennyson  in  his  ]ioem  'The  Lotus-eaters." 

L<»ttt'ry.     See  (; AMBLING. 

Lotus.  The  name  /.o/o.s- (Lat.  /,o^/'.v)  was  given 
by  the  (ireeks  to  a  inimberof  ditl'erent  plants  whose 
fruit  was  used  for  food,  (jne  of  the  most  notable 
of  these  is  the  Xi:i//i/i)i.i  Lotus  of  the  north  of 
Africa  and  the  south  of  Europe,  a  shrub  belonging 

-    ■'\'\,         "    .^'- 


Nymphiea  Lotus. 

to  the  natural  (uder  Rhamnea^  (see  .Ju.ll'BE). — The 
frnit  of  the  Diospyni.i  Loins,  or  Pate  Plum  (q.v.), 
is  the  Eurojiean  I,otc. — The  n.anie  lotus  w.as  als(» 
given  to  sever.al  beautiful  sjiecies  of  Water  lily 
(q.v.),  es]ieci,ally  to  the  I'lue  Water-lily  (  A"//'"/'/'"" 
cimilea)  and  tlie  Egyjitian  Water-lily  ( -V.  /ofii.i). 
which  grow  in  stagnant  and  slowly  running  water 
in  the  scuith  of  Asia  and  north  of  Africa.  The 
Niliiijiltirfi  lotus  grows  in  the  Nile  and  adj.acent 
livulets,  and  has  a  large  white  Hower.  The  root 
is  eaten  by  the  people  who  live  near  the  lake  Man 
zaieh.  The  rivulets  near  Damietta  abound  with 
this  Hower,  which  rises  2  feet  above  the  water.  It 
was  the  rose  of  ancient  Egypt,  the  favourite  (lower 
of  the  country,  .and  was  often  made  into  wreaths 
or  garlands,  placed  on  the  foreheads  of  women,  or 
held  in  their  hands,  and  smelt  for  its  fragrance. 
It  freciuently  apjiears  in  the  hieroglyphs,  where  it 
re])reseiits  the  I  ]i]ier  Country  <u-  Southern  Egypt, 
and  ca]>itals  of  columns,  jnows  of  boats,  and  heads 
of  staves  were  often  f.ashioned  in  its  shape.  In 
mythology  it  was  the  emblem  of  Nefer  Tumi  : 
Hiupocnitcs  is  seated  upon  it  :  and  there  was  a 
m\slical  lotus  of  the  s\in.  fhe  lotus  of  Chinese 
and  Hindu  myth(dogy  is  the  Nelumbo  ((|.v.). 

Lotto.  LoHKN'Zi),  |iainter.  w.is  liorn  about  1480 
in  Venice,  and  died  about  l."i.j6  in  Loretlo,  where 
he  was  latterly  supported  by  the  Santa  (Jasa,  on 
which  he  had  bestowed  his  property.  He  painted 
mainly  religious  and  allegorical  subjects.  See 
monograph  by  Herenstm  (London,  1895). 

Lot/4'.  lii'lioi.K  lli-;iiMANX,  ]ihilosopher. 
was  born  at  Itautzen  in  Saxony,  on  21st  .May 
1817,  studied  both  medicine  and  philosophy  at 
Leipzig,  was  apixiinted  ])rofessor  of  the  latter 
subject  at  the  s.anie  univei-sity  in  1842  and  at 
(iottingen  in  1844:  in  1881  he  tnoved  to  Herliii. 
but  died  on  1st  July  of  that  year.  It  was  as  a 
]ihysiologist  that  lu-  tii-st  attracted  notice  by  his 
articles  contributed  to  Wagner's  Udiidiriirtirtim-li 
tier  I'lnjsioliiijir.  In  these  he  combated  the  now 
exploded  doctrine  of  vitalism  or  a  specific  '  Lebens- 


LOUDOX 


LOUIS    IX. 


721 


kiaft,'  anil  ai;jueil  for  a  tliorougli-<joiiig  mechanical 
treatment  of  the  phenomena  of  life.  Tlie  same 
views  were  expressed  in  his  O'oieral  P/i  //.■iio/n;/;/  of 
Bodily  Life  (1851),  ami  led  many  to  rank  him  with 
the  materialistic  thinkers  of  the  day,  though  his 
real  philosophical  position,  to  which  he  remained 
constant  through  life,  had  been  already  expressed 
in  his  Mctaphi/sik,  piihlished  in  1841.  The  most 
comprehensive  statement  of  his  views  on  nature 
and  man  is  contained  in  his  Microrosmus,  published 
in  .3  vols,  in  lS.=>6-64  (  tth  ed.  1SS,> ;  Eng.  trans.  2 
vols.  18S6).  By  this  book,  which  he  calls  'an 
attempt  at  an  anthropology,'  and  in  which  he  in- 
vokes the  example  of  Herder,  he  is  most  widely 
known.  Its  attractive  style  and  the  semi-popular 
character  of  some  of  its  disquisitions  have  contrib- 
uted to  make  it  read  beyond  the  schools.  A  more 
systematic  presentation  of  his  thought  on  which 
he  was  at  work  towards  the  close  of  his  life  was 
cut  short  by  death.  Only  two  of  the  three  promised 
volumes  appeared,  the  first  on  Logic  (1874;  2d  ed. 
1880;  Eng.  trans.  1884),  and  the  second  on  Meta- 
physics ( 1879  ;  2d  ed.  1884  :  Eng.  trans.  1884  ).  In 
addition  to  the  works  named,  his  Medieinische 
Psychohffie  (IS5'2)  and  his  Oeschichtc  dec  Msthctik 
in  Dciitschland  (18G8)  deserve  mention.  The 
paragiaphic  summaries  of  his  lectures  which  he 
was  wont  to  dictate  to  his  students,  published  in  a 
series  of  small  volumes  since  his  death,  afford  a  use- 
ful conspectus  of  his  views.  Their  publication  and 
translation  into  English  may  be  taken  as  a  sign  of 
the  important  influence  which  Lotze  had  of  late 
come  to  exercise  upon  contemporary  thought. 
Philosophically,  Lotze  comes  of  tlie  lineage  of 
Leibnitz  and  Herbart ;  he  starts,  that  is  to  say, 
from  the  standpoint  of  individualism  or  monadisiii. 
But  he  has  also  been  po«  erfully  influenced  by  Hegel 
and  the  German  iilealists,  and  he  rounds  oli'  his 
individualism  witli  the  doctrine  of  one  infinite  real 
Being,  within  which  individuals  act  and  live.  He 
considers  this  tlie  only  supjiosition  which  can 
explain  the  action  of  individual  things  upon  one 
another.  Lotze  carries  on,  however,  a  constant 
polemic  against  what  he  considers  the  exclusively 
intellectual  and  abstract  character  of  Hegelianism, 
and  his  own  philosophy  may  be  treated  as  in  great 
part  a  justification  and  rea.ssertion  of  feeling — in 
other  words,  of  the  demands  made  by  man's 
ethical,  a'sthetic,  and  religious  instincts.  His 
other  polemic  is  against  the  so-called  scientific 
philosophy  of  the  age.  While  conceding  to 
mechanism  its  fullest  rights  in  the  explanation  of 
events,  Lotze  everywhere  insists  that  mechanism 
gives  only,  as  it  were,  the  scatfolding  of  existence, 
and  that  the  meaning  of  the  universe  can  only  be 
read  in  the  light  of  the  Highest  Good.  Mechanism 
must  be  regarded  philosophically  as  the  instrument 
of  pvirpose.  Lotze's  doctrine  is  therefore  a  teleo- 
logical  idealism,  largely  ba-sed  on  ethical  considera- 
tions. His  distinction,  however,  is  not  that  of  a 
systeni.atic  thinker,  and  he  combats  the  deductive 
tendency  of  his  predecessors  in  German  philosophy  ; 
his  worfcs  otter  us  acute  and  suggestive  reflections 
on  the  cliief  sul)jects  of  philo.sopliical  interest.  See 
H.  Jones,  Tlic  I'kilusuphy  of  Lotze  ( I8iJ.j). 
London.   Gideon    Ersst,    FiiEiHEun    von, 

Austrian  generalissimo,  was  horn  on  2il  I'ebniarv 
1716,  at  Tootzen,  in  Livonia,  whither  his  .ancestor 
had  migrated  irom  Ayrshire  in  the  14tli  century. 
In  I73'2  he  entered  the  Kussian  service,  but  ten 
years  later  exchangeil  into  that  of  Austria,  soon 
afterwards  marrj'ing  and  turning  Catholic.  In  the 
Seven  Years'  War  he  won  the  title  of  Kreili<'rr 
(  Baron  )  at  Hochkirch  ( 17.")8) ;  at  Kunersdorf  ( 1759) 
he  turned  defeat  into  victory  ;  and  his  lo.ss  of  the 
battle  of  Liegnitz  (1760)  was  due  mainly  to  Lacy 
and  Daun.  As  fieldniarHh.al  he  connnanded  in  the 
war  of  the  Bavarian  succession  (1778),  and  against 
306 


the  Turks  (1788-89),  capturing  Belgrade  and  Sem- 
endria.  He  died  at  Neutitschein,  14th  .July  1790. 
For  an  admirable  estimate  of  his  great  military 
genius,  see  his  Life  by  Colonel  Malleson  (Loud. 
18S4). 

Loudon,  ■loiix  Cl.vidil-s,  a  distinguished 
botanist  and  horticulturist,  born  April  8,  1783,  at 
Cambuslang,  in  Lanarkshire.  He  became  a 
"ardener,  and  in  1803  published  Ohscrrations  on 
I.tiying  out  Public  Squares,  and  in  1805  .a  Treatise 
oil  Hothouses ;  later  lie  wrote,  with  an  ardour  that 
neither  ill-health  nor  poor  circumstances  could 
abate,  a  long  series  of  books  on  botany,  mostly 
of  a  somewhat  popular  character,  which  have 
contributed  much  to  extend  a  knowledge  ot  th.at 
.science  and  a  t.aste  for  horticulture.  Amongst 
these  are  the  Eiicijclopicdia  of  tiardenimj  (1822), 
and  of  Agriculture  (1825);  the  Greenhouse  Com- 
panion ( 1825) ;  the  Encyclopadia  of  Plants  ( 1829), 
and  the  Arboretum  et  Frnticctum  Briiannicum 
(8  vols.  1838),  containing  a  very  full  account  of  the 
trees  and  shrubs,  indigenous  or  introduced,  growing 
in  the  open  air  in  Britain.  This  last  is  his  gre.atest 
work  ;  but  the  expense  attending  the  publication, 
owing  chiefly  to  the  number  of  plates,  involved 
him  in  pecuniary  ditiiculties.  He  died  at  B.ays- 
water,  December  14,  1843.  Loudon  established 
four  difi'erent  magazines,  which  he  edited  simul- 
taneously with  his  Arboretum.  In  his  work  he 
was  greatly  aided  by  his  accomplished  and  devoted 
wife. 

Loughborough,  a  municipal  borough,  incor- 
porated in  1888,  of  Leicestershire,  11  miles  NNW. 
of  Leicester.  The  Decorated  parish  church  dates 
from  the  14th  century,  but  has  a  I'erpendioular 
tower.  The  grammar-school  w.as  founded  in  1495, 
the  girls' grammar-school  in  1849,  and  a  free  library 
in  1885.  Ho.siery  is  the  st.aple  manufacture  ;  and 
bell-founding  «as  introduced  in  1840,  the  great 
Bell  (q.v.)  of  St  Paul's  being  cast  here  in  1881. 
<Jther  industries  are  dyeing,  brick-making,  and  the 
manufacture  of  machinery.  There  is  an  active 
trade  in  coal.  .John  Howe  .and  Cleveland  were 
niitives,  and  Wedderburn  took  hence  his  title  Lord 
Loughborough.  Pop.  (1851)  10,900;  (1891)18,196. 
See  Diiiiock-Fletcher's  two  monographs  (1883). 

Loughrca'.  a  market-town  in  County  Galw.ay, 
beautifully  situated  on  a  little  fresh-water  lake,  17 
miles  SW.  of  Ballinasloe.  It  has  ruins  of  a  castle 
and  Carmelite  monastery,  both  of  about  1300. 
l>oi>.  3159. 

Louis  I.  of  Bavaria.    See  Bavari.\. 

Louis  IX..  or  St  Lor  is,  king  of  Fr.ance, 
born  at  Poissy,  April  25,  1215,  .succeeded  his 
father,  Louis  VIII.,  in  1226.  His  mother,  Blanche 
of  Ca.slile,  a  woman  of  great  talent  and  sincere 
piety,  was  regent  during  his  minority,  and  bestowed 
on  him  a  strictly  religious  education,  which  materi- 
ally influenced  his  character  and  policy.  When 
Louis  attained  his  niajoiity  he  became  involved  in 
a  war  with  Henry  111.  iif  England,  and  by  his 
victories  compelled  the  English  king  to  .acknow- 
ledge French  suzerainty  in  Guieiine.  During  a 
dangerous  illness  he  made  a  vow  that,  if  he 
recovered,  he  would  go  in  persim  as  a  crnsader, 
and  accordingly,  having  appointed  his  mother 
regent,  he  sailed  in  August  1248,  with  40,000  men 
to  Cyprus,  wlience,  in  the  following  spring,  he  pro. 
ceeded  to  Egypt,  thinking  by  the  coni|Uest  of  that 
country  to  open  the  w.ay  to  Palestine.  He  took 
Damietta,  but  was  afterwards  defeated  and  taken 
prisoner  by  the  Mohammedans.  A  ransom  of 
KMJ.OOO  marks  of  silver  procured  his  release  on 
M.ay  7,  1250,  with  the  remnant  (6000  men)  of  his 
army.  He  jiroceeded  by  sea  to  Acre,  and  remained 
in  Palestine  till  the  death  of  his  mother  (  November 
1252)  compelled  his  return  tu  France.     Having  n 


722 


LOUIS    XI. 


LOUIS    XIV. 


large  number  of  blood-relations  among  tlie  dukes 
and  counts  of  France,  he  used  these  to  strengthen 
the  '  legitimist '  loyalty  to  his  house,  determined 
by  the  Pragmatic  Sanction  the  relation  of  the 
French  Church  to  the  pope,  founded  the  theological 
college  in  Paris  famous  under  the  name  of  '  La 
Sorbonne,'  gave  France  a  new  judicial  organisa- 
tion by  setting  up  in  the  provinces  royal  courts  of 
.justice  or  parliaments,  whicli  superseiW  the  juris- 
diction of  the  '  lord  of  the  manor,'  and  grailuallv 
gave  rise  to  the  noblesse  de  rohc,  fiom  amongst  whicli 
the  kings  recruited  their  civil  servants.  A  code  of 
laws  was  brought  into  use,  known  as  the  £tablUse- 
ments  de  St  Louis.  Louis  embarked  on  a  new 
crusaile,  July  1,  1270,  and  proceeded  to  Tunis  ; 
but  a  pestilence  breaking  out  in  the  French 
camp  carried  oft'  the  .greater  part  of  the  armv  and 
the  king  himself.  He  died  August  25,  1270';  and 
his  son,  Philip  III.,  was  glad  to  make  peace  and 
return  to  France.  Pope  Boniface  VIII.  canonised 
him  in  1297.  See  the  Vie  de  St  Louis  by  Joinville 
(q.v.),  Louis's  friend,  and  Wallon's  Life  of  him  (2d 
ed.  Paris,  1878). 

Louis  XI..  king  of  France,  the  eldest  sou  of 
Charles  VII.,  born  at  Bourges,  July  3,  1423,  was 
from  his  boyhood  eminently  cruel,  tyrannical,  and 
perfidious.  He  made  unsuccessful  attempts  against 
his  father's  tbione,  was  compelled  to  ilee  to 
Brabant,  and  sought  the  protection  of  Philip  the 
Good,  Duke  of  Burgundy,  with  wliom  he  remained 
till  his  father's  death  in  1461,  when  he  succeeded 
to  the  crown.  The  severe  measures  which  he 
immediately  adopted  against  the  great  vassals  led 
to  a  coalition  against  him,  at  tlie  head  of  which 
were  the  great  Houses  of  Burgundy  and  Brittany. 
Louis  owed  his  success  more  to  his  artful  ])olicy 
than  to  arms ;  and,  the  war  threatening  to  break 
out  anew,  he  invited  Charles  the  Bold,  Duke 
of  Burgundy,  to  a  friendl.y  conference  at  Peronne 
in  October  1468.  His  agents  meanwliile  had  stirred 
up  the  people  of  Lioge  to  revolt  against  the  duke, 
in_  return  for  which  deed  Charles  made  him  a 
prisoner,  and  compelled  him  to  associate  in  the 
punishment  of  Liege.  Full  of  resentment,  Louis 
then  stirred  uj)  against  Charles  the  Flemish  towns 
and  the  Swiss  i-epu1jlics.  It  became  from  that 
time  a  practice  with  French  kings  to  have  Swiss 
mercenaries  in  their  jiay.  The  Swiss  defeated 
Charles  twice,  and  killed  him  in  a  last  battle 
( 1477 ).  Louis  theu  claimed  Burgundy  as  a  vacant 
French  lief,  hut  wa-s  prevented  from  gaining 
possession  of  Charles's  Flemish  lands  bv  the 
marriage  of  Mary,  the  rightful  heir,  to  Maxiinilian 
of  Austria.  The  troops  of  the  latter  defeated  the 
French  at  Guinegate  (1479),  but  the  war  was 
renewed  on  the  death  of  JMary.  A  peace  >vas  con- 
cluded at  Arras,  December  2.5,  14S2,  by  wliich  the 
counties  of  Burgundy  and  Artois  were  handed  over 
to  France.  Louis  was  also  successful — after  the 
use  of  means  far  from  honourable — in  ainu^.xing 
Provence  to  the  crown  as  a  lapsed  fief.  In  onler 
to  weaken  his  feudal  vassals  he  greatly  increased 
the  power  and  number  of  parliaments,  an  institu- 
tion agreealile  to  the  towns  and  to  tlie  middle  class, 
and  to  which  he  began  to  grant  a  voice  in  matters 
of  state.  His  favourite  residence  was  the  ehiiteau 
of  Plessisles-Tours,  close  to  Toure.  His  cliief 
advisers  ami  favourites  were  Olivier  le  Dain, 
originally  a  barber,  but  made  a  count ;  Tristan 
I'Hermite,  and  Cardinal  Baluc.  He  spent  tlie 
l.itter  years  of  his  reign  in  great  misery,  in  exces- 
sive horror  of  death,  which  suiierstitious  and  ascetic 
practices  failed  to  allay.  He  died  at  Plessis-les- 
Tours,  August  .30,  1483.  He  is  said  to  have  been 
the  autlior  of  Les  cent  NonvcUcs  nuui-ellcs,  a  .sort  of 
imitalion  of  the  Decameron,  and  of  the  Rosier  dcs 
Gueri-cs,  a  book  of  instruction  for  his  .son.  He 
founded  three  universities. 


See  the  conteniporarj'  Memoires  of  Philiiipe  de  C'omines 
(q.v.);  works  liy  Legcay  (1874),  Willert  (in  Enghsli, 
1870),  Buet  (2d  ed.  1886),  and  \'aesen  and  L'haravay 
(1885  H  se(j.);  and  .Scott's  Qvaitin  Durwanl.  The 
weU-known  play  Louis  XI.  is  by  Delavigne. 

Louis  XIII.,  king  of  France,  son  of  Henry  IV. 
and  .Marie  de'  Medici,  born  at  I'^ontainebleau.  27th 
September  1601,  succeeded  to  the  thnme  on  the 
assassination  of  liis  father,  14th  May  1610,  his  mother 
being  called  to  the  regency  by  'an  edict  of  the 
parliament  of  Paris,  which  had  ac(|uired  a  riglit  to 
speak  in  the  name  of  all  the  otiicrs.  .She  entered 
into  close  alliance  with  Spain  and  the  pope,  and 
betrothed  the  king  to  Anne  of  Austria,  daughter  of 
Philip  in.  of  Spain,  upon  wliich  the  Huguenots 
took  up  arms ;  but  peace  was  concluded  at  St 
Menehould  on  5th  May  1614.  The  king,  who  was 
now  declared  of  age,  conlirmed  the  Edict  of 
Nantes,  and  in  the  same  year  the  French  L'tats 
Gincraux — consisting  of  members  of  the  clergy, 
the  nobility,  and  the  middle  classes,  a  body  more 
ancient  than  the  p.arlianients,  and  in  which  the 
boui-f/eoisie  sided  with  the  kings — were  summoned 
for  tlie  last  time,  as  the  events  proved,  till  the 
reign  of  Louis  XVI.,  for  this  constitutional 
chamber  showed  itself  powerless  to  agree  ujion  and 
follow  out  a  policy.  The  restoiation  of  Catholic 
church-rights  in  Beam  led  to  tlie  religious 
war,  in  which  the  Protestants  lost  almost  all 
their  ])laces  of  security,  and  which  ended  in 
1622.  After  the  de.atli  of  De  Lnynes,  in  1624, 
Richelieu,  afterwards  Cardinal  and  Duke,  lie- 
came  tlie  chief  minister  of  Louis.  His  jiowerful 
mind  obtained  complete  control  over  that  of  the 
weak  king,  and  his  policy  efl'ected  that  increase  of 
monarchical  power,  at  the  exjiense  of  Protestants, 
nobles,  and  parliaments,  which  reached  its  con- 
summation in  the  reign  of  Louis  XIV.  The  over- 
throw of  the  Huguenots  was  completed  by  the 
capture  of  Kochelle,  20th  October  1628,  at  the 
siege  of  which  the  king  took  part  in  jierson. 
Kichelieu  now  led  Louis  to  take  part  in  the  Thirty 
Years'  War,  openly  supporting  Gustavus  Adolplius 
and  the  Dutch  against  the  Spaniards  and  Austiians. 
The  latter  yeare  of  Louis's  reign  were  signalised  by 
the  getting  possession  of  Alsace  and  of  Koussillon, 
acquisitions  whicli  were  confirmed  in  the  following 
reign.  Louis  died  14th  May  1643.  I'lider  his 
reign  was  prejiared  the  period  of  French  ascendency 
in  Europe.  His  queen,  after  twenty-three  yeai-s 
of  married  life,  bore  a  son  in  1638,  who  succeeded 
to  the  throne  .is  Louis  XIV.  ;  and  in  1640  a  second 
son,  Philip,  Duke  of  Orleans,  the  ancestor  of  the 
present  House  of  Orleans. 

See  Marie  de'  .MEnici,  Eicheliec  ;  and  French  works 
bv  Bazin  (new  ud.  4  vols.  1846),  Topin  (1870).  and  Zellcr 
(1871)). 

Louis  XIV.,  king  of  France,  born  at  St 
Germain-en-Laye,  I6tli  Sejiteiiiber  1638,  succeeded 
his  father,  Louis  XIII.,  in  1643.  His  mother,  Anne 
of  Austria,  became  regent,  and  Mazarin  (q.v.)  her 
minister.  During  the  kings  minority  the  dis- 
contented nobles,  encouraged  by  Spain,  sought  to 
shake  oil' the  authority  of  the  crown,  and  the  civil 
wars  of  the  Fiundc  (q.v.)  arose.  Pe.aee  was  con- 
cludeil  in  1659;  and  in  the  following  year  Louis 
married  the  Infanta  Maria  Theresa,  a  princess 
possessing  neither  beauty  nor  other  attractive 
qualities.  Little  was  expected  from  the  .\onng 
king;  his  eiliication  had  been  neglected,  and  his 
comluct  Wii-s  dissolute  ;  Imt  on  Ma/arin's  death  in 
1661  he  suddenly  assumed  the  reins  of  goveriiiiient, 
and  from  that  time  forth  carried  int<i  ellccl  with 
rare  energy  a  jiolitical  theory  of  pure  despotism. 
His  famous  saying,  'L'etatcest  moi  '  ('1  am  the 
state'),  expies.sed  the  princijile  to  which  everything 
wa.s  accommodated.  He  had  a  cool  .and  clear 
head,  with  much  dignity  and  amenity  of  iiiaimci's, 


LOUIS    XIV. 


Kreat  activity,  and  indomitable  perseverance. 
Tlie  distress  "caused  by  the  reli^'ious  wars  had 
created  throughout  France  a  longing  for  repose, 
which  wivs  favourable  to  his  assumption  of  absolute 
i)4iwer.  He  was  ably  supported  by  his  ministers. 
Slanufactures  began  to  llourish  under  the  royal 
protectiim.  The  tine  cloths  of  Louviers,  Abbeville, 
and  Sedan,  the  tapestries  of  the  (iobelins,  the 
carpets  of  La  Savonnerie,  and  the  silks  of  Tours 
anil  liVons  acquired  a  wide  celebrity.  The  wonder- 
ful talents  of  Colbert  (q.v.)  restored  prosperity  to 
the  ruined  finances  of  the  country,  and  provided  the 
means  for  war;  whilst  Louvois  (q.v.)  ap]ilied  tliese 
means  in  raising  and  sending  to  the  lield  armies 
more  thoroughly  equipped  and  disciplined  than  any 
others  of  that  age. 

On  the  death  of  Philip  IV.  of  Spain  Louis,  as  his 
soninlaw,  set  up  a  claim  to  part  of  the  Spanish 
Netherlands;  and  in  1667,  accompanieAby  Turenue 
(q.v.),  he  crossed  the  frontier  with  a  powerful 
army,  took  many  places,  and  made  himself  master 
of  that  part  of  Flanders  since  known  as  French 
Flanders,  ami  of  the  whole  of  Franche  Comte.  The 
triple  alliaiiee — between  England,  the  States- 
general  of  Holland,  and  Sweden— arrested  his 
career  of  conquest.  The  treaty  of  Aix-la-Chapelle 
(1668)  forced  him  to  surrender  Franche  Comtc. 
He  vowed  revenge  against  the  States-general, 
strengthened  himself  by  Clerman  alliances,  anil 
purchased  with  money  the  friendship  of  Charles  II. 
of  England.  He  seized  Lorraine  in  1670 ;  and  in 
May  1672  again  entered  the  Netherlands  with 
Conde  and  Turenne,  conquered  half  the  country  in 
si.\  weeks,  and  left  the  Duke  of  Luxembourg  to  lay 
it  waste.  The  States-general  formed  an  alliance 
with  Spain  and  with  the  emperor,  but  Louis  maile 
himself  master  of  ten  cities  of  the  empire  in  Alsace, 
and  in  the  spring  of  1674  took  the  field  with  three 
great  armies,  of  which  he  commanded  one  in 
person,  Conde  another,  and  Turenne  a  third. 
Victory  attended  his  arms  ;  and,  notwithstanding 
the  death  of  Turenne  and  the  retirement  of  the 
Prince  of  Conde  from  active  service,  he  continued 
in  subsequent  years,  along  with  liLs  brother,  the 
Duke  of  Orleans,  to  extend  his  conquests  in  the 
Netherlands,  where,  by  his  orders,  and  according 
to  the  ruthless  policy  of  Louvois,  the  country  was 
fearfully  desolated.  The  peace  of  Nimcguen  in 
167S  left  him  in  possession  of  fortresses  in  the 
Spanish  Netherlands  and  of  Franche  Comte.  He 
now  established  Chumbrcs  </e  lUiiiiion  in  Metz, 
Breisach,  and  Besancon,  packed  courts  of  law,  in 
which  his  own  will  was  supreme,  and  which  con- 
fiscated to  him,  as  feudal  superior  in  right  of  his 
conquests,  territories  which  he  wished  to  acquire, 
seignories  belonging  to  the  Elector  Palatine,  the 
Elector  of  Trfeves,  and  others.  He  also,  on 
.■?Otli  September  1681,  made  a  sudden  and  successful 
attack  on  Strasbnrg,  a  free  ( iernian  city,  the 
posses.sion  and  fortifiratiim  of  which  addeiLgreally 
to  his  power  (m  the  Kiiine.  The  acc|uisition  thus 
made  a  treaty  in  1684  confirmed  to  him. 

Louis  had  now  reached  the  zenith  of  his  career. 
All  Europe  feared  him  ;  his  own  nation  had  been 
brought  by  tyranny,  skilful  management,  and 
milit.iry  glory  to  regard  him  with  .Asiatic  humility, 
admiriu"  and  obeying;  all  remnants  of  political 
independence  had  been  swej)t  away  ;  no  Assemblies 
of  the  States  or  of  the  Notables  were  held  ;  the 
nobles  lia<l  lost  both  the  ilcsire  and  the  aliility  to 
a-ssert  political  power ;  the  municip.al  corporations 
no  longer  exercised  any  right  of  election,  but 
received  appointments  of  odicials  from  the  court;  the 
J)rovinc(^s  were  governed  by  uiti-.iitlanis,  who  were 
immediately  respimsible  to  the  ministers,  and  they 
to  the  king,  who  was  his  own  )>rime-minister. 
Even  the  courts  of  justice  yieldeil  to  the  alisolute 
sway  of  the  monarch,  who  interfered  at  pleasure 


\Vith  the  ordinary  course  of  law,  by  the  appoint- 
ment of  commissions,  or  withdrew  "otienders  from 
the  jurisdiction  of  the  courts  by  LMns  cle  Cac/tct 
(q.v.),  of  which  he  issued  about  9000  in  the  course 
of  his  reign.  He  asserted  a  right  to  dispose  at  bis 
ideasure  of  all  properties  within  the  boundaries  of 
his  realm,  and  took  credit  to  himself  for  gracious 
moderation  in  exercising  it  sparingly.  The  court 
was  the  very  heart  of  the  political  and  national  life 
of  France,  and  there  the  utmost  splendour  was 
maintained  ;  and  a  system  of  etiquette  was  estab- 
lished which  was  a  sort  of  perpetual  worship  of 
the  king. 

It  was  a  serious  thing  for  France  and  the  world 
when  Louis  fell  under  the  control  of  his  mistress, 
Madame  de  Maintenon  (q.v.),  whom  he  married 
in  a  halt-private  manner  in  168.5,  and  who  was 
herself  governed  liy  the  Jesuits.  One  of  the 
first  etl'ects  of  this  change  was  the  adoption  of 
severe  measures  against  the  Protestants.  \\'hen  it 
was  falsely  reported  to  Louis  that  his  troops  had 
dragooned  all  heretics  into  conversion,  he  revoked 
the  Edict  of  Nantes  in  168.5,  and  then  ensued  a 
bloody  persecution  ;  whilst  more  than  half  a 
million  of  the  best  and  most  industrious  of  the 
inhabitants  of  France  fled,  carrying  their  skill  and 
industry  to  other  lands.  Yet  Louis  was  by  no 
means  willing  to  yield  too  much  power  to  the  pope  ; 
and,  (piarrelling  with  him  concerning  the  revenues 
of  vacant  bishoprics,  he  convened  a  council  of 
French  clergy,  which  declared  the  pajial  power  to 
extend  only  to  matters  of  faith,  and  even  in  these 
to  be  dependent  upon  the  decrees  of  councils. 

The  Elector  of  the  Palatinate  having  died  in 
May  1685,  and  left  his  sister,  the  Duchess  of 
Orleans,  heiress  of  his  nu)vable  property,  Louis 
claimed  for  her  also  all  the  allodial  lands  ;  and 
from  this  and  other  causes  arose  a  new  European 
war.  A  French  army  invaded  the  Palatinate, 
Baden,  Wiirtemberg,  and  Treves  in  1688.  In  1689 
the  Lower  Palatinate  and  neighbouring  regions 
were  laid  waste  by  fire  and  sword.  This  atrocious 
proceeding  led  to  a  new  coalition  against  Fiance. 
Success  for  a  time  attended  the  French  arms,  par- 
ticularly in  Savoy  and  at  the  b.attle  of  Steinkerk. 
Reverses,  however,  ensued  ;  the  war  was  waged  for 
years  on  a  great  scale,  and  with  various  success ; 
and  after  the  French,  under  Luxembourg,  had 
gained,  in  169.S,  the  battle  of  Ncerwinden,  it  was 
found  that  the  means  of  waging  war  were  veiy 
much  exhausted,  ami  Louis  concluded  the  jieace 
of  Ryswick  on  20tli  September  1697.  The  navy 
destroyed,  the  finances  grievously  embarrassed,  the 
peo])le  suH'ering  from  want  of  food,  an<l  discontent 
becoming  deep  ,and  general,  Louis  placed  the  Count 
D'Ari'enson  at  the  head  of  the  police,  and  estab- 
lished an  unparalleled  system  of  espionage  for  the 
maintenance  of  his  own  despotism.  The  power  of 
Madame  de  Maintenon  ami  lier  clerical  advisers 
became  more  and  more  absolute  at  the  court,  where 
scandals  of  every  kind  increased. 

When  the  death  of  Charles  II.  of  Spain  took 
place,  on  1st  November  1700,  it  was  found  that 
Louis  had  obtained  his  signature  to  a  will  by  which 
he  left  all  his  dominions  to  one  of  the  grandsons 
of  his  sister,  who  had  been  Louis's  (pieen.  l.iiuis 
supported  to  the  utmost  the  claim  of  his  grandson 
(Philip  v.),  whilst  the  Emperor  Leopold  su]iported 
that  of  bis  son,  afterwarcfs  the  Enqieror  ( 'liarles 
VL  But  the  power  of  France  was  now  weakened, 
and  the  war  had  to  be  maintained  both  on  the  side 
of  the  Netherlamis  and  of  Italy.  One  blooily 
<lefeat  followed  another  ;  Marlbonmgh  was  victori- 
ous in  the  Low  Countries,  and  Prince  Eugene  in 
Italy  ;  whilst  the  forces  of  Louis  were  divided  and 
weakened  by  the  employment  <tf  large  liodies  of 
troo]is  against  the  Camisards  in  the  Ccvennes,  for 
the  extinction  of  the  last  relics  of  Protestantism. 


. 


724 


LOUIS    XIV. 


LOUIS    XV. 


Ou  the  lltli  A]ni\  171."?  pe.ioe  was  conclmleil  at 
Utrecht,  the  Kreiioh  prince  obtaining  the  Spanish 
throne,  l>nt  France  sacrificing  vahiaUle  colonies. 
A  terrH)lo  fermentation  now  prevailed  in  France, 
and  the  conntrv  was  almost  completely  ruine<l  ; 
but  the  mcmarch  maintained  to  the  last  an  unbend- 
ing despotism.  He  died,  after  a  short  illness,  1st 
September  1715.  He  was  succeeded  by  his  great- 
grandson,  Louis  XN'.  His  son,  the  daui>hin,  and 
his  eldest  grandson,  the  Duke  of  Brittany,  had 
both  died  in  1711.  Louis  had  a  niimbor  of  natural 
children,  and  he  had  legitinilsed  tho.se  of  whom 
Jladame  de  Montespan  was  the  mother ;  but  the 
Paris  parliament,  which  made  no  objection  to 
recording  the  edict  when  required  by  him,  made  as 
little  objection  to  annulling  it  when  recjuired  by 
the  next  government.  The  '  works '  of  Louis  XIV. 
(6  vols.  Paris,  INOli),  containing  his  Instructions  for 
his  sons,  and  many  letters,  afford  important  in- 
formation as  to  liis  character  and  the  history  of  liis 
reign.  The  reign  of  Louis  XIV.  is  regarded  as  the 
Augustan  age  of  French  literature  and  art,  and  it 
can  hardly  be  doubted  that  France  has  never  since 
produced  poets  like  Corneille  and  Racine  in 
tragedy,  or  Molicre  in  comedy,  satirists  like 
BoUeau,  or  church  orators  and  divines  like  Bossuet, 
Fenelon,  Bourdaloue,  and  Massillon. 

SeeXuHaire'sSierlcde-LouisXIV.  (1740),  the Mhnoires 
of  Saint-.Simon  (1788;  in  English,  abridged,  1870);  and 
other  works  by  Gaillardiu  (6  vols.  1871-76),  Cosnao 
(8  vols.  1874-81),  Cheruel  (4  vols.  1878-80),  Miohelet 
(3d  ed.  1.S7.5),  Michaud  (1.S82-83),  Chotard  (IHltO),  Du 
Cause  de  Nazell  ( 18',tll ),  Pardee  (1886),  Hassall  (lt>'J5) ; 
for  "le  stj'le  Louis  Quatorze'  in  art,  Genevay  (1887). 

Louis  XV.,  king  of  France,  the  great-grandson 
of  LouLS  XIV.,  born  at  Versailles,  i5th  February 
1710,  succeeded  to  the  throne  1st  September  1715. 
The  Duke  of  Orleans,  as  first  prince  of  the  blood, 
■was  recent  during  the  minority  of  the  king,  whose 
education  was  entruste<l  to  ilarshal  ^'illeroi  and 
Cardinal  Fleury.  The  regent  and  the  country 
l)ecame  incomprehensibly  infatuated  with  the 
financial  schemes  of  the  Scotsman  Law  (cj.v. ). 
All  available  capital  was  drawn  away  from  agri- 
culture and  trade,  pocketed  by  the  financial  cliques, 
the  court,  and  the  state,  whose  debt  was  thereby 
substantially  reduced,  aiul  worthless  paper-monej' 
issued  instead.  Every  kind  of  imlulgencein  luxury 
and  vice  accompanied  in  high  pl.aces  this  financial 
insanity.  When  Louis  was  fifteen  yeai-s  of  age  he 
married  Maria  Lesczyuski,  daughter  of  Stanislas, 
the  dethroned  king  of  Poland.  .A.t  the  death  of 
the  regent  and  of  his  shameless  prime-minister 
Cai-diual  Dubois,  Louis  reigned  personally,  and  put 
at  the  head  of  affairs  bis  old,  wise,  and  prudent 
teacher  Cardinal  Fleury,  who  repaired  somewhat 
the  economic  disasters  of  his  predecessors,  and  set 
his  face  against  a  warlike  policy. 

Louis  having  become  involved  in  the  war  of  the 
Poli.sh  Succession  through  his  father-in-law,  the 
duchy  of  Loriaine  was  without  much  fighting 
obtained  for  the  latter,  and  for  the  French  crown 
after  him.  When  the  war  of  the  Austiian  succes- 
sion broke  out  (1740)  Cardinal  Fleury  was  avei-se 
to  burdening  the  state  with  fresh  debt  and  new 
military  charges  in  support  of  the  claims  of  the 
prince-elector  of  JSavaria  to  the  imperial  crown. 
Louis  was  then  falling  under  the  influence  of  a 
number  of  voluptuous  and  immoral  noblemen,  who 
set  up  a  barrier  between  him  and  his  wife,  and 
delivered  him  into  the  hands  of  vice.  Fleury  lost 
ground ;  the  government  became  a  toy  for  ambi- 
tious courtiers  and  dissolute  women,  in  the  satis- 
faction of  whose  vanity  war  was  declareil  against 
Austria.  After  a  course  of  easy  conquest  in  1741 
the  French  were  badly  beaten  in  1742  :  regret  and 
worry  broujjht  Fleurv  to  the  grave  in  the  next 
year.     But  in  the  following  yeai-s  France,  in  alli- 


ance with  Frederick  the  Great  of  Prussia,  was 
repeatedly  victorious  on  land,  at  Fontenoy  (l7-i->), 
for  instance,  where  Louis  delighted  his  latest 
mistress  with  the  flight  of  English,  I)\itch,  and 
Austrian  troops,  though  on  the  sea  the  English 
put  an  end  to  the  French  navy  and  sea-faring  trade. 
When  peace  was  signed  at  Aix-la-Chapelle  France 
had  nothing  to  .show  save  the  ruinous  disorganisa- 
tion of  her  finances. 

The  king  now  sank  completely  under  the  control 
of  Madame  de  Pomiiadour,  who  was  both  concubine 
and  procuress,  and  to  whom  he  gave  notes  on  the 
treasury  for  enormous  sums,  amounting  in  all  to 
hundreds  of  millions  of  livres.  War  broke  out 
again  with  Britain  concerning  the  boundaries  of 
Acadia  ( Nova  Scotia ),  and  was  for  souie  time 
prosecuted  with  considerable  vigour.  In  1756  an 
extraordinary  alliance  was  formed  between  France 
and  Austria,  contrary  to  the  polic\'  of  ages,  and 
chiefly  through  the  influence  of  Madame  de  I'om- 
padour.  Directed  ag^ainst  Prussia  as  a  threatening 
Protestant  power,  this  alliance  had  no  other  result 
than  Frederick  the  (ireat's  complete  victory  over 
the  French  at  Kossbach.  The  state  of  the  finances, 
the  dispirited  condition  of  the  army,  and  the  out- 
ciy  of  the  ilistressed  ])eople  were  not  sullicient  to 
induce  the  king  to  make  peace  ;  but,  governed 
by  his  mistress,  he  obstinately  jjcrsevered  in  war, 
even  after  the  terrible  defeat  of  Minden  in 
1759 :  whilst  the  British  conquered  almost  all 
the  French  colonies  both  in  the  East  and  West 
'  Indies,  with  Cape  Breton  and  Canada.  A  peace 
most  humiliating  to  France  was  at  last  concluded 
in  1763. 

Louis,  although  indifterent  to  the  ruin  of  his 
people,  and  to  everything  but  his  own  vile  pleasures, 
was  reluctantly  compelled  to  take  part  in  the  con- 
test between  the  Paris  parliament  and  the  Jesuits 
(q.v.),  the  result  of  which  was  the  suppression 
of  the  order  in  1764.  The  parliament,  embcddened 
by  success  in  this  cimtest,  now  attempted  to 
limit  the  power  of  the  crown  by  refusing  to 
register  edicts  of  taxation  ;  but  the  king  main- 
tained his  own  absolute  and  supreme  authority, 
thanks  to  the  indifference  with  which  the  people 
and  the  middle  class  viewed  the  privileges  of  the 
noblcsne  dc  robe.  The  Due  de  Choiseul  was  now- 
displaced  from  office,  .a  new  mistress,  Madame  du 
Barry,  having  conn;  into  the  jilace  of  Madame 
de  Pomi)adonr ;  and  a  ministry  was  formed  under 
the  Duke  d'Aiguillon,  every  member  of  which  w;is 
an  enemy  of  the  ])arlianients  and  abjectly  immoral. 
The  councilloi-s  of  the  ])arliament  of  Paris  were 
removed  from  their  offices,  and  banished  with  great 
indignity  ;  an  interim  parliament  was  a|)i)ointed 
(January  1771),  which  duly  obeyed  the  court. 
The  princes  of  the  blood  protested  against  this 
arbitrary  act,  which  left  them  without  any  means 
of  apjieal  against  the  royal  will.  The  king,  when 
told  of  the  ruin  of  the  country  aiul  the  misery  and 
discontent  of  the  people,  only  remarked  that  the 
monarchy  would  last  as  long  a.s  his  life,  and  con- 
tinued his  cour.se  of  sensual  pleasures  and  trilling 
amusements.  He  boa.sted  of  being  the  best  cook 
in  France,  and  was  much  gratified  when  the 
courtiei-s  ate  eagerly  of  the  dishes  which  he  had 
prepared.  His  gifts  to  Madame  du  Barry,  not- 
withstanding the  embarrassment  of  the  finances, 
in  five  years  amounted  to  180  millions  of  livre.s. 
At  last  Louis,  whose  constitution  was  alreaily 
shattered  frum  the  effects  of  a  life  of  vice,  w.is 
seized  with  smalljiox,  and  on  10th  -M.ay  1774  he 
died  in  abject  misery,  so  far  from  being  regrette<l 
that  his  funeral  was  a  .sort  of  jiopular  festival,  and 
was  celebrated  with  pasquils  ami  merry  ballads. 
Such  was  the  end  of  Louis  '  le  Bien-ainie. ' 

See  Voltaire's  Silcle  dc  Louis  XV.   (2  vols.  1768-70), 
and  other  works  by  Tocqueville  ( 2d  ed.  1847),  Bonlioinme 


LOUIS    XVI. 


LOUIS    XVIL 


725 


(1873),  the  Duke  Je  Broglie  (  Ens.  trans.  1S79),  Vaudal 
( 1SS2),  Perkins  ( WJ7 ),  and  Waddin-ton  ( IS'Jl ). 

Louis  XVI..  king  of  France,  Tiorn  23(1  August 
lT.i4,  \va*  the  lliiril  son  of  tlie  lUiuiiliin,  Louis,  only 
son  of  Louis  XV.  He  was  styled  Due  de  IJerri 
until,  by  the  death  of  his  father  and  his  elder 
broiliei^,  he  became  dauiihin.  lie  had  a  vigoious 
frame,  Wiis  fond  of  hunting  ami  nianly  exercises, 
took  gieat  i^leasure  in  making  locks  and  such 
mechanical  laboui's,  and  showed  an  a|>tituile  for 
geometry  but  none  for  political  science.  In  the 
midst  of  the  most  corrupt  of  courts  he  grew  up 
temperate,  honest,  and  moral.  He  was  married  on 
lOtli  May  1770  to  ilarie  Antoinette,  the  youngest 
daughter  of  the  Empress  Maria  Tlieresa. 

AVhen  Louis  iiscended  the  throne  the  public 
treasury  was  empty,  the  state  burdened  Avith  a 
debt  of  400C)  millions  of  livres,  all  borrowing  credit 
Wii-s  exhausted,  the  people  were  crushed  under  the 
weight  of  taxes,  and  all  respect  had  gone  from 
king,  court,  church,  and  governing  classes.  Per- 
sonally full  of  good-will,  he  faileil  to  restrain  the 
excesses  of  his  brothers  and  to  resist  the  influence 
of  his  proud  and  high-handed  consort.  He  yielded 
unAv-isely  to  the  advice  of  his  first  prime-minister, 
Maurepas,  an  incompetent  and  narrow-minded 
courtier,  in  restoring  to  the  Paris  and  provincial 
parliaments  their  semi-political  rights  in  the  matter 
of  public  expenditure  and  local  taxation.  The 
accession  of  Malesherbes  and  Turgot  to  the  ministry 
heralded  thoroughgoing  reforms,  which  Voltaire 
hailed  as  the  '  ilawn  of  the  age  of  reason  '  in  French 
politics.  But  these  proposals,  accepted  by  the 
king,  were  rejected  by  the  court,  the  aristocracy, 
the  parliaments,  and  tlie  church.  Turgot  resigned 
his  office.  Yet  Louis  succeeded  in  the  remission 
of  some  of  the  most  odious  taxes,  the  abolition  of 
the  last  relics  of  serfdom,  the  abolition  of  torture 
in  judicial  investigations,  a  reduction  of  the  exi)en- 
diturc  of  the  court,  and  the  foundation  of  institu- 
tions for  the  benefit  of  the  workini'-cla-sses.  He 
was  for  a  time  extremely  popular,  tliough  deeper 
reforms  were  rendered  impossible  by  the  opposition 
of  the  privileged  cla.sses  and  the  obstinacy  of  the 
queen.  In  June  1777,  when  the  state'  of  the 
finances  seemed  nearly  desperate,  Necker  was  made 
Director-general,  and  succeeded  in  bringing  them 
to  ;i  more  tolerable  condition,  without  any  very 
radical  change;  but,  from  the  interference  of  France 
in  the  American  war  of  indepen<lence,  he  was 
obliged  to  propose  the  taxation  of  the  privileged 
clii.'ises  hitherto  exempted.  Their  re.sistance  com- 
pelled him  to  resign.  The  American  war  swallowed 
up  the  revenue  of  three  yeai's.  The  apjiointnient 
in  1783  of  Calonne  (q.v. ),  a  spendthrift,  to  the 
finances  renewed  for  a  while  the  splendour  of  the 
court.  At  his  wits'  end,  he  advised  the  calling 
together  of  an  Assembly  of  Notable-s,  .such  as  the 
inonarchv,  especially  under  Kichelieu's  premier- 
ship, had  occasionally  summoned  to  its  lielj).  The 
nobh-men,  clergymen,  state-ollicials,  councilloi-s  of 
parliament-s,  and  municipal  officers  thus  collected 
showed  him  bitter  hostility,  and,  when  he  revived 
Neckers  proposals,  compelled  him  to  lly  to  London. 
His  sncce.ssor,  Lomenie  de  Brienne,  obtained  some 
conces-sions  and  some  new  taxes.  But  the  jjarlia- 
nient  of  Paris  refnse<l  to  register  the  edict  of  taxa- 
tion, a-H  oppressive  to  the  people ;  for  the  extrava- 
gance of  the  court  and  the  queen  began  to  be  freely 
spoken  of  in  a  nation  now  fully  acipiainted  with 
trie  facts.  The  convening  of  the  States-general 
wa.-*  demanded  from  every  comer  of  France.  The 
king  registereil  the  edicts  in  a  /if  de  justice,  and 
banished  the  councillors  of  parliament  to  Troyes, 
but  ere  long  found  it  neces-saiy  to  recall  them,  anrl 
experienced  from  tlieni  even  a  stronger  opjiosition 
than  before.  On  8th  May  1788  he  dissolved  all  the 
parliaments  and  established  a  new  kind  of  court 


{Com-  Pleniac)  instead:  but  this  act  of  despotism 
set  the  whole  country  in  llames.  Matters  became 
still  worse  when  on  Kith  August  ai)peared  the 
famous  edict,  that  the  treasury  shonlil  cea.se  from 
all  ca-sh  payments  except  to  the  troojjs.  Ihienne 
was  compelled  to  resign,  and  Necker  again  became 
minister.  An  Assembly  of  the  States  of  the  king- 
dom, in  abeyance  since  1614,  was  resolved  upon  ; 
and  by  the  advice  of  Xecker,  who  wished  a  counter- 
poise to  the  influence  of  the  nobility,  clergy,  aiul 
court,  the  Third  Estate  was  called  in  double  num- 
ber, while  in  other  respects  the  precedent  set  in 
1614  was  adhered  to. 

The  subsequent  history  of  Louis  is  given  under 
the  head  Fkance.  All  readei's  of  liistory  are 
familiar  with  the  melancholy  incidents  of  his  life, 
from  the  opening  of  the  Assembly  of  the  States 
(5th  May  1789)  down  to  his  tragic  e.xecution.  At 
ten  o'clock  in  the  morning  of  the  21st  of  January 
1793  he  died  by  the  guillotine,  in  the  Place  de  la 
Revolution.  Great  precautions  were  taken  to  pre- 
vent any  rescue.  As  the  e.xecutiimer  bound  him 
Louistore  himself  free  and  exclaimed:  'Frenchmen, 
I  die  innocent ;  1  pray  that  my  blood  come  not  upon 
France.'     The  rolling  of  drums  drowned  his  voice. 

The  share  of  the  French  in  the  American  war  of 
independence  is  a  bright  and  almost  romantic  epi- 
sode in  the  drama  of  this  reign.  Franklin  kindled 
in  excitable  Paris  such  enthusiasm  for  liberty  and 
democracy  that  the  Marquis  de  Lafayette  and 
some  other  ideal-loving  gentlemen  crossed  the 
sea  in  defence  of  England's  colonies.  A  formal 
alliance  ensued,  and  assistance  was  given  in  men, 
money,  and  sliips. 

.See  M.MiiE  Antoixette,  Necker.  Ti'kgot,  Mibabeac  ; 
and  wnrlis  hv  Soulavie  (1801),  Boumisseau.-i  (lN2il), 
Droz  ( 2d  ed.  1858 ),  Capefigue  ( 1844  ),  Tocqueville  ( 2d  ed. 
1850),  and  Jobez  (3  vols.  1877-93). 

Louis  XTII.,  Charles,  second  son  of  Louis 
XVI.  of  France,  born  at  Versailles,  27th  JIaicli 
1785,  received  tlie  title  of  Duke  of  Xormandy,  till, 
on  the  death  of  his  brother  in  1789,  he  became 
dauphin.  He  was  a  promising  boy.  In  the  earlier 
days  of  the  Revolution  he  was  sometimes  dressed 
in  the  unif(uiii  of  tlie  National  (iuard  and  decorated 
with  the  tricolor  to  gratify  the  populace.  After 
the  death  of  his  father  he  continued  in  prison — at 
first  with  his  mother,  but  afterwards  apart  from 
her — in  the  Temple,  under  the  charge  of  a  brutal 
Jacobin  shoemaker  nameil  Simon,  who  treated 
him  with  great  cruelty  and  pushed  him  into  vicious 
excesses,  so  that  he  became  a  mere  wreck  both 
in  inin<i  and  body.  After  the  overthrow  of  the 
Terrorists  he  was — perhaps  intentionally — forgot- 
ten, ami  died  Sth  June  1795.  A  report  spread 
that  he  was  poisoned,  but  a  commission  of  iihysi- 
cians  examined  the  body  and  declared  the  report 
unfounded. 

All  the  attemids  made  by  Louis  XVIII.  in  1815 
to  find  the  remains  of  this  most  hajdess  victim  of 
the  Revolution  proved  fruitless,  and  this  fact  gave 
room  for  the  appearance  of  a  succession  of  false 
dau]diins,  whose  claims  deluded  many  honest 
royalists  in  France.  tJf  these  the  first  was  Jean 
Marie  Herv:igaull,  the  son  of  a  St  Lo  tailor,  born 
in  1781,  who  ran  away  from  home  at  fourteen,  and 
soon  fmind  many  suiiportei-s  in  Brittany,  Nor- 
mandy, Champagne,  and  Burgundy.  In  1802  he 
was  sentenced  for  his  imiiostnrc  to  a  four  years' 
imprisonment,  and  later,  under  Naiioleon's  em]iii'e, 
wiis  conlineil  in  the  Bicctre,  where  lie  ilietl  in  1M2. 
Another  false  Louis,  who  attracted  .some  attention 
under  the  name  Charles  of  Fiance,  was  Mathurin 
Brumean,  born  in  1784  at  Bezins,  the  son  of  a 
maker  of  woorlen  shoes.  He  early  took  to  a  roving 
life,  was  committed  as  a  vagrant  in  1803,  next 
spent  some  yeai's  in  North  America,  returned  to 
push  his  claims  in  France,  and  wjis  sent  to  prison 


(26 


LOUIS   XVIII. 


LOUISIADE    ARCHIPELAGO 


for  seven  yeare  at  Rouen.  After  the  July  re\olu- 
tion  lie  disappeared.  The  third  false  Louis  XVII., 
who  attracted  unich  attention  in  1SS3  and  IS.'U, 
was  the  so-called  Due  de  Kichnumt,  whose  projier 
name  was  Kran^ois  Henri  Hebert,  a  native  of  the 
Hoiien  district.  The  idea  that  he  was  a  son  of 
Louis  XVI.  lirst  possessed  him  about  1828.  After 
the  July  revolution  he  protested  in  a  series  of 
writings  against  Louis-Philippe,  and  attempted 
to  push  his  claim  by  Mnnoircs.  In  1S:M  he  was 
sent  to  jail  for  twelve  years,  but  eijjbt  months 
later  .succeeded  in  niakinj;  an  escape  to  Lomlon, 
where  he  died  in  1845.  Perhajis  the  most  remark- 
able claimant  was  the  Potsdam  watchmaker,  Karl 
Wilhelm  Naundorf,  whose  claim  rested  on  a  strik- 
ing Bourbon  lesemldance.  After  many  crosses  in 
Uerlin,  8|iandau,  and  Brandenburg,  besides  a  three 
years'  imprisonment,  be  found  his  way  to  France 
in  1833,  but  was  e.xpelled  three  years  later.  He 
made  his  way  to  England,  and  died  in  1845.  His 
children  assumed  the  name  of  Bourbon,  and  in 
1851  and  1874  raised  fruitless  actions  before  the 
Paris  law-courts  against  the  Comte  de  Chambord. 
See  Elizabeth  Evans's  ^'tory  of  Louis  A' VII.  (1893). 

Louis  Will.,  ST.4.NKLA.S  Xavikr,  the  next 
younger  brother  of  Louis  XVI.,  born  at  Versailles, 
17th  November  1755,  received  the  title  of  Count  de 
Provence.  In  1771  he  married  Maria  Jo.sephine 
Louisa,  daughter  of  \'ictor  Aniadeus  III.  of  Sardinia. 
After  the  accession  of  Louis  XVI.  to  the  throne  he 
assumed  the  designation  of  Moiisifiir,  and  became 
an  opponent  of  every  salutary  measure  of  the 
government.  He  lied  from  Paris  on  the  same 
niglit  as  the  king,  and  was  more  fortunate,  for, 
taking  the  road  by  Lille,  he  reached  the  Belgian 
frontier  in  safety.  ^Mth  bis  brother,  the  Count 
d'Artois,  he  now  issued  declarations  against  the 
revolutionary  cause  in  France,  which  had  a  very 
unfavourable  ett'ect  on  the  situation  of  the  king. 
The  two  brothers  for  some  time  held  a  sort  of  court 
at  Coblenz-  L(uus  joined  the  body  of  6000 
Emigres  who  accompanied  the  Prussians  across 
the  Uhine  in  July  1792,  and  issued  a  manifesto 
even  more  foolish  and  extravagant  than  that  of 
the  Puke  of  Brunswick.  After  the  death  of  his 
brother,  Louis  XVI.,  he  proclaimed  the  hitter's 
son  king  of  France,  as  Louis  XVII.,  and  in  1795 
himself  assumed  the  title  of  king.  The  victories  of 
the  republic  and  Napoleon's  enmity  to  the  Bourbon 
family  compelled  him  frequently  to  change  his 
place  of  abode,  removing  from  one  country  of 
Eurojie  to  another,  till  at  last,  in  1807,  he  founil  a 
refuge  in  England,  and  purchased  a  resi<lence, 
Hartwell,  in  Buckinghaiiishire,  where  his  wife  died 
in  1810,  and  where  he  remained  till  the  fall  of 
Najiolcon  opened  the  wav  for  him  to  the  French 
throne.  On  2fith  April  1814  '  le  Dc.sirc,'  as  the 
royalists  style  him,  landed  at  Calais,  after  twenty- 
four  years' exile.  His  return,  under  the  protection  of 
the  allied  armies,  had  been  prepared  for  by  Talley- 
rand. Then  began  the  ascendency  of  the  '  legitimist  ' 
party.  The  powerless  empress-regent  was  super- 
seded by  a  jirovisioiial  government,  the  Na])oleonic 
constitution  Wits  set  asiile,  and,  in  keeping  with  the 
doctrine  of  the  'divine  right  of  kings,'  all  jiower 
was  claimed  by  LouLs  XVIII.  Using  his  discre- 
tionary rights,  he  granted  to  the  nation  a  constitu- 
tional charter,  establishing  a  House  of  Peers  and 
a  Chamber  of  Deputies,  and  vouchsafing  a  few 
elementary  citizen-rights,  but  in  every  es.sential 
respect  he  resumed  the  baneful  traditions  of  the 
ancient  monarchy.     See  Fh.wck. 

The  nobles  .and  priests  exercised  an  inlluence 
over  the  weak  king  which  leil  to  .severe  treatment 
of  the  Iin|)erialists,  theRe]iublicans,and  the  Piotest- 
ants.  Tliis  opened  the  way  for  Napoleon's  return 
from  Elba,  when  the  king  and  his  family  lied  from 
Paris,  remained  at  Ghent  till  after  the  battle  of 


Waterloo,  and  returned  to  France  under  the  pro- 
tection of  the  Duke  of  Wellington.  He  issued 
from  Cambrai  a  i)roclamation  in  which  he  acknow- 
ledged his  former  errors,  and  promis('<l  a  general 
amnesty  to  all  except  traitors.  But  the  Cbaml)er 
of  Deputies,  elected  with  many  irregularities,  was 
so  fanatically  royalist  and  reactionary  that  the 
king,  by  advice  of  the  Emperor  Alexander  of 
Russia,  dissolved  it :  whereuj>on  arose  royalist 
plots  for  his  dethronement  ;ind  the  abolition  of 
the  charter.  Baiuls  of  assassins  were  collected 
by  nobles  and  priests  in  the  provinces,  who  slew 
hundreds  of  adherents  of  the  Revolution  and  of 
Protestants,  and  years  elapsed  ere  peace  and 
good  order  were  in  any  measure  restored.  Driven 
by  royalistic  fanatics,  the  king  dismissed  his  too 
moderate  prime-minister  Decazes,  and  could  not 
prevent  an  army  from  passing  into  Spain  to  m.iin- 
tain  there  the  light  of  absolute  kingship.  He  died 
16th  September  1824.  See  Petit's  Louis  XVIII. 
(1885). 

Louisa,  queen  of  Pnissia,  was  born  10th  March 
1776,  at  Hanover,  where  her  father,  Duke  Karl  of 
Mecklenburg-Strelitz,  was  then  commandant.  She 
was  married  to  the  Crown-prince  of  Prussia,  after- 
wards Frederick-AVilliam  HI.,  on  24th  Decemlier 
1793,  and  was  the  molhcr  of  Frederick-William 
IV.  and  William  III.,  afterwards  eni])eror.  After 
her  liusliand's  accession  to  the  throne  she  became 
exceedingly  popular,  her  great  beauty  being  united 
with  dignity  and  grace  of  manners,  and  with  much 
gentleness  of  character  and  active  benevolence. 
This  popularity  was  increased  by  her  conduct  dur- 
ing the  period  of  national  calamity  that  f(dlowed 
the  battle  of  Jena,  when  she  displayed  not  only  a 
patriotic  spirit,  but  no  little  energj'  and  resolution. 
Slie  especially  endeared  herself  to  her  ]ieoplc  by 
her  bearing  when  compelled  to  endure  insult  at  the 
hands  of  Najioleoii.  She  died  in  Strelitz,  lOtli 
July  1810.  'i'he  Prussian  Order  of  Louisa,  the 
Louisa  School  for  girls,  and  the  Louisa  Cover- 
nesses'  Seminary  were  instituted  in  her  honour. 
There  is  a  beautiful  monunient  .and  portrait-statue 
of  her  by  Ranch  in  the  mausoleum  at  Charlotten- 
burg.  See  her  Life  and  Times,  by  E.  H.  Hudsiui 
(1877),  and  Cernian  works  by  Horn  (1883)  and 
Martin  (1887). 

Loilisbui*g.  a  port  on  the  south-east  coast  of 
Cape  Breton  Island,  Nova  Scotia,  27  miles  SE.  of 
Sydney.  It  is  now  inhabited  only  by  a  few  fisher- 
men :  but  there  are  the  ruins  of  the  old  town, 
which  under  the  French  had  a  large  export  trade 
in  cod,  and  was  the  strongest  fmtress  in  North 
America,  until  taken  by  the  English  in  1758.  It 
had  already  been  captured  by  the  New  England 
cohmists  and  an  English  squadron  in  1745,  and 
restored  in  1748;  now  its  fortifications,  which  had 
been  thirty  years  in  building  and  cost  over  a 
million  sterling,  were  demolished,  and  it  giadually 
sank  into  ruin. 

Louis-d'or  (i.e.  '(Jolden  Louis'),  a  gold  coin 
which  was  introduced  into  France  in  1641,  and 
continued  to  be  coined  till  1795.  The  louis-d'or 
ranged  in  value  from  about  I6s.  7d.  to  18s.  9Jd. 
sterling. — In  some  parts  of  Germany,  in  the  old 
coinage,  were  gold  pieces  of  fi\e  thalers,  often 
popularly  called  loiiis-d'ur,  and  the  name  has 
been  occasionally  applied  to  the  French  7ta])oleo>i 
or  JO-fritnr  piirr, 

Loilisindc  AlH-llilM'IsigO.  a  group  of  isl.ands 
belonging  to  Ibilish  New  Guinea,  and  forming  an 
eastward  extension  of  that  island.  It  embraces 
Sijdest  (45  miles  long  bv  4  to  10  miles  wide), 
Kossel,  St  Aignan's  (28  miles  long  by  8  to  9  miles 
wide),  anil  a  vast  numlier  of  smaller  islamls.  AH 
are  mountainous,  rising  to  ,35(l()  in  St  Aignan's, 
an<l  covered  «ith  vegetation.     The  inhabitants  are 


LOUISIANA 


LOUIS-PHILIPPE 


'■27 


numerous,  but  wild,  and  liead-huntei-s  ;  they  seeui 
t<>  partake  of  both  Malayan  and  Papuan  charac- 
teristics. 

Louisiana,  one  of  the  Gulf  states  of  the  Amer- 
ican I'nion,  extends  about  20()  miles  from  north  to 
south  and  290  fiom  east  to  west.  c«rjTisht  isao  in  u.s. 
Its  land  area,  includingthe  marshes  »•>■  J.  b.  Lippincott 
bordering  on  the  tiulf,  is  40,790  sq.  company. 
ni.  :  its  inland  waters  cover  '2li'2S  sq.  m.  ;  total  area, 
4S,11S  sq.  ni.  This  area  is  diviiled  nearly  equally 
betweeu  alluvial  lands  and  uplands.  The  mean 
elevation  of  the  state  above  sea-level  is  75  feet,  its 
liighest  point  48-4  feet.  For  2.5  miles  inland  from 
the  (iulf,  marshes  subject  to  tidal  How  cover  one- 
eighth  of  the  .state's  entire  stirfaee:  low,  sandy  pine 
flats  and  prairie  lauds  occupy  about  one-eighteenth 
each,  araole  lands  one-eighth,  the  flood-plains  near 
the  rivers  one-tenth,  and  bluff  lands,  pine  hills,  and 
uplands  more  than  one-tilth  each.  Most  of  the  large 
rivei-s  flow  above  the  level  of  the  surrounding 
country  on  ridges  formed  by  their  own  deposits, 
anil  the  plains  around,  protected  by  dykes  (called 
levees),  slope  away  into  dense,  wooded  swamps. 
The  bottom-lands  of  the  Mississippi  are  from  20 
to  70  miles  in  breadth,  those  of  the  Ked,  Ouachita, 
and  other  streams  range  from  6  to  20  miles.  But 
although  the  flood-plains  lie  below,  there  is  a  large 
area  above  the  rivers'  higli-water  mark.  The  up- 
lands embrace  all  the  northern  and  north-eastern 
parts  of  the  state,  inclining  gently  towards  the 
south,  and  crossing  these  are  bluff  lands,  extending 
through  the  alluvial  lands  to  the  Gulf,  and  forming 
wonderful 'islands' covered  with  vegetation.  Nor 
is  the  immense  plain  sunounding  these  bluffs  ever 
inundated,  but  elevated  and  fertile,  traversed  by 
deejj  bayous  (as  minor  and  tributary  streams  are 
called  here).  Even  in  the  coast  marshes  occasion- 
all.v  an  island-hill  rises,  with  soil  firm  and  fertile ; 
and  at  other  points  cattle  graze,  whilst  thousands 
of  acres  yearly  are  being  drained  and  reclaimed  and 
planted  with  rice.  Besides  the  Mississippi  the  chief 
rivers  are  the  Red,  Sabine,  Ouachita,  and  Pearl ; 
the  entire  river  navigation  of  the  state  reaches 
nearly  .S800  miles,  and  there  are  also  several  con- 
siderable lakes. 

The  mean  temperature  of  Louisiana  is  from  60° 
to  75  F.,  the  climate  being  softened  by  the  waters 
\vithin  and  around  the  state,  the  profuse  rainfall 
(47  to  73  in.),  and  the  breezes  from  the  Gulf.  The 
vegetation  in  most  parts  is  luxuriant.  The  forests 
are  dense  with  trees — pine,  cypress,  oaks,  cotton- 
wood,  magnolia,  poplar,  beech,  &c.  Fruits  are 
abundant,  oranges  and  tigs  the  most  important. 
The  staple  crops  are  cotton,  sugar,  rice,  and  maize. 
The  Louisiana  cotton  crop  is  about  a  tenth  of  the 
whole  cro])  of  the  I'nion  ;  its  rice  crop  is  a  half  of 
the  total  [iroduce  of  the  States  ;  and  m  some  years 
the  sugar  crop  of  the  state  makes  95  per  cent,  of  the 
produce  of  the  Union.     Wine  is  also  made. 

The  principal  manufactures  are  shingles  and 
tanks,  cotton-seed  oil,  machinery,  tobacco,  and 
clothing  and  InKits  and  shoes  (by  machinerj), 
besides  the  cleaning  and  polishing  of  rice  and  tlie 
refining  of  sugar  and  molasses.  Tlie  only  mineral 
of  importance  is  rock-salt,  which  is  found  in  inex- 
haustible quantity  at  Petit  Anse  on  Avery's  I.sland ; 
but  hematite  iron  ore  and  sulphur  have  also  been 
discovitred,  besides  lignite  of  little,  if  any,  value. 

Louisiana  is  divided,  not  into  counties,  but 
parishes  to  the  number  of  59.  The  other  officials 
are  elected  in  the  us\ial  manner,  but  tlic  judges  of 
the  supreme  court  are  appointed  by  the  governor 
for  a  term  of  twelve  years.  Those  of  the  courts 
of  ajijieal  are  elected  by  the  General  Assembly  for 
eight  yi'ars,  and  in  tlie  countrj'  districts  and  in 
New  Orleans  the  judges  of  the  district  courts  are 
appfiinted  by  the  governor,  being  elsewhere  elected 
for  four  years.     The  civil  law  prevails  in  Louisiana, 


a  code  based  on  the  Code  Napoleon  having  been 
.adopted  in  1825.  The  state  returns  six  memliei-s 
to  congress.  Education  is  fairly  well  provided  for, 
and  increased  attention  is  being  devoted  to  the 
free  schools.  The  State  University  and  Agricultural 
and  Mechanical  College  is  at  IJaton  Kouge,  the 
State  Normal  School  at  Natchitoches ;  the  Southern 
University,  at  New  Orleans,  is  endowed  by  the 
state,  and  in  the  same  city  is  the  Tulane  Univer- 
sity, with  departments  for  ladies  and  for  training 
in  the  manual  arts.     See  New  0rle.\ns. 

The  state  forms  part  of  the  province  of  Louisiana, 
purchased  from  France  in  1803,  which  occupied  an 
enormously  larger  area  than  the  state — namely,  the 
whole  western  basin  of  the  Mississippi  from  Jlexico 
to  the  Canadian  lakes.  (See  United  States,  and 
the  map  there  at  p.  388.)  In  1682  La  Salle  (q.v. ) 
sailed  down  the  nver  and  claimed  the  countiy  for 
France,  naming  it  Louisiana  in  honour  of  Louis 
XIV.,  and  planting  a  colony  at  a  point  38  miles 
below  the  present  site  of  New  Orleans.  After  an 
unsuccessful  attempt  at  colonisation  by  Iljerville, 
the  territory  was  handed  over  to  the  Mississippi 
Company,  under  John  Law  (see  Mississippi 
Scheme),  and  New  Orleans  was  founded.  The 
company  collai)sed  in  1720,  and  Louisiana  re- 
verted to  the  crown  in  1732.  It  was  ceded  to 
Spain  in  1762,  retroceded  to  F'rance  in  1800,  and 
sold  to  the  United  States  by  Napoleon,  for 
60,000,000  francs,  three  years  later,  being  admitted 
as  a  state  in  1812.  although  the  portion  between 
the  Mississippi  and  Pearl  rivers  was  not  actually 
acquired  until  the  Florida  purchase  of  1819. 
The  battle  of  New  Orleans  (8th  January  1815) 
and  several  changes  in  the  constitution  are  the 
only  noteworthy  events  in  its  history  until  the 
civil  war.  Louisiana  seceded  in  January  1861,  and 
New  Orleans  was  captured  on  24th  April  1862. 
More  than  a  hundred  battles  were  fouglit  within 
the  limits  of  the  state,  leaving  ruin  behind,  whose 
ert'ects  are  felt  to  this  day.  Prosperity,  however, 
is  returning,  and  is  established  on  a  basis  more 
sound  and  satisfactorj-  than  of  old.  The  finances 
of  the  state  are  in  a  healthy  condition,  her  bonds 
nearly  at  par.  Since  1877  political  disturbances 
and  outbreaks  which  had  followed  the  period  of 
reconstniction  have  ceased,  railways  have  been 
extended,  and  the  assessed  valuation  of  pro- 
perty enormously  increased  ;  and  Louisiana's  chief 
troubles  have  been  from  the  bursting  of  the  levees, 
although  none  have  proved  so  disastrous  as  the 
terrible  flood  of  1874,  when  one-sixth  of  the  state 
was  inundated.  See  C.  Gayarre,  Histuiy  of  Louis- 
Ulna  (3d  ed.  4  vols.  New  Orleans,  1885). 

Population. — The  principal  cities  are  New  Or- 
leans, Shreveport,  Baton  Kouge  (the  cajiital),  and 
Monroe,  all  tlie  subject  of  separate  articles.  The 
population  Ls  very  mixed.  The  negroes  in  the 
country  districts  are  somewhat  in  excess  of  the 
whites,  of  whom  about  one-sixth  each  are  of  French 
(some  Acadian),  German,  or  Irish  descent.  Those 
of  Frencli  descent  are  called  Creoles — a  term  which 
in  Louisiana  does  not  iniply  a'l.v  admixture  of 
African  or  Indian  blood.  Tliere  are  also  a  number 
of  Spanish  and  Italian  descent.  In  most  of  the 
southern  iiarishes  French  is  habitually  spoken  by 
the  people ;  and  Spanish  also  is  still  retained. 
Pop.  (1820)  153,407;  (1860)  708,002,  including 
326.726  slaves  and  18,527  free  coloured  people; 
( 1H80I  9:i!),046  ;  ( 1S90)  1,118,587. 

Louis  Xapoleon.    See  Napoleon. 

Loilis-l*lliIil»|>««  '^'"g  "f  t''<^  French,  born  in 
Paris,  tub  October  1773,  was  the  eldest  son  of 
Louis  l'hiliin>e  Joseph,  Duke  of  Orleans.^  He 
received  at  his  birth  the  title  of  Duke  of  Valois, 
and  afterwards  that  of  Duke  of  Chartres.  His 
education  was  entrusted  to  the  care  of   the  cele- 


728 


LOUIS-PHILIPPE 


LOURDES 


brated  Madame  de  Genlis.  He  entered  the  National 
Guard,  and  liecanie  a  member  of  the  I'hib  of  Friends 
of  tlie  Constitution,  afterwards  that  of  the  Jaeobins. 
Alonj;  with  his  father,  he  renounced  his  titles,  and 
assumed  the  surname  of  Egalitt'.  He  showed  both 
courage  and  capacity  in  the  wars  of  the  republic  ; 
but  liis  situation  became  very  dangerous  after  the 
unsuccessful  battle  of  Neerwinden  (1793),  in  which 
he  commanded  I  lie  centre.  He  was  included  in 
the  order  for  arrest  issued  .against  his  general-in- 
chief,  Dumouriez,  and  on  the  4th  April  escaped 
along  with  hiui  into  the  Austrian  territory.  He 
sought  in  Switzerland  a  place  of  security  for  his 
sister  Adelaide,  wandered  about  amongst  the  moun- 
tains for  four  months,  and  accepted  a  situation  as 
teacher  of  geograjdiy  and  matliematics  in  a  school 
at  Keichenau,  near  Chur,  assuming  the  name  of 
Chabaud-Latour.  He  afterwards  wandered  for  some 
time  in  the  north  of  Eurojje,  and  then  went  to 
the  United  States,  where  he  spent  tlnee  years. 
In  1800  he  took  up  his  abode  at  Twickenham, 
near  London,  with  liis  two  younger  brothers, 
both  of  whom  soon  after  died.  In  1809  he 
married  Marie  Amelie,  daughter  of  Ferdin.and  I. 
of  tlie  Two  Sicilies.  On  the  fall  of  Napoleon  he 
hastened  to  Paris,  where  he  was  received  v.'ith  dis- 
trust by  Louis  XVIII.  After  the  second  Restora- 
tion he  recovered  his  great  estates,  which  the 
imijerial  government  had  sequestrated.  Disliked 
by  the  court,  be  was  very  popular  in  Paris.  The 
revolution  of  1830 — the  '  July  revolution  ' — having 
ended  in  a  victory  of  the  constitutional  party 
over  the  republicans,  be  was  ajipointed  lieutenant- 
general,  mainly  on  tlie  proposal  of  the  banker 
Lafitte  and  of  General  Lafayette.  Throwing 
to  the  winds  the  divine  riglit  of  the  Bourbons,  he 
accepted  to  reign  as  the  elect  of  the  sovereign 
people,  under  the  tricolor  Hag  of  the  republic 
and  of  Napoleon.  He  had  against  him  the 
ultra-royalists  and  the  republicans,  and  identilied 
bis  rule  with  the  bourgeoisie,  wlio  .supjiliod  him 
with  a  policy,  ministers,  and  inoney,  in  return 
for  their  ascendency.  He  was  dubbed  with  the 
nickname  of  roi-citoyen,  bis  system  was  called 
that  of  Justc-milieii,  and  his  advisers  were  set 
down  as  doctrinaires.  He  reigned  for  the  material 
interests  of  France,  and  for  those  of  the  House  of 
Orleans  ;  himself  a  most  wealthy  king,  the  country 
prospered  under  his  rule,  and  the  middle  classes 
amassed  considerable  riches.  Unfortun.ately,  his 
kingshii)  rested  on  a  democratic  basis,  to  which  it 
giew  more  and  more  untrue.  The  revolution  of 
1830  bad  been  an  event  of  Eurojiean  importance, 
and  r.ang  in  a  revival  of  li1>eralism  in  many 
states  wliere  Louis- Pldli]ipe  wo\iId  luive  thought  it 
quiNotic  to  give  it  diplomatic  or  military  assist- 
ance. Nor  could  he  countenance  the  socialistic 
and  communistic  doctrines  made  popular  among 
the  republicans  at  home  by  I'roudlion,  Louis 
Blanc,  .and  others.  The  p.arliamcntary  franchise 
rested  on  a  fr.anchise  whic'i  limited  the  electors  to 
the  aristocracy  of  wealth  and  their  !iangers-on. 
The  ])easantry  aTid  working-cias.scs  were  ignored, 
and  left  a  prey  to  ])olitical  agitators.  The  political 
corruption  of  the  /joiirr/eoi.sic,  and  its  wholesale 
bribery  by  the  king,  united  .all  extremists  in  a 
cry  for  electoral  reform.  Louis- Pliiliiqie  ran  tlie 
gauntlet  of  eight  attempts  at  murder,  which  all 
failed.  A  man  of  great  ability,  but  of  little 
character,  lie  w  as  by  fear  carried,  with  liis  ministers, 
into  jiatlis  of  reactionary  violence.  The  royalistic 
statesman  Uoyer-Collard  joined  Odilon  Barrot  and 
the  reimblican  Left  in  resistance  to  the  muzzling 
of  newspa]iers.  Trial  by  jury  was  tamiiered  with. 
Prince  Louis  Napoleon  Bonaparte  seized  tliis 
op]iortunity  of  .acting  twice  the  part  of  a  ]irctcnder 
( 1830,  1840).  The  l)uke  of  Orleans'  deatli  in  1842 
left  the    throne   without   a   direct   heir-apparent. 


Re)mblic.ans,  socialists,  communists  became  more 
and  more  tlireatening.  In  vain  did  Louis-Philippe 
provide,  by  campaigning  in  Algeria,  an  outlet  for 
the  military  spirit  of  his  subjects ;  in  v.ain  did  he 
li.x  their  attention  on  fiueign  afl'airs  by  su])portiiig 
the  kingshi])  of  Mehemet  AH  in  Kgy))t.  A  home- 
policy  of  reform  b,an(|uets,  hit  upon  by  the  re- 
imblican leaders  .as  tlieir  most  .suitable  form  of 
attack,  and  severely  repressed  (Ui  the  part  of  the 
government  by  recourse  to  an  obsolete  law  of  the 
'ancien  regime,'  led  to  violent  deb.aies  in  the 
Chamber,  in  which  Thiers,  then  in  the  o]i]iosition, 
helped  to  we,aken  the  position  of  the  prime- 
minister  Guizot.  Yet  parliamentary  means  were 
about  to  foil  the  re]iublican  deputies,  when  the 
Paris  mob  rose  in  arms  on  the  22d  and  23d  of 
February  1848,  with  the  comidicity  of  the  regular 
troops,  the  nation.al  gu.ards,  ami  the  municipal 
police.  Louis-Philiiipe  disnlissed  Guizot,  and 
promised  reforms  ;  but  it  was  too  late.  He  was  com- 
pelled to  abdicate,  .and,  amiilst  the  indilVcrence  of 
almost  every  rrenchman  to  his  fate,  ended  a  reign 
remarkable  for  the  wave  of  liberalism  in  Mliicli  it 
took  its  rise  and  the  whirlwind  of  democracy  that 
swe]it  it  aw.ay.  Deserted  by  his  courtiers,  he  Med 
to  the  coast  of  Normandy  along  with  his  queen, 
concealed  himself  for  some  days,  and  at  lenjjth 
escaped  to  Newhaven  under  the'name  of  Mr  Smith. 
He  died  at  Claremont,  26th  August  1850- 

See  the  .articles  BouKBON,  France,  Guizot,  Orleans 
(Duke  of);  works  by  the  Marquis  de  Flcr.s  (I8!t2)  and 
Imbert  .St  Amand  (1893),  Cretineau-.)oly  (2  vols.  l.H(i2), 
A.  llumas  (2  vols.  1852),  Nouvion  (4  vols.  18G1 ),  Vil- 
lault  de  Geraiiiville  (3  vols.  1870-71)),  Vantibault  (1889), 
ViUencuve  (1889),  and  Hainel  (1,S90). 

Louisville,  the  largest  city  of  Kentucky,  a  port 
of  entry  and  capital  of  Jeii'erson  county,  is  situated 
on  the  Ohio,  130  miles  below  Cincinnati.  The 
river  here  forms  a  series  of  rapids — the  '  Falls  of 
the  Ohio ' — descending  22  feet  in  2  miles  ;  except 
at  high-water  steamboats  pass  these  by  a  canal. 
The  city,  which  covers  about  20  sq.  m.,  is  hand- 
somely built,  with  wide  and  regular  streets,  im  a 
level  iilaiii,  and  sloping  up  from  the  river.  It  has 
.a  Kom.an  Catholic  c.athedr.al  and  150  other  churches, 
a  law  school,  four  nie<lical  colleges,  colleges  of 
dentistry  and  of  pharmacy,  a  s<'liool  of  ]diariiiacy  for 
women,  ami  a  good  system  of  ]iulilic  scliocds.  Here 
also  is  the  state  institution  for  the  blind  ;  allogether 
there  are  some  forty  public  and  private  charit.able 
institution.s.  Louisville  is  the  greatest  market  for 
tobacco  in  the  world,  and  has  large  pork-jiacking 
establishments,  distilleries,  and  tanneries.  Exten- 
sive m.anufactures  of  jilouglis,  furniture,  castings, 
gas  and  w.atcr  Jiipes,  m.aehinery,  flour,  and  cement 
are  also  carried  on.  The  city  is  the  tenninus  of  a 
number  of  railway  lines  ;  the  Ohio  is  cro.ssed  here 
by  two  railway  bridges,  one  of  them  nearly  a  mile 
long.  Louisville  w.as  founded  in  1778,  .and  in  1780 
named  in  honour  of  Louis  X\'l.  of  France,  whose 
troops  were  then  a.ssisting  the  Americans  in  the 
w.ar  of  independence.  A  gre.at  p.art  of  the  town 
was  destroyed  by  a  cyclone  in  March  1890.  Pop. 
( 1880)  12:!,' 758  ; '( 1.890)  101,105. 

Loillt'.  a  town  ill  the  extreme  south  of  Portugal, 
10  miles  Irom  the  co.ast,     Poji.  14,448. 

Luiipill^-ill,  or  TltE.MBLlNG,  a  disease  ppiilemic 
or  I'lideiiiic  ill  sheep  and  lanilis  in  e(dd  spring 
we.atlicr,  characterised  by  tremblings,  loss  of  power, 
coiiliaction  of  the  guild,  and  odd  motions  like  in- 
voluntary 'louiiing'  (leajiing).  The  brain  is  alVected, 
and  someiinies  the  lungs  ami  heart. 

LoiirdcSa  a  French  place  of  iiilgriiiiagc  in 
Halites  I'yrem^cs,  12  miles  SSW.  of  'i'arbes  by  rail. 
Po]i.  G.">17.  The  town  nestles  at  the  fool  of  a  high 
rock  on  a  Jilaiii  bounded  to  soulhwaril  by  the 
foot  hills  of  the  Pyrenees.     The  bile  was  u  Uoman 


LOURENgO    MARQUES 


LOUVOIS 


(29 


niilitan-  station,  and  was  successively  lield  by 
N'amlals,  Visijiotlis,  Franks.  ]iasi|iu's,  Saracens. 
Albijrenses,  Eu<;lisli  (after  1300),  and  the  lords  of 
lle.i.'Ti.  Here,  in  a  niche  above  one  of  the  caves 
of  the  Massabielle  rocks,  the  Blessed  Virgin  is  said 
to  have  appeared  at  noon  on  the  11th  February 
1S.5S  to  a  poor  trirl  fourteen  years  of  age,  called 
Bemadette  Soiibirous ;  the  a])i)arition  wa-s  seven- 
teen tinie-s  repeated  diirinj;  tlie  succeeding  si.\ 
months.  A  spring  rising  from  the  spot,  which 
was  hitherto  unknoA^•n  to  exist,  was  endowed 
with  miraculous  powers  ;  and  many  miracles  were 
reported.  Crowds  Hocked  to  the  place ;  and  the 
barriers  erected  by  the  sceptical  local  authorities 
(ISoS)  were  soon  afterwards  removed  by  command 
of  the  emperor.  The  Bishoji  of  Tarbes  then  ap- 
pointed a  commission  of  ecclesiastics  and  scien- 
tists to  inquire  into  the  extraordinaiy  events  that 
had  occurred  at  Lourdes  during  the  last  six  months. 
After  investigations  extending  over  three  years, 
the  commission  decided  in  favour  of  the  appari- 
tion of  the  Blessed  Virgin  Mary,  the  ecstasies  of 
Bernadette,  and  the  miracles  wrought  by  the  water 
of  the  spring.  A  gi-eat  basilica  ( 1876)  now  adorns 
the  scene  ot  the  miracles,  and  on  a  level  with  its 
crypt  has  been  added  the  church  of  the  Rosary 
(18S9)  for  the  accommodation  of  the  pilgrims  who 
visit  the  spot.  Tlie  most  important  piljrrimage  is 
the  National  pilgrimage  in  August,  nunibering,  in 
1897,  60,000  persons.  The  miracles  and  other 
notable  occurrences  are  duly  recorded  in  the  An- 
luilcs  de  Lourdes,  conducted  by  the  Fathers  of  tlie 
Immaculate  Conception,  to  whose  care  the  grotto 
and  its  appurtenances  have  been  confided. 

See  works  on  tlie  subject  by  H.  Lasserre  ;  Colin  ( 1889 ) ; 
Father  Clarke,  S.J.  (1887);  Barbe  (trans,  by  Alice  Mey- 
nell,  1894) ;  and  Zola's  famous  novel,  Lourdes  (1894). 

Loiiren^^o  Ularqiies.  or  Lorenzo  M.^kques, 
a  I'ortuguese  station  on  Delagoa  Bay,  east  coast 
of  Africa.  Fop.  (1896)  3692,  of  whom  1544  were 
Portuguese,  English,  Italians,  &c.  It  is  the  ter- 
minus of  the  railway  to  Pretoria,  which  was  open 
to  the  Transvaal  fr<mtier  (.52  miles)  in  1887,  and 
all  completed  in  1895.  In  the  Boer  war  of  1899- 
1900  it  was  the  scene  of  much  intrigue,  and  hence 
Kruger  sailed  to  Europe.     See  DeL-\go.\  B.-\y. 

Louse   and    LoiISCWOrt.      See    LiCE,    Pedi- 

CUL.\KIS. 

Lontb  (pron.  soft  t/i,  as  in  loathe),  a  mari- 
time county  of  the  province  of  Leinster,  and  tlie 
smallest  county  in  Ireland,  is  washed  for  49  miles 
on  the  east,  from  Carlingford  Lough  to  the  river 
Bovne,  by  the  Irisli  Sea.  The  average  width  of 
the  county  is  10  miles.  Pop.  ( 1841 )  128,240 ;  ( 1881 ) 
77,684  :  ( 1891 )  71,038.  Area,  202,123  acres— 89,815 
under  tillage.  Potatoes,  oats,  barley,  and  turnips 
are  the  pidncipal  crops  ;  40  per  cent,  of  the  total  area 
is  under  grass.  The  surface  is  flat,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  a  range  on  the  north,  wliicli  culminates  in 
Carlingford  Mountain  (19.35  feet),  overlooking  the 
bay  of  that  name.  The  soil  of  tlie  level  districts 
is  fertile,  and  agriculture  reaches  a  high  state  of 
efficiency.  Coarse  linens  are  manufactured.  The 
fisheries  are  valuable,  esjiecially  the  c)yster-fishing 
in  Carlingford  Lough.  The  chief  towns  are  Drog- 
heda,  IJundalk,  and  Anlee.  Louth,  which  an- 
ciently formed  part  of  the  territory  of  t)igial  or 
Argial,  was  occupied  by  I)e  Courcy  in  11S3,  and 
formed  into  a  county  by  King  John  in  1210.  It 
abounds  with  Celtic  antiiiuities,  some  of  great 
interest.  There  are  two  round-towers,  at  Monas. 
terboice  and  at  Dromiskin.  At  Mcllifont  are  the 
remains  of  a  beautiful  abbiv.  In  Drogheila  several 
mined  alibeys  are  still  vi.sible,  as  also  at  Louth 
and  Carlingford.  But  the  most  interesting  of  all 
the  relics  of  antifjuity  are  the  sculptured  crosses 
of  Monasterboice,  of  which  the  larger  is  18  feet  in 


heiglit.  The  county  returns  two  membei'S  to  the 
imperial  parliament. 

Louth  (hard  (li,  as  in  /ot/i),  a  municipal 
borough  of  Lincolnshire,  on  the  rivulet  Liid.  at 
the  foot  of  the  Wolds,  27  miles  KN'K.  of  Lincoln, 
contains  a  beautiful  parish  church  in  the  Perpen- 
dicular style,  built  in  the  IStli  and  rebuilt  in  the 
15th  century,  with  an  octag(mal  spire  (l.')0])  288 
feet  in  height,  'one  of  the  noblest  in  England.'  and 
an  Edward  VI.  grammar-school.  Buiiis  of  Ijouth 
P.ark  Abbey,  built  by  the  Cistercians  in  1)39.  e.xist 
14  mile  E.  of  the  town.  Iron-foundries,  carjiet- 
factories,  breweries,  and  cairiage-\\ orks  are  in  op(>i a- 
tion.  Louth  is  connected  with  the  Huniber  bv  a 
canal  (1761).  Pop.  (1851)  10,467:  (1891)  10,040. 
See  the  corporation  records,  ed.  by  Coulding  ( 1892). 

LOHVain  (Ger.  Lmren,  Flemish  Lcin-en).  a 
city  in  the  Belgian  pro\Tnce  of  Brabant,  19  miles 
by  rail  E.  of  Brussels.  In  the  14tli  century  the 
town  was  rich,  prosperous,  and  large  (200,000 
inhabitants),  due  to  its  cloth  manufactures  and 
its  position  as  the  capital  of  Brabant  (from  994). 
In  1382  the  townsmen  revolted  against  their 
rulere,  and  the  harsh  punishment  meted  out  to 
them  drove  large  numbers  away  to  England.  The 
town  was  the  seat  of  a  celebrated  unix-ei'sity, 
founded  in  1426.  In  the  next  century  it  had  6oilO 
students,  but  was  suppressed  in  1797.  Keconsti- 
tuted  in  1817,  it  was  in  1835  transferred  to  private 
hands,  but  Ls  still  a  Catholic  universitv,  witli  about 
1600  students.  Tlie  lilirary  contains'  250,000  vols. 
The  old  walls,  forming  a  circuit  of  live  miles, 
have  been  demolished.  The  modern  town  covers 
only  part  of  the  enceinte,  the  rest  being  occujiied 
by  gardens.  A  statue  of  Father  Damieii  was 
erected  in  1894.  A  severe  blow  was  struck  at 
Louvain's  prosperity  by  a  terrible  visitation  of  the 
plague  in  tlie  16th  century.  The  modern  induslry 
is  confined  chiefly  to  bell-founding,  brewing,  and 
the  manufacture  of  leather,  paper,  lace,  starch,  and 
chemicals.  The  town-house  is  a  richly-decorated 
Gothic  building  (1448-69)  ;  the  church  of  St  Peter 
has  a  beautiful  flamboyant  rood-loft,  a  wrought- 
iron  chandelier  by  Qiientiii  Matsys,  and  some  good 
l)ictiires  ;  in  St  Gertrude's  Church  are  fine  carved 
oak  stalls.  The  Weavers' Hall  (1317)  was  ajipio- 
priated  liv  the  universitv  in  1679.  Po]i.  (ls77) 
33,917;  (1891)40,698.  In  891  KingAinulf  gain.Hl 
here  a  great  victory  over  the  Northmen,  and  built 
a  castle  against  them.  It  used  to  be  known  jis 
CiVsar's  Castle  ;  a  few  fiagiiients  of  it  still  remain. 
See  Histories  by  Plot  (1859)  and  Molainis  (1861). 

LouvierSt  a  town  in  the  French  department  of 
Eure,  16  miles  S.  of  Kouen,  has  a  Gothic  cathedral 
of  the  13th  to  the  15th  century,  and  celebrated 
cloth  (since  1681)  and  ticking  manufactures,  besides 
s]iinning-mills,  dye-works,  &C.     Pop.  9273. 

Louvoi><.  Fk.\>coi.s  Michel  le  Tellier, 
M.\R(H'l>^  I'E,  the  war-minister  of  Louis  XIV., 
was  born  in  Paris,  18th  January  1641.  His  father 
w;is  Chancellor  and  Secretary  of  State  in  the  war 
department ;  the  son  joined  him  as  assistant- 
secretaiy  in  1662,  and  became  war-minister  in 
1668.  The  iii-st  great  task  he  set  himself  was  to 
organise  the  armies  of  Fiance.  He  created  a 
standing  army,  gave  it  a  corps  of  oflicers  recruited 
by  coiiijiulsion  from  among  the  nobility,  estab- 
lished commissariat  and  hospital  services,  and 
founded  the  Hotel  des  Invalides  and  various  mders 
of  merit.  In  the  drilling  of  the  armies  he  had  a 
ready  agent  in  Martinet,  whose  name  is  not  yet 
forgotten  in  military  life.  His  labours  bore  their 
fniit  in  the  gieat  war  thai  ended  with  the  jicace 
<if  Ninicguen  ( 1678).  During  the  following  years 
Louvois  t<iok  a  leading  part  in  the  caiitiiic  of 
Strasburg,  in  1681,  in  time  of  jirofound  iieaci',  and 
in  the  persecution  of  the  Protestants  through  the 


730 


LOUVRE 


LOVEDALE 


dicagonnailes  after  the  Revocation  of  the  Eilict  of 
Nantes.  Louvois,  a  man  of  stronj;  will,  was  over- 
bearini;  and  antocratie,  brutal  and  cynical,  un- 
scnipuloiis  in  his  means,  but  consistent  and  sinj;le 
in  his  aims — tlie  aj;;;randisenient  of  France  and  tlie 
maintenance  of  his  own  position.  He  died  sud- 
denly on  IGtli  July  IG9I.  See  Life  bv  C.  Kousscl 
(6th' ed.  4  vols.  1879);  and  Chotard's'XoKis  X/K., 
Loiivois,  Vatiban  (1890). 

Louvre  (Fr.  fomxrt,  '  the  opening'),  an  orna- 
mental opening  of  a  turret  shape,  placed  on  the 
roof,  to  allow  the  smoke 
or  foul  air  to  escape 
from  large  apartments, 
such  as  halls,  kitchens, 
&c.  These  were  par- 
ticularly required  in 
ancient  times,  when  the 
fire  was  ]daced  in  the 
centre  of  the  room,  and 
there  was  no  chimney 
to  cany  otf  the  smoke. 
They  are  frequently 
used  as  ornaments 
where  not  required  for 
nse,  and  are  then  glazeil 
and  made  into  Lanterns 
(q.  V. ).  The  sides  of 
the  louvre  were  lined 
with  liorizontal  over- 
lapped boarding,  with 
a  space  between  the 
boards,  which  let  out 
the  smoke  without 
Hence,  this  sort  of  boarding, 
the  windows  of  bell-towers. 
For 


Louvre. 


admitting  the  rain. 

frequentl.v    used    for 

&c. ,   acquired   the   name  of  louvrc-boanlitiij. 

the  palace  of  the  Louvre,  see  Pauls. 

Luvage  (Lir/Ksticum),  a  genus  of  plants  of  the 
natural  older  Umbellifera;,  allied  to  Angelica ;  the 
fruit  is  elliptical ;  each  carpel  has  live  sharp  some- 
what winged  ribs;  and  there  ai'e  many  vittaj  in  the 
interstices.  Common  Lovage  (i.  officinale,  or  L. 
Leinsticiim)  is  a  native  of  the  south  of  Europe, 
with  teruate  deconqiound  leaves,  and  obovate, 
wedge-sliaped  leatlets.  It  is  sometimes  cultivated 
in  gardens,  and,  notwithstanding  its  strong  and 
peculiar  odour,  is  used  as  a  salad  plant.  Its  roots 
and  seeds  are  aromatic,  acrid,  and  stimulant,  and 
are  used  to  cure  tlatulency  and  to  excite  pers|iira- 
tion.  A  liquor  called  toi-ai/c  is  made  from  them. 
— Very  similar  in  appearance  and  qualities  is  the 
only  Hritish  species,  Scottish  Lovage  (L.  smtiriim), 
a  native  of  the  .sea-coasts.  It  is  eaten,  both  raw 
and  boiled,  by  the  Slietlanders.  The  llavour  is 
aromatic,  but  acrid  and  veiy  nauseous  to  those 
unaccustomed  to  it. 

Lovat,  Simon  Fu.vser,  Lord,  was  born  aliout 
11)70  at  Tanich  in  IJoss-shire.  About  the  begin- 
ning of  the  14th  century  his  ancestor  and  name- 
sake, after  whom  the  clan  Frascr  were  called  in 
Gaelic  MacShuiii,  'son.s  of  Sinion,'  had  migrated 
from  Tweeddale  to  Invemess-shire  ;  and  Hugh,  bis 
grandson,  had  been  made  Lord  Lovat  in  I  t,31. 
Our  Simon  was  educated  at  King's  College,  Aber- 
deen, took  bis  M.A.  in  1695,  having  the  year 
before  accepted  ;i  commission  in  a  regimcul,  raised 
for  King  William.  In  1696  his  father,  on  the 
death  of  his  grand -nc|)hew.  Lord  Lovat,  assumed 
that  title;  ami  Simon  next  year  attempteil  to 
abduct  the  late  lord's  daughter  and  heiress,  a  child 
only  nine  years  of  age.  Baflled  in  this,  he  seized 
and  forcibly  nnirried  her  mother,  a  lady  of  the 
Athole  family— a  crime  for  which  he  was  foiind 
guilty  of  high-treason  and  outlawed.  After  four 
vear.s  of  petty  rebellion  (during  which,  in  1699, 
he   succeeded   his  father  as  twelfth  Lord  Lovat), 


on  Queen  Anne's  accession,  in  1702,  when  the 
Atliole  family  became  all-powerful,  he  Hed  to 
France,  but  a  twelvemonth  later  returned  to 
Scotland  as  a  Jacobite  agent.  He  was  ;it  the 
bottom  of  the  '  l^lueensbcrry  jjlot.'  in  which  he 
professed  to  reveal  the  i)olicy  of  the  exiled  court 
and  a  plan  for  a  Highland  "rising ;  but  the  dis- 
covery of  his  duplicity  obliged  him  once  more  to 
escape  to  France.  There,  by  one  (the  more  prob- 
able) account,  he  was  kept  for  some  years  a 
prisoner  at  Saunnir  ;  liy  another,  turne<l 'Jesuit, 
and  became  a  |)opnlar  preacher.  He  was  still  the 
darling  of  his  clan ;  and  in  1714  they  sent 
Major  James  Fraser  as  a  sort  of  ambassador 
to  bring  him  over.  Next  year  his  cousin's  hus- 
band, the  holder  of  the  estates,  having  joined 
the  rebellion,  Simon  found  it  his  interest  to  take 
the  government  side ;  his  clan  at  once  left  the 
insurgents  ;  and  for  this  good  service  he  obtained 
a  full  iiardon,  with  possession  of  the  Lovat  ter- 
ritory. His  life  for  the  next  thirty  years  was 
active  in  intrigues  for  the  consolidation  of  his 
influence  ;  and  the  man  who  had  heietofore  had 
audience  with  ]Mary  of  Modcna  and  the  (Irand 
Monarque  now  sought  and  obtained  a  s|ionsor 
for  his  first-born  in  (4eorge  I.  In  the  '4.')  Lovat 
tried  to  play  a  double  game,  sending  forth  the 
clan  under  his  son  to  fight  for  the  Pretender, 
whilst  to  his  friend  and  neighbour,  Duncan  Forbes 
of  Cullodeii,  he  made  constant  ]irofessions  of 
loyalty.  Cullodeu  lost,  and  his  castle  (ired  by 
Cumberland's  soldiery,  he  fled  to  an  island  oil 
Loch  Morar,  where  he  was  found  biding  in  a 
hollow  tree.  He  was  brought  n]i  to  London,  on 
the  way  beinw  sketched  at  St  Albans  by  his  friend 
Hogarth,  and,  after  trial  by  inipcacbment  before 
the  House  of  Lords,  was  beheaded  on  9th  Ajiril 
1747.  At  his  trial  he  defended  himself  with 
ability  and  dignity,  and  he  met  death  gallantly, 
Horace's  line  on  his  li|)s,  '  Dulce  ct  decorum  est 
jjro  patria  mori.'  He  is  buried  in  the  Tower.  A 
iinished  courtier,  a  good  scholar,  and  a  most 
elegant  letter- writer,  Lovat  was  also  a  ruHian, 
a  liar,  a  traitor,  and  a  hypocrite.  A  ('ultured 
savage,  he  stands  as  the  incarnation  of  the  clan 
system  at  its  worst,  the  very  ojiposite  of  Scott's 
'Fergus  Maclvor.'  During  the  lifetime  of  the 
lady  he  had  ravished  he  twice  more  married — in 
1710  Margaret,  daughter  of  the  Laird  of  (!rant, 
by  mIidui  he  was  father  of  Colomd  Simon  Frascr 
(17'2(i-.S2)  and  three  others;  in  1733,  Primrose 
Campbell,  of  the  Argyll  family,  whom  he  had 
inveigled  into  a  house  of  ill-fame  in  Edinburgh, 
and  w ho  also  Ixue  him  a  third  son,  Colonel  Archi- 
bald Fraser  (1730-1815). 

See  Hill  Burton's  Life  of  Lorat  (1847),  and  works 
tliere  cited  ;  also  the  Autobiography  of  l_)r  Alexander 
Carlyle,  Sir  W.  Eraser's  Chiefs  of  Qrant  (1883),  Mr 
Hender.son's  ai-ticle  in  the  Diet,  of  Nat.  liioriraphi/  (vol. 
sx.  18811),  and  Major  Fraser\i  Maiiitseript,  edited  by 
Colonel  A.  Fergusson  (2  vols.  1889). 

Love,  Family  of.    See  Family  of  Lovf.. 

Lov«-a|»|>U''    See  Tomato. 

Love-bird,  a  name  given  to  various  small 
pariots,  but  csjieciall.v  to  those  included  in  the 
genus  Agajjornis.  These  are  at  home  in  the 
forests  of  th(?  Etliio])ian  region,  are  predomin- 
antly green  in  jduniiige,  and  are  very  altcclion.'ite 
both  in  their  native  haunts  and  in  captivity.  'I'lie 
name  is,  however,  extended  to  the  species  of  other 
genera  and  from  other  regions. 

Loveilale.  an  imjiortant  educational  ami 
mission  station  in  Siuitb  Africa,  050  miles  NE. 
of  Cai)etown,  and  about  40  miles  W.  of  King 
William's  Town.  It  was  founded  in  1841,  and 
has  been  genenui.sly  sui)j>orted  by  the  Free  Church 
of  .Scotland.     I'esides  giving  a  general  education. 


LOVE-FEASTS 


LOWELL 


731 


it  aims  specially  at  training;  teacliei-s  for  native 
schoiils,  anil  teaching  sucli  arts  of  civilised  life  as 
printing,  bookbinding;,  telegraphy,  sinith  .and  car- 
penter work,  and  the  like.  Its  highest  numbers 
— titO  in  1876 — have  not  since  been  equalled. 
There  w.-is  printed  at  Lovedale  in  1887  a  brief 
imlividual  record  of  over  2000  natives,  as  well  as 
a  few  hundred  Europeans,  wlio  had  been  educated 
here,  and  the  result  was  crcditalile  in  a  surprising 
degree  to  the  institution.     See  K.vffiks. 

Lovi'-foasts.     See  Agap.«. 

Lovelace.  Kich ard,  Cavalier  lyrist,  was  born 
at  Woidwich  in  161S,  the  eldest  son  of  a  Kentish 
knigiit  of  old  family.  Wood  tells  us  he  had  his 
education  at  the  Charterhouse,  and  at  Gloucester 
Hall,  O.\ford,  where  his  uncommon  beauty  and 
graceful  yet  modest  mannei-s  made  him  the  darling 
of  the  fair.  Naturally  he  found  his  way  to  court, 
anil  went  on  the  Scotch  expedition  in  1639,  after 
which  he  retired  awhile  to  his  estate.  In  April  1642 
he  was  committed  to  the  Gatehouse  at  Westminster 
for  presenting  to  the  House  of  Commons  a  petition 
from  the  royalists  of  Kent  '  for  the  restoring  the 
king  to  his  rights,  and  for  settling  the  govern- 
ment.' and  was  only  released  on  bail  of  £40,000. 
In  the  Journals  of  parliament  this  large  sum  is 
put  as  personal  hail  to  the  extent  of  £10,000,  with 
a  siircli/  for  £5000.  Thus  Lovelace  throughout 
the  struggle  was  confined  to  the  mortifying  part  of 
a  prisoner  on  parole,  but  he  spent  his  estate  in  the 
king's  cause  by  furnishing  money  to  his  brothers 
and  friends.  In  1646  he  took  part  in  the  siege  of 
Dunkirk,  .and  w,as  flung  into  prison  on  returning  to 
England  in  1648.  During  this  imprisonment  he 
revised  his  poems,  and  in  1649  published  Liicasta, 
the  name  formed  from  Lux  casta,  his  epithet  for 
his  love,  Lucy  Sacheverell,  who  married,  .says 
Wood,  another  on  the  stray  report  that  Lovelace 
had  died  of  his  wounds  at  Dunkirk.  After  the 
kings  execution  he  was  set  at  liberty,  but  his 
estate  was  spent,  and  liLs  last  years  were  darkened 
by  dejection  and  distress.  He  closed  the  trageily 
of  his  life  in  a  mean  lodging  in  Gunpowder  Alley, 
near  Shoe  Lane,  in  1658.  Next  vear  his  brother 
collected  his  poems  as  Lucasta:  Postluime  Poems 
(16-i9).  His  tr.agedy,  The  Soldier,  and  his  comedy. 
The  Scholar,  were  never  published,  and  are  lost. 
Most  of  Lovelaces  work  is  slovenly,  obscure,  and 
insipid,  but  his  name  survives  secure  of  its  immor- 
tality from  two  of  the  most  faultless  lyrics  in 
the  Language — '  To  Althea  from  Prison  '  and  '  To 
Lucasta  on  going  to  the  Wars.'  The  best  edition 
of  his  poems  is  that  edited  by  W.  C.  Hazlitt  (1864). 

Love-lie.s-bleediiig.    See  Amar.vnth. 

Lover,  Sa.mikl,  artist,  novelist,  song-writer, 
and  dramatist,  was  bora  in  Dublin,  the  son  of  a 
Protestant  stockbroker,  24th  February  179".  In 
1818,  after  three  years'  study,  he  established  him- 
self there  as  a  marine-painter  and  miniaturist ;  and 
to  about  the  same  date  belongs  his  debut  in  litera- 
ture, though  it  w;is  not  till  1S32  that  his  lirst  book 
a|ipeared,  [.er/eiuli  and  Stories  of  Ireluml,  illus- 
trated, like  many  of  its  successois,  with  his  own 
etchings.  Ror<i  O'More  (18.36)  at  once  became 
popiilar,  ami,  as  dramatLsed  by  him,  ran  through 
lOS  nights  ;  still,  its  sHCce.s.s  li.os  l)een  cpiite  eclipsed 
by  Hambi  Aiiibj  (IS42),  a  rollicking  story  of  Irish 
life.  Meanwhile,  in  1S37,  Lover  settled  in  London, 
and  wrote  much  for  the  |>eriodic.als,  till,  iii  1S44,  his 
eyesight  beginning  to  fail,  he  started  an  entertain- 
ment, railed  '  Irish  Evenings,'  which  wa-s  a  hit  both 
at  home  and  in  .Xnierica  (1846-48).  In  1856  he 
received  a  pension  ;  and  he  died  at  St  Helier, 
.lersey,  6th  .July  1868.  Of  his  songs  may  be  men- 
tioned '  The  .Angel's  Whisper,'  '  Mrdly  liawn,'  'The 
Lowb.acked  Car,'  and  'The  Four.leaved  Shamrock.' 
See  Lives  by  Bernard  ( 1874)  and  Symington  ( 1880). 


Low  Arellipelaso.  the  most  easterly  group 
of  Polynesian  islands,  known  also  as  Pauniola, 
Tuaniotu,  Pearl  or  Llangerous  Islands.  They  aie 
^  about  eighty  in  number,  very  flat  and  thiidv 
peopled  (8000  in  all),  and  sui rounded  by  coral 
atolls.  Since  1846  they  are  under  a  French  pro- 
tectorate. There  are  rich  pearl-lisheries  ofl'  these 
islands.     See  Polynesia. 

Low  Countries,  the  Netherlands.  See  Hol- 
land, Belgium. 

Lowe,  Sir  Hudson,  the  custodian  of  Napoleon 
in  St  Helena,  was  born  at  Gal  way,  28tli  .July  1769. 
ICnterintj;  the  army  in  1787,  he  served  in  various 
parts  of  the  Mediterranean,  and  in  1808  caiiitu- 
lated  at  Capri  to  the  French.  Hut  in  the  follow- 
ing year  he  helped  to  conquer  Zante  and  Ceplia- 
lonia,  and  then  for  nearly  two  years  acted  as 
governor  of  Santa  Maura,  Ithaca,  and  Cephalonia. 
He  was  afterwards  for  some  time  attached  to  the 
Prussian  army  commanded  by  Bliicher.  On  14th 
April  1816  he  reached  St  Helena  as  governcn-  of  the 
island.  Napoleon  had  landed  there  on  the  17th 
October  of  the  previous  year.  The  strictness  of 
Lowe's  watch  upon  the  di-sturber  of  the  ])eace  of 
Europe  brought  down  upon  him  nuich  obloquy, 
and  exposed  him  to  bitter  and  ranc<u'ous  attacks 
from  Napoleon's  friends  and  admirei-s,  especially 
from  0'i\leara  [Xapoleon  in  Exile,  1822).  He  w.as 
even  assaulted  in  London  in  1822.  His  defence  of 
his  conduct  and  acts  may  be  read  in  his  Mfmnrial 
rtlatif  ala  Captivite  de  Napoleon  a  Ste-HiUne  (2 
vols.  Paris,  1830)  and  in  W.  For.sytli's  Captirity  of 
Xapoleon  at  St  Helena  (3  vols.'  1853).  In  1825 
Lowe  became  commander  of  the  forces  in  Ceylon. 
He  died  lOtli  July  1844.  See  Napoleon  ;  aiid  K. 
C.  Seaton,  Sir  Hudson  Lowe  and  Napoleon  (1898). 

Lowe.  Robert.     See  Sherdrooke. 

Lowell,  a  iiiaiiufacturingcity  of  Massachusetts, 
the  birthplace  of  Whistler,  on  the  ^lerrimac  River, 
and  at  the  junction  of  se\eial  railways,  25  miles 
N.  by  W.  of  Boston.  The  site  is  uneven  and 
hilly,  and  the  river  falls  33  feet,  all'ording  great 
hydraulic  power,  which  Ls  controlled  by  a  charfered 
conijiany.  Steam-power,  however,  is  now  exten- 
sively used  in  the  large  mills  and  workshoi)S. 
These,  the  principal  of  which  are  .also  in  the  h.ands 
of  corporations,  include  a  great  number  of  cotton 
and  woollen  factories ;  2,500,000  yards  of  cotton 
are  produced  here  in  a  week.  Among  the  other 
manufactures  are  leather,  paper,  an<l  iron  goods, 
chemicals,  carriages,  iVc.  Lowell  was  incorpor- 
ated in  1826.  Tl:e  operatives  were  for  years 
gathered  from  the  rural  districts  fifty  or  .a  hun- 
tlred  miles  round,  and  lived  in  boarding-houses 
built  and  owned  by  the  corporations,  and  kept 
under  strict  management.  Foreign  emigration  has 
brought  a  large  resident  manufacturing  population. 
Evening  and  tecliiiical  schools,  reaiiing-roonis,  a 
free  library,  and  lectureships  are  maintained,  and 
unusual  attention  is  paid  to  the  well-being  of  the 
work-people.     Pop.  ( 1880)  59,485  ;  (1890)  77,696. 

Lowell,  Jaiies  Russell,  poet,  essayist,  and 
dijilomatist,  was  bom  in  Cambridge,  Ma.ss.acliu- 
setts,  February  22,  1819.  He  copyrigbi  isw  in  r.s. 
came  of  a  family  distinguished  in  by  j.  b.  Lipriucoti 
many  ways.  His  father,  a  friend  Couip»ny. 
of  Channing's,  was  minister  of  the  West  Church  in 
Boston.  The  future  poet  entered  Harvanl  College 
in  his  sixteenth  year  and  graduated  in  18.38,  but 
without  any  special  rank.  His  abilities,  however, 
were  early  recognised  :  all  bis  youthful  contempor- 
aries were  sure  of  his  coming  fame.  His  father  had 
an  unusually  large  libraiy,  not  restricled  to  theo- 
logical subjects,  and  the  son  w;is  left  to  browse 
in  it.  The  variety  and  extent  of  his  reading  wius 
the  foundation  of  ids  future  scholarship,  and  the 
source  of  those  stores  of  allusion  and  anecdote  for 


732 


LOWELL 


LOWESTOFT 


wliioli  his  writings  and  conversation  are  equally 
reinaiUalile.  The  severe  studies  which  made  him 
a  scholar  came  long  after  his  univereitv  coui-se. 

In  his  twenty-second  year  he  puhlislied  .1  Year's 
Life  and  other  Poems.  '  He  studied  law,  hut  never 
seriously  sought  to  ^jractLse.  In  company  witli 
Robert  "Carter,  in  1843,  he  edited  The  I'ioiiecr,  a 
montlily  magazine,  with  Hawthorne,  I'oe,  and 
AVliittier  for  contributors;  but  after  three  issues 
the  publislicrs  failed.  In  1S44  he  publislieil  a 
second  volume  of  poems,  in  which  were  seen  grow- 
ing power  and  gieater  promise.  In  the  same  year 
he  married  Maria  White,  a  beautiful  and  intel- 
lectual woman,  herself  the  author  of  some  charm- 
ing poems.  In  1845  he  published  Conversations  on 
the  Vld  Poets,  an  original  and  suggestive  book,  but 
immature  in  style  and  treatment.  In  1846,  at  the 
outbreak  of  the  Mexican  war,  he  published  a  satiric 
poem  in  the  Yankee  dialect,  purporting  to  have  been 
written  by  a  rustic  named  Hosea  Biglow,  and  edited 
by  the  Rev.  Homer  Wilbur,  an  amusing  i)edant,  in 
which  the  policy  of  the  pro-slavery  party  and 
the  conduct  of  the  United  States  government 
toward  an  unoffending  neighbour  were  held  uj)  to 
scorn  and  ridicule.  It  was  apparently  a  trille,  but 
it  had  immediate  and  universal  success  ;  and  from 
this  slight  beginning  came  the  Biqioiv  Papers,  per- 
haps the  highest  expression  of  the  poet's  genius, 
and  beyond  douljt  the  first  of  mod(M-n  satires  in 
English.  It  is  tlie  soul  of  New  England  character; 
racy  with  its  droll  humour,  and  sparkling  with  its 
nutorrowed  wit ;  but  its  rare  qualities  are  fully 
appreciated  only  by  those  to  whom  the  rustic  life 
and  the  dialect  are  familiar. 

The  year  1S48  was  productive  and  memorable. 
It  was  the  year  of  European  revolutions  and  of 
boundless  hopes  among  enthusiasts  for  the  future 
■  if  mankind.  A  great  many  serious  poems  were 
written  at  this  time,  and  formed  a  third  volume, 
lie  wrote  The  Vision  of  Sir  Launfal,  one  of  the 
best,  as  it  is  one  of  the  most  popular,  of  his  poems  ; 
also  A  Fable  for  Critics,  given  to  the  world  anony- 
mously— a  series  of  witty  and  dashing  sketches  of 
.Vmerican  authors.  It  is  full  of  puns  ami  grotesijue 
rhymes,  done  in  a  '  liap|iy-go-lucky '  style,  but  is 
not  ill-natured,  and  has  a  basis  of  good  sense. 
After  all  tlu'se  years  it  is  seen  that  his  judgments 
of  men  and  tendencies  were  almost  prophetic. 

In  1851  he  visited  Europe  with  his  wife,  then  in 
delicate  health,  and  returned  in  1852.  Her  death 
occurred  early  in  1853.  In  1S57  he  was  married  in 
Portland,  Maine,  to  Miss  Frances  Dunlap,  who 
died  in  London  in  February  1885. 

In  1S55  lie  was  appointed  piofesscu-  of  Modern 
[.languages  and  Literature  in  Har\ard  College,  to 
succeed  Longfellow,  and  thereupon  went  to  Europe 
to  prosecute  his  studies.  While  still  holding  this 
chair,  and  delivering  lectures  which  were  menun- 
able,  he  edited  the  Atlantic  Month/i/,  beginning  in 
185",  an<l  afterwards,  along  with  Charles  E. 
Norton,  the  Xorth  American  licricu;  from  18G3  to 
18U7.  Commemoration  Ode,  a  notable  ])ocm,  was 
written  in  1865  in  honour  of  the  alumni  who  had 
fallen  in  the  war  of  the  rebellion.  The  Cathe- 
dral (1S70),  a  poem  marked  liy  ]U'ofound  thought, 
but  lightened  by  some  playful  passages,  was 
siiggesteil  by  a  visit  to  Chartrcs.  Three  patriotic 
odes  were  written  ( 1875-76),  one  for  the  anniversary 
of  the  battle  at  Concord,  one  for  the  Wasliington 
Elm  in  Cambriilge,  the  other  for  the  centennial  of 
the  Fourth  of  July. 

His  ])rose  writings— il/»/  Study  Windows  and 
Anion;/  mtj  BooI;s-Aia\c  Ingli  qualities,  and  arc 
likely  to  be  enduring.  Some  or  the  essays,  such 
as  those  upon  Chaucer,  Dante,  Sh.ikes|)eare,  and 
Uryden,  are  masterpieces  of  literary  art.  The 
sentences  are  animated,  not  so  much  with  crack- 
ling epigrams  as  with  airiness  :  they  are  (perhaps 


too  frequently)  studded  with  recondite  allusions, 
and  are  often  lustrous  with  poetic  images.  It  is 
always  evident  that  it  is  a  poet  who  writes.  To 
the  author's  friends  the  most  delightful  of  his 
prose  works  is  Fireside  Trarels,  containing  his 
recollections  of  Cambridge  Thirty  Years  Ago. 

The  second  series  of  Biglow  Papers  appeared 
during  the  civil  war,  in  wliich  the  poet's  three 
nephews  and  other  near  relatives  gave  their  lives 
for  the  Uni(m.  This  volume  is  naturally  graver 
and  upon  a  higher  plane  of  thought  aud  sentiment. 
Certain  passages  ( probably  the  best  he  has  written) 
show  an  intensity  of  feeling  rare  in  human  experi- 
ence ;  in  others  the  .scenery  ami  the  seiusons  are 
painted  «ith  loving  touches  ;  and  the  nide  ilialect, 
so  far  from  being  a  blemish,  lends  an  indelinable 
charm  to  the  tenderness  and  to  the  descriptive  art. 

Lowell  was  an  ardent  aboliti(uiist,  and  from  the 
first  gave  himself  unreservedly  to  the  cause  of 
freedom.  In  this,  iis  in  all  things,  he  showed  him- 
self an  heir  of  Puritan  blood,  faithful  to  the  right, 
without  regard  to  popularity.  In  siudi  poems  as 
The  Present  Crisis  he  came  to  his  countrymen  with 
a  '  burden  '  like  a  Hebrew  i)roiiliet. 

He  was  appointeil  in  1877  minister  of  the  United 
States  to  the  court  of  Madrid,  and  was  transferred 
in  1880  to  that  of  St  James,  where  he  remained 
until  1885.  One  of  his  volumes.  Democracy  (1886), 
contains  some  of  the  brilliant  addresses  he  made 
while  in  England,  and  one  volume.  Heartsease 
and  Ene  (1888),  embraces  later  )ioems,  inchiding  a 
few  written  long  before  for  the  Atlantic  Montlily. 

The  post  of  minister  to  Great  Rritain  is  the 
highest  in  the  gift  of  an  American  juesident,  and 
that  Lowell  should  have  been  sent  to  represent  his 
country  in  the  old  home  of  the  race  sufficiently 
shows  the  estimation  in  wliicb  he  was  held,  for  lie  had 
never  been  a  politician.  He  wrote  a  life  of  Haw- 
thorne in  the  'American  Men  of  Lettei-s '  series 
(1S90):  The  Old  Emjlish  Dramedists  appeared  post- 
liumously  in  1893.  He  lived  at  Elnnvood  (in  Cam- 
bridge), "the  hou.se  in  which  he  Wiis  born ;  and  there 
he  died  12th  August  1891.  His  Collected  Writings 
were  published  in  10  volumes  (1890-91).  See  J'/fe 
Poet  and  tlie  Man,  \>\  the  jircsent  writer  (1893), 
and  DrE.  E.  Hale's  I'vu-cll  and  his  Friends  (l^^i-i). 

LoM'ell  Institute,  at  Boston,  Mass.,  founded 
by  John  Lowell  (1799-1836),  a  Boston  merchant. 
See  Lectuhes. 

Lower  Eiiipire.    See  Byz.\ntine  Empihe. 

Lowestoft,  a  municipal  borough  and  seaport 
on  the  Sufiblk  coast,  118  miles  NE.  of  London  by 
rail,  and  49  from  Ipswich,  has  of  late  years  rapidly 
grown  in  favour  as  a  watering-place,  its  healthful- 
ness  ami  tlie  picturesqueness  of  its  neighbourhood, 
combined  with  its  exsy  means  of  access  to  the  Uroads 
(q.v.),  all  tending  to  its  jiopularity.  The  older  iiart 
ot  the  town,  w  hich  lies  to  the  north,  is  built  on  a 
cliff  facing  the  sea,  on  its  summit  being  a  light- 
house ( 1874)  123  feet  above  the  sea-level,  whilst  at 
its  base,  on  the  Ness— (he  most  easterly  point  of 
land  in  England— stands  another  lighthouse  ( 1SU6). 
The  modern  part  of  the  town,  which  has  a  line 
esplanade  800  vards  long,  extends  southwards  into 
the  jiarish  of'Kiikley,  and  is  separated  from  the 
old  town  bv  tlic  liarbour,  formed  partly  by  two 
piers  extending  seawards   1300  feet,  and  partly  bv 


Lake  Lotliing,  a  j^iiece 


of  water  stretching  inland 


two  miles  :  adjoinnig  the  harbour  is  a  dock  ( 18S3) 
with  a  depth  of  water  at  low  tide  of  ISA  feet,  and 
extensive  lish-markets  (1865-83),  the  property  of 
the  (ireat  Eastern  Railwav,  who  in  1887  conveyed 
inlan.l  from  the  port  26,935  tons  of  fish,  principallv 
herrings,  mackerel,  and  soles.  On  the  new  South 
Pier  is  a  sjdendid  pavilion,  opened  in  1890. 
Other  features  of  interest  in  the  town  include 
the  parish  church  ( of  which  Whiston,  the  niathe- 


LOW    GERMAN 


LOYOLA 


r33 


iiiatician,  ami  Potter,  the  translator  of  Greek 
plays,  were  former  vicai-s),  183  feet  in  len>rtli,  and 
sur'niounteil  bv  a  tower  and  spire  I '20  feet  high, 
datin;,'  from  the  lirst  half  of  the  14th  century  ; 
towntuill  (1857),  noticeable  for  its  stained-<;lass 
%vindows ;  hospital  (1S82),  with  acooiiiinoilation 
for  thirty  inpatients:  and  Bellovue  I'ark  (1874), 
not  far  from  which  Wiis  found  the  clay  formerly 
used  in  making  Lowestoft  china.  The  principal 
incidents  in  the  history  of  the  town  have  been 
visitations  of  the  pl.ague  in  1349,  1547,  1579,  and 
160.3,  on  the  last  occasion  the  disorder  raging  with 
such  fury  tliat  280  pei-sons  died  within  live  months 
and  316  in  the  year  ;  its  occupation  in  1G43  by  Crom- 
well, who  entered  the  town  at  the  head  of  1000 
troopei-s,  and,  seizing  several  royalists,  sent  them 
prisonei-s  to  Cambridge ;  its  partial  destruction  by 
hre  in  IQH  :  a  great  naval  engagement,  which  took 
place  ott'  the  coast  on  the  3d  June  1605,  when  the 
Dutch  were  defeated  with  loss  of  eighteen  ships ; 
and  the  landing  of  George  IL  on  his  return  from 
Hanover,  14th  June  173(3.  Pop.,  including  that  of 
Kirklev,  (1801)  2.509:  (1841)  5304;  (1891)  19,150. 
See  works  by  Gillingwater  ( 1790)  and  Nail  (1866). 

Low  German.    See  Germ.\xy,  Vol.  V.  p.  186. 

Low  Latiu,  a  term  often  applied  loo.sely  to 
the  Latin  spoken  and  written  after  the  fall  of  the 
Roman  empire,  as  well  as  during  the  middle  ages. 
The  process  of  deterioration  from  cla-ssical  models 
had  already  begun  even  in  the  time  of  Cicero,  but 
it  rapidly  grew  until  were  formed  gradually  in 
different  divisions  of  the  dismembered  empire  those 
distinct  varieties  out  of  which  grew  the  modern 
Romance  tongues.     See  RoM.\xcE  L.\ngu.\GES. 

Lowndes,  Willi.am  Thom.\s,  a  London  book- 
seller (died  1843)  to  whom  we  are  indebted  for  The 
Bihliographcr's  Manual  of  English  LUcrdtnre  (4 
voLs.  1834;  see  BlBHOGRAPHV)  and  The  British 
Librarian  ( 18.39 ). 

Low  Sunday,  in  the  Roman  Catholic  Church, 
is  the  lirst  Sunday  after  Easter.  It  is  so  called  in 
contra-st  to  the  great  festival  whose  octave  it  ends. 
In  France  and  Germany  it  is  usually  called  Quasi- 
moilo.  from  the  first  word  of  the  introit?  ( 1  Peter, 
ii.  2 )  in  the  Mass. 

Lowth.  Robert,  a  learned  English  bishop,  was 
born  NovemI>er  27,  1710,  at  Winchester  ;  his  father 
wa.s  rector  of  Buriton.  He  was  educated  at 
Winchester,  whence,  with  a  reputation  both  as  a 
scholar  and  poet,  he  passed  to  New  College,  Oxford, 
in  17;iO.  In  1741  he  was  appointed  professor  of 
Poetry,  and  hence  arose  his  famous  De  Sacra  Pocsi 
HehrcEorum  PneleHioncs  Academics,  published  in 
175.3.  In  1750  Bishop  Hoadley  conferred  on  him 
the  archde,i<'onry  of  Winchester,  and  in  1753  the 
rectory  of  East  Woodhay  in  Hampsliire.  Lo«th 
became  D.  D.  of  Oxford  in  1754,  prebendary  of  Dur- 
ham and  rector  of  Sedgetield  in  1755,  a  Fellow  of  the 
Royal  Societies  of  London  and  Giittingen  in  1765, 
Bishop  of  St  Davids  in  1766,  of  Oxford  a  few  months 
after,  of  Londcm  in  1777,  and  died  November  3,  1787. 
Besides  his  lectures,  his  two  principal  works  are 
Life  of  William  of  Wykeham  (1758)  and  Isaiah, 
a  HCir  Translation  ( 1778 ).  Lowth's  Prrrlrctioncs 
was  one  of  the  lirst  books  that  treated  the  Bible 
jMietry  as  literature,  ami  though  most  of  his  criti- 
cism, save  the  doctrine  of  poetic  parallelism,  is  long 
since  olwolete,  he  gave  a  new  direction  to  the 
bildical  criticism  of  Herder  and  later  critics. 

Loyola.  Igxatics  de,  is  the  name  by  which 
history  knows  Ifiigo  Lopez  ile  Recalde,  the  youngest 
son  of  Bertram  de  I^oyola  .and  Marina  Salez  de 
Balili,  who  wa-s  l)om  in  the  year  1491  at  his  an- 
cestral castle  of  Loyola,  in  the  Basque  province  of 
Gniptizcoa.  After  the  scant  training  of  that  age 
in  letters,  he  wa.s  received  as  a  page  in  the  court 
of  Ferdinand ;  bat  the  restraint  and  inactivity  of 


court-life  were  distasteful  to  his  enthusiastic  mind, 
and  under  the  auspices  of  his  relative,  the  Duke 
of  Najura,  he  embrace<l  the  profession  of  arms. 
The  details  of  his  career  as  a  soldier  disjilay  both 
the  excellency  and  the  irregularities  of  his  anient 
temperament,  thrown  undirected  among  the  tempt- 
ations iis  well  a.s  the  iluties  of  ,1  military  life. 
Of  his  bravery  and  chiviilrous  spirit  many  re- 
markable instances  are  recorded,  and  one  of  these 
proved  the  turning-point  of  his  career.  In  the 
defence  of  Pampeluna  he  was  severely  wounded  in 
both  legs,  (me  being  fractured  by  a  cannon-ball,  and 
the  other  injured  by  a  splinter  ;  and  having  been 
taken  prisoner  liy  the  French,  he  was  by  them 
conveyed  to  his  paternal  castle  of  Loyola,  where 
he  was  doomed  to  a  long  confinement.  After  an 
operation,  the  results  of  which  had  well-nigh  proved 
fatal,  he  eventually  recovered;  and  with  his  return- 
ing strength  he  appears  to  have  resumed  his  habit  ual 
levity.  In  order  to  remove  a  deforndty  which 
had  resulted  from  the  first  setting  of  his  wounded 
limb,  he  consented  to  the  painful  remedy  of  having 
it  re-broken  in  order  to  be  res(>t.  After  this  opera- 
tion his  convalescence  was  even  more  slow  :  and, 
the  stock  of  romances  by  which  he  was  wont  to 
relieve  the  tedium  of  confinement  having  been 
exhausted,  he  was  thrown  upon  the  only  other 
available  reading,  that  of  the  Lives  of  the  Saints. 
The  result  was  the  creation  of  a  spiritual  enthu- 
siasm equally  intense  in  degree,  although  in  kind 
very  different  from  that  b.y  which  he  had  hitherto 
been  drawn  to  feats  of  chivalry.  The  spiritual 
glories  of  St  Francis  or  St  Dominic  now  took, 
in  his  aspirations,  the  place  which  had  been  before 
held  bv  the  knights  of  medieval  romance.  "With 
souls  like  his  there  is  no  middle  course  :  he  threw 
himself,  with  all  the  fire  of  his  temperament, 
upon  the  new  aspirations  which  these  thoughts 
engendered. 

Renouncing  the  pursuit  of  arms,  and  with  it  all 
other  worldly  plans,  he  tore  himself  from  home  and 
friends,  and  resolved  to  prepare  himself  for  the  new 
coulee  which  he  contemplated  by  a  pilgrimage  to 
Jerusalem.  With  a  view  to  his  immedi.-ite  prepara- 
tion for  this  holy  task,  he  retired  in  the  garb  of  a 
beggar  to  the  celebrated  monastery  of  Montserrat, 
where,  on  the  vigil  of  the  Feast  of  the  Annuncia- 
tion, in  1522,  he  hung  up  his  arms,  as  at  once  a 
votive  ottering  significative  of  his  renunciation  of 
the  works  of  the  flesh,  and  an  emblem  of  his  entire 
devotion  to  the  spiritual  warfare  to  which  he  was 
from  that  moment  vowed.  From  Montserrat  he 
set  out  barefooted  on  his  pilgrimage,  the  first  step 
of  which  was  a  voluntary  engagement  which  he 
undertook  to  serve  the  poor  and  sick  in  the  hospital 
of  the  neighbouring  town  of  Manresa.  There  his  zeal 
and  devotion  attracted  siu-h  notice  that  he  with- 
drew to  a  solitary  cavern  in  the  vicinity,  where  he 
pursued  alone  his  course  of  self-prescribod  austerity, 
\intil  he  was  carried  back,  utterly  exhausted,  to 
the  hospital  in  which  he  had  before  served.  To 
this  physical  exhaustion  succeeded  a  state  of 
mental  depression,  amounting  almost  to  despair, 
from  which,  however,  he  arose  with  spiritual  powers 
renewed  and  invigorated  by  the  very  struggle. 
From  Manresa  he  repaired  by  Barcelona  to  Rome, 
whence,  after  receiving  the  papal  benediction  from 
Adrian  VI.,  he  proceeded  on  foot,  and  as  a  mendi- 
cant, to  Venice,  and  there  embarked  for  Cyprus 
and  the  Holy  Land.  He  would  glailly  have 
remained  at  .lerusalem,  and  devoted  himself  to 
the  proiiagation  of  the  gospel  among  the  infidels; 
but  finding  no  eiuouragement,  returned  to  Venice 
anil  Barcelona  in  1.524. 

Taught  by  his  first  failure,  he  now  resolved  to 
l)rei)are  himself  liv  study  for  the  work  of  religious 
teaching,  and  witli  this  view  was  not  ashameil  to 
return,  at  the  age  of  thirty-three,  to  tlie  study  of 


73+ 


LOYSON 


LUBECK 


the  very  ruclinients  of  grammar.  He  followed  up 
these  elementary  studies  by  a  further  course,  lirsl 
at  tlie  new  university  of  Aleala,  and  afterwards  at 
Salamanca.  In  both  places  he  incurred  tlie  censure 
of  the  autiiorities  by  some  unauthorised  attempts 
at  religious  teaching  in  public,  and  eventually  he 
was  induced  to  repair  to  Paris  for  the  completion 
of  the  studies  thus  repeatedly  interrupted.  Here, 
again,  he  continued  jiei-sistently  to  struggle  on 
without  anv  resources  Imt  those  which  he  drew 
from  the  charity  of  the  faithful :  and  here,  again, 
lie  returned  to  tiie  same  humble  elementary  studies. 
It  wa.s  while  engaged  in  these  studies  that  he  first 
formed  the  pious  fraternity  which  resulted  in  that 
great  organisation  which  has  exercised  such  iu- 
nuenee  upon  tlie  religious,  moral,  and  social  con- 
dition of  the  modern  world.  From  the  close  of  his 
residence  in  Paris  Loyola's  history  has  been  told 
in  tlie  history  of  his 'order  (see  Je.suits).  From 
the  date  of  liis  election  as  the  first  general  of  his 
society  lie  continued  to  reside  in  Rome.  To  him 
are  due,  not  alone  in  the  general  spirit,  but  even 
in  most  of  their  details,  all  its  rules  and  constitu- 
tions ;  from  liim  also  originated  several  works  of 
general  charity  and  benevolence,  tlie  germs  of  great 
institutions  still  maintained  in  Uome.  But  the 
great  source  of  his  influence  upon  the  spiritual 
interests  of  tlie  world  is  his  well-known  E.iciritUi 
Spiritualift,  of  which  an  account  has  l>een  already 
given.  He  died  at  Rome,  prematurely,  worn  out 
by  his  long  austerities,  July  31,  1556.  He  was 
beatified  in  1609,  and  canonised  in  1622. 

His  Life  lias  been  written  in  almost  every  European 
language.  The  biomapliies  of  Kibadaneira  (1572),  Maflei 
( IsSo ).  IJouliours  ( 1C79 ),  Daurignac  ( 18(15 ),  Denis  ( 1885 ), 
are  well  known  ;  and  there  are  books  by  .Stewart  Kose 
( 1891 ),  Father  Hughes  ( 1892 ),  Gothein  ( Halle,  18i)G ),  and 
H.  Joly  (trans.  1899). 

Loyson.    See  Hyacinthe. 

Loziire,  a  department  in  the  south  of  France, 
derives  its  name  from  !Mont  Lozere,  one  of  tlie 
summits  of  the  Cevennes  (q.v.).  It  comprises  the 
arrondissements  of  Mende,  Florae,  and  Marvejols. 
Area,  1996  sf|.  ni.  ;  pop.  (1872)  135,190;  (1891) 
1.35,527.  Caiulal,  Mende.  The  department  forms 
the  south-east  extremity  of  the  central  uplands  of 
France,  and  embraces  the  highest  peaks  of  the 
Cevennes  (  Pic  de  Finiels,  5584  feet).  These  moun- 
tains are  the  birthplace  of  numerous  ri\ers,  which 
go  down  to  feed  the  Rhone,  the  (laronne,  and  the 
Loire.  In  the  mountains  the  climate  is  severe, 
and  little  grain  is  produced.  Potatoes,  chestnuts, 
fruits,  hemp,  and  flax  are  the  more  important  pro- 
ducts, and  silkworms  are  bred.  The  department 
contains  some  of  the  grandest  scenery  of  France  in 
the  eroded  limestone  districts  of  the  'Causses.' 

See  Martel's  Les  Civennes  ( 1890),  and  lietliam-Edwards, 
The  Itoof  nf  France  (1889). 

LliailS  Prsibangr.  a  Shan  state  on  the  Upper 
Mekhoiig,  ceded  to  France  by  Siam,  with  other 
territory,  in  1893.     See  Sh.ws. 

Liihiiurk,  Sir  .John,  B.\eon  Averury  (ere. 
1900),  son  of  the  astronomer  and  matlieniiitician, 
Sir  J.  W.  Lubbock  (1803-65),  was  born  in  London, 
.■\pril  .30,  1S34,  and  educated  at  a  private  school 
and  at  Kton.  At  fourteen  he  entered  his  father's 
banking-liouse,  anil  in  18.56  became  a  partner.  He 
was  chosen  honorary  secretary  to  the  Association 
of  London  Hankers,  first  president  of  the  Institute 
of  Bankeis,  and  served  in  the  International  t'oinage 
Comniis.sion,  as  a  member  of  the  Public  Sclioid 
Commission,  the  Advancement  of  Science  Coiii- 
niission,  the  Education  Commission,  and  the  Gold 
and  Silver  Commission.  In  ISiJo  and  1868  he  con- 
tested West  Kent  unsuccessfully  in  the  Liberal 
interest,  but  wjis  returned  for  .Maidstone  in  1870; 
anil  on  losing  his  seat  in  1880  he  was  returned 


for  London  University — since  1886  as  a  Liberal 
Unionist.  As  a  politician  he  has  devoted  himself 
chielly  to  financial  and  educational  subjects,  and 
has  succeeded  in  passing  more  than  a  dozen  im- 
portant public  measures,  including  the  Bank  Holi- 
days Act  ( 1871 ),  the  Bills  of  Exchange  Bill,  which 
regulates  the  whole  law  relating  to  cheques,  bills, 
and  promissorv  notes,  the  Ancient  Monuments  Bill 
(1882),  and  the  Shop  Houi-s  Bill  ( 1889).  He  is  an 
lionorarv  graduate  of  Oxford,  Cambridge,  Edin- 
burgh, l)iililin,  and  Wiirzburg  :  was  vice-cliaiicellor 
of  the  university  of  London  from  1872  to  1880; 
is  a  trustee  of  the  British  Museum ;  and  has 
acted  as  president  of  many  of  the  .scientific  societies, 
being  president  of  the  British  Association  in  1881. 
President  of  the  London  Chamber  of  Commerce, 
and  chairman  of  the  London  County  Council,  he  is 
best  known  as  a  man  of  science  for  his  researches 
on  the  ancient  vestiges  and  remains  of  man,  and 
on  the  habits  of  insects,  especially  bees  and  ants. 

Besides  more  than  a  hundred  memoirs  to  various 
societies,  he  has  puljlished  Prdiistoric  Times,  as  ill  us- 
f rated  hi/  Ancient  Remains  and  the  Manners  and  Customs 
of  Modern  Saraijes  (1865);  The  Oriijin  of  Civilisation 
and  the  Primitive  Condition  of  Man  (1870) ;  The  Origin 
and  Metamorphoses  of  Insects  (1874) ;  On  British  Wild- 
flowers,  considered  in  Eclation  to  Insects  (1875);  Ad- 
dresses, Political  and  Educational  (1879);  Sci<ntijie 
Lectures  (1879);  Monograph  of  the  Thi/sanura  and 
Ciillembola  :  Fifty  Years  of  i'cience,  an  inaugural  address 
to  tlie  liritish  Association  (1881 ) ;  Ants,  Bees,  and  Wasps 
(1882);  Flowers,  Fruits,  cmd  Leaves;  On  Brpresenta- 
tion ;  The  Senses  and  Instincts  of  Animals  (1888);  and 
The  Pleasures  of  Life  (1887;  20th  ed.  1890;  2d  series, 
1889);  The  Beauties  of  Nature  (\S9-2);  The  Use  of  Life 
( 1894 ) ;  and  an  interesting  work  on  The  Sceneri/  of 
Sirit:erland  (IS96). 

Ltllieok,  a  free  city  of  Germany,  and  great  port 
on  the  river  Trave,  12  miles  fnun  the  Baltic,  and  40 
by  rail  NE.  of  Hamburg.  It  was  founded  by  Saxons 
in  1143,  in  place  of  a  former  Wendish  town  of  the 
same  name,  lower  down  the  Tiave.  The  founda- 
tions of  its  prosperity  were  laid  by  Henry  the  Lion, 
Duke  of  Saxony,  who  gave  it  a  charter,  and  took 
unusual  pains  to  encourage  its  budding  commerce. 
He  also  built  a  cathedral,  and  transferred  the  see 
of  t>ldenbnrg  to  LUbeck.  Frederick  Barbarossa 
not  only  confirmed,  but  greatly  enlarged,  its  i>rivi- 
leges,  and  Frederick  II.  made  it  a  free  city  of  the 
em])ire.  From  this  time  it  made  rapid  progress  as 
a  trailing  centre ;  it  Mas  from  the  first  one  of  the 
most  influential  menibers  of  the  Hanseatic  League 
(q.v.),  and  eventually  its  head.  The  citv  became 
in  short  the  commercial  metropolis  of  the  Baltic 
and  northern  Eurojie.  This  jnoud  position  was 
due  in  some  measure  to  the  liberal  encouragement 
of  several  successive  emperors,  but  in  still  greater 
measure  to  the  prudent  guidance  of  the  oligarchical 
council,  conipo.sed  of  men  elected  from  the  families 
of  the  great  merchants.  The  decay  of  Liibeck  was 
necessarily  invidved  in  the  decay  of  tlie  Hanseatic 
cities  generally.  The  eventful  diclatorshiii  of 
SVuUenwever  ('l53.'J-37)  was  the  last  dying  effort 
of  the  Leagiie.  Full  administrative  rights  were 
not  conferred  upon  the  burghers  or  citizens  until 
1848.  At  the  present  time  the  constitution,  em- 
bracing a  senate  ( 14  members)  and  a  representative 
assembly  (120  members),  is  thoroughly  democratic 
in  spirit.  The  French  held  Liibeck  from  1806, 
when  they  captured  it  and  plundered  it — excejit  for 
nine  months  in  181.3 — down  to  the  treaty  of 
Vienna,  which  m.ade  it  a  free  town  of  the  German 
Confederation.  The  traditional  connection  with 
ILamburg  and  Bremen,  the  last  survivors  of  the 
Hanseatic  League,  was  kept  up  till  1879.  Never- 
theless, in  1866  Lubeek  joined  the  North  (Jeiinan 
Confcileiation,  and  in  1868  the  Customs  Union 
(Zol/verciii). 

The  free  city  possesses  115  sq.   ni.  of  territory, 


LUBKE 


LUCANt>> 


r35 


including  the  port  of  Tiavemiiiule,  near  tlie  niotith 
of  the  river.  The  total  popuhition  was  7ti,485  in 
1890,  of  whom  63.o00  wen"  in  the  city  of  Liibeck 
(44,799  in  1875).  The  inilustries  are  more  varied 
than  im|)ortant,  the  chief  being  the  manufacture 
of  cigars  and  vinegar,  brewing,  braiuly-distilling, 
soap-boiling,  and  iron-founding.  l.iiibeck  is  the 
great  centre  for  trade  between  Hamburg  and  tlie 
cities  of  (iermany  on  the  one  side  and  the  countries 
that  border  the  Baltic  on  the  other.  The  imports 
reach  an  annual  value  of  about  9J  millions,  and 
the  exports  of  8  millions.  This  traliic  is  mostly 
transit  business;  for  instance,  corn,  timber,  spirits, 
linseed,  paper,  tar,  aud  butter  are  brougbl  from 
Russia ;  timlier,  iron,  steel,  and  copper  from  Sweden ; 
butter  and  corn  from  Denmark  and  Finland  ;  wines 
anil  .spirits  from  France;  coals  (4o, 000  tons),  grind- 
ing and  other  stones,  and  iron  wares  from  Great 
Britain  ;  and  petroleum  from  North  America.  The 
port  is  entered  annually  by  an  average  of  2300 
vessels  of  443,000  tons.  The  Trave  was  deepened 
to  lo  feet  in  1878-82.  A  scheme  for  a  canal  to 
connect  Liibeck  with  the  Elbe  has  been  postponed 
owing  to  the  Kiel-Elbe  Canal. 

The  streets  of  the  city  are  mostly  wide  and 
pleasant.  The  city-wall  was  demolished  in  1802 
or  converted  into  promenades.  The  churches  in- 
clude the  handsome  Gothic  St  Mary's,  tirst  erected 
in  1163-70,  though  the  existing  edihce  dates  from 
1276-1310,  with  two  towers  407  feet  high,  old 
sarcophagi,  masterpieces  of  old  German  sculpture, 
and  pictures  by  Overbeck  and  others  ;  the  cathedral, 
founded  in  1173,  and  enlarged  in  the  14th  century, 
with  a  tower  394  feet  high,  and  an  altarpiece  by 
Memling ;  St  James's,  liuilt  before  1227,  and  St 
Peter's,  before  1163,  which  contain  tine  old  )iaint- 
ings  and  monuments  ;  and  St  -i^gidius,  which  has 
an  excellent  organ.  The  town-house  is  the  most 
notable  amongst  the  secular  buildings  ;  it  is  built 
of  red  and  black  glazed  bricks.  Tlie  hospital  of 
the  Holy  Spirit,  dating  from  the  13th  century,  is 
adorned  with  admirable  \vood-carving.  There  are 
a  school  of  navigation,  a  library  of  98,000  vols., 
ethnographic,  antiquarian,  zoological,  and  art  col- 
lections, iS:c.     The  state  debt  amounts  to  £692,380. 

See  Max  Hoffmann,  Gesrhichte  der  Freieti-  nnd  ffiinse- 
Stadt  Liibect  (1889-90);  Pauli,  Liihecksche  Ziistdnde 
im  Mittetaltcr  (1872) ;  and  'Waltz,  Liibeck  unler  Wullen- 
wever  (3  vols.  1855-56). 

Liibke,  Wilhelm  (1826-93),  author  of  a  score 
of  liooUs  on  the  history  of  art  in  Germany,  France, 
Italy,  \'c.,  was  born  at  Dortmund,  studied  at  Bonn 
and  Berlin,  taught  the  history  of  art  at  Stuttgart 
and  Karlsruhe,  and  was  finally  director  of  the  art 
galleries  of  Baden. 

Lublin,  cai)ital  of  a  Polish  government,  stands 
on  a  sub-tributary  of  the  Vistula,  96  miles  by  rail 
SE.  of  Warsaw.  It  wjis  once  a  great  commercial 
city,  has  a  13th  century  cathedral,  and  was  plun- 
dered by  the  Mongols.  There  are  manufactures  of 
tobacco,  beer,  candles,  soap,  &c. ,  and  a  large  trade  in 
corn  and  wool.  Pop.  ( 1871 )  24,4.56  ;  ( 1891 )  53, 137. 
Here  wa.s  signed  in  1.569  the  Ire.ity  of  union  between 
Lithuania  and  I'oland. — The  f/orcriiiiif»t  has  an 
area  of  6497  sq.  m.  and  a  pop.  ('|891 )  of  1,059,9.59. 

Lubricants,  unguents  interposed  between 
.surfaces  in  machinery  which  work  on  one  another, 
with  the  object  of  lessening  the  Friction  (q.v.), 
and  thereby  diminishing  the  wear  and  tear,  ami 
lessening  the  waste  power  taken  up  in  overcoming 
friction.  Various  unguents  are  in  use  :  animal  fats 
and  oils,  such  as  tallow,  sperm-oil,  lard,  iVc.  ;  vege- 
table oils,  as,  for  example,  olive  nil  and  rape-oil  ; 
and  many  mineral  oils.  The  particular  unguent 
bi->t  suite<l  for  any  purpose  is  a  matter  of  cim- 
siderable  importance.  Where  the  pressure  be- 
tween the  two  surfaces  is  great  it  is  necessary  to 


use  oils  with  body  or  thickness,  since  the  lighter 
oils  are  readily  squeezed  out  from  position.  Siierm- 
oil,  for  instance,  is  a  very  good  lubricant,  but  not 
so  satisfactory  for  heavy  loads  and  high  tempera- 
tures. Many  oils  again,  especially  vegetable  oils, 
deteriorate  much  faster  in  use  than  others  by 
evaporation  of  their  volatile  constituents. 

Liica  della  Robbia.    See  Konm.v. 

Luoan,  tiEOEGE  Cll.VRLE.S  BlNGH.\5I,  E.VKL  OF, 
British  geiuMal,  was  born  on  I6th  Ajiril  1800,  and 
succeeded  bis  father,  the  second  carl,  in  the  title  in 
1839.  He  was  put  to  school  at  'Westminster,  ami 
on  leaving  entered  the  army.  He  accompanied  the 
Iiussian  troops  under  General  Diebitsch  as  a  Aolun- 
teer  against  the  Turks  in  1828.  As  commander 
of  a  division  of  cavalry  in  the  Crimea  he  fought  at 
the  Alma,  Balaklava,  and  Inkermann  (see  Ci;ime.\n 
War).  Appointed  lieutenant-fjeiieral  in  1858  and 
G.C.B.  in  1869,  he  became  field-marshal  in  1887. 
He  died  10th  November  1888. 

Llioania,  a  province  of  ancient  Italy,  south-east 
of  Calabria,  and  bordering  on  the  Gulf  of  Taren- 
tum.  It  was  inhabited  by  an  Oscan  j)eople,  and 
corresponds  nearly  to  the  present  province  of 
Potenza  and  part  of  Salerno. 

Lucanus,  M.  Anx.eus  (39-65  a.d.),  whose 
Pharsalia  heads  the  epic  poems  of  the  sihcr  age, 
was  born  at  Cordulra,,  capital  of  the  pro\ince 
Ba'tica,  the  centre  of  Roman  inlluence  in  Spain, 
and  of  a  literary  school  which  lasted  on  into 
medieval  times.  Among  the  leading  Corduban 
families  were  the  Anna'i,  of  whom  Annanis  Seneca, 
the  rhetorician,  had  three  sous — M.  Anna-us  Seneca, 
the  Gallio  of  tlie  Acts  of  the  Apostles  ;  L.  Anna'us 
Seneca,  the  pliilosopher ;  and  M.  Anna'Us  Mela, 
who  married  Acilia,  daughter  of  Acilius  Lucauus, 
a  noted  orator  of  the  place,  and  by  her  became 
father  of  M.  Aiin;eus,  who  received  the  cognomen 
Lucanus  from  his  maternal  giandsire.  Rome's 
irresistible  attraction  for  the  outlying  world  bad 
already  drawn  thither  Seneca,  the  philosopher ; 
and  liela,  with  his  wife,  followed,  to  place  their 
son,  an  infant  prodigy,  under  his  uncle's  eye  for 
the  usual  training  in  rhetoric  and  moral  science. 
Young  Lucan  took  kindly  to  the  hereditary  cul- 
ture, and  under  Pahi?mon  the  grammarian,  and 
Cornutiis  the  Stoic,  of  whom  Persius  the  satirist 
was  also  an  admiring  pupU,  he  became  proficient 
in  the  merits  which  won  the  apjilause  of  the  lecture- 
room.  Indeed,  his  aptitude  for  prose  and  verse 
was  ominous  of  the  fatal  fluency  which  evolved  the 
first  three  books  of  the  Pharsalia  while  yet  in  his 
teens.  Hatred  of  tyranny  was  the  prevailing  note 
of  the  patricians,  and  Lucan  shared  the  hopes  of 
his  order  as  to  Nero's  government,  not  inauspi- 
ciously  begun.  But  the  imperial  pupil  of  Seneca 
ere  long  betrayed  the  lower  side  of  his  character : 
and  a  morbid  vanity,  courting  the  ajiplaiise  of 
the  circus  and  the  theatre,  made  him  the  rival  of 
charioteers  and  poets,  and,  among  these,  of  Lucan. 
At  first  the  young  emperor  and  the  young  poet 
were  friends,  and  Xero  s  favour  had  conferred  on 
the  latter  the  ijuastorship,  with  which  he  entered 
the  curia  as  well  as  the  augural  priesthood.  But 
imperial  vanity  '  beai"s  no  brother  near  the  throne,' 
and  Nero's  self-love  was  mortally  wounded  when, 
in  a  gre.at  jiublic  contest,  the  palm  went  over  his 
head  to  Lucan.  The  emperor's  marked  discourtesies 
were  returned  liy  his  successful  rival  with  satire 
and  with  redoubled  efl'orts  to  outshine  him,  till 
Nero  was  stung  into  forbidding  Lucan  either  to 
]>iiblisli  ])ocms  or  to  recite  them,  .\biiiit  that  time 
the  Pisonian  consjiiracy  had  been  hatrhing,  and 
the  emperor's  increasing  follies  ,and  barbarities 
hastened  its  development.  Lucan  became  one  of 
its  ringleaders,  and  with  characteristic  impetuosity 
was  already  di.sc<mnting  its  .succes.s,  when  tin'  news 


•36 


LUCARIS 


LUCERNE 


came  to  him  that  it  was  discovered  and  he  himself 
betrayed.  At  first  his  demeanour  was  wortliy  of  a 
Stoic  :  then  his  courage  declined,  till  it  sank  so  low 
that — quite  falsely,  it  is  heliexed — ho  accused  his 
own  mother  Acilia  of  heing  jirivy  to  tlie  nlot,  in 
hojies  that  the  matricidal  emiieror  mij;ht  be  con- 
ciliated by  a  similar  crime  !  lint  in  vain.  He  was 
ordered  to  ilie.  ami,  having  had  his  veins  opened,  he 
bled  to  death  in  the  bath,  reciting  an  appropriate 
passage  from  one  of  his  poems. 

Except  a  few  fragments,  we  now  have  notliing  of 
Lucan's  many  writings  but  the  Plutrsalia  in  ten 
books,  recounting  the  mighty  duel  of  Pompey  and 
Cains  Julius  for  the  empire  of  the  world.  Though 
always  freely  criticised,  its  acceptance  in  antiquity 
and  in  modern  times  has  been  great.  From 
Tacitus  to  Scaliger  and  Macaulay  it  has  found 
praise  and  censure  in  pretty  even  proportion.  Its 
defects  are  mainly  those  of  youth — inspired  youth 
trained  in  a  school  where  epigram  and  antithesis 
were  sought  after  as  the  chief  merit  of  style.  It  is 
frequently  bombastic,  sometimes  obscure  ;  so  un- 
steady, moreover,  in  its  delineation  that  it  is  open 
to  doiiljt  whether  its  hero  is  not  Caius  .Julius  after 
all,  rather  than  the  Pompey  who  is  characterised 
as  'Magnus'  throughout.  When  at  its  best  its 
merits  are  those  of  eloquence  rather  than  poetry ; 
and  for  its  many  brilliant  and  apt  '  sententiiB '  it 
justly  enjoys  an  'immortality  of  quotation.'  Its 
Koman  patriotism  strikes  so  true  a  note  that  with 
all  pioneers  of  liberty  it  has  been  a  favourite— par- 
ticularly in  the  Enjjiand  of  the  17th  century.  In- 
deed, the  historian  of  the  Long  Parliament.  Thomas 
May,  not  only  ^^Tote  a  respectable  translation  of 
it,  but  also  a  still  more  respectable  continuation  in 
the  language  and  verse  of  the  original.  Howe's 
translation,  considered  by  Johnson  to  be  one  of 
the  best  in  the  English  language. 

There  are  other  English  translations  in  verse  by  Mar- 
lowe 1  Bk.  t ),  Sir  Ferdinando  Gorges,  aud  E.  llivUey 
(1897);  and  in  prose  by  fl.  T.  Riley  (1853).  There  are 
editions  bv  « >iiclendoi-p,  Burnianu,  Haskins  (18S7),  Hosius 
(Teubner,"  1S93),  and  Francken  ( 1S;I5-9S ). 

Lncaris,  Cyril,  a  Greek  theologian,  wjis  born 
in  Crete  in  1572,  studied  at  Venice  and  Padua, 
and  subsequently  in  Geneva,  where  he  became  im- 
bued with  the  Calvinist  doctrines.  Taking  holy 
orders,  he  rose  by  1621  to  the  highest  dignity  in 
the  Greek  Church,  Patriarch  of  Constantinople. 
An  outline  of  liis  public  career  will  be  found  under 
GUEEK  Church  {Vol.  V.  p.  :W7).  In  June  1037  he 
was  seized  in  Constantinople,  hurried  on  board  a 
vessel,  aud  it  was  never  properly  ascertained  what 
became  of  him.  According  to  some  he  w  as  strangled 
in  the  ship  which  bore  liimott';  according  toothers, 
he  sutfered  this  fate  in  a  castle  on  the  shores  of  the 
Black  Sea.  His  doctrines  have  been  repeatedly 
condemned  by  Greek  synods. 

LlirarilC,  a  Dormer  Window  (q.v. ),  especiallj- 
in  a  church  spire. 

Lliras  vail  Leydon,  whose  proper  name  was 
Ll'c.vs  .Iacou.sZ,  Dutch  painter  and  engraver,  was 
born  in  Leyden  in  1494.  An  e.Ktremely  precocious 
artist,  he  painted  a  picture  of  St  Hubert  when  only 
twelve,  and  the  celelirated  print,  '  Mahomet  and 
the  Monk  Sergius,'  was  engraved  when  he  was  oidy 
fourteen.  I5ut  he  was  not  enrolled  in  the  guild  of 
St  Luke  at  Antwerp  in  l.>22.  He  practised 
successfully  almost  every  branch  of  painting,  and 
as  an  engraver  ranks  as  the  equal  of  Albert 
Diirer  in  everything  e.\cept  fertility  of  design. 
His  range  of  subjects  was  very  wide,  and  em- 
braced events  in  sacred  history,  incidents  illus- 
trative of  the  manners  of  his  own  ])eriod,  and 
portraits.  He  was  on  terms  of  ititimacy  with 
Mabnse,  and  held  friendly  intercourse  with  Diirer, 
whose    talents    he   admired    without    jirofessional  I 


jealousy.  He  died  in  lo.33,  having  been  conlined 
to  bed  for  six  years.  Amongst  his  most  cele- 
lirate<l  pieces  are  the  '  Hill  of  Calvary,'  by  some 
regariled  as  his  masterjiiece,  '  .-Vdam  and  Eve 
expelled  from  Paradise,'  '  Ecce  Homo,'  'A  Girl 
and  a  Dog,'  the  'Card  Party,'  'St  Jerome,'  and 
'  Christ  healing  a  Blind  Man.' 

Llicca.  chief  town  of  an  Italian  |uovince, 
is  situated  in  a  plain,  bounded  by  picturesque 
hills  and  irrigated  bv  the  Serchio,  14  miles  by 
rail  NE.  of  Pisa.  Pop.  (1 894)  77,300.  'Lucca 
the  In<iustrious '  has  a  great  trade  in  olive  oil  and 
silk,  the  latter  manufacture  introduced  in  the  end 
of  the  11th  century.  The  cathedral  of  St  .Martin, 
begun  in  1063,  has  a  cedar  crueilix  re])Uted  to  have 
been  bnmght  to  Lucca  in  782;  this  Volto  Santo 
('Sacred  Countenance')  is  mentioned  by  Dante. 
The  church  also  contains  several  fine  paintings, 
the  tomb  of  Maria  Guinigi  (cf.  Buskin's  Mwlcni 
Pfiintcrs,  v(d.  ii.),  aud  valuable  archives.  There 
are  nearly  forty  other  churches,  some  dating  from 
the  7th  and  Sth  centuries.  A  splendid  aquediu-t 
(18"20)  supplies  the  town  with  water  from  the 
Pisan  hills.  The  munici])al  buildings  (1578)  con- 
tain a  valuable  collection  of  paintings.  Lucca  is 
exceptionally  rich  in  artistic  and  scientific  institu- 
tions. The  city  was  a  bislioiuic  as  early  as  347, 
and  in  1726  was  made  an  archbishopric.  The 
environs  abound  in  delightful  villa,s.  In  a  charm- 
ing valley,  16  miles  N.  of  the  town,  are  situated 
the  mineral  baths  of  Lucca,  which  lia\e  been 
famous  since  the  15th  century.  Their  temperature 
varies  from  96°  to  136'  F. — The  province,  which  has 
an  area  of  5.38  sq.  m.  and  a  pop.  (1895)  of  289,800, 
is  famed  for  the  fertility  of  its  soil  and  the 
superiority  of  its  agriculture.  The  Lucchesi 
are  a  frugal,  shrewd  race ;  numbers  leave  home 
in  search  of  employment,  and  they  form  a  large 
proportion  of  the  itinerant  fignre-vendms,  organ- 
grinders,  and  stucco- workers  of  Europe. 

Lucca  (anc.  Liica)  was  made  a  Roman  colony  in 
177  B.C.  It  was  erected  into  a  duchy  by  the  Lom- 
bards, and  its  meichaiits  traded  in  English  wool 
from  the  9tli,  but  more  especially  from  the  12th 
century.  The  town  had  a  most  cliequered  history 
down  to  1369,  when  it  became  an  independent  re- 
puldic,  which  lasted  till  1797.  In  ISOSit  wasere<ted 
into  a  principality  by  Napoleon  for  his  sister  Elisa 
Baociochi,  and  in  lsb5  passed  to  Maria  Louisa  of 
Spain,  queen  of  Etruria.  Her  son,  Charles  Louis, 
ceded  it  to  Tuscanv  in  1847,  on  obtaining  posses- 
sion of  Parma  and  f'iacenza. 

Liireua,  a  town  of  Spain,  36  miles  S.  l)y  E.  of 
Cordova,  is  famous  for  its  wine  ami  breed  of  horses. 
Pop.  2I,-271. 

LlU'Cra  (the  ancient  Liiccriti  of  the  Samnite 
war),  a  town  of  Southern  Italy,  12  miles  by  rail 
NW.  of  Foggia,  has  a  cathedral  dating  from  1.302, 
and  a  famous  ruined  castle  of  Frederick  II.,  who 
died,  however,  at  the  neighbouring  castle  of  Fioren- 
tino.     Pop.  14,067. 

Lucerne  ( Mcd/rcr/o  stttiva),  a  species  of  Medick 
(q.v.),  one  of  the  most  valuable  of  the  loguminons 
jiiants  grown  for  the  supjily  of  green  food  to 
cattle.  It  is  a  native  of  the  south  of  Europe, 
and  has  been  cultivated  there  from  an  unknown 
antiquity.  It  is  not  \erj'  largely  grown  in  Britain, 
but  in  some  jilaces  very  sviccessfnlly,  chielly  in  the 
drier  parts  of  the  south  of  England.  The  climate 
of  m.any  districts  of  Scotland  is  not  too  cold  for  it. 
It  is  largely  cultiv.ated  in  some  jiarls  of  North  ami 
South  Americ.i.  It  endures  great  droughls,  its  roots 
penetrating  very  deep  into  the  ground.  Sir  John 
Bennet  Lawes  states  that  at  Rothamsted  he  has 
fouiiil  it  the  best  of  all  forage-cro])s  for  a  drought. 
It  delights  in  a  rich  and  calcareous  soil,  and  never 
succeeds  on  damp  soils  or  tenacious  clays.     It  is  n 


LUCERNE 


LUCIGEN 


73T 


peroimial,  anil  if  kept  free  from  weeds  affords  good 
crops  for  six,  seven,  or  more  yeai-s.  It  is  sown  in 
rows,  at  10  or  14  inches  ajiart,  and  may  be  mown 
several  times  in  a  year,  siowin-^  very  (|uickly  after 
being  mown.  The  quantity  of  inoduce  is  very 
great— sometimes  from  20  to  .SO  tons  per  annum — 
and  few  otlier  forage-plants  are  ready  for  use  so 
early  in  spring.  Lucerne  ha.«  a  rather  erect  stem, 
leaves  with  tliree  ohovate-ohlong  toothed  leaflets; 
purplish-blue  or  sometimes  yelhiw  flowei's  in  many- 
nowered  racemes,  and  pods  twisted  two  or  three 
times  round.  It  ou"lit  to  be  mown  before  it  comes 
into  flower,  as  it  tlien  becomes  filirous  and  less 
nutritious.     In  Spanish  lauds  it  is  called  Alfalfa. 

Lnceme  (Ger.  Luzem).  the  capital  of  a  Swiss 
canton,  59  miles  SE.  of  Ba.sel,  147  SSE.  of  Stra.s- 
burg,  and  177  NNW.  of  Milan.  It  is  very  beauti- 
fviUy  situated  at  the  point  wliere  the  Reuss  issues 
from  the  northwest  extremity  of  the  Lake  of 
Lucerne,  and  is  partly  surrounded  (on  the  north) 
with  medieval  towers.  Near  the  lake,  rising  from 
the  middle  of  the  Reuss,  is  an  old  tower,  which  is 
said  to  have  been  a  lighthouse  ( lurcnia )  in  Roman 
times,  whence  the  name  of  the  town.  Outside  one 
of  the  gates  is  the  Lion  of  Lucerne,  hewn  (1821) 
out  of  the  solid  rock  after  a  model  by  Thorwaldsen,  a 
monument  to  the  Swiss  guard  who  perished  at  the 
Tuileries  in  1792.  Near  by  is  the  Glacier  Garden, 
with  rocks  illustrating  the  action  of  ice.  The  town 
is  a  busy  centre  for  tourists  and  siimmer  visitors 
to  Switzerland.  Pop.  (1894)  21,778.— The  canton 
has  an  area  of  579  sq.  m.  and  a  pop.  (1894)  of 
1.^5,813.  The  soil  is  fruitful  in  the  valleys  :  in  the 
more  mountainous  parts  the  rearing  of  cattle  is 
carried  on  to  a  great  extent,  large  qtiantities  of 
cheese  being  made.  The  highest  elevation  in  this 
canton  is  6998  feet,  a  peak  of  Mount  Pllatus.  The 
inhabitants  are  mostly  of  German  race  and  language, 
and  belong  to  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  except 
about  5650  Protestants,  to  whom  the  free  exercise 
of  their  religion  was  first  accorded  in  1828.  The 
canton  threw  ott'the  yoke  of  Austria  in  1332,  and, 
joining  Schwyz,  I'ri,  and  I'nterwalden,  formed  the 
nucleus  of  the  future  Swiss  Confederation.  The 
constitution  of  Lucerne  is  a  representative  demo- 
cracy. The  legislative  body  is  the  Great  Council, 
one  member  being  elected  by  every  1000  citizens ; 
the  executive  is  vested  in  seven  members,  who  are 
not  of  the  council.     See  Switzerland. 

The  Lake  of  Lucerne,  called  also  Vienmld- 
stdttersee  ( '  Lake  of  the  Four  Forest  Cantons ' — LTrj, 
Unterwalden,  Sch«-j'z,  and  Lucerne),  is  one  of  the 
most  beautiful  sheets  of  water  in  Europe.  In  shape 
it  resembles  roughly  a  cross  with  a  crumpled  stem ; 
its  shores  .are  mostly  stee])  and  rocky.  Length  from 
Lucerne  to  Fliielen,  23  miles  ;  average  breadth, 
alwut  U  mile  :  area,  44  sq.  m.  The  chief  places  on 
its  banks  are  Lucerne,  Kiissn.uht,  and  Alpnach  at 
the  north-west,  and  Fliielen  near  its  southwest 
extremity.  It  forms  part  of  the  St  Goth.ard  route, 
and  is  navigated  by  steamboats,  but  is  liable  to 
SHd<len  and  violent  storms.  The  lake  is  rich  in 
a-ssociations  of  'William  Tell  (q.v.)  and  his  story. 

Lncian,  one  of  the  most  interesting,  giaceful, 
and  amusing  of  Greek  writei^,  wius  born  in 
Samosata,  the  principal  town  of  Conmiagene  in 
Syria,  probably  about  125  A.n.  Intended  liy  his 
parents  to  be  a  sculptor,  Lucian  early  .'usserted  his 
own  decided  preference  for  letters.  Having  learned 
Greek  and  studied  under  some  teacher  of  rhetf)ric, 
he  practised  as  an  advocate  for  a  short  time  in 
Antioch.  He  then  turned  to  the  composition  of 
show  speeches  (epideictic  oratory)  and  to  reciting 
them  as  a  means  of  making  a  living.  His  pro- 
fessional career  thus  ma<le  him  a  travelling  artist ; 
and  in  the  quest  for  suitable  festivals  at  which  to 
deliver  his  declamations  he  travelled  through  Asia 
307 


Minor,  Greece,  Macedonia,  Italy,  and  Gaul. 
Having  thus  made  a  fortune  and  a  name,  he  settled 
in  Athens,  still  the  intellectual  cajiital  of  the 
world,  anil  there  devoted  himself  to  the  study  of 
iiiiilosophy.  There,  too,  he  produced  a  form  of 
literature  hitherto,  as  he  claims,  unknown.  This 
was  humorous  dialogue.  In  his  old  age  he  reverted 
to  his  lirst  love,  recitation.  He  accepted  a  good 
appointment  in  Egypt,  wliere  at  an  advanced  age, 
eighty  or  ninety  years,  he  died.  A  Semite  liy  race 
but  not  by  education,  a  subject  of  Rome  but  not  a 
Roman,  a  writer  of  Greek  but  not  a  Greek  by  birth, 
Lncian  was  by  circumstances  singularly  freed 
from  every  tie,  prepossession,  or  prejudice  which 
might  have  stood  at  all  in  the  way  of  his  deriving 
the  largest  possible  amount  of  amii.sement  out  of 
the  world.  Nor  was  this  all  that  fortune  did  for 
him  :  she  brought  him  into  the  world  at  an  age 
when  the  old  faiths,  the  old  philosophy,  the  old 
literature,  were  all  rapidly  dissolving  in  decay, 
and  when  what  the  new  would  be  was  an  insoluble 
problem.  For  satire,  whose  nature  is  simjdy  to 
deny,  never  was  there  a  fairer  field  ;  and  Lucian 
revelled  in  it.  The  old  faith  was  gone,  and  the 
inherent  aljsurdity  of  retaining  the  old  deities 
without  the  old  belief  is  brought  out  by  Lucian  in 
the  Dialogues  of  the  Gods,  Dialogues  of  the  Dead, 
Prometheus,  Charon,  Menippos,  Icaromenippos,  and 
others.  AVhether  the  old  philosophy  was  the  more 
disgraced  by  the  shallowness  or  the  vices  of  those 
who  professed  it  in  Lucians  time  it  would  be  hard 
to  tell  from  his  Si/mposium,  /{aliens,  lUim  Prasis, 
DrajjeiCF,  &c.  The  old  literature  had  lieen  dis- 
placed liy  novels  or  romances  of  adventure  of  the 
most  fantastic  kinil,  which  Lucian  parodies  in  his 
True  Histories.  In  fine,  there  is  no  department  of 
life  with  which  he  is  unacquainted  or  from  which 
he  fails  to  raise  a  laugh.  His  extensive  travels 
gave  him  abundant  material,  and  his  extensive 
reading  gave  him  ancient  instances  to  confirm  and 
illustrate  his  own  experiences.  His  Greek,  though 
not  absolutely  pure  Attic  of  the  best  times,  is  but 
little  removed  from  it  ;  and  this  is  to  be  accounted 
for  by  the  fact  that  he  learned  Greek  as  a  foreign 
language,  and  consequently  picked  it  up  from 
Plato  and  not  from  the  streets.  Apart  from  the 
purity  of  his  Greek,  his  style  is  perfectly  delightful, 
simple,  pellucid,  and  sparkling.  The  editio  prin- 
ceps  is  dated  1496,  Florence.  The  editions  by 
Hemsterhuis  and  Reitz  {cum  versione  Latina  et 
notis  variorum,  1730^5)  and  by  Lehmann  ( 1822-29, 
in  9  vols. )  have  not  yet  been  superseded.  See  works 
by  Croiset  and  Sommerbrodt  (1888),  and  Lucian, 
the  St/riMn  Satirist,  by  Lieut. -col.  Hine  (1900). 

Lucifer  (Lat.,  'light-bringer'),  the  morning- 
star  ;  see  Pl.\net.s.  The  church  fathers  attached 
this  name  to  Satan  in  the  belief  that  Isaiah,  xiv.  12, 
which  refers  to  the  king  of  liabvlon,  contained  a 
reference  to  the  Prince  of  Darliness :  cf.  Luke, 
X.  18. 

Lucifer  Matches.    See  M.vtches. 

LucigCU,  one  of  the  most  powerful  artificial 
lamps,  and  specially  well  adajjied  for  lighting 
large  spaces,  whetlier  open  or  covered.  The 
light,  whicli  is  i)roduced  by  burning  creasoteoil, 
is  brilliant  ami  dill'used,  and  does  not  cast  black 
shadows  like  the  electric  light,  as  the  flame  gives  a 
broad  glow  resembling  very  much  the  eflect  of  the 
sun.  The  construction  of  the  lamp  is  exceedingly 
simple.  The  tank  or  oil- reservoir  is  a  plain  circular 
ilrum,  to  the  to])  of  which  the  burner  is  fixed.  The 
burner-tube,  E,  extends  to  the  bottom  of  the  drum, 
pa.ssing  through  an  outer  tube  F,  which  is  pierced 
with  holes  through  wlii<-h  the  oil  is  straiiiecl,  ••iiid 
pa-sses  down  into  the  small  well,  L,  in  the  bottom  of 
the  tank.  The  compressed  air  enters  the  drum  at  H, 
and  forces  the  oil  up  the  tube,  £,  to  the  oil-cone  L 


738 


LUCILIUS 


LUCKNOW 


The  heated  air  from  the  coil,  C,  enters  the  aiiimhir 
space  between  tlie  oil -cone  and  burner,  wliere  tlic^ 
air  and  oil  become  amalgamated  and  escape  in  the 
form  of  a  spray  or  vapour  \vhi<'h  is  immediately 
inllanimable.      There    are    various    forms    of    the 


Section  of  a  Lucigen  Lamp  : 
A,  air  supply;  B,  stopcock  for  controlling  supply  of  air  to 
buniLT :  li',  stopcock  for  controlling  oil-feed ;  C,  coil  for 
heating  air;  D,  burner;  E,  burner-tube;  F,  strainer-tube; 
G,  drip-cock  for  condensed  moisture ;  H,  air  to  drum  ;  I,  oil- 
cone  ;  J,  for  oil  supply ;  L,  oil  well. 

Lucigen,  which  was  first  used  in  1885  ;  but  for 
a  universal  lamp  the  vertical  type  worked  by 
compressed  air  may  be  taken  as  tlie  best,  which, 
with  about  18  lb.  pressure  at  the  burner,  gives  the 
most  regular  and  ettective  light. 

Lll<*ilill(><  Konian  poet,  the  creator  of  that  form 
of  ])oetic  satire  which  was  wielded  so  brilliantly 
by  his  successors,  Horace,  Persius,  and  .luvenal. 
He  wa.s  born  at  Suessa  Aurunca,  in  Campania, 
probably  in  1()4  or  l(i6  B.C.  Other  dates  given  or 
suggested  are  148  and  180.  He  was  on  intimate 
terms  with  the  Younger  Scipio,  umler  whom  he  is 
said  to  have  served  at  Numantia,  and  of  Ladius. 
He  was  a  thorough  nuiii  of  the  world,  and  wrote  in 
a  bidd,  independent  tone,  choosing  for  his  subjects 
contemporary  events,  persons,  all'ectations,  vices, 
(S:c.  He  enjoyed  great  popularity  during  his 
lifetime,  so  much  so  that  at  his  death  in  102,  at 
Naples,  he  was  lionoure<l  with  a  jiublic  funeral, 
although  he  had  never  held  any  public  oflice.  He 
wrote  thirty  books  of  Satires,  of  which  nothing  but 
fragments  remain,  preserved  in  great  jiart  by  tlie 
grammarians.  The  iiest  editions  of  these  fragments 
are  lyachmann's(  lierlin,  ISTIi)  and  L.  Midler's  (  Leip. 
187'2 ).  w  ho  also  wrote  Lchcii  unci  Wcrke  des  Liicilius 
(1870). 

IjIK'illil  ('the  light-bringing'),  a  name  ap]died 
botli  to  Diana  and  to  Juno — to  the  latter,  Juno 
Lucina,  as  the  especial  divinity  that  ]iresiih!s  o\er 
childbirth,  corresponding  to  the  Ilithyia  of  Greek 
mythology.     See  JfN'o. 

Ulrke,     CllTTFHIED      CHI{ISTI.\N      FRIEDRiril, 

Protestant  theologian,  was  born  '24th  August  17111, 
at  Kgeln,  near  Magileburg,  and  was  professor  of 
Theology  at  Honn  (1818-'29),  and  at  tJottingen, 
where  he  died  14th  February  18.55.  His  "leat 
work  is  his  comnientary  on  Jolm  (1820-25;  ."id  ed. 
1850-.5())  ;  other  works  are  on  the  Apocalyjise 
(•2(1  ed.  1848-52),  and  on  New  Testament  Henne- 
iieutics  (1817). 


Luokeil>vald<*.  a  town  of  Prus.sia,  31  miles  by 
rail  SSW.  of  Berlin,  has  cloth  and  hat  manu- 
factures.    Pop.  18,. 'JOS. 

LllfkllOW  (l.iilhnao),  cajiital  of  the  province 
of  t'udh,  and  the  fourth  largest  city  in  India,  stands 
on  the  river  Gumti,  by  rail  42  miles  NE.  of  Cawn- 
pore  and  199  XW.  of  Benares.  The  city  is  interest- 
ing, not  only  as  the  capital  of  the  former  kingdom  of 
( •udh,  and  for  the  memorable  (lart  it  played  in  the 
Mutiny,  but  also  as  a  centre  <if  modern  Indian  life, 
a  chief  school  of  native  music  and  poetry  and  of 
Mcdiammedan  theology.  The  appearance  of  magni- 
ficence and  splendour  w  liicli  the  city  presents  when 
seen  from  tlie  outside  is  not  borne  out  by  close 
internal  inspection,  though  a  vast  improvement 
has  been  ett'ected  since  the  Mutiny.  The  chief 
architectural  glory  of  the  jdace  is  the  Imambara  or 
m.aiisoleum  of  Asaf-ud-I)auhi,  the  fourth  Nawab, 
who  did  so  much  to  embellish  Luckuow  with 
magnificent  buildings.  This  edifice,  built  in  1784, 
stands  within  the  Machi  Bliawan  fort  (built  by 
Asaf's  predeces.sor),  and  is  now  converted  into  a 
British  arsenal.  The  Kiimi  Dorwiiza,  a  grand  and 
massive  gateway,  leading  out  of  the  fort,  the 
magnificent  Residency  palace,  and  the  country 
palace  of  Bibiapur,  besides  luimerous  minor  build- 
ings, were  all  erected  by  the  same  [irince.  The 
Jama  Masjid  or  chief  mos(|ue,  and  the  huge  palaces 
of  Chattar  Manzil,  Kaisar  Bagh,  Farliat  Baksli, 
four  royal  tombs,  and  an  observatory  (head- 
quarters of  the  rebels  during  the  Mutiny )  are  the 
most  noteworthy  amongst  the  remaining  public 
buildings,  though  the  jialaces  are  remarkable  for 
little  else  except  their  great  size,  debased  style  of 
architecture,  and  gaudy  decorations.  The  educa- 
tional establishments  embrace  Canning  College, 
established  in  18(34,  now  with  five  dejiartments  ;  the 
Martiniere  College,  where  120  soldiers'  and  civil- 
ians' sous  are  educated  ;  and  more  than  two  ilozen 
mission  and  other  schools.  The  staple  of  the 
native  industries  is  gold  and  silver  brocade,  besiiles 
which  there  are — muslins  and  other  light  fabrics, 
embroidery  in  gold  thread  and  silk  upon  cotton  and 
velvet,  glass,  clay-UKmlding,  shawls,  jewellery  (but 
declining),  and  paper.  There  are  here  extensive 
railway  w  tirkshops.  Lucknow  is  a  busy  commercial 
town,  trading  chiefly  in  country  pr()("liu^ts  (grain, 
butter,  sugar,  molasses,  spices,  tobacco,  oil-seeds), 
Eurojiean  piece-goods,  salt,  leather,  &c.  Pop. 
(18(59)  2S4,779;  (1881)  2tJl,;iO;i;  ( 1891  )  27;),028,  of 
whom  20,t)00  were  in  the  cantonments  just  out- 
side the  city:  and  in  religion  KiO, (100  were  Shiite 
Mu.ssulnians  and  the  rest  mainly  Hindus. 

The  site  of  the  present  fort  was  originally 
occupied  by  a  small  village  called  Lakshiiiaiipur, 
founded  by" a  brother  of  Kama  Chandra,  the  hero  of 
the  epic  J!tniiiii/t(ii(i.  The  city  iliil  not,  however, 
rise  into  importance  until  it  was  made  ( 1732)  the 
capital  of  the  independent  state  of  Oudh  (q.y.). 
Lucknow  covered  itself  with  glory  by  the  stirring 
events  of  which  it  was  the  scene  during  the  mutiny 
of  1857,  an<l  which  have  been  enshrined  in  splendid 
verse  by  Tennyson.  The  insurrection  broke  out  on 
the  night  of  SOtli  May.  Sir  Henry  Lawrence  had 
already  fortified  the  Kesidency  and  garrisoned  it 
with  ;^50  liritisli  troojis.  An  attcm|it  to  check  the 
advance  of  the  enemy  at  a  place  8  miles  from  the 
city  was  defeate<l  on  '29111  .lune,  and  two  days  later 
the  British  were  besieged.  On  4lh  .Inly  Sir  Henry 
Lawrence  died,  from  ,a  wound  caused  on  tlie  2il  liy 
,a  bursting  shell.  Three  times  in  succession  the 
little  garrison,  commanded  on  the  first  occ.-ision  by 
-Major  Banks,  on  the  last  two  by  Brigadier  Inglis, 
beat  back  the  assaults  of  the  enemy.  On  22d 
September  Havelock  (q.v.)  and  Outram,  with  a 
relieving  force,  captnreil  the  Alum-bagh  (q.v.). 
and  on  the  26tli  reached  the  Kesidency.-  Again 
tlie  siege  was  formed  by  the  rebels,  both  of  the 


LUCON 


LUCULLUS 


739 


Resulencv  and  the  Alum  lia;;h.  The  hitter  was 
succoureil  by  ISir  Colin  Campbell  on  10th  Novem- 
ber. Then,  after  diivinf;  the  mutineers  out  of  their 
two  principal  strongholds,  Sir  Colin  reached  the 
garrison  in  the  city  (16th  November).  Six  days 
later  the  gallant  Havelock  died  of  dysentery.  Sir 
Colin  Campbell,  leaving  Outram  with  3o()0  men 
to  hold  the  Alum-bagh  till  his  return,  escorted  the 
civilians,  ami  the  ladies  and  children,  to  Cawnpore. 
In  the  first  week  of  March  18.5S  he  returned  to  the 
attack  upon  the  rebels  at  Lucknow,  who  ha<l  mean- 
while entrenched  themselves  in  the  city.  It  cost 
a  week's  hard  fighting  to  subdue  them  {9-15th 
March )  :  the  issue  ended  the  mutiny. 

There  are  recent  books  on  tho  mutiny  and  siege  by 
Ladv  Inglis,  I'he  Siege  of  Lucknow  (1892);  Forbes 
Mitchell,  The  Great  Mutinii  (1895);  and  JI'Leod  Innes, 
Lucknoic  and  Oiidc  in  the  Mutini/  (1895). 

Lll^on,  an  episco|>al  town  of  6.301  inhabitants 
in  the  south  of  La  Vendee,  on  the  railway  from 
Nantes  to  Bordeaux,  and  on  the  canal  of  Lucon. 
Richelieu  was  Bishop  of  Lucon  ;  and  many  battles 
were  fought  here  in  1792-97. 

Lucretia.  the  wife  of  L.  Tarquinius  Collatiniis, 
famous  for  her  heroic  virtue.  She  was  sliamefuUy 
outraged  by  Sextus  Tanjuinius,  whereupon  she 
summoned  her  husband  and  a  group  of  friends,  and, 
after  malung  them  take  a  solemn  oath  to  drive  out 
the  hated  race  of  Tarquins  from  the  city,  plunged 
a  knife  into  her  heart.  Of  the  poetic  elaborations 
of  the  story  the  most  famous  is  the  li>ng  Mape  of 
Lucrccc  of  Shakespeare's  youth.     See  Brutus. 

Llioretins,  Titus  C.\ru.s,  Roman  poet,  lived 
in  the  first  half  of  the  1st  century  B.C.,  but  of 
the  particulars  of  his  life  we  really  know  noth- 
ing. A  story  was  current  some  time  after  his 
dejith  that  he  died  raving  mad  from  the  ed'ects 
of  a  love-potion  administered  to  him  liy  his  wife 
Lueilia,  and  on  tliLs  story  Tennyson  has  founded 
a,  very  striking  and  powerful  ))oeni  ;  but  it 
would  seem  to  have  been  a  malicious  invention, 
started  by  some  hostile  critic,  or  jjossibly  by  an 
early  Christian  writer  who  took  delight  in  assuming 
that  a  cham|)ion  of  unbelief  and  materialism  must 
have  come  to  a  bad  end.  The  great — indeed,  the 
only — work  of  Lucretius  is  an  essay  in  hexameter 
vei-se,  '  On  the  Nature  of  Things '  ( De  Ecrum 
yitturu),  in  six  books,  containing  upwards  of  7400 
lines.  The  work  wa.s  said,  but  on  no  good 
authority,  to  have  lieen  revised  by  Cicero.  All 
we  know  is  that  Cicero  once  brielly  alludes  to  it 
[Epist.  ad  Quintum  Fratrem,  ii.  9),  ob.serving  that 
there  are  several  tliishes  of  genius  in  the  poem,  and 
that  much  skill  is  shown  in  the  composition.  This 
is  a  very  fair  criticism,  and  it  ha-s  commended  itself 
to  general  acceptance.  The  poem,  we  take  it,  ^^•as 
on  the  whole  coldly  leceived  by  Roman  readers, 
ami  with  the  moderns  Lucretius  has  never  been  a 
jiopnlar  cla.s.sic.  The  subject-matter  of  his  work  is 
not  generally  attractive,  nor  is  the  versitication  for 
the  most  part  plea-sing  or  harmonious.  Lucretius 
a.spired  to  popularise  the  philosophical  theories  of 
iJeniocritus  an<l  Epicurus  on  the  origin  of  the 
universe,  with  the  special  purpose  of  eradicating 
anything  like  religious  belief,  which  he  is  always 
savagely  denouncing  as  the  one  great  source  "of 
man's  wickedne.ss  and  misery.  In  this  he  is 
terribly  in  earnest,  and  he  is  never  so  eloquent  as 
when  he  is  striking  at  this  hated  enemy.  The 
often-quoted  vei-se,  'Tantuni  relligio  jiotuit  suadere 
nialorum,'  e.xpres.ses  his  innermost  conviction,  and 
out  of  this  sjirings  his  finest  an  '  most  vigorous 
poetry.  .\  calm  and  tranquil  minrl  was  his 
snmiiiuiii  buniim,  and  the  only  w.iv  to  it  lay 
through  a  materialistic  i)hilosophy  which  teaches 
that  immortality  is  an  empty  ilream.  To  Lucretius 
this  was  a  positively  deliglitful  thought ;  he  hailed 


it  as  a  sure  deliverance  from  the  worst  terrors 
which  haunt  men's  minds.  The  univei'se,  as  it 
exists,  wji-s,  he  held,  evolved  out  of  ultimate 
elementary  atoms,  infinite  in  number,  streaming 
downwards  in  \oid  space,  like  a  huge  snowstornj ; 
this,  or  something  like  it,  was  the  theory  of  Dcmo- 
critus.  Creation,  as  we  undei-stand  it,  is  impos- 
sible ;  nothing  can  come  out  of  nothing,  neither 
can  anythinc;  be  destroyed;  destruction  is  only  a 
n.-vme  for  a  change  of  substance.  Life,  miml,  soul, 
iVc.  are  simply  parts  of  the  nuin  in  the  same  scn.se 
as  his  limbs,  and  being  in  their  nature  corporeal, 
being,  as  we  should  say,  functions  of  the  body, 
they  perish  finally  with  the  body,  or  at  least  so 
perish  as  to  leave  no  survival  of  coiisciousnes.s. 
All  knowledge  is  derived  from  the  senses,  which  are 
in  fact  our  only  test  and  criterion  of  truth.  All 
jdienomena  can  be  exj>lained  by  luitural  causes, 
and  thus  the  door  is  closed  against  any  belief  in 
the  divine  or  supernatural.  Lucretius,  in  fact,  is 
substantially  in  accord  with  modern  materialism, 
and  he  often  reminds  >is  of  some  of  the  newest 
theories  of  modern  science.  For  instance,  he  ex- 
plains contagious  diseases  by  the  perpetual  Hying 
about  in  the  air  of  minute  particles,  germs  as  we 
call  them,  injurious  to  life ;  and  again,  iu  his 
account  of  the  various  types  of  animal  life  as  they 
successively  apjieared  on  the  earth,  we  have  souie- 
thing  like  anticipations  of  the  'survival  of  the 
fittest,'  and  of  the  Darwinian  theory  of  evolution. 
Every  now  and  then,  indeed,  there  is  quite  a 
modern  flavour  about  the  doctrines  of  Lucretius. 
Still,  it  Is  as  a  poet  that  he  has  his  chief  interest 
for  us,  though  the  man  himself,  in  bis  intense 
earnestness,  no  doubt  put  his  jdiilosophy  before 
his  poetry.  A  very  readable  book  might  be  made 
up  with  the  title  'The  Beauties  of  Lucretius.'  His 
poem  abounds  in  strikingly  picturesque  phrases, 
such  as  only  a  great  poet  could  have  originated  ; 
scattered  up  and  down  in  it  are  episodes  of  ex- 
quisite (lathos  and  vivid  description,  perhaps 
hardly  to  be  equalled  in  the  whole  range  of  Latin 
jjoetry.  Now  and  then  he  allegorises  some  of  the 
jiopular  myths  and  legends,  showing  how  they  fore- 
shadow moral  truths,  and  in  such  passages  he  is 
one  of  the  sublimest  and  most  impressive  of  poets. 

For  a  full  discussion  of  Lucretius  and  his  poetry,  see 
Professor  .Sellar's  Roman  Poets  of  the  Jie public  (1863); 
Professor  Veitch's  Lucretius  and  the  Atomic  Theory 
(1875);  and  The  Atomic  Theory  of  Lucretius,  by  John 
Masson  ( 1884 ).  The  first  edition  of  Lucretius  was 
jirinted  about  1473  at  Brescia ;  this  was  followed  iu  1500 
by  the  Aldine  (published  by  Aldus),  and  in  15()3  by  the 
edition  of  Lambinus,  which  from  that  time  held  its  place 
for  upwards  of  three  centuries  as  the  standard  text.  In 
1832  appeared  the  edition  of  the  great  German  scholar 
Lachniann,  in  which  the  te.xt  was  thoroughly  revised, 
;ind  on  this  in  1870  ilunro  greatly  improved,  adding  a 
most  valuable  commentary  and  a  chise  and  vigorous 
prose  translatiDM.  Crcecii's  translation  into  Kiiglish 
verse  (1714)  was  the  work  of  an  enthusiastic  adnurer 
of  the  poet  and  his  philosophy  ;  it  is  on  tlie  whole  a 
good  piece  of  work,  but  is  Uttle  known. 

liUCUlIlIS,  L.  Licixiu.s,  a  very  distinguished 
Koman  general,  born  abimt  110  B.C.  In  the  fii'st 
Mithridatic  war  he  commanded  the  fieet  as  legate 
of  Sulla.  In  74  B.C.,  as  consul,  with  Cilicia  for 
his  province,  he  defeated  Mithridates  (q.v.),  and 
almost  annihilated  his  army  on  its  retreat.  In  71 
B.C.  Pontus  became  subject  to  the  Ronuins.  The 
measures  which  Lucnilus  imw  introduced  in  the 
government  of  the  province  of  -Asia  show  that  he 
was  a  just,  wise,  and  humane  adndnistrator  ;  but 
his  troops  grew  disall'ected  on  account  of  the  strict- 
ness of  his  disciidine.  In  the  spring  of  69  B.C.  he 
marched  into  Armenia,  and  gained  a  complete 
victory  over  Tigranes.  In  the  fidlowing  year  he 
gained  another  great  victory  at  the  river  Arsaniiis 
over  a  new  army  led  against  him  by  Tigranes  and 


740 


LUCY 


LUGANO 


Mithridates  ;  but  the  niutinous  sjiiiit  of  the  legions 
daily  increased,  and  soon  he  could  do  nothing;.  At 
last  lie  was  superseded  by  l'oiii]iey,  and  left  Asia 
in  66  B.C.  In  conjunction  with  the  aristocratic 
party,  he  attempted  to  check  the  increasinj;  ]iower 
of  Ponii>ey,  ami  the  atteni))t  cau.sed  tlie  coalition 
known  as  the  lirst  triumvirate.  But  he  was  ill 
fitted  to  act  as  leader  against  such  uii.scru]iulous 
men,  and  soon  witlidrew  altogether  from  political 
affairs.  During  his  jniblic  career  he  had  acquired 
(but  not  unfairly)  |)riidigious  wealth  ;  and  he  spent 
the  remainiler  of  his  life  s<irronnde<l  by  artists, 
poets,  and  philosojihers,  and  exhibiting  in  his 
villas  at  Tusculum  ami  Neapolis,  and  in  his  house 
and  gardens  at  Home,  a  luxury  and  splendour 
which  became  proverbial.     He  died  about  57  B.C. 

Lll(*y,  St,  a  virgin  who  was  martyred  under 
Diocletian  at  Syracuse.  She  is  the  patron  of  the 
blind,  and  is  commemorated  on  13tli  December. 

LlldditOS.  bands  of  workmen  who  went  about 
the  midland  counties  of  England  between  1812  and 
1818  destroying  machinery,  to  the  introduction  of 
which  they  attributed  tlie  want  of  work  conse- 
quent on  the  commercial  depression.  They  took 
tliis  name  from  one  Xed  Ludd,  a  Leicestershire 
idiot,  who  had  in  a  passion  destroyed  some  stock- 
ing-frames thirty  years  before,  and  their  outrages 
commenced  at  Nottingham  in  November  1811,  and 
extended  during  the  following  spring  and  summer 
through  the  counties  of  Derby  and  Leicester,  and 
through  Cheshire,  Lancashire,  and  Yorkshire.  In 
July  1816  they  broke  out  with  greater  vigour,  and 
destroyed  every  lace  machine  in  Loughl)orongh, 
while  their  leader  openly  declared  his  readiness  to 
march  100  miles  to  destroy  any  nuachinery  working 
under  ]irice.  In  October  of  the  same  year  another 
party  broke  thirty  machines  in  Leicester ;  but  soon 
after,  the  riots  of  the  Luddites  are  lost  sight  of  in 
the  wider  and  more  formidable  political  riots  which 
marked  this  period,  and  make  the  social  history  of 
1816  little  more  than  a  long  catalogue  of  disturb- 
ances. See  'Tlic  liisint/s  o/ the  Luddites,  Chartists, 
and  Pliir/-drc(ioe7s,  by  Frank  Peel  (2d  ed.  1888). 

Liideiisrlieid.  a  town  of  \Vestphalia,  19  miles 
ESE.  from  Elberfeld-Barmen,  is  the  se.at  of  numer- 
ous hardware  manufactures,  such  as  metal  buttons, 
buckles,  teaspoons  and  teapots,  mountings  for 
unibrellas  and  sticks,  and  musical  instruments, 
besides  iron-foundries  and  macliine-shoi)s.  Pop. 
(1875)8555;  (1885)  15,067. 

LlldrritzIaiHl,  a  name  sometimes  given  to 
Angra-I'e(|Uena  (i|.v.)  and  the  adjoining  territory, 
now  part  of  tJerman  NamaqualaiKl. 

Llldlliaiia.  capital  of  the  Ludhiana  district 
(area,  1375  sq.  m.  ;  i)op.  618,835  in  1881 ),  in  Pun- 
jab, India,  stands  8  miles  from  the  south  bank  of 
the  Sutlcj,  and  on  the  Sind,  Punjab,  and  Didhi 
Kailway.  It  was  founded  in  14SI)  by  flic  princes 
of  Delhi,  and  is  now  a  thriving  corn-nuirt  and  has 
manufactures  of  Cashmere  shawls,  scarves,  cottons, 
turbans,  furniture,  and  carriages.  Pop.  44,16.3. 
The  shrine  of  a  Mohammedan  saint  here  .attracts 
a  large  concourse  of  pilgrims  every  j'ear. 

LimIIoW.  a  market-town  an<l  munici|ial  borough 
of  Shropshire,  at  the  Corves  inllux  to  the  'I'eme, 
28  miles  S.  of  Shrewsbury.  It  is  a  very  old  and 
interesting  ])lace,  with  two  noble  nuuiumcnts  of 
antiquity.  First,  there  is  the  massive'  Norman 
keen,  110  Scut  liigli,  of  the  castle,  where  I'rince 
Artliur  wedded  Catharine  of  Aragcm,  and  died  less 
than  five  months  afterwards ;  where,  in  the  ban- 
queting-hall,  Milton  produced  his  Com  its ;  and 
where,  too,  liutler  wrote  lludiliriis.  Captured  by 
King  Ste|dien,  the  Lancastrians,  and  the  Itounil 
heads,  it  was  finally  dismantled  in  1089.  Secondly, 
there  is  the  cruciform  collegiate  church  (restoreil 


1863-91 ),  Perpendicular  in  stvl 
feet  high.     The 


with  a  tower  130 
e  grammar-scUool,  founded  in  1282, 
ami  refounde<l  in  1552,  is  almost  the  ohlest  in  the 
kingdom  ;  and  one  of  seven  gafes  still  remains. 
From  Edward  l\".'s  reign  till  lsii7  Luillow  returned 
two  members,  then  one  till  1S85.  Stanley  Weyman 
is  a  native.  Pop.  (  1851 )  473(1 ;  ( ISSl )  5035  :  ("lS91  > 
4460.  See  works  by  Wright  (1826-6!))  and  Baker 
(2ded.  1889);  and  for  Ludlow  formation,  Sll.fHiAN. 
Ludlow,  Edminii,  a  sturdy  English  republican 
••mil  regiciile,  was  born  of  a  good  old  family  at 
Mai<Icii  Ihadley,  Wiltshire,  in  1617  ;  stu<lieil  at 
'I'rinitx  College,  t)xford;  and  at  the  oullireak  of 
the  Civil  War  was  a  student  in  the  Temple.  He 
volunteered  into  Essex's  lifeguards,  saw  service 
under  Waller  and  Fairfax,  was  returned  in  his 
father's  room  to  parliament  for  Wiltshire  in  1646, 
sat  among  the  king's  judges,  and  had  a  place  in 
the  council  of  state  of  the  ('(unnionwealth.  In 
1651  he  was  sent  to  Ireland  as  lieutenant-general 
of  lior.se,  and  held  the  chief  command  for  six 
months  between  the  death  of  Ireton  and  the  arri\al 
of  Fleetwood.  He  refused  to  recognise  Cromwell's 
protectorate,  and  until  his  death  took  no  further 
part  in  public  atl'airs.  Returned  to  parliament  for 
Hindon  in  1659,  he  urged  the  restoration  of  the 
Runqi,  held  conoLLand  iigain  for  a  few  months 
in  Ireland,  was  nominated  by  Lambert  to  the 
committee  of  safety,  an<l  strove  in  vain  to  reunite 
the  broken  ranks  of  the  old  republican  party. 
Four  months  after  the  Kest(nation  he  fled  to  France 
for  safety,  making  his  way  to  Vevey  in  Switzer- 
land, where  he  lived  in  security,  troubled  only  by 
the  dread  of  Cavalier  assassins.  After  the  Kevolu- 
tion  he  returned  to  England,  liut,  the  House  of 
Commons  ]iresenting  an  address  to  William  III. 
craving  for  Ids  arrest,  he  returned  to  Vevey,  and 
died  there  in  1692.  Ludlow's  Memoirs  is  one  of 
the   best   contem])oraiy  sources   of   knowledge  we 

{)ossess,  and  its  author  was  a  man  of  solid,  slub- 
)orn,  and  truthful  temper.  It  covers  the  whole 
period  from  1640  to  1688,  and  w.as  lirst  printed  in 
three  volumes  in  1698-99;  new  ed.  by  Firth  (1894). 
Llldwisfsblir;::.  a  town  of  Wiirtemberg,  8  miles 
\.  of  Stuttgart,  it  grew  up  round  a  hunting  castle 
founded  in  1704  liy  Dnke  Eberhard  Ludwig,  is  the 
second  royal  residence,  and  one  of  the  principal 
garrison  towns,  of  the  kingdom  ;  and  has  a  military 
school  and  a  royal  castle,  with  picture-gallery  and 
splendid  gardens.  Pop.  (1885)  16,187.  Ludwigs 
burg  was  the  birthplace  of  1).  F.  Strauss,  Justinus 
Kerner,  Miiricke,  and  Friedricli  Vischer. 

LlldM'is;s4-ailHl.    See  Ckumanv,  Vol.  V.  p.  172. 

laidwisfsliat'eil.  a  town  of  the  Bavarian  Pala- 
tinate, stands  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Uhine,  oppo- 
site Mannheim.  It  wasgr.intcd  town  rights  only  ir 
Is.lO,  and  has  grown  ra|)i(lly  owing  to  its  numu- 
factures  (soda,  aniline  dyes,  wagons,  iSrc. )  and  its 
trade  in  iron,  timber,  coal,  and  agricultural  i)ro- 
ducts.  Pop.  (I8(i4)  3911;  (1875)  12,093;  (1885) 
21,042;  (1890)  .33,216. 

LllU'a.     See  LooK.vil. 

Lugano,  a  town  in  the  Swiss  canton  of  Ticino, 
stands  on  the  imrth-west  shcne  of  the  lake  of  the 
same  name,  49  miles  by  rail  N.  by  W.  from  Milan. 
In  appearance  the  place  is  thoroughly  Italian  ; 
villas  stml  the  lower  slones  of  the  hills  embosomed 
in  vineyards,  olive  .and  orange  groves,  chestnut 
and  walnut  woods.  The  church  of  Santa  M.aria 
degli  Angioli  has  interesting  works  of  art  by  Luini. 
An  important  cattle  fair  is  held  here  in  Octcdier. 
Mazzini  and  the  It.alian  jiatriots  made  Lugano  their 
head(|uarters  for  some  time  after  1848.  From 
.Monte  Salvatore  (2982  feet),  in  the  vicinity,  a 
nuignilicent  view  may  be  obtained.  Pop.  6129. — 
The  Lake  of  Lugano,  also  called  Cekesio,  lies  at 


J 


LUGDUNUM 


LULLY 


741 


the  southern  foot  of  the  Alps,  SS9  feet  aliove  sea- 
level.  Its  length  is  I4t  inilcs,  its  average  hrea<ltli 
IJ  mile;  area,  IS^  sq.  iii.  The  depth  varies  very 
greatly,  the  maximum  heing  945  leet,  whilst  the 
average  is  only  about  246  feet. 

LiiKduiiiini.    See  Lyons,  Leyden. 

Lll$;o  {Liictis  Aiigusti  of  the  Romans),  capital 
of  a  province  in  tlie  northwest  of  Spain,  is  situated 
on  the  Minho,  72  miles  by  rail  SE.  of  Conmna, 
anil  is  still  surrounded  with  old  walls,  high  and 
tliick,  with  towers.  It  lias  a  cathedral  built  in 
1129-77,  and  manufactures  of  linen  and  leather. 
It  was  celebrated  ;vs  early  a.s  the  time  of  the 
Romans  for  its  warm  sulphur  bath.s.  Pop.  (1894) 
19,701. — The  province,  a  mountainous  but  agri- 
cultural region,  drained  by  the  llinho  and  its 
tributary  the  Sil,  and  rich  in  minerals  that  are  but 
little  extracted,  ha-s  an  area  of  37S7  S(|.  m.,  and  a 
pop.  (1887)  4.'?1,644. 

LllgO,  a  town  of  Italy,  18  miles  by  rail  W.  of 
Ravenna,  ha-s  a  traile  in  corn,  hemp,  wine,  and  a 
celebrated  fair  (all  Septeiuber).     Pop.  9189. 

Liigsail.    See  S.\ii.. 

Liisworin.    See  LoBWOEjr. 

Lnini.  <»'  Lovixo,  Bersardixo.  a  painter  of 
the  Lombard  school,  was  born  about  1470  at  Luino, 
near  the  La^o  Maggiore.  He  developed  his  skill 
in  the  school  of  Leonardo  da  Vinci ;  indeed  many 
of  his  works  used  to  be  attributed  to  Leonardo. 
Luini's  principal  charms  are  a  certain  poetic  giace 
and  beauty.  He  died  some  time  after  1530.  He 
painted  frescoes  in  tlie  Ambrosian  Libiary,  in  the 
Brera  Gallery,  and  in  the  church  of  St  llaurizio, 
all  at  Milan.  Other  works  hang  in  the  church  .at 
Lugano.  His  best-known  ea-sel-works  include 
'The  Virgin  Enthroned'  (Brera),  'The  Daughter 
of  Herodias '  ( Lotivre ),  '  Christ  disputing  with  the 
Doctors "  and  '  Vanity  and  Modesty  '  (  London ),  &c. 
Luini  is  one  of  the  live  great  painters  whose 
'supremacy'  Ruskin  lias  allirined.  See  G.  V. 
Williamson's  Bernardino  Luini  (1899). 

Luke  (Lonkas — i.e.  Lucas,  perhaps  shortened 
from  L  w:an  us,  as  Silas  from  Silvanus ),  a  companion 
of  St  Paul,  mentioned  in  Col.  iv.  14  as  '  the  beloved 
phvMcian;'  his  absence  from  the  list  in  Col.  iv. 
10  1 1  leads  to  the  inference  that  he  w:vs  a  Gentile, 
and  his  name  is  suggestive  of  an  Italian  origin. 
Church  tradition  since  Eusebius  hius  made  him  a 
native  of  Antioch  in  Syria,  and  will  have  it  that 
he  was  one  of  '  the  seventy  '  mentioned  in  Luke,  x. 
1,  17,  that  after  Pentecost  he  laboured  in  Bithynia, 
Greece,  and  Gaul,  and  that,  after  attaining  a  gooil 
old  age,  he  dieil  a  martyr.  The  further  traditiim 
that  he  was  a  painter  cannot  be  traced  to  an  earlier 
date  than  the  8th  century.  lie  is  named  for  the 
first  time  as  author  of  the  third  canonical  gospel  in 
the  Muratorian  canon  (  2il  century )  ;  and  tradition 
has  ever  since  been  unvarying  in  ascribing  to  him 
both  that  work  and  its  continuation,  the  .Vets  (q.v.) 
of    the   -Apostles.     With    respect   to   the  date   and 

authorship  of  the  last-mentioned  I k,  all  that  can 

be  said  here  is  that  the  majority  of  moilern  critics 
are  of  opinion  that  it  cannot  have  been  written  by 
a  companion  of  St  Paul.  When  coniiiared  with  the 
genuine  ei>istles  of  that  apostle,  it  exhibits  many 
important  discrepancies  in  detail  ;  of  these  the 
most  striking  perhaps  are  those  which  are  seen 
when  Acts  xv.  and  Gal.  ii.  are  carefully  read 
together.  The  author  of  the  Acts,  however,  had 
.access  to  a  variety  of  written,  as  well  .as  oral, 
sources  of  information,  and  to  the  former  class 
belonged  the  document  the  juesence  of  which  can 
still  be  distinguished  in  his  narrative  by  the  use  of 
the  iironoun  'we.'  There  is  giMi<l  reason  to  believe 
that  Luke  Ls  the  coiniianion  of  St  Paul  who  here 
speaks  in  the  first  person,  and,  this  being  so,  it  is 


not  difficult  to  understand  the  process  by  which 
the  authorship  of  the  whole  work  ultimately  came 
to  be  attributed  to  him.  .\s  regards  the  third 
gospel  it  is  to  be  observed  that  its  author  in  his 
l)reiace  expressly  disclaims  to  have  been  an  eje- 
witness  of  any  of  the  events  he  records,  and  does 
not  make  the  least  pretension  to  anv  special 
apostolic  sanction  or  authority.  He  is  frankly  a 
compiler,  working  after  a  considerable  accumula- 
tion of  literary  material  lias  taken  jilace :  who 
hopes  to  excel  those  who  have  gone  before  him  in 
fullness  of  matter,  accuracy  of  detail,  comprehensive- 
ness of  scheme,  and  orderliness  of  method.  That,  if 
not  himself  a  Gentile,  he  writes  chiefly  for  Gentile 
readers  is  evident  from  such  circumstances  as  the 
manner  in  which  he  habitually  makes  use  of  the 
Septuagint  translation,  his  abstinence  from  Arama- 
isms,  his  referring  to  localities  always  by  their 
(ireek  names,  and  the  like.  Amongst  the  docu- 
ments employed  by  him  the  most  important  were 
the  collection  of  'logia,'  or  discourses  and  .sayings 
of  the  Lord  by  Matthew,  and  some  form  of  the 
gospel  according  to  Mark  (.see  Gospels).  He  must 
have  had  other  sources  for  the  details  he  has  handed 
down  regarding  the  nativity,  and  for  the  canticles 
which  he  alone  has  preserved.  Working  as  he  did, 
most  proliably  in  Rome,  it  was  natural  that  he 
should  reflect  in  his  gospel  much  of  the  teaching  of 
St  Paul  ;  the  fact  that  he  did  so  is  indicated  in  the 
!  tradition  ( Eusebius)  according  to  which  that  apostle 
I  alluded  to  the  work  of  Luke  in  the  expression, 
'My  gospel.'  As  regards  date,  the  third  gospel 
must  be  placed  at  least  later  than  the  destruction 
of  Jerusalem  (Luke,  xxi.  '20,  '24;  xix.  43,  44),  and 
also  in  all  probaliility  some  years  later  than  the 
gospel  according  to  Matthew. 

See  tlie  coiiiinontarie.s  of  Langc.  Meyer,  Keil,  P.  Camp- 
bell (1892),  and  Flummer  ( 1«I7  ) ;  anil  GosPEi.s. 

Lllkllga.  an  intermittent  outflow  from  Lake 
Tanganyika  (q.v. )  into  the  Congo. 

Llllea,  the  capital  of  the  Swedish  county  of 
Norbotten,  is  situated  at  the  mouth  of  the  river 
Lulcil,  on  the  north-west  coast  of  the  (iulf  of 
Bothnia.  It  exports  timber,  tar,  salmon,  reindeer- 
hides,  and  the  produce  of  the  Gellivara  iron-mines 
(situated  1'26  miles  NW.  from  Lulea).  In  October 
1888  a  beginning  was  made  with  the  construction 
of  the  northernmost  railway  in  Europe  (3(14  miles 
long),  to  run  from  Lulea  north-westwards  across 
the  nortli  of  Swerleu  and  Norway  to  Ofoten  Fjord 
in  the  north  of  the  latter  country.     Pop.  3392. 

Llllly,  Giovanni  B.\tti.sta,  musical  composer, 
w;is  a  Florentine  by  birth,  born  in  1633.  Taken  to 
Paris  whilst  still  a  boy,  he  attracted  the  attention 
of  Louis  XIV.  by  his  violin-jilaying.  The  kin^ 
made  liim  director  of  the  royal  orchestra,  and 
eventually  (1672)  director  of  operatic  aflairs  in 
Paris.  In  collaboration  with  tjuinault,  Lully  com- 
posed a  great  number  of  ojienas.  some  of  which 
kept  the  stage  until  the  time  of  Gluck  (circa  1778). 
It  was  by  making  the  ballet  an  essential  i>art  of 
the  opera  that  Lully  achieved  this  success.  The 
favourites  amonirst  his  operas  were  Th(s(c,  Amiide, 
Phafton,  Atyn.  /*(',«,  and  Aci.i  ct  Galathh'.  He  died 
at  P.aris  on  •22d  March  1687.  .\  friend  of  Moliere, 
he  composed  music  for  some  of  his  comedies.  See 
Ol'ER.v  ;  and  Hadet's  great  monograph  ( 1801  ). 

Lully.  Raymond,  'the  enlightened  doctor,' 
was  born  at  Palma,  in  Majorca,  in  1'234.  In  his 
youth  he  led  a  dissolute  life,  and  served  for 
some  time  as  a  common  soldier:  but,  a  complete 
revulsion  of  feeling  taking  jdace,  he  withdrew  to 
solitude,  and  gave  himself  up  to  ecstatic  meditations 
and  the  study  of  the  occult  sriences.  This  sudden 
change  of  life  produced  in  Lully  a  fervid  and 
enthusiastic  state  of  mind,  under  the  influence  of 
which  he  formed  the  project  of  a  spiritual  crusade 


742 


LUMBAGO 


LUNAWARA 


for  tlie  conversion  of  the  Mussulmans,  an  iilea  lie 
never  afterwards  al)ancl()ned.  In  pni-suancc  of  this 
project  he  commenced  an  earnest  study  of  theology, 
philosopliy,  and  the  Arabic  languaj;e,  and  after 
some  years  published  his  great  work,  Ar.^  Geiiernlh 
sive  Magna,  which  lias  so  severely  tested  the 
sagacity  of  commentators.  This  work  is  the  de- 
velojinient  of  the  method  of  teaching  known  subse- 
quently as  the  '  Lullian  method  :'  a  mechanical  aid 
to  the  mind  in  the  acriuisition  of  knowledge  and 
the  solution  of  all  iiossilile  problems  by  a  systematic 
manipulation  of  certain  fundamental  notions  (the 
Aristotelian  categories,  &c.).  He  even  invented  a 
machine  (of  tin  or  pasteboard)  to  assist  in  this 
great  task.  Yet  in  this  departure  from  schohvstic 
logic,  and  his  zeal  for  a  true  interpretation  of 
nature,  he  was  really  a  jirecuisor  of  Bacon. 

Lully  subsequently  imblished  another  remark- 
able work,  Lihri  XII.  PrincipioriiDi  Pliilosoph. 
contra  Aferroistcts,  and,  full  of  the  ])rineiples  which 
he  had  developed  in  this  book,  he  went  to  Tunis 
in  1292  to  argue  with  his  Mohammedan  opp(ments. 
Ere  long  he  was  thrown  into  prison  and  condemned 
to  banishment.  After  lecturing  at  Naples  for 
several  yeai's  he  proceeded  to  Kome,  thence  to  his 
native  island  of  Majorca,  thence  to  Cyjirus  and 
Armenia.  In  1.306  he  again  sailed  for  Africa, 
entered  the  city  of  Hugia,  now  Bougie  (q.v.),  in 
Algeria,  was  again  thrown  into  prison,  and  again 
banished.  At  I'aris  he  lectured  against  the  prin- 
ciples of  Averroes.  But  his  missionary  zeal  could 
only  be  satiated  by  martyrdom.  Sailing  once  more 
for  Africa,  at  Bugia  he  was  stoned  and  ill-treated 
so  that  he  expired  a  few  days  afterwards  on  board 
a  Genoese  vessel  ( 1315).  The  Lullists  combined  a 
religimiK  mysticism  with  a  belief  in  alchemy. 

See  Helfferich,  Bainuoiul  Lull  (185S);  Canalezas,  irtv 
DoctriiMS  de  R.  LuHo  (Madrid,  1870);  and  the  editions 
of  his  works  by  Salzinger  (Mainz.  1742)  and  Rossello 
(Palma,  1886rt  sf?.). 

Lumbago  is  a  rheumatic  atlection  of  the 
nuiscles  or  fibrous  tissues  in  the  lumbar  region,  or 
small  of  the  back.  It  is  often  first  recognised  by 
the  occurrence  of  a  shar[)  stabbing  pain  in  the  loins 
upon  attempting  to  rise  from  the  recumbent  or 
.sitting  position.  It  is  sometimes  so  severe  as  to 
confine  the  patient  to  bed  and  in  one  position,  from 
which  he  cannot  move  without  intense  suffering  ; 
but  in  milder  eases  he  can  walk,  although  stifny 
and  with  pain,  and  usually  with  the  body  beiit 
more  or  less  forward.  It  may  be  distinguished 
from  intlammation  of  the  kidneys  by  the  absence 
of  the  peculiar  direction  of  the  jiain  towards  the 
groin,  as  also  by  the  absence  of  the  nausea  and 
vomiting  and  other  constitutional  symjitoms  which 
usually  accompany  the  disease  of  the  kidney. 

The  causes  of  lumbago  are  the  same  as  those  of 
sub-acute  rheumatism  generally.  The  complaint 
may  arise  from  partial  e.xposure  to  cold,  especially 
when  the  body  is  heated,  and  violent  straining 
will  sonietinu>s  induce  it.  In  jierscms  with  a  strong 
constitutional  tendency  to  rheumatism  the  sliglitest 
exciting  cause  will  bring  on  an  attack  of  lumbago. 

The  treatment  must  vary  with  the  intensity  of 
the  atlection.  In  most  cases  a  warm  bath  at  beil- 
time,  followed  by  ten  grains  of  Dover's  |)owder, 
or  full  doses  of  alkaline  remedies,  as  citrate  of 
liotassiuni,  will  speedily  remove  it  ;  and,  as  local 
remedies,  a  mustard  poultice,  a  mixture  of  chloro- 
form and  soap-liniment,  or  the  ajiplication  of  the 
heate<l  hammer  made  for  the  jmrpose  will  be 
found  serviceable.  (See  also  the  treatment  for 
RilKU.M.VTi.SM.)  The  ilisorder  has  been  known  to 
completely  disajipear  after  one  application  of  the 
hammer,  which  shonhl  be  heated  in  a  spirit-liim]i 
to  somewhere  about  2(K)\  and  then  be  rapidly 
brought  in  contact  with  points  of  the  skin  over 
the   painful   parts  at  intervals   of  about   half  an 


inch.  Each  application  leaves  a  red  spot,  but 
blistei-s  seldom  occur  if  t)ie  operation  is  properly 
performed.  The  application  of  a  hot  iron,  use'd 
just  as  in  ironing  clothes,  with  two  or  three  folds 
of  blanket  between  it  and  the  skin,  frequently 
gives  great  relief. 

Lniiiber.    See  Timber. 

Liiiiiiuosity.    See  LicaiT,  Phosphorescence, 

PHciTOMETRY. 

Lllininons  Paint,  a  phosphorescent  powder, 
such  as  sulphide  or  oxysuliihide  of  calcium,  ground 
up  with  a  colourless  varnish  or  other  medium,  .antl 
used  as  a  paint.  Even  after  d.aylight  is  over  the 
Phosphorescence  (q.v.)  goes  on,  and  the  object 
painted  remains  visible  in  the  dark.  See  Balmain's 
British  patent.  No.  4152  (1877). 

Lllllllisnc'ker,  or  Lu.mi'Fish  (Ciidoptcms),  a 
genus  of  fishes  of  the  fanuly  Discoboli,  havin"  the 
head  and  body  deep,  thick,  .and  short,  the  back 
with  an  elevated  ridge,  which  contains  within  it 
the  anterior  dorsal  fin,  the  skin  without  scales,  but 
with  rows  of  rough  bony  tubercles,  the  fins  rather 
small,  and  the  ventrals  united  by  a  membrane  so  as 
to  form  a,  sucking  disc. — One  species  (C.  Jnmpux) 
is  common  on  the  coa.sts  of  Britain,  p.articularly  in 
the  northern  parts,  and  is  still  nnue  plentiful  in  the 


Luiiipsuckt 


nptirus  lumpus). 


seas  of  more  northern  regions.  It  is  frequently, 
especially  in  spring,  taken  in  large  numbers  in 
.siilmon  stake-nets.  It  has  a  grotesque  and  clumsy 
form,  but  its  colours  are  very  fine,  especially  those 
of  the  male,  combining  various  shades  of  blue, 
purple,  and  rich  orange.  It  attains  a  pretty  large 
size,  sometimes  weighing  seven  pounds.  The  lump- 
sucker  preys  on  smaller  fishes.  Its  sucker  is  so 
powerful  that  a  ])ail  containing  some  gallons  of  water 
luas  been  lifted  when  ,a  lumpsucker  containe<l  in  it 
was  taken  b.v  the  tail.  It  deposits  large  adhesive 
ova  which  stick  together  in  large  ma.sses  attached 
to  stones  or  jiiles  near  low-water  mark  :  they  are 
guarded  during  development  by  the  male.  The 
young  are  without  the  tubercles  and  resemble  tad- 
poles :  they  have  the  ventral  suoJ<er  even  when 
first  hatched.  It  breeds  in  spring.  Its  llesli  is 
insipid  at  some  seasons,  but  verv  fine  at  others, 
and  is  much  used  for  food  in  nortlicrn  regions.  It 
is  known  in  Scotland  as  the  Cixk-paiiUr,  probably 
from  the  resemblance  of  its  dor.sal  ridge  to  a  cock's 
comb  :  the  female,  which  is  larger  than  the  male, 
is  usually  distinguished  as  the  hen-paidle. 

Lunacy.    See  I.ns.vnity. 

Lunar  Caustic.    See  C.\ustic. 

Lunar  Theory,  a  term  em]iloycd  to  denote 
the  a  pridi-i  deduction  of  the  moons  motions  from 
the  principles  of  gravitation.     See  Moox. 

Lunawara.  a  small  state  of  India,  under 
British  protection,  in  the  province  of  (lujaiat,  has 
an  area  of  .388  sip  m.  and  a  pop.  of  75,4.")0.  The 
region  is  hilly,  stony,  and  well  wooded.  The 
capital,  from  which  the  state  derives  its  name,  is 


LUND 


LUPEROALIA 


743 


60  miles  N.  bv  W.   from  Baroda,  near  tlie  Malii 
Kiver.      Pop.  9059. 

Llllltl  (Loniliuiim  Gothoniiii ),  a  city  of  (Jotlilanil, 
in  the  extreme  .«iOutli  of  Sweden,  l>.v  rail  ."{74  miles 
SW.  of  Stockholm  and  10  XE.  of  Malniii.  In  the 
10th  ccntnry  it  was  a  larj;e  and  iiowerful  city,  wa-s 
made  a  liishopric  in  104S,  ami  an  archbishopric 
in  1104.  The  archbishop  claimed  ecclesiastical 
supremacy  over  the  whole  of  Scandinavia.  At  the 
same  period  Lund  wa.s  the  chief  scat  of  the  Danish 
power  in  the  Scandinavian  peninsula,  and  for  a 
long  period  the  capital  of  the  Danish  kingdom  ; 
at  the  epoch  of  its  greatest  prosperity  it  is  said  to 
liave  had  200,000  inhabitants.  But  after  the  intro- 
duction of  the  Reformation  by  Christian  III.  in 
1536,  the  city  began  to  decay,  and  had  sunk  down 
to  a  mere  village  before  the  end  of  the  ITtli  cen- 
tury. The  principal  building  is  the  line  Koinan- 
esque  cathedral,  dating  from  the  11th  century  ;  it 
ha.s  an  imposing  crypt.  Lund  owes  its  re\ival  to 
the  founding  there  of  a  university  in  166S  by 
Charles  XI.  It  Ls  now  attended  by  about  800 
students,  and  has  a  library  of  120,000  volumes 
and  3tH)0  >1SS.,  an  excellent  zoological  nuuseum, 
and  a  botanic  garden.  Tegner  was  a  professor 
from  1813  to  1826,  and  here  he  composed  his  master- 
piece, Frithjof.     Pop.  (1885)  14,835. 

Llindy  (Scand.,  'grove  island'),  a  granitic 
island  of  Devonshire,  in  the  mouth  of  the  Bristol 
Channel,  Uj  miles  NWV.  of  Hartland  Point, 
17  N\V.  of  Clovelly,  24  W.  of  Ilfracombe,  and  30 
SSE.  of  St  Gowans  Head  in  Wales.  It  measures 
3.J  miles  by  1  ;  has  rocky  and  precipitous  shores, 
with  only  one  landing-place  on  the  south  side; 
and  attains  an  altitude  of  525  feet.  Here,  near 
the  southern  end  of  the  island,  is  a  lighthouse, 
built  iu  1820.  The  clitls  are  the  resort  of  multi- 
tudes of  sea-fowl.  The  antiquities  include  pre- 
historic kists,  remains  of  round  towers  and  a 
chapel,  and  the  ruined  ca.stle  of  the  Mariscoes 
(11th  to  14th  centuries),  from  whose  time  on 
into  the  17th  century  Lundy  was  a  stronghold 
successively  of  pirates,  buccaneers,  privateers,  and 
smugglers.  It  figures  in  Kingsley's  ]\'cst ward  Ho .' : 
was  the  death-place  of  '  Judas  '  Stukely  ;  was  garri- 
soned till  1647  for  Charles  I.  ;  and  in  1834  w;us  pur- 
chased for  £9870  by  the  Heaven  family.  Po]). 
(18511  34;  (1881)  177;  (1891)53.  See  Chanter's 
Liiiirhj  Ishnirl  {  1877). 

LUlieblirg,  a  town  of  Hanover,  situateil  on  the 
river  Umenau,  31  miles  by  rail  SE.  of  Hamburg. 
Its  streets  are  narrow  and  its  houses  medieval,  but 
its  suburbs  are  modern.  The  15thcentury  cluirch 
of  St  Michael  contains  the  tombs  of  the  Liineburg 
princes.  The  Kve-aisled  church  of  St  John  dates 
from  the  14tli  centuiy,  is  pure  Gothic  in  style,  and 
has  a  tower  371  feet  hign.  The  medieval  town- 
house  is  ailorned  witli  old  pictures  and  stained  glass. 
A  salt-mine,  discovered  in  900,  still  lias  an  annual 
yield  of  21 ,2.30  tons.  There  are  also  a  gypsum-mine, 
iron-works,  chemical  manufactories,  iVc.  Liine- 
burg lampreys  are  well  known  in  (Jermanv.  Pop. 
(1885)  19,.336.  Although  existent  in  795,  the  place 
only  began  to  acnuire  importance  after  the  found- 
ing of  the  Bene<lictine  monastery  in  904  ;  it  was 
greatly  increased  by  the  settlement  here  of  large 
numbers  of  the  people  of  Bardowiek.  destroyed  in 
1189.  Liineburg  afterwards  joined  the  Hanseatic 
League,  and  wa.s  the  capital  of  an  inilependent 
ducliy.  But  it  lost  the  greater  part  of  its  privileges 
iu  the  16th  century,  and  in  the  17th  suH'ered  much 
from  the  Swedes  auil  their  enemies.  It  began  to 
revive  again  in  the  19tb  cenlurv.  Near  by  the 
Allies  defeated  the  I''reii<h  on  2d  April  1H13. 

The  principiility  of  Liineburg,  or  ratbei  llruns- 
wick- Liineburg,  existed  fnuii  1235  to  1.36!),  from 
1373  to  1532,  and   from   154G  onwards.     From  the 


princes  of  this  house  is  descended  the  reigning 
house  in  Great  Britain  (see  Brunswick). — South 
of  Liineburg  stretches  for  .50  miles  on  end  the 
Liineburg  Moor  (Hcu/c),  a  grazing  ground  for 
sheep.  It  produces  also  honey,  buckwheat,  and 
numerous  wild  berries,  and  is  largely  clotlie<l  with 
line  heather.     See  History  by  Jiirgens  ( 1891 ). 

Lllliel.  a  town  in  the  south  of  France,  14  miles 
by  rail  XE.  of  Montpellier,  with  a  traile  in  Mus- 
catel wine  and  brandy.  Interesting  hujuan  remains 
have  been  found  in  a  cave  at  Pondres,  6  miles  N. 
of  Lunel.     Pop.  6460. 

Liiiietto.    See  Fortific.\tion. 

Lllll('ville«  a  town  in  the  French  department 
of  Meurthe-et-Moselle,  at  the  confluence  of  the 
Meurtbe  and  the  Vezoiise,  and  20  miles  by  rail 
SE.  of  Nancy.  It  was  formerly  a  residence  of 
the  Dukes  of  Lorraine;  their  palace,  built  by 
Duki!  Leopold,  iu  ■which  the  Emperor  Francis  I. 
w.vs  born,  is  now  used  as  a  cavalry  barrack,  this 
town  Ijeing  one  of  the  largest  cavalry  stations  in 
France.  Here  was  signed  the  peace  of  Luueville, 
on  February  9,  1801,  between  Germany  ami  France, 
on  the  basis  of  the  peace  of  Campo-Formio  (q.v.). 
The  industry  embraces  gloves,  hosieiv,  cottons, 
&c.       Pop.  (1872)  12,251  ;  (1886)  20,114." 

Lungs.  See  Be.spir.\tion  (Oug.vx.s  of);  and 
for  diseases  of  the  lungs,  the  articles  on  Consump- 
tion, Pneujioni.\,  Pleurisv,  &c. 

Lungwort,  or  Oak-lung.s  (Stida  pulmon- 
cin'ii ).  a  lichen  v\ith  a  foliaceous,  leathery,  spread- 
ing thallus,  of  an  olive-green  colour,  pale  brown 
when  dry,  pitted  with  numerous  little  ca\'ities  and 
netted,  much  lacerated;  the  shields  (apothet-iu) 
marginal,  reddish  lirown  with  a  thick  border.  lb 
grows  on  trunks  of  trees  in  mountainoiis  regions, 
in  Britain  and  other  European  countries,  some- 
times almost  entirely  covering  them  with  its  shaggy 
thallus.  It  has  been  used  as  a  remedy  for  pul- 
monary diseases.  It  is  nutritious,  and,  when 
properly  prepared,  aft'ords  a  light  diet,  capable  of 
being  used  as  a  substitute  for  Iceland  moss ;  yet 
it  is  bitter  enough  to  be  used  as  a  substitute  for 
hops.  It  yields  a  good  brown  dye. — The  name 
lungwort  is  also  given  to  a  genus  of  phanero- 
gamous plants  (Pulmonaria)  of  the  natural  order 
Boraginea>.  The  common  lungwort  (/'.  offirimilis) 
is  a  rare  and  rather  doubtful  native  of  Britain, 
although  common  in  some  parts  of  Europe.  It  has 
ovate  leaves  and  purple  flowers,  and  was  formerly 
employed  in  diseases  of  the  lungs,  but  seems  to 
have  been  recommended  chielly  Ijy  a  fancied  resem- 
blance to  the  lungs  in  its  spotted  leaves.  It  is 
nnicilaginous  and  contains  nitre.  It  has  been  used 
as  a  pot-herb. 

Lunkall,  better  L.-VNKA,  Sansk.  'island,'  is 
s]iecially  used  of  Ceylon,  and  also  of  a  great  to- 
bacco-growing district  in  the  delta  of  the  Ciodaveri. 

Lupcrcaliai,  a  festival  among  the  ancient 
Romans,  held  on  the  15th  of  February,  in  honour 
of  Lupercus,  the  god  of  fertility.  When  Rome 
began  to  seek  a  CJrecian  origin  f<n-  its  religious 
ceremonies  Lupercus  was  identilied  with  Lyca'an 
Pan,  and  his  worship  w.as  said  to  h.avo  been  intro- 
duced by  Kvander,  the  Arcadi:ui.  Modern  scholai'S 
place  no  value  on  s\ich  statements.  Lupercus  is 
uelieved  by  them  to  have  been  one  of  the  oldest 
pastoral  deities  of  Italy,  and  everything  that  is 
Known  regarding  him  and  his  rites  favours  this 
view.  These  rites  were  of  the  rudest  and  most 
primitive  character,  and  indicate  a  high  antiipiity. 
Goats  and  dogs  were  sai'riliced  ;  afterwards  the 
priests  (called  /,»//c;r/)  cut  up  tlie  skins  of  the 
victims,  aud  twisted  them  into  tbongs,  with  which 
they  ran  through  the  city  striking  every  one  they 
met,  especially  women,  who  put  themselves  in  their 


744 


LUPINE 


LUKISTAN 


wav  hoinng  that  the  kwI  of  fertility  would  lie  pro- 
pitious towards  them.  As  the  festival  is  lielieved 
to  have  heen  at  first  a  shepherd  one,  this  runiiint; 
ahout  with  thongs  is  undei^tood  to  have  heen 
intended  as  a  symbolical  purilicatiim  of  the  land. 
The  jilace  where  the  festival  was  held  was  called 
the  Lupercal,  and  was  situated  on  the  Palatine 
Hill.  It  contained  an  imajre  of  Lupercus,  covered 
with  a  goat's  skin.  Lupercalia  were  also  held  iu 
other  cities  of  Italy. 

Lupine  (  Liijiinus),  a  genus  of  plants  of  the 
natural  order  Leguminosa-,  suborder  l'apilionace:e, 
mostly  annuals,  but  some  of  them  perennial  her- 
baceous plants,  some  half-shrubby  ;  and  generally 
having  digitate  leaves,  with  ratiher  long  stalks. 
The  ffowers  are  in  racemes  or  spikes,  the  caly.x 
two-lipped,  the  keel  beaked,  the  filaments  all 
united  at  the  ba.se.  The  species  of  lupine  are 
immerous,  and  are  chiefly  natives  of  the  countries 
near  the  Mediterranean  Sea,  and  of  the  temperate 
parts  of  North  and  South  America.  The  White 
Lupine  {L.  albus),  a  species  with  white  llowers, 
has  been  cultivated  from  time  immemoiial  in  the 
south  of  Europe  and  in  some  parts  of  .Asia,  for  the 
sake  of  the  seeds,  which  are  farinaceous  and  are 
used  as  food,  althougli  when  raw  they  have  a 
strong,  disagreeable,  bitter  taste,  which  is  removed 
by  steejiing  in  water  and  boiling.  They  were  a 
favourite  kind  of  pulse  amongst  the  ancient  (ireeks 
and  Romans,  and  still  are  so  in  some  parts  of  the 
south  of  Europe,  altho\igh  generally  disliked  l>y 
those  who  have  not  been  accustomed  to  them. 
The  Yellow  Lupine  (L.  bitriis),  so  called  from  its 
yellow  flowers,  and  the  Egyptian  White  Lupine  ( /,. 
Thcnnia),  which  has  white  flowers  ti]iped  with  blue, 
are  also  cultivated  in  the  south  of  Europe,  Egypt, 
&e.  for  their  seeds,  which  are  similar  in  their 
qualities  to  those  of  the  white  lupine.  In  many 
countries  lupines,  and  particularly  the  white  lupine, 
are  cultivated  to  yield  green  food  for  cattle,  and 
also  to  be  iilougheil  down  for  manure.  They  grow- 
well  on  poor  and  dry  sandy  soils,  which  by  this 
process  of  grecn-manurinf!  are  fitted  for  other 
crops.  ^Lany  species  of  lupine  are  cultivated  in 
our  flower-gardens,  having  beautiful  white,  yellow, 
pink,  or  blue  flowers.  The  flowers  of  some  s]iecies 
are  fragrant.  No  lujiine  is  a  native  of  Britain. 
L.  pcrcniiis  adorns  samly  places  from  Canada  to 
Florida  with  its  fine  blue  flowers. 

Liiptoii.  TnoM.\s  G.  (1791-1873).  See  En- 
geavi.no,  V.d.  IV.  p.  381. 

Lupiiline.    See  Hors. 

Lupus  is  a  chronic  disease  of  the  skin,  in  which 
dull  or  livid  tubercles  are  develojied,  having  a 
tench'ncy  to  destroy  or  so  seriously  to  afi'ect  the 
adjacent  tissues,  with  or  without  ulceration,  as 
always  to  lea<l  to  indelible  cicatrices.  It  was 
formerly  known  as  noli  jiw  tuinjcrc.  The  disease 
usually  attacks  the  face,  especially  the  ahe  of  the 
nose  and  the  lips,  but  may  occur  on  almost  any 
part  of  the  body.  It  usually  begins  in  childhood 
or  early  adult  life,  but  may  recur  at  a  later  period. 
It  more  often  affects  the  female  se.x,  and  is  not 
contagious,  nor  usually  hereditary.  It  is,  in  its 
severer  forms,  a  terrible  disease,  but  is  hapjiily  of 
somewhat  rare  occurrence.  It  derives  its  name 
from  the  Latin  lupus,  'wolf,'  in  consequence  of 
its  destructive  nature.     See  TriiKIli'l.E. 

Lupus  usually  conimences  with  the  appearance 
of  one  or  two  circular  or  oval,  dull-red,  somewhat 
translucent  tubercles,  about  two  lines  in  diauK^tei. 
After  a  time  these  tubercles  increase  in  number 
and  size,  and  take  on  new  characters.  They  may 
ulcerate,  constituting  the  variety  known  as  Litjins 
exedciix,  iu  which  case  the  ulceration  may  jiursui' 
a  superficial  or  a  deep  course.  Scabs  aie  formed 
over  the  ulcers ;  and  as  these  scabs  are  thrown  oil' 


the  ulcer  beneath  is  found  to  have  increased  in 
extent,  till  great  destrwcliim  of  the  soft  ]iarts  and 
( in  the  ca.se  of  the  iio.se  )  of  the  cartilages  is  ett'ected. 
The  ulcer  of  lupus  has  thick  red  edges,  and  e.xudes 
a  fetid,  ichorous  nuitter  in  con.sideralde  quantity. 
When  they  do  not  ulcerate,  the  tubercles  are  softer 
than  in  the  previous  variety,  and  form  patches 
of  considerable  extent,  the  intervening  skin  and 
cellular  ti.ssue  also  swelling  and  exhibiting  here 
and  there  dull-red  points,  which  are  the  summits 
of  the  imbedded  tubercles.  The  lijis  become  much 
enlarged,  the  nostrils  closed  with  the  swelling,  the 
eyelids  everted,  and  the  whole  face  hideous.  This 
variety  is  known  as  Lupus  non  cxctlcns. 

The  progress  of  lupus  is  usually  slow,  and  the 
suti'erings  of  the  patient  less  than  might  be  expected, 
in  consequence  of  the  sensibility  of  the  parts  being 
diminished  from  the  first.  The  complaint  may 
continue  for  years,  or  even  for  life,  but  is  seldom 
fatal.  Its  causes  are  not  well  known ;  it  is 
thought  that  a  scrofulous  habit  predisiioses  to  the 
disease,  but  in  many  of  those  att'ecteil  the  health 
is  otherwise  excellent.  A  bacillus  has  been  found 
in  the  diseased  tissues,  never  abuiulantly,  which  is 
inilistinguishalde  from  the  tubercle  bacillus  ;  but 
lupus  is  so  rarely  associated  with  tuberculous 
disease  elsewhere  that  it  is  doubtful  whether  the 
two  organisms  are  actually  identical. 

Trc(diiu'i(t. — It  is  of  course  desirable  that  the 
patient's  general  health  be  brought  into  as  vigorous 
a  condition  as  possible  ;  and  for  this  purpose  cod- 
liver  oil,  iodide  of  iion,  ami  other  tonics  are  often 
useful.  Hut  no  internal  remedy  seems  to  have  any 
reliable  effect  upon  the  disease.  The  local  treat- 
ment has  passed  through  many  variations :  the 
apidic.ation  of  strong  escharotics,  repeated  incisions, 
or  scraijing  away  of  the  diseased  tissues,  were  often 
successful  in  modifying  or  arresting  the  disease. 
Less  severe  measures,  however,  fust  recommended 
ill  1886  by  Unna  of  Hambuig,  have  inoved  very 
efficacious.  Chief  among  these  is  the  constant 
application  to  the  diseaseil  parts  of  iilasters  made 
for  the  purpose,  ccmtaining  salicylic  acid,  which, 
while  it  has  little  ett'ect  upon  the  healthy  skin, 
causes  gradual  breaking  down  and  remo\al  of  the 
diseased  tissues,  and  creasote,  which  x'eatly 
diminishes  the  pain  caused  by  salicylic  acid  alone. 
Under  any  method  of  treatment,  however,  the 
disease  is  apt  to  be  obstinate  and  troulilesoiiie. 

Luray  Cavern,  a  ca\e,  not  large,  but  remark- 
able for  the  vast  number  and  extraordinary  shapes 
of  its  stalactites,  is  close  to  Luray  village,  X'irginia 
(90  miles  NW.  of  Kichmond).  Many  of  tlie.se 
wonderful  columns  exceed  50  feel  in  length  ;  num- 
bers of  tliem  are  hollow,  giving  out  li<dl-like  notes 
when  struck  :  and  the  colours  range  from  waxy 
white  to  yellow,  brown,  or  rosy  red.  The  cavern, 
which  is  lit  with  the  electric  light,  attracts 
thousands  of  visittu's  every  year. 

Lurcher,  a  name  applied  to  any  dog  with  a 
distinct  crvss  of  f/rei//iouii(/.  The  commonest  form 
of  the  lurcher  is  the  first  cross  between  the  collie 
and  the  greyhound,  though  in  some  instances  they 
have  been  bred  for  m.uiy  generations  without  a 
fresh  cross.  As  the  luichci'  combines  to  a  great 
extent  the  speed  of  the  greyhound  and  the  sagacity 
of  the  collie,  no  hare  is  able  to  escape  him.  The 
owner  of  such  an  animal  is  an  object  of  suspicion 
to  e\erv  gamekeeper. 

LurSfan.  a  thriving  town  of  Ireland,  in  County 
Armagh,  'iO  miles  S\V.  of  Belfast  by  rail.  ^  It  is 
buf  ;i  miles  .sDuth  of  the  slioies  of  Lough  Neagli, 
and  the  country  around  is  populous  and  fcrfile. 
It  li.is  thriving  loanufacturcs  of  cambrics,  lawns, 
damasks,  and  diaper.s.      I>(q..  (1891  )  11, -129. 

Luristan,  a  mounlain(ms  lu-ovincc  in  the  west 
of  Persia.    Area,  15,060  sq.  m.  :  iM.p.  about  300,(J<)0. 


LURLEI 


LUTHER 


r45 


It  coirespomls  louglily  to  the  ancient  Snsi.ina,  was 
the  seat  of  the  ancient  Elaniite  empire,  and  is  now 
ocoiipieil  by  numerous  minor  tribes. 
Lurlei.    See  LoKELEi. 

Llisntia  (f-niisit:),  a  Wonilish  ilistrict  now  be- 
longiuj;  in  part  to  Saxnnv  ami  in  part  to  Prussia. 
It  was  formerly  divided  into  I'pper  and  Lower 
Lusatia,  wliich  constituted  two  independent  mar- 
j;raviates,  includinj;  an  area  of  about  4400  sq. 
m.  and  a  pop.  of  about  half  a  million.  IJisen  in 
1319  to  Hohemia,  and  obtained  by  Matthia-s 
Corvinus  in  147S,  Lusatia  was  transferred  to 
.Saxony  in  le.SS  ;  but,  by  the  Congress  of  Vienna, 
the  whole  of  Lower  Lusatia  and  the  half  of  I'pper 
Lusatia  was  ceded  to  Prussia.  The  portion  left  to 
Sa.xony  now  forms  the  circle  of  Bautzen. 

LllshaiSt  a  warlike  race  occupying  the  little- 
known  Lushai  Hills  in  Cachar  ( Assam ),  Chittagong 
(Bengal),  and  the  adjoining  parts  of  Burma.  To 
check  their  raids  on  British  territory,  expeditions 
have  been  required — in  l>571-72,  and  again  in 
1S89-90.     Their  country  is  now  British. 

Liisiads.    See  C.vMOENs. 

Lll^iiiiUail.  a  picturesque  town  in  the  French 
tlepartment  of  Vienne,  17  miles  SAV.  of  Poitiers. 
It  has  a  very  fine  church  dating  from  the  11th 
century,  but  its  castle,  associated  by  legend  with 
the  fairy  Melusine  (q.v. ),  wa-s  razed  Ijy  the 
•-'atholics  in  1574.  The  House  of  Lusignan  gave 
two  titular  kings  to  Jerusalem,  and  four  kings  to 
Cj'prus.     Pop.  125.5. 

Liisitania.    See  Portuo.vl. 

Lu.stre.  the  characteristic  appearance  of  a 
bright  metallic  surface,  or  of  air  within  gla.ss 
under  water  as  seen  under  certain  angles  of  total 
reflection  ( see  Keflectiox  ).  It  is  supposed  to  be 
due  to  the  eontiict  between  the  images  in  the  t\\  o 
eyes,  which  do  not  coincide  in  respect  of  bright- 
ness all  over  the  field.  A  similar  result  may  be 
obtained  by  looking  with  one  eye  at  a  white-and- 
black  and  with  the  other  at  a  black-and-white 
object,  the  form,  sizes,  and  positions  of  the  objects 
being  such  as  would  otherwise  have  enabled  the 
observer  to  blend  them  into  a  single  stereoscopic 
image  (see  Stekeoscope)  ;  the  opposition  of  bright- 
ness makes  the  stereoscopic  binocular  image  assume 
a  lustrous  appearance. 

Lustrnui  (from  liiere,  'to  puiifv '  or  'e.xpiate'), 
the  solemn  ottering  made  for  e.xpiation  and  purifi- 
<?ation  by  one  of  the  censors  in  name  of  the  Roman 
peojile  at  the  conclusion  of  the  census.  The 
animals  oti'ered  in  sacritice  were  a  boar  (»».?),  sheep 
(or/.s),  and  bull  (taiinis),  whence  the  ottering  w:lx 
called  Suoictauritia.  As  the  census  wivs  i|uin- 
queiinial,  the  word  lustrum  came  to  mean  a  period 
of  five  years. 

Lute  ( -A.rab.  FJ  Oiid),  an  obsolete  stringed 
instrument,  which  three  hundreil  years  ago  wa-s  as 
pojiular  as  is  the  piano  to-day.  It  was  introduced 
into  Europe  by  the  Araljians.  from  whose  language 
it  derives  its  name.  The  .Arabian  lute  was  made 
of  twenty-one  pieces  of  maple-wood,  with  a  Hat 
face,  a  round  back,  and  three  rosettes  in  the  face. 
The  strings  were  eight  in  number,  and  were  tuned 
in  i>airs.  The  date  of  its  intro<luction  and  dis- 
semination through  Europe  is  shortly  after  the 
conquest  of  Spain  by  the  Arabians.  The  European 
lute  posses.sed  originally  eight  strings.  This  number 
was  not  increased  for  nuiny  centuries.  Three  new 
strings  were  then  ad<lcil,  bringing  up  the  nuniber 
to  eleven  :  of  the.se  two  were  tunerl  alike,  and  the 
odd  one,  wliich  wa.s  also  the  highest,  was  called 
chanterelle.  The  need  of  accommodating  the  lute 
to  the  chromatic  .scale  procured  the  adilition  of 
thirteen  new  strings,  until  in  the  ITtli  century  the 
total  of  twenty-four  was   reached,  beyond  which 


number  the  augmentation  <lid  not  continue.  At 
that  date  the  lute  commonly  in  use  in  Europe  con- 
sisted of  a  table  of  lir  or  ]iine  ;  a  body  or  belly, 
composed  of  convex  ribs  of  jiinc  ;  a  neck,  or  finger- 
board, of  bard  Wdod,  on  which  were  frets,  consist- 
ing of  catgut  strings  fastened  tightly  round  the 
neck ;  a  head,  on  which  were  placed  the  pegs 
or  screws  that  tightened  or  relaxeil  the  strings 
in  tuning  :  and  a  bridge,  to  which  the  strings  were 
attached  at  one  end,  the  other  end  being  fastened 
to  a  jiiece  of  ivory,  lietween  the  head  and  neck.  Of 
the  twenty-four  strings  twelve  ran  over  the  finger- 
board and  twelve  by  the  side  of  it.  The  performer 
used  his  left  hand  to  press  the  frets,  and  struck 
the  strings  with  his  right.  There  were  many 
varieties  of  the  lute ;  the  treble  lute  was  the 
.smallest,  the  bass  lute  the  largest.  The  theorbo 
was  a  double-necked  lute,  of  wliich  the  archlute 
and  the  chitarrone  were  two  subordinate  varieties. 
A  peculiar  description  of  notation,  called  tuhlature, 
was  employed  in  music  written  for  the  lute.  The 
strings  were  represented  by  parallel  lines,  on  which 
were  placed  letters  of  the  alphabet,  referring  to 
the  frets  :  thus,  A  marked  that  the  string  was  to 
be  struck  open  :  B,  that  the  first  fret  was  to  be 
pressed  ;  C,  the  second,  and  so  on.  Over  the  lines 
were  placed  crotchets,  quavers,  &c. ,  which  denoted 
the  lengths  of  the  various  notes.  The  Aral>ian 
lute  is  still  extant  in  the  East,  of  a  form  nearly 
identical  with  that  described.  The  European  lute 
survives  only  in  the  guitar  and  similar  instruments. 
The  lute  is  represented  on  the  sculptures  of  the 
Egyptian  tombs,  so  that  the  antiquity  of  the  instru- 
ment is  immense.  For  the  European  lute,  .see 
Becker's  Hmismiisll:  in  DoitsrhJntid  (1840);  for 
the  Araljian  lute,  Rowliotham's  History  of  Music, 
vol.  iii.  (1887). 

Lllte  (Lat.  liitian,  'clay'),  in  Chemistry,  denotes 
a  substance  employed  for  ett'eetually  closing  the 
joints  of  apparatus,  so  as  to  prevent  the  escape  of 
vapour  or  gases,  or  for  coating  glass  vessels  so  as 
to  render  them  more  capable  of  sustaining  a  high 
temperature,  or  for  repairing  fractures. 

Lutetia.    See  Paris. 

Llltliardt.  Christoph  Ernst,  Lutheran  theo- 
logi.in,  liorn  at  Maroldsweisach  in  Lower  Fran- 
cimia,  22d  JMarcli  IS'23,  studied  at  Erlangen,  and 
became  professor  of  Theology  at  Marburg  in 
1854,  and  in  18.56  at  Leipzig.  His  Commentary 
on  John's  Gospel  ( 18.52 :  2d  ed.  1875)  has  beeii 
translated  into  English,  as  has  also  St  John  tlif 
Author  of  tlie  Fourth  Gospel,  and  works  on  the 
saving,  the  fundamental,  and  the  moral  truths  of 
Vlm^liiunty  i  A/io/ogetisr/ic  Vortragc).  He  is  also 
author  of  a  Compendium  der  Dogmatih  ( 1865 ;  9tli 
ed.  1893 ),  Die Ethik  Luthtrs  ( 1867 ),  and  DicAniiI.e 
JCthik  (  1887),  besides  collections  of  lectures  and 
sermons.     See  his  Reminiscences  (2d  eil.,  1891). 

Lllther,  M.^RTIX,  the  greatest  of  the  Protestant 
Heformei-s  of  the  16th  century,  was  born  at  Eisleben 
on  the  10th  November  148.'!.  His  father  wa-s  a  miner 
in  liumble  circumstances  ;  bis  mother,  as  Melanch- 
tlion  records,  w;is  a  woman  of  exemplary  virtue 
(crcmjilin-  rirliilu/n),  and  i>eculiarly  esteemed  in 
iter  walk  of  life.  Shortly  after  Martin's  birth  his 
parents  removed  to  Mansfeld,  where  their  circum- 
stances ere  Umg  improved  by  industry  and  pei'se- 
verance.  Their  son  w;is  sent  to  school ;  ana  both 
•at  home  .iml  in  school  bis  training  w:is  severe. 
His  father  sometiiries  whip]ii'd  bim,  he  says,  '  for  a 
mere  tritle  till  the  blmxl  came,'  and  he  Wiis  subjected 
to  the  schi>lastic  rod  fifteen  times  in  one  day  ! 
Luther's  schooling  was  completed  at  Magdeburg 
anil  Eisenach,  and  at  the  latter  place  he  attracted 
by  his  singing  the  notice  of  a  gooil  lady  of  the  name 
of  Cotta,  who  provided  him  with  a  comfortable 
home  during  his  stav  there.     Here  under  Trebonius 


746 


LUTHER 


he  niaile  jjoocl  iirnf;iess  in  Latin.  In  1501.  when  lie 
had  readied  liis  eif;liteentli  year,  he  entered  the  uiii- 
vei'sity  of  Erfurt,  with  the  view  of  iiiKililyin>,'  him 
self  for  the  lefjivl  profession.  He  went  tliron<;li  the 
lisual  stndies  in  the  classics  and  the  sehoolnien,  and 
took  his  degree  of  Doctor  of  riiilosoidiy,  or  Master 
of  Arts,  in  1505,  when  he  was  twenty-one  years  of 
a<;e.  Ere  this,  however,  the  death  of  a  friend,  and 
the  terror  of  a  thunderstorm,  had  ileenly  ini|iressed 
him  ;  and  he  was  led  to  the  study  of  the  Scriptures. 
Not  content  with  the  gospels  and  epistles  in  the 
lectionaries,  and  failing  to  find  elsewhere  a  complete 
Bible  (though  the  whole  Vulgate  had  been  trans- 
lated into  German  before  his  time  ;  see  BiBLE,  Vol. 
II.  p.  127 ),  he  h.ad  recourse  to  the  Vulgate  in  the  uni- 
versity lilirary.  His  heart  was  touched,  and  he  re- 
solved to  devote  himself  to  a  spiritual  life.  He  sep- 
arated himself  from  his  friends  and  fellow-students, 
and  withdrew  into  the  Angustinian  convent  at 
Erfurt.  Here  he  spent  the  next  three  years  of  his 
life — years  of  iieculiar  interest  and  significance  ;  for 
it  was  during  this  time  that  he  laid,  in  the  study 
of  the  Bible  and  of  Augustine,  and  with  the  assist- 
ance of  his  life-long  friend  Staujiitz,  the  foundation 
of  those  doctrinal  convictions  which  were  after- 
wards to  r(mse  and  strengthen  him  in  his  .struggle 
against  the  [lapacy.  He  describes  verv  vividly  the 
spiritual  crisis  through  which  he  pas-sed,  the  burden 
of  sin  wliich  so  long  lay  upon  him,  '  too  heavy  to 
be  borne,'  and  the  relief  that  he  at  length  found 
in  the  clear  apprehension  of  the  doctrine  of  the 
'forgiveness  of  sins'  through  the  gr.ace  of  Christ. 

In  the  year  1507  Luther  was  ordaineil  a  juiest, 
and  in  the  following  year  he  removed  to  Witten- 
berg, destined  to  derive  its  chief  celebrity  from  his 
name.  He  became  a  teacher  in  the  new  university 
fonniled  there  Ijy  the  Elector  Frederick  of  Sa.xony. 
At  lirst  he  lectured  on  dialectics  and  physics,  but 
his  heart  was  already  jjiven  to  theology,  and  in 
1509  he  became  a  Bachelor  of  Theology,  and  com- 
menced lecturing  on  the  Holy  Scripttires.  His 
lectures  made  a  great  impression,  and  the  novelty 
of  his  views  already  began  to  e.\cite  attention. 
'This  monk,'  said  the  rector  of  the  university, 
'  will  puzzle  our  doctors,  and  bring  in  a  new 
doctrine.'  Besides  lecturing,  he  began  to  preach, 
and  his  sermons  reached  a  wider  audience,  .and 
produced  a  still  more  powerful  inHuence.  They 
were  printed  and  widely  circulated  in  (iermany, 
France,  and  England,  so  that  the  doctrines  of 
salvation  by  free  grace  were  dill'nsed  throughout 
Europe.  His  words,  as  Jlelandithon  said,  were 
'  born  not  on  his  lips,  hut  in  his  soul,'  ;ind  they 
moved  jirofoundly  the  souls  of  all  who  heard  them. 
In  loll  he  was  sent  on  a  mission  to  Home,  and 
he  has  described  very  vividly  what  he  saw  and 
heard  there.  His  <Ievout  and  tinqnestioning 
reverence — for  he  was  yet  in  his  own  subsei|uent 
view  'a  most  insane  papist' — appears  in  strange 
conllict  with  his  awakened  thonghtfulness  and  the 
moral  indignation  at  the  abuses  of  the  ]ia|iacy 
beirinning  to  stir  in  him.  It  was  wlwii  climliing 
on  his  knees  the  steps  of  the  so-called  judgment- 
seat  of  Pilate  that  the  words,  '  the  just  shall  live 
liy  faith,'  Hashed  upon  his  soul  and  ilrove  him  to 
his  feet. 

On  Luther's  return  from  Uome  he  was  made  a 
Doctor  of  the  Holy  Scriiitnres.  and  his  career  as  a 
Keformer  may  he  said  to  have  commenced.  The 
.system  of  indulgeni'es  had  reached  a  scandalous 
height.  The  idea  that  it  was  in  tlie  jjower  of  the 
church  to  fmgive  sin  had  gradually  grown  into 
the  notion  that  the  pope  could  issue  pardons  of 
his  own  free  will,  which,  being  dispensed  to  the 
faithful,  exonerated  them  from  the  consequences 
of  their  transgressions  (see  iMifl.clCNCE).  The 
sale  of  these  pardons  had  become  un  organi.sed 
part  of  the   ])apal  system.     .Money   was  largely 


needed  at  Rome  to  feetl  the  extravagances  of  the 
papal  court ;  and  its  numerous  emissaries  sought 
everywhere  to  rai.se  funds  by  the  sale  of  'indul- 
gences : '  the  (irincipal  of  these  was  John  Tetzel, 
a  Dominican  friar,  who  had  established  himself  at 
.liiterbog  (1517).  Luther's  indignation  at  the 
shameless  traliic  which  this  man  carried  on  finally 
became  irrepressible:  '(iod  willing,'  he  exclaimed, 
'I  will  beat  a  hole  in  his  (hiiiii.'  He  drew  out 
ninety-five  theses  on  the  doctrine  of  indulgences, 
wliich  on  31st  October  he  nailed  up  on  the  door  of 
the  church  at  Wittenberg,  and  which  he  ollered  to 
maintain  in  the  university  against  all  impugners. 
The  general  jiurport  of  these  theses  wa-s  to  deny 
to  the  pope  all  right  to  forgive  sins.  This 
sudden  and  liold  step  of  Lntlier  was  all  that  was 
necessary  to  awaken  a  widespread  excitement. 
Tetzel  was  forced  to  retreat  from  the  borders 
of  Saxony  to  Frankfort-on-the-Oder,  where  he 
drew  ont  and  published  a  set  of  counter-theses, 
and  publicly  committed  those  of  Luther  to  the 
flames.  The  students  at  Wittenberg  retaliated  by 
burning  Tetzel's  theses.  The  elector  refused  to 
interfere,  and  the  excitement  increased  as  new 
comhatitnts — Hochstratten,  I'rierias,  anil  Eck — 
entered  the  field.  Eck  was  an  able  man,  and  an 
old  fiiend  of  Luther's,  and  the  argument  between 
him  and  the  Keformer  was  especially  vehement. 
In  151S  the  latter  was  joined  by  MiOanchthon,  who 
became  one  of  his  dearest  and  most  trusteil  friends. 

.^t  lirst  the  pojie,  Leo  X.,  took  little  heed  of  the 
disturbance  ;  lie  is  reiiorted  even  to  have  said  whei) 
he  heard  of  it  that  '  Friar  Martin  was  a  man  of 
genius,  and  that  he  did  not  wish  to  have  him 
molested.'  Some  of  the  cardinals,  however,  saw 
the  real  character  of  the  movement,  which  gradu- 
ally assumed  a  seriousness  evident  even  to  the 
po]ie  ;  and  Luther  received  a  suninions  to  ajipear 
at  Koine,  and  answer  for  his  theses  ( 1518).  (Iiiee 
again  in  Kome  it  is  unlikely  he  wouhl  ever  have 
been  allowed  to  return.  His  university  and  the 
elector  interfered,  and  a  legate  «as sent  to  Germany 
to  hear  and  determine  the  case.  Cardinal  Cajetan 
was  the  legate,  and  he  was  but  little  fitted  to  deal 
with  Luther.  He  would  enter  into  no  argument 
with  him,  but  merely  called  upon  him  to  retract. 
Luther  refused,  and  fled  from  Augsbuig,  whither 
he  had  gone  to  meet  the  papal  represenlative.  The 
task  of  negotiation  was  then  undertaken  by  Miltilz, 
a  tJerinan,  who  was  envoy  of  the  pope  to  the  Saxon 
court,  and  by  his  greater  address  a  temiiorarv 
]ieace  was  obtained.  This  did  not  last  long.  The 
Reformer  was  too  deejily  moved  to  keep  silent. 
God  hurries  and  drives  me,' he  said;  'I  am  not 
master  of  myself :  I  wish  to  be  quiet,  and  am 
hurried  into  the  midst  of  tumults.'  Dr  Eck  and 
he  held  a  memorable  disputation  at  Leipzig  (1519), 
in  which  the  subject  of  argument  was  no  longer 
merely  the  question  of  indulgences,  but  the  general 
power  of  the  pope.  The  disputation,  of  course, 
c.anie  to  no  )iractical  result;  each  controversialist 
claimeil  the  victory,  and  Luther  in  the  meantime 
made  progress  in  freedom  of  o]iiiiion,  ami  attacked 
the  ])apal  system  as  a  whole  more  boldly.  Erasmus 
and  Hutten  joined  in  the  ccmlliet,  which  waxed 
more  loud  nnd  threatening. 

In  1520  the  Keformer  published  his  famous  address 
to  the  '  Christian  Nobles  of  Germany.'  This  was 
followed  in  the  same  year  by  a  treatise  On  the 
liril)iil(»iisli  Cii/ilin'ti/  iif  till-  Cliin-ch.  In  these 
works,  both  of  which  circulated  widely,  and  power- 
fully inlluenced  many  minds,  Luther  took  firmer 
and  broader  ground  ;  he  attacked  not  only  the 
abuses  of  the  jiapacv  and  its  pretensions  to 
supremacy,  hut  also  tlie  doctrinal  system  of  the 
Church  of  Kome.  'These  works,'  Kaiike  .•*ays, 
'contain  the  kernel  of  the  whole  Kcformation.' 
The   pupal    hull   containing   forty-one   theses   was 


LUTHER 


7iT 


issueil  again.st  him ;  tlie  dread  dncumcnt,  with 
i    otlier  jiaual  buoks,  was!  bunied  before  an  assembled 

multit\iae  of  doctors,  students,  ami  eitizens  at  the 
I  Elster  Gate  of  Wittenberg.  Germany  was  con- 
I    vulsed  with  excitement.     Eck(who  had   been  tlie 

chief    agent    in    olitaining    the    bull)     tied    from 

1)lace  to  place,  glad  to  escape  with  his  life,  and 
jUther  wa.s  everywhere  the  hero  of  the  hour. 
Charles  V.  h.'ul  at  this  time  succeeded  to  the 
empire,  and  he  ccmveiujd  his  first  diet  of  the 
sovereigns  and  .states  at  Worms.  The  diet  mot  in 
the  beginning  f>f  \'y2l  ;  an  order  was  issued  for  the 
de.stniction  of  Luther's  books,  and  he  himself  was 
summoned  to  appear  before  the  diet.  This  was 
above  all  what  he  desired  -to  confess  the  truth 
before  the  assemliled  powers  of  Germany.  He 
resolved — having  received  a  safe  conduct — to  obey 
the  summons,  come  what  would.  .\11  (Germany 
was  moved  by  his  heroism  :  his  journey  resembled 
a  triumph  :  the  threats  of  enemies  and  the  an.\ieties 
of  friends  alike  failed  to  move  him.  '  I  am  resolved 
to  enter  Worms,'  he  said,  'althougli  as  many  devils 
should  set  at  me  as  there  are  tiles  on  the  house- 
tops.' His  appearance  and  demeanour  before  the 
diet,  and  the  lirmncss  with  which  he  held  his 
ground  and  refused  to  retract,  all  make  a  striking- 
picture.  He  was  not  allowed  to  defend  his  opinions. 
'Unless  I  be  convinced,'  he  said,  ■by  Scri|)ture 
and  reason,  I  neither  can  nor  daic  retract  any- 
thing, for  my  conscience  is  a  cajitive  to  God's 
word,  and  it  is  neither  safe  nor  right  to  go  against 
conscience.  There  I  take  my  stand.  I  can  do  no 
otherwise.     So  help  me  God.     .\men.' 

On  his  return  from  Worms  he  was  seized,  at  the 
instigation  of  his  friend,  the  Elector  of  Saxony, 
and  safely  lodged  in  the  old  castle  of  the  Wart- 
burg,  riie  att'air  \v  as  made  to  i^ssume  an  aspect  of 
violence,  but  in  reality  it  was  designed  to  secure 
him  from  the  destruction  which  his  conduct  at 
Worms  would  certaiidy  have  provoked,  he  having 
been  placed  under  the  ban  of  the  empire.  He 
remained  in  this  shelter  for  about  a  year,  concealed 
in  the  guise  of  a  knight.  His  chief  employment 
was  his  translation  of  the  Scriptures  into  his  native 
language.  He  composed  various  treatises  besides, 
and  injured  his  health  by  sedentary  habits  and 
hard  study.  His  imagination  became  morbidly 
excited,  and  he  thought  he  saw  and  heard  the  Evil 
One  niockin"  him  while  engageil  in  his  literary 
tasks  :  the  lilot  from  the  iukstan<l  that  he  hurled 
at  him  L?  still  shown  on  the  wall  of  his  chand)er. 
The  subject  of  the  persinality  and  presence  of 
Satan  was  a  familiar  one  with  Luther,  and  he  has 
many  things  about  it  in  his  Tdlile-tallc. 

The  disorders  which  sprang  up  in  the  progress  of 
the  iteformation  recalled  Luther  to  \\  ittenberg. 
He  felt  that  his  presence  was  necessary  to  restrain 
Carlsta<lt  and  others,  and,  defying  any  danger  to 
which  he  might  still  1)0  exposed,  he  returned  in 
1522  to  the  old  scene  of  his  labours,  rebuked  the 
unruly  spirits  who  had  acipiired  power  in  his 
absence,  and  resumed  with  reneweil  energy  his 
interruj)tetl  work.  He  strove  to  arrest  the  exce.sses 
of  the  Zwickau  fanatics,  and  counselleil  peace  and 
onler  to  the  intlamed  peasants,  while  he  warne<l 
the  princes  and  nobles  of  the  unchristian  cruelty  of 
many  of  their  doings,  which  had  driven  the  jieople 
to  exjuspi-ration  and  frenzy.  At  no  period  of  his 
life  is  he  greater  tlian  now  in  the  stand  which  he 
made  against  lawlessness  (m  the  one  band  and 
tyranny  on  the  other.  He  vindicated  his  claim  to 
be  a  Keformer  in  the  highest  sense  by  the  wise  and 
manly  |>art  which  he  acted  in  this  great  social 
crisis  in  the  history  of  Germany.  In  this  year  also 
he  published  his  acrimonious  reply  to  Henry  VIIL 
'  on  the  seven  s.aeraments.  Although  he  had  been  at 
first  united  in  a  common  cau.se  with  Erasnnis, 
estrangement  had  gradually  sprung  up  between  the 


scholar  of  Rotterdam  and  tlie  enthusiastic  Uefoimer 
of  ^^■ittenbcrg.  'I'liis  cstrangementcame  to  an  oiicn 
breach  in  the  year  l.j'2."),  when  Erasmus  published 
his  treatise  l)c  Libera  Arhitrio.  Luther  imme- 
diately followed  with  his  counter-treatise,  DeHcrro 
Arhitrio.  The  controversy  raged  loudly  between 
them  ;  and  in  the  vehenjenee  of  his  hosti"lity  to  the 
doctrine  of  Eras)nus  Luther  was  led  into  various 
a,ssertions  of  a  very  cpiestionable  kind,  beside.s 
indiilging  in  wild  almse  of  his  opponent's  character. 
The  quarrel  was  an  unhappy  one  on  both  sides; 
and  it  must  be  confessed  there  is  especially  a  want 
of  generosity  in  the  manner  in  which  Luther  con- 
tinued to  cherish  the  dislike  which  sprang  out  of 
it.  In  the  course  of  the  same  year  Luther  married 
Katharina  von  Bora,  one  of  nine  nuns  who,  under 
the  inlluence  of  his  teaching,  had  emancipated 
themselves  from  their  religious  vows.  The  step 
rejoiced  his  enemies,  and  even  alarmed  some  of  his 
friends  like  Melanehthon.  But  it  greatlj'  con- 
tributed to  his  happiness,  while  it  served  to  enrich 
and  strengthen  his  character.  All  the  most 
interesting  and  touching  glimpses  we  get  of  him 
henceforth  are  in  connection  with  his  wife  and 
children. 

Two  years  after  his  marriage  he  fell  into  a 
dangerous  sickness  and  dejiression  of  spirits,  from 
Avliich  he  was  only  aroused  by  the  dangers  besetting 
Christendom  from  the  advance  of  the  Turks.  Two 
years  later,  in  lo'iO,  he  engaged  in  his  famous  con- 
ference at  JIarburg  with  Zwingli  and  other  Swiss 
divines.  In  this  conference  he  obstinately  imiin- 
tained  his  peculiar  views  as  to  the  sacrament  of 
the  Lord's  Supper  (q.v. ),  and,  as  in  the  controvensy 
with  Erasmus,  distinguished  himself  more  by  the 
inflexible  dogmatism  of  his  opinions  than  by  the 
candour  and  comprehensiveness  of  his  arguments, 
or  the  fairness  and  generosity  of  his  temper. 
Aggressive  and  reforming  in  the  first  stage  of  his 
life,  and  while  he  was  dealing  with  practical 
abuses,  he  was  yet  in  many  respects  essentially 
conservative  in  his  intellectual  character,  and  he 
shut  his  mind  pertinaciously  after  middle  life  to 
any  a<lvance  in  doctrinal  o[)inion.  The  following 
year  finds  him  at  Coburg,  while  the  diet  sat  at 
Augsburg.  It  was  deemed  prudent  to  entrust  the 
interests  of  the  Protestant  ean.se  to  Melanchthon, 
who  attended  the  diet,  but  Luther  removed  to 
Coburg,  to  be  at  hand  for  consultation.  The 
drawing  up  of  the  Augsburg  ('onfession  (((.v.) 
marks  the  culmination  of  the  German  lleforma- 
tion  (l."):!0);  and  the  life  of  Luther  from  hence- 
forth possesses  comparatively  little  interest.  He 
survived  sixtei'u  years  longer,  but  they  are  years 
marked  l)y  few  incidents  of  importance.  He  died 
at  Eisleben  on  Isth  Eebruary  154(),  and  was  buried 
at  Wittenberg. 

Luther's  character  presents  an  imposing  com- 
bination of  great  tpialities.  Endowed  witli  broad 
human  sym|iathies,  massive  energy,  manly  and 
aflectionate  simplicity,  and  rich,  if  sonu'tinies 
coar.se  humour,  he  is  at  tlie  .same  time  a  spiritual 
genius.  His  intuitions  of  divine  truth  were  bold, 
vivid,  and  penetrating,  if  not  eomiirehensivi' ;  and 
he  possesseil  the  art  which  God  alone  gives  to  the 
finer  and  .abler  spirits  that  He  calls  to  do  special 
work  in  this  wmhl,  of  kiiulling  other  souls  with 
the  fire  of  his  own  convictions,  and  awakening 
them  to  a  higher  consciousness  (if  religion  and 
duty.  He  was  a  lender  <if  men,  therefore,  and  a 
Heformcr  in  the  highest  sense.  His  powers  were 
fitted  to  his  ap|>ointed  task  :  it  was  a  task  of 
Titanic  magnituile,  and  he  was  a  Titan  in  intellec- 
tual robustness  and  moral  strength  and  courage. 
It  was  oidy  the  divine  energy  which  swayed  him, 
an<l  of  which  he  recognised  hiiriself  the  organ,  that 
could  have  accomplisheil  what  he  did. 

View  him  as  a  mere  theologian,  an<l  there  are 


748 


LUTHER 


LUTHERANS 


otiiers  wlio  take  hii,'her  rank.  There  is  a  lack  of 
patient  thouglitfulness  and  philosopliical  temper  in 
liis  doctrinal  discussions;  l>ut  the  absence  of  these 
very  (pialities  gave  vigour  to  his  bold,  if  sonietiiiies 
crude  conce|itions,  and  enableil  him  to  triumph  in 
the  struggle  for  life  or  death  in  wliioh  he  was 
engaged.  To  initiate  the  religious  movement 
which  was  destined  to  renew  the  face  of  Europe, 
and  give  a  nobler  and  more  enduring  life  to  the 
Teutonic  nations,  required  a  gigantic  will,  which, 
instead  of  being  crushed  liy  opposition,  or  frightened 
by  hatred,  should  only  gatlier  strength  from  tlie 
fierceness  of  the  conliict  before  it.  To  clear  the 
air  thoroughly,  as  he  himself  .said,  thunder 
and  lightning  are  necessary.  Upon  the  whole, 
it  may  be  said  that  history  presents  few  greater 
cliaracters — few  that  excite  at  once  more  love  and 
admiration,  and  in  which  we  see  tenderness, 
humour,  and  a  certain  picturesqne  grace  and 
poetic  sensibility  more  happily  combined  with 
a  lofty  and  magnanimous,  if  sometimes  rugged 
sublimity. 

Luther's  works  are  very  voluminous,  partly  in 
Latin,  and  partly  in  (ierman.  ,Vmong  those  of 
more  general  interest  are  his  Table-talk,  his  Letters, 
and  Sermons.  His  Commentaries  on  Galatians 
and  the  Psalms  are  still  read  ;  and  he  was  one  of 
the  great  leaders  of  sacred  song,  his  hymns,  rugged, 
but  intense  and  expressive,  having  an  enduring 
power. 

The  most  important  complete  editions  of  Luther's 
works  are  tliose  of  ^Vittenbe^g  ( 12  vols.  German  ;  .S  vols. 
Latin,  1539-.i8) ;  Halle,  ed.  by  Walch  (German,  24  vols. 
1740-53) ;  and  Erlangen  and  Frankfort  (67  vols.  German  ; 
.■^3  vols.  Latin,  182(i-73).  A  splendid  new  and  complete 
<;dition  Avas  commenced  at  Weimar  in  the  year  of  the 
fourth  centenary  of  his  birth  (]8S3). 

His  Bru'fc,  iScmheltnihin  unit  Bcilcnken  were  edited 
by  De  Wette  and  Weidemann  (6  vols.  182.5-56);  the 
Briefwcchsel,  by  Burkhardt  (1866),  and  by  Enders  (1884 
ft  seq.)\  his  PoUthche  Scriftcn,  by  Mundt  (1.S44);  his 
Kirciienpoditle,  by  Francke  ( 1844 ) ;  his  TUfhreden,  by 
Forstemann  and  Bindseil  (1846-48);  his  Geistliclw 
Lieilir,  by  Wackeniagel  (1856),  Godeke  (1883),  and  A. 
Fischer  ( 1883 ).  A  good  selection  of  the  lesser  wi-itings 
is  that  entitled  Martin  Luther  al$  Deutscher  Klassiker 
<3  vols.  Frank.  1871-83). 

Of  the  many  Lives  tlie  most  important  are  those  of 
Meurer  (3d  ed.  1870),  Jiirgens  (3  vols.  1846-47),  Kostlin 
( 2  vols.  1875 ;  3d  ed.  1883 ;  also  a  popular  ed.  1883 ),  PUtt 
and  Petersen  (2d  ed.  1883),  and  Kolde  (1884  ct  seq.). 
There  is  an  English  life  of  merit  by  Peter  Bayne  (1887), 
and  well-kn(twn  essays  by  Carlyle,  Fronde,  TuUocb,  and 
others.  See  also  Dr  Charles  Beard's  admirable  book, 
Martin  Luther  and  his  Reformation  in  Germany  until 
the  Close  of  tlic  Diet  of  W.irms  ( 1889). 

On  Luther's  theology  there  are  works  by  Th.  Harnack 
(1862-86),  KiJstUn  (1863),  and  Lommatsch  (1870).  The 
Catholic  view  is  fairly  given  by  Dollingcr,  and  in  Janssen's 
Gesckichte  des  Dcutschen  i'olkes. 

LlltllcrailS,  a  designation  originally  applied 
by  their  adversaries  to  the  Keformers  or  the 
16tli  century,  and  afterwards  distinctively  appro- 
priated among  Protestants  themselves  to  those 
who  took  part  witii  Martin  Liither  against  the 
Swiss  Keformers,  particularly  in  the  contro- 
A'ersies  regarding  the  Lord's  Supper.  It  is  so 
■employed  to  this  day  as  the  designation  of  one 
of  the  two  great  sections  into  which  the  Protestant 
<,'hnrch  was  soon  unh.ippily  divided,  the  other  being 
known  .'IS  the  Reformed  Church  (q.v. ).  To  the  end 
of  I-uther's  life  perfect  harmony  subsisted  between 
him  and  his  friend  Melanchtluju ;  but  already  there 
were  some  who  stood  forth  as  more  Lutheran  than 
Luther,  ami  by  whom  Melanchthou  was  denounced 
as  a  'cryptoCalviuist '  and  a  traitor  to  evangelical 
Iratli.  After  Luther's  death  this  party  became 
nmre  confident,  and,  holding  by  Luther's  words, 
without  having  imbibed  his  s])irit,  changed  his 
evangelical  doctrine  into  .i  dry  scholasticism  ami 


lifeless  orthodoxy,  whilst  extreme  heat  and  violence 
against  their  opponents  were  substituted  in  the 
puli>it  itself  for  the  zealous  ])reaching  of  the 
gosjiel.  The  princiijal  seat  of  tiieir  strength  was 
in  the  university  ol  Jena,  whicdi  was  founded  in 
1557  for  this  very  object,  and  maintained  their 
cause  against  Wittenberg.  Great  intolerance  was 
manifested  by  this  jiarty  ;  and  no  controversy  was 
ever  conducted  with  more  bitterness  than  the  Sacra- 
men  tarian  Controversy. 

Towards  the  end'  of  the  17th  century  the 
Lutherans  of  Ciermany  found  a  new  object  of 
hostility  in  the  Pietists  (q.v.);  and  in  tlie  18th 
century  they  came  into  conflict  with  national- 
ism (q.v.).  When,  after  the  wars  of  the  P'rench 
Revolution  were  over,  the  Prussian  government 
formed  and  carried  into  exec\ition  a  scheme 
for  the  union  of  the  Lutheran  and  Reformed 
churches  into  one  national  church,  leaving  them 
free  to  use  either  the  Lutheran  or  Heidelberg  con- 
fession, an  active  opposition  arose  on  the  part 
of  those  who  now  began  to  be  known  as  O/el 
Lutherans.  Separate  congregations  were  formed, 
and  an  attitude  of  open  hostility  to  the  government 
was  assumed  by  some;  whilst  others,  more  nnxler- 
ate,  but  holding  the  same  theological  opinions, 
continued  to  maintain  these  opinions  witliin  the 
United  Erangctical  Churc/i.  The  separatists  were 
for  some  time  severely  dealt  with  by  the  govern- 
ment, and  al)out  1837  many  left  their  native 
country  to  found  Old  Lutheran  communities  in 
America.  After  that  time  greater  toleration  was 
practised,  and  in  1841  the  ()1<1  Lutherans  became 
a  legally-recognised  ecclesiastical  body  in  Pi'ussia. 
A  freer  Neic  Lutheranism,  claiming  to  lepresent 
Luther's  spirit  rather  than  the  dogmas  of  the 
old  Lutheran  systematists,  has  since  1848  become 
jiractically  dominant  in  most  parts  of  Protestant 
Germany,  in  Prussia  as  well  as  elsewhere,  under 
the  leadership  of  such  men  as  Hengstenberg, 
Hofmann,  Harless,  Luthardt,  Thomasius,  and 
Kahnis. 

Lutheranism  is  the  prevailing  form  of  Protes- 
tantism in  Germany  ;  it  is  the  national  religimi  of 
Denmark,  Sweden,  and  Norway  ;  and  there  are 
Lutheran  churches  in  the  Baltic  provinces  of 
Russia,  in  Holland,  France,  Poland,  and  the 
United  States — in  which  latter  country  there  were 
in  1890  as  many  as  7911  churches,  with  1,(186,048 
members.  In  all  there  are  some  ihirty  millions 
of  Lutherans.  Amongst  the  Lntlieian  .symbolical 
books  the  Augsburg  Confession  (q.v.),  Luther's 
Shorter  Catechism,  and  the  Formula  Coticordice 
(see  CoxFESsiON.s)  hold  the  princi|ial  jilace.  The 
chief  ditl'erence  between  the  Lutherans  ami  the 
Reformed  is  as  to  the  real  /inxe/a'e  of  Christ  in 
the  sacrament  of  the  Snp)ier  ;  the  Lutherans  h(dd- 
ing  the  doctrine  of  ronsub.itantiation — Christ's  body 
])resent  '  in,  with,  ami  under  the  unchanged  bread 
and  wine' — althongh  lejecting  transubstantiation 
(see  Lord's  Srpri:n ;  Te.vn.substanti-vtkin  ; 
and  ZwiNGLI);  whilst  .some  of  their  more 
extreme  theologians  have  asserted  not  only  the 
jiresence  of  tlie  human  nature  of  Christ  in  the 
Lord's  Supper,  as  Luther  did,  but  the  absolute 
omnipresence  or  ubicjuity  of  his  human  nature. 
Other  iioints  of  ditl'erence  relate  to  the  allowance 
in  Christian  worship  of  things  iniliU'erenl  {laliii- 
jihora);  and  many  of  those  things  at  first  retained 
as  merely  tolerable  by  Luther  and  his  fellow- 
refiuiuers  have  become  favourite  characteristics  of 
some  of  the  Lutheran  churches — as  crucili.xes  and 
]dctnres  in  places  of  worship,  &c. 

In  its  constitution  the  Lutheran  Church  is 
geneially  unepi.iropal,  without  being  properly  prrs- 
hgtrrian.  It  is  consistorial  (see  CONSISTOKY), 
with  the  civil  authorities  so  far  in  |)lace  of 
bishops.     In  Denmark,  Sweden,  and  Norway  there 


LUTON 


LUXEMBURG 


749 


are  bishops,  and  in  Sweden  an  arclibisliop  (of 
Upsala),  but  their  powers  are  very  liniiteil. 

See  the  works  of  the  old  systematists  Chemuitz,  Joliann 
Gerhard,  Hutter,  Quenstedt ;  Hasc's  Uuttcrus  Redivirua 
(1828;  12th  ed.  1883);  the  dogmatical  works  of  Twesten, 
Nitzsch,  and  Martensen ;   and  the  church  histories. 

LlltOIlt  a  market-town  of  Heilfonlshire,  on  the 
little  Lea,  among  the  Chiltern  Hills,  31  miles  by 
rail  WW.  of  London.  St  Mary  s  Church,  mixed 
Decorated  and  Perpendicular  in  style,  is  a  noble 
structure,  with  a  flint-work  tower  90  feet  liigli,  a 
baptistery  chapel,  and  many  interesting  monu- 
ments. It  has  been  restored  since  ISe.j.  Luton  is 
the  chief  seat  in  England  of  the  straw-plait  (for 
liats,  bonnets,  Ike),  an  industry  which  dates  from 
the  reign  of  James  L,  and  employs  20,000  persons 
here  and  in  the  neighbourhood.  The  Plait-hall 
(1869)  is  a  tine  building;  and  there  are  also  a 
town-hall,  corn  exchange,  people's  park,  \c.  Luton 
was  re-incorporated  as  a  municipal  borough  in  1S76. 
Pop.  (ISol)  10,648;  (1891)  30,006.  See  F.  Davis, 
History  of  Lid  on  ( 1855). 

Lntterworth,  a  small  town  of  Leicestei-shire, 
on  the  Swift,  8  miles  XNE.  of  Kugby.  The  fine 
old  chnrcli,  restored  by  Scott  in  1867-69,  contains 
the  pulpit  and  other  relics  of  Wyclif,  who  was 
rector  from  1374  till  his  death  on  28th  December 
1384.  He  was  buried  here,  but  in  1428  his  remains 
were  dug  up  and  burned,  and  the  ashes  cast  into 
the  Swift.  '  This  brook  conveyed  his  ashes 
into  Avon,  Avon  into  Severn,  Severn  into  the 
narrow  seas,  they  into  the  main  ocean  ;  and  thus 
the  ashes  of  Wickliffe  are  the  emblem  of  his  doc- 
trine, which  now  is  dispersed  all  the  world  over.' 
Pop.  of  parisli  1800. 

Llittii-li.    See  Liege. 

Liittrillghauseil.  a  manufacturing  town  of 
Rhenish  Prus.sia,  5  miles  SE.  of  Elberfeld.  Cloth, 
calico,  and  silk,  hardware,  and  brandy  manufac- 
tures are  carried  on.     Pop.  10,498. 

Liitzcil,  a  small  town  of  3501  inhabitants,  in 
the  Prussian  province  of  Saxony,  famous  for  two 
great  battles  fought  in  its  vicinity.  The  first,  a 
brilliant  victoiy  of  the  Swedes  in  the  Thirty 
Years'  War,  took  place  on  6th  November  1632 
( see  GusTAVfs  Adolphus  ).  The  battle  on  2d  May 
1813  w,i.s  fought  somewhat  farther  to  the  south,  at 
the  village  of  Grosgorschen.  It  was  the  first  great 
coiillict  of  the  united  Russian  and  Prussian  army 
with  the  army  of  Xapoleon  in  that  decisive  cam- 
paign ;  and  the  Frencli  were  left  in  possession  of 
the  field. 

LUtzow,  LiDWio  Adolf  Wilhelm,  Freiherr 
VON,  born  in  Bramlenburg  on  18tli  May  1782,  died 
at  Berlin  on  6th  December  1834,  gave  his  name  to 
a.  celebratetl  corjis  of  \olunteei-s,  raised  in  Silesia 
during  the  war  of  liberation  in  1813.  It  included 
several  celebrated  men,  jis  .lalin,  Theodor  Kiinier, 
Ike,  and  was  renowned  for  its  anient  patriotism 
anil  niagnilicent  courage.  The  men  uniformed 
themselves,  anil  are  often  spoken  and  sung  of  as 
the  '  Black  RiHes  '  (Jiigcr).  Liitzow's  wife  was  the 
Countess  of  Ahlefeldt,  the  friend  of  Immerniann. 

Luxcmboiirs:,  Die  de.  Francois  Henri  de 
Montmorency  Bouteville,  one  of  Louis  .XIV.'s  cele- 
brated mai-shals,  was  born  at  Paris  on  8th  January 
1628.  A  posthumous  son,  he  was  trained  by  his 
aunt,  mother  of  the  Great  Conde,  to  whom  he  stuck 
faithfully  all  through  the  wars  of  the  Fronde.  After 
16.")9  he  was  jiardoned  by  Louis  XIV.,  who  created 
him  Due  do  Luxembourg  (  1661 )— hebad  juslm.irried 
the  heiress  of  the  House  of  Luxembourg  Pincv.  He 
again  took  the  field  in  1667,  serving  unilerCondc  in 
the  invasion  of  Franche-Comte  ;  but,  receiving  an 
independent  command  lagainst  the  Netherlands  in 
1672,  he  successfully  invaded  the  enemy's  country, 
and  when  compelled  to   retreat  in   the  winter  of 


1673  led  back  his  men  in  such  a  masterly  way  jus 
to  win  the  reputation  of  being  one  of  the"  greatest 
generals  of  the  age.  His  chief  exploits  during  the 
continuance  of  the  war  were  to  storm  \'alencienne» 
and  to  defeat  the  Piince  of  Orange  at  .Mont-Cassel 
and  St  Denis.  He  had  been  made  marshal  in 
1675.  Soon  after  the  conclusion  of  peace  ( 1678)  be 
quarrelled  with  the  all-powerful  minister  Louvois, 
and  was  not  employed  again  on  active  duty  for 
twelve  years.  The  story  that  Louvois  implicated 
him  in  the  atlair  of  the  poisoners  of  Paris  is  prob- 
ably a  myth,  though  Luxembourg  seems  certainly 
to  have  spent  some  part  of  1680  in  the  Bastille. 
In  1690  lie  was  sent  to  take  command  in  Flanders, 
and  defeated  the  allies  at  Fleurus,  and  in  the  follow- 
ing year  he  twice  more  routed  his  old  opponent, 
William  III.  (formerly  Prince  of  Orange)  at  Stein- 
kirk  and  near  Xeerwinden.  He  died  at  Paris  on 
4th  January  1695.  Luxemliourg  had  an  unfailing 
instinct  of  the  right  thing  to  do  on  the  field  of 
battle,  and  when  to  do  it.  In  action  he  was  prompt 
and  bold  ;  but  often  failed  to  reap  the  full  advan- 
tages of  victory  owing  to  his  indolence.  He  w-as  a 
little  man  and  hump-backed,  and  addicted  to  self- 
indulgence. 

Llixeillblirs.  an  independent  grand-duchy  of 
Europe,  wedged  in  between  France,  Prussia,  antl 
lielgium.  It  consists  of  a  plateau,  furrowed  with 
j  valleys,  and  connecting  together  the  uplands  of 
1  Lorraine,  the  Forest  of  Ardennes,  and  tne  Elfel  ; 
nearly  all  its  streams  flow  to  the  Moselle,  which  for 
some 20  miles  forms  its  eastern  border.  Tlie  country 
is  well  wooded,  yields  wheat,  llax,  hemp,  and  rape- 
seed,  grows  wine  ( \\  million  gallons  in  good  years), 
and  is  rich  in  iron  ore.  The  extraction  and  smelt- 
ing of  this  mineral  is,  next  to  agriculture,  the  prin- 
cipal occupation.  But  leather,  gloves,  pottery, 
cloth,  paper,  sugar,  beer,  and  spirits  are  manu- 
factured. Area,  998  sq.  m.  ;  pop.  (1871)  197,528; 
(1890)  211,088,  neariy  all  Catholics,  and  of  Low- 
German  stock,  though  French  is  the  language  of 
the  educated  classes.  For  commercial  purposes 
Luxemburg  is  included  in  the  German  customs 
union.  The  dignity  of  grand-duke  belonn;s  to  the 
head  of  the  House  of  Orange-Nassau,  and  as  such 
was  held  by  the  kings  of  Holland  from  1815  to  1890, 
when,  on  the  death  of  King  William  HI.  without 
male  issue,  it  pas.sed  to  Adolf,  Duke  of  Nassau.  The 
little  slate  is  ruled  by  a  House  of  forty-live  Repre- 
sentatives. The  head  of  the  government  is  the 
minister  of  state,  with  whom  are  associated  direc- 
tors of  Uiiance,  justice,  and  internal  affairs. — The 
Bi'lijiitn  pi-i»unc(.  of  Luxemburg,  which  down  to 
1839  formed  part  of  the  grand-duchy,  lies  contigu- 
ous to  this  last  on  the  west ;  it  constitutes  the 
south-eastern  extremity  of  the  kingdom  of  Bel- 
gium. In  its  physical  features  and  its  main  pro- 
duct it  differs  little  from  its  neighboiir-state,  the 
grand  duchy.  .\rea,  1706  sq.  ni.  ;  iioji.  (1891) 
212,041.  Cldef  town,  Arlon.  — The  lii.storij  of  the 
grandduch}'  of  Luxemburg  begins  with  the  his- 
tory of  the  city.  On  the  site  of  this  there  stood  in 
the  8lh  century  a  castle,  which  in  7.38  was  given 
by  Charles  Martel  to  the  abbey  of  Treves.  Tlie 
foundi-i-  of  the  lirst  line  of  counts  was  Siegfried, 
who  ill  063  acquired  the  castle  of  Lnciliiibiircli  or 
Liitzelburg  (i.e.  Luxemburg).  In  1136  the  count- 
ship  ]ia.ssed  to  the  Counts  of  Xiinmr.  The  fourtli 
Count  Henry  was  elected  emperor  as  Henry  VII. 
in  1.308,  and  his  son  John  became  king  of  lioliemia. 
In  13.')4  the  title  was  raised  from  count  to  duke.  In 
1444  tlir  duchy  was  united  with  I'.iiigiiiidy,  and 
shared  the  liisloiy  of  that  state  down  to  16.")il,  but 
it  was  reckoned  a  member  of  the  German  empire. 
From  16.59  to  1713  Luxemburg  w;is  held  by  the 
French  king.  It  was  again  annexed  by  the  French 
in  1795,  and  two  yeare  later  made  the  department 
of  Forcts.     But  in  1815  the  Vienna  Congress  created 


750 


LUXEUIL 


LYCH-GATE 


it  a  separate  state,  a  member  i)f  ilie  (Jermaii  Con- 
federation, but  gave  it  to  William  1.  of  Holland. 
And  this  position  was  again  declared  definitive  of 
the  eastern  section  in  1839.  By  the  London  treaty 
of  1867  it  was  made  a  completely  indepL'iident 
state,  and  the  Prussian  garrison  witlnlrew  froni  the 
fortress  of  Luxemburg. — LuXEMHUlio,  the  capital 
of  the  grand-duchy,  by  rail  is  42  miles  N.  of  ^letz 
and  32  S\V.  of  Treves.  Its  situation  has  often 
been  compared  to  that  of  Jerusalem  :  the  city 
stands  on  a  roidiv  platform,  connected  with  the 
neighbouring  country  oidy  on  the  west,  and  else- 
where engirt  by  a  steep  valley,  200  feet  deep,  in 
■Kvldch  nestle  tlie  industrial  suburbs  of  Klausen, 
Pfatlenthal,  and  (Irund.  The  intermediate  gorges 
.are  crossed  by  line  viaducts.  The  Spaniards, 
Austrians,  French,  and  Dutch,  who  successively 
lield  possession  of  the  town,  so  increased  and 
strengthened  its  fortifications,  hewn,  like  those  of 
Giliraltar,  in  great  part  out  of  the  solid  rock,  that 
in  the  beginning  of  the  19th  century  it  was  con- 
■sidered  to  be,  with  the  exception  of  Gibraltar,  the 
strongest  fortress  in  Europe.  But  they  were  de- 
molished in  accordance  with  the  treaty  of  London 
of  1867,  and  the  site  of  the  walls  has  been  laid  out 
as  beautiful  gardens.  There  are  in  the  town  the 
ruins  of  Count  Mansfeld's  palace  and  the  cathedral 
(built  in  1613).  Pop- ( 1!S75)  15,954  ;  (1890)18,187. 
See  works  by  Coster  (1869),  Schotter  (1882),  Weivcke 
(188tj),  Eyschen  (18811),  and  Pflips  (1894),  aU  in  German ; 
and  one  in  French  by  Glasener  (1885). 

Lll\euil.  a  French  town  in  Haute-Sa6ne  (pop. 
4550),  15  miles  NW.  of  Belfort,  with  remains  of  the 
monastery  founded  by  St  Columbanus  in  590. 

Liivor.    See  Thebes. 

Luyiie.s,  Due  DE  (1578-1621),  the  unworthy 
favourite  of  Louis  XIII.  of  France,  was  a  page  at 
the  court  of  Henry  IV.,  and  became  ultimately 
peer  of  France  and  chancellor. 

Llizeril.     See  Lucerne. 

Luzon',  the  largest  of  the  Philippines  (q.v. ). 

Luz'ula<  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural  order 
JunceiE,  differing  from  rushes  in  having  a  Sseeded 
instead  of  a  many-seeded 
capsule,  and  in  having  .soft 
]ilane  leaves,  which  are 
generally  covered  with 
thinly-scattered  longish 
hairs.  Tlujy  do  not  grow 
in  wet  places,  like  rushes, 
but  in  woods,  pastures, 
and  elevated  mountainous 
situations  (see  Ku.SH). 
Perhaps  there  is  no  more 
couimon  Ibitish  jilant  than 
the  Field-rush  (/..  ram- 
pcstris),  a  jilant  of  very 
humble  growth  :  its  flower- 
ing spikes  congregated  into 
a  close  head,  their  dark 
colour  relieved  by  the 
whitish  yellow  of  the 
anthers,  profusely  adorn 
ilry  pastures  in  s|]ring.  It 
is  of  no  agricultural  value. 
Tlie  species  which  grow 
uiuler  the  shade  of  trees 
l)reserve  their  verdure  in 
winter,  adding  to  the 
beauty  of  the  scene,  and 
improving  the  cover  for  game.' 

Lyall.  KnN.\,  the  pen-name  of  Ada  Kllcn  li.ayly, 
author  of  .s<'venil  popular  novels  written  with  a  jmr- 
pose,  was  born  ami  educated  at  Brighton,  had 
vague  ideas  of  becoming  a  novelist  even  in  her 
tenth   year,  ami  at  .school  wrote  a  good   deal  of 


Field-rush 
{Luziila  caiiijteiitn'a). 


amateur  fiction.  Her  first  novel.  Won  by  Waiting 
(1879),  was  followeil  by  her  most  Jiopular  story, 
Donovan  (1882),  written  at  Lincoln,  with  its  Mvpiel 
We  Two  (1884);  these  are  a  plea  for  that  charity 
which  takes  no  account  of  even  the  shar[iest  differ- 
ences in  creed  and  religion.  Her  other  books  are  In 
the  GoUlcn  Ddi/s  (1885);  Kni(jlit  Krntnt  (1887), 
partlv  written  in  Italy,  where  most  of  the  ideas 
for  this  novel  were  derived  ;  Aitt(i/iio(/rciji/ii/  of  a 
Slander  (18S7);  Derrick  Vanqhan  and  A  Hardy 
Norseman  (1889 ) ;  and  a  child  snook,  Their  Happiest 
Christmas  ( 1889).  Her  novels  are  characterised  by 
thought  and  quiet  humour  ;  her  descriptions  of  both 
nature  and  hnman  nature  are  usually  vivid  and 
graceful,  .'ind  coloured  by  her  own  experience  of 
travel.  Most  of  her  tales  turn  on  seif-sacrilice, 
while  the  A  utohiorfraphy  of  a  Slander  is  directed 
against  the  sins  of  the  tongue.  She  conceives 
her  characters  first,  then  surrounds  them  with 
the  chain  of  circumstance  for  the  due  di^velop- 
ment  of  the  story.  Like  George  Kliot  with  the 
Liggins  im|iostiire.  the  real  'Edna  Lyall'  has  had 
to  assert  herself  against  an  impostor  in  Ceylon  who 
had  adopted  her  name.  Statistics  of  tlie  books 
read  at  several  libraries  show  Edna  Lyall's  novels 
to  have  been  most  in  demand  over  a  certain  period. 

Lycantliropy.    See  Were- wolf. 

Lycaoilia,  in  ancient  geography,  a  country  in 
Asia  Minor,  bounded  E.  by  Cappadocia,  N.  by 
Galatia,  W.  by  Pisidia,  and  S.  by  Isauria  and 
Cilicia.     Its  capital  was  Iconium  (q.v.). 

Lycvillll  (Gr.  Lnhcion),  originally  the  name  of 
a  place  in  the  immediate  neighbourhood  of  Athens, 
consecrated  to  AjioUo  Lyrciiis,  and  noted  for  its 
shady  wood  and  beautiful  gardens,  but  jiarticularly 
for  its  gyiuiiiisium,  in  which  Aristotle  and  the 
Peripatetics  taught,  and  from  whi<'h  the  Komans 
borrowed  the  same  name  for  similar  institutions. 
In  more  modern  times  the  name  lyceum  was  'dveu 
in  honour  of  Aristotle  to  the  higher  Latin  scJiools 
in  which  the  Aristotelian  philosophy  formed  a  prin- 
cipal branch  of  education  ;  and  at  the  jiresent  day 
the  name  is  variously  applied  to  educational  and 
literary  institutions,  especially  to  the  French  schools 
called  Lycees  (see  France).  The  term  lyceum  is 
frequently  employed  in  America  for  what  would 
be  called  in  England  an  academy,  association,  or 
society.  It  may  signify  also  the  building  in  which 
the  society  meets. 

Lycll-gatC  ( A.S.  lie  or  liec,  '  a  body,'  '  corpse  '), 
or  CoRP.SE-GATE,  a  churchyard  gate  covereil  with  a 
roof.     It  is  very  common  in  many  parts  of  England 


Lych-gate. 

anil  Wales.  The  bodies  of  per.sons  brought  for 
burial  are  set  down  under  the  shelter  of  the  roof 
while  the  o])ening  words  of  the  .service  are  read. 


LYCHNIS 


LYCDRGUS 


751 


Lvcli  gates  me  very  rare  in  Seotlaml  ;  tlie  ilhistra- 
tioii  represeuts  oue  at  JJlackford  CLurcU,  in  I'eitli- 
sliire. 

Lycllllis.  a  ^einis  of  jilants  of  tlie  iialinal 
onler  Caryopliyllacea'.  They  are  herbaceouts 
jilaiits,  generally  perennial,  and  natives  of  tem- 
perate countries.  Several  are  found  in  Britain. 
The  Kagged  Robin  (L.  Jius-cwuli)  is  one  of  the 
most  freijuent  ornaments  of  meadows  and  nmist 
pastures;  the  German  Calehlly  ( /,.  viscaiia)  is 
very  rare,  and  generally  found  growing  on  almost 
inaccessible  precipices ;  the  Ked  Campion  ( A. 
tliiirna)  and  the  M'hite  Campicm  {L.  respcr- 
titia)  abound  in  fields,  hedges,  and  the  bordei-s 
of  woods.  The  last  two  are  dioecious,  and, 
.strangely  enough,  the  female  of  the  first  and  the 
male  of  the  second  are  very  common,  while  the 
male  of  the  lirst  and  fenuile  of  the  second  are 
rather  rare.  The  Howers  of  X.  ves/jcrtina  are 
usually  fragrant  in  the  evening.  The  Scarlet 
Lychnis  { L.  Chalcedonica ),  a  native  of  Asia  Minor, 
is  a  frequent  and  brilliant  ornament  of  rtower- 
borders.  Some  of  the  species  have  saponaceous 
properties. 

Lycia«  a  country  on  the  south  coast  of  Asia 
Minor,  bounded  on  the  \V.  by  Caria,  on  the  N.  by 
Phrygia  ami  I'isidia,  and  on  the  E.  by  Pamphylia. 
It  is  a  mountainous  region,  formed  by  lofty  spurs 
of  the  Taurus,  whicli  reach  10,000  feet  in  height ; 
the  valleys  are  very  fertile.  The  most  ancient 
inhabitants  are  said  to  have  been  two  races  called 
Solymi  and  Termihe.  The  Lycians  are  prominent 
in  the  Homeric  legend  of  the  Trojan  war.  Lycia 
maintained  its  independence  against  Crresus,  king 
of  Lydia,  but  wa-s  afterwards  made  subject  to  the 
Persians  an<I  Syrians,  and  then  to  Rome.  During 
the  time  of  its  independence  it  consisted  of  twenty- 
three  confederate  cities,  of  which  the  principal 
were  Xanthvis  (the  capital),  Patara,  Pinara,  Olym- 
pus, Myra.  and  Tlos  ;  and  at  the  head  of  the  whole 
confederation  was  a  president  or  governor  called 
the  Lyciarch.  Manv  monuments  and  ruined  build- 
ings (tem])les,  tombs,  theatres,  &c. )  and  other 
antii|uities  testify  to  the  attainments  of  the 
Lycians  in  civilisation  and  the  arts,  which  they 
seem  to  have  derived  in  large  measure  from  Greek 
sources.  Sir  Charles  Fellows,  about  1840,  was  the 
lii-st  to  discover  and  point  out  the  interestini' 
character  of  these  Lyeian  remains.  A  beautiful 
collection  is  preserved  in  the  British  Museum. 
There  e.xist  abso  inscriptions  in  which  a  peculiar 
alphaliet  is  used,  closely  modelled  upon  the  Greek, 
the  language  of  which  apjiears  to  be  inllected  like 
the  Indo-Germanic  languages,  and  was  probably 
akin  to  Zend. 

See  Fellows,  Diseoveriei  in  Lycia  ( 1841 ) ;  Spratt  and 
Forbes,  Travch  in  Lycia  ( 1847 ) ;  M.  Schmidt,  The 
Lyciaii  Imcviplions  (18<)!l);  Saycc,  Principles  of  Com- 
parative Pliilolot/y  (M  ed.  1885);  and  Treubcr,  Ge- 
sckichtc  der  Lykicr  ( 18K7). 

Lycopodiacca^  form  a  class  of  isosporous 
vascular  Cryptogams,  containing  two  orders  with 
four  genera.  Order  L  :  Lvcopodiere  includes  the 
genus  Lycopodium,  with  about  100  species  which 
are  universally  distributeil ;  and  the  genns  Pliyl- 
loglossum  with  only  one  siiecies  (P.  DnuniiKjiulii), 
found  in  Australia  and  New  Zealand.  Order  IL  : 
Psilote:e  includes  the  genus  Psilotum,  with  two 
species  which  are  found  in  the  tropics  of  both 
hemispheres,  and  the  genus  Tmesipteris,  with  only 
one  known  species,  which  is  epiphytic  on  tree-fern's 
in  the  southern  hemisphere. 

Of  the  four  genera  the  Lycojiodium  is  best  known 
under   tlie   name  of   '  (lub-mo.ss '   or   '  Stag'shorn  ' 
IIIOS.S,'   but   there  is    no    more   than   a  superlicial  I 
resemblance    between     it     and     the    true   mosses  | 
(Muscinex-).      Tlie  stem   may  be  creeping  as  in  ' 


L.  ctamttiiin,  the  common  club-moss  of  the  British 
Isles,  erect  jis  in  L.  Selaijo,  which  is  also  a  British 
species,  or  shrubby  and  stout  as  in  some  tropical 
species. 

The  Lycopodiacce  have  mostly  a  dichotomous 
form  of  branching.  The  stems,  except  in  the 
shrubby  forms,  are  slender,  and  never  reach  more 
than  a  few  feet  in  length.  The  leaves  are  small 
and  undivided,  usually  overlai)i)ing  and  completely 
protecting  the  stem.  Sjiecial 
branches  are  spore-bearing, 
and  one  sporangnim  is  liorne 
in  the  axil  of  each  leaf. 
Only  in  some  fossil  forms  are 
there  two  kinds  of  spores 
(heterosporous).  The  .siHire 
develops  a  green  prothallus, 
which  sends  root-hairs  into 
the  soil,  or  a  colourless, 
tuberous  suliterranean  pro- 
thallus :  but  both  forms  pro- 
duce on  the  same  individual 
antheiidia  and  archegonia ; 
the  former  produce  sperma- 
tozoids,  and  the  latter 
oospheres.  Fertilisation  oc- 
curs as  in  the  Fern  (q.v. ). 
The  sporophyte  plant  which 
results  from  the  fertilisation 
of  an  oospheie  by  a  spei-ma- 
tozoid  is  the  consjiicuous 
generation,  while  the  oophyte 
or  prothallus  is  the  incon- 
spicuous generation.  The 
roots  are  simple,  and  may 
arise  at  any  point  of  the 
stem  near  the  ground.  A 
number  of  tiattened  vascular 
bundles  unite  at  intervals 
longitudinally  in  the  centre 
of  the  stem  to  form  a  single 
axile  cylinder,  which  is  sur- 
rounded by  a  sheath,  while 
the  rest  of  the  stem  around 

this  is  made  up  of  thick  or  thin  walled  cells.  The 
elements  of  the  bundle  resemble  those  of  ferns.  A 
simjde  strand  jiasses  from  the  axile  cylinder  to  the 
midrib  of  each  leaf.  Alternation  of  generations  is 
very  strongly  marked  in  Lycopodium,  but  >ege- 
tative  reproduction  of  the  sporoiihyte  may  occur 
by  means  of  bulbils  in  the  axils  of  the  leaves  or 
on  the  roots,  or  l)y  means  of  adventitious  buds  on 
the  stems. 

The  I.ycoi>odiacepe  are  very  closely  related  to  the 
higher  forms,  the  Selaginellacea',  which  are  hetero- 
sporous plants,  and  to  the  lower  forms,  the  Ferns, 
which  have  simjder  siiorangia. 

The  spores  of  Lycopodium  are  used  for  coating 
pills,  and  the  hands  rublied  o\cr  with  the  s|iores 
may  be  dipped  in  water  without  being  wet ;  they 
are  also  used  for  Hash  lights  in  i)yrotechnic  displays. 
Many  species  are  medicinal.  L.  duvdtiim  is  emetic, 
and  A.  SclcKjo,  cathartic.  The  spores  of  many  form 
a  i)owder  which  is  benelicial  in  ulcerations,  &c., 
and  A.  ii/pimim  is  used  as  a  dye.  The  Lyeoiiodiacea- 
may  be  regardeil  as  the  degraded  survivors  of 
treelike  forms  that  were  very  plentiful  in  the 
forests  of  the  ( 'ai  boniferous  period. 

LyriirtfllS.  the  lawgiver  of  Sparta,  is  usually 
ilated  about  820  n.c.  He  was  uncle  of  the  young 
king  Charilaos,  and  governeil  the  state  wisely  dur- 
ing his  nephew's  infancy,  then  travelled  over  Crete, 
Ionia,  and  Kgypt,  ancl  on  his  ii'turn,  linding  his 
counlry  in  coiiijilete  an.aiehy,  made  a  new  division 
of  luiipeily.  aiKI  remodelled  the  whole  conslitutiiin, 
militaiy  and  civil.  Next  he  bound  the  cilizens  by 
oath  not  to  change  his  laws  until  he  came  back, 
and    (hen   left  Si)arta  to  be  no   more  seen.     His 


Club-moss  ( Lyco- 
podium claiatiim) : 

roots ;      b,     creeping 
st<?m  ;  c,  upri^'ht  stem  ; 

d,  vegetative  branches ; 

e,  stalk  bearing  the 
sporangiferous  brandies. 
/.  /."  3t  spore-bearing 
leaf;  ^,  same  in  sec- 
tion ;  ft,  h',  sporan- 
gium ;  i,  vein  of  spiral 
vessels. 


752 


LYCURGUS 


LYELL 


nieniDiy  was  honoured  as  tliat  of  a  god  with  a 
temple  and  yeaily  sacriliees. 

LyciirgllS,  an  Attic  orator,  horn  ahout  396  u.i:, 
was  a  [nipil  of  Plato  and  Isocrates,  and  warmly 
supported  Demostlioncs'  policy.  He  was  thrice 
appointed  manager  of  the  revenue.  He  died  in 
328.     Of  his  lifteen  speeches  hut  one  is  extant. 

Lyddite,  a  powerful  explosive  (like  nieliuitp), 
made  from  picrate  of  jiotash.  It  is  made  at  Lydd, 
near  New  Komney,  in  Kent,  where  there  is  a 
Government  artillery  range.     See  Picric  Acid. 

Lydgate,  -Iohx,  an  admirer  and  imitator  of 
Chaucer,  was  hoiii  at  Lydgate,  near  Newmarket,  in 
Suti'olk,  about  1370,  and  became  a  monk  in  the 
Benedictine  monastery  of  Burj'  St  Edmunds.  He 
studied  some  time  at  Oxford,  travelled  into  France 
and  Italy,  and  returned  a  nia-ster  of  their  poetry. 
In  the  monastery  he  appears  to  have  taught  the 
rhetoric  and  philosophy  of  his  time,  and   he  wrote 

Soetry  with  eijual  ease  upon  the  most  widely 
itt'erent  themes.  His  death  probably  occurred 
about  1450,  and  we  have  his  own  evidence  that  his 
last  years  were  harassed  by  poverty.  I'ntil  his  old 
age  he  seems  to  have  been  more  of  the  poet  than 
the  monk,  hut  among  his  later  works  are  a  metrical 
Life  of  St  Edmund  and  the  Legend  of  St  Alban. 
Ritson  has  enumerated  in  his  Bibliographia  Poctica 
no  fewer  than  251  ])ieces  written  by  Lydgate,  and 
most  probablj' even  this  list  is  incomplete.  A  selec- 
tion from  the  minor  poems  was  edited  by  Mr  Halli- 
well  for  the  Percy  Society  in  1840.  Lydgate's  longer 
works  are  the  Storie  of  Thebes,  the  Troy  Book,  and 
the  Falls  of  Princes.  The  Storie  of  T/iebes  is  repre- 
sented as  a  new  Canterhur\'  tale,  told  by  the  author 
after  joining  the  company  of  pilgrims  at  Canter- 
burj'.  It  is  written  in  rhyming  ten-syllable  coup- 
lets, and  contains  about  4780  lines.  Its  sources 
are  the  Thebaid  of  Statius  and  the  Teseide  of 
Boccaccio.  The  versification  is  rough,  and,  indeed, 
it  cannot  be  ilenied  that  the  poem  is  dull  and  pro- 
lix to  a  degree,  the  prologue  alone  exce])ted.  The 
Troi/  Book  was  undertaken  about  1412,  at  the 
request  of  Prince  Henry,  afterwards  Henry  V., 
and  was  finished  in  1420.  It  is  written  also  in  the 
ten-syllable  couidet,  and  is  divided  into  live  books, 
and  founded  on  Guido  di  Colonna's  Latin  prose 
Historia  TroJ<(>Hi.  Its  best-known  passage  is  the 
long  panegyric  on  his  '  Maister  Chaucer '  in  the 
thinl  liook.  The  Fulls  of  Princes,  divided  into  nine 
books,  is  written  in  Chaucer's  seven-line  stanza,  and 
contains  upwards  of  7000  stanzas.  It  was  written 
in  14.30  by  desire  of  Hum]direy,  Duke  of  Gloucester, 
and  is  foundeil  on  a  French  paraplira.se  by  Lawrence 
de  Premierfait  of  Boccaccio's  Latin  work,  De 
Ciisibiis  Viriirii/n  Jlliintriiim.  (Jther  works  that 
may  merely  be  mentioned  here  are  the  Daunce  of 
Marhdhre,  or  Dance  of  Death,  translated  from  the 
French  ;  the  Court  of  Sripicnn: ;  and  the  Temple  of 
Glass,  a  copy  of  Chaucer's  House  of  Fame. 

Lydia,  anciently  a  country  of  Asia  Minor, 
bounded  on  the  W.  by  Ionia,  on  the  S.  by  Caria,  on 
the  E.  by  Phrygia,  and  on  the  N.  by  Mysia.  It  is 
said  to  have  been  originally  inhabited  by  a  people 
called  Ma'onians,  though  the  Lydians,  an  allied 
tribe,  probably  occupied  the  plain  of  Sardi.s.  The 
country  was  celebrated  for  its  fruitful  soil — 
except  the  barren  Katakekmimene  (burned  uj)) 
volcanic  region  in  the  east — and  its  mineral 
wealth,  particularly  for  the  gold  of  the  river 
Pactobis  and  of  the  neighbouring  mines  of 
Tmolus,  but  was  in  later  ages  infamous  for  the 
corruption  of  morals  which  jirevailed  amongst  its 
inhabitants,  and  especially  in  Sardis  (q.v. ),  its 
capital.  The  Lydians,  shut  out  from  the  .Egean 
Sea  by  the  Ionian  Greeks,  developed  great  com- 
mercial activity  inland.  They  likewise  dis- 
tinguished   themselves  in    the  textile  arts.     Thej- 


were  believed  to  have  been  the  inventors  of 
coined  money,  and  of  dice  and  other  games. 
Many  elements  of  their  civilisation  seem  to  have 
been  derived  from  the  Hittiles  :  Hittite  governors 
ruled  for  some  time  at  Sardis.  The  sun-god 
.■\ttys  and  Cybele,  the  mother  of  the  gods,  the 
HittiteBabvlonian  Tamniuz  and  Tstar,  were  the 
deities  principally  worshipped.  Three  dynasties  are 
recorded  to  have  ruled  over  ancient  Lydia  :  the  first, 
wholly  mythical,  was  founded  by  Attys  ;  the  second, 
usually  called  the  Heracli<l,  from  its  founder  being 
a  reputed  son  of  Heic\iles  by  Omphale,  has  been 
identified  with  the  Hittites  ;  the  third  was  founded 
by  Gyges  about  690  B.C.  This  king  created  a 
powerful  Lydian  empire,  which  attained  its  great- 
est period  of  splendour  under  his  descendant  Croesus 
(q.v. )  the  rich,  who  was  slain  by  Cyrus  the  Persian 
in  546.  Sardis  thereafter  became  the  western  capital 
of  the  Persian  empire.  Lydia  was  subsequently 
subject  to  Athens,  Macedonia,  and  Rome  one 
after  the  otlier.  The  merest  fragments  remain  of 
the  language,  which  was  apparently  Indo-European. 
For  the  Lydian  mode,  see  H.\rmoxy  ;  and  for 
Lydian  stone,  Touch-stoke. 

Lye,  a  term  sometimes  used  to  denote  all  solu- 
tions of  salts,  but  more  u'enerally  appropriated  to 
solutions  of  the  fixed  alkalies,  potash  and  soda, 
in  water.  The  solutions  of  caustic  potash  and  soda 
are  called  caustic  lyes ;  those  of  their  carbonates, 
nuld  lyes.  The  fluid  which  remains  after  a  sub- 
stance has  been  sejiarated  from  its  solution  by 
crystallisation  is  called  the  mother  lye. 

Lyell,  Sir  Charles,  geologist,  was  the  eldest 
son  of  Charles  Lyell,  Esq.,  of  Kinnordy,  Forfai-shire, 
where  he  was  born  14th  November  1797.  /Vflcr 
receiving  his  early  education  at  Midhurst,  in  Sus- 
sex, he  entered  Exeter  College,  Oxford,  and  grailu- 
ated  as  B.A.  in  1819.  At  Oxford  he  attended  the 
lectures  of  Bucklaml,  and  thus  acquired  a  taste  for 
the  science  he  afterwards  did  so  much  to  promote. 
After  leaving  the  university  he  studied  law,  and 
in  due  time  was  called  to  the  bar  ;  but  his  circum- 
stances not  rendering  a  profession  necessary  for  a 
livelihood,  he  devoted  himself  to  geology,  and 
made  tours  in  1824,  and  again  in  1828-30,  over 
various  parts  of  Euro]ie,  and  published  the  results 
of  his  investigations  in  the  Transactions  of  the 
Gcoloqical  Socicti/  and  elsewhere.  His  great  work, 
The  Principles  of  Gcolocfxj  (3  vols.  1830-33),  may 
be  ranked  next  after  Darwin's  Origin  of  Species 
among  the  books  which  have  exerci.sed  the  most 
jiowerful  inlluence  on  the  direction  of  scientific 
thou'dit  in  the  19th  century.  It  broke  down 
the  belief  in  the  necessity  of  stupendous  con- 
vulsions in  past  times;  and  taught,  as  had  hmg 
before  been  maintained  bv  llutton  and  Playfair, 
that  the  greatest  geological  changes  might  be 
produced  by  the  forces  still  at  work  on  the  earth. 
It  was  subsequently  divided  into  two  parts,  pub- 
lished as  two  distinct  works — viz.  The  Principles 
of  Geology :  or  the  Modern  Changes  of  the  Earth 
and  its  Inhabitants  (12th  ed.  1876);  and  The 
Elements  of  Geology :  or  the  Ancient  Changes  of 
the  Earth  and  its  Inhabitants.  'The  Geological 
Evidences  of  the  Antiquity  of  Man  ( 1863)  startled 
the  jnil)li(^  by  its  unluassed  attitude  towards 
Darwin's  Oriqin  of  Species.  Lyell  also  ])ublished 
Travels  in  l^orth  America  (1845)  and  A  Second 
Visit  to  the  United  States  (1849).  During  the 
second  sojourn,  when  he  also  visited  Nova  Scolia, 
he  estimated  the  recession  of  the  rock  at  Ni.igara, 
and  the  amount  of  deposition  of  alluvium  at  the 
delta  of  the  Mississippi.  On  the  opening  of 
King's  College,  London,  in  18.32  Lvell  was  ap- 
pointed profes.sor  of  Geology,  an  otiice  which  he 
soon  resigned.  In  1836,  and  again  in  1850,  he 
was  elected    president  of   the   Geological   Society, 


LYKEWAKE 


LYMPH 


753 


anil  ill  1SU4  luesident  of  the  British  Association. 
He  w;is  kni<;liteil  in  184S,  anil  created  a  l>aronet  in 
1864.  He  ilieil  2'2il  February  1S7."),  and  W!i.s  buried 
in  Westminster  Alibey.  See  his  Life,  Letters,  and 
Juiinuils  (i  vols.  ISSl ) ;  and  the  article  GEOLOGY. 

Lykewake.    See  Wake. 

Lyly,  Jdiix,  romance-writer  and  dramatist,  was 
born  in  the  Weald  of  Kent  about  loo.S.  He  became 
a  student  of  Majidalen  College,  Oxford,  in  1569; 
B.A.,  27th  April  l.=i73 ;  M.A.,  1st  June  l.)7.5.  In 
Lansdowne  MS.  19  is  pre.served  a  Latin  letter 
(written  in  157-1)  in  which  he  begs  Lord  Burghley  to 
help  liini  towards  procuring  a  fellowship  at  JNIag- 
dalen  College  ;  but  the;  application  does  not  appear 
to  liave  Ijeen  successful.  He  afterwards  studied 
at  Cambridge,  where  he  was  incorporated  M.A.  in 
1579.  Failing  to  gain  preferment  at  the  univer- 
sities, he  followed  the  court.  Among  the  Harleian 
MSS.  are  two  undated  ]ietitions  to  Queen  Elizabeth, 
begging  that  he  might  be  appointed  Master  of  the 
Revels.  In  the  first  he  writes  :  '  I  was  enterteyned 
yo'  Ma*"  s'vant  by  yo'  owne  gratious  fauour, 
strengthened  with  condicions,  that  I  should  aynie 
all  my  courses  at  the  Eeuells  ( I  dare  not  saye  with 
a  promise,  but  a  hopefull  Item  to  the  rev'con )  for 
«"=''  these  10  yeres  I  have  attended  with  an  un- 
wearyed  ])atience,  and  nowe  I  knowe  not  what 
Crabb  took  me  for  an  Oyster,  that  in  the  midst  of 
yo'  sunshine  of  your  most  gratious  aspect,  hath 
thrust  a  stone  betweene  the  shells  to  eate  me  alive 
that  onely  line  on  dead  hopes.'  The  tone  of  the 
second  letter  is  even  more  desponding  :  '  Thirteene 
yeres  your  higbnes  seruant.  liut  yet  nothing.  .  .  . 
A  thou-sand  hopes,  but  all  notliing :  a  hundred 
promises,  but  yet  nothing. '  He  found  a  patron  in 
Lord  Burghley,  who  gave  liim  some  post  of  trust  in 
his  liousehold.  In  1589  he  took  part  in  the  Martin 
Marprelate  controversy,  and  incurred  the  enmity 
of  Gabriel  Harvey,  who  described  him  in  Pierce's 
Supcreror/ntion  ( 1593 )  as  '  a  mad  lad  as  ever  twangd, 
never  troubled  with  any  .substance  of  witt  orcircum- 
.stance  of  honestie,  sometime  the  fiddle-sticke  of 
Oxford,  now  the  very  bable  tbauble)  of  London.' 
The  authors  of  Athente  Cantabricjienses  (ii.  326) 
state  that  he  was  returned  for  Aylesbury  to  the 
parliament  of  19th  Febinary  1592-93  ;  for  Appleby, 
24th  October  1597  ;  and  again  for  Aylesbury,  7th 
October  1601.  In  December  1597  he  addressed  to 
Secretaiy  Cecil  a  letter  expressing  disappointment 
at  not  obtaining  advancement.  From  the  register 
of  St  Bartholomew  the  Less,  London,  it  appears  that 
he  was  buried  30th  November  1606.  He  was 
niaiTied,  and  had  children,  was  short  of  stature, 
and  very  fond  of  tobacco. 

Lyly's  most  famous  work  is  his  Eiiphues,  a 
romance  in  two  parts.  The  hrst  part,  Kiijihues,  the 
Aiiittumij  of  Wit  (4to),  was  published  in  the  sprin" 
of  1 579  ;  the  second  part,  Euph  iics  and  his  England, 
followed  in  1580.  In  court  circles  the  romance  was 
received  with  great  applause.  Edward  Blount,  the 
publisher,  who  collected  Lyly's  plays  in  1632, 
declared  :  '  Our  Nation  are  in  his  deljt  for  a  new 
English  which  hee  tauglit  tliem.  .  .  .  All  our  Ladies 
were  then  his  Schollers  ;  And  that  Beautie  in  Court 
which  could  not  Parley  Euphueisme  was  as  little 
regarded  as  shee  which  now  there  speakes  not 
French.'  In  the  Monastery  Scott  drew,  in  the 
person  of  Sir  I'iercy  Sliafton,  the  character  of  a 
euphuistic  gallant ;  but  the  portrait  is  barely 
recogni-sable.  One  peculiarity  of  this  '  new  English  ' 
is  the  constant  emjiloynient  of  similes  drawn  from 
fabulous  stories  ( of  ela.s.sical  and  medieval  writers) 
concerning  the  properties  of  animals,  plants,  and 
minernls.  Another  is  the  exces.sive  indulgence 
in  antithesis.  Lyly  cannot  relate  the  simplest 
incident  without  introducing  antithetical  nourishes 
and  fetching  illustrations  from  bestiaries  and 
308       


herbals.  This  unnatural  style  of  writing  was  not 
Lyly's  invention,  but  was  to  a  large  e.xtent  modelled 
(as  Professor  Landmann  has  shown)  on  the  example 
of  the  Spani^^b  writer  (lucvara.  I^ord  Berners  and 
others  had  translated  works  of  CJuevara ;  but  the 
Spaniard's  claims  were  forgotten,  and  Lyly  was 
regarded  as  the  pattern  of  refinement.  (Jreene, 
Lodge,  and  others  set  themselves  to  imitate 
Euphues,  but  their  aii'ectations  were  seldom  so 
deliberately  extravarant  as  Lyly's.  Later  the 
euphuistic  style  was  iield  up  to  derision.  Drayton 
speaks  scornfully  of 

Lyly's  writing  then  in  use  ; 

Talking  of  stones,  stars,  plants,  of  fishes,  flies, 

Playin"^  with  words  and  idle  similies. 

The  matter  of  Eiiphues  is  more  commendable  than 
the  manner.  Sound  advice  is  offered  on  the  sub- 
ject of  friendship,  love,  travel,  tlic  nature  and 
education  of  children,  morality,  and  religion. 

Lyly's  comedies  (wliicb  were  performed  before 
the  queen  by  children's  companies )  are  more  read- 
able than  Ills  romance.  The  earliest,  as  we  learn 
from  the  prologue,  was  The  Woman  in  the  Moone, 
first  printed  in  1597,  but  produced  in  or  before  1583. 
Campaspe  and  Sapho  and  Phao  were  published  in 
1584;  Endiniion  in  1591  ;  GaUathcn  and  3Iidas  in 
1592  ;  Motltcr  Bomhic  in  1594  ;  and  Love's  Metamor- 
phosis in  1601.  With  the  exception  of  The  Woman 
in  the  Moonc,  these  comedies  (on  pastoral  and 
mythological  subjects)  were  written  in  prose. 
Though  they  display  little  dramatic  power,  they 
are  fanciful  and  attractive  entertainments.  Fre- 
quently the  dialogue  is  pointed  and  sparkling.  The 
delightful  songs  were  first  printed  in  the  collective 
edition  of  1632;  'Cupid  and  my  Campaspe  played' 
is  in  modern  anthologies. 

Lyly's  plays  were  edited  by  Fairholt  in  1858  ;  Euphues 
by  Arber  (1868);  the  Emliimton  bv  Mr  G.  P.  Baker 
(1895).     See  C.  G.  Child's  Li/lif  and  Euphuism  (1894). 

Lyme  Regis,  a  seaport  and  watering-place  of 
Dorsetshire,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Lyme  rivulet,  5 
miles  SE.  of  Axminster  and  23  W.  of  Dorchester. 
The  Cobb  breakwater,  dating  from  the  14th  century, 
was  reconstructed  by  go\ernment  in  1825-26. 
Chartered  by  Edward  I.,  and  incorporated  by 
Elizabeth,  Lyme  returned  two  members  till  1832, 
and  then  one  till  1868.  It  beat  oil  Prince  Maurice 
(1644),  and  was  Monmouth's  landing-place  (1685). 
Natives  have  been  Sir  George  Somcrs,  Captain 
Coram,  and  Miss  Mary  Anning,  the  discoverer  of 
the  Ichthyosaurus  anil  Plesiosaurus  in  the  Lias 
rocks  here,  which  are  largely  r[uarried.  Pop. 
(1851)  2661;  (1881)  2047;  (1891)  2365.  See 
Roberts'  Historij  of  Lyme  Ecf/is  (18.3-i). 

LyillillgtOlI,  a  municipal  borough  of  Hamp- 
shire, at  the  mouth  of  the  Lyminglon  River  in 
the  Solent,  12  miles  (by  a  branch-line  IS)  SW.  of 
Southampton.  The  .saltworks  lielong  to  the  Jiast ; 
and  yacht-building  is  now  the  principal  industry. 
Lymingtim  is  also  of  some  importance  as  a  watering- 
place.  It  comm.ands  line  prosiiects  of  the  Isle  of 
Wight,  and  its  vicinity  abounds  in  charming 
scenery.  Till  1867  it  returned  two  members  to 
parliament,  and  then  till  1885  one.  Pop.  (1851) 
2651  ;  (1881),  with  extended  aiea,  4551.  See  works 
by  Garrow  (1825),  Grove  (1835),  and  King  (1879). 

Lyilinll  (Gr.  Iijmpha,  'water')  is  the  term 
applied  by  physiologists  to  the  fluid  contained  in 
the  Lymnhatics  (i|.v.).  It  is  a  colourless  or 
faintly-yiMlowi>b  lluid,  of  a  rather  saltish  tiuste,  and 
with  an  alkaline  reaction.  It  coagulates  shortly 
after  its  removal  from  the  living  body,  and  forms 
a  jelly  like,  semi-.solid  niiuss,  which  continues  for 
some  time  to  contract,  so  th.at  at  last  the  clot  is 
very  small  in  |iroportion  to  the  expressed  senim. 
Onndi-roscopie  examination  the  lymph  is  seen  to 
contain    cor])Uscles    which    dn   not    in    any   respect 


754 


LYMPHATICS 


LYNDHURST 


Diagram  of  Lymphatic 
System : 
a,  small  artery  or  capillary 
ft-oin  which  lymph  (  blood- 
plasma)  exudes;  b,  cell 
bathed  by  lymph  ;  c,  small 
lymphatic  into  which 
lymph  collects;  d,  lym- 
phatic gland  ;  e,  vein  into 
which  the  lynnph  is  re- 
turned. 


iliffei'  from  the  colourless  blood-cells,  molecular 
granules,  fat-globules,  and  occa-sionally  blood-cor- 
puscles. 

Lyiliphatics  arise  in  the  f(jrm  of  a  network  of 
lymiili  capillaries  which  lie  in  the  minute  inter- 
cellular spaces  of  the  body,  and  in  addition  form 
large  lymph  cavities,  such 
as  the  peritoneal,  {jleural, 
:::5Tj>^ y  &c.  The  lymph  is  then 
^\//  /^/  conveyed  by  larger  and 
-<^  y  larger  vessels,  to  the  ven- 
ous system,  on  entering 
■which  it  mixes  with  the 
blood.  The  lymph  of  the 
left  side  of  the  trunk,  of 
both  legs,  of  the  left  arm, 
and  the  whole  of  the  chyle 
is  conveyed  into  the  blood 
by  the  thoracic  duct ; 
while  the  lynijih  of  the 
right  side  of  the  head, 
neck,  and  trunk,  and  of 
the  right  arm,  enters  the 
circulation  at  the  junction 
of  the  axillary  and  internal 
jugular  veins  on  the  right 
side  by  a  short  trunk, 
guarded  at  its  opening  by 
valves.  On  its  way  the 
lymph  passes  through  small 
glands  of  the  size  of  a  pea 
or  bean  called  lymphatic 
glands.  Thus,  those  of  the  arm  pass  through  the 
lymphatic  glands  of  the  axilla,  those  of  the  leg 
through  the  glands  of  the  groin,  and  those  of  the 
head  and  face  through  the  glands  of  the  neck. 

The  lymph  arises  primarily  from  the  tluid  part  of 
the  blood  which  exudes  from  the  capillaries,  oathes 
the  cells  and  tissues  of  the  body,  and  then,  after 
supplying  them  with  food  and  receiving  their 
excretions,  passes  on  once  more  to  enter  the  cir- 
culation, being  carried  there  by  the  lymphatic 
vessels.  The  corpuscular  elements  are  chiefly  the 
products  of  the  lymphatic  glands.  See  Chyle, 
ClRCl"L.\TIOX. 

Lyncllblirg.  a  city  of  Viigiuia,  lies  in  a  pic- 
turesque mountain-region,  on  the  James  River, 
which  is  here  spanned  l)y  several  biiilges,  124  miles 
by  rail  W.  by  S.  of  Kichmond.  It  is  a  thriving 
place,  with  the  electric  light  and  electric  trams, 
and  has  several  foundries,  a  cotton-mill,  a  fruit- 
canning  factory,  and  manufactories  of  nails,  farm- 
ing implements,  fertilisers,  and  furniture,  besides 
tobacco,  which  is  the  sta|ile  of  the  town's  trade. 
There  are  twenty-four  leaf-tobacco  factories,  and 
an  even  larger  number  of  others.  Pop.  (1S80) 
15,9.59;  (1890)  19,709. 

Lyiioll  LatV,  the  summary  trial  and 
meiit  of  otlenders  by  private  and  unautl 
persons.  This  mode  of  administering  justice  has 
been  necessarily  employed  in  countries  newly 
settled,  where  the  power  of  the  civil  government  is 
not  yet  sutiiciently  established.  The  frei|Uency 
with  which  it  has  been  resorted  to  in  the  southern 
and  western  states  of  the  .American  L'nion,  how- 
ever, as  a  punishment  for  serious  criminal  ollences, 
is  to  be  referred  rather  to  a  doubt  on  the  part 
of  the  mob  as  to  the  adequacy  of  the  ordinary 
legal  machinery.  In  the  six  "years  1884-89  the 
number  of  murders  in  the  U'nited  States  wa.s 
reported  as  14,770,  of  legal  executions  558,  and 
of  lynchings  975.  Of  course,  the  infliction  of 
any  minor  nunishment  without  legal  trial  con- 
stitutes lyncli  law  (see  ViGli.AXrK  Societiks),  but 
the  simple  term  'lynching'  u.sually  implies  capital 
punishment. — The  phrase  has  been  variou-sly  traced 
to  a  Virginia  soldier  and  to  a  Virginia  farmer  of 


punisli- 
tiiori.sed 


that  name,  to  one  L'iTich  who  was  sent  out  from 
England  about  16S7  to  sui)press  piracy,  and  to  a 
mayor  of  G<alway  (q.v. )  in  Ireland ;' while  yet 
another  tradition  refers  it  to  Lynch  Creek,' in 
North  Carolina,  where  the  forms  ol^  a  court-martial 
and  execution  were  "one  thnmgh  over  the  lifeless 
body  of  a  Tory,  who  liad  already  been  precipitately 
hanged  to  pre\ent  a  rescue. 

Lyildlllirst,  a  Hampshire  vill.nge,  the  capital 
of  the  New  Forest,  9  miles  S\V.  of  Southampton. 
Its  church  ( 1863)  is  a  brick  Early  English  structure, 
with  conspicuous  spire,  good  stained  glass,  a  monu- 
ment by  Flaxman,  and  a  fresco  by  Leighton  of  the 
'Ten  Virgins.'  Near  it  is  the  verderers'  hall,  with 
Kufus's  stirrup.     Pop.  of  parish,  1589. 

Lyndliiii'st,  John  Si.ngleton  Copley,  IUkox, 
thrice  Lord  Chancellor,  was  the  son  of  J.  S.  Copley, 
R.A.  (q.v.),  and  wa-s  born  at  Boston,  Massachusetts, 
•21st  May  177"2.  At  three,  with  his  mother,  he 
followed  the  painter  to  London,  where,  from  1780 
till  his  death,  his  home  wivs  at  25  (ieorge  Street, 
Hanover  Square  ;  ami,  after  a  private  education  at 
Chiswick,  in  1790  he  entered  Trinity  College,  Cam- 
bridge. In  1794  he  came  out  second  wrangler  and 
second  Smith's  prizeman,  next  year  got  a  fellowship, 
and  in  1796  paid  a  six  months'  visit  to  the  States, 
travelling  tlirough  them  with  Volney.  On  his 
return  to  England  he  began  to  study  for  the  bar, 
to  which,  however,  he  was  not  called  till  1804, 
when  he  joined  the  Midland  circuit.  He  worked 
assiduously,  but  success  was  'very,  very  slow'  till 
1807,  and  not  assured  till  1812,  when  he  made  a 
real  hit  by  his  ingenious  defence  of  a  Luddite 
rioter.  In  1817  he  obtained  the  acquittal  of 
Thistlewood  and  Dr  Watson  on  their  trial  for  high- 
treason  ;  but  for  the  next  state  inosecution, 
four  months  afterwards,  the  government  secured 
him  on  their  side,  and  in  1818  he  entered  parlia- 
ment for  a  government  borough.  Henceforward, 
whatever  his  former  politics,  he  continued  a  fairly 
consistent  Tory,  and  as  such  his  pronn)tion  was 
ra]>id.  In  1819,  as  Sir  John  Copley,  he  became 
Solicitor-general,  in  J824  Attorney-general,  and  in 
1826  blaster  of  the  Kidls.  'When  Canning  was 
charged  to  form  a  ministry  he  oH'ereil  the  Great 
Seal  to  Copley,  who  was  raised  to  the  Up])er 
House  as  Baron  Lyndhurst  ;  he  remained  Lord 
Chancellor  under  three  administrations  from  1S27 
to  1830.  At  the  close  of  the  latter  year  his 
Whig  opponents  made  him  Chief-baron  of  the 
Exchequer,  which  oHice  he  exchanged  for  the 
woolsack  during  Peel's  brief  administration 
(1834-35).  He  next  led  the  ojqiosition  in  the 
Ui)]>er  House  to  the  Melbourne  ministry,  his  annual 
reviews  of  the  session  doing  much  to  reanimate  his 
liarty  and  jiave  the  way  fi>r  its  retuin  to  power  in 
184l'  He  then  for  the  third  tinii'  became  Lord 
Chancellor,  and  held  the  (Ireat  Seal  till  the  ilefeat 
of  the  Peel  government  in  1846.  After  that  time 
he  took  little  part  in  homo  politics,  but  his  voice 
was  often  heard  on  matters  of  foreign  policy. 
Threatened  with  blindness  for  the  last  fourteen 
years  of  his  life,  he  died  12th  October  1863, 
at  the  great  age  of  ninety-one.  I.yndliurst's 
attainments  as  a  clear-headed  lawyer  have  never 
licen  questioned  ;  his  judgments — that,  for  instance, 
in  the  great  case  of  Small  v.  Attwood  ( 1832) — have 
never  been  excelled  for  lucidity,  method,  and  le"al 
acumen.  In  the  House  of  Peers  he  had  not  his 
equal  as  a  debater.  Still,  he  was  not  a  great 
statesman,  lawgiver,  or  orator,  mainly  perhaps 
through  lack  of  earnestness.  His  character  has 
been  blackened  by  Lord  Campbell  [Litr.t  of  the 
C/iKiiccl/ors,  vol.  viii.  1869),  and  eulogised  by  Sir 
Theodore  Martin  (Life  of  Lord  LijHilhmst,  1883). 
For  the  act  that  goes  by  his  name,  see  DECEASED 
Wife's  Sister. 


LYNDSAY 


LYNN 


755 


Lyiidsny,  i>r  Lindsay,  Sir  David,  of  the 
MoL  NT,  one  of  tlie  best,  and  lonj;  the  most  popular 
of  tlie  older  Scottish  poets,  was  the  son  of^  David 
Lynilsay  of  Garniylton  (now  Garleton),  in  East 
Lothian,  whose  OTandfather  wa^s  a  son  of  Sir  \Vil- 
liani  Lyndsay  of  the  Byres.  The  ])()et  is  said  by 
Chalmers  to  have  been  born  at  the  Monnt  about 
the  vear  1490,  but  Laiiij;  in  his  recent  edition  of 
Lyndsay  (1ST9)  notes  the  absence  of  evidence  on 
tliis  point,  Chalmers  having  apparently  assumed 
it  as  a  consequence  of  his  supi)Osition  that  the 
poet's  father  was  'David  Lyndsay  of  the  Mountht,' 
while  Laing  has  shown  that  this  was  the  poet's 
grandfather.  The  name  of  'Da.  Lindesay  '  occui-s 
m  the  list  of  'incorporated'  stuilents  in  St  Sal- 
vator's  College,  St  Amlrews,  for  the  year  1508  or 
1509.  It  may  be  that  of  the  |)oet.  We  cannot  tell 
when  he  entered  the  royal  service,  but  in  October 
1511  he  is  found  taking  part  in  a  play  acted  before 
the  court  of  James  IV.  In  the  following  spring 
he  was  appointed  '  keeper '  or  '  usher '  of  the  prince 
who,  when  little  more  than  a  twelvemonth  old, 
became  James  V.  ;  and  his  verses  preserve  some 
]>lea>ing  traces  of  the  care  and  atrection  with 
which  he  tended  the  king's  infant  years.  His  wife, 
Janet  Douglas,  had  long  the  charge  of  the  royal 
a|)parel.  In  15'2-t  the  court  fell  under  the  power  of 
the  queen-mother  and  the  Douglases,  and  Lyndsay 
lost  his  place  ;  but  four  years  afterwards,  when  the 
Douglases  were  overthrown,  Lyndsay  was  made 
Lyon  King-of-arms,  and  at  the  same  time  received 
the  honour  of  knighthood.  In  this  capacity  he 
accompanied  embassies  to  the  courts  of  England, 
France,  Spain,  and  Denmark.  He  appeal's  to 
have  represented  Cupar  in  the  parliaments  of  154'2 
and  1543 ;  and  he  was  present  at  St  Andrews  in 
1547  when  the  followers  of  the  reformed  faith 
called  Knox  to  take  upon  himself  the  office  of  a 
public  preacher.  He  died  childless  before  the 
summer  of  1555. 

Two  editions  of  Lyndsay's  poems  were  published 
in  France  in  1558 ;  and  these  editions,  with  a 
few  pieces  added,  were  republished  by  Charteris, 
an  Edinburgh  bookseller,  in  1568.  Nrunerous 
editions  appeared  subsequently,  indicating  the 
great  popularity  which  Lyndsay  long  enjoyed. 
For  fully  two  centuries,  indeed,  he  was  what  Burns 
lia.s  since  become — the  poet  of  the  Scottish  people. 
His  works  were  in  almost  every  house,  liis  vei'ses  on 
almost  every  tongue.  Like  Burns,  he  owed  part  of 
his  popularity  no  doubt  to  his  comjilete  ma-sten'  of 
the  popular  speech.  But,  like  Bums,  Lynilsay 
would  have  been  read  in  whatever  language  he 
chose  to  write.  HLs  verses  show  few  marks  of  the 
highest  poetical  |)ower,  but  tlu^ir  merits  otherwise 
are  great.  Their  fancy  is  scarcely  less  genial  than 
their  humour,  and  they  are  full  of  good  .sense, 
varied  learning,  and  knowledge  of  the  worhl. 
They  are  valuable  now,  if  for  nothing  else  than 
their  vivid  pictures  of  manners  and  feelings.  In 
the  poet's  own  day  they  serveil  a  political  purpose, 
by  preparing  the  way  for  the  great  revolution  of 
the  Kith  centuiy.  It  has  been  said  that  the  verses 
of  Lyndsay  did  more  for  the  Beforniation  in  Scot- 
land than  all  the  sermons  of  Knox.  Like  Burns, 
Lynilsay  shot  some  of  his  sharpest  shafts  at  the 
clergy.  The  licentiousness  that  characterises  his 
ver-e  must  be  attributed  in  part  to  the  age  in 
which  he  lived.  The  earliest  and  most  poetical  of 
his  writings  is  The  Drcnie ;  the  most  ambitious, 
The  Motiiirchie ;  the  most  remarkable  in  his  own 
day,  perhaps,  wa.H  The  ,Safi/rc  of  the  Thric  Kxtttitis  ; 
but  that  which  is  now  read  with  most  [ilea-sure, 
both  for  the  charm  of  its  subject  ami  for  its 
freedom  from  the  allegorical  f.ushion  of  the  time,  is 
Th'-  Uiitoric  of  i>rjiii/rr  Mcldntiit.  .\  good  eilition 
of  Lyndsay's  works  is  that  of  Chalmers  (3  vols. 
Lonil.    1800);    but   in   (Hiints  of  detail   it  is   less 


accurate  than  that  of  David  Laing  (3  vols.  1879). 
A  number  of  his  poems  have  been  edited  bv  J. 
Small  and  F.  Hall  for  the  Early  English  'I'ext 
Society  (4  parts,  1865-71);  and  tlie  Scottish  Text 
Society  have  undertaken  a  new  edition. 

Lyndsay  of  Pitscottie.    See  Pitscottie. 
Lyiiedoch,  Tiioma.s  t;i!AHAM,  Loud,  British 

general,  was  tlie  son  of  the  laird  of  Balgowaii  in 
Pertlishire,  and  was  born  on  I9tli  October  1748. 
He  raised  in  1793  the  90th  regiment  of  foot,  and 
with  it  served  at  Quiberon  and  Isle  Dieii.  He 
distinguished  himself  at  the  capture  of  Minorca 
(1798),  conducted  the  siege  of  Valetta  (Malta), 
which  capitulated  (1800)  just  after  he  was 
superseded  in  the  command,  took  jiart  in  the 
retreat  to  Corunna  and  in  the  Walcbcren  expedi- 
tion (1809),  at  Barrosa,  near  Cadiz,  gained  a 
splendid  victory  over  the  French  (1811),  and 
then  under  "Wellington  distinguished  himself  at 
the  siege  of  Ciudad  Rodrigo  (1812),  was  present 
at  Badajoz  and  Salamanca,  commanded  tlie  left 
wing  at  Vittoria  (1813),  captured  Tolosa  and  St 
Sebastian,  and,  lastly,  coninLinded  a  body  of  troops 
in  Holland,  with  which  he  defeated  the  enemy  at 
Merxeni,  but  failed  in  an  ill-advised  attempt  to 
storm  Bergen-op-Zoom  ( 1S14).  Three  months  later 
he  was  created  Baron  Lynedoch  of  Balgowan,  and 
in  1821  was  promoted  to  the  rank  of  general.  He 
was  the  founder  of  the  Senior  United  Service  Club 
in  1817.  He  died  in  London,  18th  December  1843. 
See  Lives  bv  J.  JI.  Graham  (2d  ed.  1877)  and  A. 
M.  Delavoye(1880). 

Lyiiu,  or  King's  Lynn,  a  seaport,  parlia- 
mentary and  municipal  borough  of  Norfolk,  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Great  Ouse,  48  miles  WXW.  from 
Norwich  and  99  N.  by  E.  from  London.  It  still 
retains  traces  of  the  ramparts  and  a  fo.sse,  which 
once  guarded  it  on  the  landwai<l  side,  and  abounds 
in  picturesque  old  timbered  houses,  ornamented 
with  carved  work.  Of  its  four  churches  the  princi- 
pal are  cruciform  St  Margaret's,  varying  in  style 
from  Norman  to  Perpendicular,  and  240  feet 
long,  with  two  towers,  one  of  which  till  1741 
was  surmounted  by  a  spire  '2."")8  feet  high — and 
St  Nicliola.s  (1146-74),  with  a  modern  spire  (1869), 
which  replaced  one  blown  down  in  the  same 
hurricane  a-s  that  of  St  Jlargaret's.  Other 
features  of  interest  include  the  Red  Mount 
Chapel,  octagonal,  noticeable  for  its  richly-orna- 
mented roof ;  the  hexagonal  tower  of  the  Grey 
Friar's  ;  a  grammar-school,  founded  in  or  before  the 
reign  of  Henry VII I.,  at  which  Eugene  Aram  was 
once  usher:  a  guihlhall,  in  which  is  preserved  the 
Red  Register  of  Lynn,  one  of  the  earliest  paper 
books  in  existence  ;  customhouse  (1683);  hospital 
(1834-47);  museum  (1854),  with  a  good  collection 
of  British  birds;  library  ( 1883);  and  two  extensive 
docks  ( 1869-84),  admitting  vcs.sels  drawing  21  feet 
at  springtides.  A  considerable  trade  is  carried  on 
in  corn,  oilcake,  coals,  and  timber,  and  large  num- 
bers of  shrimps  are  caught  and  sent  to  fjondon  ; 
but  the  imports  of  port  wine,  for  which  Lyim  was 
formerly  noted,  have  of  late  years  nmch  fallen  oil'. 
In  Edward  I.'s  reign  it  was  one  of  the  iirincipal 
ports  of  the  kingilom ;  in  1397  it  ranked  liftli 
amongst  the  towns  contrib\iting  'loans'  to  meet 
the  royal  necessities;  in  1474  the  Hanse  merchants 
had  a  factory  or  'steelyard  '  here  :  aiul  in  the  lirst 
half  of  the  16th  century  it  was  a  llourisbing  seat  of 
cloth  manufacture.  In  1549,  during  Kot's  (cpv. ) 
rebellion,  one  body  of  the  insurgents  was  encamped 
here,  and  in  1643,  during  the  Civil  War,  the  town 
ca]iitulated  to  the  parliament:uy  force  after  three 
weeks'  resistance.  King.Iohn  (  who  in  1'204  granted 
the  town  its  lirst  charter),  the  dowager  ipieen 
Isabel  (a  resident  for  twenty-eight  years  at  Castle 
Rising,  a  few  miles  distant),  Edward   III.,  Henry 


756 


LYNN 


LYONS 


VI.,  Eihvaid  IV.,  Heiirv  VII.,  and  Oliver  Crom- 
well iill  visited  Lynn,  w^iich  wa.s  the  birthplace  of 
John  Capgrave  the  olironicler  and  of  Hishon  Keene  ; 
and  the  residence  of  tlie  physician  Sir  \Villiani 
Browne,  and  of  Dr  Charles  IJurney.  Pop.  (1801) 
lO.Onii:  (lS9i)  lS,;j(iO.  At  Sandrin'LjiKUii,  7^  miles 
X.  liy  E.  of  Lynn,  is  a  residence  of  the  Prince  of 
"Wales,  the  house,  completed  in  1S70,  being  in  the 
Elizabethan  style  of  architecture.  See  liichards' 
Hktonj  of  Lynn  (2  vols.  1812). 

Lynil<  a  city  and  port  of  jNIassacIiusetts,  on 
Mas.sachnsetts  Bay,  10  miles  NNE.  of  Boston, 
with  which  it  is  connected  by  train  and  trann\ay. 
Most  of  the  houses  arc  Imilt  of  wood  ;  among  them 
are  many  handsome  villas  belonging  to  Boston 
merchants.  The  principal  industry  is  the  manu- 
facture of  ladies'  and  children's  shoes — mainly  for 
the  West  and  South— of  which  10,000,000  p.airs 
have  been  jnoduced  in  one  year.  There  are  also 
large  tanneries  here.  Though  founded  in  1629, 
Lvnn  became  a  city  only  in  1850.  A  great  fire 
here  in  1889  destroyed  i>i'operty  worth  85,000,000. 
Pop.  (1880)  38,27-1  ^(1890)  55,727. 

LyiltOll  and  LyilllIOIltll.  two  villages  of  Xorth 
Devon,  on  the  Bristol  Channel,  18  miles  XE.  of 
Barnstaple  by  rail  (1896),  17  E.  of  Ilfracomlie,  and 
20  AV.  of  Minehead.  Lynmouth  stands  close  to  the 
sea,  and  Lynton  lialf-way  up  tlie  clitl. 428  feet  above. 
They  were  '  discovered '  in  1883,  and  have  since  been 
developed,  now  jjossessing  a  clitt'-railway  1000  feel 
in  vertical  ascent,  electric  light,  nine  hotels,  I've. 
Shelley  stayed  at  Lynmouth  in  1812;  and  Soutlnn 
called  it  'the  finest  spot,  e.xcept  Cintra  and  Air;i- 
bida  [near  Lisbon],  that  I  ever  saw.'  Joint  popu- 
lation ( 1881 )  1212  ;  ( 1S90)  2300. 

LyilX,  a  genus  of  Felida^,  having  a  less  elongated 
form  than  many  others  of  that  fanuly,  the  body 
elevated  at  the  haunclies,  long  fur,  a  short  tail, 
aud  the  ears  tipped  with  tufts  or  pencils  of  hairs. 


Tlie  European  Lynx  [Lijnx-  rinialus). 

They  are  less  courageous  than  other  Feliihe  of 
similar  size,  and  prey  on  small  quadrupeds  and 
birds.  It  has  been  said  that  they  kill  and  dev<mr 
tlie  skunk.  In  jmrsuit  of  birds  they  climb  trees. 
Tliey  are  generally  of  a  sullen  aud  suspicious 
temper,  and  not  easily  tamed.  The  species  are  not 
numerous,  but  widely  distributed  ;  the  distinctions 
of  species  and  varieties  are  somewhat  uiu'crtain. 
The  European  Lynx  (L.  vin/fitiia)  is  common  in 
many  parts  of  Europe  and  Asia,  chielly  in  moun- 
tainous and  woodeil  districts.  Its  colour  is  vari- 
able, but  generally  of  a  tlark  reddish  gray,  spotteil 
with  reddish  brown,  the  belly  whitish.  It  is  about 
three  feet  long,  and  proverbial  for  acuteness  of 
sight.  It  is  hunted  in  winter  foi-  its  fur,  which 
is  always  in  demanil  in  the  market  :  but  many  of 
the   lynx  skins  imported  from  the   north  of  Asia 


probably  belong  to  other  species.  Those  of  Xorth 
America,  and  probably  also  many  of  those  of  the 
north  of  Europe  and  of  Asia,  are  the  skins  of  the 
Canada  Lyn.x  (L.  aiiiiK/ciisis  or  /,.  buiralis), 
which  is  generally  of  a  hoaiy  gray  colour,  a  broad 
space  along  the  back  being  blackish  brown.  It  is 
rather  larger  than  tlie  European  Lynx,  ami  more 
clumsy  in  form.  The  Bay  L,ynx  (/,.  ni/iis)  is  found 
in  more  southern  parts  of  North  America,  both  in 
mountainous  and  in  swampy  districts,  and  often 
makes  great  havoc  among  poultry  ;  it  is  commonly 
called  ill  America  the  wild  cat.  But  as  :ill  these 
forms  graduate  into  one  another  they  sIkiuIiI  inob- 
ably  be  referred  to  a  single  species.  The  Asiatic 
species  are  the  Caracal  and  the  Tibet  Lynx. 

Lyou  Court,  the  court  in  Scotland  which  lia.s 
jurisdiction  in  questions  regarding  coat-armour 
and  precedency.  It  is  presided  over  hy  the  Lyon 
King  of-arms.     See  Hkh.\ld. 

Lyouesse.    See  Cohnwall. 

LyoilIiaiSa  a  former  pro\  ince  of  France,  was 
bounded  on  the  W.  by  Auvergne  and  on  the  S.  by 
Languedoc.  Its  territory  coincides  nearly  with 
the  present  departments  of  Rhone,  Loire,  Haute- 
Loiie,  and  Puy-de-Dome. 

Lyons  ( Fr.  Lyon ),  the  second  city  of  France, 
stands  at  the  conHuence  of  the  Khone  and  the  Saone, 
by  rail  315  miles  SSE.  of  Paris  ami  218  X.  by  W. 
of  Marseilles.  The  commercial  and  fasliion.able 
quarters  of  the  city  lie  on  the  long  narrow  tongue  of 
laml  between  the  rivers,  and  are  connected  with 
the  suburbs  beyond  by  more  than  twenty  bridges. 
This  central  part  of  Lyons  contains  many  narrow 
streets,  with  tall  gloomy  houses  :  but  much  has  been 
done  to  lighten  it  since  1852  by  the  making  of  long 
straight,  wide  streets,  and  the  opening  np  of  squares. 
In  tliis  district  stand  the  museum  (1667),  with 
\aluable  Koman  antiquities,  a  library  of  120,000 
vols,  and  1500  MSS.,  pictures  by  the  great  masters, 
and  other  art  collections  ;  the  church  of  St  Martin 
d'Ainay,  the  oldest  in  Lyons,  going  back  to  the 
10th  century  ;  St  Xizier  Church,  at  first  the 
cathedral,  a  fine  15tli-ceutury  Flamboyant  building, 
with  the  crypt  in  which  St  Pothinus  is  said  to  have 
officiated  ;  the  graceful  town-house,  built  in  1646 
and  restored  in  1702 ;  the  museum  of  arts  and 
industry  ;  the  academy,  with  five  faculties  ;  the 
hos]>ital,  founded  in  the  6th  century,  and  perhaps 
the  oldest  in  I'lance.  though  the  present  building 
dales  only  from  1773  ;  and  the  arsenal.  To  the 
north  lirs  the  suburb  of  La  Croix  Ilousse,  where  the 
silk-wea\ers  dwell.  Across  the  Saone,  and  (Ui  its 
right  bank,  is  the  steep,  high  suburb  of  Fourviires, 
the  ancient  Forum  Veins  of  Trajan,  whose  summit 
(410  feet)  is  now  crowned  by  the  church  of  Notre 
Dame  (the  new  church  begun  in  1872).  Here  is  the 
miracle-working  image  of  our  Lady  of  Fourvieres 
that  is  believed  to  have  preserved  the  city  from  the 
cholera  in  1832,  1835,  and  IS.'iO;  it  is  "visited  by 
thousands  of  pilgrims  annually,  who.se  olVerings 
cover  the  walls  of  the  chinch.  From  its  tower, 
which  is  surmounted  by  a  gilded  statue  of  the 
A'irgin,  18  feet  high,  a  view  can  be  had  of  the  distant 
Alps.  On  this  elevated  site  too  stands  the  church 
of  St  Irenaus,  in  the  crypt  of  wliiih  are  |iieserved 
what  ]iurport  to  be  the  bones  of  19,000  Christian 
martyrs  who  ]ierished  in  the  ]iersecution  by  Severus. 
At  the  foot  of  the  hill  next  the  Saone  is  the  archi- 
episeopal  cathedral  of  St  John,  of  the  Kith  and 
litli  centuries,  with  magnificent  stained-glass 
windows  of  the  same  date  and  Ji  celebialed  clock 
of  1598  ;  the  jialace  of  the  archbishop,  who  ranks 
;is  primate  of  France  ;  and  the  law  courts.  On 
the  left  bank  of  the  Hlione,  which  is  so  low  that  it 
has  to  be  protected  with  embankments  to  jirevent 
it  from  overllowing  and  Hooding  the  city,  is  the 
handsome  new  suburb  of  Les  Brotteanx,    teriiiin- 


LYONS 


LYRE-BIRD 


757 


ateJ  oil  the  north  hy  the  park  of  tlie  Tete  d"Or,  in 
which  are  an  oriental  nmseuni,  a  zoolojrical  collec- 
tion, and  a  line  botanical  garden  ;  while  more  to 
the  simtli  is  the  sqnalid  snburl)  of  La  (luillotiere. 
Lyons  possesses  also  a  Roman  Catholic  University 
with  three  faculties,  a  tirst-class  veterinary  school, 
a  school  of  art  with  1200  pupils,  of  great  value  for 
the  silk  manufactures,  a  school  of  the  industrial 
arts,  a  municipal  library  of  66,000  vols.,  a  natural 
history  and  other  museums,  and  a  silk-conditioning 
house.  The  city  is  a  fortress  of  the  first  rank, 
being  defended  by  a  double  ring  of  forts.  Pop. 
( 187-21  .301.868  ;  ( 1891 )  39S,027,  or,  of  the  commune, 
438,077.  The  staple  industry  is  the  silk;  it  is 
computed  that  there  are  in  all,  within  the  city  and 
its  environs,  from  75,000  to  85,000  hand-looms  and 
20,000  power-looms  employed  in  this  manufacture. 
Raw  silk  is  imported,  principally  from  China 
(28  per  cent.),  Japan  (24  percent.),  Itah- ami  the 
Levant,  and  France,  to  the  annual  value  of 
£2,124,650,  and  manufactured  silk  goods  exported 
to  the  yearly  value  of  £9,510,960 ;  the  annual 
production  reaches  in  value  £43,936,000.  The 
commodities  speciiilly  characteristic  of  the  Lyons 
manufacture  used  to  be  heavy  figured  studs,  such 
as  velvets,  satins,  watered  silks,  plushes,  moires, 
and  so  fortli  ;  but  of  late  years,  owing  to  a  change 
in  taste  or  fashion,  there  has  been  a  growing 
demand  for  lighter  stuffs  dyed  in  the  piece.  Silk- 
dyeing  and  printing  give  employment  to  nearly 
4000  workmen  ;  25,00>0  more  are  engaged  in  the 
various  chemical  industries  (dyes,  starch,  candles, 
soap),  machinery-making  establishments,  foundries, 
brass-works,  fancy-ware  manufactories,  gold  and 
silver  goods,  hats,  paper,  mathematical  instiuments, 
and   numerous  minor   branches.      The    admirable 

Eosition  of  Lyons  makes  it  a  great  emporium  of  trade 
etween  central  and  southern  Europe.  Besides 
importing  silk  raw  and  exporting  it  manufactured, 
chiefly  to  Creat  Britain  and  the  L'nited  States, 
cotton  is  imported  from  America  and  Egypt,  and  a 
large  amoiuit  of  business  done  in  cloth  and  linen, 
chestnuts,  coal,  charcoal,  cheese,  and  wine  and 
spirits.  Tlie  ILst  of  notable  persons  born  in  Lyons 
includes  Ciermanicus  and  the  Roman  emperors 
Claudius,  Marcus  Aurelius,  and  Caracalla,  Jules 
Favre,  Roland,  Say,  Suchet,  the  De  Jussieus, 
Ampere,  Recamier,  Bonnet,  Delorrae,  Meissonier, 
and  Jacquard. 

Tlie  Romans  settled  a  colony  here  in  43  B.C.  and 
made  it  the  starting-point  for  their  great  network 
of  highways  througli  Gaul.  It  soon  became  the 
ecclesiastical  metropolis  of  that  great  province  and 
its  first  commercial  and  manufacturing  town,  under 
the  nameof  Lugdunum.  But  ill  fortune  attended 
it  :  it  was  burned  to  the  ground  in  59  A.D.,  and 
again  in  197 ;  it  suftered  severely  during  the 
barbarian  invasions  ;  and  was  connuered  by  the 
Saracens  in  736.  Yet  it  was  visited  by  gleams  of 
glorj- :  in  478  it  was  made  capital  of  the  Burgundian 
kingdom,  and,  passing  to  the  empire  in  10.32,  was 
invested  with  self-government  and  the  privileges  of 
a  free  imperial  town.  But  after  the  condeiiinati<m 
of  the  Emperor  Frederick  1 1,  at  the  Council  of  Lyons 
in  1245  the  city  reverted  to  the  French  crown. 
The  introduction  of  the  silk  industiy  must  be  set 
down  to  the  credit  of  Francis  L  The  Reformation, 
entering  from  Cleneva,  had  a  short  but  violent 
reign  ;  the  emigration  of  the  Huguenots  struck  a 
blow  at  tlie  industrial  prosperity  of  the  town  from 
which  it  dirl  not  recover  for  some  time.  In  1789 
the  city  embraced  the  cause  of  the  Revolution, 
though  royalist  feeling  was  also  strong  here.  In 
1792  it  refused  oljcdience  to  the  National  Conven- 
tion :  in  revenge  it  was  besieged,  cajitured,  its 
buildings  destroyed,  its  naiiic  changed  (till  1794) 
to  Ville-Afrranchii-,  and  WMMJ  of  its  citizens 
slain    under    the    direction    of    Collot    d'llerbois. 


Couthon,  and  Fouche.  The  19th  century  was  chiefly 
memorable  for  trade  riots,  which  sometimes,  as  in 
1831,  1834,  and  1849,  assumed  very  formidable 
dimensions.  Since  the  war  of  1870  it  has  been 
known  as  a  focus  of  red  republicanism. 

See  Histories  by  Clcrjon  (4  vols.  1829-35),  Beauliea 
(1838),  Monf;Ucon  (8  vols.  18i;6-70).  Metzger  (9  vols. 
1881-85),  the  topographical  account  by  Joanne  (1885), 
and  works  by  Josse  ( 1892 )  and  Steyers  ( 1895 ). 

Lyre,  one  of  the  oldest  forms  of  stringed  instru- 
ment. It  was  introduced  into  Egypt  from  Pales- 
tine during  the  18th  dynasty,  and  was  common 
among  the  Greeks  even  in  the  lieroic  times.  Most 
of  the  barbarians  who  invaded  the  Roman  empire 
were  acquainted  with  the  lyre,  and  must  have 
independently  attained  the  knowledge  of  it.  The 
common  Greek  lyre  was  made  of  a  tortoiseshell, 
with  blocks  inside,  similar  to  those  nsed  in  a 
violin,  to  modify  the  strain  of  tlie  strings. 
The  shell  was  covered  with  bull's  hide,  and  two 
horns  were  fastened  to  one  side  of  it,  one  bom  at 
each  extremity  of  the  side.  A  piece  of  wood 
served  as  a  crosspiece,  and  was  fastened  from  the 
tip  of  one  horn  to  the  tiji  of  the  other.  Seven 
strings  of  gut  were  tied  to  the  crosspiece,  the  other 
ends  being  secureil  at  the  bottom  of  the  shell. 
Pegs  for  tlie  strings  were  added  to  the  crosspiece 
by  the  later  Greeks,  likewise  a  bridge  to  prevent 
tfie  strings  toucliing  the  shell,  and  two  sound-holes 
cut  in  the  shell  in  order  to  increase  its  resonance. 
The  lyre,  unlike  the  lute,  cannot  be  stopped  by 
the  fingers  and  its  sounds  thereby  multiplied.  Its 
sounds  can  be  no  more  in  number  than  its  strings. 
Consequently,  since  the  rise  of  the  modern  scale, 
the  lyre,  whose  strings  were  never  more  than  seven 
or  eight  in  number,  has  been  unable  to  cope  with 
the  growing  exigencies  of  an  intricate  music,  and 
lias  fallen  into  complete  desuetude. 

Lyre-bird,  or  Lyre-tail  {Mouira),  a  genus 
of  birds,  of  which  the  best-known  species  (jl/. 
stiperba)  is  a  native  of  New  South  Wales,  where 
it  is  generally  called  the  Lyre  Pheasant.  The 
proper  place  of  this  genus  has  been  much  disputed 
by  ornithologists, 
though  it  un- 
doubtedly belongs 
to  the  Passeres.  A 
bird  about  the  size 
of  a  pheasant,  it 
frequents  the 
hrii.sh,  or  sparsely- 
wooded  country, 
in  the  unsettled 
parts  of  New  South 
Wales,  but  re- 
treats from  the 
more  inlialiited 
districts,  being 
extremely  shy  and 
difficult  to  ap- 
^iroacli.  It  is  by 
tar  the  largest  of 
all  songbirds,  and 
possesses  the 
power  of  imitating 
the  song  of  other 
birds  and  the 
sounds  of  other 
animals,  imitating 
even  the  bark  of 
the  dingo.  The 
tail  of  tlie  male  is 
very  remarkable 
and       splendid, 

twelve  feathers  being  very  long,  and  having  very 
line  and  widely-seiiaratcd  barbs;  whilst,  besides 
these,   there  are   two   long  middle  feathers,  each 


Lyre-bird  {Mrmira  fuperba). 


758 


LYRIC 


LYTHRACE.S; 


of  which  has  a  vane  only  on  one  side,  and  two 
exterior  feathers,  curved  like  the  sides  of  an  ancient 
Ivre  The  lyre-bird  makes  a  domed  nest.  A 
second  si.ecies  (31.  albcrti),  also  Australian,  has 
been  named  in  honour  of  Prince  Albert.  llie 
lyre-shaped  fealhere  of  its  tail  are  comparatively 
short  and  destitute  of  bare. 

Lyrio,  the  name  dven  to  a  certain  species  of 
poetry  because  originally  accompanied  by  the  music 
of  the  lyre.     It  is  rapid  in  moNement,  as  belittm.' 
the  expression  of  the  mind  in  its  emotional  and 
impassioned  moments,  and  naturally  its  pnncipal 
themes  are  love,  devotion,  patriotism,  lriends_hip, 
and  the  Bacchanalian  spirit.    It  was  a  favourite  form 
amou"  the  ancient  Greeks  and  Komans,  anil  here 
it  may  be  enou-h  to  mention  the  names  of  such 
masters  as  Sappho,  Pindar,  Tyrtaeus,  ^fem'-nides,  of 
manv  unknown  writers  in   the   Greek  Anthologi/, 
and  of  Catullus  and  Horace.     The  most  imijortant 
form   of   the   modern   lyric  is  the  soiifh   ^vith   its 
reli"ious  sister,  the  hijmn,  neither  of  which,  as  we 
iniMit  expect,  extends  usually  to  any  great  number 
of  lines       Lyric  poetry  obviously   concerns  itselt 
with  the  thoughts  and   emotions   of  the    writers 
own  mind,  and  is  thus  subjcdh-c  as    opposed    to 
the  epic,  for  example,  which  is  essentially  ohjechve 
in   character  ;    while    from    beginning    to    end    it 
should    express    but    one    incident,    situation,   or 
spasm   of  emotion.     Modern  English  literature  is 
remarkably  rich  in  poetiy  in  lyric  forms,  although 
it  would  be  difficult  to  bring  together  any  tl';?e  ot 
their  contemporaries  to  outweigh  Goethe,  bchiUer 
and  Heine.     As  admirable  examples  of  devotional 
lyrics  may  be  named   INIilton's  'Christmas  Ode, 
Byron's   hebrew  Melodies,   Moore's  Sacred   Melo- 
dies, and  our  thousand  hymns  of  greater  or  less 
poetic  value;   of  love-songs,   the   masterpieces  of 
Herrick  and  other  Caroline  lyrists,  and  of  Burns, 
the  best  dozen  of  whose  songs  stand  safely  tirst  in 
their  order,  as  well  as,  in  later  times,  the  unmatcheil 
utterances  in  Tennyson's  Maud  of  the  love-passion 
in  its  swift  progress  from  hope  to  despair ;  of  loyal, 
and  patriotic,  and  martial  lyrics,  the  Royalist,  and 
especially   the    Jacobite    group,    Campbells    '\e 
Mariners  of  England,'   '  Hohenlmden,    and     The 
Battle  of  the   Baltic,'   Burns's   'Scots   wha   hae, 
Byron's  '  Isles  of  Greece,'  and  Tennyson  s  '  Charge 
of  the  Light  Brigade '  and  'The  Last  Fight  of  the 
Kevenge.'     An  admirable  selection  from  the  whole 
range  of  English  poetry  is  Palgrave's  Gulden  Trea- 
sur?/  ( 1861,  often  reprinted ).     See  SoNC. 

Lvs  or  Leye,  a  tributary  of  the  Scheldt,  ri.'^es 
in  France  near  the  little  town  of  Lysbourg,  in  the 
department  of  Pas-de-Calais,  and  Hows  in  a  north- 
eaitern  direction,  joining  the  Scheldt  at  Ghent  in 
Belgium  after  a  course  of  130  miles. 

Lvsailder,  a  famous  Spartan  warrior  and 
naval'  commander,  of  extraordinary  energy  and 
military  skill,  but  not  less  remarkalde  for  the 
cunning,  revenge,  and  ambition  by  which  he  was 
characterised.  He  spent  part  of  Ins  youth  at  the 
court  of  Cyrus  the  Vounger,  and  m  •*"'  B.c  was 
api)ointed  to  the  command  of  the  Spartan  fleet, 
from  which  time  he  constantly  prosecuted  the 
desi.'u  of  overthrowing  the  Athenian  power,  in 
orde'^  to  exalt  that  of  Sparta.  He  defeated  the 
Athenian  lleet  at  the  promontory  of  Notuiin  ;  and, 
bein<'  again  entrusted  with  the  management  of  the 
fleet'ifter  the  defeat  of  his  successor,  Callicratidas 
(405  II  c  )  he  wa-s  again  victorious.  He  swept  the 
southern  part  of  the  .Egean,  and  made  descents 
upon  both  the  Greek  and  the  Asiatic  coasts  He 
then  sailed  north  to  the  Hellespont,  and  anchored 
at  Lampsacus.  An  immense  Athenian  fleet  soon 
made  its  api>oarance  at  .Kgosiiotami,  on  the  oppo- 
site siile  of  the  straits,  amounting  to  ISO  ships. 
Of  these,  171   were  captured  by  Lysander  a  lew 


days  after.  The  blow  to  Athens  was  tremendous. 
Everywhere  her  colonial  garrisons  had  to  surren- 
der and  Spartan  influence  predominated.  I'lnally, 
in  404  K  C,  he  took  Athens  itself.  His  poimlurity 
now  became  so  great,  especially  in  the  cities  of 
Asia  HHiior,  that  the  Spartan  ephois  dreaded  the 
consequences,  especially  as  they  knew  how  am- 
bitious he  was.  Every  means  wa-s  taken  to  thwart 
his  designs,  until  finally  it  would  ajii'ear  that  he 
had  resolved  to  attempt  the  overthrow  of  the 
Spartan  constitution;  but  thi-s  scheme  was  pre- 
vented  by  his  death  at  the  battle  of  Haliartus  in 
the  Bffiotian  war  (395  B.C.).  His  Life  was  written 
by  Plutarch  and  by  Cornelius  Kepos. 

Lysias.   the   fust  Greek  orator  who    attained 
perfection  in  his  own  line,  was  the  son  of  Cephalus, 
who,    foreisjiier    though    he    was-he    came    froni 
Syracuse— succeeded  in   making  his  house  one  ot 
the  centres  of  intellectual  lite  in  Athens      Lysias 
himself  was  bom  in  Athens,  probably  about  i.ii 
BC     (the  date  is  very   uncertain),  was  educated 
aion"  with  children  of  the  best  Athenian  families, 
and  "at    fifteen    years   of    age    joined    the   colony 
planted   by   Athens  at  Thurii,    where    his    early 
manhood  was  spent.     The  failure  of  the  Athenian 
expedition    against   Sicily   made  it   advisable  tor 
Lvsias    like    other    friends  of    Athens,   to    leave 
Tliurii    and   in  412   he  returned   to   Athens  and 
continued     his     rhetorical    studies,    not    for    pro- 
fessional  purposes,  for   he  and   his  brother   Pole- 
marchus    were    wealthy,   imt    from    choice.     I  he 
choice  proved   in   the  event   a  wise  one,  tor  the 
Thirty  Tyrants,  in  404  B.C.,  stripped  the  brothers 
of  all'  their  wealth,  killed  Polemarchus,  and  only 
failed  to  kill  Lvsias  because   he  lied  to  Megara. 
The   first  practical  use  to  which   Lysias  put  his 
eloquence  was,  on  the  fall  of  the  Thirty  (403)   to 
avence  his  brother's  death  l;>y  i>rosecuting  Eratos- 
thenes, the  tyrant  on  whom  the  principal  responsi- 
bilitvfor  the  legal  murder  of  Polemarchus  rested. 
He  "then  practised,   until   his   death   at    the    age 
of  eighty,   with  singular   success  as  a  writer  of 
siieeches'for  persons  engaged  in  litigation.    Aocord- 
im.  to  Dionysius  of   Halicarnassus,   he  composed 
"33  such  speeches,  and  only  failed  in  two  instances 
to  secure  a  favourable  ventict.     From  an  examina- 
tion of  the  thirty-four  surviving  soeeohes,  we  can 
see  that  Lysias 'is  at  all  times  and  m  al  mattere 
surprisingly  and  delightfully  lucid  in  both  thought 
and  expression  :  he  rarely  indulges  in  a  metap  lor, 
he  is  always  .lirect,  and  uses  simple,  commonplace 
lan<aia"e   for  his  simple  narrative   and  common- 
sense  aTguments.     But  though  simple  his  narrative 
i'.  never  monotonous:   it  is  lively,  graceful,  and 
entertaining.      Another  quality,  which  both  con- 
tributed to  his  practical  success  and  lieli.s  to  (dace 
his  speeches    amongst  the    most  entertaining    ot 
Greek  literature,  is  his  power  of  character  drawing. 
The  first  edition  is  Aldus' ( 1513) ;  the  best  ed.tum  of 
the  text,  Teubner's:    a  school  t-dition,  Cobet  li    ( Amst. 
18G3).     Selections,  with  German  notes  by  Frohbciger  and 
Kauchenstein.     See  Jcbb's  Attic  Orators ;  and  ]51ass,  Die 
Attische  Bercdsamkeit.  _ 

liVte.  Henry  Fr.xxcis,  hymn-wnter,  born  at 
E,h,am.  near  Kelso,  1st  June  1793;  in  1SV2  entered 
Trinitv  College,  Dublin  :  took  orders  in  ISlo  ;  ami, 
his  health  having  faile.l  three  years  f'>'l'^'- ^'/'^,') '';* 
Nice,  'iOth  Nov.  1847.  His  Poems,  chic/h/  hrlnjious 
(1833'  reprinted  as  ]\Iiseella)ieom  Poems.  IS(i8), 
Memoh-  of^  Henry  Vaughan  ( 1847),  &c.,  are  almost 
fon'otten  ;  but  '  Abide  with  me.  '  Plea-ant  are  thy 
courts,'  and  other  hymns  keep  his  memory  green. 
See  Life  prefixed  to  his  Hiiikiuis  ( 18.)0). 

Lvtlinill.  a  watering-place  of  Lanca.-lnre,  on 
th^nonhslmre  of  the  Bibble  estuary,  14  n.iles  ^\  . 
of  Preston,  and  7  SSE.  of  P.laekpool.      Pop.  412-. 

I  vthraoea-.  a  natural  order  of  exogenous 
phu.l    rhielly  I'erbs,   an.l  rarely  shrubs  or  trees. 


LYTTELTON 


LYTTON 


r59 


The  oilier  contains  about  40  yeneia  ami  upwards 
.of  300  species,  chiefly  natives  of  the  tr()i)ics  ;  but  a 
few  are  fouml  in  Europe  and  in  North  ^Viuerica. 
Astrinjjent  qualities  are  ascribed  to  some  of  the 
species.  The  onler  is  well  represented  in  IJritain 
by  the  well-known  Loosestrife  (Li/thiiim  sa/icaria). 
w'liioh  fjrows  abundantly  on  tlie  margins  of  ponds 
and  streams  and  in  moist  mea<lows,  in  some  parts 
of  the  country  imparting  character  to  the  landscape 
by  its  broad  masses  of  puri>le  llowers.  The  Henna 
(q.v. )  of  Egypt  is  produced  by  Lairsoiiia  iiicnnis, 
a  plant  of  this  order.  The  leaves  of  another 
( I'cmp/i is  (ifidiilu)  are  said  to  be  a  common  pot- 
herb on  the  coasts  of  the  tropical  parts  of  Asia. 
The  leaves  oi  Ammania  vesicatoiia,  an  East  Indian 
aquatic  plant,  are  very  acrid,  and  are  sometimes 
useil  as  blisters.  Physocali/inma  Jlwihumla,  a 
Brazilian  tree  of  this  order,  growing  about  30  feet 
higli,  furnishes  the  valuable  rosewood  (the  American 
tulipwood )  of  commerce. 

Lytteltoil.  George,  Lord,  son  of  Sir  Thomas 
Lyttelton  of  Hagley,  in  Worcestershire,  was  born 
in"  1709,  and  educated  at  Eton  and  Christ  Church, 
Oxford.  He  entered  parliament  in  1730,  where  he 
soon  acijuired  eminence  as  a'  speaker,  held  several 
high  political  offices,  was  raised  to  the  peerage  in 
1759,  and  died  22(1  August  1773.  Lyttelton  had 
once  a  considerable  reputation  as  an  author,  and 
his  poetry  gained  him  a  place  in  Johnson's  Lives  of 
the  Poets.  His  l>est-known  prose  works  are  Obser- 
vations on  tjie  Conversion  and  Aponfles/iip  of  St 
Paul  (1747),  Diedoques  of  ike  Dead  (1760),  and 
History  of  Henry  it.  (1764).  See  his  Memoirs  and 
Correspondence  (2  vols.  1S45). — His  son,  Thomas, 
Lord  Lytteltox  (1744-79),  who  was  as-  con- 
spicuous for  ]irofligacy  as  his  father  for  virtue, 
died  three  days  after  a  nocturnal  warning  by  a 
dove  and  a  white  lady  (Chambers's  Boo/:  (f  Days, 
vol.  ii.  p.  625).  The  Poems  by  a  Yoiinq  Xobleman 
(1780)  may  partly  at  least  have  been  Ids,  but  the 
Letters  of 't/ie  /ate  Lord  Lyttelton  (,2  voh.  1780-82) 
were  probably  by  Combe  ( '  Dv  Syntax ' ).  A 
Quarterly  reviewer  (1851)  identified  him  with 
'Junius.' 

Lyttleton,  Sir  Thomas.    See  Littleton. 

Lytton,  Edward  Bulwer,  Lord,  novelist, 
playwright,  essayist,  poet,  and  politician,  was 
born  at  31  Baker  Street,  London,  on  25th  May 
1803.  He  was  the  third  and  youngest  sou  of 
General  Earle  Bulwer  ( 1776-1807)' of  Heydon  and 
Bailing  in  Norfolk,  by  Elizabeth  Barbara  Lytton 
(1773-1843),  the  heiress  of  Knebworth  in  Hertford- 
shire. As  a  child  a  devourer  of  books,  his  favourites 
Amadis  de  Gaul  and  the  Faery  Queen,  he  took  early 
to  rhyming,  and  went  to  scliool  at  nine,  though 
not,  it  may  be  unluckily,  to  a  public  one,  but  to  six 
private  tutors  in  succession  (1812  21).  In  1820  lie 
jjublished  Ismael  and  other  Poems,  and  about  the 
same  time  was  'changed  for  life'  by  a  hopeless,  tragic 
first  love.^  .A.t  Trinity  Hall,  Canibridge  (1S22-25), 
he  read  English  history,  political  economy,  ineta- 
phy.sics,  and  early  English  litei  ature ;  s])oko  mucli 
at  the  Union  ;  carried  off  the  Chancellor's  gold 
medal  for  a  poem  upon  '  Sculiiture,'  but  took  only 
a  p.'u'-s  degree.  Meanwhile,  in  a  long- vacation 
walking-tour  (1H24),  he  had  visited  the  grave  of  his 
lost  love  in  the  Lake  Country  ;  and  there,  in  Scot- 
land, and  in  the  north  of  England,  had  strange 
adventures  with  cut-throats  and  most  imixissible 
Gyi>sies.  Now,  his  college  life  ended,  he  alternated 
awhile  between  I'aris  and  London  ;  and  in  London, 
in  December  1825,  he  met  Ko-in.i  Wheeler  ( 1802-82), 
a  beautiful  Irish  girl,  whom  in  August  1827,  despite 
his  mother,  he  married.  It  wa-s  a  most  unhapiiy 
marriage.  She  bore  him  a  daughter,  Emily 
(1X2H-4M),  and  a  son,  the  future  Earl  of  Lvtton": 
in  1836  they  separated.     But  his  marriage  did  this 


for  him  :  it  called  forth  a  marvellous  literary 
activity,  for  the  temporary  estrangement  from  his 
mother  threw  him  almost  wholly  on  his  own 
resources.  He  had  only  i"200  a  year,  and  he  lived 
at  the  rate  of  £3000;  the  deliciency  was  supplied 
'out  of  his  well-stored  jiortfolio,  his  teeming  brain, 
and  his  indefatigable  industry.'  During  the  ne.xt 
ten  years  he  produced  twelve  novels,  two  poems, 
one  political  pamphlet,  one  pl.ay,  tlie  whole  of 
Enyland  and  the  Enylish,  three  volumes  of  Athens, 
its  llisc  and  Fall,  of  which  only  two  ever  were 
published,  and  all  the  essays  and  tales  collected  in 
the  Sliidiiii,  to  which  must  be  added  his  untold 
contributions  to  the  KdinburyJi,  the  Wcstniinstrr, 
the  New  Montlily  (of  which  he  became  editor  in 
1831),  the  Examiner,  Ike.  His  Wertherian  Fall:- 
lanil,  published  anonymously  in  1827,  gave  little 
promise  of  the  brilliant  success,  both  at  home  and 
abroad,  of  Pclham  (18'28),  the  clever  persiflage 
of  whose  dandy  hero  is  still  delightful.  No  two 
readers  agree  on  the  relative  merit  of  his  books,  but 
indeed  this  very  divergency  of  opinion  as  to  which  is 
really  his  masterpiece  only  illustrates  his  amazing 
versatility.  Certainly  Pelham  is  better  than  Paul 
Clifforel  (1830),  a  marvellous  idealisation  of  the 
highwayman,  as  Eugene  Aram  ( 1832)  is  of  the  mur- 
derer ;  but  most  will  rank  it  as  inferior  to  the  exquis- 
itely fanciful  Pilgrims  of  the  Rhine  (1834)  or  to 
one  or  another  of  his  four  splendid  historical  novels 
—The  Last  Days  of  Pompeii  ( 1834),  Rienzi  ( 1835), 
The  Last  of  the  Barons  (1843),  and  //«raW  (1843). 
Then,  there  is  his  domestic  trilogy,  The  Caxtons 
(1850),  Mfy  A'orel  (1853),  and  What  will  he  do  ivith 
it?  (1S59),  Sterne-like,  yet  strangely  un-Sterne- 
like,  surpassing  Thackeray  for  peasants  and  Dickens 
for  gentlemen,  and  both  in  knowledge  of  the  world 
of  politics.  Or  there  are  Zanoni  (1842),  A  Strange 
Story  ( 1862),  and,  shorter  but  stronger  than  either. 
The  Haunted  and  the  H(iunters{Blacl:uood's Maga- 
zine, 1859).  No  English  story  of  the  supernatural 
comes  near  to  this,  and  w  by  ? — because  he  wrote 
here  as  a  believer,  as  a  serious  student  of  astrologj', 
chiromancy,  occult  lore  generally.  These  books 
are  triumphs  in  the  art  of  fiction  in  its  most 
widely  differing  divisions,  and  taken  together, 
display  an  unexampled  range  of  powers.  Here 
the  readei'  finds  at  once  vast  knowledge,  rich 
suggestiveness  wedded  to  profundit.v  of  thought, 
fresh  insight  info  perplexing  psychological  and 
social  problems,  lireadth  of  view,  wit  in  richer 
measure  than  humour,  together  with  an  unusual 
power  of  handling  \ivid  incident  and  a  rare  mastery 
of  plot-construction. 

Of  his  plays  it  must  suffice  to  .say  that  the  Lady 
of  Lyons  (1838),  Bichelicu  (1838),  and  Money 
(1840),  all  three  of  which  owed  something  to  hints 
from  Macready,  still  hold  the  stage  as  firmly  as 
the  masterpieces  of  Gohlsmith  and  Sheridan;  of 
his  ])oems  that  King  Arthur  (1848).  ami  even  St 
Stcj'he/is  (1860)  and  the  Lost  2'ales  of  Miletus 
(1860),  will  all  be  forgotten  when  the  IS'eu-  Tinion 
( 1846)  is  still  kept  in  remembrance  by  the  savage 
answer  it  provoked  from  Tennyson. 

In  1831,  at  the  age  of  twenty-eight,  he  had 
entered  jiarliament  as  member  for  St  Ives,  and 
attached  himself  to  the  Kcform  party  :  but  Lincoln 
next  year  returneil  him  as  a  I'rotectionist  Liberal, 
and  t"hat  seat  he  hehl  till  1841.  In  18.38  the 
Melbourne  administration  conferred  on  him  a 
baronetcy  for  his  brilliant  services  as  a  pamph- 
leteer; in  Dec.  1843  he  succeeded,  by  his  iiiofher's 
death,  to  the  Knebworth  estate,  and  assumed  the 
additional  surname  of  Lytton.  He  now  .sought  to 
reenter  ]iarliamciit,  in  1847  contesting  Lincoln 
unsuccessfully  ;  and  in  1852  he  was  returned  as 
Conservativeniember  for  Hertfonlshire.  Deafness 
hindered  him  from  shining  as  a  debater,  but  he 
made  him.self  a  .successful  orator.     In  the  Derby 


760 


LYTTON 


{,'oveniment  (1858-59)  lie  was  Colonial  Secretary, 
and  signalised  his  brief  tenure  of  office  tiy  calling 
into  existence  the  two  vast  colonies  of  British 
Colunihia  and  tiueensland.  In  1866  he  was  raised 
to  the  peerage  as  Baron  Lytton.  He  died  at 
Torqnay  on  18th  January  1873,  and  was  buried  in 
^^'estlllinster  Abliey. 

I.iirtl  Lytton's  works  in  all  exceed  sixty,  and  fill  more 
than  110  volumes.  To  those  already  mentioned  may  be 
added  The  Disoxvned  (182!)),  Dei'ereux  (1829  ),  Oodolphin 
(1833),  Enmt  Maltrarers (ISil ),  Alice  (\U1),  Leila  and 
Cahleron  ( 1838),  ICiiilit  and  Moriiinr/  (1841),  rocms  and 
Ballads,  chiejbi  from  Scliiller  (1844),  Lucretia  (1840), 
Caxtonia-na  '(1803),  The  Comiivi  Race  (anonymously, 
1870),  A'oirim  Chillingly  (1873),  The  Parisians  (1874), 
and  Pausanias  the  SjWH-tad  (unfinished,  1876).  The  Lije, 
Lvtlcrs^and  Lilerari/  Bemaim  of  Lord  Lnlton  (vols.  i.  ii. 
1S.S3),  by  iiis  son,  comes  down  only  to  1832,  so  must  be 
supplemented  by  the  political  Memoir,  also  by  the  Earl 
of  Lytton,  prefixed  to  the  Speeches  of  Lord  Lytton,  ( 2  vols. 
1874). 

Lytton.  Edward  Robert,  Earl  of,  poet, 
diplomatist,  and  statesman,  was  born  in  Hertford 
Street,  London,  8th  November  1831,  and  was  edu- 
cated at  Harrow  and  at  Bonn.  In  1849  he  went 
to  Washington  as  an  attache  and  private  secretary 
to  his  uncle,  Sir  Henry  Bulwer  (q.v.);  and  sub- 
sequently he  was  appointed  attache,  secretary  of 
legation,  consul   or  chargi  d'affaires  at   Florence 


(1852),  Paris  (1854),  The  Hague  (1856),  St  Peters- 
burg and  Constantino]de  (1858),  Vienna  (1859), 
Belgrade  (1860),  Constantinople  again  (1863), 
Athens  (1864),  Lisbon  (1865),  Madrid  (1868), 
Vienna  again  (1869),  and  Paris  (1873).  In  that 
last  year  he  succeeded  his  father  as  second  Lord 
Lytton,  and  in  1874  became  ininisler  at  Lisbon,  in 
1876  Viceroy  of  India,  at  the  same  time  receiving 
the  tirand  Cross  of  the  Bath.  The  chief  events  of 
his  viceroyalty  were  the  ]iroclamation  of  the  (,*ueen 
as  Empress  of  India  at  the  grand  Delhi  durbar  on 
Ist.Ianuary  1877,  and  the  outbreak  in  1879  of  the 
tediims  and  unpoimlar  Afghan  war.  In  1880,  on 
the  fall  of  the  Beactmsfield  government,  he  resigned, 
and  was  made  Earl  of  Lytton  ;  in  1887  he  was  sent 
by  Lord  Salisbury  as  ambassador  to  Paris,  and 
there  he  died  24th  November  1891.  His  works, 
published  mostly  under  the  pseudonym  of  '  Owen 
Meredith,'  include  Ch/teiinicstra  (1855),  a  dramatic 
poeru;  T/ic  JVanclc/rr  (1859);  Liicilc  (1860),  a 
novel  in  verse  ;  Serbs/:i  /jrsmc  (1801),  translations 
from  the  Servian:  The  Itinrf  (// ^imfM/.s- ( 1863),  a 
prose  romance  ;  Orvfil,  or  the  Fool  of  Tiincs  ( 1869) ; 
F<ihlcs  ill  Soncf  (1874);  Glcnai-cril  {2  vols.  1885), 
an  epic  of  modern  life  ;  After  Paradise,  or  Leqends 
of  Krite  ( 1887) ;  Marah  ( 1892') :  and  Kinrf  Poppy 
(1892).  A  selection  from  bis  Poems  by  Mi.ss  M. 
Betham-Edwards  appeared  in  1890. 


M 


the  thirteentli  letter  in  our 
alphabet,  is  ultiinately  derived 
from  the  hieroglyi)hic  picture  of 
an  owl.  In  the  capital  letter 
M  the  two  peaks  are  the  lineal 
~cendants  of  the  two  ears  of 
liio  bird,  retaining  between 
them  a  not  inapt  representation 
of  the  beak,  the  first  of  tlie 
vertical  strokes  corresponding  to  the  breast  (see 
Alphabet).  In  the  scrijjt  form  m  the  central 
hanger  represents  the  beak,  on  either  side  of  which 
are  two  curves  corresponding  to  the  ears.  When 
the  symbol  wa-s  taken  o\er  by  the  Phu-nicians  from 
the  Egyptian  hieratic  the  zigzags  in  the  form  ^ 
were  sui>posed  to  resemble  ripples,  and  hence  the 
letter  received  the  name  mem,  '  the  waters,'  and 
this  name  in  the  Greek  alphabet  became  mu,  owing 
probably  to  assonance  with  the  name  of  the  follow- 
ing letter  nu.  Our  minuscule  m  is  descended  from 
the  old  Roman  cursive,  through  the  Irish  semi- 
uncial  and  the  Caroline  minuscule. 

The  sound  of  i/i  is  defined  as  a  labial  of  the  nasal 
class  ;  that  is,  if  the  vocal  organs  are  placed  in  the 
position  for  pronouncing  the  labial  b,  and  the  breath 
is  allowed  to  pass  into  the  nose,  the  sound  pro- 
duced is  that  of  )/i.  Hence  m  ha.s  a  great  attraction 
for  6,  as  in  li»ih,  nimble,  from  A.S.  lim  and  nimot, 
or  in  number,  from  the  Latin  numenis.  Sometimes 
m  becomes  h,  as  in  marble  from  marmor.  So  also 
we  find  the  t«o  nasals,  m  and  n,  interchanging 
according  to  the  nature  of  the  contiguous  con- 
sonants. Thus  n  changes  to  m  before  a  labial,  as 
in  imperator  for  inperator,  while  m  changes  to  n 
l)efore  gutturals  and  dentals,  as  in  ronjitx  and  con- 
conVui,  or  in  ant  from  O.E.  wmcte,  ransom  from 
Tcilemptiijuem,  and  cotoit  from  computarc. 

llaartens,  M.\.\rte-V,  is  the  i)en-name  of  J. 
M.  M.  van  der  Poorteu  Schwarz,  a  Hollander,  bom 
in  185S,  who,  having  spent  part  of  his  boyhood  in 
England  and  been  at  school  in  Germany,  was  edu- 
cateil  at  a  home  univer.sitj'  for  law.  He  is  known 
as  the  author  of  a  series  of  powerful  novels  in 
nervous  English,  including  T/ic  Sin  of  Joost  Ave- 
limjh  (1889),  A  Qne.stlon  of  Teste,  God's  Fool,  The 
Gnntcr  Glory,  and  My  Ludij  Nobody  ( 1895). 

-Ilaas.    See  Meu.se. 

llaa.strieht.    See  MAKSTRinrr. 

llal>.  '  the  fairies'  midwife,'  who  delivers  men  of 
dreams.  Shelley  in  Queen  3fab  iir.ikes  her  f|ueen  of 
the  fairies— a  dignity  really  belonging  to  Titania, 
the  wife  of  Oberon  (q.v. ).  Mab's  praises  have  been 
sung  by  Sliakesiieare,  lien  Jonson,  Hcrrick,  Dray- 
ton, and  other  EnglLsli  ])oet,s. 

Maliillon,  -Ieax,  a  leamed  Benedictine,  born 
23d  Novc'mber  1632,  at  St  Pierremont,  in  Cham- 
jiagne.  He  studied  at  St  Uemy,  in  lO.ni  entered 
the  Henedictine  order,  was  placed  in  10.j8  in  the 
monastery  at  Corbie,  in  IOCS  became  keeiK-r  of  the 
monuments  at  St  Denis,  and  from  10G4  worked, 
Avitli  slupenilons  erudition,  in  the  abbey  of  St 
tJerniain  ilesPrcs  at  Paris.  Here  he  died,  27th 
December  1707.  He  nia<le  many  journeys  intofier- 
Mumy  and  Italy  for  purpose-s  of  research,     lie  aided 


DAcheiT  in  the  preparation  of  his  vast  historical 
collection,  the  Spieilcgium  ;  undertook  an  edition  of 
the  works  of  St  Bernard  ( 1667 ) :  and  constructed  a 
general  history  of  his  order.  Acta  Sanrtormn  ordinis 
S.  Bencdieti  in  Sfcculorum  classes  distributa  (9  \ols. 
folio,  1668-1701).  His  classical  work  De  Re  Dip- 
lomatira  appeared  at  Paris  in  1681.  Other  works 
are  Vetera  Analrcia  (1675-85),  Mnsaiim  Italicum 
( 1687-89),  and  Annates  ordinis  >S'.  Bencdieti  (6  vols, 
folio,  1703-39).  His  posthumous  works,  including 
many  letters,  appeared  at  Paris  (3  vols.  1724). 

See  Kuinart,  Vic  de  Jean  MubiUon  (1709) ;  Chavin  de 
Malan,  Sistoirc  dc  Dom  Mabillon  et  de  la  Conijregation 
de  Saint-Maiir  (1843);  Jadart.  Dom  Jean  Mabillon 
(1S79) ;  and  E.  de  Broglie,  Mabillon,  1664-1707  (1888). 

UlabillOgioiI.     See  HERr.E.ST,  and  Wales. 

niabletliorpe,  a  village  on  the  coast  of  Lin- 
colnshire, 13  ndles  by  rail  (1888)  SE.  of  Louth, 
with  hard  and  extensive  sands,  to  which  thousands 
of  the  working-classes  of  Leicestershire,  Notting- 
hamshire, Derbyshire,  Yorkshire,  and  Lancashire 
are  carried  every  summer  by  cheap  day-excursion 
trains.     Close  by  is  a  sublnerged  forest.     Pop.  640. 

Alably,  Gabriel  Boxnot  de,  elder  brother 
of  Condillac  ((j.v.),  born  at  Grenoble  on  14th  May 
1709,  studied  at  the  Jesuit  College  in  Lyons,  and  be- 
came secretary  to  the  minister  Cardinal  Tencin,  his 
uncle.  But  before  many  years  had  passed  the  two 
had  quarrelled,  and  Wably  gave  himself  np  to  a 
studious  life.  He  died  at  Paris  on  23d  Ajnil  1785. 
He  entertained  a  great  adnnration  for  the  ancients, 
especially  for  the  institutions  of  Sparta,  and  con- 
stantly illustrated  his  writings  by  the  acts  and 
lives  of  Solon,  Phocion,  Lycurgus,  and  Cato.  In 
this  dej)artnient  his  chief  Tiooks  were  Entretiens  de 
I'hocion  (1763);  I'arallelc  dcs  Romains  et  des 
Francois  (1740),  in  which  the  latter  came  oft' second 
best ;  and  Observations  sur  VHistoire  de  la  Grice 
( 1766 ).  His  De  la  Manicrc  d'Fcrirc  I'Histoire  (1783) 
contains  severe  strictures  on  Hume,  Bobertson, 
(Jibbon,  Voltaire,  and  other  historians.  Lc  Droit 
Public  de  I'Europe  [ll-iH)  \va.!>  the  outcome  of  his 
ollicial  life.     See  Guerrier,  L'AbbC-  de  Mably(\SS6). 

llablISC  J.\N,  whose  real  name  was  (Joss.vkut, 
a  Flemish  jiainter,  was  born  at  Maubeuge  (  Mabuse) 
.ibout  1470,  and  entered  the  jiainters'  guild  of  St 
Luke  at  Antwerp  in  1503.  His  life  and  work  are 
divisible  into  two  well  marked  sections.  In  the 
earlier  jiortion,  during  wlrich  he  dwelt  mostly  at 
Antwerp,  his  ]iaintings-  principally  allarpieccs — 
show  that  he  studied  Mending,  \'an  der  Weyden, 
and  t^nenlin  Matsys  ;  their  inlluence  is  especially 
apparent  in  an  'Adoration,'  now  at  Ca-stle  Howard 
in  Yorkshire,  and  in  altarpieces  at  Scawby  in 
j  England,  and  Tongerloo  in  Belgium.  The  most 
I  cidebrated  of  his  early  pictures,  a  '  Descent  from 
the  Cross,'  painted  for  the  church  of  Middclbnrg 
in  Holland,  was  burned  in  150S.  In  1508  Malinse 
accompanied  Philip  of  Burgundy  to  Italy,  when 
he  went  to  arrange  the  treaty  of  Cambrai.  This 
set  the  fashion  to  subsequent  Flemish  painters 
of  spending  some  time  in  the  .sunny,  art-loving 
south.  Mabu.se  rctumeil  home  with  his  style 
greatly  niodilied  by  the  study  of  Leonardo,  Michael 
.\iigelo,  and   Bajiiuiel ;  but   the   modilicatiou   was 


762 


MAC 


MACARONIC    VERSE 


one  that  too  often  tended  towards  mannerisms, 
and  to  the  introduction  of  contenii)orary  jiortraits 
and  details  into  religious  pictures.  After  his  return 
he  resided  ehielly  at  Wyck,  iliddelhur;,',  and  Ant- 
werp, and  died  at  the  last-named  |)Iace  on  1st 
October  1532.  His  later  works  emhrace  three 
classes — subjects  from  Greek  mythology,  as  Nep- 
tune and  Amphitrite,  and  Danai-,  characterised  by 
strong  traits  of  coarse  realism  ;  portraits,  as  of  the 
children  of  King  Christian  II.  of  Denmark  (about 
15'2S),  of  a  princess  of  Portugal,  and  of  Jean  Caron- 
delet  (1517);  and  religious  subjects,  including  'St 
Luke  painting  the  Madonna,'  'Christ  in  Agony,' 
'Adam  and  Eve,'  and  several  Madonnas.  Mabuse 
was  a  painstaking  workman.  Nearly  all  his 
pictures  have  rich  architectural  backgrounds,  but 
the  ligures  are  stiff  and  stony  ;  the  coloui-s  are 
bright,  sometimes  gaudy. 

Slac  (contracted  M'),  a  Gaelic  prefix  occurring 
frequently  in  Scottish  names,  as  Macdonald, 
M'Lennan,  and  the  like,  meaning  'son.'  It  cor- 
responds to  the  son  in  names  of  Teutonic  origin,  as 
Davidson ;  the  Fitz  in  Norman  names,  as  Fitz- 
herbert ;  the  Irish  0,  as  in  O'Connell  ;  and  the 
AVelsh  Mfap,  shortened  into  \rp  or '/),  as  Ap  Richard, 
whence  Pricliard. 

]Msicadam,  John  Loudon,  inventor  of  the 
system  of  road-making  known  as  '  macadaniisin<r,' 
the  son  of  James  MacAdamof  Waterheadof  Deugh, 
Kirkcudl_>right,  was  born  at  Ayr,  21st  September 
1756.  He  went  to  New  York  in  1770,  entered  his 
uncle's  counting-house,  became  a  successful  mer- 
chant, and  on  his  return  to  Scotland  in  1783  bought 
the  estate  of  Sauchrie,  Ayrshire.  He  began  in  1810 
to  make  experiments  in  the  construction  of  roads, 
which  became  a  passion  with  him,  and  in  gaining 
experience  he  tr.ivelled  30,000  miles,  and  spent 
£5000.  In  ISIG  he  was  aiipointed  sur^-cyor  to  the 
Bristol  Turnpike  Trust,  and  re-made  the  roads  there 
cheaply  and  well.  His  advice  and  assistance  weie 
now  sought  in  all  directions,  and  his  methods 
formed  tlie  subject  of  a  select  committee  of  the 
House  of  Commons  in  1819.  Instead  of  going  deep 
for  a  '  bottoming,'  he  worked  on  the  top  ;  the  road- 
metal,  from  1  to  2  ounces  in  size,  was  scattered  to 
a  depth  of  from  6  to  10  inches,  and  when  shaken 
and  jiressed  together,  made  a  top-covering  as  close 
as  a  wall  (see  Ko,\D).  Macadam,  impoverished 
through  his  labours,  petitioned  jiarliament  in  18'20 
for  his  expenses  and  some  reward.  His  petition 
was  repeated  in  1823,  and  he  was  voted  .flO.OOO 
and  apj)ointed  Surveyor-general  of  Metropolitan 
Roads  in  1827.  He  declined  a  knighthood.  He 
died  at  Moti'at,  Dumfriesshire,  2Gth  November 
1836.  He  puldished  A  Practical  Essai/  on  the 
Scientific  Repair  and  Preservation  of  Public  Roads 
(1819),  Remarks  on  the  Present  State  of  Road- 
mal.inij  ( 1S20),  and  Ohscrrations  on  Roads  (1822). 

Uli'.ill  Mis.sioil,  the  largest  Protestant  mission 
in  France,  was  founded  in  1871  by  the  Rev.  Roberi, 
Whitaker  McAll  (bora  1821,'  .lied  1803;  see 
the  Life  published  in  1890)  and  his  wife.  It 
now  possesses  more  than  100  stations  (some  40  in 
Paris),  and  is  supported  by  Protestant  Christians 
of  all  denominations  in  Hritain  and  the  British 
colonies,  and  the  United  States.  Twelve  years 
after  its  foundation,  the  missi.m  hehl  within  the 
year  15,000  meetings,  attended  by  close  on  a  million 
of  persons  (mainly  of  the  nmst  neglected  and  irre- 
ligious classes),  paid  '20,000  house-to-hous(!  visits, 
and  ilistribute(l  more  than  500,000  Bibles  and  tracts. 

Miicno,  a  Portuguese  settlement  on  the  south 
coast  of  China,  on  the  west  side  of  the  estuary  of 
the  Canton  River,  Hongkong  being  about  40  miles 
distant  on  the  o]>posite  side  of  the  .same  estuaiy. 
The  settlement  occupies  a  small  peninsula  project- 
ing from  the  south-eastern  extremity  of  the  is'land 


of  Hiang-shang,  and  is  defended  by  forts  built  on 
the  higli  grounil  overlookiug  the  town.  The 
islands  Colovane  and  Taipa  also  belong  to  the 
settlement,  whose  total  area  is  4A  sq.  m.  and  pop. 
close  upon  70,000,  of  whom  less  than  5000  are 
Portuguese,  the  re.st  being  mostly  Chinese.  The 
jjrincipal  public  buildings  are  the  cathedral  and 
churches.  Macao  is  one  of  the  healthiest  jiorts 
in  China,  though  the  heat  is  e.xce.s.sive  during 
the  southwest  monsoon.  The  greater  part  of  the 
revenue  of  the  settlement  is  derived  from  licensed 
gambling-houses.  The  Portuguese  obtained  per- 
mission from  the  Chinese  authorities  to  settle  in 
Macao  in  1557.  The  Chinese,  however,  until  1S86 
exacted  from  them  an  annual  ground-rent,  and 
retained  jurisdiction  over  their  own  people.  The 
anchorage  of  the  port  is  defective ;  large  vessels 
cannot  approach  nearer  than  six  miles.  Since  the 
rise  of  Hongkong  the  commerce  of  Macao  has 
suffered  severely.  Shortly  after  it  was  declared 
a  free  port  (1845)  it  became  the  head.jnarters  of 
the  coolie  trade,  especially  with  Peru  and  Cuba  ; 
but  in  consequence  of  fearful  abuses  the  British  and 
the  Chinese  constrained  the  Portuguese  govern- 
ment to  abolish  the  trattie  in  1873  (see  CooLlES). 
The  trade  of  Macao  (the  name  of  which  was  for 
long  a  synonym  for  stagnation  and  decay)  showed, 
in  1885-90,  some  signs  of  reviving.  The  import 
trade,  mainly  in  the  hands  of  Chinese  and  Parsees, 
had  in  1889  a  value  of  £755,057,  the  chief  item 
being  Patna  o)iium  ;  other  imports  are  kerosene 
( formerly  from  America,  now  largely  from  Batoum ), 
piece  goods,  yarn,  and  provisions.  The  exports, 
valued  at  £716,755  in  1889,  comprise  tea,  oils,  silk, 
and  rice.  The  export  of  tea  from  Macao  to  Lomlon 
alone  was  2,500,000  lb.  British  merchants  have  a 
share  of  the  export  trade,  but  not  the  Portuguese. 
Macao  is  the  seat  of  a  bishop  and  the  headqviartcrs 
of  French  missions  in  China.  A  grotto  is  shown 
here  in  which  Canioens  (q.v.)  is  traditionally 
believed  to  have  written  his  Liisiad  during  his 
banishment. 

llararoni  (orirfnally  lumiis  of  paste  and  cheese 
squeezed  up  into  balls ;  from  Ital.  maccarc.  'to 
bruise  or  crush'),  a  jieculiar  manufacture  of  wheat 
W'hieh  for  a  hmg  time  was  conlined  to  Italy,  and, 
in  fact,  almost  to  Genoa;  it  is  now,  however,  made 
all  over  Italy  and  at  Marseilles  and  other  jdaces  in 
the  south  of  France.  Strictly  speaking,  the  name 
macaroni  applies  only  to  whealen  paste  in  the  form 
of  pipes,  varying  in  diameter  from  an  ordinary  quill 
up  to  those  now  made  of  the  iliameter  of  au  inch  ; 
but  there  is  no  real  difference  between  it  and  the 
line  threadlike  vermicelli,  and  the  inniute  variety 
of  curious  and  elegant  little  forms  which,  umler 
the  name  of  Italian  pastes,  are  used  for  soups. 
Only  certain  kinds  of  wheat  are  apjilicable  to  this 
manufacture,  and  these  are  the  hard  smts  which 
contain  a  large  ]iercentage  of  gluten.  The  wheat 
is  first  ground  into  a  coai'se  meal,  from  which  the 
bran  is  removed.  This  'semola'  is  worked  no  into 
a  dough  with  water;  and  for  macaroni  ami  ver- 
micelli it  is  forced  through  gauges,  with  or  without 
mandrcds,  as  in  wire  and  Jiipe  drawing  ;  or  for  /mstes 
it  is  rolled  out  into  very  thin  sheets,  from  which  are 
stamped  out  the  various  forms  of  stars,  rings,  iVc. 
Macaroni  forms  a  large  article  of  home  consump- 
tion, and  is  exjiorted  to  all  parts  of  the  world, 

DIararonir    Verso   is  properly   a   kind   of 

humorous  poetry,  in  which,  along  with  Latin, 
words  of  other  languages  are  introduced  with  Latin 
inllections  and  construction;  though  the  name  is 
sometimes  applied  to  verses  which  arc  merely  a 
mixture  of  Latin  and  the  unadulterated  vernacular 
of  the  author.  Thus  '  lassiis  ki.ssare  boiueas  '  ( '  to 
kiss  the  bonnie  la.-<sies'),  and  '  burnanteiu  extin- 
guere  thirstum,' are  parts  of  macaronic  hexameters. 


I 


MACAROON 


MACAULAY 


763 


Teofilo  Folengo,  called  Meilinus  Coccaius  (1491- 
1554),  a  witty  and  <aaceless  Benedictine,  liiis 
l>een  erroneously  rej;arded  as  the  inventor  of  mac- 
aronic poetry  ;  but  lie  was  the  th-st  to  employ  the 
term  in  this  sense.  His  Jlciccfiroiicu  (1517)  is  a 
lonj;  satiric  poem,  in  which  Latin  and  Italian  are 
mingled.  A  predecessor  of  his  by  half  a  century 
was  Oda-ssi  or  Oda.\ius  of  Padua.  Good  specimens 
are  found  in  the  Malatle  Imaginaire,  and  in 
the  Epistolw  Oltscurorum  Virurum.  The  I'ulemo- 
Middinia  (1683),  ascribed  to  Druniniond  of  Haw- 
thomden,  but  rather  by  sin  obscure  pamphleteer, 
Sanmel  Colvill  (writing  about  1680),  is  probably 
the  best-known  liritish  example.  Fortunately 
macaronic  poetry  has  not  been  very  extensively 
cultivated,  although  s|ieciniens  of  it  may  be  found 
in  the  literature  of  almost  all  European  countries. 

See  Gentbe,  Oeschichte  dcr  Maciironischcn  Poesie 
(1829);  Octave  Delepierre's  Macaroneana  (1S52),  and 
his  De  la  Litteralure  Macaronir/ite  (185C);  Morgan's 
Macaronic  Poetrii  I  New  York,  1872 ) ;  Brunet's  LitUraturt 
Jl/aoaroiiiV/ue  (1879):  and  Portiorli's  Opcrc  Macaroniche 
di  Merlino  Coceaio  (3  vols.  Mantua,  1S82-89). 

Macaroon  (from  the  same  root  as  Macaroni), 
a  kind  of  l)iscuit  made  with  the  meal  of  sweet 
almonds  instead  of  wheaten  or  other  Hour. 

Macartney,  George  Macartney,  Earl,  an 
administrator  and  diplomatist,  wa-s  born  of  Scottish 
descent  at  Lissanoure,  near  Belfast,  Ireland,  on 
14tli  May  1737.  On  leaving  Trinity  College,  Dulj- 
lin,  he  entered  (1759)  the  Inner  Temple,  London. 
As  envoy-extraordinarj-  to  Russia,  he  concluded 
(1767)  a  commercial  treaty  ;  from  1769  to  1772  he 
was  Chief-secretary  of  Ireland;  and  from  1775  to 
1779  he  was  governor  of  Grenada,  in  the  West 
Indies,  but  was  compelled,  after  an  honourable 
defence,  to  give  up  the  island  to  Count  D'Estaing, 
and  was  himself  carried  prisoner  of  war  to  France, 
though  he  soon  contrived  his  exchange.  The  East 
India  Company  in  December  1780  appointed  him 
governor  of  JIadras,  and  six  yeara  later  promoted 
him  to  be  governor-general ;  but  his  weak  state 
of  health  obliged  him  to  decline  the  honour.  He 
had  already  had  some  experience  as  member  of 
both  the  English  and  the  Irish  parliaments,  and 
had  been  raised  from  a  knight  (created  in  1764) 
to  a  baron  in  Ireland  (1776).  A  duel  with  an 
officer  named  Stuart,  wliom  lie  had  expelled  the 
service  in  India,  brought  him  a  severe  wound  shortly 
after  his  return  home  from  India.  The  first  diplo- 
matic mission  to  China  from  fJreat  Britain  was 
headed  by  Macartney,  now  an  Irish  viscount,  in 
1792 ;  before  his  return  home  he  was  made  an 
Irish  earl  (1st  March  1794).  After  undertaking  a 
confidential  mission  to  Italy  (179.5-96),  he  went 
out  a-s  "overnor  of  the  new  colony  of  the  Cape 
of  Good  Hope  (1796);  bnt  ill-health  compelled 
him  to  return  home  in  November  1798.  Three 
years  later  he  wa.s  oHered  a  place  in  the  Addington 
ministry,  but  he  declined  the  honour.  He  died  at 
Chiswick  on  31st  March  1806.  In  1796  he  was 
made  Baron  Macartney  in  the  British  peerage. 
See  Life,  prefixed  t<^)  (Sir)  J.  Barrow's  edition  of 
hb*  WriliiiifS  ( 1807 ). 

.Macassar,  the  most  southern  portion  of  Celebes, 
contains  the  chief  town  and  port,  Macassar,  on  the 
west  coast  of  the  southern  peninsula,  with  a  pop. 
of  20,fK)0.     See  Cei-KHKS. 

Macanlay,  Tho.mas  Bahinotox,  Lokd,  one 
of  the  most  popular  ami  brilliant  of  British  essay- 
ists and  historians,  was  bom  at  Bothley  Temple, 
Leicestershire,  25tli  (Jctober  1800.  He  came  of  a 
Scottish  Celtic  family,  several  of  whose  represent- 
atives were  ministers  of  the  Church  of  Scotland. 
Two  of  them — Macaulay's  grandfather,  John 
Macanlay,  who  died  minister  of  Cardross,  and 
Kenneth,  author  of  a  history  of  .St  Kilda — came 


into  contact  and  collision  with  Samuel  Johnson, 
when  touring  in  the  Hebrides  in  the  company  of 
Boswell.  Zachary  Macanlay  ( 1768-1838),  "  the 
father  of  the  future  historian  and  ]Militician,  had 
a  somewhat  chequered  career  as  an  estate  manager 
in  Jamaica,  but  in  the  later  years  of  his  life  was 
best  known  as  an  energetic  and  single-hearted 
member  of  the  '  Clapham  Sect'  of  philanthroidsts 
of  which  Willierforce  was  the  acknowledged  head. 
He  was  married  in  Bristol  in  1799  to  Selina  Mills, 
the  daughter  of  a  Bristol  (Juakcr,  and  the  [uipil 
and  friend  of  Hannah  More.  Macaulay  was  the 
first  offspring  of  this  union,  and  was  named  after 
his  father's  brother-in-law.  His  earliest  years  were 
spent  with  his  family  in  London.  From  infancy 
he  showed  that  ins.atiable  thirst  for  knowledge, 
that  prodigious  tenacity  of  memory,  and  that 
talent  for  phrase-making,  which  were  subsequently 
to  be  the  delight  and  the  envy  of  his  contein- 
])oraries.  At  the  age  of  seven  he  wrote  a  com- 
j)endium  of  Universal  History  and  three  cantos 
of  the  '  Battle  of  Cheviot '  in  imitation  of  Sir 
AValter  Scott.  His  parents  while  noting  '  marks 
of  uncommon  genius  '  in  their  son,  and  encouraging 
him  in  every  way,  never  flattered  him  or  paraded 
him  before  others  as  a  prodigy.  Thus  he  grew  up 
a  simple  child  delighting  in,  Init  unconscious  of  his 
faculty,  'playful  as  a  kitten,' and  devoted  to  his 
brothers  and  sisters.  In  1812  he  was  sent  to  a 
private  school  ke|(t  by  the  Rev.  Mr  Preston,  a  Low 
Church  clergyman,  at  Little  Shelford,  near  Cam- 
bridge. There,  and  at  Aspenden  Hall  in  Hertford- 
shire, to  which  Mr  Preston  removed  in  1814,  he 
remained  till  his  time  came  to  go  to  college.  lie 
studied  hard  and  read  omnivorously  ;  the  taste  for 
novels  and  light  literature  generally  which  he  now 
acquired  and  never  lost,  brought  him  more  than 
one  rebuke  from  his  father. 

In  October  1818  Macaulay  went  into  resi- 
dence at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge ;  but  he 
detested  mathematics,  and  cannot  be  said  to  have 
distinf'uislied  himself  as  a  student.  Yet  he  twice 
won  the  Chancellor's  medal  for  English  verse,  and 
obtained  a  prize  for  Latin  declamation.  In  1821 
he  carried  oil'  a  Craven  university  scholarship ; 
took  the  degiee  of  B.A.  the  following  year  ;  and  in 
1824  was  elected  to  a  Fellowship,  He  was  one  of 
the  most  brilliant  dis|>utants  in  tlie  Union  Debating 
Society,  and  made  the  friendsliiji  of  the  ablest  of 
his  contemporaries,  including  Praed,  Komilly, 
Charles  'V'illiers,  Moultrie,  ami  above  all  Charles 
Austin. 

In  1826  Macaulay  was  called  to  the  b;ir  and 
ioined  the  Northern  Circuit.  But  he  had  no 
liking  for  his  nominal  profession,  and  made  no 
attempt  to  secure  a  practice.  Already,  indeed, 
literature  had  irresistible  attractions  for  him.  In 
1823  he  became  a  contributor  to  Knir/ht's  Qiiartcrly 
Magazine,  along  with  Praed  and  others  of  his 
Cambridge  friends.  In  it  there  first  appeared  some 
of  his  best  verses — in  particular  Jrrij,  The  Spanish 
Arniad(t,  and  Nasehy.  Certain  of  his  prose  articles, 
such  as  Tlic  Fragments  of  a  Jioman  Talc,  and 
Scenesfioin  t/ie Athenian  L'lirls,  'show,'  saysCotter 
Morison,  'such  a  natural  turn  for  a  dialogue  and 
dramatic  misc  en  seine,  that  it  says  a  great  deal  for 
Macaulay's  good  sense  and  literary  conscientiousne.ss 
that  lie  remained  content  with  this  lii-st  success,  and 
did  not  ciintiniK' to  work  a  vein  which  would  have 
brought  him  ])roiiipt,  if  ciihemeral  puiinlarity,' 
In  1825— the  year  in  which  he  took  his  degree  of 
M. .\. — be  Wiis  discovered  by  Jelliey,  then  on  the 
outlook  for  '  some  clever  young  man '  to  write  for 
the  ICdiuhiirgh  Itcvieu:  The  famous  article  on 
Milton  appeared  in  the  August  number,  and  the 
unequivocal  success  which  it  met  with  not  only 
seemed  him  a  position  in  literature,  but  was  the 
means   of    opening   to   him    the  doors  of  society 


764 


MACAULAY 


and  politics.  But  Mao.iiilay's  first  thoughts  were 
for  his  family.  It  was  now  in  straitened  circum- 
stances, owing  chierty  to  his  father  being  too  much 
absorbed  by  the  agitation  for  the  abolition  of  the 
slave-trade  to  attend  to  his  business.  Macaulay 
ungrudgingly  took  upon  himself  the  task  of  su])- 
porting  his  brotliers  and  sisters  by  his  pen. 
Fortunately  it  was  now  in  great  demand.  For 
nearly  twenty  years  he  was  one  of  the  most  prolific 
of  the  writers  to  the  Ec/inbiiri/h  Jicvicw,  and  out  of 
sight  the  most  popular.  Macaulay  was,  however, 
claimed  by  politics.  Certain  of  his  articles  had 
attracted  the  attention  of  the  chiefs  of  the  Whig 
party  to  which  he  had  attached  himself.  In  18.30 
lie  entered  parliament,  having  been  presented  by 
Lord  Lansdownc  with  the  pocket-borongh  of  Calne. 
He  threw  himself  with  his  usual  intensity  into  the 
work  of  the  House  of  Commons,  and  in  his  first 
session  made  a  speech  in  favour  of  the  bill  for  the 
removal  of  Jewish  disabilities.  But  it  was  in  the 
debates  that  preceded  the  passing  of  the  Reform 
Bill  that  his  great  powers  as  an  orator  were  in 
reality  first  manifested.  While  devoting  himself 
to  parliament,  '  rivalling  Stanley  in  debate  and 
Hume  in  the  regularity  of  his  attendance,'  he  dis- 
charged the  duties  first  of  Commissioner,  an<l  then 
of  Secretary,  to  the  Board  of  Control.  At  the 
same  time  he  wrote  steadilj"  for  the  Edinburgh 
Rei-icii;  an<l  made  almost  as  great  a  reputation  as 
a  convei-sationalist  in  society  as  he  had  already 
acquired  as  a  parliamentary  debater. 

On  the  passing  of  the  Reform  Bill  of  1832, 
Macaiilay  had  exchanged  Calne  for  Leeds.  Mainly 
for  the  sake  of  his  family  he  accepted  the  office 
of  legal  aihiser  to  the  Supreme  Council  of  India, 
wiXXx  a  salary  of  £10,000  a  year  attached  to  it. 
Accompanied  by  his  favourite  sister  Hannah,  who  in 
Dec.  1S34  married  Mr  (afterwards  Sir)  C.  Trevelyan, 
he  sailed  for  Calcutta  (by  Madras),  Feb.  1.5,  1834. 
In  Imlia  he  worked  as  hard  as  he  had  done  in  Eng- 
land. Besides  discharging  his  duties  as  member  of 
the  Supreme  Coiincil,  he  acted  as  chairman  of  two 
connuittees — the  committee  of  Public  Instruction, 
and  the  committee  appointed  to  prepare  a  Penal 
Code  anil  a  Code  of  Criminal  Procedure.  In  the 
former  capacity  he  drew  up  an  elaborate  minute, 
in  which  he  successfully  counselled  the  teaching 
of  European  literature  and  science  to  the  natives 
of  India.  To  Macaulay  also  must  be  a-ssigned  the 
lion's  share  of  the  great  work  performed  in  con- 
nection with  the  Indian  Penal  Code,  of  which 
Sir  James  Fitzjames  Stephen  has  said  :  'It  is 
to  the  French  Code  Penal,  and  I  may  add  the 
North  German  Code  of  1871,  what  a  finished  picture 
is  to  a  sketch.  It  is  far  simpler  and  better  ex- 
pressed than  Livingstone's  Code  of  Louisiana,  and 
its  ])ractical  success  has  been  com]dete.'  For  a  time 
Macaulay  was  extremely  unpoiuilar  with  a  section 
of  the  British  population  of  Calcutta,  owing  to  the 
active  ])art  he  took  in  bringing  about  a  judicial 
reform  known  as  the  Black  Act,  which  withdrew 
from  British  subjects  resilient  in  the  ]>rovinces  of 
India  the  privilege  of  bringing  civil  ajipeals  before 
the  Sujireme  Court  of  Calcutta.  During  his  stay 
in  India  he  read  enormously,  and  wrote  for  the 
Edinburgh  Review  his  essays  on  JIackintosh  and 
Bacon.  In  the  beginning  of  1838  he  returned  to 
England  with  the  competence  lie  had  saved  from 
his  ofiici.'il  salary. 

After  a  pleasant  tour  in  Italy,  Macaulay  returned 
to  political  life,  though  not  without  reluctance,  as 
he  was  already  laving  the  foundations  of  his  great 
historical  work.  In  1839  he' was  elected  member 
for  Kdinbnrgli,  and  the  year  following  entered  Lord 
Melbourne's  cabinet  as  Secretary  at  War.  His 
most  impoit<int  work  at  this  time  wa-s  the  writing 
of  The  Lai/s  of  Ancient  Borne,  which  had  been 
partially  inspired  by  his  visit  to  Italy.     Never  ha.s 


purely  civic  iiatriotism  received  a  more  spirited 
poetic  rendering  than  in  this  volume.  It  appeared 
in  1842,  and  won  an  immense  popularity.  Next 
year  he  published  his  cidlecteif  E.s.'^di/x  in  three 
volumes.  While  his  party  «ere  in  oiijiosition,  he 
deli\ered  a  numlier  of  weighty  speeches  in  the 
House  of  Commons  on  subjects  which  interested 
him.  By  one  of  these  he  converted  Sir  Robert 
Peel,  and  indeed  the  majority  of  the  House,  to  his 
views  of  copyright :  in  another  he  <leclared,  '  Of  all 
the  institutions  of  the  civilised  world,  the  Estab- 
lished Church  of  Ireland  seems  to  me  the  most 
absurd.'  His  connection  with  the  Edinburgh 
Review  ceased  in  1845;  he  had  now  commenced 
his  History  of  Enghind  from  the  Accexsion  of 
James  II.  M  hen  Sir  Robert  Peel's  admiinst ration 
fell  in  1846,  ^lacaulay  took  the  office  of  Paymaster- 
general  of  the  Forces,  and  was  re-elected  trium- 
phantly for  Edinburgh.  A  variety  of  circumstances, 
however,  of  which  probably  the  sup[iort  he  had 
given  in  parliament  to  the  jMaynooth  Grant,  was 
the  chief — led  to  his  defeat  at  the  general  election 
of  the  following  year. 

Macaulay  regarded  this  defeat  as  a  signal  for 
his  retirement  into  private  life.  In  1852  he  was 
again  returned  for  Edinburgh  without  any  exer- 
tion on  his  own  jiart  ;  but  he  made  few  speeches 
after  his  reap|iearance  in  parliament,  and  gave 
himself  up  almost  entirely  to  his  History,  The 
fiiTst  two  volumes  appeared  in  1848,  and  at 
once  attained  a  greater  amount  of  popularity 
than  had  ever  before  fallen  to  the  lot  of  a  purely 
historical  work  (see  LoxGMAX).  Next  year  he 
was  elected  Lord  Rector  of  the  univei-sity  of 
tJlasgow.  He  had  a  severe  illness  in  1852,  and 
from  this  he  never  completely  recovered.  In  1855 
the  third  and  fourth  volumes  of  his  great  work  were 
given  to  the  public,  and  were  as  cordially  received 
as  their  predecessors.  The  following  year  he  re- 
tired from  the  representation  of  Edinburgh.  In 
1S.")6,  also,  he  left  the  bachelor  chambers  lie  had 
occupied  for  fifteen  years  in  the  Albany,  and  took 
up  his  residence  in  Holly  Lodge,  Canipden  Hill, 
Kensington,  where  he  lived  till  his  death.  In  1857 
he  was  raised  to  the  peerage  under  the  title  of 
Baron  Macaulay  of  Rothley.  In  the  same  year  he 
was  elected  a  foreign  associate  of  the  French 
Academy  of  Moral  and  Political  Sciences.  Among 
other  honours  which  came  to  him  in  his  last  years, 
and  which  he  especially  prized,  was  his  nomination 
to  the  Prussian  Order  of  Merit,  and  his  election  to 
the  High  Stewardship  of  the  borou";li  of  Cam- 
bridge. While  working  steadily  at  his  History, 
he  found  time  to  write  for  ihe  Enryclopndia 
Britannica  articles  on  Atterbury,  Bunyan,  Gold- 
smith, Samuel  Johnson,  and  William  Pitt.  Though 
conscious  that  the  ailment  from  which  he  sud'ered 
— weakness  of  the  heart,  complicated  with  asthma 
— would  prove  fatal,  he  took  as  keen  an  interest 
as  before  in  the  well-being  of  his  relatives  and  in 
the  fortunes  of  his  country.  The  end  came  on  the 
28th  December  18.")9 ;  '  he  died  as  he  had  always 
wished  to  die — without  pain,  without  any  formal 
f.arewidl :  preceding  to  Ihe  grave  all  whiun  he 
loved,  and  leaving  behind  him  a  great  and  honour- 
able name,  and  tlie  memory  of  a  life,  every  action 
of  which  was  as  clear  and  transparent  as  one  of  his 
own  sentences.'  He  was  buried  in  Poet's  (_orner, 
Westminster  .\bbey,  on  9tli  January  ISGO.  The 
fragmentary  fifth  volume  of  his  History  which  he 
left  liehind  him  was  |iublislied  in  IStil. 

The  reputation  of  Macaulay  is  certainly  not  what 
it  was  during  his  lifetime  or  immediately  after  his 
death.  He  has  been  convicted  of  historical  in- 
.iccuracy,  of  s.iciificing  truth  for  the  sake  of  ejii- 
gram,  of  allowing  personal  dislike  and  party  bias 
to  distort  his  views  of  men  and  incidents.  He  looks 
too  much  at  the  mere  material  side  of  life.     Asa 


MACAW 


MACCABEES 


765 


thinker  lie  is  ileficieut  in  balance,  repose,  inward- 
ness, and  modesty.  In  his  writinj;  there  is  far  too 
mucli  light  and"  far  too  little  shade ;  he  not 
infrequently  confounds  the  foanunj;  Inirry  of  his 
own  words  with  the  march  of  events ;  the  splen- 
dour of  his  style  sometimes  degeneiates  into  garish- 
ness  ;  occasionally  when  he  plays  the  censor,  he 
almost  sinks  into  insolent  brutality.  It  must  be 
admitted  also  that  he  was  too  declamatory  to  be 
accorded  a  place  in  the  front  rank  either  of  poets 
or  of  historians.  But  as  a  narrator  of  events  he 
has  no  rival,  and  hardly  even  a  second  ;  he  is  lucid- 
ity itself.  The  intellectual  solidity  and  energy  of 
Jlaeaulay,  the  lireadth  and  variety  of  his  know- 
ledge, the  fervour  and  dignity  of  his  patriotism — 
these  remain  untouched  by  posthumous  criticism. 
And  in  his  nephew's  biography  he  stands  revealed 
as  the  most  ati'ectionate  and  unselfish  of  relatives, 
loyal  in  bis  friendships,  pure-minded  as  a  child, 
generous,  upright,  and  courageous.  Of  no  public 
man.  of  no  man  of  letters,  can  the  nation  be  more 
whole-heartedly  proud  than  of  Macaulay. 

The  authoritative  work  on  the  life  of  Lord  Macaulay 
is  the  Life  ami  Letters — a  must  admirable  Ijiography — by 
his  nephew,  .Sir  George  Otto  Trevelvan,  the  first  edition 
of  which  was  published  in  1876.  -\  Life  of  his  father  by 
Viscountess  Kimtsford  appeared  in  1000.  Of  the  in- 
numerable estimates  of  Macaiday  whicli  have  appeared 
since  his  death.  Cotter  Morison's  ilonograph  m  the 
*  Engbsh  Men  of  Letters*  series  (1882),  an  essay  by 
Mr  John  Morley  {Critit-at  JlisccUanies,  1886),  and  an 
elaborate  study  by  iL  Taine  ( Hislortf  of  English  Litera- 
ture, vol.  ii.  1871)  may  be  mentioned. 

Maoaw.     See  P.\RKOT. 

Maoaw-tree,  Gre.\t  (Acrocomia  sclerocarpa), 
a  palm  of  the  same  tribe  as  the  cocoa-nut,  a 
native  of  the  West  Indies  and  of  the  warm  parts 
of  America.  It  is  called  Macoi/a  in  Guiana  and 
Macahtiha  in  Brazil.  It  is  from  20  to  30  feet  high. 
with  pinnated  leaves  from  10  to  15  feet  long.  The 
fruit  yields  an  oil  of  a  yellow  colour,  of  the  con- 
sistence of  butter,  with  a  sweetish  taste,  and  an 
odour  of  violets,  used  in  the  native  regions  of  the 
tree  as  an  emollient  in  painful  afl'ections  of  the 
joints,  and  e.\teusively  imported  into  Britain,  where 
it  is  sometimes  sold  as  Palm  Oil,  to  be  used  in  the 
manufacture  of  toilet-soaps. 

3lacbotll.  hereditar>-  mormacr  or  niler  of  Moray, 
married  Gruoch,  granddaughter  of  Kenneth  mac 
Dubh,  king  of  Alban.  In  1040  he  slew  Duncan, 
king  of  Scotia,  near  Elgin,  and  succeeded  him  on 
the  throne,  though  to  Thorfinn,  the  Norwegian 
earl  of  Orkney,  he  had  to  yield  the  region  north 
and  east  of  the  Tay,  and  Cumbria  and  Lothian 
seem  to  have  remained  faithful  to  Duncan's  infant 
sons.  His  seventeen  veal's'  reign  is  commemorated 
in  the  chronicles  ;us  a  time  of  plenty.  He  granted 
lands  to  the  Culdees  of  Lochleven  'with  the  utmost 
veneration  and  devotion  ; '  and,  alone  of  Scottish 
kings  he  made  a  pilgrimage  to  Home  ( 10.50),  and 
there  gave  large  alms  to  the  poor.  Malcolm  Can- 
more,  King  Duncan  s  eldest  son,  hail  lied  to  Kngland 
on  bis  father's  death  ;  anil  in  10.54  his  uncle  Siward, 
Earl  of  Northnmbria,  led  an  army  into  Scotland 
against  Macl>eth.  A  bloody  but  indecisive  battle 
was  fought  near  Scone  ;  and  it  was  not  till  tliree 
years  later  that  Malccdm,  making  a  flesh  inde- 
jiendent  attempt,  drove  ilacbeth  into  .\berdeen- 
.-hire,  and  killed  him  at  Lumphanan.  1.5th  .\ugust 
10.57.  Such  practically  is  all  that  is  known  lor 
certain  of  the  '  lilieral  king,'  as  St  Berchan  styles 
Macbeth.  The  fables  immortalised  I)y  Shake- 
.sjieares  genius  have  for  pedigree  Ifaphael  Holinshed, 
out  of  Hector  Biicce,  out  of  Boece's  ferule  fancy 
and  Wyntoun.     See  Skene's  Celtic  Scotland  ( 187(5). 

Mareabees,  a  word  of  uncertain  meaning  and 
origin,  but  the  name  Makkabi,  originally  given 
to  Judas   Maccaba;us,  i.s  possibly  connected  with 


Mugr/ab,  '  hammer. '  The  founder  of  the  Maecabean 
dyn;isty,  Jlatithjahu,  or  Mattathias,  a  priest  (not, 
a.s  generally  supposed,  a  high-priest,  nor  even  of 
the  family  of  high-priests),  was  the  first  i.tlio  made 
a  stand  against  tne  persecutions  of  the  .lewish 
nation  and  creed  by  Antiocluis  Ejiiphanes.  He 
and  his  family  were  called  Hasmoneans  (Gr. 
Asamonaioi).  At  the  beginning  of  the  tioubles  he 
had  retired,  together  with  his  five  sons,  Jocbanan, 
Simon,  Jehudali  (Makkabi),  Eleazar,  and  .lonatlian, 
to  Modiin,  a  small  place  between  Jerusalem  and 
Joppa,  to  mourn  in  solitude  over  the  desolation  of 
the  holy  city  and  the  desecration  of  the  Temple. 
But  the  Syrians  pursued  him  thither.  He  being 
a  person  of  importance,  Apelles,  a  Syrian  captain, 
endeavoured  to  induce  him,  by  tem|)ting  jnomises, 
to  relinquish  his  faith,  and  to  embrace  the  Greek 
religion.  He  answered  by  slaying  with  his  own 
band  the  fii-st  renegade  Jew  who  apjiroached  the 
altar  of  idolatry.  This  gave  the  sign  for  a  sudden 
outbreak.  His  sons,  together  with  a  hamlful  of 
faithful  men,  rose  against  the  national  foe, 
destroyed  all  traces  of  heathen  worship,  and  fled 
into  the  wilderness  of  Judah.  Their  numlier  soon 
increased  ;  and  not  long  after,  they  were  able  to 
make  descents  into  the  adjacent  villages  and  cities, 
where  they  circumcised  the  children,  and  restored 
everywhere  the  ancient  religion  of  Jehovah.  At 
the  death  of  Mattathias  (ItiG  B.C.),  which  took 
place  a  few  years  after,  Judas  Makkabi  (100-101 
B.C.)  took  the  command  of  the  patriots,  and 
repulsed  the  enemy,  notwithstanding  his  superior 
force,  at  Mizpali,  Betbsur,  and  other  places,  recon- 
quered Jerusalem,  purified  the  Temple,  and  rein- 
augurated  the  holy  service  (164  B.C.).  Having 
further  concluded  an  alliance  with  the  Romans, 
he  fell  in  liattle  against  Bacchides  (161  B.C.).  His 
brother  Jonathan,  who  succeeded  him  in  tlie 
leadership,  renewed  the  Roman  alliance,  and  tak- 
ing advantage  of  certain  disputes  about  the  Syrian 
throne,  rendered  vacant  by  the  death  of  Antiochus, 
acquired  the  dignity  of  high-priest.  But  Tryphon, 
the  guarilian  of  the  young  Prince  Antiochus  Theos, 
fearing  his  influence,  invited  him  to  Ptolemais,  and 
had  him  there  treacherously  executed.  Simon,  the 
.second  brother,  was  elected  by  the  Jew  ish  connnon- 
wealth  to  assume  the  reins  of  the  national  govern- 
ment, and  was  formally  aecogiiised  both  liy 
Demetrius,  Tryphon's  antagonist,  and  by  the 
Romans  as  '  chief  and  ruler  of  the  Jews.'  He  com- 
pletely re-established  the  independence  of  the 
nation,  and  the  year  after  his  succession  ( 141  B.C.) 
was  made  the  starting-point  of  a  new  era.  The 
almost  absolute  power  in  his  hands  he  used  with 
wise  moderation  ;  justice  and  righteousness  flour- 
ished in  his  days,  and  'Judah  piospered  as  of  old.' 
But  not  long  (seven  years)  alter  his  accession  to 
the  supremacy,  he  was  foully  murdered  (136  B.C.) 
by  his  own  son-in-law,  Ptoleiuy,  who  vainly  hoped 
to  succeed  him.  l''or  the  subsequent  history  of  this 
family,  see  Jews,  Hvrc.vnu.s,  aiul  Herhd.  The 
I'oast  of  the  Maccabees — i.e.  both  of  the  sons  of 
Mattathias,  and  of  the  seven  martyr  chihlren 
(2  Mace,  vii.)— Ls  found  in  the  Roman  martyrology 
under  the  date  of  the  first  of  August.  See  l)e 
Sauley,  Histoire  des  Machabies  (1880);  Ewald,  and 
Schi'irer. 

Maccabees,  Books  of.     Two  books  of  this 

name  are  recognised  as  canonical  by  the  Church 
of  Rome,  and  enumerated  in  the  articles  of  the 
Church  of  England  amimg  those  apocrypha  which 
'the  church  iloth  read  for  examjde  ol  life  and 
instruction  of  manners,  yet  doth  not  apply  to  estab- 
lish any  doctrine.' 

1  Marcahccx,  by  far  the  more  important  of  the  two, 
after  a  rapid  acc<mnt  of  the  conqtu-sts  of  Alexander 
the  Great  and  the  distrilaition  of  his  ihuninions 
among  his  successors  (i.   1-9),  goes  on  to  desciibe 


766 


MACCABEES 


M'CARTHY 


the  Helleiiising  policy  of  Antiochus  Epiphanes 
towards  the  Jews  and  its  baneful  eft'ects  (i.  10-04). 
Chai>ter  ii.  >;i\cs  the  genealogy  of  the  Maccabean 
family  and  an  account  of  the  eH'orts  of  the  aged 
^Iattathias  to  rouse  the  spirit  of  active  resistance 
among  his  countrymen  (168  B.C.).  The  rest  of  the 
book  falls  into "  three  main  divisions,  relating 
respectively  to  Judas  (iii.  l-i.\.  22),  Jonathan  (ix. 
23-.\ii.  53);  and  Simon  (xiii.  1-xvi.  18),  the  sons  of 
Mattathias,  and  concludes  with  a  brief  mention  of 
the  accession  of  John  Ilyrcanus,  referring  for  details 
to  'the  chronicles  of  his  priesthood'  (xvi.  19-24). 
Tlie  wink  as  we  now  possess  it  is  the  Greek  trans- 
lation of  a  Heljrew  original,  which  was  still  extant 
in  Jerome's  time.  According  to  Origen  its  Hebrew 
title  was  Sai-bcth  Sabaniel  (meaning,  perhaps,  'the 
prince  of  the  house  which  God  built  up ' ).  The 
date  of  its  original  composition  cannot  have  been 
much  (if  at  all)  earlier  than  106  B.C.  (the  last  year 
of  Hyrcanus),  nor  later  than  64  B.C.,  at  which  time 
the  relations  of  the  Jews  with  the  Romans  changed 
so  <;reatly  for  the  worse.  Tlie  author  was  plainly 
a  Hebrew-speaking  Jew,  well  acquainted  with  the 
topography  of  Palestine,  who,  if  he  had  not  actually 
witnessed  or  taken  part  in  some  of  the  transactions 
he  describes,  had  at  least  conversed  with  those  who 
had,  and  been  at  pains  to  make  himself  aoiiuainted 
with  tlie  authentic  oral  traditions  regarding  tlieni. 
He  also  had  access  to  written  documents,  some  of 
them  of  a  public  and  oflicial  character.  In  spite  of 
some  inaccuracies  and  exaggerations  he  is  entitled 
to  high  rank  as  a  sober,  painstaking,  and  trust- 
wortliy  historian.  The  date  of  the  Greek  transla- 
tion cannot  be  determined,  but  it  wa-a  prolialdy 
made  very  soon  after  the  appearance  of  the  original. 
1  Maccabees  was  translated  by  Luther,  who  speaks 
of  it  as  almost  on  a  level  with  the  canonical 
books,  and  hardly  unworthy  to  be  reckoned  among 
them. 

;-'  Mdccabecs  opens  with  two  letters  ( i.  1-9  and 
i.  10-ii.  18),  [inrporting  to  be  addressed  by  the 
Jewish  authorities  in  Jerusalem  to  their  bretliren 
in  Egypt,  urging  them  to  the  reg-ular  observance 
of  tlie'  Feast  of  the  Dedication.  'The  second  ami 
longer  of  the  two  contains  much  legendary  and 
fabulous  matter  about  Jeremiah  and  Neliemiah, 
and  on  the  internal  evidence  generally  it  seems 
certain  that  both  must  be  regarded  as  spurious. 
The  reference  in  these  letters  to  the  wars  ot  libera- 
tion leads  the  author  of  the  book  to  s|)eak  of 
Judas  Maccab;eus,  and  to  introduce  himself  as 
the  epitomator  of  the  five  books  of  Jason  of 
Cyrene  on  this  theme.  Who  Jason  of  Cyrene 
was,  or  at  what  date  he  lived,  is  not  known ; 
he  wrote  in  Greek,  at  some  distance,  both  in  place 
and  in  time  it  would  seem,  from  the  events  he 
describes.  lie  does  not  ajipear  to  have  been 
ac(|uainted  with  1  Maccabees.  The  date  of  his 
epitomator  is  also  uncertain  ;  all  that  can  be  said 
with  certainty  is  that  it  iinist  have  been  prior  to 
the  destruction  of  Jerusalem  in  70  a.d.  In  numer- 
ous instances  the  statements  of  2  Maccabees  do  not 
admit  of  reconciiiatiim  with  those  of  1  Maccabees, 
and  the  result  of  critical  examination  is  in  every 
ease  in  favour  of  the  latter.  It  is  evident  that  the 
epitoniatiM-,  at  least,  if  not  also  Jason  him.self,  was 
comparatively  indillerent  to  rigid  accuracy  in  his- 
torical detail  ;  he  writes  mainly  with  a  didactic 
purpose,  and  seeks  at  everj'  point  to  give  promin- 
ence to  supernatural  interventions  on  behalf  of  the 
chosen  naticm. 

Hesides  the  above  comparatively  well-known 
writings,  there  occur  in  certain  MSS.  of  the  Se])- 
tuagint  two  other  liooks  known  also  by  the  name  of 
Maccabees,  though  called  so  only  in  a  loose  sense. 

S  Maecabec.i,  in  seven  cliai)tei's,  relates  two  occur- 
rences in  the  reign  (2'22-'205  B.C.)  of  Ptolemy  IV. 
Philopator — his  attempt  to  desecrate  the  Temple 


which  was  miraculously  defeated  through  the 
prayere  of  Simon  the  bigli-priest,  and  the  frus- 
tration of  his  vindictive  scheme  to  destroy  all 
his  Jewish  subjects,  whom  be  had  caused  to  be 
gathered  together  in  the  circus  at  Alexandria.  The 
narrati\e  is  in  many  parts  obviously  fabulous,  and 
at  every  point  is  without  historical  confirmation. 

4  Maccabees,  as  its  original  title,  '  On  the 
Sovereignty  of  Reason '  inijilies,  is  a  discourse 
on  the  sovereignty  of  pious  reason  over  the  pas- 
sions (i.  1-iii.  18);  to  tliis  are  appended  numerous 
illustrations  from  the  time  of  tlie  Maccabees  (iii. 
19-xviii.  '23).  The  second  and  larger  portion  may 
possibly  have  been  based  on  the  work  of  Jason  of 
('yrene  (see  above) ;  the  work  as  a  whole  is  of  a 
hortatory  character,  and  the  suggestion  has  been 
made  that  it  was  originally  a  synagogue  sermon. 
Of  the  author  nothing  is  known  except  that  be 
was  a  sincere  Jew,  well  read  in  Greek  philosophy, 
and  especially  in  that  of  the  Stoics. 

A  fitth  book  of  Maccabees,  in  Arabic,  is  printed 
in  the  Paris  and  London  ]iolyglots.  It  gives  a 
summary  of  Jewish  history  from  180  B.C.  to  the 
close  of  the  reign  of  Hero(\  the  Great,  but  has  no 
independent  value. 

Tlie  best  edition  of  the  text  of  the  four  books  of  Macca- 
bees is  tliat  of  Yriiz^c\\e  {Libri  Aj'o<T!i}>hl  Vthvis  Testa- 
mcnti  Grace,  lf>71),  and  tlie  best  coiiimentary  that  of 
Grimm  in  the  Exe[/etisckes  Nandhiich  (1  Mace.  1853; 
2-4  Mace.  1857).  English  translations  are  given  in 
Cotton's  Fire  Books  of  Maccabees  in  Knijtish  (1832). 

illacralllba.  a  small  mud  volcano,  138  feet  in 
height,  situated  6  miles  N.  of  Girgenti  in  Sicily. 
The  sides  are  studded  with  numerous  small  cones, 
which  usually  emit  hydrogen,  and  occashnially  mud 
and  stones,  often  sending  them  to  a  great  height. 

MacCartliy.  Denis  Florence,  an  Irish  poet, 
was  born  in  Diililiii,  '26th  May  1817.  He  became 
known  as  one  of  the  young  poets  of  that  famous 
newspaper,  the  Kution,  founded  liy  Charles  Duffy 
in  184'2,  and  his  collected  BalUiih,  I'lienis.  and 
Lyrics  aiipeared  in  1850.  His  '  15cll- Founder,' 
'^'oyage  of  St  lirendan,'  'Foray  of  Con  O'llDnncll,' 
and'the  '  Pillar  Towers  of  Ireland,'  quickly  carried 
his  fame  over  the  land  as  well  as  to  Irishmen 
beyimd  the  sea.  Shelley's  translations  from  Cal- 
deron  attracted  him  to  Spanish,  and  in  1 853  he 
published  six  of  Calderon  s  dramas  translated  in 
the  metres  of  the  original,  and  further  instalments 
followed  in  1861,  i867,  1870,  and  1873,  earning  the 
praises  of  Ticknor  and  Longfellow,  and  in  1881  a 
medal  from  tlie  Itoyal  Academy  of  Spain.  In  1S72 
appeared  tilielleii's  Early  Life,  and  in  1879  he  wrote 
the  ode  for  the  Moore  centenary.  For  some  years 
MacCartliy  sull'ered  from  heart  disease,  and  he 
died  at  IJi'ackrock,  near  Dublin,  April  7,  1882.  \ 
collected  edition  of  his  poems  appeared  in  1884. 

M'Carlliy,  Jtstin,  a  brilliant  journalist  and 
novelist,  liorii  in  Cork,  •2'2d  XovemVr  18.30.  He 
liecame  attached  to  the  stall'  of  the  Xortiicrii  Times, 
Liverpool,  in  18.53,  and  in  I8()0  entered  the 
reporters'  gallery  of  the  House  of  Comiiions  for 
the  3!iirtiiiir/  ,SI(ir,  becoming  its  foreign  editor  the 
following  autumn  and  chief  editor  three  years  later. 
He  re-signed  his  post  in  1868,  and  devoted  the  next 
three  years  to  an  unusually  comjjlete  tour  of  the 
I'nitei'l  States,  in  which  he  visited  as  many  as 
thirty-live  of  the  thirty-seven  states.  Soon  after 
his  return  he  became  "connected  with  the  Daily 
Xeirs,  but  he  has  also  contributed  among  othcM' 
magazines  to  the  Loia/tni,  the  ]]'esli>iiitster,  and 
the  Fortnieihthi  Rcricws.  He  entered  the  House 
of  Commons  in  1879  as  menilier  for  Longford,  and 
was  leader  of  the  main  wing  of  llie  Irish  Home- 
Rule  Jiarty  ( '  AnliParnellili' ')  from  tlie  deposition 
of  Mr  Pariiell  (q.v.)  lill  1896,  when  he  resigned  the 
post.    Of  his  novels  the  Ijest  known  are  Paid  Massii 


M'CHEYNE 


M'COSH 


767 


(1866),  The  Watcrdalc  Neighbours  (1867),  My  \ 
Enemy's  Daughter  (1869),  Lady  Judith  (1871),  A 
Fair  Saxon  (1873),  Linley  Eoehford  (1874),  Dear 
Ladii  Disdain  (1875),  Miss  Misanthrope  (1877), 
Donna  Quixote  (1879),  The  Comet  of  a  Season 
( 1881 ),  Maid  of  Athens  ( 1883),  Camiola  ( 1885),  and 
The  Right  Honourah/e,  with  Mrs  Cainpbell  I'laed 
(1886).  His  other  works  are  Con  Aniure,  a  collec- 
tion of  essays  (186S);  Critical  Notice  of  George 
Sand  (1870)  ;  Prohibitory  Legislation  in  the  Vnitcd 
States  (1872);  Modern  Leaders,  biograpliical 
sketches  (1872)  ;  and  A  History  of  our  Own  Times, 
from  the  Accession  of  Queen  Victoria  (4  vols. 
1879-80;  vol.  v.  1897),  an  exceedingly  readable 
work,  clear  and  useful,  though  neither  erudite  nor 
exluuistivc.  Without  professijig  to  be  inii)artial, 
the  author  is  unprejudiced  and  is  unexpectedly 
sane  on  Irish  questions,  which  he  expounds  rather 
tlian  discusses.  His  literary  criticisms  are  not 
always  happy.  Later  works  are  TIte  Epoch  of 
Reform  (1882)  and  History  of  the  Four  Georges 
(4  vols.  1889  ct  seq.).  See  his  Reminiscences  ( 1899). 
M'C'lieyiie,  Robert  Murray,  who  has  been 
called  'theGeorge  Whitefield  of  Scotland,'  was  born 
at  Edinburgh  on  21st  May  1813,  educated  at  the 
Hic'h  School  and  university  of  his  native  town, 
and  licensed  as  assistant  preacher  in  Larbert  and 
Dunipace  in  1835.  The  scene  of  his  life-work  was, 
however,  Diimlee ;  he  was  elected  minister  of  the 
new  cluirch  of  St  Peter's  there  in  1836,  and 
laboured  in  the  same  parish  until  his  death,  on 
25tli  March  1S43.  In  18.39  he  visited  Palestine 
as  one  of  a  mission  of  four  ministers  sent  out  by 
the  Church  of  Scotland  to  inquire  into  the  con- 
dition of  the  Jews,  and  on  his  return  published,  in 
conjunction  with  A.  A.  Bouar,  Narrative  of  a 
Mission  of  Enquiry  to  the  Jexcs  (1839).  He  died 
on  the  veiy  eve  of  the  Disruption  :  had  he  li\ed 
he  would  certainly  have  thrown  in  his  lot  with  the 
party  of  his  former  tutors,  Dr  Chalmers  and  Dr 
Welsh.  Besides  being  an  eloquent  preacher,  a 
man  of  saintly  piety,  and  a  most  exemplaiy  parish 
minister,  M-t'heyne  wrote  hymns  and  puljlished 
sermons,  both  of  considerable  merit.  See  his 
Remains  (Letters,  Sermons,  <S:c. ),  with  a  Memoir 
by  A.  A.  Bonar  (1848;  129th  thousand,  1881 ). 
His  Complete  Works  appeared  at  New  York  in 
2  vols,  in  1847. 

Macoliiavelli.    See  Machi.welli. 

.llcC'h'llilll,  George  Brinton,  an  American 
general,  \v;ls  iiorn  at  Philadelphia,  3d  December 
1826,  graduated  at  West  Point  with  '  Stonewall ' 
Jackson  and  others  in  1846,  and  served  with  the 
engineers  through  the  Mexican  war,  where  lepeated 
gallantry  in  action  gained  him  a  captain's  brevet. 
He  was  afterwards  employed  as  an  instructor  at 
^^'est  Point  and  on  engineer  duty  in  Texas,  Oregon, 
and  Washington,  and  in  1855  was  one  of  three 
American  officers  sent  to  observe  the  campaign  in 
the  Crimea.  In  1857  he  resigned  his  conunission, 
and  engageil  in  railroad  business  until  the  out. 
break  of  the  civil  war  in  1861.  In  April  he  was 
ajqiointed  major-general  of  Ohio  volunt(?ers,  and  in 
May  a  major-general  in  the  United  States  i.rmy. 
I?y  the  middle  of  July  he  had  driven  the  enemy  out 
of  West  Virginia,  which  entered  the  I'nion  as  a 
separate  state  the  year  after.  McClellan  was  now 
c.Tjled  to  W.ushington  to  reorganise  the  Army  of  the 
Potomac,  which  was  made  U]>  of  either  raw  recruits 
or  regiments  fre.sli  from  the  defeat  at  Bull  Ituii  ;  of 
these  ho  received  the  command  in  August,  and  in 
November  he  was  made  commander-in-eliief.  But 
the  authorities  at  Wa.sliington  were  too  nervous  to 
rest  content  with  so  slow  and  o.iroful  an  organiser 
as  McClellan:  and  when,  in  April  1862,  lie  landed 
at  Old  Point  Comfort,  for  the  invanion  of  \'irginia 
by  the  peninsula  of  the  James  Kiver,  he  iiad  already 


been  deprived  of  the  command-in-chief.  His  penin- 
sular campaign  lasted  till  July,  and  ended  disas- 
trously, partly  from  want  of  support,  and  ])artly 
from  over-caution.  He  advanced  near  to  Itich- 
mond,  but  was  compelled  to  retreat,  lighting  the 
'seven  days'  battles  '  (.June  25  to  July  1 )  as  he  did 
.so,  and  linally  to  evacuate  the  pcninsnla.  He  was 
now  relieved  of  his  command  :  but  after  the  di.sas- 
trous  second  battle  of  Bull  Kun  (August  29-30), 
which  was  followed  by  a  Confederate  invasion  of 
Maryland,  he  reorganised  the  army  at  ^\'ashington, 
marched  rapidly  north,  met  the  forces  of  (Jeneral 
Lee  at  Antietam  (q.v.),  and  compelled  him  to 
reoross  the  Potomac.  This  short  campaign  was 
McClellan's  most  lirilliant  achievement,  but  he 
undoubtedly  failed  to  pursue  his  advantage  as 
rapidly  as  he  should.  He  followed  the  Coufeclerati^s 
into  ^"irginia,  but  with  too  great  deliberation  for 
the  taste  of  the  impatient  cabinet,  and  in  Novem- 
ber he  was  superseded  by  General  Burnside  (q.v.). 
Here  his  share  in  the  war  en<led.  In  1864  he 
resigned  his  commission,  and  unsuccessfully 
opposed  Lincoln  for  the  presidency  ( see  p.  640 ).  He 
was  then  in  Europe  till  1868,  and  in  1877  was 
elected  govenior  of  New  Jersey.  He  died  at 
Orange,  New  Jersey,  29th  October  1885.  McClel- 
lan was  the  idol  of  his  soldiers,  and  deserved  their 
love  by  his  care  for  them  ;  but  his  caution  in  the 
field  was  excessive,  and  he  was  slow  in  jireparing 
fresh  plans  or  in  meeting  unexpected  com! linat ions. 
See  his  Report  on  the  Organisation  and  Cani/jaigns 
of  the  Army  of  the  Potomac  ( 1864 ) ;  and  McClellan's 
Own  Story,  edited  by  AV.  C.  Prime  (1886). 

Macclesfield,  an  ancient  municipal  borough 
antl  important  manufactuiing  town  in  the  iSIaceles- 
field  parliamentaiy  division  of  Cheshire,  is  situ- 
ated on  the  river  Bollin,  and  on  the  western 
declivity  of  a  range  of  low  hills,  15  miles  SSE. 
of  Manchester  and  167  NW.  of  London.  Among 
its  buildings  are  the  fine  old  church  of  St  Michael, 
founded  by  Queen  Eleanor  in  1278,  the  town-hall 
(1823-70)," the  intirmaiy  (1872),  and  King  Edward's 
grammar-school  (1553),  rebuilt  in  1866,  and  reor- 
ganised in  1880,  with  an  endon  nient  of  £2001)  a  year, 
which  also  supports  a  modern  free  school.  Miiccles- 
field  has  a  public  park  of  16  acres  (1852),  public 
baths,  a  free  library,  a  technical  school,  a  school 
of  .science  and  art,  iS:c.  The  old  button  trade 
belongs  to  the  past ;  and  the  silk  manufacture, 
established  in  1756,  is  now  the  staple  industry; 
cotton  goods  and  smallwares  are  mantifactured,  and 
there  are  dye-works  and  breweries.  In  the  vicinity 
coal,  slate,  and  stone  are  obtained.  Maccleslield, 
which  possesses  nine  charters  (the  first  by  Prince 
Edward,  Earl  of  Chester,  in  1261),  and  which  re- 
turned two  members  to  parliament  from  1832  till 
1880,  was  disfranchised  in  1885.  Pop.  (1851) 
:^9,048:  (1881)  .37,514;  (1891)  36,009.  See  works 
by  (N)rry  (1817)  and  Earwaker  (1877). 

Hl'Cliire,  Sir  Robert  John  le  Me.surier,  the 
discoverer  of  the  North-west  Pa.ssage,  was  born  at 
Wexford,  28th  January  1807,  and  entered  the  navy 
in  1824,  served  in  Back's  Arctic  Expedition  in  18:i6, 
and  Ross's  Franklin  Expedition  in  1848.  As  com- 
mander of  another  Franklin  Exjiedition  (1850-54) 
he  jiassed  in  a  sledge  from  Barrow  Strait,  where 
ills  ship,  the  Investigator,  lay,  to  Melville  Simnd, 
connecting  with  the  Arctic  Ocean  to  the  west. 
M'Clure  was  rescued  by  another  expedition, 
made  K.C.  B. ,  .and  after  serving  in  Chinese  waters, 
an  admiral.  He  died  17th  October  187.3.  See 
PoLAU  Exploration  and  works  there  cited. 

N'Cosll.  James,  one  of  the  most  voluminous 
defenders  of  the  Scottish  philo.sophy  in  recent 
times,  was  born  at  C.irskeoch,  Ayrshire,  1st  Ajiril 
ISll.  After  studying  at  (ilasgow  and  Edinburgh, 
he  became  a  minister  of  the  Church  of  Scotland, 


768 


M'CRIE 


MACDONALD 


and  was  settled  at  Aibioath  in  1835.  In  1839  he 
removed  to  Brechin,  and  four  years  later  cast  in 
his  lot  with  the  Free  Church!  In  1851  he  was 
appointed  professor  of  Logic  and  Metaphysics  in 
Queen's  College,  Belfast,  a  position  which  he  held 
till  1868,  when  he  was  called  to  the  Presidency  of 
the  college  of  New  Jersey,  Princeton,  U.S.A.  After 
a  very  successful  tenure,  Dr  M'Cosh  resigned  this 
oHiee'in  1S8S  in  order  to  devote  the  close  of  his  life 
more  exclusively  to  philosophical  production.  Dr 
M'Cosh's  first  important  work  was  The  Method  of 
tlw  Divine  Govcrmncnt,  Pht/sical  and  Moral  (1850; 
9th  ed.  1867).  It  was  followed  in  1S60  by  The 
lulaitions  of  the  Mind  inductively  investigated. 
When  Mill  published  his  Examination  of  Sir  W. 
Hamilton's  I'hilosophij  in  1865,  Dr  Jl'Cosh  was  one 
of  the  numerous  critics  who  broke  a  lance  for 
Scottish  philosophy  and  examined  the  examiner. 
His  Examination  'of  Mr  J.  S.  Mill's  Philosophi/ 
( 1866)  is  entitled  '  a  defence  of  fundamental  truth.' 
Dr  Al  •(  'osh,  who  died  16th  November  1894,  defended 
what  he  considers  the  Natural  Realism  of  Reid 
against  both  the  empirical  school  and  the  rela- 
tivistic  views  of  Kant,  Hamilton,  and  Mansel ; 
and  maintained  the  older  intuitional  view  against 
the  associationists  and  evolutionists  on  the  one 
hand  ami  the  transcendentalists  on  the  other.  In 
1875  he  ])ublished  a  useful  history  of  The  Scottish 
Ph ilosonhij.  He  has  also  published  a  series  of  philo- 
sophical tracts  for  the  times,  collected  as  Ecali^tlc 
Philosoiihi/  (2  vols.  1887),  Psi/chologij  (ISm),  and 
First  and  Fundamental  Truths  {1SS9).  The  Reli- 
gious Aspect  of  Evolution,  appeared  in  1890. 

M'Cric,  Dr  Thom.\s,  a  learned  Scottish  his- 
torian and  divine,  was  bom  at  Duns  in  November 
1772,  sturlied  at  the  university  of  Edinburgh,  and 
was  ordained  in  1795  pastor  of  an  Anti-burgher 
congregation  in  that  city.  Here  he  died,  otli 
August  1835.  M'Crie's  works  are  in  the  highest 
degree  valuable  to  the  student  of  Scottish  ecclesias- 
tical history.  They  exhibit  research  at  once  vast 
and  minute,  and  though  they  are  essentially  apolo- 
getic, yet  their  author  is  never  consciously  unfair, 
and  does  not  misstate  facts.  He  shows,  however, 
such  admirable  skill  in  finding  palliation  even  for 
the  less  defensible  acts  of  the  Reformers,  and  so 
warm  a  zeal  for  Presbyterianism,  that  the  impartial 
Hallam  described  his  spirit  as  '  Presbyterian  Ililde- 
brandism.'  He  attacked  Sir  Walter  Scott's  account 
of  the  Covenanters  in  Old  Mortality  in  thiee  tren- 
chant papers  in  the  Edinburgh  Christian  Instructor, 
aiul  most  unprejudiced  readere  were  compelled  to 
admit  that  he  had  the  best  of  the  controversy. 
Readers  of  My  Schools  and  School  masters  will 
remember  the  admirable  description  of  the  militant- 
looking  divine's  person  and  preaching.  His  best- 
known  works  are  The  Life  of  John  Knox  (1812), 
The  Life  of  Andrew  Melville  (1819),  and  tlie  less 
satisfactory  History  of  the  Progress  and  Suppression 
of  the  Refornuition  in  Spain  (1829).  His  works 
were  collected  in  4  vols.  ( 1855-56 ),  and  a  Life  was 
published  in  1840  by  his  son,  Thomas  M'Crie, 
D.D.,  LL.D.  (1798-1875),  professor  in  the  Presby- 
terian college  at  London,  and  himself  the  author 
of  Sketches  of  Scottish  Church  History  ( 1841 ),  and 
Annals  of  English  Presbytery  (1872). 

lll'C'llIloch,  HoR.VTio,  a  Scottish  landscape- 
painter,  was  born  in  (!la.sgow  in  1805.  He  ex- 
hibited for  the  first  time  in  1829  ;  in  1836  he  was 
elected  an  .-V.R.S.A.,  and  in  1838  an  H.S..\.,  when 
he  removed  to  Edinburgh.  Here  he  liveil  till  his 
death  on  24tli  June  1867.  He  painteil  the  Higli- 
laml  lanilscapes  with  unrivalled  truth,  breadtli, 
and  imagination,  among  his  principal  pictures 
being  'Highland  Loch,'  '  Loch-an-Eilan,'  'View  in 
Cadzow  Forest,'  '  Dream  of  the  Forest,'  '  Misty 
Corries,'    'Deer    Forest,    Isle    of    Skye,'    'Loch 


Achray,'  'Mist  rising  off  the  Mountains,'  '  Kil- 
churn  Castle,  Loch  Awe,'  and  '  Bothwell  Castie, 
on  the  Clyde.' 

MnoClllIocIl,  John,  geologist,  born  in  Guern- 
sey of  a  Scottish  family  on  6th  October  1773, 
stuilied  medicine  at  Edinburgh,  and  became  a.ssist- 
ant-surgeon  to  an  artillery  regiment.  In  1811  he 
was  employed  by  government  in  geological  and 
mineralogical  researches  in  Scotland  ;  in  LS20  he  be- 
came physician  to  Prince  Leopold  of  Saxe-Coburg, 
afterwanls  king  of  the  Belgians ;  and  in  the 
later  years  of  his  life  he  was  protessor  of  Chemistiy 
and  Geology  in  the  East  India  Company's  military 
school  at  Addiscombe.  He  died  at  Penzance, 
Cornwall,  21st  August  18.35,  in  consequence  of 
an  amputation  remlered  necessaiy  by  a  carriage 
accident.  His  most  important  works  aie  a  De- 
scripticm  of  the  lycstcm  Islands  of  Scotland  ( 1819 ) ; 
A  Geological  Classif  cation  of  liocks,  with  Descrip- 
tive Si/nopses  (1821 ) ;  A  System  of  Geology,  vith  a 
Theory  of  the  Earth  ( 1831 ) ;  Malaria  ( 1827 ) ;  and 
The  liemittent  and  Intermittent  Diseases  (2  vols. 
1828). 

M'CllUoch,  John  R.\ms.\y,  political  economist, 
was  born  at  Whithorn,  Wigtownshire,  1st  March 
1789.  At  first  a  clerk  in  a  lawyer's  office,  he 
became  known  in  connection  with  the  Scotsman 
newspaper  (of  which  he  was  editor  in  1818-19) 
and  the  Edinburgh  Pcvieic.  He  made  his  debut  in 
the  Review  in  1818,  w  ith  an  article  on  Ricardo's  Prin- 
ciples of  Political  Economy,  and  for  twenty  years 
contributed  almost  all  tlie  economical  articles, 
with  a  few  on  other  subjects.  He  lectured  and 
taught  in  London  on  political  economy  ;  in  1828 
was  chosen  professor  of  Political  Economy  in  Uni- 
versity College,  London;  in  1838  was  appointed 
Comptroller  of  H.M.  Stationery  Office,  a  situation 
which  he  held  till  his  death,  11th  November  1864. 
His  principal  publications  comprise:  The  Principles 
of  Political  Economy  (1820);  The  Literature  of 
Political  Economy  (1845);  On  the  Succession  to 
Property  vacant  by  Death  (1848);  On  the  Rate  of 
Wages  ( 1826-51 ) ;  A  Dictionary  of  Commerce  ( 1 832 : 
new  ed.  1875-80);  Statistical  Account  of  the  Brit- 
ish Empire  (1837);  Geographical  Dictionary :  A 
Treatise  on  Taxation  and  the  Funding  Syste7n 
(1845);  Dictio)airy,  Geographical,  Statistical,  Ac. 
(1841-42):  Partnership,  d.-c.  (1856).  He  also 
edited  Smith's  Wealth  of  Nations  and  Ricardo's 
works.  M'Culloch  was  a  ForeigTi  Associate  of  the 
Institute  of  France ;  and  Peel  conferred  on  him  a 
pension  of  1'200  a  year. 

niact'lllin.  Hajii.sh,  composer,  was  born  in 
Greenock,  22d  March  1868.  After  study  under 
local  teachers,  in  1883  he  won  a  scholarship  at  the 
Royal  College  of  Music.  His  progress  there  \\!is 
so  rajiid  that  in  the  following  year  lie  Mas  able  to 
resign  it.  In  1888  he  was  appointed  a  juiii<M-  )iro- 
fessor  of  Harmony  at  the  Royal  Academy.  He  is 
regarded  as  one  of  the  most  pronusing  composei's 
of  the  day,  his  works  having  already  won  high 
apjirobation.  Beginning  with  the  overture  Cior 
Mltor  iiroduced  al  Glasgow,  22il  Jan.  1887,  they 
embrace  two  other  overtures,  Land  of  the  3Iountaiti 
and  the  Flood  and  The  Dou-ic  Dens  of  Yarrow; 
choral  works,  including  The  Lay  of  the  Last  Min- 
strel :  .some  songs ;  and  the  operas  Jennie  Deans 
( 1894 )  and  Diarmid  ( 1897  ;  libretto  by  present  Duke 
of  Argyll).  Possessing  fertility  in  melody  and  a 
remark.alilc  mastery  of  the  orchestra,  he  is  a  pro- 
nounced nplioldiT  of  nationality  in  music,  a:ul  his 
works  are  distinctly  Scottish  in  character. 

Miirduiiald,  Etienne  J.vnji'Es  Joseph  Alex- 
AM>i:i;,  was  horn  17th  November  1765  at  Sedan, 
his  father,  a  schoolmaster  (horn  in  South  Uist, 
educated  at  Donai),  who  followed  Prince  Charlie 
to    France,    being   of   the   stock    to  which    Flora 


MACDONALD 


769 


MiicilonaUl  also  belonged.  He  entereil  the  army  iu 
17S4  anil,  oiiibracing  the  cause  of  the  lieviilution, 
rapidly  rose  to  liigli  rank  ;  he  distinguished  liiin- 
self  at  .Ieuui[)pes,  and  by  the  capture  of  the  Dutcli 
fleet  { ITHo)  alter  crossing  the  iie.  In  1798  he  was 
made  governor  of  the  Komau  States,  and,  having 
routed  the  army  of  the  king  of  Naples  at  Otricoli, 
he  completed  the  subjugation  of  that  kingdom.  In 
tlie  following  year  he  marched  to  North  Italy,  to 
check  the  inroad  of  Suwarolf,  who,  however,  de- 
feated him  after  a  three  days'  blood}'  contest  on 
the  Trebbia.  In  1800  and  ISOl  he  conimaniled  the 
army  of  reserve  in  Switzerland  and  marched  across 
the  Spliigen.  But  in  180.5  he  lost  the  favour  of 
Bonaparte  by  his  support  of  Moreau.  Four  yeai-s 
later  the  emperor,  hard  pressed,  summoned  Mac- 
donald  to  comnumd  the  right  wing  of  the  army 
of  Italy.  He  took  Laibacli,  and  distinguislied 
himself  at  Wagrain,  and  was  created  marshal 
and  Duke  of  Taranto.  He  held  a  command  in 
Spain  in  1810,  and  in  the  Russian  campaign  : 
and  in  1813  he  contributed  to  the  successes  of 
Lutzen  and  Bautzen,  but  was  utterly  routed  by 
Bliicher  at  the  Katzbach.  After  the  battle  of 
Leipzig  he  helped  to  cover  the  retreat  of  the 
French  army.  In  the  subsecjuent  struggles  on 
French  ground  Macdonald  made  desperate  efforts 
to  face  the  enemies  of  Napoleon  ;  but,  seeiug  that 
further  resistance  was  hopeless,  he  advised  the 
emperor  to  abdicate.  The  Bourbons  made  him 
a  peer,  and  gave  him  the  command  of  a  mili- 
tary division  ;  but  he  refused  to  serve  during  the 
Hundred  Days.  From  1816  he  was  Chancellor  of 
the  Legion  of  Honour,  ami  took  an  active  ])art 
in  the  discussions  of  the  Chamber  of  Peers.  He 
dieil  at  Courcelles,  Loire,  '2oth  September  1840. 
See  his  ^0(U-eH«-o,- ( 1892  ;  trans.  1892). 

nnodoiiald.  Flor.v,  'a  name,' said  Dr  John- 
son. ■  that  will  be  mentioned  in  history,  and,  if 
courage  and  hdelity  are  virtues,  mentioned  with 
honour.'  Born  in  1722  at  Milton  in  South  Uist, 
she  lost  her  father,  a  tacksman,  at  two  ;  and  her 
mother  four  years  later  was  abducted  to  Skye  by 
Hu^h  Macdonald  of  Armadale.  Flora  stayed 
behind  in  Uist  with  her  only  surviving  brother, 
An"us,  and  at  thirteen  was  practically  adopted  by 
Lady  Clanranald,  the  wife  of  the  chief  of  the  clan. 
To  this  Flora  owed  her  gentle  upbringing,  her 
three  years'  .schooling  at  E<linburgh.  She  had  not 
long  returned  to  the  Hebrides  when  the  rebellion 
of  the  '45  broke  out ;  and  in  June  1746,  ten  weeks 
after  Culloden,  she  conducted  Prince  Charles 
Edward,  disguised  as  '  Betty  Burke,  the  Irish- 
woman,' from  Ormiclade  in  ISenbeeula  to  Monk- 
stadt  in  Skye,  and  thence  by  way  of  Kingsburgh 
to  Portree.  That  she  was  in  love  with  the  'young 
hero '  is  absolutely  false— she  was  not  even  a  Jacob 
ite  ;  but  those  three  shr)rt  perilous  days  endeared 
her  to  more  than  Jacobites,  and  she  was'  much  feted 
during  her  twelvemonth's  captivity  on  the  troop- 
ship in  Leitli  Koads  and  at  Londcm.  In  17.50  she 
married  the  son  of  .M.acdonald  of  Kingsburgh,  and 
at  Kingsburgh  in  177:{  she  entertained  Dr  Jolinsf)n, 
who  de.scribcs  her  as  'of  middle  stature,  soft  feat- 
ures, gentle  manners,  and  elegant  presence.'  In  1774 
her  husband  emigrated  to  North  Carolina,  and  in 
1776,  on  the  outbreak  of  the  war  of  independence, 
he  became  a  brigadier-general  (his  five  sons,  too, 
were  all  British  officers).  He  himself  was  marie 
prisoner;  and  Flora,  returning  to  Scotland  in  1779 
with  her  younger  daughter,  got  her  arm  broken 
during  the  voyage  in  a  light  with  a  French  priva- 
teer. After  two  years  at  Miltim,  she  was  rejoined 
by  her  husbanil,  and  they  .settled  again  at  Kings- 
burgh ;  but  it  was  at  Peinduin,  a  neighbour's 
house,  that  she  died  on  5th  March  17i)0.  Shrouded 
in  a  sheet  that  had  wrapped  Prince  Charles 
Edward,  she  wa.s  buried  at  Kilmuir,  in  a  grave 
309 


now  nuuked  by  an  lona  cross  (1880)  of  Aberdeen 
granite,  28J  feet  high. 

The  so-called  Autobiotiraph;/  of  Flora  Macdonald  (2 
vols.  ISUy )  is  a  silly  forgery ;  but  reference  may  be  made 
to  Flora  Macdonald  and  Prince  C/utrles,  by  the  Kev. 
Alexander  MacGregor  (1882),  and  to  Flora  Macdonald 
in  Uisl,  by  W.  Jolly  (1886). 

Macdonald,  Oeorc:k,  a  Scottish  poet  and 
novelist,  born  at  Huntly,  Aberdeenshire,  in  1824, 
educated  at  Aberdeen  University  and  the  theo- 
logical college  of  the  Congregationalists  at  High- 
bury. He  became  minister  at  Arundel  in  Sussex, 
and  afterwards  at  ilanchester,  but  was  compelled 
by  the  state  of  his  health  to  gi\e  up  preaching. 
A  short  residence  in  Algiers  restored  him  to 
comparative  vigour,  and,  returning  to  London,  he 
took  to  literature  as  a  profession.  His  first  book, 
]VUIuii  and  Witliout.  a  poem,  appeared  in  1856, 
and  was  followed  by  Foeins  (1857),  and  P/iatilastcji, 
a  Faerie  Bumance  (1858),  a  poem  as  irregular  as 
Kibneity,  and  almost  as  full  of  beauty  and  power. 
A  long  series  of  novels  followed,  including  David 
Elfjinbrod  ( 1862 ) ;  The  Portent  ( 1S64 )  :  Ahc  Forbes 
of  Howgten  ( 1865) ;  Annals  of  a  (Juict  Xcighbonr- 
hood  (1866):  Guild  Court  ("lS67);  The  Seaboard 
Parish  (1868):  Bobert  Falconer  (1868);  Wilfrid 
Citmbernicdc  (1871);  Malcolm  (1874);  St  George 
and  St  lilichael  (1875);  2'hnmas  Wingfold,  Curate 
(1876);  The  Mareiuis  of  Lossie  (1877);  Sir  Gibbi> 
(1879);  What's  Mine's  Mine  (1886);  Lilith 
(1895):  and  Sedted  u-ilh  Fire  (1897).  Almost  all 
these  novels  contain  passages  of  singular  beauty, 
and  are  lightened  up  oy  fine  fanc,y  and  descri])tive 
power,  but  they  are  badly  constructed  and  defective 
in  harmony  as  works  of  art.  They  reveal  the  deep 
spiritual  instincts  of  their  author  in  bis  reaction 
against  Calvinism,  as  well  as  the  nebulosity  of  his 
mental  atmosphere  and  his  inability  for  sustained 
thought.  The  dialect  is  that  of  .\berdeen  and  the 
northeastern  counties,  and  sounds  feeble  to  the 
ear  after  the  classic  vigour  of  the  language  of 
Burns  and  Scott.  He  has  also  published  books 
for  the  young:  Dealings  ivith  the  Fairies  (1867), 
Banald  Bannerman's  Boyhood  (1869),  At  the 
Back  of  the  North  Wind  [\S10),  and  The  Princess 
and  the  Goblin  ( 1871 ) ;  besides  religious  works  : 
Unspoken  Sermons  (3  series,  1866-89),  and  Tlie 
Miracles  of  Our  Lord  (1870).  Macdonald  is  well 
known  as  a  lecturer,  and  in  1872-73  he  made  a 
lecturing  tour  in  the  United  States.  In  1877  he 
received  a  Civil  List  pension  of  £100. 

Macdonald,  Sir  John  Alex.-\ndki;, 
Canadian  statesman,  was  born  in  Glasgow,  1 1th 
January  1815,  and  with  his  parents  emigrated  five 
years  later  to  Canada.  He  was  educated  at 
Kingston,  called  to  the  bar  in  18.36,  and  appointed 
a  Q.C.  in  1846.  He  rei>resented  Kingston  in  the 
Canada  Assembly  from  1844  till  the  union  of  the 
provinces  in  1867,  and  in  the  Dominion  [larliament 
till  1878,  when  he  was  defeated  ;  but  he  after- 
wards sat  for  Victoria,  British  Colnmbia,  and  for 
Carleton  and  Lenno.\,  and  was  ag.ain  returned  by 
his  old  constituency  in  1887.  Before  the  union  he 
li.id  been  Receiver-general  in  1847,  <'ommissioner 
of  Crown-lands  in  1847-48,  Attorney -general  for 
Upper  Caiuula  in  1854-58,  succeeding  Sir  .Vllan 
Macnab  ;is  leader  of  the  Conservatives  and  premier 
in  18.56,  anil  again  .Attorney-general  in  1858-62  and 
1864-67.  On  1st  July  1867,  when  the  new  consti- 
tution came  into  force,  he  was  called  upon  lo  form 
the  lirst  governiin'iit  for  tin"  new  DoiMinion.  and 
w;ts  minister  of  Justice  and  Attorney  general  of 
Canaila  until  he  and  his  cabinet  resigned  in  1873. 
He  was  again  returned  to  power  in  1878,  and  was 
successful  in  the  elections  of  1882  anil  I.S87.  In 
1878  his  success  was  owing  lo  the  adoptiim  of  a 
policy  of  protection  for  native  in<lustnes,  which 
discriminates  against  the  productions  of  all  other 


MACDUFF 


MACFARREN 


countries,  not  even  excepting  Great  Britain.  Sir 
John  was  mainly  inslrnniental  in  bringing  about 
the  confederation  of  the  British  Nortli  American 
provinces,  ami  in  securing  the  eonstruclion  of  the 
Intercolonial  and  I'acilic  railways  ;  and  he  w.as  a 
pioneer  of  imperial  unity.  In  1871  he  wasaiijiointed 
one  of  the  British  ('oinmissioners  for  the  .settlement 
of  the  Alaliania  claims.  He  was  made  a  privy- 
eouucillor  in  187'2,  K.C.B.  in  ISCT,  and  G.C.B.  in 
1884,  and  received  honours  from  O.xford  and  the 
Canadian  universities.  He  died  litli  June  1S91. 
His  widow  was  made  a  peeress  of  the  United  King- 
dom, and  a  bust  of  Sir  John  was  erected  in  West- 
minster Abbey  in  1S92.     See  Life  by  Pope  ( 1894). 

nincdnlf'.    See  b.\nff. 

Mace,  a  thick,  heavy  club  or  stall",  about  5  feet 
long,  surmounted  by  a  metal  head,  frequently 
sniked,  wdiich  was  used  by  knights  and  warlike 
clnirchmen  in  the  middle  ages.  The  ornamental 
maces  of  parliament,  the  universities,  and  city 
corporations,  borne  as  an  ensign  of  authority,  may 
be  traced  to  the  12th  and  IHth  centuries,  when 
princes  armed  their  guards  with  spikeless  maces  as 
the  handiest  against  the  sudden  attacks  of  the 
.\ssassins  (q.v. ).  The  need  i)assed  away,  but  the 
maces  remained  as  symbols  of  rank.  The  House  of 
Commons  has  possessed  three  maces.  The  first 
disa])i)eared  after  the  execution  of  Charles  I.  The 
second  was  the  'bauble'  that  Cromwell  had  re- 
moved :  it  has  been  claimed  that  a  mace  preserved 
in  the  museum  at  Kingston,  Jamaica,  is  tlie  same. 
T'he  sergeant-at-arms  at  the  close  of  the  session 
hands  over  the  mace  to  an  official  of  the  crown, 
getting  a  receipt  for  it  ;  it  is  kept  iinder  lock  and 
key  till  the  House  meets  again.  In  the  congress 
of  the  United  States  the  .sergeant-at-arms  has  a 
silver  mace.  The  Lord  Mayor's  mace,  of  silver 
gilt,  and  weighing  nearly  a  quarter  of  a  hundred- 
weight, dates  from  l"3o." 

Ulacc,  the  Aril  (q.v.)  or  inner  covering  of  the 
Nutmeg  (ipv.).  It  is  a  lacerated  membrane, 
blood-red  «lien  fresh,  varying  in  length  accord- 
ing to  the  variety.  There  are  two  varieties  of 
nutmeg  cultivated,  one  named  'Royal,'  the  other 
'Green.'  The  former  bears  the  longer  and  finer 
quality  of  mace.  The  mace  is  removed  from  the 
nutmeg  and  dried  in  the  sun  a  few  days,  when 
it  quickly  loses  its  line  red  colour  and  becomes  light 
brown.  It  is  then  sprinkled  with  sea-water  to 
preserve  it  and  render  it  llexible,  and  is  presseil 
flat,  in  which  condition  it  is  exported,  chieliy  from 
Penang  and  Singai)()rc.  Mace  is  the  most  aromatic 
part  of  the  fruit,  and  yields  both  fixed  and  essen- 
tial oils.  The  formei-,  obtained  by  expression,  is 
highly  fragrant,  of  buttery  consistence,  and  brown 
colour.  It  is  powerfully  stimulant,  and  in  India  is 
employed  as  a  liniment  and  embrocation  in  rheuma- 
tism. The  essential  oil  is  extracted  by  distillation. 
It  possesses  the  fragrance  of  mace,  and  is  yellow  in 
colour.  Mace  is  a  native  of  the  Moluccas  and 
neighbouring  islands,  but  is  cultivated  in  Java, 
Penang,  Sumatra,  Mauritius,  and  other  parts  of 
the  East,  and  in  Cayenne,  Martinique,  anil  some 
of  the  West  Inilia  Island.s.  The  aril  of  other 
species  of  Myristica  (Nutmeg)  of  inferior  qualitv 
occasionally  appears  in  commerce. 

Alacrdoilia.  anciently  the  name  of  a  counlry 
lying  NW.  of  the  .Kgean'Sea.  Originally  of  small 
extent,  it  stretched  at  the  jteriod  of  its  greatest 
area  from  the  Ha'mus(mod.  Balkan)  range  on  the 
N.  to  Thessaly  and  the  .Egean  on  the  S.,  and 
from  Epirus  and  Illyiia  on  the  W.  to  Thrace  on 
the  E.  The  country  is  on  the  whole  mountainous, 
especially  in  the  south  and  west,  but  there  are 
several_  large  plains  of  great  fertility.  The  prin- 
cipal rivers  were  the  Strynion,  Axius,  and  Haliac- 
mon.     Compare  Turkey.     Macedonia  was  famous 


for  its  golil  and  silver  mines,  and  its  oil  and  wine 
Itcontainc<l  a  number  of  nourishing  cities,  of  which 
the  names  are  well  known  in  ancient  history,  par- 
ticularly .Ega-  (Edessa)  and  Pclla,  the  capitals, 
Pydna,  Thessalonica,  Potida-a,  Olynthos,  Philippi, 
and  Amphipolis.  Perdiccas  I.  {circa  700  li.C. )  is 
leputed  to  have  been  the  first  king  and  founder 
of  the  Macedonian  monarchy.  In  490  !!.(•.  and 
again  ten  years  later  Macedonia  ■»  as  compelled  to 
take  part  with  the  Persians  in  their  invasions 
of  Greece.  Under  the  wise  and  vigorous  reign  of 
Archelaus  (413-399  l!.c. ),  an  admirer  of  Greek  art 
and  civilisation,  Macechmia  greatly  increased  in 
prosperity  and  power.  But  a  period  of  civil  wai-s 
and  anarchy  then  ensued,  and  wa,s  only  teiinin- 
ated  by  the  accession  of  Philip  II.  (359  u.r. ), 
who,  having  seated  himself  firmly  on  the  throne, 
developed  the  resources  of  his  kingdom,  and 
laid  the  foun<lation  of  its  future  greatness  (si^e 
Greece).  His  son,  Alexander  III.,  surnamed 
the  Great,  brought  half  the  then  known  world 
under  his  sway ;  but  after  his  death  the  Mace- 
donian empire  was  broken  up,  and,  after 
twenty -two  years  of  incessant  warfare,  was  formed 
into  four  kingdoms  under,  his  jirincipal  generals 
(see  Philip  and  Alkx.\ndek).  Macedonia,  with 
Greece,  fell  to  Antipater's  son  Cassander.  But  in 
the  wars  against  the  Gauls,  the  civil  strifes  of 
the  descendants  of  Alexander's  generals,  and  in 
the  ambitious  designs  of  Pyrrhus,  king  of  E]>irus, 
Macedonia  almost  perished  as  a  kingdom.  It  was, 
however,  once  more  established  securely  by  .Vnti- 
gonus  Gonatas  (277-'239),  the  grandson  of  Alex- 
ander's general  Antigonus,  who  had  obtained  part 
of  Asia  Minor.  The  kingdom  (ueserved  the  limits 
set  it  by  Antigonus  down  to  its  conquest  by  the 
Romans  in  168  B.C.  Twenty-five  years  later 
Macedonia  was  made  a  Koman  province,  in  which 
Thessaly  and  part  of  lUyria  were  iiududed.  On 
the  partition  of  the  Roman  world.  It  was  incor- 
porated in  the  eastern  empire  In  the  end  of  the 
Gth  century  It  was  settled  by  Sla\onic  races,  and 
subsequently  formed  part  of  the  kingdoms  of  the 
Bulgarians  (10th  century),  Salonica  (ruled  by 
Boniface,  ilarquis  of  Montferrat),  Thessalonica 
(1224),  the  Servians  (14tli  century),  and  finally 
the  Turks,  who  still  hold  it.  The  |>o]iuIation  of 
the  coast  districts  are  Greeks,  whilst  in  the  interior 
Christian  Bulgarians  greatly  preiiondeiate. 

niaoeio,  a  ))ort  of  Brazil,  the  capital  of 
-\lagoas  state,  lies  on  a  jieninsula  that  shuts 
in  the  Lagoa  do  Norte  from  the  sea.  Cotton 
and  machinery  are  manufactured,  and  there  is 
an  active  trade  in  maize,  sugar,  cotton,  itc.  Two 
railways  run  from  here  into  the  interior.  Pop. 
12,000. 

IWacorata.  a  walled  town  of  Central  Italy, 
picturesi|ucly  perched  upon  an  eminence  (1207 
teet),  44  miles  by  rail  S.  of  Ancona.  It  has  a 
cathedral,  a  beautiful  town-hall  of  the  13th  cen- 
tury, ;  university,  and  manufactures  of  glass  and 
potiery.     I'op.  10,0(53. 

Macfarmi.  Siii  (Jkohoe  Alex.vndek,  one 
of  the  most  promiiKMit  composei's  and  writei's  on 
musical  theory  during  the  19th  century  in  England, 
was  born  in  London,  .March  2,  1813,  and  e<lncated 
at  the  Royal  Academy  of  Music,  at  which  institu- 
lion  he  became  a  professor  in  1834.  In  KS7.>  he 
was  appointed  Principal  of  the  .Academy,  and  also 
professor  of  Music  a(  ('ambridge  University.  Later 
in  life  he  becami;  blind,  ami  died  31st  October  1887. 
He  was  knighted  in  1883.  As  an  operatic  com- 
poser Macfanen  is  the  most  characteristic  repre- 
sentative of  the  national  English  school — his  aim 
being  to  revive  the  old  English  music  in  modern 
opera.  His  earliest  dramatic  work,  'J7ie  Devil's 
Opera,  was  produced  in  1838  ;  Don  Quixote  followed 


I 


M'GILL 


MACHIAVELLI 


771 


ing 
Lea 


1860,  Jessy  Lea  in  1863,  ami  She  Stoops  tu  Conquer, 
The  Soldier's  Lcgcu-u,  ami  HilrcUyn  in  1SG4.  His 
best  cantatas  were  Lenore  ( 18.V2),  Maydaii  ( 1856), 
CkrisliiiKS  ( 1860).  and  The  Lady  of  the  Lake  ( 1877  ). 
He  did  not  produce  liis  first  oratorio,  John  the 
Baptist,  until  1S73;  it  had  for  successors,  The 
ResurreetioH  (1876),  Joseph  (1877),  and  David 
(1883).  Macfarren's  worKs  coniprLse  numerous 
other  small  dramatic  jiieces,  as  well  as  chamber 
music,  vocal  and  instrumental,  and  several  sym- 
phonies and  overtures.  He  stands  lii;,'her,  how- 
ever, as  a  writer  on  the  theory  of  music  than  as  a 
composer.  He  was  an  enthusiastic  advocate  of  the 
views  of  Alfred  Day  ( 1810-49)  as  laid  down  in  that 
writer's  Treatise  on  Harmony  (1845),  and  for 
many  yeai"s  stood  almost  alone  in  his  advocacy 
of  it.  As  a  decided  conservative  in  music,  Mac- 
farren  manifi^sted  little  sympathy  for  such  nmdern 
schools  ;vs  \Vagners.  He  wrote  Rudiments  of 
HarmoHi/  (1860  :  13th  ed.  1885),  Lertures  on.  Har- 
viony  (1867:  3d  ed.  1882),  Conitterpoint  (6th  ed. 
1886),  A  Miisieal  History  (1885),  and  Addresses 
and  Leetures  (1888);  besides  editinj;  Old  Englijih 
Ditties  (1857-80),  Moore  s  Irish  Melodies  (1859), 
Scottish  Ditties  (1861-80),  and  the  second  edition 
of  Day's  Treatise  (ISSii).  Heo  the  Life  and  ]Vorks 
of  Sir  G.  A.  Macfarren  ( 1891 ). 

HI'Giilt  Jame.s,  philanthropist,  was  born  in 
Glasgow,  6tli  October  1744.  and  died  in  Montreal, 
Canada,  19th  December  1813.  He  emigrated  to 
Canada  before  the  American  revolution,  engaged 
for  some  time  in  the  ^forth-west  fur  trade,  and,  sub- 
sequently settling  in  Montreal,  became  a  success- 
ful merchant  there.  He  was  for  many  years  a 
menilier  of  the  Lower  Canada  Assembly,  and  subse- 
quently a  member  of  the  legislative  and  executive 
councils.  He  wa.s  noted  for  ])hilanthropy.  He 
bequeathed  to  the  college  in  Montreal  tliat  bears 
his  name  jirojierty  valueit  at  £30,000  and  £10,000  in 
money  ;  but,  in  consequence  of  the  increased  value 
of  land,  these  figures  convey  a  very  inadequate  idea 
of  the  present  value  of  his  gift  to  M'Gill  College. 

Macgillyciiddy  Reeks,  a  group  of  rugged 
mountains  in  Ireland,  in  County  Kerry,  rise  from 
the  western  shores  of  the  Lakes  of  Killarney,  anil 
cover  an  area  of  28  sq.  m.  Carran-Tual,  the 
loftiest  ))eak,  not  only  of  the  Keeks  but  in  all 
Ireland,  is  3414  feet  in  height.  Caher,  the  ne.xt  in 
altitude,  reaches  3200  feet,  and  there  are  several 
others  which  exceed  2500  feet. 

Maetiregor.  John,  canoeist  and  philanthropist, 
eldest  son  of  General  Sir  Duncan  MacGregor,  was 
born  at  Gravesend,  January  24,  1825,  and  a  few 
weeks  later  was  the  first  to  be  handed  out  of  the 
burning  Kent,  East  Indiaman.  He  was  educated  at 
various  private  schools,  at  Dublin,  and  at  Trinity 
College,  Cambridge,  where  he  graduated  as  a 
wrangler,  and  took  his  I5.A.  in  1847.  In  the  same 
year  he  entered  the  Inner  Temple,  and  was  called 
to  the  bar  in  1851.  He  did  some  writing  and 
sketching  for  Puneli  in  1845.  His  desire  to  travel 
led  liitn  to  make  a  tour  of  Kurope,  Egypt,  and 
Palestine  (1849-.50);  and  a  subsei|iient  visit  to 
the  United  States  and  Canada  bore  fruit  in  Our 
Ijrothers  and  Cuusin.i  (1859).  The  rise  of  llritish 
canoeing  has  been  largely  duo  to  his  ex.inijilc  and 
inlluence  since  18.J0.  He  published  an  account  of  a 
canoe  journey  in  1865,  under  the  title  of  A  Thou- 
sand Miles  in  the  Roh  Roy  Canoe  ( 1866 ).  Other  nar- 
ratives of  canoe  voyages  on  the  Baltic,  Zuider 
Zee,  and  Jordan  followed.  He  wa.s  caiilain  of 
the  Canoe  Club  (1866),  and  contributed  jiapers 
on  Marine  Propulsion  to  the  I'ritish  Association. 
He  w.-vs  a  member  of  the  I^ondon  School  Hoard  for 
(Ireenwich  in  1870,  ami  again  in  1873  ;  when  chair- 
man of  the  Industrial  School  Conimi.s.sion,  he  sug- 


gested   Ihe    foumling   of    the    London    Shoeblack 
15rigade;  .-xnd  he  gave  the  prollts  of  his  books  and 
lectures— £10,000— to    philantliropic   schemes.     He 
died  16th  July  1892.     See  Life  by  Hodder  ( 1894). 
M'Gresor,  Kohekt.    See  Hon  Hoy. 

Maeliair'odlis,  a  gigantic  sabre-toothed  tiger 
of  the  I'leistocene  period,  with  canine  teeth  6  or 
8  inches  long,  and  jagged  at  their  edges  like  a 
fine  saw.  Us  remains  were  found  in  Kent's 
Cavern  ( q.v.). 

Macliiavelli,  Niccolo  di  Rern.vrdo  dei,  born 

of  an  ancii-nt  burgher  fandly  at  Florence,  in  1469, 
and  a  pupil  of  the  celebrated  scholar,  ilarcello 
Virgilio,  was  employed  in  public  atl'airs  from  a  very 
early  age,  and  may  be  regarded  as  the  literary 
representative  of  the  political  life  of  the  important 
period  to  which  ho  belongs.  The  years  of  his  early 
manhood  were  passed  amid  the  political  troubles 
occasioned  by  the  French  invasion  under  Charles 
VIII.  (1493),  when  the  Medici  Hed  from  Florence, 
and  the  repuldic  was  proclaimed,  and  a  new  con- 
stitution formed  under  the  inlluence  of  the  great 
reformer,  Savonarola.  Machiavelli's  first  appear- 
ance in  public  life  was  in  the  year  of  his  famous 
contemporary's  fall  from  ]>ower,  and  execution. 
He  was  elected  in  June  1498  to  a  subordinate 
secretaryship  in  the  department  of  '11  veci  di 
Balia ' — i.e.  the  Ten  chosen  to  direct  the  military 
and  diplomatic  attairs  of  the  republican  government. 
He  was  promoted  in  July  of  the  same  year  to 
the  chief-secretaryship  under  this  same  commission. 
This  position,  which,  though  honouraljle,  was  sub- 
ordinate, he  occupied  until  the  fall  of  the  republic 
in  1512.  His  immediate  superior  in  otiice  was 
Marcello  Virgilio  Adriani,  a  celebrated  humanist, 
whose  companionship  is  suiipo.sed  to  have  stimu- 
lated in  Machiavelli  the  enthusiasm  for  the  study 
of  the  classics.  It  seems  proved,  however,  that 
Machiavelli  did  not  know  Greek,  and  cannot  be 
classed  among  the  erudite  of  that  cultured  age. 
Machiavelli's  duties  were  almost  entirely  dijilo- 
matic ;  he  was  emphned  in  a  great  variety  of 
missions,  the  instructions  and  correspondence  con- 
nected with  which  may  almost  be  said  to  contain 
the  secret  political  history  of  Italy  during  his  time. 
The  culminating  point  of  his  reputation  as  a 
diplomatist  was  his  mission  to  the  great  master  of 
treachery  and  dissimulation,  Ca'sar  Borgia,  Duke 
of  Valentinois,  commonly  called  'II  Valentino,'  in 
l.i02,  of  which  an  account  is  preserved  in  lifty-two 
letters  written  during  the  c<mise  of  the  negotiation, 
unsurpassed  in  dramatic  interest  by  any  series  of 
state-paper.s.  In  the  complicated  external  relations 
which  Florence  had  now  assumed.  Machiavelli  is 
found  in  communication  Mitli  all  the  great  foreign 
powers,  as  he  bad  hilberto  been  with  the  Italian 
jirincipalities.  Between  1500-11  he  formed  part  of 
important  missions,  once  to  the  German  emperor 
Maximilian,  and  four  times  to  France.  His  de- 
spatches during  these  journeys,  and  his  treatises  on 
the  '  All'airs  of  Fiance  and  Germany,'  arc  full  of  a 
I  far-reaching  insight  into  the  causes  and  ellects  of 
1  the  various  characteristics  he  had  seen  and  studied. 
The  most  important  part  which  Machiavelli  took 
in  public  all'airs  was  his  spirited  attempt  to  raise 
a  trained  boily  of  citizens  able,  without  the  aiil  of 
treacherous  mercenaries,  to  defend  their  liberty 
against  foreign  invjusion. 

The  sincere  iiatriotism  which  ennobles  his 
writings  and  his  life  filled  him  with  forebodings 
f(n-  the  fate  of  his  country,  and  especially  of  his 
beloved  native!  town,  and  ins]iir('(l  bim  to  teach 
with  fervour  the  only  mode  of  rex  iving  her  ancient 
dignity  ami  indeiiendence.  On  the  restoration  of 
the.Mi'ilici  in  1512,  Machiavelli  wa-s  involved  in  the 
downfall  of  his  i)atron,  the  Gonfahmiere  So<lerini. 
He  w:us  arrested  on  a  charge  of  conspiracy  in  1513. 


772 


MACHIAVELLI 


MACHINE    GUN 


On  being  put  to  the  torture,  he  disclaimed  all 
knowledge  of  the  alleged  conspiracy  ;  l)ut,  altliongli 
pardoned,  in  virtue  of  the  amnesty  ordered  by  Leo 
A.,  he  was  oblij^ed  for  several  years  to  withdraw 
from  public  life,  during  wliich  period  he  devoted 
himself  to  literature.  It  was  not  till  the  death  of 
the  young  Lorenzo  de'  Medici,  in  1519,  that  Machia- 
velli  began  to  rec^over  favour.  He  was  commissioned 
in  that  year  by  Leo  X.  to  draw  up  his  report  on  a 
reform  of  the  state  of  Florence;  and  in  1521  and 
the  following  years  he  was  ofiicially  employed  in 
various  di|)lomatic  services  and  as  historiographer. 
After  the  disastrous  defeat  of  the  French  at  Pavia 
(1525),  Italy  lay  liel])le.ss  before  the  advancing 
forces  of  the  Empeior  Charles  V.,  whose  ferocious 
soldiery,  though  nominally  allies,  sacked  the  rich 
and  defenceless  Italian  towns  in  their  power. 
Machiavelli  used  his  failing  energies,  undermined 
by  chronic  disease,  to  rouse  his  fellow-citizens  in 
tlieir  own  defence,  and  in  negotiations  to  avert  from 
Florence  the  invading  army  on  its  way  to  Kome.  In 
May  1527,  on  receiving  the  news  of  the  sack  of  Rome 
and  iuiprisonmenb  of  Pope  Clement  VII.  (Giulio 
de'  Medici),  the  Florentines  again  drove  out  the 
Medici  rulers  and  proclaimed  the  republic.  But 
Machiavelli  found  that  he  was  to  be  allowed  no 
part  in  the  iiopular  movement  for  liberty  and  for 
defence  against  the  foreigner ;  his  patriotism  was 
doubted,  and  he  was  suspected  of  favouring  the 
Medici.  This  bitter  disappointment,  added  to  his 
already  feel>le  health,  brought  on  an  illness,  of 
which  he  died  on  the  20th  June  of  the  same  year. 
His  death  was  accompanied  by  the  usual  minis- 
trations of  the  church,  for,  tliough  he  had  written 
much  against  clerical  corrui)lion  and  tyranny,  he 
had  never  impugned,  nor  indeed  even  discussed, 
religious  doctrine.  He;  was  interred  in  his  family's 
burying-place  in  Santa  Croce,  but  all  e.xact  record  of 
the  spot  is  lost,  the  family  having  become  extinct 
as  early  as  1597. 

Through  misrepresentation  and  misunderstanding 
of  his  writings,  his  name  became  after  his  death 
hated,  and  his  teachings  were  spoken  of  as  almo-st 
diabolical,  his  earliest  and  most  violent  assailants 
being  the  clergy,  and  especially  the  Jesuits.  Al- 
though his  writings  were  several  times  partially 
published  in  a  more  or  less  garl>led  form,  the  first 
great  edition  was  not  issued  until  17JS2;  it  was 
dedicated  to  Earl  Cow|)er,  who  hail  had  a  leading 
part  in  encouraging  the  jniblication,  as  also  in 
promoting  a  iiublic  subscrijition  for  a  monument 
to  Machiavelli  in  Santa  Croce.  From  that  period 
until  our  own  day  his  fame  has  steadily  increased, 
and  his  pre-eminent  position  as  the  founder  of 
political  science  is  now  assured. 

Macliiavelli's  writings  till  6  vols.  4to  (F'lorence, 
1782 ),  or  10  vols.  ,Svi>.  liesides  his  letters  and  state- 
papers,  his  historical  writings  also  com]iri.se  Floren- 
tine Histories,  extending  from  1215  to  1492,  with  a 
fragmentary  continuation  to  1499;  Discourses  on 
the  First  Decade  of  Titus  Lirius ;  a  Life  of 
Castruccio  Castracani  (uulinished) ;  a  History  of 
the  Affairs  <f  Luccii.  His  literary  works  com- 
prise an  imitation  of  the  Golden  Ass  of  Apuleius, 
an  essay  on  the  Italian  language,  and  several 
minor  comiiositions.  He  also  wrote  Sercn  Hooks 
OH  the  Art  of  War,  which  has  been  much  admired 
by  the  learned  in  military  science.  But  the 
great  source  of  his  reputation,  for  good  or  for  evil, 
is  the  celebrated  liooU  De  I'riiicijiallbus,  or,  as  it 
lia-s  since  been  called,  II  Princijie.  The  main  ouiw- 
tion  (liscus.sed  in  this  worhl-laiued  book  is  :  How 
principalities  may  be  governed  and  maintained. 
In  resolving  this  iiuestion,  various  cases  are  sup- 
posed, for  each  of  which  appropriate  rules,  prin- 
ciples, and  suggestions  are  laid  down,  and  all  are 
illustrated  both  by  contemporary  examples  and  by 
a  wealth  of  historical  learning  which  it  is  difficult 


to  overrate.  The  7th  chapter,  in  which  he  details 
with  e\ident  admiration  the  system  of  Caesar 
Borgia,  and  the  18th,  in  which  he  discusses  'the 
duty  of  princes  as  to  the  obligation  of  keeping 
faith,'  are  perhaps  those  w  hich  liave  nu)st  contrib- 
uted to  draw  upon  the  author  the  odious  repu- 
tation of  which  his  very  name  has  become  the 
symbol ;  but,  in  truth,  these  chaiiters  are  only  more 
precise  and  nioie  formal  than  tlie  rest,  from  their 
neaping  together  statements  which  are  elsewhere 
insinuated  or  supposed.  The  broad  scheme  of  the 
book  is  everywhere  the  same — viz.  that  for  the 
establishment  and  maintenance  of  authority  all 
means  may  be  resorted  to,  and  that  the  worst  and 
most  treaclierons  acts  of  the  ruler,  however  unlawful 
in  themselves,  are  jnstihed  by  the  wickedness  and 
treachei-y  of  tlie  governed.  Such  being  the  moral  of 
the  book,  a  ([Uestion  has  arisen  as  to  the  intention 
of  the  writer,  and  a  favourite  theory  for  a  time 
prevailed,  that  The  Prince  was  but  a  satire  upon 
absolutism,  and  was  designed  to  serve  the  cause 
of  libertj-,  of  which  Machiavelli  was  an  ardent 
friend,  by  making  arbitrary  power  odious  and  con- 
teiuptible.  This  theory,  however,  besides  being 
utteily  irreconcilable  with  the  tone  of  the  work,  is 
completely  disproved  by  a  letter  of  Machiavelli  to 
liis  friend  Vettori  { I51.S),  which  was  discovered  only 
in  1810,  and  which  shows  that  The  Prince  was 
WTitten  by  Machiavelli  in  all  seriousness,  in  order 
to  recommend  himself  to  the  Medici  (for  whose 
private  peiiisal  it  was  designed,  and  not  for  juiblica- 
tion )  as  a  uiaster  in  the  art  of  government.  In  his 
ardour  for  the  liberation  of  Italy  from  the  rule  of 
foreigners,  Machiavelli  had  become  convinced  that 
strong  native  governments,  even  though  absolute, 
must  be  endured  ;  and,  having  acceptetl  that  of  the 
Medici  for  Florence,  he  was  content  to  use  all 
means  for  its  security  and  ciuisolidation.  The 
Prince  was  published,  after  Machiavelli's  death,  at 
Rome,  in  1532  ;  and,  if  any  doubt  should  be  enter- 
tained as  to  the  seriousness  of  the  author,  the  book 
need  only  be  compared  with  the  commentary  which 
is  furnished  by  every  page  of  his  Legazioni,  or  the 
reports  of  his  diplonuitic  missions,  which  are  also 
contained  in  his  collected  works.  Of  the  many 
criticisms  and  rejoinders  to  which  The  Prince  has 
given  occasion,  the  most  remarkable  is  that  of 
Frederick  the  Great,  Antiniacchiarel/i,  on  Examen 
du  Prince  de  I\Iacchiarcl/i  (1740);  and  'J'he  Priiiec 
was  condemned  by  I'ope  Clenu'ut  VIII. 

The  comedies  of  Machiavelli  form  an  epoch  in  the 
history  of  the  Italian  theatre,  as  he  and  his  great 
contem])orarv,  Ariosto,  were  the  lirst  to  represent 
actual  life  and  dialogue  in  their  jjlays.  Machia- 
velli's famous  comedy.  La  Mandrai/ola,  full  of 
biting  humour  and  shameless  indecency,  is  a  master- 
piece of  dramatic  art. 

Aniony  the  many  noted  historians  wlio  have  discussed 
the  work  and  morality  of  Machiavelli,  we  may  note 
Macaiday'.s  brilliant  essay,  and  in  the  more  modem 
style  of  historical  criticism  Lco]inI(l  lianke's  stuilj*  in 
^ur  Kritik  nciurcr  itcachichti^chrt  ilm:  'I'lic  most  com- 
plete and  remarkable  work  on  Jlaehiavelli  is  that  by  P. 
Villari,  Kiccolo  Machnirdli  e  i  mioi  tempi  (1877-82; 
Kng.  trans.  bSDO).  Tommasini's  Vita  c  Scritti  di  Macliin 
vclli  (1883)  is  full  of  careful  research.  Mr  John  Morli-y'; 
Koniaues  Lecture  on  Muchiaredl  was  published  in  1807. 

niat'llillO  tillll  may  be  delined  as  a  weapon 
mi'cli.inically  loaded  with  fixed  ammunition  from 
a  hoppi'r  or  frame,  so  as  to  lire  a  succcssidn  of  ]iro- 
jecliles  from  a  rest  or  carriage,  in  conliadistinction 
to  hand  weapons,  such  as  Repeating  (or  magazine) 
Rilles  (<j.v. )  and  Revolvers  (cpv. ). 

Machine  guns  may  be  divided  into  two  classes 
— the  mitraillense,  which  discharges  a  stream  of 
bullets  not  much  exceeding  1  inch  in  diameter, 
and  the  revolving  cannon  or  <|uick-liring  gnn, 
which  throws  an  ex]]losive  shell  of  several  pounds 


MACHINE    GUN 


773 


weight.  The  lii-st  class  inchides  riHe-calibre  guns 
for  use  against  troops,  and  naval  "uus  firing  steel 
shot  oapalile  of  piercing  the  sides  of  a  torpeilo  boat. 
The  second  is  an  improvement  on  ordinary  Cannon 
(q.v.),  though  perhaps  sometimes  considered  less 
suited  to  all  the  contingencies  of  a  campaign,  in 
consequence  of  the  comparatively  delicate  nature 
of  the  mechanism  employed. 

A  breech-loading  Kequa  battery  (an  improved 
Ribaudequin  or  organ  gun ),  consisting  of  thirty-one 
rille-barrels  arranged  in  three  parallel  rows,  loaded 
simultaneously  by  means  of  a  set  of  chambers,  and 
fired  at  once  by  a  single  cap.  has  been  in  the 
Rotunda  Museum  at  Woolwich  since  before  1S30. 
A  Requa  battery  was  used  at  the  siege  of  Charleston 
in  lS(i.3,  and  seems  to  contain  the  germ  of  such 
inventions  as  the  (Gardner  and  Nordenfelt  machine 
guns,  while  those  like  the  Galling  and  tlie  Hotch- 
kiss  revolving  cannon  seem  traceable  to  the  early 
patterns  of  revolver-pistol.  The  first  of  such 
weapons  to  lie  used  in  field  operations  was  the 
Gatling,  which  was  tested  in  the  American  civil 
war,  and  exhibited  in  the  Paris  Exhiliition  of 
1867.  This  weapon  ( fig.  1 )  usually  has  ten  barrels 
and  ten  locks,  revolved  round  a  fixed  axis  by  means 
of  a  handle  or  crank.  In  addition  to  revolving 
with  the  barrels,  each  lock  is  at  the  same  time 
gradually  pushed  forward,  so  as  to  carry  the  car- 
tridge into  the  barrel,  close  the  breach,  and  fire 
the  charge  as  soon  as  the  barrel  comes  under  the 
sights.  It  then  commences  to  move  backwards, 
drawing  with  it  the  empty  cartridge-case,  so  that, 
when  one  revolution  of  the  barrels  is  complete, 
the  open  breech  is  brought  under  the  drum  from 
which  a  second  cartridge  falls  into  it.  Thus,  when 
the  ten-barrelled  gun  is  in  action,  there  are  always 
five  cartridges  "oing  through  the  loading  process 
and  five  otliers  being  gradually  extracted  ;  and  this 
goes  on  as  long  as  the  gun  is  fed  with  cartridges, 
which  may  be  done  either  by  hand,  or,  as  is 
more  usual,  by  means  of  a  drum  fixed  above  the 
barrels,  as  shown  in  fig.  1.  This  type  of  machine 
gun  cannot  fire  a  volley,  but  the  rapidity  of  its 
fire  is  limited  only  by  the  movement  of  the  handle. 


Medium  size  Uatliog,  mounted  on  Kield  Carriage. 

It  can  also  be  worked  with  a  slight  swaying  action, 
when  firing  rapirlly,  .so  as  to  spread  the  bullets  over 
a  certain  amount  of  lateral  space,  like  water  from 
a  firehose,  and  give  nuich  the  same  ellect  as  a 
volley.  The  weajmns  first  used  fired  <me  hundred 
bullets  each  minute,  but  improved  nieclianism 
enables  the  newer  types  to  fire  ten  times  that 
number,  and  to  give  gooil  results  at  ranges  of  3000 
yard.s.  The  barrels  are  of  various  calilires  up  to 
1  "J  inches  ;  .anil  larger  sizes  could  be  made.  A  few 
Gatling  guns  were  used  in  the  Franco-!  Jerman  war 


of  1S70,  the  Russo-Turkish  war  of  1877-7S,  the 
Chileno-Peruvian  war  of  1877.  and  the  British  cam- 
paigns in  .\shantoe,  Znluland,  Egy|)t,  \c. 

The  Montigny  mitrailleuse,  adopted  by  the 
French  army,  and  used  by  them  in  large  numbers 
during  the  campaign  of  1S70,  consists  of  thirty- 
seven  rifle-barrels  permanently  enclo.-ed  in  an  iron 
cylinder.  These  are  all  loaded  sinniltaneously  at 
the  breach  by  means  of  a  metal  frame,  in  wliicli 
the  cartridges  are  carried,  and  can  lie  discharged 
independently  or  all  at  once  by  the  action  of 
a  crank-handle.  Reloading  takes  five  seconds, 
and  ten  discharges  can  be  fired  per  minute. 
The  bullets  have  no  lateral  spread,  and  the 
eil'ective  range  is  not  much  over  1000  yards. 
Numbers  of  these  weapons  were  secretly  manu- 
factured in  France  previous  to  1870,  and,  on  the 
outbreak  of  war  in  that  year,  were  issued  to  the 
artillery  in  place  of  their  field-guns,  without  any 
instruction  having  been  given  to  the  men  in  work- 
ing tlioin.  Formed  into  batteries  of  ten  pieces, 
they  were  expected  to  beat  oft'  both  artillery  and 
infantry;   but   the  concentrated  shell   fire  of    the 


Fig.  2. 
Xordenfelt-Palmcrantz  Gim,  inside  Bulwark  Mounting. 

former  destroyed  them  at  long  ranges,  and  the 
rapid  movements  of  the  latter  often  enabled  them 
to  capture  the  mitrailleuses  without  serious  loss. 
The  failure  of  this  weapon  brought  all  machine 
guns  into  disfavour ;  but  when  protected  from 
artillery  fire 
in  savage  war- 
fare, their  great 
value  for  cer- 
tain purposes, 
such  as  flank- 
ing the  ditches 
of  fortresses, 
defending  de- 
files, bridges, 
v"i:c. ,  and  naval 
oi)erations,  has 
since  been  fully 
recognised,  and 
very  many  im- 
proved ly|)es 
have  apjieared. 
The  Norden- 
felt-I'almcrantz 
.system  (fi''.  2) 
is  particularly 
useful  in  the 
t*>ps  of  ships. 
The  1-inch  cali- 
bre   gun,  firing 

steel  bullets,  is    Pig.  3. — Five-barrelled  Gardner  Gun 
capable  of  jiierc-  ""  1'ripod  Stand, 

ing    the     sides 

and  boilers  of  torpedo  boats  at  300  yaiils.     It  con- 
sists usually  of  four  or  more  horizontally  arranged 


'jS4Ui. 


774 


MACHINE    GUN 


MACK 


barrels,  ami  the  firinj;  handle  on  heing  moved  for- 
wards and  l>aL'k\varils  discharges  theni  all,  if  moved 
rapidly,  in  a  succession  of  volleys,  if  slowly,  in  a 
succession  of  single  shots.  The  numlier  of  aimed 
shots  (ler  minute  tired  at  sea  varies  from  one 
hundred  with  the  1-inch  to  ten  with  the  :j  inch  gun. 

Fig.  3  shows  another  form  of  ritlecalilire  machine 
gun  designed  hy  Captain  Gardner,  late  U.S.A., 
for  use  with  a.  lield  army.  The  operations  of  load- 
ing, liring,  and  withdrawing  the  empty  cartridge- 
cases  are  performed  automatictally  l>y  the  breech 
mechanism,  worked  by  a  crank-handle.  The  car- 
tridges are  fed  in  from  an  upright  frame  or  earlier. 

The  Maxim  automatic  machine  gun  has  a  single 
barrel  surrounded  by  an  outer  case,  the  space 
between  lieing  lilled  with  water  to  prevent  heating. 
The  breech  end  of  the  gun  recoils  after  discharge 
(the  first  cartri<lge  being  fed  in  ami  tired  by  band), 
causing  the  arm  IJ  (fig.  4)  to  strike  the  fixed  point 

C,  thus  im[)arting  to  the  crank-shaft  E  a  rapidly 
accelerated  rotation,  and  making  the  crank-handle 
F  strike  the  Imfler-spring  D,  which  lu-ings  it  to  a 
state  of  rest.  The  rotation  of  the  crank-shaft  E 
also  rotates  the  fusee  (shown  dotted  round  E) 
attached  to  the  chain,  and  thereby  winds  it  tip,  so 
that,  when   the  crank-handle  F  rests  (jn  the  butfer 

D,  the  spiral  spring  (dotted)  is  not  only  extended 
1  inch  (due  to  the  recoil),  but  further  elongated  by 
the  winding  up  of  the  chain  on  the  fusee.     After 


Fig.  4. — Breech  Mechanism  of  ilaxiui  Gun. 

the  crank-handle  F  has  been  brought  to  rest  against 
the  butler  1),  the  action  of  the  sjiring  is  first  to  pull 
Ijack  the  recoiling  portion  into  the  firing  position, 
and  then  to  unwind  the  chain  from  the  fusee,  thus 
rotating  the  erank-sliaft  back  into  its  original 
position.  The  cartridges  are  carried  on  a  broad 
linen  belt,  to  which  fresh  lengths  can  be  attaelied, 
and  which  is  carried  round  by  the  mechanism.  The 
acceleiateil  motion  of  the  crank  draws  back  tlie 
lock  sutliciently  lo  allow  the  old  cartridge  to  drop 
out,  while  the  spiral  spring  causes  the  lock  to  come 
forward  quicker  th.an  the  recoiling  portion  of  the 
barrel,  so  that  at  the  same  instant  as  the  barrel 
resumes  the  firing  position  the  lock  closes  the 
breech  with  a  new  cartridge  and  fires  it,  the  recoil 
setting  u]i  the  same  action  again.  The  gun  may 
be  arranged  for  liring  single  shots  by  hand  on 
pressing  a  button,  or  to  ('ontinue  firing  shots  at 
any  reqtiired  interval  of  time.  As  many  as  (i20 
rounds  per  minute  have  been  fired  from  this  gun, 
and  accurate  shooting  obtained  up  to  .'iOOO  yanls. 
Fig.  5  shows  a  rille-calihie  Maxim  gun,  which,  with 
its  tripod,  only  weighs  70  lb.  A  ."i  pounder  gun 
ba.s  also  been  designeil  on  the  sami^  princijile.  .Ml 
the  mechanism  is  carefully  covered  in  to  jirotect  it 
from  grit  and  dirt,  but  it  can  easily  be  taken  to 
pieces  and  (deanod. 

The  Ilotchkiss  iev(dving  cannon  is  similar  to  the 
Gatling  gun,  iiiiistnuch  as  it  consists  of  five  bixrrels 
revolving  round  a  centr.al  axis,  but  there  is  only  one 
lock  for  all  livr>,  instead  of  one  for  each  barrel,  and 
the  rotatory  motion  of  the  barrels  is  intermittent 
instead  of  continuous.  Each  turn  of  the  cr<ank- 
handle  loads  one  barrel  an<l  fires  another,  while  an 
empty  cartridge-case  is  being  extracted  from  a 
third.  The  mechanism  is  in  few  parts,  which  are 
larw,  strong,  and  serviceable,  with  only  one  s])ring, 
and  that  a  large  Mat  one.     Tlie  hreechpiece  is  solid. 


The  calibres  of  the  revcdving  cannon  vary  from  1 '5 
inch  lo  2  iiudies,  hut  the  same  inventor  has  made  a 
(Jliounder    i|uick-firing    single-barrelled    field-gun. 


Fig.  5.— Eitle-caUbre  JIaxim  Gun. 

The  projectile  is  either  a  steel  shot  for  naval  i)ur- 
poses  or  an  explosive  shell.  As  many  as  eighty 
rounds  per  minute  have  been  fired  from  the  revolv- 
ing cannon,  the  cartridges  being  fed  in  from  a 
hopper-frame,  and  go(jd  results  obtained  at  a  range 
of  5460  yards. 

By  an  order  of  18SS,  a  detachment  with  two 
machine  guns  was  made  part  of  the  war  estab- 
lishment of  every  brigade  of  infantry  or  cavalry 
in  the  British  army.  Each  infantry  detachment 
consists  of  an  officer,  two  non-commissioned  officers, 
and  nine  men,  and  is  accompanied  by  a  forage-cnrt 
and  ammnnition-cart  carrying  6040  rounds  for  the 
guns,  1500  more  being  on  each  gun-carriage.  Two 
men  are  sufficient  to  w(nk  each  gun,  the  remaiiuler 
are  drivers  and  a  servant.  In  the  cavalry  detach- 
ment there  are  fifteen  men,  of  whom  two  are 
servants,  seven  drivers,  and  six  for  working  the 
guns  and  to  act  as  horse-holders.  The  ammuni- 
tion-wagon carries  13,340  rounds  of  lifie-calibre 
cartridges. 

The  mitrailleuse  form  of  machine  gun  thus  takes 
a  definite  place  in  the  armament  of  Enrojiean 
troops,  not  as  a  substitute  for  field  artiller.y,  against 
which,  if  unprotected  by  cover,  it  can  never  stand, 
but  as  an  auxiliary  to  infantry  ami  to  cavalry 
acting  independently,  in  jiositions  where  rifle-lire 
is  most  etficacions.  It  will  also  he  useful  for  long 
range  rifie-fire,  and  perhaps  in  lieu  of  an  infantry 
escort  to  guns  when  moving  rapidly  to  the  front, 
besi<les  those  purposes  which  have  already  been 
alluded  to.  The  shell-firing  machine  gun  an<l  the 
quick-firing  gun,  (Ui  the  other  band,  will  i>erliaps 
supersede  the  ordinary  artillery  pieces  of  similar 
calilire.  The  oiie]ioundcr  shell  machine  gun  (called 
■  rom-pom  '  l)v  the  scddieis,  from  its  sound)  iiroved 
of  ell'ectual  service  in  the  Tran>vaal  war,  1899-1900. 

niiU'iiitosli,  Charles.    See  Ixdia-eubbeu. 

M'liif  yre,  Duncan  Ban.    See  Gaklic,  V.  52. 

MiU'k.  Kahi,,  Freiherr  vox,  Austrian  general, 
was  horn  at  Nenn^liMgen,  in  Franconia,  on  'J4th 
August  ITo-J,  entered  the  military  ser\  iceol  Austria 
in  TtTO,  and,  after  fighting  in  the  Turkish  war  and 
against  the  French  repiiblic.an  armies,  was  in  1797 
created  field-marshal.  Having,  iifter  the  i)eaee  of 
Campo  F'ormio,  Ixh'Ii  appointed  by  the  king  of 
Naples  to  the  command  of  his  troops,  he  took  the 
field  against  the  I'rencb,  and  occupied  Home  ;  but 
he  was  unable  to  ret.aiu  his  holil  of  the  city.  A 
riot  in  the  city  of  Naples,  caused  hy  his  having 
concluded  an  armistice  with  the  French,  compelled 
him  to  seek  safety  in  the  enemy's  camp.  He  was 
thereupon  carried  iirisoner  to  Paris,  but  escaped  in 
1S(M).  Five  years  later  the  emi)eior  put  him  at  the 
head   of  SO.OOO  men,   and   sent   him    to   check  the 


MACKAY 


MACKENZIE 


775 


French  advance  alung  the  line  of  the  lUei.  But 
the  enemy  outnianu-uvied  him,  :uul  shut  him  up  in 
UIiu.  and  on  17th  October  Mack  ca|iitulatcd  with 
his  army.  He  was  tried  by  court-martial  and  con- 
demned to  death,  hut  the  sentence  was  commuted 
by  the  emperor  to  expulsion  from  the  armv  and 
twenty  veal's'  imprisonment.  In  1808  Mack  was 
liberated,  and  in  1819  fully  pardoned.  He  died 
Sid  Oi-tober  1S22.  His  defence  was  )iublished  in 
Raumer's  Ifistorisr/tes  Taschenbuch  (187.^). 

Maokay,  Charles,  LL.D.,  poet  and  journalist, 
the  son  of  an  officer  in  the  Royal  Artillery,  was 
born  in  Perth  in  1814.  He  was  sent  to  school  in 
London  and  Brussels,  and  showed  an  early  fond- 
ness for  verse-writing.  In  1830  he  became  secretary 
to  Cockerill  (q.v. )  at  Seraing.  The  imblication 
of  a  .small  volume  of  poems  in  1834  led  to  his 
becoming  assistant-editor  of  the  .Morniiifi  Chronicle 
(1835-44).  From  1844—17  he  was  editor  of  the 
G/dsfjuw  ArgKjs :  he  acted  on  the  literary  staft'  of 
the  Illustrated  Loixlon  Xcv:s  (1848-59),  and  lilleil 
the  post  of  Xew  York  correspondent  of  the  Tiiiic-i 
during  the  civil  war  (1862-65).  The  London 
Review,  a  weekly  journal  which  he  established  in 
1860,  was  not  a  success.  Down  to  the  time  of  his 
death,  December  24,  18S9,  he  fssued  many  volumes 
of  poetry  and  prose,  and  was  a  contributor  to 
Blackwood's  Magazine,  the  Nineteenth  Cent  id;/,  and 
other  periodicals.  Two  of  Mackay 's  songs,  '  There 's 
a  (Jood  Time  Coming'  and  'Cheer,  Boys,  Cheer,' 
hail  an  extraordinary  vogue,  400,000  of  the  first 
having  been  sold,  without  putting  anything  into 
his  pocket.  He  published  eleven  volumes  of 
poetry;  Gossamer  and  Snoudrift  (1890)  was  edited 
by  his  son  Eric  ( 1851-98  ;  author  of  Lure-letters 
of  a  Violinist,  Arrows  of  Song,  Nero  and  Actea, 
ice).  His  prose  works  included  Memoirs  of  Extra- 
ordinary Popidiir  Delusions  ( 1841 ),  a  work  on  dac/ir 
Etymology  ( 1878),  and  two  works  of  literary  auio- 
biography.  Forty  Years'  Recollections  (2  vols.  1877) 
and  Tlirough  the  Long  Day  (2  vols.  1887). 

lI'Keesport,  a  borough  of  Pennsylvania,  on 
the  .Monongaliela  River,  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Youghiogheny,  and  on  several  lailways,  15  miles 
SE.  of  Pittsburg.  It  has  fbmr,  saw,  and  rolling 
mills,  large  manufactories  of  tubing,  glass-works, 
a  distillery,  iVc.  Natur.al  gas  is  used  to  some 
extent  for  fuel.     Pop.  8212. 

JHaokeilzie,  Alex.vxder,  Canadian  states- 
man, was  born  in  Logierait,  Perthshire,  28tli 
January  1822,  removed  to  Canada  in  1842,  and 
worked  for  si>me  time  as  a  mason,  subspquenlly 
becoming  a  huililer  and  contractor.  In  1852  he 
became  editor  of  a  Reform  newspaper.  He  rejirc- 
sented  Lambton  in  parliament  from  1S61  to  18ii7, 
and  in  the  Dominion  ]>.uliamcnt  till  1882:  he  \\  as 
then  electeil  for  East  York,  and  was  re-electeil  in 
1887.  From  1807  he  led  the  Reform  opposition 
in  parliament,  and  in  1873-80  was  leader  of  the 
Liberal  parly  in  Canada.  In  1873  he  succeeded 
Macdonald,  becoming  the  llrst  Liberal  premier,  and 
remaineil  at  the  he.ail  of  the  government  till  1878. 
He  thrice  declined  a  knighlliood,  wrote  the  Life 
of  his  friend  and  allv,  the  Hon.  George  Brown 
(1SS2I,  and  died  17th  April  ls92. 

Narkeiizir.  Sir  .Ai.kx.snder  Campbell,  com- 
poser, knighted  in  l.S!)5,  was  born  in  Edinliurgh 
in  IH47.  He  studii-d  music  in  Germany  and  at 
the  Royal  .\cademy.  London.  From  1865  to  1879 
he  was  engaged  in  Edinburgh  as  teacher,  violinist, 
conductor,  and  compo.ser.  Aftcrwanls  he  resided  in 
Italy,  devoting  his  energy  mainly  to  composition. 
In  i886  he  had  the  de^'iee  of  .Mils.  Doc.  from  St 
.Andrews  I'niversity ;  in  Februarv-  18S7  was  ap- 
jMiinted  Princiiial  of  the  Royal  .Academy  of  Music 
m  London.  His  works  embrace  almost  every  form 
of  music.     His  celebrity  dates  from  the  production 


opera,  The  Troubadour,  had  u<it  the  same  success 
oratorio.    The    Rose   cf  Sharon,    produce<l    at 


of  his  o[)era  Colomha  in  April  1883  at  Drury  Lane 
by    the    Carl    Rosa    Comi)any.       His    subsequent 
oper; 
His 

Norwich  in  1884,  is  regarded  as  hitherto  his  best 
work.  Another  similar  one,  The  Lord  of  Life,  was 
composed  for  production  in  1S91  at  Birmingham. 
Besides  these,  he  has  written  several  important 
cantatas ;  two  Scotch  rhaiisodies,  and  other 
orchestral  works,  a  concerto  and  a  pibroeh  for 
violin  ;  chamber  music,  songs,  piaiiofiu'te  and  organ 
pieces,  &c.  His  compositions  are  distingtiisheil 
1)y  a  manly  solidity  of  workmanship,  the  result  of 
a  thorough  mastery  of  all  branches  of  his  art, 
eomliined  in  many  instances  with  a  ha])py  poetic 
inspiration.     He  is  also  eminent  as  a  conductor. 

niarkciizie.  Sir  liEOROE,  a  Scottish  lawyer 
and  statesman,  nephew  to  the  Earl  of  Seaforth, 
was  born  at  Dundee  in  1636.  He  studied  at  St 
Andrews,  Aberdeen,  and  Bourges  in  France  ( '  the 
Athens  of  Scottish  lawyers ')  ;  in  1056  was  called 
to  the  bar  at  Edinburgh  ;  and  in  1661  boldly 
defended  the  Marquis  of  Argyll  on  his  trial  for  high- 
treason.  About  the  same  time  he  was  made  a 
justice-depute,  and  as  such  had  to  repair  '  once  a 
week  at  least  to  Musselburgh  and  Dalkeith,  and 
to  try  and  judge  such  persons  as  are  there  delated 
of  witchcraft.'  He  was  soon  after  knighted,  entered 
parliament  as  member  for  Ross-shire  in  1669.  and  in 
1677  was  nameil  king's  advocate.  I'p  to  this  jioint 
his  career  had  been  marked  by  a  decidedly  jialriotic 
spirit,  and  he  was  even  one  of  the  most  popular 
men  in  the  country.  In  the  midst  of  his  pro- 
fessional labours  he  diligently  cultivated  litera- 
ture, and  was  one  of  the  first  Scotchmen  to  write 
English  with  purity.  'That  noble  wit  of  Scotland,' 
Diyden  terms  him.  Inhapjiily  in  the  popular 
mind  he  is  better  known  as  criminal  prosecutor 
in  the  days  of  the  persecution,  in  which  capacity 
he  earned  the  title  of  'Bluidy  Mackenzie;'  nor 
can  it  be  disproved,  in  spite  of  his  liberal  ante- 
cedents, that  he  became  a  willing  instrument  of 
despotism.  In  1682  he  founded  the  Advocates' 
Library  (q.v.);  at  the  Revolution,  six  years  after- 
wards, he  retired  to  Oxford.  He  died  in  London, 
8th  ^lay  1691,  and  was  buried  at  Edinburgh  in 
Grey  friars  Churchyjird. 

His  works,  published  between  1663  and  168G,  and 
collected  l>y  Ruddiman  ( 2  vols,  folio,  1716-22),  include  Jic- 
liiiio  !itoici.  Moral  £sm)/  upon  Solitude,  MomI  Gallaiitrij, 
Vindication  of  the  frorernnicnt  of  thiirles  II.,  three 
treatises  on  the  law  of  Scotland,  and  Jui  Hcr/ium.  See 
his  .^fClnoirs  of  the  Affairs  of  Scotland  (ed.  1821);  and 
Taylor  lunos,  Studies  in  Scottish  History  (1S92). 

itiaokeiizie,  IIkxrv,  the  'Man  of  Feeling,' 
was  binn  in  Edinburgh,  26th  August  1745.  A 
physician's  son,  he  i)assed  from  the  High  School 
to  the  university,  in  1765  went  up  to  London  to 
pnrsue  his  law  studies,  and,  returning  to  Scotland, 
became  eiown  .-ittorney  in  the  Court  of  Exchequei, 
and  in  1804  comptndler  of  taxes.  For  upwards  ot 
half  a  century  he  was  'one  of  the  most  illustrious 
names  connected  with  polite  literature  in  Edin 
burgli,'  where  he  died  at  the  great  age  of  eighty- 
five,  on  14th  .January  1831.  His  Man  of  Feeling 
was  published  anonymously  in  1771  ;  The  Man  of 
the  World  followed  in  1773,  and  Julia  ilc  Roubignt' 
in  1777.  All  three  have  something  of  Richardson, 
and  more  i>f  Sterne,  but  nothing  of  their  genius. 
The  lirst,  which  alone  is  not  wholly  forgotten,  which 
indeed  was  reprinted  by  Professor  Henry  Morlcy 
in  1HH6,  is  jierhaps  the  most  namby-pambv  efl'usion 
that  ever  '  attained  classical  celebrity.'  His  other 
writings  include  some  Tory  pam]ddets,  lives  of 
Blacklock  and  Home,  ninety-nine  papers  in  the 
Mirror  ami  Lounger,  and  four  very  weak  plays. 
At    least,    he    deserves    recognition    for    Ids    own 


(76 


MACKENZIE 


MACKEREL 


lecognitiiin  of  Burns,  ami  as  an  early  ailniirer  of 
Lessing  and  of  Schiller. 

Mackenzie.  William  Lyon,  Canadian  agita- 
tor an<l  jimrnalist,  was  born  in  Dnndee,  I'itli 
March  1795,  emigrated  to  Canada  in  1820,  and 
in  IS'24  established  the  Ct>Iimial  Aclrucatr,  first  at 
Qiieenstown,  then  at  Toronto.  There  his  denuncia- 
tions of  the  ofiieials  resulted  in  the  partial  destruc- 
tion of  his  printing-oHice  in  1826.  In  1828  he 
was  elected  to  the  provincial  parliament  for  York, 
but  was  expelled  for  libel  on  the  Asseiulily,  and 
was  successively  e.\pelled  and  reelected  until 
linally  the  government  refused  to  issue  the  writ. 
In  1832  he  went  to  Lonilon  with  a  petition  of  griev- 
ances from  the  Ueformers  of  Canada,  and  while 
there  secured  the  dismissal  from  oHice  of  the 
Attorney-general  and  Solicitor-general  of  I'pper 
Canada."  In  1834  he  was  elected  the  Krst  mayor  of 
Toronto,  and  in  1836  he  started  the  Const  it  ut  ion,  in 
which  he  attacked  Sir  Francis  Head,  the  lieutenant- 
goveinor,  for  interference  with  the  elections.  In 
T837  hi'  published  a  virtual  declaration  of  independ- 
ence in  his  paper,  headed  a  band  of  armed  insur- 
gents, and  demanded  of  the  lieutpnant-governor  a 
settlement  of  all  provincial  difficulties  by  a  conven- 
tion. This  demand  not  having  been  granted,  Mac- 
kenzie determined  to  arrest  the  lieutenant-governor 
and  capture  the  military  stores  in  Toronto  ;  but 
being  met  by  a  suiierio'r  force  at  Montgomery's 
Hill,'  4  miles"  from  the  city,  the  insurgents  were 
put  to  flight  after  a  brief  skirmish  in  which  several 
were  killed.  Mackenzie  and  others  efl'ected  their 
escape,  and  took  iiossession  of  Navy  Island  in  the 
Niagara  Ki\er,  where  he  established  a  provisional 
"•overnment.     He  was  soon,  however,  compelled  to 


genus  Scomber,  the  mackerels  proper,  comprises 
seven  species,  distributed  in  almost  all  temperate 
and  tropical  se.i-s,  except  ott  the  .\nierican  shores 
of  the  South  Atlantic.  The  Comnu)n  Mackerel  (.S'. 
ScoihIki-)  is  found  as  far  south  as  the  Canar> 
Islands,  and  from  Greenlaiul  to  Cajie  Coil  in 
Massachusetts.  It  is  abundant  oH'  the  Uritish 
coast,  is  found  in  the  Mediterran<>an.  but  is  scarce 
in  the  IJaltic.  It  is  a  very  beautiful  lish  of  elegant 
spindle  like  shape.  Its  cidour  is  a  lustrous  dark 
idne  above,  with  wavy  blackish  transverse  streaks 
and  silvery  below.  The  tail  is  crescent-shaped, 
and  has  a  .-.light  ridge  or  keel  on  each  side.  The 
snout   is    rather    hmg,    pointed,    and    compressed. 


break  up  his  camp,  and  was  afterwards  sentenced 
by  the  United  States  authorities  to  twelve  months' 
imprisonment  in  Rochester  jail.  On  the  proclama- 
tion of  amnesty  in  1849  he  returned  to  Canada, 
and  was  a  meinher  of  parliament  from  18r)0  till 
18.58.  Ref(U-ms  more  radical  than  those  he  con- 
tended for  have  since  lieen  granted.  He  died  in 
Toronto,  28th  August  1861.  See  the  Life  by  his 
son-in-law,  Charles  Lindsay  (2  vols.  1862). 

Mackenzie  River,  in  North  America,  has  its 
origin,  iis  the  Athabasca (q. v.),  in  a  Rocky  Mountain 
lake  in  Ihitish  Columbia,  flows  over  600  miles  to 
Lake  Athabasca,  and  240  as  the  Slave  Kiver  to 
Great  Slave  Lake  (q.v.).  It  now  assumes  the  name 
of  Mackenzie  River,  and  conveys  the  waters  of  the 
Great  Slave  Lake  to  the  Arctic  Ocean  at  Mackenzie 
Bay,  after  a  final  course  which  is  rec  koned  at  104.5 
miles,  making  a  total  river-system  of  nearly  2500 
miles.  It  ilrains  an  area  of  little  less  than  600,001) 
.sq.  ni.  The  mouth  of  the  river  is  closed  from 
October  to  June  by  ice.  The  Mackenzie  district 
itself  is  desolate  anil  unlit  for  colonisation  :  but  its 
great  tributaiies,  the  Liard  ami  the  I'eace  and 
.Vthabasca  rivers,  drain  an  immense  fertile  country, 
with  abundance  of  petroleum  (the  lields  have  been 
reported  the  largest  in  the  worhl),  ami  some  coal 
and  lignite.  The  Mackenzie  received  its  nanu' 
from  sir  Alexander  Mackenzie  (c.  17;5r)-1820),  by 
whom  it  wa,s  discovered  in  1789.  Sir  .lohn  Frank- 
lin (q.v.)  descendeil  it  in  J82.5.  Since  189.5  it  gives 
name  to  a  new  north-west  territory  of  Canada. 

Mackerel  (Sconilm-),  a  genns  of  acantbopter- 
ous  fishes  of  the  family  Scomberida',  which  also 
includes  the  Tunny,  Bonito,  ,and  Sucking  Fishes. 
.Members  of  the  "'  mackerel '  family  are  pelagic 
forms  of  very  extensive  distribution.  They  are 
gregarious  and  i)redaceous,  and  are  extremely 
active,  the  form  of  their  bodies  being  eminently 
adapted  for  rapid  gliding  movements.  Their 
muscles  are  richly  supplied  with  blood  and  with 
nerves,  and  the  temperature  of  their  bodies  is 
several  degrees  higher  than  in  other  lislies.     The 


Commuu  Mackerel  {Scomljcr  Scomber). 

The  mackerel  is  usu.ally  from  14  to  16  inches  long, 
and  about  2  lb.  in  weight,  but  it  may  attain  a  size 
of  over  IS  inches.  Mackerels  move  about  in  shoals, 
.approaching  the  coast  at  certain  seasons  either  be- 
fore or  after  spawning,  or  for  purposes  of  feeding, 
following  shoals  of  herrings,  spr.ats,  or  pilch.-irds,  on 
which  they  prey.  Their  migrations  are  [irobably 
largely  influenced  by  temperature.  Early  in  the 
ve.ar  thev  move  from  the  deei)er  parts  of  the 
Atlantic  towards  the  British  coast.  In  May  and 
■lune  they  are  foumi  off  the  Scilly  Isles,  whence 
some  go  lip  St  George's  Ch.annel,  but  most  proceed 
along  the  English  Channel.  They  are  very  con- 
stant in  the  rate  at  which  they  travel  during  their 
migrations.  The  mode  of  capture  v.aries  with  local 
circumstances.  In  siuing  and  autumn  drift-nets 
only  are  used  ;  in  summer,  when  the  lish  are  near 
the  sh(Me,  seine-nets  are  likewise  employed.  When 
the  shoals  are  much  broken  up,  hand-lines  are  used 
baited  with  various  substances,  such  as  a  slip  from 
.another  m.ackerel,  apiece  of  a  cuttle-fish,  a  thin  rind 
of  pork,  worms,  or  indeed  any  glistening  substance, 
such  as  a  strip  of  cohmrcd  cloth  moving  ipiickly 
thnmgh  the  w.ater.  Hand-line  fishing  may  be 
]irosecuted  .at  .all  hours  of  the  day  and  night,  but 
it  is  most  successful  in  the  morning  and  evening', 
and  a  smart  breeze,  termed  a  '  mackerel  breeze,'  is 
most  favcmr.able  lo  its  success.  As  food,  the 
mackerel  is  very  highly  esteemed,  but  it  taints 
very  rapidly  .and"  loses  flavour  when  kept.  Owing 
to  the  rapidity  of  decomposition  in  hot  weather, 
and  the  conseiiuent  injurious  results  to  consunu-rs, 
m.ackcrel  were  allowed  in  1698  lo  he  sold  in  London 
either  before  or  after  divine  service  on  Sundays,  .in 
enactment  that  apjiears  iu)t  to  have  been  repealed. 
The  introduction  of  steamboats  as  'carriers'  in- 
stead of  sailing-vessels  has  proved  highly  bene- 
ficial to  the  mackerel  industry  and  to  the  general 
public.  In  the  beginning  of  1890  a  lirst  consign- 
ment of  I'urcd  mac'kcrcl  was  sent  from  (.'ape  Town 
to  I'rini-clown,  .Massachusetts.  t)ll' the  south  co.ost 
of  Knglaud  mackerel  seem  to  spawn  about  M.ay 
or  .lune.  Sai-s  states  that  eggs  are  deposited  some 
leagues  from  the  shore  and  at  the  very  surface  of 
the  waves,  where  large  numbers  of  these  lish  may 
he  met  with  eng.aged  in  spawning.  The  eggs  float 
on  the  surface.  In  suitable  circumstances  the 
young  grow  rajiiilly. 

Another  species,  the  Spanish  or  Coly  Mackerel 
( ,S'.  colias),  is  found  in  Europe  in  the  Mediterranean, 


MACKINAW 


MACLAURIN 


777 


laiely  on  the  sinitli  coast  of  Enj^laml.  and  oecnis 
from"  Nova  Scotia  to  Cape  Hattcras.  It  attains  a 
weight  ol"4  or  5  lli.,  anil  unlike  the  coniiiion  mackerel 
possesses  an  air-hla<liler.  The  Scad  ((pv.)  is  some- 
limes  oalled  TIor>e  Mackerel  ;  the  Mackerel  Mid^'e 
is  a  small  Uockling  (ipv.). 

M:H-kiiiaw.    See  Michigan  (Lake). 

ll«-kiliU'V.  William,  twenty  fourth  presi.lent 
i.f'the  United  States,  was  Ixnn  ^Oth  Jan.  1S4:?.  lU 
Niles  in  Ohio,  and  served  in  the  Civil  War,  reluuiLr 
in  IStiT  as  major  to  Canton,  where,  after  a  period 
of  stuily,  he  practiseil  law.  He  was  elected  to  con- 
gress in  1S77,  and  repeatedly  re-elected.  In  ISiJl  he 
was  made  governor  of  Ohio,  his  name  having  ere 
this  heen  identified  with  the  high  protective  larill' 
carrieil  in  the  McKinley  Bill  of  1S90,  thongh  .sul.sc- 
quently  modilicd  hy  the  Democrats  in  1894.  Chosen 
Republicau  candidate  for  the  presidency  in  1896,  ho 
conihicted  an  e.xciting  contest  with  W.  J.  Bryan, 
who  advocated  the  cause  of  free  siher,  payment 
of  dehts  in  silver  dollars,  the  repression  of  mono- 
|)olies,  and  was  undei-stood  to  favour  labour  at  the 
expense  of  capital.  A  large  section  of  the  Demo- 
crats, '  Gold  Democrats  '  or  '  Sound  Mimey  Demo- 
cr.ats,'  in  spite  of  their  dLslike  to  INIcKinley's  policy 
on  many  points  (including  his  protective  tarill), 
strongly"  supported  him  as  against  Bryan ;  and 
McKinley  secured  (November  1896)  a  majority  of 
more  than  a  hundred  in  the  electoral  college,  being 
regarded  as  the  representative  of  nonrepuiliation,  a 
gold  stand.ard,  and  the  interests  of  capital  generally. 
Kor  tlie  war  >vith  Spain,  see  Cuba.  In  1900  he 
again  defeated  Bryan  by  an  even  bigger  majority. 
llai-kintosli.  See  India-kuhbei:. 
MiK-killtosll.  Sir  James,  philosopher,  was 
liorn  at  Ahlourie  in  Inverness  shire,  October  24, 
176.5.  Having  studied  at  King's  College,  Aber- 
deen, and  then  medicine  at  Edinburgh,  lieseltled 
in  London,  for  some  time  supporting  himself  and 
his  young  wife  by  writing  for  the  newspapers.  The 
lii-st  work  that  brought  him  into  notice  was  his 
Vindicice  Galliae  (1791),  in  reply  to  Burke's  He- 
fl'Ctioiis  on  tlic  Freiirh  Revolution.  Fox,  Sheridan, 
and  other  leading  Whigs  sought  the  authors  ac- 
quaintance :  and  when  the  association  of  the 
'  I'Viends  of  the  People'  (q.v.)  was  formed  he  was 
api)ointed  secretary.  He  was  called  to  the  bar 
in  179.'>,  and  ere  long  attained  higli  eminence  as  a 
forensic  lawyer.  In  1799  he  <lelivered  a  brilliant 
series  of  lectures  on  the  law  of  nature  and  of  nations 
before  the  benohei-s  nf  Lincoln's  Inn  ;  and  his  de- 
fence of  Peltier  (ISu:!),  charginl  with  a  libel  on 
Bonaparte,  was  a  splendid  trinm|ili.  In  1804  he 
was  knighted,  and  a])pointed  recorder  of  Bombay, 
and  in  1806  judge  of  the  Admiralty  Court;  here 
he  spent  seven  years,  entering  parJiament  on  his 
return  as  Whig  meiul)er  for  Naiin  (181,S).  Ha 
w.is  professor  of  Law  in  the  colleg('  of  Ilaileybnry 
from  I81S  to  1824,  and  in  18:iU  became  a  member 
of  the  Board  of  Control  under  the  (irey  ministry, 
and  spoke  in  favour  of  the  Kcforni  Bill'.  He  died 
not  long  after,  on  the  22d  May  1832.  His  Dis.scr- 
IcUion  on  thr,  Pror/rrxx  of  El  hied  I  P/iilo.sop/ii/  ( 1831  ), 
written  for  the  Enri/rlopwdia  Brilunnim,  although 
very  incomplete,  shows  the  admirable  powers  of 
the  author.  For  Lardner'.s  Cyrloinrdin  he  wrote  a 
brief  but  excellent  survey  of'the  History  of  Eng- 
land. A  meie  fragment  of  a  great  projected  work, 
entitled  A  Ilislonj  of  the  Rcunlntion  in  England  in 
168S,  ajipeared  after  his  death. 

A  c  lUection  of  Mackintosh's  misccllancons  works  was 
publislied  in  3  vols,  in  \KA.  Sec-  the  Mrmoirx  by  his  son 
(2  vols.  183.")),  and  the  essays  of  Macaulay  and  De  Quincey. 

Macklin,  Chaulks,  actor,  was  born  1st  May 
1690,  .icconling  to  his  biographer  ( Maeklin  used  to 
gay  in  1699),  the  son  of  an  Iri-h  gentleman  nanieU 


M'Laughlin,  who  commanded  a  troon  of  horse  for 
King  James  at  the  Boyne  two  nnmths  later,  and  lost 
his  estates  in  consei|Ucnce.  After  a  wihl,  unsettled 
youth,  in  whicdi  be  was  by  turns  potboy,  college 
servant,  and  stroller,  he  ]daved  for  a  numlier  of 
years  in  Mristcd  and  Bath,  tilt  his  brogue  was  worn 
down,  and  in  1733  was  engageil  fin-  small  parts  at 
Drnry  Lane.  He  steadily  rose  in  the  jmldic  favour, 
till  in  1741  he  appeared  in  his  great  character.  Shy- 
lock  :  Pope  said  of  it,  'This  is  the  Jew  that 
Shakespeare  drew.'  From  this  time  he  was  ac- 
connted  one  of  the  best  actors,  appearing  with  nearly 
iMpial  success  in  tragedy  or  comedy,  in  jiassion  or 
liutl'oonery,  for  nearly  half  a  century.  His  last  per- 
formance was  at  Covent  Garden  in  May  1789.  when 
he  broke  down  :  lint  he  survived,  with  an  annuity 
of  £200,  till  nth  July  1797.  He  was  generous, 
iiigh-spirited.  and  honourable,  but  somewhat  iras- 
cible :  in  173.)  he  killed  a  brother-actor  in  a  quarrel 
over  a  wiu,  and  was  tried  for  nnirder ;  and  fre- 
quently afterwards  he  was  engaged  in  disputes  and , 
actions  at  law.  He  wrote  a  tragedy,  and  several 
farces  and  comedies ;  of  these  Love  a-ht-Mode 
( 1759)  and  The  Man  of  the  World  ( 1781 )  have  been 
printed  :  in  the  latter  his  own  part  was  Sir  Per- 
tinax  JlacSycophant.  See  his  Memoirs,  by  J.  T. 
Kirkman  (2  vol.^.  1799),  and  the  Life  by  E.  A. 
Parry  (  1891  ). 

Macklligllt.  Dr  Jajies,  an  eminent  divine  of 
the  Church  of  Scotland,  was  born  at  Irvine,  in 
Ayrshire,  17th  September  1721  ;  studied  at  (Tl.asgow 
University,  and  afterwards  at  Leyden,  in  Holland ; 
and  in  1753  was  ordained  minister  of  the  parish  of 
Maybole.  In  1769  he  was  translated  to  Jedburgh, 
and  thence  to  Edinburgh  in  1772,  where  he  died, 
13th  January  1800.  jlacknight  was  a  superior 
scholar,  a  liberal,  wise,  and  prudent  ecclesiastic, 
and  a  respectable  writer  on  Scripture  subjects. 
His  principal  works  are  Harmon)/  if  the  Four 
Gospels  (1756);  The  Truth  of  the  Gospel  History 
i  1763) ;  and  A  New  Translation  of  the  Apostolical 
Epistles,  irith  Commentary  and  Azotes  ( 1795). 

Maekoiiofhie,  Alexander  Heriot,  priest, 

was  born  at  Fareham  in  Hampshire,  11th  August 
1825,  the  son  of  a  Scotch  East  Indian  colonel.  He 
was  privately  educated  at  Bath  and  Exeter,  studied 
awhile  at  Edinburgh  University,  and  in  1845  went 
up  to  Wadhani  College,  Oxford.  In  1848  he  took 
a  second-class  in  classics,  and  next  year  was 
ordained  to  a  curacy  at  Westbury,  removing  in  1852 
to  Wantage,  and  in"  1858  to  St  George's-in-tlie-East. 
In  1862  he  became  the  first  vicar  of  St  Alban's, 
Holborn— the  smal'  but  crowded  slum  where  for 
twenty  years  he  did  a  great  work  that  lives  after 
him.  His  prosecution  (or  pei-secution )  by  the 
Chinch  Association  for  ritualistic  practices  com- 
menced in  1867  ;  and  at  last  in  1882,  in  accordance 
with  the  dying  wish  of  Archbishop  Tait,  he  sought 
to  withdraw  from  further  coiillict  by  resignation. 
He  accepted  the  charge  of  St  Peter's,  London 
Docks;  that,  too,  a  twelvemonth  later  he  had  to 
resign.  His  health  broke  down  :  and  on  15th 
December  1887,  during  a  visit  to  the  liisbop  of 
.\rgyll  at  Ballachulish,  he  lost  his  way  in  the 
Mainore  deer-forest,  and  was  found  two  days  later 
lying  dead  in  the  snow,  a  deerhounil  and  a  Skye 
terrier  guarding  him.  He  rests  in  the  St  Alban's 
burial-ground  at  Woking.  See  his  Life  by  Mrs 
Towle  (1890). 

Maolaiirill.  Colin,  mathematician,  was  bom 
at  Kilmodan.  Argyllshire,  in  1698.  lie  grailuated 
M.A.  at  (JIasgow'  in  1713,  and  four  years  hater 
obtained  the  professorship  of  Mathematics  in 
Marischal  College,  Aberdeen.  In  1719  he  visited 
London,  and  was  .admitted  to  the  Hoyal  Soidety. 
Here  he  published  his  (lennietriii  Orqanien  (1719), 
an  elaborate  treatise  on  the  deseiiption  of  curve-s. 


778 


MACLE 


MACMAHON 


He  afteiwarils  visited  France  as  tutor  to  Lonl 
Polwarth's  son,  and  while  there  wrote  a  disser- 
tation on  the  percussion  of  bodies,  which  gained 
the  prize  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences  in  1724 ; 
while  sixteen  years  later  he  divided  with  Euler 
and  Bernouilli  its  prize  for  an  essay  on  the  llux  and 
relhix  of  the  sea.  The  following  year  he  Avas 
appointed,  on  the  recommendation  of  Xewton, 
assistant  to  James  Gregory,  professor  of  Mathe- 
matics in  the  university  of  Edinhurgh,  and  soon 
after  succeedeil  him  in  the  chair.  In  the  lal>our  of 
preparing  trenches  and  barricades  to  defend  Edin- 
burgh against  Prince  Charlie's  ainiy  he  took  too 
active  a  share  for  his  health,  and  died  of  dropsy 
June  14,  1746.  Maclaurin's  writings  gave  a  strong 
impetus  to  the  stmly  of  mathematical  science  in 
Scotland.  His  Troitise  on  Fluciotm  ( 1742),  written 
in  defence  of  Newtons  discoveries  against  the 
attack  of  Berkeley,  was  the  first  work  in  which  the 
principles  of  fluxions  were  logically  arranged,  and 
formed  a  contribution  of  the  greatest  importance 
to  the  theory  of  the  tides  and  the  figure  of  the 
earth.  The  Treatise  on  Algehfa  (1748)  was  left 
incomplete,  as  was  also  the  Aivount  of  Sir  Isaac 
Newton's  Philosophical  Disrorerirs  (1748),  contain- 
ing explanations  of  all  Newton's  dbcoveries,  the 
optical  ones  excepted.  Many  papers  appeared  in 
the  Philosophical  Transactions. 

Macl6,  a  term  employed  in  mineralogy  to  desig- 
nate what  are  also  called  twin  cri/sfals,  which  are 
crystals  united  according  to  some  piecise  law,  yet 
not  having  their  faces  and  axes  parallel,  so  as  to 
render  the  one  a  mere  continuation  of  the  other. 
In  some  macles  the  axes  are  parallel  :  in  .some,  they 
are  inclined  at  an  angle.  Crystallisation  in  macles 
is  very  characteristic  of  some  minerals. — Made 
is  also  the  name  of  the  variety  of  .Vndalu.site 
(q.v.)  called  Chiastolite,  a  silicate  of  alumina,  con- 
taining a  little  magnesia  and  oxide  of  iron. 
Made  has  been  much  used  for  making  beads  for 
rosaries,  «.*\;c. 

M'Lennaili  John  FEEOfSdN,  a  strikingly  orig- 
inal and  suggestive  writer  on  primitive  civilisa- 
tiim,  was  liorn  at  Inverness,  14th  October  1827. 
He  graduated  at  King's  College,  Aberdeen,  in 
1849,  and  then  proceedeil  to  Trinity  College. 
Cambridge,  which  he  left  in  1853  to  join  the 
Scottish  bai-  in  18.")7.  But  he  cut  short  the  prac- 
tice of  his  profession  in  his  zeal  for  the  study 
of  the  usages  and  customs  of  early  civilisation. 
The  chief  fruit  of  bis  labours  ;ippcared  in  Pri/ni- 
tive  Marriiiije  (186.)).  in  which  he  emi)hasises  the 
importance  of  the  matriarchal  theory  of  marriage 
amongst  savage  peoples,  and  in  papers  in  tlie 
Fortnightly  Rericw  (1869-70)  on  totemism.  His 
I)Ook,  after  being  enlarged  and  the  argument 
strengthened  by  new  evidence,  was  issuc<l  umler 
the  new  title  of  Studies  in  Ancient  Ilistori/  in  lS7(i. 
M'Lennan  further  defendt^d  his  views  as  against 
the  patriarchal  theory  of  Sir  Henry  Maine  in  Tlic 
Patriarchal  Thconi,  left  incomplete  at  the  author's 
death,  but  finished  and  edited  by  his  brother  Donald 
in  1885.  He  also  wrote  a  Life  of  Thomas  Drinn- 
mond  (1867)  and  papers  on  'The  Levirate  and 
Polyandry'  (  1877).  Oiaftsnian  of  parliamentary  bills 
for  Scotland  in  1872-75,  he  ilied  16lli  June  1881. 
A  second  series  of  Stinlies  in  A  neicnt  History,  edited 
by  bis  widow  and  A.  Piatt,  appeared  in  1896. 

MacltMMl.  Noini.vx,  a  divine  of  the  Church  of 
Scothmd  eminent  lor  his  pulpit  oratory,  his  writ- 
ings, and  his  lil)eral  Christianity,  the  son  of  a 
parish  minister,  was  horn  at  Campbeltown,  Argyll- 
shire, .lune  8,  1812.  He  was  educated  at  Campl)el- 
town  anil  Campsie,  to  which  his  f.ithcr  hail  been 
translated,  attended  t  ilasgow  University,  and  enter- 
in}?  the  church  became  minister  of  Loudim,  in  Ayr- 
shire  (1838-43);  of   Dalkeith   (1843-45);    and   of 


the  important  Barony  Church,  Gla-sgow,  from  July 
1851  till  his  death,  June  16,  1872.  He  received 
the  degree  of  I). I),  in  1S.'>8,  and  was  appointed 
one  of  the  Queen's  Chai>lains  in  Scotland,  the 
Queen  valuing  highly  his  sermons,  sympathy, 
and  advice.  An  utterance  of  his  on  the  Sabbaih 
questiim  in  1865  startled  his  brethren  and  the 
public,  and  be  w;us  threatened  with  prosecution  ; 
but  wiser  counsels  prevailed.  In  1869  he  was 
moderator  of  the  CSeneral  .Assembly,  and  was  desig- 
nated Dean  of  the  Chapel  Koyal  and  Cba]ilain  of 
the  Order  of  the  Thistle.  In  1845  he  visited  Canada 
!is  a  church  depvity  ;  he  was  in  Palestine  in  1864- 
65,  and  in  India  in  1867,  on  mission  business  for 
the  Church  of  Scotland.  One  of  the  most  eloquent 
and  ]inwerful  addresses  he  ever  delivered  was  that 
on  mi.-sions  before  the  General  As.sembly,  after  his 
return.  From  1850  to  1859  Macleod  edited  the 
Edinbnr()h  Christian  Mai/azine,  for  a  year  the 
Christian  Guest  (1860),  and  from  1860  till  1872 
Good  Words,  to  which  he  contributed  tales,  essays, 
verses,  sermons,  most  of  which  were  reprinted  in 
book-form.  Full  of  healthy  life  and  human  sym- 
pathy himself,  his  writings  show  shrewd  observation, 
lively  description,  and  good-humour  :  his  tales  are 
lacking  on  the  constructive  side.  He  pos.ses.sed  a 
large,  simple,  childlike  nature,  full  of  tenderness, 
and  was  broad  and  catholic  in  his  sympathies,  wdiich 
l)Ounil  him  to  humanity  at  many  points.  He  pub- 
lished The  Earnest  Student  (1854),  Deborah  (1857), 
Daihi  Meditations  (1861 ),  The  Gold  Thread  ( 1861 ), 
The  Old  Lieutenant  (1862),  Parish  Papers  (1862), 
Wee  Darie  (1864),  Simple  Truth  (1866),  Eastward 
(1866),  licminineenecs  of  n  Highland  Parish  (his 
grandfather's  parish  of  ilorven,  1867),  The  Stariinef 
(1867),  Peeps  at  the  Far  East  ( 1871 ).  See  Memoir 
(1876)  by  the  Itev.  Donald  Macleod,  and  articles 
by  Strahan  (Contemporartj  llericw,  July  1872)  and 
Dean  Stanley  (Good  Words,  1872). 

Maclise,  Dami.L,  painter,  the  son  of  a  High- 
land soldier  named  .M'Leisli.  was  born  at  Cork  in 
January  1806  (not  1,811)  and  baptised  2d  February, 
entered  the  school  of  tlie  Koyal  Academy,  Lmidim, 
in  1828,  soon  exhibited  at  the  Academy,  and  in  1833 
made  Inmself  famous  by  his  '  .MlHallow  Eve.' 
His  Liter  ]nctures  are  many  of  them  familiar  by 
engraving — such  as  'The  Baminet  Scene  in  Mac- 
beth' and  'Scene  from  Twelfth  Night'  (1840), 
'Play  Scene  in  Hamlet'  (1842),  and  his  design 
of  '  Shakesiieare's  Seven  Ages  '  ( 1848),  '  The  Gro.ss 
of  Green  Spectacles'  (1850),  'Caxton's  Printing- 
office  '  ( 1851 ).  The  frescoes — each  45  feet  long  and 
12  feet  high — in  the  Hoyal  Gallery  of  the  House  of 
Lords,  depicting  'The  Meeting  of  Wellington  and 
BlUcher  on  the  Evening  of  the  Battle  of  Waterloo' 
and  'The  Death  of  Nelson  at  Trafalgar,'  were 
admitted  to  be  the  lin<'st  nuiral  paintings  hitherto 
executed  in  Biitain.  Numerous  good  engravings  of 
them  are  current.  The  most  noteworthy  pictures 
exhibited  by  Maclise,  after  the  completion  of  these 
great  works,  were  'Othello,'  'Desdemona,'  and 
•Ojdielia'  (1867),  'The  Sleep  of  Duiuan  '  and 
'  M^iideline  after  I'raver'  (1868),  'King  Cophetna 
and  the  lieggar  Maid'  (1869),  'The  Earls  of  De.s. 
mimd  and  Ormond,'  iiosthnniously  exhibited  in 
1870,  in  which  year  he  died  on  1st  April.  The 
sketches  by  him  of  his  contemporaries,  published 
in  Eraser's  Magazine  during  1830-38,  were  repub- 
lished in  1874  and  1883.  See  the  Memoir  by 
O'Driscoll  (1871). 

.Mariiialion.  MAnii-:  Edme  P.vtrice  M.wkice 

DK,  Dnkc  of  Magenta,  marshal  of  France,  de- 
scended from  an  Iri>h  Jacobite  family,  was  born  at 
Sully,  near  Autun,  13th  June  1808.  Entering 
the  army,  be  saw  much  active  service;  in  .\lgeria, 
especially  distinguishing  himself  at  the  storm- 
ing    of     Constantine     (1837),     commanded     the 


MACMILLAN 


MACREADY 


77U 


division  tdat  stoniied  the  Malakoff  at  Sebastopol 
in  1855,  anil  UuiU  a  <on>iiiomnis  jiait  in  the  war 
against  the  KahvU-s  in  Alt;eiia  (1857-5S)  and  in 
tiie  Italian  raniiiai'xn  of  1S59,  winninj;  a  niaishal's 
V.aton  and  the  dijjnity  of  Duke  of  Magenta  for  the 
decisive  part  he  took  in  tlie  hattle  of  that  name 
He  was  nominated  goviMiuir-geiieral  of  Algeria  in 
1864.  In  the  Franeotierman  war  of  1S70-71  he 
had  command  of  the  fust  army  corps,  hut  was 
defeated  at  Worth,  ami  wounded  and  captured  at 
Sedan.  On  the  close  of  the  war  he  was  made  com- 
mander of  the  army  of  Vci-sailles,  with  which  he 
siippre.ssed  the  Commune.  In  1873  he  wa.s  elected 
president  of  the  repuhlic  for  a  period  of  seven  years, 
with  some  hope  that  the  restoration  through  him 
of  the  Ijourhons  might  he  secured.  For  his  sym- 
pathies were,  and  continued  to  be,  conservative. 
and  at  times  reactionary,  and,  although  he  pur- 
sued no  aggressive  pidicy,  he  gradually  became 
estranged  from  the  Kepuldicans.  Rather  than 
dismiss  some  of  his  old  comrades  in  arms  he  pre- 
ferred to  resign,  .10th  January  1879.  He  afterwards 
lived  in  retirement,  and  died  17th  October  1893. 

Slaciuiilan.  D.\NIEI,.  was  the  son  of  a  small 
farmer,  and  was  born  <at  I'pper  C'orrie.  Arran,  13th 
.  September  181.3.  His  brother  Ale.x.ander  was  born 
at  Irvine,  .Sd  October  1818,  survived  Daniel  for 
nearly  forty  years,  and  died  iSth  January  189(5. 
After  serving  a  seven  years"  apprenticeship  ( 182-t-31 ) 
under  a  bookseller  at  Irvine.  Daniel  went  to  Glas- 
gow in  1831  :  was  engaged  with  Johnson,  Cam- 
bridge ( 1833-37 ),  and  with  Seeley,  London  ( 1837-43). 
He  was  joined  by  his  yotinger  brother  Alexander, 
who  had  been  keeping  a  school  at  Nitshill,  near 
Paisley,  and  a  small  shop  in  Aldersgate  Street  in 
London  was  opened  un<ler  his  charge  in  1843. 
Partly  through  the  kindly  interest  of  Archdeacon 
Hare  the  business  of  Mr  Newby,  Cambridge,  was 
taken  over  liv  the  brothers  in  the  .same  year,  and 
Mr  Stevenson's  business  there  was  acquired  for 
£6000  in  1845.  w  itb  the  assistance  of  fresh  partners. 
As  the  brothers  sliowe<l  insight  and  knowledge  of 
books  their  business  grew  rapidly,  and  by  1856 
success  was  secured.  The  books  that  helped  the 
young  (irm  most  largely  were  the  works  of  Kingsley, 
M.aurice,  and  the  educational  and  university 
volumes.  Daniel  died  "27111  June  1857.  He  had  a 
high  ideal  of  the  bookselling  liusiness  :  'As  truly 
as  (lod  is,  we  are  his  ministers  and  help  to  minister 
to  the  well-being  of  the  souls  of  men.'  Alexander 
Macndllan  (ISIS  96)  was  apjiointed  publisher  to 
Oxford  University  in  1863,  and  in  the  same  year 
tlie  business  was  removed  to  London.  Macmillan's 
MiKjiizine  first  appeared  in  1859,  and  now  the  cata- 
logue of  the  lirm  embraces  works  by  the  most 
eminent  names  of  the  dav  in  all  departments  of 
literature.     See  the  Life  by  T.  Hughes  (1882). 

Naniiillaiiites.    See  C.vmeroxians. 

MAcon  (Mutisrij  of  Ca'sar),  the  capital  of  the 
Fri'iich  department  of  Saone-et- Loire,  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  Saone,  41  nnles  by  rail  N.  of  Lyons.  A 
dull,  modernised  place,  it  has  a  twelve-arcli  bridge, 
with  .1  view  of  >lont  lil.mc  :  a  fragment  of  an  old 
cathedral,  ilemolished  at  the  Uevolution  ;  the  fine 
Iioniancsipie  church  of  St  Pierre  (rebuilt  1866); 
anil  ii  statue  of  Laniartine,  who  was  born  here.  It 
carries  on  an  extensive  trade  in  wines  known  as 
Macon,  like  but  lighter  than  Burgundy,  a.s  well  as 
in  corn,  cattle,  See,  and  has  manufactures  of 
wali-hcs.  bra-ss,  faience,  &c.  Pop.  (187"2)  16,614: 
(1891)  18,497. 

.Macon,  capital  of  Bibb  county,  Ceorgia,  on  the 
Oiiiiulgce,  stands  among  forest  clad  hills,  at  the 
head  of  navigation,  103  miles  SSK.  of  Atlanta,  on 
si.N  lines  of  railway.  It  is  the  seat  of  Mercer 
University  (IJaiitist),  a  Roman  Catholic  cidlege, 
a  Wesleyan  girls'  schoo!,  and  an  academy  for  the 


blind  :    ha-s   several    fotmdries,    tlour    aiul    lundjer 
mills,  cotton-factories,  i*v:c.,  and  ships  large  quanti 
ties  of  cotton.      Pop.  (1880)  12,749:  (1890)22,746. 

Ma<'(tll4'rsoil.  J.\mk.s,  notorious  as  the  'trans- 
lator' ot  the  ( tssianic  poems,  was  born  in  1738  at 
Rnthvcn,  in  Inverness-shire.  After  finishing  his 
studies  at  King's  College,  Aberdeen,  he  became  a 
schoolmaster  in  his  native  village,  iiublished  a  poem 
entitled  the  Hir/hhiix/cr  in  1758,  contributed  about 
the  same  time  verses  to  the  Srof.^  Mtujazitir,  and 
in  the  following  year,  having  met  with  'Jupiter' 
Carlvle  and  John  Home,  the  author  of  Dou(//as, 
he  sliowed  them  some  fragments  of  Gaelic  verse, 
with  '  translations '  of  the  same.  These  (sixteen  in 
number)  appeared  in  1760,  and  excited  so  much 
interest  that  the  Faculty  of  Advocates  in  Edin- 
burgh subscribed  money  to  send  Macpherson  on 
a  tour  through  the  Highlands  for  the  purpose  of 
collecting  more  of  the  same.  The  quest  was 
successful,  but  the  unsatisfactory  statements  of 
Macpherson  about  his  originals  and  the  place 
where  he  made  his  discoveries  excited  grave  and 
well-grounded  suspicions.  Some  MSS.  undouljt- 
edly  he  found,  but  what  he  published  as  their 
contents  was  something  very  ditl'erent  from  these. 
The  result  of  his  labours  was  the  appearance 
at  London,  in  1762,  of  the  .so-called  poems  of 
Ossian  (q.v.),  under  the  title  of  Finoal,  an  Epic 
Poem,  in  Six  Souks :  and  in  1763,  of  Tcinora,  an 
Epie  Poem,  in  Eight  Books.  A  storm  of  contro- 
versy soon  arose  in  regard  to  their  genuineness, 
which  can  hardly  yet  be  said  to  have  entirely 
subsided,  although  the  general  verdict  is  one  un- 
favourable to  Macpherson.  Dr  Jolmson's  vigorous 
denunciation  of  the  imposture  so  inflamed  Mac- 
pherson that  he  threatened  personal  violence  to 
the  old  man,  who  replied  with  characteristic  fear- 
lessness :  '  Any  violence  offered  me  I  shall  do  my 
best  to  repel  ;  and  what  I  caimot  do  for  myself, 
the  law  shall  do  for  me.  I  hope  I  shall  never  be 
deterred  from  detecting  what  I  think  a  cheat  by 
the  menaces  of  a  ruffian.'  These  poems  were,  how- 
ever, the  making  of  Macpherson  in  a  worldly  point 
of  view.  He  was  appointed  in  1764  surveyor- 
general  of  the  Floridas  with  a  salary  for  life,  and 
in  1779  agent  to  the  Nabob  of  Arcot — a  very  lucra- 
tive olfice  ;  entered  parliament  in  the  following  year 
as  member  for  Camelford,  sat  for  ten  years,  and 
then  retired  to  the  estate  of  Bellville  which  he  had 
purchased  in  Inverness  shire,  and  where  he  died 
Februarv  17,  1796.  His  body  was  actually  in- 
terred at  his  own  request  and  exjiense  in  "West- 
minster Abbey.  He  wrote  historical  compilations, 
and  a  wretched  prose  translation  of  the  Ilitiil.  See 
his  TJfe  and  Letters  by  Bailey  Saunders  ( 1894). 

Maoqiiarie,  a  tributary  of  the  D,-uling  {q.v. ).  a 
liviM  and  a  port  of  T:ismaiii;i,  a  )iort  in  New  South 
Wales,  and  a  small  island  in  the  South  Pacific; 
from  (Jeuer.il  Lacdilau  Maiquarie,  governor  of  New 
South  Wales  from  1809  (o  1821. 

.Ila4'rail4-Il4'llia  (Gr.,  'long-necked'),  a  genus 
of  South  American  fossil  herbivorous  animals, 
forming  a  connecting-link  between  the  Paheo- 
theriuni  (q.v.)  and  the  camel  family.  In  form 
they  nearly  resembled  the  llama,  but  were  as  large 
a.s  a  hipi"ipi)tamus. 

Ma4T4'a4l.V.  Wii.i.i.\M  Cll.\i;i,i;s,  a<tor,  was  the 
son  of  William  McCready  (so  he  spelt  his  name), 
actor  and  iirovincial  manager.  His  mother,  whose 
maiden  name  was  liirch.  was  an  actres.s.  While 
the  elder  Macrcady  was  fullilling  an  engagement 
at  Covent  (Jarilcn,  William  Charles  was  born  in 
.M.iry  Street,  Kuston  Uoad,  on  .'id  March  1793.  In 
1795  his  father  l)ecame  maiuiger  of  the  Birnung- 
ham  Theatre,  and  Macrcady  wius  sent  to  Rugby, 
where   he    entered    in    1803.      He    was    intended^ 


780 


MACROBIUS 


MADAGASCAR 


for  the  bar ;  but  his  father's  managerial  spepiila- 
tions  proving  unsuccessful,  he  was  forceil  to  adopt 
the  stage  as  his  profession.  He  made  his  lirst 
appearance  at  Birmingham  on  7th  .June  1810, 
playing  Itonico,  and  for  six  years  remained  in  tlie 
provinces.  On  llitli  Sejitemljer  1816  he  made  hi.s 
London  debut,  phiying  Orestes  {Distreat  Mot/ier) 
at  Covent  Gartlen.  His  reception  by  the  critics 
and  public  was  friendly  ;  Init  he  was  for  a  long 
time  very  unfortunate  in  being  cast  for  unsympa- 
thetic parts,  one  of  the  few  exceptions  being  Hob 
Roy,  in  which  he  made  a  great  hit,  and  of  which 
he  was  the  original  actor  in  London.  For  many 
years  he  fought  a  fairly  equal  tight  against  Kean, 
Young,  and  Charles  Keniole ;  but  it  was  not  till 
1837  that  he  really  took  his  position  as  leading 
English  actor.  On  .30th  September  1837  he  in- 
augurated his  famous  Covent  (Jarden  management, 
during  which  he  did  much  gooil  service  to  the 
English  stage.  Surrounded  by  such  players  as 
Jliss  Faucit,  Samuel  Phelps,  .lames  Andi^rson,  Mr 
and  Miss  VandenholV,  Miss  I'riscilla  Horton,  aud 
Mre  Warner,  he  produced  Shakespeare's  plays  in 
worthy  fashion,  and  did  much  to  elevate  and 
reform  the  theatre.  For  two  seasons  he  managed 
Covent  Garden,  but  aliruptly  gave  it  up  ;  then, 
after  two  years'  interval,  took  Drury  Lane,  which 
he  managed  from  December  1841  to  June  1843. 
After  this  time  he  never  settled  in  London,  l>ut 
played  in  the  provinces,  in  Paris,  and  in  America. 
His  last  visit  to  the  United  States  was  uiarked  by 
the  terrible  riots  which  arose  out  of  the  ill-feeling 
borne  by  the  American  ,act(U'  Forrest  to  iNIacready. 
A  riotous  mob  trying  to  break  into  the  Astor  Place 
Theatre  for  the  purpose  f>f  maltreating  Macready 
was  fired  upon  bv  the  militarv,  and  some  twenty 
lives  were  lost  ( lo'th  M.ay  1849).  On  26th  February 
1851  Macready  took  his  farewell  of  the  stage,  at 
Drury  Lane,  in  his  great  part  of  Macbeth,  and 
p.asscd  his  remaining  years  in  placid  retirement  at 
Sherborne,  Dorsetshire,  and  at  Cheltenham,  where 
he  died  on  '27th  April  1873.  As  an  actor  Macready 
endeavoured  to  combine  the  dignity  of  the  Kembles 
with  the  naturalness  of  Kean.  If  not  of  the  first 
rank,  he  was  yet  an  actor  of  great  power,  and 
specially  distinguished  himself  in  Macbeth,  Lear, 
Ligo,  King  John,  Cassius,  and  Henry  IV.  In 
Virginius,  Werner,  Kichelieu,  and  Claude  Melnotte 
he  was  also  greatly  successful. 

See  Macready's  Reminiscences  and  Diaries  (1875); 
Lady  Pollock's  Macready  as  I  knew  Him  (2d  ed.  1885) ; 
and  a  memoir  by  William  Archer  ('Eminent  Actor.s' 
scries,  1890). 

Maorobiiis,  AMnuosifs  Theodo.sius,  a  Latin 
grammarian  who  llourished  about  the  beginning  of 
the  5th  century.  He  ajipears  to  have  been  by  birth 
a  Greek,  but  literally  nothing  whatever  is  1<nown 
of  his  life,  not  even  whether  he  was  a  Christian  or 
a  pagan.  Two  of  his  works  are  extant — a  <'oni- 
mentary  on  Cicero's  Soinnium  Sri/iiom's,  and  Siitiir- 
ndliorum  Conviviorum  Lihri  tSc/dem,  a  series  of 
historical,  mythological,  anti(iuarian,  and  critical 
dialogues  at  third  hainl.  TIkmc  are  editions  bv 
Jan  (1848-.5'2)  and  Evssenhanlt  (2d  ed.  1893),  anil 
studies  by  Linke  (1880)  and  Wissowa  (  1880). 

IHarroco.siii.    See  .Microco.sm,  Pakackl-sts. 

MiU'rooiU.  a  market-town  of  Ireland,  on  the 
Sullanc,  '24  niil.'s  liy  lail  W.  of  Cork.  l'o|i,  .'iOiMI. 
Near  .\lacrooni  is  a  .seat  of  the  Earl  of  liantry,  con- 
.structed  out  of  an  old  castle  of  King  John's  time. 

ilni'tra.  a  genus  of  bivalve  molluscs,  with 
somewhat  triangular  e(|ual-valved  shells.  They 
are  active  animals,  idoughing  their  way  through 
the  .sand  either  on  tlie  shore  or  at  slight  depths, 
and  are  able  like  cockles  to  tak(t  con.siderable  leaps,  i 
Two  common  North  American  species,  M.  soli- 
dimima  aiul  M.  ovalis,  kno«ii  a.s  lien-clams,  surf- 


clams,  &c.,  are  sometimes  eaten,  wliile  some  small 


Mactra. 

British  species— e.".   M.   xubfrunraia — are  said  to 
be  gathered  for  feeding  pigs. 

MacWIlirter,  John,  artist,  was  born  in  1839 
near  Edinburgh.  Api>renticed  early  to  a  bookseller 
and  pnlilisher,  he  ran  away  in  disgust,  and  com- 
menced his  artist  life.  His  early  studies  of  wild- 
Howers  at  home  and  abroad  were  selected  by 
Ruskin  as  exaini)les  for  his  Oxford  class.  In  1864 
he  w,as  electe<l  .\ssociate  of  the  Scottish  .Academv, 
in  1879  A.R.A.,  and  in  1893  R.A.  He  excels  in 
depicting  Highland  scenery,  but  one  of  his 
most  admired  works  is  a  view  of  Constantin- ' 
opie  and  the  Golden  Horn  (1889).  As  favourites 
among  his  numerous  pictures  may  be  mentioned 
'The  Vanguard.'  'The  L.ady  of  the  Woods,'  'The 
Three  Graces,"  and  '  Out  in  the  Cold.' 

Madagascar,  the  third  largest  island  in  the 
world,  is  situated  to  the  SE.  of  Afiica,  and  is  about 
four  times  as  large  .as  England  and  M'.ales.  It  is  in 
12-2'— 25° 35' S.  lat.  and  4'2"— 51°  40'  E.  long.  :  length, 
978  miles  ;  greatest  breadth,  .'ioO  miles  ;  are;i,  about 
"230,000  sq.  m.  Although  frequently  visited  by 
Europeans  since  the  beginning  of  the  16th  century, 
Madagascar  is  yet  but  imperfectly  explored.  The 
coasts  were  carefully  surveyed  by  Captain  W.  F. 
W.  Owen,  R.N.,  18'23-'25  ;  but  lintil  lately  there 
has  been  a  great  lack  of  accuiate  knowledge  as  to 
the  geography  of  the  interior.  Much  light  has, 
however,  been  thrown  u]ion  this  by  a  distinguished 
French  savant,  M.  Alfred  Grandidier,  who,  between 
1865  and  1870  exi)lored  the  island  and  crossed  it 
in  several  directions.  Since  then  numercms  jour- 
neys have  been  made  by  members  of  the  London 
Missi(mary  Society  and  other  mis.sions  at  work  in 
the  country:  and  the  information  thus  (ditained 
was  emliodied  in  a  large  map  of  Madagascar  ])re- 
pared  in  1879  by  Rev.  I)r  Mullens.  A  later  map, 
brought  up  to  the  present  state  of  (mr  knowledge 
of  the  island,  was  issued  in  1889  by  Pere  Roblet,  S,  J. 

Madagascar  consists,  as  regards  its  physical  geo- 
graphy, of  two  great  divisions — viz.  (1 )  an  elevated 
interior  region,  raised  from  .'lOOO  to  .5000  feet  above 
(he  sea;  and  (2)  a  com|iaratively  level  country 
surrounding  (he  high  land,  not  much  exceeding  (iOO 
feet  in  altitude,  ami  niost  extensive  on  the  west 
and  south,  although  there  are  very  lofty  moun- 
tains extending  to  the  soiith-eastern  extremity  of 
the  island.  The  first  of  these  is  composed  chielly 
of  Primary  (gneiss  and  other  crystalline)  rocks, 
with  enormous  quantities  of  red  iday-like  earth, 
consisting  of  deconjposed  giu'iss.  It  is  ,'i  mountain- 
ous region,  (here  being  very  little  level  ground 
excejit  in  the  river-valleys,  and  scune  extensive  and 
fertile  rice-plains,  the  dried-up  beds  of  ancient 
lakes.  This  inteiior  highland  com|irises  nearly  half 
the  total  area  of  the  island,  and,  although  central, 
lies  more  to  (he  north  and  east,  (he  watershed  run- 
ning down  (he  eastern  side  of  the  island  a(  no  great 
distance  from  (he  coast.  From  (his  upper  region 
rises  the  highest  mimntaininass,  that  of  .\nkara(ra, 
pndiably  an  ancient  volcano,  whose  snnimits  .are 
nearly  9000  feet  above  the  sea-level.  The  lower 
region   of  Mailagascar  is  fertile  ami   well  wooded. 


MADAGASCAR 


781 


especially  on  the  eastern  side  of  the  islaml,  thongh 
a  lar^e  ilistrict  in  the  south  is  barren.  The  western 
side  appears  to  consist  of  secondary  strata  of  the 
Cretaceous  and  Jurassic  periods,  and  here  the 
extensive  plains  are  broken  up  by  three  prominent 
lines  of  mountain  runniuf;  north  and  south.  From 
the  south-ejist  to  the  northwest  ami  north  a 
probably  almost  continuous  series  of  extinct  vol- 
canic craters  has  been  traced.  These  are  very 
numerous  near  Lake  Itasy  (19'  S.  lat.  and  47°  E. 
long.),  and  also  in  the  Bfetafo  district,  about  50 
miles  farther  south.  There  are  hot  springs  in  many 
parts  of  the  island.  The  chief  rivers  flow  west  and 
north-west,  and  there  are  many  fine  ba.\s  and 
harbours  on  the  north-west  coast.  The  largest  lake 
is  the  Alaotra  in  the  Antsihanaka  province,  and  a 
remarkable  chain  of  lagoons  extends  for  about  300 
miles  along  the  east  coast,  south  of  Taiiiatave, 
needini'  only  about  29  miles  of  canal  to  connect 
them  all  into  acontiuuous  waterway. 

All  round  the  island  is  a  nearly  unbroken  belt 
of  dense  forest,  varying  from  10  to  40  miles  across, 
and  most  largely  developed  in  the  north-east.  The 
flora  of  Madagascar  is,  therefore,  very  rich  and 
vaiied,  and  contains  large  numbers  of  trees  pro- 
ducing valuable  timlier,  concessions  for  working 
which  have  lately  been  granted  to  several  European 
companies.  The  flora  is  divided  by  Rev.  R.  Baron, 
F.L.S.,  into  three  regions,  the  eastern,  central,  and 
western,  the  central  region  including  the  elevated 
interior  plateaus.  Amongst  the  most  characterLstic 
forms  of  vegetation  are  the  Traveller's  Tree  (liarc- 
nala  madagascaricnsis),  the  Rotia  Palm  (Eaphia 
rujffia),  the  Lace-leaf  {Oiivirandra  fenestralis),  the 
Beef- wood  Tree  (Casuariua  eiiiiisctifolia),  several 
species  of  pandanus  and  bamboo,  and  numerous 
peculiar  orchids  and  ferns.  Three-fourths  of  the 
species  and  one-sixth  of  the  genera  of  the  plants 
are  endemic  to  Madagascar,  showing  (besides  other 
facts  to  the  same  ett'ect)  that  the  island  is  of  very 
great  antiquity.  About  4100  indigenous  species 
are  now  known  in  Madagascar,  and  there  is  one 
natural  order,  Chhvnaceie,  with  twenty-four  species, 
confined  to  the  island. 

The  fauna  of  Madagascar  contains  several  excep- 
tional and  ancient  forms  of  life,  comprising  many 
species  and  even  genera  known  nowhere  else  ;  but, 
considering  its  proximity  to  Africa,  the  country  is 
markedly  deficient  in  the  larger  carnivora  and  in 
ungulate  animals.  It  Ls  specially  the  home  of  the 
Lemviridie,  there  being  about  thirty  species  of  this 
family  of  Quadnimana,  including  the  very  curious 
Aye-aye  (fi.v.,  Clteiromijs  iiuidtujitsrariensis).  It  is 
also  the  cuief  habitat  of  the  chama?leons,  and 
especially  of  those  species  with  curious  processes  on 
the  head,  about  half  of  all  the  known  species  in 
the  world  being  found  in  the  island.  About  240 
species  of  birds  are  found  in  Madagascar,  and  of 
the  1.50  land-birds  35  genera  and   129  species   are 

fieculiar  to  it,  many  of  them  being  unlike  any  other 
iving  forms  and  of  remote  atiinities.  The  remains, 
in  a  sub-fossil  state,  of  an  immense  strutliions 
bird  [^Kpijornis  muximua),  as  well  as  of  some 
smaller  allied  species,  have  been  found  in  several 
places  <m  the  southern  co.ost,  togetlujr  with  its 
eggs,  the  largest  known  ( 12.}  in.  x  9|  in.).  Fossil 
remains  of  gigantic  tortoises  have  also  been  dis- 
covered, as  well  a-s  of  an  extinct  liipjiopotamus, 
but  smaller  than  that  now  living  in  .\frica. 

The  Malaga-sy  iieople  apovar  to  be  mainly 
ilerived  from  the  Malayo-I'olyne.sian  stock,  with 
which  they  have  numerou.s  atiinities ;  and  they 
have  numerous  points  of  connection  with  the 
Melaiiesian  tribes,  from  which  the  darker  element 
in  the  inhabitants  of  .Madagjuscar  is  probably 
derived.  There  Ls  also  an  admixture  of  African 
blood,  especially  on  the  western  side  of  the  island  ; 
and  there  is  an  Arab  element  both  on  the  north- 


west and  south-east  coasts.  It  is  further  believed 
that  there  are  traces  of  an  aboriginal  race  called 
Vazimba,  who  appear  to  have  been  driven  out  of 
the  central  pro\iMees  by  the  Ilova,  and  whose 
descendants  are  still  found  in  one  jiart  of  the  west 
coast.  Accounts  are  also  given  of  a  tribe  of  peoiile 
who  live  in  the  woods,  chielly  on  the  trees.  The 
Hova,  the  most  advance<l,  civilised,  and  intelligent 
Malagasy  trilie,  inhabiting  the  central  province  of 
Imi'rina,  and,  since  the  beginning  of  the  19th  cen- 
tury, the  dominant  race,  are  probably  the  latest  im- 
migrants and  the  purest  Malayan  in  origin.  Other 
important  tribes  are  the  Betsileo  ( .southern  central ), 
Biira  (still  farther  south),  Tanala  (south-east 
forest),  BctsiniLsaraka  (east  coast),  Sihanaka 
(north-east  central),  and  Skkalava  (alongthe  entire 
west  coast).  The  eastern  and  western  coast  trilies 
have  numerous  subdivisions.  All  the  coast  peoples 
appear  to  be  closely  connected  with  each  other  in 
language ;  but,  although  there  are  many  dialectic 
difi'erences,  the  language  of  the  whole  countrv'  is 
substantially  one,  and  is  evidently  nearly  allied  to 
those  of  the  Malayan  and  jNIelanesian  islands.  The 
population  of  JIadagascar  is  variously  estimated  at 
from  2,.500,000  to  5,000,000 :  proliably  it  is  inter- 
mediate between  these  two  figures. 

The  Malagasy,  not  having  had  their  language 
reduced  to  a  written  form  until  the  early  part  of  the 
19th  century,  have  no  ancient  literature  ;  but  their 
numerous  proverbs,  songs,  fables,  and  folk-tales, 
and  their  oratorical  abilities,  as  well  as  the  copious- 
ness of  their  language,  give  ample  proof  of  their 
intellectual  acnteness.  In  their  heathen  state  they 
are  very  immoral  and  untruthful,  and  cruel  in  war; 
but  they  are  also  courageous,  affectionate,  and  firm 
in  frienilship,  kind  to  their  children  and  their  aged 
and  sick  relatives,  obedient  to  the  l;iw  and  loyal, 
ver\'  courteous  and  polite,  an<l  most  hospitable. 
While  retaining  some  traditions  of  a  Supreme 
Being,  thev  practised  (and,  except  in  the  more 
enlighteneil  parts  of  the  central  provinces,  still 
practise)  a  kind  of  fetichism,  together  with  divina- 
tion, curious  ordeals,  and  ancestor- woi-ship. 

The  capital,  Antananarivo,  is  situated  centrally 
in  the  island,  but  nearer  the  eastern  side.  It  has  a 
population  of  aliout  100,000,  and  contains  many 
large  and  handsome  buildings,  including  the  royal 
palaces,  residences  of  the  prime-minister  and  chief 
nobles,  four  stone  memorial  churches,  as  well  as 
many  others  of  brick  belonging  to  the  London 
Missionary  Society,  Anglican  ami  Roman  Catholic 
cathedrals,  several  colleges  and  high  scbool.s,  hos- 
pitals and  dispensaries,  an  observatory,  court  of 
justice,  mission  printing-presses,  \c.  The  chief 
ports  are  Tamatave,  on  the  east  coa.st,  and  Mojanga, 
on  the  north-west.  Ambohimanga  in  Inierina,  and 
Fianarantsba  in  Betsileo,  are  important  places  in 
the  interior. 

The  principal  exports  (.1:165,000  per  annum)  of 
Madaga.scar  are  cattle,  hides,  gum-copal,  india- 
rubber,  rafiabast,  and  rice, and,  more  recently, ebony 
and  other  \  aluablc  wouils  ;  collee,  sugar,  and  vanilla 
are  also  being  cuhivate<l  by  Creole  settlers.  The 
chief  imports  (£162,000  per  annum)  are  cotton 
goods,  ironmongery,  crockery,  and  rum.  The 
principal  trade  is  from  the  eastern  ports  to 
Mauritius  and  Reunion,  and  there  is  also  now  an 
increasing  traile  from  the  western  side  of  the  island 
with  the  South  .African  colonies.  The  soil  of  the 
co.ost  plains,  cspicially  of  the  eastern  side,  is  fertile, 
and  could  supiily  large  <|mintities  of  all  tropical 
productions.  Inm  is  abundant,  especially  as  mag- 
netite, and  also  as  ha-matite  and  ironstone,  and 
the  Malagasy  are  skilful  in  the  smelting  and  work- 
ing of  this  as  well  as  other  metals.  Copper  apjiar- 
ently  exi.'^ts  in  great  (|uanlily  in  certain  distnct.s, 
and  there  also  tin  is  said  to  be  found.  Galena  is 
found  abundantly  near  Mount  Ankiiratra,  and  fruiu 


782 


MADAGASCAR 


MADDEN 


this  lead  for  Imllets  is  obtained,  and  silver  is  being 
extracted  from  it.  (iold  of  excellent  nuality  lias 
recently  been  found  in  many  parts  of  the  interior, 
and  is  now  being  worked  by  foreign  cajiitalists  as 
well  as  by  the  native  government.  Sulphur  occurs 
in  beds  near  some  of  the  extinct  volcanoes.  There 
are  as  yet  no  roads  or  wheeled  vehicles  in  Mada- 
gascar, so  that  the  country  is  in  some  res])ects  very 
backward,  although  there  is  no  lack  of  manual 
skill  among  the  iieople,  who  excel  in  weaving,  in 
straw-work,  and  in  car|)entry,  as  well  as  in  the 
working  of  gold  and  silver. 

Madagascar  wa.-*  known  to  the  early  Greek  geo- 
graphers I'toleniy,  .Arrian,  and  Marcian  under  the 
name  oi  Mciiiif/ikis ;  and  the  Arabian  geographer 
Edrisi  apparently  describes  it  under  the  name  of 
Chczhezat.  The  island  was  certainly  known  to  and 
visited  by  Arab  merchants  at  least  a  thousand  years 
ago,  and  settlements  were  formed  by  them,  as  well 
as  by  Indian  traders,  in  very  early  times ;  indeed  the 
Arabs  have  left  indelible  traces  of  their  influence 
upon  the  language,  civilisation,  and  superstitions  of 
the  Malagasy.  Madagascar  is  firet  mentioned  under 
its  present  name  by  Marco  Polo  as  3hidcigascar 
■or  Magastar ;  but  the  first  European  who  saw  the 
island  appears  to  have  been  the  Portuguese  Femam 
Soarcs  in  1506.  To  the  Portuguese,  accordingly, 
was  owing  the  name  by  which  Madagascar  was 
long  known  in  Eurojiean  maps.  Sad  Lourciico,  but 
they  made  no  jicrmanent  colony  there.  The  Dutch 
formed  settlements  for  a  short  time  ;  and  the  French 
made  persistent  efl'orts  for  nearly  two  centuries 
to  maintain  military  posts  on  the  east  coast,  but 
without  any  permanent  success.  But  they  still 
retain  the  little  island  of  Ste  Marie  ( east  coast )  : 
in  1840  they  obtaineil  the  island  of  Nosil)e  (nortli- 
west  coast);  and  in  1883  they  went  to  war  with 
the  iSIalagasy  on  various  pretexts,  hostilities  being 
carried  on  in  a  desultory  fashion  for  about  two  and 
a  half  years.  Eventually  a  treaty  was  concluded 
by  which  the  Bay  of  Diego  Suarez,  at  the  extreme 
north  of  Madagascar,  was  ceded  to  France,  together 
with  the  right  to  place  a  Resident  and  other  officers 
at  the  capital,  and  other  officials  at  various  ports 
.and  other  ])laces.  In  1890  the  Etiglish  govern- 
ment formally  acknowledged  the  French  protec- 
torate of  Madagascar,  but  this  has  never  been 
agreed  to  by  tlie  Malagasy  government,  and  will 
probalily  not  lie  acknowledged  by  them. 

Up  to  the  middle  of  the  17th  century  Madagascar 
was  divided  into  a  number  of  independent  chief- 
taincies ;  about  that  time,  however,  the  warlike 
Shkalava  made  themselves  mastei-s  of  the  western 
half  of  the  island,  as  well  as  of  several  interior  pro- 
vinces. But  in  the  early  part  of  tlie  lOth  century  the 
Hova,  led  l)y  two  energetic  chiefs,  lambdasalama, 
afterwards  known  as  Andrianimpoiiiimi-rina,  and 
his  son  Uadama  I.,  threw  otV  the  Siikaliiva  yoke, 
anil,  with  the  aid  of  English  arms  and  discipline, 
made  themselves  virtually  kings  of  .Madagascar. 
They  conquered  the  eastern,  north-western,  and 
central  provinces ;  but  the  Hova  authority  is  still 
only  nominal  in  some  parts  of  the  island.  ( In  18S0, 
however,  the  turbulent  tribes  of  the  south-west 
were  brought  into  submi.'ision.)  Kadama  abolished 
the  export  slave-trade,  and  gave  encouragement  to 
English  missionaries,  who  commenced  work  at 
his  capital  in  1820.  They  reduced  the  language  to 
writing,  gave  the  people  the  beginnings  of  a  litera- 
ture, formed  numerims  schools,  founded  Christian 
churches,  and  introduced  many  of  the  arts  of 
civilised  life.  But  the  accession  of  liueen  Kana- 
viilona  I.  in  1828  gradually  led  to  repressive 
measures  :  the  missionaries  were  obliged  to  leave 
in  1836,  and  a  severe  persecution  of  the  native 
Christians  ensued,  in  which  numbers  jierished. 
Euro|)eans  generally  were  also  for  some  time  ex- 
cluded from  the   island.     The  iiueen's  decease  in 


1861  put  an  end  to  this  period  of  tenor,  and  Mada- 
gascar W!i.s  reopened  to  Europeans  at  the  accession 
of  her  .son  Kadama  II.  Owing  to  the  young  king's 
follies  and  to  intrigues  with  the  French  he  was 
put  to  death  in  1863,  and  his  wife  Kiisoh6rina 
placed  (m  the  throne.  During  her  reign  (1863-68) 
steady  advances  were  made,  and  treaties  of  com- 
merce concluded  with  England,  France,  and  Amer- 
ica. Queen  Itiinavalona  11.,  who  succeeded,  and  her 
husband,  the  prime-minister,  identilied  themselves 
with  Christianity,  which  was  becoming  an  import- 
ant power  in  the  country.  The  queen  and  her  hus- 
band and  many  of  the  nobles  were  bapti.'^ed;  and 
the  burning  of  the  royal  idols  in  the  following 
year  (1869)  caused  almost  the  whole  population  of 
the  central  provinces  of  Imerina  and  lietsileo  to 
\n\t  themselves  under  instruction.  Since  that  time 
about  1600  Protestant  Christian  congregations  have 
been  formed,  together  with  about  1300  schools,  with 
100,000  scholars,  and  280,000  ailherents.  (It  is 
diliicult  to  obtain  any  reliable  statistics  of  the 
Roman  Catholic  mission  ;  jirobably  their  numbers 
amount  to  about  a  lifth  or  sixth  of  the  above,  while 
of  the  preceding  figures  about  live-sixths  belong 
to  the  iniited  missions  of  the  London  Missionarj' 
Society  and  the  Friends,  the  others  to  the  Nor- 
wegian Lutheran  and  the  English  Episcopal  mis- 
sions.) Several  colleges  and  training  institutions, 
iis  well  as  hospitals  and  dispensaries,  have  been 
established  ;  and  the  mission  presses  issue  aliout 
•220,000  copies  annually  of  various  ])nblications. 
In  1879  all  the  African  slaves  in  the  country  were 
set  free.  Queen  Ranav.Mona  TIL,  born  in  1862, 
succeeded  in  1883.  After  the  accession  of  Ranavii- 
lona  III.  in  1883,  the  French  pressed  claims  to  a 
protectorate,  which  after  the  occupation  of  Tama- 
tave  were  in  1885  conceded.  Difficulties  led  finally 
to  the  French  expedition  in  1893,  which,  after  fear- 
ful los.scs  from  fever  and  iinjierfect  commissariat, 
forced  its  way  to  Antananarivo,  with  almost  no 
resistance  from  the  Hovas.  The  French  protectorate 
and  France's  right  to  military  occupation  were  fully 
acknowledged.  But  the  French  failed  to  ac(|uire 
full  control  over  the  island,  and  in  1896  a  military 
governor  superseded  the  civil  governor. 

See  Flaconrt's  Hiittoirc  de  Madaf/ascar  ( 16G1 ) ; 
Hisioni  of  Madaqascar  (1S3S),  Tliric  Visits  to  Mada- 
./<(.<«(/(  18.58),  and  The  Martiir  Ckiirdi  ( 1870),  all  by  W. 
Kllis  (q.v. );  the  present  writer's  Mudwittsair  and  its 
People  (1870),  Tlir  Gmil  African  Uhtvd  (1880),  and 
Madaiiascar  Bihiiograpliii  (1885);  Graiididicr's  .ffi.s/oirc 
j'hiisique,  luiturdlc,  ct  jiofitifiuc  dc  Mitduf/asrar  (28  4to 
vols.,  1870  ct  scq. ) ;  Guide  dc  riiiuitiuront  it  Madaija.scar 
3  vols.  1900 1 ;  other  French  books  by  l^lanchard  ( 1875), 
ilouticr  (1895),  and  Catat  ( 189(1);  and  English  by  Oliver 
(1880),  Cousins  (1895),  Maude  (1895),  Knight  (189G). 

Ulnd-applc.  a  name  sometimes  given  to  the 
.\pple  of  Sodom  (q.v.),  to  the  proilnce  of  the  Egg- 
plant (q.\'.),  and  to  a  kind  of  (Jails  (q.v.). 

Maddalo'lli,  a  cilv  of  Italv,  17  miles  by  rail 
NNE.  of  Naples.     Pop!  17,072.  " 

Itladdeil,  Sir  Frederick,  an  eminent  English 
anti(|uary,  born  in  Portsmouth  in  1801,  employed 
ill  the  British  Museum  lii-st  as  a.ssistantkccper, 
frcnn  1837  as  keeper,  in  the  department  of  MSS. 
He  was  knighted  in  1832,  and  gazetted  as  one  of 
the  gentlemen  of  the  privy  chamber.  In  1860  be 
retired  from  his  office  in  the  British  Museum, 
and  he  died  in  Londim,  8tli  March  1873.  Madden 
edited  many  works  of  literary  m  historical  interest, 
including  jlaccluh  tlic  Dane  (1833),  Wiltiaiii  I'liil 
the  irc/i'o//'(  18.32),  the  early  English  versions  of 
the  Gcsta  liomunorum  (18.38),  The  Wijeliffitc  Vcr- 
siiiii  of  the  Hohi  Scriptures  (  IS.jO),  Layanion's  Brut 
(1847),  and  the  Histurltt  Ani/lorum  of  Matthew 
Paris,  for  the  Rcdis  series  ( IS.'iS).  As  an  editor  he 
shows  a  rare  combination  of  jirofound  scholarship 
and  temperate  caution.     His  original  writings  are 


MADDER 


MADEIRA 


r83 


found  in  tlie  pages  of  the  Archwologia  and  Collec- 
tanea Topographica. 

Madder  {Bubia),  a  genus  of  plants  of  the 
natunil  order  Kubiaceiv.  Tlie  species  are  found  in 
the  tropical  and  warmer  temperate  parts  of  hotli 
the  Old  and  New  AVorlds,  and  from  early  times  till 
recently  were  important  for  the  colouring  matter  of 
tlii'ir  roots,  especially  for  dyeing  Turkey-red.  The 
most  important  is  the  t'ummou  ilailder  or  Dyer's 
Madder  (7i'.  tuictorui»],  a  native  probably  of  the 
south  of  Europe  as  well  iis  of  Asia.  It  is  a  perennial, 
with  weak  stems  and  whorls  of  four  to  six  elliptic  or 
lanceolate  glossv  leaves,  the  stem  and  leaves  rough 
with  sharp  prickles,  small  greenish-yellow  flowers, 
and  black  fruit.  Munjeet,  or  Indian  Madder  (i?. 
munjisfa  or  cordifolia),  ranks  next  to  it  in  import- 
ance, li.  peregriiia,  found  in  the  southwest  of 
England,  and  called  Wild  Madder,  is  very  similar 
to  R.  tiiictonim.  Since  the  discovery  of  artificial 
Alizarin  (q.v. )  the  commercial  importance  of 
madder  has  rapidly  decreased  (see  DVEING,  Vol. 
IV.  ]>.  1.38).  In  ISTo,  12ti.l.')'2  cwt.  were  imported 
into  Biitain  (value  £410,993);  but  in  1888  (with 
munjeet,  garancine)  only  1-1,204  cwt.  (value 
flS,997). 

Uladoiro.  the  largest  of  a  small  group  of  islands 
in  the  North  Atlantic  Ocean,  oil'  the  north-west 
coast  of  Africa,  from  the  nearest  point  of  which  it 
is  390  miles  distant,  in  32°  40'  N.  lat.,  17°  W.  long. 
It  lies  1164  miles  SW.  of  the  Lizard,  and  535  miles 
S\V.  of  LislM)n,  and  is  within  four  days'  sail  of  Ply- 
mimtli,  and  si.x  of  Liverjiool.  The  other  islands 
of  the  group  are  Porto  Santo,  23  miles  to  the  NE.. 
with  a  po])ulation  of  less  than  2(X)0 ;  here  Colum- 
bus lived  for  a  time  before  he  touched  at  Funchal. 
The  Desertas,  11  miles  SE.,  are  three  uninhabited 
islands  consisting  of  Deserta  Grande,  Bugio,  and 
Ilheo  Chao.  Madeira  (  Portuguese,  '  timber,'  the 
island  having  once  been  well  wooded)  was  unin- 
habited when  discovered  in  the  14th  century,  and 
wa-s  tiret  settled  in  1419.  It  is  38  miles  long,  by 
12  to  15  wide,  and  along  with  the  other  islands  of 
the  group  is  treated  as  an  integral  province  of 
Portugal,  entitled  to  send  representatives  to  the 
('ortes  at  Lisbon.  It  was  occupied  by  British 
troops  in  1801  for  a  few  months,  and  again  from 
1807  to  1814.  Pop.  (1881)  132,223;  estimated 
(1898)  140,000.  It  is  travei-sed  by  a  mountain- 
chain  running  east  and  west,  with  deep  ravines 
between  the  lateral  ridges  thrown  oil',  the  most 
notable  of  which  is  the  'Grand  C'uiral,'  with  a 
depth  of  more  than  2000  feet.  The  islands  are  of 
volcanic  origin,  and  are  the  summits  of  lofty  moun- 
tains, rising  in  Pico  Ptuivo  to  6059  feet,  in  Torres 
I'eaks  to  6000,  Pico  Arrieiro  to  5895,  and  in  many 
others  to  4000  and  5000  feet.  Slight  earthnuakes 
occasionally  occur.  In  the  south  the  brooks  are 
dr\'  in  summer,  and  tin'  country  is  treeless  and 
arid  ;  the  north  side  is  more  lu.xuriant  and  fertile, 
with  wider  areas  of  cultivated  grouml  ;  in  the  north- 
west are  undulating  gnissy  i)lains.  The  coa.sts  are 
steep  and  nrecipitous,  the  only  harbour  being  that 
of  Fimchal  (q.v.)  on  the  south  coast,  which  is  little 
l)ettcr  than  an  open  roadstead  >\liere  passengers 
are  landed  in  boats.  The  Loo  rock  has,  however, 
been  joined  to  the  mainland  to  form  a  breakwater, 
and  a  pier  was  undertaken  in  1889. 

The  clouds,  which  are  attracteil  by  the  moun- 
tains, yield  plenty  of  moisture,  an<l  the  climate  is 
remarkable  tor  its  constancy,  though  probably  too 
relaxing  for  those  in  perfect  health,  and  accus- 
tomed to  a  temperate  climate.  The  thermometer 
at  Funchal  shows  a  mean  tem])craluro  of  61°  I'. 
At  the  coldest  sea.son  the  thermometer  occasion- 
ally registers  a  minimum  of  50°  F.  In  the  hottest 
days  of  summer  it  seldimi  rises  a1>ove  80  ,  while  90° 
is  exceptional.     The  prevailing  wind  during  nine 


months  of  the  year  is  north-east.  The  average 
rainfall  is  29  inches,  and  the  average  number  of 
days  on  which  rain  falls  in  heavy  showers  is  70, 
but  there  are  few  really  wet  days.  The  tem- 
perate and  constant  warmth  of  its  climate  hjis 
ma<le  it  a  favourite  resort  for  invalids  atlected  by 
pulmonary  ilUease.  The  only  land  reptile  is  the 
lizard,  and  Madeira  has  no  iiidigenous  mammalia, 
though  the  ordinaiy  domestic  animals,  together 
with  rabbits,  rats,  and  mice,  have  been  introduced 
by  the  Portuguese.  The  fruits  aiul  grains  of 
Europe  are  cultivated  on  the  lower  levels;  the 
products  include  wheat,  barley,  Indian  corn,  the 
]>otato,  oranges,  lemons,  guavas,  mangos,  ligs,  and 
bananas.  Travellers  praise  the  golden  si)lendour 
of  tli^  wide  expanses  of  "orse  and  broom  in  blos- 
som, and  of  the  marvellous  masses  of  colour, 
jnnk,  matne,  and  lirick-dust  red  of  the  flora  of  the 
island.  There  are  between  300  and  400  genera  of 
wild  flowering  plants,  and  717  species;  more  than 
40  species  of  ferns,  and  100  of  moss. 

AVine  is  the  chief  export,  several  kinds  being 
]iroduced  in  the  island.  That  known  in  Europe  as 
Madeira,  a  wine  of  strong  body  and  fine  bouquet, 
is  made  of  a  mixture  of  black  and  white  grapes. 
The  vines  were  nearly  exteniiiiuited  in  1852  and 
succeeding  years  by  oidium,  but  were  soon  re- 
planted ;  and  oidium  and  the  phylloxera  have  since 
been  kept  in  check  by  sulphur,  so  that  only  one 
bad  vintage  lia-s  been  recorded  in  twenty-five  years. 
Sugar-canes  brought  from  Demerara  and  the  Canary 
Islands  are  flourishing. 

The  inhabitants  are  of  mixed  Portuguese, 
Moorish,  and  Negro  descent ;  they  are  of  vigorous 
frame,  lively,  and  industrious,  economical  and 
simple  in  their  habits.  In  1888  there  were  4000 
emigrants  chiefly  to  the  Brazils.  A  great  draw- 
back to  visitors  is  the  absence  of  roads ;  the  only- 
six  miles  of  macadamised  roadway  being  that 
between  Funchal  and  Camaia  do  Lobos,  a  fish- 
ing-village of  about  6000  itdiabitauts.  Loads  are 
carried  on  the  head  by  natiics,  ;;nd  hammocks  and 
sledges  drawn  by  bullocks  are  used  for  the  tracks, 
while  small  sledges  assist  travellers  down  the 
mountains  sometimes.  The  go\ernmeut  is  non- 
progressive, and  Roman  Catholicism  is  predomi- 
nant. At  Funchal  there  is  the  governor's  palace, 
town-hall,  opera-house,  cathedral,  English  church, 
and  Presbyterian  church  in  connection  with  the 
Free  Church  of  Scotland.  The  Lyceo  at  Funchal 
has  7  [irotcssors  paid  by  government. 

Articles  of  mitive  produce,  such  as  meat,  pcmltry, 
and  eggs,  are  cheap;  but  all  imported  articles, 
owing  to  the  high  import  duty,  are  dear.  There 
is  a  weekly  mail  and  cable  connection  from 
Funchal  with  Lisbon  and  Brazil.  The  imports  have 
an  annual  value  of  abijut  £200,000.  The  value 
of  the  exports,  mainly  wine,  reaches  .some  yeare 
£185,000.  The  leading  imports  consist  of  coal, 
dry-goods,  maize,  wheal,  and  petroleum.  The 
export  of  fruit  and  vegetables  is  on  the  increase  ; 
and  as  irrigation  has  been  introduced  with  great 
advantage.  .M.adeira  promises  to  become  more  and 
more  the  market-garden  of  London.  The  trade  is 
chiefly  with  Great  Britain. 

Sec  works  by  -White  (2d  ed.  ISGO),  Grabliam  (1869), 
Piazzi  Smyth  (18SL'),  Miss  Taylor  (l.Ss2),  Yato  J.  Imson 
(18S5),  IJrown  (1890),  C.  A.  liordon  (1894),  and  articles 
in  J'riixer's  Maijazini:  (vol  xii.  1875)  and  BlackwooJ  (vol. 
cxliii.  1888). 

Mndcira.  the  great  allbient  of  the  Amazons, 
h;i.s  it-  origin  in  the  conlluence  of  the  Maniore 
(q.v.)  and  tiiiapore  (q.v.),  at  alxmt  12°  S.  lat., 
the  Iicni(q.v.)  joining  110  miles  lower  down.  The 
river  then  Hows  north-exst  to  the  Amazons,  its 
ilrainage  basin  embracing  some  425,0(K)  s(|.  ni. 
From  its  mouth  to  its  lirst  falls  the  distance  is 
578  miles ;  above  this  point  navigation  is  broken 


784 


MADHAVA 


MADONNA 


by  a  series  of  nineteen  falls,  lajiids,  and  cataracts 
for  a  distance  of  '2'M  miles,  anu  it  has  been  pro- 
posed to  construct  a  railway  to  jiass  these,  and  so 
provide  an  outlet  by  the  Aina/ons  for  the  products 
of  ISoIivia.  See  Keller-Leuzinger,  I'um  Amazunas 
uiid  Madeira  (1873;   Enj;.  trans.  1874). 

Madliava  is  an  apjiellation  of  the  Hindu  god 
Visliuu  (q.v.).     See  SiN'DiA. 

Aladliava  Aclislrya  ( '  Madhava  the  Acharya  ' 
— i.e.  'spiritual  teacher'),  a  Hindu  writer  of  the 
14th  century,  famed  for  his  numerous  and  im- 
portant works  relatinj;  to  the  Vedic,  philosophical, 
legal,  and  grammatical  writings  of  the  ancient 
Hindus. 

Madison,  ( l )  the  capital  of  \\'isconsin,  founded 
in  1836,  is  situated  on  an  isthmus  between  Lakes 
Mendota  and  Monona,  82  miles  W.  of  Milwaukee, 
at  the  junction  of  several  railways.  It  contains  the 
state  capitol,  university  (foundeil  in  1849,  and  open 
to  both  sexes),  and  lunatic  asylum,  and  has  manu- 
factures of  flour,  farming  implements,  machinery, 
&c.  Pop.  (1885)  12,0G4.— (2)  Capital  of  Jellerson 
county,  Indiana,  on  the  Ohio  Kiver,  86  miles  by  rail 
SSE.  of  Indianapolis.  It  has  Hour-mills,  boiler  and 
engine  works,  steamboat-yards,  and  manvifactorics 
of  furniture  and  leather,  besides  large  pork-packing 
establishments.      Pop.  (1880)  8945  ;  (1890)  8923. 

Madison,  J.\1IES,  fourth  president  of  the 
United  States,  was  born  at  P(U-t  Conway,  Virginia, 
March  16,  1751,  graduated  at  Princeton  in  1772, 
and  studied  law.  In  1776  he  was  a  member  of  the 
Virginia  Conventioii,  and  took  a  useful  part  in 
drawing  up  the  state  constitution.  His  life  from 
this  time  was  devoted  to  polities,  and  he  became 
one  of  the  most  eminent,  accomplished,  and 
respected  of  American  statesmen.  In  1780  he  was 
elected  to  the  Continental  congress,  and  in  1784  to 
the  legislature  of  Virginia,  in  which  he  was  chiefly 
instrumental  in  securing  the  recognition  of  the 
right  to  religious  liberty.  But  at  this  period 
anarchy  was  threatening  tlie  young  republic,  whicli 
hitherto  had  been  but  a  loose  confederation  of 
states.  Congress  was  a  deliberative  body  merely ; 
its  member.s  represented  states  only,  and  its  powers 
were  practically  confined  to  that  of  giving  advice. 
Madison  was  active  in  bringing  about  the  Conven- 
tion of  1787,  which  franuMl  the  Federal  constitution. 
There  he  acted  with  Jay  aiul  Hamilton,  and  with 
them  wrote  the  Federalist.  He  was  the  chief 
author  of  the  '  Virginia  plan,'  which  even  went 
some  way  towards  disregarding  state  rinjhts.  He 
also  suggested  the  important  compromise  under 
which,  whether  in  apportioning  taxation  or  rejire- 
sentation,  slaves  were  to  be  regarded  as  population 
and  not  chattels,  but  live  were  reckoned  as  three 
persons — the  so-called  '  three-lifths  rule,'  which 
secured  the  adoi)tion  of  the  constitution  by  South 
Carolina  and  the  other  slave- holding  states.  A 
month's  discussion  and  all  Madison's  arguments 
were  necessary  before  the  Virginia  Convention  was 
brought  to  ratify  the  constitution,  and  that  only 
by  89  votes  to  79.  Madison  was  elected  to  the 
first  national  congress.  He  had  done  as  much  as 
any  man,  perhaps,  to  secure  the  adoption  of  the 
constitution,  but  he  now  showed  hiuiself  anxious  to 
limit  the  |)owers  of  the  central  government  to  the 
strict  letter  of  their  (•orumission  therein  contained. 
He  opposed  tile  linan<'ial  policy  of  Ilatiiillon,  and 
became  a  leader  of  the  Kepuliiic'an  or  Jellersonian 
party.  In  1801,  .leti'erson  having  been  elected  presi- 
dent, Madison  was  made  secretary  of  state,  which 
post  he  held  during  the  eight  years  of  Jefl'erson's 
administration.  In  1809  he  was  elected  president. 
The  European  wars  of  that  i)eriod,  with  their 
blockades  and  orders  in  council,  w(Me  destru(^tive  of 
American  commerce,  and  ultimately  brought  on  a 
war  with  England,  which  wa.s  declared  in  1812,  and 


continued  for  two  years,  at  an  enormous  cost  of  life 
and  treasure.  In  1817,  at  the  close  of  his  second 
term,  iladison  retired  to  his  seat  at  Montpelier, 
Virginia,  where  he  died,  .June  28,  1836.  Modest 
and  reserved,  courteous  and  kindly,  he  is  a  pleas- 
ant as  well  as  an  important  figure  in  American 
history.  He  was  not  a  brilliant  man,  but  he  was  a 
statesman  of  eminent  ability  and  purity  of  charac- 
ter. See  the  Lives  by  Kives  (  I'.usion,  3  vols.  1859 
68)  and  Cay  ('American  Statesmeu '  series,  1884). 

Madison  University.    See  Hamilton,  U.S. 
Madness.    See  Insanity. 

Madoe.  son  of  Owen  Cwynnedd,  a  Welsh 
prince,  is  believed  by  his  countrymen  to  have  dis- 
covered America  about  ,3(10  years  before  Columbus. 
Compelled,  it  is  said,  by  civil  strife,  to  abandiui  his 
native  land,  he  .sailed  westward  in  1170  with  a 
small  fleet,  and,  after  a  voyage  of  several  weeks, 
reached  a  country  whose  productions  and  inhabit- 
ants were  (|uite  unlike  those  of  Eurojie.  Here  he 
lived  for  a  long  time  ;  then,  returning  to  \VaIes.  he 
gave  an  account  of  the  new  land  that  he  had  dis- 
covered, equipjied  another  fleet,  set  sail  again,  and 
was  never  more  heard  of.  The  story  will  be  found 
ill  Lloyd  and  Powell's  Ilistorie  of  Cambria  ( 1584) ; 
but  see  the  e.ssav  by  Thomas  Stephens  written  in 
1858  for  the  Eisteddfod,  and  juiblislied  in  1893. 
There  is  no  foundation  fortius  Welsh  tiadilion: 
even  if  it  were,  the  Northmen  have  a  |irior  claim  to 
the  discovery  of  America,  foi-  it  is  beyond  dould  that 
tireenland  and  the  New  England  States  were  visited 
by  them  at  a  nnich  earlier  period.  Catlin  in  his 
Letters  0)1  the  Kiirth  America)!  htdicuts  (1841) 
hazardously  descrilies  the  Tnsc.aroras  as  a  mixed 
race  descended  from  JIailoc's  Welshmen  and  the 
aborigines.  Southey  has  chosen  the  story  of  M.adoc 
as  the  subject  of  one  of  his  so-called  epics. 

Madonna,  an  Italian  word  meaning  'My  Lady,' 
used  as  the  generic  title  for  works  of  art,  generally 
paintings,  representing  the  'Virgin,  or  the  \"iigiu 
with  the  Infant  Christ.  Legend  credits  St  Luke 
with  having  (lainted  the  first  Madonna,  a  ])ortrait 
put  on  the  canvas  from  life,  and  with  having  carved 
the  image  of  the  Virgin  in  the  Santa  C.asa  at  Loieto. 
After  the  Council  of  Kjihesus  (431),  images  of  the 
Virgin  with  the  Saviour  in  liei'  arms  became  the 
recognised  symbols  of  the  orthodox  faith,  liut  the 
iconoclastic  fury  fomented  by  Leo  III.,  the  Isaurian, 
entailed  the  destruction  of  many  of  those  early 
Madonnas.  The  oldest  reiu-esentationsof  the  Virgin 
that  survive  ai'e  those  wliich  have  been  found  in  the 
catacombs,  aceom|)anying  the  tombs  of  the  early 
Christians.  Cimabue  was  the  first  to  put  natural 
life  into  the  dead  and  angular  designs  of  the 
Byzantine  artists,  and  with  him  began  that  wonder- 
fully productive  and  brilliant  period  of  Italian  art 
the  all-dominant  theme  of  which  was  the  Madonna, 
that  culminated  in  the  glorious  works  of  liapliael — 
the  Sistine  M.adoniui,  the  Madouu.'i,  d<dla  Seciia,  iVc. 
These  Italian  artists  handed  on  the  cult  to  the  (Jer- 
man  m.asters,  who  not  cuily  executed  more  realistic, 
more  human  pictures  of  the  \'iigin,  but  carved  her 
efligy  in  wood.  Annuigst  so  many  artists  it  is  not 
surjuising  to  find  the  subject  treated  in  diverse  styles 
and  manners.  To  ijuotc  .Mrs  .lamcson  (Leijeiids  nf 
the  Madiiiiiiii,  uew  eil.  1890):  'Thus  we  have  the 
stern,  awful  iiuietude  of  the  old  nmsaics;  the  hard 
lifelessncss  of  the  di'generale  Creek:  tlie  jiensive 
sentiment  of  the  Siena  and  the  st;Uely  elegam-e  of 
the  Florentine  Madonnas;  the  intellectual  ^lilanese, 
with  their  large  foreheads  and  thoughtful  eyi's  ; 
the  tender,  refined  mysticism  of  the  Umbrian  ; 
the  sum])tuous  loveliness  of  the  Venetian  ;  thc^ 
quaint  characteristic  of  the  early  Cerman,  .so 
stauqied  willi  their  nationality  .  .  .  the  intense 
lifelike  feeling  of  the  Spanish  ;  the  pro.s.aic,  por- 
trait-like nature  of  the  Flemish  schools  ;  and  so  on.' 


MADRAS    CITY 


MADKAS    PRESIDENCY 


r85 


Tlie  title  Madonna  is  not  used  with  rigid  con- 
sistency ;  it  is  also  applied  to  representations  of 
the  Annunciation,  Nativity,  Adoration  of  the 
Magi,  Flight  into  Eg^'pt,  Holy  Family,  and  all 
the  several  scenes  and  incidents  in  which  the 
Virgin  Mary  personally  ligures.  She  is  often 
represented  too  in  certain  specilic  characters  with 
appro]>riate  epithets,  as  La  Vergine  Gloriosa  (with 
•lesus).  Our  Lady  of  Sorrow,  C^ueen  of  Heaven, 
(.•cc.  Entire  series  exist  depicting  the  events  of  her 
life,  painted  by  jiaintei's  like  Giotto,  Orcagna,  Albert 
DUrer,  and  Luini.  Two  common  series  are  the 
Seven  Joys  and  the  Seven  Sorrows  of  the  Virgin. 

Besides  Mrs  Jameson's  book,  see  works  by  Roliault  de 
Fleury  (1878),  A.  Schultz  (18791,  Erkl  "(]8.>si).  Von 
Schreibersliofen  (1886),  for  the  middle  ages  ( 1879);  Fah, 
for  tlie  older  IJerman  schools  (1884);  and  Licll,  for  the 
catacomb  pictures  (1890). 

Madras  City  (called  by  the  natives  Chen- 
napittiiciiti )  is  situated  on  the  Coroniandel  Coast  in 
l.S"  4'  N.  lat.  and  80°  17'  E.  long.,  and  is  the 
capital  of  the  presidency  of  the  same  name.  The 
town  extends  along  the  shore  for  a  distance  of 
9  miles,  and  covers  an  area  of  about  27  sq.  m. 
Originally  it  consisted  of  a  number  of  separate 
villages,  which  are  now  united  into  a  single  muni- 
cipality, administered  by  a  president,  two  vice- 
presidents,  and  thirty-two  non-otticial  commis- 
sioners, of  whom  twenty-four  are  elected  by  the 
ratepayers  and  eight  nominated  by  government. 
The  roadstead,  in  which  till  quite  recently  all  ships 
had  to  lie,  is  very  much  exposed,  and  on  the 
approach  of  a  cyclone  all  vessels  put  out  to  sea. 
A  pier  wa.s  erected  in  18.59-62.  A  harbour  begun 
in  1876  was  seriously  damaged  in  1881,  and  the 
construction  of  the  harbour  was  being  carried  on  in 
1890.  but  it  is  qiiesticmable  whether  it  will  ever 
be  safe  for  sliips  to  remain  in  it  during  a  heavy 
storm.  It  abeady,  however,  greatly  facilitates  the 
landing  of  cargo  during  rough  weather,  and 
passengers  have  no  longer  to  cross  the  surf  in  going 
to  or  coming  from  steamers.  A  marked  feature  of 
this  part  of  the  coast  is  the  heavy  surf  which  rolls 
in,  even  in  comparatively  calm  weather.  In  ordinary 
weather  the  surf  breaks  about  300  feet  from  the 
shore,  and  the  wave  is  of  no  great  height ;  but  in 
stormy  weather  there  are  two  lines  of  surf,  the 
outer  one  being  some  1000  feet  from  the  shore  with  a 
wave  of  12  to  14  feet  high.  The  ordinary  surf  can 
lie  crossed  with  safety  by  the  native  massulah 
boats,  «  hicli  are  formed  of  ])lanks  sewn  together 
with  string,  but  no  boat  can  live  through  the  surf 
in  a  cyclone.  The  port  is  liable  to  be  visited  by 
these  storms  at  two  seiisons — towards  the  end  of 
-May  and  beginning  of  June,  when  the  south-west 
monsoon  sets  in,  and  in  October,  November,  and 
the  early  part  of  December,  during  the  prevalence  of 
the  north-ea.st  monsoon.  Cyclones  are  rare  at  other 
times.  The  climate  of  ^ladras  may  be  described 
a.s  hot  and  moderately  dry.  The  annual  rainfall 
averages  49  inches,  falling  on  ninety-five  days, 
but  duriiijj  the  seventy  four  years  ending  with  1889 
it  varieil  from  88i  inches  in  1827  to  I8i  inches  in 
18J2.  The  mean  teniperature  for  the  year  is  82'  F., 
varying  from  76'  in  December  and  January  to  88° 
in  June.  During  the  hot  months  the  teniperature 
freqiiiMitly  lises  above  100",  but  the  mcun  miixiinum 
in  no  mouth  exceeils  99°.  The  mean  annual  range 
is  48'.  The  highest  temperature  recorded  in  the 
twenty-seven  years  ending  with  1889  was  1129°  and 
the  lowest  57 '6°.  The  heat  of  the  hot  season  is 
greatly  moditied  by  a  sea-breeze,  which  often  sets 
in  soon  after  noon  and  blows  till  sunset.  On  the 
whole  the  climate  is  a  healthy  one. 

On   the  shore,  midway  between  the  north   and 

south  extremities  of  the  town,  is  Fort  St  George, 

the    original    settlement.     This   fort  (built   1750) 

still    contains    the    council    chamber,    a    number 

MO 


of  government  offices,  and  barracks  for  the  Euro- 
pean troops.  North  of  the  fort  lies  Black  Town, 
which  contains  mo.st  of  the  business  offices  and 
a  crowded  native  population  ;  south  of  it  lies 
Triplicane,  the  chief  Jlohammcdan  centre.  Inlanil 
and  to  the  extreme  south  lie  the  houses  chiefly 
occupied  by  Europeans,  most  of  ^\llich  stand  in 
large  '  compounds  or  i)arks,  surrounded  by  trees. 
Though  Madras  cannot  compete  with  either  Cal- 
cutta or  Bombay  in  the  magnilicence  of  its  public 
buildings,  it  ocuitains  some  that  are  worthy  of  note. 
Amongst  these  may  be  mentioned  Government 
House,  the  Chepauk  Palace,  the  Senate  House,  St 
-Andrew's  Kirk,  St  George's  Cathedral  (containing 
a  monument  by  Chantrey  to  Bishop  Heber),  the 
iladras  Club,  the  post  and  telegraph  oflice,  and 
the  new  High  Court  buildings.  Many  of  the  builil- 
ings  are  rendered  specially  striking  by  the  fjee 
use  of  polished  chunam  made  from  shell  lime. 
The  Madras  L'niversity,  founded  in  1857,  is  simply 
an  examining  body,  the  teaching  being  done 
l>y  afliliated  colleges  throughoiit  the  presidency. 
Some  idea  of  the  work  done  by  the  university  may 
be  gathered  from  the  fact  that  in  1888-89  there 
were  7433  candidates  for  matriculation,  570  for 
the  degree  of  B.A.,  163  for  the  degree  of  B.L.,  and 
smaller  numbei-s  for  the  other  degrees.  In  addition 
to  colleges  for  the  study  of  arts,  medicine,  and 
engineering,  there  are,  in  or  near  the  city,  a  School 
of  Art,  a  College  of  Agriculture,  a  branch  of  the 
Royal  Asiatic  Society,  and  a  large  museum,  con- 
I  taining,  amongst  other  things,  very  valuable  collec- 
tions of  Indian  coins  and  of  sculptured  marbles 
from  the  Buddhist  '  tojie '  at  Amravati.  Madras 
is  the  seat  of  the  government  and  of  the  supreme 
court.  Pop.  (1881)  405,848,  of  whom  .3205  were 
Europeans,  12,659  Eurasians,  and  50,298  INloham- 
medaus,  the  rest  being  Hindus  by  faith;  (1891) 
452,518.  The  chief  articles  of  export  are  coHee, 
tea,  cotton,  grain,  hides,  indigo,  oil-seeds,  dye- 
stuM's,  sugar,  aud  horns.  The  average  value  of 
exports  aud  imports  for  ten  vears  previous  to 
1895  was  about  £4,000,000  and  .£11,000,000  re- 
spectively. For  the  railway  connection,  see  under 
'  the  presidency  below.  The  Buckingham  Canal 
^  gives  a  waterway  to  the  north  aud  .south  parallel 
to  the  coast. 
I  Madras  Presidency,  one  of  the  administra- 
I  tive  divisions  of  India,  occu]>ies  the  southern  part 
of  the  peninsula;  it  is  also  known  as  the  Piesidency 
of  Fort  St  George.  It  extends  from  lat.  20'  18'  on 
the  eastern  coast  and  lat.  14"  on  the  west  coast  to 
Cape  Coniorin  in  lat.  8°  4'.  The  total  area,  exclud- 
ing native  states,  is  139,000  sq.  m.  ;  pop.  (1881) 
30,868,504;  (1891)  35,630,440.  (The  native  states 
have  an  area  of  9600  sq.  m.,  and  a  population  of 
3,700,622.)  Of  these  some  .'io  millicuis  are  Hin- 
dus, about  2  millions  Moliammcilaiis,  ami  800,000 
Christians.  For  revenue  purjioses  the  presidency 
is  divided  into  twenty-two  districts.  The  chief 
government  ollicer  in  each  district  is  the  collector, 
who  controls  all  dei)artnients  except  the  judicial. 
The  princijial  mountains  belong  to  the  two  chains 
of  the  Eastern  and  AVestern  Ghiits.  The  former 
have  an  average  height  of  1.500  feet,  but  rise  in 
parts  to  3000  or  40(X>  feet ;  the  latter  have  a  cim- 
siderablv  greater  average  height,  with  a  number 
of  peaks  rising  from  50O0  to  8000  feet,  and  a  few 
even  higher.  A  considerable  part  of  the  presidency 
forms  a  tableland,  which  includes  the  native  states^ 
of  Mvsore  and  the  Deccan,  rising  to  a  height  of 
from  KXM)  lo  :<000  feet.  A  very  notable  geograjihical 
feature  is  the  Palghat  Gap  in  the  Western  Ghats, 
25  miles  wiile,  and  only  1000  feet  alnive  sea- 
level.  Through  it  passed  the  old  Inideroute  be- 
tween the  west  and  east  coast,  now  supei-scded 
by  a  railway,  and  through  it  the  south-west  mon- 
soon blows  strongly,  bringing  rain  to  a  consideralile 


786 


MADRAS    PRESIDENCY 


MADRID 


area  lying  east  of  it.  The  Nilgiri  Hills,  on  whieli 
at  Ootacaiiiuiid  is  the  suiiiiiior  seat  of  the  fiovoni- 
iiient,  may  he  looked  on  as  the  junction  of  the 
Eastern  ami  Western  Ghiits.  There  are  also  several 
iniportant  outlyinj;  spurs,  of  wliich  the  Shevaroys 
in  Salem,  the  -\nanialais  in  Coimhatore.  ami  the 
I'alnis  in  Madura  are  the  most  noteworthy.  The 
chief  rivers  are  the  (iodavari,  the  Kistna,  and  the 
Kaveri,  all  rising  in  the  Western  (ih-its,  and  cross- 
in;;  the  peninsula  in  a  sontli-easterly  direction  to  the 
]5ay  of  Ben<ral.  Very  extensive "irrisationwork.s 
liave  been  carried  out  in  connection  with  each  of 
these  rivers,  while  minor  irrigation-works  are  to 
he  found  in  almost  all  parts  of  the  piesidency. 
Railway  communication  is  being  rapidly  extended 
throughout  tlie  country.  The  Madras  Railway  ( 5  ft. 
(i  in.  gauge),  with  its  terminus  at  Madras,  crosses 
the  country  in  two  lines.  Tlie  one  passes  in  a 
south-westerly  direction  to  Calicut  on  the  .Malabar 
coast,  with  brandies  to  Bangalore,  where  it  con- 
nects with  the  Mysore  Railway,  and  to  Metta- 
poUieni,  the  station  for  the  Nilgiris.  The  other 
crosses  in  a  north-westerly  direction  to  Raiclior, 
where  it  connects  with  the  Great  Indian  Peninsular 
Railway.  At  Guntakal  it  makes  connection  with 
the  extensive  system  of  the  South  Mahratta  Rail- 
way. The  South  Indian  Railway  (metre gauge)  runs 
south  from  Madras  to  Tinnevelli,  with  branches 
to  Pondicherry,  Negapatam,  and  Tuticorin  ;  a  line 
from  Tricliinopoly  connects  it  with  the  Madras  Rail- 
way at  Erode,  and  another  brancli  from  Chengalpat 
connects  it  with  the  same  railway  at  Arconum. 
There  are  good  roads  in  most  parts  of  tlie  presi- 
dency. 

The  climate  differs  greatly  in  different  parts. 
In  the  Carnatic  the  dry  season  lasts  from  the 
middle  of  December  till  the  end  of  June,  there 
being  often  three  or  four  months  without  any  rain. 
From  June  to  (Jctober  there  are  hea\'y  showers, 
and  from  Octol)er  to  the  middle  of  December  the 
north-east  monsoon  brings  copious  rain.  Over  a 
great  part  of  the  east  coast  strij)  the  annual  rainfall 
exceeds  40  inches  :  but  in  some  parts  inland  it  does 
not  exceed  20  inches,  and  in  many  parts  it  falls 
below  30  inches.  The  mean  annual  temperature 
is  al)OUt  82°,  and  in  many  stations  a  maximum 
temperature  of  upwards  of  110°  is  not  uncommon. 
On  the  Malabar  coast  tlie  rainfall  is  much  heavier, 
and  conies  with  the  south-west  monsoon.  The 
moisture-laden  winds,  being  driven  upwards  by  the 
lofty  mountains,  cool  as  they  ascend,  and  pour 
down  their  .surplus  moisture  on  the  strip  of  land 
between  the  hills  and  the  sea.  Thus,  the  fall  from 
June  to  October  is  119  inches  at  Mangalore,  and 
1H2  inches  at  Ilonawar.  The  annual  rainfall  at 
Mangalore  is  I'U  inclios,  and  at  Cochin  115  inches  ; 
at  the  latter  place  227  inches  fell  in  1882.  This 
abundant  raintall  leads  to  a  most  luxuriant  vegeta- 
tion in  Travancore  and  on  the  west  coast.  The 
mean  temperature  varies  from  79°  to  80°,  and 
there  are  no  great  extremes.  The  climate  of  the 
hill-stations  is  not  unlike  that  of  England  at  its 
best.  Frosts  are  not  unknown,  but  are  slight,  and 
in  summer  the  temperature  never  rises  very  liigh. 
The  climate  of  the  Nilgiris  has  been  described  as 
'that  of  the  English  .spring  and  summer  without 
Atlantic  storms  or  the  hitter  east  winds  of  March.' 
Save  when  the  monsoon  is  at  its  height,  it  would 
be  dillicult  to  imagine  a  finer  climate.  Rice  is  the 
chief  croj)  grown  throughout  the  ]iresiilency,  but 
several  other  cereals  are  largely  cultivated.  Pulse, 
ground-nut  and  other  oil-seeds,  indigo,  and  sugar- 
cane are  of  great  importance  in  certain  jiarts. 
Cotton  is  grown  over  a  wide  area  in  the  drier  jiarts, 
and  toliacco  of  excellent  fpiality  is  produced  in 
large  quantities  on  islands  in  the  (iodavari,  and  in 
parts  of  the  Coimhatore  and  Madura  districts. 
Tricliinopoly  cigars  and  cheroots  are  increasingly 


exported.  On  the  hills  tea,  coil'ee,  and  cinchona 
are  successfully  cultivated  over  wide  areas.  The 
manufacturing  industry  is  represented  by  cotton, 
sugar,  gunny  hags,  ]iaper,  ice,  and  tiles.  Madras 
is  not  rich  in  minerals  ;  Init  gold  is  found  in  many 
parts,  and.  though  the  most  jiroductive  mines  at 
jnesent  worked  lie  in  Mysore,  there  is  good  reason 
to  hope  for  eipially  favour.ible  results  from  mines 
opened  in  other  areas  of  the  Darwar  Rocks,  which 
are  apparently  the  only  auriferous  strata  in  the 
]uesi(fency.  Iron  of  excellent  quality  abounds, 
and  is  worked  by  the  natives  ;  but  the  want  of  fuel 
luevents  any  large  development  of  the  iron  in 
ilustry.  Dianumds  have  been  largely  found,  chiefly 
in  the  Karnul  district.  The  forests  are  now  care 
fully  protected  by  the  state,  and  are  of  great  value, 
csjiecially  the  teak  forests. 

The  first  English  settlement  was  made  at 
Masulipatam  in  IGII.  In  1616  factories  were 
established  on  the  west  coast  at  Calicut  and 
Ci-anganore.  In  1619  a  factory  was  opened  along- 
side of  the  Dutch  one  at  Pulicat,  Ijut  this  was 
soon  withdrawn.  In  1628  the  ^lasulipatam  factor\ 
was  transferred  to  Armagaon,  40  miles  north  of 
Pulicat,  and  this  was  the  first  place  fortilied  by 
the  English  in  India.  In  1639  a  settlement  wa-s 
obtained  at  Madras.  Christian  missions  have 
made  more  piwress  in  Madras  than  in  any  other 
part  of  India,  tliere  being  228  Christians  in  every 
10,000  inhabitants;  Lower  Burma  follows  closely 
with  22.5,  while  Bombay  has  only  62  and  Bengal  18. 

madras  System.    See  Bell  (  Andrew  ). 

Madrepore.    See  Coh.\l. 

Madrid,  the  capital  of  Spain  and  seat  of  the 
Spanish  government,  is  .situ.ated  in  the  department 
of  the  same  nanu>,  in  the  ancient  province  of  New- 
Castile,  on  the  left  bank  of  tlie  Manzanarcs,  in 
40"  24'  N.  lat.  and  3'  25'  W.  long.,  880  miles  by  rail 
from  Paris.  It  is  built  on  a  treeless,  ill-watered 
plateau,  2060  feet  above  the  sea-level,  and  was 
created  capital  by  the  arbitrary  will  of  a  sove- 
reign. The  Manzanares  is  merely  a  mountain- 
torrent  falling  into  the  Jarama,  a  tributary  of 
the  Tagus,  useless  for  communication,  and  nut 
even  to  be  depended  upon  to  sujiply  the  city  with 
water,  which  is  brought  fnun  the  Guadarrama 
Mountains  by  an  aqueduct  42  miles  in  length. 
The  sole  recommendation  of  Madrid  as  cajiital  is 
its  central  position  in  the  Peninsula ;  it  is  nearly 
equidistant  from  the  Atlantic  and  Mediter- 
ranean co.asts  and  from  the  Pyrenean  frontier. 
Swept,  during  the  winter  months,  by  the  icy  winds 
from  the  snow-ca|iped  mountains  on  the  north,  and 
exposed  in  summer  to  a  burning  sun,  it  has  a 
climate  which,  though  dry  and  liriglit,  shows 
extreme  variations  of  temperature  (104°  to  14°). 
The  average  of  the  eight  warmer  months  (  March 
to  October)  is  66°  F.,  and  that  of  the  four  re- 
maining ones  44°,  but  the  dill'erence  at  the  same 
time  between  sun  and  shade  is  sometimes  as 
great  as  20°.  In  s]>ite  of  a  death-rate  of  over 
34  per  thousand,  cause<l  by  its  treacherous  climalf 
and  the  insaidlary  habits  of  its  citizens,  the  increase 
of  Madrid  has  of  late  years  been  rapid.  At  the 
beginning  of  the  19th  century  the  |)o|mlatioii  was 
about  160,000;  in  1860  it  was  298,000;  in  1870. 
332,000,  and  in  1.S9.5,  500,000  ;  less  than  40  pi'r  cent., 
however,  of  the  inhabitants  are  natives  of  the  city. 
Madrid  is  nearly  circular,  unfortified,  and  about  10 
miles  in  circumference. 

Through  the  Latin  and  Arabic  chroniclers 
Madrid  can  trace  its  existence  as  fjir  back  as  the 
10th  century, when  it  was  known  as  Medina  Mcr/eril. 
a  fortified  post  of  some  importance  on  the  frontier 
of  the  Moorish  kingdom  of  Toledo.  First  retaken 
by  the  Christians  under  Rainiro  II.  of  Castile 
(939),  it  was  not  finally  conquered  till  the  reign  of 


I 


MADKID 


r87 


Alfonso  Vr.  (1085).  A  list  of  its  inhabitants, 
Castilian  and  .Mozaial>,  aii|)ears  in  a  charter  of 
Toledo  -iranted  by  Alfonso  VIII.  in  1117.  After 
this  time  the  mention  of  it  in  documents  is  freciuent. 
The  part  lii'st  inhabited  was  the  high  grounil  where 
the  royal  palace  now  stands  on  the  west  of  the 
city  :  liere  wjis  the  stronghold  that  tii'st  gave  the 
place  celebrity.  As  the  Christian  frontier  was 
pushed  farther  southward,  Mailrid  would  probably 
have  again  sunk  into  obscurity  hail  it  not  been  a 
favourite  place  of  meeting  for  expeditions  against 
the  Mooi-s,  and  temporary  residence  of  the  kings, 
who  were  attracted  hy  the  game  sheltered  in  the 
extensive  forests,  long  since  destroyed,  to  the  great 
detriment  of  the  climate.  The  city  received  its  first 
charter  in  lt20'2.  and  the  Cortes  were  fii-st  held  in 
it  by  Ferdinand  VI.  (1309),  and  subsequently  by 
-Alfonso  XI.  and  Henry  III.,  the  former  of  whom 
altered  the  constitution  of  the  city,  giving  it  twelve 
regidorrs  and  two  alcaldes  in  place  of  the  Se.iior  dc 
Madrid,  who  had  formerly  been  elected  by  nobles 
and  commons.  John  II.  and  Henry  IV.  granted 
additional  privileges  to  the  city.  Isabel  the  Catho- 
lic acquired  the  city  after  a  sharp  struggle  with  the 
partisans  of  her  rival  Doiia  Juana,  and  it  now 
i)ecame  a  place  of  some  importance  owing  to  the 
more  frequent  presence  of  the  court.  After  the  death 
of  the  Catholic  kings,  the  regent.  Cardinal  Cisneros, 
ruled  Spain  from  Madrid,  and,  though  the  city  em- 
braced the  popular  cause  in  t!ie  war  of  the  Comu- 
neros,  it  recei\ed  such  privileges  from  the  Emperor 
Charles  V.  that  its  population  rose  rapidly  from  .3000 
to  6000  households  ;  during  this  reign  it  furnished 
a  prison  for  Francis  I.,  king  of  France.  When  in 
1.561  Madrid  was  declared  capital  of  Spain  by  Philip 
II.  it  contained  about  .30,000  inhaliitants.  With  the 
court  came  the  great  nobles,  who  built  palaces, 
and  innumerable  friars,  who  established  convents  ; 
nevertheless  till  the  nnddle  of  tlie  17th  century 
the  city  presented  a  mean  appearance,  and  most  of 
the  houses  were  only  one  story  high,  thus  avoiding 
the  obligation  of  lodging  the  numerous  retinue  of 
the  kin^.  Philip  I\ .  made  some  improvements, 
especially  the  laying  out  of  the  park  of  the  Bueu 
Ketiro,  and  in  his  time  Madrid,  though  still  un- 
paved,  filthy,  and  roamed  over  at  will  by  the  privi- 
leged pigs  of  St  Anthony,  was  the  seat  of  one  of 
tke  most  brilliant  courts  of  Europe.  The  greatest 
l>enefactor  of  the  city  was  King  Charles  III.,  many 
of  whose  splendid  works  still  exist.  Madrid  took 
an  active  part  in  the  revolution  that  wrested  the 
jiower  from  tiodoy,  the  Prince  of  the  Peace,  and 
during  the  domination  of  Napoleon  (2d  May  1808) 
made  a  gallant  attein|)t  to  shake  off  the  foreign 
yoke.  Though  taken  by  the  allied  force  under  the 
command  of  the  Duke  of  Wellington  in  1812,  .Madrid 
was  not  finally  rid  of  the  French  till  181.3.  The 
next  year  marked  the  return  of  the  Bourbon  king. 
Although  the  scene  of  several  of  the  revolutions 
that  form  so  large  a  part  of  Spanish  history  during 
the  19th  century,  Madrid,  aided  by  the  suppression 
( 18.36)  of  the  convents,  the  introduction  of  railways 
(IS.IO),  and  an  abundant  supply  of  good  water 
( 1858),  has  been  continually  and  rapidly  advancing 
in  importance  and  prosperity. 

The  general  aspect  of  the  city  is  clean  and  gay, 
whilst  the  (drier  parts,  the  Calle  de  Toledo,  Plaza 
Mayor,  anil  distnct  of  Lavapies  are  picturesque ; 
no  trace  of  the  medieval  city  now  remains.  It 
Is  a<Iministered  by  a  military  and  a  civil  governor, 
aided  by  the  niayore  of  the  ten  districts  Into  which 
it  is  divided.  The  police  is  good,  and  Madrid  is  as 
.safe  as  any  European  ea])ital,  well  lighted,  but  in- 
differently paved  (wood  pavements  have  lately  been 
laid  down  in  several  streets).  The  new  streets  are 
generally  line,  broail,  and  jilanted  with  trees  ;  the 
houses  well  built,  lofty,  stuccoed  and  painted,  and 
inhabited  by  .several  families  living  in  liatg,  guarded 


at  night  by  watchmen  (serenos),  to  whom  the  key 
of  the  street  door  is  entrusted.  A  great  feature  is 
the  magnificent  open  spaces,  chief  of  which  is  the 
Prado,  running  north  and  south  through  the  eastern 
jiart  of  the  city,  and,  with  its  continuations,  three 
miles  long :  it  contains  four  handsome  fountains 
with  groujis  of  statuary,  a  fine  obelisk  to  com- 
memorate the  gallant  struggle  of  the  citizens 
with  the  French  (May  2,  1808),  monuments  to 
Columbus,  the  Marques  del  Duero,  and  Isabel 
the  Cathcdic.  The  jjicture-gallery,  founded  by 
Charles  III.,  and  situated  in  the  Prado,  is  one  of 
the  finest  in  Europe,  and  contains  the  principal 
works  of  Vela.squez  and  Murillo,  besides  many  of 
the  masterpieces  of  Kaphael,  Tintoretto,  Itubens, 
Teniers,  and  Xnn  Dyck.  Two  other  i)arks  are  the 
Buen  Retiro,  the  f;isliionable  promenade  on  the 
east  of  the  city,  and  the  Casa  de  Canipo  on  the 
west.  Midway  between  its  extremities  the  Prado 
is  crossed  at  right  angles  by  the  Calle  de  Alcala,  the 
finest  street  in  the  city,  about  a  mile  in  length, 
and  leading  from  outsiile  the  fine  triumphal  arch 
rebuilt  by  Charles  III.  to  the  Pucrta  del  .Sol,  a 
handsome  though  not  very  large  square,  with 
broad  pavements,  and  a  fountain  in  the  centre. 
This  square  is  the  heart  of  Madrid  ;  here  converge 
the  principal  tramway  lines  which  have  so  greatly 
aided  the  extension  of  the  city,  and  in  it  and  the 
streets  branching  off  from  it  are  situated  the  i)rin- 
cipal  shops  and  places  of  business.  The  finest 
square  is  the  Plaza  Mayor,  formerly  the  scene 
of  bullfights  and  aiitos  da  fe,  and  said  to  have 
held  50,000  sjiectators ;  it  contains  a  gigantic 
equestrian  statue  of  Philip  III.,  its  founder,  and 
was  formerly  the  centre  of  Madrid,  but  is  now 
somewhat  decayed  as  the  city  has  moved  farther 
eastward.  On  the  west  of  the  city  is  situated  the 
royal  palace ;  commenced  in  1738  to  replace  the 
ancient  Alcazar,  which  had  been  burned  down,  it 
was  finished  in  1764  at  a  cost  of  about  £3.000,000. 
It  is  a  fine  stone  building  in  the  Tuscan  style, 
forming  a  square  of  479  feet,  and  enclosing  a 
court  of  140  feet ;  its  architect  was  the  Italian 
Sacchetti.  Dependencies  of  the  palace  are  the  royal 
armoury,  containing  the  finest  collection  in  the 
world,  and  the  royal  stables,  remarkable  for  their 
extent.  Other  fine  buildings  are  the  palace  of 
justice,  formerly  a  convent ;  the  houses  of  parlia- 
ment, Palacio  de  los  Consejos  ;  Buena  Vista  Palace, 
now  the  uiinistry  of  war;  the  new  national  bank; 
and  the  town  hall.  Besides  a  flourishing  uni- 
versity, founded  by  Cardinal  Cisneros,  and  two  high 
schools,  Madrid  contains  118  municiiial  and  21 
pauper  schools,  with  an  aggregate  of  11,400  pupils. 
There  are  many  charitable  institutions,  and  the 
municipality  maintains  dispensaries  in  each  of  the 
ten  districts;  but  hospital  accommodation  is  defi- 
cient, and  beggars  abound  in  spite  of  the  law. 
Madrid  is  well  provided  with  newspapei"s  (about  six 
leading  dailies  and  several  periodical  reviews)  and 
public  libraries,  the  cbict  being  the  National 
Libr.ary,  with  more  than  half  a  million  volumes, 
and  the 'libraiy  of  the  university:  those  of  the 
palace  and  of  the  Academy  of  History  contain 
many  treasures.  Amongst  the  many  learned  socie- 
ties the  principal  are  the  Academies  of  History 
and  the  Spanish  Language;  the  Ateneii  is  a  nour- 
ishing literary  club  with  a  good  collection  of  book.s. 
The  opera-house  is  one  of  the  finest  in  the  world  ; 
all  the  theatres  must  by  law  be  lit  by  electricity. 
The  bull-ring,  situated  outside  the  gates  on  the  ea-st, 
is  a  solid  structure  seating  I4,0(K),  and  owned  by  the 
provincial  cciiincil.  The  churches  are  mostly  small 
and  insigMilliant :  the  handsomest  is  the  recently- 
rebuilt  church  of  San  Francisco.  The  |)lain  church 
of  San  Isidro,  patron  of  Madrid,  serves  as  cathe- 
dral. The  old  cliurch  of  .Mocha,  cimtaining  a  much- 
venerated  image,  the  tombs  of  several  celebrated 


788 


MADRIGAL 


MAECENAS 


men,  and  many  banuere  tliat  recalled  the  great 
davs  of  Siiaiii,  has  recently  heen  pulled  ilown.  ■ 
Madrid  is  rather  a  consuming  than  a  luodiuing 
centre  :  such  manufactures  as  do  exist  contrihute 
only  in  a  small  degree  to  supply  the  needs  of  the 
city.  Ironfounding,  the  manufacture  of  furniture,  ^ 
carriages,  and  fancy  articles  are  carried  on  on  | 
a  snuui  scale.  The'  manufacture  of  tobacco,  the 
monopoly  of  which  is  farmed  by  the  government 
to  a  company,  employs  many  hands,  chielly  women. 
The  publishing  trade  is  important,  and  books  are 
veil  printed  and  cheap.  The  old  tapestry-factory 
still  turns  out  beautiful  work,  and  the  potteries 
at  Moncloa  are  now  prod\icing  good  imitations 
of  many  of  the  artistic  kinds  of  earthen\yan> 
for  which  Spain  was  formerly  celebrated.  Tlu' 
excliange  and  money-market,  largely  carried  on 
by  foreigners,  is  the  inost  important  in  Spain. 

See  Ayala  y  Sastre,  Madrid,  Biblioteca  de  la  Profincia 
(1&S9) ;  Mu.sonero  Romanes,  El  Antiijuo  Madrid  ( 1S81). 
For  Madrid  ( Provhice ),  see  Spain. 

Madrigal,  a  word  of  uncertain  etymology, 
denotes  a  short  lyrical  poem,  •generally  on  the 
subjc'ia  of  love,  and  characterised  by  some  epi- 
gramm.-itic  terseness  or  quaintness.  It  was  written, 
as  a  rule,  in  iambic  metre,  contained  not  less  than 
six  or  more  than  thirteen  lines,  and  ran  chielly 
upon  three  rhymes.  Among  the  Italians  the  best 
writers  of  iiiadrigals  are  Petrarch  and  Tasso ; 
among  the  French,  Montreuil  and  M(mcrif  ;  among 
the  (iermans.  llagedorn,  Voss,  (ioethe,  and  .\.  W. 
Schlege!  ;  and  among  the  English,  Lodge,  Withers, 
t'arew,  and  Suckling. — The  name  is  also  applied  to 
tlie  music  for  a  simple  song  sung  in  a  rich  artistic 
style,  but  without  musical  accompaniment.  The 
original  composers  wrote  for  three,  four,  or  more 
voices  ;  but  madrigals  are  now  usually  sung  bj^  a 
small  but  well-trained  choir.  These  compositions 
originated  with  the  Flemings,  and  before  the 
middle  of  the  l.ith  century.  From  them  and  by 
tliem  it  was  carried  to  Home  and  \'enici',  and  to 
England,  where  a  famous  school  of  madrigal  com- 
posers tlourishiHl  from  about  1530  to  about  1630. 
The  chief  com))osers  of  the  English  .school  were 
Hird,  Weelkes,  Kirkby,  Wilby,  Morley,  Dowland, 
Benet,  Este,  Bateson,  and  Orlando  Gilibons. 
Madrigal-singing  ceased  to  be  popular  in  the  18th 
century  ;  its  place  is  now  taken  by  glee-singing 
(see  (il.EE).  The  Madrigal  Society  of  London, 
founded  in  1741  by  John  Inimyns,  claims  to  be  the 
oldest  nnisical  association  in  Enro])e.  See  Sherman, 
Mad  filial  s  aial  Catc/ics  (New  York,  1887). 

illadlira,  a  maritime  district  of  India,  in  the 
south  of  the  Presidency  of  Madras,  is  boundeil  on 
tlie  E.  by  the  (!ulf  of  Manaar,  which  separates 
Hindustan  from  Ceylon  ;  it  has  an  area  of  8S08  sq. 
m.,  and  a  pop.  of  '2',(i08,404.  C'liief  town,  Madura, 
third  largest  in  tlie  presidency;  pop.  (1881)  73,807: 
(1891 )  87,428.  For  nearly  2300  years  Madura  was 
the  political  and  religious  capital  of  the  southein- 
most  part  of  India.  Its  Pandyan  kings  are  men- 
tioned by  the  ancient  Greek  geographers.  In  the 
17th  cen'turv  the  Nayak  rulers,  chicHy  Tirnnuila 
( IG'iS-.'JO),  built  here  a  magniticent  pagoda  to  Sun- 
dareswara  (Siva),  with  a  hall  having  one  thousand 
(!)!)7)  idllars,  a  line  jialace,  now  mined,  a  summer 
i)alace  for  the  god,  and  a  great  tank.  The  Jesuits 
have  been  active  in  Madura  since  the  time  of  Tiru- 
mala ;  there  were  67,.V)4  Konian  Catholics  in  the 
district  in  1881. 

Uladlira.  an  island  of  the  Dutch  East  Indies, 
separated  by  a  narrow  strait  from  the  north-east 
of  Java,  with  an  area  of  1764  sq.  m.  It  is  mostly 
barren,  but  |)0ssesses  numerous  forests  and  .salt 
marshes.  ,\long  with  some  eighty  smaller  ishuxls, 
lying  mostly  to  the  east,  it  forms  a  Dutch  resi- 
dency; area    2040   sq.    ni. ;    population    1,500,000 


The  people,  of  Malay  descent,  resemble  the  Javan- 
ese, but  are  stronger,  more  enduring,  and  more 
enterprising  ;  they  nuike  the  best  native  soldiers  in 
the  Kutch  <'olonial  army. 

lladvig.  JoHAN  Niroi,.AI,  Danish  classical 
scholar,  was  born  at  Svancke,  in  Uinnholm,  on  7th 
August  1804,  educated  at  Frederiksborgand  Copen- 
hagen, began  to  teach  at  the  university  in  IS'26, 
and  in  1829  was  appointed  to  the  chair  of  Latin 
Language  and  Liteiature,  and  made  inspector  of 
higher  schools.  He  took  a  keen  interest  also  in 
politics,  wa-s  one  of  the  chief  speakers  of  the 
national  Liberal  party,  sat  in  iiarliament,  held  the 
])ortfolio  of  religion  and  education  from  1848  to 
1851,  and  after  1855  wjis  repeatedly  elected  presi- 
dent  of  the  Danish  ])arlianient.  He  died  blind 
on  13th  December  1886.  For  more  than  half  a  cen- 
tury Madvig  enjoyed  the  highest  reputation,  not 
in  Denmark  only,  but  throughout  Europe,  as  a 
shrewd,  clever  critic  of  the  Latin  and  (heek  prose- 
writers.  It  was  in  criticising  and  emendating  the 
text  of  Cicero  and  Livy  that  he  won  his  greatest 
laurels,  his  Emcnilationes  in  Cieeroiiis  Libros  Pliilo- 
sopliii'os  (1828),  editions  of  Cicrro's  Dc  Finibiis 
(1839  ;  3<1  ed.,  greatly  improved,  1876),  Cato  Major 
et  Laliiis  {\S35  ;  2d  ed.  \mi<)),  JuiaMa/aliones  l.ifi- 
anw  (1860:  2d  ed.  1876),  and  the  edition  of  I.iry 
(4  vols.  1861-66)  being  all  productions  of  tirst-rate 
scholarship.  He  jiro\ided  for  students  very  valu- 
able information  on  Cicero's  works  in  Ojiiixni/a 
Acadanim  (2  vols.  1834-42:  2d  ed.  1887):  worked 
out  a  systematic  account  of  his  critical  ]irinciples 
in  Adrci-.-iarUt  Criticri  (3  vols.  1871-84):  published 
in  1841  his  well-known  Lafiti  Gminmnr  (7th  ed. 
1881),  and  in  1846  his  still  better  known  Greek 
Si/ntax  (Eng.  trans.  1853),  both  excellent  works, 
hilt  now  being  superseded  by  the  results  of  newer 
philological  study.  The  last  books  from  Madvig's 
pen  were  a  dissertation  on  the  Coiistihitwii  aial 
Adiiu'iiistration  of  tlie  Roman  Utate  (2  vols.  1881- 
82),  intended  in  some  sort  as  suiiplementary  and 
corrective  to  Mommsen's  great  history,  and  an 
Autobkigraphij  (1887). 

Ula'aildcr  (now  Bojnk  Mender),  the  ancient 
name  of  a  river  of  Asia  Minor,  rising  near  Cehvna', 
in  Phrygia,  and  llowiiig  240  miles  west-south-west- 
ward to  tlie  vEgean  at  Miletus.  Its  windings, 
jiroverbial  since  Cicero's  day,  are  after  all  nothing 
remarkable. 

Ma'CC'lias,  C.  Cilnius,  a  Roman  statesman  of 
F^truscan  origin,  whose  name  has  become  a  synonym 
for  a  patron  of  lettei-s.  He  lirst  appears  in  history 
in  40  B.C.  engaged  in  arranging  a  marriage  between 
Octavian  and  Seribonia.  I-ater  we  lind  him  nego- 
tiating the  peace  of  Brundisiuni,  and  acting  with 
vigour  in  the  city  during  the  campaign  of  Actiuni. 
When  Octavian  a.ssiimed  the  suiireniacy  and  the 
title  of  Augustus,  ILi'Cemus  took  a  chief  place  in 
his  counsels.  The  naluie  and  extent  of  his  iillicial 
power  are  not  very  jirecisely  nndeistood,  but  they 
were  undoubteiUy  "great,  though  the  inllucnce  and 
authority  he  enjoyed  are  to  be  estiniateil  rather 
from  his"  intimacy  with  the  emperor  than  his  mere 
position   as   a   public  servant.      During   his   later 

years  the  fri Isliip  was  interrupted  from  reasons 

that  cannot  now  be  exactly  ascertained,  but  mutual 
esteem  siii\ived  and  no  ojien  rupture  took  place. 
Maecenas  was  a  thoroughly  sincere  imnerialist.  He 
had  a  belief  in  the  value"of  an  established  govern- 
ment :  and  when  he  founil  that  he  no  Uinger  retained 
the  conlidence  of  his  sovereign  he  did  not  lapse  into 
a  conspirator  :  but.  as  a  modern  minister  might  do, 
retired  into  the  obscurity  of  ])rivate  life.  He  had 
ever  been  given  to  luxury  and  sensual  delights,  but 
his  complex  nature  craved  the  solace  al.so  of  higher 
lileasures.  He  now  gave  all  his  time  to  literature 
and  the  society  of  literarj'  men.    He  was  immensely 


I 


MAELAR 


MAFFEI 


789 


rich,  and  kept  an  open  table  for  men  of  parts  at  liis 
fine  house  on  the  Esijuiline  Hill  ;  almve  them  all 
he  lovcJ  the  genial  Horace.  lie  dieil  in  the  year 
8  B.C.,  leaving  the  emperor  his  wealth. 

Maelar.    See  M.^lae. 

.Ma*-ldiill.     See  M.viLDUN. 

Maelstrom  ('grinding  stream'),  or  Mosken- 
STRO.M,  a  famous  whirlpool,  or  more  correctly 
current,  between  Moskeniis  and  Mosken,  two  of 
the  Lofoden  Isles  (q.v.).  The  strait  is  habitually 
navigated  by  vessels  at  high  tide  and  low  tide, 
though  in  one  (ilace  the  water  is  always  rough  and 
churned  into  angry  foam.  When  the  wind  lilows 
directly  against  the  current  it  becomes  extremely 
dangerous,  especially  with  spring-tides  or  during  a 
north-west  wind.  The  stories  of  ships,  whales,  iS.c. 
being  swallowed  up  iu  the  vorte.x  are  simply  fables  ; 
at  the  same  time,  a  ship  once  fairly  under  the 
influence  of  the  cunent,  would  probably  founder 
or  lie  ilashed  upon  the  rocks,  and  whales  have  often 
been  found  stranded  on  the  Flagstadt  coast  from 
the  same  cause.  The  cniTent  takes  twelve  hours 
to  make  a  circular  revolution.  Edgar  .-Vllcn  Poe's 
imaginative  description  of  the  horroi-s  of  being 
sucked  ilown  by  the  ilaelstrom  is  well  known. 
A  like  dangerous  current  is  the  Saltstriini,  at  the 
entrance  of  the  Salten  Fjord,  where  a  vast  mass  of 
water  is  povired  through  a  narrow  opening  at  a 
terrific  rate.  Yet  steamboats  pa-~is  through  the 
Saltstrom,  though  only  at  high  or  low  tide. 

lla'liads.     See  Dioxysls. 

Maesliowe'.  a  chambered  mound  in  the  Main- 
laud  of  Orkney,  9  miles  WNW.  of  Kirkwall  and 
1  mile  E.  of  the  great  stone  circle  of  Stennis.  A 
gra-ssy  truncated  cone,  .36  feet  high  and  92  feet  in 
diameter,  it  Is  surrounded,  at  a  distance  of  90  feet 
from  its  base,  by  a  trench  40  feet  wide,  and  still  in 
places  8  feet  deep.  On  the  west  side  is  a  passage, 
.54  feet  long,  2J  to  .34  feet  wide,  and  3i  to  4s  feet 
high,  with  (about  midway)  a  unique  doorway. 
This  passage  leads  to  a  central  chamber,  measur- 
ing 15J  by  14j  feet ;  converging  to  a  vaulted  roof, 
originally  20  feet  high  ;  and  built,  like  the  passage. 


Maeshowe,  ground-plan. 

of  undressed  slabs  and  blocks  of  native  stone.  On 
each  of  the  other  three  sides  of  the  chamber,  at  a 
height  of  3  feet  from  the  floor,  there  is  a  square 
opening  to  a  cell  or  'sepulchral  loculus,'  3  feet 
high,  4|  feet  wide,  and  '>h  to  7  feet  li>ng.  Maes- 
howe w;i.s  e.xplored  in  \Hii\  by  Mr  .lames  Farrer, 
.M.I'.,  when  it  was  found  to  have  been  ransacked 
at  lea-st  once  before — in  the  winter  probably  of 
ll.Vi-SS  by  Norwegians,  followers  of  Earl  IJogn- 
yald,  and  pilgrims  to  .Jerusalem.  Their  Kunic 
inscriptions,  comprising  ujiwards  of  900  letters, 
thickly  cover  the  walls  of  the  central  chamber, 
and  consist  mainly  of  such  inscriptions  as  '  ller- 


mund  Hardaxe  carve<l  these  runes.'  There  are 
carvings  besides  of  eight  crosses,  a  'worm-knot,' 
and  a  nomlescript  animal.  Mere  idle  scribblings, 
the  runes  afl'ord  no  clue  to  the  origin  of  the  tumulus 
itself,  which  Dr  Anderson  a.ssigns  unhesitatingly 
to  the  'Age  of  Stone,'  whilst  Fergusson  a-scribes  its 
erection  to  Northmen  and  to  a  date  so  recent  as  970. 
See  the  article  Caikn  ;  Farrer,  Nolfs  on  the  Runic 
Innci'iptions  (1862);  P70C.  Soc.  Ant.  Scot.  (1867); 
.James  Fergusson,  Itudc  Stone  Monuments  (1872);  and 
•Joseph  Anderson,  Scotland  in  Patjan  Times  (1886). 

Macstricllt*  the  capital  of  the  Dutch  province 
of  Limburg,  19  miles  NNE.  of  Liege  by  rail,  19 
WNW.  of  Aix-la-Chapelle,  and  152  SSE.  of 
Amsterdam.  It  lies  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Meuse 
or  Maas,  a  stone  bridge  (1683),  133  yards  long, 
connecting  it  with  the  suburb  of  Wijk."  Formerly 
an  important  fortress,  it  is  still  a  garrison  town  ; 
but  the  fortifications  were  dismantled  in  1871-78. 
The  town-hall,  with  spire  and  carillon  (1662),  con- 
tains many  paintinc»s  and  a  library  ;  and  in  the 
threetoAvered  church  of  St  Servatius  (12tli-14th 
centur}' ),  the  cathedral  once,  is  a  '  Descent  from 
the  Cross,'  by  Van  Dyck.  But  ilaestricht's  great 
sight  is  the  subterranean  quarries  of  the  Pieters- 
berg,  foiTuerly  calleil  Mons  Huunorinn  (330  feet). 
Their  labyrinthine  passages,  12  feet  wide,  and  20 
to  50  feet  high,  number  16,000,  and  extend  over  an 
area  of  13  by  6  miles.  They  are  supposed  to  have 
been  worked  first  by  the  Romans,  and,  amongst 
other  fossils,  have  yielded  two  heads  of  the  huge 
Mosasaurus  (q.v.).  The  manufactures  inclndfi 
glass,  earthenware,  and  carpets.  Pop.  (1S76) 
29,083:  (1898)  .34,.362.  Mae.stricht,  the  liuman 
Trnjcctiim  nd  M'jsain,  was  no  less  than  six  times 
besieged  between  1579  and  1814,  and  in  1830  with- 
stood the  insurgent  Belgians. 

Maestricht  Beds,  a  section  of  the  Danian  or 
tijipermost  sulidivision  of  the  Cretaceous  System 
(q.v.).  In  Britain  the  chalk  with  Hints  is  covered 
with  Tertiary  strata,  but  at  Maestricht  in  Holland 
there  occui's  a  thickness  of  100  feet  of  soft  yellowish 
limestone  with  a  conglomeratic  base,    abounding 

in  the  remains   of  Corals  and   I'olyzoa. 

The  fossils  are  peculiar. 

Maeterlinck,  M.virice,  was  born 

at  (xlient  in  1864,  and  became  known 
i  to  the  Avorld  of  I'aris  in  1890  by  a  play, 
Ln  Princcsse  Maleine.  Other  plays  are 
L'Intnisc,  Les  Areuqlcs,  Pclleas  et  Mcli- 
.mttf/e,  and  Ar/toname  et  Selysettc  (all 
translated  into  English);  and  he  has 
shown  his  religions  sympathies  by  a 
translation  into  nmdern  Flemish  of 
T?nvsbroeck  the  Mystic  (1891). 

Ylafeking,  a  town  in  the  north-east 

-  ner  of  Cape  Colony,  connected  in  1894 

li  the  railw.ay  .system  from  Capetown. 

uce  iu  1896  Jameson  (q.v.)  started  on 

i-  (lis!ustrous  raid   into  the  Transvaal. 

I'm   the  outbreak   of  the  Transvaal  war 

— "  iji    1899  Mafeking  was  invested   by  the 

Boer  forces,  but  was  heroiially  defended 

by  Colonel   Badenl'owell  with   a  small 

garrison,  and   after  a  siege  of  seven  months,  was 

relievcil  on  17th  May  1900. 

Marfei,  Fu.wcesco  Scipione,  M.vkchese  di, 

playwright  and  antiquary.  wa.s  born  at  Verona, 
Isi  .luiic  167.">,  and  studied  in  the  .b'suit  Cidlege 
at  Parma.  lie  s|icnt  the  ycai-s  1703-4  in  military 
service,  uniler  his  brother  Alessamlro,  a  distin- 
guished soldier  and  field-iiiiirshal,  but  ultimalely 
devoted  himself  to  literary  i)uisuits.  His  tiage<ly 
of  Mciope  ( 1714)  was  so  well  received  that  it  went 
through  seventy  editions  in  his  own  lifetime.  His 
comedy  of  I.e  Ceiciiioiuc  (17'28)  was  also  snecess- 
fiil.      Vcromi   I/liisliala  (1731-32;   new  ed.    1827) 


790 


MAFFIA 


MAGDEBURG 


is  a  work  of  much  brilliancy  and  learning.  After 
four  yoai-s  in  France  (1732-36)  he  visited  England, 
Holland,  and  Uerniaiiy,  then  settled  in  his  l)irth- 
idace,  where  he  died  lltli  February  17.'i5.  A  col-  1 
lectixe  edition  of  his  worlvs  was  published  at  Venice 
in  ITilO,  in  21  vols. 

Miifli'n.  a  secret  society  in  Sicily,  more  power- 
ful than  the  Cauiorra  (q.v.)  of  Naples,  which  has 
oi'^anised  lawlessness,  and  made  itself  more  feared 
than  the  law.  Its  code  of  honour  (the  ouierta) 
binds  the  niembei-s  to  seek  no  redress  from  the 
courts,  nor  ever  to  give  evidence  before  thein  ;  its 
object  is  to  override  the  law,  and  to  rule  the  island. 
In  an  organised  form,  however,  the  Matlia  survives 
only  in  isolated  localities ;  as  it  e.\ists  in  the 
island  as  a  whide,  it  rather  expresses  an  idea  than 
indicates  a  society  with  regular  chiefs  and  C(nin- 
cillors.  It  represents  the  .survival  among  the 
people  of  a  preference  for  owing  the  securing  of 
their  persons  and  property  rather  to  their  owu 
strength  and  inlluence  than  to  those  of  the  law 
and  its  otlieers.  Therefore  a  distinction  is  drawn 
between  the  high  and  the  low  Matlia,  the  latter 
embracing  the  great  mass  of  members  who,  them- 
selves not  active  in  the  matter,  are  afraid  to  set 
themselves  against  the  Maffia,  and  are  content  to 
accept  the  protection  of  this  shadowy  league,  which 
in  them  inspires  more  awe  than  do  the  courts  of 
justice.  Indeed,  much  of  the  Mafiia's  strength 
and  vitality  is  directly  due  to  this  looseness  of 
organisation,  and  to  the  fact  that  it  is  an  ingrained 
mode  of  thought,  an  idea,  and  not  an  organised 
society,  that  the  government  has  to  root  out. 
Direct  robbery  and  violence  are  resorted  to  only 
for  vengeance  ;  for  practical  purposes  the  employ- 
ment of  isolation— in  fact,  the  system  of  boycotting 
carried  to  the  extreme  point — is  sulliciently  effica- 
cious. From  the  landholders  blackmail  is  levied  in 
return  for  protection,  and  they  must  employ  mojfiusi 
only  on  their  farms  ;  and  the  rcndctta  follows  tliose 
who  denounce  or  in  any  way  injure  a  meuiber  of  the 
fraternity.  The  Maffia  controls  elections,  protects 
its  members  against  the  officers  of  justice,  assists 
snmgglers,  directs  strikes,  and  even  fixes  the  hire 
of  workmen.  The  government's  efforts  have  failed 
to  stamp  out  the  society;  but  numl)ei-s  of  its 
niemliers  have  been  driven  aliroad,  and  swelled  the 
criminal  classes  of  New  York  and  New  Orleans. 
See  Ahmgi,  La  Mafia  (Turin,  1S87);  Le  Faure, 
La  Ma/fta  [Fnvh,  1892). 

IHafra,  a  town  of  Portugal,  20  miles  NW.  of 
I.islion.  Pop.  3020.  The  palace,  built  by  John  V. 
in  1717-31  as  a  rival  to  theEscorial,  is  770  feel  long 
and  (j!K)  feet  wide ;  contains  866  rooms,  and  a 
library  of  SO.OOO  vols. ;  but  now  serves  as  a  barrack 
and  niilii.'trv  academy. 

illa$;ado\o.  or  .MfKOlsm*,  a  port  on  the  ea.st 
coast  of  Somaliland,  2.50  miles  NE.  of  the  mouth 
of  the  Jnlja  river.     Pop.  .5000. 

Masa/iiie.  See  Periodicals.  For  Magazine 
Rille,  sec  Uli'LE. 

Illa^llala.  a  hill-fortress  and  small  town  of 
Abyssinia  ('[.v.),  .300  miles  S.  of  Annesley  Pay,  (in 
the  lied  Sea,  stood  perched  on  a  plateau  0110  feet 
above  sea-level.  It  was  the  place  of  ca))tivity  of  the 
Jiritish  prisf)ners  for  whose  rescue  an  exijedition 
was  sent  out  under  Sir  Robert  N.ajjier  (Lord  Napier 
of  Magdala) :  and  on  13th  April  18G8  the  town  was 
burned  and  its  defences  destroyed. 

Slasidah'lia.  the  princijial  river  of  Colombia, 
rises  in  the  Central  Cordillera,  .about  2°  N.  lat.,  and 
only  8  miles  from  the  source  of  the  Cauca.  These 
streams  How  north  on  either  side  of  the  Cordillera, 
uniting  about  130  miles  from  the  sea.  The  Mag- 
dalena,  which  ends  in  a  large  delta,  is  closed  to 
sea-going  vessels  by  a  bar  with  dangerous  shifting 
Bands  ;   merchandise  is  conveyed  by  a  railway  ( 18 


miles)  from  Parraniiuilla  to  Puerto  Colombia,  the 
shipping  port,  where  a  pier  has  been  built.  The 
river  is  navigable  to  Honda,  jOO  miles,  where 
the  rapids  begin:  above  lliese  it  has  been  navi- 
gated by  a  (lerman  steamer  to  Neiva  since  187;"), 
and  a  railway  (20  miles)  alongside  the  rapids  con- 
nects the  ujiper  and  lower  sections.  The  -Magda- 
Icna's  drainage  area  is  calculated  at  92,900  !~i\.  ni. 

illa^dah'iio,  M.\kv,  or  M.vuv  oi'  M.\gi).\i..\, 
so  named  from  a  town  near  Tiberias,  a  woman  '  out 
of  whom  Jesus  cast  seven  devils,'  and  who  believed 
in  Him  and  followed  Him.  She  was  one  of  the 
M'onien  who  stoo^l  by  the  cross,  anil  one  of  those 
who  went  with  sweet  spices  to  the  sepulchre.  To 
her  He  hr.st  aiii>eared  after  His  resurrection.  In 
consequence  of  an  unfounded  notion  identifying  her 
with  the  woman  who  had  been  a  sinner,  described 
in  Luke,  vii.  36-50,  as  having  anointed  our  Lonl's 
feet  with  ointment,  and  wiped  them  with  her 
hair,  Mary  Magdalene  has  been  long  and  gener- 
ally regarded  as  a  woman  whose  early  life  bad 
been  very  luolligate,  although  of  this  there  is 
no  hint  whatever  in  the  narratives  of  the  evangel- 
ists ;  and  the  Magdalenes,  so  frequent  amongst 
works  of  art,  represent  her  according  to  this  prev- 
alent opinion.  Our  word  maud/ in  (lit.  'weeidng- 
eyed')  is  due  to  the  same  notion,  and  indeed  the 
very  name  Magdalene  has  come  to  be  aiiplied  to 
women  who  have  fallen  from  chastity,  and  insti- 
tutions for  the  reception  of  repentant  prostitutes 
are  known  as  Maijdaleiic  Asylums. 

The  conclusion  of  most  commentators  is  that 
there  were  two  anointings,  one  in  some  city  un- 
named during  our  Lord's  Galilean  ministry  ( Luke 
\ii. ),  the  other  at  Bethany  before  the  last  entry 
into  Jerusalem  (Matt,  xxvi,,  Mark  xiv.,  .John 
xii. ).  The  one  passage  ailduced  to  prove  that  in 
these  two  nanatives  we  have  but  one  woman  is 
John,  xi.  2,  and  it  has  been  argued  by  some  that 
this  could  not  possibly  refer  by  antici|)ation  to  the 
history  that  follows  in  chap.  -\ii.  Against  tins  it 
may  be  said  that  to  impute  a  life  of  inii>urity  to 
Mary  of  Bethany  is  to  make  an  entirely  gratuitoiis 
assumption.  The  evidence  to  identify  Mary  Mag- 
dalene with  either  actor  in  the  two  narratives  is 
still  less  secure.  The  identity  of  Mary  Magdalene 
with  the  sinner  was  first  positively  asserted  by 
Cregory  the  Great  in  his  Hdiiiiiics,  and  the  .services 
of  tiu!  feast  of  St  Mary  Magdalene  >\  ere  arranged 
on  the  assumption  of  its  truth.  But  a  great  and 
growing  consensus  of  opinion  among  the  most  com- 
petent scholars,  and  those  not  merely  Protestant, 
is  conclusive  against  it. 

nia^'daleil  Islands,  a  small  grouji  near  the 
centre  of  the  Gnlf  of  St  Lawrence,  oi  miles  NAV. 
of  Cape  lireton  Island.  The  largest  is  Collin's 
Island.  The  people  are  supported  by  the  lobster, 
cod,  herring,  and  seal  iisheries.     Pop.  3172. 

llau'dcblll'ijf.  the  capital  of  Prussian  Sa.\ony, 
and  one  of  the  chief  fortresses  of  the  (ierman 
empire,  90  miles  by  rail  SW.  of  Berlin  and  72  N.  of 
Lei])zig.  It  lies  in  a  cheerless  countiy,  on  the  left 
b.ank  mainly  of  the  Elbe,  which,  here  2S0yards  wide, 
branches  into  three  channels,  an<l  forms  two  islands. 
On  the  smaller  of  these  still  stands  the  Citadel 
(1683-1702):  but  otherwise  the  old  fortifications 
liave  since  1866  been  built  over  or  converted  into 
]iromenades,  their  idace  being  taken  by  a  cordon  of 
thirteen  forts.  Tlie  cruciform  Gothic  cathedral, 
rebuilt  between  1207  and  1."i;jO,  is  -100  feet  long,  and 
has  two  western  towers  .3-11  feet  high.  It  c<intains 
the  tombs  of  the  Emperor  Otho  the  Great,  of  his 
lirst  wife,  tlie  English  princess  Editba,  ami  of 
Archbishop  Ernest,  whose  monument  (1497)  is  a 
masteriiiece  of  Peter  Vischer  of  Nuremberg.  In 
front  of  the  town-hall  ( 1691-1866)  is  the  eqneslri.an 
statue  of  Otho,  dating,  not  from  973  as  its  inscriiition 


MAGDEBURG    HEMISPHERES 


MAGGIORE 


791 


claims,  b>it  from  the  close  of  the  13th  century  j 
ami  of  several  other  monuments  the  most  note- 
worthy are  the  Sohliors' Memorial  (1877)  and  a 
statue"  of  Luther  (1880).  The  industries  are  of 
liiKh  importance,  comprising  huge  ironworks,  dis- 
tilleries, cotton-mills,  &c.  ;  and  the  trade  is  corre- 
spondingly great — for  suj;ar  it  is  the  lii-st  market 
ot  Germany.  Magdeburt'  is  the  junctimi  of  live  rail- 
ways :  and  the  river-trade  is  also  very  large.  Fo]i. 
( lS7o>  12-2,789:  ( 1890)  SOi, 324,  of  whom  over  10,000 
were  Catholics,  and  2000  Jews.  Founded  by  Char- 
lemagne in  805,  and  refounded  by  Edillia  after  its 
destruction  by  the  ^Vends  in  924,  Magdeburg  was 
in  968  made  the  seat  of  an  archbi.sliopric,  and 
had  40,000  inhabitants  in  1524,  when,  embnicing 
the  Reformation,  it  incurred  the  combined  wrath 
of  emperor  and  primate.  It  weathered  the  storm 
then,  successfully  withstanding  Maurice  of  Saxony 
(1550);  but  during  the  Thirtj'  Yeai-s'  War  it 
suffered  fearfully.  In  1629  it  was  vainly  besieged 
for  twentv-eight  weeks  by  Wallenstein  ;  in  May 
16.S1,  after  an  heroic  defence  (2000  against  25,000), 
it  was  taken  by  Tilly  and  burned  to  the  grouml,  the 
cathedral  (reconsecrated  for  Catholic  worship)  and 
a  few  poor  fisher  huts  being  almost  all  that  remainetl 
after  the  three  days"  sack,  in  which  nearly  the  whole 
pojmlation  of  36,000  perished  by  tire  or  sword  or 
drowning  in  the  river.  In  1648  the  archbishopric 
was  converted  into  a  secular  duchy,  and  conferred 
on  the  house  of  Brandenburg  in  compensation  for 
the  lo^s  of  Pomerania.  In  1803  the  French  annexed 
it  to  the  kingdom  of  AVe-stphalia ;  but  in  1814  it 
was  finally  restored  to  Prussia.  See  works  by 
Hoffman  "(2d  ed.  1885),  Kawerau  (1SS6),  and 
(iuericke  (2d  ed.  1887)  :  and  for  the  Miiffdcbiinj 
Coitiin'cs,  see  Church  Hlstory,  Vol.  III.  p.  242. 

Slagdebnrjs;  IIemisplicre.s  are  two  hollow 
hemispheres,  generally  made  of  copper  or  brass, 
with  their  edges  accurately  fitted  to  each  other, 
and  one  of  them  furnished  with  a  stopcock.     When 


Magdeburg  Heiiiispjieres. 

the  edges  are  rubbed  over  with  grease,  pressed 
tightly  together,  and  the  globe  thus  formed  ex- 
hausted of  air  through  the  cock,  the  hemispheres, 
which  fell  asunder  before  exhaustion,  are  now 
presseil  together  with  imiuense  force — e.g.  if  they 
are  one  foot  in  diameter,  they  will,  after  ex- 
haustion, l>e  presseil  together  with  a  force  of  nearly 
a  ton.  This  experiment  was  first  performed  by 
t>tto  von  (iiiericke  (q.v. ),  burgomaster  of  Magde- 
burg, in  16.>(J,  at  the  imperial  diet  at  Ratisbon,  to 
the  a-tonishment  of  the  Emperor  Ferdinand  III. 
and  his  princes  and  nobles. 

.Mas^ llan,  Ferdinand  (Portuguese  Magalhaes 
or  Mii'iiilhiiens ),  a  famous  navigator,  was  born  about 
1470,  most  probably  at  Villa  de  Sabroz,i,  ni>ar  Villa 
Real  in  Traz  os  Montes.  He  served  with  distinction 
in  the  E.-ist  Indies,  particularly  at  Malacca,  and 
wa.s  lamed  for  life  in  action  in  Morocco.  Finding 
his  sufferings  rewarded  with  contempt  by  King 
Maimel  he  formally  rencmnced  his  nationality,  and 
together  with  his  countryman,  Ruy  Falero,  a 
geographer  and  astronomer,  offered  his  serxices  to 
Spain.  They  laid  before  Charles  V.  a  scheme  for 
reaching  the  Molucca-s  by  the  west,  which  w.is  well 


received  ;  and  ^lagellan  sailed  from  San  Lucar, 
10th  August  1519,  with  five  shios  of  from  130 
to  60  tons,  and  alK)ut  two  hundred  and  fifty  men. 
Sailing  to  the  mouth  of  the  La  Plata  and  along 
the  shores  of  Patagonia,  he  threaded  the  strait 
which  beai-s  his  name  (21st  October — 28th  Novem- 
ber 1520).  and  entered  on  that  vast  ocean  which 
he  named  the  Pacific  from  the  fine  weather  which 
he  experienced  there.  He  had  already  been 
troubled  by  mutiny,  which  he  had  crushed  by  swift 
venjjeauce  upon  the  ringleaders,  ami  after  reaching 
the  Philii)pine  Isles  he  fell  in  an  expedition  against 
theuativesof  Matan(27thApril  1521).  His  ship,  the 
Victuria,  was  safely  navigated  by  Sebastian  del 
Cano  home  to  Spain,  and  thus  completed,  on  Gth 
September  1522,  the  fii-st  voyage  ever  made  round 
the  world. 

The  best  contemporary  account  of  Magellan's  famous 
voyage  is  that  by  .-Vntonio  Pigafetta,  a  volunteer  in  the 
tleet.  An  English  version  of  this  and  tive  minor  narra- 
tives is  Lord  Stanley  of  Alderley's  First  I'oi/ai/e  round 
the  World  b>i  Magdlaii  ( Hakhij-t  Society,  1874).  Sec 
Guillemard,  Maijellan  and  the  Pacijic  (1891). 

Macell.\N,  Str.\it  of,  separates  South  America 
on  the  south  from  Tierra  del  Fuego.  It  is  375 
miles  in  length,  and  its  breadth  varies  for  the  most 
part  between  12  and  17  miles.  It  was  discovered 
liy  Magellan  in  1520,  and  first  thoroughly  explored 
by  King  and  Fitzroy  in  the  Adventure  and  Bengle 
(1826-36).  The  wider  eastern  half  is  bordered  oy 
level,  gently-rolling  grassy  plains.  The  narrower 
western  half  is  shut  in  by  steep,  wooded  mountains ; 
the  current  runs  strong  through  it,  and  the  west 
winds  are  a  great  hindrance  to  sailing-vessels. 
There  are  several  fine  harbours  along  this  part  of 
the  strait.  See  works  by  K.  O.  Cunningham 
(Edin.  1878)  and  A.  AV.  Miller  ( Portsmouth,  1884). 

.Magellanic  Clouds,  or  Xubecil.*  M.\.jor 
and  Minor,  two  cloudy  masses  of  light  seen  at  night 
in  the  >ky  of  the  southern  hemisiihere.  The  greater 
lies  between  E.A.  4b.  40m.  and  6li.,  and  N.P.D.  156' 
and  162'  ;  the  lesser  between  R.A.  Oh.  28m.  and 
Ih.  15m.,  and  N.P.D.  162'  and  165'.  They  are 
composed  of  complex  masses  of  nebuhp  and  stars, 
condensed  so  a-s  to  give  the  naked  eye  the  impres- 
sion of  a  cloudy  mass.     See  Nebul.e. 

MasendiPi  Francoi.s,  an  eminent  French 
physioTogist  and  physician,  was  born  at  Hordeaux, 
15th  October  1783,  studied  at  Paris.  Ijecame  suc- 
cessively prosector  in  anatomy  ( 1 804 ),  physician 
to  the  Hotel-Dieu,  mendier  of  the  Academy  of 
Sciences  (1819),  and  jirofessor  of  .Anatomy  in  the 
College  de  France  ( 1831 ).  He  made  important 
additions  to  our  knowledge  of  nerve-physiology, 
the  veins,  and  the  physiology  of  food,  and  wiote 
numerous  works,  including  the  Kleminls  uj  I'liysi- 
ohfiy  (originally  a  precis,  1816,  afterwards  ex- 
tended). He  was  likewise  the  founder,  and  for 
ten  yeai's  the  editor,  of  the  Journal  de  la  Ph;isi- 
ologie  Expirimciittde,  in  which  are  recorded  many 
of  the  experiments  on  living  aninuils  which  gained 
for  him,  too  deservedly,  the  character  of  an  un- 
scrupulous vivisector.     He  died  7th  October  1855. 

Mas<*llt<l>  *n  Italian  town,  18  miles  AV.  of 
Milan  by  rail.  Poj).  5.')73.  Here,  on  4th  June 
1859,  .55,000  French  and  .Sardinians  defeated  75,000 
Austrians,  the  latter  losing  10,000  (besides  70()0 
prisoners),  and  the  allies  only  4000.  For  this 
victory  MacMahon  received  his  dukedom. — For  the 
coal-tar  colour,  see  DVEING. 

Masoro.    See  XoRTH  Cape. 

Massiorr.  Lago,  one  of  the  largest  lakes  in 
Italy,  the  I  urns  Verbauus  of  the  Konntns,  is 
situated  lor  the  most  part  in  Italy,  but  also  partly 
in  the  Swiss  canton  of  Ticino.  It  is  39  miles  in 
length,  and  varies  in  breadth  from  i  mile  to  oj 
miles.     It  lies  646  feet  above  the  levef  of  the  sea, 


(92 


MAGGOT 


MAGIC 


aiul  lia-s  a  maxiiiiuiu  deptli  of  1158  feet.  The  river 
Ticino  Hows  through  it.  In  a  south-westein 
expansion  of  the  lake  are  the  Borroniean  Isles 
(q.v.).  On  the  north  and  west  it  is  surroiiiuled  l>y 
granitic  mountains,  7000  feet  high,  on  the  soutli 
anil  ea.st  hy  vineyaril-covercJ  liills. 

!IIag£Ot«  the  larva  of  most  flies  (Biptera), 
without  limbs  or  distinct  head.  They  feed  on  the 
animal  material,  often  a  corpse  of  some  sort,  in 
■wliicli  they  are  laid.  Some  of  the  larger  forms  are 
used  for  bait  or  for  feeding  birds. 

Masi.  In  Accadian,  the  language  of  the  early 
Turanian  inhabitants  of  Babylonia  and  Media, 
iinga,  signifying  'august,'  'reverend,'  was  the  title 
of  their  learned  and  priestly  caste.  The  Semitic 
nations  afterwards  dominant  in  Babylonia  and 
Assyria  adopted  the  learning  and  many  of  the 
religious  observances  of  the  early  inhabitants,  as 
also  the  name  for  the  learned  caste  ;  and  out  of  the 
Semitic  form  the  Greeks  made  magos.  Under  the 
Persian  empire  the  magi  were  not  only  the  '  keepers 
of  the  sacreil  things,  the  learned  of  the  people,  the 
philosophers  and  servants  of  God,'  but  also  diviners 
and  mantics,  augurs  and  astrologers.  They  called 
up  the  dead  by  awful  formulas,  or  by  means  of 
cups,  water,  &c.  They  were  held  in  the  highest 
reverence,  and  no  transaction  of  importance  took 
place  without  or  against  their  advice.  Hence  theii- 
almost  unbounded  influence  in  both  private  and 
public  life.  Apart  from  the  education  of  the  young 
princes  being  in  their  hands,  they  were  the  constant 
companions  of  the  ruling  monarch.  Of  their 
religious  system  the  articles  Paesees  and  ZoRO- 
.\.STER  will  give  a  fuller  account.  Zoroaster,  in 
the  course  of  his  gi'eat  religious  reform,  reorgan- 
ised the  body  of  the  magi,  chiefly  by  reinforcing 
the  ancient  laws  as  to  their  manner  and  mode  of 
life,  which  was  to  be  one  of  the  sim])U'st  and 
severest,  befitting  their  sacred  station,  but  which 
had  become  one  of  lu.Miry  and  indolence,  and  by 
re-instituting  the  original  distinction  of  the  three 
classes  of  herbeds  ( '  discijiles ' ),  mobcds  ( '  mastei's ' ), 
and  destur  viobeds  ('complete  masters').  The 
food,  especially  of  the  lower  class,  was  to  consist 
only  of  flour  and  vegetables ;  they  wore  white 
garments,  slept  on  the  ground,  and  weie  altogether 
subjected  to  the  most  rigorous  discipline.  The 
initiation  consisted  of  the  most  awful  and  mysteri- 
ous ceremonies,  aiul  was  preceded  by  purifications 
of  several  months'  duration.  Gradually,  however, 
their  influence,  which  was  all-powerful  during 
the  epoch  of  the  Sassanian  kings  of  Persia, 
began  to  wane,  and,  from  being  the  highest 
caste,  they  fell  to  the  rank  of  wandering  jugglers, 
fortune-tellers,  and  quacks,  and  gave  tlreir  name 
(Magic,  q.v.)  to  sleight-of-hand  and  conjuring 
tricks.  But  the  name  seems  to  have  been  also  cur- 
rent as  a  generic  term  for  astrologers  in  the  East, 
tus  is  evidenced  by  the  New  Testament  narrative 
of  the  homage  of  the  Magi  to  the  Infant  Christ. 

According  to  the  narrative  (Matt.  ii.  \A'2)  the 
three  wise  men  came  from  the  East  to  Jerusalem, 
led  by  ~  star,  which  at  length  guided  them  safely 
to  the  place  of  the  Nativity  at  Bethlehem,  where 
they  ottered  their  gifts  of  gold,  frankincense,  ami 
myrrh.  As  the  'TInee  Kings'  their  names  became 
celebrated  in  the  middle  ages,  and  Bede  distinguishes 
them  JUS  Ivaspar,  Melchior,  and  Balthasar.  The 
l.ist  was  the  Chaldean  name  for  Daniel ;  Melchior 
signifies  '  king  of  light ; '  Kaspar  in  some  legends 
appears  as  Gathaspar,  and  in  Syriac  sources  as 
•  ludophorhcm,  in  wliicli  we  may  ])erha])s  recognise 
the  name  of  the  |)owerful  Indo-Parthian  king, 
t  M)ndo]>hares,  said  to  have  been  baptiseil  by  the 
apostle  Thomas.  The  bones  of  the  three  kings  are 
claimed  to  be  deposited  in  the  cathedral  at  Cologne. 
In  the  calendar  the  three  days  after  New-year's 


Day  bear  their  names,  and  their  memory  isiireserved 
in  the  feast  of  the  three  holy  kings — the  Epiphany. 
The  youngest  of  the  three  is  generally  represented 
in  works  of  art  as  a  black  man. 

Maffic,  the  pretended  art  of  doing  wonderful 
works  by  aid  of  mysterious  supernatural  means. 
The  term  is  in  general  synonymous  with  sorcery, 
and  was  originally  apiilied  by  the  Greeks  and 
Romans  to  that  form  of  sorcery  which  was  com- 
municated by  the  Babylonian  Magi  to  the  Medes, 
Pei-sians,  and  Parthians,  and  by  them  spread  over 
the  Eiist  and  even  the  AVest.  No  people  have 
carried  magic  to  a  greater  height  than  the  ancient 
Chaldeans,  and  many  of  their  formulas  of  propitia- 
ti<m  and  expulsion  of  spirits  and  deminis  have  been 
deciphered  from  the  cuneiform  inscriptions.  They 
practised  many  forms  of  magic,  but  especially 
astrology,  which  was  raised  by  a  succession  of 
astronomers  to  the  dignity  of  a  jiseudo-science. 
In  the  same  way  Egyptian  magic  was  fornmlated 
into  elaborate  system  and  litnal  which  far 
surpassed  in  completeness  anything  to  be  found 
anicmg  the  ancient  Greeks  or  Honians.  The  former 
held  the  same  views  of  magic  as  the  less  cultured 
races  around  them,  and  the  philosophy  of  the 
Pythagoreans  and  Neoplatonists  carried  mystical 
symbolism  and  magical  siieculations  further  into 
new  regions  of  theurgy  and  t  haumaturgy.  Theurgic 
magic  also  was  highly  developed  in  Alexandria, 
and  it  descended  into  meilie\al  and  modern  Europe 
bearing  many  marks  of  .lewish  speculatiim. 

Grimm  .s.'iys  Miracle  (loitidcni)  is  the  salutary, 
Magic  (zauhcrn)  the  htirtful  or  unlawful,  use  of 
supernatural  powers :  miracle  is  divine,  magic 
devilish ;  not  till  the  gods  were  degraded  and 
despised  was  magic  im]nited  to  them.  Man  can 
heal  or  poison  by  directing  natural  forces  to  good 
or  to  evil ;  sometimes  he  even  shares  the  gift  of 
miracle;  but  when  he  pushes  the  beneficent  exer- 
cise of  his  powers  to  the  suiiernatural  point,  he 
learns  to  conjure.  The  origin  of  all  conjuring 
must  be  traced  directly  to  the  most  sacred  callings, 
which  contained  in  themselves  all  the  wisdom  of 
heathendom — viz.  religious  worship  and  the  art  of 
song.  Sacrificing  and  singing  came  to  mean  con- 
juring ;  the  jiriest  and  the  ])oet,  confidants  of  the 
gods  and  participants  of  divine  inspiration,  stand 
next  door  to  the  fortune-teller  and  magician.  By 
the  side  of  divine  worship  practices  of  dark  sorcery 
grew  up  by  way  of  exception,  not  of  contrast. 
After  the  introduction  of  (  liristiauity  all  heathen 
notionsand  practices  were  declared  to  be  deceit  and 
.sinful  delusion  :  the  old  gods  fell  back  and  chang'ed 
into  de\  ils,  and  all  that  pertained  to  their  worship 
into  ilevilish  j\igglery.  I'resently  there  sjirang  uji 
tales  of  the  Evil  t)ne's  immediate  connection  with 
sorcery  and  witchcraft ;  and  out  of  this  proceeded 
the  most  incredible,  most  cruel  jumbling  up  of 
imagination  and  reality.  The  great  distinguisldng 
mark  of  sorcery  was  the  desire  to  work  mischief, 
and  thus  this  definition  involves  the  same  ethical 
condemnation  which  ma<le  Plato  denounce  sorcery 
as  an  illegitimate  method  of  forcing  the  power  of 
the  gods  into  the  service  of  man.  It  was  from  the 
beginning  the  inveterate  antagonist  of  religion, 
originating  in  dim  and  cmifu.sed  yet  independent 
glimpses  into  the  secrets  of  nature  ;  ami  through- 
out It  we  trace  the  elemental  idea  of  an  ojiposi 
tion  to  the  divine  will,  it  being  imiilierl  thai 
the  power  of  influencing  jind  altering  his  i>hysical 
conditions  rests  within  the  power  of  man  him- 
self. The  sorcerer  stands  aloof  from  the  ordinary 
ailoration  of  supernatural  powers,  employing  occult 
faculties  and  devices  which  he  supposes  to  be 
within  his  own  control.  Hence  sorcery  early 
becomes  ilifl'ercntiated  from  religion — on  the  one 
side  legitimate  means  of  contact  with  the  divine, 
as  adoration,  inspiration,  vows,  oracles,  miracles, 


MAGIC 


MAGIC    LANTERN 


r93 


omens,  and  signs ;  on  the  other,  th.aumatui'ry 
by  occult,  incomprehensible  arts,  skill  in  natural 
magic,  mesmerism,  rauuibo-jumbo,  ami  impos- 
ture. Originally  magic  was  the  iinlimentarv  be- 
ginning of  medicine  ami  science,  but  soon  it  fell 
back  into  occult  and  mystic  devices,  while  two 
elements  present  in  its  lirst  inception — the  religi- 
ous sentiment  and  real  experimental  knowledge — 
developed  into  morality  ami  science.  Magic,  says 
Bastian,  is  the  physics  of  ra.iukind  in  the  state  of 
nature.  It  rests  on  the  beginning  of  induction, 
which  remains  without  result  only  because  in  its 
imperfect  judgments  by  analogy  it  raises  the  ^Jf/.s^ 
hoc  to  the  propter  hoc.  The  notion  that  the  gods 
were  indifferent  to  the  fate  of  mortals  opened  a 
door  to  sorcery  for  finding  relief  from  sutl'ering,  but 
gradually  tlie  deteriorating  influences  made  way 
and  the  criminal  side  of  the  miraculous  became 
specially  the  function  of  the  craft.  Moilern  India, 
says  Sir  Alfred  f^ivall,  swarms  with  astrologers, 
soothsayers,  and  interpreters  of  dreams,  wlio  watch 
n.ature  to  ascertain  the  will  of  the  gods  ;  but  these 
are  ipiite  distinct  from  the  sorcerers,  w-lio  work 
independently  of  them,  and  soon  become  knaves 
and  clieats,  religions  and  medical,  preying  upon 
the  ignorance  of  their  dupes.  Among  the  iloham- 
medans  magic  is  rife,  though  condemned  by  rigid 
ilivines ;  and  almost  everybody  believes  in  the 
etiicacy  of  amulets,  charms,  spells,  exorcism,  magic 
mirrors,  cabalistic  figures,  divination,  sortilege, 
and  the  like.  If  a  man  devotes  the  power  he 
acquires  to  good  ends  he  is  held  comparatively 
innocent ;  but  he  may  go  on  to  acquire  the  power 
of  commanding  the  evu  genii  to  do  him  all  kinds 
of  wicked  service,  which  is  execrated  as  black  or 
Satanic  magic. 

The  superstition  of  magic  and  witchcraft  belongs 
es.seutially  to  tlxe  lower  levels  of  civilisation,  and  the 
reput.ation  of  it  clings  to  any  survivoi's  of  an  older 
nationality,  like  the  Lavas  of  Burma  and  the  Finns 
and  Lajjps  among  their  Scandinavian  neighbours. 
Even  in  Scotland  robust  Presbyterians  long  thought 
more  highly  of  the  Popish  priests  than  of  their  own 
clergy  for  casting  out  devils,  laying  ghosts,  and 
curing  madness.  All  magical  reasoning  is  based 
upon  the  inherent  belief  of  primitive  man  that 
casual  connection  in  thought  is  equivalent  to 
causal  connection  in  fact.  The  savage  ever  con- 
founds an  ideal  with  a  real  connection  ;  lie  confuses 
subjective  and  objective  relations.  To  him  it  is 
merely  a  matter  of  e.Kperience  that  all  nature  is 
jicrsonal  and  animate,  and  that  human  agencies 
can  work  supernaturally.  He  is  constantly  seek- 
ing an  explanation  of  physical  facts,  and  lie  lills 
up  his  scanty  knowledge  of  natural  causes  with 
hypothetical  causes  of  a  metaphysical  and  super- 
natural character.  This  confusion  of  imagination 
and  reality  produces  a  state  of  mind  capable  of 
accounting  for  the  whole  business  of  magical  arts 
and  magical  relations,  the  oidy  real  connection 
between  which  is  mere  analogy  and  symbolism. 
Coincidences  ever  strike  the  primitive  man  as 
things  in  themselves  significant,  and  post  hoc  ergo 
propter  hoc  is  to  his  mind  a  perfectly  valid  logical 
method.  Nor  does  his  sorcerer  always  need  to 
be  successful — ^one  lucky  hit  outweighs  half-a- 
dozen  failures,  and  the  sorcerer,  through  a  kind 
provision  of  nature,  usually  ends  with  being  him- 
self more  or  le.ss  the  dupe  of  his  own  powers. 
Thus  magic  may  develop  into  elaljorate  and 
systematic  pseudo-science — a  sincere  though  fal- 
lacious ]>hilosopliy  evolved  by  processes  in  great 
measure  still  intelligible  to  our  own  minds. 
Augury,  divination,  oneiromancy,  chiromancy,  and 
.astrology  a<lmitted  of  being  gravely  formulated 
ami  discussed,  and  even  among  19th-century 
ICnglishmen  and  Americans  may  be  seen  not  a 
few  strange  revivals  of  magicians  like   Apollonius 


of  Tyana  and  lamblichiis,  as  well  as  of  savage 
philoso]ihy  and  peasant  folklore,  in  the  freaks  of 
so-calleil  spiritualism,  with  its  voices,  its  spiiit- 
writing,  its  untying  of  ropes,  and  its  rising  and 
floating  in  the  air. 

The  jirimitive  mind  over  needs  m.aterial  support 
for  the  religious  sentiment,  and  in  this  constant 
condition  we  find  the  foundation  of  fetichism  and 
idolatry.  Everywhere  the  savage  sees  a  connection 
between  an  object  and  a  visible  rejiresentation  of 
it  :  hence  the  philosophy  of  making  an  image  of 
a  pei'S(m  to  be  injured  by  1)urning  it,  melting  it 
aw.ay,  or  sticking  pins  into  it — of  which  we  have 
still  ,a  surviving  sliadow  in  our  custom  of  burning 
an  unpopular  person  in  elligy.  Again,  a  disease 
tormenting  a  man  may  be  driven  into  an  image  of 
clay  or  the  like,  and  in  the  same  elemental  idea 
of  connection  between  object  and  image  we  find 
explanation  of  the  fear  of  cli])pings  of  the  hair  or 
palings  of  the  nails  falling  into  the  possession  of 
an  enemy,  our  own  lingering  liking  lor  locks  of 
hair  of  those  we  love,  as  well  as  many  of  the  usages 
of  early  medicine,  sympathetic  powder,  love-potions, 
the  doctrine  of  Signatures  (q.v.).  A  similar  con- 
nection exists  somehow  between  a  thing  and  its 
name  :  hence  a  man  may  Ije  Ijcwitched  through  a 
wicked  use  of  his  name,  and  a  sorcerer  may  force 
the  hand  of  a  divinity  by  invoking  with  bis  name. 
Accordingly,  in  the  history  of  )n-imitive  religions 
we  find  tlie  most  sacred  names  kept  strictly  secret, 
as  by  the  Jews,  Moslems,  and  the  Komans  of  their 
tutelar  deity. 

Magic  was  strictly  condemned  under  the  Levitical 
law,  and  by  the  early  Christians  was  regarded  as 
unlawful  miracle.  In  the  middle  ages  it  continued 
to  be  studied  in  its  less  harmful  sides,  as  astrology 
and  alchemy,  and  it  must  not  be  forgotten  that  in 
the  one  department  it  was  the  parent  of  scientific 
astronomy,  in  the  other  of  modern  <'hemistiy. 
Yet  the  reign  of  imperfect  analogy  has  given  way 
but  slowly  before  a  real  scientific  method  ;  and 
though  the  old  theoiy  of  demoniacal  possession 
has  been  exchanged  for  a  real  knowlcilge  of  the 
laws  that  govern  lunacy,  and  occult  sympathetic 
operations  have  widened  out  into  the  \ast  sciences 
ot  pharmacy  and  medicine,  yet  primitive  magical 
conceptions  still  cling  closely  to  our  jieople,  and 
form  everywhere  the  heart  of  popular  folklore. 

See  the  articles  Alchemy,  Animis.m,  .A..strolog v, 
Desionology,  Devil,  Bivixatiox,  Fetichism,  Folk- 
lore, Idolatry,  Ixcaxtations,  and  'Witchcraft  ;  also 
Enneiiioser,  Ocschichte  tier  Muiji<  ("id  ed.  1844 ;  trans,  by 
W.  Hewitt,  2  vols.  1854);  Maury,  La  Maiiic  el  /'Astro- 
lopic  (4th  ed.  1877);  Leiiorniant,  Xo  M«<iie  chcz  Ics 
Chaldfenx  (1874;  Eng.  trans.  1877);  Victor  Rydberg, 
Mufiic  of  the  Middle  Ai/rs  (Eng.  trans.  New  York, 
1<'<70);  and  Fabart,  Hinfoire  pliilosoiihi(/ue  ct  politique 
de  I'Orrulte,  Magie,  &c.  (188.5)  ;  also  Caspari.f/rjicsc/a'fAie 
der  Mcnscklieit  (2d  ed.  1877).  and  Tylor's  Karl;/  Historii 
of  Mankind  (chap,  vi.)  and  Jirimitive  Culture  (chap, 
i'v.).  Hoist's  Zuidnrliibliolhek  (G  vols.  Mainz,  1820-21;) 
is  a  perfect  cyclojixdia  of  the  doctrine  and  inethods  of 
magic;  a  complete  bibliography  of  its  literature  is 
Griisse's  Jiihlioijrapliie  der  wiclitiysten  in  das  Gehicl  dca 
Zauber-y  Oeinta--,  und  aon^tifjcn  Abertflaubens  einschla- 
tjenden  iVerkc  ( Lcip.  1843 ). 

Magic  Lantern,  an  optical  instrument  said  to 
have  been  invented  by  Athana-ius  Kircbcr  in  1(>46, 
by  means  of  which  magnified  images  of  small  |>ictures 
are  thrown  upon  a  wall  or  screen.  The  instrumenl 
con.sists  of  a  l.intern  containing  a  powerful  argand 
lamp  or  lime-light  arrangement  (see  Limk-lic;ht)  ; 
in  the  side  of  the  lantern  is  inserted  a  hori/ontal 
tube,  the  axis  of  which  is  on  a  level  with  the  centre 
of  the  llamc,  and  the  light  is  generally  made  to 
pass  through  the  tube  by  reflection  from  a  concave 
mirror  i)l,iceil  on  the  opiiosite  side  of  the  lantern. 
The  tube  is  furnished  with  two  lenses,  one  at  each 
und ;  the  inner  one,  the  condenser,  is  a  large  lens 


(94 


MAGIC    SQUARES 


MAGINN 


of  short  focus,  to  condense  a  strong  liglit  on  tlie 
liiiliire,  whicli  is  inserted  into  the  tube,  between 
the  lenses,  througli  a  transvei-se  slit.  The  other 
end  of  the  tube  is  fitted  with  a  doulile  convex  lens, 
or,  better,  a  corrected  combination  of  lenses,  which 
receives  the  rays  after  passing  through  the  picture, 
and  throws  them  upon  the  screen  or  wall.  The 
pictures  are  formed  on  glass  slides — generally  '.i^ 
inches  s(iuare — with  transparent  coloured  varnish 
or  by  means  of  photography  on  a  collodion,  gelatine, 
or  carbon  tissue  film  on  the  glass,  and  mnst  be 
inserted  into  the  tube  in  an  in\erted  position,  and 
with  the  film  or  painted  side  nearest  the  screen,  in 
order  that  the  images  may  appear  erect  and 
unreversed.  If  the  screen  on  which  the  image  is 
thrown  be  at  too  great  a  distance,  the  image  will 
become  indistinct  from  the  lessened  intensity  of  the 
light.  This  instrument  is  sometimes  used  as  a 
toy,  hut  is  also  frequently  employed  to  produce 
enlarged  representations  of  astronomical  and  other 
scientific  diagiams,  and  enlargements  of  photo- 
grajihic  views,  so  that  they  may  be  well  seen  by  an 
audience.  Phantasmagoria,  dissolving  views,  iS:c. 
are  produced  by  a  particular  manipulation  of  the 
same  instrument. 

^lagic  Squares  are  sets  of  different  numbers, 
each  column  of  w  Inch,  whether  horizontal,  vertical, 
or  diagonal,  adds  alike. 


1 

1872 

10    s 

12 

6 

3  1  1870 

7 

9 

1873  1    2 

1871 

4 

5  1   11 

420 

SOS   453 

510 

523 

440   471 

457 

479 

441  1  539 

432 

469 

502  i  423 

492 

Fi.'.  1. 


Fig.  2. 


The  above  are  two  examples  of  a  magic  square 
with  the  same  summation  (in  either  case  1891). 
Considering  the  dilliculty  with  which  a  person 
without  previous  knowledge  could  make  even 
one  such  square,  it  inav  surprise  manv  to  hear 
that  there  are  more  ^than  700,000,000,000,000 
(seven  hundred  billion)  magic  squares  of  this  root 
(4),  with  the  summation  of  1891,  each  composed 
of  dillerent  numbers,  or  with  a  ditt'erent  arrange- 
ment of  the  same  numbers.  Fig.  1  is  so  con- 
structed that  a  great  variety  of  other  squares 
may  be  made  from  it  by  altering  the  four  highest 
numbers  in  it.  Thus,  if  13,  14,  15,  and  16  be 
substituted  for  1870,  1871,  &c.  respectively,  we 
get  the  smallest  4-s(iuare  possible,  with  the  sum- 
mation 34.  It  was  at  one  time  thought  that  magic 
squares  could  only  be  composed  of  arithmetical  or 
other  symmetrical  series  of  numbers ;  but  an  ex- 
amination of  l<"ig.  2  shows  that  that  idea  was 
erroneous. 

Within  the  compass  of  a  short  article  it  is  im- 
possible to  describe  adequately  any  of  the  many 
rules  for  making  magic  s(]uaies.  The  following 
figures  will,  however,  give  simie  idea  of  the  most 
im])ortant  method,  that  of  superposition,  invented 
by  l)e  la  Hire.  It  is  most  readily  applied  to  uihl 
squares,  more  especially  to  those  whose  roots  are 
prime  numlier.s.  We  therefore  take  the  5-square 
tor  our  example. 


1 

3  1  5   2 

2  1  4   1 
13   5 
6  1  S  1  4 
4:13 

4 

5 
4 
3 

3 

2 

1 

2 

6 

5 

0 
20 

15   10 

5   0 

10  20 

20 

10 

15 

0 

15 

5 

20 

0  16 

10 

15  1  10 

20   5   0  1 

Fig.  :i. 


Fig.  4. 


Each  row  of  the  above  squares  contains  the  same 


numbers  and  in  the  same  order  relatively  to  one 
another.  But  in  fig.  3  the  first  number  of  each 
row  is  the  same  as  the  t/u'rd  of  the  row  above, 
whilst  in  fig.  4  it  is  the  foiirtli.  If  now  these  two 
squares  be  combined  by  adding  together  the  num- 
bers that  are  in  corresponding  cells,  the  resulting 
square  will  be  magic.  In  this  case  it  will  have 
the  summation  of  05,  and  the  top  row  w  ill  be  6,  3, 
20,  12,  24.  By  altering  the  positions  of  the  unin- 
bers  in  the  top  rows,  and  making  corresponding 
alterations  in  the  others,  3600  distinct  varieties  of 
this  magic  square  may  be  obtained. 

Although  numerous  persons  have  written  on 
ma":ic  squares  (among  whom  may  be  mentioned 
Leibnitz.  Frenicle.  De  Morgan,  Bacliet,  Ozanani, 
Montucla,  Frost,  and  Cram ),  the  literature  on  the 
subject  is  by  no  means  easily  accessible.  Perhaps 
the  best  known  work  is  Hutton's  MtitlieiitatU-al 
liecreations :  and  in  this  will  be  found  descriptions 
of  other  kinds  of  magic  squares,  such  as  the 
Bordered  and  Tessellated,  which  may  brietly  be 
describeil  as  magic  squares  within  magic  squares. 
Kasi/:  magic  squares  (so  named  l>y  Frost  from 
his  place  of  residence  in  India)  are  squares 
whose  magicality  is  not  destroyed  by  repeatedly 
removing  the  first  column  or  row  to  the  last 
place,  or  vice  vcrsd.  All  squares  with  prime 
roots,  made  by  De  la  Hire's  method  of  super- 
position, are  nasik.  Even  squares  can  also  be 
made  nasik.  Fig.  1,  with  the  numbers  13,  14,  15, 
ami  16  substituted  for  the  four  highest,  makes  a 
nasik  square. 

Ulas'ilp,  or  Megilp,  a  composition  used  by 
artists  in  oil-colours  as  a  medium  and  for  glazes. 
It  is  made  of  linseedoil  and  mastic  varnish. 
Robertson's  medium,  which  is  similar  but  dries 
quicker,  is  now  more  used  than  magilp. 

UlagilllS,  a  remarkable  Gasteropod  found  on 
the  coral  reefs  of  w  arm  eastern  seas.  The  young 
animal  settles  on  the  growing  coral  at  the  ol)vious 
risk  of  being  gradually  surrounded  and  smothered. 
This  is  avoided,  however,  Ijy  an  entire  change  in 
the  form  of  the  shell,  which  is  diverted  from  its 
original  spiral  typo  and  grows  out  into  a  long 
irregular  tube.  '  A  neck-and-neck  race  is  kept  up 
until  the  mollusc  or  the  coral  dies.'  As  the  tube 
lengthens  sometimes  to  2  or  3  feet  the  animal  shifts 
into  it  completely,  and  the  original  whorls  are 
filled  up  with  lime. 

llasillll.  WiLi.l.vM,  one  of  the  most  brilliant 
writers  of  his  day,  born  at  Cork,  10th  July  1793, 
the  son  of  a  .schoolmaster,  and  educated  at  Trinity 
College,  Dublin,  where  he  graduated  U.A.  in 
1811,  and  left  a  brilliant  reputation  for  precocious 
scholarship.  At  twenty -six  he  received  his  de"ree 
of  LL.D.  from  his  college,  being  the  first  who  hail 
ever  received  it  so  y<mng.  He  taught  in  Cork  for 
ten  years,  and  in  1823  removed  to  London  topui-sue 
the  life  of  letters.  His  first  coiitri})Utioii  to  BUiel- 
wood's  Magazine — a  Latin  translation  of  Clicrij 
Cliase — appeared  in  1819,  ami  from  that  date  for 
nine  years  scarcely  a  luinilier  appeared  without 
an  article  from  his  pen.  In  1824  Nlurray  started 
the  short-lived  Iteprescntadve,  a  daily  newspaper, 
and  Maginn  was  sent  to  Paris  to  act  as  foreign 
correspondent.  In  1828  lie  joined  the  stall' of  the 
S/<ni(/a)(/,  and  he  was  one  of  the  originators  of 
Fiascr's  Magazine  in  1830.  His  contributions  to 
Fraser  were  as  'lively,  learned,  and  libellous'  as 
those  to  Blacluood,  "and  one  led  to  a  harmless 
duel  between  the  author  and  the  Hon.  Grantley 
Berkeley.  The  remainder  of  Maginn's  career  was 
irregular  and  unhappy.  His  habits  of  intemperance 
gained  the  nuistery  over  him,  and  he  was  often 
arrested  and  in  jail  for  debt,  without  losing,  how- 
ever, in  the  least  his  brightness  or  good-humour.  He 
wrote  his  Shakespeare  Papers  for  Blackwood  in  1837, 


MAGISTRATE 


MAGNA    GR^BCIA 


ri)5 


i: 


ami  in  1840  he  Iwgan  his  Magazine  Miscellanies, 
bij  Doctor  Maffinii,  whicli  did  not  extend  heyond 
ten  nurabei-s.  In  1842  he  was  a^ain  iinprisonetl  in 
the  Fleet,  and,  having  jiassed  tlirongh  the  bank- 
ruptcy court,  was  reduced  in  fast  failing  healtli  to 
a  state  of  ijreat  poverty.  Help  came  from  Sir 
Robert  Peel  almost  too  late,  for  poor  '  bright, 
broken  Maginn '  died  at  Waltonon-Thames,  '21st 
August  1S4"2.  He  wrote  two  forgotten  romances, 
]Viiitctiall,  or  the  Diii/s  of  George  IV.  (182:,  a 
>arody  on  the  historical  novel,  and  Horace  Smith's 
'rambleti/e  House  in  particulai),  and  Jo/ni  Manesti/ 
( 1844),  completed  after  his  death  by  Charles  Oilier. 
His  Homeric  Ballads  were  ptiblisliod  in  1849.  A 
collection  of  his  papers  was  editetl  by  K.  S.  Mac- 
kenzie ( 5  vols.  New  York,  ISoo-.^T ) :  and  his  Mis- 
cellanies, Prose  and  Verse,  bv  R.  W.  Montagu  (2 
vols.  Loud.  1885). 

Magistrate.  See  Borough,  and  Justice  of 
THE  Peace. 

Milgliabechi.  A>"toxio,  bibliophile,  was  born 
at  Florence  in  1633,  and  till  his  fortieth  year  was 
a  goldsmith.  From  youth  upwanls,  however,  he 
displayed  an  inordinate  passion  for  the  acquisition 
of  book-knowledge ;  and,  having  mastered  Greek, 
Latin,  and  Hebrew,  he  literally  entombed  liimself 
among  books,  of  which  disorderly  piles  encumljereil 
every  portion  of  his  dwelling.  In  his  daily  habits 
he  grew  regardless  of  the  decencies  of  life  ;  and 
such  wa.s  his  avidity  of  study  that  he  finally  denied 
himself  even  the  requisite  intervals  of  repose.  His 
memory  was  prodigious,  and  enabled  him  not  only 
minutely  to  retain  the  contents  of  his  multitudin- 
ous books,  but  also  to  supply,  on  occasion,  the 
most  exact  reference  to  any  particular  page  or 
paragraph,  the  place  of  each  book  being  indicated 
with  precision  in  the  midst  of  their  seemingly  in- 
extricable masses.  Magliabechi  was  regarded  as 
the  literarj-  prodigy  of  his  times.  In  1673  he  was 
appointed  court-librarian  by  the  Grand-duke  of 
Tuscany ;  and  the  many  tributes  of  respect 
tendered  by  royal  and  distinguished  pereonages  to 
his  wonderful  enidition  fostered  in  an  inordinate 
degree  his  love  of  fame  and  praise,  which  rendered 
him  intolerant  of  literary  merit  in  others,  and 
involved  him  in  several  bitter  literary  squabbles. 
He  died  at  Florence  on  4th  July  1714,  leaving  no 
written  record  of  his  immense  encvclopa-dic  know- 
ledge. His  valuable  library  of  "30,000  vols,  he 
bequeathed  to  the  Grand-duke,  who  made  it  over 
to  the  city  of  Florence ;  it  is  now  a  free  library, 
anil  beai-s  the  name  of  its  collector.  See  John  Hill 
liurton's  Book-Hiintcr  (1862). 

_  Miisna  Cliai'ta,  the  Great  Charter  granted  by 
King  .John  of  England  to  the  barons,  has  since  that 
time  been  viewed  as  the  basis  of  the  English  con- 
stitution. The  oppressions  of  a  tyrannical  sovereign 
compelled  a  confederacy  of  the  barons  or  tenants- 
in-ehief  of  the  crown,  who  took  up  arms  for  the 
redre.ss  of  their  grievances.  They  demanded  the 
restoration  of  the  laws  of  Edward  the  Confessor 
ami  Henri'  I.  ;  laws  which  combined  Norman 
feudalism  with  Saxon  and  Danish  institutions.  A 
conference  w.-vs  held  at  Uunnymede,  on  the  Thames 
near  Eghani,  where  king  and  barons  encamped 
opposite  each  other ;  and,  after  several  days' 
debate,  John  signed  and  sealed  the  charter  with 
great  solemnity  on  15tli  June  121.5. 

The  Great  Charter  provided  against  the  abuse  of 
the  royal  prerogative  by  protecting  the  rights  and 
obligations  of  the  feudal  proprietor.  It  redressed  a 
variety  of  grievances  connected  with  feudal  tenures, 
some  of  which  are  long  since  obsolete.  Minute 
provisiims  were  made  regarding  the  ward,  relief, 
and  marriage  of  heirs,  and  rights  of  their  widows. 
No  .scutage  or  aid  was  to  be  imposed  without  the 
authority  of  the  common  council  of  the  kingilom. 


except  on  the  three  great  feudal  occasions  of  the 
king's  cajitivity,  the  knighting  of  his  eldest  son,  and 
the  marriage  of  his  eldest  daughter.  The  liberties 
of  the  city  of  London  and  other  towns,  burghs,  and 
ports  were  declared  inviolable.  Freedom  of  com- 
merce was  guaranteed  to  foreign  merchants.  Justice 
was  no  longer  to  be  sold,  denied,  or  delayed. 
The  Court  of  Common  Pleas,  insteail  of,  as  for- 
merly, following  the  king's  [lerson  in  all  his  pro- 
gresses, was  permanently  fixed  at  Westminster, 
assizes  were  appointed  to  be  lichi  in  the  several 
counties,  annual  circuits  established,  and  regula- 
tions made  for  the  etliciency  of  the  inferior  courts. 
Life,  liberty,  and  property  were  protected  from 
arbitrary  spoliation,  and  none  wiis  to  be  con- 
demned to  torfeit  these  l)ut  by  lawful  judgment  of 
his  peers  or  by  the  law  of  the  land.  No  one  was 
to  be  condemned  on  rumours  or  suspicions,  but 
only  on  evidence  of  witnesses.  Fines  im])Osed  were 
in  all  cases  to  be  proportioned  to  the  magnitude  of 
the  offence,  and  even  the  villein  or  rustic  was  not 
to  be  deprived  of  his  necessary  chattels.  The  testa- 
mentary power  of  the  subject  was  recognised  over 
))art  of  his  personal  estate,  and  the  rest  w.-us  to  be 
divided  between  his  widow  and  children.  The 
independence  of  the  church  was  also  provided  for. 

These  are  the  most  important  features  of  that 
Charter  which  occupies  so  conspicuous  a  place  in 
history,  and  which  establishes  the  supremacy  of  the 
law  of  England  over  the  will  of  the  monarch.  A 
charter  was  at  the  same  time  granted  to  mitigate 
the  oppressions  of  the  Forest  Laws  (q.v. ).  The 
terms  dictated  by  the  barons  to  John  included  the 
surrender  of  London  to  their  charge,  and  the  Tower 
to  the  custody  of  the  primate  till  the  15th  of 
August  following,  or  till  the  execution  of  the 
several  articles  of  the  Great  Charter.  Twenty-live 
barons,  as  conservators  of  the  public  liberties,  were 
empowered  to  make  war  against  the  sovereij'n  in 
case  of  his  violation  of  the  Charter.  Several  smenin 
ratifications  were  required  by  the  barons  both  from 
John  and  from  Henry  111. ;  and  a  copy  of  the  Great 
Charter  was  sent  to  ever}-  cathedral,  and  ordered  to 
be  read  publicly  twice  a  year.  The  copy  preserved 
in  Lincoln  Cathedral  is  regarded  as  the  most 
accurate  and  complete ;  and  a  facsimile  of  it  was 
published  by  the  Records  Commissioners  in  1865. 
See  Bishop  Stubbs's  Select  Charters  { 1870). 

Magna  Crflecia  (Gr.  Mcgalc  Hellas),  the 
name  given  in  ancient  times  to  the  Greek  colonies 
of  Southern  Italy.  The  appellation  must  have 
been  currrent  at  an  early  period.  Polybius  says  it 
was  used  in  the  time  of  Pythagoras.  Some  writers 
include  under  the  term  the  Greek  cities  in  Sicily, 
others  restrict  it  to  those  situated  on  the  Gulf  of 
Tarentum  ;  but  in  general  it  is  used  to  denote  all 
the  (ireek  cities  in  the  simtli  of  Italy,  exclusive  of 
those  in  Sicily.  The  oldest  settlement  is  believed 
to  have  been  Cunue,  though  it  is  doubtful  whether 
it  and  its  colonies,  Dica\arcliia  and  Ncapolis,  were 
really  embraced  under  the  designation  Magna 
Gra'cia.  The  period  assigned  to  its  foundation — 
soon  after  the  Trojan  war — is  obviously  fanciful. 
The  other  more  important  Greek  settlements  in 
Italy  were  Sybaris  (founded  by  the  Acha-ans,  720 
B.C.),  Croton  (by  the  Acha'ans,  710  B.C.),  Tarentum 
(by  the  Spartans,  707  B.C.),  Locri  (by  the  Locrians, 
710  B.C.  :  acccn-ding  to  others,  thirty  or  forty  years 
later),  Rhegiuni  (by  the  Chalcidlans;  date  of 
origin  not  known,  but  believed  to  be  earlier  than 
Sybaris),  .Mcla|iontutu  (by  the  Acli;rans,  700-6511 
B.C.),  Siris  (by  lonians  ;  date  unknown),  and 
V'elia  (by  the  Phoca'ans,  rAO  B.C.).  These  cities 
became  in  their  turn  the  parents  of  many  others. 
Of  the  earlier  history  of  Alagmi  Gra-cia  very  little 
authentic  information  has  survived.  The  settle- 
ments appear  to  have  risen  rapidly  to  jiower  and 
wealth,  partly  by  the  brisk  commerce  whicli  they 


796 


MAGNESIA 


MAGNETISM 


carrieil  on  with  the  niother-coHiitrv,  and  partly 
also,  it  is  conjcotuieil,  by  an  anialjraniatioii  with 
the  Pelasgic  ( and  therefore  kindred )  natives  of  the 
interior,  as  at  Locri.  Alinut  .5.30  B.C.  Pythagora.s, 
the  philosopher,  arrived  at  Crotona,  and  soon 
acquired  supreme  influence  in  Magna  Gra-cia, 
though  it  did  not  last  long.  The  quarrels  between 
the  different  cities  were  often  bitter  and  liloody ; 
the  most  notable  cases  were  the  destruction  of 
Siris  by  the  Achivan  cities  and  of  Sybaris  by  Croton 
(510).  Besides  this  they  were  hotly  ]iressecl  at 
times  liy  the  Lucanians  and  Briittians  :  and  fin.ally, 
27'2-'27I  B.C.,  the  Romans  conquered  the  whole  of 
Lower  Italy.  Long  before  this  several  of  the  cities 
had  disappeared.  The  longest  to  survive  was 
Tarentum. 

See  tile  separate  articles  on  the  cities ;  also  Lenorniant, 
La  Grande-Grece  ( 3  vols.  1881 )  and  A  trovers  VApnlk'  H 
la  Lvcanie  (2  vols.  1883),  or  tlie  more  popular  Land  of 
Manfred,  by  Mrs  Janet  Ross  (18S9). 

Mnsiiesia.    See  Magnesium. 

Magnesia,  an  ancient  city  of  Ionia  in  Asia 
Minor,  .situated  nearly  10  miles  NE.  of  Miletus 
in  the  valley  of  the  Masander.  It  was  a  wealthy 
and  prosperous  city  until  after  it  fell  into  the  hands 
of  the  Romans,  in  spite  of  its  having  been  destroyed 
during  the  Cimmerian  invasion  about  660  B.C. 
Here  stood  a  famous  temple  to  Artemis,  the 
remains  of  which  have  been  excavated  ;  and  here 
Themistocles,  the  Athenian  patriot  and  statesman, 
died  (449  B.C.).  It  was  called  Magnesia  ad  Ma?an- 
drum,  to  distinguish  it  from  another,  M.VGSESl.v 
.\D  Sll'VU'M,  which  stood  on  the  Hermns,  near 
Mount  Sipylus.  Beside  this  town  Scipio  defeate<l 
Antiochus  of  Syria  in  190  B.C.  It  is  now  called 
Manissa,  and  is'  a  town  of  50,000  inhabitants,  41 
miles  NE.  of  Smyrna  by  rail. — The  easternmost 
division  of  ancient  Thessaly  in  Greece  also  bore 
this  name. — To  one  of  the  places  called  Magnesia, 
most  probably  that  in  Lydia,  we  owe  the  terms 
magnet,  magnetism,  magnesia,  and  apparently  also 
manganese. 

Magiiesian  Limestone.    See  Dolomite. 

.Masnesilim  (sym.  Mg,  equiv.  24)  is  a  metal 
whicli  is  very  widely  distributed  over  the  globe. 
It  is  present  in  many  minerals — e.g.  dolomite — a 
carbonate  of  lime  and  magnesia ;  asbestos — a  sili- 
cate of  lime  and  magnesia ;  and  nieerschanm — a 
silicate  of  magnesia.  It  exists  in  mineral  waters 
and  in  the  aca,  as  sulphate,  and  as  chloride,  the 
former  being  known  as  Epsom  salts.  It  wiis  from 
the  Ejisom  spring,  in  1695,  that  Drew  extracted 
this  well-known  salt,  and  in  the  beginning  of  the 
ISth  century  Magnesia,  alba,  so  called  to  distin- 
guish it  from  what  was  already  known  as  M<((i- 
iiKsia  nirjra  (black  oxide  of  manganese— so  called 
from  its  resemblance  in  colour,  wei<;ht,  iSrc.  to  the 
magnet)  was  discovered.  The  metal  was  first  pre- 
pared by  Davy,  and  for  long  its  manufacture  was 
limited  to  a  small  scale.  Now,  liowever,  it  is 
made  in  quantity  by  fusing  together  the  chlorides 
of  potiV-ssium  .and  magnesium  and  tluor  spar,  and 
ailding  metallic  sodium  with  great  care.  The 
crude  metal  is  finally  distilled  and  pressed  in  a 
senii-lluid  state  into  ribbon  or  wire. 

Magnesium  li;us  a  silver-white  colour,  which  is 
tarnislied  by  moist  air.  It  is  a  very  light  metal, 
its  specific  gravity  being  only  1"75.  It  is  readily 
volatile,  and,  when  liglited,  "imms  in  air  with  an 
inten.sely  brilliant  light  rich  in  chemical  rays.  On 
this  account  it  was,  till  superseded  by  the  electric 
light,  much  useil  in  pliotograjvliy,  while  in  signal- 
ling and  pyrotecliny  it  plays  ;in  important  jiart. 

When  magnesium  burns  in  air  it  forms  a  white 
ash  consisting  of  the  o.vide,  magnesia,  MgO  (which 
may  be  also  prepared  by  heating  the  cailionate). 
This  is  a  very  infusible   substance,  and  is  much 


n.sed  in  medicine  under  the  n.anie  of  calcine<l  mag- 
nesia. The  carbonate,  MgCOj,  is  f(mnd  in  nature, 
but  for  medical  puriioses  it  is  prejiared  l)y 
precipitating  a  soluble  magnesi\im  salt  witli 
carbonate  of  soda.  According  as  it  is  prepared 
in  the  hot  or  cold,  the  resulting  carbonate  forms 
the  ponderous  and  dense  or  the  light  variety. 
Although  insoluble  in  water,  this  substance  readily 
dissidves  in  water  containing  carbonic  acid,  and 
this  solution  is  known  as  tlnid  magnesia.  The 
sulphate,  MgSO^TU.O,  or  Epsom  salts,  occurs  in 
nature,  and  is  well  Tinown  as  a  domestic  remedy. 
It  is  much  employed  in  febrile  all'ections,  but  it 
may  be  used  in  any  case  in  whicli  a  mild  Imt 
efiicient  laxative  is  required.  1  ts  dose  varies  from 
i  to  1  ounce,  but  in  order  to  promote  its  full 
efficacy  it  slioulil  be  taken  along  with  copious 
draughts  of  water.  In  combination  with  infusion 
of  senna  it  forms  the  ordinary  black  draught. 
Magnesia  and  the  carbonate  are  employed  in 
small  doses  as  an  antacid,  but  in  larger  quantity 
they  have  a  distinct  purgative  action.  Fluid  mag- 
nesia (see  above)  is  a  valuable  aperient  for  women 
and  children.  Citrate  of  magnesia  is  the  iiopular 
name  for  a  granular,  etVervescing  aperient,  now 
much  in  use.  It  consists  of  a  mixture  of  bicar- 
bonate of  soda,  tartaric  and  citric  acids,  su"ar, 
and  a  small  trace  (1  to  5  per  cent.)  of  Epsom  salts. 

Magnetic  Belts.    See  Electricity  (Medi- 

C.\L). 

Magnetism  {magnes  or  IMos  magnetes,  'the 
loadstone,'  iJiobably  first  fcnind  at  Magnesia  in 
Lydia).  Magnets  are  n.atnral  (Loadstone,  q.v. ) 
or  artificial,  permanent  (steel  ma.sses  magnetised 
by  tlie  action  of  other  magnets  or  of  an  electric 
current)  or  temporary  (soft  iron  ma.sses  magnetised 
l)y  magnets,  or  the  so-called  electro- magnets,  soft 
iron  masses  round  which  a  current  is  passing). 

Polarity  of  the  ,1/o(/«<7.— When  a  small  soft  iron, 
nickel,  or  cobalt  ball  is  suspended  l>y  a  thread, 
and  a  magnet  ( lig.  1 )  is  passed 
along  in  front  of  it  from  one 
end  to  the  other,  the  ball  is 
powerfully  attracted  towards 
the  enils,  but  not  at  all  by 
tlie  middle  of  the  magnet. 
The  points  of  the  magnet  to- 
wards which  the  attractive 
power  becomes  greatest  are 
called  its  poles.  By  causing 
a  small  magnetic  needle  mov- 
ing horizontally  to  vibrate  in 
front  of  the  diti'erent  ]>arts  of 
a  magnet  placed  vertically, 
and   counting  the  number  of 

vibrations,  tlie  rate  of  variation  of  the  attractive 
power  may  be  exactly  found.  When  the  poles  of 
one  magnet  are  made  to  act  on  those  of  another 
a  striking  dissimilarity 
between  the  poles  is 
brought  to  light.  To 
show  this,  let  us  suspend 
a  magnet,  NS,  fig.  2,  by 
a  band  of  paper,  M,  hang- 
ing from  a  coco<m  thread 
(a  thread  without  tor- 
sion ) ;  or  let  us  jiivot  it, 
or  la.v  it  on  a  float  on 
water.  When  the  magnet 
is  left  to  itself  it  takes 
up  a  fixed  position,  one 
end  kee])ing  north,  and 
the  other  south.  The  north  pole  cannot,  except 
in  unstable  equilibrium,  be  made  to  stand  as  a 
south  )iole,  or  rice  versd ;  for,  when  the  magnet 
is  disturbed,  both  poles  return  to  their  original 
positions.      Here,  then,  is  a  striking  di.ssimilaiity 


FiK.  1. 


M 

Fig.  2. 


MAGNETISM 


797 


in  the  jioles,  by  means  of  which  we  are  enabled 
to  ilistiii^'uish  them  as  iiortli  pole  and  south  pole. 
When  thus  suspende<l,  let  us  now  try  the  ell'ect 
of  another  magnet  ujioii  it,  and  we  shall  lind 
that  the  pole  of  the  suspended  magnet  which 
is  attracted  by  one  of  the  poles  of  the  see(md 
magnet  is  rejielled  by  the  other,  and  i-icc  versi'i  ; 
and  where  the  one  pole  attracts,  the  other  rei)els. 
If,  now,  the  seconil  magnet  lie  hung  like  the  lirst, 
it  will  be  found  that  the  pole  which  attracted  the 
north  pole  of  the  first  magnet  is  a  south  pole,  and 
that  the  pole  which  repelled  it  is  a  north  pole.  We 
thus  learn  that  each  magnet  has  two  poles,  the  one 
a  north,  and  the  other  a  south  pole,  alike  in  their 
power  of  attraetimj  soft  iron,  but  differing  in  their 
action  on  the  poles  of  another  magnet,  like  poles 
repelling,  and  unlike  pules  attracting  each  other. 

The  attractions  and  re|)ulsions  are  found  in  a  bar- 
magnet  to  follow  the  same  laws  of  distribution  as 
would  have  been  obeyed  by  the  forces  due  to  two 
equal  isolated  discs,  the  one  attracting,  the  other 
repelling,  and  situated  at  points  a  little  short;  of 
the  extreme  ends  of  the  bar  ;  and  the  places  where 
these  imaginary  discs  of  imaginary  magnetic  matter 
would  be  are  called  the  poles  of  the  magnet.  This 
conception  of  imaginary  magnetic  matter  greatly 
facilitates  nuiny  calculations,  and  is  largely  applied. 
It  is  iis  if  the  one  kind  of  pole  consisted  ot  positive, 
the  other  of  negative  matter;  and  the  north  pole 
of  a  magnet  is,  in  accordance  with  this  order  of 
ideas,  conventionally  termed  the  positive  pole. 

Xo  Isolated  Poles. — If  we  try  to  cut  a  bar-majmet 
so  ;is  to  isolate  the  poles,  we  find  that  each  lialf 
has  developed  a  new  pole  at  the  broken  end,  and 
each  half  h;is  become  a  separate  magnet  whose 
jjoles  are  equal  to  one  another,  and  to  the  poles  of 
the  original  magnet.  We  can  therefore  never  have 
one  kind  of  magnetism  tvithout  having  it  associated 
in  the  same  magnet  vyith  an  equal  amount  of  the 
opposite  magnetism. 

The  Earth  a  Magnet. — The  fact  of  the  freely 
suspendetl  magnet  taking  up  a  fixed  position  has  led 
to  the  theory  ((lilbert,  i|.v.,  in  ItiOO)  that  the  earth 
itself  Is  a  huge  magnet,  having  its  north  and  south 
magnetic  poles  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  poles 
of  the  axis  of  rotation,  and  that  the  magnetic 
needle  or  suspended  magnet  turns  to  these  a.s  it 
does  to  those  of  a  neighbouring  magnet.  All  the 
manifestations  of  terrestrial  magnetism  ( q.  v. )  give 
decideil  confirmation  of  this  theory.  It  is  on  this 
view  that  the  French  call  the  north-seeking  pole  of 
the  magnet  the  south  \1o\e  {p6le  austral),  and  the 
south-seeking  the  north  pole  {p6le  boreal);  for,  if 
the  earth  lie  taken  as  the  standard,  its  north  mag- 
netic [lole  must  attract  the  south  ])ole  of  otiier 
magnets,  and  vice  vcr.i('i.  In  Kngland  and  tlermany 
the  north  pole  of  a  magnet  is  the  one  which,  when 
freely  suspended,  points  to  the 
north,  aiKi  no  reference  is  made 
to  its  relation  to  the  magnetism 
of  the  earth. 

Foi-m,  of  Magnets.  — Artificial 
permanent  magnets  are  either  bar- 
magnets  or  liorseslioe- magnets. 
^Vhen  powerful  iiermanent  mag- 
nets are  to  be  made,  several  thin 
magnetised  bars  are  jdaced  side  by 
.side  with  their  poles  lying  in  the 
same  direction.  Such  a  collection 
of  magnets  is  called  .-i  magnetic 
magazine  or  batirri/,  and  i.s  moie 
powerful  than  a  soliil  bar  of  the 
.same  weight  and  size,  because 
thin  bars  can  be  nmre  strongly 
anil  regularly  magnetised  than 
thick  ones.  Fig.  '.i  is  a  horseshoe  magnetic  maga- 
zine. The  central  lamina  protrudes  slightly  beyond 
the  other,  and   it   i.s  to   it   that   the  armature   is 


attached,  the  whole  action  of  the  magnet  being 
concentrated  on  the  projection.  The  magnetic 
needle  is  a  snuiU  single  permanent  magnet  nicely 
balanccil  on  a  fine  jioirit.     See  Cinil'.V.s.s. 

'The  Magnetic  Field. — The  region  sui'rounding  a 
magnet  (even,  to  a  diminishing  extent,  to  an 
infinite  distance)  is  in  a  peculiar  condition.  If  a 
magnet  be  laid  under  a  piece  of  glass  and  soft  iron 
filings  be  sprinkled  on  the  glass,  each  filing  will 


direction  ;    and    the    whole 


Itep?- 


Fis 


assume  a  jiarticular 
congeries  will  map 
out  the  lines  of  the 
directions  in  which 
small  magnets  will 
be  made  to  point  by 
the  play  of  the  mag- 
netic forces  existing 
around  the  magnet, 
in  the  '  magnetic 
field'  of  that  magnet. 
These  directions  are 
the  Lines  of  Force  in 
the  magnetic  field 
filling  all  space ;  and 
an  example  of  them  is  given  in  fig.  4,  which  shows 
the  arrangement  of  the  filings  above  a  bar-magnet, 
laid  parallel  to  the  glass.  In  a  horseshoe  magnet 
the  strongest  part  of  the  field  external  to  the 
magnet  is  that  lying  between  the  poles ;  the  lines 
of  force  are  there  crowiled  together. 

Magnetic  Induction. — These  lines  of  force  exter- 
nal to  the  magnet  are  also  Lines  of  Induction.  In 
the  direction  of  the  lines  of  induction  a  magnetic 
sejiaration  tends  to  be  set  up  :  the  soft  iron  filings 
are  each  converted,  while  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
the  magnet,  into  temporary  magnets,  each  ^^ith  a 
north  and  a  south  pole  ;  the  one  pole  is  repelled, 
the  other  attracted  ;  on  the  whole  each  filing  is 
swivelled  round  into  the  direction  of  the  local  line 
of  force.  Similarly,  a  bar  of  soft  iron  becomes, 
while  ui  contact  with  a  magnet,  as  in  fig.  5,  or  to  a 


Fig.  5. 

less  extent  when  in  its  neighbourhood,  itself  a 
temporary  magnet :  and  it  may  in  its  tuni  magnetise 
and  su]>port  other  bars,  so  that  a  chain  of  soft  inm 
bars  may,  uj)  to  a  limiting  weight,  be  sui)ported  on 
a  magnet.  Steel  bars  are  slower  than  soft  iron  in 
taking  up  a  magnetic  condition,  and  the  harder 
their  temper  the  slower  they  are  in  doing  so  ;  but, 
unlike  soft  iron,  they  do  not  readily  lose  what  they 
have  acquired  ;  they  become  permanent  magnets, 
while  soft  iron  retains  magnetism  only  precariously 
and  easily  loses  it  when  mechanically  disturbed. 
Sjiecially  soft  iron  may  lo.se  the  whole  when  struck  : 
ordinary  wrought-iron  will  generally  retain  traces 
of  residual  magnetism,  tlie  amount  of  which 
depends  on  the  previous  magnetic  history  of  the 
particular  bar.  The  characteri.stically  magnetic 
substances  are  iron,  nickel,  and  cobalt;  but  many 
others,  even  liquids  (.such  as  solutions  of  salts  of 
iron)  and  ga.ses  (sucli  as  ozone),  are  attracted  by 
the  magnet. 

Diamiiguclism.  —  Most  substances  are  (in  the 
form  of  s|)liere8)  feebly  repelled  by  magnets,  and 
bat's  of  them  lie  across  the  lines  of  induction  in 
a  non-uniform  magnetic  field.  These  substances 
are  said  to  be  dinmagnetic — e.g.  bismuth. 

Magnetisation  by  the  Earth. — The  inductive  action 


798 


MAGNETISM 


of  tenestrial  magnetism  is  a  striking  proof  of  the 
truth  of  the  tlicory  aheady  referred  to,  that  the 
earth  itself  is  a  magnet.  When  a  steel  rod  is  held 
in  a  iiosition  parallel  to  the  Diiiiiiiig-neeiUe  (ij.v.) 
it  hecomes  in  the  course  of  time,  and  the  sooner  if 
struck  with  a  hammer,  permanently  magnetic.  A 
har  of  soft  iron  held  in  the  same  position  is  more 
powerfully  hut  oidy  temporarily  attected.  We 
mav  understaml  from  this  how  tlie  tools  in  work- 
shops are  generally  magnetic.  Whenever  large 
masses  of  iron  are  stationary  for  any  length  of 
lime  they  are  sure  to  give  evidence  of  magnetisa- 
tion, and"  it  is  to  tlie  inductive  action  of  the  earth's 
poles  acting  through  ages  that  the  magnetism  of 
the  loadstone  is  probably  to  be  attributed. 

Preservation  and  Power  of  Magnets. — Even  steel 
magnets,  freshly  magnetised,  sometimes  gradually 
fall  olfin  strength,  till  they  reach  a  point  at  wliich 
their  strength  remains  constant.  This  is  called 
the  />oint  of  snf /(ration.  If  a  magnet  has  not  been 
raised  to  this  ])oint  it  may  lose  nothing  after  mag- 
netisation. We  may  ascertain  whether  a  magnet 
is  at  saturation  by  magnetising  it  with  a  more 
powerful  magnet,  and  seeing  whether  it  retains 
more  magnetism  than  before.  The  saturation-point 
dejiends  on  the  material  of  the  magnet  itself. 
When  a  magnet  is  above  saturation  it  is  soon 
reduced  to  it  by  repeatedly  drawing  away  the 
armature  from  it.  After  "reaching  this  point 
magnets  will  keep  the  same  strength  for  years 
together,  if  not  subjected  to  rough  usage.  It  is 
favourable  for  the  preservation  of  magnets  that 
they  be  provided  with  an  armature  or  keeper.  The 
power  of  a  horseshoe-magnet  is  usually  tested  l>y 
the  weight  its  armature  can  bear  without  breaking 
away  from  tlie  magnet.  Small  magnets  arc  mucli 
stronger  for  their  size  than  large  ones.  The  reason 
of  this  may  be  thus  explained.  Two  magnets  of 
the  same  size  and  power,  acting  separately,  support 
twice  the  weight  that  one  of  them  does  ;  but  if  llie 
two  be  joined,  so  as  to  form  one  magnet,  they  do 
not  sustain  tlie  double,  for  the  two  magnets,  being 
in  close  proximity,  act  inductively  on  each  other. 
'I'he  north  pole  of  the  one  tends  to  repel  the 
adjacent  magnetism  of  the  contiguous  north  pole 
of  the  other,  and  to  form  by  induction  a  south  pole 
in  its  place  ;  tlie  magnets  thus  weaken  one  another. 
Similarly,  several  magnets  made  up  into  a  battery 
have  not  a  force  proportionate  to  their  number. 
Large  m.agnets,  in  the  same  way,  may  be  con- 
sidered as  made  uj)  of  several  lamiu:p,  whose 
mutual  interference  renders  the  action  of  the  whole 
very  much  less  than  the  sum  of  the  powers  of  each. 
The  best  method  of  ascertaining  the  strength  of 
bar-niagnets  is  to  cause  a  magnetic  needle  to  oscil- 
late; at  a  given  distance  from  one  of  their  jioles, 
the  a.\is  of  the  needle  and  the  pole  of  the  magnet 
being  in  the  magnetic  meridian.  These  oscillations 
observe  the  law  of  penduhim  motion,  so  that  the 
force  tending  to  bring  the  needle  to  rest  is  pro- 
portionate to  the  scjuare  of  the  numlier  of  oscilla- 
tions in  a  stated  time. 

Action  of  Magnets  on  each  otJicr. — Coulomb  dis- 
covered, by  the  oscillation  of  the  m.agnetic  needle 
in  the  presence  of  magnets  in  the  way  just  described, 
that  when  magnets  are  .so  placed  that  two  adjoining 
jmles  may  act  on  each  other  icithotU  the  interference 
of  the  opposite  poles — i.e.  when  the  magnets  are 
large  compared  with  the  distance  lietween  their 
centres — the  attractive  or  repulsive  force  belirecn  tvo 
magnetic  poles  varies  inversely  as  the  square  of  the 
d'stance  hctween  them.  Gauss  proved  from  this 
theoretically,  .and  exhibited  experimentally,  that 
when  the  distance  between  the  centres  of  two 
magnets  is  large  compared  with  the  size  of  the 
magnets — i.e.  when  the  action  of  both  poles  comes 
into  play — the  action,  of  two  mar/nets  on  each  other 
varies  inversely  as  the  cube  of  the  distance  between 


them.  This  variation  in  the  stren<;th  of  the  field 
may  be  shown  either  by  the  oscillation  exjieriments 
above  referred  to,  or  by  direct  observation  of  dellec- 
tioiis  produced  at  dill'ercnt  distances.  The  action 
on  a  magnet  in  a  unilorm  magnetic  field  is  that 
of  a  couple,  like  that  of  the  hands  on  a  copying- 
press.  There  is  rotation,  but  no  translation,  un- 
less the  field  falls  oil' in  strength  from  the  position 
of  the  one  pole  to  that  of  the  other. 

Effect  of  Heat  on  Magnets. — When  a  magnet  is 
heated  to  redness  it  loses  ]ierm,anently  every  trace 
of  magnetism  ;  iron,  also,  at  a  red  heat,  ceases  to  be 
attracted  by  the  magnet.  At  temperatures  below 
red  heat  the  magnet  parts  with  some  of  its  power, 
the  loss  increasing  with  the  temperature.  The 
temperatures  at  which  other  substances  ali'ected 
by  the  magnet  lose  their  magnetism  dill'er  from 
that  of  iron.  Cobalt  remains  magnetic  at  the 
highest  temperatures,  and  nickel  loses  this  pro- 
perty at  662°  F. 

Electric  Eelatiovs  of  Magnetism. — Every  electric 
circuit  is  a  closed  loop  of  some  form  or  other. 
Every  such  loop  bearing  a  current  has  rounil  it  a 
magnetic  field  :  and  such  a  single  loop  is  equiva- 
lent to  a  thin  disc,  or  shell  of  any  form,  cut  out  of 
a  large  bar-magnet,  and  has  a  south  and  a  north 
aspect.  The  lines  of  induction  pass,  say,  from  the 
north  face  outwards,  filling  all  space,  and  return  to 
the  south  face,  threading  the  loop,  so  that  eacli  line 


¥M^ 


Fig.  6. 


of  induction  is  a  closed  curve.  The  lines  of  induc- 
tion immediately  surrounding  tin;  wire  are,  if  the 
circuit  be  large  enough,  circular  in  form,  if  wire 
bearing  a  current  be  coiled  into  a  helix  or  solenoid 
(left-handed,  fig.  6;  right-handed,  fig.  7),  the  helix 


Fig.  7. 

acts  in  respect  to  bodies  external  to  it  exactly  in 
all  respects  as  a  bar-magnet  would  do  :  the  strength 
of  the  equivalent  magnet  being  in  propcntion  to  the 
strength  of  the  current  passing.  The  magnetic 
field  surrounding  a  current-bearing  loop  or  helix  is 
called  an  Electro-magnetic  Field  ;  and  it  is  identical 
with  the  field  whicli  might  be  ])rodueed  l)y  a 
sulHciently  magnetised  mass  of  the  same  contour : 
the  dill'er'ence  being  that,  since  currents  may  be 
made  very  strong,  'electro-magnetic'  (ielils  can  be 
made  more  intense  than  any  magnetic  fields  obtain- 
able from  steel  magnets.  'These  phenomena  have 
led  up  to  Aini)6re's  theory  of  magnetism. 

Ampere's   Theory  of  Magnetism.— Am\^ere   con- 
siders that  e\ery  particle  of  a  magnet  has  closed 


Fig.  8. 


Fix.  0. 


currents  circulating  about  it  in  the  same  diriiction. 
A  section  of  a  magnet  according  to  this  theory  is 


MAGNETISM 


r99 


shown  in  fip.  S.  All  the  separate  currents  in  the 
various  particles  may,  however,  be  eonsideied  to  be 
equivalent  to  one  strong  current  circulating  round 
the  whole  (fig.  9).  Before  magnetisation  the 
molecules  lie  in  different  directions,  so  that  the 
effect  of  the  currents  is  lost,  and  the  effect  of  induc- 
tion is  to  twist  the  molecules  round  so  as  to  bring 
the  currents  to  run  in  the  same  direction.  The  per- 
fection of  magnetisation  would  be  to  render  all  the 
various  currents  parallel  to  each  other.  Soft  iron, 
in  consequence  of  its  offering  less  resistance  to  such 
a  disposition,  becomes  more  powerfully  magnetic 
under  induction  than  steel,  in  which  considerable 
resistance  to  this  displacement  of  the  molecules 
e.xists,  and  which,  when  this  deformation  has  once 
been  produceil,  retains  it  to  a  considerable  extent, 
this  being  the  cause  of  permanent  magnetism. 
This  displacement  of  the  molecules  upon  induction 
is  often  accompanied  by  a  tick,  or  by  a  mechanical 
twist  or  an  alteration  in  length  and  thickness. 

Currents  may  also,  it  is  probable,  be  induced  by 
a  magnetic  field  in  the  several  molecules  of  a  sub- 
stance non-magnetic  or  not ;  and,  as  these  are  so 
directed  a-s  to  oppose  the  magnetic  field,  we  will,  if 
we  postulate  the  aV>sence  ot  resistance  to  them, 
arrive  in  non-magnetic  substances  at  a  state  of 
things  in  which  the  stresses  in  the  magnetic  lield 
and  those  in  the  substance  acted  upon  by  induction 
are  opposed ;  and  this  will  give  rise  to  the  pheno- 
tuena,  and  may  provide  an  explanation,  of  dia- 
niagnetism,  which  is,  so  far  as  is  known,  a  property 
of  bodies  only  found  manifested  within  a  magnetic 
field. 

Magnetic  Induction  inside  a  Helix.  — The  interior 
of  a  current-bearin" 
heli.x  is  a  very  powerfiil 
magnetic  fieltl,  the  most 
powerful  |)art  of  the 
whole  electro-magnetic 
field  of  the  helix,  since 
all  the  lines  of  induc- 
tion are  concentrated 
within  it.  Soft  iron 
there  becomes,  instantly 
on  the  passage  of  the 
current,  a  powerful  tem  - 
porary  magnet,  or 
'electro-magnet,'  as  it 
is  called,  which  falls 
off  in  power  instantly 
on  the  current  being 
stopped ;  steel  becomes 
permanently  magnet- 
ised. Fig.  10  shows 
how  the  wires  may  be  ananged  to  magnetise  a 
horseshoe-bar. 

The  current  of  the  helix,  acting  on  the  individual 
currents  within  the  molecules,  places  them  parallel 
to  itself,  and  the  result  Ls  that  the  soft  iron  comes 
to  act  as  a  magnet,  stronger  than  any  steel  magnet. 
So  long  as  the  process  of  settin"  the  molecules  in 
position  is  far  from  being  completed — i.e.  so  long 
as  the  iron  is  not  '  saturated  ' — the  strength  of  the 
magnetism  induced  in  the  core  is  approximately  in 
proportion  to  the  strength  of  the  current  and'the 
number  of  turns  in  the  coil.  Another  result  is 
that  on  introducinj;  a  soft  iron  core  into  a  current- 
bearing  helix  the  Imes  of  induction,  which  are  due 
to  the  induced  concert  of  the  soft  iron  molecular 
currents,  are  added  to  those  of  the  inducing  field, 
so  that  the  whole  field  is  greatly  strengthened. 

Magnetic  Attmrtion.i  and  liepul.sions  of  Currents. 
— The  stre.sses  in  the  magnetic  field  are  such  as  to 
make  all  lines  of  induction  from  various  sources 
coincide  as  far  as  possible  in  direction  ;  and  hence 
circuits  teml  to  place  themselves,  as  far  as  ])ossible, 
coincident  with  one  another  in  respc'ct  of  form 
and    parallelism  of    current.      It  is   not    difficult 


Fig.  10. 


.J 


to  show  that  this  tendency  results  in  movements 
the  same  as  those  which  would  be  produced  if 
linear  currents  in  the  same  direction  (parallel,  con- 
vergent, or  divergent)  nmtnally  attracteil  one 
another,  and  currents  in  opposite  directions  re- 
pelled one  another.  When  a  circuit  is  in  part 
flexible,  the  flexible  part  being  a  wire  or  even 
merely  a  line  of  discharge  through  air,  it  tends 
either  to  expand  or  to  contract  in  area,  so  that  it 
may  come,  as  near  as  may  be,  to  meet  these  con- 
ditions ;  and  the  result  is  that  similarly-directed 
currents  or  parts 
of  the  same  cur-  (^_ 

rent  move   into  /^   "^^J* 

the  closest  pos-  '/y 

sible    proximity  , 

to  one  another.  />_        ^        ^1  u  . 

This      is      illus-  fr       //f — >  -^  ^^^:^r^V 

trated  by  fig.  11, 

in     which     the 

course    of      the 

current  is  shown 

by  arrows ;    the 

movable  part  of  g^L 5=^r ^^/ 

the  circuit, 
poised  on  mer- 
cury cups,  will 
rotate  in  a  mag- 
netic field  so  as  ^ 
to  tend  to  make 
the  direction  of  '^ 
its  own  lines  ot  Fig.  11. 

induction  coin- 
cide with  the  direction  of  the  lines  of  induction  of 
the  magnetic  or  electro-magnetic  field,  and  thus  to 
make  its  own  contour  embrace  as  many  as  pos^-ilile 
of  the  lines  of  induction  of  the  field,  if  their  general 
trend  coincide  with  its  own,  or  as  few  a-s  jjossible 
if  they  be  opposed  ;  and,  consequently,  if  a  wire  in 
which  a  current  passes  downwards  be  placed  verti- 
cally near  cd,  the  lines  of  induction  round  that  wire 
and  those  round  cd  coincide  in  general  direction, 
and  cd  appears  to  be  attracted  by  the  wire  ;  while 
if  the  current  pass  upwards  cd  is  rejielled,  an<l  if 
attracted.  Place,  now,  the  wire  below  and  parallel 
to  de.  If  the  current  passes  in  the  direction  d  to  c 
no  change  takes  place,  as  the  attraction  cannot 
show  itself ;  but  if  the  current  moves  from  e  to  d 
the  whole  turns  round  tUl  d  stands  where  e  was, 
and  both  currents  run  the  same  way.  If  the  wire  be 
placed  at  right  angles  to  de,  the  rectangle  turns 
round  and  comes  to  rest  when  both  currents  are 
parallel  and  in  the  same  direction. 

According  to  Ampere's  theory,  the  earth,  being 
a  magnet,  has  currents  in  it  which  are  equivalent 
to  currents  circulating  ab(mt  it;  these  njust  be 
from  east  to  west,  the  north  pole  of  the  earth 
being,  in  our  way  of  speaking,  a  south  pole.  A 
magnet,  then,  will  not  come  to  rest  till  its  own 
lower  currents 
place  themselves 
parallel  to  and  in 
the  direction  of 
the  earth's  cur- 
rents.      This    is 

shown  in  fig.  12,    . 

where  a   section    ""'^  "" 

of  a  rectangular  Fig.  12. 

bar-magnet        is 

represented  in  its  positifm  of  rest  with  reference 
to  the  earth-current.  The  upper  current,  being 
farther  away  from  tlie  earth-current,  is  less  affected 
by  it,  and  it  is  the  lower  current  that  detennines 
the  position.  A  magnetic  needle,  therefore,  turns 
towards  the  north  to  allow  the  currents  moving 
below  it  to  jilace  themselves  ]iarallel  to  the  earth's 
current.  This  also  is  shown  by  the  current-bear- 
ing rectangle  in  fig.    11,  which  comes  to  rest  in 


800 


MAGNETISM 


stable  equilibrium,  in  the  absence  of  anj'  external 
current,  when  d  and  c  lie  east  and  west. 

The  iltasiireiiKiit  of  Magnetic  Data. — This  lias 
largely  had  its  lerniinoloyv  evolved  with  reference 
to  the  eciuivalence  of  magnetic  forces  and  phejio- 
iiicna  to  those  which  would  he  evinced  if  '  magnet- 
ism '  were  a  kind  of  matter,  positively  or  nei,'atively 
attracting  and  resident  in  the  poles.  A  pole  of  unit 
strenfith  is  one  which  attracts  or  repels  another 
equal  pole,  situated  at  a  distance  of  one  centi- 
metre, with  a  force  of  one  dyne.  The  mar/netic 
moment  of  a  magnet  is  the  strength  of  either  i)ole 
irniltiplied  by  the  distance  between  the  two  poles, 
rids  can  he  measured  directly.  The  intensity  of 
nuiynetisation  of  a  bar-magnet  is  tlie  magnetic 
iMonu'iit  divided  by  its  volume.  A  maynctic  Jielil 
of  unit  xtrenf/f/i  or  infensiti/  at  any  particular  point 
is  a  tield  in  which  at  that  point  a  unit  pole  wouKl 
he  pulled  upon  or  repelled  with  a  force  of  one 
dyne ;  and  conversely,  the  intensity  of  a  uniform 
iiiagnetic  field  may  be  measured  by  lindiiig  the 
mechanical  couple  acting  on  a  magnetic  needle, 
freely  suspended  in  it.  The  intensity  of  induced 
magnetisation  produced  by  putting  a  long  bar  of 
a  magnetisable  substance  in  a  uniform  magnetic 
lield  of  unit  strength  measures  the  magnetic  sus- 
ceptibiliti/  of  that  substance.  The  force  within  the 
substance  of  an  inducetl  magnet,  ilue  both  to  the 
inducing  field  and  to  the  surrounding  magnetised 
substance,  when  the  inducing  Held  is  unity, 
measures  the  coetlicient  of  magnetic  induction  or 
the  magnetic  permeability  of  the  substance.  The 
strength  of  a  magnetic  disc  or  shell  is  its  magnetic 
moment  per  unit  of  area,  if  this  be  uniform. 

Magnetic  Measurement  of  Electric  Data. — Given 
a  magnetic  shell  of  given  outline  and  strength,  its 
action  U]ion  a  magnetic  needle  placed  witliin  its 
field  can  he  observed  ;  and  conversely,  from  its  out- 
line and  its  deflecting  action  its  strength  can  be 
calculated.  An  electric  current  of  the  same  con- 
tour can  have  its  intensity  so  regulated  as  to  pro- 
duce the  same  magnetic  effect  as  the  magnetic 
shell  did  upon  the  needle  in  one  position  ;  and  if  in 
one,  then  in  every  position  ;  and  the  intensity  of 
that  current  is  said  to  be,  in  magnetic  measure, 
numerically  the  same  as  the  magnetic  strength  of 
the  equivalent  magnetic  shell.  This  is  the  basis 
of  a  system  of  electric  units,  called  magnetic  or 
electro- magnetic  units  of  electric  quantities  :  and 
convenient  multiples  and  subnmltiples  of  these  — 
arrived  at  by  substituting  for  the  centimetre,  the 
gramme,  ancl  the  second,  as  the  units  of  length, 
mass,  and  time,  1 ,000,000,000cm.,  the  f  fraMiii5V5T.!i  or.th 
part  of  a  gramme  and  the  second  as  these  funda- 
mental units  are  in  use  as  the  practical  units  for 
electrical  measurement.  These  are  the  ampire, 
the  unit  of  current-intensity ;  the  ohm,  that  of 
resistance  (  =  the  resistance  of  about  106'2  cm. 
pure  mercury  column,  1  sq.  mm.  in  transverse  sec- 
tion :  defmeil  as  that  of  10(j  cm.  by  the  Paris  Inter- 
national  Electrical  Congress);  the  n/lt,  that  of 
liotciitial  dilference  or  'electromotive  force'  (  =  ap- 
liidximately  that  of  a  Daniell  cell,  in  which  the 
liquiils  are  a  saturated  solution  of  nitrate  of  copper 
and  dilute  sulphuric  acid,  1  acid  in '22  water);  the 
coulomb,  that  of  electric  quantity  ;  the  farad,  that 
of  capacity  ;  and  the  quculrant,  that  of  self-induc- 
tion. 

Self-induction. — When  a  current  is  suddenly 
started  in  a  coil  of  wire,  the  ultimate  result  is  to 
set  up  a  magnetic  fielil.  But,  while  this  is  being 
set  up,  energy  is  being  absorbed  by  the  fiehl, 
and  the  current  falls  short  of  its  full  intensity. 
Similarly,  when  the  current  cea-ses  this  energy  is 
restored,  and  the  current  seems  piled  up  as  if  it  had 
niomeiitiim  of  its  own  like  water  in  a  hydraulic 
ram.  The  stronger  the  magnetic  lield  that  will  he 
produced — the  more  lines  of  induction  will  thread 


the  coil — the  more  marked  is  this  effect ;  and  this 
exaggeration  is  brought  about  by  multiplying  the 
turns  in  the  coil  (keeping;  down  the  resistance,  if 
necessary,  by  increasing  the  thickness  of  the  wire 
used),  or  by  inserting  a  core  of  soft  iion,  or  both. 

Induction  of  Currents  in  Magnetic  Field. — Lay 
two  circuits  in  one  another's  neighbourhood.  Tlie 
sudilen  jiroductiou  <m-  increase  of  current  in  the  one 
will  produce  a  brief  current  in  the  other  in  such  a 
sense  that  there  is  mechanical  repulsion  between 
the  induced  current  and  the  originating  one  :  the 
cessation  or  diminution  of  the  juimary  current 
induces,  in  the  opposite  sense,  a  brief  current  in 
the  secondary  circuit.  These  are  phenomena  of  the 
magnetic  field  of  the  primary  circuit;  and  the 
primary  circuit  can  be  replaced  by  a  magn('t  or 
electro-magnet,  whose  approach  or  strengthening 
induces  brief  currents  in  one  sense,  and  whose 
recession  or  weakening  induces  brief  cunents  in 
the  opposite  sense.  No  current  passes  in  the 
secondary  coil  so  long  as  the  primary  current  or 
magnet  remains  constant  or  stationary.  For  the 
ways  in  which  this  production  of  a  secondary 
current  is  utilised,  see  DvNAiio,  iNDl'CTiON.  If 
we  try  to  move  a  good  conductor — a  copjier  disc 
or  a  knife — in  a  strong  magnetic  field  the  motion 
is  resisted  or  damped  ;  the  ]iroduction  of  the 
induced  currents  generated  by  motion  in  the  tield 
absorbs  energy. 

Eotutory  Features  of  Magnetism. — As  a  simple 
case,  ccmsider  the  field  in  the  immediate  neighbour- 
hood of  a  linear  current.  The  lines  of  magnetic 
force  run  in  circles  round  the  wire  ;  a  magnet  pole 
tends  to  be  driven  in  such  a  sense  that,  if  it  be 
positive  or  north-seeking,  it  will  travel  round  an 
advancing  current  in  the  same  sense  in  which  the 
point  of  a  corkscrew  travels  round  the  axis  of  the 
advancing  corkscrew.  If  a  magnet  were  flexible 
it  would  form  a  coil  r<uind  the  current;  and  con- 
versely, a  flexible  current  bearing  wire  tends  to  coil 
round  a  strong  bar-magnet,  and  currents  parallel 
to  bar-magnets  tend  to  rotate  round  the  magnetic 
axis  of  the  magnet. 

Kature  of  tlie  Slagnetic  Field. — All  the  pheno- 
mena of  the  magnetic  field  are  explicable  as  due  to 
whirlpool  currents  of  electricity  in  closed  vortex- 
rings,  the  axes  of  which  are  the  magnetic  lines  of 
induction.  The  reaction  of  tendencies  to  the  for- 
mation of  these  vortcx-rings  from  different  sources 
results  in  the  production  of  local  variations  of 
.stress  in  the  ether  which  result  in  attractive  ami 
repellent  movements  between  currents  or  magnets, 
or  between  currents  and  magnets,  or  in  the  jirodnc- 
tion  of  currents,  or  of  magnetic  induction  ;  anil  the 
resultant  forces  are  along  the  axes  of  the  whirls 
which  tend  to  shorten  themselves  longitudinally 
and  to  spread  out  laterally.  The  electric  displace- 
ments in  the  whirls  are  therefore  at  right  angles  to 
the  lines  of  magnetic  force.  With  other  disposi- 
tions of  the  nuagnelic  field  we  have  other  forms  of 
the  lines  of  force  ;  but  they  are  always  closed 
curves  which  mark  the  axes  of  vortex  motions  or 
shears,  and  which  lie  wholly  in  air,  or  partly  in  air 
and  partly  in  metal  or  other  substance. 

Electro-magnetic  Propagation. — When  a  disturb- 
ance is  set  up  in  one  place  which  leads  to  the  for- 
mation of  a  magnetic  field,  the  change  from  the 
original  condition  of  tin?  ether  to  the  complex  con- 
dition which  is  known  as  '  magnetic  lield  '  is  marked 
by  a  magnetic  or  electro-magnetic  propagation  of 
the  disturbance ;  and  the  theoretical  velocity  of 
this  propagation  has  been  shown  to  he  about 
300,000  kilometres  per  seccmd,  which  is  practically 
exactly  the  same  a.s  the  speed  of  the  luopagation 
of  light.  In  a  linear  current  the  dircctimi  of  the 
current  is  the  direction  of  propagation  :  the  dis- 
turbance is  propagateil  in  the  ether,  not  in  the 
conductor  ;  and  the  magnetic  and  electric  displace- 


MAGNETISM 


801 


ments  are  at  ri"lit  angles  both  to  the  direction  of 
propagation  and  to  one  another.  Without  a  linear 
conductor  to  guide  the  projiaj^iition  the  disturb- 
ance is  propagated  equally  in  all  directions ;  and 
Clerk-Maxwell  ailvanced  the  proposition  that  light 
is  a  phenomenon  of  this  order,  an  electromagnetic 
phenomenon  involving  vortical  stresses,  rather  than 
the  mere  vibration  of  an  elastic  ether.  This  pro- 
position has  been  strikiuglv  couHrmed  by  the  re- 
searches of  Hertz  in  1888.  tie  found  that  by  pro- 
ducing waves  of  electro-magnetic  propagation  of 
periodic  disturbances  lie  could  reproduce  with  Ion" 
waves,  which  be  found  to  travel  at  the  predicted 
rate,  the  phenomena  of  reHection  at  the  surface  of 
a  conduf'tor,  refraction,  |)olaiisatiou,  interference, 
&c.,  which  are  manifested  by  those  short  and  fre- 
quent ether-waves  which  give  rise  to  the  pheno- 
mena of  light  and  radiant  heat ;  and  his  results 
have  shown  that  the  plane  of  magnetic  disturb- 
ance, at  right  angles  to  that  of  electric  disturbance, 
is  the  analogue  of  the  plane  of  polarisation,  which 
must  be  at  right  angles  to  the  plane  of  vibration. 
By  Hertz's  researches  the  science  of  light  has  been 
made  a  part  of  the  general  science  of  electro- 
magnetism. 

See  Declination  Needle,  Dumagnetism,  Dipping- 
jfEEDLE,  Dynamo-electbic  MACHINES.  For  Utera- 
ture,  see  Electbicity  ;  and  refer  to  Sir  William 
Thomson's  Reprint  of  Papers  on  Etectrostatics  and  Maij- 
nctism  (1872);  Von  Hebnholtz's  Wissenschaftliche 
Abftaudlunffen  (voL  i.  1SS2);  and  O.  J.  Ijodge^  Modern 
Vieics  of  Electricitii  (1889).  For  instruments,  &c.,  refer 
to  W.  E.  Ayrton's  Frartiral  Electricitij  (1886)  and  Jamie- 
son's  Ma'inetism  and  Ekctricity  ( 1890). 

llasiiPtism,  Anijial.  See  Ajjimal  Magnet- 
ism and  Hypnotism. 

Magnetism.  Terrestrial.  Under  the 
general  article   M.\gnetism  the  broad  fact  that 


the  earth  b  a  magnet  has  been  incidentally 
touched  upon.  In  this  article  we  propose  to  con- 
sider in  more  detail  the  magnetic  features  of  the 
earth  as  a  whole.  In  studying  the  magnetic  field 
associated  with  the  earth  we  are  confined  to  its 
surface,  and  are  unable  to  trace  the  lines  of  force 
throughout  their  whole  length.  We  believe,  how- 
ever, that  these  lines  of  force  have  the  properties 
of  all  lines  of  force  associated  with  magnets.  In 
general  they  pass  by  continuously  curved  paths 
trom  regions  in  the  southern  hemisphere  to  regions 
in  the  northern  hemisphere.  The  southern  hemi- 
sphere, therefore,  is  the  seat  of  what  is  called 
northern  or  positive  magnetism. 

The  direction  of  tlie  line  of  force  at  any  point 
is  given  by  the  direction  in  which  a  perfectly  free 
magnet  placed  there  will  point  (see  Magnetism). 
To  obtain  the  direction  of  the  earth's  magnetic 
force  we  must  suspend  the  magnet  accurately  by 
its  centre  of  mass,  as  in  the  apparatus  known 
as  the  Dipping-needle  (q.v.).  With  such  an 
apparatus,  let  us,  beginning  at  the  extreme  .south 
point  of  Africa,  move  northwards  and  study  at 
each  successive  stage  the  behaviour  of  the  magnet. 
At  first  it  will  be  found  to  make  an  angle  of  about 
57°  with  the  horizontal,  pointing  upwards  towards 
the  north-west.  This  angle  of  57°  is  called  the 
dip,  and  will  steadily  diminish  as  we  pass  north- 
wards, until,  a  little  to  the  south-east  of  Lake 
Chad,  the  magnet  will  be  found  to  rest  perfectly 
hoi-izontal.  Proceeding  still  northwards,  we  shall 
find  the  magnet  beginning  to  tilt  again,  but  this 
time  with  the  north-pointing  end  downwards.  As 
we  leave  the  north  coast  of  Africa  in  20°  E.  long, 
the  dip  will  be  nearly  45° ;  it  will  be  55°  as  we 
enter  lurkey,  gradually  increasing  to  nearly  77°  as 
we  leave  the  north  coast  of  Norway.  Very  similar 
changes  in  dip  will  occur  as  we  pass  along  any 


Lines  of  equal  Magnetic  Dip,  1885. 


longitude  line.  The  general  features  are  shown  in 
fig.  1,  rwluced  from  Neumayer's  chart  for  1885, 
as  given  in  the  new  edition  of  Berghaus'  Physi- 
hftlischcr  Atlas.  Kacli  line  is  drawn  through  all 
places  at  which  the  ilij)  lui-s  the  value  indicated  by 
the  numlier  attached.  The  only  points  requiring 
.•511 


particular  remark  are  the  position  of  the  line  of  zero 
dip,  and  the  position  of  the  point  of  maximum  dip. 
The  line  of  zero  dip  is  called  the  magnetic  equator. 
Its  non-coincidence  with  the  geographical  equator 
indicates  a  marked  departure  of  the  earth's  mag- 
netic condition  from  the  magnetic  condition  of  a 


802 


MAGNETISM 


uniformly  magnetised  sphere,  whose  magnetic  axis 
coincides  with  the  poUir  axis.  The  iiosition  of 
maxinmm  dip  sliown  is  wliere  the  neeiUe  points 
vertical  with  its  north  end  downwards.  It  is 
called  the  magnetic  north  pole,  and  is  situated  in 
the  north  of  Canada  in  97°  AV.  long. ,  and  lOi'  N. 
lat.  There  is  also  a  magnetic  south  pole,  which  is 
believed  to  lie  somewhere  near  150°  E.  long,  and 
73°  S.  lat.  The  magnetic  poles  do  not,  therefore,  lie 
exactly  at  the  extremities  of  a  diameter.  It  should 
be  noted  that  the  dip  is  the  angle  between  the  line 
of  force  at  a  given  locality  and  the  horizontal  plane 
there  :  that  is,  the  dins  in  difterent  latitudes  are 
referred  to  dili'erent  planes.  Fig.  2,  which  repre- 
sents the  section 
of  the  earth 
along  the  great 
circle  passing 
throufjh  the  geo- 
graphical and 
magnetic  north 
poles,  will  serve 
to  indicate  the 
appro.ximately 
relative  posi- 
tions of  the 
lines  of  force. 
The  directions 
of  these  at  lati- 
tudes 0°,  30°, 
and  60°  are  in- 
dicated by  ar- 
rows, the  dotted 
lines  gi\-ing  the  directions  of  the  true  vertical 
at  the  various  points.  AB  is  the  geographical 
polar  axis,  S  the  '  magnetic  north  pole ' — really 
analogous  to  the  so-called  south  pole  of  a  magnet. 


Fig.  -i. 


00'  are  the  points  of  zero  dip,  where  the  lines  of 
force  will  be  roughly  parallel  to  the  magnetic  axis. 

Returning  again  to  the  southern  extremity  of 
Africa,  let  us  consider  more  fully  the  position  of 
the  magnet  hanging  freely  by  its  centre  of  mass. 
To  fix  this  position  we  recpiire  to  know  not  only 
the  dip  but  also  the  geographical  lie  of  the  vertical 
plane  in  which  the  magnet  hangs.  This  is  given 
by  the  Declination  (q.v. ),  which  may  be  defined  as 
the  angle  between  the  meridian  plane  and  the 
vertical  plane  parallel  to  the  mametic  axis  of  the 
free-hanging  magnet.  Practically  this  angle  is 
determined  by  a  magnet  suspended  or  pivoted  so 
as  to  lie  horizontally,  and  is  what  every  mariner's 
compass  gives  more  or  less  accurately.  Near  Cape- 
town the  declination  is  fully  30°  west  of  north 
(NNWJW.);  but  as  we  pass  northwards  it 
gradually  diminishes,  until  on  the  Mediterranean 
shore  in  20°  long,  it  becomes  only  8°  west  of  north 
(N.JW. ).  Passing  farther  north  we  find  it  still 
diminishing,  but  niore  slowly,  until  finally,  as  we 
leave  the  north  coast  of  Norway  in  the  same  longi- 
tude, it  is  found  to  be  6°  (NAW. ).  The  general 
features  of  the  declination  are  shown  in  fig.  3. 
Each  isoo;one  or  line  of  equal  declination  passes 
through  localities  at  which  the  declination  had 
the  value  as  marked  in  1885.  This  figure  is  also 
reduced  from  Neumayer's  chart.  It  will  be  seen 
at  a  glance  that  the  surface  of  the  globe  is  divided 
broadly  into  two  regions,  separated  by  the  agonic 
lines  (marked  thick)  or  lines  of  no  declina- 
tion. The  one  region,  including  the  Atlantic 
with  the  whole  of  Africa  and  a  large  part  of  the 
Indian  Ocean,  is  characterised  by  a  westerly  de- 
clination ;  and  the  other  ( with  an  interesting 
exception)  an  easterly  declination.  These  are 
indicated   by  arrow-heads  appropriately  directed. 


Fig,  3. — Lines  of  equal  Magnetiu  Declination,  1885. 


The  western  boundary  of  the  region  of  westerly 
declination  pa-sses  through  the  magnetic  north 
pole.  This  hue  pa-sses  through  the  localities  where 
the  magnet  points  true  geographical  north.  It 
continues  itself  northwards  towards  the  geogra- 
phical pole  a-s  the  isogone  of  180°,  since  any 
magnet,  set  between  the  magnetic  pole  and  the  geo- 


graphical pole,  mil  turn  its  marked  end  towards 
the  south  instead  of  towards  the  north.  The 
eastern  boundary  of  western  declination  passes 
northwards  from  Eiiro])e  till,  at  the  gcograjjliical 
north  pole,  it  meets  the  short  isogone  of  180°  just 
mentioned.  After  its  south-easterly  sweep  across 
the   Indian    Ocean    this  line  of    zero  declination 


MAGNETISM 


803 


passes  through  the  western  portion  of  Australia 
and  finally  ends  at  the  'magnetic  south  pole.' 
Continuing  ivs  the  iso^one  of  180"'  till  it  reaches 
the  geogiaphical  soutli  pole,  it  joins  with  tlie 
other  boundary  line  of  zero  ileclination.  It  will 
be  readily  seen  that  the  region  of  western  declina- 
tion is  more  contracted  than  the  otiier;  but,  as  if 
to  balance  this,  there  is  an  isolated  region  of 
western  declination  situated  in  the  midst  of  the 
region  of  eastern  declination.  This  isolated  region 
lies  on  the  east  of  Asia,  and  is  enclosed  in  an  oval- 
shaped  agonic  line  ( marked  with  a  thick  line  in  the 
chart).  Declination  charts  for  all  seas  and  shores 
are  invaluable  to  the  practical  navigator,  by  whom 
they  are  called  variation  charts.  From  them  lie 
learns  at  a  glance  in  what  direction  the  magnetic 
needle  points  at  the  place  he  happens  to  be  in, 
and  can  steer  his  desired  course  accordingly.  For 
example,  in  a  voyage  from  England  to  India  by- 
way of  Suez,  the  western  declination  diminishes 
rapidly  from  17^  at  Gibraltar  to  5^  at  Suez.  Before 
India  is  sighted  the  agonic  line  is  crossed,  and  the 
declination  becomes  slightly  easterly.     Thereafter, 


on  as  far  as  Hong-kong  or  Torres  Strait,  the  com- 
pass points  never  so  much  as  half  a  point  to  the 
east  of  north.  Hong-kong  is  just  outside  the 
small  isolated  region  of  westerly  declination, 
through  which  the  route  to  Vancouver  pa-sses.  As 
Vancouver  is  approached,  however,  tlie  easterly 
declination  rapidly  increases  to  nearly  25". 

The  declination  and  dip  completely  determine 
the  direction  of  the  line  of  force.  Its  strength  or 
intensity  still  requires  to  be  known  before  the 
magnetic  conditions  are  completely  fixed.  The 
total  force  we  may  imagine  to  be  determined  by 
measuring  the  time  of  oscillation  of  a  dipping- 
needle  of  known  magnetic  moment.  Practically, 
however,  it  is  easier  and  much  more  accurate  to 
measure  the  horizontal  component  of  the  total 
force  or  intensity  of  the  field.  It  is  consequently 
more  useful  to  construct  a  chart  showing  lines 
of  equal  'Horizontal  Force.'  Such  a  chart  is 
shown  in  fig.  4  (also  from  Neumayer's  chart), 
each  line  being  drawn  through  localities  at  which 
the  liorizontal  lorce  has  the  \alue  as  marked.  The 
hoiizontal  force  must,  of    course,   vanish  at   the 


Fig.  4. — Lines  of  equal  Horizontal  Force,  1885. 


magnetic  poles,  which  we  originally  defined  as  the 
regions  where  the  dip  w;t.s  90".  From  figs.  1  and 
4  taken  together  we  may  calculate  roughly  the 
total  magnetic  force  at  any  locality,  by  multiply- 
ing the  horizontal  component  by  the  secant  of  the 
angle  of  dip.  Thus,  for  Edinburgh  we  have, 
roughly,  0165  x  3  =  0-49  ;  in  Hudson  15ay, 
0-08  X  9-5  =  0-76 ;  in  Central  Africa,  where  the 
magnetic  equator  cuts  the  20°  longitude  line, 
0-33  X  1  =  0-33.  The  total  force,  therefore,  iu- 
crea-scs  in  a  general  way  as  we  ajiproach  the  mag- 
netic poles.  Its  maximum  values,  however,  are 
not  exactly  at  these  poles,  nor  do  the  positions  of 
minimum  value  lie  on  the  line  of  dip. 

The  declination,  dip,  and  horizontal  force  are 
commonly  called  the  magnetic  elements.  They  are 
all  subject  to  variations  in  time,  so  that  magnetic 
charts  for  one  epoch  will  ditler  somewhat  from 
those  for  another  epoch.  For  example,  comparing 
the  isogonic  lines  given  in  fig.  3  witli  the  iMigiuiic 
lines  for  1840,  we  see  that  both  the  long  agonic 


lines  have,  for  the  greater  part  of  their  lengths, 
moved  westwards,  and  the  agonic  oval  has 
changed  form  slightly  and  moved  a  little  east- 
wards. A  line  drawn  from  Nova  Scotia  to  the 
Cape  of  (Jood  Hope  divides  the  Atlantic  into 
two  regions.  In  the  nortli-eastern  region  the 
declination  has  been  diminishing  during  the  last 
twenty  yeai-s,  while  in  the  south-western  the 
declination  has  been  increasing.  There  is  some 
evidence  of  a  periodic  variation  extending  over 
several  centuries.  Thus,  in  1000  the  agonic  passed 
to  the  iccst  of  England  and  through  the  Cape  of 
Good  Hope,  the  declination  in  England  being 
about  8°  east  of  north.  In  1700  the  irf.slir/ij  declin- 
ation in  England  had  become  6"  or  1\  and  that  at 
the  Cape  al«)ut  12".  In  ISOO  the  declinations  had 
increased  to  23°  or  '24°  at  the  two  places.  All  this 
indicates  an  ea-xtward  motion  of  the  line  of  zero 
declination.  Since  1818  the  westerly  declination 
in  England  and  in  western  Enri>pe  generally  has 
been  slowly  diminishing,  showing  that  the  agonic 


804 


MAGNETISM 


MAGNOLIA 


line  had  ceased  its  easterly  and  begun  its 
present  westerly  drift.  In  the  charts  jmhlislied 
by  the  United  States  Coast  and  Geodetic  Survey 
very  full  information  is  given  regarding  the 
westerly  drift  of  the  amnio  line  that  passes  through 
America.  South  of  tlie  Great  Lakes  its  average 
rate  of  progress  during  the  last  forty  years  has 
been  nearly  five  miles  per  annum.  In  1S90 
the  annual  change  of  declination  at  places  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  the  agonic  line  was  about  three 
minutes  of  arc,  westerly  increase.  At  Greenwich 
the  present  annual  change  is  about  seven  minutes 
of  arc,  westerly  decre;ise.  The  secular  changes  in 
the  dip  and  horizontal  force  are  very  slight,  and 
generally  take  ])lace  in  opposite  directions,  so  that 
the  change  in  the  total  intensity  is  still  smaller. 

The  solar  iliurual  variation  of  the  magnetic 
elements,  and  especially  of  the  declination,  is  the 
most  easily  recognised  of  all  the  periodic  variations 
to  which  the  earth's  magnetism  is  subject.  In  all 
but  tropical  regions  the  declination  needle  oscillates 
markedly  about  its  mean  position  for  the  day, 
attaining  its  maximum  deviation  from  one  to  two 
hours  after  noon.  In  the  northern  hemisphere 
this  maximum  deviation  is  to  the  west  of  the  mean 
position  ;  in  the  southern  hemisphere  it  is  to  the 
east.  Again,  the  total  range  of  variation  is  greater 
in  the  summer  months  than  in  the  winter  months. 
By  an  elegant  development  of  Gauss's  flawless 
theory  of  terrestrial  magnetism  Schuster  has 
shown  that  the  features  of  the  solar  diurnal  varia- 
tions of  the  ditterent  magnetic  elements  indicate 
causes  above  the  earth's  surface  as  the  source  of 
these  variations.  This  accords  with  Balfour 
Stewart's  hypothesis  that  the  diurnal  mag- 
netic changes  result  from  electric  currents  in 
the  higher  regions  of  the  atmosphere.  These 
currents  are  due  to  the  action  of  the  sun,  and  are 
probably  tussooiated  with  the  currents  of  hot  air 
which  pass  from  the  equatorial  regions  both  north- 
wards and  southwards.  That  such  electric  currents 
do  really  exist  is  demonstrateil  by  the  existence  of 
the  aurora  in  higher  latitudes  ;  for  this  pheno- 
menon is  beyond  (piestion  electrical.  Further, 
distinct  connection  has  been  traced  between  auroral 
displays  and  magnetic  disturbances  of  exceptional 
character  (see  AuKou.s.  Boreali.s).  These  irregular 
magnetic  disturbances  or  magnetic  storms,  as  they 
are  called,  are  more  frec(uent  and  more  pronounced 
at  times  of  ma.ximum  sun-spots  ;  ami,  according  to 
Loomis,  a  great  magnetic  storm  is  always  accom- 
panied by  an  unusual  disturbance  on  the  sun's 
surface.  Again,  there  is  no  doubt  some  connec- 
tion between  certain  types  of  magnetic  changes 
and  earth-currents,  the  latter  being  particularly 
strong  during  magnetic  storms  ;  but  it  is  now 
admitted  by  all  authorities  that  earth-currents  can- 
not be  regarded  as  an  efficient  cause  of  the  magnetic 
disturbances. 

In  addition  to  the  well-marked  solar-diurnal 
variation  of  the  magnetic  elements,  there  is  also  a 
lunar-diurnal  variation,  which  has  been  si>eciallv 
studied  by  Broun  and  Chambers.  These  and 
other  phenomena  of  terrestrial  magnetism  show 
that  the  earth  is  magnetically  sensitive  to  cosmic 
influences.  These  influences  may  be  directly 
magnetic ;  or,  as  is  more  probable  in  the  ca.se  of 
the  solar-diurnal  variations,  they  may  give  rise 
to  meteorological  changes  involving  electric  and 
magnetic  actions.  As  to  the  ultimate  origin  of  the 
earth's  magnetism  as  a  whole  it  is  not  possible,  in 
the  present  state  of  the  science,  to  fornnilate  any 
satisfactory  hypothesis.  The  rotation  of  the 
earth,  which  is  so  important  a  factor  in  the  broad 
meteorological  features  that  exist  over  the  earth's 
surface,  is  the  only  dynannc  jiolarity  that  can  be 
compared  to  the  magnetic  polarity.  According  to 
the    nebular    hypothesis  the  earth's  rotation  is  a 


part  of  a  grand  circulatorj'  motion  of  the  solar 
system.  So  may  the  earth's  magnetism  he  a  part 
of  tlie  general  magnetic  conditions  of  the  same 
system.  If  such  a  view  is  too  vague  for  accepta- 
tion, the  only  hypothesis  which  seems  to  meet  the 
case  is  that  suggested  by  Balfour  Stewart,  who 
traces  the  magnetic  condition  of  the  earth  to  the 
terrestrial  meteorological  system,  as  modified  by 
the  earth's  rotation,  acting  cunmlatively  through 
the  ages. 

Magnetite.    See  Loadstone. 

Magneto-electric  Machine.   See  Dynamo- 

ELECTKic  Machines. 

Magnetometer  is,  in  general,  any  instrument 
for  nieas\uing  magnetic  force,  or  for  comparing  one 
magnetic  force  with  another.  A  freely -suspended 
magnet,  whereby  the  strength  and  direction  of  the 
lines  of  force  in  a  magnetic  field  may  be  ascertained 
by  observing  the  position  assumed  by  a  freely- 
suspended  magnet  and  also  its  rate  of  oscillation 
and  the  amount  to  which  it  is  deflected  when  undei 
tlie  influence  of  a  second  magnet,  is  the  essential 
feature  of  all  maguetometric  instruments.  The 
peculiar  importance  to  us  of  the  earth's  magnetic 
field  has,  however,  led  to  the  constniction  of  in 
struments  of  precision,  to  wliicli  the  name  Mag 
netometer  is  specially  applied. 

In  a  magnetic  observatory  the  self-registering 
magnetometers  or  magnetographs  form  an  extremely 
important  set  of  instruments.  By  these  the  quick 
changes  in  the  intensity  of  the  earth's  magnetic 
held  and  in  the  declination  are  registered  by 
photographic  means.  The  essential  feature  of  the 
method  is  the  reflection  of  a  beam  of  light  from  a 
mirror  attached  to  a  magnet,  which  is  suspended 
or  pivoted  so  as  to  be  sensitive  to  changes  in  the 
particular  element  that  is  being  measured. 

Magnificat,  the  'song  of  the  Virgin  Mary,' 
which,  in  the  Vulgate,  ber;ins  with  Magnificat. 
See  Breviarv. 

Magnifying  Glass.  See  Lenses,  Micro- 
scope. 

Magnolia,  a  genus  of  beautiful  trees  of  the 
natural  order  JSIagnoliacea',  having  a  calyx  of  three 
sepals,  a  corolla  of  six  to  twelve  petals,  and  car- 
pels in  spikes  arranged  in  cones,  and  opening  at 
the  (lonsal  suture.  They  are  natives  chiefly  of 
North  America,  the  Himalaya  Mountains,  China, 
and  Japan.  The  flowers  are  large  and  solitary  : 
the  leaves  generally  large,  in  some  species  ever- 
green, in  others  deciduous.     The  wood  is  in  general 


V 


Magnolia  graiidiflura. 


■^ 


soft,  sjiongy,  and  of  little  value.  M.  grandijlnrn, 
sometimes  called  the  Laurel-leaved  Magnolia,  has 
white  flowers  of  great  size.  It  ls  an  evergreen  tree 
about  20  feet  high,  with  magnificent  laurel-like 


MAGNUS 


MAGPIE 


805 


leaves,  found  in  the  lower  districts  from  North 
Carolina  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  It  succeeds  well 
as  an  ornamental  tree  in  the  south  of  England,  but 
in  Scotland  requires  a  wall  ami  some  protection  in 
winter.  M.  tripctcila  is  found  on  the  Alleghany 
Mountains,  ancl  extends  as  tar  north  as  lat.  43^ 
From  the  radiated  manner  in  which  its  leaves  are 
disposed  at  the  extremities  of  the  branches  it  has 
received  the  name  of  Umbrella  Tree.  It  has  very 
large  white  llowers.  It  is  one  of  the  species  most 
commonly  cultivated  in  Britain,  hut  in  Scotland  it 
requires  a  wall.  M.  acuminata  inhabits  tlie  same 
districts,  and  is  a  lofty  tree  with  greenish-yellow 
flowers.  It  endures  the  climate  of  Britain  well, 
but  its  flowers  are  not  so  much  admired  as  those 
of  some  of  its  congeners.  31.  glaimi,  a  native 
of  Pennsylvania,  Virginia,  and  the  Carolinas,  is 
known  by  the  names  of  White  Bay,  Beavencood,  and 
SK£'yip  h'assafras.  It  is  a  tree  or  shrab  of  15  to  20 
leet  in  height,  with  very  beautiful  and  fragrant 
white  fiowers.  The  Yulan,  or  Chinese  Magnolia 
I'il/.  Y-ilan  or  cotispiciia),  has  been  much  cultivated 
lu  Cjina  for  more  than  twelve  hundred  yeare  on 
account  of  its  beautiful  and  fragrant  white  flowers, 
which  it  produces  in  great  profusion.  It  is  one  of 
the  finest  ornamental  trees,  and  succeeds  well  in 
the  south  of  England.  It  is  a  deciduous  tree,  and 
the  flowers  expand  before  the  development  of  the 
leaves.  M.  exccha,  one  of  the  finest  species  known, 
is  a  predominant  tree  in  some  parts  of  the  Himalava 
Mountains,  at  an  elevation  of  7000  to  80O0  feet, 
the  mountains,  when  it  is  in  blossom,  appearing 
as  if  sprinkled  with  snow.  M.  Campbellii,  another 
native  of  the  same  region,  produces  great  rose- 
coloured  flowers,  and  is  described  by  Hooker  as 
the  most  superb  of  the  genus.  The  bark  and  fiuit 
of  all  magnolias  possess  tonic  bitter  properties,  and 
the  bark  of  some  of  the  species,  particularlv  that 
of  M.  ff/anca,  is  used  in  domestic  medicine  in  the 
marshy  districts  of  North  America  in  cases  of 
rheumatism  and  fever.  Michelia  and  Manglietia 
are  closely  allied  genera.  The  natural  order 
Magnoliaceie  is  closely  allied  to  Kanunculacea-, 
differing  chiefly  in  the  arborescent  habit,  and  in 
the  large  stipules  which  envelop  the  young  leaves 
before  they  open,  but  .soon  fall  off.  The  leaves  are 
simple.  Aromatic  properties  are  prevalent.  To 
this  order  belong  the  Tulip  Tree,  Star  Anise,  and 
Winter's  Bark. 

]IIasnn^«,  St,  a  Scandinavian  Earl  of  Orkney 
who  in  1114  was  assassinated  in  Egilshay  Island  by 
his  cousin  Haco. 

Magnus  or  Magxi,  Oi.aus,  Swedish  historian, 
was  bom  at  Linkiiping  in  1490,  and  became  secre- 
tary to  his  elder  brother  Johannes,  Archbishop  of 
Upsala.  At  the  Keforniation  both  brothers  went 
abroad,  and  ultimately  settled  in  Rome.  On  the 
death  of  Johannes,  Olaus  became  titular  archbishop, 
and  died  in  1558.  Both  brothers  wrote  on  Swedish 
history  ;  the  famous  work  of  Olaus  is  his  Historia 
(le  fjcntihns  Septentrional ibi(s  (1555). 

^lagpie.  or  Pie  {Pica),  a  genus  of  birds  of  the 
family  Corvidje  (q.v.),  distinguished  from  the  true 
(TOWS  by  their  small  size,  long  tail,  short  wings, 
and  variegated  plumage.  The  only  BritLsli  species 
is  the  Common  Magpie  (P.  rustica),  common  in 
Britain,  ver>-  abundant  in  Ireland,  and  found  in 
almost  all  parts  of  Europe,  in  Asia  as  far  as  India, 
China,  and  Japan,  antl  in  the  northern  parts  of 
North  .\merica  from  the  Pacific  to  Michigan.  It 
is  from  16  to  18  inches  long,  the  longest  tail-feathers 
sometimes  measuring  1 1  inches  in  length.  It  is  of 
a  glossy-black  plumage,  slightly  greenish  and  violet 
on  the  crown  and  b.vk,  with  a  slightly  coppei-y 
tinge  on  the  hea<l ;  nimp  gray  :  shouldcrfeatliers 
and  under-surface  of  body  white ;  wings  and  tail 
blue,    green,    and    white ;     bill,    legs,     and    feet 


black.  The  female  is  slightly  smaller  than  the 
male  and  less  brilliant  in  plum.age.  The  mag- 
pie is  a  shy,  mischievous  bird,  extremely  vigilant 
and  cunning,  Ijoth  in  eluding  enemies  and  in  seek- 
ing its  own  food.     It  is  generally  seen  in  pairs,  but 


i-'_-i:;.. - -.,  .    ,  i'ica  rustica). 

occasionally  in  large  flocks.  Its  note  is  a  harsh 
chatter,  kept  up  as  long  as  any  obnoxious  person 
or  animal  is  near  its  haunts.  In  diet  it  is  almost 
omnivorous,  living  on  snails,  slugs,  wonns,  fi'ogs, 
rats,  mice,  and  tlie  eggs  and  young  of  poultry.  It 
Imilds  its  nest  usually  in  the  fork  of  a  tree  at  some 
distance  from  the  ground,  but  sometimes  on  low 
hedges  and  thorn  bushes,  or  even  on  the  ground. 
In  Norway  and  Sweden,  where  it  is  favoured,  it 
may  be  found  nesting  near  houses  on  low  goose- 
berry bushes.  Its  nest  is  large  and  dome-shaped, 
made  of  sticks  cemented  with  clay  and  lined  with 
fine  roots  and  dried  grass.  It  is  strongly  fortified 
with  rough  thorns,  so  as  to  resist  the  attacks  of 
other  animals,  and  even  the  action  of  the  small 
shot  which  gamekeepers  fire  into  it  when  they 
suspect  it  to  contain  .young  birds.  The  et'gs  are 
fiom  si.x  to  nine  in  number,  of  a  i)ale  bluish  green 
or  yellowish-white,  spotted  with  olive-brown.  The 
mother  shows  great  attachment  to  her  progeny. 
The  magpie  is  easily  tamed,  liecomes  impudently 
familiar,  and  leams  to  articulate  a  few  words. 
Both  in  its  wild  and  tame  state  it  has  a  propensity 
to  seize  and  carry  oft'  bright  and  glittering  articles 
and  hide  them.  The  genus  Pica  consists  of  nine 
species,  veiy  widely  distributed  in  Europe,  Northern 
Africa,  Asia  north  of  tlie  Himalayas,  in  Arctic 
America,  and  California, 

A  great  wealth  of  popular  superstition  has 
clustered  round  the  magpie  or  pyct,  and  almost 
universally  it  is  considered  as  in  a  special  sense 
a  bird  of  evil  omen.  In  tiernuvny,  Sweden,  and 
Brittany  it  is  closely  connected  with  witches  and 
with  the  devil,  and  it  is  unlucky  to  kill  one,  except 
during  the  twelve  days  between  Christmas  and 
Epij)hany  in  Sweden  ami  North  Germany,  and 
dunng  the  nmnth  of  March  in  Thuringia.  Popular 
reasons  for  the  bird's  persistent  wickedness,  in  the 
north  of  England,  are  :  because  it  was  the  only 
bird  that  would  not  go  into  the  ark  with  Noah ; 
because  it  is  a  hybrid  between  the  raven  and  the 
dove;  because  after  the  crucifixion  it  alone  of  all 
the  birds  did  not  go  into  full  mourning.  Its 
appearance  and  the  numbei's  seen  at  one  time 
are  always  significant.  There  are  many  variants 
(some  even  contradictory),  but  the  following  is  in 
good  belief  in  the  north  of  England  : 

One  is  sorrow,  two  is  niirtli. 
Three  a  wedUinK,  four  a  birth, 
Fivrt  heaven,  six  liell, 
Seven  the  deil's  Ain  sel. 


806 


MAGUEY 


MAHDI 


Woiilswoitli,  in  the  Excnrsion,  has  alluded  to 
the  auspicious  omen  of  seeing  two  magpies  cross 
one's  iiatli,  and  Sir  Humphry  Davy,  in  Halmoiiht, 
has  made  it  reasonable  by  linking  the  fact  with 
the  goodness  of  the  weather. 

Maguey.    See  Agave. 

Magyars.    See  Hungary. 

Maliabaleshwar.  the  chief  sanatorium  of  the 
Madras  Presidency,  on  the  eastern  slope  of  the 
Western  Glutts,  at  a  height  of  4717  feet,  and  74 
miles  S.  of  Poona.     Pop.  3500. 

Malisiblldrata  ( meaning  probably  '  the  great 
history  of  the  descendants  of  Bharata')  is  the  name 
of  one  of  the  two  great  epic  poems  of  ancient  India  ; 
the  other  being  the  Rdmayana  (q.v. ).  In  its 
present  condition  tlie  epos  consists  of  a  hundred 
and  ten  tliousand  couplets,  each  containing  thirty- 
two  syllables  ;  but  there  is  ground  for  believing 
that  it  was  formerly  known  in  other  recensions 
of  a  still  greater  extent.  In  its  actual  shape  it 
is  divided  into  eighteen  parvans  or  books,  the 
Harivansa  being  considered  as  a  supplementary 
part  of  it.  That  this  huge  composition  was  not  the 
work  of  one  single  individual,  out  a  production  of 
successive  ages,  is  manifest  from  tne  multifari- 
ousness of  its  contents,  from  the  differences  in  style, 
and  even  from  the  contradictions  which  disturb  its 
harmony.  Hindu  tradition  ascribes  'it  to  Vt/dsa : 
but  as  Vyasa  means  '  the  distributer  or  arranger,' 
and  as  tlie  same  individual  is  also  the  reputed  com- 
piler of  the  Vedas,  Puranas,  and  several  other 
works,  it  is  obvious  that  no  historical  value  can  be 
assigned  to  this  generic  name.  The  contents  of 
the  Mahabhiirata  may  be  distinguished  into  the 
leading  story  and  the  episodical  matter  connected 
with  it.  The  former  is  probaldy  founded  on  real 
events  in  the  oldest  history  of  India,  though  in  the 
epic  narrative  it  will  be  difficult  to  disentangle  the 
reality  from  the  Hction.  The  story  comprises  the 
contest  of  the  celebrated  families  called  the  Kaura- 
vas  and  Paudavas,  ending  in  the  victory  of  the 
latter,  and  in  the  establishment  of  their  rule  over 
the  northern  part  of  India.  Kuru,  a  descendant  of 
Bharata,  had  two  sons,  Dhritarashtra  and  Pandu. 
Dhritarashtra's  sons,  the  Kauravas,  were  a  hundred 
in  number ;  Pdndu's,  the  Pandavas,  only  five.  Pandu 
having  resigned  his  throne,  Dhritanishtra,  though 
blind,  assumed  the  government,  and  ultimately 
divided  his  kingdom  between  his  sons  and  the  sons 
of  Pandu.  The  former,  however,  coveting  the 
territory  allotted  to  the  Pandu  princes,  endeavoured 
to  get  possession  of  it.  A  game  of  dice  was  the 
means  i)y  which  they  bound  over  their  cousins  to 
relinquish  their  kingdom,  promising,  however,  to 
restore  it  to  them  if  they  passed  twelve  years  in 
the  forests,  and  a  thirteenth  year  in  such  disguises 
as  to  escape  detection.  This  promise  was  faithfully 
kept  by  the  P/indavas  ;  but  when  the  term  of  their 
banishment  had  expired  the  Kuru  princes  refused 
to  redeem  their  word.  A  war  ensued,  ending  in 
the  comidete  destruction  of  the  Kauravas.  Duryo- 
dhana  and  his  brothers  are  jiicturcd  as  the  type  of 
all  conceivable  wickedness,  and  the  I'andu  princes 
as  paragons  of  virtue  and  heroism,  and  the  incarna- 
tions of  sunilry  deities.  Out  of  the  hundred  and  ten 
thousand  couplets  which  constitute  the  great  epos 
barely  a  fourth  part  is  taken  up  by  this  narrative  ; 
all  the  rest  Is  episodical.  The  matter  incidentally 
linked  with  the  main  story  may  be  distributed 
under  three  principal  heads  :  one  comprislni^  nar- 
ratives relating  to  the  ancient  or  mythical  history 
of  India,  as,  for  instance,  the  episodes  of  Nala  and 
Sakuntahi ;  a  second  is  more  strictly  mythological, 
comprising  cosmogony  and  theogony ;  a  third  is 
did.actic  or  dogmatic — it  refers  to  law,  religion, 
morals,  and  philosophy,  as  in  the  Bhagavad-Gitii, 


for  instance.  By  means  of  this  episodical  matter, 
which  at  various  periods,  and  often  without  regard 
to  consistency,  was  superadded  to  the  original 
structure  of  the  work,  the  Mah;ibliaiata  gradually 
became  a  collection  of  all  that  was  needed  to  be 
known  by  an  educated  Hindu  ;  in  fact,  it  became 
the  eucyclopa'dia  of  India. 

Tlie  text  of  the  Mahiibhi'uata  was  jmblislied  in  Cal- 
cutta in  four  quarto  volumes  (1834-39),  another  edition 
at  llombay  in  18ti3,  antl  another,  under  native  Hindu 
auspices,  at  Calcutta  ui  1882  and  succeeding  years.  The 
Freiicli  translation  by  Fauche  (10  vols.  18C3-70)  is  in- 
complete ;  a  complete  English  prose  translation  by 
Hindus,  of  which,  up  to  1890,  50  parts  had  ajipeareil, 
was  published  and  distributed,  chiefly  gratis,  at  Calcutta, 
under  the  auspices  of  Pratapachandra  Koy.  Wany 
episodes,  as  the  Bhagavad-Giti,  have  been  separately 
edited  and  translated.  See  Lassen's  AHertHmskunde ; 
H.  H.  Wilson's  works ;  Monier  Williams,  Indian  Epic 
PoHrij  (1863);  Wheeler,  The  Vcdic  Period  of  the  Malid- 
bhdrula  (1867). 

Mallddeva  ('the  great  god')  is  one  of  the 
usual  names  by  which  the  Hindu  god  S'iva  is 
called.     See  SiVA. 

Mah^nadi  ( '  the  great  river ' ),  a  river  of  India, 

rises  in  the  Central  Provinces,  in  20°  10'  N.  lat., 
82°  E.  long.  After  an  eastward  course  of  .520  miles, 
300  miles  of  which  are  na\igable,  having  divitled 
into  several  branches  at  or  near  the  town  of 
Ctittack,  which  forms  the  head  of  its  delta,  it  Hows 
east  and  south-east  through  the  district  of  tliat 
name,  and  falls  by  several  mouths  into  the  Bay  of 
Bengal.  The  catchment  basin  of  the  MahAnadi  is 
less  than  44,000  sq.  ni.,  yet  its  maximum  discharge 
in  time  of  flood  equals  that  of  the  Ganges — 
1,800,000  cubic  feet  per  second — and  exceeds  that 
of  the  Mississippi.  An  elaborate  system  of  canals 
has  been  constructed  to  take  advantage  of  this 
abundance. 

Malianoy'  City,  a  mining  town  of  Pennsyl- 
vania, 109  miles  by  rail  NW.  of  Philadelphia,  with 
a  score  of  collieries  and  several  manufactories. 
Pop.  7181. 

Maharajah.    See  Rajah. 

Mahsivaiisa.  two  celebrated  works  written  in 
Piili,  and  relating  to  the  history  of  Lankd,  or 
Ceylon,  from  its  earliest  period  down  to  the  reign 
of  "Mahiisena,  who  died  302  A.D.  The  first  thirty- 
eight  chapters  were  published  in  1837  by  G.  Tur- 
nour  ;  and  there  is  an  edition  of  the  whole  in  Pali 
and  Singhalese  (Colombo,  1877-83). 

Mahii>'ira  (literally,  'the  great  hero')  is  the 
24th  or  last  Jina,  or  <leified  saint,  of  the  Jains 
(q.v.).  His  legendary  history  is  given  in  the 
kiilpa-Sutra  and  the  Meiluivira-Charitra,  two 
works  held  in  great  authority  by  the  Jains. 

Mahdi  (pass.  part,  of  Arab//«^/(2  =  'he  guide<l :' 
'  the  well-directed  one'),  the  Mohammeilan  restorer 
of  all  things.  Though  not  mentioned  in  the  Koran, 
he  is  said  to  have  been  promised  by  Mcdianimed  to 
complete  his  work  in  tilling  the  world  as  full  of 
righteousness  as  it  Is  of  inl(|ulty.  The  idea  is  that 
of  the  Jewish  and  Christian  .Messiah  and  of  the 
Zoroastrian  Saoshyant.  Some  need  for  reform  soon 
made  the  idea  practical.  The  first  three  califs  were 
by  All's  party  regarded  as  usurpers  ;  and  after  All's 
reign  and  murder  that  party  grew  in  inimber  and  In 
determination  to  recognise  as  Imam  or  calif  none 
but  All's  heirs.  Mohammed,  a  son  of  Ali  though 
not  of  palima,  but  of  'the  Hanalite,' bore  unwil- 
lingly the  name  of  Mahdi,  and  dying  in  peace  he 
was  expected  to  return.  The  Shia  or  party  of  Ali 
consisted  mainly  of  Persians.  This  race  opposed 
the  Ommiades  because  these  were  unprincipled 
men  and  half  heathen,  because  they  were  tlieir 
foreign  tyrants,  and  because  as  usurpers  they  had 
broken  through  the  divine  right  of  heredity.     The 


MA  HE 


MAHONY 


807 


Abbasides  who,  descended  from  the  ))rophet's 
uncle,  expelled  and  destroyed  the  Oramiades  by 
aid  of  the  Shia  were  as  mucli  the  enemies  of  these 
iis  their  predecessoi-s  had  been.  The  seventh  Shiite 
Imam  was  poisoned  bv  Ilaroun  Alraschid  the 
eifthth  by  his  temporarily  Shiite  successor  Alma- 
nuin  :  the  ninth,  tenth,  eleventh  folh)\ved  the  same 
path  of  martyrdom.  The  twelfth,  Moliammed  by 
name,  disappeared  after  captivity  at  the  age  of 
twelve  years  in  879.  The  Shiite  inference  is  that 
he,  the  '  hidden  Imam,'  will  yet  come  as  Mahdi  to 
destroy  the  false  prophet  and,  with  the  help  of 
Jesus,  to  destroy  or  convert  to  Islam  all  mankind, 
and  to  put  all  wrongs  right.  Then  will  follow  the 
resurrection  and  the  final  judgment.  The  native 
princes  of  Soli's  line  who  mastered  the  Persian 
throne  in  1505  called  themselves  the  lieutenants  of 
the  coming  Mahdi.  From  the  Ismailis  (q.v. )  in 
North  Africa  arose  another  Malidi,  from  whom 
sprang  the  Fatiniide  califs.  The  seventh  of  these 
was  Hakim,  one  of  God's  incarnations  that  had 
previously  been  AH.  He  died,  '  became  hidden,' 
in  1020,  and  is  expected  by  his  sect  the  Druses. 
Among  the  Berbers  of  Mount  Atlas  in  the  12th 
century  arose  another  Mahdi,  by  name  Mohammed 
ibn  Tumert,  whose  disciple  and  successor  Abilul- 
m(imin  overran  Morocco  and  supplanted  the  Almo- 
ravide  dynasty  there  and  afterwards  in  Spain. 
Hence  the  Alraohade  ('  Unitarian  ')  dynasty.  Tlie 
year  1C66  produced  in  Turkey  its  .Jewish  Messiah, 
Sabljatai  Zevi,  and  in  consequence  its  Kurdish 
Mahdi  for  the  suppression  of  this  Dejjal,  or  false 
prophet.  Both  fell  quietly  into  the  sultan's 
Lands.  In  1799  another  Mahdi  arose  in  Egypt, 
against  the  French,  and  fell  in  battle.  In  Dongola, 
towards  1843,  was  born  Mohammed  Ahmed.  He 
was  for  a  time  in  the  Egyptian  civil  service,  but 
disagreeing  with  the  governor,  he  became  a  trader 
and  a  leading  slave-dealer.  About  the  prophetic 
age  of  forty  he  claimed  to  be  the  Mahdi.  Gra<lu- 
ally  at  the  Mahdi's  call — the  Muslim  equivalent 
for  a  revolutionary  spirit — the  Eastern  Soudan 
stirred  itself  against  Eg>-ptian  misrule.  In  1883 
he  seized  El-'01)eyd,  the  chief  city  of  Kordofan,  and 
made  it  his  capital ;  and  t)n  the  5th  November  of 
that  year  the  Egyptian  army  commanded  by  Hicks 
Pasha  was  annihilated.  In  1885  Khartoum  was 
taken  by  treachery,  and  General  Gordon,  wiioui 
Britain  had  sent  to  pacify  the  Soudan,  was  killed. 
The  Mahdi  died  at  Omdurnian  on  22d  June  1885. 
The  Khalifa  Abdulla  succeeded  him,  but  never 
wielded  his  power,  and  his  influence  was  destroyed 
by  the  British  expedition  to  Dongola  in  1896  and 
tlie  disastrous  defeats  inflicted  on  liim  by  the  Sirdar 
Kitchener  (afterwards  Lord  Kitchener)  at  the 
Atbara  in  April  1898,  and  especially  at  Omdurnian 
on  2<1  September  1898.  The  Mahdis  tomb  in 
Omdurman  was  destroyed,  the  Egyptian  flag 
was  hoisted  at  Khartoum,  and,  after  FashoJa,  the 
whole  Nile  Valley  came  under  IJntish  influence. 

For  the  rebellion,  the  defeat  of  Hicks  Pasha,  and  the 
fall  of  Khartoum,  see  Egypt  (  Vol  IV.  p.  213),  Gordon, 
SoUD.v.v.  Sec  also  Damiesteter,  The  Mahdi  Past  and 
Pre'cnt  (Eng  trans.  1885);  Wingate,  Mahdiism  and  the 
KgijptiHH  Soud'tn  (1891);  Ohrwalder,  Ten  Years'  Cap- 
tititii  in  the  Mahdi's  Camp  ( 1892 ) ;  Slatin  Pasha,  Fire  and 
Sword  in  the  .Soudan  (trans,  by  Wingate,  1896);  Bennett 
Burlei;;h,  Sirdar  and  Khalifa  (1898);  G.  W.  Stcevens, 
With  Kitchener  to  Khartoum  (1898). 

Slah^,  the  only  French  settlement  on  the  west 
coast  of  India,  is  in  .Malabar  district,  35  miles 
NNW.  of  Calicut.     Area,  3J  stj.  m.  ;  pop.  8280. 

!Mahi  Hantlia  Agency,  a  group  of  fifty-two 

native  states  in  liumhay.  Of  the  total  area  of 
11,049  sq.  ni.  ne;irlv  one  half  belongs  to  the  state 
of  Edar.     Pop.  581,808,  including  3O,(JO0  Bhils. 

Hahmud.    See  Turkey,  Gbazni. 


Alahoganyci  the  wood  of  the  Swietenia  mahag- 
oni,  a  tree  from  SO  to  100  feet  high,  belonging  to 
the  natural  order  Cedrelace;e,  a  native  of  the  West 
Indies  and  of  South  America.  The  tree  attains  an 
immense  size,  and  its  timber  is  generally  sound 
throughout  in  the  largest  trees.  It  is  most  abundant 
on  the  coast  of  Honduras  and  around  Campeachy 
Bay.  St  Domingo  and  Cuba  yield  a  finer  quality 
than  that  obtained  from  the  mainland,  which  is 
frequently  called  Bay  Wood,  to  distinguish  it  from 
Cuba  mahogany,  usually  called  Spanish.  The  wood 
varies  much  in  value,  according  to  the  colour  and 
beauty  of  curl  ;  single  logs  have  occasionally 
realised  as  much  as  £1000,  for  cutting  into  veneers, 
in  which  state  it  is  very  generally  used,  its  great 
weight  and  value  unfitting  it  for  being  always 
employed  solid.  The  first  notice  we  have  of 
mahogany  is  in  connection  with  the  repairing  of 
some  of  Sir  Walter  Raleigh's  ships  in  Trinidad  in 
1597  ;  but  the  wood  does  not  appear  to  have  been 
carried  to  Britain  till  about  the  end  of  the  17th 
century,  when  it  was  brouglit  from  the  West  Indie.s 
as  ballaiit  by  a  Captain  Gibbons.  The  captain's 
brother  wished  to  use  the  timber  for  his  house  then 
in  course  of  erection,  but  the  workmen  declined  to 
work  it  owing  to  its  extreme  hardness.  A  portion 
was,  however,  given  to  one  WoUaston,  a  cabinet- 
maker, of  which  to  make  a  candle-box  for  Dr 
Gibbons.  When  finished,  the  box  exhibited  such 
rare  beauty  as  to  create  much  interest  in  society ; 
and  bureaus  made  by  Wollaston  soon  established 
the  reputation  of  mahogany  for  cabinet-work. 
The  annual  imports  into  Britain  are  about  40,000 
tons,  with  a  value  of  £350,000.  The  bark  has  a 
faint  aromatic  smell  and  a  very  astringent  bitter 
taste,  and  in  tlie  countries  where  the  tree  grows 
is  used  as  a  medicine.  As  Mahorjnmj  Bark,  or 
Amarctntli  Bark,  it  has  been  employed  as  a  sub- 
stitute for  Peruvian  Bark. — East  India  Mahogany 
is  the  timber  of  the  Eoh  una  Tree  ( Sownida  febri- 
fuga),  and  African  Mahogany  of  the  Khaya  Sene- 
galensis,  both  of  the  order  Cedrelacese. 

Malioinet.    See  Mohammed. 

Mahou.    See  Stanhope,  Port  Mahon. 

Mahony,  Francis,  better  known  by  his  famous 
pen-name.  '  Father  Prout,'  was  born  at  Cork  in 
1804,  and  educated  for  the  priesthood  at  a  Jesuit 
college  in  Paris,  and  subsequently  in  Rome, 
where  he  remained  for  two  years  and  received 
ordination.  He  taught  in  a  Jesuit  college,  was 
chaplain  to  a  Cork  hospital,  but  ceased  to  exercise 
the  clerical  calling  about  18.34,  and  joined  the 
stair  of  Eraser  s  Magazine,  his  contributions  to 
which  were  republished  under  the  title  of  lieliqiies 
(if  Father  Prout  in  1836.  He  contributed  also  to 
Bcntley's  Mageizine  from  1837.  For  two  yeais  he 
acted  as  Roman  correspondent  to  the  Daily  News, 
and  his  letters  were  collected  and  published  in  1847 
as  Fads  and  Figures  from  Italy  by  Don  Jeremy 
Savonarola,  Benedictine  Monk.  During  the  last 
years  of  his  life  he  lived  in  Paris,  and  was  corre- 
s))Oiident  to  the  C/otc  newspaper  till  his  death,  May 
18,  18C6.  Maliony  possessed  great  scholarship  and 
a  rich  fund  of  genial  huuiour.  Amid  all  the  con- 
vivialities of  the  '  Fraserians,'  he  preserved  his 
reverence  for  religion  without  allowing  it  to  cloud 
tlie  brightness  of  his  wit.  'His  fun  is  es.sentially 
Irish — fanciful,  playful,  odd,  irregular,  aiul  more 
grotesque  than  northern  fun.  In  one  of  his  own 
phrases,  he  is  an  Irish  potato,  seasoned  with  Attic 
salt,  and  oblivion  has  no  poppy  for  the  exqui- 
site pathos  of  verse  like  'The  Bells  of  Shandon' 
and  'The  Lady  of  Lee.'  A  volume  of  Final 
Reliqiics  of  Father  I'rout  was  published  in  1876 
by  Air  Blanchard  Jerrold ;  and  there  is  an  edi- 
tion of  his  works,  with  a  Life,  bv  Charles  Kent 
(1881). 


808 


MAHOUND 


MAIDENHAIR 


Mataound,  a  corrupt  early  western  spelling  of 
MOHAMMICD  (q.v.). 

IHilhratta-S  (Mardthds,  or  Marhafas),  a  people 
of  mixed  orij^in,  Hindus  in  religion  and  caste  ordi- 
nances, inhabiting  Western  and  Central  India,  from 
the  Satpura  Mountains  to  Nagpur,  The  Mahratta 
Brahmans  claim  to  be  Rajputs ;  the  bullc  of  the 
people  are  Sudras,  and  probably  of  aboriginal  blood 
mainly.  They  are  first  mentioned  in  liistory  about 
the  niiddle  of  the  17th  century,  wlien  tliey  pos- 
sessed a  narrow  strip  of  territory  on  the  west  side 
of  the  peninsula.  The  founder  of  the  Mahratta 
power  was  Sivaji,  a  freebooter  or  adventurer,  whose 
father,  Shahji  Hlionsla,  was  an  officer  in  the  service 
of  the  last  king  of  Bijapur.  By  policy  or  by  force, 
he  eventually  succeeded  in  compelling  the  several 
independent  Hindu  chiefs  to  acknowledge  liini  as 
tlieir  leader,  and  with  the  large  army  tlieu  at  his 
command  overran  and  subdued  a  large  portion  of 
the  emperor  of  Delhi's  territory.  His  son  and 
(1680)  successor,  Sambhaji,  after  vigorously  follow- 
ing out  his  fatlier's  policy,  was  taken  prisoner  by 
Aurungzebe  in  1689,  and  put  to  death.  His  son,  a 
prisoner,  resigned  his  rule  to  his  minister,  with  tlie 
title  of  Peshivd;  the  descendauts  of  Sivaji  lience- 
forward  reigned  over  but  did  not  govern  Sattara 
(see  India,  p.  118).  Under  the  fourth  hereditary 
Peshwli  tliere  were  five  Mahratta  states,  more  or 
less  powerful  and  independent  :  tliat  of  the  Peshwd 
at  Poona;  that  of  tlie  Blionslas  at  Nagpur;  Gwalior, 
ruled  by  Sindliia  ;  Indore,  by  Holkar  ;  and  Baroda, 
by  the  Guicowar.  The  invasion  of  the  Delhi  empire 
by  Nadir  Shah  afforded  these  wild  and  warlike 
mountaineers  an  opportunity,  of  which  they  eagerly 
availeil  themselves,  to  wrest  additional  territory 
from  the  feeble  grasp  of  the  Mogul  emperor.  From 
this  time  tliey  discharged  the  office  of  arbiters  in 
the  quarrels  Itetween  the  emperor,  his  vizier,  and 
his  rebellious  subjects :  but  the  frightful  defeat 
(January  1761)  they  sustained  at  the  hands  of 
Ahmed  Shah  Dunini,  the  ruler  of  Afghanistan, 
on  the  field  of  Panipat,  where  they  lost  50,000 
men,  and  all  their  chiefs  except  Holkar,  weakened 
their  power  for  a  time.  They  still,  however,  con- 
tinued to  be  the  hired  mercenaries  of  the  Delhi 
emperor,  till  the  growing  inlluence  of  the  British 
compelled  them  to  look  to  their  own  safety.  After 
many  long  and  bloody  contests  with  the  British 
and  their  allies  (1780,  1803,  1817-18),  in  which 
sometimes  the  whole,  but  more  frequently  a 
portion  of  the  Mahrattas  joined,  they  were  one 
by  one,  with  the  exception  of  Sindhia,  reduced  to 
a  state  of  dependence.  This  last-mentioned  chief, 
liaving  raised  a  powerful  army,  officered  by  French- 
men, and  disciinined  after  the  European  method, 
continued  the  contest  for  a  number  of  years,  till 
his  power  was  finally  broken  in  1843.  The  dignity 
of  Peshwil  was  abolished  in  1818,  and  his  territories 
were  occupied  by  tlie  British.  The  Mahrattas  are 
almost  all  now  in  Britisli  or  Mohammeihin  states ; 
in  the  states  called  Mahratta  states  (Gwalior,  In- 
dore, Baroda;  .see  India,  p.  110)  only  the  prince 
and  liis  relatives  are  Mahrattas,  the  people  being 
of  other  stocks.  See  Grant-DutTs  History  of  tlie 
Mdrathm  (1826). 

Maliwa-tree.    See  Butter-tree. 

Alai,  Angelo,  Cardinal,  a  distinguished  Italian 
scholar,  was  born  in  the  village  of  Scliilpario,  in 
Lombardy,  March  7,  1782.  He  was  educated  and 
lived  till  1808  in  Jesuit  establishments,  next  was 
a  secular  priest  at  Milan,  and  became  custodian 
of  the  Ambrosian  Library  there.  Here  lie  de- 
voted himself  to  palaography,  and  during  the  next 
si.x  years  discovered  a  series  of  long-lost  works, 
many  from  palimpsests.  Among  these  were  frag- 
ments of  some  of  Cicero's  Orations ;  of  Plautus, 
eajjecially  of  the  Vidularia,  a  lost  play ;  of  Letters 


of  Fronto,  the  preceptor  of  Marcus  Aurelius ;  of 
Isa!us,  Themistius,  Dionysius  of  Halicarnas.sns, 
Philo,  Porpliyrios,  and  the  Chronieon  of  Eusebius. 
All  these,  however,  were  eclipsed  by  his  well- 
known  edition  and  restoration  of  the  Dr.  lie.piiblica 
of  Cicero  (1822).  Meanwhile  Mai  had  been  invited 
to  Rome  by  Pius  VII.,  and  named  to  the  charge  of 
the  Vatican  Library.  He  at  once  turned  his  atten- 
tion to  the  unedited  MSS.  of  the  Vatican,  and 
undertook  the  task  of  publishing  those  among 
them  which  had  been  neglected  by  earlier  editors ; 
and  although  appointed  in  1833  to  the  onerous 
office  of  secretary  of  the  Propaganda,  and  in  1838 
to  the  cardinalate  itself,  he  found  time  to  superin- 
tend a  series  of  jjublications  almost  unexampled  in 
e.xtent  and  importance  in  modern  times.  Ilis  first 
series  was  in  ten  quarto  vols.,  entitled  Hcriptorum 
Veterum  Nova  Collectio,  e  Vaticam's  Codicibiis 
edita  (1825-38).  It  consists,  like  the  great  col- 
lections of  Mabillon,  JMontfaucon,  D'Achery,  and 
others,  of  niiscellaueous  unpublished  Greek  and 
Latin  works,  partly  sacred,  partly  piofane,  com- 
prising an  entire  volume  of  palimpsest  fragments 
of  the  Greek  historians,  Polybius,  Diodorus,  Dion, 
Dionysius,  and  others.  The  succeeding  collections, 
CUtssicorum  Anctornm  Collectio,  e  Vaticanis  Codici- 
bifs  edita  (10  vols.  1828-38),  Spicilcgimn  Eomanum 
(10  vols.  1839-44),  and  Patrum  Nova  Biblio- 
thcca  (6  vols.  1845-53),  are  all  on  the  same  plan, 
and  all  equally  replete  witli  new  and  interest- 
ing materials.  For  many  years  Cardinal  Mai  was 
engaged  in  preparing  an  edition  of  the  celebrated 
Codex  Vaticanus,  but  long  postponed  its  publica- 
tion with  the  intention  of  pre|)aring  iireliminaiy 
dissertations.  But  death  overtook  liim  unex- 
pectedly near  Albano,  September  9,  1854;  and  the 
edition  was  ultimately  published  without  the.se 
(5  vols.  1858).  This  work  was  far  from  being 
entirely  satisfactoiy,  and  has  since  been  super- 
seded by  tlie  edition  of  Vercellone  and  Cozza 
(1868).  Cardinal  Mai's  library  was  bequeathed, 
at  lialf  its  estimated  value,  to  tlie  Vatican,  for  the 
good  of  the  poor  of  his  native  village. 

niaideii.  The.    See  Guillotine. 

illuideuliail*  (Adiantum  Cajjillus-Vciieris),  a 
small,  delicate,  and  graceful  fern,  with  bipinnate 
fronds,  alternate  obovate  and  wedge-shaped  mem- 
branaceous pinnules  on  capillary  stalks,  and  mar- 
ginal sori  hidden  lienoatli  oblong  iiidiisia  ;  growing 


Mnidenhair  : 

",  AdlaiUum  Capilhis- Veneris ;  h,  Adiantum  cuneatnm. 

on  moist  rocks  and  old  walls,  especially  near  the 
sea ;  r.are  in  Britain,  but  very  abundant  in  the 
scnitli  of  Europe,  where  it  covers  the  inside  of  wells 
and  the  basins  of  fountains  (as  at  Vaucluse)  with 
a  tapestry  of  the  most  delicate  green.     Another 


MAIDENHEAD 


MAILDUN 


809 


species  of  tlie  same  genus,  A.  pedotum,  a  native 
of  Nortli  America,  with  pcdatc  leaves,  has  a  sweet, 
fra<iiant  rout-stock,  of  which  CapiMaire  (n.v.)  is 
made.  It  is  snpposeil  that  the  name  maiclenhair 
originated  in  the  use  of  a  inucihige  made  from  this 
fern  by  women  for  stitt'ening  their  liair.  This  name 
is  sometimes  applied  also  to  some  species  of  spleen- 
wort  (Asplenium),  as  A.  adiantiim  nigrum  and  A. 
tric/iomaties.  It  is  also  applied  to  the  Adiantum 
familj-  generally,  of  which  there  are  many  species 
and  varieties.  The  most  common  of  all  and  best 
known  popularly  is  A.  ciineufum,  a  Brazilian 
species,  which  is  much  cultivated  by  florists. 

Ulaidonlicad.  a  municipal  l)orouj;h  and  mar- 
ket-town of  Uerksliire,  with  a  population  ( 1891)  of 
10,607,  is  situate  amidst  beautiful  scenery  lo  miles 
E.  by  X.  of  Heading,  and  26  \V.  of  London,  and  on 
the  right  bank  of  the  Thames,  over  which  are  two 
bridges,  one  of  stone,  built  1772  at  a  cost  of  £20,000, 
and  the  other  of  brick,  on  the  Great  Western  Rail- 
way (described  Vol.  II.  p.  439).  With  the  excep- 
tion of  a  recreation-ground  of  12  acres,  opened  1890, 
there  is  little  of  interest  in  the  town,  which  in 
1.399  was  the  scene  of  an  engagement  between  the 
rival  forces  of  Ricliard  II.  and  Henry  IV.,  and  in 
1647,  at  tlie  Greyhound  Inn,  of  tlie  interview  of 
Charles  I.  with  his  children.  On  tlie  opposite,  or 
Bucks,  side  of  the  river  is  Taplow  (pop.  1063), 
whose  wooded  slopes  are  crowned  by  '  Cliveden's 
proud  alcove.'  The  present  house  dates  only  from 
IS.')!  ;  two  previous  mansions — in  the  earlier  of 
which  Thomson,  whilst  on  a  visit  to  the  father 
of  George  III.,  probably  composed  '  Rule  Britannia ' 
— having  been  (lestroyed  by  tire  in  1795  and  1849. 

llaidment,  James,  Scottish  antiquarian  and 
literary  collector,  was  born  in  London  in  1794, 
being  descended  on  his  mother's  side  from  Jan 
van  Olden  Barneveldt,  the  Dutch  patriot.  He 
was  educated  at  the  High  School  and  university 
of  Edinburgh,  and  was  called  to  the  Scottish  bar 
in  1817.  He  became  almost  the  greatest  authority 
in  Scotland  on  genealogical  law  cases,  and  took  a 

Srominent  part  in  the  Mar  peerage  case  and  others. 
[e  died  in  Edinburgh,  24th  October  1879.  The 
passion  of  his  life  was  the  collection  of  literary  rari- 
ties, often  not  of  a  very  choice  character.  His  most 
ambitious  publication  was  'J'he  Dramatists  of  the 
Ik.ftoratioH  {li  vols.  1872-75),  edited  with  W.  H. 
Logan ;  besides  this  he  edited  A  North  Coiintrie 
Garland,  a  Collection  of  Ancient  Ballads  (1824; 
new  ed.  1884);  Scottish  Pasguils  or  Lampoons 
(1827-28;  new  ed.  1868);  Neiv  Book  of  Old 
Ballads  (1844;  new  ed.  1885);  Scottish  Ballads 
and  Songs  (1839  and  1868);  Paekel  of  Pestilent 
Pasquils  (1869);  an  Acrount  of  the  Bannatyne 
Club;  and  several  historical,  antiquarian,  and 
genealogical  works. 

Maids  of  Honour.    See  Household. 

llaidstonc,  the  county  and  assize  town  of 
Kent,  is  se.ited  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Medway, 
.34  miles  ESE.  of  London  by  road  (4U  by  rail), 
and  25  W.  of  Canterbury.  At  its  west  entrance, 
overlooking  the  river,  which  is  spanned  by  a  three- 
arch  stone  bridge,  built  1877-79  at  a  cost  oif  £55,000, 
stand  the  picturesoue  remains  of  .Mi-Saints'  Col- 
lege (of  which  William  flrocyn  was  once  master), 
originally  established  in  1260  . -is  a  hospital  for  pil- 
grims travelling  to  Canterbury,  and,  like  all  otlier 
institutions  of  the  same  kind,  suppressed  in  the 
reign  of  Edward  VI.  Close  by  is  All-Saints' 
Church,  a  fine  example  of  the  I'erpendicular  style, 
built  towards  the  end  of  the  I4tli  century,  and 
restored  I860;  its  interior  is  227  feet  long,  and 
cimtains  many  interesting  monuments  and  bia«ses, 
and  a  line  organ  (1880).  From  the  tower,  78 
feet  high,  formerly  rose  a  spire  of  94  feet,  which 
was  destroyed  by  lightning  in  1731.     To  the  nortli 


of  this,  the  principal  of  Maidstone's  ten  churches, 
are  schools  of  art  and  music,  occupying  a  former 
palace  of  the  archbishops  of  Canterbury  ;  and  other 
features  of  interest  comprise  a  grammar-school,  at 
which  Sir  Egerton  Biydges  was  educated,  founded 
1.549,  and  rebuilt  on  a  new  site,  1871  :  museum  and 
public  liliraiy,  established  18.58  in  Chillington 
House,  where,  too,  are  the  headquarters  of  the 
Kent  Arch.i^ological  Society;  town-hall  (1764); 
county  ";aol  (1812-19),  built  of  Kentish  ragstone, 
obtained  from  adjacent  quarries ;  hospital  ( 18.32- 
89):  cavalry  and  militia  liarracks ;  corn  exchange 
(1835);  oi.'hthalmie  hospital  (1851-69);  and  a 
public  park  on  Penenden  Heath  to  the  NE.  of 
the  town,  where  formerly  ^\■cre  held  the  county 
elections  and  other  great  meetings.  Lining  the 
river-banks  are  numerous  paper-mills  and  a  large 
oil-mill,  whilst  several  breweries  are  in  operation, 
and  an  important  traffic  is  carried  on  in  hops. 
Maidstone  returned  two  members  to  parliament 
till  1885,  when  the  number  was  reduced  to  one, 
and  was  lii-st  incorporated  as  a  municipal  borough 
in  1.548 ;  it  gives  the  inferior  title  of  viscouiit 
to  the  Earl  of  Winchelsea.  Pop.  (ISOl)  8027; 
(1831)  15.387:  (1881)  29,623;  (1891)  32,145.  The 
history  of  the  town  is  bound  up  with  that  ot 
Kent  (q.v.),  the  only  special  incidents  identified 
with  Maidstone  being  its  storming  in  1648  by  Fair- 
fax, when  garrisoned  by  a  royalist  force,  which  only 
surrendered  after  a  desperate  resistance.  Wooi- 
lett  the  engraver,  Hazlitt  the  essayist,  and  New- 
man Hall  were  natives  ;  and  Sir  Thomas  Wyatt 
the  poet,  and  his  son,  the  rebel,  lived  at  Allington 
Castle,  2  miles  distant.  There  was  a  tenilile 
visitation  of  typhoid  fever  in  September  and 
October  1897,  due — as  w'as  proved — to  defective 
and  polluted  water-supply. 

See  works  by  J.  M.  Kussell  ( 1881 )  and  Rev.  J.  Cave- 
Browne  (1889). 

Maisxc  (Scicena  aquila),  a  fish  of  the  acanthop- 
terous  family  Scioenida^,  common  in  the  Mediter- 
ranean but  rare  on  British  shores.  It  is  usually 
3  feet,  sometimes  6  feet  long.  It  resembles  a  large 
basse  and  is  excellent  for  the  table. 

mail.    See  Armour,  Post-office. 

Maildllll.  the  hero  of  an  ancient  Irish  romance, 
first  translated  by  Dr  Joyce  in  his  Ancient  Celtic 
Romances  (1879),  and  supposed  by  him  to  be  the 
product  of  a  rich  and  vivid  imagination,  working 
freely  on  a  real  voyage  made  in  the  beginning  of  the 
8th  century.  The  story  fonus  one  of  the  four  extant 
Imrama  or  voluntary  sea-expeditions,  of  which  the 
most  famous  is  the  Gth-century  voyage  of  St  Bren- 
dan ;  and  it  has  lieen  made  familiar  to  all  readei's 
in  the  splendid  verse  of  Tennyson.  Maildun  was 
the  son  of  Allil  Oc.ar  Aga,  of  the  tribe  of  Owenaght 
of  Ninus,  in  the  north-west  of  County  Clare,  and 
liefore  his  l>irth  his  father  was  killed  Yiy  a  band  of 
sea-robbers.  He  grew  up  handsome  and  accom- 
plished, but  had  scarce  reached  manhood  before 
lie  set  sail  in  a  triple-hide  curragh  with  a  crew  of 
sixty  men  to  find  his  father's  murderer.  For  three 
years  anil  seven  months  he  voyaged  on  the  western 
sea,  seeing  marvels  such  as  no  eyes  had  seen  before. 
He  visited  islands  of  monstrous  ants,  of  blood- 
thirsty quadrupeds,  of  red-hot  animals,  and  of 
those  which  turn  them.selves  round  inside  their 
skins,  a-s  well  as  the  isles  of  the  blest,  of  laughing, 
of  weeping,  of  intoxicating  wine-fruits,  of  the 
mystic  lake,  of  the  burning  river,  of  the  crystal 
bridge,  and  the  four  precious  walls.  Further 
wondem  were  the  demon  horse-race,  the  palace  of 
.solitude,  the  miller  of  hell,  speaking  birds,  a  water- 
arch  in  the  air,  and  the  silver  pillar  of  the  sea.  At 
len^'th  Maildun  found  the  murderer  of  his  father, 
but  forgave  him  his  wrong  because  of  the  great 
mercy  of  God  in  having  delivered  himsi'lf  from  so 
many  dangei's. 


810 


MAIMANA 


MAIN 


Ulaiinana.  an  Uzbeg  state  tributary  to  Afghan- 
istan, and  virtually  a  iiro\ince  of  that  country, 
situated  on  the  northern  frontier  next  Bussian 
Turkestan  ;  it  has  an  area  of  about  4750  sq.  ra., 
and  a  pop.  of  100,000,  mostly  warlike  Uzbegs  and 
Tajiks.  The  country  is  mountainous.  The  capital 
is  Maimana,  SW.  of  Balkh,  2.5  miles  from  the 
frontier.  Previous  to  the  seizure  of  the  place  by 
the  Afghans,  in  1874,  it  was  a  considerable  town, 
hut  is  now  a  village  of  2500  inhabitants,  who  trade 
in  hoi-ses,  carpets,  and  dried  fruits. 

Mailliaiisillgll.  a  district  of  the  Bengal  divi- 
sion of  Dacca,  the  capital  of  \vhich  is  Nasirabad. 

iflailliati'llin.  a  Chinese  trading-town  on  the 
northern  boundary  of  Mongolia,  opposite  Kiachta 
(ii.v. ),  from  which  it  is  separated  by  a  narrow  strip 
of  neutral  territory.     Pop.  3000. 

niaiiuboiirg,  Louis  (1610-86),  a  French  Jesuit 
church-historian,  was  expelled  in  1685  fiom  the 
order  for  his  defence  of  Gallicanisni,  but  became 
a  pensioner  of  Louis  XIV.  He  wrote  histories  of 
Wyelilism,  Lutheranism,  Cal\inism,  and  of  the 
prerogatives  of  the  Church  of  Rome. 

niaimon,  Solomon,  philosopher,  was  bom  of 
Jewish  parents  about  1754  in  a  village  on  the 
Xiemen,  near  Mir,  in  the  west  of  what  is  now 
the  Russian  government  of  Minsk.  His  mind  was 
trained  in  the  study  of  the  Talmud,  and  he  qualified 
fin-  a  rabbi.  But  possessing  a  burning  desire  for 
truth,  and  having  become  acquainted  with  the 
philosophy  of  Maimonides,  he  made  his  way  to 
Berlin,  and  studied  modern  philosophy,  languages, 
and  some  science.  A  child  of  nature,  with  the 
strong,  subtle  intellect  of  the  born  philosopher ; 
shy,  eccentric,  dirty,  and  unmethodical ;  impro\i- 
dent,  intemperate,  and  wholly  irregular  in  his 
habits,  Mainion  led  a  vagabond  life,  battling 
against  chronic  ])Overty,  and  always  dependent 
upon  his  friends  for  the  bare  necessaries  of  exist- 
ence. Besides  cultivating  his  own  mind,  and 
teaching  a  little,  he  never  did  any  work,  except 
write  some  philosophical  treatises  and  literary  hack- 
work, done  anywhere  and  at  any  time,  mostlv  in 
poor  taverns.  Yet  this  ragged  philosopher  luid 
ilendelssohn,  the  philosopher,  among  his  friends, 
was  admired  by  Kant,  and  attracted  the  attention 
of  Goethe.  This  good  fortune  he  owed  to  his 
Versuch  eincr  TranscendentalphUosophie  (1790),  an 
eclectic  .system,  in  which  he  attempted  to  supple- 
ment Kant's  by  truths  gleaned  for  the  most  part 
from  Spinoza,  teibnitz,  Hume,  Locke,  and  others. 
He  died  in  the  house  of  Count  Kalkreuth,  his  la.st 
patron,  at  Siegersdorf,  in  Lower  Silesia,  on  22d 
iSIovember  1800. 

See  his  very  interesting  Autohiorjraph'j  (1702;  Eng. 
trans,  by  J.  Clark  Murray,  1S88);  S.  J.  Wolff's  Maimo- 
niana  (1813) ;  and  the  Life  by  Witte  (Berlin,  1876). 

IIIailiIOIli<Ie!>i,  the  name  by  which  Christians 
generally  know  the  great  Jewish  teacher,  Kabbi 
Moses  lien  Mairnon,  who  from  the  initials  of  these 
words  is  called  by  the  Jews  K.\MB.^^L  He  wa-s 
horn  at  Cordova,  .March  30,  1135,  and  received  his 
first  instruction  from  his  father.  Under  the  most 
distinguished  Arabic  masters  of  the  time  he  then 
devoted  himself  to  the  study  of  Greek  ( Aristotelian ) 
philosophy,  the  science  of  medicine,  and  theology. 
Under  the  Almohades  his  family  had  to  conform 
outwardly  to  Mohammedanism,  and  ultimately 
emigrated  to  Kgypt,  and  Maimonides  became 
physician  to  the  reigning  sultan,  Saladin.  At 
("airo  he  died  December  13,  1204.  His  importance 
for  the  religion  and  science  of  Judaism,  and  his 
inlluence  upon  their  development,  are  so  gigantic 
that  he  has  not  unjustly  been  placed  .second  to 
.Moses,  the  great  lawgiver,  himself.  He  first  of  all 
brought  order  into  those  ahnost  boundless  re- 
ceptacles   of    tradition,   and    the   discussions  and 


decisions  to  which  they  had  given  rise,  which,  with- 
out the  remotest  attempt  .at  system  or  method,  lie 
scattered  up  and  down  the  works  of  Haggada  and 
Halacha — Midrash,  Mishnah,  'Talmnds.  Imbued 
with  the  spirit  of  lucid  (neek  speculation,  and  the 
logical  thought  of  the  Araliic  I'erijiatetics,  Mai- 
nmnides,  aided  by  an  enormous  knowledge,  became 
the  founder  of  rational  Scripture  exegesis.  The 
Bible,  and  all  its  wnitten  as  well  as  implied  pre- 
cejits,  he  endeavoured  to  exi)lain  by  the  lighl  of 
reason,  with  which,  as  the  highest  divine  gift  in 
man,  nothing  really  di\ine  could  staml  in  real  con- 
tradiction. The  miracles  themselves,  though  not 
always  traceable  to  their  immediate  cause,  yet 
cannot  be  wrought  in  ojjposition  to  the  physical 
and  everlasting  laws  in  nature.  Where  literal  inter- 
pretation seems  to  jar  upon  the  feelings  of  reve- 
rential awe  towards  the  Highest  Being,  there  an 
allegorical  explanation  is  to  he  adopted  unhesitat- 
ingly. As  to  the  philosophical  system  of  Maimon- 
ides, we  can  barely  hint  at  its  close  similarity 
with  that  of  Averroes.  Maimonides  fully  allows 
the  freedom  of  will,  and  holds  that  prcnidence 
reigns  in  a  broad  manner  over  humanity  ;  hut  he 
utterly  denies  the  working  of  providence  in  the 
single  event  that  befalls  the  individual,  \\1io, 
subject  abo\e  all  to  the  great  physical  laws, 
must  learn  to  undei-stand  and  obey  them.  The 
soul,  and  the  soul  only,  is  immortal,  and  the 
reward  of  virtue  consists  in  its  unbodily  bliss  in  a 
world  to  come  ;  while  the  punishment  of  vice  is  the 
'loss  of  the  soul.' 

Maimonides'  tiret  work  of  paramount  importance 
is  his  Arabic  commentary  of  the  Mishnah,  which 
forms  an  extensive  historical  introiluetion  to  Tradi- 
tiiin,  or  the  Oral  Law  ;  and  this  introduction,  trans- 
lated into  Hebrew,  has  now  for  more  than  five 
hundred  years  been  deemed  so  essential  a  part  of  the 
Talmud  itself  that  no  edition  of  the  latter  is  con- 
sidered complete  without  it.  This  was  followed  by 
the  ^'r/fc  Hainmizruth,  or  Book  of  the  Precciils,  in 
Arabic,  which  contains  an  enumeration  of  the  613 
traditional  laws  of  the  Halacha ;  the  text  was  first 
edited  by  M.  Bloch  (Paris,  1888).  This  book  is  to 
he  considered  chiefly  as  an  introduction  to  the 
gigantic  work  which  followed  in  1180,  under  the 
title  of  Mishne  Torah  ('Second  Law'),  or  Yail 
Chasttkah  ('Strong  Hand'),  a  Hebrew  compendium 
in  982  chapfers,  embracing  the  entire  Halacha. 
The  summit  of  liis  renown,  however,  Maimonides 
reached  in  his  grand  Arabic  work,  iJvliilnth  A/- 
Hiiiriit  (translated  into  Hebrew  by  K.  Tihbon  as 
.Mori:li  Kcbor/iim,  'Guide  of  the  Erring'),  a  philo- 
sophical exegesis,  which,  while  on  the  one  hand 
it  has  contributed  more  than  any  other  work  to 
the  progress  of  rational  development  in  Judaism, 
has  on  the  other  hand  also  become  the  arena  for 
a  long  and  bitter  light  between  orthodoxy  and 
science,  between  the  spiritualistic  Mainionidian 
and  the  '  literal  Talniudtstic  '  schools.  Ultimately 
the  antagonistic  parties  came  to  a  reconciliation, 
and  Maimonides  name  became  the  pride  and 
glory  of  the  race;  and  as  early  as  the  13th  cen- 
tury, already  portions  of  his  works,  chiefly  the 
il/orc/i  (' Doctor  Perplexinum '),  became,  in  Latin 
versions,  the  textbooks  even  of  European  uni- 
versities. See  T/ie  Om'i/c  of  the  I'crjilij:id  of 
Maimonides,  translaleil  and  annotated  by  Fried- 
lander  (3  vols.  18SC) ;  and  his  Life  of  Maimonides. 

illaill.  a  river  of  Germany,  the  largest  affluent 
the  Rhine  receives  from  the  right,  is  formed  by  the 
union  of  two  branches,  the  White  and  the  Red 
Main,  4  miles  below  Kulmb.ach,  in  north-east 
Bavaria.  The  White  Main  rises  in  the  Fichtel- 
gebirge,  2900  feet  above  sea-li'vel  ;  the  Red  Main, 
a  few  miles  S.  of  Bayreuth.  The  river  Hows  west- 
wards by  huge  zigzags  past  Bamberg,  Schwcinfurt, 
Wiirzburg,  Aschallenhurg,  Hanau,  Ofl'enbach,  and 


f 


MAINE 


811 


Copyright  1S90  In  U.S. 
by  J.  B.  LippiDCgtt 
Cuiupauy. 


Frankfort,  and  mingles  its  yellow  waters  with  the 
green  current  of  the  Rhine  opposite  Mainz,  after  a 
total  coui-se  of  307  miles,  the  last  205  of  wliicli  are 
navijiable.  The  chief  affluents  are,  on  the  ri"ht, 
the  Sivale,  and  on  the  left,  the  Regnitz.  The  Jlain 
flows  through  a  beautiful  country,  the  hill-slopes 

fenerally  covered  with  vineyards  and  surmounted 
y  castles.  Its  watei-s  communicate  with  those  of 
the  Danube  by  means  of  the  Ludwigs-Kanal  and 
the  Altuiiihl.  The  Main  divides  politically  North 
Germany  from  South  Germany. 

Maine,  an  old  province  of  France,  having 
Normandy  on  the  nortli,  Brittany  on  the  west, 
and  Aujou  on  the  south,  corresponded  to  the 
modern  departments  of  Sarthe  and  Mayenne.  Its 
chief  town  was  Le  Mans. 

KailI6,  the  north-ea.«temmost  state  of  tlie 
American  Union,  is  bounded  N.  by  the  Canadian 

grovinces  of  Quebec  and  New 
runswick,  E.  by  New  Brunswick, 
S.  and  SE.  by  the  Atlantic  Ocean 
(Gulf  of  Maine),  AV.  by  New  Hampshire,  and  NW. 
by  the  province  of  Quebec.  Area,  33,040  sq.  m.,  of 
which  one-tenth  is  water,  there  being  many  large 
and  fine  lakes  (Moosehead,  Chesuncook,  Schoodic, 
Grand.  Sebago,  &c.)  and  important  rivers  ( Penob- 
scot, Kennebec,  Androscoggin,  Saco,  St  Croix, 
Aroostook,  and  WalloostooK  or  St  John ).  It 
is  thus  somewhat  larger  than  Ireland.  Meas- 
ured in  a  direct  line  the  coast  extends  some  270 
English  statute  miles,  but  if  its  sinuosities  and  the 
outlring  island-shores  were  measured  it  is  esti- 
mated that  the  whole  would  be  extended  to  about 
2.500  miles.  When  the  poet  Whittier  speaks  about 
'  hundred-liarboured  Maine,'  he  scarcely  exagger- 
ates, for  the  rocky  coastline,  broken  by  the  force 
of  the  waves  ami  trenched  in  former  geological 
times  by  glaciers,  forms  almost  that  number  of 
anchorages,  some  of  them  higlily  important  for 
their  commerce,  and  others  serving  as  liarbours  of 
refuge.  Towards  the  south-west  the  sliore  is  sandy, 
and  there  are  salt  marshes,  producing  much  coarse 
h.ay.  The  surface  is  uneven,  and  in  the  north-cen- 
tral regions  and  the  west  it  is  even  mountainous. 
The  scenerj'  at  some  points  (as  on  Mount  Desert 
Island,  on  some  of  the  lakes,  and  in  the  region  near 
Camden)  is  very  picturesque.  Tlie  highest  moun- 
tain is  Katahdin  (5385  feet).  The  soil  is  mostly 
stony  and  hard,  as  in  New  England  generally, 
but  some  sections  are  very  fertile — the  Aroostook 
region  in  the  north-east  for  the  most  part  exceed- 
inirly  so.  The  northern  portion  of  the  state  is 
covered  in  great  part  with  a  dense  forest,  and  its 
population  is  very  sparse. 

The  geological  features  are  complex,  but  a  great 
proportion  of  the  strata  shows  metamorphic  traces. 
The  surface  is  everywhere  scored  with  prehistoiic 
glacier  and  drift  ice.  Granite  Is  very  extensively 
iiuarried,  and  presents  many  handsome  varieties. 
Excellent  lime  is  largely  produced.  Traces  of  coal 
are  found  ( as  at  Georgetown  and  Bucksport ),  and 
there  are  local  beds  of  valuable  graphite.  The 
state  is  rich  in  rare  minerals.  Many  silver-mines 
have  been  o])eneil,  and  a  few  are  still  operated  in 
a  small  way;  but  the  ores  (sulphide  of  silver 
accompanying  galena,  &c.)  are  often  reMlious  and 
expensive  to  work.  Vast  beds  of  copper  (lK)rnite, 
clialcocite,  clialcopyrite)  exist,  some  of  them  quite 
rich.  Felspar,  Ihigstone,  limonite.  nuca,  yellow- 
ochre,  glass  sand,  slate  ( the  latter  in  vast  quantities 
and  of  high  gra<le),  lead  ores,  talc,  tripoli,  and 
manganese  are  all  wrought  to  a  greater  or  le.ss 
extent.  Tourmaline  is  obtained  as  a  preci<ms 
stone,  for  jewellers'  use  ;  and  lepidolite,  a  mineral 
rich  in  the  rare  metal  ca».siuni.  is  locally  found  in 
considerable  abundance.  Mineral  waters  are 
shipped  in  large  quantities. 


The  cool  climate  and  the  opportunities  for  fishing 
and  shooting  make  this  state  a  favourite  region  for 
summer  resort.  The  winter  climate  is  severe  for 
the  latitude  ;  the  winters  are  long  and  the  snows 
deep.  Ice,  which  is  harvested  especially  on  the 
Kennebec,  is  an  important  commodity  for  export. 
The  leading  crops  are  hay,  potatoes,  ajiples  (of 
excellent  quality),  and  the  ordinary  grains  and 
small  fruits.  The  sweet  varieties  of  maize  (sugar- 
corn)  are  extensively  cultivated,  and  are  sold 
largely  in  tins  and  glass  for  winter  consumption  ; 
this  is  a  prominent  industry  in  some  sections. 
The  rainfall  is  copious.  The  rivers  of  Maine  allonl 
an  enormous  water-power,  only  a  relatively  small 
part  of  which  is  at  present  utilised.  Forest  pro- 
ducts (timber,  tan-hark,  &c.)  are  extensively  cut. 
Navigation  is  favoured  by  the  numerous  inlets  and 
the  large  navigable  streams,  and  railway  communi- 
cation is  fairly  developed.  Timber,  building-stone, 
ice,  cattle,  wool,  and  fann  products  are  sliipped. 
Maine  has  considerable  shipbuilding  (more  than 
any  other  state),  and  the  coasting  trade  is  carried 
on  largely.  The  fishing  interests  are  extensive  ; 
mackerel,  lobsters,  herring,  '  sardines  '  ( here  mostly 
small  hening),  fish-oil,  and  fish-guano  are  the  staple 
products  of  the  fisheries.  The  principal  manufac- 
turing industries  of  the  state  are  the  making  of 
cotton  and  woollen  goods,  leather,  boots  and  slioes, 
flour,  paper,  and  foundiT  products,  the  sawing  and 
planing  of  lumber,  shipbuilding,  the  canning  of 
fruit  and  lobstei-s,  lic. 

Maine  contains  sixteen  counties,  and  returns 
four  membei's  to  congress.  The  chief  towns  are 
Portland,  the  largest  city  and  principal  seaport ; 
Bangor,  on  the  navigable  ri\er  Penobscot  ;  Lewis- 
ton,  the  seat  of  extensive  cotton  manufactures ; 
Augr:sta,  the  state  capital  :  Bath,  noted  for  its 
shipbuilding^;  Auburn,  Belfast,  Rockland,  Bidde- 
ford,  Saco,  Brunswick,  Brewer,  Eastport,  Gardiner, 
Hallowell,  Waterville,  &c.  Education  is  general 
and  on  the  whole  progressive.  There  are  colleges 
of  repute  at  Bninswick,  AVaterville,  Lewiston,  and 
Orono,  the  last  a  state  institution.  The  Maine 
Liquor  Law,  one  of  the  earliest  of  the  stringent 
Liquor  Laws  (q.v. ;  and  see  Tejiper.vxck  ),  was 
enacted  in  1851.  The  population  is  mainly  of  the 
English  Puritan  stock  of  New  England.  There 
is  a  large  element  of  French-speaking  Canadian 
immigrants,  and  in  the  extreme  north  there  is  a 
considerable  body  of  Acadian  French  who  have 
occupied  for  nearly  150  years  a  fertile  region  on 
the  river  St  John.  Latterly  there  has  been  an 
influx  of  Irish,  Swedish,  and  Gemian  settlere.  An 
old  German  colony  near  the  coast  has  become  com- 
pletely Americanised.  There  are  a  few  Indians 
left  in  the  state  ;  but  the  African  element  is  very 
small  indeed.  Pop.  ( 1820 )  298,335  ;  ( 1860)  628,279; 
(1880)648,936;  (1890)661,086. 

Histurtj. — The  early  Dutch  settlements  did  not 
prove  i)ernianeiit.  The  English  established  settle- 
ments here  as  early  as  1607,  but  with  no  success. 
The  French  planted  an  unsuccessful  colony  cm 
Neutral  Lsland  in  1604,  but  all  their  attemi>ts  at 
colonisation  <m  the  coast  were  speedily  abanuoned. 
Bristol  or  Pemaquid  wa-s  settled  in  1630,  and  had 
an  interesting  early  history,  becoming  in  1648  a 
centre  of  a  new  but  temjiorary  '  Ducal  Slate'  sub- 
ject to  the  Duke  of  York,  afterwards  James  II. 
York,  settled  probably  in  1624,  was  the  capital  of  a 
colony  under  Sir  Ferdinando  (Jorges  (q.v.).  In 
16.35  the  western  part  of  Maine  received  the  title 
of  the  Province  of  Maine,  and  from  1651  to  1820  it 
formed  a  detached  part  of  Ma.s.sacliHsetts,  called  the 
district  of  Maine  ;  Ma.s.«achusetts  in  1677  bought 
the  title  to  the  Gorges  colony.  Eastern  Maine  until 
1691  forincil  a  part  of  .Acadia  or  Nova  .S'otia. 
Maine  became  a  state  in  1820.  An  angry  dispute 
■with  Great  Britain  as  to  the  nortlicm  and  eastern 


812 


MAINE 


MAINTENON 


boundary  was  settled  in  1842  by  a  compromise. 
Latterly  the  depletion  of  the  pine-forests  and  a 
large  emigration  to  the  West  nave  checked  tlie 
material  progress  of  Maine,  but  its  healthful 
climate  and  its  natural  resources  ensure  to  the 
state  a  prosperous  future.  See  G.  J.  Vamey,  Brief 
History  of  Maine  (Portland,  1SS9). 

Slaine,  Sir  Hexry  James  Sujinek,  was  born 
in  1822,  and  had  his  education  at  Christ's  Hospital 
and  Pembroke  College,  Cambridge,  where  his  career 
was  unusually  brilliant.  He  carried  oil'  the  Craven 
scholarship  and  other  university  prizes,  and  gradu- 
ated in  18-44  as  senior  classic  and  Chancellor's 
classical  medallist,  as  well  as  a  senior  optime  in 
mathematics.  Soon  after  he  was  elected  fellow 
and  tutor  of  Trinity  Hall,  and  in  1847,  at  the  age 
of  twenty-five,  was  appointed  regius  professor  of 
Civil  Law,  which  office  he  vacated  in  1854  to  become 
Header  on  Jurisprudence  at  the  Middle  Temple.  He 
was  called  to  the  bar  in  1850,  and  went  to  India  in 
1862  as  Law  Member  of  the  Council  in  India — an 
office  held  by  Macaulay,  and  in  which  he  himself 
was  succeeded  in  December  1869  by  Sir  James  Fitz- 
jaraes  Stephen.  In  1870  he  was  appointed  to  fill 
the  new  chair  of  Comparative  Jurisprudence  at 
Oxford,  and  next  year  to  a  seat  in  the  Council  of 
the  Secretary  of  State  for  India,  on  which  occasion 
he  was  created  K. C.S.I.  At  the  close  of  1877  he 
was  elected  Master  of  Trinity  Hall  at  Cambridge, 
and  in  1 887  also  Whe well  professor  of  International 
Law.  But  his  health  was  already  broken,  and  on 
February  .3,  1888,  he  died  of  apoplexy  at  Cannes. 
Maine  gave  some  wise  reforms  to  Indian  law,  but 
it  is  by  his  work  on  the  ori.gin  and  growth  of  legal 
and  social  institutions  that  his  name  will  be  best 
remembered.  His  books  were  Ancient  Law  (1861), 
one  of  the  most  important  and  influential  works  of 
its  time ;  Villaqe  Communities  in  the  Ecist  and 
West  (1871);  The  Early  History  of  Institutions 
(1875);  Early  Lav)  and  Custom  (1883);  and 
Popular  Gorerumciit  (1885).  One  fundamental 
idea  of  Sir  Henry  Maitie's  was  to  make  paternal 
or  patriarchal  power  the  germ  from  which  society 
developed.  This  view  was  strongly  controverted 
by  M'Lennan,  Morgan,  and  Spencer;  but  Elaine's 
answer  was  marked  by  equal  learning  and  far 
greater  lucidity  and  grace  of  e.\i)osition.  See  the 
Memoir  by  Sir'jl.  E.  Grant  Dufr(1892). 

niaine-et-Loire,  a  department  of  France, 
formed  out  of  the  old  province  of  Anjou,  and 
watered  by  the  rivers  wnose  names  it  bears,  is 
divided  into  the  arrondissements  of  Angers,  Beauge, 
Cholet,  Saumur,  and  Segre.  Area,  2749  sq.  in.  ; 
pop.  (1872)518,471;  (1886)527,680;  (1891)513,815. 
The  soil  is  fertile,  and  produces  excellent  corn  and 
wine,  with  hemp,  linseed,  fruit,  and  green  crops. 
Slate-quarries  and  coal-mines  are  worked ;  and 
there  are  mills  for  cotton,  woollen,  and  linen  manu- 
factures.    Capital,  Angers. 

niailiotes*  the  inhabitants  of  the  mountainous 
I)(Munsula  of  Maina,  that  lies  between  the  gulfs  of 
Koron  and  Marathonisi  in  the  extreme  south  of 
Greece.  They  (daim  to  be  the  descendants  of  the 
ancient  Snartans,  number  close  upon  50,000,  and 
are  a  well-built  race,  industrious  and  hospitable, 
but  revengeful,  groat  lovers  of  liberty,  and  formerly 
im])laeahle  foes  of  the  Turks.  They  took  a  promi- 
nent part  in  the  war  for  the  liberation  of  (Jreece. 
In  1676  about  1000  .Mainotes  emigrated  to  Corsica: 
their  descendants  still  survive  at  Cargese  in  that 
islanil.  Amongst  the  emigrants  were  some  hearing 
the  name  of  Kalomeros,  which  in  Italian  is  trans- 
lated Huonaparte.  Hence  the  people  of  Maina 
believe  that  the  great  Napoleon  was  of  (Jieek 
origin.  The  emigrants  were  settled  at  Ajaccio 
from  1729  down  to  1769,  in  which  year  Napoleon 
was  born  there. 


C.ip  of  Maintenance. 


Mainpnri,  capital  of  a  district  in  the  North- 
western Provinces  of  India,  75  miles  E.  of  Agra. 
Pop.  (1881)20,236. 

Ulailltciiance  is  a  laM-term  commonly  used 
to  denote  an  illegal  succouring  of  a  person,  a.s  by 
lending  money  to  a  stranger  in  canying  on  law- 
suits. Contracts  are  sometimes  held  to  be  illegal 
on  this  ground.  At  Guildford,  in  July  1889,  a  man 
got  six  months'  imprisonment  with  a  fine  of  .t'200 
for  niiiintenance  and  Barratry  (q.v. ). 

jHailltenance,  Cap  of,  sometimes  called  Cap 
of  iJignity,  a  cap  of  crimson  velvet  lined  witii 
ermine,  with  two  points 
turned  to  the  back,  origin- 
ally only  worn  by  dukes, 
but  afterwards  assigned 
to  various  families  of  dis- 
tinction. Those  families 
who  are  entitled  to  a  cap 
of  maintenance  place  their 
crests  on  it  instead  of  on 
a  wreath.  See  Heraldry, 
p.  667. 

Maintoiion.  Fraxcoke  d'Aubionio,  jMar- 
QtTi.sE  DE,  famous  for  her  connection  with  Louis 
XIV'.,  was  the  daughter  of  Constant  d'Aubigne, 
the  worthless  son  of  the  famous  Huguenot,  Theo- 
dore Agrippa  d'Aubigne,  and  was  born  in  the 
prison  at  Niort,  November  27,  1635.  When  four 
\oars  old  she  was  carried  to  Martinique  in  the 
'\\'est  Indies,  whence  she  returned  after  her  father's 
death  in  1645  to  France.  Her  conversion  to  the 
Koman  Catholic  religion  was  efl'ected  not  without 
ditliculty,  and  on  her  mother's  death  she  found 
herself  at  fifteen  reduced  to  absolute  penury.  Soon 
after  this  she  became  acquainted  with  tiie  kind- 
hearted  poet  Scarron,  who  offered  either  to  many 
her  himself  or  to  pay  the  money  required  for  her 
entrance  into  a  nunnery.  Although  Scarron  was 
lame  and  deformed,  she  chose  to  marry  him,  anil 
for  nine  years  lived  contentedly  in  the  midst  of  the 
intellectual  society  which  frequented  the  house  of 
the  poet.  On  his  death  (1660)  she  wa-s  again 
reduced  to  great  poverty  :  but  Anne  of  Austria 
ccmtinued  and  increased  her  husband's  )i('nsi<)n. 
On  her  death  (1666)  it  was  discontinued,  and  she 
\\  as  about  to  go  as  a  governess  to  Portugal,  when 
Madame  de  Montespan  obtained  for  her  the;  con- 
tinuance of  her  pension.  In  1669  she  was  given 
the  charge  of  the  king's  two  sons  by  Madame  de 
Montespan,  and  in  this  capacity  displayed  a  patient 
tenderness  and  sleepless  care  that  no  mother  could 
have  surpassed.  By  1674  she  had  made  sufficient 
money  to  buy  the  estate  of  Maintenon,  and  four 
years  later  had  it  made  a  marquisate  by  the  king. 
She  had  now  completely  established  her  ascendancy 
over  the  heart  of  Louis,  who  made  her  in  1680 
second  lady-in-waiting  to  the  dauphine.ss.  The 
queen  died  in  1683,  and  Madame  de  Maintenon, 
wlio  had  become  firet  lady-in-waiting  to  the 
dnu]iliiness  the  year  before,  married  the  king 
jirivately  in  the  winter  of  1685.  Her  morals  were 
se\ere,  for  her  heart  was  never  other  than  cold, 
and  she  knew  that  the  best  cards  for  her  game 
were  propriety,  orthodoxy,  and  the  church. 
Her  moral  intluence  over  the  court  would  liaM' 
been  greater  had  she  filled  a  more  recogniseil 
position.  Her  political  influence  was  supreme  in 
all  but  the  more  im])ortant  questions  of  iiolicy,  and 
she  lavished  her  patronage  upon  persons  devoted 
to  herself.  She  was  a  liberal  patroness  of  letters, 
and,  while  she  had  a  high  reputation  for  orthodoxy, 
had  too  much  liuinaiiity  to  approve  of  the  detest- 
able ilriif/Dunadrs.  Vet  in  tlie  midst  of  s]ilendonr, 
and  in  the  po.'isessicui  of  great  jiowcr,  she  was  un- 
happy, and  she  often  turned  for  .s<ilace  to  the  home 
for  poor  girls  of  good  family  she  had  establi.shed  at 


MAINZ 


MAISTRB 


813 


8t  Cyr,  auil  lor  wliich  she  laboured  with  the  most 
ee.iseless  care:  Hither  she  retiretl  wlieii  the  king 
died  in  1715,  and  here  she  died,  April  15,  1719. 
Her  pretended  Memoires  (6  vols.  1755)  are  spurious, 
but  her  delightful  and  admirable  Lcttrcs  (9  vols. 
1756)  are  genuine.  By  far  the  best  editions  aie 
by  T.  Lavallee  (185i-56)  and  M.  GetiVoy  (2  vols. 
18S7). 

See  the  books  by  Madame  Suard  (1810),  Lafont 
d'Aussonne  (1814),  and  the  Duo  de  Noailles  ( 1848-58 ) ; 
also  Theophile  Lavallee's  Histuire  de  ^t  Ci/r,  aiid  its 
review  in  vol.  viii.  of  f-ainte-Beuve's  Cuusei-ies  du 
Lundi ;  the  studies  by  Cotter  Morison_(  1885 )  and  EniUy 
Bowles  (1SS8);  vol.  ix.  of  Sclierer's  Ktudes  siir  la  Litt. 
CoiU.,  and  Dijl linger  in  AtUjemcine  Zcituny  (188G). 

SlaillZ  (Mat/ence),  an  imperial  German  fortress 
of  the  lirst  rank,  and  the  seat  of  a  Roman  Catholic 
bishop,  in  the  giaud-duchy  of  Hesse,  is  situated  on 
the  left  bank  of  the  Rhine,  opposite  the  junction 
of  the  Main,  •2-2  miles  WSW.  of  Frankfort.  The 
Rhine  is  here  crossed  by  a  stone  bridge  (supersed- 
ing in  1885  the  former  pontoon  bridge)  to  the 
\'illage  of  Kastel,  included  in  the  fortifications, 
and  by  an  iron  railway  bridge,  140  yards  long,  to 
the  port  of  Gustavsberg,  at  the  mouth  of  tlie  Main. 
Pop.  (IS7o)  56,421;  (1890)  72,059,  of  whom  two- 
thirds  are  Roman  Catholics  ;  in  the  14th  century  it 
is  said  to  have  reached  90,000.  Mainz  is  one  of 
the  most  ancient  cities  in  Germany  ;  but  its  oldest 
part,  known  as  KaMrich,  has  been  rebuilt  in  a 
modern  style  since  its  almost  total  destruction  in 
1857  by  the  explosion  of  a  powder-magazine  ;  wliile 
a  handsome  new  quarter  ha.s  sprung  up  on  the  north, 
in  the  sp;ice  afforded  by  the  advancing  of  the  forti- 
fications in  1874.  The  cathedral,  originally  built 
in  978-1009,  was  thrice  destroyed  by  tire,  and  dates 
in  its  present  form  from  the  13-14th  century.  In 
1870-78  it  was  thoroughly  restored,  and  the  present 
central  Romanesque  tower,  270  feet  high,  built. 
It  has  five  lesser  towers,  fourteen  altars,  and  nine 
minor  chapels,  and  is  ailorned  in  the  interior  with 
frescoes  and  numerous  monuments.  Besides  various 
modern  public  buildings,  the  city  contains  the 
palace  of  the  grand-duke,  originally  a  lodge  of  the 
Teutonic  Order,  dating  from  the  baginning  of  the 
ISth  century,  an  arsenal  of  1736,  and  the  large  red- 
sandstone  electoral  palace,  in  which  are  deposited 
various  public  collections,  including  a  library  of 
150,000  vols.,  and  the  valuable  Romano-German 
Museum,  an  antiquarian  and  historical  collection 
unequalled  elsewhere  in  Europe.  Mainz  is  an  im- 
portant centre  of  the  Rhine  trade  with  Holland  and 
IJelgiura,  and  also  carries  on  a  very  large  transit 
tr;«le  by  railway,  as  well  as  an  active  manufacturing 
industry.  Elaborate  new  harbour-works,  including 
docks  and  storehouses,  were  opened  in  1887  at  a  cost 
of  £2.50,(J(X) ;  while  the  Rhine  is  skirted  by  a  broad 
quay,  four  miles  long.  Grain,  wine,  timber,  books, 
music,  and  the  manufactures  of  the  town  are  the 
chief  articles  of  trade.  Furniture,  leather  goods, 
m.-vchinery,  musical  instruments,  chemicals,  gold 
and  silver  ware,  hats,  soap,  i<:e.,  are  among  the 
manufactures ;  and  brewing,  printing,  and  market- 
gardening  in  the  environs  are  also  important  in- 
dustries. The  history  of  Mainz  connects  it  with 
Rome  from  the  year  1.3  B.C.,  when  Drusus  built  on 
its  site  the  important  fort  of  Moyuntiacum  or 
Mttijuntin'uiiii.  Among  the  numerous  Itoman  re- 
mains the  most  remarkable  are  the  Juf/elstciii,  a 
column  suppo.sed  to  mark  the  tomb  of  Drusus,  and 
the  remains  of  an  aqueduct  3A  miles  long.  The 
real  importance  of  the  town  dates,  however,  from 
the  Frankish  emperors.  In  the  1.3tli  century 
-Mainz  was  the  hearl  of  the  confederacy  of  the 
Rhenish  cities,  but  in  1462  it  wius  ailded  to  tlie 
domains  of  the  archbishops  of  Mainz,  the  premier 
spiritual  electors  of  the  emjiire.  The  city  was 
several  times  in  the  possession  of  France,  notably 


in  1801-14.  After  the  Congress  of  Vienna  it  was 
iissigned  in  1816  to  Hes.se- Darmstadt,  on  condition 
that  it  was  to  constitute  a  federal  stronghold,  and 
it  was  garrisoned  by  Prussian  and  Austrian  troops. 
After  1866  it  was  held  by  Prussian  troops,  until  in 
1870  it  was  declared  an  imperial  fortress.  Mainz 
was  the  birthplace  of  Gutenberg  (q.v.),  whose 
house  is  still  ]>ointed  out.  See  works  by  Schaab 
(1844),  Rockenheimer  (1879),  Beck  (1882),  and 
Schneider  (1886). 

Alaisoii  €arr«5e.    See  NImes. 

Maistre,  Joseph  M.\rie,  Coiite  de,  was  born 
1st  April   1754,  at  Chambcry,  of  a  noble   French 
lamily  which  had  settled  in  Savoy.     AVhile  Savoy 
was  occupied  in  1792  by  the  French,  De  Maistre, 
who  was  a  membt'r  of  the  senate,  withdrew  from 
the   country  ;  and  when  the  king  of  Sardinia  re- 
treated to  the  island  of  Sardinia,  he  accompanied 
his  court.     In  1803  he  was  sent  as  ambassador  to 
St  Petersburg,  and  here  he  remained  until  1817, 
when  he  was  recalled  to  occupy  a  place  in  the  home 
govemmcnt.     Thereafter  he  lived  in  Turin  till  his 
death,    February  25,    1821.      De  Jlaistre   was  an 
ardent  ultramontane,  and  argued  with  an  incisive 
force  of  logic  and  bxilliancy  of  rhetoric  more  often 
associated  with  the  opposite  side.     He  maintained 
the   pope  as  the  source  and  centre  of  all  earthly 
authority,  and   an   ordered'  theocracy  as  the  only 
protection  from  social  and  religious  anarchy.     He 
is  an  unusually  strong  and  stearly  thinker,  and  has 
a  remarkable  faculty  of  forcing  plain  arguments 
forward  to  an  irresistible  conclusion.      He  is  pro- 
foundly learned  as  well  as  logical,  and,  in  short,  is 
much  more  easily  denounced  than  answered.     His 
first  work  was  Considerations  sur  la  France  ( 1796), 
an  able  defence  of  Legitimist  views,  and  onslaught 
on   the  philosophes  of  the   18th   centui-y.      In  St 
Petersbui-g  he  wrote   his  Coiistitii/ioiis  Tolitiqitc.s 
(1810),   Du    Fapc    (1821),   De    l'£\j/ise    Gallicaiic 
(1821-22),  Soirtes  dc  tit  Pctcrsboury  (1822).     The 
last  is  unfinished  and  desultory,  but  is  pregnant 
with  strong  thought  ami  suggestiveness.     Here  is 
to  be  found  the  panegyric  on  the  hangman  as  the 
foundation  of  social  order.     Other  works  are  his 
Exanien  dc  la  Philosophic   dc  Bacon    (1836)   and 
Lellres  et   Opuscules  (1851).     See  Life  by  Glaser 
(Ber.    1865),    by    Margerie    (Par.    1886);    Sainte- 
Beuve's  Portraits  Coiit.  (vol.   iii. );  John  Morley's 
Critical  Miscellanies  ;  Descotes,  Joseph  de  Maistre 
avant  et  pendant  la  llevolution  ( 1893-95) ;  and  other 
books  by  Lescure  (1893)  and  Cogordan  (1894). 

X.wier  de  Maistre,  his  younger  brother, 
was  born  at  Chambcry  in  October  1763,  and 
from  an  early  age  served  in  the  Sardinian  army. 
He  shared  "his  brother's  politics,  and  aflir 
the  campaign  of  1799  followetf  Suwaroff  to  Russia. 
Here  he  serveil  with  distineticni,  rising  to  the  rank 
of  general,  married  a  Russian  lady,  and  settled 
down,  even  after  the  fall  of  Najxdeon  had  restored 
the  dynasty  of  Piedmont.  He  paid  visits  to  Naples 
and  Paris,  where  Sainte-Ceuve  .saw  him,  and  died 
at  St  Petersburg,  12th  June  1852.  His  name  is 
rememl)ered  for  a  few  delightfully  fresh  and  un- 
pretending books,  written  in  iierfcct  French,  and 
showing  that  rare  mastery  of  the  narrative  art 
in  the  simple  f.'ushion  for  which  Sainte-Beuve  sets 
him  hesiile  Prosper  Mtrimce.  The  best  known 
is  the  Vojiagc  autour  dc  ma  Chambre  (1794), 
a  quaint  fanta.-^y,  giving  an  account  of  a  tem- 
porary confinement  to  his  iiuarters  at  Turin,  that 
might  have  been  written  t«y  a  stainle.ss  Sterne. 
Le  Ijprcux  dc  lu  CM  d'Aostc,  a  sweet  ami  touch- 
ing little  story,  shows  the  same  inspiration  and 
the  same  originality  in  the  use  made  of  it.  Other 
stories  are  Les  I'risonnicrsdu  Caucase  and  La  jciinc 
Sibiriennc.  The  Expedition  A'octurnc  autour  de 
ma  Chambre  is  a  less  successful  continuation  of  his 


814 


MAITLAND 


MAIZE 


earliest  book.  De  Maistre's  (Euvres  appeared  at 
Paris  in  1825  (new  edition,  3  vols.  1881).  See 
Key's  X(tvicr  de  Maistre  (1865). 

llaitlaild,  a  town  of  New  South  Wales,  on  the 
Hunter  River,  93  miles  NNE.  of  Sydney  by  rail, 
and  20  N\V.  of  Newcastle.  It  is  divided  by  the 
river  into  East  and  West  Maitland,  which  are 
separate  municipalities.  The  town  is  the  see  of  a 
Roman  Catliolic  bishop.  In  either  division  are 
handsome  banks,  churches,  and  other  public  build- 
ings. In  West  Maitland  (much  the  more  populous 
part)  are  several  mills,  coach-buUding,  tobacco, 
and  boot  factoi-ies.  Good  coal  abounds  in  the 
neighbourhood.     Pop.  of  botli  divisions,  7300. 

Ulaitlaud.  the  name  of  a  Scottish  family,  cele- 
brated in  both  the  literary  and  political  history  of 
their  country.  The  lirst  who  acquired  distinction 
was  SiK  Richard  Maitland  of  Lethington,  son 
of  William  Maitland  of  Lethington  and  Tbirlstane, 
who  fell  at  Flodden,  and  of  Martha,  daughter  of 
George,  Lord  Seton.  He  was  born  in  1496,  studied 
at  St  Andrews  and  in  France,  and  on  his  return  to 
Scotland  was  successively  employed  by  James  V. , 
the  Regent  Arran,  and  Slary  of  Lorraine.  About 
1551-52  he  received  the  honour  of  knighthood, 
became  a  lord  of  the  Court  of  Session  in  1551  (be- 
fore which,  however,  he  had  the  misfortune  to  lose 
his  sight),  and  Lord  Privy  Seal  in  1562.  He  died 
20th  Slarch  1586,  at  the  age  of  ninety.  Maitland 
was  one  of  the  best  men  of  his  time.  In  an  age  of 
violence,  fanaticism,  and  perfidy,  he  was  honour- 
ably conspicuous  by  his  moderation,  integrity,  and 
anxiety  for  the  establishment  of  law  and  onler. 
He  merits  consideration  not  only  as  an  eminent 
and  upright  lawyer,  but  as  a  poet,  a  poetical  anti- 
quary, and  a  historian.  All  liis  own  verses  were 
written  after  his  sixtieth  year,  and  show  what 
things  be  had  most  deeply  at  heart.  For  the  most 
part  they  consist  of  lamentations  for  the  distracted 
state  of  his  native  country,  the  feuds  of  the  nobles, 
the  discontents  of  the  common  people,  complaints 
'aganis  the  lang  proces  in  the  courts  of  justice,' 
and  the  depredations  '  of  the  border  robbers. ' 
Knox,  in  his  History  of  the  Reformation,  says  of 
him  that  he  was  '  ever  civile,  allieit  not  persuaded 
in  religioun.'  A  complete  edition  of  Maitland's 
original  poems  was  lirst  ])ublished  in  1830  by  the 
Maitland  Club  (see  Book-club).  Sir  Richard's 
collection  of  early  Scottish  poetry  was  a  work 
undertaken,  if  not  completed,  before  his  blindness 
attacked  him.  It  consists  of  two  MS.  vols.,  the 
lirst  containing  170,  and  the  second  96  pieces ; 
they  are  now  preserved  in  the  Pepysian  Library, 
Magdalen  College,  Cambridge.  Maitland's  princi- 
pal historical  performance  is  the  Iliatorie  and 
Cronicle  of  the  Hoii.i  and  Surename  of  Seytoun, 
&c.  See  Hrunton  and  Haig,  Senators  of  the  College 
o/J'ifcv<«'e(1832). 

William  Maitland,  best  kno\vn  in  Scottish 
history  as  Secretary  Lethington  or  Ticddington, 
was  the  eldest  son  of  Sir  Richard  Maitland  of 
Lethington.  The  exact  date  of  his  birth  is  un- 
known, but  it  must  have  been  between  1525 
and  1530.  He  probably  studied  at  St  Andrews, 
though  his  name  does  not  occur  in  any  list  of  the 
graduates  of  that  univereity,  and  he  seems  also  to 
have  spent  some  time  in  study  on  the  Continent. 
Knox,  who  was  not  friendly  to  him,  describes  him 
as  '  a  nian  of  good  learning,  ami  of  sharp  wit  and 
reasoning.'  At  the  outset  of  his  public  career  he 
took  the  side  of  the  party  of  reform  in  religion  : 
but  all  through  life  lie  was  the  politician  firet  and 
the  reformer  afterwards.  In  1558  he  became 
secretary  of  state  to  .Mary  of  Lorraine,  the  Queen- 
Regent,  and  in  the  following  year  joinril  the  Lords 
of  the  Congregation,  wlio  were  in  arms  against 
her.     His  ability  soon  gave  him  a  prominent  place 


in  the  councils  of  his  new  allies.  In  August  1560 
he  acted  as  speaker  in  the  Convention  of  Estates, 
and  the  same  year  was  sent  to  the  English  court 
to  represent  the  interests  of  the  Protestants.  On 
the  arrival  of  Maiy  in  her  kingdom  in  August 
1561,  Maitland  associated  himself  with  the  queen's 
brother,  afterwards  the  Regent  Moray,  in  oppos- 
ing what  they  deemed  the  extreme  proposals  of 
Knox.  To  JSiary  he  at  first  made  himself  one  of 
her  most  useful  servants,  and  more  than  once 
represented  her  at  the  court  of  Elizabeth,  where  he 
proved  himself  a  match  even  for  the  latter's  astute 
minister  Sir  William  Cecil.  His  im]>ortance  in 
Scottish  aft'airs  is  proved  by  the  prominent  ])Iace 
he  holds  in  Knox's  Hintory  of  the  Eefonnation, 
some  of  whose  most  interesting  pages  are  de- 
voted to  bis  discussions  with  Lethington.  By  his 
connivance  at  the  murder  of  Rizzio  (1566)  he 
made  Mary  his  enemy,  though  he  again  became 
her  adviser  on  the  return  of  Sloray  after  his  tem- 
porary exile.  At  first,  also,  Maitland  favoured 
the  schemes  of  Bothwell,  and  was  privv  to  the 
murder  of  Darnley,  yet  in  the  rising  tliat  took 
place  on  Bothwell's  marriage  with  Mary  he  osten- 
sibly acted  with  the  insurgents.  Nevertheless, 
after  the  defeat  of  the  queen  at  Langside  and  her 
consequent  flight  to  England,  wliile  seeming  to  act 
as  a  friend  to  the  new  government,  he  secretly 
favoured  the  exiled  queen.  He  was  one  of  the 
commissioners  who  accompanied  Moray  to  present 
to  Elizabeth  their  indictment  against  Mary  ( 1568), 
but  all  the  while  he  was  plotting  against  his 
colleagues.  On  their  return  to  Scotland  the  for- 
mation of  a  party  in  favour  of  ]SIary  was  mainly 
the  work  of  Maitland.  In  spite  of  all  his  en- 
deavours, however,  this  party  was  unable  to  hold 
its  own  against  the  government,  supi)orted  as  it  was 
by  English  money  and  arms.  Shut  up  in  the  castle 
of  Edinburgh,  Maitland  and  Kirkaldy  of  (Grange 
held  out  till  1573,  when  they  were  forced  to  sur- 
render. INIaitland,  broken  in  health,  died  in  prison 
in  Leith  a  few  days  later,  '  some,'  says  James 
Melville,  'supposing  he  took  a  drink  and  died,  as 
the  auld  Romans  were  wont  to  do.'  From  his 
accomplishments  and  political  adroitness,  Maitland 
was  one  of  the  most  notable  figures  of  his  time  in 
Scotland  ;  but  it  was  his  fatal  defect  as  a  states- 
man that,  while  all  parties  admired  his  ability,  he 
gained  the  confiilence  of  none.  Knox  regarded 
him  as  no  sincere  sujiporter  of  the  ]irinciples  of  the 
Reformation,  and  Mary,  on  the  other  hand,  t)oth 
hated  and  suspected  him.  The  rumcnir  regarding 
the  mode  of  liis  death  may  have  been  without 
foundation ;  but  the  rumour  itself  is  a  significant 
commentary  on  the  character  and  principles  of  the 
man.  See  "Buchanan's  C7(oma'/t'o»,  Skelton's  ,!/«/<• 
land  of  Lcthi Ill/ton  (2  vols.  1887-88).  For  John 
Maitland,  Duke  of  Lauderdale,  see  LArnuKDALE. 

niaiwand,  50  miles  NW.  of  Kanilahar,  where 
an  Englisli  army  was  defeated  by  .\yub  Khan,  27th 
July  1880.    See  Afghanistan." 

Ulaizc.  or  Indian  Corn,  is  the  produce  of  Zea 
mays,  a  species  of  cereal  having  moncecious  (lowers, 
the'  features  of  which  are  well  illustrated  in  the 
accompanying  cut.  The  stem,  which  is  filled  with 
a  pithy,  iibrous  structure,  is  divided  at  irregular 
intervals  l)y  nodes,  and  its  strength  and  solidity  is 
increased  by  a  siliccrms  outside  covering.  From 
the  lowest,"  and  sometimes  also  the  second  and 
third  node,  it  sends  out  'brace'  roots,  and  these 
help  to  support  the  plant,  which  sometimes  grows 
to  18  feet  in  height,  the  minimum  being  generally 
3  feet.  The  ears— which  are  developed  within  the 
leaf-sheath  at  the  nodes,  and  consist  of  a  'cob' 
with  the  giains  ilisposed  njion  it  in  regular  rows 
of  from  eight  to  twenty,  and  long  'silk'  threads 
attached    to   each  embryo,  which  usually  extend 


I 


f 


i 


MAIZE 


MAJOLICA 


815 


beyond  the  closely-folded  tip  of  the  mass  of  im- 
bricated leaves  ('"husk)  that  wraps  the  whole — 
are  from  half  an  inch  to  3  inches  in  diameter, 
and  from  2  to  17  inches  in  length.  The  stem  is 
topped  by  a  '  tassel,'  produoiiij,'  an  abundaiice  of 
light,  dry',  loosely-attached  pollen.  Maize  is  hardly 
a  less  staple  article  of  food  to  the  inhabitants  of 
tro])ical  and  subtropical  countries  than  rice,  and 
is  rapidly  becoming;  popular  in  various  forms  in 
temperate  and  colder  climates.  It  is  held  to  be 
superior  in  nutriment  to  barley,  buckwheat,  and 
rye.  By  analysis  it  gives  77  per  cent,  of  starch  ; 
3  of  zein,  a  principle  analogous  to  gluten  ;  2-5  of 
albumen ;  1  '45  of  sugar ;  '8  of  extractive  :  1  "5  of 
gum  ;  1  o  of  sulphate  and  phosphate  of  lime  ;  3  of 
Ugnin  ;  and  9  ot  water.  It  is  more  generally  used 
in  America  ( North  and  South )  than  in  the  other 
continents— in  the  United  States  the  crop  is  over 
2000  million  bushels,  or  about  two-thirds  of  all  the 
grains  giown  ;  but  in  the  Jlediterranean  countries, 
Germany,  &c.,  it  is  also  highly  valued.  The  green 
ears  of  the  sweet  varieties  are  boiled   and  eaten 

from  the  kernel 
or  served  in 
milk.  When 

coareely  ground 
maize  forms  the 
hominy  of  the 
southern  states 
of  America,  and 
finer  ground  it 
furnishes  the 
mush  or  porridge 
of  the  northern 
states ;  while 
the  whole  grains 
with  the  cuticle 
covering  re- 

moved after  be- 
ing loosened  by 
boiling  in  a 
weak  Ij'e,  are 
the  hulled  corn 
of  the  states 
generally.  Pop- 
corn is  a  variety 
whose  grains  can 
be  roasted  and 
turned  and 
shaken  smartly 
over  a  brisk  lire  till  they  swell  and  burst,  turning 
inside  out ;  in  this  state  they  are  coated  with 
syrup  and   pressed   into  a   ball,   or   the    separate 

trains  are  simply  sprinkled  with  salt.  The 
eficiency  of  gluten  in  the  meal  of  maize  renders 
it  ill  adapted  to  bread-making;  hut  johnnycalcs 
made  from  it  are  popular  along  with  bacon,  &c., 
and  mi.xed  with  rye-meal  it  forms  the  common 
brown  bread  of  New  England.  Large  quantities  of 
starch  are  manufactured  from  maize,  both  for 
laundry  i)uri)Oses  and  for  making  puddings,  cust- 
ards, and  blancmange  ;  and  the  starch,  by  treat- 
ment with  acid,  is  converted  into  glucose  or  grape 
sugar  (see  Suo.vR).  The  canning  of  green  sweet 
com  is  also  an  important  industry  in  some  states. 
By  tlie  Mexicans  the  small  young  shoots  of  thickly- 
sown  crops  are  served  at  table  like  asparagus  and 
as  dessert.  The  stems  of  the  sugar  com  when  full 
grown  yield  by  pressure  a  thin  sweet  juice,  which 
nnferniented  gives  a  pleasant  syrup  and  from  five 
to  fifteen  per  cent,  of  sugar,  fermented  a  beer  called 
chica,  ana  distilled  an  excellent  spirit  resembling 
brandy.  In  countries  where  maize  does  not  ri])en 
well  it  is  soirietimes  sown  to  alTord  fooil  for 
poultry,  or  to  be  mown  as  green  fodder  for  cattle. 
VVliere  it  is  cultivated  for  its  grain  the  dried  leaves 
are  used  as  winter  fodder.  The  stalks  are  used 
for  thatch  and  for  fuel,  and  for  making  baskets. 


Maize  [Zea  mays) : 
a,  flower ;  &,  ear. 


The  fibres  of  the  culm  and  leaves  afford  a  durable 
kind  of  yarn ;  and  the  husks  are  elastic,  and  can 
be  applied  to  the  stuiiing  of  chairs,  saddles,  &c., 
and  to  the  manufacture  of  good  durable  mat- 
tresses, which  have  become  a  prolitahle  article 
of  trade  in  Paris  and  Strasburg.  The  husks  are 
also  much  used  for  [lacking  oranges  and  lemons, 
and  in  South  America  for  making  cigarettes  ;  and 
good  paper  has  been  manufactured  from  them. 
Hollowed  corn-cobs  make  homely  but  serviceable 
])ipe-heads  for  smoking  tobacco.  There  are  few 
plants  of  which  the  uses  are  more  various  than 
maize,  and  few  which  are  of  gieater  importance  to 
man. — Another  species  of  maize,  called  Chili  Maize 
or  Valparaiso  Corn  {Z.  Curar/ua),  is  distinguished 
by  its  serrated  leaves.  It  is  a  smaller  plant,  a 
native  of  Chili,  and  has  won  a  superstitious  regard 
because  its  grains  when  roasted  si)lit  in  the  form  of 
a  cross.  Formerly  in  England  maize  was  knowi; 
by  the  name  'Turkey  wheat,  being  then  solely  an 
article  of  trade  from  the  East ;  but  the  name  Indian 
corn,  which  was  given  it  by  the  early  settlers  i;i 
America,  gradually  supplanted  the  earlier  name  as 
the  supply  from  that  country  ousted  that  of  the 
earlier  sources  from  the  Sritish  market.  In 
America  it  is  simply  called  corn.  The  native 
country  of  maize  is  uncertain.  Humboldt  and  De 
Candolle  are  of  opinion  that  it  was  introduced 
from  the  West  Indies  and  the  continent  of  America, 
but  other  authorities  adduce  good  grounds  for  the 
contention  that  the  plant  is  indigenous  to  or  at 
least  was  known  and  cultivated  in  Asia  and  Africa 
before  the  discovery  of  America.  In  an  ancient 
Chinese  encyclopaedia  in  the  royal  library  at  Paris 
is  an  excellent  representation  of  the  plant ;  so  that 
while  it  was  undoubtedly  first  introduceil  to  Europe 
about  the  year  1520  by  Columbus  from  America, 
there  are  good  grounds  for  the  conclusion  that  it 
was  known  and  cultivated  in  the  ancient  world 
long  before  that  time. 

Majesty,  a  title  of  honour  now  usually  bestowed 
on  sovereigns.  Among  the  I'onums  majestas  was 
used  to  signify  the  power  and  dignity  of  the  people, 
and  after  the  overthrow  of  the  republic  became 
exclusively  the  attribute  of  the  emperors.  The 
majestas  of  the  emperors  of  Kome  was  supposed  to 
descend  to  those  of  CJermany  as  their  successors ; 
but  the  adoption  of  the  attribute  by  other  European 
sovereigns  is  of  comparatively  late  date.  Its  use 
began  in  England  in  the  later  part  of  the  reign  of 
Henry  VIII.,  up  to  which  time  'Your  Cirace '  or 
'  Your  Highness'  had  been  the  appropriate  mode  of 
addressing  the  sovereign.  Henry  II.  was  the  first 
king  of  France  who  was  st.\  led  '  Most  Christian 
and  Catholic  Majesty,'  the  king  of  Spain  came  to 
be  '  Catholic  Majesty,'  and  of  Hungary  '  Apostolic 
Majesty.'  All  European  emperors,  kings,  and 
queens  are  now  gener;illj'  addressed  as  '  Youi 
Slajesty.'  The  sovereign  of  the  United  Kingdom 
is  personally  addressed  as  'Your  Majesty;'  and 
formal  letters  are  addressed  to  'The  King's  (oi 
Queen's)  Most  Excellent  Majesty.' 

Majoriost  (from  the  Italian  name  of  the  island 
of  Majorcii,  where  this  ware  seems  to  have  been  fii-sl 
made),  a  decorated  kind  of  enamelled  pottery  madf 
in  Italy  from  the  loth  to  the  KSth  ccniury.  It 
attained  its  greatest  development  in  the  duchy  oj 
Urliiiio,  which  included  the  fmir  great  manufactorie.-- 
of  Pesaro,  Gubbio,  Urbino,  and  Castcl  Durante. 
Majolica  is  an  earthenware  usually  of  a  coarse 
paste,  covered  with  a  stanniferous  glaze  or  enamel. 
It  has  sometimes  been  called  '  Katl'aelle  ware  '  from 
the  fact  that  a  nundier  of  the  paintings  upon  it 
were  copied  from  the  designs  of  that  famous  painter. 
Majolica  is  generally  considered  to  be  the  most 
beautiful  decorated  pottery  that  was  ever  exten 
sively   made,   at  least  during  the  Christian  era 


816 


MAJOR 


MAJUBA    HILL 


Some  of  the  finer  pieces  when  they  come  into  the 
market  bring  large,  almost  fabulous,  sums  of  money. 
See  Pottery. 

major,  in  the  Army,  is  the  lowest  rank  of  field- 
officer.  There  are  two  on  the  establishment  of 
every  infantry  battalion  in  the  British  army  and 
three  on  that  of  each  cavalry  regiment,  one  in  coni- 
inaiid  of  each  battery  of  artillery,  iibimt  150  in  the 
engineere — promoted  after  twenty  years'  service 
whetlier  vacancies  exist  or  Tiot — 15  in  the  Koyal 
Marine  Artillery,  and  42  in  the  Koyal  Marine  Light 
Infantry.  Previous  to  1872  the  niajoi-s  of  artillery 
and  engineers  were  called  first  canlaiiis.  The  duties 
of  majors  of  infantry  in  the  Held,  where  they  are 
always  mounted,  are  generally  to  take  up  points  on 
wliicii  the  line  is  dressed  and  to  command,  one  the 
supjiorts,  and  the  other  the  reserve  in  attack  for- 
mation. In  barracks  they  assist  the  commanding 
otlicer  in  all  matters  of  interior  economy  and  dis- 
cipline. Cavalry  majors  perform  similar  duties, 
except  that  in  the  field  each  commands  a  squadron. 
In  garrison  all  regimental  majors  and  captains  who 
for  distinguished  service  have  been  given  brevet 
rank  as  majors  take  their  turn  as  president  of 
district  courts-martial  and  as  field-officer  of  the  day, 
attending  guard-mounting,  visiting  the  guards  by 
day  and  night,  taking  command  of  piequets  in  case 
of  fire,  riot,  or  alarm,  i^-c.  The  paj'  of  a  major 
ranges  from  IGs.  a  day  in  the  infantry  of  the  line  to 
£1,  4s.  5d.  in  the  household  cavalry.  In  the  United 
States  army  the  yearly  pay  of  a  major  is  .'S2500. 

The  word  major  is  used  also  in  conjunctioi-  with 
other  military  titles,  tlius  :  major-general  is  the 
lowest  rank  of  General  (q.v.) ;  surgeon-major  is  the 
rank  next  above  surgeon ;  a  sergeant.niajor  is  a 
stati'-sergeant  superior  to  a  sergeant ;  dram-major, 
trumpet-major,  farrier-major,  &c.  are  the  old  titles 
of  the  sergeant-drummers,  sergeant-trumpeters,  ser- 
geant-farriers, lite.  A  corporal-major  in  the  house- 
hold cavalry  corresponds  to  the  regimental  sergeant- 
major  or  senior  non-commissioned  officer  in  other 
corps. 

major,  or  Mair,  John,  was  born  near  North 
Berwick,  Haddingtonshire,  about  1470.  After 
receiving  the  elements  of  his  education  in  Scotland, 
lie  studied  at  Oxfonl,  Cambridge,  and  Paris.  .\t 
Paris  he  first  entered  the  college  of  Sainte-Barbe, 
and  took  his  degree  of  Master  of  Arts  in  1494.  He 
next  entered  the  college  of  Montaigu,  the  great 
stronghold  of  scholastic  studies  in  tlie  university  of 
Pftris,  and  in  1505  became  Doctor  of  Theology. 
While  contintiing  to  reside  in  Montaigu  he  gave 
lessons  in  the  scholastic  logic  and  i)hih)sophy  in  the 
college  of  Navarre,  and  in  these  studies  gained  a 
reputation  second  to  that  of  no  teacher  in  Paris, 
and  therefore  in  Europe.  Besides  teaching,  Major 
wrote  voluminous  commentaries  on  Peter  Lombard, 
which,  though  among  the  famous  books  of  their 
lime,  were  wholly  out  of  touch  with  the  true  intel- 
lectual and  religions  movements  of  the  Kith  century. 
To  this  period  of  his  life  also  belongs  his  combined 
history  of  England  and  Scotland,  written  in  medi- 
eval Latin,  but  still  of  real  value  as  a  record  of 
facts,  and  by  reason  of  the  independent  judgment 
of  its  author. 

In  1518  Major  was  regenting  or  teaching  in  the 
college  of  Glasgow,  where  he  had  John  Knox  among 
his  pupils.  In  152.3  he  left  Glasgow  for  St  Andrews, 
where  he  acted  as  regent  in  Arts  at  (he  Pa*dagogium 
of  that  university  till  1525.  At  St  .Andrews  he  had 
among  his  students  Patrick  Hamilton,  and  likewise 
(ieorge  Buchanan,  who  spoke  of  him  jus  'teaching 
the  art  of  sophistry  rather  than  dialectics.'  Leaving 
St  Andrews  in  1525  Major  again  returned  to  Paris, 
where  he  remained  till  about  1.530,  admired  and 
honoured  by  all  who  still  maintained  the  traditions 
of  the  university  as  opposed  to  those  who  were  eager 


for  the  introduction  of  the  new  lights  of  the  Kenais- 
sance.  In  1533  he  was  appointed  provost  of  St 
Salvator's  College,  St  Andrews,  an  office  which  he 
held  till  his  death  in  1550.  Of  his  last  years  nothing 
is  known  ;  though  it  is  worthy  of  mention  that  in 
1547  he  was  present  in  St  Andrews  parish  church 
at  the  first  public  sermon  j)reached  by  his  former 
pupil  John  Kno.\,  then  completely  identified  with 
the  cause  of  religious  reform  in  Scotland. 

Major  was  the  most  famous  literary  Scotsman  of 
his  generation,  and  as  the  acknowledged  champion 
of  medievalism  was  assailed  by  men  of  such  diverse 
character  and  aims  as  Melanclithon  and  KabelaLs. 
It  was  his  misfortune  that  his  life  was  mainly  given 
to  the  advocacy  of  ideas  which  were  already  doomed 
by  the  new  teachings  of  the  revival  of  learning. 
Though  born  after  Erasnms,  with  whom  he  was  a 
contemporarj'  in  Paris,  he  yet  remained  dead  to 
those  influences  of  the  Kenaissance  which  made 
Erasmus  the  life-long  foe  of  Montaigu  and  the  Sor- 
bonne.  Nevertheless,  by  his  great  reputation  in  his 
own  day,  and  by  the  strong  individuality  stamped 
on  tho.se  of  his  writings  which  still  have  a  certain 
interest,  Major  claims  a  far  higher  place  than  has 
yet  been  accorded  him  in  the  literary  history  of  his 
country.  See  Mr  A.  Constable's  translation  of  his 
History  hsneA  by  the  Scottish  Historical  Society 
(1S9'2),  in  which  full  information  is  given  regard- 
ing Major  and  his  works. 

majorca,  or  Mallorc.\,  the  largest  of  the 
Balearic  Isles  (q.v.),  lies  about  100  miles  from 
the  Spanish  coast,  and  150  N.  of  Algiers.  It  is 
60  miles  long  by  40  broad,  and  l.'SIO  sq.  m.  in  area. 
The  climate  is  healthful,  the  sea-breeze  preserving 
a  nearly  equable  temperature  over  the  whole  island. 
In  the  north  there  are  mountains  reaching  3500  to 
5000  feet  in  height.  The  hillsides  are  terraced;  olive 
groves  abound  everywhere,  and  almond,  orange, 
fig,  and  other  fruit  trees  are  eoninmn.  The  ^-ine  is 
grown  and  good  wine  made.  The  soil  is  extra- 
ordinarily fertile,  and  is  cultivated  with  marvellous 
patience  and  skill  by  the  inhabitants,  233,650  in 
number,  who  manufacture  cloth,  cotton  goods, 
ropes,  silk,  soap,  shoes,  &c.,  and  have  a  trade  to 
and  from  Spain  of  the  annual  value  of  £1,410,000. 
There  are  railways  (total  4S  miles)  connecting  the 
capital,  Palma  (q.v.),  with  Manacor  (15,000),  the 
second  town  of  tlie  island  (where  as  well  as  at 
Arta  there  are  magnificent  caves),  and  La  Puebla 
(5000).  Between  this  town  and  Alfudia,  the  port 
for  ISIinorca  and  Barcelona,  lie  the  marshes  of 
Albufera  (5000  acres),  drained  by  a  London  com- 
jiany  in  1865-71,  and  now  of  extraordinary  fer- 
tility. Raymond  Lully  was  liorn  at  Palma ;  at 
Valdemosa  George  Sand  resided  in  1838  and  wrote 
her  Spiritlion ;  and  the  beautiful  seat  of  the  .\ustrian 
-Vrchduke  Ludwig  Salvator  is  at  Miramar.  Large 
(piantities  of  lustred  ware  (Majolica,  q.v.)  were 
exported  to  Italy  and  elsewhere  in  the  15th 
century  ;  this  ware  is  still  made  to  a  small  extent. 
Many  of  the  nobles  have  handsome  palaces  in  the 
island. 

See  Bidwell's  Balearic  Isles  (1876);  the  sumptuous 
Balcarcn  in  Worl  und  Bild  (5  vols.  1869-84),  anon., 
but  by  Archduke  Ludwig   Salvator;  and  O.  W.   Wood, 

Letters  from  Miijorca  ( 1889 ). 

mjljority  is  the  age  at  which  a  person  acquires 
the  status  of  a  person  siii  juris— i.e.  is  able  to 
manage  his  or  her  own  atl'airs.  This  age  in  the 
United  Kingdom  is  twenty-one.  Under  that  age 
jiersons  in  Englatid  and  Ireland  are  called  infants, 
and  are  more  or  less  subject  to  guardians,  who 
manage  for  them  their  property.     See  Infant. 

majllba  Hill,  situated  in  the  extreme  north 
of  Nalal,  was  the  scene  of  the  defeat  of  648  British 
troops,  with  the  loss  of  their  leader.  Sir  George 
Colley,  by  a   greatly  superior  force  of  Transvaal 


MAKART 


MALACCA 


817 


Boers  on  27th  Februaiy  1881.  The  night  before, 
after  an  eight  hour?:'  climb,  they  hail  occu]iie<l  the 
hill,  which  overlookeil  the  enemy's  position  at 
Laiug's  Nek,  and  which  towards  noon  wa-s  unex- 
pectedly carried  by  a  i  usli  of  the  Boers.  Tlieir  loss 
was  1  killed  and  5  wouiided;  of  the  British,  So  killed 
and  \'i\l  prisoners  (many  woumled),  besides  some 
missing.  See  Sir  W.  Butler's  Li/c  of  Colley  ( 1S99). 
.^Iakart<  Hans,  .\ustrian  painter,  was  bom  at 
Salzburg  on  2Sth  May  1840,  stuilied  under  Piloty 
at  Munich  ( lStJl-6o).  and  after  visiting  Italy  settleil 
in  Vienna  in  1869.  Ten  years  later  he  was  appointed 
professor  at  the  acjidemy  in  the  Austrian  capital, 
and  there  lie  died  on  3d  October  1884.  He  painted 
grandiose  spectacular  and  historical  genre  pictures, 

forgeous  with  colour  and  of  gigantic  size  ;  but  the 
rawing  and  modelling  were  frequently  faulty,  and 
the  treatment  nearly  always  sensuous  and  volup- 
tuous to  a  degree.  Another  strong  characteristic  of 
his  work  is  a  love  for  lifeless  forms,  with  the  look 
of  death  and  of  the  grave  upon  them.  His  brilliant 
colouring  and  generally  theatrical  style  of  art  maile 
his  pictures  fetch  large  sums.  .-Vmongst  the  most 
notable  specimens  of  his  brush  are  'Amorettes,' 
'  Entrance  of  Charles  V.  into  Antwerp " — the  nude 
female  figures  in  which  were  portraits  of  well- 
known  Viennese  ladies  (a  fact  that  gave  rise  to 
much  scandal) — 'Cleopatra  on  the  Nile,'  'The  Five 
Senses,'  'The  Seven  Deadly  Sins,'  'Diana  hunting,' 
'Summer,'  and  'Spring.'  See  Life  by  Von  Liitzow 
(1886). 

Makkari.  Ahmed  el-,  Moorish  historian,  was 
born  at  Makkara  near  Tlemcen,  in  Algeria,  about 
15S5,  travelled  in  Morocco,  and  in  1618  made  the 
pilgrimage  to  Mecca.  This  he  subsequently  re- 
peated live  times,  besides  seven  pilgrimages  to 
Medina,  and  two  to  Jerusalem.  At  Damascus  he 
created  an  enthusiastic  impression  by  his  i)reaching 
in  16"27.  His  chief  residence,  however,  was  at 
Cairo,  where  he  died  in  1631. 

His  principal  work  was  his  Historii  of  the  Moham- 
medan Dpiiastiis  of  Spiiin,  partly  translated  into  English 
by  Gayangos  ( 2  vols.  1840-43 ),  and  edited  by  Dozy,  Wright, 
and  others  under  the  title  of  Analectes  siir  rilist.  ft  la 
Litt.  des  Arabes  (TEspofjne  (Leyden,  18.55-61,  and  also 
printed  at  BiiMk,  1862).  See  Wustenfeld,  Die  Geschicht- 
tchreiber  der  Araber. 

Ulako,  a  market-town  of  Hungary,  on  the 
Maros,  19  miles  ESE.  of  Szegedin.     Pop."  30,063. 

IMakoIoIo.  a  tribe  of  Basutos  (q.v.)  who,  under 
their  chief  Sehituane  and  his  son  Sekeletu,  founded 
an  extensive  kingdom  in  the  ba.sin  of  the  Upper 
Zambesi ;  but  a  successful  rebellion  by  the  con- 
quered tribes  broke  up  the  kingdom  in  1864,  since 
which  time  the  Makololos  have  ceased  to  e.xist  as 
a  people. 

Makrtzi,  TAKf-ED-DiN  Ahmed  el-,  the  most 
eminent  of  the  Arabic  historians  of  Egypt,  was 
born  1364  .\.I).  at  Cairo,  but  derives  his  surname 
from  his  family's  residence  at  Makriz,  a  suburb  of 
Baalbek  in  Syria.  He  studied  theologj-  and  juris- 
prudence under  the  best  teachers ;  made  the  pil- 
grimage to  Mecca  in  138.5  ;  and  held  various  official 
1«>sts,  as  secretary  of  state,  insijector  of  the  mar- 
;et.s  ( 1398 ),  preacher,  reatlcr,  anil  lecturer  at  several 
mosques  anil  colleges  at  Cairo,  ami  ( 1408)  curator 
of  the  Kalansiya  and  the  N'uriya  hospital  at  Damas- 
cu-s.  Returning  to  Cairo,  he  devoted  himself  to  the 
historical  studies  which  have  made  him  renowned, 
and  after  a  second  pilgrimage  to  Mecca  ( 1430-35) 
he  (lied  at  Cairo  in  1442  at  the  age  of  seventy- 
eight. 

He  wrote  sixteen  works,  besides  smaller  memoirs,  of 
which  the  following  are  the  most  important :  The  Khital, 
or  Hi9torif  and  To/jwtrajtht/  of  Eajtpt  and  {esjyeriaUt/) 
Cairo,  printed  at  BCllikk  (2  vols.  18531,  but  never  com- 
pletely translated,  a  work  of  the  highest  importance  to 
312 


historians  and  archteologists ;  a  general  history  from 
1181  to  1440,  of  which  a  part  has  been  translated  by 
Quatieniere  as  HiMoirc  dcs  Sultans  Manilouks  (2  vols. 
1837-44 )  :  bioj;ra|ihics  of  famous  men  who  lived  in 
Kf:ypt,  iintinislied  and  unjmblislifd  ;  a  treatise  on  Moiiam- 
medan  coins,  translated  by  De  Sacy  (I7'J7),  and  another 
on  Mohainuiedan  weights  and  measures,  edited  by  Tych- 
sen  (1800);  Histury  of  Hadraniaut,  edited  by  Noskowyj 
(186(5);  Arab  migrations  tu  Kgvpt,  edited  by  Wiistenfcld 
(1847);  the  Mohammedan  kings  of  Aby.ssinia,  edited  by 
Eink  (17!I0).  See  De  Sacy,  Chrest.  Arnbc,  i.  112;  'Wus- 
tenfeld, Die  Gcschichtiichrfiba'  der  Amber, 

.tialabar.  a  district  (5765  s(|.  m.)  on  the  south- 
west coast  of  India,  in  the  Presidencv  of  Madras,  ex- 
tending from  10=  15'  to  12"  18'  N.  hit.  Pop.  (1891) 
2.(i.")2..i65,  over  two-thirds  Hindus,  and  one  fourth 
Mohammedans.  The  surface  is  occupied  in  the 
east  by  the  Western  Ghats,  which  send  down 
numerous  rivers  to  the  coast,  many  of  them  navi- 
gable for  some  distance.  There  are  large  forests. 
Kice  is  the  .staple  crop ;  cocoa-nuts  are  largely 
grown,  and  also  cotlee  and  pejiper.  The  name  of 
this  district  is  applied  to  the  whole  south-western 
coast  of  Southern  India. 

Malaora,  or  M.alay  Peninsila,  anciently 
known  as  the  GoLDEX  Cher.sonese,  the  long  strip 
of  land  extending  from  Indo-China  south  and  .south- 
east towards  Sumatra.  The  peninsula  begins  geo- 
graphically at  the  head  of  the  Gulf  of  Siam,  and 
thus  includes  part  of  Siam  jiroper  and  the  British 
province  of  Tenasserim  in  Burma ;  but  it  is  usual 
to  limit  the  name  to  the  portion  south  of  tlie  river 
Pakshan,  the  frontier  of  Tena-sserim.  In  the  larger 
sense  Malacca  extends  from  13  30'  to  1°  16'  N.  hit., 
and  its  area  Is  75,0{X)  sq.  m..  of  which  40,000  belong 
to  Siam,  and  the  remainder  to  the  Straits  Settle- 
ments (q.v. )  and  their  depenilencies,  the  protected 
states.  The  width  varies  from  44  miles  at  the 
isthmus  of  Kra  (q.v.)  to  210  at  Perak.  The 
interior  consists  mainly  of  inagnilicently-wooded 
mountain-ranges,  disposed  parallel  to  the  long  axis 
of  the  peninsula,  some  of  whose  peaks  attain  a 
height  of  6000  to  7000  feet  ( Mount  Kiani  is  at  least 
8000  feet),  while  along  the  coast  there  .-ue  nuiii- 
grove  swamps,  half-a-dozen  miles  deep,  backed 
by  low  fertile  plains  reaching  to  the  nnmntains. 
Amongst  the  more  valuable  of  the  trees  are  ebony, 
camphor,  teak,  sandalwood,  cinnamon,  rattan, 
cocoa,  ai(!ca,  and  other  palms,  initmeg,  &c.  The 
rivei's  are  short  and  of  little  use  for  navigation. 
A  doul)le  belt  of  islands  runs  along  [larts  of  both 
coasts.  The  peninsula  is  the  richest  tin-yielding 
region  in  the  world  (see  Tin).  The  tin  ore  occurs 
in  conjunction  with  gold  and  silver,  both  extracted  ; 
iron  anil  coal  e.xist,  the  former  in  great  quantity, 
but  neither  mineral  is  worked.  The  forests  and 
mountains  shelter  numerous  varieties  of  wild  ani- 
mals, as  the  tiger,  rhinoceros,  tapir,  idi'pliant,  hog, 
butl'alo,  nuuikeys,  lic. ,  and  many  beautiful  birds. 
The  climate  is  pretty  uniform  all  the  year  round. 
The  low  districts  are  hot  and  nu)i.st,  and  neither 
they  nor  the  highlands  are  healthy  for  Euro]ieans. 
Kain    falls   on    190   davs   in    the  vear.     The    ther- 

neter  ranges  from  70    ti>  iK)°  I'"."     Pop.    I, '200,^)0 

— ,SOO,000  in  British  territory  anil  deiicndencies. 
They  are  mainly  .Siamese  in  the  nortli,  ci\ilised 
Malays  (q.v.)  along  the  coast  ,ind  in  the  south,  and 
uncivilised  Malays,  mixed  with  aboriginal  Negrito 
tribes,  in  the  interior.  The  croi)s  chielly  cultivated 
are  rice,  sugjir-cane,  cotton,  tobacco,  yams,  batata, 
and  cocoa  and  areca  nuts.  Politically,  Siam  ex- 
teiiils  !is  far  south  as  .'>'  .30'  on  the  west  coast,  and 
to  4 On  the  east  coast,  and  includes  the  tributary 
stales  of  l.igor.  Senggora.  Patani.  Kelanlan, 
Tringganu,  and  Kcm;imaii.  The  southern  portion 
embraces  the  British  settlements  Peiiang,  Malacca, 
and  Singapore,  all  treated  in  separate  articles,  and 
the    protccte<l    states — Perak,    Selangor,    Sungei 


818 


MALACCA 


MALACHT 


I'iong,  the  Xegii  Senibilan  states,  Pahang  and 
Johore,  for  wliicli  see  JoHORE  and  STRAITS  Settle- 
ments; Mrs  ISishop's  Golden  Chersonese  (1883), 
Iveane's  Mala;/  Peninsula  ( 1887),  and  Ciiillciiiai-d's 
M'llrii/sia  (189o);  and  liathborne's  Ctinijiint/  in 
Miikiiiii  (1898). 

nsilaccn,  part  of  the  Straits  Settlements,  is 
siUiati'il  on  the  south-west  coast  of  the  Malay 
IViiiiisnhi,  100  miles  from  Singapore,  and  is  42 
miles  in  length,  and  from  8  to  25  broad.  Area, 
659  sij.  m.  ;  pop.  (1891)  92,170.  The  coast-lands 
are  Hat  and  swampy,  and  produce  rice ;  inland 
there  are  low  hills.  Besides  rice,  the  chief  pro- 
ducts are  tapioca,  ])epper,  fniits,  &c.  Tin  is  mined 
and  exported.  Tapioca  is  the  only  other  e.xport 
of  value.  Tlie  imports  average  £610,000  annu- 
ally, the  exports  £670,000  approximately. _  The 
mean  annual  rainfall  varies  from  68  to  91  inches. 
The  town  of  Malacca,  capital  of  the  settlement,  is 
situated  in  2'  V  N.  lat.,  102°  14'  E.  long'.,  at  the 
mouth  of  a  small  river,  and  consists  of  the  old 
Dutch  or  European  town  and  the  Chinese  and 
Malay  town  on  the  other  (left)  bank  of  the  river. 
The  church  of  Our  Lady  del  Monte  was  the  scene 
of  the  labours  of  St  Francis  Xavier.     Pop.  20,000. 

Malacca  was  taken  by  the  Portuguese  under 
Alljuiiuei-f|ue  in  1511,  and  flourished  as  one  of  the 
great  emporiums  of  Indo-China  ;  but  it  was  subse- 
quently supplanted  by  Penang,  and  Penang  l)y 
Singaiiore.  JIalacca  became  a  Dutch  jiossession 
in  1641,  and  fell  in  1795  into  the  hands  of  the 
Britisli,  wlio  restored  it  to  the  Dutch  in  1818 ;  but 
they  returned  it  to  Britain  in  1824. 

llnlaeca.  Strait  of,  separates  the  Malay 
Peninsula  on  the  north-east  from  the  island  of 
Sumatra  on  the  south-west,  and  connects  the 
Indian  Ocean  with  the  Chinese  Sea.  Length,  480 
miles  ;  breadth,  varying  from  30  miles  at  the  south- 
east to  115  miles  at  the  north-west  extremity.  On 
tliis  strait  arc  the  Britisli  settlements  of  Malacca, 
Penang,  i<:c. 

.UahK'lli  (probably  an  alibreviated  form  of 
Maliic/iii/i/'ih,  meaning  'messenger  of  .Jehovah;' 
the  LXX.  and  Vulgate  have  Malachkis),  the  name 
given  to  the  last  book  in  the  prophetical  section 
of  the  Old  Testament  canon.  Piegarding  its  author 
nothing  is  known.  It  has  even  been  doubted 
wlietlier  Malachi  is  a  proper  name  or  only  an 
appellative  ( '  my  messenger '  or  '  Angelicus ' ), 
many  authorities  both  in  ancient  and  in  modern 
times  favouring  tlie  latter  view,  and  thinking 
that  some  such  writer  as  Ezra,  or  even  some  super- 
natural person  is  meant.  But  although  Malachiyyah 
does  not  actually  occur  anywhere  in  the  Old  Testa- 
ment, there  is  nothing  to  make  it  impossible  as  a 
pioper  Hebrew  name.  The  book  consists  of  a  series 
of  reasoned  remonstrances  against  prevailing  laxity 
in  religious  and  social  conduct,  the  points  brought 
cliielly  into  prominence  being  the  bringing  of  defec- 
tive (ill'erings  to  the  altar,  irregularity  and  evasion 
in  payment  of  tithes,  mixed  marriages  and  un- 
jnstiliable  divorces,  a  spirit  of  scepticism  as  to  the 
(livine  cognisance  of  human  actions  and  as  to  the 
reality  of  moral  distinctions,  the  practice  of  witch- 
craft, sorcery,  i)eriury,  oppression.  W.arning  is  given 
of  the  approaching  judgment,  when  .Jehovah  him- 
self, preceded  by  the  angel  of  the  covenant,  shall 
come  to  cleanse  the  sinful  community  by  the  re- 
nu>val  of  those  who  have  been  found  unfaithful.  It 
is  the  priests  who  are  primarily  addressed,  and  the 
eonununity  which  they  lead  is  that  of  'Judah  and 
Jerusalem;'  both  circumstances,  combined  with 
till!  reference  to  the  pasha  or  governor,  show  th.at 
the  prophecy  belongs  to  the  Persian  period.  Sonuf 
have  assigned  it  to  the  governorship  of  Nehemiah, 
but  in  view  of  Neh.  v.  14  seq.  this  is  improbable  ; 
its  date  is   to   be  sought  rather  in  the  interval 


/n^ 


between  his  two  terms  of  office,  or  after  the  close 
of  the  second — possibly  many  years  after.  It  is 
usual  to  speak  of  the  style  of  Malachi  as  marking 
the  transition  from  the  age  of  the  prophets  to  that 
of  the  scribes,  as  having  little  of  the  freedom  ami 
lire  of  the  older  period,  ami  as  tending  to  the 
artificiality  of  formal  scholastic  disjiutation.  Yet 
its  dialogue  is  not  without  dramatic  force;  and 
relatively  to  its  size  the  little  book  has  contributed 
an  unusually  large  number  of  nuunorable  phrases 
and  bold  and  striking  figures  to  the  language  and 
thought  of  Christendom.  For  commentaries  on 
Malachi,  see  the  works  on  the  minor  i)rophots 
mentioned  under  HoSE.\.  There  arc  monogr;i|ihs 
by  Pocock  (1077),  Keinko  (1856),  Koehler  (1865), 
S'iinger  (1867),  Lange  (1876),  and  Pusey  (1877). 

Malachite,  a  mineral,  essentially  a  carbonate 
of  copper,  of  a  green  colour,  occuis  generally 
massi\'e,  with  a  globular  reniform,  botryoidal  or 
stalactitic  surface  ;  frequently  fibrous  and  showing 
irregular  bands  of  colovir ;  sometimes  earthy  in 
textiire.  More  rarely  it  is  met  with  crystallised 
in  rather  oblique  four-sided  prisms, 
bevelled  on  the  extremities,  or  with 
the  bevelling  planes  truncated  so  as  to 
form  six-sided  prisms.  It  is  valuable 
as  an  ore  of  copper,  altliough  seldom 
smelted  alone,  not  only  because  it  is 
found  along  with  other  ores,  but 
because  the  metal  is  aid  to  be  carried  ,  ,,'?^  , -i 
oil  with  the  carbonic  acid.  It  is  some- 
times passed  oft'  in  jewellery  as  turquoise,  altliough 
easUy  distinguished  by  its  colour  and  much  inferior 
hardness.  It  is  used  for  many  ornamental  pur- 
poses ;  slabs  of  it — chiefly  from  the  mines  of  Siberia 
— are  made  into  tables,  mantel-pieces,  iS;c.  of  ex- 
quisite beauty.  In  1835  a  mass  of  solid  malachite 
was  found  in  the  Ural  Mountains  of  nune  tlian 
17  feet  in  length,  and  weighing  about  25  tons.  By 
the  ancients  it  was  used  as  a  charm  to  protect 
infants  from  \vitchcraft  and  sorceries. 

Malat'liy,  St,  Archbishop  of  Armagh,  and  the 
greatest  of  St  Patrick's  successors,  was  born  about 
1095  at  Armagh,  and  was  brought  up  at  the 
university  or  school  there  under  the  anchorite 
Imar.  About  1119  he  received  orders,  and  went 
to  study  theology  at  Lismore,  where  he  was  con- 
firmed in  his  preference  for  the  Boman  over  the  old 
Celtic  system.  In  1121  he  became  abbot  of  Bangor. 
Archbishop  Celsns,  who  had  made  him  his  vicar, 
procured  his  election  to  the  .see  of  Connor  (1125), 
and  (m  his  deathbed  (1129)  recommended  him  as 
his  successor  in  the  primacy.  It  was  not,  however, 
till  1134  that  Malachy  could  establish  him.self 
therein,  and,  that  done,  he  withdrew  three  yeare 
later  to  the  see  of  Down,  lliough  refainiiig  the 
virtual  headship  of  the  Irish  Church,  in  I  MO  he 
journeyed  to  Rome,  seeking  the  iiallium,  and 
innocent  II.  aiqiointed  him  papal  legate  for  Ire- 
land. On  his  way  out,  and  again  on  his  way  back, 
he  visited  St  Bernard  at  Clairvaux,  and  returned 
to  Ireland  (q.v.,  p.  210)  with  four  Cistercian 
monks.  In  1148  lie  once  more  repaired  to  France, 
to  renew  to  Eugenius  HI.  his  request  for  the 
Iiallium  :  but  before  his  arrival  the  pope  lia<l  gone 
ii.-u-k  to  Itome,  and  at  Clairvaux,  on  All-Saints' 
Day,  1st  November,  Malachy  died  of  a  fever  in  St 
Bernard's  arms.  He  was  canonised  bv  Clement 
IV. 

The  curious  '  Prophecies  of  St  Malachy '  were 
first  luiblished  in  his  I.ifjniim  Vitir  (Venice,  1595) 
by  the  Flemish  Benedictine.  Arnold  Wiim,  wIk) 
ilcemeil  tlicm  a  recent  f(U-gcry.  They  consist_of 
111  Latin  mottoes,  forecasting  as  many  pontiffs 
from  11-13  to  about  1996.  The  first  74  (down  to 
l.')90)  are  'almost  without  exception,'  says  Lord 
Bute,   '  transparent  indications  of  the  individuals 


MALACOLOGY 


MALARIA 


,^1'J 


to  whom  they  apply.  In  the  case  of  Urban  VI. 
the  very  family  name,  Prej;niiiii,  is  given  (Dc 
inferno  Pregnani) ;  and  the  ovorwlielmint;  majority 
of  the  others  are  simple  puus  or  plays  upon  the 
Christian  name,  tUi-  origin  or  native  place,  the 
previous  employment,  or  tlie  coat  of -arms.'  The 
liisl  are  extremely  frequent,  though — unless  to  a 
prophet — Heraldry  (q.v. )  was  unknown  in  1143. 
The  thirty-seven  forecasts  after  1590,  as  a  rule,  are 
strangely  vague  in  contrast  to  their  predecessors, 
and  have  sorely  taxed  the  ingenuity  of  students 
of  prophecy.  Still,  it  cannot  be  denied  that  there 
are  a  few  good  shots — none  better  than  Huatrum  in 
jiiirtA  ('the  rake  at  the  gate')  for  Innocent  XII. 
( 1691 ),  who  wa-s  one  of  the  Pignatelli  of  Rastello 
at  the  gates  of  Naples.  Then  Pcrei/rinns  Apos- 
tolicus  fits  nicely  for  Pius  VII.,  and  Aquila  rapax 
for  Pius  VIII.,  carried  ott"  to  France  by  Napoleon, 
whose  emblem  was  an  eagle.  For  Pius  IX.  the 
motto  was  Crux  dc  crtice,  and  Lumen  in  Ca'lo  for 
Leo  XIII.,  his  arms  bearing  a  fiery  star.  The  nine 
prophecies  still  unfulfilled  in  1890  were  Ir/nis  arcleiis, 
lieligio  depopulata.  Fides  intrcpida.  Pastor  anijcii- 
cus.  Pastor  et  nauta  (this  shepherd  will  belike 
make  a  voyage),  Flos  florum,  De  mcdictiitc  luna:, 
Dc  labore  solis,  and  Gloria  olira-.  After  which 
'  the  City  of  the  Seven  Hills  shall  be  destroyed.' 

See  St  Bernard's  Vita  MaktchkE  (in  Migne's  Patr. 
Cursus,  clx.xi.  1074 )  ;  Prof.  G.  T.  Stokes's  Ireland  and 
the  Celtic  Church  ( 2d  ed.  1S88 )  ;  and,  for  the  '  Prophecies,' 
Sloreri's  Diet,  ffiitorique  (ed.  1759;  vii.  117),  and  an 
admirable  article  by  the  Marquis  of  Bute  in  the  Dublin 
Rcvinc  for  October  1885. 

MaljlCOlogV  (Or.  mala/cos,  'soft'),  a  name 
sometimes  employed  to  designate  that  bran<-h  of 
natural  history  which  has  molluscs  (called  mcdakia 
by  Aristotle)  for  its  subject.     See  MoLLUSCA. 

Malacopterygii  ( 'soft-finned ' ),  a  term  applied 
by  t'uvier  to  those  Bony  Fishes  (q.v.)  in  which  the 
dorsal  tins  are  supported  by  soft,  jointed  rays. 

Malaga,  a  seaport  in  the  south  of  Spain,  is 
situated  on  the  Mediterranean,  65  miles  NE.  of 
Gibraltar.  Sheltered  on  the  north  and  east  by 
mountains,  and  witli  a  wonderfully  equalile  and 
uniform  climate  (range  of  thermometer  56°  to  8'2° 
F. ),  of  which  dryness  and  constant  sunshine  are  the 
characteristics,  this  place  Ls  superior  as  a  resort 
for  invalids  to  any  either  in  France  or  Italy,  not 
excepting  the  Riviera.  The  only  noteworthy  buihl- 
ings  are  the  cathedral  (1528-1765),  which  is  still 
unfinished,  and  the  Moorish  castle,  built  in  the 
end  of  the  Kith  century  on  the  site  of  a  former 
Plucnician  stronghold.  Malaga  is  one  of  the  most 
important  commercial  seaports  of  the  king<loin. 
Vet  its  trade  has  been  rapidly  declining  since  1878. 
Diseases  have  ravaged  the  vines  and  the  orange 
and  lemon  groves;  and  heavy  octroi  duties,  un- 
scientific methods  of  agriculture  and  of  extract- 
ing olive-oil,  and  insutlicient  and  exi>eiisive  means 
of  comM]unicati<m  have  all  contributed  to  cause 
the  depres.sion.  Nevertheless,  olive -oil,  wine, 
raisins,  lead,  almonds,  lemons,  grapes,  chick  jieas, 
and  (esparto  grass  are  exported  to  tlie  annu.il  value 
of  i;i,95:{,0<J(J,  and  cotton,  timbi;r,  coal,  pi'troleuni. 
sugar,  and  codfish  are  imported  to  tlie  annual 
value  of  £474,0(X).  The  United  States,  the  great 
customers  for  Malaga  raisins,  now  use  California 
raisins  instead  ;  the  export  of  raisins  from  Malaga 
to  the  States  ha.s  consequently  decreased  from 
1,000,000  boxes  in  1882  to  a  few  thousan<ls  in  189.5. 
The  harliour,  which  is  entered  by  2400  ves.sels  of 
1,025,0(>0  tons  annually,  one-sixth  being  IJrilish 
and  three-fourths  Spanish,  is  protected  by  two 
large  moles.  The  manufacturing  industry  is  more 
hopeful  and  energetic;  it  includes  establishments 
for  making  cotton  and  linen  goods,  machinery,  line 
art  pottery,  Hour,  soaji,'  litliographed    work,   and 


wine  and  oil  presses.  Pop.  (1887)  134,016.  The 
Mcdaca  of  the  Romans,  the  town  is  a  very  ancient 
place,  having  been  founded  by  the  Phtenicians.  It 
was  an  important  city  under  the  Moois,  being  first 
suliject  to  Cordova  and  afterwards  to  Uranada, 
from  the  conquest  of  Spain  early  in  the  8th  century 
down  to  1487,  when  it  w<is  captured  by  Fenlinand 
anil  Isabella. — The  modern  province  of  Malaga  has 
an  area  of  2836  sq.  m. ,  and  a  pop.  ( 1887 )  of  523,627. 
One-sixth  is  ]ilanted  with  the  vino,  and  two-fifths 
yield  wheat,  barley,  and  maize.  I.eail,  iron,  and 
manganese  are  mined. 

iHulagasy.    See  Madag.vscak. 

iUalakofI'.    See  Sebastopol. 

Malan,  Cesar  Henri  Abrah.vm,  a  Protestant 
Swiss  divine,  was  born  in  Geneva,  8th  July  1787, 
and  became  a  pastor  of  the  state  chnrch  and  a 
regent  in  the  college.  Through  tlie  intlnence  of 
American  and  Scottish  friends,  he  became  devoutly 
evangelical,  and  many  of  his  «'orks  were  trans- 
lated into  English— ^"'/ie  C/iurch  of  Pome  (1844), 
Stories  for  Children  (1852),  Pictures  from  Su-itzer- 
land  (1854).  Both  words  and  music  oi  Chants  de 
Ziun  (IS'26)  are  his  own.  He  died  8tli  May  1864. 
His  Lite  was  written  (1869)  by  his  son  Solomon 
Cesar,  D.D.  who,  born  at  Geneva  in  1812,  studied 
at  O.xford,  and  was  vicar  of  Broadwiiidsor  and 
prebendary  of  Sarum.  He  wrote  on  birds,  and 
several  theological  works,  ami  died  27th  November 
1894.     See  Life  Ijy  his  son  ( 1897 ). 

Malaprop,  jMr.s,  a  character  in  Sheridan's 
Eicals,  whose  remarks  are  not  so  much  out  of 
]jlace  or  mal-upropos,  as  ingeniously  perverse  in 
'  derangement  of  epitaphs  ' — i.e.  in  confounding  and 
misa]iplying  words  somewhat  similar  in  sound  or 
sjielling — a  '  Derbyshire  putrefaction,'  '  a  barbarous 
Vandyke,'  '  an  allegory  on  the  banks  of  the  Nile.' 

.Ilalapteriiriis.    See  Electric  Fishes. 

.Uiilar.  L.\ke,  one  of  the  largest  lakes,  and  the 
most  beautiful,  in  Sweden,  measures  80  miles  in 
length  from  east  to  west,  and  has  numerous  long 
narrow  arms  and  ofi'sets  ;  area,  650  sq.  m.  It  is 
studded  with  upwards  of  1200  islands,  mostly  well 
wooded.  Its  east  end  is  close  by  Stockholiii,  where 
its  waters  are  poured  into  the  Baltic  Sea.  The 
shores  are  very  varied  w  ith  bays  and  hills,  woods, 
lawns,  and  cliffs,  and  are  .ailorned  with  many 
castles,  country-seats,  and  villas,  including  the 
royal  palaces  of  Drottningholm  and  (;ri|iesholm. 

]IIalaria,  or  Mi.\sm.  Malaria,  an  Italian  word, 
is  almost  universally  employed  to  designate  an 
earth-born  poison  which  is  generated  in  soils  the 
energies  of  which  are  not  expended  in  the  growth 
and  sustenance  of  healthy  vegetation.  This  emana- 
tion gives  rise  to  certain  diseases,  especially  the 
various  forms  of  intermittent  and  remittent  fever. 
During  the  past  three  hundred  years  some  two 
tliousaiKl  booKs  and  [lapers  have  been  written  upon 
the  subject,  but  as  yet,  although  much  is  known 
of  malaria,  it  is  impossible  to  state  definitely  what 
the  morbific  agent  really  is.  Many  theories  have 
liccn  advanced  with  regard  to  malaria.  It  has  been 
said  to  be  due  to  a  |iarasite,  to  a  germ,  to  some 
telluric  origin  which  the  French  call  telluric  intoxi- 
cation, to  the  toxic  excretions  of  living  organisms, 
plant  or  animal.  Some  say  it  is  caused  by  chill, 
others  by  certain  electrical  comlitions  of  the  atmo- 
sphere, and  others  .sjvy  it  is  due  to  a  gas  emitted 
from  marsh  water,  .\lthough  malaria  is  so  often 
connected  with  marshy  distrii-ts  as  to  Icjul  many  to 
suppose  that  a  marsh  mu>t  be  inseparably  con- 
necteil  with  its  production,  yet  we  find  that, 
aft  hough  it  is  most  iiowerfiil  near  niai-shes,  it  is 
also  fimml  in  arid  regions  and  in  rocky  districts 
which  are  in  a  state  of  ilislntegiation.  Its  geo- 
graphical distribution  is  very  wide,  but  it  is  most 


820 


MALARIA 


MALAYS 


virulent  in  tropical  and  subtropical  regions.  Its 
(lepen<lence  on  climatic  influences  is  shown  by  tlie 
prevalence  of  malarial  fever  at  certain  seasons  and 
under  certain  meteorological  conditions  ;  even  in 
those  districts  where  malaria  is  endemic  tliiough- 
oiit  the  wliole  of  tlie  year  there  is  a  maximum  and 
minimum  period  to  its  virulence.  It  is  certain 
that  a  high  temperature  is  capalde  of  increasing  tlie 
freq\iency  and  severity  of  malarial  fever  ;  and  that 
in  those  places  where  the  summer  temperature  is 
from  58°  to  60°  F.  the  production  of  the  poison  is 
prevented.  The  intluence  of  the  rainfall  varies 
with  the  character  of  the  soil.  As  a  general  rule 
it  may  he  said  that  the  malarial  poison  is  most 
virulent  either  when  the  rains  set  in  after  a  long 
period  of  lieat,  or  when  the  rains  cease  and  give 
place  to  warm  dry  weather.  The  virulence  of  the 
poison  is  notably  diminished  at  the  heiglit  of  the 
rains  if  they  are  very  abundant,  but  the  poison  is 
producoil  in  greater  quantities  in  wet  than  in  dry 
years.  \Vind  exerts  a  certain  intluence  upon 
inalaria,  for  it  can  carry  the  poison  from  a  marsh 
to  a  healthy  spot,  probably  to  the  distance  of  three 
miles ;  wind  also  prevents  the  vertical  ascent  of 
the  poison,  for  in  calm  air  malaria  may  ascend  to 
700  or  1000  feet  above  a  swamp,  but  should  a  strong 
win<l  be  blowing  this  vertical  dift'usion  is  pre- 
vented. It  is  also  probable  that  on  some  islands 
wliere  malaria  is  absent,  although  from  analogy 
we  should  expect  to  find  it  present,  the  wind  by 
rapidly  changing  the  atmospliere  carries  away  the 
poison  before  it  has  time  to  do  harm.  The  e.xtent 
and  severity  of  malarial  diseases  diminish  as  one 
ascends  above  sea  level.  The  height  at  which 
malaria  is  produced  depends  upon  climatological 
conditions — i.e.  in  tropical  districts  one  must  ascend 
to  a  greater  altitude  to  lind  a  situation  free  from 
malaria  than  would  be  necessary  in  a  northern 
climate.  In  the  tropics  an  altitude  of  3200  feet 
may  be  rcciuired  to  prevent  the  production  of 
malaria,  wliere:vs  in  the  Apennines  1500  feet  only 
is  reiiuire<l,  and  farther  north  malaria  is  not  found 
at  a  greater  altitude  than  500  feet.  In  investigat- 
ing the  occurrence  of  malaria  in  non-mountainous 
regions  we  also  lind  that  altitude  plays  a  not 
uiiimiiortant  part,  for  even  on  a  level  plateau  with 
basin-like  ilepressions  the  deepest  points  are  those 
most  att'ected  by  disease,  and  in  those  excep- 
tional cases  where  malaria  is  endemic  at  more 
or  less  considerable  elevations  the  seat  of  the  pro- 
duction of  the  jjoison  is  invariably  in  a  valley  or 
ravine.  The  older  geological  formations  are  more 
or  less  exempt  in  proportion  to  the  compactne.ss  of 
the  rock  and  the  porosity  of  the  soil,  and  accord- 
ingly the  alluvial  and  diluvial  formations  are  the 
cliief  seats  of  endemic  malaria.  Clay,  marl,  and 
marsh  lands  are  most  favourable  to  its  produc 
tion  ;  a  jiorous  chalky  soil  is  less  favourahle,  anil 
sandy  soil  least  favourable  to  its  production. 
Wliere  malaria  is  endemic  in  rocky  districts  tliere 
is  always  a  more  or  less  thick  layer  of  permeable 
alluvial,  diluvial,  or  mineral  detritus  .spread  over 
the  linn  roidi,  and  invariably  a  hydroscopic  upjier 
soil. 

Whatever  the  cli.aracter  of  the  soil,  a  copious 
saturation  of  the  ground  is  necessary  for  the  jiro- 
duction  of  malaria.  Tiiis  may  be  caused  by  atmo- 
spheric precipitations,  drainage  from  rivers,  lakes, 
or  pools,  inundations,  either  periodic  or  irregular, 
irrigation,  and  saturation  of  the  ground  with 
siihsoil  water.  The  amount  of  org.anic  matter 
iu  the  .soil  is  certainly  connected  with  the  ino- 
luction  of  malaria,  and,  other  circumstances 
lieing  equal,  the  greatest  amount  of  malaria  will 
lie  found  where  the  amount  of  organic  m.attcr 
in  the  soil  is  greatest,  least  where  it  is  least. 
ijhanges  in  the  soil  indicate  clearly  its  influence 
in  the  production  of  malaria,  for  the  latter  will 


disappear  on  damp  or  marshy  soil  being  completely 
dried  up.  If  water  completely  covers  the  soil, 
malaria  disappears ;  if  virgin  land  he  reclaimed, 
it  proves  malarious  until  perfectly  cultivated,  and  a 
neglect  of  once  cultisated  ground  may  also  produce 
malaria.  It  has  been  found  by  experience  th.at 
malaria  is  not  produced  in  tlie  centre  of  i'ilies,  and, 
although  it  may  be  prevalent  in  the  outskirts  of 
large  towns,  it  does  not  penetrate  to  their  centres. 

Laveran  discovered  the  parasite  of  malaria ; 
Bignami,  Grassi,  and  others  insisted  (189!))  that 
the  malady  was  mainly  communicated  by  mos- 
quitoes ;  and  Major  Koss  made  extensive  re- 
searches in  West  Africa  into  the  theory,  singling 
out  tlie  Anop/u/en  clacbjcr  as  especially  active. 
Professor  Koch's  investigations  (  1899-1 900)  in  Italy, 
Java,  and  New  Guinea  prove  that  the  true  home  of 
the  germ  is  in  the  blood  of  the  malaiial  jiatient ; 
mosquitoes  and  other  gnats,  imbibing  the  germ  in 
stinging  .a  sufferer,  introduce  it  into  the  blood  of 
the  next  iierson  stung.  In  New  Guinea  nearly  all 
children  are  afflicted  with  malaria.  Much  may  he 
done  to  combat  the  disease  by  special  attention  to 
children,  and  to  mild  and  latent  cases  in  adults. 
Ill  Germany  cases  of  malaria  in  the  army,  which 
in  1865  were  13,500,  were  in  1895  only  'I'M;  doubt- 
less owing  to  the  free  use  of  quinine.  Uo-^s  insists 
on  the  possibility  (denied  by  Koch)  of  exterminat- 
ing mosquitoes  liy  surface  drainage.  Dr  .Sanilmn 
and  lb-  S.  Low,  who  were  commissioned  by  the 
Biitish  (Government,  spent  the  malarial  season 
(.Inly  to  October)  of  1900  in  the  wor.st  parts  of 
the  "lloinan  Caiiqiagiia ;  they  found  that  people 
who  only  go  about  during  the  day,  when  these 
insects  do  not  a|ipear,  and  who  protect  them- 
selves from  them  at  night,  when  they  are  abroad 
in  myriads,  do  not  sufier  from  malaria  ;  whereas 
the  sting  of  a  mosquito  was  invariably  followeil 
by  llie  disease.  See  ENDEMIC  and  the  monograph 
by  Celli  (trans.  1900). 

Naliltia  (anc.  Mditenc),  a  town  in  the  province 
of  Diarlickir  in  Asia  Minor,  8  miles  from  the 
Euphrates ;  pop.  20,000. 

IHalay  Peiiiusula.    See  Malacca. 

iHalays.  the  dominant  native  race  in  the  E.astern 
Archipelago  and  neighbouring  Asiatic  peninsula, 
which  from  them  are  commonly  named  respectively 
the  Malay  Archipelago  and  Malay  Peninsula,  and 
collectively  Malaysia.  Physically  the  Malays  must 
be  regarded  as  an  oceanic  luanch  of  the  Mongolic 
division  of  mankind,  diversely  modilied  by  iuter- 
minglings,  especially  with  dark  ( Pajiuan )  elementa 
in  the  eastern,  and  light  (Caucasic)  elements  in 
the  western  and  central  parts  of  the  archipel.ago. 
The  former  (Malmjo-Papuan),  often  designated  by 
the  smiiewhat  vague  term  '  Alfuro,'  merge  gradually 
eastward  through  Timor,  Cerani,  and  South  .lilolo 
in  the  true  I'apuans  of  Aru  and  New  Guinea.  'J'he 
latter  form  two  distinct  groups,  the  Jyuioncsiann 
showing  more  of  the  Caucasic,  and  the  Mahn/s 
projicr  showing  more  of  the  Mongolic  clement. 
The  Indonesians,  reinesented  chietly  by  the  Hallaks 
and  Kulms  of  Sumatra,  the  Ibighis  and  Mang- 
kassanis  of  South  Celebes,  the  Ihilcd  Ijiilis  and 
others  of  lioriieo,  the  Manobos  and  Tinguians  of 
the  I'hiliiipiiics,  the  Mcntawey  i^-landei-s  (west 
coast  of  Sumatra),  and  many  of  tin-  tribes  in  the 
.Moluccas  (North  .Jilolo.  Huiu),  are  of  medium  and 
even  tall  stature,  veil  proportioned,  with  light 
brown  complexion,  long  (iloliclioccplialic)  head, 
straight  eyes,  large  nose,  and  regular  features. 
The  Malav  race  proper  comprises  all  the  rest  of  the 
inhabilaiiis  of  Mal.iysia.  excejit  the  Nc-gritos  of 
the  I'hilippiiics  aiiil  .Malay  Peninsula;  al.so  the 
('hams  of  the  .south-eiusterii  extremity  of  ('ocliin- 
China,  many  of  the  Eormosan  trilies,  the  IIovius  of 
Madagascar,  and  some  of  the  Micronesian  islanders. 


MALAYS 


MALCOLM 


821 


Tiiey  are  of  low  size,  avera-^iiiK  little  over  live  feet, 
with  yellowish  complexion,  stniij,'lil  lihu'k  hair, 
rounil  1  biachycephalic )  heail,  soiiiewliat  aliiioiul- 
shaped  eyes,  small  nose,  hi<;h  cheek-bones,  flat 
features,  small  hands  and  feet,  in  general  so  like 
the  east  Asiatic  Mongols  that  Chinese  dressed  as 
Balinese  could  scarcely  he  distinguished  from 
Malays,  while  many  natives  of  Java  might  pass 
very  well  for  Chinese  (Wallace). 

liut  linguistically  the  Malays  are  entirely  severed 
ft-oni  the  Asiatic  Mongols,  all  the  Malay  langu.ages 
without  exception  belonging  to  the  wiilely-dill'used 
MalayoPolynesian  family,  which  extends  across 
the  Indian  and  Pacific  Oceans  from  Madagii-scar  to 
Easter  Island,  and  from  New  Zealand  northwards 
to  Hawaii.  Tliis  .area  inchide.s  many  dark  popul.a- 
tioiis,  such  a-s  the  natives  of  the  New  Hebrides  and 
Solomon  Islands,  who  speak  primitive  or  arcliaic 
forms  of  the  organic  Malayo- Polynesian  tongue. 
of  which  the  standard  Malay.  Ka\  i,  .lavane.se,  antl 
other  idioms  of  the  more  cultured  Malay  peoples 
apjiear  to  he  later  developments  (Codrington). 
Thus  in  the  oceanic  world  race  and  language  are, 
so  to  say,  antagonistic,  and  present  many  ditlicult 
problems,  the  solution  of  which  must  await  further 
research. 

The  peoples  of  standaid  Malay  speech — i.e. 
the  Malays  in  the  narrower  and  pojiular  accepta- 


tion of  the  term — occu|)y  a  comnarati^■ely  limited 
portion  of  JIalaysia,  being  mainly  con  lined  to  the 
Malay  Peninsula  to  about  9°  N.  hit.,  the  southern 
provinces  of  Sumatra  (Menangkabo,  Palembang, 
&c.  I,  Lingen.  Banka,  and  the  other  islands  lietween 
Suuuitra  and  Borneo ;  Banjermassin,  Pontianak, 
Brunei,  and  some  other  maritime  districts  in 
Borneo  :  Tidor,  Ternate,  and  the  Banda  group  in 
the  Moluccas,  and  the  Suhi  Islands.  But  at  all 
events  since  the  IStli  century  these  Malays  have 
been  the  chief  trading  people  of  the  archipelago, 
where  their  language  was  already  the  general 
nieilium  of  intercourse  throughout  Malaysia  at  the 
arrival  of  the  Portuguese  towards  the  close  of  the 
loth  century.  The  question  of  their  origin  has 
been  much  discussed,  some  fixing  the  cradle  of  the 
r.ace  on  the  Asiatic  mainland,  others  in  Sumatra. 
This  island,  and  especially  Menangkabo,  was  un- 
doubtedly the  point  of  dispersion  of  the  later 
historic  migrations  both  to  the  mainland  and  to 
the  eastern  parts  of  the  archipelago,  which  migra- 
tions can  he  traced  hack  to  the  12th  century.  Hut 
the  race  itself,  being  a  Ijranch  of  the  ^[ongolic 
stock,  must  have  originally  reached  the  islands 
from  the  mainlaml,  where  the  OraiKj-Bcnutt  ('men 
of  the  soil  ■ ),  indigenous  Malay  tribes,  are  still 
found  almost  at  as  low  a  stage  of  culture  as  their 
Negrito  neighbours.  Others,  the  so-called  Unt»r/- 
Laul  ('men  of  the  sea*),  have  from  times  long 
anterior  to  the  Sumatran  migrations  Ix-en  scattered 
over  all  the  inland  waters  of  the  archipelago,  'a 
vile  people,  living  by  lishing  .and  piracy '  ( I  )e  Barros). 
Ljustly,  the  Orn>if/-Mii/th/ii  themselves  -i.e.  the 
civilised  Malays,  formerly  Brabmanists  and  P.uii- 
dhist.s,  now  mostly  Mohammedans — had  already 
overrun  the  southern  parts  of  .\nnam  in  the  8tli 
century,  and  the  Hovas  had  reacheil  JIadagascar 
at  a  still  earlier  epoch— i.e.  before  the  spread  of 
Hindu  inlluences  in  the  archipelago,  for  there  are 
no  Sanskrit  words  in  the  Mala^'asy  language. 
Hence  the  Menangkabo  dispersion  can  oidy  be 
regarded  as  an  cpi.siHle  in  the  history  of  the  .\ialay 
race,  whose  origin  must  be  sought,  imt  in  Sum.atra, 
but  in  the  Indo-Chinese  peninsula.  Their  connection 
with  the  primitive  inhabitant.s  of  this  region  is  also 
shown  by  numerous  pra<'tices,  such  a.s  pile-build- 
ing, headhunting  (l)yaks  of  Borneo),  certain 
mati'i.an^hal  customs.  ,a  dislike  of  milk,  and  foml- 
ness  for  piitre.--cent  lisli,  large  e.ir  <irnanient.s,  cock- 
lighting  and  other  forni.s  of  gambling. 


Of  late  years  the  Malays  have  mostly  abandoned 
their  lawless  roving  habits,  and  arj  now  spoken  of 
as  a  somewhat  mild,  patient,  and  taciturn  people, 
occu|iied  chietiy  with  trade  and  agriculture,  and 
distinguished  especially  for  their  cxtrenu'  courtesy 
towards  each  other  and  strangers.  But  the  old 
tiery  spirit  still  smoulders  beneath  an  apparently 
pas.sive  exterior,  .and  too  frcc]ui'ntly  reveals  itseif 
in  those  sudden  outliursts  ol  munleroiis  frenzies 
known  as  'running  amuck.'  Tlie  Malay  intellect 
is  of  a  low  order,  and  the  r.ace  has  never  <levelo|ied 
a  native  culture,  their  civilisation  being  entirely 
due  to  foreign  influences,  chieHy  Hinchi  .and  Arab. 
The  Malay  languiige,  which  is  soft  and  harmonious 
.and  of  simple  structure,  is  written  in  the  Arabic 
chariicter,  which  is  ill  suited  for  the  purpose. 
Lately  the  Koman  system  h.as  been  largely  ado|ited, 
especially  in  the  Dutch  and  English  dejiendencies. 
The  literature,  which  is  copious,  comprises  poetical 
compositions,  such  as  rhyming-proverbs,  love-songs, 
and  dramas  displaying  some  originality,  but  little 
imagination.  The  prose-writings  (histories  and 
chronicles  in  which  truth  and  Hction  are  inextricably 
interwoven,  treatises  on  law,  theology,  and  ethics) 
are  mostly  ba.sed  on  Arab  or  Persian  models. 

.See  J.  C'rawfurd.  History  of  the  Indian  ArchipiUnjo  : 
Logan,  Journal  of  the  Indian  Arrhipelafjo  and  East 
A»ia.  and  Etlniolotjy  of  the  Indian  Avchijichufo ;  A.  K. 
"Wallace,  The Malari  Archipriafjo:  T.  .T.  Newbold,  Account 
of  the  British  Stflinilcntii  iit  the  Strait.^  of  Malacca; 
W.  E.  JIaxwell,  Manual  of  the  Malaij  Lanijuaye ;  Mik- 
lukho  Maclay,  Ethnofotjical  Excursion  in  Johor ;  A.  H. 
Keane,  ligations  of  the  Indo-Chinese  and  Inter-Oceanic 
Bncia  and  Lanijiiatjes  ;  Von  Roseubor;;,  Die  M(dai/ische 
Archipel,  and  FoiUorc  of  the  Mataifx  ;  Journal  of  the 
atraits  Branch  of  the  Boi/al  Asiatic  Hocieti/. 

ninlcollll,  StR  .John,  G.C.B.,  a  British  sohlier, 
statesman,  and  historian,  was  born  .at  Burnfoot, 
near  Langholm,  Dumfriesshire,  M.ay  2,  176n,  and 
at  fourteen  went  to  India  as  .a  cadet  in  the  M.adras 
army.  In  1798  he  w.as  appointed  assistant  to  the 
resident  at  Hyderabad  by  Lord  Wellesley.  He 
distinguished  himself  at  the  siege  of  Seringii- 
p.atam  in  1799,  and  in  ISOO  he  was  sent  .as  am- 
liassador  to  Persia,  to  form  an  alliance  with  tli.at 
country  .against  Bona|)arte,  in  which  he  succeeded. 
In  1801  he  acted  .as  private  secretary  to  Wellesley  ; 
in  180.3  wa.s  appointed  governor  of  the  Mysore 
Residency  :  and  during  the  next  two  years  did 
nuich  to  reduce  to  order  and  tranciuillity  the  newly- 
con<iueied  -Mahratta  states.  In  IS()7  and  1810  he 
was  .again  sent  as  minister-plenipotentiary  to  the 
Persian  court.  In  1812  he  returned  to  England, 
received  the  honour  of  knighthoixl,  and,  after  live 
years,  went  out  again  to  India  as  the  governor- 
gener.al's  political  agent  in  the  Decc.an,  .and  with 
the  rank  of  brigadier-gencial  in  the  Indian  army  ;  in 
the  Latter  capacity  he  greatly  distinguished  himself 
in  llie  wars  against  tbi'  Pindaris  and  llolkar.  He 
was  again  in  I'.nglanil  in  1822,  and  settled  with  his 
family  at  Hyile  Hall,  near  Sawhridgeworth,  Hert- 
fordshire. To  this  period  belong  his  anonymous 
S/:etr/ic.i  in  Pcrsiet  (1827).  (!ovenu)r  of  Boml«iy 
( 1827-30),  he  entered  parlianuuit  in  1831  as  member 
for  L.aunceston,  and  opposed  the  Keform  liill.  He 
died  of  paralysis  in  Lonihm.  3(ltb  May  1833.  The 
Duke  of  Wellington  in  18'24  wmte  to  Malcolm 
that  from  the  year  179G  '  no  great  transaction  has 
taken  place  in  the  East  in  which  you  have  not 
played  a.  ])rincipal,  most  useful,  conspicuous,  and 
honourable  ])art.'  Malcolm's  writings  are  A  Ilis- 
toni  of  I'er.siit  (2  vols.  181."):  '2d  ed.  182S),  Memoir 
of  Cent  ml  IikHii  (2  vols.  1823),  I'olitical  Jti.ilun/ 
of  hiil'iii  front  /7S.I  to  ISM  (2  vols.  18'2G),  anil 
/,//;■  '-/  /,'-'/■(/  I 'lire  ( I8.3(;),  Sec  his  Life  and  Corre- 
spondence, liy  Kayc  (  18.">(i). 

.llah'ollll  I'ailllioro  (Cnel.  Ccnniinwr.'  f^ptit 
head),  king  of  .Scotland,  was  a  chiUI  when  in  1010 


82-2 


MALDEGEM 


MALEBRANCHE 


his  father,  King  Duncan,  was  slain  hy  Macbeth 
(q.v.).  He  seems  to  havespent  liis youtli  in  North- 
umhria  with  his  uncle,  Earl  Siwaicl,  who  in  l()o4 
estal]lislieil  him  in  Hnu  possession  of  Cuniluia  ami 
Lothian.  lu  1057,  on  the  death  of  Macbeth  ami 
(seven  months  later )  of  Lulacli.  as  well  as  that 
prol)ably  of  Earl  Thorlinn  of  Orkney,  he  ascemleil 
the  throne  of  all  Scotland.  For  the  iii-st  eight 
years  he  was  free  to  devote  his  energies  to  the 
consolidation  of  his  kingdom,  England  then  being- 
ruled  liy  tlie  peaceful  Edward  the  Confessor;  but 
even  during  this  period  he  made  one  raid  into 
Northumbria  (1061).  And  after  1060  the  history 
of  his  long  reign  is  one  of  ceaseless  warfare  with 
the  Norman.  His  (irst  wife,  Ingibiorg,  Thorlinn's 
widow,  had  died  ;  and  in  1069  Malcolm  wedded 
Margaret,  sister  of  Edgar  the  Atheling  (q.v.), 
whose  cause  thenceforth  he  warmly  made  his  own. 
Five  separate  times  did  he  havrv  Northumbria,  as 
far  sometimes  as  Vork  (1069,  1070,  1079,  1091,  and 
1093 )  ;  and  there  were  counter  invasions  by  William 
the  Conqueror  and  Prince  Robert,  in  1072  and 
1080,  on  the  former  of  which  occasions  at  Alier- 
nethy  '  King  ilalcolm  came  and  made  peace  with 
King  "^^"illiam,  and  gave  hostages  and  became 
his  mail.'  This  homage  he  renewed  to  William 
Rufus  in  1091  ;  but,  according  to  Scottish  his- 
torians, it  was  only  for  Lothian  and  Cumbria, 
which  once  had  lielonged  to  England.  In  1092 
Kufus  wrested  from  Scotland  all  Cumbria  south 
of  the  Solway  ;  and  next  year  Malcolm  gathered 
his  army  and  marched  into  England,  '  harrying 
with  more  animosity  than  ever  behoved  him.  And 
then,  on  l.'Uli  Xovember  1093,  Robert  de  Moubiay, 
Earl  of  Northumberland,  ensnared  him  at  Alnwick 
with  his  men  unawares  and  slew  him.  Morel  of 
Bamboroiigli,  who  slew  him,  was  Earl  Robert's 
steward  and  King  Malcolm's  gossip.  With  INIal- 
colm,  also,  was  slain  his  son  Edward,  who  should, 
if  he  h,ad  lived,  have  been  king  after  him.' 
Malcolm  left,  however,  five  sons,  of  whom  four 
succeeded  him  on  the  throne — Duncan  (by  Ingi- 
biorg), Edgar,  Alexander,  and  David.  His  reign 
is  an  important  one,  as  the  commencement  of  the 
transition  of  Scotland,  Celtic  and  Culdee,  to  Scot- 
land, feudal  and  Roman  Catholic  ;  but  the  change 
was  not  due  to  him  so  much  as  to  his  saintly 
queen. 

See  the  article  M.\KGARET,  and  Skene's  Celtic  Scolhind 
(1876)  ;  anil  see  the  article  ScoTr..\XD  for  the  other  three 
kings  of  that  name — Malcolm,  son  of  Donald,  king  of 
Alban  from  942  to  954 ;  Malcolm,  son  of  Kenneth, 
king  of  Scotia  from  1005  to  1034;  and  Malcolm  the 
Maiden,  king  of  Scotland  from  1153  to  1165. 

Mnlde.Sfem,  a  town  of  East  Flanders,  Belgium, 
12  iniies  hy  rail  E.  of  Bruges.     Pop.  8522. 

Maiden,  a  village  of  Surrey,  3  miles  SE.  of 
Kingston-npon-Thames.  From  1264  to  1274  it  was 
the  seal  of  Merlon  College,  so  may  claim  to  he  the 
inetroijolis  of  Oxford.  Pop.  of  parish,  525.  The 
town  of  New  Maiden  (poj).  2538)  is  2  miles  E.  of 
Kingston,  of  which  it  is  practically  a  suburb. 

nialdoil.  a  town  of  Massachusetts,  5  miles  by 
rail  N.  of  Boston.  There  are  manufactures  of  india- 
niblier  goods,  cords  and  tassels,  sand-paper,  iS:c. 
Pop.  (1890)  23,031. 

IHnldoil  Island,  a  British  possession  in  the 
Central  l';uilic-,  lies  NW.  of  the  Marquesas  in 
i"  3'  S.  hit.  and  155  W.  hmg.  It  is  a  coral  island 
5  miles  long  liy  4  broad,  and  h.as  valuable  dciiosits 
of  guano,  worked  liy  eight  Europeans  and  160 
nativci  lal)onreis. 

Maldivc  Islands,  a  chain  of  characteristic 
Coral  (q.v.)  atolls  in  the  Indian  Ocean,  lying  SW. 
of  Ceylon.  They  extend  550  miles  in  length  (7°  7' 
N.  lat.  to  0'  42'  S.)  by  45  in  average  breadth 
(72°  30'  to  73°  50'  E.  long.),  and  consist  of  seventeen 


groups,  distributed  politically  into  thirteen,  and 
embracing  a  total  of  several  hundred  islands.  All 
of  these  are  very  small  in  area,  and  less  than  200 
are  inhabited.  Male,  the  residence  of  the  native 
'Sultan  of  the  Twelve  Thousand  Isles,' is  1  mile 
long  by  j  mile  wide,  and  contains  a  pop.  of  2000. 
The  population  of  the  whole  chain  is  nrohahly  not 
more  than  20,000.  These  people  resemble  the  Sing- 
halese in  their  personal  appearance,  and  s]ieak  a 
language  closely  akin  to  Singhalese.  They  are 
Mohammedans  by  religion,  and  boast  of  an  ancient 
civilisation.  They  are  peaceful,  atl'ectionate,  well 
behaved,  and  of  cleanly  habits.  Rice  (imported), 
fish  (chiefly  bonito),  bread  fruit,  cocoa-nut,  and 
various  other  fruits  and  vegetables  are  their  prin- 
cipal food.  Coir,  cowries,  dried  bcmito  iish,  cocoa- 
nut  ami  copra,  and  tortoiseshell  are  exported. 
The  gathering  and  preparation  of  these  articles  are 
the  principal  occupations,  apart  from  a  little  weav- 
ing. The  Arab  geographer  Ihn  Batuta  lived 
more  than  a  year  on  the  islands  (1343-44).  The 
Portuguese  maintained  factories  there  at  various 
times  after  1518;  but  in  1645  the  snitan  put  him- 
self, under  the  protection  of  the  Dutch  governor  of 
Ceylon,  and  along  with  that  island  they  excluinged 
Dutch  for  English  supremacy.  The  sultan  sends 
an  embassy  every  year,  bearing  presents,  to  renew 
his  homage  to  the  governor  of  Ceylon. 

UlaldOU,  a  municipal  borough  of  Essex,  9  miles 
E.  of  Chelmsford  and  38  NE.  of  London  (hy  rail 
44),  stands  on  a  hill  near  the  conlluence  of  the 
Chelmer  and  the  Blackwater,  in  the  vicinity  of 
which  traces  are  still  extant  of  a  Roman  encamp- 
ment. It  has  two  fine  churches,  partly  Decorated 
and  partly  Perpendicular,  and  a  quaint  town  or 
moot  hall  dating  from  the  reign  of  Henry  VI.  The 
manufacture  of  crystallised  salt  is  a  siicciality,  and 
in  the  Blackwater— a  noted  resort  of  wild-fowl — 
are  extensive  oyster-fisheries.  From  1.328  to  1867 
Maldon  returned  two  members  to  |iarlianient,  and 
thence  to  1885  one.  Plume,  founder  of  the  profes- 
sorship of  Astronomy  at  Cambridge,  (Jeneral  tiates, 
and  J.  R.  Herbert,  K.A.,  were  natives,  and  Land- 
seer's  parents  residents  till  1815.  In  the  battle  of 
Maldon  (991),  the  subject  of  a  famous  old  En;;lish 
poem,  the  English  under  Brilitnoth  were  defeated 
by  Norwegian  Vikings  under  (Juthniund  and  Olaf 
Tryggvason.  Pop.  ( 1801 )  2358  ;  ( 1881 )  5468  ; 
(1891)  5397.  See  Fitch's  Maldon  and  the  Hirer 
Blac/acater  {1895). 

Mah'branolie.  Nicolas,  a  French  philo- 
sophcr,  was  horn  August  6,  1638,  at  Paris.  He 
was  deformed  and  sickly,  and  from  his  childhood 
fond  of  solitude.  At  the  age  of  twenty-two  he 
entered  into  the  congregation  of  the  Oratory,  and 
devoted  himself  to  the  study  of  Patristics  and 
church  history,  till  Descartes's  treatise,  JJc  Homine, 
falling  into  his  hands,  attracted  him  to  philosophy. 
His  famous  work.  De  la  Jicc/icrc/ie  de  la  Virile  (3 
vols.  1674  ;  6lh  ed.  1712),  revealed  great  depth  and 
originality  of  thought  combined  with  iierspicuity 
and  elegance,  its  object  being  the  psychological 
investigation  of  the  causes  of  the  errors  to  which 
the  human  mind  is  liable,  and  of  the  nature  of 
truth  and  the  way  of  reaching  it.  He  main- 
tains that  we  see  all  things  in  God— his  famous 
]'i.iiu>i  eti  Dieii :  that  alT  beings  and  thoughts 
exist  in  God — Diru  est  le  lien  dc.i  esjiritu,  evmiiie 
I'expare  est  Ic  lien  des  rorps ;  ami  that  (Jod  is 
the  (irst  cause  of  all  changes  wliioh  take  place  in 
bodies  and  souls,  which  are  theiefme  merely  pas- 
sive therein.  His  system  is  a  kind  of  mystic 
idealism.  It  was  immediately  opposed  by  Ant. 
Arnauld,  Bossnet,  and  many  others,  and  was  snh- 
jectc.l  to  a  thorongh  and  critical  examination  b^ 
Locke  and  Leibnitz.  Other  works  of  Malehranche  s 
are  Traiti  de  la  Morale  (1084)  and  Conversations 


MALE    FERN 


MALIC    ACID 


823 


Mi'f(ii>/n/siqiii's  ct  Cliictifiinrs  (ItiSS),  in  tlie  latter 
of  wliicli  he  endeavoured  to  exliiliit  the  liannoiiy 
of  his  philosophic  views  with  Christianily.  He 
died  at  Paris,  October  !.'{,  1715.  The  story  of 
Stoi-k,  Berkeley's  biographer,  that  Malebranche 
dieil  of  the  excitement  induced  hv  a  metaphysical 
discussion  with  the  subtle  Berkeley,  is  disproved 
by  the  dates ;  Berkeley  having  been  in  England 
from  August  1714  till  1716. 

An  edition  of  liis  works,  published  in  171*2,  filled  11 
volumes.  Later  editions  are  by  (Jenonde  and  Lourilomix 
(18:}7)  and  Jules  Simon  (18o9-71).  See  the  Life  by 
Aiidr^  (Tours,  1886),  and  tlie  Studies  by  Blampignon 
(1861),  OUe-Laprune  (1870),  and  Pillon  (189.5). 

Male  Feru.    See  Fern  (Male). 

nialegiiettii  Pepper.  See  Ge.uns  of  Par 
adi.se. 

Slalesherbes,  Chretiem  Guillaume  de 
Lam()1i.;non"  de,  a  distinguislied  French  statesman, 
was  born  at  Paris,  December  6,  1721.  Educated 
at  the  Jesuits'  College,  at  twenty-four  he  became 
counsellor  to  the  parliament  of  Paris,  and  in  1750 
succeeded  his  father  as  president  of  the  Cour  des 
Aides,  where  he  showed  clear  judgment,  strict 
integrity,  and  humanity.  A  quiet  but  determined 
opponent  of  government  rapacity  and  tyranny,  he 
watclied  the  ministry  with  a  jealous  eye,  and  was 
indefatigable  in  his  etforts  to  prevent  the  peo|ile 
from  being  plundered.  Beside,s  his  moie  proper 
judicial  duties  he  was  entrusted  also  with  the 
censoi-sliip  of  the  press,  and  so  tolerant  was  he  that 
French  authoi-s  pronounce  the  period  of  his  censor- 
ship '  the  golden  age  of  letters.  To  his  large  mind 
we  may  ascribe  the  publication  of  the  fanious 
EncydopMie.  In  1771  his  bold  remonstrances 
against  the  abuses  of  law  which  Louis  XV.  was 
perpetrating  led  to  his  banishment  to  his  country- 
seat  of  St  Lucie,  Init  here  he  solaced  himself  witii 
botany,  ever  a  favourite  study.  At  the  accession 
of  Louis  XVL  (1774)  he  was  recalled,  and  took 
office  under  the  crown,  but  retired  on  the  dismissal 
of  Turgot,  and  from  this  time  to  the  Revolution 
spent  his  time  in  travel,  or  in  the  improvement  of 
his  estates,  with  one  brief  interval  of  ottice  in  17^7. 
The  tii-st  storms  passed  him  by  ;  but  when  be  beanl 
that  the  unhappy  king  was  about  to  be  tried  by 
the  Convention  he  magnanimously  left  his  retreat, 
anil  came  to  Paris  to  undertake  his  defence.  '  I 
was  twice  called  to  tlie  council  of  him  who  wa-s  my 
master,  when  all  the  world  coveted  that  honour ; 
and  I  owe  him  the  same  service  now  when  it  has 
become  one  which  many  reckon  danjrerous,'  said 
the  gray-haired  hero.  From  that  day  Maleslierbes 
himself  was  doomed.  He  was  arrested  in  the 
beginning  of  December  1793,  and  guillotined,  April 
22,  1794,  along  with  his  daughter  and  her  Inishand, 
brother  of  the  f.-unous  Chateaubriand.  Malesherbes 
was  (me  of  the  noblest  figures  of  his  time,  and  his 
fearless,  high-minded  devotion  to  duty  as  an  advo- 
cate was  fittingly  commemorated  in  1826  by  a 
statue  in  the  hall  of  justice  at  Paris,  and  in  the 
name  of  a  well-known  boulevard  in  the  city.  He 
was  a  member  of  the  Academy,  and  brought  an 
able  jien  to  the  discussion  of  agriculture  and  botany 
a-s  well  a.s  political  and  financial  questions. 

His  fKiivnt  Choimen  (1809)  contains  his  most  interest- 
ing writings.  For  his  Life,  sec  the  books  by  Dubois  ( 3d 
cd.  l.si»(;i,  GailUrd  ( 1805),  Boissv  d'Anglas  (1818),  Eozet 
( 18:11 .,  Dupiii  (18411,  and  Vignau.x  (1874). 

Malt't.     See  Mallet. 

Mallierbe,  Francois  de,  was  bom  at  Caen, 
July  13,  1555.  After  studying  at  the  university 
of  Caen  he  attached  himself  to  Henri  d'Angoult^me, 
a  natural  son  of  Henri  IL,  and  wa.s  afterwards 
l>en.sioned  by  the  Due  de  Bellegarde.  He  joined 
the  court  of  Henri  IV'.,  and  received  a  ]>ension  of 
1500  livres  from  the  queen.     He  wa.s  an  industrious 


ode 


songs,    paraphrases,   ejii. 
translations,  criticisms,  &c     He 


writer,    producing 
grams,    e])isi  les 

founded  a  lileiary  scliool,  and  by  his  inlluenoe 
brought  about  a  revolution  in  poetic  stvle.  He 
gave  le.-;.sons  in  composiliim  to  a  class  of  disciples, 
who  met  in  the  hotel  of  the  Due  de  Bellegarde, 
and  death,  so  the  story  goes,  struck  him  while  he 
was  engaged  in  rounding  a  period.  Though  he  had 
a  considerable  fortune,  he  incessantly  liewailed  the 
rigours  of  his  lot  in  his  adiln-sses  to  tlic  court,  and 
successfully  importuned  Louis  XI 11.  for  an  addition 
to  his  income.  He  died  at  Paris,  Cctobcr  Ui,  ll'>28. 
His  poetry  is  of  little  merit,  being  cold,  colourless, 
and  insipid.  He  is  best  remembered  by  the  truly 
touching  stanzas  which  he  addressed  to  his  friend 
Du  Perrier,  and  which  contain  the  most  famous 
line  :  '  Et,  rose,  elle  a  vecu  ce  q'on  viveiit  les  roses.' 
He  was  exceedingly  vainglorious,  and  asserted 
that  what  he  had  written  would  endure  eternally. 
His  interest  lies  in  this — that  by  example  and 
teachiug  he  altered  the  complexion  of  French 
verse.  He  led  his  countrvmcii  to  look  with  dis- 
dain on  the  richly-coloured  and  full-sounding 
verses  of  Konsard,  and  to  adopt  a  style  clear  and 
finished,  it  is  true,  but  cold  and  prosaic,  and  con- 
fined to  the  limits  of  a  narrow  vocabulary.  He 
delighted  to  Ije  termed  the  tyrant  of  words  and 
syllables.  He  introduced,  so  to  speak,  the  prin- 
ciple of  caste  into  diction.  Certain  words  were 
adapted  for  poetic  purposes,  while  others  were  to 
be  rigidly  excluded  from  literature.  The  result 
was  that  when  Malherlie's  teachings  were  dev<!lo])ed 
by  Boileau,  and  enforced  by  his  high  authority, 
Flench  \erse  was  deprived  of  nearl\'  all  that  marks 
ofi'  poetry  from  prose.  The  select  lilrr(tr>j  words 
lost  their  original  edge  and  colour,  and  became 
incapable  of  rendering  other  than  conventional 
ideas.  On  the  other  hand,  Malherbe  did  good 
service  in  inculcating  the  virtues  of  reticence, 
refinement,  and  correctness  in  style. 

See  Sainte-Beuve's  Caitgtrics  itit  LantJiy  vol.  viii.  ; 
Flippeau's  Kcrivains  iW»7Jia?K/.'*  (18.58) ;  and  works  by 
Gourney  (18.521,  Laur  (Heidelberg  1869),  Johanneson 
(Halle,  1881),  Basset  (3d  ed.  1890),  Allais  (1892),  and 
the  Due  de  Broglie  ( 1896). 

Slalibran,  Maria  Felicita,  mezzo-soprano 
singer,  born  at  Paris,  March  24,  1808,  wiis  the 
daughter  of  Manuel  Garcia,  a  Spanish  singer  and 
teacher  of  singing.  She  made  her  debut  in  London 
in  1S25,  and  soon  her  reputation  extc-ndi'd  over 
Europe.  Her  father  attemided  to  establish  the 
Italian  opera  in  New  York,  but  without  success  ; 
and  she  married  M.  Malibran,  a  French  merchant 
there,  who  soon  became  bankrui>t.  Theieu]ioii  she 
returned  to  the  stage,  and  was  received  with  great 
enthusiasm  in  France,  England,  Germany,  and 
Italy.  Her  first  marriage  having  been  dissolved, 
she  married  M.  Beriot,  a  famous  violinist,  in  1836; 
Iiut  on  23d  September  of  that  year  she  died  at 
Manchester.  She  was  one  of  the  greatest  of  oper- 
atic singers. 

Malic  Acid,  H/'jH,0.  (from  Lat.  malum,  'an 
ai)pl<r),  occurs  abundantly  in  most  acidulous  fruits, 
particularly  in  unripe  api>les,  goo.seberries,  and 
currants,  in  which  it  is  found  as  an  acid  or  acid 
salt  of  potash  or  lime,  which  gradually  changes  into 
a  neutral  salt  as  the  fruit  ripens.  It  crystallises  in 
groups  of  radiating  .icicular  prisms,  but,  as  the 
cr>-stals  are  very  deliquescent,  it  is  usually  ob- 
tained as  a  syrupy,  semilranspnreiit  mass,  with  a 
very  sour  smell,  and  readily  soluble  in  water  aiid 
alcohol.  The  chemical  clianges  which  this  acid 
undergoes  under  the  intluence  of  various  reagents 
are  very  singular,  and  si-i  ve  to  illustrate  uiaiiy 
imints  in  vegetable  pliyviology  in  reference  to  tb(( 
maturation  of  fruits.  Thus,  nitric  acid  converts  it 
into  oxalic  acid  ;  hydrated  potash,  into  oxalic  and 


824 


MALIGNANT 


MALLOW 


acetic    acids  :     feiiueiits,    into    succinic,    butyric, 
iicetic,  anil  carbonic  acids  and  water. 

Malignant  Piistnle.    See  Anthrax. 

MaliS'nants,  a  tenu  used  by  the  parliament 
men  to  desijjnate  tliosc  wliom  thev  considered  to  be 
tlie  evil  advisei-s  of  Charles  I.  I'hey  are  so  called 
in  the  Grand  Remonstrance,  Laud  ami  Strafford 
being  singled  out  as  the  most  prominent,  and  to 
their  door  are  laid  all  the  evils  which  artiicted  the 
kingdom.  Afterwards  the  name  was  e.\tended  to 
all  who  sided  with  the  king  against  the  parlia- 
ment. 

llalinos,  or  Mechlin  (Flem.  Mechelen),  a  city 
of  Helgium,  on  the  navigable  Dyle,  14  miles  SSE. 
of  Antwerp.  It  has  line  squares,  noble  buildings, 
and  wide  regular  streets,  but  is  devoid  of  all  signs 
of  life  and  Imlustry,  having  lost  its  former  great- 
ness, and  fallen  far  behind  other  Belgian  cities  in 
commercial  enterprise  and  industrial  actisity.  As 
the  see  of  the  primate  of  Belgium  it  still  retains 
a  certain  degree  of  ecclesiastical  importance,  and 
possesses  numerous  churches,  the  most  noteworthy 
of  which  is  St  Rombold's  cathedral,  a  vast  build- 
ing, covering  nearly  two  acres,  its  interior  adorned 
with  Van  Dyck's  'Crucifixion'  and  many  other  fine 
pictures  anjl  carvings.  It  was  mostly  built  in 
14.37-52,  but  its  clock-tower,  .324  feet  high,  remains 
unfinished.  The  churches  of  St  .John  and  of  Our 
Lady  contain  works  liv  Rubens ;  the  town-hall 
date's  from  the  l.>th  century  ;  the  Cloth  Hall  ( 1340) 
is  now  used  as  a  guard-house  ;  noteworthy  also 
are  the  splendid  modern  archiepiscopal  palace,  the 
Beguinage,  the  Salm  inn  ( 1534),  and  the  monument 
to  Margaret  of  Austria  (1849).  The  manufacture 
of  pillow-lace,  so  famous  in  the  17th  century  (.see 
Lace  ),  has  been  largely  transferred  to  Brussels  and 
elsewliere ;  but  linen  and  woollen  fabrics,  beer, 
neeilles,  &C.  are  made  here.  Pop.  (1875)  40,181; 
(IW(I)  40,721. 

!HaIin$;ei*inK  is  a  term  used  in  the  British 
army  to  express  the  crime  of  feigning  disea.se  in 
order  to  obtain  discharge  from  the  service,  or  to 
escape  some  special  duty.  As  defined  in  the  Army 
Act  of  1881  it  implies  some  overt  act,  such  as  the 
previous  application  of  a  ligature,  or  the  taking  of 
some  ilrug,  which  ijroiluceil  the  appearance  of  the 
disease  said  to  exist.  .\  woise  form  of  the  same 
crime,  'wilfully  maiming' — as  blowing  oil'  the 
trigger-finger — is  erroneously  called  malingering. 

Mallard.    See  Duck. 

Malleability  is  the  property  which  certain 
metals  possess  of  being  reducible  to  thin  leaves, 
either  by  hammering  (hence  the  corresponding 
Germ.in  word,  lluiinncrbarkeit)  or  by  lamination 
between  rollers.  The  order  in  whicli  tin-  la.alle- 
alilc  niet.als  exhiliit  this  ]iro])erty  is  as  follows — 
(iold,  Silver,  ('o])per,  I'latinum,  Palladium,  Iron, 
Aluminium,  Tin.  Zinc,  Lead,  Cadmium,  Nickel, 
Cobalt,  (iold  far  surpa.sses  all  the  other  niet.als 
in  irialleability,  being  capable  of  reduction  into 
films  not  exceeding  the  '200, 000th  of  an  inch  in 
thickness;  and  silver  and  cop]ier  may  be  reduced 
to  leaves  of  great  tenuity.  .Although  gold  and 
silver  also  present  the  property  of  Ductility  (q.v.) 
in  the  highest  degree,  there  is  no  constant  relation 
between  the  two  proiierties  ;  for  exani]ile,  iron, 
although  it  m.ay  be  reiluced  to  extremely  thin  wire, 
is  not  nearly  so  malleable  ,as  gold,  silver,  or  cop])er. 

MalU't'  Srrilb.  a  bushy  Eucalyptus  8  or 
10  feet  high,  which  forms  im|)enetrabli'  thickets 
in  .Australia  (c|.v.,  Vol.  I.  p.  589).  For  the  Mallee 
hen,  see  .M(i(Xi)-Hii;i)S. 

.Mallet,  or  Mai.kp,  Ci.ai he  Kiiancoi.s  de, 
a  coii^piiviidr  ag;i.inst  Naiioleon  I.,  was  born 
'28lh  .June  1754,  at  Dole  in  Pranche-CoTnte,  and 
became    an  eager  supporter   of    the    Re\()lutioii. 


Entering  the  anny,  he  ha<l  risen  to  the  rank  of 
a  brigadier-general  by  1799.  But  in  1801  he  was 
detected  in  a  conspiracy  against  Xajioleon,  and 
again  in  1808 ;  he  was  arrested  and  kept  in 
confinement  until  181'2.  During  Napoleon's  cam- 
paign in  Russia  Mallet  made  his  escape  from 
prison  on  the  nii'ht  of  October  22-23,  and  by 
circulating  the  false  news  of  Napoleon's  death 
and  by  dexterous  use  of  a  forged  decree  of  the 
senate  won  over  some  of  the  national  guards. 
Whilst  the  latter  occupied  the  principal  i>ublic 
otiices  in  his  name.  Mallet  him.self  proceeiled  to 
liberate  his  fellow-conspirators.  Generals  Guidal 
and  Lahorie,  from  prison.  But  at  the  ho\ise  of 
Hullin,  comman<lant  of  the  troops  in  Paris,  Mallet 
was  hini-self  taken  prisoner  by  Hullin's  adjutant, 
Laborde.  He  was  shot,  along  \\ith  his  fellow- 
consjnrators,  29tb  October  1812.  See  histories  of 
the  consijiracv,  by  Lafon  (1814),  Saulnier  (1834), 
and  I)<mrille  (1840). 

Mallet,  or  Malloch,  David,  the  wielder  of  a 
venal  pen  under  the  second  and  third  tJeorges, 
was  born  abo\it  1705,  at  Crieff,  where  bis  father 
was  a  Roman  Catholic  small  farmer.  .lanitor  for 
six  months  at  the  High  School,  Edinburgh  (1717- 
18),  be  then  studied  for  one  session  at  the  uni- 
versity, an<l  in  17'20  became  tutor  in  the  family  of 
Mr  Home  of  Dreghoin,  in  1723  in  that  of  the  Duke 
of  Montrose.  Here  he  remained  several  years, 
and  made  the  tour  of  Europe  with  bis  pupils.  In 
17'23  the  adaptation  of  two  old  ballads  into  a 
new  one,  '  William  and  Margaret,'  gained  him 
a  reputation  as  a  poet,  which  be  enhanced  by  a 
poem.  The  Ejrursion  (1728).  After  this,  having 
'by  degrees  cleared  his  tongue  from  his  native 
prtmunciation,  so  as  to  be  no  longer  distinguished 
as  a  Scot,  ...  he  took  upon  him  to  change  his 
name  from  Scotch  Malloch  to  English  JIallet' 
— an  instance  of  bis  insufl'erable  vanity.  Stiange 
to  say,  Pope,  the  poet,  was  his  friend,  and  to 
please  him  Mallet  reviled  Bentley  in  a  w(u-k  in 
verse.  Verbal  Cn'ticism  (1733).  About  this  time 
he  was  appointed  undersecretary  to  Frederick, 
Prince  of  Wales,  then  holding  a  separate  court 
from  his  father's.  In  1740  jiallct  puldisbed  a 
mediocre  life  of  Bacon,  an<l  in  1742  another  fairly 
creditable  poem,  T/ir  Hermit,  or  Aiiii/iifur  mid 
Theodora.  After  this  he  appears  in  the  most 
despicable  cbar.acter :  to  gratify  Bolingbroke  he 
heapeil  abuse  upon  his  dead  friend  Pope  in  a 
preface  to  Bolingbroke's  Patriot  King ;  at  the 
bidding  of  the  ministry  he  directed  the  popular 
rage  for  the  loss  of  Minorca  upon  Admiral  l>yng, 
and  his  reward  for  this  '  price  of  blood  was,'  says 
Dr  Johnson,  'a  pension  wliicli  Mallet  retained  t^dl 
his  death;'  and  he  received  a  legacy  of  £1000, 
besides  other  sums,  to  write  a  life  of  the  great 
Duke  of  Marlborough,  but  never  iieniied  ,a  single 
line — 'he  groped  for  materials  .and  thimght  of  it 
till  he  bad  exhausted  his  mind.'  He  also  tried 
his  han.d  at  play-writing,  but  with  im  \erv  gieat 
s\iccess  :  Miistiijiha  pleased  for  a  while  in  1739, 
because  it  was  thought  to  contain  some  political 
allusions;  Eunjdicc  (1731)  and  KIrira  (1703), 
tragedies,  were  failures.  Alfretl,  a  Musijiir  (1740) 
was  wrilten  in  conjutiction  with  Thomson,  ami  one 
of  its  songs,  'Rule  Britannia,'  b.as  lieen  claimed 
for  both  of  them.  liesidcs,  Mallet  luiblished  two 
volumes  of  miscellaneous  verse.  He  died  on  21st 
Apiil  I7li5. 

Mallow,  a  market-town  and  watering-place 
of  Ireland,  is  beautifully  situated  on  the  left  bank 
of  the'  Blackwater,  20  miles  by  rail  N.  by  W.  of 
Cork.  On  the  opposite  side  of  the  river,  which  is 
here  crossed  liy  a  bridge,  is  the  suburb  of  Bally- 
daheen.  The  town  is  resorted  to  in  summer  on 
account  of  its  tei)id  mineral  waters,  and  contains  a 


MALLOW 


MALMESBURY 


825 


neat  spaliouse.  Close  by  is  the  ivy-covered  ruin 
of  the  ctvstle  of  the  Desmonds,  destroyed  in  11541, 
and  the  later  Mallow  Castle,  built  by  Sir  Denhani 
Norreys  towards  the  end  of  tlie  ISth  century. 
Tanninjr  ami  some  snuill  manufactures  are  carried 
on.  Pop.  (1S.">1)  5436;  (ISSl)  4439;  (1S91)  4366. 
Till  18sr>  Mallow  leturned  one  member  to  the 
House  of  Commons. 

^fallow  {Miilra),  a  genus  of  plants  of  the 
natural  order  Malvace^,  whose  species  are  her- 
baceous ])lants,  or  more  rarely  shrubs.  The  Com- 
mon Mallow  (.1/.  si/lrcntris)  is  plentiful  over  most 
of  Europe,  and  in  I?ritain  on  waysides  and  heaps 
of  rubbish.     It  is  a  perennial,    with    rather   larj;e 


.<h 


Common  Mallow  (Maha  si/lrcxifixi. 

bluish-red  flowers  on  erect  stalks.  The  Dwarf 
Mallow  (il/.  rotu)i(lifulia),  also  a  common  native 
of  Britain,  has  smaller  whitish  or  reddish-white 
flowers.  These  two  plants  have  a  nuicila;,'inous 
and  somewhat  bitter  taste,  and  the  leaves  are 
used  as  an  emollient  and  di^mulcent  medicine, 
a  decoction  of  them  being  emiiloyed  in  cases  of 
irritation  of  the  pulmonary  and  of  the  urinary 
organs ;  and  ]>oultices  made  of  them  are  very 
frequently  emiiloyed  to  allay  external  inflam- 
mation. Other  species  have  similar  properties. 
The  Musk  M;illow  (.1/.  mosc/iatu),  not  unfrei|uent 
in  England,  but  rare  in  Scotland,  has  a  faint  nnisk- 
like  smell.  The  fibre  of  .V.  rrisj/d  is  used  in  Syria 
for  textile  purpo.scs,  and  the  hbres  of  many  species 
are  probably  lit  for  similar  use,  and  for  the  manii- 
faeture  of  paper.  The  young  leaves  of  some  are 
boiled  as  vegetables.  A  Mallow  ( J.unttera  arborca ) 
crows  on  I  lie  lia-ss  liock  and  Haddingtonshire.  The 
Marsh-mallow  (i|.v.)  belongs  to  another  genus. 

Mallliaison,  a  cbflteau  standing  on  the  left 
bank  of  the  Seine,  10  miles  \V.  of  Paris,  was  the 
favourite  residence  of  Josephine,  wife  of  Napoleon 
I.,  and  here  she  died.  Tlie  cluitvau  iiidoiiged  to 
llichelieu,  and  was  restored  by  Napoluim  III.  in 
ISOl.  A  sortie  by  Ducrot  from  Paris  in  Is70  was 
repulsed  here  by  the  Germans.  See  a  work  by 
I.escure  (  1S67). 

Mai  llicdya  a  Prussian  town  in  a  mountain- 
valley,  close  to  the  lielgian  frontier  and  51  miles 
S.  of  Ai.\-la-Cliaiielle.  with  mineral  springs.  Poj). 
(189.J)  4.)00,  mostly  Walloons,  speaking  Preucli. 

Malincsbliry.  an  old-world  mark<'l-town  of 
Wiltshire,  on  a  hold  eniincmi'  between  two  liead- 
stre.inis  iif  the  Avon.  '20  miles  by  rail  NNE.  of 
IJalh  and  17  WNW.  of  Swimlon.  It  owes  its  name 
to  Maildulf,  an  Irish  missionary.  Aldhelin  (n.v.), 
his  sehohu,  beciimc  alxiut  ti73  lirst  abliot  of  the 
famous  abbey  here,  in  which  Athelslan  was  burieil, 
and  of  which  William  of  Malmc.sburv  wius  librarian 


and  precentor  in  the  first  half  of  the  12th  century. 
To  his  time  belong  the  Iniilding  of  a  short  lived 
castle,  and  the  rebuilding  (also  by  Bisho]i  Hoger  of 
Salisbury)  of  the  abbey  church,  which,  Transition 
Norman  in  style,  and  cruciform  in  plan,  with  a 
central  s)iire,  was  350  feet  long.  I.,ittle  more  tli;in 
the  nave — now  the  parish  church — remains  ;  hut  this 
is  a  most  interesting  fragment,  its  finest  feature 
the  south  pmch.  At  the  Dissolution  (1539)  the 
mitred  Benedictine  abbey  became  a  cloth-factory. 
A  beautiful  market-cro.ss  {temp.  Henry  Vll.)  is 
noteworthy.  Hoblies  w;us  a  n.itive.  Malniesburv 
returned  two  mendjers  till  1S32,  and  then  one  till 
1SS5.     Pop.  of  borough  (incorpoiated  ISSti),  2964. 

See  works  by  Moffatt  (1805),  Sir  T.  Phillipps  ( 1831  ), 
J.  K  Jacksim  (18B3),  W.  de  Gray  Birch  ( 1K74 ),  and  the 
Regutriitn  Mafmcgburicnisc,  edited  by  Brewer  and  Martin 
(2  vols.  1S79  .SI). 

llalinesbiii'.v.  James  Harris,  first  Earl  of, 
diplomatist,  was  born  at  Salisbury,  21st  April  1746, 
the  oidy  son  of  James  'Hermes'  Harris  (q.v.). 
Educated  at  Winchester,  at  Merton  College,  (Ox- 
ford, and  at  Leyden,  in  1768  he  became  secretary 
of  legation  at  Madrid,  and  in  1772  minister  at 
Berlin,  in  1777  at  St  Petersljurg,  in  1784  at  The 
Hague.  In  1779  he  received  the  Order  of  the  Bath, 
and  in  1788  was  created  Baron,  in  1800  Earl  of, 
Malmesbtiry.  Meanwhile,  in  1793,  with  other 
^yhigs  he  had  seceded  from  Fox  to  Pitt,  and  in 
1795  h.ad  married  by  pioxy  and  conducted  to  Eng- 
land the  Princess  Caroline.  '  I  in  not  well,  Harris  ; 
get  me  a  glass  of  brandy,  Harris' — one  remembers 
the  Prince's  reception  of  his  bride.  Very  deaf 
during  the  la.st  twenty  years  of  his  life.  Lord 
Malmesbury  died  in  London,  20th  Novendier  1S'20. 
See  his  Diaries  uiul  Corrcspondc/icc  (1844),  and 
Lo7-d  Mii/iiiesbiiri/  (iiid  his  Friends  (1870),  both 
edited  by  his  grandson. 

That  grandson,  James  Howakd  Hahi;is,  tliir<l 
Earl  of  JIalmesblry,  was  born  in  London,  '25th 
March  1807,  and  from  Eton  proceeded  to  Oriel 
College,  Oxford.  He  took  his  B.A.  in  1827,  and 
then  made  a  continental  tour  (18'2S-'29),  during 
which  at  Kome  he  formed  a  close  friendshi]> 
with  Louis  Napoleon.  In  1837  he  stood  as  a 
Tory  for  Portsmouth,  and  in  1841  had  just  been 
returned  for  Wilton,  when  his  father's  death 
called  him  to  the  House  of  Lords.  In  1852  he 
was  Foreign  Secretary  under  Lord  Derby,  as 
again  in  1858-59,  when  his  policy  pri(U'  to  the 
outbreak  of  the  Franco-Austrian  war  was  directed 
wisely  if  un.successfully  to  the  preservation  of 
the  peace  of  Europe.  In  1860  08.  ;ind  .iiiain  in 
1874—70,  he  was  Lord  Privy  Seal  :  in  1884  appeared 
his  valuable  and  entertainitig  Memoirs  of  an  Ex- 
Minister.     He  died  17th  May  1889. 

llalllK'shliry,  William  of,  an  early  English 
historian,  was  born  near  the  close  of  the  lUh 
century,  and  was  educated  in  the  monastery  at 
Malmesbury,  where  he  became  a  monk,  ami  in  due 
time  librarian.  an<l  afterwards  precentor.  In  1140 
he  declined  the  ollicc  of  abbot,  took  part  in  the 
council  at  Winchester  .■ig;unst  Stephen  in  1141,  and 
<licd  most  probably  soon  .-liter  1142.  when  his  latest 
work,  the  Jlisloriii  Nonl/n,  comes  abruptly  to  an 
end.  His  two  ]>rincipal  works  are  Gcslii  Jier/iim 
An//lorum  and  Geslit  I'onlificiim  Anrjiorum.  The 
former  gives  the  history  of  the  kings  of  England 
from  the  Saxon  inv;isi<m  to  the  twenty  eighth  year 
of  Henry  1.,  or  the  year  11'28.  The  llisturia 
X(irc//n  lirings  ilown  the  mirrativc!  to  the  year 
1142,  but  is  really  a  .separate  work.  Sir  T.  D. 
Hardy  edited  both  together  for  the  English  Histori- 
cal Society  in  1840.  Sharpe's  translation  (  1815)  was 
included  in  Bohn's  '  Anli(|uarian  Library'  in  1847. 
The  two  form  admitteilly  luu^  of  the  most  valuable 
authorities   for  the  Anglo-Norman   period  of  our 


826 


MALMO 


MALTA 


history,  the  work  of  a  man  of  great  learninpf, 
industry,  intelligence,  ami  impartiality — no  mere 
o()iMi)ilation,  and  written  moreover  with  unusual 
oleariK'.ss  ami  force.  The  (Je.'.iii  Pontijiciim  gives 
an  account  of  the  hishops  ami  iirincipal  monas- 
teries iif  England  from  the  conversion  of  Ethelbert 
of  Kent  by  St  Augustine  to  11'23.  It  was  edited 
in  the  Ko'lls  series  in  1S70  hy  Mr  N.  E.  S.  A. 
Hamilton.  Other  works  of  William's  are  an 
account  of  the-  chnrch  at  Glastonbury,  printed  in 
tJalu's  Srrlpt'ircs  XV.,  and  a  life  of  .St  Dunstan, 
printed  in  Wharton's  Anglia  Sacra. 

DlallllM.  the  third  largest  town  of  Sweden, 
on  the  .Souml,  nearly  opposite  Copenhagen,  17 
miles  distant.  Besides  being  a  busy  seaport, 
it  has  manufactures  of  cigars,  sugar,  beer,  ami 
woollens,  and  some  shipbuilding.  The  e.xports 
(chielly  grain.  Hour,  butter,  eggs,  cement,  chalk, 
matches,  live-stock,  and  timber)  are  carried  away 
e\cry  year  in  about  .SoOO  vessels  of  750,000 
tons  burden,  and  the  imports  (coal,  machinery, 
cotton,  grain,  textiles,  coll'ee,  «S:c. )  brought  hy  .SOOO 
vessels  of  720,000  tons.  The  only  remaining  part 
of  tlie  olil  fortihcations  is  the  castle  in  which  the 
Earl  of  Bothwell  (q.v. )  was  confined;  it  is  now 
used  as  a  prison.  The  town-house  is  a  line  Renais- 
sance building  of  1.54G.  Pop.  ( 1874 )  30,070  ;  ( 1888 ) 
4G,'2s;?.  Down  to  the  16th  century  Malmi)  was  one 
of  tlie  busiest  commercial  towns  in  that  part  of 
the  Baltic.  In  1.523  a  treaty  of  peace  between  the 
Danes  and  Gnstavus  Vasa  was  signed  here. 

Malmsey  (Fr.  vin  de  Malvoisic),  a  name 
bestowed  originall_y  on  the  red  and  white  wines  of 
Napoli  di  ^ialvasia  or  Monenivasia,  in  the  Morea, 
not  because  it  produced  them,  but  because  it 
exported  them  ;  they  were  grown  in  the  islands  of 
the  -]''.gean  and  the  Levant.  'I'b(!  Malmsey  wines 
of  modern  commerce  are  mostly  the  produce  of 
Tenerille,  Madeira,  the  Azores,  Sardinia,  Sicily, 
and  one  or  two  f)ther  places. 

Itlaloiie.  Edmund,  editor  of  Sliakcspcare,  was 
born  in  IJulilin,  4th  October  1741,  graduated  witli 
credit  at  the  university  there,  and  was  called  to  the 
Irish  bar  in  1767.  Falling  soon  after  into  a  fortune, 
lie  went  to  Lonilon  to  devote  himself  to  literary 
pursuits,  his  tirst  work  being  a  'supplement'  to 
Steevens's  edition  of  Shakespeare  ( 1778).  His  con- 
tributions to  Steevens's  third  edition  of  Shakespeare 
(178.5)  led  to  a  serious  quarrel  between  the  two,  in 
wliich  Steevens  was  wholly  to  l)lanie.  Malone's  o.wn 
cilition  of  the  great  dramatist  ( 1790)  was  warmly 
recei\'ed,  especially  the  essays  on  tlie  '  History  of 
the  Stage '  and  the  '  Genuineness  of  the  Three 
Plays  of  Heni-y  VI.'  As  an  editor  Malone  displays 
great  good  sense,  conscientiousness,  mucli  acute- 
ness,  extensive  research,  ,and  a  liecoming  respect 
for  the  text  of  the  earlier  editions.  He  had  been 
one  of  the  lirst  to  express  his  unl)elief  in  the  anti- 
quity of  C'hatterton's  Rowley  poems,  and  in  179G 
he  denounceil  the  impudent  forgeries  of  the 
wretched  Ireland.  Next  year  he  publislied  a 
postbumous  edition  of  the  works  (jf  his  friend  Sir 
.Joshua  lieynolds.  His  own  death  occurred  25th 
May  1812.  He  left  behind  a  large  mass  of  ma- 
terials for  another  edition  of  Shakespeare,  which 
at  length  appeared  in  1821,  in  21  vols.,  under  the 
e<litorship  of  .lames  Boswell  the  younger,  and  as  the 
'Variorum  Sh.aUespeare '  is  known  and  v.alued  by 
all  scholars.     Sec  Life  by  Sir  .I.-unes  Prior  ( 1860). 

i1Ialor.V>  Sii!  Tll()M.\s,  is  immort»i,l  in  his  work, 
th(^  I\fiirte  Ddrfhiir,  while  of  himself  bnt  little 
is  liiiown.  We  learn  from  Caxton's  preface  that 
Malory  wius  a  knight,  th.at  he  finished  his  work  in 
tli(- ninth  year  of  the  reign  of  Edward  IV.  (1470), 
that  he  '  reduced  '  it  from  some  French  book,  ami 
that  he  was  a  servant  of  .lesns  both  day  and  night 
— a  statement   which   has  needlessly   led    to    the 


inference  that  he  was  a  priest.  In  Leland's 
liiitcrary  the  name  occurs  in  Yorkshire,  and  the 
century  after  in  Burton's  Description  of  Leicester- 
shire, but  there  is  no  evidence  to  connect  the  writer 
with  either  county.  Caxton's  impression  was 
iinished  in  1485,  and  is  a  black-letter  folio,  of 
which  but  two  copies  now  exist.  An  accurate  ,and 
altogether  admirable  edition  of  it  was  reprinted  in 
1889  by  the  care  of  Dr  H.  Oskar  Sommer.  The 
editor's  Introduction  followed  in  1890  ;  his  Treatise 
on  the  Sources  and  Andrew  Lang's  Essay  on 
Malory's  Prose  Style  in  1891.  There  were  twelve 
preceding  editions,  including  those  of  Wvnkyn  rle 
Worde,  W.  t'oidand,  Hazlewood  ( 1816),'  Soiil hey 
(1817),  Thomas  Wright  ( 1856),  .and  Sir  E.  Straehey 
(the  <;lobe  edition,  1868).  The  last  three  have 
admirable  introductions. 

Sir  Thomas  Malor.\'s  work  'is  indisputably,' 
says  Scott,  '  the  best  prose  romance  the  English 
language  can  boast  of.'  It  wjis  due  to  an  attem[)t 
to  work  up  and  give  an  epic  unity  and  harnmny  to 
the  whole  mass  of  French  romance,  and  the  result 
shows  that  its  author  was  no  slavish  copyist  or 
compiler  merely,  but  that  he  turned  nimdi  that  was 
dross  into  pure  gold,  and  stamped  upon  the  whole 
the  impress  of  his  own  individuality  as  Shakespeare 
did  with  bis  Holinshe<l  and  Plutarch.  And  this  no 
less  in  the  events  than  the  characters  of  the  story  as 
the  modern  reader  realises  them  glorified  through 
the  medium  of  Tennyson's  stately  \erse.  The  story 
moves  forward  with  dignity  to  its  tragic  close, 
the  inevitable  issue  of  the  guilty  loves  of  Lancelot 
and  Queen  Guinevere. 

nialpiglli,  Maecello,  an  Italian  anatomist, 
was  born  at  Crevalore,  near  Bologna,  on  10th 
March  1628,  and  died  at  Rome  on  29tli  November 
1694.  He  held,  at  dili'ercnt  periods  of  his  life,  the 
professorshii>  of  Medicine  in  Pisa  ( 1656-60 ),  Messina 
( 1662-66),  and  Bologna  ( 1666-91 ).  In  1691  he  was 
appointed  chief  physician  to  Pope  Innocent  XII. 
Like  his  contemporary  Leeuwenhoek,  he  ^^■as  a 
pioneer  in  the  study  of  minute  anatomy  with  the 
microscope,  and  is  cliicHy  known  for  his  discoveries 
in  connection  with  capillary  circnlatiim  and  in  the 
anatomy  of  the  skin,  the  kidney,  and  the  spleen 
(see  Kidneys).  Amongst  his  worl<s  m.ay  be  men- 
tioned EpistoliK  Anatomicce  (1662),  he  Striic- 
turd  Viscenim  (1669),  Tic  Pulmonibus  (1661),  De 
Structm-d  Glonr/ii/ariim  Conij/o/jtitariim  (  16S9), 
and  Anatomia  Plnnturvm  (1675-79).  See  the 
bicentenary  monogra]ib  by  Atti,  ^'ircllow,  Haeckel, 
Todaro,  Michelis,  and  otliers  (Milan,  1898). 

Ulalpiglliaccir*  a  natur.al  oider  of  exogenous 
pla,nts,  trees  or  shrubs,  many  of  them  climbing 
shrubs  or  lianas. 

MalpIaqUCt.  a  village  in  the  French  depart- 
ment of  Nord,  10  ndles  S.  of  Mons  in  P.elgium. 
Here,  on  11th  S(>ptcmber  1709,  over  90,000  British 
and  Dutch,  under  Marlborough  and  I'rince  Eugene, 
defeated  about  the  same  number  of  French  under 
Marshal  Villars.  In  this  '  very  nnirderous  battle,' 
as  Marlborough  called  it,  the  loss  of  the  allies  was 
from  twenty  to  thirty  thousand,  of  the  French  from 
six  to  sixteen  thousand.  Its  result  was  the  capture 
of  Mons. 

lHaIstr(»ni.    See  Maelstrom. 
Malt  and  Malting.    See  Beer. 

Malta,  an  islaml  and  British  ]iosscssion  in  the 
Mediterranean,  171  miles  long  by  8,',  broail,  with  an 
area  of  95  sq.  m.  I(  stands  on  the  submarine 
jilate.au  which,  stretching  across  from  Sicily  to 
Africa,  divides  the  IMedilerr.anean  into  two  basins, 
and  is  of  late  Eocene  or  perhaps  Miocene  forma- 
tion, the  prev.ailing  rocks  being  limestones.  From 
its  central  |iosition  in  the  Mediterranean  Sea,  58 
miles  S.  of  the  Sicilian  coiust  and  about  180  SE.  hy 


MALTA 


827 


E.  of  Cape  Bon  in  Algeria,  ami  from  tli«  enormous 
stronglh  of  its  fortiKciitions — Disnu'li  called  it  '  the 
little  military  liotliouse' — Malta  is  one  of  the 
most  important  of  the  British  dependencies.  It 
is  the  heailquarters  of  the  British  Mediterranean 
Heet,  the  jirineipal  coaling  station  for  merchant- 
vessels  as  well  !i.s  the  navy  in  the  Mediterranean 
—between  500,000  and  «)0,000  tons  of  coal  are 
imported  for  use  and  re  exportation  annually — a 
powerful  stronghold  (Valetla),  a  valuable  sana- 
torium for  troops  employed  in  the  Orient,  and  an 
interesting  isl.and  historically,  architecturally,  and 
from  the  antiiiu.arian  standpoint.  The  dependencies 
include  the  island  of  tlozo  (20  sq.  m.),  lying  NW. 
of  Malta,  and  separated  from  it  by  a  channel 
3  miles  wide,   in  which  are  the  little   islands  of 


MALTA 

linsflish  Miles 
^    ^     ^ 


Comino  and  Cominotto,  and  several  islets  round 
the  coasts  of  the  larger  islands.  On  one  of  these 
islets.  General's  Rock,  near  the  west  side  of  Gozo, 
the  famous  Maltese  fungus  Cynoniorium  (q.v.) 
grows.  The  area  of  the  entire  governorship  of 
Malta  extends  to  117  sq.  m.  The  island  of  Malta 
Ls  oval  in  shape,  the  north-eastern  and  eastern 
shores  being  broken  into  several  good  harbours 
( Valetta,  Marsa  Scirocco,  St  Paul's  Bay,  ilellilia 
Bay,  iVc. ) ;  the  southern  coast  rises  in  |)icturesque 
clitl's  400  feet  high.  The  culminating  point  of  the 
Island  is  ToS  feet.  The  sea  h.t-s  hollowed  out 
among  its  cliH's  grottoes  and  caverns  in  almost 
every  direction,  some  of  considerable  extent, 
especially  one  in  Comino.  Malta  li;is  a  bare, 
stony  appearance,  owing  to  the  absence  of  trees 
and  the  fact  that  the  fields  and  gardens  are  en- 
closed in  high  walls,  to  shelter  the  crops  against 
the  violent  winds.  There  are  no  rivers  or  lakes ;  but 
water  is  easily  obtained  from  springs.  The  soil  is 
thin,  but  remarkably  fertile  ;  ami  its  fertility  is 
increased  by  the  skilful  cultivation  and  the  diligent 
toil  of  the  inhabitants.  Large  crops  of  wlieat  ami 
jiotatoes  are  raised,  early  varieties  of  the  latter 
being  largely  exported  to  Englan<l ;  maize,  barley, 
cotton,  clover,  oranges,  figs,  grapes,  carob  beans, 
and  peaches  and  other  fruits  are  also  grown.  Vine 
honey  i.s  produced  ;  in  spring  the  island  is  gav  with 
flower).  Those  of  the  .\laltese  who  do  not  cultivate 
the  .soil  are  chielly  engaged  in  the  docks  and  har- 
bours. Filigree  ornaments  and  a  little  cotton  are 
manufactured.  Sheep  and  goats  are  kept,  with 
siii.illcr  numbers  of  cattle,  mules,  assc»,  and  horses. 
The  .Maltese  Dog  (q.v. )  is  virtually  extinct.  IJuring 
the  summer  months  the  thermometer  range.s  from 
75°  to  90°  F.,  during  the  coldest  from  50'  to  71'. 


The  annual  mean  is  67°'3  F.,  and  the  annual  rain- 
fall '2i-2:i  inches.  But  when  the  hot  sirocco  wind 
blows — not  dry  as  in  Africa,  but  laden  with  mois- 
ture— the  climate  is  enervating.  Otherwise  .Malta 
is  fairly  healthy,  though  chcdera  pays  occasional 
visits,  as  in  1853  and  1887  ;  since  about  18S0  the 
government  have  been  providing  the  island  with 
a  com|>rehensive  system  of  water-works,  w  liich  has 
greatly  contributed  to  its  healthfulness.  Earth- 
quakes are  relalivclv  frequent. 

In  1881  Malta  (13'2,129)  and  Gozo  (17,653)  con- 
tained 14n,7S2  inhaljitants ;  in  ISfll,  177,22.3  (in- 
cluding 2.300  British  residents  an<l  1200  foreigners, 
but  excluding  the  6000  to  7000  imperial  troops). 
The  local  militia,  including  the  Uoyal  .Malta  Fen- 
cible  Artillery,  number  about  1200.  The  language 
of  the  people  is  a  commit  dialect  of  Arabic,  with  a 
strong  admixture  of  Italian  and  other  word.-  :  some 
authorities,  however,  connect  it  with  the  ancient 
Phojnician.  The  native  population  believe  them- 
selves to  be  of  Phoenician  descent.  From  the  time 
of  the  settlement  of  the  Knights  of  St  John  down 
to  quite  recently  Italian  was  the  official  language  ; 
but  it  has  been  superseded  by  English.  Most  of 
the  educated  Maltese  speak  Italian,  and  some 
speak  English ;  the  peasantry  as  a  rule  know 
neither  the  one  nor  the  other.  The  ilaltese  are 
a  sober,  industrious  race  of  people,  tliougli  often 
quick-teni]5ered  and  ignorant.  Their  thrifty  habits 
are  proved  by  the  fact  that  ."il97  depositors  had 
£402,969  standing  to  their  credit  in  the  .savings- 
bank  in  1888.  They  are  fond  and  proud  of  their 
island  home — they  love  to  call  it  '  the  (lower  of  the 
world' — anil  are  devout  Roman  Catholics,  the  power 
of  the  Clmrch  being  very  great  over  the  jieople. 
There  are  two  bishops  (Malta,  Gozo)  and  1200 
clergy.  Canon  law  is  recognised  as  the  ci\il  law 
of  Malta.  Owing  to  the  rapid  growth  of  the  ]popu- 
lation  and  their  density  to  tlie  sq.  m.  ( 1471  in 
Malta  and  O.'Jl  in  Gozo;  Belgium  has  .514  to  the 
sq.  m.),  large  numbers  are  compelled  to  emigrate ; 
they  are  found  to  the  number  of  50,000  in  all 
parts  of  North  Africa  and  the  Levant.  Education 
is  provided  for  in  a  university,  a  lyceuni  (400 
pupils),  and  nearly  fifty  government  schools, 
attended  by  10,000  pupils.  The  university, 
founded  in  1709,  has  four  faculties  and  (188S)  105 
students.  The  educational  condition  of  the  island 
had  long  been  a  subject  of  discontent ;  but  reforms 
were  introduced  in  the  end  of  1887,  after  which  the 
nvuuljer  of  students  at  the  unixersity  more  than 
doubled,  and  a  thousand  more  pupils  attended  the 
priniary  schools.  Yet  other  causes  of  discontent 
existed  in  the  ecclesiastical  jealou.sy  of  tlie  pre- 
dominant church,  and  social  jealousy  between  the 
impoverished  native  nobility  ( for  the  most  part 
counts  and  maniuises  created  by  the  Knights  of 
St  John,  and  fully  recognised  since  1878)  and  the 
upper  cla.sses  of  tlie  British.  A\'ithin  the  last  few- 
years  the  sovereign  power  has  shown  more  con- 
sideration for  the  political  susceptibilities,  ;nid  also 
for  the  .social  welfare,  of  the  peo]ile.  The  fortilieil 
towns  that  constitute  Valetta  have  been  re-drained, 
water  has  been  carried  throughout  Malta,  and 
in  1890  was  to  be  carried  o\er  CIozo  likewise, 
and  the  old  Maltese  coinage  of  the  knights  was 
superseded  (1887)  by  the  British  currency  (silver 
being  legal  tender  up  to  i"5).  Moreovei-.  a  con- 
stitutiim  based  on  poimlar  representation  was 
conferred  in  1887.  Legislation  is  carried  on  by  six 
official  anil  fourteen  elected  members,  the  governiu', 
with  the  power  of  veto,  being  president.  There  is 
also  an  executive  council,  consisting  of  the  governor 
iLs  |iresident,  .seven  ollicial  members,  and  three 
nominated  by  the  governor  from  among  the  eli'cted 
members  of  the  legislative  chandier :  the  crown 
retains  the  right  to  legislate  also  thmugh  orders 
in  council.     There  is  no  direct  taxation  in  .Malta. 


828 


MALTA 


The  government  own  two-sevenths  of  the  land  (the 
lest  is  divided  about  equally  between  the  ecclesi- 
astical establishments  and  private  ownere);  from 
tlie  rents  of  this  and  other  crown  property,  and 
from  customs,  licenses,  i:c.,  the  annual  revenue  of 
£•260,000  to  £300,000  is  deiived.  The  i.ubli<-  debt  is 
£SU,000  (189.5).  There  is  a  railway.  Si  niih's  long, 
connecting  Valetta  (q.v.),  the  present  capital,  with 
the  old  capital  Citta  Vecchia,  known  to  Cicero  as 
Melita,  to  the  Saracens  as  Jledina,  and  to  the 
modern  Maltese  as  Notabile,  a  place  founded  so 
long  ago  as  700  B.C.  Here  is  the  cathedral  of  St 
Paul  ( 1697),  traditionally  occupying  the  site  of  a 
palace  of  Publius,  who  erected  there  a  church,  and 
of  a  former  cathedral  built  by  the  Normans  in  the 
l'2th  century  and  destroyed  by  earthquake  in  1693. 
The  cathedral  is  adorned  with  mosaics,  pictures, 
statues,  and  other  works  of  art.  Near  bj'  are 
the  extensive  catacombs  and  the  Grotto  of  St 
Paul,  where  he  is  popularly  believed  to  have  lived 
during  his  three  months'  stay  on  the  island.  Two 
miles  distant  is  the  Verdala  Palace,  built  by  the 
grand-master  Verdala  in  1586,  and  now  a  summer 
residence  of  the  governor  of  the  island.  At  Mnaidra 
and  Hagiar  Kim,  in  the  south  of  the  island,  there 
are  megalithic  Pluenician  temples,  the  ground- 
plans,  not  only  of  the  general  structures,  but  also 
of  the  detailed  compartments,  being  all  elliptical 
in  sliape.  The  traditional  scene  of  St  Paul's  ship- 
wreck is  on  the  north  side  of  the  Bay  of  St  Paul. 
The  church  of  Musta  (183.5-64)  is  designed  on  the 
model  of  the  Pantheon  at  l{ome,  and  has  the  largest 
dome  in  Euiope  ne.xt  after  those  of  St  Peter's  and 
the  l^antheon.  Some  SOOO  vessels  of  6,000,000  tons 
enter  and  clear  the  island  ports  every  year,  with 
cargoes  varying  in  value  from  £25,000,000  to 
£70,000,000.  But  of  the  total  imports  ( worth  nearlv 
£36,000,000  in  1891,  in  ISg-l  hardly  £14,000,000) 
only  a  fraction — say  £800,000 — is  actually  retained 
ill  the  island  ;  the  rest  is  re-exported. 

The  Hyperion  or  Og)jr;in  of  Homer  is  sometimes 
identified  with  INIalta.  Tlie  Phucnicians  colonised 
the  island  at  a  very  early  date,  more  than  1000 
years  before  the  birth  of  Christ.  Before  they 
were  distiirlied  in  their  possession  by  the  (ireeks, 
about  700  B.C.,  they  had  developed  considerable 
commerce.  The  Greeks,  who  called  the  island 
MrAit((,  were  driven  out  by  the  Carthaginians  about 
480  B.C.  As  early  as  the  first  Punic  war  Malta 
was  plundered  by  the  Romans,  but  did  not  come 
definitively  into  their  hands  until  "216  B.C.  In  those 
early  times  Malta  was  renowned  for  its  manufac- 
tured cotton,  its  roses,  and  its  honey ;  and  its 
Komaii  temples  and  villas  boasted  excellent  works 


of  art  and  other  indications  of  great  luxury.  On 
the  division  of  the  Roman  world  (395)  Malta  fol- 
lowed tlie  fortunes  of  the  eastern  emjiire.  During 
the  5tli  century  it  fell  successively  under  the 
^'andals  and  the  Goths ;  and  though  in  533  Belis- 
arius  recovered  it  for  the  Byzantine  empire,  its  pro- 
sperity departed,  and  its  ci\ilisation  almost  van- 
ished amid  constant  local  feuds.  In  870  the  Arabs 
destroyed  the  Greek  power  in  Malta,  and  fortified 
the  harbour.  Count  Roger  of  Sicily  drove  out  the 
Arabs  in  1090.  As  a  fief  of  Sicily,  Malta  ])assed, 
under  a  marriage-contract,  to  the  Emperor  Henry 
YI.  (1194).  In  1282  the  island  was  cimquered  l>y 
Pedro  of  Aragon,  and,  so  coming  eventually  into 
the  hands  of  Charles  V.,  was  given  by  him,  along 
with  Ciozo  and  Tripoli,  in  perpetual  sovereignty  to 
the  Knights  of  the  Order  of  St  .John  of  Jerusalem 
(1530).  The  Knights  raised  the  stupendous  forti- 
fications which  renileied  Malta  so  powerful,  and 
spent  much  wealth  in  licautifying  the  island. 
To  revenge  their  attacks  on  the  Barbary  pirates, 
Sultan  Solyman  sent  in  1565  a  very  powerful 
fleet,  strengthened  by  the  galleys  of  Dragut  of 
Tri])oli,  against  the  forts.  Valetta  was  founded 
in  the  following  year,  after  the  Turkish  attack, 
which  lasted  three  months,  hail  been  beaten 
ofl"  (see  V.\LETTA).  In  1571  the  Maltese  fol- 
lowers of  the  Knights  of  St  John  bella^ed  cour- 
ageously at  the  battle  of  Lepanto.  The  Hospit- 
allens  continued  in  possession  of  Malt.a  until  1798, 
when  they  surrendered  their  fortresses  to  the 
French.  The  Maltese,  however,  rose  in  a  few 
months  against  their  new  masters,  who  treated 
them  ill,  and  after  a  siege  of  two  years,  during 
which  they  were  assisted  by  Neapolitan  and 
British  forces,  they  forced  the  French  to  capitu- 
late to  the  English  general  Pigot.  The  treaty  of 
Amiens  stipulated  tliat  Malta  should  be  restored 
to  the  Kniglits  of  St  John  ;  but  the  Maltese  pro- 
tested against  such  an  arrangement,  and  preferred 
the  government  of  (Jreat  Britain.  The  British 
government  consequently  refused  to  give  up  the 
island,  and  Napoleon  made  the  refusal  one  of  his 
grounds  for  the  resumption  of  hostilities.  The 
Congress  of  Vienna  ( 1814)  finally  recognised  Malta 
as  a  British  dependency. 

See  historical  works  on  Malta  by  Micge  (1840),  Eton 
( 1802 ),  Avales  ( 1830 1,  Tullack  ( 1861 ),  ■\Viiiterberg  ( 1879 ) ; 
Caruana's  licports  on  rhwnician  and  Jinman  Antiquities 
in  Malta  (18S1-S2);  James  Smith,  Voiimie  and  Ship- 
iii-eck  of  St  Paul  (1806);  .sir  K.  L.  Playfair,  Mediter- 
ranean (1890),  in  Murray's  Guidebook  series;  and  John 
Munay's  valuable  paper  in  Scut.  Geoy.  Moai.  ( 1890). 

llalta,  KnIGHT.S  of.      See  HoSriTALLEES. 


END    UK    TOL.    YI. 


Edmburj^h : 
Printed  by  W.  &  R.  Chambers,  Limited. 


^i^m^WNlf 


I 

^  i 

w