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J. Hill Burton.
KeaN; KEHBLE
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Hint, Leigh
F. Hi.NDES Groome.
Keble
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H[:spAND .\ND ■Wife..
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Kent; Lincoln
J. C. Groome.
HvnnODTNASflCS
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Kentucky
Professor Frank B. Greene.
Hydrogen
Dr L. Dobbin.
Kepler
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Hydrophobia
M. Pasteuk & I'rol'. J. A. Thomson.
Khiva; Kandahar,.
Professor Arminius Vambi5p.y
Hygiene.
Dr Andrew Wilson.
KiNGSLEY
Ulick Burke.
Hymn
Rev. John Julian,
Knox
P. Hume Brown, LL.D.
Hypnotism.
Dr R. W. Felkin.
Koran.
Rev. John Milne.
Ibsen : Lessing
J. T. Bealbt.
KuFic Coins
.Stanley Lane-Poole.
Iceland
Ji5n a. HjALTALfs.
Lace; Leather
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Idaho; Indian Teb
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Professor James Geikie.
Lafontaine
Igneous Rocks, &c...
Lake-dwellings
Joseph Anderson, LL.D.
Illegitimacy
Benjamin Taylor.
Lamb, Charles
Canon Ainger.
Illinois. .1
Colonel H. G. REEVEa.
Lamps
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Illumination; Indes
Henry B. Wheatlev.
Lancashire
C. Fairbairn.
Illustration
J. R. Pairman.
Land Laws
J. Boyd-Kinnear.
Immigration
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Rev. W. Cooke RnssELL.
SirRlCHARDTEMPLE,G.C.S.I.,D.C.L.
George J. Lasgdale.
Sir John Murray.
Lao-tsze
Lassalle
India
Indi.ana
Indian Ocean
Leaf.
Professor Patrick Ged;:S3.
Lee, General
N. B. Webster.
Indh-bubber
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John A. Cleugh.
Leeds..
Leighton ; Letters..
Insanity
Dr T. S. Clooston.
Leipzig
Findlay MuiRHEAa
Canon Isaac Tavlcr,
Professor J. A. Thomson.
Leonardo da Vinci..
Le Sage; Llop.entb...
J. M. Gray.
Insects & I. Plants..
John Ormsbv.
Insurance
George Kino, F.S.A.
Leyden, John
Robert Cochrane.
International Law..
Iowa.
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F. W. Hobsfield.
Justin M'Carthv, M.P. ; Prof. Mac-
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T G Law LL D.
Lifeboat
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Light; Lenses
Dr Alfred Daniell.
Iron.
W. Mattieu Williams.
F. H. Underwood, LL.D.
Lighthouse
Lightning
Irving, Washington.
R. T. Omond.
Isaiah
Prof. George Ad.am Smith.
Hugh Robert Mill, D.Sc.
Lincoln, Abraham...
Lion; Leopard
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F. E. Beddard, F.R.S.
Isocrates; Is^us
P. B. Jevons.
Liquor Laws
Sir Charles Wentworth Dilke.
Italy (Geog. & Hist.)
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W. DUNDAS WALKEIt
Signora Cantagalli.
Liszt
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J. R. Pairman.
■Jackson, Ai-:dhsw.
Professor J. P. LAMBERi^:>y.
Liturgy; Lit.a:;y
Marquis of Bute.
James I
John Russell.
Liver
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Japan
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Thomas Ellison.
Java
Livingstone
Professor W. G. Blaikie, D.D.
JEFFER.SON, Thomas..
Professor X. B. WEESTE3.
Lloyds
Col. Henry Montague Hozier.
Jerrold, Douglas
Walter Jerrold.
Locke
Professor A. Campbell Fraser.
Jerusalem
Sir Walter Besant.
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Jest-books ; Jesters.
■W. A. Cloi-ston.
London
Rev. W. J. Loi-TiE.
Jesus Chbist
Dean Farrar.
London University..
T. Lc 51. Douse.
Jews
Emm. Dectsch and Isidore Ha2=i-.
Longfellow; Lowell
F. H. Underwood, LL.D.
Louisiana
Joseph A. Breacx.
Job
Rev. Professor A. B. Davidson.
Luther.
Principal TULLOCH.
John's Gospel
Rev. J. Sutherland Blac k.
Lyly, .John
A. H. BULLES.
JoHN.sON, Andrew.....
Hon. Frederick W. Sevvaku.
Lytton, Bulwep.
F. HiNDES Groome.
Johnson, Samuel
Professor Hales.
Macaulay
William Wallace.
JUNIU.S
W. Fraser Rae.
Machiavelli
Signora Cantagalli.
Jury; Law
Thomas Raleigh.
Machine Gun
Lieut.-Col. H. D. B. Dunlcp.
Justice of Peace
A. Wood Renton.
Madagascar
Rev. James Sibree.
.luTE; Lead; Linen..
Professor Henry Goudy.
Alexander Galletly.
Madras
Professor SIichie Smith.
Magnetism
Dr Alfred Daniell.
JUVE.VAL; Lucan
Dr J. P. Steele.
,1 Terrestrial
Professor Cargill G. Knott.
Kansas
Noble L. Prentis.
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Dr Charles W. Greene.
Kant...
JAMts Hutchison Stirling, LL.D.
g to tender their thanks, for revi
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MAPS FOE VOL. VI.
PAGE
INDIA 98
IRELAND 198
ITALY 240
ITALIA ANTIQUA 241
CHAMBERS'S
Encyclopaedia
A DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSAL KNOWLEDGE
llinber. the estuary of the
livers Oiise and Trent (and so
of the Dove. Derwent, Wharfe,
i*v:c. ), runs east and then south-
east for a length of 38 miles,
sejiaratinj; tlie counties of York
and Lincoln, with a breadth
varying from 1 to 7 miles. Its
drainage basin, with an area of
9770 miles, is the largest in England ; and by
means of navigable streams and canals the Humber
is connected acros.s England with the Mersey, the
Severn, and the Thames. The navigation is
obstructed, especially on the north side, by banks
and shoals. The Humber was the southern
boundary of the ancient kingdom of Northumbria
in the wider sense, and of Deira when Xorthumbria
was di\ ided into Bernicia and Deira ; Mercia lay
.south of the estuary. By way of the Humber
Danes and Northmen made many terrible incur-
sions into England, notably in 8(J7, 101.3, 1066, and
1069. The great port on the Humber was anciently
Kavenser or Kavenspur, just inside fSpum Head.
The i)rocess of erosion by the sea was already at
Work when Henry Bolingbroke landeil here in
1399 ; soon after the place wa.s \\ holly covered by
the encroaching waters, and Hull became the port
on the north shore, as (jrimsby now is on the south.
See The Bivrrs iif E-iujUnitl (f.-ussell, 1889), and
Boyle's Lost Tuwm of the Itimihei- ( 1889).
lIllllllK'rt. See I'l'.VLY.
Hiiiuble-bec. See Bee.
Illiniboldt. a river of Nevada, rises in the NE.
part of ihi! stale, and Hows \VS\V. to Humboldt
Sink, a lake over 40 miles in circumference, which
ha.M no outlet. Length, nearly .350 miles. The river,
which is unnavig.able even for canoes, is strongly
impregnated with alkaline matter. The region
through which it Hows is b.arren, and the banks
are destitute of trees or shrubs. The Central
I'acific Uailroad runs througli the valley of the
Humboldt.
261
Humboldt, Friedrich Heinrich Alex-
ander, Bari.ix vox, one of the greatest of natur-
alists, was born at Berlin, 14th September 1769.
His father, whom he lost when he was not quite
ten years of age, was chamlierlain to the king of
Prussia. He studied at the universities of Frank-
fort on-the-Oder, Berlin, and Gottingen ; and
during his residence at Gottingen (^89-90) he
made those visits of scientitic e.xploration, the fruit
of which was his first independent work, a treatise
on the basalts of the Khine. In the spring and
summer of 1790 he made a tour through Belgium,
Holland, England, and France. In June 1791 he
entered the Mining Academy at Freiberg, where
he enjoyed the instructions of Werner. His eight
months' residence here led to the publication of his
Flora Siibterrancd Friberf/eiisis (1793). He was
afterwards appointed to an office in the mining
dep.artment, and spent some years in this capacity,
chieHy at the Fiohtelgebirge, in I'pper Franconia.
His researches here resulted in a work on the
irritability of the muscular and nervous fibres of
animals (1799). The desire of visiting tropical
countries, however, led him to resign his office,
and devote himself entirely to the study of nature.
He sjienl three months at Jena, where he was the
intimate associate of (ioetheand Schiller. At Paris
he contracteil a friendshiji with Aiine Bonpland,
afterwards his companion in many and various
scenes. Some time after he obtained ])ermission
from the Spanish government to visit all the
Si)anish settlements in. America and the Indian
Ocean. He sailed from Coninna along with Bon-
pland on .")th .lune 1799. They visited Teneritl'e,
<ascende<l the Peak, .and made many scientific ob.ser-
vations. On Kith .Inly they arrived at Cuniana in
South America, ami in the course of live years
explored a vast extent of territory in what are now
Venezuela, Colombia. Ecnailor. and Peru, as well
a-s in Me.\ico, which they crossed from west to ea.st.
In Havana Humboldt prepared materials after-
wards emjdoyed in his Jissiii I'lilitiqiie siir VIsle dc
Cuba ( 182()). At Paris he occupied himself in the
HUMBOLDT
Hrrangement of his collections and manuscripts,
and jointly with Gay-Lussac made experiments on
the chemical constitution of the atmosi>liere. Hav-
ing visited Italy, and returned to Berlin, he accom-
panied Prince Wilheliii of Prussia in 1807 on a
political mission to Fiance, and obtained leave
from the government of his own country to remain
there for tlie publication of his travels, for which
the disturbed state of Germany at that time did
not allow proper opportunity. He continued to
reside in Paris till 1827. The wish of the king that
he should reside in his native country was gratified
in 1827, when he proceeded to Berlin, and there,
in the winter of 1827-28, he gave lectures on the
Cosmos, or physical universe.
In 1829 Humboldt again Ijecame a traveller, the
Emperor Nicholas then sending out a well-appointed
expedition to the north of Asia, to explore the
Ural and Altai Mountains, Chinese Dzungaiia,
and the Caspian Sea. In this expedition Huml>oldt
was accompanied by his two friends Ehrenlterg
and Rose. Its princiiial results were the scientific
examination of the beds which produce gold and
platina, the disco\ery of diamonds in an extra-
tropical region, the astronomical determination of
positions, magnetic observations, and geological
and botanical collections. Tlie whole journey
occupied nine months, and extended to 2.320 miles,
and is described in a work by Rose (2 vols.
1837-42) and in Humboldt's yl.wV" 0'«f/r(/t' (3 vols.
184.3). The political chang^es of the year 1830 led
to Humboldt's employment in political services ; he
was cliosen by the king of Prussia to carry to Paris
his recognition of Louis-Philippe, and during the
ensuing twelve years was fi'eq\iently sent to Paris
to reside for four or five months. He accom|)anied
the king of Prussia also in visits to England,
Denmark, &c. During tins time he published his
Exaiiwn Critique c/c In Oiogi'ap/tie ilu Nuiivcait
Continent (5 vols. 1835-38). Humboldt spent the
later years of his long life at Berlin, where he
occupied a high position at the Prussian court.
His last great work. Cosmos (4 vols. 1845-58),
has been iinanimously recognised as one of the
greatest .scientific works ever published, exhibiting
in most lucid arrangement many of the principal
facts of the physical sciences and their relations
to each other. Tlie style, however, is somewhat
heavy, and, seen from our present standjioint, tlie
author's \iews are in many resjiects defective. The
germ of the work was the author's lectuies in Berlin
in 1828, themselves partially based on \\\% Ansichten
der Natnr ( 1808). Humlioldt died in his ninetieth
year. May (J. 1 850.
It is not easy to estimate the amount of Hum-
boldt's contriltutions to science. The geography of
Spanisli-America was most imperfectly known ]ire-
vious to his travels there, during which he astio-
nomically deternuned nmre than 700 positions, and
he liestowcd much la1>our on the preparation of the
ma]is in whicli his discoveries were exhiljited. His
barometrical o1)servations were likewise very num-
erous, as well as his ob.servalions an all points con-
nected witli meteorology. To him we are indebted
for the most important generalisations concerning
magnetism and also climate. He olitained dis-
tinction also by his laliours in the determination of
the magnetic eiiuator, and liy his observations on
electrical eels, and on the respiration of fishes and
young crocodiles. The editing and jireiiaring of
the great work of the American journey occujiied
twenty years of his life ; ami in his work he had
the assistance of many of the most eminent
.scientists of the time — Cuvier, Latreille, (Jay-
lyiissac, Thenar<l, \c. — as well as the most distin-
guished artists and engravers. There is but one
complete edition of i\\e oj)iis maejnnm (1807-17), in
30 vols. (20 folio and 10 quarto) ; the so-called small
edition being but excerpts. The title of the whole is
Voyages aiix Itcgions £qiii)ioxiales du Noiircnii Con-
tinent, fait en 1799-1S04 par Alexandre de Hum-
boldt et Ainu' lionpland, redigC par Alexandre de
Hinnljoldt : and it falls into six sections, some of
which and their parts are quoteil as separate works
{licl(ttion Historitjue, Ohsrr rat ions de Zoologie,
Observations Astronomiqites, l'/ii/si<ji(c ginerale et
Geologie, Plantes fjoiiinoxiales, witli atlases, essays,
<.*i.c. ). Humboldt is unquestionably one of the
great figures of the century, and in private life was
I remarkable for benevolence and kindliness, while
his most conspicuous defect was vanity.
I See the great biographical work, edited by ]Srulii)S,
I Alexander von Hnmboldt : cine irissenscltaftlichc liio-
(iraphie {1S7'2 ; Eug. trans. 1S73); and Lord Houghton's
Monoijraiilts (1873). His correspondence witii many of
' the most eminent men of the time has been published in
many separate woi'ks — thus, tliat with Varnliagen (lytJO),
with Von Raunier ( ISdf I. with Goethe (187(5). with
1 Campe (1877), with liis brotlier Wilhelm (1880).
Humboldt. Kari, Wilhelm vox, the elder
brotlier of the preceding, eminent as a statesman
and for hi> works on philology, a-stlietics, .md
I general literature, was born at Potsdam. 22d .Iiine
1767, and educated at Berlin, Fiankfort-on-the-
Oder, and Giittingen. He eagerly studied antiqui-
ties, a'.sthetics, and the Kantian philo.sophy, as well
as law, to which he profes.sedly devoted liinv-elf.
After travelling in Germany, France, and Switzer-
land, he acquired the rank of counsellor of legation,
but showed little inclination for official employ-
ment. In 1791 be mariied, and for some years
resided cliietly on his wife's estate in Thuringia,
and afterwards in ,Jena, associating most intimately
with Schiller, and devoting himself to poetry and
other literary and scientific pursuits. A \aluable
memorial of his friendshiji with Schiller is the cor-
lespondence between them. F'rom 1797 to 1799
Humboldt resided jiartly in Paris and jiartly in
Spain, and in 1801 became Prussian resident at
Rome, where he remained for a number of years in
this capacity, and in that of minister-plenipoten-
tiary, a most generous patron of young artists and
men of science. From Rome lie returned to his
native ccmntry to fill the high idaceof first minister
of Public Instruction. The Berlin university owed
its existence to him. In 1810 he went to \'ienna
as minister-plenipotentiary, and from this time he
took part in all the most important political afiairs
in which his country was concerned. .After 1819
he resided chiefly at Tegel, where he laid out line
pleasure-grounds, and formed a mdile collection of
sculptures bv the greatest masters. He died 8th
April 1835.
His earliest literary works were collected by him-
self under the title of '.Esthetic Essays' [yEsthe-
tiselie Vcrsnehc, 1799). His 'Collected Works'
ajipeared in 7 vols. (1841.52). Humboldt devoted
himself with the greatest assiduity to the study of
philology, and was the first to make the >tudy of
the Ba.sque tongue a .scientific pursuit. He also
spent much labour on tlie languages of the East,
vari(Mis questions connected with (uicntal liteia-
tnre, and the languages of the South Sea Islands.
One of his most important works is on the Kawi
language in .lava (3 vols. 183()-40), ].ubli>hed after
his death by Edward Muschmann ; the introduction
to this, On the A'ariety of Structure in Human
Speech, and his reflections (Ui the influence thereof
on the intellectual piogrc-s of mankind, mark a
new era in the science of iiliilology. Letters to a
Female Friend (1847: Eng. trans. 1849) exhibit
his character in a most jpure and amiable light.
See the admirable bi()gia|iliy by llaym ( 18,5(>), and
his correspondence with Schiller (1830; new ed.
1876), Goethe (1876), Kdrner (1879), -iind his
brother Alexander ( 1880).
HUME
Hnuie. David, plulosoplier and liistoiian, was
born at Eilinbuigli on the ietli of April 1711 (o.s. ).
His father was the lainl or proiirietor of tlie estate
of Xinewells, in Berwickshire, Imt David, ln'ingtlie
younger son, had to make his own fortune with no
other assistance than an education and the inlluence
of his respectable family. He wxs educated at
home and at the university of Ediubnrgh. His
father desij;ned law as his profession, and he sub-
mitted to the initial steps of the proper practical
training, but it was not a pursuit to his liking.
De.serting it, he made e.\periment of a mercantile
life in Bristol ; but commerce was not more con-
genial to him tlian jurisprudence, and he gave it a
very short trial. He now became a student, devot-
ing himself to books with no settled practical object
before him. He has recorded his suH'erings at this
time from despondency and dejiression of spirits,
caused apparently l>y the eti'ects of monotonous
study. At twenty-three years of age he went
to France and lived some time in La Fleche,
where he describes himself ;vs wandering about in
solitude, and dreaming the dream of his philosophy.
In 1739 he published the first ami second l)ook of his
Treatise on Human Xature — the germ of his philo-
sophy, and still perhaps the best exposition of it,
since it has there a freshness and decision approach-
ing to paradox, much modified in his later works.
Although the dawn of a new era in philosophy,
this book was little noticed ; in his own words,
'it fell dead-born from the press.' It «as a work
of demolition. By separating the impre-ssions
or ideas created on the thinking nund by an
external world from the absolute e.xistence of that
world itself he showed that almost everything
concerning the latter was taken for granted, and he
demaniled proof of its existence of a kind not yet
atl'orded. It was thus that he set a whole army of
philosophers at work, either to refute what he had
said, or seriously to till up the blanks which he
discovered : thus he gave the original im]iulse both
to the Scottish school of philosophy — Keid, and the
rest — and to Kant's speculations. In 1741 and 1742
he published two small \olumes called Essays
Moral and Politieal : they were marked by learn-
ing and thought, and elegantly written, but are
not among the more remarkable of his works.
He felt Iceenly at this time the want of some hxed
lucrative pui-suit, and his longing for independence
was the cause of a sad interruption to his studious
and philosophical pursuits. He wa-s induced to
become the companion or giiardian of an insane
nobleman, and had to mix with the jealousies and
mercenary objects of those who naturally gather
round such a centre. In 1747 he obtained a rather
more congenial appointment as secretary to ( ieneral
St Clair, whom he accompanied in the expedition
to the coast of France and the attack on Port
L'Orient, the depot of the French Eivst India Com-
pany : this atl'air had no impmtant results, but it
gave Hume a notion of actual warfare. Next year
he accompanied the general in a diplomatic mLssi(m
to France, and ;vs he travelled he took notes of his
impressions of Holland, Germany, and Italy, which
are published in his Life and t'orns/iondenre.
In 1751 he published his In'inirti into the Prin-
ciples of Morals, a work of great originality, and
one of the clearest expositions of the leading prin-
ciples of what is termed the utilitarian system. .\t
the same time he intended to publish his Diulmiues
roneerninq Natural Iteiigion ; but his friends,
alarmed by the .sceptical spirit pervading them,
prevailed on him to lay them aside, and they were
not nuule ])ublic until after his death. In his
thirty-lifth vear he had unsuicessfullv compete<l
for the chair of .Moral Philosophy in Kdinburgh,
and at this period we find him unsuccessful in an
attempt to obtain the chair of Logic in Glasgow.
Next year, in 1752, appeared his Political Dis-
courses. Here, again, he made an era in literature,
for in this little work he announced those principles
of political economy, compreheniling the doctrine of
free trade, which it fell to his friend .\ilam Smith
more fully and comprehensively to develop. He
was appointed at this time keeper of the .\dvocates'
Library, with a very small salary, which he devoted
to a charitable purpose. It was here that, sur-
rounded with books, he formed the design of
writing the history of England. In 1754 he issued
a ijuarto \t)lume of the Ilistonj of tin' Stuarts, eon-
taininij the lieigns of James 1. and Charles I., and
presently completed this porti(m of the work in a
second volume, bringing it down to the Revolution.
The second volume attracted more notice than the
first had done. He then went backwards through
the House of Tudor, and completed tiie work from
the Roman period downwards in 1762. While so
employed he published Four Dissertations: the
Natural History of Religion : of the Passions ; of
Tragedy: of the Standard of Taste (1757). Two
other dissertations, intended to accompany these,
were cancelletl by him after they were jirinted —
they are On Suicide and The Immortalily if the
Soul, and were subsequently printed in his works.
In 1763 he went to France as secretary to Lord
Hertford's embassy : here he was in his element,
and found fame at last. He became familiar with
the brilliant wits and savants of the Parisian
circle — with Turgot, D'Alembert, Helvetius, Hol-
bach, Diderot, BuH'on, Malesherbes, Crebillon,
and the rest, as well as with the hardly less
distinguished women, De Boutflers, Du Dett'and,
and L'Espinasse. His sojourn in Paris was
unfortunate in bringing him into intimacy with
the restless, vain, and self-tormenting Rou.sseau,
who, after experiencing much sulistantial kindness
from Hume, got suspicious, and forced him into a
memorable nuarrel. After his return home, in
1766, he accepted the responsible office of L'nder-
secretary of State for the Home Department. In
his own Life he says : ' I returned to Edinburgh in
1769 very o])ulent (for I possessed a revenue of
£1000 a year), healthy, and, though somewhat
stricken in years, with the prospect of enjoying
long my ease, and of seeing the increase of my
reputation.' His health gave way in 1774, and he
died at Edinburgh, 25th August 1776.
Hume is the outcome of the empirical philosophy of
Locke. His philosophical writings do not form a system,
but discuss many of the sahent ideas of pliilosophy,
mainly in a sceptical or destructive manner. Ideas are
but weakened copies of ' impressions ' of the senses, outer
or inner ; mind is a succession of isolated impressions and
ideas ; the idea of cause depends on the habit of mind
which expects the event that usually follows on another,
and there is no necessary connection between cause and
effect. Hume's History, which ^dves Inm a high rank
among English hist<»rical authors, was not remarkable
for historic impartiality (in a later etlition more tlian a
hundred alterations on the reigns of the drst two Stuarts
were made by Hume hunself, and all to the Tory side),
and has been largely superseded by more modern works ;
but new editions, with or without the contimtatiun l>y
Smollett, still appear ; Dr Brewer's StuUmt's Hume
(1858) being a recognised text-book. Hume's position
in relation to his predecessors and successors is given
imder Berkeley ; the article C.vus.^litv is largely con-
cerned with the discussion of his views. For the hitiiiciice
of Hume's scepticism in awaking Kant from his dogniatic
slumber, see K.\nt. The most important edition of
Hume's works is that by T. H. Green and T. H. (Jrose
(4 vols. 1S74). with introduction and exhaustive analysis
of Hume's philosophy. The Life and Corrtsitondi nee (tf
Darid Huiiii: was published by J. Hill liurtioi (2 vols.
1846); Dr G. Birkbeck Hill edited Litttm of Dniid
Hum*: to WiUiam Strahan, with copious and valuaMe
notes, in 1889. For his theological position, and his rela-
tion to Edinburgh society, complicated by his ' infidelity,"
HUME
HUMMING-BIRD
see Leslie Steplien's EiwUsh Thought in the Eirihleenth
Ctidurii (1876), tlie aiitobiograpliy of 'Jupiter Carlyle,
&c There are short monographs by Prof. Huxley (' Eng-
lish Men of Letters' series, 1«79), Prof. Knight ('Philo-
sophical Classics' series, 1880), and Prof. Calderwood
('Famous Scots' series, 1898); and German works by
Jodl (187'2), E. Pfleiderer (1874), and Gizycki (1878).
Hllllie. JOSKPH, politician, was liorn 2'2d January
1777, at Montrose. He studied luediciue at Edin-
burgh, anil in 1797 liecanie assistant-suij;eon in the
service of the East India Company. He ajiplied
himself to the acquisition of tlie native languages,
and during the Mahratta war, from 180'2 to 1807,
tilled some half-dozen important offices, chief
amongst whicli were those of interpreter and com-
missary-general. On the conclusion of peace he
returned to England in 1S08, his fortune made.
Becoming imbued witli the political philosophy of
James Mill and Bentham, he gained admission
to parliament, sitting as member for Weymouth,
Aberdeen, Middlesex, Kilkenny, and ;Montrose
successively, this last from IS4'2 to liis deatli. which
occurred oil 20th February 1855. 'An uncompro-
mising honesty, an instinctive hatred of abuses, an
innate love of liberty, and an uuHinching will to
e.\tend its benefits to others^tliese, and the close
experience of men derived liy himself during the
earlier part of his life, rendered Mr Hume one of
the most powerful, and at the same time one of tlie
most practical, of reformers in a reforming age.'
Amongst tlie schemes and reforms he advocated
may be enumerated the establishment of savings-
banks, freedom of trade with India, aliolition ot
flogging in the army, of naval impressment, and of
imprisminient for debt, repeal of the act prohibiting
export of machinery, and of that preventing work-
men from going "abroad, reduction of election
expenses, abrogation of duties on paper, and
removal of aViuses of all and sundry kinds what-
soever. He was also chief agent in discovering
the treasonable designs of the Orange lodges, whicli
proposed to make the Duke of Cumherlaud king on
the decease of William IV.
Hume, P.VTRICK ( 1641-1724), an eminent states-
man and covenanter, Lord Cliancellor of Scotland,
who in 1690 was created Lord Polwarth, and in
1697 Earl of Marchmont. See B.\illie (Lady
Grizel).
Humeral, an oldong scarf worn by priests and
snb-deacons round their shoulders at certain parts
of tlie service of the Mass and of Benediction, the
paten, pyx, or monstrance being also wrapped in
it (so as' to prevent contact at those times with
naked liands).
Hummel. Joh.vxn Nepomuk, pianist and
innsical composer, was born at Presburg, 14th
Noveiiilier 1778. He first studied under Mozart,
and tlien, after a seven years' concert tour in
Germany, Denmark, England, and Holland, he
returned to Vienna to complete his musical educa-
tion under Albrechtsberger and Salieri. From
1803 to 1811 lie lield the post of musical director to
l>rince Esterliazy ; and in 1816 be filled a similar
position at Stuttgart, but movc.l four years later to
Weimar, where he died, October 17, 1837. In the
course of several musical tours be delighteil the
capitals of Europe with bis pianoforte playing and
his clever improvisations on that instrument. Of
liis innsical compositions the only ones which have
value at the present day are bis pianoforte works.
Hlimmins-bird {Tror/,;/ii.s-), a Linncan genus
of birds, now constituting a family, Trochilidie.
The nearest relations of the humming-birds are the
Swifts (f|.v.); that they form together with the
swift one large grou]) is clear from their very close
resemblances in anatomical structure. Nitzsch,
Huxley, Garrod, and others who have investigated
the osteology, ninscular anatomy, and other points
concur in tliis opiiiicui as to the relationship of the
family ; they resemble in their habit and in brilliancy
of idumage'the Snnbirds (q.v.), which replace them
in the eastern tropical regions. The dazzling brilli-
ancy of humming-birds, the extreme rapidity with
which they dart through the air, their hovering
above the ilowcrs from which they obtain their food,
with humming .sound of wings, which move so
quickly as to be indistinctly visible, or ' like a mist,'
have attracted universal admiration since the first
discovery of America. The diminutive size of
almost all of them — some of them being the smallest
of birds, and if stripped of their feathers not larger
than a humblp-bee — lias still further contributed to
render them objects of interest, whilst the plumage
of the ditlerent species exhibits an almost endless
variety of colours. Some species possess ' the most
gorgeously brilliant metallic hues known among
created things ; ' some on the otlier hand are sombre
i(, Sword -bill Huiiiiiiing - bird (Dociiiiustcx tnsifer);
h, ■Wliite-booted Kacket-tail ( .S7c,'/«««rHS UnderKoodi);
c, c\ male and female Tufted Coquette (Lophornis
onuita ).
in hue. Humming-birds are entirely confined to the
American continent and West Indies, where there
are about 1'20 genera, containing over 400 species ;
no less than 15 species occur in North America.
Of the South American forms the majority inhabit
the liotter regions, hut some are confined to elevated
mountain-tracts even above the snow-line.
Humming-birds have slender bills, which are also
generally long, and in some extremely so, the form
of the bill exhibiting a womlerful adaptation to the
kind of flowers from which tlic liird obtains its food
^straight in some, curved in others, Humming-
birds do not, as was long sup|iosed, feed on honey
alone, but to a considerable extent, and some or
them jierhaps chiefly, on insects, not rejecting
s]iidcrs, whilst they often snatch away the iii.sects
which have become" entangled in spiders' webs. Tlie
toii"iie is verv long, capable of being darted out to
a considerable length : tlie bone of the tongue (liyoid
bone) lieing much elongated, ami its branches jias.s-
ing round the back of the skull to the forehead,
where they meet in a point before the line of the
eyes. Tlie tongue itself consists of two hollow
filaments, joined together for the greater part of
their length, and separated at the tip ; thestrncture
of the tongue and livoid bones is curiously like
that of tluT Woodpei-kers (ip v.) and the sun-birds
already referred to : this affords an illustration of
the fact that similar requirements often cause
HUMMING-BIRD MOTH
HUNGARY
development of similar structures in animals other-
wise distinct. Tlie \vinp< of huiiimini;-l)irds are
verylonf,' and iiowcrfiil, like tliose cif the swifts, tlie
lenj;tli lieinj; iiartioiilarlv marked in tliat iiortioii of
the winj; whioli oorresponds to the hand of mammals;
hence the name Macrochires which is ajiplied to the
group. Humnun>,'-l)iids construct their nests with
nice art, generally of lichens and of lihrous suh-
stances, such as cotton. They do not lav more
than two eggs. They are very liolil in clefence of
their nests and young, and are said to strike fear-
lessly with their needle-like hills at the eyes of hirds
of i>rey, which they far surpass in agility and raiudity
of Hight. They are very easily tamed and rendered
fandtiar, and have been known to return again in
spring, after a winter nngratiou to a warmer climate,
to the window from which they hail been allowed to
escape. Attempts to keep tamed humuLing-birds
have generally failed ; and they have almost never
been brought safely across the Atlantic. Hum-
ming-bird skins were anciently used by the Mexi-
cans foi making pictures.
See Jolin Gould's magnificent Moiiofjmph on the Tro-
chilid(e (5 vols. 18^19)- Oould's collection of specimens
was bought for tlie Briti.sli Museum.
Hiiiiiiiiiiis^-bird illotli. See Hawk moth.
Hiiuioiii's, Humoral Pathology. -See
TEMPEIt.VMEXi', Hlrl'OCR.\rE,S.
Huiuperdinck, Exgelbert, composer, was
born at Siegl)urg, near Bonn, 1st SeiJtember 1S.")4;
and after studying music at C<dogne, Frankfort,
Munich, &c., and travels in France, Spain, and
Italy, taught in the conservatoriunis of Barcelona
and Cologne, anil was musical adviser to a publish-
ing hrm ill Mainz. Wagner summoned him to
a-ssist in the production of that master's only
symphony ; and it wa.s he w ho prepared anjl
coaclied the first cast of Parsifal at Baireuth
(1S82). He subsequently settled in Frankfort
(1890), and became famous as the author of the
phenomenally successful children's opera or musical
fairy play. Hansel mid (Irctel {\iif)i), which was
followed by Srhnecxritfchcii ('Tlie Snow Maiden')
and The Royal Chihlren.
Iliiiicliback. See Spinal Column.
lllllldrod. in Hlnglish law, an ancient sub-
division of counties, the name of which probably
arose from there being a hundred warrior.s, or per-
haps a hundred families, or ten tithings, in each
(see Feudalism ). In ancient times, if a crime was
committed, such as robbery, maiming of cattle,
Imrning of .stacks, &c. , the hundred had to make it
good. The old distinctions have, however, now less
sijjniticance. But the characteristic of a hundred is
still this, that it has a constable orbailiif, and when
any damage is done by rioters feloniously destroy-
ing property the owner has his remedy by suing the
hundred for the damage. In order to secure this
remedy the party or his servant must, within .seven
days, go before a justice, and engage to prosecute
the ott'endei-s, when aii]irehended. So. where there
is no hundred, the county, or city, or tow n is liable
in like manner. Execution is levied on the
trea.surer of the county. In the northern counties
a hundred w.is called a wapentake CS'orkshiie) or
a ward. See Riot, Cocntv.— The townships in
Delaware, U.S., are also called lliindreds. See
Professor (J. K. Howard's IiitroduHiun ti> the Local
Constitutional History of the U.S. ( lialtimore, 1889 ).
— The Hundred Days is a name often given to the
period between Napoleon's landing in France after
his escape from Kiba (1st March 181")) and the
battle of Waterloo ( 18tli June 1815). See Fkance,
Napoleon- I.
Hungary ( Hung. Marjyurorszdg, Ger. Ungam,
Lat. llunrjariu) is the eastern anil larger half of
the Austro-Hungariau monarchy, covering an area
of about 125, (M)0 si], m., between 44' 10' and 49' .S5'
N. lat., and lietween 14' '25' and '26- 25' E. long.
Comprising Hungary proper, Transylvania, Croatia
and Slavunia (nominally also l)almatia), and
Fiurae, it forms the realm of the crown of St
Stephen or Transleithania, which is a coequal
factor with Austria or CisliMtliania in the empire-
kingdom ruled over by the Hapsburg dyna.sty.
The two states form a union under one monarch
for military, diplomatic, and customs purposes,
l.mt otherwise retain their distinct independence of
each other. The form of its government as well
as its geographical, industrial, and statistical
features having been dealt with in the article
Austria, it now remains only to give an account
of the history, language, and literature of the
country, or its chief and ruling inhabitants, the
Magyars.
Histori/. — But little is known of the history of
the Hungarians previous to their appearance in
Europe in 884. They are generally believed to be
the de.scendants of the Scythians, and to have come
from regions about the Caspian Sea. They lirst
settled along the ^liddle Volga, but, having been
pressed westwards, they in 889 crossed the Car-
pathian Mountains under Almos, and under the
further leadership of his son iVrpad they conquered
the ancient Pannonia and Dacia of the Romans ;
and this, their new country, was in the year 1000
formed into a regular kingdom by Stephen. For
his merits in Christianising his people Stejihen
was afterwards created a saint, and recei\'ed from
Pope Sylvester II. the title of ' apostolic king '
and a crown, both of which have been worn l)y
all the kings of Hungary to the present day. The
Hungarians were at first an extremely warlike and
even savage tribe; and, not content with subduing
the various nationalities inhabiting the ancient
Roman inovinces, they made frequent expeditions
into Germany and Italy, destroying the early results
of Christian civilisation. All this, however, ceased
on, and even before, the accession of Stephen, who
turned his attention solely to the con.solidation of
Christianity and interior order and prosperity. He
laid the foundation of many institutions suiviv-
ing to the present day, such as the ecclesiastical
organisation, the archbishoprics and bishoprics, the
munici|ial and county councils, and even the
national council, which eventually developed into
the Diet of the States. Within two decades after
his death ( 1038) two attempts were made to over-
throw- Christianity, and to re-establish Paganism,
but only with very slight and temporary success.
I'nder I'iela I. ( lOO'l-OS). Ladislaus the Saint ( 1077-
95), and Coloman the Learned (1095-1114), the
country made very marked ]irogress. The reign of
Andrew II. is remarkalde on account of the nobles
having extorted from him in 1222 the ' Golden
Bull,' or Hungarian Magna Charta, the privileges
of which were in 12:{1 extended to the clergy and
lower iioliility. The ' (Jolden Bull ' conferred niany
personal and material advantages on the nobles,
and also contained a guarantee for the annual
convocation of the diet ; it conceded the right of
armed resistance to any illegal acts of the king.
During the reign of liela I\'; (1235 70) Hungary
was devastated by a terrible Mongol invasion. To
replace jiart of the ]iopulation cruelly ma.ssacred
by the Asiatic savages, Bela introduced German
colonists; hence the German-speaking communi-
ties in Hungary to the present day. By the death
of Andrew III. in 1301 the House of Arpad be-
came extinct, and the throne of Hungary oecame
an object of rivalry between various foreign poten-
tates. After many vici.ssitudes, Hungary wa.s
fortunate enough to lind a worthy king in the
person of Charles Robert of Anjou (1308-42),
HUNGARY
who did much tn i)lace his adopted cotintry on a
level with more civilised western nations. His
son, Louis the (yicat, made Hungary the most
powerful nation of the period in central Europe.
After the death of Ladislaus Posthumus (1457),
Matthias Corvinus, the son of Hunvady, tlie great
anti-Turkish hero and regent during tliat king's
minority, was elected king. Under his reign
Hungary attained to the pinnacle of fame, pros-
perity, civilisation, and power. He waged suc-
cessful wars against Podiehrad of Bohemia, and
got himself crowned king of Bohemia and Moravia.
He also defeated the Turks at Kenyermezo, and
reconquered tlie soutliern provinces held hy them.
In 1485 he even took Vienna and made it the
ca]iital of Ids country, which was at that time
more extended tlian ever before or after. But
Matthias was not only a great general ; he was
also a great legislator, a munihcent patron of
art and sciences, and a great judge. His impar-
tiality and love for the people were so generally
recognised tliat to tlie present day there lives in
Hungary the proverb : ' King Matthias is dead ;
there is no more justice.' Matthi.a.s having died
witliout legitimate heirs, the throne of Hungary
again became tlie object of (ierce struggles between
various pretendeis, and the country underwent
in consequence a period of rapid decay. Under
Vladislaus (1490-1516) Hungary was the scene of
a sanguinary peasant insurrection, known as the
Di'izsa revolt, which was ultimately siqipressed,
and led to a system of abject serfdom. Louis II. s
reign was still more disastrous. The Turks, under
Soliman the (Ireat, took advantage of the en-
feebled condition of the country, invaded it witli
a gigantic army, annihilated the Hungarian forces
at Mohacs, pillaged whole districts, including
Bulla with the world-famous Bililiotheca Corvina,
and carried oft' some 30,000 Hungarians as slaves.
Louis II. himself lost his life in or after the battle
of Moh;ics, and the Hungarian throne became
once more the prize of contention lietween two
claimants. One was John Ziijiolya, Woiwode
of Transylvania, whom one section of the nobles
proclaimed king, the other was Ferdinand of
Austria, brother-in-law of Louis II. Z:ipolya was
supported by the Turks, Ferdinand by the majority
of the Hungarian nobles. Eventually Zapolya
surrendered his claims to the whole kingdom,
merely retaining Transylvania and the "Trans-
tisian district of Hungary for life. Thus the
Hapsburgs obtained at length a final footing in
Hungary, and the country entered on a period of
endless sutl'ering and humiliations.
The successors of Ferdinand — viz. Maximilian,
Rudolph, Ferdinand 11., Ferdinand JII., and
Leopold I. — when they were not engaged with the
Turks, concentrated their energies on the sup-
pressiim of I'rotest.antism in Hungary. The I'ro-
testants won several victories over the Imperial-
ists, as in 1G04 (i under .Stephen Bocskay, in 1()'20-
21 under Bethlen (labor, in 1644 under George
Kakoczy, thus forcing the government to show
more toleration towanls the followers of the new
religion : but the kings being under Jesuit influ-
ences, all treat ii's and promises were broken on the
first oppcirtunily. Kspeiially ruinous was the long
reign of Leojiold 1. ( Ui.'iT 1705), who, with the
most merciless determination, use<l all means at
his disposal, as he himself siud, to 'impoverish,
enslave, anil recatholicise ' Hungary. Some of his
own highest otiice-liolders, although themselves
Catholics, so much resented his terrible treat-
ment of the Protestants that they began a con-
spiracy for the separation of Hungary from the
Hapsburg dominions ; but the plot having been
detected, the ringleaders were put to death. For
many years the Hcatfolds were at work in sus-
proved \ery success-
?d to the capture of
pected districts, and thousands of \ aliant families,
mostly Protestants, >\eie exterminated. A Pro-
testant rising, under fount Enierie Tiikiily, and
supported by Kara Mustaplia,
ful in 1683, and very nearly led to tlie capl
Vienna and tlie utter destruction of Austria; but
at the host moment John Sobieski, king of Poland,
saved Vienna and the Hapsburgs. After the
retreat of the Turks from ^'ienna they graduallj'
lost their hold on Hungan-.
Leopold died in 1705 amidst the anxieties en-
tailed upon him by another Hungarian rising, led
by a seeiind Francis Baki'iezy, wliieh did not end
before 1711. Leo]iolil succeeded in causing the diet
to declare the tlirone hereditary in the House of
Hapsburg, and Charles VI. ( 171 l-40)received their
adhesion to the Pragmatic Sanction, securing
the right of succession in the female line. Never-
theless, his daughter ALaria Theresa's claim
to the throne was called in iiuestion by several
German rulers and by Fraiii'e, her dominions were
invaded, and she saved them and herself only
through the magnanimous self-sacrilice of the
Hungarians. She was the first Hapsburg ruler
who showed herself grateful to the Hungarians,
and who proved herself to understand the duties of
a sovereign. She made sexeral concessions to the
Protestants, improved the condition of the peasants,
and established schools. Her son and successor,
Joseph 11. (1780-90), does imt strictly figure among
Hungarian kings, as he had never himself been
crowned in Hungary, but carried on his reign in
violation of the Hungarian constitution as an auto-
cratic emperor. He was an enlightened reformer,
but did not reckon with national feelings, class
idiosyncrasies, interests, and ]iiejndices ; he at-
tempted to make Hungary ]iarl of a vast jian-
(iermanic bureaucracy ; and many of his measures
fostered the discontent to such a degree that at his
deathbed he saw himself compelled to recall all
his illegal edicts, with the exception of one — viz.
that enjoining religious toleration. Leopold II. at
1 once convoked the diet (the first for twenty-five
i years), and confirmed the rights and indeiiendence
j of the nation. His conciliatory reign lasted only
two years, and he was succeeded by Francis I.
(1792-1835), whose aiobition it was to fidlow the
example of his least reputable predecessors. As
long as the Napoleonic wars lasted, and the Hun-
garians su]iporteil him with money and troops, he
played at constitutionalism ; but as soon as the
Napoleonic d<angers were passed he showed himself
in Ids true character, discontinued the diets and
levied troops and taxes at bis pleasure till 1825,
when he was driven by the general discontent and
resistance to convoke the states.
This diet marked the beginning of the new era
in Hungary. The nation commenced to awaken to
the consciousness of its many wants, intellectual
and material ; the desire for reforms was fast ripen-
ing. The majority of the delegates to the next
diet (1832) were already bearers of radical in-
structions. The desired reforms, however, were
slow in coining, owing to the narrow minded pidicy
of Metternich and the whole court party. The
diet of 18.'i2 counted among its members such men
as Count Louis ll.iltluinyi. Baron Nicholas Wes-
selenyi. Baron Joseph Eutviis. Francis Ileak, and
Louis Kossuth. The more important reforms passed
by this and the subsei|iient diets of 1839 and 1843
were tho.se regarding the official use of the Hun-
garian language, the eligibility of non-nobles to
public ollices, and the equal rights of Christian
denominations. Outside parliament there was no
less acti\itv than inside. Kossuth's I'csti llirluu
(the first llungarian jiolitical daily paper), which
in enthusiastic lanjinage taught the masses how
to demand their rights, rapidly spread all over
HUNGARY
the country. Kossuth advocated the abolition of
serfilom, the equality of all citizens, the liability
of nobles to taxation, and freedom of the press.
He was returned to the diet of 1S47 as senior
member for the county of Pest, and it was on his
motion that the House re.solved in March 1S48 to
send a deimtation to Vienna to demand all these
and various other reforms. Ferdinand \., a weak-
mindeil man, who had reigned since 1835, yieldeil
after some hesitation, and the first Hungarian
responsible ministry entrusted with the task of
carrying the said meivsures was appointed. Count
Louis Hatthanyi was prime-minister, Deak minis-
ter of justice, and Kossuth minister of finance.
But the court party were secretly iletermined to
frustrate all these reforms, wliicli openly they did
not dare to oppose. They therefore incited the
Croatians ami other non- Hungarian nationalities
to rise against Hungarian s\ipremacy. .Accord-
ingly Croatia, Slavonia, the Servian Banat, and
eventually the Koumans of Transylvania took up
arms against Hungarian rule : and w hen the
central government in \ienna was apiiealed to
it issued highly-worded proclamations against the
rebels, but gave very scant help to subdue them,
whilst secretly it supplied them with arms, am-
munition, and money. The Hungarian govern-
ment, so treacherously abandoned, proceeded to
obtain frou] parliament the \ ote of a levy 'of
200,000 men and 42 million Horins of money,
but to these measvires, unanimously decreed by
parliament, the crown withhelil its assent. Later
on, Septemlier ti, when a deputation of 120
members waited on Ferdinand to urge him to
oppose the Croatian invasion, the court again
gave an evasive reply. But a few days later,
having received good news respecting the army
operating in Italy, the court threw aside the
hypocritical mask hitherto worn, and declared
open hostility to Hungary by ignoring the exist-
ing constitution and government, recalling the
Palatine Archduke Steplien, ami appointing Count
Lamberg governor-general and royal commissioner
for Hungary. Parliament declared these acts
illegal, and Count Lamberg was murdered on his
arrival by the enraged population of Budapest.
The ministry now resigned, and a committee of
national defence was appointed with Kossuth as
president. .V comparatively numerous army was
rapidly er|uipped and .~ent to meet Jellachich, who
was marching towards Budapest at the head of the
Croatians. He was completely beaten at Veleneze,
anil iluring an armistice of three days, which was
granted him by the victorious Hungarians, he fled
ignominiously towards Vienna. Notwithstanding
this defeat he was appointed ci>mmaniler-in chief of
all the forces and alter-ego of the emperor-king in
Hungary; and all tlie decrees anil resolutions of
the Hungarian parliament were declared illegal.
'_)n December 2 Ferdinand was compelled by a
family council to abdicate in favour of his nephew,
Francis Joseph, who was then eighteen years of
age. In his name the war began to be carried on
bitterly against Hungary, all tlie more as the diet
declared the succession unconstitutional. Up to
the middle of January next fortune seemed to
favour the Austrian arms : the Hungarians,
though they fought valiantly and obtained some
victories, had to retreat before the overwhelming
numbers of the enemy ; the whole trans-Danubian
district and the north and south were lost to them ;
they had only the va,st plains of the .Mfiild and
Transylvania, where Bem entirely subdued the
rebellious nationalities. Meanwhile the Russians
were also coming to the aid of the .Vnstrians, so
that the Hungarians had fair reason to despair of
their own position. It was only the inactivity of
NVindischgiiitz, the new Austrian generalis.sinio, that
saved the Hungarians. His aimless stay at Budapest
gave Kossuth time to perambulate the country,
and by his stirring eloquence and boundless energy
to create a splendid thoniih irregular army, which,
under the various leadei-snip of L)embinski, Vetter,
Gcirgei, Klapka, and others, won so many victories
over the .Austrians within the ne.xt three months
that by the end of April the country was almost
entirely free from the enemy. The many defeats
of the Austrian regular forces by the Hungarian
irregulars so exasperated the Menna court that, on
March 4, 1849, it promulgated a decree abolishing
the Hungarian constitution: to whicli the Hun-
garian diet replied by the declaration of independ-
ence, and the dethronement of the Hapsburg
dynasty on April 14. No final form of government
was decided upon, but Kossuth was temporarily
elected governor-piesident, and instead of the
committee of national defence a new ministry
was formed under the presidency of Bartholomew
Szemere. Had Ciirgei not disregarded Kossuth's
advice, had he forced his way to Vienna after so
many victories, the whole war might have come
to an end with glorious results for Hungary ; but
Giirgei decided to first retake Budapest, and thereby
enabled the united Ku.ssian and Austrian armies
to invade the country at various points. These
combined armies consisted of no less than 275,000
men. with 600 batteries, whilst the Hungarians
numbered baiely 135,000, with no artillery to
speak of. In these circumstances the Hungarians
had little chance of defending themselves with
any measure of success, but they continued to
; fight with the greatest determination. Fortune
j still smiled on them here and there, but on the
I whole chances and events were against them.
I This decline of their fortunes was aggravated
by the serious dissensions between Gcirgei and
Kossuth, which grew daily in intensity till the
latter thought it advisable, in order not to hamper
the other's strategic activity, to abdicate in favour
of Gfirgei on August 11, 1849. (jnce in the possession
of the chief political and military power, Gcirgei
no longer thought of continuing the struggle, but
immediately and unconditionally surrendered him-
self to the Russians. This act on his part was
defended by him as one imposed liy necessity and
a saving of further bloodshetf ; but examined in the
light of his former conduct and of the fact that he
induced, by empty and futile promises for the safety
of their persons and their troops, thirteen other
generals to follow his example, it is generally con-
sidered by the majority of his countrymen an
act of unpardonable treason. Kossuth and several
other military and political leaders Hed to Turkey,
whilst the others who remained behind and were
cajitured were either sentenced to long terms
of impiisonment or shot and hanged like mere
criminals. Among the latter were Count Louis
Batth^nyi and the thirteen generals betrayed by
Gcirgei, including Count Charles Leiningen, a
relative of the t^ueen of England. Giirgei him-
self was sent to Klagcnfurt, and kept there
on a small jiension. Hungary was incoriimated
into and governed as an hereditary jimvince of
Austria, the governiu' being ( General Haynau. who
wielded his utiicial power with extraordinary
harshness and cruelty. Political prisoners were
tortured, women publicly flogged, properties and
righfs conliscated. With the exception of the
abolition of scifdnm all the acts of the diet of 1848
were annulled, and Hungary was governed by a
host of foreign officials according to Austrian laws
and institutions. The country displayed no active
resistance, nevertheless all the rllorts of this
centralising and (iermanising .system so completely
failed that by 18.">7 the Vienna government began
to see its futility and to oH'er some concessions.
8
HUNGARY
After the disastrous Italian war in 1859 the old
Hungarian chancellory, as it existed previous to
1S4S, was re estal)lish(Ml, Imt failed to satisfy the
Hungarians, whose [jassive resistance threatened
with a linal breakdown the Austrian state
niachini'ry. At length in 1861 the diet was
once more convokeil : Imt, as it demanded tlie full
restitution of the constitution of 1S4S, it was
quickly dissolved. Gradually, however, Vietter
counsels prevailed at the court of Vienna. Parlia-
ment was again summoned in 1805, and the
demands of the Hungarians, as fornnilated Ijy Deak
and his party, were complied with, and resulted in
the agreement described in detail in the article
Au.sTKr.\. Francis-Joseph was crowned king of
Hungary, June 7, 1867, and entered on the faith-
ful discharge of his duties as constitutional
monarch. There is still a numerous party in
Hungary in favour of complete separation from
Austria, but none are hostile to the sovereign.
The renewal of this decennial tinancial arrange-
ment (1897-98) led to very strained relations
between the two sections, the Hungarians declin-
ing to raise their contributions from 81 '4 to
42 per cent, of the common expenditure. Hun-
gary made good use of the period of internal
peace enjoyed after the coronation, an<l made
rapid strides in the path of civilisation. It
established an admirable system of elementary
and higher education, built a magnificent net of
railways (now largely in the liands of the state),
improved its judicature, developed commerce and
industry, and organised, in addition to the Austro-
Hungarian common army, an eliective system of
national defence, the Honveds. Budapest, its
capital, equalled by few, sur])assed by none among
the great cities of Europe, is watched with as much
envy by the Austrians as the growing influence
of the Hungarians in the common councils of the
monarchy. Lately the former heavy deficits have
disappeared from the budget, and there is every
hope of the kingdom soon being in a condition to
reduce its heavy debts. The various nationalities
in Hungary ( Servians, Wallai-hs, Kuthens, Slovaks,
Germans) enjoy the same rights as the native
Magyars, which are considerablj' greater than in
Austria ; there is therefore comparatively little
discontent prevailing among them, even though pan-
slavistic missionaries strive to make mischief. ^luch
of Hungary's steady progress is due to the fact that
since the new era there have been few changes in its
government. The thousand years of national exist-
ence was celebrated by a millennial exhibition,
historical proce.ssions, tSrc. at IJuda]iest in 1896.
Languafjc and Litrriiliire. — The Hungarians
when they settled in their present land a thousand
years ago brouglit their language ready with them,
and this, although it has had since to borrow certain
words from Euro]iean languages to convey new
ideas, has retained all its original features both as
regards etymology and syntax. The origin of the
Hungarian language can hardly be stated yet with
certainty. Hungarian philologists are divided into
two sections on the i)oint, the ' Orientalists ' main-
taining its adinity with 'rurco-Tartaric languages,
whilst the ' Finnists ' contend, and for the j)resent
at least with far more general success, that it
belongs to the I'giic branch of the Finnish group.
By reason of the perfect harmony between vowels
and consonants, and the very distinct articulation
and pronunciation cs.scntial to it, Hungarian is
considered a very nnisical language, particularly
a<lapled to poetry and ihi^torio. Its grammar,
moreover, is so stiikingly dill'ercnt from that of .-my
other European language, and so rich in original
characteristics, that it oilers a very interesting
field to students of comnarative philology. It is
acknowledged by them tliat it is well adapted to
express ideas with the utmost clearness, owing to
the distinctness and immense variety of endings
and the originality and Hexibility of its roots.
Among its characterLstics are that it has no gen-
ders, and (/c<:/i>iatioii and luiijiif/aliun are effected
by means of suffixes only ; that the verbs pos-
sess objective and subjective forms (e.g. kitiik,
' I see ; ' kifom, ' I .see him or her or it : /litu:,
' thou seest ; ' Idtml, ' thou seest him or her or it,'
&c. ); that it invariably places the surname before
the Christian name. It is also noteworthy that
there are absolutely no dialects in the Hungarian
language, ami scarcely any ditlerence of pronuncia-
tion in the various parts of the country.
From the date of the establishment of the
Hungarian kingdom the use of the Hungarian
language was so much restiicted that a Hungarian
literature can hardly be said to have existed before
the close of the 18th century. The introduction of
Christianity by Italian and German ])riests in the
11th century made Latin the official language and
the medium of intercourse between the educated
classes, and this remained so to a great, though
gradually dindnishing, extent up to the third and
fourth decade of the 19tli century. There was a
slight reaction in favour of Hungarian after the
Reformation, but the language was not taught in
.schools till tlie year 1790, and parliament did not
discontinue Latin until 182o. The oldest Hun-
garian literary record extant is a funeral oration
dating from the year 1171 ; there are also some
religious songs and dramatic ' mysteries' from the
14th century. The first lay poet of real merit.
Baron Valentine Balassa, li\ed in the second half
of the 16th, the first great epic poet, Ziinyi, in
the 17th century.
The revival of literature began to take place only
towards the end of Maria Theresa's reign. Lyric
poetry was cultivated by Anyos, ^'irag, Bacsanyi,
and by Alexander Kisfaludy (1772-1844), Daniel
Berzsenyi (1776-1836), Francis Kazinczy ( 17o9-
1831), and others, who not only added to the
valuable stock of literature, but also enriched the
language with new words and forms — Kazinc/.y
excelling so nmch in this respect as to obtain
the appellation of 'the recreator of the language.'
Kiilcsey, orator, essayist, and )ioet, and Charles
Kisfaludy (1788-1830), the founder of Hungarian
drama, were the chief literary figmes at the be-
ginning of the 19th century. Hungarian poetry,
however, cainiot be said to have possessed much
originality at this period : it was reserved to such
men as Petdfi (1823-49), A'orosmarty (180O Tw),
Ar.any ( 1817-82), and Tom])a ( 1819-08) to regener-
ate Hungarian poetry on mitional lines. This end
was attained towards the period of the war of in-
dei)endence, since which Hungary has produced a
number of minor poets, such as Saro.sy, Szasz,
Vajda, Kiss, Keviczky, Abninyi, and Rudnyanszky.
In dramatic literature Charles Kisfaludy wius
followed by Szigligeti (1814-78), whose extreme
fertility enriched it by many exceedingly successful
)days. The classic tragedy Bank liiin of Katona
(1792-1830), and Tin; IIiDium Tragedy, a dramatic
poem, by M.adach (1823-64), on the lines of
Goethe's Fnimt, but no less original, dc-^erve
especial mention. Amongst their siicce.'^scu's there
is only one great dramatist — (iregor Csiky. The
Hungarian theatres rely mainly on |ii-oilucl.~ of
foreign literature — French, English and (ieiiuan.
In ])rose literature Hungary has i>roiluced many
.standard works. The founder of the real Hun-
garian novel was IJaron Nicholas Josika (1794-
180,')), whose liistoi-iral ami soi-ial novels on the
model of Sir Walter Scott's works achieved great
success and ])(q)ularity. Baron Josejdi Eiitviis
(1813-71) cultivated the sentimental imvel, and
the novel with a purpose. But among authors of
HUNGER
HUNT
fiction the highest rank is due to Maurice Jukai
(q.v.), whose Ijoumlless imagination and jHofound
liuniour have rendereil him a ta^■oul•ite with leaders
in many countries heyond liis own. Ahnost all his
novels have been translated into German, many
into Italian, French, English, and other lan-
guages. Beyond its own original productions it
also possesses admirable translations of all the
masterpieces in the worlds literature, from the
Bible, of which it possesses three versions, down
through all ages and countries to Tennyson's
poems. A collection of Shakespeare's plays is
especially noteworthy, they ha\'ing been translated
by Hungary's greatest poets, including Petiifi
(Curiolanus), Arany (Hamlet, Mid.snmmer-Xighfs
Dream, King John), N'oriismarty (Kinfj Lear), and
others. It should be adiled that the best literary
talent of the country is to a great e.\tent connected
with journalism.
See Fessler, (iesehiehte der Umiam (newed. by Klein,
1863-87); Majlath, Gcschichte der Magiiaren (2d ed.
1853 ) ; Sayous, Histoire des Hongrois ( Par. 1876 ), and
works by Uor^'ath, Szalay, I'oldy, <tc, ; also Vambery,
Storu of Hunrjarii ( 1886 1 ; Leger, Historj/ ofAustro-Hun-
pari/ I trans, by Mrs Birkbeck Hill, prcfaCL' by Freeman,
1890) : and Felbermann, Huniiari/ and its People (1892).
Hunger. See Appetite, Dige.stiox.
Ilungerford, a town of Berkshire, partly also
in Wiltshire, is situated on the river Kennet, 26
miles WSW. of Reading. It is a hunting centre,
and a favourite resort of anglers, having been even
in Evelyn's time 'a towne famous for its troutes. '
In the town-hall ( 1870) is jireserved a honi gifted to
the (own by .lolm of (Jaunt in 1362. Pop. '2965.
Hiiningeil (Fr. Hmihir/ue), a town of Alsace,
on the left bank of the Hliine, 2i miles N. of Basel,
is celebrated for its Hsh-lireeding estal)lishment
(see Plscici'LTURE). It was fortilied by Vauban
in 1679-81, but the works were finally destroyed in
1815. Pop. 1704.
Huns (Lat. Htiimi, Gr. Ounnoi and Chowioi),
a nomad race of antiquity, whose remote ancestors
were probably the Hiuiig-nu, a people of Turkish
stock, who formed a powerful state in Mongolia
in the 2d centun' B.C. In 177 they conquered
another large nomad race, the Yue-chi, akin to
the Tibetans, and drove them westward and south-
ward, they themselves following. But alx)ut the
dawn of the Christian era their political power fell
to pieces and the tribesmen were scattereil. One
section, however, seems to have tied westwards and
to have settled in the neighbourhood of the river
Ural and the Volga. At all events, some three
centuries and a half later the people known to
classic and medieval writers as Huns stepped upon
the stage of history from that part of the world.
About the year 372 they moved westwards again.
under a leader called Balamir, and subdued first
the Alani, who dwelt between the Volga and the
Don, and then proceeded to attack the (Jstrogoths,
part of whom submitted somewhat tamely, whilst
another ]iart oti'ered strenuous opposition, but were
in the end compelled to submit likewise. This
business completed, the Huns next invaded the
territories of the \'isigotlis, and drove this people
before them across the Danube, except one section,
who, under Frithigern, sought permission of Valens,
emperor of the East, to settle in his territories.
The districts quitted by the Goths were occupied
by the Huns. This, their first wave of invasion and
conquest, seems then to have subsided ; and, though
it was followed by more than one smaller after-wave,
it was not until about 4.30 that the sec<mil anil
greater wave began to gather head again in Bhuas
or Kugulas. This chief acquired such power and
inHuence that in 432 he imposed upon Theodosius
II., emperor of Byzantium, an annual tribute of
350 pounds of gold. He was succeeded in 433 by
his more illustrious nephew Attila (q.v.). With
Attila's death, however, in 453, the power of the
Huns crumbled to pieces aiidd the intestine strifes
of his sons and generals, and the attacks of their
foes round aliout. After a most disastrous defeat
iuHicted upon them in Pannonia in 454 by the
combined armies of the Goths, GejiidiV, Suevi,
Herulians, and others, the tribesmen of the Huns
rapiilly dispersed. Some settled in the Dobrudja,
othei's in Dacia, whilst the main Imdy seem to
have returned to the land from whence they came
— viz. the region about the river Ural. Some
authorities identify these with the later Bulgarians,
who about the end of the 5th century had risen
into a powerful state on the Volga, and .sent ofl'
conquering bands to the south-west, who finally
settled in the modem Bulgaria.
The Huns are described as being of a dark com-
plexion, deformed in appearance, of uncouth ges-
ture and shrill voice. ' They were distinguished,'
says Gibbon, ' from the rest of the human species
by their broad shoulders, fiat noses, and small black
eyes deeply liuried in the head ; and, as they were
almost destitute of beards, they never enjoyed either
the manly graces of youth or the venerable aspect
of age. A fabulous origin was assigned worthy of
their form and mannei-s — that the witches of
Scythia, who for their foul and deadly practices
had been driven from society, had united in the
desert with infernal spirits, and that the Huns
were the offspring of this execral)le conjunction.'
Like the ^Mongols, they were essentially a race of
horsemen : thev fought with javelins tipped with
bone, with sarjres, and with slings or lassoes.
They ate herbs and half-raw meat, which they
first used as saddles ; and they clothed themselves
with the skins of m ild animals.
The \\lute Huns or Ephthalites or Hephthalites
are by some regarded as a branch of the Hiungnu,
though others make them the descendants of the
ancient Royal Scythians, identifying them with
the Barsileens, the allies of the Khazars. What-
ever be their real origin, they were certainly estab-
lished in ancient Bactria and the adjoining districts,
between the Oxus and the Caspian, at a period
contemporaneous with Attila's career. From the
third decade of the 5th century onwards for about
120 years they were engaged in constant wars with
their neighlioui-s on the south, the Persians. In
484 the Ephthalites routed them in a fierce battle,
in which Peroz, king of Persia, was amongst the
slain. But their power seems to have been finally
broken abotit 560 by the all-conquering Turks on
their way to Asia Minor and Constantinople.
See De Guignes, Histoire Ui'nerale des Huns (vol. i.
1756); Neumann, Die Volktr des siidtiektn Russia iid {2A.
ed. 1855); ThieiTy, Histoire d'Attila (4th ed. 1874);
and Howortl], in Jour. Antlintpol. Inst. (1872-74).
Hnnstanton, a watering-place of Norfolk, on
the Wash, 18 miles NE. of King's Lynn by a rail-
way (1S62). It has a broad beach of firm sand,
and good bathing and sea-fishing, a pier, and a
splendid Decorated church (c. 1330). Hunstanton
Hall, dating from the Tudor period, but greatly
injured l)v fire in 1853, was the seat of Sir Roger
L'Estrange. A lighthouse ( 1840) lilts a fixed light
to an altitude of 109 feet, and shows it for a dis-
tance of 16 miles. Pop., with Barrett Ringstead,
1725.
Hunt, Henry, surnamed ' Orator Hunt,' was
born at Ujiavon, in Wiltshire, on 6th November
1773. He w;is a wellto-do farmer, but in 1800 his
hot temjier embroiled him with Lord Bruce, the
commandant of the Wiltshire yeomanry, which
brought him six weeks' imprisonment. He came
out of gaol a hot Radical, an<l spent the rest of
his life travelling about the country addressing
10
HUNT
the (leople on behalf of the repeal of the Corn
Laws anil as an advocate of parliamentary reform.
In 1819, on the occasion of the Peterloo massacre,
lie delivered a speech, which cost him three veai^"
imprisonment. He died at Alresford, in Hamp-
shire, on l.Sth Kehniary 183.').
Hunt. Jame.s Hexry Lkigh, ijoet and essayist,
was born at Sonthgate, near Eiiinonton, on 19th
October 1784. His father. Isaac Hunt (1752- i
1809), a Harliailian, beinn driven by the Revolu-
tion from Philadelphia to London, gave up law for
tlie church, but lapseil into bankruptcy and Uni- |
versalism. Leigh Hunt spent eight years at j
Christ's Hospital, and left at tifteen a.s tirst
' Deputy-Grecian,' debarred Ijy a stammer from i
ftirt her promotion. He was a clerk first under ,
one brother, an attorney, and next for four
years in the War Ottice, writing meanwhile much
dramatic criticism -. in 1S08 witli another brother,
a printer, he set up the E.riiinitirr ; and in 1809
wedded Marianne Kent (1788-1857). The Exa-
miner's tone was Radical, and, after several govern-
ment prosecutions in 1813 for a libel on the
Prince Regent (he had called him a 'corpulent
Ad(mis of fifty"), Leigh Hunt was sentenced to
a fine of £500 and to two years' imprisonment in
Surrey gaol. There he 'scattered urbanity,' played
battledore with his children, received hosts of
visitors, and turned his cage intoa 'bower of roses.'
In November 1821 with his wife and seven children
he sailed for Italy, but landed at Leghorn only on
1st July. He went on Shelley's in\ itation to help
him and Byron to found tlie quarterly Liberal.
Just a week later Shelley was drowned ; Leigh
Hunt and ' my noble friend ' failed somehow to
pull together; the Libenil died in its fourth number;
and by IS'25 the family was b.ick at Highgate.
Changes of residence, to Upper Clieyne Row, Chel-
sea, in 1833, to the 'old court suburb' of Kensington
in 1840, and to Hammersmith in 1853 -these are
thenceforth the chief events in Leigh Hunts life.
It was one of ceaseless activity and as ceaseless
embarrassment, for he ' never knew his multiplica-
tion table.' From 1844, howe\er, Sir Percy Shelley
allowed him £1'20 a year, and in 1847 he received
a pension of £'200. He died on a visit to Putney,
28th August 1859.
The 'Cockney poets,' so the critics dubbed Keats
and Leigh Huiit. That the two should ever thus
have been biacketed may now seem straiige,
for Leigh Hunts poetry now is little known.
And yet it is better than much, maybe most, of
the newer poetic vogues. Its charm lies in a
prettines^ as of childhood ; its wit and cleverness
and wine-like sparkle have ever a smack of pre-
cocity. Narrative vei-se is his forte, his foible
jauntiness. His translations are among the <hoicest
of tlieir kind ; he transports the simthern vintages
to Kngliinil, and their colour ami tlavcmr improve
instead of losing by the voyage. As his poems,
so his prose ; his essays are always worth reading,
but only after the Exsay-i of Elia. Leigh Hunt's
writings, indeed, are less memorable than his
friendships— with Keats and Shelley, as also with
Lamb, Byron, Moore, Coleridge, Dickens, Carlyle,
and a whole galaxv of lesser luminaries. IJur know-
ledj,'e of them, ami especially the first two, is largely
derived from his.
In his excellent List of the Writiiiijs of Hazlitt ami
Ltfili Hunt (IH(iS) Mr Alexander Ireland clironologically
arranges with notes, &c., seventy-nine works by the latter,
including Jneenilia (1801 ), The F(<i.il of the /'nets (1814).
The Slorii of Rimiiii ( 1810 ), Foliwie ^^S\S), Caijtaiii Siriml
ami Cd/kalii Pen ( 1835 ), and 2'lir I'lilfn ;; ( 1842 ) ; besides
much in prose, as Lord fttiron anil his Contem}x>raric!<
(18'28), Sir Ralph Esher (l'8.'i2), Imwiination and Faiietj
(1844), Wit and Humour (1846), Stories oj the Italian
Foelt (1846), A Jar of Honey from Mount Hpbla(\M)i},
and The Old Court Suburb (1855). See Leigh Hunt's
Autobiofiraphi/ (3 vols. 1850 : revised ed. b'^00) and Corre-
spondence (2 vols. 18B2 ), Forster's Life of Dickens (for the
unkindly * Harold Skinipole ' episode ), a capital article in
the Cornhill (i. 1800), and one by Prof. Uowden in Ward's
En{tlish I\>ets(iv. 1N80); and ski-tches by Ci>sino Monk-
house (18*J3) and B. Johnson ( l8'.Mi i.
Hunt, Thomas Sterky, an American chemist
and geologist, born at N<Hwich, Connecticut, 5th
September 182G, was assistant to the ehler Silliman
at Yale College, and from 1847 to 1872 chemist and
mineralogist to the Canadian tieological Survey.
He was also ])rofessor of Chemistry at Laval Uni-
versity ( 18.")()-62) ami at M'tiill U'liiversitv (1862-
68); from 1S72 to 1878 he held the chair of "Geology
in the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. In
1848-51 he contributed a series of papers on theo-
retical chemistry to the American Journal of
Sciciire : in organic chemistry his name is itleiitified
with a system essentially bis own. His researches
into the composition of rocks were of great import-
ance. In 1859 he invented the green ink with
which Greenbacks (q.v. ) are printed. He was
made an officer of the Legion of Honour in 1867,
and became an F.R.S. (1859), and LL.D. of Cam-
bridge ( 1881 ), and received many other distinctions.
At his death, 12th February 1892, he had published
over 200 papers and several larger works on chem-
istry and mineralogy.
Hunt. William Henry, English painter in
water-colours, was Ijorn in London, Marcli 28, 1790.
He was one of the creators of the English school
of water-colour painting, Mr Ruskin pronouncing
him to be amonj; the gieatest colonrists of the
school. His snlijects are very simple — ' Peaches
and Grapes,' 'Old Pollard,' 'Basket of Plums,'
'Roses,' 'Wild Flowers," 'Tranipeis .at Home,"
'A F'armhouse Beauty,' 'Fast Asleep,' &c., but
they are conceived in a finely poetical spirit, and
present tlie jierfectioii of finish. He died 10th
February 1864.
Hunt, WiLi.iA.M HoLMAN, painter, was born
in Londim, '2(1 April 18'27. In his early years he
was engaged in business, but in 1845 he was
admitted a student of the Roval Academ^v- I"
the following year he exhibited his liist |iicture,
' Hark ! ' a cliiid liolding a watch to her ear ; this
was followed by scenes from Dickens and Scott,
and by the more important ' Flight of Madeline
and Porphyro,' from Keats' Ere ef St Ai//ies ( 1848).
At this period Mr Hunt shared a studio with Dante
tiabriel Rossetti, and the jiair, .along with Millais
and a few other earnest young paintiTs, inaugurated
the ' Pre-Raphaelite I!nitherli<iod," of which the
members .aimed .at detaileil and uncompromising
truth to nature in their rendering of visible things,
and at a vivid ami unconventional realisation in
their treatment of imaginative subjects. In 1850
Mr Ifunt contribnteil to 'J'/ie (lerni. the short-lived
magazine of the hrothcrhoinl, two etched subjects
illustrating Woolner's poem 'My beautiful Lady,"
and at a later period he designed various wood-
cuts, in particular a remarkable series for the
illustrated Tennyson of 1857. The first of the
painters works executed in the Pre-Rai>haelite
manner was ' Rienzi vowing to avenge the
Death of his Brother' (1849), in which the
princijical figure was jiainted from Ros.setti. It
was followed hv ' A Converted British Family
sheltering a Christian Missionary from the Pursuit
of the Druids' (1850); 'Valentine rescuinf; Sylvia
from Protims," fnmi the Tvo dentlemen of Verona
(1851); 'The Hireling Shepherd' (18.52); and
'Cl.audio and Isabella,' a tragic and im|>ressive
prison-scene from Measure for Measure (1853) —
works very fresh and original in com-eptiiui, and
carried out with the most careful elaboration ;
while ' Our English Coasts,' known also as ' The
HUNTER
11
Strayed Sheep' (1853), was a remarkable ettbit in
landscape art, realising with exceptional jioAver an
ettect ot vivid sunlight, and conildning in a wonder-
ful manner detail and definition with a sense of
distance and atmosphere. 'The Light of the
World' (ls.Vi-51). of which a smaller replica was
e.xeciited in I8.56, ranks as one of the most im-
pressive symbolical works of the century ; it is
now in the chapel of Keble College, Oxford.
■The Awakened ("onscience' aimed to point a
moral by means of a scene from modem life. On
the completion of the last-named picture in the
beginning of 1S.54 Mr Hunt started for Palestine,
with the intention of studying eastern life, and
realising the inciilents of the biblieal history
with the closest possible accuracy to local colouring
and the surroundings amid which they occurred.
The result of several jirolonged visits to the
East appeared in 'The Scapegoat' (I80O): 'The
Finding of Christ in the Temple' (1860), presented
in 1896 to the Birmingham Art Galleiy ; 'The
Shadow of Death' (1874). now in the Corporation
Gallery, Manchester : ami ' The Triumpli of the
Innocents' (1875-85), executed in two vei'sions ;
while the pas.sionate and sjilendidly coloured 'Isa-
bella and the Pot of Basil ' was the result of a
visit to Florence in 1867. In 1881 he painted a
portrait of Professor Sir P.ichard Owen : in 1888-89
'The Choristers of Magdalen College, Oxford,
singing the May Day Hymn:' and in 1899 the
'Miracle of Sacred Fire "at Jeru.salem.' In 1886
he contributed to the t'onteinjiornr^i lieriew a series
of autobiographical papers : and in the same year
over thirty of his works were exhibited in the Fine
Arts Society's rooms.
Hunter, John', physiologist and surgeon, was
born at Long Calderwood. near East Kill>ride, in
Lanarkshire, 13th February 17'28, and was the
youngest of ten children. One of his sisters,
Dorothea, wasniarrieil to Dr .lames Baillie, professor
of Divinity in the university of Glasgow, and was
the mother of Matthew and .loanna Baillie (fj.v. ).
His brother William's fame led .John to apply for
and obtain the .situation of assistant in the dissect-
i ing-rooni. He studied surgery under Cheselden
I in 1749-.50 at Chelsea Hospital, and subsequently
under Pott. After a year at Oxford he entered
St (jeor^e's Hospital as surgeon's pupil in 1754,
I afterwards becoming house-surgeon and partner
I with his brother in the anatomical school. After
I ten years' bard work of this kiml his health
I gave way. and in 1759 he entered the army as
! staff-surgeon, and served at Belleisle and in the
I Peninsula. Peace being proclaimed in 1763, he
returned to London and. starting the practice of
surgery, devoted much time and money to com-
parative anatomy. In 1767 he w;vs electeil a
Fellow of the Royal Society, and in the follow-
ing year was appointed surgeon to St George's
Hospital, an appointment which enabled him to
take pupils, of whom one of the earliest was
Jenner. His practice at this time was increas-
ing rapidly, but his iiicome never reached £1000
a year until 1774. In 1776 he w;us appointed
surgeon-extraordinary to the king. In 1785 he
built his museum, with lecture-rooms, and in the
same year he tried his famous operation for the
cure of aneurism — that of simjdy tying the artery
at a distance from the tunmur, ami between
it and the heart. In 1786 Hunter was ap])ointed
deputy-surgeon-general to the army ; in 1787 he
received the Coi)ley medal from the Royal Society.
He was now nnivei-sally acknowledged liy all the
younger surgeons ,xs the heail of his profession ;
but most of bis contemporaries lookeil n\mn him as
little better than an innovator and an enthusi.ost.
He died 16tli October 1793, and was buried in the
church of St Martin's-in-tlie-Fields, whence, thanks
to Frank Buckland, his remains were translated in
March 1859 to Westminster Al)bey. Some idea of
Hunter's diligence may be gathered from the fact
that his museum contained at the time of bis death
10,563 specimens and preparations illustrative of
human and comparative anatomy, physiologj-,
pathology, and natural history. He died in coiii-
parative poverty, and his collection was purchased
by government, two years after his death, for
£15,000, and was jnesented to the Royal College
of Surgeons.
In addition to the numerous papers contributed to the
Traiimclions of tlie Royal and other learned societies, he
published the following independent works : The Natural
Hiatorrj of the Bvman Teeth (1771-78); A Treatise on
the Venereal Diseaae (1786); Ohiierrations on Ceyiain
Parts of the Animal Eeovomrj (1786) ; and A Treatise on
the Blooel, IvJImnmation, and Gunshot Wounds (1794).
See Palmer's edition ot his works (1835), Mather's Two
Great Scot.wten (18941, and the Life by S. Paget (1897).
Ilnnter. Willi.\ji, anatomist and obstetrician,
an elder brother of .lohn Hunter, was born at Long
Calderwood, Lanarkshire, '2.3d May 1718. Origin-
ally educated for the church at Glasgow University,
he studied medicine for one ses.sion (1740-41) at
Edinburgh, and then jiroceeded to Lond<in, where
he went through a long training in anatomy at St
George's Hospital and elsewhere. In 1747 he was
admitted a member of the Corporation of Surgeons,
ultimately confining his practice to mid^iferj'.
In 1762 Hunter was consulted by Queen Charlotte,
and two years later was apjiointed physician-extra-
i ordinary to her majesty. Elected a Fellow of the
Royal Society, he in 1768 became professor of
Anatomy to the Royal Academy. In 1770 he
removed to Great Windmill Street, where he had
built a bouse, in connection with which were an
amphitheatre for lectures, a dissecting-room, and a
museum which contained not only his anatomical
preparations, but many objects of natural history
and a cabinet of very rare medals and coins.
Hunter and his brother John were for many years
estranged, owin" to a dispute as to the priority of
certain discoveries ; but the quarrel was made up
while William was on his death-bed. He died SOtfi
March 1783. His museum was bequeathed to his
brother-in-law. Dr Baillie. and after him, with an
endowment of £8000, to Glasgow University (q.v. ).
His most important work. A)i Anutomicul Descrip-
tion of the Ihuiian Gnirid Uterus and its Contents,
did not appear in its complete form till after his
death.
Hunter. Sn: AVilliam Wilson, statistician,
was l)orn on 15th July 1840, educated at the univer-
sities of Gla-sgow, Paris, and Bonn, and in 1862
entered the civil service of India. His first imi)ort-
ant office, that of superintendent of public iiistiiic-
tion in Orissa (1866-69). gave him the o]i]iortunity
to write Annuls of linrcd Bene/rd ( 1868) and Com-
petredire Dietiotntry of the \on-Ari/itn lAtnqvetqes
of India and Hif//i Asia ( 1 868 ). Tlien, after' filling
tlie responsible offices of secretan,- to the govern-
ment of Bengal and the sujjreme "overnment of
India, he was in 1871 appointed director-general
of the statistical department of India. The Indian
census of 1872 was his first work in his new position.
His later books include the onm]iendioiis Iinjn rial
Gazetteer of India (9 vols. 1881 ; 14 vols. 1886 88),
Orissa (1872), Life of Lord Mai/o ('2d ed. 1876),
Statistical Acronnt of Asseim (1880), Famine Aspects
of Benqal Districts (1874), Indian Mussulmans
(1871; '3d eil. 1876), The Indian Empire (iJd ed.
1886). He received the Star of Imlia in 1878. and
in 1887 was knighted. In 18911-96 he eiiited a
series of Lives of ' Kulers of India,' to which he
himself contributed Dalhonsie. Tlie Old Missionary
( 1895) is a touching story of Indian life. He dieil
at (Jaken Holt Hall, Oxford, 7th Februarj- 1900.
12
HUNTING
HU-PEI
Hnntiiig. See Foxhitnting, Stag, and tlie
aitioU's on tlie other animals hunted.
lluiltilisdoil. Selixa, CofXTESS OF, was the
second of tliiee daughtei's and coheiresses of Wasli-
in>;ton Shirley, second Earl P'errers, and «as horn
Aujjust 24, 1707. She married the Earl of Hunting-
don in 17'2S, and hecame a widow in 1746. .\dopt-
inft the principles of the Calvinistic Methodists, the
foimder of which sect was the famous George
Whitetield, .she made that eminent preacher one of
her chaplain.s, and assumed a leadei'ship among his
followers, who came to be known as ' The Countess
of Huntingdon's Connection.' Her labours at home
increased with her yeai-s. For the education of
ministers she established and maintained a, college
at Trevecca, in Brecknockshire (removed in 1792 to
Cheshunt, Herts ) ; and built, or became jjossessed of,
numerous chapels in ditlerent parts of the country,
the principal one being at Batli. She died June 17,
1791. By her will, dated January 11, 1790, she
created a trust, bequeathing her chapels, then sixty-
four in number, to the care of four persons. Most
of them have become, in doctrine and practice,
ahnost identical with the Congregational churches.
Hlintillgdoil, the county town of Hunting-
donshire, on the left bank of the Ouse. and the
Ermine Street of the Romans, 59 miles N. of Lon-
don. It became the seat of a royal castle in 917,
and was incorporated in 11S9. It has breweries,
brickworks, carriage-works, and nursery gardens.
Here Oliver Cromwell was born (1599), and here
the ])oet Cowper lived for a couide of yeare ( 1765-
67); the chnmicler, Henry of Huntingdon (q.v. ),
wa.s Archdeacon of Huntingdon. With the muni-
cipal borough of (lodmanchester (pop. 2095), on
tlie opposite bank, it formed a jiarliamentary
borough, returning till 1867 two members, till 1885
one. Pop. ( 1851 ) 3882 ; ( 1891 ) 4346.
Hlllllillgdonsllire, an inland county of Eng-
land, 30 miles long, and 23 broad, is bounded
on the N. and W. by Northampton, Cambridge,
and Bedford shires. Area, 359 sq. m., almost the
whole of which is arable or in ]ia.sture. Pop.
(1801) 37,568; (1861) 64,250; (1891) 57,761.
Huntingdonshire has no hill-ranges of any im-
portance, and is watered chieHy by the Nene,
which forms its northern lioundary, and the Ouse ;
in the fen-district in the north-eastern part of the
county, forming part of the Bedford Level (q. v.),
there were formerly some large lakes or meres,
notably Whittle.sea, Ramsey, and I'gg ; but these
have lieen drained and reclaimed for culti\a-
tion. The soil consists principally of clay, with,
in places, sand, gravel, and ])eal earth, tlie latter
being almost wholly conlined to the fen-district.
Huntingdonshire comprises four hundreds and
the municipal boroughs of Huntingdon, Codman-
chester, ami St Ives, with part of the city of Peter-
borough, the greater porticm of which is how-
ever in Northamptonshire. It contains 103 parishes,
is almost entirely in the dioce.se of Ely and the
South-eastern Circuit, and returns two ineni-
hei-s to parliament. A peculiarity in its civil
government is that it is included under the
same shrievalty with Cambridgeshire, the sherill'
being annually clioscn in rotation from the county
of Cambridge, the Isle of Ely, and this county, (if
its earlier inhabit.mts Huntingdonshire has numer-
ous traces ; two Roman roads traverse it ; at
Alwalton, Earith, and Chesterton are remains of
camps, the construction of which is also ascribed to
the Konians ; and in many places Roman remains,
a.s pottery, coins, <'<:c. , have been found. .Vmong
j)laces of intere.st in the county those most worthy
of mention are the ruins of Ramsey Abbey anil
Buckden Palace, the latter being formerly the
residence of the bishops of Lincoln ; Hinchinbrook
House, anciently the seat of the Cromwell family ;
Kimbolton Ciustle, the seat of the Duke of Man-
chester, where (Jueen Catharine resided for some
time after her divorce from Henry VIIl. : Horeham
Hall, the residence of the Princess Elizabeth during
the reign of her sister Mary : Denton, the birth-
place of Cotton the antiquary; Little (iiihling,
the seat of Nicholas Ferrar's community : and
Brampton, where lived for some yeai's Samuel
Pepys.
Hlllltly, a town of Scotland, 41 miles N\V. of
Aberdeen. In the vicinity is the ruin of Huntly
Castle, the seat of the earls and marquises of
Huntly (see Gordon). Huntly is the birthplace
of Dr George Macdonald. Pop.' 3760.
Huntsville, capital of Madison county, Ala-
bama, in the valley of the Tennessee, 10 miles N.
of the river, and 212 miles ESE. of ^Memphis by
rail. It has an ice-factory, a foundry, and manu-
factures of cotton, cotton-seed oil, and flour. Pop.
(1880) 4977; (1890) 7995.
Hllliyady Jauos. John Corvinus Hunyady,
governor of Hungary, one of the greatest war-
captains of his age, was born towards the close
of the 14th century. His origin is wrajiped in
mystery, the current legend being that he w,is
a son of the Emperor Sigismund by a Wallachian
lady. His life may be succinctly described as one
unbroken crusade against tlie Turks. During the
period 1437-56 he ^^ as the shield of Hungary, not
only against external foes, but against the lawless-
ness of the nobles at home. The principal moments
in his celebrated contest with the foes of Christen-
dom are his expulsion of them from Transylvania in
1442; his brilliant campaign south of the Danube
in 1443; his defeat in the bloody battle of ^'al■na,
14-14: and that at Ko.ssovo in 1448; hut his most
glorious achievement was the storming of Belgrade
(1456). Shortly afterwards Hunyady died of
dysentery. During the minority of Ladislaus V.
the great captain acted as governor of the kingdom
(1445-.53). Hunyady left two sons, Ladislaus and
Matthia.s — the former of whom wju-; beheaded iit
Buda on a charge of conspiracy : the latter suc-
ceeded to the crown of Hungary (q.v.).
Hllliza-Nagar, the valley (containing the
forts of Hunza and Nagar) of a river running into
the tiilgit, at the extreme NW. corner of Cash-
mere. Together with Kanjut, the up]ier part of
the same valley, it became British in 1891.
llllOII Gllir. See New GlINE.V.
II lion of Itord«>ail\, one of the Charlemagne
cycle of romances. In its present form it is a prose
version, dating from 1454, of a poem current about
the end of the l2th century, and sometimes ;i.sciibed,
without grounds, to the tnmvire Hiion de Ville-
neuve. In the story, Huon, Duke of Guienne, one
of the paladins of Charlemagne, in .self-defence
kills Chariot, son of Charlemagne, and is in con-
sequence condemned to die, but his life is granted
on the hard condition that he brings back from
Bagdad .some of the Saracen emir's teeth and beard
after having kis.sed his daughter before his face.
The dwai-f Oberon gives him a magical cup and
horn, one hla-st of wliiili in the hour of ])eril tirings
him and 1 0(1, 0(K) warriors to Huon 'said. Moreover,
the jirincess Esclarmonde, like Medea, lightens his
labours by falling in love with him, so that at bust
he is completely successful, and returns with her
as his wife to clear himself before Charlemagne.
The 1 nose romance w,as printcil at Paris in 1516;
and Lord Reiner's English transhition, hv Wvnkvn
de Worde, in 1534 (ed. by S. L. Lee for K! Eng.
Text Sue, 1SS2-87; simiililied by Steele, 1896).
IIA-nci, one of the central luovinces of China,
watered by the 'Vangtse. See China.
HDRD
HUSBAND AND WIFE
13
Hlird, KiCHARD, English prelate and writer,
nameil the 'Beauty of Holiness' on account of
liis comeliness ami piety, was boin at Conyrcve, in
StaH'orJshire. .lanuaiy 13, 1720, ami studied at
Emmanuel Colleirc, Cambridge, of which he
became a Fellow in 1742. In 1749 appealed his
first notable production, Coniiiwiifaii/ on Horace's
Ais Poctka. In connection with this work Gibbon
wrote of tlie author, ' I know few writers more
deserving of the great but prostituted name of
critic : but. like many critics, he is better qualilied
to instruct than to execute.' In 17,")0. on the
recommendation of Warburton, of whom he was
a life-long friend and admirer, and whose Works he
edited in 17S8, he was appointed one of the White-
hall preachers. He afterwards (1774) became
Bishop of Lichfield and Coventry, but exchanged
this see for Worcester in 17S1 ; in 1783 he declined
the archliishopric of Canterliury. He died May
28, 1808. His principal works are Dissertations on
Poctrtj, d-c. (1755-57); Dialogues on Sincerity,
Retirement, the Golden Age of Elizabeth, and the
Constitution of the English Government (1759),
his most popular book ; Letters on Chivalry and
Romance ( 1762) : Dialogues on the Uses of Foreign
Travel (1764); and An Introduction to the Study
of the Prophecies concerninq the Christian Church
(\'T2). See Kurd's Wor);s (8 vols. 1811) and
Memoirs by Kilvert ( 1860).
Hiirdwsir. See Hardwar.
Hurdy-gurdy, a very old musical instrument
of the stringed kind, something between a guitar
and a lute in appearance. It has four or six cat-
gut or wire strings attached to screw-jiegs in the
head : two of the strings stretch over the sounding-
board to the tailpiece, and are so\inded by a
woollen wheel (under the cover a in the fig.)
charged with rosin, ^\hich Is turned by means
of a handle with the player's right hand. The
Q'U ■'-
O
/'
Hurdy-gurdy.
strings are ' stopped ' by an ingenious arrangement
of keys, b, manipulated with the left hand. The
remaining strings are stretched out of reach of
the keys, and are tuned as drones. The instru-
ment has a range of two octaves from the tenor G
upwards. The rustic simplicity of its music made
it at one time a great favourite among the peasan-
try of a great part of Europe ( see Engel's Musical
Instruments). The name hurdy-gurdy is also some-
times applied to the mechanical pianos familiar on
the streets. The word was probably coined to
express contempt of the instrument.
Hlirlingliaill. at Fulham (q.v.) in Middlesex,
on the Thames below the bridge, the headrjuarters
of Pigeon-shooting (q.v.) and polo.
Huron, the second in area of the five great
lakes on the frontier between the United States
and Canada, is connected at the north-west by St
Mary's Hiver with Lake Superior, and through the
strait of Mackinaw witli Lake Michigan. On the
Koutli it has an outlet by way of the St Clair River.
It is bounded on the W. anil SW. by Michigan, and
elsewhere by Ontario. The lake is divided into
two unequal jiarts liy the Cabot's Head peninsula
and (irand Manitoulin island, the parts to the
north being called North Channel and Georgian
Bay. Its e.xtreme length is 263 miles ; its gieatest
breadth, exclusive of Geoigian Bay, 105 miles;
average breadth, 70 miles. The area of the entire
lake is 23,800 sq. m. ; it is larger than Lake
Michigan, althongli its basin is smaller. Accord-
ing to the perfected levels of the United States
Lake Survey, its mean elevation is 581f'u feet
above sea-le\el ; it is 20^. feet below Lake
Sujierior, and 8,17 above Lake Erie. Huron has
a mean depth of about 250, and a maximum
depth of 750 feet. There is an average ditterence
between high and low water (due to winds and
rain) of I/5 foot. Hunm, like the other lakes, is
subject to violent .storms. It contains about three
thousand islands, nearly all Canadian ; some of
them are of considerable size. The waters are
very clear and pure, and abound in fish. There
are numerous good harbours and roadsteads, most
of them on the Canadian side ; at Sand Beach,
Jliehigan, there is a harbour of refuge. See
Crosman's Chart of the Great Lakes ( Milwaukee,
1888).
Huroilian. a subdivision of the Archaean rocks
of Canada. See Arch.ean System.
Huroiis, a once powerful tribe of American
Indians, lielonging to the Huron-Iroquois family.
In the early jiart of the 17th century the Hurons
numbereil about .30,000 jiersons, living in twenty-
five villages witliin a small territory near Georgian
Bay. By the end of the century the tribe had been
nearly destroyed by the Iroquois, famine, and
disease ; and in 1693 the few survi\ ors vere
removed by the French to Jeune Lorette, near
Quebec. Here two or three hundred descendants
still live ; but very few are of ]nire blood, and all
are Catholics, and have abandoned their own lan-
guage for French.
Hiirriciino. See Storjis, and Wind.
Hursley, a village of Hampshire, 5 miles SW.
of Winchester. John Keble, author of the Christian
Year, was vicar here from 1835 till his death in
1861). In 1848, with the profits of that celebrated
work, he restored the church, which is rich in
modern stained glass. Keble himself lies buried in
the churchyard, and in the chancel is the grave of
Richard Cromwell.
Hurstinoureaux. a village of Sussex, 5 miles
N. of Peven.sey, with the extensive ivy-covered ruins
of a fine castle, built of brick under Henry VI. by Sir
Roger de Fienes, one of the heroes of Agincourt.
It i)assed in 1727 into the hands of the Hares or
Hare-Xaylors. The then head of the house. Bishop
Hare, took good care of the estate, but its resouices
were shamefully squandered by the two succeeding
heirs, and about the close of the century the castle
was unroofed and its valuable contents sold oft' at
a six weeks' sale. A modern mansion was built
near its ruins. The famous Broad Church leailer.
Archdeacon Hare (q.v.), was rector of the parish
from 1832 till 1855, and lies buried in the church-
yard. The church is Early English, with Per|ien-
dicular windows, and contains, among other ancient
monuments, the fine canopied altar-tomb of the
second Lord Dacre.
Hurstpieriioillt, a market-town of Sussex,
8 miles N. by W. of Brighton. Here is St John's
College ( 1849), a middle-class school in connection
with Lancing ((|.v.). Pop. of parish, 2736.
Husband and .WifV. The marriage-con-
tract is for the joint lives of the ]iarties, and comes
to an end with the death of either; they cannot
themselves put an end to it or escape from its
oliligations, except by means of ii legal Divorce
(q.v.) or Sejiaration (q.v.). It is a not uncommon
delusion among working-people that if a husband
or wife runs away or disappear the deserted
u
HUSBAND AND WIFE
spouse may lawfully many aj;ain ; but this is not
the case. If husband or wife ilisappeais, ami is
not heanl of for seven yeai-s, tlie party tleserteil
may marry attain witlumt iiicuriiiig the risk of a
conviction for liij;amy ; but even in this case the
second mavriaj,'e is a nullity if the tirst husband or
wife is alive at tlie time when it is solemnised.
Duriuj; its continuance tlie contract has important
eHeets on the rights and mutual relations of the
t)arties. The husband is, in law, the head of the
louse ; he has a rij;ht to choose the family domicile,
and to require his wife to cohabit with liim there.
He may sue and be sued, enter into contracts, and
dispose of his property as freely as a single man ;
the modern Enjjlish law ]>ermits him to bequeath
his property without makiiiy; any provision tor his
wife, and to bar her claim to dower in disjjosing
of his landed estate. He is bound to maintain his
wife and children ; if, being aide to maintain
them, he neglects to do so, his goods may be seizeil
and sold Viy the parish authorities, or he may be
imprisoned for one month as a disorderly pei-son.
If he deserts his wife and family, leaving tliem to
become a charge on the parish, he may be treated
as a rogue and varabond, and imprisoned for three
months. If his wife lea\es him without just cause
he is not l>ound to support her, and he may compel
her to return by Ijringing an action for the restitu-
tion of conjugal riglits. But if there is just cause
for separation — if, for example, the liusband is
guilty of what the law deems cruelty — as keeping
a mistress in the house, or starving and beating his
wife — the wife is not bound to return, and the
husband will be liable for the price of necessaries
ordered by her on his credit. Wlien tlie parties
are living together, the question whether the wife
has authority to pledge her husband's credit must
be decided on consideration of all the facts of the
case. No authority is implied from the mere fact
of marriage, and tradesmen are not safe in relying
on the wife's assertion in such cases : but a woman
who keeps her husband's house may be taken to
have authority to order food and clothing suit-
able to tlieir rank in life, unless the husband has
taken steps to protect himself from liability, as,
for e.Kample, l>y giving notice to the tradesman not
to trust his wife. Sluch misconception prevails
in regard to the e,\tent of a wife's authority ; and
there is a class of small traders, called tallymen,
who take advantage of the popular ignorance.
They persuade working-men's wives to purchase
dres.ses or other goods, to be paid for by instal-
ments ; on default in payment, the husband is
often made to jiay heavily for his wife's improvi-
dence, thougli it may be that in law he is not
liable at all. In such a case it is sometimes best
for the husband to allow himself to be taken into
a county court, where the judge will see that the
tallyman gets no more than his due. .V jiolicy of
insurance, elVected by a husl)and on his own life
for the benelit of his wife or children, is protected
against his creditoi-s.
A married woman is called in law French feme,
roverte : she is ])rotected by her husband and under
his control, and the two are, for many purnoses,
one |)erson in law. If she commits a crime in his
coriijiany or under his coercion the crime is his,
not hers ; he is punished and she escapes ; but this
rule does not apply to treason, murder, and other
heinous offences. Formerly she could sue onlv bv
her next friend, and if she was sued, her husbaiul
was joined ; but modern rules permit her to sue
and clefend alone. .Vt common law the wife's
personal |)ro|>erty vested in the huslianil : he took j
the prolits of her land iluring the marriage : anil
if an heir was born of the marriage the husband 1
became 'tenant by the courtesy of Englaml,' and t
held the land for his own life if he survived his I
wife. He assumed her liabilities also, and might
be sued for her antenuptial debts. Uul at an
early period courts of eijuity decided that, where
jjioperty was given for the separate tise of a
married woman, she herself should have the use
and disposition of it : if such jiroperty came into
the liusband's hands he held it as tnistee for her.
This doctrine of separate use has been greatly
extended by the Married Women's Property Acts
of 1870, 1874, and 1882. These acts ilo not apiily
in their integrity to women married before they
came into operation ; it is therefore necessary in
iiscertaining the rights of a wife to know when
she was married. I'luler the .Vet of 1882 a wife
holds her realty and personalty ;us her own separate
property ; she may enter into contracts relating to
it, and dispose of it as freely as a Ji mc sulr. Her
property is liable for her separate debts, and
execution may issue against it, tliou>di not against
her person. Her husband is not liable for her
ante-nuptial debts, except to the value of any
property which cimies to him through her. .She
may insure her own or her husband's life for her
separate use. All earnings of the wife are i)ro-
tected by the Married Women s Property Acts ;
and under an earlier act a woman sejjarated from
her husband may obtain a magistrate s order pro-
tecting her earnings. A woman who has projiei ty
may be made liable under the poor-law for the
maintenance of her husband and children.
Marriage is a '\alualile consideration,' ami a
settlement of property made in purenance of the
contract stands good even against creditors. Pro-
visions for the benefit of children are "within the
.scope of the marriage bargain.' A ))ost-iiuptial
settlement, unless made in fultilment of a previous
bargain, is not made in consideration of marriage;
it may be upset b\- creditors like any other volun-
tary transfer of property.
"The old rule that husband and wife are one
person has been so far set aside by legislation that
some of the consequences deduced from it are now
doubtful in point of law. Formerly, if pi'ojierty
were given in equal shares to husbaiul and wife
and a third person, the husband aii<l \v ife took liiilf
and tlie third person the other half : and it has been
decided that this rule applies even in a case of a gift
or will made since 1882. Again, it iLsed to be held
that a woman cmild not be convicted of stealing
her husband's goods ; but sections 12 and 1(5 of the
.\ct of 1882 enable married persons to iirosccute
one another. Except in cases within the act, and
cases of personal injury inflicted by one spouse on
the other, husband and wife cannot give evidence
in criminal )iroeeediiigs against one another : thus,
on a trial for bigamy, the tirst wife cannot be
called to prove her own marriage. In civil actions
the spouses are competent witnesses for and against
one another.
\ husband surviving his wife is entitled to her
personal ]iroperty not disjiosed of by her, and has
a ])aramouiit claim to administer her estate. A
wife surviving her husband is entitled to one-third
of his personaltv not disposed of by him, and she
has a claim to ailmiiiister : she has also a claim to
dower — i.e. a life-estate in one-third of his land,
unless the claim to dower has licen barred.
In the United Stales the law of husband ami wife
is based upon the common law of England a» above
explained. The legislation of the diHerent states,
however, has diverte<l the common law rules with
somewhat varying effect in the ilirection of the
recent English statutes, and considerably in advance
of theiri upon the .s;ime lines. A long scries of
statutes, beginning ;it an earlier period than in
England — about 1844— has now swept away the
ilisabilities laid u[>on married women by the com-
mon law. Wives are now generally able to hold
HUSBAND AND WIFE
HUSS
15
l)ioperty, real and pei-suual, in their own rif;lit, to
ent«r into contracts, and to sue in their own
names. They are on substantially an equal
footin" with unmarried women ; and it is not
uncommon for married women to earr_\' on business
in their own names and with full power to enforce
contracts. The old rule that husband and «ife are
one person in law is now practically obsolete. A
wife may contract with her husbanil and may sue
him upon tlie contract, in some states directly, in
others through the intervention of a guardian or
trustee. The independent position conceded by
the law to married womeu in the United States is
a chief cause of tlie recent increase and freq^uency
of divorce in tliat country.
Tile law of Scotland has specialties of its own.
The husband is the legal curator of his wife ; and
if at the time of the marriage slie have another
curator, the office of tliis last expires. Thus
actions brought against a wife must be brought
also against tlie husband for his interest, and the
husband must concur in actions raised by the wife.
The husband further in his capacity of curator
signs as consenter to the wife's deeds. The hus-
band is liable for the antenuptial debts of his
wife ; but uniler the Married Women's Property
Act, 1877, this liability is limited to the amount liy
which the husband receives prolit from the mar-
riage. The wife has power to bind her husband in
so far as she acts with his authority and as his
agent. With regard to furnishings to the family,
the wife is presumed Ijy law to be the manager of
the household, pr(eposita neijotiis doinesiicis, and so
to be authorised to bind the husband. This [ire-
sumption can only be removed by inhibition or Ijy
private notice from the husband to tradesmen.
The jus muriti, or husband's right, had the etl'ect
of transferring to the husband upon marriage all the
pei-sonal property of the wife belonging to her at
the time of the marjiage, or acquired by her during
its subsistence. It also ga\ e the husband the rents
and yearly income of her heritable property : but
it did not extend over the wife's i)araphernalia.
Besides the jus mariti, the liusliand possessed tlie
right of administration of his wife's heritable pro-
perty. In virtue of this right, the husljand's con-
sent is necessary to all acts by which tlie wife deals
with her heritage. Both of these rights may be
renounced by the husband or excluded by special
contracts and settlements ; and with regard to
marriages that come under the Married ^\'omen's
Property Acts these riglits are to a great extent
extinguished.
The eft'ect of the Married Women's Property Act,
1882, is to abolish the jus utariti altogether with
regard to marriages contracted after its date ; to
vest in the wife as her own separate estate all the
movable property acquired by lier at any time.
The statute practically does away with the hus-
bands right of administering the income of the
w'ife's estate. The earnings of married women and
those of women livinj' separate from their husbands
are protected by i^irior statutes against the hus-
band and his creditoi-s. On the death of a wife
the surviving husband has a liferent interest, called
courtesy, in her heritable estate ; and has the same
interest in her movable estate as a widow has in
the movable estate of her deceased husband — i.e.
a share amounting to one-half if there are no
children, and one-third if there are. This .share,
when it falls to a widow out of the estate of her
deceased husband, is hers by virtue of the jus
relictm or relict's right. The widow luus further,
where she has no conventional provision, a right to
the terce, whicli is a liferent of a third of the
Iiusband's heritable property.
See work.s by Lush (1884), Macqueen (1885), Schouler
(Boston, 1882), Thicknesse (1884), and Crawley (1892).
Illisoll, or Hu.si, a town of Moldavia, near the
Prutli, .% miles SSE. from Jassy, cultivates tobacco
and the vine. It was founded by fugitive Huss-
ites in the 15th century. Here w.as signed in 1711
the treaty between the Russians and Turks by
which Peter the (Jreat rescued his arniv, surrounded
by the foe. Pop. 1S,.500.
Hliskissoil, WiLLi.VM, statesman and linancier,
was born at liiitsmorton Court, in AVorcestersliire,
11th March 1770, and in 17S3 wivs sent to Paris to
study medicine. He was present at the storming of
the Bastille, and as a member of the Club of 1789
attracted attention l>y a speech on the assignats.
Returning to England, he wa-s appointed in 1795
under-secretary in the Colonial Department. Next
year he entered parliament for Mor]ieth as a sup-
porter of Pitt. Being returned for Liskeard in
1804, he was appointed secretary of the Treasury ;
and he held the .same office under the Duke of
Portland (1807-9). In 1814 he became chief Com-
missioner of the Woods and Forests ; in 1823
President of the Board of Trade, ami treasurer
of the navy ; and in 1827 Secretary of State for
the Colonies. But he resigned office linally in the
following year. Through his exertions "the old
restrictions on the trade of the colonies with foreign
countries were removed. He also olitained the
removal or reiluction of many import duties, con-
siderable relaxation of the navigation laws, and is
allowed to have been an active pioneer of free
trade. He received fatal injuries at the opening
of the Liverpool and Manchester Railway, 15th
September 1830, and died the same evening. A
collection of his speeches, with a Life iiretixed, was
published in 3 vols, in 1831.
Huss, or more properly Hrs, JoHS, Bohemian
reformer and martyr, w;is born in (probaldy) 1369,
the son of a Bohemian peasant, at Husinec ( of
which Hus is a contraction), XW. of Budweis.
Two years after taking (1.396) his master's degree
at the university of Prague lie began to lecture
there on theological subjects. He had at this time
already come under the iiiHuence of Wyclif's
writinj^s, in all probability- through Anne of
Bohemia's retinue, and he is belie\ed to ha\ e made
them the basis of his teaching. In 1402 he was
appointed rector of the university, and began
to preach at the Bethlehem chapel in the city of
Prague. It was not, however, until the year 1408
that he came into conflict with the Roiiiaii ( 'atholic
Church. In that year certain of his pulpit utter-
ances against clerical aliuses ^vere laitl hold upon
by the clergy of the diocese and city of Prague,
and made the ground of a formal complaint against
him to the archbishop. Sbyiiko. In consequence of
this Huss was forbidden to exercise priestly func-
tions within the diocese. Early in the following
year the element of political feeling was infused into
the quarrel, all the strong interests of the awaken-
ing national consciousness ranging themselves in
supiiort of the reformer, who by his preaching had
conipletcdy won the hearts of the common people.
Although Huss was again elected rector of the
university in October 1409, the archbi>hop com-
missioned an inquisitor to investigate the charges
of heretical teaching which had lieen alleged
again.st him. And it was undoubtedly in connec-
tion with this proceeding that in December the
pojiB ( Alexander V.) jiromulgated a bull in con-
demnation of Wyclif's teaching, and ordered all
his writings to be |]iiblicly burned, and at the same
time forliaile preaching in any except collegiate,
parish, and monastery churches. This, however,
not being sufficient to ]irevent Huss from continuing
his preaching, he was in the following .luly excom-
municated bv the Archbishop of Pra<;ue. Popular
riots followeil in the city, and Hu.ss, backed by the
16
HUSS
HUTCHESON
people, still maintained his position ; nor did he
yield one jot even after the entire city was laid
under a papal interdict in 1411. But \i\ the last
month of tlie folluwini,' year matters had greatly
chanj;ed, in conseijuenoe of Hnss havinfj; spoken
out yet more boldly against the churcli : hence some
of his more inlluential supporters, including the
university, had fallen away from him, so that he
was constrained to yield to the desire of the king
of Boliemia, Wenceslaus, that he should absent
himself from Prague. He found refuge at the
castles of certain of his supporters, for nearly the
whole body of the nobles were with him. This
enforceil leisure lie emjiloyed ohielly in tlie com-
position of his principal work, Dc Err/i:fi<i. This
book, together with many of Huss's minor writin;^,
contains numerous passages taken almost verbatim
from Wyclif's works ; and the authorities of the
Roman Catholic Church must have looked upou
Huss as the expounder and propagator of Wyclif's
views. About this time a general council was
summoned to meet at Constance, and Huss was
called upon to present himself before it, in order
to have his case adjudicated upon. Provided
with a ' safe conduct ' from the Emperor Sigis-
mnnd, he arrived at Constance on 3il November
1414. Three w-eeks later, in violation of his
safe-conduct, he was seized ami thrown into prison.
No precise chai'ge had been lodged against him ;
but ue had resumed preaching after his arrival in
Constance. An ill auguiy for Huss was the con-
demnation of Wyclif's writings by the council in
May 141."). His own trial began on .jth June follow-
ing ; but he was not i)ermitted to speak freely in
his own defence, nor allowed to have a defender to
speak in his liehiilf. Called upon to recant uncon-
ditionally, to make full submission to the council,
and to pledge himself not to preach or teach the
doctrines that were put in accusation against him,
Huss categorically refused, and was forthwith led
to the stake, and burneil to aslies, <m 6th .July.
HrssiTES. — The news of the imprisonment and
death of .John Huss roused popular feeling in
Bohcmiu to the highest ]iitcli of wrath and indig-
nation. Whilst the masses gave way to rioting
and murdered Roman Catholic ecclesiastics, 452
nobles, in a diet which h.ad been h.astily sum-
moned at Prague in September 1415, solemnly
attested their confidence in Huss, and their admira-
tion of his personal character, and tliree days later
formed themselves into a league for the mainten-
ance of liberty of preaching in Bohemia, and for
upholding their belief in the Word of God as the
ultimate lawgiver of the church. For this they
were excommunicated l>y the council. Both parties
now prepared for war. Yet it soon became ap])ar-
ent that the Hu.ssites were not all of one mind ; for,
as in all great popular movements of this kind,
there was an extreme party who were desirous of
carrying things to the greatest lengths. The more
moderate section formulated their demands in four
articles, preaching of the gospel in the Bohemian
language, the right of the laity to receive the com-
munion in both kinils, reform of clerical abuses, and
the probiliitioii of the clergy to hold sei'uhir ]iroperly
and exercise secular jurisdiction ; these were calleil
Praguers, but more fre(|Uently Calixtines (<•«//./■
= a chalice) or I'traquists (from their claiming com-
munion ■'iiih ii/rfti/uu .ijKitic). The extreme partv,
headed by Ziska (q.v.), and called Taborites, from
their headiiuartei-s being at iMount Tabor, some
24 miles N K. of Pisek, went beyond the I'tra-
(juists in their condemnation of purgatory, the
worship of saints, of images, ami of relics, and the
practice of penance, ami in their a.ssertion of the
right of tlie laity, even of women, to preach, and
that in any building they pleased. At this period
too King Wenceslaus (lied, and the throne of
Bohemia was claimed by his brother, the Emperor
Sigismund. Nevertheless, both parties united in
ottering a stubborn resistance to the emperor, and
his forces were defeated at Ziskaberg in 1420, at
Deutsch-Brod in 1422, at .Aussig in 142ti, and .at Taus
in 1431. Under the two lirothers Procopius the
Hu.ssites invaded Silesia, Saxony, and Franconia ;
the.v were said to have taken and destroyed more
than 100 towns and 1500 villages ; according to a
doubtful legend, Naumburgwas saved by the inter-
cession of the schoolchildren. After the battle of
Taus negotiations were begun, which ended, two
years later, in the Calixtines .securing their ends
by the 'Compactata of Prague,' which was signed
by the delegate of the Council of Basel on 30th
November. This paciMcation the Taborites refused
to accept, and in the contest that then en.sued
between them and the Calixtines, they were worsted
at Lipan near Kolin and at Hrib near Bohinisch-
Brod in 1434, and from that tune rapidly disappear
from history. Two years later the Emperor Sigis-
mund, after ratifying the 'Compactata' with his
signature, was accepted l)y the Bohemians as their
king. The Utraquists finally became merged in
the Moravian Brethren (q.v.).
See Documentff JohannisHus rifnm, doctrinam, rausani
iUiistrtiiitift (ed. by Palacky, 18(>'.l), and monographs by
Becker ( 18581, Kriinniiel ( 180:!), Berger (1872), Wratis-
law (in English, 1882), and Loscrth (1884; Eng. trans.
1884); Deni.s, i{u3s et la Guerre des Busmtcs (1878);
Palacky, UrkiuifUicke Beifnif/c zur Geschichte des
Hussitiiiki-ii'iK (1872-73); Kiummel, Gescltichti- der
Bohnii^i'/n n Jii formation ( ISfiii ) ; Bezold, Sitvimnid iind
die Ji(irh:<t\rit(je yegen dir Hin^sitci} ( 1872- 77), and Zur
Geseiiichte dei> Husifitnithumg (1874); Wratislaw, John
Hits (1882) ; Leger, Histortj of Austro-Hunr/nrii (Eng.
trans. 1890 ) ; Lechler, Johannrx ffiiss, ein Lebenshild
(1890); the articles Bohemia (' Literature ' ), Ziska,
PODIEBRAD, CONST.U4CE, WyCI.IF, &C.
Hussar, a light-cavalry trooper, wearing in
full dress a tunic and Bushy, (q.v,), and armed
with sabre and carbine. The 10th and ISth Light
Dragoons were changed in 1S06-7 to Hussars, the
earliest in the Britisli army (see C.Ay.XLUV ). The
name is not a Hungarian huxz-dr, indicating that
they were raised one out of e\ery twenty inhabit-
ants ; but pure Slavonic for 'Gooseherd,' a name
given to bodies of wild, raiding horsemen, organised
and taken into pay by Matthias Corvinus.
Hussein. See Shiites.
HllSIIIII. an old town in the Prussian province
of Sleswick-Holstein, 23 miles W. of Sleswick by
rail and 2.]. from the North Sea. Pop. (i2(i7.
HlltcUesOll, FliANCIS, a distinguished jiliilo-
sopher of the 18th century, was the son of a
Presbyterian minister in the north of Ireland,
where he was born in 1094. He studied for the
cliurch at the university of Glasgow, but slnntly
after the completion of his theological cour.se he
was induced to open a private academy in the city
of Dublin, wliicli proved highly successful. In
1720 he imbli.shed his Iminini into the Oriiiiiud of
<iiir Itleas uf Bcoiitij timl Virtue, Arc, which was
the means (if introducing him to the notice of many
inlluential ]icrsimages, such as Lord Granville, then
lord lieutenant of Ireland, .Vrcbbishop King, Piim-
ale B(mlter, and others. This work was followed
in 172.S by his Easeiy on t/ie Niifiire imtl Cundiict of
the J'ti.sxionx : and in the year after he was ap-
pointed ])rofessorof Moral Philosojdiy in the univer-
sity of (Ilasgow. Here he died in 1747. In his
lifetime he published various niinoi- books, includ-
ing a small treatise on Loi/ir ; but his lar''est work,
A Synteni of Mejrnl I'hilosojilni, was ]inblished at
Glasgow in 17.55 by his son, Francis Ilutcheson,
M.I)., with a Life \>\ Dr Lee<-hman. As a meta-
physician Ilutcheson may in some respects be con-
sidered a pioneer of the so-called ' Scotch school '
HUTCHINSON
HUTTEN
17
aiul of the common sense iihilosophy, although he is
largely inlhienoed by Locke. From tlie <leliveiy of
Hiitcheson's lectuies, aeooiding to Dugalil Stewart,
may be dated the motaphysioal iiliilosophy of Scot-
land. But it is as a moral iihilosuplii-r, rather than
as a metaphysician, that Uutcheson was conspicu-
ous. His system is to a large extent that of
Shaftesbury, but it is more conii)lete, coherent, and
dearly illustrated. Hutcheson is a strong opponent
of the doctrine that benevolence has a sellish
origin ; he is practically a utilitarian ; and the
faculty by which moral distinctions are recognised
Hutcheson (after Shaftesbury) terms a moral sense.
See Ethics ; Fowler, S/uff/es/jmi/ and Hiitrheson
( 1882) : and W. R. Scott, Fnnieh 'Hiiteheson ( 1900).
Hlltl'llill.soil, Anne, a religious enthusiast,
was the daughter of a Lincolnshire clergyman
called Marbury. Born in 1590, she mariied a Mr
Hutchinson, and in 1634 they emigrated from Lin-
colnshire, England, to Boston, Massachusetts. She
held various theological heresies ; amongst others,
that the person of the Holy tUiost dwells in justi-
lied persons. She held meetings, lectured, and
denounceil the Massachu.setts clergy as being with
few exceptions ' under the covenant of works, not
of grace.' Her followers were charged with Anti-
noniianism (q.v. ). Great controversies arose, and
a synod was called, in which her teachings were
condemned ; and lieing tried for heresy ami sedi-
tion, she was banished from the colony. She and
her friends acquired territ(n'y from the Narragan-
.sett Indians of Khode Island, where they set up a
communit}' on the highly commendable principle
that no one was to be ' accounted a delincjuent for
doctrine.' After the death of her husband (who
shared her opinions) she removed to a new settle-
ment in what is now New York state, where, in
16-13, she and her whole family of fifteen persons
were taken prisoners by the Indians, and all but
one daughter barbannisly murdered.
Hlltdlilison. John, an English theological
writer, Ijorn in 167-t at Spennithorne, in Yorkshire.
He was for some time steward of the household
of the Duke of Somerset, and left his service to
devote himself to his religious .studies, the duke
procuring for him a sinecure appointuient of £200
a year from government. In 1724 he published
the first part of a work called Moses' Friiieipia, in
which he defended what he regarded as the Mosaic
cosmogony, and assailed Newton's theory of gravi-
tation. He continued to publish a succession of
works till his death, which took place on 28th
August 1737. His religious .system is best ex-
hibited in his Thoughts eonccniing Religion. The
leading principle of it is that the Holy Scriptures
contain the elements not only of true religion, but
of all rational philosophy, wliicli, however, was to lie
derived only from the original Hebrew ; and it, for
that |iur|)Ose, was snlijected to strange critical or
rather fanciful processes. His followers were calle<l
HtT('HlN.soNl.\s.s, and among them were persons
of considerable learning and celebrity. Ministers
of some of the Scottish I'resbyterian churches are
yet required explicitly to renounce the errors of the
Hutchinsonians.
Iliiti'iiiiisoii. Colonel John, the type of the
I'uritati gentleman, w,as the son of Sir Tliom.as
Hutchinson, and was born at Nottingham in Sep-
Icniher Kjlo. Hi; studied at ('••niiliridge, and next
for a short time at Lincoln's Inn, ami marrie<l in
1C3S Lucy, (laughter of Sir .Allen Apslcv. He now
retired to Owthoipe, and here his meditations on
the troubled theology and politics of the time leil
him at last to side with the parliament rather
than the king. He became governor of Notting-
ham, and successfully held the town against
enemies without and intrigue and cahimnv from
262
within till the close of the struggle. About the
beginning of the year 1646 be was sent up by
Nottingham to lill liis father's place in the parlia-
ment, and later sat as one of the commissioners
in the High Court of Justice for the king's trial,
and signed the warrant im his execution. He sat
in the first ccntncil of state, but gradually became
alarmed at the ambitious schemes of Cromwell,
and ceased to take an active part in politics. At
the Hestoi-ation, along with otiier regicides, he was
included in the Act of Anmesty, but later was im-
prisoned for about a year in the Tower and at
Sandown Castle in Kent on a groundless suspicion
of treasonalile conspiracy, and died lltb September
1664. The Memoirs, written liy his widowed wife
for her children, was first pubiished in 1806, and
revealed to the world a delightful picture of a
grave and courteous gentleman, beautiful and
accomplished ; tender to hLs family and the poor ;
fearless, frank, and honest in temper ; intense in
devotion, yet entirely free from austerity ai\d
fanaticism. The unsought beauty of the style,
and the absolute sincerity and truthfulness of the
narrative, give the book an almost unique place
among English biographies, and the tender devoted-
ne.ss of loving memory with which throughout it
is informed lias still power to touch the modern
reader with a thrill ot sympathetic emotion. An
excellent edition, by C. H. Firth, was published in
1885.
Hlltteil, Philip von, a (Jerman adventurer,
and a cousin of Ulrich von Ilutten, was born at
Birkenfeld about the end of the 15th century, and
was educated at the court of Henry of Nassau. In
1528 the Emperor Charles V. made a grant of the
province of Venezuela to the ^Velsers, a hrm of
rich Augsliurg merchants ; and Hutten sailed with
one of the companies they sent out. He accom-
panied the viceroy, tieorg Hohemut, in a long
journey ( 15.36-38), in which they reached the head-
waters of the Rio Japura, near the eiiuator. In
1541 he set out in search of the tiolden City.
After several yeai's ot wandering, harassetl by the
natives and weakened by hunger and fever, he
and his followers came on a large city, the capital
of the Oniaguas, in the country north of the
Amazons ; and attacking this place, they were
routed by the Indians, and Hutten himself severely
wounded. He led those of his followers who
survived back to Coro in 1546, where .luan de
Caravajal had in the meantime usurped the office
of viceroy : and by him Hutten and his lieutenant,
Bartel ^^ elser, were seizeil anil beheaded. Eight
years later the Welsers' grant was taken from
them, and the rule of the (iermans in \'enezuela
came to an end. Hutten left a narrative of his
journeyings, which w.as published under the title
Zeittiiiej a lis Indicii ( 1765). See also Von Langegg,
El Dorado (Leip. 1888).
llllttrilt Ulrich von, p<iet, humanist, and
reformer, was born on 21st April 1488, of an old
Franconian family whose seat was at Steckelberg,
near Fulda. Being puny and small of stature, and
of weak health, he was destined, although the
eldest son, for the tonsure, and was sent in 1499
to the Benedictine monastery of Fulda. But his
temperament — proud, high-spirited, impetuous, im-
patient of conlradiction and of restraint — did not
lit him for leading the religious life, and in 1.VI4 or
1.')(I5 he fled away from the monastery. Consumed
with a devouring hunger for knowledge- especially
for the new Humanistic learning, Hutten visiti'd
the chief universities of northern (iermany, ami
finally passed by way of \'icntia into Italy (1512).
During these years he was often utterly destitute,
and generally ill, sustained only by his love for the
New Learning and his indomitable spirit. His
18
HUTTEN
HUTTON
first works — Latin poems — were jirintecl in l.")09 ;
and in the same year he wrote tlie first of his many
l>itter satires. From tills time onwards his )ien
never rested : wlien not employed in lielialf of the
great cause it >\'as l)iis\- in some jirivate fend or
qnarrel. ]n Italy Ilutten remained nearly two
years. On reaehin;.; home he was received with
distinction at the court of Alhert, Archbishop and
Elector of Mainz. There he lir.st became ac-
([uainted with Erasmns, the leader of the Ihiman-
istic movement. In the sprinj; of LjlS all the liery
eombativeness of Hutten's nature was roused by
the murder of his cousin Hans, who had been
wantonly slain by Ulricb, Duke of ^Viirteniberg.
The young poet launched denunciation after de-
nunciation at the guilty duke, ami called upon the
em])eror to punish the otl'ender ; and, himself gird-
ing the sword upon his thigh, be niarcheil into
AVurtemberg along with the army of vengeance bis
family had raised. His friends then sent him back
to Ital,v to study law. At Home and at 15ologna
lie spent nearly two years, and came home to enter
the service of the Archbishop of Mainz. It was at
this time that he wrote his most important work,
his share of the Epistolic Obscuroriim Virorum
(q.v.)._
Having been formally crowned poet-laureate of
Germany by the Emperor Maximilian at Augsburg
in 1.517, Hutten began the real work of his life, bis
deliberate assault upon papal aggressiveness, in an
ironical dedication to Leo X. of a new edition of
Laurentius Valla's exposure of the fictitious Dona-
tion of Constantine. When be first heard of
Luther's revolt, Hutten looked upon it as a mere
monks' quarrel. In 1519 he took part, along
with his subseciuent friend and patron, Franz
von Sickingen, in the campaign of the Swabian
League against his old enemy, Duke Ulricli of
Wiirtemberg. But this concluded, he returned
to the attack upon the papal ])Ower. The ideal
that possessed his soul was to create a national
Germany, delivered from the hateful interfer-
ence, extortion, and spiritual tyranny of super-
cilious priests from beyond the Alps. But he
also aimed at an intellectual reform of the so-called
learned classes, through the spread of the New
Learninf;, and at the cultivation of refinement in
the habits and manners of his countrymen. At
length he came to understand the real significance
of Luther's action, and, at once joining hands with
liim, he espoused the reformer's part %\ith his
customary impetuosity and vehemence. Hence-
forward be was more closely identified M-ith the
Reformation than with the Humanistic movement.
A set of dialogues which he published in 1.520 con-
tained Vai/isriis, his formal manifesto against Rome.
This at last stung the pope to take retributive
measures, and he caused the archbishop to dismiss
Hutten from his .service. Hutten found shelter
in iSickingcn's strong castle of Kbernburg in the
Palatinate, whence during the next two years he
discharged a perfect show(u- of invectives, denun-
ciations, and satires at the heads of the Komauists,
and wrote ajqieal after apjieal to the tierman
emneror, the princ(^s and noliles, bishops, scholars,
and peo])le, urging them to shake oil' the tyrannous
iloniiuation of the enemies of their country. And
in oilier to get at the common ])eo])le he began to
write in the vernacular, his earliest work in (ler-
man being Aiifi'rr/:,-r il,-r tditschen Xatinii (ir>'2()),
a poem in which Hutten's .satiric powers reach
their highest pitch. Sickingen's castle having
beconie unsafe, Hutten Med in 1.52'2 to \\.\,^\, where
he was greeted with markeil coldness by Erasmus.
Tlii.i estiangemi'ut shortlv afterwards gave ri.se to
a bitter epistolary (|uariel. At BiLsid Ifutlcn was
again attacked by the odious disease from which
he had suM'ere<l since boyhood ; and, after seeking
a safe retreat at Miihlhausen and at Zurich, was
befriended by Zwiiigli, who found him an asylum
on the little inland of t'fnau in the Lake of Zurich.
There Hutten ended his stormy life in 1.523.
Hi.'i writing.s fall into tliruc divisions : ( 1 ) Latin poems
(1509-16); (2) letters and orations (1.515-17); and (3)
dialogues and letters, including his Uennau writings
(1517-231. See his Vp(r<( (hnnui (7 vols. 1S.59-C2). and
lives of him by .Straus.'* ( 4th cd. 187ti ; trans, hy Sturge
1874), Schott i ISKO ), and others.
nutter, Leoxhai:i>, champion of Lutheran
orthodoxy, was born in 1.5(i:? at Nellingen, near
Ulm, ami filled the chair of Theology at AVittenbei'O'
from 159U till his death in lOHi. His Cnitipciu/inin
(1610) took the place of Melanehthon's Loci, and
bis Concnrdin Coiicors (1614) w;is long a standard
work. His name w.os .adojited by Hase (ij.v.) in
his well-known reh.abilitation of the Old Lutheran
dogmatic, i/u^/rcK,? /i'prf/c/c»4- ( 1828: 12th ed. 1SS3).
Illltton. Ch.vrles, mathematician, son of a
superintendent of mines, was born at Newcastle-
upon-Tyne, 14th August 1737 : from 175.5 to I77.S
was a teacher at Jesmond ami Newcastle, and
published works on arithmetic (1764), mensuration
(1771), and bridges ( 1772). In 1773 be was made
professcu- of Mathematics at the Military Academy,
Woolwich, and in 1774 became F.R.S. " His calcu-
lations for determining the density of the earth
from Maskelyne's observations were imblished in
the Pldlosophical Traiisrictions for 1778. He re-
signed the ju-ofessorship in 1807 ; and lie died 27th
January 1823.
Hutton's most important works are Tables of Products
and Powers of Numbers ( 1781 ), Meithcmatieal Tables
(1785), Mathemntieal and Philosophical Dictionary
(1795), Course of Mathematics (1798-1801), and Recrea-
tions in Mathematics and Natural Philosophii (4 vols.
1803 — larj^ely from the French ).
Hlltton. dAJiES, one of the founders of geology,
was liorn at Edinburgh, lid June 1726. He studied
medicine in his native city and at Paris and Leyden,
but on his return home ( 1754) he settled in IJerwick-
shire and devoted himself to agricultural pursuits
and to chemistry, from which he was led to miner-
alogy and geology. In 1768 he removed to Kdiii-
burgh, and there spent bis time in scientific
investigations, and there he died, 26tli March 1797.
He read two im]>ortant papers before the Royal
Society of Edinburgh, A Tlirorif of the lutrtli ( 1785 ;
expanded to 2 vols, in 1795) and A Theory of Jinin
(1784). The upraised land of the globe niust, he
'thought, be worn away by atmos]iheric infiuences,
and the deluis be finally deposited in the bed of
the sea, where they are coiiscdidated uifiler great
pressure : they are then forced upw.-irds by subter-
ranean beat acting with an expansive power, and
thereby sjilit ami cracked, the fissures at the same
time filling with molten mineral matter; .and so
tlie process goes on. The form.ation of rain he
ascribed to the mingling of two strata of air of
ilill'erent temperatures and the sukseqnent con-
densation of the mixture.
He also wrote Dissertations in Natural Philosophy
(1792), Consitlerations on the Nature of Coal and Culm
(1777), and other works. See Gkoi.ogv.
Illltton. KiciiARD Holt, son and gramlson of
I'nilarian ministers, was horn at Leeds in 1826,
sluiliiMl at I'niversity College and School, London,
and under M.artineau at the Manchester New
College. He was for some time a Unitarian
prcachei', became principal of rniversity Hall, and
I'ontriliuted to Unitarian ju'rioilicals. Cnder the
irilluence of F. 1). Maurice he joined the Church of
England, edited the new quarterly National lic-
/•/(■((', and taught matliematirs in ISedford College.
About 1860 he and MrTowiiscnd became associated
as joint-editoi-s of the Sprrlatnr (founded ill 1828),
to which he gave the impress of his accoiiqdished,
HUXLEY
HUYGENS
19
resolute, devout niiml. He revei-pil Cardiiinl New-
iiiau ; hail constant vejranl to ethical anil religious
interests in his jutlgnients of men ami movements,
whether literary, social, or political ; anil greatly
strengthened opposition to Irish Home Rule. His
SliKfies in Paiiiamcid (]8(i6). Essays, Thcoloc] iral
and Literary (1871: new ed. ISSO), and Modern
Guides nf £nf/lis/i TliouglU ( 1SS7 ) were republished
from the periodicals ; hisnionograph on Scott ('Men
of Letters,' 1S7S) was his least etlective puhlication.
His last years were clouded by the melancholia of his
second wife, who,liU-e his first, belonged to tlie Liver-
pool Koscoe family. He died 11th September 1897.
Huxley. Thomas Henrv, biologist, bom at
Ealing, Middle.sex, 4th >Lav 182,"), commenced his
education at the school in that place, then a
small village, and afterwards studied medicine in
the Medical School of Charing Cross Hospital. In
1846 he entered the medical service of the royal
navy, and did duty at Haslar, until the winter
of the same year, under the late Sir John Klehard-
son, by whose influence he was appointed assistant-
surgeon of H.M.S. Eattlcsnalcc. This vessel, com-
manded by Captain Owen Stanley, was commis-
sioned' to survey the intricate passage within the
Barrier Reef skirting the eastern sliores of Aus-
tralia, and to explore the sea lying between the
nortliern end of that reef and New Guinea. Hux-
ley devoted himself \\ith zeal to the study of the
numerous marine animals collected during the sur-
vey, and made them the subjects of scientilic
Eiipers, which were imblished l>y the Royal and
innean societies. Towards the end of 1850 the
liattlesnake returned to England, and Huxley had
the gratiKcation to lind that his paper On Ike
Anatomi/ and Affinities of t/ic Family of the
Mednscf! had been published in the Philosophiexd
Transactions. In IS.jl Huxley was elected a
Fellow of the Royal Society ; in 18.52 one of the
two Royal medals annually given by the Society
was awarded to him ; and in 185.3 he contrib-
uted to the Society's Transaetlons a memoir
on the morphology of the Cephalous Mollusca.
In 1854 he was appointed professor of Natural
History, including Pahcontology, in the Royal
School of Mines in place of Professor Edward
Forbes, and held that olKce, combined with
the curatorship of the fossil collections in the
Museum of Practical Geology, until liis retirement
from the public service in 1885. It was part
of the duty of the professor to deliver a course
of six lectures to working-men every alternate
year. Some of these have been published. In
1854 he published contributions to the anatomy
of the Brachiopoda, in which some hitherto un-
sus])ected peculiarities of their structure were de-
scribed ; and in this and the preceding year he
wrote several essays on histological subjects. In
1856 he accompanied his friend Dr Tyndall in his
first visit to the glaciers of the Alps, and his name
appears as joint-author of a paper. Observations
on Glaciers (Phil. Trans. 1857). In 1859 his large
work on Tlic Oceanic Uydrozoa ; a. Description of the
Calycnphoridui and Pliijsiiphoridai observed during
his voyage, was pulilisiied by the Ray Society with
illustrative plates. After his a])]iointment 'to the
Royal School of Mines, Huxley's attention was
chiefly directed to vertebrate morphology and to
pal.'eontolog\-, with occasional excursions into the
region of ethnology ; but papers on the agamic
reproduction and morphology of Aphis (1858), on
the development of Pyrosojna ( 186(1), a manu.al of
the Invertebrata (1877), and classilication and dis-
tribution of Craylishes (1878) are evidence that
tlie In>i'rtebrata were not neglected. In vertebrate
morphology the most important pa|)ers are the
Royal Society's Croonian lecture. On the Tlicory of
the Vertebrate Skull (1858) ; various papers on the
brain in man and apes, and on the relation of man
to the lower animals, and Man's Place in Nature
( 1860 63) ; on the classification of Birds, and on the
Dino.iaiiria (1868-70); the article 'Amphibia' in
Ency. Piritannica (1S75); On Ce.ratodns (1876);
the cranial and dental structure of the Canidw
(1880): Lectures on. Coniparatire An(donii/ (Midi);
An Intrudiictinn to the Classification of Animals
( 1869). In pahcontology, be.sides various papers on
other fossil Invertebrata, memoirs on Ptrryr/otus
(1858) and Belcninitcs (1864); a series of papers
on Stayanolepis Eobertsoni and Hyperodapedon
Gordoni (1859-77-87); preliminary essay and de-
scriptions of Fossil Fishes in the Decades of the
Geological Survey ( 1862 ) ; Glyptodfjn ( 186:5 ) : Nean-
derthal Skull ( 1864) ; Reptilian Remains fiom India
(1864); TclerpetoH (1866): Amphiliia from the
Kilkenny Coal-measures ( 1867-71 ) ; Hi/psilophodon
and Evidences of Aflinity bet\\een heptiles and
Birds (1869-70) ; Chclonia from Lord Howe Island
(1887). In physiology, a short treati.se. Lessons
in Eleinrutary Physiology. Essays on topics of a
philosophical and general character are collected in
Lay Sermons, ike. (1870); Critiques and Addresses
(187.3); American Addresses and Physinyrajihy
( 1877 ) ; a short work on Hume ( 1879 ) ; Science and
Culture (1881); and Science and Hebrew 'Tradition
(1894). His collected essays, with an antobib-
graphy, were issued in 9 volumes in ls9;5-95. A
member of the Privy Council since 1892, he died at
Eastbourne, '29th June 1895. His son Leonard
wrote his Life and Letters (2 vols. 1900).
Huxley strongly advocated and greatly furthered
Darwin's views and evolutionist doctrines in gene-
ral, and was a keen and incisive critic of what he
regarded as obscurantist theological prejudices. He
held the otiices of examiner in the university of
Lomloii, of Fullerian professor at the Royal In-
.stitution, of Hunterian professor of Comparative
Anatomy at the Royal College of Surgeons, of
president of the Ethnological Society and of the
Bi-itish Association. He was .secretary and presi-
dent of the Geological Society, and .secretary and
president of the Royal Society. He was elected
ill 1873 Lord Rector of the university of Aberdeen,
and a memlier of the London School Board in 1870.
He was an active memlier of the Royal Commission
on Sea-lisheries (1864-66), and served on several
other commissions ; and lie.was insjiector of Salmon-
fisheries from 1881 to 1885. He received the Wol-
lastoii medal, the Copley medal, and a Swedish
order. Honorary degrees were conferred on him by
Oxford, Cambridge, WUrzburg, Brussels, Bologna,
Breslau, Edinlmrgh, and Dublin. He was a foreign
or corresponding member of the American, Brus-
sels, Berlin, and French academies.
Illiy. a town of Belgium, is romantically situ-
ated amid lofty rocks on both banks of the Meuse,
19 miles SW. "of Liege by rail. Its citadel (18'22),
whose works are partly excavated in the solid
rock, commands the passage of the river. The
church of Notre Dame, a graceful Gothic edifice,
was begun in 1311. In the vicinity are iron-
works and coal-mines, and the manufactures in-
clude paper, leather, beer, spirits, Ac. Pop.
(1876) 11,774; (1890) 14,486. Peter the Hermit
founded here the former Abbey of Neufmoustier
{XorumMonasteriiim), and here in 1 1 1.5 he died.
Huy has been frequently besieged.
Iluygcns. CilRi.STiAN, one of the great philo-
siiplicrs of tlie 17th century, was bmn at the Hague,
.\pril 11, 16'29, and was the second son of ('on-
stantine lluygens, poet, diplomatist, and secretary
to the Prince of Orange, who was knighted by
James 1. of England in 16'2'2. Huygens studied at
Leyden and IJreda. His first work, Theoreniata de
Qiaalratiira Hyperboles, Ellipsis, et Cireuli (\G5l),
20
HUYSMANS
HYACINTH
is an example o( tliat powerful geometrical talent
which lay at the fminuation of all his scientilic
achievements. Soon after this he constructed the
penilnlum-clock, following out the iilea tii-st sug-
gested hy (ialileo (see HoKOLOcY). A complete
description of Huygens' instrument is contained in
his great work, Homlogiiim Omil/dforiiim (1673).
This work contains expositions of many of the
cases of constraineil motion, especially those appli-
cable to the construction of timekeepei-s. Huygens
also developed and gave precision to the in-
vestigations of (lalileo ujion accelerated motion
under the action of gra\ity ; and there is no donlit
that to the clearness of his demonstrations his
great successor, Newton, in preparing his magni-
ficent development of the principle of accelerating
force, was largely indebted. Newton was a student
and admirer of his works, and assigns to him, along
with Sir C. Wren and Wallis, the distinguished
epithet of hiijiis trtatis geomcfrarmn facile prin-
cipcs. I5y means of an imjiroved telescope of his own
construction, Huygens in 10,5") discovered the ring
of Saturn and the fourth satellite of that planet.
In 16.59 he published an account of these discoveries
in a work entitled Si/strmn Satiiniiiim. In the
end of this work the Micrometer ((j.v. ) is described.
In 1060 Huygens visited England, where he was
.adhiitted a member of the Koyal Society. He dis-
covered the laws of collision of el.astic liodies about
the same time as Wallis and Wren, .and also m.ade
a material improvement in the .air-pump. But
his most im])ortant discoveries .are in the depart-
ment of optics : he it was who first |nopounded
and developed what is now known as the undnla-
tory theory of Light (q.v. ), and he is the discoverer
of Polarisation ((|.v. ). The 'principle of Huygens"
is a p.art of tlie wave-theory. In 1666 Huygens
received .an invitation to settle in Fr.ance. with the
promise of a pension from Colbert, then .all-power-
ful in that country. At Paris he rem.ained till 1681,
a member of the Koy.al Academy of Sciences; but
alarmed .at the d.anger which seemed impending over
the Protestants, he returned to his own country,
and died at the Hague, Sth July 169.3. His
(l^in-res i'miijihlis have been issued since 1888 by
the Amsterihini .Vi'ademy of Sciences.
Hliysinniis. .lom.s Karl, novelist, was bom
the son of a Dutch father at P.aris .5th February
1848, and since IH06 holils a post in the French
ministry of the interior. His first novel, Hac an
Dos (1872), Wiis followed by a series, .all full of
Zola's realism, till in 1S9.5, when his w(uUs beg.au to
breathe .a spirit of Catholic mysticism.
IlliysilllI, -Iax \'an ( 1082-1749), Dulch ]>aintcr,
w.a-s born .and died .at Amstenlam. His landscai)es
are conventional and artilicial, but his fruit and
llower jiieces are exi|uisite.
llUZVarosll. the" non-Iranian element in the
Pehh'vi dialect. See Zhnd.
Ilwi'll-tlisaiiu;. or IIloi'KX-TllSANr,, alluddhist
monk ot China, who was born near Honau about
60.5, and who in 629 set out on a pilgrimage to
India, travelling by w.ay of the Desert of Gobi,
Tashkend, Samarcand, I'amian (q.v.). and Pesha-
war. He remained in India a period of thirteen
years {(i.'!l-44), visiting the sacred ]daces connected
with his religion, .and studying its sacred books.
He dieil in 604 in a convent at Chang-ngan (now
Singan). Owing to the m.any curious notices he
gives of matter.s which came under his observation,
and the high degree of trustworthiness which his
narr.itive possesses, his memoii's are regarded as
one of the most important works on the history of
India in general, and of I'.uddhism in particular,
during the perioil stated. The account of his
travels was written, not by himself, but under his
supervision, and was ccmipleled in 64H, According
to ,a remark added to the title in the imperial
Chinese edition, the work would seem to have been
tr.anslateil from Sanskrit into Chinese; but this
can only mean, as Stanislas .Julien (d)serves, that
the fuiulamental jiart of the work relating to
history, legends, \-c. , was taken from Hindu
sources. IJesides this book, there exists ,a bio-
graphy of Hwen-Thsang written by two of his
disciples. lioth works were translated into French
by St.anislas .Julien (Paris, 18,53 and lS.57-.58),
.and .an abstr.act of these by H. H. Wilson .a]>peare(I
in the 17th volume of the Joiinial of the lio;/(il
A sin fie Sorie/i/. See .also Hi urn Tsiaiig in Triib-
ner's Oriental Library ( 1888).
Ilyncilltll [HiiaeiiitJiiis), a genus of plants of
the natural order Lili.acea' ; bidbous-rooted jdants
with corolla-like, bell-shaped, 6-cleft perianth, six
st.amens fixed in the tube of the peri.anth, and dry
cap.sular fruit. The Hower w.as fabled to h.ave
sprung from the blood of the beautiful Spartan
Hyacinthus, beloved of Ajiollo and Ze|inyrus.
Zephyrus, jealous because
Hyacinthus favoured
Apollo, caused ApoUo's
quoit to strike and slay
tiie beauteous youth while
the two were at pl.a.v. —
The Oriental Hyacinth
(//. orientiilis), one of the
most favourite of florists'
flowers, is a Tiative of Asi.a
Minor, Syria, and Persia.
It is now n.atur.alised in
some parts of the south
of Eurojie. It h.as broad
linear leaves, and .a scajie
with a r.aceme of many
flowers ]iointing in all
directions. The flowers in
cultivation exhibit great
variety of colour, chiefly
bine, purple, and white.
They are very beautiful
and very fr.agrant. The
fragi'ance is strongest
.about or .after eleven
o'clock at night. Anmng
cultivated hy.acinths .are
nnmy with double flowers.
The hyacinth h.as been cultivated fmm a remote
period. It was introduced into Furope, |irobably
by the Dutch, about the beginning of I he Kith
century, soon after the revival of commerce,
when the tr.aders of Ilollaml carried their mer-
chandise to the eastern slunes of the Mediter-
ranean and the Archipel.ago. It w.as very little
known in liritain till towards the beginning of the
17tli century, but soon after its cultivation h.ad
become a passion with the wealtliv, as it had for
some time been with the Dutch. Kxtravag.ant
prices— as much as f200 — were paid for a single
bulb of varieties having sjieci.al or rare merits.
This p.assion declined fowanis the middleof the I8th
century, .and the cultiv.ation of the hyacinth l>ecame
very nnich depressed. In recent years, however, it
has been very much extended, an<l forms one of
the |iiincipal industries of florists around Haarlem,
%\hii-li is .and always has been the centre of the
Dutch bulb trade: but their elbuts. arc now directed
witli the view of meeting the dcman<l nf the
million r.ather th.an the speci.al requirements of the
fanciful wealthy few. Ilyacinth bulbs, planted in
]iots, readily jiroduce lieautif'iil flowers ; and Howere
almost e(|nnlly licautiful .are obtained — for one
year only, however — by placing them in water in
hyacinth glasses, in wliich they form a favourite
ornament of apartments in winter and early spring.
The cultivation of hyacinths in the oiien ground
i
Hyacinth
{ Himcinth us oricutalin
HYACINTHE
HYBRID
21
is iiuicli more difficult, tlieir early growth lieinjc
liable to he destroyeil hy aJvei-se weather. New
varieties are raised from seeil. Several oilier species
of hyacinths are natives of the south of Europe,
Africa, vSrc. — The Grape-hyacinth and Globe-
hyacinth, frequently cultivated as garden flowers,
are now referred to the genus Muscari. — A common
British ]il;uit, growing in woods and co|ises, with
beautiful blue flowers very like those of the oriental
liyacintli, but all drooping to one side (H. nun-
scriiitus, also known as Hcilla nutans, Eiidijuiion
iiiitaii.f, and Atjiaphis nutans), is sometimes called
the Wild Hyacinth, and sometimes the Blue-bell
((l.v.). The bulbs have been used for making
starcli. — The name hyacinth is also given to
varieties of garnet, topaz, sapphire, and zircon.
Ilyaoilltlie. Pere, is the former monastic name
of (''hai;le.s LoysoX, born at Orleans, 10th March
1S27. He studied at St Sulpice, anil in ISol
becoming priest, taught philosophy and theology
at Avignon and Nantes. Subsequently entering
the order of the Carmelites, he became known as
a powerful preacher, and gathered crowded and
enthusiastic audiences of all ranks of society to the
Madeleine and Notre Dame in Paris. Almost as
remarkal)le as his eloquence was the boldness with
which he denounced existing abuses in the church ;
anil Archbishop Darboy defended him against
the accusations of the Jesuits till in 1869 the
Geneial of his order imposeil silence on him.
Hyacinthe replied by a letter in which he called
for a thorough reform of the church, and was e.\-
ciuuinunicated. Believed from monastic vows by
the pope, he became a secular priest under the
name of the Abbe Loyson. He protested vigor-
ously against the Infallibility Dogma ; birt although
he attended the ' Old Catholic ' Congress at Munich,
and on visits to the United States and England
fraternised with Protestants, he always declared
his intention to remain in the Catliolic Church,
trying to obtain reforms, such as the liljerty of
marriage for the clergy. In 1872 he married an
American lady. In 1873 he was chosen cure of a
congregation of Liberal Catholics at Geneva, but
soon left them. He has published sermons and
lectures, and in 1879 established a ' Gallican ' con-
gregation in Paris, which in 1884 attached itself to
the Old Catiiolie Church in Holland.
Hyndes, in Greek Mythology, the nurses and
guardians (3, 5, or 7 in number) of young Dionysus.
Zeus converted them into stars and transplanted
them to the heavens, where they form the liead of
the constellation Taurus. Their rising with the
sun was held in Greece to mark the beginning of
the rainy .season.
HyiPlia, a genus of digitigrade carnivorous
quadrupeds, included in the genus C'anis by Lin-
na-us, but now referred to the .Eluroid division of
the Carnivora, of which, however, it is a somewhat
aberrant member, forming with Prutclcs (q. v. ) a
subfamily, Hya^nina. Hya'iuus have six incisors
and two canine teeth in each jaw, live molars on
each side in the iipper jaw, and four in the under.
They .seize an object with so lirm ahold that, among
the .\rabs, they are proverbial for olistinacy. The
vertebne of the neck .somc^times become ankyloseil
in old liy:i'nas. The hindquarters are lower and
weaker than the fore-quarters of the liody, so that
hya'Uas move with a shandiling gait. The Ijody is
covered with rather long coai'se hair, forming a
mane along the neck and back. The feet have each
four toes. The claws are strong, lit for digging,
and not retractile. The tail is rather short. Be-
neath the anus is a dee]> glandular pouch, con-
tributing much to the ollensive oilour by which
liy:inas are characterised. Hy;i'nas eat carrion, as
well as newly- killed prey, and are of much use, like
vultures, as scavengers, clearing away the last rem-
nants of carcasses that if left to rot would greatly
pollute the air. They sometimes attack cattle,
especially if they Hee, but rarely man, though they
sometimes seize children. During the day the.y
hide thcni-selves in caves, old rock-tombs, ruined
edihces, \-c. ; by night they roam singly or in packs
in quest of prey. They prowl about towns and
villages, and often dig up corpses that have not
beeu very deeply buried. This, together with their
aspect and manners, has caused them to be gener-
ally regarded with horror, and very exaggerated
accounts of their iierceness have been prevalent.
Instead of being untauuible, as was huig the popu-
lar belief, they are capable of being very completely
tamed, and show an attachment to man similar to
that of the ilog ; they have even been used as watch-
dogs. Hya'uas are found only in Africa and the
south of Asia, not extending to the farthest east of
the latter continent. — The Striped Hy;ena (H.
siriata) is found both in Asia and Africa, and
there are several varieties considerably ditl'erent in
size, colour, &c. The smallest hya-nas are of the
size of a large dog. The Spotted Hya'ua (II.
crocuta ) iiduiliits South Africa. It is rather smaller
than the largest varieties of the stripeil hvivna, but
is nu)re tierce and dangerous. It is called Tiger-
wolf by the colonists of the Cape of Good Hope.
Spotted Hyaena (Hycena crocuta).
Besides its ordinary howling, which it emits very
freely in its nocturnal roamings, this hya-na often
indulges in an expression of gratification or of some
passion, resemliling hysterical laughter, whence it
liiis ac(|uired the name of the Laughing Hyiena.
The general colour is ochry gray, with tliiidy scat-
tered small round Tirown spots, and sooty muzzle
and feet. The Woolly Hya'na (H. brunnca) is a
smaller South African species.
In consecjuence of the bones which hya-nas eat,
their dung forms solid yellowish-white balls, of
compact earthy fracture, the Album (jifvcum of the
old materia medica. For the Hyana Dog, see Dog.
Ilya-liya. See Cow-tree.
Ilybla, the name, of three cities of ancient
Sii'ily. ( 1 ) An old Siculian town situated on the
southern slope of Mount Etna, which figured in the
.second Punic war; its site is fixed at the modern
Paterno. — ( 2 ) A city founded by the Megarians about
72(i r..('., and prob.ably identified with the city
called Mcgara. It w.-is destroyed by ( lelon of Syra-
cuse in 481 B.C. It is believc<l to liave stoncl near
the modern .Agosta. — (3) A third Hybia lay between
Syracuse ami Agiigentnni. The Hybhean honey,
so nnich sung liy Latin ])oets, was gathered on the
hills near the first two cities.
Hybrid (Gr. hybris, 'Inst'), the otl'spring of
two patents which belong to dill'erent varieties, or
to difrerent species, or even to ditlerent genera.
Thus, according to the degree of divergence
§5
HYBRID
lu'twecn tlie parents. Viuietyliylpiids or iiion^els,
siiecieshybriils (the iiMiiil a|i|ilioali<in of the term),
and genns-liyliriils. wliioh are very rare, have to lie
ilistinjiuished. It is also useful toiiote«ith liroca
that liyl)riilisalion may be {ii) iKiliinit — i.e. occni-
rin;,' in umlisinrlped natural conditions, of which we
know, relatively few eases: [h) liifiltd — i.e. under
direct human control, on which our clata as rej;ards
animals .are chiefly based ; and (c) urtijickil — i.e.
by jdacinj; the pollen of one plant on the sti^'ina of
another .species, or by niixin;,' with theegj;s of .some
animal, say frog or lisli, the male elements of some
related form.
Among mammals genus-liybrids lind illustration
ill the successful crossing of he-goat ( t'apra ) and
ewe (L)vis), the oti'spring being fertile for several
generations, Ijoth inter sc ami with the jiarent-
stocks. Species-hybrids are Avell illustrated in the
results of crossing various members of the genus
Erjuus — e.g. male ass and mare, the oti'spring being
a mule ; or horse and fem.-ile ass, the oti'spring being
a hinny. Similarly, dog and fox, dog and jackal,
lion and tiger, hare and rabliit, Indian humped
cattle and our very ditt'erent domesticated lireeds,
and not a few other more or less nearly related forms
have been successfully crossed. For such names
as ' leopard,' which suggest that crossing occurs or
occurred somewhat freely in nature, there is little
or no evidence. Nor was there any truth in the sup-
position that ' Jumarts' restilted from the crossing
of bull anil mare, or stallion and cow. for Jumarts
turn out to have been notliing more than hinnies.
Among birds the common duck {Amis hosc/ias)
and a pintail (Diijiln iiruta), the common goose
(Aiiscr fcrus) and the very distinct Chinese goose
(A. cygnoides), goo.se and swan, canaries and
finches, pheasant and lien, .and other allied forms
are recorded as giving rise to hybrids. Among
lower animals hybrids also occur ; diti'erent species
of toad are often seen in sexual union, but the
result is unknown ; the artilicial fertilisation of frog
ova with the sperms of other species has at least
resulted in the development of hybrid tadpoles ; in
several lishes hyliridisation seems to occur in natural
conditions, and artilicial fertilisation has been
efl'ected even between genera, to the extent at any-
rate of starting the development of the ova. The
liybri<ls of two moths {BoiiiOi/.r c>/)it/iia and B.
(()t/h^/(/) have been recorded as fertile inter . if for
eight generations ; and K. Hertwig has shown that
in certain conditions the male elements of one
snecies of Echiiiodenu may incite development in
tlie ov,a of another.
IIi/l)ridi«atiuti in. I'lant.i. — Ex]ieriment is here
iinicli easier, and a large mass of <lata has rewarded
the investigations of Kolreuter (ITtil), Andrew
Knight, Dean Herbert, Gartner, Wichura, Hilde-
brand, Focke, and others. The subjc^ct n^eived
careful <liscussion from Darwin in his work on
cross-fertilisation, and also from Kiigeli, a sum-
mar.v of whose conclusions is available in the
Englisli translation of Sachs's Te.ct-book of Ijotanij.
Only the leailing re.sults • can be noteil here.
Hybridisation rarely occurs except between forms
known to be related : variety-hybrids occur easily
and abundantly; species-hybrids are less, though
ipiite common ; geinis-hybrids (I'.g. between tlie
grasses .Kgilops and Trilicum, between Ithododen-
ilron and Azalea, between Lychnis and Sileiie) arc
rare. Besides genetic relationship, some subtle
harmony, which we can onlv call ' sexual allinity,'
is e.ssent/ial to successful liybridisation. When
one species can be fertilised by the pollen of
another, the rivv rcrxii relation usually holds good ;
but sometimes the hybriilisation is p<usisleutly one-
sided. Kolreuter easily obtained seeds from Mini-
liilis jiiliijKi with the jiollen of ,)/. Inniiiflnrii, while
more tliau two humlicd experiments, extending
over eight years, w ith the pidlen of the former upon
the stigma of the latter were futile. The results of
hybrid-fertilisation exhiliit many ilegrees ; thus, the
motlier-plant may be .atiectrd by the strange jiollen
I without seeds being jiroduced, or seeds may be
I lornied which will not germinate, or numerous,
vigorous, and fertile hybrids may result. AVhen two
kinds of pollen are simultaneously applied to the
stigma only one kind is [lotent. The hybriil is
usually intermediate between the two jiarents, not
only in structural features, such as the venation of
the leaves and the shajie of the Hower, but in physio-
log-ical peculiarities, such as the time of (lowering
and the mode of coloration. Focke reports a
curious case wliere the crossing ni A nagallis cwnilea
Hybrid Leaves :
A, leaf of Salix mprea ; B, of S. vhninalU : C, of hybrid between
these two species. (After Wicliura.)
and A. phaiiiceti produced hybrids which bore in
part the blue flowers of the former species, and in
]iart the reddisii flowers of the latter. Hybrids are
usually more variable than the parents, and the
variation may be towards strength or to wauls weak-
nes.s. Since Fairchild, at the beginning of the 18th
century, first intenlionall.y jiroduced a cross between
iJiiiiitliiis horlHttiis and D. mri/n/j/ii/l/iis, liybridi.sa-
tion has often been resorted to by gardeners and
arboriculturists to produce a strong stock. \'ery
important are the unmerous hybrids between Euro-
pean anil American vines, .some of which arc
lielieved to be endowed with greater powers of
resisting riiylloxera and fungi than the unaltered
Euroiiean plants pos.se.ss. There can be no doubt
that species-hybrids among idanls tend to be sterile,
and this tlie more the wider the dill'erence between
the parent plants. Sometimes three or even six
individualities have been gradually mingled in a
multiple hybrid, and this lessens still more the
chance of fertilil y.
C/i(iriirter of llijbriiis. — The products of crossing,
whether of species or of varieties, are un<loubtedly
very variable, sometimes for the better — as in
many of our domesticated numgrels among both
animals and plants — very often on the other haml
for the worse. They are often so unstable that they
tend raiiidl.v to die out, as has lieen ob.servcd
among some human experiments in mingling races.
The saying ' (iod ni.ade the white man, tlod made
the black man, the devil made the luulatto,'
expresses a feeling as to the fre(|uently inconvenient
variability of variety-hybrids, but there is niticli to
be said on the otiier siile. Such a case as slieeji-
goat hybrids shows how far from accurate is the
still prevalent belief that bybiiils from widely-
.separated parent forms must be sterile. We are by-
no means warranted in saying more than that
sjiecieshybrids tend to be sterile so far as we
HYDASPES
HYDERABAD
know tlieiii, ;uicl that it must be leinembeied is
for the Millet |iuit in uoiulitioiis of doniestication,
where the resultiiii; sterility iiuiy have been due to
conlineinent. and to inohjuijed interbreedinj;, rather
than to the hybridisation itself. Nor do the facts
aUow us to accept the further jjeneralisatioii that
vaiiety-liybrids are always fertile. Not only are
there cases of the reverse, but, as Wallace justly
points out, the conclusion was ayain based on
domesticated forms, in regard to wliich it must be
noted that the very tirst essential to their becoming
domesticated was that they should continue fertile
under changed conditions of life.
Hjibrids ill Relation to Evolittloii. — The facts of
liybridisni raise some of the most intricate problems
connected with evolution. As only a few general
statements can be noted here, the reader is referred
to the cited work of Alfred Knssel Wallace. ( 1 )
Fertility or non-fertility of crosses must not be
e.xaggerated into the test between variety and
species, for all species-hybrids are not sterile, nor
all variety-hybrids fertile. (2) Fertility depends
on some delicate mutual adjustment or coniple-
nientariness of the male and female elements, and
is readily disturbed by external or constitutional
conditions. ( 3 ) Animals seem to prefer to breed
with their like among existing varieties, and in this
way it is believed that the ' swamping effects of
intercrossing ' have been usually obviated, though
mutual infertility and geographical separation may
also assist in preserving the varieties. (4) Brooks
has laid stress upon the fact that Ijoth variety
and species hybrids are highly variable. In his
theory of ' physiological selection,' Romanes has
emphasised the importance of mutual sterility in
splitting up one s])ecies into several. ' Wheirever
any variation in the highly variable reproductive
system occurs, tending to sterility with the parent
form without impairing fertility with the varietal
form, a physiological barrier must interpose, di\id-
ing tlie species into two parts, free to develop
distinct histories, without mutual intercrossing, or
by independent variation.' (5) Darwin concluded
that ' tlie sterility or infertility of species with
each other, whether manifested in the difficulty of
obtaining tirst crosses between them, or in the
sterility of the hybrids thus obtained, was not a
constant or necessary result of specific ditt'erence,
l)ut is incidental on unknown peculiarities of the
reproductive system.' Wallace luas advanced a step
further in his endeavour to show that ' if we accept
the association of some degree of infertility, how-
ever slight, as a not unfrequent accompaniment of
the e.xternal ditt'erences which always arise in a
state of nature between vaiieties and incipient
species, natural selection has the power to increase
that infertility just as it has the power to increase
other favourable variations.'
See Breed, Domestication, Embryology, Evolution,
Reproduction, Sex, Species; P. Broca, Jour. d. I.
PhijsioLj vols. i. ii. iii. ; AV. K. Brooks, Hereditii
{Baltimore, 1883); Dai'win, Plants and Aniuiah under
Douie»tic(Uio>t (Lond. 18t>8), and E^'rcts of Crosa and
Self FerUlimlion (Loud. 1877); Fucke, Die Pjtanzm-
mijschlinijc (Berlin, 1881); Geddes and Thomson, Evulii-
tion of Sex (Lond. 1889); V. Hensen, Physiol, d.
Zeutnintj^ in Hermann's Haiulbuch d. Phtisiologie (Bd.
vi. Leip. 1881); G. .J. Romanes, ^Aour. Linn. Sor. XIX.
( 188i; ) ; J. Sachs, Text-boolc of Botonn ( Oxford, 1882 ; of.
his references to Kijlreuter, Herbert, Gartner, Niigeli,
fee), and Phiixiolo>jii of PfantK, trans, by Marshall AVard
(t)xford. 1.S87); A. K. Wallace, Dartriiiism (Lond.
188'J): Wichura, HasUirdhiUlumj im Pjlamcnrcicke [Bies-
lau, 18i;.0).
Hydaspes. See Jhelu.m.
Hydatid (from the (ireek /ii/i/n(i.i, 'a watery
vesicle'), a term ap])lied to the blachler-worm
(acolex) stage of certain tapeworms, but jiarticnlarly
to that of Twnia erhinococcm; found especially in
A, brood-capsule of Echinococcus
vcterinorum, with fully-formed
and rudimentary heads ; B, adult
Tarnia echinococcus.
man and monkeys, ox and swine, in liver, lungs, or
almost any organ. The bladder-worm ( ErliiHococois
ntcrinijiiiin ) is often \ery consjiicuous, from the
size of a pea to that of a child's head, weighing in
some cases 12 to
30 lb. , and notable
among bladder-
worms for its pro-
line asexual mul-
tiplication. From
the inner surface,
in numerous
special brood -cap-
sules of the size of
millet-seed, some-
times 'hundreds
of ' heads ' are
budded off'; while
daughter-bladders
may also be pro-
duced externally.
The adult tape-
worm is small,
and lives socially
in the intestines
of dog, jackal, or
wolf, it is from the dog being kept too much
about the house or person that the eggs which gi\e
rise to the dreadful Echinococcus find their way to
man. The disease is known in most countries of
Europe, but is commonest in Iceland. The term
hydatid is sometimes extended to other bladder-
w-orms — e.g. the ' stagger- worm ' {T. (.«;(«(•««) of
the sheep, or in medicine to serous cysts which
have nothing at all to do with parasites. See
Tapeworm ; and for a very full discussion of
Echinococcus, see Leuckart's Parasites of Man,
(trans, by W. E. Hoyle, vol. i. Edin. 1886).
Hvdc, an important manufacturing town of
Chesliire, 7 miles ESE. of Manchester, and 5 NE.
of' Stockport. Standing in a coaltield, and enjoy-
ing ample facilities of communication by road,
rail, and canal, it has risen from a mere village
to a considerable town, which in 1881 was in-
corporated as a municipal borough. Cotton is of
course the staple manufacture ; then come the felt-
hat industry, engineering, boiler-making, iJcc. The
town-hall is a handsome building. Pop. (1811)
180G; (IStil) 13,722; (1891)30,070.
Hyde, Edw.\rd. See Clarendon (Earl of).
Hyderabad (Haidardbud), or the Nizam's
Dominions, a great native or feudatory state of
India, occupies the greater part of the Deccan
[iroper or central plateau of southern India, be-
tween the provinces of Madras and Bombay. Area,
81,807 so. m. (excluding the British assigned dis-
tricts of Berar, q.v.) ; pop. (1881) 9,845,594;
(1891) 11,537,040. About a tenth only are
Mohammedans, found mainly in the capital, though
the Nizam and state are Mohammedan. Telugu,
Kanarese, and Maratlii are the principal languages
spoken. Education is making rapid strides ; dur-
ing the three years previous to 1889 the number of
schools nearly doubled, and the pupils increased
from 11,740 to 27,700. The surface is a slightly-
elevateil tableland. The principal rivers are the
(lodavari, with its tributaries the Dudna, Manjira,
and I'ranhita; and the Kistna ( Krishna), with its
tributaries the Bhima and Tungabhadra. The soil is
in general very fertile, but jioorly cultivated ; yet,
wherever it receives moderate .attention, it yields
harvests all the year round. The products are
riee, wheat, maize, mustard, castor-iul, sugar-cane,
cotton, indigo, fruits ( including grapes and melons ),
and all kinds of kitchen vegetables. The pastur-
ages are e.xtensive, and sheep and horned cattle are
numerous. The climate is good on the whole.
24
HYDERABAD
HYDRA
The mean teinperatuie (if tlie cajiital, Hvdeialjail,
in Janiuiiy is 74' 30', and in May 93'. Tlie exports
are cotton, nil-soeils, clotli, hides, metal wares, and
agricultural produce; salt, grain, timber, Kiiro-
jiean piece-gooils, and hardware are imported. The
railway from Madra-s to liomhay intersects the
south-west part of tlie state. The state revenue is
ahout .£4,000,000 a year : and tliere is an army of
13,000 infantry anil 1400 cavalry, besides a large
force of irregulars ( possibly some 48,000 constitute
the military force).
In 16S7 the territory long known as the Nizam's
Dominions became a province of the Mogul
empire ; but soon after 1713 the governor <n- viceroy
of the Deccan, Asaf Jah, with the title of JS'izam-
iil-MuUc ('regulator of tlie state'), made himself
independent. After his deatli, in 1748, two claim-
ants appeared for the throne, liis son Nasir Jang,
and his grand.son Muzatl'ar Jang. The cause of
the former was es]ioused by the East India Com-
pany, and that of the latter by a body of Frencli
adventurers under Lieneral Dupiei.x. Then followed
a period of strife and anarchy. In 1761 Nizam Ali
obtained the suiueme power, and after some vacilla-
tion signed a treaty of alliance with the English in
1766. He aided them in the war with Tippoo,
snltan of Mysore, and at the termination of that
war, in 1799, a new treaty was formed, by which,
in return for certain territorial conce.ssions, the
East India Company bound itself to maintain a
subsidiary force of 6000 men for the defence of the
Nizam's ilominions. Another treaty was concluded
in 1853. The Nizam, who in point of rank is tlie
first Mohammedan ruler in India, remained faith-
ful to the British during tlie mutiny of 1S57-58
(see Jung, 8ik S.\l.\iO. The assigned districts
(see Uer.\r) were in 1861 given in trust to Brit.ain
on account of unpaid and increasing debts ; the
surplus revenue being returned to the Nizam.
Hyderabad (Haidanibdd), the caiiital of
Hyderabad slate, stands on the right bank of the
Musi, at an elevation of 1700 feet above the sea,
by rail 390 miles N\V. of Madras. It is 6 miles in
circumference, ami is surrounded by a stone wall,
flanked by bastions. In 1891 the population, in-
clusive of the suburbs, was 41o,039. The po]iulace
consists of very varied elements, anil is full of war-
like spirit, nearly every one carrying weapons, 'i'he
street architecture is uninteresting. The palace of
the Nizam, though architecturally of no great import-
ance, is of va-st size. Hyderabad is one of the most
important strongholds of Mohaiiimedanisiii in India,
and the mosc|iu>s are numerous. The iirincipal
mosf|ue was fashioned after the model of the (Jreat
Mosijue at Mecca; in the interior are line mono-
lithic granite columns, and outside the building is
crowned by very lofty minarets. .Another remark-
able edifice is tiie Char Miuar or College, with four
minarets resting on four connected arches, ;it which
the four ))rincipal thoroughfares converge. On the
opposite side of the river is the liritisli Kesidcncy,
a magnilicent jiile, with the finest staircase in
India; it stands in the midst of fine ornamental
gardens, and coiumunicates with the Nizam's palace
by a bridge with eight spacious arches of squared
granite. The neighbourhood boasts of wild and
)ticturesipie scenery, and abounds with huge tanks
and beautiful gardens. —Secunderabad (SiLii)i<l<ii--
iihiiil) is a Hrilish military cantonment (I'op. 1881,
74,124) 6 miles NE. of Hyderabad.
Hyderabad, the historical capital of Sind,
and (bicf city of a district, stands 3). miles K. of
the left bank'of the Indus. Pop. ( 1891 ) 58,048, of
whom '25,000 were Mohaiiiniedans. The town is
the main centre of iioslal, telegraphic, and road
vommunicatioii for the province, though the Sind
railway, terminating at Kurrachee, is on the other
side of the Indus. It is famous for the manu-
facture of silks, gold-work, pottery, lacquered ware,
and arms of various kinds. There is now a jdenti-
fnl watei-.sup)ily from tlie Indus. As against a
native fence it is tolerably strong, occuiiying a
somewhat steep height, and having a rampart
Hanked by round towers.
Hyder Ali (Hoir/ur Ali), ruler of Mysore, and
one of the greatest Mohammedan princes of India,
was born in 17'28. His grandfather was a wander-
ing fakir; his father a constable of a district in
Mysore. Hyder spent his youth in idleness,
though occasionally doing military service ; but
in 1749 his bravery at a siege attracted the
notice of the iiiaharajah of Mysore's minister. He
.soon became in all but name ruler of the king-
dom ; and in 1759 he dispossessed his master,
allowing him to retain his title, while he himself
took that of dun-a, or regent. He then eomiuered
Calicut, Bednor, Kananur, and other neighbouring
states ; and in 1766 his dominions included more
than 84,000 sip m. He withheld the custmiiary
tribute from the Mahrattas ((j.v. ), .and carried on
an ultimately .successful war against them. He
waged two wars against the British, in the first of
which (1767-69) he was practically successful, and
signed a treaty under the walls of Madras, which
jirovided for al^ind of alliance. 'When Hyiler was
defeated by the Mahrattas in 177'2 he claimed
English support ; and on the refu.sal of the Madriis
government to fulfil what he believed to be the
treaty obli"ations, he became the bitter enemy of
the Englisdi. Taking advantage of the war be-
tween the Englisli and French (1778), he and his
son and successor, Tippoo Sail), desceiuleil like
a thunderbolt into the Carnatic, totally routed
two English commanders, .and r.avaged the country
to within fortv miles of Madras ; but he was ulti-
mately defeated in three battles by Sir Eyre Coote.
He ditjd suddenly, still in alliance with the French,
in Decemlier 1782. See L. B. Bowring, Hnidar Ali
and Tipii Sidtini (1893).
Hydliora, a genus of parasitic plants belonging
to tlie order Cytinace.-e, which consists entirely
of root-i)arasites. Ili/diioia a/iicaim is a Soutli
African species parasitic on the roots of Meshy
Euplioibi;e and other succulent jdants ; it has a
putrid smell, but is roasted and eaten by the
natives, and is also used for tanning.
Hydlllllll. a genus of fungi belongijig to the
sub-order Hymeiiomycetes, order Basidioiuycetes,
and having 'the under side of the pihiis covered
with soft s]iines which bear the spores. The
species are numerous, some of them liritisli ;
among these is //. irjiiiiiilimi, more common in
some'iiarts of the cmitincnt of Euroiie, and much
used iis an esculent in France, Italy, and (iermany.
It grows cliiefiy in pine and oak woods.
Hydra, a (ueek island, lies 4 miles frmii tlie
co.ast of tlie Peloiionnesian deiiartnient of Argolis
and Corinth. It is a narrow rocky ridge, 11 miles
long, 1960 feet high, and '20 si|. m. in area. The
shores are rocky and steep, and the interior is
destitute of veg'etation and of water. On the
north- we.st coast is the seaport of Hydra (6446).
The 7.'!42 islanders, mostly of Albanian origin,
make excellent seamen, and carry on cotton and
silk weaving, tanning, shipbnilding, sponge-fishing,
and commerce. The island wa-. uninhabilcd in
aiK-ient times. I'revious to the war of (iieek
independence the Hydliotes numbered more than
28, (HK). and were considered the richest peo]ile in
the archijielago. They enjoyed a large share of
the carrying-tr.ule in' the lllack Sea and the
Mediterranean, .and traded to Kiigland, the Baltic,
and even America. In the war they took a most
active an<l conspicuous part ; but on the restoration
HYDRA
of peace the island lost much of its former pros-
perity, being outrivalled by Syra.
Hydra, a fabulous monster of the ancient
worlil, said to have inhabited the marshes of
Lernjca, in Arjiolis, not far from tlie seacoast.
Accounts vary both as to its origin and apjiear-
ance. Some make it the issue of Styx and the Titan
Pallas, and otliei-s, of Echidna and Typlion. It is
represented as liaring several heads, which imme-
diately grew up again as often as they were cut otl".
The number generally ranged from seven to nine,
though Simonides gives it fifty, and some historians
a hundred, and even more. Its mouths, which were
as numerous as its heads, discharged a subtle and
deadly venom. The destruction of this reptile was
one of the twelve labours of Hercules.
Hydra, a freshwater polyp, the simplest and
most familiar representative of the class Hydrozoa
(q.v. ), H»ibkingdom Ccelenterata(q.v. ). The ani-
mal consists of a tube, varying from ^ to g inch in
length, closed at the proximal end by an adhesive
plate (pedal disc), whereby it is connuonly attaclieil
to some Avater weed: at the other (distal) ex-
tremity is the mouth, at the apex of a blunt cone
(hypostome), round whose base arise from six to
Fig. 1.
Seinidiagrannnatic longitudinal section of an adult specimen,
with reprotluctive organs and a bud (a); magnified eight
dianiettrrs. (After Marshall and Hm-st.)
eight tentacles. These are slender tubes closed at
the end, but continuous internally with the main
cavity of the animal ; they have a warty appear-
ance and, according to theii' degree of contraction,
may lie either small roundeil nodules or stretch out
to several times the length of the body. The prey,
wliich is l«-numbed by the thread-cells to be pres-
ently <lescribed, is drawn by the tentacles into the
mouth. The body-wall consists of three distinct
layei's : I. The Ectoderm, or outer covering, con-
sists of the following kinds of cells : ( 1 ) covering
cells in a single layer, subconical, with the broader
enils outwards. (2) Muscle-cells, whose biuse forms
a filament, ilisposed longitudinally, {'■i) Intcirstitiul
cells, small, rounded and jdaced in ginups between
the lia-scs of the larger cells. (4) Cnidnbla^ts, so
called because they C(Uitain the thread-cells (cnido-
cysts, nematocysts). These latter have rather a
coinplicat<!d structure; they consist of an ovoid sac,
at the outer end of which the wall is iiivaginated
or tucked in to form a long tube coiled up like
a string: the commencement of the invaginated
Fig. 2.
A, a thread-cell with the thread
not everted ; highly niagniliod.
B, a tliread-cell, after the evag-
iuation of its content* ; liighly
magniiied, Tlie filament, if
completed on the .scale of tin-
drawing, would have a length
of 12 inches. ^ After Gibson.)
portion contains some pointed Iiarljs, the end is
filiform and pointed. The young cnidoblasts, in
which the development of the thread-cells is just,
beginning, are situated deeply among the inter-
stitial cells ; when mature they are placed on the
surface, and form noticeable iirominences between
the covering-cells ; the
cnidolilast remains as a
sharply -defined capsule
round the thread-cell,
and near the ai)erture
of invagination it gives
out a little process
( cnidocil ), which seems
to serve the purpose
of a trigger, for upon
touching it the tube
contained in the thread-
cell is suddenly everted,
and then presents the
ajipearance of a long
pointed filament, with
barbs, disposed in
ciicles of three each, at
its base. It is, how-
ever, only certain forms
of irritation which pro-
duce this ett'ect ; it
seems to be under the
control of the nervous
system. (5)Nerve-cells,
with numerous proce.sses, some of which are con-
tinuous with the cnidoblasts. (6) Glandular cells,
which are restricted to the pedal disc. II. The Endo-
derm, or internal layer, consists of tliiee kinds of
ciliated cells : ( 1 ) a layer of large cells which often
contain gramdes of greenish matter resembling tlyit
of leaves (chlorophyll). They have the power of
throwing out processes (pseudopodia) during diges-
tion, and almost always have eiii]ity spaces or
vacuoles in them ; they may furtherniore give rise
to muscular filaments, Ijoth circular and longitu-
dinal. (2) Small glandular cells in the hypostome.
(3) Glandular cells with vacuous spaces at the ba-se
of the body-cavity. III. The Jle.soderm is a thin
structureless lamella, separating the ectoderm and
endoderm.
The hydra reproduces by two distinct modes :
( 1 ) asexually Ijy gemmation. AVhen the weather
is warm and food abundant, a hollow outgrowth
tiikes place from the side of the body of the parent ;
a mouth and tentacles are formed at its distal
extremity, and eventually it separates by constric-
tion of its base, and commences an iudeiiendent
existence. Several buds may form at once, and
these may even produce secondary Imds befoie their
separation from the paient, but this foriiiatioii of
coloiues is merely temporary. (2) Sexual re|iro-
ductiim takes place when the conditions of life
become unfavouralile — e.g. if a li.ydra which has
just begun to bud be placed in a ves.sel in which
fooil is scarce, sexual organs will be formed and
the bud ■»ill not improbably be absorbed. The
male organs (testes) are conical swellings, situated
not far below the tentacles : generally they are
more than one in number. They arise l>y the mul-
tiplication of the interstitial cells of the ectoderm,
and when mature their contained spermatozoa
are shed into the water. The ovum is as a rule
single, and is due to the development of one of a
mass of intei-stitial cells : the suriiiunding cells
form a protective capsule which eventually retracts
and leaves the most piomiiieiit part of the ovum
liare to rccei\ c the spermatozoa. Alter this the
ovum undergoes segmentatiim, a hard capsule is
formed around it, and it falls to the Ijottom and
then! develops into a young hydia. I'rioi- to .sexual
reproduction the hydra often retires into the shade
26
HYDRAGOGUES
HYDRAULIC ENGINES
of moss or similar dark objects. As rejiarJs its
reproductive orj;aiis it seems most prolialjle tliat
liydra Inus iimlor^'one ;;real modilicatioiis as com
pared witli oilier liydrozoa, and that its simplicity
is not piiniitivc but tlie result of de^'oiieration.
The food of liydra consists of organisms more
niiuute tiian itself, wliicli it is able to i];u-alyse by
its thread-cells : after the nutritive portion of these
lias been extrai^ted the effete portions are ejected
throujfh the mouth. The animal can creep slowly
upon its disc and swim by the same oifian, liangiuj,'
suspembul below the surface of the water ; it creeiis
by liending the body, attaching a tentacle to the
surface upon which it rests, and then moving the
foot up to the tentacle and reli.'cing it.
Various species of the genus Hydra have been
described, as H. viridis, H. fusca, and H. milqaris.
The first is distinguished by the presence of green
cliloro|diyll granules in the cells of the endoderm.
It has lieen maintained that these were alga" living
within the cells in a state of Symbiosis (q.v. ), but
the facts that the green hydra does not lose its
colour in the dark, that the coloured bodies have
neither nucleus nor cell-inembiane, and that they
are found in the ovum where they originate from
colourless bodies, tend to prove that they are
integral parts of the animal.
If a hydra l>e cut in two, it a|)pears that within
certain limits each portion will develop into a
complete animal : but the statement so often re-
l)eated, as the result of Trembley's experiments,
that when a hydra is turned inside out the endo-
derm and ectoderm will mutually take on each
other's functions, and the animal continue to live,
is erroneous : the animal will, on the contrary,
rectify its position, or, if prevented, it will perish.
When a hydra captures a fragment of food too large
to be taken into the mouth, it everts the endoderm
so as to bring the digestive cells in contact with
the food, but it speedily regains its original state ;
this explains the power it has of rapiilly recover-
ing after artificial inver.sion. Two liydne can be
permanently fused with each other either by pin-
ning them together with bristles or by inserting
one inside the other.
List of more important references in addition to the
ordinary te.\t-books of zoology : Kleinenberg, Hydra
(Leip. 1872); Jickeli, Morpholog ischcs Jahrhucli. viii.
(1882-83); Parker, Pnc. Jioii. ,SV., .xxx. (1880); Lank-
ester, JValure, xxvii. (1882-83); Korotnev, Ann. and
Marj. Nat. Hist.(n) xi. (1883); Ischikawa, Zeitschr. f.
irisa. Zool. y\\\. (181K)).
IIydragoi;iie.^. See Aperients.
lI.V«ll*ail;u;en, a genus of plants of the natui-al
order Hydrangeacea^, which many botanists make
a sub-(nder of Saxifragea^ distinguished by having
four to six petals, eight to twelve or many stamens,
a more or less inferior ovary, and two to iive styles.
In hydrangea thi^ llowers are in cymes, the exterior
llowers sterile an<l dilated. Few s]iecies are known,
and they are chieHy natives of the southern i>arts
of North America, and of China and .lapan. The
species popularly known as the Hydrangea (11.
hovUiiaU) is a native of China and .Japan, and
ha.s long been in cultivation there as an orna-
iiiiMital iil.-uit. It was introduced into Mritain by
Sir .lo.seph Banks in 17HS, and sjieedilv became
very popular, being reailily propagated 'b.\- layiMs
and cuttings, so as to be not only a favourite'
gieenhouse plant, but a frequent " ornament of
cottage windows. In the scmth of England, and
south-west of Scotland, it endures the open air.
It seems almost impossible to water it too freely ;
and In favouralde circumstances it becomes a niag-
nilb-crit shrub. A jilant in Devonshire has had
IIKK) largi! cymes of llowers expanded at once.
The flowers, generally iiiiik, are sometimes blue ;
the blue colour is owing to peculiarities of soil.
Peat and iron ore are said to be ]iroductive of blue
flowers in the hydrangea. //. Jtiimiika, introduced
into Europe from Japan by Siebold, b remarkable
Hydrangea {Ifi/dianata Iwrtinsis).
for its very large cymes of Howers. — H. iiu-ea and
//. (jKcrci/o/ia, American species, are not un-
frei|uently to be seen in Hower-gardens in North
America.
Hydrates are compounds of water with ele-
ments or with other compounds. The term
Jiijdi'u.cittc is one which is sometimes used as a
synonym of /ii/drate, and indeed it may be said
that we have no certain means of distinguishing
the one from the other. The distinction between
the two is that in the hydrate tlie water is supposed
to be present as water, and without any rearrange-
ment of the molecules, while in the hydroxide
the water is considered to have lost its identity,
its constituent atoms having entered into new
combinations. As a typical cxani|de of a hydrate
we may instance crystallised suljihate of copper,
CuS04,5H^,0, which contains the water so loosely
combined that it is driven off by prolonged heating,
and the white anhydrous sulphate, CUSU4, is pro-
duced. Here the water is ajiparently present as
water, and necessary to the crystiillinc form, and
is therefore called water of crystallisation. When
nitric anhydride, N.,0;„ unites with water it forms
nitric acid, N„05,iroO or HNO:;, but this is not
regarded as a hydrate, because the nitric acid
cannot lose the water without also losing its
characteristic properties. The whole question is
full of diHiculties, and is at present quite theoreti-
r.a] ; dilfcrcnt chemists using the terms above men-
tioned in dilb^rcnt .senses.
Hydraulic <"raiH's. See Cr.\nks.
Hydraulic Kuv^iucs or .ll(»t4»rs are <iften
conveniently used wlien water under a high pres-
sure is olitainable, and where work is intermittently
re(|uired, as in eaiJstans, winches, \c. ; they do not
differ essentially from steam-engines. The water
a<'ts by dilference of pressure — i.e. it is a<lmitte<l
at a high pressuie at the beginning of the stroke, and
exhausted at a low]ircssure at the end of the strcdvc,
thus giving .a reciprocating motion to the plunger.
The velocity of tin; iiiston has to be kept low to
avoid injurious shocKs in su<ldenly bringing the
column of water to rest : since they work under very
much greater pressures than steam-engines (usual
jircssure 7(K) ll>. jier sq. in.), they can be miudi
smaller. .\ common form is the three-cylinder single
acting engine: in each cylinder works a idunger ;
water is admitted by valves behind the plnngei-s
and forces thetii out : at the cornlusion of the (Uit-
stroke the pressure water-supply is cut otf, and the
HYDRAULIC MAIN
HYDRAULIC RAM
27
exhaust valve oiiened, allowing; the phiiifjer to push
the water out of the c\liinlei' ou tlie letuin stroke,
ami so ou. There are two ehainbers iu the frauiiny,
and oue passage or port into the hottoui of the
eylinder : during tlic working of the engine the
eylinder oscillates, and al tlie right time jmUs one
or otlier of the two chaiuhers in ooninumication
with the interior of the eylinder by means of this
|>ort : one chamlier is open to exhaust-pipe, the
other to supply-pipe. Tlie plungers are connected
to a three-throw crank. The great ad\autage of
the single action is that shocks are avoided at the
dead centres ; the three cranks ensure a very
uniform turning force on the crank shaft, and also
enable the engine to start in any position.
Hydraulic IMuiii. See G.\s.
Hydraiilio Mortar. See Cements.
Hydraillit' Press, often called Braraah's
press, from the inventor, dosejdi Bramah (q.v.),
depends for its action on the principle that a
jiressiire exerted on any part ot the surface of
liquid is transmitted undiminished and equally
Hydraulic Press.
in all directions through the mass (see Hydeo-
.ST.\Tlcs ). The annexed ligure represents the essen-
tial parts of the machine, minor details of con-
struction being omitted. F is a strong cast-iron
or ca.st-steel cylinder, open at the top ; B is
a plunger or ram wliich fits watertight into
the cylinder ; to prevent leakage a leatlier ring
U-shaped in section is placed in the cavity r :
any water trying to leak out forces the two sides
of this ring hard against the piston and the si<le
of the cavity, and the greater the pressure the
tighter it keeps. This form of jiacking is now
often replaced by an ordinary stulting-box filled
with hemp jiacking. A pipe, (J. le.ads from the
cylinder to a force-inini)i, H. I!y means of this
)punip water can be forced from the tank, T, through
the pipe C into the cylinder, thus pushing tlie
]p|ungeror ram, B, upwards. The ram carries on its
to|i a platten or table, on which the bales, &c., to be
)iressed are placed ; the rising of the pl.atten presses
lliem against the entalilature or njijier ]date, A,
which is held in position by the columns C. The
bale can thus be sipu'cv.eil to any extent desired.
The power of the press is readily calculated ; Id
the diameters of the iiumj)-phingcr. K. and ram, I!,
be d and D inches respectively, then any downward
pressure on K becomes an upwanl pressure on 1!
magnified -vr times. Suppose, for instance, that
the pressure on K was .500 imunds, and tliat the
diameters are 1 and 10 incdies respectively, then the
upward thrust would be .jOO y. , = ."lO.OOO pounds ;
very enormous pressures are therefore readily
obtained, and in consequence of the slow motion
there is extremely little waste of power in friction.
It is thus a very efficient mechanism. The pum|i
can either he a hand-pumip worked by a lever, L, as
in sketch, or it may be worked by a steam-engine,
as is the case in the modern powerful ]iresses.
The enormous multiplying power of this contrivance
has leil to its most e.Ktensive use ; for exanqile, com-
pressing cotton and wool bales, \c., expressing oils,
bending iron plates and bars, lifting heavy weights
(lifts and hoists), raising into position biidge-
girdeis (hydraulic jacks), &c. Presses of enormous
power are now superseding the huge steam-ham-
mers in large steelworks, obviating the unpleasant
vibraticnis and ensuring sounder metal.
Hydraulic Raui. a .simple and conveniently
applieil mechanism, by which the energy of
water falling from a height, Ji, can lie made avail-
able to force a portion of itself to a greater height,
/('. There is a supply-reservoir, fed, say by a
spring, from which a strong pipe, K, conducts the
^^■ater to the ram at a lower level. The ram has
two valves, one, A, opening downwards and in-
wards, the other, B, opening upwards and out-
wards: the weight of these valves issucli that when
the water is at rest its normal pressuie is unable to
keep them from falling, so that in this condition A
would be open and B shut. A cottar on the rod of
A keeps it from opening more than a certain
amount, and this can be adjusted ; the valve B
opens into an air-vessel, C, from the liottom of
which the delivery pipe, D, leads a«ay. The action
is as follows : the water flows from the reservoir
through the pipe R, and rushes out through the
now open valve A away to the waste-pipe ; in doing
so it acquires considerable velocity, and its pressure
therefore on the under side of the \-ahe A increases,
and finally becomes great enough to close it. The
flow of tlie water being thus suddenly checked,
produces a great reaction, and by its moinentum
opens the valve B, and forces a portion of the water
into the air-vessel C : the energy being expended,
the juessure falls again, B closes, and A opens once
more, enabling the water to rush out to the waste-
pipe, and so the whole operation is repeated. The
two valves thus alternately open and close, and water
is ileli\ered each time into the air-chanilier, C, the
air in which being compressed acts as an air-cushion,
keeping up a constant delivery through the pipe D.
//
-SLCtiuu of liyibaulic liaiii.
The small air-ve.ssel, E, is for diminishing tlieslio(d<s,
and has a small relief valve in it to admit air when
neces.sary ; it is self-acting. The hydraulic ram
was an invention of M<uitgollier ( 1707 ). but has been
greatly imiiroved : its niechanical I'lliciencv is g 1,
and for raising small (piantities of water, such as
are necessary for the supply of single houses, farm-
28
HYDRAULICS
HYDROCEPHALUS
yards, i<;c. — wlieie water at the lower level is
Iileiitiful aiul clieaii, it is a most useful piece of
iiiecliaiiisui. It can even be made to work apiim|i,
ami so to deliver a supply of jiure water when the
motive water is miuUly or impure.
Il.vdraiili«'s. f»ee Hvdkomeciiasu's.
Hydrides. This terui is ajiidied hoth to coui-
liinatioMs of hydrogen with metals, and to similar
coniliinations with orgauie or compound radical.s.
Hydrogen forms hydrides with a number of the
metals, as, for instance, arsenic, antimony, copper,
and potassium. The lirst two of these are the well-
known gases, ai'seniuretted hydrogen, AsH,, and
antimoniuretted hydrogen, SliH;,. In the case of
organic radicals, the hydride of ethyl, C.H.H, for
instance, wivs at one time sn])|iosed to be a dillerenl
substance from dimethyl, CifjCH-, but the.se were
eventually prov ed to be identical, so that the term
hydride, in this sense, is now obsolete.
Ilydrobi'oiiiic .icid, (I ),'/<«, HHr, invisible,
imugent, acid reaction, fumes in moist air, lifpiid at
- 69' C, .solid at - lUO' C ; prepared fioni a
bromide plus i)hosiihoric acid, or phosphorus tri-
bromide jiliis water. (2) \i\\wn\i» .■ioliilioii, analo-
gous to commercial hydrochloric acid, is weakeneil
by boiling until HBr sinks to 47 per cent., then
distils unchanged. See Uno.MlNE.
Hydrocarbons belong to the department of
organic chemistry, and may be shortly dehned as
compounds of carlion and hydrogen, and nothing
else. Despite their apparently simple nature, they
are frequently very com]dex, antf exist in such
numbers as to bewilder the beginner in chenucal
study. Fortunately, they can be gathered into
groups, each having distinctive characters, and the
members of which are closely related to each other.
The chief of these are the Paraliins, the Oletines,
the Acetylenes, the Henzene (([.v.) scries, and the
Anthracene (q.v. ) gnnip.
The Paraltins are found in natural petroleum as
well as in the products of the destructive distilla-
tion of coal, and are known as sat untied /ii/</nic(ir-
boiis. By this is meant that the carbon present is
already saturated (so to speak) with hydrogen, and
has no tendency to unite with other elements or
molecules. Uraiihically, carbon may be represented
as -C-i.e. with four arms, each one of which is
I
capable of being united to one atom of hydrogen ;
and when all four arms are so united, a, jiunij/in is
H
lint, instead of the
produced ; thus, Il-C'-H.
H
single atom of hy<lrogen, one arm (or all the arms)
may be engaged by such a group as ("11;^, so that we
get another paratlin, ClI.,— ClI,. Thus we go on
forming a series, each member of which ditlers from
the preceding one in having an extra C\\... Thus :
C'llj Methane,
CHj— CHo or C'.,ll, ICthane,
CH^-CH,.— ClI^ or C';;H„ I'ropane,
and so on indeliuitely. It will, however, be noticed
that when we ]iass to a higher member than pro-
liane, by replacing an atom of hyilrogcn by ClI;,, we
may do so in two ways, according jus the atmn
reiilaced is in the ('II3 group at either end, or the
Clf.j group in the centre. The result is that two
hyilrocarbons are possible — viz. CUj — CIL — C'H„ —
(-'Ha, and also ,,., '^CH — CH^. In like manner,
as we proceed further, wider scojie is given to
lis, the result being that when Tridecane, C^^H.,g,
is reached, it is theoretically possilde to reeogni.se
802 such bodies, all having the .same percentage
composition, but ditlering more or less in charac-
ters. Many of these isomei's are already known.
The paraliins are characterised by their indift'erence
to chemical action, being unacted on by caustic
l>otasli, sulphuric or nitric acid. The general
fonuula of the paraliins is ('nH„„».j, where 11
represents the number of atoms iu the fornnila.
The Olcjimx, l'.,IL,u — The chief of these are
Etliyline, C„Hj, Propylene, (.'Jl,,, liulylcne, i\H„,
.\niylene, C5II,,,, Ac. : and it will be oli.served that
in all of them the iicrcentage composition is identi-
cal, and that each member diMers from the lower
one by the addition of ('H„. When acted on by
chlorine, brondiu-, or iodine they readily form oily
liquids, sucli as Dutch lii|uiil, and, generally sjicak-
ing, they markedly dittcr from the paraliins in the
readiness ^^ ith which they unite with other l>odies.
Hydr<K'eIe (Gr. hiidnr, 'water,' and lelc, 'a
swelling') is a dropsy of the tunica vaginalis, the
serous membrane investing the testis. It oecui-s iis
a smooth, j)ear-shapc<l swelling, painless, but some-
times causmg a slight uneasiness fr<uu its weight.
The quantity of lluid in the sac may anmunt to
40 ounces. Hydrocele may occur as a result of
acute inllammation, but it most commiudy comes
on without any a|i[iari'nt local cause. It is*niosl
frecpmntly met with alxiut or beyoml the middle
])eriod of life, and generally in persons of feeble
Eower, or with a tendency to gout ; sometimes,
owever, it occurs in young children, either iu the
same form as in adults, or ;us what is termed ctiit-
fftiii'tftl Itifdrorfif. The treatment may be pnlliatit'c
m ciiraticc. The palliative treatment consists in
the u.se of suspensory bandages, and tajjping from
time to time. Tapping selihuu gives more than
temporary relief, the swelling usually regaining its
former bulk in three or four months. The curative
treatment consists in setting up iidlammation in
the tunica vaginalis, by the injection of tincture
of iodine, so as to obliterate the cavity, or by
excision of the whole or part of the sac.
llydroCH'plialllS. Under tins term, which
literally means "water in the head,' are includcil
three distinct diseases — vi/. acute hydroce)ihalus,
chrimic hydrocephalus, and spurio\is hydrocephalus,
or, ius Dr Marshall Hall termed it, hydrocephaloid
disease.
Acute IIi/drorej)liidus, or, as it is now generally
and more satisfactorily termed, iidicn-uhir meiiin-
f/itU, is e.s.sentially an inllammation of the mem-
branes of the brain due to the presence of Tubercles
(q.v.). The occurrence of lluid within the skull or
the brain, though frequent, is nu'rcly a secoiulary
and subordinate phenomenon. It is an extremely
fatal form of dLsea.se, c(unmon in childhood, much
less so during adult life. The .symptoms are very
variable and periilexing, .so that only the barest
outline of the most frcipient and inqiortant can
be attemjpted here. There is usually a prcriiouilory
perioil 111 .some days or weid<s, during which the
appetite and digestion are ilisturbeil, the (lis|iosi-
tiou is altered either in the direction of listlessness
or irritability, the strength impaired, and the body
becomes .slightly thinner. The lirst <listim't .symp-
tom of the disease is usually seveiv headache, with
sickness and feverishness ; the jiul.se is rapid and
the teuijierature raised, but variable. \iiniiting
very often occurs at this stage, and sometimes a
peculiar cry at intervals, which if present is very
characteristic.
In this iwai stage of hydroccphalns, which most
commonly lasts two lU' three days, the synqi-
tonis generally are those of exciti'ment. In the
second stage tlic jpuIsc becomes irregular, variable,
and often slow. (ieneral heaviuc.-s and stujior
come on. The light, which annoyed the child in
the lirst stage, Ls no longer a s(uirce of annoyance ;
the pujiils become dilated, the power of sight is
imperfect or lost, and sipiinting Ls almost always
HYDROCEPHALUS
HYDROCHLORIC ACID
29
to lie oliseiveil. Tlip little patient now lies on
his back in a ilrowsy condition ; ami at this
period spasmodic twitcliinjj^s, convulsions, or
jiaralysis may ajipcar. The excretions are passed
unconsciously. The secon<l stage may last a week
or two, and is often attended hy deceptive a|)])ear-
anecs of amendment, the child not unfrequently
retraining the use of its senses for a day or two,
liut then relapsing into a deeper stupor than before.
The symptoms in the third or last stage, which
may last only a few hours or may extend to a
fortnight, are very similar to those in the second,
except that the ]mlse again becomes very rapid,
beatiiig sometimes so quickly that it can scarcely
be counted, and gradually gets more and more
weak till the patient expires. The character-
istic appearances after death are the presence of
tubercles in the membranes of the brain, usually
near the base, and generally more or less softening
of the central part of the brain, >vith the ell'usion
of serous tlnid into the ventricles.
It must not be supposed that the stages described
above can be observed in every ca.se. There is, in
fact, hardly any disea.se Avhose course is so variable
and so apt to mislead those observing it. In its
earlier stages its recognition is sometimes almost
imiiossible : yet it is only then that any treatment
can l)e expecteil to l>e successful. C'olil applied to
the head, leeching, anil purgation sometimes appear
to do good : but in the va-st majority of cases the
disease proves rapidly fatal. Recovery ha.s been
proved to take place only in some few exceptional
instances.
Chronic Hifdroccpfinli'x is a perfectly distinct
disease from that just described ; while the latter
is an indammation, the former is a dropsy. In
chronic hydrocephalus a watery fluid collects
within the skull, before the bones have united
to form the solid brain-case, and by pressure out-
wards causes them to separate, and increases
the size of the head sometimes to an enormous
extent. Thus Dr Da\id Monro relates the ease of
a girl six yeai-s old whose head measured 2 feet
4 inches in circumference. While the skull is
rapidly enlarging, the hones of the face grow
no fa.ster than usual, and the great disproportion
of size between the head and the face is at once
diagnostic of the disease. This disorder some-
times commences liefore birth, and almost always
in early childhood, before the fontanelles and
sutures of the skull have closed. In some rare
c.-tses it has occuneil later, as, for examjjle, at
seven or nine years old, anil the closed sutures
have opened under the augmenting pressure.
When the sutures will not yield, death from
pressure on the brain speedily ensues. Most
children with chronic hydrocei)halus either re-
cover or die iti infancy : but a few survive, bear-
ing their complaint to ailult life, or even to old
age. lilindness, ileafness, palsy, and idiocy —
one or more — are commonly associated with this
dise.a.He, but occasionally the intellect and .senses
are sutliciently perfect for the ordinary requirements
of social life.
The results of treatment are generally not en-
couraging, though sometimes benelit ap])ears to
result. It may be attempted by internal remedies
or by snrgical appliances. The meilical treatment
most in favour ccmsists in the administration of
diuretics, purgatives, ,and especially mercnrj', which
may be given in the form of calomel in minute
doses, anil applied as ointment externally. The
surgical ex|iedi('nts are bandaging and puncturing
the heail. The latter ha« in many cases certainly
lirolonged life, although the disease h.as linally con-
quered. Neither of these means is applicable after
the bones of the skull have united.
This disea-se occasionally occurs in adult or
in advanced life, after enlargement of the head
has become imjiossible. Stupor, jiaralysis, and an
inability or iinwillingness to s|icak are in these
cases the most prominent symptoms. Dcau Swift's
death was due to this disease, and it is recorded
that during the last three years of his life he
remained in a state of silence, with few and .slight
exceptions.
Spxrious Hydrocephalus resembles acute hydro-
cephalus in many of its symptoms, and has often
been mistaken for it. Instead, however, of lieing
an intlamniatory disease it is a disease of debility,
and is dtie to a deficient supply of blood to the
brain. The following are, according to Watson,
the distinctive characters of this sjnirious hydro-
cephahis : the pale, cool cheek ; the half-shut,
regardless eye: the insensible pupil; the inter-
rupted, sighing respiration : and the state of the
unclosed fontanelle. If the sym|)toms are those
of acute hydrocephalus the surface of the fontan-
elle will be convex and prominent; while if they
are due to spurious hydroce])halus, and originate
in emptiness and want of support, the fontan-
elle will be concave and depressed. The remedies
in this disease, which readily yields to treat-
ment, are nourishing diet, small doses of wine
or e\ en of brandy in arrowroot, decoction of hark,
ammonia. &c.
Hydroeharidcae. See Ax,\ch,\ri.s, Y.vllis-
XERIA, \VATf;i; SOLDIER.
Hydrochloric Acid (sym. HCl ; equiv.
.36 '.J ) is one of the most important compounds
in inorganic chemistry. If the two gases which
enter into its composition (hydrogen and chlorine)
be mixed in equal volumes they will remain with-
out action upon each other if kept in the dark ;
but a-s soon as they are brought into direct sun-
light they unite with a loud explosion, .and hydro-
chloric acid 'gas is the result. The principal
characters of this gas are that it is colourless,
intensely acid, irrespirahle, and even when largely
diluted is very irritating to the lungs and eyes,
and very injurious to vegetation ; that it is heavier
than air ( its specific gravity being 1 •2474, air being
taken at TOOO) ; that it can be condensed into a
colourless liquid ; that it is very soluble in water,
and that it is neither combustible nor a supporter
of combustion. When allowed to escape into the
air it produces white fumes by condensing the
atmospheric moisture. If the air be previously
dried no such fumes are apparent.
The solutions of this gas in water form the acid
which was first known as Spiril of Sa/t, then as
Muriaiii- Arid, and which is now termed Hifilro-
chloric or (_'h/orhi/<lric Acid. A saturated watery
solution of this gas at 40^ (4-4° C.) has a specific
gravity of r21, and consists of 1 equivalent of the
gas dissolved in 3 equivalents of water. It forms a
colourless, fuming liquid, which acts as a caustic.
On heating it the gas is evolved abundantly until
the temperature reaches 230° (110° ('.), when there
distils over a diluted solution, having a sjiecilic
gravity of I'l, and consisting of 1 equivalent of the
gas and 8 equivalents of water. It is to these
solutions of hydrochloric acid that theteiiii hi/dro-
chliiric odd is far more commoidy apidicd than to
the ga-s itself. They posses.s tjie ordinary char-
acters of an energetic acid, and neutralise the
strongest ba.ses. The neutralisation is, however,
not in consequence of the acid coudiining with the
oxide, but is due to the simultaneous decomi>osi-
lion of the acid and of the oxide, water and a
metallic chloride lieing formed. It .M represents
the metal the reaction is expressed by the equa-
tion M,< > ■>.- IK "1 = MCI + II,0. All metals which
at a red heat decompose water also decompose
this acid, and cause an evolution of hydrogen, the
30
HYDROCELE
HYDRODYNAMICS
reaction being expressed as folU.ws : M + HCl -
MCI + H ^v.lioclilorie acid ga^ is «■, Ponm'<;n
i^ieous volcanic product. Free liydrooldonc acid
fn a very dilate form is also a constituent o, the
tastric juice of man and annuals, and plajs an
Essential part in tlie disestive process.
ronmeoial m.riatn- „cv:rf-to use the name
en Id v<.d l,v manufacturing cl.emists-is made by
heatin.' in iron cylinders common salt (chloride
f so lium and oil of vitriol (liydrated sulphuric
acid), and condensing the evolve, -as m wate
cout.aiiied in a series of stoneware ^^ o than Bottles
[qv.) the reaction being explained by the equa-
tion :
Chloriile
o( Sodium.
Hydrochloric
Acid.
Oil ot vitriol. "'Tcir"- Sulphate of So,la.
NaCl + H.,SO, = HCl + Xa.,SO,.
This commercial acid may contain various impuri-
ties—as, for example, iron (which gives it a bright
deep yellow colour), the chlorides of sodium and
ai-senic— the latter being derived from the oil ot
vitriol— sulphuric and sulphurous acids, ehlonne
\-c from which it can be purihed to a great
extent bv dilution and redistillation. 'If pure,
savs Mifler, 'the acid should leave no residue
when evaporated : on saturating it with ammonia
it should give no precipitate of oxide of iron ;
sulphuretted hvdrogen should produce no turbidity
in it, which would be the case if arsenic, free
chlorine, or suliihurous acid were present ; and
on dilution ^^•ith three or four times its bulk o
water no white cloud of sulphate of baryta should
be produced by the addition of chhiride of barium
The presence of hyilrochhn-ic achl, or of the soluble
chlorides in solution, may be detected by the
addition of a few drops of a solution of nitrate ot
silver which occasions the formation of a white
curdv precipitate of chloride ot silver, wliicli_ is
insoluble in nitric acid, but dissolves m a solution
of ammonia. , ,, <•
Liriuid hydrochloric acid (under the name of
spirit ot slilt) was known to the alchemists.
Hydrochloric acid gas was discovered by Priestley
in 177'2- and Daw in 1810 ascertained that it
was composed of chlorine and hydrogen. In many
resjiects hydrobromic, hydrotluoric, and hydnodic
acids resemble hydrochloric acid.
Hydrocele, a Tumour (q.v.) with watery con-
tents in the tunica vaginalis of the testes.
Hvdroevaiiir Acid, HCN or IlCy, known
also "as Prussic .\cid, from its having been hrst
obtained bv Scheele in 17.S2 from the substance
known as ■Prussian or Berlin Blue, is ot almost
equal interest to the chemist, the physician, ami
the toxicologist. , , ,
(1) C/icmMn/.—Viw. anhydrous liydrocyamc
acid is a colourless, highly volatile liquid, with a
specific gravity of 0-607 at 64= I<. It boils at 80
and solidilies'into a crystalline mass at o f. It
possesses a very iienetrating odour, resembling tliat
of peach-blossoms or oil of bitter almonds. It
burns «ith a whitish Hame, reddens litmus paper
gli"htlv(its acid properries being feeble), and is
very soluble in water and alcohol. Pure hydro-
cyanic acid niav be kept unchanged if exclude,
fi-oni light, which occasions its decomiiosition, ami
the formation of a brown substance known as para-
cvano"iMi. Hydrocyanic acid is readily obtained bv
disliliraion from the kernels of bitter almonds and
many kinds of stone-fruit, from the leaves an<l
flowers of various plants, and from the luice of
the tapioca plant ( Jdtniplin m/inilmt ). Anhydrous
hydrocyanic acid may be obtiiined by the action ot
concentrated hydrochloric acid on cyanide of mcr
cury. The diluted hvdrocyanic acid of the Bntisli
an.i other phariuac.lp.eias is, however, of more
practical importance. It is made (lintish 1 liar-
mwo/).) by distilling ferrocyanide of potassium
with dilute sulphuric acid, and is standardised to
a strength of '2 per cent. When kept for any
length of time it is extremely aid. to decompose.
The ordinary tests for hydrocyanic acid are ( 1 )
the peculiar oi\our ; (2) the nitrate of silver test-
there being forme<l a white precipitate ot cyann e
of silver, which is sidulde in boiling nitric acid ;
(.3) the formation of Prussian blue, by ailding to
the Huid under examination a solution of some
proto- and per-salt of iron, bv then saturating with
caustic potash, and finally adding an excess ot
hydrochloric acid, when, if hydrocyanic acid is
present, we have a characteristic blue precimtate -.
(4) the sulphur test, which is the liest and most
accurate that has yet been disco\ered. To the
snsiiected liquid add ammonia and yellow sulpliy-
drate of ammonium ; evaporate the liquid in a
watch-gla-ss to dryness, occasionally adding am-
monia till the excess of sulphydrate of animonnim
is decomposed. Add water, and aciilify with
hydrochloric acid. If hydrocyanic acid be present
the sulphocyanate of amnumium which has been
formed gives a blood-red solution on the addition
of a ferric salt. , , , . • i
(•2) Medicinal f^sfs.— Diluted hydrocyanic acul
is used externally as an ingredient of lotions to
diminish itching in skin diseases. In '2 to 8 minim
doses it is given internally to diminish irntalnlity
of the stomach, to relieve gastro-intestinal pain,
vomiting, and functional paliiitation ot the he.art.
Given by the mouth or \>\ inhalation it is also
useful in allaying cough in jdithisis. hooping-cough,
bronchitis, Ac. All these ai>plications depend
upon its action in deadening sensory nerves.
(3) As a Po/,«)H.— Hvdrocyanic acid is one of our
most energetic poisons, and is frequently employed
both for murder and suicide. M hen axiiuill jioison-
ous dose (about half a drachm of the '2 j.er cent,
acid) has been taken the first sym].toiiis .are weiglit
and pain in the head, with confusion of thought,
.'iddine.ss, nausea (and sometimes vomiting), a
quick pulse, and loss of muscular i»)wer. It death
result this is preceded by convulsions and invol-
untary evacuations. When a lanjc dose has l.een
taken (as from half an ounce to an ounce ot tlie
■> per cent acid) the symptoms may commence in a
few seconds, and it is seldom that their appear-
ance is delayed beyond one or two minutes.
'When,' says'Dr A. S. Taylor, 'the patient h.as
been seen 'at this period he has been perfectly
insensible, the eyes fixed and glistening, the pnpi s
dilated and unalVected by light, the limbs flaccid,
the skin cold and covered with a clammy per-
spiration ; there is convulsive resiuratum at long
iiiter\als, and the patient apjiears dea.l in tfie
intermediate rime ; the pulse is impcrceptilde, ami
the respiration is slow, deep, gasping, and some-
rimes heaving or sobbing.' The patient survives
for a longer or shorter period, according to the dose.
According to Dr Lonsdale, death has occurred as
eariv as the second and as late a.s the J,,rl;/-Ji/l/i
minute : the poismi acts a-s a i.aralysant to the wliole
nervous system. Death is due to paralysis ol_ the
heart in the more rapid cases, and to paralysis of
the respiration in those which occur more slowly.
Where tlie fatal action is so rapid antidotes are
of comparatively little value. Chlorine, aninionia
eold aflnsion, and artihcial resi.iratMm are he niost
important agents in the treatment. he first Uvo
should be used with great caution, and mily b> the
medical practitioner. Cold aflusion on the head,
ne,k and down the spine is a valuable remedy.
Artificial respiration (see UlCSHRATlON, ArTIFI-
ci \i.) sliould le'ver he omitted.
llYdl-odVliaillM-s. in its complete generality,
is the science which treats of tt.e motions an.
e<,uilibrium ..f a material system, part orallot
HYDRODYNAMICS
31
which is lluiil. In acconlaiioe with moilorn dyiiainic
nomenclature (see DvXAMU's) we should discuss it
tiiidei- tlie two headings Uydrokinetics and Hydro-
statics. The historic usa^'e of the term lias, how-
ever, .so fixed itself that we tjeiierally re<;ar(l hydro-
dynamics ,as excluding; hydrostatics and a* dealinj;
oiily with kinetic iirohlems. Oiiginall.v, as the
derivation of the words at once show, hydro-
dynamics and hydrostatics referred only to the
motion and eri\ulil>ri\im of lii|uids ; but as onr
knowledj;e of the jdiysical jiroperties of all kinds of
Huid, lii|nid and gxseons, increased, it was recog-
nised that they had nnicli in common from a
dynamic point of view, and the terms became
extended in their application as defined above.
Thus the Hoating of a balloon in air depends on the
same hydrostatic principle as the floating of a ship
on water. The sim]iler and some of the more
practical problems of liydrostatics will be found
treated under that heading. In its practical
engineering aspects hydrodynamics is known ;xs
hydraulics, including such important subjects as
tlie construction of canals, breakwaters, docks,
pumps, water-pipes, water-wheels, and so on, most
of which liave separate articles to themselves.
Here we shall confine ourselves to the scientific
principles of the subject, using familiar cases as
illustrations.
The study of hydrodynamics has led to the con-
ception of wliat is called the prrfiH fluid. It may
be <lefined as a substance incapable of resisting the
smallest deforming .stress. For instance, no portion
of such a fhiid can resist, even for a moment, a
longitudinal pressure if unsupported by a lateral
pressure. The logical consequence of this definition
is that, if the Huid is at rest, the pressure at a point
is the same in all directions ; for if it were not so
there would be a deforming stress, and therefore a
yielding of the fluid, and equilibrium could not
exist. By .similar reasoning we may show that, if
the pressure varies from point to point in a Huid at
rest, there must be an external force acting on the
fluid in the direction in which the pressure is increas-
ing. Thus, in virtue of gravity, atmospheric pres-
sure decreases as we ascend, and the pressure in
the ocean or any other body of water increases as
we descend. So long as we are dealing with
equililiiium of fluids we meet with nothing incon-
sistent with the delinition of the ideal perfect fluid.
Across every interfaces separating two contiguous
portions of the fluid the mutual stress is of the
nature of a pressure wholly normal to the interface.
When, however, we pass to cases of fluid motion
we find that the properties of the perfect fluid are
very f.ar from being realised in nature. The smallest
relative motion amongst the diflerent parts of a
fluid brings into play mutual stresses which are not
normal to the interface between two contiguous
portions. These tangential stresses tend to destroy
the relative motion, existing only so long Jis the
relative motion exists. They are thus partly
analogous to resistances due to friction in the
dynamics of solid bodies — hence? the term fluid
friction (see VlscosiTV) fretjuently emphiycil to
denote the property that discrimin.ites actual fluids
from the ideal )>erfect fluid. Kluiil friction, how-
ever, ilifli'i-s from friction in one iriarked particular;
it has no significance in .static problems. It is
wholly kinetic. The gradual stilling of troubled
waters, the calming of the wind, the slackening in
spee<l of the water in a stream as we ])ass from the
centre and sui-face portions towards the banks or
bottom are familiar examjiles of the efl'ects of fluiil
friction.
Under certnain circumstances the tangential
.stresses thus brought into play not only rr'tard the
motion of the more swiftly-moving jiarls of the
fluid, but even accelerate tiie motiim of the more
slowly-moving parts. Tims a ra|)idly-llowing river
entering the sea draws along with it a consiilerable
cjuantity of the original ocean water. The efl'ects
of a draught of air are felt far beyond the direct
course of the main current. It is impossible, in
fact, to mark ott clearly the boundaries of a current
flowing in fluid of the same kind. In like manner,
the eddies formed in the wake of a solid body
moving through either air, water, or other fluid
could not be produced if it were not for the exist-
ence of these tangential stresses. In every case
the fin.al result is a dissipation of energy (see
Energy ) ; but in the majority of cases of practical
importance the rate of dissipation is so slow — in
other words, the tangential stresses are so small in
comparison with the other efTective forces acting —
that tlie properties of tlie perfect fluid go far to
exjilaiu many hydiokinetic phenomena. Some of
these we shall now consider.
It has been already pointed out that the equi-
librinm of a fluid under the action of gravity or
other force depends upon the manner in which the
pressure varies in the direction of the force. Now
a force has always a definite direction ; and con-
sequently in all directions perpendicular to the
direction of the resultant force acting at a point in
the flui<l there can be no variation of pressure.
Thus, from any one point we can pass to an infinity
of neighbouring points at which tlie jiressure is the
same ; from each of these again to an infinity of
others ; and so on indefinitely. We thus arrive at
the conception of a surface in the fluid, at every
point of which the pressure is the same. Such a
surface is called a surface of equal pressure, and
one of its essential ])roperties is that it is perpen-
dicular at every point of it to the resultant force
there. In the case of fluids at rest under the action
of gravity these surfaces are also called level sur-
faces, and are for all practical purposes essentially
horizontal planes. A consideration of these prin-
ciples leads easily to the conclusion that equilibrium
in a fluid mass cannot exist if the pressures at two
points at the same level ditt'er, or if the pressures
are the same at two points at diflerent levels.
These two conditions are essentially one and the
same ; and when they are fulfilled, fluid motion
must take place (see such articles as At.mo-SPHEre,
Wind, W.we, Siphon, and Artesi.\n Wells for
familiar illustrations of these principles).
The discharge of fluids through orifices includes
a number of very important phenomena, some of
which we shall discuss in detail. The vessel MAB
( fig. 1 ) is provided at D, C, E, o with apertures
Fig. 1.
which may be closed when desired. Let the vessel
be filled with water up to the level .\IA : then, if
the orifice n, which looks vertically u]iwards, ia
opened, a jet of water will be projected up, and
will reach very nearly to the height M.\. If it
were not for Ihiid friction and the conse(|uent dis-si-
pation of energy the jet would rcNicli the height
MA. As soon as the orifice o is opened, the water
32
HYDRODYNAMICS
surface tliere beiii;,' cxposoil simply to the pressure
of tlio atiiin-^]ilier(- is umlor tlie sanio ])ressure as
tlii> iinioli lii^tuM- surface MA. Hiuice a How takes
place anil will continue to take place until tlio sur-
tace of tlie water MA lias sunk to the level of the
water at i:>. The experiment shows that the jet is
]irojc<-teil with a velocity very nearly ernial to that
wliic-h wo\ilil he acciuireil hy a hotly falling under
gravity from the level AM to the level o. This
velocity is given hy the relation r- = '2rih, where g
is the acceleration due to gravity and h the <litl'erenee
of level mentioned. Similarly, if tlie orifices at D,
C, K are o])eneil, the issuing jets will he projected
with speeds whose sipi.aies will l>e found to he very
a])proxiniately proportional to the ilid'erences of
level hetween the upper surface MA and the respec-
tive orilices. This may he proved experimentally
by constructing the orifices so that the discharge
i." initially horizontal, and then measuring tlie
range, I>K or BL, reached hy the several jets. Thus,
assuming the law just given, commonly called the
theorem of Torrii-elli, we may show that the srpiare
of the range 1!K is equal to four times the product
of the dill'erences in level of the orifice D below
A and above B, that is, 4AD -DB. Hence if we
describe a semicircle ACiB on AB as a diameter,
the horizontal lines DF, CO, EH meeting this
semicircle will be half the horizontal ranges corre-
sponding to the res|iective orilices.
The height of the free water surface above the
orilice from which the water is issuing is technically
called the hrnd. The "leater the head the greater
is the pressure at the level of the orilice, and the
more available the water for practical imrposes.
Part of the head is consumed in overcoming fri(^tional
resistances ; for wellformed sim|de oritiees about Gj
per cent, of the whole head is so expended. The
(liscliarge from any orilice in a given time will
depend obviously on the size of the orilice and on
the available head. Experiment shows, however,
that for sharp-edged orilices in a wall the discharj^e
is distinctly less than the simple theory would
indicate. In such cjises the section of the jet is
smaller than the section of the orilices in the ratio
of about .5 to 8. This is sulhciently exiiliuned liy
the convergence of the streamlets in the fluid whicli
ultimately form the jet ; and this convergence con-
tinues for a little distance beyond the orifice, jiro-
ducing the phenomenon of the vctia coutracta or
contracted vein. We have seen how the sjieed of
ellliix is measured by means of the par.abohc path
of the jet; this speed lauUiplied by the iiumlier of
seconds in a chosen interval of time, and hy the
('ff'rrtirc (unknown) area of the orilice gives the
whole discharge in that interval. This discharge
can he easily measured ; and thus the data are
complete for limling the eirective area of the orilice
and comparing it with the real area. By furnishing
an orilice with a short mouthiiiece of the form of
the contracted vein, we may regard thi; siuallest
cross-section of the mouthpiece as the true orilice.
In this case the oU'ective area and the real area arc
the .same.
In these simple ca.ses of efHux the energy of elllux
is wholly explained as being derived from the hydro-
static lic.'id iif water. The pressure due to this head
is the weight of a I'olumn of water of nnitcross
section and of a height ec|iial to the head. Thus, if
p is the density of the water, so that p>/ is the weight
of unit-volume, the pressure p due to a head h is
P'l/i. Thus, bv Torricelli's theorem, - is half the
P
s(|u,are of the velocity with which a jet would he
projected through an orilice made at a place where
till- pressure is j>. Hence we may regard this ratio
' as the energy per unit mass of water due to the
pressure /). But if the water is in motion with a
speed I', its energy jier unit-mass is on this jiccount
hi-'-. If, further, the iiarticular portion of the lluid
considered is at a height ./' above a certain arbitrarily
chosen level, dclined as the level of zero iiotential
energy, then its potential energy is r/.r. The whole
energy possessed by the moving lluid is built up of
these three |iarts due respectively to pressure, speed,
and gravitation, and is given therefore hy tlie
expression — -f iv- + qx. Now, in the case of a
p - ■'
steady frictionless flow along a deterniin.ate channel,
the whole energy possessed by any unit-mass of the
lluid must be the same; for at some time or other
every element passes through the ]iosit ions occupied
at other times by other elements in the same sti'eam-
line, and passes through them under the .same
dynamic conditions. Hence, neglecting the eflecta
of friction, we arrive at the conclusion that the
expression for energy just given is constant along
any given stream-line. Take, for example, a jiipe
of uniform bore. If the How is steady the invari-
ahleness of the cross-section reipiires the sjieed at
every point to he the same. Hence as x diminishes
/) must increase, so that ( — + .(?•'') "'-ly remain con-
stant. For a horizontal pipe x nuist be constant,
and so of necessity is p. Now sujipose the tube to
he horizontal but of variable section ; then, .since x
is constant, the expression [—+ M') must also he
constant. Tint the speed c varies inversely as the
sc'ctioti ; hence p must be greatest where the bore is
wiliest and least where the bore is narrowest. In
other words, the cross-section and pressure increa.se
together and dimiiiisji together. A familiar illus-
tration of this is shown in lig. 2, in which water is
e.scaping from a short cylindrical nozzle A. The
contracted vein occurs at c, so that, the velocity
being greater there than at the open end of the
tube, the ]Messure is less. But the ])ressure at A is
the atmos])heric pressure ; and, conse(|uentlv, if a
tube he led from c to the vessel of water \', the
water will be pushed ii^i to some point b by the
excess of the atmospheric pressure over the pres-
sure at c.
When the efl'ects due to friction are taken into
account we see in a general way that the energy,
instead of remaining constant as we pa.ss along a
streamline, will steadily fall oil'. In the ca.se of a
iiiiifiirm pipe thi^ loss of energy will show itself in
a more rapid falling away in the pressure. For
instance, in a horizontal |>ipe of uniforiii bore the
pressure will steadily diminish as we pass along in
the direction of the How. At the oiien end of the
lii|)e (r, lig. 2) the pressure is that of tlic atmosphere;
and this will gradually increase a-s we ]iass along
the pipe against the How until we come to (/, where
the pressure falls a little short of that due to the
head of water in the vessel. This may be shown
experimentally as indicated in the ligure, in which
the small iii>iight tubes inserted in the horizontal
pipe become lillcd with water to a certain lu-ighl.
In the construction of water-works these and many
HYDRO-EXTRACTOKS
ITYDROMEL
33
other problems in liyilrokinetics receive their
[irai'ticul siihitioii. In tlio motion and lh)w of
iiiiihly eom]Messilili' Ihiiils, snoh as gases, we meet
with theorems similar to tlioso just discussed for
liquids. The treatment, however, is necessarily
more abstruse, and is far from comidete if thermo-
dynamic considerations are left out of account. See
G.ASKS, SOINP, THEItMor)VN.\MICS.
Tlie hydrokinetic problems connected with the
motion of solids throuirh lluids have their most
important a|iplicatious in questions which concern
the artillorynian and the sliipbuiUlor. In the
practice of j,»nnnery tlie law of the resistance to
projectiles in air has been very fully worketl out.
At very high speeds the resistance is very great
indee<l ; and it may be shown that an ordinary-
sized projectile if dropped from an innnense heiglit
(say 4IJ miles) could never, under the action of
gravity alone, attain a speed of SOO feet per second.
One great source of loss of energy of a body moving
through a liquid is the formation of eddies and
vortices in its wake. These are the direct result of
tangential stresses acting between contiguous jior-
tions of the llnid moving with dill'erent speeds. In
virtue of the same tangential stresses the eddying
motions quickly die away, and the energy, as in all
such transformations, takes the form of heat.
The best English treatises on hydrodynamics are Lamb's
Htidroihnutinirs (1895) and Bas-sctt's Hydrodiiiiitmics
(2 vols. l.StSS-S!)); see also Unwiu's ' Hydraulics ' in £'«-
ci/clojatlia Britannka (9th ed.).
Hydro-extractors. See Drying-m.\chi.\es.
nydrofliioric Acid. See Fluorine.
HydroKCH ( *.viii. H : atom. wt. 1 ; Gr. hifdur,
'water,' and (ifiiiiuo, 'to produce') is an element-
aiT gas ami the lightest substance known. It is
colourless, odonrless, and non-poisonous, although
as' ordinarily prepared it frequently contains traces
of disagreeably smelling or of poisonous impurities.
The gas when subjected to enormous pressure at
an extremely low temper.ature can be reduced to
the liquid state. In combination with o.xygen it
forms one-ninth part by weight of water, and it is
a most iuijiortant constituent of the tissues of
animals and plants. It enters into the composi-
tion of a large number of mannfactured substances
and prixlucts used in the arts, medicine, iS:c. , as,
for instance, starch, sugar, vinegar, gutta-percha,
alcohol, ether, benzene, aniline, indigo, morphia,
&c. It is not found largely in nature in the free
or unconibined state, but it does occur in some
ga.seons emanations from the earth, as in the sol-
iktariLs of Iceland and in the petroleum regions of
Pennsylvania. Being the lightest gas known, its
density is often adopted as the standard of com-
parison for the densities of other gases. The
density of atmospheric air compared with that
of hydrogen as unity is nearly It."). As hydrogen
posses.ses the lowest atomic weight of all the ele-
ments, the atomic weight of hydrogen is almost
universally adopted by chemists as unity, and
those of the other elements referred to it ; but at
pre-sent there is a decided movement in favour of
the adoption as standard of an atomic weight
which can lie determined with more rigid accuracy
than that of hydrogen can.
Although hydrogen is usually ela.ssed amongst
the non-met.iilic elements, it is in its chemical
behaviour more closely related to the metals. It
combines with o.xygcn, at a red heat forming water,
this combination being accompanied by the giving
out of a great <leal of heat. A jet of hydrogen
burns in air or oxygen with a non-luminous llame,
which is, however, sullicicntly hot to heat to
whiteness a fine platinum wire held in it. The
behaviour of hydrogen towards chlorine is e.K-
tremelv interesting. The two gases can be mixed
203
in equ.tl volumes and preserved without combina-
tion taking place for an indelinite i)eriod if keiit in
the dark, hut on exi)osure to ditl'used daylight
combination begins, and its jirogress depends n]ion
the brightness of the light and the duration of the
exposure. Momentary exiiosurc to direct sunlight
causes combin.ation to take place with explosive
violence, and a similar ellect is produced by raising
any portion of the mixture to a red heat. llydrogen
as a rule combines with those things with which
the metals in general combine, forming compounds
which are analogous to those of the metals. Com-
pounds containing hydrogen and mie other element
are common decomposition products of decaying
vegetable and animal matters ; as, for instance,
marsh-gas, ammonia, and sulphuretted hydrogen,
which contain hydrogen combined with carbon,
nitrogen, and sulplmr respectively.
Hydrogen gas, under the name of comlnistible
air, was obtained in the 16tli century by Paracelsus
by treating certain metals with dilute acids, and
was more or less known to Boyle ami others ; but
Cavendish (q.v. ) in his paper on ' Factitious Airs,'
published in the Transactions of ike Jioi/al Society
for 1766, was the first to describe accurately the
properties of this gas, and the methods of obtaining
it, hence he is usually nientione<l as its discoverer.
The ordinary methods for preparing and purify-
ing hydrogen will be found in any elementary
treatise on chemistry. See Cases.
Hydrogen Peroxide (sym. H.fl^) is a
componnil of hydrogen and oxygen, containing a
larger proportion of oxj-gen than water, the otlier
compound of these elements. It was discovered in
1S18 l)y Thi'nard, and was by him regarded as
oxidised water as it very readily decomposes, when
heated, into oxygen and water. The substance,
when freed from water as completely as possible,
is a thick transparent liquid, of specific gravity
1'45, without colour or smell, but possessing a
bitter taste. It bleaches many vegetable colours,
and when applied to the tongue or skin produces a
white spot and gives rise to consideralile pain. Its
bleaching action and most of its chemical char-
acters depend upon its powerfully oxidising pro-
perties. It is employed, in dilute solution, for the
restoration of oil-paintings, its action upon these
being an oxidising one.
Hydrography, as a branch of physical geo-
grapiiy, deals with the waters of the globe in so far
as they are available for navigation. The liydro-
grapher determines liy means of observations and
soundings the outline of coasts and shores, the con-
figuration of river-beds, lake-basins, and the .sea-
bottom adjacent to coasts, ascertains the position
and extent of shoals and rocks and islands, as well
as of beacons and lighlhonses, investigates the
nature and velocity of currents, the local tidal
phenomena, the changes taking idace in river-
mouths and in harbours, and tlie alterations
efl'ected in coast-lines by the action of the sea.
All these details it is his business to embody, as
far as may be, in charts and maps which shall be
serviceable for the practical mariner. See Chart.
Ilydroid. See IIyi)i;iizoa.
Hydr01IIC<'liailics, a term sometimes used so
as to cover what in tliis wmk is dealt with at
Hydrodynamics (q.v.) and Hydrostatics (q.v.), as
also hydraulics, or the dcpiirtnient of engineering
which deals with the ajiplication of liquids in
motion to machinery. Ilj'dromecbanics is some-
times jimili'd to the latter department alone, tin
the other b,-uid, hydraulics is sometimes made to
cover hydrodynamics. See E.NciNEEKlNt;, with
articles ihcrc cited, and Watek-wokks, Sewaok.
Ilydroiliel. a beverage made of honey ami
water : fermented, it becomes mead.
34
HYDROMETER
HYDROPATHY
llydroilK'tcr. an instrument which in<lioates,
by ilie (loiilU Id \\ liich it sinks in a lii|uid in which
it lloalK, the speeillo lU-nsity or spuciiic gravity of
that linuiil. See Sl'iiCiKic i)EXSlTV.
Il.vdroiliys, a genus of water-mice found in
Australia, Tasmania, and New Guinea, distin-
guished from all other rodents by the small
number ( ". ) of molars. They are called Beaver-
rats in T.ismania ; arc nocturnal and very shy ;
inhabit the banks of both fresh and salt water, and
swim well, with the help of partially-webln'd hind-
feet. The largest species is twice the size of a
common rat. One species has the belly white, the
other yellow.
Il.vdropatliy, like Hiidvothcrnpti and Ibidnt-
theni/jeiiticK, means the ii.se of water in the treat-
ment of disease, or in the prevention of the
leniloncy to tlisease. Popularly, however, Itydro-
jiiilhij has become so attached to a s|)ecial scheme
of water treatment that it will be used here in that
sense alone ; while liiiih-ullieni/in will refer to the
less restricted an<l more scientilic use of water as
one of the many therapeutic wea]ions furnished by
e.\perieiice to the armoury of the practitioner of
medicine. Water is the world's natural medicine.
We find early mention of water as a curative
agent, and its virtues are extolled by many of the
classical writers — e.g. Hippocrates, Galen, Celsus,
Musa, and Asclepiades. In the middle ages Aetius,
Alexander of Tralles, Paulus of -Kgina, and Avi-
cenna may be claimed as its advocates; while in
more modern times Cardanus, Hollman, Bernardo,
Sir John Floyer, Dr Baynard, the Ilahns, Tissot,
Dr Smith, and Hancoke de.serve mention ; as do
also I'are, Lombard, and Percy in special reference
to its use in surgery. By most of these men water
was applied botli e.'cternally and internally — inter-
nally chielly as a cold drink in fevers ; and it was
on this point the battle raged chietly, Boerliaave
and others dis|)uting hotly against the propriet}' of
so administering it. To Dr James Currie (q. v. ),
a l.iver))ool physician, belongs the credit of intro-
ducing its use in fevers and febrile diseases. His
book ( 1797 ) contains some most interesting informa-
tion, and the records of a large number of experi-
ments carried out to the best of his abilities, with
the very imiierfeet thermometers then in use. His
interest appears to have been originally roused by
the success of Ur Wright in treating fever, both in his
own case and that of others, on board ship, by the
ai)plication of cold sea-water. Currie's work was
translated into German by Michaelis, and spread
his treatment far and wide, meeting with much
favour and also with bitter hostility. Amongst its
warmest supporters was Oertel, a teacher in Ans-
bach, who re-editeil, or rewrote, many of the older
treatises, and who probably had some direct influ-
ence on the man who really introiluced a new era
in treatment l)y water. This was Vincent Priessnitz
( 179;)- 181.')), a Silcsian farmer of Griifenberg, who
aftc' considerable success in treating wonnds and
spr.iins in animals with cold-water baudage-s,
had to treat himself, a horse having broken some
of his ribs. Again successful, he continued the
treatment whenever he could on any of the neigh-
bouring peasants, and advanced the further step of
using water internally ; his fame spread, and he
soon gathered an immense vlicidilc. and achieved
renuirkable success. He showeil great ingenuity
in inventing, with the a.ssistance of his patients,
all sorts of new methods of applying water to every
part of the body ; ami, though using water as his
sole rcnieilial agent, he very sagaciously emjdoyed
hiM cl exercise, fresh air, and a regulated ])lain diet a.s
adjuviints. Unfortunately, being utterly ignorant
of medicine, he taught peculiar ideas of disease,
which he considered to be due to the presence in
the blood of certain acriil humours which had to be
diluted and extracted by means of water, lie .said
the escape of these produced an eruption which
marked the crisis ; but as it is known that water
ajiplied cimtinuously will produce such an eruption
on even the healthiest skin, and as all the known
facts of pathology are opposed to his doctrine-^, «e
are obligW to reject his theories even winle his
practice is admitted to be ailndrable. It is to tliis
special system of w.-iter treatment that the term
Hililiopatlni is now generally applied. There are,
however, endless hybrid varieties in which one or
other theory, or ])aiticular form of jnaetice, is either
specially rejected or adopteil ; so it must not be
supiiosed that the foregoing siatements apply abso-
lutely to all hydropathists. P.cyond cavil, however,
tlie most scientilic position to take u]) is that in
which water is used as a remedial agent in every
way, in which it has been proved to be useful, «ith-
out restricting its u.se, or reailing its results in the
light of any theories, while at the same time care is
taken to avoid all ill eflects. This constitutes the
.system of Hi/drut/icrripi/, which obtains pnmiiiient
notice in all nLo<lern books on therapeutics. Possibly
the term nught be imjiroved, as heal in many cases
seems to be the real agent, of which water is only
the vehicle. Thermotherapeutics ami Thermo-
therapy have been suggested as terms more scien-
tilically correct. Water has often been abused, like
every other good thing in this world ; even an ice-
water dys|ic|isia, due to too free indulgence in
drinking iced water (but especially along with
food), being not uncommon in America.
Water may be employed medicinally both inter-
nally and externally in its three forms— solid,
litiuid, and gasecnis. For the external uses, see
B.VTll ; for its internal use with drugs in solution,
.see Medicine, and Minee.M. Sprini;.s. There is
left for consideration here only its use internally as
pure water. Absolutely nece.<siiry to the digestive
process, it is essential to life, and reijuires rules for
its advantageous use. Too large a quantity ini|iaii's
digestion by so diluting the gastric and intestinal
juices SIS to render them comparatively inert. The
diliiculty is to lay down delinile rules f<M- the
right quantity, as this will vary with each indi-
vidual in dillerent surrinmding circumstances, of
temperature, amount of exercise, and (juality
and (luantity of food. Per.sonal exjierience and
skilled advice must decide the quantity in each
case.
As a general rule it is better to drink water about
an hour before meals, as the gastric juice is then
being pre|)ared, and llnid will be liius supplied
when most required. Eveiy one with a weak
digestion ought certainly to do this, and only
drink a little /lut water w itli food, as the sloniaeli
requires a considerable temiierature to allow its
physico-chemical reactions to be carried on success-
fully. Water is also very useful early in the
morning and late at night ius helping to llnsli out
the stomach and bowels, dissolving and eaiiying
oft' the waste materials which may have accumu-
lated by the kidneys, lungs, and skin, the functional
activity of which organs it much promotes. Where
the e\'acuating power of the lower bowel is weak,
or when piles are present, large injections of water,
hot or cold as judged projier, are usi-ful in clearing
out I lie rectum ami stimulating its coat. Ice
internally or externally is very useful in checking
hemorrhage an<l soothing irritability, as shown by
vomiting or otherwise. As steam water is very
useful in all forms of inllammation and irritation
about the mouth, throat, or lungs, and often in
such ciises medication witli various drugs increases
its powers.
There are fifty hydropathic establishments in
England, lifteen in Scotlaml, and only one in
HYDROPHIS
HYDROPHOBIA
35
Irc!;inil. Most of those on<;inalIy started with a
ftill e<niiiiment for tieatment, inchiding a resident
physician, l>ath attcmlants, and a complete set of
baths; hnt many of tlie establishments now are
merely hi^^hclass country lioardini,' houses. In
a f ?w, however, the hydropatliist can still find all
till' usual roi^uisites for correct hydropathic treat-
ment. .Amongst the best known of the old-
fasliioned houses are Sniedley's at Matlock Bridge,
BcM lihyddini;. Ilkley Wells House, Malvern, and
Soiithport ill Kn^land ; C'luny Hill near Forres,
Bridi^e of Allan, Melrose, Rothesay, anil Crietf in
Scotland ; and St Ann's Hill near Cork, in Ireland.
Anioiig the magiiilicent modern establishments we
may name those at Bath, Bournemouth, Buxton,
Harrogate, Ulverston, Windeiinere, The Hall at
Busliey near Watford, MoHat, Peebles, Pitlochry,
Shandon, Dunblane, Oaisrlockhart near Edinburgh.
See Clarid-e, CM Water Cure (184t); Graham,
Grnfinheri] (1843) ; works on the Water Cure by Gully
( l^l^-lW ), Jolinson (1843), East (1850), Dunlop (1873),
Smedley (1S79), Braun (Eng. trans. 1875), and in
G<Tman by Munde (1877), Kunge (1879), Anjel (1881)),
with other works cited in the thirty pages of biblio-
grai»hy appended to Dr Winternitz's article on * Hydro-
therapeutics ' in V'ou Zienissen's Handbook of General
TUtrapeutica (vol. v. 1886).
ilydrophis. See Sea-sx.a.ke.
Hydrophobia (Gr. hyr/or, 'water,' and /)Ao6o«,
' fear ') is a symptom of a disea.se known as Rabies,
which may occur in man and in various animals ;
but the word hydrophobia is also frequently used
to denote the disease itself. It has long been
known that rabies is communicated from one
animal to another if the saliva of the one is intro-
duced into the organism of the second ; whether it
be the cose that the first has bit the second, or has
onlv licked it on an open sore. The saliva of a
rabiil animal jiroduces no injurious effect if brought
in contact with the unbroken skin of an animal, or
even with a mucous surface, provided it be not
excoriated. The dog is the animal most freqitently
afl'ected by rabies.
When a rabid dog bites another animal the
latter shows no immediate symptoms of disease.
The wound caused by the teeth of the dog behaves
like an oidinaiy wound and becomes cicatrLsed in
the same manner. After the lapse of a certain
period, which may vary from nine or ten days to
several months (cases are known where the time
lias been as long as twenty-six or tweiity-ei"ht
months), but is generally from four to six weelcs,
the animal that was bitten exhibits special symp-
toms : rabies lia.s declared it.self. The time that
lias lapsed since the bite wa.s received is called
the period of incubation. When the atl'ected
animal Ls a man, the first symptom is usually a
change of character ; he becomes melancholy and
distrustful. Next, generally at the beginning of
the ca-se, appears a symptom called iiirophobia — the
smallest breath of wind which touches the skin of
the face causes its muscles to contract. Next
comes hydroiihobia — if the suflTerer is otl'ered any-
thing to drinlc, his throat contracts, and he sufiers
spasms of the i)liarynx. When this symptom
appears the death of the sufferer Ls at ham), and
is certain to occur in two or three ilays. During
th'- interval between the appearance of the hydro-
pli bin .symptoms and death the patient has
p". c. Is of calm and accesses of fury, and also
ev i Ills paralytic symptoms which usually com-
1111 I e in the lower limbs.
labiis is therefore communicated by biting from
on- animal to another; any scratch "made by the
te< b of the affected animal is harmless unless the
sa! .a is convcyeil to the wound. The animals
lia.ilu to be aliected by rabies arc verj- numerous,
and comprise almost all the mammalia — men, dogs,
cats, horees, cattle, sheep, wolves, foxes, deer, &c.
The question of the etiology of rabies has re-
mained very obscure until a very recent date ; the
most contiadictoiy ojiinions were current when M.
P;isteur in 1880 set himself to study this malady.
His labours justifj- the following statements.
Rabies is a virulent disea.se, transmissible from
one animal to another by the inoculation into the
latter of those various secretions and tissues of the
alfectcd animal in which the virus dwells. This
virus consists of a living organism which has not
yet been made visilde, by reason of the insulliciency
of microscoiiic apparatus, but its existence can
nevertheless not be denied. This statement, taken
in connection with the results of M. Pasteur's
labours in regard to the impossibility of Sponta-
neous Generation (q.v. ), utterly contradicts the
assertions of those who pretend to have observed
rabies in animals which have never come into contact
with rabid animals. Such assertions are always
based on incomplete observations. If rabies could
arise spontaneously in dogs, how can we explain
the fact that vast regions like Australia may be
wholly exempt from this scourge in spite of the
gi'eat number of dogs there? The reason is that in
these countries they most energetically prevent the
introduction of any dog that can be suspected of
rabies. If there were conditions under which rabies
might spontaneously appear in dogs, then in terri-
tories so vast as the Australian colonics these con-
ditions would certainly be realised from time to
time. But there is no rabies in Anstralia.
]M. Pasteur has studie<l the distribution of the
^Trus in the individuals afl'ected. He has observed
that the virus >\as found in the nervous system
and in the saliva, but not in the blood, the lymph,
iSrc. Hence, if we inoculate another animal with
the blood of a rabid beast, the lii-st will remain
wholly free of any rabid infection. Similarly, raliid
virus introduced directly into the circulatory system
of an animal will not produce rabies. But there is a
sure means of communicating rabies from one animal
to another — viz. by the introduction under the dura
mater, on the surface of the brain, of a liquid which
has first been sterilised and in which thereafter there
has been soaked a portion of the central nervous
.system of the rabid animal. By this operation one
is absolutely certain to communicate rabies unless
the animal is refractory to rabies and cannot take
the disejise. In the course of his studies M.
Pa-steur observed that, in certain groups of animals
which had been inoculated beneath the skin with
large quantities of rabic virus, some not only did
not take rabies, but became incapable of taking
it — i.e. they might with impunity be inoculated
on the surface of the brain with rabic virus. This
observation wa.s the origin of the discoxery of
preventive inoculation — of inoculation which
renders an animal refractory to rabies.
The principle of such inoculation is as follows :
The spinal cord of a rabbit which has died of rabies,
when extracted from the body of the creature, and
preserved in drv air at a constant temperature of
2.r to 24° C. (74° to 70° F.), loses by slow degrees its
virulence. With a spinal cord which lia-s lieen so
preserved for fourteen days it is impossible to com-
municate rabies to a rabbit or a ilog. But this spinal
cord has nevertheless still a certain power to confer
immunity from the disea-se — the inoculation of an
animal with a sullicient quantity of it will render it
refractory to rabies. At the same time M. Pasteur
oliserved that the freshest spinal marrows, that is
tn say, the most virulent, are those best fitted to
confer immunity from infection. To reiulcr an
animal refractory to infection the treatment com-
mences by inoculating it with sjiinal ciud fourteen
days old, then with that of thirteen days, and so
36
HYDROPHOBIA
on till spinal matter three days olil is reached, two
days, one day, and even such as is not yet one day
old. The liust may he introdnced into the snhjeit
of experiment without danger, hccause it is already
refr:vctory.
AVIiat gives this discovery an enormous value is
that these preventive inoculations made on an
atiiinal early enou,L,'h and swiftly enough after it
has heon bitten prevent raljies from declaring
itself. This is explicable on the following grounds :
The virus is deposited by the dog's I>ite in a super-
ficial wound : there it meets w ith little nerve-
filauients in which it is further cultiv.ated, and by
means of which it ascends, somewhat slowly, to
the nervous centre.s. The.se nerve-centres are the
quicker affected the nearer to them the bite has
been inflicted : hence bites on the head produce
rabies after a shorter period of incubation than
bites on tlie extremities of the body. If there is
time to render the organism refractory by means of
the preventive inoculations before the nerve-centres
are ivllerti'il the victim is saved ; the nerve-centres
once ali'ected and destroyed, it is evident that no
power of man can bring about a cure.
What out'ht to be done when any one is bitten
by a mad dog is this. The wound made by the
dog's teeth should be cauterised as soon as possible,
and deeply too, so that if possible the virus may be
destroyed before it has begun to cultivate itself
in the nervous system. Then, if it is certain that
the animal which inflicted the bite is mad, or if
there is good reason so to believe, tlie victim sliould
be sent as sjieedily as practicaljle to the nearest
'Anti-rabic Institute.' It is obvious that his
safety depends on the quickness w^ith which tliLs is
done. It is also obvious that bites on the head are
more serious than bites on the limbs, inasnmch as
there is a shorter distance to be traversed ere the
nerve-centres are reached.
How can one make sure that the biting dog is
mad ? If possil)le the dog should lie kept under
observation without being killed ; for it is much
easier to recognise rabies in a living animal than
by the earliest post-mortem examination. The
animal will change its character, will often cease
to eat, will bite everytliing within its reach, and
will sometimes show signs of p.aralysis, its hind-
?uai'ters and its lower jaw being lirst .attacked,
n such cases the animal will inevitably die in from
three to four days, or at most in eight days. A
post-mortem examination will show the stomach
empty of food, and containing on the contrary
foreign substances such as bits of wood, stones,
straw, iSrc. The most certain w,ay of discovering if
a ilog was really mad is to introduce by way of
inocul.ation a portion of its medulla under the (lura
mater of a rabbit. The rabbit will inevitably be-
come rabid if the dog was rabid, but this will not
take place till after lifteen or eighteen days; so
that it would be imprudent for a ])erson who had
been bitten to await the result of the experiment
before beginning to undergo preventive inoculation.
Statistics of the proportion of deaths by hydro-
phobia bad never been properly kept up to the
time of M. Pasteur's work in this department.
Few doctors actually knew this terrible nuilady.
It is generally said that of a hundred jiersons bitten
by mad dogs some nineteen or twenty ilic of hydro-
phobia. This figure is probably too low. The
mortality amongst cases treated at the I'asteur
Institute (established Ijy him in Paris in 1881!) has
fallen to less than i per cent.
[So far M. Pasteur has sketched his discoveries
and practice in regard to rabies, but a brief un-
argumentative review of current adverse criticism is
also requisite. ( 1 ) As a working hypothesis, Pasteur
a.ssumes the occurrence of a specific microbe of
rabies, which (in spile of various sanguine in-
vestigators) lias not yet been demonstrated. In
default of this demonstration, it seems lo many
that both the practice ami the theory of raliic
inoculation lack security and conclusiveness. (2)
Again, there are some who, while believing vaccin-
ation to be empirically justihed, are dis.xatislicd
with the warrant for the anti-rabic treatment.
They urge the acknowleilged divergence between
the two methods, and critici.se the jirinciple on
which Pa.steur works. (3) As to the warrant
furnished by Pasteur's results, it is argued that the
statistics are unreliable — e.g. because many of the
patients inoculated were juobably never infected,
because in genuine cases the prevention may have
been due to lueliminary cauterising and to factors
ajiart from the anti-rabie inoculation, and for
various other reasons which forcibly suggest that
in drawing inferences from statistics the sources
of error are indeed nunu'ious. (4) Less useful
criticism is that which enii>hasi.ses what is often
true of progressive medical investigation — n.amely,
that there have been failures in I'asteur's treat-
ment, that certain tent<ative measures weri! con-
fessedly futile, that there have been striking
changes of method, and so on. (o) More serious
is the allegation that some deaths h.ave occurred
as the result of the inoculations rather than of the
infection fioni the rabid .animal. Of such not
altogether unprecedented casualties the possibility,
but not the actual occurrence, was aclmitted by
the EnglisI; Investigation ('ommittee ( 1887), while
I'r Armand laill'cr, who speaks with much author-
ity, denies (1889) with all dcliber.ateness that there
is any case on record in which it can be proved
that death has followed as the result of Pasteur's
treatment. (C) The anlivivisectionists have
urged .against certain imjilications of Pasteur's
procedure various considcr.ations which merit care-
tul discussion, though without .special bearing on
the present problem. (7) So, too, the thorough-
going anti-vaccinationists are of coui'se among
the critics of Pasteur, but their .arguments can best
be dealt with in connection with vaccine inocula-
tion, alxmt which we know at least a little more
th.an we do in regard to the anti-r.abic preventive
(see V.\cci NATION). (8) Though there is much to
be said on both sides, tliose who are willing to leave
the lu-oblem to the experts will believe meantime
tb.at Sir James Paget, T. Lauder Hruiiton, (leorge
Fleming, Sir Joseph Lister, Kichard tjiiain. Sir
Henry K. Koscoe, .). Burden Sanderson, and \'ictor
Horsley h.ad good reasons for saying in the Ke]iort
which they luesented to parliament in 18S7 : 'It
m.ay, hence, be deemed certain that M. Pasteur has
discovered <a method of protection from rabies coni-
])arable with that which vaccination allords against
infecti<m from smallpox.'
In 1889 a Mansion House Fund w.as r.aised in
London to enable poor Fnglisb sullerers to be taken
to the Institute ; nut like every other recognition
of Pasteur's method, the scheme w.as reviewed with
keen hostility by anlivivisectionists and anti-
vaccinators. In 18n(i l)r Paul Gibier, a iiujiil and
assistant of M. P.asteur, opened a Pasteur Institute
in New York.
See Keport of a Committee on M. Pa-steur's Treatment
of llydroiiliolii.i, piTsciitcd to parliament. Is,*;?. For
gciod suMMiiaries of I'asttur's method, see Dr E. Koux,
Crooniau Lecture, Proc. Hull, ^o"- "Ivi. (Mny 188!!) ; Dr
A. KufTer, Brit. Mctl. Jour. (Seplcnibcr 188'.i): Vigiial,
Brit. Mid. Jour. (April, May, 188li ). Sec also piqiers
by I'iisteiir in (^omptcs Jtcmtus Acad. Purix, in Bulletin
dc I'Arad. dc Mfd. (from 1881 onwards), in tlie
Auimlen dc I' Inntilut Pasteur, and in the A'ln- Iteiiew
(N vcmber 18S9). See also LouIk Ptmt'ur, hist Life nnd
Liiljnurs, liy his fion-in-law (tnms. by Lady (laud
Hamilton, Lnnd. 1885). Of works published bi-furo
Pjtsteur's di.-coverit'K, it must suffice to nietit un that of
I'linung. I'or criticisuis of Pasteur, reference may bo
HYDROPHYLLACE^
HYDROSTATICS
37
made to publications of the Anti-Vivisection societies
( especially Victoria Street, London ), to papei-s by Dr A.
Lutaud in the Jour, de Mtiiecinc tie Paris; Dr T. M.
Dolan, M. /'<u<Uur and his Milhods : a Critical
AmiJ'isi.i (Lond. 1SS<;): Dr C. ■«". Dulles, J/«/iVa?
HfC'iril (New York, 1SS6); Dr IL Bigjjs, The Medical
J\Vir.i ( Pliili'delphia, 1886)].
IlydroilIiyllacCiP, a natural order of herbs
anil iinslies, containing about eighty known species,
natives chietly of the colder i>arts of America.
None of them .ire of importance : but some of them
are favourite ornaments of tlowerbordcrs, particu-
larly dilt'i'rent sjiecies of Neniopliila.
Hydrostatics treats of the equilibrium of
liquids, and of their pressures on the walls of
vessels containing them. It is a purely dynamic
science, and concerns itself virtually with only two
of the many physical properties of liquids. These
are density and mobility. In virtue of the latter
property, a liquid has no tendency to conserve its
shape, so that if a distorting force acts on it it
j-ields without any tendency to recover. It has
no Ehisticity (q.v.) of form. Viscosity (q.v.) may
retard the rate at which the distorting force takes
effect : but a liquid will continue to change form
so long as there is a force acting on it which is not
balanced by a perfect reaction. Thus, in hydro-
static problems, nothing of the nature of a distort-
ing force is taken into consideration. All pressures
acting on portions of the liqiiid must therefore be
perpendicular to the surfaces on which they act ;
ancl equilibrium requires equality of pressure in all
directions at any point.
The fundamental property may be thus stated :
When a pressure is exerted on any part of the
boundary of a liquid at rest, that jjressure is
transmitted undiminished to all parts of the
mass and in all directions. Most of the other
propositions of hydrostatics are only diflerent
forms or direct consequences of this truth, which
may be proved experimentally. Suppose a close
box B to be filled with water, and to have in-
serted into the upper cover a tube a, with closely-
fitting plug or piston, 1 square inch in area. If the
piston a is now pressed
ill
down upon the water
with a force equal to a
pound weight, the water,
being unauile to escape,
_=. will react upon the
^^S" piston with the same
force ; but it obviously
will not press more
^'S- !• against n tiian against
any other part of the
box, therefore every square inch of the interior
surface of the liox is pressed outward with the
force of a pound. If, then, there is another tube
inserted in any jiart of the box with a plug of the
same area, as at 6, it will require a force of a
pound to keep this plug in its place. (We leave
out of account at jiresent the pressure upon b
arising from the >i:cii//it of the water in the box
above it — i.e. we neglect gravity and consiiler only
the |)ressure propagated by the forcing down of
the plug rt.) However many plugs of the same
.-i/e there may be, each will be pressed out with
the same force of a pound ; and it there be a large
plug of four times the area, as at r, it will be
pressed out with n. force of four jiounds. We have
only, then, to enlarge the area of the piston c to
obtain any multiplication of the force exerted at a.
If the area of v is 1000 square inches, that of a
being I square inch, a pressure of one ]iound on a
becomes a pressure of 1000 pounds on r ; and if we
make the pressure on a (me ton, that on c will
be 1000 tons. Tlii.s seemingly wonderful ninlti-
plicatiun of power has received the name of the
hydrostatic jmradox. It is, however, nothing more
than what takes place in the lever, when one pound
on the long arm is made to balance 100 pounds on
the short arm.
If the pre-ssure supposed to be exerted on the piston
a arise from a pound of water
poured into the tube above
it, it will continue the same
though the piston be removed.
The pound of water in the
tube IS then pressing with its
whole weight on every square
inch of the inner surface of
the box — downwards, side-
wise, and upwards. The ap-
paratus called the hydrostatic
icHovs acts on this principle
(see fig. 2). It consists of two
stout circular boards connected
together by leather in the ,
manner of a bellows, B. The '
tube A is connected with the
interior ; and a person stand-
ing on the upper board, and
pouring water mto the tulie, may lift himself up.
If the area of the upper board is 1000 times that of
the tulie, an ounce of water in the tube will sup-
port 1000 ounces at W. It is on the same principle
that the Hydraulic Press (q.v.) depends.
(1) Equilibrium of Liquids. — After this explana-
tion of the fundamental properties of licpiids it
may be enough to state the two conditions of fluid
equilibrium which directly flow from it. ( 1 ) Every
particle of the liquid must be solicited by equal
and contrary pressures in every direction ; otlier-
wise there would be a tendency to n^otion, and
therefore motion because of the liquid proijerty of
mobility. (2) The upper particles at the free
liquid surface must form a surface perpendicular
to the impressed force. The truth of this is
experimentally demonstrated by the horizontality
of the surface of a liquid at rest under gravity.
It can be shown to be a conseqiience of the
primary property of ' pressing
equally in all directions,' for
let da and cb be vertical lines,
or lines in the direction of
giavity ; and ab a plane at
right angles to that direction,
or horizontal. A particle of
the liquid at a is pressed bj'
the column of particles above
it from a to d : and the like
is the case at b. Now, since
the liquid is at rest, these
pressures must be equal ; for
if the pressure at b, for
instance, were greater than
at o, there would be a How of the water from a
towards b. It follows that the line (ul is ocpial to
be, and hence that dc is parallel to ab, aiul there-
fore horizontal. The same might be proved of any
two points in the surface ; therefore the whole is
in the same horizontal plane.
( 2) Pressure of Liquids on Surfaces. — The general
proposition on this point may be stated thus : The
pressure of a liquid on any surface immei'sed in it
IS c(|ual to the weight of a column of the liquid
whose base is the surface pres.scd, and whose height
is the perpendicular depth of the centre of j,'ravity
of the surface below the surface of the liquid (see
C'EXTKE OF Pp.E.ssuiiE). The pressure thu., exerted
is independent of the shape or size of the vessel
or cavitv containing the liquid.
(.'!) Uuoyaiici/ and Flotation. ^As a coni>ci]ncr\ca
of the proposition regarding the pressure of liciuids
on surfaces it can be shown that when a solid body
is immersed in a liquid its loss of weight is equal
Fig. 3.
38
HYDROSTATICS
to the wei-lit of the dt^nlaced Hquid-i.e. to the
wei"ht of iin e.iual bulk of luiiud. 1 lius, it a
culnc foot of the liquid «ei-hs the same as a cubic
foot of the solid, ihe solid will ai.pear to have
lost all its weight, aud will remain lu the uiuid
'vherever it is put ; if a cubic toot of the liquid
^vei^Ih. le.s than a cubic foot of the solid, the solid
Avilf aopear to lose part of its weij,'ht, and will
sink : but if a cubic foot of the liquid weighs uioie
than a cubic foot of the solid, the immersed solid
will not only lose all its weight, but will ai'pear to
be dominated by a "c</«<«-c weight being uiged
upwards to the surface of the liquid by a foice
equal to the ditlevence of the weights of the dis-
placed liquid and the solid. In this last ca^e the
solid will rise until it swims or Hoats on thesurface
of the liquid, the amount ot solid imniersed in this
final state of equilibrium being
determined bv the obvious principle
that a floating body must be
liuoved up bv a force equal to its
own weight.' Here again, then,
[he solid seems to lose all its
weight, which loss must be simply
the'^wei'^lit ot the displaced water.
Thus in tig. 4, where AB represents
a tloating solid, the water displaced
by the immersed part B is equal in weight to the
whole solid. , , ^ ^ j.i,„
As the buovancv of a body thus depends on the
relation between 'its weight and the weight of an
equal bulk of the liquid, the same body will he
more or less buoyant, according to the density of
the liquid in wliich it is immersed. A piece ot
wood that sinks a foot in water may sink barely
an inch in mercury. Mercury buoys up even lead.
Also a body which would sink of itself is buoyed
up bv attaching to it a lighter body ; the bulk is
thus" increased'" withcit proportionally increasing
the wei-ht. This is the luinciple ot lite-preservei-s
of all kinds. The heaviest substances may be
made to lloat bv shaping them so as to make them
disiilace a voluine of water greater than the bulk
of their own solid substance immersed. A Hat
plate of iron sinks ; the same plate, made concave
like a cup or boat, floats. It may be noted that
the buoyant property of liquids is independent ot
their depth or expanse, if tiiere be only enough to
surround the object. A few pounds of water nimht
be made to bear up a body of a ton weight ; a ship
floats as high in a small dock as in the ocean.
(4) HtahUiiii of F/rnUint/ Bodies.— Concave ahd
(iv o) to ho'a'portion of a liquid turned solid,
St.
for the mass of solid water ahd, the support ng
pressure or buoyancy of the water around it '. st
l)e the same ; hence we conclude that when a li 'ily
is imniersed in a liquid the buoyant iiiessure is a
force equal to the weight of the Ikiuk displa. v.l
and acting in the vertical line through the ccntr.- ot
gravity of the space from which the iKpiid is <lis-
placeil". This point may be called the venire of
hiioi/ioirjl. .J
We may suppose that the space old is occupiett
by the inuuersed part of a floating body hcOk { sg.
5"). The supporting force, ct, is still the
same as in the former ca.se, and ads
through c, the centre of gravity of the
displaced water ; the weight of the biuly ^
must also be the same : but its point ot
application is iiowc', the centre of graviiy
of the whole liody. "When the body l^■
floating at rest or in a state of equili- 'J
briuni, this point must evidently be in y,g. 0,
the same vertical line with c : for if the
two forces were in the position of cs, eg ("o- •>''
they would tend to make the body roll over, llie
line passing through the centre of gravity ot a
floating body and the centre of gravity of the dis-
placed water is called the axis of flotation.
A floating body is said to be in staole equili-
brium when, on suffering a slight dis|,hKeiu(nt, it
tends to regain its original position. Ihe condi-
tions of stability will be understood from the
accompanying tigures. I'ig. 7 represents a lioUy
but unchanged in bulk ; it will evidently remain
at rest, as if it were still liquid. Its weight may
be represented bv the f.uce r,/, acting through its
centre of gravity c ; but that force is balanced by
the upward pressure of the water on the diflerent
parts of the un.ler surface ; therefore, the resultant
of all these elementarv pressures must be a force,
cs, exactly equal and opposite to «/, and acting
through the same point -■, otherwise the body
w.Mihrnot be at rest. Now, whatever other bod>
of the same size and shape we suppose substituted
I'iL'. 8.
floating in equilibrium, G being it^ ^en'^, "f
.'lavitv, B its centre of buoyancy, and At.l. the
Sxls of flotati.m, which is of course vertical. In
fi.r 8 the same body is represented lus pusheo 01
I dmwn slightly from the perpendicular, /'''-fl'fe
of the immersed portion being now a teied, t le
centre of buoyancy is no longer 111 tlie axi- ot
fl!"iic but t.; one side, as at B. ^o.v, it is
evident, that if the line 0/ <'i>f *"">"/''•;. ''i;:Xe
pressure-i.e. a vertical line through l.->"ett-- e
axis above the centre of gravity, a.s at M, the
tendency of the two forces is to bring "'^ •;>^''; ' »
its original position, and in that <»--;■ ''»= '^'i' ,"•
brin", of thJbody is stable. .But if ^^^-^^ ]^
axis below G, the tendency is to bring the . xis
furlher and further from the vertical, >>■'.', .''f
body "Ct into some new position of e(|Uilihi!..m.
There "is still another case ; the line of sii|.pori or
buoyancy may meet the axis in G, and then the
two" forces counteract (me another, and t e 1. d.>
remains in any l.osition in which it is put; the
body is then said to be- in m-,>tnd cquilibnum. In
a floating cvlin.ler of wood, for instance, 1 IS
always right'under G, in whatever way the cyln der
is lined." When the angles through wlocl. a 1 oa -
in- body is made to r.dl are small the po nt -M is
"(^Tirlv constant. It is called the »„■ «.v„/rr ; ^>..d
its i>ositi.m may be calculated for a bo.ly »l gnen
weight and dimensions. In the <;;'■'«"■'•<;'"'•' '.^
lvdi7.-of ships it is an object to have the eel tie
';} "avitv as low as possible, in ord..r that U . niy
be always beh)W the metacentre. W^th this VKW
i heavy inaterials, in the shajie of balhu-t, are placed
HYDROSULPHURIC ACID
HYDROZOA
39
in the bottom, and tlie lieaviest jiortioiis of the
car;ro are stowed low in the hold. See Specific
Gii.wnv.
llydrosiilpliiirir .Ichl. See Sulphur.
Ilydrolliorax (ileiived from hijth'if, 'water,'
and tliiini.i-, "the chest') is tlie term applied to
dropsical collections in the pleura. See Drop.sv,
PLlilKISV.
Ilydrozoa. one of the main divisions of the
phylum or suli-l<inj,'ilom Cielenterata (q.v.), the
other two lieing Ctenophora (q.v.) and Anthozoa
or .\clinozoa (q.v.). Two anim.al forms (zooids),
reilui'i'ile to (me common plan, are |iresent, which
often alternate in the life-liistory of the individual.
t)f one of these, the Hydroid or Polyp, the common
fresh- water Hydra (q.v.), may Ije taken as the sim-
plilied type: the other is the Jlediisa or jelly-
Jisli. It is only in this latter or in .some degenerate
form of it that sexual orjrans are i>roduced (except
in the case of Hydra). The Hydrozoa may ho free
or lixed. simple
or colonial, and
these variations in
habit, along with
the existence of
two kinds of zooids
just referred to,
render their con-
stitution so com-
plex that it will
be advantageous
to describe briefly
one or two typical
forms before giv-
ing the systematic
airangenientof the
group.
In the ca.se of
Sarsia the egg pro-
duced by the jelly-
fi.sli develo]is fii-st
into an ovoid cili-
ated cellul.ir larva
(plt()ni/«), which
attaches itself to
some so!M object by one end, whilst the other
grows into a ])olyp with mouth and tentacles, a
colony being afterwards produced by budding. In
the most essential i)oints of its stnicture the Hydra
may be re<rarded as the type of these |)oly|)s ; the
tentacles, however, are solid, and arranged in more
than one circli^ ; they have club shaped ends beset
with thread-cells. The name Syncoryne has been
gi\en to the jiolyps of this genus. Upon the walls
of the e.xpanded extremities appear buds, each of
which, gradually enlarging and assuming the struc-
ture of a Medusa, drojjs oil' when rijie and lea<ls an
independent existence. It consists of a high bell,
the mouth of wliich is partly closed by a circular
veil attached round its margan. The clap]ier of the
bell (mniiiihrium) is long, cylindrical, and con-
tractile, and has a mouth at its extremity leading
into a stoniiich within its ba-se, from wliich four
canals ra<liate within the siil>stanee of the bell.
At the margin of the bell they are united by a ring-
canal, and beyond this they are produced into long
hollow contractile tentacles. Near the origin of
these from the ring-canal are situated eyes, which
are not merely sensitive to light, but capable of
vision. A douiile ner\'e-cord passes along the ring-
canal, and sexual org.ans are developed in the wall
of the mamibrium. The inner ami outc!r surfaces
of the bell are covered with ectoderm, whilst the
cavity of the stomach and th(^ canals leading from
it are lined with ciliated endoderm. There are
ectodernial muscles in the sub-umbrella. The eggs
produced by the juocess of sexual re]iroilucti(m
Fig. 1.
a, Syncoryne frutescens (re<iuced): b,
branch of same ( tnagnified ) ; c, ikLrsia,
Medusa of same, shortly after libera-
tion. (After Alliiian.)
develop into polyps and tlie wliole life-circle is
repeated.
In certain cases the Medusa or sexual person,
instead of liecoming free, has rem.ained attached to
the Hydroid p<dyp, and under such circumstances
has undergone more or less degeneration. It may
(1) present the princijial structural features of a
Medusa, excejit that it is moutliless, and that it
has the form of a closed sac owing to the adhesion
of the margins of the bell ( 'adelocodonic gono-
phore' of Allman), or (2) it may be merely a bud
containing sexual products ( ' sjiorosac ' ).
A nrclia amita, one of the commonest jcny-fishcs
of our coasts, may be selected as an exampl<! of a
Medusa of (piite dill'erent structure. The liell is
tiattened, thickest in the centre, and notched round
the margin. The manubrium is split up into four
long pointed processes with fringed margins, and
from the stomach aiul from its four saccular
exi>ansions there proceed eight unbranched canals,
and eight which bifurcate several times, and are
united by a marginal ring-canal. Four ring- orear-
shape<l reproductive glands are developed in the
base of the stomach, but hang down on the lower
.surface of the bell. In each of the eight marginal
notches, which conespond to the main stems of the
branched canals, is a so-called ' marginal corpuscle,'
or sense-organ, containing an otolith and a ])ig-
ment mass. These sense-organs appear to be nerve-
centres, and, by their connection with a nervous
plexus in the suVi-umbrella, to control the move-
ments of the animal : there is no closed nerve-ring.
Between the marginal corpuscles are a large number
of short tentacles. The egg gives rise to a ciliated
pl.anula, which, after swimming freely for some
time, becomes fixed and gives rise to a polyp
(Scyphistoma) wliich ha*^ at first four, then eight,
Fig. 2. — -iurelia auritii (reduced).
and then many tentacles. Pour internal septa,
reaching from the base to the margin of the mouth,
divide the cavity of the polyp into a central -space
aiul four lateral recesses. Usually the polyp
undergoes a series of transverse constrictions,
which produce a series of Medusoe, which are set
free after the tentacles of the polyp have been
absorbed. The organism in this stage is known as
,a Strobila. After a whole series of Medusa- has
been thus set free the polyp can form tentacles
afresh, and the whole process can be repeated. The
Medusa' when first set free have neither arms,
marginal tentacles, radial canals, nor reproductive
organs, so that they have to undergo a complicated
development in the free state.
The Hydrozoa are widely distributed, and all
marine, with few exceptions (e.g. Hydra, f'ordylo
idiora). The Hydroid polyjis and colonies are
attached to foreign substances, the Medusa' ami
Siphonophora are free-swimming, in most ciises
ne.ar the surface, though certain forms apjiear to
be denizens of deep water ( I'ectis, Ntaujihanta,
Hhodalia). They are carnivorous, and some are
beautifully phosphorescent ( I'elagia, Diphyes). A
few are fossil — e.g. the paUeozoic Graptolitidas and
40
HYfeRES
HYGIENE
Stromatopoiulte, and soine Medusa; fioin the
Jurassic period, and some from the Clialk. Tliere
are about 1000 species, arrau^'cJ \iiuler some 350
genera, wliich may be chussilied as follows :
I. Craspedota (Hyilroiiiedusii;).— Hydroid form, either free
and U'luponiry, or frte or lixcd, simple or c(douial, and pcmia-
neut. Sometimes tcntaculate, tentacles usually solid ; luoulh
prominent, gastric cavity simple, skeleton usually cliitinoid,
rarely calcareous. Asexual reproduction, usually by gemma-
tion. Medusoid form, with tubular manubrium, and an in-
turned velum ; sensory organs, ocelli, or auditory organs. It
may become sessile and degenerate. Se.xes seimrate. Almost
all marine.
(i) TrachynmliisK (Monopsea, Haplomorpha).— Free-swim-
ming Jledusa^, with the gelatinous substance of the disc hard
and stitf; no hydriform phase in development ; tentacles primi-
tively solid ; auditory vesicles present. Examples : Geryonia,
iEgina.
(ii) i/i/(Zroirfm.— Hydriform person, with small polyps;
generally colonial, with a chitinous (rarely calciireons) exo-
skeleton. Sexual only in Hydra. Medusifonn person produced
by gemmation from the hydriform, often degenerate. (1) Tubu-
lariie ( Gymnoblastea, Anthomedusic), hydriform person usually
colonial; no special receptacles for the polyps ( thccae ), or the
medusiform buds(gonangia); sexual organs in the outer or oral
wall of the stomach. Medusai have neither utocysts nor tenta-
culocysts, but ocelli at the bases of the tentacles ; and are of the
kind known as Authomedus;e. Examples : Tubularia, Coryne,
Cordylophora. (2) Campanulariie (Calyptoblastea, Leptome-
dusaM, hydriform per-snn in permanent colonies, with a single
circle of solid tentacles ; hydrothecie and gonangia usually
present ; medusiform persons belong to the division Lepto-
medusa-, being ilattened, having the velum feebly developed ;
tentacles 2, 4, 6, 8, up to several hundred, sometimes with ocelli
at the base; auditory organs sometimes present: sexual glands
in the radial canals. Examples : Campanularia, Sertnlaria,
Pliunul.u-ia. (3) Eleutheroblastea, colonies not permanent ; no
diflerentiated gonophores. Examples; Hydra, PrM^^.hydra.
(4) Hydrocorallia, skeleton calKtreons, containing the Styla-
steridse and the Millepores (q. v.). (5) Rhabdophora, containing
certain Cambrian and Silurian fossils known as Gmptolites ( q. v. ).
(iii) Siphonophora. — Pelagic colonies, with several diJfereut
kinds of modified polyps or Medns;f (see special article).
II. AcBASPEDA (Acalepha\ Scyphomedusa').— Medusje, gener-
ally of considerable size, with lobed margin, bearing sensory
spherules ; niaimbrium square, usually produced into prolonged
angular lappets ; no velum ; the sexes are separate ; nervous
centres in the marginal sensory bodies. Hydroid form known
in but few instances ; small and fixed, mouth surrounded by
a disc, provided with sixteen or more solid tentacles ; niultiijlies
by lateral buds on a creeping shoot ; Medusie formed from it by
transverse fission. All marine.
(i) Tessaronm, — Umbrella high, parts disposed in fours, four
gastric pouches. (1) Stauromedusa', without sensory bodies.
Example: Lncernaria. (2) Peromedus;e, with four sensory
bodies, disposed between the principal radii. (3) Cubomedusa;,
with four sensory organs, placed in the princii>al radii, four
simple tentacles, and eight marginal pouches. Example ;
Charybdea.
(ii) EphyroiiW! (Discomedusse). — Umbrella flattened, parts
disposed in eights. (1) Rhizostoma", no central mouth,
numerous suctorial apertures on eight long root-like arms ; no
tentacles. Example : Crambessa. (2) Semostonne, four long
arms surrounding a simple cruciform mouth. Example :
Aurelia. (3) Canuostonne, no arms round the moutli. which
is square ; tentacles solid, usually short. Example : Nausithoe.
In addition to text-books of Zoology in general, the
following works may be consulted : Forbes, Monograph
of British Naked-eyed Med una; (llay Society, Loud.
1S48); Agassiz, North Americayi Acalephce (Candj.
U.S.A. 18fi.5) ; Hincks, British Htjdroid Zoophytes ( ISiW) ;
Albnan, Monograph of Gymnohlastic HyUroids (Kay
Society, 1872); Report on the Hiidroid<i (Chatletujcr
Reports, Zoology^ parts 20 and 70, 1H83 and 1888) ; Claus,
Untersuchungcn Ubcrdie Organisation and Kntwirkdung
der Medusen (1883) ; Haeckcl, Syntvm der Mcdusen
(1871>-H1); Deep-sea Medusa'. {Challenger Kej)orts, Zoo-
logy, part 12, 18821; Lendenfeld, The Australian Hydro-
medusie (1885) and utlier papers.
Ilyfcrcs, a town of Provence, in the French
department of Var, on a southern hill-slope,
crowned by a ruined castle, 3 miles from the
Mediterranean, and 13 E. of Toulon by rail.
Embosomed in palm-jrrovos and oranf,'e-oichards,
it Is celebrated for the beauty of its situation and
its mild, dry clinnite, and is tliercfore yrowinj,' more
and more in favour a.s an invalid re.sort between
Octidjcr and May. An Enj^lish clnirch was built
in 1881; and since 1875 f;reat improvements have
been carried out in the way of drainaj;e, water-
works, boulevards, &c. Massillon was a native.
Vop. ( 1872) 5881 ; ( 1891 ) 8347. Near the coast lie
the wooded lies d'Hyeres or d"Or (anc. Staw/icie/cs).
Here the heat of the climate is tempered by ihe
sea-breezes, and the seascm seems an eternjil sprin;;.
See Denis, llyircs, ancicn ct ntoilcnie (4tli ed.
Hy6ies, 1882).
H J otography. See Kain.
Hyii'ieia« in classical mythology the goddess
of Health, was the dauj;hter of -Esculapius. She
was worshipped at Athens, Corinth, Argos, and
other important cities, and in works of art is
usually represented as a virjjin, with a snake, the
symbol of health, wliich drinks from a cup held in
her hand.
Hygiene is the name given to that department
of inquiry which deals with the catises and
prevention of disease in their relaticm to the
preservation of health. As thus dehned, hygiene,
while it is founded on medical experience, and
while it is advanced by medical research, stands
out clear and defined from the ordinary run of the
science and art of medicine which deal with the
cure of disease. Tlie aim of hygiene is to ]irevent
diseii.se by the due .tiipreciation of the cau.ses which
induce a departure from the normal type of healthy
life. In this sense it has well been named Pre-
ventive Medicine, since it seeks to anticipate the
work of the physician by its endeavour to lemove
the causes on which the diseases th.at affect man-
kind depend. Hygiene iiresents for consideration
two chief jdiases. The first se(dion of J'cr.soiirtl
Hi/f/iciie relates to the individual as a unit and
to liis duties in the maintenance of health, and in
disease prevention. The second section deals with
Public Ilcaltli, and concerns the relations which
exist between masses of men and the conditions of
liealthy living. In the lirst case the study embraces
such subjects as food, clothing, habits, heredity,
and the like, which relate to the personal history
of the unit. In the latter ca.se nygiene has to
regard the community and the nation, and to
investigate the laws under which disease is liable
to be piopagated by the ciicunislances of c(dlective
life. The departments of hyitiene which ileal with
drainage, healthy houses, ttie removal of waste,
and the pieventiim of infectious disease illustrate
the subjei-ts with which the public .sanitarian or
health officer concerns himself. It is of importance,
however, to note that, as regards these two asjiects
of hygiene, their sco])e is by no means so restricted
and so limited as the terms of their delinition
might seem to imply. Por jmblic health, as may
readily be shown, can only be advanced by the
endeavours of individuals. It is llie individual
and personal culture of health which not only nmst
precede, but which also forms the fcmndation of
public sanitation.
The history of hygiene forms in itself a study
of much interest, and teaches ns that, like most
other branches of modern science, that of health
has exhibited a gradual evolution and a cumu-
lative ailvance. Very far back in the history
of mankind we may trace the luesence of the
ruling idea of hygiene, that disca.se could be
prevented by attenlicm to the laws and conditions
of healthy living. That the hygienic codes of the
.lews were remarkably full and comjilete is evident
from a perusal of the Mosaic books ol the Siriptnres.
These laws, dealing with i|iiestions of food an<l feed-
ing, with the isolation of the sick, and with the
removal from camps and ilwelling-placcs of waste
matters, were of singularly enlightene<l character.
The modern Jews have proliteil by the attention
]]aid by their foref:ithers to (|uesti(ms of sanitation
in tlie sh;ipe of their greater relative limgevity,
and their freedom fnun the scouiges anil id.agues
that have decimated the nations amidst which
they dwell. The great desire of the ancient .lew
HYGIENE
41
tlmt liis (lays mij;lit be Ion,!,' in the laiul, and that
his race h-houlJ ;,'i()\v stiDii.L; anil inultiiily exceeil-
in.;;ly, Iioic a very oviileiil relation to lii;' ]>iactice
of those liealth hius acconliii;^ to wliioli iiiiiiiunity
from disease is secured and hjiigevity encouraged.
So that early enon<;li in the phases of liunian
developnient and civilisation sanitary science began
to be studied in view of its obvious ellects upon
both jiei'sonal and national welfare. The Greeks
may also he quoted as a nation given to make
a special study of the conditions of healthy living ;
but in their case the culture of a high standard
of physique probably included most, if not all, the
points to which this ancient pco])le paid attention.
riiey entertained a lofty ideal of jihysical beauty,
and attained this ideal undoubtedly through the
praelico of much that partook of tlie character of
iiygienic science. Apart from this bodily culture,
however, the Greek was not a sanitarian in the
true sense of the terra. He was visited by
epidemics and plagues, which were regarded as
signs of displeasure on the part of his deities. He
made no attempt to discover tlie causes of these
.scourges or to arrest their course. Sanitation in
lireece of old was therefore more a thing of chance
than of scientilic nat\ire ; and of ancient Home the
same opinion may be e.vpressed. Great publ-c
works, and most notably those connected vitli
water-supply and drainage, were certainly under-
taken and carried out on a scale of magnirxence ;
and so far these measures must have auied in tiio
maintenance of the public liealth ; but plagues
were frequent and loss of life excessive as in
ancient Greece, and of the laws of liealth as we
today understand that term the classic nations
seem to have been nearly ignorant. Medicine
itself was ot course in iU infancy ; and for this
reason — viz. the lack of knowledge of the causes ot
disease — the health of the ancients was largely a
matter of chance.
The record of progress in health science naturally
follows the course and track of ordinary history,
and in tliLs respect forms a most interesting
comment on the social advance of the people. The
middle ages with ourselves, for example, beheld
personal health neglected and public health
unknown. Cleanliness was conspicuous by its
absence; the 'sanctity of dirt' was respected by
priest and people alike ; the houses were built
closely togetlier ; their domestic apj)liances were of
the rudest description ; ami drainage was non-
existent. The conditions of ordinary existence
were those of rapine and war, and under such
circumstances it is not wonderful that the science
which ilevotes itself to saving life should scarcely
have made its inlluence felt at all. The clearest
proofs of the utter neglect of sanitation were to
be found in the fevers and plagues with the records
of whose frightful mortality the story of the
iniildle ages teems. Dr Ciuy, who made a special
stu<ly of the history of the epidemics of the middle
ages, tells us that in the l'2th century no fewer
than fifteen epidemics and many famines were
recorded. The 13tli century saw twenty plagues
and nineteen famines; while the 14tli beiicld in
its early i)art eight epidemics and a succession
of famines. In 1348 came to England the Black
iJeath or Great Pestilence. As the result of this
]d.iguo, which attacked Europe from the East,
100,1)00 persons died in London alone. In Europe
at large it was estimated some '2'> millions of
persons died from this jilague. Tlie Sweating
Sickness attacked England in 1485. This wa.s
a plague which was apparently propagated within
the bounds of our own land by the liltliy and
impure surroundings of the people. After being
attackecl by the .sweating sickness, the victim
usually died within twenty-four hours. It attacked
the well-to-do and intemperate livers especially,
and a))i)cars to have been more fatal in the
case of men than of women. After a succession
of rea])pearanccs this epidemic passed away in
1551, and has since that date been extinct. A
century or so later(in 1606) came the Great Fire of
London, a catastrophe whicli was not an unmixed
evil, since it cleared away the Old London with its
foul and close houses, and induced the erection of
a new and more sanitarily built city. The great
lire apparently gave the ruiip dc i/rdrc to the Great
Plague, which prior to 1606 had swept from time
to time across the country, but tlisappearcd in that
year, happily to return no more. The cessation of
the epidemic plagues thus enumerated was doubt-
less due to tlie abolition or modilication of the
conditions under which they had previously
nourished. Less crowding together of peojde and
of their dwellings, a freer atmosphere, and a greater
measure of cleanliness doubtless acted tlien as
now in abolishing epidemics ; but e%en in the )8tli
century smallpox, typhus or jail fever, scurvy,
ague, and other diseases continued to be only too
well represented as legacies of the ignorant and
careless li\ing which characterised the preceding
era.
It is, however, in the 18th century that hygiene
begins to appear on the social horizon with sonie-
t' ..:g of clear outline and defined aims, as a
ciistinct branch of science, pursuing a very practical
relation to the lives of men. The Black I)eath
and other plagues had then disappeared as we have
noted, and thus the chances of prolonged life had
become materially iiicrea.sed in Britain and in
other European countries as well. The sanitary
historian of the ISth century has to take account
of at least three great names as those of fore-
runners in the work of hygienic progress. Jclin
Howaid (q.v.), the philanthropist, largely based
his work of jail reform on improvement in the
terrible state of these p'.aors of detention. They
were overcrowded, and liltliy in tlie highest
degree, and, as a consequence of these condi-
tions, typhus fever (which is a disease of over-
crowding) reigned rampant under the name of
'jail fever.' Howard by his undaunted efl'orts suc-
ceeded in clearing the jails of this jiest ; and to-day
our criminals reap the fruit of Howards phil;ui-
tliropy in the fact that the jail now ranks in reality
as the healthiest of dwelling-places. It is no
exaggeration to say that if our homes could be
renclered sanitary to the same extent as are the
jails of our land, the death-rate would be speedily
reduced to a minimum compared with its present
amount. Captain Cook, the navigator, stands out
as the second of the sanitary pioneers of last
century. He it was who iirst showed that
s(-iir\y, which is essentially a blood dis(u-der, and
from which whole ships' crews used to remain
prostrate in long voyages, was due to improper
feedini^. In one of his voyages Anson lost GOO
out of 900 men from scurvy. Cook in a three
years' voyage lost only four hands out of 11 S, and
not one of these four deaths was due to the
seaman's pest. He showed that in the absence of
fresh vegetables, lime-juice should be served out
regularly to ships' crews (see ScURVV). To-day
Captain Cook's discoveiy is duly acted upon
in the case of long voyages ; and the extinction
of scurvy in this fashion may be regarded as
parallel in importance to the prevention of
ague through tlie draining of the swamps and
morasses amid the decaying ^•e';etation of which
the ague germs breed and mnlliply.
The third discovery of importance in sanitation
in the ISlli century introduces us to a feature in
diseaiio prevention which demands especial notice,
because of the renewed importance which the [irin-
HYGIENE
ci]>le in question has acquired in our own days.
This feature maybe called that of the mot/ificdtion
of disease. It be^an, doubtless, far back in the
history of eastern nations, if we are to credit Himlu
records, but in I7'2() Lady Mary Wortley Afontagu,
wife of the Knjjlisli ambassador to Turkey, intro-
duced it to the notice of En.i,'lish physicians
untler the name of inorit/iit/o/i. Tliis pr.actice tiame
into vogue a.s a preventive of smalljiox in its
pristine severity. Here smallpox matter, taken
from the jjustnles of a jierson sufl'ering from that
ailment, was inoculated into the bodies of healthy
persons. The result as a rule was that they acquired
a mild attack of the disease, .uid this attack was
found to prevent a future invasion of sinall])ox.
Inoculation undimbtedly did not limit the spread
of .smallpox — indeed, as can be seen, it favoured its
spread — but it undoubtedly tended to modify that
loathsome ailment, and to ])r(!vent the dreadeil
seal's and defomiities which resulted from the
disease in its full vigour. Later on came Jenner's
discovery of rami/iatioii. This practice began
about 1706. Here matter taken from the pustules
of cow-pox was used to 'vaccinate' the human
being, the result being that a mild attack of cow-
pox (or allied disorder) was given to children, and
this was found, and still is fonnd, in the vast
majority of cases to be pre\entive of smallpo.x.
The subject of vaccination need not be discussed
here ; reference may be made to the article on
that subject ; suttice it to say that since 1840, when
vaccination began to be made the subject of legal
enactment in Britain, and since 1853, when fi-ee
vaccination was provided for the poor by law,
smallpox has deerefused both as regards frequency
and severity. Li 1867 vaccination was made com-
pulsory for infants, and at the present time, even
if it has not ell'ected a universal escape from
smallpox attack, we may congratulate ourselves
upon a tremeudons saving of life from this disease
by its aid.
The advance of me<lical science — and especially
the jjrogress which has been made in microscopic
research into the causes of disease— together with
the spread of education, and of a consequent intel-
ligent interest in health science among the people,
has tended powerfully to awaken national endea-
vour in nuitters both of personal and public hy.giene.
In Britain the law has ste])ped in, and has provided,
by means of many suitalile enactments ( 1848, 1875,
iVc. ), full encouragement in the pursuit of healthy
life, as well as protection against health dangers.
Each town or district is provided with its medical
otlicer of health, and with its sanitary inspec-
tors, whose duties comprehend the abolition of
nuisances and the general supervision of drain-
age and other sanitary details. To-day it may
be said that we possess a very fairly "equipiieil
stall' of health experts in every large town, able
and eager to assist and advise the citizens in the
discharge of their manifest duties to themselves and
their neighbours in the observance of hygienic
rule.s. One of the most important eii.actmeiits, for
instance, is represented by the law which in many
towns inakes compulsory the notification to the
authorities of every case of contagious disease which
falls nmler the notice of the householder or medical
attcudaut or both. In this way it is sought to
limit the spread of those infectious ailments which
add so largely to the deatbiate each year. The
authorities, being early informed of the ajipearance
of any cases of these diseases, can take prom])t
nieiusures for their isolation and their removal, if
neeil be, to hospital. One case of smallpox, of
typhus fever, or of scarlet fever may readily
become, by neglect, the parent of thousands (if
cases, witli a probable mortality frightful to
contemplate ; whereas by proiniit isolation of the
fii'st case or cases niiseiy, pain, loss of money,
and chances of death may be saved to thou-
sands. The seaports, too, are now narrowly
watched by the health oHicers of these ports, and
suspicious cases of illness on vessels arriving in
hariKmr are at once dealt with. Cholera, it may be
mentioned, which has run unchecked on the con-
tinent of Euro]ie on sever.al occasions within late
years, has thus been warded oil' from the Uritish
coasts by the active supervision of the health
authorities at the ports.
Within the sphere of the home health science has
made of late years satisfactory ])rogress. The prin-
cii)le of safe and sanit.ary drainage, whereby a
himse can be trapped off ciliciently from the public
sewers, and the inroads of sewer-gas (giving rise to
tyiihoid fever and other ailments) prevented, is
beginning to lie everywhere lu'actised. I'lunibers
are now encouraged to undergo examinations, insti-
tuted first of all by the Plumbers' Company of
London, and to acquire thereliy certilieales of
registration showing their knowledge of the prin-
ciples on which house-drainage should be con-
structed. The vile ' scanii)ing ' work in the matter
of drains so prevalent in f<irmer years, and so
fraught with danger to the inmates of houses, it is
to be liojied will be effectually banished from our
midst. Here, as elsewhere, in sanitary science, the
intelligent interest shown by the public in hygiene
is beginning to bear fruit. The householder is no
longer content to leave the sanitary arian.i:emeiits
of his house in the bands of ignorant architects or
equally ignorant plumbers. His interest in his
health atiairs and his demand for sound sanitary
work is a species of demand for which the inevitable
supply is forthcoming in the shape of the incieased
attention now being paid to the construction of
closets, baths, drains, lavatories, iVc. , and to the
efficient ]irotection of the house from the inroads
of drain ellluvia. In other details also the health
of our homes is receiving the care it deserves.
Questions of ventilaticm and of lighting are being
studied anew, and the warming of houses is no
longer left to clnince. Personal health, which
ranges in its extent from questions of foods and
drinks to those of cleanliness and clothes, is not
neglected amid the general improvement in hygienic
educ.'itimi ; so that the outlook in health iinestions
is on the whole of the most hojieful kind. Happily
the ])eople at large are beginning at length to
perceive and to act on the great truth that only by
their persimal education in hygiene, and by their
knowledge and observance of health hnvs, can they
secure the length of days which of old it was
declared Wisdom bore in her right hand.
As a final jioint deserving of nienti<m in re!ati(m
to the ac(iuiienient of hygienic knowledge we may
refer to the .spread of knowledge regarding the exact
causes of those infectious or zymotic diseases to
which reference has already been made. The.se
disea.ses include such ailments as smallpox, ty]ilius
fever, cholera, typhoid (or enteric) fever, measles,
hooping-cough, dijihlheria, scarlet fever, and like
disorders. That they are responsible for a very
large annuint of our annual mortality is a stable
fact, and it is interesting to note how the better
knowledge of their cansntiim bids fair to enable us
to cope successfully with tlieir attack. It is now
generally admitted that e.-ich of these diseases arises
from a specilic living particle or f/erm which, .sown
in the body, nmler favourable conditi(ms, gives ri.se
to the disease in (piestiou. Each germ is derived
from a previous case of the disease, and each disease,
nmler ordinary circumstances, breeds true — that is
to say, if we sow smallpox we reaji smalliiox, and
not measles or scarlet fever; ami so with every
other disease. What is known as the 'germ theory
of disease ' has thus come to assume a paramount
HYGIENE
HYGROMETER
43
filaoe and power in modern hygiene. Already we
lave Ijeconie iicquaiuted with the specilio germs
of many disorders. We know, for example, the
BacilliiJs tiibcniilosis, or germ to which tuliercle is
due — consumption or jilithisiis beiuf; menly a form
of tubercle, as that disease atl'ects the liiii^s. Tlie
germ of relapsing fever is aUo knmvii, and that of
the spleiiii- fever of cattle and shee|) has been \erv
fully studied. The tight of mankind against these
fevers and allied ailments is thus in reality a combat
with the germs to which they owe their origin.
All attempts to limit these disordei-s by disinfection
or otherwise are directed towards the destruction
of the germs which are given oil' from each case of
a given disease, and which, if allowed to escajjc into
air or water, infallibly spread the ailment broadcast.
The knowledge of tlie exact origin of such diseases
is therefore a powerful weapon in the hands of the
sanitarian. In other ways than by germ-destruc-
tion it is sought to protect man and animals against
disease attack. Pasteur and others, by modifying
the germs of a disease (e.g. those of splenic fever)
by submitting them to varied conditions of tem-
perature, &c., and by arliiicially imipagating tliem
m ai>propriate solutions, have succeeded in produc-
ing germs of altered and weakenetl power. These
latter, used to inoculate animals, produce a mild
form of tlie disorder, which protects against subse-
quent attack (see Hydrophobia). This is the
latest jiractical development of tlie germ theory
itself. How far it may be extended to jirotect man
against his enemies in the shape of disea-se germs
the future alone can tell. Meanwhile, it is in-
teresting to reflect upon the fact that there is at
le:vst a possibility of the abulition of many of the
ailments which now aH'ect us liy the combined work
of attention to the ordinary laws of health and the
promotion of a high standard of physical develop-
ment, and, it may be also, by the work of science
in fortifying us by inoculation against the invasion
of our disease enemies.
It may be added that the cause and advance of
sanitation in England has been encouraged and
assisted by various Health Exhibitions held in
London and elsewhere, in which the latest sanitary
inventions and appliances were shown. One of the
fruits of the London Health Exhibition of 1884
was the publication of an admirable series of hand-
books, written by eminent sanitarians and phj-si-
cians, and dealing with the various ])hases of public
and personal health. As regards the advance of
sanitarj' science abroad, Germany has long evinced
a thorough appreciation of the advantages of
scientific instruction in hygiene, and the Sanitary
Institute at Herlin, presided over by Dr Kobert
Koch, is in its way a model of wliat such an
establishment should be. Laboratories for the
stuily of public health science have been established
in connection with most of the English universities ;
while the Royal College of Physicians of Edin-
burgh and the Royal College of Surgeons of
London have built laboratories specially intended
for the study of germ life, and fur bacteriological
investigations in relation to the production of
diseases at large.
In the United States the supervision of health
matters is delegated to Boards of Healtli, of whicli
one exists in each .state. These lioards receive
rejiorts from medical oHicers and other experts,
and publish each an annual report containing much
suggestive matter for the guidance of healtli
reformers and for the improvement of the ))ublic
health at lar^e. Quar.mtine, conducted on rational
principlns, with the rigirl exclusion of diseases liable
to be imported by immigrants, is maile a notable
feature of the sanitation of the United States.
See tlie articles Bacteria. liATiis, Cooking, Diet,
Gehm Theory, Gymnastics, Health-besobts, Hos-
pitals, Hydropathy, Nursing, Medicine, Sewage,
VentilatiiN, AVater-slpply ; also Parkcs's Hmjitne
(1J583); {Jalton'i Htallltv Dicellin'/s (1880); G. "Wilson's
Manual of Ilugicne (188G); Coriield's Htalth (1880);
the iiresent writer's Manual of Health Science (188,"));
Simon's /-.'m/lish Sanitar)/ IiislUutions (18!K)); Sir)!.
W. MiclKirdsiiirs Diseases of Modeim Life, The Cvmmcn
Health, an<l liis life of Chadwick ; and books on livgicne
by Stcplienson and Jlurpliy (1892-93), ■Vrillonyhby
(i89.>), and Lelimann (1893).
Ilysroilieter (Gr. hygms, 'moist,' mclroii,
'measure'), an instrument for measuring the
quantity of moisture in the atmosphere. The
earlier forms of hygrometer depended upon the
property possessed by some substances of readily
absorbing moisture from the air, and being thereby
changed in dimensions or in weight. Of this kind
was the hair hygrometer of Saussure, in which a
hair, which ex]iands and contracts in length accord-
ing as the air is more or less moist, was niatle to
move an index ; a similar instrument was the
whalebone hygrometer of Dehic ; but as other
causes as well as moisture affect such instruments
they afl'oid no accurate indications. The most
perfect hygnometer, theoretically, is that of J. F.
Daniell (q.v. ). It consists of two bulbs connected
by a bent tube, as represented in the figure, and
enclosing a theiniometer, together with some ether
and vapour of ether, the
air having been expelled. .
The bulb b is covered f ( ^
with muslin, and « is m m
either blackened or coated
with metal. The obser-
ver's hand is placed foi- a
short time on h, to drive
the ether into a, leaving
b and tlie tube filled with
vapour of ether. A little
ether is then dropped from
a flask, of the form c, on
the muslin-covered bulb ;
evaporation instantly ^^
takes place and produces
a cooling of b, which condenses the vaptmr inside ;
a fresh evaporation from a fills the vacuum, which
is again condensed by dropping ether on b, and the
process is repeated till the temperature of a is so
reduced by successive evaporations ( see Evapor.a.-
TION) that i/cw begins to be formed on the outside
of tli(! bull). At the instant this occurs the height
of the mercury in the two thermometers is accur-
ately noted, the one giving the dew-i)oint tempera-
ture, and the other the temperature of the air.
The actual quantity of moisture contained in a
cubic foot of air can now be readily found from the
following empiiical formula : weight of moisture in
5656'2
grains = ^gXJ ^ P >' where f is the temperature of
the air at the time of observation, and p (found
from tallies ) the elasticity of vapour at the tem|)era-
ture of the dew-point. The evident defects of this
instrument are, first, its rajiidity of operation, so
that no time is allowed for the glass, ether, ami
thermometer to come to the same temperature, and
in conseniience the dew-point is given higher than
it actually is : secondly, its costliness, owing to the
great consumption of ether; and, thirdly, its uso-
lessness in tropical countries, owing to tlie dillicnlty
of preserving the ether in a fluid state. Daniell's
hygrometer was used at the Royal Observatory,
Greenwich, from 1840 — the commencement of
meteorological ob.servations — till 1847, when it was
sopeiseded by the more convenient instrument, the
Wet and Dry Hnlb Thermometers. This instni-
ment consists of two ordinary thermometers : one
has its bulb bare, and thus shows the temperature
of the air ; the other has its bulb covered with
u
HYGROSCOPE
HYMN
mvislin, which is kept wet hy a cotton wiclciUppinj;
into water. Tlie evajMnation from the muslin, ami
conseiiuent cooling of the Imlli, being in proiiortion
ttt tlie dryness of the air, the ditl'erence between the
reailings'of the two thermometers is greatest when
the air is driest, and zero when it is completely
saturated. The readings of the thermometers being
taken, the elastic force of vapour at the dewpoiut
is calculated by the formula of Dr Apjohn :
*'' ^ '■> 88 30' * ' •' 9(i 30'
the first formula to be used when the wet thermo-
meter is abo\e, and the second when it is below
the freezing-point (32=). In these formula F is
tlie elastic force of vapour at the dew-point, which
has been determined for different temperatures by
Kegnault from carefully conducted experiments ;/,
the elastic force at the'temperature ot evaporation
(or reading of wet bulb) ; d, the difference between
the dry and wet bulbs ; and /(, the height of the
barometer. From this the quantity of moisture in
a cul)ic foot of air, iS;c. can be found as before. To
dispen.se with these troublesome calculations the
lljigroincti-ic Tiihlcs of Mr Glaisher may be used,
e.\cept in very dry states of tlie atmosphere, such
as occasionally occur on Ben Nevis and very dry
climates, when Dr Apjohn's formula must be used.
Ilygrosoope is a name sometimes given to an
instrument for indicating the presence of moisture
in the atmosphere, without measuring its amouiit.
Hygroscopic substances are those which imbibe
moisture and become coated with a moist fdm.
Ilyksos, or SnErHERD Kings. See Egypt,
Vol.'lV. p. 239.
Ilyilieu, or Hymex^US, in Greek Mythology,
the god of marriage ; but originally the word seems
to have denoted only the Inidal-song, which was
sung liy the companions of the bride as she went
from her father's house to that of the bridegroom.
The god Hymen is first mentioned by Sappho.
The legends "concerning his birth and descent are
various ; hut he is generally said to be a son of
Apollo and some one of the Muses. He is repre-
sented as a youth with wings, a bigger and graver
Cupid, with' a bridal torch and a veil in his hands.
IIjlll«'nop'ter!l(Gr., 'membrane-winged'), an
order of insects, including («) ants, l)ces, wasps
( Aciileata) — witli stings ; and, in a lower divis;;.'n,
(6) gall-flies, saw-llies, and iclnu>umon-llies (Tere-
brantia), in which the abdomen of the female
beai^ a boring ovijjositor. The mouth parts are
adapted l)oth for biting .and sucldiig. 1 he wings
are typically four, membranous, and with com-
paratively few veins ; they may be caducous or
absent ; tlie second pair is always smaller than the
first. The metamorphosis is complete. Iloth in
structure and intelligence the hymenoptera occujiy
a high place among insects, and indeed among
animals. Their characteristics will best be gathered
from the .study of special types. See AxT, Bee,
G.\i.L-FLV, S.uv-i'LV, Wasp, and Insects.
llyilietlllS. a mountain (3308 feet) in Attica,
now "called Trelo Vouni, situate<l to the south-east
of Athens, was famous among the ancients for its
honey and its bluish marble. The honey is still in
rejiute.
llyillll. The usually .accepted definiti(m of a
Christian hymn is that of St Augustine : ' Do y(ui
know what a liymii is? It is singing with the
praise of f!od. If you pr.aise God and do not sing,
you utter no hymn. If you sing, and praise not
Goil, you utter no hymn. If you praise .anything
which does not pertain to the ]iraiseof God, though
in singing you praise, you utter no liymn.' The
hymns of the cliiircli wliich are known to us as
existing at the time these words were written
(c. 415) were mainly of the character thus de-
lined. With tlie spread of Christianity, however,
changes took place which gave rise to another
and broader meaning to the hymn. The expansion
of church life and the develoiuuent of doctrine and
practice required that fuller liberty should be ex-
tended to sacred song. The outcome of this expan-
sion of the original idea and form of the hymn has
resulted in the accumulation of vast stores of sacred
lyrics, a large proportion of which have passed from
time to time into public use in divine worship.
The languages and dialects represented therein
number more than two hundred.
I. New Testament Hynnis. — The early history
of Christianity is in our Sacred l?o(d<s ; and to
them we must go for the first examples of Christian
song — the Magnilicat, the Bcnc<lictus, the Angelic
anthem (see Doxouna), and the Nunc Dimittis.
The fourfold record of our Lord's ministry contains
no other songs. In the Acts of the Apostles we
read of hymns being sung ; but of their structure
and contents we have no example. On turning
to the epistles of St Paul, St James, and St Peter,
we have some indications of the nature of the
hymns which were then sung. Fragments of what,
to every appearance, were familiar hymns in the
early church are found therein, some of which
are known a-s the ' faithful sayings ' of Holy AVrit.
These include 'Awake thou 'that sleepcst,' &c.,
Eph. v. U ; 'If we die w ilh Him, we shall also live
with Him,' &e., 2 Tim. ii. 11, 12 ; 'Manifest in the
Hesli, justified in the sjiirit,' i*v:c., 1 Tim. iii. Ki;
and others, as 1 Tim. vi. 15,16, Titus, iii. 4-7, and
James, i. 17. The songs wliich St John heard in
vision, although true lyrics, cannot be classed as
early Christian hymns.
II. Greek.— (\) In Greek, the mother-tongue of
Christianity, it is natural for us, when we have
closed the Sacred Record, to search for (he earliest
forms of sacred song. In the Ante-Niceiic (leriod
we have a few only, some of which are written
in the classical metres, and olliers wliich are
' more oriental in character, and have an allinity
to the Hebrew modes.'
Of the former tlie best-known instance is that of
Clement of Alexandria (died 220';), translated by Dr
Dexter as 'Shejiherd of tender youth.' Altbmij;h
Clement's authorship is not beyond doubt, yet it is
essentially a hymn of liis day, and is absolutely con-
fined, in its subject-matter, to tlic incidents and doctrines
ot Holy Writ. The hymns and poems of Gregory of
lvaziani:us (;f30-3S"J) are all in classical measures. They
were piobalily written after 381, and iKimber about
'240 in all, of which 3S are i!oginatic, 43 arc on moral
sul;jects, '.19 relate to his own life, and CO more arc
on miscellaneous subjects. Altliouph amongst these
sacred pieces tlicre arc several splendid liynins, we know
not one in a modern hyinn-liooU. Some ot tbc finest are
easily attikinable in the original in Christ and Paranikas's
Aitthologia Oraca Carmiitmn Cln'islianorum (1871),
and in a translated form in A. W. C'liatKcld's Sontis and
Ili/mtis of the earliest Greek Christian I'oets (I87t>).
Another writer in t)ie classical metres was Synesius
(375 4:50). He was an cloiiucnt bishop, and well read
in the philosophy of his own and of older days. His ten
hymns are also printed in the Authotot/ia O'rerca^ and
traiisK-itcd by llr Cliatlield and by Alan Stevenson
(1805). One of these hymns, translated by Mr Chat-
field as 'Lord Jesu, think on mc,' is given in a few
modern hvmnals. ' Though of great spirit, reality, and
beauty,' the 'hymns of Synesius lie confessedly on
the borderland of Christianity and Neoplatonism, and
often it is the Platonic rather than the specially Christian
thought that inspires bis most refined passages' {Diet,
of Jli/mnoloti.ii, p. 457). The hymns of Soplironiiis,
jiatri.arcli of" Jerusalem (G29), are ot a still later date, as
are also those of EliasSyncelhis and.St John of Dam.ascus.
(-)f these hymns in the cla,ssical measures none, except
three canons of St John of Pamascus, were incorporated
in the services of the Eastern Church.
(2) The link of connection between the Jewish
HYMN
45
and the Cliristian liymnody is found not only in
tlie use which was niaik! from the very first of tlie
Jewish Psalter i!i t'hristian worsliiii. hut also in
the adoption of the ancient 'Hallelujah' and
'Hosaniia,' and in tlie alphahctical and otlier forms
of Christian antiphons and versicles. The primi-
tive Greek hymns, as distinct from hymns of the
New Testament on the one liand, and the sacred
Soems in classical metres on the other, were largely
erived from Holy Scripture.
Tlie Tcr Sanctm is an expansion of Isaiah, vi. 3, and
usually reads ' Holy, holy, holy. Lord of Sabaoth :
Heaven and earth are full of His glory. Blessed art
Thou for ever. Anien.' The gcnn of the Olon'a in
Excel.ii.1 is the Angelic song at Bethlehem. The Greek
form of the Gloria Patri ( ' Glorj- be to the Father,' &c.)
seems to have had its origin in Our Lord's commission.
' Go ve therefore .... baptising them in the name of
the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost'
Besides these, the Trisagion, 'Holy God, Holy and
Mighty. Holy and Immortal, Iiave mercy upon ns ; ' tlie
Cheruhic Bymn of the Greek liturgies, 'Let us who
mystically represent the Cherubim, and sing the holy
hymn to the Quickening Trinity, lay by at this time all
worldly cares, that we may receive the King of Glory,
invisibly attended by the angelic orders. Alleluia,
Alleluia, ^Uleluia : ' the hymn of Justinian, ' Only-
begotten Son and Word of God,' &c. ; and various clauses
in the Te Deum are all based upon separate or accumu-
lated passages of Holy Scripture.
Tliere are also the hymn at lamp-lighting, widely
known through Keble's translation, ' Hail ! gladdening
Light,' which was old in St Basil's time (370); 'The
Virgin's Song' of Methodius (died c. 311), translated by
Mr Chatfield as ' The Bridegroom cometh ! ' but not in
hturgical use in ancient or modem times ; and a few
others. Early Greek hymns are few in number but of
fine quality, and deal almost exclusively with scriptural
subjects.
(3) The liturgical use of hymns in the church's
infancy does not seem to have heen extensive.
Both Pliny and Justin Martyr hear testimony to
their use in public worehip, and we know that
some were in use in the church of Antioeh in
269. ' Yet as late as the 4th and 5th centuries
there was a scruple against the use of anything
but psalms in the eastern monasteries, and in
Spain the Council of Braga (561) forbade the
use of hymns' (Diet, of Hynuiol. p. 460). Ulti-
mately, however, the popularity and power of
hymns became so marked through their use by
tfie heretics, and their emiiloyment as a counter-
check by the faitliful, that their exclusion from
divine \voiship became no longer possible. The
change was on a limited .scale at first, but after
the complete separation of the Eastern from the
Western Church the hymn in its various forms
grailually assumeil a prominent and pemianent
position in the Greek liturgy.
(4) It has been pointed out that tlie principal
link between the early and later hymns is found in a
group of pieces discovered by Cardinal Pitra in two
rare liturgical MSS. at Moscow an<l Home ( Cardinal
Pitra's Analecta Sacra Iitcdlta, Paris. 1876).
(5) The next period (600-900) is that in which
we have the building up of those elaborate service-
books of the Greek Cliurch, known to us as the
Meii'nn, the Grcotrr Octocchns, the Laser Ortoechus,
the Triodinn, the Pentecostarioii, the Kiicholoriion,
anil the Horoloijion. In these works the number
and variety of hymns are very numerous. The
liymn-writers of this period were associated at
first with Jenisaletii and other parts of the Holy
Lan<l, and subsequently with Constantinople.
(a\ The firtsl prmip includes St Andrew, Archbishop
of Cret<! ( iifiO-c. 732 ), who is known as the author
of sevt-ral canons, triodia, and idiomela, including the
great canon of the Mid-Ixnt week. "To the English
reader ho is ))efit known tlirough the cento, made by
I>r Neale, ' Cliristian, dost thou sec them ? ' Almost
contemporary with him was .St Cosmas, a monk of St
^^abas, near Jerusalem, and afterwards Bishop of
Maiuuia, near Gaza, who died c. 700. He was the
author of several pieces, including a cantui for Christ-
mas Day, beginning in Dr Neale's translation, ' Christ
is bom ! tell forth His fame.' j\t St Sabas with
Cosmas was .John of Damascus, who became a tower
of strengtli in Greek hymnody. Born at Damascus, he
accompanied his foster-brother, Cosmas, to St Sabas,
and tliere he wrote his theological works and his hymns.
Late in life he entered the priesthood, and died at a
great age (c. 780). His iniiuence upon later Greek
hymnody was very great. He arranged the Octoech W5 in
accordance with the Eight Tones, and supplied it with
several canons of great merit. His canons are his finest
work, that for Easter (beginning in Dr Neale's transla-
tion, "Tis the day of Resurrection ') being well known,
in part at least, to the English reader. Witliin tlie next
fifty years St Theophanes, a native of Jcrusaliiii, also of
St Sabas, and afterwards Archbishop of Mida, was
writing extensively on the martyrs and confessors of the
Greek Calendar, which took the form of canons and
idiomela. Although largely represented in the Maicea,
he is almost luiknown to the English reader.
(6) The scrond (jroifp oi hymn-writers were associated
with Constantinople. The first of these is Joseph the
Hymnographer (died 883), a native of Sicily, but after-
wards founder of a monastery at Cimstantinople. He was
one of the most voltiminous of the Greek poets, and is
largely represented amongst the canons in the Mcnaa.
His canon for Ascension Day is very fine. Of it, how-
ever, but a small portion is familiar to English readers.
Ode iv., translated by Dr Neale as ' Jesus, Lord of life eter-
nal,' being the best known. 'Let oui- clioir new anthems
raise,' and ' Stars of the morning so gloriously bright,'
are also translations by Dr Neale from St Joseph. St
Joseph of the Studium, sometime Bishop of Thessa-
lonica, wrote several pieces; but none of them have
been translated into Enghsh. His elder brother, St
Theodore of the Studium (died 820), wrote several
canons, notably that on the Judgment, translated by
Dr Neale as 'That fearful day, tliat day of speechless
dread,' and regarded by Xeale as 'undoubtedly the
grandest judgment-hymn of the church previous to the
JJifS Ir(V,' He also wrote ' A song, a song of gladness,'
which is a part of his triumphal canon on the victory of
the Icons. Methodius II. (died 836) also belongs to this
group of poets. Of the few pieces which he wrote Dr
Xeale has tran.slated one only, ' Are tliy toils and woes
increasing?' and has given it as by St Methodius I. in
error. Theoctistus of the Studium ( r. 890 ), said by Dr
Neale to have been a friend of St Joseph's, is not largely
represented in Greek hymnody. He is known to Enghsh
readers through Dr Neale's translation of a cento from his
'Suppliant Canon to Jesus,' as 'Jesus, Name all Names
above,' and the Eev. E. M. Moorsom's rendering of the
same, ' Sweet Saviour, in Thy pitying grace.'
(6) From this date to the 16th century, when
the Greek service-books were practically closed
against new compositions, very few names are
known. We have Metropliancs (died 910);
Eutliymius (died 910); Constantine Porphyro-
genitus (913-959); Leo VI. (died 917); John
Mauropus (died 1060); and Philotlieus, Patriarch
of Constantinople (died 1370); but only one or
two ])ioces by these writere have been rendered
into English.
III. Si/riac (170-1370). — Syriac liymnody deals
with the churches of Syria, Ipiier iMesopolaiuia,
and western Persia. Its history extends from the
2d to the 14lli century.
The earUest known hymn-writer in this language is
Bar-Daisan (Bardesanes, q.v.), bom in l.')4. His son
Harmonius was also a hymn-writer. Both fatlicr and son
had Gnostic tendencies. On the orthodox side we have
Simeon bar Sabbae, Bishop of Scleucia, who sutl'ered
martyrdom in '296 ; and the greatest of all, Ephracm
Syrus (q.v.; c. 306-378). His jioitical writings were
numerous, and included homilies, disrourses on Christ's
Nativity, the Creation, and other suijects. Most of the
Syriac hymns and hymnists are practically unknown to
the western world. In the East, however, these hymns
form a considerable portion of the service-books of the
various divisions of the Syriac churches to the present
46
HYMN
day. Their English use is vex-y limited. The best-known
example is ' Glad sight, the holy Church,' by the Kev. F.
Pott.
IV. Latin. — (1) No name is associated ■with
Latin hymns until after the Council of Nieii-a,
325. Almost inimeiliatcly after\vard.s we have three
great oonteniijorary writers : in Greek, Gregory of
Xazianzus (. 330-389); in Svriao, Ephraem Svrus
< 300-378): and in Latin, St Hilaiy (died .308). The
most celehrated of the hymns attributeil to the
last is the ' Beata nobis j;audia Anni reduxit or-
bita,' whicli has been in western litur^'ies from an
early date. St Aml>rose (c. 340.397) was almost
a contemporary writer with the above three.
About 100 hymns are attiibuted to him, but of
tliese only twelve are accepted by the Benedictine
editors of liis works, including ' ^ILterna Christi
inunera,' ' Deus Creator omnium,' ' O Lux beata
Trinitas,' and ' Splendor Paternie gloria^. ' Tlie rest,
being in his style and after his manner, are known
a.s Ambrosian hymns. Most of the latter and all
of tliose l>y St Ambrose are found in the early
liturgies of the Western Church. Prudentius (350-
410) did not write hymns, but sacred poems, from
which portions were taken and incorporated as
hymns in the services of the church. For this
purpose these extracts were admirably suited and
widely used. His ' Corde natus ex Parentis,' which
was taken from his ])oem 'Da, puer, plectrum,' in
his Catlintieriiion, is a good e.xaniple of this
mode of treatment. The 63d edition of Pru-
dentius' Poems was published at Leipzig in
1800. This is a splendiil testimony to his
worth. Sedulius, a contemporary of Prudentius,
is known in hymnology by one piece, ' A sol is ortfls
•canline. Ad usque,' of which the second jiortion,
' Hostis Herodes impie,' is used as an Ejiiphany
hymn in several early breviaries, and altered, as
' Crndelis Herodes Deum,' in the modern Uomau
Breviary. The 6th century embraces two names
of great repute: Venantius Fortunatus (530-009),
and Gregory the Great (540-004). Fortunatus'
Pui'/ns are extant iu eleven books. Some ten
or twelve hymns bear his name, but his right
to several of these is contested. His grandest
productions are the Piissioutide hymns, ' Vexilla
Regis prodeuut ' and ' Pange lingua gloriosi pr;c-
lium certaminis.' Gregory's accrediteil hynuis are
about a dozen, including ' Audi benigne conditor,'
'Ecce jam noctis,' 'Hex Cliriste factor omnium,'
and ' Summi largitor pra'udi.' The f.airly well
authenticated hymns of the Venenible Beile (673-
735) nund>er tea or twelve only at the utmost,
including his ' Hynmum canamus Domino," and
' Hymnum canontes martyrum.' Another hundred
years give us Paul tlie Deacon (died c. 799) and
St Theodnlph of Orleans (died 821), the 'Gloria
laus et honor ' of the latter being long and well
known as a processioruil hymn for Palm Sunday.
St l{ji1janus (776-850), with his ' Christe Sanc-
torum decus .Vngelorum,' and St Odo of Cluny
(879-942), with his ' Lauda milter ecclesia,' should
be mentioned, as also Fulbert of Chartres (died
1028), author of the 'Chorus nova' Hienisaleni,'
and llobert IL, king of France (972-1031), though
their claims to hymn-writing are oi)eii to i|iiesti(m.
(2) Although this brings us to the beginning of
the 11th eentniy, the hyinn-writ«re whom we have
been enabled to cite are comparatively few. Most
of them, however, are names of great standing,
and are towers of hymnological strength. When,
liowever, all the compositiims of these writers are
collected together we still liml in the ancient Latin
service-books and other MSS. a iiiiiss of hymno-
logical literature for which no authorship can be
found. This Ls also the ca.se with reganl to llie
succeeding centuries, ami more especially with
respect to the Prose or Seijuence.
(3) Notker Balbulns (c. 840-912), th.^ father of
.sequence-writing, was a meiuber of tlie Benedictine
monastery of St Gall, his luiiicipal work being
literary and scholastic. In connection with divine
worship he found it dilhcult to remember the
niusic;il notes {iieiimcx) set to the 'Alleluia' (speci-
ally to the final «), which were .sung between the
reading of the Epistle and the Gospel. The adajit-
ing of words to these ticii/nen, instead of sound-
ing them as musical notes only, was suggested to
him by another, and the result was a series of
Sequences, or, as we now call them, hymns, which
to the number of 115 are known ius Notkerian
Sequences, but of which less than fifty are by
Notker. Of tliose who followed Xotker in this
mode of composition Adam of St A'ictor (an abbey
at Paris) was the most prominent. The service-
books of the middle ages abound with these com-
positions, but the greater projiortion by far are
anonymous. The Xotkeiian Seijuence which is
best known to the English reader is that for the
Eiiiphany. tr:iiislated by Dr Ne;ile as 'The strain
upraise of joy and jjiaise. .Alleluia.'
(4) Whilst the work of composing hymns and
sequences was thus ]>rolific, a few names of
great note stand forth in their grandeur as com-
posers of sacred poems as distinct from liyiiins.
It will be snUicient to name St Bernard of Clair-
vaux (1091-1153), and his grand Passi(mti<le poem
' Salve mundi salutare,' and his contemporary,
Bern.ard of Cluny, with his splendid 'Iloia novis-
sima,' to show the nature and character of ihe
work which was done. See Dies Ir^e.
(5) The hymns, sequences, and poems referrerf
to above, to the number of several thousands, are
those which date from before the 16th century.
Some hundreds more were added to the stores of
Latin liyiiiiindy by the brothers Santeiiil and others
in the Chiniac (i6S6), the Paris (1736), and other
breviaries in France, additions to the latter being
as late as 1820. As to the use made of this mass
of sacred poetry, we may add that two-thirds or
more have been associateil directly with divine
woi-ship, .and the rest are connecteil with works
of private devotion : and that nearly one-fourth
have been translated into English.
V. English. — English hymnody is a very wide
subject, and, if we include therein Anglo-Saxon
compositions, it dates from Ca'dnion (died c.
680). Bishop Aldhelm (died 709) sang sacred
poems iu the vernacular, and is said to have
rendered the P.salter into metre ; in Chaticer
(1340-1400) we have an early English hymn to
the Blessed Virgin; in I4I4 T. Brampton's Seven
Penitential Psalms, and later carols and addi-
tional hymns to the Bles.-ed Virgdn Mary. The
lii-st instalment of hymns in the vernacular of any
moment were those translated from the Latin,
and imluded in the Primers whicli were is.--iied
both before and after the Reformation. These
translatiims were followeil by otiiei's, some of
which are |neserved to us iu the Book of Common
Prayer. Translating, however, soon gave way to
paraphrasing, and Latin and (iernian hymns lo
the Book of P.sjilms. The sn|>plyiiig of ihe need
occasioned by the snp|>ressicin of Latin hymns in
ilivine worslii]i at the Keforiiialion, by the introduc-
tion of the Paraplirivse instead of the hymn, is a
history in itself. We can only say that fiom 15()1
to 1696 the authorised book in the CImicli of ICng-
biiid was the ' t>ld Version' of Steriiliolil and Hop-
kins, and from the latter date to the ado|itiim of
modern bymn-boidcs, the 'New A'ersion ' of Tate
and I'.rady. In the meantime the foundations of
English hymnody were being extended. A rf.siinii:
of the work done in the Elizabethan age is given
in E. I'arr's Select Poctrii, chicjly (Ici'utiuniil, of the
lleiyn of Elizabeth (Parker See. 18451. The snui-
HYMN
47
meus given are either from books of poetry or works
of devotion, and are pious utterances in quaint
anil rn^'geil verse. Later attempts in the same
direction, hy I>r Donne in his J'oem.^ { lliS;) I, (i.
Herl)ert in his Tcm/Ai: (\iJX\), C. Harvey in his
HijiKKjoriiii- (1640), and others, were of a higher
stamp, and l>ore a greater attinity to the modern
hymn. At that time no use of these composi-
tions was made in public woi-ship, except in the
case of private institutions. The hymn ' Jeru.saleni,
my happy home,' and others of more than usual
excellence are of this period.
The lii-st English liymnbook was the Hipnns
a>ul Soiiifs of the Chiin/i ( 1U2;>), by tjeorge Wither.
The king granted him a p.itent to hind up the book
with the .Metrical Psalms ; hut the whole matter
resulted in a failure. In lt)41 Wither republished
the same, with a few alterations, as Hallelujitk,
Britiuii'.i Sci'oml Rcmfmbniitccr, and dedicated it
t<i the Long Parliament, hut with no better success.
The writings of Herrick. Henry Vaughan. William
Barton, Bishop Jeremy Taylor, Samuel Crossman,
Richard C'r;ushaw, John Austin, Bishop Thomas
Ken, and others bring us down to 1737, when
the lirst liymnbook of the modern type (in which
the original hymns of \arious authoi-s are inter-
spersed with translations from other languages)
was published by John Wesley for use in the
Church of England.
( 1 ) C/iiirch of England. — The title of Wesley's
"Dook was Vollution of Psalms and Hymns ( Charles-
town : printed by Lewis Timothy, 1737). The
versions of psalms, the translations from Greek
and Gennan, and the original compositions were
seventy in all. Wesley ami his brother Charles
soon chaugeil the style of their hymnological
productions, and from 1740 to 1780 (the date of
the Wesleyan hymn-book) published only their
own compositions. John M esleys hymnological
work for the Church of England remained a
dead-letter until 1700, when Martin Madan
publisheil his Collection of Psalms and Hymns,
gathered by him mainly from the Wesleys and
Isjuic Watt.s, altered without permission to suit
liis Calvinistic views, and published without leave.
Dnrinj 17CO-1800 nearly twenty distinct hynui-books
were issued. Taken as a who'e they were Calvinistic in
iioctrine, cmde in arrangement, and indebted to the
M'esleys and Xonconformists for seven-eighths of their
contents. Three writers only stand out during this
period witli marked dLstinctncfS — X. il. Toplady, John
Newton, and William Cowper. During the ne.\t twenty
years nearly one hundred hynm-books were issued for
use in the Church of En^iland, and the places of publica-
tion extend'-d to almost every county in the country.
Naturally these books varied in their contents ; but
their general doctrinal tone was distinctively Calvinistic.
lilt re was also a greater and more miiform recognition
of the order of the Book of Common I'rayer than
before. The years 1820-.50 produced anotlier himdred
of hymn-books, amongst them HickerstL-th's Clirhtian
fmlmoilii ( 1,S:'.:}-41 ), Elliott's I'mlms and Hyiims ( 1*^5),
and Hall's Mitre Hymn-ljook ( 183G ). (Jther works of
importance were Bishop Heber's posthumous Hiimns
(l'<-7!, Miss Auber's Spirit of tlie Pmlms (1«29),
Bathurst's Psalms and Hymns {l&M), and Lyte's Spi)-it
of the Psalms (18:t4). the contents of which, in each
instance, were mainly by the same writer. During this
periofl ab^o this s'nre was richly increased by the
publication of Keble's Christian Year, by the original
coiiipos tions of several other writers, and by renewed
efforts at transUtion of German and Latin hymns. This
innneiise growth broadened out considerably, and brought
the subject of hymnody strongly to the front during the
next t'-n ye.-irs. 'I'be outcome was the publication of
oy. r fifty hymn-books in that period, a groat accumula-
tion .if .iriginal brums and translations, the gradual
excbiaion of nonconformist hymns, except those of the
liigb.-r il.ss. from thv cfiUections, and a new and intense
inUtrest in the whole subject Additional translations
from the Latin and (icnnan, together with original com-
positions of great merit, created a longing for something
better in the form of a hynui-book for public use.
Hymns Ancient and Modern (1801) was one answer to
this request. Its success was phenomenal. On the
one hand it raised a storm of opposition ; on the other,
iluiing the next twenty-five years it called forth several
iniportant works on liynuiology, various collections of
sacred lyrics for private use, ai'out iifty 'supplements'
to and editions of books in common use, and nearly one
hundred new hymn-books. Since then new writers whose
names have become household words have arisen, and
the needs of the increased activity of the church have
been met. In the past one hundred and tifty years the
Church of England has proiluced about five huniired
hymn-books, and nearly two humlred and fifty authors
and translators whose works have been at one tune or
another in use in public worship. Talien together their
original hymns and translations will umnber ten thou-
sand.
(2) Eneflish Nonconformists. — The hymnological
work which has been accomplished outside of the
Church of England is large and iniportant, and
has had great intluence in all English-speaking
countries. A few facts only can be set forth in
each instance.
(a) The Baptists from the first quarter of the 17th
century to the present have been divided into two
sections, the Particular or Calvinistic, and the General
or .\rininian Baptists. The singing of hymns with the
former began with B. Keach, about 1673. It had a
stormy birth and childhood, for opjiosition thereto was
great, but at the present time hymn singing is a distinc-
tive feature in their worship. The General Ba|)ti.^ts
also have their official hymn-books, and singing is an
essential part of their worship. English Baptist writers
number about one hundi-ed, and their hymns two thou-
sand.
{b) The Coivircyalioiuilists or Independents used hymns
in public worship some thirty years before the Baptists.
Their hymn-liooks have been many, and their writers
numerous. The latter number over a hundred, and their
hymns three thousand or more. Although I. Watts, P.
Doddridge, and J. Conder are their pride and toWTrs of
strength, there are others who have written Ij'rics of
great force and beauty.
( c ) The Methodists are broken up into several sections,
as the New Connection (179C), Primitive Methodists
(1810), the United Methodist Free Churches (an
amalgamated body dating from 1857), and the Bible
Christians {1815). The first official hymn-book of the
old body was published by J. AVesIey in 1780, and is the
gi'oundwork of all the hymn-books of the various branches
of Methodism— the Primitive Slethodists alone excepted.
Usually Methodist hymuody is said to have had a great
influence upon English hymnody everywhere. I'his,
however, is only true of the hymns of John and Charles
Wesley.
(c/) Tlie Unitarians, although niunerically a weak
body, have produced several hjnun-writers of great merit.
Of their present hymn-books the best is Dr Martineau's
Hymns of Praise and Prayer (1873), which is un-
equalled amongst Unitarians.
( < ) Other Denom inations, as the Irvingites, the Sweden-
borgians, the .Salvation .-\rmy. and many othei's have
each their authors and official hymn-books. The
writei-s and books, however, do not call for special
notice.
When the English hymn writers are counted up
and their works are tabulated, we have a total of
1000 writei-s, an<l '25.000 hymns.
\l. Irisli. — The Uom.'iu Catholics, the Protestant
Episcopalians, the Presbyterians, the Methodists,
and others in Irelaml have been so closely identi-
fied with their brethren in England .and Scothiml
that in most instances the same hooks h.-ive l>een
in use in the three rountries. The result h.is been
that Ireland has not sh.aped a hymnody for herself,
although in later years a few hymn-hooks have
been pnlilishoil iiidepiuidently. The Irish Chinch
has, however, an aiithoriseil hymnal, 'J'/ie t'hiirrk
Uymrnil ( 1873, with supplement of lali-r date). In
this respect it is greatly in lulvance of tlie Churcli
of England.
48
HYMN
VII. ]\'clsh. — Tliere are refeicnces in AVelsli
History which ^'o to show that some of licr anoioiit
bards sang liymus of praise to God as early as the
6tli century. The most aiicien*: productions now
extant date from the 1-ltli c(.;itury. After the
Keforuiation tlic lead was taken by the Established
Church, by the publication of A'rohdeacon I'rys's
version of "the Psalms in IG'il. Since then hvmn-
writing has increased somewhat rajiidly, especially
since the Metliodist movement early in the last
century ; and at the present time the Established
Church anil the numerous Nonconformist bodies
have each their official or (luasiotticial hymn-books.
Welsh hyninody, although very ])o\verful in the
principality, lias had little or no inliuence upou the
Iiyninody of other countries.
' X III.' Scut/ish. — One of the most interesting
parts of Scottish hymnody is the history of the
Scottish Psalter, a work which is interwoven
with Scottish history, and has had a powerful
intluence upon the Scottish mind. The first
ellectual step taken to provide hymns, as distinct
frour psalm-versions, for public worship in Scot-
land, was the appointment of a committee of
the General Assembly in 1742. This committee
presented a draft collection, which was authorised
for private use in 1745. The same year a com-
mittee was appointed to revise and enlarge the
draft for |)ublic use. The result was publlslied in
1781 as Tntnslations and Paraphrases, in Verse,
of several Pa^safjcs of Sacred Scripture, &c. Of
the total contents (sixty-seven in all, not counting
the five hymns added at the end) tweuty-iive
are by Watts, five by Doddridge, and two by
Tate, 'the rest being by M. Bruce, T. Blacklock,
H. Blair, W. Cameron, J. Logan, J. Morison, and
other Scottish writers.
Although the addition of the five hymns to the
Paraphrases indicated a desire for a larger choice of
hymns in pulilic worship, nothing definite and
official was done b\- the principal sections of Presby-
terianism until the publication of the Hijmn-book of
the Relief Church (1794), the Hymn-hook of the
United Freshytcrian Church (1852), The Scottish
Hipnnal of the Established Church (1870), and the
Psidin-versions, Paraphrases, and Hymns of the Free
Church (1873). These have been revised, added
to, or superseded — notably by the Hymnary for the
Established, Free, and U'.P.'Churches in Scotland,
and the Irish Presbyterian Church (1898). Much
activity has been shown by individuals amongst
Presbyterians, Scottish Episcopalians, Evangelical
Unionists, Baptists, Congregationalists, Glassites
or Sandemanians, Kimian Catholics, and others,
the outcome of which is a mass of hyninological
literature, of which a good proportion is of Scottish
origin and of liigli merit. Amongst the ninety
to one hundred Scottish authm-s and tr.anslators
whose hymns have taken a high ]>lace in the
hymnody of the church the most eminent are .1.
Morison, R. Blair, S. Martin, W. JJobertson, H.
Bonar, .Jane Borthwick, M. Bruce, ,1, 1). Burns,
Sarah Findlater, K. M. M'Clieyne, H. M. Macgill,
and H. Wardlaw. The prince of these hymn-
writers and the Charles ^\ esley of Scotland is Dr
Horatius B(mar ( 1808-89).
IX. American. — The first hook printed in
America was the Bay P.salter ( 1040), consisting of
various metrical versions of the Psalms liy English
authors. The addition of a few s]>iritual songs in
the 2(1 edition of 1647 was the first departure
from tlie sole use of p.salm-versions in that conn-
try. This small beginning had at the lii-st a very
slow development. The years 1780-1800 wit-
nessed the general recognition of hymns. The
Protestant Episcopal Church extended their collec-
tion in 1789 to twenty-seven hymns : a collection
by the Baptists (the second) was publisheil in 1790 ;
the Congregationalists had their Hartford Selec-
tion in 1799 ; the Wcsley:in Metliodists a reprint of
a Pochct Hymn-Oook originally i>ublislifd at York,
and revised after some years of use in 1802; the
I'niversalists, two collections in 1792; the Unita-
rians, a* selection in 1795; and the Presbyterians,
Watts at first, and then an official ccdleclion in
1828. In these books American hynm-writers had
a very limited representation, most of the hymns
being by English authors ; but year by year tlie
American element became more ]ironounced as
hymnal followed hynnial in the various religious
comumnions. In 1800 an original hymn by an
American was a novelty in any collection ; now
no American hymn-book of the highest class can
do with less than two hundred and fifty authors
and translatoi-s, and of these not less than fifty
should be Americans. This percentage, as the
outgrowth of some eighty years, is remarkable.
Each religious communion has done its part in
bringing about this great result. Of the two
hundred and fifty authors and translators, the
Bajitists and the I'nitarians number over forty-five
each, the Congregationalists aliout forty ; the
Protestant Episcopalians and the Presbyterians
about thirty each, the Methodists less than
twenty, and the Universalists about ten. The
ren\aining thirty include Quakers, Keformed
Germans, Reformed Dutch, i.S.c. Several of these
writers have an European reputation, as Bishop
Coxe, Bishop Doane, C. W. Everest, and \V. A.
^liihlenberg (Episcopalians); T. Hastings and J.
AV. Alexander (Presbyterians) ; H. M. Dexter, T.
Dwight, and Ray Palmer (Congregationalists) ; P.
Bliss, Lvdia Sigourney, and S. F. Smith (Baptists);
Faimv Van Alstvne and W. Hunter (.Methodists) ;
S. G." Bulfinch.'W. C. Bryant, W. H. Burleigh,
Emerson, Holmes, Longfellow, S. Longfellow,
Lowell, and E. 11. Scare (Cnitarians); and the
Quaker poet Whittier.
The number of hymn-hooks published in America
during the past hundred years accounts to a great
extent for this great activity in hymn-writing.
At the present time each denomination, and there
are many, has its official hymn-bcxik, or its quasi-
official book or books. For "ood work opportunities
for jiublication thus abound, and the finer produc-
tions are assured a certain circnlation and a possible
immortality.
X. French. — The French metrical psalters have
a history distinct from F'rcnch hymns and hymn-
hooks. The complete jisalter of Marot and
Beza (1552~G2) was the psalm-book of the Re-
formed Churcli until its place was to some
extent filled by the new versicm of Conrart (1U77-
79), and the revision of the same by Pictet
and others in IG95. As in otlicr countries, the
psalter subsequently gave way to the hymnal, and
the versions of private individuals were mainly
of ]iublic value in proportion .as they yielded suit-
able pieces f(n" the same. The writing of hymns
in the vernacular began in the Kith century as in
German}' and elsewhere with translations from the
Latin. The Roman Catholics, the Huguenots (in
their day), the Reformed Church, the French
Moravians, the Methodists, .and various evangelical
societies, have eacli their book or books of hymns
for divine worship, in which, although there are
original comjiositions by French authors, the larger
proportion are translations from English and Ger-
nuvn hymns. The Pereil ha-s produced the greatest
French Protestant hymn-writers, at the head of
whom stands Cc.sar Malan (1787-1804), whose
printed and MS. hynms number about one thou-
sand. As.sociated with him, directly or indirectly,
in the .s.anic religious movement were Ami Bust, II.
Empaytiiz, Merle d'Aubignc, Felix Nell', Henri
Lutteroth, A. Vinet, A. Monod, and others, men of
HYMN
HYPATIA
49
wiiiUl-wide reputation and influence, who have
given a position to French hymndily unknown to it
before.
XI. (jlcnnaii. — In the tleriniin lan^uap' then'
are not les.s than one hundred thipu>!uiil hyuins,
of which about ten thousand have ptu^sed into
IJernian hvnin -hooks of various dates, and nearly
a thousand are regarded by tJernian critics as
classical. The lirst were conteni|)orary with the
earliest Latin .sei[uences of St Xotker and others ;
the last are the productions of living men.
(1) The Firxt Period begins with Otfrid of Weissen-
burg (c 8(J,S), anil was continued by others until the time
of Luther. The greater part of the hyuins of this period
were translations from the Latin, and all were in strict
doctrinal accord with the Church of Korae.
(2) The Sccoml Period (1.520 1648) opens with the
liyums and psalm-versions by Lutlier, and embraces the
Iteformatiuu period to the peace of Westphalia. Tlie
prnicipal writers were Luther, Justus Jonas. Alber,
Spengler. Hans .Sachs, Speratus, N. Decius, and others.
Tlie writings of these authors reached to about 1570,
and have a distinct churchly character of their own.
From 1577 to 1618 hymn-writing and hymn-book making
continued very much on the old lines, and lumibered
amongst the writers Selneckei', KingwaUlt. Herberger,
and P. Nicolai. The miseries of the Thirty Years' M'ar
changed the whole aspect of hymn-writmg for a tnue
by tlie introduction of a strong personal element of
faith and courage, and hope begotten of suffering. The
names of a few of these writers \vill recall some of tlie
finest hymns of this kind in the German language : Opitz,
Heermaiin, M .\. von Ltiwenstern, Altenburg, Riiikart,
Daeh, and Hist.
(.3) The Third Period was a transitional one, and led
up to the Pietistic and Moravian writers of the iie.vt
era. It had amongst its hynin-wnters P. tleriiardt, '
Franck, Xemnark, Scheffler, and Louise Henriette of j
Brandunburg. Of these the greatest were Gerhardt,
who is second only to Luther in German hyinnody, antl i
Solieffler, whose love for Christ was first in everything.
This orthodox, mystic school, with its deep experimental
piety, was soon lost in the Pietism of the ne.vt period. j
(■t) Th'- Fourth Period^ commonly known as the
Pietistic and M'n-avian era, 'was a reaction against the
dry scholasticism and cold formalism of the Lutheran
Church,' and an emphatic pronouncement in favour of
' practical, pei-sonal, and experimental piety.' t)n the
Lutheran side the leading writers were Spener, Francke,
Kichter, FreyUnghausen, G. Arnold, J. Lange, Desslcr,
Kainbach, Bogatzky, Schmolck. and Hiller ; and on the
Moravian, Count Zinzendorf. These names recall numer-
ous hymns of deep spirituality, high refinement, and great
power. I
During this same period the German Reformed Church
broke away from its long-continued and almost exclusive
use of the Psalms in metrical form. Their first hymn-
book appeared at Zurich in 1.540. This was followed by
A. Lobwasser's rhymed translation of the French Psalter
of Marot and lieza in 157.). Another hundred and fifty
years brought them into closer hymnological conformity
with their Lutheran brethren, and produced amongst ■
others three well-known hymii-ivi-iters, J. Neander, I
Lami>e, and Tersteegen.
(5) The Fifth Period embraced about sixty years ( 1757
1817 ). and covers the time when the great wave of Ration-
alism broke in upon the German churches and for a time
changed the whole aspect of their hymnody. Old liynins
were altered or entirely rewritten, and new hymns
written partaking of the nature of rhymed sermons on
the existence of God, the immortality of the soul, the
dignity of man, the obligations of moral duties, and
kindred subjects. To the hymn-writers of this ordei
there were a few notable exceptions, which included
Gellert, Klopstock, J. C. Lavater, and M. Claudius, the
greatest being Gellert and Klopstock.
(6) The Sixth I'rrvttl is rich in writers. Beginning
almost with the litth century, it extends to the present
time, and embraces the well-known names of F. von llar-
denbierg ( ' Novalis ' ), E. M. .\rndt, F. .\. Krunimacbcr, F.
W. Kruuiniacher, \. Knajip, J. P. Lange, Spitta, and
fJerok.
This digest of the hyninological woik of more
thiw a thousand years in one language can give
264
only tlie slightest idea of what was done. Little
or nothing has been .said .about the intiltitude of
hymn-books (Cesaiigbuelicr) which were issued and
liiiiuglit into coniuion use in the church and in
the home, nor of the metrical vei"sions of the
I'saliiis, which have a history of their own. We
can do no more than recall and em|ihasise the
facts, and refer to s|>ecial treatises f<M- details.
The inlluence of German hymns upon English and
American hymnody has been very great. In fact,
until the modern revival of translating hymns
from the Latin and (rther languages, German was
almost tlie only source from whence hymns other
than English were taken for use in the hymn books
of (Ji'eat Britain and America ; .'Uid at the ]iiesent
time, especially in America, it holds a |irominent
position in the hymnals of almost every party and
creed. For the Dutch, Italian, Hoheinian, Mor-
avian, and Scandinavian hymns, and those in use
in foreign missions (in more than 150 languages
anil ilialects), see the present writer's Dic/ionan/
of Ili/m n uluc/y ( 1 892 ).
Cuiichiaion. — From the outset of the propagation
of Christianity throughout the nations of the earth
it became a necessity to preach to the people in
their own languages, and gradually to supply them
with hymns in theirown tongues. This has resulted,
as we have seen, not only in a great number of
languages being represented in t'liristiaii hymnody,
but also in a vast variety of metrical forms being
found therein. Some of these forms are intimately
associated with the ancient classical measures,
whilst others are widely divergent therefrom, and
seem to have had little or no laws of conticil be-
yond the fashion of the period or the fancy of the
writers. With this broailening out of languages
and forms came also a rapid increase in the number
of sulijects which engaged the attention of Christian
poets. At an early stage of cliuich history reverent
stroiilies in praise of the Hidy Trinity, and espe-
cially in adoration and praise of the Eternal Son.
together with a metrical homily or two and a few
im]ia.ssioned songs on the practical side of Christian
life, formed the staple of sacred song. We have .seen
how the expansion of church life and the develop-
ment of doctrine and practices called forth a fuller
and more extended hymnody, until every incident of
im]iortance in Bible story, every conceivable shade
of Christian doctrine and ritual, every epoch in the
church's history, every exjierience in her children's
life, from the sutl'eriiigs of her little ones to the
magnilicent self-sacrilices of liei martyrs, have been
enshrined in sacred song.
Ilydgo. or KoUK, a port of central Japan,
situated on the west shore of the Gulf of U.saka,
about 20 miles S. of that city. Hyogo is properly
on the west side, and Kobe on the east ot an
unimportant river. (Jpen to foreign trade since
18(i8, it is connected by railway with ( )saka, and li.as
a large direct foreign trade with Eurojie, -America,
and .Australia. The [dace has foreign banks,
wharves for ocean steamers, exttrnsive .shiphuihl-
iiig yards, and a large paper-mill. I'op. (189;))
1.53,382. The imports have an annual value of
about i;5,000,000 ; the exports (rice, tea, silk,
camphor, lish, matches, jiorcelain, umbrellas) of
alioul i;4,ooO.O00.
Ilyoid BoiK*. in human anatomy, is a bony
arch consisting of live movable parts, i|uite sejiarate
from the rest of the skeleton, and lying in the
fleshy parts of the neck between the root of the
tongue and the larynx (see ToNiit'K). For the
liyoiil bone of the dog, see the ligure at Dm;.
Iljosryailllis. See Hknii.xm;.
Ily|tati:i, daughter and iiupil of Tlieoii, an
astronomer and mathematician of Alexandria, wa-s
born in the later part of the 4th century .\.i). Her
60
HYPERESTHESIA
HYPERIDES
learning and w-isiloin made lier the most iiiHuential
teacher in Alexandria, and tlie fame of her lectures
drew round hei students fiom all |)arts of the Kast
where the iuHuenee of (Ireek thought and know-
ledge was felt. Tlie idiilosophv she taught seems
to liave been an eclectieisin, the results of an
endeavour to comhine Neoplatonisni with Aris-
totelianisni ; hut her tliouf,'lits were nrincipally
given to astronomy and meelianics. IVi'siinallv
she was held in such great esteem, and sucli
reliance was placed im her judgment and sugaeity,
that the magistrate-s nseil frei[uently to consult her
on important ca.se.s. At this time the Bishop of
.\le.\audria was Cyril (q. v. ), a tierce hater of
heathens and lieretic-s. Witli his connivance, if
not at his instigation, certain savage monks from
(he Nitrian deserts, headed l>y one Peter, a reailer,
attacked Hypatia in the streets as she wa.s return-
ing from her lecture-room, dragged her from her
chariot, hurried her to the Ca^sareuni ( then a
church ), there stripped her naked, and hacked her
to death with oyster shells, after which she wa-s
torn to pieces, and her limbs carried to a place
called Cinaron, and there burned to aslies (415).
None of her writings have survived. Kingsley's
romance, Hijpulia, appeared in 1S53.
Hyperaestbesia (Gr. hyper, 'over,' a/st/iesis,
' a sensation ' ), in the most general sense of the
word, denotes an e.xcessive excitability of the pari>
of the nervous apparatus which have to do with
sensation, special or common. Abnormal sensibility
to pain is, however, more correctly called liii/icr-
algesia. In this condition, ius in Tic-doulonreux
(q.v.). the slightest stimulus may cause a paroxysm
of pain, even a current of air or a noise bringing on
an attack : while in hynenesthesia of the special
senses bright Hashes of light may be seen, sounds
may be heard, and even smells and tastes exjteri-
enced in the absence of any objective cause. Of
the diseases predisposing to hypera'sthesia hysteria
is far the most frequent : but it is sometimes
induced by rheumatism, gout, skin diseases, in-
tlamnuitory affections of the central nervous system,
while it often adds greatly to the distress in the
early stages of v ariotis fevers. The treatment of
hyper,-e.sthesia is that of the morbid change on
which it depends, but the local application of
anodynes, ice, or warm poultices, and sometinu'S
the use of electricity may do mucli to diminisli the
patient's .sufferings for the time.
Hyperbola. If two similar cones be i)laced
apex to apex, ami with the lines joining the apex
and centre of ba.se in each, in a straight line ;
then if a plane which does not pa.ss through the
apex be made to cut both cones. c;icli of the
two sections will be a hyperbola, as I'liN. P'AN'.
It is, viewed analytically, the locus of the point to
which the straight lines EP, FP differing by a
constant quantity are drawn from two given points,
E and K. The.se given points are called the /or;',
one being situated in each hypciliola. The point
G, niidwav between the two foci, is called the
renire, and the line I'^K the transverse axis of the
hyperbola. A line through G perpendicular to
tiie transverse axis is called the coiijuijiitf oxis .• and
a circle described from centre \i, with a radius
equal to Ft;, will cut the conjugate axis in (and I).
It (1 be taken for the origin of co-ordinates, and EM
and E'F' for the axes, the hyperbola is exjiressed by
^_ J^ _ 1 r.;i!_„_(;C=i).
((:B =
The
the equation"^- ^ = '•
hyperbola is the only conic section which lias
.•\syniptotes (q.v. ) : in the figure these are GT. GT',
(is, GS'. It also appears that, if the axes of co-
ordinates be turned at right angles to ilieir former
position, two additional curves, HCK, H'DK', will
be f(U-nied, whose equation is ,.. - •'. = 1. These
' /(- It-
two are called nrnjuqate hyperhnlns, and have the
same asymptotes as tlie original byperbcdius. The-se
a-symptotes have the fcdiowiiig remarkable proiierty :
If (starting from G ) the asymptotes be iliviaed in
continued pro]Hirliiin. .and from the points of .section
lines be drawn parallel to the oilier asyniptott'. the
areas contained by tw<i .adjacent jiaralleis and the
corresponding parts of the .asymiitote .and curve are
equal ; also, lines drawn from the centre to two
adjacent point.s of section of the curve iii<lose equal
areas. Tlie equation to the hyperbola when referred
to the lusymptotes is xy = iili : which shuws that as
the ordinates decrease in geometrical progression
tli<" abscissa' increase in the same ratio.
Hyperbore'ans (i.e. dwellers beyond Boie.os
CM the North Wind), a name given by the ancients
to a mythical people, whose land was generally sup-
posed to lie in the extreme northern parts of the
world. As the favourites of Apollo tliey enjoyed
an earthly p.aradise, a bright sky. .i perpetual
spring, .a fruitful land, unludken peace, and ever-
lasting youth and health. In the nioilern science
of anthropology the term Hyperboreans is some-
times used to designate cerf.ain peoples, such as
the Tchuktchis. Aino, Kamchadales, &c. , who
dwell in the north-east of Asia ami the north-west
and north of North America. an<l who cannot be
classed either with the Indians or the jieoples of
the Asiatic jdatcau.
HjiierioacoH', or IIvrKRiciN.*;. a natural
onbr of about SOO known sjK'cies. trees, shrubs,
and herb.aceous plants, widely distributed over the
world, and in very different climates, but particu-
larly numerous in North America. The sjiecies of
Vismi.a vield a substance resembling gamboge.
Many ot the Ilypericacea- belong to the genus
Hy]iericuni, or St .lohn's Wort (q.v.).
llyperi'de.s (more correctly Hyjiereides), the
(ireek onitoi who, on the whole, ranks next to
Demosthenes, excelling him in grace though
inferior to him in moral power, w;us probably born
about the same time .-us Demosthenes. I5y birth
belonging to the middle class, he became a pro-
fessional advocate, .and earned largi' sums of money,
which he spent with a generous hand alike on his
private (somewhat .scandalous) pleasures and (m
patriotic purposes. His ri.sniiyc/iii against Philo-
crates assuren his professional position .and brought
him on U> the st.age of politics, where he w;ls
destined to play a notable jiart ( .■U,S it.c. ). From
the lii-st he was an opiionent of the party which
advocated pe.ace with Philip, and a supporter of
Demosthenes. The importanci! which attached to
him as a politician at liiis time is shown by tin-
fact that be was chosen by the Areopagus to repre-
sent the Athenian ca.se before the .\mphictyons in
the dispute .as to the coiiind of the Dclian temple.
During all Demosthenes' manful struggles against
Pliili]! up to the fatal lield of Charoiiea, when,
with the defeat of Athens, the political lilierty of
(ireece pr.actically came to .an eml and the so
premacy of Macedonia was established, Hyperides
HYPERIDES
HYPNOTISM
51
was the trusty and valiialile supportei- of Pemos-
thenes. Even atti'i- the ileath iit" rliiliii, aiid (luring'
the early portimi i)t' Alexamler's career, llie two
■iratiu-s eontiuueil to lie faitlifiil allies. (Inly when
Demosthenes emleavoured to t'oilmv an iniiiossible
n'a media in the matter of .Vlexamler's ali>i-oncling
minister, Harpalns. iliil llyperiiles hreaU with his
former leader, and heail that aeeu-^ation of liriliery
aj;ainst Demosthenes wliicli not only rcsnited in
liie hanishmeiil of the yreal orator Imt eonimitted
Athens to the fruitle-ss revolt aj;ainst Maeedon,
known jvs the l.,ainian war. 'I'lu' leaders of this
rev(dt were Leosthenes and Hyperides : the former
perished in liattle, the latter was put to death by
Antipater ( oi'i li.c. |. It is remarkable that
although Hyperides w;vs adnured and studied in
Koman times. althonj;li his works were not only
known to Pliotius in the !lth century but actually
lire.served in MS. in the Kinjj's Library at Buda
until 1.V26, when Buda wivs taken by tlie Turks,
it w;vs not until 1847 that we had any sjieciniens
of Hyperides' oratory by which to judi;e for our-
selves of hi~ powei-s. In that year Mr A. C Harris
of Alexandria purcluised a papyrus at Thebes
eontainini; portions of Hyperides' speech again.st
Deniosthenes and of his speech for Lycophron. At
the .siime time Mr .J. Arden was ottered a papyrus,
winle he was travellinj; in Ej;ypt, which turneil out
to beUmj; to the same volume as that bought by
Mr Harris, and to contain the remainder of the
speech for Lycophron, and also the whole of the
>peech for Enxenippus. In ISoti Jinother traveller,
Mr Stobart, obtiiined from the same neighbourhood
another papyrus containing the Euneral Oration
of Hyperides. And in 1SS9 M. Eug. Kevillout an-
nounced that the Lcmvre had on his proposition
purcha-sed a papyrus which contains fragment^ of
the first speech against Athenogenes, and is miuh
Iietter calculateil to give us an idea of the skill of
Hyperides than anything aci|uired by England
(Reriie ilcs h'/iii/ex 6';-<vy//c.v, .lannary-March l.SSSI).
What nu)st impresses one in reading Hyper-
ides is his grace, next his indolence, and always
ills urbanity. His grace is nothing allected or
xssumed, nor is it useless ornament. Hyperides is
a practical, not an epideictic oratoi'. and means
business. His grace is that of a jjian performing a
feat well within his powers, ami that n(it a despi-
cable feat. At the same time he is indolent, appar-
ently because there is really no need to exert him-
self. He will not take tlie trouble to pick and
choose words : he maktw the one that comes lirst —
olis(d(ae, olisi)lescent. pid\erliial. conversational, or
what not— do his wurk. He will not turn his
sentences over mentally again and again before
uttering them, so that they may ndl out smooth,
pidi.slied, balanced, and linished : he will rather
let them come out at their own length, and as they
list— he can pull them up at any time with etl'ect
and without ellbrt. He is always transparent,
never monotonous ius is Demosthenes; he is witty
to a degree, retined in his niillery, and his irony Ls
• lelightful. AlM)ve all he never in his keenest
attacks pa-sses the bounds of good ta-ste, as does
Denmsthenes. Finally, it must be remembered
that what we |ios.sess cannot give us an adequate
idea of the orat(uical powers of Hvperidcs; of the
speeches against Demosthenes and for Lyco|dm)n
we only possess fragments ; the speech for t'uxe-
nippus is indeeil iMUuidi^U!, but is never even
mentioned by ancient critii-.s, and therefore can-
not have l)een one of his best ])roductiims. And
as to the speech against .Vthenogenes, the anony-
mous \VTiter of the treatise on the Sublime
praises it indeed, but praises it as a i>ri;tty little
speech. The best account of Hyperides is that
•nven by Blass in his great worW, Die Attisehe
Beredaaiiikeit, III. ii. 1-72. Churchill Babington's
original eilition of the Orations for Lycophron and
for Euxenipiuis (Cambridge, IS.'i.S) will alwa\s be
v.iluable. llie liest text of Hy|ierides' works is
that of Blass ill the Teulmer series. See Ilager's
(Jitiv.sl tunes lli//ieri(/cie ( Leip. 1870); and the
Qiuiitcr/if J.'eeirir for April 1894.
Ilyporioil. a Titan, smi of Uranus and Ce. and
father of Ili'lios, Selene, and Eos. Homer and
later p(ii'l> apiily the luime ii-s a patronymic for
Helios himself. Hence the attribute of beauty hiis
been connecled with the name, as in Shakespeare's
' Hyperion to a satyr.'
Hypei'stllC'lIt' (Cr. /ii/jyer, 'above,' al/ieiios,
'strength;' so called to distinguish it fnuii Horn-
blende, ij.v., with which it was formerly con-
founded), a rock-forming mineral which crystallises
in orthorhombic forms. It is an anhydrous iiiag-
ncsian silicate, containing a large iierceiitage ( 1.")-
•24) of ferrous oxide with very little aluiiiina. It is
generally ilark green or raven black in c<dour, but
has a pearly or metallic lustre w hen fractured across
the cleavage-planes. This is due to the presence
of ver\ numerous minute brown .scales of some
foreign substance, which are arranged in lines
along these plane.s. This mineral occasiimally
occurs massive, like hornblenile. as in the island
of St Paul on the Labrador coast. It is met with
also as an occa-sional constituent of some erujilive
igneous rocks, as in certain andesites and porpliyr-
ites. and in jilutonic rocks, such as gabbro.
HyperstlU'llit*'. a more or h-ss coarsely crys-
talline igneous rock allied totoibbro (q.v.). It is
an aggregate <if labradorite (felspar) and hyper-
sthene, and is of plutonic origin.
Hypertrophy (Cr., 'over-nourishment') is the
term applied in medicine to the enlargement of
certain organs of the body. The best examples of
this change are seen in the muscular system, where
it may occur altogether inilepemlently of disease.
The huge bo.sses of flesh that stand iirominently
forward in the arm of a blacksmith or of a pugilist,
and in the leg of an ojiera-daucer, are illustrations
of hypertropby where the general health may be
perfect. In double organs, such as the kidneys ami
lungs, if the organ on one side degenerates through
diseiise, the organ on the opposite side is often
found to enlarge and cany on double wcuk. In
these cases liypertro]ihy is an etl'ect of disease, but
is at the same time a resource of nature to preserve
life. There are. however, cases in which the hyper-
trophy has a hurtful instead of a cimservative
elleci. as, for examjile, hypertroi)hy of the thyroid
; gland, constituting the disea.se known a.s goitre or
bronchocele, hypertrophy of the prostate gland,
of the spleen, <.S:e. Tlie following are, according
to I'aget, the conditions which give rise to
I hypertroi>hy : (1) The increased exercise of a part
! in its healthy function; ("2) an increased aceumn-
latiou in the blood of the particular materials
which a jiart .iiiinoprijiles in its nutrition or in
secretion ; (.'!) an increaseil alllux of healthy blood.
In hypertrophy of the muscular tissue the liist and
third of thi'.se conditions are i>resent. In hyper-
trophy of the fatty tissue, constituting obesity,
there is an excess of fat or of its chief elements in
the blooil.
ilypllilsis. See SlTI,E,J.
Ilypiiolislll. or I'sV('H()-THi;ii\i'i:i' ncs. I'rom
17X4, when .Mesmer at I'aris claimed the power of
curing all manner of iliseiuse by "animal magnet-
ism,' this subject h;us been more or less t:il">oed by
the nieclieal piol'e.ssion. The nature of hypnotism
.■md methods of inducing it are iliscus.sed at
.\m.m.\i, M Ai;.NKrisM. It is only within ihe
last few years that it hius received the scientilic
investigation which it deserves; but hy|inntisni
52
HYPNOTISM
HYPOCH^RIS
is now extensively used on the Continent in treat-
injr ili^eiise, and is slowly llndiii.u its way into
in-actii-e in Hrilain. It is imiJossilile to >aiipuse
that liypnotisni will ever I'ullil the san;;niiu' expee
tatioiis of many of its exponents, tllongli it seems
certain that it will render yreat aid as a thera-
lieutif a};ent in treating; smne kinds of diseases.
It is still necessary to write very j^uardedly npon
the snljject, as its action \\ lien nsed for the cure of
disease is imi>erfectly understood : Imt that it is
useful as a method of treatment is demonstrated
by many cures which have heen thorou<;hly investi-
^:ated hy the hiy;hest scientitic men. Hypnotism is
not any longer to be rej,'arded as a mystery or
as a snperhuman j,'ift, for its action can for the
most part be explained by our ])resent knowledi^e
of jihysiolofiy and [isycholoj^y. The chief reason
why hypnotism cannot be universally employed as
a therapeutic a^'ent is the fact that only a certain
])roportion of persons can be hyimotised. The pro-
portion, however, of persons insusceptible to its
power is much less than was at one time thou,i;ht ;
and, when used therapeutically, somnamlmlism,
the deepest staL;e of liyjmotism, is not necessary.
On the ('oiilinent it is found that about 80 per
cent, of the inliabitants can be hypnotised.
Hypnosis may be used in two ways in relation
to disease. In the first place, simple sleep is
induced, and sleep when produced without the
action of drugs is often of great im])nrtance,
and of itself aids in treatment. Again, in many
cases when the person is aslee]i. suggestions may
be made to liini which will abolish i)ain, and
which in some diseases will bring about either
the relief of symptoms or the cure of the disease.
Every one knows that the mind inlluences the body,
and that concentrated thought can bring about
sensations in various localities. It is upon this
knowledge that the hypnotist bases his practice.
The ]iatient being placed in a hypnotic sleep, bis
attention is directed to various jiarts of the lioily,
and very often the cH'ect is increased through local
stimulation by means of passes or rubbing. During
the hypnotic sleep the patient is uniulluenced by
his surroundings, and therefore he is all the more
open to suggestions, and no distuibiug iullueiu'es
diminish his powers of coiu'ciitration. ]!y means
such as these neuralgic or rheumatic pains may
Ireiiuently be removed : heailaches may often be
cured, and so may .some fornrs of dyspepsia, as well
as the various manifestations of hysteria and hypo-
chondriasis, and even functional )iaralysis. It is
found, too, that hypnotism is useful in dijisomania
and in treating persons aihlii^ted to opium-eating
and other de|iraved tastes. .\t present it <'annot
be .Said that hypnotism is of use in any <lisease
having an organic origin, although in such <liseases
various sym|itoms, esnecially tho.se of pain, may
be removed successfully. It is i|uile jiossible for
operations to be performed upon jiersons lunlcr
the hypnotic inlluences without the slightest pain
being ielt by the patient ; but a.s vari<ius other
ana'stlietics are more easily eniploy<'d, it is oidy in
a few cases where these are contra indicated that
hypnotism will be used in this connection.
Tor educational purposes it is held ]iossible to
imiiress a person in ihi; hypnotic sleep with ideas
which will modify his usual character. I'"or in-
stance, it seems possibli' in Tuaiiy cases to cure
persons of bad habits, such its stealing, lying, or
the excessive use of alcohol; and on the Con-
tinent attempts are being made to inlluence
habitual crinnnals for good by means of hyjinosis.
Young children, defective in brain-|)ower or con-
stitutionally vicious, may bi' improved by careful
hypnotic tn'atmcnt. It is a mistake to supjiose
that hypnotism can only be used successfully in
treating iiervou.s or hysterical persons. Such
people are often difficult to hypnotise, and there
is always a danger of either incrciisiu;; their
troubles or in some cases of inducing insanity.
Ordinary individuals, especially those who have
learned to obey, are the subjects whom a hypnotist
would luefer to treat. Children at schocd, s(diliers
and sailors, and ollicials of all ranks, are the clas.ses
from which the nuist brilli;int successes have been
olitained hitherto in treating disea.se. In many
cases of insanity hypnotism may be used with
advantage as a thera))eutic agent, althiuigh its
employment in these eases is not by any meairs
easy. Persons suffering from hallucinatiims, it is
said, have been cured, and those who suder from
the jiainful result of some grievcuis trouble have
lu'cn restored by having the incident blotted mit
from their memcuv.
Although hypnotism has power for good when
properly used by meilical men. it is an exceedingly
dangerous wea])on in the h;tnds of the unskilful or
nnscrupulons. All public exhibitions of hyimotism
should be prohibited l>v law, as jjersons experi-
mented upon have been rendered lumitics, or
had their nervous systems severely damag<Ml.
Crimes have been committed by persons who have
been hypnotised, dust as a jierson when hypno-
tised is rendered extremely inipressiomible, ami
therefore capable of receiving beneficial sugges-
ti(Uis, so he is nearly as liable to receive sugges-
tions for evil : and it is quite iiossible for him during
the hyjinotic sleep to be inqiressed with the lielief
that he is to connnit some act after he has awak-
ened from the sleep — an act he is safe to <lo,
acling at llie time as an automaton. It is
absolutely impo.ssible for a person to be hypm>tised
unless he has the idea of wliat is going to happen.
It is a psychical anil not a physical intluence wliich
brings about the condition. (July peisons whose
will'iiower is weakened by fear, or by the idea of
a supposed power which inlluences them in sjiite
of tliemselves, can be hypnotised witiiont full
consent on their ]iart ; but the oftener a person is
hypnotised the more easily may he be subseciuently
ailccted.
See Uernlieiiu, Suf/iiexliir Tlifrapeiitics (trans, by
Herter, 1S89); Tuckey, Pn'irho-thernpeniicx (3d ed.
l.Siil ) ; and otlier bixiks on hypiioti.sin hy Hjiirnstriim
(ISSill. Kingsbury (ISIU), Courmelles (1891), Vincent
( ISy.'j ). and I lart ( denouncing it as witchcraft, 1 894 ) ; and
the article t'UAla'or.
llypiiotirs. See X.\i!coTirs. Si.i-.ur.
liypilllllK a genus of mos.ses belonging to the
(udcr Ihyinca-. Archcgonia ami capsules are borne
on sjiecial latci'al bi'anches. The sexual oigans are
ton I in .\ugust and September, and the capsules
take from ten months to a year to ripen. Alany
sjiecies are remarkable for their beauty, and are
often used for decorative ]iur|Mises. Their dislri-
lHUii>n is unix'crsal.
II.VIMX'Slllsli a form of furnai'e iiseil by the
liomans for the ])urpose of healing baths and
apartments. It was placed in a chamber beneath
the lloor, and the heated air and pi-odncts of com-
bustion were m.-ide to circulate round the walls
and under the lloor by means of hollow tubes or
a hollow lining, and were also carried in pipes to
other rooms. Si'e liATIls.
Ilyporlia'ris, a genus of plants of the natuial
order Composila', sub-order Cichoracea\ of which
lUie species, yy. nidiniUi, or Long-rooted Cats-ear,
is extremely common in meadows and pastures in
Ih'itain. Its leaves spread on the gnuind, and
icsemble in form those of the dandelion, but ri)ugh;
the stem is blanched, the tlowers not unlike those
of the dandelion, but smaller. Caltle eal this
plant readily, and its abundance is not deemed
injurious to pasture or fod<ler.
HYPOCHLOROUS ACID
HYRAX
53
Hypochloroiis Acid, HCIO, is tlie acid
oontiliiied in bleachiu-; iiowder. It can only lie
iilitaine<l as a dilute sohitioM, as in the concen-
trated state it is very lialile to decniiiposition. It
is a powerful lileacliing a<;ent, and forms a series
of salts, liijpiirliluritfji, wliicli also possess Ideacliinj;
properties. The chief of these are the liypochlorites
of lime and soda. Tlie lime salt is the imiiortant
constituent of Iileachin;; powdci. while the .soda
salt is prepared commercially liy pii-s-^in^' chlorine
into a solution of soda. For further information,
see 15le.\chixo PowDEl!. -7/i//"', in composition
(tir. 'under ), is used much like .v"6- from Latin.
Hynochlorous acid has less o.xygen than chlorous
aciii ; hyposulidinric has less oxyjren than sul-
phuric, but more than s\ilpluiroiis acid. Hypo-
pliospliates are salts formed by hypophosphoric
ai'id and a ha-^e.
II>pochoudri'asis( so called from its supposed
connection with the hypochondriac regions of the
.Vbdomen, '{.v. ), a disease characterised by extreme
increase of sensibility, palpitations, morbid feelinys
that simulate tlie jireater pari of disea-ses, exaj;-
gerateil une,asine.-<s ;ind .anxiety, chiefly in what
concerns the healtli, &C. In extreme ca-ses it
liecomes a species of melancholia. The disease is
intimately cimnected witli, if not cau.sed by, dis-
order of the di<;estive functions. See In'DI(;E.stion,
Ins.vnitv.
H.V|ioderiiii4- Injection. This method, lii-st
introduced by the late Dr .Vlexan<ler Wood of
Kdinbiirgli, is an e.xtremely valuable one in certain
c.a-ses, though its ajiplicability is limited. It consists
in the injection ot a solution of the substance to be
given Ijeneath the skin, by means of a hue hollow
iieeiUe to which a small syringe is attached. The
iirick given by the needle is much le.ss acutely felt
oy the patient if the neeille be lubricated with
carbolic oil or the like. Ah.sor|ition from the subcu-
taneous tissue takes place speeilily, and is not inter-
fered with by vomiting, or other conditions of the
stomach which may delay or prevent the entrance
of the remedy into the system by that channel.
The action of the drug is thus at once more
rapid and more certain than when ailministered
by the mouth; and a smaller dose is required.
Only such s\ibstanees as can be given in small bulk
and ill an unirritating comlition are available. It
is thus chiefly of u.se for the vegetable alkaloids,
of which morphia is far the most often employed.
It need hardly be said that it is to be used only by
skilled hands. The same methoil is largely em-
ployed in e-\perinients on the .action r)f disease
poisons in animals, anil in Pasteur's treatment of
iiyilroiihobia ; .see also Dii'llTHKRl.x, TiitERCLE.
Hvpo.s'tasis, the (Jreek term used to designate
the distinct subsistence of the three pei'sons of the
Trinity (<|.v.).
Hypo thcc. a term in the law of Scotland,
but not used in England, to denote .a lien or
security over goods in respect of a debt ilne by the
owner of the goods. Thus, a law-agent or attorney
has ,a hypothec over the title-deeds of his client in
respect of his .account or bill of costs : .and the
lanillord of agricultural subjects held under le.ascs
iMirrent at the llth of November Issi h.ts a
hypothec over the furniture or crops of his tenant
lor the current rent. The Hypothec .\bolition
(Seotlanil) Act, 1880, did away with the land-
lord's hypothec for the rent of all other land e.\-
ceeiling two acres let for agricultural purposes.
Sei- I, ANiii.iiini Axn Tenwnt.
Ilypotlicnnse. the name of that side in a
right anglecl triangle which is op|>osite to the
right angle. The well-known properly of the
liypothenuse, that the si|uare desciibcd mi it is
erjual to the sum of the squares descril/eil on the
) are, they lind. ai'coriling to
other two sides, is proved in the 47tli proposi-
tion of the tii-st l«)ok of Euclid's Elements.
Hyrac4»tllCI*inm, a genus of fossil ungnlales,
established in IS.Sil by Owen for a small Kocene
animal about the .-ize of a hare, to which, how-
ever, he .afterwards gave the name of I'liolophus.
See Horse.
Hyrax. a genus of mammals repre.-^entiiig a
distinct order, the aflinities of which are very
obscure, and unillumiiied by the discovery of any
fossil forms. ' Feeble folk ' as the species of hyrax
(so-c.alletl ' c(my '
m.any. their near-
est allies in the
huge elephants
or in the ungu-
lates proiier. In
size they .are like
rabbit.s ; but the
name ' cony,'
which really be-
longs to the rab-
bit, is not very
apiuopriate ; in
appesirance they
rather suggest
marmots. They
are natives of
Africa and Syria,
stony deserts, or
thick bead, snia
Hyrax syriacu.s
and live among the rocks
on trees. The plump bi
ears.
y,
hort slender limb>,
rudimentary tail, soft yellowish-gray or brownish
fur are obvious external characteristics. Closer
examination shows many ])eculi<arities. The snout,
which has a cleft upper lip, is .s(nnewhat rodent-
like, and so are the rootless, jiersistcntly growing"
curved upjjcr incisois;. except that they lia\e a pris-
matic sha|)e and a sharp point insteail of the chisel
edge of rodents. The entire dentition is expre.-^sed
in the formul.a \'',\'i, and the b.ack teeth are in
pattern distinctly lilie those of the rhinoceros and
some other ungul.ates. There are four toes on the
anterior limbs, three on the hind, all with short
broad nails except the inner toe of the hind-foot,
wbidi bears a curved claw. The feet strikingly
suggest tho.se of rhinoceros or tapir, ami are inter-
esting in the further peculiarity that the naked
sole is furrowed in such a wa\' tliat the hyrax can
in gecko-like fashion cling to the vertical sides of
rocks and trees. Among the many char.acteristics
of the skeleton may be noticed the huge number
(2,S-30)of back and loin (dorso-himbar) vertebra'.
The brain and skull most resemble those of niigu-
liites ; the stomach recalls that of horse or rhino-
ceros ; the idacenta is zonary as in elephants and
carnivores.
There are numerous species, sometimes referred
to two genera, Hyrax and Dendrohyrax. The
former is represeiite<l by //. rdpm.ii.i, the Cape
Daman, Kli]p|id.a.ss, or Kock-badger ; II. siiriaciis,
the Sbaphau — niistranslateil 'cony' — of Scripture:
and //. Iiiilicsliiii-iis, the Ashtok of the .\byssinians.
These live in companies, usually in hides among
I he rocks, and feed on shoots, grass, (lowers, ainl
the like. In reference to the Scripture .accimnt it
may be iiote<l that the hyr.ax docs not chew the
cud, though it moves its jaws vi-ry coiistanlly.
Though only two are born at a birth, the rale of
mnltiplication is very rapiil, keeping p.ace with
ravages of carnivores, which are very deailly in
spite of the caution and even sentinels of the
hyra.\es. Of ditt'erent habitat, and sometimes
referred to the second genus. I)eii<liohyrax. are
certain hyraxcs which, in West and South .\frica,
live in trees -e.g. I), tirhorfti.s and />. tlorsiilis.
The members of this order, so puzzling zoologi-
cally, are iilayful, good humoured, and wary.
54
HYRCANIA
HYSTERIA
Their flesh is sonietimos eaten, and is said to
resenil.le lahhitV.— y/v''"''""'. '^ supposed inedioine
for certain nervims iliseases, was made Iidmi tlie
mixed urine and fa'ces of the Cape Hyrax.
Ilvrfilllin. an an.'ient district of Asia, of in-
deiinhe extent, lumlered on tlie Caspian Sea(s(>iue-
times called U iirniiiinii Man) and the nverOxns
U corresi>onded with the modern Mazandoran and
Asteraliad.
IlvrcaniiS. the name of two Jewish hij;h-
nries'ls and princes of the Hasmonean family (see
M \CCABEES ). ( 1 ) .Ion N Hykcanus, son of Snuon
ilaecahaMis, who ruled I35-10.". B.C., was at lirst
tributary to the Syrians, hut ou the death of
Antioch'us nuide li'imself independent, sululued
the Samaritans on the north, and forced the
Iduui:iaus ou the south to a<lopt the laws and
customs of the Jews. He also concluded an
allianoc with the Komans, and extended his terri-
tories almost to the ancient liiuits of the Davidian
monarchy. < lrij;inallv a Pharis.'e, he subsequently
attached" himself lo the part\ ..f the Sadducees,
who were anxious to keep ou ^ood terms with the
Rom.ans, and who discountenanced the turbulent
religious patriotism of the Jewish masses. Hyr-
canns was. comparatively sjjeakinj;-, a just and
enli'ihtened ruler, and the country enjoyed great
prosperity dnrint; his reigu. He left live sons,
two of whom, Aristobulus and Alexander, governed
with the title of Uiug.— (2) Hvia:ANi:s II., son of
Alexander, and grandson of the preceding, was a
feeble prince. Ou the death of his father (78
B.C.) he was ajipointed highprie.st by his mother
Alexandra, who ruled Judiea herself for the next
nine years. After her death ((lit n.o.) his younger
•brother, Aristobulus, a braver and more energetic
man, seized the ','overniueut. and forced Hyrcanns
to withilraw into private life. He tailed to win
back his dominions, until l'omi)ey l)egan to f.avonr
his cause. After some years of tumultuous light-
ing, -Vristobulus was poisoned by the partisans of
Ptolemy (49 B.C.), and Hyrcanns for some time
possessed the dignity of high-priest. Cawar (47
B.C.), on account of the services rendered (o him
by Antipaterof lilunnea, m.ide the latter procurator
oi' Juda-a, and thus left in his hands all (he real
iiower. Antipater was assassinated, and Anti-
•nnins, son of Aristobulus, with the help of the
T'arthian king, invaded the land, captured Hyr-
canns by treai-hery, cut oil' his ears, and earned
him olV'to Seleucia on the Tigris. Some years
later Herod, sou of his old friend Antipater,
obtained supreme power in Juda'a, anil inviteil
the aged Hvrcaiius home to Jeru.salem. He was
allowed to dejiart, and for some time lived in ea.se
and comfort : but, falling under suspicion of intrigu-
ing against Herod, he was put to death, '.W B.C.
Ilvslon. JvMKS, poet, was born in the parish of
KirUVoiMMd, Dumfriesshire, July -J:?, 170S. Wlulc
acting as a shepherd near Airdsiuoss, Ayrshire, the
scene of a Coveuaiitiii.u sUirmisii and Cameron s
dealh (IGSO). (he traditions of the district stimu-
lated his imagination to the writing of his best-
known poem. 'The Cameroiiiaii's Dieain," which
appeared in the Kdiiihiir(jli Miiriii::iiir (1S'2I).
Hyslo]!, who had preiiared hiinscdf by iierseveriiig'
private studv f<u- teaching ,at (Jreeuock. ibrongh
the iullneuceof I,ord .h'ftrey was .-qipointed tutor
on board the Dm-is. While tutor tm board the
Tiriiil man-of-w.ir he dieil of fever at St Jago,
Cai>e Verd Islands, November 4, IH27. An editicm
of his poems wasjirinted from bis manuscript book
by the Kev. I'. VIearns. Coldstream (Glasg. I.SH7).
Mr Hamish .M'Ciinu set hi^- ' Ciimeronian's Dream
to music in IHHil
divergin" stamens, i
ribs. The known
and a calyx with
m<u'4'
■ as a
A
; a
Th^
/
L
Hyssop { lli/s.mj)ii.\), a genus of plants of the
natural ordi r ' l,a(iiat;e, distinguished by Umi
straight
lifteen
species are few. The Com-
mon Hyssop (H. uffivinaiis)
is a native of the south
of Europe and the East. It
is found on the Aljis of
Austria. It is a half-shrubby
plant, about 1.1 feet high, the
upper jiart of the steins (piad
langular, the leaves evergreen
and Lanceolate, the flowers in
one-siihul wborled r.aceiiies.
The lloweis are generally of a
very beautiful blue. It has an
agreeable aromatic odour. Ii
lias long been in cultivation
for thi! sake of its leaves ami
young shoots, which are some
times used for culinary pur
poses as a sea.soning, but
generally in a dried state
stoni;icliic ami earmin;itiv(
syruji ma<le with them
po]iular remedy for colds,
virtues of hyssop depend on ;i
volatile oil. '-The hyssop of the
JJible has been supposed to be
some species of I'hytidacca
(q.v.), as /'. ai'iiiosit, a native
of the Himalaya: but on the
authority of Dr Koyle it
appears to have been the com
i nion Caper (q.v.).— Hedge
' Hyssop is arath/a officimilh. , ComnHm Hyssop
1 SeeClVvTinl.A. (//,„.«„/.».. f#.- „«/,,,).
Hysteria (Cr. hystera,
' the'womh) ileri\es its name from an ancient Imt
erniueiuis notion that it is specially eonni'cted
with disorders of tlu^ w<nnb. It is a disease which
exhibits it.self under so m.any aspects that to
I descrilH- all the \aried forms which it may assume
W(nild be to give nn c>pitoiiie of the symptoms of
! nervous diseases in general, fm- there is hardly
one of these which the ndmiciy of hysteria may
not reproduce. In dealing with the condition
I two thiims must be kciil in mind- the tendency
1 or lempi'iiimeiit which iiredisiioses to it, and the
I exciting c;iuse which determines the actual attack.
Among savages it is .scarcely ever met with.
Among civilised races it is nneiinally distributed,
the Krcueh. lor example, being more hysterical than
the Kmdish, while in every count ly the female sex,
esiieciaUv at or before tb.' a-e of puberty, is far
m.ire liable to it (ban the male. Among boys,
howevi'r, it is not uncommon. The tendency seems
sometimes to he due to hereditary iniluence, some-
times to injudicious training in childhood.
The exciting cause which ih'velops the hysterical
tendencv into actual hysteria is geiLcrally some
severe e'motumal shock a fright, an unlmpi.y love
affair, or a sudden reverse of fortune, liut luaiiy
"eneral diseases occasiiuially carry hysteria in
their train ; and in ISS'.l a volume of nearly 400
pa.'cs appeared (Thr Juntiiu/ Om.ses of llystrrw,
by Ceorgcs Cninon) dealing solely with the enn-
iiieration and discussion of the exciting causes of
this I'ldtciin malady.
In the divelopcd disease some of the symptoms
.are coulinucms, ojhers occasional or piiroxysnial.
The will is we.akeiKMl. and the iiatient is a prey to
unre"ulated whims and impulses. The tenii)er is
oflen irritable, and every petty annoyance is
cxa ated into a serious trouble. There is a
moHud craving for sympathy, which leads to the
most outrageous acts. Illood has be.Mi swallowed
bv a hysterical girl in order th.nt she iniglit vmnil
it .•ig.'iin. I'orter has been mixed with unnc, and
HYSTEKTA
HYTHE
55
tlie inixtiire iialnicHi off upon the medical man as
an alinoinial iliscliargo. Tlie most oUilnirate lies
liavo Ix'cii cciiioocleil : iniiDcent people have heeii
:u;cu.seil <>l imajiiiian' crimes : every inoniiveiiieru-e
lias heen siitl'eied ami every artilii-e exhaiisteil in
iinlor to play ii]m)m the creilulity or the pity of
Irienils and atleiiclants.
This juoral perversuni has its counterpart in the
dboriler of the sensory and motor mechanism.
Sensihility to impressions of various kinds may
l>e exalted, lessened, or abolished. A touch may
>;ive ri.se to all the symploms of severe ]iain :
and. on the other hand, the prick of a pin, or
even the contact of a hot iron, may not he felt.
Paralysis of the legs, arms, or face, or of one
side of the liody, or of sjiecial muscliw or groups of
muscles, is a very common symptom. Laryngeal
paralysis may recluce the voicrc to a whisper,
speech or motor power may often return suddenly,
especially nmler the influence of strong emotion ;
and there is no douht that 'miraculous' cures are
sometimes of this nature. A hysterical paralytic,
for insUuice. will generally run out of a Imrning
house. Digestive ilisorders are common in hysteria,
anil, aidetl sometimes hy fraud, give rise to ' fjtstitig
girls' and other newspaper marvels. Palpitation,
great rapidity of hreathing, gidiliness, an<l Hu.shing
of the face are also of freifuent occurrence.
But besides these more or less continuous
symptoms, there are the occasional paroxysms or
■ rtl-s ' which in the popular mind are chictly
a&sociated with the name of hysteria. riiese
emotional storms or crises vary much in frequency
and severity. In the mildest form there is no
loss of conseiousne.ss. but the arms, leg>i, and
head are tossed about, and there is great mental
excitement. In sever, r cases, perhaps .after some
premonitory symptoms, such as the sen.se of con-
striction in the throat known as the globus Itiix-
icriciis. the patient falls to the ground, sometimes
with a scream, her features twitching, her back
arched, and her legs and arms moving convulsively.
She may snap like a dog at the hands of those who
approach liei , or at Ihm- own, oci'asionally intlictinLi
serious injuries: hut she rarely linrt.s herself in
falling, ius often haj>i)ens in an e|>iieptic tit. The
seizure may hist only a fraction of a mitnite, or as
long as three or four hours.
The treatmiMit of hysteria must be directed both
to the removal or alleviation of the .symptoms and
to the cure of the condition which gives rise to
them. The lli-t object can generally be attained,
the ,secon<l more rarely, riie treatment must be
l)oth moral and phy.sical, and the former is the
more important of the two. In the more severe
ca.ses complete change of scene and surroundings
is recpiired. The ])alient shoMid be placed among
strangers, and away from the sym|)athising friends
whose well-meant "c:oddliiig' and condolence are
ofte.i I lie chief hindrances to recovery. The nurse
must lie kind but lirm : and while the morbid
tendencies of the patient are repressed, she must
not be laugherl at but understood, and encouraged
to make es.says in self-control. .-Xs an alternative
to sending the p.itient away from home, the Weir-
.Mitchell treatment has met with much success.
The patient is kei)t in bed. isolated excejit from
the attendant, I'nA fed with abundance of easily-
digested food, electricity and m!i.s.sage being applied
daily.
Particular .symptoms must lie treated on general
principles. Forced feeding by means of a stomach-
I tube may be required if the appetite is gone or the
patient refuses food, A mixture of milk, eggs,
meat, and the flour of lentils has been used for
this purpose with success. Of late liypiiotism has
Viecn much em|iloyed in France for the treatment
. of hysterical all'ections ; but this is a methoil which
I should be used with caution, for it sometimes
aggravates the condition winch it is intended to
cure.
For prevention of the 'fits' the most useful
drugs are valerianate of zinc, iron, morphia, and
turpentine. Slight attacks may be warded ofl' by
an antispasmodic like ether, or liy inhaling nitrite
of amyl. To cut short an attack after it has
begun a copious douche of cold water to the head
is an old and approved plan. X still more etlectual
proceeding is to close the mouth and nose with a
towel for fifteen or twenty seconds. A little cold
I water poured into the mouth often acts at once.
I When everything else fails, ,'.;th to y',;th of a grain
I of apominphine, injected under the skin, will end
the fit ((iowers).
; People with a tendency to hysteria should be
i encouraged to sulistitute some rational and regular
work for the aimless life of alternate excitement
and lassitude which so many of the women of the
u)iper and middle classes lead.
Hy-strix. Scc PuRCfi'iNE,
Hythe. a parliamentary aiul municipal borough
and market-town of Kent, 5 miles WSW. of Folke-
I stone, 15 miles S. of Canterbury, and G7 SE. by
E, of London by rail, is one of the Cinque Ports
I (q,v.), although in actual locality Lynipne or
I Lymni (the ancient Forttia Lcmanis of the
I Romans), now some three miles inland, was prob-
ably the original harbour. The town, which is
pleasantly situated some distance from the sea,
is built on the side of a hill, from the top of
which an extensive view over the Komuey marsh
is ohtaineil. Its church, a cruciform building of
great beauty, in part Romane.-que, has been
restored since 1866, and contains in a crypt under-
neatli the chancel an extraoidinarv collection of
liiimau skulls and bones — many of the skulls
I having deep cuts in them — the age and origin of
which are altogether uncertain. Near to Hythe
are the heailquarters of the School of Musketry
and Sliornclitie camp, both estalilishcd in 1854 :
the |iicturesi|ue ruins of SaltwoiKl Castle, with
memories of Becket ; and the Uoyal Military Canal,
2:? miles in length, constructed in 1S0."> for the con
veyance of military stores to Kye, but never of
much use, and now entirely superseded by the
railway. In 18S1 a sea-wall and parade, extending
from Hythe to Sandgate (q.v.) and Folkestmie
(q.v.), waso|iened. These and some smaller places
are included in the jiarliamentary borough of
I Hythe, which since IMS-2 has returned only one
member. Pop. of that borough (l.S.'il) l.S,164 ;
( 1891 ) .35,547, of whom i'.'Al were within the miini-
[ ci|ial limits, which include West llylhe, -In I'JUo
the French made a descent on Hythe, but were
decisively repulsed, and later on, towards the
end of the reign of Michard II., tin' town was
visited with a threefold calamity, a lire having
destroyed 'JIKI bouses, a pestilence carried oil' numei-
ous inhabitants, and an unusually heavy storm
caused a severe loss of men and ships. Several
charters are i>re.served at Hythe, amongst them its
earliest charter of incorporathm granted in 1575.
, See Montagu Burrows Cinijite Potts (18SS).
till' ninth letter in the aljihabets
(if western Ennipe, was called
iota by the Greeks, from its
Semitic name ijod. Hence,
(iwinj; to the character being
llie smallest in the Hebrew
ali)haliet, we get the word jot,
' a tittle ' ( St Matt. v. 18 ), and
jottiiiffs, or 'small notes.' The
name '/'"/ meant a hand, the form of the character
in the Egyiitian Hieratic, from which the Phoeni-
cian alphabet was derived, IxNiring some resem-
blance to a hand, with tlie thumb held .apart from
the lingers (see ALPHABET). In early (Jreek
inscriptfons the form of the letter was angular,
something like our Z ; it then came to resemble S,
and this, about the 7th century !!.(_•., was straight-
ened out into a vertical stroke. It has since varied
less in form than any other letter. The clot in our
minuscule / lirst came into use in the 11th century
.\. u. It was originally an ai-cent, /, and was only
employed to distinguish // from », or to mark the
im tlie combinations iii and in. In the l'2th cen-
tnrv the accent l)egan also to be used when / was
in ju.xtaposition with m or n. It oidy became
universal after the invention of jirinting, when it
was found inconvenient to use two forms of tyjie.
In the 14th century a dot began to be substitnteil
for the accei\t, the oMest MS. in which the dot is
found dating from 1327. These <listinctioiis may
seem trivial, "but are very useful in determining the
dates of medieval MSS.
In Italian, and in most Eurojiean languages, the
sound of the letter is that of the Latin long /, the
naiiHvsotinil of our c, which we have in the Knglish
words iiiiiiliiiir and iiuiriiir. The long 7 in Latin
was alw.-iys thus iironounceil, and never like / in
//»<■. The name-sound of our /, which is really a
diphthong, is only heard in words where it is sup-
ported by a subscript r, as in liitc, pi/"\ niiiic, or
where it is followed by an old guttural, as in hi(//i.
iiiiiflit, litilit. This became the name-sound because
the pronoun I (.-\.S. /c, Cer. irh) was originally
followed bv a guttural which has now fallen out.
The normiil sound of / in English is that heard in
bit. dill, sit, which is the short Latin i. This souml
is representeil by ;// in ri/inhnl, by (( in Ijii.si/, h\ <; in
wnnieii, by ci mfijrfcif, by /<■ in sicn\ by iii^ in miilt,
by ee in tircerlieii, and by id in atn-ititje. See 0.
laso. See .J.VMKS, and S.\XTl.\(;o.
Iambic Verse, a term applied, in classic
pr(i>i)ily, and somc'times in English, to verses con-
sisting of the foot or metre called lauihiix, consist-
ing of two syllabhw, of which the first is short, and
the second long ( _ -). .Vrchilochus ((|.v.) is t;he
reputed inventor of iambic verse. 'I'hc English
language runs more easily and naturally in this
metre than in any other. ' Thus, cmr usual blank-
verse line cinisists of live iamlmses, while we have
also sucli combinations of continuous rhyming
metres in iambic measure as tetrasyllables : lines of
six syllaides and three accents (Skeltonical verse-) :
octosyllabics, as in most of the old iciniain'cs. Iliiili-
bnta, Lalla lluuLli, and most of Scott's and liyron's
romantic poems, e.xcept Lara and the Coi'sair ;
decasyll.abies, with live accents, which when rhyming
in couplets forms our so-called heroic metre ; and
Alexandrines, or twelve-syllable metre with six
accents, as in Drayton's J'oli/o/bitDi. See Mktkk.
laillbliellllS. a Neoidatonist philoso]dier, a
native of Chalcis, in ('(cle-Syria, who died about
330 .\.I). He was a pupil of I'orphyry, and follower
of I'lotinus; but in his hands the Neoplatonist
philosophy degenerated into theurgy and demon-
ology, while among liis disciples his reputation
spveiid as a conjuror and miracle- worker. His writ-
ings included a life of Pythagoras, and treatises on
mathem.atics and jiliilosopliy : the authenticity of
the treatise on Egyptian mysteries (ed. Parlhey,
lS.'i7) is more than dubious. ' See Neoplatonism.
lailtlli'lia. a genus of gregarious, pelagic
gasteropods, in the same division as the river
snail (Paludina). Troclius, Turbo, \-c. The shell
is snail-like, but delicate, translucent, and blue in
C(dour. In the warmer seas the anim.al tloMts by
expanding its 'foot' on the surface, ami is il rifted
about l)v currents, occasicmally on to British shores.
Common ' Violet Snail' {lantliina fmiiilis) :
tShcll, .'iiiiiiial, and raft.
It is most remarkable for an airy laft which it
secretes, and eventually sets adrift, laden with eg"-
cai)sules, like tiiose of the whelk. The aninuils
exmle a violet secretion, and seem to feed on
Velella and other C'u-lenterates of the Portuguese
manof-war type.
lapyiiia. SeeApii.iA.
Ibarra, capital of Imbabura province, Ecuadcu',
has a pop. of ab.mt 10,0(10.
Ibca. or l.li.E.A. Sei! Z.VXZIIiAl!.
Iberia, the name by whicli Georgia (i|. v.) was
known to the (ireeks and Uonians ; and also an
aniient name for Spain. Tlieiiueslion of ;in Iberian
race is discussed at liASiJt-KS, N'.il. I. ]i. 7KI.
Iberis. Sec t'ANDVTri-r.
Ibex, a nanu! given to several species of the
genus ('apra, of which the best known is the .\lpine
Tbex (Ger. Slciiiburl.-, Kr. JJoiiijnctin ). '"'' ■
The
species are
described at (JoAT.
Ibis, agi^ims of birds related to the SiioonbilK,
and. more remotely, to the Storks and Herons. Il
comprises alioul twenty-live species, of which the
hulk belong to the Old World, tliough th(; genus
is nearly cosmopolitiin. The bill is long, slender,
curvi'il, thick at the base, the point rather obtuse,
the upper mandible deeply grooved throughimt its
length. The face, and generally the greater part
IBIS
IBSEN
57
of the head, and soiiietinies even the neck, are
destitute of feathers, at least in adult liinl>. The
iihiinatre is mainly white, with Mack priniaiy
feathers and plumes on the wings. The neck is long.
The legs are rather long, naked ahove the tai'sal
joint, with three partially united toes in front, and
one behind ; the wings are moderately long; the
tail is very short. The Sacred Ihis, or Kgyptian
Miis (/. irtltiiijiirtt : fornu-rly known as /. icli(jiosit),
is an African hird. 2 feet 6 inches in length,
although the body is little larger than that of a
common fowl. The (ilos.sy Ihis ( /. or I'tcijadi.-i
fahinclhis) is a .smaller species, also African, hut
migrating northwards into continental Kurojie, and
occasionally seen in Uritain. It is also a North
^
_^
^*i
^^^^^
^^T%
;_fe.
""^ €
^
»i
>
^
'm
/'^
i^^H
r
^'
mh^Sm
i^
mmitr
^^^^B^~-
-~^- -^^fc -
- "^§
^^^I^^H
' WN^^"^ "~^
'^'P'M
i%*^'
I *'^^~ ~
y^^'
^J^a^
L
Tlie S.icred Ibis (/(/w athiopira).
American bird. Its habits resenilile those of the
.sacred ibis. Its colour is black, varied with reddish-
brown, and exhibiting tine purple and green reflec-
tions. It has no loo.se pendent feathers. The
White Ibis (/. or Emloiinins rttija), a species with
pure white plumage, abounds on the eoa-sts of
Florida. The Scarlet Ibis ( /. or Ein/nriiinis ruber)
is a tropical .\nierican species, remarkable for its
brilliant plumage, which is scarlet, with a few
patches of glossy black. The Straw-necked Ibis
(/. or Carjj/iilii.i xpinimllis) is a large .Australian
bird of fine plumage, remarkable for still' nakcil
yellow feather-shafts on the neck .mil throat.
The Sacred ibis, one of the binls worshipped by
the ancient Egyptians, and called by them llnh or
Hib, was suppi>s(>d. from the colour of its fe.athers,
to syndiolise the light and shade of the moon. It
Wiw the avatar of the god Thotli (m- Hermes, who
escaped in th.at shape the jiursuit of Typhon. Its
feathers were supposed to scare, and even kill, the
crocodile. It appeared in Egyjit at the rise and
ilisappeared at tlic iniiMd.itiori of the Nile, .and was
saiil to deliver K^ypt from theuingcd .uid other
serpents which came liom Arabia. .\s it did not
make its nest in Egypt it was believed to lie .self-
engenilering, and to lay eggs for a lunar month.
It wa.s celebrated for its |)urity, and only drank
from the lMiris<t water; besides which, it Wiis fabled
to entertain the most invincible love of Egypt, and
to die tif self starvation if trans|iorted elsewhere.
Its lle^li w;is thought to be iiicorruptibli- after
ile.ath. and to kill it was punishable with ileath.
Ibises were kept in the temples, and uiimi>li'sled in
the neighbourhood of cities. .\fter ileath they
were mniiimie<l. ami there is no aiumal of which so
many remains have been found at riiebcs. .Memphis,
and some other places. Tliey were prepared as
other mummies, and wraiiped u|i in linen b:inilages,
which are sometiiiie.s plaited in patterns exter-
nally. See Wilkinson, Maniirrs and Customs:
.ind Itenoufs Hibbcrt Lectures (1880).
Ibli.s. See Pkmonology.
Ibll Katllta. -Vrab traveller and geographer,
whose proper name was Abu .\bdullali Moliai 'd.
Wits born at Tangiers in 1.S04, .-ind s]ieiit thirty
years ( l.'j'i.'i-.M) of his life in travel. Settling at
Ee/, in Morocco, in l.?,'J4, he wrote the history of
his journeys, and died there in 1878. The course
of his travels led him lirst to Mecca, then to Persia,
Mesopotamia, Arabia, the east coast of Africa,
.-\sia Nlinor, the t';i.spian regions, Kliwiirizm, liok-
liara, Afghanistan, and India ; thence he ]n-oceeded
to China by way of Sumatra, and finally came
home to Fez in i.S49. liut his journeys were )u>t
yet done. He visited southern Sjiain. and then
travelled as far a.s Timbuktu on the Niger. His
narrative is extremely interesting, humour and
anecdote alternating with grajdiic description, and
through it all runs the golden thread of the writer's
naive perscmality. It was published with a French
translation, in 4 vols., by I)efrcmeiv and Saugui-
uettiin lS5S-.59(.S<led. 1893). Hee Xatiotin/ 1,'cvieic,
July 1S8S, and Scot. Geo;/. Maij., .September 1888.
Ibll Ciabirol. See AyicEBROx.
Ibll Zoar. See AyExzo.\R.
Ibrabiiii Pasha, viceroy of Egypt (1789-
1848). Sec Ei.VPT, V(d. IV. p". 24L'.
Ibrail. See Br.\il.\.
Ibsi'll. Hi:nri]C, poet and the creator of a new
type of drama, was liorn at Skieu in south Norway,
20th March 1828. In 1842 he was apiirenticed to
a chemist at Grimstad. But he aimed hij;her:
j he studied, and wrote poetry and a drama, Cfiti/iiia.
This, publisheil in 18o0, was a failnre. In the
I same year he became a student at Chiistiania
I'niveisity. but soon grew tired of acadendc study.
.\fter nearly two years of journalistic work he was
appointed director of Ole Bull's theatre at Bergen.
For it he w rote live romantic dramas, lint only two
— Laehf Iiir/er iit (Istri'it and 'Hie Banquet at StJlliuug
— have been published. In 1857 he undertook
similar duties for the National The.atre in Chris-
tiania. His ne.xt dramas were The Warriors in
Hc/t/c/and (ISoS), T/,e liiral Kintjs (1864). and
Lore's Coinedi/ (1862). The lirst two admirably
reproiluce the style and spirit of the old sagas, and
placed Ibsen in the first rank of Scandinavian
<lramjitists. The last is .a precursor of his satirical
social dramas; it set all the Philistine world of
Norway against him. Then in KS62 the National
Theatre became liankru]it : ;uid, moreover. lb>en
w:is bitterly ilisa|ipoiiiteil when Norway held aloof
from the Danes in their straggle against the German
powers. .So, thoroughly disgusted with his country-
men and his country, he said good-bye to Norway
in 1864 and lived cliielly in Uonie, Diesden. and
Munich till 1892, when he returned to Chrisliaida.
The Norwegian p.avliament granted him- reluctantly
— a pension in 1866. In that and the follow irig year
appeared the lyric dramas Brand and I'err Gi/nt. in
many respects the finest things he has ihuie : the
poetic workmanshi^i is of a very high cnder. Braiul
IS an incarnathni ot the absolute sen.se of duty, but
his ideal striving and .self-sacrifice end in disaster
because he is ignorant of the jiropcr function of
love. PeertJyiit is the complete mirror of actual
man ; in his case scllishness and romantic fancy
are the rocks upon w hieh ideal striving comes to
nought. By intentimi peculiarly representative of
Nmwegi.in ihar.icter. liolh dranuis have also a
universal validity. In 187.'! Ibsen ])ublished the
ilouble drama Emiirrur and Halilean (.luliau .atnl
Christ; Eng. trans. 1876), in which he f.iretells
the 'third kingdom' that is to transcend both
cla8.sic ami Christian culture. But alreiuly in 1869
58
IBYCUS
ICE
lie had finislicil The Yoiiitij Ulcnx Letifiiic. another
of thcj >;ilirio:il social dramas which have made
his nanu' famous. This has Ihtu followed liy
Pillars of Society (\>i"), A Doll's //»««■( IST'J ),
Ghosts (1881), An Enemy of the I'eople (1SS2), Tlie
Wild Due/: ( 1884), liosmnsholm ( 18Sti), The Lady
from the .S'ert ( 1888), The Master Builder {ISS2),
&e. The Dii/tr ('2d ed. 1875) are lyrics and epics.
These plays aroused a storm of controversy in
Enj^laiid in 1889, as they hail done shortly before
in IJerniauy and in the Scandinavian countries.
Ibsen is a passionate ailvoeate of individual liberty.
He maiutain.s that man's lirst and chiefest duty
is to be wholly man, consistent with himself in all
things. An idealist of the hij,diest type in the
beliefs he entertains as to the future possibilities
of mankinil, he is a sceptic in his estimation of
existinj; men, ami especially of existing institu-
tions, .social and political. His mission, like
Socrates' of old. Is to awaken men to a real com-
prehension of themselves. Thus he is an uncom-
promising liioral reformer. He is inspired by a
stern Semitic earnestness, and drives ri^iit throu^'h
all obstacles to get grasp of truth unmistakiible.
The interest and methoil of his plays an- almost
exclusively psychological. He makes the conse-
quential development of character the supreme
law of <lramatic evolution. His plays represent
the conclusion from the psychological premises of
some problem in character or social circumstance.
Each play begins where an ordinary play would
be just on the jxiint of ending: the situation is
completely formed before the cui tain rises. By his
analytic method Ibsen is i^n.ihled to paint richly-
detailed pictures of inner soul-life without resort-
ing to long monologues or exi)lanatory speeches.
His language is concisi' and vigorous, an(l full of
vivid realLsm. He gels some of his ell'ects by the
use of incisive sarcasm and tragi<' irony and fear-
less outsi)cdcen realism. His characters are real
persons : each in thought, language, and behaviour
presents a consistent individuality throughout.
There is at times too much niysticisu] and symbol-
ism, and a tendency to exaggerate contradictions of
character and overl)nrden the action with motives.
Hcnrik [hurn (1898), in comnicmunitiun of h's70th birth-
day, is a collection of opinions, criticisms, and of reniiins-
cences by ^Scandinavian a«thor.-<, edited by Gerhard ( Ji-an.
See biographies by Va.senius (.Swedish, 1883), Passarge
(German, 1SK3), Jieger (Norwegian. 1S8S ; Eng. trans.
18941, and in G. Brandes' works (Danish. 1883). In
English, Mr Gosise's articles (in /'ortiiiV/ZiWi/. 1,SS9, ic. );
Wick.^teod's Four Leetnrcs oti Ihsrn (18.02); G. Berii;ird
Shaw, The QniiilcKscncr of Ihsciiism (ISiB); H. H.
Boye>'-n, A ('oitimentart/ on the Worka of Ihsin (1894);
and .Vrcher's transl.-it.inn of the prose works (1890).
Brand ha.s been translated both in jirose and verse.
Ib'ycus. lireek lyric poet, a native of Khegiuni,
in Italy, llonrisheil al)ont .")4() n.c. and lived some
time at the court of I'olycrates, tyrant of Samos.
Acc(H'ding to the legeml he w;ts slain by r(d>bcrs
near Corinth, and dying called upon a Hock of
cranes that he saw Hying overhead to avenge him.
The cranes went and hovered over the theatre at
Corinth, where Ihi; people wc^re assembleil. One
of the murderers, seeing them, exclaimed involnn-
tarily, ' IJehold ilii^ aveugers of Ibycus.' This led
to an iniiuiry, anil to the con\icllon of the guilty.
The story is best told in Schiller's beautiful ballad.
Ibycus wrote chielly erotic poi^tiT. The fragments
that survive are printeil in lieigk's I'octw Lyriei
Grwci (vol. iii. ) and in Schneidewin's Delect us
Poesis Grmroniin Eleoinea: ( 18:19).
lea, a department on the coast of Pern, witli an
area of 840() s(|. in. and .a jiop. of over (iO,00(). The
greater part is a sandy desert, bul the river valleys
are fertile, and are planted with corn, fruits, c(dton,
aiiU indigo. In one of these valleys lies the capital.
lea, 50 miles SE. of Pisco, its port, with which it
is connected by railway. Pop. 7000.
I'rnrii.s. See D.r.nAi.us.
\^•^•■ is water in the s(did form. It is specifically
lighter than water which is just about to freeze,
and therefore swims in it. Water, in becoming
solid, expands about ,',th in v(vlume or bulk, and
thus acquires a density eipial to (l!Ht!74 ( water at
0° ('. = rttO). The formation of ice takes place
generally at the suiface ol water. This is owing to
the peculiarity that, when water has (at the ordi-
nary almosjdieric ])ressure) cooled down to within
3 <r V. of freezing, it ceases to contract a.s it did
before with increase of cold, ami begins to expand
until it freezes (see Hkat) ; this causes the coldest
portions of the water to lie floating always on the
surface. In some circumstances, not ver^' well
explained, ice forms at the bottom of rivers, and
is called ground-ice or Anchor-ice (q.v.).
Water in orilinary cases freezes at the degree of
temperature marked 0 on the Centigrade and
Reaumur's thermometers and 'A'l on l''ahrenheit's ;
but if it is kept i>erfectly still it may be cooled t<i
nearly - .")■.■) C. below freezing (= 'I'l" F. ) and
still remain liquid. 'I'he least shake, however, or
throwing in of a solid body, makes a portion of it
freeze instantly, and its temperature rises immedi-
ately to 0° C. Sea- water, and salt water in general,
freezes at a lower temperature than pure water ; in
doing this part of the salt separates, and the ice,
when melted, gives water that is fresher than that
on which the ice was formed. I'he colour of pure
ice is deep blue, which is only discernible, however,
when it is in large masses ; it is best seen in the
clefts of a glacier or of an icelierg. In order to
melt a pound of ice it is ncci-.ssary to comiminicate
to it as much heat as will raisin 80'0'2.5 lb. of water
1° C. This measures tin' ' latent heal ' of ice : the
temperature does not rise until the ice has been
melted.
In the neighbourhood of the poles, and on moun-
tains of a certain height in all latitudes, there exist
immense m.osses of permanent ice : ami even in
some districts of Siberia, where a kind of culture is
|iracticable in summer, th<'re are found, at a certain
depth below the surface of the earth, strata of ice
mingled with sand. In sinking a well at Yakutsk,
the soil was found permanently frozen hard to the
depth of 382 feet, and consisting in somv parts
entirely of ice. In the hiwi i regions of the torrid
zone there is
no ice, and in
the temperate
zones it is a
passing pheno-
menon. From
the polar ice
fields and
glaciers which
ail' always )iro-
trnding them-
selves into the
sea, great float-
ing masses he-
come det«ched
and form (<•'■-
lien/s, floes,
and drift-ice
(see t!l,.\CIKI!).
These bergs or
mountains of
ice rise some-
times more than 250 feet above the sea-le\el. Thev
present the appi'arance of dazzling white chalk clifV-
of the mo.'-l iiiiitastic shapes. Kresh fractures have
a green or hluecoloni. From the specific gravity,
it is calculated that the volume of an ice-
An Iceberg,
shr>wlng tlie proportion un<irr water.
ICE
59
lierp below the water is aliont nine times that of
the iirotrudin.L; jiait. Icelieij;-^, .-uiil lines or iee-
lielils. are iilleii huleii "iUi pieees <it loek ami
masses of stones and detritus, whieh they have
brought witli them from the coiusts where tliey
were formed, and wliich they often transiuirl to a
great dist.anee towards the e(|nator. 'I'he-e lh)at-
ing masses of ire are dangerous to uavigation. Tlie
icc-J'iiit is the liell or fringe of ire along the .shores
in arctii- regions.
The hardness and strength of iee inereases with
the degree of eold. In the .severe winter of 1740 a
house was liuilt of the ice of the Neva at St Peters-
burg, .')() feet long, 16 wide, and 'iO high, and the
walls sujiported the roof, whieh was also of ire,
without the least injury. Before it stood twiiiee
mortars and six iee-eannon, made on the turning-
lathe, with earriages and wheels also of iee. The
cannon were of the calibre of (i-ponnders : thethi(lc-
nes.s of the ice wivs only four inches, and yet it
resisted the e.vplosion.
Faraday lirst called attention to a remarkable
property of ice. since called Itegelation. Two slab>
of ice, with tlat surfaces, placed in contact, unite
into one mass even though the temperature of the
surrounding air be considerably nbore the freezing-
point. Faraday endeavoured to account for this liy
assuming that a small quantity of water, surrounded
on every side by ice, has a natural tendency to
become ice: and the fact that two blocks of ice
placed in contact do not unite unless they are moist
seemed to beai- oiu this idea. l!ut J. Thomson
gave a totally dillerent e.xplanation of this pheno-
inenon. He showed that tlie capillary force in the
film of vvat«r between the plates is sufficient to
account for a very considerable pressure between
them ; so that from his point of view the pheno-
menon would be identical with the making of .snow-
balls by pressure, or with the formation, by a
hydraulic press, of clear blocks from a mass of
pounded ice, an observed fact, the explanation of
which is to be found in the property of ice mentioned
below. Faraday, taking up the question again,
showed that the (so-called) regelation takes place
in voter a.s readily ;us in air, a fact quite incoii-
sLstent witli the action of capillary forces. To this
J. Thomson re))lied, showing, very ingeniously, that
the capillary forces he at lirst assumed are not
neces.sary to a complete explanation of the observed
phenomena. See Proceed iiiys of the Royal Society,
lSOO-61.
Othei' X lews of the question are numerous : for
instance, that of I'er.soz, ado|ited by Forbes, in
which ic(! was ccmsidered a-s essentially colder than
water, and as passing through a sort of viscous
state before liquefying, as metals do during the
firocess of melting. This idea, however, has not of
ate found much sujiport ; and it is possible that
the true solution of the question is, as ■). Thoms<m
pointed out, to be founil in the analogy of the
crystallisation of s.-ills from their a(|ueous solutions.
However that may be, there is no doulil .'ibout
the following property of ice, theoretiially predicteil
by J. Thomson from the experimental fact of its
expanding in the act of freezing, and demonstrated
by means of the Piezometer by Sir \V. Thomson —
VIZ. that the freezing-point of water, or the melting-
point of ice, is Inirrrril liy prrsxurc to the extent of
00074' O. for every atmosphere of pressure : and
the brothers have, with singular ingenuity, aiii)lied
tlii.s to the explanation of the motion of glaciers.
That .a mass or glacier ice moves in its channel like
a viscous fluid wa.s lirst com|iIetely established by
Forbe.v Thomson's explanation of this motion is
of the following,' nature ; In the immense mass of
the glacier (even if it were homogeneous, much
more so when full of cracks and lissiirc's, as it always
is) there are portious subjected to a much greater
I
stress than others. The pressure to which they
are subjected is such as corres)ionds to a melting-
I point considerably bctuir the temiierature of the
mass — and therefore, at such points, if the ice be
j not altogether too cold it melts, the stress is
I relieved, and the whide njass is free for an instant
to move nearly as a fluid would move in its place.
But. the stresses being thus for an instant removed,
the tem))erature and pressure of the water are
again consistent with freezing — iIk' thin layer of
water quickly .solidities, and then matters proceed
as before. Thus, at ever\' instant, the stresses at
dillerent parts of the mass melt it at those places
w hi're they are greatest, and so produce the ('xtra-
urdinary phenomenon of a mass which might in
common language be teniied soliil, and even rigid,
slowly cree)>iiig down its rocky l)ed like a stream of
tar or treacle. This explanation would not meet
the ease of extremely cold ice ; and it api>ears that
even extremely cold ice can be made to How slowly;
whence ice must have some true viscosity.
Iic-frac/c (Did Miiiiiifuctnrc. — The trade in ice is
now one of great and increasing imjiortanee. Ice
has always been esteemed as a luxury in warm
weather: ami this early led to the storing of it in
winter and ]ireserving it for summer u.se. The
(ireeks, and afterwards the Homans, at lirst pre-
served suc.w, closely packed in deep underground
cellars. Nero, at a later period, established ice-
houses in Koine, .similar to those in use in most
European countries up to the present time. But
these means were not enough to supply the luxuri-
ous Romans with ice for cooling lie\erages, and
they actually established a traile in .snow, which
was brought to Home from the summits of distant
mountains. The trade in ice in Great Britain was,
until a recent period, a very limited one, having
been chiefly conllned to the supjily required by a
few of the lirst-class fishmongers and confcctiimers
— the jirivate residences of the more opulent families
being furnished with ice-houses (generally .solid
built cellars, wholly or jiartially underground), in
which a sufficiency is kept for private use. But
ice has come to be more and more largely used
in preserving ]>rovisions, both in refrigerating
chandjers and otherwise. It is als() used by
brewers. In surgical operati(jns ice is used to
jirodnce ]iartial ana-stbesia ; it serves in fevers to
cool the mouth and reduce the internal tempera-
ture, while ice in bags, applied to the spine, is
found helpful in many cases of sea sickness, and
ill other aiiplications. Much ice is required in
America, during the hot weather, for jireserving
dead bodies between deatli and burial.
Ice was imported into England from Norway on
a considerable scale as early as l,S2.'i; but it was
left to the Americans to originate a trade in this
article in their own cities, which has extended to
Europe and Asia, and in an incredildy short space
of time attained a surjirising magnitude. The
ex]iort of ice from America was commenced about
lISO."), by a merchant n-'/.ned Tudor, who sent ice
from Boston to the West Indies. After persever-
ing against many losses he siicceede<l in establish-
ing a trade with Caliiitta, Madras, and Bombay ;
and now not only is it sent in vast i|iiantities to
those places, but also to Hong-kong, W'hampoa,
anil Batavia. .\bont the year 1S4I) the \Venha7n
Lake Ice ('om|iany commenceil semliii;; icetoCreat
liritain from Boston. The sui>idy of ice for (ireat
Britain, however, now comes almost wholly from
Norw.iy (mainly from Drobak, near Christiania,
where a lake was christened ' Wenham I.,;ike,' after
the Boston one; in 1888, '28.3,<)0."> tons (value
£17H,4H'2) were imported thence, and only 14.') tons
from all other countries. In IS'lli tie' export from
Norway to Biilain had a value of i'2li-,'J'.lS. In severe
winters the Norfolk Bioails supidy a qiianlily.
60
ICE AGE
ICELAND
Tliiity ye.ai-s previously America had sent to
(Jreat Britain on an average 20, (KX) tons annually,
costini; f-20,000.
In America the ice harvest is ;,'athereil in on an
enormous scale and with an elaliorate system of
apparatus. The ice is cleared from snow Ijy means
of an implement called the snow-plane. An ice-
p!oui,di, drawn liy horses, and driven liy a man
ridint; upon it, is then made to cut deep parallel
grooves in the ice, and these are again crossed l)y
other grooves at right angles, so that tlie whole
of the surface is deeply marked out into small
squares, measuring a little more than three feet.
A few of these sipiare blocks being detacherl by
hand-saws, the remainder are easily liroken off with
crowbars, and Hoated away to the icestcnehouses,
which are usually built of wood, on tlie bordei-s of
the lake or river. Some of tliese are of vast dimen-
sions, and contain vaults of great depth : the walls
are double, sometimes treble, or even quadruple,
being altogether as much as four feet in thickness,
and having liollow spaces between to render them
less heat-conducting. The blocks of ice are covered
up with sawdust, a biyer lieing placed between each
tier of blocks. ^lanv of these ic('-lio\ises are made
large enough to hold' from 40,000 to 80,000 tons of
ice. The (luantity of ice harvested in the United
States may be guessed from the fact that I'hila-
<lelphia requires an annual supply of 700,000 tons.
New York and the adjoining cities, 1,200,000:
while in some states the average consumption per
liead of the po|>ulation is KiOO 11). yearly. New
York is supplied from tlie Hudson ; Philadelphia
from the Schuylkill, Delaware, and Lehigh, as
well .as from llie Kennebec; lioston from Weidiam
Lake, .."ic. ; and the west from the great lakes.
Throughout the States everywhere, exce|it in the
extreme north, the manuf.acture of .artilicial ice is
now largely carried on— in 1890 by 222 factories
with .'{21).") liauds.
The building of iee-edilices is still a winter
amusement in I'u.ssia : ami, in the New \Vorld,
Montreal set the example of ,an annual ice-carnival,
one of the features of which is the building of a
great ice-palace, and of ice-monuments of various
kinds. Skating (ci. v.) is the subject of a sejiarate
article. Ice-boating is an exhilarating recreivtion,
pursued on frozen lakes and rivers, especially in
Ameiicn. The Canailian ice-boat or ice-yacht is
not so much a boat as a trianguhar fr.amework of
wood, running by means of a sail — with the broad
end foremost— on three skates or runners, 3 feet
long by 8 inches dee)). There is but one large sail,
usually triangular, tautened to a lioom and yard,
which may be over .SO feet in Ic-nglh. Such an ice-
boat may be steered by the riiilder->kate in almost
any direction not in the teeth of the wind, and may
attain an average si)eed of thirty or f<nty miles an
hour, and sometimes as much as sixty-live miles.
Snow seriously reduces the spet>d. For means
devised for artilicial freezing, see FRliliZI.Nt; MlX-
Tf KKS, and HKI'KI(;i;i!.VT()li.S.
!<•«' ,lii«>. See (iL.vfl.M. Pi:i;ion.
l<-«'lM'r!S. i^ei" If'K-
Iceland is an island in tlie North .Atlantic
iiiMiii'diatcly south of the Polar ( 'irde, which just
touches the northernmost point of the island, the
Melrakkasletta. It lies between US 23' and (id
:«' N. lal., anil between l.T 22' and 24' \r>' \V.
long. The nieriilian of Kerro crosses the island in
the middle. The distance fnun Iceland to (Green-
land is about 2.V) miles, to Norway (iOO miles, to
the Kariie Islamls about 2.")0 miles, .and to Scot-
land .IOO nnles. Its suiierlicial area is 40.:«KJ
s(|. m. ( moie than a third Larger Ih.an Scotland):
its length from east to west .'{(M) miles, and
its breadth from north to .south 2(X) miles. The
whole length of the south coast from east to west
is entirely wanting in bays and lirths; ihecipa-t-
line is not, however, straight, but bulges out
largely in the noddle, and the ncuih coast ha^ an
inw.ard corresiionding curve. Other parts of the
coast, especially the north-west ami east coasts,
are very much indented by tirths anil bays, as
may be seen from the fact th.at the circumference
of the island, if measured fnun point to point, is
only i)(K) ndles. luit the coast line following the
indentations would lie aliovc 2000 miles. The
principal liays and linlis of the isl.md aie Kaxalloi,
lireithifjord ( liroad l-'irth ). ami Isafjord ( Ice Kirth ),
on the west coast: the Hun:iHi'ii ( IJe.ar-cub"s Bav ),
Skagafjord (Ness Kirth). Eyafjord ( Islaml Firth),
ami Skj;ilfanilaHoi I Shivering Bay ), on the north
coast. (In the east coast there are m> large lirths,
but m.uiy sm.ill ones: the best known of the.se
is Seythisfjord ( Fry Firth).
Taken .as a wlnde. Icelaml may be said to be a
t.ableland .about 2000 feet high. In some parts it
slopes pretty evenly down to the coast, .as is the
case on the south side between Eyafjallajiikull and
Beykjanes. Here is the largest extent of lowland,
.aliout 1400 sq. m. Tlie next largest jiiece of low-
land is the Boigarfjord, which extends to the
Snaefellsjokull r.ange of hills, and is about 4tM)
s(|. m. The firths in the north-west, in the
north, and in the east, may be looked upon as so
many cuttings in the tabieland effected by vol-
canic and glacial .action during former geological
periods of tlie island. In most cases these cuttings
are comparatively n.ai row, and hills rise to about 2000
feet .aliruptly from the water, eliding in steep pre-
<'iliiees, which alVoid breeding- places to an immense
number of sea-fowl. This is especially the case in
the north-west and the east. In tin- nortli. and in
some parts of the e.ast, there :iie several broail
valleys running from the lirths into the interior.
Iceland is througlioul volcanic. aii<l, according to
geologists, it owes its existence entiiely to vol-
canic action. The interior and highest part of
the island consists of volcanic tufa : the hills
of the east and west consist for the most part
of basalt. The whole of the interior is occupied
by barren sands, lava tracts, ami icetiehls. The
largest of tliese lava tracts is Oibitliahniun. about
1200 s(|. 111. The largest icelield is tli:il of \'atna-
jid<ull, about :iOIH) sq. m., and ;ill the icefields
together cover 5.S60 sq. m. At the south-east
corner of \'atnajoknll is the highest nnmntain
in Iceland, called Or.aefajokull : it is t)42li feet
above the level of the sea, and its upiier part is
covered with everlasting snow or ice : imil so are
more or less all mountains abo\e 4000 feet, as the
snow-line is usually at fnun :iO(M» to 4000 feet,
riiere are twenty volcanoes which have lieen .active
at one time or another since the island was in-
habited. Tiie most famous of these is Hecla (q.v.),
liecause its eruptions have been most freipient.
There are. however, other voli'anoes, such as Laki.
near Skapt:'i. which have been ibe M>ats of more
gigantii' eruptions. This volcano threw out in 1783
a lava stream about 4."i miles in length and nearly
1.") miles in breailth. Such an out|iour from one
vidcauo at one time is unexamided anywhere else.
The south-west |peninsula. Ueykjanes, has fre-
i|Uently been dislurlied by volcanic outbur-ls. which
have not been conliiied lo llie laiul. but islands in
the sea round it have bei'U thrown lip or sub-
merged .alternately by submarine volcanic action.
.\s a result of this vcdcanic activity. 2400 sip m. of
Iceland are covereil with lava. Many of the ice-
bills have been active volcanoes ilnring the hist (>(K)
years, sindi as ("traefajoknll and Kyafjallajokiill.
These ice-volcanoes never throw out any lava, but
muil ami Jishes. The numerous hot springs scat-
tered about the island are also coniiectcil with the
ICELAND
61
voliimii' liie> : tliese are in many jiaits iiia<l<> iis(>
cil liy the inliahitaiit^s lor i'iii>l<iiiji' ami wasliinj;
imr|iosL's. TIkmv i> ^'leat ilill'fieiu'o in llii' heat
of tliese s|iriin,'s : some are just warm eiiou^'li for
lialliiiijr. oiliei>* convert their water into steam at a
ilejrree far alnive the boiling' point. The most
fanionsof these hot siiriiij;s is tievser (q.v.). Earth
ipiaUes sometimes ilo a ;-;i**al lii'al of tlamage in
\arion> parts of the islainl, as in liSyii.
Many consiileraMe rivers run from the interior
either north or south, hut none of them are navi-
j;al>le, lieoause of their rapiilitx. The longest are
rhjoi-s;i ( IJiill l!iver)in tliesoutli. Joknlsaa Fjollum
anil Skjiilfanilall jiit in the north, eaeli bein^ above
IIKI miles in liMiulli. Of the numerous lakes.
Thin,L;vall.ivatn in tlie south aiul Myvatii in the
north are the larjrest. Of the many ]iretty water-
falls may lie mentioned (Inlllnss in Hvit:i, liotha-
foss in Skjalfamlatljiit. and Kettifoss in Joknlsji.
Iceland is not rich in minerals, at loii.st not in
paying' ijuantities. There are many sulphur-mines,
and .some of them have been woi ked till lately with
English capital, but not with proht. Surtarlirandur
(liiinite) and brown coal are found in many places,
a-s well a-s iron and lime, but it is very doubtful
if it would jiay to work them.
The climate of the south of Iceland is .somewhat
like that of the north of Scotland — i.e. rather wet
and chan;.'ealile, but colder, in the ncnth of the
inland the climate is drier and colder still. Thunder-
storms are rather rare, and usually occur in winter.
The winter is mild considering; the latitude, but
sjiring and sununer are frei|uently cold. The mean
temperature of the yeai-s lSS-t-89 in the north was
about :i5 F. The greatest peculiarity of the
Iceland climate is the varying; mean temperature of
the same month, the ditierence .sometimes beinj,'
27. This is owing to the arrival or non-arrival ol
the (Ireenland ice, which not unfrei|uently liloek>
up the north and east coasts of the island from April
to Septendier.
The only cereal found in Iceland is the so-called
mehir \Ehimiis iireniiriii.i), a kind of wild oats.
Turnips, carrots, cabbages, ami pot.atoes thrive
very well, and are now cultivated to some extent.
The gnusses, both wild and cultivated, however,
are tlie principal product of the island. Of trees
there is the birch {Jicliila iiilcniieiiia), seldom ex-
ceeding 12 feet in height, and some willows and
juniper bushes ; amongst the heather are found
crowberries and whortlelierrics.
The only wild animals are the fox and the rein-
deer : there are both while and blue foxes. Rein-
deer were introduced in 1770, and there are still
a few herds of them running wild on the hills in
the interior : they are of very little use to the
inliabitant.-<. Of ilonie.stic aninuils the sheep is
the most important ; it is usually horned, smne-
tinies even with three and four horns, and ha.s
some general resemblance to the lilackfaced sheep
of Scotland. The lambs are weaned about the end
of June, and the ewes are nnlked. Large mimbers
of them are now exported alive to Scotland and
England. The cows are of a small breed, but '
yield a larger quantity of milk in proportion to
their size than most other cows. Tlie ponies are
generally about 12 hands, but very strong and
sure-footed. Thousand.- are brought to Scotland
every year. The genuine Icel.ind dog li.us some
resemblance to the Eskimo dog and the Scotch
collie. According to the latest statistics there
are about 20,fXH} cattle, .'500,(HK) sheep, and .SO.OOt)
ponies in the ishand. Of birds there are innnense
nuniliers, especially of water fowl, the most import-
ant of which is the Eider-duck (i|.v. ); it yields
large (juantitiis of eider-ilown, and is ,'ilmost a
domesticated bird in many parts of the island.
The ptarmigan is the only game-bird. The most
remarkable bird of prey is the Icelandic falcon,
formerly so much esleemed for falconry. I )f other
birds, tlie whooper or wild swan may be mentioned;
it breeds largely in Iceland. The sea arouml the
coa,sts is very rich in lish, especially cod and her-
ring ; the cod-lisheries have been carried on a long
time by the islanders, and now also by the French,
who em|iloy annu.illy lietween 200 and SOO vessels
in this lisliing. Little attenlion was jiaid to the
herring-lishing till about 1)S,S0, when it was largely
developed by the .Norwegians, and now also by the
Icelamlers themselves. I'^iubacked whales, of late
.successfully lished by the Norwegians, and seals
are also numerous. Niany of the salmon and trout
rivers are now rented by Englishmen. ' There are
no snakes to be met with throughout the whole
island ' — to cite the whole of the memorable
seventy-second chapter repeated by I)r Johnson
friun Horrebow's XriftiiKl llistfiry of Iceland
(Copenhagen, 17.">0: Eng. trans. 1758).
Iceland was discovered about the beginning of
the 9th century by Irishmen or Scotsmen, but they
did not make any ]iernianent settlement. About
seventy years later it was rediscovered .and colon-
ised by Norwegians, who preferred to leave their
native land rather than submit to the rule of
Harold Haarfager. Many of them had previously
settled in the (Jrkneys, Hebrides, and Ireland; and
when the\- were not safe there from the attacks of
Harold, they went to Iceland, and a considerable
number of Irishmen and Scotsmen went with them.
Ingolf was the tirst settler. In about sixty yeare
the whole i>land was inhiibited. and an aristocratic
republic was formed, the central jioint of which was
the Althing which met every year at Thingvellir.
In 12li2-04 the Icelanders acknowledged the sove-
reignty of the king of Norway ; and in 1388, when
Norway was united with Denmark, Iceland shared
the same fate. When, however, Denmark had to
give up Norway in 1814, Iceland remained with
Denmark, because, it is said, the negotiators of the
peace of Vienna in 1814 did m)t know that there
was such an islaml as Iceland in existence. The
Althing continued under the Norwegian and Danish
rule with very limited powers till 1800, when it was
aliolisbed. In 1874 the king iif Denmark gave the
island a new constitution, according to which the
Althing, which had been reorganised in 1843, ob-
tained legislative ]jowers in all matters cimcerning
Iceland. The king apjioints a governor (Landshiif-
thingi), who, with a small council, carries on the
government i till 18'.)3 under a secretary for Iceland
in Copenhagen) In the year 1000 Christianity was
introduced in Iceland, and a century later two
bishojis' .sees, one at Skalholt, the othei- at Hi'ilar,
were establisheil. About the noddle of tlie Kith
century the lieformation was introduced in Iceland,
and since then all the Icelanders have remained
Lutherans. Church ni.atters are now superintended
by one bishop at Ueykjavik.
The most notable events in the history of Ice-
land fnuii its union with Norway are a long series
of altlictions and calamities, caused by volcanic
outbui'sts, severe sea.sons, e|)idemics (such as the
black death in 1402, the great plague in 1494.
the ravages of the smalljiox ). and in some cases
bv misgoverinnenl. The population of Iceland in
ISOI was 4ti,240; in 1,^80, ,2.422 : in ls90, 70,927;
in 1895, 73,449, though in 1872-9.'i, 9000 endgrali-d
to America. In the 12th and l.'itli cenluries
the Icelanders produced nnMe vernacular literature
than any other nation in Europe, and from that
time love of information has been a distinguishing
feature of the lcelander.s. At the present day
elementary education is so gencriil th.al a child
of ten unable to read is i|uile an i-Mcplinn,
and most of them can write also. Thirc are
several schools f<n' children, but for the most part
62
ICELAND
education is impavtea at home. There a,e tA -.
hitrlier scliools for ^'eiR-ral ea.icatiou, and a college
at^Kevkjavik for classical iM.tnu-tum : tliere are
also tWo otl.cr c-oUe-es for nuni>ters and nie.lical j
students. Manv farniere are ac(iuainted with two
foreign languages. Reykjavik on tl.e ^^^l^'^'^
coast" is the capital ot Iceland, w, h ^^1'" '* ^000
inhabitants. There are two other villages, Isafjoid j
in the n.n-th-west and Aknreyn in the north, i^ch
with 500 inhal.itants. For the rest the poynlation ,
is scattered all round the island ,.n_isolat^,l tarins. !
The principal means of support ot the Icelanders ;
are the rearing of live-stock and lishmg. lie
dilf exports ai^ : live sheep, in 1889 about OO 000 =
salt mutton, liOO.OOO lb. annually; woc.l 1,200,000 ,
lb • sheeuskins -iO.OOn ; tallow, 00,000 11). : borses, ,
abo'nt'So : salted c.d, haddock, and ling, U,SOO,0(X)
11, • malted salmon, about 40,000 lb. ; cod-liver ml,
ab..ut ISOO barrels: -hark-liver oil, 4000 barrels :
:ider down, 0400 lb. ; and feathers l^jOOO Ik fhe
annual imports are : <-orn and breadstutts 10,9/ 1,000
th. ; cotfee, 440,0001b. ; chicory 190,000 1b. ■, sugar
1 0'>5 000 lb. : salt, 40,000 barrels ; tobacco, l.J.?,000
lb " spirit- 42,000 gallons : beer, 10,000 gal ons ;
petroleum. .-.5,000 gal Ions ; cal, 4.300 tons : hsliing-
lines and ropes. 55,000 lb. Besides these, timb,.,-.
iron, cotton goods, and other clothing stults arc
imported. The value of the foreign trade in
1S49 only £16S,000, was in 1895 £830,3oO. lliere
are now- import duties on spints and ^vines,
tobacco, cottee, and sugar. The trade with Iceland
was confined to Copenhagen for several centuries,
and so is the largest part of it st. I. Since the year
18.54 the trade has been free to all nations, and no«
it is -oiiic' more and more to Leith and Ntnycast e.
Theonlv native industry consists in working the
wool of the sheep into various articles ot clothing ;
this is chietlv done by the women m winter. I he
Icelanders make a sort of tweed which they ca
vathnuil. and this is the princii>,-il clothing mate, lal
of the inhabitants, but is not exported. «>!""'«t
farms there is an old-fii-shioned loom m which the
vathiuiil is woven.
See Vou Troil, Letter.^ on Man,/ (1772) : Sir George
Mackenzie, T.ajel. in Mand (l'^'"* ; Henderson ^^».-
Iceland- its Volcanms, drj/sers, and irluaen, (IbW),
Sir Richard F. Burton, Ultinm Thnle: a *"»"»/';;»
Iceland 1 1875 1; J. C. Poestion, Idand dtis Land und
SeM««' (Vienna lf5.i= -»/ ^ Batm.gartner, .
Island und die Faroer ( Freib. i. lir. IHSM ).
IrEL\NnicL.\N(:r.\GE .\xd I.ITEUATrUE.-'nie
lan-ua.'e wliiidi is now called Ir.'h,n,lw w'as down
to the mil century spoken all over Scandmavia-
ie in \orwav, Sweden, and Denmark, as well as
in 'the" Faroe Lsles, Shetland the Orkneys the
Hebrides and on the coasts of England, Scotland,
and Ireland. It was a sister langu.age to t he
\n-lo-Saxon and Old l lerman. ]• (Uinerlv its name
^^DiiHsh tu„q.< (the Danish tongue) or ,\<:,rn,n>f,
(the Northern t.mgue). Us similarity to Aug o-
Saxon was so close that the ancient Icelandic
authors asserted that the same langua-e was spoken
in En-land till the arrival ot W ilham he ( on-
.Mieror as in Scandinavia. This is the language
which the Norwegians brought over to Iceland m
the 9th century, and becau.se it is now n..where
spoken but in Icelan.l, it is called I,-el<,H,ln: 1 he
pre.sent Danish and Swedish stan.l in the same
relation to it as Italian ami Spanish stand to l.atin
In Iceland it has undergone so little change that
any Icelandic child who has learned to read .^n
read the saga.s and .songs of the 12th and l.itl
centuries as ea.sily ii-s an Knglish chil.l can rea.l
Shakespeare. There is, however, reason to beli.ve
that the pronunciation lias been somewhat alteieil,
especially that of the vowels and two of the cm-
sonants :" the k an<l the / have in some words been
I
softened into q and 5 ( th ) respectively. The vocab-
ulary, the inllexions, and the gramniatica,I con-
struction have been preserved almost nnaltercl.
The relationship to Anglo-Saxon and hnglis i may
be .seen at a glance, so many w.uds m b„tli lan-
guages being'tpiite the same. We will take as 1
fnstSnces several names of the body, as Iceland c
/„,»,/, 'han.l:'.A".'/»'% ■ finger :' /"'^/ f'."" ,=. /'"^■;
'back.' And if this is the case with hnglish it
is still more so witli Scotch, for generally, where the
Scotch ditVers fnmi the English in pronunciation ot a
word, it is identical w ith that of Icelandn;. In some
cases the consonant has been softoneil in hnglish
where it has remaiiuMl hard in Icelandic ; thus the
letter A in connection with .v is a softened form ot
/.■_e <T. '.shall' is in Icelandic, shd : -shel i.-
«W.° ship' is skip, ami instances of this kind
mitdit be multiplied infinitely. Hie Icelandic is
aii'intlecti<,nal language, having four cases not onl\
for the n.uins but also for each gender ot the
•idiectives, some of the numerals, ami the pronouns.
With re.'ard to the phonetics ,.f the language, it
may be remarked that vowel change (umlaid) ha.s
been carried further tlian in any other of the
Teutonic tongues. The chief charact.uistics which
distin"uisli Icelandic from (Jerman ami Lnglis i aie ,
the ending of the infinitive in a vowel, usually",
the sulKxing of the definite article, and tl.e pa.ssive ]
,u- middle voice of the verb. To every student ot j
Northern hist.uv the i|uestion must occur why tins
.Ancient tongue has been preserved in Iceland, and
not as well in s.une other parts ot the north which
have been <iiiite as isolated as Iceland. ^ « '''^■;''
no hesitation in giving as reason the lact that tbt
Icelanders were the only people who had any litera-
ture in it, and always took great interest in that
literature. This literature has not merely a philo-
lo.dcal interest, but even more historical interest
as" it contains a full account of the men who left
tiieir mark in every corner of Europe, who «ere in .
fact, masters of Europe during the 9th and 10th ,
centuries, and whose language and l.aw. ■ire =!« ">l? ;
moment important elements of the language and |
institutions of the English-speaking race. It also |
throws no obscure light on the beliefs and modes of I
life of our common ancestors. I
The earliest monuments ot this tongue are |
found in the Kunic inscriptions of Scandinavia (see
Runes) The remains thus t.mn.l are indeed very
' difterent from the langu.age as it appears in Ice-
1 landic literature ; there Is. however, sulhcient
similaritv to .how that the langnage there em-
ployed is really the same. I he Kunic luoiiuments
range from the 8th t,. the 12th century The
earliest literary productions in the Icelandic t.uigue
are the mvthi'cal .songs contained m the .-;o-calle.l
poetical Edda (.,.v.), the collection o which has,
we believe erroneou.sly, been attributed t.. San und
the Learue.l, who died in 1 i:W. It is ,in|K,ssible to
ascertain how- far these s<mgs were bnmfjlit to
Iceland by the Norwegians, though some of them
seem to point to a time anterior to the settU-
ment of tl.e islaii.l. The only thing we know tor
certain Ls, that tla^v existe.l in Iceland in the
later part of the l'2th century. The .dent ihcation
of some or all of them with either Norway or the
Western Islands is founded on no firmer basis
than mere conjecture These songs may be
divi.led into mythical ami hermc songs. lUe
mythical song's contain .an account o. the gods and
.'iiints the creation of the world and of man, the
world-long struggle of the gods with th- giants
or Titans of the Northern myth.dogy, the daj ot
iu.l.'ment, or the destructi.ui ..t the gods, the
•'dants, ami the w.ul.l, out of the ruin.s of wdiich a
new heaven and a new earth are to arise. One ot
the son.-s of this collecti.m is tl.e //,'nv,/»«/(t he
Son.' of the High One-viz. Odin) ; it is a didactic
ICELAND
63
)iiieiu i'iml;iiiiiiif; rules of comluct in vari'ms situa- I
lions anil views of life. 'I'lie lieroie son;;s mostly
treat of the same suliject ju- the (icnnan .\iM-
iiinienliet/. Some of these son^^s contain the most
exquisite expressions of leelaliilie poetry. There j
are several other sonjjs of the same type as the
I'Miia. .\ll these scm^s are alliti-ralive: tlieir char
acterLstics are simplicity of iliction ami natural
expres.sion. By the siilc of these pojiular sonus a
more artilicial poetry \va> ilevelopeil liy the SUahls
(H-V.); here rhyme was added to alliteration, and
the expression wivs so artiheial that they could he
understood by the initiated only. As the theme of
their poems was usually a king or chief, whose
heroic deeds they celebrated in their songs, this
kind of poetry ha.s been called court poetry. Many
of these scuig> formed the nucleus of the later
aaga. Hither tie- Skahl hinr-elf, or another per.sim
who had learned his poem, would recite it, give
explauatiiuis of it, and add further particulars to
the life of him whom the poet celebrated, and thus
the saga took shape shortly after the celebration
of the events in the song. Thus a literature arose
without the use ol letters.
The runes were used only for inscriptions, not
for literary purposes. Some authorities, however.
are of opinion that the earliest Icelandic writings
were in runes, hut, as there is not a single tittle
of such writing left ,is evidence, the conjecture
seems very hazardous. The first Icelandic bishop,
Isleif. who died in 1080, introduceil the Latin
alpliaber. and taught young men in preparation for
the priestly otlicc. In the beginning of the l'2th
century another bi>hop had a scl I where Latin
was taught. Shortly afterwards liegau that literary
activity which made the Icelanders famotis. The
old prose literature of Iceland consists for the mo.st
partof .sagas — i.e. tales. l>otli historical and fabulous.
They .are .a II more or less in the form of biogra|>liiHs;
their authors are feu- the most part unknown. With
regard to the scenes of the sagit-s, they may be
divided into Icelandic sag;us. or biographies of Ice-
landers in Iceland, the .s.ig.is of the kings of Norway,
and sag;us cmicerning other countries. The.se .saga.s
give a faithful ])icture of the life and manners of
tliikse times, but chronology is irsually their weakest
point. The father of Icelamlic literature wa.s Ari the
Learned ( 1067-1 14S). He wjus the lirst who began
to write down the s,Hg:i.s, most of which had alreaily
been foinied in the mouth of the saga-teller. The
principal works of Ari are the iMiiilnamabiik, or
account of the settlement of leelaml, containing
the names, genealogy, and brief accounts of every
.settler. It is an evidence of veiy careful research
and wimderful memory of the author. N'<i other
country in the world luus such an account of its
earliest history. He also wrote a small l)ook called
Lihitllu.i Ixliiiiiliiriim, on the history of leelaml
down to IlH.i, and an account of the introduction
of Christianity calleil Kristni Sagn. All these
have come ilowii to ns ; but he also wrote a larger
book (m Icilatid which is lost, and tin- lives of the
earliest kings of Norw.iy, which are also lost e\
cept so far as tliev may be embodied by Snoiii
Sturbison ( I ITH l-i4l ), the historian and poet.
His best-known works are the prose F^dda, or
manual of Si-andinaviaii mythology and Ici lanilic
l>oetry, and the Lives of the Kings of Norway, m
Hrim.skriiiiiiii, down to the death of .Sijjunl the
Ousader i ll.'iO). The third nanir- is that of Stur- i
lu.son's nephew, Sturla Thordaison j j-JU S4), al.so '
a poet ami historian. He wrote t he inlniditiijn Siifin,
also ealleil Stiirliiiiijii, a graphic: account of the I
feuds between the chiefs of Iceland in the IHth
ci-iitury. which resulted in the subjection of the
island to the king of Norway. He also w rote the
life of Hakon the Old, who died at Kirkwall in ■
1263, anil that of his -son Magnus. The latter is I
now lost c\ce])t a few fragments. The sag;>s
already translated into Knglish are : Ileims/.ritKjta,
()rlninjiiiii(( Stcju. the stoiy of I'.urnt Njal, the
story of Gisli the Outlaw, the Viiiuijlihiis Saijii, the
(Suiinliiiigs Sat/ii, the VuIsiiikju tidijti, and several
smaller ones.
Itesides the sagas and poetry there are al.-o found
giammatical essays from the I'.'tli and l.'ith cen-
turies, astnuiomical treatises, a guide for travellers
t<p liome aiul Jerusalem. .\ remarkable work
apjieared in the 13th century i-alled h'ununi/s
Sl.iiijijsju ('king's mirror'), which contains a philo-
sophical contemidatioii of life, with rules for
conduct tinder vaiious circunistances and in the
company of all sorts of ]ieople. The old Icelanders
were no less industrious translators than original
wiiters, f(u' they seem to have tianslated any foreign
hook that came into their bands. Thus they trans-
lated nurny medieval roniances, sueli as the legends
of King Arthur, and these translations are now of
great value for \\n- textu.al criticism of the originals.
Among the most remarkable translations of those
times is a version of the Old Testament, inter-
mingled with variiuis observations on natural
history, comiiiled froni medieval sotirces. This is
perhaps the oldest translation of the Bible in any
living language. There are also translations
of a great number of homilies, of lives of saints,
and legends of the church. The code of laws of
the Icelandic republic, called (^nigas (gray goose),
lirst written down in llbS, affords am)de evidence
lit j;reat skill in legislative enactments, and is well
worth studying in connection with the legal history
of other Teutonic nations.
Shortly after KWO the literary- productiveness
of the Icelanders ceased, except for the writing of
.annals, which had begun in the preceding lentury.
The iirin(i[ial literary activity of the 14th century
consisted in copying and making collections of the
labours of former centuries, ilany of the sagas
have been lueservcd in these copies only, the ori-
ginals being lost. The l.'ith century is almost a
blank as far as literary activity is concerned, if we
excejit ii few songwriters; yet even then there
were .some students of the old saga.s. About the
middle of the lOth century a new turn was given
to the literary imrsuits of the Icelanders by the
introduction of tlic Ilefoiniation. 'I'he whole Uilde
was translated and published in l.'i84, and niany
othei- theological works from Danish and tlernian.
In the ITthcentuiy the interest in the (dd literature
was reawakened, and many parchments were tran-
scribed. At this time al.so the cidlecting of manu-
script.- began, and they were carried )iartly to
Sweden and ]iaitly to DcniLiark. To the Latter
countiy they were taken by the indefatigable
collector Arni Magiiii.sson, who died in 17H0, after
having be(|ueathed his collectiiuis to the university
of Copeidutgen. There is no doubt that this ex-
portalnm of the manuscripts was very fortuiuite
for their preservation. Krom this time the literary
Ireasuies of Iceland began to be known abroad';
the lirst to maki' known the historical value of the
sagas was the Icelander Torfaus, who died in 1719.
Since then there has been no want of diligent ami
careful stmlenls of Icelandic literature both among
Icelanders, Scandinavians. (lermans. and lately also
amcuig the Knglish.
The liteiary activity of the modern Icelanders
is not conlined to the study of the old literature
alone ; there is also a considenible modern litera-
ture, though it is compaiatively less interesting,
Iceland luus always been and still is rich in song-
writers, especially of a lyrical and religious
t4'ndency. To the natural history and the history
of the i.sland itself there h.ave been valuable con-
tributions. Considering the pojailaticm and other
circumstances of the island, it cannot he denied
64
ICELAND MOSS
ICHNEUMON
tlial the Icelaiulei's at the present day compare
favouralily in respect to literary activity with any
other people in similar circumstances.
The bf st guide to the old literatui'e of Iceland is to be
found iu the Vfi>/(';iitmf lut to the •Sturlunf/a Sa;fa, edited
by Dr G. Vigfi'isson (Oxford, liS7S). See also the Corpus
Puetictim Bort'itle : the poetry of the Old^Northern tongue
to the 13tli century (2 vols. 188.'i), edited, translated, and
illustrated by Vigfusson and Powell. Cleashy and Vig-
fusson's great Icelandic-English dictionary ( 187^) is the
standard one. There is a list of liooka priiiteii tit Icelatid,
by Fiske ( ISSW ).
Iceland Moss {Crti-arid Islamlira), a lichen
fonml in all the nortliern parts of the world, and
valuable on account of its nutritions and medicinal
properties. It is collected as an article of com-
merce in Norway and Iceland. In very northern
regions it jjrows even near the level of the sea ; in
more southern countries it is found on mountains.
It is not uncommon in the mountainous parts of
Britain, althouyii not turned to any economic
account. In Carniola it is used foi- fattening
cattle and |iij;s. It grows in extreme abundance in
Iceland on tracts otherwise desert : and numerous
parties migrate from great distances with horses,
tents, and provisions, in the summer months,
for the sole purpose of gathering it as an article
of commerce and for food. In many places this
lichen tliickly covers the whole surface of the
ground, growing about U-4 inches high, and
consists of an almost erect Tliallns (r|.v.). It
is of a leathery and somewhat cartilaginous sub-
stance. When Iceland moss is used as an article
of food its bitterness is hrst partially remo\ed by
steeping in water, after which, in Iceland and other
northern coun-
tries, it is some-
times pounded
and made into
bread ; or it is
prepared by boil-
^W^#5l*S-J^L4!4''Vbs%r ^vater being re-
■twr:. ^ ^■.\r— «, T<Tk jected. It is
often boiled with
nnlk, making a
kind of jelly,
either with milk
or water. It is
an agreeable ar
tide of food, and
very suitable for invalids. It contains about 8(i
per cent, of a kind of starch called Livltcii Stan-li.
or J.iflieiiiii, and owes its bitterness to an acid
jirinciple, Cctrariv Arid. —An allied species, Cetnt-
rid iiifiilis, growing in noithcrn countries, pos-
sesses similar properties.
Iceland Sl»ar, transparent calc-spar. or cal-
eite, CaCOa ; it may he split along its cleavage-
planes into an obtuse rhomuohedron, and is doubl\
refracting. See CAI.riTK.
iceni. Se(^ IJoadicea.
Ice I'iant (illcsctiihri/anf/icmum KrystaUiiiiiiii),
an annual herbaceous ])lant, a native of Africa
and of the south of Europe, remarkable for the
watery vesicles (ptijtiilif) with which its whole
surface is covered, and which ha\e the appearaui'c
of grannies of ice, and sparkle in tlu? same manner
in the sun. It is comnnm as a tender annual in
our greeidicmses, and grows in the ojieii garden
during si:nimer ; the leaves ar<^ used for garnishing
dislie.s. The e.\|ues.sed juice of the |)lant has been
greatly extolleii as a remeily for diseases of the
mucous niendnanc^ of the lungs and nrijiary pass-
ages, and als() Un dropsy. The seeds are used for
food in the Madeira Islands. The ashes supply
barilla, and the plant is burned on this account
Vn
Iceland Moss [Celraria istuiitlira).
abounds. The plant is
soila, pot.ash, and other
in countries where it
valuable for extracting
alkaline salts from nnprodnctive soils, renderin
them tit for culture. It is so used in the south of
France.
Icliailg, a walled town in the Chinese ]n'o\ ince
of Hupei, stands on the Vang-tszekiang, where it
escapes from the limestone gorges and ravines of
its middle course, and 1000 miles from Shanghai at
its mouth. In 1877 it was declared open to foreign
trade, but in consc(iuence of the ilitlicnities con-
nected with the navigatum of the river, the
competition of the (^hiiiese, and the jealousy of
the Chinese officials it advanced but slowly.
Xevertiieless, the net value of the trade notified
to the fcneign customs-office increased from £21,304
in 1S7S to nearly £2,300,000. The imports are
chietly shirtings, lastings, cloth, and silvei' in
ingots, anil the exports silk, white wax, drugs,
musk, tin, and silver in ingots. The imports
from Great Britain constitute about half of the
total imports. Ichang is connected with Hankow
by telegraph, and so with the outer worhl. Top.
35,000. See Little, Tliromili Ihr I'tiiK/tsc Gorges
(1888).
Icll Dien ( ' I serve ■ ), the motto of Edward the
Black I'rince, whose badge was a single ostiudi
feather, afterwards three ostrich feathers. The
story that he adopted both motto and badge from
John, the bliml king of Kohemia, after the battle
of Crccy, is not borne out by historical investiga-
tion. Since Edward's time the motto ' Ich Dien'
and the badge of three ostrich feathers ha\e been
employeil as the cognisance of the Princes of
Wales. See Diet. Xttt. Biiii/., vol. xvii. p. 92.
IclinenUIOn (//c/y/cs^'v), a genus of digiti-
grade carnivorous (iuadru|ieds of the family Viver-
rida?, having a much elongated body, small head,
sharp mu/.zle. rounded ears, and short legs. The
species, «hicli are pretty nunierous. are natives
of Africa and the warmer parts of .Asia. One, the
Andalusian Ichneumon (II. ivliiieuitiini, var. Wid-
dringtonii), occurs in the south of Spain. They
feed on small (juadrnpeds, reptiles, eggs, and insects.
Egyptian Ichneumon {fferpestes ichneumon).
Some of them, jiarticularly the Egyptian Ichneumon
(//. ic/iiicimi<t>i ) iind the Mangouste, Mongoose, or
Mnngoose (II. gri.siii.i) of India, have been greatly
celebrated as ilestroyers of serpents and other
noximis reptiles, many Monderfnl tables being su]per-
aihled to the truth on this subject. 'I'lie Egyptian
Ichneumon, the ichni'umon of the ancients, is
larg(M' than a cat, gray, witli hhudi paws .'ind
muzzle. It was a sacred animal among the ancient
Egyptians. Tin- ichneumon is ea.sily ilomesti-
cateil, and is u.seful iu keejiing lumses free of rats
and other vermin. It is therefore not unfrei|Uentl.\
domesticated in Egv))t, as the inongoo.se also is in
India. This species is rather smaller, of a lighter
colour, and has a jiointed tail. Introduced into
Jamaica, the niongoo.se did admirable service in
clearing the sugar-cane helds of rats ; but became
ICHNEUMON
ICHTHYOSIS
65
a plague by destroying poultry and harmless
aniiiwils.
IclllieilUlUII. a name apiilied to the meiiibers
of a verv lart-e family of insects ( lclineuinoiii<l;>-).
included in the order Hynienoptera, and notable
because the larva- are para-^itic in, or sometimes on,
other insects. There are several tliousaiul species.
represented in all parts of the worUl, including
many minute forms and also some of the largest
insects. The long antenna- have many joints ; the
abdomen is usually joined to the thorax by a
narrow waist ; the females are provided with ovi-
posit<ir~, which are in some ca-ses very piomineut.
VVith these they lay their eggs in the ova, larva-,
or ailulis of other insects, and sometimes .also of
spiders. The ichneumon embryos develop in the
safe and comfortable hiding-place thus attbrded,
and utilise their hosts as tood for a while, but
sooner or later, before or oftener after pupation,
leave them dea<I or dying. Sometimes, curiously
enough, the ichneumons themselves fall victims to
a similar trick played upon them by members of
the same or nearly related families. As adults,
tliese insects feeil on the juices of Howers. The
panvsitic habit of the larv;e is sometime.s of econ-
omic importance, since they thus destroy injurious
insects. Thus, Microgaster glomemtiis and Pimp/a
instig'dor are parasitic on the caterpillars of the
cabbage butterdy. and Aphiduis upon aphides.
Icllliulogy (Gr.. • science of footprints'). See
Fossils.
Ichor, the ethereal fluid that supplied the
place of blood in the veins of the gods of Greek
mythology. The name is apiilied in medicine to
the thin watery discharge from a wound.
Iclltliyodorillite (Gr., 'fish-spear-stone'),
tlie name given to fossil fish spines, not uncommon
in the stratified rocks.
Iclltbyology ((Jr. iilttltys, -a tisli,' logon, 'a
discourse"), that branch of natural history which
treats of Hslies I c|.v. ).
Ifhtliyoriils. See Odontornithes.
IchthyosaurilS ( Gr., ' tish -reptile ' ), a remark-
able genus of rejitiles which inhabited the sea
during the deposition of the Mesozoic strata. I-ike
the modern Cetacea, their structure was modified to
suit their aquatic life. The body was shaped like
that of a tish, the limbs were developed into paddles,
and the tail, long and lizard-like, was furnished, it
is believed, with a fleshy fin, as in the dolphin,
i-xeept that its position was vertical. The head was
large, and produced into a long and pointed snout,
resembling that of the crocodile, except that the
orbit was much larger, and had the nostril placed
close to it, as in the whale, and not near the end of
the snout. The jaws were furnished with a large
series of powerful conical teeth, lodged close together
in a continuous groove, in which the divisions for
sockets, which exist in the crocodile, were indi-
cated by the vertical ridges on the maxillarj- bone.
The teeth were hollow at the root, sheathing the
Ichthyosaurus.
young teeth, which gradually absorbed the base of
the older ones, and, as they giew, pressed them
forward, until they finally displaced them. The
long anil slender jaws were strengthened to resist
any sudden shock by being formed of many thin
bony plates, which produced light and elastic as
well as strong jaws. The most remarkable feature
in the head Avas the eye, which was not only very
large — in some specimens measuring I'A inches in
diameter — but was siiecially fitted to accommodate
itself for vision in air or water, as well as for
speedily altering the focal distance while pursuing
its prey. The structure, which thus fitted the eye
so remarkably to the wants of the animal, consists
of a circle of thirteen or more overlapping sclerotic
bony plates surrounding the pupil, as in birds. This
circle acted as a sort of self-adjusting telescope,
and, a.ssisted by the extraordinary amount of
light admitted by the large pnpil, enabled the
icnthyosaunis to discover its prey at great or little
distances in the obscurity of the night, and in the
dei)tlis of the sea. The neck wius so short that the
bo«ly was probably not in the least constricted
behind the head. The backbone was fish-like ;
each joint had both its surfaces hollow, making the
whole column very flexible. The small size of the
p.idilles compared with the body, and the stillness
of the short neck, seem to suggest that the tail
must have been an important organ of motion.
Professor Owen is satisfied that it was furnished
with a vertical tail, becau.se the vertebra' are
coinpresseil vertically, and al.so liecause the tail is
frequently found disarticulated a short distance from
it.s extremity, as if the weight of the upright tail
2«j
had caused it to fall when the animal had begun to
decompose. The fish-like body, the four paddles,
anil especially the powerful tail would make the
ichthyosauri active in their movements, and conse-
quently, with their predaceous habits, very danger-
ous enemies to the other animals that inhabited
with them the Mesozoic seas. That their principal
food consisted of fishes is evident from the masses
of broken bones an<l scales of contemporary fishes
that have been found under their ribs in the place
where the stomach of the animal was situated.
Not infrequently entire skeletons of small indi-
viduals have been found within the thoracic and
abdominal cavity of larger ones. As these small
skeletons are complete and uninjured and of the
.same species as that in which they occur. Professor
Seeley thinks that some of the ichthyosauri were
viviparous.
The remains of ichthyosauri are peculiar to the
Mesozoic strata, occurring in the various members
of the series fiom the Lower Lias to the Chalk, but
having their greatest develoimient in the Lias and
Oolite. More than thirty species have been dis-
covered : they difl'er from each other chiefly in the
form of the head, .some having a long and slender
snout, like the gavial of the Ganges, while others
had short and broad heads, more like the common
crocodile. The great repository ii'r ichthyosaiirian
remains hitherto lias been the Lias at Lyme Kegis.
Ifhtliyosis. or FisHSKlx Diskask, is char-
acterised by a hardened, thickened, rough, and
almost horny state of the cuticle in severe ca.se.s.
Instead of exfoliating in line, almost invisible
flakes, it accumulates in irregular scale-like pieces.
66
ICKNIELD STREET
IDAHO
wliich may be removeil, but are speedily repro-
fluced. Perspiration is always absent or very
deticient in tlic atlected areas. The disease niay
affect almost the wb.de surface, or may be contincd
to a sin-le Jiarl ; and is most fre.iuenlly, but not
always, congenital. It is attended by no constitu-
tional disturbance, and the general health is otten
very- <'ood. Tlie disease is, however, extremely
obstinate, and when congenital may be considered
as incurable. Treatment consists m the frequent
use of warm or vapour or alkali.ie baths, so as to
soften the tbickene.l epidermis and to tacihtate its
removal, and friction by meaus of a piece of flannel
or i.umice-stone may be conjoined with the bath.
The apidication of sulidiur or resorcin to the skin
has Jso the effect of promotiii- .i".=""<.n.=.tmn_
desquamation.
The 'eniidoviiie~n't" of sulphureous' baths, such as
those at Harrogate, has occasionally -been fouml ol
temporary use -, and tlie internal administration ot
tar, cod I'iver oil, &c. sometimes gives relief.
Icknield Street (Lat. Via Iceniana) an
ancient Roman road of Britain, which ran from
Norfolk soutli-westwards to the vicinity ot Land s
End.
Icollllkill. See loNA.
Icon Basilike. See Eikdm.
leonilllll. an ancient town of -^f ,^,^"l°'t
situated on the western edge of the plateau that
skirts the northern slopes of the Taurus Mountains,
310 miles E. of Smvrna. The capital under the
Romans of Lvcaonia, it was three times visited by
St Paul who foiinde.1 there a Cliristian church.
In 70S it fell into the hands of the Arab comiuerors.
Its prosperity culminated in the end of the llth
century, whe'n it was made the capital of the Seljuk
empire In 1190 Frederick Barbarossa defeatei
the Turks in the neighbourliood, and captured
Iconium. Some fifty years later its sultans were
made the political playthings of the Mongols -and
in 1392 they submitted to the suzerainty of the
Ottoman Turks, though the state was Jiot incor-
porated in the Ottoman empire until 148b. ISeiiig
the meeting-point of some of the principal high-
ways of Asia Minor, and a place of considerable
trade, it failed not to figure i.romiiicntly in t he
wars of the Turks. In 1832 Ibrahim Pasha de-
feated the Turks there. -The modern towir, called
KoNiFH or KiiNiy.y, the capital ot the lurkish
Wiavet of Konieh, i's a placi of 20,000 or 30,000
inhabitants, who live by commerce, by making
stockings and gloves, and on the contributions of
the numerous pilgrims who visit the sacred tombs
and other holy places of the town. Here is the
principal monastery of the Mevlevi or '.lancing
dervislies in the Ottoman empire. Numerous ruins
of mosques, ma.lrasas (colleges), ^-c. attest the
decayed splend.iur of the place.
Iconoclasts (Or. dkon, ' an image, 'and kktzo,
' I break ' ), the name use.l to designate those in the
church, from the 8tb century downwards, who have
been .)i.posed to the use of sacre.l images (i.e.
of statues, pictures, and other sensible representa-
tions of sacred objects), or at least t.) the paying
of religious honour or rever.-nce to such representa-
tions. The icon.iclast movement ha.l its commence^
ment in the Eastern t'hurch. Opinion is .liyide.
as to the .)rigin .and antiquity of the practice ot
Ima.'ewoiship (q.v.) in the church; but it is
certain that in the titli m Ttli century it pievaile.
extensively, especially in the eastern empire, an. I
tiiat practices existe.l in s.mie churches which wer.'
a source of mu.di suspicion, an.l even of positive
offence. Manv bish.ips interposed to correct these
abuses : but the ic.in.iclast niovement, sfict',y__so
called, began with the imperial e.lict issued in ,'-b
by the Emperm- Leo III., surnanie.l th.- jsaurian
forbidding the honoui-s paid to sacied images, an.l
even ommanding the remoxal from the churches
of all images, that of our L.)rd alone excepted.
This was followed by an..tber decree in 730. which
prohibite.1, un.ler pain of death, as sinful an.l
idolatrous, all acts of reverence, public or innate,
to images, an.l directed that wber('\er siich image-s
should be found they shoul.l lorthwith be removed
or destroyed. The attempt t.i ciif.ircc this .lecree
aroused great opposition, especially in the I'.reek
islan.ls and in Italy. The popes Oregory II. nn.l
Gregory UI. protested vehemently against it
repuiliated the imputation of i.lolatry, and explained
the nature of the honours to images for which they
c.mtended. Leo peisevercd. nevertheless, m his
.ipposition, which was ontinued by his successor,
< 'onstantine, surnamed Cipionymiis. I n.ler this
emper.u- a council was b.-l.l in Constantinople in
7,-)4 in which the icon.)clast decrees were affirmed
in their fullest extent: and Constantine_s son,
Leo IV , renewed, on his accession in 7/5, the
enactments .>f his predecessors. I'n.ler the widow
of Le.) the Empress Iiene, a oiincil was liel.l at
Niea'a' (787), in which these proceedings were
condemned and rev.)ke.l ; l)ut other succeeding
I emper.u-s, Nicepbonis (802-811), Leo \., the
Armenian (813-820), Michael II., tlie Stammerer
I ( 820-829 ), and Theophilus ( 829-842 ), retiirne.l. with
.n-eater or less severity, to the p.ilicv of the
fconoclast emperors. As regards the l.rcek < buivh
the controversy may be said to have been hnally
settled under the Empress Tbe...lora in a council
lield at Constantin.iple in 840, or at least by a
subsequent one of 870. The modern usage of the
Greek Church permits pictures, but rejects g'raven
or sculirtured representations .>f sacred objects.
Except in Italy, the iconoclast c.mtroversy create.
1 hut little sensation in the Western ( huicb until
j the niovement in the time of fharlcmagm> and his
successors, to be noticed under the hea.l iM.v.ih-
WOKSHIP.
IctiUUS. Of Ictinus, who shares with ( 'allicrates
the glory ..f ha\iiig designed the one perfect build-
in" which the w.irld has ever seen, very little can
be" stated with certainty. In addition to bis
masterpiece, the Parthenon, the temple of Apollo
Eidcurins at Bassa-, near Phigalia, the sculptured
relii-fs fnuu which are now in th.' Bnhsh Museum,
may be ascribed to him. He is alsi) kn.iwn t..
have been the architect of a temide atKleusis, an.l
to have written an exhaustive treatise upon the
Parthenon, with which his name is in.liss.dubly
connected. See Athkxs.
Ida, a mountain range in Asia Minor, exten.ling
fr.iiu Phrygia through Mysia into the Tr.iad. The
.-itv of Troy was situated at its base. 1 1 is tlie scene
of many ancient Greek legends. The sijiithern
part of the range was calle.l (iargarus, the higdiest
peak of ^^•hicb is r,74!> f.'et aboN .^ the sea. Here
there was a temple of fvbele, xnIio therefore was
called the Itla-an Mother. From I.la flow severa
famous streams, as the '''a"";"*- ^L'!'""-, fj'
S<'ainander. -There is an.Uber Ida {80oo feel ii
Crete, extending from west to east, u.nv calle.l
Psiloriti. Here Zeus was s.iid to luue been
educated.
I'dallO. since 1890 on.' .if the l-nited States, is
situ" "l I between the 42d and 49th parallels ..f
l-uitu.le and mainly between the f„pj riBi.t i8!io m u.s.
I'llth and 114th 'meii.lians of by j. b. uppmcou
.;, gitiute. 1.1 shape it Ls an co„.p.„v-
irregular trapezoid. Its maxiniu.u length is a out
490 Statute miles ; its breu.lth varies tr.mi ab.,ut 42
nd"es at tl'c ' pan-han.Ue ' which forms the northern
,ait, to :«'0 miles along the southern boundary.
Its area is about 84,8011 s.|. 111. , ,,
One ..f tl,.> main ranges ..f I he Bocky M.mntams,
in various parts called the Cabinet, Cunir d Alcne,
IDAHO
IDDESLEIGH
ami Bitter Root iiiomitaius, forms the iiortli-
easteni liouiularv, separatinj; Idnlio fniiii Monlaiia.
In the jiiuitherii part this rauye is a purtiDii ol tlic
coiitiiioiital ilividi' lietweeii the Atlantic ami Parilic
oceans. Ahout Ttl.tHJU »ij. la. of the territory i>
situated in the draiiiajje basin of the Coluuiliia
Kiver: the remaining part lies in tlie Great Ba^in,
its surface watei-s llowing into ( ireat Salt Lake.
A comparatively small area in the south e.vcepteil,
the entire surface is rugged ami mountainous.
In aililition to the high range on the north e;vst<Mn
l«)r(ler spurs of this range traverse the territory in
a ilirection generally ea-st an<'. west. Of the.se
Salmon Kiver Mountains are perhaps the most
noteworthy, ;us they separate what is popularly
known as Northern Idaho from the phitcau- region
in the central an<l southern part. All these ranges
are high, their summits reaching elevations of
10,000 feet and niiwards. The average altitude of
the territory is about 5000 feet. The lowest level
is the valley of Snake Uiver, which at Hoise City
is 2000 feet al>ove the sea-level. In the south are
a number of irregular ridges largely shaped by
erosion, locally known as the Bear Kiver Mountains.
Goose Creek Mimntains, South Mountains, ISlack-
foot Kange, v<:c. A part of the plateau-region is
included in the great lava flood which occurred in
comparatively recent geological times, and which
is still noticeable in the cliH's and mesas that
divereify the surface.
Snake River — also known as Shoshone, ami a.s
Lewis Kiver — drains by far the largest part of the
territory. Its coui-se (about 8.50 miles in length)
lies in a valley remarkalile for scenic beauty. In
various places the valley widens ovit into broad
savannahs .su.sceptible of a high degree of cultiva
tion. The open valleys alternate with narrow
canons through which the ri\er flows in dalles and
cataracts. This river is navigable from the mouth
of Powder Kiver to Salmon Falls, a distance of
200 miles. Salmon Kiver, one of the largest
tributaries of Snake Kiver, drains the central
part. The char;icter of its valley is much like that
of the latter. Clearwater, Payette, Boise, Weiser,
Bruneau, Malade, and Goose rivers are tributaries,
important mainly for the fertile lands which flank
their courses. I'end d'Oreille, or Clarke's Fork,
drains Northern Iilaho. Its main tributaries are
CtEur d'Alene and St .Joseiih rivers. Dalles,
cascades, and cataracts characterise all the rivers
of the territory. Shoshone Falls almo.st rival
those of Niagara in grandeur.
There are two lake-regions : one in the pan-
handle, the other in the south-east. The former
includes Pend d'Oreille, CV'ur d'Alene and Kaniksu
laki;s ; the latter. .John Day and Bear lakes. The
surplus watei-s of Hear Lake flow through Bear
Kiver into Great Salt Lake. These lake-regions
abound in game, and are perhaps the flnest liunt-
ing-grounils in the rnited States.
-Vmon^' the wild animals are the grizzly bear,
two species of brown bear, the lilack liear, raccoon,
panther, batlger, wolf, fo.v, and co.Mite. Fur-
liearing animals are represented by the lyn.\', mink,
anil twaver. The l)ison, once common, is now
rarely if ever seen. The moose and elk are
occasionally met with. Deer of two species and
antelope are numerous. The Rocky .Mountain
shee|> IS fouml in the Co;ur d'.Mene .Mountains.
V'egetati(m is abumlant in the northern and
central parts, but somewhat delicient in the arid
lands of the south. Forests of conifers, including
white, yellow, bhick or loilge-pole, and sugar pine,
as well a-s several species of cedar ami spruce, cover
the western slopes of the Bitter Koot and (Veur
d'.-Vlene mountains. These forests embrace a
wealth of tindier not surpassed by any other eipial
area on the continent. Fir, taniaiack, and larch
are also abundant. In the central and southern
part the forests give place to e.xtensive mesas over-
grown with sage brush, and rolling lands covered
with bunch grass. The river-\alleys are dotted
with occasional groves of cottimwood ami thickets
of wild fruits, such as the blackberry, wild currant,
salal, aiul fo-v grape.
The mineral wealth of the state consists chiefly
in its mines of silver, lead, gold, and copper, pro-
ductive in the order named. The output of these
metals has .sometimes reached nearly !520,000,0O0
in .-i year. Coal of good iiuality lias been ilis-
covereil in seven of the eighteen counties. In the
basin-region of the south-east soda, gypsum, sul-
phur, and minerals common to lacustrine deposits
abouml. Mineral springs are numerous.
The climate is e.\ceedingly healthy. The ex-
tremes of temjierature rarely range beyond 0° and
90' F., except in regions of great altitude. The
rainfall, abundant in the north, is dehcient in the
south, so that irrigation is necessary to ensure full
crops. The agricultural proilucts, stock and farm,
aggregate well over 810,000,000. (Jrain farming is
of necessity confined to the narrow river-valleys,
and. ;us a whole, the territory is better adapted to
stock-raising than to cultivation. The crops are
largely moved by wagon-trains and river-ooats,
but tliere were in 1890 about 1000 miles of railway.
Idaho, constituted a territory in 18G3, received
its present limits in 186S, and in 1890 «iis raiseil to
the rank of state. Gold was first found in is.3'2,
and raised in paying cjuantities in 1S60. The
jiopulation, distributed mainly along the river-
\alli'vs of the south and west, was returned at 14,999
ill 1870, and 32,010 in 1880 ; in 1890 it was 84,38.>,
aliout one-fifth consisting of people of the Mormon
t'aitli. There are also upwards of 10,000 Indians
not included in the foregoing numbers. The pulilic
schools and religious and charitable institutions are
well supported.
Boise City, the capital and largest city, had in
1890 a population of 2'A\1. Montpelier and Weiser
came ne.\t in size.
Iddesleigb, Earl of. Conservative statesman,
better known as Sir Stattord Northcote. was liorn
of a very old Devonshire family, on 27th October
1818, and was educated at Eton and Balliol
College, Oxford, gaining a tiist-class in chussics.
He began public life in 18-12 as private secretary
to Mr Gladstone, who was then President of the
Board of Trade. In 1847 he was called to the biir,
and four years later succeeded his grandfather iis
eighth baronet. He was secretary to the com-
missioners of the Great Exhibition, and for his
services was created a C.B. In 185.5 he enteied
parliament as Conservative memlier for Dudley,
and in 1858 was elected for Stamford, in 1866 for
North Devon. He sat for the latter constituency
until 18S5. He was Financial Secretary to the
Treasury in Lord Derby's ministry of 1859, and in
1860 he was appointed by the same prime-minister
President of the Board of Trade. He hail already
demonstiated his knowledge of finance by his
treatise entitled Tiirnti/ Yeoris of Finoncin/ I'lilin/,
published in 1862. While at the India Ottice m
1868 Sir Statl'ord Northcote was charged with tlie
responsibility of the .Abyssinian Exjiedition. which
under his auspices was carried to a successful issue.
In 1871 his old ally Mr Gladstone appointed him
British Commissioner to the T'niteil States lor the
adjustment of the .Alabama difliculty. Sii Staflord
Northcote was Chancellor of the Excheipier in Mr
Disraeli's ministry of 1874, and among other usclul
measures which he intiodnccd. in addition to his
budgets, was the Friendly Societies Bill of 1875. In
the debates on ea-stern allairs and the Suez Canal be
rendered signal service to the governmenl. When
Mr Disraeli went to the L'pper House Sir Staflord
68
IDEA
IDIOCY
succeeded to the leadereliip in the Commons, and 1
his task was very arduous in eoiinection with the
Irish debates. Upon the death of l^ord Beacons
field he heoame loint leader of the Conservative
party with the .Man|iiis of Salislmry. His inanat;e
ment of the Tories in the Lower House during;
several years of ojinosition elicited warm eidogiunis.
When Lord Salishury came into power in ISS.'i
Sir Statt'ord Northcote was raised to the jieer-
ajje, under the title of Earl of Iddesleigh and
Viscount St Cyres. and was appointed First Lord
of the Treasury. He sat as chairman of the com-
mittee ajipointed to imiuire into the depression
of trade. In 1S86 he was the recipient of a hand-
some testimonial, suljscribed hy members of hotli
l)olitical partie--. In Lord Salisbury's second
ministry Lord Iddesleigh was Foreign Secretary :
but he resijjned this post early in January 1887.
On tlie l'2th of the same montli he died very
suddenly at the premier's olticial residence in
Downing Street. Lor<l Iddesleij^h was elected
Lord Rector of Edinburgh Uni^■el•sity in 1883, and
during his tenure of office delivered an excellent
address to the students on 'Desultory Reading.'
See his c(dlected Lectures and A's-vfo/.f ( 1S87), and
tlie Life by Andrew Lang (1890).
Idea. This word has bcnne very distinct mean-
in.g^ in the history of philosophy. Down to the
17tb century it had the si<milicati(m given to it by
Plato, and" referred to t-lie Platonic doctrine of
eternal forms existing in the Divine mind, accord-
ing to which the world and all sensible things were
framed. The word was used in this sense in litera-
ture as well as in philosophy down to the 17th
century, as in Spenser, Shakespeare, Hooker, and
Milton.
In speaking of the mental representation of
external tilings, Descartes, instead of employing
the various teiiiis iiiuiffe, s/iceies, phantnsni. \'c. ,
■which bad been the words formerly in use for that
particular signilication, used the word idea. In
this he was ifollowed by other philosophers, as, for
example, Locke, who states that he has adopted
the word to stainl for ' whatever is the object of the
understanding, when a man thinks.' Thus, the
mental im])ression th.at we are supposed to have
when thinking of the sun without seeing the actual
object is called our idea of the sun. The idea is
thus in contrast with the sensation, or the feeling
that we h.ive when the senses are engaged directly
or immediately uj^n the thing itself. Hut the
word has l>een very variously used, as bv Berkeley,
Ilume. Kant, Ilegel (see these articles). For
innate ideas, see Common Sense, Locke. —
hlealism is a term used almost as variously !vs
Idetr. Idealism may be a theory concerning our
knowledge of external existence, restricting mind
directly to knowledge of its own state, whereas the
opposed renlhm imi>lies a direct knowledge of the
external. Idealism may be also a theory as to the
nature of the universe, and be spoken of (rightly
or wrongly) as snOjertire idealism, as in Fichte
(q.v.), rri'timl as in Kant (i].v.), or absolute as
in Ilegel (q.v.). See also Berkeley. In the
medieval controversies between nominalism and
realign, realism was a kind of idealism (see
Nii.\liN.\MSM). Iilealism is also used for ethical
and resthetic systems which ado]it an ideal standard
of estimating character, human possibilities, or
subjects in art (see Reali.sm ). The wonl realism
has a further \)eculiar .sense in Herbart (q.v.).
Illelcr. Chhisti.vn Lrnwir., astron er and
chronologist, was born 2Ist September 176(i, near
Perleberg, in Prussia, an.l, after hohling vari<ms
oflices, received a profe.ssoi-ship at the uiiivei-sily
of Berlin in IS'21. He wrote several valuable
works on chron<ilogv, and died August 10, 1841).
Ides. See Calends.
Idiocy is delined by Ireland a> -mental de-
liiiency or extreme stupidity deiiending upon mal-
nutrition or ilisea^e of the brain occurring either
before birth or liet'ore the evolution of the mental
faculties in childhood ; while Indiecility is gener-
ally vised to denote a less decided degree of such
mental incapacitv.' The difference between both
conditions and JciiiciitUi (see Insanity) is that
the ilement w,as once sane and respon.sible, the idiot
and the imiiecile never develojied mental capacity
at all ; tbev remained arrested children. The
name iininiliii has been given to idiocy. The
mental faculties never showed themselves in an.v
high degree, because the organ of mind in the brain
never developed. There are great varieties of
idiocy and imbecility. Some of tlie lowest have no
speech, no power of distinguishing between one
per.son and another, no all'ection or hatred, no feel
ings of pleasure or ])ain, no jiowcr to take care ol
themselves, and can never be taught any of these
tilings. In body such idiots are dwarfish, mis
shapen, uglv, with the features and expre.ssicm of
face often of the lowest of the lower animals, with
no power of walking. This lieing the conditicm of
the lowest varieties, they rise gradually in the scale
till many imbeciles are' Ijeautifiil in features, and
reach normal bodily development, but are slightly
wanting in some e.s.sential mental facultv, in intel-
ligence, or in atl'ection, or control, or self-guidance.
The mental doliciency is in by far the majmity of
idiots and iiiibecih's accompanieil by correspond-
ing bodily weaknesses of some sort.
Idiots iind imbeciles diU'er much in their capacity
for further development under even favourable cir-
cumstances. Some can l>e greatly elevated towards
the standard of average humanity, and can even be
renilered lit to earn their own livelihood in simple
trades or manual labtmr, while oilier^ cannot be in
any way imi)roved. They are es|iecially subject
to certain bodily diseases of degeneration, such iis
scrofula. consum[iti(m, rickets, an<l diseases of dell-
cient nutrition generally. Two-thinls of idiots die
of ccmsumptiim. The great aims in treatment are
to improve the bodily nutriti(m, the nervinis and
muscular action, and "the habits, to teach co-ordin
ated movements and sini]de emiiloyments, such a.-,
gardening, mat making, carpentering, ^c, and to
evolve the jiossible intelligence bv an eilucation
through the senses. Some of them have one faculty
or cajiacity fairly or even extra<U(linarily develoi)eil,
while the general mental power is weak. Some are
good musicians. Some can calculate well, while
others are ingenious in construi tiveness. Such
faculties have in those cases to be especially culti-
vateil. For this purpose good food, exercise, drill,
warmth, fresh air, and music are necessary, and a
careful study and testing of each case to find out
its strong and weak points ; and teachers who
devote themselves to this iiarticular kind of educa-
tive process are required. For most of them thi>
can imlv be done in I" raining Schools for Idiot> and
Inibeciles, of which there are about twelve fiill\
eipiipped in the Cnited Kingdom. It is felt by
manv persons that in a<ldition to these a kinrl of
school is needed between them and the ordinary
school, for the purpose of develoiung ' backward
children,' of wlumi there are a c(msiileiable proixu-
tion in our .schocds -a ilcadweigbt <m our teachers
and (Ui the progress of the ordinary scholai>.
Eilucation should be suited to the educability and
the inherent brain-caoacity of the scholar. Ciui-
"enital idiots and imbeciles may have iitliuks uf
Ill-lite insiiiiitji, for which they may need to be sent
to asylums for the insane : but as a general inlc
such institutions are not suitable for tlieni. Few
betiefactoi-s of their kiml deserve more honour than
the pioneers in the right treatment and education
IDIOSYNCRASY
IDOLATRY
69
oi itiiois and ci-etius, such as lleatl, Howe, Seguiu,
and (Ju^'geulii'ilil. Few tilings must have lookeil
so ilisheaiteninv;, unatinu'tive, and uuproniisiMg of
goiid results. But tioni a scientilic point of view,
both [)s\chologically ami iihysiologiially, the unde-
veloped minds and bodies of this class have great
interest and high imijortance.
Ireland chussilies idiocy into ten divisions : ( 1 )
Genetons, ('i) .Microce|phaIic, (3) Eclam)isic, (4)
Epileptic, (5) Hydioceiihalic, (6) I'aialytic, (7)
t-'ietinic, (S) Traumatic, (9) Intlamiiiatory, and
( 10 ) by deprivation of the senses. Eroiii this it is
seen that there are many pathological ciiuses of the
disease. It is a popular error to suppose that all
idiots have small heads. Tliiee-lifths of them have
larger heads than average men, and only a few (the
microcephalic) are small-headed. It is quality
more than quantity of brain that counts for mind.
''ii/iiii.tiH is a very interesting variety of idiocy ami
imbecility, and is the subject of a separate article.
The general causes of idiocy have not yet been
fully made out. It is umjuestioiiably hereditary in
at lejist 50 per cent. Consanguine marriages are
the cause of idiocy beyond doubt, but only when
the stock Ls bad, and so any tendency to nervous
iliscase in the parents is doubled in the children.
Scrofula is another fertile source of this ilegenera
tioii of humanity, and there is ground to believe
that frights to the mother when pregnant cause a
small |)roportion of the idiocy of the world. But
idiots are born in apparently perfectly healthy
families. Evolutionally idiocy, imbecility, and
cretinism may be looked on as reversions to a lower
type, and so an example of one of natures ways of
bringing a bad stock to an end by stopping repro-
"luction. Idiots and imbeciles are regarded as
children all their days l)y the law, and provisions
are made for the appointment of tutors and
curators for tlicm. They are held irresponsible
for their acts. See Dr W. W. Ireland, Idiocy
iiiii/ linberiliti/ { 1877).
Idiosyncrasy. See Antipathy.
Idlr. a town in the West Hiding of Yorkshire,
near the Aire, 3 miles N. by E. of Bradford, like
which it is a seat of the woollen uiauuiactures.
I'ljp. of township ( 1851 ) 7118 ; ( 1891 ) 14,462.
Idorrase. See Vesuvun.
Idolatry is the worship paid to an image
wliiili is held to be the abode of a superhuman
personality. It is widely spreail among primi-
tive religions, as the ideas underlying it form
an essential part of the savage philosophy of
the universe everywhere. Yet it is not itself a
Tirimitive worship, lieing absent among Bushmen,
Hottentots, Kuegians, Veddahs, anil Eskimo,
whih- present in the great civilisations, ;us the
Egyptian, Chahlean, Indian, (Jreek, and Koman,
and nowhere in more s])lendid development than in
the .\Ie.\ican ami Peruvian. The idol, as something
visible and concreti:, helps the savage to give a
deliiiite form to his vague ideas of higher beings,
just as the doll embodies to the child the notion of
distinct pei-soiiality. We may dismiss the idea
that iilolatry represents a deciidence of the religious
sentiment, defjenerating from a eoncejition of the
Divine as absolute spirit to its symbolical rejuesentii-
tion under human or animal forms. In realit.v it
marks a stage of progre.ss in religious growth, when
man rising al)ove the vague adoration of personified
objects, conceives of gods under the form judged
most worthy of their habitation. In theological
phraseology the term idolatry is often used loosel.v
as covering all forms of worsliip of seen as opposed
to unseen existences, thus including lit/iu/uti-i/,
(Uadrolatrij, zoolatri/, pijrolatnj, subwUiii, and even
such forms of worship as nciroUiIri/. The earlier
stages of idolatry are luUarUm, or the worship of
mere objects pei-sonilied, and animism, or the belief
in spirits as ilistinct from things and accustomed
to exercise inHueiue upon the atlairs of men. It is
incorrect to say that idols invariably begin with
being symbolical representations, and are next
taken for the image, and lastly for the body itself
of the divinity, through forgetfulness oi' their
primitive signilication. And all images which
represent a superior being and are wors-liipiied are
not idols, but only those whiih are believed to be
conscious and animate. Yet the di-stinction is not
precise, and indeed within the range of the same
religion the images of the Divinity remain for some
animate individualities — actual embodiments of
spirits — for others mere symbols, like the Madonna
and Child which help to warm the piety of the
faithful in Catholic countries, or the photograph
which brings a distant mother the more distinctly
to the memory of an Australian colonist. In course
of time the idol tends to become confounded w ith
the idea of which it was the symbol, hence super-
stition and delusion ensue : but the missionary's
iconoclastic zeal is often as unintelligent as the
grown man's indignation at the child fondling its
doll. It must not be forgotten that the savage
mind is ever prone to confound a subjective relation
w ith an objective one. To make the image of an
object for him is to reproduce it, and by means of
the portrait he passes easily to the notion of
reaching its original.
There is a continuous transition from fetichism
to idolatry, and the one is commonly the antecedent
of the other. Fetichism Ls strictly the belief that
the possession of an object can procure the services of
the spirit lodged w ithin its interior, and hence any
material object is capable of being made a fetich,
provided only it is capable of being appropriated.
Naturally the fetich of stone or wood is the one
most easily transformed into an idol, and early it
is carved, shaped, and polished, like the (ireek
jfjciiia, or ornamented with coloured feathers or
the like. A new ste|i is taken when on the
summit of the stone or column there is shaped a
human head, like the heniies of the Greeks ; and
once the head is formed the rest of the figure
f<dlows naturally. Idols are most often more or
less artistic imitations of the human form, often
made colossal or monstrous to represent addeil
jiower or dignity ; and it is a somewhat striking
development of commercial Christianity that there
is an active manufacture of these in our own city
of Birmingham and elsewhere, to be sent out to
India, it may be, in the same ship with the
missionaries. To the savage mind the animal is
the equal of man, and it is quite natural that it
also should become the dwelling-place of a divinity,
either in its ordinary form or in mixed human .ukI
animal forms, like the mon.stious creations of the
ancient Chaldeans. But iu general the human
form predominates in the conception of gods,
because the natural anthropomorphism of man
attributes to his deities human thoughts and
feelings, and thus ends with lending them also a
human physiognomy. Even such developments of
idolatry as the aiiotheosis of the phallic emblem
and its ie])resentalion in wood or stone is but a
specialiseil form of the anlhropoiiioriihic spirit.
Idols which receive the worship of a nation or a
tribe are a simple development of fetiches in
human form which belong to individuals. Thus side
by side with idols which are the object of public
worship we liml others that are merely indiviilual
or domestic fetiiln-s, like the small liguies buried
by the ancient Egyptians in their graves, and the
tcruiihiiii, which liachel stole from Lal>an, anil hid
in the camel's furniture on which she .sat. The
worship of the dead may also lead us to idolatry
by the same truusitious aa the woi'sliip of spirits.
70
IDRIA
IGNATIUS
Tliev form a large and powerful class of spirits :
and it is natural that some rewptacle should 1)e
found for thcui. Again, the elemental idea that
after death the spirit continues to reside in the
body, or in some portion of it, as a bone or the
skjill, explains the philosophy of placin" a statue
of the dead man beside his grave. The Maori
atiia or ancestral deity deigns to enter his carved
wooden image througli the incantation of a priest,
in order temporarily to ileliver oracles. Tiele has
sliown us that the ?u'r(/(i//i\ those representations
of monsters so common outside the Chaldean
palaces, had for their aim to offer alternative
dwelling-places to malignant spirits, especially
those of diseases.
A striking feature of idolatry is its tendency to
revive even under the shadow of purer spiritual
ideas. The proneness of the ancient Jews to lapse
into the idolatry of the neighbouring races, despite
the lofty conception of monotheism which was
early grasped by the Semitic consciousness and is
still maintaine(\ within the wide range of Islam,
is paralleled by the moilern Brahman return to
a practice abhorrent to the ancient Vedic religion,
as well as the universal Bud<lhist adoration of
statues and relics of a founder pre-eminent anjimg
men for the pure spirituality of his teaching. And
even within the range of Christianity itself such
fantastic absurdities as winking and wee|>ing
statues, and the periodical liquefaction of a saint's
blood si.xteen centuries old are conceptions in
perfect keeping with the devices of an idolatrous
priesthood in Polynesia or Cential Africa.
See the articles Animism, Animals (Wor.ship of),
Fetichism, Image- worship, and Religion ; the works of
Spencer, Waitz, Schultze, Reville, and Girard de Kialle,
paxxiin : and jiarticnlaily E. B. Tylor's Earlii Historii of
Maiikinil (chap, vi.), and Primitive Culture (chap, xiv.j;
and Goblet d'Alviella's admirable study, ' Les Origines de
ridolatrie,' in the Reruc (Ic VHistoire des Helirnons (vol.
xii. 1885).
I<lria, a mining-town in the Austrian crown-
land of Carniola, celebrated for its quicksilver
mines (discovered in 1497), is situated 109H feet
above sea-level in a deep, caldron-sliajied valley, on
a river of the same name, 2'.i miles W. by S. of
Laibach. Upwards of 230 tons of (jnicksih'er are
produced annually, and about 20 tons of cinnabar
(red sulphuret of mercury). Pop. 4984. The
miners numlier 1300; aliout 1000 of the women are
enqdoyed in lace-making.
Idris. a mythical figure in Welsh tradition,
supposed to have been at once a giant, a prince,
and an astronomer. On the summit of Cader Idris
(q.v.) in Merionethshire may be seen his rock-hewn
chair, and an ancient tradition told that any
Welsh bard who should pass the night upon it
would be found ne.xt morning either dead, mad,
<n- endowed with supernatural poetic iMspirati(m.
This Irailition forms the subject of a line poem by
Mrs llcmaus: the gigantic size of the chair is
alludeil to in Tennyson's (h'niiiil (ittel Eiiirl.
Idrisi. See Edhisi.
I«liiiii:i>a. See Edom.
Idllll. or IlilXA, the name of a godde.ss of the
northern mvthology. She was the daughter of the
dwarf Svalil ; but being received among the .Esir,
she became the wife of iJragi. See SCANDINAyiAN
MVTIlOI.OliV.
Idyll (Gr. cidiiUioii, Lat. idijUium, 'a little
image ' ), a term generally used to designate a
species of poem representing the simple scenes of
pastoral life. It is, however, an error to sujjpose
that the idyll is exclusively pastoral : certainly
there is no warrant for such a notion in the usage
either of the ancients or the moderns. Of the
thirty Eidyllia of Theocritus not more than one-
half are pastoral in their character. After the use
made of the word by Tenny.son in his hh/llx of the
Kill;/, which are eoic in their style and treatment,
and romantic and tragic in their incidents, it
becomes very ditiicult to say what may not be
calleil an idyll.
If, a rocky island in the (hilf of Mai-seille.s,
crowned by a ca-stle, the Chateau d'lf, which wjvs
built by Francis I. of France, and subsequently
used as a state-pri.s(m. Here were conlineii,
among'st others. Mirabeau ami the Duke of Orleans
(Philip Egalite), not to mention 'Monte Cristo.'
Iflli, a small seaport in southern Morocco, 35
miles S. of Aguilon, ceded to Spain in 1883 in ful-
Hlnient of a clause in the treaty signed between
the two ccnintries so far back as 1860.
IglS'dl'asil. See Yggdrasii,.
Iglail (IJolim. Ji/iltim), the second largest town
of Moravia, is situated 1703 feet above sea-level,
on the river Iglawa, close to the Bohemian
boundaiy, 123 miles NNW. of Vienna by rail.
It has some old churches (one founded in 799).
Its staple industries have always been the m.anu-
facture of cloth and wodUen goods ; glass and
tobacco are al.so manuf.ictured. It has a large
trade in corn, flax, wool, cloth, and timber. Pop.
(l.SSO) 12,378; (1890) 23,716. Here in 1436 the
Emperor Sigismund signed the Prague Compactata,
after whicli he was accepted as king by the Bohem-
ians. In the Thirty Years' War it was taken by
the Swedes and recaptured by the Imperialists.
Ig'loolik, an island near the east end of the
Fury and Ilecla Str.ait in the Arctic Ocean, is the
place w here Parry passed the winter of 1822-23.
Igliatiofl'. NicoLAls Pailovitcii. Knssian
diplomatist, was the son of General Paul Ignatieft',
a favourite officer of Alexander II. He was born
at St Petersburg on 29th January 1832, and
educated in the corps of pages. In 18.")6 he
exchanged from the military to the diplomatic
service. In 1858 he induced China to give up
to Itii.ssia the Amur province; and in 1,860,
having been appointed ambassador at I'cking, he
secured for his country from China the southern
portion of the Maritime Province lying east of
the Amur. Between the two treaties by which
Bussia thus gained footing on the Pacilic, Igiia-
tiell' concluded with Khiva and Bokhara com-
mercial treaties advantageous to his own country.
In 1867 he was made ■amba.s.sador at Constan-
tinople, at which court he hail represented Kussia
since 1864. He there acquired considerable inllii-
ence over the Sultan and amongst the Turkish
statesmen. An ardent Panslavist, he is suspected
of having intrigued with the Slav states of the
Balkans in the interests of Bu.ssia. In the diplo-
m;ilic proceeilings before and after the Kusso-
Turkish war of 1878 Ignatietl' toid< a principal part
as Itussia's representative. The treaty of San
Stefano was princii)ally his work ; and he wa-s
greatly incensed when it was decided to submit its
conclusions for revision to a Euroiiean conference
al Berlin. After Alexander 111. came to the
tlirotie Ignatiell' was a]>pointed minister of the
Iiiq>erial Domains, and in 1881 succeede<l Prince
Loris Melikoll as minister of the Interior. In this
capacity he endeavoured to stauip out Nihilism by
forcible measures, but unsuccessfully. He was
dismissed at the end of the year, ai)parently
becau.se of his Panslavist intrigues, and for having
shut his eyes to the persecutions of the Jews.
lUliatillS. one of the so-called Apostolic
l'';uliers, about whom infornuition is but scanty
down to the time of Eusebius, except in .so far
as may be gained from the much-disputed epistles
as.sociated with his name. His birth and education
IGNATIUS
71
are wrapped in obscurity, livit from the letters it the Siiiyrneans, Maenesians, Philadelphiaus, and
may lie inferred that he was not Ikmh of Cliris- Trallians. liesides tlie oiifiiiial (Ireek tliis form is
tiau parents, but was converted in mature life,
and tliat his earlier life had been such as to lill
liis later years with renioi'se and give an unusual
intensity to his religious convictions. The name
is Koman : tiie second name. Theophoros, is merely
a second name and not a title of honour ascribed
to the saint. It wa.s often interpreted as 'the
(ioil-borne, as Ignatius was said to be the chihl
our Lord took in his arms (Mark, ix. 36, 37),
but this story was unknown in the early centuries.
Eusebius is silent about it, an<l Chrysostom says
distinctly that Ignatius had not seen the Lord.
Urigen makes him the second of the Antiochene
bishops, and in Jerome's revision of the Chronicoti
of Eusebius he is stated to have been, with
Papias and Polycarp, a disci)de of St John. The
usual ilate for his accession is 6i)A.D. ,and of his
martyrdom 107, but all that can be said with
certainty is that his martyrdom fell about 110.
The letters show that he was condemned to the
wild beasts at Antioch, and that he was carried to
Rome by a maniple of soldiers merely for the
execution of his sentence. On the journey he was
joinetl at Suiyrna by rejnesentatives from the
churches of Tralles, Magnesia, and Ephesus. Here
he wrote four letters which are extant : three to
the churches whose delegates had met him — the
Ephesians, the Ma.gnesians, and the Trallians ; the
fourth, t<) the church of the Romans, whither he
was jimrneying. The first three are mainly con-
cerneil in enforcing lessons of doctrinal truth and
ecclesiastical order ; the fourth is occupied almost
entirely with the thought of his ap|)roaching mar-
tyrdom. Next from Troas he wrote thiee lettei's :
the lirst and second to the churches of Philadel-
phia and Smyrna, which he had just visited ;
the third to Polycarii, bishop of the latter. The
general topics treated are the same as in the first
three, but special charges are laid ujion Polycarp
to exhort the luethreu at .4ntioch. We next hear
of him at Philippi. as we learn from Polycarp's
extanr reply to the Phili]>iiians, who had evidently
asked Polycar]) for copies of the letters of Ignatius
— not improbably the \ery cause of their preserva-
tion. Beyond this point we know nothing more of
Ignatius save that at Rome he earned his martyr's
crown. The tragic interest of his journey to face
his doom in the arena, and the noble ami exalted
heroism i>f his enthusiasm as the \ ision of martyr-
dom fin' his Loril opened up before his eyes, left his
dying letters a precious heritage to the church and
gave an added sanctity to his teai'hing.
About the close of the 4th century we meet the
nersistent statement that the relics of Ignatius had
been carried from Rome to .\ntioch, and we find
October 17 fixeil a-s the day of his martyrdom. The
bones were finally ileposited in the Tychanim or
Tem])le of Fortune, which henceforward became
known as the Church of Ignatius. His reputation
was great, as is evinced by the epistles forged or
interpolated in his name ; the legendary acts of
martyrdom, which give the unhistorical but well-
known interview with Trajan ; the translation of
his letters into Syriac, Coptic, and Armenian -
honoured especially by the .Mon<ipliysites, who
fani'ied they found support in them for their
distinctive tenets. .And from the close of the 16th
century tlie Jacobite patriarchs of Antioch have
regularly assumed the name of Ignatius on their
accession to the see.
riie Ignatian epistles exist in tliree diH'erenl
fcuins or recensions. The Jir.st of these contains
three epistles alone : to fidycarp, to the Ephesians,
and to the Romans. It is e.xlant only in a Syriac
version. The xreoiid presents these three epistles
iu a fuller f(M-ni, and adds to them four others : to
and
is
anil Coptic
found in Latin, .\rnii-nian, .Syriac
translations, allhongh only fragmentarily in tl
last two. The third contains the seven epistles
already mentioned in a still longer form, together
w ith six others — a letter from Mary of Cassobola to
Ignatius, and letters from Ignatius to Mary of
Cassobola, to the Tarsians, the Antiochenes, to
Hero, and to the Philippians. This recension is
extant both in the Greel; and in a Latin trans-
lation. These three it is now usual to rail the
Shiirt. Mii/d/e, and Long recensions. As will be
seen, of the twelve Ignatian epistles (excluding
that of Mary to Ignatius) three occur in three
different forms, four in two forms, and the remain-
ing five in one form only. The Long recension is
now universally condemned as spurious. More
serious is the dispute between the remaining two,
which are often spoken of, from their editors, as
the Curetonian (Short ) uni^ the Vossian (Middli)
versions. The Curetonian long held the field, but
the genuineness of the Vossian letters is now the
prevailing belief, and is every day gaining ground.
Bishop Lightfoot began by believing in the Cuie-
tonian form, luit gradually found that the position
demanded too much ingenuity from the Ignati.in
forger, and at length, iuUuenced greatly by Zalin,
found himself compelled to believe in the seven
Vossian epistles as representing the genuine
Ignatius. Indeed the priorit.y and substantial
genuineness of the Vossian letters may be said to
be pro\ed, in so far as any question of the kind
can be proved, by Lightfoot's work ; and with this
conclusion one of the main buttres.ses of Baur's
.scheme of the formation of the Christian canon and
of early Christian history generally falls to the
ground.
The Short Forui, represented only by a Syriac version,
was tirst published by the Rev. W, Cureton in 1845, from
Mss. recently brou-^bt to the British Museum from the
Nitiian desert. Not only are the epistles fewer in
number, but shorter and more abrupt. Tiieir upholders
believe the Greek fonn an expansion and corruption of
the lost Greek originals of these Syriac letters ; while
their opponents thinly the Syriac an abridgment of the
Greek.
Tlie Middle Form was first published in the Latin
version ( made perhaps by Kobert Grosseteste ), by Ussber
I Oxford, 1(144 I, from two MSS, discovered in England ;
the orij^nal Greek, by Isaac Voss (.Amsterdam, 1646 j,
from a Mediceau MS., the epistle to the Koinans alone
excepted, which was first pubHshed by Ruinart ( Paris,
16810. The -Armenian version appeared at Constantin-
ojjle in 1783. These may now be accepted with some
confidence as the seven epistles of Ignatius men cloned by
Eusebius, which were translated into .Syriac soon after
his time, and of which the Cmx-tonian epistles are uierely
an extract.
Tlie Long form in its Latin version was printed by J.
Kaber Stapulensis (Paris. 14118 ); in the Greek version by
Valentinus Paceus ( Dillinga;, 15.57). These epistles are
supposed to liave been interpolated and extended by the
[iseudo-lgnatius in the later half oi the 4tli « ntury.
The chief ditl'ercnces in substance of these three
forms of the Ignatian epistles arc these : the Cure-
Ionian text contains mi quotation from the Old
Testament, and very lew from the New, while the
\'i)ssian contains a coiisideralile number of quota
lion.s, and the Long a large number. -Vgain, the last
also contains many allusions to religious institu-
tions not in existence in a mature state before the
4th century, as well as plagiarisms from preieding
writers and perceptible diti'erences in doctrinal
teaching. There is a tendency to maintain the
su|iremacy of the Father and to make the Son's
agency dependent. Indeed, many pas.sages savmir
distinctly of Ajiollinarianism, yet the general
bearing of the language leans faintly to tlie Ariaii
side. The whole might well be an eirenicon
IGNATIUS' BEANS
KJNEOrS ROCKS
palmed off by a pious fraud upon the name of a
venerated primitive lather of the church. Tlie
styh" ami expression throu;,'hout drive us to
the conviction that the six additional lettere
come from the same hand which interpolated the
seven.
Again, tlie Vo.ssian letters are found to be
ili.stinctly antagonistic to Docetism. Indeed, a
characteristic note of Ignatian tlieology throujih-
out is tlie accentuation of the twofold nature of
Christ — liis deity and his humanity. The advocacy
of the ei)iscopal oHioe appears definitely in the
Short no less than the Mid<lle form ; and the
abridgment must have been made rather for
purposes of edilication or practical convenience
rather llian for Monoidiysite reasons, as C, Words-
worth maintained, or for any other doctrinal
purpose. In sliort the al)ridf,'ment theory is much
more rational and easy than the expansion theory,
and if we are to accept the latter we must
maintain, says Lij;litfoot. that the pseu(h)-lj^natius
was a prodif^y of minute observation, of subtle
insight, of imitative skill, of laliorious care, which
is probably without a parallel in the history of
literary forgeries, and which assuredly was an
utter impossiliility among the Christians of the '2d
and 3d centuries.
The iiroiiiinence and autliority of the episcopal
oliic-e in the Ignatian epistles has proved a grave
stumbliiig-lilock to many .scholars. It is certainly
sutticiently clear througliout, yet it is merely as the
emliodiment of the idea of order and the guarantee
of unity within the church. It is not ujiheld
exclusively as against other forms, while all tinge
of sacerdotalism is absent, as well as such an
argument as that in Iremeus, who lays stress on
the apostolic succession as a security for its faithful
transmission. Nor is it autocratic by any means,
while its spread is not yet uniform throughout
Christendom, as at Philippi, for example. Evidence
of a localised episcopate within the (Jentile churches
is absent, and nowhere is there any trace of the
notion of a distinct diocese, wliile there is no
reference to any developed ritual of public service.
Six of the epistles are full of the necessity of
obedience to bishops, which is alone wanting in
the seventh, that addressed to the Romans, who
it may legitimately be inferred had not yet ailopted
the form of government which Ignatius elsewhere
coniinended with such warmth.
Sec Cureton, Antkni Siirittc Version of the Epistles of
S. Iiinaliiis, &c. (1815), and liis Corpus Itjnatianum
(1849); the works in his support by Bunsen, A.
Ritschl, R. A. Lip.sius, and those against iiis theoiy
by Baur and Hilgenfeld, who ilenied the authenticity of
any recension. A fatal Itlow to Cureton's tlie<try was
dealt by the able and learned work of Zalin, Ii/natiua
roil Antiochien (1,S7I5), wliicli won over Lipsius, and now
holds the field, its most formidable cliainpion being
the late Bishop Lightfoot, whose work, Tin Apostolie
Fathers, I'lirt II., .S'. Iinatiiis mid S. Poliicarp (2d
ed. 3 vols. 1.S89 ), contains all materials necessary for
a complete study of the question, and is a m.tsterpiece
of profound erudition and conclusive argument liardly
to be c(|ualled in tlie whole range of English or German
scholarship.
Ignatius' BcilllS, Saint, the seeds of the
Jriniitiii iiiiuirii. fonnerly Stri/r/inox Ifiniitll, a tree
of the natural order Loganiace.T, and nearly allied
to that whi(di ]iroduces Nux vomica (q.v.), a native
of Cochiii-China ami of the Philippine Islands.
The fruit is of the size of a large jiear, and contains
about twenty In-owiiisli seeds, of about the size of
olives, rounded on one side, and somewhat angular
on the other. They contain strj/chtiid, Imt no
brucia, and their medicinal uses are similar to
those of nnor vomieri.
Ignatius Loyola. See Luvola.
Igneous K«>el{S are those which have been
eru]ited from the heated interior of the earth -. hence
they are also termed rniptire roi-/:s. I'etrologi-
cally they may be groiiiied under two head — rn/s
IdlliiK and fniijiiuntiil. The crystalline division
includes many rocks wliicli are rather vitreous or
glassy than crystalline, while a large number are
comiiosed partly of crystalline and [lartly of non-
crystalline materials. No quite satisfactory cl.a.ssi-
fication of the 'crystalline' igneous rocks has a-s
yet been possible, ])erhai>s tlie most convenient
being that which is based on the nature of the
principal rock-forming minerals. Thus, those in
whicli cnthoclase (see FliLSP.Mi) is a dominant
ingredient are grouped together as Orthorhise mrks.
In another large class plagioclase-felsjiars play a
principal part, and thus we have the J^/tii/ioc/cise
rocks . ami .so in like manner Xe/i/ic/iiie and Leucite
I'ocks, and Olivine and Srrpcntiuc rocks.
(1) Orlliurliisr liocl.s. — Some of these rooks con-
tain much free silica ((j>uartz, (|.v.), while otliers
contain litlle or none. They are thus divided into
two groups — Qiiartziferotis and Qiuirtzless. Under
the fust group come dranifc, Qii/irtz-porpht/ri/, and
LijKiritc, while under the second are ranged Si/cnite,
Orth(jcl(isc-porph;/ry, ami Truchi/te. Some of these
rocks are holocrysfalline — i.e. composed entirely of
crystalline ingredients, as granite and syenite;
others, such as liparite and trachyte, are only semi-
crystalline — they contain in addition to crystalline
(•onstituents a larger or smaller proportion of non-
ilillerentiated mineral matter. OhsiiUmi and Pitch-
stuiic are \itreons species of orthoclase rocks which
consist almost entirely of volcanic gla.ss. Otlier
kinds of orthoclase rocks have been recognised by
petrcdogists, but those mentiimed are the most
important.
('2) riagiuc/iise Jiocl.s. — Most of the rocks in this
division are distinguished by their basic character
— that is to say, they contain generally less silica
than orthoclase rocks. The most ini]>ortant s]vecies
arc Dioritr (a crystalline granular aggregate of
plagioela.se ami hornblende). A/ir/esite. Por/i/iiiritc,
Brisiilt, and (liiljhro. The holocrystalline character
is seldom met with in this divisicm ; it occurs,
however, in diorite and gabbro. The other species
mentioned usually contain some ailmixture of non-
difi'erentiated mineral matter. \'itreous varieties
also occur in this divisi(m. See H.vs.vLT.
(3) XfjilieJiiir (iiid l.ciicilc Uuel.s. — The rocks in-
cluded under this head closely resemble the bitsalt
rocks of the preceding division, ]ilagioclase being
substituted in whole or in part by nepheline or
leucite m by both. See IJ.VSALT.
(4) Oliriiic iitid Serpcntitic Hocks. — These are
generally rather basic rocks. The olivine rocks
projjer, or I'crii/ofifc.i, as they are called, contain
olivine as their princi]ial constituent. They <iften
-how more or less alteration, the olivine being re-
plai^ed in whole or in jiart by Serpentine. Some
olivine rocks, indeed, have been eomiiletely altered
into serpentine.
'VUe/rfiifiiioital igneous rocks consist of the loose
eji'i'tamenta which have been ermited from vol-
caiuc orifices. These rocks are frequently con-
solidated, and when line-grained it is .sometimes
Fii>. 1.— Neck tilled with Fraginental Igneous Hock.
ditficult without the help of the microscope to dis-
linguish them from compact crystalline igneous
rocks. Some account of tliese rocks will be found
under AtxiLoMBRATE, Tikk, Volcano.
IGNEOUS ROCKS
I<;neoU8 ix>ck$, when looketi at friiiii the point of
view of the stmlent of stiuctural geology, are
cla-ssilieil in an altogetlier ilid'eifnt way. It is not
only necessaiy to know the iietrologicul oliavacter
of a rock — we ninst discover something of its his-
tory. W.os it eNtrudeil at the surface like the
ejecta of modern \olcanoes, or did it cool and
consolidate below ground ? Thus two kinds of
igneous or eruptive rocks are recognised hy geolo-
gists : ( 1 ) Vufciiiiic roc/.s, consisting of la\as, tutis,
i*i.c. . which have heen ejected at the surface, either
upon the lanil or under water: (2) Plutonic or
Hiniogetn' rufhs, which, whether consisting of crys-
talline or fragmental materials, have not been so
e.xtruded, but are now exposed owing to the de-
nudation of rock-masses underneath which they
were formerly concealed. The \olcanic rocks are
often termed contiuiporancoii.'i — i.e. they belong to
tile same geological age ;is the strata with whicli
they are intrrbalded. On the other hand, the
2)lutO)iic rocks are described as intrusive or .iiibsc-
(jiient, because they have been intruded amongst,
and therefore must be subsequent in date to the
rocks w ith which they are in contact.
( 1 ) Contemporaneou.s I</ncous liaehs. — These con-
sist of crystalline (lava-llows) and fragmental rocks
(tuffs, vVc. ), and are simply the products of former
volcanic action. They are met with at all geo-
logical horizons from the oldest down to the most
recent jieiiod. Sometimes they indicate the former
existence of small isolated 'puys' (see VoLC.XNo i,
fi'om which it may be only a single eruption took
place ; at other times they are obviously the pro
<lncts of nnicli more jiowerful an<l long-continued
volcanic action. Many of the hill-ranges of central
•Scotland (for example, Sidlaws, Ochils, Ac.) are
liuilt up of successive laia-flows with associated
toll's, which have been ejected from vents in the
manner of modern volcanic eruptions. In some
regions, however, there occur vast successions of
lava-Hows, covering immense areas, which do not
ajipear to have been erupted from isolated vents,
but are believed to have welled up along the line
of great fissures, and to have poured in wide Hoods
over the sui-face, so as eventually to form extensive
plains or plateaus. The rocks of such ' fissure-
eruptions ' consist usually of basalt, with basalt-
tiill' or I'alagonite. The basalt plateaus of the
western territories of North America, of Ice-
lanil and the Faroes, of the Deccan (India), and
of Abyssinia are good examides ; while in Antrim
and in many of the western islands of Scotland
fragments of similar plateaus may be studied.
An interbedded or ruufem/wrancous lava-form
lock mav often be di-^tinguisherl from an intrusire
Fig. 2. — Contemporaneous and Intrusive Igneous Kocks :
c. r, cont4!iiiporaneon.s trai)<rocks ; f, t, conteiiiporaneniis frag-
mental igneous rocks ; i, p, n, d, intriisix'e igneous rocks.
sheet of ciystalline igneous rock by noting that
the beds which immediately overlie it show no
tiace of having been subjected to the action of
h''at. The ui)per part of the lava-form rock is not
infrequently scoriaceims or amygdaloidal (.see
-\.MYi;i).\LOID) in character, ;uid fragments of this
< I u-t may occasioiuilly be fnuml in the overlying
l>ed.s if these chance to be of aqueous origin.
(2) Intrusive Ir/neoux Uijrl.s. — These rocks are
likewise met with under two {ormsi—rri/stalline
and frtigntentid. The frugmcntul intrusive rocks
are foun<l onlv in connection with old volcanic
vents. These latter, in conntries where volcanic
action has been long extinct, no longer exist as
crateriform hollows. The ujijier parts of the cones
have all been swept away, and only the stumps
renuiin. These stumps are known as nrel.ft, by
which is understood a more or less cylindrical
funnel or volcanic vent filled up either with
fragmental or crystalline rock or with l)oth.
Such necks vary in diameter from a few yards
>ip to several hundred feet ; sometimes they occur
ujion a line of Dislocatiim (q.v.) or fault: at
other times they have no such connection. The
necks now descrilied are probably the relics of
comparatively small \olcanoes like the puys of
Auvergne and the Eifel. Now and again, however,
as in some of the hill-ranges of central Scotland,
necks of a larger size are met with. These \aiy
from 100 yards or so up to a mile or more in dia-
meter, and are usually plugged up with crystalline
igneous rock, although fragmental rock also i> occa-
sionally present. Such necks seem to be the stumps
of great volcanic vents, from which the lava-form
and fragmental igneous rocks of the surrounding
neighbourhood were ejected. Good ex.amples occur
in the ranges of the Sidlaws, the Ochils, the
Braids, i*v:c. i3os.5C-v is the term applieil to irregular-
shaped nuisses of crystalline igneous rocks, which
ai)pear to be for the most part of deepei-seated
origin than those of the necks just referreil to.
The rocks of these bosses are usually more or
less coarsely crystalline, and often have a gran-
itoid aspect, such as granite, syenite, gabbro,
i^cc. Bosses usually cover a considerably wider
area than necks, and it has been conjectured
that they are merely the most deeply seated
jiortions of ancient volcanoes — the leservoirs from
which molten matter was pumped up to the
surface. Intrusive Sheets are masses of ervstalliue
Fig. 3. — Intrusive Sheet and Dykes :
j, igneous intrusive sheet ; rf, rf, dykes ; s, .s, sedimenlaiy strata.
igneous rock which have been erupted between the
[uanes of bedding of i)re-existing strata. They are
never scoriaceous or slaggy, ami are generally
markedly crystalline in texture, especially when
the sheet is thick. Their intrusive character is
often betrayed by the baked appearance of the beds
which overlie them ; by the fact that they seldom
keep i|uite to one and the sanu' plane, but some-
times break across the oveilying bcils and continue
their couise along a somewhat higher horizon ; and
by the veins and protrusions which not infrequently
proceed from them. Dijhes are vertical wall-like
sheets of igneous rock, which may vary in thick-
ness from a foot or so up to .SO yards or iimre. They
often run persistently in one direction for many
miles. Occasionally tliey ilivide into two or more
branches, ami now and again they send out \eins
into the surrounding strata. The rock most Ire-
i|uentlv niet with in such dykes is basalt. Some-
times (Ivkes rise along the line.s of faults, but this
is by no means general. Veins is the term ajijilied
to the more irregulai', winding, blanching, and
tortmuis smaller intrusions of igneous rock. They
may consist of any kind of ei\stalline rock.
Dykes and veins are frequently found proceeding
in all directions from bosses, as in the case of
granitic nia.s.se.s. From the smaller puy-like necks
also veins and dykes have occasionally been in-
jected into the surrounding rocks, while these and
74
IGNIS FATUUS
IGUANA
pxtensive sheets may often lie tiacetl proceeding
from the larger kinds of necks. The rocks s>ir-
rimniling bosses, anil traversed liy veins, are often
liighly nietaniorpliosed.
Ignis FiltllllS ( l-at. ignis, Mire,' /((tniin,
'foolish') is a luminous appearance of uncertain
nature which is occasionally seen in marshy places
and churchyards. The plienonicnon has lieen fre-
qnently descrilieil. hut it h.os heen observed so
rarely in favourable circumstances by .scientitic
men tliat there is no satisfactory explanation.
The light usually appears in autumn evenings
shortly after sunset : it is common in flie north of
(Jermany, in Italy, in the south and nortli-we.st of
Knglauii, anil on the west of Scotland, but it lias
been noticed in many other countries.
Descriptions of ignes fatui vary so much that
several dift'erent phenomena have evidently been
included under the name. The li"ht usually re-
sembles a flame, and is often mistaken at first for
the light of a lantern, but seen more closely the
colour appears as bluish, reddish, greenish or
yellowish, merging into purple, but never a clear
white. Some ol)servers describe the Hanie as fi.\ed
in position, shining steadily either close to the
ground or a few feet above it, and illuminating the
surrounding reeds and grass. Others have seen it
in motion bounding rapidly over the country, and
sometimes rising Idgh in the air. The light has
been seen to ilivide repeatedly into several smaller
llames, which describe complicated movements,
arivancing, retiring, and eoud)ining. The moving
light is said to recede from an observer « ho
approaches it, but to follow liim if lie retires I'loni
it.
Some supposed appearances of the ignis fatiiiis
have been proved to be the lights of distant houses
seen through trees ; others are almost certainly due
to luminous insects, such as the glow-worm, or to
the phosphorescence of decaying vegetable matter.
St Elmo's Fire (q.v. ) has also been confounded with
it. But setting all these possible cases aside, both
fixed and moving ignes fatui have been proved to
exist. The spectrum of the light has never been
observed, so far as the writer can ascertain. It is
said that paper has been ignited by the Haiiie, and
if this be so there must be at least two similar
phenomena of different nature. List in north
tlermany pas.sed his hand through the buiiinoiis
appearance and felt no warmth : near the same
locality at a later date Knorr held the metal ti]) of
a walking-stick in the llaiue of a lixed ignis fatuus
( whicli he could not hiinsrlf touch <ui account of
the marsh) for a ipiarter of an hour, but the metal
was not warmed. In the former instance a putt' of
air extinguished the llanie, and a very slight
explosion was heard when it reappeared ; in the
latter a strong waft of air only made it flicker
slightly, and a light breath ]>roduced no eli'ect.
No odour was perceptil)le.
The common hypothesis that ignis fatuus is the
flame of burning marsh-gas, C'Hj, is untenable, for
although this gas is produced aliuii<lantly in many
marshy places it cannot ignite siiontaneonsly.
The more plausible suggestion tliat plios]ihuiettcil
hydrogen, PH::, which is spontaneously inliam-
mable, might be produced in cbtin'hyards or
marshes where there is decaying animal matter.
does not account for the etl'ect ob.served by the
German physicists, since no g.os can burn williont
giving out lieat. and that particular gas has a very
Ijenetrating and characteristic smell. Xor could
a burning gas, except on the most extravagant
assumptions, hound over the country like a ball of
lire for half an hour at a time. Tlie early supposi-
tion of a phosphorestMMit \'apour is more reasonable,
although excepting that of free pl]os|)horns, which
could not occur in nature, no sueli \ apour is knowif
to exist. The phenomenon was undoubtedly more
common a century ago than it is now, and its dis-
appearance in many localities may be directly
traced to the draining of fens and marshes.
Popular names — e.g. Will-o'-the-Wiso, .Jack-a-
LantiMii, Spunkie, vS:c. — abound in folulore, and
are connected with many stories of travellers mis-
taking the iiiarsh lights for a cottage window, and
being decoyed into dangerous places, often with
fatal results. A (lerman legend identifies the
will-o'-the-wisp with the soul of an unbaptised
infant ; an Irisli, with a soul broke out of Purga-
tory. For the folklore of the subject, see Xotcs
(nifl Qiirrif-i. passim.
IjiflloraillllS (Lat.. 'we do not know'), the
word formerly written by a graiid-juiy on the liack
of an indictment, meaning that they rejected it.
The word is now useil most conimonl,v as a syn-
onym for a blockhead.
IS'llorailC'C (Ignurantiit Juris) is held in law
to lie no excuse for any breach of contract or duty,
nor for crime or other oH'ence. It is alisolulely
necessary to start with this maxim, otherwise it
would be quite impossilde to administer the law ;
for if once a contrary maxim were allowed it would
not only be a premium to ignorance, but wonld
lead to endless and abortive inquiries into the
interior of a man's mind. Ignorance of a fact,
however, is a ditl'erent thing. Another kindred
maxim of the law is that every man intends the
consequences of bis own act. Thus, if he shoot
at <»■ give poison to a person it is presuiiu'd that
he intended to kill such person. So, if he Ic-ne
a trapdoor open in a street or tlionuighfare it is
held tliat he intended people to fall into it and be
injured. There is, however, a doctrine called linnu
fides, which, in the case of petty offences punishable
by justices, often tempers the strict and rigid a]i-
plication of the maxim, ignura/i/ia /Kris neiiiinnn
exciisat : and even in crimes a judge always takes
into consideration, when pa.ssing judgment, whether
the prisoner or defendant was an ignorant or in-
telligent person. — In Catholic theology, a man is
never excused for sin, whether of omission or of
commission, on the plea of ignorance which he can
be fairly expected to overcome, of 'vincible' or
wilful ignorance; whereas 'invincible' ignorance,
whicli a man could not help or abate, altogether
excuses from .uuilt.
IgUUrantilK'M. a religious congregation of men
ill tiie Roman Catholic Church, <levoted in the
gratuitous instruction of poor children, now better
known as the lirothers of Christian Schools. See
Sciliidl.s.
I&'lialada. a town of Spain, 32 miles N\V. of
Barcelona, on the west side of Mount Montserrat.
It carries on iiiaiiufactures of cotton and woollen
goods and li rearms. Po]i. ll.iUM).
Iguana, a genus typical of the lgiianid:e, a
familv of thick-tongued lizards representing in the
New SVorld the Agamida- of the t)ld. The family
comprises fifty-six genera, most of which an; found
in tropical .-\merica. They are slender and lizard-
like in form, have distinct eyelids, the tym]iaiiic
luembranc usually free, the tail long ami com-
piesseil, the toes free, live on each liiiili, and ending
ill a sharp claw. They arc ailioieal in habil, ami
feed chiefly on leaves anil fruits, but will al.so eat
insects. The genus Iguana includes live s|iecies,
found in the West Indies and South America, and
all characterised by a pyramidal head, a pouch of
skin under the throat, and an ii]iriglit comb of
pointed teeth extending alonj; the back from the
neck to the tiji of the tail. The best known is the
Common or (Ireen Iguana (/. tii/ifn-ii/dtiis), which
has a very large pouch, is preilominantly of a
beautiful green colour, and grows to a length of
IGUANODON
IHRE
75
from 3 to 5 feet. Tliis iguana lives usually in trees
near a stream, eliniliiiiu' with jireat ease, and mov
in',' rapidly along tlie l)ranclius, but taking readilv
to tlie water, where it swims hy means i)f its tail.
Common Iguana (Iiji"
culatus).
Its Hash is white and tender, and is much esteemed
for food. It Ls sometimes caught by noosed cords,
sometimes tracked to its burrow by dogs trained
for the purpose. The eggs are about the size of
those of a pigeon, but have no hard shell, and are
laid in the sand. They also are used as food.
Other species of iguana and their eggs are eaten
l>y those, as Danvin says, ' wliose stomachs soar
above all prejudices.' Other important genera are
Anolis : Cyclura, one species of which, C. lophoimi, is
called the 'great Iguana' of Jamaica; .4iublyrhyn-
chus, the marine lizard ; Phrvnosoma, the ' homed
toads ;' and the Basilisks (q. v.). See LlZ.\RD ; and
Boulenger, Brit. Mas. Cat. of Lizards ('2d ed.
Lond. ISS.'i-ST).
Ignau'odou ilguan.a. and Or. odoits. 'tooth'),
a genus of remarkable gigantic ilinosaurian reptiles,
more abundant in the Wealden lieds of Kent, Sus-
sex, and the Isle
of Wight than
any other genus
of associated
saurians. Their
singular struc-
ture, differing in
many important
particulars from
any known rep-
tile, long caused
great diversity
of opinion as to
their true posi-
tion. Dr Man-
tell, their origi-
nal discoverer
and learned ex-
pounder (18-22).
first knew of their existence from some enormous
lK)nes, which, notwithstanding their c(>los.sal size,
he cimsidered reptilian. A large tooth next turned
u|>, whose smooth-worn crown attested its having
belongeil to a herbivorous animal. Numerous other
specimens of teeth were in process of time dis-
covered, and Dr Mantell found tliat tliey corre-
spomled in a remarkable manner with the teeth of
the small American lizard, the iguana, .■iltliough
they exhibited ven' striking and im]iorlant differ
ences. The first guesses as to the creature's size,
Fig. 1. — Front and side view of a
Tooth of the loner jaw of the
Iguanodun, about two-thirds natu-
ral size.
founded on fragmentary materials, varied vastly ;
Alantell suggesting a length of "0 feet, Owen of 28.
.\n extraordinary recent lind of iguanodons has
simplified this and other (|uestions as to the struc-
ture. In 187S there were found at Bernissart, in
Belgium, between Mons and Tournai, the remains
of .about twenty-three s])ecimens, belonging to two
well-marked species; only two other species having
till then been proposed. In the complete skeleton
set uj) at Brussels from these materials the height
is 14 feet 2 inches; the horizontal length of the
body in a half-standing attitude, '2.3 feet.
The stnicture of the skeleton is very remarkable.
The front parts of both upper and lower jaws
were without teeth, and suggest a hollow, beak-like
arrangement ; possibly the creature had a long
prehensile tongue. In many respects there are
striking resemblances between the structure of the
ornithopod Dinos.aurians (of which the Iguano-
dontida- are a family ) and that of birds. The verte-
bral column had joints slightly concave on both
surfaces, yet had lofty neural arches ; and the
sacrum was composed of five anchylosed joints, a
structure found in no other reptile. The two fore-
legs were small ; the hinder limbs were long and
strong, raising the body some distance from the
ground. The leg terminated in a three-toed foot,
which produced the enormous tridactyle impressions
on the argillaceous Wealden lieds that were for
some time considered to be the footprints of huge
birds. The teeth of the iguanodon. while bearing
Fig. 2. — Skeleton of Iguanodon.
a general resemblance to those of the iguana, were
much more complicated both in external form
and internal structure than in any other known
reptile. In all other known reptiles the vertically
flat teeth are always sharp-edged, and fitted only
to cut ott' the plants on which they feed : but the
worn crowns in this animal show that the iguano-
don thoroughly trituratetl its food before swallow-
ing it.
Igliviuiu. See GlBBio.
IhrOt Joil.vN, an eminent Swedish scholar of
Scottisli extraction, was born at Lund in 1707, and
educated at the university of I psala, where he
acquired a great reputation and carried oil' the
highest honours. He subsequently travelled in
France and England, was appointed on his return
to Sweden under-librarian to the Academy of
Sciences, and rose through a variety of olfices to be
profe.sscu' of Belles-lettres and Political Economy
(1748). He died in 1780. Hire's principal work is
his G/o.ss'iriion Sniogothiviun ('2 \'(ds. folio, 17t)9), a
work of great talent and erudition, which, though
a product of the pre-scientific age, may in some
respects be regarded as the foundation of Swedish
philology. It was issued at the cost of the state,
ILCHESTER
ILLEGITIMACY
which gave Ihie 10,000 ilollai-s to execute it. An-
oiher work of lasting vahie is the Svciiskt Dialect-
Lc.cii'iiii ( 1700).
Iloliester. a .lecaveil village of Soiiiei-setsliiie,
on the Yei). .") miles NW. of Yeovil. Supposed to
he the I.sr/ia/i-s of Ptolemy, it wa.« the principal
station of the Koiiians in this region, and was a
flourishing town in Saxon times. Numerous
Koman remains have heen found here, lleliester
is the hirthphice of Koger Bacon. Till 18.S2 it
returned two niemhers. Hop. 683.
Ile-d«'-Fran<"«', one of the old provinces of
France, haviiii; Paris as its capital, and now mostly
comprised in the departments of Seine, Seine-et-
Oise .\isiie. Seine-et-Marne, Somiue, and Oise.
In the middle of the 9th century it was made a
dukedom, and hecanie one of the four constituent
fiefs of the French monarchy. The second duke,
t)do. commonlv called Count of Paris, was cmwnecl
kiiig of France in 8S.S. His successors contended
for "some vears for the throne of France : one of
them, Hugh Capet, founded in 987 the Capetian
dvna.stv ("see Fr.wce). lle-de-Fiance was for
n'leily the name of Mauritius (q.v.).
Iletzk, a town in the Russian governnient of
Orenburg, near the confluence of the Ilek with
the Ural. Pop. 5769. Close by is the richest sah_
bed in Russia, vielding close upon '21,700 tons of
.salt annuallv. ' It was discovered by Palla.* m
1769, and visited l>y Murchison in 1850.
Ileum. See Digestion.
Ileus, or lLi.\c P.vssioN. See Colic.
Ilex, a tree often named in the Latin cla.ssics,
the Evergreen Oak or Holm Oak (QiieiriDi flex).
See O.^K. It is a native of most parts of the south
of Europe and of the north of Africa, often attain-
in" large dimensions, as it sometimes does where
planted" in Britain. It grows in general singly or
in small groups, and loves the vicinity of the sea.
Its leaves are ovate-oblong, acute, leathery, hoary
beneath ; but thev varv mucli in some respects,
from the size of a sloe-leaf to that of a beech, and
from being very spinv at the edge to perfect e\en-
iiess. The bark is verv astringent, and is employed
for tanning hides in the countries to wliich the tree
is indigenous. Its wood is very hard and heavy,
tough, durable, and useful, particularly for a.xles,
pulleys, screws, and wliatever is to lie subjected to
niucli friction. The acorns are of various <iuality,
sometimes bitter, and sometimes sweet and eat-
able.—In modern botany Ilex is the generic name
of the Holly (q.v.).
Illraeoinbe, a watering-place of England, is
finely situated on the picturesf|Ue rocky mast ot
North Devon, on a cove or inlet of the Bristol
Channel. 11 miles NNW. of Biunstaple ( I.') by a
branch-line). Its air 'combines the soft warmth
of South Devon with the bracing freshness of the
AVelsh mountains' (Charles Kingsley). This and
its line coast-scenery and its admirable sea-bathing
annuallv attract large numbers of visitors. On the
north side of the (good) harbour there is a light-
house, the light, 1'27 feet above high-water, lunng
visible for U) miles. .Vlthough having now nolliing
more than a little coasting trade and lishing,
Ilfracombe was in the Ulli centtiry a liort of some
consequence, and contributed six ves,sels to the
English fleet for the sii-ge of Calais. A destructive
fii/occnrred in .Tuly 1896. Pop. ( 1851 )2919 ; ( 1881 )
6'-'5o; (1891) 769-2.
IlliaVO, a Portuguese town 40 miles
Oporto. Two miles distant is the glass and
lain factory of Vista .\legre. Pop. 7800.
Hi. See Kin-.i A.
Ilirill, tlie bitter principle derived from
(q.v.).
S. of
porce-
llollv
Ilissus. See Athens, and Attica.
Ilium. See Troy ; and for Iliad, see Homer.
Ilk (O.E. i/l!.- 'the same'), an (dd form found
both in English and Scotch meaning the same.
Thus, Chaucer has this ilk worthe knight' an«l
•that ilk man.' It is still not unknown in Scot-
land in cmiiu'ction with family designations : thus,
' Kiidoch of that ilk ' means • Kinloch of the estate
of that same name,' or 'Kinloch of Kinloch.' '(If
that ilk ' is however <Minstantly but absurdly and
ignorantly used to mean 'of that description, as in
'Carpetbaggers anil politicians of that ilK.'
Ilkeston, a market town of Derbyshire, near
the Erewash l{iver, 9 miles ENE. of Derby, and
•20 S. of Chesterlield. It enjoys reimte from its
alkaline spring ami baths (opened in 1830). The
parish chuich. with a lofty pinnacled tower, has
interesting Norman and Early English features.
The town-hall was built in 1868. Ilkeston has
manufactures of hosiery, lace, silk, and earthen-
ware, with coal and iron mines in the vicinity.
In 1'251 a charter for holding a market and fair here
was granted to Hugh Fitz- Ralph: ami in 1887
Ilkeston was incorporated as a municijial borough.
Pop. (1861 ). 3330; n881) 14.122: (189r) 19,, 44.
Ilkley. a watering-place in the West Riding of
"\'orU-liii"e, on the Wharfe. among heatheix hills,
13 miles NNW. of Ilradfor.l and 16 NW. of Leeds
by a liranch-line ( 186.")). Since 1 S46 it has become
the se.at of .several hvdropathic establishments—
Ilkley Wells House, Ben-Rhyddiug (q.v.), \;c. It
occupies the site of a Roman 'station, and in the
churchvard are three curious Saxon crosses : whilst
Bolton' .\bbev (q.v.) is 5 miles north-west. Pop.
(1851 ) sll : (1891) 5767.
Ill, a river of .•\lsace, rising to the south-west of
Basel, and flowing 1'27 miles north -north-eastwaid,
till it fall> into the i;hine9 miles below Strasburg.
It is navigable over nearly one-half of its cour.se.
Ille-et-Vilailie, a maritime French dejiait-
nient, formc.l out of the north-eastern portion of the
old pvovince of Brittany. Area, '2596 s,]. m. : pop.
(lS72).-)89,.>3'2; ( 1891 ) 6'26,873, mostly of Celtic race.
It is watered chiellv bv the Vilaine and its tribu-
tarv the llle, which unite near Uennes, the capital
of the dei.artment. llle-el-Vilaine consists of a
"i-anite plateau traversed by ranges ol low lolls.
It is agricultural, cultivation having been greatly
improve,! during recent years. The cider of this
district is the best in France ; the butter ot Rennes
is celebrated : the horses of the department are
noted for their endurance, ami are m great re.iuest
for the iirmv ; an<l bee-keeping is iinisecuted. Inm
is mined :' slates are (|Uiirricd : ami salt is ex-
tracted. The department is dividcl into six arron-
dissements- -Rennes, Fongeres. Mont fort, St Malo,
Vitrc, and Rcdon. St Malo is the principal .seap(U-t.
llles:i«imaey, by the laws of Engdand, debars
•I child from the inheritance of the lather, unless
express provision be made by will (see B,\ST.\i;i>).
It was even held by xMr .Justice Chitty (t hanccry
Division, Julv 1889) that the term •children in
•I will iloes liot cominiso illegitimate i-sne. it the
wording otherwise is not such as obviously mean-
ing to include them. ,.,,.. . ,
The whole subject of llle-'itimacy tmnis one t,f
the most .lillicult of the social problems : and there
is no branch of social science in which there is such
.leliciencv of literature. Ami yet its importance
is suflicientlv evidenced by the fact_ that 40,,, 50
ille.dtimate ■children were born m England ami
Wales and 1(1,380 in ScotlamI, in one year. In
isss'tiie illegitimate births registered in England
amounted to 46 percent, of the total births and
to 1 -4 per 1000 living persons. Ihe birth rate ot that
year was the lowest in England since the present
ILLEGITIMACY
77
system of registratiuii began ; but it is noticeiible
tlmt, while the mariia^^e-rate, and coiiseiiueiitly
the legitimate birth-rate, has declined steadily fi)i
some years, the illegitimate birth rate has also
steadily declined. Krom 1841 to lS.')!t the indpor
tion ot illegitimate births to the total niimln r
registered ranged from (i'3 to 7 per cent. : in the ten
years Iroiii \S~H to 1SS7 the average was 48 per
rent. : in 1888 the proportion was 4t) per cent.
The decline is very striking, becanse, in the period
lii-st mentioned, the rate lluctuated between (j anil
7 per cent, with a remarkable unil'ornuty. In the
vear lS4o. 70 <mt of every 1000 births registered in
tngland and Wales were illegitimate ; in 1888 only
4(5 out of every 1000. Illegitimacy was greatest
in the following districts, the ligures here given
being the illegitiuiate births in every lOOO births
registered : Norfolk, 74 ; Herefordshire, 8,5 : Shrop-
shire, 80 : Cumberland, 78 : and North Wales, 73.
Middlesex (e.\tra-metropolitan ) comjiares favour
ably, with M : Yorkshire .show.'^ for West Hiding
49, Ea-st Hiding. .50, and North Hiding. 02 : and the
great industrial counties come out with Durham,
40 ; Northumberland, 49 : Lauca-shire, 44 : Derby-
shire, 43 : Warwickshire, 42. The marriage-rate
is proportionately low. Thus, while the average
marriage-rate in England and Wales in 1888 was
14'2 per 1000 pel-sons, the marriage-rate of Here-
ford was 11-5; Shropshire, 11 4; Norfolk, 134;
Cumberland, 12-6; and North Wales, 11-6. In
comparing with the returns of past years we
lind many Uuctuatious in the counties ; but, gener-
ally speaking, the highest rates of illegitimacy in
the least densely populated districts. Unfortu-
nately «e cannot derive from this fact any con-
clusion referring to the education or pruileutial
habits of the people, for in Scotland, where educa-
tion is general, and thrift national, the rate of ille-
gitimacy is notoriously hii'h. And, as regards
morals, it should be remembered that a high per-
centage of illegitimacy may mean that there is no
jirostitution.
In the year 1887 there were 10,380 illegitimates
registered in Scotland out of a total of 124,418
births, but in 1866 there were 11.673 out of
1 13,667. This marks a considerable iuiprovement,
and in fact during the twenty years 1879-88
there was a stea«ly, although not a continuous
decline in the rate". The rate for 1888— 8 -.34 per
cent. — was slightly higher than that of the jirevious
year; that of 1889 wa-s only 7vSo. The following
detailed figures are based on the retuins foi-
1888. In the principal towns the rate was as
follows: Gla-sgow; 83; Edinburgh, 8".5 ; Dun-
dee, 10-3; Aberdeen, 103; Greenock, 5'3 : Leith,
6 '6 ; and Paisley, 6 3 illegitimates out of every 100
registered. The lowest jHoportioM in urban Scot-
land wa.s in Glasgow — landward and suburban dis-
trict. 4.3. The highest rural proportion was in
Wigtownshire, with 18"2; and the lowest rural pro-
portion was in Kinross-shire, with 4. Next to
Wigtownshire for illegitimacy come BanHshire,
with 168; Kirkcudbright, with 15'7 : Elginshire,
with 152; Dumfriesshire, with 13'9; Abenleen-
sliiie, with 132; Kincardineshire, with 124; Ho.x-
burghshiie, with 112; and Berwickshire, with 111
percent. The average is brought down by the low
rates in the shires of Kinross, Ito.ss ami Cromarty,
Dumbarton, Renfrew, Fife, Clackmannan, Stirling,
Bute, Lanark, and Linlithgow, which range be-
tween 4 and 6'8 per cent. The other counties
range about the average for all Scotland, with
the exception of Shetland, which shows the com-
paratively low rate of only 48 illegitimates in
every 100 births. (In 1880 Shetland was the lowest
country, with 4 ; Kinros.s having 6'7 : Wigtown had
17 '7 per cent.) What Ls called the insular- rural
districts had an average of 6 '2. The comparison
for 1888 may be otherwise summed up thus : I
child in every 12 born throughout Scotland was
illegitimate; but in the i)rinci|ial towns the pro-
|iortion was 1 in 13; in the large towns, 1 in 1."); in
the .small towns, I in 12 : in the mainhiiidrnral
districts, 1 in 10; and in the insular rural districts,
1 in 16. The tendency to illegitimacy in Scotlaml
is greater in the north-eastern and southern rural
districts than in the south-western mining and
manufacturing districts — which is much the same
distinction as we ob.served in England. Duly, in
no part of England are the ligures so de|)lorable ;i-«»
in Scotland. Yarious theories have been advanced
to jiccount for this, but it is doubtful if the whole
solution has yet been found. The following may
at anyrate be instanced as among the probable
causes of the prevalence of illegitimacy in Scot-
land : a national caution, which detei-s from early
and iiuinovident marriages: the laxity of the
marriage-laws in lesjiect of the subsequent legiti-
mation of children born out of wedlock ; and the
herding together of farm-labourers in bothies and
farm-buildings. It is to be noted, also, that a large
proportion of the illegitimacy can hardly be ascribed
to vice, seeing that the parents often live together
and rear their families just as if they were legally
married, and as, perhaps, many of them will be
some day. For this curious practice no doubt the
former high proclamation fees may have been to
some extent respcjiisible.
In Ireland we lind a very different state of afl'aii's.
There, in 1888, of 106,433 tilths registered only 3124
or 29 per cent, were illegitimate. Since 1884 the
percentage has ranged between 2 7 and 2 9.
This is the average for the whole island, but in
Ulster the percentage was 44; in Leinster, 2o;
in Munster, 2'2; an(l in Connaught as low as 07.
Dublin county was chargeable with nearly one-
tenth. Londondeny county with about another
tenth, and Antrim with about one-fifth of the
whole. The marriage-rate in Ireland is curiously
low, being only 420 per 1000 of the population, as
against 14'1 in England, and 12'4 in Scotland.
Poverty may explain the low marriage-rate, and
it is noticeable that of the 78,684 emigrants of that
year over 80 per cent, were between fifteen and
thuty-five yeai-s old — that is, of the marriageable
age. The infrequency of bastardy can, howe\er,
only be a.scribed to the chastity of the jjeople, early
marriage, and the wholesome restraints of the
church.
To turn now to British colonies, we shall find
some interesting figures ; but it is important to
bear in mind that birth-rates, like marriage-rates,
ba.sed upon a comparison with the total population,
are .somewhat misleading where the po|iulation is
in an abnormal condition. As in most of the
colonies the males largely exceed the females,
there must necessarily be an abnormally small
proiiortion of child-bearing women. In 1887 the
illegitimate births in Yictoria numbered 1580, or
1 in every 21 births registered. This rate shows
a small increase since 1880, when the rate was 1
The mean foi fifteen years was 4'25
per
cent, of the total births, but the total for 1887 wa.s
4'78 per cent, of the births. As regards the other
Australasian colonies, illegitimacy is most rife in
New South Wales, where it was (1886) 46.); next
in Queensland (1886), 3-97 : next in Tasmania
(1887), 340; and next in New^ Zealand (1S86),
3-12 to every- UK) children born. The.se figures
are remarkably low, but then we must remember
that the ])o]mlations are not yet in a normal con-
ilition, and also that the statistics of illegitimacy
for many reiusons never reveal the whole truth.
This fact must be borne in mind in considering
the following table of the proportion of illegiti-
macy in all the countries of the world for whicli
78
ILLEGITIMACY
ILLINOIS
fillies are available,
the perioil 1881-90.
England and Wales
r^cotland
Ireland
Austria (average). -
Caritithia
Lower Austria and Styria
Upper Austria
Dalmatia
llunjsiO*
'•Belgium
Deuinark
'tYance
Germany (average)
Upper Bavaria...
Schauniburg-Lippe
Prussia
Alsace-Lorraine
Greece
^Holland
Italy
Portugal (certain provinces only, \
returns incomplete) )"
Roumania
Russia (average 1867-81 )
Spain
Sweden
Norway ...
Switzerland
Brazil (estimate)
fCanada
Costa Rica
Guatemala — Whites
Indians
I United States
New South Wales
Victoria
Queensland
South Australia, no statistics.
West Australia
Tasmania
New ilcaland..
In tiie following table we show the comparative
prevalence of illegitimacy in the principal foreign
cities :
ILLEGITIMATE BIRTHS TO EVERY 1(X)0 BORN.
given
are all for
Per cent, lit
Year.
lllegitilimtca tu
toU] biilliA.
ISSS
4 G
1887
8-34
1886
•J -9
1887
14-89
4500
2600
iOOO
3-50
8-00
1887
9-30
1S86
10-00
1887
8-20
1886
0-47
15-67
2-74
8-34
8-10
1889
160
1887
3-2-2
1887
7-45
1885
14-00
1887
5-00
3 00
1884
5-40
188(i
14-88
1886
7-90
1887
4-sO
1884
■25-00
1880
24-00
1887
50-00
"
25-00
1886
4-66
1887
4-78
1886
3-97
1888
S-;«
1887
3-40
1886
3-12
Vienna 449
Prague 439
Munich 431>
StocMiolui 396
Moscow 300
Budapest -299
Copealiagen .... 279
Paris -268
St Petersburg... 236
Trieste 211
Leipzig 211
Dresden '208
Milan 204
Rome .194
Venice 189
Breslau 186
Bucharest 175
Liege 174
Christiania 162
Berlin 154
Glieut 144
Hanilmrg 138
Frankfort 132
Turiu 132
Antwerp 129
Cologne 124
Palermo 101
The Hague 99
Naples 86
Rotterdam 70
None of the above figures are iJiesenteil as abso-
lutely accurate. They can only he ap])r(>xiniate
in the he.'*t case, lor in every country there uiust
always he a large number of Ijastarils who either
are not registered at all, or wlio are registered as
legitimate. But as far as they go tlie tigures
are instructive. They do not, however, enable one
to form any conclusion as to the causes of ilk-
gitiiuai-y in respect cillier of religion, of edm-ation,
of induslrial (x-cupation, or of distribution of popu.
lation. Neither can any theory be well evolved
from a racial basis when we lind Swetlen with as
high an average as .\ustria, and both with more
than twice the aveiage of Italy and Spain. It is
a reuiarkabie fact that in the year bS.")! more
than one-half of the entire birth.s in V'ienna were
* In the eases marked with iin asterisk the percentage is of
living births ; in the other cases, of total births registered,
including still-born.
t No statistics are available for Canada.
{ In (he United States there seems no elflcient system of
registration of marriages an'l births— a fact ujmn which the
CoMUnissioner of Uabour conunents in his recent special report
on 'Marriage and Divorce' in the republic. Some of the indi-
vidual states record tlie illegitimate liirths, but the llgures are
misleading beejiuse incomplete. Tims, the state of Indiana
returned, in 1886. ;i8,370 legitimate and .560 illegitimate births—
the illegitimate being oidy about r46 of the w-liole ; a result
which in the light of the above table we can only regai-«l as due
to defective registration.
illegitimate, but there is no e.xplanatiou forth-
coming of that fact, nor of the improvement re-
vealed in the above table. lu Euroiie generally,
althimgli not universally, there seems a tendency
to decrea.se in the rate of illegitimacy ; but how
f.ti- that appeaiance may be ilue to moral causes
oi- nieiely to more comiuehensive statistics it is
imiiossihle to say.
In the ]>criothcal reports of tlie respective registrars-
general \i-ill be found details referring to Kngland, Scot-
laud, and Ireland. Tlie Virtofian Year-hook, by H. H.
Hayter, government statistician, may be consulteil for the
.Vustralasian colonies. Tlie tigures for foreign countries
have been compiled from official and other sources too
numerous to mention. Information about illegitimacy is
given in the Jetinial de fa Socicti de StntUtiqnt df Paris
(24th and liBtli years); \n Proctdintkntos del Deporta-
meiito NacionnI de EstadiMica, AW (Huenos Ayrcs,
1887 ) ; and in Popolazioiie : Aforimciito drilo Utato Civile
t Confroitti Iitteruazioitati per i/ti aniU I^(!5-S3 I Kome,
1884). In the -lournal of the Eoyal Statistical Society
(London) for 1859 and I8(j2 there are interesting papers
in the subject. .See also A. Letiingweirs IlUijitimacy
f.id the [iijincnrr of thf Seftsons on Conduct (1892).
lUillliilli. one of the principal mountains of the
Bolivian Andes, 40 miles SE. of La Paz. Height,
•21,150 feet. See Andes.
lUillOis t'"' seventeenth in area of the United
Stales, but the third in population, extends fiom
Wisconsin and Lake Michigan on fowright imo m v.s.
the N. and NE. to the junction of by .i. b. Lippincott
the Ohio .and Mississi)ipi liveis at CLipniiy.
the exti-enie S\V. a ilistancc of nearly 400 miles.
It is bounded on the E. liy the stale of Indiana,
from which it is partly separated by the AA'abash
Kiver ; on the S. it is seiiarated from Kentucky
by the Ohio; and on the W. the Mississipiu (lows
between it and the states of Iowa and Missouri.
The area is 56,650 sq. m., or nearly that of England
anil Wales.
The surface of Illinois is the most level of any
state in the Union, except Delaware and Louisiana;
and its wide grassy ])lains, though broken by
numerous streams fringed with belts of line timber,
have gained for it the name of the Prairie State.
The drainage is towards the southwest, through
Streams which How into the Mississippi. The
Illinois River, the largest in the state to which it
gives name, is formed by the union of two streams
in the northeast of the state, abinit 45 miles south-
west of Lake Michigan, and has a siuith-wesl course
of about 500 miles in all, joining the Missis-
sippi '20 miles above the mouth of the Missouii.
Tlie fertile soil -a heavy black loam — with a
favouiable climate, makes this the lichest agri-
(-iiltural stale in the Union; and Illinois lanks
tiist for the jniiduction of coin, cattle, hogs, and
horses.
The annual value of the principal crops — maize,
oats, hav, wheat, potatoes, lye, barley, buckwheat,
tlax, tobacco— is well over §1511,000.000. Theie are
extensive vineyards in the state, and good wine is
made. .Much fruit is raised, especially for the mar-
kets of Chicago. Forests still cover a large area of
the land. Honey and wax are obtained im a large
scale. There ;ire 1,500,000 horses and mules, over
3,000,000 cattle, and 1,000,000 sheep in the state.
The iiiiiieral output of Illinois^ espei-ially of bitu-
minous c<ial, is also large : the state ranks next to
Pennsylvania in this iespe(-t. Nearly a liftli of the
entire (-oal Held of the United States is found in this
state ; and though some tbiee-fourths of the coal is
f<mnd ill the .loliet region in the north east, there
ate some 900 collieries in about lifty .separate
counties of the state. The annual output reaches
15,000,000 tmis, and the industry employs .SO.OOO
persons. There are lirine-springs in the south of the
stale. Iron and zinc are also workeil ; ami other
ILLITERATES
ILLUMINATI
79
niiiieiuU are lead, limestone, salt, anil fluor-spar,
the liist fouiiil near Koseclare.
Tlie position of Illinois (iresents unusual facilities
for couinieri-f. It lius 4oo miles of navigable rivers ;
awaterway to the Atlaiilio iliroiigli tlu' great lakes:
:inil the drainage-canal (1900) from tlie Chicago
liiver to thf Pesplaines connects Chicar'o with the
.Mississippi Kiver. Illinois has more railroads tlian
any other state — 1(1,77(3 miles in 1897. The traile of
the -state centres in Chicago, and in the article
on that city statistics are given, as W(>ll as some
indication of the leailing manufactures. ( H these
last the princii)al are connected with agriculture.
The state i.s divided into 102 counties. The gov-
ernor and most of the other state officers are elected
for four years, the judges of the supreme court
for nine. The legislature meets hicnnially ; and
to the lower house each district returns three mem-
hers, cumulative voting heing iicrmitted in order
to provide for the representation of minorities.
Twenty representatives are sent to the Federal
congre.ss. The provisions for ecim-ation are liberal.
The state maintains two normal schools, an agri-
cultural college, and an industrial tiniversity ; and
besides these there are many other colleges and
universities. A compulsory educational law is in
force, which reijuires children l)etween the ages
of seven and fourteen to attend for at least si.\-
teen weeks in the year some public day school,
or some ijrivate school teaching the branches com-
monly taught in the public schools. The most
important educational in-titutions, inchiding the
magnilicently endowed Chicago University, are in
and about CI] icago (i|.v.). Thirty higher institn
lions have 700 teachers and over 10,000 imjiils.
Over 2.5,0()0 elementary teachers instruct 800,0(10
pupils. The state charitable institutions include
four hospitals for the insane, at Elgin, Kankakee.
Jacksonville, and .\nna : an institution for the deaf
and dumb, and another for the blind at Jackson
ville ; an a-sylum for the feeble-minded at Lincoln :
a home for the orphans of soldiers at Normal ; ami
eye and ear infirmary at Chicago ; a reform school
for boys at Pontiac ; and a soldiers' and sailors'
home at Quincy. The 47o.0<K) Kimian Catholics in
the state have an archbishop and three bishops.
Formerly a part of the North-west Teiritory,
Illinois was organised as a territory in 1809, and
ailniitted as a state on 3d December 1818. While
the Feileral law at that date made a population
of •tO,(X)0 a condition of admission, it i.s well
established that the actual population of Illinois
was then but 34,620. In 18:^0 the population
numbered 1.57,445 ; in 1850, 851,470 ; in 1870,
•2,539,891 ; in 1880, 3,077,871 ; and in 1890,
3,82(j.3.") 1 . Chicago is by far the largest cit.\
of Illinois ; its limits embrace more than a fourth
of the entire population of the state. Peoria,
t^uincy, Springfield (the capital), and RoekfonI
rank ne.\t in population. Important events in the
history of Illinois have been the Indiiin wars of
the territorial period, the Black Hawk war of
1><32, and the Mormon (ij.v.) troubles in 1840-14.
The .state raised si.\ regiments for the Mexican
war, and during the civil war contributed 259.092
men to the Union armies, of whom over 29,(XMi
were killed in action or died of woumls or disease.
At Snringlield Abraham Lincoln lived before he
was elected president, and there he is buried. See
S. Breese, Eurhj Hi.ilori) of Illinois (Chicago,
1HS4); J. Moses, lUinnix, Ilistoriffd iiiid Statintiiut
(Chicago, 1889).
Illiterates ^ term used to designate those
persons who are unable to rea<l or write, or both.
The percentage of illiterates in a country furnishes
one of the few means of estimating <|uantitatively
the average level of intelligence, or at least of
education, po!«e.s.sed by the people of that conntry.
Unfortunately a strict comparison cannot be made,
because the statistics of illiteracy in ditl'eient
countries are not based upon one uniforndy recog-
nised method of obtaining them. ( 1 ) A few-
countries — e.g. the United States, Hungary. Italy,
and Portugal, and the .Vustralian colonies of \ic-
toria and Tasinaina — have endeavoured to take an
exact census of illiterates ; in their enumerations .
all children below six years of age were excludeil,
except in the I'nited States, w-liich excluded all
children below ten years of age.
Uiiitiil .State-s (18S0).22-15 p.iv
Italy (1881) 54-30 ..
Hungary (1880) iT14 p.c.
Portugal ( 1878) 79-Or ..
Men.
Wouieu.
Mf.%1..
9-60
11-50
10,S5
4 t)5
S-28
6-46
■J3-40
25-30
24-H.-I
2 (-III
l-!«
1-1)9
3-76
4-20
3-98
4-52
6-71
0-62
304
3 -49
3-26
1-92
2-89
2-40
3-31
5-11
4-21
14-39
22-62
18-50
42-36
62-80
52-58
The high percentage of the United States is
due to the low educational status of the Negro
population. In 1881 there were in the colony of
Victoria 2380 per cent, of illiter.ates, and in Tas-
mania 48-78 per cent. Of the other methods that
are employed to ascertain the number of illiterates
(2) the most complete results are afl'orded by the
enumeiation of the men and women who, on the
occasion of their marriage, are unable to sign their
names in the registers. On this basis we have the
following results for comparison in the year 1886 :
Country,
Eiiglaud aud Wales. . .
Scotland
Ireland
Victoria
Xew South Walf.s.
Queensland ...
South Australia
N'ew Zealand.
rrussia(lS84)
France (1882)
Italy (1887) 4236
It may be stated that while in England and
Wales, in 1863, 23 8 per cent, men and 'A'Al per cent,
women signeil their marriage register by mark, in
1897 the figures were only 33 per cent, men and
40 per cent, women. In Scotland in 1897 the pro-
portion was 216 per cent, men and 3-27 per cent,
women, while in several counties all signed their
names. In Ireland, in the .same year, the pro-
portions were 151 per cent, men and 132 per cent,
women. (3) The subjoined table gives the number
of recruits w-lio were unalile to ic-kI ami write in the
respective countries named, and where universal
conscription is in force :
Baden (1884) 0-02
Wiirtemberg ( 1^84 ). 0-02
Bavaria (1884) O'Os
Sa.wtiy (1884) 0-15
Sweden ( 1883) 0-27
Denmark ( I8S1 ) 0-36
Uerniany (1884) 1-27
Switzerland (isss) 1-3
Pru.ssia (1884) 1-97
Holland (1887) >-5
France (1886; 10-30
Belgium ( 1887 i 13-87
Austria ( 1888 ) 26 00
Hungary (1884) 3»-60
Italy (1888) 42-98
Russia ( 1882; ... 78-79
Servia (1881) 79-31
(4) .At the general election of 18S6 in Great Brit-
ain ami Ireland there voted in England and Wales
.38,587 illiterate persons, in Scotland 4836, in Ire-
land 36,722. giving a percentage of 2(i9 ont of a
total of 2.91)9,381 voters who went to the poll. (5)
Out of a total of .34.473 persons of all ages arrested
in the odony of Victoria, in the vear 1.S87. 2(>,509
coulil oidy lead or write imperfectly, and 3333 were
totally unable to read, a percentage of 86-.56
illiterates apprehended. Illiteracy among voters,
both white and black, increased enormously in the
south of the United States between 1870 and 1880.
In Texas in 1870 there were 17,500 illiterate votei-s:
ill 1880 there were 33,085. But between 1880 and
1890 the illiteracy in the States was reduced to 13-4
I per cent, of the total population. Peoide unable
to sign their name attest a document by making
a cross, certilied by a witness who can write.
lllorill. See il.oiil.
Illllllliliati (Lat. 'the enlighleneil '), a name
assumed by iir conferred upon various mystics i)ro-
fessing to have special knowledge of God and things
80
ILLUMINATI
ILLUMINATION
divine. The sects which may be included under
the title ;iie the AlDiiihnutux, hIid oiij;iiiated in
Spain aliDUl lo'iO, and were finally eruslied by the
Inijuisition : the ihierhiH.i in Krance, who llouilshed
I'loni 1623 ti) 1G35 : another sect which arose in
the south of France about 17'2*2, and perislied in
the storms of the Revolution : an association of
mystics in Belgium, in the later half of the
18th century. liut the name is more particularly
siven to the Order of the Illuininati, founded at
Tngolstadl on May 1, 1770, which soon s])read over
almost all the Catholic parts of Germany. Its
foumler, Adam Weishau])t (1748-1830), professor
of Canon Law at lugolstadt, at first called it the
Order of the PerfectiUilists. Filled with detestji-
tion of .Jesuitism, and impatient of the restraint^
which were at that time imposed on the freedom
of human thou{;lit in Catholic Cermany, especially
in Uavaria, Weishaupt set himself to combat
ignorance, superstition, and tyranny, by foundiu;;
an association which should be a luminous centre
for the promotion of rational and religious en
lighteument. Religious dogmas and forms of
worship were rejected ; his religious system was
a form of deism. But the .society prosecuted
})olitical aims as well, in that the members of the
lighest of the orders into which it was divided
were pledged to the furtherance of Republican
opinions. Implicit obedience to the chiefs of the
association was one of the first laws of its con-
stitution. The accession of Baron von Knigge
to the new order, and the su|)port which it
received from the Freema.sons, leil to its rapid
extension ; about 17S0 it counted more than 200(1
adherents, mostly men of rank and influence. It
was regarded with favour liy Goethe, Herder,
Nicolai, Ernest II. of Gotlia, and Karl August of
Weimar. Weishaupt and ICnigge quarrelled in
1784. The order began to be openly denounced
as ilangerous, in 1784 and 1785 edicts were issued
bv the Elector of Bavaria for its suppression, and
\^eishaupt was ilegraded and banished. See liis
Geschichte dcr Verfolgtiiig der Illuminaten (1787)
and Kurze Bechtfcrtigiiiig mciner AbsiehteH (1787).
— Ilhimiiiism, the system of the French illu-
rainati, is sometimes used as a synonym for Free
masonry and unbelief, from a Catholic point of
view.
Illiiiiiiiiiitioii of .llaiinscripts, the art of
painting numuscripts with miniatures and orna-
ments, an arc of the most remote antiquity. The
Egyptian papyri containing portions of the Ritual
or • Book of tlie Dead ' are ornamented with
veritable drawings and coloured pictures. E.\ce])t
these papyri, no other manuserijits of antii|uitv
were, strictly speaking, illuminated ; such (Jreek
and Rom.iu manuscripts of the 1st century as have
reacheil the present day being written only. Pliny,
indeeil, mentions from Varro that authors had their
portraits [jainled on their works, and refers to a
biographical work, with numerous portraits intro
duceil. but all such bavi- disai)])eared in the wreck
of ages; the oldest illuminated .MSS. which have
survived beiug the Diusi-orhk.-< of Vienna and the
Vii/jil of the Vatican, both of the 4th century,
and ornamented with vignettes or pictures in the
Byzantine .style of art. St Jerome, indeed, in the
same century, ccuuplaiiis of the abuse of the
practice, as shown by tilling ijp books with capital
letters of preposterous size. The Byzantine style
strongly influeuced every other early style through-
out tlie West, and its influence can be traced as
late as the Hth century.
The art of illuminating manuscripts with ^old
and silver letters is supposed to have been derived
from Egypt, but it is remarkable that no pa|iyrus
has any gold or sil\er inlroduceil into it. The
artists who painted in gold, called Ckri/sogriiji/ii,
are mentioned as early as the 2d centurw One of
the oldest manuscripts of this style is the Cudcx
Anjcnteus of I'ltilas (3(50 A.D.): and the charter
of foundation of Newminster at Winchester by
King Edgar (9(>6 .-v. u.), six centuries later, shows
the use of these lettei-s. (Jold letters seem to have
been used in the East during the 12th and 13th
centuries. At an early period the use of illumin-
ated or decorate<l initial letlei-s conmuMiced — to
lie distinguished from the illuminated or painted
pa^es placed at the head of Byzantine manu-
scripts. Originally they were not larger than
the text, or more coloured ; but the Syriac manu-
scripts of the 7th century have them with a
pattern or border ; and they go on increasing in
size and splemlour from the 8th to the 1 Ith century,
when large initial letters, sometimes decorated with
little pictures or ndniatures, came into fashion in
the Greek and Latin manuscripts. The subjects
of the figures mixed up with the arabesque orna-
ments often referreil to the texts ; warriors and
warlike groups of figures being introduced when
the text referred to war, symliolical representa-
tions of hell where the chapters following treated
on that region. These initial letters soon increased
to a great size, being from 2 to 24 inches long :
they were most used in the 8th and 9th centuries,
but continued tUl the 12tli century, ami degener-
ated in the 16th to the iast decadence of art — the
grotes(iue. In the 13th century burnished gold
was used as a background for letters and minia-
tures, and so linely were these backgrounds
executed that they appear like plates oit solid
gold. The art which flourished in the eastern
an<l western empires pas.sed over to Ireland, and
there gave rise to a separate school or kind uf
illumination. This style, which consists in a
regular seiies of interlace<l ribbon ornaments, often
terminating in the heads of gryphons and other
animals, seems to have been derived from the later
patterns of Byzantine art, seen on mosaics, mural
paintings, and other objects. This Celtic style is
finely exhibited in the remarkable MS. at Trinity
College, Dublin, known as the ' Book of Kells,'
which is believed to be of the 9th centtiry. The
minute size and number of the interlacements is
quite wonderful.
The Hilicrno Saxon style is seen in the .so-called
Durham Book in the British Mu.seum (Cott. MS.
Nero I). IV.), which is only second to the Book of
Kells in beauty. It was written by Eadfrith,
Bishop of Lindisfarne (died 721), in hcuiour of St
Cuthbert. The various schools of art in the
mi<ldle ages found their honu>s hi the dillerent
monasteries, and the so-called Upus Angliciiiii is
exhibited in the Benedictioiial now in the posses-
.sion of the Duke of Devonshire at Chatsworth.
This wius produced at the Old Minster at Win
Chester, and was executed by (Jodcmann (after-
wards abliot of Thorney) for Ethelwold, Bishop
of Winchester (963-984).
In the 12tli century a new style arose which was
distinguished by the profusion of its ornamenta-
ti(Ui, intricate modes of illumination, and abundant
use of gold and silver. In the 13th century the
art still more deterimated in western Europe, but
the manuscripts of the 14lh century show a great
advance in painting over the works of previous
centuries. Dante's hifiiiit Voiimicdiii in the British
.Museum (Egcrtoii MS. 943) is a line siieciinen of
the work of Italian artists in this century. The
.Arundel Psalter, also in the British \luseum
(Arundel MS. 83), is a noble work of English
artists. It was given by Robert de Lyle to his
daughter Audry in 1339. "
In the l.'ith century the art of miniature began
to decline in England, and the finest works were
produced by foreign paintei-s. This is the case
ILLUMINATIONS
ILLUSTRATION OF BOOKS 81
with the fatuous Beilfui.I Missal iu the Britisli
Museuui. It was luepaieil for .lolm, Duke of Bed-
ford, son of Henry I\". and IJejtent i>f France, on
his niarriajie in 14'JS with the dauyliter of John,
Duke of Burgundy. 'I'lie duchess presented tlie
MS. (with her hushaml s consent) to Henry VI.
on Cluistraa-s Eve. 14S0. Iu this same century
were produced the celel)rated choir hooks in the
cathedral of Siena, by (.Jirolarao da t'reinona and
Liberale da Venuia. who were paid foi- tlieir wink
in 146S and 147'2 7.". One of the most lieautiful
specimens of the work of the next century is the
Book of Horn's of Anne of Brittany, wife of Louis
XII., which has borders of natural jdants on a i,'old
j;round. Tlie artist to whom we are imlebted for
this priceless monument of French art at the
period of the Renaissance was Jean Bourdichon
( 14.-)7-1521).
The usual mode of i>ioduction adopted in the
Scriptorium was for the scribe to rule a space for
his te.^t in accordance with the general desif,'n, and
to wiite within tliese liuiits. He was followed by
the illuminator of initials, borders, and ornamental
accessories. Then came the miniaturist. St David,
the patron saint of Wales, is said to have been an
jvssiduous illuminator, and among the most cele-
brated miniaturists niav be mentioned Giotto
I1276-13.37). Fra Angelico (1389-14o5), Attavante
(14o5-1520), Julio Clovio (1498-1578), Vincenzo
Kaimondo (died 1557), and Boccardino (16th
century ). Raphael anil Jan van Eyck might l>e
added to the list. Tliat splendid example of
Flemish illumination, the Franciscan Breviary of
Cardinal Donienico llrimani (1461-1523). has been
attributed to Memling, but later inquiries have
proved that he bad nothing to do with it.
In the reign of Louis XIV. the art became
extinct, ending with a style. of painting called
camaicii ffri.s. a kind of nionoclirome, in which the
liglits are white or gold, and shaded so as to
enuilate bas-reliefs. Among oriental nations the
Persians, Hindus, and Chinese have illuminated
manuscripts of great beauty, none of which, how-
ever, can compete with those of the western
nations in antiquity. For beauty of design some
of the Arab manuscripts are charming, but their
antiquity does not reach beyond the 13th century.
The Chinese Budilhists have also illuminated
classics, or religious books of their sect, one of
which, the Diamond Book, as it is called, in the
British Museum, has a text splendidly printed in
silver and gold lettei-s on a Idue ground, and
the vignettes charmingly painted in tempera, on
macerated leaves of the Fiiiis Indica.
See J. W. Bradley, Manual of Illumination (1861);
Dictionarv of Miniaturists (3 vols. 1887 80): H. Shaw,
The Art of Illumination ( 186G ) ; W. & G. Audsley, Guide
to Illuminating and Missal Paiulinij ( 1861 ) ; L)e Gray
Birch i .Tenner, Earhi iJra'riiKjs anrj Illuniinations
(187f»i; -I. H. Middietmi. Illuminatal Afattuscripts
(181rji; Falconer Madaii, Books in Manuscrijjt {189Z).
Illiiiiiinations. See Pvrotechny.
Illusions are usually distinguished, as having
scune basis in outward physical facts, from (h'/imii/ns,
which are purely .subjective hallucinations, with no
foundation .save perverted imagination, or other-
wise disordered faculties. Optical illusions are
exemplified by the appearances connected with
mirage. See (Jl-TICAI. Il.U'.sioNS, Al'i'.MiiTiox.s,
Dreams. H.\lh;oin.\tiox.s, Insanity; and Sully's
Illuxiiiiis ( Inter. Sc. Series. 1881 ).
Illustration or Itooks. Since man first
discovered how to convey bis thoughts to others
by means of writing, he seems to have felt the
want of some method of illustration or embellish-
ment. From the Kgyptian papyrus down to the
invention of |irinling this was sujqilied bv jiictures,
266
coloured or uncoloured. engravings, carvings, &c..
executed by hand, and so far as these have any con-
nection with books or writings their history will
be found in the article Ilumixatiox of JIaxi'-
SCRII'TS. The lirst juinted books were entirely
illustrations, both jiictures and text being printed
from blocks engraveil on wood in relief, such as the
Biblia I'auperum (q.v.). and many others. The
Ars MeiiinriDnli (end of 15th century) comprised
fifteen New Testament pictures, faced by the same
number of text pages, all engraved on wood. The
Mazarin Bible (145.5), the first book comvdetely
printed from movable types, ninny of the cojdes of
which were beautifully embellished by hand, was
sold as a manuscript, till the number of copies
aroused suspicion. Many other spurious MSS.
were produced iu the same way, the larger price
obtained for them forming a temptation to those
having the secret of printing.
The first edition of the hjwcidum HntnaiKr Sal-
irifioiiis, said to have lieen printed by Coster abotit
1440. is supposed to be the first book in which
two difl'erent coloured inks were useil on the same
page: and the ornamental cajiitals in the Psalter
of Fust ami Schiitler in 1457 are beautiful speci-
mens of printing in two colours. Probably the
first printed book with wood-engraved illustra-
tions used throughout the text was the Fables
of Ulrich Bohner, issued by Albert Pfister, printer
of Bamberg, in 1461, which had 101 engravings on
wood. In Italy the first known example is the
Mfditafioiira, published by Ulrich Hahn. a Ger-
man, in Piome, 1467, of which three copies are
still known to exist. The most artistic book of
this period was certainly a volume on military art
by ^'alturius, illustrated by eighty-two designs by
Matteo Pasti, at Verona, in 1472. The designs
are in outline and very cleverly drawn, though
poorly engraved.
The invention of the method of printing from
engraved (intaglio) plates intro<lnced a new factor
into book illustration. // Muittc Santo di Dio
(Florence, 1477) was the first liook issued with
illustrations engraved on metal.
In the beginning of the 16th century many books
were beatitifully illustratetl liy pictures in chiar-
oscuro, produce<l by three or four blocks, engraved
on wood, jirinting ditt'erent shades of the same
colour, generally ochre, brown, gray, or red, many
of the original drawings being by Titian, Raphael,
Pannigiano, and other mastere. About the middle
of the 16th century engraved (dates l)egan to be
used in conjunction with wood -engravings in the
same books : and from this pei ioil a struggle for
supremacy began between the two arts, which
finally resulted in favour of metal at the end of
the century. Wood-engraving declined till re-
vived by Bewick, and metal engraving and etch-
ing had the field to themselves. During the 18th
century nuiny books were beautifully illustrated
by engraved and etched title-pages, vignettes, and
tailpieces, the most celebrated artists making
designs for the purpose : the tyi)e w.os first printed,
leaving spaces on whicli the plates were afterwards
printed. 'J'hc leail taken by France in the 18th
century was closely followed by Germany and Eng-
land. Coloured illustrations, when not coloured by
hand, as they generally Mere, were [irinted by means
of numerous carefullv prepared wood blocks, each
])rintinga ilifVcrent colour. .\n elalxu'ate account of
the tnethoil will lie found in Savage's work. In
short, the history of book illustration reflects more
or less faithfully the state of art of the period, and
it may he traced in the articles Book, Engraving,
\\'o<)d engraving, Bartolozzi. Bewick, (^axton,
Diirer. Hogarth, Turner, <.S:c.
The invention of lithography in 1796 introduced
a third (dement, which was inimeiliatelv taken
82
ILLUSTRATION OF BOOKS
a.lvantage of. Bein- much cheaper than sicel-
ei-ravinir, it gvadually teu.led to Hupej-s.-de t hat
^^i^'fer ho.3c purposes, it. ^l-^>f . ^^f^^J ^ ^
{or coloured work giving it great adwuitagcs ox.i
its i-ial In Kuijlaiid hook illustration may he
said to have reached its culiuinatin^r poiiit as
regards en-'raved and etched plates m the hrst halt
K 19tir..entnry, in the series o. -J'"-^- ^ee^^
sakes, and the higher-cla^ss hooks ^^^f^<^^^l ]^>
such niivsters as Stothard, Turner, ^c- >lie le
Wval of woo,l.engraviug hy Bewick and lus pupils
.n-adually led to the restoration of that ait as an
illustrating medium. In this it was greatly a ded
hv the facflitv with which wood-engravmgs can he
printed along- with the text, .t"o:ether with t .e
advance made in typographic printing. The senes
of Christmas hooks illustrated hy John (afterwards
Sir John) Gilbert and Birket Foster had no small
share in that advancement. Among the artist^
who have helped to raise the art to its present lugji I
position may he mentioned Cruikshank, H. Iv.
Browne (Phiz), Doyle, Leech Tenniel, MiHais, 1'.
Walker \V. J. Linton, Herkomer, iVc. llie |
.levelopment of what has been called the American [
school of wood-engraving has still further increased
the influence of that branch of art tor illustrative
^^mlef-Uock Proc'ssci for Book Ilhistratim.-
While Photogravure (q. v.) threatens the hnal ex-
tinction of steel-engraving, very many processes
have been invented to pro<lnce relief blocks with
a view to supersede wooil-engravmg in book
iUustration. Tlie object aimed at is to reproduce
drawings in line or wash, in fac-simile, on a reliet
block capable of being printed from the surface at
the type press. That is, the lines or part^ which
impre%4 the paper are to be left in relief, while
the white parts are cut out so as to leave the paper
unprinted. ,. r 1 1 i i
What are called 'process' relief blocks may be
divided into two kinds— those reproduced from
black-and-white, or line drawings by pen and ink,
and those from half-tone idiotographs or wash
drawings. The former, as Ijeing the simpler, we ^
shall describe first. , . . i
The -simplest form of it is when a drawing is
made in transfer ink on lithographic transfer pa,per
(see LlTHOGR.\PHy), or when a proof ot a line
drawin.' on stone or line engraving can lie got in
transfer ink. This transfer drawing or proof is
transferred to the jjolished surface of a zinc plate
ill the or.linarv lithographic manner. /inc is
generally used, iiecause it is cheap, and is readily
soluble in etching acid ; but copper is sometimes
used for very fine work. After tlie transfer the
plate is wetted, and the lines are inked repeatedly
till a thick coating of ink covers the lines or
the drawing. Pow.lered asphalt, or other similar
substance, is then dusted over the plate, which
is -entlv heate.l till the asphalt is incorpor-
ated with the ink. The back of the i>late and
the other parts not requiring to- be etched are
covered by varnish, and the plate is put into
a bath of" acid for the uncovered iiarts to be
etched awav, leaving the lines in relief As tlie
etching, if carried on continuously, would under-
mine the lines and tinallv eat them olf altogether,
the plate Is removed from the bath after a very
slight etching. It is then wa-shed and gently
heated, which causes the asphalt and mk to run
down the side of the lines already in relief, .-ind
l)rot(>ct them from further etching. This is a very
delicate part of the process, and great skill is
required to let the protecting compound run down
enough and no more. The iilate is returned to the
bath and etched a little more. The wa.shing and
heating is repeated, aii.l so the etching an.l heating'
o-oes on "radually till a suHicieiit depth is obtained
for the line parts. During the etching a rocking
motion is given to the batli to make tlie acid act
more equallv and allow the bubbles of gas to
more equallv and allow the l.uoi.les oi ga-s ou
escape. The larger white parts are generally cut
deeper afterwards with machine drills.
When other than transfers are to be reproduced,
such as peuaiid-ink drawings, engravings, or ;uiy
(ither drawing in line, the subject is photographed to
the required size. Here this process has a decided
advantage over that just described, ina.smuch as
the drawing to be copied may Vie made of any con-
venient size, while a drawing on transfer paper
must be of the exact size required. The iilioto-
<naph being obtained, it is treated a-s for a plioto-
fithograph (see Lithography), transferred to
stone, and a re-transfer taken to put on the zinc,
which is then treated a.s already described, liy
tliis process a little of the sharpne.ss of the drawing
is lost bv the repeated transfers, every one tend-
ino- to tliicken and blur the lines a little : a more
direct method of putting the draxyiiig on the zinc
is as follows. The plate is thinly and evenly
coated with bitumen, bichromatised albumen, or
other substance sensitive to the action ot light.
\ very strong photographic negative, taken in
reverse from the drawing, in which the lines are
clear gla.ss and the lights as dense as possible, is
put on the plate and exposed to the light. 1 he
lioht acting through the lines on the negative
re'nder the corresp.mding parts of the coating on
the zinc to a sufficient extent, insoluble, while
the light parts, being protected by the negative,
can he dissolved out by a suitable so vent m the
case of bitumen, or washed ort if the albunien
method is used. The drawing is thus left on the
zinc in bitumen, and, as that substance is a good
protective against acid, the plate is etched as
already described. ^
There are also several gelatine processes, one oi
two of which may be shortly described. In the
svcllcd oekd/iir process a plate of glass, coated with
a film of bichromatised gelatine, is exposed under
a negative, from a line drawing, and afterwards
soaked in cold water, when the i«rts >.>ot acted
upon by the light « ill swell up suthcientl> to
allow of a cast being taken which will give the
lines in relief, or, if the plate be put in /,r.^ water,
will be removed alt<>getlier, /cc,v<„,, the hues in
relief Or, if a nhoto-vositrre be put on the hlni,
the lines will be left soluble and may be disso ved
out bv hot, or swelled up by cold water. In these
.relatine processes, however, the relief is very low,
and the white parts have t« be made up with
heated wax by hand, which is a very .lelicate
i.rocess, or cut away in a subsequent stereotype.
In some methods a solid slab of prepared gelatine
I is used, when the etching or dissolving out may
be made as deep as reipiired. i;«-„,.;„„
' There are an inlinitv of other slightly difteiing
processes for producing the same result but ivs
they are all more or less fimnded on the same
principle, they do not call for separate descrip-
" The production of relief blocks fr.ini ordinary
photographs or drawings made by washes of black
and white Is a much more delicate matter. n-
ta.'lio plates have indeed been ,n success ul use tor
manv years (see I'i.or,M;K,uii;K, but relief bl<K-ks
until the invention ot Meisenbach s process baffled
all elVorts. As in relief bl.,ck every jiart which
touches the paper prints W«</.-, and every part
which does not tcmch the paper leaves it irhite it
is obvious that until some method was devise.l ot
turning the smoothly graded tones ot a photo.^rapli
into something which coul.l be represented in pure
black anil white, success was impossible.
The method sought after was to biea.k up the
photo-tones into some sort of grain, stipple or line,
ILLUSTRATION OF BOOKS
S3
wliioli sliould be closest in the darkest parts, and
liecome more open iis the li;,'hts were approarlied.
It would he nnadvisalile. even it' it ueie possible,
to enumerate all the devices which have been
inventeil and patented for this purpose. That
patenteil by Alei.senbach of Munich in KS,S2. how-
ever, jvs the one on which nearly all the most
succe.ssful subsequent processes are bivsed, may be
brielly explained. A ^lass plate is prepared with
tine parallel lines, thus "; This is exposed be-
tween the lens and tin- ^^-nsitive plate in the
camera, at a very slimt .li>tance from the plate,
and when the exposure is half compleled the cap
is put on the lens, the lined ]date is taken out and
put in with the lines in the reverse clirection, thus
^ <>J. and the exposure is conipleteil. The resultant
^- 1 netrative is thus broken into minute regular
dot- These -screens" are now prepared with cross
lines, thus avoiding the necessity of changing the
position cluring exposure. They are glass plates
with etched lines, or are photographically printed
from a jilate so prepared— two plates being fastened
face to face with their lines in opposite directions
to give the cross etlect. The lines may vary in
width from 85 pei inch for new>.pa]iei printing, to
about 150 per inch for fine printing. Plates with
■2IX) per inch produce work so very fine in grain that
special printing is required.
A grained photograph being finally obtained In-
means of an.v of the tiiousand-and-one processes, it
is transferred to zinc and etched as describeil for
the line process.
In addition to these photochemical proce.sses,
there are several mechauical methods of producing
relief blocks, of which Me.ssi-s Dawson's Typo-
etching process, an improvement upon Palmer's
< Jlyphographic process (patented in 1848), is very
extensively used for the production of maps, plans,
diagrams, &c. .V polished bra,ss plate is covered
with a film of prepared wax, on which the lines are
drawn with special etching needles which clear
away the wax down to the metal. Letters and
words are stamped through the wax with types of
varying sizes as may be rerpiired. The wax, which
is of course very thin, is added to by melting other
wax over the surface with a he.ated iiointed metal
tool. This stream of melted wax is skilfully pre-
vented from running into the lines or lettei-s, and
when thick enough to give sufficient depth t<i the
finished block, an electrotype is taken from the
plate, in which the cleared surface of the bra.ss
forms the raised lines, and the built-up wax the
sunk or white parts. This electrotyjie is the print-
ing block. Many of the text maps in the present
work are executed by this process : those in A ol. VL
p. Till, and Vol. VII. p. 76:2, are good examples.
-Many other mechanical methods are used in
engraving ami etching, but generall.v they are
too technical to be detailed here, and we have
€lescril)ed nearly all which are of any public conse-
quence.
It is obvious that these various processes, thou<;h
simple enough in theory, give great scope for skill
in manipidation, and much of their success depends
on the ability of the operator. .\s a means of illus-
trating books they are making rapiil strides to-
wards complete success within tlie bounds, not by
any means unlimiteil, of their capabilities. The
rapidity with which they can Vie produced ha.s
rendered the <lail.v illustraleil paper a possible and
:iccomplished fact. .\s to cost, blocks can be pro-
duced for from \>\. to Is. 6d. per sipiare inch of sur-
face, according to the nature of the ilrawings — the
stipple process being the more expensive.
The first and most important rcipiisite is to
obtain ilrawings snitalde for the purpose, and tlie.se
should be made by artists who have studied the
capabilities and requirements of the various methods.
For the line processes the drawings, when not
executed on transfer pajier, should be made on
bristol board or smooth-surfaced white paper, with
I .■'onie den.se black pigment, as much of the sue
ce.ss depends on the sharpness and blackness ot
1 even the faintest lines. Stephen's ebony stain,
j AVinsor vV; Newton's liquid lampblack, and other
pigments have been used for the jiurpose. The
drawings should be larger than the required re-
production, ius the reduction tends to refine the
block, and care should lie taken to see that every
detail is exactly iis wanted. f<M- the process repro-
iluces the defects as strongly as the beauties of a
drawing. (Jiven proper drawings and subjects
suitable for the purpose, this process undoubtedly
I is callable of producing first-cla-ss work.
1 The stipple or Meisenbach process is a much more
, delicate affair, and from the care with which its
blocks require to be printed, on account of the
necessarily shallow nature of the etching, its appli-
cation is much more limited. If nature iilioto-
graph.s are repniduced on too small a scale, the
stipple, if coarse, obliterates much of the detail,
and. if too fine, is apt to blur in juinting. Hut
when drawings are specially made fur it by artists
who understand its requirements, it is capable of
very fine lesults, and the drawing is reiiro<luced
«itn a fidelity seldom seen in an engiaving. The
drawings may be executed in lampblack and
Chinese white, or any pure monochrome.
This process has been so improved and developed
that it has liecome almost the universal medium
for ordinary book illustration.
The weak point of nearly all tone-process work
is that the sharpness and brilliancy of the original
drawing gets softened and generalised away, and
the result is sometimes flat and spiritless, with a
tendenc.y to become monotonous. The process has
no white ,• even the highest lights are covered with
tint. This difficulty is met by an increasing use of
hand engraving on the blocks, in order to restore
the vigour of the drawing, anil to give something
more or less like a good wood engiaving.
The latest ilevelopment of the process is the Three-
Colrjur Prorrjsg. Coloured pictures, or naturally
coloured objects, are by this method reproiluce'd
and printed by means of three blocks, printeil with
red, yellow, and blue inks respecti\elv. It is
founded on a suggestion by the late Clerk Alaxwell,
and Professor Vogel of lierlin and many others
have helped in its development. By lueans ot
coloured scieens, or liglit-///tr.v. three separate nega
tives of the subject are taken, reproducing the colour
values of the yellow, red, and blue rays respectively.
I'hese negatives are by the usual process made inlo
blocks, which, if properly printed with the correctl.\
coloured inks, jirodnce a more or less exact fac
.simile of the original object or drawing. Man\
very fine examples of the process ha\e been pro
diiced, in whicli every touch of the bnisb in a
water-cobjur drawing has been faithfully repro-
duced. The care and delicacy necessary for success-
ful printing, however, is very great, anil the method
should be limited to ca.ses where speciallv prepared
paper can be used in printing, or the resiilt mav be
disappointing.
For purely photogr.aphic methods of illustiati<in,
such as collotype, see Photography.
See Tlic Prorcss Year-Book (annually); W. Sav.ige,
PracUciil HiiU.1 <in Decorative JPrinlin;/ ( I^nd. 1*<L'2);
Paper on IMu.strated Books in Qiiarterlii Manaziin. vol
Ixxiv. (.June l!^i): H. IJoucliot, The' Printed Jlook
its Historii. ///ii.ilrati"iig, dc. ( Kng. ed. by K C. Biginorc
Loud. 1,S.S7; new ed. 1R89); J. .S. Hodson, aiiide to Art
lUtMratioii (1.S84); Modern Mdhoilx of Il/u/tratiiii;
BiKika \ I/ond. 1887); Jiweph Peiin.Il. Pen Pratrhni anil
Pea DraiujhtKmen ( ISH'I ; new c<l. ISIM ). and Mmlern
Iltiutrntinii (1S9.">).
64:
ILLYKIA
IMAGE-WORSHIP
Illyria (Lat. nh/rii-Km), in ancient times tlie
country that siretelieil alonjj the eastern siile of
the Ailriatic Sea, from Epinis northwards. It
was not a homof,'eneoiis territorv, hut varied in
extent at ilitl'erent periods of its history. The
region was inhahited hy numerous trihes, wlio
seem sehh>m to liave heeu held togetlu-r hy any
sort of political cohesion. Kroni some cause or
other — prohahly the mountainous character of the
region they inhahited was the princijial cause —
they were the last of the peoples of the lialUan
peninsula to he hrou^'ht within the fold of civilisa-
tion. The single Greek colony of Dyrrhachium
or Epidamnus, in the south, w;is the only point
whence the rays of Greek enliglitennient could
penetrate the darkness of Illyrian barharisni. The
lUyrians are described as resembling the savage
Thracians in their mannei's, as tattooing their
bodies, !i.s ottering human sacrifices to their deities,
but as honouring women, who even held chieftain-
ships amongst them. For many years they seem
to have kept up a series of incessant attacks upon
the early kings of Macedonia : they levied tribute
from Amyntas II., and slew Perdiccas (.359 B.C.).
But they were subdued hy Philip II. and Alex-
ander, who annexed their country to Macedonia.
In the 3d century, after the breaking up of the
Macedonian monarchy, they caused much annoy-
ance to Greece and Italy by their ])iratical excur-
sions. At length the patience of Rome wjis ex-
hausted, and in two short wars (229 and 219 B.C.)
she succeeded in subjiigating the refractory Illy-
rians. Fifty years later they pro\oked a third \\ar
with Kome, Mhich restilted in their defeat and the
incorporation of their territories in the all-vi('torious
republic. Nevertheless, the Illyrians only con-
sented to be civiliseil at the sword's point, they
frequently rose in revolt against their conquerors ;
but in 35 B.C. Illyria Wiis made a Roman province.
During the em])ire they served faithfully in the
Roman armies, and even gave halt-a-dozen
emperoi-s to the state, as Claudius II., Aurelian,
Diocletian, Probus, and some otheis. Under the
rule of the emperors the political importance of
Illyria, or Illyricum, as the Romans called it,
was greatly increased. In the 2d century Illyria
extended as far north as the Danube, and even
Iteyond it, and included Noricuni. Pannonia,
Micsia, Tlirace, and Dacia. t'onstantine still
further enlarged its boundaries, ami made it one
of the four chief divisions of his empire. But
when the empire was divided l)etween East and
West, Illyria w;is also divided. Noricuni, Pan-
nonia, Miesia. lie. were designated as Illyris
liarbara, and incorporated with the empire of the
West ; Illyris {Jneca, embracing Greece, Mace-
donia, Epirus, &c., was attached to the eastern
empire. In the period of the final dissolution of
the western emiiire Illyria was successively over-
run by the Gotiis, the Huns, and several Slavic
tribes, and nearly all traces of civilisation dis
appeared. The illyrians themselves partly amal-
gamated with the Ilnns and their Slavic con-
querors, and partly were driven southwards, where
one of their tribes, the Alhani, survive, at all
events in name, in the modern Albanians. As
the several Slavic states became consolidated and
rose to power, the |)olitical importance of Illyria.
and even its name, gradually died away. The
name was revived in ipiite modern times, when
Napoleon, in 1809, formed the territories he had
wrested from Austria into the Illyrian provinces.
In 1816, when they were resUued to Austria, this
power ciui.stituted out of them and the provinces
of Carinthia, Carniola, Gorz, Gr.adisca, and Istria
the kingdom of Illyria. But the designation was
dropped in 1849, and the territories included in it
were reorganised as provinces.
The geographical features of Illyria are ilescribed
uiuler Bosxi.\, I)ai.m.\ti.\. M<iMi:NK(iRi>, \c., the
modern states or provinces with which it most
nearly coincided.
The name Illyrian is also used in three other
significations. In the 17th and 18th centuries it
wius used to inilicate those Slavs who were membei's
of the non-united Greek Church — i.e. principally
the Servians or Razans. In the 19th century the
terms Illyrian and Illyrian peoides were used in con-
nection with the idea of tlie \inion of the Southern
Slavs — the Servians, Croatians. and Slovenians —
into a revived Illyrian kingdom, an idea which
seems to have been first made current by Gai
about 1835. Illyrian literature is sometimes used
when Servian literature is meant ; and Servian
literature in this sense includes Dalmatian or
Ragusan literature. See Skkvia, and U.viiisA.
The scene of Shakespeare's Tuxlfth Ai(j/it is laid
in Illyria.
IIllIOIl (formerly Mai/sk), a lake in the Russian
government of Novgorixl, with an area of ;154
sq. ni. , and a depth varying from 7 to 30 feet. The
rivers Shelcni, Lovat, Msta, and several others How
into the lake, which ilischarges its waters throu"!!
the river Volkhof into Lake Ladoga. The lake
abounds in fish.
Illllinster* an ancient market-town of Somer-
.setsliire, is situateil on the I.sle, 11 miles SE, of
Taunton by rail. The church is a noble example of
Perpenilicular architecture. Sonu> manufactures of
rojies, bricks, and tiles are carried on. Pop. of
parish ( KS31 ) 2957 : ( 1891 ) 3135.
II Obeid. See Obeii).
Ilori. or Ii.LOKlN', capital of a Voiuba state
in western Africa, and a great connnercial centre,
stands, .at an elevation of 130U feet, about IGO miles
NNE. from Lagos (on the coast). The people,
70,000 in number, consist of 'S'orubas, Hau.ssa,
Kulah, and others, anil make cloth, arms, and
leather. The state is now ]uactically a pnoinee
of the empire of Sokoto (q.v.): and is within the
territory of the British Royal Niger Conii)any.
The religion is Mohammedanism, with strong
traces of heathenism.
Ilslcy. East, or .MarivET lLsl.l■:^, a m.irket-
town of Berkshire, situate<l amid bleak and dreary
downs, 9 miles N. of Newbury and tii S. of
Didcot. Its sheep-markets count among the most
important in the kingdom. Pop. 577. Archbishop
de Dominis was rector of West Ilsley, 2 miles
north-west. Pop. 377.
linage. See Lenses, Mikkoi!.
IlllSlgi'-W<»rslli|l (Hr. ci/'0)io/at/ei«), the use
in public or jirixate worslup of graven or i)ainted
representations of sacred jiersiuis or things, and
especially the exhibition of honour, reverence, or
worship to or towards such representations. Neither
in the New Testament nor in .-iny genuine writings
of the first age of Christianity can any tr.-ice be
discovered of the use of statues or pictures in the
worship of Christians, whether public or private.
The earliest allusion to such representatiiuis is
found in Tertulliau. who appeals to the inuisje
of the Good Shepherd as engraved upon the
chalices. A very curious pagan caricature of
< hristianity of the same age, lately discovered
scratched upon the w.ill of a room in the palace of
the Ca'sars(see(iHAIFlT!), which rudely represents
a man standing in the attitude of prayer, with out-
stretched hand, before a grotesijue caricature of the
crucifixion, and which bears the title • Alexamenus
wcuships God,' has been recently alleged by
I at holies jis an additional indicutiim ol at least a
certain use of inuiges among the Christians of the
2d centurv. The tombs of the Christians in the
IMAGE-WORSHIP
IMBROS
85
I{iiiiian catacombs, many of which are of a date
anti'rior to Constantine, frequently have graven
niioii them rei<resentations of tlie Dove, of the ( 'ross.
lit the symholioal Fish, of the Ship, of Adam ami
Kve, of Moses strikin<,' the rock, of Jonah, of Daniel
in the lions' den, of the apostles Peter and Paul,
and above all, of the Good Shejiherd ; and those
compartments of the catacombs which were used
as chapels are often profusely decorated with sacreil
rejiresentations, the aije of which, however, it is
not e.asy to determine with accuracy. It is
admitted by Catholics, however, that, from the
fear of perpetuatinj; idolatrous notions, for the first
three centuries the use of images was rare and ex-
ceptional ; nor was it until after the establishment
of Cliristianity under Constantine, and p.articularly
after the condenmation of the Nestorian heresy in
+30, that statues and pictures of our Lord, of the
\'irgin Mary, and the Saints, were commonly
introduced in churches, especially in the East and
in Italy. And yet even in the 5tli century the
practice had already reached a great height, as
we learu from the church historian. Theodoret,
for the East, and from Pauliuus of Xola, for Italy ;
and in the 6th and 7th centuries many popular
practices prevailed which called forth the con-
denmation of learned and pious bishops both in the
E;ist and in the West. It was usual not only to
keep lights and burn incense before the images,
to kiss them reverently, and to kneel down and
pray before them, but some went so far as to make
the images serve as goilfathers and godmothers in
baptism, and even to mingle the ilust or the colour-
ing matter scraped from the images with the
eucharistic elements in the Holy Communion :
This use of images by Christians was alleged as an
obstacle to the conversion of the Jews, and as one
of the causes of the progress of Mohammedanism
in the East ; and the excesses described alK)\ e
]irovoked the reaction of Iconoclasni (rj.v. ). In the
second Council of Nice (787) the doctrine as to the
worship of images was carefully laid down. A
distinction was drawn between the supreme worship
of adoration, which is called latreia, and the
inferior worship of honour or reverence, called
ilijitleia. The second Council of Nice declared
that the worshiji to be paid to images is not the
supreme worship of hitreia, but only the inferior
worship of rlouleia : and also that it is not (ibsuliitc.
and is not rendered to the images themselves, but
rdatiic — i.e. only addressed through them, or by
occasion of them, to the original which they
reiiresent. A strange error in the translation of the
Creek acts of the Council of Nice, by which it ap
peared that the same adoration was decreed liy that
council to images ■ which is rendi'red to tlie Holy
Trinity it.self.' led to a vehement agitation in
France and Germany under Charlemagne, and to a
condemnation by a synod at Frankfort of the
doctrines of the Council of Nice. But an explana-
tion of this error, and of the false translation on
which it was based, was immediately afterwards
;.'iven by the pope ; and eventually the Nicene
exposition of the doctrine w.os univer.sally acceiiUMl
in the Western as well as in the Eastern Church.
.\t the Reformation the reforming party generally
rejected the use of images as an unscriptural
novelty, and stigmatised the Catholic practice its
superstitious and even idolatrous. The Zwinglian,
and sulisequently the Calvinistic churches en-
tirely repudiated all use of images for the pur-
^ loses of worship. I.uther, on the contrary, while
le conilemned the Koman worship of images, re-
"arded the simple use of them even in the church
for the puriiose of instruction and a.s incentive.s to
faith and to devotion a-s one of those aainphora.
or iiuliffetent things, which may l>e permitted,
although not of neces.sarj' institution ; hence, in the
Lutheran churches of (Jermany and the northern
kingdoms, pictures, crucihxes, ami other religious
symUils are still freely retained. In many of the
parish churches of England these renuvincd till long
after the Keformation. Thus, we liml that William
Dowsing found ample eiu]iloyment during ten
UKmths of 1644 in destroying ])ictures and images
in the churches of the single county of SuHblk, in
accordance with an ordinance of parliament. In
the modern Anglican Church the practice is still
a subject of coutrovei'sy, and the magnificent
sculptured reredos erected in St Paul's Cathedral
was protested against as idolatrous by some of the
Lonffon clergy in 1888. In the Presbyterian Church
and in all the other Protestant communicms images
are entirely unknow n, although ligures of patron
saints and eminent churchmen have occasionally
been set up, as in the restored St Giles' High Kirk
in Edinburgh.
The Roman Catholic Church, through the decree
of the Council of Trent, disclaims the lm|iutation
commonly made against Catholics of the idolatrous
worship of images, ' as though a divinity dwelt in
them, or as though we [Catholics] a.sked anything
of them, or trusted in them, as the heathens did in
their idols.' It renews the Nicene distinction
between absolute and relative worship ; the lattei-
of which alone — • whereby we worship Christ and
the saints, who are the prototypes of tliese images '
— it sanctions or permits ; and it contends for
the great ad\antage, especially in the case of rude
and unlearned people, to be drawn from the use of
]iictures and statues in the chnrchos as ' memorials
of the suflerings and of the mercy of our Lord, jus
instructive records of the virtues of the saints, and
exhortations to the imitation of their example,
and as incentives to the love of God and to the
practice of piety '( Sess. xxv. On the Inroetttion of
Saints). In many foreign churches, esjiecially in
Italy, in southern Germany, and in France, are
to be found images which are popularly reputed
as especially sacred, and to which, or to prayei-s
oft'ered liefore which, miraculous effects are ascribed.
But instnicted Catholics declare that the legends
connected with siich images form no ]iart of
Catholic belief. Most Catholic books of instruction
contain cautions against attributing such effects
to any special virtue of the images themselves,
rather than to the special faith, trustfulness, and
fervour which are stirred up by their presence, and
by the recorded examples of the mercy of God
with which they are associated. For the modern
Greek usage, see Iconocl.\.sts.
Imago. See Insect.
IluAui, or 1m.\UM, the officer who in Midiani-
Miedau mosf^ues recites the prayers and le.ads the
devotions ot the faithful. In Turkey the inuini
al.so pei-forms the ceremonies c<uiuected with cir-
cumcisions, marriages, and funerals. The prophet
Mohammed and his immediate successors bore the
title Imam, because they u.scd perscmallv to con-
iluct the devotions of their followers. Hence the
title came to mean head of tlu; faith, and as such
is borne bv the Sultan of Turkey. For ' the
Hidden Imam,' see I.S.M.VILI.S, M.UlDi.
Iiiiatra Falls. See Finland.
IllllH'filil.V. ^ee Iniocv.
Illlbros. or iMiiHos, an island of the .Egean
Sea, belonging to Turkey, about 14 miles NK. of
Lemnos and the same distance W. of the mouth
of the Dardanelles. .\rea, 98 m|. m. ; pop. UIKH),
mostly of (Jreek descent. The island is mountain-
ous, its highest summit attaining 1959 feet above
sea-level. Goats and bees are kept. The inhabit-
ants cultivate the soil and carry on lisliing. The
chief village, Kastro. is .situated on the north
coast, and occupies the site of the ancient town
86
TMERITIA
IMMERMANN
of Imbros. It is the seat of a metiopolituii of the
Greek Cliurcli.
IllK'ritia. •>< Imi i;i;iiiia. See Hkokcia.
Illlitatio (ill'isti. a famous liook liighly
prizeil liy ilfvoiit (liristians of all ciinfession^. and
traiislateil into nioic lan.jjua.^cs than any Ixiok
exceiit the Hible. The qnestion of its authoi-shii)
has t,'iven rise to a great controversy. It was
formerly attributeil unhesitatingly to Thomas Ji
Kempis, an<l the best authorities still regard it as
his wcnk. Hut it has been claimed f(n' ("liancellor
Gei-son (((.v.). for Cerson, abbot of Vercelli (an
apparently hypothetical person), for Waller Hilton,
a monk ot Sheen in Surrey, for I'.onaventura, Uer-
nard of ('lair\:iu.>;, and for many other writers, botli
famous and obscure. See Kemi'IS (Thom.vs a).
Iiuitatioil. in the science of mu.sical composi-
tion, is the repeating of the same ])assage, or the
following of a passage with a similar one, in one or
more of the other part~ (u- voices, and it may be
either strict or free. Wlien the imitated pa.ssage
is repeated note for note, and every intei val is tlie
same, it is called strict, and it nuiy take place in
the unison or octave, or in any other of the tlegrees
of the scale, eitlier aljove or below the original
pa.ssage. Canon (q.v. ) is strict imitation carried
on to some length. The progression of a pa.ssage
may also be imitated by an inversion, or by revers
ing the movement of the original : also by notes of
a greater or of a lesser value (see Al'GMENiWTION).
Iiiiitatioii. See .MiMii'Kv.
IllliaacillatO <'01l«'»'l»fi0H. The Feast of
the Immaculate Conceiition ot the I!le.ssed Virgin j
Mary is celeVirated on the 8th of December in the
Latin, and on the 9th in the Greek Church, in j
which latter church it is held under the name of '
'The Conception of St Anne,' the mother of the !
Virgin Mary. The festival of the Conception
itself is traceable iu the Greek Church from the
end of the 5th century, and in the Latin dates from
the 7th : l)Ut a great controversy prevailed for a
long time iu the West as to whether and in what
sense the conce])tion of the Blessed Virgin War\
was to be held immaculate, and in what sense the
Blessed Virgin herself was to be held conceived
without sin. It was ludieved to be a conseipience
of the doctrine of the divine maternity, ami a
necessary part of the honour due to the Incarna-
tion, that the Blessed Mother should be held to
have been at all times free from the stain of sin.
This might have been either by her having been,
like the prophet Jeremiah (Jcr. i. 6). or the IJaiitist
St .lohn (Luke, i. 3.3), sanctified before her birth—
i.e. ]Miriheil in her mother's womb from the stain
of original sin : or by the still higher sanctilication
of having been entirely exempted from the stain of
.sin, either before the forniati(m of the embryo
in the womb of her mother, or at least before its
animation by union with the soul. The actual
controversy in the West may be said to have com-
menced with St Bernard, who not only reuion-
.strate<I with the canons of Lyons in li:!l for their
unauthorised introduction of this festival in their
cathedral, but rejected the opinion of the lilessed
Virgiu'.s having been conceived free froTii original
sin, though he admitted her sanctification in her
mothers womb. Duns Scotus. in a dis]iutation
held before the univei-sity of Paris in l.'fOT, main
tained the iloctrine of the immaculateconcepliiin in
its highest sen-e : and the entire order to which
he belonged, the I'ranciscan, as well as the sclionl
to which he has given his name, the Scotisis,
afterwards zealously defended it. The Thondst
school, which was that of thc> Dondnican order,
denieil the ininnu'ulate I'onception, and mu«li divi-
sion for a time e.\isted : but the prevailing tend-
ency wa-s at all times towards the Scotist opinion.
The university of Paris in 13S7 comlemneil the
Thomist doctrim-. The Council of Basel — al-
though, it is true, at the time when it was in
I coiillict with the popi — declared the doctrine of
I the immacidate conceptiim to be a Catholic
dogma, and reprobated in the strongest terms the
opposite o]iini<in. Sixtus IV., however, inipo.-ed
on the deiendei-s of lioth opinions in UTU the idili-
gation of nuitnal toleration ami charity, and re-
newed this constitution in 14.s;! ; but the university
of Paris reipiired from doctors graduating an oath
that they would defend the dogma of tlie imma-
culate concepticm. The Council of Trent merely
declared that ' in its decree on original sin it did
not comprehend the blessed and immaculate Virgin
Mary,' and renewed the constitutiiui of Sixtus l\'.
This abstinence on the part of the council led to a
further renewal of the (lispute, which reached such
a pitch towardstheclo.se of the Kith century that
Pius V. not only prohibited either side fnun stig-
matising the opposite with the name of heretical,
but forliade all public discussions of the .subject,
except iu theological disputations in the presence
of a learned amlitory. In the pontilieates of Paul
\. and <;regor> XA'. earnest requests were made
by the Spanish crown to obtain a definite declara-
tion in favour of the doctrine of the immaculate
conception ; but the pope again refused, contenting
himself with rejieating the constitution of Sixtus
I\ . He added, however, certain new provisions:
(1) That disputants, in asserting the doctrine of
the innuaculate coneei>tion. should .abstain from
I assailing the opposite doctrine. (2) That no one
exeei>t the menjbers of the Dondnican order, and
others specially privileged, should jiresume to de-
I fend, even in private disputation, the iloctrine that
the Blessed Virgin Alary was coiu'cived in oiiginal
1 sin. (3) That, nevertheless, in the public ma.ss or
oHice of the church, no one should introduce into
the prayers or other formularies any other W(ud
than simidy cnmc/itio, without adding any epithet
involving either doctrine. At the same time
opinion was setting steadily in favour of the
doctrine of the immaculate concejition. Alexander
VII., and afterwanis Clement IX.. added new
solemnity to the festival. Clement XI. ordained
that it should b(! observed as a holiday of obliga-
tion, and at length Gregory X\'l. ]iHiiiiilted tliat
the epithet immaculate should be introduced into
the public .service. In the eml. .at the instaiuHM)f
bishops in various parts of the church. Pope Pius
IX. .addressed a circular to the bishops of each
nation, calling for their opiidon, and that of their
people, as to the faith of the church on the point ;
and on the receijit of leplies all Imt absolutely
unaninmns, he issucil a solemn decree at Pome, in
a numcrims council of lii^hoiis, on the 8th December
1854, declaring the doctrine to be an article of
Catli(dic belief, and proiJosing it as such to the
universal church. This decree h.os been univer-
sally accepted throughout the Koman Church.
llllUiaiH'IK'C. the notion that the intelligent
and creative iirinciple of the universe perv.ades the
universe itself, a fundamental c(Uicei>tion of Pan-
theism ( i|.v.).
Iiiiiiiannol. See Emmanuel.
Iiiiin«-rniami. Kahi, LKnicitKCHT. .lramati>t
and liuriHoist, was born at Magdeburg on '24th
Apiil ITiMi, and educated at his native town ami at
Halle, where he opposed the duelling liiiinrlioi-
srhiil'tiit (i|.v.). In 1817 he entered the public
service of Prussia, ami. after serving at Miinster.
Magdeburg, anil Diisseldorf, died at the bust-
named town on 25th .August 1840. For twenty
years of his life ( 181!) :«•) he was greatly iidlueiiced
by the Countess von .\hlefeldt. an intellectual
l.idv of literarv tiu-les. Immerniann began his
IMMEU.^IANN
IJIMIGRATIOX
literary career as au aillierent u( the Komaiitic
school, ami in the spirit of that selmol wi-otc the
conieiUes Die Priii:<:ii ron ^i/it(/,iis (18'2I ) ;iiiil Ar.v
Aufff. (/iv LuIk { 1824), ami tlie tragedies Ihi.s Thul
mil Jioiiccnil (1S22), Kuni;/ Pcriaiitlcr (1S2;}), and
others. His later drainutii- works, as the trilo<r\"
A/exis { l,S32 ) and tlu' iiiyl liical pii-fo Merlin ( I,S.'{1 ).
show more originality and fewer tnu-es of Koniantie
intiuence. He failed in an eudeavonr to make the
theatre at Diisseldorf, of wliidi he liecame director
in 1,83,"), a model of classic elegance and lieiiltliy
intliienee. His fame rests more endnriiigly npon
his tales (Miacelkii, IS-W) ,and the humor<nis,
satirical novels Die Epiifuncn (I8;j()) and Miiiicli-
/laiixeii (1.839), this la-st the best known of liis
works and one of tlie best of (ierman novels.
The idyllic portion of Miuu-ltliaiiKCn has often l.)een
printed separately undei- the title Dcr Oberhuf.
licsides these he wrote a mock heroic poem Tiili-
fiiiitiliiti (1827). the epic Tristiin mitl Isulilr
(1842), ami Meinwnliilieii (1840-4:{). the la.st two
left incomplete. C'ollecte<l editions of his works
were pnblished in 14 vols. ( 1840 4;{). and in 211 V(ds.
by Bo.vberger (1883). Sec Life by his widow,
editeil by C. \.)n I'ntlitz (2 vols. 1870).
Illlllli^:i'ittioil. Under the he,a<l of Emigration
(i|.v.)the can.scs which have led to immigration and
the comliti<ms under which movements of popnla-
tion are conducted have been fully described. It
is necessary under immigration (entering or passing '
into a place, as opposed to emigration ) to touch on
some features of national opinion and pidicy which
have come into e.-cistence within the past few years.
I'ntil the l,%st few years, with the exception of the
immigration of Huguenot fanulies from France to
(Ireat Britain Mtter the revocation of the KiHct of
Nantes, the (lopuL-ition of these islands has not
been increased from external sources. Since 18,80
a considerable intlux of the Semitic inhabitants of
e.xstern Europe, priiicipaliy Polish, Kussi.au, lion
manian, and (Ierman .Jews, li.as seriously affected
tlie industrial |H)sition of IJritish-born workers in
certain trades. Public attentii>n w.as drawn to the
subject in 18.88 ami 1889 by the a]>pointment of
two parliamentary committees — one by the House
of Lords on the sweating system, the other by the
House of Connmms on the question of foreign
pauper immigration. These separate inquiries
were really directe<l to the same subject. From
the evidence given it appears that the anti-Semitic
laws of Kussi.a, Poland, .-mil ( lermany. .aggravated
by the hated liurden of compulsory military service,
have induced consideralile ImmUcs of destitute per-
.son--, iilmo>t exclusively of the Hebrew faith, to
.seek in England a refuge from civil and religious
persecution. I'ldike the Huguenots, who brought
with them not only capital, industry, .and a know-
ledge of at le.ast two useful tr.ades, silk-weaving
and w.atch-making. the .lewish refugee families
arrive in England in a destitute condition. The
result of this indigent condition is a willingness
to accept the smallest remuneration for the heaviest
l.aboiir. Si.xteen to eighteen hours ,i day is no
unu--ual ]jeriod of toil for these pauper imndgrauts
in the iHmtlinishing trade. Tlie weekly remun
eratioii for this wink varies from four to fourteen
shillings, .according to the skill and industry of
the worker. The bearing of these facts on the
welfare of P>riiisli born workers engaged in the
same (u- in kindred occupations is of a sinister
character. Alone of civilised nations (Ireat Britain I
is without laws to cimtrol and if need be check the '
influx of foreigners, who, contiibuting nothing to
the mitional revenue, enjoy the privileges without
.sharing the liunlens of citizenship. Public ojiinion
holds jealously to the trailitioiis of bospitalily
England has always extended tosullerers by foreign
[lei-secution. Ma//.ini, Kossuth, ami Ui'sini found '
a .sanctuary on ISritish soil. It is held that the
humbler objects of foreign tyranny shall ha\ e
no colder welcome measured out to them. The
present position of the pauper immigr.ant i|Uestion
in Great Britain is set forth in the lieport of the
Select Committee of the Hou.se of Commons, 1889,
and is to the eH'ectllial although no immediate
legislation is recommi'mled, the circumstances are
such as to recpiire careful watching, with the prob-
ability of some restrictive measure being reciuired
in the future.
Far otherwise has the question of immigi-atiou
been dealt with in the I'ldleil States. By an act
piissed by congress in 1882 (al.so the l^ndesirable
Persims .Act, 1891 ) it is provided that passengers
arriving from foreign ports shall be suliject to
ex.uiiination. If a convict, lunatic, idiot, or any
person unable to take care of himself or herself
without becoming a public charge be found <ui
bo.ard, such perscms shall not be allowed to land.
In 1,898, .3229 per.sons were sent back to their jiort
of embarkiition, 2812 under the .above act of 1S91,
anil 417 undi'r the Contr.act L.abour .Acts menlioned
below. Uf the total. 312 were British and Irish.
The liability to repatriation acts as a deterrent
to the embarkation of persons likely to come
under the act. The import.ation of foreigners
and aliens is prohibited in certain cases. By the
.Alien Contract Labour I>aws ( 18,S5, 1887, 1888. ami
1891) prepayment for transportation of or assist-
ing foreign immigrants under contr.act for labour
in- service made previous to emigration, is declared
to be unlawful. Any contract so made is void and
of no etlect. Foreigners temporarily residing in
the L'nited States are nevertfxeless permitted to
engage other foreigners as private secretaries, ser-
vants, or domestics. Nor are persons ]irevented
from engaging as skilled labourers foreigners in
any new industry not established in the Ignited
States. The provisions of this act do not apply
to jirofessional actors, artists, lecturers or singers,
nor to persons employed strictly as iiersoual ami
domestic servants, nor do they |>revent any in-
dividu.al assisting his friends or relatives to end-
gr.ate to the United .States for the purpose of
settlement.
The restriction of the immigration of the Chinese
into the United States dates from the completion
of the great trans-continental railw.ays. Thrift\,
.abstemious, andindust lions, the Mongolian lalioui CIS
thre.atened to lower the wages of the Irish and the
native-born .Americans. The case for the excdusion
of Chinese includes the following jioints : ( 1 ) That
they .arrive in the country faster than any other
kind of immigrant; (2) that the number of Chinese
is greater than that of any other race; (3) that
they are indisposed to be governed by white men's
haw; (4) that they are dissimilar in habits and
occu]iation to the English spe.-iking races; (,"i) that
they evade the i);iyment of taxes justly ilue to the
government ; (6) that they arc governed by pesti-
lential habits; (7) that they are useless in cases of
emergency; (8) that they habitually desecrate
giaveyards by the removal of bodies therefidin ;
(9) that the hiws governing the whites are found
to be inapplicable to the Chinese ; (10) that they
are inclined to habits subversive of the comfort
and well being of the community; ( 1 1 ) that they
do not come .as permanenl settlers. To carry out
the measures for excluding the Chinese a treaty
was concluded between the United States and
China in 1880, which was proclaimeil the follow-
ing year. The lirst and most iinporlaiit articli' of
this treaty stipulates that 'whencNcr in the opinion
of the governmenl of the United Stales the coming
of Chinese labourers allects (u threatens to allei't
the interests of that country, or to end.anger the
good order of the said uouutry, or of any locality
88
IMMORALITY
IMMORTALITY
within tlie territory tliereof, tlie government of
Cliin;i aj;rt'Os tliat the fioveriniient of the t niled
Stiilesj may regulate, limit, or suspend such roniin^
or resilience, but may not absolutely iirohil)it it.'
In pursuance of the stipulations in the above
treaty congress passed in .May 1882 an act declar-
ing that, ' in the opinion of the government of the
United States the coming of Chinese labourers
to this country eiKlangers the good order of
certain localities within the territory thereof,'
and it is eiuicted that the immigration of Chinese
labourers be su.spended for ten years, and during
tliat lime it shall not be lawful for a Chinese
labourer to come, or, having come, to remain in the
United States. No C'hinose are or can be admitted
to citizenship. The laws and regulations devised
to secure the exclusion of the Chinese are exceed-
ingly stringent. Any person Iningiug, or causing
to he brought, any Chinese person not lawfully
entitled to enter tlie United States is guilty of a
inisdemeanoTir, and shall on conviction be lined not
e.xceeding .JIUOO, and imprisoned for not exceeding
one year. Masters of ves.sels arriving at United
States ports mustsupi)ly to the collector of customs
a separate list of (Jhinese jjassengers on board.
Any refusal or wilful neglect to comply with these
provisions subjects the master to the penalties pro-
vided for refusal to deliver a manifest of cargo.
Public opinion in the United States is by no
means unanimous on the Chinese question. The
pressure, however, of the Pacific states has been
too str(mg for resistance by the Atlantic states.
With regard to the laws and regulations prevail-
ing in the larger British colonies, space will not
])ermit their being .set forth in detail. The follow
ing precis of facts and references will be found
useful for further investigations of the subject :
Laws or regulations, if .'my, in the large colonies pro-
hibiting or restricting the ininiigration of pauper or infirm
persons :
Vaiuirla. — See cltap. (i.5 of revised Statutes of Canada.
1886, sections 17 to 24.
Ntiv South Wales. — No statute.
Victoria. — Sections .*it>-y9 of Passengers, Harbours, and
Kavigation Statute, 1H65.
South AuMrulia. — The governor lias power under the
Immigration Act to make rules for repatriating pauper
and infirm person.s.
Qnnrnslati't. Xu statute.
Tasmauia. — Section 3, 4'J Vict. No. 4, lilSS.
New Zealanil — Imbecile Passengers Act, 1882.
('ape. — No statute.
Natal. — No statute.
Tile laws of foreign countries respecting the admission
and continued rosidence of destitute aliens are contained
in a retuiTi presented to parliament in September 1887
(c. .5](J8, Eyre & Spottiswoode).
The law of the Austral.asian colonies rel.ating to
the Chinese are substantially the sanu' as those
prevailing in the United States. See CuiN.V, Vol.
III. p. 193 ; and CooLIKS.
Illiniorality, in point of law, is a good defence
to actions and suits, ami obligations and ciintracls
made .against good nnuiils are inetl'ectual at law.
Thus, for example, if a man gave a bond, or granted
a deed, giving to a woman sinni^ annuity, with a
view to induce her to live in concubinage, this
would he a good defence against, the bond or deed
being enfoiced, for the law^ di.scountenances his
conduct; whereas, if it were tnerely a bond, or a
gift, in considenition of .something of the same kind
1>ast and ended, the deed wouhl be gooil. So the
[eeper of a house of ill fame is not allowed to sue,
and has no legal remedy against her guests for any
sum agreed to be paid for immor.'il pur|ioses.
Immortality is the iimtinued existence oi
the human soul in a future and invisible state. ' If
a man die, shall he live again?' is a question which
has naturally agitated the heart and stimulated the
intellectual curiosity of man, wherever he has risen
above a state of barbarism, and commeitced tuexer-
cise his intellect at all. The religion of all civilised
peoples may be said imne or less to recognise the
alhrmative of the ipiestion, although often under
very vague ami materialistic forms. Some of the
most widely-spread forms of belief in the world would
seem to be exi-cptiiins to this statcmriit ; for in
Hinduism the goal sought is ahsoriJtion into the
Universal Spirit, and theief(ue lo.ss of individual
existence ; while the pious Buddhist strives for
yirmiia, or complete extinction. Yet even here
the belief in a future life exi.sts in the form of
Transmigration ( (pv. ).
In the ancient Kgy|itian religion the idea of
immortality liist a-ssumes a delinite shape. There
is a clear recognition of a dwelling-place of the
dead and of a future judgment. Osiris, the bene-
licent god, judges the dea<l, and ' having weigheil
their heart in the scales of justice, he .sends the
wicked to regions of darkness, while the just are
sent to ilwell with the god of light.' The latter,
we read on an inscription, ' fouml favour befme the
great Cod : they dwell in glory, where they live a
heavenly life; the bodies they have iiuitted will for
ever repose in their tombs, whilst they rejoice in
the life of the supreme God. ' Immortality is |)lainly
taught, but bound up with the idea of the preser-
vation of the body, to which the Kgyi)tians attached
great im]iortance, as a condition of the .soul's con-
tinued life; and hence they built vast tombs, and
embalmed their bodies, as if to last for ever. In
the Zoroastrian religion the future world, with its
governing spirits, jilays a prominent ])art. Under
Urmuzd and Ahriman there are ranged regular
hierarchies of spirits engaged in a perpetual con-
flict ; and the siml passes into the kingdom of light
or of darkness, over which these spirits resjiectivelv
preside, according as it has lived on the earth well
or ill. Whoever has lived in purity, and has not
.sullered the i/irn (evil spirits) to have any power
over him, passes after death into the realms of
light. In the early (Jreek paganism Ha<les, or
the realms of the (lead, is the emblem of gloom
to the Hellenic imagin.ttion. .\chilles, the ideal
hero, ileclares that he ' would rather till the ground
than live in pale Elysium.' This melancholy view
of the future everywhere pervailes the Homeric
religion. 'With the progress of Hellenic thought
a higher idea of the future is fimnd to ch,aiaeterise
both the jjoetry and jihilosophy of (ireece, till, in
the Platonic Socrates, the concejiticm of immort.al-
ity shines forth with impressive clearness and ]ire-
cision. In the .l/ii/lui/i/ and the I'liodu Socr.ates
discourses of the doctrine of the soul's immortality
in language at once rich in faith ami in beavity.
' The soul, the ininiaterial part, being of a nature
.so sujierior to the body, can it, he asks in the
riiwdii, 'as soon as it is separated from the body,
be <lis]iersed into nothing, aiid perish? tMi, far
otherwise. Hatlier will this be the result. If it
take its departure in a state of [lurity, not carrying
with it any clinging impurities of the body, im-
])urities which during life it never willingly shared
in, but .-ilways avoided, gathering itself into itself,
and making the separation from the body its .-lini
and study that is, devoting it.self to true philo-
sophy, .■mcl studying how to ilie caliidy ; for this is
tnu^ philo.sophy, is iti not? — well, then, so pre]>ared,
the soul departs into that invisible region w hich is
of its own nature, the region of the divine, the
immiM'tal, the wise, and then its lot is to be happy
in a state in which it is freeil from fears and wiM
desires, and the other evils of humanity, and spends
the rest of its existence with the gods.
It is only in Christianity, however, that tlii>
higher life is clearly revealed as a reward, uot
IMxMORTELLES
IMPETIGO CONTAGIOSA
89
merely to the true philosopher, but to every humble
and pious soul. I'hrist ' hath brought life and
immortality to lijjlit by the gospel." ' According to
bis abundant mercy, (to<l hath begotten us again
unto a lively hope by the resurrection of Jesus <
(."hrist from the ilead. to an inlieritance incorrupt-
ible and undi'liled, and that tadctli not away,
reserved in heaven.' It is undoubtedly owing to
Christianity that the tioctrine of the soul's im-
mortality has become a common and well -recognised
truth — no mere result of speculation, nor product of
j>riestly invention— but a light to the reason, and a
guide to the conscience and conduct. For the
Old Testament view see the article Hell : for other
'luestions connected with the future state see the
articles ASIMISM, APPARITIOX.S, CoNDITIOX.\L I.M
MORT.ALITV, HE.WEX, ESCHAT0L00Y,0RIGEX, PRE
E.xisTENCE, Soul, Spiritualism. Theosophy.
rNlVERSALlST.s; also Salmonds C'/i)(4Y««H Doctrine
of Immoitnliti/ ( 1896 ). |
Iiniuortelles. See Everlasting Flower.
I'inola. a town of Italy on an islet in the livei
Santerno. in the midst of "a fruitful plain, •22 miles
SE. of Bologna Ity rail, with manufactures of leather,
pottery, silk, and ^'la.ss. Its cathedral has been
spoiled by restoration. Pop. 12,500.— Innocenzo
du I mola (properly Krancucci ), a notable painter,
was born here in 1494, and did most of his life's
work in Bologna, where he died about 1550.
Impanation (Lat. in, and panis, 'bread'), a
technical word formed on tlie analogy of ' incarna-
tion.' employeil in eucharistic controversies as early
as the 12th century to express the union of the
body of Christ with the consecrated bread in the
Euchaiist : hut later specially used of Luther's
doctrine of Consul)stantiation (<|.v.). See T.UTHER,
and Lord's Supper.
Inipearhuieilt. an exceptional form of process
-vvlierel)y the House of Commons may obtain redress
fi>r any unlawful act, and especially for high crime.s
and misdemeanours committed by jjcers and minis-
tei-s of the crown. When the House has resolved
on an impeachment certain of its members are
deputed to go to the bar of the House of Lords, and
there to present the charges they are prepared tn
support. At the trial the Lords as a bod\- act as
jiidges, the managers appointed by the Commons
conduct the prosecution, and the accu.sed may be
di'fended by counsel. For a picturesque description
of these proceedings, see Nlacaula}''s E.ssay on
Warren Hastings. A pardon by the crown may
not be pleade<l in bar of an impeachment ; but after
conviction and sentence the crown may j)ardon the
oll'ender. The la-st instance of an im])eachnieut is
that of Lord Melville in 180.>. Impeachment is a
f<irm of trial, and is to be distinguished from pro-
ceedings by way of Bill of Attaimleror Bill of Pains
and Penalties. Parliament deals witli such l)ills in
its legislative and not in its judicial capacity. In
the United States impeachment is a written charge
Virought by the House of Representatives to the
Senate against a civil officer of the I'nited States :
or, in the several states, the accusation of an officer
by the legislature to the senate of the state. The
most famous trial of impeachment in the I'niteil
States was that of President Johnsim (q.v.), in
1H6S; and he was acquitteil under the rule requir-
ing a two-thirds vote of the meuibei-s ])resent to
secure a cimviction, the vote standing .V> for and 10
against conviction.
Iniponetrability. one of the essential pro-
perties lit mattiT. ini|ilies that no two IxMlies can at
till' saiiK' lime occupy the same space. If a nail
be driyeii into a idece of wood, it does not, iiroperly
^peaking, poietrntr the wooil, for the libres are
driven a.side l>efore tiie nail can enter. If a vessel
be tilled with fluid, and a .solid body be then placed
in it, as much water will run over as is equal in
bulk to the solid body, in this way making room
for it. The lightest gases are really as impenetrable
as the densest solid ; although, owing to their coni-
liressibility, it is not readily made apparent.
Imperative, Categorical. See Kant, and
Ethics.
Imperial Cities. See Free Citles.
Imperial Institute. The Imperial Institute
of the Initi'd Kingdom, the Colonies, and India,
designed to iummemorate the jubilee of l^hieen
Victoria ( 1SS7 ), aims at comiirising complete cullec-
tions of the products of the \arious parts of the
British enipiie, a commercial intelligence depart-
ment for the promotion of trade and industry, and
a great school of modern oriental languages (opened
in 1890). In 1890 some £4.)0,000 had been sub-
scribed for the purpose, at home, in Canada, Aus-
tralia, and India. The foundation of the building
costing £300,0(10 was laid by the Queen in 1887, and
the Institute was opened by her on 10th May 1893.
Imperialism, in its original, and, perhaps, its
widest sense, was expressed in the gieat designs
of Charlemagne (q.v.). Regarded thus, it amounts
to a scheme of undisputed sway over an extensive
area of unbroken territory — autocracy on a grand
scale. In that sense we lind imperialism in the
traditional policy of the czars of Russia — a policy
which is supposed to imply continuous expansion
to the east. But imperialism, as it came to be
known in connection with Germany, does not
imply conquest or aggression or annexation of
icnitory. In Germany the policy sprang from
the Franco-German war, or rather from the events
preceding it, and it meant simply the union, or
leunion, of the several German states and peoples
under one head for purposes of oti'ence and de-
fence, and for certain liscal and political purposes.
As applied in the affairs of the United Kingdom
we find imperialism with a twofold signification.
It has been in use for a comparatively" few years
— since about 1878 or 1879- and is usually traced
to Lord Beaconstield (q.v.). That statesman was
credited with large dreams of empire for the British
crown, and one of Ids most memorable acts was to
have the (i>ueen pmclaiiued Empress of India. In
connection with the British empire, the word im-
perialism may, however, be used as combining the
interests of all the menibei's of the grouii — the
mother-country, the colonies, and dependencies —
as distinguished fiom purely national, colonial, oi'
local concerns. The character and design of such
British imperialism are expressed more or less
coherently in the schemes of the Imperial Insti-
tute and the Imperial Federation League (see
Colony). The term 'Imperial Parliament.' as
now applied to the legislature at Westminster,
is anotlier exjiression of the same sentiment. See
Absolutism, Autocracy, Chauvinisme.
Impetigo <'oiltasiosa. a disease of the .skin.
It consists of crop- iit pustules, which may either
l)e scattered or collected in groups. These pustules
burst, drv- up, and become covered with scalis or
crusts of .1 yellow ciilimr. not unlike little ma.-.ses
of candied honey. I'nim beneath these crusts a
purulent discharge commonly exudes ; the crn.sts
become thicker and larger, and the skin beneath
them is red and raw. The disea.se is most common
in childhoixl, and generally arises in ill-fed, ill-cared
for children ; but it may be transmitted by contact
toailulls. The head and face are most commonly
affected. Lmal treatment consists in removal of
the crust by poulticing, and the aiqilication of
white precipitate ointment. .Vttenlion must be
paid to the general health : cod-liver oil and other
tonic medicines are often desirable.
90
IMPEY
IMPUISOXMEXT
Impcy. !^IR El.l.iAll. born in 1732. was edncatoil
at Westminster, l)ri>iij;lit up to the liar, .anil sent
out to Hcn^'al a-s the lirst eliief-justioe aiipointeil
under tlie ke^rulatin^ Act of 1773. He landeil in
( alciitta. 19tli Octolier 1774. in coniiiaiiy with his
hrother jiidjje.-- and the three members of council
sent out from En^'land under the same act. From
the lirst Iniiiev acted in harmony witli the governor-
jieni'ral. Wanen Hastings ((|.v.): and in the
followin;; year |iresided at the trial of Maharaja
Xanil Kumar (Nuneoinar). charged with forgery.
Iiupey condudeil the trial with fairness and
iiatience ; the prisoner, however, wjis found guilty
iiy the jury, after an impartial charge l)y the cliief-
justice, who sentenced him to death with the eon-
eurrenceof a full court. In 1777 Impey was referred
t« as arbitrator between Hastings and (ieneral
Clavering wlien the latter cl.aimed the reversiim of
the post on Hastings" alleged resignation. Impey
pronounced in favour of Hastings ; thereby — as the
governor-general afterw.arils ai'knowledged — saving
his fortune, hommr, and reputation. In 1779, how
ever, a contlict occurred between the government
and the court on a ijuestion of jurisdiction, which
was only appeased by Imjiey accepting the chief-
ship of the Comp.any's courts in addition to his own
duties. In 1783 lm|iey was recalled, and impeaclied
for his conduel in the case of Nuneomar. He
wa.s honourably acquitted ; I'itt and Dunning and
Thurlow all concurred in approving the whole of
his conduct. In bis retirement lie continued to
enjoy the friendship of good men. In 1S()3 be
visited I'aris, .and was tor a short time detained by
the French government in consequence of the
rupture of the peace of Amiens. He died in his
house at Newick, near I'righton. 1st October 1809.
Impey was a good scholar, both classical and
oriental : as a judge he was industrious and free
from corruption. His faults were vanity and a
tendency to obsequiousness.
See Hastings ; Life of Sir E. Impcii, by his son, E. 1!.
Impey (1846); The Ston/ of Nuneomar, by Sir J. F.
Stephen ( ISS.T ) ; and Mill's Brillxli Iniliii.
Iiiipeyaii. See I'nii.As.v.NT.
Illipliail. the native name of .Manipur (q.v.).
llll|>llCH'a one of the names of Sorghum or Dnrra
(q.v.l.
IllipU'lilCIlt. in Scotch law. means fullilment
of a luiilrai-t iii decree of the court.
Illipllivilllll. See Atriim.
linpoiidorablc Siibstaiu'cs, an epithet
ajiplieil til light, heal, elrciririty. and magnetism
at a time when tln'\ weie universally considered
as matter, in cimtiailisiinclion to those substances
wbich possessed seirsil.le weight. See HkA'I'.
Imports and Kx|»orts. See 1!.\i,.\.nci-; di-
'ri:.\lii:; alsn article- on (ii;KAT BlMT.MN and other
ciiiintrics.
lllipot4>ll«-.>. See .\lAl:IMA(ii;.
lllip«»IIIMlill$>. See PofNl).
Illipressioilisili. the term applied to a modern
school of art which, originating in France, is
usually held to have been founded by Edonard
Manel, and of which < laude .Monet, Degas. Henoir,
Pissaro. Sisley. and l)e t'esane are the best-known
members. The impie.ssionists may he said to have
Krst ajipeared before the |inblic it) the siiecial
exhibition of the works of .Manet and his
followers which was held in I'aris in 1SG7 ; and
in 1874 and 1876 collections of their works were
brought together in the lioulevard des Italieiis
and in the galleries of Duraiid Ituel. who in l.HS'J
organised .an exhibition oi their |iroductiiins in
London ; while a series of works by Monet were
shown in 1889 in the <!oupil (lallery. London.
The aim of the impressionists is to rid themselves
of the trannuels of artistic traditiiui, and to look at
nature— and iiortray her — in a fresh and original
manner. They therefore strive to avoid such
lompromises and conventionalities of lighting,
composition, &c. a.s have been frankly accepted
by the art of the past, and to reniler with absolute
truth their iiersonal and innnediate ' inii>res.sions '
of nature. The members of the school accordingly
se|iarate themselves from the great so-called
■romantic' art of the last generation in France
— liie art of men like Corot. Decamps. Uimsseau.
and Danbigny — wbich is a legitimate and orderly
development of the mighty .art of the |iast ; and —
though they have more kinship with these — they
are also to be distinguished from the /ilrln-tiir
painters of modern Fnim-e, at whose head stands
liastien Le]iage, and whose main aim is a careful
and strictly scientific accuracy in their ridative
tones of colour. In their rejection of tradition and
desire for a fresh, unconventional rendering of
nature the impressionists are at one with the pre-
Itaphaelitcs of England : but, while the latter
studied nature in a severely detailed and an.alytical
manner, the former look on her in her large
relations, and portray only such of her salient
features as are visible on a cursory examination,
and these they render by bruslnvork of the
slightest, thinnest, and loosest description. From
the pre-liaphaelites the impressionists are still more
definitely separated by their want of care for
intellectual or emotional interest in their jiictures.
In the words of one of their ablest exponents, they
hold that the eye of the painter ■should abstract
itself from memory, seeing luily that which it looks
upon, and that as for the lirst time : and the hand
sliimid become an impersonal abstraction, guided
<mly liy the will, oblivious of all previous cunning.'
In the works of most of the im]iiessionists little
selection of subject or care for beauty of colour, form,
or e.xpression is visible ; and their art, touching as it
would seem by an instinctive prefi'ience on some of
the most unlovely aspects of 19th century e.xist
eiice, dealing with the life of the jockey and the
ballet-girl, and portraying the worst atrocities of
modern costume, has frequently fallen into dire
depths of ugliness and \ uigarity. Certain points
of resemlilance to the aims and metboils of the
inijiressionists are to be found in the works of
sttcb able painters as .1. .M. Whistler and J. S.
.Sargent, and still more distinctly in those of .several
of the younger I'.iris-trained English jiainters who
have exhibited in the SnlVolk Stieet (iallery and in
the Xineteeiitb Century .\rt Club. In ISS9 several
young English painters, stylingthei.iselves ■ London
Inipiessioiii-ts,' and including I!, and \V. .Sickert,
T. l!oiiss(d, 1'. \\ . Steer, and I'f.ineis Hate, ludd an
exhibition in the (ioujiil (iallery, London: and a
pamphlet by the last-named painter Tin Xiitnrnl-
i.slii- Srhdiil tif I'uiiiiitKJ C-d ed. 1887) contains the
best exposition of the aims of the English section
of the school.
lnipr«-SsnH-|ll. See I'KESSCiANO.
liniM'illt. See i'.iiol'C, Vol. II, |>, 3U3,
llliprisoilllK'lll. Imprisonment is one of the
three clas.scs of punishment for crime, death and
penal servitude liciiig the other two. I'lidei
certain statutes the punishment of whi]iping also
may be .■uljudged to juvenile ollenders or persons
convicted of assaults with violence. It has always
been a jiower inhereiil in courts of justice to
imprison for contx'inpt of their authority, and until
lately for non-p;i.vment of debt. In criminal pro-
ceedings a iieisiin may. by a warrant of a justice
of peace or ni;igistrat*'. be imprisoned before ti'ial,
provided the justice considers it is not a proper
case for allowing bail ; and though in ndnin-
oH'ences an accused person may insist on being
IMPROPER HOUSE
INCANDESCENCE
91
ili.--c-liai>;e<I on tendering' sufficient bail, yet in
move serious eritiies it i> in llie discretion of tlie
justice to aceept or refuse llie l)ail tendered,
and on liis refusal ai)|)lieation may be made to
iudges of the common la«- courts to accept l)ail.
In Scotland. «hen such review is resorted to under
the Criminal Procedure Act of 1SS7, or the Act to
amend the Law of Bail, 1SS8, the court as a j;eneral
rule leaves the proseoitor's discretion as to bail
abilitv untouched, and in Knj;laud the same rule
obtains. In both countries the supreme courts
will iiitei-fere where the niiestion is merely one of
amount, or where nuilice or oppression on the part of
the iirosecutor is averred : but in tScotland, ow inj; to
the svstem of official as distin^Miisheil from ]>rivate
prosecution, such j,aoun(ls are rarely ad\aiiioil in
support of an application for bail. Imprisonment
may be with or without hard labour, or it may be
solitary. Kverx prisoner sentenced to undergo a
long term passes a period in solitary confinement.
aniFit i.s in the power of jirison governors to older '
a return to this, which is considered the hardest
part of the term, for any gross breach of iliscipline.
The statutory limit of imprisonment is two years.
Penal servitude may be inllicted for life, or any
shorter term, but in the ca.se both of imprisonment
and penal servituile the convict can at any time,
and repealediv within certain limits, apply to the
Home Secretai-y in Englaml. and to the Scottish
Secretary in Sco'tland. for commutation or rendssion.
The documents are forwarded to the judge who
tried his case, and the secretaries are guided in
their decision by the report which the judge
furnishes. In the general case a fourth or a third
is deducted from all terms of penal servitude as a
matter of course where the convict has complied
witli prison rules. In police and other Jietty
ott'ences tried summarily at common law and under
a variety of statutes, im|irisoiiment is usually
awarded 'with the option of a fine (discretionary
in amount ). excepting the ca.se of theft : but all
other oflences tried liefore recorder aiul quarter
sessions in England ami the sheritt' ami jury in
Scotland are visited with imiirisonment, although
in a few isolated examples statute gives an option.
The unlawful detention of the ]ierson by any one,
or ' false impri.sonment ' (in Scotland, 'wrongous'),
constitutes a personal injury, and may be treated
as a criminal or as a civil ottence. When persons
tried and convicted aie afterwards proved to have
been innocent, compensation may be awarded to
them, along \vith a formal ' pardon.'
The subject of imprisonment for debt is discus.sed
at T»Ein-, Vol. III. p. 717.
liiipropiT lloHse. See Niisanck.
impropriation, the transfer to a layman of
the revenues of a lienelice ti> which the cure of
siuils is annexed, with an obligatiim to [provide for
the performance of the sjdritual duties attached to
the lieneficc. The jiracticc of iniiiroiirlatioii difl'ers
from the somewhat similar but more ancient usage
of ojiiiroiiriatioii, inasmuch as the latter .supposes
the revenues of the ai(]>ropriated benelice to be
transferred to ecclesiastical or (luasi-ecclesia-stical
persons or bodies, as to a certain dignitary in a
c.invent, a college, a hospital ; while improjuiation
implies that the temporalities of the benelice are
enjoved by a layman. The practice of impropria-
lion. and still more that of approinialion, as in the
ase of monasteries, &c., and other religious h<mse.s,
prevailed extensively in England bcfori' the Itefor-
:iiation ; and on the" suppression of the monasteries
all such riglits were veste<l in the crown, and
were by the crown freely transferred to laymen,
to whose succe.s.soi-s in title they have jiassed by
le.scent and purchase. The spiritual iluties of such
■ectories are discharged by a clergyman, who is
called a vicar, and who receives a certain portion
of the emoluments of the living, generally cimsist-
iiig of a part of the glebe-land of the pai-sonage,
together with what are called the 'small tithes'
of the parish. A lay impro|)iiatf)r is rector of the
parish ; as such he has rights over the chancel of
the church, and is bound to keep it in repair.
Improvisatori. an Italian term, designating
poets who without previous preparation compose
on a given theme, and -who sometimes sing and
accompany their voice with a musical instru-
ment. The talent of improvisation is found in
races in which tlie imagination is more than usu-
ally alert, as among the ancient IJreeks, the Arabs,
and ill many tribes of negroes. In modern Eurojie
it has l>eeii almost entirely conlined to Italy, where
I'etrarcli, in the l'2th century, introduced the prac-
tice of singing improvised verses to the lute; and
down to the present day the perfomiances of im-
provisatori constitute one of the favourite enter-
tainments of the Italians. Far inferior to these are
such improvi.sations as those of Theodore Hook,
wonderful as they were. Women have fretiuently
exhiljited this talent in a high degree. Iniprov isa-
tion is by no means limited to brief poems of a few-
verses and of very simple structure, but is often
carried on with great art, and in the form and to
the length of a tragedy or almost of an epic poem.
But such productions when printed have never
been found to rise above mere mediocrity. It is
wortliv of notice that the greater number of the
celebrated im]iiovisatori of Italy have been born
in Tuscany or the Venetian territory. Siena and
Verona have been especially productive of them.
Some of the ])riiicipal are SeraUno ilAquila ( 14ti6-
1.500), Peifetti (1U80-1747), Meta.stasio (q.v.), who
soon abandoned the art, Zueco (died 1764), Serin
and Rossi (l>oth beheaded at Naples in 17!)!l),
Ciaiini (]>ensioned by Bunaijarte), and Tommaso
Sgricci ( 1708-1 S36). ' The bcsl-known improrisa-
t/ins are Maddalena Morelli Fernandez, also called
('orillaUlimpica, the original ol .Madame de Stacl's
Curiiine (died 1800), Teresa Bandettini (17tJS-
1837), Kosa Taddci, Signora Jl.azzei (probably the
lirst in point of talent), and more lately the
Sicilian Giovannina Milli.
lilipiltutioil is one of the most ccuumon tech-
nical expressions in Christian theology. It is
meant to denote the transference of guilt i>r of
merit of punishment or reward. The doctrine of
the iinputatioM of sin, for example, is the doctrine
which inculcates that all mankind are sharers in
the fact and consequences of Adam's fall from
innocence ; and the correlative doctrine of the
imputation of Christ's righteousne.ss is that which
inculcates that the merit or rightf^ousness of Christ
is transferred to those who believe in him, or, in
other words, that thev liecome sharers in his merit
or righteousness. See Covenant, ATONEMENT.
InatM-«'ssil»lo Inland. See Tristan da
ClNIIA.
iliaUlia. See liAIIAMAS.
Iiiaiiilioii. See Fasting.
Iiiari-liiii;:. See <;uaktin(;.
in .trliculo .liortis i.e. at the moment of
death, a legal phrase used in connection with the
execntimi of deeds bypei-sons at the point of death.
See Wii.i..
lnfand<'S«'«'II«'«'. The hotter a body the
greater till' dislurbaiice which its particles, always
o.scillating, set up in the suironndiug ether, and
the greater is the proportion of elherwiivcs of short
length whiih are set up. Thus, as a body becomes
progressively hotter it lirst becomes visible in the
dark as a fog-gray object (platinum at .SOU C,
I gold at i\T C, ami iroii, not iiuite free from rust.
92
INCANTATION
INCEST
at 377° C— H. F. Weber), then asli gray, then
yellowish-gray, then faintly retl, then ieil hot,
orange, yollnwish-white, while liot, and lastly,
when there is at very high temperatures a pre-
iionderanc'i' ol the more refrangible rays, it becomes
bluish or even distinctly blue, as it seems the sun
would ajipear were it not for our atmosphere (Lang-
ley)- Incandescence is usually witnessed in solids;
in liquids it is not known by sight ; in gases we
have examples in the hydrogen flame and in the
condition of the air traversed by lightning or the
electric arc. For Incandescent Electric Lam])s,
see Electric Light ; and for the incandescent gas-
light, see Gas-lighting, Vol. V. |i, 103.
IlK'antatioil. a formula of words said or more
fre(|uently sung for purposes of enchantment. The
use of such is a persistent feature in sorcery from
the earliest times, and we still find them used
among sav.age peoples as spells or charms effica
cious for the healing of sickness and the averting of
danger, as well as for bringing on rain or invoking
any other lile.ssing that is much desired. Xo less
common are malignant spells by means of which
evil deities are induced to send sickness or death
ujion enemies, the darker and malignant side of
magic being ever as present to the i)rimitive mind
as the benelicent. Such traditional formulas show
a marvellously conservative fixity of form — a proof,
if such were needed, of their real unreality and
practical inefficiency, and that the whole has at no
time Ijeen other than a dark and blind apjioal to un-
known forces, without the slightest glimmering of
scientilic ratiocination, and capable of no improve-
ment. For the same reason ancient or foreign
epithets, and terms not merely misunderstood but
not understood at all, are often found to have been
particularly efficacious, and we Hml medieval
sorcerers in their formulas using transposed letters
and artificial words, the traditional Jewish names
of demons, as Asmodai and the like, and a gibberish
of mixed Hebrew and (Jreek words more or less
consciously confused. Even so late as IS.SO in
Ijincolnshire two Gypsy girls were found using a
book of navigation in the process of their fortune
telling. The history of such words as the
Gnostic Abraxas (q.v. ) and the medieval Abracad-
abra (q.v.) throw great light on the methods of
magicians from the earliest ages down to the
time when their absurdities disapiH'anHl before the
dawn of a true scientific method. I!ut it was not
merely among the less ci\ ilised peoples that such
constant use of incantations was made. In ancient
Egypt magic was worked into an elaborate system
and ritual, and many formulas of such religious
magic are preserved. Again, the Habyloniaiis had
a great wealth of set formulas by means of which
they proiiiliated or exix-lled the malignant demons
who swarmed around them. In the I'cc/ii.i we con-
stantly meet the mantras, corresjionding exactly
to the matamanik of the Ke(lskins and the
karahius of the Ma(n-is. In the Oiti/sscij the
kinsmen of Odysseus sing ' a song of healing over
the wound gi\en him liy the boar's tusk. In the \
Kali-ralii, again we lind the song that salves
wounds ; and nothing is more common in our
Euroiiean traditional folk-tales than the most
startling miracles wrimght by the repetition of
snatches of rhynje. 15ut indeed such traditional
refrains are by no means yet extinct in the corners
of the most civilised countries, used along with tin'
modcM-n and more legitimate methods of healing.
and they even have u defensible use in the soolhiii;;
etl'ect that an act of faith has upon a sinqile mind.
Thus in Shetland, .-ucording to a writer in the Xcw
Slatlstical Accoiiiit of Scotia nd, 'when a i)erson
has received a sprain it is customary to apply to
an individual practised in casting tlie "wresting
thread." This is a threail spun from black wool.
on wliich are cast nine knots, and tied round a
sprained leg or arm. Dnrin"; the time the operator
is putting the thread round the affected limb, he
says, but in such a tone of voice as not to be bean!
by the bystanders, nor even by the person opeiated
upon :
Tlie Liird rade, and tile foal slade ;
He liglited, and lie righted.
Set joint to joint, lione to bone,
And sint'W to sinew,
Hi-;il. in the Holy Ghost's name.'
Inoai'Ililtioil. the usual theological term for
the union of the divine nature with the human in
the divine jierson of ('hrist. The wend hicaniatid
first occurs in the liatin version of Iremeus, and
in the (Jreek fathers we find its equivalent sark-
nsis and cnaiit/irO/icsis. See Chkist, Je.sus, and
( Ittley's Doctrine of the Incarnation ( 18%).
Incus. See Pkru.
Iiiceiidiai'isin. See Aitsox, Epidemic.
Ilieeiise. a perfume, the odour of which is
evolved by burning, especially in religions worshiii.
The incense at present in use consists of some resin-
ous base, such asgum olibanum, mingled with odor-
iferous gums, balsams, ite. There is no regular
formula fin- it, almost every maker having his
own pcciiliar recipe. The ingreilients are usually
olibanum, benzoin, styrax, and jiowdered cascar-
ilia bark. These materials, well mingled, are so
idaced in the censer or thurible as to be sprinkled
by falling on a hot plate, which immediately vola-
tilises them, and difl'uses their odour thrmigh the
edifice.
In the Catholic Church, both of the West and
of the East, incense is used in public woi-ship,
more particularly in connection with the eucha-
ristic service, which is regarded as a sacrifice :
but such use is implicitly condemned by Tertullian,
Lactantins, Au<'ustine, \c. . and seems not to have
established itself till the (ith or at least the .")th
century. In the Koman Catholic Church incense
is used in the solemn (or high) mass, iji the con-
secration of churches, in solemn conseciatienis of
objects intended for u.se in public worship, and in
I he burial of the dead. There are also minor in-
ceiisations of the celebrating bislio)i or priest and
infericn- ministers ; of prelates, princes, and other
diguilaiies officially jiresent .at tlie service: and a
generjil incensation of the whole congregation.
In Ibe Iteformed churches the use of incense wivs
abanihmed at the same time with other pr.actices
which have been laid aside by them as without
'warrant of Scriptuie.' It li.is been revived by
some Iiitnalists, imt was prohibited by the .Vrch-
bishops of Canterbury and York in July 1899. See
t'ExsicR, Frankixcen.se.
Incest (Lat. Ill, 'not,' and castas, 'chaste')
i-~ the marrying of a [lerson within the Levitical
degrees. In the old ecclesiastical Law (now oliso-
lete), and in Scotland, it comprelieuds cohabitation
irres|)ective of marriage. The law of England, as
declared by statutes ]iassed iti the reign of Hcniy
\T1I., forbids marriage within the prohibited
degrees (see CON.SANGl'lM'rv). A marriage be-
tween a widower and his deceased wife's sister
1 (imcs within these rules, and is void, and it makes
no difference that the marriage was celebrated in
a foreign country, as, for example, Denmark, in the
I'nited States, or in one of the liritish colonies,
where these marriages are legal, if the jiarties were
domiciled in England, and went abroad merely to
evade the English law. It has also been decided in
England that the same rules which .'iliply between
legitimate relations aiq)ly between natural relations,
though one is legitimate — as, for example, lietween
a man and the daughter of an illegitimate sister of
his decea-sed wife. Though incestuous marriages
are utterly void in England, still it is not a criminal
INCH
IN C'CENA DOMINI
93
oH'ence to iiiarry iiicestiiuu!<ly, not even in those
cases in which the coiim'c-tii)n is most iibhinioiit
to the moral sense of nninkiml, and llie reiiietly in
the ecclesiastical courts may he consiiiered obsolete.
In Scotland incest, which is calculated on the same
grounds, not only makes a marriai;e void, but the
better oiiinioii is that to marry mcestuously, iis
well as to commit incest, is a capital ollence. See
Mahiiiawk.
Ilich, a (Jaelic word, corresponding; to Irish
iiuiii:. and si^nifyin.i; Island {(|.v.); the same root
appeals; in Lat. /H.vula. Inch and Innis enter into
many compounds, as Inchmahome (an island in
the Lake of Menteith), Inniscattery (an island in
the estuary of the Shannon), \-c.
IlK'llbald. Elizabktu, actress, dramatist, and
novelist, was the dau<,'hterof John Simpson, farmer
at Standinj;lield. Bury St Eilmnmls, where she was
horn on lotli October 17o3. While quite a girl
she determined to become an actress, and ^vhen
only eighteen left her home to seek a theatrical
engagement in London. After a series of strange
ailventures she betook herself to her relations in
l>ondon, an<l with them she met Joseph Inchbald,
an obscure actor, whom she married on 9tli .June
177'2. She then went to Bristol, where she made
her debut a,s Cordelia on 4th Se])temher 177'2 ;
and for some years she played in provincial theatres.
Her husband died suddenly in 1779, and in 1780
(3d October) she appeared in London, playing
Bellario in Phihi.stcr, at Covent Garden, Here she
remained for nine years, but never rose beyond
mediocrity, an impediment in her .speech, which
was. however, su|iposed to lie cured, being certainly
a bar to her progress. Hut before she left Covent
Garden, in 1789, she had fonnd her true vocation —
literature, and to it she devoted herself till her
powers began to fail. Her earliest eftbrts were
plays, her first being The Morjul Ttilc, a farce pro-
duced in July 1784. She wrote or adapted nineteen
plays, her best being the comedies of Such Tliinqs
nrc" (1787), The Midiiii/hf Hour (1787), and The
Wedding Day ( 1794) ; the farces of Appcuiance is
Agaiml Them ( 1785) an<l The Wieloirs rou-(1786):
ami her adaptation from Kotzebue, Lovers' Vows
(1798). She edited the well-known InehhahVs
British Theatre (2.5 \'ols. ), a Moi/erii Theatre
(10 vols.), and a Collection of Farces (7 vol.s.).
But her fame rests not upon her dramatic work so
much as upon her novels, A Siuijile Story ( 1791 )
and Xriture and Art (1796), which rank among
English standard novels. Mrs Inchbald, who was
a Catholic, became very devout in her later years,
and died at Kensington House (then a Catholic
establishment), 1st August 1821. Her biography
by Boaden ( 2 vol.s. 1833 ) is one of the most cumbrous
and ill-digested even of that writer's jiroductions.
She wrote an autobiograiihy, but destroyed the MS.
by the ad\iee of her s])iritual director. See the
Memoir by William Bell Scott prelixed to a new
I'll i I ion of .1 Sim/ile Stori/ and Xat ure and A rUlSSO).
llH'llcaiie. See Bei.i. Kock.
llM-llCOlui. and lufllkfitll. See FORTH.
Iiirideiioc, Angle ok. See Optics.
liK'Icdon, Charlks Benjamin, singer, was
born at St Kevern, Cornwall, in 1763, was admitted
U> the choir of E,\eter (Jathedral at the age of
eit;ht, and served in the navy from 1779 to 1783.
His voice wa-s now a line tenor, and in 1784 he
made his first appearance at the Southampton
Theatre, as .\lplioiiso in the Castle of Aurlalusia.
From 1786 to 1790 he sang in the summer at
V'auxhall Gardens, and in the winter at Hath. In
September 1790 he appeare<l at Covent (iarden
Theatre as Uermot in the I^oor Soldier : ami for
twenty-five years thereafter he remained unrivalled
as a ballad singer. In 1817 he visited America.
Afterwards \n; travelled through Britain under the
style of the ' Wandering .Melodist ;" and he died at
Worcestei, lllli February 1S26. Incledcm's singing
was bold and manly, at times full of feeling -, his
best ballads were such as ' Black-eyed Susan,' ' Tlie
Arethusa,' and 'The Stmm,' which he sang dressed
as a sailor.
liu'liiiation. or Dif. See Magnetism.
lurlilied Plaiic. The, is reckoned one of the
mechanical powers, because, by rolling it up
a iplane. a man may raise a weight which he could
not lift. Let us su])pose a plane as in the figure :
let its length, AB,
its height, BC, and ^j;
its base, CA, he re-
spectively 13,5, and
12 feet: and let a
rolling load of 780
lb. be placed upon
it and sustained in
position by a pull
or push acting np
the plane. We
have now three forces in equilibrium: (1) the
weight, W, of the body; (2) the resistance, B,
of the plane to bending or breaking; and (3) the
pull, P, up the plane. These, W, R, and P, are
respectively proportional to the length, AB, the
base, CA, and the height, BC ; and are thus, in
the case supposed, respectively 780, 720, and 300
lb. A force which would, if applied vertically,
just lift .300 lb., will thus keep a rolling mass of
780 lb. in position upon a smooth inclined plane,
the gradient of which is 5 (height) in 13 (sloping
length) ; and a force exceeding this would pull the
mass up the slo[)e. In every practical case, however,
there is a certain force expended in overcoming
Friction (q. v. ), even on a dead level; in railway
trains this is equivalent to vertically lifting aliou't
.■)() lb. for every ton of dead weight ; and w ben n
train leaves a level run to I'o up a slope of, say, 1
in 80, the engine has then, for every ton of weight,
to do work equivalent to vertically lifting 50 lb.
+ ^ ton = 78 lb., instead of the former 50. The
steeper the gra<lient, therefore, the heavier the pull :
and engineers, in roadmaking, a\'oid as far as
jiossible making steeper slopes than 1 in 20. The
inclined plane presents various modifications, such
as knives, chisels, axes, wedges, screws; the last
two are generally reckoned as distinct mechanical
powers, and will be treated each under its own
iiead.
IlK'lo.siircs. See Commons.
In t'<l'lia Uoillilli, a celebi^ated papal bull,
so called from the ancient day of its annual publi-
cation. Holy Thursday. It is not, as other hulls,
the work of a single pope, but, with additions and
modifications at various times, dates back to the
middle ages. Its present form, however, it received
from the iiopes Julius II., Paul III., and finally
Urban VI 1 1., in 1627, from which year it continued
for a century and a half to be published annually
on Holy Thursday. It may be briefly described
as a summary of ecclesiastical censures, especially
of those with which grievous violation of the faith
of the church, or of the rights of the church or of
the Roman see, are visited : excomnnniication
being denounced against heresy, schism, sacrilege,
usurpation of the rights of the church or of tlie
pope, fincible ami uidawful seizure of church pro-
perty, pi-rsonal violence against ecclesiastics, \c.
The bull also denounces other crimes, jus piracy,
nlunder of shipwrecked goods, and forgery. This
t)ull, being regarded by most of the crowned heads
of Europe as an infringement of their rights,
encountered in the 17th century the determined
94 INCOMBUSTIBLE FABRICS
INDEMNITY
opposition of nearly all tlie courts, even the most
Catholic; and at length, in 1770, Clement XIV.
•liscontinueil its puKlicatimi, which has never since
been reneweil.
Inrwiiibiistiblo Fabrio. !>ee Kikk.
Ill4'OIII('-ta\. a tax ilirectly levieil on all ^iors<ms
liavin;; incomes above a certain amount. We hear
of a lax imjioscil on property anil incomes by the
Kn^lish parliament in 1042 ilurinf; the great Civil
War. It liecanie an important feature in the fiscal
systen) iluriiif; the Krench war in I79S. ll was
revived by Sir Robert Peel in 1S4'J, and may now
be re'.;arded as pi'iinanent. Since 1.S9S all incomes
in Britain under fl(i(l are exempted : deductions arc
made from incomes between flOO and £400 of £160,
between £400 and £500 of £150, between £.")00 and
£600 of £1-20, and between £600 and £700 of £70.
See Ghe.vt I{rit.\ix, Vol. V. ]>. 376.
With reference to the equity and rea.sonableness
of the income-tax o]iinion is divided. The tax is
graduated so far : considerations of equity are
satisHed by exempting from it an income sufficient.
for a decent and comfortable maintenance. C)n the
other hand the tax certainly bears an inquisitorial
character through the oHicials of government making
investigation into the pri\ate atl'airs of the citizens.
Further, as the estimate of income must to a large
extent be left to the discretion of the persons taxed,
it otters very consideralile opportunity for conceal-
ment and falsilication in the returns : while the
conscientious render an account in full, the less
scrupulous may pay less than they ought. Also,
it is not equitable that incomes gained from har<l
industrial or professional labour shoubl be taxed as
heavily as incomes derised from inherited proi)erty.
Such considerations have long and \igorously been
urged against the income-tax, and it must be
admitted that there is much force in them ; but
there is little prospect of argument taking effect in
the abolition of the tax. An increase of income-
tax is the great resort of government in times of
emergency, particularly during war, or when the
fear of war makes special armaments nece.ssary.
In 1890 Mr Gosclien estimated that every penny
added to the tax meant an addition of about
£2,'200,000 to the revenue (as compared with
£800,000 in 1S44 under Peel). It is all the more
convenient and even indispensable, because taxa-
tion in Great Hritain is now limited to a very
few articles of daily consumption, so that the
exchequer has otherwise only nari-ow scope for
increasing the revenue. And, apart from the dilli-
culties of levying it, it must be maintained that
the principle of taxing the citizens according to
their income, after deducting the minimum neces-
sary for a comfortable living, is perfectly equitable
and reasonable.
In the United States an income-tax was imposed
in the years 186S-7I. It was exempted at first on
86110, tihen on -SIOOO. and ultimately on .•J2000.
Incomes up to •SoOOO paid 5 percent., those between
$5001) and l!;iO,000, 7 per cent., and all above
.?)0,000, 10 |?er cent. An income-tax of 2 per cent,
on all incomes over .^000, eii;u'ted in 1804, was
declared unconstitution.al by the Sii|iienie Court in
1895, as being a direct tax.
IlI4'wiiiiii«'iisiiriible. See ('(immkn.sitr.vble.
Ilirrcnifllt. CNK.vrtNKl), is the increase in the;
rem of land ilue to the growth of industrial under-
takings and of towns, and the general progress of
society. Because obtained witlnmt exertion or the
expen<liture of capital ou the part of the owners of
the land, some economists maintain that it should
be specially taxeil.
Incubation, Thk Period ok. during which
binls sit on their eggs before the young are hatched
varies in ilitl'erent species, but is nearly constant in
I •
each. In the hummingbirds it is only 12 days : in
canaries it is from 15 to 18 days ; in the raven and
in the common fowl ii is 21 days ; in the duck it is
from 28 to .')() days; in the |iheasaiit and in the
guinea-fowl it is 28 or 29 days ; in the turkey, .30
days : and in the swan, from 40 to 45 days. The
degree of heat (about 40^ C. , 104° F. ) necessary for
the development of the young is usually sujiplied
by the mother-bird : but in some cases the sunshine
(a.s in ostriches during the day ), or the warmth of
a nest of decaying plants (as in the Megaiiodes), is
relied upon : nor must it be forgotten that in many
Piisserine and Running Birds the males take their
sh.are, or it may be the entire responsibility of
incubation. While the patience of incubaticm is
most emphasised and rewardeil among birds, hints
of it appear in re|itil('s — witness the female python;
and analogous processes are seen in a few amphibi-
ous fishes, and even Invertebrates.
Incubators, or devices for artihcial hatching, are
used Ijotli for practical anil scientific purposes at
the poultry farm and in the embryological labora-
tory. From time immemorial the Egyptians have
hatched eggs by artificial warmth in peculiar but
comparatively simple ovens, .ind thirty millions of
chickens per annum are said to be thus hatched in
F.gypt. In 1777 Boniiemain devised a hatching
ajiparatus which supplieil the Parisian markets
with poultry. In 1825 D'Arcet obtained chickens
from artificial incubation l>y means of the thermal
waters at Vichy. The Erca/cohion, invented by
Mr liucknell, was .«aid to ]iossess a perfect control
over temperature from 300° F. to that of cold
water for any length of time. The modern
incubator consists es.sentially of a large water-bath
and a gas regulator for automatically preventing
the rise of tenijierature above 40 ( '. The eggs are
placed in a tray or drawer, so arranged that the
products of the gas comliustion are kejit away from
the eggs, but a sujiply of fresh air and moisture
secured. For emliryological purposes the form
most used in Great Britain is probably that of the
Cambridge Scientific Instrument Company. See
OSTUICH-FARMING, POULTRY; al.so PlsnOt'I/miK.
IlK'llblls. See Demonoldgy.
IlK'lIlllbcilt, the rector, par.son, or vicar hold-
ing an ecclesiastical benefice in Kngland. ll is the
common title in Scotland of episcoiial clergymen
holding chaige>.
IiK-iimbcrod Estates. See ENCuMBEREn.
IlU-lllia bllla. See I'.llil.loiiliAl'llv, Vol. II.
p. l.TJ.
llnl*H'«'llt Exposure is a cnnunal olience
both at common law and in England and Ireland
also by statute. It is not clearly settled whether
more than one person must lia\e witnessed the
indecency in order to m.ake it an olience. The
exposure must be in some public place i.e. in a
jilacc which may be seen by some considerable
nundier of persons. The olience is punishable
summarily by three months' im]irisonnient. In
Scotland indecent ])ractices are also indictable
offences, but the law in this respect is somewhat
vague, and the ]iunislinient is left to the discretion
of the court.
IlUleillllity. an instrument or contract whereby
is )irotected against lo.ss, or against the
Fire insurance, for
example, is a contract of indemnity; not so life
insurance, which is a contract, not to make good
an uncertain loss, but to ])ay a certain reversionary
sum. .-Xcts of indemnity are sometimes jia-ssed by
parliament for the protection of ])ublic officers;
thus, in 1801 and in 1817 acts were passed to
protect officers who had taken ])art in tlie appre-
hension, &c. of persons suspected of treason. From
a per.siiu is ju
risk of legal jiroccei lings.
INDENTURE
INDEPENDENTS
95
the year 17'27 oiiwar.l j;eiieial acts of indemnity
were passed from time to time for the benelit of
those who oiiiitteil to take the oaths of olhce
re<|uired by the acts imposing disabilities on
dissiMitei's. For tlie <.neat French war indemnity,
see Fraxck. Vol. IV. p. 783.
IlldeUtliro, the technical name j;iveii in
En.Lfiand to a deeil under seal, entered into be-
tween two or more jiarties with mntnal covenants.
Formeily the papei-s or pieces of ]iarchment on
which tiie duplicate copies of the indenture were
executed required to oe actually indenteil — i.e.
notched or toothed ( Lat. dent, ' tooth ' ), or cut in
a wavinj; line, so as to correspond with each other,
but this is no louder necessary. The name is not
Used in a ijeneral sense in Scotland, excejil in the
case of indentures of .Apprenticeship f'j.v. ).
Independt'llOf Day, in the Inited States,
falls on the 4tb of Jul.v, and is observed as a Ie<.'al
holiday. Pulilic meetings are held, orations are
delivered, and the general patriotism finds vent in
processions and in salvos of artillery, the ex)ilosion
of crackers, and in displays of fireworks. In the
large cities accidents have been not unfreqnent, and
the reckless discharge of firearms is iu)w kept in
check. On July 4, 1776, the Declaration of Inde-
piMidence was reporteil to the continental congress
ity the chairman ; it was read anti proclaimed at
tiie state-honse on July 8; but it was not signed
by all the delegates until August 2, some of them
having to wait for instructions from their respective
colonies.
Independent.s, or Coxgreg.\tionali.sts.
The distinctive principle of the Congregational
church polit.v is that every ChrLstian church or
congregation is entitled ' to elect its own officers, to
manage all its own attaii-s, and to stand independ-
ent of, and irresponsible to all authority, saving
that only of the Supreme and Divine Head of the
Church, the Lord Jesus Christ.' The.v regard the
Sacred Scriptures as their only standard, and hold
that liumau traditions, fathers and councils, canons
and creeds posse.ss no authority over the faith and
prictice of Christians. Congregationalism denies
that there is any authority in Scripture for uniting
the churches of a nation or jirovince into one church
or corporation to be ruled by a bishop or bishops,
superior to the bishops or pastors of particular con-
gregations, or by a presbytery or synod consisting
of the pastors or elders of t he several congregations of
the nation or ]>rovince. This is the speciality which
distinguishes Indepenileney or Congregationalism
from Episcop;u:y and from Presbytery. The tenn
'Independent' is supposed to have originated in
the incidental use of the word in an ' apology '
a<Idres.sed in Latin and English to the British and
Continental universities about the year lt>()4. But
the early maintainers of this form of church govern-
ment were careful to repudiate certain iuferen(*s
which might be drawn from the use of the word.
' We tlo profess <Iependence,' sjiid one of them,
' up(m magistrates for civil government and pro-
tection ; dependence upon Christ and bis woni for
the sovereign government and rule of our arlminis-
trations ; deuendence upon the counsel of other
churches and .synoils when our own variance or
ignorance may stand in neeil of such help from
them.' The iinlependence claimed was only the
right of every individual church to iulminister its
own affairs, free from the control or authoritative
jurisiliction of other churches— a right compatible,
it was asserted, and Ls still aiserted, with union for
the promotion of commcm ends, and with fraternal
aid and counsel in cases of variance or other
difficulty. .\s compareil with other societies of
Christians who claim spiritual an<l ecclesiastical
independence, this body of (Jliristians may be
defined briefly as independent congregationally,
or iis 'Congregational lndepen<h'nts.'
Dui-triiKilhi the early Independents occupied
the same position as the other sections of the
Puritan iamily. i'lie.v held in sukstance the
evangelical doctrines of the Ketormers, '-f (he West-
minster Assembl.y, and of the Thirty-nine Articles.
Not refusing to confess their faith with the other
I members of the Westminster Assembly, the rejire-
sentatives ol the Independents disputed the right
of that or any other iisscmbly to confess its faith
for posterity, or make that confession l>inding upon
them. Largely Augustinian and Calvinistic in
their interjjretation of Scripture, Congregationalist*
have in these later years become more alive to the
freedom which their princi|)les involve to interpret
Scripture, not according to any one .-clieme or
system, but as loyalty to the light of truth and
the spirit of Christianity may dictate. In the
reaction which followed the rise of Socinianism
many Independent societies fettered the use of
their property by the insertion of uncatholic
doctrinal restrictions in their deeds. In later year-
the use of their property and buildings has been
limited only to the catludic interpretation of the
teaching of Christ, and what they regard as the
New Testament constitution of the religious
society.
For the history of thi> body we must refer to the
works named at the end of this article. But it ma,\
be mentioned that as early as the days of tiiieen
Elizabeth it was numerous and influential. In
a speech made by Sir Walter Haleigli in the House
of Commons in 159"2, on the subject of a law to
transport the Brownists — as they were ofi'ensivel\
and untrnly named after Roliert Browne (q.v.) —
he thus refers to their numbers : ' If two or three
thousand Brownists meet at the seaside, at whose
charge shall they be transpoi ted 'r or whither will
you send themV I am sorry for it, but I am afraid
there is near twenty thousand of them in England;
and when they are gone, w ho shall maintain their
wives and children?' Several eminent men of this
body suffered death for their opinions ; others were
condemned to banishment. The greater part retired
to Holland. Numbers sought an asylum in New
England ; and America still cherishes the memory
of the Pilgrim Fathers, as the fouudei-s of those
institutions which are the sources of her free<lom,
her intellectual and moral power, and her national
elevation.
By the pa.ssiug of the Act of Iniformity in 1662
the luilependents, along with other Nonconformists,
were subjected to much suffering. The act reiinired
an ex|)res.s assent and ci>nsent to everything con-
taine(l in the revised Prayer-lxxik, and its effect
was to cause 1900 or 2000 of the clergy to leave the
church. Still the Imlependents ini'reased : and the
Revohitiou of 16SS, and the passing of the Ttdera
lion Act in 1680, at length bronglit them relief.
Efforts were made about this time to bring about
an accommodation between thi'ui and the English
Presbyterians ; ami in 1691 heatls of agreement
were drawn up, but with little practical result.
In 1730 Presbyterians, Baptists, ami Independents
formed themselves into a united IhhIv, under the
name of the Three Denominations. f(M' the i>ro-
tcction of their civil and religious liberties. Phi'
hhleiicndcnts are tlie largest (lis>enting body in
England e.\cept the Wesleyan Methodists. The
largest confederation of its churches is ' the Con-
gregatioiuil I'nion of England and Wales,' which
LS careful to lay down in its basis the princijile
that ' it sh,all not, in any case, assume legislative
authority, or l>e<M)me a ccmrt of appeal.'
An Independent church is. from its very con-
stitution, at liberty to choose any man for its
minister whom it considers qualified for the olfice
96
INDEPENDENTS
INDEX
— subject only to the check arisiii'; from the fact
that iieijihboui'iii!; luinistei-'- will refuse to ordain
or recojinise a man whom they have reason to
rejrard as (lisc|iialilieil. Hut from the l>ej,'inninf,'
the Imlenendeiits have attached great importance
to an educated ministry. Their leaders in the
Puritan aj;e, such as Owen, Howe, and Ureenhill,
were men of great learning, and, a-s soon as the
Act of Toleration in l(iS9 allowed, measures were
taken for securing a siiccession of educated men.
In 1800 the Cunf/rcr/if/ioiial Ycrtrhnok reported
■1S17 churches and i)reaching stations in the I nited
Kingdom connected with the liody, of which 101
were in Scotland, 2!t in Ireland, with HI stations,
and in the Channel Islands U. In Canada there
are 184 churches and stations, in Australia 300, in
New Zealand •!'>, in South Africa 41. in Jamaica
41, in British (luiaiia 3S, in India 31, in China 2.
on the continent of Europe 4 — making a total of
666. There are in all 18 colleges for training
ministers, with 02 professors and 472 students ;
besides the missionary institutes of the London
Missionary Society. In 1895 there were 48oO Con
gregationalist churches in these islands. Their
colleges are 'New College,' London, a union of
three older colleges — Honierton, Highbury, and
Coward — to be ultimately transferred to Camuridgc,
Cavendish College there liaving been bought in 1893 :
Hackney College ; Lanca.sliire College, Manchester ;
Yorkshire College, Bradford —a union of Airedale
and Rotherham colleges elt'ected in 1888; Mans-
liekl College, Oxfonl, formed by the transference
in 1880 of Springhill College and its'revenues from
Birmingham to O.xford, where graduates of any
British university are eligible as students, pursuing
part of their studies in the theological classes pro-
vided by other colleges of the university ; Cheshunt
College, belonging to Lady Huntingdon's trustees.
founded for the preparation of young men for the
Christian ministry in any section of the church to
which they might be called, but virtually an Inde-
pendent college; Western College, Plymouth, the
oldest of the colleges, dating from 1750 ; Notting-
ham and Bristol Institutes for the training of
evangelists and village pastors ; in Wales, Brecon,
Bala, and Bangor ; ' Carmarthen Presbyterian
College.' governed 1)V Dr Williams' trustees, who
are Unitarians, with an IndeiJcndent theologii'al
professor and many Independent students ; and the
Theological Hall of the Scottish Congregational
churches in Edinburgh.
In Scotland Imlependency may be traced back
to the ilays of the Commonwealth, during which
it was imported by the cha])lains and soldiers of
Cromwell. But the present lnilepen<lent churches
in Scotland owe their origin mainly to a mission-
ary movement in the end of the 18th century, chief
among the leaders of which were the brothers
Robert and .lames Haldane, (ireville Ewing, John
Campbell, and .John AiUnnin. The Haldanes
became Baptists in couixe of time — a circumstance
which greatly divided and weakened the new com-
munity. The formation of an a(^ademy for the
training of nnnisters in 1811. and of the Congrega-
tional L'niou about the same lime, did nmcli to
restore the lost vigour of the body. It should
be added that the Baptist churches, both in Hng-
lanil and Scotland, are as strictly 'Independent'
as those which bear that name.
In .-Vmerica the lirst Imlepcndent church was
founiled at I'lymoiiih, New I'.nglaMil. in 1(120 by
a party of i)ilgrim^ sent fiom Holland by John
RolnnsoD. In 1637 the spreiid of Antinomian
doctrine caused nnicli discussion in the church.
By a synod convened in New Englanil .\nti-
nomi.anism (4. v.) was unanimously condemned.
In 1638 Harvard College was founded. In 16.')8 the
Savoy Confession was adopteil. It still remains
ill force. I'nitarian princi])les spread about 1750
widely in the Congregational churches of America.
In 1785 a sei>aiation tindx jdace between the I'ui-
tarians ami the Trinitarians, but both still retain
the Congregational form of church government.
Ill 1883 the Unitarian churches of this order num-
bered .360. There is a Unitarian theolojiical
seminary at Meadville, Pennsylvania, ami Har-
vard (q.v.) has only of late years been professedly
non-sectarian. ' Congregatiimalism,' according to
Dr Schair. 'is the ruling sect of the si.\ north-
eastern states, and has exerted, and still exerts, a
beneticial iiiHneiice upon the religions, social, and
l>olitical life of the whole nation.' American Con-
gregationalism is somewhat nearer to Presby-
terianisiii than the English type. In addition to
the Conference, or Association of Churches, by
which they co-o]ierate for common enils, a national
council meets triennially ' for advisory and not
juridical ends:' but this council is the recognised
agency for deciding as to ministerial or ecclesiasti-
cal fellowship. In 1895 the number of Congrega-
tional churches in the United States was about
■4800, with 515,000 church members, and nearly
6OO.OIJO children in Sunday-schools. Besides such
well-known colleges as Bowiloin, Amherst,
Williams, and (Hierlin, the American Independ-
ents possess theological seminaries at Antlover,
Bangor, New Haven. Hartford, Oakland, Chicago,
ami elsewhere.
See Vaughan's Hi.-<tori/ of Eni/Ush NoncmLhirmity ; J.
Fletcher's ffistoni of Indciiemlencii : \Vaddin!,'ton's Con-
i/rff/fttional Histori/, HOO to 1S50; Hanlmry's Mcmoriah;
Meal's Uislorii of the Puritanx : l)r Stoughton's Ecdt-
Kiustical Historii of Ewjland : Skeats's Historii of the Free
Churches of Ent/land ; and Barclay's Inner Life of the
Jitfif/ioit.-i ^oeietici of the Coinmonivealth. For the scrip-
tural and apostolic basis of the system. Independents
refer to Whately's Kint/dom of ChriM and Hatch's
Baiiipton Lccluris (1880). See also the article I'l'HITANS.
IlldOV (in full, IXIJEX LlIiUOKlM I'ltOHIBI-
TiililM or Exi'imi.XNDoltr.M), a catalogue pub-
lished by papal authority in the Koman Catholic
Church of books the reading of which is pndiibited
to members of that church, whether on doctrinal,
moral, or religious giounds. As .a natural con-
sc(|uence of the claim of the Catholic Church
to .luthiirity in matters of religion, ami to in-
fallibility, that church also claims the right or
the duly of watching over the faith of its mem-
bers, and of guarding it against every danger
of corruption, the chief Jimong which is held
to be the circulation of liooks believeil to be
injurious to faith or to morality. The earliest
recorded exercise of this restrictive authority is
the prohibition of the writings of Arius. The
e;irliest example of a prohibitory catalogue is
found in the decree of a council held at Rome
(494) under Pope (Jelasius. which, having enumer-
ated the canonical books of .Scripture and other
approved works, recites also the apocryphal books,
together with a long list of heretical authors,
whose writings it prohibits. The medieval popes
and councils pursued the same course as to the
heterodox or dangerous writings of their respec-
tive periods ; and the multiplication of such books
after the invention of printing leil to a more
stringent as well as more systematic procedure.
The university press of Louvain issued in 154(5, and
again in 1550, a catalogue of prohibited books.
Similar lists ajipeared by authority at Venice,
I'aris, and Cologne; and I'ius IV. issued in 1557
and 15.59 what may be regarded as [jroperly the
lirst Koman Index. One of the gravest nnder-
t.ikings of the Council of Trent w;us a miue com-
jdele and authoritative enumeration of all tho.se
liooks the use of which it was expedient to prohibit
to the faithful. \ committee wn-s appointed for
IXDKX
INDEXING
97
the |>uipii>L'. Hut ii wii,-; fdUiul iiiii)ossible to bring
the examination of the books to an end before
the close of the eoniicil : anil the entire papers
of the oommittee were handeil over by the eoiincil
to the pope, with instructions tliat the work should
be completed, and the result published by his own
authority, which was accordinjjlv done by I'iut. I\'.
in ir)64. Further additions and certain niodilica-
tions of its rules were made by Sixtus V. and
Clement \'1I. It was republished in l.">!)5, and,
with the addition of sueli books as from time to
time it wa-s deemed expedient to prohiliit, in several
subsequent editions, the most remarkable of wliieh
are those of Brasichelli ( Kome, 1007 ) : Quiroixa
(Salamanca, 1601): and Sotomayor, y^orissimux
//((/cj- ( Madrid, lti4,S). The edition best known to
modern tln'oloyical readers is that of Home (1819).
The prohibitions of the Koiiian Index are of two
classes, either absolute and total or partial and
provisional, ' until the book shall have Ijeen cor-
rected.' The ground of the prohibition may be
either the authorship of the work, or its subject,
or both together. L nder the first head are pro-
hibited all the writings of /icrcs^iiirchs — i.e. the first
founders of heresies — no matter what may be the
subject. Under the second head are prohibited all
books confessedly immoral, and all books on magic,
necromancy, iV:c. Under the third are prohibiteil
all books of heretical authorship treating on doc-
trinal subjects; all versions of the Bible by hereti-
cal authors ; and all liooks, no matter by whom
written, which contain statements, doctrines, or
insinuations prejudicial to the Catholic religion.
The preparation of the Index, in the tirst instance,
was committed to the care of the Congregation of
the Ini|uisition in Rome ; but a special Congregation
of the Index was established by Pius V., and more
fully organised by Sixtus \'. This congregation
consists of a prefect (who is always a cardinal), of
Ciirdinals, of consultei's. and of examiners of books
(qiuilifirntnrrx). Its proceedings are governed by
rules which have been authoritatively laiil down
by several popes, especially by Benedict XH'., in
a constitution issued July 10, 1753. The growth
of modern literature has, of course, entirely out-
stri|)ped the limited and tardy machinery of this
tribunal. A very small proportion even of the
most anti-Catholic publications outside of Italy
a|>pear even by name in the Roman Index ; but,
besides the positive prohibitions of the Index itself,
there are certain general rules regarding the use of
books by which the freeilom of \\ hat is considered
perilous or pernicious reading is much limited
anmng membei"s of the Roman I '.itliolic Church.
In this list— so objectionable to i'rotestants as striking
at liljerty of private judgment, may be found the works
of Jewel, Usher, Sanderson, Hull, and Pearson, but not
tho most really formidalile English attacks on Uonianisni,
the works of Chillingworth and Hooker, not to speak i>f
Milton. Uunyan, and Swift, other EngUsh works con-
demned are Chaucer, Spenser, Addison, Goldsnuth, and
Macaulay. The Index is revi.sed and extended from time
to time— as in 1888 ; and single articles m niagazmes may
lie specially censured— as the articles by Mr St George
Mivart, a Catholic, on ' Happiness in Hell ' in the Nine-
Uenlh denltinj for 18!)2.
Ind<rxing. The need of indexing has become
more urgent as the mass of materials to be indexed
lias increased, and the circle of those who wish to
nse the.se materials has become wider. Lord
Campbell proposed to bring a bill into pailiament
to d(;|irive an author who published a book without
an in<lox of the privilege of <Mipyright. There are
two cla,~ses of books to be indexed — viz. books of
facts and books of opinion. In the indexing of the
first cla.ss, experience, care, and common sense are
needed, and the work must lie systematic and not
ca.sual. In the second cla-ss tlie.se (inalilications are
required and something else — viz. the insight of the I
267
precis writer. The indexer must understand his
subject and also undei'staml the wants of the
reader. The index must be exhaustive in its
indication of the various points in the book, and
concise in expression, and in addition the indexer
must be careful in the choice of catchwords or
titles for his headings. He must gather together
the same subjects under one heading, and see that
they are not separated under synonyms. An
author frequently uses periphrases to escape from
the repetition of the same fact in the same form ;
but these peripluiises will give little information
when inserted as headings in an index, and it is in
this power of selecting the best catchword that the
good indexer will show his superiority over the
commonplace worker. The meaning of the word
index has grailnally grown from the general to the
liarticular, and the word is now established as
denoting a series of references arrangeil in alplia-
lietical order. There are other kinds of indexes ;
but these recjuire an explanatory adjective, as
classified, chronological, iSrc. In indexing names it
is most important to specify the cause of reference,
as a block list of references after a name is almost
usele.ss. A colossal instance of this fault will be
found in Av.scough's index to the Gentleman's
Magazine, wliere all the references under one sur-
name are placed together without even the distinc-
tion of the Christian name. There are 2411 entries
under Smith, and it has been calculated that to go
through this mass in order to lind say Zachary
Smith would take the consultei' eight days of ten
hours a day. It is also important to bring all the
references to one man under one heading, and not
to separate them under the different names or titles
he may have borne. In the index to Scott's edition
of Swift's Works there are 638 references to Harley,
Earl of Oxford, arranged thus : 227 under Robert
Harley, 111 under Lord Oxford, and 300 under
Treasurer (Lord Oxford). There should be one
inde.x for a coniidete work and not a separate
index for each volume. Again, no classilication
should be allowed in an alpha! letical index. This
vicious habit of chussification makes the indexes of
some well-known papers practically valueless. The
consulter of the inde.x wishes to lind ivhether the
volume contains anything on a particular subject,
and be is only confused and annoyed if he has to
look in a succession of alphabet.s arranged under
such headings as original articles, note.s, corre-
spondence, iVc. The preparation of an index
consists of three divisions: (1) compilation, (2)
arrangement, (3) printing. Each indexer will find
out the mode of procedure which is most suitable
im himself ; but it may be said generally thai fools-
cap paper is the most convenient size for nse.
Those entries which are not likely to be repeated
can be written down on the Jiage ;is they occur ; but
in the case of large headings it will be more con-
venient to use a separate page for each, and keep
these pages in an alphabetised guard book so that
they can be turned to in a moment. When the
time comes to cut up the index and arrange it in
alphabetical order, it w ill be necessary to see that
there are no repetitions of the same subjects under
various synonyms. Ncnv is the time to make the
cross references, ;ind here considerable judgment is
required. When the entries are short and few, it is
better to repeal them than to refer from one to the
other ; but in the case of long entries cross references
are very advantageous, and it is always well t<i
refer to cognate headings. No reference to the
contents of a general heading which is without sub-
divLsion should be allowed. If a general heading is
divided into sections, and each of them is clearly
defined, they should be ' cro.ss-referenced,' but not
otherwise. When the arrangement of the cut-up
slips is undertaken, .some alterations and revision
98
INDEXING
INDIA
of headings will frequently be found adWsable.
The value of an index is greatly enhanced by the
proper setting out of the entries with judicious use
of different types. When a book is a complete
treatise on a special subject, a well-made index will
form an admirable key to the subject and be in
itself intrinsically useful. Indexes mav also be
made with regard to a particular subject dealt
with in a number of bo(dvs.
The In'lo.x Society, to form a library of indexes, and to
make indexes to important hooks, rare serials, &c.. w;\s
founded in 1877, and subsequently incorporated mtli
the British Kecords Society ; their publications appear
quarterly in the Index Library. The American Library
Association Index (1893) indexed 3000 miscellaneous
volumes. See books mentioned in tlie article Bibliog-
raphy, and H. B. Wheatley's How to Catuloijue a
Library (IS90).
India, an extensive region of southern Asia,
and next after China the most populous area in
the world. It was celebrated during many ages
for its riches and natural productions, its beautiful
mannf.ictures and costly merchandise, the magni-
licence of its sovereigns, and the early civilisation
of its people. It possesses especial interest to
British people fi'om the imperial connection of its
history \siti\ that of their own nation. It affords, too,
the greatest market in the world for British textile
manufactures, and a great field for the employment
of British capital.
Nomenclature. — The name India comes to us,
through the Romans, from the Greeks, who bor-
rowed it from the Persians. The latter applied
the name Hind to the dwellere in the basin of the
Sindhu River, a Sanskrit name for the Indus.
Sindhu, by the regular change of s into h, becomes
Hind. The river is still called Sind ; while the
land is Hind. Officially, then, the countrj- is Hind
in the vernacular, and India in English. The
national name Hindu is derived from Hind. Then
from Hindu came the name Hindustan, which is
only a province — viz. the region of the Jumna and
the Ganges. This name has sometimes been
applied to India as a Avhole, but this is quite
erroneous.
Geographers write of Further India and Hither
India. The former, lying eastward beyond the
Malay Peninsula, is mostly in native hands, and
partly under French protection. The latter is
under British dominion, and is in legal phrase
India. It was in 1877 proclaimed as the Indian
empire. This article will refer only to the official
Inclia thus indicated. It will for method and con-
densation be divided into five parts— I. The Laud ;
II. The People; III. The Government and the
Military Defence ; IV. The Civil Administration ;
V. The Historj'.
I. The L.\nt).
India is the central i)eniiisula of southern Asia,
and lies in 8° 4'— 35° N. lat. and 67°— 92° E.
long. According to these limits, its length may be
stated approximately at 1900 miles, and its breadth,
reckoned along the parallel of 2.i° N. lat., at 1600
miles, with an area of at least 1,350,000 sq. m.
But in round numbers the square miles contained
in this area may be reckoned at one million and a
half — inclusive of Burma. The natural boundaries
of this vast region are, on the N. , the range of the
Himalaya Mountains, which separates it from
Tartary, China, and Tibet ; on the W. the Suliman
Mountains, dividing it from Afghanistan and
Beluchistan ; on the SW. and .S. the Arabian Sea
and the Indian Ocean ; on the E. the hill-ranges
which border nixin Burma, and the Bay of Bengal.
From the mouths of the Brahmaputra on the
eastern side, and of the Indus on the western side,
the two coasts, east and west, incline towards the
same point, and meet at Cape Comorin, thus pro-
ducing the form of an inverted triangle. The
two sides of the triangle have together a coast-
line of about 2000 miles. Thus southern and
central, or as it may be called peninsular India,
is from its extent of seaboard a maritime ccmntry.
It is northern India only that lia.s a continental
character.
Geography. — For the geography of India there
exist excellent materials ifrom the Grand Trigono-
metrical Survey — a work of the highest scientific
value — which has determined the height of tlie
mountains and the situation of all the orincipal
places : from the topographical sur\ey, which hits
displayed the contour and configuration of the
whole country ; from the revenue and cadastral
surveys, which have delineated the boundaries not
only of villages but of fields also for all ]irovin(es
except Bengal and Behar. The region presents a
diversified surface and scenery. It has indeed been
called 'an epitome of the whole earth,' consisting
as it does of mountains far above the level of per-
petual snow, broad and fertile plains, bathed in
intense sunshine, arid wastes, and impenetrable
forests. Its natural divisions are the Himalaya,
the sub-Himalayan ranges, the plains of the Ganges
and the Brahmaputra, the basin of the Indus, the
highlands of Hindustan, the Vindhya and Satpura
ranges, and the peninsula south of those ranges.
Tlie Himalaya (me.aning 'the abode of snow')
consists of a chain some 1500 miles in length, in
which the links are formed by mountain knots
covered with perpetual snow, some of which rise
from 20,000 to near 30,000 feet above sea-level, and
are the highest yet discovered in the world. It is
the dominatin" factor in the geography of northern
India, being tlie source of the Indus, the (ianges,
the Brahmaputra, and of their jirincipal affluents.
See HiMALAY.v.
The sub-Himalayan ranttes run between the
chain of the Himalaya and tlie plains of the Ganges
and Indus. They occupy Cashmere, the Simla
hill-states, Gurhwal, Knmaon, Nepal, Sikkini, and
Bhutan, which, owing to their elevation above the
sea (5000 to 9000 feet), have a climate like central
Europe in summer and cold as Switzerland in
winter, with the vegetation of the temperate zones.
These regions are separated from the plain of the
Ganges by the submontane tract called Terai,
which extends in a long belt, 5 to '2.t miles in
width, from Hurdwar (where the Ganges issues
from the sub-Himalayan ranges) to the Brahma-
putra. It is covered with forest, and is the haunt
of wild beasts. The soil is very fertile, but malaria
has rendered it uninhabitable by man and the
domestic animals, at least from ,\pril to October.
This wilderness is being gradnally narrowed or in-
vaded by the progress of drainage and cultivation.
The plains of the Ganges and the Brahmainitra,
which include Bengal, Behar, the Doab ( meaning
the ' Mesopotamia ' of the Ganges and Jumna rivers ),
Gudh, and Rohilcund, form an alluvial tint, ter-
minating in a delta, and extending from the Bay
of Bengal to the slight uplands on the Punjab
border that form the water-parting between the
Ganges and the Inilus. Throughout its entire
length the (ian"es and its numerous tributaries
s])read out like the veins of a leaf, carrying every-
where their fertilising intluence. The population
of the.se fertile and well-cultivated plains is very
dense.
The basin of the Indus, in the north-west, is
towards the south stqiarated from that of the
Ganges by the Aravalli Hills. The Punjab occupies
the northern portion. South oi the Punjab, and
parallel with the river, the great sandy desert of
the Indus extends for nearlv 500 miles. The valley
of the Indus is continued through Sind to the
INDIA
99
Arabian Sea. Between the Indus region and
the Aravalli Hills lies the Thur desert, an ex-
panse covered with sandhills, 400 miles lon^' and
100 broad. It is only in the nei;,'libc)urli()od of the
Indus and some of its tributaries that the surface
can be cultivated by means of river-ini>;ation —
although crops of grain may he grown in hollows
and narrow valleys after the rains. The horse and
camel alone can cross this desert, which is described
in Hindu geography as ' the region of death.'
The highlands of Hindustan extend from the
Vindbj-a and Satpura mountains as a base to the
border of the Thur desert. They include the
tableland of Mahva and Rajputana or Rajasthan,
which has an elevation of about 2000 feet above
the level of the sea.
The ^'indhya and Satpura ranges are two hill-
chains, with an elevation from 2.500 to 4000 feet,
partly though not entirely parallel from east to
west, and divided from each other by the valley of
the Nerbudda River. They form what may be
called the backbone of middle India, or, by another
metaphor, a broad wall ilividing northern from
southern India.
The peninsula south of the Satpura range is
in two divisions. The first is the Deccan (q.v. ),
which name means 'the south." This area is a
central tableland extending from 12° to 21 N. lat. ,
rising from 1.500 to 2000 feet above the sea, and
enclosed on all sitles by- mountain-ranges. These
ranges are the Satpuras above mentioned, the Ea,st-
ern Ghats, somewhat low, facing the Bay of Bengal,
and the Western Ghats, higher and more important,
facing the Indian Ocean. Between the Eastern
Ghats and the sea are fertile littoral tracts known
to history as the Northern Circars and the Carnatic.
Between the Western Ghats and sea is a similar
tract known geographically as the Konkan. As a
northern continuation of this tract is Gujarat, with
its oflshoots the peninsulas of Kathiawar and
Cutch. From the low land of the Konkan to the
Deccan plateau the mountains rise in a succession
of geological formations looking like gigantic
terraces. The rivers of the Deccan rise in the
Western Ghats, and, after traversing the tableland,
descend to the sea by passages through the Eastern
(;hat.s. The slope of the country corresponds with
the course of the rivers ; it has a gi'adua! inclina-
tion towards the east. The second division begins
technically from the Tungabhadra River, but geo-
graphically from the hills south of Cuddapah. It
extends right down to Cape Comoiin, the apex of
the inveited triangle, and includes Madras, Tanjore,
Trichinopoli, Tinnevelli, and other famous places.
To this summary of natural divisions a brief
notice of the mountains and rivers may lie added.
The mountain-system forms a connected whole.
It Ls .separate from the Himalaya and from the
Sulinian range, which forms a wall between
India and Afghanistan. It may best be followed
from the southern point. Cape Comorin, north-
wards, thus : From that point there run upwards
two long lines of hills and mountains, one north-
easterly, the other north-westerly. The north-
easterly line comprises the Eastern Ghats
already mentioned, which become merged in the
hilly region cm the west of Ben<;al, and runs up to
the neighbourhood of Allahabad, at the junction of
the Jumna and the Ganges. This line nowhere
exceeds an altitude of 3500 feet above sea-level.
The north-westerly line comprises the Travancore
and Falni hills, the Nilgiri, the Western Gliilts,
the Aravallis, and the Kajasthan hills, up to
the neighbourhood of Delhi. This line has at
several pl.aces considerable altitude, for example
in the Nilgiri ('Blue Peak'), MKM) feet and
upward; and Mahahaleshwar (near Vwma.) and
Abu in Rajputana, upwards of 4000 feet. These
two lines are as the sides of a triangle, and are
joined at the top by the two transverse and parallel
ranges of the \ indhya and Satpura already men
tioned. Thus the mountain-system, like the ex-
ternal configuration of the country, is in the shape
of an inverted triangle.
The rivcr-si/stem may be thus epitomised. The
Indus in the north-west, with a ci>urso of 900
miles after issuing from the Himalayas, drains
with its four famous affluents, the Sutlej,
the Ravi, the Chenab, and the Jhelum, about
300,000 sq. m., and empties itself into the Arabian
Sea. In the north-east the Ganges, with the
Jumna and other atHueuts, and the Brahmaputia
and Meghna — all which join in the Bengal delta
— drain about 500,000 sq. m. Owing to their
virtual amalgamation in Bengal, it is ditticult to
assign a length to the courses of these rivers, which
' empty themselves in the Bay of Bengal. The
central region — viz. that of the Vindhyas and the
! Satpura — about 100,000 sq. m. — is drained by
the Nerbudda and the Tapti, the former having a
course of 800 miles, the latter of 400 miles, and
both flowing west into the Gulf of Cambay, a
branch of tlie Araliian Sea. The remaining area
(viz. 600,000 sq. m., out of a total of 1,50(1,000)
consists of the Deccan and the peninsula. It is
drained by the following rivers : Mahanadi, with
a course of 520 miles ; Godavari, 898 ; Kistna, 80f) ;
Tungabhadra, 400 ; Pennar, 350 ; and Kaveri, 470.
There are many other rivers wb.ich cannot be
particularised here. Among them may be men-
tioned the Hooghly and the Gumti, Calcutta
being situated on the former and Lucknow on the
latter ; both belong to the Gangetic system.
Geology. — In 1856 a stati' of geologists commenced
a geological survey of India, which has since then
been steadily continued. They have examined an
area several times as large as that of Great Britain,
and supplied for the districts with which they
have dealt an accurate knowledge of the mineral
resources.
Professor Medlicott summarises the general
result thus. ' Geologically India is divided into
three distinct areas : ( 1 ) peninsular and ( 2 ) extra-
peninsular, separated by (3) the Indo-Gangetic
plains, formed of the deposits of those great rivers
and tlieir tributaries. ( 1 ) is a land surface of
immense antiquity, all the fossiliferous rocks
within it being of aerial or fluviatile formation, and
the newest of them of Lower Tertiaiy age. It is
principally a massif of gneissic rocks, with bands
and basins of transition strata of various ages,
culminating in the Vindhyan formation, of
! unaltered and undisturbed strata, yet of un-
determined age, being unfossiliferous. Totally
separate from the Vindhyans comes the (iondwana
formation : near its base the Indian coal-measures
on Upper Palaeozoic, while the top group, where
near the coasts, contains Upper Jurassic marine
fossils. A great volcanic formation, known as the
Deccan Trap, covers an immense area in Bombay
and Central India ; the deposits locally found in it
contain only fresh-water fossils ; in Gujarat it
occurs between Eocene and Cretaceous marine
strata. Along the outer margin of the plains (2)'
presents an almost unbroken face of Tertiary rocks,
of immense thickness, and more or less intensely
disturbed. On the west, associated with Cretaceous
strata, they extend to form the uplands of Afghan-
istan and Persia. On the eiist, again associated
with U^iper Sec4)n<lary beds, they abut against the
crystalline rocks of the Malay, an axis. On the
north they form the sub-Himalayan chain at the
base of the central Asian massif, the southern
ridfjes of which form the Himalayas ; in this
position the Tertiary series, except at its very
uase, is inclusively of fluviatile formation, like
100
INDIA
the ])laiiis, ami contiiin.-- tlie famous Siwalik
raamriialian fauna. Tlie outer Himalayan is fonncii
of crystalline and other rocks of uncertain aj,'e ;
but on the north side of the range there is a full
succession of Paheozoio and Secondary marine
formations. At the north-east an;;le ot the plains
the Shilloiig plateau of crystalline roeUs, capped liy
horizontal Tertiary strata, sejiaratiiif; the lower
Assam valley from Sylhet in eastern Bengal, is an
outlier of the peninsular mus.'ii/. At the north-
west angle of the plains, in the Salt Range of the
Punjah, there is again a small exposure of the
ancient limit of the peninsular massif, presenting
an outcrop of coastal deposits of Paheozoic age.
Besides the (londwana coal, a light coal occurs
sporadically in the Tertiary rocks from Sind to
Cashmere, and in upper Assam there are rich coal-
measures of ahout the same age ; in both these
regions, also, petroleum is more or less abundant.
Pure iron ores are abundant throughout the penin-
sula and in the outer Himalaya; other ores are
comparatively scarce, except along the Malayan
axis. The iliamonds of India an<l the aluminous
gems of Burma are well known.'
In ancient times there were gold-mines in the
mountains of the south-western regions, which
supplied the metal for the golil coinage which was
then almost universal in the country. The most
accessible parts of the auriferous strata have been
worked out ages ago, and the remnant forms what
is known as the My.sore mines. There are other
auriferous de|)osits in parts of the Deccan. Silver
lias never been discoveied in any appreciable
quantity within the country ; but in the middle
ages it was introiluced largely from across the
Himalayas and used for coinage. In the Shan de-
pendencies of Burma, however, it is extracted from
lead ore. Coal is obtained largely in western
Bengal, in the Satpura Hills to a considerable ex-
tent, and in the Deccan to some extent, and in some
other jilaces also — enough, on the whole, to supply
the railways. Iron and copper are found and
worked in many ])arts of the country. There
are many other mineral proilucts of lesser import-
ance. Dianumds are still found in the central hills,
and ruby mines are worked near the Irawadi.
The mineral resources on the whole are inferior in
importance to the agricultural. See the Manunl of
the Hdjlorjii of India, l)y Medlicott, Blanford, and
Ball (.■! vol's. 1879-81).
Ciiinate. — It follows from the foregoing summary
of geography in a country extending over 26° of
latitude — one extremity of which runs far into the
torrid zone, and the other terudnates in a range of
mountains rising far above the line of perpetual
snow — a countrv embracing lowland jdains, elevated
plateaus, and alpine regions, that the clinuite must
be extremely varied. The whole country has three
well marked seasons — the cool, the hot, and the
rainy. This characteristic applies without ilisliiic-
tion to all parts of the country ; even to the Hima-
layas, which have otherwise a climate like that of
Switzerland. The cool months are November, De-
cember, January, and a jiart of February ; the dry
hot weather i>recedes, and the moist hot weather
Follows IJK! periodical rains. The rainy season falls
in the ndildle of summer ; its heginning is earlier or
later according to circumstances, its ending is in
September, But in Burma it lasts longer ; ami in
the peninsula there is a second rainy season,
calleu the latter rains, during the autumn. The
winter is the plea.sant period : the spring is gener-
ally hot and healthy ; the sunnuer depends on
the duration of the lains ; the .-uitumn is close,
malarious, and unhealthy. The rainy season
everywhere comes from the same cause — viz.
the attraction by the sun of moisture from the
ocean in clouds, and their condensation into rain
ujiou the land. It is called nmn.soon, probably a
corruption of the Persian word for season (see
Mox.sooN). It is the occasional failure of the
monsoons that causes the periodical famines to
which the country is liable. The central table-
land is cool comparatively, but the alternations of
heat and cold diller greatly elsewhere. In the
north-west there is burning heat with hot winds in
summer, and frost at night in winter. In the
south the heat is more tempered, but the winter
is cool only, and not cold. At Ootacamund, on
the Nilgiris, "200 feet above the level of the sea,
the mean annual tem)ierature is 58° F. : at Madras,
83° ; Bombay, 84° : Calcutta, 79° : Bangalore, 74' ;
and at Delhi, 72°. But at places like Delhi, where
the heat of summer is tremendous, the average is
reduced by the cohl in winter. The fall of rain
varies greatly in diHerent parts of the country.
In the north-eastern and other outlying i>arts it
exceeds 75 inches ; at one observatory in north-
east Bengal, Cherra Punji, there is a phenomenal
fall of titK) inches in the year. In the Deccan, in
the upper basins of the Ganges and the Indus, it
is 30, and in the lower regions of the Indus less
than 15 inches. The remainder of India is placed
between the extremes represented by these damp
and dry belts, but is, as compared with Europe,
an arid country. Hence the necessity of tanks
and irrigation canals to su]pply moisture to the
soil, and to obviate the danger of drought and
famine. A meteortdogical department has been
established, with 161 observatories, the chief of
which are at Calcutta and Bombay. See Henry
K. Blanford's Practintl Guide to the C'liitiates and
Weather (f India (1889).
Fauna. — The domesticated animals are, lirst,
the cattle — cows, bnttaloes, oxen : the last two do
the work of agriculture. The bull and cow are
sacred animals to Hindus, and by them are never
killed for food. The indigenous breeds of horses in
India are being improved by the importation of
foreign sires. They lia\'e ne\er been employed in
agriculture. The jiony, the donkey, and the mule
are largely used. Sheep and goats are abundant.
The pig is plentiful, hut is despised by the upper
and middle classes of the people. The monkeys
are tame and are held sacred. The wild animals
include the tiger, panther, cheetah, boar, bear,
bison, ele])hant, and rhinoceros. The crocodile
and alligator infest most of the rivers. Deer of
all sorts abound everywhere, .and mainly supply
sustenance to the carnivorous animals. The lion,
the hya-na, the lynx, and the wolf are unimport-
ant. The elephant is used only for purpo.ses of
war or of state, both by the government and by
the native nobility. The ibex and the ovis-ammon
(the wild goat and the wild sheep) iire found only
in the highest parts of the Himalayas. Poisonous
snakes aliouml, ihe worst being the cobra dacapello
(the black-hooded): many thousands of the natives
die from snake-bite in the year. The government
otter rewards, and numy thousan<ls of animals, in-
cluding snakes, are destroyed. The area supjHirt
ing these animals has shrunk during the i>resent
century from the spread of cultivation, and is still
shrinking. Destructive visitations of locusts liappen
occasionally. The birds arc, of course, inlinitely
various ; but several of the most beautiful or
remarkable species are wanting. The eagle is
found only in the Himalayas, .so is the idieiusant.
The partridge is .seen in all the plains, and in some
places the quail is abundant. The sni|>e is found
in the marshy land ; waterfowl swarm in some
localities, and llighls of wild geese .sweep through
the air. Vultures and other birds serve as
scavengers. The crow is common everywhere, but
not the raven.
At the sea]>ort towns the supply of fish for
INDIA
101
European consumption is excellent, and fisli-curinj;
is largely practised by the natives. Inland tlio
fishing in the mountainstieanis is good, Imt in the
rivers of the champaign the lish, thougli abundant
in cmantity, are not esteemed for quality. See
\V. T. Blanford's fauna of British I>i<li(t { 1S88 et
seq. ).
Flora. — Nearly half of the country is tropical,
though none of it is eqtiatorial, anil a part is not
only temperate, hut cold ; accordingly the vegeta-
tion varies greatly. .\s compared willi equatorial
regions, the country has tropical (iroducts plentiful
•ind good, but not first-rate, such ivs tnliacco. sugar,
ginger, and spices of all sorts. Kice lia.s from time
immemorial fieen a staple. Maize and millet are
articles of food for the stronger races. Oilseeds are
largely exported. The cultivation of wheat ha.s
greatly developed for exportation since the era of
cheap |)rices. Tea is grown largely uiuler Euro-
pean supervision in the Eastern Himalayas, and
already surp.asses the China teas. Cott'ee is grown
in the soutli, hut with chequered success. Among
the dyes, indigo and lac ( red ) are noteworthy.
European Howei-s of all sorts are cultivated nowa-
days. The indigenous flowers are not rich, the
water-lilies being the best : the llowering shrubs
are veri' fine, however. Of trees in the plains
neiir the coasts the palm order with its several
\ arieties strikes the ob.server. Inland the mango
fruit-tree and the orange, the umbrageous banyan,
the sacred peepul, and the bamboo are features in
the landscape. In the hills the teak and other
u.seful timber trees are obtained. In the Himalayas
are the cedar, the pine, the fir, the juniper.
The primeval forests which covered the country
have long been restricted to the hill and moun-
tain system already described. But further.
in this country, as in many other countries, the
hills have been deforested by reckless destruction
during many generations, to the injurj- of the
••liraate and of that water-suiiply on which so
much depends. Conservation of forests was not
attempted under native rule, nor under British
rule until the middle of the HIth century. Since
tliat time, however, a forestry department has
been set up as a branch of the administration in
every province, with European officei-s trained in
Europe. For the whole country, the forests uniler
supervision amount to 100,000 sq. m., of which
two-thirds arc under cnnqdete conservancy. Be-
sides augnientiug the national resources, the forestry
is profitable, and yields a net revenue yearly of
more than half a million sterling.
The agricultural statistics show that barely
one-third of the whole country is cultivated or
grazed. Of the remainder a iiortion is available
for cultivation ; the rest is uncultivable, consist
ing of stiff hillsides, desert, river-beds, &c.
II. Thk PeuI'Lk.
Popiilution. — This has since the middle of the
19th century been a.scertained by census. The
decennial census of 1881 showed 2.53 millions of
souls for the whole ctmntry, including the British
territories and the native states, and an increa.<e
of 13 millions over the preceding census. This
total was exclusive of the population of the Cash-
mere state, which really belonged to the country,
and of Upper Burma, subsequently annexed. With
Cashmere and all Burma the population at the
census of 1891 was 287,22.3,241, an a])parent in-
crea.se of 3.3,429,917 (deducting the areas not
reckoned, .a net increa.se of 27,821,420); and this
total excludes Nepal, lihutan, Sikkinj, .and the
French, Portuguese, and Dutch territories. In
round numl>ers, then, the population may be
stated at 290 millions. But though populous the
country is not as a whole densely peopled ; the
average of inhabitants to the square mile being
229 for the British provinces, 111 for the native
states, anil 184 for the whole country. The hill
and mountain system, indeed, shows a sparse
jiopulalion : hut the pl.ains of the Ganges and the
Brahmaputra, again, and the co.ast districts and
the sonthern peninsula, are <lensely peopled. I Ijc
(langetic pl.iin generally has .an average of 400 to
the sq. m. ; and some ])arts of it, near Benares and
Patna, show an average actually double the above,
and a density which is quite excessive. Of the
287 millions not more than 30 were urban, the rest
being rural. Thus the vast majority of the peo]ile
live in the country, and most of these are agricul-
tural or pa-storal. Everywhere the returns show an
excess in the number of males over that of fenuiles.
The jpopnlation of the three presidencv cities
are: Calcutta, ,861,764 ; Bomli.ay. 821,764 : Sl.adr.as,
4.V2,.t18. Below these there are twenty-live towns
with more than 100,000 inhabitants each, and below
these again forty seven with more than 50,000 each.
Ethnoloifn and Liitii/iia(ic. — The languages of
the present day as well as those siioken in former
ages, !is far as these are known to us, belong to
four diti'erent stocks — viz. the Aryan, Dravidian,
Kolarian, and Tibeto-Burman stocks. In point
of chronological order the Kolarians ajipear to
have been the first settlers, and all indications
jioint to their bavin" originally entered India from
the north-east, and having thence .spread west-
wards over the northern plains. As regards the
tribes speaking Tibeto-Burman dialects, they are
confined to the skirts of the Himalayan range:
thus forming, as it were, the southern edge of
the wide Tihetan speech-field, having probably
penetrated at various times, from the plateau of
Tibet, through the numerous p,a.sses of the Hima-
laya.s. Eastwards, again, these dialects stretch, in
a more or less c(Uitinnous chain, itntil they merge
in the compact boily of Bnrinan speech. l$ut
whilst a .separate linguistic development makes
it necessary to treat the Kolarian and Tibeto-Bur-
man languages as two distinct groups, it is yet
highly pndiahle that they were ultimately derived
from the same Mongol stock. After a time the
Kolarian settlers wotild seem to have been dis-
turbed in their possession of the northern plains
by the inroads of Dravidian tribes. These, having
gained entrance into India through the north-
western pa.sses. seem to have imsheil forward,
driving the Kolarians into the mountainous dis-
tricts whicli liorder the Gangetic plain in the simth,
and ultimately to h.ave forced tlieir way through
them, iind poured themselves in a mighty stream
into the southern peninsula. Whether in so iloing
they were already nrgeil onward by tribes of another
r.ace following in their vviike we do not know;
certain it is, hovvevei , that at some time or other
subsequent to the immigration of the Dravidians —
prolmbly more than 4000 years ago people of the
Aiyan stock must have entered the "land of the five
rivers' ( Punjab) either through those same passes
of the Suliman range, the coinmaml of which has
so often ilecided the fate of India, or by a more
northerly and yet more rugged route, across the
Hindu-Kush, ami liy way of trie Pamir ]dateau ami
the highlaml valley of Cashmere, hi favour of this
latter allern.ative it li.as been urged that there are
to this diiy settled, to the north of Cashmere and
Kabul, several trilies of the Aryan stock, such as
the Dards .and the Siah-Posh Kafirs, whose ver-
nacular dialects are of so archaic a character as to
have suggested the idea that these tribes may
|>erhaps lie the direct descendants of some remnants
of the )primitive ( Indo-lr.anic) .-Aryans which Inul
rem.ained behind in the old homes when the great
body of their brethren took their departure in quest
of inori! favoured abodes. However, our knowledge
102
INDIA
of these waifs and strays of the Aryan stock is still
very iiiii)eifoct ; ami they may after all turn out
to be mere detaclied dialects of either the Indie
or the Iranic hrancli of Aryan speech. Between
these two divisions no sharji line of demarcation
can indeed be drawn ; but the lan^'uafies of tlie
countries west of the Indus — viz. tlie Pushtu (or
Pakhtu ) of the Afghans, and the Baluchi, one of
tlie two principal languages of Beluchistan — form
intermediate links, being by most scholars included
in the Iranian group, whilst others would rather
refer them to the Indian division.
(1) IiuloAryan Group. — Tlie earliest accessible
form of Aryan speech in India is the Vedic, espe-
cially the language of the sacred hymns of the
Rigveda which rejiresent the Aryan tribes as
settled in the Punjab. Even at that early period
dialectic varieties seem already to have existed to
some extent among difterent tribes. In the course
of the later Vedic ages the Aryan language ex-
tended its sway eastward over nearly the whole
of northern India. During this process foreign
ethnic elements were doubtless largely absorbed by
the Aryan community, and the greater or less pro-
portion of such admixtures, coupled with inde-
pendent political formations, could not fail ere
long to produce difterent dialects of marked indi-
viduality. Mean\vhile, the exegesis of the sacred
hymns, already largely unintelligible at the time
when they were lii-st collected, and the consequent
close cultivation of grammatical and phonetic
studies, resulted in the grammatical fixation of
the literary language (hence called Sanskrit — i.e.
' completely or correctly formed, polished'), prob-
ably about the 6tli century B.C. Henceforth the
divorce between the literary idiom and the popular
dialects was complete. The existence of such
dialects at that time is amply attested liy the
fact that (Jautania S'akyamuni (or Buddha, 'the
awakened,' as he subsequently called himself), in
preaching his new gospel of salvation through indi-
vidual righteousness, made iLse of the Miigadhi,
commonly called Pali, the local dialect of his
native Magadha ( Beliar), which accordingly became
the sacred language of Buddhist literature ; but
being as such a grammatically fixed idiom, like
the Sanskrit, it became gradually estranged from
the vernacular with which it had originally been
identical. The canonical books of the Buddhists
were settled at a council held in the reign of the
Emperor As'oka about 250 B.C., but they were not
committed to writing till about 80 B.C., so that
the state of their language is attested for that
{leiiod at latest. The same Emperor As'oka has,
lowever, left us authentic dialectic documents of
his own time — viz. the famous rock inscriptions,
containing religious edicts, and scattered over the
area of northern India from the vicinity of
Peshawar on the north-west frontier, and (iirnar
in (iujarat, to Cuttack on the eastern coast. Simi-
lar in its origin to the Pali, another local dialect,
the Malidrdslitri, or language of the province of
Mahiiriishtra (the present Mahratta country),
became the religious dialect of another large sect,
the Jains, which .seems to go back to about the
same time as the origin of Buddhism. Moreover,
several popular dialects were early employed for
literary purposes by Indian dramatists. While the
use of Sanslcrit in dramatic literature is confined
to male characters of the higher classes, women
and inferior male characters are invariably made
to speak various local dialects. The.se dialects,
called Prakrits — i.e. either 'vulgar' or 'derivi'il
(from the Sanskrit )'- may be looked upon as the
forerunners of the modem vernaculars of northern
Indiii,, Though the oMest existing plays can hardly
be placed earlier than the btli century of our era,
the actual use of the Prakrits, as popularly spoken
dialects, may go back some centuries before that
time. The principal Nro-Aryaii languages of
India are (1) lieiKjali : (2) Criyd (of Orissa) ;
(3) Hindi (of the Upper Provinces), with the
closely allied Pan/dhi and Aepdli (the language of
the tJoorkhas, tlie ruling cla-ss of Nepiil); (4)
Sind/ti (on the lower Indus); (o) Kashmiri : (G)
Mardthi ; (7) Gujardti—v{\\\Q\\ Beanies (fuwyjoro-
tire Grammar of the Modern Aryan Languages of
India), however, takes to be a mere dialect of
Hindi. To these may be added (8) Assamese,
formerly considered a dialect of Bengali ; (9)
Brdliui, one of the two languages sjioken in
Beluchistan, which at one time was thought to
be Dravidian, whilst some scholars would even
now refer it to the K<dariaii group: and (10)
Sinhalese, the language of tlie southern half (per-
haps at one time of the whole) of the island of
Ceylon, doubtless imported from northern India,
in the early centuries B.C., by Buddhist immi-
grants : with its literary dialect called Elu, and
the dialect of the Aryanised aboriginal Veddahs.
Many of these languages show a considerable
number of dialectic varieties, esiiecially the Hindi,
by far the most important of all, of which as
many as fifty-nine dialects are enumerated by Cust
(Modern Languages of the East Indies). Not a
few of these dialects are, however, of a veiy mixed
character, owing to their being spoken by Aryan-
ised tribes of one of the three other groups, and
consequently showing a more or less strong non
Aryan element. A peculiar and important form
(for it can .scarcely be called a distinct dialect) of
Hindi is Urdu or Hindustdni, which, lieing Hindi,
with a more or less considerable admixture of
Persian (and Arabic) words, and written in the
Persian character, originated, after the Moham-
medan conquest, through the official intercourse
of the Persian-speaking rulei-s and their Hindu
subjects — much as in English the original Teutonic
groundwork lias been overlaid by a thick layer of
Romance and Latin vocables and formative elements
— and has developed into a kind of lingua franea for
the whole of India ; a southern variety of it being
called Ikikhani or Dekhni. In point of the anti-
quity of its literary documents, Sinhalese stands
pre-eminent among Neo-Aryan languages ; its de-
velopment from, or by the side of, Pali being well
authenticated by Elu works goin^ back to the 5tli
century of our era, and by inscriptions of very early
date. Next to it conies Hindi, commencing, about
1'200 .\.D., with the Prithinij R;isau, a heroic poem
by ('hand lianhii, composed in an archaic form of
Hindi which Trumpji projioses to call 'Old Ilindui ;'
whilst the term ' Hindui ' is applied by him to a
somewhat more nuxlern form, represented by the
writings of the religious reformer Kabir (c. 1450
A.D.), the sacred liooks of tlie Sikhs (the (irantli),
and Tulsi Das's translation of the Sanskrit e]iic
Riimdj-ana. In Maiiithi the oldest existing work,
a i)araplirase of the Sanskrit philosojihic.al poem
Bhagavadgitil, claims to have been written in 1290
.\.D. ; whilst Bengali literature commences with
the religious writings of the Vaishnava reformer
Chaitanya, a contemimrary of Luther. None of
the other languages possess any literature above
two or three centuries old.
(2) Dravidian Group. — The extension of the
Biahmanical civilisation and literature ha-s intro-
duced into these languaj;es, a-s into those of the
other stocks, a very considerable element of Sans-
kritic words; whilst their grammatical structure
has, on the whole, remained intact. As regards
tlie ultimate affinities of this stock, Dr Caldwell,
in his Comparatire Grammar of the Dravidian
Languages, has shown that Dravidian speech, in
its formative features, betrays a ' family likeness'
to the Scythic ( Finnic-Tataric ) stock ;" whilst he
INDIA
103
also detects in it certain analogies, though of a
rather indelinite and remote character, to Aryan
speech. The people speaking Univida languages
oocupy a compact area extending over the whole
of the southern part of the peninsula, with one or
two enclaves in the Aryan territory. Dravitlian
scholars recognise twelve distinct languages, oidy
four of wliich, also the most important in regard
to population, have developed anything worthy of
the name of a literature —viz. ( 1 ) Tumi}, occupying
the south-eastern; (2) Telugu, the north-western;
(3) Kcmarese (or Katinada, i.e. Karnataka), the
north-eastern: and (4) Malai/dhim, the south-
western portion of the Dravidian area. The
remaining memliers of the family are (5) Tulu,
hetween the two preceding ones, on the Malabar
coast; (6) Kotiagii, the language of Coorg, adjoin-
ing the last named, inland ; (7) Tue/a and (8) Kota,
both spoken by tribes of the Nilgiri hills; (9)
Gone/, in Central India ; ( 10) Khone/ s,nd ( 11 ) Ordott,
west and north-west of Orissa; and ( 12) Rdjmahnl,
or Mdlet\ the language of a tribe of the Riijmah;il
hills in Bengal. Tamil, which has also extended
its sway over the northern half of Ceylon, may
boa-st of a rich and varied literature ; its oldest
works— the Chint;imani, an e\nc poem of 15,000
lines, anil the Kural, a collection of ethical stanzas,
both of them by Jain poets — probably dating back
to the 10th century, if not earlier. In the sister
languages, Nannaya's Telugu translation of the
epic Mahabharata and Kes'ava's Kanarese gram-
mar probably belon" to the r2th century ; whilst
Malayalam, originally a mere dialect of Tamil,
commences with the heroic poem Ramacharita, of
uncertain date, but probably a century or two
later than those works.
(3) Kolarian Group. — The term, derived from
tlie tribal name of the Kols, was first introduced by
Sir G. Campbell. The people speaking these lan-
guages, settled chierty in the jungly and mountain-
ous tracts of the Central Provinces, are computed
to number about two million, though many tribes,
such as the Bhils, who have adopted other lan-
guages, especially Hindi, ethnologically doubtless
belong to this grou]). Kolarian speech possesses
a very comjdete suth.xal system of inflection, its
conjugational system being especially developed.
Some of the chief points in which it differs from
Dravidian speech are that it has a dual num-
ber for nouns,, and that it lacks a negative form of
the verb. Our knowledge of most of these lan-
guages is, however, still sadly defective. Brand-
reth proposes to include nine dift'erent languages
under this group, to which Cust adds a tenth ; but
this scheme is so far (jnly provisional. The best-
known member of this family is the SantAli — spoken
by a vigorous tribe inhabiting the so-called Santal
I'arganas ( and adjoining districts ) along the western
frontier of Lower Bengal — of «hich we have a good
grammar by Skrefsrud (1873). The only other
language of this group the grammar of which has
l)een at all adequately treated is the Munddri,
spoken by Mundas, Bhumij, and Larka Kols;
whilst of others, which are probably destined to
die out before long, we have as yet only scanty
vocabularies.
(4) TibelnBunimn Group.— "[\n>i fielil has also
as yet been very imperfectly surveye<I, most of its
languages lying either wholly beyond the Indian
frontier, or only just projecting into the British
territory. They share the general agglutinative
character of the only two literary langM.iu'i'~ of this
family, the Tibetan and Burmese, whilst in them
the tone of the voice also plays generally an ini-
(lortant part in the meaning of words, though not
to the same extent a.s in monosyllabic languages.
Brandreth proposes to arrange these lK)rder-lan-
guages in nineteen ditlerent classes, which Cust re-
duces to a few geographical groups — viz. the Nepjil,
Sikkiiii, Assam, Manipur-Cliittagong, and Trans-
Himalayan groups — the la-st-named group consisting
of the southern oft'shoots of the Tibetan branch of
Tibeto-Bvirman si)('i>oh.
A curious cluster of dialects, which seems to be
independent of any of the four grouiis of Indian
speech hitherto mentioned, is found in the Khasi
hills, in the province of Assam. There is a good
K/uim grammar by Pryse. This language, in
which five or six dialects are distinguished, is of
the monosyllabic order ; but its e.xact relationship
has not yet been determined.
The word Hindu has been used in various
senses. In truth it means all those who pro-
fess the Hindu or Brahmanic faith, which, how-
ever, consists of many sects. This vast community
of nearly 208 millions of souls is divided into
several Castes ( q.v. ), high antl low. The high castes
are mainly Aryan ; the lower castes partly Aryan
and partly Dravidian or aboriginal. A pei-son must
be born into the high castes, and cannot enter them
by conversion. If a person, as for instance an
atjoriginal, be converted, he can enter the lower
castes only. The sections of Hindu community
thus summarised differ not only in nationality and
language in different provinces, but in customs and
dress. Their languages are to be counted by
scores.
The Mohammedan (or, strictly, Muhammedan)
population, on the other hand (about 58 millions),
in all parts of India affect the same customs, and
generally speak one language — Hindust;ini or I'rdii.
It is the one chiefly known to Europeans. It is
the vernacular in the towns alone, and those, too,
of the north-west only. In these provinces, also,
it is the official language. It is, however, hardh'
known to the Mohammedans of ea.stern Bengal,
who speak Bengali. Persian and Arabic are more
or less known as classical languages to the Moham-
medans of India, but are not spoken. The lan-
guage of the courts of justice is evenwhere the
language of the province.
The aboriginal hill-tribes have caused trouble on
the Assam frontier at various times, especially those
on the north-east frontier near Assam. The hill-
tribes of the Dravidian race also are in a primi-
tive state socially. Of these the most important
are the Bhils and Gonds, who are found in the
^'indhya and Satpura regions, the K bonds and
Kols, who inhabit the Eastern tlbiits, and the
Sontals on the hill-country west of Bengal. The
Bhils were wont to live by plunder, and used
to burst out of their jungles, committing many
outrages ; but in 1825, after various methods of
subduing them had been unsuccessfully tried by
the British government, it was resolved to tempt
them into military service, with good results.
The Khonds and Kols, driven into the jungles
and mountains of Central India by the advance of
the Aryan race from the north-west, have pre-
served the grim religion that prevailed in the
country before Hinduism was heard of. That
religion m.iy be brielly characterised as Devil
worship, with efforts to propitiate the malignant
deities hy human sacrifice, principally of children.
Successful efforts have been made by the British
government to suppress these practices. As a
tribe the (ionds are the strcmgcst ; they adopted
parts of both Hindu and Moli.amniedan culture,
founded a rude dyna-sty, and signalised their rule
by works of material improvement. For more
than a century past they have relapsed into their
pristine condition. It is from among these aborigi-
nal tribes, numbering in all perhaps fifteen millions,
that proselytes to Hinduism are obtained.
Natio/Kil C/uiriirfer. — To the inhabitants of India,
who, although generally a mixed race of Dravidian
104
INDIA
and Aryan origin, now form many distinct nations,
MO general statement can apply. The acute but
unwarliki! inhabitants of tlie (iangetic delta are
<|uite unlike the less intellectual but sturdier races
of the upper basins of the Ganges and the Indus -
i.e. the North-western Provinces and the I'unjali.
The.se latter again are dissiiiiilar from the liigli-bidl
and chivalrou.s race of Kajiisthan or Kajputana,
and the hardy thou'di humble Mahratta of the
Western Ghdts. Still further varieties are found
in the half-warlike and partly refined races of the
eastern coast and southern peninsula, mi.xed up
with races of lesser spirit aiul culture. The races
who in this generation are believed to have pcditical
!i.si)irations are the Sikhs of the Punjab — the Sikh
faith V)eing really an offshoot of Hinduism — the
(Joorkhas of Nepal, and the Mahrattas of the
Western Ghats ; and perhaps some sections of
Mohammedans, who mi^ht be aided by Arabs im-
migrating from Arabia. The Krahmans everywhere.
10 whatever nationality they may belong, or what-
ever language they may speak, have a homogeneous
character, imbued with a lofty pride transmitted
through long generations.
The Mohammedans of centr.al Asiatic descent
are strict adherents of their faith, an<l sometimes
fanatical. But those who, like the inhabitants of
eastern Bengal and of parts of the I'mijab, are
merely Hindus or aborigines made Mohammedans
by conversion, are of coui'se less orthodo.x. Their
religion is a mi.vture of the doctrines of the Koran
with the local idolatry. The Parsees, a mercan-
tile and educated class, seated at Bombay and
alon^ the west coast of India, are the descendants
of the fugitive lire-woishippers of Persia. See
Parsees.
The national character cannot be portrayed from
this congeries of nationalities, yet some character-
istics can be set forth as generally prevalent -. for
the upper and middle classes, domestic affection,
munilicence, tenacious adherence to custom, venera-
tion with awe leading to superstition, love of ex-
ternal nature, an inclination f(M- abstract medita-
tion, mental acuteness and subtlety, litigiousne.ss,
shrewdness of observation ; for the humbler classes,
temperance, patience, docility, charitableness to the
indigent, endurance, fortitude under disaster, and
industry. The (jualities termed princi]de and
public spirit in western phrase cannot be pieili-
cated of any class. Deep attachment to the ances-
tral religion takes the place of patriotism. ' Dharm '
to the Hindn, and Din to the Mohammedan, means
virtue under a religious sanction. In justice to
the women, it must be said that, desjiite their
subjectiim and seclusion, they have shown courage-
ous fortitude in times of danger and charitable
munilicence when endowed with means. The
suttee ' widow-liurning' evinceil supreme resolu-
tion. Predatory and pugnacious instincts, heredi-
tary in some classes, are jiartly subdued by the
ixix romana of British rule. Politically the lead-
ing factor is this, that the congeries of national
ities, despite community of faith, have no idea of
national union or of self-organisation. This renders
them com]iaratively easy of government by a foreign
power that posse.sses governing capacity.
I'lujsical (^hirUitics. — These \ary together with
race and climate. The stature is often tall in the
north, and short in the south— very much as in
Kuro)pe. Strength does not depend on height, of
course. The Nepdlese are short, so are the .\IalMal-
tas ; both are strong. As a rule, strength with
courage is found more in the north than in the
south, but least perhaps in iIk- (iangetic delta.
Bengal Ls the only large province that furnishes no
recruits to the army. Physical endurance, the
power of making protracted bodily e.xertion with
but scanty sustenance, is peicejitible evei-ywhere ;
in some places it is extraordinary, and rarely to be
equalled in any country. As a point of compari
son, a native h;is hardly half the strength or
nervous force of a European, jierhaps not more
than one-third ; his work comparatively would be
in the s;une projiortion. In conse()ueiice of this
and of the cheapness of living, his w.-iges are not
more than one-si.xth of the British rate. A pro-
[losition of this sort cannot be stated accurately
or delinitely, but some snch truth as this lies at
the basis of the political economy of the country.
Itiligion. — Hinduism or lirahmanism is the re-
ligion of the great majority of tlie people, and
M:(diamniedanism conies ncx'l. Of the 287,O()O,(l00
inhabitants of India, Ibitish iind fendalorv, in 1S91,
•207,700,000 were Hin<lus, ,")7, 000,000 Mohainmedans,
!),.300,000 aboriginal pagans, 7,000,000 Buddhists
(almost all in Burma); 1,400,000 dains, 90.000
Parsees (chieliy in Bombay), 17,OltO Jews. In
Bengal there are nearly 2-4,000.0()() Mohamnu'dans
to 47,000,000 Hindus;' in llie Punjab, IS.OOO.OOO
to 10,000,000 Hindus. The Sikh rcdigion is pio-
fe.ssed, according to the census for the Punjab, by
1,900,000 of its inhabitants. The Christian's num-
ber 2.200,000. I'lMililhism at one period prevailed
very generally throughout India; it is now con-
lined to Bhutan, .Sikkim. and Burma. See BlDDH-
IS.M, J.\INS, ilOHAMMKD, PaH.SEES, SIKHS.
Hiiiihiism. — The lirst to be considered is that
variety of creeds which is ilerived from Biahmanic
sources, and known as the Hindu religion, or
Hinduism. The following summary of the origin
and development of Hinduism is from (ioldstiicker's
essay (Literary Heniaiiis. 1879), originally written
for the first edition of this work.
Hinduism may be divided into three periods, the
Vedic, Epic, .and Pui;inic, as our knowledge of the
first is derived from the sacred liooks called the
Veda, of the second from the epic poems the liuind-
yana and the Maliuliliiinitti, of the third from
the mythological works known under the name of
Piiniiius and TiiiitrKn. Writers on this subject
have marked the beginnings (if certain di\ isions of
Vedic works with 1200. lOOO, SOO, and lioo yi-ars
n.C. The iiuestion of Hindu chronology «ill be
more ]iarticiilarly consi<leied in the article Veda.
Probal)ly the latest writings of the Vedic class are
not more recent than the 2d century n.c. Uncer-
tainty hangs over the period at which the two
great epic poems were composed, although there
is reason to surmise th.-it the lower liiidts of thai
period are not far fnmi the liegimiing of the
Christian era. The Pnninic period, on the other
hand, jiU scholars are agreed to regard as corre
sponding with part of our medieval histcny.
'J'/if ]'ecJas. — If the yiV;/- K(v/«— the oldest of tlic
A'e<las. and )>i(djably the oldest literary ilocumenl
in e>;istence -coiiici<leil with the beginning of
Hindu civilisaticm, thi^ popular creed of the
Hindus, as depicted in some of its hymns, would
leve.-il the original creed not only of this naticni,
Imt also of humanity it-self. 'I'he Hindus, ,as de
incteil in these hymns, are far advanced lieyond tlu'
starting-jioint of human society. Indeed they may
be ranked among these iMiriniiunilies already ex-
]ierienced in arts, defending (heir homes .ainl |iio
perty in organised warfare, aci|uainteil even with
many vices which only occur in an advanced con
dition of artilicial life (see Veu.\). Vet the ideas
expressed in the greatest number of the Big-Veda
hymns are neither emanating from an artificial
imagination nor largely affected by philosophy.
The Hindu of these hymns is engrossed by the
might of the elements. The powers which turn his
awe into pious subjecliun are: A(/>ii, the tire of
the sun and lightning; Jiiilra, the bright, cloud-
less tirmament: the Maritl.i, or winds; Siiri/a, the
sun ; Ushas, the dawn ; and nature in general. He
INDIA
105
invokes them, not as representatives of a superior
lifinn, before wliom the human soul professes its
humility, but Ueeause he wants their assistance
:i.gainst"enemies — liocause he wishes to olitain from
them rain, food, cattle, health, and otlier worldly
goods. H(> sei^ks them, not for his spiritual, hut for
his material welfare. Sin and evil, indee<l, are often
adverted to, and the gods are praised lieeause they
ilestroy sinners and evildoei's. Hut tliese words
are not to be associated with our notions of wrong.
A sinner, in these hymns, is a man who fails to
address praises to those elemental deities, or to
gratify tlieni witli the oblations they receive at the
liauds of the believer. He is the foe, tlie robber,
the demon — in short, the borderer infesting tlie
territory of the 'pious' man, who, in his turn,
injures and kills the other. On the whole these
hymns, so far from reflecting unfavourably on the
internal condition of the Hindu community, seem,
on the contrary, to bespeak tlie union and brother-
liood wliich existed among its members.
The worship of the elementary beings was origin-
ally simple and harmless. Most of the Hig-Veda
hymns mention but one sort of offering made to
these gods. It consists of the juice of the Soma
(i|.v. ) or moon-plant, which, e-\)>ressed and fer-
mented, was an exhilarating and inebriating
beverage. There is a class of hymns, however, to
be found in the liig-Veda in which the instinctive
utterance of feeling makes room for the language
of speculation ; and the mysteries of nature be-
ing more keenly felt, the circle of beings which
overawe the popular mind becomes enlarged. Thus,
the objects by whicli Indra, .\gni, and the other
deities are propitiated, become gods themselves;
Soma is invoked as the bestower of all worldly
boons. The animal .sacritice is added to the original
rites : and the horse of the sacrifice especially is
invoked by the worshipper.
Mystical language then shows that religion
was endeavouring to penetrate into the mysteries
of creation. This longing is expressed in other
hymns, which mark the beginning of the pliilu-
.sopltical iTf.i-d of tlie Vedic period. The following
extract will illustrate the nature of this thin!
class of hymns, as they occur in the oldest
\'eda : ' Then there was no entit.v or non-entity :
no world, or sky, or aught above it : nor water
<leep or dangerous. Death was not, nor was there
immortality, nor ilistinction of day or night. But
Th.\T breathed without atilation, single with her
who is within him. Other than him, nothing
existed which since has been. . . . Who knows
exactly, and who shall in this world declare, whence
and why this creation took place? The gods are
subsequent to the production of this world : then
who can know whence it proceeded, or whence this
varied world arose, or whether it uphold itself or
not ? He who in the highest heaven is the ruler of
this universe, does indeed know ; but not another
one can possess this knowledge.'
As soon as the problem implied by passages
like these wa-s raised, Hinduism must have ceased
to be the pure worslii]) of the elementary powers.
Henceforward, therefore, we see it struggling to
reconcile the latter with the idea of one sui)reme
being. The lirst ot these efforts Ls shown in that
pc>rtion of the \'edas called Bruhmaitii , the secoiul
in the writings termed UpanUhiul. In the Brdh-
inaniis the mystical allegories are reduce<l to a
systematic form. Epithets given by the Kig-
Veda poets to the elementary gods are spun
out into legends. A ponderous ritual, founded
on those legends, is brought into a system which
requires a class of priests. However mnch this
ritual betrays the gradual development of tlie in-
stitution of castes (unknown to the hynuis of the
I tig- Veda), there are still two features in them
which mark a progress of the religious mind of
the .ancient Hindus. While the poets of the Rig-
Veda are chiefly concerned in glorifying the visible
nianifestations of the elementary gods, in the
llnilunanas their ethical qualities are put forward
for imitation and praise. Truth and untruth, right
and wnmg — in the moral .-ense which these words
imply — are often emphasised in the de.'^ciiption of
the battles fought between gods and demons. A
second feature is the tendency in these llr;ihnuinas
to determine the rank of the gods, .and to give
prominence to one special god amongst the lest :
whereas in the old Ve(li<- poetry, though there may
be a predilection to bestow more jiraise on some
gods than on others, yet there is no intention to
raise any of them to a supreme rank. Thus, in
some Bralimanas Indra, the god of the lirma-
ment, is endowed with the dignity of a ruler of
the gods ; in others the sun receives the attributes
of superiority.
The Upa'iiishads. — An answer to the (|uestion
regarding the Almighty is attempted by the
'mysterious doctrine,' as laid down in the writ-
ings known under the name of Upanishads. Their
object is to explain, not only the process of crea-
tion, but also the nature of a supreme being, ami
its relation to the huni.an soul. In the Upanishads
the deities of the Vedic hymns become symbols to
assist the mind in an attempt to tiniler>tand the
true nature of one absolute entity, and the manner
in which it manifests itself in its worldly form.
The human soul itself is of the same nature as
this sujireme or great soul : its ultinuite destina-
tion is that of becoming reunited witli the supreme
soul, and the means of attaining that end is not
the perform.ance of sacrificial rites, but the com-
prehension of its own self and of the great soul.
Thus the I'panishads became the basis of a eom-
]iaratively enlightened faith. They contain the
germs whence the three great systems of Hindu
philosophy arose. They advance sufficiently far to
express belief in <a suineme being, but .ncknowledge
I he inability of the human mind to conipreheuil
its essence. See Veda.
The Epics and tlie Philusoplit/. — The ICpic period
of Hinduism is marked by a development of the
two creeds, the general features of which have
now been traced in the Vedic writings. The popu-
lar creed strives to find a centre lound which to
gnmp its imaginary gods, whereas the philosophical
creed finds its expression in the groundwiuks of the
Siiiikhi/a. Siidi/a, and Veddtda systems of philo-
sophy. In the former we find two gods in [lar-
ticular who are rising to the highest rank, A'ishnn
and Siva : for as to Brahma (the m.asculine form of
Brahman), though he w,as looked u]ion now and
then a« superior to both, he gradually disappears,
and becomes merged into the philosophical Brahma
(the neuter form of the same word), which is a
further evolution of the great soul of the I'pani-
shad.s. In tlie epos J,'(iiiidi/<iii<i, the superiority of
Vishnu is admitted without disjiute ; in the great
epos, the Mahdhhdnda, however— which, unlike the
former epos, is the product of successive ages — there
is an apparent rivalry between the claims of Vishnu
and Siva to occujiy the highest rank in the pantheon.
.-VIre.ady there is a ]iredilection during thi.-. Epic
period for the supremacy of \'i>hnu ; and the policy
of incorporating rather than comhating antagonistic
creeds led more to a ipiiet ailmission than to a
warm support of Siva's claims to the highest rank.
One remarkable myth illustrates the altered posi-
tion of the gods during the Kpic period. In the
\'edic hymns the immortality of the gods is never
matter of doubt. The offerings they receive may add
to their cimifort .and strength, but are not indispens-
able for their existence. It is, on the contrary, the
pious saciilicer liimself who, through his offerings,
106
INDIA
secures to liiiiiself long life and immortality after-
wards. And the same notion orevails throughout
the oldest Brahmanas. It is only in the latest work
of this class, and more especially in the Ejiic poems,
that we tind the inferior gods as mortal in the
beginning, and as becoming immortal through
exterior agency. In the S'ataiMithn-Brdhmana
the juice of tlie Soma jdant, ottered by the wor-
shipper, or at another time clarified butter, or even
animal sacrifices, impart to them this immortality.
At the Epic period Vishnu teaches them how to
obtain the Ainrltn, or beverage of immortality,
without wliioli they would go to destruction.
The philosophical creed of this jjeriod develops
the notion that the union of the individual soul
with the supreme spirit may be aided by penances,
such as peculiar modes of breathing, particular
postures, protracted fasting, and the like ; in short,
by those practices which are systematised by the
Yoga doctrine. The most remarkable Epic work
which inculcates this doctrine is the celebrated
poem B/taijavadgitd, which S'ankara, the great
philosopher, declared to be founded on the
Yoga belief. The doctrine of the reunion of the
individual soul with the supreme soul was neces-
sarily founded on the assumption that the former
must have become free from all guilt att'ecting its
])urity before it can be remerged into the source
whence it proceeded. And, since one human life is
apparently too short for enabling the soul to attain
thereto, the Hindu mind concluded that the soul,
after the death of its temporary owner, had to be
born again, in onler to complete the work it had
left undone in its prenous existence. This is the
Hindu doctrine of metempsychosis. The beginning
of this doctrine may be discovered in some of the
oldest Upanishads, but its fantastical development
belongs to the Epic time.
The Piirdnris and the Tantras. — The Purftnic
period of Hinduism is that of its decline, so far as
the popular creed is concerned. Its pantheon is
nominally the same as that of the Epic period.
Brahmil, Vishnu, and Siva remain still at the head
of its imaginary gods. But whereas the Epic time
Ls generally characterised by a friendly harmony
between the higher occupants of the divine spheres,
the Funinic period shows discord and destruction of
the original ideas whence the Epic gods arose.
Brahnid is withdrawn from the popular adoration,
leaving Vishnu and Siva to light their battles in
the minds of their worshippers for the highest rank.
The divine element whicli still distinguishes these
gods in the Kanuiyana and Mahilbhiirata is now
more and more mixed up with worldly concerns
and intersecteil with historical events, distiijured in
their turn to suit individual interests. Of the ideas
implied by the Vedic rites scarcely a trace is visible
in the PurAnas and Tantras, wliich are the text-
books of this creed. Some Puranas, it is true
— e.g. the Bhdgaimtu — make in some sense an ex-
ception to this aberratiim from original Hinduism ;
but they are a compromise between the jiopular
creed and the Vediinta creed, which latter remains
the faith of the educated and intelligent. They do
not affect the worship of the masses as practised by
the various sects, whether harndess, as with the
worshippers of Vishnu, or offensive, as with the
adorers of Siva and his wife Pi'irga. It is this
popular creed which, with further deteriinations
caused by the lap.se of centuries, is still the main
religion of the ma.sses in India. See PurAna and
Sanskrit, Vol. IX. p. 153.
Tiie philosophical creed of this period, which is
stUl preserved by the educated classes, is derived
from the Ved;inta philoso|)hy. It is based on the
belief of one suprenu' l>eiMg, who is invested with
all the perfection conceival)le by the human mind.
But the nature of that being is declared to be
beyond the reach of thought, as not possessing any
of the i|ualities by whicli the human mind is able
to comprehend intellectual or material entity. See
Vedanta.
The sects which arose during the third period of
Hinduism suppose that their woi-ship is counten-
anced by thevedas; but its real origin is derived
from the Puranas and I'antiax. There are three
chief divisions of the.se sects — the adorers of Vishnu
( \'aishnavas ), of Siva ( Saivas ), and of the wives or
female energies of these gods (Siiktas). For the
philosopliy, literature, &c., see Sanskrit.
The Fopular Fdith. — This nmst be noted as it
is seen among the Hindus to-day. The triad of
Brahma the creator, \'ishnu tlie preserver, aiul
Siva the destroyer is still remembered. One of
them (Brahma) has lapsed into an abstraction,
and practical adoratioti is di\ided between the
other two. The Sivaites are chietly, but not
entirely, in the north ; the Vishnuitcs in the
south. The Sivaite worship is chietly attracted
by the wife of Siva, under various names — Kali,
Diirga, Parbati, anil so forth. Vishnu, again, is
almost lost in the worship paid to his two incar-
nations (avatars), Rama and Krishna. Lesser
divinities, such as Hanunian, the ' monkey god,'
and Ganesh, the 'elepliant-god,' are also honoured.
The sanctity of the Ganges (Ganga) remains, and
when the river is lost in the delta that sanctity is
to some extent continued to the Hooglily, flowing
past Calcutta. The Nerbudda also is sacred. The
ling or phallus is still an emblem, and gives its
name to the Lingayet sect in the Deccan. It is
hard to gauge the thoughts of Hindus regarding
a future state. They think of a heaven (Swarga)
and a hell ; also of giant demons ( Rakshas ). From
their demeanour in the presence of certain death
it may be inferred that they expect absorption into
the divine essence or entity, through the inter-
vention of the god or gods they have worsliip]ied.
It is hard to measure the extent to which this
faith may have been weakened by the western
education of to-day in the minds of the rising
generation. The undermining is, however, ex-
tensive. Still, in the upper class there are many
who cling to Brahmanic orthodoxy, and with the
mass of the people the adoration at the temples,
the floral and votive ollerings, the ceremonies, the
festi\als, the pilgrimages, are all maintained. The
rule of life is still comprehended in the tenii
Dharm, which includes religious fidelity and moral
virtue.
The Caste System, which is a j)otent factor in the
national life, does not appear to have been a part
of the Vedic religion originally. But it arose
subsequently with a religious sanction which is
still maintained. The Brahman caste, including
the priests, is held to have something divine in it.
Most of the several millions of lirahmans follow
secular emjiloyment : but even the humblest of
them is hedged round by a certain sort of sacred-
ness. This caste, together with the Kshatri or
warrior caste, and the Vaisya or trader caste (in-
cluding the subilivision of Kayasths or writers), are
held to be twice-born (dwija). This character
does not attach to the Siidra caste, which includes
the masses. The restrictions in respect of food
and drink (water) in the caste system are most
severe and narrow. Caste is lost from any of the
infringements that are inevitable in foreign intor-
couise. But restoration to caste, though often
expensive, is sufliciently facile. Within each caste
as a division of the jieople there are subdivisions
infinitely numerous, which as a whole have been
reckoned at several thousands.
'J'hc liruhmas. — But a new religion is arising
among the Hindus educated after the western
manner : this may be termed Brahnioisni or
INDIA
107
tlieisni, eschewing cast* and almost everj-tliing
Biahmanic. There are alreatly two divisions —
Braliraos and AdhiBralimos ; perhaps other divi-
sions may be formed. Their community is termed
the Brahmo Soniaj (q.v.). Tliese theistic reformei-s
look primarily to the Vedas, hut refer also to
the Christian Hihle. This intellectual, moral,
and spiritual moven\ent may have inlinite develop-
ment under the national education now established,
and is to be reckoned among the phenomena of
the country. It has been necessary to pass a
special law for the marriages of this sect and other
sects.
The Sikhs. — Their faith, though not quite what
it was in the preceding generation, is still a
living power. In the Punjab and the protected
Sikh states it really was a sort of reformation,
anil a moral system engrafted on Brahmanism.
Otherwise it recognises all, or nearly all, the Brali-
manic tenets, caste included. Its sacreil Ixiok, the
Granth, is well known. Its spiritual teachers
(Gurus) have a status irrespective of the Brahman
priesthood, and it has religious orders endowed
with fighting qualities. A man is not bom into
its system, but is initiated. Practically the
initiated ones are all Hindus, who thus become
Sikhs or disciples. There are two modes of
initiation, something like baptism : the first, that
of the foot, practised by the founder, Baba
Xanak : the second, that of the sword, as practised
by Govind Sing, the warlike pro])agator. The
former has more of a religious character, the second
is more militant. The popularity of the latter cul-
minated in the palmy days of the Sikh kingdom,
when the temple of initiation at Amritsar, near
Lahore, was daily crowdeil.
Buddhism is now for the people only a nominis
umbra: probably the words ' buddh,' as abstract
wisdom, and ' nirvana,' as a haven of celestial
quiescence, are remembered. In the Eastern Hima
layas, Sikkini, and Bhutan it is really Laniaisni
(q.v.), or the medieval corruption of Buddhism,
of which the headquarters are at Lhasa, in Tibet,
with the Dalai Lama and the incarnations. The
representations of Buddha or Gautama have the
aspect of ineffable repose which Buddhism has
everywhere exhibited. The caste system does not
exist, but the monastic order is all-powerful. In
Burma the faith is still mainly that which was
settled at the last great council of Asoka, in
northern India, before the Christian era. Here
also caste is not acknowledged ; but the priestly
and monastic orders, though they cannot arrogate
a status like Brahmans, are veiy influential.
■Jainism is believed to have originally sprung
from the same school of speculative thought as
Buddhism. It has sacred books and saints of its
own, in a long line or series, and it promises a
future quiescence hardly distinguishable from
annihilation. It has an excessive tenderne.ss for
animal life. It recognises caste. Its adherents
are largely found in the banking and mercantile
cla.«ses.
Muhaminedanism.—TXna is, in many parts of the
country, strict and exactly presencd, and ' din,'
or orthodoxy, is still a word to conjure with. The
two sects, Sunnis and Shiahs, exist in this as in
other countries ; the dynasties have been mostly
Sunni, and the people chiefly belong to that sect,
hut the Shiahs have always been numerous at
Lucknow. In eastern Bengal, however, the faith
is much modified and deba.sed, and this remark
ar)plies to nearly half of the Moslem population.
"Tlie ramifications of the fanatical Wahabi sect in
Arabia have spread to the Indian empire, thereby
causing occasionally political trouble.
The Parsees preserve the Zoroastrian faith and
practice — the tire-worship, and so forth. Their
' towers of silence,' inside of which the dead are
deposited, are conspiciious objects. There are traces
still in India of the old woi-ship of trees — the Bo,
the tulsi, and others, aud of the serpent (Naga).
The aboriginal cult consists of veneration for the
great spirit and for malignant powei's, including
sMialliiox, and even the tiger, with worship of
stocks and stones.
Edigiotis Endounnentn. —The .several religions
have from time immemorial received endowments
from the native dynasties, which endowments
are in part maintained under British rule. The
value of these endowments consisted in the aliena-
tion of the land revenue in favour of religious
institutions as grantees. The government has
severed itself from any share in the management
of these institutions, but it regards the landed
emlowments as property, and has maintaine<l
them after due investigation of tenure, title, and
the like.
Christianity. — The traditions of St Thomas ( q.v. )
the Apostle survive in the south, where also a Syrian
Churcli was planted in the early centuries after
Christ. In the 5th century Nestorianism came
fiom Babylon, and still survives. In the 16th
century Roman Catholic missions anived from
Portugal, and soon afterwards came the famous
St Francis Xavier (q.v.) with the Jesuits. The
Jesuit missions had great success on both sides of
the Peninsula in a certain way, but their ministers
were somewhat orientalised. Just two centuries
later — i.e. at the middle of the 18th century— the
Society of Jesus was broken up in Europe, and the
south-Indian missions languisned in consequence.
Early in the 19th century the society was re-
established, and ere long its missions were resus-
citated.
The DanLsh settlement on the south-east coast
at Tranquebar saw the first Protestant mission,
which was Lutheran, under Ziegenbalg, in 1795.
He was followed by Schwartz in the Peninsula.
Towards the end of the century the Baptist mission
was set up at the then Danish settlement at
Serampore. In the early yeai-s of the 19th century
Henry MartjTi, the Church of England chaplain,
began to work as a missionary. The bishopric
of Calcutta was established in IS14, and then
followed the operations of the two great associa-
tions of the Church of England — the Church
Missionary^ Society and the Society for the Propa-
gation of the Gospel. The Church of Scotland
began its missions in 1S30, increased bv the Free
Church after 1S43. These were followed by
missions from the Wesleyan and Baptist com-
munities (British and American), from thetierman
Society at Basel, from the London Missionary
Society, and the United Presbyterians in 1860. In
1835-.37 the bishoiirics of Madras and Bombay
were established, the Bishop of Calcutta becoming
Metropolitan. Recently bishops have been ap-
Eointed for the Punjab and Sind, and for Burma,
esides two missionary bish()])s for the Peninsula.
The Church of England is the ollicial ehnrch,
and its chaplains are stationed at the principal
towns and military cantonments. In many places
al.so there are ministers of other denominations.
R<nnan Catholic priests are ministering every-
where, and many of them are salaried by the
government a-; ministei^ to the European soldiers
of their faith. Besides these there are the Euro-
pean ordained missionaries — many hundreds of all
denominations— and under these a fivst growing
native ministry.
The following was the distribution of the Chris-
tain population, by race, in the empire in 1881 :
European, 142, 6I()"; Euriisi.in, eS.OS.T ; Native,
893,6.">8 ; others (including various Asiatic races),
764,172— total, 1,862,525. The following is accord-
108
INDIA
ing to denomination at tlie census of 1891 : Cliuivh
of Enjrland, ii'tri.Oie; Preslnteiians, 40.407 ; otiiei
Protestants, :«)0,'J05 ; Koman Catliolics, 1,315,'2C3;
Syrians, Armenians, and Greeks, 201,684 — tx>taJ,
2,284,380.
Till! ini.ssionarios liavo now. for half a century,
worked with jjastoral devotion, literary labour,
and educational eHioicucv, in western !vs well as
eastern knowleili;e. Tliev have studied reli;L,'i<)ns.
translated the Scriptures into tlie principal lan-
j^uages, issueil ininierous works on Christian teach-
ing, .su|)ervised schixds. founded colleges, maniiged
the cure of congregations. I'hey have long con-
stituted a moral force in the country, with heue-
licial elloct. soei.ally and politically. The increase
in the numher of native Christians has been pro-
portionally great.
Social Customs. — Four-fifths of the population
are aHecte<l largely Viv the caste system already
de.scril)ed as being partly at least connecte<l with
the popular religion. .A. religious sanction in
some degree attaches to infant marriage, or child
marriage, with all classes ; also to tlie seclusion of
women, and to the prohibition against remarriage
of widows, with the upper ami midille cla.sses. In
jjractice the women of the masses are not secluded,
iiut, on the contrary, appear everywhere, and work
out of doors ; they re-marry, too, if in widowhood.
The burning of widows ( suttee or sati ) on the funeral
pyres of their husbands has long been suppressed
by the criminal law under Hritish rule. Polyandry
is found only among a few of the aboriginal tribes,
I'olygamy is sanctioned, but not enjoined ; it is, of
<;ourse, confined to those who can att'ord to maintain
more than one wife. Here, again, in practice the
masses of the people are monogamist. In all classes
the marriage exjienses, arising chiefly from the otter-
iugs made to the ]iriesthooil, are so excessive as
frequently to cause embarrassment to families.
Many of the social c\istoms above indicated are
regretted and deprecated by nati\e reformers as j
being injurious to the national progress, and I
benevolent ellorts for reformation are made. The
laws of inheritance, dower and divorce, women's j
property, adoption, partition, and other social
matters are held to have a ouasi-religious sanction. I
Tliey are generally observed in the coni'ts of justice
under British rule, both fcU' Hindus and Moham-
medans. Three criminal i)rac,tices have been
severely dealt with by the British government :
female infanticide, arising from the presumed
exigencies of ca.ste ; the murderous and treacherous j
Thuggee connected with the goddess of destruc-
tion : and the Meriah or human sacrifices by some '
of the hill-tribes. j
T/ic Vi7/(i</c Si/sfi'iti. — This is a factor in the rural
life of the Hindus, ami from them has been ado|ited ]
by the Mohammedans. A village does not merely
mean a collection of houses, but corresponds to a
township or a parish. It is an area of some hun-
dreds or thousands of acres of land, according to
cir.'umstances, and is under the administration of
hereditary functionaries, the principal of whom is
the pottiil ( head-iidiabitant ). a small local nuigis-
trate. who su]ierint(^uds the all'airs of the com-
munitv, .settles dis]iutes, attends to the rural police
ami the collection of taxes. Among the other
funclionariesmay be mentioned the accountant and
notary {hnrnuni or ptitirari)^ who keejts a register
of the produce and the names of the proiirietors,
and draws up all deeds of sale, transfer, \c,. : the
Brahman, or village nriest ; the schoolmaster ; and
the watchman. liesidcs these almost every village
has its iustrologer, smith, carpenter, potter, barber,
and bard, all of whom are ri'warded out of the
produce of the village-lainls. M'nder this sim])le
form of municipal government the inhabitants of
the countrv have lived from time immemorial.
The boundaries of the village have been but seldom
altered : and llinugh the vilhages themselves have
been sometimes altered, and even desolated by war,
famine, aiul disea.se, the same name, the same
limits, and even the same families, have ccmtinued
for ages. The inhabitants give themselves m>
trouble about the breaking uji and division of
kingdoms ; while the village renuvins entire they
care not to what jiower it is transferred, or to what
sovereign it devolves ; it.s internal economy remains
unchanged ; the potail is still the head-inhabitant,
and still act-s as the petty magistrate.'
Costume. — This is in these numenms nationalities
<haracterised universally by the ease, lightness, anil
looseness common in the JEa-st and suitable to the
hot climate. But it varies in the many provinces,
and, indeed, with every nationality. The turban
(pagri) has every sort of dimension, from minute
neatness to turgid nuissiveness. The waistband
(dhoti) extends often below the knee, in which case
there is no trouser. .Jackets in many styles are
common. The women's dress in many respects
resemliles that of the men. The petticoat is not
universal. The head-dress is often extended, so ;us
to hang gracefully down the back. The shoe is
not always worn ; indeed, the humbler cla.sses are
generally barefooted. With them the blanket
is often a plaid. The black colours of Europe
are seldom seen, but indigo blue is common.
Otherwise white, set off by gay margins, and rich
>carfs and shawls, is the prevailing colour. .\s a
whole the national dress is picturesque, and a holi-
day crowd has the appearance of a nower-garden.
Architecture. — This is not generally remarkable
in the humbler dwellings. In the (iangetic delta
the m.aterials are bamboo and thatch, and the cot-
tages, being covered with creepers, are ]iicturesque.
In the north both walls and roofs are of indurateil
earth, the elt'ect being utterly ]ilain. In the south
wood and brick are used. The street architecture
in the cities and towns is diversified in a manner
conducing to pictorial effect. The Europeans have
not invented any style for their buildings, except
at Calcutta, where the ]irivate houses have ,a stately
architecture suited to the climate. Otherwise for
their churches they have adopted the Cothic style,
and for their civil structures the leading styles of
Europe, with certainly a noble, (nen magnificent
ell'ect at Calcutta anil Bombay. At .Madras, in
Bajputana. and elsewhere, they have used .adapta-
tions of the old oriental styles.
The indigenous styles of architecture for many
centuries have been the chief ornaments of the
laud. Their study has been greatly elucidated by
the .\rch:eological Survey. They begin with the
Buddhist era ; for the preceding or Vedic era there
are no remains. The best authoritv legarding
them is Fergusson, from whose works tiie following
classification is taken. It must suffice to note the
salient points only.
I'lic Hindu Sti/lcs.- h\ the Buddhist architecture
the characteristic features are. first, ilie Tope ( a cor-
ruption of Stupa, or ' monumental mound ' ), encased
with ma.sonry, having a superstructure at the top,
and corridors round the base, with four entrances
marked by gateways, often of great beauty ;
secondly, the Lat or pillar, generally monumental ;
the Cliaitya or hall of woisbip ; the Vihara, or
nu>mistery. \\ith cells for the monks. Tlu^ two la^t
named are often rock-cut, and thus have an extra-
ordinary interest. One tower only, that of Buddh
(lya in Behar, has been found, and it is one of
the mddest dimensions. .Mmost all parts of the
architecture are adorned with bold yet graceful
carvings of men and women, and of animals. In
some of the rock-cut chambers or cave-temples are
remains of frescoes immensely valuable to the
>tudent.
INDIA
109
The only liviii;.' aiotiitectuie of Bu<I(Ihism is in
the Eastern Hiinalayivs, in Sikkini. Tlu'ie the
figures of Buddha are heautitully executed in terra-
cotta : and the monasteries are proterled from the
snow by unihrelhi-shaped roofs. In Nepal there
is one tapering pagoda in the Burmese style, hi
Burma the circular dagohjis have been developed
into the e.xquisitelytaperiiig pagodjis, with gilded
surface, and the masonry is set off hy wood-carv-
ing of the most elaborate description.
In the Jaina architecture the original character-
istics were somewhat similar — Jainism and Buddh-
ism being cognate faiths. But simplicity begins
to be lost in ornament. Extensive remains are
discovered on hill-tops far removed from one
another — Parasnath in Bengal, Abu in Kajputana,
Satranj in Kathiawar. There is a dis[iosition to
congregate small temples in great numlier on hill-
tops, so as to form, ;vs it were, cities of the gods.
Tne general effect of these, however, is not pictur-
esque. The large towers become rounded and
ribbed, with a circular addition something like a
ro.se on the apex, surmounted by a linial, .so that
the general effect is not unlike a spire. Arches
and domes become prominent features. Elaborate
ornamentation is introduced into the stone
masonry. Pillars and lesser towers of great beauty
are erected.
The styles which follow are historically Brah-
manic. In the Hinialaya.s there are two styles :
one in Cashmere, with Hindu affinities, but with
greater simplicity of outline and of detail in gray
limestone ; the other in Nepal, with Chinese and
Burmese affinities, the most striking examples l)eing
those of temples built in stories, with sloping roofs,
copper-gilt, and projecting eaves ; the walls being
often of enamelled brickwork, and the wood-carving
very rich.
The Dra vidian style prevails in the southern
peninsula, where the Tamil language is spoken. It
is called after the old Dravidian race, which has
still a distinctive existence in this region. The
towers of the temples lose the rounded and spiral
forms, and become nearly pyramidal. The temple
enclosures have vast gateways (gopuras) of com-
paratively square shape, though narrowed towards
the top. The surface ornamentation, though very
tine in some respects, is on the whole grotesquely
profuse. At some points, however, the redstone
sculptured figures are superb. Granite is largely
employed in this style, also the e.xquisite stucco
obtained from shell-lime. The styles heretofore
mentioned were devoted almost entirely to reli-
gious pui-poses. But this Dravidian style is adapted
to civil uses, and appears in stately palaces, jmblic
offices, pavilions, elephant -stables, and so forth.
This has been ascribed to the influence of Moham-
medan example. The arch becomes prominent ;
and at Madura especially there is an arched hall
of real magnificence.
The Chalukyan stvle is named after a Hindu
dynasty that reigned in the central Deccan. It is
found originally in that region, but extended to
Mysore, where its noblest works were arrested in
their constraction bv the Mohammedan invasion.
Its materials are often of \()lcanic and granitic
stone. The pyrami<lal shape prevails, and the
l)atient elaboration of surface-ornament excites
wonder ; but in the general outline stillness and
solidity prevail over gracefulness.
The Indo Aryan or Brahmanic .style Ls more
widely spread than any of the others, exten<ling
as it does throughout the northern and central
regions. Its examples are varied ; many are too
small to l>e effective or signiticant, but .some, such
as the group near Jaganatli, in Uri.ssa. and that at
Brindaban, on the Jumna, are of the grandest type.
Artistically the Oris.sa examples are perhaps the
best in the whole country. The forms are influ-
enced by Mcihammeilan example. The rounded
and coronetcd tower already nuntioned in the
Jaina style is found to perfection here. In
northern India it is called the Shiwala. This
style is adapted not merely to temples, but
to cenotaphs for the repose of ashes after crema-
tion, to palaces and summer-houses, to fortresses,
to the dams of artilicial lakes, to travellei-s' rest-
houses, to wells, and to the spacious reservoirs
that are famous under the name of Baoli. The
domes and lesser cupolas become frequent. The
balconies and windows are much to be adniiretl.
One palatial summer-house at Deeg, in Kaj-
putana, is one of the most beautiful Imildings of
its kind in the world. The modern Hindu work
chiefly belongs to this style, and is still going on.
In general terms, ob.servati(m of nature, aspira-
tion for beauty, and artistic feeling have charac-
terised the Hindus — whether Buddhist or Jain <n-
Brahmanic— and imparted to their architectural
achievements an art-culture rarely surpassed by
any nationality.
The I)id(i-S(iriice.nir Style. — This may be divided
into two jiarts, the Pathan and the Mogul. It
begins with the 1 1 tli century, aiul ends with the 15th.
The early Pathan style, whether in stone, as at
Ahniedabad, near the west coast, or in brick, as at
Gaur, in Bengal, far eastwards, consists, with one
notable exception, of the Hindu architecture already
described, but adapted for a simple worship, and
modilied with a certain breadth of conception to
which the Hindus never attained. The exception
is this, that sculpture of the human form is ex-
cluded, as lieing idolatrous. The later Pathan
style was Ijased on northern models. Plainness
and grandeur are its characteristics, both in the
northern and the central regions. The dome, the
arch, the minaret are nobly developed : indeed,
the dome at Bijapur, in the Deccan, is the
grandest object of its kind in the world, and is
equally remarkable for structural skill.
The Mogul style began with Akbar the Great
in the 14th century. At lirst it appeared in
a somewhat Hinduised form, because tlie Moslem
princes married Hindu princesses. But it soon
became purified from a Moslem point of view,
I and resumed the severe simidicity and grandeur of
I the later Pathan style, superadding thereto a grace
and dignity never surpassed in human art. At
firet the materials were red sandstone and marble
intermixed. But by degrees marlde was used more
and more, till the culminating examjile of thisstyle,
the Taj Mahal at Agra, was encased entirely with
this material, inlaid with precious and parti-
coloured stones (see illu.stration at Agr.v). .After
this the Pearl mosque (marble) at Agra and the
palace fortresses at Agra and Delhi, aiui the Jama
mosques at Delhi and Lahore (Punjab) are the
most renowned examples.
The Indo-Saracenic style is apjilied largely to
tombs, it being the practice of the sovereign to
erect his tomb in his own lifetime. Besides this
class anil the other cla.s.ses of structure, it was
largely applied to caravanserais an<l to educational
institutions (MuUrusax). In all its later stage,
it was marked by surface decoration in coloured
enamel on earthen material, with hues of which
the brilliancy and (|uality cannot be imitated in
modem times. After the break-u]) of the Mogul
empire, a deba.sed modification of the stvle was in-
troduced at Lucknow. High as was tiie art cul-
ture in the architecture of the Hindu predeces.sors,
it was even snrpa-ssed by the Moslem successors.
III. Government and Military Defence.
The Empire— Since Queen Victoria was pro-
claimed Empress in 1877, India is an empire, includ-
110
INDIA
ing the Britisli territories and the native states,
or, in other words, the Indian allies, feudatories,
and vassals of the said empire from the Tihetan
and Tartar ^atei'shed of the Himalayas to Cape
Coniorin. It includes, too, every area within their
geographical limits, without any exception, except
the comparatively small settlements Delon<'ing to
France and Portugal. The empire is under one
supreme authority in India— viz. the Viceroy and
Governor-general in Council. It may thus he
divided into two categories — the British terri-
tories, comprising about three-fifths of the total
area, and four-fifths of the total population ; and
the native states. It will be convenient to dispose
of the latter first.
The Native States. — The relations between these
and the British government are regulated by
treaties in full detail. These treaties have been
published in many volumes, and form a record of
the utmost value to the student of modern India.
Some states do not ordinarily appear in the
official tables, though they form an integral part of
the empire and are in communication with IJritish
political agents. In their internal affairs they are
uncontrolled. These are the important Himalayan
state of Xepal, and the lesser states of Sikkim and
Bhutan. The native states which appear in the
official tables occupy more than a third of the area
of the empire, and contain more than one-sixth of
its entire population. They are thus grouped in
the census table of 1891 :
Native States.
Area lu
English
sii. miles.
Hyderabad 82,698
Baroda 8,226
Mysore 27,936
Cashmere 80,900
RiUputana 130,268
Central India 77,808
In Bengal 36,834
■• North-west Provinces 6,109
•1 Punjab 38,299
It Central Pro\inces 29,435
■ • Madras 9,609
.r Bombay 69,046
Population,
1S91.
11,537,040
2,416,396
4,943,604
2,643,962
12,016,102
10,318,812
3,296,379
792,491
4,263,280
2,160,511
3,700,622
8,059,298
Total Native States 695,167
66,047,487
Hyderabad as given above is exclusive of Berar,
which, however, though temporarily administered
by Britain, is a part of the Nizam's dominions, with
17,718 SI], m. and 2,897,491 population. Further,
the Shan dependencies of I'p]ier Burma contain an
estimated i)Opulation of 2,000,000, which is not
included in the above total.
The relations of the native princes to Britisli
authority ditter very widely. Some are practically
independent sovereigns, except that the suzerain
power does not permit any of them to make war on
one another, or to form alliances with foreign states ;
while some are under tolerably strict control. As
a rule they govern their states under the advice of
an English resident appointed by the Governor-
general. Thus at every considerable native court
there is stationed a Ijritish agent, political or
diplomatic. There are in all about .300 states, allied
or feudatory, great and small ; thev are divided
into allied ('with 20.000,000 inhabitants), tributary
(about liftv, with 12,000,000), and protected (about
ninety, with 18,000,000). j
Another classilication is according to the religion
and race of the native dynasty : I
I. .Mahratta, withatotal]>opulationof 6,2.')0,000; I
a revenue of £;), .300,000 : and native armies of i
60,000 men. The chief states are : ( 1 ) Gwalior or i
Sindhia (pop. 3,116,000); (2) Indore or Holkar i
(pop. 1,000,(MH)); and (.3) Baroda (pop. 2,18o,()00).
These are Hindu in faith, hut may conveniently
be distinguished from the other Hindu .states. See
Maiir,\tt.\s.
II. Hindu, nearly 100 in number, with a population
of 27,000,000; a revenue of f8,000,000 ; and
native armies of 188,500 men. Of these the chief
are : ( 1 ) Mysore (q. v. ; pop. 5,000,000) ; (2) the Raj-
pulana states, such as Udaiimr or Mewar (pop.
1,200,000), Jeypore (pop. 2,000,000), Jodh])ur
(pop. 2,(K)0,0(K)"), and some 14 smaller states; (3)
the Madras states, such as Travaneore, Cochin,
Pudukota; (4) the Bombay feudatories, over 30 in
number; (5) the lesser states of Central India,
including Rewa and Bundelkhand ; (6) Punjab
states, including the protected Sikh states, ten
larger and five smaller, Pati:vla being the largest.
III. Mohammedan, with a po|). of 14,000,000 ;
a revenue of £5,000,000 ; and armies of 75,000.
The greatest are : ( 1 ) Hyderabad of the Deccan, or
the Nizam's Dominions (q.v. ; pop. 10,000,000, of
whom three-fourths are Hindus, though the dvnasty
and military power are Moslem ) : ( 2 ) Bhojial ( pop.
800,000, nine-tenths Hindus by faith) ; (3) Bahawal-
]iur (pop. 500,000) ; (4) Some nineteen others with
a collective pop. of 2,000,000.
IV. Frontier, mainly Himalayan and eastern
Bengal.— ( 1 ) Cashmere'witli Jamu ( pop. 1 ,.500,000) ;
(2) the Patlian (Afghan) tribes ; (3) Mauipur (jiop.
200,000): (4) Bhutan (pop. 200,000); (5) Nepiil
(pop. 2,000,000).
The feudatory states (excluding Nepal, and
without counting small states with an aggregate
of about 1,000,000 inhabitants, which have no
armies) have together armed forces amounting to
350,000 men, and 4300 guns. The flower of this
army has on recent occasions been placed at the
disposal of the British government as paramount,
and is virtually a part of the imperial forces.
The sum total of these four categories would
bring the population up to 60 millions, and the
total revenue to 15 millions sterling annually.
These states are loyal to the British crown as
paramount and suzerain. Their loyalty was prove<l
during the imperial crisis of 1857-58. In the
aggregate they form a preservative and constitu-
tional force in the country. The Britisli govern-
ment takes a paternal interest in the welfare and
good government of these states. Misgovernment
is ettectually prevented. Colleges and schools
under British auspices are established for the
education of young native princes.
As descendants are frequently wanting in these
old families, it was important that the jirinciple of
adoption should be recognised, otherwise the state
might on the demise of the native jirince without
issue lapse to the British government as para-
mount. All feai-s on this account were set at rest
by a decree in 1858 sanctioning the ri'dit of adop-
tion according to Hindu en- MoTiammedan law.
7'/»' British Territories. — These, containing (with
Ajmere, Coorg, British Beluchistan, and the Anda-
mans) 964,992 sq. m. and 221,172,9.52 souls, are
broken iip into eight main divisions for civil govern-
ment. They were originally in three divisions,
called presidencies, which have become historic — viz.
Bengal, Madras, and Bombay. The old presidencies
of Madias and Bombay still smviveasunitsof govern-
ment under go\enio"rs in council as of yore ; but
every area that does not spccilically belong to them
is considered to belong to the Bengal Presidency.
The last-named presidency, being much the largest
of the three, has been subdivided into several
divisicm.s. Of these subdivisions the three princi-
pal are Bengal, >vitli Bohar and Orissa ; the North-
western Provinces, with Oinlli ; the Punjab, with
Delhi. Each of these is under a lieutenant-governor.
The three remaining subdivisions are the Central
Provinces, Assam, and Burma, each under a chief-
commissioner ; of these the Governor-general in
Council is technically the governor, but he delegates
the greater part of his powers to the chief-com-
missioner in each case.
INDIA
111
The subjoined table thus shows these main tenitorial divisions, with tlieiv areas and populations :
Bengal, Behar, and Orissa
I North-western Provinces and Oudli.
n„.(' . I -' Punjab and Delhi .
Central Provinces..
Assam
Burnm
Madras. .
I Cel
As
Madras .
Bombay Bombay with Sind. .
Besides these there are three small detaelied terri-
tories— viz. Ajiiiere (in Kajputana), Coorg, and the
Andaman Ishmds. .\11 tliis i.'s exchi.>iive of the
Ber;ir province, which, though under Britisli ad-
ministration, is a part of the Nizam's dominions.
These figures, large as they are, fail to gi\e a
delinite impression of the enormous area and popula-
tion under British authority in this part of tlie
globe. The districts under direct British administra-
tion have an area almost quite as large as that of
the United Kingdom, Austria- Hungary, Germany,
France, and Italy together, or more than seven
times that of the United Kingdom. The area of
the native states is as large as Norway and Sweden,
Spain, Holland, and Belgium put together. In
population British and feudatory India together
have more than all European states together,
omitting Russia only. The British territories
(without the native states) contain more than one-
seventh of the inhabitants of the entire "lobe.
Machinery for governing. — In 1858 the govern-
ment was transferred from the East India Company
(q.v. ) to the crown. In 1877 the Queen assumed
the title of Empress of India ( Kaisar-i-Hind). The
government of India is in the highest resort
vested in a Secretary of State in Lonilon, who
is a member of the cabinet, and has a parliament-
ary undersecretary and a council of ten to fifteen
membei's. The executive government in India is
administered by the Viceroy and Governor-general
in Council, acting under the control of the
Secretarj- of State for India. The Viceroy and
Governor-general, appointed by tlie crown, is assisted
by an executive council, consisting of si.x ordinary
members ( appointed by the crown ), each of whom
has charge of a department of the e.xecutive ;
together with one extra-ordinary member, the
commander-in-chief of the annv. This council
virtually sits as a cabinet. Tlie legislation for
the empire is conducted by a ' legislative council,'
composed of the members of the executive above
mentioned, together with members from six to
twelve in number apiioiiited by the Viceroy and
Governor-general. Such is the mechanism of the
government of India.
In the several subdi^'isions of the Bengal Presi-
dency the lieutenant-governors and the chief-com-
missionere above described, in their executive
capacities, rule individually. But two of them, the
lii-ii tenant-governors of Bengal and of the North-
western Prf)vinces, have legislative councils for pro-
vincial legislation. The lieutenant-governors and
the chief-commissioners are mainly chosen from the
civil service of India. The members of the legisla-
tive councils are all ai)pointed, the elective prin-
ciple not having been as yet introduced. Madras
and Bombay are under governors appointed by the
crown. Each of them has an executive council,
sitting a.s a cabinet, also appointed by the crown,
and a legislative council. With the governor-
general, the governors, the lieutenant-governors,
and the members of council, the tenure of office
is for a term of five years. There are proposals for
enlarging the several legislative councils.
The country is divided into territories technically
designated 'regulation' and 'non-regulation.' In
style ol Govcnuuvut.
Lieutenant-governor.
Chief-commissioner.
Governor in Council.
Vre.-^ in jM). m.
Pop. 18ftl.
151.543
71,346,987
i07,r.03
46,906,085
nO,C67
20,886,847
86,601
10,784,294
49,004
5,476,833
171,430
7,606,560
141,189
35,630,440
125,144
18,901,123
.942,981
217,637,169
Total . .
the non-regulation territory originally more discre-
tion was allowed to the officials both in the collec-
tion of revenue and in the administration of justice.
But of late the distinction practically amounts
to little more than form, and is teclmical chiefly.
In the regulation districts the judicial .service is
distinct ; in some of the non-regulation it is not.
The lieutenant-governorship of the Punjab and
the several chief-cotnmissionersliips are non-regula-
tion ; so are some few outlying tracts elsewhere.
The rest of the country is regulation.
T/ie Units of Ac/ministration. — The larger units
are the districts ( generally called collectorships in
English and zilluhs in the vernacular), of which
there are in all the provinces above mentioned
about 254. Each district, if in regulation territoiy,
is under a collector-magistrate ; if in non-rec^lation
territory, a deputy-commissioner. The head (jf
the district has most multifarious and res])onsible
duties: he is fiscal-officer, charged with collecting
the revenue, as well as magistrate, and besides
superintends police, gaols, education, sanitation,
and roads. In parts of the non-regulation territory
he is also the civil judge, but not in regulation
territory. The subordinate officers are ileputy-
collectors and assistant-magistrates. The district
may be compared to an English county or a French
department, and \aries in size from an area con-
taining 3,000,000 inhabitants to one with only
50,000. Within the district the lowest unit is the
village or parish (inouzah), according to the village
system already described. There are about 570,000
such villages or parishes in the British territories.
In all the divisions of the empire, except Madras,
the districts are formed into gioups, several to
each group, under a commissioner. Of these there
are more than fifty.
The State Services. — The administration is con-
ducted by members of the Indian civil service
( formerly called the coven.anted ), the gieat major-
ity of whom are European, though some are
natives. The service is recruited from the suc-
cessful candidates at competitive examinations
held in London ; but some natives have been
allowed to enter the service by nomination, and
these are called statutory. To this serviii- most of
the higher administrative appointments are secured
by act of parliament. 'The local civil service
(formerly called uncovenanted ), appointments to
which are mostly made by the authorities in India,
is composed of Europeans, Eurasians (the oll'spring
of native mothers by Eurojiean fathers), and
natives. Some of the Europeans are appointe<l in
England, especially those who belong to scientific
departments. The organisation of the native
branches of the civil service, with pay, ])romotion,
and pension, is a feature in British rule, and.
together with the state education, is bcnolicially
atl'ecting the national character. Thus, while the
direction is in Euro])ean hands, the great mass of
civil officials consists of natives.
The European Commnniti/. — Existing mainly at
Calcutta, .Madras, and Bombay, this body con-
si.sts of the merchants, manufacturers, barristei-s,
lawyers, and other professional men. This non-
official body, together with the official botly,
112
INDIA
constitutes a force of indeijeudent opinion, which
is a factor in tlie jirogress of the country. It is
suiiportetl liy an English press. The newspajjcrs
are published not only nt the presidency cities, hut
also at all the provincial capitals.
y/ii- Aniii/. — In 1S.')9 the troo]is of the Kast India
Company became the Indian military forces of the
British crown. The estalilished strength stands at
218,729 otiicers and men. Of this total 145,177
belong to the native army, and 73,052 are
European troops of the regular British army. In
the total of the native troops a limited number
ol European otticers is iMchuled. The forces were
divided into three armies, named after the ' presi-
dencies'of Bombay, Madras, ami Bengal. But in
1895 these commands were abolished, and the control
of the governors of Bombay and Madras ceased ; there
are now four ccnnmands -Punjab, Bengal, Bombay,
and Madras— each under a lieutenant-general, who
is under the direct command of the commander-
in-chief in India and under the control of the
government. Out of 1(13 liatteries of artillery
."S8 are manned by European gunners. The power ;
and mobility of the army have been vastly aug-
menteil by the lailway system hereafter to he men-
tioned, esjiecially in the direction of the fortihed
military posts on tlie north-west frontier. The old
forts, which are also arsenals ami magazines, are
maintained at Madras, Bombay, .\llaliabad, Delhi, \
Agra, Lahore, and elsewhere. Fort William at
Calcutta Mas scientilically constructed early in the
century. The barracks for the European troops
have been reconstructed on modern principles, and
are among the l)est structures of their kind to be
found in any country. The native troops are
recruited by voluntary enlistment, with gooil pros-
pects of pay and pension, from all nationalities
and from all castes, Brahmans or others. Though
the regiments are conmiandeil by European otticers,
there are native commissioned as well as non com-
missioned officers. Both classes are usually drawn j
from the ranks. The drill and discipline are Euro- '
pean. N'olunteering is largely in vogue among the
European communities in the capital cities, on the
pruicipal lines of railway, and elsewhere. Several '
battalions have been formed, which constitute an i
effective addition of more than 1S,0(XJ men to the |
military strength of the country.
Tltf Maritime Fnrre. — This was for many years
furnished by the Indian luivy under the East India
('ompanv. This wivs abolished after a long and
honouralde career, in 1863, and the command of
Indian waters was undertaken by the royal na\y.
Fifteen vessels or nmre are stationed in these
waters, with liead(|uarters at Bombay, under an
admiral commander-in-chief: the Indian treasury
contributing a yearly sum towards the cost of this
arrangement. There is also a marine department
at Calcutta, and at Bombay for military transport.
Two ironclads for harbour defence are kept in
Bombay harbour, which for spaciousness anil ile-
fensihility ranks in the lii'st class of harbours in the
world. Madras hius merely an open roadste.id.
But Calcutta has to be apiuoached by eighty miles
of river-navigation, which can be conducted only
by pilots of life-long training; and it is therefore
ahsidutely defended by nature. Kangoon, near the
mouth of the Irawadi, has a similar advantage,
hut in a lesser degree. Kurrachee, near the mouth
of the Indus, though good, is not large enough for
the importance of its situation. To these should
be added Aden, which, though a plutonic proniou-
lory of Arabia, commaniling the entrance to the
Red Sea, is yet a i)art of the Indian system— a
first-rate fortilication and an imperial coaling
station (see Coaling Statiox.s).
Two gieat steam-navigation c(uupanies, with
headiiuarters in London, but plying in eastern
waters, form an addition to the maritime resources
of the country for war or other emergency. Their
ships, though oHicered of cimrse by Europeans, are
manned chiclly by Mohammedans from the coast
districts (La.scars), who are excellent sailors.
IV. Civil AujwiNisruATioN.
Luw find Justice. — The fundamental institutiiuis
of the Indian empire have been established by
parliament in a series of statutes. The regulations
of the East India Comiiany provideil for civil pro-
cedure, leaving the native laws to be observed in
social allair.s, and British justice to be followed in
other afi'airs. The supreme courts established by
the crown in the presidency towns of Calcutta,
Madras, and Bombay, towards the end of the IStli
century, administered the English law. In 1833
the English government set up a commission
to frame a body of sub.stantive law, civil and
criminal, for the British-Indian territories. This
commis.sion and its success(us laboured up to a
reeent time; an<l with their liel]> a penal code, a
civil procedure code, and several other fundamental
laws have been pa.s.sed. The legislative work,
both civil and criminal, is highly scienlilic as well
as practical, and is framed .after the best models to-
be fouiul ;iny where. In isr)3 a legislative council
in India was set up. In addition to this several
local legislatures were established in 1861, and
these may hereafter be enlarged. About the same
time the supreme courts were abolished, and in
their stead High Courts were established to control
the whole administration of justice inside and out-
side the presidency towns, tireat care hits within
the last generati(m been taken with the organisa-
tion of the native judicial service under the super-
vision of the Eurojiean civil service. Courts of
various grades (over 2(MX) altogether) exist in all
parts of the districts already described, so a-s to be
accessible to the people. In such a society as that
of India there must needs be defects and sliortcom-
ings in the judicial system, but on the whole it
commands popular confidence, as is proved by the
extent to which it is brought into use. In 1880-
89 the number of civil suits in the whole country
has risen from li to 2 millions annually, and the
value from 14 to 20 millions of tens of rupees. Of
these about two-thirds are for small sums of less
than £10. In the criminal depaitment about IJ
million of crimes and otl'ences are re]iortcd annually ;
for these cases about b', million |)ersous arc brouglit
to trial, of whom over half are convicted. The
suppression of gang-robbery and other crimes of
overt violence lornis a marked feature of British
administration — besides the extinction of the
criminal practices menti(med under the head of
Sijciii/ Ciistums. 8ee the Aiigla-litdian Codes, ed.
by Whitley Stokes (vol. i. 1887).
Puliec (tiid I'n'.tons. — The regular police include
a force of 160,000 officers and men ; the cost of
15,000 is defrayed by nninicipalities, and of the
remainder by the state. Further, there are besides
the village watchmen, about 51)0,000, corresponding
to the number of \ illages. The constabulary is a
native force, the princip;il officei-s oidy being Euro-
))eans. It is subject in all res]iects, except internal
disci|)line, to the magistracy, and in eacli province
is under an inspector-general in each division of the
empire. There is one regular constable to 7 sq. m.
ami l.'iOO ii\habit;ints — which indicates the peace-
ful habits of the peo]de. Creat care has been taken
in the scientilic construction and supervision of a
prison in almost every ilistrict. There are upwards
of 230 i>risons, with about 82,000 prisoners, inclu-
sive of 12,000 traiisporte<l to a convict settlement
at the Andaman Island.s.
Ed)ieatio7i. — 'Vhe existing svst'Cm may be dated
from 1854, though vari(uis efforts had Wen made
INDIA
113
loiij; I>efi)ie that tUate. ConipulsoiT attendanee lias
not yet lieeii enacted. Still the attemlanoe at school
is considerable, though nothing like «hat it may
yet l)eooine. Theie are three principal unixersities,
at Calcutta, Madras, ami Bombay, each having
many atiiliated colleges ; there are also two new
univei-sities in theXorth-westeru Provinces and the
Punjab. These institutions are successful, save in
one respect — that very many enter them who do
not take degrees ; about 14.000 pass the entrance
e.\aniination annually, of whom less than .3000
take degrees. The educational institutions are of
several kinds, public, aided, private and unaided ;
all together they amount to 134,000 in number,
with 3i millions of scholars. These numbers,
though actually large, are not so relatively to the
population. Of these students not more than one-
twelfth consists of girls. The income comes from
various sources, government grants, and provincial
revenues, local rates and cesses, municipal funds,
and fees paid by the parents ; the total amounts to
4i millions of tens of rupees annually, and the
e.\penditure is, of coui-se, commensurate. The
English language, with all the western literature,
arts, and sciences, is taught to the upper students
everywhere. Much, however, remains to be desired
in respect to iihysical science, and technical instruc-
tion is still in its infancy : the native mind seems
as yet to lean towards literature rather than the
e.xact sciences, towards the cultivation of the
meniorj- and the imagination rather than of the
rea.soning faculties. But intellectual assiduity is
evinced in a commendable degree. There are
numerous missionary colleges. Schools of art have
been organised in the capital cities ; there is
an imperial museum at Calcutta, and museums
in all the chief cities and towns. The native
languages, both classical and vernacular, are also
cultivated sedulously. A vernacular literature of
primers and elementary works, also of more
advanced works, chietiy translations, is springing
up under the auspices of the British authorities,
vast numbers of such works appearing annually.
In the whole country there are about 400 news-
papers in the various vernacular lanjjua^es. Their
total circulation is not very great, tlie largest cir-
culation of any journal being 20,000 copies. They
enjov virtually a complete freedom.
Post-office ami Te/ep-aphs.— There are 22,000
post-oHices and letter-boxes in the Indian empire,
with 41,000 men employed. The nuniber of letters,
newspapers, parcels, and packets is in all 375
millions annually. This number is fast increasing ;
though large actually, it is not very considerable
in relation to the population. There are open
.3'2,(KX) miles of inland telegraph lines, with nearly
3 millicms of messages annually. This number is
exclusive of the submarine cables.
Trade. — The following figures are taken from the
Indian returns, which, owing to differences in
valuation and exchange, do not agree exactly with
the English returns. The im|)orts in l,S!l4-9.5\y sea
were valued in tens of rupees at 70 millions mer-
chandise (including government stores), 9 millions
trea-sure, total 79 ; the exports at 109 millions
merchandise, and 8 millions treasure, total 116.
( In 1894-95 the rapee was approximately equal
to Is. 3d.) Thus the grand total of imports and
exports stood at 196 millions. Uf the imports more
than four-fifths, and of the exports more than half,
piv<s by the Suez Canal. Again, of the imports
nearly all come froni the United Kingdom : but of
the exports, while more than one-half goes to the
United Kingdom, a considerable portion is sent to
other countries. Of the imports the jirincipal
item consists of cotton goods ; the next most
important is that of metals ; other important
items are machineiT, railway plant and rolling-
268
stock, manufactured silk, sugar, and woollen manu-
factures. Among the exports there is no jnc-
|)onderating article like cotton goods amcmg the
imi)orts ; but the principal items of export are
cotVee, raw cotton, cottim twist, yarn, manu-
factures, dyes, grains, including rice and wheat,
hiiles and skins, jute, raw and manufactured, seeds
( oil chietiy ), tea, wool. The growing exiiortation of
food-grains in vast quantities has disturbed or dissi-
pated any notion to the ertect that the increasing
population might be in want of suHicient .sus-
tenance. Of shipping, 10,893 vessels, with a ton-
nage of 7,189,465 tons, entered and cleared the
ports ; of these almost the whole were British, a
snuill fraction only being foreign. All this is
exclusive of coasting trade, valued at SO millions
annually, with smaller craft along a coast-line
of 7000 miles and more, with 300 harbours,
mostly small. There are influential chambers of
commerce at the princi)ial seaport towns, mixed
bodies of Europeans and natives.
Communications. — The length of railw.ays open
for traffic may be stated thus (for 1895): guaran-
teed companies, 2590 miles : a.ssisted companies,
407: state lines, 14,145: native states, 838— total,
nearly 19,000. The total number of ])assengers on
all these lines in 1894 was upwards of 146 millions ;
the quantity of goods conveyed upw.-irds of \\2
millions of tons. The gross receipts of all these
lines were well over 25 millions (tens of rupees).
The net earnings, after defrayal of working ex-
penses, were 13 millions.
Koad-making was being vigorously prosecuted,
but became somewhat superseded by the introduc-
tion of railways. Several magnificent trunk-lines
have been constructed. Of the total length in
the whole country (60,000 miles) aliout one-third
has been bridged and macadamised. Similarly
the railways compete with the old boat traffic
on the great rivers. This traffic, however, still
exists to a wonderful extent in eastern Bengal,
where the boats of varied size and build form a
conspicuous feature in the country.
Manufactures. — These, whether in metals or in
fibres, have always lieen very fine, and are still
maintained. The local manufactures of cotton
goods are very extensive. The beautiful fabrics of
all sorts are mostly kept up. The foreign trade,
however, has during the I9th century checked the
development of indigenous manufactures. On the
other liand it has stinmlated new manufactures,
especially in jute and cotton. The cotton-mills at
Bombay, organised on the British m(idel, with
British capital and direction, but witli native
laljour, have been considerably developed, and
threaten to enter into competition for the Indian
market. A factoiy law, on the English i)rinciple,
but not exactly with English provisions, was
passed in 1881.
Irriffcdion and C'n«nZs.— This subject has owing
to climatic exigencies attained vast dimensions.
Native dynasties have all distinguished themselves
in this direction : drought and famine have always
urged every government to action, and the w ork has
been taken up by the British government with its
western skill and capital. The Cianges canal with
its branches, the canal systems of the ileltas of the
Mahanadi, the Godavari", the Kistna. and the Ka-
veri, are among the greatest works of their kind in
the world. Great canals are drawn from the five
rivers of the Punjab, and the Indus is to Sind what
the Nile is to Egypt. These irrigation canals arc
but little used for navigation. The total length
of these and their branclies is calculated at 14,000
miles. Besides the canals there are in many dis-
tricts artificial lakes; wells also for irrigation arc
found in most of the valleys everywhere. The
irrigated area in its grand total is reckoned at 28
114
INDIA
millions of acres, of wliioli over S millions are
watered from canals. The capital outlay on this
enormous system cannot be estimated, Imt the
British ^'overnment has in this way laid out
31 millions of tens of rupees, besides sums spent
yearly out of current revenue. The embankments
alonj; the Lower hulus and in the Gangetic delta
for restraining Hoods are very extensive, ha\"iiig a
total length of about 1500 miles.
Famine Relief.— AW this bears on the preven-
tion of famine by state aid. Owing to exten-
sive failures of the monsoon rains at periodically
recurring intervals, droughts and fanunes have
occurreil. Though the natives bore up against
their misfortune with admirable fortitude, and
brought out reserves of food such as few nation-
alities could produce, and though the authorities
put forth strenuous efforts, yet the loss of life has
been sometimes tremendous. In 1874 the principle
was followed of ile\oting the entire resources and
])0wer of the government to the mitigation of dis-
tress or the saving of life. In years of plenty a
sum varying from 1 to li million sterling is set
aside out of current income to meet the cost of
relieving distress in time of famine. During the
period 1S74-SO, £16,000,000 was thus expended ; in
1896-9S alone, over £-1,000,000.
Municipalities. — Municipal corporations (at Cal-
cutta and Bombay elected by the rateiiayers)
have been established in all the cities and large
towns of the empire, their total number being
nearly a thousand. The population under their
jurisdiction amounts to 14 millions of souls; their
annual income to 2J millions of tens of rupees ; and
their debt to nearly 5 millions. — In many dis-
tricts the establishment of district boards, by
popular election, for purposes resemliling those of
county government in England, has been under-
taken since 1880.
Vital Statistics and Sanitation. — This subject
has for many years past received systematic atten-
tion. The water-works at Calcutta, Bombay, and
other places rank high among works of tliis char-
acter in any country of the world ; and the puritica-
tion of the drinking-water in many centres of popu-
lation has beneKcially atiected the public health, j
The instruction of the natives as qualilied medical <
men and as medical assistants has for uumy years [
been supported by the government, iledical col- I
leges at the cai)ital cities, and medical schools at !
other places, have been establislied successfully.
There are more than 1500 dispensaries for gratuitous
medical relief, which receive aliout 250,000 persons
indoors annually, besides relieving 10.\ millions of
outdoor juitienls. There arc more than twenty
lunatic asylums, with some 3.')00 inmates. Several
millions iire vaccinated annually. Sanitation is
everywhere a department of state administration ;
and every province of the empire lias a sanitary
commissioner. Vital statistics have been collected
and compiled. The death-rate for the empire has
of late years ranged from 24 to '28'.'{5 per thousand.
Of this about 2 jier cent, is attributed to cholera,
IS to fever, 1 to smallpo.x.
Eiiiifiration. — Owing to the excessive density of
population in several i)arts of the eniiiire, govern-
ment has for many years past encouraged and
facilitated emigration to tlie trojiical and sub-
tropical colonies, the annual emigration of coolies in
1890-95 varying from l.S, 000 to 20.000. In I8SO-89
the emigration to the Mauritius aniounteil to 7.">.')8
souls; Natal, 80.57: British Cuiana, .•{0.142; British
West Indies, 39,:J04 ; I'lji, liS02 ; French West
Indies, 8712; Surinam ( Dutch), 04.53— total, 107,008.
There is also a considerable migraticm from the
plains and low hills of the central regions to the
rice-plains of Burma, and also to the tea-plantations
in Assam and in the Kastein Hinialava.s.
Finance. — The currency is in siher rnjiees, which
alone are legal tender ; the subordinate I'arts of
the rupee being sixteen annas, and those of the
anna being twelve pai (pies) in copper. The
monetisation of silver as sole legal tender to an
unlimited amount dates from 1835. There is also
a government ])aper currency, legal tender, amount-
ing to about 16 millions sterling in value. The
rupee is nominally equal in value to two shil-
lings ; and in former days ten rupees were held
equal to a pound sterling. While for Indian
purposes the finances were generally exhibited
in rupees, of which the higher numiiers were a
lakh or 100,000, and a crore or 100 lakhs, yet
for English purposes they were always exhibited
in sterling money ; thus, a lakh was reckoned as
equal to £10,CK)0, and a crore as ei|ual to a million
pounds, and for many years the Indi;in accounts
were exhibited in Englaud in sterling by the pro-
cess of dividing the rupee totals by ten. In the
then relative values of gold and silver this |)lan
answered well, for generally ten rupees were really
equivalent to one pound or thereabouts. But
during recent yeai-s, owing to the depreciation of
the rupee, which has fallen at times to below one
shilling and livepence in the exchange, tliis plan is
no longer possible. So now the Indian accounts
for England are shown in tens of nijiees (or R.x.)
whercliy the comparison between the figures of
recent and of former years is niaintaineil. The
linauce, then, is shown thus in tens of rupees, for
gross revenue and expenditure, excluding cajiital
expenditure on public works. The expenditure is
incurred chiefly in India, but [lartly also in England
for India.
v„„. Gross Revenue. Expenditure.
'""'■ K.v. K.x.
1SS6-S7 77.S37,134 77,158,707
18!>7-!!8 7S,750,744 SO, 783,376
18S8-89 8l.U96.678 81,659,660
1SS9-90 84.636,300 S2,s26,60O
1893-04 90,565,214 9--',112,-.'I2
There are alternations of surplus and deficit ; and
after luittiui; one against the other, ihere had
been a surplus during the ilecade 1881-90. The
exipcnditure has been greatly increaseil of late
yeai's by the depreciation of the lujiee. The
liayments annually to England amount to about
10 millions sterling — for interest on debt, pen-
sionary allowances, and other charges. This
sum adjusted in gold has to be )>aid by the Indian
government, which has no money save silver ; and
in the low state of the exchange these jiaynients
become excessive and embarrassing. In order to
discharge an obligation of Iti millions sterling India
has to remit 23 millions of tens of rupees ; thus it
is estimated that, as compared with lormer vears,
the deineciation of siher has imposed on her a
burilen of some 7 millions annually (in tens of
rupees). The main heads of taxation may be set
down in tens of rupees, thus : land, about 235J
millions ; opium, 8A ; salt, 8.j ; stamps, 4 ; excise,
4| ; customs. H; asses.sed taxes, \\; provincial
rates, 31. The grand total of receipts and expendi-
ture has of late yeai's been swollen by the inclu-
sion of the receipts and charges pertaining to the
railways.
Excltnling the opium, which is really paid by the
Chinese (see the paragra]ili on opium revenue
below), the taxation above summarised amounts
to nearly 47 millions, and falls at the rate of four
shillings ])er head per annum, which is light. (If
the expenditure above set forth, there are 23
millions for the army services, which is about
equal to the charges for the civil services of all
.sorts, exclu.sive of interest. Besides all this, there
is a capital account of outlay from borrowed money
on productive works, r.-iilways, and canals of irri-
gation. From 3 to 5 millions annually are thus
INDIA
115
laiil out by the state, besides a nearly equal sum
by guaranteed or assisted railway eoiiiiiauies.
I'ltlilic DM. — The debt tlius incurred Ntands at
!•;{ millions for railways and "JT lor canals ; in all 120.
Besides this there are nearly 1'20 millions for other
;)Ur|)oses. mainly war. The sum of the two amounts
to about 240 millions. Of thissum nearly I'JOmillions
(in tens 111 ru|iees) are iu India and the rest in sterling
are in Eiij;land. There are also oldiications styled
'unfunded debt,' consisting; of treasury notes,
savings-Viank deposits, and other items, amountini;
to OJ millions. Furtlier, there were more than 90
millions of eaiiital outlay by railway comjianies,
on which the interest was guaranteed by the
Koveniment. But this h;us been modified by the
fact of j;overnment havinj; recently imrchased some
of these jjuaranteed lines. The interest charges
annimlly may be shown thus ; on railways, state,
3;^ millions tens of rupees ; guaranteed, .3} ; irriga-
tion canals, 1 ; other heads, 5A. The rates of
interest have been reduced iu recent times, and
now range from 3 to 4i per cent.
Biihk.-i. — There is a state or presidency bank
with various lirauches at Calcutta, at iladras,
and at Bombay, or three in all. The system of
small savings-banks has been greatly extended by
the govermuent ; there are Glol such institutions,
and 331,711 depositors, with a balance of 6,577,737
tens of rupees. The native bankers, between
■2lK3,00O and 300,000 in number, form a numerous
connnunit.v that ramihes all over the country, with
a well-established system of bills of exchange
( Huiuli ). A |ilan of life insurance by government
has been established for the natives, the effect of
which may be considerable hereafter.
Lunil -taxation and Land-si/slcni. — This claims
notice on social and economic grounds as well as
fiscal. The tax is collected in money instead of iu
kind, as was often the case under native nile. It
consists of a portion taken Ijy the state from the
agricultmal rent — and nnieh the smaller portion.
Apart from this, the incidence of ta.x on the value
of the gross produce is reckoned to range from 4 to
10 ]ier cent, in the several provinces of the empire.
In all these provinces, exce)it Bengal and Behar,
for the assessment of the lax a survey of every
field, besides a general survey of every village,
has been made. In every village there is a register
showing the ownership, occupancy, rights, and
interests in every field. This is revised yearly,
and called the Record of Bights. This cadastral
survey and this Domesday Book for so vast a
country, executed by the British government,
logfther con-stitute the largest operation of the
kind ever undertaken in any age or country.
'J'hus the government has either conferred de
num on the people, or recognised ius belonging
to them from antiquity, something which is equiv-
alent to properly in land, whether such jiroperty
existcil under previous native rule or not, which is
sometimes ilonbtful. This iiroperty is attended by
transactions of sale, mortgage, trust, loan, secuiity.
The land-tax is the first charge on it ; but it is
rendered valuable by the moderation in the assess-
ment of the tax.
As regards the land system, there are several
tenures, varied by the conditions under which the
tax is fixed. Tlie first is that of lee-simple after
redemption of the tax, under which government
lan<ls are solil to European planters of tea or coffee,
and others. The next is that where the tax has
been fixed forever, in Bengal, Behar, Benares, and
part of .Mailra.s, and isstyleil Zemindari. The tenure
in Orissa.l )udh, Sind, and the Central I'rovinces is
similar, save that there the lax is fixed for twenty
or thirty years. Next is the peasant proprietary
tenure of the North-western I'rovinces and the I'liu-
jab, where the tax is fixed for thirty years, and the
proprietors are grou]ied together in their villages
as communities or coparcenaries : this is styled
ilouzahwari. Kesembling this in all respects
except one is the liyotwari tenure of Madras ami
Bombay — the exception being this, that the Kyot
or peasant-proprietor is assessed individually for
each field he hoMs. Similar to this is the tenure
in Assam and in l!urma. The village organisation
is almost everywhere preserved.
Below the landowners, great and small, are the
cultivators. They are divided into two categories,
the occupancy tenants and the tenants at will.
The former inherits his tenure, but as a rule
cannot sell it without the owner's consent. He is
protected by law against exaction and from in-
terference or eviction, so hnig ius he pays the
customary or stipulated rent: ami generall>' his
rent cannot be increased against his will without a
decision of a court of law.
Opium Ecrcnuc. — This is for the most part levied
on the exportation of the drug to China ; the very
small portion consumed in India is taxed un<ler
the head of excise. The tax on the exported drug
from Calcutta amounts to 6j- millions. The culti-
vators of the poppy are in British territory ; they
l)ring their produce to the government factory, and
thence it is sent to the seaport, where it is taken
up by the exporters. These arrangements are made
to secure the revenue and to prevent illicit con-
sumption. The tax on cx|iortation from Bomb.ay
amounts to '2^ millions. Tlie jiroduee is raised in
the native states of Malwa and Kajputana.
The Milt-tux is derived from salt partly obtained
on the sea-coast of Madras and Bombay, partly
from the salt lake in Kajjiutana, partly from the
rock-salt in the Punjab, and partly imported fiom
England. It is the only tax universally paid by
the poor, and falls at the rate of sixpence per head
per annum on the population.
Excise. — The farming system which used to
prevail in the excise on drugs and spirits, for the
manufacture of which the materials are to hand
everywhere iu superabundance, has been con-
demned as likely to lead to the encouragement
of drinking witli a populati(m that is generally
temjierate. This is being sujierseded by a better
.system, known as that of central distilleries.
H'«f/cs and Prices. — As general facts, both wages
and prices have risen under British rule. The
labourer of the better class will earn four annas
(sixpence) a day, the humbler not more than two
annas. The ]irice of fooil-grain may be roughly
taken at one ]ienny for 2 lb. (seer), which su]i|plics
a fair sustenance. In a family Ihe women and
children earn some wages. Clothing is scanty
and cheap ; fuel but little needed, and can be got
without payment. Kent for cottages is but little
known. The masses of the rural population, how-
ever, are not labourers, but live on their lands
either as owners or occupants. Incomes from land
arc not assessed to income-tax, whidi at a rale
of 2A per cent, yields l.\ million, and thus repre-
sents a taxable commercial and professional income
of 60 millions— greatly less than that of England
with a population only one-fifth as large. Lastly,
there is not, and never has been, anything like a
poor-law ; nor is there an.y ai>|)arent m'cd for one.
V. TlIK IIlSTOKY.
Phases of Civilisaliati. — With a country of \\
million of s(|. m., containing a population of 270
millions, of nniiiy languages and nationalities, with
traces reaching backwards more than three thou-
sand years, an historical summary would become an
Indian jungle of names and dates uidess it wcie
arranged on a ]il;ui and guided by >ome leading
ideas. \\ it Inml such a method no lesson from ihc
facts would be conveyed. Now, in these Uaj's a
116
INDIA
strange ami complex civilisation is perceived in
the Indian empire, and the student should in(juiie
liy what steps through the ages this has been
brought about. At the basis of this imniense
social fabric is the prehistoric status of aboriginal
races. Of these races many an indication is still
perceptible, and of them some are still surviving.
This status was largely atl'ecteil liy inroads, Dravi-
dian and other, from central Asia, many centuries
before the Christian era. From one of these in-
vasions, which was Aryan, sprung the early
Hindu or Vedic system. Whether any previous
invasions had introduced civilisation or not, this
Vedic system certainly was a ci\ilised one.
This became overlaiil with corruptions, ant, was
reformeil l>y tlie liuddhistic system some five
or si.v centuries B.C. Then came the Greek
invasion under Alexander the Great and some of
his successors, which afl'ected only the north-
western parts of the country. It was followed
by other in\asions from central Asia, some styled
Bactrian, others Saka or Scythian, wliich extended
much farther than the nortli-western regions.
Meanwhile Buddhism had strengthened and ex-
tended itself till it obtained tlie sovereignty over
the whole country. Thus established as a state
religion, it lasted for some centuries after the
Christian era. Then it gave way to the old Hindu
system, revived under an elaborated form whidi
should be styled Brahmanism, and which repre-
sents the modern Hinduism. Bralimanism after
its re-establishment in the 6th century nourished
till the lltb century .\.i)., when the first Moham-
medan in\asion took place. This was followed
by successive invasions, till the greater part of
the country was subdued and parcelled out into
various Mohammedan kingdoms. INIany of these
kingdoms were subdued liy one Mohammedan
dynasty known as the Mogul. Thus the Mogul
empire was established, eml>racing most parts of
the country, in the 15th century. It lasted for
less than two centuries, and then began to slnink.
Its fall was |)recipitated by the rise of the Mahrat-
tas, who brought aliout a revival of Hindu power
on the ruins of the Mogul donunion in the 17th
century. ;\Ieanwhile European inlluence was be-
ginning to be felt — Portuguese, Dutch, French —
all round tlie coasts, but not far in the interior.
This gave way to the British intiuence, wliich was
established in the middle of the IStli century, and
by the middle of the 19tli had spread over the
length and breadth of the land, being soon after-
waiils formally proclaimed as the Indian empire.
Thus in the India of to-day ;iro to be found traces
of (a) an alioriginal condition with some Dravi-
dian civilisation, {/>) a civilisation early Hindu
or Vedic, (<•) Buddiiist, (</) Greek, («•) Bactro-
Scythian, (/| later Buddhist, (;/) Brahmanic or
modern Hindu, (/<) Mohammedan, (/) Mahratta,
(;') continental European, and (/.) British. The
following summary will Inielly indicate the course
of events as concerning the several stages in the
national life ami tlie development of tTie mixed
civilisation which is seen to-day.
77((: Ahiiri(iiiiitl. — This is prehistoric, and is both
without written record ami also without coins or
inscriptions ; but there are philological traces and
rude monuments. Uouglily, it may be said that
there were at least se\eral aboriginal races, and
that incursions of tribes from without took jdace--
not, like .subsequent invasions, from the north-
west, but from various quarters by sea and land.
Rude stone monuments are fouml, and sepul-
chral remains with luimitive imidements have
been excavated in several parts of the country
widely distant from each other. These are of the
highest antiiiuarian interest. They hardly indicate
civilisation, but they prove at least a social organ-
isation of a semi-barbaric cliaracter. The pojiulation
was sparse ; the face of the country was a primeval
forest, dotted about with cultivation and habita-
tions. The stature of the jieojile was small, the
skin dark, and the features of a Tartar cast, with
broad cheek-bones, low forehead, nose small, niimth
somewhat large. Upon this people, whatever it
may have been, two inroads were made, one by a
race known as the Kolarian, now icprcseiitcd by the
Sontlials, the Bhils, and other trilics ; the other,
from the north-west, called the Dravidian. The
origin of the Dravidians is still doubtful. They
must have had some civilisation which spread
over the whole countiy, and wbiidi, though ab-
sorbed by some subsequent systems in the north,
is still traceable in the soutii. Their race in its
ruder form is still represented by hill-lribcs, Gonds,
Khonds, and others.
I'lic Early Hindu o;' Vedic. — At least a thousand
years B.C. — [irobably much more, (lerhaps tifteen
hundred — an Aryan .ace from central Asia descended
across the Western Himalayas into northern India
through the north-west corner, and gradu,allys]iread
over the whole country. They were, ethnologically,
of the Caucasian or IndoGermanic type, with
fair complexion, straight profile, lofty brow, com-
pressed mouth, tall stature. But their complexion
wa-s darkened by sojourn below the Himalayas ;
their hardihood was softened, while their intellect
was relined by the hot climate. They received the
name Hindu from Hind, th.at (luarter wliich they
first overran. Their language, the Sanskrit, is one
of the most highly elaborated forms of human
.sjjeech. They brought with them the Vedic reli-
gion. They produced the sacreil verse of the Vedas
and the legends on which the two great epics, the
Mahabharata and the Itanuiyana, were founded in
a subse<|nent century. Tliey formed the rules of
social ethics afterwards embodied in a code known
as that of Mann, or the moral laws of the Manava
priests. They came originally without any divi-
sions of caste, but afterwards their society became
broken up into castes, rigidly separated from each
other. The first or priestly caste, styled Brahman,
was held to have a divine sanction, and was kept
.separate without intermixture from geneiatioii to
generation. The two secular castes were tlio.se of
the soldier (Kshatri) and the trader (A'aisya),
including all civil pursuits. These three originally
consisted of tho.se who immigrated, but they niu.st
have been largely recruited by those whom they
found in the country, especially the I)ravidian>.
Below these w.as the Siidra or low caste, consisting
of aborigines and miscellaneous country-folk. At
the bottom of the social scale were the Pariahs,
who were outside the jiale of caste. The dynastic
and territorial arrangements of this era are Imt
slightly known, but there were capital cities on
the Ganges near the modern Patna and on the site
of Allahabad.
I'/ic liiiddliist. — As the faith and civilisation
above sketched became corrupted and overlaid by
mythology, a reformer arose, afterwards known as
Buddha, a man of a noble family, in the region
near the modern province of Oudli. Though his
memory has been sioduded by fable and mysticism,
he was a real jjcixiiiality. He lived about 500
B.C. The simplilied and purilied faith a.s he left
it to his disciples had s|iread largely but not
entirely over India by the year .'i.S7 B.C., when the
(Jieeks arrived. L'p to this time there are no
iiioper materials for composing history. The Sans-
krit language, though i>reserved as a cla-ssic, had
cea.sed to be a sp(d<eii language. It had been
succeeded by a modified form known as the Pali,
which was tlie chief of the local vernaculars called
Prakrit.
By this time Jainism had arisen. It is considered'
INDIA
ii;
liy many to be cojriiate with BuiWliisni ; at all
events it sprang from the same school of specu-
lative thought. It maintained a separate exist-
ence on similar if not the same principles, and
spread from the western regions, where it first
flourished, to other parts of the country. After
Buddhism hail been banished from the land, Jainism
remained, and still continues an ett'ective faith.
Thr Grid:. — Ale.\ander the Great, having invaded
India from the north-west corner, penetrated only
as far as the Sutlej, and subdued the basin of the
Indus and its tributaries — i.e. e.xactly the modern
provinces of the Punjab and Sind. Beyond this
his influence was not felt in the main portion of
the country. One of his successors, Seleucus, liow-
e\er, entered into relations with Chandra tJupta,
a Hindu king of the eastern region, who had not
yielded to Buddhism, and whose name was turned
into Sandrocottus by the Greeks. For this epoch
there are historic materials from Greek sources.
The Bnctro-Scythian. — The Greek invasion was
succeeded by several invasions of tribes from cen-
tral Asia. The Baetrians were orientalised Greeks,
planted in Balkb or Bactria by Alexander, together
with central Asiatic Aryans ; of these the records
are scanty. The Sakas or Scythians were also
Aryans from central Asia. In the absence of
records, it is here that numismatics begin to play
an important part. Coins have been discovered
indicating lines and lives of kings, and dynasties
which would otherwise l)e unknown. Tliese tribes
penetrated as far a-s the central parts of the country,
and held their position for some centuries after tfie
Christian era.
The L'itcr Buddhist. — Meanwhile Buddhism
had produced some great rulers. In the direct
line from the Chandra Gupta already mentioned,
there arose As'oka, himself a convert to Buddhism,
and the greatest sovereign that ever pro]jagated
that faith. He established something apiu'oaching
to an empire about 230 B.C., his original king-
dom being in the lower valley of the CJanges.
HLs general edicts have been preserved. He held
several councils, the last of which settled the
rule of faith for observance during subsequent
centuries. For this era stone inscriptions come
itito use. Then followed the Bactrian and Scythian
invasiims already mentioned ; but the invaders
embraced Buddhism. Thus in a certain sense the
several tribes of Aryan invaders became amalga-
mated, anil for some centuries after Christ Bu<l-
ilhism in faith and in civil government prevailed
over India. Meanwhile it had sjiread to neigh-
bouring regions, Ceylon, Burma, Tiljet, China, and
even Afghanistan. From the visits of Chinese
pilgiims recorded on two occasions, separated by
considerable intervals of time, much is learned of
the then condition of the country. But while the
faith endured in those regions, it yielded to the old
Hinduism, which should now be called Brahmanism.
I'efore it fell Budilhism raiseil many architectuial
moimments in various provinces, which still attest
its greatness and culture. Simplicity and purity
of faith were its original characteristics, and were
nrobably maintained throughout its Indian career,
liowever much it may have become overlaid by
<uper^>tition elsewhere. At its best it wa.s j)robably
better than any of the native systems that have
.succeeded it.
The Brahintinlc or Modern llhuln. — The subjuga-
tion or suppression of Buddhism may be dated from
the time of the Bralimanist king Vikramaditya or
Vikramajit, in the 6th century .\. t>. He overcame
the .Sakiis or Scythians, who it is to be remembered
had mostly become Buddhists, expelling some, but
amalgamating most of them in his own system.
He reigned at I'jjain in the X'imlhya region. He
antedated, so to speak, his era, jdacing it back
600 years, or 56 years B.C., and this is the Samvat
or modern Hindu era. Thus Brahmanism finally
.supei'seded Buddhism. Its doctrines were ex-
iiounded by the reformer Sankar Acharya in the
3eccan, but it soon became crusted over with tables
and inventions. The time of A'ikramailitya has in
western phrase been termed the lienaissance of
Hinduism. Certainly it was .so as regards Sans-
krit literature. This language, long dead for all
mattei-s save religion, wa-s revived for the drama and
for descriptive poetiy. Kalidasa, of this epoch, is
among the sweet singers of the olden time. There
were searchings and eflbrts after knowledge in
astronomy, medicine, and other sciences. The
caste system may have lo.st its religiims eflicacy for
some centuries, but it retained its secular vitality.
The Brahman caste had held its own. The otlier
castes had absorbed most of the innnigraiits from
central Asia. Then for full four centuries the
Brahmanic system was re-established all over the
countn-. It was upheld by Hindu states at
Avantipur in Ca.shmere, at Ajodhya in ( )udh, on the
coa.st of Orissa, at Kanouj and Benares on the
Cianges, at Delhi on the Junnia, at Sur;it on the
west coast, at Vijayanagar in the southern Deccari,
and elsewhere. It produced many s]dendid fanes,
the ruins of which delight the modern observer.
It was characterised by a fantastic mythology and
a somewhat sensuous idolatry. It proiluced, in
addition to the old code of !Manu, a further set of
regulations under the name of Yajnavalkya.
Minute ceremonial observance, varying for e\erv
class, cramped the soul. Thus the spirit of
the people was enslaved, their sentiments were
cramped, and their thoughts awestruck. Their
mind was turned to superstitious requirements
rather than to the practical (|uestions of public
life. Their society was further enfeebled by
the subjection of women. Maternal and conjugal
influence must have existed, but in an irrespcmsilile
way. Each one of the countless sections of the
community, each tribe or class, each cousinhood
descending from a common ancestor, within its
narrow circle became tenacious of its own tradi-
tions, guarding them against all the world, and
caring little for anything extraneous. Hence
arose the system of village comminiities, winch
was consolidated and hardened by the recurring
troubles of the time. Each community was a
brotherhooil within its village only, with cohesion
like that of a square of infantry. This institution
saved Hindu society duiing the convulsions of the
llth and succeeding centuries. But a society thus
cim.stituted was manifestly a ready prey for north-
ern invaders. During the later jiart of this era
there were apparently some internal revolutions
among the Hindus them.selves. Then in 1001 .A.l).
came the Mohammedan invasion. I'p to this date
the history of the country remains to be written,
in the English language at Iea.st ; the nearest
ajiproach to it is Lassen's lodhchc Altertumskunde
(4 vols. 1844-01 ; -.'d ed. ISOO el .very. ).
The MuliiiiiiiDrihin. — In 1001 Mahnnnl of Ghazni
invaded India through the ]iasses of the Suliman
Mountains. From this time onwards the history of
India can be fully understood from abundant
materials, though the details are intricate. Several
Mohammedan dynasties in succession estaldished
themselves at Iiclhi, others at Mandu in the
Vindhyas, at .VbnuMlabad on the we^l coast, .-it
five ]>laces in the Deccan, of which the two most
famous are tlolconda ami Bijajiur. At all these
points architectural renniins bear witness to culture
and jiinver. Thus almost all Iinlia fell umler
Mohammedan ilominion. About the year 1'2(K) the
Mongol (icnghis Khan devastated the north-
western jiart of the country. Snci- ling Mongol
inviisions were repelled by the Indian .Mohainme-
118
INDIA
dans, but in ISilT tlie Tartar Tiniuv or Tamerlane
advanced to Delhi and jiroclainied liiniself enqHTor
of India. This title lapsed fur a while, till in 1.V25
liis descendant Baher revived it, and became the
lirst who bore the fanions title of the Great Moj;ul.
His ilescendants siibdned nuo by one most of the
Mohammedan states in tlie upper half of India, and
became em]ierors in reality : Imt tlie states in the
southern half preserved independence more or less,
liaber's f;randson. Akbar the Great, made this
empire effective with the aid of a Hindu minister,
Todur Mul. He was perhaps the t;reatest sovereifjn
that India has ever seen. His code of regulations,
the Ayini-Akberi, is still studied. His reign and
the reigns of his three successors were splendid, and
their architectural remains evince an artistic cul-
ture hardly surpassed in any age or country. Of
these three the last was Aurungzebe, a man of
masterful ability-, distigured by a cruel liigotry.
In his time the empire began to shake, and a new
Hindu power was set u]i — the Maliratta.s. After
his death in 1707, the decline and f.all of the Mogul
empire set in rapidly. In the general cataclysm
which followed four fresh Mohammedan king-
doms rose to the surface — viz. that of the Xawab
AVazir of Oudh, that of the Nizam of Hyderabad
in the Deccan, that of tlie Nawab of the Oarnatic,
that of Hyder Ali and Tippoo at Seringapatam in
Mysore. All four are mnch heard of in the 18th
century. After the fall of the empire the titular
Great JIo{;ul remained at Delhi till 18.57. The
Mohammedan system inculcated simplicity of
faith and morals. It was bitterly opposed to
idolatry, and was at first iconoclastic, but in the
end it extended toleration to Iliiiduism. It fairly
res])ected the handed property and (iiidowments of
that religion. It introduced some fresh ideas, and
imp.avted some breadth of ideas generally, and some
improved notions of statesmanship and orgaiii.«a-
tion. Otherwii^e it produced but little ellect upon
Hindu civilisation. It imposed its own official
language and its own criminal law ; but it main-
tained civil laws and customs for the most part.
It undertook nojniblic instruction save that which
was Moslem. It planted Jloslems all about the
country, but did not convert the indigenous people
in large numbers anywhere excejit in one quarter.
That exception was eastern Bengal, where the
inhabitants embraced the Moslem faith ; but how
this came about is a question not settled. It
has been conjectured that Buddhism .survived
here without civste, and tli.at the inhabitants
were not unwilling to adopt Moliammedanism,
as a casteless faith. Be this as it may, the
eastern Beng.al pojiulalion has iiiultiplitd till it
amounts to nearly '2.5 millions, and is the largest
Mohammedan peojile now existing in any one
country. Finally, the .M(diaiiimeilan power endured
so long a.s it was recruited from trans-Himalayan
regions and the hardy north : it soon lost its
strength when its supporters came to dwell from
generation to generation in the hot country below
the mount.aiiis.
Tlic J\!ii/irii/ta.— The rising of the Mahrattas
against the Mohammedan domination was begun
in 1G57 by Sivaji in the Western tiliats. Tlieir
dominion advanceil as that of the threat Mogul
receded. It was a low-caste Hindu confederation,
with a hereditary Bralimin chief at its head, umler
the title of IVsliwa, at I'oona in the Deccan.
Though it absorbed the Mogul empire, it never
overcame the four fresh Mohammedan states above
mentioned ; but it wa« the jirincipal power exist-
ing when tlie Europeans aiipeared in force on the
scene. It governed its n.ative Deccan territories
tolerably well ; and to the north of them it
foiiniled several stales which still endure pros-
perously Still, it had less civilisation than any
power since the Vedic- Aryan inva.sion, and it tlirew
many parts of the country into confusion. Under
its shadow some fresh evils sprung up, such as
Thuggee and the organised bandit system known
as I'iudarry. During this hapless time occurred
irru])tions under the Persian Nadir Shah and the
Afghan Ahmed Shah ; but these invaders came,
slew, sacked, devastated — and turned back again
withmit permanently alVecting the country. In the
overthrow of the Mogul power that ensued, there
arose a fresh system in the Punjab — viz. the Sikh.
A prophet arose named Baba Nanak, who lueaehed
a reformation of Hinduism. He was followed by
Govind Singh, who established the .system by force
of arms in tlie Punjab, and even as far as the
Jumna. Thence arose a Sikh dynasty, which
lasted till the middle of the Ullli century. This
essentially Hindu power cut oil' the Imlian
.Mohammedans from what had lieen their original
base in Afghanistan, and left them isolated amidst
their foes.
27ic Continental European. — In the time of tlie
Moguls and the Mahrattas several European
nationalities appeared in India .'is travellers,
traders, missionaries. The Dutch had several
.settlements, of which the memory still reniain.s.
The Portuguese, after the discoveries of A'asco da
Gama, controlled virtually the whole west coast,
excepting Bombay, then a small ]dace. Their
headquarters were at Goa, on the coast south of
Bomliay, which became a town and a harbour of
the lirst i.ank in the 18th century. The Portugue.se
inlluence allected civilisation in the western region
to a perceptible degree. In the IStli century the
position of the French rivalled that of the English;
the wars between the two nations were carried into
the East, and the contest was waged on the waters as
well as on the land of India. The name of the great
Frenchman Dujdeix is respected by the British in
India as of the worthiest of foemen. Thus the
British had to contend simultaneously with French
rivals as well as native enemies on Indian soil.
The Britislt. — This begins to be a dominating
inlluence from the battle of Plassey in 1757, won by
Clive over the Mogul, which gave to England the
dominion of Bengal and lieliar, the most |ioiiulou.s
lirovinces in the wliide country. The British East
India Cmniianv had been settled in India since
1G.5,S. It had tliree trading-.settlements on or near
the coast at Calcutta, Madras, and Bombay.
The.se grew into estaldishmcnts for lighting and
governing, and the territorial nucleus thus formed
soon exjianded. The aeipiisition of Bengal with
Beh.-ir raised the comiiany's territories into a
dominion of magnitude. Thus the company
in the later half of the eighteenth century
appeared as one of the powers. It really rose on
the ruins of the Mahratta dominion. Within sixty
years from Plassey, tli.at is by 1818, when Poona,
under the last of the Peshwas, fell to the British, the
E;tsl India t'ompany wa,s the master of India as
far as the Indus basin, but not in the Punjab
nor in Siml. Within these limits it had acquired
the whole basin of the Ganges and the co.ast
districts on both siiles of the peninsula. The
Great Mogul, now powerless, was under its care at
Delhi. It had conquered the MohamiiKHlaii stale
in Mysore and restoreil a Hindu sovereign there.
The two Jlohamiiiedan states of Oudh and Hydera-
bad (Deccan) were it^s dependent allies, tli<mgh
with all honour. It w;ts maintaining many native
states, Hindu and Mahratta, in the same position.
Among these must be included (after severe fight-
ing) Ne)>al, the one Himalayan state which was
capable of w.aging war, and which had contended
sturdily with British forces. The Pindarries, who
raised a robber i>rg,'i.ni>ation almost to the rank of
a power, h.ad been subdued. The British dominion
INDIA
119
h.id liecii toundeil l\\" Clive, preserved dniiii^ a
world-wide crisis for England l>y Warren Ha.stiiifrs,
extended by Comwallis, and still further advanced
liy Wellesley. and almost perfected by the Marquis
oi Hastinjrs. l!y 1.S2S there was a Pax liritannica
tlirouLTliout Inilia after centuries of internal war
and revolution. How far the East India Company
wa-s the aggressor in any of these transactions may
l«e a controversial question. It was often induced
to participate in the contests of the native states
among themselves : in self-defence it had to fight
the combinations formed against its veiy exist
ence: and being the victor, it had to deal with the
vanquished. Thus by various means the fabric
of its dominion rose. It had raised a large native
army and some European forces of its own, but
these had to be sustained by royal troops from
England ; consequently on each renewal of its
charter the company passed more and more under
the control of the British government. The next
imperial step was in 182.5, when the first Bunnese
war occurred under Amherst : it ended in some
acquisition of territoiy, which wa-s the beginning
of a new dominion across the waters of the Bay of
Bengal. There wa.s then a development of peaceful
civilisation under Lord William Bentinck till 1835.
But in 1838 it was decided to set up a native sove-
reign in Afghanistan under British protection, as a
means of guarding the north-western frontier. This
led to the first Atghan war, after which the British
evacuated that countiT. This was the tii-st check
in a victorious career of eighty years since Plassey.
There remained the basin of the Indus yet uncon-
quered — i.e. Sind and the Punjab: the former was
conquered under Ellenborough, the latter under
Hardinge and Dalhousie after severe fighting in
two wars, in which the Sikhs were the aggressoi-s.
Thus the Sikh kingdom so ably founded by Kanjit
Singh succumbed. Then at length it wa-s .said that
not a shot could be fired in anger throughout India
without leave of the British government. Under
Dalhousie also a second war broke out with the
Burmese ; the result extended British dominion
over the delta of the Irawadi. At this time all
the works of peace, moral and material, were pro-
secute<l. Shortly after Dalhousie had handeil over
his charge to Canning the mutiny in the Bengal
native army broke out in 1857.
A crisis arose of which the dimensions can
readily be gauged by the reader who has followed
the various facts already set forth in this article.
After the occuiTence of some isolated mutinies in
the Bengal native soldieiy, generally called sepoys,
during the early part of 1857, the native portion of
the garrison at ^Ieerut, near Delhi, broke out on
loth May ; the European ganison failed to prevent
them, and the mutineers marched straightway to
Delhi, and were joined liy the native troops tliere
and by the city moli. The rebels set U]) as emperor
the titul.ar Great Mognil, who dwelt in the ance.stral
palace there under British protection, and
claimed the restoration of the Slogul empire.
event was r.apidly followed by the revolt of almost
the whole native army of the Bengal I^residency.
Their comrades of the Bombay Presidency were
but slightly art'ected, and those of Madra-s hardly
at all. At that time the native forces numbered
more than 247,0(J(J men of all arms ; of the.se
about 50,000 belonged to Ma<lras, 30,000 to
Bombay, anil the remainder to Bengal ; among the
latter, Imwever, were many troops called irregular.
A large part of the inegular troops remained
staunch ; l)ut of the Bengal regular troojis only seven
battalions continued in service. From 80,000 to
90,0(K) soldiers, horse and foot, wore in revolt,
iiaving in many cases murdered their otlicers, and
sometimes the European families also. The mutin-
eers, too, who were cantoned over many stations in
pro-
This
broad provinces, held forts, arsenals, treasuries.
They were armed with British weapons, ha<l been
organised with British discipline, were in possession
of much artillery, of a great number of cavalry
hoi'ses and other transport, and of vast sums of
treasure. In Hindustan, in Oudh. and in parts of
Malwa, throughout the summer the British power
was insulated at certain points, such as the camp
before Delhi, the cantonment at Meerut, the
fortresses at Agra and Allahabad, the weak fortifi-
cations at Lucknow. Elsewhere the European
m.agislracy with their f.amilies had been cither
killed or hunted away, and the court-houses with
their reconls burnt. The dis!u«ter e.xtended over at
least an area of 100,000 sq. m., with a jiopulation
of 40 millions. It occurred, too, at the worst
season of the year. If not speedily stamped out
the fire must spread oyer the whole country. The
year was a centenaiy of historic events. It was
just one hundred years since Clive founded British
dominion at Plassey, and two hundred since Sivaji
the Mahratta stnick a deadly blow at the Moslem
power. Many an enemy thought that the knell of
the empire had sounded. And certainly, tinless
the resources of the British Isles could be bronght
to bear upon the scene of revolt within a few
months, the British authority would be narrowed
to its three oiiginal seats — namely, the presidency
towns resting on the sea-board.
At that time there were 40,000 Euroi>ean troops
in the country. Several thousand men on their
way from England to China at Lord Elgin's dis-
posal were, with his co-operation, diverted to India.
Some 40,000 European soldiers were desjiatched
from England round the Cape of Cood Hojie by a
sea-voyage of 12.000 miles. Meanwhile the dis-
asters at Cawnpore and elsewhere in Hindustan
had been partially retrieved by Henry Havelock.
At the outset a force, largely consisting of
Europeans, marched against Delhi. After a severe
siege of four months, the place was recaptured by
a.s.sault. The communications had Ijeen main-
tained continuously with the Punjab, under John
Lawrence, as a base whence reinforcements were
dcriied. Native troops were raised from the loyal
Punjab in place of the mutineers of Hindustan.
Lucknow, for a long while after the death of Henry
Lawrence besieged l>y rebels, was first relieved and
afterwards recaptured liy a European force under
Colin Campliell. The districts were speedily
reoccu])ied by British authority. Though many
infiuential individuals, some chiefs and princes,
and some classes, including the worst part of the
mob, had joined the rebellion, or latlier the military
revolt, still the ma-ss of the people in these districts
had remained passive, and readily returned to their
allegiance. The principal native princes and their
states hail set an inqioilant example of loyalty.
Within six months ot the outbreak llie imiierial
danger w;us .surmounted, though trouliles lasted
here and there, and the embei-s smouldered for
more than a year, especially in the hilly parts of
the central regions. The cost of suppressing this
rebellion is reckoned at 40 milliims sterling. Unlike
all the earlier foreign dynasties, the British jiower
had never been naturalised or domesticated in the
countiy, but w;is then, as ever, recruited constantly
from the Ihitisli Isle.s. Its otlicers serving in the
countrj- had lieeu born and educated rn Europe,
and possessed as a reserve against danger all the
imperial qualities of their race.
Many causes were assigned for the Indian
mutiny. The grea-sed cartridges served out to
some of the Bengal troops operated as an immediate
provocation. The BrahmiMs were too nunurous in
the ranks; they were fanatical, and they had the
brains to contrive mischief when discontented.
The Kabul disaster had broken the sjxdl of invinci-
120
INDIA
INDIANA
liilitv. Ccrtaiu cliiefs near the scene of the ont-
lireak were lahourin^' under a sense of wrong, real
or sni)])Ose(l. Some native states liad been alarineil
at British jiolicy with regard to the ri^^ht of
ailo]ition. The annexation of Omlh, Iiowever
righteous in itself, had induced many Mohaniniedan
cons|)irators to excite mutiny, and to turn it to
)>olitical account. This hronght aliout a very
unusual coniliination between Mohammedans and
Hindus. Still, these and other lesser causes would
never by themselves have brought about such a
crisis as that which has been described. The
])rinie, the fundamental cause was a large and
.simple fact, namely this. The native forces were
much too large relatively to the European. There
was only one European soldier to six native
soldiers, whereas now there is one to t\\o. The
sepoys then had the physical force in their hands,
and they knew it. The distribution, too, of these
excessive numbers aggravated the peril. The
sei)oys were, as already seen, in charge of the
stations containing the state resources, civil as well
as military. It was the sense of power which jcave
them tlie mind to revolt. Their interests, includ-
ing employment, pay, pension, and the like, were
indeeil bound up with the British rule. The
government was over-slow to believe that the men
would revolt to tlie destruction of their own pros-
pects. But their conduct proves that there are
moments when religious fanaticism, national senti-
ment, pride, and passion will ]irevail over self-
interest. The occurrence was only a qviestion of
time, and many will wonder why it did not happen
before. But an analysis of historic circumstances
would show that ne\'er before had a complete
opportiinity ofi'ered. ilutiny of particular bodies
01 troops had often occun-ed alreaily, ami had been
overcome. Thus the British authorities came to be
insulticicntly alive to the symptoms which por-
tended the events of 1857. But after the storm had
burst they evinced qualities rarely sHrjjassed in the
annals of the nation, and the history of the time is
aglow with genius, valour, and capacity.
Tlie crisis past, no time was lost in rectifying
the military faults which had rendered the revolt
possible. The native troops were reiluced in
number, the European troops were augmented.
The physical predominance at all strategic points
was placed in the hands of Euro[)ean soldiers,
and almost the whole of the artillery was manned
by European gunners.
Peace and order having been restored to the
empire in 1858, various changes, constitutional and
other, were made. The East India Ctmipany, the
greatest corporation ever kno«n to history, ceased
to exist, and the government was assumed by the
British crown. The army was reorganised so as to
guard against the danger from which the country
liad just been saved. As compared with the
relative projiortions of former times, the European
force w.is doubled, while the native force was
reduced bv nM)re than one-third. Thus, as already
seen, the turojiean and the natives were as one to
two ; moreover, the Eurojiean was placed in charge
of the strategic and dominant jiosition, so that
the |)hysical jiower was now in his hamls. The
ilominion was consolidated by the work of
peace under successive viceroys, Elgin, Lawrence,
JIayo, Northbrook, with material improvement
and moral juogress. In 1878, under Lytton, a
.second Afghan war was waged, which le<l to the
strengthening of the north-western frontier. The
work of peace was continueil under Kipon till 188-1,
when, under Dutl'erin, it became necessary to i>ro-
ceed against the king of Ava. and snbseciuently to
annex L p|ier Burma. This measure, following
previous annexations, brought the whole Burmese
dominion and the entire region of the Irawadi
in India in contact with China. The years 1896-98,
under Lord Elgin, saw famine, the plague in Bombay,
earthquakes in Assam, and a troublesome but siic-
ee.ssfnl war on the north-western frontier. British
civilisation, by legislation, by peace and order, by
educati(m, by works of material improvement, by
Western ideas, is moulding the mind of nearly ail
the nationalities in the empire.
Books of Il(fariicr. — There is not space here for
attempting a review of Anglo-Iiidi.-ui literature, which
is verj' extensive. Some few works only will now be
mentioned, which are of a comparatively jiopulav
character and are readily accessiljle. For history, the
best-known works are those by ilill ami Thornton, and
the shorter one by Marslunan. Regarding special
periods, Mountstuart Elphinstone, for the Mogul era ;
Keene, for the decline and fall of the Mogul empire ;
Grant-Duft', for the Mahrattas ; JIalleson, for the French
in India ; Kaye, for the first Afghan war ; Kaye and
Malleson, for the war of the nuitinies in l.S57~5S ; Trotter
and Maine, for the Victorian era. Much light is derivaVjle
from the biographies of Clive, Warren Hastings, Metcalfe,
Macaulay, the Lawrences (Henry and John), Mayo, and
Dalhousie. There are also recent histories of India from
the earliest times hv Trotter 11890), Talboys Wheeler
(1891), and H. G. Keene (1.S93); of Ancient India, by
Eomesh C'hunder (3 vols. 1889-01); of the British
Dominion in India by .Sir A. Lyall (3d ed. 1894) ; of the
Portuguese in India, by Danvers (1894); a series of
•Epochs of Indian History,' edited by J. Adams; and
valuable papers on the Indian Mutiny, selected by
G. W. Forrest. See also the Iinpcfiaf Gazetteer of
India (2d cd. 14 vols. 1SS5-87), edited by Sir \V.
Hunter, and his Indian Empire (3d ed. 1893); Modern
India, by Campbell. Modern India and the Indiana,
by Monier Williams (1889); India Past and Present,
by Sanmelson (1889); India in ISSO, by the present
writer; (tar Indian Prolrctorate, hy C. L. Tupper
(1S9:M; The Protected Princes of India, by W. Lee
Warner (1894) ; The Land Rcrenue of India, by Baden-
Powell (1893); and The Conversion of India, by Dr
George Smith (1893); also Curzon's Pnssia in Central
Asia (1803), and Dilke's Proldrms of Greater Britain.
(1890). To these should be added the reports by the
government on the moral and material jirogress of tlie
country, and the volume of statistics published annually
by the Indian Office in London. Tlie Journal of the
Roiial Asiatic Societi/ and the Calcutta Rei-itw supuly
quite a mine of materials. Some light is thrown on tliis
great subject by Tod's I!iij">il^<""' Itajendralal Mitra's
Antiquities of Orissa, Khys Davids on I'.uddliisni, Franiji
on the Parsees, Talboys Wheeler's Maii'ihhtirata and
RdmAiiana, abstracted in English ; Max Miiller's
analysis of oriental religions ; the tran Nations of the
sacred books of the East ; Barth's lieliiiions nf Indiet
(Eng. trans. 1882); Monier Wilhams' Indian ^yis•
dom, and his Brahmanism, Buddhism, and Hinduism
(1889); Lyall's Asiatic IStudies C-'d ed. 1S*84), Edward
Thomas' Numismatic Essays, and Fergusson's Historij of
Indian Architecture. Indian architecture is illustrated
at the articles on Agk.\, P.K.N.UiKs, El,KPH.iNT.\, Ellora,
&c. And see amongst others the following articles in
this work :
Afgliniiistan. Chve. .Madras.
Akbar. D:iIlio\isie. Malirattan.
Aurmigzcbe. luipleix. Mithaiiiiiicd.
Uengal. Ea^t Itniia i^all^krit.
Bombay. Coiiii«iiiy. Sikhs.
Brahma. Ganges. Siva.
Buddliisni. Hastings. Suez Canal
Calcutta. Himalaya. Suttee.
Canning. Indus. Vcilas.
Caste. Jains. Vishnu.
Ceylon. Juggernaut. Wellesley.
India. Staii of. See Indian Orders.
Illdiniia. the thirty-fnst stale of the .American
I'nioii in area, and the eighth in population, is
centrallv situated between 37^47' Cn|.j iijiit isoo in u.a.
and 41'' .W N. lat., and in 84' 49'
— 88° 2' W. hmg. It is bounded
on the N. by Lake Michigan and
on the E. by Ohio, on the S. liy
which it is separateil by the Ohio iiiver. and on the
W. by Illinois, the \V abash Kiver being the line
l>y J. B. Llpitlucott
iipiuij'.
Michigan stale,
Kentucky, from
INDIANA
INDIANAPOLIS
121
of ilivision a part of the way. Its greatest len{;tli
north ami south is 276 miles, its avera;,'e hreailth
14(t miles, anil its area 36,350 sq. m. The coast-
line on Lake Michigan is about 60 miles.
The surface of the country has a slight slope
towards the west and south-west, the highest point,
near the eastern boundary, being l'2.i0 feet above
sea-level. Drainage is in four main ilireotinns :
tlirougli the St Joseph liiver to Lake Michigan,
the Mauniee Kiver to Lake Erie, the Kankakee
Kiver to the Mississiiipi, and the Waba-sh and
other streams to the uliio; small streams intersect
the state in every direction, and in the northern
part there are numerous small lakes. The northern
naif of the state is Generally level, e.xcept for
occasional irregular ridges forming ' divides ' be-
tween streams. Hills increase in frequency from
the centre of the state to the south and south-east,
and along the Ohio ' knobs ' 200-500 feet high are
almost continuous, with deep gorges and river-
bottoms between. Much of tlie north-western
regions is inundated with water the greater part of
every year ; but this land is being actively reclaimed
liy a system of drainage. The fertility of the soil,
whether clay or sandy loam, is greatly increased
l\v a vast system of under-draining, there being
in 1888 nearly 25,000,000 yards of drain-tiles in
use.
The minerals include coal, bog and hematite iron
ores, and stratified limestones and sandstones in
abundance, ochre lieds, kaolin, fireclays, and some
gold. The actual workable coalfield covers an area
of 6000 sq. m. The production of coal of all
kinds amounted in 1870 to 437,870 tons, in 1880 to
1,449,496 tons, and in 1888 to 3, 140,979 tons, mostly
block coal, although there is also abundance of
bituminous and some cannel coal. The natural gas
field, the centre of which is in Delaware county, 40
miles NE. of Indianapolis, has been developed since
1886, and §6,000,000 was invested in 1888 in the
business of supplying it for fuel, there being 395
wells in twenty-three counties. In 1897 there were
2O00 wells in twenty-eight counties, with an average
How for each of 2,000,000 cubic feet tlaily. In the
g.-is region, and in the districts within reach of its
]iipes, it became for a time almost the exclusive
fuel, and also came into use as an illuniinant. But
by-andby the supplies of gas began to give out (see
G.\.s-L1GHTIXG), and the coal supjdies resumed
their old importance. In 1897 the number of tons
of coal raised was 3,706,401, while 65,000 casks
of petroleum were obtained. Building-stone and
whetstones are jdenliful. Devonian, Silurian, and
Carboniferous are the chief geological formations.
The climate is healthy, but very variable: the
winter is severe but short ; and summer is hot in
the ' Hoosier State,' a-s Indiana is nicknamed —
nobody knows why, though many stories are told.
The principal industry is agricultuie, the chief
crops being maize, wheat, oats, rye, barley, buck-
wheat, potatoes, and tobacco. Some 250,000 gallons
of wine are made yearly. The stale is surpa.-.sed
only by Minnesota and Kansas for the amount of
its wheat crops, and by Iowa for maize. Flax and
sorghum are raised, a-s are also enormous quantities
of apples and peaches. Dain' produce is exported.
Wool, honey, maple-sugar, cider, and vinegar are
made, ami fruit and ve<jetablcs are ]ireserved.
About a third of the slate is still under wood.
The mamifacturesof Indiana jiresenl great variety,
and are often important. Among the largest m.anu-
factories of their class in the world are the wagon
and plough factories at South Bend, the manu-
factories of tlourmill machinery and carriages at
Indianapolis, the plalegla-'s works at New Albany,
and the encaustic tile works at Indianapolis.
Indianai>oli» has alsf) the second largest pork-
packing establishment, and is at the hea<l of the
sofa-manufacture ; Indiana, indeed, turns out more
furniture than any other state of the Union, largely
made from the valnalile timbers of the Waliash anil
its tributaries. In KS86 there were 11,885 manu-
factories, with a capital of 851,490,656. The value
of raw material used during the year was
.?91, 872,291 ; of products, §158, . 562,729 ; wages and
other expenses, .S;j 1,2 11,1.52. In 1890 there were
12,384 manufactories with 124,-349 workers, jiroduc-
ing in the year a valu<! of 8227, 1 100,000. Al that
date (the census year) the manufactures of the
state had increased tenfold in thirty years. The
trade is almost wholly internal, though Micliigan
city has trade with Canada ; navigable river> and
canals greatly facilitate commerce. The central
position of Indiana compels all main through-lines
from the east ami west to cross the state. In
1S80 tliere were 4(120 miles of raihvav in o]iera-
tion : in 1895, 10,000. Tlie Wabash and Erie
Canal, the largest in the United States (476 ujiles),
has ,374 miles in Indiana ; and anothei canal (75
miles) extends from Lawrenceburg to Hayestown.
The Ohio is navig.alde throughout its length Avithin
the state, and on it over fifty Indiana steamboats
ply : the Wabash is navigable to Lafayette, and
its branch, the White Kiver, for about 60 miles.
The population in llSOO numbered 4577 whiles
and 163 coloured, 1.35 of the latter being slaves.
In 1860 the pojiulation was 1,350,428 : in 1880,
1,978,.301; and in 1890 it was 2.600,000. The
cities with over 30,000 of a jioinilation in 1890
were Indianaijolis (105,436). Evimsville (.50.756),
Fort Wayne (35,392), and Terre Haute (.30,217).
Great attention is devoted to education. In 1888
the children of school age numbered 756,989, of
whom 514,463 were enrolled in the common schools.
The number of teachers was 14,204, of school-
houses 9882 ; the revenue for the year was
.85,235,032. There are a state univei-sity at Bloom-
ington, the Purdue University and state institute
of technology at Lafayette, and the state normal
school at Terre Haute, as well as a hundred high
schools : instruction at all these is free. Not under
state control are 14 universities and colleges, and
numerous academies and special schools. In most
of the colleges, as in the common schools, the sexes
are educated together.
The state is divided into ninety-two counties.
The governor is elected for four years. The general
assembly, composed of fifty senators and one
hundred rei)resentatives, meets every two years.
Indiana has two senators and thirteen representa-
tives in congress. The judges of the supreme
court, live in number, are elected for six years.
Historij. — Indiana was discovered by La Salle in
1671, and constituted part of New France. In
1763 France ceded the country to Great Britain : by
the treaty of 1783 it became a part of the I'nited
States, under the general term of the north-west
territory, which later wa.s divided into the terri-
tories of Ohio, Indiana, Micliigan, Wisconsin, and
Illinois. In 1816 Indiana was admitted to tlie
Union, and the state government was finally
settled at Indianapolis in 182.5. By the ordinance
of 1787 slavery was prohibited in the territory.
The Indian troubles resulting from the influx of
settlers culminated in the battle of Tipjiecanoe (see
H.\RI!lso.N, W. II.) in 1811. Indiana sujqilied five
regiments for the war with Mexico, and during the
civil war furnishe<l for the government service
208,.367 men, of whom 24,416 were killed or died
of disease.
Illdiillinit'olis. the cai>ital and largest city of
Indiana, i-^ on the west fork of White Kiver, on a
level plain, near the centre of the state, 195 miles
S.SE. of Chicago by rail. It is a regularly-built an<l
beautiful city. Its streets, many of them 100 feet
wide, for the most part cross at right angles ; but
122
INDIAN ARMY
INDIAN ORDERS
four main avenues, radiating from a central park,
cross tlie others dia^ionally. The jirinoipal build-
ings include a handsome ne\v state-house ( comideteil
1888), a line county courtdiouse, a city liall, a prison
for women, a large state asylum for the insane, and
other a-sylums for tlie lilind and deaf and duiiili;
and the city possesses an imposing monument to
tlie soliliers and sailors who fell in the civil war.
It has also two medical colleges, numerous schools,
and nearly a hundred churches. Indianapolis is one
of the cliief railway centres of the United States,
fifteen main lines converging here. The trade in
agricultural produce is very considerable. Pork-
packing is the leading industry, but there are also
large Hour and cotton and woollen mills, numerous
foundries, and manufactories of furniture, carriages,
tiles, vSre. (see IxDl.\N.\). The site of Indianapolis,
then covered witli dense forest, was selected for the
future capital in 1820, and the citv was founded in
18-21. In 1860 the pop. was 18,113; (1870) 48,244 :
(1880)7.5,056; (1890) 105,436.
Iiidinii Army. See E.\st Ixdi.v Arjiv.
Indian Corn. See Maize.
Indian Cress. See Na.sturtium.
Indian Fiij. See Baxvan, Pkickly Pe.vr.
Indian Fire, a bright white signal-light, pro-
duced by burning a mi.\ture of 7 parts of sulphur,
2 of Realgar (q.v.), and 24 of nitre.
Indian Ink. See Ink.
Indian Ocean. Tlie Indian Ocean is bounded
on the W. by Africa, on the N. by Asia, on the
E. by Australia and the Australasian Islands.
According to modern geographers it is limited to
the S. by tlie 40th parallel of south latitude, in
which region it opens widely into the Southern and
Antarctic oceans. It gradually narrows towards
the north, and is divided by the Indian peninsula
into the Bay of Bengal on the east and the
Araliian Sea on the west, the latter sending
northward two arms, the Persian (iulf and the
Red Sea. AVitliin these limits the Indian ticean
is estimated to have an area of 17,320,500 scj. m.
At the dawn of history the Indian Ocean was
known as the Erythraean Sea ; the Pluenicians are
said to have been familiar with this southern
ocean at a very early date. Neclio, an Egyptian
monarch who flourished about 610 B.C., is reported
by Herodotus to have sent some of his vessels,
manned by Phomicians, into the Ervthnean Sea
with orilers to return liy the soutli of Africa and
the Columns of Hercules. Whether or not this
voyage ever took place, it aiipears certain, from
their reports as to the position of the sun to the
north of them, that these early navigators pene-
trated far soutli (see (Ieogum'HY, Vol. V. p. 145).
From a very early date there was a coasting
trade between Imlia ami the Persian Gulf, but
the voyage of Nearclius, one of Alexander's
generals, from the Indus to the Persian Gulf,
IS the earliest reliable record of these coasts.
Hippalus, an Egyptian navigator who Hourished
about the beginning of the Christian era, was the
first to observe the regular alternations in the
directiiui of the monsoons of tlie Indian Ocean, and
to profit by tliem to open up a direct route across
the high seas from the Red Sea to Imlia. The
shore routes were hencef<u-th abandoned, and a
fresh impulse was given to \oyages into oriental
waters. In the 9tli century the Arabs made fre-
quent voyages across the Indian Ocean, Stdeiman
of Siraf being probably the first to cross the l>ay of
Bengal and jiass into the China Sea. In 1486 tlie
Portuguese rounded the Cajie of (iood Ho])e, and
in 1408 Vasco da t!aiua reaehed the co.a.sts of Indi.i
by the same route. In 1521 the one remaining ship
of Magellan's squadron crossed the southern Indian
Ocean in completing the firet circumnavigation of
the world.
The mean depth of the Indi.'in Ocean is estimated
at about 2.S(K» fathoms, or slightly greater than that
of the Atlantic (q.v.). The greatest depths are in
the eastern part to the south of the e(|uator, where
it is estimated that there are fnllv 50,(MM) sq. m.
with a depth of over 3(K)0 fathoms. ' Over ! 3,000.000
sq. ill. of this ocean's floor lie between the depths
ot 2000 and 3000 fathoms.
The area of lan<l draining into the Indian Ocean
is estimated at 6,813,600 sq. m., and the annual
rainfall on this land is equal to 4379 cubic miles of
water. The rivers flowing from the Asiatic con-
tinent are by far the most important, and they
carry an immense amount of detrital matter into
the Bay of Bengal and Arabian Sea, these forming
extensive deposits of blue mud. Along the African
coasts, in depths from 100 to 1000 fathoms, there
are great depo.sits of glanconitic sands and muds,
and on these as well as other coasts there are coral
muds and sands, and blue and green muds in the
shallower depths. In the deeper parts of the
ocean, far from land, there are vast deiiosits of
red clay, Kadiolarian ooze, and Globigerina ooze.
In the Southern Ocean, towards the Antarctic, the
lied of the ocean is covered with a Diatom ooze.
The temjierature of the surface waters of the
Indian t)cean varies much in diti'cient parts of the
ocean, and at the same jdace at ditl'erent times of
the year or states of the wind. In tropical regions
the temperature usually varies from 70 to SO' F.,
and the yearly range is only 7° or 8' F. (")fl' the
Cape of Good Hope and off Ca]ie (iuanlafui, how-
ever, the annual range of temperature may be from
20° to 30° F. For instance, sudden jind great
changes of temperature are often noticed off Capi'
Guardafui when the wind blows oil' shore, for in
this wav cold and ileep water is drawn up along
the African coast to take the place of the warm
.surface water which is driven eastward by the
wind.
The temperature of the water at the bottom of
the Indian Ocean is ver,y uniform and suliject to
little, if any, annual variation. In the Bay of
Bengal and Arabian Sea temperatures of 33°'7 F.
and 34°'2 F. have been lecordeil at the bottom ;
these are not more than the fraction of a degree
higher tlian tliose observed by the C7iii//c>ir/cr in
50 of S(mth latitude. It is certain, therefore, that
this deep cold water is slowly drawn into the
Indian Ocean from the .\ntarctic to supply the
])lace of the warm surface currents that are driven
southward by the winds. The currents of the
Indian Ocean are less constant than in the other
great oceans, anil are largely controlled by the
directiim and strength of the monsoons (see Mox-
soox.s). Some of the most eliaracteristie coral
atolls and islands are to be found towards the
central part of the Indian Ocean, such ;us the great
Maldive croup, the Cliagos, Diego Garcia, and the
Coccos Islands. Almost all the tropical shores are
skirted by flinging and liarrier reefs. Christmas
Island is an uiuaised coral formation. St Paul's,
Mauritius, Roitrigucz, and others are of volcanic
origin, while Madagascar, Ceylon, and Socotra are
tyyiical contiMcnlal islands.
Indian Orders^ Three British orders of
knigbtlioiid take their name from India. (1) The
Im|)erial Order of the Crown of India, instituteil
1st January 1878, consists of the (,)ueen, certain
of her daughters and dangbtei-sin-law, of numerous
native Indian iirinces^es, and the wives and other
female relatives of the viceroy of India, the
governors of Madras and Bombay, and the Prin-
cipal Secretary of State for India. (2) The Must
Kxaltcd Older of the Star of India, instituted
in 1861. and enlarged in 1866 and 1878, coii-sists of
INDIAN RED
INDIA-RUBBER
123
tlie snveieij;ii, a ^laiid -master (the vii'erov for tlie
tiiiio lieing), and tlirce classes of iiiomliers — Kiiijilits
Graml Comniaiiders (G. C.S.I. ), of whom tlieremay
be .SO; Knights Coinmaiiders (K.C.S.I.), of whom
there may be 72: ami Com|)aiiions (C.S.I.), 144
in number. The badge of the order is a light blue
ribbon with thin white stripes, and the motto
'Heaven's Light our Guide.' (3) The Most Emi-
nent Order of the Indian l-'nipire, instituted in 1S7S
to eomniemorate the proclamatiim of the Queen of
England as Empress of India, and enlarged in 1S8G
and 1887, consists of the sovereign, a grand-
master (the viceroy for the time being), ami three
classes of members — Knights Grand Commanders
(G.C.I.E.), Knights Commanders (K.C.I.E.), and
Companions (C. I.E. ). The motto of the order is
Imji' rafn'cis Aiisjtuiin ('Under tlie favour of the
Empress ').
Indian Red. a silicate of iron, imported from
the Persian Gulf.
Indians. Red. See Americas Indians.
Indian Shot (Caima indica), a plant common
in almost all tropical countries ; a herbaceous
perennial, with a creeping root-stock (rhiznmc),
and a sinii>le stem, formed by the cohering bases
of the large, tough, ovate-oblong leaves. It belongs
to the natural order Mar.antace.'p. It derives tlie
name Indian Shot from the seed, which is hard,
round, and about the size of a very small pea. The
seeil yields a beautiful red colour. The root-stocks
are very large, spongj-, and jointed, and are used
in Brazil for emollient poultices in tumours and
abscesses. The root-stocks of some of the other
species of Canna are more valuable, yielding the
starch called Tous-les-mois.
Indian Territory comprises a jiortion of the
region originally set apart by the I'nited States
government as a home fiu' Indian corjxigLt is93 in r.s.
tribes. It is bounded X. by Kan- it j. e. Lirrincott
sas, from which it is separated by Comi).-u.y
the parallel .■}7° X., E. by Missouri and Arkansas,
S. by Texas, from which it is sep.arated by the Red
River, and W. by Oklahoma Territory. The line
dividing these two territories is exceedingly irregu-
lar, and Oklahoma lies both W. and X. of Indian
Territory. Beginning at the X. this lioundaiy
is formed bv the meridian 90° W., the parallel
36"- 10' X., .aiid the meridian 90 .37' ?>0' W. to the
N. Fork of the Canadian River. S. and W. of
this stream the line is continued by the meridian
96' 47' W. to the Canadian River, by that river
to the meridian 98° W. , and thence S. to the Red
River. The section of land situated S. of Kansas
and E. of Texas and the Piildic Land Strip, known
as the Cherokee Outlet, is also described as a part
of Indian Territory, although it is under the juris-
diction of Oklahoma (q.v.), of which it will ulti-
mately become a part. The area, not including
the Ciierokee Outlet, is .31,000 sq. m.
The surface of the territory consists mainly of
rolling prairie land rising gradually from the south-
east toward the X. and W. In the southeast the
surface is broken by low ranges of the ( Izark Moun-
tains which cro.ss the Arkans.-us border. The most
important groups are the San Bois and Shawnee.
In the south-west are the Arbiicklc Mountains.
The mineral resources are |)ractically iindevelo]>ed,
but coal, cop)ier, iron, marble, and building stones
are known to exist in considerable r|uantitic.s. The
territory is well watered, and is drained by the Red
anil Arkansas Rivers ami their numerous tributa-
ries. The river bottoms are wide and fertile, sub-
ject to overllow in the spring, and usually enclosed
belween bluds which ri.se abruptly to the inter-
vening nplanils. The noitli-easlern ]>art is well
wooded, and a belt of forest, known as the ' Cross-
tinibers,' e.xtends from the Arkansas River to the
Brazos in Tex.as. The black bear, brown bear,
antelojie, and deer are almndant ; wild turkeys,
prairie-hens, and sage-hens also abound.
Indian Terrilory when first established inclmlcd
all the hitherto unorganised portion of the Louisiana
Purch:ise, and was designed for occujiancy by the
tribes then e.ast of the Mississippi. During the years
18.3.3 and 18.34 the Creeks, Choctaws. Chick.asaws,
and Cherokees were removed to their new home.
In 18.38 the Scminoles were added, and the rem-
nants of sever.al other tribes fcdlowed shortly .after.
Treaties were made by the government, covenant-
ing to maint.ain the title of the country to the
Indian tribes. The origin.a! grants extended nortli-
w.ard from the Red River, including portions of
what are now Kansas and Nebraska, and westw.ard
to the IDOtli meridian. By subsequent treaties with
the Indians, the United Stales .acquired control of
the country X. of parallel .37 . A strip of land
between the par.allels .30° .30' N. and 37° N., and
between the nieridi.ans 100 'W. .and 103° W., later
known as the Public Land Strip, was, after tlie an-
nexation of Texas, for a time erroneously reckoned
as .a part of Indian Territory.
In 1800 the United .States purchased the western
portion of the various grants to be allotted to other
Indian tribes or to freedmen. At the s.ame time,
the Seminoles, who had parted with their entire
domain, purcli.ased a portion of the land ceded by
the Creeks. Tribes whose homes were west of the
Missi^si])pi have at various limes been settled on
these bauds. By consent of the Indians, part of
these lands were in 1889 and 1890 thrown open to
white settlers, and the organis.ation of Oklahoma
reduced Indian Territory to its ]iresent limits.
The Cherokees, Choctaws, Creeks, Chick.asaws,
SeiniiKdes. .and some of the smaller tribes at or
near the l^'uapaw Agency in the north-east have
ni.ade considerable progress in civilisation. Schools
and churches have been established. There are
excellent farms and cattle ranges, and commerce
has gained some foothold. The ^lissouri, Kansas,
and Texas Railway crosses the territory from X.
to S. Before the civil war the Indians owned negro
slaves, and during the war some of the civilised
tribes sided with the South, and for a time were
considered to h.ave forfeited tlieir lands. The terri-
tory comprises three divisions, partly under iho
jurisdiction of United States courts .and partly
under tribal jurisdiction. The judici.al centre of
the first district is at the Quapaw Agency, of the
second .at McAlister, and of the third at Ardmore.
Population .at the census of 1890, 186,490, of
whom 177.082 .are members of the live ci\ilised
tribes (with descendants of former negro slaves),
and the remainder are Indians on reservation.s.
See the articles AMERICAN Indian.s, Oklahoma,
ClIEnoKF.E.S, &c.
India-rubber. CAOUTnioic, or Gum Ei.as-
TIi', a subslance which, on .account of its peculi.ar
projierties, is extensively used in the arts. It is
toiind in the milky juices of ]ilants, .and most abund-
antly in the natural orders iloiaee.T?, .Vrtocarpacco-,
Eiiphorbiacc.-r, A|iocyn.acea', and Asclepiadaccn'.
It exists in llie milky juice of plants growing in
temperate climates ; but it is only in tropical and
subtropical countries that it occurs so abundantly
.as to be of economical importance. The iirincijial
South American tree is the Ilerca hrrtsilioisls or
giiiaticnsis, also called Siphom'a c/ctstivn, <nJnli(iji/ia
etrislirn, a Eu])liorbiaceous tree ; also the Mexican
CusliUdfi ehisiirrt, which is Artocarpaccoiis. In the
E.ast the Finis cliislica (of the order Mor.ace.e),
akin to the Banyan (q.v.), is a tree of noble jiro-
portions. the appeai.ance of whose glossy leaves is
well known in Europe from small specimens grown
in pots as ornamental ]dants. ^ arioiis Apocy-
n.aceous trees ( Williighbeia, Laiidolpliia, Uiceola,
124
INDIA-RUBBER
&c.) yieUl comiueicial (juaiitities of lublier in
Malaya, Borneo, ami Central Africa. The name
Caoiiic/ioiK is from a Carib or Central American
won! Cac/iiidiii.
Some of the properties of imlia-ruliber mnst
have been known in Araei'ica at a \er_v early
perioil, because balls made by the Haytians of tlie
(jiiiii oftt /irc, bouncing better than the winil-balls of
Ca-stile, are mentionetlby Herrera in his account of
Columbus's second voyafxe. In a book published in
1615 Juan de Toniuemada mentions the tree which
yields it in Mexico, describes the mode of collecting
the gum, and states that it is made into shoes : also
that the Spaniards use it for waxing their canvas
cloaks to make tliem resist water. More exact
information was furnished by M. de la Condamine
in 1735. India-rubber was at first known as
Elastic Gmii, and received its present name from the
discovery (about 1770) of its use for rubbing out
black-lead pencil marks, for which purpose it began
to Vie imported into Britain in small quantities
about the end of the 18th century, being much
valued by artists, and sold at 3s. the cubic half
inch. Even before this time its employment for the
manufacture of flexible tubes for the use of surgeons
and chemists had lieen successfully attemjited ;
but it was not till 1820 that its employment began
to extend beyond the rubbing out of jiencil marks.
Its apjdication to the manufacture of waterproof
cloth lirst gave it commercial importance. Aljout
the same time a method was discovered of fabricat-
ing articles of various kinds by casting india-rubber
in moulds. Its elasticity and flexibility, its insol-
ubility in water, and its great impenetrability to
gases and fluids in general liave now been found to
adapt it to a great variety of uses ; but for by far
the greater number of its applications it is now
employed in the vulcanised state.
The inilia-rubljer of commerce is obtained most
largely from South America, but considerable
quantities are also procured from British India, the
Indian Archipelago, the west coast of Africa, and
the Mauritius. During the year 1888 the imports
of this material into Great Britain were as follows :
c»-t.
From Brazil 106,017
„ West Coast of Africa 43,443
II Africa, other parts 7,352
II United States and Central America 9,435
., British India 21,989
., Portugal 11,276
., Other Countries 20,238
Total 220,350
In 1852 the total imimrts were only 15,269 cwt. ;
in 1862, 59,703 cwt.; in 1876, 157',509 cwt.; in
1883, 229,101 cwt. ; in 1887, 237,511 cwt. ; in 1888.
218,171 cwt.; and in 1889, 236,275 cwt. In 1883
the average piice per cwt. was 318s. ; in 1885,
220s. : in 1887, 228s. ; and in 1894, 21Gs. The
value of imi)()rts in 1883 was £3,652,817, and in
188S, £-2,o55,341. In 1894 the import was 302,451
cwt. (including that fiom Xyassaland and Congo
Free State )v.alued at .£3,272, 104. India rubber goods
worth over £1,000,000 are exported from Britain.
India-rublier is sometimes collected by cutting
the trees down, wliich is a veiy ruinous process,
and resorted to mainly that a greater ipiantity may
be obtained. The more usual method, however,
is by making sim]>le incisions in the trunks. In a
few hours the juice which flows out tills clay basins
]ilaced to receive it. It is solidilied and dried by
various metlio<ls — sometimes spreail out in thin
layers and di'ied in the sun or the snu>ke of fires,
sometimes (in Central America) coagulated by
leaves of a kind of vine. .\ good tree will yiehl
four ounces of juice ilaily. aii<l twenty gallons in
a season ; a gallon producing 2 lb. of gooil rubber.
Adulteration is not uncommon.
Para india-rubber is the best, and conunands the
highest price in the market (averaging about 3s.
peril).). The other South American kinds are of
fair quality. East Indian rubber, though natur-
ally a tine quality, is often injured by adulteration
an<l careless collecting.
Commercial india-rubber is a tough fibrous sub-
stance, possessiu" elastic properties in the highest
degree. Keduced to the temperature of freezing
water (32° F. ) it hardens, and in greater jiart, if
not entirely, loses its elasticity, but does not be-
come brittle. ^Vhen heated, as by placing in
boiling water, it softens and becomes very much
mcue elastic than at ordinary temperatures, though
it does not in any degree dissolve m the water. If
suddenly stretched to seven or eight tinu's its
original length it becomes warm ; and if kept in
this outstretched form for several weeks it apjiears
to lose in great part its elastic properties, and in
this condition is reailily cut into those thin threads
which are used in the chistic put in bonnets, \-c.,
and the ela-sticity of which is readily renewed
by the application of gentle heat. Of late years,
however, elastic thread is usually prepared with
vulcanised rubber. Commercial india-rubber is
insoluble in water and alcohol, is not acted
upon by alkalies or acids, except when the latter
are concentrated and heat is applied, but is
soluble in ether, chloroform, liisulpnide of carbon,
naphtha, petroleum, benzol, and the essential oils
of turpentine, lavender, and sassafras. Manv
other essential and lixed oils, when heated witli
rubber, cause it to soften, and produce thick glu-
tinotis compounds, especially linseed-oil, which, in
the proportion of 1| lb. of the oil to 4 oz. rubber
in tliin strips of lilnis, yields a solution which,
when strained, is of great use in rendering shoes,
cloth, itc. waterproof. When heated to 248' F.
rubber fuses ; and at 600° it is volatilised, at the
same time undergoing decomposition, ami yields a
liquid called Caoiitclioncin, oossessing great sol-
vent powers over imlia-rubber and other sub-
stances.
To purify the raw material it is boiled for some
time in large tanks, wliich softens it and in some
measure releases the solid impurities with w hich it
is often mixed. It is then ptit through ]iowerful
machines which ma.sticate and reduce it to shreds,
and while undergoing this operation a stream of
water is constantly running over it and thorouglily
cleansing it from all inqiuiities. It is then rolled
out into thin sheets and hung up to <lry in a room
heated by artilicial means, ami thus freed from all
moisture. Or, after clean.sing, the material under-
goes a juocess of kneading under very heavy
ndlers, which causes the adhesion of the varicms
]iieces of rubber to each other, and ultimately
yields a mass or block of rubber in w Inch the C(m-
densation is so ]ierfect that all air-holes and other
cells and interstices disappear. The block of
rubber is then cut under water by iiowerful knives
or shears into sheets, from which bands or thread
may be obt.ained. In the manufacture of sriuare
threads mere cutting is had recourse to: ami the
delicacy of the ojieration may be understood when
it is stated that one ipouml of rubber will yield
32,0(X» yards of thre.-ul. The round elastic tliread
is ]ircpared from rubber which has been treated
with abcmt double its weight of bisulphide of
carbon, containing alxnit 5 per cent, of alcohol,
which yields a soft material resembling in con-
sistence bread-dough or ]iutly ; and this being
s(|ueezed through a series of small liides, |)roduces
minute round threads, which are first received (m
an endless piece of velvet, and ultimately on an
endle.ss web of common cloth 500 to 600 yanls long,
<luring the transit of the threads across which the
solvent or bisulphide of carbon evaporate.s, and
INDIA-RUBBER
125
leaves tlie iuilia-rubber. When it is wished to
weave these threads into cloth they are wound
upon bobbins, taking care to stretch the rubber
as mucli as possible, so as to deprive it for the
time being of its elasticity ; and, after it has been
woven into the cloth, a hot iron is passed over
the fabric, and immediately the rubber resumes
its elasticity.
The nu'tliod for making waterproof clothing or
' Mackintoshes,' the tii-st application of rublier on a
large scale, suggested by Professor Synie in 1818, was
patented in 18'23 by Charles Macintosh of Glasgow.
In this manufacture the caoutchouc has to undergo
many and varied processes. It is Hrst reduced to a
solution with naphtha or otiier solvent, and it is
then amalgamated with other ingredients accordin"
to the nature of the material it has to be applied
to. It is then spread on the surface of tlie cloth,
a process formerly done by hand, but now by means
of spreading machines, which ap(dy it in very thin
coats, so thin that with pure jiara proofing as many
as twelve coats are spread to make the cloth air-
proof, but so thin is each coat that the twelve
only measure one ninety -sixth part of an inch ;
for ordinary waterproof purposes, however, live or
six are generally sntticient. For ilouble textures
the cloths are then pressed together between heavy
rollers. These cloths are all vulcanised, and this
can be iierformed by a number of processes — by the
' cold ' piocess, by vaporising, by steam, and by dry
heat. The garments are then cut out from the
cloth, and fastened together by means of pure
rubber cement, which make the edges adhere.
The variety of garments now made up are almost
endless, and every year the demand for them in
fashionable designs and cloths is increasing.
Vulcanised or Solid India-rubhcr. — Pure india-
rubber is now used only to a limited extent in the
arts, but it is .applied in the vulcanised state to .a
very large extent. The remarkable change whicli
caoutchouc undergoes when n;ixed with sulphur
and heated, according to circumstances, from 240'
to 310^ F., was discovered by Charles Goodyear, in
America, in 1831 11, and independently, about the
same time, by Mr Tiiomas Hancock, in England.
In the process of vulcanising, the rulOier, as a
preliminary step, is either torn into shreds or
crushed into thin pieces by machinery, and after-
wards washed. There are two principal kinds of
vulcanised rubljer, one hard and horny in its
texture, the other soft and ela.stic. In the case
of the former the caoutchouc is mixed with about
one-third of its weight of sulphur, and heated for
several hours, the temperature tinally rising to
fully 300' F. For the soft kind of vulcanised
rubljer, on the other hand, a much smaller propor-
tion of sulphur is required — viz. from 2.^ to 10
per cent., and the heat to which it is subjected
m the vulcanising chamber is considerably less.
Usually, too, with this latter kind, the articles are
made liefore the rubber is heateil. The sulphur is
commonly aildiMl in the ground state, but some-
times the rubber Is treated with some solution
containing this element, such as the bisulphide of
carbon.
Although sulphur is the only essential ingredient
required for vulcanising rabber, yet other sub-
stances are usually added. Thus, in the case of
machinery belting, pipes, and some other articles,
the silicate of magnesia (French chalk) is u.sed to
prevent adhesiveness. Litharge, or carbonate of
lead, again, is frequently mixed with the rubber
and sulphur for certain purposes ; but there is really
a long list of materials nmre or less used in |»epar-
ing ilill'erent qualities of vulcanised caimtchouc,
each manufacturer u.sing ndxluro the exact nature
of which he is careful not to divulge. Asphalt,
tar, lime, lampblack, whiting, rosin, sulphide of
antimony, and ground cork are some of the in-
gredients most commonly emidoyed in this way.
Belting for machinery and some kinds of tubing
are formed of alternate layers of canvas and vul-
canised rubber.
Natural caoutchouc, as already stated, is elastic,
cohesive, impervious to gases, insoluble in water,
and resists many chemical reagents ; but it loses
its elasticity by cold, softens by beat, and is de-
stroyed by many fixed oils. After being vulcan-
ised caoutchouc has its elasticity greatly increased,
is not haitlened 1)V cold, and does not soften or
become viscid at any tenipeiature short of its
absolute decomposition. Besides, it is barely sol-
uble in turpentine, naphtha, and the other solvents
of pure caoutchouc ; nor does oil readily penetrate
or soften it. Very often, however, the natural oil
in some cloths, or oils used in manufacture, tend
to make the rubber decav, and this has often caused
rubber-manufacturers a large amount of trouble.
It would be a hopeless task to attempt to specify
the many useful purposes to which vulcanised
caoutchouc is applied, even if we had the space to
spare. From the year 1843, when it was lirst
made, to the present time the various patented
applications of it must be thou.sands in numlier.
The mere abridgments of the specifications con-
nected with this material, issued by the English
Patent Office, form a thick volume. Under the
head Golo.shes will be found a brief description
of the process of making india-rubber shoes. Both
coats and shoes of this material have, however, the
objectionable property of preventing the escape of
moisture from the skin. Belting, butters, wheel
tires, washers, vahes, pipes, tire-liose, and other
engineering appliances form a large branch of tlie
rubber-trade. For medical and surgical ]niiposes
many articles are made of this material. Of such
an apparently trivial matter as vulcanised rubber
thread one English firm turns out about 3000 11).
per day, and another single small article — viz.
tobacco-pouches — is made in another factoiy at the
rate of 3000 per diem.
Hard vulcanised rubber, termed vulcanite, and
sometimes ebonite, is made into a great many small
articles, such as combs, chains, luacelets, boxes,
penholders, pajier-knives, knife-handles, buttons,
iSrc, as a substitute for materials like horn, bone,
ivory, and jet. Like these substances themselves,
it is formed into various objects by moulding, cut-
ting, carving, polishing, and other processes. Vast
numbers of tliese articles are now sold. The black
colour of vulcanite ornaments has still a tendency
to turn gray, but the brittleness wbieb was a fault
of combs made of it a few years ago seems to be
overcome. With respect to objects of considerable
size, vulcanite has been made into furniture, orna-
mental tiles, and even rails for railroads and pav-
ing for footpaths, for which latter pur|)ose it suits
admirably. A kind of vulcanite is now very
largely enqdoyed as an insulator in electric cables.
India-rublier when melted at 398° F., and mixed
with half its weiglit of slaked lime, forms a useful
cement or lute, which can be easily loosened, but
it will dry and liarden if red lead is adiled. A very
tenacious glue is formed by heating caoutchouc,
coal-tar, and shell-lac together. It forms an in-
gredient ill some special kinds of varnishes, and it
also improves the hilivicating qualities of miiicial
oils when a small i|Uantity is dissolved in them.
In Great Britain some of the large india-rubber
factories enqdoy over 1(100 hands, and smaller works
are sjiringing up all over the country. The exports
are sent all over the world, jirincipallv to the
Continent, North America, and .\uslralia. The
duty levied on this class of goods is prohibitive of
the expansion of the trade with the L iiited States.
The manufacture of india-rubber is also carried on
126
INDICATOR-DIAGRAM
INDIGESTION
extensively in the I'nited States and Fiance. In
most niliber-factories a lar^'e number of tlie work-
people are females : and, as no j;reat skill is re-
i|uired on the juirt of tlie operatives enjiapred in
some departments, einploymenl in such works has
proved a lioon to many pei-sons «ho have ne\er
learned a trade.
The hi.i,'h price of raw indiaruliber has led to
many attempts to prochice a substitute, but none
of them e(|Ual in durability the pure caoutchouc.
IlulifSltor-diaitram. a dia;;ram drawn on an
itH/icator-canl by the pencil of the indicator of an
engine at work. The oliject in view i.s to ascertain
the relations between, and also the jiroduct of the
varying pressure and the corresponding' variations
of "volume of, the working substance — steam, ex-
plosive gas mixture, hot air, or other material.
The latter, the variations of volume, are, in a
cylinder, well represented by the movements of
tiie piston ; the former, the varying pressure, may
be followed by making the steam, iS:c. press out
the piston of a small side-cylinder against the
resistance of a spring. If a pencil be attached to
this piston it will mark on a piece of paper or card
held in contact with the point a straight line
traced and retraceil with varying velocity. If the
steam be shut oil' from this side-cylinder the pencU
assumes the position of 'no pressure.' If now, on
the other hand, the piston of the main cylinder be
matle to draw the paper or card past the i)encil
]ioint in a direction at right angles to tlie former,
the varying velocity with which a straight line is
traced and retraced on the paper will reproduce
the varying velocities of the main piston itself. If
these two actions be now combined the pencil will
move, say, uii and down, while the paper will oscil-
late or be unrolled backward and i'o:\vard. The
peucil-iioint will accordingly describe upon tlie jiaper
an irregularly-curved ligure which will, in uniform
working, be a closed curve, and will always tend
api)ioximately to reproduce itself 'aring each suc-
cessive cycle of the engine. Upon the scales on
which the linear traces of the pencil represent, in
directions at right angles to one another, the varia-
tions of |iiessure and the i)istoii-iiioveiiients re.spec-
tively, the Krca enclosed by this curve will repre-
sent the work done by the engine during each
cycle ; and its funn enables the actual pressures
and volumes of the working substance to be traced
out for each successive portion of the cycle, and
thus enables the working of the engine to be care-
fully studied in detail. Kor exanijilcs see Holmes,
I'/ic Stcitm-ciiijitic ; and Dugald Clerk, Gas-ciii/inas.
See article Gas-engise for diagrams.
Indic*tion, a period or cycle of lifteen years,
tlie origin of which is iiivcdved in oliscniity. Imt
which was originally a ii.scal term. It began to be
used in reckoning time, chielly by ecclesiastical
historians, during the life of Athanasius ; it was
afterwards adopted by the popes, who still con-
tinue to use it, and through whose inllucnce it
came to be .so generally employed during the
mi<lille ages that the dates of charters and public
deeds of tliis era are expressed in indictions as well
as in years of the Christian era. The first indiction
is supposed to h.ive commenced on September 24,
312, the day of Constantine's victory over Maxen-
tius. If we reckim backwards to the commence-
ment of the ("hrisli.ui era it will be seen that
1 A.l). does not corre-^pond to the 1st, but to the
4th year of an indictiim — hence, if to out/ ijircn
l/rar of the Christian era 3 be added, and the xiim
(liridcd by 15, the rcmaim/cr will r/ire the jWKifioti
of that ifcar in an iiidiiiinn — thus, 1800 A.D. was
the third year of an indiction. Of course such a
methoil of marking time was necessarily incom-
plete, for it inclniled no statemimt of the number
of indictions which had elapsed since the first
adoption of that method of computation.
IlI<Ii«-tllli'Ut. See Cri.minal L.vw.
Iiulios. See East Lnijie.s, and West Indies.
Illlli!;t>sti4»ll, <n- Dvsi'El'siA, jiroperly includes
only such derangements of the digestive process as
do not depend on any recognisable structural
change. But it is very common to apidy the term
loosely to any digestive disorder, whatever its
cause may be. In this sense dys])(>psia is a
.symptom of a multitude of diseases, in the
description of which, when it is .sullicienlly im-
portant, it will be found noticed. Fum-tional
dyspepsia, the dy.spepsia of otherwise lieallhy
peojile, is what will be considered here. (If Ibis
there are two chief varieties, the atonic and the
irritatirc or acid dyspepsia. The former is caused
by deficient secretion of the gastric juice and
diminished movement of the stomach walls, and
it is often associated with a want of vitality in the
system. The latter is fre(|iienlly found in persons
of vigorous and robust frame anil of active iiabits ;
and in many cases it is to be looked upon as the
result of an excess of digestive activity leading to
the accumulation of an abnormal amount of acid
products in the stomach, esjjecially toward the end
of digestion. This form is more common in men
than in women, and is rarelv met with before adult
life.
The symptoms of dyspejisia differ considerably
in different individuals. The appetite is often
good, and sometimes voraciims, but it may lie
deheient. For scmie time after eating there may
be no discomfort ; but sooner or later pain comes
on in the region of the stomach, at first dull, after-
wards more severe. A feeling of fullness and dis-
tension follows, accompanied by flatulent discharge
and the eructation of a sour liipiid. The discom-
fort may sometimes deejien into nausea and vomit-
ing. The ]iain occasion.-illy shoots uj) towards the
shmilders, and may run down the left arm, like the
pain of angina pectoris. From this, however, it
may be distinguished by the fact that it comes on
after food. The pain is due partly to over-sensitive-
ness of the stomach, and partly to the irritation of
its acid contents, especially of butyric acid. When
the pain is of a iiaroxysmal character it is called
Gastralgia or Gastrodynia. Cardialgia or heart-
burn, and Pyrosis or water-brash, are common
symptoms which have also been dignified with
special names. The former is said to be caused
by the irritation of the upper end of the stomach
by the fumes of its acrid contents, while the latter
is essentially an abortive act of vomiting accom-
panied by a gush of saliva ( Iioberts).
In the treatment of indigestion the diet should
be strictly regulated. The experience of the
patient is often a belter guide as to details than
all the dicta of the faculty. The food should be
]iro])erly cooked and well masticated, and the
interval between meals should neither be too
long nor too short. Where the appetite is feeble
food must be laki'U fiei|uently, in small i|uantilics
at a time; and it is often advantageous to u.se
substances which have been partially digested m ith
liancreatic or peptic extract. A mixture of animal
and vegetable food is in general more easily
digested than either kind taken exclusively.
Mutton, fowls, and game aie the most digestible
kinds of animal food ; roast beef is to be preferred
to boiled : l)Ut ]iork ami all cured meats, such as
salted beef, ham, tongue, and all greasily-cooked
dishes should be avoided. Cheese, pastry, raw
vegetables, such as salads, cucumbers, t'tc. , must
also he prohiliitiMl. As a rule, dys|ieplic persons
would probably do well to avoiil all .stimulating
drinks ; but in some cases a little cold, weak
IXDIGIRKA
INDO-CHINA
127
branily and water, or a s'liss of olil sherry, or a
iittlo iiittor ale may be taken with advantage.
It is of j;reat importanee to attend to the bowels
(see CoN"sTlPATU)N ). Keguhir exercise in tlie open
air should be enjoined. Hiding e.\ercise is of special
service wliere the liver is ovU of order. In some ca.ses
change of scene and oecnjiation is of more beneht
than anything else. In the medicinal treatment of
dyspepsia a iiost of renii'dios are in vogue. Acids
(especially nitro-hydrocldoric acid), either before
or after meals, bitters (such as quinine, calumba,
gentian, rjua-ssia, and hops), and nu.\ vomica
increase the appetite and aid digestion. Pepsin is
a valn.able adjuvant. Nausea and vomiting may
be checked by hydrocyanic acid, chloroform, and
cre.'usote in very small doses, or by ice and alkalies.
Hyposulphite of soda, sulphurous acid, and carbolic
aciil act well when the vomiting depends on fer-
mentation. For flatulence, bismuth, cardamoms,
charcoal, sulpho-carbolate of sodium, hot W'ater,
and many other remedies are in use. For the pain
in the stomach the subnitrate of bismuth in drachm
doses has a well-merited reputation. Spirits of
chloroform, followed by hot water, may also be
used. The subcutaneous injection of morphia gives
ett'ectual relief for the time, but it should not be
employed without advice. In nervou.s dyspepsia,
hydrochlorate of cocaine in doses of a quarter of a
grain ha-s lately been used with success.
Illdigirka. a river in the Siberian government
of V.ikntsk, rises in a western otl'set of the Stano\oi
Mountains, and, after a northerly course of 870
miles through a desolate and frozen desert, falls
into the Arctic Ocean in 71° N. lat. and 150° E.
long.
lutligo (Gr. Indikdii, 'Indian drug'), a most
important vegetable dyestuti', yielding a beautiful
blue and very durable dye, the Ixisis also of the best
black dye in woollen cloths. It has been used in
India from a very early period, and was imported
thence by the ancient (ireeks and Romans, but
was lost to Europe during great part of the middle
ages — although the cultivation of the jdant and
preparation of the ilye were described by Marco
Polo in the loth century — until re-introduced bj'
the Dutch about the middle of the Itith century.
Indigo Plant (Indiijofera tinctoria) :
o, lucerne of !ieiid-i)ods. ( Frnm Beutley and Trimen.)
The plants that yield the best indigo belong to the
genus Indigof(Ma, of tlio natural order Leguminosse,
sub-order l'apilion;icea>. Itu/if/ij/n-ii timti/riri in the
species most generally cultivated in India. Central
.American and West Indian indigo is the produce
of /. iDii/ and /. ;/iiiiliiniilii.
Indigo is, however, obtained from plants of
other genera, particularly from W'riqhtia timtoria
(natural order .'Vpocyn.ace.i-), East Indies; Bufitisin
liiirloria (natural onler Leguminosiv), North
America, which yields indigo of a p.ale colour anil
very inferior c|uality : Tei>hrosin tinctoria (natural
order Legnminosa' ), Malabar; T. Apolllven, Egypt
and Nubia; Marschnia tinctoriu (natural order
Asclepiailacea'), in Sylhet ; ami Poliiijimiiiii line-
turiiiiu and 1'. Cliinensc (natural order Polygcui-
aceaO, (.'hiua and Ja]ian. — In times when East
Indian indigo was not known, or was brought to
Europe onlv in small quantity, the same dye-
stuil' was obtained from AVoad (q.v.). — A coar.se
kind of indigo, called liastard Indigo, was also
at one time made in N(U-th .America from the
young shoots of Am/irjihit (■<rriilca and A. /ruti-
costi (natural order Lcguminos.-c).
In cultivating the indigo plant the seed is sown
in drills about one foot apart at the beginning of
the rainy season. Hoeing and weeding rciiuiri^ to
be assiduously attended to to prevent the )ilants
from being overpowered by weeds. The lirst crop
is obtained in about three months after sowing.
The stems are cut as the plants begin to llower,
and quickly shoot up again, and in this way two
and sometimes three crops are taken from the same
plants in one season. Immediately the crop is cut
it is tied in bundles and carried to the steeping
vats to undergo the process of extracting the
indigo ; for an account of which see Dyeing.
Commercially speaking, indigo may be said to
be the pioduce of India and Central America, as
these are the only localities which supply the
recognised form of the article. Bengal is the
chief seat of indigo pioduce ; and IJengal indigo
is the most esteemed. From 1740 till the civil war
indigo was much grown iu tieorgia and South
Carolina, but thereafter the United States ile-
jiended on imported indigo, liritish imports fluctu-
ated from aliove 1,000,000 cwt. (\alue £-.>,.5iJ0,000 )
to under 00,000 cwt. (value £950,000) in the last
years of the 19th century, when the trade was
menaced by German artificial indigo. Tlie essential
constituent of natural indigo is Iin/ii/rifiii or Iiidiqo
Blue (C^HjNO), but it likewise contains Lidlrio
Brown, Indigo Bed, and other ingreilients. In
1878 liaeyer of Munich announced the successful
synthesis of an artificial indigo from phenylacetic
acid, a coal-tar product ; and Neumann of Zurich
ma<le the synthesis commercially practicable. By
1897 Germany supplied its own wants from this
source ; by 1901 one company at Luchvigshafen
produeeil .-is much as could be grown on iJO.OOO
acres of Indian land, and it was a (|uesti(ni whetlier
the growers of natural indigo in Behar and other
parts of Bengal would be able to comjiete with the
German aniline companies (see Aniline, Dyeing,
SvNTUE.sis). The costly so-called r/reen indir/u of
Cliina, useil by Chinese artists and for silk-dyeing,
is obtained from a tree called honi-hi.
IlHli;X<> Bird {Cifano.yn'.ra eyanea), a North
American bird of the Finch family (Fringillidic), a
native of the United States, as far north as the
Missouri, which it visits in summer, and of Central
America, where it spends the winter. It is about
5A inches in length, of a beautiful bine colour,
variously tinged ami shaded. It frequents open
places on the edges of woods, and has a very sweet
song.
Illdilllll. a metal (trivalent; atom. wt. = 11.3'4),
soft, silver-white, malleable, sidnble in hydrochloric
acid ; its sulphati> forms alums with alkaline sul-
phates. It was discovered in ISO;) by Beich ami
Richter in Freiberg zinc-blende, through observ-
ing in its spectrum two characteristic indigo-blue
lines.
Iii«lividiialisiii. See Socialism.
Illd«»-<ilili:i. the eastern of the two great
Asiatic iH'niiisnlas which extend southwards into
the Indi.'in Ocean, sometimes Ciillod Further
India. It is washed on the east by the Gulfs
of Tonquin and Siani an<l the Chinese Sea, and
on the west by the B.ay of Bengal. AccountB
128
INDO-EUROPEANS
INDUCTION
of the various states which it embraces will be
found under the headinj,'s Axnam, Bi"RMA (with
map), Ca.mbddia, Cochix-Chixa, Malacca,
SlA.M, and ToxQllN- — The term Indonesia is
sometimes used for the Indian Archipelago, the
islands to the south-east of Asia.
Iii«lo-Eiiro|ieaiis. See Aryan.
Illdore. a Mahr.atta principality of India, com-
prising the territories of the Holkar dynasty, and
consisting of several detached tracts, covers an
area of 8400 sq. m. The bulk of it lies between
.Sindhia's dominions on the north and Bombay Pre-
sidency on the so\itli, its length from north to
south being 120 miles, and its breadth 82. It is
traversed from east to west by the Nerbudda,
which almost bisects it ; by the Vindhya Moun-
tains, their loftiest point within its limits being
2.')()() feet above the sea ; and by the Satpura
Mountains. Principal products, poppy, cotton,
tobacco, wheat, rice, millets, i*i:c. ; principal in-
dustries, cotton and oi)ium m.anufacture. Pop.
( 1891 ) 1,099,990. The Vindhy.as and Satpuras have
from time immemorial been tlie home of^ the Bhils
(q.v. ), the wildest of the aboriginal tribes in India.
Tlie Holkar State Railway connects the Rajputana
railway-system with that of Boml)ay. The climate
is sultry, the thermometer ranging from 60° to 90"
F. in the shade. The state was founded about the
middle of the 18th century by Malhar Rao, a
soldier of fortune, who served the Peshwa. In
1818 the ruler of the Holkar dominions was
reduced to the position of a feudatory prince of
the British Indian empire. He keeps up an army
of 8900 men.
Illdore, the capital of the Maharaja Holkar's
dominions, is situated in 22° 42' N. lat. and 75° 54'
E. long., 1780 feet above sea-level. Pop. (1891)
92,329, mostly Hindu.s. During the revolt of 1857,
though the maharaja remained faithful to the
British government, his troops mutinied on 1st
July, holding their prince a prisoner in his own
palace, and butchering many Europeans in cold
blood. The town dates only from 1770. Close to
the town is the district specially set apart for the
residence of the Governor-general of Indiii's agent
for Central India. Within this district stands a
celebrated European hospital.
IlldorseillOIlt, the term generally used to
denote the writing of the name of the holder on
the b.ack of a bill of exchange or promissory note,
on transferring or assigning it to another. Signing
the name 'A. B.' alone is a blank indorsement;
and if the transferee is named it is an indorse-
ment ' in special' or 'in full.' The usual form is
'Pay C. D. or order. (Signed) A. B.' In Scot-
land it is ' Pay the contents to C D. or order.
(Signed) A. B. ' When personal liability is to be
avoided the words ' withcmt recourse' are added,
anil in this case no demand can come back on the
indorser, who would otherwise be liable. The
word indorsement is also frequently used in Eng-
lish law to denote any matters written or indorsed
on the back of writs or deeds, as indorsements on
declarations, on writs of summons, iSrc.
Illdrn, the name of one of those Himlu deities
that were worshipped more especially in the Vedic
period of the Himlu religion, but enjoyed a great
legendary pojiularity also in the Epic ami Puranic
]ieriods. In those U'ig-\'eila hymns whicli form
the oldest portion of Vedic poetry Indra is a
mighty ruler of the bright lirmanient, and his ]irin-
cipal feat is that of con<|uering the demon ]'r'ititi,
a symbolical personitication of the cloud which
obstructs the clearness of the sky ami withholds
the fructifying rain from the earth. All his
wonderful deeds are performed by him merely for
the benelit of the gooil, which, in the language of
the Veda, means the pious men who worship him
in their songs, and invigorate him with the olier-
ings of the juice of the Soma [dant. He is there-
fore the ' lord of the virtuous,' and the ' disoomliler
of those who neglect religious rites,' and at the
same time he has all the attributes of a warlike
"od, and is invoked as the destroyer of cities.
During the Epic and Puranic periods, where
ethical conceptions of the divine powers prevail
over ideas based on elementary impressions, Indra
cea-ses to enjoy the worshiji he liail aciiuired at the
Vedic time, and his existence is chielly uphehl liy
the poets, who, in their turn, however, work it out
in the most fantastic detail. A remarkable trait
in this legendary life of Indra is the series of his
conflicts with Krishna, an incarnation of Vishnu,
which end, however, in his becoming reconcileil
with the more important god. When represented
in works of art Indra is generally seen riding on
his elephant; and where he is painted he is covered
with eyes.
Illdre. a department of Fiance, formed princi-
pally out of the western portion of the old jirovince
of Berri, lies immediately south of the department
of Loir-et-Cher. Area, 262.3 sq. m., of which about
four-lifths are in tillage and pasture. Pop. (1872)
'277,69.3: ( 1S86) '296,147 ; { 1891 ) 29'2,868. It is quite
flat, and well watered by the Indre (which flows,
from the department of Creuse, 152 miles north-
westward to the Loire) and the Creuse. It con-
tains three well-marked districts — a stony, woody
region with sandy .soil in the soiith, a fertile agri-
cultural region in the east, and in the north-west a
region of moors, marshes, and ponds, interspersed
with forests. The more notable products are
wheat, oats, potatoes, turnips, fruits, and wine.
The sheep are excellent as food, and produce lirst-
rate wool. Much poultry is reared, fhe princijial
industries are ironworks and manufactures of doth,
))aper, leather, and porcelain. The department is
divided into four arrondissements — cfiateauioux,
Le Blanc, Issoudun, and La Chfttre. The capital
is Chate.auroux.
Illdrc'-Ct-Loire, -i department of France,
formed chiefly out of the ancient province of
Touraine, is crossed by the Loire from NE. to S\V.
Area, '2360 sq. m. ; 'pop. (1872) ,317,0-27 : (1886)
340,921 ; ( 1891 ) 337,'298. It is watered by the Loire
and its tributaries, the Cher, Indre, and Vienne,
all of them navigable. The valley of the Loire is
very fertile, studded with orchards anil garilens
ami vineyarils ; it is called the 'garden of France.'
South of this lies the monotonous but productive
plateau of St Maure, north of it the sterile region
of GAtine. The products include grain, wine
(about 22,000,000 gallons annually), fruits (especi-
ally plums), anil liemp. The industry has never
recovered from the blow struck by the Edict of
Nantes. The chief manufactures are powder, files,
cloth, i)aper, and leather. The dei)artment is
ilivided into the three arrondissements of Tour.s,
Chinon, and Loclies ; capital. Tours.
Illdlirtiuil, one of the great ju-ocesses of scien-
tilic discovery and |iroof. It is the operation of
disroveriiifi and pruoinr/ general pro|)ositiiuis ;
while deduction, on the other hand, is the method
of ap/ili/ini/ general ]iropositions once <liscovered
to particular cases considered to lie included within
their scope. By induction we establish the law
that heat expands liodics ; by deilnclion we ap]ily
it to explain why a clock goes slower in summer than
in winter, owing to the changes of the length of
the penilnluni. It should be mentioned that what
has iieen called perfect inductiim — the oliservation
of ti/l the instances and a statement of the result
in one general jiroposition — is not by Mill or the
moderns rocogniseil as proper induction at all.
INDUCTION
129
Induction is the process of real inference — in
other words, by it we i>rocee<l from tlie known
to the unknown ; or from a limited range of facts
we attinn what will hold in an unlimited lun^'e.
All thinjjs that we do not know by actual trial
or ocular ilemonstration we know by an inductive
operation. Deduction is not real inference in
this sense, since the general proposition already
covers the case that we apply it to; in a proper
deduction the conclusion is more limited than the
premises. By the inductive method we obtain a
conclusion much larger than the premises ; we
adventure into the sphere of the unknown, and
pronounce upon what we ha\t' not yet seen.
Nothing is more common tlian the making of bail
inductions, and accordingly it is now considered
a part of logic to lay down the rules for the right
performance of this great operation. For the
principles and mles of induction, see Mill's Logic
(book iii.). Fowler's Inductiiv Logic, and Venn's
Principles of Eiiipirical or Lmliictive Logic (1890) :
an<I see the article LOGIC
Induction is a term used in England to
denote the investing or giving possession of a
benefice to a clergyman. This is done by a
mandate from the oishop to the archdeacon ( in
some places the dean and chapter) to make tlie
induction. The inductor takes the clergj-nian
by the hand, and lays it on the key of the
cimrch-door (or some part of the church itself),
then opens the door and causes him to enter the
church alone, and to toll one of the bells as a
public notification to the parishioners. The in-
cumbent's possession of the benefice is completed
by 'reading liimself in' — i.e. reading, generally on
the following Sunday, the Thirty-nine Articles, and
immediately thereafter making a formal declara-
tion of assent to their doctrine, and giving a pledge
of his conformity to the rules of the church. — In
Scotland the presbyterj- induct the minister.
Induction, in Electricity and Magnetism, is a
term of various application. In every case, how-
ever, there is a certain idea present — the idea,
namely, of an efi'eet produced at an apparent
distance from the producing cause, the effect
being essentially a reproiluction of the cause.
More accurately stated, induction is the name of
a method or mode by or in which a particular
electric or magnetic condition is made to pass from
one material system to another without the inter-
vention of any obvious material connection. Thus,
in static electricity a metallic body or other con-
ductor brought into the neighbourhood of an
electrified body becomes itself electrified by in-
duction. Similarly, a piece of iron or other
magnetisable metal, when brought near a magnet,
or, more generally, wlien brout'ht into a magnetic
field, becomes itself magnetised by induction. In-
deed, according to Faraday's view, induction is
the essential feature in all electric and magnetic
interaction. These two fundamental ca.ses of
iniluction will be found treated in full under
El.KCTRICITV and M.VfiNETISM.
There is, however, a third and very important
group of electric and magnetic phenomena to
which the name induction Ijelongs. These were
dLseovered by Faraday, and will be treated in a
general way under M.agnetism. The es.sential
peculiarity of this cla.ss of induction phenomena
Ls the production of electric currents in conductors
or circuits in which there exists no .source of
electrical energj-. These induced electric currents
are in all cases the result of si>me magnetic change
in thir region occupied by the conductor. Thus
magnetic change may lie i)rofluced by tlie approach
or withdrawal of a magnet ; or it may l)e produced
by the motion of the conductor in a constant
269
magnetic field ; or it may be due to variations
of primary currents in neighbouring conductoi-s,
or even in the conductor itself. In this last case
the variations of these primary currents cause
corresponding variations in the magnetic fields
existing with them, so that the induced current
can always be explained in terms of a mametic
change. According to tthm's Law (see Elec-
tricity ), the strength of a current tlowing through
a given circuit depends on the electromorive force
which excites the current, and on the resistance of
the circuit through which the current Is made to
How. In the case of induction of currents the electro-
motive force is directly due to, and is measured in
terms of, the rate of change of the number of lines
of magnetic force embraced by the circuit ; and
this rate of change depends on the geometrical
form of the circuit and on its space relations to
the magnetic field surrounding it. Thus the in-
duced current depends on three things — viz. the
form of the circuit, the varyiii" space lelations of
the circuit and the magnetic field, and the ordinaiy
ohmic resistance of the circuit.
One of the readiest ways of producing induced
currents is to have two coils of wire, one placed
inside the other, and to pass through the inner
or primary coil a current of varying strength.
At everj- variation of the primary current a current
is induced in the outer or arcoitdarii circuit. The
direction of the secondary current depends on the
manner of change of the primary. If the primary
cuiTent is decreasing in strength, the induceil
current in the secondaiy circuit fiows in the same
direction as the primary in its circuit : luit if the
primary current is increasing, the secondary current
Bows in the reverse direction. The best etl'ects
are produced at the 'making' and the 'breaking'
of tlie primary circuit : for by these operations
the primary current is made to have its greatest
variations. This is the principle of action of the
Riihmkorff IiuUtction Coil, one of the many forms
of whicli is shown in the figure. The coils are
wound, the primary inside the secondary, on the
portion marked \V. The battery wires, attached
to the binding screws, j), n, are brought into con-
nection with the terminals of the primaiy coil by
means of the comnnitator, C The terminals of
the secondary coil are fixed to the brass heads
of the gla.ss pillars, P, P', which are furnished
with pointed rods capable of tmiversal nmtion.
The true way of looking at the action of this
instrument is to regard the primary current as
the .source of a magnetic field within and around
tlie coils. To intensifv the magnetic field it is
nsual to introduce a .soft iron core into the centre
of the coil.s. In virtue of magnetic induction this
iron core, umler the inlhience of the nmgnetic force
due to the primary current, becomes j)owerfully
magnetised, and the magnetic fiehl withni the coil
greatly increased. When the primary current is
internipted the iron core loses nearly all its mag-
netism, and accompanying this great decrease in
the strength of the magnetic field an intense in-
duced current fiows in the secondary circuit. Now
1:30
INDUCTION
INDULGENCE
it is only wlien the magnetic tield is varying that
the induced eleetioniotive force exists : and, since
in a given secondavy circuit the total current
induced is proportional to the total change in the
magnetic lieM, it follows that the more al)rupt this
change the more concentrated will lie the now of
the secondary current.
In the induction coil matters are so arranged that
the induced current is sutliciently concentrated to
pass across a considerable air-space, which really
forms part of the secondary circuit. By taking
the terminals of the secondary circuit in our hands
we may make ourselves part of this circuit, and
experience the curious throbbing sensation of a
galvanic shock. (»r «e may attach the terminals
to the platinum wires of a tJeissler tube, and pro-
duce the beautiful ert'ects of electric discharge
through gases in a state of great raiity. In most
forms of induction coil the primary current is
broken and made automatically, the varying m.ag-
netic strength of the iron core being used for this
purpose. When the primary current passes, the
iron core becomes a powerful magnet, and attracts
a small iron disc set opposite one end. By means
of a simple form of lever attachment this disc
when so moved interrupts the piimary circuit.
The current then ceases to flow, the iron core
loses most of its magnetism, and tlie small iron
disc thus freed returns to its original position.
With this return of the disc the prunary circuit
is again completed, the current flows as before,
and the same order of effects is repeated, and so
on indefinitely. In the secondary coil there is,
of course, a possible induced current at make as
well as at break. But, as in such instruments
the corresponding magnetic change is not nearly
so rapid at make as at break, the induced current
is not so concentrated. Hence, practically, in
working with an induction coil we have to do only
with the induced current due to the interruption of
the primary circuit.
The Telephone (q.v.) is an instrument whose
action deijends largely upon the laws of electro-
magnetic induction ; and in the same category we
may include the induction l)alance of Professor
Hnghes, which illustrates in a marvellous way the
sensitiveness of a variable current flowing in a cir-
cuit to the presence of a small piece of metal or
other conducting material.
Indulgence, in Koman Catholic theology,
means a remission, by church authority, to a
repentant sinner of the temi>ornl punishment
which, in the ("atholic thecny, remains dvie after
the sin and its eternal i)unisliment have been
remitted. By the discipline of the first centuries a
.severe course of penitential observance was exacted
of all who fell into any grievous crime, especially
apostasy, murder, and adtdtery, such sinners
being excluded from church c(unmunion for vari-
ous periods, in some cases even till the hour of
death. These penitential observances, which Pro-
testants regard as ptirely disciplinary, were de-
signed, according to the Catholic Niew, as an
expiation on the part of the penitent for the
temporal punishment which, after sin and the
etertml punishment due to it have been remitted
by God, still remains to be undergone : and some
of the most acriinonious of the early controversies,
the .Montanist and the Novatian, arose a-s to the
power of the church to relax these penitential
observances, and to admit grievous sinners to
communion. These ancient relaxations (of which
they refjard that referred to in 1 Cor. v. 5 and in
2 C'()r. it. 10 a,s a type) are consiilered by Catholics
a-s examples of the modein indulgence; and the
practice which grew uji in the .Sd and 4tli cen
turies, and which even then was carried to great
extremes, of granting such relaxations on the
recommendation of martyrs or confessors, is held
by Catholic the(dogians to be an illustration of
that principle of vicarious atcmement according
to which, in the iheorv of indulgences, the church
is supi)osed to supjdy from the inexhaustibli'
treasure of the merits of Christ, and of the
' supererogatory ' works of the saints, what may
be wanting to the completeness of the atonement
of the less perfect but yet truly penitent sinner
to whom she grants the indulgence. That this
l>ractice of relaxation, whatever may lune been
its real import, was to be used according to the
judgment of the bishop as to the disjjosition of
the penitent, is expressly laid down by the Council
of Ancyra in 308 and by that of Nice in 325. In
all cases, however, the person granting the relaxa-
tion was to impose certain good works a-^ a partial
substitute for the penalty which had been relaxed ;
and among these works, which had at first been
purely personal, came by degrees to be included
money payments for certain religious or charitable
objects, as the building of a church or the founda-
tion of a monastery or hospital.
The name indulgence appears to have originated
late, the first recorded instance of its use lieing by
Alexander II. in the 11th century ; but the institution
itself is found in full development during the wars
of the Cru.sades, the serving, or the contributing
to service in which, ' provided it were for devotion
alone, and not from motives of greed or of glory,'
was accepted in the Council of Clermont *;is an
equivalent suljstitute for all ])enance. ' Such an
indulgence was called "plenary; where a portion
only of the jienitential works was relaxed it wa.s
called ' partial ; ' and in order to put a bar to
their excessive multiplication and to other abuses
Innocent III. declared the power of granting
' plenary indulgences ' to l)e reserved to the pope
atone, bishops being only authorised to grant the
'partial ' or limited indulgences described above.
Tlie fourth Lateran ccmncil condemns the 'indis-
creet and superfluous' granting of indulgences;
and among the abuses which grew up in the
church during the western schism one of the most
remarkable was the lavish dispensation of indul-
gences, in the granting of which the contending
popes rivalled each other in prodigality. The last
extreme, however, was not reached until the be-
ginning of the 16tli century, when, with a view to
raising the funds necessary for the erei'lion of the
great church of St Peter's at Pome, the Jiope, Leo
X., published a plenary indulgence, the ])rincipal
comlition for the gaining of which was a I'ontribu-
tion to this woi'k. Catholic historians contend
that in itself such a conilitii>n was perfectly
justiHable, and that if ibdy explained to the
peoi)le it might lie lawfully aiul even meritoriously
complied with : but they admit that Tetzel and
many more preachers of the indtilgence in extolling
its natural ellects went to indefensible extremes,
anil that, even making th(> fullest allowance for
exaggeration, it cannot be dcnieil that grievous
abuses both of doctrine ami of practice were cimi-
ndtted in (iermany and in Swit/erland. Hence the
decree of the Council of Trent, while it allirms that
the use of indulgences, a,s Vicing ' most salutary for
the Christian people, and approved by the author-
ity of councils, is to be retauu'd in the church,' yet
orders that 'in granting them nioderalion be ob-
served, lest bv exce.«sive facility iliscijilinc may be
enervated.' tjpon the special instructions of this
council all the modern legislation cm the subject
of indulgences has been foundeil ; but as the decree
of the council does not explicitly declare what is
the precise eH'ect of an indulgence it is further
explained by Pope Pius W.. in his celebrateil
bull Aucturcm Fidci, that an indulgence received
with due dispositions remits not alone the canonical
INDUS
INFALLIBILITY
131
jwiiance attaolied to L-eitain eiinies in this lifo, but
alsi) tlie teiiipoial imni-liiiu'iit wliitli would await
tlie penitent after ileatli to he emlured by liim in
pur^'atory.
From the above explanation it will be {fathered
that Catholies clo not understand by an indulgence
a remission of sin, much less a iiermission to com-
mit sin or a promise of forgiveness of future sin.
They contend, moreover, that, since the benetit
of an indulgence can only be enjoyed by a sinner
who has repented of sin and resolved to embrace
a new life, the imputation of introducing laxity
of principle and easy self-indulgence is entirely
unwarranted. And although for the most part
the good works which are re(iuired a-s the condition
of obtaining indulgences may appear eitsy and even
trivial, yet the one indispensaole preliminary —
sorrow for sin and sincere purpose of amendment
— involves the highest etibrl of Christian virtue.
fSee vol. iii., H. C-. Lea's Histoi'y of Auricular Confession
and ItuiuUience (1896).
Thk Decl.\ration of Indulgence, proclaimed
by James II. in 1687, promised to suspend all law.s
which tended to force tlie consciences of his subjects.
His real aim was, of course, merely to relieve the
Homan Catholics : heuce the declaration \v;is very
uiipo]iMlar, and the refusal of the Seven Bishops to
command their clergy to reail it from their pulpits
wa.s but the culminating point of universal public
dissatisfaction. Two similar indulgences in Eng-
lish history were tho.se issued by Charles II. in
lt)B2 and 167"2, both of which were ennally unpleas-
ing to the dissenters alike in England and Scotland,
who ileclined to share their toleration with their
Koman Catholic fellow-subjects.
Indus (Sansk. Sindhu), a river of India, which
lises in an unexplored region in Tibet, near the
sources of the Siitlej, in 3'2" N. lat. and 81° E.
long. The precise spot is said to be 16,000 feet
above the level of the sea, and to be on the north
side of the Kailas Mountain. Its general course is
at lirst towards the north-west, through Tibet and
Cashmere. Here it is known :is the Singh-ka-bali.
In the north-west of Cashmere, in about 34' 50' N.
lat. and 7-1° 30' E. long., it turns abruptly south-
wards, and follows that direction, varied by
stretches to the south-south-west, right down to
the sea. In the mountains its current is very
rapid ; the river passes through deep, wild gorges
(one near Iskaidoh, in north-west Ca.slimere, having
a sheer depth of considerably more than 10,000
feet), and is liable to Hoods, which come with
terrible swiftness, rise very high, and cause
tremendous damage. The Indus entei-s the Punjab
812 miles from its .source. Near .\ttock (q.v.), 48
miles lower down, it receives the Kabul River from
Afghanistan, and then becomes navigable. Here
it is only iOO*) feet above sea-level. 450 miles
below .\ttock it receives, on the left, the accumu-
lated waters of the Punjab through the single
channel of the Panjnad. Each of the ■ live water-
coui-ses," a.s well a.s the Kabul, is practicable for
inland craft to the mountains. I'elow its conflu-
ence with the Panjnad the Indus, instead of
increasing in volume, becomes gradually less. Its
b.xsin is narrow, anil the atlluents are insigniticant,
while there is a great loss by evaporation. The
river also diviiles into numerous channels, many of
wliii'h l)ecome lost in the sand, while others return
niui'li shrunken in volume. The delta of the river
covers an area of about .'{(MK) sri. ni., ami extends
for some 125 miles along the .Arabian Sea. The
main channel is constantly shifting. The delta
is not on the whole very fertile, and is almost
entirely destitute of trees. In l)otli Punjab and
Siiidli the bed of the river is littered with islanils
and sandbanks. The cultivation of the arid plains
through which tlie lower Indus passes i's dei)endent
upon the annual overflow of the river ami artilicial
irrigation fed by that overflow. The total length
of the river is estimated at somewhat more than
1800 miles, and the area of its drainage ba-sin at
372,700 sij. m. The Indus abounds with lish of
excellent (inality, and is infested by crocodiles.
Before the opening of , the Indus Valley Hailway in
1878 the river was necessarily the princi]ial means
for the transmission of commerce ; but since that
event the railway has very greatly superseded
navigation.
Industrial Schools. This term is used
very variously, sometimes being synonymous with
Ragged Schools, in which mechanical arts are
tauglit ; sometimes designating ordinary element-
ary schools, in which agricultural or some other
industiial art is taught to the boys during one
portion of the school-day, or in which sewing, cook-
ing, washing, and ironing are taught to the girls.
See EniCATiox, Technical Edication, Rai:c;ed
Schools.
Inebriates. Retre.\ts kok. The Habitual
Drunkards Act, 1879, amended and made perma-
nent by the Inebriates Act, 1888, made provision
for the licensing of institutions for the reception
and treatment of habitual drunkards. By these acts
an inebriate might sign a bond before two justices
of the peace for a period not exceeding twelve
moiilhs, under which the licensee of the retreat had
power to detain and control him during the time
s])ecifled. No provision was made for the committal
of any one against his will, nor for the establish-
ment of retreats for the reception of per.sous unable
to pay for their maintenance. The Inebriates Act
of 1898, which came into force on 1st January 1899,
gives jiower to courts of justice to commit persons
convicleil of jienal offences whose oll'ence may l>e
traced to drink, or who may be found to be habitual
drunkards, to three years' detention in a state (<»•
certilied ) inebriate reformatory. The Secretary of
State is eniiK)wer.ed to establish state inebriate
reformatories, or, on ap]>Ucation from county or
borough councils or ]irivate persons, to certify
private inebriate reformatories. Full provision is
made for the conducting and management of these
institutions. The act applies to the whole United
Kingdom. An amending act ( 1899) provides for the
payment of expenses of prosecutions under the act.
In .\merica there were in 1895 above lilty such
hospitals, with over 1000 patients, in some states
of the Union, inebriates may l)e com)inlsorily
coiumittc<l to these institutions. It is claimed
that ' in fully 3000 cases, 35 per cent, of those who
had renuiined under treatment at least one year
had been permanently restored.'
Inertia (l^at., 'inactivity'), a universal pro-
perty of matter, fully described in Newton's first
law of motion, which asserts that crcry bodi/
perseveres in its state of rest or of uniform motion
in a straight line except in so far us it is eompelh'il
by force to alter that state. Part of this principle
was known to the ancients, ami by them attrib-
uted to a certain repugnance to motion, which
was ik characteristic c)f all matter; but it was
.shown by (iaiileo that just as the body at rest
could not of itself begin to move, so the body in
motion cinild not of itself come to rest. — The
Moment of Inertia is the sum of the products of
every ])article of a ma.ss into the corresponding
distan<-e from a given point or axis of rotation.
Ines de t'astro. See Ca.stko.
inraililtility. the imnmnily from i>rror, in
all that regards faith and morals, which is
claimed by the Uonian Catholic Church, and,
at lea-st an reganls the ]>!i«t, by the (ireek
Church, as represented in the ilecrees of the
132
INFALLIBILITY
INFANT
councils wliicli that clniroli looks upon as ecu-
menioal. The latter elaiiii. however, whieli doe-?
not ,uo Ijovonil that of iiicrniini), or actual exenip
tion from error uji to the jireseut time, clitters
widely from that of iiifallihilitv, as put forward hy
the Itoman Cliurcli, which involves not alone an
actual historical imniuuity from error, Irat also
such a positive and ahidiug assistance of the Spirit
of (,!od as will at all times lioth protect ajjaiust
the possihility of error and guide and direct in
the taithful teacliiuy of all necessary truth. The
infallihility claimed hy the Homan Church is thus
of two kinds, passive and active — the first (Matt.
xvi. 18), in virtue of which the church never
can receive or embrace any erroneous doctrine, no
matter hy whom proposed ; the secoml, in virtue
of which she is charged with the function (Matt,
x.vviii. U): Mark. .\vi. 1.5; Ephes. iv. 11-16) of
permanently tc(if/iin(/ to the world the essential
truths of (Jod, of actively resisting every access of
error, and of authoritatively deciding every con-
troversy hy which the oneness of helief among the
faithful may he endangered. Catlioli<-s regard this
gift as a natural and necessary accompaniment of
the authority in matters of faith with which they
helieve the cliurch to he invested, and wliicli, if not
guided in its exercise hy such infallihle assistance,
would he hut a false light and an attractive but
dangerous instrument of delusion.
Such is the notion of infallihility as claimed by
the Roman Church. Two very impoitant and
practical ipiestions, however, arise regarding it,
both of wliicli have been the occasion of nnich con-
troversy even among Catholics themselves : ( 1 ) as
to the subject — the seat or the organ of this in-
fallibility, and (2) as to the object — the matters
to which it extends.
As to the first, all Catholics have been agreed
that the body of bishojis, morally speaking, through-
out the church, acting in common with the pope,
constitute the most perfect organ of the infallibility
of the church ; and hence, that when they unite in
any way, whether asseudded in a general council
or separated in place, their judgment is infallible.
Thus, if a doctrinal decree was addressed oflicially
by the )iope to the whole church, and either ex-
pressly contirmed or tacitly accepted by the bishops,
this decree was held to he infallible. In like man
ner, if a doctrinal decree, emanating even from a
local council, as that of a national, or e\'en a pro-
vincial chundi, was universally accepted by the
nope and the bishops, that decree also was held to
tie infallible. In a word, wherever there is found
the luiitiil judgment of the pop(! and the bishops, all
have agreed in acce|>ting it as the infallible judg-
ment of the church. But should the jiope alone
judge without the bishops, then arose tlie well-
known dispute of the (lallican and Ultrainoutane
divines ; the latter allirnung, the former denying,
the papal judgment to lie infallible ; liut all agree-
ing that it was not bin<liug as im article of Catholic
faith >o long as it had not received the assent of
the liody of the bishops. Hy the decree of the
Vatican ( 'ouncil ( 1870 ) this controversy was decided
after much discussion ; the constitution Pantor^tcr-
«H.s- teaches ' that when the Roman Hontill' speaks
e.r cuthnlril — that is, when he, using his office iis
pastor and <loctor of all Christians, in virtue of his
apostolic oHice defines a ilocUinc of faith and
morals to be held by the whole church — he by the
divine assistance, |)romised to him in the blessed
Peter, possesses thai infallihility with which the
Divine Hedeenier was ]deased to invest his church
in the definition of doctrine on faith or morals, and
that therefore such definitions of the lioman
J'ontifl' are irreformable in their own luilure and
not because of the consent of the church.' See
I'ol'E.
On the matters or subjects to which the gift of
infallibility extends Catholics are agreed in one
l)rinciple, that it embraces all those subjects, and
those only, which are necessary for the maintenance
of divine truth in the church. Hence, jiresuppos-
ing di\ine revelation, either written or oral, it
embraces all questions of faith and morality, all
subjects of general discipline, so far at least as to
jireclude the introiluction, by authority of the
church, of any discipline which should be injurious
to faith or to morality. On the other hand, it does
imt embrace questions of science, or matters of fact,^
or abstract opinions unconnected with religion. On
this point all Catholics have been agreed. But a
very celebrated disputi- arose in the 17th century,
on occasion of the Auijiistiniis of Jansenius, as to
the infallibility of the church in judging of books,
out of which originated the well-known Jansenist
distinction of lau' and of fact (see J.VNSE.NISM).
On this subject it will be enotigli to say tliat
all Catholics are now agreed in recognising as a
necessary condition to the effective infallibility
that it should extend to the judgments upon books
so far as to decide whether the doctrine contained
therein may or may not be opposed to sound faith
or morality.
[ The Vatican Council produced a large literature, in-
cluding Cecconi, Storia del Concilia Vutinmo ( 1873 ) ;
Frond, Actes ct Histoire da Concile Qicuminiiiue de Hume
(8 vols. 1870-73). Salmon's Infallibilit>/ of the Cliurcli
(1889) discusses the doctrine controversially from the
Protestant point of view.] See also B.vsEi. ( ConNCli. of ),
Pope, Kojian Catholic Church, &c., and Hev. 1). Lyon.s,
Cliristidtiit;/ unit In/all ilili til— Both or Neither (1892).
IllfiUliy. in Law, was a stigma attaching to the
character of a person so as to iliscpialify him from
being a witness. It was distinguished into infamy
of fact and infamy of law. Infamy of fact results
from a depraved course of life and abaudiuied
character, of law tVom the sentence of a c(mrt
finding the person guilty of any crime to which
the character of infamy attached. Since 1843 it has
not been possible to exclude a witness on the
grouiul of infamy, though (pn'stions as to character
and as to crimes committed by a witness may be
asked with a view of atl'ecting his cre<libility.
llllailt, in English law, is a term which in-
cludes all persons under the age of twentv-one.
Such persons aie subject to special rules of law,
which may be summarised as follows :
( 1 ) Crime. — A child tinder seven cannot be con
victed of crime : a child between seven and four-
teen can be convicted if it is shown that he knew
the nature of his act. A boy under fourteen is
presumed incajiable of rape.
(2) Marriatjc. — Boys under fourteen and girls
under twelvt? cannot contract marriage. As a
general rule, infants of nnirriageable age require the
con.sent of parents or guardians to marry ; but the
absence of such consent does not afl'ect the validity
of a marriage actually solemnised. A perscui pro-
curing the marriage of an infant by fiatid forfeits
any property which accrues to him or her from the
marnage.
(3) Properli/ and Contraet. — An infant may
acquire and dispose of property, enter into eon-
tracts, and carry on business ; but he is privileged
to repuiliale lialiilily for his acts, except in certain
cases. Contracts for necessaries (i.e. for things
suitable to the infant's po.sition in life) are binding
on him : and settlements, &c., executed with the
approval of a judge, in terms of certain acts of
jiarliament, are also binding. (Jn coming of age
an infant may confirm or lesciiul any act by which
he has aci|iiired or disposed of pr()])erty <luring
infancy ; if he continues to hold luoiierty ac(|uired,
he must perform obligations connected with it : if
e.g. he has acquired shares in a company, he nuist
INFANT
INFANTE
133
pay calls on thein. If he luvs entered into a con-
tinuing contract (e.g. a contract of partnei-sliip ),
lie is taken to have conlinneil it, unless he re.scinds
anil ceases to take the Kenehtof it within a reason-
alile time. As for his other contracts, he might
formerly have conlirmeil them liy an i\rprcAs ratili-
cation ; he is now precluded from doing so by the
Infants' Belief Act of 1874, which enacts that no
action shall be brought on the ratidcatiou of a
promise made during infancy. No will made by a
person under twenty-one is valid. An infant may
bring an action by his jmir/ir/n ami or next friend
(usually his father, if living). If an action is
brought against him, a guar<lian ad litem may be
appointed. A parent or guardian is not liable for
the <lebts of an infant, unless he has expre-ssly or by
implication contracted to pay them. An infant
may contract as agent for a person of full age ; in
this case his acts are regarded as the acts of his
jirincipal.
In Scotland the law ditt'ers in many respects
from the law of England on this subject. The
term infant is not used at all in a technical sense.
All persons, if male, are in legal strictness called
^lupils till fourteen, and if female, till twelve ; and
trom fourteen or twelve to twenty-one they are
technically called minors. In general, the contracts
of a pupil are absolutely void, and he is under the
care of tutors, who are either his parents or othei-s
appointed by the court. A minor, on the other
hand, may enter into contracts ; but if they are
to his lesion or prejudice he can reduce or set
them a;side any time within four years after
majority. Moreover, if a minor go into trade, his
contracts bind him, as they do other persons.
Further, a minor can make a will or testament,
operating on his movable estate, though he cannot
alienate his heritable estate in like manner. The
four years which are allowed to him after majority
to consider whether he will set a.'^ide contracts are
called qiuidricnniian utile : and if he can prove
lesion he is in that period entitled to restitution.
In Scotland, also, a minor may marry as freely as
if he were a major, and, indeed, he is in general
I his own master, or sui juris, at the age of fourteen
j (a female at twelve). See the article Age.
lufant. Feeding of. When the health and
strength of the mother admit of it, there is no
doubt that the food provided by nature is far the
l)est suited for infant nourishment. In this case
the child should be fed entirely on breast milk for
the first six or eight months at least, and partially
for the remainder of the lirst year of life. Beyond
this period, nursing is usually injurious to mother
and child, but is often continued bec^iuse of the
idea that it tends to ])reveut juegnancy. If from
any cause the mother is unable to nui-se her infant,
a wet-nurse is the best substitute ; though the
improvement ett'ected in the pre]>aration of artificial
foods has rendered this method of bringing up
infants less commcm than it used to be. The
selection of a suitable nurse shimld be entrusted to
the medical adviser, and is a resjjonsible and diffi-
cult duty. When neither of these methods is
available, the milk of .some animal has to be used,
(■oats' milk anil asses' milk have both been recom-
meniled, ;is more nearly resembling human milk
than cows' milk does; but, as they are alnmst
always ditlicult to procure, while cows' milk is
abundant and cheap, it is thi> which in the vast
majority of cases must be employed. The differ-
ences between human milk and cows' milk must
therefore l)e recogniseil and allowed for. They
may lie summed up as follows : f 'ows' milk con-
tains much less sugar, rather less fat, ami consider-
ablv ijiore albuminoids than human milk ; ami
under the action of acids a much larger proportion
of albuminoids coagulate, and form a much firmer
clot in the former than in the latter. To a.ssimi-
late cows' milk as closely as ]iossible to the natural
food of the infant, it must be modilicd in >ome such
way ;!,■< the following : One tablopooiiful of milk
to be mixed with half a tablc.-pnonful of cream,
two tablesjioonfuls of water (boiled ), and a quarter
of a teaspoonful of milk sugar for each meal during
the first month. If the cows milk still forms too
firm a clot, a tablespoonful of lime water, or of
barley water, may be substituted for one table-
spoonful of Jilain water ; or a little .solution of
gelatine, orot one of the prcjiared foods for infants,
such its Mellin's, may be acldeil. The (|uantity of
milk. \c. nmst be gradually increased ivs the cliild
grows, till at the sixth month il has nine table-
spoonfnls of milk, one of cream, two of water, and
a teaspoonful of milk sugar at each meal. It is
sometimes, but not generally, necessary to secure a
supply of milk from one cow. If ordinary milk
disagrees, predigestion (by Uenger's liquor pan-
creaticus or Fairchild's [le^itonising powder 1 may
overcome the difficulty. It milk cannot be borne
in any form, .some substitute (prepared 'infants'
food,' chicken broth, raw meat juice, «S:c.)must be
used. But in all such difficult cases, medical
advice should be sought.
There is no more fruitful source of illness in
infants brought up on the bottle than inijierfect
attenti(ui to cleanliness, which leads to souring of
the nulk and severe indigestion. There should
always be at least two bottles, tubes, I'tc. in use;
and after a meal the apparatus shouhl at once be
taken to pieces, thoroughly cleansed with soda and
water, and left steeping in fresh Iwiled water till it
is required. No cork, wood, or other aliMirbent
substance should be used in the cimstruction of the
fittings of the bottle, as this renders perfect cleanli-
ness ahnost impossible.
Till after the sixth month at least the infant is
unable to digest starchy foods, unless specially pre-
pared as in the 'infants' fooil ;' and the giving of
rusks, biscuit-crumbs, &c. before this period cannot
be too strongly condemned.
It is no less important to the infant than to the
adult, but rather more, that the meals shoulil be
taken legularlv. During the first si.x weeks, w hat-
ever metlmd of feeding is adopted, a nu^al should be
given on the average every two hours from o.v, M.
to II P.M. From this period to the eighth month
the interval should gradually be increa.sed to three
or four hours, and always as far as |)ossilile the time
of the meals .should be the same froju day to day.
Of course these are merely general statements ; the
contentedness and thriving of the infant are the
true guides in each individual case. To give it
a meal every time it cries merely overloads the
stomach and ]irovokes disorder of the digestion.
After the eighth month live meals a day should
be enough, and two should con>ist of farinaceous
food, well cooked (rusks, stale bread-crumlis, oat,
barley, or wheat Hour), as well as milk. About
the tenth month the yolk of an egg may be given
once or twice a day, or chi<d<enscMip in its stead.
After the lirst year the range of the diet nuvy be
gradually increased, bread, mashed potato, meat
broth, lisli. chicken, well-boiled vegetables being
gradually addeil. I!ul uumy children thrive well
im milk and farinaceous food alone u|i to two or
three yeais of age, and if so may be allowed to
continni' on that diet.
Ilirailtc ( friun the Lat. iii/ans, 'an infant"),
the title given in Spain and I'ortug-al to the quinces
of the royal family, the corresponding title of
InF,\NT-\ being given to the princesses. Since
1388, however, tin- heir-appariuit to the throne in
Spain has been styled the I'rince of .\sturias, .-ind
the heir-apjiareut in Piu'tugal, until the separation
of Brazil Irom the mother-country, bore the title
134
INFANTICIDE
of Prince of Brazil. The personal .loniam of an
Infante or Infanta is called the hijaiitwlo.
Infanticide, or the nmrdering of infants,
was cmmnon In 'ancient tin>es, and still prevails
in some barbarous coiunmnities. The practice
existed in Greece and Knn>c, and oven found
defenders in Plato and Aristotle. The lat er m lus_
Pnlltk. sai.l the law shonl.l forbid the nnr uring of
the maimed, and, where a <-heck to population is
required, abortion should lie produced before the
quckening of the infant. In Sparta, as in other
Greek states, the law directed that when a child
was born the father should carry it to aii appointed
,,lace, there to be inspected l>y the elders of the
eommunitv. If it was a promising child, they re^
turned it to its parents to be educated • othe n ise
it was thrown into a cavern at tbe foot of Mount
Tav-etus In ancient Rome the Twelve Tables
directed malformed infants to be immediately
destroyed, and by the Patria Potestas the father
liad an absolute power over his children extending
t,> life and <leath ; but the rigour of the paternal
law both as regards the killing and the sale o
infants was softened bv subsequent legislation, and
es,,eciallv bv Numa. Among the Norse the child s
life hun<' in' the balance till tlie father handed it to
the nurse to be reared. If it was weak or inal-
f.n-med, or if the father disapproved of its living,
the child was killed by exposure to the weatlier
and to wild beasts. According to t a;sar the Uauls
^^•ere invested with the power of life and death
over their children, and so late as the 3th century
the Poles killed imperfect children. Amongst the
Arabs it re(iuire.l an ordinance to prevent the crime
of killing children lest the parent sh.mld be re-
duced to want, and this element of anxiety for the
father's independence and comfort entered largely
into the calculations of n.any states, barbarous and
civilised, with regard to their posterity. Ihe
' Arabs also Imried female infants alive.
In modern times infanticide lu-evails only
amonost barbarous or semi-civilised nations, and
even Smongst these the increased intercourse with
civilised stales is gradually stamping out the
practice. Until comparatively recent tunes child-
murder prevailed throughout the who e of the
South Sea Islands. In the Fijian island of \ anim
Levu, or some parts of it, the infanticide reached
till the middle of the 19th centuiT, a ha t and
in others two-thirds of the child population.
Amongst the Hin.lus the practice of destroying
children, especially females, prevailed to a fearfiil
extent until it was checked under the Marquis
of AVeilesley-s rule ( 1798-1805). The practice was
forbidden In" the ^"edas; but, in consequence ot the
expense and the disgrace attached to girls remain-
ing unmarried, the practice prevailed amongst
th? Raiputs-who <lestroyed all fen.ales excei.t
the tirst-born-and the native races The methods
of killing were poisoning by pills of tobacco,
drowning in milk, smearing the mother s breasts
with opium, and plastering the numth with cow-
,lun... Notwithstanding the Koran, the Moham-
medans were inclined to the practice hut et ected
their object bv means of abortion, tllmts began
to be made towards the close of tlie 18th century,
amongst others 1>v .Jonathan Duncan and Major
-Walker, for tlie suppression of tlie practice, and
in 18.53 these ettorts were at last crowneil witli
success at a durliar arrange.l for by Lor.l Lawrence
It was thought expedient to continue a system o
surveillance bv the police in some districts, and
to institute a system of average numbers m
families, which concentrated llieir vigilance upon
those families which rea,'he,l the lowest average.
Amongst the .lapanese the lather ha. . hut has
not now, absolute power ot lite and <leath o e.
his children. In China infanticnle was, and in tlie
remoter parts of that vast country still is, common.
One of the causes here is the right jiossessed by
rhinamen of periodically repudiating their wives.
Sometimes the infants were stilled by the niidwives
at birth, and sometimes they were cast into a
neighbouring stream, where in some cases they
were humanelv kept alloat by a gourd, so that they
might be saved from ilestruction by any compas-
sionate iierson who might feel disiiosed. In early
missionary times it was a part of the d.uty of mis-
sionaries to pick up and rear, or entrust to othei-s
for the purpose of rearing, the waifs wlm had been
abandoned through the avarice, poverty, or callous-
ness of their parents.
In nearly all the cases mentioned infanticide w;as
prompted 'by religious or economic reasons, or m-
dub'-ed in from caprice or indoleiu-e ; and it was
permitted in deference to the jiower with which in
mimitive communities as well as in advanced
: states like Greece an<l Rome the father w'as
endued. Modern civilisation deals very ditterentlv
with tlie subject. In all European states, althoug'h
they differ widely in their treatment of infanticide
1 and connate crinies, human life is from its lust to
I its last'^hour held sacred, and whoexer puts an enil
to it is a murderer. Almost the only motive which
in such countries now leads to infanticide is that
! of shame--the parents incurring the risk of coni-
' mittin>' child-murder to escape social disgrace.
The etlbrts therefore of legislators and criminal
lawyers on the one hand have been directed to the
repression of aborti.m, concealment of pregnancy,
and murdering the new-born infant, and of i.hil-
anthroi.ists on the other to remove temptation to
<-ommit the graver crimes by providing I'oundling
Hospitals (q.v.), where the offspring of sin may
hud a refuge. See also ILLECHTIMACY.
In England and Scotland the inexcusable killing
of infants is theoretically murder, and the only
excuse for killing the fuitus is the safety ot the
mother; otherwise, Abortion (q.v.) is a crimina
oHence The concealment of birth is also a criminal
otlenee; see BlRTH (CoNCE.^i.ment ok). 1 he
destruction of children may be ellected negativeh
by not supplying food and clothing, as^well as by
the positive act of woun<lin<' or ill-treating : and it
a parent or other person who is b(miid by law to
supply food and clothing to the eliil.l refuses or
ne'dects to do so, thereby causing its .leatli, such
ref'iisal or neglect amounts either to murder or man-
slaughter, according to the circumstances. More-
over! the unlawful ahandoniiig or exposure of any
chihl under the age of t«-o years, whereby the life
and health of the chihl are endangereil, is a mis-
demeanoni punishable with three years penal
servitude. Where a person is charged with the
murder of a very young child it is essential to prove
that the child was in life. I nder a statute of
.lames I. there were presumptions against tlie
mother, but in 1803 the trials tor ollences of this
class were placed under ordinary rules of evidence.
The presumption wliich now obtains Uiat every
new-born child found dead was born dead is
l,elieved by certain jurists to have eiieourage.l
infanticide.' The test of a child being born
alive is not that it breathed, or had an inde-
pendent circulation after it '^'^y^V^'^f^"'''.^
Inother; it is enough that the ^■'"'''j ,^,.
born. Hence, if a n.an strike a woman with ch Id,
so a. to cause the death of the child, he is neither
..•uiltv of murder nor of manslaughter of the child.
Tn ail cases of the munler of infants the question
wliether the child was fully born, and so the sul-
iccl of murder, is generally one ot medieal .,un>-
rudence. In England and \\ ales the annual
u be, of xerdicts^of murder of infants one yea.
old ami under varie.l in 18T9-8H from OS to ](.,t.
The alxne oflences in reference to mfanticule aie
INFANTRY
INFERNAL MACHINES
135
punished in a similar manner in Scdtland. where,
thoutjli the killinj; of a oonijiletely horn infant is
muriler, a verdict of ouliialde homieiile is fre(|nently
returned. Concealment of iirej;naucy is the usual
charge under 49 lleo. 111. chai". 17.
It ha.s been stated that every day an inf|nest is
held upon the bodies of chililren destroyed through
the design, the neglect, the ignorance, or the mental
infirmity of the mothei's. Even when the act may
fairly l>e regarded as a crime, its enormity is gener-
ally greatly lessened in the eye of the law by the
consideration of the physical condition and moral
disturl)ance of the parent.
An Act of 1S72 oliliges those who undertake
for hire to nurse infants under llie age of one year,
for a longer period than twenty-four hours, to have
their house registered, ami to keep records of the
children they take charge of. Tlie.\' must also give
notice to the coroner or procurator-liscal of such
infants' deaths, and are under obligation to keep
sanitary houses. By an important statute passed
in 1889 any person over sixteen who wilfully ill-
treats, neglects, abaiulons, or exposes a boy under
fourteen or girl under sixteen years of age, or
causes or procures this to be done, in a manner
likely to cause the child unnecessary suft'ering
or injury to its health, is gtiilty of a misilemeanour,
and is liable to £100 of tine or imjtrisonment for
two years, or to both. Lesser penalties are inflicted
on summary conviction. The line may be increa.sed
where the oH'ender is proved to be interested in the
ileath of the child. See Children (Cruelty
TO), and BiRi.AL Societies.
Infantry. See Army.
Infant Schools. The subject has been
already treated under Education (4. v.). But there
still remain a few points to be ad\erted to. Pastor
Oberlin (q. v.) may be regarded as the founder of
infant schools. He apijointed women in bis own
parish to assemble the little children between the
ages of two and six, to interest them by conversa-
tion, pictures, and maps, and to teach them to
read and to sew. The lirst infant school attempted
in Great Britain was in connection with Koliert
Owen's socialistic establishment in Scotland. The
education and training of young children were
matters of great interest and study to Pestalozzi
( i\. V. ). Hls system was adapteil to English rerjuire-
ments by the Home and Colonial Infant School
Society, founded in 1S36. This society has done
e.vcellent work in training teachers and instituting
model infant and juvenile schools. But the most
successful system of educating quite young children
is the Kindergarten (q. v. ).
Infection. The grounds for believing that
each of the large class of communicable disea-ses
depends upon the presence within the body of a
distinct living organism have already been stated
(see Germ). The manner in which each of these
supposed organisms behaves in originating fresh
cases of diseii.se is, however, almost as characteristic
a.s the eliects it produces on the body.
(1) In malarial or miasmatic disea.ses, chief
among which is ague, though they present many
analogies to truly infectious diseases, there is no
eviilence that the malady can be transmitted from
the sick to the healthy. The disease poison is
derived from soil, water, or air, in which it seems
to live and multiply.
(2) IntHrmeiliate between these and the more
characteristics infectious disea-ses is a group of
which cholera and typhoid (enteric) fever maybe
taken as types. Here the infi'ctious material lia.s
its origin chielly from the dejecta of the patient,
but seems to nc(|uire infectious properties only
after it has l>een some time (pndiably for .several
days) outsiiie the human body.
(3) The largest and most typical class includes
typhus, smallpox, measles, scarlet fever, hooping-
cough, and many others. In all these the di.sea.se
is directly and immediately communicable from
the sick to the healthy. But there are striking
ditlerences in the conditions under which infection
usually takes ])lace. The ]ioison of typhus, the
dreaded 'jail fe\er' of past times, is rapidly
destroyed liy admixture with air, and the danger
of its spreading can be much diminished by free
ventilati(ui. In smallpo.x the infection can retain
its vitality for years on the walls of a room, or in
the artilicially dried discharge from the pustules :
in scarlet fever it may exist for many months in
articles of clothing. Measles is not least infectious
in the early stage, when it i)resents merely the
symiitoms of a bad cold ; scarlet fever infection is
not at its worst till the rash has faded and the
skin Ijegins to lie shed.
(4) Tlie last group consists of those diseases in
which the ])oison does not diffuse itself through the
air, but requires to be directly inoculated to pro-
duce the disease — e.g. syphilis and hydrophobia.
This classification of <liseases believed to be
dejienilent upon organisnjs, though practically con-
venient, cannot be considered a strictly accurate
one ; for many of the diseases in group 3, perhajis
all, can be ]uopagated by inoculation, and the
infection of some may be able to de\ elop outside
the body and liehave like those in group 2. Enough
has been said to show the complexity of the proli-
lems, both jiractical and scientific, presented by
the subject. As to the Infectious Diseases Notifi-
cation Act of 1889, and other cognate matters, see
Hygiene, Di.sinfec'T.\nt.s, Cont.\gion, and the
articles on the several diseases.
Infeftinent. or S.vsine, a Scotch law term,
used to denote the symbolical giving- possession of
land, which was the com])letion of tlie title, the
mere conveyance not being enough. The instru-
ment of sasine was the notarial instrument embody-
ing the fact of infeftment. The old ceremony,
which was not abolished until 184.5, was thus per-
formed. The bailie of the superior of the lands,
the attorney of the vassal, a notary, and two
witnesses proceeded to the lands in which sasine
was to be granted. The attorney delivered to the
bailie the superior's precept of sasine, and required
him to perform his duties. The bailie delivered
the warrant and relative deeds to the notary, who
read antl published them to all present. The bailie
thereupon delivered the symbols of possession,
sometimes a pen, to the attorney, and the attorney
then took instruments in the hands of the notary
by gdving him a piece of money. But now the
necessity of a separate formality is unnecessary, it
being sufficient to register a conveyance in the
register of sasines in Scotland. In Scotland an
infeftment in xeeuritij is a temjiorary infeftment to
secure |)ayment of some ilebt : and an infeftment
of relief \s a similar security to relieve a cautioner.
Infernal Machines, contrivances made to
resemble ordinary harmless objects, but charged
with some dangerous explosive. An innocent-look-
ing box (u- similar receptacle is partly filleil with
dynamite or other explosive, the rest of the space
l)eing occnjiied by some mechanical arrangement,
mostly clockwork, which moves inamlibly, and is
generally so contiived that, when it has run down
at the end of a predetermined number of honi->*
or days, it shall cause the exi>losive substance to
explode. Kor a statement of the uses to w hich this
cla.ss of infernal machines ha.s been put by the
anarchist parties, see Dyxamitk. Fire-ships (q. v.)
were employed in former times ; and niouern
nations apply a shnilar |)rinciple in their torpedo
boats (see TORriCDOKS). Bombs or hand-grenades,
136
INFIDEL
INFLAMMATION
ill so far as they have been eiiiployeil for the
felonious destruction of human life, must also l)e
accounted infernal machines. The most notorious
instances have been the unsuccessful attempt on
Xapoleon 111. by Orsiui (q.v.) in 1S5S and the kill-
ing of Alexander 11. of Russia in 1881. See also
ChIC.VGO, ANARCHIST.S.
Infidel, among.st Christians, popularly means one
who rejects Christianity as a divine re\ elation, but
is not used of heathens (thoujjli they are iiifdc/es,
Lat. ' unfaithful ' ) or heretics. By Moslems Chris-
tians are called hv a corresponding term ( 'giaour,'
' kaffir,' &c. ). See Atheism, Deis.m, Apologetics,
Christianitv, Heresy, Persecition.
Infinite. In philosophy, infinite is that which
is witliout any limitation, and, like absolute and
unconditioned, is used especially of the Infinite, of
(iod. As to our knowledge of the infinite, some
( as Hamilton and Mansel ) hold that the idea is
purely negative ; Descartes attirmeil that the idea
of the infinite was not merely the idea of an objec-
tive reality, but is implied as a necessary con-
dition of every other. See Absoute, Condition,
Kelativity OF Knowledge; Haniikon's />/>-
):iisxio»s, Mansel's Limits, Calderwood's Philosopliii
of the Infnitc, Spencer's First Principles.
In matheniatics, the term infinity and the
phrases infinitely great and infinitely small are of
constant occurrence ; and the symbol oo is usually
said to denote a magnitude infinitely great,
the symbol 0 a magnitude infinitely small. Are
these magnitudes infinitely great and infinitely
small to be reasoned about in the same way as
ordinary finite magnitudes? Are these symbols
oc and 6 to be treated in the same way as ordinary
algeT>raic symbols, «, 6, ,t, y, &c. ? \Vitli respect
to the symbol 0 there seems at first sight to be
little dilticulty, for we are accustomed to regard it
as denoting the absence of all quantity, or as the
result obtained by subtracting any finite i[uantity
from a quantity equal to it. It is found convenient
however, though it would be impossible to e.\plain
in short compass the grounds of the convenience, to
give another meaning to the symbol 0. The new
meaning will perliaps be understood from the
following illustration. Take the algebraical e.\-
pression -, and suppose x capable of increasing
so that it may become greater than any assignable
quantity ; then the value of will diminish and
become less than any assignable quantity, and the
limit towards which" it tends, that is to say, the
value from which it may be maile to dilt'cr as little
as we please, is symbolised by 0. The same ex-
pression will enable us to give a meaning to the
symbol oo. Suppo.se x ca))able of diminishing so
tliat it may become less than any a-ssignable
<|uantity ; then the value of , will increa.se and
become greater than any a-ssi^nahle quantity, and
the limit towards which it tends, that is to say, the
value from which it may be made to ditler as little
as we i)lease, is syml)olised by oo. The symbols 0
and oc therefore, denoting the limits towards which
certain variable quantities tend when jiarticular
supi>ositions are made, cannot be used absolutely
like the symbols denoting finite quantitii's : because
rt -j- rt = 1, it would be erroneous to conchnle
that 0 ^ 0 = 1 or oo -; oo — 1. Expressions such
as 0 :- 0, oo -=- oo, rx: - cc; 0 •: oo, oc°, and some
others are called indeterminate forms : for methods
of evaluating them, see Chrystal's Alijclim, chap.
XXV., or De Morgan's Differential and Integral
Ciilriiliis, chap. X.
Infinitesimals is the name apjilied to the method
adojited by Leibnitz .us the foundation of his I litter-
ential Calculus. Leibnitz considered magnitudes
as composed of infinitely small elements or infini-
tesimahs. Those elements which are infinitely
small comjiared to any finite magnitude arc inliiii-
te.simals of the first degree : those which are infinitely
small compared to infinitesimals of the first degree
are infinitesimals of the second degree ; and so on.
The principle of the method brietiy stated is that
two finite magnitudes are eipial if they ditler only
by an infinitely small magnitude. Th(i\igh the
results (djtained by the ajvplication of infinitesimals
are seen to be always in accord with the ifsults
olitained by other methods, and a method which
always leads to correct conclusions nuist be logically
sound, vet the fundamental principle does not at
fii-st siglit seem rigorously exact, and the method
looks as if it were merely one of approximation. In
consequence it has now come t<i be usual to found
the calculus on the doctrine of limits.
Infinitesimal C'alenlns. SeeCAi.ciLvs.
Infirniarie.s. See Hosi-n al.
Inflammation is the most important of all the
morbid processes that fall under tlie notice of the
physician or sui'geon. The most ob\ious >yniptoms
or phenomena of intlammation, when it attacks an
external or visible part, are pain, redness, heat,
and swelling. If a healthy man ^'ets a splinter of
wood or any other foreign body mdiedded in any
lleshy part he begins to experience pain at the
part, and this is soon succeeded by redne.ss of the
skin. In its early stages the ]irocess is known as
irritation; but soon, if the foreign body be not
removed, the pain and redness increase, and are
accompanied by a firm and extremely tender swell-
ing at and around the spot, and a sense of abnormal
heat. These purely local symjitoms are succeeded,
if the infiammation reach a certain degree of in-
tensity, by a general derangement of the \a.scular
and nervous systems, to which various names, such
as constitutional disturbance, sym]>tomatic or in-
tiammatory fever, iS.c., have been apjdied.
Numerous observers have attempted to trace the
exact idienomena of intlammation, by microscopic
exannnation of the transparent parts of animals in
which the process has been artificially excited.
Fiom observation made on the web of the frog's
foot and other transparent parts of animals by
AVharton Jones, Paget, Cohnheim, lUirdon Sander-
son, Ziegler, anil many others, the main features of
the process are now well known.
In inHammati<m of moderate severity the Tilood-
ve.ssels of the ]iart are seen to dilate, and the current
of blooil through them, at first sometimes a little
accelerated, become> much slower than the normal.
In consequence of this retardation the white blood-
corjuiscles, being somewhat sticky in consistence,
fall out of the central stream, and drag along the
sides of the vessel, where, as the inllammation
increases, they are arrested. Then hdlows the most
remarkable jiart of the |irocess. .Minute buds are
seen to form on the outsiile of the walls of the
veins and capillaries, each one corrcsiioniling to a
white blood -coriiusde in the interior. These buds
grow larger at the expense of the corpuscles, which
thus pass through the wall of the vessel without any
break in its continuity ; and the migration continues
till tlie tissiie around the vessels is crowded with cor-
piiscles. .\t the same lime an abnormal quantity
of fluid exudes through the walls of the blooil-
vessids. and in jiart coagulates, forming with the
lorjiuscles what is known as coagnilable or jdastic
lymph. From the caiiillaries red as well as white
liloodcorpuscles ]ia«s into the tissues. If the in-
llammation be more intense coni)dete arrest of the
How iii blooil in the vessels (stasis) takes plai'e.
We may now consider the explanation of the
cardinal symiitoms of intlammation. The redness
INFLAMMATION
INFLORESCENCE
137
<lepeiuls upon there l>einj; more Mood than usual
in the blood-vessels of the atlec'ted jiarl : soinotiiiies
also noon the occurrence of lieiiiorrlia^'c in tlio in-
Hanieit tissue. The sirelliiir) depends in jiart iijion
the ilisiension of the blood-vessels, but mainly upon
the effusion of fluids and blood-corimscles above
described. The.se are termed the jinnliicts of in-
ttamniation ; and many changes, some of a repara-
tive nature and others of an injurious tendency,
depend upon their luesence. The jniin may vary
from mere discomfort to intense agony. It Ls
probably due to compression of the sensory nerves
of the ati'eeted i>art by the dilated ve.ssels,
and the e.xudation. It is often throbbing.
There is usually most pain in those )>arts in
which the tension |)roduced by the swelling is
the greatest, as in bone, serous and fibrous mem-
l>ranes, &c. The jiain occurring in inllaniniation is
always aggravated by pressure, and by this means
the physician can often distinguish between in-
Hamniatorv and noninflammatory disorders. The
h(rit is selilom so much increased as the sensations
of the patient would lead him to believe ; it does
not rise above the maximum heat of the blood in
the interior of the body. This increase of heat
depends upon the increased How of arterial (or
highly o.xidised) blood to the part.
The blood obtained by Ideeding a patient suffering
from inflammation of any imjiortant organ usually
presents a peculiar appearance after coagulation
Kiu)wn as the 6i{^y cottMsee Ul.ooD). Another and
a more important change in the blood in intlannna-
tion is the augmentation of the fibrin, which often
rises to two, three, or more times its normal
fjuantitv.
The further course of intianimation is nnich more
variable. The most favourable termination is
resolution, where the products of the inflammation
are gradually removed by the lymphatics, and the
tissue returns to its normal state. If the exuded
Idood-corpnscles aecunnilate in large amount (sup-
jiiontioti) they form an .Abscess (q. v.), and must in
general be evacuated before cure can take place.
If the inflamed tissue be superficial its outer layers
may <lie and be thrown oft ( ulceration ), leaving a
sore which heals by Cicatrisation (i|.v. ). If the
inflammation be .severe and extensive Gangrene
('|.v. ) or iiiorfifirnfiori may ensue.
In the return to health of inflamed tissues, where
■neither resolution nor death of the patient has taken
place, formation of new tissue is necessary to fill up
the gaji which is left by suppuration or ulcera-
tion. This is effected mainly by the action of the
ijxnded leucocytes present in tlie 'plastic lymph,'
which under suitable con<litions becomes gradually
organised into fibrous tissue, bone, &c. ; but the
restoration of the epithelial co\ering, where a breach
in the surface either of skin or mucous membrane
has occurred, is effected only under the influence of
epithelial cells present at the edge of the gap. The
process is essentially similar to the healthy repair
of broken bones (see l'i!-V(Tl'l!L ), or incised wounds,
though many authorities do not apply the term
inflammation to these ca.se.s. It is thus that parts
recently severed from the body may be some-
times rejilaced and still live. The succes.s of the
Taliacotian operation, by which a new iio.se is
engrafte<l in tiie positicm of that which had been
lost, of the operation of injecting a stimulating
fluid into cystic tunnmrs, with the view of setting
n)! adhesive inflammation, and of various other
surgical operations, essentially depends upon the
property of organisation possessed by inflammatory
exurlation, or closely allied jirodncts. Although
the organisation of pliLstic lymph is thus es.sentially
a conservative ami reparative jirocess, it leads in
many ca-ses to untoward results. Thus, when a
serous membrane (e.g. pleura, pericanlium, ])eri-
tonenni ) is inflamed, the exudati(m between its con-
tiguous surfaces often becomes transfoniieil by the
saiiie process into fibrous tissue, forming layers or
bands which seriously inteifere with the functions
of the organs involved {lung, heart, intestine, as
the ca-se may be) after the inflammation has sub
sided. In inflammation of the iris (he jiupil may
be rendered irregular or immovable, or may even be
closed up by inllammatory exudation. In endo-
carditis, lu' inflammation of the lining mendirane
of the heart, exuilation may bo di']iosited in wart-
like ma.sscs on the valves, and may thus occasion
some of the worst forms of cardiac disease.
The causes of inflannnalion are veiv various.
.-Vmong predisposing causes must be reckoned any
condition which lowers the vitality of the whole
body, or of a)iy particular part of it. The most
obvious exciting causes are mechanical violence,
chemical irritants, excessive heat or cold, produc
ing injury of a part of the 1iody which leads directly
to inflammation in that part. Less obvious, but
not less certain, is the ett'ect of exjiosure to cold in
exciting inflammation of internal organs. But of
all the causes the most important undoubtedly,
though they have only been recognised within thi^
last three decades of the 19th century, are micro-
organisms— bacteria, &C. (seeGEit.M). Besides the
numerous specifir diseases attended by inflam-
mation of various organs and tissues ]irove<l or
believed to be due to these bodies, many forms of
what is known as simple inflammation — e.g. acute
abscess — have been shown to be associated with
them. Some authorities go so far as to say that
no true inflammation can take place without them ;
and though this opinion has not been proved, it
is certain that almost all the most severe forms of
inflammation are characterised by the presence of
some form of micro-organism.
The inflammatory diseases of the most important
organs are described under their specific names,
anil, as a general rule, the termination -///.>■ is em-
ployed to indicate an inflannnation. Thus, periton-
itis signifies inflannnation of the peritoneum : iritis,
inflamniation of the iris ; &c. Inflammation of the
lungs, however, is usually known as ijneuuionia
instead of ]ineumonitis, and of the pleura as ]p|eurisy
in.stead of pleuritis. See PxEi MdXiA. I'i.ki'RISy,
Entekitis (for inflammation of the liowels),
Peritonitis, Sto.-«.\cii (for gastritis). Liver (for
hepatitis), Eve (for iritis), Br.vin, &c.
It is unnecessary to enter into the consideration
of the treatment of inflammation further than to
remark (1) that if possible we must lemove its
exciting cause, which can seldimi be done except
when the inflammatiim is external ; ami (2) that
the patient should be jilaceil on a strictly anti-
phlogistic regimen ( which i]n]ilies a total abstinence
from solid animal food and stimulating drinks, due
attentimi to ventilation, temperature, iSrc. ). Of the
direct remedies, one of the most powerful, both for
good and evil, is bloodlelting. although at pre.sent
it is rarely used. The medicines cliiefly employed
are purgatives, prejiaralions of mercury, tartar
emetic, and opium ; while, as external aiijilications,
hot fomentations or poultices (scunetimes ajiplica-
tions of cold water or ice are preferable), and
counter-irritation by means of blisters, sjnapisms,
sctons, iK.c. . are often of service.
Illflortioil. See Cr.v.mmar.
Illfloi'4>s«'«-|l«'<'. This term is applied by
botanists in a concrete and special, a.s well as in an
abstract and general sense — i.e. first to any single
group or natural aggregate of flowei-s arising upon
a common main axis, ami secomlly to the various
modes or princi])les of floral arrangement them-
selves. Despite that enilless superficial divei-sity
upon whii-h the charaoteri.stic aspect of difl'eient
138
INFLORKSCENCE
species and laifior j;ri)iiii- m) iinicU depends,
these aiipaiently indelinite variations may readily
be reduced to a small minibcr of easily intelli-
gible types. For, wliile tlie earlier botanists natu-
rally tended to develop a nomenclature corres|)ond-
in^ to tlie multiplicity of outward forms which
inflorescences acipiire, the progress of research has
siniplilied this by centerinj,' attention upon the
few and sinqde modes of liranching by which they
arise. \\ <> naturally set ont witli any plant of
which the axis continues to grow indelinitely, but
of which a number of secondary axes arising in the
axils of the leaves are developed as flowers. Wlien
the pedicels of these fh)wers tend to reach a moder-
ately equal lengtli the inflorescence is known as a
raceme (fig. 1, n); or when the process of floral
development arrests them, so that the flowei-s are
practically sessile, we have a spike (fig. 1, il). The
growing point of most racemes and spikes, how-
e\'er, tends to be checked bv the reproductive stress,
and the axis thus freipiently ends, or rather seems
to end, in a termin.al flower. Good examples of
this essentially racemose or sjiicate type are fur-
nished by many Liliaceic, Scrophulariaceic, &c. —
Fig. 1.
a, raceme of lily of the valley (Convallarift) ; 6, corymb of caiuly-
tuft (Iberis); c, tiinbcl of fruits of fennel (F(eniculuui) ; (?,
spike of vervain (Verbena); e, head of fruit>s of dandelion
(Taraxacum); /, Dorstenia; p, tig (Ficus) in vertical section.
e.g. Tritoina, foxglove, mullein, iVc. Kven such a
curious inflorescence as that of the pine-apple may
now easily be interpreteil as a greatlj' condensed
spike of fiiiits, crowneil by its leafy growing
point.
The shortening of the main axis of a niceme may
take place after ordinary development has begun,
so that the upper internodes are iiincli less develo]ied
than tlieir predecessors. The pedicels of the younger
flowers naturally sliai'e the same arrest of develop-
ment, and thus it is that the comparatively long
pedicels of the lower flowers place them on niucli
the same level as the higher ones, and even as
the summit of the axis. This variety is known
as the iw.'///('Mlig- 1. ''). so familiar in the candy-
tuft. When all the internodes are so slinrtened
that the jiedicels arise from practically the same
level, we have the lunhel (fig. 1, c), so characteristic
of the rmbelliferje.
Siip^io.se this vegetative arrestment .ami floral
precocity to be continued still further, internodes
and pedicels alike become arrested, and the result
is a crowded cone or excessively shortened spike
of .se.ssile flowers. Hy continuing the siime i)ro-
cess which gave us the corymb, the cone neces-
sarily tends to appear more and more cle])ressed
tlirough the more rai)id upgrowth of its lower
portions; thus we have thai characteristically
expandeil axi.s, .so compactly .set with florets as to
resemble at first sight a single flower, fauuliarly
known as the head or caiiitulnm of the Composites
(fig. 1, <■). The spiral arrangement of the florets
so obvious in a sunflower is simply that of the
dei)ressed cone, which we may again draw out in
imagination into the corymb, the spike, or the
raceme, with which it is in princi]ile identical.
A capitulum fundamentally similar may, how-
ever, be evolved in a slightly dillercnt way. by the
more or le.ss complete arrestment of the secondary
axes of an umbel. Hence il is that a few nmbel-
liferous plants, like Astrantia, or still better the
sea-holly (Eryngium), &c., come to present that
appearance which so often induces tlie beginner
to confuse them with Composites.
But, since it is manifest that the same embryonic
shortening may occur in any type of inlhuescence
whatsoever, it becomes evident that we must
reserve the term eaiiitulum for the type of inflor-
escence presented by the Composite or Scabious,
leaving the various superficially resemblant forms
or pseii(/o-c((/nfi(la, as of sea-holly already referred
to, or those of sea-pink, of bergamot, i)vc.. to be
separately analy.sed according to their true origin.
Keturning, then, to the capitulum jirojier, we must
continue to kee]) clearly in view that conceiition of
vegetative growth (as reaching its maximum rate
only at some distance behind the growing point )
which may be actually verified by measurements of
any growing shoot or root. The conical axis thus
not only tends to bro.aden ,ind flatten, but its lower
jiortion must <at length overtake the apex, and a
perfectly flat receptacle, as in some species of
Dorstenia, results. The nuirgins next outgrow the
apex, and the cone is now liecoming a shallow
saucer (other species of Dorstenia, fig. 1,/). The
saucer next Ijecomes a cup, or even flask ; and the
remarkable hollow inflorescence of the fig (fig. 1,
1 (i) is thus seen to be morphologically akin to the
j capitulum, and tlirough this by the corymb even.
to the original raceme itself.
I The study of vegetative branching (see BRANCH )
has, howevei', shown us that we may have to do
with compound or sympodial axes as well as
simple or monopodial ones. That is to say, in
our primary axis the growing point may perish,
leaving, however, of course, all the more ojipor-
tunity for the development of the sec<mdary axes
latent in its lateral tiuds. This ilisappearance of
the i)rimary growing point, having once set in, soon
works back, until we have it occurring immedi-
ately after the development of the first lateral Imd.
This then readily takes its placi> for practical pur-
]io.ses, just as a larch or pine which has lost its top
renews it by the upgrowth of a branch. But the new
axis dies in turn after giving birth to its succe.s.sor,
and so on ; thus the fo/sr (i.ri.i or si/tiipodc is
formed. Inflorescences of this tyjje are known as
ci/iiics. The simplest in principle is that of the
I)ay-lily (q.v.). It is commonly known as the
hefkoiil cyme (fig. 2, A), since tlie origin of the
new axes winds on in the same spiral order .as
that of the leaves u]ion the jirimary axis it-self.
The distinction from a raceme is, however, easily
made when we notice that the so-called bracts are
not really brads at all, hut are more or less oppo-
site to the flowers ; being really only the axillant
leaves of the next axis, which bears its flower
only after producing a leaf with the bud of its
successor.
But in other eases the sjiinil may change its
direction with each new axis, ami the false axis
thus assumes a very dill'erent appearance, that of
the .v(o//«'o(V/ c;//»r (iig. 2, /), of which the classical
example is furnished by the Boraginaeeii- (Goebel,
however, regards these as unilateral racemes, and
oilers Tradescantia, Kcheveria, iVc. as more re.il
types). Thi.s rever.sal of the spiral has been [irettily
verified by noting how in the scorpioid cyme of the
INFLUENZA
IN FORMA PAUPERIS
139
Kdck-iose ( Heliantlieiiiuiii ) tlie spiral of the calyx
runs ill an opposite direction iu each successive
lower.
So far we have been dealing with cvniose iu-
Horescences as arising in plants with alternate
leaves : in opposite-leaved plants — e.g. Carvophyl-
lace;e and Begonia (q.v. ) — the resulta.it form is
neoes-saiily very dirt'eient. Let the growing (loiiit
teriiiinate in a Hower as liefnic ; but >iiioe each of
the two leaves iiiimediately lielow is in an ciiually
favourable condition, both as legards radiation and
aliment, we have two secondary a.\es instead ol
one. Hence, insteail of one secondary axis continu-
ing in the line of the primary one, we have neces-
sarily two of equal strength and divergent at an
ei|ual angle. The main axis thus at tii-st sight
Fig. 2.
Diagrammatic represtiitation of k, lielicoid cyme ; i, scorpioici
c.mie ; /.-, dictia.siiim.
seems to have forketl, especially when the terminal
(lower disappears, just as in the false dichotomy so
apparent in the branches of the lilac or mi.stletoe ;
and hence the old name of t/ic/iotoinoits ci/mc, which,
Imwever, it is evidently necessary to correct, as
dichasiiim (fig. 2, I), biixiioits cyme, or the like.
This inflorescence may undergo shortening, or in
more physiological language remain more or less
embryonic, as in most Labiata' (which, however,
present all gradations, from the fully-developed
cymes of Hyssopus, through the ' false whorls or
' verticillasters ' of the majority of genera, to the
terminal pseudo-capituluiii of Bergainot). The
apparent umbel of geraniums and the pseudo-
capitulum of the sea-pink have also this origin.
Not only modilications of these leading ty[>es,
but various combinations, simple, compound, anil
complex, anil in all degrees of reduction or exuber-
ance, may also arise ; the question of separat-
ing all the preceding types of inflorescence as
rwlirU from a small residuum as dorsi ventral also
presents itself. See Goebel's Outlines of Classiji-
cdti'iH and Van Tiegliem's Tniilc cle Botnniquc.
Influenzal (Ital., ' inlluence ;' called in French
In {iri'iijir), one of the class of diseases to which
the teiiii zvmotic has been applied, has been Ion;;
recognised liy medical writers. The popular aiipli-
cation of the name to any .severe cold in the head
is not sanctioned by medical authority, f'ullen
called it i:(itfirrlnis <■ ruiilriffio, but although, in
most cases, it chisely resembles ordln.-iiy catarrh,
it presents certain points of ditleience from that
disea.se. In lulditioii to the ordinary symptoms of
catarrh, there Ls a sudden, early, and very striking
debility and depres.sion of spirits. This early
debility i> one of the mo.st marked and character-
istic signs of influenza. The mucous membranes
(especially those of the respiratory organs) are
much affected. The tongue is white and creamy,
the .sense of taste is lost, there is no ap|ietite, the
jiiilse is soft and weak, the skin, although at lii>t
liol .'Hid dry. soiin liecmiies moist, and the patient
complains of pains and soreness in various parts of
the body.
In simple, unconqilicated cases convalescence
supervenes in the course of a week or sooner ; but
intiuenzii is veiy frequently conjoined with bron-
chitis or pneumonia, in which case it is much more
pei'sislent and dangerous. There is, moreover, an
extreme proneness to relapse on the slightest
exposure, even after the patient feels perfectly
recovered.
Influenza afibrds an excellent example of an
epidemic di.sea.se, a whole community being often
attacked in the course of a few hours. From this
it may be inferred that the occurrence of this dis.
ease is connected with some iiartii-ul.-ir condition of
the atmos|jlierc, but what that condition is is not
known. Not iinfrequently intliienza follows close
upon a sudden thaw ; sometimes it is lueceded by
thick, ill. smelling fogs ; but hot and cidd, wet and
dry weather have all been attended by severe out-
breaks of the disea.se. Like cholera, influenza
generally, but by no means constantly, follows a
westerly direction, or one from the south-east to-
wards the north-west, and its course seems to be
altogether independent of the surface currents of
air, as it often travels against the prevailing wind.
The epidemic which luevailcd durini' the winter
of lS89-9() in most parts of the civilised world,
the first of importance in Ihitain for nearly forty
years, juesented some points of dift'erence from
most of the previously recorded outbreaks. In
particular, there was in many places a much
larger proportion of cases without any catarrhal
symptoms whatever than appears to have been
observed before. Such cases present a close re-
semblance to Dengue (q.v.), and many observers
have come to the conclusion that there is a
much closer relation hetween the two diseases than
has been hitherto supposed : while some believe
that the epidemic in question was itself dengue
modified by climate, and not influenza at all.
The most important point in the treatment of
influenza is not to bleed the jiatient, or in any way
to depress his vital jiowers. He should be kept
in bed ; his bowels should be gently opened, his
skin slightly acted upon, if dry ; and, if the cough
lie troublesome, a mustard-poultice should be
applied to the chest, and an expectorant mixture
prescribed. Anti|iyrin and antifebrin were during
the epidemics of 1889-95 found very valualde in
combating the feverishne.ss and pain of the early
stage. In persons of weak or broken-down coii
stitutions, ammonia, beef-tea, and wine and water
must be given from the outset. The dcliility that
often remains for a considerable period after tlie
establishment of convalescence is best met by the
preparations of iron, quinine, and strychnia.
Few diseases increase the death-rate to such an
extent as inlluenz.i; more, however, in consequence
of the great mimlicr of persons who arc attacked in
a severe epidemic than in I'Diisequencc of its danger
ill individual cases. .Sec El'lDKMir, (iKiiM.
In Furnia Pauperis ( ■ in the character of a
poor person'). Persons are saiil to sue in fornin
jmuperi.'s when the law allows them to conduct law-
suits without ]iaying fees to eourt-oHiceis, counsel,
or .solicitors. In F^ngland a statute ilf Henry VII.,
afrirming the common Law, provided th.it such as
woulil swear themselves not worth t'."), except their
wearing apparel and the matter in question in the
cause, should be exempt when plaintiffs, but not
when defendants, from the payment of court-fees,
and should be entitled to have counsel and attorney
assigned to llieni by the courl without fee. Tlie\
were fiirlher excused from co>tr- when iinsucce-sfiil ;
a privilege which, according to ISIack.stoiie, amounted
140
INFORMATION
INFUSORIA
in former times only to the rather nncomfortable
alternative of clniosing lietween payinj; and
Iieinj; whipped. This iiKlnlgenoe. first conlined to
iilaintitl's, was afterwards exlendeil to defendants.
It was at first restricted to the t'oninion Law
Conrts, but afterwards adopted in the jiractice of
the Eiinity and Probate and l)i\orce Courts. No
one can sue in forma jmupcrU unless the opinion
of counsel on his case, and an atlidavit by the party
or his solicitor that the same case contains a full
statement of tlie material facts, lie produced to the
court applied to. .V suitor /» forma pauperis is
not entitled to costs unless by order of theoourt. In
Scotland an .Act of 1424 established the poor's roll
to secure a like privilege to poor persons tliere.
Inforuiatiou. See Cri.minal L.wv.
InforillOIS in Enjjlish law, the person who
sues for a penalty under some statute. In many
statutes which deline otl'enees — not criminal, but
savouring of criminality —encouragement is often
given to persons who are willing to sue on behalf
of the crown, the pecuniary penalty or part of it
being given to the informer. This kind of action
is called a qui trim action, from the use of the
words qui taiii pro domiiut rcgind rjiaim pro scip.so,
Sec. In criminal proceedings an accomplice who
turns king's evidence, if accepted as a witness by
the crown, is called an a|iprover or proven Ever
since the days of the professional ' sycophant '
at -Vthens the informer has been regarded as an
odious character. In Ireland, owing to the un-
satisfactory relations between the government and
the people, almost any person who gives evidence
against a prisoner runs the risk of making himself
unpopular. In Chancery proceedings at the suit
of the attorney-general the informer is called a
relator. In Scotland an informer is the party who
sets the Lord Advocate in motion in criuLinal pro-
secutions, and the Lord Advocate is bound to give
up the name of the informer, who is liable in case
of malicious prosecutions. See Approver, Spv.
IllillsioiIS are aqueous solutions of \'egetable
substances obtained without the aid of boiling. In
this lespect only do they ditl'er from decoctions, in
the manufactvire of which boiling is resorted to.
Infusions are prepared l)y digesting the vegetable
substance (root, bark, &c.) in hot or cold water in
a covered earthenware vessel. Cohl water is pre-
feral)le when the active principle is very volatile,
or when it is desireil to avoid tlie solution of some
ingredient in the vegetable which is soluble in hot,
but not in cold water. For examjile, in jueparing
the infusion of calumba cold water is preferable,
because it takes up the bitter principle (which is
the essential ingredient ), and leaves the starch-
matter undissolved. In most cases, however,
boiling water is emjiloyed. Infusions are jue-
ferred to decoctions when the active piinciple
volatilises at a boiling heat, as in the case of
essential oils ; or when ebullition readily induces
some chemical change, !is in the case of senna.
Infusions may also be prepared by Percolation
(ij.v.), a i)rocess which is extensively employed in
the preparation of tinctures. When tints prepared
they are less liable to decay than when prepared on
the old system.
The fresh infusi(ui, while j>osse.ssing a finer
flavour, is in danger of being superseded in
pharmaceutical practice by the concentrated in
tnsion. On account of the trouble and exjiense
involved in making small nuantities of the fresh
preparations, reco\ir.se is frequently had to the con-
centrateil ones, which, when diluted with seven
times their bulk of distilleil water, more or less
represent the fresh article. Where the active prin-
liple is a volatile one it is very dillicult to retain
the full aroma in the cimcentrateil state, and to
this question mvich pharmaceutical attenticm has
been turneil. The concentrated infusi<uis contain
from "20 to 2.5 per cent, of alcohol, w hich is essential
for their preservati<Hi. The simjile infusions may
be ])reserved for a short time by the addition of a
trace of chloroform.
InfllSOi'ia* a name given to several classes of
active Protozoa, siune of which appear in great
numbers in stagnant infusions of animal or vege-
table matter. The great majority are provided
with vibratile locomotor jirocesses of their living
matter, usually in the form of cilia or llagella ;
and, though these may be retracted when the
animal occasionally encysts itself, they are prac-
tically permanent, and express the predominantly
actite constitution of these cells. >Iost are micro-
scopic, but many are readily seen when foul water
is held in a glass vessel between the eye and the
light. Yet tliere may be more Infusorians in a cup
of stagnant water than there are people on the globe.
Infnsorians occur both in fresh ami salt water, and
a few are parasitic ; they feed on vegetable or on
animal matter, on b.icteria or on one another,
while some possessed of a green )>igment, closely
allied to, if not identical with chlorophyll, prob-
ably absorb carbonic dioxide after the manner of
plants. .Most Infnsorians possess a • mouth '—i.e.
a special aperture thnuigh which the food-particles
are wafted in by the cilia or tlagella. As single
cells, comparable to the units of ciliated ei)ithelium
in nnilticellular animals, to the active spores of
plants, and to male cells or spermatozoa, they
exhibit the usual protoplasmic structure and the
central differentiation or nucleus. There is usually
a definite rind, often with cuticular structures; and
there are generally contractile vacuoles, probably
excretory in function. Many Infusorians occur
not as single individuals, but as members of a
colony, the results of multiplication remaining
clubbed together, and often forming mas.ses easily
visible to the unaided eye. They multiply with
great rapidity by dividing into two, or by rapid
successive division into a larger number (spore-
formation); and thus a single Infusorian, with
favourable temperature and nutrition, may in four
days become the ancestor of a progeny of a million,
in six days of a billion, in seven and a half ilays of
a hundred billions- weighing one hundred kilo-
grammes! If the life of the species, however, is
to be sustained. C(mjugation or incipienlly sexual
union of two Infusorians (not of the same family)
must occur, for if the descendants of (me imlividual
be left by themselves the w hole family tails victim
to 'senile degeneration,' and the members dwindle
away. In many cases anumg ciliated Infusmians
the 'researches of Maupas and others have shown
that the conjugation of two forms means an inter-
change of nuclear elements ; in other cases the two
individuals fuse into one. When the two con-
jiigates are of une<^ual size, a.s in the e(mnnon
Vorticella or bell animalcule, it seems justifiable
to call the smaller male and the larger female.
The cl<i.s.ses included under the title of Infnsorians
are as follows, beginning with those ciliated f<u-ms
to which zoologists often restrict the term.
Ciliata. — Infnsorians characterised by the pre-
dominance of alternately bent and straightened
motile processes known as cilia. The usual nucleus
is accompanied by a second neighli(mr nucleus
(parn- m- micro-micleus), the elements of which are
interchanged in conjugation. They are classified
according to the relative position and size of their
cilia. The slipper-animalcule ( ParamaM'ium ), ami
Ojialina parasitic in the intestine of the frog
illustrate those which are more or less completely
ciliated ( Holotricha) : the beautifully -coloured
species of Stentor, the genus Halantidium, with one
sjiecies parasitic in man, and the common Itursaria
INFUSORIAL EARTH
TNGLEBY
141
ai-e among those witli heterogeneous cilia dissiniilar
ill size anil fonu ( Heteiotiicha) : the stalked liell-
aninialoule Vorticella and its heautifiil allies Kpi-
stylis and Carchesiuni, the junipin<; Halteiia, with
agirdleof spiingv, liiistle-like processes, and Ojilin ■
diuni. whicti nuiltiplies into large hollow colonies,
sometimes 5 inches across, have a special wreath
of cilia round the mouth ( Peritricha) ; and hu-tly,
those with cilia restricted to the under surface are
well illustrated by Euplotes, Oxytricha, and Sty-
lonichia.
F/ti(jcl/at(i. — Infusorians with a \ibratile or un-
dulatory tlagellum, or with more than one, used
for loi'oinotor or food-catching pur])oses, including
a vast number of forms, some of which are often
called Monads, wliile others — e.g. Volvox — ap-
proach if they do not unite with the Alg;e. One of
the very commonest Hagellate genera is Euglena.
To the tiagellates proper there have to be added
the C'hoanoHagellata, with a single tlagellum
surrounded liy a beautiful winegla.ss- like collar —
e.g. Salpingicca, and the interesting Proterospongia
— a colony with slight division of labour among its
membei's and like a little fragment of .sponge Hesli :
also the Dinotiagellata, with two tlagella, one
parallel, the other transverse to the long axis of
the body — e.g. Peridinium, an extremely common
marine form, attbrding food to some tishes ; lastly,
the KhynchoHagellata, with a large locomotor
tlagellum, including two genera — the phosphor-
escent marine ■ night-light ' (Xoctiluca), and Lejito-
discus, a beautiful bell-like form, which seems
within the compass of a single cell like a far-olf
l»rophecy of medusoid architecture.
Uiirloria or Ariiietariu. — Infusorians with cilia
only in their free-living youth, usually lixed as
adults, and always with prehensile or suctorial pro-
cesses like tentacles, by means of which tlie}' prey
upon other Protozoa. Acineta and Podophrya are
suctorial ; the common Acineta is only prehensile.
In beauty of form and movement, in the liveli-
ness of their behaviour, and in the intricate phases
of their life-history, Infusorians attbrd almost in-
exhaustible material for investigation, which many
workers have shown to be at once captivating in
it-self and full of biological suggestiveness. In the
general economy of nature Infusoria are especially
important as a food-supply to small animals, and
in so far .is they unite with Bacteria in working
decaying matter once more into the cycle of life,
or in reiUicing it to simpler elements.
See B.\CTEHIA, Moxad, Param.ecilm, Pkotozoa,
Vorticella ; Claparede and Lachmann, Etudes mir les
/h/imoii'm I Geneva, 1858-Gl); Steiu, Organisnius der
Infumons-Thiere (Leip. 1859-83) ; Saville Kent, Maniwl
of the Infusoria (Lond. 1880-82) ; Ray Lankester, article
'Protozoa,' Enci/cl. Brit. (188.5) ; llaupas, Archir. Zool.
ExiiKT. ( vi. 1,S88 ) ; Biitsclili, ' Protozoa,' in Bronn's
Thierrarh.
Infusorial Earth, Diatom Eakth, Kiesel-
GIHH, a siliceous deposit formed chielly of the
frnstates of Diatoms ((pv.). It is used as Tripoli
Poiidfr for polishing purposes, and as an absorbent
of nitro-^lycerine in makmg Dynamite (q.v. ).
Ingelheiui, Lower and L'pper, two small
German towns, 10 miles E. of Bingen. The former
(pop. ."JtMX)) claims to be the birthplace of Charle
ma''ne, and has ruins of the maguilicent palace he
built here; the latter (pop. 3300) was once a free
city of some importance.
Inselow, dKA-N, a popular poetess and novelist,
w.'is born at Boston, Lincolnshire, in 1820. Her
(irst ettbrts in vei'se were published anonymously
in 18.50 under the title of A Bliijining Clirntiicle of
ftirideiit.s nmi Ferlitiffs. These gave indication of
considerable power, ,as well as of the intlneni'c of
Tennyson and Mrs Browning, to whose writings
she ap|iears to have been strongly drawn in youth.
A good deal of Miss Ingelows poetry is of a devo-
tional or religious cast, intmspcctive in quality
and melodi(Mis in style. But she has also written
some powerful ballads, and of her minor pieces
The Hiiili-llde oil tlic Const of Liiico/iix/iiri', 1571,
is probably both the linesl and the best known.
(If lier larger poems A Slori/ of Ddoiii (IStJT) has
been the most successful. To about the same time
belong Dehorult's Book and tin- I.oiirlii Rorl:,
(h-iiiidmother's H/ioe, The Suspicious Jia-kdtiir,
riie Life of John Smith, The Miiininrs irifh Silver
Tiiil.t, Stiulics for Stories. Among her novels may
lie nn-ntioned Off tlic Skelliiis, Fitted to lie Free
( 1S7.")), Don John (1876), and Sarah de Bcrciiffer
1880). An edition of poems appeared in 1880-87
(3 vols.). Slie died iOtli July 1807.
IllSeiuailll, Bernhard Severix, Danish poet
aiul novelist, was born, May 28, 1789, at Thorkild
strup, in Falster. He first wrote lyrics (Proene,
lice), ami then collections of Fairii-tales and Stories.
But his best works were a series of historical novels,
in which he took Walter Scott for his model —
]'ii/deiiiar Seier (1826), Eri/. Menred's Childhood
(1828), Kini/ Erik (1833), and Prinee Otto of
Denmark ( 1835). The poems Wuldeinar the Great
and his Men (1824), Queen iMare/aret (18.36), and
HoUjer Dunske (1837), which are based, like his
novels, on incidents of Danish n.ation.al histcny and
tradition, rank among Ingemann's most success-
ful efforts. Besides being prolific he was also
versatile, and essayed his hand in nearly all
branches of pure literature, not the least estimable
of his productions being Psalms (1825). From
1822 he taught Danish language and literature in
the Koyal Academy of Soro, near Copenhagen. His
collecti\e works were published in 39 vols. ( 1843-
64). He died 24tli February 1862.
Illgrriliailland, the old Swedish name for
which is now the government of St Petersburg.
Illiiersoll. Jared, an American jurist, born in
Connecticut in 1749, studied at Yale and in London
and Paris, and became a prominent lawyer in
Phil.adelphia. He was a member of congress in.
1780-81, was in 1787 a delegate to the convention
that framed the Federal constitution, and in 1812
was the Federalist candidate for the vice-presidency
of the United .States. He was a judge in the
district court of Philadelphia at the time of his
death, 31st October 1822.— His son, CHARLES
.IarkI), born in Philadelphia, 3d October 1782, sat
in congress in 1813-15, and there advocated the
principle that ' free ships make free goods ; ' was
loi- fourteen years LTnited States district attorney
for Pennsylvania : and was ,a prominent leader of
the Democrats in congress from 1841 to 1847. He
died 14th May 1862. He was the author of some
poems ,and a drama, a political satire entitleil
fiiehii/iiiii's Letters (1810), and an Historical Sketch
of the ir»/- (;//,s7J(4 vols. 1845-52).
Ius;ersoll, Robert Green, was born at
Dresden, New York, 11th August 1833, the son of
ii Congregational minister of very broad views.
With his brother he opened a law <iflice at Shaw
neetown, Illinois, bnt removeil in 1857 to Peoria.
In 1862 65 hi' was colonel of a Federal cavalry regi
ment : in 1866 he was ap]iointed slate attorney-
general. Ho was a successful lawyer, a well know \\
Bepublican campaign orator, and attracteil nuire
notice than he deserved by his lectures directed
against the Christian religion, and by many pani-
i)hlets and books published with the same (diject.
ledied 21st .luly 1899.
Ini!l<'l>>'« Ci.EMEST Mansfield, an eminent
Shakespi'aiian scholar, was born at Edgbaslon,
liirniinLiliam, 2'.ltli October 1S23, was educated
priv.itely, and afterwards proceeded to Trinity
College, Cambridge, where he graduated B.A. in
142
INGOLDSBY
INIA
1847, ami l)ecame M.A. in 1850. and LL O. m 18o9.
He enteie.! his fatliovs office as a sohcitoi-, and
..nictised for a short time, thonyli by no lueans
a-ssiduouslv or con a more ; ami after Ins lathers
death in ISot) reliminished the profession altogether
to devote himself to a busy life of letters. He was
one of the two En-lish honorary members ot tlie
Weimar Shakespeare Society, an original trnstee
of Shakespeare-s birthplace, a vice-presulent ot the
New Shakespeare Society (a post he afterwar.ts
resi-'netl), and successively foreisn correspondent
aiuf vice-president of the Koyal Society of Litera-
ture. He died iGth Septeml)er ISSti.
His earliest work, O^dUaes of Thc.oretimI Lome Omi
was followed by An Introduction to -Vf(<rp;i,«.s«c- (lSb4~
«;•) and The Revival of Philoso,>hy ot <.nahndor[\^,^)).
But the most important work of '"^ l'^'';»'y>f« /f„f "
when he published The Shakespean Fal>ricatiO,u>(lSoJ)
and .1 Complete View of the Shakespeare tontrover^T)
( 1861) These were followed by Wa.<< Thomas Lofje an
Actor f (1808); The Still Lion (1874), enlarged into
Shakespeare Hermeneutics ( 1875 ) ; The CcnturiegPrayse
( 1874) ; Shakespeare : the Man and the Book (18rT-!>l ) ,
Shakespeare's iJonfS 1 1883 ) ; Shakespeare aw the En-
closure of Common Fields at Wclcumbe (lb&>) ; and an
edition oi CimbelineiiSm). \ selection of admirable
Essaiis on a wide range of subaects was issued in 1888 l)y
his son, Holcorabe Ingleby, who prepared in the same
year, for private circulation, a brief memoir of his tathei-,
with a collection of his epigrams, translations, and
verses.
Iiigoldsby, Thomas. See B.\rham.
lll"Olstadt (called Aureatum and Chrysopolu
_ie'''the gohten citv'), a town and first-class
fortress of Bavaria, on the left bank of the Danube,
53 miles bv rail N. of JIunich. It contains two
castles of the former dukes of Bavaria-lngolstadt
( now used for military purposes ) ; the Gotliic cliurch
of Our Lady (1425), in which is the tomb of Lck,
Luther's opponent ; and the former Jesuit college.
Brewin.', cannon-founduig, and the manufacture
of gunpowder and salt are tlie only industries.
Pop (1875) 14,474; (1885) l(i,390 mostly Koman
Catholics. A university was founded liere in 14,2,
which reckoned Reuchlin and otlier eminent scholars
among its professors, and a century afterits founda-
tion liad 4()00 stndents. It was removed to Lands-
lint in 1800, and to JIunich twenty-six years ater.
In.'olstadt was the lirst German town at winch the
Jesuits were permitted to establish tlieinselves,
and to teach iniblicly from the uiuversity chairs.
Loyola gave it the fond title of ' lus little Ben-
iaiiiin ' Here, too, Adam Weishaupt established
ihe Ilhiminati (q.v.). Ingolstadt, which existed in
tlie 9th century, was first fortihed in lo39. In
1S27 the fortifications, which had been destroyed
by tlie French in 1800, were restored upon a hrst-
ciass scale. See works by Geistner (1853) and
Kleemann (1883).
lugruliaiii, Joseph Holt, author of TAe
rrln'uofthc House of David, was born at Portland,
Maine, in 1809, was for some time a sailor and
afterwards taught languages at a colle-'e in Missis-
siiipi. He published a string of wild romances
such as Cmdaln Kiid and Lafitta, or the Ftriilc of
the Gulf: but after he was ordained to the Episco-
pal ministry, in 1855, he chose biblical subjects for
his stories," and wrote The rrinee of the Uou'ieof
Darid (\So5), The Pillar o/ i'Yre ( 1859), and //,.;
ThroHC of David ( 1860). He died in 18(50.
Ingres. Jean Dominique Auguste, Kiench
painter, was born at Montauban, 15th September
178). He became a pupil of David in l/9b, and
five years later gained tlie 'Grand Prix. In 180b
he proceeded to Rome, where he resi.led for tour
teeii years. He then spent f.mr years in Fh>rem;''.
where he painted 'The Vow of Louis Mil., a
picture which, on being exhibited at the 1 aris
Academy in 18'24, broke down the inditteience of
the public to the work of Ingres, in Italy he ha.1
adhered to the style of Davi.l, but had mo.lilied it
by the inspiration he got from Raphael and other
old inastei^. To this period belong his best: por-
traits, and his ' tEdipus and the Sphinx, 'Venus
Anailyomene,^ ' Romulus and Acron, ' \ irgil read-
in>' the .Eitcid; ' liapliael and Fomanna, Roger
aiul Angelique.' Returning to Paris in 18'26, Ingres
was appointed professor of Fine Arts at the Aca.l-
eniy and became tlie recognised head of a great
school. But the acrimonious criticisms passed upon
his • Apotheosis of Homer' (18'27) and 'Martyrdom
of St Svmphorian' ( 1834) made him gladly embrace
the opportunity of succeeding Horace \ eriiel as
director of the French Academy in Koine in 1834
Tliere he painted ' Stiatonice ' and the '1 ortrait ot
Cherubini.' The exhibitimi of these and other
pictures in Paris at length turned the tide ot
popular admiration full an.l strong in his tavour.
He relied more upon form and line than upon
colour; some of his best productions ('(.irl after
Bathing,' ' CEdipus and the Sphinx, the ' (Jdahsque,
and the ' Fountain'), compositions ot a few; figures
aach, are unquestionably deserving of admiration ;
but of late it is commonly held that for u time he
was unduly overrated. At tlie exhibition of 18o.i
he was awarded the grand medal of hon.nir for
his collection of pictures, and was nominated
a grand otticer of the Legion ot Honour. He
retTirned to Paris in 1S41, and thed there on 14ti
January 1867. See Lives by Delab.irde (18/0),
Blanc (1870), and Schmarsow (1884; in Dohines
Kitnsf and Kilnstler).
Iiigria. See St Petersburg.
lu&rossing. See Engrossing.
Ino-lllpll, al^ljot of Crowland, long considered
the author of the Historia Mona.'itcrii Croylandcuiis,
according to Ordericus Vitalis, was secretary to
Duke William of Normandy, and was by hmi in
lOSli made abbot of Crowland, where he died, 1 fat .
November 1109. The Histona Mouasteni t'oy-
lamlensis was printed by Sir He"]-.V ^avile in his
Scriptores licrum Anglicarum post Bcdam {U9b),
and in a more complete edition, with the continua-
tion by Peter of Blois, in vol. i- of the hcrum
Amilicarum scriptores vetars (t).xford, 084).
There is a translation by H. T. Riley m Bohii s
Antiquarian Library ( 1854 ). Some writers even of
the 18th century questioned the entire genuineness
of the book ; but their scepticism did not proceed
further than the hypothesis of interpolations by a
later writer. But in 18'26, in the (J, larlcrhj Review,
Sir Francis Palgrave endeavoured to prov e that the
whole so-called History wius little better than a
novel, and was probably the composition of a monk
in the 13th or 14th century. 'I'his has been con-
clusively proved, as the student will find, by M
Kilev ill the Archa-oloyical Journal (vols. i. and
ii.), and by Sir T. D. Hardy in the Descriptive
Catalo(/ue (vol. ii.).
lllhaiubanc, a Portuguese station, capita of
a district on the east coa-st of Africa, hes just
south of the tropic of (^'ai.ricorn, and is l^eautifully
situated on its bay, but unhealthy. The town
dates from 17<14, and has 6.500 mliabitants, of whom
some 70 onlv are Europeans.
lulieritaiice. See Heir, Inte.sta.v, Will.
StC'CKSSION, HKKEDITY.
Iiiia (Inia ijcoffrensis), a toothed fresh-water
Cetacean, not unlike a dolphin, but with certain
■uiatoniical peculiarities which keep it outside that
fimilv It is f<mnd in some of the upper tributaries
o'f the Amazons, and in the lakes near the t ordil
leras It nieiusures about 8 feet in length, luis a
Ion" cylindrical snout with stitt' hairs, and a very
INITIALS
INK
143
slij;lit dorsal fin. It feeds oliieHy on fish, and is
hunted for the s;ike of the oil which it yields. It
Inia.
is generally found in little troops of three or four.
The females show great alleetion for their young.
Initials* Though in general it is usual and
regular in all legal deeds and writings for a party
to write his ordinary signature in full, yet in many
cases, especially in documents of a mercantile
nature, signature hy initials will hind equally with
the full signature. If, however, the suhscription
to a bill of exchange be by initials or marks it
will not warrant summary execution ; and the
pursuer of an action on the bill will have to prove
that such initials or marks are the party's usual
mode of subscribing.
Injections. This term is applied in medicine
to fluids thrown into the passages or cavities of the
hotly by means of a syringe or elastic bag. The
fluids thus injected into the rectum or lower bowel
are termed Clystere (q.v.). Hypodermic Injections
are treated under that head. See also Tr.axs-
FUsioN OF Blood.
Injector. Fig. l shows in section a simple
form of injector for raising water. Steam issuing
from the pipe S, into the vessel WR, wUI first
create a partial vacuum above
W by dragging air with it, and
then, when the water-level is
above the nozzle, will, on collaps-
ing by conden.sation, impart its
energj' to the water and drive it
up through the narrow neck
below R, to a height of about
one foot for every pound of
steam-pressure ])er square inch.
It is doubtful whether these in-
jectors can work so economi-
cally, as regards expenditure of
steam, as ordinary slow-moving
pumps do ; but they possess
many conveniences and advan-
tages which are bringing them
into use.
Feed-])umps, for feeding water
into steam-boilei's, are dithcult to keep in order
when driven at high speed. The very ra])id action
of the valves severely tries their durability. In
the ca.se of locomotives inconvenience was often
occasioned by the fact that their feed-pumps acted
only when they were running ; and thus, if an
engine happened to stand still for any length of
time, the water ncca-sionally got too low in the
boiler. .\I. Henri (jili'ard's injector, now in general
use in place of high-sjieed feed-pumps, acts equally
well wtietlier the engine is running or at rest.
The diagram lig. 2 will give an idea of the essen-
tial parts <if GiHard"s injector. \ is the steam-
Imiler, H the water-level, CDF a j>ipe into which
■"team is admitted : this pipe terminates in a cone
DF, which is enclosed in a larger cone HH. In the
cone DF tlie pointed plug E can be raLse<l or
Fig. 2.
lowereil so as to increa.«e or diminish the area of
the aperture at its lower end F. tl is a pil'c com-
municating with the water-cistern, and admitting
water into the external cone HH. K is a pipe
communicating with the boiler under the water-
level, tin opening commuiiicatiims between the
boiler and this apparatus it might be expected that
steam would rush out at F, and water at K. both
currents meeting with great force, and escainng
into the atmosphere between the two openings.
Paradoxical a.s
it may appear,
the water at K,
although it is
actually, by
rea.sim of the
head of water
arising from the
dill'erence of
level between
the aperture at
K and the
water-level at
B, subject to a
greater boiler-
pressure than
is the steam in
the cone DF,
is yet over-
Sowered, and
riven back in-
to the boiler by
the stream of
water and con-
densed steam
issuing from
H ; and thus
water, from the
jjipe G and the
tender or cistern, is introduced into the lioilcr, and
constitutes the feed-water. The energy of the col-
lapsing steam at F is transferred to water in HH ;
this is driven forward in a stream, which is at its
narrowest at K ; in this stream the actual energy
per unit of bulk at K thus comes to exceed the
j)otential energy of the boiler- water at K. and its
actual velocity to e.xceed the possible velocity of
outflow from K ; whence the outflow from K is
overpowered. In practice this injector is a .some-
what expensive apparatus in consequence of the
number of adjustable parts required. \'ariations
in the pressure of steam require alterations in the
area of the steam-passage, and in the distances be-
tween the mouths of the conical openings for the
outflow and inflow of steam and water.
Injnnction, in English law, is an introductoiy
writ, liy wliicli a superior court stops or prevents
some inequitable or illegal act being ilone. If the
party disobeys the injunction lie may be attached
for contempt of court, and imprisoned till lie obeys.
In Scotland a remedy of a similar kind is called an
Interdict (q.v.).
Ink is a general term for any fluid substance
which, when applied to a suitable surface, leaves
upon it a partially or wholly indelible impies^iun.
.■\ny such fluid maybe used for writing purposes;
but, as the recording material is geneiallv paper,
this fluid must have either an alhnity for the tilirous
matter of which the jiaper is made, or for the sizing
material use<l to produce upon it a homogeneous
surface. This is necessary to prevent the removal
of the ink by water ; and this power of mordanting
it.self is one of .special importance, as upon it
"lepend the permanency ami iiulelibility of the
records. Certain salts have this pniiiiMlv, opecially
salts of iron, which when exposed to the air aliMirb
oxygen, tiie result of which is that the pale blue-
144
INK
green solution produced by mixing protosalts of
iron with veKt'table mattei's containin'' tannic
or gallic acid is converted into a dense blue-black
insoluble coiniMiund, which cannot be removed
from tliH ]iai)er unless it is tampered with bv
means nf cliciiiicals cajiable of deconiposiiij,' or
destroyinj; it. It is owing to the lonuation of this
insoluble compound that writing-ink, when left in
open vessels ex()osed to the air, becomes thick and
ropy, and unfit for use. Other black inks are pre-
pared from salts of chromium and vanadium.
These inks are in some cases more suitable than the
simple writing inks described above. Sul]>hate of
indigo is also used as a colouring matter. A black
ink which lays claim to indelibility is prepared
from nigrosine, one of the aniline compounds ; l)ut
the colour is much inferior to that of ordinary inks,
and is not absorbed by the paper fibre to the same
extent. Writing-inks are generally acid in char-
acter, which causes the corrosion on metal pens ;
but this property rather tends to enhance the
value of the ink, as it retards the bleaching action
noticeable in old documents. Creasote, or connnon
wood vinegar, is added to most inks to prevent
mouUling.
The following will be found excellent recipes for
the manufacture of black writing-ink on a .small
scale : ' JV/'t/i tjalh and atdp/tdtc of iroit. — 1 lb.
bruised galls, 1 gal. boiling water, 5^ oz. of sulphate
of iron ( copperas ) in solution, 'A oz. gum-arabic, previ-
ously dissolved, and a few drops of an antiseptic, such
as carbolic acid. Macerate the galls for twenty-four
hours, strain the infusion, and add the other ingre-
dients. With Logiroud. — hoil 10 oz. logwood in
20 oz. of water ; boil again in 20 oz. more water,
and mix the two decocticms; add2oz. chrome alum,
and boil again for <iuarter of an hour : and 1 oz.
gum-arabic. The ]iroduet is 25 oz. deep black ink.
Copying-inks are prepared by adding sugar, gum,
or glycerine to ordinary writing-inks. These sub-
stances protect the colouring matter (combined
with the iron) from the oxidising influences of
the air, by forming a skin or impervious varnish
over the writing. Thus, when the damp ' tissue '
is pressed upon the writing, sutticient unoxidi.seil
ink is transferred to stain the paper from back to
front, and expose a legilile copy on the upper side.
Aniline colours dissolved in water holding gum or
sugar in solution are also used as copying fluids.
Owing to their intense colouring power these inks
are useful where many copies from one document
are recpiired, Ijut only for tem])orary use, as on
exposure to air or light these colours cpiickly fade,
and the record is lost. C'opyable printing-ink is
prepared from these materials ; and, when written
and printed matter is to be copied, as on way-bills
or invoices, its use is a great C(mvenience. Copy-
able pencils are prepared from the same materials
(in a solid form). IJut there is a very serious
objection to the use of such inks and pencils :
the printed or written matter can be entirely
removed by means of alcohol or other solvents.
Many attempts have been made to produce writ-
ing-inks which would hin<ler or render im|M)S.sible
tampering with documents, but witliout much suc-
cess. The ncrcessity for such inks seems exag-
gerated, as it has lieen found that even with the
best manipulative skill and chemical knowledge
it is practically impossible wholly to renmve writ-
ing produced with the common iron and tannin
ink, such a.s is almost universally used.
Coloured Iri/:.s. — These are essentially solutions
of colouring matters. Ked ink is best ])repare<l by
dissolving pure carmine in ammonia; blue, by dis-
solving Prussian blue in oxalic acid; green, by
dissolving one per cent, methyl green in warm
water. Other c(dours can also be sim|)ly prei)aicil,
but not being in denumd aie not usually met with in
commerce. The desirable properties in all writing-
inks are that they shall How freely and not gum or
clog the pen, th.it they shall remain [lerfectly lluid
(without depositing the cidouring matter), and that
they shall be reasonably permanent in character.
Si/iniiiitliitir Inks. — These are of great variety,
and although possessing an interest to the lover
of the marvellous, are not in common use. When
weak solutions of cobalt are used (chloride or
nitrate), the writing remains invisible until the
l)aper is heated ; it then assumes a red colour,
which on being exposed to damp air (or breathed
ujion) changes to green. Salts of lead or bis-
muth, on being treated with sulphuretted hydrogen,
give a black impression. When a weak solution of
galls or tannic acid is used the pa])er on being
plunged into a bath of a per-salt of iron will show
the characters in black. This is a useful methoil
of restoring; faded old writing, and in cases where
chemicals liave been used with the purpose of
removing it.
Printing-Ink. — This is a greasy or oily compound
in which solid jugments are held in suspension, and
is altogether difl'erent both in a]ppearance and com
position from the writing-inks we have described.
It also is usually apjilied to paper surfaces, and
amongst other qualities it must possess the pro-
perty known to piinters as 'distribution' — i.e. of
liein" easily spread out in a layer, the tenuity of
whicli w ill not cause it to till u]) the inter.stices of
and between the ty[ies ; it must also attach itself
to the paper when the type is pressed upon it,
detaching itself from the latter entirely ; it must
possess the apjiarently ojiposite properties of drying
on the paper within reasonable time, whilst it shall
not do .so on the type, rollers, or ink-tables : and
lastly, it should be perujanent in so far as the
impressions on paper should have no tendency to
change. The various qualities of printing-ink may
be described under three heads — viz. : ( 1 ) news-
paper inks; (2) bookwork inks; and(3) lithographic
inks. With the common and consequently cheap
i printing-inks it is not nei'ess.ary that the more
i expensive drying oils be employed as a vehicle or
varnish for the colouring matter. Common oils
made from paratlin and resin ;ire used, mixed with
ordinary lampldack. Krom this conqiound, when
ap|ilied to the surface of printing-paper, the oily
matter is absorbed, leaving the colouring matter as
a stain on the outside, which does not 'set oft" to
such an extent as to prevent its emjiloyment for
cheap periodicals and new spapei^. The better class
of printing-inks, however, must actually dry npon
the surface of the pajier in the sanu' manner as
paint will dry when aiqilied to a wall. This result
is obtained by the em|)loyment of drying oil.s — that
is, oils which have the jiropcrty of absorbing oxygen
and becoming gum-like or resinous in cliaracter.
Thus, when the ink, jirepared from linseiMl, poppy,
or walnut oil, is exposed to the atmosphere,
especially if assisted by heat, the coh>uring matter
becomes imprisone<l or varnished over with a resin
ous coaling, which jirevents it setting oft' or staining
any substance brought in contact with it. In pre
paring the varnish of such inks the oils already
menti(med are heated to 500" or 600 K., at whicli
temi)eralure they are kept for a ))eriod varying
witli the ilegree of viscosity or thickness of the
varnish required. In this operation the oil (a
compound of fatty acids with glycerine) gradually
thickens, without nmch loss of colour or weight,
pungent funu's of acroline, due to the decomposi
tion of the glycerine, being gi\ en ott'. The varnish
so produced is mixed with l.amjiblack, ]ireparecl
either from coal or burning oil, or from the im
perfect condnistion of giis, and after very careful
grimling is in a condithm for use.
The manufacture of coloured inks is practically
INKERMANN
INLAYING
145
much tlie siiiiie as for black inks, only frreat care
must be exeiciseil to seciiie the purity of tlic var-
nish, ami to sec that the chemicals eiiiiiloyeil ilo
not react u|ioii one another. l'"or exani|ilc, wlien
vermilion (which is a compouml of sul]ihur aiul
mercury) is employeil with colours containing
iron or lead, the splemliil colour of the vermilion
is entirely destroyed hy the foriiiaticui of black
sulphur comiiounds with the iron and lead. It is
impossible in such an article to give more than the
general outline of this manufacture, with wliich
are connected many mysterious processes for which
there is no chemical explanation. The technical
manuals are said to contain reliable recipes to
guiile to its manufacture, and we must refer our
readem to these for details. The chief ilrawback
in regard to coloureil printing-inks is their tpn<lency
to fade on exposure to the air and light. This
drawb.-ick has become more accentuated since the
introduction of coal-tar colours, with which it
seems to be the rule that the more brilliant and
beautiful they are the less are they tit to resist
these destructive intluences.
In lithography both writing and printing inks are
employed, these being of a peculiar character.
The former consists of a soapy fluid holding in
suspension fatty matters (shellac, white wa.x, and
tallow), which on being transferred to the stone are
absorbed and retained by its porosity. The sub-
sequent application of lithographic juintingink
(which is only the finest variety of printing-ink
prepared in an especial manner) to the dam]) surface
of the stone causes it to collect and form a layer on
the portions which the lithographic writing-ink has
penetrated. As in the ca.se of letterjjress-inks,
those for lithograiihic purposes are prepared in black
and coloured varieties.
Special inks an; i>repared for collotype and tin-
plate printing. 8tani]iing or obliterating inks may
either be prepared by thinning down black or
coloured letterpress printing-inks with linseed-oil
or turpentine, or by grinding aniline colours with
glycerine and treacle.
Iiulian Ink or Chiiin Ink. — This is a mechanical
mixture of the purest and densest lampblack,
with a solution of gum, gelatine, or of agar-agar.
The black paste is dried and pressed so as to
form cakes, in which condition it is sohl. The
lam|)l>lack is pre|iared by burning sesame or other
oils, controlling the su]iply of air so that in place
of a clear flame the carbon from the burning oil is
deposited in line flakes in the form of lampblack.
For the very flnest varieties the material used for
this purpose is camphor. The lampblack or carbon
so produced is amorphous, and of an intensely black
colour. In this condition it is .seldom used for the
purpo.se of ordinary writing, but when rubbed down
with water forms a material used by draughtsmen
for plans, &c. Inks of a similar nature can be
prepared by mixing the solutions already mentioned
with colouring matti^r.
Markinrjink. — When certain salts of silver or
platinum are ajiplied to textile fabrics these
materials are reduced in the libres of the fal)ric, and
the writing .so prmluced is not rem<ived by the
ordinary scouring process to which such articles are
subj(^ited. Aniline in the i)resence of oxidised
substances also produces a useful indelibh- ink.
Ink-stains. — The renmval of writing ink stains
from liiKiii is easily eU'ected, by alternately dipjiing
the jiarts in a solution of oxalic aciil anil iivpo-
chlorite of lime (or soila). If the stains he old and
have as.snnied the brown colour of iron mould,
warm diluted muriatic .acid will be found ellectu.al
in their removal. Where the fabric is coloured
the removal <if ink-stains is more iliflicult, as the
chemicals employed in the former ca.se are inadmis-
sible. In this case a solution of pvropliospliate of
270
sod.a may be used with advantage, as this salt does
j not seriously all'ect even ilclicale colours. It is of
I coui'se necessary to thoroughly wash the fabric after
the removal of the stains.
Illkoriliailll. a village in the Crimea, .situated
near the castein extremity of the harbour of
Sebastopol. Sec t'ltlMEAN Wak.
Iiiliiiid Ri'vomie. See Excise, Taxation.
Illlayiliu; is the art of decorating flat surfaces
by the insertion of materials ditlering from tlu?
ground or body in which they are iidaid. in colour,
texture, or other qualities. The body or basis may
be wood, stone, or metal, and the inlaid or en-
crusted substances may be woods of various colours,
ivory, mother-of-pearl, tortoiseshell, ]irecious and
other metals, marbles, and hard and precious
stones, all these substances being selected prin-
cipally on account of the brilliance and variety
of their colours. Inlaying in wood is known gener-
ally as marquefrif : in metals the inlay principally
praeti-sed is called Diiniascenin;] (q.v. ); and in
marble and i>recious stones it forms a variety of
.1/06rt;'c-work (q.v.). As is the case with most
decorative .arts, the origin of inlaying can be traced
to eastern countries. While some kinds of inlays
were known in ancient Rtune, the art as prac-
tised in modern times flrst took root in Venice
in the loth century, when small caskets were
ornamented with inlays of ivory and wood in
strictly geometrical patterns, such as continue to
be reproduced to this day in the familiar iidaid-
work of ISomhay. Contemporaneously the Floren-
tines began to ornament furniture, iyc. with small
inlaid dice of ivory arranged to form various
patterns, and this style of iiday luis since become
generally known as Certosa-work, from the fact
that the choir-littings in the church of the Certosa
or great Carthusian monastery, near Milan, are
ornamented in this nuinner. From the.se begin-
nings developed the Tarsia-work of Italy of a
century later, which, dealing at first with geo-
metrical patterns in wood, ilevelopeil into inlaid
representations of architecture, views, figures, and
drapery, and Anally into foliaceons scrolls of
modern marquetry, ilarquetry-work in furniture
was greatl^• elaborated in I'"rance, (iermany, and
Holland towards the close of the 17th century,
and workers in wood found great delight in skilful
elaboration of intricate designs. Towards the close
of the 17tli century a new development of mar-
quetry was ellected by a French artist, Charles
Andre Boule, in the exclusive use of inlaid
veneers of tortoiseshell ami brass, now known as
Buhl work, lioth in design and execution Boule's
work was of remarkable ipiality ; the colour of his
tortoiseshell was frequently lndghtened liy a back-
ing of gohl or vermilion, and his brass-work was
enriched with skilful engraving. Towards the
close of the 18th century, while marquetry of a
most elaborate character was being made in tier-
many and Italy, the richest triumphs of the art
were ]U-oduced in France by the famous ebcniatcs
Keisner and Roentgen ; but (lie IJevolution put
an end for the time to the manufacture.
Pietraihini. which (consists of an inlay of bright-
coloured, hiud, and precious stones, in slain of
marble or in panels of wood, is allied to the ancient
mosaic-work which flourished in llit^ jialniy days of
Home; but true mosaic, although embedded, is
not inlaid. I'ii'lra-dura began to be made in Italy
in the l.'ith century, but its extreme costliness
prevented its extensive a)>i>lication. Two varieties
were made in Italy, one licing an inl.iy of minute
pieces of stones \\\{\\ colours so arranged as to form
a design or iiictuie, like mosaics of larger size.
This is known as Roman mosaic, in contradistinc-
tion to Florentine nuisaic, which consists of slices of
U6
INN
INNES
stone shaped ami inserted to form definite jiortions
of the reciiiired (lesi.Lrn. This hitter chiss of inhiid-
work was introdueed into India by a Frencli artist,
Austin de Hordeanx, who dei'(nated the famous
Taj Mahal at A;;ra in pietradnra of the rirliest
and most elaborate character. The art then took
root in that region, and to this ilay pietradura of
manifestly European cliaracter in design continues
to be a charaoterislie art industry of Agra.
The ornamental treatment of metals by inlaying
is principally conlined to the encrusting and inlay-
ing of wire and fine plates of gold and silver into
iron, steel, and bronze. The inhaving of gold an<i,
to a minor degree, silver wire into iron or steel
is known as Damascening (<|. v.). In India sucli
damascening is known as Kuft work, and exten-
sively practised in the Nortli-western I'rovince.s.
Etl'eetive ccnnliiiuitions of inferior metals are also
made in Indi.-i; silver inlaid in a black alloy of
copper, lead, and tin Ijeing known as liidri-work,
from IJidar, in the Deccan. Combinations of copper
and brass, .and of brass and tin, are also common
in the household vcissels of the Hindus. The
Japanese, wlio iiossess many alloys, excel in com-
bining ami inla> ing them, often in relief, in their
art metal manufactures.
lun (ancient iKiins), a river of (Jermany, the
most important Alpine .affluent of the Danube,
rises in the south of the Swiss canton of Gri.sons,
and Hows north-e;vst through the valley of the
Engadine, and onwards through Tyrol and Bavaria,
to its junction with the Danub« at Passau in a
.stream (.320 y.ards) broader than that of the
Danube. Its total course is 317 miles. In Bavaria
its bed is broad and sown with island.s. I
Inn is the legal designation of a house or hotel
where lodging and refreshment are provided for
travellei-s generally. I'uldic liou.ses, >.\:c. are not
properly described as inns unless some rooms are
set apart for guests to lodge in. An inn may be
set up without a license ; but if excisalde linuors
are soKl the innkeeijer must take out a license ;
and even temperance hotels are made subject to
police inspection, to ]irevent evasion of the law.
An innkeeper is boumi to open his house to
travellers generally ; he nuiv not refuse refresh-
ment or lodging to any person who is able and
willing to pay. unless such pers<m is drunk or
disorderly, or tainteil with infectious di.sease. He
is, of course, bound oidy to give such accommoda-
tion as he lias. If the traveller has a horse and
luggage the innkeeper is bound to receive them if
he lias accommodation, provided tlie traveller him-
self intends to lodgi^ tliere iis a guest. But the
traveller is not entitled to select whatever room he
pleases, and if he will not accept such reasonable
accommodation as is oli'iued, the innkeeper may
order him to leave tlie house. An innkeeper liius a
lien or right to ilctain the horse, carriage, or goods
of his guest for that jiart of the reckoning appli-
cable to each respectively, and this lien he ac(|iiires
even if the horse, <,V-c. be not the pidjierly of the
guest. He has no right to detain the person of his
guest.
By the Kiiman law an innkeeper was bound to
restore goods entrusted to him by his guests, unless
they were lost by some (liiiniiiiiii fttUilc, or inevit-
able misfortiiiic ; this was the ell'ect of a clause in
the edict beginning Naiiliv, niiipoiirx. stalm/iini.
The same rule wjis adopted by the English common
law. Hence, if a guest was robbed of his goods at
an inn the innkeeper was liable, unless the guest
had taken upon himself the care of his own pro-
Jierty, or tlie loss was due to the default or neg-
ligence of the guest himself, his servant, or com-
panion : and the landlord was not permitted to
escape liability by jjutting n]) a notice that he
would not be answerable for losses. But the Inn-
keepei's Act, IStiS, provides that an innkeeper shall
not be liable to make good the loss of any goods,
«.*i:c. (not being a horse or carriage) to a greater
amount than £.S0, unless the loss has been occa-
sioned by his own wilful default, or the projierty
has been depositetl with him for safe custody. A
copy of the first section of the act must be
exhiliited in the hall or entrance to the inn. The
liability of innkeepers in respect of goods belonging
to their guests extends to all keepere of public-
houses, &c. , but not to persons who let lodgings.
The keeper of a boarding-liouse or lodging-house is
free from liability if he exercises ordinary care — i.e.
such care as he takes of his own goods. The Inn-
keepers Act of 1.S7S permits a landlord (after
giving notice jus required by the act) to sell the
property of a guest who has left witliou'.. paying.
In Scotland the Koman rule of law jis to" inn-
keepers' liability liius been adoided, and the law is
substantially the same as in Englaml, exceiit that
no indictment would lie against an innkeeper for
refusing a guest. See furtlier, as to tlie licenses
rei|uiied by innkeeiiers, the articles LICENSING
Laws and Ln;iOK L.vws.
Innate Ideas. See C'o.m.mon skx.se, Des-
CAliTES.
Inner Ilonse. the name given in Scotland to
the higher divisions of the Court of Sessiim (ij.v.).
Innerleithen, a jiolice-burgh ( IStii)) of Peebles-
shire, near the Tweed's left bank, G miles ESE. of
Peebles, and 12 W. of tialashiels. Its first woolleu-
factory was established in 1700, about which time
its saline spring (Scott's 'St Itonan's AVell") came
into celebrity ; but the great extension of its
woollen industry d.ates from fifty veais later. Pop.
(1841)40.-^: (isili )lV)I2.
Inner Temple, one of the Innsof Court (((.v.).
Innes, Cusmo, lawyer, antiiiuary, and his-
torian, w!is born at Durris, on Deeside, 9th
September 17i)S. His father, formerly the laird
of Lenchars, was a scion of the old family of Iniies
<if Innes. Cosmo was educated at the Edinburgh
High School, and he graduated both at t!la.sgow
and Oxford. In 1822 he jias.sed as a Scottish
advocate, became sherifV of Moray in 1840, and
subsequently wiis appointed clerk to the Second
Division of the Court of Session. In 1S4G he
was elected to the (unpaid) chair of History in
the nniver.sity of Edinburgh. Cosmo Innes is
|ierha|is best known ius llie author of ^Scotland in
l/ic Middle Af/cx (ISGO), and iikctc/ics of Early
Scotch JJistoi!/\\SC>l ), but he also prepared the first
volume of Actn of the Scottish I'artiiuiictit, and at
the time of his death Wius engaged on an index to
the whole series. He was further a most imlustri-
ous member of the P.aniiatyne, Maitland, and
S|ialding Clubs, and edited for them several of
the register-books of the old religious houses of
Scotlaiul, with other historical documents of great
iiii|iortance. He published a volume of lectures on
Lc<jal Antiquities (1S72), and was the author of
several memoirs, including one of Dean Kamsay.
Cosmo liines died smldenly at Killin, ;jlst July
1874, in his seventv-sixlh year. See the Memoir
by his daughter. Mi's Hill Burton (1874).
Innes, Thomas, a Scottish historian, known
better sis 'Father Innes,' was born in 1002 at
Diumg.osk, on Deeside, Aberdeenshire. At fifteen
he was .sent to Paris, where he studied at the
College of N'avarre and the Scots College, of which
latter bixly his eldest brother Lewis ( 16.'>1-1738)
was principal from 1()82. Tlumias received ]iriest's
orders in 1U!I2, ami after three years of mission
work at Inveraven, Banflshire ( 1G!)8 1701 ), returned
to Paris, and became prefect of studies in the Scotfi
INNES
INNOCENT
147
College, where lie dieil, iStli January 1744. To
pursue his researches he hail puul a visit or two
to Knglaud ami Scotlanil : and Woilrow, who saw
him at Edinhurgh in 17'2+, desiMihes him as 'a
monkish, bookish person, who meddles with nothing
but literature.' Withal he was a staunch Jacobite,
but no Ultramontane ; not free, indeed, from sus-
picion of Jansenism. He may jnstly be looked on
as the precursor of Xiebuhr and Nielmhr's sue-
ce.ssoi-s ; for his Critical £sxai/ on tlic Aiicteiit
Iii/nihitdiita of Scotland {2 \i>U. 1729) is nuioli the
earliest of all scientific histories. It was meant
for an introduction to a Cicil and Ecclesiastical
History of Scotland, one volume of which, coming
down to Columba's death, he prepared for the
press, whilst another, bringisg down the narrative
t« 831, was left incomplete. Both were edited for
the Spalding Club by Dr Grub in 1853. The aim
of the whole work was ' to counteract the inven-
tions of former historians [Hector Boece], and to
go to the bottom of the tlark contrivances of factious
men [ George Buchanan ] against the sovereignty of
our kings ; ' and, though he thus wrote with a
purpose, his honesty and acumen were such that
the work retains a permanent value. See the
Memoir by Dr Grub pretixed to the reprint of
the Critical Essay ( ' Historians of Scotland ' series,
vol. viii. 1879).
InilOCCDtt the name of thirteen popes, the most
remarkable of whom are the following. — Innocent
I., a native of Albano, was elected Bishop of Home
in 402. Next to the pontilicate of Leo the Great
that of Innocent forms the most important eixxh
in the history of the relations of tlie see of Home
with the other churches, both of the Ea-st and
of the West. He Wiis earnest and vigorous in
enforcing the celil>acy of the clergy. He main-
tained with a firm hand the right of the Bishop of
Kome to receive and to judge appeals from other
churches, ami Ids letters abound with assertions of
universal jurisdiction, to which Catholics appeal as
early evidence of the Roman primacy. Innocent 1.
died in 417, and was canonised. — For Innocent II.
see Pope, Antipopk.
Innocent III. (Loth.\rio Conti), by far the
greatest pope of this name, wa-s born at Anagni in
1161. After a course of much distinction at I'aris,
Bologna, and Rome, he was made cardinal ; and
eventually in 1198 was elected, at the unpre-
cedentedly early age of thirty-.seven, a successor of
Po])e Celestine III. His pontificate is ju.stly re-
ganled as the culminating point of the temporal as
well as the spiritual supremacy of the Roman see;
under the impulse of his ardent but disinterested
zeal for the glory of the church, almost eveiy state
and kingdom was brought into subjection. In Italy,
during the minority of Frederick II., who Wiis a
ward of Innocent's, the authority of the pope
within his own states was fully consolidated, and
his intluiMice among the other states of Italy was
confirmed and extended. In Germany he adjudi-
cated with authority upon the rival claims of Otto
the (iueliih anrl Philip of Swabia ; in France he
compelled Pliilip .Augustus to dismiss Agnes ile
Meranie, whom he had unlawfully married, and
to take Kick Ingeburga. In Spain he exercist^l
a similar authority over the king of Leon. The
history of his conflict with anil triumph over John
of England displays in a stronger light the extent
of his pretensions and the completeness of his
supremacy. Even the king of Armenia, Leo,
receivcil his legates. And, as if in order that
nothing might be wanting to the completeness of
his authority throughout the then known world,
the Latin conouest of ConstJintinople and the
establishment ot the Latin kingdom of .liM'u.salem
put an end, at lea.st during his pontificate, to the
shadowy pretensions of the eastern rivals of his
power, si)iritual as well as temporal. His views of
the absoluteness of the authority of the church
within her own dominion were no less unbending
than bis notion of the universality of its extent.
To him every olfence against religion was a crime
against society, and in his ideal Christian republic
every heresy was a rebellion which it was the duty
of the rulere to resist and re|)ress. It was at his
call, therefore, that the crusade against th<!
Albigenses was organised and undertaken. .\s an
ecclesiastical administrator Innocent holds a high
place in his order. He was a vigorous guanlian of
]iublic and private morality, a steady ]>rotector of
the weak, zealous in the repression of simony and
other abuses of the time. He prohibited the
arbitrary multiplication of religious orders by
[irivate authority, but he lent all the force of his
power and influence to the remarkable spiritual
movement in which the two great orders, the
Franciscan and the Dominican, had their origin.
It was under him that the celebrated fourth
Lateran Council was held in 1215. In the follow-
ing year he was seized with his fatal illness, and
died in July at Perugia at the early age of fifty-six.
His works embrace sermons, a remarkable treatise
on the Misery of the Condition of Man, and a large
number of letters. The 'golden secjuence ' ' Veni,
sancte Spiritus ' has been attributed to him by
some. It is from his letters and his decretals alone
that the character of the age and the true signi-
ficance of the church jiolicy of this extraordinary
man can be fully understood. However earnestly
men may dissent from these views, no student
of medieval history will refuse to accept Dean
Milman's verdict on the career of Innocent III.
that ' his high and blameless, and, in some respects,
wise and gentle character, seems to approach more
nearly than any one of the whole succession of
Roman bishops to the ideal light of a supreme
pontitt';' and that 'in him, if ever, may seem to
I)e realised the churchman's highest conception of a
vicar of Christ. '
See Miliuan's Latin Ckristianitfj, vol. v. ; Jerry's
Histoirc </« Papc Innocent III. (18.53); and the works
in German by F. Hurter (1S31-42), Deutsch (1876),
Schweuier (1882), and Brischar (18S3).
Innocent XI. (Benedetto Odesc-\lchi), born
at Como in 1(311 and elected in 1676, was one of
the most distinguished among the popes of the 17tli
century. He was a vigorous and judicious reformer ;
but his historical celebrity is mainly owing to his
contest with Louis XIV. The dispute began with
an attempt on the part of the pope to put an end
to the alnise of the kind's keeping sees vacant, in
virtue of what was called the Droit dc Jieyale, and
appro])riating their revenues. The resistance to
this attempt drew forth the celebrated declarations
of the French clergy as to the (lallican Liberties.
But the actual conflict regarded the immunities
enjoyed bv the foreign ambassadors residing in
Rome, and especially the right of asylum, which
they claimed not only for their own residences, but
also for the adjoining district. These districts had
gradually become so many lu'sls of crime, and of
frauds upon the revenue : and the pope gave notice
that he would not thereafter receive the credentials
of any new amliassador who should not renounce
these abusive claims. The great powers murmured
at this threat, but it was with France that the
crisis occurred. Louis XIV. instructed his new
amba.ssador to maintain the dignity of France, and
sent a large body of military and naval olficers to
su]i|iort his pritensions. Innocent persisted iu
refusing to grant an audience to the ambassador.
Louis, in reprisal, seized on the pa]ial territory of
Avignon ; but the jKipe was innnovable. anil the
dispute was not ailjnst<!d till tlie following pontifi-
cate. Innocent dieil in 1689. The pope of Brown-
148
INNOCENTS
INOCULATION
iii<;'s Uiiiri and tlir liuul was lunoceiit XII. ( HjT-
iiatelli), jiope in lliUl-lTUO.
Illlioroilts, Hoi.v. See C'iuluekmas.
InilOiniliatt' Artory (ArUita itiuomiuata)
is tlie lirst larye Inanch given ofV fnini the arch of
the Aorta (q.v.).
Iiiuoiniiinti' Bone. See I'elvis.
Innsbruck, the capital of Tyrol, 109 miles
by rail S. of Munich, stauils on the Inn at
its junction with the Sill, ISSO feet above sea-
level, surrounded and overhung by mountains
ranging from 7o(M) to SoOO feet high. It is a
beautiful place, with broad tree-shaded streets,
areaded shops, and four sc|uares adorned with
statues. The Franciscan church, or Hofkirche,
built in the Renaissance style in 1353-63, contains
a beautiful and elal)orate monument to the
Emperor Maximilian 1. (who, however, is buried
in Vienna ). It consists of a marble sarcojihagus
supporting the emperor's etligy in bronze, in a
kneeling posture ; while on both sides of the aisle
are twenty -eight bronze tigures of royal (mostly
Hapsburg) personages, by Peter Visclier and other
(ierman artists. In the same church are monuments
to Andreas Hofer and his comrades Speckbacher
and Haspinger, and to the Tyrolese who fell in
the wars against France (179(>-1 809). The parish
church of St James has a picture of the A'irgin by
Lucas Cranach. The other chief buildings are the
imperial ca.stle, built by Maximilian I. and restored
by Maria Theresa in 1766-70; the 'Golden Roof
I'alace;' the national museum, the Ferdinan-
deum ; and the university (founded in 1677,
and, after several vicissitudes, organised anew in
1826), which has the usual four faculties and
upwards of SOO stu<lents and HID professors and
lecturers. To the university are attached a library
of 92,000 volumes, a botanical garden especially
I ich in Alpine Jlora, and the usual museums,
laboratories, &c. Amongst the eight monasteries
(if Innsbruck is the lirst that the Capuchins
lounded in Germany (1594). Innsbruck carries on
manufactures of w oollen cloth, machines, and glass,
and glass-painting. It is much visited by tourists
in till! summei'. Pop. (1890)23,320; or, including
the suburbs of liiitting and Wilten, 35,S00. Inns
hnick has always been a place of some commercial
importance, owing to its situation at the ford
across the Inn and at the head of the Brenner Pass
to Italy. The Romans had here their principal
colony in Rha-tia. From 1 ISO the town belonged
to the Counts of Meran ; in 1363 it passed with
Tyrol to Austria. The stormiest period of its
history fell in the days of Hofer (ipv.). See
( iwercher, Iiiii^bnic/.- und dcssin UiiKjchuiKj ( 1880).
Inns of Court, the mime given to certain
Nolnntary societies which have the exclusive right
of calling persons to the English bar. These
societies had their origin in the Kith century, when
the clergy ceased to practise in the law-courts, anil
their place was taken by lay [irofessors, ' a))pren-
tices,' and students of law who congregated in the
neighbourhood of Westminster. There are four
Inns of Court — Lincoln's Inn, the Inner Temple,
the MidiUe Temple, and Gray's Inn. Each jiossesses
a dining-hall, library, and chajiel, the Temjile
Church being usc<l as a chapel by lioth the societies
which take then- n.imc from tlu' liuildings which
once belonged to the Kniglits Templars. Each
inn derives a considerable income from houses and
chambers occnpii'd by liarristers and others, and
each is governed by an irresponsible body called
the Benchers. New membei-s of this body, who are
usually judges or senior counsel, are chosen by
the e.^Lsting members. The inns possess e<|ual
jirivileges ; since 1855, when a royal commission
reported on their revenues and constitution, they
have joined in providing lectures for the benelit of
students, and in examining candidates for admis-
sion to the bar. They have discretiim to a<lmit
or refuse any candidate without assigning their
reasons ; but no objection is maile to the admission
of any pei'son of good character. E;ich inn exercises
discipline over its own meml)ei-s, and has power to
disbar them — i.e. to withdraw from them the right
to practise ; but there is an ajipciil to the judges
from the decision of the benchers. The right of
disbarring is exercised only in the case of ]iersons
guilty of criminal oH'ences or gross jirofessional
misconduct ; a formal inquiry is held, hut the
results of the investigation are not made public.
Serjeants' Inn was formerly a society composed of
barristers and judges belonging to the 'order of
the coif ; ' but this inn was abolished in 1877. The
smaller societies, sometimes called Innsof Clianceiy,
have never been of any great imiiortance ; their
buildings have passed into the possession of one or
other of the inns of court, or have become the
property of small j>rivate societies of solicitors, &c.
Stajile Inn and Clement's Inn are interesting by
reason of the colleg'iate character of their buildings.
For further information, see the Report of the
Commission of 1855. Tlie steward of any of the
inns of court will furnish intending candi(hites for
the bar with information as to the terms of
admission, &c. See Barristek, and I'earce's
Bislofi/ ijftlic Intis of Court ( 1848).
The society known as the King's Inns in Dublin
jierforms the duties of an inn of court in relation to
the Irish bar. The Scottish bar is organiseil on an
entirely ditl'erent plan (see ADVOCATE).
Innut'lldo, a part of a pleading in cases of
libel atul slander, pointing out what and who was
meant by the libellous matter or description.
Inoculutiou ("engrafting'), the communica-
tion of disease to a healthy subject by the introduc-
tion of a .specific germ or animal poison into his
system by puncture or otherw ise, originally used of
the inoculation of smallpox (for )ireventive inocu-
lation, see Bacteri.v.'Gek.m, Anthka.x. Diph-
TIIKliIA, HVDItoi'llKliIA). If the mailer of a small-
pox pustule, taken after the commencement of
the eighth day, be inserted in or beneath the
skin of a person who has not previously sudered
from smallpox, the following phenomena are in-
duced: (1) Local inllammation is set up: (2) on the
seventh or eighth day there is fever sinular to that
of smallpox ; and (3) after the hipse of three more
days there is a more or less abundant eruption of
pustules. This process is termed inoculation, and
the disease thus produced is denondnated inocu-
hited smallpox. The disea.se jiroduced in this arti-
ticial manner is much simpler and less dangerous
than ordinary smallpox ; and iis it was an almost
ciulain means of preventing a subse(|ueiit att:ick of
the ordinary dise:ise, inoculation was much jirac-
tiseil till it was superseded in the beginning of this
century by Jenner's introduction of vaccination.
The importance of inoculation was recognised in
the Eiist at a ^ery early period, the Chinese
jiractising it from the 6tli century, and the
Brahmins from a very renu)te antii|uity. In
Persia, Armenia, anil Georgia it was in use, and it
is even said to have been employed in Scotland
and Wales. It was not, however, till Lady Mary
Win tley Montagu wrote her celebrated letter from
Adri;tn(>ple in 1717 that the operation became
generally known in England. In that letter she
writes: 'The smallpox, so fatal and so general
amongst us, is here entirely harndess, by the
invention of iiuiriifliiiii, which is the term they give
it. Every year thousands undergo the operation.
There is no example of any one that has died
in it, and you may believe that I am very well
INOWRACLAW
INQUISITION
149
satisfied of the safety of the ex])erinient, since I
inteiul to tiy it on my lU'.ir little son.' Fmir years
aftenvaiils she Imil her danfiliter publicly inocu-
lated in Enjjland : the experiment w;vs then per-
fornietl successfully on six condemned criminals
at Newgate, and on the st-renf;tli of these success-
ful cases two children of Caroline, Princess of
Wales, were inoculated, which gave a sanction to
the ])ractice.
Inoculation was not, however, thoroughly estab-
lished for more than a quarter of ,i century after its
introduction. It met with virulent o)iposition both
from the medical profession and the clergy. A
sermon is extant which wa.s ])reaclied in 1722, by
the Kev. Edward Massey, in which it is asserted
thcit 'Job's distemper was continent .smallpox, and
that he had been inoculated by tlie devil.' The
great drawback to inoculation turned out, how-
ever, to be this : while it was invaluable to him
who underwent the operation, .and completely
guarded him from the natural disease in its severe
form, its effect upon the community at large was
extremely pernicious in keeping alive the natural
disease, and increasing its spread amongst those
who were not protected by inoculation. While one
in hve or six of those ^^ ho took the natural disease
died, the average number of deaths at the Inocula-
tion Hospital was only 3 in 10()0: and yet, according
to the authority of Heberden, in every thousantl
deaths within the bills of nu)rtality in the first
thirty years of the 18th century (before inoculation
was at all general ) only seventy-four were due to
smallpox. The deaths from this disea.se amounted
to 9.5 in 1000 during the last thirty years of the
century : so that, notwithstanding the preservative
effects of inoculation on almost all who were
operated on, the total number of deaths from this
disease increa.sed in one hundred years in the ratio
of about 5 to 4. At the beginning of the 18th cen-
tury about one-fourteenth of the popidation died
of smallpox: whereas at the latter end of the
same centuiy the number (notwithstanding, or
perhaps rather in consequence of, inoculation j had
increa.sed to one-tenth ; and this immense con-
sumi>tion of human lives wa.s not the total e\il,
for many survivors were left with the partial or
entire loss of sight and with constitutions ile-
stroyed. The benefits which were expected from
inoculation were far from being realised, and
smallpox would doubtless have gone on increasing
in its tlestrnctive power if it had not been checked
by .Jenner's di.scovery of Vaccination (([.v.). Inocu-
lation was forbidden by law in 1840.
Iiiowraclaw. called also Jung BRE.sL.\f
{ ' Young Hreslau ' ), a town of Prussia, is situated
near the Polish frontier, 66 miles XE. of Posen.
Its chief industries are salt mining, the nianu-
f.acture of salt and ni.achines, ami iron-founding.
Pop. ( 1875) 9139 ; ( 1S8.5) 13,54S.
In iiartibiis iiifidHiiiiii (Lat., -in the
region-; of the unbeliev<'|-s '). Titular bishops
in th<; rhurcli of Home were from the 13th century
until the ]iontilicate of l.i'o .XIII. styled bishops ///
/mr/iliiis iiijiililiniii. They were originally bishops
who h.ad no diocese, anil took their titles from
places where there wa.s no longer a bishop's see.
Th(! usage originated after the (ireek schism,
ami became general in the time of the Crusades.
The )>l.vces conijuercd by the crusaders in the E;u-t
were furnisheil with Uoman Catholic bishops; but
when these coni|Uest.s were again lost the popes
continued to appoint and conseci-ate the bishops
JLs a cimlinual protest against the power which
hail iirevailed over their alleged right, and to
siguity their lio]>e of restitution. Hut in Ihitaiu,
the iLssuniption of territorial titles being illegal
and dangerous, the Konian Catholic bishops actu-
ally resident long bore titles derived from such dis-
tant jdaces. In 18.")0 their assiim|ition of titles from
their actual sees gave prodigious oU'ence in Eng-
land, and led to the passing of the JCrrlcsinsticnl
TUlrn Hill (q.v. ), which, howe\ er, remained a
dead letter, aiul was repealed in 1^71.
IlHIIM'st. See Coi!OXi:i!.
llH|lli''>iti**ll* f'i'lle'l !tlso 'the Holy Ullice,' a
tribunal in the Roman Catholic Church for the
discovery, riqiression, and punishment of heresy,
unbelief, and other offences against religion.
From the veiy first establishment of Christianity
as the religion of the Koman empire laws nmre
or less severe existed, as in most of the ancient
religions, for the repression and punishment of
dissent from the national creed : and the em
perors Theodosius and Justinian a]ipi)inteil ollicials
called 'inquisitors,' whose special duty it was
to discover and to prosecute before the civil
tribunals offences of this class. The ecclesia-s-
tical cognisance of heresy and its punishment
by spiritual censures belonged to the bishop or
the episcoiial synod ; but no sjiecial machinery
for the purpose was devised until the spread in
the 11th and 12th centuries of certain sects, re-
puted dangerous alike to the state and to the
church — the Cathari, Waldenses, aiul Albigenses
— excited the alarm of the ci\il a,s Avell as of
the ecclesiastical authorities. In the then con-
dition of the public mind, however differently it
is now constituted, heresy was regarded as a
crime against the state, no less than against
the chinch. .\n extraordinaiy commission was
.sent by Pope Innocent III. into the south of
France to aid the local authorities in checking
the spread of the Albigensian heresy. The fourth
Lateral! Council (1215) earnestly impre.ssed both
on bishops and magistrates the necessity of in-
creased vigilance against heresy ; and a council
held at Toulouse directed that in each parish the
priest and two or three laymen of good reiiute
should be appointed to examine and report to
the bishop .dl such oflenees discovered within the
district.
So far, however, there was no permanent court
distinct from those of the bishops : but under
Innocent l\'., in 1248, a s]iecial tribunal lor the
purpo.se was instituted, the chief direction of which
Wits vested in the then recently-established Doniin
ican Order. The Inquisition thus constituted
became a general instead of as ]ireviously ,a local
tribunal ; and it was introduced in succession into
Italy, Spain, (ierinany, and the southern provinces
of France. So long, moreover, as this ciiustitutioii
remained it must be regarded as a strictly papal
tribunal. Accordingly, over the l''rench and Ger-
man Inquisition of the following century the popes
exercised full authority, receiving appeals .against
the rigour of local tribunals, and censuring or even
depriving the inquisitor for undue severity. In
France the Inquisition «as discontinued under
Philip the Fair: and though .in :itteinpt was m.ade
under lli'iirv II. to revive it jigainst the llu;;uenots
the ellbrt was unsuccessful. In (iermany. on the
appearance of the lieghards (q.v. ) in the beginning
of the 14tli eeiitiiry, the Inquisition came into
active ojieiation, and inquisitors for (k'rmany
were named at intervals by various ]io])es, as
Urban V., Cregory XL, lioniface IX.. Innocent
VIII. , down to the liefonii.-itioii. when it fell
into disuse, lu England it was never received,
all the proceedings against heresy being reserved
to the ordiuaiT tribunals. In Poland, though
established in 1.327, it had but a brief existence.
It is the history of the Inquisition ii-s it existed
in Spain, Portugal, and their dependencies that
has absorbed almost entirelv the real interest of
150
INQUISITION
INSANITY
this ])ainful subject. As an onlinaiv tiilninal
similar to those of other countries it hail existed
iu Spain from an early period. Its functions, how-
ever, in tliese times were little more than nominal :
liut early in the rei;;n of Ferdinand and Isabella,
in conse(]uence of tlie alarms created by the .alleged
iliscovery of a plot among the .lews and the Jewish
converts — who had been reipiired either to emi-
grate or to conform to Christianity — to overthrow
the government, an application was made to the
pope, Sixtus IV., to ]iermit its reorganisation
(1478); hut in reviving the tribunal the crown
assumed to itself the right of appointing the
inquisitors, and, in truth, of controlling the entire
action of the tribunal. FrouL this date forwards
Catholic writers regard the Spanish Inquisition .as
a state-tribun.al, a character whicli is recognised
by Kan ice, Cuizot, Leo, and even the great anti-
papal authority Llorente ; .and in dissociating the
church generally and the Roman see itself from
that state-tribunal, Catholics refer to the bulls
of the pope, Sixtus IV., protesting ag.ainst it.
Notwithst.anding this protest, however, the Sp.an-
ish crown m.aintained its .assumjition. Inquisitors
were appt)inted, and in 14S3 the tribtinal com-
menced its terrible eaieer under Thomas de
Torquemada. The popes, feeling their protest
unsuccessful, were com|)elled from considerations
of prudence to tolerate what they were powerless
to suppress ; but sever.al papal en.actments are
enumerated by Catholics, the object of which was
to control the arbitrary action of the tribunal and
to mitigate the rigour and injustice of its proceed-
ings. Unhappily these measures were inetl'ective
to control the fan.atical activity of the local judges.
Tlie number of victims, as stated liy Llorente, the
popular historian of the Inquisition, is positively
appalling. He athrms that during the sixteen
ye.ais of Torquemad.a's tenure of ottice nearly 9000
were condemned to the llames. The second head
of the inquisition, Diego Deza, in eight years,
according to the same writer, put aliove 1(500 to
a similar death ; and so for the other successive
inquisitors-general. Cut Catholics loudly protest
ag.ainst the credibility of these fearful allegaticms.
It is impossible not to see th.at Llorente was a
violent parti.sau ; and it is alleged that in his
work (m the B.asque Provinces he li.ad already
jnoveil himself a venal .and unscnqiulous fabricator.
-Utliougli, therefore, he lui-s made it impossible
to disprove his .accuracy by .aiiiiealing to the
original ji.apers, which he himself destroyed, yet
his Catholic critics — as Hefele in Ids Life uf Vitr-
ditial Xiineiics—\\n\c. produced from his own work
many ex.amples of contradictory and exaggerated
statements ; Prescott, in his Fc.n/iiiaiid atid Isa-
bella (iii. 407-70), has iiointed out many simil.ar
instances; and Kanke does not hesitate [Fiirxten
iind y'ullxxr von .Siid-ciirvjjn, i. ■24'J) to impc.-u-h
his honesty. Still, with all the deductions winch
it is i>ossilde to make, the working of the Imjni-
sition in S]iain and in its dependencies even in
the New World involves an amount of cruelty
which it is impossible to contemplate with-
out horror. \Vlien it was attempted to intro-
duce it into JSajiles Pope Paul III., in 1041),
exhorted the Neapolitans to resist its intro-
duction, ' because it was excessively severe and
refuse<l to moilerate its rigour by the example
of the Koman tribunal' (Llorente, ii. 147). Pius
IV. in loO.'J addressed a similar exhortation on
the same ground to the Milanese {ibid. ii. '2.'i7):
ami even the most bigoted Catholics unaninKuisly
confess and repudiate the barbarities which dis-
honoured religion by assuming its semblance and
its n.ame.
The jjiocedure of the Ini|uisition deserves ,a
brief notice. The party, if suspected of heresy,
or denounced .as guilty, was liable to be arrested
and detained in iMison, mily to be brought to trial
when it might seem lit to his judges. The pro-
ceedings were comlucted secretly. He was not
confronted with his accusers, nor were their names
even then made known to him. The evidence of
an accomplice was adunssil)le, and the accused
himself was liable to be ]mt to the t(uture in (uder
to extort a confession of his guilt. The punish-
ments to which, if found guilty, he was liable
were de.ath by lire, as exemplilied in the terrible
Auto d.a Fe (ii.v.), or on the scallbhl, imprison-
ment in the galleys for life or for a limited jieriod,
forfeiture of pro]>erty, civil infamy, .and, in minor
cases, retractation and ]inblic pen.ance. It is f.air
to recollect that son}e of the usages were but the
ordin.ary juocedures in all the courts of the age,
whether civil or ecclesiastical.
The rigour of the Siianisli Inquisition .abated in
the Later p.art of the 17th century. In the reign
of Charles III. it was forbidden to punish capitally
without the royal warrant; and in 1770 tiie royal
authority was reijuired .as a conditiim oven for
an arrest. From KSOS, under King .lose|ih l!(ma-
parte, the In(|uisition w.as sni)iiressed until the
Kestor.ati<ui ; it was again .supiuessed ou the estab-
lishment of the ciuisiitntiou of IS20: but it was
partially restored in l!S2o; nor w.os it till 18.34
and 183,") that it was linally abolished in Sp.ain,
its property being aiqdied to the licpiidatioii ot the
n.ational del)t.
The Inquisition was established in Portug.al in
l.')57, and its jurisdiction \\!is extended to the
Portuguese colonies in India. The rigour of its
proces.ses, however, was much mitigated in the
18th century, and under John VI. it fell altogether
into disuse.
The Inquisition in Pome and the Pa|)al States
never ce.ased. fiom the time of its establishment,
to exercise a .severe .and watchful control over
heresy, or the sus|)icion of heresy, whicli otl'ence
was punished by impri.sonment and civil dis-
aliilities ; l)Ut of capital sentences for heresy the
bi.story of the Iioman Inquisition ])resents few
instances, and. .according to lialmez (On Ciril-
isatiijii, p. I.")t)), that tribunal 'has never been
known to order the execution of a capital sen-
tence' for the crime of heresy. The Iribunril still
exists nnder the direction of .a congregation, but
its .action is confined to the examination of books
and the trial of ecclesi.astioal otiences and (piestions
of church law ; .and since the Italian occupation of
Itome in 1870 its supreme jurisdiction is limited to
the Vatican.
See Llerente's IMoria Crilim tie hi TiiquiMcion (Fr.
trans. 4 vols. 1S17); Comte Josciili de Maistre^s Letters
on the Spanish Jiuixiimtion (Eiig. trans. 1S51 1 ; I'rescott's
Fcrdinniid and Imhella ; Motley's works ; Ilefele's Car-
'liii'jl Xijitoies : Balincz, Cntholieixm and Proti^glaiitism ;
liotliiian, liisehichte dee Inqiiixilion (1878); Molinier,
L'Jniiiiisition dans tc 7uidi de la Franee an XIII. it au
XII'. Sierk (1880); H. C. Lea's Ilistori/ of the Inqnisi-
tion of the Middli A'les (3 vols. 1888).
Ilis:illity< N'o good delinition of insanity has
ever been given in any language, nor is it iiossible.
Any delinition that would have accurately lifted
what was uiiderstoml as insanity in Sliakesiieare's
time would be (piite inadei|uate now, for we count
men insane ^^■|lo would ha\e passeil muster well
enough in the lUtli century. Another dillicully of
delinition consists iu this, that the very .same
mental symptoms may exist in two ]ieopIc, and iu
one they may constitute true insanity, whiles in the
other they may only be one of the br.ain symptoms
of a fever. And if there is one tidng belter under-
stood about insanity now than liirmerly, it is th.at
there is no exact line of demarcation between
insanity and sanity any more tlian there is between
INSANITY
151
light and darkness. Tliere is an umlelineil bnnlei-
land tlii'<)nj;li which most oasos nf insanity pass,
between technical and le^'al sanity and insanity.
But while this is tine, there is no truth and httk?
sense in the common saying that ' all are more or
less insane on some point." Stich a statement
entirely mistakes the real signiMcance of insanity
as a disease, and is a pernicious fallacy begotten of
ignorance. Insanity may be reasonably described,
according to the scientiho ideas of our time, as
'such an alteration in any or all of the mental
functions of the brain as makes a man unlit from
this cause to do his work or manage his allairs, or
mingle in the society of his fellow-men, or which
makes him unsafe to liimself or others or to society,
this alteration not being solely the result of fever,
but being the result of disea.se or disorder in the
working of, or imperfection in the develoi)ment of
that portion of the brain through which mind is
manifested.' In delining or descriljing insanity we
wish to exclude the delirium of fevers, comatose
conditions, somnambulism, mere eccentricity, hys-
teria, transitory brain excitements due to religious
or other strong emotions, or due to other adei|uate
causes. A mother who loses contnd over herself
when she hears suddenly that a child is dead may
be more sane than another who shows no outward
sign of emotion on such au occasion.
TesU. — There is or can be no absolute test of
insanity — or of sanity, for that matter. Sanity is
best proved by normal self-control, and insanity by
the loss of it from disease. The presence of one or
more insane delusions was at one time the leg.al
test, but it is not a true or scientific one. The
' knowledge of right and wrong ' was at one time
a legal test of res])onsibility, in other words of
sanity, by the law, hut it has long been given up.
Half the lunatics know right from wrong in some
de'Tee or other.
Miiid mid Jtmiii. — Insanity cannot be proiierly
studied or in any degree understood except liy
reference to the mental functions of the brain. A
physiological view of mind can alone throw light
on the complicated and wondrous phenomena of
this disease. No merely meta])hysical or subjective
view or study of mind seems to help us in the least
a.s to it ; the facts are inexplicalde on any such
view of mind. Looked at from the human and
social point of view, no other dise.ise a]iproiiches
it in the terror it inspires, the sense of helplessness
it causes, the dee]) distress to relatives, aiul the
disruption of all normal social conditions. A
scientilic view of it alone brings ns into the
mental and emotional attitude witli which civilised
humanity now regards disease in general. No pro-
gress was ma<le in its study or treatment till jihysi-
cians came to look at it in precisely the same way
as they do ordinary disease. Mind must be re-
garded by all students of insanity ]iractically as
Ijeing a 'brain function' which is found in all
animals in varying degrees ; which in man does not
at one time of life exist at all, then is seen to arise
in small beginnings like any other function, then
gradually to develop, attain maturity, and then
fail .and eventually disappear — all tlies(f conditions
of mind being absidiitely correlateil with the struc-
tural development and decay of the mental organ
in the brain. It is thus stmlied and lookeil on
as .sensation and motion are studied. The latest
jihysiological .and evolutional stmlies of mind in
relation to brain seem to lead to the conclusion on
scientilic and not merely a /o/on grounds that it is
to the mental organ or centres in the brain that
all higher evolution tcnd.s. In it are ' representeil '
every other organ and function of the body, and
so they are all in intimate ami organic connection
with it and its highest function of iidnd, and s<i
with each other as to make of the organism an
organic unity. If the evolutionists are right, every-
thing that lives tends towards mentalisation, and
all the nervous organs of all the types of animal
life find their acme in the mental centres of the
human brain. The whole of the human brain is
not a ment.al organ. There are centres for motion
and sensation and regulation of function, but they
are all represented in, and correlated and largely
controlled by the mental organ, it clearly resides
in the convolutions of the brain. Tins dominant
organ has necessaiily become what it is in man
through the hereditary iidluences that have gradu-
<ally upbuilt it since the beginning of life. This
heredity has been largely iidluenced by external
conditions. These have been good and b,ad
throughout the ages, and the bad have left many
bad mental results, in so far as luatural selection
and the struggle for existence have not er.-idicated
them. The mental organ in the human brain ha.s
thus become the most complicated, the most deli-
cate, and yet the most potent thing in nature,
impressionable to all stimuli from within the body
and outside it ; reactive in due amount, and yet
not unduly if healthy, to all these impressions and
stimuli : containing within itself, in a way that yet
we are not even able to realise, hereditary ([ualities,
bad and good, from thousands of ancestors. If this
is so one is prepared to believe that through evil
hereditary intiuences, and from evil conditions out-
side it, this organ may often be upset in its normal
working. The most important form of such upset
is insanity, Ijccause it touches the highest brain
function. The student of mind physiologically
linds on the threshold of his studies that every
form of mental energy is just as hereditary as the
colour of the hair or the sha]ie of the nose; he finds
that volitional power, reasoning acuteue.ss, emo-
tional keenness, moral sensitiveness, good social
instincts, retentive memory, and mental resistiveness
of all kinds are all transnutted hereditarily. He is
therefore prepared to believe that these same laws
of heredity have determined the volitional para-
lysis, the reasoning and the emotional perversions,
the losses of memory, and the mental instability
which he finds among the insane, and to believe
that it is proliably the most here<litary of all
diseases.
Gcmritf Si/m/itoms. — The symjitoms of ins.anity
are best studied as mental and bodily symjitoms.
It is only since the disease was stmliecl from the
physician's point of view that the bodily symjitonis
Ii.ave been specially noticed. Nothing in medicine
was ever seen till it was lookeil for. Nowadays
every i)hysician knows that the bodily symjitoms
and the general condition of the body and its organs
are often the most important matters for him to
observe and attend to in a case of insanity. lie
linds few cases of recent insanity without smdi
bodily symptoms. The most common mental
.symptoms are morbid emotional depression and
mental jiain, which is the dondnant symptom in
mel.anidiolia. It is an essential law of lite that
in health the performance of all function yields
|ile,asure. The law is that to live is to energise,
and to energise is to enjoy life. Kxcept this is so
there is abnormality or disea.se. In many cases of
insanity to energise mentally is to suller p.ain. The
essential relationship between emotion and action
is thus reversed. Aiuither sym|itom in other cases
is an unilue emotional exaltation : this iscomnioidy
associated with a loss of the great coutrcdiing or
iidubitorv functions of the brain, and occurs in
mania. There is morbid brain excitement, com-
monly exhibiteil in restless motions or shouting.
Such cases may go on to comjilele loss of any con-
sciousness of all the former brain imjircssions and
mental life. The patient remembers nothing, and
does not know his nearest friends. Another most
152
INSANITY
common symptom is a <Iiminution or loss in the
power of attfntion. This is common to nearly all
forms of insanity. Then we ha\e perversion of the
reiusonini,' power, as seen most freqnently in insane
delusions. Like insanity, an insane delusion ean-
not be defined. It may be said to he 'a belief in
something;; that would be incredible to ordinary
people of the same class, education, or race as the
person who ex|ire>ses it, this resullinjr Iroin some
morliid state of the brain.' Insane delusions are
coTumon in most eases and varieties of insanity.
They are divided into lixed delusions and changing
delusions, the former being the most serious and
incurable. Some delusions are held by patients in
a sort of slack theoretical way, not inlluencing
conduct; others .again are keenly held and leail to
their logical results in eomluct. There may be two
' prophets of the Lord ' in an asylum, one of whom
will insist on delivering his 'mes.sage' on every
opportunity to all with whom he comes into con-
tact, will not emi)loy himself in ordinary occupa-
tions, anil refrains from all amusement : the other
will only speak of his delusion when asked about
it, will lie a capital blacksmith or scrubber of Hoors,
and enjoy thoroughly a ilance or a comic song. The
origin of insane delusions is one of the most intiM-
esting, and often the most obscure of psychological
problems. In some cases the process can be clearly
traced, being analogous to the jirocess of 'day
dreaming ' in children. Imagination and fancy are
vivid, the reasoning and comparing power is in
abeyance, and so the sulijective is taken for the
objective. Every time a fancy is so looked on it
gets more anil more ' organised ' into a real delusion.
Sometimes delusions result from the accentuation
of the natural mental tem]ierament by outward
cii'cumstances— e.g. when a hunchback of a natur-
ally sensitive, suspicions disposition is in his boy-
hood annoyed by ins fellow boys at school, the con-
sciousniws of his deformity being thus ever bro\ight
before him, and when weak health and lack of
physical power make him irritable and misan-
thropic and he then takes a fever, <luring which he
is delirl<ms, and fancies all the time that he hears
the ohl bo\'-voices of o[i]n"obrium — it seems intelli-
gible in such acasc that after recovery, but with still
a bloodless and weakened brain, lie should still
hear the voices saying 'hunchback, liunchliack.'
The hearing of voices when no such exist is an
exam]jle of a hall ucitiaf ion, which is used to denote
special sense impressions that have no outward
causes. Hallucinations may be of hearing, which
are the most common and the most serious as a
.symptom of inciiraliilily if long continued; of
sight, the next most common ami more likely to he
recovered from ; of smell and taste, which are rare,
and not favourable. Hallucinations and delusiims
are often connected with and arise out of real sensa-
tions, which are misinterpreted by the weakened
brain — e.g. a man has been drinking, and has so
disordered his stomacli, and irritated its lining
membrane, that he feels a constant pain there and
a bad taste in his mouth, and he concludes that
poison has been put into his food, adducing these
real sensations as jnoof of his delusion. His mental
centre had been disturbed in its working by the
drink, so that he could no longer reason clearly
and )mt the true interpretation on the fact-*.
A ilistinclive char.ictcr of an insane delusion
is that it cannot be in any way changed or
dispelled by the dealest demonstration that it is
false. A man thinks he is ruined and a jianpcr;
you bring his bank book and show him that he has
.tlOOO to his account; and you bring the lianker
with the actual money to him, but you cannot
by such niean> eradiiatc the falM- belief. .\ sane
man may have a hallucination (see H.\l.l.l'('lN.\-
TIONS), l)ut he knows his ' l)rain is ))laying him
a trick,' when ordinary means are taken to demon-
strate the unreality of his impression. Another
very important and most dangerous syni|itom
in insanity is the tendency towards suicide. This
is commonly a symptom in melancholia, and usu-
ally goes with a deiire.ssed emotiimal state. I!ut
sometimes it exists fiy it.self as a morbid impulse,
nnreasoning, unaccounted for. uncxplainable.
Sometimes patients attcnijit their lives when un-
conscious of what they are doing, and do not remem-
ber what they have done. Patients say that ideas
of suicide come into their minds unsuggested in the
midst of work and even of enjoyment. A desire to
luit an end to ones own life is iihysiologically the
furthest away from health of any miubid mental
sym|iliim that can possibly occur, for it is a |ier-
version of the primary instinct of all living beings
— viz. the love of life, and the desire and elVort to
protect and jneserve it. AVithont this instinct life
would soon end on the earth. It is not any reason-
ing as to the desirability of life that keeps men
and ;uiinials alive and drives to unceasing elVorts
to )ircserve it, nor is it the jdeasure of eating,
nor tlie fear of pain in death. It is the simple
innate organic instinct to live which no reasoning
can impair in most men. AVhen a man attemiits
his life, apparently as a calm reasoning conclusion
from facts which seem to prove that this is the best
thing he can do, in ninety-nine cases out of a
hundred the process of reasoning is not the real
motive for the act, but the loss of the life instinct
which started the reasoning and made the act
possilde. No doubt the strength of the instinct
and of the love of life is much less in .some
persons and in .some races apparently than in
others. But such a lessened instinct means
a bad heredity and lessened capacity for the
struggle for existence. It is twin-brother to a
hereility towards ordimtry insanity. There may
be motives that with civilised men are stronger
even than the love of life, and a man with a strong
will or under the impulsion of a strong emotion or
in a state of despair may certainly take his own
life though sane. Suicide is frei|ui'ntly suggested
by the sight of the means of self-destruction.
There are many persons not insane who cannnt see
a sharp weapon or go near a |iii'cipice without the
suggestion of suicide, while many of the insane are
entirely unable to resist attempts on their own
lives when such means are seen. Some patients
will use the utmost cunning to conceal their in-
tention of committing suicide, whilst others will
do it most oiienly. The natural courage of the
jierson comes in very strongly in I'stiniating the
actual ri>k in any case; but the most timid, the
most conscientious, who intellectually know it to be
wrong, and see that every rational motive goes
against it, the most allcclionate, who know the
terrible anguish it will cause to those they love,
the most religious, who fear eternal damnation as
its conseijuence, all e(|iially commit suicide when
sull'cring irom insanity with the suicidal impulse.
.\bout 17110 iiersons actually lake away their own
lives every year in Knglaml, the iiroportion being
much higlier in some other countries. Alcohol is
responsilile for very many suicides every year.
The same patient very often sticks to the same
methods ot connnitting suicide. He will again
and again try to hung or poison himself when
he has plenty of better chances of cutting his
throat. The fidlowiiig are the common methods
of suicide in (Ireat Hritain in theirorderof freipiency
-viz. drowning, hanging, starvation, wouiuls by
lirearms, poisoning, juecipitation, and choking.
Hut somi! patients ]iiepare elaborate means and
a|iparatus for the purpose. .An .American killed
him.sclf with a complicated apiiaratns worked by
clockwork, which lii-st put liim under cliloroform
INSANITY
153
and then decajiitated him ; this aiipaiatus liaving
taken him over two veais to eonslniet. Siiieidal
feeling or impulse is often recovered from, and is
not a speeially bad symptom except as retiuirinj
•elinj; or impulse is otten
i)t a specially bad sympi
the watching of the iialient.
Another mental symptom of insanity very com-
mon is impulsiveness, or action in an automatic
unreasoning way, sometimes without any cimscions
intention on the ]iatient's part, and without ]iower
of eontnd by the will. A man sees a large (date-
glass window, and he hurls a stone through it im-
pulsively. Another cannot resist the impulse to
tear his clothes, a third cannot resist the imimlse to
set a haystack on lire. Incontrollable impulse
naturally goes with diminished volition in insanity.
What would be the conduct of most sane men if
their wills did not stand between impulse and
action ? If the will is paralysed, as it is in many
ca.ses from disease, their impulse is uncontrolled.
Patients may be fully conscious of morbid imi)ulses,
may intellectually see their danger or absurdity,
and morally may deplore their ' w ickeilness ' in
yielding to them, yet have no power to control
them ; or they may be in a condition of unconscious-
ness, or false con.sciousness, during which impulsive
acts are <lone and not remembered afterwards at all.
When consciousness returns such people are sur-
prised and incredulous when told that they have
snijuslied furniture or tried to kill their children.
A i)atient once attempted her own life, suddenly
smashed a picture, and nearly strangled her attend-
ant, and was amazed when told what she had
done. fShe was a gentle, religious lady of the
highest principle. Whenever she passed into this
condition of false consciousness during which such
impulsive acts were done she wouUl glare at one
particular picture on the wall, and woulil sjiring at
it, so that it had to be removed from the room.
She had no [lartioular feeling abcmt it when in her
ordinary state of consciousness.
One of the most common and most painful
symptoms of insanity is a change of natural
attection towards relatives. The ' mother forgets
her sucking child;' the sister eea.ses to love the
brother; and the husband dislikes or suspects
his wedded wife. This is not universal, l)Ut in
m^arly half the cases of insanity the affective
condition is thus perverted or reversed. The
memory is not necessarily all'ected in insanity. In
many patients it is exaggerated : things come back
with unnatural vividnes.s. A man during simple
mania could repeat most of the I'salms and many
of .Shakespeare's plays, which he never could
when well. In some ea.ses the memory brings back
oidy the unpleasantnesses of past life, in others
only the jileasant events, and in others there is no
memory of pa,st events at all during the attack.
It is a constant source of anxiety to relatives
whether patients remember the events that have
taken jdace during their attack or their own .say-
ings, feelings, or thoughts then. No rule can be
laid clown as to this. It <lepends on the nature
of the attack, and especially on whether tin' power
of attention is affecteil during its continuance. It
is certain the memory of events that happened
during the attack is usually binned or distorted or
ha/v, even though a-s in some cases the patients
allirm they ' can remember everything. It is
freijuent that after recoveiy they speak of the
event.s during the attack and their own feelings
then 'as if it were a dream.' Sometimes tlie
allective nature gets changed during an attack not
only in regard to ])ersons, but to books, scenery,
an<l food. The ai^ietites become perverted and
changed ; the social instincts are commonly altered.
In a few cases these are iiitensilied, Init their usual
discrimination i.s lust. Commonly, a lunatic is
unsocial, and some ciLses are entirely iLsocial. The
imaginative faculty is usually perverted, this being
generally connected with the ihdusions present.
In some cases an attack of insanity is a prolonged
'<lay-dieaui,' the condition being one rather of
disjointed fancy than of coherent or constructive
imagination. The normal l.iw of iissociation of
ideas is usually altered. The same ideas do not
suggest each other in sanity and insanity. The
tendency is in insanity for ideas to suggest gro-
tesque and incongruous things or trains of thought.
The habits of life are notably changed in most
cases, men and women becoming literally 'not
themselves ' in their ways and modes of living.
The cleanly liecomes uncleanly ; the orderly man
disorderly.
The chief bodily symptoms in insanity are the
following. There is scarcely any symptom more
common before and in the early stages of attacks
than slee|)le.ssiiess. ' Tired nature's sweet restorer,
balmy slee]!,' certainly departs when the terrible
brain disturbance occurs, or is about to occur. It
does not follow that because a man is sleepless
he is going to be insane, but almost every Kind
of insanity is sleepless in its early stages. Xor does
it by any means follow that sleeplessness is always
the cause of the attack. It is rather in most cases
an early symptom. The next bodily symptom in
importance is morbidnesses of s))eech. On the
patient's speech we chiefly depend for our diagnosis
of most cases. Through it delusions are given ex-
pression to : it may be incoherent or i)artially coher-
ent ; it may be over rapid, slow, or entirely absent.
A patient at iSIorningside Asylum never uttered
a word for seventeen years, though he could speak
quite well but for a delusion he lias, antl he works
well, writes to express his wishes, goes out every
Saturday and sees the sights of the town, and
behaves mostly like a sane man, save in this par-
ticular. Often the conventicuialities of speech are
lost or dropped in insanity. The articulation of
words is often changed. Next in importance to
the sjieech is the expression of the face and eyes.
This is given by the most delicate combined mus-
cular and nervous apparatus that exists in nature,
being in the most intimate connection with the
mental jiart of the brain, and acting as its chief
expositor and interpreter. It would be impossible
to describe all the changes that take place in the
expression oS the eyes and faces of the insane. In
the depressed ami ilemented ca-ses the eye loses its
lustre and brilliancy ; in maniacal cases it has
abnormal feverish brillianey ; the inipil enlarging
and the eyeliils being drawn too far apart pro-
duce staring, the whole of the cornea being seen.
Ill regard to the expression of the face, we see how
the 'mind muscles alter the man when in actiim
and repose, in health and sickness. The natural
exprcs.sion is greatly changed, and little beauty of
feature survives during acute attacks. The ciui-
ventional control over the outward expression of the
emotions is lost, and th(^ face accurately shows the
state of the mehuicli(dic, the maniacal, or the de-
mented patient. Often too the lixed delusion shows
in the patient's face. Indeed there are many cases
where the expression cau.sed by changed emotion
during the first jiart of an attack gets fixed, and
remains .so after the pati<!nt has really ceased to
feel the morbid emotion at all. A lady who had
been intensely melaiiclioly in feeling for live years
then sank into incurable weakness of mind, and
comidetely lost her keen feeling and memory, but
for the next twenty years, till her death, the
muscles of her face anil her attitude expressed the
melanidioly which she did not feel. She constantly
wrung her hainls, and could not tidl why she ilid
.so. There was in fact an automatic 'muscular
misery.' There are important indications of certain
kinds of insanity in the state of the jiupils too.
154
INSANITY
In the muscular inoveiiients of the hody an insane
patient «ill often indicate his emotions far more
than a sane man would do.
The skin, the hair, the pei-spiration, tlie liver,
the heart, and the kidneys are often changed in
working, and the temperature of the hody altered
during an acute or recent att.ack of insanity.
Before .an attack there are often pains or nnea-sy
feelings in the head, which ilisappear wlien it
conies on. The bodily sensations are notahly
dulled in most acute attacks. Patients will often
cut or bruise themselves or undergo operations
without feelings of jiain. The body weight is
rapidly lost, and the general nutrition almost in-
variably sutl'cr.s. Thus it is seen that disease can-
not attack the highest org.an ami function witli<uit
affecting also almost every other organ and function
of the body. The liigher brain centres and the
peripheral oi-gans act and react on each other, so
that when the one is disturbed in action the olliers
sutler.
Foniis, Varieties, ami Classifirritinii of fii.iiiiiifif.
— One case of insanity may dill'er from another in
all its symptoms, mental and liodily, so that the
two may have almost nothing in common except
that in both the mind is affected from brain dis-
order. One case may be so near sanity that it
needs an expert to say there is anything « rong ;
while another is ' raving mad ' to any eye. (Jne
case is conscious that his mind is affected ; another,
much worse, believes he w.as never so well in his
life. One case needs no control, and can do some
work ; another needs the control of others in all
respects, and cannot do anything. One is per-
fectly safe to himself and others, while another is
as dangerous as the poj)ular ' madman ' is snpi>osed
to be — as a matter of fact, half the insane are not
dangerous at all, and very few of them arc as
dangerous as they are ]iopularly supposed to be.
The popular idea that the insane are all nnich
alike is utterly wrong. Nothing is more common
than for the doctor of an a.sylum to be asked such
questions as — ' Do your patients kiujw where they
are?' 'Are they the better for the visits of
friends?' 'Do they enjoy each other's society?'
' Are they happy ? ' ' Do they like or dislike you ? '
'Are they nice to do with?" To one and all of
such fjuestions the answer has to be — 'They diller
entirely from each other in all these respects.'
Where there are ditierences it is the business of
science to classify. Insanity has been classified
most variously, but at the lu-eseiit time only two
of the cl.assilications can lie said to hold the held.
The one is that in which the prevailing mental
symptoms are taken as the basis of classilic.ation,
the cases with similar mental symptoms being
thrown together into each group. 'Ihis wiis first
done by Philip|ie I'inel, who w,as born in 174.") and
died in I.S'iti, was the jibysician to the great hos|iital
for the insane at I'aris, the liicctre. and who during
the revolutionary ]ierio(l asked and got permission
to remove the chains and m.anacles from his ]iatients
there. It is the 'mental cla.ssilication,' and is used
more or less by .all physicians. The other classifica-
tion w.as that cleviscd by David Skae, who was born
in ISI-I .-ind dieil in 1S7:!. and was physician to the
Itoyal l-',diiibuigb .\>ylnm for twenty-seven years,
exercising during that time an enormous inlluence
on the growth of the mental department of medi-
cine, wliich is calleil ' alienism ' in Fiani'i>, • psyebia-
trie' in (Jermany, and commonly niedico-ii.sychology
in IJritain. The ' clinical cla.ssilication ' goes on the
jirinciple of select ing a more real, natural, and lasting
relationship between the cases than mere nuMital
symptoms. The weak point of the mental classi-
fication is that it is one of symptoms only : ami a
case may change entirely in its symptoms in the
course of the same attack. The weak point in the
clinical classilicaticui is that it does not cover the
whole groinid, m.any cases not being as yet cl.as.sili-
able under any of its divisions. The cla.ssilication
of the future will be a |iatliological one, which will
supersede the two others, but our knowledge of the
pathology of the various forms of insanity is not
as yet suthciently accurate to eiuible such a elas.si-
hcation to be made. The forms of insanity under
the mental classification, as found in Clouston's
C/hiicfil Lcrtiircs on Jllciital Diseases (1SS7), are as
follows :
-W</((Hc/(o^«r, comiirising all stntes of dcpresition. —
This has emoticm.al de])re.ssion, or mental pain and
sense of ill-being, as its leading and domin.ant
symptom. There may in aihlition be loss of self-
control, insane <hdusions, which are usually
suggested by the depression or impulses towards
suicide, as well as incapacity to follow ordinary
avocations in melancholia. These distinguish it
from s.ane melancholy. Suicide is the great risk
in such cases; four-fifths of melancholies being
suicidal. The chief of the bodily sym]Ptoms .are
apt to be thinness, weakness, a low nervotis .and
nutritive tone, and stomach, bowel, and liver
derangements. Melan<-holi.a forms about .'{() ]ier
cent, of the insanity sent to .a.sylums ; but if the
eases not sent to such institutions, but treated at
home, jire taken into account, it forms ]uobably
half the total number. It is by far the nm.st
conscious .and the nuist manageable form of recent
ins.anity on the whole, being the form next to
sanity. Most other kimls of ment.al disease begin
by some anmunt of mental dejuession. Of
melancholic ji.atients sent to a,sylums .">4 per cent,
recover ; but .a larger percent.age Ih.an this recovers
if the cases treated at home are also included,
because, of course, it is the worst class that recpiire
asylum treatment. The recoveries from melanclioli.a
.are the most comiilete of all forms of insanity. It
wouM seem to be caused by a more entindy
functional and dynamical brain <listnrbance than
any other form of insanity that may leave no trace
whatever hehiml it after recovery.
Mania, comprising all slates tif mental exaltation.
— The chief emotional forms of such mental exalt.a-
tion .are joyonsness .and rage, and .are comnicudy
accomiianied by nui.scular excitement, restlessness,
sleeplessness; the speech tends to become in-
coherent, the con<luct violent or nncontrolle<l ;
there are commonly delusions of many kiiuls.
The synii)tonis range from a jnycms elevation
with talkativeness and merely want of connnon
sense and foolish <'onduct up to complete incoher-
lau'C, delirium, an<l 'raving madness' or 'acute
mania.' In such aiaite cases the tem]ierature of
the body is raised as in .a fever ; often there is such
ra]dd loss of body weight that iS lb. are lost in a
we(d<, ami the patients e\en die of the disejuse in
about 8 jier cent of such acute cases ; while on the
other h.and (iO |ier cent, recover .ami 30 ]ier cent.
Iiecome incurable. The br.ain is very congested
.and hyiieractive in a( life mania, but this does not
result from inllanimation.
h'idie Ciiriilaire, or .slates nf ref/ii/ay allenialion
between melancholia and mania, forms a snuill but
distinct variety of insanity. More or less jieriodicity
and tendency to recurrence ami ridajise is unfortu-
n.ately a very common symptom in most attacks of
insanity, ami tlie jieriod between each aggravation
is often .about four weeks : liema' the name 'lun.acy.'
It is hardly necessary to .say th.it the nnion has
nothing whatever to do with insanity. Nothing is
more discouraging to those in (diarge of cases than
this relapsing tendency : but it should not le.id to
despair of ultim.ate recovery, unless such rehijises
become regular and fri-c|neril for years. When this
is the case the prospects of recovery are bad.
Patients suliering from alternating insanity lead
INSANITY
155
three lives — one -when they are in the niehincholy
stiijte, anotlier wlien in the joyons, elevated sta^e,
anil another when nearly sane.
Monomania, or ililusional in.saniiif, is that form
where insane delusions are the chief si-ins of the
mental alierration. A man may have such insane
beliefs of all kinds, utterly unfounded in fact and
utterly unchan<;eable liy the plainest demonstration
of fact that they are false, without any <;<""*^''iil
depression of mind or exaltation. The intellect
is chietiy affected rather than the aftective nature
in such a case. There are almost no cases of a
literal monomania or a morbid false belief on
one subject alone. The delusions are morbid
in a particular direction, the chief forms being
mononutnia of grandeur or pride, of unseen agen-
cies, and of unfounded suspicions. Electricity,
mesmerism, telephones, gases, noises made by
imaginary pei'secutoi's are the common sulijects of
the second form ; while utterly perverse interpreta-
tions of the conduct of friends or strangers is the
common form of the latter. The two together are
sometimes classed as monomania cf perserufion.
Hallucinations of the senses — i.e. imaginary siglits,
sounds, smells, and tastes — are veiy common in this
form of insanity. It is not very curable when the
delusions get fixed : but in the early stage, and
when dependent on derangements of the bodily
health, it is often recovered from. This form of
insanity, and delusion generally, is of great impoit-
anee from a legal point of view, but not so much
from the medical side.
Dementia, or eondiiions of general tncnfal cn-
fceblemetit, is the state of Jiiiiid where the
memory is impaired, the reasoning weakened, the
feeling diminished, the will especially lacking, tlie
attention and curiosity far l>elow normal, these
changes having occurred in a pei-son Avho had at
one time lieen normally constituted. It is in fact
silliness, want of mental force, imbecility not
congenital but acquired. This does not usually
occur as the lirst .symptom of an attack of insanity,
but a.s the sequel to mania — or, more rarely,
melancholia — when it is not recovered from ;
hence it is commonly called secondari/ dementia.
It is in fact the incurable stage in which these
disea.ses end. The demented patients live on for
many years sometimes. The most com]dete form
of dementia occurs after mania that ha-s not been
recovered from in adolescen(-e. Dementia is in
fact a premature mental death with persisting
bodily life.
Slii/mr embraces those cases where there is
mental torpor, in which impressions on the senses
produce no effect, the patient neither speaking nor
taking notice of aiiytliiiig, and having no volition
except to resist, liut liciiig able to stand, and walk,
and eat. Trance and catalepsy are forms of stupor.
The bodily functions are all lethargic in stupor, the
heart's action low, the Ijody cold, and the muscles
llabl>y. Stui)or commonly occurs in young |)eople
if both sexes, and is very curable, 50 per cent,
recovering. It sometimes attracts popular wonder
.ind attention, whicli is very bad for the patient.
In some c;i.ses it results from profound and terrible
shocks which paralyse mind and Ijody. In some
c-ases patients remember all that occurre<l when
they appeared to be taking no notice whatever, an<l
in others the time during which the stupor lasted
vv.^is a blank to them afterwards.
Jmjiu/sire Inv(nil>/, or s/oics of defective control.
Is the la-^t or most recently invented division of the
mental cla-ssi(ication. In some wavs it is the most
interesting of all, ina-snuich as will is the highest
and most essential of all the mental faculties, and
volitional dUturbanees have a clo.ser relationship
to mor.ils, l.iw, .social life, and conduct than .any
other a.spect of insanity. It is often seen that the
chililren of insane or drunken p.arents are lacking
in the normal power of conlnil and in their percep-
tion of the .sense of right and wrong, their conduct
being a]it to be impulsive and not guided by rea.son-
able iMotives. Evolutionally the highest of all
(|U<alities is thus lesseneil in amount, this tending
towards a disruption and ilestruction of organised
society. If lack of control, criminality, and action
from impulse became hereditary and general,
society woulil fall to pieces. All forms of insanity
are more or less distinguished by lessened control,
but there are persons without general depression
or excitement, without insane delusions, without
enfeeblement of mind, who will suddenly, and not
in obedience to any sane motive, sm;isb furniture,
tear clothing, steal, set things on lire, obey gross
animal impulses, or kill thenrselves or others, hav-
ing no power of control to prevent themselves from
doing these things. We now know that certain
regions of the brain and nervous centres have as
their function the control of other portions, quicken-
ing the pace of action or stopping it. In the very
highest regions of the brain we find the function
of mental inhibition. This controls mental action
in other portions of the brain convolutions. In
this form of insanity it is suppose<l that the inhib-
itory controlling portions or 'centres of mental
inhibition ' have lost their power. It is as if one's
power of controlling the act of coughing on very
inadequate irritation was lost. Every mintitest
point of dust entering the larynx would set up
coughing, w hich would go on independently of the
will altogether, as an .automatic ' reliex ' act. In
many of the cases of impulsive ins.anity the mental
portions of the brain act automatically without
any controlling .action by the inhibiting centres.
It is a pitiful .ami mo.st .suggestive thing to see a
human being who knows right from wrong, and
earnestly desires to do the one and avoid the other,
compelleil by morbid impul.ses to act wrongly, all
the while liewailing the dise.ased necessity that
is thus laid upon him. The physician frequently
I sees such a ca,se. Especially is this sight pathetic
j when the morbid impul.se is to take away his own
j life or that of some one de.arer to him than life
i itself. .Such impulsive insanity is often set u|) in
I hereditaiily unst.able biains liy weak health and by
1 alcohol. They are often curable. The so-called
' moral insanity ' is just one v.ariety of this form of
mental disea.se where the moral sense is absent
from disease, and the power of doing right non-
existent, while the impulses are all towards
immorality.
The clinical varieties of insanity are heailed by
general jianihisis, a speeilic disease of those portions
fif the brain that subserve mind and motion. It
is alwavs incurable, getting progressively worse,
gradually impairing and at length deslroving
speech, motion, mind, ami, usually in about three
years' time, life itself. In this form of insanity
l)atients commonly have extrav.agant delusions of
I wealth and jiower. It is found chielly in the male
I sex, in large cities and manufacturing pl;ices. and
as yet is almost unknown in llie Highlands anil the
country districts of Ireland. It is a ilise.ise of
modern life, and is proved to be incre.a.sing. I'ara-
lijtic insanittj is that connected with apo|>lexies,
softenings .anil tumors of the brain, whicli cause
ordinary paralysis lirst, and one form of dementia
afterwards. Kiiileptie insanitij is that accomiiany-
ing c])ilepsy in so many cases. It is often attended
by great violence and irritability, and by danger to
those arounil thi' ]<atient. -Many murders are com-
mitted by insane epileptics. It is now much more
manage.ihle than formerly under modern medical
treatment, but is apt to recur after app.arent
recovery. It ]>revails most vario\isly in iliilerent
parts of the country. In Scotland (udy 7 per cent.
15G
INSANITY
of the iiisiuiity !;< opileiitie ; iii some soutlioni jiiid
midliiiiil oinnitics of Eiij;lanil l2.") ]n'r cent, is of tliis
character. Tlie true cause of tliis diUcrcnce is
mikiiDwii. iSy/i/ti/itic hi.wnitj/ is tlie result of liraiii-
poisoiiini; liy this terrible .scoury^e of hniiiauity.
Alcolii>lir t II ■■iaiiiti/ is a very frequent form imleed.
Alcohol is tlie excitin<r cause of from lo to 20 \iev
cent, of all insanity : hut all the mental disease
caused hy alcohol is not alcoholic in.sanity. There
can he no douht that some hrains are so prone hy
heredity to he upset in (heir mental function that
it takes little to do it. If it is not a i|uarrel with
a friend, it is a si)ree on had liquor. True alcoholic
insanity always has niotcu' symptoms, such as
tremblinfi.s, convulsions, im])aired speech, I've,
except dipsomiiiiiu, one variety where the insanity
consists in the cr.avinj,' for excessive use of lirpior,
and lack of control over this craving;. Alcoholic
insanity may he intensely acute or very mild, very
short in duratioii or very lonj; continued, or incur-
able. That caused by prolonj^ed steady soaking is
the worst, lihciiimitic and gouty insanities are
very rare.
Phtliisical insfinify, or that connected with con-
sumption, is a very interestinj,' vaiicly. The
patients are suspicious and unsocial, and often have
no cough or s])it or other outward sign of consump-
tion, winch may not he iliscovereil till the chest is
examined. In some cases it is curalde. The tend-
ency to cousuiu]ition and to insanity are often
found in dill'crcnt nicmliers of the same family.
There are various forms of insanity connected with
derangement of the reproductive fnneticuis. I'lrr-
ine, (iincniirrfiu'fil, ovririaii, hysterical, .and innstiir-
bational insanities : while pregnancy, childbirth,
and nursing are the causes of the insrinity of pre q-
nancy, juicrpceal insanity, and lactationat insanity.
These form 10 per cent, of mental disease in the
female sex. They are the most curalile of all forms,
recovering in over SO per cent, of the cases. I'licr-
pcra/ insanity occurs commonly witliiu a fortnight
of cliildhirtli, and is the most .acute ami one of the
most daugermis to life of all insanities, while the
most curable, and is attended by the highest tem-
peratures, sometimes reacliing 10.")'. The ditt'erent
periods of life have each their own form of insanity.
Pubescent anil addlesreiit insanity is .always heredi-
tary, is cmumonly atrute and m.aniacal, usu.ally has
remissions and exacerbations, and recovers in over
60 per cent, of the cases, those not recovering
commonly passing into the most typical form of
sccoialiir// denientiii. This f(U'm of in.s.auity should
be treatiMl chielly by milk diet and exercise. It is
one of numerous di.seascs to which the period of
development is subject. Climacteric insanity occurs
at the i>eriod of the 'change of life.' It is usually
melancludic in character, and recovers in 53 per
cent, of the cases, under |)ro]H'r treatment and C(ui-
ditions of life. Senile insanity is typi<'ally seen in
the senile ilcmentiu of extreme old age, when the
memory and all the faculties have faded away.
I5ul spurts of mental excitement ami mental depres-
sion, with slec|)lessness .and uu man.ageability .at
home, often occur before llnal dotage. These are
often recovered from. They are a half-way house
to dot.age or a quick road to it.
A number of rarer and less imjiortant eliiucal
viirieties of insanity have been described. Trim-
matic insanity, from injuries to head ; anirniie
insaniti/, froni thinness of blood ; diabetic insanity :
insanity from llrii/lit's disease : jtost-febrilc insanity,
following all kinds of fevers, especially scarlatina :
the insanity of lead-poisonin;/ : and mi/ciiileniat-
oils insanity.
Causes of Insanity. — There can be no (|neslion
whatever that a hereditary tendency is the chief
predisposing cause of insanity. All sorts of dis-
turbing influence.s to the lu-.ain bring out this pre-
disposition into actual disease. No dotibt TO per
cent, of all cases have an insane or neurotic hered-
ity. Epile|isy, drunkenness, all nervous diseases,
consumption, too exciting or depressing or ex-
hausting employments, or unfavourable condi-
tions of life in ancestry may cause insanity in
the oll'spring. Marriage of near relatives causes
it if the stock is bad ; not if it is goo<l. The
])hysical causes of insanity, allecting the body,
such as alcohol in excess, produce insanity in four
times (he proportion which mental and moral
causes, such .as attliction, los.scs, love-all'airs, and
religious excitement, do. For the iiroduetion of a
case of insanity there may he, .and there usually is,
more than one cause — e.g. ( 1 ) a man li.as a here<lity ;
(•i) he is at .a critical lime of life, or is lain down in
general health, or takes alcohol in excess ; (8) he li.as
a money loss, or domestic alllictiou just before his
attack. A heredity to insanity cloes not mean a
bad hr.ain or a weak mind before theins,anity comes
on. Often it is quite the contrary. It is not the
fools that go off their heail.s.
A' at lire of Insaniti/. — Xo one now doubts that it
is due to disorder of function of .a certain ))ortion of
the brain — viz. that piirt of the c<n'tex which is the
vehicle of all mental function. This bodily as|icct
of it should never be lost .sight of hy physicians and
rel.ati(uis. Essenti.ally it in no w.ay dillers imm
many ordinary diseases : it Ijegins, runs a delinite
eour.se, and enils like m.any common ailments. It
may be bnnight on by disorder in many other parts
of the body, upsetting the brain : but with a .s(mn<l
br.ain there must be .a souiul mind. The exact
pathology of m.any forms of insanity has not yet
been ascertained ; but in 80 or 90 ]ier cent, of the
cases that die some abnormality can he found in
the brain.
Treatment of Insanity — Asytnms for the Insane.
— The general princi]ilcs of modern treatment may
be di\'i<letl into bodily and mental or moral. The
bodily treatment m.ay lie generally said to be to
put all the org.ans and functions right if wrong;
to get up the strength and fat of the body —
the writer preaches the 'gosjiel of fatness' for all
his insjine .and nervous ]iatients ; to restore the
tone and right working of the nervous system ; to
restore the sleep ; to give medicines that iletcrmine
more blood to tlie brain in cases where there is too
little, and to give those that diminish the brain's
blood-sujqdy in tlio.se where there is too much ; to
use suitable b.atlis th.at soothe nervcnis irrit.atiou,
and miner.al w.aters; to invigoi.ate and sootlu" by
life in the open air ; and to let oil' undue and morbid
nervous energy by much excrci.se, gymnastics, and
massage in some cases, and to secure complete
brain and liody rest for others. The mental Ircat-
iiMUit consists chielly in careful observation, com-
panionshi]), control, distraction of the mind from
morbid thought and feeling by suit.able occupations
.ami amusements, and guarding ag.ainst the (langcrs
of suicide, homicide, and self neglect. The wliide
nursing of in.sanity is a most <lilliciilt (ask. for
which the best bodily, moral, ami mental qii.alilica-
tions are needed. In old times, and even up to a very
recent date, cruelty, neglect, stripes, .and tortures
without number were the ordinary means of ' treat-
iiient.' Cullen, and all the great authors of his
time, ju'escribe so many 'lashes' as a cloctor now
does so many drojis of physic. Even the very
medical means used were made terrifying on pur-
)iose — 'surprise baths' in which |iatien(s were
without warning |ilungcil and kept till they were
nearly drowned, and 'chairs' in which they were
'rotated' till they fainted. The early Christian
theory of an e\ il spirit having entered into .an
insane man, which must he 'got out of him,' was at
the bottom of much of tliis treatment, and accounted
for the litter want of sympathy sliowu towards
INSANITY
157
tins cliuis of sufVerers. Pinel in Fiance, iiml William
Tuke, a York Quaker, in 1792 ^-inu^ltaneou^ly liej;an
the new era of Ininianity, skill, and science for the
insane. The next jjreat landmark of pro-jiress was
when mechanical restraint, in the shape of strait-
jackets, &c., was disused, and the 'non-restraint
system ' of treatment was adopted. This Wiis
between IS'25 and 1S40, and was the work of
Charlesworth and tiairdner Hill of Lincoln A.syluni,
and Conolly at Hanwell. The ne.\t advance wa.s
made by imitation of Belgian experience at (ilieel,
where the insane are largely boarded in private
families. If not applicable to all, or even to
many in Britain, it showed that the insane were
not so dangerous as they had been considered. The
next advance took place in Scotland, from 1857,
through employing the insane more, classifying
them better in asylums, making asylums more
'homes' with 'open-door' departments in them,
almost abolishing the use of higliwalled, enclo.sed
'airing courts' in asylums for the exercise of
patients, sending them out into the open grounds
and on the farms instead, and setting up fully-
equipped 'hospital' wards with trained nursing for
the special medical treatment of the sick and of
the recent acute cases, while quiet incurable ca.ses
are boarded in cottages in the conritrv under
regular inspection and supervision. We are now
fullv in the scientific era when we hope by careful
study of the brain and its disorders to understand
the real nature of the disea.se and apply our
remedies with the certainty and exactitude of
science in each ease. To secure stich treatment
for most of the poor, and also for many of the rich,
asijlttms for the his((ue are needful.
Every country in Europe has now provision more
or less adequate for the care and treatment of its
insane. In Germany and Austria a.sylums are
commonly of two classes : the one for tlie cure of
the curable, near large cities, where the patients
only stay for a limited time ; and the other for the
incurable, larger in size, less costly, and further in
the country. The same idea is carried out in
France (farm colonies), in Belgium, HoUaml, and
in Great Britain; it will certainly he extended,
for it enables economy of management to come in
where cost is of no avail for cure, and it enables
the curative idea to be realised, however costly,
among the smaller numbers and individualised
patients who are curable. In England the two
great establishments at Caterham and Leavesden,
each with over '2000 inmates, are the best examples
of establishments for the incurable. That at
Darenth, Dartfort, is for congenital imbeciles and
idiots. All three were built to supply the wants
of London. The largest a-sylum in England is
C'olney Hatch, which contains '22M jjuticnts. This
is far too many to be in one institution if it is for
curable patients. One of the best known for its
scientific work and practical succe^s is that at
Wakeheld, containing 1400 patients. The English
'registered hospitals' for private patients fulfil
a most important philanthropic function. One of
them, that at Cheadle, near Manchester, under Mr
Mould's most able and original management, leads
the way by treating h;ilf its patients (l.')0 out of
•280 ) in real homes in the country ; such homes being
ordinary villas, farmhouses, country mansions, anil
seaside residences leased for the purjiose. Scotland
is honourably ilistinguislied by its early care for
the insane. Either in the end of the IStli century
or the beginning of the lOth, every considerable
town in the country ( Edinburgh, Glasgow, Dundet!,
Aberdeen, Perth, and Dumfries) had erecteil a
'royal chartered a.sylum ' for itself, through the
benevolent etl'orts of individual citizens or of cor-
porate bodies. These made iirovision for all their
insane, poor and rich alike, each helping the other.
Commonly each royal asylum has two houses or
departments, one for the poorer and the other for
the richer patients. The system has worked well,
and by means of it far more complete provision has
been made for the insane of moclerati! means than
in England. The largest institution in Scotland is
tlie Kciyal Edinburgh .Asylum at .Morniiigside and
Craiglockhart, which has large accommodation for
private patients, paying either the higher or lower
rates, as well as for pauper jiatients.
The Ignited States of America have spent enor-
mous sums to make the best provisiim ]iossible for
the mentally afflicted. As much as i'UOO a bed has
been there spent on several 'state asylums' in New
York, New .Jersey, an<l Massachusetts. In most of
the states all citizens, rich and poor alike, have the
])rivilege of using the state a-sylums. The members
of the Society of Friends in the state; of Penn-
sylvania were the lirst to make philanthropic
etl'orts to provide 'hospital ' accommoilation for the
in.sane, their etl'orts following at a very short inter-
val the work of Pinel and Tuke. The institutions
in the United States are now growing to be as
large in size as those in the I'nited Kingdom.
One of the most original asylums in the world,
in its plan, is that at Kankakee, Illinois. It has
1600 patients, and consists of about twenty houses
laid out on the two .sides of a 'street,' forming
in fact an insane town, all of who.se inhabitants
resort four times a day to a central dining-room or
restaurant for their meals, and where a central
ward for the sick and the administration buildings
are also situated. The provision for the insane
in the southern states, however, is backward and
defective; and on the whole, it is generally ad-
mitted, even by Americans who have seen its
asylums, that (ireat Britain has led the way in
its provisions for the treatment of the insane,
and that it is still unsurpassed in the world.
There are 135 public asylums and 117 private
asylums now in the United Kingdom. The
principles of construction of such buildings have
iMK'ome much more domestic anil hospital-like
and less prison-like than formerly. Each one
should be a liuspitdl-huinc, and the dirt'erent
wards in it should be arranged to suit iliH'ereut
cliisses of patients in difi'erent states of mind. In
fact the careful 'adaptation of the house to its in-
habitants ' in every stage of their disease should be
carried out. There .should be in each one huspltitl
wards for special mental and bodily nursing, ruii-
rolcM-ciit wards just like homes, wards where the
most acute and violent and ilangerous can be safely
and properly treated without annoying the quiet
and convalescent. Every means for suitable com-
|ianionship and for varied occupation and anuise-
mcnt should he provided. A g I asylum should
in fact ln! a series of special model dwellings suited
to men and women who need a sonu^what dilh'rent
mode of life from ordiruiry mankiml. Good a.sylums
for the richer classes have .seaside ami country houses
where the patients go for change in small parties.
'I'/ie Liiiiiiiii J.titr/i. — For the protection of the
proj)erty of the insane, laws had to be nuule at a
very early period. The first statute on the subject
for England was passed in the reign of Edward 11.,
and for Scotland in the beginning of the I4tli cen-
tury. Both had the same end in view. Property
then meant land, and the prinuiry duties of land
were to the king and the country. If the man who
held it from the king Wius unfit from mental in-
capacity to perform these duties, then the king had
to resnmi' possession or appoint another to take his
|)lace and do them. Hut the man's state could
not he luscertained without a formal in<|niry by
a responsible ollicial — the Chancellor an<l the
cliief object of the early stattites was to provide for
such an iiniuiry. If the imm Wius found to be
158
INSANITY
idiotic or fiiiious, lie alonj; with bis ])ioperty passed
into the care of Ids nearest male relative, anil there
was an end of liiiii so far as the law went. In time
some little care was hestowed on him as a human
hein;,', ajiart from his heinj; an owner of land. The
principle was afterwards adojjted that the inr|uiry
W!is to he held hefore a jury, the issue heiny deter-
mined hy them, and the conseouences of the
verdict heing carried out under the direi'tion of
the Chancellor. I'.etween I.'iOO and 18W) at least
forty statutes were passed in England relating to
the insane, and something like eight or ten in
Scotland. The most important of them all was
the great English Lunacy Act of 184.5, passed
through the exertions of " Lord Shafteslmry, the
philanthroinst. Its ohjects were entirely in the
interests of the insane, and its eti'ects have hecn
most henelicial in England, while throughout the
civilised world its inlluence for good has been felt.
Under its provisions asylums have been erected for
every county in Englanil. A lioanl of Commis-
sioners was apjiointed who inspect and report on
every asylum, and see every insane ])erson whether
in or out of an institution ; and every precaution
was taken that the insane should he well treated,
ill-treatment of them being severely punishable.
At least £10.000,000 of capital has been laid out in
building asylums, and over £1,500,000 a year be-
sides is ex]>ended for the maintenance of their
inmates. A new statute in 1889 made certain
changes which experience had suggested. The
Scotcli statute of 1857 was founded on the English
Act of 1845. I'nder it a Board of Commissioners
in Lunacy was ajjpointed for Scotland, and pro-
vision made for the insane of the counties that
had no existing royal asylums. Ireland has a
very good asylum system, with inspectors in
lunacy. Scotland luus much the advantage of
England in tin; ease and economy with which
the propeity of an insane person can be taken
care of temporarily or permanently under the
charge of a Cm'titor Ijonl.-i, strictly responsible to
the Court of Session. England holils to the old,
cund)rous and expensive, but very efficient system
of a formal in(|uiry (ilc Iiimctico inquirendo) by a
' Master in Lunacy ' in each case. If the jiatient
is found incai)able of managing his atlairs (miii,
com/Ill.',- iiinitis), the Lord Chancellor appoints
a ' committee of the person ' to see to his comfort
and jiroper treatment, and a 'committee of the
estate' lo manage his pro|)erty. In addition to
the statutes that regulate tiie care of the property
and the persons of the insane, there are acts that
|irovide tor the protei'tion of the ]>ublic and the
safe custody of insant; jiei'sons who ba\"e c<^nimitte<l
crimes or are specially dangerous the Criminal
IjUnacy Statutes — and there are three great estab-
lishments f(U' criminal lunatics, one at Uroadmoor
for England, one at Dundrnm for Ireland, and one
in conn(H:tion with Perth I'enitentiary for Scot-
land. About three-fourths of the obviously insane
are now in asylums or under committees or
oirators, the others being boardecl under super-
vision in families, <»■ jdaced in workhouses.
And yet, with the great facility for treating the
insane in asylums, such precautions are taken by
the law and by the boards of lunacy against their
abuse that no case of illegal detention of a sane
person on the ground of insanity in a public or
jjrivate asylum was proved in the exhaustive in-
ipiiry into the subject by the select committee of
the House of Commons in 1877.
Ciirahi/i/i/ of Iii.\((iiit>/. — Taking all the cases
now technically reckoneil as insanity and sent to
a.sylums, 40 per cent, recover; hut many of these
are subject lo relapses — from which, however, they
often recrover again, just as peo])le have relapses
iu rhuuniatisni and bronchitis. But if the >light
mental disturbances not sent to lusylnms at all,
and the cases .sent to asylums in which there is no
organic brain disease nor very achaneed senility,
are alone taken, the rate of recovery is at least 70
per cent.
M(irta/iti/.— The rate is from 80 to 100 per 1000 of
the insane living, or about live times the ileath-rate
among the general po]iuIation. Insanity is in fact a
disease of the brain, from which people die as from
other diseases.
Agrs lit ir/iir/i I/isdiiiti/ orciir.1 must f/rr/ucidli/. —
Taking the number of persons living at the diil'er-
ent ages, and the proportion of persons of the same
ages who heemne insane during each jieriod, we find
that insanity occurs most frcipiently in men from
thirty to thirty-live, and in women from lifly to lifty-
tive. But perhaps a more instructive mode of look-
ing at the ages most liable to insanity is to point out
that there are periods siiecially liable to it — viz. at
the end of adole.scence, from eighteen to twenty-four,
when the organism is just attaining reproductive,
that is, organic, perfection, heredity being then the
chief cau.se ; at mid-life, from thirtv to lifty-live, the
worries and strains of life, and the climacterie iu
women being then the chief causes ; and after
seventy, the general failure of old age, and especi-
ally the deliciency of hlood to the brain then result-
ing from its diseased arteries being the cause.
A- Insanity increasing? — In England the number
of the insane known to exist lu'i.s risen from
.•?(i,7(i2 in 1859 to S4,.S45 in 1889, or from 18 67 to
2907 to every 10,000 of the jjopulation : and in
Scotland froni 6413 to 11,954, or from 198 to •2iiQ
]ier 10,000 of the population in the same time. But
this increase does not prove a nsil increase of
lunacy. For if we take the newly-registered casi!s
of the di-sease each year, and compare their nuin-
hers with the population, we liiiil it has only risen
from 4'5 to (i |ier 10,000 of the ]Hipulation in
(ireat Britain in thirty years. It is clear, therefore,
that there is an accumulation of the insane from the
following causes— viz. ( 1 ) through their heing taken
better care of; (2) the abundance of good institu-
tions, where all the insane jioor can be gratuitously
treated; (3) the operation of the lunacy laws; (4)
the increasing .sensitiveness of ])ublii' ogiiiiion as to
the neglect or ill-treatment of insane people; and
(5) the widening area of the mi'iilal disi in bailees
that are reckoned technical insanity requiring
treatment in a.syliinis, all these tending to in-
crease the numbers of the recognised and regis-
tered insane. There is in fact no )jroof that
insanity as a whole is increa-sing : certain forms
are no doubt increasing, and presumably other
forms are diminishing in amount.
Jlci/iro-lri/a/ and Stu-iiti Jit'/tttions of Insttnittf. —
l'"ew iiersons have studied carefully the mental
state of our criminal population but have come to
the conclusion that crime is most closely related to
mental defect in very many cases. Could we abolish
the latter the former wcuild shrink to small ])ro]ior-
tions. This docs not assume that many or most
criminals an? technically insane |>er.sons. They are
merely blood-relations of the insane. The law has
been gradually altering its tests as to the amount of
insanity that absolves from ])iiiiisbiiient for crime.
<)f old a man accused of crime bad to be totally
delirious or fatuous to he absolvcil from jiunish.
nient. Now the power of controlling bis actions is
being gradually made the test. The law has thus
approached, and at l;ist coincides with, the sciciitilic
views of in.sanity. Society should have the keenest
interest in the mental condition of its nieinber.s.
Soundness of mind is the most precious possession
of a people, for there ,aie innumi'iable degrees and
kin<ls of mental ami moral defects that fall far
short of insanity, yet are intimately related to
it, hereditarily and ]).sychoh)gically — defects that
INSANITY
INSCRIPTIONS
159
weaken a people's power of work, iliininish its
moral force, ami impair its social staliility. It is
one of the most deeply saiUleniii^ ami terrilile of the
facts in human history that of the men of j;enins
who have raised and j.'lorilieil mankind few have
l)een without mental disease in their families, and
many have themselves fallen victims to it. If it is
true that iis yet the mode of human development
lias heen such that to get one man of genius nature
had to sacrilice mentally many of his kindred, the
world should pay some of the debt it owes to its
poets anil thinkers by an uiigrudirinj; care of such
victims. To produce in tlie human brain tlie
greatest mental strengtli without runninj,' the risk
of liability to mental disease must be one of the
es.sential nroblems of the future for the educationist,
the sociologist, the politician, and the physician.
Insanity is commonly the liual Ijreakdown which
shows that many previous generations had broken
the laws of nature in their lives. It is the out-
come of a civilisation in which the true principles
of evolution for human beings had not been under-
stood and iissisted.
The cliief modern authorities are : Blandford's In-
sanity : Bucknill and Hack Tuke's Psycholof/ical Medi-
cine : Clouston's Mental Diseases; Griesinger's Mental
Path'^l<)*ill ; Bevan Lewis's J/f«/a/ Diseases; Maudsley's
Palhoh>iiy of Mind ; Saukey's Mental Disease; Savage's
Insanity ; Spitzka's/n.-taHi^y; Ball's Maladic-^ Mentales ;
^squiToVs Maladies MentaUs ; Guislain's Fhrenopathics ;
Luy's Maladies Mentales ; Morel's Maladies MentcUes ;
Von Krafft-Ebing's Fsyehiatrie ; Kraepelin's Psychiatric ;
V. Zicmiisen aud Schule's Psychiatric.
Ill.><<'ri|>tioil.S is the name given to records,
not of tlie nature of a book, which are engraved or
inscribed on stone, metal, clay, and similar mate-
rials. Since ancient documents committed to such
destructible materials as |)apyrus, parchment,
or paper have largely perishe<l, inscriptions on
harder materials are in many cases the sole sources
of our knowledge of ancient history and of early
languages ; and, even when MSS. have been pre-
served by copyists, inscription.?, which preserve
the original forms of the letters, are of supreme
palicographical importance. All the books of the
Pho'nicians, Saha-ans, Etniscans, ISabylonians,
Assyrians, Xumidians, and Iljcrians have perished,
and hence a considerable portion of our knowledge
of early oriental history is derived solely from
inscripticms. A very large number of inscriptions
are mortuary epitaphs. Others, usually the most
ini])ortant, are records of the events in the reigns of
kings. Others are dedications of altars, temples,
or aqueducts. Many are of a religious character,
recording donations to temples or in honour of the
gods. Others are commercial contracts, banking
records, receipts for taxes scratched on potsherds,
scribblings on walls (ijraffiti), imprecati(uis, and
inscriptions on seals, gems, or Viises. Probably
more than I-WjOCX) inscriptions are known, aud a
vjist literature has accumulated around them.
They are, however, usually chissed, not by their
subjects, but according to the language in which
they are written, with a subsidiary chronological
arrangement. The chief cUi.s.ses are Semitic,
Creek, Latin, Runic, Cuneiform, Egyptian, and
Inilian.
Scinitic Inirnpfionn. — The oldest inscription in
the Phu;nician aljihabet is the dedication of a
bronze vessel, found in Cypnis, which belongeil to
the temple of Hiual Lebanon, ami is now in the
Hibliotlicqne National at Paris. It was written in
the reign of Ilirani, king of the Sidonians.t and
may be a.ssigneil to the eml of the 11th century li.f.
or the beginning of the lOlh. Of somewhat later
date, about H'.H) B.C., is the Moabite Stone, which
contains a record of the chief events in the reign
of -Mesha, king of Moub, including his war with
.Vhab. It is now in the museum of the Louvre at
Paris, hi tlie s.ime collection is a long inscription
on the black bxsalt .sarcophagus of Kshmunazar,
king of Sidon, assigned to the close of the oth
century B.C. Among other important I'lacnician
inscriptions are a sacrilicial larilV found at Mar-
seilles; an Stb-century inscription from Nora,
in Sardinia ; the dedication of a bronze altar by
Vebaumelek, king of Gebal ; and numerous in-
scriptions of the Phu^iiician kings of Cyjinis, one of
them a bilingual, which gave tlie ki'V to the ( 'yiniote
writing (.see Pi1(J;mci.\ ). In the .same I'lKciiician
alphabet is the Hebrew record in the tiumel which
brought the water under Ophel to the pool of
Siloam. It is assigned to the reign either of
llezekiah or Manasseh in the 7th century B.C.
AVe have also a fragment of an inscription from
Herod's lem]ile at Jerusalem, and others from
tombs near Jerusalem, which are earlier than the
siege by Titus, and numerous early inscriptions
from Jewish cemeteries in the Crimea, at Aden,
Venosa, Aries, Tortosa, and Kome. At Palmyra
there are more than a hundred inscrijilions dating
from the 1st to the 3d century A.D., but mostly
written in the reign of Zenobia, and there are
others in many of the museums of Euroiie. A
Palmyiene inscription was found in 1S7S at South
Shields near the Koman wall. Sec P.\L.MVl!.\.
At Nablus there is a Samaritan inscrijition,
written in the reign of Justinian, containing a
version of the Decalogue. The most interesting
Arabic insciijition is one in Kutic characters in-
scribed with gold letters on blue-glazed tiles run-
ning rounil the C^ubbet-es-Sakra, or Dome of the
Kock, at Jerusalem, the great mostjue erected by
the Calif Abdalnialik in the year 72 .-v.n. The
Nabathean, or early Arabic alphabet, is used in
numerous inscriptions on the rocks at Sinai, and
also in the Hainan, (Uie of which dates from the
reign of Herod the Great. From the neighbour-
hood of Aden come a large number of in.scriptions
in the South Semitic alphabet ; and tlieie are two
early Etliiopic inscriptions dating from the 4th and
otii centuries A.D. at Axnm, in Abyssinia. At
Haji-abad and Nakbsh-i-Kustam, near Peisepolis,
are a number of inscriptions <if the Parthian and
Siissanian kings. In one of them Sapor 1. records
his victory over the Emperor Valerian and the
Homan army. These inscriptions are written in
a scri]it derived from the Araniean, and exhibit
the oldest f(niu of the Pehlevi alphabet. At Si-
ngan-fu, in China, is an inscription written partly
in Syriac characters and partly in Chinese, dated
in the year 7S1 .\.D., and recording the introduc-
tion of Christianity into China by the Ncstorian
missicuiaries.
The Ciiriiiis Itiscrijjtioniim Sciiiiticantm, a splen-
did and cshaustive work begun in 1881 by the
Erench .Academy under the editorship of M. Kenan,
will, when complete, include all the Semitic in-
scriptions ill i)liologra]iliic facsimile. The most
generally useful book dealing with Semitic inscrip-
tions is Scliriiilcr's /V/c I'hoiiizi.sclu; Sjinirltc ( 1SG9),
which contains :i'2.") of the most iinijortant. Others
will be found in (Jesenins, Momiiiniitii Li/igtia:
Phtenicia; (1821), and in the Vor/ms Iiixrrijitiutniin
Hehruiritritm. See PliiKNICI.i, Mo.MiITK STONE.
(Ircch [iiscnjdioii.s. — The oldest Greek inscrip-
tions hitherto discovered are the mortuary records
from the island of Santorin (Thcia) in the .Egeau,
which may belong to the 8tli an<l iHh, or even
to the lOtli, century li.c. The earlii'st inscrii)-
tions to which a delinilc> date can be as.~igiied are
the records cut on tlu^ knee of one of the colos.sal
statues at Alm-Sinibel, near the second cataract of
the Nile, by llreek mercenaries in the .service of
Psammelichus, king of Egypt. They date from the
eml of the 7th or the beginning of the Cth century
IGO
INSCRIPTIONS
B.C. These aie followeil liv the records on the
bases of tlie statues wliich liiioil the Sacred Way
leading to the temple of Apolh), at l}raiichid:v,
near .Miletus. They are all earlier than the Persian
war, and are as.*i};ned to the (ith century li.c. Of
about the same (Uite is the celebrated Si^u'an
inscription from the Troad, now in tlie British
.Museum. Of the 5th century is the lonj; and
important inserii)tion of Lygilaniis, found by Sir
C. Newton at Ilalicarnassus, which belongs to the
time of Herodotus. After the Persian war Greek
inscriptions became more numerous. The most
interesting, from an historical jioint of view, is
that inscribed on the trophy erected at Delphi
by the Greeks to commemorate the defeat of the
Persians at Plat;ea. It is now in the Hip])odr(>me
at Constantinople, where it was placed by Con-
stantine. Another inscription of historical interest
is the dedication to the Olympian Zeus of a bronze
helmet, which formed part of the spoils taken at
the battle of ('um;e in 474 B.C., when the naval
power of the Etruscans was shattered by Hiero I.,
king of Syracuse. It was fouiul at Olympia by Sir
W. Gell, and is now in the British iluseum (see
Etruria). It was the practice of the (Jreek states
to affix copies of treaties to the walls of their
temples. Several of these ha\e been preserved.
They are mostly between Athens and her allies,
and belong to the 5th and following centuries.
The earliest which we possess is a treaty between
the Eleans and the Hera-ans, which is assigned to
the middle of the 6th century B.C. It is engraved
on a bronze tablet which was hung in the temple
of Zeus at Olympia, and is now in tlie British
Museum. To the 5tli century belong the interest-
ing records of the battles fought by the Athenians
at Drabescos and Potida'a ; also a list, now in the
Louvre, of the Athenian citizens who fell in Cyprus
and Egy]it in the year 460 B.C. ; several enumera-
tions of tlie treasures deposited in the Parthenon ;
and detailed accounts relating to the erection and
cost of the Erechtheum at Athens. The foregoing
are the most imiiortant Greek inscriptions of the
early period. Those of later date are extremely
numerous. One of the most interesting, written
in Greek hexameters, was discovered in 1879 at
Brough in Westmorland. It is in memory of a
Syrian youth who is believed lo have perished
during the camjiaign of Septiinius Severns against
the Caledonians in the year 209 A.D. It is now in
the Fitzwilliam Museum at Cambridge.
It is estimated that 20,000 Greek inscriptions are
known to scholars. More tliaii 10,000 liave been pub-
lished by the l»erlin Academy in the C'or/>H-f Jtigcrip-
iionuM irrarartmi, of wliich tlie first two volumes, edited
by Bockli, appeared in 1,S2H ami 1S33 ; the third, edited
by Franz, in 1853 ; and the fourth, edited by Kirchhofl',
in 1S5G. Kirchhofl', Kulilcr. ami Ditteiiherger have edited
the Corpuit Iii^cripttonitm Attit'iiritin, of which the first
volume appeared in 1S73. The chief historical inscrip-
tions have heen imblished in a handy vohime by tlie
Clarendon Press at Oxford, edited by E. L. Hicks, under
tlie title A Manual of Greek Historical Inscripliuiis ( 1882).
The dialect inscriptions are given in Cauer's IhUctns^
and fac-similes of the inscriptions most valuable for
palajograiihical purposes by Kohl, Inxeriptioucx irractr
AntiquiHsima' ( Herlin, 1882). For the beginner in Greek
epigrapliy, Kiihl's Imaijincif liiscriptionam O'ra'caruni
( lierlin, 1883), a cheap and useful little book, and
lieinach's Trait' J'Epiiirapliie Grectpie (Paris, 1885) can
be recommended ; see also E. S. Roberts, An Introdnc-
tion to Greek Epit/raplitj (Camb. Univ, Press, 1888). See
table at AlI'H.vuet, Vol. I. p. 187.
From Cyjirns we have a number of Greek inscrip-
tions in a very ancient pre-alpliabetic iliaracter,
which is usually designated ius the Cypriote sylla-
bary, and is believed to be related to the scrijits
of Asia Minor and Northern Syria, such as the
Carian, the Lyciau, and the Ililtite, which are
criiition!
important of these is a long Lycian inscription
assigned to tin' 5tli century B.C.. found by Sir
C. Fellowes at .Xanlbiis, which is now in the British
Museum. A nunilierol Carian inscrijitions, usually
recording the visits of travellei-s, have been found
in Egypt, chietly at Aliydos and Abu-Simiiel.
The Hittite inscriptions, which are written in a
hieroglyphic character not vet ileci|iliered, are en-
graved" in Wright's Einjiire of the llittitm (1884).
The \'annic inscriptions from Armenia are written
in a form of the cuneiform character. Sec^ 1 1 iTTITliS.
Latin Inscriptions.— Qelwcca 60,000 and 70,000
Latin inscriptions are known. The oldest probalily
date only from the 3d century B.C. Of the early
inscriptions those fnun the tombs of the Scipios,
now in the Vatican Library, are of extreme interest.
These, together with several of the oldest Latin
inscriptions, are printed in the second apiiendix to
Koby s Latin Grantniiir (1872), and aie engraved
in facsimile in Kitschl's J'riscw LatinitiUis Munit-
incnta (1862).
Latin inscriptions are couched in a style of their
own, consisting of regular epigraphic formula', with
ccmventional modes of expressing names, paternity,
tribe, country, domicile, illegitimacy, adoption,
naturalisation, and with abbre\iated designations
of status for freemen, freedmen, slaves, children,
as well as of dignities and functions of all kinds in
all the various grades of official life, military, civil,
and sacerdotal. There are also conventional
formula' for epitaphs ; and others are employed
for edicts, dedicathms to the gods, inscriptions
on buildings, temples, a([Ueducts, and statues, as
well as sortes, execrations, ;ind theatrical tissar(r.
Besides formal inscriptions there are nunierous
qraffiti scribbled on walls, such as those fouml at
Pompeii, which have a literature of their own. As
a specimen of the way of interpreting an mdinary
Latin inscription, we may take the lirst three lines
of No. 4114 in the Corpus Insrrijilion inn l.iilinarnnt.
It begins thus: 'Til!. CL. CAXIiIIio. CdS. XVVIE.
.S. F. LEG. At(i(;. I'U. I'U. I'ROVINC. 11. C. ,' i^C.
These abbrei iations are to be expanded as follows :
Tibcrio Claiidio Camlido t'onsu/i, Quindccemriro
sacris faeiundis, Leffaio Aui/ustoriim duorum, pro-
prd'lorr Prorinria: Ifis/taniir Citerioris, Ikv.. Mor-
tuary inscriptions, which are extremely numerous,
usuallv begin with sonic stock formula, such as
D. M.S. (Diis Manihus Haerum) or H. S. E. (llic
sepultns est), and end with a prayer or pious wish,
such as O. S. T. T. L. (Opio si't tibi terra Icris).
The Eugubine Tables ((i.v. ) form the chief monu-
ment of tlie I^mbrian (lialect. There are about
5000 Etruscan inscri]ithin>, which have an exten-
sive literature of their own. See El'RlKIA.
A complete collection of Latin inscriptions has been
undertaken by the liorliii Academy, with the title
Corpuif In&criiitionuni Latenarunt, under the editorsliip
of Alommsen. Hiihner, and others, He^un in 1803, this
great work already o.\tends to 15 iiiiarto volumes, with-
out reckoning supiilements. The best book for a beginner
is W. M. Lindsay's Handbook of Latin Inscriptioitsii l.SDS)
or Cagnat's (\nirs d' Kpiiiraphie Latine (I'aris, 1889).
The most complete collection of the dialect inscriptions
of Italy — Etruscan, ITmhrian, Oseaii. and Menapiaii — is
Pabretti's Corpus } n.^criptionuin Italicartnu (2 vols.
1867-77), with several sujtplemeiits. Dit Omhrisehen
Spnichdenkmdfer^ edited i>y Aufrecht and Kirchhofi'
(2 vols. 184'.l-51), and Mommsen's iJie Unleritalisehcn
Dialcclen ( 1850) may also be consulted. The inscriptions
in the Catacombs will be found in De' Kossi's In^vrip-
tioncs Christiaiuv uriii.i Ilonio; See L.VTIN, (iH.vt'Frn.
Jinnic Inscriptions have been found in great
numbers in Sweden, Norway, Denmark, Yorkshire,
Cumberland, Kent, and the Isle of Man. Among
the oldest is one assigneil to the 1st century .\.D.
on a rock near Trondhjem in Norway ; and the
Tune Stone, also in Norway, which is assigned
INSCRIPTIONS
INSECTIVOROUS PLANTS 161
to the 3(1 century. One of tlie most inteipstint;
is on ;i nin>sive goUlen torque found at liuzeu in
Walliicliia. This is a relic of the invasion of the
Dariuliian jirovinces l«y tlie Goths in the :id century.
At t'ollinjiliani, in Yorkshire, is a Kunic inscription
in memory of Kiny Oswiu, who «as murdered in
6.50 A. v., and there is another at liewcastle in
memory of King Alohith, who died in 670. At
l!arns]iihe, in C'undierhuul, there is a rock witli a
lonj; inscri|ition reeonlinj; the treacherous slauf,'hter
hy l;ol)ert de Vau.\, a Norman knight, of (_;illhie.s
Buetli, owner of tlie lands of Lanercost. The cross
at Kutliwell (q.v. ), near Dumfries, contains a por-
tion of C:edmon's poem on the crucilixion.
The bust collection of Runic inscriptions is by G.
Stephen.s, The OhI Northern Runic Monumentt of
Scamlituu'ia and Emjland (3 vols. 1S66-84). A selection
of the more important will be found in tlie linnilliook of
thr Old Northern Runic Mmiumciit.^ (I.SS4 i, by the same
editor. See Runes, Og.vms, Scui.ptorhd Stoxks.
American Inscriptions. — In Greenland, on the
sliores of BalHn Bay and Davis Strait, a few
fenuine Runic inscriptions have been discovered,
'hey probably date from tlie 11th and l'2th cen-
turies, and were doubtless executed liy Icelandic
colonists or explorers. Kecords, variously con-
jectured to be Kunic. Punic, Celtiberic, or Xumid-
iaii, have also been found in the United States,
notably on the Dighton Kock in Massachusetts, in
the island of Monliegan oil' the coast of Maine, in
the tirave Creek Alound in Virginia, and else-
where. They prove, however, on examination, to
be either natural markings on the rock, or the lialf-
effaced jiictorial records of Red Indian tribes, or
even inscriptions by early European colonists.
Very dill'erent are the numerous inscriptions on
the walls of the palaces and temples in the ruined
cities of Yucatan, Honduras, Mexico, and Guate-
mala. They are written in unknown characters,
which appear to constitute a system of hieroglyphic
or pictorial writing, akin ])rol>alily to that of the
Aztec MSS. , which as yet have been only imper-
fectly deciphered.
The Cuneiform Inscriptions, from which the con-
temporary annals of Babylonia and Assyria have
been deciphered in recent years, form by themselves
a vast department of st\idy. The oldest may date
from about .30(K) B.C. Une of the most notable is
the great historical inscription of Darius Hysta.spes,
engi-aved on the perpendicular face of a rock, 400
feet above the plain, at Behistun, in Pei'sia. It
contains a thousand lines of writing, in three
languages, Pei-sian, Proto-Medic, and Semitic
Babylonian. Not only is it of immense historical
importance, giving an authentic record of the events
of tlie reign of Darius, but it is of great interest as
having furnished the clue by which the cuneiform
writing was lii-st deciphered. Among other cunei-
form inscriptions may be enumerateil the annals of
Sargon from Khorsabad ; the account of the cam-
paigns of Sennacherib, engraved on a colossal bull
at Koynnjik ; the inscription of Samas-Rimmon,
son of .Shalmaneser, a contemporary of Aliab and
Jehu; the inscri]ition of Shalmaneser II., giving
an account of the capture of Damascus ; the long
historical inscriptions of Tiglath-pileser I., of
Sargon I., and o( Ks-arhaddon, and the accimnt of
the Egyptian campaign of Assurbanij>al, besides the
inscription of Ivhamnmrabi, king of liabylon, which
is older than the Exodus, of Irukh, of Nar.im Sin,
of Neliuchadnezzar, of NalKiniilus, Ids successor,
and the extremely interesting in.scription on the
tomb of Cyrns. See ASSYRIA, Babylonia, Behis-
TLN, ClSElFORM.
The cliief collection of cuneiform inscriptions is The
Cuneiform In.icripfions of Wentf-m Attia { o vols, folio,
1861-70), cilited by .Sir H. Rawliiison and K. Norris.
Many of the most iiitere.-iting of the cuneiform and
271
E^QTitian inscriptions are translated in the more acces-
sible volumes of the Records of the J\ist.
JCt/i/j-itiK/i Inscriptions. — The oldest Egyptian
inscription to wliicfi a date can be assigned is one
of Sent, a king of the second ilynasty, who is
believed liy Mariette to have lived about 470(J B.C.
This venerable record is now among the treasures
of the Ashmolean Museum at Oxford. The his-
torical inscriptions of the IStli and lOtb dynasties
are the most numerous and interesting. The
records of the Asiatic campaigns of Thothmes I.
and Thothmes III., of Seti I. and Ranieses II., are
all at Thebes. They are older tlian the Exodus,
.and constitute the chief materials from which the
history of ancient Egypt has been reconstriu'ted.
Two of the faces of tlie obelisk called Cleoi>atra's
Needle, now on the Tli.ames Embankment, bear the
name of Thothmes III., who first erected it ; on the
other two sides Ranieses II. has caused his own
name to be inscribed. On the wall of a temple at
Karnak we have an account of Sliishak's invasion
of Juda'.a in the reign of Rehoboiim. One of the
latest of the Egyptian inscriptions is the Ro.setta
Stone, a trilingual record in Greek, hieroglyphic,
and hieratic characters, engraved on a blocK of
basalt. Its interest arises from the fact of its
havini' atlbrded the clue which enabled Young
and Cliampollion to decipher the Egyptian writing.
See Egypt, Hiekoglyphics.
Indian Inscriptions are extremely numerous.
M.any of them are griints to temples, engr.aved on
copper plates. The oldest and most interesting
are the edicts of Asoka, the great Buddhist king,
who reigned over Northern Indi.a soon after the
inv.asion of Alexander. There are seventeen ver-
sions of these edicts, two engr.aved on pillars at
Delhi and Allahabad, and the rest on rocks in
\'arious parts of Northern India, from Orissa in the
east to Gujarat in the west. Of later date are the
inscriptions in caves, topes, and temples. There
are also old Pali inscriptions in Bunna, Java, and
Ceylon.
The best collections of Indian inscriptions are in the
Corpus Lnscriptionum Indicarum, edited by Cunning-
ham (1877); tlie Archaolotjieal Survcu of Western India,
edited by Burgess (1874-78); the Elements of .South
Indiem Pulaoijrapjhii, by Eurnell (1878); and Miiller's
Ancient Inscriptions in Cef/ton (1883). The best guide
to Indian palaeography is Holle's Tabel ran Vud en Nieuw
Indische Atphalnten (Batavia, 1882).
See Alph.\bet, Whiting, Pal.eogkaphv, Numi.s-
MATIcs. .Accounts of most of the fore;;oing inscriptions
will be found ir The Alphabet, by Canon Taylor (1883).
IllSi'C'tivora (Lat., 'insect-eating'), an order
of mammals, the members of whicli— shrews,
moles, hedgehogs, and the like — are mostly terres-
trial, usually nocturnal in h.aliit, and sni.all ill size.
They feed iiKiinly on insects and siii:ill animals, and
in ad;iptation to this diet, which often |days a
useful part in the economy of nature, the summits
of the molar teeth are beset with small conical
tuViercles. A few, such as the moles, burrow ; a
few — e.g. Potamogale — are aipiatic ; while the
divergent Galcopitliecns. if included in this order,
liJis among its peculiarities that of gliding Ihrough
the air (.see FLYING Ani.m.m.s). The majority,
however, have the general habit of siirews.
Though often externally resembling various
rodents, the Insectivores are entirely distinct in
their anatomy. Altogether over two hundred
living s|i('cies are known, and many fossils, espe-
cially from Tertiary strata. The Insectivora are
themselves lowly mammals, bin lea<l on to lials.
f^ee Hkhoehoi:, .Mammalia, Mole, Shkew ; Dobson,
Monoiiruph of the Ineirtirorn (bond. 188'2); Th. Uill,
Siinopaia of Inneclicorous Manimah : Hull. (Jeol. and
CJeoji. Surrci), U.S.A. (Washington, 187.">).
Illscclivoroiis I'lailis. There are several
hundred species of Dicotyledons which in some
162
INSECTIVOROUS PLANTS
way or other catcli insects and use tlieiii for food,
either digestinj; their bodies or sini])ly ahsortiing
the proihicts of their decomposition. Tliey are
reinarkahle for the adaptations of structure and
function by which the insects or other small animals
are secured, and for iheir obvious ap))roach to the
animal mode of nutrition. For it is a familiar
fact that all typical plants feed at what may he
called a very low chemical level, oblaining the
required carbon from the carbonic acid i,'as of the
air, aud the e(|ually essential nitrogen from am-
monia, nitrates, and the liUe in rain-water aud soil;
while animals, on the other band, do not derive
their carbon from simpler substances than starch,
sugar, aud fat, nor their nitrogen from a lower
source than the allmmens manufactured by other
animals or by plants. The insectivorous forms,
however, lueak down the distinction in so far as
they feed like aninuils on substances at a hi"h
chemical level ; and the unity becomes more strik-
ing as we recognise that many of the insectivorous
plants exhibit urarked sensitiveness, mobility, and
digestive power.
Altogether there are nearly five hundred species
of insectivorous plants, referable to about twelve
genera, and to half a dozen Uicotyledonous orders.
They are repi'esented in every great geograjihical
region, perhaps with the e.Kception of tlie African
wastes and the Argentine pampas. For conveni-
ence of treatment we follow Kerner in recognising
three sets : ( 1 ) those with jiits or cavities, into
which small animals enter, but from which they are
unable to return — e.g. Bladderworts and Pitcher-
plants ; (2) those in which the insect-catching
depends wholly on the viscidness of the leaves — e.g.
Drosophyllum ; (3) those which exhibit distinct
movements which help to secure the insects — e.g.
Sundew and Fly-tra)).
1. ]Vitk Fit-like Traps. — The Common Bladder-
wort ( Utricularia culijarix, ord. Lentibulariace;e
or Utriculariacea») is a
rootless float ingwater-
jdant, not uncommon
on tarns and marshy
lochs, but l)y no means
consi)icuous except in
summer, when its
handsome golden blos-
soms are raised on
a flower-stalk about
six inches above the
water. Among the
slender leaves borne
on the straggling float-
ing stem arc numerous
bladders, to which the
plant owes its name.
They are much modi-
lied dimpled leaf-
organs, and form a
simple but ell'ective
lr.i]>. As the ligure
^hows, they are hollow
chambers, entered by
a door or valve which
Fig. 1. — Utricularia (irafiana : opens inwards only,
o, section of bladder of ffricHfaria and allows of no
iKtjUcUi. egiess. Tiny crusta-
ceans, known as
water-fleas, whether chased by their enemies,
attracteil by a slight mucilage, or promi)ted by
fatal curiosity, clamlier on the antenna-like bristles
which project from and perhaps protect the blad-
ders. So far they are safe enough, but if they
push their way through the narrow door, tiiey
find within the bladder a prison and a tomb.
Escape is impossilile, deatli ensues, and the
products of decomposition are absorbed by suck-
ing cells (fourfold hairs) on the walls of the
bladder. Towards the end of sunnuer, when the
water no longer swarms with crustaceans, the
Utricularia begins to die oil', the life is ccmcen-
trated in terminal buds, the bladders fill with
water, and the [)lant sinks to the liottom. Thence
it rises again in spi-ing with a fresh equijiment
of buoyant bladdei's. There are numerous .species
of Utricularia, of which several are a(|uatic like
the above: while others, especially in the tropics,
are terrestrial. The booty of course changes with
the situation, but the general habit seems to be
the same throughout. 'We can only mention
an allied genus, Genlisea, which has traps of a
different pattern, approaching those of the pitcher-
plants.
Among the pitclicr-plants, the most familiar
belong to the genus Nepenthes (ord. Nepentbacea-),
which includes nearly forty species, videly dis-
tributed by swamps and jungle pools, 'from New
Caledonia and New Guinea over tropical Australia
to the Seychelles and Madagascar, over the Sunda
Islands and Philippines to Ceylon, Hengal, and
Coehin-Cbina. ' The young ]dant has a ro.sette of
half-|irostrate leaves, quite unlike those of the adult,
with a terminal hooked crest overhanging a slightly
hollowed broad lower portion. A stem shoots up,
however, bearing other leaves, broad and spathu-
late in form, ending in a cylindrical tendril, which
twists round adjacent branches and develo|is
terminally into a large cavity or ]iitcher. The
tendrils gr.adually lift the stem, and over the pool
there e\entually hang dozens of jjitcbers. These
vary in size from a couple of inches to about a foot.
Fig. 2. — Pitclier-plants :
A, Nepenthes Phyllamphora ; B, Sarraeeiiia purpurea ;
C, Durlinglonia exidfarniau
are usually luigbtly coloured with red, yellow, and
jiurplish Idotches, and bear two lateral llangos
aii<l a ternunal lid, which opens when the pitcher
attains its full size. Partly by the colour and
partly by the honey glands of the lid and jiitcher
margin, insects are attracted : they sip the sweet
secretion ami venture I'arlher down, only to land
im an exceedingly smooth, waxeil, sli])pery 'con-
ducting surface,' whence they fall into the lower
third or half of the |iitcher, which contains water
and digestive secretion. When an insect falls,
the secretion is stimulated and becomes acid. As
analysis has shown the ]iresence not oidy of v.-irions
acids (malic, cilronic, fonnic) but also of a peptic
ferment, the fluid is exactly like that of an animal
stomach, and the result is the same.
INSECTIVOROUS PLANTS
163
Another well-known pitclier-])lant is Sarracenia
purpurea ( ord. Sanaceniacea" ), widely distributed
m swanim' regions of eastern \ortli America from
Hudson Bay to Florida. .V rosette of half ))ros-
trate hollow leaves surrounds an erect Howerstalk.
The pitchers are topped by a crest, which is decor-
ated with reddish streaks, and disposed so that it
catches rain-drops and lets them slide into the
pitcher. Insects are attracted liy the sweet secre-
tion of jrlaudular hail's on the lid or crest, wander
farther down on a so-called ' conductinj; surface,'
covered with downward-pointed hairs whicli forbid
return, and eventually fall hopelessly into the
water occupying the lower part of the pitcher.
There they are decomposed and absorbed. Several
inches of half-rotten insects are found at the base,
renderini' the water brown and putrid, and emit-
ting a disagreeable smell. That digestion does
not occur seems certain, and the fact is confirmed
by Uiley's observation that two insects — a fly
(Sarcophafia sarracenia) and one of the Lepidop-
tera (Xanthoptera semicrocea) — brave the horrore
of the trap in safety, and utilise the dungheap of
rotten insects as a suitable place wherein to deposit
eggs. The grubs, which would perish if digestion
occurred, thrive well and eventually bore their
way through the sides of the leaf. Birds occasion-
ally discover the store of insects and rifle the
pitchers with their beaks. While all the species
of Sarracenia probably agree in being non-digestive,
they present considerable diflerences of structure,
which we cannot here describe. Beside the above
species — S. purpurea — may be ranked Helianiphora
nutans (from Mount Roraima in British Guiana).
In S. rariolaris and in Darlingtonia californica
(from the Sierra Nevada) the pitcher is capped by a
helmet, so that no water can enter ; the contained
liquid must therefore be wholly a secretion, though
still only putrefactive. Finally, .S'. drumnwndii
and S. undulata are in external form almost nearer
to Nepenthes and Cephalotus than to the other
species of San-acenia.
In the two species of Sarracenia last mentioned
only some of the leaves are modified into pitchers,
the others remaining green, lance-shaped, and
nnhollowed. So is it with Cephalotus folUcularis
( Cephalotace.e, near ord. Ribe-
siacea?), which is restricted to a
limited area near All)any in
Western Australia. Here in the
usual basal rosette only the lower
leaves are pitchers, two inches or
so in height, best adapted for
catching ants and ground-loving
insects. The outer surface bears
ridges which help the insects up,
and there are the usual attractions
of bright colour and sweet secre-
tion. Intoxicated, it may Ije, with
the honey, or merely inquisitive
and nnwarj% the visitors pass from
the sides or from the iiali-open lid
to the slippery though corrugated
margin, and thence fall into the li<iuid which lilts
half the pitcher. Endeavours to return are l)alked
by a projecting shelf, by an area beset with stifl"
downwaril-pointed papillfe, and by sharp spines
round about the inturned margin of the collar.
As the glandular secretion has an acid reaction
and a solvent power, Cephalotus is also to be
credited with tnie digestion.
In regard to the murpholorpj of the pitchers, we
shall simply cite the recent conclu.sions of Mac-
farlane : ( 1 ) The leaf in Nepenthes, Helianiiihora,
Sarracenia, and Darlingtonia is compound, and
consists of from two to five ]>airs of lealh-ts ; (2)
there is a marked tendency tf> dorsal fusion of the
leaflets from apex to ba-se ; (.3) such fuseil leaflets
Fig. 3.— Pitcher
of Cepfialotus
foUicularis.
are seen in the broad basal part of Nepenthes leaf,
and in the flaps and lids ot the various pitchers ;
(4) the i)itcher itself is a dee]) dorsal involution
of the midrib just above the termination of the
fused upper pair of leaflets, except in Cephalotus,
where, as Dickson clearly showed, it is an involu-
tion of the leaf-ldade.
\"ery ditlerent from the pitcher-plants, and with
aiipliances less involved for insect-catching, is the
Toothwort (Lathra-a sguamaria, ord. Scrophulari-
ace;e)> a pale, chloropliyll-less parasite found in
Britisli woods, battening on the roots of trees and
shrubs. Excepting the flower-stalk, the stem is
virtually underground ; it bears suctorial roots and
tooth-like leaves. The latter are hollow, and are
entered through a nanow aperture by many kinds of
small animals. These seem to be entangled in pro-
toplasmic exudations within the leaf-cavity, find
e.xit iuiiiossible, die, decompose, and are absorbed.
Along with the toothwort ought also to be ranked
Bartsia aljiina, whose underground buds show
a somewhat similar structure and carnivorous
habit.
2. Plants which catch Insects by Viscid Secretion
without Pits or Movement. — The best representative
of this set is Drosophijllum liisitanicum (ord.
Droseraceie), a native of Portugal and Morocco,
growing with luxuriance in sandy or rocky places,
to a height of about a span. The long linear
leaves are richly beset with glands, many borne
on long stalks, red in colour, and copious in
an acid, viscid, dewdrop-like secretion, the others
invisible to the naked eye, without stalks, colour-
less, and with an acid, di>solvent secretion, which
is only exuded in response to the stimuhis of some
nitrogenous substance. Insects of various kinds
alight on the long leaves, knock off the drops from
the stalked glands, move anxiously about knocking
ofl' more and more until they are thoroughly
besmeared, and their trachea? choked. Giving up
the struggle, they sink on to the surface of the
leaf, where the sessile glands begin the dissolvent
and absorbent process. Kerner notes that the
insect-catching is so eft'ective that the peasants
about Oporto use the Drosophyllum in their dwell-
ings as a convenient substitute for fly-]iaper.
3. Plants u-hich exhibit Distinct Klorements in
their Insect-catching. — The Common Butterwort
[Pinguicula vulgaris), belonging to the same order
as Ltricnlaria, is a widely distributed representa-
tive of a genus including about forty sjiecies, all
growing on more or less marshy ground (see fig. at
BUTTER\V0RT ). From a rosette of plump glisten-
ing leaves there rises for several inches an upright
stalk, bearing a beautiful two-lipped, spurred
flower of a violet colour. The leaves have a
di.stinet fungus-like odour, doubtless attractive,
and are covered with glands, some stalked like
miniature mushrooms, others almost .se.ssile, both
wit4i a copious, viscid, acid secretion. This serves
as 'insect-lime,' but, besides retaining the unwary
midges, it finally digests them. Drops of rain may
fall on the leaves, or pebbles may land there,
but without noteworthy ett'ect ; a small insect,
however, stimulates a copious How of the fatal
secretion. But there is also movetuent ; for, when
an in.sect is caught, the margins of the leaves
slowly curl inwards for an ho\ir or two, thus sur-
roumllng the booty, or shifting it nearer the centre,
in any cji.se exjiosing it to more glands. After
<ligestion, the results and the surplus exudation
are absorbed, leaving finally the undigested skin
of the insect on the more or less dry leaf surface.
More than loO yeai's ago Linn;rus noted how the
Lapps used tlie butterwort for curdling milk, a
property due to a rennet-like fennent which the
plant has in adilition to the iligestive or ]>eptic.
The antiseptic qualities of the ferments perliaps
164
INSECTIVOROUS PLANTS
justify another oM custom of applying the leaves
to the sores of cattle.
Beside the hutterwort on tlie marshy moor
we are likely to liml Drosera rolinicli/olia (ord.
Droseraceoe) or some otlier species of sundew.
Again, we have a rosette of prostrate leaves, from
amid which rises a stalk with inconspicuous wliitish
flowei-s. Very striking, and constant in the forty
or so species, are the reil glandular 'hairs,' 'ten-
tacles,' or processes which grow at ditl'erent lengths
from the ujiper surface and margins of the leaf.
These are complex little structures with a head of
glandular cells, supplied hy numerous water-pipes
(wood-cells or tracheides), and surnmnded exter-
nally hy a drop of viscid secretion. These tentacles
are sensitive, mohile, secretory, digestive, and
ahsorptive. To drops of rain they are indifferent,
to irritant particles they may respond l)y increased
secretion ; out wlicn a uiidge or a sm.all particle of
nitrogenous food is placed upon them, they hecome
marvellously though hy no means rapidly active.
A living midge, which mistakes the secretion drops
for nectar, lights on the leaf, and is forthwith en-
tangled : .as it struggles it becomes more hopelessly
besmeared, and meanwhile the secretion becomes
truly digestive or
pejitic. More than
that, however, the
' tentacles' curve down
upon the victim, first
one, and then, after an
iritcrvalof ten minutes,
another, till all the two
hundred or perhaps
half of them close upon
the dying midge. The
whole leaf may become
concave if the booty is
large, and tlien, after
an h(nir or two of
leisurely bending, the
leaf looks like a closed
fist. Many kinds of
insects are thus
caught, and even a
dragon-Hy may fall
victim to the combined
efforts of several adja-
cent leaves. The sen.sitiveness is finer than our
most delicate nerves or balances, for a sundew hair
will respond to a millionth of a grain of stimulating
nitrogenous matter. The response is marked by
the increa.se<l secretion and liy the bending, while
internal changes are traceable under the microscope
passing from one cell to another down the tentacle.
As one leaf may be seen with the reuuiins of a dozen
insects, and as there are half a dozen or so well-
formed leaves, the carnivorous diet of the sundew
is often considerable, and it has been demonstrated
that the yield of seeds is better in those which are
able to gratify their natural appetite.
Venu-i's Flytrap [ D/oikfh nniscipiila), which
Linna'us called the miracle of nature, is in several
ways a more elaborate insectivorous i>lant than
any of the .above, and is the climax of the order
Droseraceic. A native of the eivst of Xorth .Amer-
ica, with very local ilistril)Ution, from [..ong Island
to Floriila, it grows on moorland, with a circle of
more or less prostrate leaves round the l«use of a
many-llowered stalk, which rises 4-1) inches from
the ground. The leaves, about 4 inches in leni.-tli,
consist of a spathulate stalk, which is constricted
to the midrib at its junction with the broa<l blade.
The halves of the bi.aile ,ire movable on one another
along the! midrib, and close together as this volume
would do if titled with au automatic dosing' spring.
Round each margin are twelve to tweutv long
teeth, which interlock in rat-trap fashion with those
on each half of the
which rise obli(]uely.
Fig. 4. — Leaf of Drosrni
rotiindffolia seen from abuve.
of the opposite side ; the centre of the leaf beai-s
numerous rosy digestive glands ; and there are
blade three sensitive hail's,
l)Ut bend Hal on a basal
joint when the leaf closes. The blade .shuts up in
S to 10 seconds
when one of
the sensitive
hairs is stimu-
lated, and if an
insect is caught
in the trap a
profuse .secre-
tion is exuded
fro m the
glands. Diges-
tion goes on for
a week or a
fortnight ac-
cording to the
size of the
booty ; finally
the digested
material and
the secretion v
are absorbed, \^, ^^,
and the leaf
then reopens. Fig. .5.— Dionsea muscipula :
There is evi- ", kaf.
dently division
of labour to a greater extent than in the sundew,
for the marginal teeth, the sensitive hairs, .and
iligestive glands have se|)arate functions. 'I'he
delicacy of sensitiveness, the rapidity of uuixement,
and the copiousness of the digestive secretion are
noteworthy, while it is also significant that JJurdon
Sanderson has detected electric currents similar
to those ol)served in the neuromuscular activity of
animals.
Superficially somewhat like the bladderwort, in
its leaf-structure very like Diona'a, is an acpiatic
plant, Alilriirdiula resiriilosii (ord. Droseracca' ), at
iiome in south and central Europe, nourishing in
l)onds and pools where clear water is warmed by the
summer sun. A thin rootless lloating stem bears
whorls of peculiarly modified leaves, ilies away at
one end .as it grows on the other, forms in autumn
a concentrated terminal tuft, wliich sinks to the
mud ,at bottom and hibernates. Thence it rises
again in spring lightened of its stores of starch and
with buoyant air-spaces. The leaves consist of a
spatlmlate stalk and a broad blade, which folds
•along the nudrih like that of the lly-lrap. The
m.argin is finu. with small teeth, which meet those
of the opposite side wlicn the leaf is closed ;
externally a few long bristles project ; the surface
be.ars numerous longish hairs and also small siellale
structures : there are large and small glands. When
the water-lleas, insect-larva', or even diatoms rest
on the .surface of the leaf, the half-blades close
quickly as in the lly-lrap, the vici ims are imprisoned,
and, though Ihey may remain .■ilive for some ilays,
thi're seems no doubt of their final absorption.
Other species of .AIdrovan<la from Australia ami
Bengal seem to have the same habit.
Besides the true insect-catidiers noted above, there
are not a few jdants — e.g. among the Saxifrages,
Sedums, and Primulas, on the glandular .surfaces of
which in.sects are often entangled. These iilants
suggest how the insectivorous habit might iiegin,
and there are two species in the sundew order,
liiirUhiUi tlnitdla and /!i/li/i\ qi(jiniliii, in which
the insecl-calching seems lo be more than incipient.
Among the possibly insectivorous forms we must
also include a Brazilian fern, KhiphtKjhutumn ytul in-
oxum, anil several liverw<nts — e.g. Anomncliidii
iintrosn and J*/iif,s/ott'toti nn'hli^tiyiformc. Zoj>f has
recently described an interesting fungus {Aii/iro-
INSECTIVOROUS PLANTS
165
botrys oligospora ) which catches small tin caclwoiiiis
in great numbei-s in its nooses, lidilles tJK'ir bodies
with a growth of tine threads (hyphie), and absorbs
the tissues.
Utilitij. — The adaptations for catching and
utilising insects are so numerous and etiective,
that we are apt to conclude too readily that the
insectivorous habit is not only advantageous but
necessary for the health of the plants. There are,
however, several facts which suggest caution.
Thus it hiis often been noticed that a leaf of
sundew or fly-trap may suffer, and even die, from
the effects of too big a meal, a serious enough
objection to utility were the casualty not as rare
in nature as it is common in experiment. More
important is the ditticulty raised by cultivatoi's,
who ])oint to all sorts of insectivorous plants
flourishing perfectly without any insect food. To
this it can be retorted that the natural conditions
of scanty nitrogenous supply are probably not
observed in the greenhouse, but the tacts force us
to al>andon belief in the necessit// of the insectivor-
ous habit. We can only maintain that it is
normally advantageous, a conclusion confirmed in
some cases by the decrease in the quantity and
quality of the seeds when no insects are avail.-ible.
From this, however, we need not conclude that
the insectivorous function is the complete or even
the original function of any of the curious leaf-
structures above described.
Physiological Summary. — (1) It is a familiar
fact that sundew and butterwort generally grow
among bog-moss on the moors, hardly rooted in the
soil, and therefore less adapted than ordinary
plants to suck itp the all-important nitrogenous
compounds. The same relative scantiness in
nitrogenous supplies is more or less marked in
the habitats of other insectivorous plants, and
doubtless rendei-s them more dependent on their
peculiar animal diet. All are said to be averse
to the presence of much lime. (2) The diet is to
some e.\tent a matter of chance ; both creeping
and flying insects, small flies and even large moths,
besides spiders, and centipedes are caught by the
terrestrial and pendent traps. The aquatic bladder-
worfs most frequent victims are the small crusta-
ceans known ius Cyprids ; while the suliterranean
Lathnea's ])risoners vary from the rank of mites
down to infusoriaus. (3) Tlie attractions of
insectivorous plants are manifold ; a mushroom
like odour in the butterwort lures insects which
frequent fungi, and some of the others also appeal
to the sense of smell ; the ' dew-drops ' of Drosera,
the rosy patch on the fly-tra|), the bright colours
of many pitchers are obvious enough cbainis ;
while the frequent exudation of honey is the most
direct lure of all. (4 ) In Nepenthes and Cephalotu.s,
Drosera ami Drosophylluni, Diona-a and Pinguicula,
the bodies of the insects caught are digested, that
is to say, chemically altered into soluble substances,
which are absorbed by the cells of the leaf. The
process agrees with animal digestion in the net
result, and in the presence of a pe])tonising ferment
and an acid. 'loo little is known al)out the
ferment or ferments, and also about the various
acids present ; but there is no doubt in regard to
their digestive activity. It is very important,
however, to recognise, with Morren ami others,
that in plant^s iligestion and the activity of ferments
are by no means confined to the insectivorous
forms. Thus the diasta.se which in germinating
seeds, &c. turns starchy material into sugar is
virtually the same as the ferment in the saliva, \c.
of animals ; similarly in both plants and animals
there is an inverting ferment which turns cane-
sugar into graj)e-sugar ; there is also an emulsify-
ing or sai)onifying ferment in jilants, acting on
fata and oils in a manner comparable to part of
the n'lle of the pancreatic juice. J. K. (Jreen has
described a rennet-forming ferment, comparable to
that of the calf's stomach, not only in I'inguicnla,
but in the flowers of Galliii/ii rcriim, in the stem
of Cleiiuili.s citalba, in the petals of the artichoke,
&c. : finally, a peptonising ferment has been
detected not only in in.sectivorous plants, but in
such diverse situations as the late.x of Carica
papaya and the seeds of Vicia. The protoplasmic
changes of plants are comparable to those of ani-
mals not only fundamentally, but also in numy
details, and the insectivorous plants are not
unique, but simply conspicuous illustrations of
vegetable digestion. (.5) There is no doubt that
both the products of digestion and the results of
decomposition are absorbed by the insectivorous
l)lants. Large stoniata, protruding papilhv. suctorial
' hairs,' and other structures in tlie difl'erent jilants
are sometimes credited with this function, about
which little deflnite information is yet forthcoming.
An interesting, if hardly conclusive, corroboraticm
of the absorbent activity is given by Clark, who
fed Drosera with flies saturated in citrate of
lithium, and some days later detected with the
sjiectroscope the presence of the' metal through-
out the whole plant, in fact even in the flower,
((i) The .sensitiveness .so marked in siuulew and
fly-trap is not of course unique, but is illustrated
in the leaves, tendrils, stamens, stigmas, &C. of
many plants, and may be compared — though we
cannot go much further — with that of animals.
Both Drosera and Diona'a respond to various kinds
of stimuli, but usually and most readily to that of
nitrogenous substances. Darwin gives numerous
illustrations of the sundew's sensitiveness to
extremely homceopathic doses ( -000095 of a milli-
gramme) of nitrate of ammonia and the like. In
the fly-tiap the sensitiveness, as we have seen, is
definitely localised in the six jointed hairs. ( 7 ) The
movements of sundew, fly-trap, and Aldrovanda,
like those in the leaves of the sensitive jilant or
the stem of the hop, the stamens of the barlierry or
the stigma of Mimulus, are associated with changes
in the cells of the plant. It is e.asy enough to
compare the movements with those of contracting
muscles ; but we are still far from being able to
work out the comparison or determine the diverg-
ence. Four points may be noticed: (a) In the
tentacles of Drosera the movement is associated
with a visible change in the contents of the cells.
Darwin described this, perhaps mistakenly, as
'aggregation of the protoplasm,' and comjiared it
witli analogous changes seen elsewhere. From
what we know of movement in other jilants, it is
likely that the activity of the insect-catchers is
connected with a change in the water tension or
turgidity of the cells, (h) lu the movement of
Diona'a Darwin detected a measurable contraction
or alteration of form ; the same liiis been seen by
Cohn, Haeckel, and others in the mobile organs of
other plants, and at once su<'gests the change of
form in mu.scle-Hbres. (c) I'liough there is no
trace of anything like the nerves of animals, there
is no doubt that a stimulus provoking motion
pa.sscs from cell to cell and from part to part in
t>oth sundew and fly-trap. ('/) Finally, liurdon
Sanderson has described a resting and an action
current of electricity in Diona-a, and concludes
tli.at ' the property by virtue of which the excitable
structures of the leaf res]iond to stimulation is of
the same nature as that jio^sessed by the >imilarly
endowed structures of .animals.'
.\lthough our knowledge of insectivorous plants
dates from I7ti>>. when Kllis sent to I.innaus a
description of the lly-trai) and its habits, structural
investigations prevailed until Darwin in 1860
began the thorough experimental study of in-
sectivorous jdants, comparing their sensitivene.ss,
166
INSECT-POWDER
INSECTS
mobility, ami digestive powers with those of
animals. Since then the physiological interest of
these plants has been kept steadily in view, our
analysis of their vital processes lieconiing with
each year more complete. At the same time, the
morphology, especially of the pitcher plants, has
been studied with great success. The most diffi-
cult question concerning the origin and evolution
of the insect-catching structures and functions is
still a proljlem of the future.
See the following general works from which a guide to
the vast literature will l>e obtained : C. Darwin, Inncc-
tirorous Plants (1875); O. Drude, in Schenk's Hand-
buch dcr Botanik (-voL i. 1881); P. Geddes, article 'In-
sectivorous Plants,' Eiicyrlo. Brit. : A. Kerner von Mari-
laun, Ptlanztnhben (vol. i. 1887); J.Sachs, Phi/sioloi/i/ of
P/« »<.«.' trans, hy Marshall Ward (1887); S.' H. Vines,
Phiisioloijy of Plants ( 188(5 ).
Insect-powder is a greenish-yellow powder
having a sRghtl.N' pungent odour. When genuine
it is prepareil by powdering the closed Howers of
various species of Pyrethrum, especially P. car-
neiim, P. rosciim, and P. cinerancFfolium. When
dusted on Heas and other insects it soon stupefies
and linall.v kills them, but whether this is due to
subtle emanations from the oil or to the contact
with the powder is undetermined. It is generall.y
stated that the volatile oil does not possess this
action, but the writer has noticed that when
midges alight on a hand which has previously been
rubbed with an alcoholic tincture of the powder
they become stupefied, and in many instances
rapidly die. The powder is innocuous to man,
although it is stated to cause jiartial confusion of
ideas in those who sleep in a room in which much
of it has been used.
Insects are numerically the largest class of
animals, occupying among Invertebrates a position
in many ways similar to that held by birds in the
bacliboned series. Widely separated as birds and
insects are in structural rauK, they have many
common characters : both are very rich in species,
and exliil>it marvellous variety within narrow
range ; both are capable of true flight, are on an
average very active in habit, and abound in illus-
trations of ga.v colouring ; Iioth have highly de-
veloiJed sensory and nervous organs.
fi((i.v. ), ir
iiveloping
(q.v.), a ventral chain of ganglia, and a dorsal
brain. Like Peripatus (q.v.) — a .survivor of the
ancestral stock — and like the lower class of Myrio-
pods, insects breathe by air-tubes or trachea', and
are therefore included under the title Tracheata.
But, contrasted with I'eripatus and Myriopods,
insects have made two great steps of progress : the
body is centralised, with locomotor limbs reduced
to three pairs (whence the term He.xapoda), and
all the ty])ical average forms have wings. The con-
centration is seen in the reduced number of rings
or bo(l.v-.segnients, in the absence of developed
appendages on the hind-body (or alidoinen) of the
adults, in the coni]ile.\it.v of the mouth-appendages,
and in the gathering together of the ventral nerve-
centres. In many cases, liowever, the progress is
emphasised only in the fnlly-formeil insects, for the
caterpillar in tlio absence of wings, with le.ss com-
pact nervous .system, with more numerous and
primitive apiiendages, &c., recapitulates au ances-
tral stage.
To Sinn \\\\ insects are Arthropods, which are
usually winged in adult life, breathe air by means
of trachea', and have fre(|uenlly a iiictamoi pilosis
in their life history. The adult body is divided
into (1) a hcftd, with three ]iairs of appendages
(= legs), jdus a pair of pre-oral outgrowths, the
antenme or feelers ; ("2) a thorax, with three pairs
of jointed legs, typically plus two pairs of doi-sal,
compressed sacs — the wings ; (3) an ahdmiirK, with-
out legs, except in .so far as these are rudimentarilv
represented in slings, ovi])Ositors, and the like. It
is impossible at present to give any secure estimate
of the number of in.sects, though it is probably safe
to say that they exceed all other animals taken
eloped s
Like other Arthropoila (q.v.), insects have jointed
bodies and limbs, an enveloping cuticle of Chitin
Fig. 1. — Disarticulated Beetle :
A, tlic head ; F, the abdomen ; between A and F, the three rings
of the thorax; a, maxillary iMllps; b, labial jialps; r, mandibles;
d, antennip ; B, protliorax, with lirst pair of le^s ; C, win^-
covers or elytra ; D, functional wings ; II and I, two posterior
pairs of legs ; E, coxa of leg, with pro.jecling trochanter ; e,
femur : /, tibia ; fl, tarsal .joints.
together. Over 80,000 species of beetles or Coleop-
tera and about 15,000 moths and butterflies have
been recorded ; and S])eyer estimates the total
census at 200,000, while AI'Lachlan concludes that
future entomological industry will raise the sum
total of insect sjiecies to a million.
iStriictarc atnl Functions. — The anatomy and
physiology of insects will be discussed together,
and that as tersely as possible, referring to the
articles Ant, 15ee, Butterfly, itc. for illustra-
tions, and to the works cited for iletalls.
Form. — The body of an insect consists of a dis-
tinct, undivided head, iirobably composed of four
obscured segments, of a Ihoiax with tliree divlsimis
(pro-, me.so-, and ineta-thorax), and of an abdomen
typically with eleven rings. In detail, however,
the varieties are legion ; thus, the thin-waisted wasp
contrasts with the cockroach, the lank gnat with
the compact Img, the graceful May-Hies with the
somewhat ungainly locusts, the minute midges
with the <!oliath beetles and huiiiming-bird moths.
Ap/ieiidiif/es. — The jointed feelers or antenna',
which are outgrowths of the head, not strictly com-
parable to legs, have often numerous nerve-endings,
and seem to be used in sinelling, as organs of touch
and guidance, and also in cares.sing or in cmn-
municating imiiressions to friends. Kxactly com-
jiar.able with legs are the three pairs of mouth-
appendages, projecting downwards or forwards
from the head, to which they are jointed and imm
which they are worked by muscles. The lirst jiair
— the mandibles— have but one joint, and are with
out the lateral 'jialp' present in the crust.acean
org;ins of the same name. They are biting and
I'hcwing organs, mid are more or le.ss reduced in
those insects wliii'h suck. Next come the lirst iiair
of maxilla', which have jointed 'palps.' The
.second pair of ma\ilhe are united at their base, and
form the so-called hibiiim, also provided with |)alps.
In the diHeient orders, and in association with the
INSECTS
167
divei-se diet, these three pairs of mouth-organs vary
greatly, as may he seen by comparint; those of
cockroach, housetly, motli, and bee. In connec-
tion witli the tliree paii-s of legs on the thorax, it is
necessary in identifving insects from a mannal to
become familiar witli tlie division of the limb into
coxa, trochanter, femur, tibia, and tarsal joints,
terms fancifully
taken over from
W vertebrate anatomy.
^^^ The claws and pads
-«, ^'^?i,, at the very tip, the
tarsal hairs and
glands utilised in
adhering to smooth
surfaces, and the
occasional vise of
the legs in produc-
ing sounds ought to
be noticed, as also
such contrasts as
are illustrated in
the muscular legs
of the cricket, the
long, lank limbs
of (laddy-lon"-legs,
and those adapted
for swimming, as in
the water-boatman.
Though larval in-
sects often have
rudimentary limbs
on the a^idonien,
only hints of legs
are .seen on that region in the adults. Such hints
we find in the lowest wingless iu.sects (Thysanura),
and at least plausibly in stings and ovipositors.
U'inr/s. — The adult insect usually bears two
pairs of dorsal outgrowths or wings on the two
posterior rings of the thorax. These are llattened
sacs, really double, worked by muscles, traversed
in various patterns by ' veins,' which include air-
tubes, nerves, and vessel-like continuations of the
body-cavity. They are undeveloped in some passive
females, and are likewise absent from many parasitic
forms, such as lice and fleas. In these eases the
wings have been lost, while they have never been
Fig. 2. — Mimth parts of Cock-
roach ( after Savigny ) :
!, labruni ; h, mandibles : c, first pair
of maxilhf , with d, stijies ;
lacinia;/, galea; ^, niaxillar>' palps:
h, sub-mentuin of .second pair of
maxillse or labium ; i, mentum ; k,
labial p.ilps : I, paraglossa ; m.
lacinia : the last two together form-
ing the ligula.
Fig. 3. — Cross-section through the Thorax :
«, tergnm : 6. wing ; c, epimeri»n or upper part of side ; d, stigma
or spiracle ; e, epi-stemum or lower jtart of side ; /, leg ; g,
sternum ; h, ner\'e-conI ; j, alimentary canal ; k, trachea ;
(, heart.
att.ained by the lowest insects — the Collenilwla and
Thysanura. When at rest the wings are usually
fohled in various ways, but the dragon-llies and
some others keep them expanded. The two
pairs may be almost alike, its in bees and butter-
Hips ; those in front may be merely covers (eh/tra)
for the hind pair, as in beetles, or contorted nuli-
nients in the little liee-])ar,asitcs (Strei>siptcra); the
hind pair may )>e linked to the fore pair, as in
Hymenoptera, and are rudimentary ' balancers ' or
' halteres ' in Hies. Tliey are often hairy or scaly,
or gorgeous with pigment, or occ-isionally odorif-
erous. Professor Eimer has sliown that the colour-
I'ig. 4. — Thorax and part
of the Abdomen of an
Ephemerid Larva ( from
Lang, after Graber) :
a, rudiments of posterior
wing ; 6, c, d, tracheal
gills ; e, /, rudiments of
anterior wings : g, longi-
tudinal trachea; ; to show
close analogy between
wings and tracheal gills.
ing and marking of butterfly wings serve as indices
of the progress and relationship of species. As to
their origin, it seems plausible to compare them
to the tracheal outgiowths seen in some aquatic
larva", and to regard them
as primarily res]>iratory and
secondarily locomotor. One
may venture to suggest that
the additional respiratory
eHiciency derived from such
outgrowths would increase
the tot.il activity of the
insect, and more or less
directly lift it into the air.
Locomotion. — Insects are
emphatically locomotor ani-
mals. 'They walk, run,
and jump with the ijuad
rupeds ; they tly with the
birds : they glide with the
serpents ; and they swim
with the fish.' Even the
limbless larvte of many
forms move deftly, con-
tracting their boilies, and
utilising jaws, hairs, and
tubercles to help them
along. Some will even
jump to a relatively enormous height of six inches
or more, by taking their tails in their mouths
and letting go suddenly. The limbed larvte,
and especially the true caterpillars, often move
with great rapidity : a few jump, and many
climb ; others utilise their silken threads in spider-
like fashion ; while the young dragon -flies propel
themselves along by the forcible expulsion of water.
Even some pupa- move about, but the triumphs of
locomotion are seen in the adult insects. Reference
must be made to such a work as the Introduction
of Kirliy and Spence, and recourse had to actual
observation, if any adequate conception be desired
of the variety of ways in which insects walk, run,
climb, swim, bun-ow, and fly. In connection with
the flight of insects it may be noticed that the
movement of the wings does not essentially ditter
fiom that of birds, that motion in a vertical direction
is particularly easy, that steering is more difficult,
especially since the very lightness of the bodies
of insects make them liable to be blown about by
the wind. Marey calculates the approximate num-
ber of wing-strokes per second at 3.30 for the fly,
240 for the humble-bee, 190 for the hive-bee, 110
for the wasp, 'la for the dragon-Hy, 9 for a butter-
fly (see I-'LVIXG).
Skin. — Insects resemble othei' Arthropods in hav-
ing a firm chitinous cuticle formed from the eidder-
mis or hypodermis (see CuniN, Ccticle). The
cuticle bears scales, tubercles, and hairs, of which
the last are sometimes olfactory or otlierwise sen-
sory. In spite of the ensheathing armature there are
often g/ani/.i in connection with the skin — witness
the salivary glands opening near the mouth in
almost all in.sects. the silk or s])inning glands of
many larva-, especially of such iis make cocoons,
the odoriferous glauds of bugs anil beetles, the
poi.son-glands of the stinging ants, l)ees, and wasps,
the wax-glands of some Aphitles, Coccus insects,
and bees. Uefore the full size is reached there
are skin-castings or moultings, often numerous.
The mu.scii/((r .Hi/stem is almost always highly
developed. The muscles which work the legs
and month-organs, raise and depress the wings,
influence the income and expiration of air, control
the circulation, antl move the segments of the body
on one another are most important. The nerruus
system consists, jus in other Arthropods, of a com-
plex dorsal brain or snpra-<i'sopliageal ganglionic
centre, supplying eyes and feelei's, and of a double
168
INSECTS
ventral chain of neive-centies. From the first
ventral (or sul)(Osophaijeal) j;anf;lia, oonnocteil
\vith the brain hy a rini; rouml tlie f^ullet, the
inouth-ai)]ien(laf;es are innervated. In many in-
sects the ventral chain is centralised in a few
ganglia, and is nsually more concentrated in the
adnlts than in the larvu'.
Sc>isc-or<iiins. — Except in fleas, lice, and the lowly
CoUeinbola. .■idult insects have coni|>ound eyes.
Tliese are often associated with sim|ih' eyes or
ocelli, which are all that ever ajipear in larva' or
in the three sets of insects mentioned above. Blind
insects also occnr along with other blind animals in
the darkness of caves. Anditory organs are repre-
sented in almost all orders by peculiar nerve-endings
('chordotonal' and 'tymjianal' organs) superficially
disposed on various ])arts of the body. On the tactile
antenna', and probably also on the ma-\illary palps
of various insects, there are specially innervated skin
cells and hairs believeil to be olfactory in function ;
while othei-s more witliin the month are credited
with gustatory sensitiveness. The skin of insects
seems in certain regions to be sensitive to the difter-
ences of light ,and shade, so much so that some
speak of a sixth or 'dermatoptic ' sense. Much
experiment and observation is still requiied on the
senses of insects, and we can only mention such
general facts as the following. There is sometimes
both optic and auditory .sensitiveness to impressions
which are beyond the range of human sight and
hearing : in Howervisiting and other insects there
is abunilant evidence of sensitiveness to fragrance
and colouring, and smell probably aids greatly in
that ju'ompt recognition of friends, kindred, or foes
which the social insects so well illustrate : there
seems little doubt that the i)ower of forming dis-
tinct images of external objects, after our fiisliion
of seeing, is very slight in insects. The student
should refer to the work of Sir .Joliii J^ubbock on
The Senses of Animals (Inter. Si'ience Series,
1888 ). Similarly, to return to the functions of the
nervous system, we can only notice that, in addition
to the numerous and often subtle instincts which
are ingrained in the constitution of niany species,
there is indubitable intelligence, as seen in the
reasonable adaptation of means to novel ends ; that,
as in other animals, the intelligence is greatest in
the social insects — especially the ants and bees,
where it is a.ssociateil with complex though very
small brains. There is also plain evidence of
emotion — e.g. in the love-making and parental
affection of many insects. See Ant, Bee, Butter-
fly, In.stinct, and especial l.y the works of Luljbock
and Koiuanes.
Alimrnf<irii Hi/stem. — The alimentary canal always
con.sists of fore-, mid-, and hind-gut (.see GUT), of
which the first and the last portions are lined l)y a
thin layer of chitin continuous with the external
cutiide. But the length and structure vary not a
little in ditt'erent insects, to some extenk in ivssocia-
tion with the ditVcrences of iliet. The fore-gut
includes month, pharynx, and gullet, of which the
latter may be swollen into a crop, or bciir an
appended ]iouch (socalle<l sucking stom.ach), or be
continueil into a gizzard with hard griiuling plates.
The mid-gut is glandular, <ligestive, and abscnptive;
it often bears saccular outgrowths or glandular
c.T?ca, and has, as its (cndodermic) origin iin]dies, no
chitinous lining. In Coleoptera. for instance, its
length, which is usually inconsidiuable, varies in-
versely with the nutritive and digestible ((Ualilies
of the food. The hind-gut is often coiled, ter-
minally ex]>anded in (he rectum, and in that
region .sometimes associated with glands. Its
general function is absorption, while from it there
spring excretory tubes or Mal]iighian vessels (see
infra ). As to tlie food of insects, manv are vege-
tarians, many carnivorous, a few mix both diets :
Fig. 5.— Anatomy of IToney Ijee
(alter Lfuckart) \
ft. antelinsv ; h, eyes ; c, honey-crolt ;
(7, dist-'-stive stoiii.-ich ; e, exoret^iry
tubules ; /, rectal glands ; fj, reetuin ;
/(. stij;uiata or spiracles; i, swollen
Io?i;,'itudiiial trachea : k, bases of
lef^s ; nervous system in uuddle line.
many feed on the juices of living organisms, others
only on putrescence : many actively rille llowers
of their nectar and pollen, or hunt for other insects
withgreatactivity,
while not a few
are external or
internal parasites
upon higher ani
mals ; the ant-lion
digs a pit into
which its unwary
I>rey may fall, while
drag<m-tlies attack
their winged booty
with open violence ;
among ants .some
milk the aphides,
while others are so
degenerate in pro-
sperity that tliey
are actually fed by
their slaves. Nor
should it be for-
gotten that some
of the higher in-
sects lay u]) stores
of food, usually
with parental in-
stinct for the sake
of their young, and
that the eggs are
often laid in the
midst of the food
suited to the larval
apjietite, even in cases where the adults may
perish before the young are hatched.
liespirutory System. — Insects when resting often
show panting movements in the abibimen, which is
swayeil by muscles whose activity is the chief con-
diticm of the circulation of air throughout the boily.
P'or in all insects the whole body is penetrated by
air tubes or fnit/ieir, which send line branches into
all the organs and tissues. These tubes are really
ingrowths from the skin, and are lineil by chitin,
raised in what appear to be spiral thickenings \\ hicli
keep them elastically tense.
In most cases tlie.se trachea'
ojien to the exterior by
paired apertures or sti;/-
miitd on the breast and
abdomen, often guardei
by hairs and very variously
disposed. There are never
more, and usually fewer,
than ten pail's of openings,
though primitively there
was probably a pair to
each segment. In aqu.itic
larva> the trachea' do not
open (if they did the insect
would drown), but are
spread luit on lateral or
terminal expansions (tra-
cheal gills), through the
thin skin of which the Fig. 6.— Portion of a
oxygen dissolveil in the branching Air-tube or
water is absorbed (see Trachea, sliowmg the in-
Dl!.\OON-KLV, El'IIEMEH.\, tcrnal chitinous ri.iges.
CiM.). The very cllicient
respiration of insects is one of the facts to be kept
clc-irly in view in estimating the general activity
of their life.
Here we may notice that many insects produce
sounds which often ex|)ress a variety of emotions.
Thus, we have the whirr of rapiillynioving wings, as
in Hies; the buzz of leaf like iippondages near the
openings of the trache:e in ni.any llymenoptera; the
scraping of legs against wing-ribs, as in grass-
INSECTS
169
hoppers ; the chirping of male cricki-ts. pioiluceil
by nihbing one wing against its neigliliour : the
shrill piping of the male Cicadas, wliicli have a
com])lex drum like instrument : tlie voice of the
death's-head moth, due to the emission of air from
the mouth : and the tapping of tlie death-watch
knocking on external olijeets. In some cases,
where not simply automatic, the sounds serve the
alluring purpose of love-songs : they may also
express fear, anger, and (according to Kirby) even
sorrow, or they may give alarm and convey tidings.
Circulator;/ .s'//.s7p/h. — .\s the tissues are riddled
with air-tubes, the need for definite blood-vessels
is greatly lessened, and so the circulatory .system is
slightly developed in comparison with the literally
thorough respiratory arrangements. The blood —
which is colourless, yellow, greenish, or even
reddish, with amtcboid cells — llows for the most
part along lacun;e without definite walls. There
IS, however, a central organ, the dorsal blood-vessel
or heart.
Within the body-cavity of the insect there is
often a characteristic mass of tLssue known ;is the
'fat-body.' This is an important accumulation of
reserve material, most aliundant in the larval
stages. In some cases the fat-body of the Iar\a is
rich in fat and poor in wa.ste (mate) crystals, while
that of the pupa is the revei'se, showing that the
material is used up in the reconstruction or meta-
morphosis. In a few insects, such as Fireflies
(q.v. land glow-worms, part of the fat-body seems
to become the seat of plu)s|ihorescence, the light of
which is in many cases a brilliant love-sigual. See
Phosphorescence.
The excretory system consists of a set of fine
tubes, or it may be threads, which grow out from
the upper part of the hind gut, and wind about
often at great length in the body-cavitv. The
component cells contain aliundant wa.ste-products.
In ilitferent insects the excretory or malpighian
tubes vary greatl.v in number (2-150), and also in
the manner of their connection with the gut. The
usual type of iuvertebrate kiilney — the nephridium
— though persistent in Peiipatus (q.v.), is not
clearly dLsci>verable in insects.
Reproductive System. — The sexes are always
separate in normal insects : and the Hermaphro-
ditism (q.v.) which casually crops up is in most
I cases only superficial. In Ipoth sexes the reproduc-
I tive organs are paired, an<l the products pass out
\ by paired ducts. The latter — the oviducts of the
female or the ra-in ileferentia of the male — always
I open near the end of the abdomen, and, except in
the Ephemerids, by a single aperture : it is possible
I that they re|)resent modified iiephridia.' Acces-
sory extern.al and internal structures in the males
I may assist in copulation or in making the sperma-
tozoa into packets : of similar structures in the
females the most important are the occasional
external ovipositors or egg-laying organs, and the
internal .seminal receptacle in whicli the spermatozoa
received from a male are .-tored up, and serve to
fertilise successive sets of I'ggs. In the queen-bee
this store has lieeu known to la-st for two or three
sea-sons, while I/ubbock tells of an aged queen-ant
which laid fertile eggs thirteen years after the last
union with a male.
Male and female insects are usually somewhat
diflerent in external appearance. The males are,
on an average, more active, smiillcr, and more
brightly coloured than the female.s. Kxtremes are
seen in male and female Coccus in.sects (q.v.); in
the se.xes of Glow-worm (q.v.) ; in a few Butterflies
(q.v.), such as Orgyia, where the female is wing-
less ; or ip the curious bee-parasites Strepsiptera,
where the female virtually remains a grub. As
some in.sects have an elaborate courtship, in which
the females choose their mates, and as some males
fight their rivals, there can be little doubt that
Sexual Selection ( ij. v. ) h,us accelerated the evolution
at once of beauty and strength, while natural selec-
I tion (see D.vinviNiAX Tiikohv, Kvoi.trtoN) m,ay
have retarded the evolution of gay colouring in the
I females to whom consjiicnousness is especially dis-
advantageous in parentage. Neither position is
I inconsistent with that which regarils the characters
of the two sexes as natural and necessary expres-
sions of their respectively dominant constitutions.
See Darwin. Descent nf Mnn .- Wallace, Darwinism;
Geddes and Thomson, Ernhttion of Sex.
Peculiarities in Reproduction.— (a) Virgin birth
or parthenogenesis occurs normally, for a variable
number of generations, in two butterflies and a
beetle, some Coccus insects and Aphides, certain
.saw-Hies and gall-wasps ; it occurs casually in the
silk-moth and about a ilozen other Li'pidoptera,
partially or voluntarily in the drone bearing of hive-
bees, seasonally in Aphides (q.v.), and in larval
life in .some midges (e.g. Chironomus). (6) Where
parthenogenesis occurs for a period and is there-
after followed liy ordinary sexual reproduction, as
in A|>hides, we have to deal with one of the many
forms of Alternation of Generations (q.v.). (c) A
few insects .are e.xceptional in lieing viviparous,
bringing forth their young alive. This is again
illustrated by Aphiiles, and also by a few flies, by
the little bee-parasites Strepsiptera, and by some
beetles. {(I) Many insects are exceedingly prolific
— e.g. apliLs, silk-moth, and queen-bee. A clinuix
is reached in the queen-termite which for a time
goes on laying thousands of eggs ' at the rate of
about sixty per minute '. '
Development of the Eyy. — The ovum of insects,
as it passes down the ovaiian tubes, is enclosed in
a firm cliitinous envelope, with a minute aperture
or micropyle (sometimes with more than one),
through which a male element or spermatozoon
penetrates before the ovum leaves the mother. The
segmentation which follows fertilisation is for the
j most part jieripheral (centrolecithal ; .see E.MliRV-
] OLOGY), while the centre of the egg is occupied
by a relatively pa.ssive yolk with scattered nuclei.
The result of segmentation is a sphere or ellipsoid
of cells enclosing the core of yolk, and on the
ventral surface of the sphere or ellipsoid the embryo
Fig. 7. — Ventral aspect of five stages in the devehipnient
of the Water-beetle, Hydrophilus ( after Heider ) :
Tlie anterior end is uppennust. «. lie.id lubes ; b, the last of
the body-seginents, which are seen becoming more niarkeil
throughout the series; round about the embryonic area the
amniotic folds develop.
begins to be mapped out. This development we
cannot here follow, but it is important to notice
one unique fact, that the embryo is aiched over by
a double fold, constituting the internal amniotic
and outer serous membranes, .so called from their
resemblance to the similar enswathing envelopes in
the embryos of higher vertebrates; See Lang's
Lehrbw/i der I'eryl. Anatomic (vid. ii. Jena, IMS9),
where a summary of results and literature will be
found.
Metamorphosis. — (1) In the lowot in.sects — the
old-fashioned, wiugle.'^s Thysauura and Collembola
170
INSECTS
— the young form which einerjies from the eggshell
is in all respects a miniature a(lult. Witliout strik-
ing change, hy growth and moultings, it heconies
an adult. From this entire absence of metamor-
phosis we reailily pass to the life-histories of cock-
roaches anil locusts, of lice and most bugs, where
the newly-hatched young are very like the parents.
The reproductive organs are, of course, unde-
veloped, and there are no wings, but the hitter are
not attained even by the adult lice. All the above
forms maybe calleil aimtabolic — i.e. without marked
change or metamorpliosis.
(•2) In Cicadas tliere is a slight but most instruc-
tive dirterence between larvi-e and adults. The
full-grown insects live among herbage, the youn-
live in the ground, and with this diversity of habit
is associated at least this much dill'ereuce in struc-
ture, tliat the anterior legs of the larva are adapted
for burrowing. Furthermore, the larval life ends
in a f|uiescent stage, or, in other words, tlie adult
form is attained after a period of pupation. But the
story becomes more complex when we pass to the
Dragon-lly (q.v.), the Ephemera (ij.v.), and their
relatives, where the metamorphosis is slightly
greater, inasmuch as the larv:e are aquatic, with
closed respiratory apertures, aiul with tracheal
gills, while the adults are winged and aerial, and
breathe by open trachete. Sucli insects are said to
have an incomplete metamorphosis, and are called
hcmiiiictabolic.
(3) \'ery different, however, is the life-history of
all the other insects, such as buttertlies and beetles.
Hies and bees. From the egg-shell there emerges a
larva (maggot, grub, or caterpillar), which lives a
life of its own, growing and resting and moulting,
often very active in its movements and voracious
in its diet. Having accumulated a rich store of
reserve food in its fat-body, the larva becomes for
a longer time more or less quiescent, becomes in
fact a puiia, nymph, or chrysalis. In this stage,
often within the shelter of a spun cocoon, great
transformations occur : wings hud out, appendages
of tlie adnlt pattern appear, reconstruction and
centralisation of organs are effected ; and tinally,
out of the pupal husk there emerges an imago or
miniature fully-formed insect. Tliese have a com-
plete metamorphosis, and are calleil hulumctabnlk:.
The larv;e of these higher insects with complete
metamorphosis dilVer greatly in different orders.
Thus, the ' maggots' of Hies ( withqut distinct head,
feelers, ocelli, &c. ) are distinguished from the
' grubs ' of bees (with distinct head), and both from
the caterpillars of butterllies, ike, which have
limbs <as well as heail. The linil)less maggots and
grubs are degenerate, the caterpillar is the more
normal type. It is technically called an 'eruciform
larva,' in contrast to that of most Ametabola and
Hemimetabola — the ' campodeiform larva,' which
is not even worm-like, but like one of the lowly
Thysanuran in.sects (Campodea), with the regions
of the l>ody well defined, with biting mouth-parts,
with locomotor thoracic liml)s, ice.
But beyond distingiii>hing the above two great
types of larva (campodeiform ami eruciform), and
also the maggot, grub, and caterpillar forms of the
latter, little more is possible in this geneial survey,
for the larva! vary enormously, according to their
own moilc of life -parasitic or roving, a<|uatic or
terrestrial, carnivorous or herbivorous — and acconl-
ing to the peculiarities of the adnlt forms. We
must note, however, the changes in connection with
the numthorgans, especially as these form part of
the basis of cIa.ssilication. 'The mouth-parts may
be similar in all stages of life, ami then are either
atlapted for biting (J/cHw/HffMK — i.e. jaws ])ersist-
ent) or for sucking (Minurhi/iir/ia — i.e. prolMiscis
pei'sistent); or else they are adapted in the larva
tor biting, in the adult for sucking, the change
commencing in the pupa, and rarely affecting the
larval stage (Metagxatlm — i.e. jaws change<l ).' See
Braner's cla-ssihcation in Hatchett Jackson's edition
of Kolleston's Forms of Animal Life ( 1S88).
T/u- Intcnuil Metamoiphusis. — One of the most
interesting and ditlicult pro1)lenis with regard to
insects concerns the transition from the larval to
the adult structure. In those forms which have no
metamorphosis, or only an incomplete one, the
organs of the larva develop continuously into those
of the adult. It is far otherwise in tlie complete
metamorphosis of the higher insects. There the
internal changes are as marked as the e.\ternal : in
fact, there Ls a gradual reconstruction of organs
during the later larval, and especially during the
pupal stages. Most of the larval organs are ab-
soriied liy amieboid cells, and their debris utilised
in building up new structures. To a certain extent
the development of new organs takes place by sub-
stitution ; that is to say, parts of the larval organs
which have not been specialised form the founda-
tions of the adnlt structures. Of sjiecial importance
is the ajipearance in the larva of ' inuiginal iliscs '
from which the wings, liml)s, and epidermis of the
imago or perfect insect arise. It must not, how-
e\er, be su])posed that the transition involves any
abrupt change ; the absorption, disajipearance,
and replacement of organs is gradual throughout.
Vet almost the entire musculature, .-i great jiart
of the tracheal system, the larger portion of the
mid-gut, and many other parts of the huva disap-
jiear and give place to the corresponding organs of
the adult which are adapted to a new mode of life.
In pursuing this study the reader will best begin
with Martin Duncan's Tntnsfurmations of Insects,
Lubbock's Oiitjin and Metamorphoses of Insects
(' Nature ' series, Lond. ), and then ]iass to the cited
work of Lang and the literature there quoted.
General Life. — I'nder this title we can do little
more than mention .some general aspects of the life
of insects, (a) While insects are luedominantly
active animals, we lind in cimtra.sting the onlers,
or better still, the families, abundant illustration
of the antithesis (to be read throughout the animal
series) between activity and ])assivity. Thus
might the female cochineal insect represent in its
torpid, sessile life one extreme, and the exceeilingly
busy humble-bee another, (h) In the majority of
cases the adult insect is short-lived, and dies within
the year; an adult Kphemerid may be literally tlielly
of a day, but from this there are many gradations
leading up to the rare c;uses of a nueen-bee five
years idd, or an aged queen-ant of tiiirteen. The
total length of life, including the metamorphoses,
\aries not a little with the climate of different
countries and the weather of different years, and
the life is prolonged in those insects which hiber-
nate, passing the winter in a lethargic state hardly
deserving the name of life (see Hiiiehnation,
Like; Weismann's e.s.say (m 'The Duration of
Life' in IIere</iti/, 1889; and another es.say by
Hay Lankester on Com/iaratire Longcrilif, 1870).
((■)"lt is worthy of notice that reproduction in a
great number of insects of both sexes is shortly
followed by the nemesis of death, love being in such
cases at once the climax and end of life, (el) In
connet^tion with the influence of climate and
seasons the occurrence of ditt'erent or ' ilimorphic'
summer and winter brooils in some Lepido|>tei'a
should be noticed (see Weismann, Stin/ie.-: nn the
Theory of Descent, Meldola's trans. Lond. 1880-82 ;
and Scudder's Jiiitter/lies, New York, 1881). (c)
Nor can we ilo more than refer to separate articles
for descriptiim of the fascinating social life of many
ants, bees, wasps, and termites. ( /) The prolilic
multiplication of insects is kept within l)ounds by
the limitations of food-suppiv and weather, by the
warfare between insects of liill'erent kinds, by the
INSECTS
171
and
Metagnatha.
appetite of higher animals, sucli as fish, frogs, ant-
eatei's, insectivores, and, at)ove all, birds. As
araonj; other animals, we lind among insects abund-
ant illustration of peculiarities whicli have for
their result at lea.st tlie protection of their posses-
sors. The leaf-insects, walking-sticks, moss-insects,
humming-bird moths, scale-insects, I'irc. are striking
examples of a protective mimicry in form and
colouring which is illustrated in great variety and
frequency throughout the cla.ss. Many larva>, as
well as adults, show especially in colour a sympa-
thetic relation to their environment, while othci-s,
such as Caddis-tlies (q.v. ), are masked by the ex-
ternal coverings with which they clothe themselves.
Many insects are saved by their hard skins, by
their disgusting odour or tjvste, by their deterrent
discharges of rejiulsive Huids, by their assumption
of ' terrifying attitudes,' by the simulation of death,
or by active resistance witli their manifold weapons.
See Mimicry ; and Wallace's Darwinism (1889)
and literature there cited.
C/dSsi/icdtioii. — There is as yet a want of unanim-
ity al)out the ela-ssitication of insects. A basis is
usually found in the degree of metamorpho.sis, the
characters of the wings, the structure of the mouth-
organs, and the nature of the genital and excretoiy
ducts. On many points future embnological
research Avill shed light. All that we shall do here
is to ^ive the genersil grouping adopted by Brauer.
See cited text-books of Hatchett Jackson and of
Lang.
^16. HymenopUra.—Aiits, bees, wasps, gall-flies,
saw-flies, &c. ( Men. and Met.).
C. 15. Co?«op/era.— Beetles (Men., rarely Met.).
Metabola ; 14. />ej>tV/oj>/^ra.— Moths and bntterflies (Met.).
Menngnatha 13. Ci/>(ero.— Flies ( Met.).
12. Siphonitptera or AphantpUra. — Fleas (Met).
11. rrfc*oj)(<Ta.— Cad.lis-flies (Men.).
10. Panorpala. — Scorjiion-flies (Men.).
9. Neuroptera. — Ajit-lions, lace-winged flies
(M>n.).
5. Rhyncliota or llemiptera. — Aphides, coccus
insects, cicadas ; bugs, water-scorpions,
lice (the male Coccidie are metabolic).
7. TVii/sanojitera.— Thrips(A.).
6. Corrodenfia.— Termites, bird-lice (A.).
5. Or(Ao;)te™.— Cockroaches, locusts, crickets
(A.).
4. P(KOj^.kra.— Perla(H.).
3. Odonata. — Dragon-flies (H.).
2. Ephemerida^ — >iay-flies ( U.).
1. Dernuiptera Earwigs (A.).
0. Colhmbola and TAi/^aHHra.— Primitive wing-
less insects.
Distrihution in Space. — Insects are represented
almost everywhere. The majority are indeed
terrestrial and aerial, and esi)ecially at home in
warm and temperate ccmntries, but in the Arctic
regions and in hot springs, at great heights above
the snow-line and in undergnmnd caves, and most
surprisingly even in the sea there are insect in-
habitants. " The C/ial/eiifjcr explorei-s found one
or more species of the genus Halobates ( among the
Hemiptera) which seemed to be (|uite pelagic.
The limits of distribution are in great part those
of climate and of the requisite food, for insects
have great possibilities of dispersal, not only in
their often extensive flight and liability to be
swept along by winils, but tln'ough the conveyance
of the ilormant eggs or even gnibs from one shore
to another within floating lo"s. Thus, tropical
insects are brought on lloating logwood from across
the Atlantic, wliile locusts have l)een known to fly
or to be blown in safety across more than .'KK) miles
of .sea. See (;ko(!P..\Viii<'AI. Distkiiii tkin, and
works there cited.
Hi.itori/. — Insects must have appeared in com-
paratively early times, for a cocfcro.irh-like wing
has been found even in Silurian strata. Primitive
dragon-Hies and also lace-flies ( Neurnpter.a) occur
in tiie Devonian, cockroaches and walking-sticks
B f
Ametabola : :
Menorh>Ticha. V
A.
AilETTABOLA
and
Hemimeta-
BOLA :
Menorhynclia.
(Ortho]itera) in the Carboniferons rocks. There
seems much reason to believe that the Pal.vozoic
insects were mostly generalise<l, 'synthetic' types.
prophetic of, rather than referable to, our modern
orders. In the Tri.is Orthoptera abound ; the
first distinct beetles apjicar in the Lias, where
other higher insects with complete metamorphosis
also occur. See especially Scudder in Zittel's
I'ala-ontologic (1885).
Pcc/ii/n-c. — As to their genealogj-, suftice it to
say that the wingless CoUembola and Thysanura,
at the biise of the insect series,
doubtless represent primitive
forms ; these lead us back to
some of the le.ss specialised
myriopods, and these again to
Peripatus (q.v. ), the sole sur-
viving genus of the ancestral
Prototracheata. Peripatus links
the air-breathing Arthroijods to
the ringed worms or Annelids,
uniting, for instance, in its
structure the trachea? of an
insect and the kidneys or
nephridia of a worm. See Lub-
bock's Origin, <!•<■., of Insects,
and then the papei-s of Brauer,
Emeiy, Packard, iVc. cited by
Hatchett Jackson.
Economic Import. — Insects
come into contact or collision
with human interests in a great
variety of ways. As far as they
are concerned, the struggle Ije-
tween man and animals is by
no means over. Strong in num-
bers, many of them are directly
or indirectly injurious to man
and his property to an extent
which frequently affects the
prosperity of a nation. Direct
injuries to man's person are familiarly illustrated in
the parasitism of fleas, lice, and other more or less
intimate 'boardei-s,' but these are less important
than the share the mosquito seems to have in the
loathsome disease Elephantiasis arabiim. The
annoyance of midges is patent, but we feel the deli-
cacy of the threads in life's web when we rememljer
that the house-fly may disseminate the germs of
bacterial disease. Personal injuries, however, are
dwarfe<l when we think of those done to projierty,
and especially to crops and herds, by voracious or
by para-sitic insects. Clothes-moth and furniture-
borer, vine-insect and Colorado beetle, the bot-
flies w liich attack shee]i, cattle, and hoi-ses are fami-
liar illustrations of formidable pests. It should
also be noted how the hostile insects which infest
forest trees and vegetation generally niav occasion
changes which have far-off effects on tlie f;iiina,
scenery, and even climate of a country-side. In
connection with injurious insects reference should be
made to such articles as .Anns, BoT, Corn Insects,
Hkssian Flv, Locust, Phyi.i.oxkra. Tset.sk,
Weevil, &c. ; to the well-known and inimitable
Introduction to En/onio/iii/i/, by Kirby and Speiice ;
to the admirable works of Miss Urmerod : and to
the researches of Ililey, Packard, and others, in
the Bulletins of the United States Entomological
Commission. I''rom either of the last-named
sources a guide to the v.ost literature of this im-
portant department of entomology may be iibtiiined.
As to the other side of the account, we cannot
ignore our inilebtedne.ss to hive-bee and silk-moth,
to cochineal and lac insects, which furnish us with
their unique and valuable products. Othei-s again
are indispensable and indefatigable scavengers;
many wage effective war upon their injurious
kindred ; wliile a few, such as locusts and some
Fig. 8. — Campodea
staphtijinus (after
Lubbock ), one of
tlie primitive wing-
less insects.
172
INSECTS
INSPIRATION
larv.T, are even used as food. All these benelits,
however, seem small in the li;,'ht of the j;reat
fact that the majority of iilaiits are dependent
upon insects, as the unconscions liearers of the
pollen essential to the normal cross-fertilisation of
Uowers.
Planta and Insects. — Referring to the article
Flower for a statement of the importance of
insects in the cross-fertilisation of ilowers, we
are safe in saying that neither the (lowers nor their
constant visitors can be understood apart. Many
insects, however, injure plants without any com-
pensating henelit, and in this cimnection nuist be
noted the frerjuent oi'currence of protective strnc-
tures in ])lants, whicli help to dismiss hostile in-
truders. On the other hand, there are numerous
cases in whicli ])lants aiid insects (es]iecially ants)
form a mutual partnership. Such ' myrmecophil-
ous ' plants a]e saved liy their bodyguard of ants
from unwelcome visitors, and the benetit is some-
times returned ( to speak metaphorically ) by the
growth of si)ecial shelters or ' domatia,' tenanted
by tlie partner-insects. See (!.\LLS, Ix.SECTlvoKOU.s
Plant.s, and the literature cited at Flower ; also
Kerner's F/oiccrs itnd thrir Unbidden G iicsta {tiiina.
Lond. 1S78) ; and for references to the works of
Delpino, lielt. Huth, &c., on ' myrmecopliilous
plants,' see Schinijiers Wechselbezie'huny zirischen
tjlanzen und Ameisen ( 1888).
Historji of the Stiidij of Insects (Entomologii). —
Insects had their due place in Aristotle's zoological
system, and since thoughtful observation began
have been studied with much constancy, ilalpiglii
(1628-94), whose name is perpetuated in connec-
tion with the excretory tubules, was the (irst to
give a thorough description of an insect's ( the silk-
moth's) anatomy. His contemporary Swammer-
dam got further in his investigation of insect meta-
morphoses. Uay ( 1028-78) and Liniueus ( 17l>7-78)
helped to infuse system and order into entojuology,
while the works of Kcauniur (1683-1757) are
classical models of carefulness. Rosel von Rosen-
hof. Bonnet, De Geer, Schiifier, Fabricius, and
Lyonnet were among the illustrious entomologists
of the 18tli century. Cuvier (1769-18S2) began
the study of insects in eaily youth with an
enthusiasm which he never lost, and was wont to
trace to the precision gained in his dissections of
insects no small part of his success as an anatomist.
Savigny's comparison of the nu)nth-appendages of
insects and other .Arthropods was au important
step on .-i path often |iursued since; and among the
great entomologists of the lirst half of the 19th cen-
tury, all more or less inlluenced liy ( 'nviers example,
were Latreille, Kirby. Dufonr, liurnuuster, Au-
douin, IJlanchard, Lacordaire, and .1. (». Westwood.
But beyond this the embarrassment of illustrious
names makes compressed history more and more
ilitlicult; snllice it to notice the recent progre.ss
made in the study of the minute strnctnre — e.g.
of the sense-organs of insects— in exjierijuental
analysis of the sensory powers, in elucidating a
natural classilication, in deciphering the history
both of fo.Hsil forms and of the individual organism.
Kirby speaks enthusiastically of the we.-iltb con-
tained in a well-stored cabinet of iu.sects. of the
problems suggested by the study of their anatomy
and physiology, but rightly urges that 'we nmst
behold insects when full of life and activity, en-
gaged in their several employments, ])ractising their
various arts, pursuing their anioui-s. ami jueparing
habitations for their ])rogenv : we must notice the
laying and kind of their eggs; their wonih>rful
metamorphosis : their instincts, whether they be
solitary or gregarious, and other miracles of their
history.' 'I'heii we sh.iU ('cho the words of I'liny,
and of all entomologists : ' In these beings so
minute, and as it were such nonentities, what I
wisdom is displayed, what power, what unfathom-
able jierfection ! '
As reference has beeu nia'le throughout the article to
special works, it will be encu^'h here to uiention sonic of
the general books— (») zoological text-books, such at
those of Clans, Gegcnbaur, Huxley, Lang, and Hatcliett
Jackson's edition of KoUeston : (/;) encyclopaedia articles
by Newport in Todd's ViniojxnlM nf Aiuitomii und
J'hiisioloiiji, and M'Lacldau in Unriirlii/ii'idia ISritnnnica :
I ( (■ I to the more popular natural histories— Cassell's
( edited by Jlartiii Duncan ) and the Standard or Itiver-
side (edited by .7. S. Kingslcy ) : ((/) to general works—
W. Kirby and \V. .Spence, IntroJiietion to Entomnlor/v
(4 vols. 181.5-26; 1 vol. Lond. 1850); ,T. O. AVestwood,
Ctasxifimtion of Insccla (2 vols. 1839^10); Packard,
<Huide to the Stiidii of IiiMcts (New York, 1S78);
V. Oraber, lJi< Iiisiktcn (2 vols. 1877); L. Cauierano,
Atuilomia Uci/li InsMi ( 1882) : "\V. F. Kirby, Eliimntnrii
Text-hook of Entomoloijn (ISS.")): (i) for Uterature,
Hagen's liiUiolhcca Enlomoloijint, the Naples Znol.
Jahrcubericht, aiul the Zoohijical Record.
IllseSSOlM'S (Lat., ' perchers ' ), or PERCHING
Birds, au onh'r of birds called by Cuvier Passerine
or 'sparrow-like.' The order includes more than
half the known birds, but can hanlly be delined,
since the members are marked otf rather by a
combination of characters than by any unioueness.
The title is usually now replaced by that of Passeres
(q.v.).
Insolvency. See B.vnkiuptcv.
Insomnia. See Sleep.
Inspectors. See Factory Act.s, Minino,
NrisANCKs, Poor-laws, School Inspectors, \-e.
In the military use of the term, there are two
inspectors-general of cavalry in the United King-
dom and two inspectors of auxiliary cav.alry, also
an inspector general of fortitications. The former
inspect the several corjis in their districts, .-ind
]ioint out deliciencies, the corps being under the
c(Unmand, however, of its own officers, and not of
the insi)ector-general. The latter is responsible
for all fortitications and military works in the
I'nited KingdcMu. District-inspectors of musketry
have beeu replaced by district-assistant-adjntant-
generals, and ins]iectors-general of hospitiils by
surgeons-general. Inspectors of infantiy, artillery,
volunteers, and militia have beeu abolished.
Inspiration, in christian theology, is the in-
fluence of God on the writers of the Scriptures,
which nuikes these Scriptures the Word of (Jod.
The word ' inspiration ' is derived from the Vulgate
translation iotnn/s .srriptnrtt dirtnitufi /n.s/n'nitft) oi
2 Tim. iii. 16, which in the revised English transla-
tion runs: 'Every Scrii>ture ins]iired of God is
|iri)litable,' iS;c. The (ircek word l/ndjinnistos,
rendered 'inspired,' does not occur in classical
(Jreek, and it might as fairly be rendered ' breathing
the divine spirit.' as 'given by the divine s]>irit.'
Belief in inspiration is not conlined to Jews and
Christians; all religions that are based on a divine
revelatiiui by means of sacreil scrijitures assume
and nllirm ins]iiratioii for th:it revelation. (Irtho-
<lox Hindus regard the Vedas as of superhuman
origin, and ab.solntely infallible. The Parsees hold
th.it the Zend-Avesta was revealed to Zarathustra
by the per.sonilication of the divine will which cre-
ated the world. .\nd the orthodox Moslem sees in
the Koran an earlhly copy of the luigiual he;ivenly
text revealed to Mohamuieil in his trances by the
angel of revelation ; tlunigh various Moslem sec-
taries, as the Motazilites, treat it with free ration-
alism.
No doctrine of insjiiration is formulated either
in the Old 'i'estinuent or the New. l!nt it inay
be said that the .lews generally have ludd .a
'high' doctrine of ins]iir:uion ; and the earliest
Christian authors apply to ( lid and New 'I'esta-
ments the doctrine develoi)ed by Pliilo and the
INSPIRATION
173
Alexandrian Jews as to the OW Testament — that
the writei's were in an ecstatic condition or trance
as interpreters of (jJotl's will, and as sucli were un-
conscious of what they spoke. Origen and later
authors denied this iiuoitii- theory : thou;,'li Irena'Us
and Augustine compare the writers of Scripture to
the hands which wrote what Christ dictated. Tliere
was no delinite church doctrine before the Refor-
mation ; the Keforniei's <lid not discuss fully the
nature of inspiration, thou<;h the Heforniation had
empliasised the uniqueness and authority of the
Scriptures. It was Calovius (([.v. ) wlio laid down
the theory that soon came to be rejiarded as the
orthodox Protestant theory — that nothin-; exists in
the Scriptures which was not divinely suj^gested and
inspired. His followers niaile the writers depend-
ent on the Spirit for their very words, their choice
of expressions and grammatical forms beini; also
divinely perfect. Buxtorf found the Hebrew
vowel points inspired, and the Swiss Formula
Consensus Helvetica (see C()Sfes.sions of Faith)
extended inspiration to the punctuation.
The tendency of all schools of modem Protestant
theoloj;y has been to pass wholly away from this
mode of thought. Without at present regarding
those who tind in the Jewish and early Christian
literature at most inspiring rather than inspired
books, we tind the extreme antithesis to the Calovian
position in the view of those who, accepting divine
revelation in the Old and New Testaments, tind
revelatiim and inspiration in all that makes the
nature and will of God known to us — in the laws of
nature a-s well as in the literature of devotion : and
having regard to the fact that the Christian dis-
pensation is a higher form of truth than the Jewish,
hold that there is more of di\ine ins))iration in such
Christian books as the Imitafio Christi and the
Pilgrim's Progress than in Esther or most part of
the Uld Testament. Between these extremes are
to be found the dogmatic positions of all those who
still cling to the Bible as the unitjue revelation of
C;o<l in Christ. The differences ot spirit are wide,
and the divergencies in statement innumerable.
But they may be referred to a few main types.
Many" hohl the doctrine of uleiuiry, as opposed to
partial, ins])iration — practically the view called by
its enemies rather than by its sup])orters rerbal
inspiration. Thus Dr Charles Hodge teaches that
'all the books of Scripture are equally inspired.
All alike are infallible in what they teach. In-
spiration extends to all the contents of all these
several Ijooks. It is not con lined to moral and
religious truths, but extends to the statement of
facts whether scientific, histoincal, or geographical.'
The object of revelation is to connnunicate know-
ledge, whereas that of inspiration is to secure in-
fallibility in teaching. Dr A. A. Hodge holds that
some received revelations who were not inspired to
communicate them, as Abraham ; that sometimes
the writer was used by the Holy Spirit as an
instrument in making a record of what conveyed
to him no intelligible sense (1 Peter, i. 10-1'2) ;
some, as Balaam, being unregenerate, w-ere in-
spired though destitute of spiritual illumination.
Of those who abide by this view some are more
careful than others to protest against a iiicr/ifniiral
doctrine, hoMing that they can allow fully for
the individuality and special gifts of the various
writers of Scrii>ture ; all errors are consistently
denied, and discrepancies are explained away
as trivial and merely apparent (see Oo.si'ELS).
The standard is the Scripture in the original
tongues, the text being established by criticism.
The canonicity of the existing iKjoks should on
this theorj' be proved, but is sometimes practically
ius.sumed.
In opposition to this view it is sometimes
atlirmed that inspiration rendered the writers
infallible in teaching religious and moral truth,
though they might err as to historical and scien-
titic facts: or that inspiration was but a pre-
eminent degree of that spiritual illumination
which in a less degree is comnmn to all Christians;
or that, while Christ's |iersonal teiichings were
infallible, the apostles and others were inspired
in a le.ss degree. Schleiermacher taught that the
authority of the scriptural writers was projior-
tionate to the closeness of their relation to Jesus
Christ. -Many, protesting against all ' mechani-
cal theories and procrustean formula',' hold,
with Archdeacon Farrar (in the Clerical Hi/m-
posimn cited below): 'The Bible is the book
which contains the records of God's dealings with
a chosen race, and through them with mankind.
Above all, it is the book which contains the
gospel of his Son and the lessons of salvation.
It is not all of the same value. It is not all
written on the same level. It contains some
things which were permitted because of the hard-
ness of men's hearts. . . . Much of it is written from
the imperfect moral and s])iritual standard of times
of ignorance, at which God winked. You will
hnd recorded in it without comment or disai>proval
some opinions and some actions e\ en of good men
«hich were not commendable. You will iind
attributed to God's command conduct which for
us would be heinously criminal. Nevertheless,
this book is a sacred book, for the sum total and
general drift of its teaching is loftier and diviner
than any you will tind in the worlil. Both liy its
own loftiest utterances and by the Christian
conscience which it has trained, and by the final
standard of the gospel, it furnishes you with ample
means whereby to judge what things are right
and wrong. . . . The Bible is no homogeneous
whole. It consists of sixty-six different l)Ooks,
the work of at least forty writers, written in
diti'erent languages and dialects, and separate from
each other by hundreds of years. It is not a
hook, but a library or a literature.' Or, as Horton
puts it : ' We call our Bible inspired, because by
readinw it and studying it we fiiul our way to God,
we find his will for us, and find how we can con-
form ourselves to his will.' It is not more necessarj-
that every word of the Bible should be infallible
than that Peter and other apostolic men should
never in their teaching have made nustakes, and
this we know was not so.
' In the Koman Catholic Church some theologians
have asserted verbal inspiration ; but this has
never been the doctrine of the church. Distinguish-
ing between inspiration and the assistance of the
Holy (ihost, which would merely. :is in the c:i.se of
general councils, protect from error, the church
; recognises two factoi-s in an inspired book— the
I natural pow-ers of the writers on the one hand and
[ the impulse and direction of the Holy Ghost on the
other. But the church, which is liie guardian of
I the canon and the interpreter of Scripture, has
never dcliiicd where the one ceases and the other
j begins. Catholics have maintained the exist-
ence of trilling errors in Scripture: and Cardinal
I Newman sees no serious ditliculty in admitting
that there are 'obiter dicta' in Scripture whiili are
not inspired.
Sec tlie article BiBI.K in this work, as also APOLOGETICS,
Exegesis, AccoMMoi'.\rio.v, Divination, Alui ries,
lioSPEL; the article by I'reiiier in Herzog, the supple-
mentary article in SchalFs Riiiijious J^iici/clo/Atdia. and
that in .\ddis and .Vrnold's Catholic Dictionarij ; tlie
relevant parts of tiie works of Hodge, t>o^te^zee, Donicr,
Pfleidercr; lla;;inliacirs //m'"///"/ I'oclriii's : and works
on his]iiration by NVordswortli ( 18(il ), tiaussin ( Kng.
trans. 18.51), Ue (18.54), KUiott (1877), Brown (18S0),
Given (1881), K. F. Horton (1888), Cardinal Newman
in the KiHclrenlli Cenlnrii of February 1884 ; lii.yiiratwn :
a Clerical SiftniMaium, \>y the rei>reMntativcs of various
174
INSTINCT
views (1881); A. B. Bruce, The Kimidom of fiorf (1889) ;
C. Gore in Lux Mundi (1890); Sanday's Bampton
Lecture on Iiisi>iration (1891); and the innumerable
works on tlie subject referred to in the books named.
Instinct, the mental aspect of those actions
wliicli take rank hetween unconscious rellex activ-
ities and intelligent conduct. When we observe
the lowest forms of life KlidinL.' slowly towards their
food, or the roots of iilants overcominj,' olistacles
in their search for soil and moisture, we recognise
activities certainly ad\antageons, yet so compara-
tively simple that they almost admit of direct
physical and chemical explanation. More complex
activity is at once apparent when we watch the
fly-trap or sundew catching insects, or notice the
protective responses which most animals make to
provoking or startling stimuli. These iniplj' ,an
inherited and wellestahlislied relation of parts
(usu.ally nerve and muscle), such that a frequently
recurrent form of stimulus provokes an immediate,
definite, anil more or less appropriate response.
Such actions usually depend on what is figuratively
called a neuro-muscular 'mechanism" — i.e. on
the power that subordinate nerve-centres have of
responding to stimuli without bringing the chief
centres ( or brain ) into exercise. They may there-
fore occur even in cut oil parts of animals, or after
the organism is virtually dead. Higher than these,
however, are the marvellous activities, most
familiar perhaps in insects and birds, for which
tnore or less of a brain is essential, Mhich are so
engrained in the organism that they require no
firactice, which often adapt means to ends, but show
ittle power 'of adjustment to novel conditions,
which are linally the birthright, not of elect
individuals, but of all the members of a species.
But as we review the animal series in ascending
order we become more and more impressed with
yet higher actions, for which a head-centre or brain
seems essential, which often require to be learned
and are perfected by practice, which adapt means
to ends in novel circumstances, and vary greatly
anion" individuals.
So far we have kept apart such words as mind,
intelligence, instinct, consciousness ; but that is no
longer possible or desiralile. for the last three grades
of activity described above are not only observ-
able facts, but are also parts of our personal experi-
ence, and must be considered in that light. Like
animals, we of course e.xhiliit immediate neuro-
muscular responses to external stimuli : witness the
sudden withdrawal of our finger from a burning
object unwittingly touched. Such res]ionses, for
which brains are not neces.sary, occur ' without our
knowing,' and are called reflex. Next on the scale
come numerous actions, from the sucking of infancy
onwards, which require no practice, delilieration, or
etlorl, but yet have a distinct mental a,spect, being
u.sually a.ssociated with conscionsru'ss, and stimu-
lateil rather by perceptions than by sensations.
Such actions, learned so long ago that the power of
doing them is now entailed by heredity, are more
predominant in animals than in oui-selves, and are
called instinctive. Higher than these, and |)re-
eminent in man, are the actions which deliberately
adapt means to ends, with conscious intention and
controlling intelliqetuc. These lead on to the most
characteristically liuman actions, in whioli we often
.seem to hold ourselves as unities apart I'iom what
is outside us, and in which we are inllueiiced by
general ide.as and definite ideals, being in fact self-
conscious men. So far there is practical unanimity,
I)Ut difiicullies inevitably arise when we begin to
project upon animals our own experience of retlex,
instinctive, and intellij.'ent .actions. We are forceil
to argue by analogy, and therefore with uncertainty.
It is allowed, however, by almost all that the old-
fashioned attempt to call all the higher activities
of anim.als instinctive, in sharp contra.st to the
intelligent conduct of man, merely expresses an
ignorant prejudice. No competent observer denies
that ant and bee, dog anil elephant, beaver and
monkey, frequently exhibit actions higher than
instinctive, in .some ca.ses ijuite parallel to that
human conduct which we call intelligent. This, how-
ever, does not of cimrsc assiMt that any animals have
attained to the human level of self-conscious intelli-
gence, with its ideas and ideals. In thinking about
the grades of action, which are usually regarded as
stages in evolution, it is well to distinguish the
objective or observable characteristics from the
subjective or analogical interpretation ; and it is
also important to recognise that the grades ilistin-
guished are not hard ami fast, but simply mark
areas on an inclined plane which slopes from the
amceba up to man.
Dcfliiition.',: — We are not concerned here with the
general questions suggested by such descriptions of
instinct a-s refer it to 'immediate impressions from
the Fii'st Jlover or from the di\ine energy acting in
the creature,' nor is it necessary to discuss those
which make the term include all the .adaptive
actions of animals in sharp contra.st to the intelli-
gence of man. Some others, however, are more
to the point. Thus, Hartinann defines instinct as
• action taken in pursuance of an end, without con-
scious perception of what the eiul is.' Spencer calls
instinct ' a kind of organised memory : ' .Samuel
Hutler says ' instinct is inherited memory : ' .J. J.
Murphy describes it as ' the sum of inherited habits.'
According to Eimer, ' instinct is inherited ca|)a-
bility, and especially inheiitecl habit ; or more
exactly, instinct is the inherited power of acting
h,abitually and without ilelilieration in a inirposeful,
intelligent fashion, under the influence of internal
stimuli, plus or minus others from without. ' Accord-
ing to Komanes, ' instinct is rellex action into which
there is im|iorted the element of consciousness.
The term is therefore a generic one, comprising all
those faculties of mind which are concerned in
conscious and adaptive action, antecedent to indi-
vidual experience, without necessary knowledge of
the relation between means em])loyed and ends
attained, but similarly ]ierformed under similar
•and frequently recurring circumstances by all the
individuals of the same species.'
Examp/cs. — Instinctive actions are usually perfect
from the fii-st and independent of individual experi-
ence. Thus, the liutterlly makes the lemarkable
transition from caterpillar to adult habits without
hesitation ov failure ; the bee lilies llowers on
its first flight ; and the chick in the first few hours
of its open-air life makes successful darts at flies.
Ill other cases, however, pr,actice ajipears to help,
as in the nest-building activities ot birds. Nor
are instincts always sufficiently perfect, for ants
store beads instead of grains, and mistake corn-
wheat seeds for their own encoiuis ; flower-visiting
insi'cts .also jiatronise blight coloured wallpa])er ;
and the lemmings in their instinct for going right
ahead will swim str.aight out to sea. Marvellous
are the instincts exhibited by social animals such
a.s ,ants and beavers, by insects which |>rovide elabo-
rately for young which they never survive to
behold, and in the nesting and migration of our
common birds. Less pleasant, in fact almost
ile\ilish in iMgenuily, is the instinct of the Sphex
wasps, which provide fresh meat for their future
larva' by storing spiders, in.sects, and caterpillars
which tliey have stung in their chief nerve-centres,
with the result that the victims are not killed out-
right, but only paralysed.
l)rii/iii iif tiislinil.s. — An ajqiroximation to the
truth will probably be atlained by comliining the
chief theories. (1) Instincts m,ay be the iidierited
results of compound reflex actions, and are there-
INSTITUTE
INSURANCE
175
Automatic Habit.
/natlnctive.
Reflex Action.
Diasr.im illustrating origin of
Instinct from rertex action
on tin- one hand, from lapswl
intelligence on the other (cf.
Romanes '.
fore in urij;iii iinintelliijeut (Spencer). (2) N'atuial
selection may lix on imrjioseless habits wliicli diaiice
to be prolitable, ami convert tlieni into instincts
withont intelligence being ever concerned in the
process ( Darwin, Romanes). Weisniann points out
that not a few instincts are exliibiteil onlv once
in a lifetime, so that they at least can hanlly be tlie
inheriteil results of practice. He holds that 'all
instinct is entirely due to the operation of natural
selection, and has its
iNTKLLtOEKT. foundation not upon
I inherited experiences,
but upon variations of
the germ.' (3) Instincts
may arise from habits,
which were origiiuilly
intelligent, becoming
by repetition automatic
( Darwin, Lewes, Ko-
manes, &c. ). Einier
derives instincts from
inherited intelligent
habits, which are sliort-
ened and simplilied in
evolution, though fre-
quently retaining a trace
of deliberation. (4)
While instincts may arise by natural selection
alone, or by lapsing intelligence alone, ' these
principles when working in c<j-operation have
greater intluence in evolving instincts than either
of them can have when working singly' (Romanes).
(T)) Imitation, as Wallace insists, and the power of
rai)id learning, which Eimer emphasises, have
probably been of importance in the evolution of
some instincts. It seems certain that instincts
may arise either from unintelligent or from intelli-
gent habits, that their evolution may be abetted by
natural selection, and that the power of instinctive
action is conserved by the organic memory of
inherit.ance.
See Ant, Be.web, Bee. Bied, Cuckoo, Elephant, &c.
for illu.strations ; also Br.vin, Evolution, Heredity.
For full illustrations, see especially G. J. Koinanes, A nimal
Intelti(iei>ce (Inter. .So. .Series, I8S2); Couch's lllustra-
tiuiix of Instinct ; Lauder Lindsay's Mind in Animals ;
Biichner's Aiis dent Geisteslfben der Thicrc (trans.), &c.
For theory of instinct, see especially Romanes, Mental
Evolution in Animals, with a jjosthunious essay on
Instinct by Darwin (1883); compare Darwin's Vriijin
of SjH'cies ; Wallace's Natural Selection ; Spencer's Prin-
ciples of Psycholoijii and Principles of Bioloijy ; G. H.
Levies, Problems of Life and Mind: S. Butler, Life and
Habit; 3. J. Murpliy, Habit and Intelligence; Caqien-
ter, Maud.sley, Bastian, Wundt, and others on Mental
Physiology ; E. Von Hartmann, Das Unbewusste voin
Standpunktt der Phtjsiologie (2d ed. 1877): Sclmeider,
Der thitrische Wille ( 1880) ; Preyer, Die Scele des Kindes
( 1882) ; Eimer, Die Entstehuwj der Arten (1888) ; Weis-
mann. Papers on Heredity (1889).
Institute, The, in English law, is the mode of
citation or reference to Chief- justice Coke's great
work on English law, the name for the lirst part of
which is C'o/.e h^(/>« Liltlcton (see Coke). — Institutes
is the name given to the elements of Roman or
civil law. See Law, .Ii.stinian.
Iiistitiitc- «r FraiKT. See Academy.
Ilistruillt'lltatioil is the art of using, in com-
positiim, the various instruments and combinations
of till' Orchestra (q.v. ).
Illsiiraiire is a contract under which one j>arty,
called the Insurer, or As.surer, agrees, in considera-
tion of a sum of money called the Premium, to pay
a larger sum of money to another party, called the
Insured, («• Assured, <in the hajqiening of a desig-
nated contingency. Insurance h.os sometimes been
saiil to lie akin to gambling, but it is really
the converse. The gambler seeks excitement and
I gain by the artificial manufacture of hazardous
speculations. The prudent man resorts to insur-
ance in order to secure peace of mind anil immunity
from the loss which might arise from contingencies
beyond his control. The gambler creates or exag-
genites lisks ; the insurance otiice equalises them.
The ori'dn of insurance is lost in antic|uity. At
a very eaidy ])eriod merchants insnicd tlieir ve.s.sels
•and goods against the perils of the .se.as, and ]iroh-
ably marine ifisnrtf)ire was the lirst description to
I come into existence. From insuiing ships and
nicichandi.se, tlie step was not a long one to insure
for the voyage the life of the captain, on whom so
much depended ; and we therefore soon liiid traces
of such contracts, the insurance frc(|uently jirovid-
ing for the sum assured to be paid, not only in the
event of the death of the captain, but also in the
event of his capture by pirates, or by the king's
enemies. Moreover, the merchant in those early
days frequently accompanied the \essel in whicli
his goods were shipped. Possibly he had olitaine<l
the goods on credit, on condition of paying dotible
their cost should he return safely, and the creditor
would thereupon insure the life of the meridiant for
that particulixr voyage. Life iissiiniiirr jiroving in
this connection very convenient, it gradually was
resorted to in other business transactions, and
ultimately came to be sought as a means of family
jirovision.
The first evidence of frc insurance is to be
found in connection with the Anglo-Saxon guilds,
although probably it also w.as a developiiieiit of
marine insurance. The reader will iiiid full in-
formation on the historical aspect of the subject in
the various articles in AValford's Insurance Eiinjclo-
ptvdia, and in an essay on the ' History of Life
Assurance in the United Kingdom,' by the same
author, in the Journal of the Institute of Actuaries
(vols. XXV. and xxvi. ).
Life Insurance. — The earliest life-as.snrance
[jolicy of which iiarticulars have been jireserved was
maile on loth June 1583 at the ' Otiice of Insurance,
within the Royal Exchange,' in London. Full
<letails of this policy have been preserved, because
it gave rise to the first authentic disputed claim.
The policy was for £383, 6s. Sil., to be paid to
Richard Martin in the event of William Cyblxms
dying within twelve months, and the jiolicy was
underwritten by thirteen dilVerent persons who
gnarjinteed sums of from £25 to £50 each. The
]ireminm was at the rate of £8 per cent. William
Cybbons died on 28th May 1584, and the under-
writers refused to pay because he had survived
twelve months of twenty-eight days each. The
Commissioners a]ipointed to determine such eases
held that the twelve months mentioned in the
])(dicy meant one full year, and they ordered the
underwriters to ]iay. These appealed to the Court
of Admiralty, which then hail jurisdiction in such
cases, and wliere in 1587 two judges tipbehl the
decision of the Commissioners, so that eventually
the underwriters had to pay.
The existing company known since 1698 as the
Hand-in Hand w;is started in lODii under the name
of the Amicable, and is therefore the oldest insur-
ance company in existence, but it did in>t begin
life business until 18.'j6. The earliest known life-
as.surance company was established in 1699, and
called the ' Society of Assurance for Widows and
Orphans.' This was what now would be called
an assessment company. It did not guaiantee a
delinite sum assured, in consideration of a lixed
periodical premium, but by its ciuislilutiou it was
to consist when full of 20(K) members who were to
contribute ."j.s. each towards every death that
occurred among the membei-s ; this contribution
being ilesigned to raise £5(K) on the death of each
meinl)er, contingent on all members paying up.
176
INSURANCE
The next life-assuniiice institution started was tlie
famous Amicable (a dilleient company from llje
Amicable already nientioned). It was founded in
1705, and cliarteied by IJueen Anne on Sotli July
1706. W alfmd, in las Ilistor)/ uf Life Assiiruurr,
states that the ])laM of woi-king was tliis ; Tlie
number of memliors was to be 2(100. Amongst
the re))resentatives of those who died in the lirst
year onesixtli of the total contributions w:us to be
divided ; in the second year, if the full number of
members was enrolled, £4000 ; in the third year.
£6000; in the fourth, £8000: in the lifth and
subsequent years, £10,000, with a proportionate
reduction if the full nund)er of members was not
enroUeil. The full contrilmtion from the complete
roll of members would be £ I '-',000 per annum, and
the surplus was to be accumulated. Tlie Amicable
lasted as an independent institution until 1866,
when it was transferred to the Norwich Union Life
Insurance Society, and its ]iolicies were iinally
nierj^ed in those of the Xoiwich Union on 30th
June 18S6. V'arums other life ottices of the a.ssess-
ment order were starteil .'ibout the same time, but
all except the Amicable disappeared on the liurstinj,'
of the South Sea Bubble in 1720. In 1721 the
London Assurance Corporation and the Royal Ex-
change Assurance Corporation, both of which hail
been chartered in 1720, received additional powers,
under which they were authorised to transact life
business. These twins both remain strong corponi-
tions at the jjresent ilay, and are therefore the
oldest surviving life offices in the world. The lirst
life policy of the London Assurance Corporation
was issued on 7th June 1721. The only other
life office which we shall mention here is the
Equitable, estalilished in 1762, and prosperous
still. Its history for now more than a century
and a quarter has been the history of life
assurance in England. Its affairs ha\e been
conducted by men eminent in the assurance pro-
fession, and to its cautiously directed enterprise
in early days we are in great part indebted for
the scientific soundness of the foundation on which
the business of life assurance stands. Since the
passing of the Life Assurance Companies Act in
1870 it has been possible to trace minutely the
history of every life company. (Jwing to amal-
gamations they are diminishing in number. At
the time the Act of 1870 was passed there were
about 130 in active oi)eration, a number reduced
in 1 800 to only 8S. Under the Act of 1870 a deposit
of £20,000 must be made with the Court of
Chancery before a company may commence life
business, and this discourages the formation of new
offices.
The elementary principles of life assurance are
very simple. At first the rates of jiremium were
fixed in .-i purely arbitrary manner, the result of
guess-work, and no dillereiice appears to have been
made in resjiect of persons of itiU'erent ages. Hut
as experience was gathered it came to be seen that
history rej)eats itself with great precision ; that
out of a given numlx-r of persons alive it can be
approximately foretold from the results of the jiast
how many will die within a given time : and it
was further .seen that the rate of mortality has a
tendency to increase with the age of the lives
observed —that is to say, for instance, that out of
a thousand persons alive agccl thirty fewer will
die in a year than out of a thousand persons aged
sixty. The lirst result of this advance in scienlilic
knowledge was that a limit of age was fixed
beyond which ai>plicanls w('re not admitted into
the assurance offices, the Amicalde refusing all
aged forty live and over; a little later on the
E(|uital>le was started upon the still more scientific
princiide of charging rates varying according to
age. Early investigators tried to emliody the
results of experience in tabular foini, and so
produced forerunners of what are now known as
mortality tables. These show, out of a given
number born, how iiiany complete each year of
age, and by means of a properly constructed
mortality table the rates of premium which should
be charged for the assurance of lives can readily
be calculateil. John de Witt, (iraiid pi'iisionaiy of
Holland, was ap[iarently the liist to apply scicii-
I tilic principles to the calculations connected with
annuities, which are analogous to those connected
with assurances, his report on this matter being
distributed to the members of the States-general
on 30th July 1671. The Hist mortality table was
based upon observations in the city of ISrcslau,
and was jjrepared by E. Halley, Asliomimerroyal
of England, and published in the r/ti/(ixi'ji/iici(l
Transiictions for January and -March 1603. The
first tables of premiums used by the I'^juitaUe
Society were ])re])ared from the mortality of the
year 1741 by James Dodson, author of the Itliithe-
iiKit/'rnl licpositori/, who was assocdated \\itli
Thomas Simpson, the well-known mathematician,
in founding the society. Later on the Equitable
adojjted tables derived from the London bills of
mortality, and later on still, that known as
the Northampton table, constructed by Dr Price
1 from the statistics of the iiarish of All Saints,
Northampton, during forty six years from 1735 to
1780. The earliest mortality tables were prepared
from a record of the ileaths alone; but it was
subsequently discovered that this gave erroneous
results, and had a tendency very much to cxag<'er-
ate the estimate of mortality. Joshu.a Milne,
actuary to the Sun Life Assurance Society, .seems
to have been the first to construct mortality tables
correctly by comparing the numbers dying in each
year of age in a po]>ulation with the numbers alive
at each age. On this princiide he constructed the
famous Carlisle tal)le, based upon the population
of the parishes of St Mary and St Cuthbert,
Carlisle, in 1780 and 1787, and the numl>er of
deaths that took jil.ace in each interval of ages in
the same two ])arishes during nine years, beginning
with 1770 and ending with 1787. The Carlisle
table formed for many years the basis on which
were calculated the premiums and the reserves of a
great many of the leading insurance companies,
and so accurate was it that even at the present
day its use has not been entirely discontinued.
The records of the Equitable Society furnished
materials for the construction of mortality tables
from the ex]ierience of assured lives, and (Irillith
Davies, K. U.S., actuary to the (iuaidian Assurance
Company, compiled the Equitabh' assurance table
(1825) from data he derived from the annual
addresses of the actuary of that office. Lat<»r on
a committee of actuaries collected the experience
of seventeen insurance com|ianies, and the results
were published in lS4o. .Again, the Institute of
.Actuaries ci>llected the exjiericnce of twenty com-
(lanies and gave it to the world in the volume of
Mortiiliti/ Experietirc in 1869: and these last tables
are at the present day considered the best, and
with Ibitish insurance companies are rapidly snjier-
seding every other. M;iny individual companies
h.ave also taken out their mortality experience,
and tables have been prepared from the experience
of foreign companies by American and continental
actuaries.
In the calculations of a life office the probabilities
of life ,are combined with the interest of money.
To take the simplest possible example : According
to the Institute of Actuaries' mcutality table, out
of 1000 children aged ten iV)6 will attain the age of
twenty-one. .Now, .assuming that exactly 4 ])er
cent, compound interest can be realised, the sum
required to he invested at once in order to provide
INSURANCE
177
£100 at the end of eleven years is £64, 19s. 2d. If
it be arranged that each of the lOlH) chiUlren an;eil
ten shall receive an endowment of flOO on coming
of age, it is clear that 956 such endowments must
lie arran<;ed for, and the amount now rerniired to
provide t hem is £62, 100, 3s. 4d. In respect of each of
the 1000 children, therefore, a sum of £62, 2s. must
he paid down if he is to receive £100 on reaching
his majority. This sum is called the present value
of, or the single premium for, the endowment. An
annuity consists of a series of endowments, the
tirst pav.able at the end of one year, the second at
the eni\ of two yeai-s, and so on ; and its present
value, or the sum reiiuireil to purchase it, is found
by calculating the value of each of these endow-
ments and adding the whole together. Similarly,
if a sum of money is to be paid on the death of an
individual, a calculation is made for the premium
to cover the risk of death in the first year ; so also
for the second year, for the third year, &c. , to the
utmost possible duration of human life ; and the
results are added together in order to find the
single premium for an assurance on his life. For
the annual i)remium an equation is made between
the value of an annuity on the life and an assurance
on the same life ; and thus the annuity — in this
case called the annual premium — equivalent to
the single premium is ascertained. In order that
such calculations may be made easily and simply
various monetary tallies are in the first place
prepared, and the calculations, which would other-
wise be so laborious as to be almost prohibitive,
are thereby rendered very brief and easy. On
principles similar to those adopted in such simple
cases as are above indicated, actuaries are able to
solve many complicated problems. For instance,
it is easy to ascertain what should be the prenuum
for an assurance payable in the event of one person
of a given age n.ving before another person of a
different age ; or many lives may be introduced
«-ith various orders of survivorship. The simpler
questions of this nature may be solved directly
from the mortality table and the sulisidiarj- taides
which are usually prepared from it ; but when very
complicated questions arise other processes must be
resorted to. The late Sir J. W. Lubbock, Bart.,
in the Cnmhn'dgc Philosophical Transactions for
the year 1829, was the first to give a formula of
approximation. Mr W. S. B. Woolliouse, in the
Journal of Ihf Inslittite of Actuaries {vols. \i. and
.\v. ), produced a fornmla essentially the same as
that of Lnbljock, but ditferent from it in that he
used the differential calculus instead of the calculus
of finite differences. Mr (i. F. Hardy, in the
Journal of the Institute of Actuaries (vol. xxiv.),
greatly extended and improved Mr Woolhouse's
formula, and threw it into various sliapes to suit
different circumstances, so that for practical
purposes these fonuulas can now be applied to
solve the most comj^licated questions in a ver^'
easy manner. Later on Mr Woolhouse again took
the matter up, and, in the Journal of the Institute
of Actuaries (vol. xxvii. ), investigated the general
principles upon ^^■hich tliese formulas of approxi-
mation are based, and deduced several of still
greater power than those which had previously
been put forward. Little more therefore remains
to l)e done in this direction.
It has already been remarked that the rate of
mortality incre.-Lses with the age. The usual
custom of insurance companies is, however, to
charge a uniform premium tliroughout life, and it
naturally follows that this prendum must be in
excess of that require<l for the mere a'^surance in
the earlier years when the mortality is compara-
tively li^ht, so that that excess may be accumu-
lated at interest, and Income available in the later
years of the policy when the rate of mortality is
272
heavier, and when the uniform prendum charged
is no longer sufficient for the risk. In this respect
life assurance differs from fire insurance. With
fire insurance a reserve is required only for the un-
expired portion of the time for which the premium
has been paid, and to proviile against Htictuations
and contingencies. In life assurance also, a reserve
is required for these objects, ))Ut, in addition, a
reserve is necessary, as above pointed out, on account
of the increasing rate of mortality. Hence it
follows *liat life companies transacting business by
uniform premiums must accumulate large funds,
«hich are not profit, but are absolutely necessary
in order to meet prospective liabilities. This is
clearly shown when a company, as sometimes
happens, closes its door to new business, and deter-
mines simply to continue its e.xistence in order to
run off' current contracts. For a time the funds
will increase, but presently it will happen that the
claims will absorb the whole of the premium and
interest income. A little later on the claims will
be in excess of such income, and the investments
will have to be drawn upon, until when the last
policj' falls in the funds will be completely ex-
hausted. In the early days of the Equitable Society,
when it was uncertain what would really be re-
quired to cover the lisk, much larger premiums
tlian ultimately proved to be necessary were
charged ; and, as there were no shareholders, the
large surpluses which accumulated were distributed
among the policy-holders. This system became so
popular that when other companies were started at
a later date, although the rates of mortality were
much more accurately understood, an additional
premium, over and above that required for the risk
and for expenses, was deliberately charged, so as to
pro\'ide a fund out of which bonuses might be paid
to the policy-holders. It is now the universal
custom of life offices to have a participating class
of policy-holders, among whom the periodical sur-
pluses are distributed. There are many ways in
which these so-called profits are divided. With
some companies the bonuses are large in the early
days of a policy, and gradually diminish as time
goes on. Others again give comparatively small
bonuses at the outset, these increasing with the
lapse of time ; and others again give practically
uniform bonuses throughout the duration of the
policy. Some companies make it a feature to
return the surplus in cash, or as a reduction of the
premium. Others treat the share of surplus belong-
ing to the individual policy-holder as a single
prendum to provide an assurance on his life, in this
connection called a revei-sionary bonus ; so that
instead of paying away at once the money to the
policy-holders, the sums assured under the policies
are increased. Other companies combine these
various methods, and give policy-hohleis their
choice. The systems being essentially so difi'erent,
it is difficult to compare one company with another,
and the intending policy-holder should judge for
himself which system would best suit his own
circumstances, and act accordingly.
The Institute of Actuaries, founded in 1848, was
incorporated by royal charter in 1884. Its journal,
regularly published now for over forty years, con-
tains a vast numlicr of most imjiortant and uscfid
original contributiiuis on the theory and ]iractice of
life assurance. All the leading actuaries have
contributed, and every <li.scovery of importance in
actuarial science ha-s fij-st been ]iublished in its
pages. By its meetings, at which papers are read
and discussed, the institute has also done much to
1)romote the investigation and to disseudnate the
cnowledge of life contingencies. In early days it
initiated the system of examinations, an<l gave
certificates of competency to students who satLs-
factorily passed tliem, so that the directors of
178
INSURANCE
insurance companies could know who were the men
qualiKed for posts that might l>ecome vacant.
Later on lectureships were added to train tlie
students, and under the auspices of the institute
a text-lxiok in two parts has been jiulilished, deal-
ing respectively with interest an<l annuities certain,
and with life contingencies : the former by W.
Sutton, M.A., and the latter by the writer of this
article. Another great achievement of the Institute
of Actuaries wa.s the collection of the materials for
the mortality e.\i)crience of twenty companies, and
their compilation in the form of moitality tables
and monetary taldes. The Faculty of Actvuiries of
Edinburgh and tlie Actuarial Society of Edinburgh
have also done good public service.
Tlie Life Assuiauce Companies Acts, 1870-72,
were passed owing to the disastrous failure of
two great companies, the Albert and the European ;
and under them companies must register their
accounts in specified form, and at periodical
intervals give very full details relating to their
actuarial valuations. The view taken by the
British legislature has been that it is well to allow
the companies to be managed by their own re-
sponsible officials, and that tlie government should
not actively interfere, but that for tlie protection
of the public full information should be available.
The acts also have proved a great benelit by
providing for the reconstruction instead of liquida-
tion of insurance companies. A third "leat
advantage of the acts has been that reckless
amalgamations have been rendered impossible,
while amalgamations that are for the good of all
the parties interested have not been interfered
with. Now such full details of everytliiiig that is
done in connection with an amalgamation must be
published, that anything like extravagance or un-
justifiable e.vpenditure is impossible.
Fire Insurance, Marine Insurance. — The contract
of fire insurance is a contract purely of indemnity —
i.e. the assured may not make a profit out of a
fire, but is merely indemnified against loss sustained.
Therefore it is not the cost of the goods at the
time of purchase that is taken account of in settle-
ment of a loss, but their value at the time of the
fire. For instance, if a merchant have stored
cotton for which he gave £1000, and if a fire occur
when his stock would realise only £800 if placed
upon the market, then £800 is the limit of the
amount he can recover, although he may liave
been holding the cotton for an advance in prices.
Again, if a householder have a claim upon a
company, he can only recover in respect of the
value of his furniture and effects, after allowing
for the depreciation due to wear and tear — i.e.
by the contract of insurance he is entitled only
to be placed in the position which lie occupied
immediately before the fire, and not in one better.
In this imjiortant respect fire insurance ditt'ers
from life assurance, because in the case of a life
])olicy, the amount of the interest of tlie assured
is fixed at the time the policy is issued, ami he
may on the death of the life assureil recover that
full amount, although at the time of the death his
interest may possibly have altogether ceased. The
contract of fire insurance dill'ers also in important
re-spects from the marine insurance contract. In
tlie latter, if goods are assured for less than their
value, the ]>olicy-holder carries the ri.sk himself for
tlie amount uninsured. For instance, if a merchant
have goods on a vessel to the value of £1000, and
if he insure for £500, and if damage to the goods
occur to the amount of £500, he can recover only
£250, he being his own insurer for the ililterence
between the value of the goods and the amount of
the policy (for fuller information on Marine Insur-
ance, see AvERAiiE). In the case of the fire-
insurance contract, however, the whole £500 could
in such event be recovered from the company,
unless in the exceptional c;ise of an average clause
having been in.serted in the policy. By the average
clause the insured is maile liLs own insurer for
whatever amount is not covered bv fire policies,
and it is sometimes inserted in policies covering
large trade risks, and also in those covering goods
stored in scattered warehouses. By the usual
wording of fire policies, tlie company luis the right
to refuse a renewal premium, and here again there
is a marked difi'erence from a life policy, which is
renewable at the option of the assured. Init not of
the assurer. A fire jiolicy is not a.ssigmible without
the consent of the office, wliicli it is usual to give
by the way of indoi-seiiient. Thus, if a merchant
whose goods are covered by insurance sell the
goods, the protection of the fire policy is not there-
by transferred, but the purchaser must make his
own arrangements. Thus, in the common occur-
rence of the purchase of a house, although tiie house
may have been covered by a policy in tlie name
of the vendor, the purchaser cannot recover under
it without an indorsement having been place<l
upcm it transferring the insurance from the vendor
to liimself. The contract of fire insurance is
]iersoiial between the insured and the office, and
the insured can therefore recover only the amount
of his own personal loss. Thus, for instance,
unless so stateil in the contract, the j;oods of a
servant are not covered by the fire pcmcy in the
name of the master ; and goods in the bands of
an agent are not covered by a policy in the agent s
name. As the wording of lire iiolicies is \ery
strictly construed by the courts of law, and as the
offices for their own protection are often compelled
to take their stand on the literal contract, though
they seek to meet liberally every hona-Jitlc claim,
the policy-holder should be careful to see that his
jiolicy is in accordance with his wislies.
Prior to 1869 a special tax was imposed on fire-
insurance companies, and the returns they were
called upon to make furnished an accurate record
of the amount of fire-insurance business transactetl
in the country. In 1869, however, the tax was
repealed, and a stamp of one penny only on each
policy was substituted. The result is that, except
in the metropolis, where for the metropolitan fire-
brigade, under act of parliament, a rate is ]iaid
by the companies in projiortion to the amounts
assured, it is impossible to say what is the total
business of the country. Many of the companies
voluntarily publish their accounts, and show their
premium income, and those with a life department
must do so ; but in the case of purely fire offices
this is not compulsory.
Fire offices may be broadly distinguished as
tarifl' and non-tariff. The tariff are those which
belong to the Fire Offices" Committee, an associa-
tion formed for mutual jirolection, and, by the
regulation of rates, to obviate destructive com-
petition. The non-tariff offices are those which
]irofess to estimate each risk on its merits, with-
out li.xing a minimum, but most freiiueiitly those
offices whidi try this [dan find it un.satisfactory,
and sub.se(|uently join the tarifl'. (ireat Britain is
eminently tlie countrv of .successful fire offices, and
several of the British companies are larger than
any establislied in any otiier part of the world.
Many of the British offices transact an enormous
foreign business.
Industrial Insurance is the name given where life
policies are of small amount, and secured by weekly,
or at most monthly, i)reiiiiums. The premiums vary
from id. to 3d. or 6d. a week, and it is usual, instead
of the ]ueiiiiuiii being adjusted to the age, to adjust
the sum assured; so that, while at all ages the
preminm is the same, the amount of the policy
decreases with the age of the life at enti-y. An
INSURANCE
17S
enormous imlustiial business is transacted in Great
Britain, (lartlv by insurance companies and jiartly
by collecting l-'riendly Societies { q. v. ). One imliis-
irial company alone — the Prudential, established
in 1S4S— received in industrial premiums in 18S9
the huge sum of £3,;i3(),74'2.
Accitknt Imurancc generally proWdes for a sum
payable in the event of death by accident, or for com-
pensation, either by way of a lump sum or of a weekly
allowance, in the event of injury or disablement from
aceiilent. Even in early times there are traces of
accident business, but tiie oldest and largest exist-
ing accident company is the Railway Pjissengers',
established in 1S4S. At first, a-s its name implies,
it conliued its operations exclusively to railway
accidents, and accumulated a premium income of
t"l'2,(KX) a year, but before long it enlarged its
powers so as to transact accident Inisiness of every
description, and in 1896 its premium income was
£•2,7-10,000. Besides transacting accident business
proi)er, many of the companies comliine with it
employers' liability assurance — i.e. they guarantee
to refund to employers any damages they may
have to pay through accidents to workmen in tlieir
service; but without the greatest care this depart-
ment of the business is unreniunerative. Some of
the accident companies also issue policies pro\ id-
ing weekly compensati(m in the event of incapa-
city from illness ; but generally it h;us been found
that, on account of the difficulty in delining illness,
and on account of the great lialnlity to fraud,
sickness insurance has been unprolitable.
Fidelity Guarantee Insuramc. — The first attemjit
at lidelity guarantee insurance ajjpears to have
been made in 1720, but it was many years before
the business took root. The first fidelity ottice —
'The Guarantee Society' — wa-s established in 1842.
The object of fidelity guarantee insurance is to
secure employere against fraud ou the part of their
clerks and servants.
In the United States of America an enormous
life business is transacted by the native companies,
and one of them, the Mutual Insurance Company of
New York, is the largest office in the world, wlule
several of the others far sur|jass in magnitude any
British company, except perhaps the Prudential.
The premium income of the Mutual of New York
in 1889 was £4,745,572, and the new business trans-
acted in that year amounted to £30,.310,912 — more
than ten times that of any liritish office. The
aggregate premium income of the forty leading
Auienc.an offices in 1889 was £28,199,804, while
the total premium income of all the ordinary life-
a.ssnrance couipanies of the L nited Kingdom was
only £13,928,001. It must, however, be remem-
bered in comparing these figures that three of the
Auierican c(im[ianies — viz. the Mutual of New
York, the Eipiitable of New York, and the New-
York Life — are almost cosmopolitau in their nature,
and transact a gigantic business throughout the civi-
lised world, whereas the great majority of British
companies transact but a small foreign Imsiness.
.Xiiieriean insurance law ditlers in very many
respects from that of Great Britain. The princi-
ples have been adopted of strict state supervision,
and of a standard of solvency. In each of the
states there is an officer charged with the <luty of
examining into the alt'airs of insurance companies,
of making valuations, and of reporting the results
of his investigations ; and if the assets are not
sntHcient to meet the liabilities as legally esti-
mated, the company is compelled to close it.s doors.
As each state of the Union legislates on insurance
matters (|uite indepen<lently of all the others, con-
siderable confusion has been produced. In different
states different standards of^ solvency are set up,
and it might tpiite well happen that in one state
a company might be adjudged bankrupt, while in
another the commissioner might on the same day
give his certificate that it was in a position to
meet all its engagements. Practically, however,
these anomalies do not cause much inconvenience,
and the various states are gradually a.ssimilating
their regulations. One principal feature of the
American system of transacting business is the
Tontine (q.v.) system, which has grown to gigantic
proportions. In England, in almost all cases, the
surpluses are distributed among thi^ policy holders
by way of immediate bonuses, but in America the
great "majority of policies are issued on the condi-
tion that profits will accrue only if the life survive
and if the policy be kept in force for the sti|iulate<l
period. The effect of this condition is that when
profits do vest, they are of course larger than if
the policy-holders had received immediate bonuses.
In former times not only were the profits placed
in a Tontine, but the policies themselves were
subject to a similar arrangement ; so that unless
the renewal premiums were punctually paid, the
policies would lapse and the assured \\i>ul(l derive
no benefit from them.
In the British colonies life assurance has also
developed in a marvellous manner ; and, consider-
ing the relative populations. Great Britain is left
far behind. The Australian colonies in particular
are pre-eminent for the success of tljcir insurance
offices, the Australian Mutual Provident Society
of Sydney being the largest, and giving perhaps
the largest bonuses of any company in the world ;
this result being due in part to excellent manage-
ment, but principally to the very high rate of
interest which invested funds yield at the Anti-
podes. On 31st December ISDti the Australian
Mutual Provident Society had on its books 128,996
policies a.ssuring £40,623,903, at annual premiums
of £1, ,332,715, and the invested funds amounted
to £13,728,540.
While in the Australian colonies insurance laws
differ in various respects from tlK)se of the United
Kingdom, yet they are still further removed from
the regulations of the United States of America.
There is no standard of solvency, and no govern-
ment supervision in the ordinary sense of the word ;
but connfanies have to make returns somewhat on
the British system, so that the public may have
full information. In France, Germany, and Aus-
tria there are also large insurance companies.
National Insurance. — From an early period the
British government has been accustomed to grant
annuities on lives, the transactions being carried
out by the National Debt Commissioners. The
annuity business having been very large and very
successful, it was naturally thought that an insur-
ance business providing for sums payable at death
might with e(|ual propriety be undertaken, and
con.sei|uently, tlirougli the medium of the post-office,
a life-assurance office was started on the 17th
April 1805, but in the magnitude of results it
has not answered expectations. In the year
1889 the annmnt received in premiums was only
£15,108, 7s. 2il., and the amount jiaiil in claims
.£7473, 3s. lOd., and the total premium receipts
from the opening of the office up to 31st December
1889 were only £226,069, 4s. Sd., being very much
le.ss than the revenue of many of the private offices
for a single year. Probably tlie rea-son for this com-
parative failure of the liritish life-iussurance depart-
ment is that no efforts are made to devidop the
business, and no comroi.ssion is jiaid to agent-s.
New Zealand ha-s also initialeil a system of
national insurance, but there the practice of private
companies luts been followed, aud with eminent
success. Canvassei's have been apiminted, and
commission paid to agents ; with the result, that
while the department was instituted ouly in 1874,
yet in the year 1896 the prendnm income was
180
INTAGLIO
INTEREST
£790,956, and at the close of that year the accumu-
lated insurance fund amounted to no less than
£2,591,342.
Germany is the only country which has attempted
compulsory national insurance, and that on a lar^'e
scale. The tirst hill w.os passed in ISS.'J, and pro
vided for the com]mlsory insurance of workmen
against sickness. In 1884 a further act w;is passed
providing compulsory insurance against accidents ;
and in 1889 a tliird hill hecame law under which the
working-cla.sses will on disahlement from illness or
acciilent, or on attaining old age, receive a pension.
It cannot he said that the insurance laws of Ger-
many are based upon strict actuarial science, but
they are a bold attempt to solve a very difficult
problem. In the United Kingdom there is perhaps
not the same need for a compulsory insurance law
of this drastic character, because the poor-law
practically has the same end in view.
Intaglio ( Ital., 'cutting in '), a term in art, the
o])posite of relief, means the representation of a
subject by hollowing it out in a gem or other
substance, so that an impression taken from the
engraving presents the appearance of a bas-relief.
See Gem.
Integral Calcnliis. See Calculus.
Intellect. See Psychology.
Intemperance. See Alcoholism, Delirium
Trkmens, Inebri.\tes, Intoxication.
Intendant, the name given in France before
the Revolution to the overseer of a province. Under
the complete system of centralisation established by
Richelieu these intendants became the mere organs
of the royal minister. The National Assembly, in
1789, established in each department an elective
administration. Napoleon virtually restored the
intendants, but exchanged the hated name for that
of Prefects (q.v. ). Intendant is the name of the
person in charge of an estate, and there are intend-
ants militaires, intendants dc la marine, &c.
Inter'calary (Lat. intercalaris, 'for inser-
tion), an epithet applied to those months or days
which were occasionally inserted in the calendar
to make it corresijond with the solar year. See
Calendar.
Intercoiuinnning. Letters of, was an
ancient writ issueil by the Scotch Privy-council
waining persons not to harbour rebels.
Interdict, an ecclesiastical censure or penalty
in the Roman Catholic Church, consisting in the
withdrawal of the administration of certain sacra-
ments, of the celebration of public worship, and of
tlie solemn burial-service. Interdicts are of three
kinds — local, which aft'ect a particular place, ami
tlius comprehend all, without distinction, who
reside therein ; personal, which only aflect a person
or pei'sons, ami which reach this person (»• persons,
and these alone, no matter wliere found ; ami
mixed, which all'ect both a place and its inhabitants,
so that the latter would be bound by the interdict
even outside of its purely local limits. Tlie ])rinciple
on which this ecclesiastical penalty is founded may
be traced in the early discipline of public jicnance,
by which penitents were for a time del)arreil from
the sacraments, and from the ])rivilegc of presence
at the celebration of the eucharist ; but it wa-* only
in the medieval (leriod that, owing to circumstances
elsewhere explained (see Excommunication), it
came into use as an ordinary church censure in the
then frequent conllicts of the ecclesiastical ami civil
power. It wius designeil to awaken the national
conscience to the nature of the crime, by including
all alike in the penalty with which it was visited.
The most remarkable interdicts are those laid upon
Scotland in 1180 by Alexander III.; on Poland
by Gregory VIL, on occasion of the murder of
Stanislaus at the altar ; by Innocent III. on France,
umler Philii)pe Auguste, in 1'200 ; and on England
umler John in 1'208. The description of England
under the last-nanieil interdict, as detailed by some of
the contemporary chroniclers, presents a str.an^ely
striking ]iicture of the condition of the ])ublic mind,
which it is difficult with our modern ideas fully
til realise or to understand. It would be a great
mistake, however, to sujipose that during the con-
tinuance of an interdict the ])eople were entirely
destitute of spiritual assistance. The interdict
mainly regarded the solemnities oi public worship;
it was permitted to adndnister bajitism, confirma-
tion, and the eucharist in all cases of urgency ;
to confess and alisolve all who were not pei'scm-
ally the guilty participators in the crime which
the interdict was meant to punish ; to celebrate
marriage, but without the solemnities ; and to
confer orders in cases of necessity. And under the
popes Gregory IX., Innocent III. and IV., and
Boniface III. still further ndtigations of its rigour
were introduced, one of which was the removal of
the interdict and restorati<ui of public worship
on certain great festivals, especially Christmas,
Easter, Pentecost, Assumjition, and All Souls.
The Council of Basel enacted very stringent rules
as to the use of this penalty, ami in later times the
general interdict has been entirely disused, altliough
occasionally, in very special circumstances, and to
mark the horror of the church for some enormous
crime, instances are still recorded in which a
particular place or church has been vi.sited with
the penalty of a local interdict.
Interdict; in Scots law, is an order issued by
the Court of Session to stop or prohibit a person
from doing an illegal or wrongful act. The party
ajiplying for it must have both title and interest to
object to the act comjilained of— i.e. he must be
more than a mere stranger. The iiriiu-ijiles on
which it is granted in Scotland are substantially
the same as those in which the parallel Writ of
Injunction (q.v.) is granted by the English court.
— For Interdiction, see Facility.
Interest is the consideration paiil for the use
of money. The interest of £100 fm- one year
is called the rate per cent. : the money lent,
the princiiial ; and the .sum of any priiu'ipal and
its interest, the amount. The current or market
rate of interest varies from a variety of causes,
tlie chief of which are the relation existing
between the accumulatiim of money and the
demands of borrowers, the iirevailing rate of profits
on trade, and the security and duration of the loan.
In Great Britain the price of the jiublic funds
indicates the interest obtainable for a permanent
loan with no risk of loss, while the ' bank rate ' —
i.e. the minimum rate at which the Bank of
England will disc(mnt liills represents the interest
for temporary loans with less undoubted security.
In the former ca-se, a.-* with fixed annuities, the
nominal rate of interest never varies ; but the real
return to the investor depends on the price he has
to i)ay for the capital. Thus, if the jirice of 2J per
cent.'consols be 91S, the actual return will be 3 per
cent.
Interest is computed on either of two ]irineiples.
Simple Interest is charged on the princiiial alone
for any length of time. The cimi|iutati()n of simple
interest is ea.sy, resolving itself into a mere ques-
tion of proportion : thus, having given the interest
on £100 for 1 year, to find the interest on any other
sum for any period, ^'ariolls ingenious devices are
made u.se of to save labour in these calculations,
especially by bankers, and arc given in most hand
books. Compound Intkhest is the charge made
where— the interest not being paid when due— it is
added to the principal, forming the amount upon
INTEREST
INTERFERENCE
181
which the suhsetiueiit year's interest is ooiiiputed.
The rules for most readily iiiakinj; coiiiinitatioiis by
coiii|>ound interest can only lie etlectively expressed
alj,'el'raicallv, and, using / to represent the interest
of£\ for one year, and n the number of years, we
annex a few "of the elementary formulas for £1,
from which the result for any sum is obtained by
simple multiplication.
(1) Amount of £1 /or a given time at comjiound
interest.— At the end of the first year the principal
(£1) with its interest («') will become 1 + /. At
the end of the second year the amount will be
(1 + /) + t (1 + i), or more simply (1 + i)'', and,
generally, the amount of £1 in n years is (I + ()"■
Example : To lind the amount of £6 in 20 years at
5 per cent, interest. Here ( is Oo and n is 20,
whence the required amount is 6 x 105-"= (by
logaritluns* 6 x 265 = £1518.
(2) Present value of £1 due n i/ears Ac/kjc— Since
£1 become.^ I + »' in one year, by proportion j^r-^'
otherwise written (1 + *')■' or r, will become £1 in
the same time, and hence the present value of £1
due « years hence is { 1 + i)-" {or v').
At 5 per cent, simple interest a sum of money
doubles it.self in 20 years, while at compoiind
interest with the same' rate it takes less than 15
years. In 100 years £1 at 5 per cent, simple
interest becomes" £6 ; at 5 per cent, compound
interest it becomes £131, 10s., or thereby.
(3) AXSUITIE.S Cert.\in. — Amount of an
Annuity of £1 in n years. — At the end of the n
years the last year's annuity will l>e due, and there-
fore worth £1"; the second-la-st will be worth one
year's interest in addition, or l + (; the third
(reckoning backwards), (1 + i)-; and so on to
the first year's annuity, which will amount to
(1 + /)""'. The amount required is therefore the
sum of the geometrical series 1 + (1 + i) + (1 ^- if
+ ....+(1 + /)-'; or, (i+_lt— f-
I
(4) Present Value of an Annuity. — This Is ea.sily
found from (3), as the result there found must
evidently be the present value, improved at
compound interest — i.e. multiplied by (1 + »')».
II .1 » 1 • 1 - (' + ')"" 1 - ""
Hence the pre.sent valuers -. ; or, — — .
Tables for the four cla.sses of values above described,
based on various rates of interest, are given in
most works on annuities and other liandlx>oks ; and
various useful results, besides those immeiliately
intended, can readily be deduced from them. — The
calculation of Life Annuities is complicated by the
element of the probability of life, and is treated
under .Vnntity.
IXTERE.sT, IN LAW.— The charging of interest
was formerly looked upon with great disfavour,
and was either forbidden or restricted by the
Usury Laws (n.v.), which were not finally repealed
till 18.'i9. In English law there is no obligation
imposeil on the debtor to pay any interest what-
ever, though the sum has been long due ami often
demanded. The creditor can always sue for his
debt, which is his proper remedy, but he derives no
benefit from giving time to his debtor. Therefore,
if intere.st is to be paid, this must be, as a general
rule, by virtue of express agreement. A tacit
agreement, however, would be presumed and given
effect to where it could be proved to be a custom
between the parties, or the usage of a particular
tra<Ie to allow interest. Thus, by the iisage of
merchant.^, it has always been usual, when an
action has been brought to recover the amount of
a bill of exchange or iironiissory-note, for the jury
to add interest from tlie time it was due. In the
case of money due upon an awanl by an arbitrator
interest Ls due from the ilay when the awanl was
made. Where money is due on a bond also interest
is added from the day it ought to have been ]iaiil ;
and if a surety has to pay money for his priiuiiial
he can recover it back with interest. In all otiicr
cases, if there was no express agreement about
interest, none could be claime<l. By 3 and -t
Will. IV. chap. 42, sec. 28, a jury may now
add interest at the ordinary rate on all debts
or sums certain, which are made payable under
some written instrument at a certain time : and
even if not due under a written instnimeiit,
then if a written demand has been made, ex-
pressly giving notice that interest will be charged
from "and after the date of the <lemand if not
paid then, interest will also be due. I'.ut even
in these last cases it is discretionary in the jury to
give the interest, and therefore it is not claimable
as a matter of coui-se. As regards compound
interest, it is a fortiori not claimalile in any case,
except where it has been expressly stipulated for,
or where there is in some particular trade a definite
custom to pay interest, and such custom must
always be proved. The courts generally name
4 per cent, when interest is decreed for, but some-
times 5 per cent. ; and where funds have been
misapplied the Court of Chancery charges com-
pound interest at 5 per cent. Pawnbrokers are
allowed to charge interest not exceeding a fixed
sum. See Pawxbroking.
In Scotland the law has always been much more
liberal in allowing interest to be claimed on out-
standing debts, for there the converse principle was
acted on, that on nearly all debts whatever interest
was claimable either by statute or by common
law. Thus, interest is due on bills of exchange,
on the amount contained in a horning or charge to
pay, on sums paid by cautioners, on the price of
lands sold, on money advanced at request, cm the
price of goods sold if the usual time of credit lias
expired, and generally on all debts when payment
is due and has been demanded. In certain cases
principal and interest to a fixed date are accumu-
lated into a capital sum on which interest runs ;
and the House of Lords, on appeal, may gi\e
decree for compound interest. Tlie courts charge
penal interest at the rate of 20 per cent, against
factors and trustees who illegally retain trust
funds in their own hands.
In the United States the legal rates of interest
vary in the difi'erent states and territories, from
5 per cent in Louisiana to 12 in Wyoming, but
in the majority 6 per cent, is the legal rate. In
most of the states there are penalties for usury,
ranging from forfeiture of the excess of interest to
forfeiture of principal an<l interest. But a higher
rate, and in many cases any rate, is allowed by
contract.
Interference, in Physical Science, is a term
which refers to a very general (dass of phenomena
depending on the co-existence at one place of two
dilierent sets of waves, undulations, or vibrations.
Its essential character is well ilhistiated by the
mingling of two sets of ripples produced in any
way (such as by the dropping in of stones) on the
otherwise smooth surface of a sheet of water.
Where crest meets crest, and trough meets trough,
there the resultant disturbance is increiused ; but
where crest meets trough, and trough meets crest,
the disturbance will be diminished, and even anni-
hilated should the mingling ripples be equal to
begin with. In such a ca.se we can observe the
interference of individual waves. Now, wlien'ver wo
have wave-motion, in the wide dynamic sense of the
term, there we may have interference-phenomena
showing themselves. But if, as in the c.ise of the
propagation nf sound, light, and electrical waves,
the undulations are too snuill, or of a character too
peculiar to be individually observeil or felt by any
182
INTERGLACIAL BEDS
INTERNATIONAL
of our senses, we cannot hope to have eviilence
of interfeience-iiheuoinona unless there is a steaily
succession of two trains of waves reiiroduciiii; the
same phenomenon at the same place fm an indehnite
time. Thus, two dill'erent rays of light will not in
general proilncc evident interference-phenomena.
It is only when they have been l>n)ni;ht from the
same original source, and made to pursue slightly
diti'erent paths, that the optical ell'ects of interfer-
ence are possible. As a simple illustration, take
Grimahli's experiment as modilied by Dr Thomas
Young (1804), to whom we owe the discovery of
the principle of interference and its ai>i>lication to
optical phenomena. A ray of light, which for
simplicity we shall regard as homogeneous — that is,
of one wave-length and colour — is introduced into a
darkened chamljer througli two minute apertures
very close together. The two similar divergent
ray.s of light so produced will interfere, and the
result, as sliown on a screen placed a short distance
in front of the apertures, will be a series of bright
bands separated by dark spaces. The central
bright baud, every point of wliich is equidistant
from the apertures, is produced by the super-
position of two rays, crest falling with crest, and
trough with trough. The ne.xt bright band on
either si<le is the locus of all points whose distances
from the two apertures ditler by a wave-length of
light, so that still crest falls with crest, and trough
with trough. I?ut at the points that lie in the
centre of the intermediate dark space the two rays
meet so that crest falls with trough, and trough
with crest, and thus produce darkness instead of
brightness. The general law is that darkness is
produced when the jiortions of the two interfering
rays that coexist at one point \vere in the oiiginsil
single ray distant from each other by an odd
number of half wave-lengths ; and that brightness
is produced when this distance is an even multiple
of a half wave-length. Theoretically an indefinite
number of interference bands should be visible ;
but practically this is not so. The chief reason for
the gradual fading of the further bands is the diffi-
culty of obtainiu" sufficiently jiure homogeneous
light. If the light is ordinary sunlight it will be
found inipossilde to get really dark spaces, .since in
this case the component rays, being of different
wave-lengths, cannot interfere in the same way.
Thus, if the red rays interfere so as to annihilate
each other, tlie blue rays will not do so, but may
on the contrary interfere to intensify each other.
Hence arise the coloured banils always to be seen
when interference-i)henomena are produced with
non-homogeneous light. Amongst other oi)tical
illustrations of the principle of interference we
may mention the coron:e round the sun and moon
when they are seen through a lleecy cloud, the
spurious bows that fringe tlie primary rainbow, tlie
colours of soaj) lllms and thin plates generally, the
colimrs of mother-of-pearl and diliraction gratings
(.see Sl'KCTRfM), Newton's rings, and, as a simple
experiment, the appearance of a candle or lamp
flame when looked at through a line cambric lianil-
kerchief. The phenomenon of spring ami neap
tides (see Tides) is another case of interference : so
alxo are shadows, both light-shadows and sound-
shadows. Moreover, I)r Hertz of C'arlsrulu! has
taught us how to obtain and mea-sure the interfer-
ence of electro-magnetic waves. See Maoxetlsm.
Iiiterjilarial Itcds. See I'i.ei.^tocexe.
lllt«>rillK in the history of the Reformation, the
name given to certain edicts of the (lerman emperor
for the regulation of religious and ecclesiivstical
matters ' in the meantime ' ( Lat. iiitmin ), till they
could be deciiled bv .1 general council. The chief
are the lialishon Interim (at the diet held at
Katisbon in 1541); the Atigaburg Interim (diet of
1548); and the Leipziq Interim (another diet of
1548). See C'H.^liLEs V.
Illterlakcil {'between the lakes'), a village
of Switzerland, in the beautiful valley of the Aar,
between Lakes Than ami lirienz. Along the
Walnut Avenue or Highway between tlie lakes
there is an almost uninterru]ited line of hotels
and jiensions. Tlie village is visited aunnallv bv
•20,000 to ,S0,000 ttiurists.'who make it their start-
ing-point for reaching many of the most wonderful
sights that the country atl'ords, especially the
Bernese Oberland, where are the Staubbach,
Lauterbrunnen, the Grindelwald glaciei-s, I'v.-c.
Pop. •2121. The nucleus of the village is a former
Augustinian monastery (founded 1130).
Interlineations in a deed are additions
or corrections written either on the maigin or
between the lines. In England interlineations in a
deed are not fatal, provided only it is proved that
they were made before executing the deed. It is
usual to put the jiarties' initials opposite the place
where the interlineations occur, in proof of this, or
at least by way of memorandum. In affidavits and
other documents the initials should also be put at
the places interlined. In Scotland interlineations
ought to be sij^ned by the parties, and the fact
mentioned in tlie testing clause, otherwise it will
be ju-esunied that the interlineations were made
after the execution, and will vitiate the deed.
Interloc'ntor, in Scotch law, means a finding
or judgment of a judge or court in a cause.
Interlude, in Music, is a short melodious
phrase played by the organist (generally extem-
pore) between the ver.ses of a p.saliii or hymn tune.
It is now in disuse in England. In Erench
cathedrals a long interlude is ]il,aved between the
verses of the Magnijieat. In the German Pro-
testant Church an interlude (ZirisehcnspicI) is often
played between each line of the verse. Examples
of its artistic use may be found in Mendelssohn's
Elijdh ( • Cast thy burthen ' ) and St Paul ( ' Sleepei-s,
wake ' ).
Intermarriage. See Consanguinity.
Interment. See Biri.^l, Cemetery.
Intermittent Fever. See Ague.
International, The. The International
Working-men's Association was founded at Lon-
don in 18U4. It was, however, not the iii-st attempt
to establish an international combination of work-
men. As early as 18.'?9 a number of exiles, cbietly
German, had taken part in an unsuci'cssfnl rising
at Paris, and removing to London bad fcnnieil a
league in the interests of labour. Containing
workmen from most of the countries of northern
Europe to whom (Jernian served as a common
tongue, the league naturally assumed an inter-
national charaelcr. It entered into relation with
Karl Marx in !S47, and under his inllueiice was
reconstituted under the name of the Communist
League. In its name Marx ami his friend Fr.
Engels drew uji the manifesto of the Communist
]iarty, an expression of the most violent revolution-
ary and international socialism. The manifesto
was imblished on the eve of the revolution of 1848,
and the members of the league represented the
most extreme section of tlic lighting democnicv in
Germany during that time of trouble. The failure
of the revolution was soon followed by the di.ssolu-
tion of the league.
The as.sociation of 1864, usually called the Inti'r-
nalional, began in the visit of some Freneh work
men to the International Exhibition in London,
18()^2. This visit wius encouraged or supjiorted by
the Enijieror Na]iolei)n. In Liuidiin the Eiencli
men fraternised with their English brethren ;
I wishes for conunon action in the cause of labour
INTERNATIONAL
183
were interchangetl, a coui-se which was fiirtliered
by the desire of the emperor, through tlie work-
men, to intinence public opinion in favour of
Poland. Finally, in September 1864, at .a great
nieeting in London, it was ilecided to establish an
international association of working-men.
Mazzini wa.s tirst commissioned to draft a con-
stitution for the association, without satisfactory
result : and the task fell upon Mar.\, who, in the
inangural address and in the statutes, emliodied
the aims of the new movement with masterly force
and clearness. Notwithstanding the enormous
progress of industry in recent years, Marx cim-
tended that the lot of the workmen had not
improved ; that the economic subjection of the
worker under the monopolist of the instruments of
labour, that is, of the sources of life, was the cause
of servitude, in all its forms, of social misery,
intellectual degradation, and political dependence ;
and that the economic emancipation of the working-
class, therefore, was the great end to which every
political movement should be subordinated as
means. Fearing that the new hopes now awakened
might be rendered vain through the want of union,
he maintained that the emancipation of the work-
ing-class was neither a local nor a national, but a
social task, which concerns all countries where
modern society exists, and whose solution depends
on the practical and theoretical co-operation of the
most advanced countries. The a-ssociation declared
that all societies and individuals adhering to it
recognise truth, justice, and morality as the rules
of their conduct to each other and to all men with-
out distinction of colour, creed, or nationality ; no
duties without rights, no rights without duties.
While intended to act as a centre of comliinatitm
and systematic co-operation between the working-
men of various countries, the International left
intact the organisation of existing societies which
might join it. There was to be an annual con-
gress, which should name the general council, and
the general council would hold in its hands the
control of the association.
The statutes drawn up liy Marx were adopted by
the first congress held at Geneva, 1866 ; and the
socialistic principles which from the first were
implied in its constitution received explicit develop-
ment at that and .subsequent congiesses, Lausanne
(1867), Brussels (1868), Ba-sel (1869). The nieet-
ing at Brussels was in everj' way the most decisive ;
it declared that mines, laml, and means of com-
munication should become the common property of
the state, and by it lie handed over to associations of
working-men to be utiliseil under conditions favour-
able to the common goo<l ; and that only through
co-operative societies and the organisation of
mutual credit could the workmen own ami control
the machines. The congress further condenmed
all appropri/ition by capital of rent, jirolit. or in-
terest ; labour should enjoy its full right and entire
reward. Against the war then imnunent between
France anil Germany, and against war generally,
the congress raised a solemn protest, and recom-
mended a universal strike in the event of its
breaking out. At the congress of Basel a proposal
for the abolition of the right of inheritance was not
carried.
Ai)art from the meeting of congresses, it is not
easy exactly to define the development of the
International. Though speedily supi)ressed by the
French government, it had some influence in
directing and supporting strikes in that countiy,
while it as.-;isted Knglish trades unions by ]irevent-
ing the importation of chea]) labour from the
Continent. It had adherents in eveiy cimntry
of western and central Europe: but its influence
alwavs dopeniled nmre on the v.ast and undefined
possibilities of the cause it represented than on its
actual strength. Its finances were weak, its organ-
isation loose ; the adhesion of many of its members
was of a very platonic character. Undoubtedly
the most real ami elVective gain to the International
was in Germany, where the workers' unions con-
stituting the Eisenach branch of the Social Demo-
cracy declared their .adiiesion to it.
In 1870 the Internation.al proposed to hold its
annual congress at Paris, the ancient seat of the
revolutionary movement, but the Franco-CIerman
war intervened to prevent it. The revolt of the
Commune with its disastrous consequences
rcnilered a congress impossible also in 1871. The
International had little or nothing to do with
originating the Commune ; only a few of its
members were involved in the rising, and on their
individual responsibility. After the suppression
of the revolt, Marx in the name of the general
council wrote .a trenchant manifesto fully endorsing
the action of the Conmiune. He saw in it a rising
of the proletariat against a clique of bourgeois
adventurers who had seized on the central power
of France. It was a revolt of the proletariat, the
class of which socialism claims to be the sjjccial
champion ; and it was an assertion, against the
centralising government of the middle classes, of
the political form requisite for the development of
socialism, the commune or self-governing local
gi'oup of workers.
From the first the control of the International
had depended mostly on a group of German exiles,
of whom Marx was the undoulited chief. The
followers of Blanqui and Proudhon exercised some
influence, but it could not be comjiared with that
of Marx. In 1869 Bakunin, the apostle of anarch-
ism, with a body of followers entered the Interna-
tional. Naturally they objected to the authority
and centralising methods of Marx, and at the
Hague congress of 1872 a rupture ensued. The
anarchists were expelled from the association, the
seat of which was also transfened by the Marx
party to New York. In 1S73 both jiarties held
congresses at Geneva, which did nothing notable.
The Mar.x International really ceased to exist from
that time. The Anarchist International, which
was most powerful in the Romance countries, such
as Spain and Italy, continued to act for some years
.subsequently ; and particularly it was responsible
for the risings in the cities oi southern Spain in
1873-74, where the insurgents seized on jiart of the
ironclad tleet, and were suppressed not without
difficulty.
No formal organisation styling itself Inter-
national now exists, but the socialist parties of
the diflerent countries, especially those adhering
to the Marx school, fully recognise the inter-
national character of the movement in which
they are engaged. Foremost in every respect
among those parties is the (uMiuan Social Deuui-
cracy, with its strongly-pronounced inditt'erence
and even hostility to many of the accepted national
interests of the country. Since the downfall of
Marx's a.s.sociation international socialism has
fonn<l expression in congresses, as that of Ghent
in 1877. In 1889 the centenary of the Great
Kevolution, two large internaticmal congresses
a.ssembled at Paris, one remesenting the more
uncompromising Marx school, the other consisting
of delegates who are not indisposed to co-operate
with other democratic parties. The ]iroposal nuide
in 1889 by the Swiss government for an inter-
national c-oiifcriMici- on the ]irotection and regula-
tion of labour did not excite mui'h attention : but
it W!is felt that the whole question had entered
on a new stage when in the spring of 1S90 the
Genuan emperor assembled a similar confi'rence
at Berlin. It is needle.ss to say, however, that
this International of the European governments
184
INTERNATIONAL
INTERNATIONAL LAW
concerned itself with only a small portion of tlie
great task undertaken liy the association so called.
An international demonstration of workmen in
favour of tlie compulsory limitation of the working
day to eijjht hours took place in most populous
European and American centres on May 1, 1890
(in London the principal gathering was on Sunday,
4th May ).
See Laveleye's Socialism of To-day; Johu Rae, Con-
teniporary Socialism ; R. Meyer's Emancipatioitskampf
lies rierien Standea (vol. i. contains tlie documents
bearing on the International) ; E. Villetard, Bisloire de
Vlntenuitiomth'.
International Law. Under this designa-
tion are included two distinct branches of jurispni-
dence, known respectively as I'ublic International
Law and Private International Law. Public inter-
national law regulates the relations of states
to states ; private international law is concerned
exclusively with the legal relations of private
individuals, determining by the law of what
nation such relations shall be governed in each
particular case. Further, it has to be noted that
a variety of relations may occur wherein a state
and the citizen of another state are the subjects.
Here the law is public on one side and private on
the other, as is the law administered in prize-courts.
In practice, however, such cases are treated under
public international law.
Public International Lmv is the name given to
the aggregate of rules which govern the conduct
of separate states in their relations to each other.
For many years the majority of writers on inter-
national law in England and America were content
to look for the ongin of these rules in no higher
source than the more or less general consent of
nations, and to base them on no more stable founda-
tion than the shifting sands of expediency. Juris-
prudence thus became a merely arbitrary system of
rules founded on tacit contracts or express con-
ventions, and its precepts were, logically enough,
considered susceptible of any degree of modifica-
tion, limitation, or adaptation that temporary
convenience might seem to demand. These un-
fortunate doctrines were introduced into English
jurisprudence chierty through the teaching of Ben-
thain, by whom utility was put in the place of
natural law. His principles were wrought out and
more specifically applied by John Austin, whose
works long continued to dominate English juris-
prudence. This principle of utility, viewed simply
as a good jiractical test in legislation, or as a ready
guide in applying the rules of natural law to the
complex facts of state life, may often prove of higli
value ; and, according to Sir H. S. Maine, it was
in this aspect, as a ' working rule of legislation,'
that Bentnam proposed his fornmla of the ' greatest
happiness of the greatest number.' As a matter
of fact, however, the majority of the advocates of
utility claim that in itself it furnishes the rule of
life, and so supplies the place of natural law, the
existence of which they deny.
These doctrines have never founil much currency
on the Continent, and their prevalence in England
and America has unfortunately had the etlect of '
cutting ofl' the juris|irudence of the.se countries
from tlie general stream of scientific jurisi)ruilence
which in the nations of continental Eurojie has
continued to run in tlie old cliannid. In recent
years, however, both in England and America there
is observable a growing tendency to abandon this
arbitrary notion of positive law. Tiiis movement i
has been largely aided by the scientific .sjiirit, and
by the close investigation of nature. Similar re-
searches on the ethical and social sides of human
nature have been c(|ually fruitful, with the result
that the idea of the universal prevalence of law in
all departments of life has been vindicated, and
the faith of mankind in nature as a reasoned organ-
ism has been confirmed.
As a science, accmdingly, positive international
law has for its oliject the discovery of those laws
which determine the relations of nations to each
other. In all branches of municipal law, the law
of the relations subsisting between citizens is
defined and enunciated by a legislative authority,
is applied by a judicial authority, and is enforced
by an adequate executive. The positive law thus
defined is accepted on all hands, and con.seijucntly
a scientific investigation of natural law is only
necessary on those rare occasions when alterations
are being made in the enacted law. In the case
of international law, in the absence of all legis-
lative, judicial, and executive authority, there
really is in the strict sense no positive law at all.
There are few even of its central doctrines which
are not tlie subject of warm dispute ; the objects
to be aimed at are no less undetermined ; its his-
tory is in many respects fragmentary and incon-
sistent. The truth is, as Professor Sheldon Amos
has remarked, that international law now exhibits a
positive system of law in the ju-ocess of making.
The natural laws governing the relations of nations
must have been coeval with the existence of nations.
It nevertheless remains true that international
law, as a positive system, is substantially the
creation of civilised Europe during the last three
centuries, and its rules are now practically operative
's. In spite of the fact
that the division of the Greek world into a number
only among civilised states
of sejiarate communities would seem to us to favour
the rise of such a system of law, it would a)i|)ear
that, beyond the recognition of certain common
Hellenic custoni.s, no efibrt was made to systemat-
ically enunciate any rules of international inter-
course. The gloi-j' of Greece was alreaily waning
when the Stoics, tracing out in a more ethical and
practical direction the principles of Socrates, arrixed
at the idea of the persona and, giving a definite
form to the conception of the brotherhood of man-
kind, enunciated the doctrine of the jus naturalc.
In this doctrine lay the germs of a cosmopolitan
system of international law. In Rome tlie Jua
fccialc of the early republic — regulating the formal
intercourse between Home and otlier states —
looks like the beginning of what under other con-
ditions might have developed into a system of
international law. Unfortunately during the whole
period of the empire, while the municipal law of
Kome under tlie influeuce of the Stoical concep-
tions was achieving its bigli destiny, tlie jurists
were by their theory of a unixersal empire entirely
shut out from api>lying their ]irinciples to the
relations of states to states. So too, long after the
Roman empire had given place to separate king-
doms, while the labours of tlie civilians contributed
largely to the consolidation of the new societies,
the imperialistic traditions still lingering among
them prevented any effort being made to evolve
the doctrines of a jus inter <jentrs. Meanwhile,
the peoples of Kurope, closely bound in llie fetters
of an omnipotent feudalism, were painfully strug-
gling through a period of transition, out of whicli
were to emerge the great European monarchies.
Pilling this long period the need of some defi-
nite system of international law was in some
measure practically supplieil by two jHiwerfiil iidlu-
ences— the authority of the cliurch and the insti-
tution of chivalry. The magnificent organisation
of the church, besides checking violence and con-
trolling in .some degree the turbulence of jirinces,
enabled the l>o|ie, taking advantage of the linger-
ing notions of universal sovereignty, to act as
arbitrator in a great variety of controversies ranging
in importance from the disiaites of private indi-
viduals to tlie adjustment or difficulties of serious
INTERNATIONAL LAW
185
international concern. The institution of chivalry
also, by introducin-.' declarations of war by heralds
and a "more humane treatment of the vanciuished,
and generally by inculcating the virtues of lidelity
and magnanimity, tended to assuage the horroi-s of
war. Meantime the revival of commerce arid the
growth of the new commercial cities gave rise to
several primitive maritime codes (e.g. the laws of
Oleron, the laws of Wisby), whose publication
did much to regulate the "relations of states in
mercantile matters. At length, as the nations of
Europe pa.ssed into manhood, there came the dawn
of a new era and a general rekindling of intellectual
lijfe. At the same time the Reformation gave a
deathblow to the old notion of a common superior
whose decisions were binding upon states, and
shattered the intiuence so long beneticially exercised
by the Homan curia a.s a great court of inter-
national appeal. Perplexed by the terrible events
of the long struggle between Spain and the revolted
Netherlands, and appalled by the unbridled license
of the Thirty Years War, Europe cried aloud for
deliverance from what threatened to become
international anarchy. The time was ripe for the
development of a system of international juris-
prudence. The renewed study of Greek philo-
sophy had revived the doctrines of the jus natiim/e,
and "in the application of these old principles in
the new direction of a jus inter Rentes was found
the solution of the problem of international order.
The first clear reference to the law of nations, as
a separate branch of positive law, and as such dis-
tinguishable from the law of nature, is usually
found in the work of Francis jo Suarez of Granada
(154^-1617), Dc Lege et Deo Legislatore. Here, as
in the De Jure Belli of Albenc Gentilis, though
there is no attempt at a detailed system, yet
the true character ami general objects of the
law of nations are very clearly indicated. Of
the workers who were thus engaged in applying
the law of nature to the relations of states, the
greate-st and most successful was Hugo Grotius
(158.3-l&i5), who combined profound learning and
keen philosophic insight with a large experi-
ence in public affairs. In his famous work De
Jure Belli ac Pads (1625), starting with the con-
ception of a real and determinable law of nature,
he wrought out his principles into a detailed and
symmetrical system of rules. The success of the
work was rapid and decisive, and upon the founda-
tions thus deeply laid by its great founder inter-
national law continues securely to rest. Many of
liis rules indeed have undergone a process of
development, and the growth of civilisation has led
to the elaboration of large bodies of new niles to
meet new wants and changed circumstances, but
the authority of the work as a whole remains un-
shaken. Among the most interesting legal pro-
dacts of our day are the manuals of the laws of
war issued by many civilised states to their officers
in the field, and perhaps the most singular feature
of these manuals is the number of rules adopted
in them direct from Grotius.
It remains now to consider what may be called
the secon<lary sources of this branch of juiLspru-
dence, or the means liy which positive international
law is defined and declared in the concrete relations
of states. In all departments of jurisprudence
custom or usage is the earliest form in which
positive law declares itself. There is, however, a
constant tendency for customs to outlive the cir-
cumstances in which they arose ; it is thus con-
stantly nece.s.sary to test the customarj- niles by
the touchstone of natural law. Further, many of
the recognised rules of international law may be
traced to the awards given from time to time by
arbitrators, the judgments of mixed courts of jirize
appoiutetl under treaty, and even to such decisions
as are given in courts corresponding to our Court
of Admiralty. The great liody of rules comprising
the maritime law of nations, together with many
fundamental rules in other deparlments, may be
found in the decisions of such international tribu-
nals, and thus rest on authority ( precedent ) as trust-
worthy as that which commands the homage of the
English lawyer. Of such precedents perhaps the
most valuable are those furnished by the decisions
given in matters of prize by Sir William Scott,
Lord Stowell, in his capacity of judge in the Court
of Admiralty. To these judgments, which must
always form "an important part of a course of study
on tiie law of nations, the American Judge Kent
(q.v. ) has borne this remarkable testimony : 'There
is scarcely a decision in the English prize-courts,
on any general question of public right, that has
not received the express approbation and sanction
of our national courts.' A thinl factor in the for-
mation of positive international law is express
convention among states. While treaties during
their subsistence constitute between the parties to
them the most direct and authoritative declara-
tions of law, yet it is clear that, being merely
contracts, they'cannot directly bind by their pro-
visions such states as are not signatories. Never-
theless, a series of treaties between ditt'erent states
containing similar stipulations, or even a single
treaty whose provisions have been acceded to and
acted upon for a length of time by a large number
of nations, may have important ett'eets on con-
suetudinary law, and in this way may materially
ati'ect states which have taken no part in the
matter. Thus, although the United States have
steadfastly refused to adhere to tlie Declaration of
Paris (1856), yet, if the provisions of that treaty
continue to be uniformly acted on l)y the other
powers, the obligation on the United States to
conform its practice to the rules there embodied will
daily become stronger. Considered as sources of
international law, the most important treaties are
those which profess to declare the absolute law of
nations as understood by the contracting iiarties,
such as those abolishing the slave-trade, or defining
the relations of belligerents and neutrals. It is,
however, in the scientific interpretation of the law
as contained in the writings of the great publicists
that the most important of these secondary sources
of this branch of jurisprudence is to be found. To
render clearer our conceptions of the objects of
international law, to draw from isolated facts
some general principles, to test these principles by
the permanent laws of human nature as revealed
by the history of events and by the moral and
physical sciences, and, further, to apply admitted
principles to new sets of circumstances as thev
arise — to do this and much more has lieen the work
of a long line of eminent jurists, who are at once
the witnesses to the law and the guides of its
development. By the formation of the ' Institute
of International Law ' at Ghent in 1873 an attempt
has been made to call into existence a new a<;ency
for the development of this branch of jurisprudence.
The subjects of international law are sovereign
states. In all branches of jurisprudence life is the
source of rights, and, therefore, before a community
can be regarded as having the rights and being
subject to the obligations of a state, it must be
shown to pos.se.ss the essential attributes of state-
existence, or, in other words, it must receive politi-
cal recognition. To the act of recognition a general
character is sometimes coiiimuniiated by several
recognising powers simultaneously presenting to
the court of the claimant identic notes of recogni-
tion, and at the same time giving to their repre-
.sentativcs, already resident as consuls, their cre-
dentials of appointment as ministers. Of such a
concerted proceeding lietween states the recognition
186
INTERNATIONAL LAW
of Roumania in 1880 is a recent example. Roufihly,
we may say tliat, according' to modern conceptions,
a stale is a politically autonomous a;i,'t,'ie;j;ate of
human being's, liaving delinite relations to terri-
tory, to social existence, to government, and to
certain moral ideas, of which tlie ideas of a historic
past and a liistoric future, and of natif)nal unity or
common interest are tlie most dominant and un-
mistakalile. During the nineteenth century the
tendency lias been to lay stress on nationality —
a tendency to wliose strength the recent uniliea-
tion of Italy and Germany hears eloquent testi-
mony. Nevertheless, although a political com-
munity is composed, as Austro- Hungary now is,
of very different races of men, or although it
consists internally of a union or federation of
smaller communities, yet it may be in the eye
of international law a single state, pro^■ided the
whole is suliject to one supreme authority. It
is, however, essential that, like every jural
entity, the international state, whether great
or small, be separate from every other : its moral
and physical activity must he (leculiarly its o\\ti.
The fact that recognition thus implies separate
existence at once cuts off all colonies, however
important an<l distant from the parent state, and
all communities which, though preserving the
organisation of a separate nation, are in practice
subject to the rule of another state. The funda-
mental conception of international jurisprudence is
that of the iiiteidepcndence of states, as opposed
to their independence. The fact of the reality of
sucli interdependence is every day Ijecoming clearer
with the increase of complexity in the social, com-
mercial, and political ties by which the nations of
the world are bound one to another. No state, for
example, can administer its own criminal law or
execute its own criminal judgments without the
continual aid of all other states ; and in declaring
at its Oxford meeting in ISSO that extradition
might take place at all times independently of any
contractual obligations, or, in other words, that the
right of extradition is a right at common law, the
Institute of International Law formally accepted
the doctrine of the interdeiiendence of states as a
conception fundamental in the law of nations.
(Questions of the highest importance may arise
when a portion of an existing state rises in rebel-
lion, and, setting up a separate government over a
consideraVile portion of the national territories,
tenders to other powers a claim for se])arate recog-
nition. Here again the question is one of fact,
depending on the completeness of the new political
and military organisatimi and the probable extent
of the conflict by land and sea. The earliest stage
of recognition in such cases usually takes the form
of a concession of liclligerent rights proceeiling
either from the opposite party in the war or from
neutral states alone, or from both. Such belligerent
recognition, while it <loes not confer the peaceful
])rivileges which belong to the perfect state, yet
gives all the rights of public war and binds tlie
states which grant it to all the duties of neutrals.
The insurgents thus acquire a recognised status :
they may capture the goods of their enemies at
sea ; they can obtain loans of money, and pur-
chase military and naval materials alnoad ; their
flag is acknowledge<l ; and their revenue laws are
respected.
In the eye of international law mankind may he
said to fall into three spheres, to each of wliicli
belong, of right, at the hands of civilised nations,
three distinct stages of recognition — plenary politi-
cal recognition, partial political recognition, and
natural or mere human recognition. The sjihcrc
of plenary p<ditical recognition extends to all the
Christian .states of Europe and to those states of
North and South America originally colonised by I
them which have vindicated their independence.
By tlie treaty of I'aris in ISoG Turkey was formally
'admitted to a participation in the advantages of
the ])ublic law ot Europe and the system of concert
attached thereto.' In spite, however, of this techni-
cal recognition the position of the Ottoman empire
is still |>roperly only one of partial recognition, in
which sphere are also included Peisi.a, China, .lapan,
and Siam. In the case of Turkey and these other
countries, even when (lii>loniatic relatiims have been
established between them and civilised states, the
recognition does not extend to their municiiial law,
either public or private, except as regards their own
citizens within their own frontiers. Within the
borders of all these states separate courts are main-
tained, and to these courts is entrusted the decision
of questions between the citizens of the western
states resident in these eastern countries. The
constitution of these consular courts or mixed tri-
bunals varies considerably in different oriental
states, and is in most cases regulated by convention.
The practice of Great Britain in this respect is
still mainly regulated by the Foreign .lurisdiction
Act (6 and 7 \'ict. chap. 94). The third sphere,
that of mere human recognition, extends to the
residue of mankind.
All the subsidiary jjiinciples which regulate inter-
national relations, so long at least as they continue
to be normal, are directly deducible as corollaries
from the central doctrine of recognition. Thus,
since recognition implies capacity for self-support
and self-government, each state has the right to
choo.se whatever form of government best suits the
people and to exercise without interference all the
powers which it possesses. It may establish, alt«r,
or abolish its own municipal constitution, disco\ er
and settle new countries, extend its navigation and
fisheries, improve its revenues, arts, agriculture,
and commerce, increase its military and naval
forces, and develop its national resources l>y all
innocent and lawful means. This fundamental
rule that the jural attitude of .states is normally
one of mutual confidence, and that the highest
political wisdom consists in allowing to each nation
entire freedom to manage its own internal affairs
and to develop si)ontaneously its natiiral resources,
negatives the princiide of the Balance of Power,
now practically obsolete.
As regards luoprietary rights, each state is owner
of the whole area inchnleil within delinite bound-
aries, ascertained by occuiiation, prescription, or
treaty. All ports, bays, mouths of rivers, and a
strip of sea three miles in width bordering on the
coast-line are ineludeil within the territory of the
state. In this way each state is enabled more per-
fectly to carry into effect its maritime laws and
customs regulations, to juovide f(n- an adequate
system of coast defence, and to secure, as long as
it remains neutral, immunity from all acts of belli-
gerency between the ships of the enemy. Where,
however, part of the territorial waters, so defined,
cimsists of a channel of comiiiunicatiim between
two portions of the ojieii sea, all vessels of friendly
states have the right of free ]iassage. The position
of interoceanic canals in international law is not
yet (|uite settled, but the tendency seems to be in
favour of the neutralisation of such canals under an
international guarantee, so that they may be at all
times open to tin' ships of every nation for the pur-
poses ot jieacefiil i)assage.
Within its territorial limits each state is entitled
to the exclusive power of legislation in respect to
the personal rights and civil status of its citizens,
anil in res]iect to all real and personal projtert.v,
whi'lher belonging to citizens or aliens. In recog-
nising the state, other nations recognise its legisla-
tive capacity, and consequently are bound, not only
to allow it' to administer its own municipal law
INTERNATIONAL LAW
187
without interference witliin its own limits, I>ut also
to accept as valid and give ett'ect to the delinitions
of (irivate rights contained in that municipal law.
That part of the municipal legislation of a state
which deals with the public relations of citizens is
in a dill'erent position, and is not recognised as valid
within the jurisdiction of other states. Thus, for
example, a peer of the United Kingdom carries
with him, « hen he goes abroad, none of the privi-
le"es peculiar to his peerage : l)ut its to his ]nivate
relations — whether he is married or single, a clebtor
or a creditor, a major or a minor — the continental
states in which he is sojourning accept and give
ell'ect to what English law says regarding them.
So tlie judgments of the judicial tribunals of a
recognised state ought to be, and in jiractice gpner-
ally are, accepted without question by foreign
states, proviiled only their validity in the country
in which they were pronounced is established.
Such foreign judgments are, however, e.\ecuted
within the territory of the recognising state only
umler the authority and l>y the order of the native
tribunals, and thus the form and manner of e.\e-
cution are exclusively governed by the law of
the executing state. NVith regard to crimes, each
state administers its own criminal laws within its
territories to foreigners and natives alike. Further
than this, each state is bound by the princiide of
recognition, and consequently by the common law of
nations, to aid other states in administering their
criminal laws and executing their crindnal judg-
ments. Thus the right of each state to demand
from other states the surrender of an iiuliviilual
accuse<l of having committed a crime within its
territorj- is a right at common law. To this rule
political offences form an exception, inasmuch as
they do not partake of the universal character
attachin" to other crimes. The matter is generally
regulated by extradition treaties, in which are
usually contained stipulations to the effect that no
one will lie surrendered unless prinui fftcie evidence
of hLs guilt is furnished, and unless adequate assur-
ances are given that the accused will not on that
occasion be tried for any offence other than the
crime for which he is surrendered. The civil and
criminal jurisdiction of a state extends to all its
ships on the high-seas or within its territorial
waters, and to its public vessels everywhere. When
a private ship enters a foreign port, it becomes sub-
ject to the 'concurrent juiisdiction ' of its own
state and of the country in whose tenitorial waters
it lies for the time. Considerable light was thrown
upon the exact character and extent of the jurisdic-
tion of a state over that portion of the sea within the
tliree-nule limit bv the case of the Franconia ( Kegina
V. Keyn, 2 Exch. i>iv. pp. 202-205 ). In that case the
majority of the court held that, as the law of Eng-
land stood at that time, the English courts had no
jurisdiction over a criminal offence committed by a
foreigner on board a foreign ship which was on the
open sea but within three miles of the English
coasts. In consequence of this decision the Teiri-
torial Waters Jurisdiction Act (-10 and 41 Vict,
chap. 73) wa-s passed, conferring jurisdiction in such
cases upon the Courts of Admiralty. To the rule
that the jurisdiction of a state extends over all [ler-
sons anil things within its territory the following
excei)tions are taken — foreign sovereigns and their
suites, when visiting a eountiy in their ollicial capa-
city, diidotnatic a<jents of other states, and ])ublic
arnieil lorces of a loreign nation passing peacefully
through the state territory. The exemption of the
citizens of the western European states from the
local juri.sdiction in ea-stern countries cannot be
con.sidered an exception, inasmuch as these latter
countries are only partially recognised, .and con-
sequently the jirinciples deduced from plenary re-
cognition are in their case inap|dicable.
Primtc International Lair is that department of
national law which arises from tlie fact that there
are in the world different territorial jurisdictions
possessing diti'erent laws. The subjects of this
liranch of jurisprudence are private imlividuals, and
its rules are administered by municipal courts.
The majority of the relations in which human
beings stand to each other are in their nature
univei'sal, and entirely independent of the states to
which the parties belong. Thus an individual may
possess real property in a state other than that of
his domicile, or he may enter into a contract or
execute a testament in a country diti'erent from
either. As, in general, each of these countries is
governed by a distinct system of laws, it is
frequently a question under which system the par-
ticular relations fall. In the event of an action
becoming necessary, is he to appeal to the muni-
cipal laws of his native country or domicile, or to
that of the place in which the property is situated,
or to that in which the contract was entered into,
or in which the testament was executed ? The
whole of the doctrines of private international law
accordingly resolve themselves into the single
doctrine of the localisation of such legal relations.
This liranch of law determines no legal relations
whatever ; it simply says by what system they
.sh.all be determined. It is adoctiine of jurisdiction,
and nothing more. The collection of rules for thus
determining by what system of municipal law each
legal lelation is governed was usually, till recently,
known as the ' conflict of laws ' — a title justly cen-
sured as expressing a limited and unsound view of
this branch of jurisprudence.
According to the famous niles of Foelix and
Huber, which were long accepted as the funda-
mental propositions on which pri\ate international
law was founded, all the ert'ects which foreign laws
can produce within the territoiy of any nation
depend aVisolutely on the consent of that nation,
eitlier express or tacit. The sole foundation for the
whole system was found in the voluntary and re-
ci|)rocal good-will of nations ( comitas gentium ).
After being abandoned by the majority of con-
i tinental jurists, this view was formally repudiated
; by the Institute of International Law at tieneva
in 1874. The whole principle of this branch of
law is nothing more than a direct corollary from
the doctrine of recognition. The right and duty
of mutual confidence involved in the doctrine of
recognition imply, as we have seen, the accept-
ance and enforcement bv the recognising state
of the definitions which tlie recognised state may
have imposed on legal relations — and this, as a
rule, even when the definitions so imposed differ
from those widch are applied to the same legal
relations when existing among its own citizens.
In this aspect private international law rests not
upon the right of the state which concedes it, but
on that of the state to which it is conceded.
The increasing intercourse lietween individuals of
different natiims gives a growing importance to the
interests affected by this branch of law — the rules
being accented and enforced by the various states
as part and parcel of their local law. The rights
and obligations which result to pei-sons from the
f)Osse.ssion of immovables are entirely regulated
)v the law of the country where the immovable
subjects are situated. This le.r loci n-i xitn-, as it
is called, determines, even in the ca.se of an alien
proprietor, all rpieslions relating to the acquisition
of immovables, whether by sale or prescription, to
feu-duties, to letting, hiring, and mortgaging,
working of mines and nunerals, servitudes, and to
all taxes and public burdens. The law of the place
where real properly is situated in slicnt governs
exclusively as to the tenure, the title, aiul tlie
descent of such property. In England and .\nierica
188
INTERNATIONAL LAW
INTERVAL
the lex loci rei sitee is also applieil to determine the
jural capacity of the alien proprietor, in so far as
depends on his personal status, for example, the
a';e at which he can acijuire, alienate, or succeed
to immovalilcs. In Scotland and in most continental
countries theca^iaoity to aociuire m alienate immov-
able property is regulated by the law of the
domicile of tlie owner, by which all matters relat-
ing to status are exclusivelv governed. In nearly all
European countries the rule long obtained that the
tenure of immovable property was oidy possible to a
foreigner on the condition of jiolitical naturalisation.
In almost all states this nile has now been relaxed ;
and in Britain it has been entirely departed from
under the Naturalisation Act of 1870 (S-S, .34 Vict,
chap. 14, sect. 2), which provides : 'Real and per-
sonal property of eveiy description may be taken,
acquired, held, and disposed of by an alien in the
same manner in all respects as by a natural-born
British subject ; and a title to real and personal
property of every descriiition may be derived
through, from, or in succession to an alien, in the
same manner in all respects as through, from, or in
succession to a natural-born British subject.' On
the other hand, all movable and personal property
is governed by the law of the ilomicile (te f?o»i('-
cilii). Domicile is defined by Westlake to be the
' le^'al conception of residence,' and is made up of
various elements of birth, citizenship, itc. This
law of the domicile also regulates all questions
regarding personal status, legitimacy, and succes-
sion to movable property. If a question arises
about a contract, its validity and interpretation
are determined by the law of the country in
which the contract was entered into (/rx loci con-
tractus). Thus, if a marriage is valid by the
law of the place where it was made, it is, gener-
ally speaking, valid everywhere else. Wherever,
from the nature of the contract itself, or the law
of the place where it is made, or the expressed
intention of the parties, the contract is to he exe-
cuted in another country, everything which con-
cerns its execution is to be determined by the law
of that country. Again, all questions as to the ad-
piissibility and value of evidence or as to procedure
or remeily are determined by the laws in force at
the forum in which an action is raised {lex fori).
If a contract made in one country is attempted to
be enforced in the judicial tribunals of another, all
questions of prescription are to be determined by
tne law of the state where the suit is pending'.
Such at least was the view taken in the famous
case Don r. Lippmami, though Savigny, Westlake,
Bar. and others argue strongly that this is a matter
which ought to he ilecided by the law of the place
where the contract was made.
Reference may also be made to the following
articles as bearing on international law :
Alien. I Enemy. Naturalisation.
.\mbas.sador. ' Extradition. Neutrality.
Arbitration. i Foreign Enlistment. Paris (Treaty of).
Balance of Power. Foreign Law. Piracy.
Blockade. Geneva Convention. Political OlfiMio-s.
Capitulation. Grotius. Prisoners of War.
Conflict of Laws. Innnigration. Privateer.
Consul. Jurisdiction. Prize.
Contraband. .Iuri.si)rudence. Siege (State of ).
Diplomacy. law. Treaty.
Domicile. .Mani:ige. War.
ElBI-IOUKAruv.— I'ublic International Law: Hugo
Grotius, Dc Jure Belli ae Pads ( Paris, U;2."> : \\niewell's
Eng. ed. 18,").S); Vattel, The Law of Nations (Chitty's
Eng. td. 1797); Bluntschli, Das modcnie Volkcrncht
(Leip. 1877) and Lc Droit Intcriuitional Coitijii (Paris,
1874); Kent's Commentaries (.\bdy's cd. Loiid. 1878);
Wheaton's Elements of International i«ic (Dana's cd.
Boston, 186(1 ; Boyd's ed. Loud. 1878) and Hisloni
of the Law of Nations (New York, 1808); Pliilliniori",
International Lnw[,A vols. 2d ed. 1871 ) ; W. Oke Manninf;,
Commentaries on Law of Nations (>iheldon Amos's ed.
Lend. 1875); W. E. Hall, InUrnatioiuU Law (Oxford,
1880): Lorinier, Institutes of tke Law of Nations {1>^S4 \ ;
and the works by Westlake (1805) and Lawrence (1890).
Private International Law : Savigny's .fpstcm, kc
vol. viii. (Eng. trans, by William Gutlirie, with notes
andappendi.xes); Story's Conttiet of Laics {new ed. Boston,
1883); Westlake's International Law (new ed. 1880);
Bar's Iiiternatio/ial Laic (Eng. trans, by G. R. Gillespie,
1883) ; Horace Nelson, Selected Cases, Statutes, and Orders
( 1 889 ) ; X. V. Dicey, La w of Dom idle ( 1879 ) ; Pitt Cobbett,
Leadimj Cases niirf Opinions on International Law ( 1885).
Interpleader is a form of process in the
English courts intended for the protection of a
defendant who claims no inteie^t in the subject-
matter of a suit, while at the same time he has
reason to know that the plaintilfs title is disputed
by some other claimant. In such a case the
defendant may apply to a judge, who will order the
jdaintiff and the other claimant to apjiear and
interplead. An aii|ilicatiim of this kind nu\\ now
be made in any action in the High Court. Special
[irotection is jjiven to sherifl's, «.Vc. when goods
taken in execution are claimed by a third party.
Interpretation. See Exegesis.
Interpreter. See Dragoman.
Interval, in Music, is the difference of pitch
between any two musical tones. Since pitch
depends upon the vibration-frequencies, the rela-
tion Ijetween any two pitches is the numerical ratio
between the two vibration-frequencies ; and all jiaiis
of tones within which the frequencies have the
same ratios present equal intervals. The interval
between any two tones, whether chosen or heaid
at random, is thus expressible as an arithmetical
ratio ; but musically it is imly certain intervals
which are recognised as being musical intervals,
and what these are depends upon the Scale (q.v.)
which is in use. Among the European nations and
those of European descent the diatonic scale is
employed ; and this, when iinmodified by Tempera-
ment (q.v.), presents tlie ratios given under Har-
monics (q.v.). Within such a scale the various
intervals that may be found are (C being taken to
represent the keynote of the scale) minor second
(= E — F or B — C) = 16/15: grave major second
(= D— E or G— A) = 10/9 ; major second (= t'— D,
F— G, A— B) = 9/8 ; grave minor third ( = D— F)
= .32/27; minor third (= E— G, A— C, B— D) =
6/5 ; major thii'd (= C— E, F— A, or G— B) = 5/4;
perfect fourth (= C— F, D— G, E— A, G— C, or B
— E') = 4/3; acute foui-th (= A— D') = 27/20;
acute augmented fourth ( = F — B) = 45/.32 ; grave
diminished fifth (= B— F') = 64/45; giave fifth
( = D— A) = 40/27 ; perfect fifth ( = C— ti, E— li,
F— C, G— D', A— E') = ;V2; minor .sixth (E— C,
A— F', B— G') = 8/5 ; major sixth ( = C— A, D-li,
G— E') = 5/3 ; acute major sixth ( = F— D' ) = 27/16 ;
gi ave minor seventh ( D— C, G— F', B— A' ) = 16 9 ;
minor seventh (E — D', A— G') = 9/5; seventh
(C— B, F— E') = 15/8; octave (C—C, D— D', .<:c.)
= 2/1. By taking vaiious notes of the diatonic
scale as starting-points, and measuring known
intervals from these, we arrive at intermediate
notes of the scale, of which the following are
examples, the vibration ratios being given with
reference to C :
Vibration-ratios.
C| min(U- third below E 25/24 = 10416\
DKas A:D::.U:r)!.) 27/25 = 10800/
D} minor second below E 75/64 = 11672\
H minor third above C 6/5 = 1-2000/
A!" minor sixth above C 8/5 = 16000
1* minor seventh above C 9/5 = I'SOOO
B} 3 m.ajor thinls above C... 125/64 = r953I
The difterence of |>itch between C and C) or between
D and Ilk is frecniently called a semitone, and an
interval increased or iliminisheil by a semitone is
said to be augmented or diminished. This apjdies
I especially to the interval of a fourth or a fifth,
INTESTACY
INTROIT
189
wliich witli the octave are saiJ to be perfect,
because any augmentation or diminution mars
tlieir consonance. Tlie major sixth or third may
however be diminished to a 'minor' sixth or third
without destroying the consonance : and the term
' minor' is also" api'lied to tlie diminishe<l second or
seventli. The octave begins a new series, and tlius
the 'ninth' is the octave of the second, and so
forth. For further discussion of the musical nomen-
clature, which is somewhat unsettled, see article
' Interval ' in Grove's Dictionary of Music and
Musicians ; and for a numerical table of the various
intermediate tones within the .scale, see Daniell's
Pnncij>/iS of Physics, 'id ed. i)p. 390-91.
Intestacy, the state of a person who has died
without testing — i.e. without leaving a will. If no
will, or deed equivalent to a will, is executed, or if a
will executed is invalid from defect of form, then an
intestacy occurs, and the law provides an heir or
next of kin, in lieu of the owner himself doing so.
See Heir.
Intestines, a part of the digestive system,
divided into the smaller intestine (comprising
dumlenum, jejunum, and ileum) and the greater
intestine. See Digestion, Vol. III. pp. 81-1,815;
GfT ; and for Disea-ses, see Constipation, Diar-
RHCEA, Dysentery, Enteriti.s, Peritonitis, &c.
Intimidation. See Thre.\t.
Intonation. The opening phrase of any plain-
song melody, sung usually eitlier by the officiating
priest alone, or by one or more selected choristers.
The term is most commonly applied to the first
member (consisting of two or three notes) of a
Gregorian Psalm-tone, the other members of it
being the dominant (or reciting-note), the media-
tion, and the ending. Its use is confined usually
to the first verse of the psalm or canticle, except
in the case of the Mannificat, Benedictus, and
1'enite, to give greater solemnity to which it recurs
in each successive verse.
Intoning, a modern popular term for the utter-
ance in musical recitative of the versicles, responses,
collects, &c. of the Anglican Liturgy. This recita-
tive consists mainly of a single sustained note, or
monotone, but mav W varied by the introduction of
certain simple infections, which have the sanction
of more or less prevalent custom or tradition. Of
these a full account may be found in various choral
books — e.g. in Doran and Nottingham's Choir Direc-
tory of Plain-song, Doran ami Thompson's Ritucd
Music of the Altar (both published by Novello),
and in Notes on Ceremonial ( Pickering).
Such musicil recitative in vocal prayer is un-
doubtedly very ancient, and its employment in
Christian worship is, in fact, an inheritance from the
Synagogue, where it may be heard still. It obtains
equally amon" Mohammedans, American Indians,
South Sea iSanders, and the gieat majority of
barbarous nations, and would seem to be the out-
come of an instinctive feeling' that the familiarity
of our colloquial tones of voice is out of keeping
with the reverence that befits human intercourse
with Deity. Whatever may be said for or against
the practice elsewhere, there can be no doubt that
in our cathedrals and larger sacred buildings an
audible utterance would without it be far less easily
attainable.
Intoxication. This term is apiilied to the
condition l>rought alxjut by an overdo.se of alcohol.
The .■>yniptoiiis imluced vary a good deal according
to the raiiidity with whicfi the alcohol is drunk
and altsoroed into the blood, and also according to
the form — spirit.s, wine, or l>eer— in which it is taken.
If they are swallowed rapidly in large quantities
the symptoms are tho.te of a narcotic poison. See
Alcohol, Alcoholism, Poison.
Intoxication, or drunkenness, is, in point of
law, no excuse for any wrong done by the drunken
jiarty. Crimes which are committed in a state
of drunkenness are jninishablc in the same way as
if the actor were sober, though it is discretionary
in the court to mitigate the sentence. A contract
made when the parties, or either of them, are in a
state of complete incapacity from intoxication may
be made void. So it is when one of the parties is
intoxicated, and a sober person imluces his consent
by fraud. Thus, if goods are sold to a person so
drunk that he does not know what he is (loing, the
purchase may be repudiated as soon as the drunk
man becomes sober. Unless he does so immediately
on coming to his senses, however, the contract w ill
stand. The drunk man, in short, may either re-
pudiate or enforce the bargain when he comes to his
sense.s. The mere act or state of drunkenness, when
privately indulged in, is not an ofl'ence against the
law ; but if it lie shown in public it may become
so. Every person found drunk in a highway or
public place, or in a licensed house, is liable to a
penalty of ten shillings ; and on a second oft'ence
within twelve months, to twenty shillings, and on
a third oft'ence within twelve mouths, to forty
shillings. To be drunk and riotous, or be drunk
while in charge of a horse or carriage, or of a gun,
is punishable with a fine of twenty shillings, or
imprisonment for one month. Local acts also
often impose other penalties. In Scotland several
ancient statutes were passed against drunkenness,
which, however, are in desuetude. In many local
police acts a penalty is imposed on drunkenness in
the streets.
Intransigeants, or Intransigentes (Irre-
concilables), a name sometimes given to the
extreme political parties opposed to the existing
government in Italy, Spain, and France ; as, for
instance, the revolutionary communists in Spain
in 1873. For the connection of these last with the
anarchistic party, see International.
Intrcnclinients. See Entrenchments.
Introdnction (Ital. introduzione), in Music,
is a kind of preface or jirelude to a following move-
ment. Formerly the introduction was only to be
found in large musical works, such as symphonies,
overtures, oratorios, \"c. ; but now it is found in
every rondo, fantasia, polonaise, waltz, &c. , on the
principle that it is considered abrujit to begin all
at once, without preparing the audience for what
is to come. In earlier operas introduction is
applied to the piece of music with which they
begin, and which immediately follows the overture.
In .some cases the overture and introduction are
united, the composition going on without any
formal pause, as in Cluck's Iphigtnie en Tauride,
Mozart's Idomeneo and Don Giovanni. Overtures
themselves are frequently commenced by an intro-
duction, as in Beethoven's Egmont and Leonora,
Nos. 2 and 3, and Weber's Frciscliiit: a.uA Vbcron
overtures. Tlie majority of Wagner's operas com-
mence with an introduction ( Vorsjiiel or Eintei-
tung), a short one being also jirefaced to the second
and third acts. The introductions are also import-
ant and characteristic parts of several of the sym-
phonies of Heethoven and Schumann.
Introit. in the Koman Catholic Church, an
anthem sung at the beginnin<; of the ma-ss, immedi-
ately after the Confitcor, and when the jiriost has
ascended to the altar. It consists of an antiphon,
(Gloria Patri, and usually part of a ]isaliii ; but
other passages of Scripture are used, while a few
introits in the present Alissal are taken from unin-
siiired writers, and one ( Whitsunday ) is from '2tl
Esdras. The introduction of introits is a-scribed
to (iregory the Great (595), or perhaiis to Celestine
(423). In the first prayer-book ol Edward \'I.
190
INTROMISSION
INVERLOCHY
an intioit is prefixed to each collect, consisting of a
|]saliii to lie siiiii; after the openinj; prayer in the
coiiiiiiunion ollice.
Intl'OIiiissioil, in Scotch law, is the assump-
tion of authority to deal with another's pro-
perty. It is divided into legal and vicious. Legal
intromission is where tlie party is e.vpressly or
impliedly authorised, either hy judgment or
deed, to interfere, a.s by drawing the rents or
getting in dehts. Vicious intromission is where an
heir or ne.xt of kin, without any authority, inter-
feres with a decease<t person's estate ; as, for
e.xample, where a person not named by a will, or
without the authority of any will, collects the
property of the deceased pereon as if he were
regularly appointed. By so doing the vicious
intromitter incurs the responsibility of paying all
tlie debts of the deceased. The vitiosity, however,
may be taken otl' by the intromitter being regularly
confirmed executor. The corresponding phrase in
Engl.iiid to a \ ieious intromitter is an executor de
.•iOn tort.
Intuition. See Common Sense, A Priori,
Locke, Keid, Ethics, Psychology.
lutus-susoeption, or Invagin.\tion, is the
term applied to the partial displacement of the
bowel in which one portion of it p;isses into the
portion immediately adjacent to it, just as one
part of the finger of a glove is sometimes pulled
into an adjacent part in the act of withdrawing
the hand. In this case the contained portion of
intestine is liable to be nipped and strangulated
by the portion which contains it, and all the
danger of Hernia (q.v. ) results, with far less
chance of successful interference on the part of the
surgeon or physician. It is one of the most fre-
quent and fatal causes of obstruction of the bowels
in chililren, but less comnum in adults. The ex-
tent of the intussusception may vary from a few
lines to a foot or more. Even when inflammation
is set up, the affection, although in the highest
degree perilous, is not of necessity fatal. The
invaginated portion mortifies and sloughs, while
adhesion is established between the peritoneal
surfaces of the upper and lower portions at their
place of junction, so that the continuity of the
tulie is preserved, although a large portion may
be destroyed. If the patient is strong enough to
bear the shock of the inllauimation, gangrene,
sloughing, &c. , a complete recoveiy may ensue,
though such a termination is rare. In the early
stage the normal condition may often be restored
by large enemata of air or water. Of late some
success has attended operation where simple
measures have failed. For Volvulus, see Colic.
Inuliu. a vegetable principle, isomeric with
starch, derived from Elecampane (q.v.).
Iiivalides, Hotel des. See Paris.
Invaliding signifies the return home, or to a
more healthy climate, of soldiers or sailors wlio
have been rendered incapable of active duty by
wounds or the severity of foreign service. The
man invalided returns to his duty if his health is
sufficiently restored to justify the step, otherwise
he is discharged as 'medically unfit.'
Invention. See Patent.
Inventions nn«l Discoveries. The follow-
ing list |iurpiirt> to give only a few of the more
important inventions and discoveries, chiefly such
as have exercised a determining inlliience u]Min the
civilisation of the world. The jirincipal geograjihi-
cal discoveries have been already discussed under
(!e(m:i!.\I'HY. For other information, see Beck-
niunn s Uiatoru of Iitccntiuiui, Discuccrics, and
Origins {new eii. 1888).
Mariner's Compass, inveuted in Europe in the I2th century,
although known and nsed for centuries previously in Cliina.
Gunpowder, by Schwarz about 1320 (see Gunpowder).
Printing, by j'obann Gntenberg, about 1440 (see Printing).
Copeniican System, in 1543 by Co)K*rnicus (q.v.).
Microscope, by Hans and Zacharias Janssen, or Zansz of
Middclburg, about 1590.
Cii-culation of the Blood, by Hai'vey, in 1616.
Electricity, name invented and knowledge of advanced by W.
Gilbert, 1651 ; induced electricity discovered in 1S31. and its
relation to magnetism shown in lbl9 by Oei-sted and in IbSS
by Faraday.
Law of Gravitation, by Newton, 1682.
Steam-engine, by Newconien in ITO.'J, and by Watt in 1768.
Pianoforte, by Cristofori of Florence, before 1720.
Clock, used in Europe in the 11th century. Chronometer, by
John Harrison, 1762.
Spinning-jenny, by Hai-greaves, in 1767.
Balloons used by Nlontgollier, 1782-)-3.
Weaving-loom, by CartwTight, in 1785.
Gas-lighting, by William Muixloch, in 1792, at Redruth in Corn-
wall.
Vaccination, by Jenner, in 1796.
Steamboat proved practically useful, by Fulton on the Hudson,
1S07.
Locomotive on railway, by George Stephenson, in 1814.
Jliner's safety-lamp, by Davy, in 1816.
Photography, by Niepee, in 1823.
Electric Telegraph, by Jlorse, 1835, and by Wheatstoue and
Cooke, 1834-37 (see Telegraph).
Penny Postage, by Sir Rowland Hill, 1840.
Sewing-machine, by Elias Howe, 1841.
Chloroform, used as an ana-sthetic by Simpson in 1848.
Evolution Theory, by Darwin and Wallace, in 1858.
Spectrum Analysis, by Ivirchhoff and Bunsen, 1860.
Telephone (q.v.) in lSt>0-76.
Phonograph, by Edison, in 1SS9.
Uiintgen Ravs.'bv Riintgen, at Wurzburg, in 1895.
.\rgon (1895), followed by Krypton, Neon, Metargon, Coronimn,
Monium (1898).
Inventory, in England a list of a deceased
l)erson'sefi'ects madeby an e.xecutor. In Scotlanditis
also used in reference to the property of an infant,
pupil, or minor whose estate is under the care of a
guardian, tutor, curator, or judicial factor. In Scot-
land it is also used in connection with the various
pleadings and deeds and documents jiroduced or
useil in a suit or action, then called an inventoiy of
process. So as to an inventory of titles — i.e. the
titles of an e.-state shown to a purcluiser.
Inveraray, the county town of Argyllshiie, is
|)icturesquely seated on the north-we.-t shore of
Loch Fyne, 16 miles SSW. of Dalmally station,
and 45 NXW. of Greenock ( (•/('J Loch Eck). Re-
moved to its present site in 174'2, it li;us a sculptured
stone cross from lona (c. 14(10), and an obelisk to
the memoi'v of seventeen Campbells, executed here
withovit trial iu ItilS.'j for their share in Argyll's
expedition. Inveraray Castle, the scat of the
Duke of Argjll (q.v.)", was rebuilt in 1744-61. A
royal burgh since 1G4S, Inveraray with Ayr, &c.
returns a member to parliament. Pop. ( 1841 )
1233: (1891) 743.
Invereargill. a town in the province of Otago,
New Zealand, (iqiital of the county of Southland,
stanils on an estuary called the New Kiver Har-
bour, 139 miles by rail S\V. of Dunedin. It is
regularly built, with line wide streets, g;us, and
steam trams, and is unusually well provided with
public parks. Besides the government buildings
and schools and churches, it possesses an excellent
athemeum and a hospital. There are some thirty
sawmills in and aidund the town, besides foundries,
ste.im flour-mills, breweries, ami manufactures of
boots, bacon, coiilials, <.*i:c. There aie extensive
mcatfieezing works at the mouth of the estuary,
and much Southlauil mutton is now sent to Eng-
land ; other exports fiom Invercargill are wool,
grain, cliee.se. and timber. Pop. 796'2.
Inverkeitllint;. a royal burgh of Fife, at the
lie.id of Invirkeitliiiig Bay, 13 miles WNW. of
Edinliurgli. With Stirling, iVc, it returns one
memljer to parliament. Pop. 1()76.
Inverlochy, a mined castle of Inveme-ss-shire,
2 miles NE. of Fort William, near which on
INVERNESS
INVESTITURE
191
Sumlay, iil February llUo, Montrose completely
routeil his rival, Ar>;yll.
Ilivcrnoss, the county town of Invorness-shire,
anil capital of the northern Hij;hlai\ils, stands on
the Ness, near its inoutli in the Moray Firth ami
the north-east end of the Caledonian Canal, KIS
miles 1)V rail WNW. of Aberdeen, 144 XNW. of
Perth, iind 190 NNW. of Edinburgh. Its wooded
environs, hemmed in by hills ( Tomualmrieh, 223
feet: Torvean, 300: Craitcphadrick, 430: Dunean,
940, &c.), form a pictnresime and interesting land-
scape. Visited liy Cobimba (ii.v. ) about 565, and
by Malcolm Canniore made tlie seat of a royal
castle, by Cromwell of a citadel (1652), Inverness
has a wealth of memories. It was <carrisoned by
the Eii'dish in 1296 ; in 1411 was burned by Donald
of the Isles on his way to Ilarlaw ; and figures re-
peatedly in the history of the Stuarts, down to
their final overthrow at Culloden, hard by. In
front of the ScotoFlemish town-hall (18S2), pro-
tected now by a fountain, is the Clach-na-Cudain,
or 'stone of the tubs,' the palladium of the burgli.
The Episcopal cathedral ( 1867 ) of the uniteil diocese
of Moray, Koss, and Caithness is a fine Decorated
edifice ; and other features of the place are the
county hall (1835) on the site of the cjrstle, the
infirmary (1804), the lunatic asylum (1860), the
royal academy (1792), the barracks (1884), the
main suspension bridge (1855), and the Islands, a
favourite promenade. Malting, threail-making, and
bleaching have given place to woollen manufac-
ture, shipbuilding, distilling, iS:c., with considerable
shipping and commerce, the harbour having been
mucli improved in 1847. The great wool fair
(established in 1817) is held in July; and the
Xorthern Meeting (1788) in Sejitember. A royal
burgh since about 1067, Inverness unites with
Forres, Fortrose, and Nairn to return one member
to parliament. Pop. (1S31) 9663: (1881)17,365;
( 1891 ) 20,855, of whom 6356 were CJaelic-speaking,
though Inverness still is famous, as in Defoe's and
Or Johnson's day, for the j>urity of its English.
See two books by Fra.ser-Mackintosh (1865-75),
Miss Anderson's /HcecHras before I'ailways {ISSo),
and Meniorabilia of Inverness ( 1887).
Inverness-shire, a Highland county, the
large-st in Scotland, and larger than any in England
but '^'orkshire, stretches from sea to sea, and has a
total area of 4323 sq. m., of which 1284 belong to
the Outer Hebrides— Skye, Harris, North and South
Uist, Benbecula, Barra, Kaasay, Eig", St Kilda,
and thirty-seven other iidia1>ite<l i.slands. The
mainland portion, measuring 85 by 55 miles, Ls
intersected NE. and SW. by the Great Glen and
the Caledonian Canal ( q. v. ). 'it includes Badenoch,
Clenroy, and the valley of the Spey on the east;
Lochaberon the south ; Glenclg, Glen'gany, Arasaig,
and Moidart on the west ; Strathglass on'the north ;
Glenurquhart and Glennioriston towards the centre.
It Ls truly a ' land of the mountain and the flood,'
for it contains Ben Nevis (4406 feet), the highest
point in Britain, with twenty-six other summits
exceeding .3500 feet, whilst the"chief of its rivers are
the Spey, Ness, and Beaulv, and of ninety good-
si/ed lakes Lochs Ness, Archaig, Shiel, "Lochy,
Monar, Laggan, and Ericht. The west coast "Ls
indented by s;ilt-water Lochs Houni, Nevis, and
Moidart. The rocks include gnei.ss, mica-slate,
granite, porjihyr}-, anil trap ; and the most fertile
soil in the county rests on the reil sandstone in the
valley of the .-Vird, and between the county town
and Beauly. Only 46 i)er cent, of the whole area
is in cultivation ; and 2.55 so. ni. are under wood,
the rest being sheep-walks, deer-forests, moss, and
barren heath, valuable only as grouse-moors. Sheep,
numbering some 700,000, are the principal live-stock ;
and there are five deer-forests of 50 sq. ni. and I
uijwards. The rivers and lakes aft'ord splendid
fishing, anil in 1S90 the total rental of the shoot-
ings, deer-forests, and fishings of Invcrness-sliire
was £86,902. The land is mostly divided iunong
eighty-nine proprietors, eight holding eacli above
100,000 acres. The county returns one member
to parliament. Inverness is its only town of any
size; Kingussie and Fort 'William, though jiolice
burghs, are mere \ illages, as also are lieaulv. Fort
Augustus, and Portree. Po]). ( ISOl ) 72,672 ;
(1S41) 97,799; (1881) 90,454; (1891) 90,121, less
than 21 inhabitants per square mile. See articles
on the chief islands, lakes, &c., as well as on High-
L.vxDs, HEiiinviES, Culloden, Deer-fore.sts,
CJle.nkov, and Foyee.s.
Inversion, in Music, is of three kinds. ( 1 ) Of
a chord, when any other of its component notes than
the root is placei\ lowest (see Harmoxv). (2) Of
an interval (within the octave), when the lower
note is transposed an octave higher, or vice versCi.
To find what an interval becomes by inversion,
subtract the figure denoting it from the figure nine;
thus, a second inverted becomes a se\enth, a third
becomes a sixth, iVc. In this change major in-
tervals become minor, augmented intervals become
diminished, and vice vcrsii. (3) t_)f a subject or
theme, when it is imitated in contrary motion — Le.
the melody progresses by the same intervals as the
original theme, but ascends or descends always in
a contrary direction. This is a frequent device in
fugues and other contrapuntal music.
Invertebrata, a collective title for those
animals which agree in not exhibiting the char-
acteristics of Vertebrates — viz. a dorsal nerve
cord, a dorsal median supporting axis or noto-
choni, respiratory clefts on the pharynx, a ventral
heart, and eyes arising for the most part as out-
growths of the brain. But the dividing line is
no longer so clear as it once seemed, for not only
are Ascidians or Tunicata recognised as degenerate
Vertebrate or Chordate animals, but several 'worm'
tvpes, among Nemerteans and Cha^topods, approach
\ ertebrates in some of their characters, while
Balanoglossus (q.v. ) and Cephalodiscus (q.v.) are
so near the boundary line that they are usually
called Hemi-chordata or half Vertebrates.
In\ertel)rate animals are first divided into ( 1 )
Protozoa — uni-cellular — and (2) Metazoa — multi-
cellular. The latter then fall into two distinct
divisions ; («) without body -cavities — Sponges and
Cteleuterates — and (b) with more or less of a body-
cavity — the Ciulomata. Anmng the latter star-
fish, &c. (without including Vertebrates), the
Echinoderms, the Arthropods ( Ci-ustaceans, In-
sects, \c.), and the Molluscs (bivalves, snails,
cuttle-fish), and finally a great mob of 'worms,'
divisible into many classes — Flat-worms, Nemer-
teans, Round-worms, Chietopods, iSrc. — have to
be distinguished. See Vertebr.\T.\, and separate
articles.
Invernrie. a royal Imrgh of Aberdeenshire, at
the influx of the Trie to the Don, 16 miles NW. of
Aberdeen. With Elgin, &c. it returns one member
to parliament. Poji. 3105.
Investiture, in feudal anil ecclesiastical his-
tory, means the act of giving corporal possession
of a manor, ollice, or benefice, accompanied bv a
certain ceremonial, such as the delivery of a
branch, a banner, or an instrument of ollice,
more or less designed to signify the power or
authority which it is supposed to convey. The
contest about ecdesiiustical investitures is in-
terwoven with the whole coui-se of medieval
history. The system of feudal tenure had become
so universal that it afl'ected even the land held by
ecclesiastics. Accordingly, ecclesiastics who, in
virtue of the ecclesiiistical oHice which they held,
192
INVINCIBLES
IODINE
I
came into possession of lamls began to be regarrled
as becoMiing by the very fact fendatoiy to the
suzerain of these lands ; and the suzerains thought
themselves entitled to claim, in reference to these
personages, the same rights which they enjoyed
over the otlier feudatories of their domains. Among
these rights was that of granting solenm investi-
ture. Now, in the case of bishops, abbots, and
other church dignitaries the f(nni of investiture con-
sisted in the delivery of a pastoral stall' or crosier,
and the placing a ring upou the linger ; and as
these ba<lges of office were emblematic — the one of
the spiritual care of souls, the other of the espousals,
as it were, between the pastor and his church or
monastery — the assumption of this right by the lay
suzerains became a subject of constant and angry
complaint on the part of the church. On the part
of the suzerains it was replied that they did not
claim to grant by this rite the spiritual powers of
the office, their function being solely to g'lant posses-
sion of its temporalities. But tlie church party
urged that the ceremonial in itself involved the
granting of spiritual powers; insomuch that, in
order to prevent the clergy from electing to a see
when vacant, it was the (iractice of the emperors to
take possession of the crosier and ring, until it
should be their own pleasure to grant investiture to
their favourites. The disfavour in which the prac-
tice had long been held found its most energetic
expression in the person of Gregory VII., who liav-
ing, in the year 1074, enacted most stringent
measures for the repression of simony, proceeded,
in 1075, to condemn, under excommunication, the
practice of investiture, as almost necessarily con-
nected with simony, or leading to it. But a pope
of the same century. Urban II., went further, ami
( 1095 ) absolutely and entirely forbade not alone
lay investiture, but the taking of an oath of fealty
to a lay suzerain by an ecclesiastic. In the l'2tli
century the pope, Pascal II., agreed to surrender
the possessions and royalties of the church on condi-
tion of the emperor ( Henry V. ) giving up his claim to
investiture. This treaty, however, never had any
practical effect; nor was the contest finally adjusted
until the celebrated concordat of ^Yorms in 1122, in
which tlie emperor agreed to give up the form of
investiture trith the ritig caul pastoral staff, to grant
to the clergy the right of free elections, and to
restore all the possessions of the Church of Kome
which had been seized either by himself or by his
father ; while the i)ope, on his part, consented that
the elections should be held in the presence of the
em]ieror or his official, but with a right of appeal
to the provincial synod ; that investiture niignt be
given by the emperor, but only h>i f/ic tomli of t/ic
sceptre : and that the bisllo^Js and other church
dignitaries should f.aithfuUy discharge all the feudal
duties which belonged to their principality. See
Church ok England, Feud.vlis.m.
Iiiviiieibles. See Feni.^ns, Cavendish.
Involucre. In ashortened InHorescence (q.v.).
such a> the umbel, the bracts, unless suppressed,
are necessarily close together, an<l form an apparent
whorl ( but really a close spiral) around the group
of ]iedicels. This is the involucre. In compound
umbels the whorl of Ijracts of the secoiulary umbel
is therefore a secomlarv involucre, and is commonly
called an invohu-el. In composites the crowded
whor! of green leaves immediately outside the capi-
tuluni, which the non-botanist mistakes for a calyx,
is constantly termed the involucre, but no less
inaccurately, since here the true bracts are those of
the separate llorets, and occur on the surface of the
capitulum itself (e.g. Finnia, SunHower, &c. ). The
composite 'involucre' is therefore merely derived
from those leaves of the axis below the capitulum
which remain green and vegetative since Dearing
no florets in their axils. In Scabious (q.v.) the
tiTie bract of each floret in the capitulum unites
as a sheath around the ovary, and is also known
as the involucel. Here, again, we have a regret-
table use of terms, themselves hardly necessaiy,
in two distinct senses.
Involute. See EvoLUTE.
Involntion and Evolution are two opera-
tions the converse of each other. The object of the
first is to raise a number to any power, which is
efl'ected by continuously multiplying the number
by itself till the number of factors is equal to the
number designating the power. Thus, 2 raised to
the third ])ower is 2 x 2 x 2, or 8 ; 7 raised to the
foiirtli power is 7 x 7 x 7 x 7, or 2401, &c. Evolu-
tion, on the other hand, is the extraction of a root
of any number — that is, it Ls a method for discover-
ing vliat number, when raised to a certain power,
will give a certain known number. Thus, the square
root of 64 is 8 — that is, 8 is the number which, raised
to the second power, will give 64 ; 3 is the fourth
root of 81 — that is, 3 raised to the fourth power is
81 ; and so on. The symbols expressive of the two
operations are as follow : 5^ means that 5 is to be
raised to the third power; (7-)' means that the
square or second power of 7 is to be raised to the
fifth power; \9 or .^9 or 9J signifies that the ex-
traction of the second or square root of 9 is required ;
^256 or 256*, that the fourth root of 256 is to be
extracted ; and so on. Involution and evolution,
like multiplication and division, or dirt'erentiation
and integration, difler in the extent of their apjili-
cation ; the former, or direct operation, can alwitys
be completed, while there are numberless cases in
which the latter fails to express the result with
perfect accuracy.
lo, the daughter of Inachus, king of Argos, was
beloved by Zeus, and, transformed through fear of
Hera's jealousy into a cow, had many wandeiings.
See A KG U.S.
Iodine (sym. I, equiv. 127) is one of the four
nou-metallie elements. It was discovered in 1811,
by Courtois, in the waste licjuors produced in the
manufacture of carbonate of .soda from the .ashes of
seaweeds. A few years later tlay-Lussac discovered
that it was a simple elementary body. While it
is still obtained from the half-fused ash of dried
seaweeds, which is known in Britain as Kelp
(q.v.), it is much more largely prepared in South
America from the iodate of sodium, which is f(mnd
associated with nitrate of sodium in the native
Chili s,alt]ietre.
In small quantity, and usually in combination
with sodium, nuignesium, or calcium, iodine is
very widely difruse<l over the earth's surface. It
exists in sea-water, in marine animals and plants,
and in certain mineral springs. It is also found in
■several minerals, as, for example, in certain Mexi-
can silver ores, in Silesian zinc ores, in phosphorite
from the ITpper Pal.atinate, aiul in coal.
At ordinary temperatures it usually occurs in
.solid, dark-gray, jjlLstening scales ; it is, however,
crystallisable, and sometimes appears as an octa-
hedron with a rhombic base. It is soft, and admits
readily of trituration, has the high specific gravity
of 4'95, and <'volvcs a peculiar anil disagreeable
odour, which indicates its great volatility. It fuses
at 225" ( 107° C. ), and at about .■J50° ( 177° C. ) it boils,
and is converted into the purple vapour to which
it owes its name ( Gr. lodes, ' violet-like ' ) ; it has
an acrid taste, and communicates a brownish-
yellow colour to the skin. It is verj' slightly
soluble in water, but <lis.solves readily in watery
solutions of ioilide of potassium and of hyilrioilic
acid, and in alcohol and ether. Iodine vajiour is
the heaviest of known vapours, its specific gravity
IODINE
lONA
193
compared with air as unity beinjr STH). It ooin-
biiies directly with phosjihonis, sulpliur, and the
nietaU. Its behaviour with hydm^'eu is aiialoijous
to that of chlorine and broniino (sec IlVDlio-
CHlOric AriD), hut its affinities are weaker than
those of the last named elements, it likewise com-
bines with numerous organic sul)stances. and the
compound which it forms with starcli is of such
an intense blue c(dour that a solution of starch
forms the liest test for the presence of free iodine.
By means of this test one part of iodine may be
detected when dissolved in one million parts of
water.
With hydrojien iodine forms one compound,
hytlriodic nrid ( HI ), a colourless, puiifient acid ^as,
wliicli in most respects is analoj;ous with hydro-
chloric aciil. It may be obtained by jjently lieat-
ing a mi.\ture of .amorphous pliosi)horus, iotline,
and wiiter. The soluble iodides of the metals may
\te ol)tained by the direct I'onibination of hydriodic
acid with the metallic oxides, the resultinj; com-
pounds bein;.' the metallic Iodide and w.ater. Some
of these iodides are of extreme brilliancy — e.g.
the ioilide of mercury, scarlet : the iodide of lead,
yellow : and othem are of great value in medicine.
Amongst tlie latter must be especially mentioned
iodide of potassium, iodide of iron, and the iodides
of mercury.
Imlide of pot<i.s.«iuni is one of the most important
medicines in the pliarm.acopieia. It crvst.allises in
colourless cubes, which are sometimes clear, but
usuall.v have an oi)aijue whitish ap])earanee. and
are soluble in w.ater and s])irit. It is ileconiposed
and the iodine set free by chlorine, bromine, fuming
nitric aciil, .and O/one (q.v. ). Iodide of iron is
formed by sh.aking iron wire or filings in a closed
vessel with four times the weight of iodine sus-
pended in w.ater. There are two iodides of mercury
— riz. the green sub-iodide (Hgl) and the red
iodide (Hgl...). There are several well-defined
compounds of iodine and oxygen, but they are of
no .special interest.
The prepiirations of iodine are emi)loyed exten-
sively in medicine and in Photography (q.v.).
Iodine itself or its compounds niav give rise to the
synii)toms known a-s iotlixm ; most commonly run-
ning at the nose and eyes, with headache .and sore
throat; sometimes irritation of tlie intestinal canal,
either alone or combined with the other symptoms.
In the ca.se of the iodine compounds these un-
pleasant results usually cease if the do.se be in-
crea.se<l.
Iodine and its compounds increase the activity
of the al)sorbent system generally, and are useful
in enlargement of the glands connected with that
system (lymphatic glands, thyroid, spleen), and
wherever absorption is deficient ( liypertropliy of
l)rea.sts, uterus, iVc ; indolent inllammatory exu-
dation in any organ ). But they are perhaps of the
greatest value in certain forms of chroni(' rlieuma-
tism, certain stages of syphilis, in scrofulous con-
ditions generally, and in chronic poisoning by
niercurj- and lead. In the last case they set free
the metals from insoluble comjjounds in the tissues,
and allow them to be eliminated from the body in
solution in the nrine.
loiline is chielly prescribed internally in combina-
tion, as itxlide of pot.a.ssium, iodide of iron, especi-
ally in .stninious cases, and red iodiile of mercury in
s.yphills. I're<! iodine is very apt to cause iriita
tion of the intestinal canaU and can in general
only Ije employc<l in small iloses. Hut .as an exter-
nal application, in the form of ointment, tincture,
or liniment, it i.s extensively usnl and is very
valnable It .acts as a par.asiticide in ringwornl,
removes muscular pains, and promotes the absorp-
tion of exuilations and the subduing of chronic
intlammations. In large doses iodine 'ami iiu)st of
273
the iodides act as irritant poisons ; but Aery few-
fatal cases are on record. In the event of poison-
ing with the tincture of iodine the first point is to
evacuate the stomach. See I'lil.soN.s.
lodororm ((Til.,) is a lemon-yellow crystalline
sulistaiu'c, having a satt'ron-like odour and an un-
pleas.mt iodineliUe t.aste. Its odour is most per-
sistent, .and can hardly be removed. It is of
interest as h.aving a com|i(isition similar to that
of Cliloroform (q.v.), from which it only difl'ers in
h.aving ioiline in the place of chlorine. It may
be prepared by the .action of iodine on alcoliol in
the presence of carlxniate of pot.ash. It is almost
insoluble in water, but diss(dves in alcohol, el her,
.and chloroform. It is readily volatile when hiMtcil,
and in the form of xapour has an;esllietic pro-
perties. It is employed externally .as an apjilica-
tion to painful ulcers, .and it often gives relief in
uterine cancer. In the form of iodoform gauze it
is useil in anti.septic surgery.
lolite. See CORDIERITE,
IOIia< the most famous of the Hebrides, IJ
mile W. of the south-western extremity of Mull.
Its modern name is believed to have origin.atcil in
a mistaken reading of n for >i : the word in the
oldest manuscripts being clearly written loi/ii.
From the 6th century to the 17th century the
island w.as most generally called /, //, la, lo, Ed,
Hi/, Hi, Hii, Hie, Hii, Y, or 17 — that is, sim])ly,
'tlie island ; ' or Ico/mki/l, I-C'o/iniih-Kiflc, or Hii-
Culiim-Killc — that is, ' the island of Columba of
the ehurcli.' It is 3^ miles long, and li mile
broad. Its area, computed by Bede at ' five
families' (or 'five hides of land,' as the pass.age is
rendered in the .Anglo-Saxon t'lironicle), is .3i sq.
m., or '2264 .acres, of which r.ather more than .a
fourth part is under tillage. The soil is naturally
fruitful : its fertility was regarded as miraculous
in the dark .ages, .and, no doubt, led to the early
occup.ation of lona. Dunii, the highest point of
the island, is 327 feet above the sea-level. I'op.
•247.
Its history begins in the year 563, when St
Columba (q.v.), leaving the shores of Ireland,
landed upon lona with twelve discijdes. Having
obtained .a grant of the island, he built u|ion it a
monastery, which w.xs long regarded as the motlier-
clmrch of the Picts, .ami was venerated not only
among the Scots of Britain ami Ireland, but among
the Angles of the north of England, who owed their
conversion to the .self-denying mission.aries of lona.
From the end of the 6th to the end of the Sth cen-
tury lona was scarcely second to any mon.astery in
the British Isles; and it w.as this brilliant cia of
its .annals which rose in .lohnson's mind when he
descril)ed it ,as 'that illustiious islaml which w.as
once the luminary of the Caledonian regions,
whence s.avage clans .and roving barliarians derived
the benefits of knowleilge and the blessings of
religion.' But neither piety nor learning availed
to save it from the ravages of the fierce .and
heathen Norsemen. They burned it in 7il.") and
again in .S()2. Its 'family' (as the monks were
called) of sixty-eight persons were martyred in !S06.
A .second ujartyrdom, in S'J."), is the suliject of a
contemporary Latin poem by Walafriilus Strabus.
On the Christmas evening of 986 the island was
again wasted by the Norsemen, who slew the abbot
.and fifteen of his monks. Tow.ards the end of the
next century the nmnastery was rejiaired by St
Margaret, tin' quci'ii of Malcolm Canmore. It was
visited in 10!t7 by King .Magnus Marefoot of Norway.
It was now iiart of that kingdom, and sd fell
under the ecclesiastical jurisdiction of the Bishop
of Man and the Archbishop of Trondhjem. In 1203
.a Benedictine monastery was fouiuleil here, and a
Benedictine (afterwards Aiigustiniaii ) nunnery.
194
IONIA
IONIAN ISLANDS
In 1506 loiia lieoanie the scat of the Scottish Bishop
of the Isles, tlie abhev oh\uch being his catlieilial,
and tlie monks liis chapter.
No biulding now remains on tlie island which
can claim to have sheltered St (.'olniiiba or his
disciples. The most ancient ruins are the Laith-
richean, or Koundations, in a little bay to the
west of Port-a-Churraich ; the Cobban Cuildicli, or
Culdees' Cell, in a hollow between Dunii and Dun-
bhnir^ ; the rath or liill-fort of Dnnbhuirj; ; and
the Cleann-an-Team|Mill, or Glen of the Church, in
the middle of the island. St Gran's Chapel, now
the oldest church in the island, may probably be
of the later part of the 11th century. St Marys
Nunnery is perhajis a (■entury later. '1 he Cathedral,
or St Mary's Church (c. 1203), whose ruin and pre-
cincts were made over by the late Duke ol Argyll
in Septeinbei' 1S99, hiis a choir, with a north
sacristy and south chapels ; north and south tran-
septs; "a central tower, 70 feet high; and a nave.
An inscription (defaced about 1S49) on one of the
columns of the choir seemed to denote that it was
the «ork of an Irish ecclesiastic who died in 120.S.
On the north of the cathedral are the chapter-house
and other remains of the conventual or monastic
buililings. In the ' Ueilig t)ran' — so called, it is
supposed, from St Oran, a kinsman of St Cohimba,
the first who found a grave in it — were buried
Ecgfrid, king of Northumbria, in 6S4 : Godfed, king
of the Isles, in 1188; and Haco Ospac, king of the
Isles, in 1228. Xo monuments of these princes now
remain. The oldest of the numy tombstones on the
island are two with Irisli inscriptions, one of them,
it is believed, being the monument of a bishop of
Connor who died at lona in 1174. To this in-
teresting island a great Catholic pilgrimage took
])lace in June 1888. For St Martin's Cross, see
Cross: see also the Uuke of Argyll's lona (1871 ;
new ed. 1889), and other works cited at CoLU.MUA.
Ionia, the ancient name of the coast districts
and islands of western Asia Minor. The name
Mas derived from the lonians, one of the four most
ancient tribes in Greece. According to the usually
received tradition, after being driven out of the
Peloponnesus, they removed to Attica, whence,
about 1060 B.C., they sent forth warrior bands to
settle on the bays and iiromontories and islands
of Asia Minor; but it is more prol)alile that the
immigration was gradual ami was sjiread over a
long period of time. Although mountainous,
Ionia embraced the three valleys watereil by the
Hcrmns, Cayster, and Meander, an<l was a beauti-
ful and fertile country, extending, according to
Ptolemy, from the river Hormus to the river
Meander, though Herodotus and Strabo make it
somewhat larger. It soon reached a high point of
prosperity ; agriculture and commerce Ihmrished ;
colonies were sent out, which settled on the shores
of the Black Sea and in the south of (laul (Mas-
silia) ; and great cities arose, of which Ephesns,
Smyrna, Clazomena', Krythras Colophon, and
Miletus were the most celebrated. Tliese cities,
with six others, formed the Ionian League. Each
retained its inde])endence, the form of government
being democratical ; but all met together periodi-
cally at Panioniiim, near Priene, for the discussion
of such all'airs ami interests i\» they had in com-
mon, for religious woi-ship, an<l for the celebration
of athletic games. A feu- centuries later the
twelve cities were made thirteen by the accession
of Smyrna. These Ionian states were gra<lually
subdued by the kings of Lydia. Then they passed
(557 B.l'.) under the sway of the Persians, but were
allowed a considerable measure of internal lilierty.
They revolteil, however, in .500, but were reduceil
to subjection after a bloody battle near Ephesns in
496 u.O. During the great Persian war the con-
tingent which they furnished to their oriental
masters deserted to the Greeks at the battle of
Mycale (479 H.C); tlicreuiion the bmians entered
into an alliance with Athens, ni>on which they
now became dependent. By the pe.ace of Antal-
cidas (387 B.C.) they were again made subject to
the Persians, and remaineil so till the time of Alex-
ander the Great. Krom this period Ionia share<l
the fate of the neighbouring countvies. ami in 64
B.C. was .ailded to the Koman empire liy Pom|iey,
after the third Mithridatic war. In later times it
was so ravaged by the Tvirks that few traces of
its former greatness are now left. — The lonians
were reg.irded as somewhat effeminate. They were
wealthy and luxurious ; and the line arts were cul-
tivated amongst them at a much earlier date than
amongst their kinsmen in the motherconntry.
Two of the celebrated temides of the tireek
world, that of Diana and that of .Vpcdlo, both near
Ephesns, were in Ionia. For Ionic architecture,
see Greek Architectire. For the Ionian mode,
see Mrsic. The Ionian School was the name
given to the representative philosophers of the
Ionian Greeks, such as Thales, Anaximau<lcr,
Anaximenes, Heraclitus, Anaxagoras (see these
names), who devoted themselves mainly to the
question what was the primonlial constitutive prin-
ciple of the cosmical univer.se. The Ionic dialect,
nearly akin to Attic, excels the other Greek dialects
in softness and smoothness, chielly from the greater
richness of its vowel-system.
Ionian I>ilan<1s. a groun, or rather chain, of
islands, about forty in nuiuber, stretching along
the west and south coasts of (Jreece. Corfu (Cor-
cvra), Paxo, Santa Maura, Ithaca (Theaki), Cejih-
alonia, Zante, and Cerigo ( Cylhera ) are the largest.
Accounts of their ])hysical features and other par-
ticulars will be found under the separate islands.
Total area, 1010 sq. m. ; pop. (1879) 244,43.3, (1S89)
238. 7S3, the great majority of Greek descent. The
surface is generally Tiionntainous, the plains and val-
leys being fertile. The collective term 'Ionian 'is of
modern date. Previous to the subjugation i>f tJreece
by Home the only one of these islands that rose
above the historic horizon was the Corinthian colony
of Corcyra. On the division of the Roman empire
these islands were included in the eastern half. In
1081 Corfu and Ceidialonia fell into the bands of
Itobert (;uis<-ard, and from that lime they had a
very chequered history for three hundred and twenty
years. In 1401 Corfu came into the jiosscssion of
the Venetians, who in the same century accpiired
Zante and Ccphalonia. and subse<iiiently most of
the other islands included in the group. The
Venetians retained them until 1797, when they
ceded them to I'rance. I'he islands were seized by
Kussia ami Turkey in 1799; and the Emperor Paul
created the Kepublie of the Seven I'nited Islands,
under the i)rotection of Turkey. But in 1807 tliey
were given liack to France by the treaty of Tilsit.
In 1809 Great Britain seized Zante, Cephalonia,
and Cerigo. in IHIO Santa Maura, in 1814 Paxo,
and after NajKdeon's fall Corfu ; and on November
5, 1815, were formed the I'nited Slates of the
Ionian Islands, under the protectorate of Great
Britain. While they were connected with Eng-
land the government was carried on by two
assemblies and the Lord High Commissicmer, the
representative of the British government. The
rule of the successive commissioniM-s, although
directed to the construction of roads, the regula-
tion of the systems of taxation, the establishment
of educational institnti(ms. the reform of the
administration of justice, and similar public works
for the furtherance of the intellectual ami m.-iterial
welfare of the people, w.as on the whole arbitrary
and despotic. There wa.s iiermanent friction, often
of a se\ ere character, between the representative
of Britain and the representatives of the islanders.
IONS
Nor iliil the concessions of freeiloin of tlie (iress, an
extension of tlie fianeliise. ami fieedoni of election
(with the iit;ht of the hallot), both numicipal
anil parliamentary, extorted in 1S49 by the dis-
tiirhances of Europe during the year previous, do
much to reduce the friction. Insurrections broke
out amonjrst the peasantry : the discontent with
British rule increased ; and the party that agitated
for incor))oralion witli (ireece waxed daily stronger.
In tlie end of IS.iS Mr Gladstone was sent as a
special cmnniissioner to ascertain what could be
done to meet the claims of the population. He
declared against annexation to Greece. But in
1863 the election of the son of the king of Denmark
as constitutional king of Greece gave England an
opportunity of getting rid of this troublesome
dependency. On 1-tth Xovember a treaty was cim-
cluded at London by which the isl.ands were incor-
porated in (ireece. In Feliiuary 1867 they were
visited by a .series of earthquake shocks, mo.st
violent in Cephalonia, where they caused great
destruction of life and property, and almost
destroyed the two chief towns. The islands ha\'e
now no geographical unity. Cythera (Cerigo) is
included in the nomarchy of Argolis. The rest
are distributed among tlie three nomarchies of
Corcyra (Corfu), Cephalonia, and Zacynthos
(Zante). See works by Ansted (186.3), Kirkwall
(186-1), Von Warsberg (Vienna, 1878-70), and
Rieniann (Paris, 1879).
Ions, the components into which an electrolyte
is broken up on electrolysis. The one, the Anion
(the electro-negative component — e.g. chlorine),
travels 'against' the current (in its conventional
direction in the circuit), and is deposited on or
chemically attacks the anode or positive electrode ;
the other, the Cation ( the electro-positive com-
ponent— e.g. copper), travels 'with" the current to
the cathode — e.g. to the spoons in the plating bath.
See Electeicitv, Vol. IV. p. 270.
Iota. See I.
I O IJ, a memorandum of debt given by a
borrower to a lender, so called from being made in
this abbreviated form :
LoxDON, ht January 1SS9.
I O U Twenty Pounds.
To Mr C. D. A. B.
It is a convenient document, because it requires no
stamp, and yet it is valuable evidence of the exist-
ence of the debt, in case an .action is afterwards
brought. If, however, the I U U contain any
promise to pay the debt, then it will amount to a
promissory-note, and lie void unless it have a
stamp. It should be holograph, dated, and ad-
dressed to some person or persons, but it does not
prove its own date.
Iowa, one of the United States of America,
extends from 40' .36' to 43° 30' X. lat., and from 90°
15' to 96° 38' W. long., and h;vs an copyri,i.i isno lu u.s.
area of 55,475 so. m. It is bounded by j. b. upiiincott
on the X. by Minnesota, on the Comiany.
E. by the Missi.ssip|)i Hiver, on the S. by the state
of Missouri, and on the \V. by the Missouri and Big
Si(mx rivers. The climate is continental, with cold
winters, hot summers, and sudden changes of
temperature. The autumns are beautiful and of
long duration. The mean, temiicrature of the year
is 47', anil the annual rainfall aliout 33 inches.
(owa is noted for its hcaltliliilness. the annual
death-rate being only 1 10 in every lO.WIO of popula-
tion. The surface is a rolling prairie ; there are no
mountains, and hills or blutrs can only be found
along the principal streams. The average eleva-
tion is not far from 900 feet. The highest point
(1694 feet) is about 70 miles E. of the north-west
lOV^^A
195
corner of the state, and the lowest (444 feet) at the
continence of the Des Moines River with the
Mississippi. The soil is unsurpassed in richness
and productiveness, all the land being tillalile
except a few locky bhitts near the large rixcrs.
Natviral forests cover the slopes that intervene
between the rivers and the high lands, and since
the cessation of the destructive prairie-tires the
area of woodland has been steadily increasing.
Iowa has also extensive and valuable mineral
deposits, as coal, lead, gypsum, limestone, clay,
and mineral paints. The coal, which is bituminous
and of good (]uality, extends over an area of nearly
"20,000 sq. m. , and above 4 million tons have been
raised annually of late years. The Mississippi on
the eastern, and the Missouri on the western liorder
are navigable. To both of these are tributary a
number of inland rivers, those of the Mississipjii
system flowing in a south-easterly, and those of the
Missouri system in a south-westerly direction. The
Upper Iowa, Turkey, Maquoketa, Wajisijiinicon,
Iowa (with its large affluent the Cedar), Skunk,
and Des ;\Ioines rivers are the principal tributaries
of the Mississippi. The rivers of the Missouri
system are the Big Sioux, Kock, Fhjyd's, Little
Sioux, Boyer, and Xishnaljotony. There are also
several small lakes in the northern portion of the
state, situated princiiially near the great water-
sheds.
Iowa is pre-eminently an agricultural state. The
nature of the surface offers excellent facilities for
the use of agricultural machinery, and makes farm-
ing attractive and profitable. X^early two-thirds of
the .34 million acres of tillalde land are now under
cultivation, producing annually 300 million bushels
of maize, .30 million bushels of wheat, 60 million
bushels of oats, 4 million bushels of barley, 2i
million bushels of fiax, li million bushels of buck-
wheat, half a million liushels of rye, 6 million tons
of hay, 2 million gallons of sorghum-syru]), 10
million bushels of potatoes, 100 million pounds of
butter, 5 million pounds of cheese, 2 million pounds
of wool, and 32 million dozen egg.s. The number
of live-stock at the census of 1890 were as follows :
horses, 1,312,079; cattle, 4,000,000 : mules, 41 648 ;
swine, 7,000,000; sheej), 4.50.000. The total annual
value of all agricultural products may be fairly
estimated at 300 million dollars. AVliil'e Iowa has
good water-power, cheap fuel, and excellent trans-
portation facilities, the development of its manu-
facturing interests has been but slow. In 1880 the
number of manufacturing establishments was 6921 ;
the numljer of persons emidoyeil in them, 28,372;
and the value of their annual products, S71,045,9'26.
In 1890 there were 7440 factories, ' with 59,174
workers, producing goods of the value that year
of .SI '25, 049, 200. Among the leading articles of
manufacture are flouring and grist mill products,
packed meats and canned goods, sawed lumber,
carriages and wagons, saddlery, agricultural im-
plements, furniture, bricks and tiles, foundry
products, woollen goods, and clothing. The com-
merce is chiefly domestic. The principal exports
are agricultural and dairy jiroducls, coal, gypsum,
and lead ; I he imports, groceries and manufactured
goods.
The legislative authority is vested in the general
assembly, consisting of two houses, the senate (50
members) and house of representatives (100), and
meeting in regular session in .I.-muarv of each even-
numbereil vear. 'I'he su[ireme executive power is
vested in a governor, who is elected for a term of
two years. The sujireme court consists of live
judges, elected for a term of six .\ears. The state
is divided into ninetv-nine counties, and is repre-
sented in the nati<unii congress by two senators and
eleven representatives. 'I'he eihicational policy of
the st.ate is most liberal. .Scho(ds are established
196
IOWA CITY
IPSUS
in every ilistiict, an<l must be kept in operation at
least six niontlis each voar. Tlie scliool system
eml)nices tlie ilistrict and liij,'li school, the state
university, state normal sclioo!, anil state agri-
cultural ami industrial college. In 1S90 there were
'2ti,769 teachers in about 17,0(W common schools,
which were attended by ">0.S,7.m ])upils. I'pwards
of twenty higli schools (includini; the state univer-
sity, Drake l"niversity in I>es >Ioines, and Cornell
College) have nearly -IDO teachers anil over 7000
pupils. Iowa has the lowest percentage of illiteracy
of any state in the Union. Of 324.09(3 inhabitants
liorn aliroad, 127,246 were German born (1890). The
value of property is estimated at 2000 million dollars.
The territory of the state of Iowa formed part of
the ' Louisiana Purchase.' After Iowa had succes-
sively been under the juri.sdiction of the territorial
governments of Missouri, Michigan, and Wisconsin,
it was organised as a separate territory on the 4th
of July 183S, with ISurlington as its ca))ital. It
had then sixteen counties and ,a population of
22,SG0. The following year the general assembly
located the seat of government at Iowa City. t*n
2Sth December lS4(i the state was admitted into
the Union, with a population of nearly 100,000.
In 1856 Des Moines became the permanent capital.
Iowa's population in 1850 was 192.214 : in 1860,
674,913; in 1870, 1,194,020; in 1880, 1,624,615;
and in 1890 it was 1.911.896; and Iowa w,as the
tenth state in the Union in respect of population.
In 1890 there was within the limits of the state
one city (Des Moines) of over 50,000 inhabitants:
five between 20,000 and 40,000 (Sioux City,
Dubuque, D.avenport, Burlington, Council BluH's):
five between 10,000 and 1 1,000 ; and twelve between
4000 and 10,000.
Iowa City, capital of .lohnson county, Iowa,
and the seat of the territorial ami state government
from 18,39 to 1856, is situated on the Iowa River,
120 miles by rail E. of Des Moiiu's. The old capitol
is now the home of the state university. The town
has a foundry .and a number of mills and factories.
Pop. ( 18S0t ^123 ; (1890) 7106.
Ipcraciiailba, the name both of a very valu-
able medicine and of the pl.iiit i)roducing it. The
plant ( Ccp/taeh's IprrarttanlKt ) belongs to the
natural order Cinchonacea-, and is <a native of the
damp shady woods in Brazil and some other parts
Ipecacuanha {Ccphaelis Ijxcacuanha) in flower:
a, the root.
of South America. More recently it has been
cultivated in India and Ceylon, although there is a
tendency under cultivation for the idant to run
into varieties. It is somewhat shrubby, with a few
oblongo-lanceoliile leaves near the ends of the
branches, long-st;ilked he:ids of small while Mowers,
and soft dark-purple berrie.s. Tlie part of ipecacu-
anha used in medicine is the root, which is simple
or divided into a few branches, flexuous, about
as thick as a goose-quill, and is composed of rings
of various size, soniewhiit fleshy when fresh, and
appearing a.s if closely strung on a central woody
cord. Ipecacuanha root is ])repareil for the market
by mere drying. It is collected at all seasons, al-
though chielly from .lainiarv to March. The plant
is never cultivated in Brazil. It has now become
scarce in the neighbourhood of towns, but. owing
to the readiness with which it is propagated from
portions of the root, it is not likely to be exter-
minated.
It is in the bark of the root that the active
principle, the cmelhic, almost entirely lies; the
other ingredients, such as fatty mattei's, starch,
lignine. iVc. , being .almost inert. Emetine is repre-
sented by the fornnila CjHjnN.^Oj. It is a white,
inodorous, and bitter powder, moderately soluble
in alcohol, and having all the charactei's of the
veget.tble alkaloids. It acts as a, violent emetic in
doses of iVth of a grain or less, and is a jjowerful
poison. In good specimens of root it is jiresent to
the extent of nearly 1 per cent. In small ;inil
repe.ated doses — as, for instance, of a grain or less
— ipecacuanh.a incre.ases the activity of the secret-
ing organs, especially of the bronchial mucous
membrane, and of the skin. In larger doses of
from 1 to 5 grains it excites nausea and depression;
while in doses of from \5 to .30 grains it .acts as an
emetic, witliont producing such violent action or
so nnich nausea and depression .as tartar emetic.
Ipecacuanha is useful as an emetic when it is
necessary to unload the stomach in cases wheie
there is great debility, or in childhood. As a
n.auseant, expectorant, and diaphoretic it is pre-
scrilied in affections of the respiratory organs, .as
catarrh, hooi>ing-cough, .asthma, i}i:c. ; in allectimis
of the .alimentary canal, as indigestion and dysen-
tery ; and in disorders in w hich it is desired to
increase the action of the skin, as in diabetes .and
in febrile atl'ection.s.
Besides the Powder, the most useful iirep.ara-
tions are the Wine of Ipecacuaidia — of which
the dose to .an adult as a diaiihoretic and
expectorant ranges from 10 to 40 minims, aiul as an
emetic from 2 to 4 drachms- and the Compouiul
Ipecacuanh.a Powder, commonly known ;is iJum'.i
I'mrdir (q.v. ). To l)roduce the full ellect iis a
sudorific a dose of 10 grains of Dover's Powder
should be followed by cojiious draughts of white-
wine whey, treacle-posset, or some other warm
and harmless drink.
I|tllia<'lli a. in Greek legend, a daughter of
Ag;uiH'iiiniin and Clytemnestra, or, according to
others, an adopted ihiughterof ('lylemiu'stra. Her
father, having oU'endcd Artemis, couhl only avert
the wrath of the goddess by promising to sacri-
fice to her the most Iicautiful thing born within
the year. This happened to be Iphigenia. When
I])liigenia w.as brought to the altar, however, she
disappeared, and a hind lay there in her ste.ad ;
Artemis herself carried her oil' in ii chmd to Tauris
(Crimea), where she becaiiu> her priestess, but w;us
afterwards recognised by hci- brother Orestes, who
took her, .along with the image of Artemis, to
Attica. The legend is of post- Homeric origin, bnt
evidently goes back to the barb.aric stage of the
Greek religion, when human sacrifices were wont
to be m.aile on sidenm occasions. It g.ave a subject
to painters, scnljitors. iind poets, and is imperishably
enshrined in two s]dcndirl tragedies of kuripides.
In modern art it luis enqihiyed the genius of Gluck
in nnisic, and of i;:icine ami (ioethe in poetry.
Ipoilia'a. a genus of ])lanls of the natur.al order
Convoh ul.ue.e, differing very little from the geims
Convoh ulu~ (i|-v.).
IlLsaiiiltul. See Abu-Simbel.
Ipsiis. See Antigonus.
IPSWICH
IRAWADI
197
Ipswich, the county town of SufVolk. 69 miles
NE. of Lonilon by rail, is situated on the side of a
hill on the left llaiik of the rivei (liiniinj;. which,
here takin<i the name of the Urwell, hecomes tidal,
and after a south-easterly coui-se of 1'2 miles more
falls into the Genn.an Ocean at Harwich. In the
older i)ortions of the town, principally grouped
near ttie river, the streets are narrow and irregu-
larly huilt, and still retain many picturesque old
buildings, ilecorated with carved work, such as
Sparrowe's House ( 1.567 ), the Neptune Inn (1(539),
Archdeacon's Place ( 1471 ), and Wolsey's Gateway
(1528). Of public buildings the principal are a
town-hall (1868), in the Italian Renaissance style
of architecture, surmounted by a clock-tower 130
feet high: post-office (ISSl), and corn exchange
( 18S2), both close by, and in the same style ; public
hall ( 1868 ) ; museum, schools of science and art, and
free libraiy (1881-87), the first of which, founded
in 1847. is notable for its pplen<lid collections of
Suffolk Crag fossils and British birds ; custom-house
(1845); nieclianics"institute(1824); hospital ( 1835-
69-77); barracks; and a theatre (1891), on the
boards of whose predecessor Garrick. Mrs Keeley,
and Mr Toole made their debut. The churches
are si.\teen in number, mostly built of Hint, and in
the Perpendicular style, having as the principal or
' metropolitan ' church .St Mary Le Tower, w ith a
tower and spire 176 feet high, and a fine peal
of twelve bells. Of educational establishments
the principal is the grammar-school, dating from at
least 1477, reorganised by Queen Elizabeth in 1565,
moved into new buildings, of which the foundation-
stone was laid by the Prince Consort, in 1851. and
reconstituted under a new scheme in 1881 ; it has an
income from endowment of £5(K), and eight scholar-
ships of an aggregate annual value of £233. Near
it are two arhoreturas, charmingly laid out, and
Cliristchurcli Park, with its fine Tudor mansion
( 1549). Another favourite resort is the promenade
by the river-side, skirting the Avest side of the dock.
This latter, opened in 1842, covers .30 acres, and is
approached from the Orwell by an entrance lock
(1881) capable of admitting vessels of 1400 tons.
The principal manufactures are those of agricul-
tural implements, railway plant, artificial manures,
and clothing. In the history of Ipswich the chief
events deserving mention are its pillaging in 991
ami lOfX) by the Danes ; the granting in 1199 of its
first charter by King John ; the appointment of its
first and only suffragan bishop ( 1.525 ) ; visitations of
the plague (1603 an<l 1666 >; partial destruction by
fire ( 1654) ; and visits of Elizabeth ( 1.561 and 1565),
George II. (1736), and (ieorge IV. when Regent.
Cardinal Wolsey, Dr William Butler (physician
to James I.). Iiisho|is Brownrigg and Lany, Clara
Reeve, and .Mrs Sarah Trimmer were natives, and
Gainsborough the [lainter a resident for fifteen
years. l])s\vicli h;us returned two members to
parliament since 1447 ; and its population, in 1801
only 11. .336. had risen in 1841 lo 25.264, in 1881 to
50,.546, and in 1891 to 57,360. See works by Clarke
(18.S0), Wodderspoon (1842-50), Glvde (1850-87),
and Dr J. E. Taylor ( 1889).
Ipswioll. a town of Queensland, on the river
Bremer. 23 miles W. of Brisbane by rail. It
stands in a rich coal-mining district. Pop. with
suburbs (1891) 10,190.
Iqiliqiio. the port and capital of the Chilian
territory of Tarapacii ( Peruvian till 1881). It h.is
amalgamating works in connection with neighbour-
ing silver-ndiics, a foundry, and exports saltiictii',
borax, and ioiline. The climate is hot, and ilrink
ing-water has to Ije obtaineil by distillation.
Earth(|nakes have more than once ilama;;ed the
town. The roadstead is safe, and a mole has been
built. Pop. (1S76J 11,717; (1895)33,031.
I(|llitOS, a town in the Peruvian department of
Loreto, on the left bank of the Marafion, about 75
miles above the mouth of the Rio Napo. It has an
active trade, valued at two million dollars annually ;
the imports are exchanged mostly for india-rubber.
Pop. 80<I0— five-sixths Indians and half-castes.
Irak-.4jenii (Persian Irak), a central province
of Persia, nearly coincident with ancient Media.
A great portion of the surface consists of elevated
tablelands, but there are also numerous fertile
valleys only partly cultivated. The ea,stern parts
are occupied by the extensive salt desert of
Dasht-i-Kavir. The province contains the princi-
pal towns of the kingdom, including Teheran, the
capital, and Ispahan. The imlustries are confined
to the weaving of cloth and carpets, and the mak-
ing of glass and porcelain. Area, 138,190 sij. m. ;
pop. estimated at a million.
Irak-Arabi (Arabian Irak), the most south-
easterly district of Turkey in Asia, almost con-
terminous with ancient Babylonia (q.v. ), lies
lietween the lower ci>urses of the Tigris and the
Euphrates, and includes the lands adjacent thereto.
The region comprises the ruins of the ancient cities
of Babylon, Selencia, and Ctesiplion, and the
modern towns of Bagdad, Ba-sra, and Meshed AH.
The population is estimated to number nearly
2,000,000, chiefly nomads. Since 1867 cholera has
been almost constantly prevalent.
Iran, or Ep,.\n. originally the name applied to
the grtat .\sian plateau winch has for its borders
on the north the Hindu Kush and the Elburz, on
the east the Indus, on the south the Persian Gulf,
and on the west Kurdistan and the Tigris. The
term is now the official designation of the kingdom
of Persia. In early times the inhabitants ot the
Iranian plateau, together with the peoples of the
adjoining parts of India, bore the common appella-
tion of Aryans. See Aryan R.\ce.
Irawadi. or Irr.\w.\ddy, the principal river
of Burma. Its sources are not known with cer-
tainty. A favourite origin for it with some author-
ities Wiis the Sanpo (q.v.), the great river of Tibet.
But this has been shown in 1878-82 to be the ujiper
waters of the Brahmaputra. In 25" 50' X. lat.,
a short distance above Bhamo, two arms, the
Mali-kha and the Meh kha, unite to form the
river that is undoubtedly the Irawadi of Burma.
Those two arms are believed to have their sources
in the Xanikin or Khanung range, that walls in
the Zayul ba.sin on the south ; they certainly come
from that direction. But General AValker, late of
I the Indian Trigonometrical Survey, is resjionsible
I for the hypothesis, advanced in 1887, that the
right-hand or eastern branch, the Meh-kha, is the
southward C(mtinuation of the Lu-Kiang, which
has hitherto been reganled as the upper )iart of
I the Salwin ; and he also identifies the Lii-Kiang
with the Giama-nu-chu or Xu River, which rises in
j the north of Tibet and lnus a course, south-easterly,
of some 700 miles in that countiy. From Bhamo
I the Irawadi has a very sinuous channel, its ]ire-
' dominant direction being, however, south. Over
this entire stretch (about 70() miles) it is navigable
for small boats, in spite of numerous islands and
sandbanks that litter and impede its channel, and
in spite of two rock-bound defiles through which it
pa.sses between Bhamo and Mamlalay. A third
defile occurs nearly 100 miles above Bhamo. Its
waters are muchly and its current generally ra])id.
Before reaching the sea. in nearly a dozen mouths,
ill the west of the P,ay of Martaban. the ri\cr
sprea<ls out in a wide delta, 18,000 sq. m. in
extent. Of its mouths two (miy are used by sea-
' going ve.ssels, the Ba.ssein on the west and the
I Rangoon on the east. The valley and plain of the
I Iraw.idi are very fertile, anil grow va-st quantiliea
198
IRBIT
IRELAND
of rice. The livev is tlie chief artery <)f the country :
on its l)!i,iiks stand tlie iirincipal towns, Uassein,
l{anj,'ooii, I'ronie, Ava, Manilalav, lilianio ; its
hanks wore the home of lUirniese civilisation ; its
watei's have served as the main means of com-
munication not only to tlie interior of Burma, hut
to the scmth-western provinces of China and of
Tihet. The riier drains an area of at leiist 15S,000
sq. m. Its largest atHuent, coniin>r from the right
hand, is the Chindwin. This and the two left-
hand trihutaries, the Shwcli and Myit-nge, are
alone navig.ihle. The plain for l.'iO miles from the
sea, heing liahle to annual inundations, has heen
]uoteete(l hy emhanknients hnilt along each side of
the river since 18ti3. The carriage of goods and
merchandise is shared hetween the steamers of
the English ' Irawadi Flotilla Company' and a
numcroiis licet of native hoats. For the question
of origin, see General Walker's papers in Froc. Itoy.
Gcog. Soc. (1887 and 1888).
Il'bit. a town of the Russian government of
Perm, 1170 miles nearly due E. of >>t Petersburg.
Its celehrateil fair, held in Fehruary, is, next to
that of Xiini-Xovgorod, the most important in the
em]>ire. Pop. 4'212.
Irt'laiicl, an islaml forming part of the United
Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, lies between
51° 26' and 55" 21' N. lat., and 5° 20' and 10' 26'
W. long. It is washed on the N., AV., and S.
hy the Atlantic, and on the E. by the North
Channel (13 miles wide), the Irish Sea (138 miles),
and St George's Channel (47 to 6!) miles), which
sei)arate it from the larger islaml of Great Britain.
It is an irregular rhomboid in shape, its greatest
length, from Fair Head in Antrim to Crow Head
in Kerry, being .302 miles ; its greatest meridional
length is 225 miles, and the average Ijreadth 110
miles. The island was known to tlie Greek geo-
graiihers as Icnu; (Straho), and to the Latins as
Ilihiritia and Jtivrnta. From the latest of the
]>rehistoric occupants of 'The Green Island,' the
invading Milesians or Scots, came the Latinised
Scotia, one of the names by wliicli the 'Isle of
Saints' was known from the Uth till the 13th
century.
Area. — Ireland is divided into the four provinces
of Ulster, Leinster, Munster, and Connaught,
which again are subdivided into thirty-two conn-
ties. The total area is '20,819,928 acres, or .32,531
sq. m., or nearly two-thirds of that of England
without Wales. Of the total area 15,066,761 acres
were in 1SS9 arable and grass land, 326,343 acres
were covered with wood, and 4,935,649 acres were
bog, waste, roads, iVrc.
Popiifritiuii. — In 1801 the population of Ireland
was 5,:!!(5.456 {.-i density of Kit) per s(|. mile) ; in 1841
this liad increased to 8,175,1'24 ( 251 per scp mile);
thereafter .set in, owing to emigration, a steady
decrease, so that in 1891 the population was only
4,704,750 (144-4 Jier sq. mile). In 1891, 9.36,7.^'9
belongeil to the agricultural class, 6,56.410 to the
industrial, '255,144 to tluMlomestic, 214,343 to the ]pro-
fcs>ioiial, and 83,173 to the commercial. In ISSl
Irchind had only six towns with ]io|>ulations exceed-
ing '20,000, aml'in 1891, eight : of which Dublin li;ul
361,891, and Belfast 255,9,50. In 1890, 57.484 ix'isons,
and in 1891, 58,436 ]iersons emigraleil from Ireland,
the vast majority of them going to the United
States. By far the greatest number who left
Ireland in one year emigrated in 18S3 — 108.724.
According to Mr Parncdl, in 1890 there were in
England .-uid Scotland 7.50,000 ]iersons of Irish
birth (with ]irobably 1,-500,000 descendants). At
the census of 1890 there were in tlie United
States 1, 8.54, 971 persons of Irish birth ; between the
yeais 1821 and 1889, .3,443,1.52 Irish i)ei. sons settled
in the States. In 1881 there were in Canada
957,403 ]iersons 'of Irish origin' (more than those
of English origin, nearly twice as many as those of
Scottish origin ). In Victoria there were in 1881,
86,7.50 Irish: in t^tueensland, 21,300: in Western
Australia, about 30tK) : in New Zealand, 50,000.
In the other Australian cohmies, South Africji,
&c., the census does not distinguish precisely be-
tween the variims British element.s of population.
During the thirty-seven years 18.5.3-89, 2,775,007
Irish emigrated— "2.289,7.3.") to the United States,
I73,.343 to Canada, and 280,7.33 to Australia. In
1851-99 the total was 3,796,131.
Provinces aiid
Ai<u) In
Pop.
Pop.
Pop.
Couiitiea.
St«t. Acies.
ISU.-
ie8i.«
1891.'
Leinster.
Carlow
221,344
86,228
46,608
40,9.'!0
Dublin
22i;,S95
372.773
418,910
4111,210
Kildare
418,190
114,488
75,804
70.206
KilktMinv.. . .
509,732
202,420
99,531
87,201
Kiliji's
493,985
146,867
72,852
65,563
Longfori-1 ....
269,409
115,491
61,009
62,647
Loutli
202.123
128,240
77,684
7i.o;«
Me.ith
579,801
183,828
87,469
70.987
Queen's
424,854
153,930
73,124
04.88:!
WestTueatli . .
453,453
141,300
71,798
6.-., 109
Wexfurtl
67B.58S
202,033
123,854
111.778
Wiclilow
Tot,il
MCXSTER.
600,178
126,143
70,386
62,136
4,876,918
1,973,731
1,278,989
1,187,760
Cl.ire
827,994
1.849,680
286,394
864,118
141,4.57
495,607
124.483
438,432
Corli
Kerry
1,185,918
293,880
201,039
179,l:i0
Liniericlc ....
680,842
330,029
180,682
16S.0I2
Tipperarv
1,061,731
435,5.53
199,612
173.188
W.iterCord —
Total
Ulster.
401,652
196,187
112,708
98,251
0,007,723
2,396,161
1,331,115
1,172,402
Ajllriiu
762,080
360,876
421,943
471,179
Avinaj^h
328,086
232,393
163,177
n:i.289
("avail.
477,809
243,158
129,470
111,017
Donepil
1,197,154
296,448
206,035
185,0:i5
Down
612,399
301,446
272.107
224,008
Ferniaiiagli . .
457,300
166,481
84,879
74,170
I^oiulonclerry.
622,315
222,174
164,991
1,52,009
Monaghan. . .
319,741
200,442
102,748
S6,20ti
Tyrone
Total
CONN.XCOHT.
800,658
312,956
197,719
171,401
6,483,201
2,386,373
1,743,075
1,619,814
Galwav
1,569,505
440,198
242,005
214,712
Leitrini
392,303
155,297
90,372
7S,018
Mayo
1,360,731
388,887
245,212
219,034
Roscommon..
607,691
253,591
132,490
114,397
Sligo
Total. . .
General Total
461,790
1S0,8S6
111,!;78
98,013
4,392,080
1,418,869
821,657
724,774
20,819,928
8,175,124
5,174,836
4,704,750
* Tlie figures for 1881 anrl 1891 include the .soldiers and sailors
serving iu Ireland ; tlie ligures for 1841 exclude tlieni.
Coasts tiiiil Plnjsical As/icrfx. — The eastern coast
is comparatively uniform and even ; but the eoast.s
on the north, west, and south are in many places
rocky and high, and indented with numerous deep'
bays', especially at the southwest corner of the
island. ^lost of these bays atroril excellent har-
bours, some even for the largest of modern war-
.sliijis. On the west may be named the Bays of
Donegal, Sligo, Clew, (Jidwiiy, the estuary of the
Shannon, ami Dingle, Kenmare, and Baiitry bays;
on the south the spacious harbours of Cork and
Waterford ; on the north Loughs Foyleand Swilly,
which both iiciietrati' a long dist;ince inland. (In
llie east side, o]ipositc' England. :u'e Wcxlord Il.'ivcn,
the Bays of Diililiii, iJrogheda, and Duridalk,
and Carlingford and Belfast loughs. Numerous
islands occur, especially on the west, but they are
for the most part small in size. Valentia, in the
extreme south-west, w.as the terminus on the British
side of the lirst Atlantic cables to North .\mi'rica,
as those of 1858, 1865, and 1866, and of others since
jtfl«aetf^^ip»Muy3£
i
W^^^l^'^^
IRELAND
199
then. Oil the west too are the islands of Aran,
Aehil, the luishkea-s, <!i.c. Oil' County Antrim,
in the northeast, are Kathlin Island and tlie
Giants" Causeway (q.v.). Dangerous points on
the coasts, and some low groups of rocks, are
protected hy fifty-seven lighthouses and three tloat-
inj,' lights.
The surface is, generally speaking, an un<Iulat-
ing plain, relieved, more particularly towards the
coasts, by detached groups of low hills. The
principal ranges are the Mourne Mountains in
Down, which attain their highest elevation in
Slicve-Donard ("2796 feet); the mountains of
AVicklow, which rise in Lugnaquilla to a maxi-
mum lieight of 3039 feet ; and Macgillicuddy's
Kfoks, in Kerry, their highest peak, Carraii-Tual
(3414 feet), being the loftiest in all Ireland. The
central parts of the island aie quite tlat, and con-
sist \ery largely of bogs or morasses, which occu])y
altogether ],77"2,-t50 acres, or nearly one-ninth
of the entire area. The largest is the Bog of
Allen, which stretches over a large portion of
Kildare, Carlow, King's, and Queen's counties.
These bogs have an average depth of l(i to 2.5
feet, hut occasionally go down to 47 feet; they
yield large quantities of peat or turf, and contain
numerous remains of skeletons of men and animals,
and relics of human habitation and occupancy.
Extensive tracts of deep wet bog occur in Long-
ford, lioscommon, and other counties, and give a
peculiarly dreary and desolate as|>ect to the
scenery. Notwithstanding the quantity of water
in these bogs, they e.xhale no miasma injurious to
health, owing to the large quantity of tannin which
they contain.
Hijilru(jiaphij. — The princijial river of Ireland,
and the largest in the United Kingdom, is the
Shannon (q.v. ). The streams which drain the
eastern part of the central plain are the Lirt'ey
and Hoyne ; the south-eastern part, the Suir,
Barrow, and Xore ; while the waters of the north-
eastern part are collected into Lough Neagh, chietly
by the Blackwater, and are thence discharged
into the sea by the Lower Bann and Newiy Canal.
The rivers external to the great central plain are
necessarily short. The principal are the Erne,
Howing to the north-west ; the Foyle and Bann,
to the luirth ; the Lagan, to tlie north-east ; the
Hlaney, to tiie south-east ; and the Bamlon, Lee,
and Blackwater, to the ea-st, through the county
of Cork. None of these rivers are of much im-
portance to navigation beyond their estuaries,
though small boats can ascend some distjince up
the larger streams by the aid of canals, locks, &c.
Artilicial rivers or canals connect some of the more
important trading centres ; for instance, Dublin
has water-communication with the Shannon by
means of the Grand (165 miles) and Koyal (70)
canals, and Lough Neagh with the same river
by the Ulster Canal aiul river lilackwater.
The lakes of Ireland (called loughs) are both
numerous and extensive in proportion to the size
of the island. The largest is Lough Neagh in
lister, co\eiiiig an area of nearly 100, (KJO acres.
The other loughs of consequence are Erne and
Derg, also in Ulster ; Conn, Mask, an<l Corrib, in
Connaught : Allen, Ree, and Derg. expansions of
the river Shannon ; and the lakes ot Killarney
(q.v.) in Munster. The name lough is also ap]>lied
to many salt-water iidets (see above).
Geulofj;/. — The conliguration or relief of Ireland
is, a.s a matter of course, intinuitely relate<l to the
geological structure of the island. The mountains
are built uj) of relatively hard crystalline schists
and disturbed Lower Pala'o/.oic rocks, while the low
grounds are nearly co-extensive with less iniluiated
and comjianitively undisturbed Up|)er I'abeo/oic
Btrata. The interior and larger portion of the
island is in fact a great undulating idain, the
central area of which, between Dundalk Bay or
Dublin Bay in the east an<l Galway Bay in the
west, does not exceed a height of 2.50 feet above the
level of the sea. The strata throughout this central
plain belong almost exclusively to the Carboniferous
system. Here and there the ground rises to heights
ranging between 1000 and 3000 feet so ,as to form
more or less isolated bills ;inil groups <if hills and
mountains as Slieve Bloom, the Silvernuiie Moun-
tains, Slieve Bernagh, Galtymore, ifcc. These are
simply islets of older Palaeozoic rocks that peer
above the geneial level of the great Carboniferous
plain. The chief highlands of the island are met
with in the maritime regions. Thus \\i! have in
the nortli the highlands of Donegal ami Derry, the
plateau-basalts of Antrim, and the Mourne and
Carlingford Mountains with Slieve (lallion ; in the
south the highlands of Kerry ami Cork, with
Knockmealdown, &c. ; in the west those of Mayo,
Galway, and Connemara ; and in the east the
mountains of Wicklow.
Ireland is thus built up chiefly of Palaeozoic rocks
— strata of Mesozoic and Cainozoic age being very
meagrely developed. Anluvan gneissose and schist-
ose rocks occur chietly in the north-west and west —
the coarse granitic gneiss of Donegal being regarded
as belonging to the same series as the gneissose rocks
of the north-west Highlands of Scotland. The
oldest of the fossiliferous systems, the Cumliriuu,
is well represented in the south-east of Ireland,
where it attains a thickness of 14,000 feet at least.
The strata are upon the whole unfossiliferous, but
numerous surface-markings have been detected,
chiefly worm-tracks, &c. In many places these
rocks have been much metamorphosed. Thus on
the Howth coast they are represented by i|Uartz-
rocks and schists, while in Wexford they pass into
gneiss. Similarly in Galway over considerable
tracts the Cambrian seems to be represented by
schistose rocks ; some of these, howeier, seem to
be of Archiean age. The Siliiriait system is like-
wise well developed in the island — both lower and
upper divisions being present. This system, like
the Cambrian, occurs chietly in the hillier parts of
the country. In the Donegal district the rocks are
much metamorphosed, and are doubtless the equiva-
lents (if the altered Lower Silurian strata of the
Scottish Highlands. The same rocks reajqiear in
Mayo and Galway ; in the last-named district they
are overlaid unconformably by unaltered Upper
Silurian sandstones, conglomerates, and shales.
Fossils occur here and there in the less altered
portions of the Lower Silurian, but are not nearly
so common as in the overlying iqiper division. It
is noteworthy that not only are the Up|ier Silurian
strata unaltered, but they contain rolleil fragments
of the metamorphosed Lower Sihirian rocks ujion
which they rest. It may be added that contem-
poraneous volcanic rocks are associated with the
Upper Silurian strata of Galw;iy. Coming farther
south we encounter another thick series of l'|>i)er
Silurian strata in the Dingle jiromontory. In the
districts of Waterford, ^Vcxlord, \Vicklow, and
Louth Lower Silurian strata are likewi.se well
devel<q)e<l, and are noted for the evidence which
they have supplied of contemporaneous volcanic
action.
No representatives of the marine Devonian are
known in Ireland, but the lacustrine or Olil Rrc/
Samlstoiii: tyi>e is well devcloiied in the south and
south-west. Two divisions are recognised — the
upper unconformable to the lower, which latter
reaches a great thickness. The rocks of the latter
are chietly grits and slates, which have yielded
certain bivalve shells (Anodonta), probably of fresh-
water origin, l>ut no traces of the marine Devonian
fauna. The ujqier division consists chietly of Mag-
200
IRELAND
stones and tilestones, and is of no great thickness.
The eliicf fossils are worm tracks and ferns. Tliis
division appears sparsely in the centre and north of
Ireland, where the f;eneral character of the strata
recalls that of the Old Ked hiandsloiie of central
Scotlaiul. The series passes up conformably into
the t'arlionifcrous system.
The Vdibiiiiifcruii.i system occ\ii)ies about one-
half of the area of Ireland, hut the strata behmg
chiefly to the lower division — viz. the Lower Car-
boniferous and the Carboniferous limestone, which
latter is essentially the formation of the plains.
The iip|ier membei's of the system occur in a few
detached patclies scattered over the surface of the
great central plain, the major )iortion of which
was probably at one time covered with Upper
Carboniferous strata. The basement beds of the
system in the south of the island consist chiefly of
marine grits and slates, which pass down conform-
ably into the I'jiper Old Hed Sandstone. In the
centre and north this luwer division is represented
by conglomerates, grits, sandstones, shales, and
earthy limestones, which appear to be the equiva-
lents of the ' Caleiferous sandstones ' of Scotland.
Overlying these basement beds comes the great
Carboniferous limestone ('2500 to 5000 feet thick),
which occupies most of the central plain, extending
east and west from sea to sea, an<l stretchin'' fronj
the base of the Donegal Mountains to the toot of
the Killarney Mountains in the south. In Donegal
the limestone rises into a tableland which over-
looks the shores of Donegal ISay in bold blufis and
headlands, and reaches from 1500 to 2000 feet above
the level of the sea. Contemporaneous volcanic
rocks accompany the limestone series in the south-
west ( Limerick and Tipperary). In the south and
in the north the limestones are overlaid liy marine
sedimentary deposits which are beUe\ed to be
on the same general geological horizon .as tlie
' Yoredale beds ' and ' Millstone grit ' of Englaiul.
Succeeding this group comes the 'Coal-measures'
series, the lower portion of which is supposed to
represent the ' Oannister beds' or lower coal-
measures of England, while the upper portion
represents the middle coal-measures of the same
country. The productive coalfields of Ireland are
of small extent. They are conlined to limited
districts in the north and south, as in Tyrone, Tip-
perary, Kilkenny, and Carlow — all the coal of the
south of Ireland being anthracitic.
The rpper I'alaozoic and Cainozoic rocks of
Ireland are confined to the north-east of the island,
where they a|ipear to owe their ))reservation in
chief measure to the great (mlflows of basalt which
f()rm the high gronmls of Antrim. Permian strata
are very sparingly devcloiicd, but both the Lower
I'ermian and the overlying Magnesian limestone
of liiigland are represented. The lower division
is characterised by the presence of coarse breccia.s
like lho.se of Shropshire. The Permian is seen at
Armagh aixl in Tyrone.
The Triaxsic .system is likewise sparingly repre-
sented, occurring in a narrow band round tlie basalts
of Antrim and Derry. The rocks are chiclly red
and mottled sandstones and nuirls, with gypsum
and extensive bcd.s of rock salt. These strata are
overlaid by certain dark shales, which have yielded
' Kha'tic ' fossils.
The great Jurassic a^f-atom of England is for the
most part unrejuesented in Ireland, hut a few shales
which couK^ out from underneath the chalk escarp-
ment of Antrim have been ideiitilied by their fossils
as perl.aining to the Lower Lias.
Vrrtiiniiiis .strata i Cppi'r Creensand and Chalk)
crop out from nndeineath the basalts of Antrim, to
which doubtless they owe their |ue.servation.
There is rea.soM to believe that the Cretaceous beds
formerly covered a much more e.xtensive area in
the north of Ireland. They may at one time have
extended continuously from the high grounds of
Donegal in the iKnth-west to the Mourne Mountains
in the southeast.
The Tertiary or Cainozoic rocks consist chiefly
of volcanic accumulations (trachytes and basalts) ;
their age is ilcternMncd by the occurrence of
intercalated ' leaf-beds,' the plants in which show
that the series belongs to the Uiii/orcin- system.
Many of the basalts are beautifully columnar
(Giants' Causeway ). The volcanic rocks ajipear to
have been the products of great li.ssnre-eruptionsfor
the most part, but the ' necks ' or plugged n]i throats
of isolated volcanic foci have been detected. The
whole area in this northeast jiart nf Ireland is
traversed in all directions by basalt dykes.
Along the southern shores of Lough Neagh fresh-
water clays occur, the fossils in which are of I'tiaretie
age, so tliat this Irish lake is probably the oldest
sheet of fresh water in the Hritish Islands.
Ireland, like the sister island, abounds with evi-
dence of the GlaridI period. The whole country
has been buried under a great iticr dc f//iirr, which
was continuous with that of Scotland anil England.
The bottom-moraines (bcmlder-clay ) of this ice-
sheet are encountered everywhere. Irish geologists
recognise two boulder-clays separated by intervening
stratified deposits of marine origin (see PLEIS-
TOCENE Sv.STEM ). Local moraines due to the
'retreat' of the great mcj' dc ijlacc are common
in mountain valleys. Recent dejm.sits are seen in
raised beaches, alluvial terraces, and bogs.
Ireland's mineral produce is.snial I. In 1.S9G, 129,585
tons of coal were raised ; the iron ore is less in
value. Salt is made ; pyrites, b;uytes, and lead
ore are produced, as well as stone, nuirble, sand,
clay for making alununium, iS:c.
Animals. — Twenty-on(^ species found in Great
Brilain are unrepresented in Irel.md. Erogs are
common enough, also toads ; but the mole, adder,
shrew, water-shrew, water-vole, the two land-voles,
wild-cat, polecat, weasel, ami roe-deer are unknown ;
only the blue-hare is indigenou.s.
Climate. — The climate rcseujliles that of Bri-
tain, but is modified by Ireland's difl'erent sur-
face, its greater distance from the Continent, and
the more direct influence of the Gulf Stream.
The mean annual temperature for the thirty-four
years ending Mitb 1889 was 50 '0' ; the annual
mean temperature of England is 49,"), that of
Scotlanil 475. In Ireland there .are 3° of diflcr-
ence between the extreme north and south. In
January the mean tem]ieratnre at inland situa-
tions in the north is 39 '5 , whilst in (he extreme
south-west it is 45 "2^ ; whilst in tjuly the extreme
mean temperatures are 582 at Malin Head in the
ncnili and (iO'5' at Parsonstown in the interior.
Thus in winter the difVerence of temperature of
difl'erent districts is 5-7 ; but in summer it only
amounts to '2'3'. Irelanil enjoys, therefore, a
climate more e(|uable in all seasons than those
parts of Great liritain which are within the same
latitudes. The me;in annual minfall for the
twenty-four years ending 18S3 varicil from •28'48
inches at Dublin to 89-40 inches at Kylcmiuc, in
Galw.av. These amounts, \\hich are the extremes,
are, however, restiiitcd to veiy limited are.-is.
About half the whole island has a rainfall of from
30 to 40 inches, and the other half from 40 to 50
inches, the fornu'r region being in the east aiul
the latter in the west. Thus the rainfall is very
much more eijually distributed over Ireland than
over Great Britain. The rainfall in winter is
greatly in <'X<-ess of that iii the other sca.soiis,
particulaily in the west, owing (o the low teMi|ici,a
ture of the surface of the gidund, which chills the
warm and moist south-west wimls that prevail at
this time of the year. In Great Britain the chief
IRELAND
201
niountain-raiijjes are in tlie west, ami lie from
iiortli to south ; coiiseijueiitly over the whole
e;u-terii slope of the island the climate is drier,
the amount and frequency of the rainfall much
less, and the sunshine more brilliant than in the
west. In Ireland, on the otlier hand, the hills in
the west do not o|>]iose such a continuous barrier
to the onward proj;ress of the south-west winds,
but are more broken up and distributcil in isolated
groups. Consequently the sky is more clouded,
and rain falls moie frequently and more jfenerally
over the whole of Ireland tiian Great Britain, and
the climate is thus rendered more genial and
fostering to vegetation ; hence the appropriate-
ness of the name 'Emerald Isle.' Again, owing to
its greater distance from the Continent, the east
winds of spring are le.s.s severely felt in Ireland,
because they have accjuired warmth and moisture
in their progres.s westward o\ev Great Britain
and the Irish Sea. Queenstown, in the south-west
of Irelanil, enjoys an average s])ring temperature
of 49% which is about 2'o° higher than at Dover on
the coast of Kent.
Ai/n'iii/turc. — Down to about the middle of the
IStli centuiT Ireland was almost exclusively a
pastoral country. Yet the soil is in many parts
eminently adapted to tillage. The chief reasons of
the backwardness of agriculture have been pro-
hibitive and unsuitable legislation, the extreme
smallness of the greater number of lioldings, the
lack of capital, and the unsatisfactory relations of
landlord and tenant. As a rule large farms were
let for extremely long periods of tenancy, and the
tenants sublet their larms in smaller portions,
sometimes two or three times over ; consequently
the landlords seldom erected buildings, repaired
farmsteads, or made permanent imi>rovements. In
1S79-SO the distress amongst the ]ioorer sections
of the community had reached such a pitch that
the government took action, and in ISSI the Land
Law ( Iieland ) Act was passed. Its principal
measures were designed to i)rotect the tenant from
paying more than a 'fair rent,' and to provide for
loans being made to tenants to enable thera to
purchiuse their holdings on fair and equitable
terms. To illustrate the smallness of the holdings
in 1841 : there were in tliat year 310,436 holdings
above 1 acre and less than .j acres ; •25'2,799 from
5 to 1.5 acres ; but only 79,34-2 from 15 to .30 acres,
and only 48,62.5 above 30 acres each. The sub-
joined table will show the rate at which the
small holdings have decreased in number and the
larger holdings have increa.sed :
Vear.
1 t.j 5 acres.
5 Ui 15 acrwi.
15 to 30 «CTe».
Above 30 nc
1871
74,809
171,383
138,647
159,303
1881
67,071
li;4,0«
135,7113
l.i9,834
1S98
61,816
154,441
133,749
174,245
Of the holdings above 30 acres in extent in 1888,
73,763 ranged between 30 and 50 acres, 56,476
between 50 and 100 acres, 22,796 between 100 and
'2IH) acres, 8372 between 200 and .500 acres, and only
1.561 exceeded 500 acres in extent. In the same
year there were 47,951 holdings each less than one
acre. Contemi>oraneously witli these changes there
has been a steady but very noticeable return to a
predominance of jiasture, as will be aiqiarcnt from
the variation of acreage shown in the following
table :
V«tr. CereKl Cropn. Green Crrjiw. Mc-ulow miJ Clover. Fl,ix.
1»C9 2.203,548 1,469,2m 1,670 716 229,252
1871) l,7i;l.S6- 1,294.691) 1.937.256 128.021
1889 1,534.922 1,219,549 2,lS6,.i85 113,817
Oats, barley, and wheat, in the order named, are
the chief cereals grown. Under green crops are in-
cluded potatoes, turnins, cabbage, carrots, vetches,
anil similar crops. The extent of land set apart
for jiotatoes, the staple food of the peasantry,
has also decrea.sed very largely : in 1869 potatoes I
occupied 1,041,902 acres; in 1879, 842.671 : and in
1889, 787,1.52 acres. Aliout 10 million .icies are
permanently under gra.ss, and aliout 330,0(K) acres
are covered with woods. Dining the last fifty
years a relatively large area has been reclaimed
and converted into cultivable soil ; in 1841 the
Avaste land, including bogs, amounted to 6,489,971
acres; in 1889 the same category included 4,9,35,649
acres. The next table shows the fluctuations in the
number of live-stock at intervals of ten years :
Vear.
Hol-ses. Mules,
and Asses.
1869 719,421
1879 785,025
1889 910,042
Cattle.
3.733,675
4,007.094
4,093,944
Sheep.
Piga.
4,651,195 1.0S2,224
4.017.889 1,071,990
3,789.629 1,380,548
In 1895 there were 1,439,053 acres in corn cioijs,
1,151,582 in green crops, and 95,202 in flax.
Fisheries. — The se.as around the coasts of Ireland
teem with lish : but from various causes, chiefly
perhaps the distance of the most productive fishing-
grounds from the centres of population, the fisheries
are not in a flourishing condition. Large quantities
of cured fish (3648 tons in 1887) are even inqiorted
from Scotland. In 1890-95 the Irish fisheiies were
prosecuted by 27,000 men and boys in 6000 boats,
whereas forty years before 100.000 men and boys
were engaged in this calling on '20,000 boats. Tiie
deeji-sea hsh of greatest conimen-ial value are
mackerel, herrings, hake, soles, cod, lobsters, and
oysters. In 1887 herrings were exported to England
to the value of £152,168, mackerel to the value of
£88,775, and cod to £142,734. The most prosjieious
fishing is that for salmon, in whicli about 13,000
men are employed. The total v,alue of salmon
exjiorted in some years amounts to as much as
£.500,000. The total value of Irish fisheries in
1895 was ,£269,000, not including salmon.
Mani'Jiirfurcs. — Ireland is not and never has been
a manufacturing country. Its unsettled state ami
the general dependence of the population on iigTi-
culture have hitherto been obstacles to the for-
mation of great manufacturing establishments,
except in the north-east, in Lester. The staple
industry is the manufacture of linen, introduced
into Ireland by Stratlord in 1633, and much en-
couraged by the Duke of Ormonde ( 1661-64). In
1881 tlie number of spindles employed in this manu-
facture was 927,300, and of power-looms 21, '200;
in 1887 the figures were respectively 803,0'26 and
24,300. The chief seats of the industry are Bel-
fast and other towns in L'lster. In 1889 nearly 10.56
flax-scutching mills were employed. The manufac-
ture of woollen, silk, and cotton stufls and of jiaper
is also earned on, but only to a comparatively
inconsiderable extent. In the 17th century the
woollen manufactures of Ireland were in a most
flourishing condition, producing ]irincipally frieze
and flannel. But vexatious measures, prohibitive
and restrictive, by the English parliament almost
destroyed the industry before the century came to
an end. Instead of 30,000 |ieis(uis employetl in
this indu.stry in 1641, there were only 7710 (in less
than fifty factories) in 18SI. The silk manufac-
tures, since their introduction by French emigr.ants
in the beginning of the 18lli century, have been
alino.st entirely confined to Dublin ; poplin is still
extensively manufacUued there ami in a few other
towns. In 1890 there were '263 textile factories in
Ireland, and nearly .30 ilistilleries.
CoiiunciTr mill S/ii/i/u'iii/. — The exportation of
agricultural produce ciuis'titutes the bulk of the
commerce, and by far the greater [lart of this traili'
(in cattle, sheep, Jiigs, sailed meat, grain, flour,
butter, eggs, and linen) is carried on with Gre.it
Biitain, chiefly between Dublin and Belfast on the
one side and Liverpool, (il.asgow, and Bristol on
the other. This trade ha.s been assimilated with
the coasting trade of the United Kingdom since
202
IRELAND
18'2o ; consequently no separate statistics of it are
kept, excei)t for live animals and fij-li. Of these,
66-2,409 cattle, 606,391 slieeji, 468,049 pijrs, and
31,61.S liDises were exported to (heat IJritain in
1889. The foreign and colonial inn)orts, consisting
1)rincipally of grain, wine and spirits, fruits, petro-
euni, and tiniher, were valued at £7, •232,669 for
the year ISSS, and the exports (chielly linen and
spirits) at only £870,873. The number of sailiii"
and steam vessels engaged in the foreign and
colonial trade that entered at Irish ports in 1880
was 1737 (tonnage, 960,820), and cleared 1086
(585,052 tons) ; the number engaged in tra<le with
Great Britain that entered in the same year
was 54,742 (12,145,116 tons) and cleaved 52,803
(11,588,074 tons). Of vessels engaged in the trade
with foreign countries and the colonies in 1888
there entered 1168 (731,285 tons), but cleared
only 158 (67,418 tons). In the year 1894-95 the
Irish inijiorts were set down at £8,862,000, whereas
the (linrt Irish e.\j5orts were only £332,000.
Gorerument, Police, <i:-c. — The government of
Ireland has since the union of 1801 been amalgam-
ated with that of Great liritain. It is represented
in the imperial parliament by 28 peers elected
for life ill the House of Lords and 103 members
in the House of Commons. The e.xecutive is
vested in a lord-lieutenant, who is assisted by a
chief -secretary and a privy-council (ap])ointed by
the crown). The law is administered by a Lord
Chancellor, a master of the Rolls, and the other
judges of the Supreme Court of Judicature, which
lias two divisions — the High Court of Justice, with
four diNisious, and the Court of Appeal. Besides
these, there are three commissioners or judges who
preside over the luoceedings of the Irish Land
Commission, formed in 1881 for the purpose of
adjusting 'fair rents' and other disputed matters
between landlonls and tenants. The Landed
Estates Court (established in 1849) has since 1878
formed a branch of the Chancery Division of the
High Court of Justice. For the county adminis-
tration, see Coi'NTY. The Poor-law and Sani-
tary administrations devolved in 1872 upon the
Local Government Board for Ireland. In 1887 a
total of 521,832 ])ersoiis were in receipt of poor
relief, 1,34,757 getting outdoor relief, and the re-
maining .387,075 receiving relief in the 161 work-
houses. This relief cost £857,820. In 1883 the
exi)enditure reached its maximum, £1,042,84.5.
Order and peace are maintained by the Koyal Irish
Coiistabulaiy, a body of armed police, number-
iii'' about 13, .500 men. ,aiid the Dublin Metro-
politan Police, a force of 1226 men. The Crimes
Act, repeatedly re-enacted for the prevention of
agrarian outrage especially, may at any time lie
put in force by the proclamation of any di>lrict.
The Local Government Act of 1898 a.ssimilated
the administration of Ireland to that of Great
Britain ; and a new government department of
agriculture, other industries, and technical educa-
tion «-iu< establisbed in 1899.
lic/if/ioit. —}iy far the larger jmrtion of the inhab-
itants of Ireland are lioman Catholic: — 3,960,891
at the census of 1881, jind 3,.')47,307 in 1891. The
Rom.an Catholic Church of Ireland is goveined by
four archbishops (Armagh, Dublin, Casliel, anil
Tuam ) and 24 bishojis. IriskProtestants numbered
1,1.'>9,I47 in 188], and 1,327,5.35 in 1891. I'nlil
January 1871 the establisheil church of Ireland was
the Kpiscoi>al Church, a branch of the (liuich of
England. Since its disestablishment it is still
known as the Church of Iielaml, and is jnesided
over by two arehbishoiis (Dublin an<l Armagh) and
eleven bisho|)s. Its members numbered 639,574 in
1.S81, an.l 600,103 in 1891. In 1891 the Presby-
terians reckoned 444,974 adherents, and the Metho-
dists 55,500 ; while the Presbvterians lin<l been
470,7.34 in 18S1, and the Methodists, 48,,839 in the
same year. The relative numbers of Konian
Catholics anil Protestants of all creeds are .shown
for the several prininces in the subjoined tabular
statement for the year 1881 :
Rom»a Catholic. PniteaUut.
Lciii.ster 1,094,825 188,657
Muiistcr 1,24».S84 81,653
Ulster 833,566 909,UKi
Coimaught 783,116 38,ji'7
Ei/iirrtlion. — The primary schools of Ireland are
mostly under the management of the Commissioners
of National Education. These schools have since
1831 been open to Christians of every denomination,
without compulsory attend.ance at any cla-ss of reli-
gious instruction, with in fact perfect freedom in
all matters a]ipertaiiiing to religion. In 1881 there
were 7648 of these schools attended by 1.066,2.59
pupils : in 1888 the numbers were 8196 schools and
1,060,895 pupils (826,181 Koman Catholics, 109,687
Church of Ireland, and 111,072 Presbyterians).
They are partly under Protestant, jiartly under
Konian Catholic teachers, and ii.artly under teachere
of both creeds in the same school, and are to a
large extent su|iported by a parliamentary grant
(£874,051 in 1887). In 1878 one million sterling,
from the former endowment of the Irish established
church, was set apart for the encouragement of
secular intermediate education. The fund is
administered by a board of nine commissioners,
who conduct examinations, pay fees according to
results, and present exhibitions, prizes, and certili-
cates to successful puiiils. In 1887 out of 5931
pupils who presented themselves for examination
3595 passed. The most important university in
Ireland is that of Dublin (q. v. ) or Trinity CoHege.
The Koyal University of Ireland is not a teaching,
but only an examining body, like the university of
London. It was founded in 1S80, and superseded
the t^ueen's University ; and it giants degrees
irrespective of religious confession. The three
Queen's Colleges of Belfast, Cork, and Galway,
opened in 1849, and formerly affiliated to the
Queen's University, provide instruction in the
higher branches of learning. They were attended
in 1887-88 by a total of 775 students. The Hoyal
t'oUege of Science, established in 1867 in Dublin,
was founded for the jmrpose of giving instruction in
branches of science applicable to the industrial arts,
especially in mining, agriculture, manufactures,
and engineering. The Koman Catholic University
of Ireland, founded in 18.)4, has its lieadiiuarters in
Dublin ; it is sup])(Mted almost entirely by jirivate
contributions. St Patrick's College, Maynooth
((),v.), opened in 1795. is the princiiial institution
for the education and training of Itomaii Catholic
iniests. Until 1871 it received an annual ii.-irli.i-
ment.arv grant; but in that year this was eom-
jiounded for by the payment of the sum of
£372,331, in lieu of the grants. Two Preshy-
terian colleges, the General Assembly's Theologi-
cal College, Belfast, and .Magee Cidlege, Liuidon-
derry, were in 1881 eni|iower(d to grant theological
degrees to their students. In 1887 there were in
Ireland 69 industrial schools for boys and girls, .58,
with 6496 pupils, being Koman Catholic, and 11,
with 814 jiupils. I'lotestant. In the same year
9 reformatory schools had 891 inmates. In 1888,
214 percent, of the men and 23 2 jier cent, of the
«omen who were married signed the register by
their ' mark.'
FiiKdici', Taxiition. — The net amount of revenue
raised in Ireland for contribulioii to the imperial
exchequer for the year ending 31st March 1895 was
£5,981,896, of which £5,192,722 was derived from
excise. In 1.896 a pailiamentary committee re-
iiorted that, taking everything into consideration,
reland waa paying much more than her share of
IRELAND
203
imperial taxation. The national debt of Ireland
(al)out 150 millions) was consolidated witli that
of Great Hritain in 1817, and since that date the
fiiiiiier has had no separate debt. The <;rainljurv
ce>~, a tax peculiar to Ireland, corresponds to the
highway rate of England and AVales, and is ex-
l)ended on roads, bridges, quays, prisons, courts
of justice, police, public charities, county officers,
&c. In 1887 the sum of f-2,0l)-2,808 was owned by
49,99-t depositoi-s in the trustee savings-banks of
Ireland, and the sum of £-2,802,000 by 158,848
depositors in the post-office savings-banks. In
1894 the capital amount in the latter banks was
£4,975,680, and in the former £1,997,495.
CoMtuunkatiun. — The first railway opened in
Ireland was the short line, of 6 miles long, between
Dublin and Kingston, in 1S.'?4. In 1895 the number
of miles open and in ojieration was 3044, an increase
of 600 miles since 1881. The companies having
the longest mileage are the Great Southern and
Western, the Great Xorthern, the Midland (Jreat
AVestern, the "Waterford and Limerick, the Belfast
and Xorthern Counties, and the Dublin, Wicklow,
and AVe.xford. The railways are constructed on a
broader gauge than those of Great Britain — viz.
5 feet 3 inches, as compared with 4 feet Si
inches; but several built since 1878 (see B.viLWAYS)
are only of 3 feet gauge. The local authorities
have sanctioned the construction of 60O miles of
tramways. The first considerable electric tramway
in the United Kingdom was that from Portrush
to the Giant's Causeway ( 1883). The canals, rivers,
anil lakes have lieen already mentioned. In the year
1894 95 the postal authorities in Ireland despatched
113 millions of letters and 65 millions of post-cards,
newr.pai)ei-s, and parcels, and 4,038,262 telegrams,
an<I i.<sued 536,714 money orders (exclusive of
postal ordei-s) representing the sum of £1,364,000.
BlBr.IOGR.VPHV.— The earliest account of Ireland is con-
tained in Giraldus Cambreusis, Topo'jraphia ffibeniiw
and Expiii/nalio JliUrnia. Subsequent accounts will
be found in Holinshed, Chronicles (1577); K. Payne,
Brief Description of Ireland (1590); E. Hogan, Descr.
of Irela lul in 159S ( 1878 ) ; Sir J. Davies, Diacoverie of the
State of Ireland (1613); Edmund .Spenser, View of the
State of Ireland (1633); Sir Wm. Petty, Political 'Ana-
tomy of Ireland (1691 1 and Geog. Descr. of the Kingdom
of Ireland ( 1700 ) ; Arth.ir Young. Tour inlrdand( 1780) ;
Cesar Moreau, Past and Present State of Ireland (1827) ;
G. de Beaumont, L'Irlandc, Socialc, Polit., et Rtliijieuse
(183'J); Thackeray, Irish Sketch Book (1843); S. C. and
Mrs Hall, Ireland; Scenery, Character, drc. (1843); Sir
Robert Kant;, Industrial Resources of Ireland (1844);
G. L. Suiyth, Ireland, Hist, and Statist. ( 1844-49) ; Harriet
Martineau, Letters from Ireland (18.53); Dufferin,
Irish Eini'irationaiul Tenure of Land in Ireland ( 181J7) ;
J. M. ilurpliy, Ireland, Inilustr., Polit., and Social
(1870); O'Carry, Ancient Manners and Customs of Ii'e-
/<u«/(1873); Thebaud, Irish Bace in Past and Present
(New York, 1873); Lcsaulx, Au.') Irland (1877); Hull,
Physical Oeoloijy aruj Oco;i. of Ireland (1878); Kinalian,
ManualofOeol. of Ireland {ISIS); O'Brien, //«(. of Iriith
Lami Question { 1880) ; Kicliey, Irish Land Laws (1880) ;
Sir Charles Russell, A'ew Views on Ireland ( 1880); Shand,
Letters from West of Ireland (1885); Robert Dennis,
Industrial Ireland (1887); E. Lynn Linton, Aljout Ire-
latul (1889); J. B. Daly, Glimpses of Irish IiuJustries
t IHri'J). For comparative statistics of Ireland and Great
Britain, see Gkeat Bkitaix; see also Bkeuox Laws,
La.nd Laws, Ta-nistky, kc.
HiSTORV.— The history of Irelan.l, like that of
ahnost all ancient countries, 'tracks its parent
lake ' back into the enchanted realms of legend
and romance and fable. It has been ."-aid, not un-
truly, of Ireland that she 'can boast of ancient
legends rivalling in beauty and dignity the talcs of
Attica ami Argolis ; she has an early liistory whose
web of blended myth and reality is a-s" richly
coloured as the record of the riilei-s of Alba Longa
and the story of the Seven Kings.' We canin)t
now make any eflbrt to get at history in the
beautiful myths and stories. We should puzzle
our brains in vain to lind out whether the Lady
Ce-sair who came to Ireland liefure the deluge with
fifty women and three men h:Ls any warrant, even
the slenderest, from genuine tradition or is a child
of fable altogether. We cannot get at any hint of
the actual truth about Conn of the Hundred Fights
and Fin Mac Coul and Oisin. But the impression
which does seem to be conveyed clearly emuigli
from all these romances and fables and ballads is
that there was iu Ireland a very ancient civilisa-
tion, and that the island was occupied in dim far-
oft' ages by successive invaders who came from the
south. The Pha'nicians are said to have repre-
sented one wave of invasion and the Greeks
another. Many an observer w ho had little in him
of the merely fanciful has left it on record that in
his opinion the Celtic Irish even still give evidence
that they are the descendants of a southern people.
Nemedians, Firbolgs, Tuatha de Dananns, and
Scots are reporteil to have successively planted
themselves in an island which before their coming
was probably the home of an Iberian people.
What may be called the authentic history of Ire-
land liegins with the life and the career of St
Patrick. Patrick was born in Scotland, and in his
early youth he was carried as a slave to Irehind.
He escaped to Itome, and ro.se high in the service
of the then united church. Somewhat early in the
5tli century he returned to Ireland with the object
of converting the island to Christianity. He
accomplished his mission completely, and he even
made Ireland the great missionary school for the
propagation of the faith all over Europe. At this
time Ireland was divided into septs or clans, each
sept bearing the name of the head of the family.
The septs all owed allegiance to the chief king.
All the chieftainships were elective, and during
the lifetime of each chief his successor was chosen
from the same family, and was called the Tanist.
All the land was held by the septs for the benefit
of the peojile, and there was no feudal condition,
and no system of ]irinu)geniture. Near to the
close of the 8th century the Danish sea-rovers in-
vaded Ireland and overran great part of it, and
made settlements on the eastern coasts. The Irish
chiefs were divided among themselves anil could
not keep out the enemy, and the Danish occupa-
tion lasted for much more than a century. At last,
in 968-984, a strong and capable Irish chieftain,
Brian Boroimhe, brother of the king of Munster,
defeated the Danes, and, although he did not drive
them out of the country, he reduced them to the
condition of subdued and submissive residents.
Brian now made himself king of Ireland, and for
twelve yeare reigned a successful ruler over a
peaceful and prosjiering country. As he grew (dd
the Danes plucked up sjiirit again, and got a Heet
anil an army from their kinsmen across the sea to
invade Ireland. Brian, old iis he was, proved him-
self equal to the occasion. He completely defeated
the Danes at Clontarf, but Wiis killed in his tent
at the end of the battle by one of the enemy,
2,3d April 1014. There were no nune Danish
invasions; but the l)ani.--h settlers continued to
occupy the seaport towns of the east, and iu time
became absorbed into the common population of
the island.
A far more momentous event in the history of
Ireland Wius the Norman invasion (1167-72). This
took i)lace in the reign of Henry II. ((].v.), and is
another story of Helen of Troy, aiul of \'irginia, and
of the fabulous I'lorinda who was said to have been
loved not wisely but too well by Koderick the (Joth.
The king of Leinster carried oil' the wife of the
chieftain of Bretl'ni. The injured hu^banll made
war upon his wronger ; the King of Leinster wjis
20-1
IRELAND
gettin<; the woi-st of it, and Heil to En<;land, and in-
duced Henry 11. to lend liin\ countenance and even
help. Henry had before this received a hull from
Pope -Vdrian IV., an En.ulisliiiian, antliorisin],' him
to a.ssume authority over Ireland, in order that
Ireland might be made more suljmissive than she
was to the ecclesiastical <lirection of Rome. Henry
now took the opiiortiinity ottered him by the
fugitive king of Leinster, and allowed if he did
not authorise a sort of ' Free Companions' ' inva-
sion of Ireland, and afterwards came over him-
self to finish the conquest. The Irish kings and
chiefs fought fiercely, but the Normans were far
better armed, and in fact the story of the Norman
invasion of England was told over again in Ireland.
Henry organised the country after the Norman
fashion ius well as he could. He divided the island
into counties, and set up the courts. Kind's Bench,
Pleas, and Exchequer in Dublin. He allowed the
native Irish, however, to keep to their time-
honoured system of IJrehon law. He made huge
grants of land, the septal property of the island, to
his favourite Norman barons, leaving the barons to
liold the granted land in the best way they could.
So l)egan the great land struggle in Ireland which
has lasted down to our own days.
The history of Ireland for a long time after the
settlement of the Normans becomes nothing but a
monotonous recital of the struggles lietween the
Norman barons and the Irish ciueftains, and the
struggles Ijetween mie Irish chieftain and another.
Tlie Norman or English barons lived within the
cincture of their own domains and administered
all'airs on the feudal system. The English terri-
tory was known as the Pale. Outside were the
Irish, who still strove hard to keep up their own
laws, their own customs, and their own civilisation.
English law diil not extend any of its jirotection to
them. They had no rights which a Norman was
Ijound to recognise. As time went on, however,
a curious change was taking ]ilace. The English
began to be drawn very much towards Irish ways
and Irish people. They took to marrying Irish
women and speaking the Irish language.. This
mingling of races alarmed the goveriinient in Eng-
land, and tlie severest enactments were passed for-
bidding the adoi)tion liy English settlers of Irish
names, speech, customs, or garl). One especially
cruel edict onlained that any Englislunan who
married an Irish wife was to be mutilated in a
horrible way and then put to death. It was not
found possible, however, to put such laws in force
often enough to prevent the l)leMdiMg of the races.
The Englislimeu still married tlie Irishwomen.
The great Norman family of th" (ieraldines was
descril)ed Jis more Irish than the Irish themselves.
liy the time that Henry VII. had come to the
throne the greater |>art of the island was in the
hands of Anglo Irish chieftains. There was a jiar-
Hament on the Norman idea sitting in Ireland and
illustrating at least th(! principle of a representa-
tive system. Henry VII. seemed inclined at lirst
to leave the tieraldines to manage Ireland in the
Ijest way they could: but when the Oeraldines
supported the cause of I'erkin Warbeck anil Lam-
bert Simnel, Henry retaliated on them and on Ire-
land. He sent over Sir Edward I'oyniiigs as lord-
deinily, with a strong army at his back and with
ample authority to make n great cliiinge. I'oyn-
iiigs summoned a pailiament at Drogheda, and
compelled it to ])a.ss the famous measure known as
Poynings' Act (I-4!)4). This act declared that all
English laws should have force in Ireland, and that
all legislatiiui in the Irish parliament should be con-
lined to measures which h;id been lirst .-ipprovei] of
by the king and tlie Privycouricil in England.
Poynings' Act is an ciioch in the histcuy of Ire-
laud.
Henry VII. dieil. The Geraldines defied the
power of Henry VIII. The rebellion of 'Silken
Thomas' broke out. 'Silken Thomas,' so nick-
named because of the splendour of his dre.ss, wa-s
Lord Thomas Fitzgerald, and he proved himself of
stronger stulV than silk. He raised a des])erate
revolt against the king, but after a hard struggle
he was defeated, and he and his live uncles who
had taken up arms with him were bnuight to the
Tower of London and hanged. Henry conliscated
the church lands in Ireland exactly as he had done
in England. A parliament was sunnnoned in
Dublin at which, for the first time, some of the
Irish chieftains were .seen sitting side by side with
Englishmen. These were certain of the Irish
|irinces who had agreed to hold their lands iis the
gift of the crown, to attend the king's parliament
and seek justice in the king's courts, to send their
sons to be educated in Englaml, and to renounce
the authority of the po]ie. This parliament con-
ferred on Henry and his successors the title of King
of Ireland instead of Lord Paramount, the former
design.ation of the sovereign. A weary chapter of
struggle followed the death of Henry VIII. Henry
had done his Ijest to compel the Irish ciueftains
and ]ieople to give up the faith of Itonie and
ado]it what was now the faith of the majority in
England. This was but a new source of bitter-
ness and strife. The great family of O'Neill raised
its head higher than ever, and the chief whom, in
detianee of English law, it elected to that jdace,
Shane O'Neill, was actually able to make terms
with Elizabeth. The Ueraldine League was formed.
Walter Devereux, the first Earl of Essex, was sent
over in 1573 to put down the O'Neills ; but
although he slaughtered whole ma.sses of them he
could not extirpate them. A chronic state of civil
war jirevaileil. After each new rising had been put
down there was a new conliscation <if territory, a
new ]danting of English and Scottish settlers, and
anew attempt to exjiel or extirpate the native Irish,
'lied Hugh ( (Neill ' was the most distinguished
reliel who had yet aiqieared in Ireland. He was
the grandson of an O'Neill who had consented to
accept fnun Henry VIII. the title of Earl of Tyrone.
Hugli O'Neill had been brought up at the court of
Elizabeth, and w<as accimnted an ornament of even
that most brilli.ant circle. He was conlirmed
in his title of Earl of Tyrone. But when he
went back to his own country he seems to have
found blood tlii(dcer than water, for he resumed his
ancestral title of 'The O'Neill,' and |mt on all the
ways of an iudependent Irish prince. lie did not
at iirst go into open reli<dlion ; but ' rebellion lay in
his way, and he found it.' ^\■lletller he was driven
into it by the intrigues of English agents and
officials, or whether lie of his own motiim struck
for the independence of the country, it would not
now be easy to decide. He (int himself at the
head of a great rebellion of the chiefs, and he
won a comjilete victory in lister over Sir Henry
Bagenal, the lord-marshal. ISagenal himself was
killed. There was something romantic about the
encounter of these two opiionents. Some time
before, O'Niull, then a widower, had fallen in love
with Bageual's beautiful sister. His love was
returned, and the lady (doped with him and became
his wife. The river Mlackwater saw her brother's
defeat and death. For a "liile fortune seemed to
smile on Hngli O'Neill. Kidiert, the second and
most famous Essex, was despatched in l.")99 to
defeat him, with the largest army ever sent into
Ireland u]i to that time ; but Essex could do
nothing. He was out-generalled and outwitted
by the Irish chief, and wiuit back to England and
his death. Lord .Mountjoy, a stronger siddier.
was .sent to Ireland in his place, and he at last
siicceeded in defeating Tyrone and putting down
IRELAND
205
the rebellion. O'Xeill had to come to terms, and to
renounce all his claims as independent Irish prince.
Klizabetli died, and .lames I. accepted the surrender.
l!ut James had set his heart on jjettini; rid of all
the Irish laws and nsaj,'es of the country, and if
pos.siljle imtting down the Roman Catholic reli^'ion.
Tyrone and another Irish chief, Tyrconnel, fled
from the country which they saw they had no
lon>;er the power to maintain, and both dieil years
after in Rome, and were buried there. 'Tlie llight
of the earls,' as it is called, left the island com-
pletely in the hands of King James. There were
a<^ain vast confiscations and new settlements.
When King Charles succeeded to the throne and
came into trouble with his people some of the
Irish chiefs thought their opportunity had come.
The native Irish in Ulster rose nnder Sir I'helim
O'Xeill, not so much against English rule as against
the Scotch and Enn;lish settlers who had been
planted there. In that rising, following on the
eight years' administration of Stratl'ord (q.v. ), oc-
curred what is called 'the massacre of 1641.' So
far as oTie can form any judgment it does not seem as
if there was any delil>erate and jmrposed massacre
of the Protestants, although it is impossible to doubt
that there was a very barliarous slaughtering of Pro-
testants in one place. The struggles of that time
indeed show over and over again hideous incidents
which can hardly be described as anything but
massacres. The question in this case is, was
there a conspiracy to massacre the Protestant
settlei's — was that the conspiracy — or was there
a conspiracy for a rebellion, in the outlireak of
which a slaughter of a great numl)er of Protestants
was a ghastly incident? Mr Goldwin Smith, who
certainly is not in much sympathy with Irish
historians, gives it as his conviction that the
massacre was ' unpremeditated and opposed to the
policy of the leaders,' and that in any ca.se it was
not so bad as some of the massacres done by the
other side. The rising soon became something
very like a national rebellion. Colonel Owen
O'Xeill, nephew of the gallant Tyrone — Owen Roe
O'Xeill, as he is always called in Irish song and
history — came over to lead the struggle. He had
won a high place in the Spanish army. At first
his arms in Ireland were all successful. A parlia-
ment was held in Kilkenny — a national convention
— in October 164"2, to proclaim and establish the
inilependence of Ireland. The papal nuncio
Rinuccini came from Rome to give his counsel
and support to the movement. Charles himself
favoured the Irish, and made many pledges to
them in the hope of getting their help. His hour,
however, had come ; his struggle was over, and his
execution left Cromwell free to take Ireland in
hand. The only man in Ireland capable of meet-
ing Cromwell on a battlefield with any chance of
success w.os uni|uestionably Owen Roe O'Xeill ;
he had already won one victory over the English
forces, but before he had time to thiciw himself
across Cromwell's path Owen died. He died so
suddenly that the common belief of the Irish
I>eople was that he hail been done to death by
poi.son. There seems no good ground for assuming
anything of the kinil : but the death, so sudden,
and for the Irish so untimely, made the sus|jicion
and even the belief quite natural. With ( I'Xeill's
ileath was gone the first and the ht-^t and tli(! only
chance of any success for the Irish movement.
Cromwell's march was from vic'tory to victory. He
stamped out the rebellion with merciless seventy,
and then, like all his vicliu'ious predecessors, he
went in fora resettlement of the island. Cromwell's
was a resettlement with a vengeance. He seems to
have contemplated such a plantation of the whole
country with English and Scotch settlei's as would
render any further ri.>*ing of the Irish impossible,
and indeed would before veiy long lead to the
positive e.\iirpalion of the Catholic Celts. All
Ireland, except Connaught alone, was portioned
out among the settlers. Connaught was set ai)art
as a sort of reservation into w hich the unfoi tunate
Irish were literally driven, and where they were
cooped up within certain prescribed limitations.
Irish women and girls were shipped oft' in thou-
sands for virtual slavery or worse in oui- West
Indian possessions.
The Restoration brought the Irish little good,
for Charles II. was more anxious to conciliate
the Cromwellian settlers than to restore the Irish
owners. James II. came to the throne, and the
Irish Catholics got better treatment, and in con-
sequence showed a very fervour of loyalty to him.
They championed him with all their might when
he quarrelled with his people and fled from his
throne. The Irish were in all these struggles in-
variably the losers. They supported Charles I., and
brought Cromwell on them : they supported James
II., and brought William III. on them. William
defeated James at the battle of the Boyne (1690)
and on other fields. Limerick held out to the last.
It was defended by a brave soldier and true ]iatriot,
Patrick Sarsheld — ^Slr Disraeli once declared in the
House of Comnmns that every tnie Irishman was
proud of 'the sword of Sarsfield ' — and William's
generals could not capture it. A treaty was made
which promised religious freedom to the Catholics
and to King James's followers the right to their
estates. Then Sarsfield and his soMiers marched
out with all the honours of war, and passed away
into the service of foreign lands to meet the
.soldiers of England on many a continental battle-
field. The treaty was broken almost immediately
after it had been made. King William, who ^^■as
in Holland at the time of the surrender of Limerick,
would have upheld it if left to himself ; but the
opinion of his English supporters was fierce against
the Catholics, and the result of the gallant defence
and the honourable and patriotic surrender of
Limerick was a series of new penal laws inijiosed
on Ireland with the avowed purpose of extinguish-
ing Catholicism in the island. These laws have in
fact ever since been known as ' the penal laws " —
]ienal jiar e.rcclloire.
The two great struggles in Ireland were the
religious struggle and the land struggle. The first
was part of the great controversy going on all o^■er
Europe for the Church of Rome and against it.
The main eft'ort of English statesmanship was to
extinguish Catholicism in Ireland. The land
struggle Iiegan with the determination to impose
on Ireland a system of land tenure foreign to lier
habits and traditions, and later on lo take the land
from the Irish people and give it to the imported
settlers. I'lider William III. the religious struggle
became aggravated ; the land struggle was not
mitigated : and laws were even passe<l to crush the
rivalry of Ireland in various branches of nianu-
facture and of trade. The island sank into
wretched poverty, and when the two successive
outbreaks of the Stuarts took place, in ITl") and
1745, Ireland, although undoubtedly in deep sym-
pathy with the cause, was too weak to lift a hand
in its support. The rights of the Irish parlia-
ment were still further curtailed under .Anne and
under (ieorge I. In the reign of (ieorge the appd
late jurisdiction of the Irish House of Lords o\er
Irish cases was taken away by an act of thi' English
parliament. The Irish parliament was a very poor
snecimen of a representative institution. Since
William IIl.'s time it was barred against Catholics.
To the vast majority of the Irish |)eople its <'\ist-
ence might have been a matter of absolute indifler-
ence. Vet the sympathies of the couiitr.v went
with the Irish parliament simply because it was
206
IRELAND
called an Irish parliament, and represented even in
name tlie authority of the Irish i)('0])le. Gradually
there bejian to urow u|i in Ireland a popular party
led by Protestants, who agitated for the restoration
of its independent legislative power to the Irish
parliament, and for the leform of that parliament
in such a manner as to make it really roprosenla-
tive. (Iratlan and Flood were most prominent
in this movement. The war with the American
colonies gave an ojiportunity to the jiopular i)arty
to drive home their demands. A great volunteer
force had been organise<l in Ireland to defend the
country, ius England could not spare troops for its
defence. The volunteers were entirely in sympathy
with Grattan, and when the war was over they
sustained him in his demands. English statesmen
very wisely gave way, and in 1782 the Irish parlia-
ment was declared to be an independent legislature
— ' the King, Lords, and ('onimons of Ireland to
make laws for the people of Ireland." An immense
inijiulse was given to popular agitation by this
victory. The volunteers were disbanded by
Grattan's advice. The new parliament was ex-
clusively Protestant, and was elected by an e.\-
clusively Protestant vote. Yet its leaders at once
went to work to obtain the emancipation of their
Catholic fellow-subjects. Grattan succeeded in
obtaining an act to admit Catholics to practice
at the bar. He then carried an act to enable
Catholics to vote for members of parliament. He
went further still ; he strove for a measure to enable
Catholics to .sit in the Irish parliament. In this
object he was assisted and encouraged by Lord
Fitzwilliam, the viceroy of Ireland. This was too
much for George III. The king took fright at the
advance made towards full emancipation of the
Catholics, and at the very time wlien the Irish
people thought they w-ere near to a peaceful con-
summation of their hopes, the viceroy was suddenly
recalle<l, and all immediate hope of Catholic
emancipation blighted.
There ha<l lieen a society formed during the
agitation called the Society of United Irishmen.
It was formed as a merely peaceful organisation
to assist Grattan in the carrying of his reforms.
It was got up and oHicered almost exclusively l)y
Protestants ; many of them young men of rank
and inlluence, like Lord Edward Fitzgerald. In
the anger caused by the recall of Lord Fitzwilliam,
ami in the ilespair of any peaceful movement, the
I'niteil Irishmen became a rebel organisation. The
war with France was going on. Napoleon was the
rising sun of the French peoi>le. Wolfe Tone, a
daring young Protest.ant, went over to France and
pleaded the cause of Ireland there. Napoleon took
It up merely because he thought an Irish rebellion
might be fostereil into a diversion in his favour. A
l''iench fleet was sent, but was dispersed by a storm
like another Arnuula. A landing was made in one
[dace, but oidy by a very small force, who were
soon defeated and captured. The rebellion broke
out in the south, and there w;v.s some lieree lighting,
hut it was crushed. It had indeed, owing to the
French failures, been only a series of disconnected
local risings. It was crushed with remmseless
severilv, and deeds of cruelty were iierpctrated by
the sohliery and the yeomanry wldch the then
cmnmander-in-chief. Sir Ralph Abcrcromby, de-
plored and cried out against, but was wholly unable
to repress, and which the viceroy lamenti-d and
denounced both at the time ami after. When the
rebellion was put down Pitt th<iught the condition
of things could only be bettered by ailopting, with
regaril to Irelan<l, the same jioliey that had been
ailopted with regard to S('otland, and uniting tiie
two islamls under one eomniim parliament. Grattan
and his leading colleagues, among whom wiis
iSir John Paniell, fought to the hist against the
policy of union, but tliey were overborne. There
can be no doubt th,at very unscrupulous measures
were employed to get a majority of the Irish
parliament to ]]a.ss the act. Some attempt has
lately been in.ade to show that the money spent
was not spent in purchasing votes, but only in
compensation for extinguished proprietorial rights
over constituencies. Certainly Lord Cornwallis,
the viceroy who carried the Act of Lnion, was not
under any such iin]iiession. He understood that
he w;us comnii.ssicmed to bribe, and he executed his
commission faithfully, while he frankly detested
the work, and said so. The Act of Union came
into force on the 1st January 1801. There had
been a promise held out to the Irish Catholics that
the union should be a preliminary to their ]ironipt
emancipation, but King (!eorge wouhl not hear of
any such concessicm, and his nunisters did not
venture to press it on him. The .\ct of I'nion was
followed almost immedi.ately by the abortive and
hopele.ss rebellion of Uobert Emmet. Then a long
dark night of conspiracy, agrarbin and political,
came on. A great movement was made for Cath-
olic emancipation. The movement was led by
Daniel O'Connell, and became svicce.ssful after
O'Connell had delied the law, presented himself jus
a candidate at the Clare election in IS'iS, and been
returned by a great pojiular majority. It had
become a mere alternative between concession and
rebellion, and the Duke of Wellington, like the
brave old soldier that he w.as, declared he had seen
too much of war and would not have a civil war,
and so prevailed on (ieorge IV., and the Catludics
were enabled to sit in parliament. The tithe
struggle was for a long time a source of the bitterest
trouble and the most freijuent bloodshed, but a
settlement was at last etl'ecte<l by means of which
the tithe-collector and the pea-sant were no longer
brought into collision.
In KS4'2 O'Connell started a great agitation for
repeal of the Act of Union, and held ' monster
meetings,' as they were called, and at one time
seemed to be on the verge of driving the count ry
into rebellion. O'Connell, however, h;ul no s\ich
jiuriiose, and when the younger and more liery of
his followers found this out they broke away
from him altogether. O'Connell died while the
horrors of the great famine of -Ki ami "47 were
still on the land, and in the following year, 1848,
the poetic, impassicnied, ardently-sincere Young
Ireland party broke or drifteil into rebellion. The
rebellion was easily put down— hardly a ilrop of
blood was shed. 15ut the Young Ireland movement
had undoubtedly revived the national feeling in all
its intensity. There was a ' Pluenix ' conspiracy,
as it was called, in 1858, and a Fenian movement
in 1807. The existence and the succession of all
these movements convinced men like .Mr Ihight,
and afterwards Mr Gladstone, that there was much
in the state of Ireland which called for reform and
reconstruction. Mr tJladstone set to work with
characteristic energy. He disestablished and dis-
endowed the Irish state church — a church which
ministered to the sjiirilual wants of not ijuite one
in live of the Irish population, lie passed a series
of measures to give better security ot tenure to the
Irish tenant-farmer, to entitle him to compensation
for improvements he himself had made it he were
to be ejected from his lanil, an<l to helji to found a
peasant projirietary in Irelainl. .V LamI Commis-
sion— it ndglit be called a Land Court- was formed
which had the power of reducing rents where
reilnction seemed necessary iuid riglitfnl, and tix-
ing the rent for a certain numlier of years. .More
lately, a Land Purcha.se Commission was created,
the function of which is to assist tenants in buying
their farms from the landlords, by an advance,
under certain conditions as to repayment, of a large
IRELAND
207
portion of the puichase money. Tliese measures
are in fact part of a -jreat ajrrarian reconstruction
which is still going on in Ireland, and to which
Conservative governments as well as Liberal have
made contribution. Meantime a tierce strnggle
had been raging between the pea.santrv and some
of the landlords, the former supported by the
popular and powerful Land League. There was
tnnch disturbance in Irelaml, and Coercion Act
after Coercion Act was pii-ssed. A Home Rule
party had been formed, and out of this party
sprang a small but very determined boily of Irish
XationalLst membei-s who, under the leadership of
Mr Charles Stewart Parnell, a descendant of the Sir
John Parnell alreaily mentioned, set themselves to
force the claim of Ireland on the attention of the
English parliament and pulilic liy a sy.stem of per-
sistent obstruction of all business in the House of
Commons. In ilay 1882 the whole civilised world
was horrified by the murder of Lord Fredeiicli
Caven<lish, newly appointed secretary to the lord-
lieutenaut of Ireland, and Mr Lurke, the permanent
imder-secretary. The niunlerers were proved to be
a gang of miscreants banded together secretly for
the perpetration of such crimes. They were be-
trayed liy some of their own associates, were found
guilty, anil some of them were executed. The
Home Rule agitation went on growing stronger,
and at hist, when a new Franchise Bill had given
a popular suttrage to Irelaml as well as to England,
the Home Rule party carried ott' eighty-six seats
out of one hundred and three which make up the
Irish representation (188.5). Mr Gladstone (q.v. )
brought ill his first Home Rule Bill in 1886, but
this was defeated in the Commons by the uuiteil
Conservatives and Liberal Unionists ; a second
Home Rule Bill was passed in the Commons, but
defeated in the Lords in 1802. Under Mr A. .1.
Balfour (1887-91) and his In-other Gerald (1895-
19lXt), as secretaries. Ireland prospered: and men
of all parties and faiths combined in an a-ssociation
to promote ilairying. trade, and commerce. The
Local Government Act of 1898 li.os been named
above ; the Queen's visit in 1900 deserves record,
her recognition of the gallantry of the Irish soldiers
in South Africa by the permi.ssion to wear the
shamrock on St Patrick's Day, and the formation
of a regiment of Irish Guards. A new departure
was made liy the Xationalists under Mr O'Brien
and .Mr Reduiond in 1900-1901.
See Plowden's HiMorical Siriem of the State of Ireland
(1811); Moore's UMory of Ireland (4 vols. 1839);
Donovan, Annah of the Kinr/doin of Ireland by the
Four Masters (3 vols. 1848); CoiTespondenee of Lord
Coitlereaijh (12 vols. 1847-53); Pajiers and Corrc-
fpondence of Lord Cormmllit (3 vols. 18.59); Lecky's
Leaden of Pub'ic Opinion in Inland (1S61: new ed.
1871-72); Prendergast's Cromwellian Settlement of
Ireland (18G5; new cd. 1870); Darcy JI'Gee, Popular
Hialori/ of Ireland (1869); Froude's Enqlinh in Ire-
land in the ISth Century (3 vols. 1871-74); Alfred
Webb's Irith Bio'iraphy (1879); Keating's Historti of
Irelawi (1880); Dufly, Yonwj Ireland (1880); Wal-
pole's Short History of the Kinqdom of Ireland (1882) ;
•J. H. M'Carthy's Outlines of Irish Uistom (1883) ; Lady
Emily Lawless, The Stvry of Ireland (1888, ' Story of the
Xations ' series ) ; Richey, Short Hislorn of the Irish People
(18S,S); Stokes, Ireland and the Celtie Church (1888),
and Ins Ireland and the Amilo-Norman Church (1889);
Sophie Bryant, Celtic Ireland (1889); Two Centuries
oj Irish History, Vi^l-lgfO, with Introduction by 15ryce
(18s9); Ball's Historical Review of the Leijislatice
Systems in Inland, from the Invasion of Henry II.
to the Union (1889); speeches and writings of liurke;
speeches of Grattan, Curran, Flood, O'Connell, Meagher,
Isaac IJutt. .See also BUTT, Castlere.\gh, Celts, Crom-
well, DlBLI.V UNrVERSITY, El)i;<ATIOX, EVICTIO.V,
KENHNS, (JL.VDSTO.NE, Grattax. </Conxell, ora.vge-
MEN-, Parnell, Prrr, Straffobu, Whitebovs, and
works cited under these articles.
L..\.NGU..VGE .-VND LiTER.VTURE.— The native lan-
guage is (Jaelic — Irish Gaelic as distinguished from
Scottish and Manx Gaelic, the three constituting
the Goidelic branch of the Celtic language (see
G.\EI.IC L.VXOUAGE AND LlTEIiATUHE). The old
grammarians sometimes desi^rnateil Iheir language
or dejiartments thereof by dillerent epilhet.*. liilni,
now Jjeiirld, meaning the English language exclu-
sively, was the general term for ' speech. ' A dialect
of Gaelic was called hclra Fene — named, it uscil to
be said, after Foiiiis, a mythical grammarian. This
term was afterwards restricted to the ' language
of law,' while helra bun, 'fair speech,' was u.sed
to designate the 'canon.' Acconling to Cormac
idnnbclru meant 'obscure speech,' and that old
lexicoCTapher gives onn as the iarmbclra for 'stone,'
clock being the c/ndt/i belra or common term.
Bede informs ns that the language of the Picts or
Cniithnic), to use the Gaelic name, was a separate
language ; and Cormac, already mentioned, notes
ccirtit. a ilcalff or ' jjin ' as bclra Cridtlincacli, or
a Pictish word. The writer of an old graunnatical
treatise, preserved in the Books of Bully aiotc and
Leccin and in M.S. I. of the Scottish Collection of
Gaelic MSS., professes to give the form of the third
pei-son singular of the ])ersonal pronoun not merely
in the language of the Milesians or Gaels, but also
in that of the mythical Firbolgs and Tuatha de
Dananiis : tiaelic isse, issi, isscd (masculine, fem-
inine, and neuter respectively); Firbolg sjieech
uindiiis, iiiniisi, on nor ; Tuatha de Danann mod,
toe/, traeth. Elsewhere Cormac gi\es toth as a
technical term for the feminine gender and Iretcth
for the neuter.
In Ireland the language was les.s subjected to
corrupting influences than in Scotland and in the
Isle of Man, and it was more carefully cultivated.
The diction of Irish Gaelic is accordingly more
copious, and the grammatical forms are fuller.
The Norse language, which displaced for a time
the native tongue in the Hebrides, hardly took
root in Ireland. In the names of three of the four
l>rovinces the Norse sufiix stcr appears, but the
Scandinavian element in Irish topo<;raphy as com-
pared with that of the north-west Highlands and
the Isle of Man is very small. The English lan-
guage found its way to the country in the I2th
century, but for very many years its advance was
slow. As is well known, several of the leading
English settlers became ardent students and
patrons of the native language and literature.
Of the Burkes, the Butlers, the Keatiugs, and
Geraldines it used to be said in this regard that
they were I'lisi-i Hibernis Hilicniiurcs. Beyond the
'pale' the native laws and ways liourLshcd in lull
vigour in the 17th century. And even in the more
purely English districts Gaelic was commonly
spoken. IJr Norman Moore ( Bart/io/omcw IIosjji-
tul Urjtortu, xi. p. 146) ijuotes an edict of the year
16.5.5 ordering all Irish l'api>ts and all Protestants
unable to sjieak the English tongue to leave
Dublin before June '20 of that year. But for the
la.st 300 years English has been steadily and with
ever-increasing pace gaining ground. The seeds
of decline of the native tongue were sown even
earlier. The revival of learning which spread over
the west of Europe in the 1.5th century hardly
touched Gaelic territory. The impetus given to
the cullivalion of the native language in AN'ales
and even in the Highlands of Scotland by the
Reformation was scarcely felt in Ireland. The
views of men in power were hostile to the study
of Gaelic. The plantation of Ulster by James \.
in the beginning of the ITtli century, together
with repressive mea.-*ures of a severe character
afterwards ailopted, checked the production of
native literature and gave an impetus to the spread
of English among the people. \\ itliin recent years
208
IRELAND
increai^ed facilities of communication witli Enf,'lanil,
Scotland, and America; the advance of education ;
tlie extension of the sutl'iaj;e; the social and
political movement of our ouii day— all contril>ute
to the increiusiiif; use of the Knglish lan^qia;;e,
but without reducinj; to the same extent the
nuniher of persons able to speak the old tont,'ue.
In the decade 1871 to IS81 the Caelic-speaking
population of Ireland actually increased. The
number who spoke Irish-Gaelic only in 1881 was
64,167, as against lOS.oOi in 1871 ; but while there
were only 714.313 bilinguals in 1871,
the number of such persons increa.sed
by 1881 to 88."i,7U.'>. So that the total
able to speak tJaelic in 1881 was
949,9.S'2, while in 1871 the number of
such jiersons w.as returned at 817.875.
The current decade will very prob-
ably show decrease under both heails,
but a greater diminution proportion-
ally in the number of persons able
to speak Gaelic only than in the
class of bilinguals. Slany emigrants
fondly cherish their mother-tongue in
America, and in the United States one or two
newspapers print occasional contril)utions in Irish-
Gaelic; but the language is not destined to flourish
outside its native soil.
The rich literature of Ireland has been preserved
to us in inscriptions and manu.script. The oldest
inscriptions, found in the south-west of Ireland,
are written in a peculiar script called Ogham (q.v. ).
Native writers made occasional use of this j)rimi-
tive and withal clumsy moile of writing long after
they became ac<juainteil with the Koman alphabet,
for we find specimens in such MSS. as the rriscian
St tJall, and even in quite modern documents, as
e.g. in MS. XXXV. of the Scottish collection. A
few of the Ogham inscriptions are bilingual, Gaelic
and Latin, so that the readings of the unilingual
Ogliams are establislied. Tlie (ddest of them date
as far back as ,")00 a.d. The linguistic forms would
suggest even a higher anticpiity. Thus, for example,
the genitive of masculine O-stems emls in / — iiinqi,
Mai/iiffni, forms on the same platform with the Old
Gaulish inscri])tions Ategnati, Drnticni, and for
that matter with classical Latin — Maximi, domiiii.
The oldest !\IS. forms are maicc and »tai/<iiii, the
terminal / disap])earing as a separate syllable, I>ut
becoming incorporated in the jneceding syllable in
order to preserve the souml of the consonant. This
great giammatical change in the short interval
between the ))eriod of the Ogham inscriptions and
the oldest MSS. may, in part at least, be explained
by the disturl)ing inHnence of the Latin language
introduced by the early clerics. Inscriptions in
!{om.ai cliarai'ters are found with greater or less
interruption down to our own day.
The Ui^iiani inscriptions h.ive liccn published, among
other-s, by the l,at« Mr Brash, Oiihiim Iiiscribnl Mnau-
ments of the (I'actlhif (1870); the late Sir Sanmel Ferguson,
in various publications; while tlie grainniatical ftn-ins
whicli they exliibit have been explained by l*rofessor Uliys.
Let'luyes on IKc/.v/i Philolofiy^ Lecture vi. ; Mr ^\'hitley
Stokes, D.C.L., Bei'tr. zur Verfil. Spj'aclif., v. ; * Celtic l>e-
clension' — Trans, of Phil. Soc. (1885), and Bcrtr. :iirKuntle
Tn'lo;in-iti. S]»'ac/tctu xi. ; Mens. H. d'.Arbois de Jubain-
ville, fjtif'ir:^ itnr Ic Ih-oil VcHi'pw. The inscriptions in
llonian character, chiefly collected and drawn by tlie late
Dr George Petrie, have been published by Sliss Stokes,
Christian Inscriptions in the Irish iaH;/H«7C ( 1872-78).
The MS. literature dates from the end of the 7th
or the beginning of the 8tli century. The Konian
cursive hand of the ."ith century w.os introduced by
St I'atriidv and his comiianions into Ireland, and
h.i-s been adhi^red to with characteristic tenacity to
this day. Only eighteen letters were pernmnently
adopted : a, b, c, (/, c,f, g, h, i, I, m, >i, », p, r, .«, f,
u. X is used to express tlie numeral 10, ocea-sion-
ally to represent the combination cs ; q stands for
cit ; k fre(|ucntly for m ami c(it/i, ' battle ; ' >/ and z
are met with in one or two loan-words — yiiuiuii, a
'hymn;' Zi/i/uoi, 'Ste|>hen.' Theiddest ]ire.served
MSS. are in Latin. Over 20() such, written by
Gaelic scholars before the year 10(10, still remain,
all with the exception of some half a dozen in
France, Germany, Switzerland, ami Italy. They
were written by the distinguished missionary and
scholar Columbanus, his coni]ianions ami followers,
or carried abroad during the 8lh and Oth centuries.
Ojji )r u]d]\ ro TO 3tia-cv3 't)W ai) r6ti)dt), 30
■crU5 ye d e)i)3e)i) 2l)t)e)c feu], muy 3116 be
ciiejredT aii i)dc \\dcdixe <x tijiisd, ac-c 30 ti)be)c
an beta x)o\HY;-ce d)3e.
Jolin, iii. 16 ill Irisli, as printed I y tlie British anil Foreign Bible Society. The
following' is the tmiislation in Roman letters ; Oir is mar so do phr<Wlini>;h
Dia an ilnnihan, gn dtiij; se a einghein Meic fe n, ionmis giilli b^ chreiileiis
ann, nach rachadh so a inuglia, achd go nibeith an blieatlia shiorrniiilie
aige.
One occasionally linds a Gaelic quatrain on the
maigin of these MSS., as in the Priscian St (_;all,
or a short poem on a blank jiage, as in the Milan
and Carinthian Codices. There is a fragment of a
sermon in old Gaelic in the town library of Cam-
bray ; and still more valuable are the Annotations
on the Book of A niKig/i, written in the early part
of the 9th century. Hut the most imiiortant
remains of old Gaelic are full glosses on abmit a
score of the Latin MSS. on the Continent. Three
such are specially noteworthy : a copy of Priscian 's
Gramm.ar in the library of St Gall ; a co]iy of St
Paul's Epistles in the university of Wiirzburg;
and a commentary on the Psalms of I)a\id
by Columbanus, now in the Ambrose Library,
Milan. The glos.ses on the Milan Codex are so
voluminous that, according to Stokes, a very com-
plete grammar and dictionary could be compiled
from them alone.
The oldest (Jaelic MSS. now existing were
written by the end of the lltli century. To this
period belong two beautiful co|)ies of the l.il/cr
Jli//)uiorioii, containing hymns in L,atin and Gaelic
composed by the early saints, Patrick, Fiacc of
Sletty, ( 'olumba, and otihers. Tlie writer of I.cnhhor
till h-l'idhri\ 'the liook of the Dun Cow,' a miscel-
laneous compihition extracted from earlier books
now lost, was killed in the year 1 106. The 7)(/o/i
of LciiLstcr, a large folio of 410 pages, was written
before 1 167 ; the Book of liiithiniotc, also a large
folio of .502 pages, and the I.inhhnr Brcac, or
' Speckled IJook,' containing '280 p.ages, by the
end of the 14th century. Somewhat later are
the Book of Lcaiii, a small folio of over 600 jiages ;
and the Yellow Book of J.eniii, a large quarto
of .500 pages. The number of MSS. increases
as we come later down. Mons. H. d'Arbois
de Jubainville found 9.53 in Ireland and Engl.ind
(Es.-iiii irun Ciitiiloi/iic lie III Litliriifiirc Kpiijiir
(Ic rirliiHilr, Paris, 1883), the most valuable nf
which are in the libraries of the Itoyal Irish
Academy (enriched by the Stowe collection, jiur-
chased f<n' the Academy by the government).
Trinity College, and Franciscan .Mimastery, Dub-
lin; in the Bodleian, Oxford; ami in the ISritish
Museum. Many of these MSS. are beautifully
written ; while several in the ornamentatiiui of
their capitals and margins iue line specimens of
the artistic skill of the old Gaelic scribes. The
contents are of a very varied description, and
embrace all ilepartments of literature. A con-
siderable part is translated or adapted. Such are
the portions of the legendary liistory of Greece and
Home found in Gaelic — the destruction of Troy,
J
IRELAND
209
the waiidevintr of I'lysses, the story of tlie .Eiieul,
tlie life of Alexiimler tlie (iicat, &c. ; most of tlie
passions, hoiiiilios, and lej;encls, scriptural and
I'ci-lesiastical, in the Leab/iar Brciir and other
MSS. ; and such also is the medical section of the
literature. Of native production are history, in-
cluding biographies, annals, and genealogies ; tales,
mythological, heroic, legendary ; grammars and
dictionaries; law; and poetry.
Modern Gaelic literature can hardly be said to
exist. The New Testament was |iulilislied in 11103,
and the tMd in 1685. A fresh translation of the
Pentateuch was made in 1868 by Archbishop Mac-
Hale, who also printed the first six books of the
Iliiid and a selection of Mooie's melodies in Irish
(iaelic. The New Testament has been translated
anew by Jlr Kane into the Munster dialect. Fugi-
tive pieces of lyric veree have ai'peared from time
to time. The licliques of Irish Puctri/, published
by MLss Brooke in 1789, and the six volumes pub
lished by the O-ssianic Society ( 1854-61 ), are chiefly
' Ossianic. ' ' The Gaelic Union ' has printed several
texts, and publishes the Gaelic Journal.
Celtic scholarship dates from the publication of
Zeuss's Grammalica Ccltica in 1853. \'alualile \\ork
was, however, done by Eugene O'Currv in his 3IS.
Materials of Irish History ( 1861 ) and Planners anil
Customs of the Ancient Irish { 1873) : and by O'Don-
ovan in his Grammar (1847), his edition of the
Annals of the Four Masters, and his Supplement to
O'Reilly's Dictionary. Zeusss Granitnatica Celtica
(1853; ad ed., by Ebel, 1871) was the outcome of
thirteen years of unwearied work among ol<l Celtic
records. Since Zeuss's dav scliolarshi]) has advanced
over the whole held of Celtic studies, in Old Gaulish
and in the Brythonic dialects, but chiefly in Gaelic.
Ebel and Schleicher and Ziegfried are worthily
represented in our day by such men as Ascoli,
Ni^ra, Windisch, Zinimer, Thurneysen, Jubainville,
and Loth on the Continent, and among ourselves
by Stokes, Khys, Atkinson, &c. The licruc Celtiqne.
founded in 1870 by Gaidoz, reached its tenth volume
in 1890. Several other periodicals at home and
abroad, notably Kuhn's Zcitschrift fitr Vergl.
Sprachf., frequently publish important articles on
Celtic subjects. ^Vin(lisch's K uczgefasste Irische
Grammatik has twice been translated into English,
in 1879. The same scholar has also published
Irish Texts for the use of students, with a valuable
vocabulary. Zimnier (Berlin, 1881) and Stokes
published the valuable Wiirzburg MS., with minor
glosses; Nigra, the Turin glosses; and Ascoli, the
St Gall and Milan codices. Copious extracts from
the Turin and Milan "losses, together with the
Gaelic contents of the Book of Annayh, the Lihcr
Hymnorum, and the Book of Deer, with other early
texts, were previously printed by Stokes under the
title Goicleiica (ad ed.' 1872).
Windisch has examined the laws of auslaut,
vocalic and nasal, and explained initial aspiration
and eclipsis (the essay has been translated by
the late l)r Cameron, and printed in the Scotti-sh
Celtic Keriew). Professors Zimmer and Thurney-
sen have investigated the jiosition of the accent,
and its influence on the development of sound
and form in (Jaelic. The laws of metre have
been discussed by Atkinson, Stokes, and the
scholars above named ; but, in order to attain to
full knowledge of the practice of the bards in this
matter, it is necessary that the graijimalical tract
already referred to as ])reservcil in the Book of
Ballymote and other MSS. be published. In
addition to numerous and valuable pa|iers ranging
over the whole field of Celtic studies, Stokes has
largely added to our knowledge of the (Jaelic noun
and verb. \'aluable materials for a lexicon have
been brought together by AVindi.sch in the Worter-
huch appended to liLs Irische I'exte ; by Atkinson
274
in the vocabularies printed with the Homilies, &C. ,
from the Lcal/har Breac, anil with Keatings
'Three .Shafts of Death : by Zimmer in bis Kelt-
ische Stuilien : and by Stokes in the full Indices
Verborum attached to the numerous texts |)ub-
lished by that great scholar. The life and civilisa-
tion of the people have formed the subject of
sei)arate treatises, as e.g. OCurry"s Manners and
Customs of the Ancient Irish, aiid Rhys's Celtic
Heathendom ( Hibbert Lectures for 1886);" but more
fretjuently of elaborate introductions and notes to
the more inii)ortant pul>lications, such as Keeves's
Lifs of St Columba : the Master of the Kolls'
.seiies ; Stokes's Calendar of Oenyus, The Tripartite
Life of St Patrick, and Lives of Saints from the
Book of Lismore.
The National MSS. of Ireland, edited by Gilbert, have
been jniblished by government in the Master of the Koll.'i'
series; as also Tkc Ancient Laws of Ireland (5 vols.);
The Annals of Lougli Ce (2 vols, edited by Hennessey) ;
Chroniccm Scolorum (Hennessey); The Wars of the
Gacdhel with the Gaill (Todd); The Tripartite Life of St
Patrick (Stokes). The Koyal Irish Academy has printed
in fac-simile Leabhar na ft-Uidhre (1870), the Lcabhar
Brcac (1876), the Book of Leinster (1880), and in photo-
lithography the Book of Ballymote ( 1S87 ) ; and has pub-
Ushed the calendar of Oengus the C'uldee, edited by
Stokes (1880); Passions and Homilies from Ihe Lcabhar
Breac, with vocabulary, by Atkinson (1887); and Keat-
mg-s Three Shafts of'Liath.hy Atkinson (1890). The
Celtic Society published among others the Book of Riijhts,
edited by O'Oonovan ( 184.")), and the Battle of Moiilena,
edited by O'Curry (1855 1. The Irish Archaiological
Society, which had previously issued several valuable
works, as e.g. the Irish Version of Nennius, edited by
Dr Todd (1848), amalgamated with the Celtic in 1854,
and the combined societies have published among other
important books the Liber Hymnorum (2 vols. Todd,
1855-09 ) ; the Life of Columba, by Adamnan, edited by Dr
K«eves (1856); Irish Glosses (Stokes, 1860); the Topo-
araphicat Poems of O'Dubhayain and O'Huidhrin
( O'Donovan, 1862 ) ; 'The Martyroloyii of Donegal ( O'Don-
ovan ) ; Cormac's Glossary ( O'Donovan and Stokes, 1868 ).
The clarendon Press has issued Saltair na Rann, edited
by Stokes (1883) ; the Battle of Ventry, by Kuno Meyer
(1885); and Lires of Saints from the Book of Lismore,
by Stokes (1890).
Irish Church. The Irish Church was a branch
of the Celtic Church, which comprehendetl the
churches of Galatia in Asia Elinor, of Gaul, and of
the original Celtic inhabitants of Great Britain and
Ireland. The Celtic Church of Gaul necessarily
exercised a great influence over the neighliouring
islands. Christianity was introduced from the 2d
century at least into Biitain, where the Celtic
Church was so firmly established that it furnished
martyrs in the Diocletian ]iersecution, and bishops
to the councils of the 4th cenlujy. When the
Romans left Britain and the Ceks retired into
Wales, the Celtic Church retired with them, lea\ ing
Britain a prey to Saxon paganism. In Scotland
Christianity was introduced in 397 by St Ninian
(q.v.), a Scottish Celt, but a disciple of St Martin.
.St Patrick is called the apostle of lieland,
and his lirst missionary arrival is (ixed at 4.32;
but there were in all jirobability .scattereil colonies
of Christians along the eiustern coast of Ireland
by the year 400. We have proof positive of
the existence of Christianity in lrelan<l in the
Chronicle of Pro.s])er of Aipiitaine, a contempo-
rary of St Patrick. Prosper, under the date of
431, writes thus: ' Palladius was consecrated by
I'opi^ ('(riestine and sent to the Scots bclii'ving
in Christ as their lirst bishop,' where the reader
must observe that the name Scots or Scoti was till
the 11th century exclusively a]>plied to the inhabit-
ants of Ireland. Palladius had not, however, much
success in Irelaml : he failed to convince the Irish,
was driven northwards, and died iti North Britain.
Thus ended the lirst formal attempt to convert the
210
IRELAND
Irish, ail effort made too under the direct sanction
and autlinvity of tlie jiapiil see. The very next
year (43'2) St Patriclc is said to liave arrived
on a similar mission ; but he was better (jualilied
for his work, and he made his iuliuence felt
in every part of Ireland, (laul in the early
part of "the 5tli century was the great European
centre for eastern monasticism. At the very time
that St Patrick landed in Ireland from IJaul
there was a most active and continuous intercourse
kept up between (!aul and St Jerome at Beth-
lehem, Nilria, and the monasteries of the Tliebaid
in Egypt. It is to be expected, then, that the
C'hiistianity introduced l>y St Patrick would e.\hibit
traces of its eastern and esjfecially of its Egyptian
origin. The architecture and ecclesiastical arrange-
ments of the early Irish Church have therefore
many features in common with the East. The
monks of Nitria and of the East were generally
solitaries dwelling each in his own cell, even when
living in a community and under an abbot. The
Irish monks were solitaries too, and down to the
present day their lieehive huts, constructed so as
to secure the least possible comfort for the inhabit-
ants, remain all along the western coast of Ireland.
The churches in Ireland are often grouped in se\ens
an<l placed within a cashel or stone fortification.
So they are in Egypt (Butler, Coptic Churches, i.
14). The Irish monks, like the Egyptian, loved
solitude and the desert, as the name Desert, Disert,
or Dysert, which forms a principal factor in many
Irish names, proves. The round towers, too,
though not so old as St Patrick's tin\e, came to
Ireland from the East through tiaul and Kavenna.
The interval between the arrival of St Patrick
aiul the invasion uf Ireland by Strongbow and the
Anglo-Normans (llfi9-7'2) is a celebrated one in
tlie liistory of the Irish Church. The (ith and 7th
centuries are its best-known epoch, for it was then
that St Columba and St Culumbanus lived and
worked. The Irish Church at that time was the
great missionary church of Europe. St Columba
was its first great missionary. He was the apostle
of the Scottish Highlands, and he summoned to his
aid when dealing with the Picts two celebrated
Irish saints — Canice the iiatron of Kilkenny, known
in Scnthind as Kenneth, and Comgall, the founder
and lirst abbot of Bangor in the County Down. St
Columbanus ((j.v.) preached and taught in tiaul
and Burgundy, in Switzerland, and in northern
Italy. Other missions were tho.se of Aidan, Colman,
Einan, Ced<l, and many others in northern and
central England ; of Virgilius, .Marianus Scotus,
Cataldus, Eiacra, Eridolin, and several others in
various parts of tlie Continent, down to the I'itli
centjiry. All these men were not only great
mi.ssi(maries, but also, viewed by the standard of
that day, great .scholars. Virgil, the geometer and
first bishop of Salzlmrg, was the first of moderns
who taught the doctrine of the earth's sphericity
and of the existence of the Antipodes. Colum-
banus upheld lh(^ olil eastern cycle against (iaiil
and Uome combined. Se<lulius and .lolin Scotus
Erigena knew (ireek when a knowledge of it had
died out elsewhere in the West.
This ancient church was monastic and yet
episcopal. It was episcopal but not diocesan :
its highest order were bishops but not orelatcs.
The j>rclatcs or rulers were the heads of tlic moii-
iust('ries, who might be bishops but were most often
mere i>resbyters and abbots. St Patrick and the
early missionaries from (iaul found Ireland intensely
tribal. Every inodc-rn barony, of which there are
.-^oiiie hundreds in Ireland, represents an ancient
se]>t or independent jurisdiction. Every ancient
dioci'se, some thirty or so in number, represents an
ancient kingiloiii, or at least an ancient tribe. The
earliest missionaries attached themselves to tribes.
who looked to the monasteries and specially to the
first founders of the monasteries, regarding them as
the apostles of Ireland, lint these missionaries
had received Christianity in an episcopal sli.ape,
and so they retained it. The abbot exercised
jurisdiction over all ijersons and ranks within his
community. But the bishop or liishops who might
be resident in the monastery or within its reach
exercised episcopal functions, ordaining even the
abliots themselves, and celebiating the eucliarist in
their ])resence. In the coulroversy as to the rela-
tion towards Rome of the early Irish Church some
have insisted that St Patrick \vji,s simidy a jiapal
emissary. Others have insisted upon his complete
independence. There cannot be much doubt, how-
ever, that Uome and Ireland were for long divided
upon important questions. The controversies of
the 7th century with respect to the mode of bap-
tism, the keeping of Easter, and the method of
the tonsure prove that, while the Irish Church of
that date looked up with the greatest respect to
the city where the blessed ajiostles IV^teraud Paul
had sutiered, yet she claimed imlependence in all
nijitters of doctrine ami ritual. The Celtic Church,
whether in England, Ireland, or Scotland, made a
stubborn resistance to Konian claims. In England
and Scotland the resistance colla]).sed at an earlier
period. But in Ireland the ancient national opposi-
tion to pajial claims did not cease till the Synod of
Kells in llo'2, and of Cashel in 117'2.
As to the ritual of the Celtic Church we have
not much information. No ancient service-books
luue survived in Ireland, though a large number
of manuscripts belonging to the Celtic iieriod exist
in the Dublin libraries ; they are almost all, how-
ever, transcripts of the Co.spels, as the Book of
Kells, or of the New Testament, as in the Book of
.Vrm.'igh. The Antii'lionariiiitt Jli'ttf/ii/rcusc and
the Book of Hymns which JJr To<ld iiublished in
the Irish Archa'ological series do not contain the
liturgy properly so called — i.e. the service for the
Holy Communion. It is most likely, however,
that the missal of the Celtic Church was in the
main i<leiitii'al with that of the other churches of
the West, though there were s|iecial local usages
most abhorrent to the ideas of the Koman party,
till in 117'2 the t'ouncil of Cashel finally established
tluduglioiit Ireland conforndty with the Church of
Engl.and. There are two other points connected
with the Church of Ireland which have often raised
discussions — viz. the round towers and the Culdee
system. But Dr I'etrie has proved th.-it the round
towers are of ( 'hristian origin, that they were always
connected with monastic establishments, and used
jiartly as belfries and partly as places of refuge and
defence during the wars of the Danes ; while Bishop
Reeves has shown that the Culdees (q.v. ) were
spread all over the Celtic Church, and were only
tlie ancient Celtic monks in a state of corruption.
The lionian system was striving for suiieriority
in Ireland from the 7th till the I2th century.
.\lalachy, .\iclibishop of Armagh (1184), .saw that
the ancient Celtic system was hopelessly corrupt.
He visiteil St Bernard of Clairvaux, an<l could
not but be struck by the contrast which his own
church ]ireseiited, devoid of architecture, order, or
discipline, the prey of every rude .and hostile chief-
t.iiii. when comp.ared with the Roman system in
Caul, where every r.iiik was duly graduated, e\cry
order exercised its due functions, and the laity
were humbly submissive to ecclesiastical decrees.
St Bernard also about 1140 sent the Cistercians
to Ireland, ami they became the chief agents in
reducing the Irish Chnreli beneath the yoke of
canonical obiMlience. The Cistercians brought
notions of m.ileiial civilisation, csjiecially as
regards agriculture and architecture, almost
hitherto unknown : for, though the Celtic Church
IRELAND
211
liail cultivateJ literature and scholarship, the
really ancient Celtic churches and monasteries
were all of the humblest description so far as their
iirchitocture was concerned. Here and there
indeed in Ireland, when the Cistercians came, a
few specimens of architecture of a highly orna-
mental type called Hiberno-Komanesque were
scattered :' hut it was the Cistercians who made
splendid churches and monasteries fashionable in
Ireland. The Cistercian monasteries rapiilly spread
as Anglo-Xorman power advanced all over the
island. Ireland within one hundred years after
the invasion wiis more thoroughly conquered than
she was three centuries later. The year 1250 saw
the king's writ far better respected in Kerry or in
Donegal than it was in the reijjn of Elizabeth, and
wherever the Anglo-Norman barons settled they
brought the Cistercians with them. De Burgh
built St Thomas's Abbey in Dublin in honour of
Thomas-a-Cecket ; De Lacy, Bective Abbey, over-
hanging the Boyne near Xavan ; Strongbow, the
.\Iai-shals, and their friemls erected Jerpoiut and
Dunbrody in the south ; the De Courcys Newry
and other aljbeys in the north. The Cistercians
assisted in otlier directions as well. The Synod of
Cashel met in 1172 under the presidency of Christian,
Bishop of Lisniore, the pai>al legate of that day, and
passed eight canons, enforced the payment of tithes,
regulated the work of catechising and of baptism,
established the Konian table of affinity in matri-
monial matters, and decreed uniformity of worship
througliout England and Ireland. From the date
of this synod the canon law, as it was received in
England, became law in Ireland. The last Celtic
Archbishop of Dublin, Laurence O'Toole, died in
IISO. The ne.\t archbishop, John Comyn, was an
English courtier, nominated by Henry II., and
from Laurence O'Toole till the Kelormatiou no
Irishman was ever Archbishop of Dublin.
The Anglo-Xormans whenever they had power
strove completely to exclude the Celts from
ecclesiastical benetices, and whenever the Celts
had power they strove to exclude the Anglo-
Xormans. In fact, from 1172 till 1540, there were
two churches in Ireland, one Anglo-Xorman, the
other Celtic, bound together by the one tie, the
papal supremacy. This hostility between Celt
and Anglo-Xorman appears again and again. Prior
to 1220 the Anglo-Xormans prohibited the admis-
sion of Irish clerks into monasteries or benetices
under English dondnion. The pope rebuked this
exclusive spirit in bulls issued in 1220 and 1224.
Later in the .same century the prelates of the Celtic
portion of the church retorted with a decree pro-
Inbiting the adndssion of English clerics into
jiarishes or monasteries under their jurisdiction.
This spirit of division was embodied in tlie
Statute of Kilkenny (1365), whicli peremptorily
forbade the admissicm of Irish clerks into any
benelice where English nile prevailed : and it con-
tinued to be the practical rule followcil in all higher
promotions till long after the Keformalion. Dublin
and KilUenny were the great seats of Anglo-Xormati
power from 1172 to i.>10. Both these districts are
lull of monuments of English church-building, f(d-
lowing exactly the model of coeval English architec-
ture ; while one must iienetrate far into the moun-
tains of Wicklow, or else depart westward into the
great central region of bog and nior/uss, l>efore a
glim|ise can be had of true Celtic architecture.
While, however, there wa.s this internal nati(mal
division in the Iri.sli Church during this jieriod,
the doctrine, the ritual, and go.i'riinicnt of the
church were uniform. The |iapal supremacy was
uidversally accepted ; the royal supremacy was
et|ually respected. Throughout every part of
Ireland, no matter how Celtic, whenever a hislio]iric
fell vacant, licen.se to elect wa.s lirst humbly sought
from the crown of England. And this was no
empty ceremony, for whenever the see was of
suthcient value the crown also took good care to
signify its plea>ure as to who should occujiy it.
The tour archiepiscopal sees, Armagh, Dublin,
Cashel, and ruani, were almost always Idled by
Anglo-Xormans. The Irish Church thus ceased to
be a missionary and a learned and became a merely
p(ditical church.
The national hatred which prevailed Vjetween
the Anglo-Xorman and Celtic portions of the Irish
Church between 1172 and 1540 explains the history
of the Keformation period. The English portion
of the population naturally followed the changes
in England, and the Celts as naturally held all the
more lirmly to the papal supremacy and the old
state of things which had now become .synony-
mous with hostility to England. Komanism and
nationalism became now and henceforth close allies
in Ireland, though previously the pope had been
almost always found hostile to the Celts. During
the years between 1528 and 1600 tlie course of
change in England was simply reflected in
Ireland. Archbishop Alan, an English ecclesiastic
who occui)ied the see of Dublin in 1528, was
a friend of AVolsey ; and he followed closely his
patron's footsteps. About 1528-36 forty of the
smaller Irish monasteries were dissolved by him.
In Io30-3S the remainder were suppressed and
their property granted to the king, who dis-
posed of it to various noblemen and courtiers.
In a parliament assembled at Dublin in 1537
the act of the king's supremacy in Ireland was
enacted, while in 1542 Henry Vlll. was declared
king of Ireland, his legal title being previously
Dondnus Hibernia-. The work of reforrjiation now
advanced jjari passu in England and Ireland.
During the reigns of Mary and Elizabeth the
Irish Church, so far as it was under English
intiuence, humbly followed the changes in England :
under Mary the papal supremacy was acknowledged,
and the Latin mass celebrated ; under Elizabeth the
royal supremacy was alone legal, and the English
liturgy was used. In the Celtic districts during
Elizabeth's reign a number of bishops comnus-
sione<l by Rome, aided by se^•eraI Jesuits, main-
tained under great difticulties a vigorous opposition
to the Keformation. The 17th century saw new
elements of religicms confusion introduced. The
immigration of the Scottish Presbyterians and the
settlement of I Ister brought a community into
Ireland who disliked the episcojtal establishment
almost as much as the pope's adherents. They
naturally sympathised with tlie Puritan opposition
in England, which culminated in the supremacy of
Croniwell. During his vigorous rule, which secured
lor Ireland a greater amount of ]ieace tliaii she had
long known, the episcopal establishment was sub-
verted, and an establishment of a congregational
type erected in its steail. On the Bestoration the
e|iiscopal establishment was restored in greater
splendour than e\ er.
The Roman Catholics now began to consolidate
their organisation, establishing a regular successicm
of resident bishops and clergy throughout the whole
c(mntry. After the Revolution of I(i88-9I a series
of stern enactments commenceil, which grew more
and more severe till i\n: reign of (ieorge 11. These
]>enal laws were ilirected against the Roman Catho-
lics, partly as adherents of the Pretender ami partly
in revenge for the i)ersocution of the Hugui'iiots
(q.v.), many of whom took refuge in Ircl.ind.
They began to be ri-laxeil during the earlier half
of the reign of (Icorge 111. In fait all through
his reign the Roman Catholic Church exercised
ojienly all its functions and maintained a regular
episcopal succession. In 182'J the act of Calhcdic
Emancipation (<|.v.) was pa.s.sed, which swept away
212
IRELAND
IRIDE-a:
all (Usabilities aftecting the secular clergy of the
Church of Koine, though still retaining certain
restrictions upon the regular onlei's. By the act of
Disestahlishnient, passed 2Gth July 1SG9, the state
has separated itself as far as possible from interfer-
ence in tlie afl'airs of any branch of Irish Christianity.
The former Established Church is now governed by
a general synod, which meets annually in spring,
composed of the bishops and reiiresentatives of the
clergv and laity ; while the Koman Catliolic Church
is ruled, as formeily, by the liishops acting under
the direction of the pope. Irish Presbyterianisni,
dating from IGl.S, prevails especially in the eastein
parts of Ulster. The Presbyterians of lister were
till 1869 endowed with a Ecgitim Duniini (ii.v.).
The organisation of the Presbyterian Church dates
from lOth June 1642, when "the first presbytery
was established in Carrickfergus.
See, among older authorities, Ussher's Works ; Sir
James Ware's Works (ed. Harris); Colgan's Acta Sanc-
torum Hih. : Annuls of Four Masters, and works in Rolls
series, as Chronicon Scotorum and Annals of Lom/h Cc.
In tlie 19th century, Todd in his Life of St Putrid; and
K. King in his Histori/ of the Irish Church, maintain the
Protestant view; Cardinal Moran, in Essays on the Earhi
Irish Church, the opposite view; Lanigan, in his Ecclesi-
astical Histort/ of Ireland, an intermediate position. Dr
Reeves in his Adamnini's Life of Columba and other
works lias thrown floods of hght on the subject. Other
authorities are E. Hogan, S.J., Documenta de S. Patricio ;
Whitley Stokes, The Triijarlite Life of St Patrick:
Wan-en, Celtic Litmyy ; Skene, Celtic Scotland. G.
T. Stokes in Ireland and the Celtic Church (1886), and
Ireland and the Anrjlo-Jforinan Church (1889), main-
tains the independence of the Irish Church; Canon
Bellesheim in his works on the history of tlie Catholic
Cliurch m .Scotland (1888) and in Ireland (1890) defends
the opposite view. See also Bishop Healy of Clonfert,
Schools and Colleyes of Ancient Ireland (1890); Wasser-
schleben, iJi'e Irische Kanoiiensammlung (1SH5) ; Olden,
The Holy Scriptures in Ireland One Thousand Years Aijo
( 1888 ) ; T. K. Abbott, Versio Ante-Hieronymiana : Gilbert,
Facsimiles of the National MSS. of Ireland. Fur the more
recent history : Mant, History of the Church of I. ; J. T.
Ball, History of the Reformed Church in I.: Hogan, Hih.
lyiuitiana ; Reid, History of the Presbyterian Church in
I.; Cotton, Fasti Eccl. Hibern. ; D' Alton, ArchbLshops of
Dublin; Irwin, Irish Presbyterianisni (Lond. 1890).
Ireland, Samiel William Henry, the
author of the notorious Shakespeare forgeries, was
born in London in 1777, the son of Samuel Ireland,
a dull and credulous, but honest ilealer in old books
and luints, and author of ii few books of travel
illustrated by himself. After some years' schooling
in France, the boy was ap]irentieed at seventeen to
a London conveyancer, and ere long was tempted
by his father's unintelligent enthusiasm for Shake-
speare to forge an autograph of the poet on a care-
fully-copied old lease. His audacity grew with the
growing credulity of his dujies, and ere long locks
of hair, private lettei-s, annotated books, <.K:c. were
plentifully |)roduced, and all inquireis into the how
and the where fubbed oil' with lying explanations.
Boswell, \\'harton, Dr I'.irr, and hiiiicueils iiKire
came, saw, and believed ; but those, like Malone,
really ijualilied to judge denounced the imiiosture
almost from the first. Ireland's .audacity now
reached the folly of producing a deed of Shake-
speare's be(|ueatliing his books and papers to a
Williamllenrye Indaunde, an a.ssumed ancestor.
Ne.xt a new historical jday entitled Vortiijcrn was
announceil, and carefully concealed until its pro-
duction by Sheridan at Drury Lane. It wius vapiil,
worthless, ami un-Shakespearian, and wiist hope-
lessly damned at once, and this fate nijiped in the
bud the growth of a projected .series of historical
iilays, of which indeed tliat on Henry II. had alreaily
been written. The uneasiness of the impudent young
scoundrel's father at leiiL'th getting the better of
his credulity, he deniaiuled from his son a satis-
factory e.\)ilanation of the source of the papers, and
the young man was forced to confess liis villany.
He published his confession in a tract in 1796, and
nioic fully in his Confessions in 1805. The father's
death in 1800 was supjioseil to have bei^ii hastened
by his shame, and the son soon sank into obscure
poverty. eUing out a miserable living as a book-
seller's hack, till his death on 17th April 1835.
IrelaiKl Island, one of the Bermudas (q.v.).
Irensms, one of the most important of the
ante-Nicene Christian writers, was probably born
near Smyrna, in Asia Minor, between 1'20 and 14t),
and in his early youth was aci|uainted with Poly-
carji ; but he is known in history solely through
his connection with the Cruco-Ciaulish Church of
southern France, of which he was a bishop. He
was a priest of the cluirch of Lyons, under the
Bishop Pothinus, u]ion whose martyrdom, in (he
pei-secution of Marcus Aurelius, in 177, he was him-
self elected to the same see, which he continueil to
govern for twenty-live years. Gregory of Tours
states that he sutfered martyrdom in the persecu-
tion under Severus in 202 ; but this is luoliably a
mistake. His day is the 28th of June. Irenieus
was a devoted and successful missionary bisho]i,
but his name is associated chiefly with his activity
in opposing the Gnostics, and especially the \'alen-
tinians, and with his atteni])ts to prevent a ruiitnre
between the Eastern and AVestern Churches over
the question of the day on which Easter was to be
kept. The only work of his which ha.s come down
to us, except a few fragments, is his tieatise
Ar/ainst Heresies: and even that, except parts of
the first book which are jneserved in i|Uotations in
Hippolytus .and E]iiplianiiis, we have only in a
barbarous Latin version. It is in five books, the
first two describing and criticising the tenets of
various sects, (Jnostic and Ebionite, the last three
setting forth the orthodox Christian belief. The
first edition of this work was pnlilished by Erasmus
(1526). from three MSS. which have since been
lost. The best editions are those of Stieren ( Leip.
2 vols. 1851-53) and Harvey (Camb. 1857). There
is a translation, including the fragments, in Clark's
Ante-Nicene Libntri/. An able examination of
Ireua'ns' opinions will be found in Dr AVeriier's
Der PaidinisDiiis ties Irencrus ( 1,890).
Ireno, a poor orphan girl of Athens ( born about
752), wlio.se lieauty .and talents excited the ailmira-
tion of the Emperor Leo IV., who niariicd her in
769. After the death of Leo in 7.S0 she ruled .as
regent during the minority of her son, Constantine
VI. Banished to Lesbos in 802, she died there the
next year. The Greek Church, on account of her
zeal for image-worship, counts her among its saints.
See Byz.vntine Empire.
IretOU, Hexhv, an English general of the
period of the Commonwealth, was the eldest
son iif (ieinian lietnn, <il Attenborongli, Notting-
ham, ami was born in Hill. He studied at
Oxford and at the .Middh' Temiile, London, and
oy the breaking out of the Civil \Var offered his
services to the iiailiament. His connection with
Cromwell, whose daughter Bridget he married in
1()46, greatly advanced his interests. At Naseby
he was taken prisoner by liiipert, but Cromwell's
charge set liini at liberty. Iicton wius one of the most
iniplacable enemies of the king, and signed the
warrant for his execution. He accompanied Crom-
well to Ireland, and in 16.50 became lord-deputy.
On 20tli November 1651 lie died of the jil.ague
before the walls of Limerick. Fioni Westminster
.\bhey his remains were transferred at the Hestora-
tion to Tyburn.
Iridoa', or iKin.ME.K, a natnr.al order of endo-
genous plants, mostly herbaceous, with bulbous,
tuberous, or creeping root-stocks ; a few are some-
IRIDESCENCE
IRKUTSK
213
what sliiubliy. Tlie leaves are generally sword-
slia|H'<l, in two rows, ami coiiifntit (so jilaceil that
one seems to ride on the back of another). The
perianth is ti partite, cidoured. often very lieautifnl,
in some regular, in otiiei's irregular. The stamens
are three, with anthei-s turned outwards. The
ovary is inferior ; there is one style, w ilh three
stigmas, which are often petal-like, and add mncli
to the beauty of the flower. The fruit is a 3-
celled, 3-valved capsule. About 700 species are
known, of which the greater number are natives of
warm countries. They are jiarticularly abundant
in South .Vfrica. A few are British. Iris, Gladio-
lus, and Crocus are familiar e.xauiples of the onler.
Acridity is a prevailing characteristic, and some
species are medicinal ; but the corms and root-
stocks of some are edible.
Iridescence, the sheen of mother-of-pearl and
other objects pos.sessing a finely-grooved surface.
It is due to Interference (q.v.) lietween the waves
of white light reflected from <liHerent levels in the
grooving : some of the wave-lengths are more com-
pletely abolished liy interference than others are ;
the result is that the residual vibration which
reaches the eye contains a preponderant proi)ortion
of the rays which have been less adected by inter-
ference, anil the reflected light accordingly presents
colours which \ary according to the angle of reflec-
tion.
Iridium (sym. Ir, atomic weight 192o — sp. gr.
•22'38) is one of the so-called noble metals. It is
occa-sionally found native and nearly pure in con-
siderable ma.sses among the Uralian ores of plat-
inum, but is usually combined with osmium as an
alloy in flat scales. It is a very bard, white, brittle
metal, which may be melted liy the oxyhydrogen
blowpipe, or l>y the heat of a voltaic current. It is
malleable at a w bite heat. In its isolated form it
is unacted upon by any acid, or l>y aipia regia, but
as an alloy it dissolves in the latter fluid. It forms
two oxiiles, Ir.^O^ and IrO.^, and three series of salts
distinguishable by their colours, usually much
less soluble than the corresponding platinum com-
pounds. Three sulphides and chlorides are obtain-
able. Iiidium may be fused with phosphorus, be-
coming as hard as before, and is used for pen points,
contact points in telegrajihy, an<l wearing parts of
scientific instruments. Iridium was discovered by
Descotils and by Tennant in 180.S.
Iri.S (originally a personification of the rainbow),
the me.ssenger of the gods in the lUiul, an ottice
which belongs to Hermes in the Odi/sscij, was
daughter of Thaumas and Electra, anil sister of the
Harpies. In the earlier poets she is a virgin god-
iless, but later writers make her wife of Ze|)liyrus,
and mother of Eros. She is frequently represented
on vii>es and in bas-reliefs as a youthful winged
virgin, dressed in a long tunic, with a herald's stall
and a pitcher in her hands. —The broad coloured
ring in the eye is called the Iris (see Kyk). Iris is
also the name of one of the Planetoids (q.v. ), dis-
eovere<l in 1S47.
Iris '"■ E'-oWKU-DE-LlCE, a numerous genus of
plants of the natural order Iridea', having the three
outer segments of the perianlb relle.x(Kl, the three
inner arched inwards, and three petal-like stigmas
covering the stamens. Tin; species are widely
spread over the northern heniisiiliere. The Yellow
Iris or Corn Flag ( /. //.•niii/iirorus) is abundant
tiiroiighout lintain, and is readily distinguished
from the Stinking Iris {I. firlii/in.sini/t ) by its larger
and bright yellow flowers. The latter has violet-
blue or rarely pale yellowish-white flowers, and
tin; leaves smell disagreeably when bruised. The
flowers of most of the species are beautiful. Some
of them have received much attention from florists,
particularly /. xijihiiim, sometimes called Spanish
Iris; /. xlpliiuuks or English Iris; .and /. gcr-
maiiica or Common Iris, all European species.
Yellow Iris (Iris pscuUaconts) :
<t, seeds.
Many fine varieties have been produced. The
Persian Iria {I. jicrsica), the Snake's head Iris (/.
tubcros(i), and the Chalcedonian Iris (/. sK.fidiid)
are also much esteemed. The Persian Iris is
delightfully fragrant. The roots of all these
species are annually exported in consideral>le
quantities from Holland. .Many other species are
of frequent occurrence in flower-gardens. — The
fresh root-stocks of /. psciidacorus are very acrid,
as are those of many other species. Those of /.
florciitina, I. prillida, and /. ncnnaiiiai are Orris
Koot (q.v.). Those of /. diehotoinit are eaten in
Siberia; those of /. cdidia at the Cape of Cood
Hope.
Irish Elli. See Elk.
Irisll .IIOSS. See C.\RR.\GEEN.
Irish Sea, a body of water lying between the
north of Ireland and the north of England, with
the south-western counties of Scotland on the
north. It is connected with the Atlantic on the
north-west by the North Channel and on the south
by St George's Channel. ISetween the coasts of
Louth (Ireland) and Lancaster the Irish Sea has a
width of 150 miles; its greatest length north and
south is about the same. \Vitbin its boundaries
lie the Isle of Man and .\nglesey, with Holyhead
Island.
Iritis is the term apjilied to inflammation of
the iris. See EvE.
Irkutsk, a government of eastern Silicria,
separated from China on the S. l>y the Sayan
Mountains, from Transli.iikalia on the K. by Lake
Baikal, and lioundeil W. by Yenisei-<k, and N. ami
NE. by Yakutsk, occupies an area of 'iS7,0(il si|. m.
The country is generally mountainous, but pro-
iluces rye, barley, oats, ami vegetables. The most
important river is the .Vngara or Ipper Tungu/ka
(1000 miles), which connects Lake Baikal with
the river Yenisei. The Lena and its tributary the
Vitim are the rivers that come next in size. Cold,
iron, and salt figure foremost aniimgst the mincial
proilucts. .Agriculture, cattle- breeding, ami the
transport of goods lo an<l from China are the
chief occupations of the i)e()ple. The pop., oOl.-J.'t?
in 1X!I7, consists of Burials. Tungus, ami Uussians
(one-third exiles ami forced colcmists). The
industries are not much developed, consisting
214
IRMIN
IRON
cliielly of Tjiandytlistilleries, with ironfoiiiuiiies
and factories for salt, cloth, and pottery. Tlie
towns .are Irkutsk. Kirensk on the Lena, Xijni-
udinsk, and \"erkholensk.
Iiaci TSK, the capital, on the Ang.ara, is the resi-
dence of the f^overnor-general of e.ostern Siberia
and tlie seat of a bishop. Althou<;h .3722 miles
from St Petersburg (and 40 from Lake liaik.il),
Lkutsk is the best-built town in Siberia, with
strai;^ht. wi<le streets, and handsome ]iulilic build-
ings. It possesses a cathedral, stneral chui'ohes,
a public liiirary, a museum of natural history, .and
other public institutions. The pop., 32,.^12 in 187i),
liad increa.sed to 43,962 in 1886: it consists mostly
of Russians and liuriats. Irkutsk was founded
by a Coss.ack chief, Ivan Pocliabof, in 1052, and
obtained town-rights in 1686. Owing to its po.si-
tion on the great Siberian highway between China (
.and Russia, it is the commercial centre of Siberia,
especially for the tea-trade : the annual value of its
tr.ade ainounts to about £1,100,000. The Angara
constitutes the main highw.ay for goods bound for
Kiachta across Lake liaikal, as well as for those
coming from eastern Siberia .and China for Russi.a.
The communications between Irkutsk .and Yakutsk
and the northern parts of Siberia are carried on
by the river Lena. Irkutsk is an important station
on the great tr.an.scontinental Sibcri.an r.ailw.av. A
lire in 1879 did damage to tlie extent of £2,000,000.
Ii'iiiiii and Irmin Pillars. Irmin was a god
of the ancient (ierniiinic tribes, the Hermiones and
the Hermnndu.ses. To him were dedicatoil the so-
called Irmin or Irmen Pill.ars. one of which origin-
ally stood at Marsberg in 'Westph.alia, luit was
destroyed by C^harlemagne in 772. These pillars
■were mostly made of wood, and probably were
crowned with .an image of the god. They were
lield in great veneration by the people. ' Irmin's
ch.ariot ' was a name given to the constellation of
the (Jreat Bear.
IriierillS, the ' Lucerna Juris,' a learne<l jurist
of the 12th century, who was born in liologna, ilour-
ished (here as ,a teacher of the liberal arts, and
died under the Emperor Lotliair II. before 1140.
One of the earli<'st to devote serious stud}' to the
JnstHiitc.-i and Coile of .Justinian, he has been (.s(mie
think without re.ason ) regarded .as the founder of
the Rolognese school of law. We possess by him
some unpriiited C!los.ses, .and the so-called Aiit/icii-
lica, an ejiitome of the Norcll.i of .lustinian. His
Formtilan'iiiii TcihrUidtnim, a. directory for notaries,
and his i^hnvstionr.': .are not now extant. Ilis n.anie
also occurs in the forms Ou.arnerius, Warnerius,
&c. See the monograph by Vecchio (Pisa, 1869),
and the 3d vol. of ticker's Furschiiiig. znr llcichs-
V. Rcrjdsfjrsch. Itiilictis {Innshi: 1870).
Iron, syin. Fe {fcrnon), atomic weight 56,
sp. gr. 78 to 7'9; its density being increased by
hammering, rolling, iVc. I'liic iron is a chemical
curiosity obtainable in the laboratory by reducing
])ure oxide by charcoal or hydrogen at a very high
temi)rrature. A button of the metal thus obtained
is white .and of perfect lustre, very tough, an<l
much softer th.an ordinary iron. Its melting-jioint
is higher, so much so th.at if we attenijit to fuse it
when exposed to the air it burns before its melling-
]ioint is .attained.
Orditiary commerci.al iron is protected from snch
combustion by the impurities it contains; these
being more readily oxidised than tlie iron itself,
while they lower its ftising-point. Carbon, silicon.
Kul]ihnr, and phosphorus are the most mit.alile of
these imjiurities, but manganese, titanium, calcium,
cojiper, arsenic, ami other metals also occur in
minute ijuantities in some .samples. The propor-
tiims of all the.se are largest in crude or • pig' iron,
and in ordinary cast-iron. They are reduced to a ^
minimum in wrought or malleable iron. The colour
of this is gray or liluishwhite ; it is hard and his-
tnuis, takes a high jiolish, is librcms in texture, and
when broken .across exhiliits a ragged fracture.
It requires ,a very intense he.at for its fusion, but
before melting passes into .a soft, pa.sty condition,
in which state two or more pieces of iron may, by
being hammered together, be united or welded so
completely as to form, to all intents .and purpo.ses,
a single ])iece. At a red heat it may be readily
forged into any shape ; but .at onlinary tempera-
tures it possesses very little malleability, as com-
pared with gold and silver. In ductility it stands
very high, being b.arely exceeded by gold, silver,
and pl.atinum : and its tenacity is very gre.at ; when
combined with a little carbon it stands at the head
of all the metals (.see Stekl). Us susceptibility
to magnetism is one of its remark.able character-
istics (see M.\gxetism). At a high temperature
it burns readily, as may be seen at the forge,
or ( more strikingly ) when a glowing wire is intro-
duced into a jar of oxygen. In dry air and at
onlinary temperatures the lustrous surface of the
metal remains unchanged ; but in a moist atmo-
sphere the surf.ace r.ajiidly becomes oxidised and
covered with rust, which consists nniinly of the
hydrated peroxide of iron. At a bright red heat
iron combines with the oxygen of steam and
liberates hydrogen.
Kdtive iron is <a r.are mineral, found in small
grains in some basaltic rocks, ami \my rarely as
thill veins. It occurs as one of tlie chief constit-
uents of one class of meteoric stones. Its com-
pounds are very widely distributed, more so than
any other of the heavy metals. Nearly all of the
sedimentary rocks are tinted by its oxides, and we
cannot (iml a handful of .soil on any part of the
surface of the earth that is free from them.
(«) Oxides of Iron. — Iron forms four definite coin-
pounds with oxygen — viz. (1) the protoxide or
ferrous oxide, FeO, which is the base of the green
or ferrous salts of iron ; (2) the scs'jnioxit/e or
pe,roxidc or ferric oxide, Fe^f),, which is the base
of the red m ferric salts ; (3) tlie Itlarl: or mtiffiictic
oxide, Fe.Oj, which is regarded .as a comiiouiid of
the two preceding oxides; .and (4) a question.able
compound, ferric arid, FcO^. The protoxide can-
not be iiblaiiied in an isolated state, but it fiu'ins
the b.ase of \arious ferrous salts, and combines with
w.ater to form a hydrate, FeO, HO, which, on the
addition of an alkali, falls in white Hakes pro-
vided the water in which they .are suspended con-
tains no free oxygen ; otherwise the precipitate is
gray.
The most important piotosalts of iron, or ferrous
.s.alts, are the carbonate, the sulph.ate, the phos-
])liate, and the .silicate. Carbonate of iron or
ferrous carbonate, FeO.CO.j, exists naturally in
vaihuis minerals, and may be obtained arlilicially
by ])recipitatiiig a soluble protosalt of iron with
carbonate of ]iotash or soda, when the carbonate
falls in white Hakes. On ex|iosure to the air it
absorbs oxygen and gives oil' carbonic acid, .and
is thus converted into the hydrated peroxide.
Sidphatc of iron or ferrous .in//t/iate, FeO, SO.,,
7H2O (or l''eSOj,7H.X)), is obtained by the solii-
ti<m of iron, «r its sulphide, in dilute sulphuric
.acid ; in the former case there is .an evolution of
hydrogen, and in the latter of sulphuretted hydro-
gen. On evaporation of the solution the salt is
obtained in clear, bluish-green rhomboid.al crystals
containini,' seven atoms of water. This salt is
commercially known as copperas or green vitriol.
I'/ios/diate of iron is obtained by |)recipitating a
solution of a )>rotos;ilt of iron with )ihospliate of
soda, when a white liiecipitate of )ihosphale of iron
Ls thrown down. All tlie.so salts, especially the
earbonaie and sulphate, are exten.sively used in
IRON
215
nipiHi-iiie. .'^i/icate mid pliospliate of iron occur
naturally in many minerals.
Tl;e />cro.vir/c uf iron, or sesijnioxiile, Fc...!),,,
is obtained in an anhydrous forui by iynitin^'
the protosulpliate, and is known in the arts
uuiier the names Coleothnr, Crocus of Murs; or
liovgc, accordinj; to the degree of levigation to
which it hius heen submitted. It is eini)loyed
for ]iolishinj; glass, jewellery, \'c. , and is also used
as a pigment. It occurs both in the anhydrous
and in the liydrated form in various miner.als.
The liydrated peroxide, '2Fe^l >.|,3HJ_), is obtaiiie<l
by precijiitating a solution of a peisalt of iron
with an excess of potash, ammonia, or alk.aline
carbonate. It falls as a yellowish-brown flocoulent
precipitate, which when dried forms a dense brown
mass. Kust, as lia.s been alrea<ly mentioned, is a
liydrated peroxide.
The most important of the persalts of iron, ov ferric
s.ilts, are the neutral and the basic sulphate, whose
formula' are FeJJ.i,3S03 and Fe„0,„3S03,5Fe.,03
respectively, the nitrate, Fe.^03,3NU3, the phos-
phate, anil the silicate. Of tliese the neutral
sulphate, the phosphate, and the silicate occur in
various minerals. The nitrate, wliicli is obtained
by the .solution of iron in nitric acid, is a useful
iiiedicin.al agent.
The bluelc or magnetic oxide is formed when iron
is heated in air or in oxygen, oi' in vapour of water.
(b) Ilaluid suits of iron — the chlorides, bromides,
and iodides. There are two chlorides — viz. a proto-
chloride, FeCl, and a perchloride or sesquichloride,
F'eX'l^. The latter may be obtained by dissolv-
ing peroxide of iron in hydrochloric acid. The
tincture of the sesijuichloride of iron is much em-
ployed ill medicine. The jirotiodide is an extremely
valuable therapeutic agent.
(c) There are several sutpfiit/cs or sidphurets of
iron. The luotosulphide, FeS, occurs in small
quantity in meteoric iron. It may be obtained
artificially by heating iron with sul])hur. It is a
blackish, hrittle substance, retaining in some degree
the magnetic properties of metallic iron. It is
insolulile in water, but in moist air becomes
oxidised into protosulpliate of iron. With acids it
develops sulpiiuretted hydrogen. The bisuliihide
of iron, FeSo, is the iron pi/rites of mineralogists,
and the miindic of commerce. Under the latter
name it is used e.xtensively in the preparation of
oil of vitriol. The other sulphides are of less
importance.
The protosnits and the persnits, or i\\e ferrous and
t\ic- ferric srdts, give totally dili'erent reactions with
the ordinary tests. The solutions of the former
have a p.ale-green colour, while tliose of the latter
are generally of a lirownishyellow (uilour. Sul-
]iliuretted Ijydrogen gives no iirei-ijiitate with an
acid solution of .a ferrous salt, while it gives a
milky precipitate of sulphur with a solution of
a ferric salt. Potash, soda, and ammonia throw-
down a gray or green hyilrated oxi<le from the
former, which changes to darker green and brown,
and a brown liydrated peroxide from the latter.
Fcrroi'vaniile of jiotas^ium gives with ferrous salts
a white precipitate, which soon becomes blue,
while with ferric .salts it at once produces a blue
juecipitate, even in a very dilute solution. Tinc-
ture of galls (tannic ,acid ) produces no immediate
change of colour with the ferrous, but a deep
l)lackishbliie colour (ink) with the ferric salts.
Sul]ihocyani<le of potassium produces no change
with the ferrous, but gives a ileeji blood-red tint
with the ferric salts. Succinate and benzoate of
animonia produce no precipitate or change of
colour with the former, while with the latter, if
the solution is not too acid, they throw down jiale
reddishlirown precipitates.
M-VXiFACTlKE ill Ikon. — The increiusing use of
iron is a prominent characteristii' of the )ireseiit
age, and every day sees some new ainilication of it
in the arts of life, Although the most useful of the
metals, it was not the first known. The ililllcully
of reilucing it from its ores would naturally m.ike
it a later acquisition than gold, silver, and cop])er
(.see Uhonzk). The reduction of the ore known as
the black oxide of iron, however, has been carried
on in India from a \('ry early time.
In Euro]ie the rich s]iecular and other ores of
Spain and Kllia were much used during the Uoiuan
period ; in Greece, also, iron was known, though,
as anion": the Romans, its use was subsequent to
that of bronze. We are informed, too, by the
Roman historians that this metal was eniiihiyed by
the ancient liritons for the manufacture of spears
and lances. The Konians, during their occu]iation
of Britain, manufactured iron to a considerable
extent, as is shown by the cinder-heaps in the
Forest of Dean and otlier places. The rude pro-
cesses then in use left so iiiucli iron in the cinders
that those of Dean Forest furnished the chief supply
of ore to twenty furnaces for between 200 and riOO
years. In those early times the iron ores were
reduced in a simple conical furnace, called an air-
bloomery, erected on the top of a hill in order to
obtain the greatest blast of wind. The furmices
were subsequently enlarged, and supidied with an
artificial blast. Charcoal was the only fuel used
in smelting till 1618, when Dud Dudley introduced
coal for this purpose : but, the iron-masters being
unanimously opposed to the change, Dudley's im-
provement <lied with himself. It was not reintro-
duced till Abraham Darby, in 1713, employed it in
liis furnace at t'oalbrookdale. But, as this method
was not properly understood, the production of
English iron declined with the change of fuel, till,
in 17-40, it was only three-fourths of what it had
formerly been. About ten years after this, how-
ever, the introduction of coke gave reneweil vigour
to the iron-tr.ade, and then followed in rapid suc-
cession those great imiirovements in the manufac-
ture which have given to the history of iron the
interest of a romance. The introduction of Watt's
steam-engine in 1770, the process of ]iuddling and
rolling invented Viy Henry Cort in 1784, and the
employment of the liotblast by Neilson of tilas-
gow in 1830 have each been of inestimable service.
The greatest improvement introduced into the iron
manufacture in recent times is the process of Sir
Henry Bessemer for the production of mild steel,
patented in 18.)t5 (see Besse.meu). The ' Siemens-
Martin ' method of making steel has also of late
come into e-xtensive use.
Iron ores are ahunilantly distrilmted over tlie
globe, the chief kinds being ( 1 ) magnetic iron
ore; (2) red liMMiiatite, s]iecular, or red iron ore;
(3) brown li;rmalile or brown iron ore ; (4) carbon-
ate of iron, iiududing spathic ore, clay ironstone,
anil hlackband ironstone.
The ore richest in the metal is the nine/netic
or /)/«(•/,■ oxide of iron. When pure it contains
nothing but oxygen and iron, its chemical for-
mula bidng FejO,. which ^i\cs 73 jier cent, of
iron by weight. It occurs in dark heavy masses
or black crystals, and is found in the oldei- jirimary
rocks. Sweden is famous for this ore, and for the
iron produced from it. which is esteemed the best
in Europe. The celebrated mines of Danncmura.
in that country, have been constantly winked since
the loth century. Russia, too, has gre.-it iron-
works in the I'r.-il Mountains, which are supplied
with this ore. So also have Canada and several
of the American slates, as N'irginia, Pennsylvania,
New .Iei"sey, iSirc. The rock formations in \vhich
magnetic iron ore occurs very rarely contain coal ;
hence it is locally smelteil with wood-charcoal,
which contains no sulphur.
216
IRON
Eal hiriiuitite contains a little more oxygen, its
forniula hein;; I'^jOj, that is to say, 70 jicr tent, of
iron liy weight if pure. Tlie best ores actually
contain from 60 to G7 per cent. Thore are several
varieties of this ore. The lirsi of these, sjieciilar
iron, so called from its lirif;ht metallic lustre,
occurs in large ami beautiful crystalline ma.«ses
in the island of Elba, where it has been worked
for more than '2(R)0 yeai-s, and is likewise found in
many other ))arts of the world. It is of a steel-
gray colour, a-ssuming a red tint in thin fragments
and when scratched. Another variety is hiihiey
ore. Its characteristic form is in large kidney-
shaped no<lules, with a line radiated structure.
Ked ha-matite is the most almmlant variety. It
occurs in niiussive deposits and in thin strata; some
specimens are hard, others pulverulent and so soft
that when rubbed it coats the fingers with an
unctuous smear like plumbago, but of red colour.
Its impmtance has niuch increased of late owing to
its special fitness for making the pig-iron used in
the ordinary Bessemer process. This \aluable iron
ore is found in great abundance at M'hitehaven and
I'lverstone, in the north-west of England, where
splendid masses of it occur, 15, 30, and even GO feet
in thickness. Va.st deposits are found in the north
of Spain near Bilbao, where it is now largely
worked and exported to Great Britain, which in
1890-95 received annually from -.'.oOO.OOO to ,'!,500,000
tons, worth from £2,000,000 to £2,500,000.
Broini /Kcmutifc, or brown iron ore, is a livdrated
]>eroxide of iron, and has the same composition as
red luematite, except that it contains about 14 per
cent, of water. It is generally found massive,
more rarely crystalline, and a variety occurring in
small rounded nodules is called pea iron ore. When
mixed with earth or clay it forms the pigment.s
vellow ochre and brown umber. Brown luematite
IS now an important ore in (Jrcat Britain. It
occurs in dill'erent geological formations, chietly
in Devonshire, the Forest of Dean, South Wales,
and in the county of Antrim in Irelaml ; also in an
earthy form in Northamptonshire. It is the ore
chietly smelted in France and Germany.
Boij iron ore is an imiiure variety of brown
haematite usually containing |)hosphorus. It occurs
in curious pockets in peat.
I/mciiitc is a ilark-gray dense rock composed
largely of i)eroxide of iron with varying quautities
of titanic acid. It is found abundantly in Norway,
and is now in practical use. The black saiul found
on the north-east shores of Canada, and at
Taranaki, New Zealand, is similar, but the oxide
of iron is magnetic.
Garhomiteofiron, when found in a comparatively
pure and crystallised state, is known as sjmthic,
spnthuse, or sparrij iron ore : but ^^•hen im|)ure ami
earthy, as ctu;/ ironstone and hluchhuiid ironstone.
Spathic ore was little worked in England previous
to 1851, soon after which it was discovered in
Somersetshire. The Erzberg, near Eisenerz, in
Styria, is the most famous locality for this ore,
where it has been worked for ages. The sjiathic
carbonates which are the richest in manganese have
been nnich in demand to yield the spiegeleisen
re(|uireil in the Bessemer process. In its purest
form it contains 48 per cent, of iron : and in colour
't varies from white to liull' or dark brown, some
s-pccimens of it taking a beautiful polish, and look-
ing like marlile. The clay and blackliand iron-
stones are essentially mixtures of carbonate of iron
with clay, blackband having also a considerable
|protiortion of coaly or bituminous matter. These
dull earthy-looking ores occur abundantly in (Jrcat
Britain. Until lately aliove ono-lhini of all tin-
ore mined in the country was olitaincd froni tlic
coal-measures, where fortunately both the fuel and
the limestone, indispensable for the reduction of
the iron, are also found. The ore occui's as balls
or nodules, or in continuous beds.
The following table shows how widely distributed
are British ironstones. The last item of English
production is especially signilicant. It represents
the poorest and woi-st of all the workable ores, but,
being so easily obtaine<l (mostly in oiien workings
like stone ([uarries), is very cheap, and, being also
near to abundance of coal, is used in the great
quantities there .stated. It is indeed merely an
indurated ferruginous mud containing from 40 down
to oidy 20 per cent, of iron.
PRODUCTION OF IRON-STONE FROM MINES UNDER
THE COAL-MINE.S REGUL.VTION ACT.
1887.
1888.
Couutles.
Aveinge
Arenige
Tons.
Prit-e
per Tun.
Tons.
Price
per Tun.
s. d.
s. d.
366
36
1,037
7 0
7 0
6 0
605
213
761
7 0
7 0
Cuiiilwrland
6 0
Denbigh
2,713
7 0
651
7 0
Derby
5,799
6 2
11,S23
6 0
Glamorgan
22,472
S 0
22,753
7 0
Lincoln
78,047
3 0
44,187
3 0
Moninoutll
22,139
7 9
1S,S63
7 9
Nottinfihain
121
6 0
750
6 0
100,600
480,400
5 0
5 0
131,100
1,629,277
5 0
North Staffordshire..
5 0
.Suutli Stall'ordsliirc.
97,618
8 1
60,491
10 7
Warwick
1,838
7 4
4,230
8 0
Worcester
12,544
8 1
7,571
10 7
Yorkshire (E. & W.)
81,868
10 0
67,148
10 0
Yorksliire( North R.)
4,980,421
2 11
6,395,942
2 11
Total, England....
6,248,019
7,396,366
607,697
115,399
8 0
8 0
557,309
99,8b9
S 0
Dumbarton
8 0
Edinburgh
79,791
9 0
66,127
9 0
Fifeshire
2,980
9 0
2,846
9 0
Haddington
170
9 0
75
9 0
East Lanark
162,066
9 0
128,.'.32
9 0
We-st Lanark
112,806
8 6
65,186
8 6
76,793
3,177
153,892
8,128
9 0
9 0
8 0
0 0
95,866
16,364
179,b33
30,680
9 0
Perthshire ... .
9 0
8 0
Stirling
9 0
Total, Scotland....
1,321,899
1.238,597
Grand Total-
United Kingdom
7,669,918
8,636,032
Including the ores mined under the Metalliferous
Mines Act— ores not diiectly associated with coal
— the iron ore raised in 1878 was 15,72(1,870 ions.
In 1894 it was 12,.'?(i7,."50S tons, valued tit .f3, 190,047;
the metal iiroduced was 4, .347. 472 tons, value
£9,999,186. In the I'nited Slates the production
of oie was 7, 120,362 ( long) tons ; in 1889, 14,518,041 ;
while in 1894, tlie proilnce of pig iron was 6,657,388
tons, value .$65,007,247. In (iermany, 11,406,100
tons of iron ore weie raiscil in 1890, and 12,403,800
in 1894. In 1893, France i.iised 3,517,438 tons of
iion ore: Austria-lliingaiy. 1,100,000 Ions; while
Russia produced 1,272,235 tons of pig-iron.
The ancient iron-masters were unable to work
any but the richest and |iurest ores, the magnetic
oxides and haniatitcs. The above table shows by
the price and (|uantity of the North Hiding ores
that we iiiv no«' tible to work very poor and very
imiiure material.
The most remarkable and useful i)roperty of
carbon, that uiion which its value as a fuel, ^c.
depends, is tiiat when remaining at ordinary
terrestrial tem|ierature it is exceptionally inert,
does not combine with the oxygen of the air or
even with jmrc oxygen, nor with other elementary
subst.ances (lluoiine perhaps excepted), but when
heated it ac(|uircs so grccily an :illinity for oxy-
gen that it not only burns in air i.e. comliines
IRON
217
Catalan or Corsican Furnace.
violently with its oxygen (see CoMBl'STIox), but
will take oxygen away from most of its ooinpounils,
notably from the metallic oxides. This action of
removing oxygen from oxides of metals and leaving
the metal in tlie reguline or metallic state is called
retluction. and the great reducing agent of the
metallurgist is heated carbon. Hydrogen acts in
a .similar manner, and is also used as a reducing
agent.
The ancient iron-masters obtained iron and steel
by simply heating the purest obtainable oxides of
iron with an easily-prepared and nearly pure form
of carbon — viz. wood-charcoal. Their furnaces
were of very
simple con-
struction,
merely a
hearth or tire-
place in which
the ore and
the charcoal
were mixed
together and
a blast applied
to obtain the
necessary high
temperature.
Such simple
iron-making
is still prac-
tised in India,
Burma, Bor-
neo, China.
Madagascar,
iVc. , and very
tine qualities
of iron and
steel are thus
produced.
Space will not permit a detailed description of the
various forms of ancient furnaces, but there is one
that still survives in Europe which is typical and
specially interesting. It is shown in fig. 1, and is
known as the ' Catalan ' or Coi-sican furnace. The
blowing apparatus is very curious aiul effective.
/" is the hearth or furnace with the tuyere or
blowing-tube inserted in an o])ening of the wall.
The bottom of the hearth is maile of a sandstone
that will bear great heat, and is lined with charcoal
dust. A pile of rich ore, usually
hematite, is placed on this and
lieaped up over the curved wall
oiiposite the tuyere. The hearth is
then tilled up with charcoal and
covered over with a mixture of
charcoal dust and small ore, moist-
eneil and matted together. A
gentle blast is applied at first, and
when the Hame bursts through the
coating more of the same material
is laid over to keep b;ick the main
charge until the mass is sufficiently
heated im a fair start. Then the
bla.st is turned im fully, and the ore
that was piled on the curve<l wall is
pushed down gradually ;us the lower
portion is reduced, and this is con
tinned until a mass of spongy iron, or
' bloom,' is formed. This is drawn
out, hammered. an<l rolled with very
jirimitive machinery. The ancient
wr>rkers were not acquainted with
the use of lime as an artilicial flux,
and hence the silica of the ore was
got rid of by combining with some
of the oxide of iron and thus forming a liqui
( see Sl.V(.; ).
The blowing-ai)paratus or ' tronipe ' shown in
the drawing is tiseil in mountainous countries
where streams from high levels are available. The
upper tank a is erected on a ledge of rock with
one end overhanging, in this case stipported by a
tree-trunk. Connected with the large hole in the
liottom is a wooden tul>e with oldique side o|ienings,
b. It. This tube terminates at the top of a lower
tank c, w hich has an outflow opening at </, while its
upper ])art communicates with the tuyere at e.
The tank is otherwise closed and air-tight. At a
in the upper tank is a plug to regulate the flow of
water into the wooden tube. When water flows
down this tube its velocity is of cour-se accelerated
as it descends. This acceleration divides the column
of water, and the spaces between become more or
less vacuous. Consequently air rushes in at h, h, is
dragged down by the descending water, aiul cannot
return against the stream, but is forced by the
rushing water through the narrow passage into the
upper part of the lower tank, and there compressed
in a degree that admits of regulation by raising or
lowering the plug a. When the inflow of water is
in excess of the outflow, the pressure increases,
when the outflow is in excess it diminishes, when
they are equal it remains steady, and thus the
required variations of lilast are regulated.
Jlodern blast-furnaces are hollow towers ranging
from 30 or 40 to nearly 100 feet in height, and with
internal capacities varying from 500 cubic feet to
upwards of 25,000. The smallest furnaces are those
used for smelting the richest and jiurest ores with
charcoal, and, generally speaking, the poorer the
ores the larger the furnaces, until we reach the
maximum in the Cleveland district of the North
Hiding of Yorkshire, the metropolis of which is
Middlesbrough.
Figs. 2 and .3 show a modern blast-furnace of
ordinary dimensions ( fig. 2 ) as seen externally ( with-
out its appliances for blast, &c. ) and (fig. 3) in
section. The external rings are of stout iron,
l)racing all the masonrj- together. The interior is
lined with firebricks or other refractory material,
the thickness of this lining or 'shirt' increasing
downwards as the heat increases. Between the
shii't and outer brick or stone- work an annular space
is usually left which is filled with loose sand or
fragments of slag to allow for shrinking or expan-
sion of the interior. The larger furnaces have
a double lining with such space surroun<ling each.
cinder
Blast Furnace.
The internal foini is a matter of .some practical
importance. As shown in the section, the upper
part or ' tunneliiea*!,' n, c, projecting above the
218
IRON
Fij;
and the cleariii;
siiiTonndiiij; gallery, is cvlinilrical. This part is
lint milled to all fiiriiaoes. It merely arts as a
chiiiiiiey. I'assin^ downwards we ooiiic to a ooii-
timiation of this, c. c, which is ealled the 'throat,'
the rhar<,'C beinj; pitched down this from the j;.allerv
through the arciies or ' tunnels' that are shown in
the section. Hclow this is a long truncated cone,
c, /', called the 'stack,' extending to the widest
part, which is called the 'helly :' this name, another
form of the 'Ixish' or 'hoshes' (supposed to he a
corrujition of the (Jerinan luiur/i), is applied to the
lower inverted cone, which extends from /' to /(, /(,
where the hlast enters by the tuyfcies or twyers
(fnim the l'"rciich tiii/nii or tiit/thr, whicli is freely
translated in the Ulack Country to ' two irons," as
there are two iron tubes as shown in section, tig. 4,
and externally, lig. 5). The
outer one is surrounded by
a lining of llowing W'lxter,
which enters at b and
escapes at c. This is to
save it from fusiim. The
blast is thrown in through
this by the tube n. Below
these is the crucible where
the melted metal rests on
the 'hearth.' The charge
of ore, fuel, and lime is but
slightly .altered in bulk until
it reaches the boshes at ./',
and the downward widening
therefore .assists its descent
of the walls : but below this the
combustion becomes so active that rajiid contraction
of bulk occurs and the furnace is shaped accordingly.
The gallery or ' cliarging-plate,' r, d, is shown in
fig. 2 connected with a hydraulic lift, liy which
the charge is raised to tlie le\el of the throat.
Other devices are used, such iis inclined planes, iS;c. ,
and some furnaces are built at the side of a steep
liill, with the thro.at ne.arly on the level of the hill-
top. In that which is pictured the trolly-road or
tramway, tr, is built up to about half height to
meet the rising inner tube of the hydraulic lift at /.
The materials charged into the furnace <are ore,
fuel, and llux, varying in iiroportion with the com-
]>osition of the ore. The demand for Mux is due
to the impurities of the ore. Lime is used for
this purpose. It combines with the silica, and
forms a readily fusible compound, a silicate of
lime or lime-glass, which descends with the silicate
of alumina, an analogous compound in the clay,
and forms the 'slag,' or more ]iroperly 'cinder,'
which lloats on t<ii) of the fused iron in the crucilile.
The old iron-inastei's who used no such llux lost
much of their iron by the combination of its oxide
with the silica ; hence the iron in the ' Dane
cinders' of the Korest of Dean. In most of the
modern furnaces the crude limestone is charged
with till' crude ore. Otherwise the ore is lirst
roasted to expel the water of comi)osi(ion it con-
tains (clay is a /(//(//-"/rv/ silicate of alumina) and
the carbonic acid which is combined with the iron,
and the limestone is simil.arly roasted in kilns to
expel its carbonic .acid. In the tall furnaces with
hot-blast these oper.ations are automatically per-
formed in the upper part by the heat escajiing
from below. Formerly the coal was all coked before
charging into the fui'iiace : now raw coal or a
mixture of coal .and coke is used, .and the coking,
like the roasting, occurs in the u]iper p.art of the
furn.ace. As the charge descends to the hotter and
hotter parts of the furnace the oxide of iron, now
ilehydrated .and dissociated from carbonic .acid,
becomes reduced lo the coiidilion of ' simiigy iron.'
The I'xpcriments of Sii- .). I.owlhian rn'l! show Ih.at
such reduction occurs at a lower tem]ierature than
was formerly sujiposeil. It is fairly started, if not
completed, before the limestone is fully calcined.
The chief reducing agent is the heated carbonic
oxide gas that rises from the incandescent mass
below. This g.as, a compound of one efinivalent of
carbon with one of oxygen, CO, combines greedily
with oxygen when heated, and foiius carbonic di-
oxide (carbonic .acid), CO.,. In this case it does so
by taking away the oxygen from the oxide of iron.
The hydrocarlious formed by tlie distillilion of the
coal ])rob.ably co-o]ierate. The spongy iron thus
fonued coiTes]ioiids to the linal product, the ' bloom '
of the Cat.alan and other primitive furn.aces. The
iron itself is pure enough, but is entangled with
the earthy impurities of the ore. The bulk of
these impurities is linally removed by the llux, but
before this occurs .another and ralher vex.atious
.action occurs at the full and liright red-hot region
below. This is described liy Sir.!. 1.. P.ell as the 'zone
of .absorption,' for here the sjiongy ii'ou absorbs im-
purities that have afterwards to be removed by the
puddler. It t.akes up carbon, silicon, sulphur, .and
plios]ihorus from its surrounilings, the sulphur and
carbon from the coal, the silicon and iihosphonis
from the ore. These, though mischievous, assist the
work of the blast-furnace ; they lower very consider-
.ably the fusing-point of the iron, the pure s]ioiigy
iron being practically iinfusible in an ordinaiy
furnace. The niiinner in which the spongy iron
appears to obtain its carbon is curious. Carbonic
oxide when highly heated ('2U)0'F. ) is dissoci.ated
into carbon .and carbonic .acid. One h.alf of a given
(|uantity loses its oxygen .and gives it over to the
other half. Taking two eiiuivalents of carbonic
oxide, containing two of carbon and two of oxygen,
the cliange may be reiiresenteil thus : q
Sir .J. Lowthian Bell, who has devoted (^JVpn
an inimense .amount of costly labour to Qy^ '"
the investigation of the contents of q q
various parts of the bl.ast-funiace,
maint.ains that this dissociation occurs at a much
lower temperature in the bl.ast-furn.ace than in
Deville's apparatus, possibly owing to the help of
the iron in combining with the llocculent carbon
immediately it is thus separated.
After these changes .are com]ileted, fusion speed-
ily occurs in the rapidly-contracting region of the
furnace, and finally the whole contents of the
furn.ace, excejiting tlio.se which .are converted into
g.ases that escape from the toji. are lii)uelicd and
fall into the crucible as two distinct fluids, the
melted crude iron, and the cinder or sl.ag. The
latter floats .above the metal and runs out over a
d.am by a specially-constructed orifice. While thus
covering the iron it protects the metal from oxida-
tion, and this continues until themclal .accumulates
sutlicienlly to reach the 'cinder notch' of the dam.
WIk^u this occurs the furnace is ta])|ied — i.e. a ping
which stoi)ped .a ch.annelholc at tlie bottom of the
crucible is removed, and the molten crude iron
tlows in a glowing stream down long ch.annels in .a
bed of s.and. Side-channels of moderate length
branch out on each side of the main channels, as
near to each other as possible, and these are Idled
with the iron. In the poetic language of the Black
Country the main chamud is called the 'sow,' and
the smaller branching channels the 'pi{js.' Hence
the well-known name of 'pigiron.'
'I'he table below shows the composition of pig-
iron ; the lirst being the mean of twentynine
bninds of high-class pig, the secimd of a common
Cleveland pig ; the analyses made by the writer :
Cdmlnncfl C:ivl)nii 8-91 0-SO
GmpliilicCnrbim 1-92 100
Silicon 1-81 2-23
Phospliorus 0-33 f30
.Siil|iluir 0-25 0-27
Mnn^-nnesp I'SS 0-71
Iron by ilitlcrencc 93'jW 03CB
lOO'OU 100-00
IHON
219
Pi;;iions are teolmioally ilesoiibeil as p;iay.
mottled, anil white, ami coninioiily nuiiilM'ieil
acconlingly, comniencin^r witli the gray as No 1,
down to S'o. 8, the extreme white. Gray pi<;-
iron is granular and easily drilled or liled, owing to
this structure: white jiig is crystalline and very
hard, liarder than the hardest steel. Tliis ditfer-
ence is mainly due to the difterent conditions of
the carl)on. In tlie gray it is nearly all unconi-
binetl or graphitic ; in the white, nearly or quite all
conil)ined ; the mottled is intermediate. It is ea.sy
to pick out with a penknife from a good sample of
No. 1 pig brilliant scales of graphite, technically
described as 'kish.' Good samples of pigiron are
used directly for making castings, or the pig-iron is
relined (see Ijelow) for this purpose. Such ' civst-
irou ' is brittle in proportion to the impurities it
contains. In its ordinary condition it is neither
malleal)le nor ductile, though small c;istings of a
superior quality of refined iron may be rendered
tougher by careful annealing. These ' malleable
castings ' are now largely used.
One of the important iin])roveinents of modern
ironmaking is the use of the hot blast. Very great
economy of fuel is thereby etl'ected. -A. great
variety of ovens for heating the bla-st have been
patented. Their essential principle is pa-ssing the
air through tubes or passages of iron or lireclay that
are heateil liy a llame or hot air surrounding them.
The heat is usually obtained by utilising the waste
inllammable gases that formerly blazed away to
waste from the top of the blast-furnace. For this
purpose the tunnel-head («, c, figs. 2 and ,3) is cut
down, or not built, and the charge is thrown upon
a stopper, wliich is movable in such wise as to
drop the charge with little or no escape of the gases
from the interior of
the furnace. The most
common of these de-
vices is the ' cup and
cone,' shown in tig. 6,
where a is the cup
that plugs the ojiening
of the truncated cone
above. The charge is
pitched into this in-
verted cone and rests
there till the cup is
lowered, when it falls around the cup. In the
figure the furnace is shown closed. The inflam-
mable gases then descend by the pipe h to their
destination.
In order to obtain ordinary malleable iron from
pig iron the bulk of the impurities are removed by
' puildling ' and hammering or squeezing. The old
iron-masters simply melted the crude iron in a refin-
ing furnace or ' finery,' and then subjected it to
the action of a blast, which sutticiently oxidised the
silicon and carbon. Where these are the only
impurities that require removal this treatment
Ls still used ; but such severe oxidation fails to
remove the sulphur and phosphorus. The refining
furnace, which is still used to some extent for the
conversion of gray into white east-iron, or a-s
preliminary to ])uddling, is shown in sectiim in
fig. 7. The pig-iron and coke or charcoal are
charged into the space D, the blast is driven through
the bla-st-pipes, C, C, to the tuyeres, as shown.
After starting well with fuel below, the coke con-
tinues to burn and the iron to melt, and both are
continuously charged, the molted iron flowing down
to the hearth below, where the blast strikes upQn
its .surface .ami oxiilises the carl>on and silicon,
at the .same time circulating the lluid metal by its
stirring action. If this is continued long enough,
a bloom or ball of malleable iron is produced.
With le.ss blowing the silicon is for the most part
burned out, and the graphitic carbon is caused to
combine by the high temperature attained, and thus
■white iron,' suitable for foundry i>ur]»)ses or for
puddling, is produced. In tliis case the melted
iron is run into a shallow hearth, and there allowed
Fig. 7. — Finery.
to cool and throw tip a film of silicate, which ea.sily
separates from the refined metal below. This is
broken up into convenient pieces, and is commonly
described as 'plate' iron.
The Bessemer process (see BESSEMER Steel)
is but a modification of this, the dill'erence being
that, instead of blowing on the surface, the Besse-
mer blast is introduced below, and therefore acts
more thoroughly.
The puddling furnace, in which the puddling
process is contlucted, is shown in vertical sec-
tion in fig. 8, where / Ls the fireplace, br the
Fig. 8. — Puddling Furnace, vertical section.
bridge, h the bed, fl the flue, and p, }), p, p,
iron jiillars supporting the furnace. It is con-
striictc<l of firebricks, and the whole, excepting the
flue, is encased in strong iron places firmly strapped
together Ijy iron rods. When the fire is blazing the
flame surmounts the bridge, strikes the arched roof,
and ' reverberates ' down u]ion the contents of the
bed, and passes along the flue to a short chimney,
which is surmotinted by a damper-plate that may
be raised and lowered to regulate the draught,
rig. 9 is a horizontal section with the same letter-
ing, excepting that .v is addeil to show the working-
door or stopper licile through whii-h the pudiller
works. When the roof, walls, and bed of the fur-
nace are moderately heated the puddler ' fettles '
liis furnace by pla-stering the bed and sides with a
'fettling coniposition, which consists essentially
of ground oxiile of iron made into .a ]iastc with
water. Ila-malite is the best fettling; ' bulldng.'
made by foasting refuse cinder, is cheaper, and
largely u.sed. Lumps of crude iron are now thrown
in, the fire is made up, the doors closed, and damper
raised to ' rouse ' the whole and melt the charge,
which usually amounts to 4.| cwt. Two men work
the furnace, the ' forehand ' anil his ' uiiilerhand.'
During the melting the underhand turns over and
220
IRON
distiiliutes the lumps witli a loii^ ivon rod. When
tlie iiieltinj; is ooini>leteil a lieavier iron liar, Hat-
teneil and bent at tlie workinj; end, is nsed. This
is called the ' laldile,' and with it a vif,'oious stir-
ring or ' ralililing ' is kept up. The work is very
exhaustinj:. and the men work in turns, the fore-
liand taking the (.-ritical part of the process, where
greater skill is (lemanded. As this proceeds the
surface of the melted metal lieeomes further agitated
hy the bursting of small bubbles ; this agitation, at
lirst supertieial, ileepens and deepens, until the
whole nia.ss is seen to be violently seething and
Fig. 9. — Puddling Furnace, horizuntal section.
spirting u|) flashes of blue flame from the bursting
bubbles. This Hame is mainly due to the burning
of carbonic oxide. The ]uiddler calls this the
' boiling,' and now the forehand works the rabble
with great energy. As the rabble becomes softened
at the working end and heated where held, it is
rapidly plunged into a trough of water, and ex-
changed for a cool one. Careful observation shows
that the puddler not oidy stirs the lluid, but gropes
or rabbles along the bottom and sides of the fur-
nace. Presently the melted mass thickens, solid
granules are formed amidst the liqiiid. This the
puddler describes as 'coming to nature.' It con-
sists in the separation of infusible iron from the
fusible silicates ; the oxidation of the silicon form-
ing glassy silicic aciil, which combines with oxide
of inm or any other basic material within reach.
These solid granules are at a welding heat, and the
next business of the iiuddler is to weld them
together, which he does by running olt' as much as
possible of the licjuid cinder, and sijueezing the
granules together into a spongy mass or ball.
At this stage he lowers his damjier and blocks the
draught-hole with lumjis of coal, in order to
envelop the mass of expo.sed granular iron in a
smoky reilucing atmosphere. This prevents ruinous
oxidation or ' cutting,' as the jiuddler calls it. Book-
learned critics have pointed to the dense volumes
of smoke which then issue from his chinniey, and
have accused him of ignorant wastefulness in the
cimsumption of fuel. In this case the illiterate
black-faced pudiller understands the theory and the
practice of his work, and the learned line gentle-
men are ignorant of both. The ball is now divided
into portable dimensions (usually into three), and
is rapidly carried to the hammer, where it is struck
lightly at first, but with gradmilly increasing force
as it beconu's compressed into shape. The three
balls may be united, commonly are, and thus beaten
into a 'pudilled bar.' During this beating, or
' shingling,' li(|ui(l cinder is squeezed from the mass
like water from a sponge. More aiul more is
squeezed by subsequent compression in passing the
jiuddled bar through rolls similar to those shown in
iig. 10. It lirst enters the large hole of either the
square or the round set, and then while still red-
hot passes successively through smaller and smaller
ojienings. In the sulise(|uent working of the iron
this S(jueezing out of the inqjuritics is continued.
Thus, if it is made into boiler plates or thin sheets,
the bars made by passing through the rolls are cut
into short lengths and 'piled' — i.e. stacked in
square bundles, then heated and rolled out, during
Fig. 10.— Rough and Finishing Rolls.
which working more lluid cinder is expressed. By
sucdi means the ipiality is iniiuoxcd up to a certain
point, but beyond this mischief is done, for if the
reheating is nqieated too often the iirotecting
remainder of carbon is reuujved, and the iron itself
then oxidises — •burnt-iron' is the result. This is
friable, owing to the presence of particles of black
oxide in the midst of the iron.
Formerly jpuddling was regarded merely as a pro-
cess of oxidation produced by the ai-tion of air on
the surface, and the puddler's stirring was ilescribed
as a means of bringing fresh material to the surface.
It was afterwards shown that large ipianlities of
oxygen are supplied from below by the reduction of
the oxide of iron in the fettling. The writer h.as
tested this theory by excessive fettling with rich
htenuitite and laborious ralibliug ; and has theicby
turned out a weight of puddled liar exceeiling that
of the crude iron of the charge, the excess being
due to the reduced iron from the luematite. But
even this is not suHlcient to account for the purili-
eation from sulphur and phosphorus ; oxidation
alone will not remove the remainder of these when
their quantities are brought down to about \ per
cent. This has been fully proved by the failure of
the fierce bl.ast of the Bessemer ccuiverter to do so
without also oxidising the iron itself. The writer's
explanation of the juiddlers success in purifying
very bad pig-iron is that his process consists of
oxi(lati(m jiliis washing; that he washes the
granules of iron in li(|uid and basic cinder, as the
laundress washes libres of cotton, \c. in soap and
water. The sulphur and phosjihorus are found in
the cinder, as the dirt ami grc-ise in the soaji-suds.
The subsequent s(|ucezing out of the residual
entangled liquid cinder by hammering, rolling, ^rc.
is, according to this theory, strictly analogous to
the irriiii/iii;/ of the laundress. In connection with
this impossibility of removing «// the suljihur and
|ihospborns by iiu'ie oxidation it is desirable to
correct a serious error that is re]ieati'd in most of
our text-books even the best. This is the state-
ment th.at wrought iron contains no practically
important (piantity of carbon. This error is not
shared by luactical iidn-maUers who have studied
the chemistry of their work. They know that some
carbon or silicon, or both, must remain to jirolect
the iron itself from oxidation when heated. It
IRON
IRON AGE
221
nsiially contains about '2 i)er cent, of carbon, more
or less, aecorilintr to the quantity of silicon, wliidi,
l>eins more reaJily oxidised than carbon, is a still
more efficient protector. This is of great practical
importance now that the Bessemer and .Siemens-
Martin processes, fonnerly used only for makiiij;
steel, are applied to the luaniifacture of a malleable
iron by pushinf; the oxidation to its utmost limit.
If this limit is exceeded brittlene.ss instead of
toughness is the result, and a mistake in this direc-
tion involving certain portions of such a structure
as the Forth Bridge might be fatal to the whole, ;vs
' nothin" is stronger than its weakest part.' For
the making of such ' semi steel,' see Bessemer
Steel, and Steel. And see Founding.
Statistics as to the development and present position
of iron manufactures will be foimd in the articles Great
Britaix, Belgiim, Germany, United States, kc. For
the processes of iron manufacture, see C. R Alder-
Wright, T/ie Chemical Changes accompanying the Smell-
ing of Iron in Blast-furnaces ; Bauerman, The Metal-
lurgy of Iron ; Sir J. Lowthian Bell, Chemical Phenomena
of Iron Smelting ; W. Fairbairn, Iron : Its History^ Pro-
perties, and Processes of Manufacture : W. H. Greenwood,
Steel and Iron ; C. Hoare, Ir07i and Steel ; A K. Hunt-
ington, Metals, their Properties and Treatment; Iron,
an Illustrated We'kly Journal ; Journal of the Iron and
Steel Institute ; II. H. C. Landrin, Treatise on Steel :
F. Overman, The Manufacture of Iron ; J. Percy, Metal-
lurgy : Iron and Steel ; J. A. PhiUips, Manual of Metal-
lurgy ; W. M. Williams, The Chemistry of Iron atid Steel
Making. In German, E. F. DiiTTe, Uie Atilage und der
Betrirh der EisenhiiUen ; Dr Karl Hartmann, Practisches
Handhuch der Stahlfabrication ; A. Ritter von Kerpely.
Bericht iiher die Forlschnttt der Eisenhiilten-Technik ;
Stahl und Eisen; H. Wedding, Die Metallurgie. In
French, Annales des Mines; L. Gruner, Etudes sur les
Bauts-fourneaux ; Revue Unirerselle des Mines.
Xros in its Physiological and Therapeutic
Eel.\tions. — Iron is an essential constituent of the
colouring matter of the blood-corpuscles of all
vertebrate animals : and, according to the best
authorities, one part by weight of iron is found
in 230 parts of blood-corpuscles, and the total
quantity of this metal in the blood of a man
weighing 140 pounds is about 38 grains. It is
the presence of iron in the blood that communi-
cates to the ashes of that fluid their reddish-brown
colour, the iron being found in them a.s the per-
oxide. The ashes of hair, of birds' feathers, of
the contents of eggs, of ga.stiic juice, of milk, and
of most animal fluids, contain traces of iron.
Nothing is known with certainty regarding the
chemical condition of the iron in the animal body ;
it probably exists as protoxide in the venous blood
and peroxide in arterial blood. It is introduced
into the system with the food and drink, and any
excess beyond what is required is discharged with
the excrements. It Ls thus a food rather than a
medicine ; but when an insutticient quantity is
contained in the nutriment, or when from any
cause the absorption of the iron contained in the
food is interfered with, chalybeate medicines
l)ecome necessary in addition. The iron that is
set free within the system by the constant disin-
tegration of blood-corpuscles is carried out of the
system (lartly by the urine, chiefly by the colour-
ing matter of the bile, which is highly ferruginous,
and probably is in part eliminated by the hair.
The exact part which the iron plays in the body
is uncertain : but it is most probable that the
power which the bliHxI-corpuscles possess a-s oxygen-
carriers is mainly due to tlie presence of iron.
In most forms of Ana'inia (q.v.), especially
Chlorosis (q.v.), the iron compounds are of in-
comparably more service than any other rcmeilies.
In amenorrhoia, in certain painful nervous afl'cc-
tions, and in many conditions of debility the salts
of iron are of especial service. They are contra-
indicated in plethora, and in most states accom-
panied by feverishness. The forms in -h hicli iron
may be prescribed are very numerous, and v.ary
considerably in their utility, according to the
readiness with which they get taken up into the
blood. Aiuongst the most generally used fenugin-
ous medicines may be mentioned reduced iron,
the tincture of the perchloride, the saccharated
carbonate, the compound iron mixture (containing
the carbonate), the suljihate, the tartarate. several
citrates (especially the citrate of iron and quinine),
&c. A course of Chalybeate Waters (see Mineral
W.\ters) may often 1je prescribed with great ad-
vantage when the patient cannot bear the adminis-
tration of iron in its ordinary medicinal form.
Irou Age< an arch;eological term indicating
the condition as to civilisation and culture of a
people using iron as the material for their cutting
tools and weapons. It is the last of the prehistoric
stages of progress represented by the series of the
three ages of Stone, Bronze, and Iron. But it liius
to be remembered that this sequence is not neces-
sarily true of every part of the earth's surface, for
there are areas, such as the islands of the South
Pacific, the interior of Africa, and parts of North
and South America, where the peoples have ]>assed
directly from the use of stone to the use of iron
without the intervention of an age of bronze. In
Europe the iron age may be detined as including
the last stages of the preliLstoric and the lirst of
the protohistoric periotls. As the knowledge of
iron seems to have travelled over Europe from the
south northwards, the commencement of the iron
age was veiy much earliei- in the southern than
in the northern countries, tireece, as represented
in the Homeric poems, was then in the transition
l)eriod from bronze to iron, while Scandinavia
was only entering her iron age about the time of
the Christian eia. The transition from bronze
to iron in central Europe is exemplified in the
great cemetery, discovered in 1846, of Hallstatt,
near Gmunden. where the forms of the implements
and weapons of the later part of the bronze age
are imitated in iron. In the Swiss or La Tine
group of implements and weapons the forms are
new and the transition complete. The early iron
age forms of Scandinavia show no traces of Roman
influence, though these become abundant towards
the middle of the period. The duration of the
iron age is variously estimated according as its
commencement is placed nearer to or furtlier from
the opening years of the Christian era : but it is
agreed on all hands that the last division of the
iron age of Scandinavia, or the Viking Period, is
to be taken as from 700 to 1000 A.D., when Pagan-
ism in those lands was superseded by Christianity.
The iron age in Europe is characterised by forms
of implements, weapons, personal ornaments, and
pottery, and also by systems of tlecorative design,
which are altogether difl'erent from those' of the
preceding age of bronze. The ini])lements and
weapons are no longer cast but hammered into
shape, and as a necessary conse(|Uence the stereo-
ty|ied forms of their predecessor in bronze are
gradually departed from, and the system of decora-
tion, which in the bronze age consisted chiefly of
a repetition i>f rectilinear iiattems, gives place to a
system of curvilinear ana flowing designs. Hut
tlie principal feature that distinguishes the iron
age from the preceding ages is the introduction
of alphabetic characters, and the consenuent
development of written language which laiit the
foundations of literature and historic record.
tiee Hortr EcraUs, or Studies in the Archoolotty of the
Northern Nations, by Kemlile, edited by I^tliam and
Franks (1863); Scotland in Piigan Times— The Iron
Age, by Joseph Anderson, LL.D. (1883); The Industrial
Arts of Denmark from t/ic Earliest Times (South Kens.
IROX BARK TREE
IRON MASK
Handbook), hy Worsaac (1882) ; The Iti'liiftrial Art-n of
Seaiu/iitatia in thv J'tu/tin Time (I^outh Kens. Hand-
book), by Hans HildL-brand (Lond. lS(v<).
Iron Kark Troe. a name given in Australia
til certain siR-rics of Eucalyptus (<|.v. ), and par-
ticularly E. nsiiiifcra, or Hed Gum, on account
of tlie extreme hardness of the bark.
IroiH'lads, a term fii-st apiilied to wooden
ships of war strengthened by .a more or less com-
plete covering of iron armour-plates. Partial iron
defences for war-galleys seem to have been in use
in the middle ages ; the lloatiiig-b.attenes used at
the siege of (Jihraltar in 1782 ha<l b(mib-|)roof roofs
and sides, strengthened by leather and bars of
iron. Systematic defences of this kind were advo-
cated by numerous writers in France, Ameiica, and
England, early in the 19th century. But the first
regTilar use of iron armour on the sides of ships
was when, during the Crimean war, the French
maile and sent to the Black Sea lloating-hatteries
with armour 4f in. thick. In 18.58 the French
had four iron-])lated line-of -battle ships building.
The first IJritish sea-going ironclad was the
Il'nmw { lS(iO), with 4h in. armour for the upper
deck to the water-line ; but. a.s iron was the
material of which the ship was built, ' inmclad '
became rather a misnomer. The term is still em-
ployed loosely for all armoured shijis, turret-ships,
harhette-ships. &c. , even if the luill and framework
are of iron and the armour ( which in the Indexible
is from 16 to 24 in. thick) is faced with steel (as
in the Edinliurrjh, Campcrdowii, Warsjjitc, &c.).
See Navy, and Shipbuilding.
Iron Cross, a Prussian order, instituted on
March 10, 18i:i, l)y Frederick-William III., to be
confcrreil for distinguished services in war. It was
made of iron to commemorate the grim 'iron'
period at which it was created. The decoration
consists of a Maltese cross of iron, edged with
silver, and is worn round the neck or at the button-
hole. The ordt'r w;is revived by William I. on ;
19th July 1870, on the eve of the great war with
France. The grand cro.ss, a cross of double the
size, is presented exclusively for the gaining of
a decisive battle, or the capture or brave defence
of a fortres.s
Iron i'rowii. See Crown.
Iron Gates. See D.\Na'BE.
Iron llask, Thk M.\s with the. The story
of the prisoner so called, confined in the Bastille
and other prisons in the reign of Louis XIV., has
long had a romantic interest for the readers of
history. The first notice of him was given in a
work entitled Miinuiirs Hecicts puiir scriir <<
riUstuire de I'ersc (Amst. 1745-46), according
to which, he was the Duke of Vermandois, a
natural son of Louis XI\'. ami of Mdlle. de la
Valliere. who, having given a liox on the ear to
his half-lirother, the grand daui)hin, had to expiate
it with inj|irisonment for life. The assertion wxs '
without foundation, for the Duke of Vermandois
died in camp in 16S.'5; but the confidence with
which it was ma<le causeil a deep sensation, ami
the romance of Alouliy, L'Hummc an J/risijiic dc
Fcr, which immediately followed (Hague, 1746),
was read with all the more avidity that it was
prohibited. Voltaire, in his .SViWc de Louis XIV.,
treats the anecdote liLstorically. Accortling to
liim, the juisoner was young, and of a noble figure.
In journeying from one prison to another he wore
a mask, and was at last transferreil to the Biustillc,
where he was treated with great distinction.
The fii-st authentic information with regard to
the Iron M.isk was given by the Jesuit (irill'et, who
acted for nine years iis confessor in the Bastille, in
his 'Train den diffcientci Suites de Freiwcs qui
servent a itablir la ViriU dans I'llistoire (Li^ge,
1769). He brought forward the MS. Journal of
Du Jonca, the lieutetiant of the Bastille, according
to which SaintMars arrived, on the 18th September
169S, from the Isle de Saiiite-.Marguerite. bring-
ing with him in a litter a prisoner whom he had
already had in custody at Pignerol. The prisoner's
name was not mentioned, and his face was always
kejit concealed by a mask of black velvet. TJie
journal mentions his death on the Hlth day of
November 1703, and that he was buried in the
cemetery of St I'anl. This is confirmed by the
register of burials for the parish of St Paul's,
where the prisoner is mentioned under the name
of Marchiali.
After long silence Voltaire returned to the
subject in his Essai mir /cs Jhriirs, but he brought
forward nothing new. In the seventh edition of
the Jiic/iuiiiiairr P/ii/osoji/iii/iic he related the story
anew, under the head Ami, corrected his emu's
as to time from the journal of Du Jonca, an<l con-
cluded ^^■itll the a.ssurance that he knew more
about the matter than Griftet, bnt chose, .u* a
Frenchman, to be silent. An addition to the
article, apjiarently by the editor of the work,
freely states the opinion that the Mask was an
elder brother of Louis XIV. Tlie writer declares
that Aune of Austria had this son by the Duke of
Buckingham, and being thus undeceived as to her
sup|iosed barrenness, brought about a meeting with
her husbanil, and in consequence bore Louis XIV.
Louis is held to have first learned the existence
of this brother when he came of age, and to have
put him in confinement, to guard .against any
possilde unplea.sant consei[uences. .S.-iint-Michcl
published a book in 179(J, in which he relates
the story of the unfortunate being, and points
to a secret marriage between t^ueen Anne and
Cardinal Mazarin. What is remarkable is that
not the court but Louvois contimied to mani-
fest an interest in the matter, and took every
means to keep the identity of the (irisoner in the
dark. A\"heii the Bastille fell the luisoners room
was eagerly searched, and also the prison register ;
but all iiu|uiry was vain.
The Abbe Soulavie, who published RKmoires
de Marci-liid liichelicn (London and Paris, 1790),
tries to nuike mit from a document written by
the tutor of that unfortunate jirince that the
Iron Mask was a twin-brother of Louis XIV.
A prophecy had annoimced disaster to the royal
family from a double birth, and to avoid this
Louis XIII. caused the last born of the twins
to be brought up in secret. Louis XIV. learned
of his brothers existence only after the death
of Mazarin, and that brother, having discovered
his relation to the king by means of a portrait,
was subjected to jierpetual imprisonment. This
view of the matter was the one almost universally
prevalent till the time of the Bevolulion. It is
also followed in Z.schokke's German tragedy, and
in Fournier's drama, foinided on the story. In
(Jrirnm s correspondence may be found tlic legend
of the birth of a twin-brother of Louis XIV.,
but history avers that seventeen ])ersons were
present and witnessed the delivery of the queen
of one male infant only. As legards the in-
trigue of Anne of Austria with the Duke of
Buckingham the dates make the supposition
absurd, as forty-eight years el.ipsed between their
iidiiiix and the first imprisonment of the Mask
in Pignerol.
The first conjecture of what till recently seemed
to be the truth is contained in a letter dated 1770,
written by a Banm d'lleiss to the Joiiniaf £>iri/r/(i-
pddii/iie. The same is repeated by Louis Dutcns
in his IiitcrceiiUd Vontspundencc (1789), who de-
clares that there is no point of history better
established than the fact that the prisoner with
IRON MASK
IRONWOOD
the Iron M;isk was a minister of tlie Duke of
Mantua. Tlii^ Tiiinister, Count Mattliioli, had
pledj;e<l himself to Louis XIV. to uij^e his nuv-ster
the lUike to deliver up to the French the fortress
of Ca-sale, wliich <;ave access to the whole of
Loiulianly. Thouj:h lar^'ely bribed to maintain
tlie Kreuch interests, he bej^an to l)etray tlieni :
and Louis .\I\'., liavinj; jxot conclusive proofs of
the treachery, contrived to liave Matthioli hireil
to the French frontier, secretly arrested, 'IM April
ItiTSt. and conveyed to the fortress of Pifjnerol,
which was liis tirst prison. The conclusion of
D'Heiss and Dutens, tliat Matthioli was the Iron
Mask, though acute, wiis only a conjecture. But
the documents discovered and published by M.
Koux-Faziliac in his licc/icrc/ics /u'storiijues ct
criti'/iKS siir I'Hoiitmc an Miisqiie lie Fer (1800),
by M. Delort in his llistoire tie V Homme, ait
Mdni/iic dc Fcr (1825), and M. Marius Topin, in
his Man irifh the Iron Mask (trans. 1869), seemed
to leave little doubt on the subject, and the public
had app.areutly made up its mind that the secret
was at last discovered, when a still more recent
work liy a I'Vencli olKcer, .M. Th. Jung, La Vcrite
sur Ic Maxqne (Ic Fer {Lcs Empoixonneurs) d'aprcs
des Durnnicnti inedHs dcs Arehircs dc la Guerre
et antres dfpOis puhlirs, 166j-170.i (1873), con-
clusively showed that Matthioli could not have been
the mysterious prisoner. This Italian adventurer
was sent to I'ignerol si.\ years after the Mask
entere<l that fortress. He was left behind in
Pignerol when Saint-Mars removed the Mask to
the Bay of Cannes, and his death there was never
kept secret. Matthioli could not speak French ;
but the mi/stcri/, the man in the mask, spoke
French with a foreign accent, was over the middle
height, tall, well made, and fond of music. It
says little for the pei-spicacity of either M. Topin
or of his readers that Matthioli shouhl ever have
been accepted as the owner of the famous Mask.
M. Jung's hyijothesis is vastly nuue meritorious ;
in fact, be marshals his facts so dexterou.sly that
we should almost say he had succeeiled in proving
that the Man in the Iron Ma.sk was the unknown
head of a widespread and formidable conspiracy,
working in secret for the a-ssassinatiou of Louis
XIV. and of some of his ablest ministers. The
severity of M. Jung's laliours with reference to this
subject will be understood when it is stated that
iii the course of his researches he had to examine
some seventeen hundred volumes of despatches and
reports in the bureau of the Ministiy ')' \\'ar.
The adventurer upon whom he fastens the Mask
was a certain .soldier of fortune, a M. de Marchiel,
related to several families in Lorraine, and apt to
a-ssume their names when an a/ia.i- was reijuired for
his |)urpose.s. Seized by Louvois's orders at the ford
of Fcronne, on the morning of March 29, 1673,
he wa.s lirst fiuwarded to the Bastille. There
Louvois saw him, and sent him to I'ignerol and
to the care of Saint-Mars. I'rom that hour the
jailor never parteil from his strange prisoner. De
Alarchiel went with him to Fxilles ilU87), to St
Marguerite, .iml died in the Bastille, November
19, 1703. His funeral cost forty livres, ami it Is
entered in the register of the parish of St Paul as
that of ' M. de Mareliiely.' Hi.s clothes and hi.s
Iron Mask were burned, and there the few facts
know n about this man end. The names and dates
all hang so well together that this conjecture is far
the most rea.sonable that has yet been inade. But
nothing has been nrorcd, except that the Mask
Wius none of the other eleven pei-sons he has been
supposed to be. Nothing more will ever be proved
until the trea-sures of the Vatican give up the
secret, a secret which the Ma-sk's cimfessor must
certainly have kiKiwn, and which he niaif have
revealed to his ecclesiastical superiors in Home.
Ironsides, a name popularly applied to the
regiment of a thousand horse which Cromwell
raised uiainly in the eastern counties for service
against the king early iu the great Civil War. The
name, already given for his bravery to an English
king, Edmund (q.v.), was lirst attached to Crom-
well himself, butpa-ssed easily to the men at whose
he.'ul he lirst appeared at Edgehill. Almost from
the beginning he saw that real religious enthusiasm
was the only force ade(|uatc in match the chivalry
of the cavalier, and he spent his own money freely
on the e(pii]iment of his men. 'did decayed
serving-men, and tapsters, and such kin<l of fellows
will never be able to encounter gentlemen,' as he
said to Hampden, and the .sohliers he gathered
round him were stalwart and substantial yeomen,
em]ihatically 'men of religion.' who 'made some
con.scienee of what they diil,' w ho knew the fear of
Cod and no other fear at all. Social distinctions
and religious conformity were made subordiuate to
competence and honesty. ' Better plain men than
none : but best to have men patient of wants,
faithful and conscientious in their employment,'
wrote Cromwell ; and elsewhere, ' I have a lovely
comjiany : you would respect them did you know
them; they are no Atiabaptists ; they are honest,
sober Christians ; they e.xpect to be used as men.'
And his Ironsides nobly justified their captain's
expectations. At Winceby they charged 'singing
psalms,' cleared Lincolnshire and the eastern
counties of the Cavaliers, endured the shock of
Piupert's horse at Marston Moor, and scattered
them like ehaft' before the wind. The whole par-
liamentary army was next reoiganised on the
model of Cromwell's brigade, but it was still the
stubborn valour of the Ironsides in the left at
Naseby that changed the day from defeat to a
crushing victory, and practically closed the war.
"Truly they were never beaten,' said Cromwell in
a s|ieech the year before his death, 'and whenever
the.\ weie engaged against the enemy they beat
continually.'
Ir<»lltoil, capital of Law^rence county, Ohio, on
the Ohio liiver, 142 miles above Cincinnati. It is
the chief business centre of an important iron
region, which gives employment to numerous
furnaces, foundries, and other manufactories.
Pop. 8857.
Ironwood. a name bestowed in different
countries on the timber of ditl'erent trees, on
account of its great hardness and heaviness. —
Mefrosidcros vera belongs to the natural older
Myrtacea-. and is a native of Java and other
eastern islands. Its wood is much valued by the
Chinese and Japanese for making rudders, .inchors,
&c., and is injported into Britain in small ipiaiiti-
ties uniler the name of Ironwood. The bark is
u.sed in .lapan as a remedy for diarrhoea and
mucous discharges. — Mesna ferrea, a tree of the
natural order (iuttifeite, is a native of the East
Indies, and is jilanted near Buddhist teni])les for
the sake of its fragrant tlowers, with which the
images of Buddha are decorated. The timber
known a.s Ironwood is very hard, ius is that of M.
spcciosa, another tiee of the same genus and
region. — The wood of Vepris nndnluta, of the order
Piosmacea', is called White Iionwood at the Ca]>e
of (jood Hoiie. It is very hard .and tough, and is
chielly used for axles, jiloughs, ami other agricul-
tural implements. -TIk- womi of Olea laiirifotiii, a
species of olive, is called I'lack Ironwooil in the
same country, and is used for the same purposes
and for furniture. — 0. enpeiisis is the Ironwood of
the Dutch settlers at the Cape of Good Hope, and
its woorl has similar i>roperties to and is used for
the same jnirposes as the foregoing. — Vnpania
sidcro:riihin — n;i\\na.\ order Sapindacea; — is the
22-i
IRONY
IRREGULARS
Iionwooil of tlie i-sliiiuls of Uouilion ami Aiiilioynii.
The wood is red in ooloiir, very lieavv, Uiiotty, and
dirtieult to work; it is used cliieHy for iiialiiiig
stakes and jioles. — Sidcio.ri//o» iiicrme — natural
order Sai)otaee;e, beloii<;ing to tlie Cape of Good
Hope — is nanieil Iromvood and also Mclhliuiit Ijv
the settlers. The tiniher is extremely hard, and so
heavy that it sinks in water. It is extensively
used in boat and bridge building and for agricul-
tural purposes.
Irony (Or. eironeia, eirOii, ' a dissembler ' ), the
name applied to a figure whieli enables the speaker
to convey his meaning with greater force liy means
of a contrast between his thought and his expres-
sion, or, to speak more accurately, between the
thought which he evidently designs to express and
that which hi.s words properly signify. It may be
employed to convey a-ssent and approbation as well
as the contrary, Init it is more inoperly a weapon
belonging to the armoury of controversy, by means
of which weight and point may be added to the
gravest part of the argument. The dialogues of
Plato are admirable exami)les of a subtle dialectic
irony, in which the opinion of the adversary is put
respectfully in the foreground, and the appearance
of deference is never drojiped until the supports on
which it rests are one by one withdrawn, and the
whole is completely undermined and seems to sink
by the weight of its own absurdity. Of this rare
art in modern literature there is nothing worthy
of comparison, save the Provincial Letters of
Pascal. The Minute Pliilosopher oi Bishop Berke
ley is one of the most unfortunate attempts at its
revival. A more recent master of dialectic irony
is the Danish theologian and philosopher, Kierke-
gaard. The highest triumphs of irony consist
not in refutation and demolition, but in clear
demonstration of the truth once the fallacy has
been exposed and overthrown. Of what may be
called practical irony numberless instances of the
most v.arious kinds occur in life. A man humours
the follies of another to render them more extrava-
gant, either for liis own amusement or his victim's
ultimate proht ; another, under the mask of friend-
ship, ]ianders to the wishes of some deluded man
to lead him to his ruin. In such sjnrit Tinion
gave his gold to Alcibiades, the witches fed the
ambitious hopes of Macbeth, and Mephistopheles
echoed the aspirations and the despair of Faust.
Fate itself brings bitter irony to bear upcm the
hopes of mortal life, in the inevitable rellection how
little the actual good and ill have corresponded
with the antecedent hopes and fears. The calm
retrospect of an unemliittered age, no longer dis-
turbed by the pa-ssions of the actor, is ever tinged
with a genial sense of the dnmb irony of things
a-s it recognises at last that life has been little
more than a vain pursuit of the phantoms of youth.
.\nd alike in the broad arena of history we lind
human imi>atience and temerity punished by the
relentless hand of destiny, as in the signal and
sudden reverses that follow close on the heels of
arrogant ambition. And .so in the microcosm of
the drama, which must be a faithful image of
human existence ccmcentrated in the mimic sphere.
An admiralile amplilication of this thought as
ai)plieil to one of the greatest tragedi;ins of all
time will be found in Thirlwall's famous es.say, 'On
the Irony of Sophocles,' in his Esuai/D, Speeches, and
Srniciiis. edited by Dean Perowne ( 1880).
Iro(|lloi^<. fornuulv a great confederation of
Indian tribes, recognised a.s a distinct lirancli of
the American family. At the beginning of the
ITtli century they included the Mohawks, Oneidas,
Onondaga.s, Cayugas, and Senecas, and became
known as the 'Five Nations;' in 1715 they were
joined by a related tribe, the Tuscaroras, and
henceforward were known as the 'Six Nations.'
Each tribe managed its own affairs, under its own
sachems, and a council of fifty sachems met
annually and disposed of questions all'ecting the
ccuifeileration as a whole. The chiefs, who, like
the sachems, were of equal rank, but who owed
their position to jiersonal valour alone and did not
foini a hereditary liody, exercised leadei-ship in
time of war only. The ccmfederation was found by
the earliest settlers in possession of the greater
l)art of the present state of New York, but by the
end of the 17th century all the tribes between the
Atlantic and the Mississippi, and from the St
Lawrence to the Tennessee, had been brought
under its inlluence. With the Dutch, and after-
wards with the English, the Inxjuois always
maintained friendly relations, even taking sides
with their allies during the Revolution ; to the
French, (m the other hand, they were bitterly
hostile, and their enmity had an important ell'ect
in checking the growth of French inlluence in
North America. After the Revolution the
Mohawks crossed into Canada under .Joseph Brant
(q.v. ), and are now settled on two reservations
to the north of Lakes Erie and Ontario. The
Cayugas are scattered, and some hundreds only
of the Tuscavoras have found a home among the
Mohawks; but most of the Oneidas are settled at
Green Bay, Wisconsin, most of the Senecas in
Western New York, and the Onondagas still hoM
their beautiful valley near Syracu.se, New Y'ork.
The Iroquois probably never exceeded "2.3,000, and
they still number nearly half as many, most of
them in the United States. Schools and missions
have met with considerable success, and civilisation
is making marked ]irogiess among the descendants
of this remarkable confederation, while some of
their number lia\e attained to distinction as
soldiers, engineers, (S:c.
Irradiation. When a biight object is looked
at, an image of it is formed on the retina of the eye.
The receiving-a])]iaratus there consists of a number
of separate stiniulable elements or sets of elements ;
ami tor the maximum distinctness of vision no one
of these elements should be at all affected by
stimulation of its neighbours. If, however, the
object be brilliant the iniagi' on the retina is very
bright, and neighbouring .sensitive elements par-
ticipate in the excitement ; a bright object thus
looks larger than it is. Examples; brig^it white
letters (ui a bl.ack ground look larger than they
are : bliick letters on a bright white grouml look
smaller; a white-hot wire appears thickened; the
new niooit appears larger than the copper-coh>ured
'old moon' which it ajipears to 'nnrse;' and,
especially, an electric im'andescent lamp often
appears, on .account of the extreme brilliancy of
its attenuated filament, to lie almost filled with
light.
Irrational Xnnibers, a term ai)plied to
those roots of numbers which cannot be accurately
expressed by a finite number of figures. For in-
stance, v2 is an irratiiuial number. If the
diameter of a circle is one foot the circumference
is an irrational number. Irration.'il numbers have
been dellned to be numlicrs which arc incommen-
sur.ible with unity. They are also termed Surds.
Irra>ra«l«l.v. See Ikaw.^ui.
Irr4'u;illar.s, agener.al term applied to i)artially-
eipiipiied troops engaged in partisan w.artare, such
.OS the Franctireuis during the Franco-(!ernian war
of 1S70-71. It is also used in connection with the
native armies of British India which were re-organ-
ised throughout, <luring the years 18.">7-C1, on what
is called the 'Irregular .System' — that is to say,
with only eight or nine Euroj>ean olficers insteail
of a complete establishment of from twenty-one to
IRREGULARS
IRRIGATION
225
twenty four. Previous to the Mutiny of 1857 most
of the native iCijinienl.s weic on the reguhir system,
the troops or companies being commanded by Euro-
peans, with others under tliem as subalterns, majors
m cliarge of win;;s, and a lieutenant-colonel in com-
mand, assisted by the usual regimental stall' — viz.
adjutant, quartermaster, and surgeon. Many of
these otheers held other appointments, either civil
or military, during peace, Ijut rejoined their regi-
ments on tlie outbreak of war. Only some seven or
eight would be found doing regimental duty con-
tinuously. A few irregular corps existed havin"
only three European officers, coniniandant, second
in command, and adjutant, attached from the regu-
lars and drawing high rates of pay. The organisa-
tion introduced into all native regiments after the
Mutiny gives to each cavalry regiment nine Euro-
pean officers from the Indian Stall' Corps — viz. the
commandant, four squadron commanders, and four
squadron officei-s (one the adjutant). The troop
officers are natives, and there is a native adjutant.
An infantry battalion has eight European officers —
Wz. the commandant, two wing commanders, and
live wing officers, of whom one is the adjutant and
another the quartermaster ; the company officers
are natives, and there is a native adjutant. The
Corps of Guides of the Punjab Frontier Force, con-
sisting of six troops of cavalry and eight companies
of iufantiy, luxs fourteen European officers. A native
battery of mountain-artillery ha,s a commandant
and three subalterns, all British, with three native
officers under them. The native sappers and miners
have a larger establishment of British officers, and
also forty European non-commissioned officers.
The routine regimental duties are carried on by the
native officers, who live in the lines alongside their
men, but in separate quarters. The British officers
exercise a general system of administration and
supervision, and live in cantonments generally at
some distance from the lines, except when on
service or in camp.
Irrigation (Lat., 'watering''), a method of
jjroducing or increasing fertility in soils by an arti-
bcial supply of water, or by inundating them at
stated periods. Irrigation was probably first resorted
to in countries where much of the land must other-
wise have remained banen from drought, as in
Egj-pt, where it w<us extensively practised nearly
■2000 years before Christ, and where great systems of
canals and artificial lakes were formed for the pur-
po.se. Extensive \\orks, intended for the irrigation
of large districts, existed in times of remote antiquity
in Mesopotamia, Persia, India, China, and some
other parts of the East : and in such of these
countries as have not entirely lost their ancient
prosperity .such works still exist. Some jilants also
re<iuire a very abundant sujiply of water, and irriga-
tion has become general where their cultivation pre-
vails. This is jiarticularly the case with rice, the
principal grain of great jiart of Asia. In Europe
irrigation prevails chieHy in the south, where it was
extensively juactised by the Romans ; and it is
inost extensively jiractised in northern Italy, and
in some parts oi Spain and southern France.
Irrigation in Britain, where it wiis hardly practised
till the 1 9th century, and in most parts of Europe
except Italy, is almost exclusively emi)loyed fxu-
the iiuipose of increasing the produce of grass by
converting the land into water-meadows. The
value of it, even for this one purpose, does not seem
U) Ih; sufficiently understood. Poor heaths have
been converted into luxuriant meadows by means
of irrigation alone. But in the countries in which
irrigation is most extensively practised the juo-
duction of all crops depends on it.
The irrigatiiui of land with the sewage water of
towns is, under another name, the application of
liquid manure. In no small degree the water of
275
rivers and of springs depends on its organic and
mineral constituents for its fertilising properties,
so that the ai>plication of it is not in principle
difl'erent from that of licpiid manure ; but it must be
borne in mind that the mere abundance of water
itself is of great importance for many of the most
valuable plants, as the most nutritious substances
brought into contact with their roots are of no use
to them unless in a state of solution : whilst it is an
additional recommendation of irrigation that the
supply of water most favourable to the gro«tli of
many valuable i^lants is destructive of some which
in many places naturally encumber the soil, as
heath, broom, &c. The water wliich is used for
irrigation should be free from mud and such
impurities as mechanically clog the pores of leaves,
or cover up the hearts of plants, and interfere with
their growth. Irrigation is far from being so ex-
tensively practised in Great Britain as would seem
desirable. There are few famis in the British
Isles which would not give a handsome return for
artificial watering in a dry year — i.e. if the water
could be obtained and applied at a reasonable cost.
In many instances the produce might be increased
two, three, or even fourfold. The amount of
moisture which farm crops require to ensure their
full development is greater than would be readily
conceived. At Kothamsted it was found by
Lawes and Gilbert that an acre of wheat in five
months and eighteen days evaporated through its
leaves no less than 335J tons of water. Light
porous soils benefit most from irrigation : sandy
soils, with a little admixture of clay and marl,
usually most of all. Except in tropical countries,
stiti' retentive clay would not as a rule be benefited
by irrigation, and might be injured by it, at any
rate for arable farming. Thorough drainage,
natural or artificial, is a necessary accompaniment
of successful irrigation — necessary so that the soil
may not become ' water-logged,' but benefited by
the water percolating through it. Soil wholly or
partially uncovered by vegetation is liable to be
robbed of nitrogen by the rain or irrigation water
washing nitrates into the drains or down beycmd
the reach of the plants. This is avoided in grass
land by the roots of the grasses engaging the
nitrogen. Irrigation may benefit the land in vari-
ous ways, most usually ( 1 ) by softening and dis-
integrating the soil in percolating through it ; (2)
by brin^'ing additional plant food into it ; ( 3 ) by
facilitating the dissolving, preparing, and distribu-
tion of the plant food already in the soil ; and (4)
by the oxidation of any excess of organic matter
in the soil, leading thereby to the production of
useful carbonic acid and nitrogen compounds. The
extent of water-meadows in England is stated to
be not more than 100,000 acres. They are mostly
confined to the west anil south of England. In-
dividual farms, irrigated with sewage water, are
to be met w ith in many parts of England, but the
most successful instance of sewage irrigation in
(Jreat Britain is to be found near Edinburgh,
where an extensive tract of meadows lying be-
tween Portobello and Leitli yields a rent of £15
to £35 an acre ; the grass is cut from three to five
times a year, and over ten tons an acre have been
obtained at a cutting. See Skwace, M.vnure.
The methods most generally pursued are what
are known as bed-work irrigation, catch-work
irrigation, and subterraneous irrigation. The first
metho<l can be conveniently a)>plied only to ground
which is nearly level, and may cost from ±'20 to
£40 per acre. The catch-wmk method is very
much less costly, and can be applied to land
whether it is level or not. By the last system the
soil is saturated with water from below.
In .some i)arts of the I'liited States irrigation is
of vital importance ; in 1890 the total area of the
226
IRRITABILITY
IRVING
ariil lands of the west Avas 1,331.151 S(|. in. Tn the
east tlie principal nse of inijxation is in the rice-
lieKls of Sonth Carolina and (;eorj;ia ; but sni-li
western states as Colorado and Utah are altogether
dependent on it, owinj; to the scarcity of the rain-
fall. This is true also, to a great extent, of
southern California. In all these arid districts
hundreds of miles of canals and ditches have been
constructed in addition to the mining Humes
utilised for irrigation i)urposes ; and as a result
wide tracts of desert have l>een turned into a pro-
ductive farming country. More recently irrigation
has been introduced in western Kansas, largely by
canals from the .\rkansas River: although here, as
in eastern Cidorado ami California, a great part of
the water-supply is obtained from artesian wells.
In .\rizona, also, it is expected that wide tracts
now uninhabitable will be rescued with the aid of
irrigation.
In Australia irrigation on an American scale,
and according to American methods, has trans-
formed hundreds of thousands of acres, once
covered with scrub, into luxuriant vineyards,
orchards, and orangeries, especially in the lower
basin of the Murray. The importance of irriga-
tion to the Cape is noticed in the article on that
colony ; and the irrigation works of India and
Ceylon are referred to at ISDI.v, Ceylox. Egypt
{q.v. ) is the land most entirely dependent on sys-
tematic and careful irrigation.
Irritability in Plants, a term employed to
designate phenomena very interesting and curious,
hut than which none connected with vegetable life
are more imperfectly understood. Such are the
phenomena of what is usually called the Sleep
(q.v.) of plants; the motion of the spores of many
cryptogamic plants by means of cilia ; the motions
of' some of the lowest Alg.e ; those caused by
agitation or by the touch of a foreign body in
the leaves of Sensitive Plants (q.v.); the motions
of Insectivorous Plants (q.v.), &c.
Irritation is the term applied to any morbid
excitement of the vital actions not amounting to
inllammation, and it often but not always leads
to that condition.
Irtish* a river of Siberia, the chief affluent of
the Obi (q.v.), rises at the east end of the Altai
Mountains, passes through Lake Salsan, breaks
through the Altai in the west at the liottom of
a savage gorge, and Hows north-westwards across
the steppes of Western Siberia to join the Obi, from
the left, at S.amarow. At that point it has a
width of 2000 yards ; its total length is 1620 miles ;
the area of its basin, 6i7,000 sq. m. The important
towns of Semipalalinsk, Omsk, and Tobolsk stand
on its banks. From April to No\ember it is navi-
gable from its mouth ;is far as Lake Saisan ;
(luring the rest of the year tratlic is carried on
by means of sledges. Its current is gradually
sliifting eastwards. Its best-known tributaries
are the Buchtarma and Om from the right, and
the Tobol and Islam from the left.
Iriin, a town in the Spanish province of
(iuipiizcoa, on the Bidassoa, near the French
frontier, 24 miles by rail S\V. of Bayonne. In
1837 Ceneral Sir De Lacv Kvans (ipv.) captured it
from the Carlists. Pop. '7040.
Irvine, a seaport of Ayrehire, on the river
Irvine, 1:J mile from the Firth of Clyde, and II
miles by rail N. of Ayr, 2!) SW. of tilasgow.
.Made a sub-port of Trocm in 1863, its harbour hxs
heen inijiroved since 1873; and there are cheniic.il
works, foundries, grain-stores, livrc. The bridge
(1740-18.37), the new town-hall (1859), a statue of
Lord-justicegeneral lioyle ( 1867), and the acailemy
(1814) are features of the town, which became a
royal burgh about 1230, and which with Ayr, <&c.
returns one member to parliament. It was the
birthplace of (ialt and .James Montgomery, and
has memories also of Burns and the Buchanites.
Pop. ( 1841 ) 4594 ; ( 1891 ) t)086.
Irving. Edward, was born in the town of
Annan, Dumfriesshire, August 4, 1702, and at thir-
teen entered the university of Edinburgh. In 1810
he became a schoolmaster at Haildington, in 1812
at Kirkcaldy, where three yeai's later he >\!us
licensed to preach ; and in 1819 ho w;is ajipointed
assistant to Dr Chahners, then a minister in (Glas-
gow. His sermons did not prove very ])0]>ular ;
Chalmers himself was not .satislied. In 1822 Irving
accepted a call to the Caledonian Church, Halton
I (larden, London. His success as a preacher in the
metropolis was such as had never previously been
witnessed. After some yeai's, however, the world
of fashion got tired of Irving ; but it was not till his
more striking singularities of opinion were de\ el-
oped that fashion hnally deserted him. At the close
ot 1825 he began to announce his convictions in
I'egard to the second personal advent of the Lord
Jesus, in which he had become a firm believer, and
which he declare<l to be near at hand. This was
followed up by the translation of a Spanish woik,
TItc Cominq of the Messiah in Mnjcsfi/ aiid (llury,
hy Juiin Josafat Ben Ezra, which i)rofessed to be
written by a Christian Jew, but was in reality the
composition of a Spanish Jesuit. Irvine's intro-
ductory preface is regarded as one of liis most
remarkable literary performances. In 1828 ap-
peared his Homilies on the Sacraments. He now
began to elaborate his views of the incarnation of
Christ, asserting with great emjihasis the doctrine
of his oneness \\'ith us in all the attributes of
humanity. The language which he held on this
subject drew upon him the accusation of heresy ;
he was charged with maintaining the sinfulness of
Christ's nature. But he paid little heed to the
alarm thus created. He was now deep in the
study of the prophecies, and when the news came
to London in tlie early i)art of 1830 of certain
extraordinary manifestations of ]irophetic power in
the west of Scotland, Irving was prep.ared to believe
them. Harassed, worn, baffled in his most sacred
desires for the regeneration of the great Babylon
in which he dwelt, branded by the religious public
and satirised by the press, the great preacher, >\ho
strove above all things to be faithful to what
seemed to him the truth of Cod, grasped at the
new wonder with a pa.ssionate earnestness.
Matters soon came to a crisis. Irving was ar-
raigni'd before the presbytery of London in 1830
and con\icled of heresy, ejected from his new
church in Kegent's Square in 1832, and linally
dcjiosed in 1833 by the presbytery of Annan, which
had licensed him. His defence of himself on this
last occasion was one of his most splendid and
sublime efl'orts of oratory. The majority of his
congregation adhered to him, and gradually a new
form of Christianitj' was developed, connnonly
known as Irvingism, though Irving had really
very little to do with its development (see
Catholic and ArnsroLic Ciiriicii). Shortly
after his health failed, ami, in obedience, as he
believed, to the Si)irit of Cod, he went down to
Scotland, where he sank a victim to consumjjtion.
He died at Gla.sgow, December 8, 1834, in the
forty-second year of his age. See Carlyle's Misccl-
/rineous Essiii/s ami his licmim'sccnrcs, and JIrs
01iphant'.s Life of Edward Ircing ( 1862).
Irvins, Siu Hknky (b'U"n John Henuv Brod-
r.init), actor, was bcun in 1838 at Keinton-Mande-
ville, Somerset. Educated in London, he was lor
a time engaged as a clerk in the eily, but, having a
strong inclination for Ihestage, made his tirstappear-
nnce at the Sunderland Theatre in 1856. After m\i
IRVING
227
playing at Eilinburgh for nearly three years, he
first perfornieil in London on St'iiteniber 25, 1S59,
at the Princess's Tlieatre. He achieved Init a
moderate success, though some dramatic readings
whicli he gave at this time at Crosby Hall were
warmly commended by the critics. He next played
at Glasgow, and then for nearly five years at the
Manchester Theatre Royal. After a brief engage-
ment at Liverpool in 1S66 he appeared with JSIiss
Kate Terry at Manchester in Hunted Down. An
invitation to London followed, and he appeared
at St James's Theatre with nnich succe.ss as
Doricourt in The Belle's Stratagem, Dornton in
The Road to Ruin, and (at the Gaiety) iis Mr
Clienevix in I'nele Dick's Darling. Performances
at other London theatres followed, and in 1870, at
the Vaudeville Theatre, he made a distinct mark
as Digby Grant in Albery's comedy of the Two
Roses. Migrating to the Lyceum in November
1871, he further added to his reputation by his tine
representation of ^lathias in TItc Bells. Other
impersonations succeeded, including Charles L,
Eugene Aram, Kichelieu, and Louis XL, until,
on the 31st of October 1874, he created genuine
interest by his unconventional performance of
Hamlet. This Shakespearian masterpiece ran
for two hundred nights, and, although the public
were divided as to the general merits of the repre-
sentation, full justice was done to the actor's
abilities, and it was universally admitted that Mr
Irving had established his reputation as a tragedian
of real power and originality. Among other suc-
cesses under Mrs Bateman's management of the
Lyceum were Macbeth, Othello, Richard III., and
Tlie Lyons Mail. In December 1878 Mr Irving
entered upon liis memorable management of the
Lyceum Theatre, where his triumphs have been
shared by Miss Ellen Terry. He soon added a suc-
cession of romantic characters to his repertoire.
After performances of Hamlet, Othello, and The
Merchant of Venice, which were marked by scenic
as well as histrionic excellence, this popular actor
appeared in 1880 in The Corsicaii Brothers ; in Lord
Tennyson's drama of The Cup in 18S1 ; in Romeo
and Juliet and Mncli Ado ahuut Nothing in
1882 : Twelfth Night in 1884 ; W. (_;. Wills's Olivia
in 1885; Faust, adapted by AVills, in 1886: The
Dead Heart in 1889; King' Lear in 1892; Bcchct
in 1893 ; King Arthur in 1895 ; Cgmbeliiie in 1896,
&c. Since 1883 Irving and his company have
repeatedly been received «ith enthusiasm in tlie
United States. He was knighted in 1895, and
made D.C.L. of Oxford in 1S96. Nutwithstaiuling
certain mannerisms of voice, gait, and gesture,
he is undoubteiUy at the head of contemporary
EnglLsh actors, and he has done much to redeem
the stage from formality and mediocrity. See
works on Irving by Joseph Hatton (1884), Frederic
Dalv ( 1884 ), "William Archer { 1885), and Percy Fitz-
gerald (1893).
Irving, WA.'illlNGTOX, was born in the city of
Xew York, April 3, 1783, and died at Tarrytown,
New York, November 28, 18.59. comisht isso in u.s.
His father's family were Scotch, by J. b. lappincott
and claimed descent from William Compsny.
de Irwyn, .secretary and armour-bearer of Robert
IJruce ; his mother was English, attached to
the Episcopal Church, and of a loving, sunny
teniper. His education was scanty and desultory.
His lii()tlicrs were .sent to college, but he showed
no inclination to study, being ' a dreamer and a
.saunterer.' This arose in i)art from his tendency
to pulmonary disease. He began to rca<l law at
the age of nineteen, but after two years, his health
being precarious, his brothers sent"liiiii to Europe.
He landed at IJordeaiix in 1804, and wi'ut by .Mar-
eeilles to Italy, escaping with dithculty from" Bona-
parte's police, who persisteil in regarding liim ;i>.
an Englisli spy. At Rome he was iiitoxicate<l by
Italian art, and having met Allston, the American
painter, was tempted to become an artist, but
tliought better of it. He visited Paris, the Nether-
lands, and London, where he saw John Kemble
and Mrs Siddons. In ISOG he returned to New
York in inipro\ed health, and was admitted to
the bar. Those were 'Corinthian days,' and he
led a rather idle life ; much in society, and greatly
admired.
His liist writing was in the Salmagundi, a semi-
monthly sheet in imitation of the Spectator, con-
ducted jointly by himself, his brother William, and
J. K. Paulding. It ran for twenty numbers, and
then stopped without ex])lanation in the fullness
of success. There was considerable merit of a
superficial sort in those early attempts, but there
was no evidence of a serious literary purpose, for
the papers apparently were written with a view
only to social distinction. His first characteristic
work, and the one by which he will be best known
to posterity, was A History of New York, by
Diedrich. Knickerbocker, iiublished in 1809. All
readers of English know the little man in knee-
breeches and cocked hat as one of the permanent
figures in the gallery of literary portraits. The
History has some grains of truth, liut is openly a
good-natured burlesque upon the old Dutch settlers
of ^Manhattan Island. The humour and the gravity
whicli mask it are alike irresistible. It may be
doubted if there is in the language a more delight-
ful or more perfectly-sustained piece of drollery.
Readers of Scott will remember his warm praise of
the book, written while ' his sides were sore with
laughing.' In the United States it was uni\er-
sally read ; and so abiding has been the impression
that it is far oftener quoted than any sober histor-
ical work. It is to the American people as i-cal in
its way as the Pilgrim's Progress.
For many years after this Irving was in partner-
sliip with his brothers in a mercantile business that
had relations on both sides of the Atlantic ; but
in the end they were unsuccessful ; and \\hen later
he had won his place among authors and was
receiving a good income, he supporteil two of his
brothers and five nieces with unsellish devotion.
In May 1815 he went to Europe for the second
time, and did not return for seventeen years. It
was in 1818 that the misfortunes of his lirm
culminated in bankruptcy, and thereafter he turned
his whole attention to literature. lie declined
liberal oH'ers for magazine work, and would under-
take nothing that was to interfere with his plans.
The first number of the Sketch Book a]jpeared in
New York in 1819, and the last in 1820. It was
received in the United States with universal delight.
Its early success in Great Britain was largely due
to the powerful support of Scott. All the i)ieces
in this miscellany have a certain charm — if for
nothing more, for their felicitous touch and purity
of style. The chief interest, however, centres in
'Kip Van Winkle,' 'The Legend of Sleepy Hollow,'
and ' Westminster Abljey.' The last is one of the
most finished descriptive essays of our cenlurv,
though ]ieihaps a little lacking in siiii|ilicity. The
two legendary tales are in a way related to the
History of New York, and have had a currency
and an inlluence difficult to measure. ' Rip Van
Winkle' is a distinct creation of genius, aiul with
its fellow has maile the lower reach of the Hudson
clas.sic ground. Kor the Inst time tliere had lieeii
IHoduced in the I'nited States a literary work on
the highest level of contemporary excelhiice.
Ilracc/a-idgc Hall {IS'22) fairly maintained but ilid
not raise the author's reputation. It was scarcely
necessary, for (!e(t//'rey Crayon, Gent, wiuh already
at the summit of fiivoiir. After a few years pa-ssed
on the Continent he published (1824) Talcs of a
228
IRVING
ISiEUS
Traveller, a work which he tliought his best in
regard to style, but which some consider to be
over-refiueil.
In 182() lie went to Spain and began the long
and arduous studies which were the foundation of
his more important serious works. These were
The Life of Columbiin ( 1S2S), Cunqiiest of Granada
(1829), Voi/ar/es of the Companions uf Columbus
(1831), The Alhambra {\S32), Leifenih of tlic Con-
quest uf Spain (1835), Mahumct and his Suceessors
(1850). The liist two or three of the works just
named were only sketched or partly written before
his return to the United States in 1832, but they
are given together with the group of which they
form ])art. It was Irving who tirst revealed to
English readers the rich stores of Spanish history
and romance ; an<l whatever may be done to correct
or enlarge his relations, to him must be given the
praise of having produced some of the most fascin-
ating books in e.\istence. He had intended to write
the Tiistory of the conquest of Mexico, for which
he had collected materials, but generously, and
to bis own loss, relinquished his design to Pres-
cott when he learnetl that the latter proposed
to undertake it. At the end of this sojourn in
Spain Irving was for a short time secretary to the
United States Legation in London. On his return
to his native city (1832) he was received with great
enthusiasm. He declined political honours, and
continued his literary work. Having made an
excursion in the then Far West, he publLshed
(1835) A Tour on the Prairies. In the same year
he published EecoUeetions of Abbotsford and Keir-
steiid Abbcij. He was also at work upon the last
of the books in the Spanish series. In writing
Astoria (1830) he was assisted by his nephew, his
future biographer. The Adventures of Captain
Bonneville (in the Rocky Mountains) appeared in
1837. His bi()grai)hy of Goldsnuth was mainly
written about this time, though not published
until 1849. He remodelled for hLs own residence
an old Dutch house in Tarrytown, near the scene
of his legend of Sleepy Hollow. This became well
known in after years under the name of Sunnyside.
But his intended retirement was postponed by his
appointment in 18-12 as United States minister
to Spain. He returned in 1846 and once more set
himself to work. Goldsmith -.md Mahtimi't ajipeared
as already mentioned : then, in 1855, nolfert's
Roost, a miscellany. His last work was the Life
of George Washington (5 vols. lSo.)-a9).
Irving was never married. In his youth he was
betrothed to Miss Holliuan, a lovely young laily
of eighteen, daughter of the lawyer with whom
he pursued his studies. Separated from her by
her untimely death, he remained all his life faithful
to her menn)ry. In his works tln^re is to be observed
a delicacy of feeling towards woman, a chivalrous
deference as well as tenderness and allection. He
was also exceedingly fond of children and always
bi^loveil by them. In his youth he was well made
and handsome, and then, as afterwards, was alwaj's
oourteil by the best society. Sentiment and abunil-
ant humour characterise his writings; but above
all, he had the power to .seize the attention of
cidtivated readers by his keen observation, his
graphic touches of description, and his lim|)i(l and
music'al style. The early books which lirst gave
him fame, and those which came from his studies
in Spain, are the best, for in them his genius is
eonsiiicuous. The Later productions are respect-
able, but would not have given him the high rank
he deservedly holds. His was a fortunate and'
honourable life ; and, on the whole, though inferior
to one or two in genius, he must be jironounced
thus far the most successful of the writers of the
New World. His Life was written by his nephew,
Pierre M. Irving (5 vols. 1862-64). There is also
an excellent short biography by Charles Dudley
Warner (1881).
Irvingites. See Catholic and Apo.stolic
Church.
Isaac, one of the Hebrew ii.atriarchs, the son ot
Abraham and Sarah, and hall-brotber of Ishmael.
His story in (jenesis makes him born when both
his parents were advanced in age, and die at
Hebron at the age of ISO, leaving two sons, Jacob
and Esau. The Midrash ascribes to him, in allu-
sion to Gen. xxiv. 63, the institution of the after-
noon prayer.
Isaac I., COMNENUS, emperor of Constantin-
ople, was the first of the Comneni who attaine<l
to that dignity. Under the successors of Basil II.
Isaac served in the army, winning the hearts of
officers and men by his prudence and upri^dilness,
and on the deposition of Michael VI. in 1057
was elevated to the throne. He established the
finances of the empire on a sounder and more
stable footing, and, braving the patriarch's threat
of excommunication, even laid the clergy under
contribution at the tax-collections. He repelled
the Hungarians attacking his northern frontier ;
and then, resigniu" the crown (1059), retired to a
convent, where he lived two years hmger. He was
one of the most virtuous and able emperors of the
East. There are e.xtant from his pen scholia and
other works on Homer.
Isaac II., Angelus, connected through his
mother with the Comnenian emperors, became
sovereign of the East in 1185, and reigned ten
years. Isaac was a vicious and cowaidly i>rince,
and his reign was a period of war aiul tumult.
He was dethroned, blinded, and imprLsoned by
his brother Alexius in 1195. Eight years later he
was restored to the throne, and reigne<l for a period
of si.x months, when he was again dethroned, an<l
soon after he died in prison.
Isabella of Castile, queen of Spain, born oa
23d April 1451, was the daughter of John II., kiu^
of Castile and Leon, and in 1469 marrieil Ferdinand
v., surnamed ' the Catholic,' king of Aragon. See
Ferdinand.
Isabella II. (Maria Isabel Luisa), ex-queen
of S))ain, the elder daughter of Ferdinand VII.
See Spain.
Isabcy, Jean B.vptiste, French portrait-
jiainter, was born at Nancy (m 11th April 1707,
and studied under David. He painted iiortraits of
several of the notabilities of the Kevolution, as
Saint-.lust, Barrere, CoUot d'Herbois, and others.
Afterwards he became court-iiainter to Napoleon,
and painteil him and most of his generals, and
important events in his life. After Napoleon's
fall Isabey worked for the Bourbon sovereigns.
He excelled also ,as a miniature-painter ami as a
painter on porcelain. His ' Isabey's Boat' (1796),
'Keview ot Troops by the First Consul' (1804),
' Meinbei's of the Congress of Vienna' (1815),
and 'Staircase of the Paris Museum,' a water-
colour (1817), are his most important compositions
apart from portraits. He died at Paris, 18th April
18.")5. His son, Eugene (1804-86), was a clever
historical painter.
Isa'llS is, like Wordsworth's cuckoo, ' a voice,
a mystery,' for, though wv. have ten of the fifty
speeches he coiii|iosed, we know absidutely nothing
of the facts of his life, excejit that be imrsued the
profession of speech-writer in Athens, and that his
first speech was composed in 389 B.C. and his last
in 353 n.C, so th.at he may be said to have lived
from the time of the IVloiJonnesian war to that of
Philip's supremacy. Isa-us did not com|)ose jioliti-
cal speeches, or speeches to be delivered in public
suits, but exclusively speeches for private suits.
ISiEUS
ISAIAH
229
His stven<;th as a lawyer lay in his pnwer of deal-
ing with cases of inheritance, ami it is fortunately
those of his speeches vliich ileal with this luanch
of Attic law that have sui\ ived to our times. To
the stndent of Aryan institutions and of compara-
tive law, as well as to the student of Attic law, they
are invaluahle. To the general reader they are
less interesting, for the very nature of the cases in
■which they were delivered — ilisjjutes as to mcum
and liiiim — finbade any very lofty flights of
eloi[uence. On the other h.and, the functions
which he discharged in the history of Greek
oratory as a branch of literature were of the
utmost importance, and explain the fart that he
was included in the ' canon ' of the ten great Greek
or.atoi-s. It was through Isa?us that the change
from the older style of Lvsias to the new school of
which Demosthenes is tlie greatest representative
was eft'ected. He imitated Lysias, and was him-
self the teacher of Demosthenes. It will he re-
membered that Demosthenes' first speeches were
those delivered by him in his efforts to recover his
inheritance, the branch of the law in which Is-tjus
was acknowledged master. The characteristics of
the two schools lietween which Isa?us was the con-
necting link are to be seen in the natural tones of
Lysias contrasted with the technical skill of the
professional orator which along with higher gifts
marks Demosthenes. The importance of this con-
trast becomes apparent when it is remembered that
the speech-writer or logographer was not allowed
by Athenian law to speak himself on behalf of his
client, but only to compose speeches to lie delivered
by his client. When speech-writing first became
a profession and a branch of literature — i.e. about
the beginning of the Peloponnesian war — there
was a prejudice in the mind of the average
Athenian juryman against the use of speeches
thus A\Titten, which made it desirable that the
speech should have the appearance of being the
speaker's own composition. In adapting his style
to the character of his client for the time being
Lysias was unrivalled. By the time of Demos-
thenes the practice of logography was so usual
that attempts at disguise were less necessarj- ; and
the speech-writer might display all the technical
skill of oratory without aroiising suspicion. Isneus
endeavours to imitate the unprofessional and
innocent style of Lysias, but does not succeed in
concealing the hoof of the advocate : his .simplicity
is exaggerated, his sentences have not the careless
ease of Lysias, but an ungraceful negligence. At
the same time we find in him the germs of th.at
combination of practical titility and artistic beauty
which was afterwards to mark the new school.
Nor can it be doubte<l that Isa^us surpasses Lysias,
as he is himself surp.issed by Demosthenes, in pure
oratorical skill. Lysias is distinguished for simple
colouring but graceful drawin", Isa>us for careless
drawing but deeper shade, Iirighter light, and
greater wealth of colour. The crlido prinrcps is
that of Aldus ( I. ■)!.■?). The best edition and com-
mentani- (German) is that of Schoniann (1831).
Isaiall ( Heb. Jcshtiiah ), son of Anioz, tirst of the
greater Hebrew prophets, was a citizen of .lerusalem,
who came forward as prophet about 740 B.C. (prob-
able death-year of King Uzziah), and exercised his
office till at least the clo.se of the centurj-. The
main object of his prophesying was his people,
Israel, sunk in so<'ial nnnghteousncss and idolatiy ;
the subject was his people's Clod, Jehovah, cxallcd
or sovereign in ritilitcoinDirss. and, because there is
nothing higher tlian righteonsne.ss, sn])reme over
the wlude world and its forces. From such a God
to such people only |)unisliment could pass, and the
means for this w.-us jiresent in the gre.at world-power
of the <lay, the Assyrians, four of whose invasions
of Palestine Isaiah predicted and lived to see. Be-
cause, however, Jehovah's honour and the existence
of true religion upon earth were identilieil with the
continuance of Israel's national history, Isaiah pro-
mised the survival of a irnninnt, the stock ot an
imperial nation in the latter <lays, and centre for a
whole world converted to Jehovah. This remnant
required a leader and ,a rallying-place ; and it was
on these two points that Isaiah's eloquence and
hope reached their climax : that a great prince
should arise in Jndah — though sometimes he
described the future without this persimage — and
that Zion, though closely besieged, should remain
inviolate.
In the book of his name, the prophecies
generally admitted to be Isaiah's do not lie in
chronological order. They may lie re-arranged
according to the four invasions of Palestine : Tiglath-
pileser's, 734-.'{2 ; Shalmaiiesers and Sargons,
7'2.')-20 ; Sargons, 711-10; Sennacherib's, 701.
( 1 ) In the prophecies held to be prior to the first
invasion (ii.-x. 4: some add x. 5-34, and xvii.
1-14) Isaiah describes his call, arraigns lioth states
of Israel, intimates their invasion, but with a
difTerent res\ilt for each. To north Israel he holds
ovit no hojie : in the worst that can happen to
Judah, Zion shall stanil, and David's dynasty sur-
vive in a prince, whose birth Isaiah preilicts as
almost immediate, whom he hails as a deliverer
from the As.syrians, but his ascriptions to -nhom
are applied by the New Testament and Christian
theologj- to Jesus Christ. Tiglath-pileser retired
taking only a small part of north Israel captive.
(2) In prophecies of the next invasion (xxviii. and
most probably x. 5-xi.) Isaiah repeated the doom
of nortli Israel, an<l his word was vindicated by
the fall of Samaria in 721 and captivity of the
l>eople. He warned Judah again, but defied the
Assyrian to take Zion, and expanded his prospect
of t"lie coming prince and the glory of the nation.
Hezekiah, his friend, was now on the throne, and
their joint work of abolishing the idols may have
begun. (3) About the invasion of 711-10 there is
difficulty. Did it comprise Judah ? Sayce, Cheyne,
&c. say it did, and assign to it Isaiah, x. 5-34,
xxii. , and xxxvi. 1, where they read l^iair/oti for
Sennacherib. But of an invasion of Jndah by
Sargon we have no direct evidence, and hence other
critics (Driver, Robertson Smith, &c.) assign to this
])eriod only .xx., xxi. 1-10, perhaps xvi. 13-14 (the
rest of .XV. -xvi. being earlier), and the events in
xxxviii. and xxxix. (4) With 70.5 — the revolt of
Sargon s vassals against Sennacherib, his successor,
and Sennacherib's lueparations to reduce them —
we reach the most fertile period of Isaiah's pro-
phesying. In xxix.-xxxii. he denounces Jewish
intrigues with Egyjrt, preilicts the siege and deliver-
ance of Zion, and promises to faith and sincerity a
glorious future. In another set of oracles to foreign
nations, not all dating from this time, xiv. 24-32,
perhaps xvii. 12-14, xviii., xix., xxi., xxiii., he
intimates to a number of tribes the futility of their
resistance to Assyria, and allirnis that only Zion
shall stand. In 701 Sennacherib overran Juchili,
and seems to have been bonglit oil' by llezid<iah,
only, however, to send back a corps under the Kab-
shakeli to demand Zion's surrender. It w.os this
corps whose sudden withdrawal, upon news of a
great disaster to the main army at Pelusiuni, set
Jerusalem free, and so gloriously vindicated Isaiah's
word. His oraticms during these events are prob-
ably chtap. i., <lescribing the devastation of .ludah ;
xxii., the panic and profligacy of the capital on the
fn"st appear.ince of the enemy; and xxxiii., the
prophet s final triumph at the Assyrian witlidrawal ;
with the detailed narrative of events, xxxvi. 2-
xxxvii. After this triumph in 701 it is very un-
certain that we have anvthing more from Isaiah,
except it be the latter h.alf of xix., which has been
230
ISAIAH
ISCHIA
palloil Ills 'swan-song.' Of his end we know
nothinj; : a tiadition exists tliat lie was sawn to
(leatli in the peisecution of Manasseli (cf. Epistle
to Heluows, xi. 37 ; Geniara, Jebanioth, 49 6, and
Sanh. 103 h: Joseph. Atiiiq. x. 31).
There still remains a large portion of the Book of
Isaiah, xiii.-xiv. 23, xxiv. -xxvii. , xxxiv., xxxv.,
and xl.-lxvi. The lii-st doubts as to the authenticity
of these wore started by Aben-Ezra, and followed
up by Kojipe (1779), wlio sus|)ected that xl.-lxvi.
were of later date, and after Idni by an increasing,
and now the main, body of critics on the Continent
and in Britain — (iesenius, Hitzig, Knohel, Unibreit,
Ewald, A. B. Davidson, C'lieyne, Driver, Robertson
Snuth, Knenen, Wellhausen, &c. ; and to a less de-
gree, Delitzsch, Bredenkamp, Orelli, <.tc. No critic
of any eminence now claims all sixty chapters for
Isaiah ; and indeed the belief that they were all his
cimld only have originated through the taking for
granted that the title of chap. i. covers the whole
hook — an opinion falsified Ijy the appearance of
titles for some of the following chapters and their
absence from others. None of the chapters in
question, save xiii., claim to be Isaiah's, and that
they are not his may be argued, apart from the
uncertain and confusing testimony of style, vocal)U-
lary, &c., upon grounds of historical evidence. The
circumstance and horizon of these prophecies are
entirely ditl'erent fiom those of the authentic oracles.
Assyria is no more the dominant world-power, nor
Zion the inviolate fortress of tJod. The Jews are
not in their own land : they are either in exile
or just returned. It is no more the repulse of the
invader or the recovery of Zion from siege that
is predicted ; but the overtliiow of the tyrant in
his own land, the redemption of a cai)tive people,
the laying down of a higlnvay for the return of
exiles, the rebuilding of the city, and the resump-
tion of worshiji. Exile is not foretold, nor the
effort made to lift the imagination to it as certain.
It is descriljcd as present : the people are addressed
as in exile, their conscience is appealed to as
the conscience of a people who have suH'ered and
acknowledge their penalty. In the case of xl.-lxvi.
there is an additional argument. In some of these
chapters Cyrus, who appeared about 550 or more
than a century after Isaiah's death, is not only
named ;i.s the deliverer of the exiles, and described
as existing in the llesh : but in a debate (chap. xli.
fi'. ) about Jehovah's righteousness — i.e. his fidelity
to his ancient iiromises of deliverance and his ability
to perform them — Cyrus is presented both to Jew
and heathen as a living proof that these promises
are about to be fulfilled — which surely would ha\'e
been an utterly vain proceeding, if Cyrus were not
already there, visible to all men. This very definite
evidence overbears not only the resemblances in
style between xl.-lxvi. and Isaiah's own oracles,
but also such facts as that Isaiah foresaw the Bal)y-
lonian captivity (xxxi.v. ) or that he once wrote from
the standiMiint of a nmch larger exile than liap]iened
in his own day (xi,). It is ipiite possible, though
incapable of j)roof, that the disputed prophe<-ies
contain fragments from Isaiah hinisclf. rii.at they
contain at least pre-exilic fragments is more certain :
Ivi. 9-lvii. 11 implies that the Jewish state still
exists, and bears traces of an origin in Palestine.
By some Iviii. fi'., esi)ecially Ixiii.-lxvi., are hehl to
be jiost-exilic. Originally in the Jewish canon the
Book of Isaiah seems to have followed Ezekiel, a
fact which seems to confirm the late date of at least
parts of the book.
Sec Commentaries 1)y Alu.\:indor ( liS47 ; new ed.
1875), Ewald, UeUtz.sch ( trans. 1,S91), Orulli ( trans. 1891),
and the present writer (in 'Expositor's Bible,' 1891);
Driver's /«<«■«/( ; his Life and Times (1888); Kennedy's
Unit;/ of Isaiah (1891); works by Cheync (]87o-'jri);
and Matthew Arnold's two books on Isaiah.
IsnilllM'l't. Fr.vncois Andre, French lawyer,
was born at Aunay (Eure-et-Loire) on 30th Novem-
ber 179'J. In ISIS he began to jiractise as an advo-
cate at the Court of Cassation in I'aris. Here he
soon made a name as a piditical advocate, r;inging
himself in opposition to the Kestoration govern-
ment. About this time he greatly enhanced his
reputation by i)uhlisliing Ucrucil CKiifrul r/cs An-
a'lii lies Lois yntiiraisis (29 vols. 1821-33), I'ntHe chi
Droit Puhlic ct till Droit t/c.s Gnis (5 vols. IS'23),
and Code A'/ectora/ I't M:i>iirij,a/ (2d ed. 1S31 ). He
also interested himself actively in the condition of
the liberated slaves in the French West Indian
colonies. After the July revolution of 1830 he was
appointed councillor of the Court of Cassati(m and
elected a memlier of the ('handier of Deputies.
From this year down to 1S4S Isambcrt belongeil to
the Constitutional opposition, signalising himself as
a friend of liberty and an opponent of the Jesiiits.
The chief literary productions of the later part of
his life are Jitat Heiiyienx de la France ct dc
fJiiiropc (1843-44) and llistoirc de Justinicn
(18.50). His Pcttidcctcs Fraii^ccises, a collection of
French laws, edicts, and ordinances, from 1789
onwards, was left unfinished. Isambert died at
Faris on 13th April 1857.
Isaildllla. or IsANDHUVANA, in the north-east
of Natal, on the left bank of the Buflalo River, 110
nules N. by W. of Durban. There, on 22d January
1879, the British camp, com|irising four companies
of the 24th, with a native contingent, under
C(donels Duinfoid and rulleine, was surjuised by
18,000 Zulus in Lord Chelmsford's absence and
almost annihilated. The British loss exceeded 800,
that of the Zulus 2000.
Ismv or ISEi:, a river of Bavaria, rises in the
Tyrol, north-east of Innsbruck, and fiows '2'20 miles,
generally in a north and north-east direction, till it
falls into the Danube near Deggendorf. Munich
and Landshut are on the banks 'of Iser, rolling
rapidly : ' Hohenlinden (q.v. ) is 20 miles away. In
the first part of its course it is an imiietuous
iiiouiitain-torreiit ; and even after it leaves the
Alps it has many rapids and islands. Large
i|uaiitities of wood are Ihialcd down the Isar from
the inuuntains. Area of its drainage basin, 3545
sq. m.
Isaill'ia. in ancient geography, a district of
Asia Minor, occujiyiiig the summit and northern
slopes of INlonnt 'raurus. The people were stern
and savage, like their native mountains, and occu-
]ded themselves princiiially in robbery and piracy.
At length their deiircdations and tho.se ol their
neighbours, the Cilicians, became so formidable
that the Roman proconsul, I'. iServilius, chased
them into their mountain fastnesses and coerced
them into siilimi.ssion in 70 B.C., for which exjiloit
he acquired the surname Isauricus. Ncverthele.>^s
the Isaurians were not subdued. rompey, in
warring against the Mediterranean ]iiialcs, drove
them otl' the sea; but they soon returned again.
Indeed so far was their ))ower frcjio ha\ ing been
broken that they conquered the Cilicians, and
remained the terror of the neighbouring states down
to the 4tli century. In the reign of the Emjieror
(lallienus ( '2.").3-'2(i8 ) there even aro.se among this
savage folk a rival emperor, Trebellianus, who, how-
ever, was finally ciuslii'd. This sjime peoiple also
gave two emijerors to Byzantium, Zeiio I. (474-491 )
and Leo III. (718-741); the descendants of the
latter ruled over the empire of the East for three
generations. From the 51 h century <mwaids the
Isaurians gradually disappear from history.
Is'cilin (the ancient yEiinria and I'it/icciisa), an
i>laiid on the north side of the entrance to the Bay
of Naples, U miles from the mainland. Area, 26
sq. 111. ; pop. (1881) •2'2,170. Iscliia is a favourite
ISCHL
ISINGLASS
231
iiUn'e of siiminer resort, liciiij; noted for the excel-
Iciioe of its warm mineral wiitei's, the ijreat richness
of its soil, the exquisite llavour of its fruits and
wines, and the enchanting; character of its scenery.
Its hi<,'hest point is the volcanic Monte Epomeo,
2tiOS feet, the last outhreak of which occurred in
13(12. In ISSl Casamicciola \va.s nearly destroyeil
l>y two earthquake shocks. A still more dreadful
catastrophe hefell it on Septcmlier 2.S, 1883, wlien
the town was utterly overwhelmed, only four or
five buildings being left standing, and four or five
thousand persons lost their lives. The inhabitants
grow fruits, wine, and oliveoil, an<l carry on fishing.
Chief towns : Ischia (2741 ). a bishop's seat ; Casa-
micciola (3963) ; and Torio(3157). See Johnston-
Lavis, The Eitrthquahes of Ischia (Naples, 1886).
Isohl, a town of Upper Austria, surrounded on
all >ides by gardens, is finely situated, 1536 feet
abo\e sea-level, on the river Traun, amid magnifi-
cent Alpine scenery, .33 miles E. by S. of Salzlnirg.
It is the chief town of the district called the Salz-
karamergut (q.v. ). The situation of Ischl, and the
saline baths, established in 1822, attract 4000 or
5000 visitors annually, including the Austrian
royal family, who have built a villa. About 8(KK)
tons of salt are manufactured here ever>' year in
the salt-works, opened in 1.571. Pop. 2124. See
Ischl u ml seine Uin(jchung (7tli ed. 1885).
Iseglieni, a town of Belgium, 10 miles by rail
N. by W. of Courtrai, has linen and lace manufac-
tures, and a pop. of 9520.
IS60a Lake (Laeus Scbinus), a lake of Xorthem
Italy, situated between the provinces of Bergamo
and Bre-scia. Length, 12A miles; maximum breadth,
3^ miles ; area, 24 sq. m. It contains two small
islands, and is fed by the Oglio, a tributary of
the Po.
Is^re, a department in the south-east of France,
round which on the north and west flows the n\ev
Rhone. It was formed mit of the ancient province
of Dauphine. Area, 3200 sq. m. ; pop. (1872)
.■■7.5,784; (1886) 581,680; (1891) 572,145. The
surface is level in the north-west, but becomes
mountainous and picturesque in the east and
south-east. Mont du Midi, on the south-eastern
border, lises to 13,088 feet. Tlie chief river, besides
the Rhone, is its left-hand tributary, the Istre,
which, rising in the Alps at an altitude of 7540 feet,
flows south-westwards to join the Rhone above
Valence, after a total course of 180 miles ( 102
navigable). The products include wheat, wine,
stone fruits, medicinal plants, and hemp. Cheese
is nia<le ; anil silkworms are reared. The de-
partment is rich in mineral products : iron, coal,
and turf are worked, and to a less extent marble,
.slates, and gypsum. The industrial activity is
considerable, particularly in tlie manufacture of
iron and steel goods, gloves, silk stulis, cloth,
linen, paper, straw-hats, liqueur (Chartreuse), &c.
The department contains four arrondissements,
Grenoble, La Tour-<lu-Pin, St Marcellin, and
Vienne ; capital, (irenoble.
Iserlohn, a manufacturing town of Prussian
Weslnhalia, is situated on a tributary of the Ruhr,
14 miles SE. of Dortmund. The indiistry is chiefly
directed to the manufacture of hardware," especially
of brass and bronze articles. The calamine mines
are celebrated. In the neighbourhood is tlie
Declien .stalactite cave, 292 yards long, discovered
m 1868. Pop. (1875) 16,868; (1895) 24,722.
Isrrnia (anc. ^Esemia), a town of Italy, in the
.Apennines, r>2 miles N. of Naples. It is surroun<led
by walls, built on the cyclopean Samnite remains.
Among other antujuities is a subterranean aque-
duct. The town, mucli injured in 1805 by an
earthrjuake, is the seat of a bishop. Pop. 7678.
Islllliaol, the .son of Abraham, by Hagar, the
Egyptian handmaid of his wife Sarah. In the story
of his life given in Genesis he was driven at fifteen
from his father's house along with his mother, and
grew up to manhood in the .southern wilderness a
famous archer. He became the progenitor of a
great nation, and the character of^ the Arabs was
supposed to have been foretold in Gen. xvi. 12.
Mohammed a.sserted his descent fmm Ishniael, and
the -Mohammedan doctors declare that Ishmael, and
not Isaac, was ofl'ered up in sacrifice — transferring
the scene of this act from Moriah in Palestine to
Mount .\rafat near Mecca.
Isll'peinins, a city of Michigan, 15 miles ^V. of
Marquette on Lake Superior, and 392 miles N. of
Chicago by rail. Large quantities of iron ore (a
red hematite) are quarried close by, and the town
])ossesses foundries, blast-furnaces, iSrc. Many of
the miners are Scandinavians. Pop. 6840.
Isidore of Soille (Isidokus Hispalensis),
one of the most distinguished ecclesiastics at the
beginning of the 7th century. He was born
most probably about 560, either at Seville or at
Carthagena, where his father, Severianus, was
prefect, and he succeeded Leander as Arch-
bishop of Seville in the year 600. Two of his
brothers, Fulgentius and Leander, were, like him-
self, bishops, the first of Carthagena, the second
Isidore's successor in the see of Seville. The
episcoi)ate of Isidore is rendered notalde by the
two half-ecclesiastical, half-civil councjls at Seville
in 618 or 619, and at Toledo in 633, which
were held uiuler his presidency, and the canons
of which may almost be said to have formed the
basis of the constitutional law of the Spanish
kingdoms, both for church and for state, down to
the great constitutional changes of the loth cen-
tury. He also collected with the same object all
the decrees of councils and other church laws
anterior to his time. His death, which occurred in
636, forms one of the most remaikable scenes iu
early Christian history. When he became sensible
of the approach of death he sunnnoiiod his flock to
his bedsiite, exhorted them to mvttual finbearance
and charity, prayed their forgiveness for all his
own shortcomings in his duty, and directed all his
property to be distributed among the poor. At the
eighth Council of Toledo in 653, the epithet Egre-
(/iiis was applied to him, and later Pope Benedict
XIV. permitted the office of St Isidore to be recited
in the universal church with the antiphon ' O
doctor optime,' and the gospel ' Vos estis sal terra\'
Isidore wjis a voluminous and learned writer in a Latin
ornate rather than pure, and his personal cliaracter stands
high for its simplicity and goodness. His writiii<,'s
include Etymtjlcujics or OnV/'/w treating of the whole circle
of tlie sciences, and showing wide reading in the Greek
and Latin classics; Lilri Differeiitiarum sice dc proin-ie-
tate sermon um ; Proamia in Lihros Vet. ct Xov. Test.;
Quaistiones ttim tie Nov. quam dc Vet. Test. ; De
Fide Catholicit contra Judevos ; Sententiarum Lilri Hi.;
De Eccitsiasticis ojfifiis ; Si/iifntt/tiut de himentaiione
aniiiKC pcccatricis; Rdjula .Moiuichorum ; Dc Natura
Reritm liber; Chronicon; Hi»tori(i de re'jihiis Gothoru}n~,
Wamlalorum, el Siicvorum ; and De Viris illnstribtis liber.
The standard edition is that of Arevallo (7 vols. 4to,
RoiiKu, 1797 1803), reprinted by tlie Abbe Jligne in lii.s
Palrolo'iia Liitina (Ixxxi. l.\x.\iv. ), together with the
Collectio Omontim ascribed to Isidore. Vols. Ixxxv.-
Lxxxvi. of the latter also contain the Litunjia ilo:aru'jica
secitiutuin lic'julam Batti Jsidori,
Isidoriaii Decretals. See Canon L.uv.
Isinslass (sui)|)osed to be derived from the
German JfaKsenbldsc, 'bladder of the sturgeon'),
the Iihthi/oeolhe (iehthjis. 'a fish;' holhi. 'glue')
of the classical and scientific writers, was formerly
obtained only from the common sturge<in {.Icripenscr
sturio), and consisted of the dried air-bladder of
232
ISINGLASS
ISIS
the animal. The necessities of modern commerce
have, however, led to the discovery that the same
part in many other lishes forms yood isinglass ; and
instead of llussia, its formerly, being almost the
only producing country, large quantities are now
brought to Britain from South America (chiolly
from Maranham), some from the East Indies, New
York, and Canada. The commercial varieties of
this mateiial are numerous ; .and besides them
others are occasionally met with, as the Mdnilla,
in thin cakes ; the I'urii, which is the most
remarkable of all, resembling grapes of a reddish-
brown colour, growing from a straight thick stem,
being the dried ova of tlie Sue/is ffiijas, a large
fish common in the mouths of the Amazon. An
inferior kind is also made of cod-sounds and sole-
skins, sulliciently good, however, to be used in
lining beer and other liijuids. Isinglass, strictly
speaking, is not Gelatine (q.v.), but a good gelatine-
yielding tissue, its value being enhanced by the
ease with which it is abstracted fioni the mem-
brane when compared with the complicated process
necessary for separating and purifying the gelatine
from the skins, iS:c. of other animals. When sepa-
rated, however, the substances are identical in
composition, and, if pure, are uudistinguishable
from each other.
IsiSf the name applied by Leland, Camden, itc,
and in the form Ysa by Higden (14th century), to
the upper part of the river Thames (q.v.). For a
long discussion of the origin of the name — a classi-
cised form perhaps of the Celtic uisgc, ' water ' — see
Notes and Queries for 1882-84.
Isis« an Egyptian goddess. The deities of
ancient Egypt might be male or female, but in
neither case could the Egyptian worshipper conceive
a deity as existing in isolation : to every deity of
eitlicr se.K there must be a counterpart of the other
se.x. It was to this notion that the goddess Isis
owed her origin ; she was the counterpart of Osiris,
and this fact is expressed in the statement that
she was at once wife and sister of Osiris. But in
all such cases the counterpart remained a miudi
less important person.age than the origin.al deity,
whether male or female. The mythological func-
tions of Isis accordingly will be found to be subordi-
nated, at any rate in their oldest forms, to the
myth of Osiris. In the next place, as the child is
the reproduction of its parents, for the father lives
again in his children, the son was to the Egyptian
in a way identical with the father, and when, as in
the case of the gods, the mother was but the
counterpart of the father, the identity of the child
with the parents was yet more complete. In other
words, as a child is impossible without parents, so
it is imiiossible for a father to exist without a child
of whicli he is the father. Hence we find that the
deities of ancient Egypt are grouped in triads or
trinities. Father, mother, and child cannot be con-
ceived except in relation to each other ( the terms
are correlative) ; yet, though identical and insepar-
able, they are nevertheless tlistinct. The deity who
completed the triad in the case of Osiris and Isis
was their son Horns. In order to understand the
position occui)ied hy this triad in the circle of
ancient Egyptian deities it is necessary to premise
that Egypt was no exception to the laws which
govern the growth of all jiolitical communities. All
states which arc larger tli.-in more city states have
become larger by the amalgamation or .ii/}iiii/:isiiios
of smaller unities. The smaller stat.os out of which
Egypt as a political whole was formed still con-
tinued after the |)olitical unification of the country
by .Menes to exist .-is administrative districts, even
when Egypt became T)art of the Bonian em]iirc', jusi
as the boundaries or ,a modern English county in
many cases represent the frontiers of ancient states.
In Egypt these divisions are generally known under
their (ireek name as ' nomes.' Each nomo. while
yet an independent state, possessed its own local
ileities. When, however, they were brought under
one government a ])antheon was necessarily formed,
and the order of precedence .amongst the v.arious
local deities arranged. Practically, liowever, each
nome continued to reg.anl its own deity or trinity
.as re.ally the supreme god, unless it cmiM succeed
in identifying its own deity with some other mem-
ber of the national hierarchy. This explains on
the one hiind the statement of Herodotus (ii. 42)
that no gods were worshipped universally in Egypt
except Osiris and Isis, and (m the other hand it
enables us to understand how it ccuues .about that
Isis was worshipped .as Mut .at Thebes, .as Sckliet
.at Bub.astis, and .as Hathor or Atlior at Dcudera,
as Sothis, the dog-star, and .as the planet Venus.
It also expl.ains wdiy Osiris, originally the local
deity of Abydos, came to be universallv worshii)]ied
throughout Egypt. Osiris undoubtetlly owed his
elevation in the Egyptian p.antheon to tlief.act that
he w.as identified with Ka, the sun or sun-god. In
chapter 17 of the Book of tlic Dctul this identifica-
tion is expressed in the explicit terms, ' Ka, the
soul of Osiris, and Osiris, the soul of K.a.'
We may now proceed to the mythological
functions of Isis. As being the counterpart, the
sister of Osiris, she w<as the child of the s.ame
parents as her brother and husband — of Seb(or,
.as some transliter.ate it, Qeb), the earth, and Nut,
the sky. The beneficent course of the sun across
the sky is terminated by his murder at the hands of
his brother Set. But though the sun dies to-night,
to-morrow there lives another sun, who is dilierent
.and yet the s.ame, as the child is ditlerent fnuii and
yet the same as his father. This is Horns, who
avenges the death of his father Osiris. Within the
limits of this myth place was found for Isis as the
faitliful wife of Osiris, who recovered the body of
her murdered husband, after it h.a<l been flung into
the Nile by Set. Having concealed the body, Isis
fled to her son Horns, and during her absence Set
founil the body and cut it into fourteen pieces,
which he scattered. These Isis cidlccted au<l Imiied
in a stately tomb. The question at once procnts
itself, what was the original meaning of the mytho-
logical functions .ascribed to Isis in the myth of
Osiris? And we may conjecture that the answer
is to be sought in the original local character of
Egyptian deities, in the process of identification, or
' syncretism,' .and in the litual which grew out of
it. Horns was originally the local god of ICilfu ; he
m.ay have been a solar <Ieity, at anvrate he came
to lie regarded as the same, yet not tlie same, as the
loi'al solar deity of Abydos, Osiris. He Wiis inter-
preted as the son of Osiris. But Horns was in con-
flict with Set ; obviously, therefore, it must have
been .as the .avenger of his father, Osiris, that Horns
engaged in conllict with Set, though before Horns
was iirought into connection with <1siris no such
story existed. Ag.ain, Horus, before he was identi-
fied as the son of Osiris, li.ad .a mother of his own,
Hathor, the local lUuty of Dendera. By what
process Horus, the god of Edfu, ha<l come to be
regarde<l .as connected with the goddess of Dendera
we do not know. I!ut the connect i(m was expre.sseil
in ritual by a religious procession from Dender.a
to Eilfu. Accordingly, when Horus becanu> tlie son
of t)siris, and :\tlior in cons<M|uence w.as identifie<l
with Isis, the procession in which the im.age of
Athor — i.e. Isis — visited H(u-us at Eilfu required a
mythological explanation. It was provided by the
invention of the myth of Isis' llight to Horus after
the deatli of ( )siris. The dismemberment of I )siris
and the collection of the members by Isis is
apparently .an invention to account for the phallic
ceremonies, which survive to the present day in
ISIS
E,!j>lit. From this analysis of the myth of Isis and
iVsiiis, it becomes apparent tliat the deities of
ancient E<;ypt were not originally conceived in
triads ; hnt that, on the contrary, the trinity of the
<;od was a later doctrine designed to explain the
syncretism which resulted from the amalgamation
of the various nomes and their deities. There is
yet another mythological function ascribed to Isis
which requires mention and exjilanation : she rocks
the cradle of the infant Nile. To the Egyptian the
conflict between the sun and the powers of darkness,
in the heaven above, may have had its parallel on
tlie earth beneath in the perennial conHict between
the beneficent Nile with the sands of tlie desert.
At anyrate, Osiris had the Nile as well as the sun
for his emblem ; and by a not unnatural confusion
Itetween Osiris and Horus, for Horns is Osiris in his
youth, Isis was regarded as tending tlie infant Nile.
Finally, we may dismiss Isis in Egypt Ijy adding
that she as Neith was regarded as the patron goil-
<le.ss of women, and presided over child-birth.
But we have yet to trace the fortunes of Isis in
Greece and in Rome. As early as Herodotus
(ii. 156) she was taken to be the same as the Greek
Demeter — for no other reason apparently than that
Demeter, like Isis, suftered a great loss. Only, it
was her daughter, not her luisband, that Demeter
lost. This was, however, a trifle to stand in the
way of a Greek resolved to identify his mythology
with that of the oldest, the wisest, and most reli-
gious of mankind. After the time of Herodotus —
probably, indeed, not until post-classical Greek
times — on the ground that the wife of the sun must
he the moon, Isis became a moon-goddess, and was
identified by the Greeks with their moon-goddess
lo. Again, as Athor, Isis was imagined to be the
same as the Semitic Astarte and the Greek Aphro-
dite. When the attributes and powers of all these
goddesses were ascribed by the (post-classical)
(ireeks to Isis it is easy to understand that in the
Orphic mysteries Isis was the chief and most
mysterious of all goddesses. Nor have we any
difficulty in recognising that the Pans and Satyrs
and the nursing of Astarte's children, &c. which
appear in Greek accounts of Isis are bono wed from
myths that really belong to Demeter, and are not
Eg>-ptian at all. Our two chief Greek authorities,
Diodorus Siculus and Plutarch {De Isid. et Osir.),
draw mainly upon one Hecata'us, of the time of
Alexander ; and we maj' say generally that it is
impossible to trace Isis as a figure in Greek myth-
ology- farther back than the age of Alexander.
It is in the Roman em])ire that Isis becomes a
mythological figure of importance outside Egypt.
The process of syncretism was carried further in
her case than in that of any other deity. Every
function ever attributed to any deity whatever was
transferred to her, and the result is best stated in
the words of the mysterious goddess herself to the
Golden A.ss of Apuleius {Met. xi. 241) : ' I am the
universal mother nature, mistress of all elements,
first-born of the ages, supreme of goddesses, queen
of names, niler of the gods, sole manifestation of
all gods and goddesses, whose glance makes awful
silence in the shining heights of heaven, in the
depths of the sea, and of the world beneath, whose
unchanging being is worshipped under many forms,
with many rites, and under various names, as
mother of the gods, a.s the Cecrojii.an Minerva,
I'a|>hian Venus, Dictynnian Diana, Stygian Proser-
pina, the ancient goddess Ceres, as Juno, Hellona,
Hecate, Rhamnusia — but my true name is t^ueen
Isis.' To this we may adil the inscripticm men-
tioned by Proclns : ' I ,am that which is, has been,
and shall bo. My veil no one has lifted. The fruit
I l)ore was the Sun.'
See Ma.'ipero, Histoirf Ancimnf ; IjC Page Rcnoufs
Uibbcrt Ltctures (IHTJ) ; Sayce's Hcrodotui ; Chantepic
ISLA
233
de la Saussaye, Lchrhuch der RcJiaionpicx-h ichtc. (i. 1887 ) ;
Brujiscli, liflinion und Mvtfwhi/u' dtr aftcn .Eiii/pter
(i. 1;>84); K. Lepsius, Ucher den ersUn yE'jiiptisckenGol-
terkrcis ( 1851 ) ; £. Lefebure, L'£tude de la Religion Egijp-
ticn iw: (1886).
I.skan«Ieroon. See Sc.vxdeeoon.
Isla, Jose Fr.vncisco de, was born in 170:? at
Vidanes, in north-western Spain. Earlv in life he
joined the Jesuits, for some years was lecturer in
jiliilosophy and theology at Sego\ia, Santiago, and
Pamplona, and became famous as a preacher, but
still more as a humorist and satirist by his writings,
especially his novel of Friiir Geniiid. Except
Cervantes and Quevedo no man had a larger share
of that peculiar grave humour which is one of the
special jiroducts of Spain, and with him it seems
to have been almost irrepressible. Even in Voiifli
Triumphant, an account of a masque pcrfmined by
the students of his own order at Salamanca in
1727, in honour of the canonisation of two young
Jesuits, he could not altogether control his pro-
pensity to ridicule. The Letters of Juan de la
Eiicina, written in 1732, on a pamphlet by a quack
doctor at Segovia who had given him offence, are
a good example of his style, but a more character-
istic one is the Din Grande de Nararra. a descrip-
tion of the ceremonial at Pamplona on the accession
of Ferdinand VI. in 1746, which he « rote at the
request of the local authorities. It is. in fact, an
adroit caricature of the grandiloquence, pomposity,
and inflated phrase usual on such occasions, but
liis artful flattery of provincial vanity and official
self-importance blinded the eyes of the good Pam-
plonese, and they passed a vote of thanks to him,
which he appealed to with an admirable assnnip- •
tion of injured innocence when the wits of Madrid
chai'ged him with the joke. He had a hearty con-
tempt for shams and pretences of all sorts. Friar
Gerund was aimed at t,lie charlatanism of the
popular preachers of the day, especially the preach-
ing friars. The decline of culture produce<l un-
critical audiences, and these again swarms of
preachers who tried to get credit with the crowd
for originality by tricks, mannerisms, and clap-
trap. Isla's model, as he owned in his preface,
was Don Quixote ; what Cervantes had done with
the sham cliivalry and sentiment of the romances,
he strove to do with the vulgar buffooneries of the
pulpit, and he was almost e(|ual!y successful. The
first volume came out at Madrid in 1758, and in
three days the whole edition of 1500 was sold oil'.
From the king down everybody was delighted with
it^ — everybody, that is, except the friars, for ' Fray
Gerundio'at once became a nickname, and their
ccmgregations, they found, laughed at instead of
with them. But the friars were a power, and at
their instance the Inquisition stopped the pulilica-
tion of the book. A clandestine edition of vol. ii.,
with the imprint of Campazas, as well as a reprint
of vol. i., came out in 1770, and another in 1787,
but none with a license until 1813. Isla was struck
down with paralysis in 1767 as he was obeying the
edict exjielling the. Jesuits, but he insisted on sliar-
ing the lot of his comrades, and betook himself to
Bologna, where he lived, cheerful and uncomplain-
ing, in poverty and ill-health, until the end of 1781.
A little before his death he wrote his franslaticm of
Gil Bias. A friend had urged him to assert tlieir
country's claim to a book that, as the French them-
selves acknowledged, had been st(don from S]iain,
hut he objected that he was not David enough to
attack such a (Joliath as Le Sage, and that he liad
never read Gil liliix. But afterwariN, having
nothing to do, he took it up and translated it, anil
further amu.sed himself with a jireface in which he
hunmured his friend's ))atriotic idea in his own
grave way, by a circumstantial story in the style
of Gerundio and the Dia Grande, of how Le Sa(^
234
ISLA DE PINOS
ISLAY
(who never was in Spain), beinj; in the suite of the
French anihas«ulor at Madrid, met a fertain An(Uv-
hisian advocate wlio pive him the M.S. of the novel.
On his title-i)aj;e lie put, ' Stolen from S|)ain, and
re.stoied to its country and native language by a
jealous Spaniard wlio will not allow his nation to
he made game of;" words wliich snlheiently indi-
cate his drift ; hut his pavity imposed upon the
Conite de Neufchfiteau of the French Academy,
and pvovoki'd a serious refutation in IS 18, to which
Llorente replied in 1820; and the controversy,
havinj; that element of paradox which gives
vitality to argument, still maintains a titful exist-
ence. See Le S.\ge.
The best edition of Isla's works is that in vol. xv.
of the BiUioteca dc Autorcs EsjxiTiohs, giving Fray
Gerundio, the Cartas de Juan dc la Encimi, the Dia
Grande de Nacarra, and a full collection of his deUghtful
letters, but omitting his sermons and translations. The
EngUsli translation of Friar Gerund (1772), by Dr
Warner (some say Dr Nugent), is somewhat abridged
and a little vulgar in its attempts at tlie dialect of the
Cauijios rustics, but on the whole pretty faithful.
Isla de Pinos. See Finos, Isla de.
Isluillt or EsL.\M (Arab.), the proper name of
the Molianimedan religion ; designating complete
and entire submission of body and soul to God, his
will and his service, as well as to all those articles
of faith, commands, and ordinances revealed to and
ordained by Mohammed the prophet. See Moham-
medan rsM.
Islamabad. See Chittagoxg.
Island (A.S. iqland, if), 'island,' and land.
Ig is cognate with tcel. cij, Dan. <>, and ultimately
with A.S. cd, Gothic a/iira, and Lat. aqua, all
signifying 'astream,' 'water.' The 4- in island cre])t
in through confusion with Fr. isle, derived from Lat.
insula), land surrouniled by water. The larger
masses of land surrounded Ijy water, or parts of
them, are Continents (q.v. ), and the term island is
usually restricted to the smaller. Since Australia
has an area of over 3,000,000 sq. in., and (omitting
Greenland, which is possibly an ice-bound archi-
pelago) New Guinea, the ne.xt island in size, has
onlj' 303,000 so. m., the distinction drawn between
continents antl islands in the restricted sense is
more than verbal. There are few large islands.
Borneo, indeed, is little inferior in size to New-
Guinea ; but Aladagascar ami .Sumatra are the
oidy others with an area greater than 100,000 sc|.
m. Honshu (the main island of Japan) and Great
Britain rank next, the latter being sixth in order of
size if New tiuinea is taken as first. The follow-
ing table shows the relative mainland area of the
largest islands.
HI. m.
New Guinea 303,000
Borneo 284,000
Madat^-ascar 227,000
Smnatra 185,000
Hnnsliu 80,600
Great Britain 83,700
Oeleln-s 68,800
New Zealand (S. Island )..58,60O
Java 48,400
Cuba 45,000
Sew Zealand ( N. Island ) .44,500
.N'ewfiiundland 40,200
Luzon 40,000
Islands.
Arta 111
sq. lu.
Iceland 39,800
Mindanao 37,000
Irelan.l 32,600
Ilayti 2S,800
Tasmania 26.200
Ceyluii 24,700
Nova Zctnbla( N. Island ).1U.300
Tierra del Fuego 18,500
Nova Zenibla (S. Island ).15,700
Fonnosa 15,000
Hainan 14,000
Sicily 9,900
Sardinia 9,200
Two classes of islands may he distinguished —
continental and oceanic. Cuntincntal Islands are
closely allieil by the structure of their rocks to the
nearest continental land, from which they are
rarely far distant, although .sometimes — as in the
case of .Mailagas(rar and New Zealand — sep.arated
by depths exceeding 1000 fatbonrs. As a rule,
contiiicnt.al islands lie to the south and east of
the continent with which they are associated.
The only exceptions to this rtile are islands on
the continental shelf — i.e. separated by depths less
than 100 fathoms, which have been cut oil' from
the nuiinland in geologically recent times. \Yith
the exception of Mad;igascar and New Zealand,
the separation of which is unusually complete,
the plants and animals of continental islands are
similar to those on the adjacent continent, and
from the slight differences detected the period
at which separation took place has sometimes
been calculated. Groups of continental islands
enclosing seas stretch from the south-east penin-
sula of each of the northern continents towards
the nearest southern continent. The Greek
Archipelago points from the Balkan Feninsula
towartls Africa, the A\"est Indies run from Florida
and Yucatan to South America, and the Eastern
Archipelago extends from the Malay Peninsula
to Australia. These archipelagoes represent
mountainous tracts of continent which have sub-
sided, or else irregular portions of the submarine
plateaus Mhich are unileigoing elevation. Professor
James Geikie points out in a paper (Scut. Gcikj.
Maij., Februaiy 1890) that in past geological
epochs groups of great islan<ls occupied the sites
of the present continents, and he shows reason foi
believing that the evolution of continents by the
incorporation of islands on the great world ridges
is .still going on, although accompanied by the
formation of new islands through local erosive
action on the coasts.
Oceanic Islands lise abraptly from great depths,
and show no geological continuity with the con-
tinents. They apjiear abo\e the surface either as
(a) Volcanic Islands, usually rugged peaks or vast
accumulations of lava nearly as precipitous below
the surface as above, or as (i) Coral Islands (q.v.).
Numerous submarine mountains have been dis-
covered in ditl'erent parts of the ocean, which oidy
require moderate elevation or the deiiosition of
sediment or coral growth to appear on the surface
as islands. The fauna and Hora of oceanic islands
like those of Madagascar and New Zealand, wiiich
biologically resemble oceanic islands, differ widely
from those of the continents, and iiresent many
features of unicpie interest, which have been
worked out in detail by Wallace in his Island
Life. See Geoguai'iiic-vl Distriiution.
t'ontinental islands have in historical times
formed the cradles of great commercial nations,
the insular jiosition giving security, and the water
border acting at once as a harrier to the less adven-
turous continental pcojile and as a highway to
the bolder islanders, whose closer contact with the
sea makes them nations of sailors. — For Floating
Islands, see that head ; and for the ' Islands of the
Blessed ' and other fabulous islands, see Antille-s,
Atlantis, Avalon, Brendan, Elysium, &c.
Islaudsllire, a part of Northumberland in
England, embiacing the Fame Islands, toj^ether
with three parishes adjoining Berwick-on-'Twecd
(q.v.) and portions of two others. Area, 28,444
acres; pop. 3875. Till 1S44 it formed a detached
pai t of ])urliam county.
Islay< an island of Argj'llshiie, 13 miles W. of
Kintyre, and h mile .'>\V. of Jura, from which it is
separated by the Sound of Islav. Deeply indented
on the .south by Loch Indal ( 12 x 8 miles), Islay
has a maximum length and breadth of '2.')^ and 19
miles, and an area of 240 s(|. m. It contains
several small fresh- water lakes, anil attains a
height of 1444 feet. More than half the whole
area is capable of cultivation, and great improve-
ments have been effected in the way of road-
nuiking, draining, reclamation, itc. Dairy-farm-
ing, stockr.-iising, and whisky-distillation are
leading industries ; whilst slate, marble, iron,
lead, and silver have been worked. In the course
ISLE OF FRANCE
ISOCRATES
23r.
of the century tlie oM luoprietois iinil the ii.-itive
tenantry liave heen larijely siijiersecled by new-
comers.' Islay has regular steamboat communica-
tion with 01asf.'ow, anil a telegraph was established
in ISTI. Pop. (1S:S1) 14,nS2;'(1891) 7335.
Lslc of France. See M.vuritius.
Isle of Mail, Wight, &c. See M.\n,
AViGHT.
Isles, Lords of the. See Lords of the
Isles.
Islewortb. a JlkUlle-sex parish, on the left
l>ank of the Thames, 12 miles WSW. of London.
Here is Sion House, a seat of the Duke of North-
umberland, the place where the crown was ottered
to Lady Jane Gre\'. Pop. 15,884.
Islington, a suburb of London, but so closely
connected with it as to form part of it, is situated
2i miles N. of St Paul's. Pop. (1861) 155,341 :
(1871) 213,778; (1891) 319,143. It is remarkable
for the numl)er of its religions, educational, and
benevolent institutions. The Agiicultural Hall
(1861), where the great national cattle and horse
sho« s are held, is capable of holding 50,000 people.
In 1885 Islington was made a parliamentary
borough. It retnins four merabei's to parliament,
one member for each of its four divisions.
Ismail, a town and river-port in the Russian
government of Bessarabia, stands on the north
bank of the Kilia branch of the Danube, 48 miles
from the mouth of that river. Formerly a Turkish
fortress, it was taken and destroyed by Suwavoff in
December 1790 ; came into posse.ssion of Russia in
1812 ; was assigned to Moldavia by the treaty of
Paris, 1856, its fortifications being razed ; and was
transferred to Russia again liy the Berlin Congress
of 1878. It ha-s an .active trade in corn, wool,
tallow, and hides. Poj). with the adjoining Tutch-
kott'(1866) 31,779; (1897) 31,293.
Isinailisi, a small town on Lake Tinisah,
through which the Suez Canal passes. It stands
on the railway from Cairo to Suez and on the Sweet
Water Canal. During the construction of the canal
it was the headijuarters of the work, having been
founded in 1863, Ijut it is now a place of only 1850
inhabitants. — The name Ismailia was also given to
Gondokoro (q.v. ) on the White Nile.
Isniailis, a Mohammedan sect. Like the rest
of the Shiali, or party of Ali, they held that the
liignity of Imam, or head of the true faith, was
inherent in the house of the Prophet and the line
of Ali, the Prophet's cousin, son-in-law, and chosen
lieutenant. They arose in Syria and Persia, taking
their name from one Ismail, whom they regarded
as the seventh and last of the Inulms, and who
lived about 770 .v.D. But the sect acquired its
importance a century later from Abdallah al
Kaxldah, a Pei-sian of Susiana, and son of Maimiin.
He was an oculist, a scholar, .and an able juggler.
The Ism.ailis had then no visible Inifun ; indeed the
Shiah lo-^t its twelfth and Last Imam in the mys-
terious disappearance of Mohammed in 879 .\.I).
The idea of a 'Hidden Imam,' dotincd to a])]>ear
for the reformation of religion and of the world,
thus became necessary for its existence. To under-
mine the whole empire, to prejjare a great revolu-
tion and overthrow I.slam \v;is Abdallah's desire.
His iiistrunjent w.is the faith in a ' Hidden Im.''im,'
or ' Mah<li,' MJuideil or Inspirc^l One,' styled by
Abdallah the seviiith prophet, .Mohammed having
been the si.vtli. His many widelysjire.ail d.ais or
missionaries taught their converts "that this coming
deliverer IkuI opened up the true and mystic mean-
ing of the Koran. The teaching of all previous
prophets w.as abrogated by him. Converts p.assing
through their nine stages of instruction learned to
deny all positi\e religion. Prayers, tithes, pil-
grimages, legal purity, and other religions obser-
vances were shown to have meaning and \ise for
only the blinded ciowd. A Deniiurgus was
declared to be the world's maker. The resur-
rection, the end of the world, final ju<lgnient, and
rewards .and punishments were mere allegories.
The universe was eternal. Finally, belief w.as
made absolutely free. Mohammed, the Chief,
Hidden Imam, ftlahdi, or Seventh Prophet, S(m of
Ismail, w.as, .after all, not to appear but in his
doctrine t.aught by his disciples and apostles ; and
the duty of all believers was to bring the worhl's
sovereignty into the hands of these. Aljdallah's
son, Ahmed, succeeded him as Grand Master of the
Ismailian .Society. In his time a Babylonian
peasant, Hamdan Karmat, joined it, became a
missionary, ,a leader, and at length about 891 ])ro-
claimi'il a communistic .sy.stem. For two centuries
the K.armathians were the scourge of Islam and
the East. An Ismailian missionary among the
Berbers of Constantine called the people to arms
in All's name. Gbeidallah, a descendant of Ab-
dallah al Kaddah, and Grand M.aster of the
Ismailian Society, was put at the head of tlie
revolution, before which the Aghl.abite (809) and
the Edrisite powers quickly fell ; .and, calling him-
self a scion of Ali, by Fatima the Prophet's
daughter, was declared Calif and Mahdi. The rise
of his dynasty, which is called the Fatimite, is the
most remarkable example in history of tlie jiower
of religious enthusiasm led by conscious imposture.
Egypt (970) and Syria were added to its enqiire.
The Karinathians recognised it and paid it tribute.
Miserably decayed, it was supplanted in Egypt by
Saladin in 1171. .See also INIahdi.
Isnia'il Paslia, Khedive of Egypt (q.v.) from
1863 to 1879.
Isobars. See Meteorology.
IsOChronisiU (Gv. isos, 'equal;' rhronos,
'time'). A pendulum is isochronous when its
vilnations are performed in equal times, whether
these vibrations be large or small ; but it can only
possess this property by being constrained to move
in a cycloidal arc. See Cycloid.
Isoclinal Strata. See Geology, Moun-
tains, Stkatificatiox.
Isocrates, the Athenian, who was born 436
B.C. and died .338 B.C., represents the perfection of
'epideictic' oratory — i.e. oratory in which form and
literary finish count for everything, and matter for
very little. Oratory, as a department of literature,
was in Athens the outcome of that growth of
litigiousness and development of the faw-courts
which characterised Athens from about the begin-
ning of the Pelo]ionnesian wars. The consequent
necessity under which every Athenian was of being
.able to defend himself in a court of law first fostered
the rise of a cla.ss of men — the Sophists — who pro-
fessed to teach the art of argument, even to the
extent of making the worse appear the better cause ;
.and next, as the literaiy taste of Athenian juries
increased, fostered the rise of a class who iiroi'esstd
to te.ach the art of literary form, and who taught
by example rather than precept. Hence ' epideic-
tic" oratory, show-speeches. Such teachei's of
rhetoric have existed in other countries, but at no
place and in no age h.ave they reached the artistic
excellence of Isocrates. This is partly due to the
fact that, owing to the ]ieculiiir circumstances just
ex|ilaineil, teachers of rln'toiic in .Athens at this
time could g.ain the ear of the ])ublic, whilst else-
where and at other times the teacher's audience has
consisted of his pupils, and he has lacked the
stimulus .and the I'orrective of competent criticism.
But though the hour li.ad come, it might have
sounded in vain li.ad not the man been there. A
brief summary of Isocrates' life will show that
236
ISOCRATES
ISOMERISM
nature had iicsi>,'iie(l liim for his work. If his
siicL'ohes are ileMcient in praeticality to an extent
that has irritated Niehuhr for instance, it is be-
cause Isocrates was himself so utterly impractical.
Tlie son of a prosperous tlute-nialier, Isocrates
received an excellent education, and in his youth
heard the show-speeches made at Athens by the
earliest epideictic orator, Oorgias. He also listened
to the lectures of tlie philosopher Frodicus, and
joined the circle of Socr.ates. But he only cotiuetted
with philosophy, and though in the r/ia-i/rus of
Plato Socrates expresses the higliest expectations
of him, Isocrates abandoned philosophy. He then
took to speech-writing as a profession, but he had
none of the talents required in the composition of
speeches having such ,a practical object as that of
winning a case in a law-court. After trying his
hand at six such speeches (402-39.'? B.C.) he aban-
doned logography. If he failed in writing practical
speeches to be delivered by others, he was still less
adapted by nature to deliver his own speeches
himself and follow a political career ; his voice was
too feeble, and he was nmcli too nervous. Other
people since Isocrates having failed in other
pursuits have betaken themselves to schoolmaster-
ing, but Isocrates deserves the credit of having
been the tirst to discover this resource. About 390
B.C. he set up as a teacher of oratory", though he
did indeed profess, in the speech which served as
his prospectus (Against t/ie Sophists), to give a
general practical education. In his prospectus he
was careful to distinguish himself from such shallow
pretendere as the Sophists on the one hand, and on
the other from such unpractical teachers as philo-
sophers. This sample of his skill as an artist in
words, though it drew from Plato (Euthi/dcmus,
304, I)) some contemptuous animadversions on the
little knowledge of certain persons who oiltivate
the domain intermediate between philosophy and
politics, succeeded in drawing to him pupils who
subsequently became distinguished, statesmen such
as Timotheus and Laodamas, historians such as
Ephorus and Theopompus, orators such as Isa^is,
Lycurgus, -Eschines, and Hyperides. Pupils jjaid
him 1000 drachm.-e, and were put by him ttirougli a
course of three or four years' duration. He himself
composed moilel speeches for them, such as the
Pancffi/ririis (about 380 B.C.) and the I'lnticicxs
(373), and corrected the oratorical exercises com-
posed by them. But he also wrote speeches in-
tended to be practical : one of them, the Archi-
fhiiiiii.i (.365 B.C.), may actually have been composed
for and <lelivered by the Sjiartan king, Archidamus,
but the majority, for instance the Si/inmachiciis
(357 or 3.55 B.C.), the Arcujiar/itirii.t (about 3.')4 B.C.),
the raiKit/iniairiis (342-339), and the letters to
Philip of Macedon, were not designed to be de-
livered but to be circulated and read — they are
in fact the earliest political pamphlets known. As
a politician, or rather a would-bi! polit ician, Isocrates
has only one idea, and that an utterly impractic-
able one— to unite all (Jreeks togetlier in a joint
attack upon the common foe, Persia. The practical
commentary on this ridiculous Pan-Hellenistic
panacea was the destruction of (Ireek freedom on
the lield of ChaTonea Ijy the very Philip to whom
Isoc'rates looked to make his nostrum efl'ective.
' That dishonest victory,' in the words of Milton,
'killed with report that old man eloi[uent.' Iso-
crates did indeed die shortly after the news of the
battle at the age of ninety-four, but it mav be
doubted whether it was the news that killed the
.schoolmaster. Unpractical Isocr.ates certainly was.
Alexander comjuered Asia in less time than it took
Isocrates to write a single speech (the /'""r'/'/(vV».s).
But it wa.s this very characteristic which made the
oratory of Isocrates what it is. And Milton's
tribute to him may serve to remind us that, in the
opinion of all competent judges, for melody, artistic
merit, perfection of form and literary liuisli, Iso-
crates stands unrivalled. He has of cour.se the
defects of his (rualities. His work m.vy be linished,
but it is unileniably laboiired. He m.ay have
melody, but it is ajit to become monotonous. He is
always smooth, even where he ought to be stormy.
Such perfection of form as he att.-iined could only be
produced by an artist who was willing to sacrifice
everything else to it, and Isocrates by nature did
readily incline to do so. A few obvious generalities
and a, few moral sentiments were all that he
required in the way of matter for a speech— i)ideed
for many speeches. The result is that lia\ing rea<l
one of his speeches you have; read all. The truths of
morality are indeed eternal, but they will not bear
eternal repetition. Ha<l b\it one of his speeches
survived, his poverty of thought wo\ild never have
been discovered, Imt fate with cruel kimlncss has
preserved nearly eventhing he ever wrote. But if
Isocrates is too beautiful to be absolutely perfect
himself, we must not forget that to appreciate his
services to Greek literature we must not consider
him apart from the history of Greek oratory. He
demonstrated once and for all, and at luecisely
the time when the demonstration was necessary,
that prose as well a-s poetry may have an .artistic
beauty, may have rhythm, flow, and melody of
its own. It was worth a lifetime's labour to efl'ect
this ; and if it was only in Demosthenes that this
o\itward beauty came to bo wedded with nobler
and with manlier qualities, let us remember that
it were as vain to expect the fruit without the
blossonr as to imagine that we could have had
Demosthenes without Isocrates.
Tlie first edition was printed at Milan in 1493. The
'best edition of the text is that in the Teubner series.
There are excellent English notes on the Demo7iicus and
Pancrii/ricjis by J. E. Sandys, German notes by Rancheii-
stein on the latter and tlie Arcopaiiitinis. There is an
English translation by Freere (1894 ct scq.).
Isoclyiiniiiic, Isoelinic. and I.sosonic
LilK'S (<-ir. isos, 'equal ;' r/i/inoiiis, 'force;' /.lino,
' I bend;' goiiia, 'an angle '), or lines of equal force,
equal inclination, and equal declination, are three
systems of lines, which Ijcing laid down on maps
represent the magnetism of the globe as exhibited
at the earth's surface in three clas.ses of phenomena,
the varying intensity of the force, the varying dip
or incliiiation of the needle, and its varying declina-
tion from the true meridian. See MAGNETISM.
I'.sola ItcIIa. I.soL.x Madre. See Borromean
LSLAND.S.
Isola Grossn, or Isola Li:nc,a (Great or Long
Island), a long, narrow island, 27 miles by 3,
running parallel to the coast of Dalmatia, over
.ag.'iinst Zara. It belongs to Austria. Pop. 12,000.
Isoilicrisill (from the Greek word isoma-cs,
'composed of eipial parts'), the relation between
chemical compounds which are identical in their
ultimate or jiorccntage composition, but i)rosent
dilleiences in their cliemical properties. Isomeric
compounds, or isomcn't/cs, are divisible into meta-
meric compounds, or mctameridc.s, and i)olynieric
compounds, or polymr.ridcs.
In all mctameric compoiinds the molecul.ar
weight is the same, while in all polymeric coni-
]iouiids the molecular weights are sinqile niulti|iles
of the molecular weight of the lowest member of
the group. As an illustr.ation of nietameride.s,
propionic acid, C.,H,,CO(')H, .acetate of methyl,
CH.,CO-OCH„ and'f(uniic ether, H-C0'OC.,H,,
may be taken. Their rational formula', whicli
express their pndiabh; constitution, are perfectly
distinct, yet they all have the same percentage
composition, the s.ame emidrical formula, CjHuO;,
and the same molecular weight (74).
ISOMOKPH18M
ISPAHAN
As an illustration of polymerides, the hydro-
carbons homologous with olefiant gas may he
taken. Oletiant gas is rei)resente<l by the formula
C,H,, propylene by CjH^, butylene by C^H^, aniylene
by CjH,„. These snbstances have the same per-
centage composition, but different molecular
weights.
Tne carbohydrates, which are represented by
the general formula C,H„„0„, present well-marked
examples of isomerism. Thus, cellulose, CgHj^Oj,
starch, CrtHioOj, and gum, CjHi^jOj, are meta-
nieric ; wliile grape-sugar, C|jH,,_,Og, possesses the
same percenta''e composition, but twice as hi^h
a molecular weight, as lactic acid, CsHgOj, and the
same percentage composition, but three times as
high a molecular weight, as acetic acid, CoHjO^ ;
hence the three last-named substances are poly-
meric.
The most recent researches have brought to light
the existence of several special varieties of iso-
merism. A tautomeric body is one in which the
reaction to some reagents is as if certain hydrogen
atoms were in one place in the molecule, while to
othei-s it is as if tlie hydrogen occupied a different
position ; and a tautomeric body may be des>no>ncric
when it can be prepared in recognisably different
forms, differing from one another in the position of
these wandering hydrogens. AUoisomeric bodies
have a similar chemical stracture, but the geo-
metrical symmetry is different, as in the following
case (in which the symbol X stands for the group
•CO OH):
Fumaric Acid.
H y-, ^ X
X -^-^ H
Maleic Acid.
g.o.v^ H
The question of geometrically symmetrical or
asymmetrical arrangement of atoms in a molecule
has become, in the hands of Wislicenus and others,
one of considerable importance in reference to
isomerism. Quite possibly the allotropic modifica-
tions of some of the elements (see Allotropy) are
really isomeric differences of arrangement of the
atoms within the Molecule (q.v.). See also Aeo-
M.-\.Tic Series and Chemlstrv (Vol. III. p. 152).
IsoniorpllisUl (derived from the Greek words
isos, 'equal,' and morp/tc, 'form') strictly signities
similarity of form, but it is now restricted by
chemLsts to those substances which are not only
similar in their crystalline form, but are also
analogous in their chemical composition. The
diamond, C, magnetic oxide of iron, FeO,Fe„Oo,
and potash-alum, K,S0,,Al,(S0j).;,2-m,0, 'all
crystallise in octahedra, but there is obviously
no analogy in the chemical composition of these
substances ; on the other hand, the spinelle ruby,
Mg<->,.\U03, maj^etic oxide of iron, FeO.Fe.jOj,
and chrome ore, FeO,Cr.jO;„ not only ciystallise in
octahedra, but (as their formuUe show) are also
analogous in their chemical composition. Hence
the members of the latter grou|), not the former,
are truly isomorphous in the restricted sense. As
further examples we may (|Uote the elements
arsenic, antimony, and tellurium ; the chloride,
bromide, iodide, and fluoride of potassium ; the
.sesquioxides of ahnninium, iron, chromium, and
manganese ; and for a«lditional lists refer to Miller's
Chi'iniail Physica. In most cases, as Milscherlich
( to whom we owe most of our knowledge of this
subject ) showed, the chemical composition of sub-
stances that correspond in form is analogous ; and
that cliemist further endeavoured to prove that
crj'stalline form is independent of the chemical
nature of the atoms, and that it is determined
solely by their grouping and relative positions ; the
same number of atoms combined in the same way
always i>roducing, according to him, the same
crystalline form. The coincidence of similaritv in
crystalline form with similarity in atomic arrange-
ment is the most important generalisation yet
arrived at in the science of crystallography ; and in
chemistry it has been of essential service in facili-
tating the cUissiticaUon of compounds, and to some
e.xtent in determining the combining numbers or
atomic weights of the elementary bodies.
Iso'poda (Gr., 'equal -footed'), an order of
higher Crustaceans in the division with unstalked
eyes. The body is usually flattened, and the fii-st
pair of abdominal legs form a lid o\erlappiiig the
others, which generally bear gills. They are
mostly marine, Init the wood-lice are terrestrial ;
they live mainly on decaying animal matter, but
many are parasitic. The j^tenus Tanais seems
ancestral and primitive ; Asellus is very common,
both in fresh and salt water ; the cTibble ( Lim-
noria) bores into wharf -posts and ship-sides;
Idotea includes the largest forms with adapti\e
colours and sometimes phosphorescence ; the family
Copyridie are parasitic on other Crustaceans, and
have very small males ; the family ^iigida? in-
cludes many ' fish-lice ; ' some of the parasitic
Cymothoidie are fii-st male and then female. The
Oniscid;e are terrestrial, and feed on decaying
vegetable matter ; the}' are familiarly known as
'wood-lice,' 'sow-bugs,' 'pill-bugs,' 'slatei-s,' of
which Ouiscus, PorceUio, and Armadillo are com-
mon genera. See Crustacea, Fish-lice, Wood-
lice.
Isotlieriual Lines. See Temperatlee.
Isotl'opisill, physical homogeneity or amorph-
ism ; identity of elastic forces of propagation of
vibration (light, heat, sound), or identity of sus-
ceptibility to magnetisation, in all directions.
Ispahilll, properly ISFAHAN, a famous city of
Persia, capital of the province of Irak-Ajemi, and
formerly capital of the entire country, is situated
on the Zenderud, in an extensive and fertile jdain,
226 miles S. of Tehran. The river, here 600 feet
broad, is crossed by three noble bridges, one of
them 1000 feet in length, with 34 arches, but now
sadly in decay. Groves, orchards, avenues, and
cultivated fields surround the city for miles ; but
the permanent beauty of the %-icinity only serves
to make the contrast all the more strilcing between
the former splendour of the city and its present
ruinous condition. Miles of street are now almost
tenantless, and many of the palaces are deserted
and rapidly falling to decay. The suburb .Julfa,
on the southern bank of the river, once a flourish-
ing Armenian settlement of 30,000 inhabitants, is
now little better than a mass of ruins, since
most of the Armenians have migrated to India.
Ispahan, however, is still an important city and
the seat of extensive manufactures, including all
sorts of woven fabrics, from rich gold brocades and
figured velvets to common calicoes. Trinkets and
ornamental goods in great variety, with firearms,
sword-blades, glass, and earthenware, are al.so
mamifactured. Of late yeai-s, too, Ispahdn has
shown considerable signs of improvement ; many
of its edifices have been rebuilt ; rice, an important
article of commerce, is now largely cultivated in
the neighbourhood. Pop. estimated at 60,000.
Isijahan was a trading town of importance, and
the capital of Irak, under the califs of Bagdad. It
was taken by Tiniur in 13S7, when 70,000 of the
inhabitants arc said to have been ma.ssacred.
During the ITtli century, under Shah-Abbas the
Great, it became the capital of Persia, and reached
the climax of its prosperity. Its walls were then
24 miles in circuit, and it is said to have had
between eOO.WHI aii.l l,(HiO,000 inhabitants. It was
then the emi)orium of the Asiatic world : the mer-
chamlLse of all nations enricheil its bazaars, and
ambiussadors from Kurope and the East crowded
238
ISRAEL
ITALIAN ARCHITECTURE
its court. In 1722 it was devastated by the
Afghans, and some time afterwards tlie seat of
•government was transferred to Tehran (q.v.). The
importance of the place is likely to rise throiif,di
the ojieninj; of the Karun River, since the main
road leading from Moliammera to the interior of
Persia will pass Ispahan. Ispahan is besides the
religious centre of Persia, as the Imam Ujumaa
(high-priest) residing here is looked upon as the
greatest ecclesiastical dignitary of the Shiite
world.
Israel, Kingdom of. See Jews.
I.sriiels, Jcsef, genre-painter, was born at
Groningen in 1824. He studied at Amsterdani
under Pieneman and Kruseman, and in Paris
under Picot and Henri Schetier. In 1855 his
' William, Prince of Orange, opjiosing the Decree
of the King of Spain ' attracted attention in the
Exposition ^ni^■crselle. But this work was almost
the only eH'ort of the painter in the direction of
historical art ; for he soon turned to scenes from
humble life, and settling at Katwijk near Leyden
he devoted himself to the portrayal of the (islier-
folk, sending to the Salon of 1857 his 'Children of
the Sea' and his 'Evening on the Shore.' In 1867
liis celebrated ' Interior of the Orphan Asylum at
Katwijk' gained for him a third-class medal and
the ribbon of the Legion of Honour ; and eight
years later he was awarded the cross and a first-
class medal. More recently he has resided at The
Hague, working indefatigably, and producing a long
series of genre-pictures in oils and water-colours,
presenting, usually in its pathetic aspects, the life
of the humbler classes of Holland. At lirst his
work was somewhat violent in colour, but gradu-
ally it has become subdued, harmonious, and lovely ;
his management of the restricted tonality which he
has adopted shows the most accomplished artistic
skill ; and his handling is large, vigorous, and un-
lal loured. Among his chief pictures may be
named 'The Sewing-school at Katwijk' (1881),
'Silent Company' (1882), 'Fine Weather' (1883),
and 'The Struggle for Life' (1883). He is also
favourably known as an etcher by 'Old Mary,'
'The Cradle,' 'The Motlier,' 'The Fisherinaii,'
and other plates very simi)le, direct, and painter-
like in their method. See a monograph by Netscher,
■with etching's by SteelLnk ( French trans, by Zilckeu,
Amsterdani ).
Issik-kul (Kirghiz, 'warm water'), a lake in
central Asia, in the Russian province of Semirye-
tchensk, situated, at an elevation of 5000 feet above
sea-level, between the Terskei .Vla-tau range on
the south and the Kungei Ala-tau on the north.
It mejisures 112 miles long, 38 miles broad, and
covers an area of 1980 sq. m. Its water is very
salt, but full of lish, especially carp. Notwith-
standing the fact that it receives forty or more
rivei's, its surface falls permanently at the rale of
8 or 9 inches a year.
Issoire (anc. fs^iudorutn), a.U>\yn in the French
department of Puy-de-Dome, near the conlluence
of the Couze and Allier, 21 miles by rail SE. of
Clermont-Ferrand. Po]i. 6051. The town and its
people were treateil with savage fury by both
parties during the religious wars after the Ke-
lormatioM (157-1-77).
Is.soimIiiii. a town in the French department
of Indre, 72 mih's S. of Orleans by rail, has manu-
factures of )iarchment, cloth, agricultural instru-
ments, \'c., and (juarries of lithographic stone.
Poji. (1S72) 11,913; (1886) !2,697 ; (1891) 11,431.
IssiK'i in Law, means the point of fact in dis-
pute which is submitted to a jury.
I.SSUS, anciently, a .seaport on a gulf of the
same name in Cilicia, Asia Minor, celebrated for
the victory which Alexander the Croat obtained
here over Darius (333 li.C), by wliich the camp
and treasure and family of Darius fell into his
hands.
Issy, a village in the French department of
Seine, half a mile SW. from Paris, with which it is
connected by a tramway, possesses a seminary, a
retreat for old men, a castle, and manufactures of
waxcloth, chemicals, \c- Pop. (1S86) 12,080.
Here on 3d July 1815 Bliicher defeated DavoAt.
In 1870-71, during the siege of Paris by the Cer-
mans, the fort of Issy sufiered severely from the
ai'tillery fire. It has since been re-erected, and
now forms part of the south-west defences of
Paris.
Istaklir, or St.vkhr, an ancient city of Persia,
built near Persepolis (q.v.).
Istaiuboill. See CONSTAJJTINOPLE.
IsthutllS, in Geography, a narrow neck of land
joining two larger portions, as the Isthmus of Suez
and the Isthmus of^ Panama. The name was often
employed by the ancients without any addition
to designate the Isthmus of Corinth, joining the
Peloponnesus to continental Hellas. Here were
celebrated the Isthmian Games, one of the four
great national festivals of Greece. See Athletic
Sports.
Istria, an Austrian nuirgraviate, forming a
peninsula in the north-east corner of the Adriatic
Sea, between the Gulf of Trieste and the Gulf of
Fiume or Quarnero. Although a mountainous
land, often swept by the sirocco and bora winds,
it yields excellent olive oil and wine. Area, with
the adjacent islands, 1812 sq. m. ; pop. (1880)
•292,000 ; ( 1885) '299,911, many of whom are eng.aged
in seafaring life. Capital, Ko^igno. — For Dora
d'Istria, see Ghik.\.
Itacollliuite, a schistose quartzite, containing
scales of mica, talc, and chlorite, which are often
so arranged as to give a certain flexibility to the
rock (flexible sandstone). In Brazil and the south-
eastern states of North America itacolumite is the
matrix in which diamonds are found.
Italian Architecture. This term is usually
limited to the style practised by the Italian
architects of tlie 15th, IGth, and 17th centuries,
and since adopted in every country in Europe.
The style originated in a revival of the ancient
architecture of Rome. Althougli Gothic archi-
tecture had been practised in Italy during the
13th and 14th centuries, it had never been
thoroughly naturalised. The Italians always showed
a preference for the round arch over the jjointed
northern form ; and even in tlie buildings they
erected in the pointed style there is a certain
siniiilicity and largeness of parts indicative of a
cliissic feeling. As early as 1350 Giovanni Pisano,
in the beautiful sculjiture of the pulpit in the
Ba])ti.stery at Pisa, sliowcd a return to tlie ancient
models. Aruolfo di Cani)>io planned the catheilral
of Florence ( 1290-13COV and in his design proposed
a great dome (a remarkably Koman feature) over
the crossing of the nave and tran.sept. This he did
not live to complete ; but he prejiared the way for
Brunelleschi (q.v.), who went to Rome to study
tlie ancient buildings there, at that time neglected
and hardly known to thi,' Italians tliemselves, and
ultimately, notwilhstamling great opposition, suc-
ceeded in carrying out the construction of the dome
as it now stands. From this time the revival of
Roman architecture went on rapidly. It was
encouraged by the popes and other princes of Italy;
and the invention of the iirinting-press soon spread
a knowledge of the works of the Italian archilects
over Europe. At Ci-st the Komau mouldings and
ornaments only ^vere copied and applied to the
ITALIAN ARCHITECTURE
ITALY
239
existing forms. As the .ancient style became better
undei'stood its general principles were gradually
adopte<l, until at length the jlodern Italian style
wa-s formed. This stylo may be delined as ancient
Roman architecture aiiplied to tlie forms and
reiiuirements of modern buildings. It has been
admirably applied to domestic, Ijut it has never
been so successfully used in ecclesiastical edifices.
library of St Mark's, Venice,
by Sansovino.
Ricardi Palace, Florence,
by Michelozzo.
The domes of the Italian churches render the
interiors of these buildings very impressive, and
are a feature, for the introduction of wliich into
the west of Europe we are indebted to this style ;
but the facades of the churches are broken up into
stories, antl want the unity of a < iothic front.
Italian architecture is divided into three styles
or schools, according to the places where it was
practi.sed — viz. the Florentine, Roman, and Vene-
tian. The Florentine buildings are massive and
grand in eH'ect ; they are indebted to ancient Roman
art chietly for details, the outlines being the same
as those of the older buildings, designed to suit the
requirements of the locality. Florence being a
turbulent city, every man who had anything to lose
had literally to make his house his castle. Accord-
ingly, the basement floor is ma.ssively built with
lar^e blocks of stone, and the windows are small and
plain. The Roman school naturally resembles nmre
closely the ancient Roman Imihlings so numerous in
that city — pilasters, arcades, ^.c. being freely used.
In Rome tne plan of inchnling two or more stories
in one order of columns or pibusters with their
entablature, having an attic or low story above,
first originated, and was afterwards extensively,
but, as already explained, not successfully applied
to churches.
The Venetian style is, as might be expected in a
city long accustomed to elegant palaces, the most
ornate and picturesque of the Italian schools.
Venice is crowded witli specimens of all kinds from
the earliest to the latest Renaissance, and retains its
individuality of style from first to last. Each stoiy
is marked by a separate tier of columns or pilasters
with their entablature ; the windows are arched
and ornamented with columns, and the spandrils
commonly Idled with figures. The outline is v.-iried
in form, and is usually linished with a balustrade,
broken by pedestals, and crowned with sculptured
figures. It is from this most picturesque of the
styles of the Italian Renaissance that the other
countries of Europe derived their peculiar forms.
See Ren.^iss.\xce, Eliz.vbeth.^n, Pall.vdio.
Italy. The kingdom of Italy comprises the
central of the three great peninsulas of snutherii
Europe (excepting the small re|)ublic of San Marino,
q.v. ), together with Sicily, Sardinia, and some
smaller islands. Knit to the solid mass of central
Euro|ie by the Apennines, the peninsula projects
soutli-eastward into the Mediterranean like a mag-
net, drawing to itself in ancient times the lordship
and commerce of the whole sea, and serving as the
avenue by which the culture of the East was
carried Into northern and western Europe. At the
Strait of Otranto Italy ap]U'oaches within less
than 50 miles of Albania. The boundaries of the
peiunsula are on the W. and S. that portion of
the Mediterranean kno\\Ti as the Tyrrhenian Sea,
and on the E. the Adriatic ; on the N. the Alps
stretch from the head of the Adriatic to the
Riviera, and almost without a break shut in the
kingdom from Austro-Hungary, Switzerland, and
France. The peninsula itself extends from 46' 40'
12" N. lat. (Monte Trugnoni in the Carnian Alps)
to the southernmost point of Calabria, an unnamed
headland in 37° 54' 54" N. lat., or 24" farther south
than Cajie Spartivento. The extreme eastern point
is the Cape of Otranto, 18° 30' .37" E. long., and
the western ^Monte Tabor, 6° 33' 7" E. Its greatest
length in a direct line is 710 miles ; the breadth
ranges from 351 miles in the north to about 20
between the Gulfs of Sta Eufemia and Squillace,
but in most places is about 90 or 100 miles. The
seaboard of the peninsula e.xtends to 2272 miles,
that of the islands to 1944 mUes ; in 1S90 the
frontier with France was returned at 307 miles,
with Switzerland at 407 ndles, and with Austria at
466 ndles.
The area of the kingdom of Italy was formerly
given officially as 114,416 sq. m., but the data on
which this estimate was based were know n to be
inexact. Strelbitsky, in his Snpa-Jick de I'EiiroiJC
(1882), made the area 111,410 si|. ni. : his calcula-
tions were revised by the Italian Military (leo-
gi'aphical Institute in 1SS4, and the total area of
the kingdom M'as still further rciluced to 110,657
sq. m., made up ;is follows: ('ontinental and penin-
sular Italy, with the small islands embraced in
its administration, 91,422 sq. m. ; Sicily and the
islands adnunistratively dependent on it, 99.39 si|.
m. ; Sardiida and the islets near it, 9296 s(|. m.
These .are the otficial figures for the entire king-
dom ; but .as yel no detailed survey li.as been
accomplished, and the areas given for tlie provinces
in the table below are those obtained by Strel-
bitsky's calculations. At the first general cen-
sus of the kingdom, in 1871, the population was
26,801,154. The t.able gives the population actually
])resent at the cen>Ms of Decendjcr 31, 1881 (density
257 ]>er s(|. m. ) ; in 1895 the estimated ]>opul,itioii
was 3(1,913,670. The number of foreigners in Italy
at the time of the census of 1881 was 59,956, includ-
ing 16,092 A ustrians, 12,104 Swi.ss, 10,781 French,
and 7302 Uritish. The Italian population includes in
Piedmont about 120,000 of French, and some.SOoo
2-iO
ITALY
of Teutonic orijnn, in Southern Italy at least 60,000
of Allianian anil 20,000 of Greek origin, and in
Sardinia 7000 or SOOO of Sjjanisli origin. (A list of
Provinces and CouipArtimentl.
Area in Sq.
MUea.
Population
luISSI.
Eat. Pop. in
1889.
1,906
2,892
2,664
4,037
729,710
635,400
076,926
1,029,214
801,462
677,5.'>6
2. Cuiieo
3. Xovara
732,3.19
4. Tuiiu
1,085,780
FlEliSIONT
11,389
3,070,250
3,297,167
1,619
468
760,122
132,261
810,562
6. Porto Maurizio
136,738
LiGURIA
2.087
892,373
947.300
7. Bergamo. . . ...
1,092
1,845
1,080
687
911
1,213
1,312
1,206
390,775
471,668
615,060
302,138
295,728
1,114,991
469,831
120,534
430,5s2
601,531
9. Como.
665 411
324 204
11. Mantua.
321 87-^
12. >filan
1,228,218
613 983
14. Sondrio
128,172
LOMBARDY
9,346
3,680,616
4.013,973
15. Belluno
1,292
797
643
962
2,566
733
1,228
1,075
174,140
397,762
217,700
376,704
601,745
356,708
394,005
390,349
194,003
16. Padua .
437,6.16
17. Ro^^go
239,579
421,509
19. Udine
655,911
20. Venice
383.247
428,658
22. Viceuza
441,406
Venice
9,276
2,814,173
3,101,807
23. Bologna
1,432
1,014
768
994
1,278
909
779
838
464,879
230,807
251,110
279,264
267,306
226,717
218,359
244,959
497,213
260,430
25. Forli..
274.042
26. Modena
303,541
27. Parma
285,790
28 Piacenza . . .
242,853
29. Ravenna
232,482
30. Keggio Emilia
260,140
Emilia
8,012
2,183,391
2,352,497
1,273
2,239
1,771
133
644
648
1.206
1,477
238,744
790.776
114,295
121,612
284.484
169,469
283,563
205,926
259,018
32. Florence .. .
880,226
33. Grosseto
127,123
126,798
35. Lucca . . ....
309,480
36. Massa and Carrara
37. Pisa
186,221
310,321
38. Siena.
222,104
Tl'SCANY
9,291
2.208,809
2,391,291
39. Ancona.
788
770
1,072
1,167
267,338
209,185
239,713
223,043
290,307
229,477
41. MaeeraUt
42. Pesaro and Urbino
261,071
240,082
Marches.
3,797
939,279
1,021,697
43. Perugia (Umbria).
3,668
572,060
624,039
44. Rome
4,699
903.472
982.581
46. Aquila degli Abruzzi ....
2,558
1,705
1,194
1,110
353,027
365,434
343,948
254,806
389,117
391 .087
47. Chieti.
372,815
48. Teranio
281,332
Abruzzi and Molise..
6,567
1,317,215
1,434,361
49. Avellino
1,171
837
2,090
336
1,958
6.392
392,619
238,425
714,131
1,001,245
650,157
432,949
269,015
51. Caserta
779,782
52. Naples
1,060,032
63. Salerno
597.031
CaMI'ASIA
2,896,577
3,12s.S09
54. Bari
2,288
2,684
3,048
679,499
3.16,267
663,298
761,7-28
55. Foggia
66. Lecce
381,754
600.905
Apulia
7,920
1,689.064
624.504
1,734.3,87
57. POTEKZA(Basilicata)....
3,998
1,998
2,686
1,227
566.309
5!>. Catanzaru
433,975
4.il,185
372,723
461,209
69. Cosenza
60. Reggio di Calabria.
492,690
405,913
Calabria
6,811
1,257.883
1,359,872
01. Caltanissetta
02. Cat.iiiia
1,270
1,924
1,166
1,246
1,985
1,440
930
266,379
663,467
812,487
460,92-1
699,151
341,628
283,977
297.762
6"3 0-»'>
774,070
389.560
317,176
66. Syracuse
67. Trapani
Sicily
8,961
2,927,901
3,205,1)88
68. Cagliari
6,284
3,922
420,635
281,867
449,414
286.174
69. Sassari
'Sardinia
9,200
6t>2,002
735,!i8S
Total....
111,410
28,459,628
30,947,306
the liretty numerous jilaces in the Neapolitan and
Sicilian provinces where Albanian, an Italianised
Modern Creek, Gallo-ltalic, Provencal, and lllviian
are still in use as • linguistic islands,' will be found
in a paper contributed by I'rince Lucieu Bonaparte
to the I'liik.logical Society, March 1890.) The
estiin.ated population at the end of 1889 (see table)
was 30,947, .'JOG ; but this is based solely on the
difference between births and deaths, and takes no
account of emigration. \\'ithin the eight veare
1882-89, 791,404 persons left Italy for dillerent
parts of America, as many as 113,0(')G emigrating
in 1889 alone. In 1888 the United States received
47,856; Argentinia, 75,029 ; Brazil, 104,35.S. Of the
1881 population 501 in every 1000 were males. In
the accompanying table the old coiiipartiiiniili or
groups of provinces are retained for convenience,
although they are no longer recognised as adminis-
trative divisions. The area is nearly that of Great
Britain and Ireland ; the population about four-
tifths that of the United Kingdom at the same
date. To the kingdom proper must be addeil
Italy's colonial possession in Africa. This consists
of the territories of Assab and Massowah {ii.v. ),
on the Red Sea, Keren and Asmara in Abyssinia,
and the Dahlak archipelago, which embrace a total
area of nearly 4000 sq. m., and were united into a
colony bearing the name of Eritrea in 1889. More-
over, Italy established a protectorate for some dis-
tance inland from Massowah, and along the coast
from lias Kasar (18" 2' N.) to beyond Assab, and
till the disastrous events of 1896 claimed to have
established a protectorate over Abyssinia.
The towns with a population of over 100,000 in
1881 were Naples, 463,172; Milan, 295,543; Uome,
273,268; Turin, 230,183 ; ralermo, 205,712 ; (ienoa,
138,081 ; Florence, 134,992 ; Venice, 129,445 ; and
Bologna, 103,998. In 1895 the estimated p(i|)u
lations were: Naples, 523,000; Rome, 45.'i,(iiiO:
Milan, 433,000 ; Turin, 336,000 ; Palermo, 277,0011 ;
Genoa, 217,000; Florence, 200,000; Venice, 150,000;
Messina, 147,000; Bologna, 142,000. The seat of
government was at Turin from 1861 to 1865, then
at Florence till 1870, since which date Rome ha-s
been the capital of the kingdom.
Pliysicat Features. — The configuration of conti-
nental Italy (for the islands, see SARDINIA and
Sicily) may be easily explained; in the penin-
sular portion it is jletermined mainly by the
great chain of the Apennines. It is usual with
geographers to divide the countiy into Northern,
Central, and Southern Italy, the middle section
generally being taken to e.xtend between Siiezia
and Cape Circello on the west coast and Rimini
and Monte Gargaiio on the east coast. This
division, however, especially as regards its southern
boundary, is purel.y arbitrary, and it will be more
convenient in this article, while retaining the
terms commonly in use, to describe the country
under the two divisions into which physically it
falls— the great jilain of Northern Italy, and the
generally mountainous peninsula to the south.
On the northern frontier the Alps sweep round
in a mighty arc from Nice to Trieste, running out
in places into Piedmont, Loiiibanly, and Venice.
For the most |iart they rise steep and abrujit,
except where their wall is pierced by long, deep
valle.ys ; and .some of the loftiest peaks in the
system, including Mont lilanc and fllonte Rosa,
behmg to this mountain-girdle. The highest
mountain entirely within the kingiloiii is Gran
Paradiso (13,652 feet), the culminating ])oint of
the Graian .\lps, in Piedmont. Between the .Alps
and the Apennincw spreads the broad fertile Lom-
bardo-Venetian plain, a nearly level CDuntry.
which differs altogether in character from the
])Cninsula to the south, and for a long period was
politically distinct from it. Most of this great
r
k
H >R CHAMBERS, LIMITED. LONDON t EDINBUflt
ITALIA
t CHAMBERS. 1.1 KITED. LONDON* [DINSURI
ITALY
241
alluvial tract, which lills nearly the whole of
Northern Italy, belongs to the biusin of the Po ;
it is iiiigated by numerous streams and canals,
and is one of the most fruitful and llourishinj;
districts of Italy. The principal rivei's are fed
from the Alpine lakes; and the Po ((j.v. ), which
descends from Monte Viso, on the western frontier,
and. as it sweeps across the plain, receives the con-
triliutions of numerous important streams, ranks
for its volume of water among the notable rivers
of Europe. It is navigable for 320 out of its 420
miles, and several of its tributaries are also
navigable. The Adige, which is connected with
the Po by canals, Is also, although much more
rapid, navigalile in its lower course, and so is the
Brenta : the other streams that pour down through
the Venetian plain are mostly nmuutain-torrents.
The lakes of Northern Italy belong to a dirt'erent
class from those of the peninsula. Many of the
Po's triliutaries spread out at the foot of the Alps
into considerable bodies of water, among which are
the Lago di Garda (127 sq. m. ), Lago Maggiore
(81), and Como (58). The.se lakes are all remark-
able for their depth ; ilaggiore is reported to have
a depth of 1158 feet, Como 1358, and Garda 1916
feet. From Rimini to the Gulf of Trieste the
coast is flat and marshy from the overHow of the
rivei's, and fringed, both north and .south of the
muddy delta of the Po, for long distances by
lagoons. These lagoons are in general separated
from the sea by only a narrow strip of sand, with
openings at intervals, and contain some important
harbours, such as Venice and Cliioggia. On the
opposite coast, along the Riviera, from Nice to
Spezia, the sunny, rugged mountains come close to
the water's edge, the only considerable portions of
level ground occurring at the mouths of valleys.
The Apennines shut out this district from the rest
of Northern Italy, and from their pro.ximity there
are no large streams along the coast here. The
feology of the north and we.st of Northern
taly is that of the Alps (q.v. ). In the basin
of the Po there are vast moraines left by the
glaciers of the Glacial Period : and the Isolated
Monti lierici and Euganean Hills, in the plain
north of the Adige, are of volcanic origin.
In the peninsula the Apennines are the most
important feature. The chain, after stretching
across from the Gulf of tJenoa to the Adriatic,
turns and runs down in a broad, irregular mass to
the e.xtremity of Calabria, but does not extend
into the ' heel ' towards Utranto. Its highest point
before it makes its bend is Monte Cimone (7110
feet); but the mean elevation Is only some 5200
feet, and the principal summits of the range occur
in Central Italy. Here it no longer presents a
continuous ridge, but is broken into mountain-
masses and short ranges, marching in a roughly
parallel direction, and separated by extensive up-
land valleys. The limestone rocks of the Ajjcn-
nines, rugged and cleft, till the interior of the
country with picturesijuc mountain-scenery, which
becomes wilder iis the chain stretches farther south,
and in the Neapolitan lii'dilands exhibits a savage
grandeur, that is softened somewhat by the fertile
'red earth,' formed from the disintegrated limestone.
In Central Italy the main chain follows the
Adriatic side, and its ejistern slope is the steeper :
the western is less abrupt, and contains numerous
valleys. The culminating ]ieak of the Apennines
is Monte Como (9577 feet), in the great mountain-
mass called Gran Sasso d'ltalia. The bold pro-
montory of Monte Gargano (once an island) Joes
not belong to the Apennine .system. The Neapoli-
tiin .Apennines fill the rest of the peninsula, cro.ss-
ing over to the west coast, and running dose upon
the sea again, as in Northern Italy; but the .system
properly ends with Monte Pollino (7376), where the
276
Calabrian peninsula begins ; for here the limestone,
except at long intervals, gives place to granite,
gneiss, and crystalline schists — to reappear, how-
ever, in the motintains of Sicily, which may be
looked upon as a continuation of the range (for the
geology, .see Apennines). (_)n the west side of the
peninsula, between the main chain and the sea, a
volcanic tract extends from the isolated trachytic
cone of Monte Amiata (5689), in Tuscany, to the
Monti Laziali, and as far south as Vesuvius (4206),
the only volcano still active. The entire Cami)a-
nian plain, the Roman Campagna, and the country
round \'iterbo are mainly ot volcanic origin ; and
throughout this tract are a number of small lakes
occupying crater-shaped basins. The only volcanic
peak east of the main chain is Monte ^'ulture
(4.364), somewhat farther north than Vesuvius.
To the volcanic centres within the peninsula may
be added Etna in Sicily, and Stromboli in the
Lipari Islands. Tuscany is a hilly country, ^^ hicli
.seldom rises into mountains. Farther south the
Roman ]jlain, the Pontine Marshes, and the fer-
tile Campanian plain are connected, with unim-
portant breaks ; but on the east side of the Apen-
nines the only plain is that of Apulia, which rises
into undulating downs, and, in the peninsula to tJie
north-east of the Gulf of Taianto. into low, barren
hills of Pliocene formation. North of Apulia
stretches of vine-clad hills occujn' the country
between the mountains and the Adriatic, until the
lowlands of Northern Italy are reached.
The rivers of the peninsula present a striking
contrast to those of the northern plains. Here are
no such ine-xhanstible reservoirs as in the lakes
and snowlields of the Alps, nor is the rainfall of
importance save in the winter months; so that
even the larger lowland rivers, e.xcejit the Tilier,
fall considerably in summer, and in the south what
are torrents after heavy rains often in the dry sea-
son disappear altogether. The chief rivers of the
peninsula How into the Tyrrhenian Sea ; but only
the Tiber (for 90 miles) and, to a less extent,
the Arno (66 miles), Volturno, and (iarigliano are
navigable. The lakes of the jieniusula ai'e either
crater-lakes, such as that of Rolsena ( 45 sq. in. ),
or occupy troughs among the mountains. To
the latter class belongs Trasimeno or the Lago di
Perugia (52 sq. m.); Fucino or Celano, which was
a larger lake, has been drained, and is now culti-
vated. The coast along the Adriatic extends un-
broken, excei>t where the Gargano promontory forms
the Gulf of Manfredcmia ; and on this side tlie only
harbours, unless we include Ancona, are Brindisi,
Barletta, and IJari. Taranto is one of the Iiest
harbours in Italy. A vast fertile plain, but infested
with malaria, adjoins the gulf of that name ; while
nearly everywhere in Calabria the coast, though
richly clothed with southern vegetation, is more or
less steep, and the only port is Reggio, on the Strait
of Messina. To the north are the Gulfs of Policastro,
Salerno, Naples, and (iaeta, that of Naples, shel-
tered by the islands of Ischia and Capri, being espe-
cially well provided with harliours. In Central Italy
the west coast contains seveial long, shallow bays,
divided by in'omoutories which have been formed
by alluvial deposits connecting rocky islan<ls with
the mainland ; but still farther north, along the
Riviera, the .steep coast presents a number of ailmir-
able harl)ours, such <as Spezia, Genoa, and Savona.
Cli/iittte and I'ci/ctutniii. — The generally warm
climate of Italy is considerably modilied in |)laces
by the presence of the mountainranges or the
proximity of the sea. The i)lain of the Po, open
to the icy winds from the Al|is, and closed to those
from the south, has a cohl if short w inter ( the mean
winter temperature of Turin is nearly the same as
that of Shetland), while along the Riviera the
temperature is as high as, and sometimes highar
242
ITALY
tlian, that of Kome or Naples. Tliiouf;hoiit tlie
peninsula the teniiieiatuie i.s lowered liy the jires-
ence of the Apennines, and some of the coldest
districts of Italy are found in the Marches and in
the Ahruzzi uplands. Moreover, the Adriatic
coast, exiiosed to the north-east winds, is colder
than the correspondinj,' west coast. July is in
{general the hottest niimtli, but in the extreme
south Au},'ust: the coldest month in every pro-
vince is .January. The lii<,'hest temperature re-
corded is 109° F. (in Apulia), the lowest -25° V.
(on Monte Stelvio, in Lombardy); but over the
whole country the extremes of mean annual
temperature for the period 1876-88 were only
46° and ()'2° F. AVith re^,'ard to the rainfall a
considcralde dili'erence is observable in the various
sections of tlie country. In the very south there
are but two seasons, a wet and a dry ; whereas in
Northern Italy there are two greater and two lesser
rainy periods in the year, nuist rain falling in
October and in spring, and least in winter. Over
all tlie peninsula autumn is the wet season ; but
in the islands most rain falls in the winter months.
The lowest nu'an annual rainfall is in Foggia (18
in.) and Sardinia (17); the highest in the Venetian
province of Udine (60 in.), and in Dergamo and
Novara. The distribution of moisture is very un-
equal, even in districts near one another (the yearly
mean of Venice itself is less than half tliat of Udine ) ;
but in general nu)st rain falls in the mountains.
Snow is common in the basin of the Fo, becoming
less so as we proceed south, excejit in the uplands,
where in some districts it lies for months. The
cold mistral blows in the Gulf of Genoa, and
the scorching sirocco att'ects the coast sometimes
as far north as Venice. The singular clearness
of the atmosphere, enhancing the charms of build-
ings and of landscape, strikes every visitor; but in
many districts the evil presence of malaria, from
J uly to October especially, forms a serious drawback
to the sunny climate. Indeed, some of the most
fertile tracts of Italv, a.s in Calabria, have for
centuries lain deserted owing to this plague. Only
six districts (' circondarii ') are altogether free from
malaria, and the malignant type infests the Adriatic
lagoims, the Tuscan Maremma, the Konum Cam-
pag^na, Apulia, most of the Calabrian coiust, and
Sicily and Sardinia. In 1887 no less than 21,033
deaths were set down to malarial fever. In the
Campagna and elsewheie, however, drainage opera
tions have had a good effect.
Tlic vegetation of Ncuthern Italy is in the main
sucli as can endure the frosts of winter. But by
tlic lake sides we lind orange and olive trees, and
the summer heat is sullicieut to ripen rice and
maize, of which, as well as other cereals ami legumes,
large crops are raised. Forests of chestnuts clothe
the mountains, vineyards the lower liills, and the
mulberry-tree is extensively grown. The Kiviera,
.so far as vegetation is concerned, lielongs to South-
ern Italy, and the date-i)ahMs and orange-trees are
continued at slight intervals along the Tuscan coast.
In the interior of Central Italy, however, the vege-
tation still presents much the same features as in
the Lomliard plain, and it is only in Southern Italy
that the iMcililerranean Mora prevails. Here, in
the lowlands fmm .Monte (Jargano ami Terracina
south, the lloia of central Europe gives ]dace to
palms and orange and lemon and citron trees, the
cactus anil agave, laurels, myrtles, oleanders, and
forests of arbutus and the evergreen oak. Only
at elevations above 2600 feet do the chestnut and
oak reajipear, and higher still the beech ; the birch
and lir and pine are conlined to the Alps.
Ar/ricuKiin:. — Italy is preeminently an agricul-
tural country. Of its entire area 87 per cent, is
returned as productive, the nniiroductive tracts
embracing only the higher mountain districts and
the mai-shes ; and even these latter are being gradu-
ally drained. Nearly half "f llio proiluctive area is
uniler cultivation. The otHcial ri'turns of the area
under cultivation in the two periods of live years,
1870-74 and 187!) 83, .show an increase in the num-
ber of acres devoted to vines, olives, oranges, maize,
oats, barley, rye, leguminous plants, and potatoes,
and a decrease in the case of wheat, rice, (•hcslnuts,
hemp, and tiax. As regards their yield, however,
all the grain crops exhibit a falling oil': and the
decrease became still greater in the years 1884-89.
The following table shows the average number of
acres under the several grain crops, and the produce,
for the period 1879-83; also the produce for 1894,
which was similar to that for 1893 :
Wheat
1879-S3.
1894.
Acres.
Bu.hels.
Busholl.
10,961,340
4,076,099
1,099.051
860,652
390,894
496,686
128,200,294
82,000,057
18,269,602
10,891,1.54
6,054,417
20,142,258
117,830,000
67.800.000
16,600,000
8,0CS.0O0
4,273,000
15,770,000
Miiize
B.irley
Rye .
Rice
The live-year mean of the wheat crop, which is
higher than the yield of 18S8, is equal to 11-7
bushels jier acre, or not much more than a third of
the |)roduce per acre in Scotland. The jnodnce of
maize per acre, again, is about seven-eighths that
of the United States. These crops do not meet
the needs of the kingdom, and wheat iigures as
the heaviest item in the annual imports. In 1888-
89 the quantity of this cereal imi)orted increased by
nearly 30 per cent., while the import of maize leaped
from 2168 to 1.58,356 tons. The reduced wheat acre-
age is mainly due to the great inciease of vineyards,
especially in Southern Italy, an<l of meadow lands ;
the reduction would be greater but that a good
deiil of reclaimed land has been given up to this
croji and to maize. Barley is largely used for feeding
cattle, especially in the islands. As a rule it hius
a thick husk, and Ls of little use for beer ; but of
late years the government has made exiicriments
in sever.al provinces, and also distrilmt<'d ]iarcels
of seed, witli .a view to jmunote the cultivation of
a grain better suited for brewing. Kice, Mhich is
grown in very few jilaces outside the northern
plains, has in nniny districts been given up, i)artly
owing to the competition of foreign rice, but largely
because constant crops of it exhausted the soil.
Haricot beans are a common croii in all parts of
the country, as well as lentils :uid a smaller pro-
portion of jiease ; but the cro]) of coinmcui beans,
lupines, vetches, .and the like, for winter forage, is
twice as large. Lupines are raised also for manure.
Potatoes are grown everywhere, although the (pian-
tit.y is decreasing; and tomatoes and vegetables are
also of importance. Of liemp ( principally iji Kmilia
and Campania) some 70,111)0 tons arc .anun.-Lllx jiro-
duced, and of llax (a pmu- (juality) 15,000 tons.
Tobacco is grown mostly in tlie provinces of Lecce,
Benevento, \'icenza, ami lielluno. The crop varies
from 5,000,tt00 to 10,(KI0,0(X) lb. a year. The grape
harvest in Italy is second in value to the cereals
alone, and exceeds that of any one of them. The
area under vines has been incre;used by about
half since 1870, especially in Piedmont, Southern
Italy, and the islands ; and the government has
established several schools of viticulture, besides
expending considerable sums in defending the vines
from the attacks of the phylloxera, \"ineyards
occupy some 7,6.50,000 acres, and the ]iroducti(Ui
of wine ii\ 1887 w:us lu'arly 728 million gallons, or
more than tli.at of France (cf. \o\. IV. p. 774) —
although in 1HS9, a bad year, the crop yiehled
only 4(i5 million gallons. The Italian wines are
still comparatively poor ; but a fair quality is pro-
ITALY
243
duoed in Sicily and some other places where good
methods are employed, and a considerable qniintity
of this is exported. Below the 44tli parallel the
olive is amonj; the most valuaVOe products. In
Northern Italy it is of no imp<ntance, excejjt in
Liguria: and "even there it is niucli less widely
"rown than formerly. Indeed, over all the king-
dom the amount of olive-oil produced has ''reatly
dinunislied : in 1879-S.S the average for eatHi year
was nearly 74 million gallons, in liSSS less than 30
million gallons. For oranges, lemons, liergamots,
■&C., the returns show nearly 3000 million fruit,
about two-thirds coming from Sicily. Much of
this is exported, but part is used in the manufac-
ture of essential oils, lime-juice, &c. Among the
less important fruits of Italy are the tig, ])each,
apricot, piickly pear, and many others. Over 11
million acres are under forest. The almond, wal-
nut, and hazel, the sumach, cork, and dwarf palm,
and much more the mulberry, are all of value.
Finally, the chestnut is not only a i)rominent tree
in the upland districts, but yields an important
article ot food ; yet the use of cereals is gradually
becoming more general, and on the lower hills
chestnut-groves are giving place to vineyards.
Still in an average year the harvest is over 700
million jiounds.
The extent of cultivable land in Italy is being
increased, both by deforesting and by the reclama-
tion of land from the rivei-s and swamps. Culti-
vation is still carried on in a veni" primitive fashion
in some parts, but in others machiueiy has for long
been not uncommon, and generally modern methods
are gaining ground. In Northern Italy, Tuscany,
and round Naples, indeed, the farming is of a very
high character. Double crops in the same year,
as of beans after wheat, are often the rule, and it
is not unusual to see olive-orchards where vines are
planted beneath the trees and crops of some kind
hll the space between the rows. Irrigation is
more extensively employed every year ; but the
•expense attending its use has helped to keep much
of the land in the hands of large owners. Never-
theless, the system of peasant proprietorship is
extending. Otherwise, land may be held by the
metayer system, or by rent, paid either in money
or in kind ; or the cultivator may be simply the
paid servant of the landlord, receiving a share of
the produce for his labour. In any case, the life of
the Italian pea.sant is, as a rule, one of unremit-
ting drudgery and poverty — often of privation, and
agricultural strikes have occurred, as in 1889 in
the (lallarate district of Milan, and in 1890 at
Conselice, in Romagna.
The crop of hay ami gra-ss in 1888 was over 21
million tons. Since 1880 there has been an almost
constant increa-se in the area devoted to meadows
and pastures : and this has been encouraged by the
raLnister of Agriculture, both by means of prizes
and bv the distribution of seed. In IS'.iO there were
5,000,(KJ(J cattle, 6,900,000 sheep, 1,800,000 goats,
4ind 1,800,000 swine. There are no relurirs of the
immber of bud'aloes, liut they probably amount to
from 10,000 to 15,(J(J0. Northern Italy is famous for
its dairy districts, and lar^e co-operative dairies have
been established, especiiilly in Lombardy, in Ven-
•eto, and in the valley of Aosta. The well-known
I'armesan cheese Ls manufactured from Lombardy
to Emilia, Corgonzola also in Lombardy, and
■Gruyere in Piedmont. There is a government
experimental dairy at Lodi, which imblisbcs re-
ports. Butter and meat are exporU;(l, and al.-o live
cattle ; but the exports of tlie-^e la.st liave diminished,
seemingly owing to errors in breeding ami feeding.
This matter ha.s received the serious attention of
the government, and a C'omniissione Zootccnica
<1887) has been appointed, and technical schools
estal)lished throughout the country. Also, there
are over 200 royal stations for stallions ; and the
government aid to horse-breeding in 1888 e.xceeded
£65,004).
Fisheries. — There are \aluable lisheries round the
coiist and in the lagoons. The tunny is the most
valuable tish, and after that the anchovy and sar-
dine ; but the eel-fisheries of Comacchio (q.v. ) are
also of importance. The r/nincle pcaca (i.e. lisheries
carried on outside the boats' own districts or on
foi-eign coasts) employed 1323 smacks, with 8796
men, in 1886 ; and of these 195 boats and 1072 men
were engaged in the coral-fishery, and 45 boats and
856 men in the sjionge lisheiy. In 1888 the boats
numbered 1421, the coral and sponge fisheries
employing respectively 163 and 48. The ])rincipal
tishing-grounds are oil' the coa.sts of Sicily, of Tunis,
and of Istria and Dalmatia. Sponges are tished off
Tunis, and coral now almost e.xclusively off Sicily —
and even the Sicilian banks are rapidly becoming
exhausted. In 1880 the discovery of a new bank
at Sciacca raised the total quantity fished there to
9,906,000 lb. ; in 1888 it had fallen to 1,290,000 lli.
In 1894 the total value of lish caught was about
£6,800,000, and of coial raised nearly £90,000.
The coral is sent across to the mainland in the
rough state, and is worked chielly at Torre del
Greco, Naples, Leghorn, and Genoa.
Minerals. — Italy contains no deposits of bitumin-
ous coal, nor, except in a few localities, of iron. A
very little anthracite and about .300,000 tons of
lignite are raised annually, most of the latter in
Tuscany and L'mbria ; and peat is found in many
districts. Nearly all the iron is raised in Elba ( q. v. ),
and a very little in Lombardy and Piedmont. The
great mineral product of Italy is sulphur, which
represents nearly half of the annual value of all
minerals raised throughout the kingdom ; and of
this nearly nine-tenths is obtained in Sicily. The
total value of the mineral prod\icts decreased in
1882-94 from £2,952,610 to £2,150,000. In 18SS
the principal items were sulphur, £1,000,500; zinc
ores, £286,500; lead ores, £276,500; lignite, ^c,
£107,000; iron ores, £80,000; silver ores, £77,000;
mercurv, £68,000 ; copper ores, £65,000 : boiacic
acid, £52,000; and gold ores, £19,500. The
number of persons employed in this industry was
47,063 in 1887, 49,154 in 1888. In addition'must
be mentioned the quarrying of marble, granite,
and alaliaster, valued at nearly a million sterling
annually, and emploj-ing some 20,000 men. The
marble of Carraia (q.v. ) is especially famous, as is
also the alabaster of Volterra, near Pisa. See
Al.\baster.
3Iatuifacl tires. — Partly because of the high cost
of fuel, Italy does not rank among the great manu-
facturing cotmtries of Europe ; but in some branches
of trade her productiims are of considerable import-
ance. Owing to various causes, complete statistics
are not in every c;ise obtainable ; but the great
advance of the manufacturing indu-stry generally
may be estimated from the increase in the annual
imports of coal, which increiised nearly livefold
between 1871 and 1880. Still the steam-power
machinery of the country, according to its relative
lioi-se-|)ower, is eipnil to only about onef(irtietli
that of Great Britain, and is less than a third of
that move<l by water. Of principal importance is
the silk industry, which employs some 150,000 per-
sons, exclusive of those engaged in rearing the silk-
worm ; in 1880 this culture was carried on in 5I8.S
comnmnes, and by over 570,000 persons: the
cocoon harvest amounte<l to 75,089,655 lb. (in
1888, to 96,798,272 lb.). The great seat of the
silk industiy is in Northern Italy, and es|)ecially
in the province of Como. A large quantity of raw
silk is still exi>orted, to be returned in the form of
textile go<Hls. Nevertheless, the exports of silk in
all forms greatly exceed the imports — in 1888 by
244
ITALY
£9,400,000. The maiuifactuie of tliieiul ami of
cotton tissues shows a steady ailvaiice, as iloos also
the s|iiimiiiy; ami weaviiij; of wool. The iiianufac-
ture of jute is conliiied to a few lai;,'e factories.
The noilli is the seat of the iron industry, but
there is a large manufactory of iron rails at Terni,
in Perugia ; the iiriucipal copijcr- works are at
Leghorn. The machinery manufactured, including
that turned out l>y the government estalilislimeuts,
is valued at little short of £4,000,000 a year, the
chief centres of this work being Turin and Milan ;
but macldnery to the value of between one and
two millions sterling is still imported annually.
The manufactures of glass and ceramic wares are
valued at £2,500,000 ; the former include the
famous Venetian glass, and the latter majolica,
faience (so called from Faenza), and other valuable
wares. A\'ith these may l)e classed the cutting of
cameos and the production of mosaics at Kome,
Naples, and Florence, and also the working of
coral. For the preparation of food-stutl's there are,
according to the most recent returns available,
30,414 mUls moved by water, steam, or wind
(29,418 by water) ; besiiles these there are no less
than 20,994 moved by animal power. The latter
are chiefly for domestic imrposes, however, and
most of them are in Sardinia. About G million
tons of corn and maize are ground annually, and
nearly 90,000 persons are employed more or less
regularly in the mills. Large ijuantities of Hour-
pastes are nianufact\ired, principally from foreign
wheat, which is harder than the native grain. Of
spirits, made mostly from maize, the production in
the hscal year 188(i-S7 was .'),;i24,412 gallons; and
to this must be added marsala, vermouth, Jind
other liqueurs. In the same year there were 1.S9
breweries in operation. Small quantities of sugar,
glucose, and chicory also are produced ; confection-
ery and preserved fruits are regular articles of ex-
])ort. The mantifacture of tobacco is a government
monopoly ; in 1SS7 there were 17 factories, ami two
depots (at Leghorn and Sampierdarena), employing
10,387 hands; the production amounted to nearly
40,000,000 lb. The output of the tanneries is
estimated at £4,000,000, and there is a considerable
export of gloves. There are numerous paper-mills
in Piedmont, Lombardy, and Campania, and
factories of straw-hats, the piincipal at Florence,
and of cloth, silk, and felt hats in Piedmont
e.sjiecially. The export of straw-hats, though
still considerable, is diminishing, while that of
straw-jilaiting is increasing. Sulphuric and tar-
taric acid, suljihate of (|uinine ( nuide at Milan and
Genoa), salt, .soap, oils, candles, wax matches, Oic.
are also exi)orted. Finally, the extensive building
operations carried out within recent yeai's \vith a
view to modernise the large cities have given a
great im])ulse to the manufacture of brick.s and the
like, as well as to the quarrying of stone.
C'omiiieiTc. — The foreign trade of Italy is facili-
tated both by the ('xtensiNe seaboard and good
harbours ami by railway connections with the
countries beyond the Alps. In 1.S78 the kingdom
was eighth in the list of Furopean commercial
nations, being surpassed by (ireat Britain, (lermany,
France, Holland, Helgiiim, Russia, ami Austria; ten
years later it had outdistanced Austria, and was
about ei|ual with Russia. The imports during these
ten years showed a mjarly steady increase, amount-
ing linally to over .")0 per cent. ; the exports liiil not
vary great ly, but on the whole exhibited a very slight
falling oil'. The value of the former (excluding
bullion and goods in transit ) in 1 887 was £04,030,000 ;
of the latter, £.39,9.>5,0O0. In 1888 the imports
fell to £40.584,000, the exports to £3.-),()77,O0O ; in
1S,S9 the returns rose again to £55,027,000 and
£38,019,000 respectively. Taking the entire trade
of the country, one-fourth is set down to articles
of food, about a half to raw and i)artially-prepared
materials, and the remainder to manufacture<l
good.s. Wheat rei]resents an eighth of the total
imports, and yarns and tLssues nearly as much ;
after these come raw cotton, coal, timber, sugar,
nuichinery, lish, iron, collee, hides, cheese, tobacco,
in this order. Silk, mo.stly raw or thrown, snjiplies
about three-tenths of the exports, and wine more
than one-tenth ; olive-oil, fruit, eggs, hemp and
flax, sulphur, worked coral, nuirble, and rice come
next. The commercial intercourse of Italy up to
the end of 1887 was chiefly with France (over ;J4
per cent, of the total); Great Rritain (nearly 15
J)er cent.), Austria, Germany, Switzerland, and
iussia following at some distance. In 1888, how-
ever, Italy entered on a war of tarills with France,
which bad the imnu'diate result of reducing the
direct trade with the latter c(uintrv liy almost one-
half, anil Rritain advanced to the tirst place.
This change is in a large degree only apparent,
for great quantities of Italian products, notably
raw silk, have since been exported to Switzer-
land tirst, and thence to France. Nevertheless, its
efi'ect is to render the figures for the years that
follow 1887 misleading. The principal imports
from Rritain are coal, iron, cottons and woollens,
machinery, and sugar; the chief exports thither are
olive-oil, oranges and lemons, with their essences
and syrtips, hemp, sulphur, chemicals, and marble.
The Italian mercantile marine at the end of 1888
embraced 0810 sailing-vessels and steamers, with
a tonnage of 853,033 tons ; the steamers numbered
200, of 175,100 tons. Over nine-tenths of the
whole were employed in the lishing and coasting
trade. In the same year 1 1 1 ,257 vessels of 20,048,258
tons entered (111,103 cleared) Italian ])orts. Tin-
Italian shipping engaged in international naviga
tion has rapidly fallen oil' of late years. Mort-
than half the steamers entering Italian i)orts are
Rritish, and these carry nearly four-lifths of the
maritime trade. The most important seajiorts are
Genoa and Savona, Leghorn, Naples, Venice,
Me.ssina, and Palermo. In 1894, of a total imjiort
of £43,000,000 (excluding specie) only £5,5.55,00(>
were from Rritain ; of an export of £40,000,0(K>
£3,130,000 were sent to liritain. In 1894, 113,983
vessels of 28,200,000 tons cleared from Italian ports.
In 1895 there were 9300 ndles of railway. Since
1885 the state lines have been workeil by private
companies, and about four fifths of all the railways
belong to two great systems, the Meiliterranean
and the Adriatic. Two notable tunnels, the Mont
Cenis and St Gothard, connect the It.alian system
with those of France and Switzerland, an<l a Sim-
plon tunnel is projected ; there is al.so a coast line
from Genoa to Nice, and several connections with
the Austrian railways. There were al.so 1405 miles
of steam tramways. In 1880 there were 50,101
miles of roads open, besides 7003 miles in construc-
tion ; and the total length of navigable canals,
nn>stly in J.,ombardy and \'cnice, was 0.")5 miles.
The rivers are navigable for about 790 ndles. In
1881 there were 3420 ]iost-olliccs in Italy, in 188!)
there were 4358 ; the surplus of revenue over ex-
penses in the latter year was about £200,000. In
1889 there were 21,935 miles of telegraiih lines, and
telephones were to be found in sixty communes.
Sdciiil Cuiiilitiiiiis.- 'X\w jirincipal occupation,
agriculture, employs nearly a third of the entire
])0]iulation, and the manufactuics only about half
as many. Nevertheless, the proportion of inhabit-
ants congregated iji cities is unusually large, and
in Southern Italy and the islands even the peasants
prefer to have their homes in .some town or village.
The sanitary condili<m of these towns, in which
nearly three-fourths of the entire jiopuLatinn is
congregated, is often deplorable. A commission
appointed in 1885 reported that in 0404 comniuius
ITALY
245
there were no sewei-s of any sort, in 1313 there
were sewers capahle of carrying ort' rain-water
alone, and in only 17,541 conininnes siioli as wimlil
carry ott' foul sewage: that in 3()3() coniiniuu's,
witli a total population of nearly 11,000,000, most
of the houses had no privies, and in 12Sli other
communes, with a population of '2,76'2,(M)0, this
ailjunct was lacking in almost every house : and
that ISSl communes, with 9,50O,0O6 inliahitants,
were supplied with drinking-water of poor or l),id
ou.ality, and 149,")othei-s, with 6,000.000 inhaliitants,
niil not receive w.ater sufficient for the actual needs
of the people. In such circumstances the preva-
lence of infectious diseases is not to he wcmdered
at : in 1887 the proportion per million inhahit.ants
of deaths from all causes in England and Wales
was ahout two-thirds that of Italy, hut from in-
fections and contagious disea.ses less than one-
third. Yet in some respects an improvement is
visihle in the hygienic comlition of Italy. The
annual de.ath-rate from malaria appears to he
steadily diminishing, as does that from pellagra,
a wTetched disease resulting from insufficient and
unwholesome food, and often ending in insanity ;
it is confined to the northern and central provinces.
The proportion of deaths from alcoholism in the
larger towns is much the same as that for all
England, hut for the whole of Italy it is only a
third as great. The food of the artisan cla.sses
consists mainly of cere.als and he.ans ; maize is
mostly used in the north, where also the sm.all
proportion of animal food is ahout douhle that con-
sumed in the south. The diet of the peasantry,
again, almost never includes meat or fish, and
-seldom any wine. Signor I5odio ha.s calculate*!
that the average daily wage overhead of work-
people in factories, mines, \-c. is about two lire
(Is. 9d.): that of agricultural labourers, allowing
for periods when their work is not required, he
calculates at not much over one lira for every day
in the year. The character of the jieople is in
general sober and thrifty, and they prove excellent
workmen where sheer labour is required, as in
quarries and drainage operations ; skill in the use
of steam machinery, ana the like, may be expected
to develop with experience. Moreover, the old
Koman spirit of stern utilitarianism is stronger in
the sons of modern Italy than the a-sthetic artistic
temperament principally associated with them in
many minds : the n.ational type must rather be
described as thoroughly practical ; the ' improve-
ments ' that are transforming Home, Florence,
Naples, the miles of new streets, the staring blocks
of modem hou.ses, Paris-like, that have displaced
the i)ictures(|ue squiilor of a generation ago, are
sufficient evidence of this. Numbers of Italians
migrate every year in seaich of work, and many
who go abroad for longer ])erioi!s still hope to
return to their own land with a competence some
day : in this respect the Italian love of country
appears only less strong than the Chinese. Tlie
national character is passionate and quick to resent
an injury, and the annual number of homicides per
100,WX) of the population is nearly twenty times
as great as in England ; no other country of Europe,
except Spain, approaches Italy in tliis respect.
Capital punLshinent was definitely abolished in
1889. Assaults and woundings are also veiy numer-
ous, and as regards all these ott'ences against
the person tlie southern provinces and the Islands
enjoy a grim pre-eminence. Yet a slight general
<lecrea«e in the number of crimes and ott'ences is
observable within recent years. With regard to
illegitimacy, Italy's position may be seen in the
separate article on that subject ; but here it should
be noted that the percentage of illegitimate birth.s
has increased by more than half since 18C3. The
ruolii, or foundling-wheel, is gradually being sup-
pressed : in 1S66 it was in use in 1179 communes,
in 1888 in .')94 <mly, and these mostly in Sicily and
the southern province.s.
Uclifiiiin unit Kil nratioii. — Religious freedom is
now secured to all creeds, but the Koman Catholic
is the recoraised state religion, ami claims all but
a very small fraction of tliejieople. < If Protestants
there are about 62,000, and of .Jews 38,000 : the
former include some 22,fM)0 Wahlensians (q.v.).
There are in Italy ;■)! Catholic archbishops and 223
bishops, and over 76.5(KI ])arish priests. The rank
and dignity of tlie pope, as a sovereign jirincp. is
recognised by the Law of 1871 which defines the
relations of the church an<l state ; his pei'son is
sacred, his residence inviolable, and he has his
own court in the Vatican (see RoM.\x C-VTHolic
Church). Under a series of laws the great
majority of the religious houses have been sup-
pressed, small pensions being paid to most of their
inmates who h.a(l taken vows, and their property
confiscated. Part of the funds thus ]il,aced at tlie
disposal of government have been devoted to
educational purposes.
Education is under a minister of public instruc-
tion, who is assisted by a council ; and in every
province there is a school lioard, under the direc-
tion of the prefect. Nearly IJ million sterling, or
about half the sum appropriated for this puqiose
in England and Wales, is set aside by the state
annually for education ; to this the communes and
provinces add 2i millions. At the formation of
the kingdom of Italy the general ignorance was
incredibly profound, although learned societies
existed in every large town, many of them, like
the universities, of European fame (see Ac.vdejiy ).
Reference to the sejiarate article on illiteracy will
show that, as regards education, Italy still comes
behind most of the nations of Europe : yet notable
progress has been made. In 1861, of those over
nineteen years of age, 6.5 per cent, of the males and
81 per cent, of the females were unable to read or
write ; in 1881 the percentage had fallen to 54 for
the males and 73 for the females. In 1866, of the
men married 60 per cent, and of the women 79 per
cent, had to make their mark ; in 1888 the jier-
centages were 42 and 62 respectively. The various
parts of the kingdom differ wiilely in this respect.
Piedmont has only 15 jier cent, of conscripts and
11 per cent, of the men married illiterate, while in
Calabria the respective ]iercentages are 73 and 64,
and in Rasilicata 73 and 70. In all cases the pro-
portion of women illiterate is gieater th.an that of
men. The notion of intellectual equality between
the sexes is confined to a few earnest reformers,
and there is much less adequate provision for the
higher education of girls, although the universities
nominally are open to women as well as men. The
convent schools teach mainly embroidery and devo-
tions, and the government and superior schools are
not satisfactory. In 18()1, however, a good high
school for girls was opened at Milan, and its suc-
cess has led to the establishment of many similar
schools in other towns. Primary education is com-
pulsory, and separate boys' and girls' schools are to
be found in all but tlie very poorest communes. In
1861-86 the number <if imjiils (male and femalel in
these elemcntarv sclmols incre.used from 885,1.52 to
2,252,898; in 1886 there were 46,073 such schools
open, besides 7.5.55 private elementary schools.
There were also 2139 a.syluius for children, many
of them conducted on the kimlergarten system,
with 2.52.763 children; anil there were 7144 night-
schools with 283,230, .and 588(i Suiiday-s<-hoi.ls with
169,609 ))ii]iiU eniolled. besides 133 normal schools
with 10,.542 pupils. In 1.S.SS the gymna.^iums num-
bereil 728 (2.55 episcopal and 141 jirivate), witli49,980
scholars; the lyceums, .321 (124 episcopal and .5.5
private), with 13,688 |m|iils. Also, there were 481
246
ITALY
technical sclmols and institutes (84 private), with
34,602 students ; 23 niercjintile inaiiue schools ( 19
governmental), with 7.5G pupils; and 22 collej;iate
institutions and superior special schools, with 2(i()2
students and 170 'hearers.' Finally, there are in
Italy 21 univei-sities, 17 of them governmental and
4 'free' — i.e. maintained hy the pnn-inces and
communes ; the total number of students and
'hearers' was 19,441 in 189.!-94, besides 100 wlio
were entered at three lyceums that; provide ,a uni-
versity course. Tlie oldest university is that of
Bologna (q.v.), the largest that of Naples (4104
students). The great body of Italian students are
enrolled in the faculties of medicine and juris-
prudence ; theology is not taught in any of the
universities. The students of divinity in the
seminaries in 1881 numbered 11,277.
Government. — Italy is a constitutional monarchy,
the executive power vested in the king, with
succession in the male line, being e.xercised through
responsible ministers. The legislative functions
are in the hands of the king and parliament con-
jointly, the latter consisting of a senate and
chamber of deputies. The number of deputies is
508 : the franchise is extendeil to all citizens who
are of age, can read and write, and pay 20 lire of
direct taxes. The senate is composed entirely of
life-members, with no lixed limit as to numbers (at
present about 300); all its members, except the
princes of the royal family, are nominated by the
king, and must be forty years of age or upwards.
Neither senators nor deputies are paid, but they
have the right to travel free by rail or steamer in
any part of Italy. Jloney bills nnist originate in
the Lower House. The parliaments are quinquen-
nial, but may be dissolved by the sovereign at any
time. Ministers, who number eleven, are not neces-
sarily members of either house. The Government
of the provinces, with a prefect at the head of
each, is very much the same as in France.
Armi/ and Navy. — Military (for the maritime
population, naval) service is compulsory for all
citizens from the age of twenty to thirty-nine, but
only about 80,000 annually are drafted into the
standing army (3000 into the navy). Recruits are
divided into three classes, those oi the third enter-
ing the territorial militia at once, and receiving
unlimited leave, except, in time of peace, for 30
days' drill every four years. Recruits of the second
category aie enrolled for eight years in the
permanent army (with unlimited leave) and four
in the mol)ile militia (landwehr), and then enter
the territorial militia. The infantry of the first
category have, before being transferred to the terri-
torial militia, three years with the colours, eight
on leave, and four in the mobile militia ; the other
arms, nine years with the colours and on leave.
One-year volunteers are adndtted. The standing
army in 189.') numbered SoS.OOO men, and those of
the permanent army on unlimited leave 590,000 ;
the total w;ir strength, inclmUng mobile and terri-
torial militia, was returned ,at about 2;J million
men, about one million of whom had received a
regular training. The carabineers (24,000) peiform
the duties of gendarmes. There are a stall-college
and a school for artilleiy and engineer otlicers at
Turin, others for infantry and cavalry officers at
Modena and I'arma, for cavalry ollicers at Pinerolo,
anil for the sanitary corps at Florence, and mili-
tary colleges at Milan, Florence, Rome, Naples, and
Messina. A chain of fortresses has been erected
along the northern frontier ; there are numerous
forts and batteries in the basin of the I'o ami along
the coast ; and Rome is protected by a circle of
fifteen forts.
After the disa-strons defeat at Lissa in 1866 the
navy was reconstructed, and now, after years of
nnreiuitting exertion, Italy is one of the strongest
maritime powere of Europe. In 1876 the navy
included 14 armoured, 7 unarmoured, and 2 despatcli
vessels, beside,s other vessels that brought the
etl'ective total to 53, «itli an armament of 298
guns : the thickest armour wius 815 inches. Accord-
ing to a report ]niblislietl in 1890, Italy had then
18 armoured battle-ships, 19 jirotected cruisei's,
9 despatch-vessels, 6 torpedo cruisere, 1 se.i-going
torpedo boat, and 8 gun-vessels : the maximum
thickness of armour carried by these vessels wa.s
2I5 inches, and their apinoximate value was put
at 8i millions sterling. There were also 12.S
torpedo lioats, and other vessels that brought the
total to 2.34 ships, representing with their armament
a value of £15,IK)0,000. Two of the armour-clads,
the Italia and Lepnnto, are the largest warships
yet built, and the armament of the navy imludes
several guns of 100 and 106 ton.-;. The jieriod of
service in the navy is eighteen years, but a limited
number only of the conscripts actually serve four
years, and the rest are normally on permanent
leave. In 1888 there were about 17,500 otlicers and
men on active service.
Finances. — The finances of Italy ])resent an
interesting study. F'rom the tinit the young
kingdom Avas burdened with the cost of the war
with Austria and the debts of the old Italian
states, and moreover has been obliged to face
many years of extraordinary expenses ; whilst the
land, especially in the south, has never been
developed to anything like its full capacity, and
the revenue has been restricted in consequence. In
1862 there was a deficit of neariy £18,000,000, and
it was not until 1875 that the first small surplus
was obtained. Except the first half of 1884, the
ne.xt ten years showed a surplus, larger or smaller ;
but each of the four years following 18S5 ended
in a deficit. Roth income and expenditure have
steadilv increased : in 1862 the former was over
£19,200,000, the latter £37,000,000 ; in the financial
year 1888-89 the actual re\enuc was £60,034,000,
the expenditure £69,409,000— deficit, £9,375,000.
The chief sources of income are the customs, the
income, land, and house taxes, and the tobacco
monopoly ; the principal ex))enses are the interest
of the public debt, exceeding 21 millions sterling,
and the cost of the army and navy, which is nearly
as great. In projiortion to the ])roilucti\ity of the
country, Italy s i)ublic debt is very heavy. At the
end of' 1861 it wa.s slightly over .il25,odo,Ot)0 ; but
a long successicm of annual deficits, extensive rail-
way and other public works, and costly armaments
have raised it year by year till in 1895 (when the
revenue and expenditure were about £70,000,000)
the debt had reached £492,314,300, amounting
to £15, 18s. 5d. per head of the population,
exclusive of the communal and luovincial debts.
Meanwhile it should be noted that the Italian
government lia.s removed certain of the old, objec-
tionable imposts, such as the grist tax ; and in
1883 the forced paper currency was withdrawn from
circulation.
For information as to Italy the best sources are the
adinirablt? otlicial publications, a complete list of which
is included in the Sa;ii/io di HihUofjralia statistiea Jtnfiana
(3d ed. Koine, 1890). The A itnuai^io statistico Italinno
(published since 1S78) contauis topoi;raphical as well as
statistical information ; most of the statistical jiortion
Avill be found summarised in the Statesman s Year-book.
A comprehensive review of Italy's progress is presented
in a memoir, equally able and candid, IH aleutii Indict
del Prorircam economicn e sociale d' Italia (Rome, 18iK)),
by ,Signor L. Bodio, one of the most masterly of present-
day statisticians. Tlie Dizionario coro;iraiico (8 vols.),
by Amati, is part of a monumental work in course of
publication at Milan {U Italia sotto I'AspcttoJisico, sUyrico,
arlij(tico, e utatiMico). See also Laveleye, L Italic actniUe
(Paris, 1881 ), and, among Giiglish works, Giillenga's two
books on Piedmont, his Italu Rtriiitcd (2 vols. 1875),
ITALY
247
and Itali/ PrcMiit and Future (2 vols. 1887 ); the books
of A. J. C". Hare (q.v.); and Beauclerk's Rural lUthi
(18S8). For Southern Italy, see Lenormant, La Grande
Grlce (3 vols. 1S81-S4) and A trovers VApulie et la
Lucanie (2 vols. 1883); and Mrs Koss, The Land of
Manfred (19,^).
History. — The ancient history of Italy will he
more conveniently treated of under KOME ; see also
ExitlRIA, Umbria, iV:c. In 476 a.d. the Heruliau
mercenaries in the pay of the western empire
rose in revolt, and proclaimed their leader Odoa-
cer king ; and the last emperor of the West, the
pretty hoy Rounilus Augustulns, was sent to end
his davs amid the woods and fish-ponds of Lucul-
his" villa near Naples. The senate, by Odoacer's
command, recognised Zeno as head of the western
as well as the eastern empire, and he in turn
bestowed on the Teuton leader the dignity of
'patrician.' For thirteen years Odoacer's rule
was undisputed ; but in 489 Theodoric, king of the
Ostrogoths, invaded Italy with a commission from
the Greek emperor, besieged the Herulian in
Ravenna, and in 493, after his surrender, slew him
\vith his own hand. In spite of this bloody begin-
ning, Theodoric's rule, which lasted till .5'25, was
wise and, on the whole, just. But the Arian faith
of the conquerors held them and the Italians apart,
and when Justinian's general Belisarius was sent
to reconquer Italy he was welcomed liy the colonists
of Sicily and the south. From 536 to 553 the war
was desperately maintained, the hero on the Gothic
side being Totila (541-552). But the valour of the
barbarians was outmatched by the generalship of
the aged eunuch Narees ; and in 553 Teias, the
last king of the Goths, was slain in battle, and the
descendants of the host who had followed the
Amal king into Italy sixty-four years before, now
few in number and sore at heart, were permitted
to march back across the Alps. Italy was now
governed from Ravenna for a few years by an
exarch or viceroy ; but in 568 came an invasion
by the Lombard nation, under their king, Alboin,
and all the central portion of the peninsula passed
from under the sway of Byzantium. Pavia was
made the capital of the new kingdom, and the
great duchies of Spoleto and Benevento were
founded, pressing on Rome and the Greek mari-
time cities of the south. Yet the Lombards were
not strong enough to occupy the whole peninsula,
and Rome and most of the coast towns, as Avell
as the islands, remained to the emperor. The
invaders imposed on the country a sort of feudal
system, ami, being Arians, treated the Italians
with great harshness, until Gregory the Great
effected their conversion to ortliodo.w. From this
period the popes for a lime appear as the champions
of the national cause. Leo the Isaurian's decree
against the woi-ship of images was met by Gregory
If.'s declaration of Roman independence; and
in 726-50 the i)opes succeeded m driving out
the exarch and checking, with the help of the
Franks, the encroachments of tlie Lombards. Pepin
twice cros.sed the Alps, compelleil the Lombard
king to yield up the exarchate and the Pentajiolis,
which he had conquered, and j>resented them to
the pope in 756 : this gift wa.s the nucleus of the
temporal sovereignty of the bishops of Rome.
In 774 Pepin's son, Charlemagne, who had been
summoned to the aid of the Jiope, deposed Desi-
derius, the last Lombard king, and added his
dominions to liis own ; in 8(XI he was crowned
emiieror of the Romans. Meanwliile the Lombard
duchies in the south were still independent, and
Sicily and anuml^erof free cities in Southern Italy,
as well as Venice, recogni.sed the Greek overlord-
ship, lint in the 9th centuiy tlie Saracens subdued
Sicily, landed on the mainland, and even threat-
ened Rome. Leo IV. fortilied the s\iburb on the
north bank of the Tiber, which after him was called
the Leonine city, and called to his aid Louis 11.,
Charlemagne's gieat-gi'andson, who, with the helji
of the eastern emperor, checked the jirogress of the
Saracens for a time. But after the death of Louis
the infidels compelled the helpless pope to pay
tribute ; and the (Jreeks, profiting by the weak-
ness of Charlemagne's successors, recovered most
of Southern Italy, and held it, under an officer
entitled Catapan, till 1043. Eight kings of the
Carlovingian line were acknowledged in Northern
Italy, their rule ending with Charles the Fat in
887. Then, till 961, succeeded ten so-called Italian
sovereigns — dukes of Spoleto and Friuli, the Ger-
man Arnulf, Hugh of Provence, Berengar, mar-
quis of Ivrea, and others. Under their feeble
sway the power of the feudal nobles, and, within
the cities, of the bishops, waxed great, the papal
chair was occupied by men of infamous life, and
Magyars, Saracens, and Northmen overran the
country, tuniing wide tracts into a desolate wilder-
ness. In 951 Berengar II. was compelled to do
homage to the German king. Otto of Saxony. He
was suffered to rule until 961, and then deposed;
and in 962 Otto was crowned as king of Italy at
Milan and as emperor at Rome. From this time
the right to the crown of the Roman empire (two
centuries later it was the Holy Roman empire) was
held to accompany the German kingship. Except
in name, there was no longer an Italian kingdom,
and, with its foreign emperors occupied for the
most part beyond the Alps, the countiy was in
some degree left masterless. Its division into
separate states was now but a question of time.
Moved by the scandals of tlie papacy and the
constant revolts in the city. Otto took the election
of the popes away from the Romans, chose a pope
of his own, and put the city in his charge. Else-
where he encouraged the rise of the communes as
a check upon the great vassals. The towns had
already been permitted to raise walls as a defence
against the barbarians, and now the chief cities
were freed from the jurisdiction of the counts.
The death of Otto III. in 1002 was followed
by a dispute for the crown ; Rome, the papacy
and the city, fell af'ain into the liands of the
Tusculan counts, while the Lombard cities gained
in imjiortance as their alliance was sought l)y one
side or the other. Milan supported Henry of
Bavaria, w ho had been elected in Germany ; and
he severely punislied her ri\al Pavia, who had
espoused the cause of the Lombard Ardoin. Henry
died in 1024, and was succeeded by Conrad of
Franconia, who was invited into Italy and crowned
with the iron crown at Milan, by Heribert, the
aichbisho]!. I'nder this prelate Milan advanced
greatly in jjower and independence. An eHcclive
militia was formeil, and Heribert is said to have
invented the carrorcio, a car which carried into
battle the city's banner and an altar, and round
which the burghers fought as in defence of a sacred
thing. The citizens had already formed themselves
into a jiiirlameiito, and, while Heribert lived, the
Sower of the smaller counts who had now come to
well in the city was bridled. The other Lombard
cities also were rising into some degree of inde-
pendence. Pi.'^a and Genoa, besides \ enice (which
acknowledged the nominal sovereignty of the Greid<
emperor), were becoming great by their command
of ileets ; and tbe.v succeeded to the rich carrying
trade of the Mediterranean after the fall of the
Greek cities in the south before the Normans.
During the first half ot the lltli century a body of
Norman adventurers had gained a firm footing in
Apulia, which they ultinuitely con<|Ucred asac(nint-
.shi]) for themselves. The pope, Leo IX., marched
against them, and was defeated and taken iirisoner
by Robert Wiskard or Guiscard at Civitella ( 1053) ;
248
ITALY
and Wiskard olitained from liim tlie investiture (if
liis [ircseiit an<l future conquests, wliicli he Wiis to
liohl as a lief of tlie holy see. Kobert extended his
power on the mainland, and took the title of Duke
of Apulia and Calabria in lOoO. In 1060-90 his
brother Koger eimijuered Sicily from the Saracens ;
in 1127 the family's dominions in Apulia, Calabria,
and Sicily were united by his sou Roger, who in
li;iO assumed the title of king of Sicily.
Meanwhile the fierce struggle over Investitures
(q.v.) had been fought out between em|)er(n- and
pope. When the archdeacon Hildebrand became
I'ope Gregory VII. (1073) he enforced the celibacy
of the clergy, as Leo IX. hail already endeavoured
to do ; and in 1075 he condemned the investiture
of ecclesiastics by lay lords. Otto the Great
and Henry III. had appointed and deposed popes,
and therefore this latter decree led to a quarrel
with Henry IV. (q.v.). At a diet in 1076 Gregory
was deposed. The pope replied liy excomnuini-
eating the king, who was compelled by a rebellion
in Saxony to submit and do penance at Cauossa,
the castle of the Countess Matilda of Tuscany, the
popes ally. Henry, however, soon lenewed the
strife, appointed an antipope, and in 1084 took
Konii", was crowned, and besieged (Gregory in the
fortress of St Angelo. Thence the pontift was
delivered by WLskard, who drove the emperor oil',
and carried Gregory away from his riotous subjects
to end his days at Salerno. The struggle, how-
ever, was carried on by Gregory's successors, till
by the concordat of Worms (1122) the emperor
yielded the main principle at issue, surrendering to
the cardinals the election of the pope, who was
still to possess the right of conferring the imperial
crown. By the death of the Countess Matilda,
loo, in 1115, the church had inherited her vast
domains ; and, although the emperor took jjosses-
sion of them, the popes retained their claim, to be
revived in after yeai's.
I'roni this long struggle the northern cities
emerged strengthened and practically autonomous.
They still behmged to the empire; but they were
governed by their own inagistrates, called consuls,
ai<led by au oligarchical council ; and they enjoyed,
and unha])pily took frequent advantage of, the
riglit to make war on their own acco\int. The
ijuanel of the Guelphs and (ihibelliiies (q.v.) arose
in (Jcrmany at this time, and liefore long these
names were heard everywhere in Italy ; but here
they stood not alone for the pojie's party and the
emperor's, but also for the burning jealousy and
hatred of rival cities, each struggling to rise at the
co.st of its neighbours. Arnold of Brescia (q.v.)
for a time established a reimblic in Home, but it
was sujipressed by Frederick Barb.irossa in 1154.
In that year Frederick, who bad been elected king
in )l.">2, came into Italy to take away the self-
government of the towns, and reduce them to their
former subjection to the emperor. After punish-
ing several hostile cities, he went on to Konie and
was crowned by Adrian IV. (Nicholas Break-
spear), the only pope of English birth : but he
soon quarrelled with him, and on Adrian's death
supported an antipope. In 1 15S Frederick returned
from (iermany, and compelled Milan to surrender,
after a montiVs siege. lie now set in every town
a podesta to a<lminister justice, who should be
chosen always from another city ; and from cities
and b.arons alike he took away the jirivilege of
making war on one another without his jiermission.
An attempt to appoint their consuls also drove the
Mil.incse into a second revcdt, in 1159; but Frede-
rick was delayeil by the heroic defence of Crema,
and it was not till May 1161 that he again
invested .Milan. The city hold out till March
1162, and was then destroyed by the vindictive I
jmiii'rialists, and the people driven from the ruins. >
Soon afterwards the cities of the Veronese march
formed a league of defence against Frederick
which he was unable to crusli. In 1167 he
besieged the pope, Alexan<ler III., in the Colis-
eum ; Imt the latter escaped to ISenevento, while
a terrible pestilence fell upon the (Jerman camp,
and Frederick with difficulty led the remnant
of his army north to I'avia. tinly this city and
the Marquis of Montferrat in all North Italy had
held back from the great Lombard league, which
had meanwhile been fcmned and had restored the
Milanese to their city. In IKiS Frederick lied in
disguise across the Alps ; and in the .same year the
confederates founded a new city on the plain
between Pavia and Montferrat, to be a check on
these two. The league named it Ales.sandria, in
honour of their ally the pope : (fcl/n ji<((//ifi { ' of
straw'), their enemies added in derision; but its
<litcli and rampart of earth held Frederick at bay
all tbrourdi the winter of 1174-75, till he was forced
to raise tlie siege. Finally, the crushing defeat at
Legnano (May 29, 1176), from which field be hardly
escaped with his life, maile him willing to treat for
peace. In 1177, at Venice, the emjieror came to
terms with the pope, and agreed to a six years'
truce with the Lombard towns; in I IS.'! a ]ier-
manent peace was ratified, the cities retaining
their right of war and of selfgovernment, ami the
emperor his podesths and his rights of sustenance
and support against enemies outside the league.
The rule of podestas was soon adopted outside of
Lombardy as well, for the settlement of nobles in
the towns had introduced a lawless element and
given rise to factions; so that a supreme judge
who was not a townsman, who held office for a
single year, and had then to render an account
of his administration, was most likely to ]>rove
impartial. Yet from the podestiis to the despots
was but a step, and this was taken a few yeara
later.
Since the battle of Civitella the Normans had
continued faithful allies of the popes, and it was
with the object of deprivinj; the latter of this
powerful su]iport that Frederick now h.ul his son
Henry VI. married to the heiress of Sicily. F'rede-
rick died in 1 190, and in 1194 Henry was recognised
as king, and the Norman rule in Southern Italy
came to an end. He died in 1197, ami the next
year his wife, who had acknowleilged the pope as
overlord, died also, leaving their infant sun I'rcde-
rick to the guardianship of Innocent III. The
pa]>al territory had now become extensive, and the
establishment of a Latin empire at Constantinople
(1204), duiing the fnurth crusade, added to the
prestige of the Koman see. Hut the chief gainer
by the capture of the exstern capital was Venice,
who, as a reward for lending her licet, was pre-
.sented by the victorioiis crusaders with a large
share of the divideil empire, and was able to occupy
at least a number of islands and coast territory : .sue
was now suiireme in the Levant. Frederick IL,
who was crowned cmperoi- in 1220, was king of
Italy, Sicily, Sardinia, (iermany. Burgundy, and
Jerusalem. So formidable a piince made i)opes
and connnnnes both unca.sy. He was excommuni-
cated by Gregoiy IX. in 1227, because he delayed
his departure on a |iromised crusade ; and after-
wards, when he had gcme to the Fast, while he was
crowning himself at .Jerusalem his enemies Avere
still busy at home. The pope, whose hands wore
greatly strengtheneil by the newlyfonmlcil Fran-
ciscan and Dominican onlers, stirred up the Lom-
bard cities to levolt, and, after Frederick had
crushed the Milanese at Cortenuova (12:!7), drew
Venice and (lenoa into the league against him.
Frederick's cause was upheld in Northern Italy by
Ezzelino da Komano, infamous for his cruelties.
In 1245 Innocent IV., the emperor's personal
ITALY
249
enemy, haJ liini declared dethroned by a council
convened at Lyons; and after live veal's of liarass
ing anxiety, his life the object of constant plots.
Frederick dii^l in December 12o0. Tlie cause of
his son and grandson was upheld by his natural
son Manfred, who in 1'2.58 became king of Sicily.
There w.a-s no abatement of fun" in the fierce
struggle between Cuielphs and Ohibellines. but the
balance of success so far inclined towards Manfred
after the battle of Monteaperto (l'2tiO), which re-
stored Florence to the Ghibellines, tliat Urban IV.
invited Charles of Anjou into Italy to head the
Guelphic party. In 1206 Manfreil was defeated and
slain, and the .Swabian line came to an end with
his nephew Conradin, who was beheaded at Najde-s.
The Guelphs were again supreme ; Imt (Tregory X.
restored their banished rivals to tlieir cities, and
for a time made the two parties live in peace.
Charles, who received the kingdom of Sicily as the
gift of the popes, had promised that it should
never be held along with the empire : and now, as
a final check to the Angevin s possible ambition,
the pope brought the dispute to a close which had
kept tlie empire without a head, and crowned
Kndolf of Hapsburg, who was elected in 127.'^.
Tills emperor in 1278 recognised the popes as
temporal soiereigns, and their power was hence-
forth firmly established over Rome and the Cam-
pagna, Emilia, the Romagna, and the March of
Ancona ; and, as Rudolf left Italy to itself, the
Cinelphic party was enabled to strengthen its power
ainl to crush such hostile cities as Pis.a. Charles lost
Sicily by the rebellion which began in the Sicilian
Vespers (q.v. ), in 1282 : and the islaml gave itself
to the House of Aragon, which, as the popes were
hostile, necessarily became Ghibelline. Meanwhile,
in Tuscany the triumphant Guelphs had become
broken up into factions, the Neri and Bianchi
(Blacks and Whites), the former violent Guelphs,
and the latter at first moderate Guelphs, until the
fierce aninm.sity of their o]iponents made them
Ghibellines. For in 1.301 Charles of Valois, who
h:ul been called in by Boniface VIII. to help the
Neri, entered Florence, and givve the Bianchi up
to the cruel vengeance of their enemies : among
those banished from the city was the ])oet Dante.
Under Clement V. the seat of the papacy was
removed, in 1300, to Avignon, where it remained
for the ne.\t seventy years. In the follo\ving year
the new emperor, Henry VII., came into Italy to
revive the Ghibelline party, and to restore peace
and onler. The task, however, was now beyond
the power of any German master. Henry died in
August 131.S, having etl'ected no lasting change
exript in Milan, which he had handed over to tlie
Ghibelline Visconti.
We have now reached a ])eri<)d when the cities of
Northern Italy had fallen under the sw.ay of tyrants
or desjjots. The feudal power of the niral counts
had gradually been lessened by the communes,
until the nobles had become citizens. Hut they
merely e.xchangeil their ca.stles for fortified palaces
in the cities ; and, although the ]>odest;i had curbed
their power for a time, his office eventually became
not so much that of a <lictator as of a judge, and
the interminable wars had tended to give the
nobles an undue predomin.ance, since, being
trained to arms, their military skill naturally
placed them above the burghers. In some towns,
such a.s Florence, where the democratic spirit was
strongest, they were kept in check by a ii'infnlim-
ierc of justice ; but in most cities the rupfrdii of
the /tropic, who represented the party in the
ascendant, and in these war-times was of course
a noble, giadually rai.sed himself to the position of
master. It was then his aim to depress the others
of his own order, both to win jmpularity with the
people and to prevent possible nvalry. At the root
of the wars fought between those in Italy who
called themselves (luelphsand < Jliilicllines was the
question whether the democracy or the aristocrary
was to be supreme in the cities. Florence as yet
preserved her ie]mblican independence : but, besides
a hereditary oligarchy in Venice, despots were
now established in all the great northern <'ities,
each of which was glad to submit to a master w ho
would put an end to the strife th.at liad hampered
its commercial prosperity. Titles were bouglit fnira
the CJerman emperoi-s or assumed, courts were
forme<l, and arTuies were hired ; for w.ars were now
I waged in another fashion than that which had
prevailed in Barbarossa's time. Then it was an
honoured custom for the artisans and traders of a
city to devote a week or a month in the year to
harrying the fields of ,a rival commune, to draw its
defendei's into an ambuscade, or even to capture
and ruin the town, provided it did not hold out too
long : in any case, the citizen-soldiers returned
home in a few days, and took up their ordinary'
work again. Now, however, war was a science
and soldiering a trade : the iron panoply and
ponderous lance of the man-at-arms were not for
the craftsm.an or the clerk. Therefore, in the 14th
century, bands of mercenaries, or companies of
adventure, under condottieri, made their appear-
ance, selling their services to the highest Iiidder, or
plundering the lands of the weaker states. Their
battles were almost bloodless, the campaigns inde-
cisive. Bound by a common profession, they were
chielly formidable to the taxpayer ; and, for that
matter, in tlieir commercial prosperity the cities
were at this time receiving the reward for w Idoh
they had Iiartered their independence. If we glance
at England in tliis period, which followed liard on
Bannockburn, we find commerce and manufactures
still in their infancy, wool the staple exjiort,
houses of mud in the streets of the cities, and
rushes strewn in the king's chamber t but the
nation had now its constitution complete, and
was moving in the broadening path of fieedom.
The condition of Italy was in sharp contrast to all
this. Trade and manufactures were flourishing,
art and literature were encouraged at the courts,
and freedom was forgotten in present comfort and
inglorious well-being. The result of the self-
indulgent policy now begun was seen two centuries
later, when Italy lay helpless beneath the feet of
conten<ling foreign armies.
The 14th and loth centuries witnessed the
division of Italy among five princiiial ]iowers —
the kingdom of Naples, the duchy of Jlilan, the
rejiublirs of Florence and Venice, and the pajiacy.
In Naples the Angevin line came to an en<l in 1435
with Joan II. She was succeeded by -Vlfimso V. of
Aragon, and the Two Sicilies, separate since 12,S2,
were again united. At his death in 1458, however,
Sicily remained to the kings of Aragon, while
Naples was bequeathed to liis natural son. In
Milan the iiowerful Visconti dynasty surviveil till
1447. Archbishop (iian Visconti. who died in 13.54,
made himself master of more than twenty cities,
and extended the family's power over the greater
part of Northern Italy : and these domains were
reunited by his grand-nephew, Gian tialeazzo, who
purchased the title of duke, made himself lord as
far as the borders of Venice, aiul was tlireafciung
Florence when the jilaguo carried him oil' in 1402.
The Visconti's ]iosscssions were confined within
narrower limits under his son Filippo, and were
seized in 1450 by Francesco Sforza, a famous
general, who hail married Filijiiio's natural
daughter, and who proved a wise an<l able ruler.
Florence Uiu\ submitted in 1342 to.adcspot in Walter
of Hricnne. the titular DuUe of Athens: but this
soldier of fortune was expelled in 1343, and the
city w.as ruled until 14.34, except during a biief
250
ITALY
revolution, by an olii,'aicIiy. The presidency of
the rei>ul>lic — practically the dictatorship- -was
then secured 1)y Cnsiino de' Medici, who for tliis
end had courted tlie ^rood-will of the couimoii
people ; and liis undelined power passed at his
death in 1464 to his son, and reached its eulniin-
.ation under his famous i;raihlson, Lorenzo the
Magnificent. Florence was already mistress of
great part of Tuscany, and Cosimo's alliance with
Francesco Sforza helped to secure her position as
one of the five great powers. Venice, which had
until this period stood aloof from Italian politics,
wa.s in the hands of a liereditary jjrand council.
Thirty years of contest with (ienoa for supremacy
in the !ilediteri-anean had ended in victory for the
republic of St Mark in 13S1. The capture of Con-
staTitinojile by the Turks in 14.5.3 made Venice,
who had been grad\ially stripped of her possessions
in the Levant, now at last an Italian state ; anil
her territory on the mainland was greatly extended
under Francesco Foscari (1457) and his successors
in the dogeship, although in 1477 a Turkish army
ravaged her fields to within siglit of St Mark's.
Rome, except <luring Rienzi's brief rule, liad obeyed
her bishops, exiled at Avignon. In 1.377 the papacy
returned from the Babylonish capti\ity, and, in
.spite of the weakness caused by the Great Schism,
the spiritual sovereign also was soon found among
the despots. The schism endeil in 1449, and
Nicholas V. wa.s enabled to establish firndy the
temporal power of the ])apac,y.
Italy now enjoyed a term of prosperity and com-
parative peace, liroken only as Venice enlarged her
borders, or by the family ambitions of the popes.
Hut in 1494 Charles VIII. of France was induced
by the Milanese regent, Loilovico Sforza, to invade
Italy, and had himself crowned king of Nai)les.
Meanwhile, Lodovico had murdered and succeeded
Ills nephew, and he now I'aised Lonibardy against
Charles, who with difficulty got back to France in
1495. He had caused the e\i>ulsion of the Medici,
and Florence was ai'ain a republic, in which for a
time Savonarola s influence was all-powerful. But,
of more consequence than this, Cliarles's expedition
had shown the way to others, aiul inspired an
ambition which, under his immediate successors,
cost France dear. In 1499 Louis XII. subdued
Milan ; in 1.501 Ferdinand the Catholic tricked him
out of Naples, which the two had joined to conquer,
and once more united the Two Sicilies under one
crown.
The century thus begun is the most disastrous in
Italian history. In Northern and Central Italy the
French armies held their own against the pope and
his allies until the year 1512, when tlieir young
general, tJa.st()ii de I'"oix, fell in victory before the
walls of Ravenna. They were then e.Kpelled for
the moment ; but Italy had no long rest. The
rivalry of the Emperor Charles V. ami Francis I.,
which makes the ])rincipal p.art of F.uropeau history
during this period, lilled the land with tiie cla,sh of
foreign arms ; while her own lulers, striving each
to .snatch an advantage from tlie confusion, added
to the country's distractions. The papacy was a
gainer from the struggle. The conquests of the
Borgias passed to the holy see; and Julius II.
succeeded in humbling Venice, and then in driving
the French out of Lombardy in 1512. In 1.51o
Francis regained Milan, but in ir)24 his forces were
expelled from Italy liy the emi)eror, and in 1025
the French king was taken prisoner at Pavia. In
1527 occurred the' sack of Rome liy a body of troops
of the emjiire, Lutherans and Spaniards. The Con-
stable de Bourbon, wlio had led them, was killed
in the ii.ssauU, and tlie sack continued for seven
dreadful months. In Seotember the iMedicean
Clement VIL, who hail lied to the castle of St
Angelo, was compelled by hunger to surrender.
The Medici, who had returned to Florence in 1512,
were again driven o\it, but were restored by arms
in 15.30. Alexander de' Medici received from the
emijeior, who wii.s his father-in-law, the title of
duke ; and in 1570 Cosinu), bis successor, w as made
Crand-duke of Tuscany by the pope. By the peace
of Camhrai (1529) Charles had been left master of
Italy ; his sim Philip became its undisputed lord
by the ])eace of Ci'iteau-Cambresis (1.5.59), though
Venice really, and Cenoa, Lucca, and the little
republic of San Marino nominally, remained inde-
pendent. Besides Tuscany, there were the duchies
of Modena and Ferraraand of Parma and Piacimza,
and the rich States of the ('Inirch : Spain herself
held all the rest of Italy, save Piedmont, which
was restored to the dukes of Savoy in the person
of Philip's cousin and general, Emmanuel Fili-
bert. This prince also regained Savoy and the
province of Nice, which his family had lost ; but
he removed his capital to Turin, and his house
was henceforth Italian. The papacy had been
strengthened by the founding of the .lesuit order in
1540, and the establishment of the Inquisition ; and
tlie Council of Trent ( 1.545-63) defined the Catholic
faith. The territory of the church was further
augmented by the alisorption of several lapsed fiefs,
and the supremacy of the imntitt's was now acknow-
ledged by Venice, who had hitherto recognised im
superior to her own patriarch. But ^ enice was
no longer the great state she had been. Her
commerce had fallen oil' since the discoveries of
Columbus and Da (iama, and most of her con-
quests were in the hands of the Turks, to whom,
in spite of the victory of the allied tleet at Lepanto
(1571), she had been compelled to give up even
Cyprus. Her last great achievement, in a war that
she had waged at intervals for five centuries, wiis
the conquest of the entire Peloponnesus, in 1684;
but in 1715 this fell again into the hands of the
infidels. The power of Spain, too, h.ad greatly
declined, and besides Masaniello's revolt at Naples
(1647) there were ri.sings in Sicily, which gave the
island to Lonis XIV. for two years. But through-
out this period, and until as late as the 19th
century, Italy was disposed of li\' foreign poweix,
and partitioned as suited their jiolicy. After each
of the three European wars of succession, in the
ISth century, Italy was subjected to a fresh re-
division ; but it is not necessary to notice more
than the last of these in detail. The services
rendered by the Hoiise of Savoy against the French,
during the war of the Spanish sucees.sion, won for it
the island of Sicily and the title of king. 'I'lie new
monarch, Victor .\madeus II., was one of the
liberal and enlightened des]iots of the time; and
although in 1720 he was compelled to ('xchange
Sicily for Sardinia, from which island his suecessore
took their title until 1801, he built up a real king-
dom, took the schools away from the Jesuits, and
did much to promote the welfare of his subjects.
The last war, that of the Austrian succession, in
which the Sardinians fought gallantly on the
Ilajisburg. Lorraine side, ended with the treaty of
Aix-la-Chapelle (1748), which left Italy divided as
follows : the House of Savoy held Sardinia and
Piedmont, with Montferrat and Alessandria, Tor-
tona and Novara : the Austrians retained Milan
and Tu.scany : the Bourbon Charles III. was king
of the Two Sicilies, and his brother Philiji, Duke of
Parnui ; the papal territory stretched across the
centre of the peninsula to the frontiers of Venice,
which survived as a reiniblic until 1797 ; and
finally, Modena and (Jenoa were placed under
the protection of France, to whom the (ienoese
ceded the island of Corsica in 17.55. Italy now
enjoyed a brief period of freedom from wars ;
but her numerous sovereigns were absolute, each
within his petty domain, and the despotic policy of
ITALY
251
the Bmirbons, who held nearly all the country, was
fenerally atlopteil. An honouralile exception was
'eter Leopold, who Wiis tJrandihike of Tuscany
from 1765 until he succeeded to the Austrian
empire ;is Leopold IL in 1790. He instituted many
reforms, restrict^tl the ]iiiwer of the priesthood, and
stippressed the Inquisition : and to him is owing the
reclamation of the fruitful ^'al di Chiana from a
Avilderness of pestilent marsh. To tlie rule of this
|>rince the harsh, jealous oppression of the other
sovereigns presents a pitiful contrast. For Italy
the long reign of misery and ilurkness was at liist
about to pass away — but slowly : the night was
not yet past.
The storm of the French Ue\olution burst in
1792. In 1796 Napoleon entered Italy ; in 1797
the Cisalpine, Ligurian, Cispadane, and Tiberine
republics, with their capitals at Milan, Genoa,
Bologna, iind Rome, were formed out of Northern
and Central Italy, and Venice and her teuitory
beyond the Adige were bestowed on Austria. The
next year Naples surrendered, and was made the
capital of the Parthenoprean Republic. The demo-
crats in the cities joyfully welcomed the new
doctrines brought by the invailing army : but even
they soon wearied of a nominal freedom that be-
stowed chiefly the privilege of sharing the hea\-y
costs of the French wars, and in 1800 Napoleon
had to «"in the peninsula afresh by the nctory of
Marengo. In 1804 he made himself emperor, and
in 1805 he was crowned king of Italy at ililan.
The Bourbons were permitteil to retain Tuscany
and Naples, and the pope was reinstated in the pos-
session of Rome. Najjles, however, was given to
Joseph Bonaparte in 1806, and to Joachim JIurat
in 1808 ; in 1809 Rome was annexed to the French
empire, and the emperor's sister Eliza was made
Duchess of Tuscany. The Congress of Vienna
(1815) restored the map of Italy very much to its
former appearance ; but the advantages of the new
distrilintion fell nearly all to the House of Austria.
Venice was added to the Austrian crown, and
Lombardy retained ; an Austrian duke was set
over Modena ; and the Austrian Ferdinand III.
received back Tuscany, to which Lucca was to be
added whenever the death of Napoleon's Austrian
■\viie, Maria Louisa, should give Parma again to its
former Bourbon masters. The only other lasting
change was the transference of Genoa to Victor
Emmanuel I. of Sardinia. Naples and Sicily were
restored to the Bourbons, and the pope was once
more put in possession of the States of the Church.
The little republic of San Marino was also recog-
nised by the congress.
A period of absolutism and rigid repression now
ensued. The returned princes ailoptea in full the
policy dictated from V ienna, and strove by all
means to crush the rising si>irit of in<lei>endence.
The Jesuits, whose order had been suppressed by
the pope in 1773, were restored and the elementary
education placed in their hands, where it was
etl'ectually str.angled. The legions of Austria filled
Lombardo-Venetia, and were at the service of all
the petty despots in the other parts of Italy ; while
a yet larger army of s]jies was at work in every
comer of the unhapjiy country. The general
misery provoked conspua<'y, ami the revolutionary
Carbonari societies sprung up everywhere. But
the movement had as yet no directing head.
There were risings in Sovitlieni Italy in 1820, but
they were suppressed in the following year, and
the leaders executed ; and numerous less important
insurrections there, in the period preceding 1846,
were easily put down. Other abortive attempts
were ma<Ie in Piedmont, in Lombardy, in Modena
and the Komagna, the only result of which was to
make the rulers' hands yet heavier on the people.
Mor was there thorough unanimity or common
.action among Italian liberals. The extreme repub-
licans, represented by the party of Young Italy,
were headed by Mazzini, whose tiery eloquence
and enthusiasm transformed the vague desires of
his countrymen into a passionate hope ; but his
policy sanctioned methods from which more sober
patriots shrank. From Geneva he led a band of
refugees to the invasion of Savoy, in 18:53, because
the new king, Charles Albeit, would not enter on
a war with Austria; but this wild raid ]iroved an
utter failure. Already the wiser minds in It:ily
looked to Sardinia for deliverance ; but the dream
of a confederacy, with perhaps the pope as presi-
dent, was not yet dispelled. Nay, it seemed
about to be realised when, in 1846, Pius IX.
assumed the tiara, and initiated a series of liberal
reforms. Constitutions were granted in 1847 by
all the rulers save Austria and Feidinaml II. of
Naples ; and from the latter a constitution •nas
wrung in the following year. The year of revolu-
tions, 1848, o]iened with a street massacre by the
Austrians in Milan, on Sd January. In February the
French Republic was declared, and then in Italy the
party of Mazzini was for a moment supreme. Sicily
revolted from Ferdinand, and in Slaich Charles
Albert declared war on the Austrians, who h.ad
been driven out of Milan and Venice. He passed
the Ticino, and defeated Radetsky at tioito ; but on
25th July the Austrians won the decisive battle of
Custozza. re-entered Milan, and placeil the country
under martial law. In Naples there had been a
massacre in May, and on 30th August Messina w;ts
Ixmibarded. Meanwhile the pope's heart had
failed him. His troops had gone to the lielji of the
Sardinians, but before their surrender be had
declared their advance to have been without his
leave. The republicans, who had regarded his
liberal measures with suspicion and jealousy, n(jw
denounced him as a traitor to the cause of Italian
freedom. On 15th November his wisest minister.
Count Rossi, was assassinated, and Pius tied to
Gaeta in disguise. A republic was set up in Rome
on 9th February 1849, under Mazzini and two other
triumvirs. The Grand-duke Leopold had lied from
Florence, but Tuscany refused to join herself to
the republic ; yet when the soveieign she had
invite<l back returned, his first act, supported by
the ju'esence of Austrian tri)o]is, \v;is to suppress
the constitution. In Piedmont the ultra-radicals,
headed by Rattazzi, were now in power, and
a fresh campaign against Austria was begun —
this time lasting less than four days. On '23(1
March Kadetsky defeated the Piedmontese at
Novara. Charles Albert gave up his throne to his
s<m, Victor Emmanuel II., and died, brokenhearted,
at Oporto four months later. Elibrts were now
made to leiluce Rome and Venice. In vain did
Garibaldi, who had been calleil to the defence of
Rome, defeat the Neapolitans at Palestriiia and
Velletri. A French army, under (Jeneral Oudinot,
took the city, after a four weeks' siege, on il
July. Venice, under the heroic Daniel Manin,
bravely kept her enendcs at liay until '2'2d August.
The petty sovereigns now came back — the pope
last, in April IS.')!). Rome, occupied by a French
garrLson, wius kept in a state ol siege for se\en
years, and the city never quite recovered its freedom
until 1870. Italy's first general ett'ort for freedom
had ended in failure : 1848 was a year of unfullilled
visions. But one important gain was etl'ected ; the
dream of federation wxs ended, and all men looked
now to the House of Savoy, .save the few idealists,
like Mazzini, who afterwards stood sternlj' apart
from the triumph of coinpromi.se.
Victor Emmanuel was faithful to the Italian
cau.se, and iiei'severed in the path of ief(Uiii on
which his family had entered. Sardinia w;is
relieved, by the law which gave the government
252
ITALY
power to aliolish monasteries, from tlie inculius of
an army of idle ami iLTiiorant ecclesiastics ; a lilieral
constitution was in force, the ]iress was free,
education w,as s])readini;, and a measure of relifrious
liberty was enjoyed. In 1853 the Sardinian
prime ministry passed into the hands of Cavour,
the hrain, as Garibaldi was tlie arm, of the comini;
•strnp^le. Henceforth he inspired and ^'uided the
national movement, until his death in tlie moment
of victory. The Sardinian troops. reori;anised by
La Marmora, were sent umler that Lreneral to the
Crimea, where they won for themselves honour,
and for tlieir country allies anion^'st the ^'reat
powers. Cavoiir made terms with Louis Napoleon,
and in 1S.">!) war was declared once more against
.Austria. The French and Italians won the battles
of .Mairenta and Solferino in June, and tlien the
French emjieror, acting indejieiidently, agreed
to a treaty which left the Austrians in posses.sion
of Venetia, from the Mincio eastward. The in-
dignation of the Piedmnntese, whose sovereign had,
nnder ("avonr's agreement with Louis Napoleon,
to give u]) Savoy and Nice in return for this assist-
ance. M-as intense ; but the states of Central Italy
voted theii' union to the kingdom of Victor Em-
manuel, and were anne.xed in Alarch lS()fl : and .a few-
days after Southern Italy revolte<l from Francis
II., the son of Ferdinand, the detested lioniba.
(Jaribaldi and his volunteers, their expedition
secretly favoured by Cavour, went to the support
of the insurrection in May, and in September
entered Naples. Cavour, with the consent of
Louis Napoleon (who, however, maintained the
pope in Rome, because his own position in France
w,as strengthened by his championing the head of
the Catholic Church), now sent an .army into the
jiapal states, which defeated the pope's troops at
Castellidardo, joined Garibaldi, and helped him to
defeat the Neapolitan generals on the Volturno.
In October Victor Emmanuel entered the Abruzzi,
and Garibaldi resigned his dictatorsliip .and retired
to his island-farm. In February 1861 the first
Italian ]iarliament met at Turin, and Victor Em-
manuel was proclaimed king of Italy. Hut Rome
and Venice were not yet freed, and ("avour died in
dune of this year. In 1862 Garibaldi raised a body
of volunteers to liberate Rome, and, having crossed
to the mainland, was di'f<>ated at Aspromonte;
the blame, however, fell chielly on Rattazzi, who
was then minister, and who had sought to follow
Cavour's policy, and to reap the advantage of
(laribaldi's expedition, but had neglected to first
come to an understanding with France. The
ex-pressed sympathy of Europe brought about the
September ('(invention of IS(i4, by which Louis
Napoleon agreed gradually to withdraw the Fn^nch
troops on Italy's .stipulation not to allow an attack
on the pope's territory. My the last article of the
convention, the cajiital was removed a step nearer
Rome — from Turin to Florence. In 18G6 tlie
Austin- Prussian war, in which Italy took hut an
inglorious ]iart as the ally of Prussia, added to the
kingdom the coveted territory of Aenice. In the
same year the I'"reiicli garrison was withdrawn from
Rome, and Mazzini demanded that the city should
be ca])tured. In 1867 Garibaldi and his volunteers
gaiiiiMl a victory near Rome, and the French
returned ; the volunteers surrendered in November,
and the general w.as arrested. Rut after the fall
of the empire, in 1870, the new foreign minister of
France, Jules I'avre, (h'chircd the Seplember Con-
vention at an end, and the king, who had only
preventeil the democrats from moving by arresting
Mazzini, was at length free to act. t>n '20tli
September lie entcreil Rome, and the emancipa-
tion of Italy wa.s com|)leted. The pojie retained
the Vatican, the church of Sta Maria Maggioie,
the Lateran palace, the villa of Castel Gandolfo,
with their precincts, and was voted an income
of i;i.")().(M)0 out of the revenues of the state;
yet the sjiiritual sovereign has borne but im-
p;itiently the loss of his teni]ioral jiowcr. and
fre(|uent complaints and denunciations have been
directed from the Vatican against the pal.ace on
the l^uirinal. Meanwhile Italy, at last free ancl
united, has become one of the great continental
powers, as has been shown in the jireceding
sections of this article. It will be the hope
of all who have followed the story of her long
degradation and gallant recovery of freedom that
this rapiil grow'tli may not, like her earlier pre-
cocious development in arts and commerce, be
bought at the after cost of premature decay.
The later history of Italy has been uneventful.
Brigandage, rife under the 'tyr.-innical rule of the
Bourbons, and afterwards encouraged by their
emissaries, has been gradually sujiiiressed, educa-
tion and public w-orks have steadily advanced, and
in the south the peo|de have become more recon-
ciled— at least, less inveterately hostile — to the
laws. In January 1878 Victor Ennnanuel died, and
w.as succeeded by his eldest son, Humbert I. (born
1844) : and one month later Pius IX. died also, and
Leo XIII. became pope. The most important inter-
nal measures since then have been the wide ex-
tension of the franchis(' and the adoption in 1882
of the system of scrutin tie listc, and in 1883
the resumption of specie payment. The popular
interest in political fjuestions so far is not great;
but the government has been from time to time
embarrassed by the agitation conducted by the
extreme part.v of Irredentists, whose ]irofesseil
aim is to add to the kingdom all those districts
of Europe w-Iiere the Italian .sjieech prevails.
These, w-hich they have named itnlirt Irrcr/oita
('Unredeemed Italy'), embrace the southern Tyrol
('the Trentino'), Giirz, Trieste, Istria, and i)al-
matia, and also the Swiss <-anton of Tessin
(Ticino), Nice, and the islamls of Corsica ami
JM.-ilta : but it is mainly against .\ustria that the
hatred of the Irredentists is directed. In 1883 the
ministry dencmnced the schemes of the association,
as aiming indirectly at the downfall of the mon-
archy, an<l at the same time extolled the triple
alliance (of Italy, (iermany, .'ind .\ustria1, into
which Italy, exasjierated at the extension of Fr(>nch
inlliience in Tunis, had entered. To this same
jealousy of France's encroachments on the southern
Mediterranean shore may be attributed the erection
into ,an Italian colony, in 1882, of a coaling station
founded the year before at Assab, on the Re(l
Sea. In 188.5 Mas.'iowah w.as occu]iied. and in 188!)
the Italian colonial territory was amalgamateil
under the name of Eritrea (see p. '240). Aliyssinia
had come to be looked on as under an It.'iliaii
prolectoiale, but difliculties accumulated until in
March 18!)6 an Italian force was routed at Adowa
by the Abyssinian king. In tlie same year a treaty
was concluded with France about Tunis; and the
heir-aiiii.-uent m.-irried the dMiighler of the Prince
of Montenegro. In the early morning of 2!llh .Inly
IDOii King Iluiubert was assassinated at Monza
by Aiigelo liressi of Prato in Tuscany, and was
succee<ied by his son, Victor Emmanuel III.
The principal materials for Italian history during the
middle ajjes will be found in Muratori's Rernin Ilalicarnm
Scriptor€s{2r)vo\^. \7'S^-rt\ ; useful * Indices Chionnlogici'
appeared in ISiS.")), and in the Archirio Morko Jlnliano
(vols, i.-xvi. 1838-51). Sue also Guicciardini's Istoria
iVIluHa, conthiued to 1814 by Carlo Hotta ; Muratori's
AiiiHili (J'Tlalid: C'csaro Balbo's finminnrio ; Bryce's
y/u/// Rumaii Empire; and Villari's S/oi-iii I'oliticii
d'ltcdia (8 vols. 1883 ct scr/.). Amim:; books dealing
with separate periods may be inentioned Hod^kin's
Itaff/ timl her Ivvaders (from the fall of the empire ;
voluiiies i. to vi. 1880-91); Sisniondi's HepuUiquet
lUtlicuncs da Moi/en-dije ; Troya's i>loria d' Italia del
ITALY
253
Medio Eio (17 vols. 1839-511); Keuchlui's Ucadiichte
lUUieiis fun dtn' Oriindunij der rtt/icrendeit Dynastkii
(4 vols. 1859-73) ; Maurice, The Rcvolutiunarii Mort-
inent of li>4^-4^> (1887); and Niseo's Slvria cirUe.
Syiuouds's Kenaissancc iii Itulii is valuable, and A'on
Kanke's Huitort/ of the Popes is neces.sary to a in'uper
understanding of the national develoinnent. 1-inally,
there is a useful little volume on Italy, by W. Hunt,
M..-V., in Professor Freeman's 'Historical Course.*
Ueference should also be made to the articles on the
separate provinces and the great cities ( Home. Florence,
Naples, Venice, &c. (, and to the works cited there ; and
also to the numerous articles in tliis Encyclopa;dia on
the principal characters in Italian history — from Odoacer
to Cavour, Garibaldi, Mazzini, ic See also Aki, DkaM-i,
Paisii-ng, KE^■AIssA^•CE.
Langi'.vge and LiTER.VTURE. — Italian is one of
the grou]) of Neo- Latin or Itomauce languages
— viz. languages the direct offspring of the Latin
tongue as spoken by the Romans and imposed by
them on the nations more immediately undei' their
dominion. The cliiet subdivisions of the Neo-Latin
group are Frencli. Spauisli and Portuguese, Proven-
cal, Koumanian, and Italian. This last retains the
closest resemblance to its prototype. The atlinity
lietweeu the Romans and the races of the Cisalpine
Peninsula being closer than in the case of the other
Latinised peoples, the phonetic changes intro-
duced by them are less profound. The question
a-s to whether the Neo-Latin idioms were much
motlilied by tlie frequent Teutonic invasions of
.south-western Europe has given rise to prolonged
discussion among philologists ; but more recent
methods of research seem to establish the fact that
tlie influence of these invaders \v;vs slight, the
moie perfect language of the vanquished hav-
ing imposed itself on the intellectually inferior
conquerors. Neither is modern Italian derived
entirely from the so-calleil 'rustic Latin,' or
inciurect speech of the lower oidei"s. The origin
of the words whicli conijiose tlie modem tongue
may be traced in as many cases to the speech of
Cicero and Virgil as to that of the common folk.
The difl'erences between the ancient and modern
languages are the outcome <if the natuial evolution
of all living organisms which must undergo such
changes as are necessary to life and growth. But
so overwhelming was the prestige of Latin litera-
ture that this natural evolution was looked on with
contempt by the learned everywhere. The struggle
between the written but dead language and the
various forms of the li\ing speech was nowhere so
protracted as in Italy, where the intlueuce of
Roman tra<litions and culture was supreme.
During tliLs long period of evolution many dia-
lects sprang up which still jireserve their individual
peculiarities. The conformation of the peninsulii,
its varying climates and .soils, and the ditfeient
origins of the races which inhabit it account for
the variety and differences of these dialects. Their
seemingly wide divergences are in reality mostly
caused by pronunciation and not by stnictural
changes. According to the classification of Caix
(in his adnurable study Siti fJiitUtIi irit<i/iu), their
]>rincipal clivisions are : ( 1 ) In the north and north-
west tlie <lalUr-lt(dian — viz. Piediiiontese, Lombard,
and Emilian or Bolojjuese, in close atlinity to the
French in their mode of pronunciation and trun-
cated terminations; (2) the I'e;it</V(«, spoken also
in the Italian Tyrol and ]>arts of Dalmatia ami
Istria. This dialect is soft, harmonious, and more
purely Italian. The subilivision of it is the Friulian,
which preserves a clo.se resemblance to the ancient
Klifetian. ( 3 ) In the centre the pure Kalitin dialects
— viz. Tuscan, Roman, with the nearly-related
dialects of t'mbria and the Marches, Campaninn,
in which .\bnizze.se and .\pulian arc included. (4)
In the south and southwest the Ilmoltidian —
viz. SSiciliau, spoken al.so in the e.xtienie south
of Calabria and part of .Sardinia ; Coreican, Sar-
dinian, and Liguriaii, or the dialects of the
(ieiioese sea-coast. This last grou|i presents
marked traces of the close commercial iiiterconise
with Spain and her long dominion in these jiarts
of Italy.
As early as the 11th century the earlier-matured
idioms of F' ranee and Provence had already taken
shape in an abundant literature of their own which
invaded the Italian peninsula, and the niuch-
admired jioetry of the troubadours threatened to
stitie entirely the humbler growth of the soil.
However, ill the early part of the 13tli century, in
the famous centre of social life and culture formed
by the brilliant court at Palermo of the Eiiijieror
Frederick II. of Hohenstaufen, a school of Aulic
(or court ) jioets s]iraug iqi headed liy the emperor
himself and his friend and secretary, Piero delle
Vigne (died 1249). The Sicilian dialect formed
the l)asis of the idiom used, but the large mixture
of Latin words, and the too evident imitation of
Provencal models, mark this school of poetry as au
artificial product. After the death of Manfred,
F'redericks unfortunate son (1266), the Sicilian
school soon ceased to e.xist.
In various parts of the mainland more or less
successful attempts were now being made to write
in the vulgar dialects. Noteworthy is that of St
F'rancis of Assisi and his followers to u.se the
Umbrian dialects in religious lyrics during the
13th century, the most distinguished among this
group being Jacopone da Todi (died c. 1306). The
sacred dialogues, a primitive form of the mvstery
play, produced by this same school, may lie re-
garded as the earliest germ of the national drama.
Ad important group of lyric poets nourished in
Bologna, then a centre of European learning and
civilisation ; their cliief was Guido Guinicelli (died
1276), praised by Dante (Piirgatorio, xxvii. ) as
the father of himself and all other singers of \o\k.
The contemporai-j' Tuscan poets wrote philoso-
phical lyrics full of ovei'strained sentiment, but in
wonderfully pure Italian. Chief among them were
Guido Cavalcanti (died 1300), the beloved friend of
Dante, and the immediate mecursor of the hitter's
lyric style ; and Cino da Pistoia, a distinguished
jurisconsult and admired sonnet-writer, whose
death ( 1336) was bewailed in verse by the young
Petrarch. F'ra Guittone d'Arezzo (1215-94) and
Francesco da Barberino ( 1264-1348) wrote didactic
allegorical poems and songs; the epistles of the
former are noteworthy as the earliest prose writings
in the vulgar tongue. Among the leading political
and learned men of Florence wjis Brunette Latini
(1210-94); his best-known work is // l\-wn//o,
a kind of allegorical encyclopanlia in verse, showing
immense erudition. Dante speaks of him as his
instructor and master {Jii/niii/, .\v.). To this
time belongs the earliest imixirtant collection of
jirose tales, the C'cido Is'oi^clle Atilichc, ccdiected by
an aiuniymons but pndiably Florentine writer. It is
in Tuscany, in the central zone of the peninsula, that
the idiom at last takes definite shajie in which the
varied dialects of north and south are to find their
representative type. The man who is to harmonise
in a great masterpiece these varied elements of
style and language, and to reveal to Italy and the
world all the power ami compass of the living
speech, growth of his native soil, is the F'lorentine
Dante Alighieri (May 126.")-1.321 ). Dante's supreme
poetic genius .anil the strength and inilividiiality
of his noble character made his influence as great
among his contenipoiaries as it has continued to be
through all succeeding ages. Almost contenipoi ary
with Dante, and forming with him the triumvirate
which makes the I4th century, or ' Trecento,' the
golden age of Italian literature, .stand Petraich
(1304-74) and Boccaccio (1313-75). Thus Italian
254
ITALY
literature presents the strange plienniiienon tliat it
attains its zenith in its opening; poriixl. I'otrarch,
the precnrsor of the revival of classic studies
which was to t.'ive the distinguishinj; mark to
tlie followint;- century, lives in fame, not by his
voluminiius Latin works, hut by reason or the
unemialleil heaiity of his songs anil sonnets written
in tiie ilespisetl idiom of the people. If we may
say of liiiu that he hrought to perfection the lan-
guage of lyric poetry, so may Hoccaceio have the
honour of giving form to prose hy the language in
which he clothed his tales. Around this imposing
trio are grouped many lesser stars whose works,
though inferior as to substance, are all distinguished
by the same simple beauty of style. Francesco
Stabile, known as Cecco d'Ascoli, is the author of
a strange, semi-scientific poem, L'Accrha, in which
he severely' censures Dante's DMiie Comcdii. He
was professor of Astrology at Bologna, and was
burned for heresy in 1327. The Florentine Fazio
degli Uberti produced, in imitation of the Divine
Comedy, a long poem, II Dittamondo, a wearisome
versified account of imaginary travels ; more suc-
cessful were his graceful lyrics. Tlie imitators of
Petrarca during this century are of little im|iort-
ance, the most noted being Giusto da Valmontone
(died 1449), author of a collection of lyrics. La
Bella Maiio. Among Boccaccio's followers are
Ser Giovanni Fiorentino, author of a collection of
tales called // Pecorone, written about 1378, and
the more original Franco Sacchetti (1330-99), who
gives in his hook of anecdotes a familiar and spirited
picture of contemporary customs.
The earliest undoubtedly authentic historical
work in Italian is the Chronicle written by Gio-
vanni Vilhini, a leader in the commercial and
political life of Florence, whose history he relates
with vigour an<l simplicity. He died of the plague
(1348), hut his chronicle is continued till 1364 by
his brother and nephew. The important Cronaca
del siioi tempi, by Dino Comjiagni, describes
miimtely the party strife in Florence (1300-1).
Especially noteworthy for their graceful and pure
diction are the letters of the famous St Catharine
of Siena ( 1347-80), and the Fioretti of St Francis,
a selection by an anonymous author of the sayings
and doings of that holy man and his followers.
Though classic antic|uity was naturally the
source of all culture tluriiig the 14th century, still
the great men of that age <lrew their more im-
mediate inspiration from the religious and political
mijvements of their day. The distinguishing mark
of the loth century, on the other hand, is the with-
drawal of the cultured class from interest in popular
events, and their contempt of the national language
for literary \ises. Latin b(;comes tlie only acknow-
ledged literary medium. For a more detailed
account of all the celebrated Humanists and their
various patrons, see Symonds's Renaissance in
Itiiljl, and Roscoe's Lorenzo the Magnifieent and
/.CO the Tenth.
This great revival or ' Kenaissance ' of Greek
and Roman culture, which from Italy outwards
atl'ected the whole of Eurojie, was fostered by the
sph'udid protection of tlie numerous princes wliose
rule was now gradually taking the place of the
turliulent but life-inspiring freed<ini of the small re-
publics. These patrons and their erudite courtiers
have conferred a lasting benellt on posterity by
the priceless libraries in whose collecting they vied
with each other. Foremost amongst artistic and
literary centres was Florence, under her Me<lici
rulers, Cosimo, called I'ater I'atria', and his grand-
.son, Lorenzo the iMagniticent, who were the first
also to encourage a return to the use of the vulgar
tongue among the distinguished writers of their
court. Leon Battista Alberli ( 1406-72) was one of
the most zealous advocates for the restoration of
Italian. A wonderfully versatile genius, he ex-
celled as architeirt, poet, an<l prose-writer both on
art sulijects and moral jihilosophy ; his most im-
portant Italian work is a treatise ' On the Family,'
of which tlie well-known dialogue on the same
suliject ascribed to Agnolo PamloHini is supposed
to have formed part. Angelo Folitian ( 14.')4-!)4),
one of the most brilliant ornaments of this court,
wrote an exouisite eclogue, L'Orfeo, the tii-st secular
drama in Italian, although the Canto Carnascialeseo,
or rliyming dialogues sung by niasipierailcrs at car-
nival time, may be considered an earlier form.
Side liv side with these are the friends Pico <lella
Miranilola (1463-94), who lias, however, left little
but the fame of his vast erudition, and Girolamo
Benivieni, author of much didactic and devotional
poetry, which reflects the teacliint;s of the gii>at
reformer and orator .Savonarola, the opponent of
Pagan culture, whose intluence was supreme in
Florence from 1489 till his execution in 1498. The
two Florentines, Giovanni Rucellai (1475-1526) and
Luigi Alamanni (1495-1556), wrote graceful poems
in imitation of the Georgics. The revival of classic
rhythms, attempted by Claudi<i Tolomei, has been
more successfully carried out in modern times by
Carducci (q.v. ). In Naples a brilliant school of
Latin poets flourished. Pontano (1426-1503) en-
joyed much contemporary fame and intluence : his
more celebrated follower, Jacopo Sannazzaro ( 1458-
1530), is remembered by his pastoral romance, with
lyric interludes, Arcadia, written in Italian.
But the popular and typical product of this age
is the narrative iioem, or romantic epic. Rude
translations of chivalrous poems from the French
and Provencal had long been in use among the
populace ; the first, however, to ennoble the narra-
tive poem was the Florentine Luigi Pnlci ( 1432-84).
His style is comparatively simple and free from
Latinisms, and one of the distinctive marks of the
romantic school in his work, as in all other litera-
tures, is the breaking ilown of the classic barrier
between the serious and the humorous. Contem-
porary with him Wivs his more famous competitor,
Matteo Boiardo ( 1434-94), an adherent of the dukes
of Ferrara. To the same brilliant court l)e!onge<l
the famous Ariosto (1474-1533), who brought to
perfection the romantic epic. In close connection
with this new school are the hurlesr|iie-writers of
the early 16th century. Most |)olislied of these was
Fr.ancesco Berni ( 1497-1535 ) ; he live<l in the service
of the Medici popes, and is said to have died <if
poison given by order of the notorious Duke
Alexander de' Medici. Florence was the sjiecial
home of these flippant and licentious poets, whose
wit gave expression to the all-pervading scepticism
and corniption of the age. Antonio Francesco
(uazzini, called II Liusca (1503-84), was the most
brilliant of the ' Hernesiiue ' imitators. He excels
also as a writer of prose tales in the style of
Boccaccio, while his conteni|iorarv, Matteo Ban-
dello (c. 1480-1562), is the chief story-toller in
Lombardy. A strange variety of serio-comic veree
is that written in ' Lingua Macaronica,' or Imr-
lesqued Latin, hy a monk of .Mantua, Teofilo
F'oleiigo (1492-1.544), under the iiseudonym of Mer-
linus Cocajus. Now mere literary curiosities, these
humorous poems were immensely popular in their
day.
in the 15th century the corruption and dissen-
sions of her many rulers had reduced Italy to a
state of di.ssolution, which left her an easy prey <o
foreign invaders, ,and the 16th century saw the
completion of her ])olitical ruin. Her literature is
trammelled by chussic imitation and court servility.
A corroding cynicism and want of moral sense are
the characteristic note of the greatest writers, fore-
most .among whom is Machiavelli ( 1469-1527) : but
his gieat genius and far-seeing patriotism retleera
ITALY
255
his defects and ennoble his work. Next to him
iis historian conies his feUowcitizen, Francesco
Ouicciardini ( 1-483- 1540), who is a model of order
and elegance. Every court in Italy had its
chroniolei-s, hut many of them wrote in Latin.
Among these the most quoted is Paolo Giovio
(1483-1552), attached to the (lapal court for many
years.
The secret despatches of the Venetian ambas-
sadors to their senate, from 1500 onwards, form a
copious store of vivid and accurate historic infor-
mation. Paolo Paruta (1540-98) has written a
remarkable history of Venice. The growth of the
secular drama was rapid at this time. Moulded
entirely on classic models as to form, comedies now
begin to represent living types and customs, while
the tragic style remains stilted and artiticial.
The great names of Machiavelli and Ariosto are
foremost amongst these comedy-writei's. Full of
wit and originality, mixed with obscenity, are the
comedies of the infamous Pietro Aretino ( 1492-
1557), whose celebrated Letters were used by him
as a means of blackmailing the princes wliom he
attacked. One of the most apidauded and licen-
tious comedies wa.s written by tfie Cardinal Dovizi
of Bihbiena (1470-1520), La Calandra, and repre-
sented before Pope Leo X. In the didactic works
II Cortigiano of the Mantuan Castiglione (147S-
1529), and the Galateo of the Tuscan G. della
Casa ( 1503-56 ), we have models of elegant prose,
which preserve for us pictures of the court-life
of the times. The learned Cardinal IJembo ( 1470-
1547 ), who during his lifetime gave the law in all
mattei-s of literary taste, did much by example and
precept to help in the restoration of the vulgar
tongue.
Two biographers are especially famous. Giorgio
Vasari (1512-74), himself an indifferent artist, has
left us a precious mine of information in his much-
quoted Lives- of the Arti.fis : and unique of its kind
is the graphic and picturesque autobiography of
the great artist, Benvenuto Cellini ( 1500-71 ).
Tlie end of the 16th and beginning of the 17th
centuries saw political and religious liberty in Italy
crushed under the dominion of the foreign invaders,
and the increasing power of the popes. It is an age
of decadence in art and literature, language is pomp-
ous and verbose, and the themes treated unreal.
One niime of enduring f.ime illumines this period,
that of the unhappy Tasso (1544-95), a pure and
earnest genius, and witli him ends the pre-eminence
of Italian literature in Euroi)e. The pastoral drama,
perfected by Tasso in his Amintn, and by his rival
Guarini (1537-1612) in his Pastor Fido, became
widely popular. In 1.594 the Dufiic of Rinuccini
was produced with music, the earliest specimen of
the musical drama.
The prolixity of description and abuse of meta-
phor, already in vogue towards the end of t'.e 15th
century, grew to such heights in the 17th century
that ' Seicentismo' has remained a synonym for all
that is false and exaggerated in style. The Nea-
politan Giambattista Marini (1,509 1625) is tlie
leader of this school. His great jioeni, Adoitix, ami<l
all its grave defects, shows a powerful inuigination
and masterly ea.se in versification. Among a crowd
of mediocre and servile lyrists, the Florentine
Vincenzo Filicaja (1642-1707) is nottnvorthv for
dignity and patriotic feelin" Gabriidlo Chia^uera
of Savona ( 1.5.52- 16.S7) and his followers, Fulvio
Testi of Ferrara ( 1.598 1646), and Francesco Kedi of
Arezzo ( 1626-98), imitated witli success the Greek
lyrists. The imitations of Ta.sso's great epic were
less succe.s.sful than the parodies. A mock-heroic
masterpiece is Iji Seahia Itttpita ( ' The Stolen
Pail'), by Ales.sandro Tas-soni of Modena (156.5-
""" " ■ iof
Kosa
1638). Of a le.ss playful humour are the satires i
the well-known NeapoliUui artist, Salvator Koa
(1615-73), conspirator with the famous Masaniello
against the Spanish oppres.sors. The greatest
names of this age belong to science. The writings
of the foremost of all, (ialileo, are models of clear
exposition and choice ilictioii. The works of the
advanced thinkei-s of the time, nearly all natives
of Southern Italy, and the best known amimgst
whom is Giordano Bruno (c. 1550-1600), belong
to the history of ])liilosopliy. Venice still cherishes
the name of Fra Paolo Sarpi (1550-1623), the
scientist, historian, and opponent of Jesuit doc-
trines.
The dawn of the 18th century shows a dull level
of mediocrity, and a false and afl'ected literary
taste, which tlie authority of the Koiiian ' Academy
of Arcadia' ilid much to foster. Opponents of the
prevailing fashion were tlie Venetians, Gasparo and
Carlo (iozzi, tlie latter ( 1722-1806) being e-speci.ally
remembered by his gi-aceful dramatised Fiahe.
The more important Lombard poet, Giuseppe
Paiini (l"'-9-99), writes with simple elegance in
his satires. Most admired of his own contem-
poraries was the dramatic poet, Pietro Trapassi,
known as Meta-stasio ( 1698-1782), poet-laureate ami
favourite at the imperial court of \ ienna; but much
greater is now the renown of his contemporary
Goldoni (1707-93), who, by a return to the study
of popular life and existing surroundings, liecame
the reformer of the stage. To the end of this cen-
tury belongs also Allieri ( 1749-1803), the only great
tragic writer whom Italian literature possesses.
Roused to a hope of lilierty by the great Revolu-
tion, Italy was again jjlunged into despair after the
fall of Xa])oleon by the loss of the semblance of
unity which had been given her, and, animated
by hatred of the petty tyrants who returned to
nile her, she began the long struitgle for freedom.
All the eminent literary men of this period helped
the patriotic cause with their pen, and many
sullered exile and imprisonment.
The talented Vincenzo Monti (1754-1828) was the
leader of a new return to cla-ssic models in his
eloquent and llowinif poems. Pindenionte (1753-
1828) is a noted follower of this scliool, and the
more famous Ugo Foscolo (1778-1827). The most
illustrious of the classicists is, however, Leopardi
(1798-1837), the greatest Italian lyrist since the
days of Petrarch. The tragedies of G. B. Niocolini
( 1782-1861 ), full of lieiy patriotic allusions, were
immensely popular. This classic school in turn
gave place to the romantic. The centre of this
movement was Milan, and its chief Manzoni ( 1785-
1873), whose Promessi Sposi is the only really great
historical novel in Italian. Two other noteworthy
historical novelists are F. D. Guerazzi (1804-74),
who took a leading part in the Tuscan revolution
of 1848; and Ma>sinio dAzeglio (1798-1865), one
of the foremost piditical men of his time. More
modern and original in style is the interesting
novel, Nievo's Confessione di nii Ottuaf/cnariu.
Silvio Pellico, who luis written many draniius, is
better known by the touchingiy natural account of
his imprisonment by the Aiistrians. The romantic
school produced no remarkalile lyrics but those of
Manzoni himself, and, although all over Italy
fervent poets sang of freedom, only the satires of
the Tuscan Giiisti are of permanent value. The
more noted of these minor poets are Berchet, Prati,
Aleardi, Poerici, .and (ialiriel Kos.setti, cimnected
with English literature through his illustrious chil-
dren. Belli in Rome, and Porta in Milan, are noted
poetic writers in dialect. The Siiiiiiiian/ of tin:
HiUonj of Italy. \,y Ce.sare Balbo (1789-18.53), the
Histori/ of till' Floicntine Republic, bv (!ino Cap-
poni (1792-1876), the Universal Hixtonj, by
Cesare Cantii (born 1807), are noticeable works.
Rosinini (1797-18.55), t;ioberti( 1801-18.52), Maniiaiii
(1800-85) are well-known metaphysical and theo-
256
ITASCA LAKE
IVAN
logical writers. Niccolo Tomiuaseo (1802-1S74) is
iiotiofalile iiiiiong oritii's ami essayists for the vast
extent of his leaniiuj;. The eloquence aiul purity
of style of Mazzini's jjolitical Avritiiij;s give them
also literary value, and along with him among
ailvanceil thinkei"s must be mentioned Koniagnosi
(lT(il-lS3o).
Since the stormy times of her struggle for life,
uniteil Italy lias i)rocluceil few literary works of
character and originality. The name of tlie poet
Carducci is the only one of great distinction.
Among the minor lyrists are Kapisardi, liuerrini
(Stecchetti), and Panzacchi ; and the lyrics in
Tuscan dialect of Kucini are full of wit and
nature. lu Naples the talented young Gabriele
d'.Vnniinzio, both in poetry and prose, and .Matilde
Serao and Ciiuseppe A'erga in their novels and
stories, belong to the extreme school of realism.
In the north the novelists Farina, Barrili, and the
more eminent Fogazzaio show moderate tend-
encies. The vivid Vita Militarc and other worlcs
of K. de Amicis, and the charming Aiitobiu(/rii/>/ii/
of the sculptor Duprc, are well worthy of notice.
Among dramatists, the works of Cos.sa, Ferrari,
Giacosa, and Cavallotti are the most popular.
Arrigo Boito, the composer, shows himself in his
librettos and other works no mean ))oet.
The masterly historical works of P. Villari on
Savonarola and Machia\elli are well known in
translation to English readers. The versatile K.
Bonghi has written interesting essays on various
historical and political subjects.
For tlie laiigua;^e, see D'-\scoli, Arckifio Glottohinco ;
Caix, SiiUa Storia del Dialctti iV Italia ; Kajna, Le Oriijini
delV Epiipea Franccse ; Littre, HUtobx di: la Lanuuc Fraa-
^aUc : Max. Miiller, Lectures on the Science itf Lanijiinge,
No. vi. And for the literature, see Sismondi's Literature
of the South of Europe (trans, by Koscoe ) ; Hallain's
Literature of Europe ; Adolf Gaspary, Italienischc Litter-
atur : BartoH, Storia delta Letteratura Italiana : De
Sanctis, Storia delta Letttratura Italiaita ; .Settenibrini,
Lisrorxi !<ulla Letteratura Indiana : Carducci, Studii
Ldterarii and Lirici del Secolo XVIII. ; Tabarrini, Vita
e liicordi di Jtaliani iliustri del XIX. secolo.
Itasca Lake. See 5Iissis.siPi'i.
Itcb, or Sc.VBiES, a skin disease jiroduced by
a nunute mite (SarcojAcn sejiliici), which burrows
in the epidermis of most i)arts of the body, but
especially about the hands. Its presence is marke<l
by a small scaly elevation of the skin, by eruptions
as the papill.i" of the cutis are perforated, and by
tJK' irritating itcliing sensation.
The mite itself is white or yellowish, broad and
fiat, with two pairs of mouth ]iarts, and four jiairs
of appendages. The males are scarcer and much
smaller than the females,
which are just vLsible to
the miked eye. When they
have entered the skin they
do not leave it, but form
tortuous burrows, through
openings in which the em-
bryos escape. The mites are
passed by contagion from
l)erson to per.son, either by
direct contact or by clothes
or bedding. It is probably
the embryos or larv:i' whicii
are usually thus transmitted.
The above species also occurs
on the hoi-se, Nea|)olitan
itch-iiiitf, iiuignilled 05 sheep, and li(m ; S. s(jiiiiiiii-
diameters. fcni.s occurs ( causing mange )
on dogs, ]>igs, goats, sheep,
and apparently also for a short ]ieriod on man ;
i>. iiiiiiur is also distinguished on cats and raldiits.
The itch was for a while rcgardeil as a spccihc
disea.se, the mite being unknown. Avenzoar. an
Itcli-uiite :
Abdoiniiinl view of female
Arabian physician of the l'2th century, is said to
have recognised its true nature. So does Scaliger
(1557); and Adams tigures the aninuil in a pai)cr
read in 1S05 before the Koyal Society. Amid some
scepticism as to the mite during the early part of
this century, M. tiales hoaxed tlie public "ijy ligur-
ing as a substitute for the itch-mite the familiar
denizen of cheese. His trick w;is discovered by
Kaspail, and the existence of a real mile was more
distrusted than ever, till in 1834 Kenucci, a Corsi-
can student, again demonstrated its jiresence and
characters. It luvs been often studied since.
The usual cure for itch is found in baths, with
abundant soap, or in rubbing with sulphur oint-
ment. If these be not resorted to, the multiplica-
tion of the mite may give more serious trouble.
See Ar.\chxida, Mite, P.vkasihsm, Skin ; Uelafond
and Boiu'guignon in Mem. Acad, des Sciences (I'aris,
1802); and treatises on Parasites by Leuckart, Kiichen-
ineister, kc.
Ith'aciU now Thi.\KI, one of the Ionian Islands
(q.v. ), the smallest of them except Paxo, is a long,
narrow strip of land oti' the north-east of C'ephalonia,
and lies "20 miles west of the mainland of Greece.
The surface is mountainous (2648 feet), and the
coast steep and rocky. Area, 37 sq. m. AVine,
currants, and olive-oil are largely grown. Goats
are kept. Sponges and coral are fished for. The
islaiid is celebrated as the principality ami home of
Ulysses. Pop. 10,1)50. Cliief town, ^■athv. See
Scl'iliemann's It/iakd (1869).
Ithaca, capital of Tompkins county, New
York, is picturesquely situated on Cayuga liake,
near the southern extremity, and on the sloi>cs of
the neighbouring hills, 35 miles N\E. of Eliiiira by
rail. It has a large trade in coal, and a number of
foundries, mills, and factories. Ithaca is the .seat
of Cornell University ((X.v.). Pop. (1890) ll,7tl9.
Itinerary (Lat. ititicniriuui, derived from iter,
'a journey'), the name given by the Komans to a
written or pictorial account of the princijial mads
and routes in the empire, with the stations and
distances between them. Of the former class the
most important are the Ilitieniria Aiitmiiiii anil
the Itiiieruriiun Ilicrosolyitiitaiium. The //. Atituii-
ini are two in number, one containing the routes
through the Koman provinces in Eurojie, Asia,
and Africa, and the other the principal sea-routes.
They take their name from the Emperor Antoninus
Caracalla, under whom they were published, ;us
corrected up to his time, but they seem to have
been originally prepared at an earlier date. —The
It. Ilicrusolymitaiiam was drawn up in the 4tli
century A.D. for the use of idlgrims from Burdigala
( Bordeaux ) to Jerusalem. Another example of the
same (dass is the It. A/ej'tt/uin, showing the route
of marcli of Alexander the (ireat through Asia.
There is a collected eilition of ancient Itiiicniriti
by D'Urban ( Paris, 1845 ). For the Tabula Pciiliii-
gcriami, .see PElTINiilili.
Itlirbide. Agustin de (1783-1824), emperor
of .Mexico (q.v.) in 1822-23.
It/eliwe. the oldest town in Ilolsteiii, is situated
in a valley backed by liuely-wooded hills, 40 miles
XW. of Hamburg by rail. Principal industries,
sngar-relining, cotton-weaving, and the manufac-
ture of macliinery, chicory, and soa|i. Pop. ( 1S90)
12,481. The original castle ( Eselslletli ), around
which Etzehoe or Itzehoe grailu.ally arose, was
built by Charlemagne in 809. Itzehoe was twice
destroyed by the Swedes iluring the Thirty Yeai-s'
\\m. '
Ivan (i.e. John ), the name of two grand-duke--
aiid four czars of liussia, three of whom are treated
at Klssi.\. The best known. Iv.w I\'. iI5;iO-84),
commonly called Ivan the Terrible, reigned from
1533, and did much for the advancement of his
IVAXOVO
IVORY
257
country in arts and commerce, as well as for its
extension by arms. He was the liret Knssian
sovereign to be crowneJ as czar. He subdueJ
Kazan and Astraklian, and from his reign dates
the lii-st annexation of Silieria. He conclude<l a
commercial treaty witli (Jueen Elizabeth, after
the Knglish ha<l discovered (1553) the way to
Archangel by sea. But his hand fell with merci-
less cruelty upon the boyai-s of his kingdom, and
upon some of his towns, as Moscow, Tver, and
Novgorod. In the last named some 60,000 jjeople
were slain in six weeks. This was, however,
during the third period of his reign. The first
marks the time during which he was under his
mother's guardianship : and the second the era of
commercial enterprise and territorial consolidation.
Ivan died of sorrow for his son, whom three yeai-s
before he had slain in a mad fit of rage. See
Austin Peniber, I run tlic Terrible (1S95).
Ivanovo, or Ivaxuff Voznesensk, the 'Man-
chester' of Russia, in t!ie government of Vladimir,
210 miles by rail NE. of Moscow. It has been the
centre of the Kussiau cotton industiy since the
middle of the I8th century. Machinery is also
made. Pop. (1S97) 35,930.
Ivinghoe, a market -town of Buckinghamshire,
2 miles SSE. of Chedilington junction, and 38 NW.
of London. Pop. 1280. Ivinghoe Beacon (904 feet)
belongs to the Chiltern Hills.
Iv'iza (anc. Ehi'isus), the most sotith-westerly
of the Balearic Isles (q.v. ), lies 56 miles from the
Spanish mainland. It is mountainous, and its
coasts are indented by several bays. Area, 228
sq. m. : pop. 22,800. The principal products are
salt and fruits, with a little lead. The chief town,
Iv-iza, which is fortified, is the see of a bishop, and
has a population of 7-tOO.
Ivory is the name properly given to the tusks
of elephants, a material which consists of that
modification of dentine or toothsulistance showing
in transverse sections lines of ditterent shades
running in circular arcs, and forming by their
decu.ssation minute lozenge-shaped spaces. "By this
character, which is presented by every portion of
any transverse section of an elephant's tusk, true
ivory may be distinguished from every other kind
of tooth-substance, and from bone and all artificial
imitations of ivory. Although no other teeth
except those of the elephant present this character-
istic, many other animals, such as the walrus,
narwhal, hippopotamus, sperm-whale, &c., possess
teeth or tusks which from their large size and from
their density can be used for many purpo.ses in the
arts for which true ivorj- is employed. A small
pro|»ortion of the ivors- of European commerce
comes from Ceylon, India, Burma, Cochin-China,
and the islands of the Ea.stem Archipelago ; but
the greater part of the produce of the East is used
in the regions of its production. The hulk of the
ivory s(dd in the markets of London, Livei-pool,
and Antwerp Ls from the African elephant, and it
comes from the interior by nearly eveiy outlet
from th.it continent. A small amount of ivory,
brittle in (|nality, is also obtained from northern
Siberia under the name of fcjssil ivory, being the
tusks of the extinct mammoth embedded in the
frozen soil of the region. The ivon,' of the tusks
of the .\frican elepliant Ls held in the highest
estimation by the manufacturer, on account of its
superior density and whiteness. The tusks are of
all sizes up to about 180 lb., but examples have
been recorded excee<ling 2fK) IVi. in weight.
The value of ivory is in prm'ortion to the size
and soundness of the tusks. For the purposes of
sale they are graded as teeth weighing 60 lb. and
upwarils. next from 40 to 60 11>., and thinl between
20 and 40 lb. Below the weight of 20 lb. they are
277 ■*
called scrivclloes, which are classed as hollows and
solids. In conseiiuence of its increasing scarcity
by reason of the constantly-expanding demand for
ivory, there has been a lluctuating but giadual
rise in the price of the substance; but in recent
years values have remained remarkably steady.
Takinjj west coast African ' teeth ' of good quality,
the price may be said to have averaged ,f50 per
cwt. during the ten years 1881-90, although accord-
ing to quality it maj' range from £37 to t'60 in a
single sale ; while from £50 to £60 may be taken as
the price of good ivory in 1890. Selected teeth, and
cuts made for special jiurposes, such as billiard ball
soliils, may command about £110 per cwt. The
quantity annually imported into Europe averages
12, .500 cwt., and in the East there is worked up
about 2500 cwt. more, to jirocure which not fewer
than 40,000 elephants must be sacrificed. Beyond
this there nmst be many thousands of elephants
killed everv' year in Africa to sup]ily tusks for
chiefs anil head-men, which they use profusely for
the ornamentation of their dwellings and graves.
Ivory is conveyed to the coast by slave labour ; and
it has repeatedly been said that the extinction of
the African .elephant (which with the present
enormous slaughter seems likely ere long to be
achieved ) would secure the suppression of the
slave-tratle. Among western communities ivory is
chiefiy in demand for knife and other handles,
combs, piano keys, billiard balls, chess-men, and
for carved figures and ornaments. Dieppe is
the principal seat of the carved i\-ory trade ; but
nearly the half of the material used is worked up
in England.
It has been assumed because of the large slabs of
ivory used by ancient artists, some of which are
still extant, tliat they possessed a method of soften-
ing, bending, and flattening the substance, the
secret of which is now lost. One ancient author
indeed mentions a means of softening and bending
ivory by means of acid solutions, and various
recipes are given by medieval writei-s for that
purpose ; but these are not found practicable. It
is alleged that immersion in a solution of phos-
phoric acid renders ivory pliant and translucent ;
but that is done at the expense of its texture and
elasticity — in short, such treatment deprives the
substance of the very qualities which render it
valuable.
The use of ivory can be traced almost to the
earliest period at which there is evidence of the
existence of man ujjon the earth. On fragments of
mammoth tusks which have been picked up in the
caves of Dordogne there have been found incised
drawings of many animals, some now e.xtinct and
others no longer inhabiting Europe, executed with
a spirit and fidelity which are simply marvellous.
From that time downwards the records of every
civilised comnmnity demonstrate the important
place occupied by ivory, and the high commercial
value it possessed. It was a substance distinctive
of royal state and authority in ancient numarchies ;
and we rea<l that King Solomon ' made a great
throne of ivori,-.' There still exist examples of
Egyptian inlaid ivory as ancient as the days of
Moses, and Mr Layard in his Nineveh excavations
secured many .Assyrian ivory carvings, believed to
date nearly 1000 li.c. , which are now preserved in
the British Museum. When culture and art were
at their height in ancient (!reece ivory was lavishly
used for carvings, sculiiture, and objects of luxury ;
and many of the greatest and most famous wor^s
of Phidias and his fellow-artists were 'Chrys-
elephantine ' (q.v.) statues — gigantic works built of
plates of ivory and gold, .some of the figures reaching
a stature of 40 feet. Among the Konmns the use of
ivorj- for purposes of luxury was equally extensive ;
and by them plates of ivory, joined lus diptychs or
258
IVORY
IZARD
tiiiitychs, were useil as wiitingtablets. Presents
of such iliptyclis were coiiiinoiily made by consuls
on their api>i)iutment to officials within their
jurisdiction, and among the treasures of classical
times which yet exist are many remains of consular
ivories. In the midille ages ivory came into \ise
for ecclesiastical purjioses in the form of tablets
anil diptychs for keeping registers and records, for
crucifixes, statuettes of saints, caskets, reliquaries,
croziers, book-covers, \-c. At the same period for
secular use it was carved into chess-men, mirror
cases, combs, 'oliphants' (linnting and tenure
horns), and numerous other forms.
Ivory, Vegetauli;. This curious material is
furnished l)y the palm-like plant, Pliytclcjiliiiti
imccrocdrpci, which grows on the Andean plains of
Peru, and on the banks of the river Magdalena,
and other parts of South America. It forms the
type of a natural onler, the Phytelephasic;e, inter-
mediate between the Palms and the Screw Pines
(Pandanea?). The plant throws up a magnihcent
tuft of light-green ])innated leaves of e.vtraordinary
size and beauty, like immense ostrich-feathers,
rising from 30 to 40 feet in height^ The fruit,
which is as large as a man's iiead, consists of
many 4-celled leathery drupes aggregated together,
and contains numerous nuts of a somewhat tri-
angular form, each nut being nearly as large as
a hen's egg ; they are called Corozo nuts in com-
merce. The kernels of these nuts when ripe are
e.\ceedingly hard and white, in fact they resemble
ivory so completely that few names have ever been
better applied than that of vegetable ivory. They
are in extensive use liy turners in the manu-
facture of l>uttons, umbrella-handles, and small
trinkets. Two or three millions of these nuts
are now inrported into Britain annually, and
are chietly used by the London and Birming-
ham turners. — For another ivory substitute, see
C'ELLfLOID.
Ivory-black. See Chakco.\l.
Ivory Coast, a part of the northern coast of
the Gulf of Guinea, AVest Africa, embraces the
districts between Cape Palmas and the river Assini.
Its western portion belongs to Liberia ; its eastern,
now counted as part of the Gold Coast, is sharecl
between Britain and France. The name bears no
political meaning.
IVT€!'a, a town of Piedmont, on an eminence at
the southern end of the Val d Aosta, 38 miles
NXE. of T\irin by rail. Founded in accordance
with an injunction contained in the Sibylline Books
about 100 B.C., it has a cathedral which is sup-
posed to occupy the site of a tcmjile to Apollo.
It was the seat of a Longobard duchy, and under
the Carlovingians of a niar([uisate. One of the
marquises of Ivrea, Berengar II., became titular
king of Italy (q.v.) in tiie lOtli century, and his
grandson founded the line of the dukes of Bur-
gundy. lncor])i)rated with the emiiire in 1018,
the town and manniisate were given by Frederick
II., in 1248, to the House of Savoy. Pop. 5883.
Ivry, a village of over 1000 iidiabitants in the
French department of Eure, 16 miles NNW. of
Drcux. On the Plain of Ivry was fought, Mth
.March lo'.tO, the famous battle between Henry of
Navarre and the armies of the League. — IvuY-
.suu-Seixe, a south-eastern suburb of Paris, on the
Seine. Glass, earthenware, and chemical products
are the chief manufactures. Pop. (1881) 18,442;
(1891)22,357.
Ivy (JleUcia), a genus of plants of the natural
order Araliaceu', consisting of shrubs and tiees,
mostly natives of tropical countries. The llowi'rs
have live or ten petals, and live or ten cimverging
or consolidated styles. The fruit is u berry with
five or ten cells. — The Common I\y [H. helix) is a
well-known native of Britain, and of most parts of
Europe, although it is more rare in the northern
countries. Its long, creeping, branched stem,
climbing on trees and walls to a great height, and
closely adherii\g e\en to very hard substances by
means of aerial rootlets, wliich it throws out in
great abundance along its whole length, acquires
in very aged plants almost the thickness of a small
tree. Its 5-lobed, shining, stalked, evergreen
leaves, clothing bare walls with green luxuriance,
serve to throw oil' rain, and thus render damp walls
dry, contrary to a common prejudice, that ivy
tends to produce dampness in walls. In order to
accinnplish this, however, it requires to be pruned
annually, for if allowed to run wild it admits rain
to the walls by its projecting liranches, and so
renders even dry walls damp by preventing
evaporation. It in-
jures living trees by
constriction when
permitted to grow
upon them. The
flowering branches of
ivy have ovate, entire
leaves, very different
from the others, and
do not climb, but pro-
ject from the climb-
ing branches. h-
small greenish llowei -
are produced in thr
bet'inning of winter,
and the small lilack
berries swell during
\\inter and ripen in
the following April.
The berries are
eagerly eaten Ijy many
birds, although they
have a pungent
taste, and contain a
peculiar bitter prin-
ciple called /ici/tritie,
•ind an acid called hcdcric acid : which are also
found in a gunnny exudation obtaincil by incisions
from the stem, and occasionally used in medicine
as a depilatory and a stimulant, and in varnish-
making. An ointment made from the leaves is
used for curing burns ; the application of Ijruised
leaves is serviceable for removing corns. In Egypt
the ivy was sacred to Gsiris, in Greece to Bacchus
(Dionysos), wliose thyrsus was rejirosented as sur-
rounded with ivy ; tlie liomans mingled it in the
laurel crowns of their poets.
There are numerous varieties of common \\y
often planted for ornamental purposes, of which
that generally known in Ihitain as Iri.sli Ii\i/, and
on the {.'ontinent as Kii(//i.\/i Iri/, is particularly
esteemed for its large leaves and luxuriant growtli.
They are distinguished from each other by tlie
form of their leaves, and al.so by their colour, there
being many shades of green anu bron/e, and not a
few with gold and silver blotched leaves. Ivy
grows readily from cuttings. — //. iimbdlifera, a
native of And)oyna, is said to produce a finely
aromatic wood ; ami //. tcrchiiitliaccii, a Ccyloncse
.sjiecies, yields a resinous substance which smells
like turpentine.
Ixi'oil, a king of the Lapitha', the father of
PIrilhous. I'nable to find purification on earth
for the treacherous murder of his fatherin-l.aw, he
was taken up into heaven and ])urilied by Zeus.
But he attempted to seduce Hera, and for imnish-
ment he was chained to a fiery wheel, which rolled
for ever in the sky.
Izard, the Pyrenean Ibex. See Go.\T.
»- ■' K
Ivy, showing tlie aerial
Kootlets.
J
is the latest aiUUtion to our
alphabet, and hiis been inserted,
as the tenth letter, after i, from
which it was devehjped, just as
0 and «• follow », out of which
they arose. In the 14th century
it became the fashion, in Pro-
vencal and Catalan MSS., to
lenj;then the letter / into the
form j, with a tail turned to the left, as a sort of
ornamental initial at the beginninj; of words. The
consonantal sound usually occurrin;,' at the begin-
ning, and the vowel-sound in the middle or at the
end of words, the initial forni^ after a while became
conveniently but undesignedly specialised to denote
the consonantal sound, the medial form i being
retained for the vowel-sound. In the loth century
this usage, which never reached Italy, spread to
France and England, but it was not before the
middle of the 17th century that it became universal
in English books, as is shown by the fact that in
King James's IJible of 1611 the words Jesus and
judr/c are printed Icsus and iiiih/e.
The dot over the j is a curious survival. It is
unnecessary as a diacritical mark, which it origin-
ally was (see I), as there is no danger, in its present
form, of confusion with any other letters. The dot
remains as a witness not only that / was developed
out of /, but also of the fact that the evolution of j
was later than the practice of dotting the /.
In English the symbol ./ is used to denote the
sound of ihh, as in joitnial : in French of zh, as in
jour : in Spanish it represents the hard r/i, heard in
the Scotch lor/i, as in Jerez : in German it retains
the original // sound of the Latin consonantal /, as
in Jahr. Thus, while German geographei's write
Jenissei and Jahiit, English maps have Yenissei and
Yaknt.
The consonantal sound of the English j is fre-
f|Uently e.fpressed by </, as in fjem or gin, or by
(/e, jis in knovledrje. The sound did not e.xist in
Early English, but wa-; introduced from France
after the Norman Conquest. Hence in Middle
Engll-th, before the sym1)ol was invented, we find
the sound rei)resented by other devices. Thus, we
have Giv:i^ for Jews, rjestc iov jest, cluiv; fot Jaw, and
cliam for jam. Chaucer has gailer where the
Bible has jailor. The use of j is still extending,
and we ftnt\ jibe, jail, and ./ij^rey occa.sionally used,
instead of tlie more correct forms gibe, gaol, and
Geiijfreii.
We have unfortunately introduced our acquired
French sound of / into Latin wonls which had the
consonantal i, which the Romans ijrononnced an ij ;
and we Ha,yjain,jugum, j uveitis, Jupiter, juneus,
jacio, hiiju.i, and nuijor, where the Komans said
i/aiii, yuguui, ijavenis, Yupiter, yuiniis, ijakiu,
hugus, and iiuujor. In some inscriptions of the
early imperial age the consonantal sound of / is
denoted either by doubling the letter or writing it
as a cajiital ; ' liuiius,' or ' hulus,' representing the
older .spelling huius. In inscriptions of the later
empire we find Giovc for Jure, a usage adopted in
nioilern Itali.iii, in which we have Ge-iit, (liovanni,
Giuscnpe, and uiuggiore, from Jesus, Johannes,
Josephus, and iiutjor, the UHe of the new letter
/ being evaded in the same manner as in Middle
English.
Jnbillpiir (Jubbulpore), chief town of Jahali)ur
district, Central Provinces, India, 228 miles by rail
S\V. of Allahabad. Standing at the junction of the
Eiust Indian and Great Indian Peninsula systems,
Jabaljiur is one of the must important railway
stations in India. It is the second connnercial
towD in the Central Provinces, has a trade worth
about £2,000,000 annually, and manufactures cotton,
tents, and carpets. Pop. (1S77) 55,188; (1891)
84,481. — The district of Jabalpur has an area of
3948 S(i. m., and a population of 748,146. — The
divisiun, one of the four into which the Central
Provinces are broken up, has an area of 18,321
sq. m., and a pop. of 2,375,642, of whom three-
fourths are Hindus.
Jabiril ( Mj/cferia ), a genus of birds of the Stork
family (Ciconiida) ; the chief distinction from the
storks beinij that the bill is a little curved upwards.
There are four species, which are found in Africa,
India, Australia, and South America. The best
known is the American Jabiru [31. amcrirand),
which is found from ^lexico southwards to the
Argentine Republic. It is a large bird, measuiing
from 4 to 5 feet in height, with white plumage,
e.\cept on the head and neck, and a massive bill.
The Jabirus of India and Australia are sometimes
elevated to the rank of separate genera.
Jaborandi> Under this name a number of
drugs, used for their sialagogue and diaiihoretic
actions, are known in Brazil. In Europe, however,
onl}' the leaflets of Filorarpiis pinnntifuliiis are
recognised as jaborandi. It is a shrub about 4 or 5
feet high, slightly branched, the branches erect,
leaves alternate, long-stalked, imparipiunate, and
1 to IJ feet long ; leaflets opposite, in two up to live
pairs, with a terminal leaflet. Each leaflet is about
4 inclies long, oval-oblong, very obtuse or emargin-
ate at ape.x, entire, coriaceous, and containing a
number of glands w hich show as dots against the
light. Flowers in racemes. This species is a native
of Brazil. Jaborandi is officinal in the British
Pharnuxcopieia, and is there defined as the dried
leaflets of Pilucarjnis pcnnati/ulius. They contain
an alkaloid, pilocari)ine, C,jH„;X.jOm, to which the
eflects of the plant are chiefly ilue ; another alka-
loid, jaborine ; and two decomiiosition products of
these, naUK'd respectively [lilocarpidine and jahori-
dine. There are also present a volatile oil and a
bitter .substance. .laborandi wius first bnmght to
the notice of medical men in Europe by I)r Con-
tinho of Brazil in 1874, and since then its action luis
been very fully investigated by numerous physiolo-
gists. When pilocarpine, or i)reparations taken
from it, are taken internally there enwie very
profuse salivation and persi)iration, with depres-
sion of the circulation and disturbance of vision.
Large do^es cause in addition nausea, vondting,
and great muscular relaxation. The salivation
and ]iersi>iration may be com|detel}' arrested or
prevente<l by the administration of atropine.
Ijocally apjilicd to the eye it causes contraction
of the pupil, and interferes with iK'commodation
an<l vision. It is used in iritis, in Bright's ilisease,
260
JACAMARS
JACKAL
ami in various conditions whore its sialagogue or
diaplioretie oll'ects are desirable.
Jacaiuars, a small family of brilliautly-col-
oured Idrds (iJalbulida- ), inhabiting dense forests
in tnipioal America east of the .Vndes. They are
apparently dull and stujiid, like their near relatives
the PuH'-birds (Buceonida'). The bill is long and
usually straight, the feet are short and feeble, the
front toes are united for some distance, the plumage
exhibits a rich metallic splendour. They feed on
insects. The white eggs (two) are laid in holes
excavated in sandy banks. Technically this family,
including about a score of species, is ranked among
the Picaria*, subdivision Picoidea?, beside the putt-
birds, and at a gieater distance toucans and wood-
peckers. The type is Galbiila ffitlbuta, resplendent
in golden green ; Jacamcrops (jrandis is the largest
species ; tlie members of the genus Urogalba shine
like black steel.
Jacana (ran-ida:), a family of birds allied to
the Kails (Kallida>), but differing from them and
from all other birds in possessing extremely long,
slender, straight toes with long, sharp, pointed
claws. They have pointed .spurs on their wings, and
many have a shield on the forehead like coots and
moor hens. They are found in all the tropics, and
are birds of elegant plumage, frequenting swamps,
lagoons, and marshes, where they walk on the
broad floating leaves of aciuatic plants with the
greatest ease. The genus Parra (ten species) is
widely distrib-
uted in the warm
parts of South
America, Africa,
Asia, and also
the Australian
region. The
Common Jacana
( Pa rra jacana ), a
South American
species abundant
in Guiana and
Brazil, is about
10 inches long, of
a black colour,
with neck and
shoulders of a
veddish-brown
tint, and with
green wing-fea-
tbers. Tlie other
genus ( riydroph-
asianus) of the
family consists of
only one species,
the Pheasant-tailed Jacana, whicli is conhned to
the oriental region. It is the largest of all the
Jacanas, and is found in India and (Jeylon, where
it inhabits niarshe.s and reedy banks, feeding ehielly
on vegetable matter, but also on sliells and water
insects. The llesh forms excellent eating.
JacaraiKia Wooil, a very hard, heavy, brown
wood, also called Ru.si-wuod — Ihougli not the true
Kosewood of commerce — from its faint, agreeable
smell of roses. It is brought from South America,
and is produced liy several trees of the genus Jacar-
anda, of the natural order IJignoniacea'. Several
species of this genus are called Caroba in Brazil,
and are there accounted anti-syphilitic. — Several
species of the nearly-allied genus Tecoma also have
an extremely hard wood, as T. pentap/iyl/a, a nati\e
of the Caribbean Islands. The Brazilian Indians
make their bows of the wood of T. toxiphora or Fao
d'uno. ,
Ja<'arc. See Allig.vtok.
Jacinth, or Hyacinth (Ital. giacinto, Lat.
hyaciiUUm), a transparent, bright-coloured variety
Common Jacana ( Parra jacana
of Zircon (ij. v.), of various shades of red, passing
into orange and poppy-red. A perfect stone has a,
peculiar golden lu.-tre mixed with its rich orange,
and would formerly have fetched a high price ; but
the jacinth is no lon^^er in fashion. By the ancients
it wa-s highly prized, ami many line iutagli were
executed in it, notwithstanding its hardness, which
exceeds that of chalcedony and its varieties. An-
tique intagli in jacinth, how(!ver, almost invariably
e.xin1)it a sonu^\\hat rubbed or worn surface, which
is believed to be due to the somewhat porous tex-
ture of the gem. Jacinth occurs in numy basalts,
tuffs, and some granitoid plutonic rocks, as, for
example, near Expailly in Auvergue, and at Unkel
on the Rhine, in Bohemia, Saxony, the Tyrol, Nor-
way, the I'rals, Greenland, &c. It is likewise met
with in the form of granules and rounded cry.stals
in the beds of certain streams, and in alluvial
deposits, as near Expailly, in the Iserwiese, and in
certain streams in Ceylon. The jacinth or hyacinth
of jewellers is not a zircon at all, but some'variety
of garnet — generally Cinnamon-stoue (q.v. ); and
sometimes ferruginous quartz, which, from its
abundance in gypsum at Compostella, in Spain, is
called Hyacinth of Compostella. — Jaiffoon is the
name given by the Singhalese to another variety of
zircon. It is usually gray or colourless, but often
shows more or less ill-defined tinges of green, blue,
red, and yellow. The surfaces o^ the crystals have
a lustre almost rivalling that of the diamond. It
was at one time supposed to be an inferior variety
of the diamond, and is still occasionally sold as
such.
Jack has been from the beginning generally
used in England as the equivalent of John, the
most common of Christian names, but it is not a
little curious that it is really the French Jacijiics
(till the 17th century pronounced as a di.ssyllable),
and so through the Latin Jacobus and Greek
Jakobos from the Hebrew Ya'aijob, .lacob. Others,
however, explain it as a shortened form of Jankin,
an old diminutive of Juhan, Jchan, or John. ; from
the northern forms of which again. Jolinlin. or
Jonkin, we have Jockey and Jock. The contempt
that follows on excessive familiarity attaches
itself in most European lang\iages to the name
John and its equivalents ; thus we lind the
Italian Giovanni, whence Zan/ii, our Zany: the
Spanish Juan, as hobo Juan, 'a foolish John ; ' the
French Jean, with its signilication in com|iound
terms of fool, cuckold, and the like ; and our own
vulgarisms, ' every man Jack ' for all men without
distinction, a './«c^'-of-all-trades,' and ' a, Johnny'
for a man of no particular account. Again, such
compounds as ' Jack-ioo],' 'jack-aas,' a 'y(('7,-])ud-
ding,' 'jVfc/.-an-apes ' (with intrusion of ti ior Jack-
o'-apes) point in the same dircoticui. From the
sense of familiarity it came to be u.sed of various
implements whicli served instead of a boy or per-
sonal attendant, as in ' boot-_;V/r/. ' and the kitclien
' jack ' which turns the spit. Somewhat similar are
such usages as drinking jVfc/i-, the 'jack' for the
small bowl aimed at in a game of bow Is, and for
the knaves in a pack of cards, as widl as for a small
]>ike as opposed to the full-grown lish. Ag'ain, in
complete harmony with the sense are sucli com-
pounds as ' Jac/,- a- Ian tern ' and 'yaci-a-lent '
(Shakespeare, Merry Wires, III. iii. 27). Jack
the Giant-killer and Jack and the Bean-stalk again
show the same .sense of familiarity without the
accompanying contempt.
Jack, or Jaca (Artocari>n.i inter/ri/olia), a tree
of the same genus with the Bread-fruit (<|.v.), a
native of the East Indies. It is a larger tree than
the bread-fruit, and has larger fruit.
Jackal (Persian shayhid, Fr. chacal), the
name of ;i number of species of the genus Canis
JACKAL
JACKSON
261
<see Dog), whicliiire in many respects intermediate
between the wolves and foxes. Cam's aiiicii.f, being
tlie most typical and widespread form, sometimes
goes under tlie name of the Common Jackal. It
Common Jackal ( Cnnix aureus).
measures about 3 feet in len.cth, one-third of whicli
is occupied by the tail, \\hilst the height is about
18 inches. The animal's build is strong, the muzzle
is more acute than that of the wolf, blunter than
that of the fox, and the bushy tail hangs down as
far as the heel. Tlie ears are short, less than one-
fourth the length of the head, and far apart ; tlie
pupil of the eye is round. The colour is difiicult to
<lehne : its ground-tint is a dirty fawn or grayish-
yellow, becoming blacker on the back and sides ;
the under surface is white, reddish-yellow, or gray,
and there are not unfrequently ill-detined dark
bands on the shoulders and hind-quart«rs. The
home of this species is the southern part of Asia,
from India (including Ceylon) over Persia, Arabia,
Palestine, and Asia Minor. Hence it has spread,
perhaps following the track of armies, to North
Africa, the Morea, and Dalmatia. In its habits as
well as in its structure it exhibits characters inter-
mediate between the wolves and foxes ; like the
former it hunts in packs, like the latter it is
nocturnal. When on the chase these animals howl
most dismally, and make the night hideous in
re^ons where they abound. The singularly appro-
priate Arabic name Dccb { ' howler ' ) has reference
to this habit. So far from avoiding the proximity
of man, they penetrate into ^■illages in search of
offal and carrion, and they will also enter yards,
houses, or tents in the most shameless manner, and
carrj' off whatever takes their fancj-, sometimes
articles absolutely uneatable. They render a cer-
tain amount of service as scavengers and by killing
vermin, such ,xs mice, but this is by no means an
equivalent for the damage they cause by their
depredations in sheepfolds and poultry-yards, a-s
well as orchards and vineyards. In many districts
thev constitute a veritable scourge, and can only be
held in check by their congeners the dogs. They
follow the larger carnivores to feed upon their
leavings, a habit which has given them the reputa-
tion of being ' the lion's jiroviders. ' Thev are
extremely cunning, and in oriental fable and \im-
verb take the place of our reynanl in this respect.
The word ' fox ' in the f )ld Testament probably
refers in many cases to them. According to Sir
Emerson Tennent, they habitually hide tlieir booty,
anil if observed will seize some indilfeient article
anil make off with it, as though that were the
object of their solicitude, returning to their real
spoil at the first convenient ojqiortunity. The
skull of certain jackals has a homy outgrowth some
half-inch in length, eagerly sought for as a charm.
Jackals are readily tamed, and the likelihood that
they have given rise to some of the domestic dogs
has already been .alluded to (see Doc). The
Striped Jackal (Canis lateralis, C. adastits) is a
connecting link between the wolf and jackal. The
extreme length is a little over a yard, and the
height rather less than half this; the pupil of the
eye is somewhat cllijitical and oblii|Ue, the ears
widely separated. The s]iecies is rather rare, but
has a wide distrilmtion in Africa south of the
Sahara. The Jackal-wolf (Cam's antlnis) is even
more wolf-like than the last, and has been cla.'^sed
l>y different authors among the wolves or jackals.
It is much snuiUer than the wolf, and inhaliits
Northern Africa. The Black-backed Jackal (Caiiis
mesomclas) is somewhat more fox-like than the
others, especially in the form of the head. The
general build is low. The ears are large and close
together, recalling those of the Fennec (see Fox).
The area of distril)ution of this species extends from
Middle Nubia down the east side of the continent
to the Cape, and perhaps across to the west coast
also.
Jack-a-laiiterii. See Ignis Fatuus.
Jackass, L.vughixg. See Laughing Jackass.
Jack-boots. See Boots and Shoes.
Jackdaw ( Comis moncdula), a species of crow,
smaller than the rook and carrion crow, its utmost
length being only about fourteen inches. It is
black, with purplish wings and tail, and a dark-
giay neck. It is a common resident in the British
Islands, and is found nearly all over Europe, in
many parts of which, however, it appears to be
migratory ; also in Asia and the north of Africa.
It is not found in America. Its food consists of
insects, snails, and wiunis. It builds its nest in
holes of cliffs, ruins, and old trees. It frequents
towns and villages, often making its nest in a
chimney, by dropping down stick after stick till
some of them become fixed in their oblique descent ;
and on these others are piled, affording a firm base
for a nest of wool or other soft substance. The
jackdaw lays from four to seven (usually five)
iiluish-white eggs, which are covered with small
dark-brown spots. The jackdaw is a social bird.
It is easily domesticated, and becomes very pert
and familiar. It has considerable powers of
mimicry, and may be taught to imitate very
exactly the human voice.
Jackson, (l) a flourishing city of Michigan,
capital of Jackson county, is on both sides of Grand
River, which is here crossed by seventeen bridges
( five of iron ), 76 miles '\V. of Detroit, and 37 miles
S. of Lansing, at the intersection of several rail-
ways. It has a number of flour, paper, and plan-
ing mills, and of foundries and machine-shops ; the
Michigan Central locomotive-works ; breweries ;
and manufactures of furniture, carriages, wagons,
boilers and machinerv, farrjiing implements,
corsets, soap, &c., besides boots and shoes at
the state-prison here. There is a flourishing
general trade. 'Within the city limits, and
close by, there are several mines of bituminous
coal. Jackson was settled in IS30, and became a
citv in 'S.-)7. Pop. (ISGO) 4799; (1870) 11,447;
(IS90) 20,798.— (2) Caidtal of the state of Missis-
sippi, on Pearl Kiver, 4.') miles E. of N'icksburg by
rail, with regular streets, and houses standing for
the most part among ganlens. Here, besides the
state-lionse, with a valuable library, are the usual
state charitable institutions, and the penitentiary.
There is a consideral>le trade in cotton. Pop.
.■J920. — (3) Capital of .Madison county, Tennosee,
on the South Fork of the Forked Deer River, 107
miles by rail S. by E. of Cairo, Illinois. It is the
.seat of ^he South-western Baptist University
(1874), is of some importance as a cotton market,
and ha-s planing and other mills and railway shops.
Pop. (1890) 10,(^39.
262
JACKSON
Jackson. ANnUKW, General, seventh piesiilent
of tlie I'niteil States, was horn at Waxhaw on the
simthern honler of Nortli Caro- cupyrigiit isao in o.s.
liiia, March 15, 1707. His father, i>y j. b. Linpincott
an iniini,i;rant from the north of Compuoy.
Irelaiul, died a few days before Andrew's hirth, and
his mother and brother succumbed to the hardshijis
of the revolutionary war. After being admitted
to the bar at Salisbury. North Carolina, Andrew
removed in 17S8 to Ka.sliville, then a frontier settle-
ment, and was a|)iioinled public jirosecutor. In
1791 he married Mrs Kaohel Robards, daughter of
Colonel John Donelson, supposing that she had
been divorced from her former husband. But the
divorce not being legally granted until 1793, Jack-
son had the marriage ceremony repeated. These
circumstances furnished material for malignant
attacks, and the irritable Jackson fought several
duels, in one of which, after he had a rib broken,
he killed his antagonist. In the new state of
Tennessee Jackson was a leading man ; after help-
ing to frame its constitution, he became its repre-
sentative in congress in 1796, its United States
senator in 1797, and a judge of its supreme court in
1798. Tliis po.sition he held until 1804, when he
resigned. He gave some sup]iort to Aaron Burr's
half-revealed schemes of conrjuest in the south-west,
and when Burr was tried at Richmond in 1807 was
still his steadfast partisan.
When war was declared against Great Britain in
1812, Jackson, being major-general of the state
militia, oll'ered his services .and led "2500 men to
Natchez, but General Armstrong, tlie new secretary
of war, ordered him to disliand them. Jackson,
however, marched them in a body back to Nash-
ville, where soon afterwards, in an affray with
Colonel T. H. Benton, he was severely wounded.
With his fractured arm still in a sling, the general
took the tield in September 1813 against the Creek
Indians in Alabama. This campaign, in which his
military genius was lirst ett'ectively displayed, was
closed by a decisive victory at the Horseshoe Bend
of the Tallapoosa River, Marcli 27, 1814. Hence-
forth he was familiarly called 'Old Hickory.' On
May 31 he was made major-general in the regular
army, and appointed to command the department
of the South. Pensacola in Spanish Florida being
then freelv used by the British as a base of opera-
tions, Jackson took the resjionsibility of invading
Spanish soil, stormed Pensacola, and when the
British fleet withdrew marched to New Orleans,
which was threatened by Sir E. Pakenham with
12,000 veterans. Jackson made his chief defence 4
miles below the city, where, along a ditch e.\tendini^
from a swamp to the Mississippi, he constructed
earthworks. On January 8, 1815, under cover of a
fog, Pakenham tried to carry these works by direct
assault, but within half an hour the British were
repulsed witli a loss of 2600 men, including their
commander, while the American lo.ss was but 8
killed and 13 wounded. This battle was remark-
able not only for the unprecedented disparity of
loss, but for the fact that it was fought after the
treaty of i)eace had been signed at Ghent, Deeem.
bcr 24, 1814.
In 1818 Jackson ai'ain invaded Florida, severely
ch.istised the Seniinoles, and executed .Vrbuthnot
and Ambrister, convicted by court-martial, on veiy
slight evidence, of inciting the Indians to war.
After the ]iurch,a.se of Florida Jackson was its
lirst governor, but soon resigned, and in 1823 he
wa-s again elected to the I'nited States .senate.
In the next year as a candidate for the presidency
he had the higliest popular vote, but luit a
majority. The choice was, therefore, made by
the House of Re]iresent,atives from the three
highest candiilates, and J. Q. Adams was selected ;
but «hen he appointed Henry Clay secretary of
state, Jackson and his friends alleged that a
bargain had been niaile, transferrin'' Clav's votes
to Adams. In 1828 Jack.son w.is electeii, having
178 electoral votes out of a total of 2I!1. The
first president from beyond the Allcghanies, lie
was a lyi)ical product of the new democratic
era — fearles.s, honest, but prompt to decide every-
thing for personal iea.sons. A striking feature
of his policy was the sweeping removal of minor
otticials and filling tlieir jdaces with his partisans.
This system was aiitly described bv Senator ^\■. I-
Marcy in 1831 : • To the victor belong the si)oils.'
Jackson's first cabinet was broken un in con.se-
quence of his characteristic Imt futile etlbrt to
compel social recognition of Secretary Eaton's wife
by the families of the other secretaries. The second
cabinet was in the main composed of abler men.
Martin van Buren, who had been .secretary of state,
was nominated minister to England, but after he
had gone abroad his confirmation was defeated in
the senate by the casting vote of Vice-president
Calhoun. This strenuous advocate of state sove-
reignty was now openly opposed to Jackson, a-s
was shown at a banquet in 1830, when the president
gave his famous toa-st — ' The Federal Union — it
must be preserved,' and the vice-president re-
sponded with another — ' Liberty — dearer than the
Union.' Congress readjusted the tariff in 1S.'J2,
retaining the protective sy.steni which had pre-
vailed .since the peace of 1815, and against which
South Carolina had inotested as unconstitutional
and oppressive. On November 24, 1832, its state
convention adopted an ordinance of nullification.
President Jackson's proclamation, ]uepared by
Edward Livingston, who had succeeded A an Buren
as secretary of state, ably argued the whole ques-
tion, and declared a firm determination to execute
the laws and jne.serve the Union. Under the
leadership of Clay, congress adopted a compromise
tariff' in ^larch 1833, and South Carolina repealed
its ordinance.
The president's veto power was much more freely
used by Jackson than by his pre<lecessois. His
most memorable ^eto was that of a bill to renew
the charter of the United States Bank, which
became the chief Issue in the ]iresidential campaign
of 1832. Jackson, having obtained 219 electoral
votes i>ut of 28(), resolved to destroy the bank by
removing the government deposits. Two sticces-
si\e secretaries of the trea-sury refused to do so, hut
a third who was not confirmed by the senate issued
the order. The senate censured this act as usurpa
tion, but Jackson had a closing triumph when the
censure was cx])unged on January Iti, 1837. In liLs
administration the nation.-il debt was fully \nu<\ in
1835, and the surplus revenue which accumulated
was ordered to be distributed to the several states.
In foreign atl'aiis Jackson won cicilit by enforcing
the claims for the spoliations committed by French
vessels during the wars of Napoleon. In 1831
France h\' treaty agreed to pay §5,000,tK)0, but
afterwards delayed payment. The president then
recommen<led to congress to seize I'rench vessels to
make u]) the amount, and France after a protest
paid the claim. Jackson's second term having
expired on March 4, 1837, he retired to private
life at the Hermitage, near Nashville, whence he
still watched with keen interest the great ixditical
niovements of the time. He died at the Hermit-
age, June 8, 1845.
The most cumi)lfte biograi)hy is by James Parton (3
vols, Xew "i'ork, 1800). For Jackson's adiiiini.stration,
T. H. Kenton's Tliirt;/ Years' View, and Von Hoist's and
other histories of the United States should be examined.
See also the Life by W. G. Sumner, in the 'American
Statesmen' (1.S.82). ind that by Dyer (1891).
JiK'ksoil. TllOM.vs JoN.VTH.w, an American
general, better known as ' Stonewall Jackson,' was
JACKSON
JACOBI
■IGli
iKirn iit Clai ksljiiif;, AVest 'V'irginia, '21st Januarj-
1824, grailuateil at West Point iu 184(i, eiitereil the
artillery, ami gairieil two l)revets in the war with
Mexico. He retired from the army in 1851, and
l)ecame professor in the Virginia Military Institute,
where he was more noted for his conscientiousness
and religious earnestness than for his success as a
teacher. He took command of the Confederate
troops at Harper's Ferry on the secession of Vir-
ginia, and commanded a brigade at Bull Run,
where his firm stand gained him his iioin dc guerre
of 'Stonewall." Promoted to major-general, in the
spring of 1S62, in tlie campaign of the Shenandoah
valley, he out-generalled McDowell, Banks, and
Kremont. and eventually drove hack upon the
Lower Shenandoah these three Federal aiinies, two
of them of superior strength to his own. Then,
hastening by forceil marches to Richmond, he
turned the scale at (iaines's Mills (•27th June), and,
the Confederate cajiital relieved, returned to defeat
Banks at Cedar Run in August. He then seized
Pope's depOt at Mana.ssas, and his corps bore the
brunt of the lighting in the victorious seccmd battle
there on .SOtli August. On 15th September he
captured Harper's Ferry with 1.3,000 prisoners and
70 cannon, and the next day, after a trying uiglit
inarch, arrived at Sharpsburg, where his presence,
in the battle of Antietam, saved Lee from utter
ilisaster. Advanced to lieutenant-general, he com-
manded the right wing at Fredericksburg (1.3th
December), and at Chancellorsville on 1st May
1863 drove Hooker back within the Wilderness.
All next day .Jackson was on the march, moving
round the liauk of the National army ; at niglitfall
he fell upon its right and drove it back on Chan-
cellorsville. Returning from a reconnaissance,
liLs ])arty was lired on l)y some of his own coni-
manil, and Jackson received three wounds. His
left arm was amputateil ; but pneumonia set in on
the 7tli, and on the 10th Jlay hedied. Jackson was
the idol of his troops : and his power over his men
was justilied as much by his .soundness of judgment
as by his personal fearlessness. No single death
was so severe a blow to either side. See Lives by
Dabnev (1866), Cooke (1866), his wife (1892),
Parton (1893), and G. F. Henderson (1898).
Jackson, Willi.vm (1730-1803), musician, was
born at Exeter, where, after some years in London,
he in 1777 became organLst of the cathedral. He
published many songs and canzonets, besides
sonatas, dramatic pieces, &c., some of his com-
positions having great vogue in their daj-.
Jacksonnlle, ( I ) capital of Duval county,
Florida, and ihe ]irincipal business town in the
state, is on the St John's River, '23 ujiles from its
mouth. The meetingjilace of live railways, it is
It).') miles by rail E. of the state capital, Tall!ihius.see.
Tlie streets are w idc and well shaded ; there are
numerous hotels, chielly for tlie accommodation of
invalids and winter visitors. Tlie city has a large
coiust trade, besiiles an active river trade. The
chief exports are lumber, cotton, moss, oranges
and marmalade, and early vegetalih-s. Pop.
(1880)7650; (1890) I7,'201— inore than doubled.—
(2) Capital of Moi;,'an county, Illinois, stamls in a
fertile prairie region, at the junction of several
railways, .34 miles \V. by S. of Springlield. It is a
ph'iusaiit town, and noted for its schools. Here are
the Illinois College (Congregational ; founded 1830),
the Illinois Female College ( .Methoilist ; founded
1847), a conservatory of music, and other educa-
tional institutions ; and here, too, are state a.sylums
for tlie blind, the deaf and dumb, and the insane,
and an asylum Uir the idiotic and feeble-minded.
There are nianiU'actures of woollens, iiaiier, machin-
ery, boilers, lunilier, fiiriiilure, coni^ectionery, Sec.
Pop. (1880) 10,9'27; (1890) 1'2,935.
Ja<'ol» ( Heb. Yu'aquh), one of the three chief
Hebrew patriarchs, second son of Lsaac and Re-
bekah, whose history and character are graphically
deserilied in the Book of tlenesis. He and his
family followed Joseph to Egypt, where he lived for
seventeen years; and, dying there, he was carried
to Hebron for burial. Many see in the history of
Jacob (on whom Israel, the name of the nation,
was also conferred) an ethnological record rather
than a personal one. Mention is frequently
made of Jacob both in the Old and New Testa-
ments, and there are also many legends about him
in Raldiinical and Patristic, as well as in the
Mohammedan literature. The names James,
Jacques, Giacomo are all, as well as Jacob and
Yakooh, various modern derivatives from the
Hebrew patriarch's name. See Jews.
Jacob. Bibliophile. See L.\croix, P.-vul.
Jacobahad, a town of L'pper Sind, 26 miles
NW. of Shikarpur by rail, near the Beluchi
frontier, has cantonments, a residency, and accom-
modation fen- the trade caravans from central Asia.
Here is the memorial tomb of General John Jacob,
commandant of the Sind Horse, who founded the
place in 1847, and died here in 1858. Pop. 11,35'2,
including cantonments.
Jacobi, Friedrich Heinrich, a German philo-
sopher, born at Diisseldorf, 23th January 1743.
The son of a merchant, he was trained at Frank-
fort and Geneva for a mercantile career. But,
abandoning business, he was in 1770 appointed
councillor of finance for the joint duchies of
JUlicli and Berg, and thenceforward devoted him-
self princi])ally to literary and philosophical pur-
suits. He maintained an active correspondence
with Goethe, Hainann, Bouterwek, and was ac-
quainted M'ith Wieland, Herder, Lessing, Hem-
sterhuis, anil others. In 1804 he was summoned to
Munich in connection with the newly-founded
Academy of Sciences, of which he became presi-
dent in' 1807. He died at Munich, 10th March
1819. Jacobi was not a systematic thinker: he
elaborated no system of philosophy. He had lie-
come convinced of the truth of one or two leading
ideas ; and from the standpoint they gave him he
examined the chief modem philosophies that were
known in his day. His distinguishing doctrines
are these : philosophy as elaborated by the under-
standing cannot transcend the sphere of sense-
given materials, and consequently can never get
conviction of the existence of such things as God,
immortality, iVc. : but man has yet another faculty
whereby he has immediate conviction of the real
existence of things— viz. reason ; liy this faculty we
have immediate conviction or belief not only of the
reality of objects perceived by the senses, but also
of the reality of the highest verities that lie beyond
the apprehension of .sense. Taking these views for
his guidance he successively examined Spinozism,
in Veber die Leitrc des Sjiiuuza, in Briefeu an
Meiidclsso/in (1785) ; Hume's teachings and Kant's,
in Darid II intie iiher den (Uiiuben, oder Iilealisuins
nnd Rccdismus ( 1787) ; and Schelling's philosopliy,
in Von den rjotttielieu TJiiif/en und Hirer (jjf'enbaruiiij
(1811). He also exjiounded his teaching in philo-
sophical romances — Woldeiiair (1779) and Alhrill's
Bricfsammlunii ( 1781 ) — in an Ojien Letter to Fie/ite
(1799), and other occiisional writings. His works
appeared at Leipzig in 6 vols, in 181'2-'24. See
monographs on him by Kuhn ( 1834) and Zirngiebl
(1S67).
Jacobi, K,\RL GrST.W J.\KOn, German niathe-
maliciaii, was born at Potsdam, lOtli December
1804. He studied at the university of Berlin, ami
in 1827 was appointed extraordinary, and two ye.iis
later ordinary profe.s.sor of Mathematics at Kiinigs
berg. Jacobi excelled in analytical mathemalii's;
264
JACOBINS
JACOBITES
his name is best known from his discos-eiy of ellijitic
functions. Besides this lie did most vahiahle wmk
iu connection with ditl'erential equations and the
tlieorv of nunihei'S : his name is jieqietuated in tlie
theory of ilcterminants. In 1829 he publislied liis
most celebrated work, Fundamentu nom Theorim
Finietiunum E/hpticnrmn, for which he received
the medal of the Academy of Sciences of Paris.
Most of his other investigations were i)nblished
in Cirllc's Journal fiir Mathciimtih. Jacobi was
acriuainted with Gauss, Legendre, Abel, and other
great mathematicians of liis own day. In lS-t'2
he retired from his chair, owin" to ill-healtli,
and settled at Berlin. He died in that city
on 18th February 1851. His Gcsnmmelte Wcrkc
(7 vols. 1 were published by the Berlin Academy
in 1881-91.
Jneobins, the membere of a political club
which exercised a very great influence during the
French Revolution. It was originally called the
Club Breton, and was formed at Versailles, when
the States-general assembled there in 1789. It
then consisted exclusively of members of the
States-general, all more or less liberal or revolu-
tionary, but of very different shades of opinion.
On the removal of the court and National
Assembly to Paris this club Ijegan to acquire
importance. It now met in a hall of the former
Jacoliin convent in the Rue St Honore, Paris ; the
Dominicans of France having come to be known as
Jacobins from their chief Paris establishment being
that of St Jacques ( Jacobus ) in the Rue St Jacques.
Hence the revolutionaiy association received the
name of the Jacobin Club, which was first given to
it by its enemies ; the name which it adopted being
that of the Society of Friends of the Constitution.
It now also admitted members who were not
members of the National Assemlily, and held
regular and public sittings. It e.xercised a great
influence over the agitation, of which the chief
seat and focus was in the capital, and this influ-
ence was extended over the whole countrj' by
affiliated societies. Its power increased, until it
became greater than that of the National Assenildy.
It formed branch societies or clubs throughout
France, of which there were soon not less than
1200. When the National Assembly dissolved itself
in September 1791, the election of the Legislative
Assembly was mainly accomplisheil under the
influence of the Jacobin Club. Almost all the
great events which followed in rapid succes.sion
were determined by the voice of the club, whose
deliberations were regarded with more interest
than those of the Legislative Assembly. It reached
the zenith of its power when the National Conven-
tion met in Se_i)tember 1792. The agitation for the
death of the King, the storm which destroyed the
Girondist.s, the excitement of the lowest "cla-sses
against the bonrgcoisie m- middle classes, and the
reign of terror over all France were the work of
the Jacobins. But the overthrow of Robespierre
on the 9th Thermidor 1794 gave also the deathblow
to the Jacobin Club. The magic of its name was
destroyed ; and the Jacobins sought in vain to con-
tend against a reaction which increased ilaily both
in the Convention and among the jieople. A law
of October 10 forba<le the aifiliation of clubs, and
on November 9, 1794, the Jacobin Club was finally
closed. Its i)lace of meeting was soon after de-
molished.— The term Jacobins is often emjiloyed to
designate persons of extreme revolutionary senti-
ments. For the Anti-Jacobin, see CANNING.
'Jacobites (from the Lat. Jacobus, 'James'),
the name given after the Revolution of 1G88 to
the adiierents of the exiled Stuarts — James II.
(16.S.'i-1701 ) and his son and two grandsons, .lames
Francis Edward, the Chevalier de St George ( 1US8-
1766), Charles Edward (1720-88), and Henry Bene-
dict, Cardinal Ycnk ( 172.5-1807). Those adherents
were recruited from the Catholics, the Nonjurors,
the High Churchmen and Tories generally, dis-
contented and place-seeking Whigs, the Episco-
palians and Highlanders of Scotland, and the great
body of the Irish people. Oxford throughout was a
great Jacobite centre, a zealous npholder of ' pa-ss-
ive obedience' and the 'divine right of kings;'
whilst Camlmdge, on the other hand, was all for
a Protestant succession. First came the battle of
Killiecrankie (1689), where fell Graham of Claver-
house, and the Irish campaign (1690-91). with its
battle of the Boyne and the treaty of Limerick ;
next, in 1696, the Assassination Plot, the chief
actor in which, Sir Georjje Barclay, escaped, but
for which Sir John Fenwick, Sir William Parkyns,
and Sir John Friend were executed. Then in 1715
there was the twofold rebellion — one in the High-
lands under the Earl of Mar, another in the Border
country under Thomas Forster, M.P., and the Earl
of Derwentwater. Both practically ended, in spite
of the Chevalier's subsequent landing, on the self-
same day (13th November) with the indecisive
battle of Sheriftmuir and the surrender at Preston,
where nearly two-thirds of the 1500 prisoners were
Scots. Seven nobles were sentenced to death, but
onl}' Kenmure and Derwentwater suffered, Nairn,
Carnwath, and Widdrington being reprieved, and
Nithsdale and Wintoun escaping from prison, as
likewise did Forster. Not for the first or the la.st
time, the inferior prisoners fared worse than the
principals, twenty-six being executed, while over a
thousand submitted to the king's mercy, and jieti-
tioned to be transported to the American planta-
tions. Alberoni's expedition to the West Highlands
(1719), with its 'battle' of Glenshiel. was a petty
aft'air compared with the '15 or with the nine
months' rebellion of the "45, whose hero throughout,
as indeed of the whole Jacobite movement, was
' Bonny Prince Charlie. ' It opened with his land-
ing in" the Hebrides (23d July), and closcil with
liis crushing defeat at Culloden (16tli A|iril I74t)).
intermediate events being the victory of Preston-
pans, the capture of Carlisle, the raising of the
ilanchester regiment, the turning at Derby (6th
December), and the victory of Falkirk. This,
more than the '15 even, was mainly a Scottish,
mainly indeed a Highland, rebellion. The English
Jacobites as a body held aloof; and of the chief
\'ictims beheaded, one only, Charles R.ulclytt'e
( Derwentwater's brother), was an Englishnian.
The others were the Earl of Kilmarnock, Lord
Balnierino, Sir John Wedderburn, and Lord Lovat.
The Earls of Cromarlie and Traquair were let off',
and nearly a thousand pristmcrs had their death-
sentence commuted to transportation or forced
eidistment ; but fifty were hanged. In stout old
Balmerino's avowal, 'If the Great Mogul had set
ti]) his standard I should have fcdiowed it, for I
could not starve,' we see one type of the Jacobite ;
another, much ba.ser, was Lovat, who idayed for
a dukedom, whilst ho]iing to risk nothing, for he
sent his son off to light, ami himself stayeil at
home. The hist Jacobite hanged (on 7th June
1753) was I)r Archibald Cameron, brother to
Locheil ; and in 1772 the last of the Jacobite
heads fell down from its spike upcm Temple Bar.
This sketch by no means exhausts trie list of
notabl<! Jacobites, which comprised at nne time or
another Jeremy ( 'idlicr, Siichcverel, Chaiies Leslie,
IJolingbroke, Harlev, Ormond, Marshal Keith,
Rob Roy, William Law, Bishop Atterbury, Carte,
Hearne, Dr King, Patten and Murray of linmgh-
ton (the two Judases of the 15 and the '45),
Flora Macdonald, Sir Robert Strange, and Sanmcl
Johnson. (Jne remembers the Doctor's words
about his pension (1762): 'Now that I liave it,
JACOBITES
JADE
■2Gr,
I am the same man in even- respect that I have
ever been : I retain the same principles. It is tnie
tliat I cannot now cui-se [smiling] the House of
Hanover, nor wouUl it be decent for nie to drink
King James's healtli in the wine that King George
gives me money to pay for. But, sir, I tliink that
the pleasure of cursinj: the House of Hanover and
il rill King King James's health are amply over-
b.ilanceii by three Imndred pounds a year. ' There
spoke an honest Jacobite, and there too spoke the
spirit of the age. .Jacobitisni might linger on as
a tradition among the Nonjurors, the very last of
whose bishops died in 1805 ; but as an active prin-
ciple it had long since become extinct, the reason
of such extinction being less the disasters of its
adherents or the worthlessuess of the cause than
the growing prosperity of the nation at large.
Beati pofi.sii/entes had a double application, to sub-
jects no less than to sovereign.
The posthumou-s .Jacobitisni of the 19th century —
' Charlie o'er the Water nonsense,' as Borrow terms
it — was largely an outcome of Scott's splendid
romance, Wavcrlei/ (181-1); and many, perhaps
most of our best-known Jacobite lyrics were com-
posed by post- Jacobite poets — Bums, Scott. Hogg,
Lady Naime, AVilliara Glen, Allan Cunningham,
&c. This same 19th century, which has liearil
mass of requiem said for Prince Charles Edward
by a Protestant minister (18S8), and which has
seen the Stuart Exhibition (1888-89), has not been
without its two Stuart pretenders. They were
' John Sobieski Stolberg Stuart. Count d'A'lbanie '
(179.5-1872), and his brother ' Cliarles Edward.
Count d'Albanie' (1799-1880), who were certainly
the sons of Lieutenant Thomas Allen, Pi. X., and who
claimed that he was the son of the young Chevalier.
See the article Stewart (with works there cited) for
the exiled Stuarts ; other articles on persons and events
mentioned above, and on 'Williain III., Anne, George I..
II., in. ; the histories of Macaulay, Stanhope, HUl Bur-
ton, Lecky, and C. S. Terry ; the CuUoden Papers ( 1815 ) ;
Hogg's Jacobite Relics (1819); R. Chambers's JacrMu
Memoirs (1834), and ffistorii of the Bebellion of 1745
(ISliS; 7th ed. 1870); Jesse's 'il/f'mo!)-« of the Pretenihrs
and their Adherents (1845); Mrs Thomson's J/emoir.t of
the Jacobites (184.5-46); Dr Doran's ionrfoH in Jacobite
Times (1877); W. K. Dickson, The Jacobite Attempt of
171!) (Scot. Hist. Soc, 1895); Bishop Forbes, The L.mm
in Moumimj (Scot. BUst. Soc, 3 vela, 1895-96); and A.
Lang's Prince Charles Edward (1900).
Jacobites, in Church Historj-. See Greek
Chirch, V'ol. V. p. 398.
Jacob's Ladder {Polemonium ccenUeum), a
hertiaceous perennial plant of the natural order
Polemoniacea?, common in the centre and south of
Europe, and found also in the temperate ]);uts of
Asia and North America. It ha,s a smooth stem
li to 2 feet high, and a terminal panicle of bright
blue (sometimes white) flowers, with wheel-shajicd
5-lobed corolla. Great medicinal virtues were once
ascribed to it, but the only quality which it seems
to possess is a slight astriiigency.
Jacobas, a gold coin, of the value of twenty-
five shillings sterling, struck in the reign of James
L (lC():$-25).
Jacotot, Jean Joseph, the inventor of the
'universal methofl' of education, was bom at
Dijon, in France, on 4th March 1770. In the
course of hi.s chequered career he was successively
fiolilier, deputy-director of the Polytechnic School,
military secretan,', and the holder of various pro-
fes.sorial chairs, a.s of Mathematics, Koman Law,
&c. He retired to Belgium in 1815, and three
vears later was appointed lecturer on the French
language in the university of Lonvain, and after-
wards director of the militar\' Nomial School. He
died at Paris, 30th July 1840. The fundamental
principles upon which his .system of education rests
are that the mental capacities of all men are equal ;
the unequal results of education depend almost
exclusively upon will ; every pei'son is able to
educate himself, provided he is once started in the
right way : knowledge should Vie accjuiretl in the
hrst place through instinctive experience, or by the
niemoni'. For example, in imparting a knowledge
of a language, he began l)y making the pupil
commit to memorj- a single passage : then he en-
couraged bini to study for himself, tirst the separate
words, then the letters, then the grammar, and
lastly the full meaning and import. Jacotot's
system has some points of resemblance to Hamil-
ton's (see Hamilton, James). He expounded
his views in Eiiseiqncment Univcrsel (1823). See
Life by A. Guillard (Paris, 1S60).
Jacqiiard Loom, named after the inventor,
Joseph Marie Jacquard (1752-1834). See AVeav-
INO.
Jacqnemart. Jules (1837-80), French etcher.
See ExGR.wiNG, Vol. IV. p. 380.
JaCQnerie, the name given to an insnrrectiim
of peasants in France in 1358, when the French
king John was a prisoner in England. The nobles
called the peasants contemptuously ' Japc|wes Bon-
homme;' hence the word Jacquerie. The rising
was caused by long-continued oppression on the
part of the nobles. It broke out in the neighbour-
liood of Paris, but extended to the banks of the
Marne and the Oise. The magnitude of tlie danger
forced the nobles to make common cause, and on
9th June the peasants were defeated with great
slaughter near Meaux. This put an end to the
insurrection.
Jactitation of Marriage is a false pretence
of being married to another — a wrong for which
tlie party injured could formerly olitain redress by
a suit in the Ecclesiastical Court. Jurisdiction in
such suits now belongs to the Probate and Divorce
Division of the High Court of Justice ; but the
suit is unknown in modern practice, the English
law being clear enough to enable parties to ascer-
tain without litigation whether they ai-e married
or not. In Scotland, where the law is not so clear,
the suit of declarator of putting to silence (i.e.
putting an end to pretended claims) an.swers the
same purpose as a suit for jactitation. Thus,
in the famous Yelverton case (1801) the lady's
action for declarator of marriage was met by a
cross-action for declarator of putting to silence.
Jade is a name applied to about 150 varieties
of ornamental stones, but should be ])ro]i<'rly
restricted to the mineral Nephrite (q.v.), so called
froiri the Greek ncphros because it was supposed
by the ancients to have Airtue in renal diseases.
The name is from, the Spanish ijadu, 'the flank'
(from the Latin iii(t), because it was believed
to cure pain in the side : and the mineral was
brought by the Spaniards from Mexico. True
jade is a native silicate of calcium and magnesium,
tough, and of various shades of green, yellowish-
gray, and greenish-white. It is never crystal-
line, and it is veiy hard, bnt not excessively so,
and is remarkable for lieing less hard when freshly
broken than .after exposure. The specific gr,a\ ity
varies from 2'91 to 3-06. Jade has been reporteil
in isolated ca.ses in Prussia, Turkey, and Corsica,
but import.ant de|)osits are unknown in Europe.
It is princiiially founil in China. Siberia, New
Zealand, ami in some of the islands of the Snutli
Pacific, while its occurrence has also been reixuteil
in British Columbia and Alaska. Although jade
ornaments were brought by the Spaniards from
Central and South America, the mineral is not
found there in situ. It is doubtful, moreover, if
the majority of the.se reputed jade ornamenls were
266
JADE
JAGELLONS
of true jade. The ' Amazon-stone,' for instance, is
not, l)ut is a variety of niiorocline felspar, wliile
the ' Bowenite ' of North America is really a \ aiiety
of serpentine. Many olijects exported from China
as of jade are really of serpentine. A variety of
jade found in New Caledonia and the Maniuesas
is known as 'Oceanic jade,' (littering from the
orientivl variety in the \iroportions of lime and
magnesia. The New Zealand jade also dilVers from
the Asiatic, and many of the stones used by the
Maoris known as /:aic(i-/i-aiva do not contain some
of the inseparable ingredients of true jade. The
real jade found in New Zealand is known to the
Maoris as the punnmu or 'greenstone,' and is
found along the west coast of the south island.
They work it into amulets, ornaments, and even
axedieads on account of its hardness. In New
Caledonia and some of the other Pacific islands
i'ade is also used for axe-heads, and thus has
leconie known to mineralogists as axe-stone.
Nowhere is jade found so extensively and prized
so liighly as in China. And yet a good deal of
the so-called China jade is really jadeite — which is
a silicate of alumina and sodium, and therefore
a ditlerent eliemical compound from true jade.
Jadeite has a brighter colour, and is harder than
jade, while its sp. gr. ranges from 3 '28 to 3 ".So.
Jadeite is also found in Burma, near Bliamo, and
is doubtle.ss the substance of wdiich manj- of the
old Mexican and Central American ornaments
were made. An Eg\'ptian scaraba'us in jadeite
has been founil, and axes of jadeite have been dis-
covereil in the lake-dwellings of central E\irope,
although the mineral itself is unknown in Europe.
In China jade is most ingeniously and elabo-
rately carved. It is called Vii-chi, or 'yu-stone,'
and has for a^es been obtaineil from the Kuen-lun
Mountains, where it is found in veins among the
schistose and gneissose rocks of the Kura-kasb,
and the south of the Kliotan province. Jade from
that district has been known to the Chinese for
over two thousand years. Very tine <lark-green
jade is found near Batougol, in Silteria, in boulders.
The mines of Chinese 'Turkestan are, so far as is
known, the only mines which are regularly worked.
There are over one hundred of them, riddling one
lar^e mountain-side with dark tunnels, giving access
to long galleries winding in all directions ; in some
cases piercing right through to the other side of the
mountain. The mineral is found in veins several
feet in thickness, but so full of lissures that perfect
blocks are not often found of more than a few
inches thick. It is for this reason that large
pieces are so valuable, and are usvially reserved
for the imperial tribute. -At Canton there is a
great jade market, where the mineral itself lus
well a.s all sorts of articles made from it are
on sale. The ornaments are mostly bracelets,
brooches, ear-rings, (inger-rings, and hairpins, and
these are as dear to the Chinese ladies as diamonds
are to their Caucasian sisters. A necklace of green
jade beads will cost £1000; two buttons suitable
for a mandarin will fetch £30 ; while for a
moderate-sized piece of the vivid green, which is
much sought after, from £o(MJ to £000 w ill be i)aid.
The stcme is exceedingly dillicult to work, and
hence the great cost of carved specimens ; but even
at Momien a i>air of rough bracelets, not of the
Unest i|ualily, will fetch £-20 or £31).
.lade ornaments have been found among the
lake-dwellings of Switzerland — at the lakes of
Hienni', Zurich, and PfiilliUon ; stone celts have
been found in ilolmens in France which re.semlile
jadeite, but with a larger iiroportion of iron, and
are now known as chloiuiiichiiiitc : and implements
of the Neolithic age in western Europe, once sup-
]>o8ed to be of jade, are now rccogniseil as of
fibrolite (a silicate of aluminium, .sp. gr. 3"2).
There is no natural jade among the rock forma-
tions of Switzerland, so that the ornaments of the
lake-dwellei's must either have been brought by
their ancestors from Asia, or have been obtained
in barter from some of the nomadic races of pre-
historic times. Dr Schliemann reported jade celts
anumg the ruins at Hissarlik, and in the Briti-sh
Museum there is a seal-cylinder of jade among the
Assyrian and Babylonian relics. The jade orna-
ments of India nmst have been brought from
central Asia.
See Fischer, Ncphrit tind Jadeit (2d ed. Stuttgart,
1881 ) ; Meyer's Catalogue of Jade Articles in Dresden
M)isfeum (Leip. 1882-83); and Miss Gordoii-Cumuiing's
Wandcrinijs in China (1885).
Jael. See Deborah.
Jaeu. a city of Spain, capital of the province of
the same name, is pictures(|uely situated on a
tributary of the Guadal(pu\ir, ."lO miles N. by \V.
of Granada. Its old Moorish walls are fast crumb-
ling away. It is the see of a bishop ; the catheilral
dates from 1532. Pop. (1884) 21,280. By the
Moore the town was called Jiiyijciui-t-harir, ' Jaen
of the Silk,' on account of its silk m.annfactures,
for which, however, it is no longer famous. — The
province (area, 5184 sq. m. ; pop. in 1887, 4.37,842),
part of Andalusia (q.v. ), lies wholly within the
basin of the Guadalquivir, and is for the most
part mountainous. Conquered by the Moors on
their entrance into Sp.ain, Jaen maintained its
independence as a Moorish state till 1'246, when it
fell into the hands of Ferdinand III. of Castile.
Jafl'a, or JOPPA ( Heb. hifo : in New Testament.
IdpjK : Arab. Yiifa), a town on the sea-coast of
Syria, 53 ndles NW. of Jerusalem, of which it was
the port in King David's time. Hence Jonah sailed
for fai-shish ; here Peter had his vision. Under
Constantine the place, which had been destroyed by
Vespasian, became a bishop's see, ami, as the great
landing-place of the Crusadeis, wa.s taken and re-
taken by Christian and Moslem. In 1799 Naiioleon
stormed it and massacre<l his prisoners ; in 1832 it
was taken liy Mehemet AH, and restored to the
Turks by British help. The open roadstead, the
ancient walls, the yellow sand-dunes, an<l the exten-
sive orange gardens are now the chief features of
the brown town on its hillock, which possesses
several European consulates ; a landing-stage and
custom-house were ere<'te<l in 1888. There is a
carriage-way to .Jerusalem ( the toll of which was
let for £'200d in 1888), and a railway was opened in
August 1892. The population increased from 15,000
to 40,000 between 1883 and 1890, while the export of
oranges increased thieefold, largely tbrougb the
(iernian colony of 300 jiersons established lierc in
1869. The total exports (wheat and fruit) are
worth about £.'>00,()00 a year.
•lafl'liapataill. a seaport in the extreme north
of Ceylon, oji an island of the same name, has been
peopleil bv Tanuls for more than '2000 years. Pop.
( 1891 ) 43J)0'2. A large sprinkling of the European
jiopulation are of Dutch descent.
Jagatai, a central-Asiatic dialect of Turkish.
See TfliKS.
.laselloilS, the name of an illustrious dynasty
which reigned in Lithuania, Polanil, Hungary, and
liiiliemia. The name is derived from .lagello, the
last of a line of hereditary grand-dukes of Lithu-
ania, who succeeded to bis iiatrimonial po.sse.ssion
in l.'isi, and was (l,38(i) apjiointed successor to his
fatlier-in-law, Louis the tiicat, king of P(dand and
Hungary, in the fornu-r of these kingdoms, after
having embraceil Christianity, ami changed his
name to Ladislaus II. He was succeeded on the
throne of Polaml by six kings of his house, the
last of whom, Sigismund .\ugustus, died in l.")7'2.
Through a sister of the last, however, the Jagellon
JAGERNDOKF
JAINS
267
dyiuisty Wiis continued on the Polish throne till
leus. See Poland.
Lacli>>lans, the fourth son of the Ja^ellon Casiniir
IV. of Poland, was elected kin-; of Holieiiiia in
1471, on the death of Georj;e Poiliehrad, and also
succeeded Mathias Corvinus in Hunf;ary in 1490.
Ladislaus died in 1516, and wa-s succeeded in hotli
kinplonis hy his son, Louis II., who w;u* defeated
and slain l>y the Turks at Moliacs ('iiltli .\nj,nist
lo'2t)), .uid with whom terminated the Jagellons of
Hoheniia and Hungary.
Jiiji'crildorf. a town of Austrian Silesia, close
to the frontier, by rail 34 miles W. of Ratibor anil
18 NW. of Troppau, has manufactures of woollen
cloth, linen, orjians, i\:e. Pop. 14,792. From 1377
there was an independent principality of Jiigern-
dorf ; in 1742 its territories were divided between
Prussia and Austria.
Jagg'^i'iiaiit. See JroGERN.vuT.
Jaglft'J'y* ''^^ D.\TE P.\L.M.
JajJIiar {Fclis onca), one of the largest and
most beautiful of the Felida?, and by far the
strongest and fiercest of the American beasts of
Jaguar [Felis onca ).
pre}-. The jaguar is nearly equal to the tiger in
size, but is less massive, and has shorter legs. The
soft, rich fur varies in colour from yellowish-white
to very dark brown or black ; the sides, shouldei-s,
and thighs are marked with dark ring like spots,
larger, and arranged in more regular patterns than
those of the leonard. Each ring usually encloses
several small black points. The black-furred
jaguar is sometimes regarded as a different species,
but the cliaracteiistic markings can be seen in
certain lights, and the ground-colour varies greatly
even in members of the same litter. The jaguar
in found all over South America except in some
[larts of Patagonia, and in Xorth America as far
tiorth a.s the borders of Texas and South California,
inhaliiting chielly the outskirts of forests and the
shady banks of rivers and lakes. The food of
the jaj,'uar is very varied. Wild horses and mules
are his favourite prey, but birds, turtles, and
lish are leadily eaten, while he is often forced to
depend for subsistence on the timid, stupid capy-
hariLs. The flesh of the peccary, too, is a dainty
which he exercises all his ingenuity to procure, for
even a jaguar dare not openly attack a henl of
these courageoiLs little pi«s. "His method, it Ls
said, Ls to conceal himself in a tree till a herd
pa.s.ses, drop down on one and kill it, then soring
into the tree again and wait patiently until the
angry herd is a safe distance oil'. The jaguar is
hunti-rl sometimes with the husso, but most fre-
quently with dogs and poisoned arrows, and the
skins are imported into hurope in large numbers.
Jallde, or J.VDE, a bay in the north of Olden-
burg, now belonging to Prussia, which has con
structed a naval station on its shores. See
\VlLHELM.SH.\FEN.
Jaliii. Friedrich. See Gv.mxastics.
Jallll. JoH.vxN, a Catholic bildical critic, was
born at Tasswitx, in Moravia, in I'SO. He be-
came professor of Oriental Languages at Olmiitz,
an<l, in 17H9, at the university of Vienna; but the
unwonted boldness of his criticism, as that Job,
Tobit, and Judith were didactic poems, and that
the New Testament demoniacal possession was the
result of natural disease, although not formally con-
demned, led in 1806 to his honourable retirement to a
canonry of St Stephen's, Vienna. He died August
16, 1816. Jahn was an industrious writer, and Ids
EinJeitxing ins Alte Testament (1792), Arcluioloifiu
Biblica (1805; En" trans, by T. C. Uphani, 18-40),
and Enchiridion Hcrnienei/ticw {IS\'2) were works
really remarkable for their time and circunistances.
Besides these he published many manuals on the
grammar of Hebrew, Syriac, and Arabic, an edition
of the Hebrew Bible (1806), and a commentary on
the Me-ssianic prophecies (1815).
Jallll. Otto, a famous archaeologist and philo-
logist, was born at Kiel, June 16, 1813, and .studied
at Kiel, Leipzig, aud Berlin. He next travelled
in France and Italy, making a lengthened stay in
Rome, and returned in 1839 to lecture at Kiel,
whence he was called to tJreifs^ahl. In 1847
he accepted the chair of Arclneology at Leipzig,
and here he founded an archaeological society,
and served as director of an archa'ologieal museum.
Dejirived in 1851 for his part in the political move-
ments of 1848-49, he became in 1855 professor
of the Science of Antiquity, and director of the
Academic Art Museum at Bonn, whence he was
summoned in 1867 to fill Gerhard's chair at Berlin.
He died, however, before entering on his new
duties, at Giittingen, 9th September 1869.
Jahn's contributions to archaeology were numberless,
and of the first importance. Here may only be named
works on Polygnotus. Die HeUeuisckc Kunst (1S40),
Peitho (1846) ; a description of the vases in King Lud-
wig's collection ( 1854 ), and works on the representations
of ancient life on vases (1861, 1868) ; and a work on the
evil eye { 1850 ). His works in philology mclude editions of
Persius ( 1843 ), Censorinus ( 1845 ), Floras ( 1852 ), Pa iisan i<e
(livcn'jitioarcis Athaiiensis (1860). the ii)'«(»s(1849) and
Orator (1851) of Cicero, Juvenal (1851), the Pfriorhn:
of Livy (1853), the Psiichc et CuiJido of Apuleius (18.56),
the Ehctra of Sophocles ( 1861 ), the Symposion of Plato
( 1864 ), and Longinus ( 1867 ). Among his numerous
other works may be named his elaborate and masterly
biography of Slozai*t (1856-60), a contribution of the Hrst
importance to the histoiy of music; Gckainmdtc Aufudtzc
iibcr Mvsik (1866); and his Biographiache Au/adtze
(1866).
Jail Fever (known also as Putrid or Pestilen-
tial Fever) is now considcreil to be merely ,a severe
form of Typhus Fever (q.v.), and not a distinct
disease. At the present time, owing to improved
sanitary regulations, this form of disea.se is almost
unknown ; but we learn from Howard's Aixuiitit uf
the iitdte of FrisdHS that, in his time, the disease
was very frequent in the prisons of England,
although unknown in those of the continental
countries. In the celebrate<l Black Assize ( q.v.),
held at Oxford in 1577, there is no evidence that
the disease prevailed among the prisoners, ;ind yet
it broke out .imimg the jiersons present at the trial.
So late as May 17.50 the loid mayor, an aldeiiiian,
two judges, most of thi! jury, anil a large number of
spectators caught liiis disea.se from attending tlie
a-ssizes at the Old Bailey : and many of those who
were infected died.
•laillS is the n.'ime of .a heterodox sect of Hindus,
found ill most parts of I'pjier In<lia, nuiiieious
more especially to the westwaril, but also .scattered
throughout the peninsula. They are important
•268
JAINS
JALAP
fmm their wealth ami influeiK-e rather than from
tli''ir miiiiher. Their tenets are in several respects
analogous to those of the Buddhists (see BlDUH-
ISM), but tliey resemble in others those of the
Brahmanical Hindus. AVith tlie Buddhists they
share in the denial of the divine origin and author-
ity of tlie \'eda. With the Brahmanical Hindus,
on the other hand, they agree in admitting the
institution of caste, in perlorniing the essential
ceremonies called S(i)isl:dras, and in recognising
some of tlie subordinate ileities of the Hindu pan-
theon ; but tliey disregard completely all those
I'.ralinianical rites which invohe the destruction of
animal life.
According to their doctrine, all objects, material
or abstract, are arr.anged under nine categories,
called Tiiffiras, truths or piinciples, of which we
need notice only the ninth and last, called Mohsha,
or liberation of the vital spirit from the bonds of
•action — i.e. final emancipation. In reference to it
the Jains not only affirm that there is such a state
of emancipation, but they define the size of the
emancipated sonls, the place where they live, their
parts, natures, and numbers.
The principles of faith are common to all classes
of Jains, but some difi'erences occur in their duties,
as they are divided into religious and lav orders,
Yatis and S'riirakas. The Yati has to leail a life of
abstinence, taciturnity, and continence; he shouhl
wear a thin cloth over his mouth, to prevent
insects from Hying into it, and he shonld carry
a brush to sweep the jilace on which he is about
to sit, to remove any living creature out of the way
of danger ; but, in turn, he may dispense with all
acts of worship ; whilst the S'niraka has to add
to the observance of the religious and moral duties
the worship of the saints, and a profound rever-
ence for his more pious brethren. The secular
Jain must, like the ascetic, practise the foiir
virtues — liberality, gentleness, piety, and penance;
he must govern his mind, tongue, and acts ; abstain,
at certain seasons, from salt, flowers, green fruits,
roots, honey, grapes, tobacco ; drink water thrice
strained, and never leave a liquid uncovered, lest
an insect should be drowned in it ; it is his duty
also to visit daily a temple where some of the
images of the Jain saints are placetl, walk round it
three times, make an olieisance to the image, and
make some offerings of fruits or flowers. The
reader in a Jain temple is a Yati, but the minis-
trant priest is not seldom a Braliman, since the
Jains have no priests of their own.
Th(! Jains fall into two principal divisions,
Di(/(imbanis and S'lretAmfxiras. The former word
means ' sky-clad,' or naked, but in the present day
ascetics of this division wear coloured garments,
and confine the disuse of clothes to the period of
their meals. S'wcMmbara means ' one who wears
white garments ; ' but the points of ditrerence
between the two divisions are said to be 700, of
which 84 are of paramount importance. In the
south of Inilia the Jains are divided into two
Ciistes ; in l"pi)er Hindustan they are all of one
caste. It is remarkable, however, that amongst
themselves they recognise a number of families
between whicli no intermarriage can take pl.ace.
As reg.ards the iiantlieon of the .Iain creed, it is
still more fantastical than that of tlie Brahmanical
sects. The higlicst rank amongst their nundierless
hosts of divine beings — divided by them into four
classes, with various subdivisions — they assign to
the deified saints, which they call Jinn (whence the
usual name of the sect), or Arhnt, or Tirt/ia/.cii-d,
besides a variety of other generic names. The
Jains enumerate twenty-four Tirthakaras of their
past age, twenty-four of the present, and twenty-
four of the age to come ; and they invest these holy
personages with thirty-six superhuman attributes of
the most extravagant character. They distinguish
the twenty-four Jinas of the present age from each
other in colour, stature, and longevity. liishahltd,
the fii-st Jina of tliis age, was 500 poles in stature,
and lived 8,400,000 great yeare ; whereas Malidrira,
the '24th, had degenerated to the size of a man,
and was no more than forty yeare on earth. The
present woi-ship is almost restricted to the last two
Tirthakaras. Ihe t]ld view, endoi-sed by Professor
Weber, was that the Jains are a remnant of the
Indian Buddhists who succeeded in maintaining
their existence by a compromise with Hinduism.
The Jains themselves strongly insist that their
faith is older than Buddhism ; and Jacolii proves
from the Jain texts that Buddhism and Jainism
were developed out of Brahmanisni by a very
gradual nio\ement, Jainism beiu" jirobably the
earlier. Modern Jainism Sir W. \V. Hunter de-
scribes as ' a religion allied in doctrine to ancient
Buddhism, but hum.anised by saint-worship.' In
1881 there were 448,897 Jains in British India.
.See Oldenberg, BaJdha (Eng. tr.ans. 18S2) ; Thomas,
Jainism; or the Early Faith of Asoka (1877); Khys
Davids, Hibbcrt Lectures (1881); Jacobi, Gaina Sdtras
('Sacred Books of the East,' Clar. Press, 1885); and for
the numerous and beautiful Jain temples, see Fergusson's
Cave Temples of India (1880), and Burgess's Buddkiat
amlJaina Caves (2 vols. 1881-83).
Jaipur. See Jevpore.
Jsiisaliner (Jei/siihiwre), capital of the native
Indian state of Jaisalmer, in Rajputana, stands on
the edge of the Indian Desert, and was founded in
11.56. It has several Jain temples. Pop. 10,965. —
The state of Jaisalmer contains an area of 16,447
sq. m., and 108,143 inhabitants.
Jaklltsk. See Yakutsk.
Jalalpnr, a town of India, 8 miles XE. of the
city of Gujrat in the Punjab, noted for its shawl
manufacture ; pop. 1'2,839. — There is another
ancient and ruined Jalalpur on the Jlielum River.
Jalandliar. See Ji luxder.
Jalap* a \vell-known purgative medicine, is the
root of Ipomcea purija, a plant of the natural order
('onvolvulacea>. It Is a native of the eastern slopes
of the ilexican .sierras,
growing at an eleva-
tion of about 6000 feet.
Named from the town
of .lalapa, it is a per-
ennial twining plant,
with large flowers and
a turnip-like root, vary-
ing from the size of a
hazel-nut to that of a
mans fist. The roots
when fresh are white
and fleshy, and abound
in a milky juice. They
are dug up at all seasons
of the year, and hence
one great cause of their
\ariation in size and
activity. After being
dried the roots are nl
brown and wrinkled
externally, of a deep
vellowish -gr.ay colour
internally, and have
the consistence of wood.
Their odour is faint
.and dis.agree.able, and
the t.aste is nauseous.
For use in medicine the
roots are finely pow-
dered. Jalap-root con-
tains starch, sugar, lignin, and other ingredients,
but the active princiiile is a resin which is otticinal
Jalap ( Ipomaa purga ) :
a, the root.
JALAPA
JAMAICA
269
under the name of Jalapw Ecsina, The amount
of this resin varies from 12 to 21 per cent. It is
extracted from tlie root by means of dilute alcohol,
and consists cluetly of a body called convolvulin.
Jalap is a hydragojjue cathartic, and may be
given alone or in combination with calomel or
cream of tartar. It and its pre|)arations are used
in constip,ation, renal disease, and cerebral atlections.
Its action is limited to the production of severe
purgation. Jalap was fii"st used in Engl.and
about the beginning of the 17th century. The
ordinary dose of powdered jalap for an adult varies
from ten to tlurty grains, a scruple generally
acting smartly and safely ; for children under a
year old the dose is from two to five giains. Tlie
dose of the compound powder is double tliat of tho
ordinary powder.
Jalapa. capital of the Mexican state of Vcim
Cruz, is 60 miles by rail N\V. of Vera Cruz cit\ .
It is situated in a charming and fertile district, in
a healthy and temperate climate, 4330 feet above
the sea, and is neatly built and surrounded Avitli
pleasant gardens. The principal buildings are the
old Franciscan monastery (1536), the church of St
Joseph, a hospital, and the government offices.
Pop. (1888) 14,000.
Jalisco, a state of Mexico, on the Pacific, with
an area of 38,840 sq. m. It is traveled by tlie
Sierra Madre, and in great part fonns a plateau.
The climate is healthy away from the coast. The
principal river is the Kio Grande de Santiago ; in
the south-east is the lake of Chapala (q.v.). Silver
and copper raining and agriculture have been
the cliiet industries ; but within recent years a
numlier of cotton, woollen, paper, and tobacco
factories have been establislied. Pop. (1879)
983,484 ; ( 1895 ) 1,107,863. The capital is Guadala-
jara (q.v.).
Jallia. a town and British cantonment in the
Nizam's Dominions, India, 210 miles XE. of Bom-
bay. Its fruit is celebrated, Ijeing sent to Hyder-
abad, Bombay, and other large towns. Pop. of
town, 6258 ; and of cantonment, 9933.
Jam. See Preserved Pkovlsions.
Jamaica, aboriginally Xaymaca ('Land of
Springs'), one of the West India Islands, and by
far the most important of those belonging to Great
Britain, is about 90 miles to the south of Cuba,
and stretches between 17° 43' and 18° 32' N.
lat., and between 76° II' and 7S° 20' AV. long.
It is diWded into three counties, Surrey in the
east, Middlesex in the middle, and Cornwall in
the west; its area is 4193 sq. m., or a little more
than the three English counties of the .same names
with Hampshire thrown in. The greatest length
Is 144 miles ; the greatest breadth, 50 miles. Turk's
and Caicos Islands, as well as the three Cayman
Islands, are dependencies of Jamaica. The island
Ls traversed from east to west by the Blue Moun-
tains, which rise to 7400 feet. From this range
nearly 120 streams descend to the coasts, but
owing to the shortness ami steejine.ss of their
courses they are not navigable, witii the exception
of Black Kiver, which atfords, for small craft, a
passage into the interior for 30 niil<!s. Excellent
narlxiurs are everj'where to be found. Incompar-
ably the best of these is Kingston (q.v.) harbour, a
deep and capacious basin in the south-ciist quarter
of the island. Jamaica is believeil to be rich in
mineral wealth, but no minerals are extracted.
The chief towns are Kingston (jio]!. 46,542), the
capital, and Spanish Town, formerly the seat of
the government (pop. 5019), on the soulli-exst of
the island ; and Montego Bay (pop. 4863), Savanna-
Wi-Mar (2952), on the soutliwest, and Faliiiouth
(pop. 2517). Port Koyal, situated at the western
extremity of the npit of sand that nhuts in the
harbour of Kingston on the south, which, previous
to the great earthquake of 1692, was one of the
chief cities in the West Indies, is now a place of
only 1200 inhabitants, tlumgh still a naval station.
The climate varies considerably, falling on an
average 1° for every 300 feet in altituile. At
Kingston, on the co:tst, the thermometer is nearly
all the year round at 70° duriufj the night and 90'
during the day, the mean thus being 80° or 81° : but
the heat is tempered by the sea-breezes. A corre-
sponding regularity is observable in the u]dand
regions. On the whole, the island is very healthy;
invalids even come from the United States to enjoy
the benefit of the salubrious air of the interior.
There are two rainy seasons, one in the middle of
spring and the other towards the middle and end
of summer. In the latter the rains are exception-
ally heavy ; \-iolent thunderstorms are frequent,
and hurricanes sometimes occur. A cyclone in
1880 did damage to the extent of more than a
million sterling.
The vegetation is very luxuriant. The primeval
wootls are rapidly disappearing ; yet there are still
many valuable trees, such as balata, mahogany,
logwood, lignum vitie, fustic, ebony, pimento,
cocoa-nut and other palms, cactuses, &c. Trojiical
fruits are grown in great variety, also many ot the
fruits of more temperate climes. Fruits were
exported to the value of £347,652 in 1888 (£39,451
in 1878). Spices, dye-woods, medicinal plants,
and food plants, .such as ginger, cochineal, castor-
oil, arrowroot, maize, vanilla, pimento (allspice),
\c., are extensively giown. A large extent of the
cultivated area (one -fifth) is devoted to the grow-
ing of Guinea grass. This and pasture land occupy
the greater portion of the north and west of tlie
Island. In the south and east the principal cro|)S
are sugar (33,600 acres in 1888, 12,800 less than in
1878), coffee, vegetables, and fruits. A little
cinchona and cacao are also grown. The mon-
goose, imported to prey on the rats that infested
the sugar estates, has, after exterminating the
rats, become a plague, and has nearly extirpateil
lizards, hai'mless snakes, and small birds, so that
insect pests (especially the troublesome ticks)
abound. The negroes, who are mostly small
holdei's, are the chief growers of fruit. The ex-
ports, which consist chielly of dye-woods, fruits
(oranges, lemons, bananas, inne-apples, &c.), sugar
and rum, coffee, ginger, allspice, and cocoa, aver-
age fully H million annually; whilst the imports,
consisting of food-stutls, clothing, hardware,
liquors, coals, building materials, &c., reach i>ietty
nearly the same value, .\bout 40 per cent, of tlie
trade is with the United Kingdom, and the share
with the United States 43 per cent.
During the past thirty years the white inhabit-
ants have increased far le.ss rapidly in numbers
than the black and coloured population. In 1861
the total nopiilation was 441,255 (13,S16 white and
427,439 black and coloured); in 1871 the tigures
were respectively 506,154 (13,101 and 493,053);
and in 1881, 580,804 (14,432 and 554,132, besides
270
JAMAICA
JAMES
Chinese ami others, ami ll.Olfi iiiniiij;iaiit coolies).
Ill 1891 the iiopulalioM hail iiieieaseil to 6:19,491.
Bv religion ,S'2,;i()0 belong to the Clmrch of Kngliiml,
SO.OOO are Baptists, 22,000 Methodists, 10,S0() l^res-
bvterians, 9290 Roman Catholies, Ki.OlMI of the
Rioravian Church, and 9900 of other churches —
cliililren lieing exclmled. In 1895 there were 924
government schools, with 98,359 jiujiils ; besides
two government training colleges for teachers.
Secondary education is left to private initiative.
Jamaica has 185 miles of railwa.v and 950 miles of
telegraph. The total e.xports in 1896 had a value of
£1,470,241 : the importsof £1,856,378. Thedefences
of the island include a British ga.rrison (the West
India regiments) of more tlian 1000 men, a volunteer
force of 6U0, ami numerous coast batteries. There
is also a semi-military police force of ab<iut 700
men. The i)ublic debt of the island amounted to
.t'2,220,089 in 1896. The government is in the hands
of a governor appointed by the Queen, assisted by
a privy-council (which fulfils the offices of an
executive) and a legislative council, both partly
elective, jiartly nominated by the Queen or the
governor.
Jamaica was discovered I)y Columlius in 1494,
and definitely taken possession of by the Spaniards
in 1509. The original inhabitants were peace-
loving Indians ( not Caribs ) ; but they were prac-
tically extinct in 1655, when the island was con-
quered by the English, an expedition having been
sent out for that purpose by Oliver Cromwell,
under Admiral Penn and Venaljles. Jamaica was
formall.v ceded to England by the treaty of Madrid
in 1670. The place of the native Indians was
taken by negro slaves, imported by the Spaniards,
iind by Irish and colonial immigrants, who arrived
soon after the capture of the island. During the
18tli century more tlian half a million slaves were
brought over from Africa. Under English rule
the chief events in the history of Jamaica were
frecjuent rebellions of the Maroons, a community
of nmawa.y slaves, who had olitained a tract of
land on the north side of the island ; in 1831-32,
a negro insurrection; and on August 1, 1834, the
emancii)ation of the slaves, Jamaica receiving
£6,161,927 as her share of the compensation nione.y.
The cliief result of this last event was to ruin the
sugar-growing of Jamaica, principally owing to the
ditticulty of procuring labour. The negroes refused
to work, now the.y were free. The liberation was (
followeil b.v concessions of representative and con-
stitutional rights to the newly-liberated slaves.
But the experiment ])roved a failure. The negroes
considered it a grievance that olfices in the magis-
tracy were not more frequently conferred on them.
They wished to suppress coolie inimigration, which
tended to keep uown wages. They sought to
obtain land witliout rent. The more violent even
suggested the expulsion of the whole white popula-
tion of the island. In 1865 the discontent was at
its height. In Octolier of that year the negroes
rose in revolt and massaere<l twenty-three whites.
Martial law was i)roclaimed by tjovernor Eyre,
who suiipressed the rising with resolute vigour,
though tbe i>unishinents inflicted on the rioters
were in scmie ca.ses perhaps unnecessarily severe.
Eor the course he had taken (lovernor I''yre was
thanked by the Jamaica Assembly ; but in England
a ditl'erent view was taken of hi.s conduct (see
EvuE). He was recalled, and the rejiresentative
con.stitution was suspended. A new ('onstitution
was framed in 1866, under which the islaml is
now governed like an ordinary crown colony.
Tliere seems to be good authority for the statement
that from the catastrophe of 1865 a new life has
sprung. Crime has diminished ; and education has
eveiywhere advanced among the black iiojiulation.
A collection of Jamaica products was exhibited
with very satisfactory results at the Philadeljihia
Exhibition of 1876 ; and an exhibilicm in Jamaica
of native products was opened in the autumn
of 1890. New roads have iieen formed, harbours
are being constructed, and the Rio Cobre irrigation
canal, begun in 1872, will give fertility to 50,000
acres of the plain between Spanish Town and
Kingston. Thanks to the Cuban refugees who
have taken several of the long-forsaken sugar
estates, property is looking u|), and the official
statements show that the export trade is increas-
ing, though slowly. Although Jamaica has not
recovered its former commercial jirosperity, the
negroes cannot now be described as idle. They
cultivate their provision grinin<ls w'ith care, and
are especially active in developing the fruit trade.
Extreme poverty is unknown among them, and
they are described as a law-aljiding and inollensive
community. See the Jamaica llaiidbuuk, issued
at the government printing-office, Kingston ; and
Harpers Magazine, 1890.
Jaiiiaicii Bark. See Cakibbee B.vrk.
Jamaica Pepper. See Pimento.
JaillbU8ar, a town of British India, presiilency
of Bombay, is situated 30 miles SW. of Baroda.
Pop. 11,479. Cotton is prepared for export.
James, the name of at least three jjersons who
took an active ])art in the foundation of the early
Christian church : ( 1 ) James the Elder, son of the
fisherman Zebedee ami brother of John, one of the
three chief among the twelve apostles, put to death
by the sword under Herod Agrippa, 44 .\.D. His
(lay falls on July 25 ; in the Greek Church, on
April 30. According to a baseless legend he
journeyed to Spain : whence, as Santiago, he is
reverenced as the patron saint of that country.
(2) James the Younger (the Little, not the Less),
son of Alpha'us, was likewise an apostle, and is
honoured in the tlreek Church on October 9 ;
by the Catholies, along with Philip, on May 1.
(3) James the Great, the eldest among the
'brethren' of Jesus, according to Joseiihus (Ant.
XX. 9, 1 ) was stoned to death by command of
the high-priest Ananus in 62 .\.D., <luring the
interval between the departure of Eestus and the
arrival of a new procurator. The la-st is identical
with the James mentioned in Acts xii., xv., xxi.,
and Gal. i. 19, who was the head of the Christian
community of Jerusalem, and, according to Hege-
sippus, bore the surname of the Just. His day
falls in the (ircek Church on October 23. Most
theologians consi<lcr him th(" author of the epistle
M-hich bears his name, although it has been
ascribed to both the others, to the .son of Zebedee
so late as 1876 in an able commentary by the Rev.
F. T. Bassett.
The Epistle of James stands first among the
cathulii: epistles, and is a kind of encyclical ad-
dressed in the first place "to the twelve tribes
which are scattered abroad,' to the Jews of the
Dispersion. It was written by a Jew for Jewish
reauei's, all of whom are supposed to be subject to
the Jewish law, and it wius undoubtedly written
early, perhaps about 50 .\.D. at latest, certainly
before the ilestrnction of Jerusalem. It cannot,
however, be proved, though generally assumed,
that the epistle nmst have been written before
Paul's first missionary journey, or before the
-Apostolic C(mncil. Those who read into it a
<lesire to counteract the ellects of a misconstruc-
tion of St Paul's doctrine of justification by faith
of course demand, as will be seen, a later dale.
The einstle was not admitted into the caiLoii
without sonu! dilliculty, and it is not much quoted
by the earlier writers, Origen indeed being the
earliest we liinl quoting it by name. Kusebius
places it iii his list of books contioverted but
JAMES
JAMKS I. OF SCOTLAND 271
recognised by most {Aiiti/ef/omcna), ami Jerome
expresses tlie doul>t more strongly still. Clement
of Alexandria is silent about it, as also is Ter-
tullian, nor is it mentioned in the Muratorian
Fragment. But it was early acknowledged by
the Syrian riiureli, and it is found in the Feshito ;
while there is abundiUiee of less direct proof, a.s
we liiid startling parallels and coincidences too
numerous to be accidental in T/if S/ii/j/icnl of
Hermas, the Epistle of Clemens Komanus, and
Irena>us. It was linally declared canonical by
the third Council of Carthage (397), and already
we find it acknowledged bv Cyril of Jerusalem,
Epiphanius of Cyprus, Atlianasius, Gregorj- of
Nazianzus, and all later theologians, down to the
time of the Keformation. when it w;is rejected by
Erasmus and Cardinal Cajetan, and stigmatised
by Luther as ' a downright epistle of straw . . .
with nothing evangelical about it,' from its sup-
Sosed contradiction to his fundamental Pauline
ognui of justiticatiou by faith alone. Calvin
disputed this judgment, and maintained that the
epistle was not unworthy of an apostle.
The aim of the epistle is throughout ethical
ratlier than doctrinal, Christianity being promi-
nently put forward as the ethical fulhlment of the
law, the perfect man being he whose faith has
constantly proved itself in practice, and who is
patient under all tribulation. It echoes closely
the language and niethijd of Christ himself; as
Beyschlag says, 'essentially it is the teaching of
Christ, and thus there is little teaching about
Christ.' Besides the discourses of the Master,
especially his Seinion on the Mount, we lind
distinct traces of familiarity with the Wisdom of
Solomon, and the Ecclesiasticus of the son of
Siracli. Formalism, greed of gain, respect of
persons, falsehood, evil-speaking, i)oa.sting, Avrang-
liug and bitterness in debate, attention to dog-
matic definitions instead of holiness of life — sucli
are the sins against which the author inveighs
Anth vivid and abrupt invective. His Greek is
unusually pure, and some scholars, as Schmidt,
Kertlioldt, and Bishop Wordsworth, have supposed
that the epistle w;is first written in Aramaic and
afterwards translated.
The passage in the second chapter (14-26) has
been interpreted by many theologians as a direct
attack on the Pauline view of faith and justifica-
tion, that Christ by his death had accomplLshed a
new order of salvation, in which the law, which
was merely temporary, was now abrogated, and
that thus Christianity had fitteil itself to become
a universal religion. But the undoubted difference
of tone is rather that of a diHerent point of view
than of conscious contradiction, and had the writer
had Paul's epistles before him we might well have
expected that he would have said much more.
Indeed the whole treatment suggests want of
acquaintance with Paul's epistles far more than
a criticism of his doctrine, and the works required
by James are not at all the works of llie law con-
ilemned by I'aul. Paul's cimception of faith is a
complete spiritual communion with the Heileemer,
effected by the free gift of (!od, in consequence of
a jirofound conviction on the sinner's part of tlie
saving merits of Christ's death, the source of a new
holy life in Christ and of love at once to Cod and
man. To James, again, faith Ls an lussent of the
thinking mind to the oneness of (Jod and llie
Messianic work antl vicarious .sacrifice of Christ,
a preliminaiy condition indeed of justification and
eternal .salvation, but yet .sometiung still to be
ma<le i)erfect by the l'ooiI works which are the out-
wanl fniit of inward love. (Jood works are an
external addition to faith, uniting with it and
completing it, regarded a.s a neces.sarv corollary to
juatiiication, ratlier thou, as with Paul, a spon-
taneous and visible fruit of the consciousness of a
completely new relation to (lod attained through
an antecedent justilicalion. To Paul, says Weiss,
this is an act of grace in which righteousness is
imputed to the sinner ; to James, the act of a
judge who by a judicial decision attests tlie right-
eousness as proved (Matt. xii. X!), and thus pro-
cures deliverance from destruction. Paul's con-
ception is nmre philo-sophical and comprehensive,
but it by no means excludes the conception of
.lames, which is at once earlier in time and adapted
in the first instance to a narrower circle of readei's.
Paul's emphatic definitions were meant to opp<ise
the Judaising i)arty, who would have narrowed the
largeness of Christian liberty by emphasising the
necessity for the works of the Mosaic law : James
meant to strike at the lingering Jewish notion that
to be a child of Abraham was the most important
consideration, and that besides this an intellectual
a,ssent to the special claims of Christ was sufficient.
His faith without works is not Paul's justifying
faith at all, but the profitless faith without love
condemned in 1 Cor. xiii.
The Tiibingen school, as might have been ex-
pected from its central a.ssumption of an early
opposition between the Jewish and c;entile jiarties
in the Christian church, claimed the Epistle of
James as a polemic against Paul, and made its
author a pseudonymous w riter of later time, who
employed the name of James as an accepted type
of spiritualised Jewish Cliristianity. Schwegler
elaborated this view' of the epistle much more
fully than Baur himself, regarding it as a parallel
to the Clementine Homilies. He makes the anti-
thesis between rich and jioor in the epistle lefer
to secularised Pauline Gentile Christianity, as
contrasted with ]uimitive Christian Ebionism,
and further reads into the epistle polemical refer-
ences to (Gnosticism ami the persecutions of the
time of Trajan. Hausrath refers it to the same
period, and considers it a direct answer of Jew isli
Christianity to the Epistle to the Hebrews. Hil-
genfeld, again, pushes it back to the time of
Domitian, explaining the wisdom attacked as
Pauliuism which had thrown the church into
disunion by its doctrinal disputes, and the Chris-
tianity of the writer as Essene and Orphic in
character. Holtzmann declares for the .same date,
maintaining the dependence of the eidstle on
the Pauline epistles together with the E])istle to
the Hebrews and the Apocalypse, on the first
Canonical Gospel, First Peter, and the Epistle
of Clement, and explaining the rich as dis-
tinguished aspirants to Christianity. Similarly
Von Soden jilaces the e|)istle in the time of the
Domitian persecutions, and pvonounces the author,
whom with Holtzmann and others he transfer to
Kome, as of a kindred spirit with Clement and
Hernias.
Besides the general introductions of Uleek, De Wette,
S. Davidson, Hilgenfeld, Holtzmann, Salmon, Dods, and
"Weiss, and the works on the New 'rt-r^t;oiit.iit canon by
Kirchofer, Overbeck, Wustcott, and Zalin, may be con-
sult«tl the special coiim.entaries by F. T. Bassett ( 18711 1,
Reu.ss (187SI, Krdmann (1881), Schegg (1883), K H.
Plumptre ( \Vi>.l ), Beyscldag ( 1888 ; 5tli cd. of the coinni.
in the Exei. Hamlhiich) ; R. Johnstone (2d eil. 1888);
and J. B. Mayor (18'.tt). The question of the Brethren
of the Lord is discussed under JosKI'Il.
James I., king of Scotland (140G-.')7l, the
second and only surviving son of Uobert III., was
born at Dunfermline in 1394. His <Mlueation was
entrusted to the learned Bishop Wardlaw of St
Andrews. His elder brother, David, Duke of
Rothesay, a reckless and di.s.sipated youth, hail
died at Falkland — it was strongly siispectiil. hut
not proved, a victim to the uuprinci|)led ambition
I of ins uncle, the Duke of Albany, and King Uobert
272
JAMES I.-II. OF SCOTLAND
resolved in 1406 to send his younger son for safety
to France. Hut, tliongli a truce at that time existed
between England and Scotland, the vessel in which
the young prince had eniharked was seized liy an
English cruiser, and James and his attendants
were carried to London, ami committed to the
Tower. He Wii,s detained a prisoner in England
for the long space of eighteen years, no doubt with
the connivance of the Duke of Albany, on whom
the government of Scotland had devolved on the
death of Robert III. in 1406. Henry IV. made
some compensation for his cruel injustice to the
young prince by carefully instructing him in all
the knightly accomplishments of the age, and he
not only became distinguished for his de.xterity
in martial exercises, but he could i)lay well on
the lute and harp and other musical instruments,
was a skilful caligrai)her, illuminator, and painter
in miniature, and had also a considerable know-
ledge of medicine. On the death of the Duke of
Albany in 1420, his son Murdoch succeeded to the
regency. Under his feeble rule the country fell
into a state of disorder, almost of anarchy, till at
length Murdoch himself grew weaiy of his position,
and took stejis to procure the return of the lawful
sovereign. The conditions of his release were defi-
nitely arranged May 12, 1423. It was stipulated
that £40,000 was to be paid to defray the expense
of his maintenance and education. James had in
a singularly romantic manner gained the atVections
of Jane Beaufort, a daughter of the Earl of
Somerset, niece of Richard II., and granddaiighter
of John of Gaunt; and on February 12, 1424, they
were married with all the pomp befitting the occa-
sion. The royal ))air then set out for Scotland,
and were welcomed with joyous acclamations.
James found his kingdom a scene of la\\less ex-
cess and rapine, mainly owing to the weakness of
the govei'nment and the turliulence of the noljles.
He at once set himself to restore the legitimate
authority of the crown, and to rescue the commons
from oiipression and plunder ; but in carrying out
these praiseworthy objects he sometimes lost sight
of both mercy and justice. Eight months after his
restoration he suddenly swooped down upon his
cousin the former Regent Albany, two of his sons,
and his aged father-in-law, the Earl of Lennox.
They were brought to trial, but the nature of the
charges against them is not known. They were
founil guilty and executed amid general compassion
and regret ; the people believed that it wa-s simply
an act of cruel revenge. James then seized and
imprisoned lifty of the Highland chiefs, and put to
death the most obnoxious ringleaders. He deprived
the powerful Karl of March of his estates, and on
the death of the Earl of Mar, the victor at Har-
law, he seized the earhhmi and annexed its
immense estates to the crown. Meanwhile, into
the parliament he introduced the principle of repre-
sentation, and for the first time caused its acts to
lie published in the language of the common
pcoiile. Its enactments, which were judicious and
eidightened beyond the age, comprehended the
sul>jects of agriculture, commerce, foreign and
domestic manufactures, the regulation of weights
and measures, the impartial administration of
justice, and the police of tlie country. He reneweil
commercial intercourse with the Netherlanils, and
loncludccl a satisfactory treaty with Denmark.
Norway, and Sweden. He drew closer the ancient
bond of alliance with France, and gave his eldest
ilaughter in marriage to the Dauphin. But he
unfortun.ilcly jicrsistcil in carrying out harshly,
and sometimes unjustly, his measures for curbing
the power of the nobles, which excited not withoiit
cause strong discontent and aiiprehension among
the whole body.
His confiscation of the earldom of Strathearn,
which had devolved on Patrick Graham, brought
matters to a crisis. A conspiracy was formed
against the king's life, headetf by his uncle, the
Earl of Athole ; Sir Robert Stewart, his grandson :
and Sir Robert Graham, uncle of the Earl of
Strathearn, who had personal as well fvs family
injuries to re^■enge. The plot w;is carried into
effect at Perth on the 20th of February 14:!7.
The king was about to retire for the night, when
there was a great noise and clashing of arms
heard, and a baud of assassins led by Giaham
broke into the monivstery of the Dominicans
where the court was residing. The bolts had been
removed from the chamber door, but I'atharine
Douglas heroically thrust her arm into the
staple. It was instantly broken, and the rullians
burst into the chamber. The king, who h.ad
sought refuge in a vault under the floor, was dis-
covered, and after a desperate resistance was
cruelly murdered. The murderers were all appie-
hended in less than a month, and put to death
by tortures shocking to humanity. By his wife,
the heroine of the Kiiir/is Qitair, he left one
son (his successor) and five daughters, one of
whom, Marijuerite d'Ecosse, dauphine of France,
was a gifted poetess. James was unquestionably
the ablest of the Stewart sovereigns, and wius
possessed of high poetical genius. His principal
poem, entitled i7ic Kinqis Qiiair (i.e. the king's
quire or book ), is remarkable for elei'ance of dic-
tion antl tender delicacy of feeling. 1 he humorous
pieces Chrisfs Kirk on the Green and Pcblin tu the
Flay are much later compositions ; but a ' Ballad
of Good Counsel,' written, unlike ThcKimjis Qtiuir,
strictly in the Scottish dialect, is ascribed by Pro-
fessor Skeat to James. See Professor Skeat's eili-
tion of The Kingis Qtiaii- (Scottish Text Soc. 1SS4),
and Rossetti's noble ballad, 'The King's Tragedy.'
James II., king of Scotland ( 14:i7-60), was (Uily
si.x years old at the time of his fathers murder.
So alarming was the aspect of aflairs that the
queen-mother deemed it necessary to take shelter
with her son in the castle of Edinburgh. Along
with Sir Alexander Livingston of Calleudar .she
was entnisted with the care of the young king ;
but Sir M'illiam Crichton, who was ajipointed
Chancellor, and was governor of Edinburgli Castle,
kept ])ossession of his per.son, until the queen
contrived to convey her son out of the fortress
concealed in a chest, and took refuge with Living-
ston in Stirling Castle. Crichton was Iiesieged in
his stronghold, and compelled to make his sub-
mission. Meanwhile the country was brought to
the verge of ruin by the feuds of the nobles, and
the death of the Earl of Douglas in 1439 removed
the only restraining power. Livingston availed
himself of the marriage of the queen-dowager to
Sir James Stewart of Lorn to com|)el her to resign
her olHce as guardian of the king. Crichton and
Livingston became reconciled, and were now the
sole rulers of the kingdom, till in 1449 the young
king assumed the reins of government. He dis-
jilayed great prudence and vigoin- in the manage-
ment of public afVairs. and iidlicted condign punish-
ment on the Livingstons for their treatment of his
mother.
The truce which had for some years existed
between England and Scotland expired in 1448,
and war was renewed on the Borders. Peace, how-
ever, wa-s restiued in the following year by the con-
clusion of a iierm.ment truce. In June 1449 James
married Mary, the only daughterof Arnold, Duke of
(iuelilres. He jirocured from the parliament a mim-
ber of judicious enactments for the repression of
outrages, the imiiartial administration of justice,
the protection of the tenants of the feudal barons
from summary ejection from their lands, and for
the punishment of marauders. But his efforts to
JAMES III. IV. OF SCOTLAND
273
piornote the social welfare of the people were
greatly olistnioted and tlnvarteil liy the nohle.s,
and espwially )>y the Dongliuies (see Doi'ULAS);
Earl William hent his whole energies to obtain
pre-eminent position and power, and he entered
into a tie;isonal>le homl with the Earls of Crawford
and Hoss. James inviteil him to the court at Stir-
ling, and earnestly urged him to withdraw from his
engagement with t'rawford and Ross. Douglas in
a iiaughty and insolent manner refused to comply
with this re(|uest : and the king, whose temper was
naturally fiery, lost all self-comnuvnd, and stalihed
the earl with his dagger. Some of the courtiei's
pierced his body with twenty-six wimnds. After
this atrocious mnrder the friends and vassals of
the earl maile war on the king until, by liberal
promises of land and honours. Lord Hamilton and
other powerful nobles were induced to abandon
their cause ; their estates were then forfeited, and
they were compelled to take refuge in England.
James was so irritated at the conduct of the Yorkist
faction in protecting and pensioning the e.xiled
Douglases that he unwisely surtered himself to be
entangled in the contest between the rival houses
of York and Lancaster, and marched for England in
1460 at the head of a powerful army. He laid
siege t« Itoxburgh Civstle, which was at that time
in the hamls of the English, and was killed by the
bursting of a cannon.
Jaiues III. (1460-88), born lOth July 14:)1,
succeeded James IL in 1460. The guardianship
of the young monarch was entrusted to his mother
and Kennedy, Bisho]) of St Andiews, a prelate of
great sagacity and integrity, while the Earl of
Angus, chief of the " Ked Douglases,' was made
lieutenant-general. L'nder their management the
government of the kingdom was carried on judici-
ously and successfully ; but the death of the earl
in 1462 and of the bishop in 1466, while the king
was still a boy. left the country a prey to the
factious and ambitious nobles, conspicuous among
whom was Lonl Boyd, high justiciar. Lend Boyd's
son wa.s created Earl of Arran, and in 1467 he
obtained the hand of the kings sister, the Princess
Margaret. The ambition and arrogance of the
family, however, led to their downfall. Tlie Earl of
Arran fled to the Continent ; and after his death,-
which took place apparently before 1472, the Princess
Margaret married Lord Hamilton (1474), whose
descendants became by this alliance the nearest
heirs to the crown. When the king reached man-
hood the defects of his character became api)arent.
He had a refined and cultivated mind and fine tastes,
WEus fond of mathematics and of music, and [lossessed
great skill in architecture : but ho w:is ipiite unfit
to rule a country like Scotland at that period and
to keep in order its rude and turbulent noljlcs. He
was fond of money and of plejusure, and spent his time
in the society of architects, painters, and musicians.
The nobles were indignant at the slight thus put
upon them, ami attaclied themselves to the king's
brothers, the Ouke of Albany and the Earl of Mar,
who were distinguished for their courage and skill
in ndlitary exercises. James became jealous of
their jjopularity and put them in prison, whence
Albany escaped to the Continent, but Mar <lied in
confinement. Albany had, in fact, aspired to the
crown and had engaged to hold it a-s the vassal of
Edward, king of England. In retaliation for an
inv.asion of the country by an English lleet, James
summoned the array of the kingdom t<i make an
inroad into England. The army had atlvanced as
far a-s Lauder wlien the dlsallected nobles suddenly
seized the royal favourites and hanged them on a
bridge ovi-r the river Leader — Angus obtaining the
name of Bell-the-Cat from his holdne.ss in taking
the initiative. Keturning to Edinburgh, they
commit led the king a clo.se prisoner to the ca«tle of
278
Edinburgh. A reconciliation was efl'ected between
the king and his brother, but it was of short
duration. The consoiracy among the nobles was
.speedily renewed. Tliey rose in ojien rebellion, and
induced the young heir to the throne to become
their nominal head. The king was supported by the
northern liarons, but they were greatly outnumbered
by the rebels. An encounter took place between
the two lx)dies (Utli June 14S8) at Sauchieburn,
about a mile from the famous lielil of Banuockburn.
When the battle was going against the royalists
the king galloped from the field, but was thrown
from his horse at Beaton's Mill, and murdere<l.
James left by liis queen, Jlaigaret of Dennuirk, three
sous, the eldest of whom succeeded to the throne.
James IV. ( 14SS-1.'>13) was born in 147.'>. lie
was only in his sixteenth year when he was induced
to join the disaffected liarons in their rebellion
against his father, but there is no reason to believe
tluit he was a mere passive tool in their hands. The
reuuirse which he felt on learning of his father's mur-
der, shown by his wearing an iron chain round his
waist and submitting to various other austerities
liy way of penance, att'ords conclusive evidence of
his consciousness of guilt. His confederates in the
rebellion, as might have been expected, turned their
victory to their own advantage. They took posses-
sion of all the most important offices of state, of the
money in the royal treasur\% and of the late king's
jewels. They liad even the eti'rontery to accuse
the loyal barons of treason, and to deprive them
of their estates, which were divided among the
leading conspirators.
When the young kin;' reached maturity he ex-
hibited great energy and good .sense in the admin-
istration of public affairs, in vindicating law and
punishing crime, in encouraging shipbuilding, and
in developing the agriculture and manufactures of
the country. He gradually withdrew his confidence
from the barons wlio had used him as a tool to gain
their own selfish ends, ami transferred it to Sir
Andrew Wood (q.v. ) and other trustworthy counsel-
lors. James vigilantly guarded against the en-
croachments of the papal court, and firmly asserted
the ecclesiastical independence of his kingdom.
His romantic and rash disposition induced him to
support the cause of the imjiostor, Perkin Warbeck,
who visited Scotland in 1495, and to invade Eng-
land in his behalf. However, in 1497 a truce for
seven years was concluded between the two king-
doms, and in August 1503 the Scottish king was
married to ilargaret, eldest daughter of Henry
VII. — an alliance which led ultimately to the union
of the crowns. James's att'able manners, frank dis-
position, and splendid hospitality made liim highly
popular among his sulijects, and his friendship
was courted by foreign sovereigns. Henry VIII.,
who ascende<l the English throne in 1.509, joined
the league against France, while James auhered
to the ancient alliance with that country. Petty
disputes arose between the bonlerers of the two
countries, and inroads were made on both sides.
James was indignant at the capture of two privateers
commanded by the famous .\ndrew Bartnn, who
fell in an engagement with two English men-of war,
and all re(lres.s was refused by Henry. The I'rench
king, hard pressed bytlie Spanish and English armies,
made strenuous idlorts to obtain a.ssistance from the
Scots, an<l the Erench queen addressed a letter to
James calling herself his mistress, and entreating
him for her sake to advance three feet into English
ground. He wsis unfortunately imlnoed to comply
with her request, ami, disregarding the entrealiesof
his ijueeu and the remonstrances of his counsellors,
he summoned thi" army of bis kingdom and invaded
England in llic> sunnner of loi:?. He lingered
about the Borders until the Earl of Surrey had
collected a powerful army to repel the invasion. A
274 JAMES V. OF SCOTLAND
JAMES I. OF ENGLAND
battle took place at Flodden (q.v.), 9tli Scptemlier,
ill wliicli tlie Scottish kinj; ami tlie llowcr of his
nobility ami j;eiitry lost tlieir lives. .laiucs pos-
sessed excellent aliilities and };reat acconii)lishnients,
but he was headstront;, obstinate, and inipalient of
contradiction, licentious, fond of pleasure, and pro-
fuse in his expenditure. See (irejjory Sniitli's
Dai/s of James IV. (IS'JO).
James V. ( 1513-42), wlio -was born on the 10th
of Aiiril 1.512, ascended the throne at a most critical
period ; for, thou;;li contrary to expectation the
Earl of Surrey did not insade Scotland, the king-
dom was torn by intestine feuds between rival
factions. The ijueen-dowager, headstrong and
passionate, w.is appointed regent. About eight
months after the king's death she gave birth to
a son, who died in infancy; and four months later
she married the young Earl of Angus, head of
the Douglas family. Her marriage put an end
to her regency, and the Duke of Albany, son of
the younger brother of James III., was invited
from France and chosen in her room. Amid the
contentions of the rival French and English
factions, and the private quarrels of the nobles,
the country was reduced to a state of almost total
anarchy. The intrigues of Henry contributed not
a little to foment the prevailing disorders. Albiiny,
who insisted on revisiting France, returned after
the lapse of a few months to find the Hamiltons
and Douglases at open war ; and, after \aiu
efforts to assert the authority of the go\ern-
ment, he ol)tained permission in the beginning of
152-t to re\isit France for a limited period, but did
not return. Meanwhile the young king had been
placed under the care of the poet Sir David
Lyndsay, who instructed him in all manly and
liberal accomplishments ; but his mother interrupted
his education, and, with the assistance of her brother
Henry VIIl. in 1524, when James had reached his
thirteenth year, put him at the head of the govern-
ment in oriler that she and her faction might mis-
govern the kingdom in his name. She had now
become tired of her husband, and after a good deal
of difficulty she succeeded in obtaining a divorce
from him, and married young Henry Stewart, a son
of Lord Avondale. In the following year the
custody of tlie ycmng king fell into the hands
of the Douglases, who kept him a close prisoner
until he made his escape in 1528, and assumed the
jiosition of an independent sovereign. He dis-
played great firmness and resolution in carrying
out his judicious policy, though unfortunately his
murals had been deeply injured by the manner in
which the base syco|diants of the court had pandered
to his ]ia.ssions. He expelled froni the kingdom the
Douglases, who had entered into a traitorous league
with England, severely punished the I'order free-
booters, chasti.sed the insurgent Highlanders, re-
newed the ancient commercial treaty between Scot-
land and the Netherlands, instituted the College of
Justice, and took measures to protect the ])easantry
against the tyranny of the b.inius. Hissymjialhy
with the common people and his habit of visiting
their houses in disguise i>rocured for him the
designation of ' the king of the commons.' In 1.5.36
James undertook a voyage to France, and on the
1st of Jamiary 1537 he was married to Magdalene,
daughtcu- of Francis I., who, however, died in the
following July. In June 1.538 James niarrieil
Mary of Uuisc, widow of the Duke of Lougueville
and sister of the Duke of (!uise.
Meanwhile the principles of the reformed faith
were making progress in Scotland, and Henrv VIII.
tried to induce his nephew to fed low his ecclcsia-stical
policy and to re))udiate the authority of the jiajial
see. But James, though he looked with a severe eye
upon the overgrown wealth, idleness, and corruii-
tiou of the clergy, found it necessary to rely on their
support in order to reduce the exorbitant power
of tlie nobles. The bishops on their part strove to
bring about a ru]iture with England. Witli the
hope of gaining over his ne[phew to adopt his policy,
Henry invited the Scottish king to meet him at
York in the autumn of 1541, and waited there six
days for him. But James wa.s induced to break
his engagement, and the proud tem]ier of the
Englisli monarch lired at till- insult. ( )th('r causes
of offence arose, and war broke out between the two
countries in 1542. An army of 30,0(K) men under
the Duke of Norfolk were ordered to invade Scot-
land ; but the attempt ended in nothing. A Scot-
tish army levied to oppose the invaders advanced
as far as F\ila : the nobles, howi^ver, while willing
to support James within the kingdom, refused to
follow him beyond the frontier. Another army
Mas shortly after levied by the exertions of the
clergy ; but the command of this army having been
unwisely given by the king to a favourite named
Oliver Sinclair, the nobles again refused to act.
While the Scottish army thus disputed, a body of
F^nglish Borderers fell upon and coin]iletely routed
tliem at Solway Moss, taking many ]irisoners.
James was completely overwhelmed by this shame-
ful discomliture, and fell into a state of the deepest
despondency. He retired to F'alkland Palace
attacked by a slow fever which no skill could
remove, and he died there 14th December 1542, in
the thirty-lirst year of his age. He left one legiti-
mate child, the ill-fated Mary, who was only a
few days old at his death, and six natural children,
one of whom was the celebrated Kegent Moray.
See Bapst, Lcs MariiKjcs de Jiivqiics V. (1889).
James I. of Exol.vnd (1U03-25) and VI. of
Scotland (1567-1025) was the only son of Mary,
tjueeu of Scots, and Henry, Lord Darnley. He was
born in Edinburgh Castle on the lOlli June 1.566,
at which time unpleasant relations between Mary
and her husband were beginning to develop them-
selves. Then followed the murder of Darnley in
February 1567, the marriage of ilary to Bothwell
ill May, the rising of the nobles at Carberry Hill
in June, and the subseijuent impri.sonment of Mary
and enforced resignation of her crow u. In conse-
quence of this rapid course of events , lames was
IMOclaimed king of Scotland, 29th .Inly 1567. The
nation at this time was rent by factions, and, as
was customary in Scotland under 'haiiii kings,'
each faction sought to have possession of the per-
son of the monarch. James was placed in Stirling
Castle in the keeping of the Earl of Mar, and here
he received his education under the laiiioiis .scholar
(ieorge Buchanan. Within eleven years Moray,
Lennox, Mar, and Morton had successively held
the regency of tlie kingdom, and when, in 1578,
the Kegent Morton was driven from power James
himself uominally a.ssunied the direction of affairs.
But the government of his advisers was unpojuilar,
and Morton once more succeeded in re-estahlish-
ing himself in the regency. About this time
James began to exhibit that )iartiality towards
favourites which was so characteristic a feature
of his life; and an acconi|dislied, but truculent
and unprincipled soldier. Captain .lames Stewart,
whom he created Earl of Airan, was the favourite
with who.se help and that of the Duke of Lennox
(another favourite) the hiiig was enabled liiially
to break the power of Morton. Alter Morion's
execution (1581 ) James ruled the kingdom through
his two favourites, not without much discon-
tent and grunihling on the part both of the kirk
and the nobility. Hence, im 12tli .\ugust 1582,
occurred the well-known Itaid of Kulhven (<|.v.),
when the king was forcibly seized by a party of
his nobles, and under their direction was (il)liged
to sanction the imprisonment of .\iiaii and the
banishment of Lennox. In 1583 a counterplot
JAMES I. -II. OF ENGLAND
275
■effected the king's freedom, wlieii he immediately
restored Arran to power. Tlie confederate lords were
obliged to tlee to England, whence, in 158.5, through
the connivance of t^ueen Elizabeth, they returned,
and with an army of UMMK) men forced James to
capitulate in Stirling Castle. .\rran once more
w;i.s banished, and never again restored to [)Ower.
In l.")86 Queen Mary, then a [irisoner in tuglaud,
wa-s condemned l)y the English court to be
executed. James's conduct at this time, taken in
coimectiou with his previous attitude towards his
mother, and his subsequent friendly alliance with
Elizalieth, has been severely censured by Marys
S artisans, and in truth does not admit of much
efence. In the winter of 1589 he went to Denmark,
where he married the Princess Anne (1574-1619),
daughter of Frederick II., king of that country.
During these and sulisequent years James was fre-
quently in conflict with the Presbyterians on the
one hanil, and with the Roman Catholics on the
other. Like Elizabeth, he hated Puritanism, and
\v;is not disinclined towards some moditied form
of Romanism. The spirit of Presbyteriaiiism he
regarded as too democratic, and was therefore dis-
posed to introduce Episcopacy into Scotland, and
did ultimately (in 1600) succeed in establishing
bishojis. In consequence of this tendency the king
had frequent theological discu.ssions with the Pres-
byterian ministers : which discussions, however,
were not altogether unwelcome to him, as he had
a strong taste for polemics. Prom 1.391 to 1594 the
Roman Catholic lords in the north were in a state
of semi-insurrection ; but James linally marched
against them, and the disturbances were sup-
pressed. In 1600 occurred that strange episode,
the Gowrie Conspiracy (qv.).
During the whole of Elizabeth's long reign the
disturbing element in Englisli politics had been the
• question of the succession to the throne ; this Wiis
(iiially settled when, on the death of that queen in
1603, James VI. of Scotland ascended the English
throne. He was at lirst well receiveil by his subjects
in England, Ijut subsequently became unpopular by
reason of his continued partiality towards favour-
ites. He also degradeil the prerogative of the crown
1)y the sale of titles of dignity : the title of baronet,
which he originated, couhl be bought for i;i000, a
barony for £5000, and an earldom for £20,000. His
chief favourite at this time was Robert Kerr, or
Carre, a Scotchman of the Border family of Kerr
of Ferniehirst. on whom he showered honours and
emoluments, finally creating him Earl of Somei'set.
When Carre fell out of favour he was succeeded
by the notorious Buckingham. The king really
g<iverned through these minions, and the name and
prestige of England, so forniiilable under Elizabeth,
sank into insigniticance. In 1617 James revisited
Scotland, signalising his reap|iearance among his
Scottish subjects by several angry disputes with
the clergy, in which the king did not always come
ott' victoriou.s. His eldest son, Henry, Prince of
Wales, having, to the great grief of the nation, died
in 1612, the succas.sion devolve<l upon his second son
Charles (afterwards Charles I.), between whom and
a Spanish princess the king was long anxious to
etlect a marriage, but after years of negotiation the
project Wius not successful. Buckingham, who Wius
entnisted too much with the conduct of the atlair,
acted ra.shly and unwisely, with the consequence
that war broke out between the two countries.
.lames died on 27th .March 1625. His character
has been painted in various colours by ditrerent
historians. Sully epigrammatlcally described him
as 'the wisest fool in Christendom ; ' and Macaulay,
in one of his antithetical sentences, exaggerates
lilts aspect of .I.ames's character by stating th.it ' he
was indeed ma<le up of two men — a witty, wejl-
read scholar, who wrote, disputed, and harangued,
and a nervous, drivelling idiot who acted.' By
more recent historians, however, such a-s Von
Ranke and Mr S. R. Cardiner, his character has
been treated more broadly and mildly : but perhaps
the best popular estini.ate of the man, his manners,
and his peculiarities, is the representation of him
which is given by Scott in The Furtniics of Niijel.
The literary tastes which James had acquired
under the tuition of Buchanan appeared in after
life in various works which he issued, but none of
which ever became ]io)iular. These are £ss((i/s of
a Prentice in the Dii-iiie Art of Poesie (1584);
Poetical Exercises at Vacant Hours ( 1591 ) ; Demon-
o/offic (1.597); Basilicoii Doron (q.v.), in which
he embodie<l liis somewhat extreme views as to
the divine right of kings ; and the Counterblast to
Tobacco (1616).
Besides the historians already named, as well as Burton,
Tytler, Calderwood, &c., the following may be read : Good-
man's Court of -lame.i /., edited by J. S. Brewer (2 vols.
1839 ) ; The Secret Hiftorii of the Court of Khvi Ja mea I.,
edited by Sir 'W. !-cott ( 2 vols. 1811 ), crmtaining ( )sborne's
Memoirs^ "VVeldon's valuable Court of Kint/ James, &c.
Jiinies II. of England and VII. of Scotland
(1685-88) was the second surviving son of Charles
I., and was liorn 14th October 1633. A short time
before his father's execution he escaped to Holland,
and shortly after went to France. He served for
some time in the French army under T-irenne. and
when he was obliged to leave the French territory
on the conclusion of peace between the English
Commonwealth and Louis XIV. he entered the
military service of Spain. At the Restoration ( 1660)
James was recognised as Duke of York, and was
made Lord High Admiral of England. In Novem-
ber 1659 he had married Anne Hyde, daughter of the
Chancellor, afterwards Earl of Clarendon. He had
some skill in maritime attairs, and in 1665 he com-
manded an English squadron which "ained a signal
vict<u'y over a Dutch fleet under Adndral Opdani.
In 1671 he again encountered, off the coast of Suf-
folk, the Dutch led by the celebrated De Ruyter,
and the conflict, which was obstinately contested,
terminated at nightfall in a drawn battle. On the
death of Anne Hyde in 1671 James made a public
avowal of his conversion to the Roman Catholic
faith. In 1673 the English parliament passed the
Test Act, requiring all civil and military ofUcers to
subscribe a declaration against transubstantiation,
and to receive the sacrament according to the rites
of the Church of England. James was consequently
obliged to resign the office of Lord High Admiral.
Shortly after he married Mary, daughter of the
Duke of Modena. The national ferment occasioned
by the supposed Popish Plot became so formidable
that he was under the necessity of retiring to the
Continent, and during his absence an attempt was
made to exclude him fnim the throne. He returned
at the close of 1679, but King Charles found it
necessary to reijuire him to remove again from the
court, and he was sent down to Scotland to take
the management of its allaii's. The cruelties which
he indicted on the Covenanters have left an indel-
ible stain upon his memory. Meanwhile the
Exclusion Itill was again introduced, and was twice
pa-ssed by the Commons, but in the lirst instance
It wa.s rejected by the Lords, ami on the second
occasion it was lost by the dissolution of the par-
liament. James then returned to England, and in
direct violation of the law took his seat in the
council, and resumed the direction of naval affairs.
At the death of Charles in 1685 James ascended
the throni'. ami on taking his seat at the head of
the couiu'il board he declared his resolution to
maintain the established government both in
church iuid stale, and to respect the liberties of
the people. Ihib immeiliately after his accession
he proceeded to levy, on liLs own warrant, without
276 JAMES II. OF ENGLAND
JAMES
waiting for the nieetinj; of |>ailiaiiient, the customs
ami excise duties which they liad f,'ianted to
Charles only foi' life. He sent a mission to Kome,
heard mass osleutationsly in puhlie with regal
splendour, became, like his hrolher, the pensioned
slave of the French king, and made the interests
of his kingdom subservient Id the arbitrary and
aml)itious designs of that nionareh. In Scotland,
at his instance, the pei^ecution of the Covenanters
Mas reneweil with increased severity and cruelty,
and a law was passed enacting that attendance at
a conventicle, either as a ])reacher or a hearer,
should be punished with death and confiscation
of goods. After the futile rebellion of James's
nephew, Monnunith (ii. v. ), came the ' liloody
Assize,' presided over by the infamous JetlVeys,
in which 3'20 persons were hanged ; the judicial
murder of Alice Lisle aiul Elizabeth Gaunt pro-
duced an especially strong impression on the public
mind. The suspension of the Test Act by the
king's own authority, his prosecution of the seven
bishops on a charge of seditious libel, his conferring
ecclesiastical benefices on Roman Catholics, his
violation of the rights of the universities of O.xford
and Cambridge, liis plan for packing parliament,
and numerous other arbitrary and despotic acts
showed his fixed determination to destroy the con-
stitution and to overthrow the church. The indig-
nation of the people was at length roused against
him, and it became evident that his exjiulsion from
the throne was necessary for the welfare and safety
of the nation. Tlie interposition of 'William,
Prince of Orange, James's son-in-law, was formally
solicited by seven intluential politicians, ami «as
readily granted. He landed at Torbay on the 4th
of November 1(588 at the head of a powerful arm\',
and began his march towards London. He was
everywhere hailed as a deliverer, wlule James was
deserted not only by his ministei-s and troops, hut
even by his daughter the Princess Anne. The
unfortunate king, on the first appearance of
danger, had sent his wife aud infant son to France,
and he soon after made his escape from the country
and joined them at St Germains. He was hosi)it-
alily received by Louis XIV., who settleil a pension
on him. In the following year, aided by a small
bodv of French troops, he proceeded to Ireland and
made an inell'ectual attempt to regain bis throne.
He was defeated at the battle of the IJoyne, and re-
turned to St Germains, where he resided until his
death, 6th September 1701, in the sixty-eighth year
of his age. He left two daughters — Mary, married
to the Prince of Grange, and Anne, afterwards
queen — and one son by his second wife, James
rraucis Edward, usually designated the Chevalier
de St George (see J.\coiutks). He had also sev-
eral ii.e^ltimate children — one of whom. Marshal
Berwick, was a renowned military commander.
See the Iiistories of Ungland by Macaulay, Eanke, Lin-
gard ; IJumet's Historii of h it Virn Time : Macpherson's
Historji o( Ureal liriUiui (1775) and Oiiijiiial Paprra
(1775)'; the Lives by C. J. Fox and C'larki.- (181G);
AVcUwood's Memoirs^ and Luttri'U's RcUition. of dilate
Affairs ; "Wilson's James II. and the Duke of Beneick
(1876); Canipana de CaveUi, Les Uernierii Stiiarlx a
St Germ.ain (Paris, 1871); Bloxain's MaijilaUn Colhye
ami James II. (18>SG) ; works cited at Ch.^RLES II.; and
articles Sevkn Ulsaors, &c.
•laiurs, GE()K(iK Pavne KainsfokI), romance-
writer, was born in London in 1801. The son of a
well-known phv sician, he wa-s educated at Pulney
and in I' ranee, ami by se\enteen had wiilten
some eiustern tales, which found favour with Wash-
ington Irving. Thereafter he ceased to write,
dictating instead to an amanuensis his ' thick-
coming fancies.' In all he published sesenty-seven
works, in 198 volumes — historical romances nio.stly,
but also bioyiaijliius, poems, &.c. The best were
among the earliest — Rkhelien (1829) and Hoiry
Munlciton (l^'i'2). He wa-s liritish consul at Kich-
mond, Vir'jinia, from 1852 till 1858, and then at
Venice till his death there on 9th May I8ti0.
' G. P. li. James ' may be chussed its a hybrid — a
productive hylirid -between Dumas aud Sirs Ann
Kadclili'e. Leigh Huut writes kindly of him, and
Sir Archibald Alison could 'revert with jileiisure
to his varied compositions,' which even yet nuiy be
safely recommended to tlie 'young jierson.' But
his two hoi-semen will be remembered best, if not
indeed solely, by Thackeray's parody BarOaziire.
James. Sin Hkxry. director of the t;eoh)gical
Survey of Ireland and of the Grdnance Survey of
the United Kingdom, was born near St Agnes in
Cornwall in 1803. He pa-ssed in 18'25 from the-
Koyal Military Academy, AVoolwich, into the
Koyal Engineers. In 1844 he was ai)i)ointed
director of the (ieological Survey of Ireland ; in
1846 head of the Admiralty works at Portsmonth ;
in IS-'/i director of the tirdnance Survey of the
United Kingdom ; and in 1857 chief of the
Statistical and Topograjdiical Department of the
War Office. He was knighted in 1800, and made
major general in 1868. He died at Southampton
on 15th June 1877. From his pen came several
works on geology, surveying, \c. , including
Onlnanee Trirfunomctrical Survey of Ircltiiid
(1858) and Account of the Principal Triangiilii-
Hon of the United Kingdom (1864). By means
of zinco-photogiaphy, ,a process which he inventeil
in 1859, he produced fac-similes of Domesdety Bool:
(32 vols.) and of national MSS. of England (to
Anne's reign), of Scotland, and of Ireland.
Jniiics. Henry, Loud (of Hereford), Q.C, born
at Hereford in 1828, went to school at Cheltenliam
College, and was callcil to the bar of the RHildle-
Temple in 1S5'2. In 1850, and again in 1851, he
ha<l attained legal distinction ius lecturer's prize-
man at the Inner Temple. He became a Queen's
Counsel in 1869, a bencher of his Inn in 1870;
and in March 1869 entered the House of Commons
for Taunton. He continued to represent Taunton
in the Liberal interest until 1885, when he was
returned for Bury, in Lancashire. He made a cou-
siderable mark in the debates on the Juilicattire
Bill in 1872, and in the succeeding year wa.*
apiiointed by Mr Gladstone Solicitor-general. In
1873 he became Attorney-general, and \\ as knighted ;
and in 1880, on the return of Mr (Hailstone toiiower,
he again became Attorney-general. He ably con-
ducted the Corrupt Practices Bill througli the
House of Commons in 1883. Sir Henry James
W!vs ofi'ered the Loril Chancellorship on the forimi-
tion of Mr (Sladstone's third administration iu
1886. but he declined to take ofiice in conse<|Uence
of his inability to support the Premier's Irish
Home-rule policy ; and in 1886 he was re-electcil
for Bury unopposed, as a Liberal I'nionist. He
defended the Times before the Parnell Commission,
and strongly opposed the second Home Knle
Bill. Cieated Lord James of Hereford in 1895,
he became Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster.
•lailU'S. Henkv. an eminent American novelLst,
was born in New York, 15th April 1843. He was
until his father's death known to the reading
public as Henry James, junior, the father (1811
82) being a well-known and original theological
writer and lecturer, the exiionent in turn of Sande-
manianism and the system of Swedenborg. The
boy w;us cosnuipolitan from his cradle, and was
educated under his father's eve in New York,
(;ene\a, Paris, and Boulogne. In 1862 he entered
the' Harvard law-school, liut his destiny wa-s to be
solely .1 man of letters, and, after the usual pre-
liminaries of nuigazinewriting and shorter stories,
he took his place among contemporurj- Mtxelists
JAMES
JAMESONE
277
with KofleHrl: Ifiir/soti in 1875. Already in 1869
he hail miirrated to Europe, there to reside hy
turns in Enj;lanil ami in Italy. He is only less
eminent as a critic, ami his perfect mastery of
modern French literature, aihled to his natural
subtlety of jierception, has j,'iven a quite extra-
imlinary value to his delightful, clever, yet in-
effective studies coUecteil in Frenrh Poets and
Xo>rli.its (1878) and Pmtin/ Portraits (1888).
The value of the latter in particular is marred hy
its inconclusive conclusions, and l)y too indiscrim-
inate .admiration of his friends. His Haicthornc
(1879). in 'English Men of Letters.' is a clever
study, but yet one scarce adequate to its theme.
Besides these he ha.s pulilished several v(dumes of
pen-sketches of things in the Old World, written
for American magazines, as Portraits of P/nres
(1884) and .-1 Litt/e Tour in France (1884). His
more important novels of greater or less length are
The American (1878): The Europeans (\9.-»): Daisi/
Miller (1878) ; A Bundle of Letters {iS'JQ) : IVash-
initnn Snunre (1880): The Portrait of a Ladtj
(1881 ) : The Bosfonians ( 1886) ; Princess Casanias-
sima (1886); The Traffic Muse (1890); What
Maisie Knem (1897); and The Awkward Ayr
(1899). Some of his cleverest work is to be found
in such volumes of shorter stories ,as Stories Re-
rired (188.5K Tlie Rererherator (1888), The Asjicrn
Papers ( 1 888 ), and A London Life ( 1889).
In fiction James may be said to lead the English
section of tlie analytical school represented in
France by Bourget, Guy de Maup.ossant, and other
too clever young writei^s. His stories deal mainly
with the uneventful lives of Americans living or
travelling in Europe, and their main interest lies
in the subtle contrasts presented in the contact of
a comparatively new with an ancient civilisation.
James has paid a price for his citizenship of the
older world, and some of his studies ha\ e l)een far
from pleasing to his countrymen. His chief want
as a novelist is a lack of vigour and of wholesome
Itreadth in his views of life. He shrinks from a
strong situation, even when it is required by
dramatic necessity, and his constant foible is ver-
bosity, which he escapes only in his shorter stories.
His style is ever neat and graceful — a medium
admirable for gentle satire on human weakness,
unfit for the expression of the tragic and deeper
side of nature. A spirit of tranquil pessimism
breathes through all his work, but the l)urden of
the world weiglis but lightly on his heart.
James. John Angeli,, an eminent Congrega-
tionalist minister, was born at Blandford Forum,
Dorsetshire, June 6, 178.5, ajiprenticed to a linen-
draper, afterwards studied for a short time at a
dissenting college at Gosport, and was placed on
the 'preaching list' at seventeen. He was highly
popular, aiul when only twenty was settled as
pastor of the 'church meeting in Cart's Lane,'
Birmingham, where he remained till his death,
October 1, 1859. He published a multitude of
sermons, tracts, addres,ses, and small religious
volumes (the best known being the Anxious
Inquirer), which had ,a v.ast circulation (collected,
17 vols. 1860-62). See his Life by Dale ( 1861 ).
Jaine.son. Anna, authoress and art-critic,
was the daughter of an Irisli miniature painter
named lirowell Murphy, anil was born al Dublin
in 1794. Her girlhood wrts passed in the north of
England, and then for a ilozen years she h.ad been
a governess, when in 1823 she married Mr Robert
Jameson, a banister, who in 1829 was appointed
a puisne judge in Dominica. In consequence of
lier husband's harsh treatment, Mrs Jameson
refused to accompany him : and save during a
brief visit to f'anarla in 1836-38, she ceased to live
with him. Mrs Jameson ).ulplished in 1831 her
first important work, entitled Memoirs of Female
Sorereirins, ami this was succeeded in the following
year by her subtle and fascinating Characteristics
of Sliakespcare's Women. Among other topics
upon which she Avrote at this time were female
labour, penitentiaries, and hospital nursing. She
furtlier published, in 1833. Beauties of the Court of
Charles II., in 1837 S/.etches of (ierninni/, in 1838
Rambles in Canada, and in 1846 .Memoirs and
Essai/.t. But it is as an art critic that she is 1)est
remembered, for her Handbook to Public Galleries
in and near London (1832); Lives of Early Italian
Painters (1845); Poetry of Sacred and Leyend-
arif .Irt (184S); Lcf/ends of the itlonastic Orders
(18.50); Leejends off he Madonna (1852); and a
Commonplace Book of Thour/hts, Memories, and
Fancies (1854). Her work on our Lord and
John the Baptist as represented in art was com-
pleted hy Lady Eastlake. She died at E.aling,
Slarch 19, 1860. See the Memoirs by her niece
(1878), and the new edition of her works (6 vols.
1890).
Jameson. Le.\nder Starr, leader of the raid
into the Transvaal, was born at Edinburgh 8th
Febru.ary 1853, studied medicine there and at
London, and having gone to the Cape, settled in
medical pr.actice at Kimberley in 1878. Through
Jlr Rhodes he took part in pioneer work, was made
administrator for the South Africa Company at
Fort Salisbury, and conciliateil enormous intlueiice
and popularity. During tlie troubles ,at Johannes-
b\irg between the litlamler reform party and the
Boer government, Jameson, who by order of Mr
Rhodes, then Cape Premier, had concentrated the
military forces of Rhodesia at Mafeking on the
Transva<al frontier, started with 500 troopers to
support the Reformers {29th December 1895) just
when they had been intimidated by President
Kruger ; and after riding foodless for twenty-four
hours the party encountered on 1st .January 1896
an overwhelming Boer force strongly jiosted at
Krugersdorp. to the west of Johannesburg. Sur-
prised and disappointed that no support came to
tliem from .Johannesburg, they fought gallantly
till their ammunition was exii.austed and till Boer
reinforcements brought up artillery. Then Jameson
and 450 men surrendered, aiul were imprisoned at
Pretoria, but handed over ere long to the British
autliorities for trial. Jameson, who arrived in
England two months after the raid, was in xVugust
condemned to fifteen months' imprisonment, with-
out hard labour. Sir .John Willoughliy, military
chief of the expedition (an officer holding Her
Miijesty's commission), to ten months, ami ' Dr
Jim's' other officers to minor terms of imprison-
ment— all as first-cLass misdemeaiumts. The private
troopers were not punished. This disastrous raid
provoked the German Emperor's congratvilatory
letter to Kruger, which caused such fierce resent-
ment in Britain and nearly led to war with
GerniiiMV.
Jameson. Robeut (1772-1854), geologist,
born at Leitli, and educated at Edinburgh Univer-
sity ami under Werner at Freiberg (1800-2), was
elected in 1804 to the ch.air of Natural History in
the university of Edinlmrgh. .•\t first a Weruerian,
he .ado])ted Ilutton's views ; and he published half
a ilozen works on mineralogy ami geognosy
(1804-.37).
Jamesone. Gkohue, portrait-painter, was born
in .\berdcen. probably in 1588, a son of .-Vndrew
Jamesone, a master- ni.ason and burgess of guild of
the city. A b.aseless tradition allirrucd that ho
studied painting in .\nfwerp under Rubens .along
with V^an Dyck. Re.illy In- was in UjI'J apprcniiccd
for eight years to 'Jolin .\ndcrson, paynler' (see
Academy, I4tli .April 1894). The dates inscribed upon
his works prove that in 16'20 he pr.actised his art
278
JAMES RIVER
JANIZARIES
at Alierdeeu. and afterwaiils mainly in Edinlmrjili,
of wliicli lie became a burjjess in 1C:)3. He was
soon in excellent repute as a poitiaitpainter, and
likenesses liy his hand of manv of his most eminent
contemporaries still exist. One of his chief patrons
was Sir Colin Campbell of Glenorohy, for wliom he
executed an extensive series of portraits, both from
the life and from earlier pictures, ^vhlcll are now
preserveil at Tavmouth Castle and Laiij;ton House,
Duns. Many works attributed to .lame.sone— in
not a few ca-ses falsely attributed to him— are pre-
served in the mansions of Scotland. His authentic
works are painted with considerable delicacy, but
are marred bv verv pronounced mannerisms, ami
their painter "has little claim to his custimiaiy title
of 'the Scottish Van Dyck.' He died at Edin-
burgh in 1044. See J. Bulloch's George Jamesone
(1885).
James River is formed by the union of the
Jackson and Cowpasture streams in the west of
Virginia, and has its entire course in that state.
It Hows in a generally east-south-east direction,
passin" Lynchburgh and Richmond ; and, widen-
in'' into an estuarv for the last 60 miles of its
course it falls intci the Atlantic at the southern
extremity of Chesapeake Bay. It is 450 miles in
length, and is navigable for large steamere to City
Poi'iit, at the mouth of the Appomattox. It was
at Jamestown, now a mined village on the north
bank of this river, that the first English settlement
in America was formed (1607). The James River
and Kanawha Canal, which extemls from Richmond
to the White Sulphur Springs, follows the windings
of tlie river for a considerable distance.
James's Bay. the southerly arm of Hudson
Bay about 250 miles long from north to south,
and 175 miles wide. It is greatly beset with
islamls, and its navigation Ls dangerous.
James's Powder is the modern representa-
tive of an old nostrum of Dr Itobert James
( 17( :? -76 ) of London. The iireparation in the pliar-
niacopieia which is supposed to ha\-e similar virtues
in febrile ali'ections consists of oxide of antimony |
and phosphate of lime. It is but little used now. |
Jamestown, a village of New York, on
Cliautauqua Lake, 70 miles S. by \\ • of Bullalo
by rail. It has manufactures of woollens and
alpacas, pianos, furniture, iS:c. Pop. (ISSU) 9357;
(1890) l(i,038.— Jamestoun, in North Dakota, has
a pop. of 2236. See also Jamks Rivek.
James Town, the chief place and only sea-
port of St Helena (q.v. ).
.lami, the last classical poet of Persia, U19-
92. See Persia (Literature).
Jamieson. JtiUS, D.D., a meritorious Scotch
scholar, was born in Glasgow, March 3, 1759,
studied for the ministry, and in 1781 was ordained
pastor of the Sei^'ssion (Anti-burgher) C(mgrega-
tion at I'mfar. In 1797 he was translated to Edin-
burgh, where he dioil July 12, 1838. Jamieson's
reijutatiou rests on his Etiimiiloqiml Dictiniiriri/ of
the Smtti.ih LniKiiiac/e (1808-9; supplement 1825;
best edition by l)avid Donaldson, 4 vols. 1879-87).
It is a work of great industry, and of very consid-
erable value as a collection of Scotch words,
phrases, customs, ^:c. ; but it pos.sesses little criti-
cal or ])hilological merit, according to tin- present
standard. His ])reliminary dissertation on the
'Origin of the Scots Language' is an elaborate
but iTnsuccessful attempt to prove that the Scottish
language is really the Pictisli language, and that
the Picts were not Celts, but Scandinavian (iotlis.
Jamie.son also wrote (Ui the Cnldees, on the allin
ities of the tireek and Latin languages to the
Gothic, on the royal palaces of Scotland, \c. : and
he published editions of Barbour's Brine, Blind I the first
Harry's ^'/r William ]Valkice, and Slezer's T/icat-
nun Sroti(r.
Jammn (Jmnmoo), a towni of Cashmere, on an
affluent of the Cheiiab. Pop. 8000.
JamilOtri. hot springs near the source of the
Jumna, in northern India, in 30' 59' N. lat. and
78 35' E. long., 10,849 feet above the sea. "Their
temperature is 194-7° P., nearly that of boiling
water at their elevation. They are overhung by
three connected immntains known as the Janiiiotii
Peaks (20,100 to 21,150 feet).
.Janesville. a city of 'Wisconsin, lies mostly
between blutls in the narrow bottom-land of Rock
River, which is crossed here liy six bridges, 91
miles NW. of Chicago, at the junction of four
railways. The river is crossed by dams, and its
water-power is utilised in the numerous mamifac-
tories. There are a number of Hour, cotton, and
woollen mills, two foundries, and thirty-four
factories of various kinds. Pop. (1890) 1],S36.
Janet;. Paul, an eminent French philosopher,
born at Paris, 30tli April 1823. He wa;s e<lucat<'d
at the Normal School, and was in turn teacher in
the gymnasium at Bourges, and professor of Philo-
soi)liy in the faculty at Strasbnig and of Logic in
the Ivceuin Lonis-le-Grand. In 1864 he was elected
to the Academy of Moral and Political Science.s,
and tlien he lectuieil in the Sorbonne at Pans. He
died 4th October 1899.
His books are La FamiUe (1855), Histoire de la Philo-
sophic marale et politique (1858), Le Philosophic du
Bonhcur (1862), ic Malirialisme contcmporain en Alk-
maone (18G4). Le Ccrrenu et la Pcn.si'c ( 1866 ), £<•.•> Pro-
blfmes rf» XIX' SiMc {1H72), Philo^ilde de laPn-olu-
tion Fran^aise (1875), Les Causm finales (18i0; tng.
tr.ms 1878), La Philosophic FrarK^aise coiitemporaine
(1S79), and Les Origines du Soeialiime eontemimrain
(I8s;!). ...
Janin. Jile.s Gabriel, French critic and
novelist, was born at St Etienne, December 24,
1804, and had his education there and at Pans.
He took early to journalism, writing for thoFujaro,
the Ouotidic'iiiic, and the Joiirmd cles Dihut.i, and
his dramatic criticisms in the last-named lournal
made him a leput.atiou by their wit an<l vivacity.
Janin wrote with fatal tluencv, and his numberless
articles, prefaces, books of travel, and miscellaneous
pieces of task-work pleased his readers and Idled
ids pockets, but di<l nothing for a future
But the 'prince of critics' wrote „ .
present, lacking the instinct of perpetuity. \et
twice ho came near to writing things which the
world will not willingly let .Jie. His strange and
at lea-st half-serious story J.'Aiir morl et I" 1-emnic
qiiillotinfe ( 18'29 ) was followed by linrnnre ( 1831 ), an
interesting book, half-historical novel, half polemic
a".ainst the Orleans family. Janin succeedeil to
Sainte-Beuves chair in the French Academy
in 1870, and died I9th June 1874. His U-.jn-res
Chnisies, in twelve v(dumes, aimeared in l_8jf>-78,
and his Corrcsjiuiiiltiiiee was published in 1877.
.lanina (pronounced Vdiiiiia), or JOANNINA,
capital of a vilavet in Turkish Albania, stands
in a striking situation on a lake (12 miles hmg'
by 3 broad) of the same name, 50 miles inland
from the shore opposite the island of Corfu. Its
buildiu"s include iiKue than twenty ecclesiastical
edilicesr and the ruined castle of Ali Pasha ( q. v. ),
whose headnuarters were at Janina. Gold lace
is extensivetv manufactured, as well as morocco
leather, silk goods, and culour.Ml liu.'U. The i.opu-
latioii, which numbered 4(1.000 under All I'asba. is
now about 20,0tHP, of whom some 15,0(K)aieGre(d<s ;
Greek is the language spidicii. The town has been
under Turkish rule since 1430.
Janizaries (Turkish, meaning 'new soldiers'),
fame,
for the
regular
standing army of the Turks,
JAN MAYEN LAND
JANSEN
formetl l>y Sultan Orklian, almnt 1330, of Christian
prisoneis oompcllod to enilirace Jloliamniedanisni,
and of tlio cliildren of t'liristians forcilily trained
as Mns-iiiliiians. It was more perfectly organised
by Orkhan's son, Aniuratli I., after 13ti2, especial
privileges being conferred on those wlio belonged
to it. This soon induced many Turks to join its
ranks. There were two classes of Janizaries, one
regularly organised, dwelling in barracks in Con-
stantinopK- and other towns, whose numbers some-
times amounted to 100,OtlO, and the otlier conipos-
im; an irregular militia, scattered throughout the
empire, and amounting to 300,CKM) or 400,000.
At the head of the whole force was an aqa, who
was hehl in most reverential respect, and wliose
power extended to life and death. In time of
peace the Janizaries acted as a police force. In
•war they served on foot, and were noted for tlie
wild impetuosity of their attack. The sultan's
lK)dyguard was formed of them. But success and
special privileges produced their usual eftects ; tlie
history of the Janizaries abounds in conspiracies,
;issassinations of sultans, viziers, agas, &c., and
atrocities of every kind, and in tlie end they
became more dangerous to the sultans than any
foreign enemies. More than one sultan attempted,
but unsuccessfully, to reform or dissolve them. At
last Sultan Mahmoud II.. in 1S26, having organised
a new force after the pattern of the European
armies, displayed the flag of the Prophet, and after
some sanguinary fighting drove back the Janizaries
into their barracks, which he burned, SOOO perishing
in the flames. Not fewer tlian 15,000 were e.Keeuted,
and more tlian 20,000 banished. By a proclamation
of June 17, 1828, the Janizary force was finally dis-
solved : its place was taken l)v the Nizam, the
modern regulai-s organised on ,a £uropean plan.
Jail llayen Land, a volcanic island in the
Arctic ( Icean, named after the Dutch navigator by
wliom it was discovered in 1011. It lies between
Iceland and Spitzbergen, and is 35 miles long. Its
highest point is the e.\tinct volcano of Beerenberg,
8350 feet (.Mohn, 188"), the sides of which are
covered with immense glaciers and frozen water-
falls. In 1882-83 it was made the station of the
Austrian ]iolar expedition. Important seal and
whale fishings are carried on east and north of
Jan Mayen eveiy summer. For an account of the
island, see Lord bufl'erin's Letters from High Lati-
tudes (2d ed. 1S57), and Nature for August 1883.
Jansen. Curxeliis, from wliom the sect of
Jansenists derives its name, was bom in 15S5, at
Acquoi, near Leerdam, in Holland. He made his
stuclies at Utrecht, Louvain, .and Paris, and from
early youth was familiar witli some of tlie disciples
of Bajus (i(.v. ), and with the .\bbe do St Cyran.
For some time he filled a chair at Bayonne : and in
1617 he was called to Louvain, where in 1030 he was
appointed professor of Theology. In 1630 he w;is
made Bishop of Ypres, and in this city he died of
the plague. May (i, 1G38, just as he had completed
liis great work of more than twenty years' prepara-
tion, the A nr/ustiiius, seu Doetrinn S. A hi), ae J/ inn.
Niiturw Sanitate, yEf/riticdiiic, Mediciiia, advcrsus
Pelagianos et Massilienses (4 vols.), which proved
the occasion of a great theological controversy.
The main object of this work was to prove, by
an elaborate analysis of St Augustine s works,
that the teaching of this Father against the Pela-
gians and .semi I'elagians on (Jrace, Freewill,
and Predcstin.itloii wa.s directly opposed to the
teaching of the moclera, and especially of the
Jesuit .schools, which latter teaching he held to be
identical with thai of the semi-relagians. Jansen
repudiated the ordinary Catholic dogma of the
freedom of the will, understood to mean the power
to choose at the time good or evil (lihertas contra-
dictioiiis), asserting merely the existence of freedom
from external constraint (iibertas a eoartiouc), not
inward necessity. He also refused to admit merely
sutlicient grace, maintaining that interior grace is
irresistible, and that Christ died for all. In tlie
preface Jansen sulmiitted the work to the judg-
ment of the holy see ; and on its publication,
under the care of trommond, in 1040, being received
with loud clamour, especially by the Jesuits, the
A iiifustiii us was prohibited by a decree of the Inquisi-
tion in 1641 ; in the following year it was condemned
in general terms, as renewing the errors of Bajus,
by Vrban Y III. in the bull In Eminenti. This bull
encountered much opposition in Flanders ; and in
France the Aur/ustinus found many partisans,
animated both by doctrinal predilection and anti-
pathy to the alleged laxity of moral teaching in the
schools of the Jesuits, with whom the opposition to
the Aiigustinus was identified. Most eminent
among these were the celebrated scholars and
divines who formed the community of Poit Royal
( q. V. ), Amaiild, Nicole, Pascal, and others. Never-
theless, the .syndic of the Sorbonne extracted from
the Augustiiius seven propositions (subsequently
reduced to five) which were definitively condemned
as heretical by Innocent X. in 1653. The friends
of the Augustinns. wliile they admitted that in
point of rigitt the live propositions were justly con-
demned as heretical, yet denied that in point oifact
the.se propositions were to be found in the Augus-
tiniis, at least in the sense imputed to them by the
bull. Arnauld in a celebrated Lettrc admitted the
church's infallibility on the former question, and
the duty of entire submission, but held that the
latter was a question of historical fact on which the
church might err, and that it was suflicient if the
faithful received her decision on it with ' respectful
silence.' ileantime the controversy had produced
one work that holds its immortality as securely as
any book in the range of literature, the Lcttrcs
Provinciales of Pascal. Arnauld's distinction be-
tween right and fact was at length condemned by
the Sorbonne, and himself and sixty other doctors
expelled, and in October 1656 a further condemna-
tion of the Augusti?iHs, ' in the sense of the author,'
was issued by Alexander VII., rigidly enforced in
France, and generally accepted : and early in 1669
peace was partially restored by Clement IX. —
at least all o\ert opposition was repressed by the
iron rule of Louis XIV.
The more rigid Jansenists, however, and at their
head Antoine Arnauld, emigrated from France,
and formed a kind of community in the Low
Countries. The controversy was revived with new
acrimony by the dispute on the so-calle<l ' case of
conscience,' whether a dying ecclesiastic C(nil<l law-
fully be absolved who was not convinced that the
five propositions as condemned by the church were
contained in the Augustinus ; and still more
angrily in the person of the celebrated li'uesnel,
whose Moral Jiijlections on the New Testament was
denounced to the pope, Clement XL, as a text-book
of undisguised Jansenism. This pope had alreadv
in 170,') decided the case of conscience by the bull
' Vineani Domini,' when in 1713 he condemned by
the bull ' Unigenitus ' .is many as 101 propositions
extracted from the Moral liejlections. After the
death of Louis XIV. the regent, the Duke of
Orleans, was urged to refer the whole controversy
to a national council, and the leaders of the .lan-
senist ]iarty a]ipealed to a general council. The
party thus formed, which numbered in 1717 four
l)ishops and many inferior ecclesiastics, were called,
from this circumstance, the Appellants. The lirm-
ness of the pope, and a change in the ]iolicy of the
regent, bnmglit them into disfavour. An edict wiw
published, June 4, 1720, receiving the bull : and
even the parliament of Paris submitted to register
280
JANSSEN
JANUS
it. although with a reservation in favour of the
liberties of the Gallican Church. The Appellants
for the most part submitted, the recusants being
visited with severe penalties ; and on the coming
of a"e of the new king, Louis X\'., the un-
conditional acceptance of the bull was at length
forinallv accomplished. From this time forward
the Vppellants were rigorously repressed, and
a large n\imber emigrated to the Netherlands,
where they formed a community, with Utrecht as
a centre. 'The party still remaining in France per-
sisted in their inveterate opposition to the bull, but
the real significance of Jansenism may almost be
said to have died with Que.snel in 1719, and, indeed,
the movement inaugurated by such intellects as
Xrnauld and Pascal ended in France before the
middle of the century in fanaticism and supersti-
tion. The miracles in the St Medard cemetery, and
the physical convulsions that became common,
brought Jansenism in France to a discredited con-
clusion (see CONVUL.SIONARIES).
In one locality alone, Utrecht, and its dependent
churches, can the sect be said to have had a regular
and permanent organisation. The vicar-apostolic,
Peter ivodde, having been suspended for Jansenist
sympathies by Clement XI. in 1702, the chapter
of Utrecht refused to acknowledge the new vicar
named in his place, and angrily joined themselves
to the Appellant party in France, many of whom
had found a refuge in Utrecht. At length, in 1723,
they elected an archbishop, Cornelius Steenhoven,
for 'whom the form of episcopal consecration was
obtained from the French bishop Varlet (titular of
Babylon), who had been suspended for Jansenist
oi)in'ions. A later Jansenist Archbishop of Utrecht,
Meindarts, established Haarlem and Deventer as
his suffragan sees; and in 1763 a synod was held,
which sent its acts to Home, in recognition of the
primacy of that see. Since that time the formal
succession has been maintained, each bishop, on
being appointed, notifying his election to the pope,
and craving confirmation. The popes, however,
have uniformly rejected all advances, except on the
condition of the acceptance of the bull Unigenitus ;
and the definition as of Catholic faith of the dognia
of the Immaculate Conception of the Blessed X irgin
Mary ( 1854) and the Papal Infallibility ( 1870) have
been the occasion of fresh protests. The Jansenists
of the Utrecht Church still number about 6000
souls, and are divided over twenty-five parishes in
the dioceses of Utrecht and Haarlem. Their clergy
are about thirty in number, with a seminary at
Amersfoort. Loos, the Jansenist Archbishop of
Utrecht, consecrated Dr Reinkens bishop for the
(ierman Old Catholics. Pius IX. restored the
Dut<h hierarchy in IS.'jl, so that there is now
an orthodox An-hbisho]) of Utrecht. The Dutch
.fansenists are in doctrine and discipline strictly
orthodox Konian Catholics, being known by their
countrymen as Oude Koomsch ('Old Roman').
See vol. ii. of Hergenrotlicr's Aflfjemeine Kirchcn-
tie.-:rhichtc (1877-78); Fuzet, Les Jansenistcs (1877);
"Xeale, Jansenist Church of IloUantI 11858); Keuchlin,
Gisch. ron Porl-Roiial (18:i9-44): Saintu-Beuve, I'oH-
Roi/al (I860); a "Uenuaii work by NippoUl (1872);
Secho, Lm ilernirrs Janafnislci (1891); French Jan-
senists, by Mrs ToUemache (1893).
Janssen, Coknki.is, born in London in 1593,
died at Amsterdam abcmt 1664, lived and worked
in England from about 1618 to 1043, and acquired
a reputation as a line painter of portraits ami
liistorical subjects.
.laiissens, .\BU.\HAM, a Dutch painter, wlio
ciLlled himself Janssens van Nuyssen. was boni in
Antwerp about l.')75, and entered the guild of St
Luke in 1601. He died at Antwerp in 1632. His
most famous jiictnrcs are the ' Lntonibment of
Christ' and the ' Adoratiou of the Magi.' From
his vigorous drawing and a<lmirable colouring he
ranks next to Rubens among the historical painters
of the period.— -Vnother artist of this name waa
Victor HnNOiiif.s J.vns.skn.s (born at Brussels
1664, died there 1739), who painted chiefly in Rome
and at Brussels.
Jaiitliina. See Lvnthina.
Jaiuiarilis. St, or San Gexxaro, a martyr
of the Christian faith under Diocletian, was a
native of Benevento, or at least became bishop of
that see in the later part of the 3d century.
According to the Neapolitan tradition, he was
taken prisoner at Nola ; and the place of his
martyrdom, in 305, was Pozzuoli, where many
Christians sutl'ered the same fate. His body is
preserved at Naples, in tlic cryi>t of the cathedral,
and in a chai)el of the same church are also pre-
served the head of the martyr, and two phials
{fimpu/hr) supposed to contain his blood. On
three festivals each year— the chief of which is the
day of the martyrdom, September 19, the otbere
the tii-st Sunday evening in M.ay and the 16th
December — as well as on occasions of public
danger or calamity, as earthquakes or eruptions,
the head and the phials of the blood are earned
in solemn procession to the high-altar of the
cathedral, or of the church of St Clare, where,
after prayerof longer or shorter duration, the Idood,
on the phials being brought into contact with the
bead, is believed to liquefy, and in this comlitiim
is presented for the veneratitm of the i>eople, or
for the conviction of the doubter. It occasionally
happens that a considerable time elapses before
the liquefaction takes place, and sometimes it
altogetlier fails. The latter is regarded as an
ome^ of the woi-st import : and on those occasions
when the miracle is dela\ed beyond the ordinary
time the alarm an<l excitement of the congrega-
tiiui rise to the highest pitch. Those wiio are
curious as to the literature of the controversy
regarding this celebrated legend will lind many
do'cuments in the sixth volume of the I'.ollandist
Acta tianctrjnim for September. For a good
account of the modern ceremony, see E. N. Rolfe
and H. Ingloby's Xttplcs in ISSS.
January, the first month of the year. It was,
among the "Komans, held sacred to ,lanus (q.v.),
from whom it derived its name, and was added to
the calendar along with February by Numa. It
was not till the 18th century that .l.muaiy was
universally adopted by European nations as the
Jirst month of the year, although the Romans con-
sidered it as such as far back as 251 B.C.
JanilS, an ancient Italian god. The distinc-
tive mark of Roman religion and Roman gods as
opposed to (Jreek gods is that the former are
alistract, whilst Creek thought was marked by its
anthropomoriihism. In the belief of the Roman
ever\ thing and every action had its corresponding
spirit -even such ju-ocesses as ploughing, harrow-
iii", i^-c. Janus, tried by this test, ap|Uoves bim-
seFf as peculiarly Italian. He is 'the spirit of
opening, and there is nothing in the mythology of
any other Aryan nation to corresponil to him. His
name is derived Iriuu the same root as the Latin
word jiiinia, 'agate' or 'opening.' As the spirit
of openin" he was invoked at the beginning ot all
undertakings (at the beginning of human life as
Cuii.tiviii.t). For the same reason he wivs the goil
of the beginning of day, Matiitiiui^ I'litcr, ami of
the bc'dnning of the (agricultural) year, the lust
nionth''of which, January (though originally the
eleventh of the calendar year), was dedicated to
liim. Hence, too, may be explained the fact that
he took precedence of all other gods, even of
.lupiter, and that he is called in the Saliario
Hymn Dcoriim Dens (Macrob. bat. i. 9), and even
JANUS
JAPAN
281
Summnntis. In the next place, a.*; the spirit of
oppnin<^, Jiinns was the jroil un<ler whose care
were all janucr, or gates, in Home : aliove all. he it
was under whose protection was the arch-way out
of which the army marched to war and liy wliieh it
retiirne<l. This arch-way, which in later times
was replaced hy a temple of Janus, naturally had
its gates open in time of war and closed in time
of peace. The tutelary god of the gate tliat
opened lioth ways was, by a natural transference
of tliought, himself represented l>y an image having
a double head that looked both ways (see As). His
connection with the year was sometimes indicated
by the fact that three fingers of the right liaml were
bent so as to indicate the numeral CCC (300),
while the fingei-s of the left liand were spread so
:ls to denote the numerals L (50) + V (5). or in
later times L + V h^ V + V — that is, in all. the
3.>5 days of the older, and the 365 days of the
refonned Julian year. As the god of gates he
naturally carries keys. As an auspicious god he
is crowned with laurel. The interpretation of
Janus as originally a god of light fails to explain
liis functions, is at variance with the spirit of
Konian religion, and is based on a false etymolog\":
Janus cannot be the masculine of Diana, because
the (■ is long ( and therefore cannot be consonantal ) :
and, moreover, the real masculine of Diana is
pre.served in an inscription (C. I. L. 5, 783), Jori
Vianfi. Janus is not derived from a root meaning
' to shine,' but from one meaning ' to go.'
•Inpan, a comjption of Marco Polo's Zipangii,
itself a corruption of the Chinese pronunciation
of the native name Sihon. Nikon, or Nippon,
means 'Land of the Rising Sun.' Dal, 'Great,'
is sometimes jirefixeil. Japan Proper comprehends
four large islands — \-iz. Honshu (the Japanese
mainland), Sliikoku, Kvushu, and Yezo — and
extends from 26° 59' to 45° .30' N. lat. Fomierly
the southern portion of Saghalien belonged to
Japan, but this was ceded to Russia in 1875, cer-
tain of the Ki:rile island gioup being granted in
return. The empire of Japan — the area of which
has been estimated at 155,000 sq. m., or 34,000
miles larger than the United Kingdom — includes,
in addition to the above, nearly 4000 small Lslands,
among which are the Liu Kiu ( ' Loo Choo ' ) an(l
Knrile groups, and is situated between •24° 6' —
50° .56' X. lat., and 122° 4.5'— 1.56° 32' E. long. It
is bounded on the N. by the Sea of Okhotsk, on '
the E. by the North Pacilic Ocean, on the S. '
by the eastern Sea of China, and on the W. by
the Sea of Japan. On the 1st January 1S91 the
population of Japan was 40,4.53,461, an increase
of nearly 2 millions in 5 years; in 1894 il \va.s
41 ..390,000. The population is disi ributed as follows :
Honshu, 31,722,674: Sbikoku, 2,907,280 : Kvushfi,
6,379,262; Yezo, 379,097. Formosa and the "Pesca-
dores, ceiled by China in 1895, are now Japanese.
Physical Features. — The islands of Japan appear
to be the highest portions of a huge chain of moun-
tains which rises from a deep ocean bed ; they are
the advanced frontier of the Asiatic continent.
This chain, though dotted with volcanoes, is not
therefore itself of volcanic origin. Eartliouakes
occur very frequently in Japan, although the
western slope, facing the Asiatic continent, is
exempt. Japan is one of the most nmuntainous
countries in the world. Its jdains and valleys,
with their foliage snrpa.ssing in richness that Of
any other extra-tropical region, its arcadian bill-
slopes and forest-clad heights, its alpine peaks
towering in weird gramleur above ravines noisy
with waterfalls, its lines of foam-fringed headlands,
with a thousand other charms, give it a claim to be
considered one of the fairest iwirtions of the earth.
The sublime cone of the sacre<I Kujisan ( Ku.siyama.
Aino, ' Fire-goddess Mountain '), an extinct or nither
dormant volcano, rises from the sea to a height of
12.365 feet. Ontake-san and Yaii-ga-take (eacli
10.000 feet), Tate-yama (9.500), Yatsugadake
(9000). Haku-san ('8590), Asania-yama (active
volcano, 8260), with many other scarcely lower
peaks, rise in Himshu. The eruption on Julv
15, 1888, of Bandaisan (6037 feet), near Lake
Inawashiro, was due to imprisoned steam ; KiOO
feet was blown oif the toji of tlie hill, and 27
sq. m. of country covered witli debris. The three
other large islands also abound in mountains,
though of less elevation. ^"e/o has no fewer
than eight active volcanoes. Throughout the
empire there are many solfataras, and sul|iliur-
ous springs well up from hundreds of volcanic
valleys. The plains, most of the valleys, and
many of the lower hills are liiglily cuitivated.
Lakes are not veiy numerous, tlie only two of any
size being Biwa. near Kyoto, and Inawashiro,
midway between Tokyo and Sendai : but there are
countless rivers, most of which, however, are too
impetuous to admit of navigation. The harliours
are spacious and deep, but not numerous, consider-
ing the great length of the coast-line.
Climcitc. — The different parts of Japan vary
widely in climatic conditions. Leaving out the
northern and soutliern extremes, at Tokyo ( Yedo)
we find the annual average temperature to be 57 7°
F., while in Avinter the mercury occasionally falls
to I62°, and in summer it may rise to 96'; at
Nagasaki the lowest winter temperature is 23 2°;
at Hakodate the annual extremes are 2° and 84°.
The normal hot weather begins only about the
beginning of .July, and terminates usually in the
middle of September. The late autumn is the
driest and most agreeable season. The ocean
current known as the Kuroshiwo ( ' Black Stream ' )
consideralily modifies the climate of the south-east
coast ; thus, while snow seldom lies more than 5
inches deep at Tokyo, in the upper valleys of Kaga,
near the west coast, less than 1° farther north. 18
and 20 feet are common. The east coast of Yezo
is visited by a cold current from the Kuriles, which
renders the climate foggy in summer and retards
cultivation. The rainfall, which varies much in
different years, is on an average 145 inches. No
month passes without rain ; but it is most plentiful
in summer, especially at the beginning and the
close of the hot seasons, when inundations fre-
quently occur. North and west winds prevail in
winter, and south and east in summer. The violent
circular .storms called typlioons are liable to occur
during summer, but are more destructive in the
autumn. August and October are the pleasantest
months for travelling. Thunderstorms are neither
common nor violent, and autumn fogs are equally
rare. The climate, though .somewhat relaxing to
Europeans and having a temlency to produce
ananiia and troubles of the head, is fairly salubri-
ous, highly so in the mountains.
Verietable Prodnrtions. — In Hodgson's Japan
will be found a systematic catalogue of Japanese
flora by Sir .loseph Hooker. Chestnut, oak (both
deciduous and evergreen), pine, beech, elm, cherry,
dwarf-oak, elder, sycamore, nuiple, cypress, and
many other trees of familiar name abound, 'flie
grandest forests of pine and oaks of gieat size
grow in Yezo ; but the lihiis veniiri/era or lacquer-
tree, the Lniinis ramp/iom or cam]>hor-tree, the
Broiissnnetia iinpfirijira or paiier-nmlberry~the
bark and young twigs of which are manul.ic-
tured by the .lapanese into paper — and the lUnis
siicceilanen or vegetable wax tree of .Japan, are
among the remarkable .and characteristic trees of
the country. Bamboos, palms, including sago-
palms, ami 150 species of evergreen trees jikewiso
flourish. Thus the vegetation of the tri>pics is
strangely intermingled with that of the temperate
282
oi- friiifiil zniie ; the tree-forn, liamlion.
ItAiiana, and palm grow siile by siilo
vitli tlie pine, the oak, and the heeeh.
and eonifeis in great variety. Tlie
eaniellia, the Vauh)\vnia. and the chrys-
antlicMinm are conspicnons amongst the
indigenous plants. The azalea liloonis
in May, and a red variety is found in
the mountains as late as the heginning
of .Inly. The splen<lid Lilium riiirntum
covers the hillsides in July ; and these
are also bright during the same month
with the jiink lierries of the Curiaria
jnpnnicn, the same plant from which
comes the arrow poison of the New
Zealanders. Nynipha^as and parnassia
fill the lakes and morasses. The
tobacco-plant, the tea-shrub, dill'erent
varieties of the potato, rice, wheat,
liarley, buckwheat, and maize are all
cultivated. The iloia of Japan bears
a remarkable resemblance to the Mora
of tliat ])art of the North American
continent lying between the Lower
Jlississippi and the Atlantic.
Zonloqy. — AVild animals are not
numerous in Japan. No true wolf
exists, the Japanese yamainu ('wild
JAPAN
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dog') being a poor imitation of the fierce Euro-
pean animal. The black bear peculiar to the
country is found in the mountains north of Tokyo,
and is dreaded in Yezo. A\ild boar's flesh
is often seen for sale in the ca])ital, as also
monkey's flesh, an animal remarkable in Japan
for its bright crimson face. Wild deer, protected
by law in one or two places, are freely hunted
elsowhero. A factory for tinning venison was
established in Yezo, at IJibi. A clumsy sjiecies of
antelope inhabits the mountains. The fox, a small-
sized breed, plays an imjiortant part in the folk-
lore, a-s the embodiment of craft and as a kind of
magician. A variety of the stoat, known as the
Hachi, wages war on rats and on ]>oultry. A
bailger resembling the American species is trained
for fortunc-lclIiMg. There are two species of
squirrel, also two Hying squirrels, various kinds of
rat — powerful ])ests — but no true h(nise mice. The
hare is a small species resembling a rabbit. There
is a single species of otter, an<l there are several
varieties of the seal and the whale. Of the various
varieties of snake only one, the small iiKimittihi, is
poisiino\is. Of domestic animals there are few. The
native horse, introduced according to tradition in
the 3tl century, is really a mere pony, and has
piact
birds
few merits, and in most provinces is
a miserable animal. The province
of Shimosa, east of the capital, is
now largely devoted to horse-breed-
ing, stallions having been brought
from San Francisco for the purpose
of imjiroving the breed. Draught
oxen are common on the main
island, but milk-cows are of quite
recent introduction. Donkeys are
seldom or never seen. Pork is
rapidly becoming a favourite food,
and horseflesh is prcjiared at some
of the restaurants ot the cajiital.
Goats are ])ractically unknown,
and the shee]) does not thrive.
The domestic dog is a wolf-like,
ill-conditioned animal, while the
domestic cat is remarkable in
having a mere stnmii of .a tail ;
foreign varieties of tliese animals
are being rapidly inlioduced.
There are numerous water birds —
cranes, storks, herons, coots, moor-
hens, snipe, wild geese, ducks ; and
cormorants trained to lish. the
k at hvast 1100 years. Land-
and power-
sometimes mistaken for a raven, rcign-
piactice dating bji
Is are less numerous, the voracKm
ful crow
ing supreme, and acting as a general scavenger.
There are two magnificent species of i)hefusant,
pigeons, quail, hazel gi-ouse, and ptarmigan.
The goshawk was much useil for hawking in
feudal times. Various owls .abound. S<mg-i)irds
are not sjiecially numerous, the bulllinch and two
varieties of ikjiiIsu ('.Japan nightingale ') being
best known. Swallows, swifis, sjiarrows. goat-
suckers, and woodpeckei-s all abound, and there is
a line species of Ja])ane.se jay. Of all -lajjanese
birds the frtrn'n /iriiirr/is, a lly-catclier, is tlu^ most
beautiful. Bird-catching is commonly practised,
decoy-birds being cruelly blinded for the i>urpose;
and the Kuropean market is now largely supplied
with skins from Ja]ian. One lark is fo\ind, besides
twelve buntings, eleven thrushes, three robins, a
wren, a tit, and various other small birds. There
are many varieties of the ordinary fowl, the.se binls
being kejit in nearly every hou.se, almost solely for
their eggs. The larger breeds known as Slimim and
Kiihin are, as their names imply, of foreign cuigin,
the ordinary breed resembling a pheasant in size
and shape. The freshwater fish of Japan are
JAPAN
283
mostly nf Eiiropcaii fieneia. The rivei-s of Yezo
swarm with salmon, whicli, when salted, suijnly
tlie southern market. Carp are kept in garden
ponds, and goldlish are reared extensively. Of
salt-water fish the red-tleshed mnquro and the
(((* are eaten raw under the name of sashiini.
Oysters abound. Akkeshi in Vezo being noted for
its beds : the lol>ster, an emblem of longevity, is
liighly prized for the tal)le. Insect life is specially
abumlant ; butterllies, moths, dragon-flies, and
l>eetles exist in astonishing variety. And yet
.lapan is comparatively fret! from insect pests.
.Mosquitoes and gnats are troublesome ; w.osps
are rare; honey-bees are scarce, and the native
lioney is an insijiid substance.
AipiruUure is the chief occupation of the
Japanese, and they are very careful farmers,
thoroughly undei'standing cropping and the rota-
tion of crops. The soil is not naturally very fer-
tile, being mostly volcanic or derived from igneous
rocks, but it is made jtroductive by careful manur-
ing, especially with night-soil from the villages
and towns. Rice is the staple production, wliile
barley, wheat, millet, buckwheat, maize, and many
varieties of bean and pea are also everywhere
produced. The rice harvest commences in Sep-
tember ; wheat is sown in drills in No\ember and
December, and is reaped in May and June. Of
vegetables the staple is the large white radish or
daihoti. Of Japanese fruits the persimmon and
orange are alone worthy to be classed as really
good fruits. The plums, peaches, and cherries are
very poor, the trees being reared for their blos-
soms. The culture of tea, introduced from China
iu 770, is univei-sal in the midille and south; the
whole production amounts to about 22,000,000 lb.
annually. Sericulture is on the increase, and cotton
and hemp are also widelv grown. Of sugar a total
of over 90,000,000 lb. was produced in 1895 ; much
tobacco is also raised — an inferior kind, remarkable
for its mildness and dryness. There are two
agricultural colleges, with foreign professors on
their staffs, one in Tokyo, the other at Sapporo in
Yezo.
Mineralogy. — The mineral resources of Japan
are considerable, and the government during the
sixteen years preceding 1884 spent largely upon
mining. Since then it has allowed private enter-
prise to step in. C!old, silver, copper, iron, lead,
antimony, tin, sulphur, coal, ba.salt, felspar, green-
stones, granites ( red and gray ), rock-crystal,
agate, carnelian, amber, scoria- and pumice-stone,
talc, alum, iScc. are found in great(;r or less
()uantities. Ciold is ]irinci])ally worke<I in the
Lsland of Sado ; silver on the main island. Coal-
beds extend from Nagasaki to Yezo, the principal
mines being Takashima, Miike, an<l Karatsu in
Kyushu, and Poronai, near Sapporo, in Yezo.
Petroleum is found in small quantities near Niigata
and in Yezo. The supply of sulphur is almost
inexhaustible, and of wonderful jnirity. Good
building-stone Ls scarce.
Hi.ilnri/. — The reputed founder of the present
dynasty was Jimmu Tenno, who ascended the
throne in 660 B.C. The legendary epoch continues
for more than KXX) years, and all Japanese history
before .)00 A. I>. i.s to be classed as legendary. In 201
A.n. the Empre.ss Jingo is said to have invailed and
coni|uered Corea, and this expedition was f(jlIowed
by the introduction of Corean civilisation, the
sacred Chinese boolcs lionqo and Seiijimon arriving
from Corea in 285. In 552 Buddhism w.os intro-
duce<I from Corea, and became, forty years later,
the established religion. In 624 a liuildhist hier-
archy was establislie<l by government. .Shortly
before this direct relations ha<I been entered upon
■with China, and Chinese civilisation was thereafter
rapidly assimilated. The system of periods com-
menced in 046, and from this time onward the
national history is cli>arly traced. During tlie live
centuries which ensue tlic jieople made immense
strides in civilisation. A complete system of
otticialdom was organised, under the rule of the
Fujiwara family, whose members filled all the
chief jiosts under government, and gave a succes-
sion ot consorts to the imperial house.
The decadence of this family and the growing
weakness of the government favoured the rise of
the hitherto subordinate military class, which, in
the person of Yoritomo, creatcil S/ti/f/iiii or (ieneral-
issimo in 1192, seized the reins of power. The
usurpation of sujueme authority by this officer,
long known to Euiope by the Chinese name of
Ti/cuoti, led to the erroneous l)ut natural belief
that, <lown to 1868, there were two emperors in
Ja|ian — one, a Mikado or 'spiritual emperor' who
reigned but did not govern, and the Sliogun, who
really governeil though he paid homage to the
Mikado. The next four centuries nntil 1003 were
a period of bloodshed, marked by all the untold
miseries of civil strife. The militarv fiefs organ-
I ised by Yoritomo raised up a feudal baronage,
who succeeded in making themselves virtually
inde|)enilent of the central power. Even the
Buddhist monasteries in many cases became mili-
^ tary centres. At one time (1333-92) two pupjiet
, dynasties held sway, the north and the south, to
I one or other of which the feudal barons rallieil.
I The Shogunate, made powerful by Yoritomo, it>elf
fell into abeyance, but the militarv genius and
astute policy of Hideyoshi, who died in 159S, ]iie-
pared the way for its revi\al in Ui03 by Tokugawa
Ij'eyasu, the illustrious general and statesman who
gave a lasting peace to Japan. In 1592 Hideyoshi
had directed an expediticm against Corea, iiillict-
j ing a blow on the prosperity of that countr\ from
which it has not since recovered. lyeyasu. \ ictori-
ous over a combination of southern barons ;it
Sekigahara near Lake Biwa in 1600, fixed his seat
of government at Yedo, the ' port ' situated at t he
liea<l of the Gulf of Yedo, and near the emliouclnue
of the rivers which drain the largest plain in Japan.
Backed principally by the northern clans, he was
able to consolidate his power and to found a per-
manent succession, his descendants reigning at
Yedo till 1868. From being a collection of small
scattered villages this place soon liecame one of the
most populous cities in the world. His system was
perfected by lyemitsu, the third Shogun of the
Tokugawa dynasty.
It was his policy 'to preserve unchanged the
condition of the native intelligence,' and 'to pre-
vent the intrixluction of new ideas ;' and to ellect
this he not only banished foreigners, interdicted all
intercourse with them, and extirjiated Christianity,
but introiluced that ' most rigid and cunningly-
devised system of espionage ' « hich was in full
activity at the time of the Earl of Elgin's mi.ssion, as
amusingly described by Laurence Oliphant. ' This
espionage,' says a recent Japanese writer, 'held
every one in the community in dread and suspicion ;
not only the most powerful daimyo felt its insidi-
ous influence, but the meanest retainer was subject
to its sway ; and the ignoble quality of deception,
developing rapidly to a large extent, became at
this timi; a nation.al characteristic. The daimyos,
who at first enjoyed an honourable [lositiou as
guests at the court of Yedo, were reduced to vassal-
age, anil their families retained a-s hostages for the
rendition of a biennial ceremonial of homage to the
Shflgun. Restrictions surrounded personages ot
this rank nntil, without special iiermission, they
were not allowed to meet each otiier alone.' The
Portuguese, who first landed iu .lapan iu the year
1543, carried on a lucrative trade ; but by-and-
by the ruling powers took alarm, ordered away
284
JAPAN
all foreigners, and interdicted Christianity ( 1624),
believing that foreij.'nei's iin]ioveri>ihpd tlie conntrv,
while their religion stniok at the root of tlie politi-
cal and religious systems of Jajian. The converts
to Catholicisni were found to have jiledged their
allegiance to a foreign power, while their conduct
is said to have been offensive towards the Shinto
and IJuddhist temples ; so that in time they came
to he regarded as a dangerous and anti-national
cl.oss whose extirpation was essential to the well-
being of the nation and to the success of the
political system being organised or perfected by
lycmitsu. The Portuguese continued to frequent
Japan till 1638, when they and their religion were
finally expelled. From this date the Japanese
government maintained the most rigid policy of
isolation. Jso foreign vessels might touch at
Japanese ports under any pretence. Japanese
sailors wrecked on any foreign shore were with
ditliculty permitted to return home ; while the
Dutch, locked up in their factory at Deshiraa, were
allowed to hold no communication with the main-
land ; and the people lived ' like frogs in a well,'
as the Japanese jiroverb has it, till ISS.'?, when they
were rudely awakened from their dream of peace
and security by Commodore Perry steamin" into
the harbour of Uraga with a squadron of United
States war-vessels. He e.\torted a treaty from
the frightened Shogun, 31st March 1854, and
Japan, after a withdrawal of "216 years, entered
once more the family of nations. Other conntries
slowly followed the examide of the United States
until sixteen in all had obtained the same
privileges.
Five ports, Kanagawa (Yokohama), Kobe
(Hyogo), Xaga.saki, Niigata, and Hakodate, were
opened to foreign commerce, 'settlements' or
foreign quartere in these being set apart for the
residence of foreigners under the jurisdiction of
their o%vn con.suls. A limit of travel, extending
to a radius of twenty-five miles rouncl these
ports, was granted. Foreign settlenients were
al.so established in Yedo (Tokyo) and Osaka, these
settlements being within the prescribed twenty-five
miles' limit of Yokohama and Kobe. Ohstructions
being placed in the way of foreign merchants
settling at Kanagawa, the question was quickly i
solved by their crossing the narrow hay. now lilled
np, and erecting their 'hongs' at Yokohama, a
few miles farther from the ca|)ital. With the
ojiening of these ])orts commenced the extra-terri-
toriality system under which Japan has shown
herself so restive.
The fall of feudalism was merely accelerated by
the arrival of foreigners. For long not a few (if
the most powerful clans, chielly Satsuma and
Choshii, had been dissatislied with the ShAgun's
position, and these gladly availeil themselves of
the pretext now furnished for opposing him. All
l)ossil>le means were taken to involve him in
complications with the ambassadoi-s at his court ;
and to this motive rather than to any hatred of
foreigners are to be ascrihed the numerous a.ssas-
sinations which darkened the period immediately
]irior to 1868. Kvery weakening of his j)ower w.as
a step g.ained towards his overthrow and the longed-
for unification of the empire in the han<ls of the
Mikado (emperor). At length the Shogun re-
signed ; but it was only after a sharj) civil war
in the winter of 1867-68 that the power of his
adherents was com]di'tely crushed. At the outset
of the struggle the imperial party were decidedly
retrogressive in their political ideas; but before
its close various circnmstances convinced them
that without intercourse with foreign nations the
greatness which they desired for their country
could not be achieved ; and when they got into
- nwer they astonished the world by the thorough-
ness with which thev broke loose from the old
traditions and entered on a coni'se of enliu'litened
reformation. Recognising Ye<lo lus really the centre
of the nation's life, they resolved to make it the
capital ; but the name Yedo being distasteful
through its associations with the Shogunate, they
renamed the city Tokyo or Tokei — i.e. 'eastern
capital.' Here the emperor established his coiirt,
abandoning for ever that life of seclusicm which
had surrounded his ancestors with a halo of semi-
divinity, but deprived them of all real power.
The venerable city of Kyoto, which had renuiined
the capital since 794, was at the same time re-
named Saikyo or Saikei — i.e. 'western capital.'
The daimyos, verj' few of whom were more than
mere weaklings under the direction of strong-
\\illed retainers, resigned their licfs, and were
pensioned by the government. Since 1868 the
leading men of Satsuma and Choshu, forming what
is called the Sat-cho combination, have held the
important portfolios of state. The new period,
commencing with the Emperor Mntsuhito's ac-
cession, has been named Meiji, ' enlightened
peace. '
Japan has during the Meiji period striven to
make her infliience felt as a powerful factor in
Asiatic politics. Her expedition to Formosa in
1874 to punish piracy, her annexation in 1879 of
the Loo Choo Islands, notwithstanding China's re-
monstrances and threats, her spirited policy in Corea
in 1873 and again in 188'2, her conscription law of
1883 and subsequent army reorganisation, her
development of a strong navy, her coast-defence
scheme of 1887, subscribed to liberally by wealthy
private individuals, prove her assertive spirit. A
rebellion in 1877 of the fiercer Satsiima men under
General Saigo was promptly crushed.
In 1887 the negotiations for a revision of the
treaties were broken off', owing to an outbreak
of popular dissatisfaction with the guarantees
demanded by the seventeen foreign poweis acting
in concert. This breakdown w.as followed hy a
distinct conservative reaction in the nation, in no
way seriously att'eeting the steady progress of
western institutions. Imt marking a more cautious
attitude and a more critical spirit. In the spring
of 18S9 the combination of treaty jiowi-rs was
liroken through by the action first m the United
States and then of (iermany and Russia, who
formed treaties on their own account, abolishing
extraterritoriality an<l sanctioning mixed resilience
under certain mild restrictions. These treaties
were to come into force in 1890. Mexico, not a
treaty power, had also arranged an inde)>endent
treaty in November 1888. Other jjowers jirepared
to follow. But a strong ojiposition having sprung
U]), the Kuroda cabinet found itself unable to
carry out the scheme, and treaty revision was once
more shelved. This is the close of the first ejioch
in the modern history of .Japan, following on the
heels of the promulgation of a popular constitution,
February 11, 1889.
The jiosition in which Japan has been placed
during the liast few decades is so exceptional that
outsiders find great ditticulty in forming a correct
judgment of her political situation. Instability
is supposed where it is really absent, the fact being
that no nation's history li;is been more consistent
than .lapan's. The sudden change of front in 1868
was deliberate and final, one end li.aving been kept
in view all through —the independence and gloiy
of Dai Nippon. So hurried an a.ssimilation its
was made necessary by her complete preiious
isolation was naturally accompanied by numerous
minor imprudences and extravagances, the result
of ignorance. Rut the thoroughly patriotic spirit
of the nation has triumphed, an<l her administra-
tion is now in a highly satisfactory condition.
JAPAN
285
The iussassiii:itic)ii in IS77 of Okulio, chief of the
party wliose retoiiiis jxaveriso to the Satsuiiia rebel-
lion, was foUoweii twelve years later by the assas-
sination of Visconnt Mori, a cabinet minister.
This lii-st was not, like the former, a political event,
but merely an unfortunate isohited incident, the
work of a reli^'ious fanatic, a Hhintoist. Political
assjissination is not, however, dead, and Ls a
peculiar dan;;er in Japan, where its perpetrators
seem wholly regardless of their own lives.
During the pn;st few yeare, especially since the
reconstruction of the cabinet and the administra-
tion in 1S86, the court has emerged entirely from
its seclusion. The emperor and emprl^•'s have
visited all the chief institutions, and are present
at public spectacles. The crown-priiice, Haru, was
the tii-st in the long dynasty to be educated at a
public school. A new nobility was created in 1884,
drawn partly from the old feudal baronage and
Eartly from the new men of 186S. It consists of
ve orders, princes or dukes (II), marquises (28),
counts (8d), viscounts (355), and barons (102), who
send representatives to the newly-created Upper
Chamber. The nation is itself divided into
three classes, Kwazoku ('nobility'), Shizohii
('gentry'), and Heimin ('commonalty'). Of-
ficials are of four classes, shinnm, chukunin, sonin,
and haiinin. Officials constitute the flower of the
nation ; chuss jealousy is absent, careers being open
to the poorest. The main events of the triumphant
war with China in 189-1-95, the acquisition of p'or-
mosa, a-s also the Chinese campaign of 1900, have
been noted at CHINA, Vol. III. p. 194. Japan was
visited by a terrible earthquake in 1892; and in
June 1896 an earthquake wave cost 10,(X)0 lives
Inhabitants. — With the e.xception of the wilds
of Yezo, peopled by 12,000 Ainos, the Japanese
islands are inhabited by a single race speaking
various dialects of the same tongue. Probably,
but this is merely a conjecture, the Japanese are
a. mixed lace, the issue of the intermarriage of
victorious Tartar settlers, who entered Jajjan from
the Corean peninsula, with Malays in the south
and people of the Aino race in the main island.
We read in Japanese annals of
constant war witli savages, and in
comparatively recent times the
Aino race occupied the northerTi
extremity of Honshu. There are
two distinct types of Ja])anese
face, that which is found in art
designs beinf' tlie aristocratic and
rarer tyire. It is distinguished by
an oval head and face, rounded
frontal bones, a high forehead, a
nose curved and well shaped but
not prominent, narrow and sliglitl\
oblique eyes with an overlapi>ini;
of tlie eyelid. In the man tin-
face is almost hairless, with tin-
exception of a narrow and sliorl
moustache. The completion i-^
pallid or slightly olive, and tin'
expression demure. The com
nioner .and vulgar type, almo>i
universal in the northern districts.
i.s i>udding-faced, full-eyed. Hat
nosed, and good-humoured in ex
pression. The stature of the race
Ls small, and the trunk is jiropor-
tionately long as compared with
the legsi which are short. The use of heavy wooden
clogs (geta), together with the carrying, when still
j'oung themselves, of their infant brotheis and
sUters, gives the women exce.ssively thick ankles
and Hat feet. The hands are usually prettily shaped,
both in the man and the woman : but the habit
of keeping these, especially in winter, inside the
kimiino ( ' coat ' ), while the wide sleeves are allowed
to hang loose, makes them clamni>" to the touch.
The hair is coal-black and strong in texture, and
the bearil lias somclimes a ruddy tinge. The race
is physically an interior one, the men having an
ill-developed form and harsh features, whilst the
women lose any pretensions to good looks after
the tirst bloom of youth is over. The ])lainness
of the latter is increased by the habit at marriage,
or after passing the marriageable age, of blaidvcn-
ing the teetli and slia\ing the eyebrows, customs
happily on the wane. The girls, with their rosy
cheeks, fascinating manners, and exquisitely tiiste-
ful dress, are, however, jjarticularly attractive, and
the children are bright and comely, being allowed
full liberty to enjoy themselves — indeed Japan is
the paradise of children.
The Jajianese have many excellent qualities :
they are kindly, courteous, law-abiding, cleanly
in their habits, frugal, and ])ossessed with a high
sense of personal honour which makes sordidness
unknown. This is associated, moreover, with an
ardent patriotic spirit, quite removed from factious-
ness. Nowhere are good manners .and artistic
culture so widespreail, reaching even to the lowest.
On the other hand, the people are deficient in moral
earnestness and courage, which leads to corrujition
in social life and institutions. It is only when
matters have become intolerable that discipline is
enforced by the use of Draconian measures. An
utter lack of chivalry towards women is an un-
pleasing feature of the national life. Civic courage
liiis also to be developed.
The town costume of the Japanese gentleman
consists of a |i«we silk robe extending from the
neck to the ankles, but gathered in at the waist,
round which is fastened a girdle of brocaded silk.
Over this is worn a loose, wide-sleeved jacket,
deciu-ated with the wearers armorial device. White
cotton socks, cleft at the great toes, and wooden
pattens complete the attire. European costume
has been prescribed liy government as the official
dress, and the empress and her suite have recently
adopted foreign costume, being followed to a certaiu
extent by th(! fashionable ladies of the capital.
Hats are not generally worn, except by those who
follow Ijurojieau fashions or in the heat of summei.
The women wear a loo.-e robe, overla))ping in front,
and fastened with a broad heavy giidle of silk
(obi), often of great value. In winter a succession
of these robes are worn, one over the other. The
286
JAPAN
foniic'ily uuivei'sal chijriion coiffure of the women,
still' with iioiiiatuin, which w;i.s done up by the
haiiili'essier once or twice a week, is rapiitly viehl-
inj; to the siniiik'r (Irecian knot. The poorer elapses
wear nothing more than a loose cotton t,'own, tied
at tlie waist, and a loincloth, freiiuently working
only in the loin-cloth. Women of the lower class
tliink nothing of exposing the person to the waist.
The women jiowder profusely, a white skin being
highly appreciated, and dye the lips a deep red :
jewellery is not worn. The old-fashioned coiffure
of the men, still freqnently seen anioni^' the lower
classes, especially among lishermen, is peculiar.
The head is shaven on the top, leaving a broad
rectangular bald space, and the hair of the unshaven
portion, formed into a compact m;i.ss like a candle-
end, is then turned forward upon the crown. The
children's heads are shaven grotesquely ; priests
and many old women sliave the head completely.
Long hair is frequently worn by discontented poli-
ticians and jihilosophei's, while widows wear short
hair. Both Japanese men and women are fond
of smoking tobacco ; the bowl of the pi]ie they
use is less in size than half a thimble, and requires
constant rehlling.
Although the Japanese are a singularly united
people, yet the nation divides itself into two
portions, the governing and the governed. The
former, representatives of the military class and
numbering some 4000 families, are high-spirited
and masterful ; the rest of the nation are sub-
missive and timid. Many of the seemingly con-
tradictory opinions given forth regarding the
Japanese can be reconciled by a recognition of
this fact. '
Mrxle of Li ring, it-c. — Japanese houses are slight
constructions of wood ; in place of windows and
shutters they have an inner set of paper screens,
and an outer set of wooden shutters, both slid-
ing in grooves. In the northern districts at least
two sides of the house are closed' in with walls
of mud plastered on wicker-work. The floors are
covered with thick soft straw mats, measuring 6
by 'i feet, and the accommodation of the houses
is reckoned by the number of these mats. On
them the inmates sit, eat, and sleep, the bed-
clothes— heavily-padded quilts — being kept during
the day in adjoining closets. The surface of the.se
mats is scrupulon.sly clean, for boots and clogs
are removed Ijefore entering. In winter heat is
obtained from charcoal boxes, either movable or
set into the floor, and most of the cooking is done
over charcoal braziers. Rice is the staple food of
the ])eople, but in the jjoorer mountainous regions
millet often takes its place. Fish, seaweed, and
beans in all forms are served with the rice, es)ieci-
ally in the son])s, which likewise contain be.-in-
curd, eggs, and vegetables. Chestnuts and hazel-
nuts are also largely eaten, and the walnut is made
into a sweetmeat. Shoi/ii (soy), a sauce made of
beans and wheat, is the uuivei-sal condiment,
(lenerally speaking, the food is unsatisfying and
mawkish to foreigners. Fowls are now pretty
widely used for the table, and jiork and beef, as
well as bread, are increasingly eaten. The meat-
shops are frequented at night, as taverns are in
England.
Japanese towns are subject to conflagrations to
such a degree that in crowded city districts houses
are supposed to List on an average only three years.
The jieojile store their valuables in scpiare towers
of bamboo wattle work and muil, which are left
standing when the fire has swept jKUst. Incen-
diarism followed by robbery is a common crime,
formerly punished savagely. The institution of a
gendarmerie in 1881, and the more stable nature of
the edifices recently erected in the capital, have
greatly lessened these tires.
The Japanese are a dyspeptic people, UKue dying
fiom diseases of the iligestion than from any other
cause. Skin disejuses, well treated at the vari(uis
solfataras. are common ; bone disea.ses are also rife.
Lung disea-ses are not so deadly as in Creat Uritain,
and child-birth is attended with little or no dang'er.
A very dangerous disea.se peculiar to the country
and yielding to no specific remedy is lyi/./.i', a form
of elephantiasis or hcri-bcri. Smallpox wiis formerly
a scourge, but C(nn])ulsor>- vaccination has remedied
this. Cholera appeared in force in the year ISTi),
and again violently in 1886. The houses are built
low on the ground, the drains are open, wells are
close to closets and rubbish-heaps. However, there
are now both an active sanitary society in Tokyo
and a foreign professor of sanitarj' engineering in
the univei-sity, and water-works "with the latest
improvements had been provided for Yokohama by
1890, when the capital and Nagasaki had also
water-work schemes under consideration. Infant
mortality is small. Suicide is common, especially
among men, three out of four male suicides hanging
themselves, one out of every two female snicidei
diowiiinL; herself. The figures for 1800-94 show^ed
an annual average of 4606 men and 3000 women.
.Viimiers and <'ii.sfijin.i. — Many of the customs
once characteristic of Japan have, since the aboli-
tion of feudalism, liecome obsolete. Among these is
seppukit or hnra-kiri (see Haki-K.vki), for long a
legalised moile of suicide. The wearing of swords
by civilians in public was forbidden by law in 1876.
The social position of women is more favouiable
than in most n(m-Christian countries, but still
leaves much to be desired. However, the attitude
assumed by the empress and the' imperial ]irin
cesses is rapidly bringing about a social equality of
the sexes. Formerly concuViines were recognised
by law, and a certain number of imiierial mis-
tresses are attached to the court, whose children
are o]ieii to the succession — the present eni]ieror
and crown-prince being the sons of mistresses. A
man can, however, have only one legal wife, and
the keeping of concubines in the same house with
a wife is more and more ilisconntenanced by social
opinion. Divorces are easily obtained by husbands,
and the nuptial tie is little respected among the
lower clas.ses ; but women of the well-to-do classes
are modest and virtuous. Marriages are .arranged
through an intermediary, and botii .sexes marry at
ail early age. As the continuance of families is a
])oint of great importance, adoption is largely
r&sorted to in order to prevent families d\ing
out. Prostitution is jirevalent. It was formerly
no unconmion thing for a ilntiful daughter to sell
herself for a term of years to the proprietor of
a house of ill-fame in order to retrieve her father's
fallen fortunes. 'When she returned no stigma
attached to her ; r.ither was she hononrcd for her
filial devotion. Licensed houses of ill-fame have
always been confined to certain districts, outside
the city limits, and are cari>fully inspected. Hot
baths are a gixjat institution in Japan. Formerly
it w.as a general custom for persons of both sexes
to bathe together : ami this primitive custom still
)irevails in rural districts, although forbidden in the
cities and always unknown in Tokyo. Great respect
is ]iaiil to the dead, and posthumous names are
c(mferre<l after ileath, some of the most celebrated
names in Japanese history being posthnmous titles.
Hcavv sums are lavished on funerals.
I'ntil lately the only vidiicles in Japan were
two kinds of ]<alaiiipiin — viz. the lago and the
uorimiiiio : but in all the more level districts these
have now Ix'en superseded by ihejitirikisha ( 'man-
power-carriage'), a sort of two-wheeled perambu-
lator drawn by a man who runs l)etween the
shafts. In many of the more mountainous regions
the roads are imiiracticable even for thejinri/.isha.
JAPAN
•287
The Japanese are essentially a iileasuie-lovin^'
peo|iie, aiul >[>end comparatively large sums upun
aniusements. The theatre, though formerly de-
spiseil by the sdiiiiinii class, who refused to enter
its diHirs, forms one of the chief national resorts.
Tlie female parts are taken by men, hut theatres
exist where only women act. A single performance
lasts from morning till sunset, and a whole house-
hold will hire a box and spend the entire day at the
theatre. Many of the arrangements are jiriniitive,
especially the orchestra, whose music is thin, harsh,
and monotonous. This is generally true of Japanese
music, which is in a primitive stage : the prmcipal
instruments are the stringed samiscn, koto, and
kokyu, and the winil-instruments called shakuhachi
and sho. the latter mostly used at funerals. Pro-
fessional musicians are in great rei]uest and are well
paid, especially the young women known as rjiiskd,
whose dances are wonderfully graceful. Flower-
shows are very popular, and Hower-gardens are
crowded at the proper seasons — the plum and ])eaeh
blossom season being in Febnxary and March, the
cherry-blossom season and the peony season in
April, the wistaria season in May, the iris season
in June, the lotus season in August, the chrysan-
themum season in October and November. The
time of greatest festivity is the Xew Year, now
held contemporaneously with our own, when pine-
trees are planted before the dooi's, the houses are
gay with decoration, and pre.sents are lavishly made.
The favourite ^ame at this season is oyobanc, a
kind of battledore and shuttlecock. January is
the kite season ; the smaller kites are of various
fantastic shapes, while the larger and more power-
ful ones are usually rectangular. Wrestling, jug-
gling, and archery are favourite sports, and among
indoor games go (checkei-s) and .s/iw/i (chess).
Language and Literature. — The Japanese lan-
guage belongs structurally, like Corean and Man-
ehurian, to the Altaic family, and like other Altaic
languages, delights in long involved sentences, the
introductory details being lieaped up to an extra-
ordinaiy length, so that when the iinal verb is
reached many of these are apt to be already for-
gotten. The verbs, which are liurdened witli un-
translatable honorific endings, come at the close of
the clause, (irammatical gender is unrecognised ;
case is indicated by separable jiarticles ; there are
no articles ; prepositions follow the words they
govern. The language, though dithcult to master,
is easily pronounced and musical. The introduc-
tion of (,'hinese ci\ ilisation in the 6th century was
followed by a wholesale absorption of Chinese
woids anil charactei-s, but the language remained
grammatically unchanged, as obscure and involved
in its idioms and constmctions as before. Chinese
ideographs are said to have been reduced to a
phonetic syllabary by the Buddhist priest Kobo-
daishi in 810. In proce.ss of time this system, the
Hiragana, was rendered more comjilex by the
addition of variants, and this leil, apparently, to
the introduction of another and simpler alphabet,
entirely without variants, known as the Kiitakaiin
character. The revolution of 18G8 caused th(^ lan-
guage to become more Chinese in vocabulary tlian
ever, from the necessity of coinin" a host of new
scientific terms, although many European words
were also transferred simnliciter. A movement,
powerfully supported, has been on foot for several
years to introduce the IJoman alphal)et, a reform
which would save much tedious labour, as Japanese
youths have to soend years in familiarising them-
selves with the dillicuk Chinese ideograph.s. The
literature of Japan is meagre and vapid when C(mi-
nared with European literature. Poetry came to
he a mere matter of the manipulation of words, a
feminine accomplishment. a.ssociated with line call-
giaph_\ , although the classical poetry has left some
charming remains. Both the classical prose and
poetry owe much to women writers. A cloml
resteil on literature during the troublous feudal
times, lasting from the I'ith to the 17th century.
The revival of the Shinto religi<m Ijy Mabuchi,
Motoori { 1730-1801 ), and other scholars was accom-
panied by a gi-eat improvement in style ; but this
S'eo-cla.ssical Japanese has been servilely imitated,
and is fast becoming fossilised. At ))resent the
language, though capable of expressing ainiost
every shade of thought required in a complete
modern civilisation, labours under these ditliculties:
(1) there are countless homonyms — e.g. fifty-four
characters pronounced ko, often requiring pictorial
explanation in speaking; (2) the colloquial and
written styles differ wholly, anil thus literature
fails to receive fresh impulses, and is not the herit-
age of the whole nation. The greatest of Japanese
novelists is Bakin ( 171)7-1S48), but his works are
terribly spun out. The light prose, which made its
appearance in the 17th century, is well represented
by Va.\u and Ikku. From the Kojiki, or ' Records
of Ancient Matters,' downwards Japanese litera-
ture is full of indecencies. Much of the place
nomenclature of Japan has been traced by Mr
Chamberlain to an Aino source. Double names
abound, a native and a Chinese form, especially for
the provinces, that with the s/tfi termiiuition. a.-^ in
S/iins/iu, being the Chinese form. Most family
names were originally place names.
Religions of Japan. — There are two prevailing
religions iu Japan — Shinto or Kami no dlic/ii ( 'The
way of the gods'), the indigenous faith ; and Bud-
dhism, introduced from China in 552. (1) S/iinto-
ism. — The characteristics of Shintoism in its pure
foiin are ' the absence of an ethical and doctrinal
code, of idol-worship, of priestcraft, and of any
teachings concerning a future state, and the deifi-
cation of heroes, emperors, and great men, together
with the worship of certain forces and objects in
nature.' The jjrincijial divinity is the sun-goddess
Anuvterasu, from whom the Mikado is held to be
descended. After the restoration the government
attempted to free Shintoism from the Buddhist
innovations which had contaminated it, and to
revive it in its pure form as the national religion.
Shinto temples are singularly destitute of ecclesi-
astical paraphernalia. A metal mirror generally
stands on the altar, Imt even this is a Buddhist
innovation. The spirit of the enshrined deity is
supposed to be in a case, which is exposed to \iew
only on the day of the deity's annual festival.
The worship consists merely in washing the face
in a font, striking a bell, throwing a few cash into
the money-box, and praying silently for a few
seconds ; nevertheless, long ))ilgrimages to famous
shrines and to the summits of sacred mountains
are often taken to acconqilish this. Shintoism is
rather an engine of government than a religion ;
it keei)s its hold on the nuusses chiefly through its
being interwoven with reverence for ancestors and
patriotic ideas. (2) Buddhism. — Of Buddhists
there are no fewer than thirty-five sects. The
monks have assumed the f\inctions of ])riests,
and Jai)anesc Buddhist worship presents striking
resemblances to that of the Honi.an Catholic
Church. Notwithstanding the increa.sed patron-
age recently bestowed upon Shintoism by the
government. Buddhism is still the dominant
religion among the people. The nuist jiopular,
;us well as the wealthiest and most enlightened,
of the Buddhist denominations is the Monln or
Shinshu .sect, which recognises one (Jod in .Vniida
Buddha (cmly, however, an abslracl principle
pei-sonilied), discountenaiu'es asT-eticisni and cleri-
cal celibacy, and cultivates preaching, the favour-
ite topic being the duty of self-reliance. It
would be a ml^iake, however, to suppose lliul a
28S
JAPAN
clear line can be iliawii between aJbeieiits of
BiiiUlliisiii ami Sliiiitoisin respectively ; in tlie
])()]jular niinil tlie two iaitlis are so blemleil that
the temples of both are frequented without much
discrimination. The better-educated classes are
mostly agnostics, strivinj; more or less to regulate
their lives by the maxims of Confucius. The
priests retain their hold on the ])eople largely as
being custodians of the graveyards and performers
of funeral rites. Their moral inlluence is not
weighty, many being bad boys for wliom their
fathers have found it imimssible to tind good wives.
In the Meiji i)eriod none of the ini]ierial family
have entered the church : they ati'ect in preference
the army and navy. Some of the more active
sects, notably the ilonto sect at Kyoto, which
has established a large college, are rising to the
occasion and sending out preachers and propa-
ganilists to meet the active forces of modern
Cliristiau missions. Japan is a land of temples,
Torii of Temple, Suwa.
but many are now falling into decay, while others
are turned into schoolhouses. Every grove has its
shrine anil turii, a structure in wood or stone, con-
sisting of two ui)right pillars joined at the top by
two transverse beams or slabs ; metal t<»rii are also
not unknown. The Buihlhist monasteries in the
.lapanese miildle ages were undoubtedly wonder-
ful centres of civilisation, and the i)riests for long
commanded reverence by their self-denial.
Christian Jlissio/is. — Full toleration is extended
to all forms of religious belief, in so far as they
do not coniiict with the peace and onler of the
community. I'rancis Xavier introduced Chris-
tianity in I.")49, but his work was e.xtiuguished
in Idood, till scarcely a trace of it was left. \\'hen,
liowever, the country w;is o]iened in 1S.")4 it
w,is found that 2'2,(X)0 hist(nical Roman Catholic
Christians had survived persecution in the neigh-
bourhood of Nagasaki. Christianity may be said
to have linally died out in Tokyo in 1715. The
Koinan Catholic Cliurcli has now a bishop of north
and one of south Japan, and schools and convenis
.scatterc<l over the co\intry. The Creek Church
has built an im]iosing cathedral in Tokyo, and
carries on a nourishing work in the capital and the
north-eiust of Japan. Of the Protestant missions
the I'resln'terians, live sects working together, and
the American Congregationalists are the most
lloiirishing. The American ami Canadian Method-
ists, the Baptists, Kpiscopalians, and oiliers ari'
also actively at work. In IS'JIj the nundier of
Protestant missionaries w.-is loU men, lUO un-
married ladies, and 102 native ministei^, and
tlie membership at the 5,3'2 stations W!u> over
20,00(1. There were 10,297 scholars at tlie mission
schools, and at Sunday schools 21,597 pupils.
There were 32,000 Ko'man Catholics, with 02
iiii-ssionaries and 40 unmarried ladies : and 14,000
members of the Crieek Church. Osaka is the
centre of the work of tlie Church MLssionary
Society, but the bishop who jiresiiles over it and
the Society for the Propagation of thi- Cospel
resides in Tokyo. The Young Men's Christian
Association of America has a resident secretary
in Tokyo, and is represented by teachers in
almost every province.
EdunitioH IS general and compulsory. There is
a coiii|)lete -system of local elementary, middle,
and normal schools, and a central univer.sity in the
cajiital, with live higher middle schools as feeders,
one in Tokyo, the others at Sendai. Kyoto, Kan-
azawa in Kaga, and Kumamoto. There is al.so a
higher normal school in the capital. The element-
ary school course extends over eight years (six to
fourteen ), four years being devoted to an ordinary
and four to a higher course. There were, in 18SS,
2."i,.>.'{0 elementary schools, 52 middle schools, and
4ii normal schools, besides IS >'irls' high schools,
S9 technical, 1741 special, and 67 kindergarten
schools. The university, reorganised in ISSli,
when it absorbed the late Imperial College of
Engineering and other institutions of a high
grade, consists of five colleges — Law and Politics,
Literature, Science, Engineering, and Medicine.
It is attended by over 71X) students, and is a
jiowerfiil and well-e(|uipped institution, costing
the country £42,000 annually. On its stall' are
!S German professors, 7 Ihitish, 1 American, and
1 French. Other in.stitutions in the capital are
the Music Academy, the Technological Scliool. the
Dendrological School, the Nobles' School, attended
by tlie young crown-prince, the Peeres.ses' School,
the Girls' Higher School, the Ladies' Institute, the
English Law School, the Higher Commercial School,
besides eight other commercial schools in the
country. Education is jierfectly free from chtss
restrictions, even the Nobles' School being by no
means exclusively aristocratic. Mission schools
have been doing excellent work. The capital is
full of private schools and colleges, the Semmon-
(iakko, founded by H. E. Count Okuma; the Keio-
Gijiku, conducted by Mr Fukuzawa, one of the
leaders of modern Japanese thought and editor of
a popular daily jiaper ; the Kyoritsuliakko, \c.
The printing-press is very "active. Daily news-
jiajiers abound and are sold aslimishingly cheaji.
The jiicss laws are stringent, and imprisonments
under them frequent. Dnring the war of 1895 the
sanitary and surgical apiiliaiices and methods of the
Jajianese were scientifically (lerfect. Japanese
jihysiologists and chemists (such as Kitasato) now
rank with the foremost European and .■\mericau
scientists.
Ariii'i (Old Nari/. — The Japanese army was or-
ganiseii after EuKijiean metliods in the years 18t)vS-72
by a French military mission. A mild form of con-
scription ( I out of every 28 young men above twenty)
came into force in 1SS3. The jiresence of (.Jerman
military advi.sers resulted in the departure in 18S8
of the last of the French military mission. The
soldiery carry the Muiat.i rille, .-m adaptation of the
cliassepot. In 1890 the army numbered, in service,
49,294, of whom 3685 were commissioned ollicers
and 131 engineers; 1st reserve, 113,0()5 and 22
engineers; 2d reserve, 51,691. In 1895, after the
war, the regular army Wiis reported to number
IK) less than 279,000 men. TIk; navy, organised
under a liritish naval mission, po>ses>ed in ls95,
after the war, some 30 sliip> of all kimls, inclmliiig
those captureU from the Chinese, and 3 modern
JAPAN
289
coast ■ tlefeiice •run vessels, besides 5 olisolete
steamers ami sailing-vessels, some of whicli are
useil as traiiiiiij;-sliips. There were also 3 powerful
shins of the latest desi.i;n tittinj; out and in reserve,
and 5 more under construction. Of torpedo hoats
there were 5. with 17 more under construction, also
4 stjitiouary school shi|>s, and (i or 7 small fast cnift
for harbour defence. The three naval stations are
Vokosuka, l.j miles soutli of Yokohama; Kure, on
the Inland Sea ; and Sasebo : the principal arsenal
is at Yokosuka. The personnel consists of 8o0
commissioned oliicers and l'J,0(JO sub-otlicers and
men. The naval collej;c Wiis removed in 188S from
Tokyo to the island of Etajima, in the Inland Sea,
close by Kure.
The Japanese police is a most efficient force,
chietly recruited from the old samKnii, and number-
ing over 27,000. A gendarmerie was established
in IS.sl. The convict system is an excellent one,
aaid convict establishments yield a profit to the
government.
liuiliLiiils. — The railway-system began with two
lines, ime from Tokyo to Yokohama, and the other
from Hyogo to Osaka and Kyoto. In 1S77 a great
impetus was given to railway construction by the
formation of private comjianies. The lines now in
course of construction will, when completed, give
the following trunk lines : ( 1 ) a central railway
between the two capitals (finished); (2) a con-
tinuation through Hyogo to Shimonoseki ; (3) a
line from Tokyo to Aomori ; ( 4 ) a west-coast railway
by the Sliinano Mountains to Niigata ; (5) a line
in Kyushu from the Strait of Shimonoseki to
Kagosliima. Shikoku and Y'ezo have each one short
railway. Numerous branch and loop lines are fin-
ished or under construction. The gauge is a narrow
one : most of the engineers are English-trained.
Total mileage open in 1896, 2500 miles.
In the mechanical arts the .Japanese have at-
tained to great excellence, especially in metallurgy,
and in the manufacture of porcelain, lacquer ware,
and silk fabrics ; indeed, in some of these depart-
ments works of art are produced so exquisite in
design and execution a.s to excel the best products
of Europe. The Enqieror (Jotoba, eighty-third of
his line, founded about 1200 a school of sword-
nuiking in Kyoto, which he himself practically
superintended; Masanmne (14th century) blades
are the most famous. Goto Yujo (1435-1513) may
be said to have created the art of cliiselling in
metals in Japan. Excellontly-finislied cutlery is
still made in Osaka and Tokyo. The porcelain
industry virtually dates from the 13th century,
when Shunkei. the ' Father of Pottery,' tlouiT.shed
at Seto in Uwari ; hence the Japane.se name
Sctoinono for all kinds of earthenware. Shunkei
studied for six years in China ; but Japan also
owes much to Corea, whence artisans .arrived at
various periods on the invitation of Japanese
nobles. Among the most celebrated wares are
the crackled Satsuma, which dates from about
IWO, the Hi/.en, the Kaga, and the Owari. Much
of the art decoration of these is executeil in Tokyo.
The lacquer industry dates from prehistoric
times ; some of the finest specimens of lacquer
ware extant date from the shogunate of Yoshinia.sa
(14.3t>-80); towards the end of the 17th century
lacquering perhaps reache(l its acme of perfection.
The bronze and inl.aiil metal-work of .lapan is
highly esteemed. The best enamel i s/ii/j/ii>), an
art introduce<l from China two and a half centuries
ago, Ls ma<le in Kyoto. Silk-weaving is carried to
high perfection, especially in the two districts of
Kwaiisei, round Kyoto, whose loom.s supply
artistic silk and cotton goods, and Kwanto, rouml
Maebashi, north of Tokyo, whicli supiilies ordinary
wearing materials. Fiictories with their moilern
improvemenUs are, however, gradually taking the
279
place of the old-fashioned looms. Kyoto is also a
centre for embroidered goods, often so exquisitely
finished as to reseml>le paintings. The Japanese
make neat carpenters and coopers. Their saw and
plane, instead of being pushed, are ilrawn towards
the manipulator ; they are very skilful in the use of
the adze, but their axe is a clumsy instrument.
Ja.]Kine!ie pictoria/ art divides itself into several
schools. The primitive school, of which the cele-
brated Sugawara Michizane and Kose Kanaoka
are the leading names, took its rise in the 'Jtli
century. The fii-st really native school, which is
known as the Yamato Kiu, and later on a-s the Tosa
Iliu, dates from 1000 ; it devoted itself princijially
to the painting of court-life scenes of cereumny,
illustrations of the early native romances, careful
drawings of horses and falcons, \-c., land.scape
V)eing suliordinate. The drawing was careful and
with a fine brush ; gold and bright colours were
lavishly used. The perspective was isonietrical,
and the liberty was frequently taken of ignoring
the roofs of buildings when depicting the interiors.
Koson, the last famous i)ainter of this school, died
in 1866. The Chinese scliool, which may be traced
back to 1400, reached its highest develojiment in
the great master Kano Motonobu or Ko-Hogen
(1476-1559), and held pre-eminence for three cen-
turies. The works of this school are characterised
by quiet and harmonious colouring, and a bold use
of the pencil ; the scenery depicted is conx en-
tional, often impossible, anil nearly always in its
origin Chinese. The advent of Hokusai (1760-
1S49) marked a new departure. Hokusai, a man
of the people, struck out a new path, and is one of
the most realistic of the world s painters. It is
this popular school, held in comparatively slight
respect in Japan itself, which has the chief attrac-
tion for foreign lovers of art.
Commerce aitcl I)ultistrics. — The commercial and
industrial progress of Japan has of late been nu)st
satisfactory. Until the year 1880 Japan had not
accommodated her expenses to her income. A
diminution of expenses then began, culminating,
at the close of 1885, in a wholesale dismissal of
unnecessary officials. The ministry of finance had
already taken in hand the question of the paper
currency, which fell stea<lily from 1879, until in
1883 it touched 80 per cent, discount. Contrary to
all expectation, silver payments were resumed in
1884, a wonderful triuui]ili of finance. Since then
jirivate companies have been encouraged to buy
over govermnent undertakings and develoj) new
schemes. Foremost of such are the Ni|ipon (linko
(Bank of Jajian), a seuii-government institutioTi,
the Nippon Yusen Mail Steamshi|i Comiiany,
numerous railway com]ianies, various tramway
lines, &c. Japanese conimerci;i,l morality and far-
sightedness do not enjoy a high reputation. Whole-
sale transactions have l>een rendered impossible by
want of good faith, and excellent undertakings
have been nipped in the bud for the sauu' reason.
The chief ports are Yokolianuxaml Kobe (or Ilyogo),
the outlet for the rich products of central Jaiian,
now a formiilable rival to Y'okohama and eclips-
ing Naga-saki, which will always have a certain
importance ii-s long as the Takashima coal ndne
remains unexhausted. N'iigata is a foreign port
only in name ; Hakodate, in Yezoj carries on a
growing trade. The commercial and industrial
ilevelopment of Japan has of late been marvellous.
In 1890-95 the exports increased in value from
i;iI,30(J,UO() to nearly £25,0<K),000 : the imports
from £1U,UIJO,000 to about £30,000,000. Jaiian Is
now seriously threatening the commercial and
manufacturing supremacy of Itrit.iin and other
Enroiieaii countries in many |iarls of ihe East, as
in Singapore. In respect ul volume of trade with
Japan liritain comes first, then the United Slates,
290
JAPAN
JAPHET
tlieii China, then France, and next India. From
Great IJiitain come cliielly cotton and woollen
goods, iron and machinery, and chenucals. The
stajile exports of Japan are tea ( United States and
Canada), silk (United Stales, Canada, France,
Great 13ritain), rice ( .-Vnstralia, Great Britain,
Germany), porcelain, coals, matches, umbrellas,
clocks, mats, fans, gums, camphor, shelHish, henm,
lac(iuer-\varc, copper, salt lish, cuttle-lish, tish-oil,
fish manure, seaweed, mushrooms, iVc. In IS'Jo, of
2.S0O shijis (IGUO of them steamers) entering and
clearing Japanese ports in the foreign trade, nearly
900 were Japanese (350 steamers). The develop-
ment of the cotton manufacture is a significant
feature in the Japanese industrial re\olution ; in
1890 there were over thirty prosperous cotton
factories. The Japanese emigrate to Hawaii,
tjUi island, vVc. In 1S94 Britain rescinded the
capitulations under which British subjects in
Ja]<an could only be tried by consular courts.
Goi'ernment and Administration. — The govern-
ment is a hereditary monarchy, the succession being
now exclusively in the male line. The cabinet
consists of ten ministers of state, presided over
liy a minister president, their departments being
Foreign Ati'airs, Imperial Household, Interior,
Finance, War, Navy, Justice, Education, Agri-
culture ami Commerce, Communications (post and
telegraph, &c.). There is also a privy-council,
mostly composed of former ministers of state.
The new constitution. Laid out on German lines,
is jealously careful of the supremacy of the throne.
The imperial diet consists of two Houses, and its
approval is necessary for the passing of every law,
debates being held in public. The first general
election took place in 1890 ; provincial assendjlies
were instituted in 1879. For adnnnistrative pur-
poses Japan is divided into forty-three Icn or
prefectures ami three fii or city governments
(Tokyo, Kyoto, Osaka). The normal revenue of
late years (apart from the war indemnity received
from China, q.v.) has been abinit £14,000,000, and
is usually much more than balances the expendi-
ture. Tiie del>t in 1895 was £63,000,000^ Penal
and civil codes ha\e been drafted on a European
basis. Taxation mostly falls upon land ; the
land-tax is levied in the form of a i)ercentage of
the market value of the land. It has hitherto
been impo.s.silile for Japan, owing to the restrictions
imposed liy the treaties, to increase the revenue
from customs duties. The liquor and tobacco
duties are heavy.
Coinage, Weights and Measures, <bc. — The coin-
age is practically of siher, although gold coins are
still issued. The mint for metal coinage at O.saka,
organised and supi^rintcnded until quite recently
by British experts, turns out exiiuisitely-linislied
coins. The silver dollar or i/cn has since ISSO cir-
culated generally in the Far East on a par with
the Mexican dollar ; its present value is about 3s.
There is a subsidiary silver coinage of 50, 20, and
10 sen pieces, besides a nickel 5 sen. piece ; also a
copper coinage of 2 sen, 1 sen, 5 rin, 2 rin, and 1 /■/«
])ieces (10 rin = 1 sen; 100 sen = 1 yen). The
pajier mint in Tokyo turns out a redeemable paper
currency.
For lineal measure, the artisan's and land
shakn answei-s pretty closely to the English foot
( = •9942119); the ilry goods .shakii is longer
(1 -242705). Long distances are measured by ri :
30 (/(o = 1 »•(■ = 2-440.34 English miles. Land is
bought and sold by the tsiibo ( = 36 sq. feet).
Weight is reckoned by kin ( 1 kin = 1-32.507.323 lb.
avoir.) and by Kiranune (16 kwamme = 100 kin).
On January I, I8S8, mean solar time for 135'
long., or 9 boms F,. of dreenwich, was adopted as
standard time for all Japan. This meridian passes
through Akashi, fully half a degree W. of Kyoto.
Authorilies. — The works of Kaenii>fer(2 vols. Lond.
1727) and of Siebold C-'O vols. U-yden, 1832- .51) remain
always classical. The best liandy coinpendiunis of iii-
forniation on Japan are the Handbook fur Japan, in
Murray's series, compiled by Satow and Hawes (18.S4),
the Ancicn Japan oi Appert and Kinoshita (Tokyo, 1888),
and A Concise Dictioiiani of Japan : Koads, Towns, Latcs,
etc., by W. N. Whitney (Tokyo and Loml. 1890). As
general treatises 3. J. Rein's Japan (2 vols.; Eng. trans.
1884-88) and W. H. CJriffis's The Mikado's Empire (New
York, 187G) may be consulted, tlie lirst being scien-
tific, the second popular. Anilersim's Pictorial Arts
of Japan (Lond. 1886) and Morse's Japanese Homes
(Boston, U.S. 1880) are valuable special treatises. For
the language and literature consult the granniiars of
A.ston, Chamberlain, and Inibrie, and the dictionaries of
Hepburn, Satow, and Gubbins, and Chandierlain's Class-
ical Poetri/ of the Japanese (1880). A none of informa-
tion is contained in tlie Transactions of the Asiatic
.Vncicti/ of Jajian (Lond. Triibner), the Transactions of
tlie German Asiatic Society, the Transactions of the
Scismolorfical Societi/ of Japan, and the Ctiri/santhemnm,
a montbiy review now extinct. The Imperial ITniversity
sends out memoirs ; and tliere is a Japan Weekhi Mail
( Yokuhama ). See also works by Arnold ( 1891 ), Murray
(1894), Hearn (1895). and Parsons (1890); and book.s on
the Far East by Curzon (1894) and Norman (1895).
JapaunillS is the art of producing, by the aid
of heat, a hard coating of coloured varnish upon
metal, wood, or papier-mache. Articles so co.-ited
resemble the lacquer wares of Jaiian and China
(see Lacqi'EI!). A japanned surface dill'ers from
an ordinary painted surface in being harder and
more durali>le, and also in not being easily in-
jured by hot water or by being placed near a
fire. A good brown 'japan' is prepared by separ-
ately heating equal quantities of amber and asplial-
tum', and adding to each one-half the ipiantity by
weight of boileil linseed-oil. r.otb coniiuiunds are
then mixed together. Copal icsin may be substi-
tuted for the amber, but it is not so durable. Tinned
iron goods are most largely jai)anned, and for them
brown and black colours are chi(dly used. Both
are obtained by the use of brown japan, the metal
getting a preliminary coating of bl.-u-k paint wbcm
black is rec[uired. Only one coating of brown
japan is given to cheap goods, but for better wares
two or more coatings are applied. After each
coating the articles are heated for ten or twelve
hours in an oven at from 135^ to 165° F., or even
up to a much higher temperature. The japanned
surface is then rubbed with line ground pumice,
next with rottenstone, and the linal polisii given
to it by the palm of the hand. tJold or bronze
bands or floral decoration, or both, are generally
added. These are lirst painted on in japanner's
gold size, and then the gold leaf is ajiplied or the
bronzed power du.steil on, after which the objects
are again placed in the o\en. After they are
renmved the gill or bronzed portions get a pro-
tecting coat of while spirit varnish. When wldte
(M- other light colours are used for japanning they
are mixed with japanner's varnish. '1 hese require
more careful heating in the oven than dark brown
or black. Such articles iis tea-trays, coal-boxes,
cash-boxes, tin canisters, ami the like are japanned
in great numbers in Birmingham. Fortable baths
an- usually linishe<l internally in white japan ; and
it may be remarked that this would bust much
longer than it often does if care were taken not to
leave soa|py watei in the baths after being used.
The varnisliing or japaniung of the surface of i)apier-
maclie wares is a similar process to the above, but
in the case of these shell or metal inliiyiug is
often worked into the ja]>an.
.laillict, according to the Hebrew record, the
second son of Noah, whose descendants peopled
first the north and west of Asia, after which they
proceeded to occu])y the 'isles of the (ieiitiles. '
The term Japhetic or Japetic was at one time used
JAPURA
JASMINE
291
loosely for peoiiles of the European stock {nearly
as Aryjin and Indo-European now) as opposed to
Semitic and Haniitic (Asiatic and African). See
EthN(ilo(;y, Philology.
Jai>lirii ( yi(/iiird), or CaqletA, an inii>ortant
triliutary of the Amazon, rises in southern Colom-
bia, on the ea-st side of the Andes, flows ESE., and
enters the Amazon opposite Telle by several anus.
Its upper course is oroken by many falls, but in
tlie lower part it is navij^able for river-steamers
to nearly 70" W. long., or almost oOO miles.
.l:irs;oon. See Jacinth.
Jarl. See Earl.
Jariiao. a village in the French department of
C'harente, "23 miles by rail W. of Angouleme, where,
on March 13, 1569, the Duke of Anjou, afterwards
Henry III., and 'ie.CWO Catholics defeated 15,0()0
Huguenots under Louis I., Prince of Conde (q.v. ).
Jaroslav (pronounced Yaros/af), capital of
the Russian government of that name, stands
at tlie junction nf tlie Volga with its affluent
the Kotorost, 173 miles by rail XE. of Moscow.
The town lia-s broad streets, a line quay, 2 miles
long, beside the Volga, nearly fifty churches, thiee
monasteries, and a theological college ; it is the
seat of an archbishop. The law college (lyceum)
has more than 300 students. The staple industry
of the place is the manufacture of cotton stutl's ;
ne.\t comes the weaving of linen, wool, and silk.
Jaroslav is an important river-port, and does an
active trade in corn (one half), groceries, and tex-
tiles. Pop. 70,171. The town ^\as founded in
1026, and was the capital of an independent princi-
pality until 1471, when it fell to Moscow. — The
government of Jaroslav, with an area of 13,751 stj.
m. and a pop. (1S97) 1,073,593, spins and weaves
cotton ancf flax, and manufactures spirits, tobacco,
and cheniioal.s.
.I;ii'i*:ili. See TiMHEu, Westekx Austkalia.
Jjirrow. a municipal borough and seai)ort of
Durliam, situated on the Tyne, 3 miles by rail
S\V. of South Shields and 7 miles E. of Newcastle.
Its growth from a small colliery village to the
thrivin" town has been due to the coustrviction of
its docks (since 1859), and to the establishment
of Palmer & Co.s iron-shipbuililing and marine
engine works, blast-furnaces, iron foundries, gun-
factory, &c., which together employ upwards of
7000 hands. Pai)er and chemicals are also manu-
factured, and coal is shipped in large quantities.
At Jarrow in 682 Benedict IJiscop founded the
Benedictine mon;ustery with which the name of
Bede (ip V.) is inseparably a-ssociated. Tlie chancel
of the parish church, reconstructed in the 11th
century, retains portions of Benedict's work ; the
nave was rebuilt in 1783 and again in 1866. Bede's
cliair is still preserved in the church, .larrow was
made a municipality in 1875. Pop. (1871) 18,115;
( 1891 ) .33,675. See Jewitt's Jurruic Chitrck ( 1864).
Ja.sllC'r, Book of (Jitshar in Revised Version :
Heh. Si:/i/icr hai//i.shar, 'the B<jok of the Upright;'
translated by the LXX. liiOlioii Ion Ent/ioii.s, and
by the Vulgate LilicrJicstonnn : but the Peshito has
Sep/ier Hanhir, 'Book of Praises or Hymns'), is
one of the lost books of the ancient Hebrews, which
is quoted twice (Joshua, x. 13; 2 Samuel, i. 18).
Regarding its character and contents there ha.s
l>een mucli speculation. Talniudic and later Jew-
ish authorities identified it variously with Cenesis
(sometimes called 'the Book of the I'liright'),
Deuteronomy, Juilges, Jkc, to all which notions
there is the obvious and fatal objection that the
two quotations from it which survive are not to
be found in any of these books, an<l could not
|)Ossibly be fouiiil in the lii-st two, as they refer
to incirlents which occurred at a subsequent period
in the national history. The conjecture of the
Syriac and Arabic translators has been adopted
by Dr Lowtli, Herder, and other scholars — viz. that
the Book of .huslier was a collecticm of national
ballads, recording the warlike deeds of the national
heroes or singing the jiraisesof otherwise celebr.ited
men. Gesenius is inclined to adopt the .same view,
and suggests that it may have acqiiired its name,
'the Book of the Upright,' from having been written
chiefly in jjraise of upright men. Donaldson, in an
over-ingenious work, Jas/iar (1854), contended for
its being a composition of the age of Solomon, and
a work of Nathan and (lad. He conceived that it
originated in the desire of the more religious of the
community to possess a record of the national
history which should chiefly set forth the righteous-
ness of the tme Hebrews, and he attempted to
extract from the so-called canonical books of the
Old Testament such passages as he believed to
have originally formed part of it. The actual
book could not have been earlier than the age
of Solomon, especially if a fragment relating to
the building of the temple in the Septuagint of
1 Kings, viii. be from that work. In the r2-14th
centuries no less than three difl'erent works pro-
fessing to be the lost Book of Jaslier were pro-
duced : and in 1751 a preposterous forgery under
this name (and ultimately traced to one Hive, a
London printer) created some excitement. It
claimed to have been translated from Hebrew by
'Alcuin of Britain,' and was reprinted in 1829.
Jaslipill'i a native state of Chutia Nagpur, in
Bengal. Area, 1963 sq. m. ; pop. 90,'240. The
country is a tableland, ranging from 2200 to 3500
feet in height, and has excellent soil.
Jasmin, Jacques, a modern Gascon poet, was
born at Agen, 6th March 1798. He has given in his
Soiibenis (1830) a humorous account of the poverty
and privations of his early life. He earned his living
as a oarber; but wrote poetry in his native Langue-
doc dialect. His first volume, entitled Papillntos
(■Curl Papers'), apjieared in 1835. He greatly
enhanced his reputation by reciting his own poems
in public. His poetry is full of beauty and power ;
the pathos of his serious and the wit of his comic
pieces are of a high order. His jioenis were
received with enthusiasm in France and even other
parts of Europe. He was made a Chevalier of the
Legion of Honour in 1846, and in 1852 his works
were crowned by the French Academy and a prize
awarded to him. He pulilished four volumes of
poems in all ; the best jueces are The C/iarimri
(1825), a mock-heroic poem; The Blind Girl af
Ca.stel-Citilli; (1835), trans, bv Longfellow; Fran-
i-uiiclio ( 1840) ; The Tiriti Bru'thers {llii\ ) : Maii/ia
the Simple (1845); and The Son's JVee/: (1849).
These poems raised .lasndn's native tongue to the
dignity of a literary language, and initiated a
literary and linguistic movement in the south of
France which has gone on spreading and thriving
since his death (at Agen, on 4th October 18(14).
See French Lives by Rabain ( 1867) and J. Andrien
(1882), and vol. iii. of Sainte-l'euve's Portraits Con-
temporains, and the Life hy Samuel Smiles (1892).
•lasilline. or JlissAMlNE (Janminum), a genus
of ]ilanls of the natural order J;isminacea\ The
genus Jiusmine has it« calyx and corolla each
5 or 8 cleft, two stamens attached to and in-
cluded within the tube of the corolla, and a
two-lobe<l berry, one of the lobes generally abort-
ive. The name .lasrjiine is from the Per-sian
i/dsinin. The native country and the date of
introduction of the Common .lasmine (J. offi-
cinale) are unknown, but according to Gerard
it was in common use as a wall-shrub and for
covering arbours as far back ius 1.597, and it is
naturalised in many parts of Europe and A-sia.
292
JASON
JAUNDICE
The perfume is obtaineil fnmi the (lowers by means
of absorption in a fatty substance. -An essential
oil is also (listilleil from jasmine. The eonimereial
oil of jiusmine, however, is merely oil of ben or the
like llavoured witli jasmine. — J. ijmudijhji-aia, a
native of the East Indies, has flowers still more
fragrant. Another Imliau species is J. Hanibac.
Jasumiuui nudiflorum.
— Several other species, some with erect and some
■with twininj;- stems, are not uncommon in tjardens
and greenhouses. Some have white, and some
have yellow flowers. — Cape Jasmine is a name
for Gardenia (<i.v.), and the Carolina Jasmine is
Gelsemium (q.v. ).
Jasoii. See Argonauts.
Jasper (Gr. iaspis), a mineral geneially re-
garded as one of the varieties of Quartz ((pv. ), and
distinguished by its oi]acity, owing to a mixture of
clay or other substances with the silica of which it
is chielly composed. There are many kimls of
jasper, some of them of one colour, as brown, re<l,
yellow, green, white, blue, or black, and some
variously striped, spotted, or clouded with diti'erent
colours. Jas|)er is a very abundant mineral ; it is
found in veins and embedded masses in many rocks,
sometimes api>ears as a rock of which whole hills
are forme<l, and is very common in the sha]ie of
])ebbles. It has been prized from the most ancient
times for ornamental ]iurposes, a.s it takes a high
polish. The kind called Porcelain jasper is rather
rare. It is often full of minute lioles, or is cracked
in all directions. It is regarded as a kind of
natural porcelain, and is found in places where
coal-seams have takcin lire : it is thus siuii>ly a
baked clay. Similar baked clays are not infre-
quently met with in the viciuity of intrusive igneous
rocks.
Jassy, or Ja.shi, the cajdtal of Moldavia, the
nortlieni division of Roumania, stands 5 miles
W. of the Pruth, •!{)?, miles by rail NW. of (Jdessa,
and 2.S9 NNE. of IJucliarest. The town was almost
'destroyed by fire in 18'27, after which it was re-
built. The streets are broail, and are (laved with
asphalt, and tht,- li<nises mostly one-storied ami
built of wood. There are more than forty (ireek
churches and close npon sixty Jewish synagogues.
The most noticeable secular buihlings are the
jialaces of the boyars or Koumanian nobles, both in
the city and in its environs. The town has a
university with about 40 teachers and 170 students.
The industry Ls unimportant; but there is an
active trade in corn, spirits, and wine, mostly with
Galatz on the Dauubi'. I'op. 70,000, of whom
half are Jews, besides Armenians, Russians,
(iyp.sies, &e. Jassy was the residence of the
Moldavian princes from l.-ifi.'). Here jieace was
concluded between Russia and Turkey in 1792.
During Yi)silanti'H insurrection the town was
almost destroyed by the Turkish Janizaries (18'2'2).
On a height clo.se to the town is the residence of
the former woiwoiles or governors of Moldavia.
«Iaszbor«'Iiy. a town of Hungary, 39 miles E.
of liudapcst. I'op. '21,507, employed in agri-
eullure, clolli manufacture, and wine-making.
•lAtaka (literally, 'relating to birth'), the
name of a colleetiim of Icgetids, containing an
account of the oM previous births of Sakya Muni,
or the Ihiddha. It forms a part of the iSiithijiitii/:ri,
or ' baskets of discourses,' ot I'ali literature, and an
edition of the te.xt, with commentary, was issued
byFausbolI in 0 vols. (Loiul. 1877-90). These are
of great importance as the earliest collecth)U of
po[)ular stories, many of wliicli al an early date
found their way by one channel or other to the
West, a»<l are still current as fables of .Ksoii or as
traditional and apparently indigenous folk-tales.
The best Knglish translation is that undertaken in
ISO.") by I'rofessor Cowell.
Jativa. or X.\TivA, San Felh-e ue, a town of
Spain, 35 miles by rail SSW. of ^■alencia. As the
Sctdiis of the Romans it was famous for its linen
manufactures. It was a Moorish town until taken
front them by Jayme I. in 1'224. Here was born
the painter Riliera (Lo Spagnoletto) in 15SS. It
was also the home of the notorious Borgia (Borja)
family. Pop. 15,000.
Jats« the most numerous and valuable section
of the agricultural populatiim of the Punjab, num-
ber about 4A millions. They are by many iden-
titied with the Gctw : and some of the best
authorities accept the theory that they are de-
scended from Scythian invaders of India in i)re-
hisloric times. Some scholars believe them cogmile
with the Gypsies (ipv. ).
Jailer, a town of Prussian Silesia, on the
Neisse, 13 miles by rail S. of Liegnitz. It is
famous for its sausa'jes and its weekly corn-
market, held regularly since 1404. .lauer was
formerly the market for the linen-trade of Silesia
and the cai)ital of a principality: but the Thirty
Years' War ruined it. It now nianufactures
sugar, leather, cloth, «S:c. I'op. (1SS5) 11,178.
Jaiif. See Arabia.
Jaillldice. a yellow colour of the skin and
conjunctiva of the eye, arising from the prcsenci' of
the colouring matter of the bill' in the blood and
tissues, is a symptom of various disordered condi-
tions of the system rather than a sjiecial disease.
With this colouring of the skin and eyes the
following symptoms are associated : the fa'ces are
of a grayish or dirty-white tint, in conse(|nence of
the absence of bile, and the urine is of the colour of
sall'ron, or is even as dark iis porter, in conseiiuence
of the presence of the c<douring matter of the bile.
There is sometimes, but not in the majority of
cases, an e.xtreme itching of the skin. It is a
popular belief, as old as the time of Lucretius, that
to a jaundiced eye I'vciytliiiig ajipears yellow.
This, iiowever, is a very rare symptom.
The causes of jaunciici! naturally fall into two
cla.sses, those where there is mechanical obstructicm
of the bile-duct, and those where there is no
obstruction. Mechanical obstruction nuiy be pro-
iluce<l by gall-stones (see Calci'H's) or thickened
bile witliin the duct : by inllammatory swidling of
its lining membrane or that of the duoilenum, into
wliicli it discharges (riitnrrlidl jaundice): by the
jire.Hsure upon it of tumours of neighbouring )parls,
of till! pregnant utiMUs, or of accumul.ations of
fa'ces in the bowels. .laundice may result without
idjstruction of the ducts from congestion or cir-
rhosis of the liver, from seveie mental emotions
(anger, fright, k'i.c. ), and especially from the action
of various poisons — e.g. ]ihosphorus, arsenic, mer-
cury, snake-jioison— and of various acute diseases
JAUNPUR
JAVA
293
— e.g. typlins fever, iiy:eiiiia, and alxtve all yellow
fever. In cases of obstructive janndice, all author-
ities are agree<l in referring the yellow stainini; of
the skin and other tissues to ahsorption by the
lymphatics and veins of the l>ileiiij;nient, which is
secreted liy the liver but not clischarixed into the in-
testine. The explanation of nonobstructive jaun-
dice is, however, not .'so clear, and raises complicated
physiological questions. According to one theory,
the bile-pigments are fomied in the blood and
merely e.Kcreted by the livei- : and on this view
non-obstnictive jaundice is caused by their defective
elimination owing to diminished activity of the
liver-cells. Others hold that the bile-pigments are
not formed except by the action of the liver-colls ;
that in non-obstructive jaundice also secretion and
re-ahsoi-]ition always take place ; and that the bile-
pigments continue in the circulation owing to some
•<lefect not fully understood in the processes occur-
ring in the blood. The question must be regarded
jis an open one : but the latter theory seems at
present most in favour.
Both prognosis and treatment of jaundice depend
entirely upon the recognition of the cause to which
it is due. In cases of gall-stones, catarrhal jaun-
dice, pressure of the pregnant uterus or of faecal
accumulations, and of congestion of the liver, the
•case usuallv terminates favourably ; in eases of
tumour and of cirrhosis of the liver the outlook
is always grave ; in jioisoninw and in acute disea-ses
jaundice is often a very serious symptom ; where
it results from mental emotion it sometimes dis-
ajipeai's quickly, but is often followed by severe
nervous symptoms and death. See Liver ( Dis-
eases (IF ).
Jillllipnr. the capital of a district in the
North-west Provinces of India, is situated on the
(.Tumti. here crossed by a bridge ( 15(i9-73) 712 feet
in length. The former capital of a Mojianmiedan
kingilom, Jaunpur h,as several splendid architec-
tural monuments, including Ibrahim's baths ( 1420),
mosques, and ruins of mosques and of the fort.
Pop. (1881) -14.845.
Java (Djaw,^), an island of the Dutch East
Indies, the seat of the colonial government. It
Is .situated between 5° 52' { St Nicholas Point) and
8 50' (South Cape) S. lat., and 105° l.T and 114°
39' E. long. The island is washed on the N. by
the Sea of Java, on the E. by the Strait of IJali,
on the S. bv the Imlian Hcean, and i.n tho \V.
SUMAffRA
"•ESri *■ Madura
Enjlish Miles
en loo Igf, ;r^
*r
by Sunda Strait. It e.vtends almost due west and
east, declinin<5 aliout 15' to the south. The ex-
treme length IS alKjut 6<K) miles, the breadth 40 to
125 miles, the superficial area about 49.000 sq.
m. (excluding M.-idura, q.v.). The coast-line is
not much developed ; a few large bays, protected by
i.slands, furnish .safe anclmrage for vessels. From
end to end of the island (most pndiably correspond-
ing to a volcanic line of fissure ) there is a mountain-
chain, named (lunung Kendang, and, e.specially in
the western part of the island, several ]iaiallel
shorter chains. To the north there are a few
isolated mountains in the alluvial plain. Towards
the south the island falls in general steeply towards
the sea. There are forty-three volcanoes, several
of which are still active. The rivers are generally
small, but become torrent.s when swollen by rain ;
only a few of them are navigable. The climate
depends on the altitude; it is rather hot and
unhealthy on the coiist, but ^dea.sant in the hills.
The thermometer seldom indicates more than 9.5°
F. In Batavia the average temperature is 78-5°,
the extremes being 92 7° and (ifi'9°. The moun-
tains rise to alKiut 12.000 feet, and are clothed
up to 9(KK) or 10,000 feet with luxuriant foliage;
on the loftiest eminences the thermometer some-
times sinks to 32°. Generally, even in the hills,
the days are hot, but moderated by land and sea
breezes, which blow regularly across the island;
the nights, especially in the highlands, are cool.
The rainy season lasts from November to March.
The population of Java has rapidly increased ; in
1850 it was 9,570.000, and in 1894, 24,64.3,000. At
the beginning of 1SS8 (excluiling Madura) it
amounte<l to a total of 20,898,122. These figures
included 20.614,222 natives, 228,340 Chinese, 11,665
Arabs, and 2736 other Orientals (natives of India,
of Further India, iSrc. ). The Europeans (half-castes
included) amounted to 41,159. The natives belong
to the Malay (q.v.) race. The Madurese, in the
eastern part of the island, the Sundanese, living in
the western part, and the Javanese proper difl'er in
physique and in language. Most of them are
jlohamniedans, at least in name, for much of the
belief of their ancestors survives in the Islam that
is now practised. A few tribes, however, profess
the old religion (viz. the Baduwis in Bantam and
the 'Heathen' of the Tengger Mountains). The
native Christians nuinljer about 12,000, and the
Chinese Christians a few hundreds. How many
half-castes are counted among the Europeans it is
impossible to say. The inhabitants are more
civilised than t'^ose cf the other islands of the
archipelago. One of the chief vices is opium-
smoking, which is a source of income to govern-
ment, and yields for Java alone about £1,000,000
a year for licenses and profit on the import. There
are thirty-nine Dutch Protest.ant and twenty-one
Roman C.atholic clergymen for the whole of the
Dutch East Indies, besides tho.se who are working
among the natives. Every form of leligious belief
is free, but proselytising is strictly prohiliited.
The chief Ave.alth of Java consists in its luxuriant
vegetation, though the producing power seems to
be now a little exhausteil, at least to judge from
the many diseases by which the plantations have
I'cen visited of late. The character of the vegeta-
tion varies with the soil and the elevation. The
division (of Junghuhn) into four botanical zones,
up to 20(X), 4.'><Xt, 75(K), and above 7500 feet alti-
tude, has been commonly adopted. The fauna
litters from that ol the other islands of the archi-
I'ldago. The animal kingdom is not very rich :
tigers (which are a scourge to some parts of the
island), rhinoceros, deer, and wild swine are the
chief representatives of the quadrupeds ; there are
otdy a few birds that are conspicuous for their
plumage, and hardly any that are distinguished
liy their song. Several species of serpents (some
venomous) and crocodiles are found on the island.
The geology of Java is still largely undetermined.
For the greater part, the island belongs to the
Tertiary formation, altered by many eruptions of
more recent date. Some parts of Java seem to
belong to the Pleistocene period : seilimentary
formations of rci'ciit date are especially ouisider-
able along the north-west part of the island.
Though in rild times .lava w.os called the ' land of
gold,' little of th.at metal has been fimnd of late;
silver is scarce; and there are no other metals at
all. Salt, the manufacture of which is a govern-
294
JAVA
ment moiioiioly, is prepared from sea-water ; ami
coal is workcil iu the Preauger, and marble in the
Madiun residency.
Formerly .lava used to be considered as atTording
almost a )ierfoct answer to the luiestioii. How can
a colony best be governeil ? The material pros-
])erity which resulted to the mother-country trom
this possession was owing, for the greater part, to
the system of General \'an den liosch (introduced
in 1830). Under that system tlie natives were com-
pelled to cultivate part of the ground an<l plant
staple articles on it, whilst the produce was delivered
at a fixed price to the magazines of the government,
and from them shipped to Europe and sold by the
Netherlands Trading Company. Although this
system brought large sums into the treasury of
tlie Netherlands, a vigorous opposition against
it existed almost from the beginning, since it
pressed very hard on the natives. As time went
on the opposition gained ground, and in name the
system was given np and private planters admitted.
But in point of fact, at least so far as the coffee-
plantations were concerned, the .system was still
continued, because the income derived from this
item could not be dispensed with. A commLssion
was appointed in 1889 to consider in what way
the system of coffee-planting might be altered. At
that time the natives received fifteen florins ( £1 , 5s. )
for one picul (133J lb. avoir.), whicli they had to
deliver at tlie magazines. Tliough private planters
had been admitted before 1870, the ' Agrarian I^aw,"
which then was ])romulgate<l, greatly facilitated the
establishment of plantations by private individuals ;
but still the competition of the government pre-
vented an unrestrained develojiment. In some
parts of the island { especially in the western part )
where private persons are owners of the ground, or
hire it from the native princes, private industry
was in better circumstances ; but of late diseases
in the crops and a falling-olt' in juices have done
nuich damage. Sugar, coll'ee, indigo, tea, and
tobacco are planted for export. Rice is grown
extensively for native consumption (and a little
for export) ; but it is not suHicient, and other food-
crops (maize, &c. ) have to be cultivated. The
teaK-forests belong exclusively to the government,
but tliey are managed by private persons, working
iiniler contract. The live-stock includes about two
and a half million buffaloes, two million cattle,
half a million horses.
Java may be considered the centre of the com-
merce and trade of a great part of the Dutch East
Indies. In 1888, 2995 vessels entered and 3126
cleared from Java. Of the chief staple articles
there were exported, in ISSS, 13,529 cwt. of in-
digo, 57(),9.57 cwt. of collee, 7,381,040 cwt. of sugar,
239,057 cwt. of tobacco, 60,791 cwt. of tea,
198,073 cwt. of tin (all these by private jiersons
or by companies), anil 420,331 cwt. of coffee and
117,420 cwt. of tin by the government. The general
exixu'ts and imports were value<l in 1880 at £.308,200
and £2,090,709 respectively on account of the
government, and at £10,079,083 and £10,140,717
respectively on account of private persons. The
countries which trade most exti^nsively with Java
are Hidland, the Straits Settlements, and Great
Britain. The leading articles of import are cotton
and linen goods, wine and spirits, jirovisions,
machinery, railway-plant, iKrc. .Java has frequent
intercourse with Europe, cin Singa]>ore or dire<'tly
by Dutch steamers, and is connci-tcil by cable with
Europe and with Australia. The telcgrai)h >y.stem
of the island is very extensive. There are good
roa<ls and railways, partly bidonging to the govern-
ment, jiartly to jirivate companies; 500 miles of
the former and 194 miles of the latter were oiien
in 1889.
The island is (excluding Madura) divided into
twenty-one residencies : Bantam, Batavia, Krawang,
I'reanger Regencies, t'heribon, Tagal, I'ekalongan,
Samarang, Japara, Rembang, S>iral)aja, Pasuru.an,
I'robolingo, Besuki (including Banyuwangi), Ban-
vumas, Bagelen, Kadu, Jokjak;uta, Surakarta,
JIadiun, Kediri— two of which (Surakarta and
Jok Jakarta) are under native jirinces. Over each
residency a Dutch resident exercises a general con-
trol. The residencies are divided into ofdcdingcn,
under assistant-residents, to whom are subject the
controllers (100). Subject to the supervision of
these European officers the administration is
carried on by native functionaries — regents at the
head of the regencies ( generally corresponding to
the fifdcciingen ), to whom are suljject the wcdoito
or chmang ; the regents have substitutes called
2xiftili.
Tlie languages are Javanese, a Malayan tongue,
divided into an aristocratic dialect and a popular
dialect, Sundanese, and Madurese. Besides there
is another language used in old inscrijitions
and manuscripts, called Kmii (better. Old Java-
nese). The Javanese alphabet is derived from the
Devanagari. Many antiquities were left by the
early Hindu conquerors, especially in middle and
eastern Java (Boro Budor (q.v.), Brambanan,
Dieng). The literature of modern Java is rather
insignificant. />((/«((/«( 'chronicles') and the »<(.(/-
arifl ( ' puppet-plays ' ) stories sliould be mentioneil.
The /iistori/ of Java can only be given in outline.
The earliest historical references date back to the
ben;inning of the 5th century. In 412 .\.D. Ea-Hien
visited Hindu colonies in Java. About the year
800 the intercourse of the Hindus with the island
appears to have become more important. Already
by that time the Javanese had attaineil to a con-
siderable degree of civilisation. To judge from the
antiipiities, there were three periods of Hindu
ascendency — a period of Buddhism, a period of
Sivaism, and a period of compromise. Several
powerful Hindu states were established, among
which JIadjapahit must be mentioned. At the
beginning of the 15th century Mohammedanism
reached the island and quickly got a firm footing.
At the end of the 10th century European merchant-
adventurers established themselves in Java ; whilst
the Dutch rule in the islaml began in 1010 (the
first governor-general, Pieler Both ). Then began a
long, tough struggle with the natives, but with the
lapse of time the Dutch gained ground. The most
important native state then was Mataram. In 1705
the comjiany obtained possession of the I'reanger
Regencies, and in 1745 its authority was extended
over all the north-east coast of the island. In 1755
the emjiire of Mataram was divided into two states,
Surakarta and Jokjakarta. In 1808 the kingdom
of Bantam was incorporated with the Dutch jio.sses-
sions ; but these in 1811 lu'came part of the French
empire. In the same year Java was occupied by
the English, and remained in their hands up to
1817. A short time after the Dutch had resumed
possession of Jav.a an insurrection burst out in
Jokjiikarta in 1825 und<'r Dip:l Negara, and tlio
struggle lasted until 18.30, when the chief of the
rebels submitted to the Dutch authorities. 15y that
time the greater part of the states of the native
provinces had been ini'orporated in the Dutch
possessions, which then assumed the extension they
have to-day.
See Sir Stamford Eafilus's History ofJa va ( Lond. 1817 ) ;
De ionjiu, Nnltrlandach Oos(-/»i(/iV ( 1802-88); Jnnyliului,
Jura (1849-53); AVorsfold, ,4 VisU Ui Java {\>i'.rA); P.J.
Vuth, Jai'a, Oco(!r<i/>hisch, Etlinoluinnch, Historhch (3
vols. 1875-78 ). This List is the most important work on
.Tava, though, in some respects, a little out of date. Seo
also It. Schuiling, Ncdirlnnii in OoKt ni ll'ia^ (1889; a
general description of the East Indian colonies, not alwava
to be trusted); Dc Lontcr Handteidimj tot dc Kciiuis
vail lul Stuuta- en Adininieialicf-Rcchl ran Nalcrl. Indie
JAWOROW
JAY
295
(M ed. 1SS4): Worsfold's Visit to Java (1893); Eliza
Scidmore's Java, lite Garden of the East (ISOSi; and
Domves Dekker's romance. Max ffarelanr (Eng. tmns.
18C8). The best maps are in Atlas dtr NtdcrlandscUc
Bezilt in/It II in Oost-Indie, by Stemfoort and Ten Sitthoft".
Jaworow. a town of Austrian Galicia, 30 miles
M"NW. of Lfinber^, was the favourite residence of
John Soliieski, kin>; of Polauil. Pop. 9159.
Jaxartes. now called SihCn, or SYR-p.\RlA
(both sj/r and daria mean ' river ' ), a river of west-
ern Asia, which rises at an altitude of 12,000 feet,
SO miles S. of Lake Issik-kul, in the Tian-Shan
Mountain.*. It is at first called the Jaak-ta.sh, then
the Taragai, and under the name of the Narvn it
descends, through a wild narrow gorge, to the level
of 6S00 feet at Fort Xarynsk, Howing all the while
steadily west with detlections to the south-west.
After passing through a series of driedup lakes and
being joined by several mountain-streams, it re-
ceives, just below Namangan, the name of Syr-
Dari.a. A little west of Khojend it breaks thiough
another gorge ; then turns suddenly to the north-
west, and, retaining that direction for 8.50 miles,
finds its way into the Sea of Aral by a delta with
three mouths. The river is navigable over this
distance only (8.50 miles). Its total length is 1500
miles : area "of its drainage basin, 320,000 sq. m.
Two streams, the Tchu (&)0 miles long) and the
Sar>-su (570 miles), which formerly joined the Syi-
Daria from the right, are now lost in the sands east
of Perovsk before leaching it. Five centuries ago
the Syr-Daria used to send off a south-western
branch at Perovsk, which flowed into the Sea of
Aral on its south-east side, not far from the mouth
of the Arau-Daria. This branch is now likewise
lost in the sand. The Syr-Daria is the Nile of
Turkestan. The people fertilise their valleys by
its water, carried otf in inigation channels.
Jay (Garruhis), a genus of short- winged, short-
billed birds of the Crow family (Corviihe), repre-
sented in the pahearctic region by about 12 species.
The jays inhabit woodlands, and the adults are
generally found alone or in pairs. They are almost
onmivorous, feeding chiefly on berries, seeds, nuts,
and fruits, but eating also worms, insects, larva",
birds' eggs, ami even young mice and the nestlings
of singing-birds. The well-known blue and black
markings on the \\-ing-coverts are characteristic of
the whole genus, of which the Common Jay ( G.
glamlurius), the only British species, may be taken
Couiiuuu Jay {Oarruitm fflaTwUirius).
OH a tvpe. This bird is comparatively common
througliout Englanil and Wales, and is found in the
south and ea-st of Ireland, and in Scotland as far
north .as Inverness-shire. Its numbers, however,
are everywhere gradtiallv decreasing, owing to the
constant war waged against it by gamekeepei-s on
account of its partiality for the eggs of game-birds.
It is also sought after for its beautiful blue feathers,
which are used in the making of artilicial Hies.
The common jay builds, in thick trees or high
bu.shes, a cupsliaped, basket-like nest of sticks
lined with grasses. The eggs, .5 or 6 in number,
are of a greenish-gray colour, thickly speckled with
light-brown, ami sometimes marked with line black
lines. The adult liiid measures about 14 inches.
The prevailing colour is a light brown, but the
tail-feathers and quills are black ; the wing-coverts
are black, barred with bright blue and white: the
head bears an erectile crest of whitish feathere
with black streaks. Though the genus Garrulus is
strictly confined to the Old World, closely allied
genera, Cyanocitta, the Blue Jays, and Xanthura,
the Long-tailed Jays, are fonnd in North and South
America. The Common Blue Jay (C. cristata)
measures Hi inches, and is of a grayish-purple
colour. It is common throughout Canada and the
southern and eastern States, and sometimes does
valuable service in ridding a district of caterpillars.
When taken young jays are easily tamed, and are
very popular as pets : for, though their natural note
is harsh and unpleasant, they possess consideralde
powers of imitation.
Jay, John, an American statesman and jurist,
and first chief-justice of the supreme court of tlie
United States, was born in New York city,
December 12, 1745. He graduated at Kinj;'s (now
Columbia) College in 1764, and was admitted to
the bar in 1768. Elected to the first Continental
congress in 1774, and re-elected in 1775, he prepared
addresses to the people of Great Bi-itain and Canada,
and to his own countrymen ; drafted the constitu-
tion of New York state in 1777, and was appointed
cliief-justice of the state ; was returned to congress
in 1778 and elected its president, and in the follow-
ing year was sent as minister to Spain. In 1782 he
was added by congress to the peace commissioners,
and it was mainly by his efforts that the treaty was
brought to a conclusion on terms so satisfactory to
the United States. In 1784-89 he was secretary
for foreign aftairs ; on the adoption of the national
constitution in 1789 he wrote in its favour in the
Feckndist (.see H.\:miltox): and after the organ-
isation of the Federal government, Washington
having offered liini his choice of the offices in liLs
gift, he selected that of chief-justice of the supreme
court. In 1794 he concluded with Lord Grenville
the convention familiarly known as 'Jay's treaty,'
which provided for the recovery Ijy British sulijects
of pre-revolutionary debts and by Americans of
losses incurred by illegal capture by British cruisei^,
and the determinatiim of the eastern frontier of
what is now the state of Maine; the British were
to surrender the western posts held by them in
17S6, and there was to be reciprocity of inland
trade between the United States and British North
America. The treaty, though favouralde to the
United States, was passionately denounced by the
Democrats as a surrender of American rights and a
betrayal of France : but it was ratified l>y ^\'ivsh-
ingtoii in August 1795. Jay was governor of New
York from 1795 to 1801. "Then, tliongh ofiered
liis former post of chief-justice, he retired from
iiublic life, and pa.sscd the remainder of his days at
Lis estate of Bedford, in Westchester county. New
York. There he die<l. May 17, 1829. There is a
good Life (1833) by his son, William Jay (1789-
1858), who was a notable leader in the anti slavery
movement, and whose writings in favour of aibitra
tion in national disputes e.xerteil a considerable
influence. See al.so the Life by William Whit lock
(New York, 1887), and by Pellew, in 'American
Stfl,tesmen ' series ( 1890).
Jay, William, an Knglish Congregational
minister, wtvs born May 6, 1769, at Tisbury, in
296
JAYADEVA
JEFFEKIES
Wiltshire. He woikeil at his father's trade, tliat
of a stonecutter ami mason, until his sixteenth
year. He was then sent to Marlhoroujjh Acaileniy,
a Conjrre^'ational training eollege for the ministry.
His first eharjre wius at Christian Malfonl, near
('liip])enhani : then he otliciateil for a year in a
ehapel helonginj,' to Lady Maxwell : and in 1701
was called as jiastor of Argyle Chaiud at Hath,
which position he occupied for sixty-two years.
He died Deceniher 27, IS.i.'?. Jay \\ as an impressive
and eloquent preacher : he heg.an preaching when
only sixteen. As a writer he produced several
\V(nks which attained to a ra]iid and very extensive
|iopularity. Among them are MoDiing and Ei^eniiiri
Excniscs, Short Discourses, The Christifin Contem-
plated, Life of Rev. Cornelius Winter, Memoirs of
Bev. John Clark, Lectures on Female Scripture
Characters, and an Autohiorfrajihi/ (1854). A C(d-
lected edition of his works, in 1 2 vols., revised hy
himself, was pulilished in 1842-48 (new ed. 1876).
tiayadcva. the nom de plume, meaning 'god
of victory,' of a Hindu poet, wlio was horn at
Kendnli, in Birbhuni district, liengal, in the 12th
century. His great work is the Cifa Curinda, a
Sanskrit lyric drama, in which is celebrated the
love of Krishna and his wife Kadlia. The Hindu
commentators give the poem a mystical interpreta-
tion. As the ' Indian Son" of Songs' it was trans-
lated in 1875 into English by Sir Edwin Arnold.
Jazyg«?S, a Sarmatian tribe, whose original
home was to the north of the Sea of Azov. In the
1st century of the Christian era they moved west-
wards, finally settling in the plains of Hungary
between the Theiss and the Danube, though one
band seems to have gone to the north side of the
Carpathians, and to have been vanquished by Her-
naniic, the king of the Goths, in the early part of
the 4th century. The .southern division of the
tiilie maintained an almost incessant ^^•arfare against
the Danubian provinces of Home, in sjiite of numer-
ous defeats, es])ecially by Marcus Aurelins ( 172 ) anil
Cams ( 28.'? ). Their power \vas finally broken by the
Huns and Goths. The dazyges were bold, savage
horsemen, whose only abodes were wagons and
tents. See S.\rmati,\x.S. — Jazygia is a district in
Hungary, ESE. of Pesth, whose inhabitants, Mag-
yars, have no connection with the ancient Jazyges.
Joanne d'Albret (1528-72), the CaUinistic
mother of Henry IV. of France (([.v.), through
whom he succeeded to Navarre and Beam.
Jeanne d'Aro. See .Io.\n of Arc.
Jebl). Sir Uicii.Mtr) Ci..\vi:i!HorsE, a great
thcek .scholar, was bom at Dundee, August 27,
1841. The grand-nephew of Bishop Jebb, and on
the maternal siile the great-grandson of liisho])
Horsley, he iidu^rited the traditions of the .scholar,
and i)assed with marked distinction through St
Columba's College, Dublin, the Charterhouse, an<l
Trinity C<dlege, Cambridge, graduating as senior
classic in IH(i2. Soon after he was elected Fellow
of his college, and he took a prominent part in
organising tTio system of Inter-Collegiate Classical
Led UK'S, and served as secretary to the newly-
founded Cambridge Philological Society. In 18G9
lie became public orator of the university, in 1872
classical examiner in the university of London, and
tutor of his own college, in 1875 profes.sor of (ireek
in the university of (Jlasgow, and in 1SS9 regius
professor of (Ireek at Cambridge. He has received
lionorary degrees from Edinburgh, Harvard, C'am-
bridge, and Bidogna, and was awarded a Greek
decoration in 1878. In 1801 he was electeil
M.I'. (I'nionist) for Cambridge I'niversity. He
has actively suiqiorted the teaching of modern
(Jrcek, and he helped to establish the British
School of Archaeology at Athens. Professor
Jebb's books are The Characters of Theophrastus
(1870); TJiC Attic Orators: Antiplion to Lsccos
(2 vols. 1870 80): A Primer of Creek Litera-
ture (1877); Modern Greece (1880); Translations
into Greek and Latin Verse ( 18731 : Bentlci/ ( 1882)
in the series of ' English Men of Letters ; ' admir-
able school editions of the Eleclra and Ajaa: of
Sophocles: an Introduction to Homer {iSS') ; T^ec-
tures on Greek Poctri/ (180S): and Ifumauism in
Education ( 1899). But perlia]is his most im)>ortant
work is his monumenlal edition of the |ilavs of
So]>liocles, with text, commentary, and prose trans-
lation, of which the Cambridge Press issueil (Edipus
Ti/rannus in 1883, CEdipus Coloneus in 1885, Anti-
gone in 1888, Trnrhinia; in 1802. ami Electrn in 1894.
As a scholar Jebb is eiiually brilliaiil and accurate ;
he shows exceptional sanity and sense of propor-
tion, and ]iossesses the gift of writing adminiblo
Englisli. In 1000 he w,as knighted.
Jedlmi'Sll. the county town of lioxbiirghshire,
is beautifully situated on .led Water, 50 miles by a
branch-line (by road 40) SE. of Edinburgh. (If'its
magnificent Augustinian abbey, founded by Daviil I.
in 1118-47, and finally spoiled by the English in
1544-45, the ruined church only remains. This,
Norman to Second Pointed in style, is 235 feet
long, and has a central tower 86 feet high. In 1823
a jail (now disused) was built on the site of the
royal castle ( razed 1409 ), where a skeleton apjicared
to Alexander III. at liis marriage-feast (1285).
(Jther memories has Jedburgh — of Mary Stuart and
Prince Charles Edward, of Thomson, Burns, Scott,
and Windswortli, of Mary Somerville and Sir David
Brewster. A Border town, it nurtured a warlike
race, Avhose slogan, 'Jeddart's here!' was seldom
long silent. Their chief weapon wa.s the ' Jeddart
axe,' a stout steel-headed ptde, 4 feet long ; and
'Jeddart justice' is still .a byword for hanging first
and trying afterwards. Ferniehirst Castle (rebuilt
1508 ; "restored 1880) was the seat of the Kerrs. Jed-
l>urgh has been a royal burgh from time innnemo-
rial, and till 1885, «ith Haddington. \<-., rctuirii'd
an M.P. Woidlen goods have lu'cn mannfactuied
here since 1728. Pop. (1841) .3277: (1881) .S402.
See Watson's Jcdburcih Abbey (2d ed. 1.S94).
Jeddali. See Jidd.vh.
JeW'erieS, John Hich.VRP, generally known
as KiCH.\lii) JKFFKlillcs, English writer on rural
subjects, was born at the farndumse of Coate, 2^
miles from Swindon, in Wiltshire, on (ith Novem-
ber 1848. He starl<'d life as a jourmilist on the
staff of the North Witts llcndil about 1801), and
for twelve years w,as busy with this kind of work
and with writing crude novels. His nanu; lii'st
becanu> known by a long letter to the Times,
in November 1872, on the labourers of Wiltshire.
This |irocured him .an opening to the magazines as
a writer on agricultural and rural topics. In 1877
he abandoned country journalism, and moved
nearer to Londiui, hojiing to make a living by his
l)en. In the following year he won his first real
success with Tlie (lamekce/ur at Home : its sub-
title, 'Sketches of Natural History and Itural
Life,' indicates the kind of work by which his
future fame wa-s won. Other books written in
the same vein, or on similar subjects, are Wild
Life in a Southern Count// (1879), The Amateur
Poacher ( 1880). Pound about a Great Estidc ( 1881 ),
X(dnre near London (1883), /,//'c (f the Fields
( 1884), Pcd Deer ( 1884), and The 'Open Air ( 1885).
The book entitled The Story of My Heart (188.S) is
a strange autobiogriiphv of inner life. Besides
tlie.se he wrote some later novels of indiflerent
merit: After London, in- Wild En</land ( 1885) is a
curious nunance of the future. Within his own
province, although it w.as not a wiile one, .lell'eries
was an admirabh' writer. He ])ossessed a womler-
ful insight into the habits an<l ways of animals and
JEFFERIES
JEFFERSON
297
birds anil creeping tliiiij^'S. and a {treat love of them.
No En^'lisli writfr has shown a more minute and
accurate acquaintance with the life of the hcdi;e-
rows and woodlands and lields of southern Kn^^land.
He had also a reverent feclinj; im- nature, not luily
of her outward phases and aspects, Vmt also of what
may he termed her inner life. Nor were human
beinjrs excluiled from the ranjre of his observa-
tion and sympathy : he has left admirable sketches
of country-folk — farmers, gamekeepers, labourers,
village-loafers. &c. He died at Ooring in Sussex
on 14th Aujnist 1S87, after a painful illness of six
vears' duration. See Sir Walter Hesant's Eulogy
"( I8S8) and the Life by H. S. Salt ( 1893).
JpfTerson. .Joseph, comedian, was born in
Philadelphia on SOth February 182S). He came of
.1 theatrical stock, his great grandfather having
l>een a member of Garrick's com]>aiiy at Dniry
Lane, while his father and grandfather were well-
known American actors. With sucli an ancestiT
it is not womlerful that young Jett'ei-son was on the
stage from his very infancy, appearing as Cora's
child in Pizrtnn when only three years {)f age, and
dancing as ,a miniature 'Jim Crow' when only
four. For many years he went through the haril
training of a strolling .actor, and then played in
New York, where in 1857 he made a hit as Doctor
Pangloss, and in 18,58 created the part of Asa
Trencliard in Our American Cousin, Sotheni play-
ing Lord Dundreary. In 1865 he visited London,
and at the Adelplii Theatre played for the first
time his world-famous part of Kip \a.n Winkle
(4th September 186.i). With this ch.aracter his
name is identified, and, although he has slio\vn him-
self an admirable comedian in many charactei-s, to
the English-speaking world he is always P»ip Van
Winkle. Nor is this wonderful, for the character
is one of the most perfect works of art — beautiful
in conception, subtle and delicate in execution.
And the art is all the actor's ; the dramatist has
done nothing. Rip is a lazy, good-for-nothing
vagabond, but .Jefferson makes him ' the Arcadian
vagabond of the world of dreams.' See his Auto-
biography {New York, 1890).
Jefferson, Thoma.s, third president of the
United States, was born at Sh.adwell, Albemarle '
county, Virginia, 1.3th .April \'iX His father,
Peter Jett'erson (d. 1757), of Welsh cpyrigu isoo in u.s. l
descent, was a. planter and sur- hr j. b, uppincott |
veyor of note in the colony, and a Company. \
member of the House of Burgesses : his mother was
a granddaughter of William l{,andolph ( I().')0-1711 ).
Thomas .JetVerson was the third child and eldest
son of a fiimily of ten children. He entereil
William .and Mary College at the .age of seven-
teen, three years after the deatli of his father,
and remained there two ye.ars. In 1767 he w.as
admitted to the bar, and practised with siicce.ss.
In 1769 he was a delegate to the House of Bur-
gesses, and here his fii-st important eli'ort w.os in
support of a motion for the ea-sier emancipation
of slaves. The pa-ssing of tlie Boston Port \
Bill, to take efl'ect on 1st .June 1774, dciideil Vir- I
ginia to make common cause with Massachusetts, ■
and .Jefferson favoured the resolution ji.assed in the
Assemldy of Virginia to set apart the lirst day of
June .as a day of fiisting and prayer. The goVer- !
nor. Lord Dunmore, offended oy this .action, dis-
solved the AHsembly, and tlie members met in tlie
Raleigh Tavern, Williamsburgh, an<l rcsolveil to
advi.se the people of Virginia to send ilcputies to a
convention to consider the affairs of the colony
and elect delegates to a general colonial congress.
Jefferson wa.s chosen a member of the coiivciitiim,
and, un.able to attenil, he sent a communication
which was published under the title of • \ Sum-
mary View of the Rights of British North America.'
It was not .adopted as written by .Jeffei-son, still
he was threatened by I,oril Ounmore with pro-
secution for higli-treason : and his name was in-
cluded in .a liill of .attainder moved in ]iarliamiiil,
but not presseil to a vote. Jefi'ei-son was a memlier
of the second congress, which met at Pliil.adel]diia
in 1775, and took his seat on 25th June, ,a few
days .after the battle of Bunker Hill. Here his
unswerving devotion to his country's cause, his
dose acquaint.ance with English law. and his
manner, characterised by .John Adams as 'prompt,
frank, explicit, and deci.sive,' .secured him the
I respect of the House. He was re-elected to the
third congre.ss (1776); and on 7th June Richard
Henry Lee, of Virginia, as instructed by his c<m-
stituents, moved that independence .should be de-
cliired. Congress fixed 1st July for the consiileration
of Mr Lee's motion, .and meanwhile appointed .a
committee of live to prep.are a suit,able (leclaration
on M-hich to .act; .Jefierson was chairman, .and the
others were Franklin, John Adams, Roger Sher-
man, and Robert R. Livingston. Byie(|uest of his
colleagues, Jett'erson wrote the draft of tlie declara-
tion which was submitted to the House on 2Sth
June. Lee's resolution was passeil July 2. and the
formal declaration, essentially as submitted, was
adopted July 4, 1776.
Jett'erson now resigned his seat, and, althongh
ajiijointed a commissioner to France with Franklin
and Sil.as De.ane, he declined the office in order to
serve the people of Virginia in forming a st.ate con-
stitution. Among the reforms largely due to him
were laws converting estates tail into fee-simple,
abolishing the principle of primogeniture, .and estab-
lishing the freeiloni of religious opinion. He suc-
ceeded Patrick Henry as governor of A'irginia in
1779-81; and during the invasion of the state by
Amold and Cornwallis he was equal to the emer-
gency. In 178.3 he was elected to congress, then
sitting at Annapolis. Maiyl.aml. where he secured the
.a<loption of the dccim.al system of coinage. He
w.as sent in the summer of 17.S4 to act with Frank-
lin and Adams as plenipotentiaiy in negotiating
treaties of commerce with foreign nations : but in
this mission they were not very successful, the only
treaties effected being with Prussia and Morocco.
The next year Jett'erson succeeded Franklin as
minister to France, just liefore the opening events
of the Revolution. He remained during the
stormy meetings of the National Assembly and the
destruction of the Bastille, performing with much
tact the delicate duties of anibjussador, but evi-
dently in sympathy with the revolutionary move-
ment. In 1789 W.ashington appointed him secretary
of state, but he did not enter on the duties of the
olhce till March 1790. From the origin of the two
I)olitical parties, Feiler.al and Republican, Jett'erson
was the recogniseil head of the latter, while the
other members of the cabinet and the inesident
were Federalists. On 1st .January 1794 .lefferson
withdrew from |iublic life to his estate at Monticello
to devote his leisure to agricultural puiNuits and
his f.avourite literary and scientific studies.
From this retirement he w.as called to the
vice-presidency of the I'nited States in 1797; and
in 1801 he was chosen president bv the House of
Representatives on the thirty-sixth ballot. The
popular vote re-elected him by a large m.ajority for
the next presidential term. During tiie eight
years of his administralicui party spirit ran high.
Among the chief events of his first term weic the
war with Tripoli, the .admission of (Miio, and the
Louisiana purch.a.-ie ; of his second term, the firing
on the (.'hexfiprril.e by the Lcnjmrtl, the Embargo,
the trial of .\aron Burr for treason, and the pro-
hibition of the slave-trade. For these and nearly
all other acts and events of his administratioim
Jefferson was as warmly praised by some .a- blaiiie<l
298
JEFFERSON CITY
JEFFKEYS
by otliei-s. lu 1809, after nearly forty years of
public service, lie bade ailieii to [Hilitical life and
strife. Henceforth liis time \v;v.s deM)ted to the
cultivation of his estate, to boundless hos^litality,
to the interests of education, and especially to
the establislinient and suiierintendence of the
University of Virginia. He died at llonticeno,
July 4, KS'26, a few hours before the death of John
Ad.anis. Anioiij; his jiapers was found this inscrip-
tion for his tomb : ' Here lies l)urieJ Thomas Jefi'er-
son, author of tlie Declaration of American Inde-
pendence, of the Statute of Virginia for Reli'jious
Freedom, and Father of the I'niversity of Virginia.'
In person he was over six feet in lieight, with blue
eyes, fair complexion, broad forehead, and, in early
lite, red liair. He was a good classii^al scliolar, and
proficient in the science of his day, a reaily writer
and Huent talker, but not an eloquent orator.
■\Ve have his Wrilhvis. Correspondence, licc. (9 vols. ed.
by H. A. Washington, New York, 1853-54), his Notes on
Virniiiin {Paris, 17S1 ), and his Manual of ParlMiuentary
Practice. See Lives by Tucker (1S37), Parton (1S74),
and ilorse (ISS."?); also Henry Adams, Bistori/ uf the
United stat€.-< duriiiif the First and Second Administra-
tion of Thonuis Jefferson { 4 vols. New York, 1891 ). His
authorship of the Declaration of Independence has
recently been disputed.
Jeflersoil City, since 1826 the capital of
Missouri, is situated on the south bank of the
Missouri Kiver, 125 miles by rail AV. of St Louis.
It has a state-house, governor's residence, I'.S.
court-house, state armoury and penitentiary (1500
convicts), and the Lincoln Institute, a state-
sup]iortcil college for coloured students. Poj). 6742.
Jt'flersoiiville, a city of Indiana, on the Ohio
River, opposite Louisville, Kentucky, with which
it is connected by an iron lailway bridge nearly a
mile long. The falls of tlie river ,at this point are
utilised in the various manufactories, which include
railway worksliops, foundries, machine-shops, Ihiur-
niills, &C. There are also boat-yards, and hyihaulic
cement is manufactured in the vicinity. One of
the state-prisons is here. Pop. (1S90) 10,666.
Jeffrey, Francis, Lord, a Scottish judge,
politician, and literary critic, was the son of a
(leputeclerk in the Court of Session, and was born
at Eilinliurgh, 23tl October 1773. After preliminary
education at the High School there, with Scott and
Brougham as schoolfellows, he spent two sessions
at the university of Glasgow, ami one at O.xford.
In 1794 he was called to tlie Scottish bar, but,
having adopted AVhig politics at a time when
Whig opinions were not favourable to professional
advancement, he made lilth- progress for many
years ; indeed for long his income did not exceed
.tUM) per annum. He was early famed for the
keenness and alacrity of his intellect and for his
literary tastes. In after years, when his jjractice
increased, he was, althongh not an (nator, remark-
ably successful in jury-trials. In the trials for
sedition between 1S17 and 1822 he aci|uired his
greatest reputation at the liar. In 1820 and again
in 1823 he was elected Lord Hector of the university
of (ilasgow on account of the great literary dis-
tinction he had then attained as editor of the Eclin-
l>ur(jli Ri-ricii: In 1829 he was elected Dean of the
Faculty of Advocates; in 1830 he entered parlia-
ment as member for Perth, and on the form.Uion of
KarUircy's ministry was nominated Lcjnl .\dvocate
for Scotlaml. After the jiassing of the Keform liill,
with which he hail much to do, especially in the
ineasiires relating to Scotland, he was returned for
the city of Kdinbiirgh, whicli he continued to
represent until 18.34, wlien, tired of iiolitics, he
accepted from Lord Melliourne the dignity of a lord
of till- Court of Session. As a judgi! he was noted
for his carefulness ami ability. From 181.") he lived
at Craigcrook, where he died, 26th January 1850.
It is neither as lawyer, jndge, nor politician that
Jell'rey has secured his chief title to fiime. It is as
a literary critic anil as leader in a new departure
in literary enterjjrise. It was he who, along with
Sytlney Smith, l''rancis Horner, and a few othere,
established the lu/iiihiirgh L'erici'' (<i.v.). The first
proposer of the scheme is suiiposeil to have been
Syilney Smith, who was the nominal editor of the
first three numbers, in 1802. After that, however,
Jelliey was appointed editor at a fixed salary of £50
per number, down to 1809, and then of £200 per
number down to 1829, when he resigned. His own
contributions were very numerous, especially at
first, and were among the most brilliant and attrac-
tive of the papers. He himself appraised as his
most valuable work a Treatise on Betiuti/, which
nobody now reads. His style was easy and llnent,
but diffuse and at times careless. He was exceed-
ingly well informed on a great variety of topics, Imt
not profound. He had a fine imagination, a satirical
turn, and a quickness of perception which instantly
detected ernns in manner or ofi'ences against taste.
He had the critical faculty without being a critic
in the highest sense, for he devoteil himself more
to analysis of method than of matter ami thought.
His defect as a critic was strikingly illnstrateil by
his mistaken estimate of the Lake poets. There
was always much of the parti.san about him, and
a robustness, not to say brutality, in his treat-
ment of opponents, which lirought him many
enemies. His contributions to tlie Bcrieir num-
bered about 200, and a selection from them was
published in 4 vols, in 1844. See the Life by
his friend Lord Cockburn (1S52), as also Macvey
Napier's Correspundc/icc (1877) and Carlyle's Ifcnri-
iiiscciiccs (1881).
Jeffreys. George, B.vron, the infamous judge,
was born at Acton in Denbighshire in 1048,
educated at Shrewsbury, St Paul's, and West-
minster schools, and called to the bar in 1668. He
rose rapidl}' into practice at the Ohl Bailey bar,
and became in 1671 common Serjeant of the City of
Loudon. Hitherto he had affecte<l to belong to the
Puritan party, but he now began to intrigue for
court favour, was made solicitor to the Duk(? of
York, was knighted in 1677, and became Itecorder
of London in the following year. He was actively
concerned in many of the Popish Plot prosecu-
tions, was made chief-justice of Chester and king's
Serjeant in 1680, baronet in 1681, and chief-
justice of the King's Bench in 1683. His first ex-
iiloit was the judicial murder of Algernon Sidney,
but in every state-trial he |iroved himself a willing
tool to the crown, thus earning the special favour
of James, who raised him to the peerage soira after
his accession. Among his earliest trials were those
of Titus Oates and llichard I'.axter, ami in both he
showed his customary brutality and vindictiveiiess.
In the summer of 1685 he was scut to the west to
try those involved in Monmouth's rising, and earned
the Lord Chancellorship by a series of judicial
murdei's which has left his name a byword for
cruelty. Three hundred and twenty were hanged
as rebels during the ' Bloody Assize,' as Jeffreys
made his way through Dor.set and Somerset, while
eight hundred ami forty-one were transported, and
a still Larger number imprisoned and whi]iped with
merciless severity. A drunken and brutal bully,
he heaped the foulest reproaches upon his unhappy
vi<'tims, and gloated with fiendish malignity over
their prospective surt'erings. It wa-s his boiust that
he had hanged more traitors than all his predecessore
since the Conquest. He held the Great Seal from
September 1685 until the downfall of .lames, and
su|i|)orted all the king's despotic ineiusures as pre-
sident of the newly-ieviveil Court of High Com-
mission, and in the trial of the seven bisbojis. Vet
he hail rational views on witchcraft, and was too
JEHAN
JELF
299
honest to turn Catholic like many Ijetter men. On
tlie Hijiht of his master he tried to follow his
exaniiile, lint was caught ilisguiseil as a sailor
at Wiiiijiing. anil sent to the Tower to save him
from l.emg torn in pieces liy the mob. Here he l
died four niontlis after, his frame already worn
out l>y hard drinkinj;. April IS, l(iS9.
See the Life by M'ooh-ych (1S27) and the apologetic
or eulogistic one by H. E. Ii-ving ( 1898).
Jolinii. See ArKrxc.zEBE, Agka.
Jehlaiii. See .JnEMM.
Jcbovahi the (listinctive name for God in the
Old Testament, in the Authorised Version is some-
times merely transliterated from the Massoretic
Hebrew text, as above, but more frequently it is
translated a.s 'Lord' (with capital letters). The
word consists of the consonants JHVH or JHWH,
with the vowels of a quite separate word, AdOn.AI ,
( ' Lord ' ), an indistinct E being substituted for the i
short .A. What its original vowels were is only (
matter of inference, for owing to a peculiar inter-
pretation of such texts as Ex. xx. 7, Lev. xxiv.
11, the name came to be regarded as ineffable;
the scribes in reading substituted 'Lord,' and the
LXX. translation has Ki/rins. The evidence of the
Greek Church fathers, who give the forms Jtibc
and Jau as traditional, as well as the shortened
Hebrew forms of the word, Jcih ( Ps. Ixviii. 4, &o. )
and Jrt/tii (in proper names, such a-s Jirmejahu or
Jeremiah), indicate that nmst probably it was
ori^ually spoken Jahirch (pron. Yahicch). Ety-
mologically. it is a third person singular, imper-
fect, probably of the verb hrnrci/i (or hujah), signi- I
fying 'to be ;' as regards the ' voice,' scholars are
not agreed, some supposing it to be causative, and
translating ' he will cause to be ' or ' he will cause :
to come to pa-ss,' while others with more probability I
view it as a simple indicative. The text usually
relied on for the explanation of the name is Ex. iii.
14, with its kindred pa.ssages. The older inter-
preters explain the verb ( here used in the lirst
person) in a highly metaphysical and abstract ^
sense ; the ' I am ' is He \\\\o really is, the ab.so- [
lutely existent, the eternal. The tendency of
modern exegesis is to read a more concrete and
historical meaning into the expression, translating
it ' I will be what I will be,' and taking it as refer-
ring to the divine sovereignty, autonomy, self
determination, freedom, but especially to the free-
dom of the divine grace. This view is confirmed
by such a passage as Hos. i. 9 : ' Ye are not my
people and I am not I will be for you.' Jehovah
IS ' He who will be ' — all in all to his i)CO]ile ; but
•eye hath not seen,' 'ear hath not heard,' 'it hath
not entered into the heart of man,' nor can lan-
guage express the ways in which hi-^ <livine grace
is to show itself to them ; it must be left to unfohl
itself in the as yet undreanied-of actualities of their
lives. The language of Ex. vi. 3 (which belongs to
the priestly or latest portion of the l^entateuch)
has been taken as proving that the name .lehovali
was of relatively late origin among the Hebrews ;
but, if thi> interpretation is correct, the representa-
tion Ls hardly reconcilable with what is said in
Gen. iv. 26 ( an older portion of the I'entateuch ), or
with the vei-j- early existence of proper names con-
taining this divine name (Ex. vi. 20). The wonl is
doubtless very old, and in all probability its earliest
connotation, if known, would be found to rei)re-
Bent a ver\' jirimitive ]iha.se of religious thought
(perhaps it may lie 'he who causes to fall' [the
rain or lightning]; see Hebrew of Job, xxxvii. 6).
At one time or another in the history c)f Israel and
of the Christian church, it has conveyed with
various fullness and depth all slia<les of the meta-
physical and religious meanings hinted at above.
Certain portions of the I'entateuch, especially of
Genesis, are distinguished by the almost unvarying
\ise of tills name of God, as also are certain sections
of the I'salter — a peculiarity which has an inii)ort-
ant bearing on questions of Old Testament criti-
cism (see IBllsLE). For references to the recent
literature of the subject, see the lexic(m of
Gesenius (ed. 1890), or Driver's essay in Stitdia
Bihlica (1885).
Jeisk, or EisK, a town in the Russian province
of Kuban (Caucasus), on a small bay, at the east
end of the Sea of Azov, Oo miles SW. of Azov.
Founded in 1848, it has grown rapidly, exports
corn, Uax, and «ool, and lias cloth manufactures
and tanneries. Pop. 27,915.
Jejeobboy, Sir J.\msetjee (Jamshedji
Jijibhai), a Parsee merchant-])rince and jdiilan-
thropist, was born of poor parents at Bombay, loth
July 1783. At an early period he showed a great
aptitude for mercantile jnirsuits, and was taken
into partnership by his father-in-law, a Bombay
merchant, in 1800. When peace was restored in
Europe after the fall of Napoleon the Indian trade
with Europe increased enormously, and in this
increase these Parsee merchants participated. By
1820 Jejeebhoy had amassed an immense for-
tune, and now began to exhibit liberality on a
magnilicent scale. He contributed very gener-
ously to various educational and ])hilanthropic
institutions in Bombay, as a hospital, a poor
asylum, the Parsee Benevolent Institution, and
a school of art ; built the Jlahim Causeway ;
and paid most of the expenses connected with
the construction of the water-works at Poona.
Altogether, between 1822 and 1858 he spent up-
wards of a quarter of a million pounds sterling
in undertakings of a jiurely benevolent character.
Parsee and Christian, Hindu and ilussulman, \\ere
alike the objects of his beneficence. The Queen
knighted him in 1842; and in 1857 he was made
a baronet. He died 14tli April 1859.
Jejllllllin. the middle part of the small intes-
tine. See Digestion.
Jelalabad, a town of Afghanistan, stands
near the Kabul River, about half-way between the
Indian frontier fortress of Peshawur and the city
of Kabul. Formerly a strong fortress itself, it is
now a dirty village "of about 3000 inhabitants. It
is interesting from its heroic defence by Sir R. Sale
in 1841-42; in the war against AfghanLstan (q.v.)
of 1878 it was held by the British until 1880.
JehiI-ll<I-<Ull, a Sufi Persian poet (1200-73).
See Pei;sia (Literature).
Jelatoin, or Elatma, a town in the north of
the Russian province of 'rambov, 170 nules ESE.
of -Moscow. I'op. 7560.
Jcletz. or Eletz, a town of Russia, 120 miles
by lail ESE. of Orel. It exports large quantities
of wheat and Hour, ami has a great trade in cattle.
Its industries include leather, soap, candles, iron
goods, lace, and linen. Pop. (1890) 36,'250.
Jeir, RiciiAUi) William, theologian, was born
25th January 1798, the second son of Sir James
Jelf. He was educated at Christ Church, Oxford,
took a second-class in 18'20, and became Fellow of
Oriel, and later, tutor. In 1826 he wius ajipointed
jireceptor to Piince George of Cumberlanif, after-
wards king of Hanover, in 1839 Canon of Christ
Church, and in 1844 Principal of King's College,
London. He died September 19, 1871. His most
important work is his liampton J^ecturcs for 1844,
T/ii: Means of Orcire. Dr Jelf was a pilhir of
orthodoxy, and his name will be best remembered
for the part he took in the proceedings which led
to Maunc-e being deprived of his professorship at
King's College for unsound views on the question
of eternal punishment expressed in his T/ieuloijiral
300
JELF
JENNER
Essni/s. His Thirtij-nine Articles Explained was
edited by J. R. King in 1873.
Jeir. AViLl.lAM EinvARD, OrooK gmniniaiian,
was siiii of Sir .lames Jelf. of Oaklaiids, (UniU'fster-
sliire, and w.as hnni at Cloiicester in IfSll. He was
eilm-aied at Kton and Cliiist t'lmreli. Oxford, took
a lirstclass in is;j:i. and was snoeessively tntor and
censor of his eollej^'e, pnblic examiner and proctor
of the university. He was one of the pn^acliei's at
the Chapel Itoyal, Wliilehall, 184(>-4S, and gave
the B.ampton Lectures in ISo7 on I'liri.stinn Fiiitli.
In lS(il he piililished a h'tter to Dr Tein]de on the
' Supremacy ol Scripture' ill answer to las f.anious
essay on ' Tlie Education of the Worhl.' Dr .lelf
<lied October 18, 1875. He is best remembered as
the author of a Greeh Griimitiar, based on tliat of
Kiibner (1S4-2-4.t: 4th ed. 18(j6), still the most
coiujdcte in English. His Exuininntivii into the
Drii'triiie nf Confrssion apjieared in 187.5 ; his
Hit mil ism, Boinanisin, ami f/ir Ei)</lixh lirforma-
tiim in 1870 ; a Commentary to the 1st Epistle of
.loliii in 1S77.
Jcllarllicll. .TosErii, Baron, Austrian general
and ISaii of Croatia, was born at Peterwardein
on 16th October 1801. His father attained some
celebrity in the Turkish wars and in those of the
French Revolution ; the son also adopted the pro-
fession of arms. Having won the entire confidence
of the Croatians, he was in 1848 appointed Ban of
Croatia ; by this appointment Austria secured the
suppiH't of the Slavonian Croati.ans against the
Magyars of Hungary. .lellachich took an active
part in the supjiressioti of the Hungarian rising.
He died at Agram, iOth May 1859. Not only a
soldier and administrator but .a poet, be published
a, collection of his poems ,at Vienna in 1851.
Jellalabnd. See Jelalauad.
Jl'llyt For jellies m.aile with fruit, see Pre-
.SEKVKI) Puovi.sioN's. The food-value of calves-foot
jelly and simil.ar jellies depends on their gelatine.
See Celatine, Pood, Diet.
Jt'lly-lisll [Mediisf!'), bell-shaped or disc-like
marine Hydrozoa, for the most part acti\e
swimmers. One set, known as Acraspeda or
Acalephiv, are usu,ally large, with a climax in a
giant specimen of Cv.anea, which had a bell 7A
feet .across, and tentacles P20 feet long. Beset
with myriads of stinging cells, these 'blubl>ers'
often m.ake bathers more than uncomfortable.
They are freipuMitly left stranded in great numbers
on the beach by the retiring tide. The common
Aurelia is a well-known representative, while the
exceptional Euccrnarians are noteworthy in leading
a more or less sedentary life att.ache<l to seaweeds
anil other objects. An.atomically diU'ercnt from
the .above, .ami incbnled .aincmg the Craspedote
Hydrozoa (q. v.), are the Tracliymedusa>, of which
<;eryonia is a good type. Finally, .a great number
of Meilnsoid forms, usu.ally small in size, very
closely resemble the Trachymedus.T, but difl'er
both from them .and from the Acr.asped.a in being
the liber.ated sexual ' persons ' of Hydroid or Zoo-
phyte colonies. See C(elenterat.\ : (Jenkk.v-
TIONS (.Ai.TEitNATiON OF); and for ex.act clas.sifica-
tion, HviiKiizoA.
Jt'lliappcs, a village in the Belgian province
of Ilaiiiault. ;! miles by rail S\V. of Mons. Here
the French republicans under Dumouriez, on (itli
November 17n2, defeateil the .Austri.ans, which
victory jd.aceil Belgium in the ]iower of the French.
The village stanils on one of the richest coallields
of Belgium, and manufactures stmicware, gla-ss,
ami chemicals. Pop. (1885) 11,322.
•Ioiia« a town of Saxe- Weimar, at the Lentra's
inllnx to the Saalc, 14 miles by rail SE. of Weimar,
and .'il XNE. of Siuilfeld. It lies 518 feet .above
sea-level, engirt by steep chalk hills, of which the
Hausberg (101)9 feet) is crowned liy the old Fuchs-
turm, .and the Forstberg by a tower in memory of
the .Jena students who fell in the Franco-Cerm.an
war. It is still a miaint old-world pl.ace. with its
ibical sr/ilos.s, the 'Black Bear' inn where Luther
halted on his ilight from the Wartburg, and a
church whose steeple is .Sll feet high. Goethe
here wrote his HmiKnin iiiiil Tnnnlhcii, Schiller his
Wullenstcin : and the houses of these and of other
illustrious residents were marked with tablets in
1858, on occasion of the terceittenary of the uni-
versity, when, too, was erecteil a bronze statue of
its founder, the Elector .lohu F'rederick of Saxony.
He founded it in l.')47-.58 to take the place of
Wittenberg as a se.at of learning ami evangcdical
doctrine; and it soon attained a high re]iutation,
though not its zenith till the d.avs of (ioethe's
patron, Duke Karl August ( 1 787- l'S06 ). To that
period belong the names of Fichte, Scholling,
Hegel. Schiller, the Schlegels, Voss, F'ries, Krause,
and ()ken ; to our own, of Hase and Haeckel.
.lena now li.as 8S jirofessors and lecturers, over 450
students, .and a libr.ary of •200,000 volumes. In
1883 a memori.al was erected of the Burschenschaft
(q.v.). Pop. (1875)9020; (1885) 12,017.
The battle of .Tena is often applied as a collective
name to two separate engagements fought on the
same day, 14th October 1806 — one at Auerstiidt
(r|.v.), 14 miles to the north, between 30,000 French
under I>avoflt and 48,000 Prussians under the
Duke of Binmswick ; the other, on the heights
round Jen.a, between 70,000 Prussians utider the
Prince of Hohenlohe and 90,000 l'"rench under
N.apoleon in person. In both the Piatssians were
totally defeated ; and their defeat entailed that
utter prostration of the l'\atherlan<I which was
tyiiitied two years later by the hare-hunt held on
the b.attlefield of .Jen.a by the Fremdi and Kussian
emperors. See works bv OrtlolV (.'!d eil. I.S76),
Hitter ( 1885 ), .and, for the battle, Goltz (1883).
Joiigliiz Kliaii. See Genghis.
Jouissei. See Yenisei.
Joilkilis. I'lUiEUT, .an Englisli merchant caiitain,
trading from .Jamaica, who alleged that in 1731 his
slooji had been boardeil by a Spanish </iiar<lii riist<i,
.and that, though no proof of smuggling h.ad been
found, be had been tortured, and his ear lorn ofl".
The said e.ar — some said he had lost it in the pil-
lory— he produced in 17.38 in the House of Com-
mims ; and a nu-mber .asking him what were his
feelings in the hour of peril, he answered, ' I
recommeniled my soul to (ioil, and my cause
to my country.' A\'.alpole next year was forced
by the ]iopular clamour to consent to war against
Sp.ain.
.Icniior. EiAVARl), the discoverer of v.accina-
tion, was born .at Berkeley, in (iloucestershire, on
the 17th of M.ay 1749, and was the third son of the
Rev. Stephen .Icnner, vicar of the ]iarish, and
rector of Itockhanqiton. His schooling over, he
was a]i)irenticed to .Mr Ludlow. ,an eminent sur-
geon ,at Sodbniy, near Bristol : and in his twenty-
lirst year went to London to prosecute his profes-
sion.al studies under the celebrated .lohn Hunter
(n.v.), in whose family be resided for two years.
The inlluence of the master exerted a lasting ellect
on the pupil, who became an expert anatomist, a
sound patbidogist, a careful cxjierimcnter, and a
good naturalist. In 1773 .lenner setfle<l in his
n.ative place, where he soon .acquireil .a large
practice. In 1788 his well-known memoir, (hi the
Niitiirdl Ifixtori/ of the t'lirlon, apjieared in the
Trans.actions of the Royal Society. In 1792, the
fatigues of general juactice having become irksome
to him, he resolved to conlinc himself to medicine,
JENXEll
JERBA
5U1
iiml «itli thiit view he obtained the degree of M.D.
from St Andrews.
The discovery of tlie prophylactic ]>ower of
vacoinatioii, l>y which the name of Jeiiner has
become imnu)rtali.--ed, w;u* the result of a pro-
longed series of observations and experiments.
He was pursuing his professional education in tlie
hotise of his master at Sodbury, when a young
country-woman came to seek advice. The subject
of smallpox being mentioned in her presence, she
oliserved : 'I cannot take that disease, for I have
had cow-po.\.' This was before the year 1770. It
was not till 1775 that, after his return to Glouces-
tei-shire, he hail an opportunity of examining into
the truth of the traditions respecting cow-pox ;
ami in the montli of May 1780, while riding witli
his friend Edward (iarilner, on the road between
Gloucester and Bristol, ' lie went over the natural
history of cow-pox ; stated his opinion a-s to the
origin of this artection from the heel of the horse
[when suffering from the grease]; speciHed the
different sorts of disease which attacked the milkers
when they handled infected cows ; dwelt upon that
variety which affordeil ])rotection against small-
pox; anil with deep and anxious emotion mentioned
his hope of being able to propagate that variety
from one human being to anottier, till he had dis-
seminated the practice all over the glolie, to the
total extinction of smallpox.' Many investiga-
tions delayed the actual discovery for no less than
sixteen veal's, when at length the crowning e.xperi-
nient on James Phipps was made on the 14th
of May 1796, and Jenner's task was virtually
accomplished. This experiment was followed by
many of the same kind ; and in 1798 he published
his Brst memoir, entitled An Inqninj into the Causoi
and Eff'et-ts of tlf Variolic Vaccime. Although
tl>e evidence accumulated by Jenner seemed con-
clusive, yet the practice met with violent opposition
until a year hacl passed, when upwards of seventy
of the principal phjsicians and surgeons in London
signed a declaration of their entire confidence in it.
His discovery was soon promulgated throughout
the civilised world. Honoui"s were conferred upon
hiin by foreign courts, and he was elected an
honorary meniber of nearly all the learned societies
of Europe, though not of the College of Physicians,
which reipiiied him to p.iss an examination in
classics. Parliament voted him in 1802 a grant
of flO,(HJ(J, and in 1807 a second grant of £20,000 ;
and in the year l.So8 a public statue in liLs honour
was erected in London. His latter days were
passed cliieHy at Herkeley and Cheltenham, and
were occu|)ied in the dissemination and elucidation
of his great <liscovery. He died of apoplexy at
Berkeley, 26th .January 1823. See his Life and
Correspondence, by Dr J. Baron (2 vol.s. 1827-38;
2d ed. 1850); also" the article V.ACCINATION.
Jeillicr, Siu Wii.Li.\M, physician, was born at
Ch.atham in 1S15, and educated at University
College, London, where he himself was professor
from 1848 till 1879. He was appointed physician
in ordinary to the Queen in 1862, and to tlie Prince
of Wales "in 1863; was iii.ade a baronet (1868),
K.C.IJ. (1872), (J.C.B. (18931, E.K.S., president of
the College of Physicians, &f. It was he who
establi>lied the difference between typhus and
tvphoid fevers (1851). See bis Lectnrcs on Fevers
(in,/ I)i,,ltlkerin ( 1893). He died llth Dec. 1898.
Ji'iiiiinus. s Ai!.\H. See Marlborouoh.
Jcnwlilll <'aV4'.S, a series of vast limestone
caverns, situated on the west side of the Blue
Mountains, in New Simtli Wales, 160 miles W.
of Syilney. They were discovered in 1841, and
were set apart in 1866 as jmblic property by the
colonial government. In grandeur, magnitude,
and rich variety they rival tJie Mammoth Caves of
Kentucky. See S. Cook's Jcnolan Caves (Lond.
1889 ).
Jensen, Adoli', a German composer, was born
in IX.'iT at Konigsberg : from 1856 to 1868 was a
musician successively at Posen. (,'oi>eiihagen, and
Berlin, and, his healtli giving way, next liveil at
Dresden, Gratz, and Baden-Baden, where he died,
23d .lannary 1S79. He Ls best known by his songs
anil compositions for the piano.
JouyilS, So.vME, was born in Loudon in 1704;
studied at St John's College, Cambritlge ; sat in
jiarliament for Cambridgeshire, Duuwicli, and Cam
firidge town : was a commissioner to the Board of
Trade, and died in December 1787. As he was
rich he easily acquired a literary reputation, but
he lacked capacity for the high metaphysical
]uoblems that lie attacked, and his books are long
since securely forgotten. Indeed his name only
survives from the accident that Dr John.son criticised
in the Litcnirij Magiiziiic his Free Inquiry into tlie
Nature and Oririi)! of FJril (1156). He condemned
the book as shallow and inadequate, and this
judgment Jeuyns never forgave him. Indeed the
argument was not worth his powder and shot, but
Johnson in his criticism excelled himself. Jenyns,
now giown orthodox, published in 1776 a no less
shallow book. View of t/ie Internal Eridenrr of the
Christian Reliyion, for the divine origin of which
he strangely argued from its utter variance with
human reason.
Jeplltliall, one of the judges of Israel, ^^■as a
base-born son of Gilead, and at Ids father's death
was driven out from any share in his father's
inheritance by the legitimate sons. He was a
leader of freebooters on the borderland of Amnion
untU recalled by the Gileadite eldei-s to head them
in their attemjit to throw off' the yoke of Amnion.
He collected his warriors from all parts of Gilead
and Manasseli, and before the battle made his
unliapijy vow to offer up for a burnt-ottering the
first thing that came forth from the doors of his
house on iiis return. The Ammonites were defeated
with great slaughter, and twenty of their cities
taken, but as the triumphant conqueror drew near
his house at Mizpeh there came forth to meet him
a procession of maidens with dances and timbrels,
and first among them his daughter and only child.
The high-spirited niaiilen asked only for two
months in which to bewail her hapless fate with
her companions among her native mountains, and
then returned to her father, and ' he did unto her
his vow.' Jeplithah had iie.xt to subdue the tribe
of Epiiraim, envious of his glorv, and this he did
effectively, cutting off thousanils of the fugitives
at the fords of Jorilan, where they were identified
as Ephraimites by their inabilitv to pronounce the
word Shitjboleth. Jeiilitliali jutlged Israel for six
years, and died. Many theologians have fouiul it
difficult to believe that one of the heroes of faith
of Hebrews, chap, xi., should have oll'eied a human
.sacrifice, and have taken refuge in Joseph KiiiK-lii's
suggestion that the conditions of the vow \\eie
satisfied by a .sentence of perpetual virginity ; but
this is U> take a dishonest liberty with the jphiin
meaning of the pa.ssage. The story of Jeiihtliali's
daughter is closely paralleled by that of Iphigcni.i
in Greek mythology, and both are grouped together
by Tennyson in liis splendid poem, The Dream of
Fair t\'f/tnr/t.
JernblAs. See Cakchemlsh, Hittites.
Jerasli. See Gkhasa.
•lerba, a small island of Africa, off the south-
east coast of Tunis, to which cmintry it belongs.
It is situated in the Gulf of Gabes, being separated
from the mainland by a narrow channel. Area, 425
sq. ni. ; pop. 40,000, seven-eighths lJerbei-s, the rest
302
JERBOA
JEREMIAH
Jews. The soil is very fertile, ami is laiil ovit in
jranlens, which proiluoe olives, tlates, v'co. Fine
woollen textiles are made. Jerha is a centre for
the Tunisian sjionjie-lisldiif;'. It has heen held to
he the home of the ancient Lotophagi ; ruins of the
former capital, Menin.x, still exist. See Exiga-
Kavser, Dcacriptiun Histuriqiw dc I'lle Djcrba
<1S8.5).
Jerboa (Dipus), a. genus of rodent quadrupeds,
helimging to a distinct family, Dipodiiue, remark-
ahlc fur ihi! great length of the hind-legs and
kangaroo-lilce [)ower of jumping. The fore-legs
are very small, hence the ancient Greek name
(lipous ( ' two-footed ' ). The tail is long, cylindrical,
covered with short hair, and tufted at the end.
Jerboa {Dipus re'jtiptius).
The jerboas are inhabitants of sandy deserts and
wide grassy i)lains in Asia and tlie east of Europe
and .\frica. An allied foim, 3!rn'o)ics, occurs in
North America. They are burrowing animals,
nocturnal, very destructive to grain and other
crops, laying U]> hoards for their winter use. They
take prodigious leajis when alarmed ; the fore-feet
are then not used at all, liut by means of the hind-
feet and the tail they leap, although they are small
aninuils, several yards. Their tlesh is said to
resemble that of the rabbit. — Closely allied to the
jerboas are the Gerliils {GerbiUi(s), small quad-
rupeds, also distinguished by great length of liind-
legs and ])ower of leaping, inhabitants of the warm
and sandy portions of^the Old World.
•It'rdiUU William, an active journalist, born
at Kelso in 1782. He removed to Lon<l()n in 1S04,
rejiorted for the short-lived .1 iir(/r/i. and the I'i/ut
evening newsjiaper, next joined the statV of the
Morning Pust, and suljs('i|uently rejiorted during
three sessions for the liritish I'rcss, contrihuting at
the same time to the Satirist, or Muntlilu Meteor,
the coi)yright of which he purchased. It was he
who seized IJellingham after he had murdered
Spencer I'ercival in the lobby of the House of
Commons on 1 1th May 1S12. In ISIS Jenlan be-
came editor of tlie Sun, but sold his share in 1817
to found the Litcrari/ Oiizcttc, which he edited for
thirty-three years. He lent his support to estab-
lish the Royal Society of Literature and the
Melodists' Club, and in IS.SO commenced the /"ore/i/H
l.iteriirii Gazette, wliidi died, however, in its
thirteentli number. In 18.52 .lerdan wa.s granted a
])ension of l.l(H». while a testimonial was presented
to him s\ibscribed to by many of the first men
of the day. He published his Autobingraphi/ in
4 vohnnes in 1 8.")2-.').S, and in 1866 Men, I hare
l.noirn. He dird in 1869.
.IcrCllliilll ( Ileh. JinnejAhi'i, or JirmejM), the
prophet, son of Hilkiah, the priest, was a native of
Anathoth (imw Anata), in the territory of Ben-
jamin, about 21 miles NNW. of Jerusalem. In
Anathoth while still yimng (i. 6) he received the
prophetic call, described in the opening of his
boolv, in the thirteenth year of .losiali (627-26 B.C.),
and his prophetic activity, prineijially carried on in
Jerusalem, continued for at least forty years there-
after. His teaching in its political, ethical, and
religious aspects can be understood only after a
careful study of the complicated circumstances of
his time, which, of course, can only be broadly
indicated here. It was after he hail been for live
years a prophet — in the eighteenth year of .losiali
— that the important occurrences connected with
the linding of the book of the law (2 Kings, xxii.,
xxiii.) took place ; and, although .Icremiah is not
mentiimed in the history as having had any part
in tliese, he was fully in sympathy with the refor-
mation movement which they inaugurated, and
most of his distinctive prophetic teaching had
reference to it (see, for example, especially xi. 1-8 ;
xvii. 19-27). In the thirty-first year of Josiah,
when Jeremiah had been for eighteen years a pro-
phet, occurred the death of that king on the battle-
iield of Megiddo, and Jehoahaz or Shalbim, his
iumiediate successor, was, after a biief i-eign of
three months, deposed liy Pliaraoh-Necho, the con-
queror, in favour of Jehoiakim, tlie subservient
vassal of tlie Egyptian king. .Ichoiakim had not
been long on the throne before .leremiah began to
foretell the doom of Judali and .leru.salem, Mhich
he saw to be inevitably approaching, in the series
of characteristic discourses preserved in chaps, vii.-
i.x. and xxvi., warning the .lewisli leaders of the
folly of the security with which they vainly trusted
in the presence of the tenqde of the Lord among
them, and bidding them look to the ruins of Sliiloh.
It was at the close of one of these <liscour.ses tliat
he was seized by the luiests and the proiihets ami
all the people and brought before the authorities on
the capital charge of having ' prophesied against
the city,' and it was chietly to the intervention of
his fast friend Ahikam, the .son of Shaphan, that
he owed his acquittal and release. The battle of
Carchemish, in the fourth year of .lelioiakim, when
the defeat and retreat of l^liaraoh-Xecho laid the
whole of Syria and Palestine ojien to the a]iiiroach
of the Chaldeans, naturally had a profonnti efi'eet
njion the foreign policy of Judah ; the same year
marked also a new departure in the prophesying
of Jeremiah, in so far as he began hencefm ward
to declare Nebuchadnezzar's di\ iuely-appoiriled
mission to be to lay upon .ludali a perioil of di'so-
hition which was to last for 'seventy' years. It
was in this year that he received the divine com-
mand to commit to wiiting the various oracles
he had up to that time delivered, and this he did
with the jus.sistance of Hanicli, his di.seiple and
friend. The inciilents of the ijulilic reading of
this record, and of a subsequent partial reading
in the presence of the king, which led to its being
committed to the Haines, are among the most
giaiiliic in the whole book (xxxvi.).
Jehoiakim after a reign of eleven years was
succeeded by his .son Jeconiah, whose brief and
obscurely-recorded reign of three months termin-
ated in the deportation of himself and a numlier
of his .subjects to Babylon, the incident alluded
to in the parable of the two baskets of ligs
(xxiv.). To these exiles the jirojihet shortly
afterwards addressed the letter contained in chap.
xxix., with hopeful assurances, but warning them
that the captivity would certainly last for seventy
years. To King Zedekiah, who had succeeiled,
and his advisers, Jeremiah held equally decided
language, declaring the futility of all their politic
devices against the Chaldean power; the vatch-
word of his policy was 'Serve tne king of Babylon
JEREMIAH
JEROME
303
and live,' and this, in the teetli of an^iv and
bitter opposition, he never failed to iiiaintaiii,
as, for example, in his pnblic controversy in the
temple court with the rival prophet Hauaniah,
whose theme was ' Ye shall not serve the kinj;
of Ualiylon' (xxxviii.). At lengtli, in consemienee
of Zedekiah's treacherous and imi)olitie alliance
with Egypt, Nebuchadnezzar, in Zedekiab's ninth
year, iuvadoil .)ud;ea. For a time he was com-
pelled by tlie appearance of an Egyjitian army to
raise the siege of Jerusalem, a temporary relief
which leil the nobles to use their inllueuce with the
king to revoke the emancipation of the slaves
which shortly before had been proclaimed. This
revocation, against which .Jeremiah strongly pro-
tested, was the theme of his last public address
(xxxiv. ). Persuaded that tlie catastrophe he bad
so long foretold was only postponed, he was in the
act of leaving Jerusalem in order to spend the rest
of his days in retirement at Auathoth, when, on the
suspicion that he was deserting to the Chaldeans,
he was arrested and thrown into prison. Still
adhering to his gloomy prophecy, he ^^ as consigneil
to the deepest dungeon, where Imt for the inter-
ference of Ebedmelech he would doubtless soon
have perished. He was not restored to liberty
until an eighteen months' siege had ended in the
capture of tlie city, when he received from Xebuzar-
adan permission to fix his residence where he
chose. It was towards the end of the siege that he
gave practical proof of his faith in the ultimate
return of his countrymen to their own land by
exercising his right of redemption over the ances-
tral lands of his family in Anathoth. Jeremiah
now attached himself to tJedaliah, the governor
whom the Babylonians had set over the Jews whom
they had left, with his headquarters in ilizpeh ;
after the murder of Gedaliah he accompanied his
comiiatriots to Tahpanes, the border city of Egypt,
where, according to tradition, he died a martyr's
death.
Viewed in the light of the preceding brief sketch
of Jeremiah's life, it will be seen that the book of
his prophecies as we now possess it does not follow
any chronological order. It consbts of the following
four pails: (1) chaps, i.-xxxix., consisting of jjro-
phecies relating to Judah, mostly with some his-
torical data attached, and all belonging to the
period prior to the fall of Jerusalem; (2) chaps,
xl.-xlv., narrative of events subsequent to the fall,
along with certain prophecies belonging to that
period, and also including an oracle relating to
Barucli, spoken in the fourth year of Jehoiakim;
(.3) xlvi. -li., oracles relating to foreign nations —
Egypt, Philistia, Moab, Ammon, Edom, Dama.-cus,
Kedar, and the kingdoms of Hazer, Elam, Babylon
— of various dates : according to most critics, l.-li.
are not by .Jeremiah, but by a prophet who wrote
in Babylonia towards the close of the captivity ;
(4) chap, lii., a historical appendix closely parallel
to 2 Kings, XXV.
Important critical questions are suggested by the
fact that the LXX. vereion of Jeremiah dill'ers con-
siderably in its arrangement from that now seen in
the MjLssoretic text, and that it is considerably
shorter — by about one-eighth of the whole — mainly
through the omission of words, clauses, and single
vei-ses. The relative value of the Greek and
Helirew recensions ha.s not yet been conclusively
determined ; neither seems to deserve unqiuililied
preference.
The distinctive advance of Jeremiah's teaching
on that of his predecessors is due to liis clear recog-
nition of the fact that the divine purpose could not
t>e realised under the forms of the Hebrew st.ate,
that the continuity and victory of the true faith
could not l>e dependent on the continuity of the
nation. Israel must be wholly dispersed, and can
only be gathered again by a divine c.ill addressed
to individuals, and bringing them one by one into
a new covenant with tlieir llod, written on their
hearts (xxxi.). Here for the first time in history
the ultimate problem of faith is based on the rela-
tiira of (Jod to the individual soul ; and it is to
Jeremiah's idea of the new covenant that the
New Testament teaching directly attaches itself.
The most important expositions of Jeremiah arc tliose
of Ewald (Prophets, voL iii. Eng. trans. 18X7), (Iraf
(1862), Hitzig( 1841), and, in English, Cheyne (Pulpit
Ciimmentavy, 1883-S.5). See also Cheyne's Jeremiah :
his Life mul Times ( 1888), and Ball's I'he Prophecies of
Jeremiah (1S90); and Workman's Text of Jeremiah
( 1889 ) is useful, thoiigh not to be impUcitly trusted.
J«'rez de la Frontera. See Xeres.
Jerfalcon. See Falcon.
Jorielio. once one of the most flourishing
cities of Palestine, two hours' journey westward
from the Jordan, and six hours north-east from
Jerusalem, in a well-watered and fruitful dis-
trict, yielding dates, raisins, balsam, and honey,
and having rose-gardens. The capture of .lericho
by the Israelites on their first entry into Canaan,
its destruction. Joshua's curse on the rebuilder,
and the relmilding of it in the reign of Ahab are
recorded in Josh. vi. ; 1 Kings, xvi. 34. It appears
to have been afterwards the seat of a school of
prophets (2 Kings, ii. 4, &c.). It suHered during
the Babylonian exile (Ezra, ii. 34). The groves of
Jericho were given by Antony to Cleopatra, and
])assed to Herod the Great, who resided in
Jericho, beautified it, and died there. It was
destroyed in the reign of 'Vespasian, and again
rebuilt under Hadrian. In the time of the crusades
it was repeatedly captured, and at last comidetely
destroyed. The place is now a shapeless ruin,
with a niiseralde village, Riha or Ariha, and
excavations into the green mounds have only dis-
closed sun-dried bricks, of which it has been thought
the walls of the city may have been built.
Jerked-beef, lieef preserved by drying in the
sun. It is properly called c/ieirqui, and, like its
name, is originally of Chilian origin.
Jeroboam, the first king of the divided king-
dom of Israel. He belonged to the tribe of
Ephraini, and for his capacity was raised by
Solomon to be superintendent of the laboui-s anil
taxes exacted from his tribe at the construction of
the fortifications uiulemeath the citadel of Zion.
The growing disafiection of his tribesmen and the
alienation from Solr)mon of the prophetic order
fostered his own ambition ; but he was soon oliliged
to flee to Egypt for safety. After Solomon's death
he returned to head the revolt of the northern
tribes against Rehoboam, and established his chief
strongholds in Shecbem on the west and Penuel cm
the east. In order to destroy the religious as well
as the political unity of the ancient kingdom he
now establislK'd shiines at Dan and Bethel to wean
away his peoi)le from the sacred yearly pilgrimages
to .Jerusalem, and, further, set nj) in these images
borrowed from the animal- wor^hi|l of the Egyptians.
Thus his name has descended in proverlnal infamy
as 'Jeroboam, the son of Nebat, who made Israel
to sin,' and Koman Catholic writers found in him
a convenient jiarallel to Henry \'III. at the
time of the Helormation. .leroboam sullered a
defeat from Ahijah, son of Heboboam, and died
soon after in the twenty-second year of his reigh. —
Jeroboam II. was the son of .loasli, of the dynasty
of Jehu. He thrust back tlie Syrian invadei-s*,
reconquered Ammon and Moab. but earned the
denunciatiiuis of the jirophets .Vmos and Ilo.sea
by failing to reform religion at home.
Jerome, St (Ei-skdiis Hieronymu.s Sdi-iiko-
NIU.S), wa.s bora at Stridon, a town whose site is
304
JEROME BONAPARTE
JERROLD
now unknown, on the conlines of Balniatia and
I'annonia, at some period liutweeu 331 and 345 —
prolial>ly nearer to the latter year. His parents
were both Christians. His early education was
superintended by his father, after w hieh lie studied
(Jreek and Latin rhetoric and philo.soiihy under
-Klius Donatus at Home, where he was also
admitted to the rite of baptism. After a residence
in liaul, he seems to have revisited Koine ; Imt iu
the year 370 he had settled in Aijuileia with his
friend Kulinus. For some unknown reason he
suddenly went hence to the East ; and after a
dangerous illness at Antioch, winch appears to
have still further added to the reli;;ious fervour of
his ilispDsition, he retired, in 374, to the desert of
Chalcis, where he sjient four years iu iienilential
exercises and in study, especially of the Hebre\v
lan>,'uaj;e. In 379 he was ordained a priest at
Antioch, after which he sjjent three years in Con-
stantiuople in close intiuuicy with Gregoiy of
Nazianzus : and in 38'i he came on a mission
connected with the Meletian schism at Antioch to
liouu", wliere he liecame secretary to the pope
Damasus, ami where, although already engaged in
liLs great work of the revision of the Latin \ei'siiin
of the Bible, he attained to great popularity and
inliuence by his sanctity, learniug, and eloquence.
Many pious persons placed themselves under his
spiritual direction, the most reiuarkable of whom
were the lady Paula ami liei- daughter Eustochion.
The.se ladi''s followed biui to the Holy Lanil, whitli<tr
he returned iu 3S.5. He jiermaueutly lixed his resi-
lience at lielhleliem iu 3S0, the lady I'aula liaviug
fouiuled four convents, three for nuns, and one for
monks, the latter of which was governed by Jerome
him.self. It was in this retreat that Jerome pursued
or completed the great literaiy laljours of his life ;
and it was from these solitudes, all peaceful as
they might seem, that he sent forth tiie liery and
vehement invectives which marked not only liLs
controversy with the heretics Jovinian, Vigilautius,
and the I'elagians, but even with his ancient ally,
Kulinus, ami, although in a minor degree, with
St Augustine. His conlli<-l with the I'elagians
rendering even his life insecure at Bethlehem, he
w.ts compelled to go into concealment for above
two years : and .soon after his return to Bethleliem
in 418 he was seized with a lingering illness, which
terminated in his ileatli, September 30, 4'20. His
original works, consistuig of letters, treatises,
polemical and ascetical, commentaries on Holy
•Scripture, and his version and revision of former
versions of the Bible, were llrst ]>ulilished by
Erasnuis, 9 vols, fidio (Basel, 1510), and have been
several times reprinted. The best editions are
that of the Benedictines (5 vols, folio, Paris,
](i93-170U) and, still more, that of Yallarsi (11
vols. Ver(ma. 1734-42). St Jerome is universally
regarded as the most learned an<l eloquent of the
Latin Fathers. His comnientaries on the I!il)le
are esiiecially valuable for the learning which they
display; Imt his opinions are often exaggerated
aiKi fanciful, and through his controversial writings
there runs a strain of violent invective, which con-
trasts unfavourably with the tone of his conteni-
I)orary, St Augustine. See the article Vri.o.vn;;
also the works by Ziickler ((iotha, 1805), Amedce
Thierry (Paris, 1867), Goelzer (Paris, 1880), E. L.
Cutis (S.P.C.K. 1878), an.l Mrs Martin (1888); and
the iranslalions by Fremantle (1893).
.It-roiiic ItoiiaiKirlo (1784-1860), king of
\\ cslphalia. See Bu.\ .vl'.MM'E.
.IfroilK* of I'raiflic, the friend and disciple
of lluss, was born at Prague between 1300 and
1370. The statement that his family name was
Faulliscli is incorrect. After attending the uni-
vorsity of liis native town, he studied for some
time in Oxford, where he became a convert to
\Vyclif s doctrines. When he reached home he zeal-
(Uisly taught the new doctrine he had learned in
England. He further studied at Paris, Heidelberg,
and Cologne, and aci|uired a reputation for learn-
iug ami energy. Ladislaus II., king of Poland, em-
]>loyed him to help to reorganise the university of
Cracow in 1410 ; and Sigismund, king of Hungary,
inviteil him to preach before him at Budapest.
Jerome entered with his w hole .soul into the contest
carried on by Huss ((|.v. ) against the abuses of
the hierarchy and the prolligacy of the clergy. But
his impatient zeal lead him to oversiej) the bounds
of prudence, and even to abuse the autlu>rity he
possessed, ^^'hen Huss was arrested at Constance
Jerome voluntarily hastened to his side to defend
him, although he was not provided with a safe-con-
duct. Arrived at Constance, he was met by sinister
rumours as to the fate in store for Huss iuul him-
self. He hastily withdrew from the city, and
apiilicd for a safe-conduct. It was refused ; there-
u)ion Jerome set out to return to Prague, but was
arrested at Hirschau in Bavaria in April 1415,
and conveyed to Constance. After four months'
imprisonment he recanted his opinions; but eight
months later still (in .May 1410) he boldly with-
drew his recantation, and iu the .same heroic spirit
went to the stake, 30tli May 1410. See works in
Gernum by Helfert (1853) and Becker (1858), with
others cited at Hu&s and Wyclif.
Jerrold.L)iHGL.\s William, author, dramatist,
and wit, was born in London, January 3, 180.3.
He was the youngest son of Samuel Jcrmld, actor
and manager, by his second wife. His infant years
were passed at Wilsby, near C'ranbrook in Kent.
In 1807 his father became lessee of the theatre at
Slieerness. Here, with (Jesner's Death of Abel and
liuderivk Satidu/ii, Douglas Jerrohl as a child of
si.x or seveu began to manifest a voracious appetite
for books. About the end of 1809 he was sent to
school at Slieerness; in December 1813 he joined
the navy as a midshipman. On the close of the
war his shi]) was paid off; and the hist day of
January 1810 saw the arrival of the .lerrold family
in London, where, from Broad Court, Bow .street,
I.'ouglas Jerrohl started life anew as a printer's
apprentice. In 1819 he was a compositor on the
Hiiiidiiii Miiiiitur, when the following incident [ikJi-
ahly decid('d his bent towards literature ; he had
been to see Der Frcischiitz, and, having written a
criticism on it, dropped it into his employer'.s
letter-box, and the next morning was handed his
own copy to set up, with an editorial note to the
anonymous correspondent requesting further con
tributions. Jerrold's capacity for study was enor-
mous, and his perseverance indefatigable : night
and morning he worked at Latin, French, and
Italian, besiiles getting through a vast amount of
reading. He became dramatic critic, as well as
compositor, on the MtJiiifor. In lN'24 he married
Miss Mary Swann. Before this date he had already
made a start as a dramatist ; four <if his pieces hail
been ]ii<iduced. the lirst of which. More Friqliteiiid
than Hint ( w litten when Jerrohl was about hf teen ),
came out iu 18"21. In 1825 Jerrohl was engaged,
at a weekly salary, to write dramas, farces, <.Vc. ,
as re<iuired, for the Coburg Theatre. In 1829 he
was engaged at live pounds a week to write in a
similar manner for the Suriey Theatre, where in
that year lUttrh-eifed Sti.-ntn wjus acted for tlu' lirst
time. From this date up to 1854, when Tlit: Jleiirt
nf tSiild came out at the Princess's Theatre, numer-
ous plays were produced, each one of which was
characterised by the autliiu's unique style and
brilliant and sparkling dialogue, .lerrold s con-
tributions to i)erioclical literature began soon after
he commenced life in London, with ocousional
verses and sketches iu the various magazines of
i
JERRYMANDER
JERSEY CITY
305
the (lay : as his position became more assured he
oonfributed to the Mu/it/i/i/, the S'eir Moidlihj,
The Ballot ( wliich he sub-edited ), Punch in London
(a short-lived prototype of the Punch), the
Athcnauin, Blackwood s, and other periodicals.
Punch was started in 1S41, and Jerrold was a con-
stant and important contributor from its second
number up to the time of his death. He succes-
sively editeil the Illuminated Magazine (1843-44),
Doufflu-i Jen old's Shillimj Maijazine (1845— tS),
and Dii Ill/lax derrolds Weekly Neicapaper ( 184G-48 ).
In these periodicals, along with Punch, appeared
much of his best work. In politics — and his was
no mean political force — Jerrold was Lilieral, and
in 18.52 he accepted the editorship of Lloyd's
Weekly Xcivspaj/er of which it has been said that
he ' found it in the street, and annexed it to litera-
ture.' .\s a wit, for what has been well termed
* fla-shini,' insight,' Jerrold stands alone. He died at
Kilburu on June 8, 1857. A collected edition of
Jerrold's works, in eight volumes, was published
during his lifetime ; it contains his principal writ-
ings, St Giles and St James, The Man made of
Money, The Story of a Feather, Cakes and Ale,
Punch's Letters to his Son, Punch's Complete Letter-
writer. Chronicles of Clorernook, itfrs Caudle's Cur-
tain Lectures, &c., and fewer than half of Jerrold's
dramatic works. A selection from Jerrold's politi-
cal writings in Lloyd's waspublished in 1868 under
the title of Other 2'imes. Ifte Life and Remains of
Dou/flas Jerrold, by his son, W. Blanchard Jerrold,
was published in 1859.
WiLLi.vM Blanchard Jerrold, eldest son of
the above, born in 1S26, was named after Laman
Blanchard (ij. v.), who was his godfather, and whose
daughter he inamed ( 1849). Educated as an artist,
Jerrold early abandoned art for literature, his chief
work as artist being the part he took in the produc-
tion of Howe's Illustrated Book of British Sonqs.
He served his apprenticeship to literature on liis
father's newspaper, and for a short time was re-
porter on the Daili/ Xeirs. On his father's death
Blanchard Jerrold became editor of Lloyd's, which
office he continued to the time of his death, March
10, 1884. He was appointed (1852) Crystal Palace
Commissi(mer to Swe<len, and on his return pub-
lished his interesting lirafje-heaker trith the Swedes
( 18.")4). He was founder and |iresident of the British
section of the International Literary Association.
A facile and voluminous writer, he published
Children of Lutetia ; Cent, per Cent. : a Story
written on a Bill Stamp : Life of George Cruik-
shank : Life of Napoleon III. : Life of Dore ; and
London — a Pilyrimaye, &c. Of his dramatic writ-
ings the l)est known is Coul «.v n Cucuuibcr ( 1851 ),
one of the most successful farces ever written.
Jerryiiiaiider. See Gerry.
Jersey, the chief of the Channel Islands (q.v. ),
14 miles from the Norman coast, i;t.'i from South-
aiiipt<m, O.") from Weymouth. Measuring 11 miles
by oi, it is 45 si|. m. in area, of which nearly two-
third's is cultivated. Pop. (1806) 22,855; (1851)
67,020; ( 1881 ) 52,455: ( 1891 ) 54,518— one-half rural,
the rest in the capital, St Helier, and suburlw.
The land rises to the north, sloping to the .south
anil west. On all sides are large o])eii bays ;
B<iulay on the north is ca])able of iKJcoming a tine
harbour, which is at present much wanted, that of
St Helier lieing dry at low-water. The highest
point. Mount Mado, Ls 473 feet high ; its mass is
a porjdiyroid granite which extends south as far
as St Peter's. Smaller iiia.s.ses of the same are
found in the south-east. The north-eiust part is
conglomerate, and the rest of the island is chielly
•liviiled between siliceous and schistosi' rock ; the
lower levels are covered with clay and blown sand.
The rocks on the coaste, being mixed with veins of
2S(l
greenstone and shale, have been eroded by the sea,
which has left a number of caverns and pinnacles of
fantastic form. About the soutli east are numerous
reefs of primitive rock wbicli render the approach
dan"erous. Between Jei'sey and the French shore
the Ecrehos, Bieutletins, and Minquiers indicate a
former connection with the niainlaiul, and thus
confirm the traditions which tell of a separation in
comparatively recent times. It is also noticeable
that moles and toads are found in Jersey, as also in
Alderney, wliile there are none in Guernsey. Agri-
culture is pui-sued on small farms held on feudal
tenures resembling copyhold. The chief present
staple is the potato, the early produce of which
comes into the London market a fortnight before
that of the west of England, and thus commands a
high temporary price. Consequently other cultiva-
tion has been much neglected, and the land greatly
stimulated by artificial manures. The potato
export exceeds 60,000 tons yearly, of a value of
£264,000. The rearing of cattle is also lucrative ;
it is estimated that there are fifty-eight hea<l of
cattle to every 100 acres — nearly three times the
ratio of the I nited Kingdom. The purity of the
breed is maintained by careful official registration,
and the stock fetches high prices from breeders
in England and America. Ihe numlier of cattle
exported averages nearly 1600 head annually (see
Cattle, Vol. III. p. 22). The imports consist
largely of potatoes and butcher-meat, from
France and England, as the island produces little
food for its own consumjition. There is a large
and well-kept market in St Helier, and a number
of good shops. There are twelve parishes in all,
of which the rectors and constables are ej--oJficio
members of the 'states,' the rest of the assembly
being elected deputies, with the addition of the
twelve jurats, or judges of the royal court, whose
chief is the bailifV, a trained lawyer. The
language of deliberation and judicial Ijusiness is
French, though the people among themselves either
use English or a form of the ancient Norman. The
parish churches are old, but have lost many traces
of their primitive architecture in frequent restora-
tions. The royal court is a large but ill-lighted
building containing some pictures, the best of
which is a full length portrait of Marshal Conway,
by Gainsborough. Tlie character of the people
is orderly and frugal, the deposits in the savings-
bank exceeding £300,000. There is little pauper-
ism and hardly any serious crime.
See Ansted and Latham's Channel Igfumls (Lond.
1862) ; also articles in the FortniiihUy Rcriew by the
Kight Hon. G. Shaw-Lcfevre and Rev. Barham Zlncke,
and one by the present writer in the Enftli»h Historical
Review for 1887.
Jersey City, after Newark the second city of
New Jersey, and capital of Hudson county, is on
the west \ku\\<. of the Hudson Kiver, opposite
New York, of which it is, though in another state,
an extension, and with wliich and Brooklyn it is
connected by steam f(uries ; a tunnel wais being
made in 1874-95 ; ami a bridge was .sanctioned in
1894. It stands on a peninsula b<iuuded on the
west by the Hackensack Kiver ami Newark Bay ;
on the south-east it extends along New Vork Bav.
Jei'sey City is a busy but not a l)eautiful city, ^t
is the terminus of six great and as many local rail-
ways, and is connected witli Eiuston, Pennsylvania,
by canal ; and at its wharves many ocean-steamei-s
receive and discharge their freight. It is thus the
entrepot of a large trade, especially in inm, coal,
and agricultural produce. Its own manufactures
are on a large scab', and include sugar. Hour, iron
and steel, zinc, boilers and machinery, locomotives,
oils and chemicals, oakum, lumber, silk, watches
and jewellery, lead-pencils, tobacco, jiotlery, soap,
beer, &c. Tlie city has large abattoirs aucl stock-
306
JERSEY CITY
JERUSALEM
yards, and grain-elevators notable both for their
size and etticienry. Tlie site of Jersey City was
formerlv called I'auhis Hoeck (Hook); the town
receive(\ its present name and became a nmiiici-
palitv in 1838. Pop. ( 1860) •2'J,'226 ; ( 1870) 82,546 ;
{\S<M) 163,(K)3.
•leriisaleill. Tts Site. — Jerusalem — 31° 46' 50"
N. lat. iUi.l 35' 13' 25" E. long. ; height, 2364
to 2582 feet above tlie sea- level— stands on the
spurs of two hills surrounded and divided by two
valleys, once deei), now partly or wholly filletl up
with' rubbish. 'The exact form of the hills has
recently been ascertained by taking, wlienever
practicable, a series of rock levels, of wliicli 250 have
been ( 1890) correctly laid down over the whole area
of the city. More are Ijeing added from day to day,
and the contours liavebeen settled by Major Conder,
the surveyor of western Palestine, with a general
accuracy wliicli can only be questioned at a few
points. " The dividing valley had two shallow
branches within the city, a fact of considerable
importance in considering the course of the second
wall. The Eastern Hill was originally a rounded
top crowned with tlie ' threshingHoor of Araunah,'
and the rock ami cave, probably a sacred site hnm
time immemorial. It sloped steeply to the west
and grailually to the east : its southern exti-emity
was a tongue of land between the central valley,
the TyrojjLBon, and the eastern valley of the Kedron.
/h\i o\ f // Coi/nseTM^^- f ^ \
The Western Hill, higher than the other by more
than a hundred feet, presented similar character-
istics of a sterii valley on cither side and a tongue
of land running southwards. Either hill was there-
fore a strong natural fortress, a hill fortress, such
as are found in great numbers in England — e.g.
the ancient stronghold called ('astle Neroche, in
Somersetshire, seems to be exactly the kind of
fortress which David stormed. The weakness of
the |ilace for p\irpo.ses of defence lay in its in-
suHicient su^iply of water. One spring, that now
called the ' \ irgin Fount,' lies just without the old
city wall of Opiiel. The rock-cut passage, which
runs from this spring to the Pool of Siloam below,
enters within the eoui-se of the cdd Ophel wall.
There is also a well called Hammfim esShafa in
the very centre of the city, close to the Hiib al-
Kattanin ('(Jate of the ('otton Merchants') in the
Ilarani area.
.lerusalem i.s known to the Moslems as Beil el-
M II /,ti(/f /fin or Beit r.l-Mukdis, the ' Holy Hcmse,' or
El -K mil, 'The Holy.' Yakut, the grejit Moslem
geographer, who knew the Jewish name Yertt-
shahiim, mentions other forms — Uris/iallnm, Uri-
.s/ialum, and ShnlUvin, as formerly used in the days
of the Jews. It is lirst menlioned in doshua, .\. 1 —
' Adoni-zedek, king of Jerusalem.' Afterwards, in
the same book, it is spoken of as Jebus, or Jebusi,
'which is Jerusalem. It has therefore been in-
ferred that the nauic of Jerusalem was given to the
city by David, lint the name was found in 1890 on
the cuneiform tablets from Tel-el-.Vmarna ; it there
appeal's as Uriisalcnt, the 'City of Peace.' It was
therefore known under that name at least 500
yeaiT* before the conquest by David. The northern
boundary of Judah is drawn 'south of the J elm-
site;' therefore it is reckoned among the cities of
Benjamin. In some passages, however (e.g.
Psalms, Ixxviii. 68), it is held to belong to Juilah.
The con(|uest of the city by the Israelites |iroveil at
first incomplete : before the time of the Judges it
was again 'the city of the .stranger.' Finally con-
quered by David, the Lower City was united to
the Fortress of the Upper Hill and the whole .sur-
rounded by a >\ all.
Its Hialuni. — The history of Jerusalem covers
a perio<l of about 3500 years. Of these, 500 at
least are prehistoric, though glimpses of this hmg
period may hereafter be arrived at from the trea-
sures of the cuneiform inscriptions. Of the 3000
years which remain, less than 500 show us Jeru-
salem indejiendent, the capital of a free country, and
the centre of a national religion.
For 600 years longer the city was
in the hands of the Israelites, it
is true, but never wholly independ-
ent, always a juey to internal
factions, and alternately the ])Os-
.session of Egyjit or some other
powerful nei;;hliour. Loss of in-
dependrnc<', banishment from the
city, persecution and exile, have
only made the Jew look with
more |iassionate eves of longing
upon the city which, w hen it wiis
his own, he could not li<dd with-
out idolatry, contempt of his own
laws, and inti'riial ili.ssensi<ms.
t)nly 50O years of independent
tenure ! That |)eriod removed by
more than '2000 years : yet the
passionate love of the Jew for
Jerusalem is no whit dinunished.
Here are the landmarks of its
history. Its name is found on an
inscription 5(X) years at least
before David (see also Gen. xiv.
18) ; it was besieged almost
immediately after the death of Joshua, circa
1400 B.C. ; it was again taken by David about
1046 B.C. ; it was surrendered by Jehoiachin
597 B.C. ; it was taken from Zedekiah 5,S() ii.c,
and wlicdly destroyed. Fifty years later (536
B.C.) the edict of Cyrus enabled the )ieoide to
return ; the temple was rebuilt ; for a hundred
years parties of the Jews straggled back — Ezra
arrived 457 B.C., Nehemiah 445 B.C. I'm 500
years after this Jerusalem knew not a single
generation of jieace. Internal factions tore it to
pieces ; the city was the pos.session in turn of
Persian, Macedonian, Syrian. Egyjitian, and Koman.
It wjus never wholly indejiendent ; there was never
any real inde|>endence for Jeru.sjilem after its
destruction by Nebuzaradan. It is a great pity
that those who study the history of Jerusali'ui
L'encrally pass over the |ieriod fnnn Nehemiah to
Herod as of litth' inteicst. It is, on the i)tlicr
hand, a time of the greatest interest, and full of
instruction for those who study tin- development
of the tiery Jnda'an race. We hear no more about
Haal-worship and the groves of Asherah ; the
JERUSALEM
307
pajran cnlt was •rrowinj; obsolete ; tlie {rods of
Hellas had invaded Syria : those of Phtrnicia were
for-jotten. Under Antioohus the temple was con-
secrated to Zeus Olyiupios : pijjs were sacrificed on
the altars ; the Jewish rites and ceremonies — the
observance of the Sabbath, the sacrifices enjoined
by the law, the rite of circumcision — were for-
bidden. Had it not Ijeen for one family — the most
illustrious rebels on record — the relijjion of the
Jews would have been abandoned and their nation-
ality lost. How both were saved belongs to the
history of this period (see Macc.\hke.s).
It is not, however, a time on which tlie historian
<lwells with pleasure. The character of the jieople,
always fiery and full of zeal, turneil to fanaticism ;
their respect for the law, forced ujion them by persecu-
tion and ilisaster, turned to a worship of the letter ;
they divided into sects which hated each other
more bitterly tlian they hated the (ientile. The
picture of .Jeru.salem and its people during the fifty
years which preceded the destruction of the city by
Titus is nowhere surpa.ssed in all the dark annals
of religious zeal. The city was besieged, taken,
and totally destroyed by Titus, 70 .v.D.
During the long history of Jerusalem — t\\e City
of Peace — it sustained seventeen sieges ; twice it
was utterly destroyed ami razed to the ground.
There is no city in the world whose soil has been
more repeatedly drenched with the blood of its
people — the thousands who have perished by the
swonl within these gray walls from the time when
the 'children of Judah smote it with the edge of
the sword and set it on fire' to the day when
Oodfrey de Bouillon and his knights rode in a
stream of blood reaching to their saddle girths to
recover the Holy Sepulchre.
The Iiistoiy of the city to the destruction by
Titus is the history as contained in the Bible ; that
which follows is a second volume divided into four
chaptei-s. The first chaiiter contains the early
centuries of Christianity, for the most part a peace-
ful time when the land was covered with monas-
teries, churches, and hermitages ; when the voice
of psalm and prayer never ceased day or night.
The city contained the great grou]) of churches of
Avliich the most splendid was Constantine's Basilica
■of the Anastasis, built not over the sepulchre, but
to the east of it, the sepulchre itself being orna-
mented with columns and open to the sky. Pil-
grimages began at first to the site of the Ascen-
sion, afterwards, as other sites were miraculously
recovered, to that of everj- scene in the gospel
history. The Persians came 614 A.D., sacked the
city, and destroyed all the churches. Then the
Moslems appeareil, and the gates were thrown open
witlKtut a blow.
The second chapter contains the Moslem rule
(637-1089). Then the Mosque el-Aksa wax built,
Justinian's great ehnrch of St Marj- funiLshing the
principal edifice ; the Dome of the Hock was built ;
and, by order of the mad <alif Il.ikcm Bi Asur
Illali, the church of the Holy Sepulchre was again
dcstroyetl.
The third chapter is that of the Latin kingdom
< 10{)9-1'244). Tlie constitution of this kingilom,
as coutJiined in the Assises de JfriiHulem, is the
most valuable rlocument extant on the principles
of feudalism. The kingdom, after continuous war
for eighty-seven years, lost Jerusalem, nor did the
cru.sftiler» ever succeed in retaking it. It was,
however, ceded by treaty to Frederick II., who
in IQ^J* crowned himself in the church with his own
hamls, being then under papal e.xcominunication.
The la-st chapter is tliat of Jerusah^m again
ander the Moslems (since 1244). It was in 1.517
that the Turkish sultan Selini took Jenisaleni.
The .'•even hundred years covered by this chapter
have been for the most part years of peace. The
chronicles of later years are barren and devoid of
incident.
Its Monuments. — The principal buildings and
ni<munients for which the explorer of the modern
city has to look are the first, second, and third
walls of the great temple itself ; the royal towers
of Pha.saelus, Hipiiicus, Psepliinus and Mariamne ;
theTyropuon Bridge; Barisor Antonia ; Opliel ; the
Tombs of the Kings ; and certain pools. It would be
strange indeed if, after so many sieges and so many
generations, much should survive of the city of
Herod, to say nothing of the city of Solomon.
There is, however, more than might have been
expected, more in proportion than remains of
ancient Rome of the former date ; far nifue than
remains of Tyre, Carthage, or Corinth. The town
was so carefully examined by the ordnance survey
of Sir Charles Wilson in 1865 that it seemed as if
everything above ground must have been found.
Yet we must not forget that Clermont Cianncau
found above ground the inscribed stone of the
temple, and that there may still be most important
remains built up in walls. Excavations on a very
extensive scale have also been conducted by Sir
Charles Warren in 1867-70, Major Conder in 1871-
76, Clermont Ganneau in 1874-75, the Rus.sians, the
French, and the Germans; so that since 1870 the
whole of the previous literature in Jerusalem topo-
graphy has become completely antiquated. In the
' Jerusalem ' volume of the Survey of Western
Palestine the authors, Warren and Conder, have
enumerated most of the monuments that now exist
above ground or have been discovered under ground.
They are brielly as follows :
(1) The rock scarps on the south of Zioii, which were alDiost
certainly those of the tirst wall, and therefore belong to
the time of David.
(2) The tomb, west of the rotunda of the Holy Sepulchre
Church, known as that of Nicodemus. Its form is that of
the oldest class of Jewish tombs. If the site was formerly
within the second wall this must have been the Tombs of
the Kings.
(3) The great rtwk.cut passage from the Virgin's Fount to the
Pool of .Silnam. This can hardly be more recent than the
8th century* b.c. The inscription discovered there in
August 18S0 is believed from the form of the letters
and the character of the language to belong to that period.
(4) Tlie wall of Ophel, discovered by Sir C. Warren (lS88-e9).
(5) The rock scarp of the Tower of Baris. This is most probably
that scarp now existing at the NW. angle of the Haram.
(6) The rock-cut monuments in the Kedron valley. Many
belong apparently to the Hasmonean period (2d c. B.C.).
(7) The Haram area "itself, the sit« of the temple, with its
stupendous walls, its ancient gates, its wailing-place, and
the buildings within it; the Mosque el-Aksa, the Dome of
the Rock, the Dome of the Chain, the Golden Gate, its
vast vaults, hitherto but little explored.
(8) The Pool Amygdalon, now called Hezekiah's Pool. This is
probably as old as Herod.
(9) The Pool of Bethesda, recovered in 1888.
(10) The Twin Pool, half of which was found by Wilson in 1866,
and the other half by Warren in 1868.
(11) Tlie 'Tower of David,' which is certainly on the site of one
of the old royal towers, pr ibably Phasaelu.s.
(12) The Tynjpceon Bridge, marked by the spring of the first
arch. The remains of that arch and the opposite pier
were discovered sixty feet under ground by Warren in 1868.
(13) The wall erected by Hadrian to fortify his Elia Capitolina.
This probably followed the line of the present city wall.
He also probably made the great reservoir, Birket Israil.
(14) The Basilica of the Anastasis, completed by Constantine
in the year 3;i5 juD. , certainly stomi on the site of the
present church of the Holy 8epulihre. It was entirely
destroyed by Chosnies II. in 614 a.d. There are, however,
still existing certain remains and fragments which have
been fitted by Conder into their places in Constantine's
work. Afl#r the destruction of this building a more
liunible group of churches was erecte*! on the site.
(15) In the year 632 a.d. .lustinian built the great Basilica of
St Mary's within the temple area. This church is prob-
ably tlie present Mo.sque el-Aksa. It is suggest*-*! by
C<mder that the later ornamentation of the Double Gate,
the Htrxn-turc of the Golden G.nte. and the roollng of the
Haram cist ems also belong to the time of Justinian.
(16) The existing church of the Holy S«'pulchre was comiiienced
in 1103 A.i> . and stood until 1808. wlien it was |Mrtly de-
Btrriyed by lire. Some jkirts of it are, however, beIiev<Mi
to be older than the crusaders' time
(17) The great Hospice of the Knit;tita of St John, south of the
Holy l-iepulchre, ^vas erected during the Latin kingdom.
308
JERUSALEM
Recent excavations (1876-85) have laid bare a grcat part
of these bnililings.
(18) Of crusading; reniaiiis there are still many in the city. The
Tower of Daviil on the site of Thasaelus (?) is mainly the
work of tlie Pisans, and a yreat deal of the city wall is
of crusading time,s.
Tlipse are the principal niontiiiients now existing.
M'e may add the discovery in 1S87 of a fragment of
what was certainly part of the second wall, certain
rock .scavp.s which are siijiposed to belong to the
same wall, and a wall with a gate discovered in the
Imilding of the Protestant church, which has been
cimjectnred to belong to this wall. But this is
uncertain, as the course of the wall has never been
clearly ascertained.
Tlic Rcstondion of the City. — The restoration
of the ancient city, whether under Herod or Solo-
mon, has been the subject of keen controversy for
many years. It is, of course, perfectly well known
that to the ordinary jnlgrim every spot in the city
connected with the Sacred Narrative is exactly
ascertained. He has no doubt. The first who
ventiired to dissent from the authority of tradition
anil the priests was one Korte, a German printer,
who travelleil in Palestine about the year \~'2S.
There, however, a hundreil years later, he was
followeil by Dr Robinson, who argued that the
church of the Holy Sepulchre could not possibly
cover the site of our Lord's tomb. In the year
1S47 Jlr James Fergusson, a well-known student
of Indian architecture, produced an essay on the
topography of Jerusalem, in which he advanced
the proposition that the Dome of the Rock was nut
built by Melek at all, but by Constantine, that it
covered the Holy Sepulchre, that the site had been
transferred at some time or other — during some
period of disturbance — that the temple was not
built over the ' Rock,' but in the south-west corner
of the Haram. These revolutionary views were
adopted by a small party, and even advanced in
Smith's Dictioiiiini of the Bible. Since that time
the opinion has also been advanced further that
Mount Zion and the city of David were not the
upper but the lower hill, and that the latter was
situated on the northern slope of Uiihel. These
views, of course, necessitated a complete re-casting
of the topography, with results tliat have been,
with various modifications, before the world for
forty years. As regards the general acceptance of
these theories it is enough to say that \Varren, the
explorer of Jerusalem, and Conder, the surveyor of
western Palestine ; that Palmer and Le Strange
among linguists ; that De VogUe, George 'Williams,
Willis, Clermont Gaimeau, anumg antiijuaries and
.scholars ; with many other scholars, all alike refuse
to accept them ; aii<l that not a single architect of
eiiiinence has followeil Fergusson 's views iis to the
<late of the Dome of the Rock.
The sites adopted in this article are those advo-
cated by Warren and Conder, who agree in the
main ])oints. The reasons will be brielly indicated.
(I) The Site of tlie Temiilc. — It was within the
Haram area, whioli is defined by the ruins of its
gigantic walls : .losephus says that the cloisters
reached from 'valley to valley;' that the wall of
Ophel joined the ea.st cloister ; that the temple was
on the toj) of the hill ; that the Tower of Antonia
stood on a lofty rock north of the hill. Not one of
these cimdilions can be satisfied by Fergusson's
view, which places the temiile in the south-west
corner of the Haram and makes the east wall start
northwards fifX) feet from the south-west corner
and on the level part of the ridge. This theory
was jmt forwaid before any excavations had been
attempted and when the nature of the ground
was utterly unknown. T\w hill has now been
contoured, and it seems certain that if Joseiibus
wass right the temple stood over the sacred rock,
which, according to De V'ogiie, was just south, and
acconling to Warren, was just north, of the altar.
The latter also makes it the foundation of the gate
Nit/.otz. Conder, on the other hand, identifies the
rock, which is the highest point of the hill, with
the foundation stone of the Holy House. He there-
fore follows Josephus exactly. Not only this : he
follows a tradition accepted unixersally by Jew,
Christian, and Moslem. Now it is a maxim based
on the experience of this officer, who has given far
more time and attention to this subject than any
other traveller or scholar, that when a tradition is
accepted by all alike it is generally true. From
every other consideration, indeed, Conder's views
seem impregnable. If Solomon l)uilt his temple
where Fertjusson put it, he either built it half-way
down the Iiill and on a steep slope, or he had to
make enormous sub-str\ictures to begin with : he
cbo.se for his site a hill with a slope of 1 in 5 ; he
neglected the obvious ad\antages of the summit ;
and he departed from the universal custom of
choosing the highest part of the hill for temi)le,
fortress, or city. As regards the position of An-
tonia, that agrees jierfectly with the rock scarps now
known to exist at the north-east of the Haram area
and with Jo.sephus. Further, if the temple had
been built at the south-west corner there wimld
have been a break in the continuity of the wall at
a point 600 feet east of the south-west angle — that
is, at the Double Gate. No such break occurs, and
Tio trace of foutulations remains where the east
wall of the temple would have stood. The whole of
the walls about the Haram have been examined at
dilferent points; they all belong to the same period,
and -were built by the same builder. But, it is
argued, Josephus says that the temple enclosure
was a stadium in length on each side. Fergusson
began, therefore, by measuring out a space of GOO
feet. Why Josephus should in one place be consid-
ered as accurate as a moib'tn engineer and in all
other places should be acknowledged as a loose
and inaccurate writer is not apparent. Conder,
however, an<l those who agree with him meet the
dittieulty by supposing (as the Mishnah also does)
that the sacred enclosure, estimated, not mctimirerl,
by Josephus, meant the sacred court within
which no Gentile could enter. (See Warren and
Conder's Jenisn/em. )
(•2) The Site (f the IIolij Sejm/eh re.^This site is
even more important on topographical grounds than
the exact position of the temple. For on it <le-
pends the course of the second wall. On other
grounds it is important, because the whole question
of tradition and its value depen<ls upon it. If we
can prove that the secoiul «all runs with<mt the
church, then Christ could never have been buried
here, and the whole mass of medieval traditions
comes toppling to the ground, dragging with them
a thousand su])erstitions and tra<litions attached to
other places. Fergussim says that the Dome of the
Rock is the actual church built by Constantine.
Now this church was certainly destroyed by Hakem.
Fiirthi'r, if our view of the temple he correct, the
church could not have stoml on this site. But
against Fergusson's view e\ eiy single write)-, every
pilgrim an<l traveller, and e\ery architect is arrayeil.
riiere exists a long euteiia of eviilence from the
Bordeaux i>ilgrim of the 4tb century to the ]iresent
day, which, when it is arranged in chronological
Oliver, makes it impossible to doubt that the
basilica erected by Constantine was on the site of
the present church.
W as, however, the true site of the Holy
Sepulchre known to the Christians of that time?
The i)resent writer agrees with those who belie\e
that in the 4tli century the site of the Holy
Sepulchii> was utterly lost an<l fiu'gotten. There is
not a hint anj'where to show that it was known or
cared about. No tradition of it survived. When
i
JERUSALEM
JERUSALEM ARTICHOKE 309
pilgrims first began to visit the city they were
shown tlie site of the Ascension ; it was the living
Lord they worshipped, not the dead t'hrist. As
for the tomb itself, they never so mnch as inqnired
after it. When sites began to l>e manufactured
this would doubtless be one of the first, and
Eusebius with naivete records the surprise of every-
body when they dug up the ground covering what
they called the site of the Lord's tomb, and actually
did find a tomb there ! The difficulty of a trans-
ference of sites — though sites are sometimes trans-
ferred— is enormously increased in this case, because
there never ceased, during the time, when the
transference was possible, a continuous stream,
fii'st, of Christian pilgrims, including clerics as well
as ignorant people, and next, of Moslem pilgrims ;
and in order to gain evidence for their story, the
Christians who changed the site Avould have to get
the Moslems to join in the fi-aud. And how was
the memorj- of tlie old site to be obliterated from
the minds of the people?
There are many other questions connected with
the topography of the city, such as the apparent
confusion of Mount Ziou, sometimes with the city
of David, and sometimes with the temple ; the
description of the city given in the Book of
Nehemiah ; the date and purpose of the Golden
Gate ; the position of the gates of the city ; the
course of the first, second, and third walls; the
royal towers ; the Tombs of the Kings, with many
otters which must be left for a more detailed
investigation. Meantime, to fix the site of the
temple, Antonia, the first and second walls, and
the Basilica of the Anastasis is to go far towards
clearing vip the whole of this ditticult question con-
nected with the recovery of Jerusalem.
Modern Jerusalem. — The present city contains
about 48,000 inhalritants, of whom half aie Jews,
a quarter Moslems, and the rest Christians of
various sects. There are three sects of Jews,
the Sephardim, of Spanish origin ; the Ashken-
azim, of (Jerman or Polish origin, themselves
<livided into several sects ; and the Karaites. The
Christians consist of Greeks, Armenians, Geor-
gians, Copts, Syrians, Abyssinians, Latins, and
Protestants. Lying among not veiy fertile moun-
tains, the city has but little commeice, and practi-
cally no manufactures ; of late years it has gi-own
a considerable way outsiile its walls, the dull,
uniform, windowless one-storied houses stretching
on ever>- siile. The climate has been compared to
that of the south of France. Snow sometimes falls
in January and February ; rains begin in October
and continue to fall at intervals till April, when a
cloudless sky begins and lasts until October. There
are now banks and hotels, and a railway from
Jaft'a was ojiened in August 1892.
The best books on Jerusalem are De Vogue's Temple
de Jerusalem ; Warren and Conder's Jerugalem (Pales
tine Exploration Fund), with its great portfolio of
fUtes ( 1884 ) ; Wilson's Ordnance Survei/ of JrruacUem
1868). The student should also consult the Quarterhj
Statement of the Palestine Exploration Fund, for which
a very good index lias been made. I'alfsliii'- nmler Ihe
Moaems ( 1890), bv Guy le Strange ( Palestine E.\ploration
Fund), is invaluable because it is the only book which
gives the eviilcnce of .\rabic writers. Major Conder's
Tent Work in J'ulcittinc (1878) also contains an excellent
chapter on Jerusalem. And for architecture there is the
work (1S88) of Professor Hayter Lewis on the Dome of
the Rock. See also Besant and Palmer, Jtrnsnlem. the
Cil.ii of Hi-rwl intd Saladin (1872; 4th ed. 18<J!»); and
the articles C'ai.vart, Jkws, M.vccaiieks, ('bl'.s.\de8,
Godfrey, Baldwin, HosptTALLEits, Omar.
.Jkiusalem BisHOPnic — In 1841, at the instance
of Frederick-William IV. of Pnissia and by the
meiliation of ('imnt Bunsen, an arrangi^ment was
made to institute a bishopric at Jerusalem in con-
nection with the united Church of England and
Ireland, and under the joint protection of England
and Pru.ssia. The right of appointment was to
lie alternately with each of the protecting goveni-
ments. The agreement met with strenuous opposi-
tion on the part of the Tiactarian section of^the
Church of England, as excluding sympathy with
tlie Komun Catholic Church, and courting inter-
communion with Protestant, non-episcopal Pnissia ;
and Newman regarded it as ' the third blow, ^^■hicll
finally shattered his faith in the Anglican Church.'
The first bishop, Alexander, was a converted
German Jew who had taken orders in the English
Church. On his death (1845), Bishop Gobat, a
CJerman Swiss who had been in the service of the
London Missionary Society, was appointed by
Prussia. He died in 1879 ; and on the death of
the third bishop, Barclay (named by England), in
1883, no successor was appointed. Prussia with-
drew from the agieement in 1S86; and since 1887
the bishopric is a missionary bishopric of the
Church of England exclusively. See Hechler, The
Jerusalem Bishopric (1883).
Jerusalem Artichoke, or Topinamburi
(Uclianthus tuberosus), a plant of the natural
order Compositie, and of the same genus with the
common Sunflower (q.v.), is a native of Brazil.
The word Jerusalem, in the English name, is a
corruption of the Italian girasole, 'sunflower ; ' the
name mtiehol-e is merely from a supposed similarity
of flavour in the eatable part^ — the tuber— to the
Glolie artichoke. The Jerusalem artichoke has
strai'dit, sparsely branching stems from 8 to 12
feet high, and many rough, ovate, acute stalked
leaves; and in the end of autumn, though rarely in
Scotland, produces yellow flowers resembling those
of the common sun-
flower, but smaller.
The thick, fleshy, and
knotted perennial root
produces, pretty close-
ly around it, oval or
roundish tubers, some-
times thirty or fifty in
numlier, which are red-
dish on the outside,
and whitish within, in
appearance very simi-
lar to potatoes. They
have a sweetish, muci-
laginous taste when
boiled, and are much
more watery and less
nourishing than pota-
toes. They are, how-
ever, very palatable,
when proi)erly prepared
with sauce, and make
very good soup. The
plant is also useful
for fodder for cattle,
yielded by its leaves
and the more tender
parts of the stems,
file stems and leaves
contain much nitre,
and have been used for
making potash. The
fibre is used f<H' making
cordage and coarse cloth
Jerusalem Artichoke
(Helimilhua tuOcrofUs).
The Jerusalem artichoke
is scarcely an agricultural crop in Britain, although
it is to some extent in some parts of Europe. It
was known in English gardens before the potato,
to which it in some measure gave phue. It is
generally juopagated by small tubers, <ir cuttings
of tubers, like tlie jiotato; and its cultivation is in
most respects similar, although the aspect of the
plant is very dill'eient. In .Vmerica it is sometimes
called Canada jxit.ato or Virginia jiotato.
310 JERUSALEM CHAMBER
JEST-BOOKS
JcriisaltMii riiaiiibrr. See Westminster.
Jorvjuilv Abbey (iiionounccil Jarvis), a
ruined ("isterciaii abbey of Yurksliire, ISJ miles
NW. of Ri])on. It was built in lloG by monks
from the Yorkshire monastery of IJyland, and was
disnuintled in 1539, its hvst and twenty-tliird alibot
having been hanged two years before for liis share
in tlie Pilgrimage of (irace. Its scanty ruins were
excavated in 1803 by the Eail of Ailesburj-.
Jervis, Siit Jonx. See St Vincent (Eael).
Jt'Si* or lEsi (anc. yEsiuni or .-i^sis), a walled
town of Italy, 17 miles by rail SW. of Ancona,
has a cathedral, a town-house with good pictures,
manufactures of silk, paper, soaji, litc, and a trade
in wine, olive-oil, corn, and cheese. Here the
Emperor Frederick II. was born. Pop. 12,118.
Jessamine. See Jasmine.
Jesse, Edward, a popular ^^Titer on natural
history, was born at Button Cranswick, Yorkshire,
14th January 1780. He became clerk in a govern-
ment ottiee, and was successively secretary to Lord
Dartmouth, commissioner of hackney-coaches, and
deputy surveyor-general of the royal parks and
palaces. He died at Brighton, 29th March 1868.
His books include Gleanings in Natural Histori/
(1832-35), An Angler's Bambks (1836), Scenes ((n'cl
Tales of Country Life (1844), Anerdotes of Dogs
(1846), and Lecturer on. Natural History (1861);
besides editions of Walton's Complete Angler,
White's Selborne, and Ritchie's Windsor Castle. See
Mrs Houstoun's Si/lvanus Redivivuji (Lend. 1890).
—John Heneage Jesse, son of the foregoing,
was born in 1815, and at an early age filled a place
in the secretary's department of the Admiralty at
Whitehall. He had already written poems and
plays without success, when he found his work in
a series of bright and interesting works in the lielil
of domestic history, which have yet far more tlian
their mere readableness to coinmend them to
general readers, if not to serious students. These
are Memoirs of the Court of England during the
Reign of the Stuarts (1840), Memoirs of the Court
of London from the Revolution of 16SS to the Death
of George LI. (1843), George Sehvyn and his Con-
temporaries (1843-44), Memoirs of the Pretenders
and their Adherents (1845), Richard the Third and
his Contemporaries (1862), and Memoirs of the
Life and Reign of King George the Third (1867),
the last his best book. Other works are his
Literary and Historical Memorials of London
(1847); London: its Celebrated Characters and
Remarhable Places (1871); and Memoirs of Cele-
brated Jitonian.s ( 1875). He died 7th July 1874.
Jesse Window, a window that had the genea-
logical tree of Jesse, father of David, painted on its
glass or sculptured on the mullions. Such were
once common in churches.
Jessor, also called Kasba, a town of Bengal,
capital of a district, 74 miles by rail NE. of Cal-
cutta. Po|i. 8495. Since the opening of the Cen-
tral Bengal Railway Jessor has devidoped into a
trading-mart of some importance in local prochicts.
Jest-book.S are of two kinds : collections of
witty sayings and practical jokes which go under
the names of certain men wlio were celebrateil in
their day as ' merry fellows,' ami collections of
facetia', gathered from many sources, ancient and
modern. Of the lirst class 'farltons Jests may be
considered as a fair type among English books of
facetia-. Here all the jests and practical jokes are
a.scribed to that pojiular Eli/abelhan comedian, or
rather bull'oon ; but i)roliably not a single one of
them is genuine or authentic. This book, in fact,
Ls simply a catchpenny collection of jests taken out
of older books, uiid fathered on Tarlton after his
death in order to stimulate its sale and popularity. I
A notable example is found in TarlUm's device to
reach London \\ itiiout expense, at a time when he
was in the country and with an empty purse : he
contrived to ha^•e liimself arrested as a ' seminary
])riest' and taken up to the metroi)olis, where he
wa.s at once recognised and set at liberty. This is
a variant of the well-known story of Rabelais, with
his three packets of harmless wood -ashes, labelled
' Poison for the King,' ' Poison for the Queen,'
'Poison for the Dauphin.' And it reajjjiears in
another jestlH>ok of the same class, in the com-
position of which the learned man under whose
name it goes had no more share than he had in
that of the Talmud, namely. The Witty and Enter-
taining Exploits of George Buchanan, commonly
railed the King's Fool. Another old English
liook of this kind is the Jests of Scogiii, which
the enterprising printer foisted on the public— as
was also done in the case of the I'ates of the
Mad Men of Gotham (see Gotham) — as having
been compiled by ' A. B. of Phisicke Doctour,'
meaning the facetious Andrew Borde. In this
book Scogin, or Seogan, ' a schoUer of Oxford,' is
lepresented as playing all sorts of tricks, most of
which are found in earlier collections, and all are
traceable to French, Italian, and Asiatic sources.
For example, with the helj) of his ' chamber-fellow,'
he cheats a simple rustic out of half his flock of
sheep by ])ersuading him that they are really hogs
— a trick which not only occurs in medieval Latin
collections and all the jest-books of Europe, but
has its probable original in an old Indian work
entitled Hitopudesa (a Sanskrit form of the Fable*
of Pilpay, or Bidpai), where, in like manner, three
sharpers cheat a Brahnum of a goat he is carrying
to sacrifice, by making him believe it is a dog.
Of other jest-books the Pleasant Conceits of Old
Hobson, the Merry Londoner, is a good example,
albeit, as usual, containing little that is not found
elsewhere. Old Hobson is a conlirmed jjractical
joker, and many of his best conceits turn on
merely verbal quibbles. Two nuue books of this
class are the Jests of George Peelc, the jjlayer,
and Archy Armstrong's Banquet of Jests ; and it is
hardly necessary to say that their names are all
that is theirs in the collections.
The oldest known English jest-book is A Hundred
Mery 'Talys (about 1525), to which the lively
Beatrice refers when she says to Benedick, in Much
Ado about Nothing { Act II. scene i.), ' Will you tell
me who told you that I was disdainful, and that I
had all my good wit out of the Hundred Merry
Tales? ' J^ext in order of date — and of interest also
— is Mery 'Tales, Wittie t^ncstions, and (Jiiictcc Au-
sweres, rcry Mery and I'lcasant to be Rcdile (about
1535). From these two the compilers of s«ibsequent
jest-books in the early years of the 1 7th century drew
very freely, with one notable exception, Taylor'.'i
Wit and Klirth (i.e. John Taylor, the Water-poet),
which, he tells us in the lengthy title-imge, he
'chargeably collected out of Taverns, Ordinaries,
Innes, Bowling-greenes and Alleys, Ale-houses,
Tobacco-shops, llighwayes and Water-passages, and
which is ' made up and fashioned into Clinches,
Bulls, Quirkes, Yerkes, tjuips and Jerkes : apothegm-
ati('allv bundled up at the re(|uestof John (iaiiett's
Chost' ( 1635). This is by far the most original of
all our English jest-books — by « hich we mean that
it contains very few of the tales found in the
earlier collectiuns. And if we seek for the reason
of this, it is probably to be found in the superior
advantages which Taylor possessed over mere
literaiy hacks — who were able only ' to make
new books as apothecaries make new mixtures,
by pouring out ol one vessel into another '--in his
protession of a Thames waterman, which must
liave briHigbt him into contact with all sorts and
conditions of men, from whom, more especially
JEST-BOOKS
JESTERS
311
5!ea-capUiins. he pioliably learned a goodly portion
of the jests he tells so iniiiiiitly.
The earliest collections are larcrely derived from
classical and monkish sources, and some of the
tales are exceedinj;ly coai-se, even ohseeiie. Many
are at the exjiense of the monks and friars, whose
greed and licentionsness are the subjects of unspar-
ing ridicule. Not a few exhibit women in no very
favourable light, whether maids or matrons, anil
these we may he sure are the invention of miso-
gynist churchmen. Such tales show that women
were hehl in almost a.« low estimation in Europe
during the middle ages, and long after, as they
seem ever to have been in Asiatic countries ; and
there can be little doubt that this was ilue mainly
to the monks and friars, for whom oiirown Cliancer
had seldom a goo<i word to say. There is, how-
ever, considerable humour in some of these tales
at the expense of women : and, after all, human
nature is verj" much the same in every age and
place ; as, for" example, in the storj- of the young
woman wlio grieved for the death of her husband,
and her father tried in vain to console her by say-
ing that he had got her another husband, liut she
declared she would have him not ; however, when
they were all seated at dinner, she whispered to
him, amidst her sobs, ' Father, where is this same
young man that is to be my husband ?' To which
the story-teller adds the ' moral ' that ' by this ye
may see that it is no more wonder for a woman to
weep than for a goose to go barefoot.'
The l>est known of English collections of faceti.-e
is Joe Mi//er's Jest-Bool; or the Wit's Vnde Mecnm,
which, even in its original form (1739), is a mere
compilation of witticisms, drawn by the versatile
John Mottley mainly from 16th and 17th centurj-
jest-books, the liest joke in it being the name of
Joseph Miller (1684-1738) on the title-page ; for,
though a comedian by profession, it is said that he
was never known to maKe a joke in his life. Those
who are well acquainted with the humorous litera-
tnre of other countries as well as that of our
own nnist confess that if our jest-books, both
ancient and mo<leni, were stripped of all that is
borrowed, the number of jokes that we can fairly
claim wonld be exceedingly few indeed. But, for
the matter of that, no other country is better. The
late Mr Rjilston has justly remarked that 'an
unfamiliar jest is rarely met with in the lower
strata of fiction.' The liest jokes have been for
ages known alike to the Russian or Norwegian
peasant, the vine-dresser of France or Spain, the
Italian rustic, the Argyllshire crofter, the wander-
ing Arab, the luxurious Persian, the peaceful
Hindn, and the crafty C'hinese. We pa.«8 over
the species of mountebank jest which has of late
years come into vogue in the corners of many
American newspajiers, as it is likely soon to
perish of its own infirmities. Most of the early
English jest-books mentioned in this article are
now, in their original forms, of extreme rarity,
although there must have been many ami large
editions of them. Mr W. C. Hazlitt — who has
reprinted a considerable numlier of them in his
Snakespeare Jest ■ Hooks { ^ vols. ]8()4), with valuable
prefaces and notes — thinks that they were literally
' thumbed out of existence ; ' but this can hardly
account for their exceeding rarity, and we are
rather disposeil to believe that vast numbers of
copies were destroyed during the Puritanical
times along with mucli more valuable Ixioks ; and,
when the reaction set in with the Restoration,
they would be considered as old-fashioned, .'ind the
wits wo\ild liegin afresh, though they did not
disdain to make a verj- lilteral use of the anti-
quated jest-books.
Besides the bookn already incidentally mentioned, most
collection?! of folklore and of chap-books contain jests.
Again, many books of this class are roughly grouped as
• Facetise ' in booksellers' lists, especially if nior* or less
Ifriroijtei in character. Good Knglish jest-books of the
Cavalier period are the Westmhiiitei' Itrotlcrt/, Choice
Droltrrt/y and Mn-ri/ DrolUri/, reprinted by Mr R. Koberts
of Boston (3 vols.'). See articles Bidpai, Cbap-books,
Folklore, and Goth.^m.
Jesters, Court, persons who were kei>t in the
households of princes and lesser dignitaries to fur-
nish amusement by their real or atlected folly, and
hence commonly called Court Fools. At what
time they were introduced into European courts
has not "been precisely ascertained, but there is
reason to suppose that they existed in England
iluring tl)e period of our Saxon history, and cer-
tainlv in the reign of William the Conqueror, since
an almost contemporary historian, Maitre Wace,
has left a curious account of the preservation of
William's life, when he was only Duke of Nor-
mandy, by his fool Goles. Otlier fools whose
names have descended are the Hitard of Edmund
Ironside, the Will Somei-s of Henry VIII., Archie
Armstrong, who lost his office for jests which the
petty-minded Laud could not endure ; and in
France Caillet and Triboulet in tlie time of Francis
I., and Chicot in the reign of Henry III. Triboulet
figures in Kalielais, and is the hero of Hugo's Le
rot s'omusc and of Verdi's Jii(jijlctt(j. The last
private person to keep a fool in England was Lord
Surt'olk, whose jester, Dicky Pierce, was buried at
Berkeley in 172S. In Douce s Illustrations of Shake-
sjxare (1807) there is a dissertation on clowns
and fools, with an account of their peculiar dress,
the motley coat, the tight breeches with legs of
dift'erent colours, the cowl bearing asses' ears and
crested with a cockscomb, and the bauble, a short
stafJ' with a ridiculous head. Douce divides them
into nine clas.ses, and tinds the parent of the Shake-
spearian stage clown in the ' vice ' of the mysteries
and moralities.
In the East the office of jest«r existed in the 8th
century, and probably much earlier in India. The
famous Calif Haroun al-Raschid had a jester named
Bahalul, some of whose sayings and doings have
been preservetl by Araliian writers. He appeal's
to have possessed vivacity, wit, and observation,
which were, however, often concealed under a mask
of simplicity, and he was permitted to take great
liberties with the calif's courtiers. ' I wish,' said
Haroun to him one day, ' I wish you woiild procure
me a list of all the fools in Bagdad.' ' That would
be dilhcult, O Commander of the Faithful,' replied
the jester; 'but if you desire to know the wise
men, the catalogue may soon be completed.' This
found its way — mutatis mutaitdis — into English
jest-ljooks in the 16th century. One day liahaliil
was discovered seated on the calif's throne, for
which Haroun awarded him a whipjiing ; then said
the jester, 'U Commamler of the Faithful, I sat in
this seat only half an hour .and have been whipped
for doing so ; what do you deserve who sit in it
every day?' The jester doubtless tlnmght the
slight scourging he received was amplv compen-
sated by the bag of gold pieces wliicli Haroun
ordered to be given to him for his witty remark.
From the i>ractical jokes popularly ascribed to
Ramakistnan, he may lie styled the Scogin of
Madra-s. A collection of his jests in the Tamil
language was translated into lingli.sh and Teliigu
by riarrain Sawmy, and published at Madras in
18.39, and not a few of them areahuost identical with
tales ascribed to Euro|)ean court jesters, such as our
English Scogin and the Italian (ionella. This
[ almost unknown little book explains how he was
endowed with so nmch wit that be became the
greatest Je.ster in the wor'il, and by the exerci.se
of this wit at the court of a riijji, was able to main-
tain himM;df and fandly. Like the European court
312
JESTERS
JESUITS
jesters, Rainakistnan's too ready wit frecjuently
roused his roval master's wrath ; but tliou^di some-
times condemned to deatli lie always evaded it,
and was again and again received with favour
tlirou<;li his irresistible drollery. His jests, how-
ever, have none of the coarseness which is the chief
characteristic of his western brethren ; for example,
in bis counterpart to tlie well-known jest of Scogin,
when the king commanded him never to show his
face in the royal presence again, he saves propriety
and carries out his jest by entering with a large pot
over his head and down to his shoulders. See
Dr Doran's Uistory of Court Fools (1858).
Jesuits, or Society of Jesus, a celebrated
religious order of the Roman Catholic Church,
which has filled a large space in the ecclesiastical
and even the political history of the world. It
wa.s founded in 15.34 by Ignatius Loyola (q.v.), in
concert with live associates — Peter Le Fevre, a
Savoyard ; three Spaniards — James Lainez, Francis
Xa\ier, and Nicholas Bobadilla ; and a Portuguese
named Rodriguez. The original object of associa-
tion was limited to a pilgrimage to the Holy Land,
anil a mission for the conversion of infidels ; but
as all access to the Holy Land wa-s precluded by
the outbreak of a war with the Turks, tlie associates
turned their thoughts to a more comprehensive
organisation, specially designed to meet those more
modern requirements which had arisen since the
Reformation. With this view, Ignatius Loyola,
with Lainez ami Le Fevre, having meanwhile re-
cruited several new associates, repaired to Rome in
1539, and submitted to the pope, Paul III., the rule
of the proposed order, the great aim of wliich was
expres.sed in their adopted niotto : Ad Majorem
Dei Gloriam ( ' To the greater glory of God ' ) ; and
the vow of which, in addition to the threefold
obligations common to all Catholic religious orders,
of chastity, poverty, and obedience, comprised a
fourth, whereby the members bound themselves
unreservedly to go as missionaries to any country
which the pope might indicate to them. The
new rule was ajiproved by a bull of 1540 ; and
in the following year the association was prac-
tically inaugurated at Rome, by the election of
Ignatius Loyola as its first general.
The original constitution of the society has
undergone few modifications. Although it is com-
monly represented as absolutely monarchical, yet
the authority of the general is, in many respects,
strictly limited. It is true that tlie general— who
is elected by a congregation of professed members,
compo.sed of two elected fathers in each province
together with the provincial — holds his office for
life ; and, although he is aided in his government
by a council of five assistants, he is not obliged to
follow their advice even when unanimous. These
assistants are elected by the same congregation
that elects the general, and remain in oHiee during
his life. Each assistant has a more inimediate
charge of a grouji of jirovinccs and missions called
an Assistioiri/, formed maiidy according to the
principal European languages — Italian. (Jeriiian,
Frencl), Spanish, and English. Rut tlioiigli the
general is thus absolutely free in his decisions, he
is .strictly bound by the constitutions of the order ;
nor, although he may dispense in particular ca.ses,
is be competent of his own authority to annul or
to alter any of the constitutions. Another check
on inerely arbitrary power and outlet for com-
plaints may be mentioned. Every three yeai-s a
Congregation of I'rocuiators, as it is called, is
summoned by the gimeral. This is comjioseil of
a deputy chosen by vote in each province to go to
Rome or elsewhere, and lay the condition and needs
of the province personally before the general.
AVhen all the deputies are assembled, they have
under the presidency of the general always to vote
on and decide one (juestion— whether there is
any need of convoking a general congregation.
AlthouLdi no instance of deposition has ever
occurred, the general himself is liable to be de-
posed by the sentence of such a general cimgrega-
tion, in certain contingencies ^^ liich are specifically
pointed out by the constitutions.
The body over which this general presides con-
sists of four clas.ses : (1) Professed, who, having
passed throui'h all preparatory stages, w hicb com-
monly extend over ten or twelve years, or even
a longer period, have solemnly taken the vows
described above, including that of obedience to the
pope. It is from this class alone that the general
and all the higher otlicials of the society are chosen.
(2) Coadjutors, siiiritual and temporal': the former
—who have completed their studies, and have
(seldom before their thirty second year, or even
later) been admitted to holy orders — being de-
signed to assist the professed "in preaching, teach-
ing, and the direction of souls ; the latter being
lay-brothers, to whom the minor and menial offices
of the society are assigned. ( 3 ) Scholastics, who,
having passed through the no\itiate, are engaged
for a long series of years, either in pursuing their
own studies, or in teaching in the various schools
of the order. (4) La.stly, novices, who, after a
short trial as 'postulants' for admission, are
engaged for two years exelusi\ely in spiritual
exercises, {uayer, meditation, ascetic reading, or
ascetic practices, and generally in a course of
disciplinary training. The administrative and
executive government of the society, throughout
the various provinces or missions into which it is
divided, is entrusted, under the general, to pro-
vincials, who are named by the general, and hold
office commonly for at least three years. In each
separate province there are three kinds of com-
munities— ^jirofessed houses or residences, colleges,
and novitiates. The head-superior in each is
appointed by the general, who receives at stated
intervals a detailed report of the character, conduct,
and position of each member of the society. In all
these gradations the subordination is complete,
and the obligation of obedience is immediate and
unreserved ; and one of the most familiar accusa-
tions against the society is that this duty of blind
and implicit obedience makes the superior the sole
and final arbiter of con.science for all his subjects,
the judge of good and evil, of virtue .and of vice.
Nevertheless, whatever may be saiil of the )>rac-
tical tendency of this relation, the Jesuits and
their aiiulogists plead that both in the rules of
St Ignatius and in the so-called 'exanioii' of the
candidate there is contained, in the duty of
obedience to a superior, an explicit reservation
for the subject, ' unless where the sujierior should
command what is sinful. '
The system of training exhibits the most pro-
found knowledge of the biimaii heart, and the
most correct appreeiatiim of the religions instincts
and impulses of mankind. The long exercises of
the novitiate were designed by Ignatius to form the
individual (diaracter in habits of personal holiness,
and practices of personal piety. It was the busi-
ness of the school and college to form the social
character of the future teachers of men, and
directors of the destinies of society. To learning
carefully adapted to the actual condition and iiro-
gress of knowledge they sought to add manners
and habits calculated to inspire confidence, and to
disarm lucjudice ami sus]iicion. Unlike the older
orders, they made no parade of a special calling,
whether by a peculiar habit, or by peculiar exterior
indications or austerity or asceticism. They en-
joyed, indeed, in these respects, some exemptions
from the more austere practices of other ordere.
Their churches were but (lesigned as suiiplementai'y
JESUITS
313
to those of the parish clergy* (wliose oidiniiiy
costume they adopted as their own conventual
dress), witlioiit the canonical services, without much
imposing or attractive ceremonial : liein'' cliietiy
appropriated for religious instruction, ana for the
duties of the confessional. Their casuistry avoided
all harsh and excessive rigour : and it cannot he
douhted that some of their writers carried it to the
opposite extreme. But above all, they addressed
themselves to the great want of their time — educa-
tion ; and through the mastery which they soon
obtained in this important field, a.s well as their
eminence in every department of learning, divinity,
fihilosophy, history, scholarship, antii|uities, and
etters, they attained to unliounded influence in
every department of society.
The organisation of the society is settled, in
every important particular, by the original rules
and constitutions of St Ignatius. The opponents
of the Jesuits, however, allege that, in addition to
these public and avowed constitutions, there exists
in the society, for the guidance of their hidden
actions, and for the private direction of the
thoroughly initiated members, a secret code, en-
titled J/r<H/<f( Secrcta ('Secret Instructions'), which
was meant to be reserved solely for the private
guidance of the more advanced members, and
which wa.s not only not to be communicated to the
general body, but was to be boldly repudiated by
:ill should its existence at any time be suspected
or discovered. This singular code, a masterpiece
of craft and duplicity, was first printed at Cracow
in 1612, and has been repeatedly reprinted by the
enemies of the .Jesuits ; Init it is indignantly dis-
claimed by the society. The accounts of the time
and circumstances of its discovery are suspicious
and contradictorj-. The book has been repeatedly
condemned, both at Rome and by other authorities,
as well as by the society, and its apocryphal char-
acter is now commoidy admitted.
The history of the society is varied in the different
countries, but in each may be divided into three
stages — the rise, the suppression, and the restoration
of the order. In Italy its early career was brilliant
and unclouded. Before the death of the first general,
St Ignatius, in 1556, the Italian Jesuits had swelled
to KMK) in number, and the order was established
in twelve provinces. Their first check in Italy
occurred in Venice. In the contest of this republic
with Paul v. (q.v. ) the Jesuits, taking the side of
Rome, accepted in 1606 the alternative, proposed
by the senate, of leavin" the \'euetian territory ;
nor was it till 16.56 that they were re-established in
Venice, from which time they continued to enjoy
nndi.sturbed influence in Italy until the suppres-
sion of the order. The earliest settlements outside
of Italy were in Portugal .and Sjiain. In 1.540
Rodriguez (a Portugue.se nobleman) and Francis
Xavier opened colleges in Portugal, at the invita-
tion of the king. Francis Borgia, Duke of (iaudia,
in Spain, wjus equally well received in his native
countrj', where the order flourished so rapidly,
that, at the time of the suppression, the Spanish
Jesuits numbered above 6W)0.
In France, although a house for novices was
founded in Paris by St Ignatius in 1542, the univer-
sity of Paris opposed their introduction as unneces-
sary, and irreconcilable with its ])rivileges. They
were distasteful to supporters of the (lallicaii
liberties, and still more to the Huguenots. The
inristb, the jiarliament, and the jiartisans of abso-
Intism were alarmed by the free politii.il opinions
which liatl found expression in some of the Je>Mit
schools. t)n the other hand, the democratic party
attributed to them a sinister use of their influence
with courts. And thus their progress in France
was slows anil their jiosition at all times precarious.
It was with much clilliculty that the parliament of
Paris consented to register the royal decree which
authorised their establishment. In more than one
instance the univei-sity jirotested against their
.schools .-xs invading its jirivileges. In the wars of
the League they did not fail to make new enemies;
an<l at len^li the assassination of Henry HI. by
Clement (although no eviilence of any connection
with the Jesuits appeared in his case), and the cir-
cumstance that Cliatel, who attempted the life of
HeniT IV., had at one time been a pupil in their
schools, led to their expulsion from France in l."i!l4.
They were reinstated, howe\er, in 160.3 ; but on the
assassination of Henry IV. by Kavaillac the out-
cry against them was renewed. Although it seems
quite certain that this clamour was utterly without
foundation, yet the opinions held by one of their
order, INIariana (q.v.), on the right of revolt,
although condemned by the general, gave a colour
to this and every similar imputation. A less deep
but more permanent and t'ornudable movenu'Ut
against them was gradually stirred up at a later
period, by a combination of all the causes of
unpoiiularity alrea<ly described, to which new point
was given by the well-known Jansenist controveisy,
and by the questions as to the imputed laxity of
the moral teaching of the Jesuits, and their alleged
corrupt and demoralising casuistry. What the
ponderous and indignant prelections of the Sor-
Ijonne, and the learned folios of the Dominican
and Augustinian schools had failed to accomplish,
the wit and brilliancy of the celebrated Lcttres
Proi'iiiciales of Pascal (q.v.) efi'ectually achieved.
The laxity of some of the .Jesuit casuists wa.s
mercilessly exposed Ijy this brilliant adversary, who
represented it as the authorised teaching of the
order, and the craft}" maxims and practices popu-
larly ascribed to the society were placed Ijefore the
world in a light at once exquisitely amusing and
fatal to the reputation of the body. The attempts
at rejoinder on the part of the Jesuits Init served
to fi.x the ridicule more firmly. Of the thousands
who laughed at the happy humour, or sympathised
with the vigorous raillery of Pascal, few, indeed,
could plod throu'di the learned but lieaxy scholas-
ticism of his adversaries. In vain the Jesuits
insisted that the obnoxious casuists had been con-
demned by the society itself : in vain they showed
where their opinions ditt'ered fi'om tliose imputed to
them. The wit of Pascal remained unanswered ;
and whatever «ere the logical merits of the con-
troversy, no doubt could be entertaine<l as to its
popular issue. The pungent pleasantries, too, of
the Provincial Letters were liut a foretaste of the
acrimony of the later Jansenistical controvei'sies,
in which the Jesuits .stored up for themselves an
accumulation of animosities in the most various
quarters, the divines, the Lawyers, the court id's,
which were destined to bear bitter fruit in the later
history of the society in France. Nevertheless,
after a long conHict, they enjoyed a temporary
triumph in the last years of the Regency and the
beginning of the reign of Louis XV.
In (iermany the Jesuit institute was received
with general and immediate favour. In the Catho-
lic territories, Austria, Bavaria, and the Rhenish
principalities, they not only founded colleges and
other establishments of their own, but they were
apnointed at Ingolstadt and other universities to
hold important ))rofes.sorships, and received in
many dioceses the charge of the episcopal .semin-
aries then newly established. Before the death of
the fii-st general, .St Ignatius, the order could
reckon in (iermany 26 colleges ami 10 iiinfcssed
houses. In Hungary aiul Transylvania much
bitterness aro.se out of their introduction ; the same
may be said of Bohemia and Moravia; and through
the wh(de course of the Thirty Years' War the
Jesuits, though in many instances wrongfully,
3U
JESUITS
were rej;aiiled liy the helli^'eient Protestants as the
soul anil centre of tlie Catliolic oainp.
In tlie Netlierlanils they enccmntered some oppo-
sition at lii-st ; but in 1562 Lainez, the seconil
{leneral of tlie order, came to the Low Countries,
and a collejre was opened at Lonvnin, which eventu-
ally liecanie one of the greatest eidlefjes of the
order. In the Protestant kinjidonis the Jesuits
ohtaincd entrance only as niissionaiies, and in
some, as in Enjiland, Scotland, and Ireland, under
circumstances of great ditiiculty and jieril. From
England they were excluded i)V the ^lenal laws
under pain of death ; nevertheless, with a con-
stancy and (levotediiess which it is impossible not
to admire, they maintained through the worst
times an unbroken succession of missionaries in
many parts of England. They often resorted to the
most singular disguises, and generally bore false
nanu's ; and several of the old Roman Catholic
mansions still show the ' Priest-hole,' which was
contrived as a retreat for them in ca-ses of sudden
emergency. Into Ireland they effected an entrance
almost at the first foundation, and, after many
vicissitudes, towards the close of the reign of
Charles 11. they had more than one considerable
college for the education of youth.
But a still more fertile held for the enterprise of
the order was that of the missions to the heathen,
in which they outstripped all the older ordei's in
the church. In the Portuguese colonies of India
the successes of Francis Xavier (q.v.) are well
known. The results of their mis.sions in China
(under such men a-s Ricci, 155'2-1610, and Schall,
1591-1669) and Jajian were even more extraordi-
nary, as also in Northern an<l Central America.
Above all, their estal>lishments in the southern
continent, in Brazil, in Paraguay and Uruguay,
upon the Pacific coast, in California, and the
Philippine Islands were missions of civilisation as
much as of religion.
Such was this association in the first stage of its
Iiistory. At their first centenary jubilee the mem-
bers already numbered 13,112, ilistriljuted over 32
])rovinces. At their suppiession, a century later,
they had increased to 22,589, and were possessed
of 24 professeil houses, 669 colleges, 176 seminaries,
61 iu)vitiates, 335 residences, and 275 missionary
stations in inliilel countries or in the Protestant
states of Europe.
The decline in the fortimes of the Jesuits was
rapid and decisive in its consummation. The first
blow which they sustained was in Portugal. An
exchange of colonial territory having been effected
between that kingdom and the crown of Spain, the
so-called ' Reductions' of Paraguay (((.v.), in which
the .lesuit missionaries posses-sed an authority all
but so\ercign, were transferred to Portugal. The
native Indians having resisted this transfer, the
Portuguese ascriljed their disatt'ection to the .lesuit
missionaries. The Portuguese minister, Pouibal
de ( 'arvallio, to whom tlii^ Jesuits allege that their
possessions in Portugal had long Im'cu an object
of desire, instituted a comniissiim of iiirpiiry ; and
w'hile it was still pending, an attempt on the life
of the king, Joscpli, which was laid to the charge
of the Jesuits, furnished liim with a fresh ground of
impeachment; and, without awaiting any judicial
proof of either accusation, he issued, in Septemlier
1759. a royal decree, by which the onler was
expelled from the kingdom. This exaniide was
followed in other kingdoms. In France, un<ler the
Due de Choiseul, the immediate occjision of the
disgrace of the Jesuits was a trial in the civil courts.
Father Lavalctte, as procurator of the order iu
Martini<|iU', had coiisigiu-d to a commercial house iu
Marseilles two vahuililc cargoes, which were seized
by Euglish cruisers, .'ind, Lavalette being unable to
meet the bills, the Marseilles merchants jiroceeded
successfully against the order. The Jesuits re]ilied
that Lavalctte acted not only without the authority
of the order, but against its |)osilive constitutions,
and appealed to the ]iarlianient of Paris against the
sentence. The ini|uiry thus raise<l juesented an
opportunity of wliich the ancient enemies of the
order in the i)arliament eagerly availed themselves.
A report on the constitutions of the society, highly
danmatory, was sp«'edily dra>vn up, and a demand
was nuule for the supjiression of the order, as being
irreconcilable, in its constitution and practice, w ith
the interests of the state and of stxiiety. A strong
effort was made to arrest the proceeiling ; but a
powerful court-faction, aided by the seiret intluence
of the royal mistress, Madame de Pompadour, who
was iiritatcd by the refusal of her Jesuit confessor
to grant her absolution unless on conditiim of her
sej)arating from the king, and supported in the
press by the jihilosoidiic jiarty, carried all voices,
public and pri\ate, against the Jesuits. An attempt
at cfuiipromise was pro]«ised to the general. Father
Ricci, by which the obnoxious constitutions might
be abolished or modified ; Init his unbending reply,
' Sint ut sunt, ant non sint' ('Let them be as they
are, or let them cease to exist '), cut short all nego-
tiation ; and a royal edict was published in 1764,
by wliich the society was suppressed in the French
territory. This example was followed by Spain, in
1767, with circumstances of great harshness and
severity ; and by the minor Bouilwii courts of
Naples, Pavnia, and Modena. The cmirt of Rome
had zeahnisly but vainly interposed in their behalf,
and from Clement XIII., especially, they received
earnest support. But his successor, Clement XIV.,
inclining in this and all other questions of church
and stat« to the side of peace, having in \ain
endeavcmred to procure from the c<mrts by which
they were condemned a relaxation of their severity,
and being pressed by the ambassadors of France
and Spain, at length issued, July 21, 1773, the
celebrated bull ' Dominus ac Redeniptor Noster,'
by which, without adoiiting the charges made
against the society, or entering in any way into
the question of their justice, acting solely «n the
motive of ' the peace of the church,' he suppressed
the society in all the states of Christendom. The
bull was put into execution without delay. In
Spain and Portugal alone the members of the
society were driven into exile. In other Catholic
countries they were ])emiitted to remain as iudi-
vi<luals engaged in the ministi-j- or in liteiaiy
occupations ; and in two kingdoms, Prussia under
Frederick the (ireat, and Russia under Catharine,
they were even pennitted to retain a quasi-corpor-
ate existence as a society for eilucation.
What was meant, how ever, to bs the suppression of
the society proved but a temporary suspension. The
ex-members continued in large numbers, especially
in the Pajial States and Northern Itjily ; and soon
after the first storm of the Revolution liad blown
o\ er measures began to be taken for the restoration
of the society. The first overt reorganisaticm of
them, Ijarely tolerated by the ))0|)e, was in 1799, by
the Duke of Parma; in 1801 Pius VII. permitted
the re-establishment of the society in Lithuania
and White Russia, and with still more formality
in Sicily in the year 1804. It was not, however,
until after the French Restoration, and the return
of Pius VII. from cajdivity, that the complete
rehabilitatiim of the Jesuit order was effected, by
the publication of the bull 'Solicitndo Omnium
Eccle.siarum,' August 7, 1814; and in 1824 their
ancient college, the Collegio Romano, was restored
to them. Once thus re-established by Pius VII.,
the Jesuit order as a religious onler has rem.ained
on in the Catholic Church. But in dillerenl king-
doms of Euro|>e it has had various fortunes. In
Modena, Sardinia, and Najdes it was re-established
JESUITS
JESUS CHRIST
315
in 1815, as also in Spain. It was again siii) pressed
in Spain fioni 1820 to 1825, from 18;io to 1844, from
1854 to 18.38, and its members were banished once
more in 1868. In Portugal they have never ol>-
tained a lirm footing. Their position in l-ianee
was one of sufferance rather than of positive author-
isation ; nevertheless, they were very numeious
and intlneutial, and their educational institutions
held the highest rank. In 188(t, however, the
republic decreed the dissolution of the order, with-
out giving it the alternative of seeking autlior-
isation ; and in July of that year the members
were expelled from all their establishments save
the educational, an additional month being allowed
them for vacating the latter. In Belgium they
reinstated themselves after the Revolution, and
they now possess many great establishments, pro-
fessed houses as well as collej;es, which are largely
attended )>oth by Belgians and foreigners. In Hol-
land also they possess several considerable houses, as
well as in England, Ireland, the United States, and,
williiu a recent period, Scotland. In Switzerland
they opened in 1818 a college at Freiburg, which
became a most flourishing establishment, and sub-
sequently they e.xtended themselves to Schwyz and
Lucerne ; hut the war of the Sonderbund ( one of
the main causes of which arose out of the Jesuit
question ) ended in their expulsion from the Swiss
territory. Of the German states Bavaria and
Austria tolerated their re-establishment for educa-
tional purposes. In the Italian provinces of the
former, as also in the Tyrol, they enjoyed a
certain freedom until the revolution of 1848. In
Kus-sia they were i)laced under sharp restrictions
in 1817; ami in 1820, in consequence of their suc-
cessful ett'orts at proselytism, they were banished
by a tinal uka-se from the Kiissian territory, whence
they still remain exclu<led. The Italian revolution
of 1848 seriously affected their position in that
country. In that year Pius IX. found it expedient
U> ])ermit the breaking up of the college and other
houses in Kome. They returned, however, with
the pope himself, and resumed possession of their
ancient establishments. On the proclamation of the
kingdom of Italy they withdrew from Sardinia,
Naples, Sicily, and the annexed territories in general.
In the recent legislation of the kingdom of Italy
the Jesuits have been visited with a special measure
of repre.ssion. While each of the other |)rincipal
religious orders is permitted to retain its ' mother
house ' at Itome, in which the general of the order
may reside, the Jesuits have been required to quit
their principal convent of the Gesii. In (iermany
also they nave been treated with exceptional
severity, being held resi)onsible a.s the main agents
and advisers of the measures adopted in the Vatican
Council, which were complained of by the govern-
ment as infringing the rights of the state. By
a law of 1873 the order wa.s excluded from the
empire, its establishments were abolished, and all
foreign Jesuits were ordered to be expelled, and
the (jerman members of the society, as well lus of
kindred iinlei-s and congregations, to be 'interned.'
The twenty-four generals of the Society of Jesus
have been the following ( Italians, excejit where
otherwise specified ) : Loyola (1541-5(;), Spaniard;
Lainez (1.5.5H-ft5), Spaniard; Borgia ( 1. ">(;.') 72),
Spaniard ; Mercurian ( 1573-80), Belgian ; Accpiaviva
(1581-l(il5): Vitelleschi(lB15-45); Caraffa ( 1 046-
49); Piccolomini (1()49-51); Gottofredi (](j.">2);
Nick"l (l(i.")2-64), Gennan ; Oliva (1004 81);
Noyelle ( 1082-80), Belgian ; (ionzalez ( 1087 1705),
Spaniard; Tamburini ( 1706-30) ; Ketz ( 1730-.50),
Bohemian; Visconti (1751-55); Centnrioni (175">-
57) ; liicri ( 1758-75) ; Hrzozowski ( 180.5-20), I'ole ;
Kortis (1820-29); Kootliaan (1829 53), Dutch;
BecUx ,l8.-)3-84), Belgian; Anderledy (1884),
Swiss ; Martin ( 1892), Spaniard.
The literature of the history of the Jesuits, whether
hostile or friendly, is almost endless in extent and
variety: reference lu-iy be made to Gioberti, // O'csiiila
Moderno (1847), aiul Cretineau Joly, Hhloirc de la
Compagnie de Jcmi.i (1845); to the histories by Wolff
C-'d ed. 1803), Steinnictz, Huber, Guettee (18.5!)), Tlu'Ie-
man (1873), Griesinger (Eng. trans. 2d ed. IS.S.'j); I'ark-
man's Jesuits nf Nurtli America in the 17th ctntiiri/ { I'Otb
ed. 188(i); Kanke's Homisrhe Papste (6th ed. "1874);
Foley's Records of the Emjlish Province of the Societi/ of
Jtsus : T. G. Law, Conflicts btiweeii Jesuits and Seculars
under Elizabeth (1890). See also CASUISTRY, Loyola,
X^VVIEFt.
Jesuits' Bnrk. See Cinchona.
Jesus, son of Sirach. See Ecclesiasticu.s.
Jesus Christ. It is obvious that any attempt
to speak in a few pages of a life which was divine
as well as human — of a life which stands at the
veiy centre of the world's history as the fullilnient
of all the past hopes of humanity, and as the
highest ideal of all its future aims — can only be
carried out Ijy rigid limitation of the end in \\i'\\.
It will be impossible here to enter into any critical
inquiries ; or into profound theological discussions
respecting the inter-relation of the two natures
in one person ; or into a review of philosophical
theories respecting the work and person of Jesus ;
or into a defence of the a priori possibility or
credibility of miracles; or into a minute examina-
tion of conflicting systems of chronology ; or into
a harmony of the variations in the historical narra-
tives which have been magiiitied into irreconcilable
discrepancies. On such questions we can barely
touch, referring for further information to tlie
articles on Chki.stianity, Chkistology, Chkono-
LOG\', Gospels, John, and Mik.\cles.
The sources of our knowledge of the life of
Jesus are almost exclusively biblical. The refer-
ences to Him in Jewish and heathen literatuie are
distorted by hatred, prejudice, and ignorance ; and
the onlj' additions to our knowledge which can he
gleaned from the Christian literature of the early
centuries are dubious in authenticity, and insigni-
ficant in amount. Though legend has connected
the name of Philo with the apostle Peter, the
learned Alexandrian lived too early to be reached
Ijy the growing force of Christianity, and m;ikes
no allusion to it. Some critics have imagined the
existence of Christian interpolations in I'hilo's
account of the Therapeuta?. Joseplius speaks
briefly of John the Baptist, and of the martyrdom
of James, the Lord's brother ; but the authenticity
of the famoiLS passage about Christ is now given
up in its present form, for it must in any case have
been tampered with by somi^ Christian scribe. 'I'he
silence of Joseplius can only have been due to per-
plexity or policy. From other Jewish references
we learn nothing except the blinding fury of the
malignity exciteil liy the name of Christ. The blas-
phemous scandals and innuendoes of the Talnuid,
which culminate in such deplorable medieval cal-
umnies as the Toldutli ./<'s/(», are lamented by all
respectable Jews, and iiide<'d they refute thcm-
.selves by their preposterous anachnuiiMns and
impo.ssible absurdilic.H. Generally the Talininlisls
veil their hatred under distant allusions to ' so and
so,' 'Absalom,' 'the fool,' 'the hung;' and they
conceal a malediction under the form in which they
write the name of Jesus. Suetonius only allmhw
to Christ (if at all) under the blundering notion
that he ('Chrestus') stirred uptroulilcs in Koiiic in
the days of Claudius. Tacitus historically records
the crucifixion, but is otherwise a.s grossly ignorant
of every fact about the Christians as he is alMmt
the Jews. The only notion of Christianitv enter
taine<l by him, by Suetonius, and by Pliny is
<lerived either from the monstrcms falsehoods of
pagan enemies or from a confusion of C'hristians
316
JESUS CHRIST
with the members of the vilest Jewish and Gnostic
sects. Not one fact can lie ilisinterrcil from the
cynical persitla<,'e of I^uciaii in his tract on the
death of Peregrinus, or from the anonymous
Philopseudes. Celsus, indeed, professes to have
studied the documents of Christianity, hut his
views had been tainted, partly by the hostile pre-
judices of pliilosophy, and partly by liis reliance
on the inventiim of scandal-nion,L;erinj; Jews. It
is more disappointing that no fact about Jesus can
be derived from the earliest Christian literature.
Tliere is scarcely a single grain of gold in tlie
accumulated rubbish heap of legends contained in
the apocryphal gospels ; not a single fact in the
allusions of tlie Fathers on which we can rely,
unless it be the statement tliat the stable of the
Nativity was a cavern ; not a single unrecorded
saying of Christ {ciypa(poi' ddy.ua), unless it be
'Prove yourselves "ood money-changers;' or one
or two others which — like ' He who is near me is
near the tire' — are already implicitly contained in
the records of the gospels.
We therefore turn to the New Testament,
and here no facts of the life are pi'eserved for us
except those which are recorded in the gospels,
and receive independent attestation from the
references of St John, St Peter, and St Paul. St
Paul preserves for us the one unrecorded precious
maxim, ' It is more blessed to give than to receive,'
but nothing more. The question therefore arises,
' May we rely on the four gospels as authentic and
adequate?' That they are so might seem to be
suttieiently proved by the e.xistence and the e\er-
grow-ing strength of Christianity and Christendom
— the religion and the society which are based upon
them. They have indeed been placed in the
crucible and thrust into the hottest furnace of
modern criticism, but only with this result that
in these days scarcely a critic pretends to impugn
the general historic trutlifulness of the synoptic
narratives, though many endeavour to eliminate
the supernatural elements. The characteristics of
the gospels themselves — their simplicity, their
naive confessions, their inimitable stamp of honesty
and veracity (tlie aimplex veri sirf ilium), the im-
possibility that the Cliaracter which they set forth
sIiDuld have been invented by fishermen and ta.\-
gatherers, the historic verification of which they are
capaljle— are the pledge of their authenticity. And
of tlie \arious theories which have lieen adopted to
explain away their significance one after another
has hojielessly broken down. Paulus attempted to
account for the gospels on naturalistic grounds, so
that miracles were merely mistakes of enthusiastic
oliservation ; but after the crushing exposure of this
hypothesis by Strau.ss it has never been revived.
Strauss, with imposing wealth of learning and
ability, tried to apjdy to them the principles of
Hegel, and to explain theiu as myths generated by
tlie idea ; Imt .-ifter .a temporary success he wa-s him-
self forced to complain that his views had been
swept away by the orthodo.x reaction. Even lienan
says of Strauss 's Lebcn Jc.iii, ' Ce ("hrist^r priori, ou
le divine bien, n'est p!vs encore le Christ historique'
—£t. d'JIixt. lid. pp. 157-58; and in point of fact
Strauss was refuted by the intense and unique
originality of the gospel story, and by the fact that
no miracle was attributed to .lohn the liaptist
even at the zenith of his mighty influence. )5aur
and his able successors helpeil to nullify the
arguments of Strauss, and in tlieir turn apjdied to
the story of the origins of Cliristianity the strong
solvent of criticism ; but liis followi'rs had to make
larger admisshins th.an he liimself, and his :ittcni]>t
to show that tlie gospels were 'tendency-writings'
prove<l itself so little satisfactory, an<l was so com-
pletely counteracted by the writings of N<»nder
and others, that at Tiibingen itself there is a
Tubingen school no more ( Ewald, Gesch. Christ its,
Vorrede, p. xxvii. 3d ed.). Lastly tliere arose
the eclectic schools of Schleieriiiacher and Kenan.
The medial system (Vennitteliimjs-Tlieolugie) of
Schleiermacher produced a powerful ett'ect, but the
day for half-views has gone by. The success of
Kenan was due mainly to the charm of style, but
he was not sufficiently serious to captivate many
proselytes. His Vie tic J^sns was \itiateil in part
by the writer's own \acillations aliout the fourth
gospel and in part by the indignant scorn which was
kindled l>y his hypothesis that He whom the world
has recognised as rcrax ct rents ct ipsa vcritiis
lent Himself to wilful deception in the raising of
Lazarus. The unshaken belief of the vast majority
of Christians, even of those who have most
thoroughly examined the literature of scepticism,
is suthcient to prove that modern apologetics have
been adequate to sustain the far fiercer battle of
the forces which were routed in the earlier centuries
by Origen and Athanasius, and in the 18th by
Butler, Lardner, and Paley.
The attack on the authenticity of the fourth
gospel has been longer and more determined, but
the evidence has been exhausted with careful
accuracy and stated w itli perfect candour, and we
may point to the papers of Bishop Lightfoot and
the edition of the Gospel of St John by Bishop
Westcott as containing arguments which seem
finally decisive against the destructive critics. t)n
this subject the author of Sitpcrnutural Jiclipioii
was practically driven out of the field, and the
certainty that Tatian in his Diatessaron used the
fourth as well as the other gospels — which has now
been proved by the discovery of an Armenian
translation of Ephraem's commentary in the library
of the Mechitarist Fathers at Venice in 1836— is a
strong addition to the weight of external e\idence.
This commentary of Ephraem was translated into
Latin by Aucher in IS-tl, and published by De
Mo?siiiger in 1876. Tatian was a hearer of Justin
Martyr, and his undoubted acceptance of the
fourtli gospel gives certainty to the already .strong
probability that that gospel was accepted by
.Justin.
Before proceeding to set forth in its general
idea the narrative of the gosjiels .some preliminary
considerations must be passed in review. It is
essential to notice that the life of Christ, as
related in the gospels, is partial and fragment-
ary. It has been calculated that in narrating the
public ministrj' of Christ the synojitic gospels
only deal with the events of fifteen indiitlis (450
days); Imt that so little consecutive is the narra-
tive that not more than thirtv-five days are dis-
tinctly touched u|)on, wliihi tliere are lacitnw, in
which the events of one, two, or even three months
at a time are passed over in silence. Further, it
has been observed that the records of two or three
of these days — the day in the cornfield (-Matt. xii.
1-xiii. 52), the day of the Sermon on the Mount
(Matt. V. 1-viii. 17) — occu))v large fractions of
St Matthew's tiosjiel ; the i^ay of the cursing of
the iig-tree occupies one-seventh of St Mark's ;
and the story of five days (Luke, xx. 1-xxiv.)
occujiies one-fourth of St Luke's, exclusive of the
story of the infancy. If this comjjutation be
accepted, (he result is that the Synoptists move in
the sphere of one-thirteenth part of a ministry of
which thi^ extent is uncertain, but which is generally
believed to have covered little more than three years
(see Dr Martineau's Scut of AuthtirHtj iti Hdittion,
]). 185). It is a legitimate inference from this that
much of our Lord's |iulilic activity is uiireconlcd ;
but this is what St John himself distinctly tells us
(John, xxi. "25). The gospels were written to
establish a faitli, not to detail a biography ; to
record the es.sence of a teaching, and to testify to
JESUS CHRIST
317
the majesty of a Personality, not to depict the
minute incidents which liad hut a sli^lit or second-
ary hearing on the great design. Tliere are vast
spaces in tlie lieavens which are not so«u witli
stars, and tlie 'economy,' hoth divine and human,
which marks the scantiness of tlie evangelic narra-
tive of the ministry is but a part of that simplicity
and reticence which contented itself with so hrief
and ( from the ordinarj- point of view ) so meagre a
reference to the thirty long years of the Saviour's
growth and [(reparation.
On the very threshold of any attempt to
speak of Christ we are met by the fact that, in the
belief of one-third of the human race. He was not
a simple man but a Divine man, the God-Man :
the Son of Man as the uniqiie representative of
humanity at its best and greatest, but also pre-
eminently—and in a sense transcendently different
from that in which the phrase can be applied to
men — the Son of God. To those who take the fact
in a bare isolated way it may seem an insuperable
stumbling-block : not so to those who do not dis-
connect it from the whole conception of God and the
entire history of the world. Nothing is more un-
philosophical than the a jiriori rejection of miracles,
because miracles do not come under the range of
ordinarj' experience. ' Historic problems cannot
be thus settled by philosophic categories.' If we
start with that helief in God which may be re-
garded as the normal datum of our human con-
sciousness, and if we contemplate the historic fact
of the fall and wretchedness of man, the belief that
God — in conipaiision for and in order to redeem and
elevate the countless millions of mankind in all
their generations — became man, and took our
nature upon Him in the person of His Son, so far
from seeming a monstrous hypothesis, appears to he
in e.\act accordance with His nature, as the best
and highest that we know and can imagine. Those
who, like Spinoza, identify' God with Nature, which
is but the sum total of His visible manifestations,
exclude from Nature the sole element which ex-
plains it — viz. the element of a Divine and Supreme
Will.
Nature alone can furnish us with no explanation
of the manifestation of Christ, but it harmonises
absolutely with that idea of God which we believe
that He has Himself planted within us. So com-
pletely is this the case that — as was seen by the
great German historian, Julius von Miiller — apart
from Christ all human history is reduced to a
chaotic dream (see his letter to liis friend, Karl
Bonnet, quoted by Lnthardt, Apolofj. Vortr. ; Eng.
trans, p. 353). All the hi-^tory of the past, up to
the Incarnation, points to Him, and in Him iinds
its fulfilment ; all the development of the age-s
since He api)eared springs from the divine impulse
which He "ave. As Jean Paul Piichter so finely
said: ' He lifted the gate of the centuries from oil'
its hinges with His bleeding hand.' The most
sceptical of historians cannot fail to see that Jesus
stands at the very centre of humanity. Not only
was all which Ls most precious in Hebrew literature
full of unspeakable yeaniings for this Divine
Deliverer, lint even heathendom abounds in uncon-
scious prophecies of His athent. Among the
Persians we read in the Zend-.\ vesta of ' the
\-ictorious Saoshyant, the beneficent one who will
benefit the whole bodily world, who will stand
against the destruction of the bodily creatures to
withstand the Z>;h3 of the two-footed brood.' He
ia the redeemer, bom of Zoroaster, who shall cnish
the serjient-destroyer Ahriman (see Zend-Avesta,
Yast xxviii., Sttcred Books of the Eont, p. '220).
So, too, in Bralimanism we have the redeemer
Krishna, who is constantly represented a-s crushing
and conquering the serpent. Among the Greeks
we have the profound legend of Prometheus, the
representative of suffering humanity, who can only
be delivered from his fetters on the rock, and the
tearing of the vulture's talons, when Herakles the
son of Zeus descends for him into Tartarus. ( Con-
sider the remarkable lines, ^lisch. Prom. 1026-30,
one of the most striking of the unconscious pro-
phecies of heathendom.) Socrates puts into the
mouth of Plato his confession of the necessity for
some divine deliverer who is at once both God and
man (see Ackermann, Dus ChristUrltc in Plato,
Hamburg, 1835); and some such figure has been
dreamed of in all the higher forms of religion as
a necessary inference from what we know both of
God and man. The revelation of Christ springs
as a necessary postulate from our faith in God.
For some remarkable passages in the ancients, see
Cic. Dc Legq., ii. 10; Sen. Ep. 52; and Schneider,
Christliche KUingc.
But in speaking of the human life of Jesus it
is unnecessary to entangle ourselves in the intense
and prolonged theological battles which culminated
in the 3d and 4th centuries. The result of those
controversies is adequately summed up in the four
technical terms oXtj^ws, reX^ws, dSiatp^rwj, affi-yxv'^<^s,
decided on in the four councils of Nice, Constan-
tinople, Ephesus, and Chalcedon. As against the
Arians, Clirist was truly God ; as against the
Apollinarians, He was perfeMy man ; as against
the Nestorians, He was indirisibly God-man ; as
against the Eutychians, He was distiiutly God
and man. Beyond these elementary decisions all
attempts to deal with that arcanum of theology,
the TrepixiipvcTis or eommutiicatio idiomafum, can
only end in failure and absurdity (see Hooker, Ecrl.
Pol., Book v., liv. § 10). But if it be assumed that
it is impossible or iiTeverent to narrate the earthly
life of such a Being, the answer is that it has been
done in the four gospels, and that to shrink from
doing it would be only due to the false reverence
of Apollinarianism — now quite as common in the
church as Arianism is in the world — which denied
the full humanity of Christ. It is most necessar\-,
too, to bear in mind that throughout Christ's earthly
life, from the Incarnation to the Resurrection, He
voluntarily laid aside, in obedience to the perfect
conditions of humanity, the divine attributes of
omniscience and omnipresence. ' Being in the
form of God, He thought it not a prize to be on an
equality with Gotl, but emptied Himself (tKivwatv
eavrbv), taking the form of a servant, bein" made
in the likeness of man' (Phil. ii. 5, 6, Revised
Version ). The doctrine here revealed is known in
theologj- as the doctrine of the henosis or 'empty-
ing,' and in speaking of Jesus we have constantly
to bear it in mind, as the necessary condition of
His being 'a man with man,' of His coming ut
Judii us lid Judicos 11)11111 .1 udiios, of His ' wearing a
tent like ours, and ol the same material.'
We proceed then to sketch in barest outline
' those sinless years which breathed beneath the
Syrian blue.' Jesus, as appeai-s by both the
genealogies recorded in the gospels, was of the
royal house of David. The discrepancies and
divergences of those genealogies are believed to be
due to the diflerences between His lejjal ami His
natural descent, which in one or two jdaces of the
line was affected by a collateral adojition, or a
levirate marriage. His virgin birth is attested
and assumed by the evangelists, and St Luke,
using Hebraic documents which seem to be ilirectly
traceable to the memories of the Virgin Mary,
preserves for us particulars about the infancy of
Jesus which are not found in the other Evangelists.
The apocr>phal gospels revel in imi)ossible an>l
even revolting details, and, stumbling on tlie very
threshold, present us with a jiicture wliiili would
have been instantly destructive of our faith if it
had l>een true. The canonical gospels vindicate
318
JESUS CHRIST
their truthfulness and their supremacy hy the
severest reticence, which contains no word to mar
that ideal which every ert'ort of invention instantly
dej^rades. After the marvels of the Nativity at
Bethlehem, we are told of the circumcisiim, the
presentation in the tem]dc, the visit of tlie Ma":i,
the flight into Egypt, and the massacre of the
innocents. The exact date of tliesc events cannot
be determined with alisolnte certainty, hut may lie
brought within narrow limits, and most schol.ars
now acquiesce in the view which places the
Nativity about four years earlier than our received
era. Tlie historic questions which the narrative
raises have been sifted to the liottom, and the
credibility of the gospel details has been tri-
umiiliantly established.
After the infancy there is a deep silence which
covers all but the concluding fragment of the
life of Christ. From the return to Nazareth,
while He was yet a very young child, to the
baptism by John we have nothing jireserved to
lis except a single anecdote by St Luke, and a
single word in St Mark. It is exactly respecting
this portion of the life of Christ that the apocry-
phal gospels most deeply betray incompetent
falsity, and the gospels show that grace of super-
intendency without which they could not have
recorded what the apostles had seen and heard
when their hands handleil the Word of Life. The
anecdote of St Luke is Christ's visit to the temple
with his parents at the Passover just before His
thirteenth year, which marked the age of a Jewish
boy's 'coniirmation ' — his admission to the rank of
a 'son of the law' {hen hat-torah). It has been
called ' the solitary floweret out of the wonderful
enclosed ganlen of the thirty years, ])lucked pre-
cisely there when the swollen bud at a distinctive
crisis bursts into (lower ' (Stier, lirden Jcsx, i. 18).
It is s|)ecially precious from the decisive way in
which it shows that Christ possessed a human
soul, and not only the J.ogns instead of it ; and it
exactly accords with the testimony of St Luke
that oiir Lord's growth was that of a child in
whom there was a (irmliial increase of knowledge
{Luke, ii. 40, TrXripovix^vov not TrewXrjpu/x^ov). In-
deed it seems to have been tlie siiecial puriiose of
the third evangelist to give us at lejist one glimpse
of Jesus at every phase of His human life, a-s an
infant, a child, a hoy, a youth, and a full-grown
man.
The one wor<l liappily preserved for us by St
Mark is 'the carpenter' in the (luesth)n of the un-
believing Nazarenes, 'Is not this t//r crirpeiiter?'
whicli an irreverent reverence has altered into ' the
son o/ the carpenter. ' It shows us that, as a part
of that infinite self- repression and obedience by
which Christ 'abode witli His iiarents and was
subject unto them,' He shared with .lose])li in the
humble trade by wliich he earned his daily bread.
Unanimous tradition, im]dicil by the gospels them-
selves, agrees in llu^ lielief that Joseph died early,
and that our Lord grew up in a family circle of
those whom the evangelists call His 'brothers'
and 'sisters.' In that family He was the first-born,
and probably heljied to support them all. To any
imagination which was not divinely guided such a
nunle of spending all but three years of His life
would have seemeil iiiqiossible and derogatory ;
but the admissiim is one of the most striking
iiroofs of the absolute veracity of the gos])els.
riieir silence as to all other record.s of those thirty
years preaches to iis with the most majestic
eloquence. Some; of the gieatest less<ms of Christ's
examjile are involved in the fact that He did not
strive, nor cry, neither was His voice heard in the
streets. The central le.sson that ' Christ ])h';tsed
not Himself is written large over the closed golden
portals of those unrecordecl yeare. Coming to live
for man. He chase the lot not of the few but of the
countless multitudes, the immen.se majority. The
town and the home winch He cho.se were alike
poor, provincial, insignilicant. Thus He rebuked
pride, which is one of the two great taproots of
linman aberration ; He showed the sacredness of
obscuritv ; He glorilied the lot of labour which
antiquity despised. Kebuking the restless passion
for excitement and tlie desire to minister to self-
importance. He showed to all mankind that the time
life is the interior life, the life of calm, recollected-
ness, and companionship with the divine, passed
in the sweet seclusion of a home and the ordered
routine of lowly duties. It is impossible for most
men to live as Christ lived during His brief minis-
try : but that unknown life of the artisan in <hill,
provincial Nazareth was meant to teach us that
the commonplace ordinary life, which is the normal
life of man, may yet be precious with the liest
sanctities of heaven s beatitude.
Thus ended the first and main part of the life
of Jesus. At the age of thirty began the second
ph.Tse of His life, the public ministry — ending with
the t 'ruciti xion and the Kesurrection — which occupies
all but a fraction of the gospels. St Peter's epitome
of that ii'iinistrv is that 'He went about doing good,'
and it was by giving up everything which the earthly
and sensual mind can desire that He left us an ex-
ample that we should follow His steps. To iletail
the events of that ministry is obviously imjiossible
here, nor is it necessary. We shall but indicate its
great pha-ses and divisions, ami then touch on some
of the considerations which it suggests. It falls
into the following great divisions :
I. The call to the ministrj' in the baptism and
preaching of John the Baiitist, who first ])ublicly
recognised Jesus as the Messiah.
II. The temptation in the wilderness.
III. The call of the first aiHistles : the (ii-st miracle
atCana : the beginning of the preaching in (ialilee.
IV. The fir.st Pa-ssover visit to Jerusalem, the
first cleansing of the temple. The (question of
the rulers, and the prophecy ' Destroy this Temple,'
iSrc. The interview with Nicodemiis ; the retire-
ment to Galilee ; the discoui'se to the S.-iniai itan
woman at the well ; the rejection by the Nazarenes.
V. The 'Galilean springtide' of the ministry
amid the gladness of the multitudes ; many mir-
acles of healing ; the choice of the twelve ; the
Sermon on the Mount ; the message from the
imprisoned Baptist ; the intercourse with Phari-
sees, publicans, and sinners ; the great day
of |)arables ; the visit to tJergesa ; tlie day of
Matthew's fea-st.
VI. The second visit to Jerusalem : the miracle
at Bethesda ; the murder of the Baptist; the return
to (ialilee.
VII. The feeding of the five thonsand ; the dis-
course at Capernaum ; the Sabbath and other dis-
putes, amid ever-deepening conflict and opposition.
VIII. The flight among the heathen ; the Syro-
Phd-nician woman ; the return to Decapolis ; the
eiioch of i-arer miracles ; the feeding of the four
thousand ; the recognitiim of the Me-ssiahship by
the disciples ; the Transfiguration ; the healing of
the <lemoniac bo.v.
IX. The visit to Jerusalem at the Feast of Taber-
nacles ; the woman taken in adultery ; the healing
of the man born Idind ; the return to (ialilee.
X. The final farewell to (ialilee. Incidents and
teachings of a slow journey towards Ji'iusalem.
Visit to.Ierusalem at the Fe;ust of De<lication. The
last stay in Per:i'a : the raising of Lazarus. Jesus,
under a ban, withdraws to the town of Kphraim.
XI. The last visit to Jerusalem. The events of
Passion Week — I'alm Sunday ; the day of jKirables :
the <lay of temptali<ms ; the great denunciations ;
the farewell to the temple ; the betrayal.
JESUS CHRIST
319
XII. The Last Supper: the last discourse; the
agony in Getliseinane ; the arrest ; the threefohl
trials : the Crucitixion; the Kesurrection ; the great
forty ilavs ; the Ascension.
Such Ijeing the great divisions and landmarks
of the life, it only remains to touch on one or two
of the important questions which it suggests.
i. What was tlie length of our Lord's pulilic
ministry ? We are unalile to answer the question
with certainty. This is due to the remarkaole fact
that the synoptic gospels occupy themselves almost
exclusively with the Galilean ministry, while St
John mainly dwells on the ministry in Judea and
Jerusalem. Sceptics have vainly endeavoured to
extort any discrepancy from this fact, since the
Synnptists most distinctly imply that much of our
Lord's time must have 1>een sjient in Jerusalem
(see Luke, x. 38, xix. 42: Mark, xi. 11)— a fact,
indeed, directly stated in the i-ecordetl irocrdvis
( ' how often ' ) in His lament over Jerusalem ( Matt.
xxiii. 37; Luke, xiii. 34). We may then decidedly
reject the notion of a onc-yrar's ministry, which has
been most unwarrantably foundeil on the expression
of Isaiah (Ixi. 2) and the reference to it by our
Lord at Nazareth (Luke, iv. 19). This was the
view of Origen (De Prine. iv. 5), and Clement of
Alexandria {Strom, i. xxi. sect. 145), and of the
tAvo Gnostic teachers, Ptolenifeus (Ep. ad Florum)
and Herakleon ; but not that of Melito and Iren-
seus. It has found powerful supporters in Browne
{Oido S(eclormii, pp. 342-91 ), and Keim {Jesti ron
Nnznra); but the former can only maintain it by
eliminating rb irdtrxa from John, vi. 4, in spite of all
the iiianiisenpts, and the latter by rejecting the
authenticity and credibility of the fourth gospel.
The majority of scholars agree in the well-founded
inference stated as early as Hippolytus, the scholar
of Irensus, Eusebius (H. E. i. 10), Theodoret (in
Dan. ix. 27), and Jerome, that Jesus died at the
age of thirty-three, and that the ministry lasted
more than two and a half veal's. Irenwus's exti-a-
ordinary assertion ( C. Her. ii. 2515) that Jesus
died between the ages of forty and fifty is a blun-
der ( which in him is not isolated ), falsely inferred
from John, viii. 57. The only element of uncer-
tainty for those who accept the fourth gospel is the
identification of the unname<I feast mentione<l by
St John in V. L If that feast was the Jewish feast
of Purim we see that St John groups his narrative
round _^re festivals — (1) the Passover (ii. 13); (2)
Purim (V. 1); (3) the Passover (vi. 4); (4) the
Tabernacles ( vii. 2 ) ; ( 5 ) the Dedication ( x. 22 ) ;
( 6 ) the Passover ( xi. 65 ). It is in accordance with
this that Purim took place on Veadar 14 (about
March 19), and that our Lord (some time before the
feast) said to the woman of Samaria ' there are yet
four months unto harvest' (John, iv. 35). Since,
then, there were three Passovers during the
ministry, and that ministry began some time
before the first Passover, we see a reason for the
view that it lasted aVxiut three years — a view
which l)est accords with all the data. And though
we cannot here discuss the chronology, the opinion
that Christ's baptism by John took place m the
summer of 26 A.D. , and that He was crucified in
the spring of 29 .\.D., is probably not far wrong.
ii. Without entering into the subject of apolo-
getics, we may allude to the miracles which enter
so largely into the life of Jesus, and which, as they
were a support to the faith of former centuries, are
regarded as a stumbling-block by modern science.
St John puts us into the right point of view
when he calls them works ('tpya — John, v. 20, and
p'i.%tim). Given the Personality of Christ, miracles
were natural to Ilini ; 'our supernatural was HLs
natural.' Their oecurrence becomes a question
of evidence, and the sii|>posed recondite and danger-
ous fonnola of Hume ' retluccs itself to the very
harmless proposition that anything is incred-
ilili" which is contrary to a complete induction.'
When Hume said that no evidence could estalilish
a miracle, because it was more likely that evidence
should be false than that a miracle should be true,
his statement came to no more than this — that a
miracle disturbs the mechanical expectation of a
recurrence ( Mozley, Bainiiton Lcrliires, p. .")li).
Hume did not argue for so unphilosophical an asser-
tion as the impossibilitij of miracles, but he argued
against their credibilit)/, because his philosophy
practically reduced life to a series of impressions
and sensations. In answer, it is enough to say
with Lord Bacon, ' the soul of man was not
produced by heaven or earth, but was breathed
immediately from God ; so the ways and dealings
of God with spirits are not included in Nature— i.e.
in the laws of heaven and earth, but are ieser\ed
to the law of His secret work and grace.' The
evidence for Christ's miracles, and above all for His
Resurrection, has been sufficient to convince and
potent to ameliorate the whole civilised world.
iii. Christians rightly regard the Resurrection as
the one fundamental historic miracle on which
rests their historic faith. If any fact can be
regarded as indisputable it is the fact that on the
morning of the first Easter Sunday the astonished
disciples found that there was no corpse in the
rock-hewn sepulchre. So much is now freely con-
ceded by the most advanced sceptics. The testi-
mon}' in favour of the fact is overwhelming, and
it is impossible to account for the existence of
Christianity or of Christendom on any hypothesis
other than the firm conviction in a miraculous
Resurrection, of which all the early disciples re-
garded themselves as the chosen witnesses. The
modern criticism of unbelief has only attempted to
account for the empty tomb by theories which sink
to the ground under the weight of their own im-
possibility. The notion of a meiely apparent
death from which Jesus was revived by the
spices and the cool sepulchre ; the notion that the
apostles stole the body by night : the notion that
Jesus was not crucified at all, but only someone
in His place ; the notion that ' the faith of
Christendom is founded on the self-deception of an
halliieiiicc ' — have been in turn adopted and
abandoned. Such naturalistic explanations arc im-
possible, unless they be bolstered up by the pre-
posterous supi>osition that, at some stage, deliber-
ate deception was at work, and that the teachers
of the religion which is preeminent in incul-
cating the sanctity of truth founded their preach-
ing upon a lie. It is not possible here to develop
the arguments, or to array the evidence, on which
our faith in a literal Resurrection of Jesus in a
glorified and spiritual body is foumled. AVe must
be content to refer to such works as those of
Gebhardt (Gotha, 1864), Beyschlag ( Beriin, 1865),
Steinmeyer (Berlin, 1871), and Bishop Westcott
on The Gospel of the Resurrection (Lond. 1884).
iv. And it must be borne in mind that, if scciiti-
cism could eliminate from the gaspels what is called
the supernatural element, it would still Ije con-
fronted with the superhuman grandeur of Christ
Himself. So far from tending to discredit the
narratives of the miracles which He wrought, it
may rather lie said that Science tends to throw
light upon their accordance with the yet umle-
ciphered laws of nature ; but even were every
miracle eliminated, Christ still continues to be
what even those who have doubted of His divinity
call Him, ' ein Mi/stcrium, ein Unicum.' The ]iroof
of His divinity is involved in His perfect sinle.ssness,
which not only transcends the attainments but even
the ideal of humanity. Infinite in its many-sided-
ness. His character is yet supreme from every .aspect
in which it can be regarded. Not only is He the
320 JESUS CHRIST
JEVONS
sole liuman being whom sinlessness has claimed,
01- of wliom sinlessness can for a moment lie piedi-
cateil, but the ideal presented by His character
stands apart, not only from tliat in the life of the
best pa"ans, but even of those wliose life \vas a
professed imitation of His. And more even than
this, imagination has again and again attempted
at least to conceive and depict a character abso-
lutely stainless, and vet, in the \vli(de range of tlie
world's poetry and iiction, has ne\er attempted
to do so without hopeless failure if it descended
for a moment into details. Could the peasants of
Galilee have invented the sole iicrjcct ideal which
the world has been aide either to imagine or
describe? To this is attributable the remarkable
fact that even the most pronounced sceptics— even
those opponents of Christianity who would gladly
have got rid altogether of the admiration of Christ-
seem to have been unable to contemplate Him with-
out as it were falling on their knees. ' Between
Him and whoever else in this world,' said Napoleon
to General Bertrand, ' there is no possible form of
comparison.' 'Jesus is in all unique,' says Kenan,
' ami nothing could be compared to him ' ( Vie dc
Jtsiis, p. 457 ). Strauss calls Him ' the Being with-
out whose presence in the mind perfect piety is
impossible.' Goethe called Him 'the Divine Man,
the Saint, the tvpe and model of all men ' ( Coitvcr-
satimis wMi EAcrmann, ii. 3). J. S. Mill said
that ' it would not be easy even now, even for an
unbeliever, to find a better translation of the rule
of virtue from the abstract into the concrete than
to endeavour so to live tliat Christ would approve
our life.' The character of Jesus was sufficient to
overawe even the Hippancy of Voltaire, as we see in
the storv of his remarkalde dream.
V. Nothing short of a divine personality can
account for the stupendous and inexhaustible ell'ect
iiroduced upon the world by the life and teaching
of Christ— a life so short that He died before
the full completion of the powers of manhood ; a
ministry so confined in space, so contracted in time.
That li'fe, lived on a stage so narrow, furnished
to mankind the sole perfect pattern and example :
that teaching involved every element of pure and
perfect spiritual religion. It was Clirist alone who
first brought home to the mind of man that God
is love, and that man is the son of God ; and first
brought life and immortality to light. And as
Christ thus lieeame the Saviour of mankind by
example and teaching, so also did He redeeni the
race by the self-sacrifice which culminated in the
cross and passion, and wliich is continued by His
Resurrection, Ascension, and session at the right
Iiand of tiod. By this His life He has redeemed us
from sin and death, and reconciled us unto God.
That mighty work of individual regeneration
whic-h Christ' began has been carried on by the j^ift
of the Spirit, which, in the slow |irooess of centuries,
has made holiness a common attainment of His
saints, and leavened, humanised, ennolded the
thou'dits, the lives, the families, the society, the
kingdoms of mankind. And the Christian believes
that that work will continue until ' the kingdoms of
this world' become universally, and in reality as
widl as in name, the kingdom of our Lord and of
His Christ.
The hterature of this i-ubject is inexhaustible, and
every year adds to its enormous accunudations. It begins
•with the gospels and eiiistles in the 1st century of the
Christian era, and continues in unbroken succession
tliriuigh the Fathers, the Schoohnen, and the Ilcforiucrs,
down to modern days. The first attempt to write a
consecutive life of Christ, outside the authentic and
apocryphal gospels, was the ViUi Vhristi, by tSt liona-
ventura. The I'lmxtise Raiuiiud of Milton wius practically '
an etrort in the same direction. The lives of Christ
of later times are very numerous : in Italian, that hy
Capecelatro (Naples. 18C8); in French, those of De '
Pressens^, Dupanloup, Salvador, ■ft'allon, and Renan;
in German, those of Caspari, Ewald, Hase, Hofmaim,
Lange, Neander. Sepp, Strauss, AVeiss, Keim, and many
more; in English, those of EUicott, Geikie, Edersheuu,
and, among others far too numerous to mention, that by
the present writer in 1874, which has called out such a
multitude of successors. See also tlie articles on Joseph
and on M.\iiY.
Jet, a dense variety of lignite passing by degrees
of quality into bituminous fossil wood, sometimes
perfectly black, capable of being easily cut and
carved, and of receiving a very beautiful nolisli.
It takes its name from Gagas or Gages, a place in
Asia Minor, where, according to Pliny, the sub-
stance was obtained, whence in his time it was
called gagates, afterwards corrupted into ga'^at,
the modern German name, and jet. Jet is only a
peculiar form of lignite, impregnated with bitumin-
ous matter, and containing about 37A per cent, of
volatile matter. It is electrical when rubbed ;
hence it has been called 'black amber' by the
Pmssian amber-diggers.
Of substances used for trinkets and pei-sonal
ornament, apart from metals, jet appears to be
one of the most ancient. At numerous places
throughout Great Britain necklaces, heads, hut-
tons, and other small objects of jet have been dis-
covered, sliowing that it had been used in the early
bronze period. Probably at that remote time it
was obtained from the Yorkshire coast about
Whitby, whence the principal supjdy and the
finest \iuality anywhere obtained continues to
come. The ' jet occurs at Whitby in irregular
interbedded patches in the Upper Lias shales, two
kinds, hard and soft, being found ; but only the
hard is of value for ornaments. The industry there
gives employment to a large proportion of the
population. " It is also worked in France in the
department of Aude, where it is formed into rosary
heads, crosses, and other trinkets. Spain also
supplies fine jet, which, like that of the French
workings, is found in irregular veins in the lower
marls of the Cretaceous series, correspon<ling with
the Sussex gault. The Spanish jet is fouml at
Villaviciosa, in the province of the Asturias, ami is
principallv manufactured at Oviedo. As a material
for niourn'ing ornaments iet is admirably adapted,
and for that purpose is largely used. Imitations
of jet ornaments are made in the hardened iiidia
rubber called Vulcanite or Ebonite, ami in glass.
Jctou, a round, fiat piece of metal, ivory, &c.,
formerly used for counting, or as counters at play,
and also as a check given to members of a society
piussing in to its meetings.
Jetsam, Jettison. See Flotsam.
Jeunessc l»«r<'e ('gilded youth'), a party
name given to tho.se young men of tans who,
during the French Revolution, struggled to bring
about" the reaction or counter-revolution after
Robespierre's fall ('iTlh July 1794). Other nick-
names bestoweil uiion the same party were Miis-
cadins ('scented darlings') and I'dits-Mndres
('elegants'). The term jciincssc dorfe is still in
use To designate young men about town, wlio
always go elegantly dressed, have the air of spend-
ing money, and live a butterUy life of enjoyment
and pleasure.
Jevons. Wll.Ll.tM St.vnley, bom in Liverpool
in 1S:?."> was educated there and at I'niveisity
College. London, and from 1854 to 1859 held a
position in the mint at Sydney. In the London
M.A. examinations in ISti'i he took the gold medal
in i>hilosophy : in 18()() he wjis aiqioinlcd profes>ni
of Logic and Mental Philosophy, and of Tolitical
Econcmiy, at Owens College, Mancliester ; and in
1876-81 'he was professor of Political Economy at
University College, London. He was elected
JEW
JEWELLERY
321
F. K.S. in 1S7"2, ami received the degree of LL. D.
from Edinburgh in 1876. On 13th Au-'ust 1SS2
he was drowned whilst batliing at Bexhill, near
Hastings. Jevons was the lirst to popularise the
mathematical methods of Boole (ii-v.), ami so to
liring symbolic logic within the capacity of be-
ginners. Among his works in this lield are his
Ehiiii iitiirij Lessons in Lorjk ( 1870), a very popular
text-book; The J'riiirij>/cs of Science (1874), per-
haps his most inijiortant work ; a collection of
useful Studies in Deduct ice i(j(/H- (1880) ; and I'urc
Lnipc, and other Minor Works (1890). To the
.s<'ii'iic(^ of political economy he contributed, be-
sides a primer and several pamphlets, and a work
on Tl(c Coal Question (1865), whicli led to the
appointment of a Royal Commission, liis valuable
Thcori/ of Politieid Eeonoin;/ (1871: 3d ed. 1888),
in which the conception of ' linal utility ' was lirst
distinctlv formulated. See his Letters and Journals,
edited by his wife ( 1886 ).
•low. Wandering. See AVandeeing Jew.
Jt'Wt'l, John, one of the fathers of Enjjlisli
Protestantism, was born at Berrynarbor, near Ilfra-
conibe, in 152'2, and was educated at Barnstaple
school, and afterwards at Merton and Corpus
Cliristi Colleges, Oxford. He was admitted B.A.
in 1.540, and must early have imbibed Reformed
doctrines, as he was closel.v intimate with Peter
Martyr during his visit to Oxford. Soon after the
accession of Mary he went abroad for safety's sake,
visiting Frankfort and Strasburg, and returned on
the accession of Elizabeth, by whom he was .almost
immediately appointed Bishop of Salisbury. His
great controversial ability soon made him one of
the foremost churchmen of his age, and indeed his
famous Aj)olo(/ia Eeclesiai Atiglicanie ( 1562) retains
its value as a triumphant exposure of the preten-
sions of Rome. Bishop Jewels unwearied devoted-
ness at once to his episcopal duties and to the
demands of a great controversy wore out his
strength, and brought him to the rest of the
grave in his fiftieth year, 22d September 1571.
A collected edition of his works was pubUshed in folio
in 1009. More recent editions are those by the Kev.
John Ayre in the Parker .Society (4 vols. 1845-50), and
by the Rev. Dr R. W. .Jelf (Oxford, 8 vols. 1847^8).
An early life is reprinted in Wordsworth's Ecclesiastical
Biijitraphij. .See also the Life by C. W. Le Bas ( 1835 ).
J«'wellery. The word 'jewel' is from the Old
French j'ouel, a diminutive of ioie : Ital. ffioj'a,
'joy;' Lat. f/audia. Jewellery embraces primarily
articles inteniled for personal decoration, made of
precious metals, whicli may be enriched with stones
or enamels. But objects, also, not intended for
personal use, such as caskets, when decorated with
jiriMious stones are .said to be jewelled, and the
term jewel lia-s a further restricted signilication
wlii'ti it is applied to one of the insignia of the
knightl.v orders. Popularly, tliere is much con-
fusi<m between the terms gem and jewel ; the
former belongs especially to engraved stones (see
Gem|. Tlie love of personal ornamentation is a
|)rimal passion of humanity, which sways with
eijual force the rudest of tribes and tlie most
advanced and luxurious communities. The craving
wliiidi impels the ruile savage to decorate his or her
jierson with beads and circlets of seeds, shell, bone,
liorn, and wood is the same which has caused
nionarclis to lavish their treasures on the costliest
materi.'ils and the most exquisite workmanship of
their crowns and insignia of state, .lewellery thus
in its wide accejitalion as a purely ornaniiMital
adjunct to the person has been in use at all times
and by the entire human family. .\nd as on these
iulornments the highest art and skill at the com-
mand of any people was alw.ays lavished, they
allbrd some measure of the condition of the handi-
•isl
crafts and of the artistic development of the people
and the period to which they ludong. Further, in
the days when banking and money-lemling were
not a factor in commerce, the accumulation of
jewellery formed one of the most convenient of
methods for the storing of realised wealth. It is so
in India at tlie present ilay.
Before the use of metals was known, jewellery,
if it can be so termed, consisted of carved beads
and fragments of such bright substances as were at
the command of prehistoric man. Gold is the lirsl
metal of which there is any mention in literature,
and there is no doubt tliat, being always found
native, it was the hrst to be used by niankinil.
The earliest gold ornaments would be the native
pellets of the metal as found, and w hen mankind
possessed no mechanical resources beyond rude
liammers of stone, with which to beat out these
pellets, the possibilities of decorative treatment of
gold were verv limited. The ability to melt metals
and so to obtain ma.sses of large size upon which
to work implies a very advanced knowledge, to
which, however, artificers must have attained at a
very early period. Among the numerous linds of
gold jewellery of prehistoric times there are many
specimens which show that the early artilicers
possessed considerable command over their material
in the way of hammering out plates to uniform
thickness, drawing or beating the metal into wire,
and plaiting and twisting it into torques, armilla',
rings, and other forms of ornament. In these
earliest gold ornaments there is no attempt at
decorative treatment other than what could be
produced by the hammer ; and it is only by degrees
that simple eti'orts at chasing, engraving, and
embossing make their appearance. The most
archaic gold ornaments discovered by l)r Schlie-
niann in his excavations at Hi.s.sarlik, which he
regards as ancient Troy, are treated with the
hammer alone ; the later gold ornaments of Myceua-
are of a niiicli more developed character, showing a
knowledge of chasing and embossing. It is only
when we come to historical times that we lind
artilicers had obtained command over their material
and tools sufficient to enable them to proiluce
jewellery which bears a distinct impress of the art
and ornament of their period and nation.
To trace the development of jewellery throuo;hout
ancient and medieval times would simply be to
follow the course of art and the arts among the
leading civilised communities. F'ortnnately the
tombs of the dead, and hoards which have ap|iar-
ently been hid to escape the ravages of enemies,
have been the means of preserving to our da.^■s a
number of examples of jewellery of all times and
all peoples sufficient to illustrate the natun^of their
ornament and the style of jewellery the.y wore. In
this way examples of the jewels of the ancient
Kgy|itiaiis remain to the present day, from which
we learn that the civilised people of tlie Nile valley
even in very early times hail greatly imjiroveil on
the arts of our prehistoric ancestors of the bronze
period. F'or we find the Egyptian artilicers could
engrave, chase, solder, enricli with enamel, and set
precious stones in their jewellery-they were in
fact comiilete masters of the most important pro
cesses of the modern jeweller. The jewellery of
ancient (Jreece shows that perfection of form and
purity of ornament which was only to be expected
of the most highly-gifted artistic race of all times.
The jewellery of the Romans was, like their art.
inherited from the (ireeks, and partook of their
more rolmst Iml less relined character; but with the
lapse of time and the inlluence of northern incur-
sions it modilicd into Gothic forms. Conti'mnoiary
with Greek art of the best jieriod. the jewellery of
the Etruscans forms the most remarkable example of
fine metal-working of ancient limes. The Eliusi'an
322
JEWELLERY
JEWS
jew'elIei-8 were able to prodiicu on the surface of
their f,'i)U) 11 rifh granulated apiiearauce, as if it
were dusted over in a perfectly equal manner with
;,'()ld powder, wliioli it lias hing oeen the des])air
of jewellers to imitate. Ahout 1860 the late
Alessaudro Castellani. of Konie, discovered at St
Angelo, amonj; the Calahriaii mountains, a race
of peasant f^old-worUers who ai)peared to have
inherited the traditional secret ; and with the aid
of these craftsmen he succeeded in producing fairly
satisfactory re|>roductions of the marvellously tine
work of the ancient Etruscans ; but, after patient
experiment, Castellani himself acknowledged the
I'^trnscan method to be still a lost art. Not less
noteworthy is tlie jewellery of the Celtic and
Scandinavian races, which shows remarkable vigour
and individuality of character. It is best seen in
the ancient brooches of the Scottish Highlands and
Ireland, in which the arts of engraving, inlaying,
enamelling, liligree-work. Niello (<|.v.^, and jewel-
ling all in their turns were made use of in the
production of works of art of a highly distinctive
character (see Brooch, Vol. II. p. 478). It is well
known that a taste for rich and gorgeous jewellery
is one of the most outstanding characteristics of
the Hindu : and throughout all classes in the East
Indies bright, glittering, and richly-coloured per-
sonal decorations are looked on as indispensable.
The jewellery of India in its styles and methods of
manufacture brings down to our own days traditions
of the earliest skilled craftsmanship of the world.
No other lace of jewellers can with so small a
weight of g(jld produce works of such reniarkalile
airiness, grace, and elaboration as the Hindus.
Their skill in Filigree- work (q.v. ), the gorgeous
colouring of their translucent enamels, and gener-
ally their masterly and bold use of colours and
bright fragments of stone are in the highest degree
admirable. Traditional skill and ancient forms
are also peipetuated in the ' jjeasant jewellery ' of
the various European communities, which yet show
in their purity the styles, combinations, and
methods of working in use before the harsh
mechanical forms of modern cheap jewellery came
in to corrujit taste and supplant simple arts.
The distinction between jewellery of the present
day and that of earlier times is found in the funda-
mental fact that the old work is the creation of the
craftsm.an. while the modern jewel is the jiroduct
of a manufacturer who adopts all labour saving
nuichines and apjdiances for the economical Iniish-
ing of his wares. Tlie lowest class of jewellery —
that whicli forms the staple of the 'gilt-toy trade'
in liirmingham — is m.ade from sheet-copper struck
up in dies and moulds by means of the screw-press,
then gilt by electro-deposit and adorned with glass
pastes in imitation of diamonds and all other pre-
cious stones. The cheap ;uid rapid iiroduction in
limitli^ss mimbers of imitation articles is thus
secured, but the objects themselves are utterly
ilevoiii of artistic significance. To a large ex-
tent it is the same with jewellery even of the
most expensive description, for although it is not
stamped out of the sheet, vet the dilVerent ]ior-
tions of the work are allotted to separate workmen
who jierform their task with mechanical accuracy,
but in no case is the wb(dc article at once the con-
ception and the execution of the single individinil,
as was the case with the work of the ancient
jeweller.
The head(|uarteis of the jewellery trade as a
manufacturing industiv is Biriuingham, the city in
which ni'arly all the sham jcweHery is manufac-
tured. The district of ('Icrkenwell, in London, is
the ccnlre of the higher-class jewellery tr.ule in
the United Kingdom. Silver and pebble jewellery
is characteristicall.y Scottish, but a great deal of
the cheaper Scottisli pebble jewellery is of (Jerman
manufacture. The manufacture of bog-oak orna-
ments is a s])ecialty of Dublin, and .let (q.v.)
jewellery is chielly made at Whitby. All towns
of any consiileiable imi)ortance are also centres of
jewellery trade ; but outside the I'nited Kingdom
I'aris, A ienna, and New York are the most im-
)iortant places of ^iroductimi. Alalia has acquired
a reputation for liligree-work ; and reil coral j<;wel-
lery comes largely from Naples. See also PkecioUS
Stones.
See Ennnanuel, Diamonils and Precious Stones (1865);
Jones, Ilixlm-ii (inil Miislcrii of Pririon.t SItmes (1880) ;
Cluiflcrs, I/istorii of Eiuilish Gohlsiiillh.i (1881); (!ee,
The <;nl,l.iMilh's Hii,i,lh„„k (1881 ), and his Hnll-markinfi
of JcwLlUrii ( 188:i) ; liarliiit, (iukle J'fiitiiiue rlu Joaitlier
(1884); Fontenelle and Malcpeyrc, Ifomtu Manuel du
Kijouticr Joaillier (1884); Decle, Hislorique dc la
Bijouterie Fratn'aisc (188!)).
JoWS ( ('orrupted from Yr/i iirlim ), the name given,
since the ISabylonish cai)tivity, to the descendants
of the patriarch Abraham, who, aljout the year
;2000 B.C., emigrated from Mesopotamia, on the
east side of the Euidirates, to Canaan or Palestine.
They were originally called Hebrews (see Hehrkw
Language). In consequence of a famine in
Canaan, Jacob, on the in\ itation of his son Joseph,
who had become chief minister of the king of Egy])t,
went down thither with all his family, which num-
bered seventy ' souls,' and obtained from I'haiaoh
permission to settle in the land of (ioshen. Here
the Hebrews resided, accmding to E.xod. xii. 40,
430 years. Aecordin" to the genealogical table of
the Levites, in Exod. vi. 16-25, however, their
sojourn would not have lasted longer than '210
or "215 years ; most of the commentators, therefme,
take, with Josephus, tlu^ 4.'i0 years to indicate
the period from Abraham to (he Exodus ( cf.
(ialat. iii. 17). During the lifetime of Joseph,
and probalily for some generations afterwards, the
Hebrews were well treated, and prospered ; but
a new dynasty — probably the lOth- arose, and
they were reduced to relentless sliivery. A
deliverer at length appeared in the |ier.son of
Moses ((|.v.). The ciicumstances of the exodus
(aliout 13'20 li.C.) — such as the ten |dagues and the
crossing of the Ked Sea— are a source of continual
controversy between the Katiimalistic and the
Supra-naturalistic schools of biblical criticism ; but
the flirt of an exoilus would be ilisimted only by
the wildest scepticism.
The wandering in the wilderness of the Sinaitic
peninsiil.a is said to have lasted forty years, though
a record of the events of two years only has been
preserved. These, howmer, are obviously the most
important, as they contain an elaborate account of
the giving of the law ( Kxod. xix. et sci/.), which is
re]>rcsented as a diiccl revelation maih? to Moses
by Jehovah Himself, who desciiidcil upon Mount
Sinai in lire, amid the iciar of thumlers and the
(|uaking of hills. The antii|uity, however, of Ihe
priestly or ecclesiastical portions of the I'enlalench
is keenly disjjuted by a lapidly-giiiwing majority
of modern scholars, even so orthodox an authority
as l'"r. I)elit/..scli having become a convert to their
views shortly before his death. The modern school
seek to .show the probability of smdi passages
having been cf)m])osed and inserted subscrjueiil (o
the great organisation of the luiesl hood liy David;
and in jiroof of this |)oint, among other evidences,
to the Book of Judges (q.v.), which narrates the
history of the Helirews some '2(H) years iif/er the
conquest of Canaan, and which yet ccmtains
scarcidy a single trace of the existence of Mosaic
instituti(jns among them. For the origin of the
law as we now have it, the development of the
national consciousness, .and the growth of the Did
Testament literature, see Bim.K. There is a grow-
ing tendency among critics to locali.se the giving
.JKVV«
323
i)f tlie law and the various events connected with
levchition at Kadosh rather than iii the so-calKnl
Sinaitic iicninsuhi.
The • land of promise ' became theire at last
(about 1274 it.c), under Joshua ( I), v.), the successor
of Moses. Tribe after tribe was swept from its
ancient territory, and for the most part either
annihilated or forced to flee. Yet the whole bulk
of the native inhabitants was not extirpated or
expelled, nor even subdued till a much later period.
The country was now ilivided anu>n<^ the Hebrew
trilie.s. The maj;nilicent pastoral rej^ion to the east
of the Jordan was now occupied by the tribes of
IJeuben, Gad, and the half-tribe of Mauasseh ; while
the land west of the Jordan was parcelled out
to the remaining — Judah, Simeon, Dan, Benjamin,
Ephraim, the second half-tribe of Mauasseh,
Issaohar, Zebulon, Naphtali, and Aslier. The tribe
of Levi received, instead of a province, forty-eiKht
cities scattered throu^;hout Canaan and the tenth
pivrt of the fruits of the field, and were allowed
generally to settle individually throughout the land
where they chose.
After the death of Joshua (about 12.54 B.C.) the
want of a chief to the young state became sadly
palpable. Little regard was paid to the Mosaic
iii>titutions ; the single tribes pursued their own
indiv idual interests ; intermarriages with the iilol-
atrous natives weakened the bond of union still
further ; and the next consequence was that the
tribes were singly suljdued by the surrounding
nations. At this juncture there arose at Intervals
valiant men and women. Judges (Sliofctim), who
lilierated the people from their oppressors, the
Moabites, Philistines, Ammonites, Amalekites, >.*cc.
Kifteen of these are named, .some of whom appear
to have been contemporary with each other, and
to have exercised authority in ditl'erent parts of
the country. This period constitutes the ' heroic '
age of Hebrew history. Among these Judges the
prophetess Deborah, Gideon, Jephthah, the her-
culean Samscm, and the propliet Samuel are
e.specially notable ; the la.st mentioned was, in
every sense of the word, the greatest Hebrew
that had ;ls yet appeared since the days of Moses.
The first of the prophets, he was also the last of
the republican chiefs of the confederate tribes.
Wearied of their intestine feuds, hara.s.sed by the
incursions of their predatory neighlxMirs, chiefly,
however, goaded by the characteristic ilesire ' to
be like all the other nations' (1 Sam. viii. 5), the
people compelleil him, in his old age, to choose for
them a king ( 1067 B.C.).
The fust who exercised regal authority was
Saul, the Uenjamite ( 10G7-1055 B.C.). But, though
a distinguished warrior, and a man of royal
presence, he appears not to hai'e possessed the
mind of a statesman ; ami his wilfulness and par-
oxysms of insanity Hnally alienated from liim
many of the bravest and best of his sul)ject«.
.\iter his death on Moutit (lilboa, David (i|.v.),
his .son-in-law, was proclaimed king ( 10.35 101.5
B.C.). This nmnarch was by far the greatest that
ever sat on the throne of Lsrael. His reign, and
that of his equally fanmus son, Solomon, are
regarded as the golden time of Hebn-w history.
The remaining aborigines of Canaan anrl its borilers
— viz. the Philistines, Edoniites, Amalekites,
iFoabites, &c. — were thoroughly subdued ; the
houndarie-s of the Hebrew kingdom were extended
as far as the Euphrates and the I'ed Sea ; Jeru-
salem wa-s captureil, and made the capital of the
conqueror; the priesthood was reorganised on a
splendiil scale ; the arts of poetry, music, and arclii-
tecture were cultivated; schools of jirophecy (lirst
established, probably, by Samuel ) began to tlourish;
a magnilir-ent temide for the worship of Jehovah was
built in the caiiitaf; and commeni.i! intercourse was
carried on with Pluenicia, .Arabia, Egypt, with India
and Ceylon, and perha|is with even Sumatra, Jav a,
and the Spice Islands. But there was a canker at
the root of all this prosperity. The enormous and
wasteful expenditure of Solomon forced him to lay
heavy taxes on the people. His wealth did not
enriidi them ; it rather made them poorer ; au<l
although gifted with transcendent wisdom and
the most brilliant mental powers, towards the
end of his life he presents the sad spectacle of
a common eastern despot, voluptuous, idolatrous,
occa.sionally even cruel, and his reign (101.5 077
B.C.) cannot but be regarded, both iiolitically and
financially, as a splendid failure. After his death
the Hebrew monarchv, in which the germs of
dissension — chiefly jealousy against the influence
of Judah — had been silently growing up for many
a year, split under Kehoboam into two sections
(975 B.C.) — the kingdom of Judah, under Keho-
boam, son of Solomon, and the kingdom of Israel,
under Jeroboam, the Ephraimite. The former of
these countries comprised the two tribes of .ludah
and Benjamin, together, probably, with some Danite
and Simeonite cities ; the latter, the remaining
ten. After nineteen kings of difi'erent dynasties,
among whom Jeroboam, Aliab, Joram, Jeroboam
II., Pekah may be mentioned, had reigned in
Israel, few of whom succeeded to the throne other-
wise than l>y the murder of their predecessors, the
country \\as finally conquered liy Shalmaneser, king
of Assyria, its sovereign, Hoshea, thrown into
prison, the mass of the people carried avay cai)tiv e
(720 B.C.) into the far east, the mountainous regions
of Media, and their place supplied by Assyrian
colonists. These, mingling and intermarrying
with the remnant of the Israelites, formed the
mixed people called Samaritans (q.v. ). Among
the twenty king* of the House of David who ruled
over Judah, Jehoshaphat, Uzziah, Hezekiah,
and Josiah distinguished themselves both by
their abilities as rulers and by their zeal for the
worship of Jehovah. Yet even they were, for the
most part, unable to stay the idolatrous practices of
the people, against which the prophets' voices even
could not prevail. Other kings were, for the most
])art, more or less unfaithful themselves to the
religion of their fathers, and umable to withstand the
power of the Egyptians, Assyrians, and Babylonians,
to each of whom they in turn became tributary,
until at la-st Nebuchadnezzar stormed Jerusalem
(588 B.C.), plundered and burned the lem|)le, put
out the eyes of King Zedekiah, and carried off
the most illustrious and wealthy of the iidiabitants
prisoners to Babylon. The Israelites, who had
been exiled 134 years before the inhabitants of
Judah, never returned. What became of them
hits always lieen matter of vaguest speculation
(see Babylom.sh Captivitv, ANGLO-lsR.VELrn-;
Theory, Beni-Israel).
All that we know of the condition of the Hebrews
during the captivity relates exclusively to the
inhabitants of the kingdom of Juilah. And so
mild, especially during the later years, was the
treatment which they received in the Babylonian
empire that, when libert.v was aninmnced to the
whole body of the captives, only the lowest of
the low returned, together with the Levites and
Priests. The Book of Esther likewise bears testi-
mony to the numbers that had remained scattered
over the vast em|iiro.
The influence of this exile, however, w;us of a
n»)st stiiking anil lasting nature. Babylon henci'
forth became, and remained u)! to alxuit 10(10 a.H.,
the 'second land of Isniel' — in many respects even
more highly prized than Palestine. To this brief
period of the captivity must be traced many of the
most important institutions of the synagogue in
its wider sense. Common religions meetings, with
324
JEWS
prayer, were establislieil : iiiiiiiy of the Mosaic laws
were re-eii forced in tlieir primitive rigour ; and
the body of tlie ' oral law ' he^'an to shape itself,
however rndcly, then and there. Besides, there
liej;an to jjrow up and unfold itself the belief in
a Messiah, a Deliverer, one who should redeem the
people from their bondajje. Tlie writer of the last
twenty-seven ehaptei-s of Isaiah, who is usually
called by modern seholars the 'Younger Isaiah,' is
held to belong to this period, and exoresses in glow-
ing language the hopes of the exiles ; no less do
many of the I'salms belong to this time. From this
period, likewise, the belief in the resurrection of
the bodv and the imnu)i tality of the soul, iis well
as the notion of angels and demons, begins to enter
mori! distinctly into the general creed.
The exile is generally computed to have lasted
seventy years. This is not strictly correct ; it
lasted seventy years if reckoned from the capture
of Jerusalem in the reign of Jehoiakim (fiOli), but
only fifty counting from the destruction of .leru-
salem. When Cyrus, the Persian king, had over-
thrown the IJabvloni.an kingdom (5,38 B.C.) he
issued an edict permitting the exiles to return
home ; and a minute account of the circumstances
attending this joyous event is given in the Books
of Ezra and Xeiiemiah.
The foundations of the Second Temple were laid
in the second year of the return, but in conse-
quence of the interference of the Samaritans the
«drk had to be laid aside. It was not resumed
till the second year of Darius Hystaspes (5'20 B.C.),
anil was hnally completed in tlie sixth year (516
B.C.). The waste cities were likewise rebuilt and
repeoijled. During the long reign of Darius the
Jews were blessed with a high degree of material
prosjierity. Under his successor, Xerxes, probably
occurred the incidents recorded in the Book of
Esther. In the seventh year of Artaxerxes, the
successor of Xerxes, Ezra the priest, invested
with high powers, lieaded a .secon<l migration.
Thirteen years later Nehemiah, Artaxerxes* cup-
bearer, but a man of Jewish family, was ordered
to proceeil to Jerus.ilem. and, aided by Ezra and
others, succeeded in secretly fortifying the city,
notwithstanding the continuous opposition from
Samaritans, Ammonites, and Arabians. The
strictest observance of the ' written law,' even of
those of its parts which had been for some reason
or other disregarded, was now rigorously enforccil,
and many ' oral ordinances ' were put into prac-
tice which do not seem to have been much heard
of ]>reviously. The supreme spiritual authority
was vested in a society of pious and pre-eminently
learned men, founded by Ezra, out of which grew
the 'tireat Synagogue.' The compilation and
transcription of the sacred records began, periinl-
ical public readings ami expoundings of the law
weie instituted, anil the vast Targumic, ;is well as
the so-called rabbinical literature, generally dates —
ill its earliest beginnings — from this point. During
till' life of Xeheniiah the breach between the Jews
and Samaritans became tinal, by the erection on
Mount (lerizim (q.v. ) of a rival temple to that at
Jerusalem, and the creation of a rival priesthood.
-Vlexaniler the (!reat, on his way to ci>ni|Uer the
whole K;Lst, did not deem it necessary to storm
tierusaleni. The inhabitants submitted (."{Si Ii.C),
and he even deigned to have sacrifices oH'ered on
his behalf to the national god of his new subjects,
a great number of whom, and of Samaritans, he
carried away to Egypt, and with these Jewish
captives peopled a third of hi> newly founded
city .Alexandria. After him I'tolemy Soter, one
of his generals, who had become king of Egyjit,
invaded Syria, tf)ok Jeru.'^alem (;101 H.C. ), and
carried oli' 1(X),(KHJ of the inhabitants, whom he
forced to settle chiellv in Alexandria and Cvrene.
The Egyptian or Alexandrian 'Dispersion' (Gohth)
— destined to be of vast importance in the de-
velopment of Judaism and Christianity — gradu-
ally spreail over the whole country, from Libya
to Etnioiiia. They enjoyed eipial rights with
their fellow-.subjects, both Egyptian and Creek,
and were admitted to the higliest dignities and
offices, so that many further immigrants followed
of their own free-will. The freedom they enjoyed
enabled them to reach, under Creek auspices, the
highest eminence in science and art. To this
period belongs the Creek translation of the Bible,
the Septuagint (q.v.), which, in its turn, while it
estranged the peo|ile more and more from the
language of their fathers, gave lise to a Viust
p.seudo-epigraphical and apocryphal literature—
not to mention the jieculiar llra-co-Jewish philo-
sophy, which sprang from a mixture of Helleni.-m
and Orientalism.
For a hundred years Jnda'a herself remained
under Egyptian rule. During the reigns of the
first three Ptolenues it jirospered ; but after the
accession of Ptolemy Pbilopator a change for the
worse came over the fortunes of the Jews. After
his death Antiochus III. (q.v.) of Syria incorpor-
ated Palestine with the dominions of the Seleucida',
and treated the Jews less favourably than their
Egyptian iiiastei-s had done. Their fate became
harder still under his son, Antiochus E|)iphanes,
or Epimanes ('the ^laihnan), who, by every
means a cruel and foolhardy policy could devise,
outraged the religious feelings of the iiatiou.
To foice the Jews into the Creek religion, the
temple at Jerusalem was dedicated to Jui)iter
( llympius ; idol altars were Imilt in every yiliage,
and tlie peoiile conslr.ained to ofl'er swine daily.
Some yiclilcif, iiiany lied, the greater part preferred
martyrdom in some shape or other.
At this juncture the heroic family of Mattathias,
a priest of the house of the H;i.snioneans, rose,
together with a few patriots, against the immense
[lower of the Syrians. The national cause quickly
gathered strength, and after the death of MattatliiiLs
( 166 B.C.), Judas Maccaba-us (q.v.) led the national
hosts to victory against the Syrians. After his
death (161) his brothers Jonathan and Simon
completed the work of deliverance, and insti-
tuted the Sanhedrin (145). During their rule alli-
ances were twice formed with the lionians, and
the country once more began to prosper. Under
Simon more especially, Syrian rule became a mere
shadow : his was an almost absolute power, so
much so that in the year 170 of the Seleucidian era
(1-1'2 li.r.) a new , Jewish era was commenced, and
public documents bore date, 'In the first ye.ar of
Simon, high-priest and chief of the Jews.' Simon's
.son, John Hyrcanus (q.v.), after a brief jieriod of
vassalage to the Syrians, extended his authority
over S.imaiia, (ialilee, and Idiimea — the Idumeaus
being converted to the Jewish religion. His son,
Aristobulus, added Iturea to his dominions; Alex-
ander Janna'Us, succeeding his brother, further con-
trived to enlarge his territories. He was disliked
by the mass of his countrymen, and a civil war of
six yeaiV duration ensued. His wife, Alexandra,
securing the support of the Pharisees (q.y.),
governed, on the whole, iirudenlly for nine yeai-s.
The Phari.siic party, however, alnised the power
which fell into their hands, and a reaction took
place. Aristobulus, youngest son of the queen,
marched to Jerus.ilem, and ejected his elder brother,
Hyrcanus II., from the sovereignty. This led to
the interference of the Bonian.-, who were then
lighting both in Syria and .\rmenia. .lerusaleni
was caiilnred (6.S B.C.) by Pompey, Judiea made
depenilcnt on the Unman province of Syria, and
Hyrcanus apiioiiited elhiiaich ami high-priest.
In 54 H.C. Licinius Criussus plundered the temple,
JEWS
325
which Ponipey had spared. Wlien the war lietween
C;esar and I'onipey broke out, the partisans of Poni-
pey were numerous in Syria, and contrived to iioison
Aristohuhis and execute liis son Alexander, wlio
were Ca-sareans (49 B.C.). After the death of I'om-
pey, however, tliinjrs changed ; and Ilyroanus, or
rather .\ntipater the Muniean (who was hotli liis
minister .and master), saw the necessity of securin<r
tlie favour of Civ.sar. AVith Hyreanus II. ended
the line of the Hiismonean princes. They were
nominally both sovereigns and high-priests: hut
the real religio\is authority had passed into the
hands of the priesthood, and especially of the San-
hedrin (q.v. ). The Idurifan dynasty virtually
commenced with Antipater. who prevailed on
Ca»sar to restrict Hyreanus to the high-])riesthood,
and obtained for himself the office of procurator of
duda'a. while his elilest son Phazael was appointed
governor of Jenis.alem, and his younger son Herod
governor of (Jalilee. The Jewisli or national party
took alarm at this sudden increa.se of Id\imean
jKiwer : strife ensued, and ultimately Antipater
perished by poison ; l>ut Herod, l>v the assistance of
the Itomans, linally entered Jerusalem in triumph
(.ST B.C.), caused Antigonus, the last male repre-
sentative of the Hasmonean line, and his most
dangerous enemy, to be put to death, and com-
menced the difficult task of governing n, peoi)le
who were growing more and more unruly every
day. For the history of the next period, see Herod.
After Herod's death (4 B.C.), Archelaus, one of
his sons, ruled .Tuda'a and Samaria ; but his arbi-
trariness, and still more his constant attacks upon
religion, m.ade him hateful to the people ; and
Augustus, listening to their just complaints, de-
pri\ed him of his power, and banished him to
Vienne. Jnd;va was now thrown together with
Syria, and wa.s niled by Roman governoi-s.
In the year 38 .\.D. the Emperor Caligula issued
an edict ordering divine honoui's to be paid to him-
self. Everywhere throughout the Roiuan dominions
the .lews refused to obey. At Alex.andria a fright-
ful ma-ssacre took place, and for ,a time it seemed
as if the whole of the inhabitants of .Jud;ea, too,
were doomed to perish. Herod Agri])p,a obtained
anew from Claudius the dominion over all the
l>arts once niled by his grandfather Herod, and
many privileges were through his intiuence
granted to his .Jewish subjects, and even to
foreign Jews. They received the rights of Roman
citizenship (41 .v.D. ), and their niler even tried
to conciliate their religious prejudices by the
strictness with which he observed their law ; yet
the national party remained malcontent, and in
an almost permanent state of mutiny.
After the death of Herod .\grippa I. the country
was again subjected to Rom.an governoi's. The
confusion soon became indescribable. The whole
land w.os overnin with robbers .and assassins, some
of whom professed to be animated by religious
motives, while others were mere nithanly free-
lH>oters and cut-throats; the antipathy between
.lews anil Samaritans waxed tiercer and liercer,
anil the Latter w.aylaid and murdered the orthodox
Galileans as they went up to worship .at .Icrusalem ;
all sort.s of impostors, fan.atics, and ]iretenders to
magic m.ade their appe.ar.ance ; the priesthood wa.s
riven by dissensions ; the hatreds between the
popul.ace .and the Rom.an soldiery (mostly of (Jr.a^co-
Syrian origin), and under the command of cruel
procnratoi-s, such as Albinus and (iessins Klorus,
incre.ased : frightful portents (.according to Jose-
jihus ) appeared in the heavens, until, in (ifi .\.F).,
in spite of all the prccautirm.ary eH'orts taken by
.\gnp|).a, the party of Ze.alots, also called Sicarii
or ' A.ss.ossins, burst into open rebellion, which,
after a horrible cam.age, w.o-s terminated ("0 .\.i). )
by the conquest of Jerusalem by Titus, the destruc-
tion of the temple, and the ma-ssacre and banish-
ment of liundreds of thousands of the unliap]iy
people, who were scattered among their brethren
in all parts of the world.
The defence of Jerusalem a.s narrated by Jose-
phus is one of the most magnificent and melancholy
examples of mingled heroism and insanity that the
world aftbrds. Very considerable numbers of .lews
were still allowed to remain in their native coun-
try, and for the next thirty ye.ars, although both
hated .and treated with rigour, they appear, on
the whole, to have flourished. The Emperor
Nerva was as lenient to them <as to the rest of
his subjects ; but as soon as they had .attained
some measure of political vitality, their turlnilent
and fanatical spirit broke out anew. Their Last
attempts to throw oft' the Roman yoke, in Cyrene
(ll.-) .\.D.), Cyprus (116), ^lesopotamia (118), and
Palestine, under Bar-Cochba (q.v. ), were defeated
after enormous and almost incredible butcheries.
The suppression of Bar-Coehba's insurrection ( 135
.\.D. ) marks the final desolation of .luiLea. and the
dispersion of its inhabitants. The whole of .Iuda>a
was made like a desert, .about 9S.5 towns and vill-
ages Lay in ashes, 50 fortresses were r.azed to the
ground ; the name of .Jerusalem itself was changed
into .-Elia Capitolina, and a heathen colony settled
in the city, from entering which every ."lew was
strictly debarred. The hardships to which the un-
fortunate race were subjected were .again .alleviated
in the reign of Antoninus Pius : Alexander Severus
placed Abraham on the same divine level as he did
Christ. Heliogabalus, among his many senseless
whims, piitronised various Jewish practices, such
as circumcision and abstinence from swine's flesh ;
and, generally speaking, from the close of the '2d
century till the establishment of Christianity under
Constantine (.3.30 A.D. ), when their hopes were once
more dashed to the ground, the Jews of the Rom.an
emidre appear to have thriven astonishingly. In
this period falls the redaction of the chief code and
b.asis of the ' Oral Law,' the Mishna, completed by
Jehuda Hanassi ('the Prince'), or Hakk.adosh
('the Saint'), president of the great school at
Tiberias (i'iO); and upon this code were grafted
subsequently the two gigantic commentaries or
complements, the Palestinian and the Cabyloni.an
Oemaras. The Babylonian Jews were even more
fortunate than their western brethren, though
they dill not perhaps attain the nieridi.an of their
prosperity till the reviv.al of the Persian, on the
downf.all of the Parthian empire. Their leader
was called 'The Prince of the Captivity' (licsh
Gchitha), .and was chosen from among those held to
be descended from the House of D.aviil. He lived in
gi'eat splendour, assuming among his own ]ieo|)le
the style and state of .a monarch. The reputation
for learning of the Babylonian schools, Nehardea,
Sura, and Pnmbeditha, w.as very great. What
their condition was at this time farther east we
cannot tell, but it seems quite certain that they
had obtained a footing in China, if not before the
time of Christ, at least during the 1st centuiy.
In Europe the ascendency of Christianity was
baneful to the Jews. Imperial edicts and ecclesi-
astical decrees vied with e.aeli other in the rigour
of their intolerance tow.ards this unhappy people.
They were prohibited from making converts, and
from marrying Christian women ; they were bur-
dened with heavy taxes ; yet no persecution ap])ar-
ently could destroy the immortal race. In the 4th
century they are found in large numbers in lllyiia,
Italy, Spain, Minorca, (I.aul, and the Roman towns
on the Ithine ; they are agriculturists, traders, and
artis.ans ; they hold land ; their services, in fact,
cannot be dispensed with ; Constantine. during
whose reign a fierce revolution broke out among
tlie Arians and Jews (.353), terms them ' that most
:v2(j
JEWS
hateful of all people ;' vet in sjiite of this they fill
iinpnitant civil and military situations, have special
courts of justice, and exercise the inlluence that
spring's from llie ])ossession of Avealtli and kuo«-
lcdj;e. The lirief rule of .Julian the Apostate even
shed a nioinentary gleam of s|ilcn<lour over their
destinies, and secured for them ijermission to le-
huild the temjile of Jerusalem. The death of this
emperor, however, frustrated their lahours, and
the rapid increase of ecclesiastical power was hurt-
ful to them in a variety of ways ; although the
emperors now bej,'aii to protect them as far as they
could. In 418 they were excluded from military
service. After the fall of the western empire
their fortunes \\ere ditt'erent in different countries.
In Italy, Sicily, and Sardinia they were for a
time unmolested : in the By/antine empire they
suffered many oppressions ; while in the tith and
7th centuries the Franks and Spanish Visigoths
indicted on them frightful persecution.s.
The sudden volcanic outburst of Mohammedanism
in the Arabian peninsula was at first disastrous to
the Jews in that part of the world. For several
centuries a Jewish kingdom had existed in the
south-west of Arabia, called Himyaritis or Homer-
itis, which was in a flourishing condition in 120
B.C. About '230 A.D. a prince of the Jewish faith
mounted the throne of Yemen ; twice, however, the
Jewish kings were driven from it, and the Christian
relicjion was introduced in that part in 530. At
first Jewish tribes around Mecca and Medina
entertained opinions favourable to Mohammed
as an Arabian chief, but when Islam began to
threaten their own faith they rose in aims against
its founder. Mohammed proved the stronger :
he subdued the Chaibar trilies in 627, and the
Araljian Jews were finally removed to Syria.
The spread of Mohammedanism through Asiatic
Turkey, Persia, Egypt, Africa, ami the south of
Spain wa-s, nevertheless, on the whole advantageous
to the Jews. Excepting accidental persecutions,
such as those in Mauritania (in 790) and in
Egypt (1010), they enjoyed, under the califs and
Arabian princes, comparative peace. In Moorish
Spain their numbers greatly increased, and they
became famous for their learning as well as for
trade. They were counsellors, secretaries, astro-
logers, and physicians to the Moorish rulers ; and
this jieriod may well be considered the golden
age of Jewish literature. Poets, orators, pliilo-
sophers of highest eminence arose, and in consider-
able numl)ers ; and it is a well-established fact
that to them is chiefly due— through the Arab
medium — the preservation and subseiiuent spread-
ing of ancient classical literature, more esi)ecially
philosophy, in Europe. But in Christendom few
and far between were the moiiarchs who rose above
the barbarism of the churclies. .\bout the begin-
ning' of the 11th century the Byzantiue emperor
Basil II. renewed the per.secution. In Habyhuiia,
too, the califate had passed into the hands of rulers
hostile to the Jews; and before the close of the
11th century the Prince of the Cajitivity had
perished on the scallbld, the scliools were closed,
the best of the community had tied to Spain, and
those tliat remained were reduced to an aliject con-
dition, from which they have never risen. In Italy
their position was made tolerable by con.siderable
pecuniary sacrifices; here and there at intervals a
spirit of Christian intolerance might break out, but
they enjoyed for the most part the luoteelion of
the popes.
Less favourable was their lot in France. Under
the weaker of theCarlovingians thechurcli advanceil
with imperious striiles, and a melancholy change
ensued : kings, bishops, feiulal barons, and even
the mnnicipaiities, all joined in cruel persecution.
From the lltli to the Utli centurv their history is
a series of successive massacres. All manner of
wild stories were circulated against them : it was
said that they were wont to steal the Host, and to
contemptuously stick it through and through ; to
inveigle Christian chililren into their houses, and
murder them ; to |)oisoii wells; and the like. They
were also haled for their excessive usury, thougli
there can be no doubt that the princijial blame of
this is to be attributed to those whose tyranny, by
dei)iiving the Jews of the right to possess hind, had
cofnpressed their activity into the narrower chan-
nels of tratlic. Occasionally, however, their debtoi-s,
high and low, had recourse to a very easy means
of getting lid of their obligjitions. Thus, Philip
Augustus, under whose rule the Jews seem to have
held mortgajjes of enormous value, simply conlis-
cated the deljts due to them, forced them to sur-
render the pledges in their po.sse.ssion, seized their
goods, and bani.slied them from Fiance. Vet in less
than twenty years the same juoud but wasteful
monarch N^as glatl to let them come back. Louis
IX. cancelled a third of the claims which the Jews
had against his subjects, 'for the benefit of liLs
soul.' An edict was also issued for the seizure and
destruction of their sacred books ; and we are told
that at Paris twenty-four cart-loads of the Talmud
and other books were consigned to the llames. In
the reign of Philip the Fair the Jews were .again
expelled from France (ISOti) with the usual accom-
jiaiiiments of cruelty ; but the state of the royal
iiiiances rendered it necessary, in little more than
a dozen yeare, to recall them ; and they ^^■ere
allowed to enforce |iayment of the debts due to
them, on condition that two-thirds of the whole
should be given up to the king 1 But a religions
epidemic havin" seized the ciuumon people in
Languedoc and tlie central regions of France (1321 ),
they signalised themselves liy horrible luiissacres
of the detested race. In the following year the
plague broke out, and the w ildcst crimes were laid
to the charge of the .lews. One shudders to read
what follo\ved ; in w hole provinces e\ery Jew wivs
burned, and at Chiiion a hundred and sixty of
both sexes were burned together ! Christianity
never produced more resolute m.irtyrs : they sang
hymns in the place of torment. Finally, in 1.395,
they were banished from the centre of I'l.ance.
In England they are mentioned in the ecclesi-
astical conslitutious of Eglicrt, Archbishop of
Vork, in 740; they are also named in a charter
to the monks of Ciowland, 833. William the
CoiKiueror and William Kiifus favoured them ;
the latter carried his contemi)t lor the religious
institutions of his kingilom so far that he actually
farmed out the vacant bisho]irics to .lews ; and at
Oxford, even then a seat of liaruing. they possessed
three halls— Lombard Hall, .Moses Hall, and Jacob
Hall, where Hebrew was taught to Christians as
well as to the youths of their <iw n ]iersuasioii. As
they grew in wealth they grew in unpopularity.
On the day of the coronaiicui of Kichard the Lion-
Heart (1189), some Jews being found present at
the spectacle, fiom which their nation had been
strictly excluded, a jiopular commotion against
them broke out in Lomlou ; their bonso were pil-
laged and burned; and though Itanulf de Clanvill,
the chiefjusliciary of the realm, ]iarlially .suc-
ceeded in arresting the havoc, and even in bringing
some of the mob to justice (three were hanged),
yet the barbarous bigotry of priests and people
prevented anything like just or .salutary punish-
ment. Similiir scenes were witnessed at Niuwicli,
Edninndsbury, .Stamford, and Vork ; in Vork most
of the .Jews preferred de;ith to forciMl b.aptisiu.
When Itichard returned from Palestine their |iios
pects brightened a little; though they still were
treated with L'leat rigour, their lives ami wealth
were ju-otected — for a consideration ! .John at fiixt
JEWS
327
covered them with honour, but suddenly turned
round on his ]>rote;^i''s. :ifter tliey liad aeeuniuliiteil
},'reat wealtli, and iniiirisoned, maltreated, and jdun-
dered tliem in all parts of the country. I nder
Henry III. they were mulcted emninously. Accused
of clipping the coin of the realm, they had, as a
penalty, to jiay into the royal e.xcheciuer (1230) a
third of their movable property. 'lo this reign
belongs the now exploded story of the crucilixion of
the Cliristian boy, Hugh of Lincoln (ij. v.). The
accession of Edward I. did not mitigate their
misery; some efforts were made to induce them to
give up their profession of usury, a.s was also done
in France and elsewhere during the same period ;
but, heavily taxeil by the sovereigns or govern-
ments of Christendom, and debarred by special
decrees or by \ulgar i]rejudice from almost every
other trade or occupation, they could not attbrd to
]irosecute ordinary callings. The attempt made by
the Dominican friars to convert tliem, of course,
failed utterly ; and in 1253, the Jews — no longer
able to withstand the constant hardships to which
they were subjected in person and i)ropcrty — begged
of their own accord to be allowed to leave the
country. Kicliard of Cornwall, howe\er, persuaded
them to stay. Ultimately, in 1290, they were
driven from the slK)res of England, pursued by the
execrations of the infuriated rabble, and leaving
in the hands of the king all their proi)erty, debts,
obligations, and mortgages.
In Germany they were looked upon as the special
property of the sovereign, who l.iought and sold
them, and were designated his KtnniDcrloicchtc
( • chamber-servants ' ). About the 8th century
they are found in all the Rhenish towns ; in the
loth century, in Saxony and Bohemia ; in the
11th, in Swabia, Franconia, and Vienna; and in
the 12th, in Brandenburg and Silesia. The same
sort of treatment befell them in the emi)ire as
elsewhere ; thev had to pay all manner of iniqui-
tous taxes — body tax, capitation tax, trade taxes,
coronation tax — and to present a nniltitude of
gifts to mollify the avarice or supply the neces-
sities of emperoi-s, [jrinces, and barons. A raid
against the Jews wiis a favourite pastime of a
bankrupt noble in those days. The Crusades
kindled a spirit not in Germany only, however,
but through all Christendom, hostile to the
'enemies of Christ.' Treves, Metz, Cologne,
Mainz, Worms, Spires, Strasburg, and other cities
were deluged with the blood of the 'unbelievers.'
At such epochs the pa.ssions of the populace and
of the lower clergy could not be restrained. The
word Hfp (said to b,e the initials of Hicro.mli/ma
est pcrr/ita, "Jerusalem is fallen') throughout all
the cities of the empire became the signal for
ma-ssacre, and if an insensate monk sounded it
along the street* it threw the rabble into par-
oxysms of murderous rage. The Jews were ex-
]>eileil from Vienna (119t)), Mecklenburg (12'2.3),
Frankfort (1241), Brandenburg (124:!), Nuremberg
(1390), Prague ( 1.391 ), and Ratisbon (147t)). The
'Black Death' occasioned a great and widespread
persecution (1348-50). They were murdered and
burned by thousands, and the race almost dis-
appeared from Germany ; only, however, to
return, for their services were indisiiensable.
Here aiul there they posses.sed the riglits of citi-
zens, or were allowed to hold real estate ; in
general they were permitted to jirosccute only
commerce and usury, and the law turned on them
its harshest ivspect. Repeatedly, too, the em-
I>erors gr.atilied at once their piety and their greed
by cancelling their i>ecuniary claims. In many
places they were compelled to live in certain parts
of the town, known as the J iidenstriisic ('Jews'
Street ■ ).
ijwitzerland commenced to [ler^'cutc them about
the middle of the 14th century: in the loth cen-
tury they were expelled from various placi-s.
Their trc^atment was more humane in I'oland and
Lithuania; and after 1348 their numbers there were
swelled by f\igitives from Germany and Switzer-
land. Russia and Hungary received, pereecuted,
and banished them.
In Spain the condition of the Jews was long
highly favourable ; hut the horrible persecutions
by the Gothic princes in the (ith and 7th centuries
made it inevitable that the hrst gleam of a Moorish
scimitar on the coast would turn them into allies
of the invaders. During the whole of the brilliant
period of Moorish rule in the ]ieninsula they
enjoyed, indeed, what must have seemed to them,
in comi)arison with their fate elsewliere, a soi-l
of Elysian life. They were almost on terms of
equality with their Mohammedan masters, rivalled
them in civilisation and letters, and probably sur-
])assed them in wealth. The Spanish Jews were
consequently of a much higher type than their
brethren in other parts of Europe. They were
not reduced to the one degrading occupation of
usury, though they followed that too ; on the
contrary, they were husbandmen, landed proprie-
tors, physicians, iinancial administrators, and they
bad courts of justice for themselves. The Chris-
tian monarchs of the north and centre also came
to apiireciate the value of their services, and we
find them for a time protected and encouraged
by the rulers of Aragon and Castile. But the
extravagance of the nobles and the increasing
power of the priesthood ultimately brought about
a disastrous change. The estates of the nobles
were in many cases mortgaged to the Jews ; hence
it was not ditiicult for ' conscience ' to get up a
persecution. Gradually the Jews weie deprived
of the privilege of living where they pleased ; their
rights were diminished and their taxes augmented.
In Seville, Cordova, Toledo, Valencia, Catalonia,
anil the island of jNIajorca outbursts of priestly
and popular violence took place (1391-92); im-
mense numbers were murdered, and wholesale
theft was perpetrated by the religious rabble.
Escape w.as possible only by tliglit to Africa, or
by accepting bai)tisni at the point of the sword.
The number of these enforced converts to ChrLs-
tianity is reckoned at '200,000. The fate of the
Jews in Spain during the 15tli century, however,
beggars description ; we read of nothing but per-
secution, violent conversion, massacre, the tortures
of the Inquisition. Thousands were burned ali\e ;
and in one year 280 were l)urned in Seville alone.
Sometimes the popes, and even the noldes, shuddered
at the fiendish zeal of the inquisitors, and tried
to mitigate it, but in vain. At length the hour
of linal hiuror came. In 1492 Fenlinand and
expulsii
to necoi
tians, with the strict prohiliition to take neither
gold nor silver out of the country. The Jews
oliered an (enormous sum for its revocation, and
for a moment the sovereigns hesitated ; but when
Torijnemada, the Dominican inquisitor-geneial,
compared tlu;m to Judas, thev shrank from the
awful accusation ; and the ruin of the most in-
dustrious, the nu)st thriving, the most peaceable,
and the most learned of their subjects — and con-
se(|uentlv of Spain lierself -became irremedialile.
Not less tli.an 300,000 resolved to abandon the
country, which a residence of seven centuries had
made almost a seccmd Jndiea to them. The? inci-
dents that marked their ileparture are heartremling.
Almost every land w;is shut against tJiem. Some,
however, ventured into France; others into Italy,
Turkey, and Morocco, in the last of which countries
they suiVered the most frightful privations. Of the
80,000 who obtained an entrance into Portugal for
Isabella Issued an edict for the expulsion within
four months of all who refused to become Chris-
328
JEWS
eight months on payment of eij;ht gold pennies
a head, many lingered after the exjjiry of the
appointed time, and the jmorer were sohl as slaves.
In 1-19.5 King Emanuel oommaiuled them to quit
his territories, hut at the same time issued a
secret order that all dewish children under four-
teen yeai-s of age should be torn from their mothers,
retained in Portugal, and brought uj) as Christians.
.\gonv drove the ,Ic\vish mothers into madness :
they destroyed their children with their own hands,
anci threw'them into wells and rivers to prevent
them from falling into the hands of their perse-
cutoi-s. The miseries of those who embraced
Christianity, but who, for the most part, secretly
a<lliered to their old faith (Oiissim, Aniissim,
'yielding to violence, forced ones'), were hardly
le.ss dreadful, and it was far on in the 17th century
before persecution ceased. A ntos da Fc of sus-
jiected converts hap]iened as late as 1655.
The wanderei-s appear to have met with much
Itetter treatment in Italy and Turkey than any-
where else. During the 15th and 16th centuries
they are to l)e found in almost eveiT city of Italv,
pursuing various kinds of trattic (nearly the whole
trade of the Levant, for instance, wa.s in their
hands); but chielly engaged in money-lending, in
which they rivalled the great Lombard bankers.
Abarhanel (q.v. ), perhaps the most eminent .Jewish
scludar and divine of his day, rose to be confidential
adviser to the king of Naples. In Turkey they
were held in higher estimation than the conquered
(Jreeks: they were allowed to reo|)en their schools,
to establish synagogues, and to settle in all the
commercial towns of the Levant.
The invention of printing, the revival of learning,
and the Keformation are generally asserted to have
been beneficial to the Jews, but this is only
partially true. AVhen the Jews began to use the
presses at their earliest stage for their own litera-
ture, sacred and otherwise, the Emperor Maximilian
was urged — chiefly by converts — to order all
Hebrew writings to lie committed to the flames;
and, but for the strenmnis exertions of Reuchlin
(q.v.), ignorance, treachery, and bigotry might
have secured a despicable triumiih. Luther, in
the earlier part of his career, looked with no un-
f,avourable eye on the adoption of viident means
for their conversicm : on the other hand. Pope
Sixtus V. was animated by a far more wise and
kindly spirit towards them than any Prote.stant
prince of his time. In 15S8 he abolished all the per-
secuting .statutes of his predecessors, allowed them
to settle and trade in eveiy city of Ins dominions,
to enjoy the free exercise of their religion, and, in
respect to tlie administration of justice and taxa-
tion, ]daced tlieni on a footing of ei|uality with the
rest of his subjects. That the Iteformation itself
had nothing to do with subsequent amelioraticms
in the condition of the Jews is (mly too plain from
the fa<-t that in many parts of Germany, Protestant
a.s well as Catholic, their lot became actually
harder than before. They were driven out of
Bavaria (155.S), out of Brandenburg (157."?); and
during the whole of the 17th and the first ])art of
the ISth century the hardships inflicted on them
by the (lernian governments ])ositively became
more and more grievous. What really caused the
change in their favour wa.s the great uprising of
human reason that marked the middle of the 18th
century. Among the writers who distinguished
themselves in (Jcnnany by ])leading the cause
of the .Jews we may s|iccially mention I.,essing and
Mendelssohn. In Holland the dews were permitted
<■».« early as ICO.S to settle and trade, though they
ilid not .acquire the rights of citizenshi]i till 1796.
In England the edict of Eilward 1. remained in
force for more than .SOOycai-s ; .and the fii-st .attempt
in.ade bv the .lews to obtain a legal recognition
in that country was during the Protectorate of
Cromwell in 1635. Cromwidl himself was favour-
alile to their .admission : so were the lawyers ; but
the nation generally, and p.avticularly the religious
portion of it. were strongly hostile to such a nro-
ceeding ; and the wearisome c<mtroversial jangling
of the divines appointed to consider the (inestiim
prevented anything from being done till the reign
of Charles IL, who, standing much .and fre-
quently in need of their services, permitteil them
quietly to settle in the island. The English
legislature first commenced to take special notice
of the existence of Jews in the first half of the
18th century. In 1723 they were distinctly recog-
nised as British subjects in an act which permitted
them, when giving evidence in a court of justice,
to omit from their oath the words 'On the true
fiiith of a Christian.' In 1753 they obt.ained the
right of naturalisation, but in det'ereiu'e to public
clamimr it had speedily to be revoked. Most of
the civil and political lights of the .lews hiive been
accorded them during the present century. I'ntil
1828 the number of Jewish brokers in the City of
London — all of whom were heavily taxed — was
limited to twelve. A Jew c<mld not be ailmitte<I
to the freedom of the City, or exercise anv retail
tiiide, till 1832. Since "lS33 the iirofession of
b.arrister, since 1835 the shrievalty, and since 1845
the office of alderman and of lord-mayor have
been opened to them. During the reign of CJueen
Victori.a .almost every .Jewish disability h.os been
removed, so that, in point of law, Jews are now,
if natural-born subjects, on pr.actically the same
footing as English subjects. By an act of 18-15
they were allowed to ludd ottices in muniiipal cor-
porations, on condition of signing a decl.uation
(in pl.ace of the usual oath) not to exercise their
influence so as to injure <«• weaken the I'rotestant
Church. The privileges of this act were extended
by one of 1858, whereby .Jews are entitleil to be
admitted to municipal and other ollices on tak-
ing the oath, omitting from it the idijectiimable
formula. In 1846 they were placed, as reganls
their schools and places of worship, of education,
and charities, on the siimc footing as Protestant
dissenters. In 1871 the l^niver.sities Tests Act
was passed, which enabled .Jews to graduate at
the ancient universities without detriment to
their religions principles. Before 1845 doubts had
juevailed whether tiie marii.ages jneviously cele-
brated in England among the Jews, .acconiing to
their own usages, were valid, and the statute of
1847 put .an end to such doubts by declaring all
such marriages valid, provided both the parties
married h.ad been jiersons professing the .lewish
religion. But now, as then, th(nigh it is com-
jietent fiu' Jews, like other dissenters, to sniier-
add any religious ceremony they please to tlieir
marriages, there must in all ca.ses be notice given
to the registrar of the district of such marriage
being about to take place, the only exemption
being that the niarri.age m.ay be celebrated iu the
syn.agogue or any ordinary dwelling, and not. as
with other denominations, in the suiierintenilent
registrar's oHice, or a registered building. A license
may also be jnocured from the sui>erintendent
registrar, and the secretaries of the respective
synagogues are recognised as the pei-sons to keej)
the register books of Jewish marriages. In
Scotland there is no jieculiar legislation atl'ecting
.lewish marriages. It w.is not until 1858 that .lews
were .a<lmitted to iiarliament, .a statute of that
year ein]ioweiiiig the House to moilify the oath
required of members, by omitting in the ca.se of
.Tews the concluding words of the oath. Banm
Kothschild was the first who took his seat in the
House of CtMiimoiis on the p.assing of this act.
But even this statute was only permissive, it being
JEWS
;ii!u
still loft in the power of parliament to refuse to
niiulity the oath if it so deterniiiied. It was
aecoidinj;ly supersedeil liy an act of I8()(!, which
prescrilied a nniforni oath to he taken hy nieni-
tiers of (ill religious denominations, excejit (Quakers
and other Separatists, who might claim to he
admitted hy attirmation. Jews were tirst ad-
mitted to the Upper House in 188'), when Sir
N. M. de Rothscliild was elevated to the peerage
as Lord Itothschild, taking the oath, more J iidaico,
with his head covered. The very highest otticcs of
the state are now. with scarcely an exception,
within the reach of Jews. Unlike Rom.an Catholics,
Jews may present to livings in the Church of Eng-
liiml. But whenever a Jew holds any office in the
gift of Her Majesty, to which oliice shall helong the
right of presentation to any ecclesiastical henefice,
such right of presentation devolves upon the Arch-
bishop of Canterbury for tlie time being.
Some of the relics of that mighty host of exiles
that left Spain and Portugal found their way into
France, where they long lingered in a miserable
condition. In 1550 they were received into Bay-
onno and Bordeaux ; they were also to be fotind
in considerable nnmliei's in Avignon, Lorraine, ami
."Ms.ace. In 1784 the capitation tax was abolished.
In 1790, while the French Revolution was still
.animated by a sincere htimanitarianism, the Jews
presented a successful petition to the national
representatives, Mirabeau being among their advo-
cates. From this time their technical designation
in France has been Israelites. In 1806 the Emperor
Napoleon summoned a ' Sanhedrin ' of Jews to
meet at Paris, to w hom a variety of questions were
put, mainly with a view to test their fitness for
lieiiig French citizens. Since then they have been
found not only in the highest offices of the civil
administration — very frequently in the ministry
(e.g. Cremieux. (Joudchaux, FouM ) — but they have
also tilled some of the chief places in the army and
navy. We may add here that their bravery in the
tielii has been the subject of frequent remark —
although among the vices with which a brutal
prejudice loved to brand them, in spite of all
historical evidence, was also that of cowardice.
In Denmark since 1814 they have been on a
footing of equality as citizens with native Danes.
To Sweden they were fii-st Invited — the invita-
tion only extending to the rich — in 1746. Norway
forbade them to touch its soil till 1860. Admitted
into Russia by Peter the Great, they were expelled
by the Empress Elizabeth in 1743. Readmitted
by the Empress Catharine II., they were further
protected by the Emperor Alexanih'r L. who in
1805 and 1809 issued decrees insuring them full
liberty of trade and commerce ; Nicholas with-
drew these i)rivileges. In 1881 a violent agitation
against the Jews, accompanied by much outrage
and bloodshed, took place in the south and west of
Russia, and also in Warsaw. Their residence is
strictly c(mfined to certain i>arts of the I'Mipire.
Some 2'25,(KKJ were driven out by furl her re-
strictions in I89"J, and many were then and later
.settled in Argentina and elsewhere by Baron Hii sch.
In Poland they are more numerous than in any
other part of the worlil. They owed their tii'st
humane reception in the 14th century to the love
which King <ja.siniir the Great bore for a .lewish
mistress. For many years the whole trade of the
country was in their hands. During the 17th and
the greater part of the IHth century, however, they
were much persecuted, and sank into a state of
great ignorance, anil even poverty : but education
— in spite of the severity and b,arbarisni of Russian
intoler.ance — has, since the French Hevolulion, m.ade
jirogre-ss among them. Frederick the (ireat, king
of Prussia, showed himself singularly harsh towards
the Jews ; his legislation almost throws u.s back
into the middle ages. All m.anner of iniquitous
and ridicuhms taxes were laid upon them ; oidy a
certain number were allowed to resi<le in the
country, and these were prohibited from both the
most honourable and the most Incr.ative employ
ments. This sh.ameful state of matters was ended
by the Prussian edict of toleration (1H12), by
which Jews were placed almost in an equal position
as citizens with other Prussians. Since I lien the
tendency, on the whole, had lieen to enlarge their
'liberties' — until the revolution of 1848 gained
them their full emancipation, although it was
slowly carried out. In the smaller Germ.an states
their full rights were grudgingly conceded. The
Reichstag of the empire, like the National .Assem-
bly in 1848, now contains many prominent Jewish
members. However, the progress of .lewish eman
cipation in Germany has not, of late years, been
continuous. Strange to say, the year 1880 was
marked by a remarkable revival of hostility against
the Jews, especially in Berlin, which, known as
the J uilenhetze, was encotiraged by many persons
of standing in society. In Austria the Emperor
Joseph II. distinguished himself by passing an act
of toleration (1782) extraordinarily lilieral in its
provisions for the jews. Not till I860, however
(and even then under certain restrictions), did
they acquire the right to possess land. But in
1868 they were accorded the complete liberty which
they now enjoy, and which is only overclouded
occasionally by outbreaks of Anti-Semitism. In
Hungary and Transylvania they h.ave long enjoyed
important privileges, and have lieen protected by
the nobility. In Roumania they still sutler much
ill-usage, being only noiiunally protected by the
treaty of Berlin. Spain began to tolerate them
again in 18.S7, and they can follow trade oi-
agriculture like other Sjianiards. Cf late years
they have even been allowed to assemble for
religious worship. Portugal, where they enjoy no
civic rights, has only a few (ierman .Jews. Switzer-
land long ti-eated them harshly, and only of late
have steps in the right direction been taken.
In Turkey they are very numerous, and have
thriven in spite of the exactions of pashas, the
insolence of Janizaries, and the miseries of war.
Their communities in Constantinople, Adrianople,
Salonica, Smyrna, Aleppo, and Damascus are con-
sideralile : in Palestine, their ancient home, they
are rapidly increasing, but they are still, in s]iite
of the many eflbrts on the part of their European
brothers to ameliorate their condition, very poor.
Their numbers in Arabia are not very large, yet,
they enjoy some independence. Those in Persia have
sunk into ignorance. They are found in Afghan-
istan, and carry on a trade between Kabul and
China ; in India and Cochin China, where they are
both agriculturists and artisans; in Surin.am,
where there is a nourishing colony ; in Bokhara,
where they possess equal rights with the other
inhabitants, and are skilled in the manuf.-icture of
silks and metals : and in China, where, however,
they an? very insignilicant both in numbers .and
position. They are also found all along the North
African coast, where, indeed, they have had com-
munities for perhaps more than a thousand years,
which were largely reinforced in consequence of
the gre.at Spanish persecutions. They are niiiiier
ous in Morocco, though not .alw.ays secure from the
perils of Mohammedan fanaticism. In Egyjit and
Siubia they are few ; in Ahy.ssinia, where they are
known as Falash.as, more numerous ; thi"y exist
in the Soudan, and are .also found farther south in
considerable numhei-s. the mining industries of the
Cape and Transva.al being largely in their hands.
.Vmerica. too, has invited their sjiirit of enliMjuise.
In the United States, as in (Jreat Britain, they
enjoy absolute liberty, and have established some
330
JEWS
500 congregations. They have been in Brazil since
1625, and are also settled in some parts of the
West Indies.
The jiresent distribution of Jews tlironghout
the world, as calculated in ISSS, is as follows :
Russia, 3..500.(X)0: AustroHunj;arv, 1,800,000 ; (ier-
nianv, GOO.OOf) ; Rouniania, 32o,0m : Turkey in
Europe, 100,000; Holland, 90,000 ; Belgium, tJOOO ;
France, 73,000; Great Britain, 100,000; Italy,
40,000; Switzerland, 8000: Scandinavia, SOOO ;
Servia and Bulgaria, 40,000; Greece, 5000;
Iberian Peninsula, 2000— making in all Europe
aboye 6j millions. To this niav be added about
500,000 in .\sia, .S50,000 in Africa, 500,000 in
America, and 20,000 in Australasia. This would
bring the total number of Jews in the world up to
a little over 8 millions. It should be mentioned,
however, that some authorities calculate their
number as considerably less than this. They
assume about 5A millions for Europe, and IJ
million for the rest of the world.
lidh/ion. — Generally speaking, Jews believe in
the inspiration of the Old Testament, the authority
of the Law of Moses, the absolute unity and iucor-
poreality of the Godhead, the immortality of the
soul, the ability of mankind to work out their own
.salvation without the help of priest, mediator, or
sacrifice, and the ultimate conversion of mankind
to Theism. Such are the main points of agreement
between almost all Jews, but on many questions
they are sharply divided. For some t« o thousand
years there have been at lea-st two religious
sections. In the time of Christ they were known
as Pharisees (Kabliinical .Jews) and Sadducees
(Biblical Jews) ; in tlie middle ages as Rabbauites
and Karaites, the Rali1)anites being adherents of
traditional Judaism, and the Karaites insisting on
the literal interpretation of Scripture. Since the
early part of tlie 19th century tliese diti'erences
have to some e.xtent been reproduced in tlie divi-
sion of Jews into Orthodox and Reformed. The
latter (who may also be styled Progressive or
Modern Jews) believe in the divine autliority of
the Old Testament or ' Written Law ' only, while
Orthodox (otherwise known as Conservative or
Rabbinical ) Jews ascribe coordinate authority to
the ' Oral Law ' of the Rabbins, which tliey regard
as the key to the explanation of Holy Writ. The
Oral Law is embodied in the Talmud and its com-
mentaries, and is believe<l by them to have been
orally transmitted from Moses to his successoi-s
down to the time of Jehuda the Holy or the Prince
(see ante), when it was first committed to writ-
ing. To this main distinction most of the diver-
gencies between Orthodoxy and Reform can be
traced. Thus the ilitlerence of opinion on such
questions as sacrifice, the Messiah, the return to
Jerusalem, and the restoration of tlie national
life follows as a corollary from the maintenance
or repudiation of the Rabbiniciil standpoint. A
Rabbinieal Jew believes in the political lecoiistitu-
tion of his nation, the restoration to Palestine, the
rebuilding of Jerusalem and of the temple on
Mount Zion, and the rehal>ilitation of the .sacri-
ficial ritual. He also looks forward to the coming
of a personal Me.ssiah, a descendant of David, who
will assert the independence of his race and accom-
[)lish the restoration. Such are the hopes which
inspire a great portion of the orthodo.x liturgy.
Till' Kefcniiied Jew, interpieting Scripture in a free
and rationalistic spirit, subscribes to none ol these
beliefs. The sacrifices ordained in the Pentatench
he regards in the light of a temporary concession
of Moses to the barbarous customs of his age, anil
an institution which, having once fallen into desue-
tude, will never again be revived ; and, in support
of this view, he jioiiits, not merely to the ti-achiug
of Maimonides, but to the fiei|uent denunciation
of sacrificial rites by the prophets and psalmists
of Israel. Xor does he believe in the restoration
of the national life or the return to Jerusalem.
Most commonly, iiuleed, he is even unwilling to
admit that Jews can any longer be considered a
nation. Nor does he find any difficulty in explain-
ing away those utterances of the projihets which
would seem to point to such a return. Such utter-
ances must either be referred to events in the
proximate future, such as the return of the Jews
to Palestine uiuler the edict of Cyrus, or they are
to be regarded as mere rhetorical declamations or
poetical pictures without any definite significance.
Similarly with the belief in a |)eisonal Messiah.
Although this is one of the Thirteen Articles
of Faith, as laid down by Maimonides, it is
gradually being abandoned by modern Jews, who
are inclined to substitute for it the belief in a
Messianic age in which, as foretold by the
prophets, all mankind «ill be brought to the
Knowledge and worship of one God, ami war and
dissension will cease from the face of the earth.
From all this it will be seen that Reformed Judaism
not merely interprets Scripture in the light of com-
mon sense, but also exhibits a more or less decided
leaning to the teachings of Rationalism, some of
the more advanced Reformers, indeed (for there are
\arious degrees of reform), being pure Rationalists.
Such theories as that of two Isaiahs, or the late
date of Daniel and Eeclesiastes, are subscribed to by
most educated Jews, but the WelUiausen theory of
the Hexateuch is held only by the more advanced
section of Reformei-s. Sometimes it is stated that
Orthodox Jews believe in the physical resurrection
of the body after death. But this is not correct.
It was the view of Jews in the time of Christ, and
ha.s long since been superseded by the lielief in the
immortality of the soul.
The distinction between Orthodoxy and Reform
further exhiliits itself in ceremonial jiractices and
the ritual of the synagogue. Relormed Jews
restrict themselves to the practice of the cere-
monial laws laid down in the Pentateuch, with the
exception of those which, like the institution of
sacrifice, have no application at the present day.
Orthodox Jews are expected to obey, besides the
legislation of the Pentateuch, the entire body of
the Oral Law with its many thousands of minutia',
and the several customs which have become sancti-
fied by age and tradition. These are principally
set forth in a digest known as the i>hitlai<tn-Ariich
— the text-book of Orthodox Judaism. As in
private practice, so in the public woishi]) of the
synagogue, Reformed Jews lia\e simpliiied the
ritual and adapted it to modern needs. They
have introduced instrumental music and mixed
clioirs. In the more advanced synagogues, partic-
ularly in Americ^a, the service is made to appro.\i-
mate to churcli practices in three particulars : ( 1 )
the se.xes sit together in family pews; (2) the
heads of male worshippers are uncovered; ('A) the
.service is in the vernacular. In some synagogues
( Rerliii, Pliiladel|ihia, and Cliicago) innovation
has been carried to the extent of substitutiu*'
Sunday for the seventh-day Sabbath, while several
synagogues in America have Sunday services »'«
mldition to those held on the Sabbath.
The programme of Judaism put forth by Dr
Kiauskopf of Philadelphia in 1888 is of so very
radical a character as hardly to deserve the
title of Judaism. But as the congregation which
have adopted it not only call themselves Jews, but
are regarded as such by the rest of the community,
it must be set down as the ultimate phase of
Judaism, marking the limits beyond which it
would not be possible for Judaism to travel with-
out merging its identity in Theism or .Vgnosticism.
■ We discard,' says Dr Ivrauskopf, 'the belief in a
JEWS
P.M
Gml who is a man magnified, who has his abode
somewhere in tlie interstellar spaces. We discard
the helief that tlie Bible was written by God, or by
man under the immediiite dictation of God, and
that its teachin^rs are therefore infallible. . . . We
iliscard the belief in the coming of a human
.Mfs>iah, who will lead us back to I'alestine,
establish us a-s the rulers of the world, and make
all nations tributaries to us. We discard the
Itelief in bodily resurrection, hell-torments. Para-
disian rewards, prophecy, superstitions, all Biblical
and Rabbinical beliefs, rites and ceremonies and
institutions, which neither elevate nor sanctify our
lives.'
Literature. — For the Hebrew language, see under
that head. The extraordinary influence which
the religion of the Hebrews has e.xereised on
Christian and Mohammedan nations has given a
universal significance to their ancient literature ;
but of this we possess nothing which, in its original
shape, reaches further back than the period of
David. The composition of the extant works in
Hebreic Literature proper would, on this view,
extend over a period of nearly 900 >ears — viz.
from the times of David to those of the jlaccabees.
This period was preceded by a preparatory one
of sagas, songs, fragmentary histoiical notices,
inscriptions, laws, and probably also priestly regis-
ters. The extant literature may be arranged
under the five heads — law, prophecy, history,
lyric poetry, and speculation (see Bible, and
the articles on the separate books of the Old
Testament ). The same epoch in which took place
the transition from Hebraism to Judaism — the
epoch of the captivity — was also that which niarked
the commencement of Jewish literature, properly
so called. Founded on the earlier and more
creative Hebrew, and for the most part written in
the same language, it is yet qualified by the pres-
ence of religious conceptions borrowed from the
Persians, of Greek ^^'isdom, Roman law, and, at a
later period, of Arabic poetry and philosophy, and
of European science ; though everything is strictly
subordinated to the great ideas of the ancient
faith. Since the return from exile, the Jewish —
also, but erroneously, called the Rabbinical — litera-
ture has, without the slightest external encourage-
ment, actively taken part in the cultivation of the
human mind ; and in the results of this activity,
which are still far from being duly appreciated,
there lie concealed the richest treasuies of cen-
turies.
Jewish literature ha-s been divided chronologically
into nine periods. The first period extends to 143
B.C. After the return from exile the Jewish people
naturally enough became animated by an intense
nationality of feeling. Expositions and additions
to the earlier history (Midrmhim ), a.s well as Greek
tianslations, were executed, ami several of the
Hagiographa — such as particular psalms, the so-
called Proverbs of Solonmn, Ecclesiastes, the Books
of Chronicles, portions of Ezra and Nehemiah —
were written. To this period also, if to any, must
Iwloiig the uncertain performances of the Great
HijiMijotjue (q.v. ), to whom the work of completing
the canon of the Old Testament is chietly ascribed.
Towards its close (190-170 B.C.) several writers
a|)pear in propriij jir.rsona, as, for instance, Sirach
and Aristobulus. The doctoi-s of whom the Great
Synagogue chielly consisted were called Soferim
('ScribSi'). At tliLs time Aramaic finally became
the popular dialect of Palestine.
The ««t</;«/ period extends from MZ B.f. to 135
\.D. The Miflrash (see Exegesis), or the inr|iiiry
Into the meaning of the sacred writings, wxs divided
into Iliditrhii and I[ti'/ii(/a : the former cimsidered
tlie improvement of the law, with a view to prac-
tical results ; the latter, the essence of the religious
and historical interpretations. At first both were
the oral ileliverances of the Soferim, but gradually
written memorials made their ai)pearance. The
public interpretation of the Scripture in schools
and synagogues, the independence of the San-
hedrin, the strife of sects, and the influences of
Alexandrian culture furthered this development.
To this period also belong various tireek, but not,
as is still erroneously supposed by some, the written
Targums or Aramaic vei-sions of the Bible (see
Targums ), which sprang at a much later period from
oral translations of the Pentateuch in the synagogues
instituted after the return from the exile ; furtlier,
the whole of the Apocrypha (q.v. ), and the earliest
Christian writings, which are at least the produc-
tions of men nurtured in the principles of JudaLsm,
and which contain many traces of Judaistic culture,
feeling, and faith. It was also characterised by
the drawing up of prayers, scriptural expositions,
songs, and collections of proverbs. The author of
the first book of the Maccabees, Jascju, Josephus,
Philo, Johannes are names specially worthy of
mention ; so also are the doctors of the oral law —
Hillel (q.v. ), Shammai, Jochanan-ben-Zaccai, Gam-
aliel, Eleazar-ben-Hyrcanus, Joshua-ben-Cliananja,
Ishmael, Akiba, and others of like eminence.
Rabbi ('Master') Talmid Chaeham ('Disciple of
Wisdom') were titles of honour given to those
expert in a knowledge of the law. Besides the
JIaccabean coins, Greek and Latin inscriptions
belonging to this period are extant.
The third period reaches from 1,3.5 to 475 A.D.
Instruction in the Halacha and Hagada now be-
came the principal euiployment of the flourishing
schools in Galilee, Syria, Rome, and after '219 .\.D.
in Babylonia : the most distinguished men were
the masters of the Mishna {u.w) and the Tabnnd
(q.v.) — viz. Eleazar-ben-Jacoii, Jehuda, Jose, Meir,
Simeon-ben-.Iochai, Jehudatlie Holy, Nathan, Chija,
Rab, Samuel, Jochanan, Hunna, Rabba, Rava, Papa,
Ashe, and Abina. Besides expositions, additions to
Siracli, ethical treatises, stories, fables, and history
were also composed ; the prayers were enriched,
the Targuni to the Pentateuch and the Prophets
completed, and the calendar fixed by Hillel the
second (340 A.D. ). After the suppression of the
academies in Palestine, those of Persia — viz. at
Sura, Pumbeditha, and Nehardea — became the
centre of Jewish literary activity. On Sabbaths
and festal days the people heard, in the schools
and places for prayer, instinctive and edifying
discourses. Of tlie biblical literature of the Greek
Jews we have only fragments, such as those of the
versions of Aquila and Symmachus. With this
peiiod terminates the age of direct tradition.
The fourth period (from 475 to 740 A.D.). By
this time the Jews had long abandoned the use of
Hebrew, and instead had adojited the language
of whatever country they happened to dwell in.
During the tith century the Babylonian Taliiiud
was concluded, the Palestinian Talnnul having
been redacted about a hundred years before. Little
remains of the laboui-s of the Jewish literati of the
7th century, or of the earliest Geo/iiin or luesidents
of the Babylonian schools, who first appear in
589 .\.D. On the other hand, from the 6th to the
8th century the Ma-sora ((|.v.) was developed in
Palestine (at Tiberias); and, besides a collection
of the earlier Hagadivs, indeiieiident commentaries
were likewise executed, as the Pesi/.ta, the l'ir!;e
of Eliezer {100 A.D.), &c.
In the fifth period (740-1040) the Arabs, ener-
getic, brilliant, and victorious in liteiature ius in
war. had apiirojiriated to themselves the learning
of Hindus, Persians, and Greeks, and thus excited
the emulation of tlie oriental Jews, among whom
now sjirung up physicians, astronomei's, gram
marians, commentators, and chroniclers. Religious
332
JEWS
and historical Hagailas, hooks of morality, and
expositions of the Talmud were likewise com-
posed. The oldest Talmudic compends helon;; to
the a^'e of Anan ('vVa/ 7-'>0 A.n. ). the earliest writer
of tlie Karaite Jews. The oldest prayer lionk was
drawn up ahout 8S0 ; and the first Talmudic Dic-
tionary ahout 900. The most illustrious (Iconim
of a later time were Saadia (died 941), equally
famous a-s a commentator and translator of Scrip-
ture into .Vrahic, a doctor of law, a grammarian,
tlieidogian, and poet; Scherira (died 998); and his
son Hai (died 1038), who wa« the author, among
other tilings, of a dictionary. From Palestine came
the comidi-tion of tlie Masora and of the vo\yel-
system ; numerous Midrru!him, the Hagiograpliical
"fargums, and the first writings on theological
cosmogony Avere also executed there. From the
9th to tiie llth century Kairwan and Fez, in
Africa, jiroduced several celehrated Jewisli doctors
and authors. Learned rahhins are likewise found
in Italy after the 8tli century, ,as Julius in Pavia.
IJari anil Otranto were at this time the great
seats of Jewish learning in Italy. After the
sup]iression of the Bahylonian academies ( 1040 )
Spain liecame the central seat of Jewish literature.
To this period heloug tlie olilest Hehrew codices,
which go hack to the 9th century. Hebrew rhyme
is a product of the Stii, and modern Hebrew prosody
of the lOtli century.
The sixth jieriod ( 1040-1204) is the most splendid
era of Jewish medieval literature. The Spanish
Jews busied themselves about theology, exegetics,
grammar, poetry, the science of law, astronomy,
niatliematics, philosophy, rhetoric, and medicine.
They wrote sermons and ethical and historical
works. The languages employed were Araliic,
Rabbinical Hebrew, and .ancient or classical He-
brew. We can onlv mention here the great doctor,
Samuel Halevi (died 10.5.5), and the renowned
Mainionides (q.v. ), whose death closes this epoch.
The literature of the French rabbins was more
national in its character, and kept more strictly
within the limits of the Halacha and Hagada.
The great Riishi (q.v.), the prince of commen-
tators, wliose real name was Solomon-hen-Isaac of
Troves ( 1040-1105), is one of the greatest names in
Jewish literature. In Provence, which combined
the literary characteristics of France and Spain,
there were celebrated .lewish <academies at Lunel,
Xarboiiue, and Nimcs. The fame of the Talinudists
of Germ.any, especially those of M.ainz .and Ratis-
bon, was very great. Only a few names belong to
(Jreece .and Asia; still the K.ar.aite .lews h.ad a very
.able writer in Jehuda H.adassi ( 1148). The greater
portion of the prayer-book was completed before
Niaimonides. Many of the works, however, pro-
duced lietween 740 and the close of this period are
lost.
The sofenth period (1204-1492) bears manifest
tr.aces of the influence exercised by Maimonides.
Literary .activity showed itself partly in the
sphere of theologico-exegetic philosophy, partly
in the elaboration of tlie natiim.al law. With
the growth of a religious mysticism there also
^(inuig up a w.ar of opinions between Talinudists.
Philosdjiheis, and Cabhalists. The most celebr.ated
.lews of this period lived in Spain ; later, in Portu-
gal. Provence, and It.al.v. To Spain belongs (in the
IStli century) the poet Jehuda Cli.arisi. In the
I.5tli century a decline is noticeable. Hooks written
in Hebrew were first jirinted in Spain at Ixar in
.\ragon (148.5), at Zamora (1487), and at Lisbon
(1489). During this epoch the chief orn.ainents of
.(ewisli literature in Provence were Moses-hen-
N'.achm.an, D.avid Kimchi, .leruliam, F,ariss(d, Is.aac
Nathan, the author of tlii' Hebrew Concordance.
In Italy .lewish seliolar-i eiii]iloyeil themselves with
the translation of Arabic and Latin works. While
France could show only a few notable authors,
such as the collectoi-s of the TosKfht. Moses de
Coucy, and Jehiel-bcn-.Ioseph. the poet and exe-
gete Berachj.a, (Germany juodiiced a multitude
of writers on the law, such as Fleazar Halevi,
Meyer of Kotlienburg, Asher lien .lecliiel, .lacob
ben Asher, Kle.azar ben .lehudah of Worms. Most
of the extant Hebrew MSS. belong to this period ;
but ,a gre.at i>art of medieval .lewish liter.ature lies
unprinted in Rome, Florence, Parma, T'urin, Paris,
Oxford, Leyden, Vienna, and Munich.
The cigh'lh period ( 1 492 - 1 7:5,5 ) i^ not marked by
much creative or spiritual force .among the Jews.
In Italy .and the E.ast (1492), in Germany and
P<d.and"( 15.50), in Holland (1620), Jewish scholars
worked printing-presses, while numerous .authors
wrote in Hebrew, Latin, Spanish, Portuguese,
Italian, and .lud.TO-tJerm.an. Some of the most
eminent theologians, philosophers, jurists, lus-
tori.ans, mathematicians, poets, comment.ators, lexi-
cographers, grammarians, &c. of this period were,
besides Spinoza, Is.aac Abravanel, Elias Levita,
Seforno, Bertinoro, Karo, Norzi, Rossi, Moses
Isserles, Manasseh ben Israel, Lipman Heller, B.
Alusaphia.
The »/»;/» period extends from 17.55 to the pres-
ent time. Encouraged by the spirit of the 18th
century, Moses Mendelssohn (q.v.) opened to his
co-religionists a new era, which, as in the middle
ages, first manifested it.self in the national litera-
ture. Its ch.ar.acter, contents, expression, and even
its phraseology, were changed. I'oetry, l.angn.age,
philology, criticism, education, history, and litera-
ture li<ave been earnestly cultivated. The sacred
books* have been translated by them into the lan-
guages of modern Europe, .and foreign works into
Hebrew ; and many of this once proscribed and
detested race have t.aken an important p.art in the
public and scientific life of Europe. Among the
m.any illustrious n.ames of this l.ast period we can
select only a few like Jlendelssolin, Mainion. Ben
Zeeb, Heidenheim, Uapoport, Krochmal, Zunz,
Jost. Oeiger, Fiirst, .Saclis, Z. Frankel, Slein-
schneider, Graetz, .Jellinek, Pliili]>psolin, Munk,
Salvador, Reggio, S. D. Luzzatto — chiefly culti-
vators of liter.ature with reference to their own
creed and nationality.
To enuiuer.ate names of those Avho were and are
illustrious in general literature, in law, philosophy,
medicine, philology, mathematics, belles-lettres,
iVc. we cannot even attempt, since there is not one
coiintiy in Europe which does not count .lews
.among the foremost and most brilliant representa-
tives of its intellectual progress. Of Germany —
c<msidcred to be in the vangiianl of European
learning — Bunsen said that the greater part of the
professors .at its universities and academies were
.lews or of .Jewish origin (Neander, (Jans, Benary,
Weil, Benfey, Stahl, Dernberg, Valentin, Lazarus,
Herz, Steinthal) — certainly a must startling fact.
Oppert, Darmesteter, Bernays, Sanders, Karl
Marx, L.assalle, Emil Franzos, Crcmieux (<|.v.),
.Ies.sel, Sylvester, Meldola, Emma Lazarus are
likewise eminent n.ames in liter.ature, law. and
science ; while in finance, statesmanship, and
phil.antliropy the names of Itothschild (q.v.),
D'Isr.aeli, Monteliore (q.v.) are universally f.anuli.ar.
Another extiatudinary and well authenticated f.act
is that the European press, no less than Euro])e.an
fin.ance, is to a great extent under their control ;
while, on the other hand, names like Heine, B.
Biirne, Berthold .\uerliach, Henriette Ilerz, .lulcs
.l.anin, Kelix MendelssolinBartholdy, llalevy,
Meyerbeer, Mosclieles, .lo.achini, Ernst, Rubin-
stein, Wieniawski, Grisi, Braliam, (Jiuglini, Da
Cost.a, Rachel, Davison, Bendeniann, besides hosts
of others less familiar to English ears, who shine
in .all br.anchcs of art — music, sculpture, painting,
JEWS EAK
JHANSI
333
the ilraiua, &c. — show jjlainly how unjust is the
reproat-h of their beiuj; an •alistnu-t' ])eo|)le,
without sense for the biij;ht side of life and the
arts that eniliellish it. Briefly — they arc, by the
unanimous verdict of the historians and phih)so|iher>
of our times, reckoned among the chief lu-onioters
of the development of humanity and civilisation.
What has been their reward we have seen. Ilajipily
the growth of religious toleration, ■« Inch is the ilis-
tinctive feature of the present age, ha.s changed all
this. In every country to which modern civilisa-
tion has jienetrated jews now enjoy, if not the
full social recognition which is accorded them in
England and France, all ordinary civil and political
riglits. liussia and Roumaaia alone, among western
peoples, still maintain towards them an attitude
of medieval barbarism. But so anomalous a con-
dition of att'airs cannot long continue, and the time
is surely not far distant when even in these countries
they will be accorded a fair measure of the rights of
humanity.
For the history of the Jews during the BiBLIC.iL
I'EKIoD, consult the histories of Ewald, Stanley, Kuenen,
Wellliauscn. Kenan, Herzfeld, Schiirer, Stade, Kittel,
and works liy Ederslieim. General Jewish Histoky :
(iraetz, Jost, llUuian, and the smaller works by Palmer,
Hosmer, Adams, Morison, CasseL, Magnus. Jews in
Enol.vnd: Picciotto, Margohouth, Jacobs. Schaible's
Die Juden in Ewjland (1S90), and the publications of
the Anglo-Jewish Historical Exhibition. History of
Religion: (1) Biblical: Kuenen's RiHiiion of Israel,
the books on the Prophets by Kuenen, ^V. R. .Smith,
and Duhm ; on Old Testament theology generally
hy Odder, .Schultz, and Eiehm ; V. R. Smith's 0/d
Testament in the Jewish, Church, and Lectures on
the Religion of the Semites; and Baudissin's Studim
zur Seinitischen Reli(]ionsfjeschichte. (2) General: Jost,
(leschichle des J udenthums u. s. Sekten ; Geiger, Judtn-
thum u. seine Geschichte : Weiss's History of Jewish
Tradition ( in Hebrew ). (3) Modern: Ritter, Geschichte
derJadischen Reformation ; Friedlander's Text-hook of the
.h Irish Reliyion {ISfil}. JEWISH LITERATURE : Karpeles,
steiiischneider, Etheridge, and Stern. Art : Perrot and
Chipiez ; Madden's Coins of the Jeus. Jewish Life :
The Jewish Libraiy,' edited by Joseph Jacobs, the first
vol. — by Israel Abrahams, editor of the Jewish Quurtei'lii
— being Jewish Life in the Middle Ayes (1897, based on
Giidemann and others) ; Jewish Ideals, by Joseph Jacobs
( 181ll> I ; the works of Emd Frauzos ( The Jews of liamow,
ic, trans.); Children of the Ghetto [l>iQ2), Dreamers of the
Ghetto ( 1898 ) ; and other works by Zangwill. The move-
ment called 'Zionism,' founded in 1897 tor the puri>ose
of securing the settlement of Jews in the Holy Land, has
annual congresses; the Dreyfus case in France revealed
an uususjjected amount of anti-Semitic bitterness.
See also the articles in this work on
Assyria.
Ebioiiites.
Jerusalem.
Pliarisees.
Babylonia.
Egypt.
Jesus.
Sadducees.
Bible.
H.;ru.l.
Karaites.
f^aniuel.
Cabbala.
Hilliles.
Maccabees.
Sanhedriii.
Cliasidiin.
U-AV.ih.
Moses.
Synagogue.
l-Javid.
.Ir.ViiniVjXl.
Pentateuch.
'I'aluuul.
Jew's Ear ( Exidium cmricula Juche), a fungus,
one of the Hymenomycetes, which grows on decay-
ing iiarts of living trees, particularly elders. Dried
Jew'.s Ear w;t--. forinerly in repute as an astringent.
•lew's-liarp. or Jew'.s-TRIMP, a simjde musical
instrument, which consists of a flat ehtslic vibrating
steel tongue, running between two parallel ribs of
metal, and fastened at one end to the farther side
of the circle into which the ribs e.vpand ; the free
end is narrowed to a thin wire and |irolonged at
right angles to the vibrating piece. The instrument
is held between the teeth or lips, ke]it aiiart by
the rib-frame, and the free projecting end of the
vibrating tongue is struck with the linger. The
instrument is used from the Highlands of Scotland
to Tibet. The first to attain any notable degree
of skill as a iierformer was a soldier of Frederick
the Great's army. But his fame was eclipsed by
a. Wiirtemberger named Eulenstein, who played
si.xteen Jew's-harps, tuned to difiVreut keys : he
performed in London in 1S28 (died 1890). The deri-
vation of the word seems to be doubtful. It is sug-
gesteti that ' Jew's ' is a corruption of ' jaws' ' and of
'jeu.'the French word for 'play;' nime probably
the instrument was called Jew's-harp in derision.
Jew's Mallow. See Corchorvs.
Jew's Tlioru. See Jujube and Paliukus.
Jeypore (Jaipur), a protected native state in
KaJiMilana (ipv.), with an area of l.-i.IU!! m|. m.,
ami a population (1891 ) of 2,832,271), chielly llimlus.
The only city of importance is the capital. The
central part of the state is a sandy tableland from
1400 to IGOO feet above the sea-level; in the east
and north-west there are mountains, but in the
south-east the soil is rich and fertile. The chief
manufactures are enamelled gold- wares, marble
sculptures, and fabrics. Large quantities of salt,
also, are manufactured at the Sambhar Lake. The
gross revenue is about £1,'200,000, of which £40,000
a year is paid as tribute to the imperial go\erii
iiient. The army numbers about 14,000 men of all
arms. Great attention is paid to education. The
Kajputana State Railway runs o\ er Jeypore terri-
tory for about 150 miles. Jeypore, after many
vicissitudes, came under British protection in 1818.
The maharajah was eminently loyal during the
Mutiny, and was rewarded with an e.xtension of
territory. — The capital, Jeypore, is a walled city,
850 miles NW. of Calcutta and 149 NE. of
Ajniere by rail. It is a handsome and regularly-
built town, with the maliarajah's [lalace in the
centre, and is the most important commercial
centre of Rajputana. It was founded as late as
1728. The ancient and now deserted capital.
Amber, lies 5 miles to the NE. The commercial
business of Jeypore is chiefly banking aiul ex-
change, with a capital engageil of over £7,000,000.
In addition to the banks there are the maliarajah's
college, an industrial and economic museum, a
school of art, an observatory, a mint, the 'Mayo'
Hospital, and numerous temples and mosques,
besides the beautiful Ram Newas (4ardens ( 70 acres ).
Pop. (1881) 142,578; (1891) 158,905.
Jezreelites. or the New and L.\tter House
oi-' Israel, a religious sect founded in England by
a private soldier, James White (1840-85), who
adopted the name of James Jershoni Je/reel, and
|)rofessed to be a messenger from God, who.se
revidations to him are recorded in ' The Flying
Roll.' The head()uarters of the sect were at
(iillinghara. in Kent, where a temple, a c<dlege,
i.\;c. were jiartially built. Christ, they believed,
by his death redeemed only souls, and those souls
who have lived since Moses. For the salvation of
the soul belief ill the Gospel was suilicient ; the body
must be saved by belief in the Law. When Christ
conies to reign for his millennium He will be greeted
by the 144,000 (Rev. vii. 5-8), who will be endowed
with immortal bodies; to this chosen band the
members of the New and Latter House of Israel
aspire to belong. After the death of Queen Esther,
Je/.ieel's widow, in 1888, the sect decayed.
Jiiaiisi. a fortified town in (Jwalior state.
Central India. During the Mutiny of 1857 the
native garrison niiinlered all the Enro])eaiis. in
the following .\)iiil the place was recovered liy Sir
Hugh Rose. The town, till 1801 in the British
North-west Provinces, was in that year maile over
to (Jwalior. Pop. 28,00<J. — Close beside it, in the
British district of Jhansi, is the civil station and
military cantonment of Jhansi Naoabiul. Pop.
.'iiKJU. — The tlUtrivf of .Ihan.--i begins just oiilside
the native fortress of Jhansi, and is part ol the
divi.siun of AUahabail in the Northwest Provinces.
Area, lOiO sq. m. ; pop. ( 1891 ) 409,419.
334
JHELUM
JOAN
Jhelnin, or Jeiilasi, also called the Bitasta
(whence tlie ancient Hydaspes), one of the rivers
of the Punjab. It rises in the mountains of Cash-
mere, which conntrv forms its uiipor hasin, anil is
iiavi.'al)le for about 70 out of i:iO miles withm
that state. On emerging from the Himalayas
throu-'h the Baramula Pass, it again becomes
navigfible for small ciaft. About 250 miles froni
its source it enters the plains, ami, after a total
coui-se of 450 miles, joins the Chenab at Timnui.
On the banks of this river Avas fought the hattle
between Alexander tlie (4reat and Poras. The j
.IheluTu passes bv the towns of Srinajjar (Kasli-
mir), .Jelalpur, .jliehim, and Piiid Dadan Khan.
The Victoria railway bri<lge near Meeanee, opened
in 1SS7, is 4875 feet long. See Doab.— Jheluin
(Jehlam), town, cantonment, and administrative
headi|uarteis of Jehlam district (area, 3995 sq. m. ;
pop. ()09,0.5G), in the Punjab, stands on the Jehlam
(Jhelum) Kiver, and is an important entrei)ot of
trade. Pop. of town, with cantonment, 25,580.
Jib. See Sail.
Jiddnh, or Jeddah, a seaport of the Hedjaz,
Aialiia, stands im the Red Sea, about 65 miles
W. of Mecca. It is an unhealthy town, sutt'ers
greatly from want of water, anil is surrounded by
a desert. It owes its importance to the fact that
it is the port of Mecca, and consequently the place
of disembarkation for pilgrims (sometimes 100,000
in a year) l)0uiul for the holy city. Besides this it
hiis an active trade, which, however, has steadily
decreased, although it still amounts in value to
about £1,000,000 annually. The imports comprise
corn, sugar, metals, earthenware, manufactured
textiles, v<:c. ; and the exports consist chielly of
mother-of-pearl, hides, cotl'ee, balsams, dates, car-
pets, &c. Pop. ( 1891 ) 46,950.
Jig. See GlGA.
jijjjjer. See Chigoe.
Jilillll. SeeOxu-S.
Jilliena, or Ximkna, a town of Spain, 21 miles
N. of Oibraltar, has some remarkable caves and the
remains of a MoorLsh castle. Pop. 8500.
Jingo, explained by some a-s a corruption of St
Gingufph ; by others, of 'Jaiuko,' the lixsipie name
for The Supreme BeiuL'. Hence the familiar expres-
sions 'by Jingo' and 'by the living Jingo.' By
supportei-s of the Basque "etymology the expression
is alleged to have originated in Wales, whither
Edward I. is said to have had a party of Basque
t^oliliers conveyed during his Welsh wars ; but
'Hey Jingo' is first met with in literature in
( Hdham's Satirrs upuu the Jesuits ( 1679 ). Jingoism
is now understood to be a sort of British Chauvin-
ism, and in this aspect dates only from the Kus-so-
Turkish war of 1878. At the time there was a
strong anti- Russian feeling in London, and the most
popular music-hall song of the day was a sort of
doggerel threat against Russia, beginning :
Wc don't want to flglit, but by jingo if we do,
We 've got the ships, we 've got the men, we 've got the
money, too.
.linn. See DkiMoxoloov.
Jitoniir. See Zhitomir.
Joacliiin, Joseph, violinist, was born at
Kittsee, near Preshurg. im '28th June 1831, and
received his musical instructiim at Vienna and
Leipzig. He first appeared in London in 1H44.
His performances at Vienna, Pesth, Paris, ami
I,ondon have established for him the position of
one of the lirst violinists of the day. In power
and brillianrv of execution, and in the mechanical
lualities of jilaying, he is little if at all inferior to
iganiin. His works, which include overtures.
• juali
Paga
Hebrew meloilies, and other songs, and comi)<>si-
tions for the violin, are pervaded by the same
tenderness and depth of nmsical feeling that
characterise his playing. From 1850 he was
appointed concert director in Weimar, and from
18.54 in Hanover ; and in 1869 he became a member
of the senate of the Berlin Academy, and director
and professor in the Conservatory of Music. He
is a Mus. Doc. of Cambridge and a D.C. L. of
Oxford: and on 17th Match 1889, his jubilee,
was presented with a magnificent violin, and by
the German emperor with the Gold Medal for
Art.
Joacllinistlial. a mining town of Bohemia,
at an altitude of 2400 feet, on the southern slopes
of the Erzgebirge, 10 miles N. of Carlsbad. In the
16tli century the mines yielded large quantities of
siher : but the production of this mineral has
now dwindled down to less than 2.50 cwt. a year.
Besides silver the mines yield nickel, bismuth, and
uranium. There is a royal uranium factory. The
people manufacture tol>acco, gloves, lace, &c. The
first German thalers or dollars (see Dollar) were
coined here. Pop. 6628.
Joan. Pope, a fabulous personage long said to
have filled the papal chair as John A III._ for about
three years after the death of Leo IV. in 855.
According to the latest and accepted form of the
story, she was daughter of an English missionary,
and'was born at Mainz or Ingelheim. Forming an
illicit connection with a monk at Fulda, she put
on male attire and lied with him to Athens, where
her lover soon died. She then came to Rome,
where, from her remarkable learning, she became
in quick succession notary to the curia, cardinal,
and pope, until her sex "was discovered by the
premature and public birth of a child during a
solemn procession. This startling story was uni-
versally believeil and appealeil to in Italy from
1400 to about 1600 ; it appears in all the chronicles
within this period, and even so late as I.'mO is
found in the popular guide for strangers kno«n as
the Mirabilia Urhis Rmnce. Felix Hemmerlin,
Trithemius, Coccius Sabellicus, Raphael of Vcd-
terra, Pico di Mirandola, and Adrian of Utrecht
(afterwards Pope Adrian IV.) are all unanimous
in maintaining it, and indeed Aventine in (Jer-
many and Onufiio Panvinio in Italy were the
first "to shake the general belief in its truth. (Ine
of the severest blows delivered to the story was
given later by the hand of the learned Calvinist
David Blond'el, in his Fumilit.- A'e/aircissemeiit
( Amst. 1649 ). So unquestioned Wiis the stoi-y that
about the beginning of the 15th century the bust
of the female pope was placed in the cathedral of
Sienna, along with those of the other popes, ami
there it renuiined undisturbed till 1(100, when, at
the ie(|uest of Clement Vlll., Joan was meta-
morphosed into Pope Zacharias.
Baronius thought it a satire on John VIII. :
Aventine, Heumann, and Schriick, a satire on the
Pornocracy : the .lesuit Secchi, a calumny origin-
ating with the Greeks, just as Pagi and Eckliart
thought it did with the Wahlenses ; Leo .-\lhuius
l)elieved it to be ba,sed on the story of Thiota, a
false prophetess of the 9th century ; Leibnitz
thought it based on a simil.ar story that might
have happened in the case of some foreign bisho|i ;
while Blasco and Henke believed it a satirical
allegory on the origin and circulation of the false
decretals of Isidore— an absnnl theory developeil
still further by ( Ifnirer. Moslieim, Luden, and
Hase were unable to believe that so definite a
st<n-y could have arisen without some foundation ;
Kurtz, while saying that the historical eviilence
is valueless, regards it as an un.solved ridclle.
At length Dr Pidlinger disproveil all preceding
theories at once by showing that the myth origin-
ateil not in the (itli or lOtli century, as hitherto
JOAN
JOANNES DAMASCENUS 33o
believed, but was fii'sl put into writing in the
niiilille of tlie 13th ; and advanced the tlieory
tliat the story was deliherately originated by tlie
[•oiiiinicans and Minorites in the time of Benedict
VIII., a deadly foe to the two orders.
The story wa.s long .supposed to he mentioned by
Marianus Scotns (1028-86), but it does not occur
in his most ancient MSS. , nor vet in those of Sige-
bert of Genibloui-s ( 1030-1112)"or of Otto de Frey-
singen (died 1158). The first to give it currency is
the Dominican Stephen de Bourbon (died 1261 ), on
the authority of tlie lost or as yet undiscovered
M8. of his contemporary, the Dominican Jean de
Mailly. Thus the earliest account in writing is
discovered to be about the years 1240-50, from
which source it was transferre<l to works of history,
like the popular but worthless chronicle of the
Dominican Martinus I'olonus (died 1278). Yet
Pope .Joan does not appear in his oldest MSS. , and
the interpolation must have been made between
1278 and 1312. The main vehicle for circulating
the myth in Germany was the chronicle Flores
Tcmporum, which, connecteil with various names,
conies down to 1290, and is mainly a compilation
from Martinus Polonus. Again, the story was in-
serted In the so-called Aiidstri.'.-ius, the most ancient
collection known of biographies of the popes, but
here again it is a later addition. Soon after we
lind it in ^'an Maerlant's Historical Mirror, a
metrical Dutch chronicle, and in the Dominican
Tolonieo of Lucca, and later, in the 1-ith century,
in the Dominicans Bernard Guidonis, Leo of
( Irvieto, .John of Paris, and .lacobo de Acqui, as
well as in Occam the Minorite, the Greek Barlaam,
the English Benedictine Uanulph Higden, the
Augustinian Amahich Augerii, Boccaccio, and
Petrarch. About the close of the 13th century
the story spread with great rapidity, and in the
1.5th hardly any doubt shows itself at all. John
Huss, at the Council of ( 'otistanee, naturally enough
employed the jiontilicatK of .Joan as an .argument
without contr.adiction from either side; iind the
('hancellor Gerson, in a speech before Benedict
XIIL at Tarascon in 1403, uses the circumstance
.Ts a proof that the church could err in matters of
fact. The scholastic theologians accepted the fact,
and we KnJ so redoubtable a defender of papal
despotism as Cardinal Torrecreniata maintaining
it, so that the gibes of some busy compilers at
early Protestant writers for making much of so
unsavoury a story are but i<lle and ill infornie<i.
The Dominicans, from their numerous libraries,
might easily have exposed the fable, but, as we
have seen, they were actively instrumental in its
<lift'nsion instead. The story reached the Greeks
in the second half of the 15th century, and it is
to them we owe the revolting detail that the child
wa-s bom just as the woman was celebrating High
Mass. A Greek scholar, Emmanuel Rhoidis, in a
clever study ( Eng. trans, by C. H. Collette, 1886)
finds it impossible to believe th.at so well authen-
ticated a story could be without historical basis ;
anil indeed the chain of authoritative evidence is
exceedingly awkward for those disposed to attach
high credit to tradition in matters of belief.
Originally the woman is nameless, .and there are
many discrepancies ,alio\it her name (Agnes, (!il-
hert.a, .Joan), about the date, her place of birth
and previous abode, and the mode of the catas-
trophe. Four circumstances, .according to Dr
Diillinger, contributed especially to the i)roduction
and elaboration of the fable: (1) the former use
of ji pierced seat, popularly suptiosed to be a pre-
cautionary means of verifying the sex of a newly-
elected pope, but really .a practice symbolic of
taking pos.se.ssi<>n, the se.ats being merely bright mmI
tedes porphiiretirrr, from an ancient Roman b.alli ;
(2) a stone, with an unintelligible but ingeniously
misread inscription, popularly supposed to lie a
tombstone of the unhappy .Joan; (3) .a statue
found at the same spot, its long rolics being
gr.atuitously taken for the dress of a woman ; and
(4) the custom of making a circuit in papal pro-
cessions, wliendiy a street which w.as directly in
the way was avoided. The woman iii.ay have lieen
made of English blood from the odium attaching
to England because of the struggle between
Innocent HI. and King John ; and besides, many
Englishwomen made the ]iilgrimage to Rome,
while St Boniface, even in his day, complains not
only of their number, but their dubious character.
Her birth at the German city of Mainz might be
due to the inveterate German hostility to Rom.iii
claims, together with the fact that Mainz was the
leading city of Germany.
See Wensing, Orcr de Paiisin Johanna (Hague, 1845),
a destructive answer to another Dutch book niaintainiii;,'
tlie truth of the story, by Professor Kist (1843; 'M cl.
]8(»6), who thinks Pope Joan was probably the widow
of Leo IV. ; Biaiichi-Giovini, Esame Crilico deiili Alii
vclativi alia Papessa Giovanna (Milan, 1845) ; and
especially DolUnger, Die Papstfaheln des Mittelalttrs
(Munich, 1863 ; Eng. trans, by A. I*luiiinier, 1871), where
the historical evidence is examined and conclusively
demolished.
Joannes Daiuascenus. John Chrysorroa-s
( ' the goldeti-tiowing ' ) of Dama.scus, a great theolo-
gian and hymn-writer of the Eastern Church, « as
born at Damascus, it is said, in 676, but certainly
before the end of the 7th century, of a Christian
family of distinction in this city, known by the
Arabic surname of Mansour. He was carefully
educated, together with his adopted brother Cos-
mas, by the learned Italian monk Cosmas, mIio had
been brought a slave to Damascus, and is said
to ha\e been called to the ottice of vizier to the
reigning calif. He replied in quick succession
to the iconoclastic measures of Leo the Isauriaii
with two memorable addresses in which he \igoi
ously defended the practice of image-worshii). His
biographer John, patriarch of Jerusalem ( 10th cen
tury), tells us that Leo, unable to reach his formid-
able antagonist by open means, caused a treason-
able letter to be forged, in consequence of which
John's hand was struck off by order of the calif,
but after a night of prayer to the Virgin miracu-
lously restored. It is cert.ain that his later years
were spent in a monastery, that of St Sabas near
Jerusalem, wdiere we are told he mortilied his flesh
with ascetic practices of unusual severity. Here
he found leisure and inspiration to write his learned
works and his religious poetry, was ordained a
priest, and died soon after 754.
His chief Greek works are Funs Seintfia', a group
of three works, together forming an eiicyclopa?dia of
t'hristian theolog)' ; De Imafjiaibus Orationes III. ; De
Recta Senteiitia Litter, a formal profession of faith ;
Contra Jacohitas ; Diaiorjus contra Manictiaeos ; Di»pn-
tatio Christiani et Saraceni ; Dt Drttconibns tt Striiiiihn^,
in which he combats popular superstitions; De Dtiahits
in C'/triitto Votunt(ttibus, an attack on Monophysite and
Monothelite heresy; Adversus Negtoriaiws ; Loci Selecti
ifi Kpistotas S. Paidi, mostly from the homilies of St
Chrysostom ; Sacra Paratlela, consisting of passages
from Holy Writ illustrated by parallel passages from
Scripture and the Fathers ; HomUixe, thirteen in
number ; Carmina, including both canons or prose
hymns and metrical hymns; and Vila JSarlaam il
Joasaph, his most famous work, now known to be a
(hsguised version of the life of ]!uddlia. Of .bdni's
Canons the noblest is that for Easter, beginning, in
Neale's translation, *'Tis the day of Hesurrectioii ; Eartli,
tell it out abroad.' Other hymns known to Englishiiien
through the same translator are * Those eternal bowers, '
* Take the last kiss, the last forever,* and 'Come ye faith-
ful, raise the strain.' The first adequate edition of the
works of .Joannes Damascenus was that of the Dominican
Michael Lc Quien (2vol.s. folio, Paris, 1712). This was
330 JOANNES DAMASCENU8
JOAN OF ARC
re|>riiit«il at Venice m 1748, and is the basis of the edition
in Migne's PatruUt(iia ( 3 vols. 1S64 ).
See the articles Baui.aam and Josaphat, and Hymns ;
also Dr Xeale's Hiiinns of the Eastern Church (1870), and
Dr Josepii Langen's adniirable book, Johaiiuf-i von
Oamtiskus (Gotha, 1879); also the Kev. J. H. LniJton's
St John of Damascus (1882), in tlie ' Fathers for English
Keaders.'
•loau of Art' (Fr. Jeanne dArc), tlie Maid
of (dleans, one of the most stiikiug figures that
e\er crossed the stage of liistorv, was born of poor
hut devout parents, in the village of Douiremy,
near Vaucouieur.-, on the liordcrs of Lorraine and
Champagne, Gth January 1412. Like other maidens
of her rank she was taught to sew and spin, not to
read and write; and in tlie i|uietness of her country-
life slie grew up tall and handsome iu form, sweet
and womanly lu nature, unlike the other guls
around her only in her greater modesty, industry,
and devotion. Her reli''ious faith was ardent almost
from her cradle; she loved to he alone, and she
brooded in her waking dreams over the Bible story
and the legends of the saints, until the.se V)ecame
as real to her as they were to St Teresa. The cold
abstraction of patriotism she never discovered for
herself, but she mourned with passionate prayers
and tears over the sorrows of down-trodden France,
until these prayers took real .shapes, and returned
to her witii form and sound as messages from
heaven. And thus there gradually grew up within
her heart the conviction that she bad been chosen
by (4od to do a special work of deliverance for her
country. At thirteen, the noon of a summer's
day, she first saw a light and heard an audible
voice from heaven, and her terror gradually dis-
apjieared as these signs were repeatedly vouchsafed
and became dear and familiar to her. St Michael,
St Catharine, and St Margaret bent over her and
wldspered in her ears her heavenly mission, and
though calm to outward eyes, henceforward she
li\ed an inward life apart, given to God and her
saints. During that unhappy time of national
degradation a prophecy, ascriljed to Merlin, was
current in Lorraine, that the kingdom lost by a
woman (Queen Isabell.-i) should be saved by a
\irgiii, and no doubt this, together with her visions,
helped to deline her mission to the broodiui' and
fiithusiastic mind of the young peasant girl. 'I
liad far rather rest and spin uy my mother's
siile,' she said with simple pathos, 'for this is no
work of my choosing, but I must go and do it, for
my Lord wills it.' Her story was at lirst laughed
to .scorn, but her persistence bore down all oppo-
sition, and at last she succeeded in making her
way to the Daujihin and convincing him by secret
signs of her sincerity. ' There is more in God's
book than in yours,' she said to the douliting and
hesitating theologians. She put on male dress and
a suit of white armour, mounted a black charger,
bearing a banner of her own device — white, em-
liroidered with lilies, on one side a picture of God
enthroned on idouds, on the other the shield of
France, supporleil by two angels, together with a
pennon on which was represented the Annuncia-
tion. Her sword was one that she divined would
be found buried behind the altar in the church of
St Catharine de Fierbois. Thus ei|uipped she put
herself at the head of an army of (iUOO men,
•lictated a letter to the Knglish, and advanced to
aid Dunois in the relief of Orleans, which was hard
he.set by the victoriinis enemy. Her arrival lired
the fainting hearts of the French with a new enthu-
siiism, and rough ami hanlened .Mililiers left oil' their
oaths and their deliaucberv under the spell of her
imre pre.sence. On the 2!Hli April 1429 she threw
lierseif into the city, and, after lifteen days of light-
ing, the Knglish were compelleil to rai.se the siege
an<l retreat, carrying with them the tale of terror
at the strange witchcraft by which they had been
overcome. At once the face of the w ar was changed,
the French spirit again awoke, and within a week
the enemy were swept from the prinii]ial positions
on the Loire. Amiii the carnage anil confusion of
her strange surroumlings, Joan showed the same
purity, simplicity, and good sense that h;ul marked
the village girl. She shrank with womanly tears
from the sight of bloodshed, and trembled with
terror at her tirst wound, while the brutal taunts of
the English soldiers stung her purity to the heart,
and drew hot tears of indignation from her eyes.
But all thoughts of self were lost in devotion to her
mission of w liich heaven had given such infallible
proofs, and iu)w, with resistless enthusiasm, slie
urged on the weak-hearted Dauphin to his corona-
tion. Less than three months later she stood
beside him at Klieims, and with tears of joy saluted
him as king. ' Would it were God's pleasure,' she
said to the archbishop, ' that I might go and kei'p
.sheep once more with my sisters and my brothers :
they would be so glad to see me again.' But
hea\en had reserved for her its highest honour —
to set the martyr's crow n upon her brow.
Joan could not infuse her spirit into the hesitat-
ing coward and his corrupt courtiers, and she
wore out her heart with vexation as she .saw the
work of heaven prevented by the unworthiness
of man. She continued to accompany the French
armies, and wa,s present in many conllicts, anil was
mortiiieil to the heart by the failure to carry Paris.
At length, on the 24th May 1430, she threw- herself
with a handful of men into Compiegne, which was
then besieged by the forces of Burgundy ; and,
being driven back by them in a desperate sally,
was left behind by her men, taken prisoner, and
sold to the English by John of Lu.xembourg, in
November, for 10,000 livres. In December she wirs
carried to Kouen, the head<iuarters of the English,
heavily fettered and Hung into a gloomy |irison,
and at length arraignetl before the spiritual
tribunal of Pierre Cauchon, then Bishop ot lieau-
vais and a wretched creature of the English,
as a sorceress and a heretic, while the dastard
she had crowned a king left her to die. Hei
trial w;is long, and wius disgraced by every form
of shameful brutality, under hardly even the forms
of justice. Day after day a host of learned doctors
tortured her simple heart with tortuous questions,
the aim of w liicb was to get their victim to con-
denm herself. Even through the tintrustworthy
forms iu which they are recmded for us her
answei-s show forth the noble simplicity of very
truth. Innumerable <|uestions on the nature of
her visions were answered with the same calmness
and strength, cand her judges were for very shame
driven to linish the interrogations in private,
and to resort to the nameless infamy of sending
Nicholas Loyseleur, a pretcndeil confessor, to draw
matter for her condemnation from the most sacred
conlidences of religion. In the judgment she was
found guilty of .sacrilege, profanation, disobedience
to the church, pride, and idolatry, and the formal
condemnation was conveyed in twelve articles.
The judges did not disallow the possibility of
heavenly visions, but they declared those of Joan
to be illusions of tlu- devil. They were now ready
to send her to her doom, but they wished lirst to
force her to an abjuration in order to degrade her in
public opinion, ami they tortureil her by altermile
threats ami promises, until the bewildered girl at
length declared that she submitted to the church,
ami blindly subscribed everything they asked of her.
They then condemned her to ])erpetual imprison-
ment, and forced her again to put on woman's
dress. But it was far from being meant that she
should escape the lire. As she lay iu her cell
overwhelmed with self-reproach and despair, and
JOB
337
denied what she most longed for and liad heen
solemnly iironiised — the eucharist, she Wiis sub-
jected to new indignities from the brutality of her
guards, who stripiied her of her woman s dress,
so that to protect her chastity she was compelled
again to put on the forbidden dress she had laid
;i.side. This was at once made the "rounds for a
charge tliat she had relapsed, and she was with-
out delay brought again to the stake. May 30,
1431. The woman's tears dried upon her cheeks,
and slie faced her doom with the triumphant
courage of the martyr, declaring that she knew
her revelations were from God, and that she had
only submitted through fear of the lire. Her con-
fessor to the last held up the cross before her eyes,
and in the midst of the flames that wrapped her
round she ceased not to repeat the sacred name of
Jesus, anil to invoke his saints ; a last time she
was heard to exclaim ' Jesus,' then her head sank
down : she had finished her prayer in heaven. So
perished the great uncanonised saint of France,
leaving an ineffaceable stain upon English honour.
But Joan's mission was accomplished, and by the
enthusiasm that she awoke the English were driven
from the sacred soil of France. Twenty-five years
after her death Pope Calixtus III. acceded to the
prayer of her mother and her brothers (who had
been ennobled under the name De Lys), that the
process by which she was condemned should be re-
examined. After a careful inquiry the finding was
that the twelve articles on which her sentence was
baseil were false, and that therefore the whole pro-
ceedings of the Bishop of Beauvais were null and
voiil. The judgment was publicly declared on the
spot, in the marketplace of Kouen, on which she
sull'ered. But long before this she had been en-
shrined a saint in the popular imagination, which
read the wrath of heaven into the sudden end that
had quickly come to every one connected with the
trial. Inileed, the people had been slow to accept
the fact that the maid was actually dead, and at
first readily believed in the impostor who arose in
Lorraine five years later.
The story of Joan has been a rich motlTe in the world
of art, from the honest mediocrity of the youthful
Soutliey and the noble tragic sense of Schiller to the
heartless ribaldry of Voltaire and the fantastic mummery
of .Sarah Bernhardt. Painter and sculptor have spent
their genius on the theme without a.s yet adequately
realising its simple grandeur. See Quicherat's elaborate
work, Proces de Coiidemnation tt Rehabilitation de Jeanne
d^Arc (5 vols. 1841-49) ; the books by Michelet, Henri
Martin, and Joseph Fabre ; the iconoclastic paradox of
Lesigne (1889), H. Wallon's richly-illustrated Jeanne
d: Arc (ith ed. 1883), Janet Tuckey's sketch (1880), and
works by Blaze de Bur>' (1889), Lancry (1889), Sorel
(1889), Marenholtz (18!X)), AyroUes (lsyO-94), Lord
Ronald Gower ( 1893 ), and Mrs Oliphant ( 1890 ). For the
literary development, see Kmnmer ( 1874 ) ; and for tlie
military (juestion, Jlarin's,^fan»c d'Arc Strattijiale ( 1889 ).
Job. The Book of Job is so called from the
nann' of tlie man who.se history is the subject of it.
In Hebrew the name is lyyob, of which no certain
exphanation has been given. As it now exists, the
book consists of five parts : ( 1 ) The prohigue,
chaps, i.-ii. This tells us of a man called Job in
tlie land of Uz, who was ' perfect and upright,
fearing God, and eschewing evil.' The man's
worldly prosperity wa-s in correspon<Ience with his
godlilu,--^. In tiie council of lieaven the disin-
terestedness of his religion was called in question
by the a<lversary, who successively receives per-
mLssion lirst to deprive him of all liLs possessions
and 1hii',iv(! him oi his children, ami secomllv, to
atilict him in his person with a frightful malady.
In spite of these alHictions JoV) liolds fast his
integrity: 'In all this Job sinned not.' Hearing
of his calamities, his three friends auiong the
neighbouring emirs come to condole with him. In
28'2
the presence of his friends Job loses his self-posses-
sion, and breaks out into a iiiussionate complaint,
lamenting that he had ever been born (iii.).
(2) The debate between Job and his friends,
chaps, iv.-xxxi. Both the tone and the senlinuMits
of Job's complaint seem wrong to his friends, and
this feeling on their part initiates a debate between
them and Job upon the meaning of his atllictions,
which widens out into a general ili.scussion of the
causes and purposes of evil and atlliction in God's
providence. The theory of the friends is tliat
affliction implies previous commission of sins on
the part of the sufferer, though in the case of a
good man, such as Job, it is not punitive but dis-
ciplinary, meant to wean him from evil still cling-
ing to him ; they therefore exhort him to repent-
ance, and hold up a bright future before him. Job
denies that his sufferings are due to sin, of which
he is innocent ; God wrongly holds him guilty and
afflicts him. And here the dispute with his friends
works into the problem raised by Satan, whether
Job would renounce God to his face. Under the
insinuations of his friends, which, with his con-
sciousness of innocence, left him no escajie but
deny the rectitude of God, Job is almost driven to
openly disown God. Though stopping short of
this, he reaches the conclusion, supported not only
by his own history but by much which can be seen
in the world, that there is not that necessary con-
nection between sin and suffering which the friends
insisted on. The discussiim between Job and his
friends consists of three circles of speeches : ( 1 )
chaps, iv.-xiv. ; (2) chaps, xv.-xxi. ; (3) chaps.
xxii.-.xxxi. Each of these circles consists of six
speeches, one by each of the friends with a reply
from Job. In the last circle, however, the third
disputant, Zopliar, fails to speak. This is a con-
fession of defeat ; and Job, left victor in the strife,
resumes his parable, protesting before heaven his
innocence, and adjuring God to reveal to him the
cause of his afflictions.
(3) The speeches of Elihn, chaps, xxxii.-xxxvii.
A youthful bystander, named Elihu, who hitherto
had been a silent listener to the debate, here inter-
venes, expressing his dissatisfaction both with Job
and his friends. He is shocked by Job's irrever-
ence in charging God with unrigiiteousness, and
indignant that the friends have not brought for-
ward such arguments as to show him to be in the
wrong. His abhorrence of Job's sentiments is even
greater than that of the three friends, from whose
theories of evil he differs mainly in giving greater
prominence to the idea that affliction is disciplinary
and proceeds from the goodness of God. (4) The
words of the Lord out of the storm, chap, xxxviii.-
xlii. 6. In answer to Job's repeated demand that
God would apjiear and solve the riddle of bis
sufferings the Lord speaks out of the tempest. lie
does not refer to Job's problem directly, but in a
series of splendid pictures from the material crea-
tion and animated nature he makes all his glory
to pass before Job. The sufi'erer is humbled and
silent. Such thoughts of God bring him b;u-k
to the right |)ositi(in of man before the Creator
— he repents his former words in dust and ashes.
(5) The epilogue, chap. xlii. 7-17. Job having
humbled himself before God, and attained to a
fuller knowledge of bim, is restored to a jnosperity
double that which he enjoyed before, and dies old
and full of days. With the exception of the dis-
courses of Elihu, the connection of which with the
poem in its original form is liable to dcuibt, all
these live ])arts appear original elements of the
book, though some of them may contain expansions
of a later date.
The traditional view among the Jews was that
the Book of Job was strictly historical. Pissen-
tients from this view, however, are referred to in
338
JOB
the Talmud, where a rabbi is alhuletl to who had
said : ' A Job existed nut, and was not created ; he
is a parable.' And Maiinonides (died 1204) ex-
pressed the opinion that ' Job is a parable, meant
to exhibit the views of mankind in regard to
I'rovideuce.' In the Christian church also the
previiiliuf,' opinion was that tlie book contained
literal history. Luther, however, while admitting
a basis of history, was of opinion that the history
had been poetically treated. He says in his Tahlc-
talk: ' 1 hold the Book of Job to be real history ;
but that everything so liappened and was so done
I do not believe, but think that some ingenious,
]iious, and learned man composed it as it is.' This
is perhaps the prevalent oi)inion in modern times,
tliough there are many scholars, some of them be-
longing to the most conservative scliool of criticism,
sucli as Hengstenberg, who hold that the poem is
a pure creation of the author's mind witli a didac-
tic purpose and without any historical foundation.
That the poem is not strict history is shown by
the many ideal elements contained in it — e.g. the
heavenly council (chap, i.-ii. ; cf. 1 Kings, xxii. 19);
the addresses put into the mouth of the Almighty
(xxxvlii.-xlii. ) ; the symbolical numbers, ilircc and
seven, used to describe Job's flocks and his children
( i. 2-3 ) ; and the profound thought and elaborate
imagery in the various speeclies, which, so far from
being the extem|Mnaneous utterances of three or
four persons casually brought together, could only
be the leisurely production of a writer of the
highest genius. On the other hand, it is not so
probable that a work of such extent and written
at the comparatively early date to which the book
belongs should be i)nrely poetical invention. The
reference to Job in Ezekiel (xiv. 14), which can
hardly be to our present book, suggests that there
was a well-known tradition which represented Job
as a man famed for pietv in ancient times. This
tradition the author of the book laid hold of and
no doubt embellished with many details in order
to convey through it the lessons in regard to Pro-
vidence which it was his object to teach.
Students of the book have not found it easy to
dispose all its contents under a single conception,
and some writers, as Bleek, have contented them-
selves with stating some lessons which it obviously
teaches. The prologue, for instance, shows how
even pious men may be visited with severe afflic-
tions, which i.t is wrong to consider due to special
sins on their part, or to regard as signs of God s dis-
pleasure. -Again, the course of the debate, taken
in connection with the divine .speeches from tlie
storm-cloud, suggests that it is presumption in man
to pass judgment on CJod's providence, which it is
beyond human wisdom to comprehend, man's true
wisdom lying in fearing the Lord and reverent
submission even amidst intellectual darkness and
perplexity. This second truth may bo said to be
the burden of the words of the Almighty spoken
out of tlie storm-clouil, an<l many writers have
concluded that this truth, taught l>y God himself,
must be just the lesson intended by the book.
This view, however, neglects entirely the light
given to the reader in the prologue, and also Job's
restoration narrated in the epilogue, and indeed
the M'hole debate between .lob and his frien<ls. A
just theory of the purpose of the book must take
account ot all its elements. Now, first, the books
of Scrinture have mostly a practical aim, and are
directed to the instruction of Israel as a peoide
in special circumstances. The circumstances cfis-
closed by the book are those of great distress and
perple.\ity in regard to the ways of providence
arising out of this distress. Job, though repre-
sented ns an individu.al, must be regarded as a
type of the sull'ering righteous, or it may be of
Israel. His history, with the lessons it teaches,
are the lessons which Israel slionld comfort itself
with in its circumstances of atfliction. Now, these
lessons partly come out in the debate with the
three friends and partly in the history of Job's
mind, his perplexity, return to faith, and restora-
tion. When the great calamity of tlie downfall of
the state befell Israel the proijhetic view that it
was due to the sin of the peoide was accepted, and
was sufficient when the state as a unity was con-
sidered. But many pious individuals sullered for
sins of which they had not been guilty, and, as in
this age the position and worth of the individual
began to rise into prominence, tliis fact occasioned
perplexity in regard to the o])eraticm of Proviilence.
Further, wdien the exile was prolonged and a new
generation arose, innocent of the sins of a former
age, and yet involved in its punishment, this per-
plexity increased, and questions began to be asked
whether the view that sufferings were always due
to previous sin was suHicient. This is the question
in debate between Job and his friends. Tliey
maintained the attirmative, while Job dissented,
founding on his own history and on much that he
could perceive in the world. When the author of
the book allows Job to put his friends to silence,
we may infer that it was his i)urpose to teach that
the ancient view left much unexiilained, and was
not a solution applicable in all cases. And when
in the prologue he exhibits the case of an upright
man attlicted as a trial of his ujirightness ; and in
the body of the book the man in spite of much
doubt and even sinful frailty holding fast liLs
integrity ; and then in the eidlogue the same man,
victorious in his faith and more reverent in his
submission to God, crowned with double ]iros-
perity, we may infer that it w.-is his design to
teach Israel that sutl'erings may be a trial of the
righteous, which, if reverently borne, will lift them
up into fuller knowledge of God, and therefore into
more assured peace and felicity. This is the lesson
which he desires to teach Isiael amidst its sorrows
and the perplexities occasioned by them.
Objections have been made to llie (niginality of
the prologue and epilogue which have little weight.
Among modern scholars the |ircvailing view is
that the speeches of Elihu ( .\xxii.-xxxvii.) are an
insertion of a later date. 'I'liis view rests on such
facts as these : that Elihu is not mentioned either
in the prologue or epilogue ; that Job makes no
reply to him, nor is he referred to in the divine
answer from the storm-cloud ; that he betrays a
mannerism which looks like the creation of a diller-
ent author ; that the language of his speeches is
less pure Hebrew than the rest of the book ; and
that his strong repugnance to the, iireverence of Job,
and his more profoniul sense of man's sin and the
goodness of God, belong to a later age than the
original book. The section is of great interest and
significance in a religions point of view. There are
other pjwsages — e.g. chap, xxviii., which it is
ditiicult to fit into the general scope of the book,
and a good many passages are wanting in the
original form of the Greek version.
The age of the Book of J(d) must not be ccm-
founded with the age of Job himself. Job is
assumed to have lived in the l'alii;iicbal period,
the colours of which the author has skilfully tliinwu
over his composition. The author, however, is an
Israelite, whose work is a reflection of the religious
life and religious thought of Israel. Two general
facts point to the age of the exile as the period to
which the book belongs : first, the condition of
great disorder and misery which forms the back-
ground of the jioeiii (ix. 24 ; xii. (i : \xiv. 12, ^.c.) ;
and sec(Uidly, the di.scussions on I'lovidence and
the relation of sull'ering to the righteous, which
reveal a condition of perplexity in men's minds
occasioned by the miseries of the capti\ity. Other
JOBS TEARS
JOHANNESBURG
339
thin^ also point to the same jieiiod — e.j;. tlie very
liighly dereloiied doctrine regarding God, wliich is
paralleled only in Isa. xl.-lxvi., and the later
psalms ( Ps. cxxxix. ) ; the inwardness of the moral-
ity inculcated (e.g. chap. xxxi. ); and the general
aliinity of the book in thought and language with
writings of the exile age. Job iii. is probably
dependent on Jer. xx. 14 scq. The author of the
book is altogether xinknown. It was only the
projdiets who usually put their names to theu-
writings.
The lit^erature is verv copious, comprising A. Schultens
(1737); Umbreit (1S32); Hirzel-Olshausi-n-DiUiuann,
Exeffi't. Handbuch (lS39-<iO); Stickel (1S42); Schlott-
mann (ISol); Benan (1859); Delitzsch, Ewald (both
trans. ) ; Hitzig ( 1874) ; Cox (1880); Davidson ( Cambridge
Bible for schools, 1884); Bradley ( 1887 ) ; Froude, S)u}H
StuditA (vol. i. ) ; Budde, Beitrdye zur Kritik d. B, Hiub
(1870) ; Grill, Zar Kritik d. B. Hiob (1890).
Job's Tears {Coix lachri/ma), a corn-plant of
India. It is a grass, sometimes rising to the height
of eight feet, with the stout habit of maize, to
which also it is botanically allied. The name is
derived from the tear-like form of the hard, shining,
bluish-white seeds, which are sometimes made into
bracelets and necklaces, and are also an article of
fooil. Though one of the woi-st of the cereals,
it lias l)ecome almost naturalised in Spain and
Portugal.
Jocelin de Brakcloilde, a Benedictine monk
at Buiy St Edmunds, who held successively the
offices of abbot's chaplain and almoner, wrote a
domestic chronicle of his abbey from 1173 to the
year 1202, and died about 1211. This is the famous
Chronica Jocelini de Brakclunda, edited by J. (J.
Kokewode for the Camden Society in 1S40, which
gave Carlyle the inspiration out of which grew
Paiit and Present, one of the happiest of his works.
The admiration of this simple and veracious 13th-
century monk for his superior. Abbot Sampson,
touched the sympathetic imagination of the great
IDthcenlurj- cliampion of hero-worship, with whose
masterpiece Jocelin 's name will remain for ever
inalienably linked.
Jockey Club. See Hokseracing.
Jodeln. a peculiar manner of singing with the
falsetto voice in harmonic progressions, practised
by the Tyrolese and the Swiss.
Jodhpur, or M.4RWAR, the largest in area of the
Rajputana states, containing 37,000 sq. m. ; and
the .second in population (2,521,727 in 1891 ). Agri-
culture generally is in a backward condition,
.ind there are few manufactures save of salt from
the Sambhar lake, half in Jodhpur and half in
Jeypore (q. v. ). There are no railways, but one
good road traverses the state. Education is
neglected. The climate is remarkably dry, and
the difference of temperature between night and
day ver>' great. Jodhpur was taken under British
protection in 1818, paying a tribute of jtlO.OOO a
vear, and ijrovidin" a 'contingent' of native horee.
Yhe country was ill governed ; and the contingent
joined the mutineers in 1857. — The capital city
of the state, Jodhpur, founded in 1459, is of little
interest. Tlie marked dill'erence between Jodhpur
and the adjacent state of Jeypore (q.v.) is very
interesting.
Joel, the second in order of the twelve minor
prophet.s. He is designated in i. 1 as the son of
retnuel, or (as it is given in most of the ancient
versions) liethuel, but of his personal history
nothing us told. It can be inferred, however, from
his l)ook, with a high degree of probability amount-
ing almost to certainty, that lie lived in or near
Jerusalem considerably after the exile. The IJook of
Joel falls into two distinct parts, the separateness
of which is obscureil for readers of the Authorised
English Version by the use of futures instead of
preterites in ii. 18, \9n : the passage is correctly
given in narrative form in the Revised Version.
The tirst part, addressed by the pro|)het in his own
name to his contemporaries, relates to a jiresent
plague of locusts an<l the calamities causeil by it ;
1. 2 — ii. 11 describes with vivid hyperbolical imagery
the dire invasion which threatens the destruction
of the country and the arrival of the final consum-
ing judgment known as 'the day of Jehovah;' in
ii. 1'2-17, speakin": in the name of Jehovah, he
summons the people to a solemn fast at the sanc-
tuary and the priests to intercessory prayer. The
second part contains Jehovah's answer, prefaced
by the words already referred to : ' Then was the
Lord jealous for his land, and had jjity on bis
people : and the Lord answered and said unto his
people.' Fii-st, a promise of fruitful seasons to
make up for the ravages of the locusts is given
(ii. 19-'26); this is followed by the promise of the
outpouring of the Spirit on all the Jews and even
upon their servants, and the linal coming of the
day of the Lord, which is to issue in a divine judg-
ment upon their heathen enemies in the valley of
Jeho.shaphat ('Jehovah judgeth ') and in the iinal
establishment of Jerusalem as a ludy city, the
centre of fertility to the surrounding land (ii. 27 —
iii. 21 ). The style of Joel is regarded by scholars
as elegant and pure rather than original ; his pro-
phetic conceptions are largely modelled on those
of older prophets from Amos to Ezekiel. Until
recently, indeed, the prevailing inclination of critics
was to assign an early date to the book, most of
them placing it in the minority of .Joasli, king of
Judah, because the priests, and not a king, appear
as heads of the commonwealtli. But this goes
better with the post-exilic date, to which other
features in the prophecy clearly point. The dis-
persion of Israel is alluded to in iii. 1, 2; Judah
arid the people of Jehovah are regarded as synony-
mous ; and the reference to the slave-trade with
the Grecians is inconsistent with an early date.
Ancient and medieval interineters commonly ttxjk
the locusts in Joel's prophecy figuratively or alle-
gorically, and the same view has been argued for,
though by no means convincingly, by some recent
scholars. There are separate commentaries on the
Book of Joel by Credner (1831), Wiinsche (1872),
and Merx (1879). See also the commentaries on
the minor prophets mentioned under H(JSE.\.
Joe Miller's Jests. See Jest-books.
Johanna, one of the islands of the Comoro
(q.v.) group.
Johannesburg, the chief town and mining
centre of tlie Transvaal goldlields, is situated about
6(X)0 feet above sea-level, 298 miles NE. of Kim-
berley, and 350 miles N. of Ladysmith. Railway
connecticm, completed in 1892, brought Johannes-
burg within BO hours' journey of Capetown : and it
is now connected also with Port Elizabeth (714
miles), Durban (437 miles), and Limienco Manpiez
on Delagoa Bay ( 396 miles ). In 1886 the Transvaal
government proclaimed certain farms on the famous
Reef of Witwatersrandt as public goldlields ; and
the ground <m which Johannesburg now stands
was selected as the site of the new station
or town. From the time of the foundation (IHS7)
the town and the mining industrj' grew raniilly.
Ill 189.5-96 it became the scene of the struggles nf
the Uitlanilers to extort politicjil and other rights
from the Boer government (interrupted by the
Jameson (q.v.) raid of January 18SI6), which
eventually resulted in the war of 1899-191X1, and
the annexation of the Transvaal and (Jiaiigo
Free State as British colonies. A dreadful dyna-
mite explosion wrecked part of the town in
1896. As vet in 1890 (with poji. of 60,()(K>) the
340
JOHANNISBERG
JOHN
streets were not lii^lited, and only the concession
for paving tlie jirincipal street liaJ been granted.
The government buildintcs consist of the post and
telegraph ollices, and the niiningcommissioner's
and the landrost's (magistrate's) otiices, &C. Fine
hanks, oluirches, hotels, clnb-houses, with shops
and private houses, and a niagnihcent stock
exchange have been erected. The climate is, or
would be very healthy, were not the sanitary con-
ditions so unsatisfactory, and were it not for the
freijuent terrible dust-storms, in consequence of
winch fevers and pneumonia are often prevalent.
The neighbourhood of Johannesburg is delightful,
and villas and line suburban houses are springing
up. The ]i(ipulation at the census of Jul}- 1S9G
was 102,714, of whom olj'i-Jo were whites.
See Tka>;sv.\al ; Thomas, Jofuiiiittsburcf in Arma
(ls;i6); Manii, The Truth (r',m Juhuitnesburg (1897).
Johanilisbi'rg:, a village of Prussia, overlook-
ing the Rhine, 1.3 miles WSW. of M'iesbaden. It
has a hydropathic, and manufactories of pianos and
printing-presses, but is noteworthy chietly for its
castle (17'2'2-3'2), the property of the Metteniich
family, and the famous vineyards (3S acres) on the
castle hill, producing the choice JohannisOcrgcr
white wine. Pojj. 1316.
John, the Apostle, son of Zebedee and younger
brother of James, was a Galilean fisherman, prob-
ably a native of liethsaida. From Matt, xxvii. 56,
compared with Mark, xv. 40, it is jirobable that
Ids mother was Salome, whom some infer from
John, xix. 25, to have been the sister of the mother
of Jesus. In the synoptic gospels James and John,
like Peter and Andrew, receive their call to the
discipleship while engaged in their daily occupa-
tion by the sea of Galilee, ami the surname 'Sons
of Thunder ' is conferred on them liy the Master.
Henceforward John is always mentioned as one
of 'the twelve,' and generally figures also as a
member of an inner circle of disciples, of which
only his brother James and Peter are members
besides himself. In the fourth gospel John is not
mentioned by name, liut ancient as well as modern
expositors identify him with tlie coni|)anion of
Andrew, who lirst became acciuainted with Jesus
at Hetliany, beyond Jorilan, while he attended John
the Baptist as a disciple, and forthwith attached
himself to him, Anilrew and Peter becoming dis-
ciples of Jesus at the same time. John is further
identilied with the 'other disciple' who in John
xiii. 23, xxi. 7, 20 is distinguished as the disciple
'whom Jesus loved.' This expression is usually
taken to imply an exceptional sweetness and lovable-
ness of character in John : but what we read in the
Synoptists shows that, originally at least, he must
have been somewhat passionate, narrow, and
ambitious. After the ascension of Jesus John
seems to liave remained in Jerusalem, where he
still was when Paul visited that city for the
.second time after his conversion (Gal. ii. 9). He
does not appear to have iieen there at the time
of the last visit of the apostle of the Gentiles, about
58 A.U., and his subsequent history is involved in
the greatest obscurity. A chronicler of the 9th
century, (ieorgios Hamartolos, claims to have read
in the now no longer extant works of I'apias that
John was slain by the Jews like his lirotlier .lames ;
and that he dieil a violent <leath is apparently im-
)j|i('d also in a pa.ssage from Heracleon preserved l)y
Clement of Alexandria. I5ut general ecclesiastical
tradition from the lime of Justin (about 150 .\.D.) has
identilied him with the .autlior of the Apocalypse
(see KKVlil.A'rioN ), and from that of IreiM'Us (c. 175
A.l>.)ha.s re]>resentcd him as sjiending the closing
years of his ministry at Ephesus, anil dying there
at an advanced age, after liaving written not only
the Apocalypse but also the Gospel and the three
Epistles which bear liis name. The authenticity
of^ this tradition as to liLs having ever lived in
Ephesus has been challenged by many critics, who
hold that it rests on a confusion made by Iren;eus
between John the apostle and a certain John ' the
elder' or ' presbyter, 'a disciple of the Lord,' men-
tioned by Pai)ias as distinct from the apostle. For
the negative view they also urge the silence of the
New Testament ( Acts, Eph., Pastoral Epp., 1 Pet.),
of the Apostolic Fathers, of Justin, and of Hege-
sippus, and others. For the literature of the
question, see the works mentioned below, under
John (Go.spel according to).
John. Epistles of. Of the three canonical
epistles ascribed to the apostle John, the first is
not in form an epistle, but a warm jiractical horta-
tory treatise b;ised on the theological principles of
the fourth gospel, with warnings against IJocetic
and Antinomian gnosis. The seconil and third
are short letters of an occa-sional character,
addressed to individuals — unless indeed the ' elect
lady ' of 2 John be a figurative title for a church, a
view which has great probability and has found
very large acceptance among modern interpreters.
The firet e.xpress mention of epistles as written by
John the Apostle is in the Muratorian Canon (about
170 .\.D. ), which quotes 1 John i. 1, and elsewhere
enumerates two under his name. From the time
of Origen 2 John and 3 John were classed among
the books of the canon whose authenticity was
disputed ; Eusebiiis and Jerome attribiited them
to John 'the Presbyter,' as distinguished from
John the Apostle, and this view has been followed
by many modern writers, beginning with Era-^mus.
On the internal evidence critics are for the most
part agreed that 1 John has the same author as
the fourth gospel, or is at least by a writer of the
same school. The epistle has occasionally Ix'cii
attributed to the apostle by critics who denied his
authorship of the fjospel. As to the priority of the
two works in point of date, opinion is almost
equally divided. For commentaries, see the ex-
positions of the whole Johannine writings by
Liicke, Baumgarten-Crusius, and Ewald ; also the
special works by Huther (in Meyer's CuDiiiientar,
4tli ed. 1880; Eng. trans.), Braune (in Lange's
liihelwcrk, 3d ed. 1885; Eng. trans.), Plummer
(•2d ed. 1886), and Westcott (•2d ed. 1886).
John, Gospel accokding to. The fourth
canonical gospel, which express tradition since
aliout 170-80 .V.D. (Theo))hilus of .\ntioch, Irena'us
of Lyons, Muratorian Canon) has unanimously
ascribed to the apostle John (identifying the
' disciple' of John .x.xi. '24 with the son of Zebedee).
is distinguished by a number of sironglv-marked
characteristics from the lirst three, usually known
as the svnoptical (see Gospels). The keynote of
what clement of Alexandria has called •the
spiritual gosjiel ' is struck in the prologue (i. 1-8),
wliere the place of the genealogies and detailed
accounts of the circumstances of tlie birth of Jesus
in the synoptics is taken by a profouinllv meta-
physical statement of the doctrine of the incarna-
tion of the Eternal Logos. The scene of the
narrative of the earthly life of .lesus which follows
this prologue is laid from lirst to last almost en-
tirely in .Jud:ca, while in Matthew, Mark, and
Luke it is confined with lu^irly equal exclusivencss
to Galilee. While, again, the synoptics, so far as
they suggest any chronology at all, seem to imply
that the pubUc ministry of Jesus did not extend
much over a year (coinciding in this with the mass
of early tradition), the fourth gospel mentions at
least three jiassovers, and possibly more. There
are, besides, important dill'ereiices in various minor
chronological details. Thus, the cleansing of the
temple, which the synoptics place at the end of
JOHN
341
the niinistrv, is in the fourth assii^'ned to the
beginning ; the last supper is dated on the evening
before the passover, and not on the passover itself ;
and the anointing at Bethany is stated to have
taken place six divys, not two, before the passover.
Airain, there is a most striking ditt'erence in the
selection of niat.erial. The fourth gospel, passing
over much that is common to the other three — the
temptation in the wilderness, the transfiguration
in (ialilee, the agony in the garden, the sermon on
the mount, and most of the paraViles and other dis-
coui-ses — introduces us to new persims ( Nathanael,
Nicodemus, and others), new localities (such as
Cana, .Enon, Sychar, Ephraim, and Bethany be-
yond Jordan ), and new scenes and situations. Its
miracles, which are comparatively few, and include
no case of the casting out of devils, are not for the
most part even alluded to by the othei's (that of
the raising of Lazarus is a conspicuous instance in
point ) : and it has been remarked that thev are
presented less as deeds of compassion wrought at
the iiri'>>ing call of human need than as spontane-
ous displays of supernatural power jnimarily de-
signed to prove a divine mission. The greater part
of the work is composed of relatively long dis-
courses, in their ar^imentative and theological
character on the whole very unlike the aphorisms,
parables, and practical or prophetic exhortations
attributed to Jesus in the synoptics, while they
are all very similar to one another in general type,
and their style is indistinguishable from that used
by the author himself when writing in his own
name. The aspects in which, through these dis-
coni-ses and otherwise, Christ, the incarnate Logos,
is presented in the fourth gospel, are widely distinct
from those in which .Jesus of Nazareth comes before
us in the others. The element of human develop-
ment is wanting, and his own consciousness of a
Divine nature and mission, as well as the recogni-
tion of these by his followers, are represented as
having been operative from the first. Finally, it
sets forth a more inward and spiritual type of
theology and religious experience, and there is for
the most part in its eschatology and doctrine of the
life eternal a conspicuous absence of those images
and conceptions — everywhere present in the syno])-
tics — derived from the Jewish circle of ideas relat-
ing to the kingdom of the Messiah and the doctrine
of the last things.
It is less than a century since these and similar
features — such as its more elaborate character as a
piece of literaiy composition — began to be dis-
cusseil in their bearing on the question of the
origin and liistorical character of the fourth gospel.
The question was first started by the English
deists (see Evanson, The Dissonance of the Four
qcnernlUj rerehvA Gospels, 1792), but was not
liandlerl with any approach to the fullness and
thoroughness which the importance of the subject
demanded until taken up by rjretschneider, whose
leameil and acute Probabilia de Evangelii et
Epistol/tniin Joannis apostoH indole et origine
(18'20) may still be read with profit. Bretsehneidcr
in 1824 professed himself satisfied with the numer-
ous replies elicited by the arguments he had ba.sed
on the ditl'erence.s between the Johannine and the
synoptic traditions, the weakness of the (external
evidence for the Johannine authoishii> of the fourth
gospel, and the inherent improbaViility of such a
work having been written by the son of Zebedee.
In the course of the next twenty years the authen-
ticity w.is iiowpifully defended by the speculative
insight an<I rare religious gonins of Schleiermacher ;
bnt De Wette (lH2fi .ST) found himself unable to
ignore the clement of develo]ic.| Hellenism in the
disroui-ses, and, while not denying the partial
authorship of John, inclined to assign the work
a.<i a whole to a disciple. A somewhat similar
view was taken by Credner (18.36), and also Ijy
Reus.s (1840), the former of whom laid emphasis
on the 'subjective' character of the go.spel, and
held that it was to be regarded less as a history
than as a doctrinal exposition, in which the
discourses of Christ are mixed up with the
Logos speculations into which the author has
been led by his studies in Greek philosophy.
The discussion of the question reached a wholly
new stage in the writings of Baur (chiefly be-
tween 1844 and 1847) and his followers of the
so-called ' Tubingen ' or ' Tendency ' school — a
school the value of whose labours in quickening
a true historical sense for New Testament sulijects
can hardly be overestimated, and whose infiuence
(not yet exhausted) has been powerfully and bene-
ticiallv felt far beyond the circle of its immediate
disciples. Space will not allow a full statement of
the position taken by Baur or of the arguments he
advanced in its support. They can be adequately
appreciated only in connection with his theory of
the development of early Christianity as a whole.
This he represents as having passed through three
stages — first of acute antagonism between Ebionit-
i ism and Paulinism (do^^•n to about 70 A.D. ), and
next of abatement of claims on both sides (ilown
I to about 140 A.D. ), while finally, after the elimina-
tion of Ebionitic and Gnostic extremes, came the
reconciliation of the two parties — practically in
the ascendency of Catholicism as exhiliited in the
Roman Church with Peter and Paul as its two
recognised founders, and ideally and theoretically
in the fourth gospel (see B.\fR : also Bible, Vol.
II. p. 123). Briefly and generally stated, his view of
the fourth gospel is that it was produced about 160-
70 A.D. by a Gentile Christian, who, firmh' and
heartily convinced that the historical Jesus was
the incarnate Logos and veiy Son of God, sought to
exhibit this truth to his contemporaries with con-
crete vividness in a persuasive literary form by
means of a quasi-historical narrative embodying
the ideas and principles which he regarded as
essential, for which end he made free and arljitraiy
use of such elements of the current ( but still some-
what fluctuating) tradition as were capable of
being adapted to his purpose. Subsequent discus-
sion has led the modern representatives of the
Tubingen school to modify several of these posi-
tions as originally taken by Baur. Thus, as
regards date, it was urged by the other side that
the existence of the fourth gospel was •demonstrated
for at least 130-40 A.D. by the frequent tjuotations
from it in the writings of Justin Alartyr ; and it is
now generally admitted that the passages referred
to prove at least the wide currency at that com-
paratively early period of many of tlie special ideas
of this gospel. This and other considerations have
led such M'liters as Pfleiderer ami Keim respectively
to carry it back to 140 A.n. and 130 A.D. : and,
indeed, Kenan has formulated the canon that the
earlier we can place it the less inexidicable it
becomes. This canon is suggested by the ditticulty
of accounting for the introduction of a "ospid in
many respects so new after the synoptics had once
had time thoroughly to establish themselves— an<l
they undoubtedly were established in the recogni-
tion of the church by the time of Justin. The
opponents of the Tiihingen school, on the other
hand, such as Weiss, set up an opposite canon : the
later the date the Civsier to explain the allusions to
Gnosticism and the comparatively tardy manner in
which the work made itself felt in the ollicial the-
ologj^ of the 2d century. Another point in which
Baiir's disciples no longer hold with him has refer-
ence to the authorship, which h(! ii.ssigm'd to a
Gentile Christian. In the ci>nrse of the keen con-
troversy which Baur's writings elicited, much stress
has been laid on the evidence snp]>lied by the
342
JOHN"
gospel itself to the eftect that its writer was a Jew,
acquainted not onlv with the LXX. but with the
original Hebrew of the 01.1 Testament, familiar
wiUi Jewish customs and habits of tliont;ht, with
the topography and local peculiarities of .lerusalem
and the temple, and of Palestine "enerally. This
is now very generally conceded ; but it is added
that his sympathetic "familiarity with the writings
of Philo suggests rather an Alexandrian than a
Palestinian Jew, while his acquaintance with the
Holy Land (whicli after all cannot be shown to
have been exhaustive) may have been acquired in
the course of travel. But as regards many of the
vivid literary touches on the part of the narrator,
^vhicll on one theory are held to show consummate
descriptive or draniatic skill, and on the other to
betoken the eye-witness, it is pointed out that such
touches are not wholly absent even from some
gospels that are confessedly apocryphal, and,
further, that it is not always impossible for one
will) ha-s only heard the account of an eye-witness
to convey in writing some giaphic idea of what he
has heard. H Baur's view has been in some im-
portant respects modified by his successors, conces-
sions have also been made on the ' apologetic ' side
to such an extent as suggests the possibility of an
ultimate agreement lietween the two parties in the
controversy. Thus B. Weiss, in the paragraph of
his Introduction (1889) devoted to the 'limits of
the historicity ' of John's gospel, points out that,
writing as he" did at such a distance of time from
the incidents he had witnessed and the discourses
he had heard, it is in the nature of the case
unreasonable to expect that at least the longer
discourses sliould be reproduced word for word.
John's manner of reproducing the words of Jesus is,
in fact, characterised by great freedom, his purpose
being not merely to reproduce them but at the
same time to explain them and bring out their
inner meaning. With this view not merely the
actual phraseology but also the historical setting
lias been frequently modified, the evangelist cariu"
only for the eternal significance of what he had
to tell. Precisely because he was an apostle could
he do this without embarrassment or hesitation.
What applies to his reproduction of the speeches
applies also to the narrative portion of his work,
where he often sacrifices the actual connection, and
modifies the historical colour of events in the
interests of his one primary oliject. The failure
of memory in an old man must also be taken into
account. " The view thus boldly taken by Weiss
is substantially also that of Beyschlag and others
who cannot shut their eyes to the obvious marks of
growth and development wliich are seen when the
ideas of the fourth gospel are compared with those
set forth in the synoptical tradition, and who
recognise that the author of the former, wlioever
he «-iis, must, whether consciously or unconsciously,
to some extent have been carrying back into a
previous generation the matured thoughts of his
own time. It remains to add that the external
testimony to the authorship of the son of Zebedee
is extreiiiely weak ; his name is not associated
witli the gospel until the la-st quarter of the •2d
century, and the story of the manner in which,
'exhorted by his fellow-disciples and bishops, he
wrote dowii everything in his own name ' while
'all should certify it,' as given in the Muratorian
Canon, is obviously legendary {compare John).
For the literature of the subject, see the New Testa-
ment Introduction of Hilgenfeld ( IS?.") ), Bleek ( 4th ed. by
.Mangold, 1886), Holtzmann (2d ed. 1886), and Weiss (2d
.■d. 1881» ; Eng. trans. 1887). and also Sanday's Anthorglnn
•ind Historicul CharaHer of t/ie Fourth (iospd (1872).
lir Sanday conveniently arranges modern writers on the
subject into four classes: (1) Those who maintain the
lolmuninc authorship and complete authenticity of the
gospel, such as Alford, EUicott, Westcott, Caspar!,
"Wieseler, and (with some qualitication ) Lutliardt ; to
this list ought to be added the names of Salmon, Light-
foot, lizra .\bbot, and indeed of almost all English or
Cathobc churchmen who have written on the subject. (2)
"Writers who maintain Johaunine or mediate Johannine
authorship and qualified authenticity in the first degree,
the names here mentioned being those of Liicke ('whose
work is still one of the undisputed classics of biblical
criticism'), IJleek, Ewald (with some qualification),
Meyer, and Orr, to wliicli add the names of Beyschlag,
Kitschl, E. Weiss, and of Dr Sanday himself ( ' To lue it is
far more probable that [the discoui-ses] represent only
the natural, spontaneous, unconscious devilopment tliat
the original elements of fact have undergone in the
apostle's mind. It cannot, I think, be denied that [they ]
are to a certain extent unauthentic, but this is ratlier
in form and disposition than in matter and substance").
(3) Writers maintaining mediate or immediate Johan-
nine authorship and quaUfied authenticity in the second
degree, such as Renan ( I'if de Jesus, 13th ed. 1867).
Weizsiicker and Wittichen, to which names add those of
Eeuss and Rase. (4) Writers who deny the Johan-
nine authorship and authenticity entirely — Hilgen-
feld, Keun, Scholten, Sir R. Hanson, J. J. Tayler ; to
this class belong also Meijboom, Hoekstra and Loman
(Dutch), Havet, A. Ke%-ille, J. Keville (French), and of
English writers, S. Davidson, the author of Supa-nalural
Sdioion, and E. A. Abbott, whose able article 'Gospels'
in the Encvclopivdia Britamiica contains an interesting
view of the" PhUonic elements in the gospel There are
valuable expositorj- works on the Johannine -ivritings by
Liicke (1820), Ewald (1861-62), and Keuss (1879); see
also the commentaries on the fourth gospel by Meyer
(newed. Meyer-Weiss, 1880; Eng. trans.), Godet (1864-
65- Eng. trans. 1877), Keil (1881), Westcott (1882),
Plunimer (1882), Sadler (1883) and Milligan (1883).
John, the name of a long line of popes, the
number of whom is variously stated liy difterent
historians. John VIIL (87'2-82) is styled the IX.
by some writei-s, who, accepting the story of
Pope Joan (q.v.), reckon her as John \ IIL ;
and John XV. (985-96) is also called XVL by
those who place before him another John who died
within a few days of his election. Without enter-
ing into this q'uestion, it will suttiee to say that
the last of the line of popes called John is John
XXIII., who filled the pa^ial chair most unworthily
in 1410-15. The following popes of this name
appear to deserve some special notice.— JoiIX XII.
was the son of Alberico, and grandson of the noto-
rious jMarozia, who, duriiit' the pontificate of John
X. (913-27), ruled with almost .supreme power at
Rome. John was originally named Octavianus,
and, being elected pope in 956 through the violence
of liie dominant party when only i" 'lis nineteenth
year, wa-s the first in the pa])al line to origuiate
'the since familiar luactice of changing his name.
The Emperor Otho in 963 in a synod of the clergy,
overstepping all the ordinary rules of canonical
procedure a'nd legal precedent, caused sentence of
deposition for scandalous life to be pronounced
against John, and Leo VIII. to be elected in his
sfead. John, however, re-entered Rome in the
following year with a strong party and thwe out
Leo ; but his career was cut short by a dislionour-
able'death.— John XXII. is one of the most cele-
brated of the popes of Avignon. He wa.s born at
Cahors in 1244, and was elected pope in 1316, on
the death of Clement V. Atteniiiting to carry out
in very altered circumstances the vast and com-
inehen'sive policy of (Gregory VII. and Innocent
IIL, John interposed his authority in the c(Uitest
for the inijierial crown between Louis of Itavaria
and Frederick of Austria, by not only espousing
the cause of the latter but even excommunicating
his rival. Tlie diet of Fiankfiu-t refused to obey,
and a long contest ensued, not only in (lermany
but also in Italy, where the Guelph or papal jiarty
was represented by Robert, king of Naples, !• rede-
rick of Sicily being the chief leader of the (ihibel-
JOHN
343
lines. The latter w;xs plaoeil liy John under the
same ban which had already been proclaimed
against Louis: but in 13'27 Louis came to Italy
in pei'son, and ha\ ing been crowned at Milan with
the iron crown, advanced upon Rome, expelled the
papal legate, and was crowned emperor in the
church of St Peter's by two Lombard bishops.
Immediately on his coronation he proceeded to
hold an assembly, in which ho caused the pope,
under his original name of James de Cahors, to
be thrice summoned to answer a charge of heresy
and breach of fealty ; after which he caused him
to be deposed, and Peter de C'orvara, a monk, to
be elected pope, under the name of Nicholas Y.
These measures, however, were attended with
little result. Louis returned to German}-, and the
Guelphic predominance at Rome wa,s restored, the
papal representative resuming his authority. But
Joiin XXII. never personally visited Rome, having
died at Avignon in 1334, when, although without
incurring the suspicion of personal aggrandise-
ment, he had accumulated in the papal treasury
the enormous sum of 18,000,000 florins of gold.
Jobn, kin^ of England, the youngest of the
five sons of Henry IL and Queen Eleanor, was
bom at ()xford, •24th December 1167. At his
birth his father, who had provided for liis elder
brothers, called him John Lackland, and the name
stuck to him. But the boy was Henry's darling,
and he betrothed him to his wealthy cousin,
Hawisa of Gloucester, made the new feudal tenants
of Ireland do homage to John as well as himself
in 1177, and sent him to Ireland as governor in
1185. Although John's misconduct and wanton
insolence soon compelled his recall, Henry obtained
the pope's consent to his being crowned king of
Ireland ; but the coronation never took place, and
in 1189 the announcement that John was anion"
his enemies gave the king his deathblow. Richard
on his accession bestowed four English shires and
otlier lands on John, and married him to Hawisa.
No sense of gratitude, however, held John from
endeavouring to seize the crown during Richard's
ca|)tivity in Austria ; but he was pardoned and
treated with great clemency, and was nominated
his successor by his brother on his deathbed. In
the 12th century the principle of primogeniture
was but imperfectly adopted, and although Arthur,
the twelve-year-old son of John's elder brother
Geotirey, appears to modern eyes beyond question
the rightful heir to the tlirone, the general
opinion of his own day was in favovir of John,
who had the nomination of the late king. More-
over, at his coronation at ^\'estminster, which
took place on •27th May 1 199, the old English
<loctrine of election to the crown was for the last
time formally asserted, nor did any man dissent.
On the Continent, however, the barons of Anjou,
Maine, and Touraine acknowledged Arthur, whose
claims were supported by Philip of France. But
Aipiitaine was secured to John by the energj'
of his mother Eleanor, and in May 1^200 he suc-
ceeded in Iiuying oil" Philip, married his niece
Blanche to Philip's son Louis, and received Arthur's
liomage for Brittany. But in the same year he
persuaded his Afiuitanian and Norman bishoiis to
annul his marriagS witli his ccmsin, and marrieil
Isabel, the child-lieiress of Angoulcme ; by which
action he offended both the liouse of Gloucester
and the powerful family of La Marche, one of
whom was betrothed to the heiress. In the war
that ensued, Arthur, while endcavmiring to cap-
ture hi.s grandmother Eleanor, at the castle of
Mirabeau, was sni-priseil by John and taken
Srisf)ncr. Before Easter 1^20.S he was dead ; niur-
ered by John's orders, if not by the king's own
hand, men said. This crime cost John his con-
tinental dominions, Philip at once marcheil against
him, captured city after city, and finally, in March
r204, after a seven nmnths' siege, took King 1 lichard's
'saucy castle,' the Chateau-Gaillard itself, John
making scarcely an effort against him. Only a
portion of Aquitaine was left to the English king,
nor could he recover more by the short campaigns
he made in Poitou in P206 and P214.
The first period of John's reign thus ends with
the separation of Normandy (1'204), which com-
pelled those who held lands in both countries to
make choice of one : henceforwanl the barons of
England are English. Immediately after, iu P205,
John entered on his quarrel with the church, the
occasion being a disputed election to the arch-
bishopric of Canterburj. The matter was re-
ferred to the pope, Innocent III., and in 1207
he had Stephen Langton, an English cardinal
at Rome, a man of great learning and piety,
elected, and consecrated him when Jolm had
furiously declined to receive him. In 1'20S the
kingdom was placed under the Interdict (q.v.).
John retaliated by confiscating the property of
the clergy who obeyed the interdict, and driving
the bishops into exile. Otherwise, too, he acted
vigorously. He compelled 'William, king of Scot-
land, who had joined his enemies, to do him
homage (P209), put down a rebellion in Ireland
(1210), and sulxlued Llewellyn, the independent
prince of Wales (1212). Meanwhile John had
been solemnly excommunicated (1209), and now,
in 1212, the pope Issued a bull deposing him from
his kingdom, and absolved his subjects from their
allegiance; a crusade was proclaimed, and to Philip
was intrusted the execution of the sentence. John,
outlawed by the church, and hated for his cruelty
and tyranny by his subjects, found his position
untenable, and was compelled to make abject
submission to Rome. On 15th May 1213 he re-
signed his crown to the pope's envoy at Dover,
and agreed to hold the kingdoms of England and
Ireland henceforth as fiefs of the papacy, and to
pay a thousand marks yearly as tribute. This
shameful submission closes the second part of
John's reign. For Innocent the degrading exac-
tion was a false step. From this period may be
dated the hostility to the papacy which culminated
in the Reformation.
Philip, wrathful and disappointed, turned his
forces against Flanders ; but an English fleet
surprised tlie French fleet at anchor and with
only the sailors on board, and captured 300 vessels
and burned 100 more. This put an end to all talk
of invasion, and in 1214 John made a campaign in
Poitou. Jlost of the barons, howevei-, refused to
.serve abroad, and, Philip having crushed the em-
peror and his allies at Bouvines (27th July). John
returned to enter on the struggle with his subjects
which occupied all the remainder of his reign ;
anil now for the first time in English history we
see the barons, clergy, and people ranged side liy
side against the tyranny of the king. A demand
that John should keep his oath and restore the
laws of Henry I. was scornfully rejected. John
relied mainly upon the support of the pojie, but
he also took the white cross, and endeavoured to
detach the clergy with the heavy bribe of free
election to bishoprics — but vainly, to their honour
be it said. Preparations for war began on both
sides. About Easter 'the army of God and Holy
Church,' under four great earls and forty barons,
assembled at Stamfijrd and marched to London ;
they met the king at Runnymcde, and on the 15th
.luiie 1215 was signed the Great (.'liarler (Magna
Cliarta), the basis of the English constitution. In
August the pope annulleil the charter, and the
war broke out again. John had a share of the
military talent of liis family, and the first successes
were all on his side, until the barons called over
344
JOHN
JOHN O' GROAT'S HOUSE
the daiipliin of Fiance to be their leader,
landed in May 1216, and John's fortunes Ix
Louis
necaine
desperate. Yet the Englisli leaders had already
begun to distrust their foreign allies, and a nunilier
were even preparing to renew their allegiance,
when death overtook the king at Newark, on 19th
October 1216, in the forty -nintli year of his age.
For John's character, see the excellent accounts of his
reign in Pearson's History of Enijland (vol. u. 1867),
Green's Shorter History, and Stubbs's preface to Walter of
Camitru (vol. ii. 1S73). See also Stubbs's Constitutional
History {vo\. i.), and The Early Plantar/ends In 'Epochs
of .Modern History ; ' Pauli, Gcschiehfe von Eni/land ( vol.
iii. 1858 ) ; and, down to the loss of Normandy, Norgate,
Enqland under the Angevin Kings (vol ii. 1887).
John II., king of France, surnamed the Good,
the son of Philip VI., was born in 1319, and suc-
ceeded his father in 13.50. In 1356 he was taken
prisoner bv Edward the Black Prince at Poitiers
and carried to England. After the treaty of
Breti"ny (1360) he returned home, leaving his
secon'd son, the Duke of Anjou, as hostage, till he
shouUl fuHil tlie terms of his ransom. But in the
meantime the duke escaped back to France. John,
however, chivalrously kept his word, and returned
to London early in 1364; liut he died on 8th April in
that same year, without having regained his free-
dom. His eldest son, Charles V., succeeded him.
.lolin, the blind king of Bohemia, the son of
fount Henry III. of Luxemburg (afterwards the
Emperor Henrv VII.), was liorn on 10th August
1296, and, having married (1310) the heiress of
Bohemia, was crowned king of that country in
1311. In the struggle between the rival houses
of Austria and Bavaria for the imperial crown
he gained the victory for the latter at Miihldorf
in 1822. In 1333-35 he was warring in Italy on
behalf of the Guelphic party. In 1334 he married
Beatrix of the French Bourbon house, and thence-
forward was an active ally of the French king ;
he went to his assistance against the English in
1346, and fell at Crecy (26th August). He had
been blind since 1340. During his reign Silesia
was acquired from Poland.
Jolm Dory. See Dory.
JohU of Austria was a natural son of the
Emperor Charles V. and Barbara Blomlierg of
Ratisbon, and was born 24th February 1547. He
was early brought to Spain, and after the death
of his father was aeknowleilged by his half-brother
Philip II. Honours and an annual allowance were
bestowed upon him, and he was educated along
with the Prince of Parma and the Infant Don
Carlos. He was intended for the chnrch, but^ his
own bent was towards war, and in 1570 he received
the command of an army sent against the rebel-
lious Moors in Granada, whom he completely rooted
out of the country— signalising himself at once by
valour and by cruelty. On the 7th October 1571, witli
the united ileets of Spain, the pope, and Venice,
he defeated the Turks in tlie glorious battle of
Lepanto. Discord breaking out among the allies,
Don John separated iiimself from the rest, took
Tunis, and conceived the scheme of forming a
kingdom for himself in the north of Africa. But
Philip, jealous of this design, sent him to Milan
to (d).serve tlie (Jcnoese; and afterwards, in 1576,
as viceroy to the Netherlands. In tliis capacity
he sought to win the favour of the oeoiile liy
mildness; but being left unsupiiorted by Philip
he was hard pressed for a time, till tlie arrival of
the Prince of Parma with troons eiialil(Ml him to
restore the fortunes of S|iaiii iiy the victory of
Geniblours over William the Silent in 1577. But
Philip was now aiipieliciisive that he might make
liiiiiself king of the Netherlands, and Don Jolin's
nnliinely death in his entrenched camp at Namur,
on 1st October 1578, was uot without suspicion of
poison. See Sir \V. StirlingMaxweH's magnificent
work, Don John of Austria (2 vols. 1883).
John of Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster, fourth
son of Edward III., w.as born 24th June 1340 at
Ghent, during his father's visit to Khmders. In
1359 he married Blanche, heiress of tlie duchy of
Lancaster, and himself was created duke in 1362.
Three years after her death he married in 1372
Constance, daughter of Pedro the Cruel of Castile,
and assumed the title of king of Castile, though
the country and crown were seized and lield
by Henry of Trastamare. The military exiiedi-
tions which John organised against his rival all
proved unsuccessful. Towards tlie close of his
aged father's reign John gradually became the
most influential personage in the realm. He was
an ambitious man, and put himself in opposition
to the party of his brother the Black Priiu'e, and
is suspected of having entertained the design of
succeeding his father as king. He also oiijiosed
the party of the clerg>-, and lent support to "W yclif
and his' followers. But he was very uniiopnl.'ir
with the common people; and during Wat Tyler's
revolt they burned his palace of the Savoy, in
j London. 'The young king Richard, distrusting
him too, contrived to send him away on another
: expedition for the recovery of his crown in Spain.
On this occasion John concluded a definite peace
I with Henry of Trastamare, in \irlue of which
John's daughter Catharine should succeed as queen
of Castile. On his return to England after three
years' absence he was able to reconcile the young
king to his (John's) brother Thomas of Woodstock,
Duke of Gloucester. After this Kichaid II. seems
to have reposed more confidence in J(diii, for lie
made him Duke of Aquitaiiie, and entrusted him
with several embassies to Franco. But John of
Gaunt gradually ceased to be a factor in English
politics, and died on 3d February 1.399. On the
death of his second wife he had married in 1396
his mistress, Catharine Swynford, by whom he
was already the father of three sons and a
daughter. These were legitimated in 1397, and
from the eldest was descended Henry A'll.
John of Leyden (projierly John Beuckels-
zoon. Benckels, or Bockhold) was born at Leyden
in 1509. He wandered about for some time as a
journeyman tailor, settled in Leyden as merchant
and innkeeper, and was noted for his abilities as
an orator. Adopting the opinions of the Anabap-
tists, he became one of their wandering imqdiets.
In 1533 he came to Miinster, and, when .Matthie-
sen lost his life in 1534, became his successor.
Setting up in Miinster ' the kingdom of Zion,' he ap-
plied in an extravagant manner the princiides of the
Old Testament theocracy, and established polygamy
and coniniunity of goods. In June 1535 tlu^ city
was taken liy the Bishoji of Miinster. John and
his chief acc'omidices sutl'ered deatli with circum-
stances of fearful crucdty (January 26, 1536).^ See
AnAH.VPTIST.S ; and Ilamerling's Ktmir) von Sion.
John of Xeponiuk. See Nktomi-k.
John of Salisbury. See S.vli.sisury.
John o' Groat's House, in Caitlmess, 1?
mile W. of Duncansbay Head, and IS miles N. of
Wick, was, according to tradition, an octagonal
building with eight doors and windows and an
eight-sideil table within, buili by J(din o' Groat to
prevent dis.sensions jus to iirecedence among the
eight dill'crent branches of his family. Whatever
the origin of tin- legend, which resembles tli.it of
the Round Table, it is certain thai between 1496
and 1525 there was one Mohii o' (irot of Duncans-
bay, baillie to the Earl in (hose jiairts,' and jirob-
ably a Hollandcn-. An outline mi the turf marks
the. site of the house ; and the neigbboiu iiig hotel
(1876) has, appropriately enough, an octagonal
JOHN
JOHNSON
Sio
fl
tower. ' Frae JIaidenkirk to John o' Groat's '
(Burns) is the Scottish equivalent of 'from Uan to
Beershel)a.' Maiilenkirk beinj; Kirkniaiden in tlie
Mull of Galloway. For ' John o' Groat's buckles,'
see Cowry.
Juhu, Prester. See Prester John.
John the Baptist^ the forerunner of Christ,
was the son of the priest Zacharias and Eliza-
beth, the cousin of Man*, the mother of our
Lord. He was a Nazirite from his birth, and he
jrejiared himself for his mission by years of self-
(liscipline in the desert, until at length he
appeared to startle his hearers with the preaching
of repentance. The rite of baptism which he
.administered was a token and sj'mbol of repentance
and forgiveness of sins, preparatory to that baptism
to follow, the distinctive quality of which was to
be the gift of regeneration through the power of the
Holy Spirit. With the baptism of Jesus the more
especial office of the forerunner ceased, and soon
after his ministrj- came to a close. He had fearlessly
denounced Herod Antipas for taking Herodias, his
brother Philip's wife, and was accordingly flung
into prison, where ere long he was executed at the
re((ucst of Salome, the daughter of the abandoned
Herodias. The Mandfeans or Zabians (q.v.) still
claim to be his disciples. John the Baptist was
from an early date regarded in England as the
patron saint of the common people, and great
masonic festivals continue to be held on St John's
Day, the '24th of June. For the Kniglits of St
John, see HOSPITALLERS.
John's. Eve of St, one of the most joyous
festivals of Christendom during the middle ages,
celebrated on midsummer eve. From the account
given of it by Grimm in his Deutsche Mythologic it
would appear to have been observed with similar
rites in every country of Europe. Fires were
kindled chietly in the streets and market-places of
the towns ; sometimes they were blessed by the
parish priest, but, as a rule, they were secular in
their character. The young people leaped over
the Uames, or threw flowers and garlands into
them, with merry shoutings, songs, and dances.
In England the people on the Eve of St John's
went into the woods and broke down branches
of trees, wdiich they brought to their homes and
planted over their doors, to make gooil the prophecy
respecting the Baptist, that many should rejoice in
his birth. It was a lingering belief of the Irish
peasantry that the .souls of all people on this night
leave their bo<lies, and wander to their ultimate
place of death by land or sea — a notion that may
throw light on the widespread custom of watching
or sitting up awake on St John's eve. In Eng-
land it was believed that if any one sat up fasting
all night in the church porch he would see the
spirits of those who were to die in the parish during
the ensuing twelve months come and knock at the
church iloor in the order and succession in which
they were to die.
Johns IIoi>kin.s. See Hopkin.s.
Johnson, -Andrew, seventeenth president of
the t'nited States, was born at Raleigh, North
Cari>lina, December 29, 1808. His con-right 1890 lu us.
parents were in humble circum- i.y J. b. Lippincott
stances, and his father was drowned c>»mi»in)-.
while attempting the rescue of a friend when
Andrew was but four years old. At the; age of
ten he became a tailor's apprentice, and with
the help of a fellow workman learned to rcail.
In 1 824 he went to Laurens, South Carolina, to
work as a journeyman, and two years later emi-
f'ated to (IreenviHe, Tennessee. I'here he married
lizji M'Cardle, a young girl of education and
rclinenient, who taught him to write, and in other
ways heljied on his studies. He served as alder-
man and then as mayor for several years ; in IS.'U
took part in framing the new state constitiUion ;
and in 1835 and 18;i9 was elected a member of the
legislature. In 1840 he was chosen presidential
elector-at-large, and cast his vote for Martin Van
Buren. In 1841 he was elected to the state senate,
and in 1843 to congress. Successive re-elections
cimtinued him a member of the House of Repre-
sentatives until 1853, when he W'as chosen governor
of the state of Tennessee, and in 1855 he was re-
elected to that office. In 1857 he was sent to the
United States senate for six years. There he was
an earnest advocate of the Homestead Law and
other measures for the benefit of working-men.
He was a sturdy opponent of all secession and
disunion schemes.
When the war broke out in 1861 he found himself
in accord with the administration, and during its
progress was a leader of the Southern Union men.
His efforts and sacrifices in behalf of the Union led
to his selection by President Lincoln as military
governor of Tennessee (1862). ,and subsequently to
his nomination and election to the vice-presidency
(inaugurated 4th March 1865). On the assassina-
tion of Lincoln (14th April 1865) he became presi-
dent. He sought to carry out the policy of his
predecessor. He retained all the foiiner cabinet
in office, and, when vacancies occurred, lilled them
with those known to have been Lincoln's personal
and political friends. But the assassination had
provoked a revulsion of pulilic feeling. Many who
had favoured amnesty, leniency, and reconciliation
now began to doubt whether the states so recently
in rebellion could safely be restored to a share in
the government without further guarantees. Con-
gressional sentiment divided on the q\iestion of
'reconstruction.' President Johnson's policy was
first distrusted, and then denounced as evincing
disloyal sympathies. Irritated at the misconstruc-
tion of his motives, and resenting the charge of
disloyalty as insulting, he retorted by s])eeches full
of bitter and violent invective. This intensified
the ill-feeling. Soon a majority of the congress,
elected with him, were opposing his jiolicy. While
he urged the readmission of Southern represent-
atives to seats, the congressional majority in-
sisted that the Southern states should be kept for
a period under militaiy government, until they
gave more proof of loyalty. President Johnson
vetoed the congressional measures ; and the con-
gress passed them over his veto. Extra sessions
were held to keep him in check, and laws |iassed
to limit his power. Finally, his removal of Secre-
tary Stanton from the war department precipitated
a crisis. He claimed the right to change his 'con-
stitutional advisers' in cabinet, and in return he
was charged with violation of the 'Tenure of Office
Act,' in doing so without the consent of the senate.
Articles of impeachment were presented, and he
was formally firought to trial befoi'e the senate.
'I'lie trial resulted in his ac(|uittal — less than two-
thirds of the senators voting for conviction (see
Impe.vchment). Practically this ended the con-
test, as the election of 1868 was close at hand, at
which his success<n- was to be cho.sen. Retiring
from office in March 1869, he returned to Ten-
nessee. He was an unsuccessful candidate for
congiess in 1872, but was elected to the United
States senate in .laniiary 1875, and again took his
seat in that body. On 31st July of the same year
he died from a stroke of paralysis.
Johnson, RlcilAlti) Mentor, vice-president of
the United States, born in Kentucky in 17>>1, wa.s
admitted to the bar, and was a member of congress
from 1807 to 1819, of the United States semite till
1829, anil of congress again till 1H.37. He served
with great bravery in the war with Britain in
' 346
JOHNSON
1812-13. In 1837-41 he was vice-president undei-
A'an Buren. He died at Frankfort, Kentucky,
19th Noveniher 18j0.
Jolllisoil, Samuel, so famous in his own day
as a lexico<,'raiiliei-, an essayist, an<l a critic, and
still so famous, though rather perhajis for [icrsonal
than for literary reasons, rather as a hrilliant con-
versationalist and a sincere and brav(? man than as
a writer of the highest order, was born at LicliKeld,
September 18 (N.S.), 1709. His father, Michael John-
son, a native of Derbyshire, of obscure extraction,
was an old bookseller — what we call a second-hand
bookseller — and seems to have been a person of
some mark and importance in his neighbourhood,
where booksellers of any kind were then scarce.
' He propagates learning all over the diocese,' wrote
I.ord (iower's chaplain in 1716, 'and advanceth
knowledge to its just height ; all the clergy liere
are his (lupils, and suck all they have froui" him.'
His municijjal position, too, was good. He served
the ollices of junior bailift', of sheritl" (the city of
Lichfu'M beiug then styled a county), of mayor.
His wife, Sarah Ford, came of a yeoman's faiiiily
living in Warwickshire, and seems to have been
a woman of some capacity. Thus his early circum-
stances were not so unfriendly to the future lexi-
cographer as they are sometimes represented. On
the other hand, he inherited from his father ' a vile
melancholy,' a terrible tendency to depression and
despair, which never wholly ceased to dominate
him, and possibly some tendency to superstition,
as he was credulously taken up" to London to be
' touched ' for the ' kind's evil,' being atHicted with
scrofula. Moreover, his father did not prove a
successful man of business, however notable his
knowledge of books ; and pecuniarv troubles soon
began to be felt. Thus in his social rank, aiul
his early experience of comfort followed by adver-
sity, Johnson's early life closely parallels" that of
Shakespeare. He was sent to a "dame's school, and
then to the Lichlield grammar-school ( 1716-26), and
for a while to the school of Stourbridge ; and then
for two years (1727-29) he studied or idled at home.
All tlirough life he was of indolent halnts ; but
his quickness of apprehension and his strength of
memory were amazing. As some one said of him,
he 'tore out the heart of books.' And so during
Ids school-d.ays he became a prodigy of learning.
Probably the hours spent at will amidst his father's
books ilid more to make him so than the lessons
and the Hoggings of Jlessrs Hawkins and Hunter,
and .Mr Wentford. At last, in 1729, probably
through the assistance of his godfather, Dr Swin-
fen, he went up to Pembroke College, Oxford. His
attainments were soon recognised ; a Latin transla-
tion of Pope's Messiah increaseil his fame ; and he
became a figure of note and of inllnence in the
' nest of singing birds ' of which he was a member.
But he was ' mi.serably [loor;' though tluui, as
always, he bore his poverty without comjilaining
or^ in any way abating Ids indejiendent siiirit.
AV'hen sonu; well-intentioned fellow-student |)laced
at his door a pair of new boots, of which he stood
sorely in need, he tlung them out of the window.
In the year 1731 things grew worse and worse ; he
left Oxford linally in October, without a degree;
in Dereiiilier his father died.
The terril>le struggle with poverty which began
at Oxford, or' even earlier, lasted soiiu- tldrty year.s
more (1731-62), and might never have' ceaseil
but for the intervention of the royal bounty.
For some years after he left the university h'is
life is obscure. He attempted scluxdmastering, as
do so m;iny when there is nothing else before them,
thougli he could scarcely have been less well litteil
fm- such work uhysically or in his habits than in
fact he was. He was liable to convulsive starts
and facial contortions ; and he never learned how to
control his temper. ' He has the character,' says
an extant letter concerning one of his candidature.s,
'of being a very haughty, ill-natured gentleman;
and that {sic) he has .such a way of distorting his
face (wliich though he can't help), the gentlemen
think it may atfect some young lads.' .-Vfter a few
months at .Market Bosworth, he reliiKinished a
situation which all his life long he recollected witli
' the strongest aversion aiul even a degree of
horror.' Clearly he liked the peilagogic profession
as little as it liked him. He now made appro.-iches
towards the career to which he was destined.
Visitin" Birmingham in search of emi)loyment, he
began his connection with the j)ress by [iroduc-
ing an alnid'^ed translation of Lobo's Vni/iicic to
Abijssiniii. Also, he wrote to Cave, the proprietor
of the Gentleman's Magazine, then recently started,
proposin" to become a contributor. In 1735, his
fortunes being at their lowest ebb, he, aged twenty
five, was bold enough to marry the widow of "a
Binuingham mercer, aged forty-six. She brought
him a [lortion of £800, part of which seems to have
Ijeen lost by the insolvency of an attorney. Tlie
accounts given of his ' pretty charmer,' as he called
her, are not very fascinating ; but, as he said in
after years to Beauclerk, ' Sir, it was a love match
on both sides.' And certainly his attachment, at
all events, was deep, and tender, and constant.
Once more, and no doubt with the remainder of
his wife's portion, he attempted schoolmastering;
but it is not surprising that parents did not crowd
with their oH'spring to the boarding house opened
at Edial Hall, near Lichfield. There was now
nothing for it but to trj' the metropolis. In 1737,
with a tragedy and twopence-halfpenny in his
pocket, he came up, alon" with his Filial pupil,
Garrick, to London, which liencefor ward was to be
his al>ode. Later in the year he fetched Mrs John-
son. It is certain he had a terrible struggle to make
a livin" One publisher, noticing his burly frame,
advised him to buy a porter's knot ; another gave
him the task of compilin" a catalogue of the Har-
leian Library, and him Jolinson knocked down with
a folio Septuagint when he accused him wrongfully
of negligence. He was sometimes dinnerless { youi-s,
iinpransus, is his signature to a letter to I'ave),
occasionally l)edless (we hear of his walking round
St James's Square with Savajje all one night ' for
want of a lockdii"'), always ill fed and shabbily
dressed. But he liore all witli a s]dendid courage.
He neither whined about hanlships he had to
endure, nor boasted of the fortitude witli which
he endured them. Tliere is no more heroic lignre
in the liistory of our literature. Meanwhile, in
spite of circumstances, he was becoming t\u: fore-
most writer of his time, and was already obtaining
an influence and a power due to something more
than his writings — due to the force and the nobility
of his character. In 1738 he became a regular coii-
triliutr)r to the Gentleman's Miir/azine, and from
November 1740 to February 1743 he wrote the
debates in parliament published by Cave under the
title of The Senate of Li/linnt, and ' took care that
the Whig dogs should not have the best of it.'
In 1738 he attempted to do with Juvenal what
Pope had been doing with Horace ; he published
his London, a poem between whose lines may be
read the piteous story of the hai-sh ex])erienres he
was undergoing. It is interesting to note that
I'ojie on first reading the poem promised that it.s
unknown author should soim be dfterrt, and got
Lord Cower to write to a friend to beg Swift to
obtain Johnson a Dublin degree in order to
help him to a mastership of £(i0 a year. A
few years later, in 1747, he pulilished" his pni-
jiosal of a new Dictionary of the Fnglish Lan-
guage. It was paradoxical indeed that one in
his stjirving iiosition should undertake a task
JOHNSON
347
BO pijiiintic and so uniemunerative. But it was
not only undertaken, Imt achieveil. Just when
this liu^'e labour was nearini; completion a nolile-
nian whose help at an earlier period would have
been thrice welcome extended towards him a
patronisinj; hand ; and to this overture Johnson
replied in the famous letter of Fel)ruary 7. 1755,
which for its just indij;nation, and its passion
of independence, to say nothint; of its tine tjuality
as a piece of writing,', would make its author
memorable had he no other claim on the admira-
tion of posterity. Durint; the years mainly de\oted
to the Dictionarj" he had produced also his Viiniti/
of Human Wishes, another and yet more brilliant
ailaptation of Juvenal, and also the series of
essays called The Rambler, in which his genius
showed to less advantage, though it is frequently
perceptible in the acuteness of the observations
he records. In 1752, just after he had concluded
The Ilambh'r, his wife died. His grief was pro-
found and enduring. For some forty days this
man who to the world at large seemed, and often
in manner was, so rough and savage, buried his
face .and wept. 'Sir,' he said some years after to
an old fellow Oxonian who asked him if he had
been married, ' I liave known what it was to have
a wife, and I have known what it is to lose a wife.
It had almost broke my heart.' Indeed, one of
the most striking characteristics of .Johnson, when
he is seen beneath the surface, is the inlinite ten-
derness of his n.ature to children, to women, to
poverty, and to every form of distress. As Garrick
put it, he had nothing of the bear but the skin.
Durin" nearly all the Dictionary period and three
years beyond it — i.e. from 17-48 to 175S — he was
living in a house still standing in Gough Snu.are, off
Fleet Street. In 17-59 his mother died; and to meet
the expenses connected with her death he wrote
Basselas in the evenings of a single week. The
novel had lately arisen in our literature ; and so
this work took the shape of a tale. But .Johnson
had little talent for that kind of writing ; and the
value of Rasselas lies in far other directions. In
respect of its view of life, it has been well described
as but a prose edition of the Vanity of Hmiuin
Wishes ; and it has much in common, tliough the
difl'erences also are striking, with Voltaire's Can-
dide, which was publislied almost exactly at the
same time. In 1758 he 3.giiin attemjjted the
periodical essay, adopting The Idler for bis title.
During all these ye<ars he performed also much
hack work. Yet, for all his efforts, he was more
than once arrested for debt.
At last he was relieved from his oppressive .and
incessant penury l)y the bestowal upon him by the
crown of a well-deserved pension of £.'i()0 a, year.
And for the Lost twenty-two years of life ( 1762-84)
lie lived in what was comparative affluence, find-
ing himself able to accommodate in his house
in .Johnson's Court, whither he migi-ated in 1765,
and mainly to sujiiiort two homeless friends — viz.
Mrs Williams .and .Mr Levett, as well .as his
black servant Friincis Barber ; .and in his house
in Bolt Court, which he occupied from 1777 to
his death, no less than three others besides— viz.
Mrs Desmoulins and her daughter, and a Mi.ss
Carmichael, to siiy nothing of occasion.al waifs
and str.ays for whom he provi<led a night's lodg-
ing. Tlie.se strange inmates of what he called his
'seraglio' were far from being always harmonious,
but all their petulance c(mld not weary out his
benevolence. We reail of his carrying home a
poor creature he found lying on the streets u|)on
his back, and putting pennies into the hands of
the sleeping street Ar.olis on his way home from
the club, that they might have something for
breakfast when they awoke in the morning. In
the London of that dav he filled an almost.
if not quite, unique position. He w.as a sort of
literary monarch. ' He seemed to me,' said one of
his many friends, ' to be considered as a kind of
public oracle, whom everybody thought they had
a right to visit .and consult.' In 176.'? the lion-
hunting Boswell became his e.ager and faithful
follower, an<l treasured up with wondeiful skill
every roar that was uttered. It is mainly to his
faithful and reverent recollection that we owe our
intimate knowledge of the jieculiarities of the
greiit ni.an — his insati.able tea-drinking, and love of
late hours; his slovenliness in dress and strange
gesticulations ; his physical strength and courage ;
his antipathy to Scotchmen, and love of London
streets ; his insensibility to music .and p.ainting ;
his hearty old Toryism, hatred of Whigs, and
honest oUl-fashioned patriotism ; his reverence for
the church, and his sincere religion yet strange
shrinking from de.ath ; his .aldiorrence of .all f.alse
sentimentality, and rigid truthfulness ; his delight
in conversation, his marvellous dexterity in retort,
and his frequent browbeating of his antagonists.
Even his cat Hodge has become a living person-
ality to posterity from the inspired faithfulness of
his chronicler.
In 1764 the famous club known as the Literary
Club was formed, having amongst its original mem-
bere Johnson, Reynolds, Burke, Goldsmith, Lang-
ton, Sir John Hawkins. Prob.ably in 1765 Johnson
made the .acquaint.ance of Mr Thr.ale .and his
sprightly wife, who made a new home for him both
in Southwark and at Stieatham, and in other ways
did much to make his life bright and h.appy for tlie
long space of more than sixteen years. \\'itb them
he travelled to Bath, to Brighton, to North Wales,
to France. In 177.3 Boswell persuaded him to
visit ScotLand and the Hebrides, which was per-
liaps the most striking event of his Later years.
So far as his terrible enemy melancholia per-
mitted, he found life worth living and pleasant
to live during this ]ieriod. He delighted to fold
his legs and have out his talk ; and there was no
Lack of appreciative and reverent listeners. But
he wrote little. To set himself to write w.as
always an eflort ; and he shrank from making it.
His best thought and wit found an outlet in con-
versation. His Joiirneij to the Hebrides and his
Lives of the Poets are the only works of any im-
portance belonging to this time of his kingship.
Some time in March 1781, he writes, ' I finished
the Lives of the Poets, which I wrote in my usual
w.ay, dilatorily and hastily, unwilling to work and
working with vigour ,ancl h.aste.' Meanwhile, his
social circle began to be sadly invaded .and broken.
Goldsmith died in 1774, Garrick in 1779, Beau-
clerk in 17S0, Mr Thrale in 1781, .and Levett, whom
he commemorated in a touching poem, in 1782.
For a while after her husb.and's death Mrs Thrale
kept up the old relationship, but by the autumn
of 17.S2 she had determined to marry Piozzi, an
Itali.an musician and Catholic, and Johnson's
displeasure at what he con.sidered a degrading
step at length dissolved a frii'udship which had
'soothed twenty years of a life radically wretched.'
The m.arriage actu.ally took idace in .June 1784,
less than six months before Johnson's death. In
178.3 Mrs Williams passed away ; and f<ir .all
her peevishness was sincerely missed. For John-
son, too, the end w.as .appro.achingi In 1783 he
suffered a |)aralytic stroke. He rallied to some
extent, and was once more seen in his old haunts.
But in the f<dlowing year dropsy and .asthma
attacked him. lly November there wiis but little
hope of his recovery. All that medical skill and
all th.at the tenderest allection could do to relieve
and to smooth his dying hours was faithfully ilone.
He took solemn leave of Langton, .Purke, Heynolds,
and other dear friends he had love<l with a constant
348
JOHNSON
JOHNSTON
affection, and sent a tender blessinj; to his yonng
favourite Fanny liiiriiey. wlio watolied weeping at
his iloor. ' I am afraid,' said Hiirke one day, 'that
so many of ns must be oppressive to you.' ' No, sir,
it is not so,' replied .Johnson, ' and I nuist be in a
wretched state indeed when your company would
not be a delight to me.' ' My dear sir,' said Burke,
with a breaking voice, 'you have lieen always too
good to me,' as he left him for the last time. The
brave hearted .Jolinson faced the inevitable with
heroic courage, refusing at the last to take his
oiiiates, that lie might ' render up his soul to God
unclouded.' He died on the evening of December
13, and he was buried in Westminster Abbey near
Garrick, Dryden, and Cowley. A monument was
raised to him in St Paiil's.
The estimate of liim as a writer is by no means so
high now as in his own day. As a writer, it must be
said of him tliat he was rather of an age than for
all time. His greatest interest for us is that he
so exactly represents the current ideas of his age,
such as they were. He never fnlly expressed him-
self in literature. And, excellent as are several of
his works, or at least passages in them, we should
ne\er have known his real greatness but for
Boswell's admirable portraiture of him, and his
masterly reports of his conversations. Boswell's
skill in these respects is beyond praise, and deserves
a better acknowledgment than Macaulay and some
other critics have vouchsafed him. In Boswell's
pages Johnson will live for ever, and be better
known than anybody that ever lived. And the
more he is known, the more readily will be recog-
nised the nobleness of his nature, the \igour of his
genius, and the value of his literary services.
Editions of his works have been numberless: the best
is tliat publi.shed at O.xford in 11 vols, in 182,5. See
the article BoswELL, the Life by Sir J. Hawkins (1787),
and the editions of JiosweWs Life of Johiisnti hy Croker^
Napier, Henry Morley, and Birkbeck Hill ; the Essaiis
by Artliur Murphy, MacaiUay, and Carlyle, as well as
Macaulay's perfect biography in miniature, contributed
to the Encuclopa^dia Britannic.a (1856); also Birkbeck
Hill's Dr Johnson, his Friends and his Critics (1878),
his edition of the Letters (2 vols. 1892) ; Leslie Stephen's
admirable book in 'English Men of Letters' (1878), and
tlie little book l)y Col. K. Grant in 'Great Writers'
(with a bililiograpliy, 1887). Matthew Arnold edited
the chief si.x of the Lives of the Poets ( 1878 ) ; a good
edition of tiie whole is tliat by Mrs Napier (1890). .See
also Madame D'Arblay's Diari/ and Letters, Mrs Piozzi's
Aiitobio'jraphij, and Mrs Napier's Johnsimiana (1884) —
the last made up from the writings of Mrs Piozzi, Richard
Cumberland, Bishop Percy, T. Tyers, Dr Cara]>l>ell,
Hannah More, Madame D'Arblay, Rev. T. T^vining,
Miss Reynolds, Sir .Toshua Reynolds, and Arthur
Murphy.
Johnston, Albeut SinNEV, an American
general, was born in Kentucky, 3d Kebruary 1803,
graduated at West Point in 1826, and served in the
United States army until 18.34. In 1S3G he joined
the army of Texas as a private soldier, but very
shortly became its head ; in 1838 he was appointed
war secretary of the young state, and in IS.39 drove
the mar.anding Indians out of northern Tex.as. He
served in the Mexican war under (ieneral Taylor,
who in 1S49 appointed him a paymaster in the
United St.ates army. In 18.5.T he received a cavalry
regiment, and in 1S.")8 he brought the .Mormon
rebellion to an end without the employment of
force. He was then .aiipointed brigadier-general,
and commaniled in Utali and in the deii.artment of
the I'a(dlic until 1801, when he resigned and pas.sed
ovei' lo the South. Appointed to the ciunmand of
the dep.irtment of Kentindvy and Tennessee, he
fiirlilied Bowling Gn-en, .and liidd the Northern
army in check until F(dirn.arv 1H()2, when he
retreated to Ntislivijle and, on the fall of Fort
Dimelson, to Corinth, M i.ssi.ssippi. Here he con-
centrateil ,'50,000 men, with which force he attacked
tirant at Shiloh before d.aybreak on Sunday, 6th
April 1862. The National army was surprised,
and the advantage in the tremendous battle that
ensued lay with the Confeder.ates when, at half-
past two, while leading a charge, .Johnston was
mortally wounded. The next day Grant's supports
came up, and the enemy, now under Be.auregard,
was <lriven back to Corinth. There is ,a Life of
General .Johnston by his son (New Y<nk, 1878).
Johnston, Alexander Keith, LL.D.,
F. K.S. E., cartogr.apher and geographical publisher,
was born near Edinburgh, December 28, 1804.
His first important work, the JS'ational Atlas (fid.),
occupied him for five years, and was ]iublished in
1843. Its merits received immediate recognition,
and Johnston was appointed Geogra]>her lioyal for
.Scotland. Acting on a .suggestion from Humboldt,
he visited Germany, and g.athered material for his
Physical Atkis (1848; 2d ed. 1856). Its publica-
tion was the signal for a shower of honours from
the geographical societies of Europe. In 18.50
appeared a verj' useful Dirtionary of Geoqraphy,
better known as 'Johnston's Gazetteer.' In 1851
he constructed the fii-st physical globe, show-
ing the geology, hydrography, &c. of the earth.
His Royal Atlas of Geography (\9iG\) w.as one of
the most beautiful and minutely accurate atlases
ever executed up till that time. Johnston also
published atlases of Astronomy and Geology ; a
Military Atlas for Alison's ifisten-y of Europe;
besides educational atlases, physical, general, and
classical, which obtained a \nde circulation. He
died 10th .July 1871.— His son, Alexander Keith,
born in 1844, was educated in Edinburgh, trained
as a draughtsman in his f.ather's firm, and after-
wards extended his experience in London and
Germany. He took part in an exploiing expedi-
tion to Paraguay in 1874, and in 1879 was ap-
pointed leader of the Royal (!eographii';il Society's
expedition to East Africa, mainly f<U' the purpose
of discovering a practical route to the interior.
He was scarcely a month on the w.ay when he fell
a victim to dysentery at Beroliero on the road
between Dares-Salaam and Lake Nyassa, 28th
June 1879. His work was taken up and success-
fully completed bj' Mr Joseph Thomson. John-
ston, who was a frequent contributor to the
Ocoffraphiral Maejiiziiie, produced a Physical
Gcoe/rciphy (1877), edited .and extended Hcdiwald's
Africa (1879) in Stanford's series, and edited a
sheet inaji of Africa and Boyce's Gazetteer (1879).
Johnston, or Jox.ston, Artiiuk ( J.5S7-1641),
eminent as a physician and still more so as a
humanist, was horn of an honourable family at
Caskieben, Aberdeenshire, and educated at M.aria-
elial College and the university of I'adu.a, where
he graduated M.I)., .June 11, 1610. The same year
(says Sir T. Unjiihart) he was ' laureated poet at
Paris and that most deservedly,' and thereafter
visited many seats of learning on either side the
Alps from Rome to Sedan, in which latter he
sojourned long with his compatriot Andrew Mel-
ville, professor of Divinity in the university. For
many years he practised medicine in France,
whence his fame ,as a L.atin ]ioet spread over
Europe. In 16'25 a|M)eared in London his elegy
on .I.ames I., and .about the same time he was
appointeil physician to King Charles. His Latin
rendering of the Song of Solomon, dedicated to
that monarch (Loud. 16.'!3), contained a specimen
of his tr.anslation of (he Ps.alms of David into
Latin verse, ,a work on which he hail bmg been
eng.aged, and which was published at Aberdeen in
1637. In that year he lielped to bring out the
Dclitiw Poetiirum Scotornm hiijiis A'ri Illiis-
triitm (Amsterdam, 2 vol.s. 12mo), a collection in
JOHNSTON
JOINTS
349
whioli tlu> scholai'ship, taste, ami poetical power of
his count IT men appear to signal advantage, and to
wliicli hi-s own contributions are at once the most
numerous and the best. On June "24, 1037, he
accepted the post of rector of King's CoUeL'e, Aber-
deen, and enhanced the lustre of that brilliant era
in the uni\orsity's annals. His avocations as court
physician, however, kept him mainly in England,
where his fame a.s man of letters and poet, as well
as physician, was ste;idily increiising till 1641, when
he died suddenly on a visit to Oxford. His trans-
lation of the Psalms, often reprinted at home and
abroad, di\ides with Buchanan's still more famous
version the palm of superiority in that field ; but his
command, at once comprehensive and refined, of
Latin idiom and rhythmical movement, and his
imagination, rich without extravagance, are even
more conspicuous in his miscellanies, among which
his prolusion on the great anatomist Casserio would
suftice to keep him in the front rank of modern
Latin poets. See the monograph by Principal
Geddes of Aberdeen ( 1890).
JolinstOU, J.vilKS F. W., a Scottish chemist,
was born at Paisley in 1796. He was of humble
parentage, and studied at Glasgow University.
Having in 1830 married a lady of considerable
fortune, he repaired to Stockholm, and became the
pupil of Berzelius, the chemist. In 1833 he was
invited to take the readership in chemistry and
mineralogy in the newly-established university of
Durham. But he resided chiefly in Edinburgh,
and there carried on his investigations. It is as
an agricultural chemist that he is chiefly known.
His Catechism of Agricultural Chemistry and
Geology ha.s gone through more than fifty editions,
and has been translated into almost every European
language ; and his Lectures un Agricultural
Cheiiiiatri/ and Geulugy (1^4'_'; 17th ed. 1894) are
lield in high esteem. The last of his works.
Chemistry of Common Life (1854), has passed
through several editions (one edited by Church in
1879). He died at Durham, 18th September 1855.
JohlLSton, JO.SEPH Eggleston, an American
feneral, was born in Virginia, 3d February 1807.
[is mother was a niece of Patrick Henry. He
graduated at West Point in 1829, fought in the
Seminole war, became captain of engineers in
1846, served with great gallantry in the war with
Mexico, where he was wounded at Cerro Gordo —
lie receiveil altogether ten wounds in the three
wars he was engaged in — and in 1860 was commis-
sioned quartermaster-general, with the rank of
brigadier-general. He resigned in 1861 to enter
the Confederate service, and was appointed
brigadier-general and given the command of the
Army of the Shenandoah ; in August he was made
full general. He came to the a.s.-istancc of Beau-
regard at the first battle of Bull llun, but waived
his claim to precedence, and left him in com-
mand. In 1862 he was for several months dis-
abled by a wound received at Seven Pines, while
opposing McClellan. In 1863, with a weak force,
he failed in an endeavour to relieve Vicksburg.
He commanded the force directed to oppose Sher-
man's advance towards Atlanta, in 18G4, and stub-
bornly contested his ])rogress ; he was steadily
driven back, however, and in July w:us relieved of
his command. He was again i)laced in command
by General Lee in February 186."), .uid ordered to
'drive back Sherman;' but he had only a fourth
of the Northern general's strength, and after a last
vigorous re.Hi.stance at Bentonville, in March, and
after learning of Lee's surrender, he accepted the
same terms on 26th A|)ril. General .Johnston
afterwards engagc^d in railway and insurance busi-
ness, and Wius elected to coUL'ress by llichmond in
1877. He was appointed Liiited States commis-
sioner of railroads by President Cleveland. He
died 21st March 1891. See his Narratire tf
M Hilary Upcratioiis (1874), and Lives of him by
Johnson (1891) and K. M. Hughes ('Great Com-
manders ' series).
Jolllistont'. a manufacturing town of Henfrew-
sliire, on the Black Cart, 3J miles W. by S. of
Paisley. Founded in 1781, it contains a large
flax-mill, cotton-mills, a paper mill, foundries, and
machine-shops. Pop. (1831 ) 5617 ; (1891) 9668.
Johnstone, Family of, takes its surname
from the lordship of Johnstone in Annaudale,
Dumfriesshire. In former days it was one of the
most powerful and turbulent clans of the west
Borders, and was at constant feud with its neigh-
bours, especially the Maxwells. Three branches
of the name still exist, Johnstone of Annandale,
Johnstone of Westerhall, and Johnston of Hilton
and Caskieben in Aberdeenshire. The tirst named,
which retained the ancient patrinumy, was ennobled
by Charles I. , and became successively Lords John-
stone of Lochwood, Earls of Hartfell, and Earls
and Marquises of Annandale. These titles, being
limited to heirs-male, became dormant in 1'792,
and nu)ie than once rival claims for their revival
by the Annandale and Westerhall branches ha\e
been repelled by the House of Lords. Both the
houses of Westerhall and Caskieben enjoy knightly
rank, and a branch of the former was in 1881 raised
to the peerage as Baron Derwent.
Johnstown, (l) capital of Fulton county.
New "i'ork, on Cayadutta Creek, 48 miles WNW.
of Albany, and 6 miles S. of Gloversville by rail.
It has soiiie mills and large numufactories of gloves
and mittens. Pop. 5013.— (2) A town of Pennsyl-
vania, on the Coneniaugh River, 78 miles E. by S.
of Pittsljurg by rail, with large iron and steel
works, tanneries, and flour, planing, and woollen
mills. Johnstown was overwhelmed by the burst-
ing of a reservoir on 31st May 1889. Pop. (1880)
8380; (1890) 21,805.
Johore, an independent state at the southern
extremity of the Malay Peninsula, with an area of
10,000 sq. in. The country is densely covered with
timber, and rises into several mountain-peaks, the
highest being Mount Ophir (4186 feet). The popu-
lation numbers about 200,000, mostly Malays and
Chinese. The former live by fishing and wood-
cutting ; the latter are traders and shopkeepers.
The chief staples of the country are tea, gambler,
and black pepper. All kinds of fruit are plentiful.
The climate is tropical but healthy. The capital
is Johore, 15 miles NE. of Singapore.
Joiifliy (ane. Joviniacum), an old walled town
in the French department of Yonne. 90 miles by
rail SE. of Paris, manufactures cloth, linen, and
sporting rifles. Pop. 6189.
Joinery. See Carpentry.
Joint-fir. See Sea-grape.
.loints. in Anatomy. A joint or articulation
may lie defined to be the union of any two segments
of the skeleton of an animal body, through the
intervention of a structure or structures of a
ditlerent nature. The textures which enter into
the formation of the more complex joints are bone,
cartilage, fibro-cartilage, ligaments, and synovial
membrane. Bone forms the fundamental part of
all joints; ligament, in various modifications, is
employed as the bond of union between the bony
segments; W'hile the three remaining textures
chiefly occur in those joints in which there is free
motion. The joints vary in the degree of motion
from almost perfect innnobility to the greatest
amount and extent of motion that are compatihlo
with the maintenance of the bony segments in
their proper relation to each other.
350
JOINTS
Joints have been divided by anatomists into two
great classes — tlie I mmovuhlc and tlie Mucablc. In
the immovable or Synarthroses the i)arts are con-
tinuous, that is to say tlie bones are united together
by a prolongation of tlie periosteal librous membrane
between them. In some cases the uniting medium
is a plate of cartilage. There is no >yuovial sac
intervening between the bones. In movable joints
the articular surface of each of the bones is covered
M'itli cartilage, and these cartilaginous plates are
separated from each other Viy a synovial sac more
or less complete. This sac is lined by a membrane
which secretes a viscid fluid for luliricating the
articular surfaces — the synovia or joint-oil.
In synarthroses the articulation is said to be by
suture when the bones seem to glow somewhat
into one another, and to become interlocked and
dovetailed together, each bone having a jagged or
serrated margin, or when there is a degree of
bevelling, so that one bone is overlapped by the
other. Both these kinds of suture are at once seen
in the human Skull (q.v.).
The movable joints are Amphiarthroses and
Dill rt/i roses. In the former tliere is partial
mobility of one bone upon another, combined with
great strength. The contiguous surfaces of the
bones are united by a thick and strong layer of
fibro-c.artilage, the centre of which is usually soft,
and may present a cavity lined by a synovial
membrane, with which a little elastic tissue is
intermi.xed. As examples of this kind of joint may
be mentioned the articulation between the bodies
of the vertebrie and that between the two pubic
bones at what is termed the symphysis.
Diarthroses are complete joints, the articular
surfaces being covered l)y articular cartilage and
separated from each other by a cavity lined by
synovial membrane. In these the degree ami
nature of the motion are very various. There may
be merely a little gliding motion between the ends
of the bones, a-s, for example, in the articulations
between the various bones of the carpus and tarsus,
(see H.\ND, Foot). In these cases the surfaces
are plane, or one is slightly concave and the other
slightly convex ; and the motion is limited in
extent and direction by the ligaments of the joint,
or by some projecting point of one of the bones.
In some cases, instead of a slight concavity and
convexity, one bone presents a cup-like depression,
while the termination of the other assumes a hemi-
spherical, or more or less globular shape. Hence
the name of bali and sod. et that is applied to such
joints. The best example of this variety is the
'Hip-joint ((|.v. ), and the next best is the shoulder.
In these joints tlie ball is kept in apposition with
the socket by nie;ins of what is termed a ciwsular
ligament, which may be described as a uarrel-
sliaped expansion of ligamentous structure, attached
by its extremities around the margin of the articular
surfaces composing the joint, and forming a com-
plete investment of it, but not so tight as materi-
ally to restrict its movements. This species of
joint is capable of motion of all kinds.
Another important variety of articulation is the
hinge-joint, in which the contittuous surfaces are
marked with elevations and depressions, which
exactly lit into each other, so as to restrict motion
to one i)lane. The elbow and ankle joints, and
the joints of the fingers .and toes, are the best
examjiles of this variety. The knee-joint is a los
characteristic example, because in certain positions
it is capable of a slight rotation. These hinge-
joints are always provided with strong lateral liga-
ments.
The last kind of joint requiring notice is that
which admits only of rutntory motion. A pivot
and a ring are the essential parts of this joint, the
ring Ijeing generally formed partly of bone and
partly of ligament. The best example of this
articulation is that between the atlas (the first
vertebra) and the odontoid or tooth-like juocess of
the a.xis (the second vertebra). See H.-VND.
Diseases of the Joints. — In diseases of the joints
we may have one or more of the following textures
att'ected : ( 1 ) the synovial membrane ; ( 2 ) the carti-
lage ; and (3) the \iones themselves. The synovial
membrane may undergo either acute or chronic
intianimation, givin<c rise to the serious attectious
known as acute and chronic Synovitis (see S^no-
vi.\L Membr.\nes). Loose substances of a fibrous
structure, and usually resembling a small bean in
size and shape, sometimes occur in joints, especially
in the knee-joint. They commence as little pendu-
lous growths upon the synovial membrane, which
after a time become detached. The cartilage may be
atl'ected in various ways. There may be ( 1 ) simple
destruction of cartilage; (2) scrofulous destruction
of cartilage; (3) hypertrophy of cartilage; (4)
atrophy of cartilage, and other moditied forms of
disease of this texture, all of which, especially the
second, are of a very serious character, but not of a
nature that admits of popular explanation. The
most important diseases of the osseous structures
of the joints are (1) ulcer and (2) caries. These
diseases often, but not always, begin with the dis-
organisation of cartilage, and then extend to the
bones. Sometimes, however, they commence in
the bones. See Ankylosis.
Rejiection or Excision of Joints ' is on the whole
safer tlian amputation ; less \iolence is done to the
body, fewer great arteries and nerves are injured,
and, what is of more consequence, fewer large
veins are divided, and as the articular end of the
bone only is sawn ott', and the medullary canal not
touched, there is less chance of iiyaiuia. Lastly,
the patient is left with an imperfect limb, it is
true, but with one which, in most cases, is highly
useful ' ( Druitt ). The operation has been per-
formed on the shoulder, elbow, wrist, hii>, knee,
and ankle. Few subjects have in recent times
excited more discussion among surgeons than the
application of this operation to tlie knee-joint.
Tlie operation was first performed in 1762 ; and u|)
to the year 18.30 there are records of 19 rases, out
of which 11 died. From 1830 to 1850 the opera-
tion was never ]ierformed, and was generally con-
demned ; but in the last-named year it was re\i\ed
by Professor Fergusson, and is now a frequent and
most valuable operation. 'The ca.>^es,' says Dr
Dniitt, ' in which it ought to be performed are,
generally speaking, such cuses of injury or disease
;i,s would otherwise be submitted to anqnitatum.
The olijei't of the operation is to produce a (irm and
useful limb, slightly shortened, an<l with entire
l>onv union, or fibrous union admitting of some
small degree of motion at the situation of the
joint. But all cases are not suitable for excision ;
and those cases are unsuitable and better adayited
for amputation in which either the quantity of the
disea'»ed bone is very great, or the ijua/ity of the
disea.se may be such a.s experience h;i,s shown to he
incompatible with the exudation of healthy material
of re)iair. ' In at lea-st 50 per cent, of ciu^es the
oiieration results in a' "'oocl useful leg. It has
already saved so many limbs that it must be re-
garded as one of the greatest triumphs of modern
surgei-j'. Further information on this subject may
be found in Holmes's System of Surgery, or in any
surgical text -book— e.g. Erichsen's.
Joints, in deidogj', are the natural division-
jilanes or cracks by which rocks of all kinds are
travei-sed. Joints, although verj- frequently irreg-
ular, yet have a tendency to run across rocks in
certain directions. Thus, in ordinary bedded
lupieous rocks (sandstone, shale, limestone) they
are irenerally develojied more or less at right
JOINT-STOCK COMPANY
JOKAI
351
angles to the bedding, so that, if the strata
be horizontal, the leading joints will be ver-
tical or approximately so. Two sets of these
joints are usually recognisable (mtistcr-Juititi:),
which cut each other at or nearly at right angles.
Hence aqueous rocks, by means of joints and
original bedding-planes, are divided into larger or
smaller cuboidal blocks. In massive crystalline
rocks, such as granite, joints are rarely so regular.
Yet even in these two sets of joints, crossing each
other, can often be traced : and occasionally an-
otlier horizontal set may be present — these last
simulating the bedding-planes of aqueous strata.
Were it not for the presence of such natural
division-planes, it is obvious that quarrying would
be a much more difficult operation. A peculiar
kind of jointing is met with in certain crystalline
igneous rocks, as in some finegrained b;isalts, in
which the division-planes separate the rock into
polygonal or more or less perfect hexagonal prisms
or columns (see Bas.^LT). Joints have been formed
in various ways. Many are doubtless due to the
strain and tension to which rocks have been sub-
jected duiing movements of the crust. Others
probably owe their origin to contraction on cooling :
the prismatic joints of basalt being ' fissures of
retreat." And, in like manner, it seems likely
enough that sedimentary strata may sometimes
have become jointed during their gradual drying
and consolidation.
Joiut-stoek Company. See Company.
Jointure, in English law, meant originally
an e-state settled on husband and wife jointly for
their lives. Such settlements were made as a
substitute for dower, which is that portion of
property to which, on her husband's death, the
widow is entitled for the maintenance of hei'self
and children — oue-third and upwards of the estate
for life. The term jointure now includes an estate
limited to the wife. The requisites of a jointure
are : ( 1 ) That it umst commence and take ettect
immediately on the husband's death; (2) it must
be for the wife's life, at least ; (3) it must be given
to the wife herself, and not merely to trustees for
her ; (4) it must be expre,ssed to be made in satis-
faction of her whole dower; (5) it must be made
before marriage. The mode of giving a jointure in
modern marriage settlements is usually by way of
a rent-charge on the husband's real estate. If a
jointure be created out of an estate before marriage,
the husband cannot sell the estate afterwards, so as
to defeat the jointure. A jointure is not lost by
the treiisoii or felony of the husband, nor by the
eloiJement and adultery of tlie wife.
In Scotland the word jointure is also frequently
used in a similar sense to denote a conventional
provision for a widow, consisting eitlier of an
annuity to her or of a liferent assignation of rents,
or of a liferent of lands, called a locality. In
whatever way the jointure is constituteil it also
excludes the widow's terce, unless it is otherwise
expressed.
Joinville, a small town of 4000 inhabitants in
the French department of Haute-Marne, "i'i miles
N. of Chaumont by rail, which was formed into a
principality by Henry 11., and later supplied the
title to the thinl son of Louis-Philippe.
Join>ille, Jkan, Sip.e de, the biographer of
St Louis <if France, was born in 1224, ami l)ccame
senechal to Thibaud, Count of Cliamj)agne and
king of Navarre. He took part in the unfortunate
crusade of Louis IX. (124S-54), returned with him
to France, and lived thereafter partly at court,
partly on his estates. He declined to go on the
fatal expedition to Tunis, and survived till July
11, 1.317. During his stay at Acre in 12.)0, at the
•lite of twenty-six, he occupied his leisure in com-
posing a manual of the Christian faith — his Credo,
which he retouched thirty-seven years later ; and
there is extant a letter he wrote to Louis X. at
the age of ninety-one. During the crusade he
took notes of events and wrote down his impres-
sions. At the age of almost eighty, ,at the entreaty
of Jeanne de Champagne, wife of Philip lo lid, he
undertook his I'ie de Saint Louis, which he lini^^hed
aft<>r the death of his patroness, and presented in
1809 to her son (afterwards Louis X.). The con-
eluding portion of the book bears traces of senility ;
nothing, on the other hand, is more clear, animated,
and real than the part relating to the crusade.
Thus the book is obviously a collection of pieces
composed at different times. Joinville is an ex-
cellent example of the best type of 13th-century
cavalier, with all his admirable qualities as well as
all his limitations and defects : he is brave, pious,
candid, devoted to his king while strictly main-
taining against him his feudal rights, considerate
for his vassals, a jealous "uardian of all traditional
privileges ; but, on the other hand, his intelligence
generally stops short at detail and cannot grasp
general causes : he relates unskilful military oi)era-
tions without criticising or apparently even under-
; standing them ; he approves intolerance in St Louis,
1 and falls into woeful puerilities in his narration.
: His style conforms closely to his cliar.acter : it is
veracious, Howing, naive, often singularly express-
ive, but it has neither the elegance of the best
' prose-writers of the middle ages nor the vigour
and solidity of Villehardouin : it is the tone of
an amiable and familiar talker, who sonietimes
forgets himself a little in his reminiscences, but
never fails to charm. The book has the one con-
summate merit of sympathetically raising up clear
before our eyes the breathing image of a romantic
figure over whom already tliere hung the shadow
of a tragic destiny.
Unfortunately the text has onl.v come down to us in
later MSS. in wliicli the language has been modernised ;
but the methodical study of competent editors has at
length restored with almost complete security both the
j substance and the form of the book — one of the most
I precious bequests of the middle ages, holding its place
1 in time between Villehardouin and Froissart. The best
edition is that of N. de WaUly ( 1S75). See Didot, £ludta
sur la Vic et Ics Traiaux de Jean de Joinville (1870).
Joists. See Floor.
Jokai. Maukice, Hungarian novelist, was born
on Ulth February 1825 at Komorn. He qualified
himself for an advocate, but never practised ; liter.i-
ture and journalism were more to his taste. He
was an active partisan of the Hungarian struggle in
1848, and when the Austrians gained the u])i>er
hand, it was with difficulty that he escai>ed impris-
onment. After 1849 he devoted himself exclusively
to literary pureuits. His works number close on
■300 volumes, and embrace novels, romances, dramas,
humorous essays, poems, &C. Of these the most
valuable are the novels and romances, of which
The Turks in Hungary (1852), T/tc Magyar Nabuh
( 1853), and its continuation Zultan Karpathy (1854),
The Sew Landlord (1862; Eng. trans. 1868), Black
Diamonds ( 1870), The Bomance of the Coming Ccn-
(iiri/ ( 1873), The Modern Midas ( 1875 ; En", trans.
1885), The Comedians of Life (1876), God is One
(1877), The White IVoman of Leutschau {ISSi), am\
Timar's Two Worlds (Eng. trans. 1888) may be
taken as good examples. His skill as a narrator is
enhanced by a lively im.agination, humour, and a
complete gisi-sp of Hungarian life. His work is
sonietimes marred by imiirobability, a straining
after etlect, and superficial treatment. Most of his
novels have been translated into (lernian. Jokai
has also gained fame as a journalist, as editor lii-st
of the revolutionary weekly Pictures of Life, then
of the political daily Fatherland, and lastly of the
352
JOKJAKARTA
JONES
liuniDious >vcekly The Comet (1858-81), ami the
government organ Ncmzct ('The Nation')- He is
a prominent member of the House of Representa-
tives, licing one of the cleverest itebatei-s of tlie
party of the liberal government.
.lokjilkarta, a residency of Java, in the central
part ol the i>lan(l, has an area of ll'Jl sq. ni., anil
a population of about half a million, neiirly all
Ja\ aiiese : see Java. The capital, Jokjakarta, is
a town of more than 50,000 inhabitants, witli the
sullan's pahice ami ruins of ancient temples.
Joliba. See NlGEli.
Joliot. capital of Will county, Illinois, is on Des
Plaines Uiver, 35 miles S\V. of Chicago by rail, and
its water-jiower is increiised by a canal from Lake
ISIichigan. It is the site of the state penitentiary,
and has extensive manufactures of Hour, steel, rails,
■wire, stoves, tools, boots and shoes, paper, tiles,
cigais. i>i:c. There are large quarries of limestone
at Joliet, and a coallield in the neighbourhood.
Pop. (1880) 11,657 ; ( 1890) 23,204.
Jolly-boat ( Dutch jolle, ' yawl ' ). See BOAT.
Joilielli. NicoLO, Neapolitan composer (1714-
74), is known by his operas Arm'ula and IJigciiia,
and Ijy a Miserere and a Eeqtiiein.
Joillillt, Henri, Baron, born 6th March 1779
at I'ayeriie, in the canton of Vaud, began his
military career in the Swiss Guards at Versailles,
and lin'ally rose to be chief of the statt' to Marslial
Ney ; he was created baron after the peace of
Tilsit. In 1804 he attracted the notice of Napoleon
by his Traite dcs Grandes Operations Mi/itaires.
He distinguished him.self at Jena, in the Spanish
cami)aigns of 1808 and succeeding years, duriii,g
the retreat from Russia, and at Lutzen and
Bautzen ; but, oiTended at the treatment winch he
received from Napoleon, he entered the service of
Russia in 18U. In 1828 he took an active part in
the war Russia waged against Turkey, particularly
in the capture of Varna. His fame as a nulitary
writer rests upon Histoire Critique et Militiure des
Camijagiies de la Rfvoliitioii (5 vols. 1806), Vie
Politiiiae et Militaire de Napoleon (4 vols. 1827),
and Precis de I' Art de Guerre ( 1830 ; new ed. 1881 ).
Baron Jomini died at Passy, near Paris, 24th
March 1S69. See the Life by Lecomte (1861 ) ; and
Saiiite-Beuve, in Nouoeaux Lundis, vol. xiii.
Jonah. The Book of Jonah, unlike the other
eleven of the series of the minor prophets in which
it occurs, is not a prophetic di^<■ourse but a narra-
tive, and does not in any sense claim to have been
written by the pro|>het whose name it bears. It
belongs to' that special kind of literary composition,
comnu)!! among the late Jews, usually known iis
ha"gadic ; it is obviously not intended to be taken
aslTteral history, but as a paralde attached to a
historic name. "The name in this instance is tliat
of .lonah, the son of Amittai, who is mentioned in
2 lvin"s, xiv. 25, as having been a native of (!alh-
hepheT in Galilee, and as having prophesied the
victories of Jeroboam II. No writing known to
belon" to him is now extant ; the oracle containeil
in Isaiah, xv., xvi., and spoken of by that proiiliet
a.s already ancient, has been conjecturally attrib-
uted to Jonah by Hitzig, but for somewhat
inadequate rea.sons. Whether the story now asso-
ciated with his name may have had some basis in
any word or deed of his, or whether the choice
of his name was quite arbitrarily made by the
anonvmous author, cannot now be determined.
The key to the narrative, the details of which are
familiar to every one, is to be sought in the closing
chapter, where'Jehovah asks the prophet whether
he docs well to be angry because of the sparing of
Nineveh, a great city teeming with innocent ife
for which Jehovah has laboured, and which he has
caused to grow. Nowhere in the Old Testament is
that particularism, to which the Jews were ever
prone, more clearly or emphatically rebuked. As
for the earlier part of the story, its cxnlanatlon
is to be s(mght in the often-recurring Old Testa-
ment figures in which the great world-powers are
likened to sea-monstei-s or dragons ( see, for example,
Jei. 11. 44), and deliverance from any overwhelming
calamity is spoken of as a bringing liack from the
depths of the sea (Ps. Ixviii. 22 [23]). At the
time when the Book of Jonah was written, the
Jews, who had returned from the Babylonian exile
full of bright hopes as to a near anil glorious future,
had become querulously aware of the failure of
these. The object of the writer seems to have been
to suggest to them that their existing trouldes, in
which they seemed as it were to be swallowed up
by the world-powers which oppressed them, were
due to their neglect of the missionary vocation
which had been urged upon Israel by the later
prophets (see especially Isa. xl.-lxvi.) ; once Israel
in penitence and prayer shall have shown that she
has again become alive to this duty, she may hope
t^
■o experience the fullilment of the' prophet's words
:Hos. vi. 2): 'After two days he willjevive ns ;
on the third day he will raise us uj;.' ""'
The
liver
of Jonah, whether a composition of the author of
the rest of the book or not, certainly cannot be
carried back to a date nearly so early as the 8th
century B.C. ; it is largely a cento from older com-
positions, the metaphors in verses 3-6 being common
in all periods of Hebrew poetry. See the com-
mentaries on the minor [irophets mentioned under
Hosea; also Krahmer (1839), Jiiger (1840), and
F. Bergmann (Strasb. 1885).
Jonas, Ju.sTUS ( 1493-1555), a helper of Luther's
in the work of reformation and translation ol the
Bible, was professor at Wittenberg, pastor at
Halle and Coburg, and superintendent at Eisfeld.
He took part with Luther in many of the great
events of the Reformation, as at Worms, Marburg,
and Augsburg. There is a monograph on him by
Pressel ri863).
Jonathan, Brother, corresponding to the
English John Bull, is the personification of the
Unked States, especially of its native born citizcn.s.
The original of the name is supposed to be .lona-
tban Trumbull (1710-85), governor of Connecticut,
whose shrewdness, staunch patriotism, and un-
faltering zeal gained him the esteem and friendship
of Washington; and the hitter's phrase when i>er-
plexed, 'Let us hear what Brother Jonathan says,
passed into a proverb.
Jones, Ebenezer, poet, was born at Islington,
•20th January 1820. He was brought up m the
strictest sect of the Calvinists, but at thirteen was
writing' verses, and in secret dev<mring the \\ aver-
ley novels. In 1837 he was forced by his fathers
loii" illness to turn clerk in a City warehouse : his
hoirrs were eight to eight six days a week. Yet he
published his Studies oj Seiisaliou and Emit ( 184.i ),
poems 'full of the very essence of poetry,' and
admired by such poets as Browning and Rossettl.
But the world rejected them, and he published no
more, save a pamphlet on the Land JSIuiiomhj
(1849), which anticipated Henry (Jeorge by thirty
y<-ars 'in proposing to nationalise the land. A
Chartist he was not, but a disciple of Carlyle in
politics, as of Shelley in i.oetry. In \SU be
married, miserably, the niece of Pjlwin Athei-slcmc' ;
and he died at lirenlwood, 14lh Sei>teinber Ks()lt.
See three long articles by Theodore Watts^in the
At/ieiurum (1878): and two notices by Sumner
Jones (elder brother of the poet, and a poet him-
self) and W. J. Linton prefixed to a reprint of tlie
Studies {\S19)-
Jones, Ed\varu Blrne. See Burne-Jones.
JONES
353
JoiK'S, Ernest, Chartist poet, was tlio son of
Major .loiies, equeny to the Duke of ('uinl)erhiiul,
aftiMwarils kinj; of Hanover. He was horn at
Uerlin in 1S19, was educated in Germany, and
eanie to KnjjUiiul in 1S3S. In 1S41 he ]iuhlislied his
ronianee. Tltr ]\'uod Spirit, was called to tlie har
of the .Middle Temple in 1S44, and the year follow-
inj; heeame the most prominent leader of the
Chartist movement. He declined all remuneration
for his services, and issued Tlic Labourer, Notes of
tin- People, and the Chartist organ, IVie People's
Piijii r. He voluntarily resigned a fortune of nearly
t'2(K«l ]ier annum, left to him on condition that he
should abanilon the Chartist cause. For the jjart
which he took in the Chartist proceedings at Man-
chester in 1,S4S he was condemned to two years'
solitary conlinement. This vindictive sentence
was brought before the House of Commons, liut
Jones refused to petition for its commutation.
While in jirison he composed an epic poem, The
lleni/t of Hindostaii. Tlie authorities refused him
pen. ink, and paper, and the poem w;vs stated to
liave been written on the leaves of his ])rayer-book
with a bird s feather and blood drawn from his own
xeins. After his release Jones wrote The Battle-
tiaij (1855); The Painter of Florcnee and I'he
Emperor's Vigil (1S56); and Beldagon Church and
Coraijda ( 1860). He tried for a seat in parliament,
but was defeated at Halifax (1847) and Notling-
huni ( IS,)3, 1857). He died 2Uth January 1809.
Joiics, Hemiy Arthir, playwright, was born
at Crandljorough, Bucks, ■28th tieptember 1851, and
wjvs at first in business. Only Eonnd the Corner
was produced in 1878, Imt his first hit was Tlie
Silrer Klin/ (ISS'2). Other plays are Saints and
Sinners (lii>ii). The Middlcnuin,'The Daneimj Girl,
Rebellious Susan, The Triumph of the Philistines,
The Liars ( 1897 ), The Phijsician, ( 1897 ), iScc.
Jones, INIGO, an English architect, was the
sun nf .a cloth- worker, and was born in London
15th July 1573. A nobleman sent him to Italy to
study landscape-painting, but he was drawn to
study architecture instead. While in Venice he
paid i)articular attention to the works of Palladio,
whose style he introduced into England, whence he
is sometimes called the 'English I'alladio.' On
leaving Italy he went to Denmark by invitation of
Christian W., and there he is said by some to
have designed the royal palaces of Rosenborg and
Frederiksborg. Keturning to England in 1604, he
wa-s emjiloyed by James I. in arranging the scenery,
&c. for the masijues of Ben Jonson, which were at
tliat lime the chief amusement of the court. Jonson
afterwards .satirised his fellow-labourer in Bartho-
loinru- Fair. In 1612 Jones revisited Italy, still
further to improve his style, and on his return to
England w,'is a]ipointed surveyor-general of the
royal buildings. He was at thi.s time accounted
the lirst architect of Enghand, and, according to
some, the lirst of the ago. He died ilst June 1652.
Hi.s ma.sterpiece Ls considered to be the I5anf|ueting
House (now the Chapel Royal) at Whitehall.
Another representative specimen of his work is the
church of St I'aul, in Covent Garden, London.
See Walpole's Antedutcs of PaiiUiiuj (Dallaway's ed.
1828) fur the buildings designed by him; his Life by
Peter Cunningham ( 1848 ) ; Fergusson's History of A rclii-
lecture ; and \V. J. Loftie, Ini{/o Jones and Wrin (1893).
Jones. OWKN, Welsh antiquary, was born in
Denbighshire in 1741, and dieil in London, 26th
September 1814. He wa,s all his life a furrier, but
had early ileveloned a taste for Welsh poetry. In
1801-7 he published at his own cost the Mijt'ijrian
Arrhaiolor/i/ of Widcs, 11 i:<)\h^rl\(>n of poetic pieces
dating from tlie 6th down to the 14th centurv (ni'W
ed. Denbigh, 1870). The MSS. from which he
made his .telection, running to one hundred volumes,
2s:{
are deposited in the British lluseum. — His son,
Owen Jones, born in 1809, made himself a name
as an art-decorator. He laid the fonndatioii> of
his knowledge in an architect's otlice in London,
travelled for four years in .southern Europe, ami
jiublished Lksiijns for Mosaic and Tesselafcd Pave-
ments (1842), Plans, Elevations, Sections, and
Details of the Alhambra (1845), and Pohjchroinutie
Ornament of Italy (1845). He was made sujier-
inten<lent of works for the Limdon E.xhibilion of
1851, and afterwards director of decorations for the
Crystal Palace, where he designed the decorations
of the Alhambra, Egyptian, Creek, and Ronum
courts, and wrote guide-books to the lirst two. In
1853 he published Principles regulating the Employ-
ment of Colour ; in 1856 the Gramnuir of Ornament,
still a valuable text-book : in 1864, One Thousand
and One Initial Letters : and in 1867, Examples of
Chinese Ornament. He also illustrated several
books. He died in London, 19th April 1874.
Jones. P.WL, LTnitetl States naval ccnnmander,
by his countrymen styled 'the Pirate.' was b(irn in
Kirkbean jiarish on the coast of Kirkcudbright-
shire, 6tli July 1747, the tifth and youngest child
of John Paul, head-gardener to Mr Craik of Arbig-
land. Apprenticed at twelve as sailor-boy to a
Whitehaven merchant, he made several voyages
to America, where he had an elder brother settled
in 'S'irginia. This brother's property he inherited
in 1773, having meanwhile for five years been mate
on a .slaver ; and about the same date he changed
his name John Paul for that under which he is
famous. He embraced the cause of the American
colonies; and when congress in 1775 resolved to lit
out a naval force he offered his services. In Ajiril
1778, \isiting the British coast in a brig of eighteen
guns, he performed some most daring exploits, and
took advantage of his familiarity with the scenes
of his boyhood to make a hostile descent on the
shores of the Solway Firth. At Whitehaven he
fired one ship and spiked thirty -six guns; from St
Mary's Isle he carried off' Lord Selkirk's plate, but
six years later restored it ; and next morning in
Belfast Lough he captured the Drake slooi)-of-war
— the first naval success of the Americans. The
year after, as commodore of a small French squad-
ron displaying the stars and stripes, he threatened
Leith, and on 23d September fought clo.se oil' Flam-
borough Head a most desperate and bloody engage-
ment, in which he captured two British men-of-war.
Louis XVI. created him a Chevalier of the Order
of Military Merit, and congress voted him a golil
medal. In 1788 he entered the service of the
Empress Catharine, and as rear-admiral of the
Black Sea fleet served creditably in the war against
Turkey ; but a twelvemonth later hi^ quitted the
Russian service. He died at Paris, 18th .Inly 1792,
his funeral being attended by a deputation of the
Legislative Assembly. 'He was,' .says Professor
Laughton, 'a man of distinguished talent and
originality ; a thorough Seaman, and of the most
determined and ferocious courage. On the other
hand, his vanity was excessive . . . and his moral
character may be summed up in one word — detest-
able. '
See Lives by Sherbourne (1825), Janette Taylor { 1830).
Mackenzie ( 1841 ), Simma ( 1845 ), James Haniiltou ( 1S4S ),
J. C. .Vbbott (1875), and James Barnes (1900); alM> an
article in Jlfackwood's Mwjazinc fur October 1887, ami J.
K, Laughton's Studies in Naval Histovy ( 188" ).
Jones. Sri: Wili,i.\m, one erf the earliest Eng-
lish orientalists, was born in London, 28th Sep-
tember 1746, the son of William .lones ( 1680 1749),
a learned miUhematician and friend of Newlun.
lie had bis .schooling at Harrow under Thackeray
and Sumner, and entered Ilniversitv College,
(Jxford, in 1764, where his rennirkable attain-
ments quickly attracted attention. In 1765 he left
354
JONGLEURS
JONSON
Oxford ti> become tutor to the eldest son of Earl
Spencer, and with liiiii reiii:iined live years. He
was called to tlie liar in 1774, and two years later
was appointed f'oniniissioner of Hankriipts. In
1770 he publislied, at the request of tlie king of
Denmark, a Life of Nadir H/m/t, translated into
French from the Persian ; in 1772 a Pcrsidii Gram-
niiir ; in 177-t his Latin Commentaries on Asiatic
Poetry ; and in 17S0 a translation of seven ancient
Arabic poems, known as the Mvulliilcdt, so called
from beinj; 'suspende<r in the temjde at Mecca. In
March 17S;! he obtained a judgeship in the Supreme
(_'ourt of Judicature in Bengal, and was knighted.
With characteristic ardour he at once devoted
himself to the study of Sanskrit with a view to
prepare a digest of Hindu and Mohammedan law.
He established the Koyal Asiatic Society, 'for in-
vestigating the history, antiijuities, arts, sciences,
and literature of Asia,' and was its lirst president.
He contributed largely to the Asiatic licscarchcs.
Already in 1789 he had finished his translation of
Saconfala, or the Fatal Ring (1709), when in 1794
he i)ublished a translation of tlie Ordinances of
Manu, a preparatory task for the greater work.
Soon after he was attacked with an intlanimation
of the liver, which carried him off on the '27th
April 1794. The East India Company erected a
monument to his memory in St Paul's Cathedral,
and a statue in Bengal. A collected edition of
his works was publislied by Lord Teignmouth in
six quarto volumes in 1799; two supplementary
volumes followed in ISOl ; and a Life in 1804.
The impulse that Sir William Jones gave to the
study ot Sanskrit literatui'e was far more important
than the performance his short and bus\^ life
enabled him to eU'ect. He was indeed a learned
scholar, but his scholarship was of the pre-scientific
age, and has long since been superseded. But his
nohle and generous character ami bis ardent
enthusiasm for learning have done much not only
to promote learning, but to elevate the character
of tlie scholar.
Joilgleiir.S ( Old Fr. jogleor, juglere, Ital. gioc-
colatorc, from the Lat. joculator), among Pro-
vencals and northern Frenchmen, a class of
minstrels during the middle ages who sang and
often composed poems, songs, and fabliaux, ami'
who frequented courts, tournaments, castles, and
towns for that purpose. They made a trade of
song, poetry, and story-telling, and often of jesting
and buH'oonery, and are distinct from the knightly
poets, the Troubadours and Trouveres. They were
often for their special gifts retained in the service
of particular lords, and we find them also named
inditierently minestrels or mfnestric.rs. Two of
their number, Jacques Crure and Hugues le-
Loriain, founded the church of St Julii>n in l.'5.'il.
See Freymond, Joii/lciirs iind Mciiistrtl.i (Halle,
188.3).
Ji>nkJ>I>illg« a town of Sweden, capital of the
/"/( or county of Jonkoping (area, 44()8 sq. m. ;
pop. in 1888, 195,045), stands on a beautiful situa-
tion at the .southern end of Lake Wetter, 115 miles
by rail nearly due E. of (Jothenbuig. It is famous
for its safety-matches. Pa]ier, carpets, tobacco,
iVc. are also made. Pop. (1875) 18,142; (1890)
19,(i82. Here several Swedish parliaments have
been held, and peace was signed between Sweden
and Denmark in 1809.
JoiKIIlil ( Fr. joiiqui/lc, from Ltit. jiinmis, 'a
rush '), a name given to certain species of Narcissus
(q.v.) with rush-like leaves. The Common Jonquil
{N, Junqitilla), a native of the south of Europe, is
one of the most common bulbous-rooted plants in
our fiower-borders. It has from two to si.x yellow
flowers at the suinmit of its scape ( leafless stem ).
The Sweet scented Jonquil (»V. odorus), also a
native of the south of Europe, is another species
very generally cultivated. Perfumed waters are
made from Jonquil flowers.
•loiisoil. liKN, dramatist, was born at West-
minster about 1.573, a month after the death of his
father, who w.'is a minister. His grandfatlier was
of Annandale (probably a member of one of tlie
Johnstone families). Ben was educated at West-
minster School under William Camden, whom he
held in the highest veneration. He is said to have
spent some time at Cambridge, but certainly did
not go through the regular academic cour.sc. His
mother was remarried to a nia.sterbricklayer ; and
for a while Ben followed the craft of his step-
father. Ashe 'could not endure the occupation'
(see his Coiircrsations with William Dnimmond of
Havthorndcn) be went oil" to serve as a soldier in
the Low Countries, where he distinguished himself
by killing one of the enemy in single combat ' in
the face of both the campes.' After a short stay
abroad he returned and 'betook himself to his
wonted studies.' He married early (about I.')92)
and had children, whom he survived. Among his
jioems are two tender elegies on the death of his
eldest son and eldest daughter. According to his
own account his wife was 'a shrew, yet honest.'
On one occasion he stayed five years away from
her, as the guest of Lord Aubigny.
We first hear of Jonson's connection with the
stage in 1597, but he had ihmbtless been at work
fiu' some time previ(nisly both as an actor and
dramatist. In 1598 he is mentiom^d by Meres as
one of ' our best for Tragedie.' During these early
years he seems to have usually collaborated with
other playwrights — Porter, Chettle, Dekker, \'c.
He had a narrow escape in 1598 from the gallows.
An actor in Henslowe s company, (iabriel Spencer,
challenged him to a duel in the fields at Shoreditch.
Jonson Killed bis adver.sary, wa.s tried for homicide,
pleaded his clergy, and escaped with the penalty of
branding in the thumb of the left hand and the
forfeit of his goods and chattels. In his conversa-
tions with William Drummond (q.v.), whom he
visited at Hawthornden in 1G18-19, he declared
that the quarrel was not of his seeking, but that he
'had been appealed to the fields,' adiling that the
challeng;er's sword was 10 inches longer than his
own. During his imprisonment he wxs visited by
a priest who converted him to the Koinan Catholic
creed, to which he adhered for the space of twelve
yeare. The fact that he was branded is a recent
(liscovery, made by Mr Cordy Jeafl'resou in the
course of his researches in the Jliddlesex Sessions
Rolls.
In 1598 Ercry Mati in his Humour was produced.
There is a tradition that Shakespeare procured
this excellent play to be acted ; and we know-
that Shakespeare himself personated one of the
characters. In the original version the scene is
laid near Florence ; afterwards Jonson gave English
names to the characters, and shifted the scene to
London. Krrr;i Man in his Humour is the imly
])lay of Jonson's which has been revived in modern
tinies. It is lighter and brisker than the elaborate
masterpieces of his matiirer years. The success
of Ercry Man in his Humour inspired J'Jrrri/ Man
out of his Humour (1599), a somewhat tedious
play, which was followed by The Case is Altered
(1599), C;inlhia's Jo eels ( KiOO), and The Poetaster
(1001). In the litsl play Jonson made a violent
attack on Dekker and ^ial■st(m, and was in conse-
quence a.ssaile<I in Dekker's Satiromastix. Sub-
sequently Jon.son and Mai-ston were reconciled ;
they worked together on Eastward Ho, in company
with Chapman ; and Marston dedicated his Mai-
eontent to .lonson in handsome terms. But the
(|uarrel broke cmt again later. Sejanus, a solidly
constructed but frigid tragedy, WiLs produced in
JONSON
JORDAN
355
1603 ; and Vo/ponc, or the Fo.):, a dexterously
ini,'('iiious but uncomfortably cynical comedy, in
IWI.i. Of E/ticaiie, or the Silent Woman (1609),
a farcical mirth-inovoking piece, Dn'den observed,
' I prefer it before all other plays, I think justly,
a'* I do its author, in judgment, above all other
poets.' 2'he Aleheiaist ( 1610) is the most elaborate
and most masterly of jonson's writings, the mag-
nificent extravagance of Sir Epicure Mammon
being depicted with keenest spirit and inexhaust-
ible learning. Catiline (1611) is a companion
piece to Sejanns. Bartholomew Fair (1614) hits
off the humours of the old London festival with
the liveliest gusto, and in the pei-son of Zeal-of-
the-Land Busy gives a capital sketch of a canting
Puritan elder. The Devil is an Ass (1616) and
The Staple of News (1625) are of smaller account.
The New Inn (1629-30) was not successful on the
stage (as .Jonson records in a famous ode) ; it has
an improbable plot, but contains some of the poet's
most eloquent writing. The latest comedies were
The Magnetic Ladij (1632) and A Tale of a Tub
(1633). A delightful pastoral play. The Sad Shep-
herd, Avas left unfinished.
Ben Jonson's masques are of singular beauty.
He was one of the most learned men of his age,
and he lavished all the stores of liis knowledge
on tliese entertainments ; but his sprightliness
of fancy and fertility of invention matched liis
learning, and his masques are models of elemmce
and grace. Tlie mechanism was provided by Inigo
Jones, with whom he frequently quarrelled. Other
poets allowed Jones to take the chief credit for the
success of their masques ; but Jonson insisted
that the poetry was tlie main tiling, and that the
mechanician's art was of minor importance. Jones
finally succeeded (1627) in ousting Jonson from
court favour.
In addition to the masques Jonson wrote many
elegies, epistles, love-poems, epigrams, and epitaplis.
The famous epitaph on the Countess of Pembroke,
beginning 'Underneath this sable hearse,' is most
happily turned ; and another on Salathiel Pavy
is hardly inferior. As a song-writer he had few
equals. Of his songs the most popular is ' Drink
to me only with thine eyes ; ' but the Hymn to
Diana in Cynthia's Revels, ' Still to be neat, still
to be drest' in The Silent Woman, and manj' of
the songs scattered up and down the masques are
equally charming. J* one knew better than Ben
Jonson how to write complimentary poems ; the
Viest Ls perhaps the epigram to the Countess of
Bedford, ' This morning, timely rapt with holy
fire.' To the collected edition"^ ( 1623) of Shake-
speare's works he prefixed a noble memorial poem.
His prose Discoveries are distinguished by admir-
able judgment and unatt'ected purity of diction.
When he was in his forty-sixth year lie spoke
with humorous complacency of his ' mountain
belly' and 'rocky face.' But bodily infirmities
came in later years. Towards the end of 1625
he was attacked by the palsy, and afterwards by
dropsy. For the last two or three years of his
life he was unable to leave his room. His sutl'er-
ings were intensified bj- poverty ; but he found
patrons in King Charles and the Karl (afterwards
Uuke) of Newcastle. He died in August 1637,
and was buried at Westminster Abbey. A collec-
tion of poems to his memory, by most of the
famous wits of the age, was published in 16.38
under the title of Jonsonus Verhius. His arrogance
and asperity had procured him some enemies ; but
he had been liberal in his praise of others' merits,
and the younger poets regarded him with reverence
and affection. "The slab over his grave bears the
inscription, ' O rare Ben Jonson I ' His works were
edited (in 9 vols.) in 1816 by William Oitl'ord, who
cleareil away the baseless calumnies by which his
memory had been assailed. Gifford's edition was
re-issued in 1873 (9 vols.), with additional notes
by the late Lieut. -cnl. Cunningham. See A. C.
Swinburne, A Study of Ben Jonson (1890).
Joppa. See Jaffa.
.lordat'lis, Jakob, a Dutch painter, boiii at
Antwerp, 19th May lo93. and admitted into the
St Luke guild in 1615. He ranks next to Ituliens
amongst Flemish painters in the departments they
both cultivated. Jordaens' style is marked by
realistic fidelity and vigour of portraiture, and his
colouring is generally good ; but he is sometimes
coarse and inelegant. He excelled in humoristic
pieces depicting Flemish life, and painted also
scriptural and mythological subjects. He died at
Antwerp, 18th October 1678.
Jordan ('descending'), the principal river of
Palestine, the bed of which forms a great valley
stretching from north to south, in the eastern i>art of
the country. It is formed by the junction of three
streams. The highest source of the Jordan is the
Hasbany, which rises near the Dnise town of Has-
beiya, on the west side of Mount Hermon. There is
another spring on the south side of the same moun-
tain at Biinias ( Paneas or Ca?sarea Philippi ), and
the Leddan at Dan. The Jordan flows south, and
after a course of a little over 100 miles, ha\ing
passed through the small Huleh Lake ( The Waters
of Merom) and the Lake of Tiberias (Sea of
Galilee), 682 feet below the Mediterranean, it falls
into the northern extremity of the Dead Sea (q.v.),
1292 feet below the Mediterranean. Besides smaller
affluents, it receives four streams, the Wady Farah
and Wady Kelt from the west, the Hieromax and
Jabbok from the east. M'Gregor estimates the
Jordan to have 200 miles of channel from the
Hasljeiya source to the Dead Sea. The source is
1700 feet above the Mediterranean, making a total
fall when it reaches the Dead Sea of 3000 feet.
The bed of the river varies much in breadth, from
30 to 50 yards, flows latterly in a sunken channel,
and its banks of white marl are in some places flat,
in others steep ; in the north partly occupied by
fields of barley, but barren below Jericho. There
are upwards of forty fords, but the two at Jericho
are impassable when the river is in flood. The
course of the Lower Jordan was explored by Lieu-
tenant Molyneux in 1847, by Lieutenant Lynch
in 1848 : the Upper Jordan for the first time by
John M'Gregor in his Rob Roy canoe in 1869.
Jordau. Mrs Dorothea, actress, was born near
Waterfoid in 1762, the daughter of an actress
and one Bland, whose father afterwards had the
marriage annulled. She appeared first in Dublin,
under the name of Miss Frances, as Pluebe in As
You Like It, but soon became popular in rompish
and 'breeches' parts. Having liad a quarrel with
her manager, in 1782 she crossed the channel and
obtained an engagement from Tate Wilkinson, of
the York circuit, with whom she acted for three
years. It was Wilkinson who joked her about
'crossing the Jordan,' and so suggested a new
name to her; the 'Mrs' was added to secure a
legacy — a theatrical wardrobe — left to her on this
condition by an aunt who was a stickler for the
proprieties. Mrs Jordan made her debut at Drury
Lane in The Country Girl in October 1785 — just
seven weeks before Sirs Clive died — and in a few
days she had bewitched the town ; the benches,
formerly empty on the nights when Mrs Siddoiis
was not playing, were now filled, and her joyous,
apparently irre|iressible laugh — \\eTswindlinii laugh,
a friend called it — captivated all hearts. InNovi'm-
ber she appeared as Viola in The Twelfth Night— a,
performance of which Lanili, long after, wrote with
a kind of rajiture; and he added, ' Her joyous jiarta
(in which her memory now chiefly lives) in her
356
JORNANDES
JOSEPH
yiiutli weie imtilone liy Iilt plaintive ones.' Nevei-
tlioless, for nearly tliirty yoai's-, it was in the roles
of lonips anil boys that she mainly kept her hold
on llio pnblic : in tlie part of a youthful and tender
lieroiiu! slie was less suecessful, as her wonderful
voiee lost its freshness ami sweetness. In 1790
eonimenced her connection with the Duke of
Clarence, afterwards William IV., which endured
until ISll. Tliat she was faithful to him all this
time, in spite of her youtliful follies, there is no
reason to doubt, ami her considerable income was
placed freely at his service. As some return he
was warndy attached to her, and cause<l all who
came to his house to treat her as his duchess. No
satisfactory explanation has ever been given of the
su<lden breakin;,'-ott' of their relations : Mrs Jordan
testilied to the 1 Juke's generosity, but there is
rciuson to believe she sacritieed herself in the settle-
ments that followed. At anyrate, after playing
in London and in the provinces until 1814, sue was
compelled to retire to France for a debt of £2000 —
and this at a time when she was s\ipposed to be in
receipt of a pension of £1500 a year, besides her
earnings as an actress. She lived in comparative
poverty, though not in actual want, at St Cloud,
ami <lied there, friendless and alone, .3d July 1816.
In 1831 King William raised her eldest sou to the
peerage, as Earl of Munster, and gave the other
Fitz-Clarences the rank and jirecedenee of the
younger sons and daughters of a marriuis. See
the Life bv Boaden (2 vols. 1831), and Temple Bar
(October i877).
JornaudeS. better JoI!D.\N1S, historian of the
Gotlis, was by birth a Goth, or of both Alan and
Gothic descent, and flourished in the middle of
the 6tli century. He was lirst a notary, but after-
wards, adopting the Christian religion, became a
monk. He wrote two IxLstorical works in Latin —
De liegiwruM ac Temporum Suecessionc, a dry com-
pendium of history from the creation to 550 .v.D. ,
and only vahuible for events subseinient to 450
A.Ii. . and De Getarnm On'giiie et Rchtis Gestis,
which is based on the earlier work (now lost) of
the Itoman Cassiodorus. This last is our only
source of information about much connected with
the Goths and other barbarian tribes. The work is,
however, a mere compilation, and has many in-
accuracies and inconsistencies. Its te.\t is pub-
lished in Muratori, Rer. Ital. Sc.rijit. vol. i., and in
Grotius, Ilist. Gotthoruin, &c. (1G.>5).
Jortill. John, miscellaneous writer, was the
son of a Huguenot refugee, and was born in
Loudon, 2.3d October KiilS, and educated at
Charterhouse and .Jesus College, Cambridge. Hav-
ing taken orders, he held in succession the livings
of Swavesey in Cambridgeshire (till 1730), East-
well in Kent, St Dunstan's-inthe-East, London
(from 1751), and Kensington. He was also a ])re-
liendary of St Paul's and archdeacon of London.
He dieil 5th September 1770. At Cambridge he
published a volume of meritorimis Latin poems,
Liixus I'oetici ( 1722 ). The works for which lie was
best known are Miscellaneous Observations upon
Authors, Ancient and Modern (2 vols. 1731-32);
Remarks on Ecclesiastical History (5 vols. 1751-53) ;
Life of Erasmus (2 vols. 1758-60): and Tracts:
1 hiloliKjical, Critical, and Miscellaneous, edited bv
liLssou'(2 vols. 1790).
•lorilllu, a volcanic mountain in the Mexican
state of Miclioacan, 4315 feet above sea-level, ami
1640 feet above the plain on which it stands, is
about 1,50 miles WSW. of Mexico city, in 19" 9' N.
lat. and 103' 51' 48" W. long. It wa.s thrown up
during one night, 29th September 1759, after several
niontlis of sublerranean convulsions. The i)lain on
the mnthern side is inflated like a gigantic nladder,
the surface consisting of lava and cindei's— a phe-
nomenon to which the ]ieoide give the name of
jnaljiai/s: it has aji elevation of 40 feet above the
rest of the plain, and is convex, ri>ing in the centre
to 535 feet. The .southern sloiie of the nu>untain
is coNered with lu.vuriaut vegetation from base to
summit.
Josiipliat. See B.VKL.\.VM.
Jwsepll. the name of four persons in Scrii)ture.
(1) Josiii'H. the elder of the two sons of Jacob by
Kachel, and his father's favourite among all his
sons. His envious brothers sold liim into Egyjit,
where, after he had endured imprisonment in con-
sequence of the calumnious charges of the wife of
his nia-ster Potiphar, his conduct and skill in the
interpretation of dreams brought him the especial
favour of Pharaoh and the flrst ]ilace in the king-
dom. His prudent foresight en;ililed him to stave
oil' fandne by measures which enormously enhanced
the power of the throne, and soon he had the grati-
fication to find his brothers at his feet, driven
down into Egypt for lack of bread. The story is
told in full detail in Genesis, how at last he made
himself known to his trembling brothers, and .M-nt
to Canaan for his aged father and the whole fanuly,
]ilacing them after their arrival in the land of
tioshen. Joseph died at length full of years and
honours, and when the Israelites left Egy|it they
carrieil with them his bones to l)e Imried in
Shecliem in the inheritance of bis son Ephraim.
(2) Joseph, the husband of the Virgin .Mary,
and reputed father of Jesus, a carjienter at Naza-
reth. The earliest genealogy of Jesus makes
Joseph a descendant of David, and woubl seem to
favour the natural birth of Jesus from parents both
of royal line ; but the notion of the ndraculous con-
ception is found in both Matthew and Luke, and
was early accejited as a ]iart of Christian belief.
Later days ileveloped the idea of the perjietual
virginity of Mary, and made .lose]ih into licr pro-
tector and merely nominal husbaml, giving Idm
eighty years and a grown-un family of sons by a
former wife at the time of liis formal espousal of
Mary. These stories tii-st occur in the aj)ocryphal
gospels, earliest of which is apparently the J'rot-
evani/elium of James; a 2il -century jiroduction
(|Uoted by Origen, and mentiiuied by Clement of
.Vlexandria and Justin .Martyr. The apocryphal
llisturia Jose/ilii fuljri tiijndrii, which now exists in
Arabic, is thought by Tischendorf to have been
originally written in Coptic. Joseph apjiears last
in the gospel history when Jesus is twelve years
old (Luke, ii. 43) ; he is never mentioned iluring his
ministry, and may be jussumeil to have been already
deail. The controversy about the 'brethren of the
Lord' has engaged the attention of many writers
from the time of St .Jerome to the present day.
The main facts related of tlieuj in Scrii)ture itself
are their unbelief duiing the lifetime of the Lord,
their distinctness from the Twelve (Acts, i. 13; 1
Cor. ix. 5), and their connection with .Joseph and
Mary. The two opinions that luevailed until the
time of St Jerome about the close of the 4lli century
were ( 1 ) that they were sons of Joseph by a former
wife, as held by most orthodox Christians, ami by
such Kathers as Clement of .Alexandria, Origen,
Eusebius, Gregory of Nyssa, Epiiihanius, Ambrose,
and the later Greek writers; (2) that they were
.sons of both .Joseph and Mary, a-s maintaineil by
Tertullian, Ilelvidius, Pxmosus, and the heretical
Arabian sect of the Antiilicomarianites, and Alfiud
.and Earrar among modern scholai's. St .Jerome
about the year 383 wrote a treatise iu answer to
Helvidius, maintaining that they were cousins
after the llesh, being scms of Mary, the wife of
Alpha'us (identical with Clopas)and sister of the
Virgin. In this opinion Jerome was followed by
Pelagius, Augustine, Tlieodoret, and later Latin
JOSEPH I.
JOSEPHUS
357
-nritei's. But as Bisliop Lijilitfoot points out in the
Dissertation, 'The Brethren of the Loni,' aiiiienihHl
to his C'onnnentarv on thi^ Eiiistle to the Calatians
(ISC).")), Jerome claims no traditional su|i]iort for
Ills theory, and docs not himself hold it staunchly
and consistently. The strongest objection against
the Helvidian theory is that Jesus on the cross
commended his mother to the keeping of St .John
(.lohn, xix. 26. "27) : against the Hieronyniian, that
it gives a special sense to ' lirethren " unsupjiorted
by biblical usage, and that it su]iposes two if not
three of the unbelieving 'Lord's brethren' to be in
the number of the Tweh'e. Lightfoot favours the
Kpiphanian as travei-sing less serious scriptural
ditticulties, and more in accordance with Christian
tradition.
(.•J) JO.SEPH OF AniMATHEA, a rich Israelite of
high character, who seems to have lieen a member
of the Great Council or Sanhedrim. He o])posed
the determination of his colleagues to bring about
the death of Jesus, but did not openly profess him-
self a disciple from motives or fear. But the
courage of his convictions came to him at the
moment of the crucifixion, and on the evening of
that daj- he went boldly to Pilate and begged the
body of Jesus, burying it reverently in liis own
roclihewn tomb. An ancient tradition makes him
carry the Grail (q.v.) to Britain about the year 63
and settle at Gla-stonbury { q.v. ).
(4) Joseph, called Barsabas and surnamed
.Justus, one of the two pei-sons chosen as worthy to
till the v.acant place of Juda.s among the Twelve
(.Acts, i. •2.S). Papias relates a tradition that he
had been miraculously preserved l)y tlie Lord from
the fatal effects of a cup of poison he had drunk.
Joseph I., emperor of Germany, the eldest
son of Leopohl I., bom at 'Vienna, 2fith July 1678,
was crowned king of Ilungarj- in 16S9, and king of
the Romans in 1690, became emperor in 170.5, and
died on 17th April 1711. Holding opinions more
liberal than those which have generally prevailed
in his family, he granted privileges to the Protest-
.ants of his dominions, especially in Silesia. In
alliance with Britain, lie prosecuted actively and
snci'esstuUy the war of the Spanish succession
against Fiance, .\nother favourite scheme of his
was the appropriation of Bavaria.
Josopll II.. emperor of Germany, son of
Franiis I. and Mari.a Theresa (q.v.), wa.s born 1.3th
March 1741. He e.arly gave proof of excellent
abilities. In 1764 he was elected king of the
Romans, and after the death of his f,ather (176.5)
emperor of Germany ; but until the death of his
mother in 1780 his actual share of power amounted
to little more than the chief command of the army
and the direction of foreign airaii"s. Although he
failed in hisobject of .adding Bavaria to the Austrian
dominions (1777-79 and again in 17S5), which he
hoped to obtain in exchange for the Low Countries,
he ,ac(]uired (iaiicia, Lodomeria, iind the county of
Zips, at the first partition of Folanrl in 1772; and
in 17S0 he appropriated great part of the bisho])rics
of l';issau and Salzburg. He was a zealous reformer;
but having imbibed, like Frederick the (!reat, the
principles of absolute rule which prevailed in that
age. he attempted his reforms too rashly, and too
ninili by the exercise of mere authority. .As soon
a.s he found himself in full ])ossession of the govern-
ment of .\ustria he proceeded to declare himself
independent of the pope, and to prohibit the publi-
cation of any new papal bulls in his dominions
without his plarct. The continued publication of
the bulls ' I'nigenitus ' and ' In Ciena Domini ' wa.s
prohibited. Besides this, he suppressed no fewer
than 700 convents, reduced the number of the regu-
lar clergy from 63,tKX) to 27,000, prohibiteil iianal
dLspensatioiis as to marriage, and on 1.5th Octofier
1781 published the celebrated Edict of Toleration,
by which lie allowed the free exercise of their reli-
gion to the Protestants and Non-united (heeks in
his dominions. Pope Pius VI. thought to check
this coui'se by a personal interview with the
emperor, and for that purpose made a visit to
Vienna in 178'2. but Avas unsuccessful in his object.
Joseph's other important reforms were the abolition
of serfdom and the reorganisation of the system of
t.axation mi a juster basis. He also curtailed the
feudal (irivileges of the nobles. In 17S8 he engaged
in a war with Turkey, in which he was unsuccessful ;
and the vex.ati<m caused by this, and by the revolts
in his own ilominions, in Hungary, Tyrol, and the
\etherl.-inds, and the necessit.v under which he felt
himself of revoking many of the edicts by which he
had sought to promote the welfares of his people,
especi.ally in Hungary, hastened his death, which
took ]ilace on •20tli February 1790. He founded
many vahialile educational and scientific institu-
tions, anil did lunch to promote the progress of arts,
manufactures, and commerce in Austria.
See works by Bninner { 1868-85), Lustkandl ( 1881 ), and
Nosinich and Wiener (188.5) ; also Leger's History of
Au.-^tro-Hitti'iat't/ (Eng. trans. 1890).
Joseph, king of Naples. See Bon.\P-4RTE.
Josephine. M.\p,ie Rose, emjiress of the
French, was born 23d June 1763. in the island
of Martinique, where her f.ather, Tascher de la
Pagerie, was captain of the port at St Pierre.
She had onl.v an indifferent colonial education ;
but her qualities of mind and heart, even more
than her beaut.y, won univei'sal regard. When
about fifteen years of age she came to France, and
in 1779 married Viscount Alexandre Beauharnais
(q.v.). A d.augliter of this marriage, Hortense,
queen of Holland, was the mother of the Emperor
Napoleon III. Josephine's husband was executed
during the Keign of Terror, she hei'self just escap-
ing. On 9th March 1796 she was married to
Napoleon Bonaparte. She accompanied him
in his Italian campaign, and exercised a great
influence in restraining him from measures of
violence and severity. At INIalmaison, and after-
wards at the Luxembourg and the Tuileries, she
attracted round her the most brilliant societ.y of
France, and contributed not a little to the estab-
lishment of her husband's po«er. But her marriage
with Napoleon proving unfruitful, it was dissolved
b.Y law on 16th December 1809. .losephine ret.ained
the title of empress, corresponded with Bonajiarte,
■and, if the allied sovereigns had jiermitted it,
would have rejoined him after his fall. She died
at Malmaison, •29th May 1814.
See Anbenas, Histoire ilc Jos(phine (1859); Memoirea
lie Madame de Rcmusat (2 vols. Paris, LS7il-80 ; Eng.
trans. 1880); and two sumptuous French works on
Josephine by F. Masson (1898-99).
Josephstadt. one of the most important for-
tres.ses of the Austri.an empire, stands at the
confluence of the Mettau and the Elbe in Bohemi.a,
10.\ miles N. by E. of Kiiniggriitz. Pop. .5903, of
whom 3.500 belimg to the garrison.
•losephllS. FL.Wlirs, a celebrated .Jewi.sh his-
torian, was bom at Jerusalem in 37 A.D. He was
of both royal and sacerdot.al lineage, being de-
scended, on the mother's side, from the line of
Asnionean princes, while his father, Matthias,
olliciated .as a priest in the first of the twenty-
four coui-ses. 'I he careful education he received
developed his biilliant faculties .at an unusually
early age, and his acquirements both in Hebrew
and Greek literature soon drew public attention
upon him. Having succe.ssively attended the
lectures at the par.amount religious schools of his
time — 'sects,' a.s he inaccurately terms them — he
withdrew into the clesert to sit at the feet of
358
JOSEPHUS
JOSIAH
one Banos, wlio is coniectured to have been either
a f,.ll<.\ver of John the Baptist or an tssene.
Three vears later he returneil to Jerusalem, ami
hencef(irlh helon-e.l to the l.oclv of the ' Pharisees,
vhi.-h in fact comprised the hulk ot the people.
So lii.'hlv was his ability esteemoil that at the age
of onfv twentvsix he was chosen delegate to ISero.
AVhen the Jews rose in their last and fatal insur-
rection a-ainst the Komans Josephus was aj)-
pointed govcrn.n- of Galilee. Here he displayed
tlie greatest valovir and prudence ; but the advance
of the Konian general Vespasian (6, A.D.) matte
resistance hopeless. The city of Jotapata into
which Josephus had thrown himselt was taken
after a desperate resistance of forty-seven days.
Alon.' with some others he concealed himself in
a cavern, but his hiding-place was discovered and
bein" brought before Vespa.sian he would have
been sent to Nero had he not-according to his
own account, for Josephus is his own and his sole
bio.'ianher— prophesied that his captor would yet
become emperor of P.onie. Neverthele.ss he was
keiit in a sort of easv imprisonment for about tliree
years. Joseiduis was present in the Roman army
"at the sie-e of Jerusalem by Titus ; and after the
fall of the citv (TO A.D.) was instrumental in aav-
in.' the lives of some of his relatives. After tins
he^appears to have resided at Kome, and to have
devoted himself to literary studies. The e.xact
period of his death is not ascertained. All «e
know is that he survived Agrippa II., who died
97 \ I) He was thrice married, and had chiUlren
bv'h'is second and third wives. His works are the
Hhtfjni of the Jcirislt ]Var, in 7 books, written
both i'li Hebrew and Greek (the Hebrew version
is no longer extant); Jewish Antiquities, in 2U
books, containing the history of his countrymen
from the earliest times down to the end ot the
rei"n of Nero (the fictitious Hebrew Josqmon,
whTch for a long lime was identitied with Jose-
phus' Antiquities, dates from the 10th century
AD)- a treatise on the Antiqnitij of the Jews,
a.'ainst Apion, in 2 vols., valuable chiefly for its
extracts from old historical writers ; andan^»<o-
bio(,raph!/(Sl-90 A.I).), in one book, which mav he
considered supplementary to the Antiquities, llie
other works attributed to him are not believed to
be genuine
tlie peculiar character of Josephus is not diffi
cult to descri" " '' " "..n„f
ibe. He was in the main honest and
veracious ; he had a sincere liking for his countiy-
inen and rather more piide and enthusiasm in the
old national history than he could well justify ; but
the hoiiclossness of attempting to withstand the
enormous power of the Kmiians and an aversion
to marlvi-doni caused him to make his terms w-illi
the eneniv, perhaps in the faint hope of being thus
of some use to the national cause. The mlluencve
of Greek philosophv and learniii<' is visilde in all
his writings, and iuus given to his conception ot
biblical liistory a somewhat rationalistic tinge. He
speaks of Moses as a human rather than a divinely
inspired lawgiver; he doubts the miracle in the
crossing of the Bed Sea, the swallowing of Jonah
by tlie whale, and, generally speaking, whatever is
calculated to teach that there was a special iniiac-
ulous i'rovidence at work on behalf of the chosen
people. The famous iia-ssage about Je.sus is gener-
allv concclcd to he an interpolation. His style
is easy and elegant, and Josephus has often been
called the Greek Livy.
The alitio princcps of the Greek text appeared at
Basel ( Froben) in ir.44. Since tlien the iiiost n"l"":tjj;'t
editions (with notes) are those of Hudson ( Oxford 1 1 -0,
Havercamp (Amst. 1731). Dindorf (Pans 1M.>~4,)
Bckker (G vols. Leip. 1K5.^) .'il!), and Niese (Berlin, 18.S(,
el ten.). Josephus lias been frciucntly translated; the
most celebrated versions in English have been those by
L'Estranee (1T02), Whiston (1737; new and revised
edftfon bf ShiUeto; 5 voU. 18S9-90). Maynard (1800), and
Traill and Taylor ( 1851 ). See the German books devoted
to Josephus by Biirwald (1877), Bottger (18,9), Bloch
(1879), Destinon (1882), and Olitzki (18b(j).
Joshua (Heb. JchushiM : Gr. Icsous, from late
Heh. Jcshiki), or Hosm: A ( Num. xiii. 16), the son
of Nun, of the tribe of Eoliraini, is lirst mentioned
in Ex xvii. 9 as commanding the warriors of Israel
in the battle of Keplddim. He was also one of
tlie twelve spies sent out from Kadcsh to collect
information about the strength of the Canaanites
and the prospects of the intended invasion (Num.
xiii ) and wlien the others returned disheartened
iie and Caleb alone retained their courage ami
reported in favour of an armed advance. Tliese
two alone, therefore, out of all the grown men of
Israel, were exempted from the divine sentence
that because of their want of faith they shoul.l fall
in the wilderness. During the forty years wander-
ings Joshua acted as the 'minister or personal
attendant of Moses (Ex. xxiv. 13, &c.), a relation
which seems to have marked him out a-sthe tavour-
ite disciple and proljable successor of the lawgiver.
After 'the Lord was angry with Moses Joshua
was expresslv designated to lead the people into
Canaan (Deut. i. 38), and this designation was
solemnly confirmed at the tabernacle (Deut. xxxi.
14 s,/q.) before Moses' death. The book that
bears his name is a narrative of the conquest and
settlement of Canaan under the leadership to
which he thus succeeded. It relates with con-
siderable detail the passage of the Jordan, the tall
of Jericho and Ai, the submission of the Gibeonites,
the defeat of the live kings of the south at Beth-
boron and of the four kings of the north at the
waters of Meroin, gives a large number of geogra-
phical and administrative details ivs to the distn-
l.ution of the conquered territory among the tribes
that had taken part in the comiuest and concludes
with two addresses which Joshua de ivered short y
before his death. The Je>Nish rabbins and early
Christian writers all supposed this book to have
been written by Joshua himself; but this is an
impossible assumption, for besides telling ot Ins
death it alludes to a number of things that (lid
not happen until long after that event (see for
example, xv. 63 compared with Judges, xix. 10-12;
and xix. 47 with Judges, xviii. 7, '2. s'/',.). In fact,
like the other historical b.)oks ot the O d restamcnt,
it is an anonvmous writing, and when ciitically
examined is seen to have been originally uiuteil to
the Pentateuch, and to have been composed in the
same manner. It is made up of extracts fi..m
various narratives, i.ieced togetlier by a later liaud
in the manner of eastern hisloiians and in its
present form cannot he uuich earlier than the time
of Ezra. Most modern critics are agreed that the
documents used by the editor were mainly three—
the Jehovistic (known to critics by the symbol
JE) of the Sth or 9th century, the Deuteronom.Mic
(D) of the 7th, and the Prie.stly (P) of the otli.
To the Jehovistic document belong in the main
chaps, ii. 1-viii. '29; ix. 1-xi. 9; xxiii., xxiv., and
a fe« short fragments in other chai)teis. lo the
Dcuteronomist are assigned chaps, i., viu. M-.io;
xi 10— xiii 14 ; xiv. li-15, and some other small
i.ortions; while the lemainder, including the greater
part of the account of the division of the territory,
comes from the priestly writer. Its geographical
details are chaiiicteriscd by great vagueness, ex
details are chaiacteri.scd by great va-ueuess, ex-
cept as regards the portion of the land which was
held bv Jews after the exile. The best com-
nientai'v on Joshua is tliat of Dillniann ( 1886).
Josiilll. one of the kings of Judah, was the
son of Anion and Jedidah. and succeeded his father
at the age of eight in 641 B.C. He grew up an
ardent religious reformer, and purged Judah and
JOSIKA
JOULE
359
Jenisalein fioin idolatry. It was in his reign that
Hilkiiih the high-iiriest is said to have discovered
tlie 'Book of theTorah,' hv wliich some understand
Deuteronomy, othei-s Exoilus, and others again the
whole Pentateuch. The king now vijiorously re-
established the worehip of Jehovah, and instituted
the rites in the newlydiscovere<l hook. He met
his death at Megiddo, in the valley of Esdraelon,
when attempting to cheek the advance of Pharaoh-
Necho against tlie Assyrians, 609 B.C. Josiah was
the last of the good kings of Judah. In his days
prophesied Jeremiah and Zephaniah.
Josiksi. See HfXG.\RY (Literature).
Jost, Is.\AK Markis, a Jewish historian, was
born at Bernburg in Anhalt, 22d Feljruary 1793.
He laboured as a Jewish schoolmaster at Berlin
(1S-2G-35) and Frankfort-on-Main (1S35-60), and
died at Frankfort, 20tli November 1S60. He wrote
Geschic/ife der IsracUtcn (9 vols. 1820-29), to which
were added Neiiere Geschichtc der Jsracliten, 1S15-
45 (3 vols. 1846-47), and Geschichtc des Juden-
thiiiiui (3 vols. 1S57-59). He also edited a German
translation of the Mishnah, with text and com-
mentary ( 6 vols. 1832- 34 ).
Jotnnheim. See Giants.
Joiibert, Gener.^l. See Tr.\nsvaal.
Jonbert, Joseph, w-as bom at Montignac in
Perigord, 6th May 1754, and studied and taught
till twenty-two at the college of Toulouse, then
under the direction of the Fathei'S of the Christian
Doctrine. He then went to Paris, and here made
the acriuaintance of Diderot, D'AIembert, Mar-
montel, and La Harpe, and lived through all the
fever of the Revolution. He became tlie bosom
friend of Fontane.s and Chateaubriand, and he
canied both to the famous salon of Madame de
Beaumont. In 1790 his native townsmen elected
him as justice of the peace, and in 1809 he was
nominated by Napoleon on the recommendation of
Fontanes to a seat in the council of the new uni-
versity. At Villeneuve and at Paris he lived hence-
forward, and his yeai-s glided quietly away, while
he read, dreamed, walked, wrote lettere, and dis-
coursed to friends who thronged even to his bed-
room, which he seldom left before three o'clock in
the afternoon. Despite weak health, he carried
his head high all his life, and never ceased to read
and re-read his favourite books, and jot down his
meditations. Yet he published nothing in his life,
although he was the keenest as well as the kindest
critic to the writings of all hLs friend.s. He died
4tli May 1824. Fourteen years after, his Avidow
acceded to the prayers of lier friends to allow a
small volume to be i)rinted from his papers.
Chateaubriand edited it ; Sainte-Beuve praised it
without stint in the liceiic dcs Deux Mondes, and
Joubert's fame was from the moment of its appear-
ance assured. And his Pcnsijes, alike from their
intrinsic value and insight and their faultless form,
are worthy of their place in the splendid succession
of La Rochefoucauld, Pascal, La Bruyere, and
Vauvenargues.
At length in 1842 Joubert's nephew, Paul de Kajmal,
issued an adequate edition of the Perutees et Maximea
from the more than 200 small manuscript books, with the
addition of a number of letters, and an admirable bio-
graphical sketch, -\nother and enlarged edition by his
brotlier, Arnaud Joubert, followed in 1850; yet another,
better arranged, by Louis de Raynal in two volumes in
1862. There are translations by G. H. Calvert ( Boston,
1867) and Henry Attwell (1877). See Sainte-Beuve's
Caiueriet du Lundi (vol. i.), Portraitt LiUeraires (vol.
ii), and almost every page of his Chatenuhriaivi et son
Groujie : also Matthew Arnold's E»m i/t in Criticitm
(18<;.-)).
Jouffroy. Theodore Si-MOX, a French philoso-
pher, was bom at Pontets, a village of the Jura, on
7th July 1796. He became a pupil of Cousin, the
philosopher, at Paris, and from 1817 onwards taught
iihilosophy at various educational institutions in
'aris. Ill-health obliged him in 1838 to exchange
his professorial chair for the post of librarian to
the university. He died at Paris, 4tli February
1842. Joutlioy was not an original thinker, aiul
founded no scliool. His merit is that he was the
lucid interpreter of the teaching of the Scottish
philosophers Keid and Dugald .Stewart ; he trans-
lated their works, with critical introductions and
notes. His own best books were Mctaiiffcs Philo-
sophiqiies (1833; new ed. 1883), fours du Droit
Aaturel ( 1835), and Cours dEsthHique (1843 ; new
ed. 1883). A prominent feature of his teaching
was the sharp separation of jisycliology from physi-
ology. For some time JouttVoy was an industrious
member of the Chamber of Deputies ; he was also
well known as a journalist. See Life by Tissot
(1876).
Jouffroy d'Abbans, Claude, Marquis de
(1751-1832), claimed by the French as the inventor
of steam-navigation, served in the army, and ilid
in 1783 make a small paddle-wheel steamboat sail
up the Rhone at Lyons — the connection between
piston and paddle-wheel axle being rack-and-pinion.
Compelled to emigrate by the Revolution, he failed,
on account of financial ruin, to tloat a company till
after Fulton had made his successful experiments
on the Seine in 1803. See the article SHinu'iLD-
ING; ami a monograph on him by J. C. A. Prost
(Paris, 1889).
JougS, JUGGS, or JoGGS, the name given in
Scotland to a form of pillory wliich was used also
in Holland and probably in other countries. The
jougs were nothing more than an iron ring or collar,
fastened by a chain of two or three links to a pillar-
or wall in some public place,
such as a inarKet-cross, a
market tron or weighing post,
a prison door, a church door,
a churchyard gate, a church-
yard tree, a tree beneath
whose branches courts were
held, and the like. The ring
or collar opened by a hinge
or joint, so as to enclose the
culprits neck, when it was
secured by a loop or staple
and a padlock. The jougs
were employed as a punish-
ment as well for ecclesiastical
as for civil oft'ences. They
may be traced as far back
as the 16th centuiy, and,
although they have not been
in use for the last hundred
years, they may still be
found hanging at a few
country churches. The ac-
companying wood-cut repre-
sents the jougs at the
churchyard gate of the pic-
turesque village of Dud<lirig-
ston, 2 miles SE. of Edinburgh. The Branks (q.v.)
were occasionally hung on the same idllar with the
jougs.
Joule, James Prescott, F.R.S., LL. 1)., one
of the most distinguished experimental |)bil(iso-
fhei-s, was born 24th December 1818 at Salford.
n his youth he bad the good fortune to have for
instructor in science the celebrated Dalton ; and
he soon showed, by constructing for himself elec-
trical machines and other philosophical instruments,
the bent of bis genius. His earliest notable experi-
ments were made with reference to electromagnetic
engines ; from which he passed to quantitative
>«=,
;i#-
Jougs.
360
JOURDAN
JUAREZ
<leterminations lepardinf,' heat, and the transfor-
maticm of various forms of EneiRV (q.v.). He is
lustly entitled to he consideretl as tlie experimental
ifouniler of the modern theory of conservation of
enert;v— the p-andest generalisation ever made in
phvsical science. In 1878 a civil list pension of
£•21)0 was conferred upon him. He dieil 11th
OctoUer 18S9, at Sale, near Manchester. See
Xatiirc (Octolier 1882); his collected papers dmh-
lished l,v the Phvsical Society, 1884-87): and the
Mnuoir'hx Osborne Kevnolds (1893).— The name
Jdii.K has been sujigesteil, and to some e.\tent
used for the unit of work in practical electricity.
It is the work done in one second liy the ampire or
unit current Howiii',' through the(y/i»i or unit resist-
ance, and is therefore, according to Joules Law (see
Elkctricity), the heat developed in one second
in a conductor having that resistance and carry-
ing that current. It is approximately equal to
107(100,000 ergs ; so that ' Joule's Equivalent,
defined as the mechanical equivalent of the heat
required to raise the temperature of one gramme ot
water from 0" C. to 1° C, contains to the .same
approximation i-\ii joules.
Joiirdail. Jkax B.\ptiste, Comte, a French
marshal, born 29111 April 17G2, at Limoges. He
entered the arrav at sixteen, and, after seeing ser-
vice in North America, rose under the Republic
to the rank of a general of divisiim. In September
1793 he obtained tlie command of the Army of the
North, and on 16th (October defeated the Austrians
at Wattignies. In 1794 and 1795 he commanded
the Army of the Meuse and Sambre, and with it
trained the victory of Fleurus (26th June 1794),
drove the Austrians back across the Rhine, took
Luxemburg, ami laid siege to Mainz. But on
11th ()ct(dier 179.') he was defeated at Hiichst,
and thus compelled to retreat over the Kluiie.
Crossing this river again in 1796, he penetrated
as far as Bavaria, but was there beaten by the
Arch<luke diaries at Amberg and ^^ur/.bul■g ;
this discomfiture made him resign his command.
In 1799 the Directorv entrusted him with the com-
mand of the Armv' of the Danube : but he was
again defeated bv the Archduke Charles at Ostrach
and at Stockach." Although he took no part in the
coan-d'Hut of 18th Rrumaire, the First Consul
employed him in 1800 in the reorganisation and
admiii'istr.ation of l"ieilmont : and on the e.stablish-
ment of the Empire in 1804 he was made a marshal
and a member of the Council of State. In 1806 he
was nominated governor of Naples, and after\yards
accompanied King Joseph Napoleon to Spain a-s
chief of his staff. Louis XVUI. made him a count
in 1819. But his republican principles led him to
enter heartily into the revohitiim of 1830. He died
at Paris, 23d" November 1833.
Joiiriialisiii. See Newsp.vpers.
Joust. See TOUKN.\MENT.
Jove. See JfPlTEli.
.lOM't'tt, Bkn.I-MIIN, the translator of I'lato,
was biirn at Camlicrwell in 1817, and educated at
St Paul's Schocd and Balliol College, Oxford, where
he h;id a distinguished career, taking the Hertford
scholarship in 1837, a chi-ssical first-class in 18.39,
and the Latin essay in 1841. Already a Fellow in
1838, he was tutor'of his cidlege from 1840 till his
election as master in 1870. Thus his whole life had
been identified with Balliol, and as master his inllu-
ence is supposed to have i)ermeatcd the college to a
degree almost unexampled. He was a member witli
Macaulay of the Commission for imiuiry into the
inoile of admission to tlie Imlian Civil Service, and
he was appointed in 185.i to the rcgius professor-
sliip of (ireek at t Ixford. He received the degree of
Doctor from Levden in 187.'>, Edinburgh in 1884,
!ind Cambridge in 1890, and acted a-s vice-chancellor i
from 1882 till 1886. His theological writings are
an article 'On the Interjuetation of Scnpture in
Kssmis and lin-lnr.s { 1860), for the alleged heresies
ill wiiich he was tried but acinitted by the vice-
chancellor's court ; and a Commcntari/ on the
Enisths of St rani to the Thcssnlonians, Galatians,
and Honwns (2 vols. 18.-.,-.): and his CI h-r,c Sermons
( 1895) He is best kn(.wn hv his translation ot tlie
Dialoqnrs of Plato (4 vols. 1871 : 2d ed. 3 vols.
1876); with its admirablv learned and luci.l intro-
ductions, and his less haj.py versions of ■l''i"7;''>'!.''f
(2 vols. 1881) and X\\c. Politics of Aristotle (1880).
He died 1st October 1893.
See the Life and Letters by E. AWmtt nnol L. ['""JphcH
(1897-99), and a sketch by Lionel ToUcinaclio \ 18Jo).
Jovoc's Country. See (;.\i,w.\y.
Juan. See Don Juan, John of ArsTRiA.
Juan Fernan»U'7,. called also Mas-A-tii-.1!i:a
('nearer the mainland'), a rocky island in (lie
Pacific Ocean, 420 miles \V. of Valparaiso, Chili,
to which it belongs. It is 13 miles long and 4
broad, and is for the most part a series <.f rocky
peaks of volcanic origin, the highest of which.
Yuiuiue, is 3000 feet above sea-level. The trees
are mostly ferns. The sandalwood trees are nejirly
all externiinated. Horses, j.igs, and goats run wild.
The island was discovered by the Spanianl wlios,-
name it liears in 1563, and was frequently visited by
buccaneers down to its occupation by the Spaniards
in 1750. Here Alexander Selkirk, a buccaneer, a
native of the Scotch fishing-village of Largo, lived
in solitude from 1704 to 1709. His story is siip-
i.osed to have suggested the Robinson Crusoe ot
Defoe; thou'di it should be remembered that
Robinson's isTand was on the other side of South
.\merica, near the mouth of the Orinoco. ^\ lien
Spain lost her South .American colonies .liian Fer-
nandez fell to Chili, which used it as a penal settle-
ment from 1819 to 1835. It is usually inhabitei
bv a few Chilian seal an<l sea-lion hunters : and
in 1877 it was leased bv the Chilian government to
a Swiss, who established a small colony there.
See an article in Chambers's Jonrjad {li^»») ; and
M.ackenna, Juan Fernandez (Santiago, 1883).
.Juarez, Benito, president of Mexico, w.as born
of Indian p.arents in Oaxaca in 1806, became iin
advocate, and as governor of his native state ( 1847-
.52) w.as distinguished both for his ability and Ins
honesty. Exiled during the dictatorship of Saiit.i-
Anna.'he returned when the republic was restored,
.and in 18.57 w.as elected president of the Supreme
Court (equivalent to vice-president of the nation).
On the overthrow of the Liberal president by
the clerical partv in 1858 Juarez assumed the
executive, but was compelled to retire to Vera
Cruz, where his government was recognised by
the L'nited St.ates in 1859, and whence he issued
decrees abolishing religious orders and confiscat-
ing chnrch propertv. In .lanuary 1861 he was
.al.te to enter the' capital, and in M.arch was
elected president for four years. In Deceiiiber of
the same vear the allied forces of England, I' ranee,
and Spain occupied Vera Cruz (see MEXICO); in
April the British .and Spanish withdrew, but the
French remained, and declared war against .Iiiarez,
who retreated gradually to the northern front km-,
and remained for nearly a year at Kl Paso did None.
He entered Mexico city again in July 186/, Maxi-
milian (q.v.) having been shot meanwhile by order
of court-m.artial- an ungenerous but not imi>olitic.
(.r periiaps altogether unjustifiable .act of reprisal.
Juarez was again elected juesident for four years- -
years disturbed bv repeated revolutionary attemj.ts.
tn 1871 he was ieelected, and the risings became
even fiercer and more frequent : but he t.aced all
bis foes with the dogged courage of his race, and
was holding his position with unwearied energj'
JUBA
JUDAS
301
when he Hie<l, somewhat sn<klenlv, 18th July
1S7-2. See the Life by I'lick K. liuike (1894).
JllbSU a fr'"*"'*' river of eastern Africa, which
tliiws into the Indian Ocean at aliont (I 5' S. lat.,
ami wliose mouth marks the nortliern boundary of
the coast placed under British control by the
agreement with Germany in 1890. The river has
been explored to beyond 3° N. lat., and Cecehi
identifies the Umo as its upper waters ; so that it
probably takes its rise in the same mountains a.s
the feedei-s of the Nile.
.Illlia. See NuMiDiA.
Jiihal. son of Lamech and Adah in the Genesis
story, the inventor of the harp and organ, probably
general terms for stringed and wind instruments.
The meaning of the name is most likely significant,
connected with ijobel, 'jubilee.'
J nbbniporc. See Jabalpur.
.Illbila'te. the lOOth Psalm, which in the Vul-
gate liegins Jubilate Deo otniiis terra. It was
added to the English Prayer-book in 1552, to be
sung after the Second Lesson, instead of the Bene-
dirt US', when that canticle occurs in the chapter for
the day ; but it is used at other times as well, and
always at thanksgivings.
Jubilee, the Ye.\r of (Heb. ynhel), a peculiar
theocratic, and apparently theoretical much more
than practical, institution among the Hebrews
< Leviticus, xxv. ), by which, every fiftieth ( 7irit forty-
ninth ) year, the land that in the interval had pa-ssed
out of the possession of those to whom it originally
belonged was restored to them, and all who had
been reduced to poverty, and obliged to hire them-
selves out as servants, were released from their
bondage ; while at the same time all debts were
remitted (Jos. Ant. iii. 12). The jubilee fomis, as
it were, an exalted Sabbatical Year (q.v. ), and the
land was completely to lie left to rest in the former
as in the latter. The design of this institution was
ohielly to prevent the growth of an oligarchy of
landowners, and the total impoverishment of some
families. It was proclaimed at the end of the
harvest-time, like the sabbatical year, on the day
of atonement, by the 'yobel ' ( a kind of horn ), hence
probably also its name. There is no trace in the
whole history of the Heljrews down to the Baby-
lonian exile that the jubilee had ever been observed ;
after the return, however, it appears to have been
rigorously kept, like the sabbatical year, for some
time at least ; but, from its general impracticability,
it must soon have fallen into disuse. Dillmann
maintains the 'year of liberty ' of Ezek. xlvi. 16-18
to be the year of jubilee, while Kuenen and Well-
hausen make it the sabbatical year.
The Christian church adopted the term Jubilee
from the Jewish, and the jubilee in two forms,
the ' ordinarj- ' and 'extraordinary,' is still an in-
stitution in the Roman Catholic Church, a.s a period
of remission from the penal consequences of sin.
The ordinary jubilee is that which is celebrated at
stated intervals, the length of which has varied at
different time.s. Its origin is traced to Pope Boni-
face VIII., who issued, for the year I.WO, a bull
granting a plenary indulgence to all )iilgrim-vi.sitors
of liome during that year, on condition of their
penitently confessing their sins, and visiting the
church of St Peter and St Paul, fifteen times if
strangers, and thirty times if residents of the city.
Innumerable troops of pilgrims from every part
of the church Hocked to Home. As instituted
by Boniface, the jubilee was to have been lielfl
every hundredth year. Clement VI., in a bull
of 1.34.3, abridged the time to fifty years. The
number of pilgrims that year is said to h.ave
teen no fewer than l,0OO",(K)f) ! The term of
interval was still further abridged by Urban
VI., .and again by P.aul II., who in 1470
ordered that thenceforward each twenty -fifth year
should be held .as jubilee — an arrangement which
has continued ever since to regulate the ordinarj-
jubilee. Paul II. extended still more, in another
way, tlie spiritual advantages of the jubilee, by
dispensing with the personal pilgrim.age to Home,
and gr.anting the indulgence to all who should visit
any church in their own country designate<l tor the
ptirpose. and should, if their means permitted, con-
tribute ,a sum towards the expenses of the Holy
Wars. The substitution by Leo X. of the fund for
building St Peter's Church for that of the Holy
AVar, and the abusive and scandalous proceedings
of many of those appointed to preach the Indul-
gence (q.v.), were among the proximate causes
of the Reformation. In later jubilee years the
pilgrimages to Rome gradually tliminished in fie-
quency, the indulgence being, for the most part,
obt.ained by the performance of the prescrilied works
at home : but the observance itself has been punc-
tually maintained at each recuning period, with the
single exception of the year 1800, in wliicli, owing
to the vacancy of the holy see, and the troubles of
the times, it was not held.
The extraordinary- jtiliilee is ordered by the pope
out of the regular period, either on his accession, or
on some occa-sion of public calamity, or in some
critical condition of the fortunes of the chnrch ; one
of the conditions for obtaining the indulgence in
such cases being the recitation of certain stated
prayers for tlie particular necessity in which the
jubilee originated.
Jubilee is also used for the celebration of a fiftieth
anniversary — as the jubilee of George II I. 's acces-
sion (1809), and of Queen Victoria's (1887): and
for festi\als generally, as the ' Peace .Ju)nlees '
celebrated at Boston, United States, in 1869 and
1872.
Jllby. Cape, on the west coast of Africa, 100
miles south of the frontier of Morocco, with an
anchorage. A trading settlement of an English
company was established in 1879-89.
JiidiriU See Palestine.
Jlldab (Heb. Ycfiucla, 'the Bepraised One')
was the fourth son of Jacob and Leah, and founder
of the greatest and most numerous of the twelve
tribes, to which belonged the royal house of David.
In the march through the wilderness it had the
van assigned to it : and tradition narrates that its
standard was a lion's whelp, with the words : ' Arise,
O Lord, and let thine enemies be scattered ! " After
the conquest of Canaan its territories stretched
from the Dead Sea on the east to the Mediterranean
on the west (though the Philistines long held
posses.sion of the fertile district west of the mcnin-
tains of .Judah), and from Jeru.salem (excluding
that city) on the north to the land of the Amalek-
ites on tlie south. The capital of the tribe was
Hebron. For its history, see ISR.\EL.
Jiidaisers. See Ebioxites.
Jllda.'^. the betrayer of Jesus, surnamed Iscariot,
most |irobably a n.ative of Kerioth in the tribe of
.ludah, .and, if so, the only southerner among the
twelve disciples. He must at first at least have
been fired with real faith and zeal, for there was no
worldly reward to g.ain when he first left his old life
to obey the call of tlie new ])ro]ihet of Nazareth.
He acted as stew.ard to the company on thi-ir jour-
neys, and John tells us that he was covetous and
dishonest from the beginning. It was the tempta-
tion of nmney, according to Matthew ami Mark,
that made him betray his m.a.stcr to the chief
priests for thirty ])ieces of silver. Luke gives the
additional motive that Satan had entered into him.
The Synoptics represent .Je.sus as conscious of the
meditated trcaclierj-, which, moreover, wa.s plainly
362
JUDAS MACCABEUS
JUDE
foretold by himself, and even inophesied in the Old
Testament ; John makes Jesus liimself hasten it
forward (xiii. 27). Whatever sudden or lonyf-pre-
meditated temiitation it was that turned the head
of Judas, he liad not wholly lost moral sentiment,
for when he saw the awful conseiinenees of his
fiuilt he wius hlled with the remorseful horror of
despair, and liad tlie grace to <;o ami hang himself.
The two variant accounts of his end in Matthew
(x.Kvii. 3-10) and Acts (i. 16-20) have this much in
common, and moreover that the hlood-mouey was
e.\changed for a piece of ground which bore before
or after the ill-omened name of Aceldama, or the
Field of Blood.
The mere desire for gold can hardly be accepted
a.s a motive adequate enough for a crime so mon-
strous, which has made its perpetrator's name to all
time a synonym for sliameful treachery. Yet it is
almost as hard to Knd it in the promptings of dis-
appointed ambition, vindictive hatred, or revenge.
Theophylact, the elder Lightfoot, Bahrdt, Niemeyer,
an<l Schmidt sought to explain tlie treachery by a
belief in the miraculous powers of Jesus, which
would necessarily protect him from the consumma-
tion of any deed of violence. The ancient Gnostics,
and Noack among moderns, credited Judas with a
desire to bring about the redemptive ileath of Jesus
and the consequent triumph of Christian truth.
Again Paulus, Winer, Hase, G. Schollmeyer, and
Wluitely believed that the worldly-minded and
ambitious Judas had become impatient of the delay
in the establishment of the earthly kingdom, and
that he adopted his policy with a view to drive
Jesus to action by forcing his hand. Keim's ex-
planation is that the force of old associations may
liave overcome his wavering belief in the Messiah-
ship of Jesus during the excitement of the festival,
when a burning mental struggle burst out in his
heart under the immediate intiuence of relatives
ardently devoted, as he himself once was, to the
old religion as.sociated with the sanctuary of Israel.
The old legal and pietistic prepossessions of his
materialistic rather than spiritual temperament
gloweil up anew within his heart, and hurried him
without deliberation to a course, the quick reaction
from which was hopeless remorse, horror, and
despair. Perhaps none of these explanations throw
much light upon an enigma so dark as the motives
that drove Judas to his fatal treachery, and it
may lie doubted if these motives were any less
obscure and confused than the jiiotives that sway
the human heart usually are. Had his avarice
been so deep-seated he would never have had any
measure of the grace of the disciple, for surely
.Jesus must have seen the possibilities of good as
well as evil in the young disci[)le whom he attached
to himself. But, spite of outward and at lirst
genuine enough enthusiasm, cariuil seUishness was
deeply rooted in his nature, and «hen the mani-
festation of Christ ceased to be attractive to him,
as Neander says, it became reimlsive, and more and
more so every day. The immeiliate occiision which
turned his last remnants of affection into violent
hatred may well have been some sharp reproof,
some fancied slight or estrangement that came
.suddeidy, and hurrieil his hot heart to action which,
when too late, he was bitterly to repent.
The treaohury of Judas lias given rise to a long series
of psychological studies which are conveniently eiui-
ineratcd in Winer's BifJinchrg liealirortrrhurh (3d ed.
1847 ^H). In Daub's Jmi<ui heharint/t ( 1816 -IH) a short
preliminary investigation of the crime ojtens up a dis-
cussion of evil in relation to good. See also the Lives of
Jesus by Neander, Strauss, I-lenan. Noack, Hase, Keim,
Farrar, and Edersheim ; the essay by De Quincey,
Stier's H'ori/.i of the Lord Jesus, Tragedies by Elisa
Schmidt (l.So2) and Dulk (ISCS); and Kobert Uuclianan's
hallail, Jtidits Ixrttri>>t.
Judas Muccabifus. See Maccabees.
Judas' Tree (Cercis), a genus of trees of the
natural onler Leguminosae, sub-order Ciesalpineie.
The common Judas' Tree (C. SiliqiKi.'ilriim) is a
native of the south of Eurojie and of the warmer
temperate parts of Asia. It has almost orbicular,
very obtuse leaves. The Howers, which are rose-
coloured, appear before the leaves. There is a
legend that Judas hanged himself on a tree of this
kind. The American Judas' Tree (C. caiuulciisis)
is very similar, but ha.s acuminate leave.s. The
flower-buds are frequently used in salads and
pickled in vinegar. The wood of both species is
very beautiful, veined with black, and takes an
excellent polish. The young shoots of the Amer-
ican Juda,s' tree are used in domestic dyeing, and
impart a line colour to wool.
Jude, Epistle of, one of the smallest and
least important books in the New Testament
canon, which purports to be l)y 'Jude, a servant of
Jesus Christ, and brother of James.' This Jude is
most prolialily the Judas who was one of the
' brethren of the Lord ' ( Matt. xiii. 55 ; Mark,
vi. 3). There is a Judas in the list of the apostles,
as given by St Luke (vi. 16; Acts, i. 13) and
recognised by St John (xiv. 22), occupying the
place of one who in the lists of RLatthew (x. 3)
and Mark (iii. 18) is called Lebbeus or Thaddeus,
the traditional evangelist of Edessa. The absence
of the epLstle in the Peshito is of itself proof,
according to Canon Venables (Smith's Dirt, uf
Bible), that it is not the work of the last. St Luke
describes the apostle Judas as 'lobSas 'lasiifjou,
which would naturally mean ' Jude, the son of
James,' but has been, without sufficient grounds,
rendered in the Authoriseil Version 'Jude, the
brother of James.' But the author of our epistle
rather seems to distinguish himself from the apostles
(verse 17), and on other grounds there seems con-
clusive proof that he did not bekmg to the Twelve.
The ejiistle is recognised by many who are silent
about James, as Clement of Alexandria, the .Mura-
torian Fragment, TerluUian, and Origen ; although
indeed it is not mentioned by Clement of Kome,
Ignatius, Hennas, Polycarp, Pajiias, or lren:eus.
As has been said, it is wanting in tlie Peshito or
Syriac version, and it is classed by Eusebius with
James among the Aiiti/effomena, or disputed books.
Fifty years later St Jerome mentions that, though
then received, it had been rejected by many a.s
quoting the apocryphal Hook of Enoch (verses
14, 15). Origen tells us that in verse 9 again
Jude quotes from another apocryphal book,
the lost Assumption of Moses. A more serious
objection to Judes authenticity is the question
whether the particular immoral i)erversions of
Christian truth against which it seems to be
directed existed in the time of the brother of
James, who appears lo have been deail licfore
the accession of Domilian (SI A.I>.). Davidson,
Hilgenfeld, Volkmar. Schenkel, .Mangold, Lipsius,
Holtzmann, Weizsackei-, and Ptleiclerer identify
these with the Antinoniian Gnosticism of the '2d
century, which reimdialed (iod and the angels of
the Old Testament as subordinate jiowers (verses
8-10), Jesu.s as the merely human organ of the
higher Christ (verse 4), and ordinary Christians
as people jisychically inferior to themselves
(verse 19), while it ail'orded a cloak to libertine
tendencies (verses 8, 10, 16). But it niay be
questioned if the epistle specially applies to
(Inosticism [iroper, as there is no distinct hint at
the doctrinal basis of the errors denounced, and
the whole may reasonably be interpreted as rebuke
to priviite members of the church who led ungodly
lives, mi.sinterpreting the doctrine of grace as a
charter for a licentious life, ami were disobedient to
spiritual authority, not necessarily apjilicable to
special organised forms of immorality and error yet
JUDENHETZE
JUDGES
363
to be developed. x\t the same time it sliinild be
remembered that otlier ajiostU's liad already bad
cause to denounce impurity wliicli bad crept into
the church (2 Cor. xii. 21 : I'bil. iii. 19; Kev. ii.
20-22). Clement of Alexandria read.s into the
epistle a prophetic denunciation of the immoral
teachint; of Carpoerates, and Iteuan boldly claims
it a-s a diatribe a;;ainst l^iul.
No reader can overlook the strikin^ij parallelism
at once in thouglit and language between Judeand
2 Peter, ii., from which we may feel certain that
the one writer had the work of the other before
him. It is a ditticult matter, however, to deter-
mine which of the two was the earlier. Most
critics conclude in favour of Jude, although to this
there are several serious objections on which a
strong case has been constructed by Professor
Luniby in The Sjtca/cer's Comiinntary.
See the Introductions of S. Uaridson, Hilgenfeld,
Holtzmann, Salmon, "Weiss, and Dods ; the works on
the New Testament canon by Westcott and Zahn ; and
the special commentaries in the A'u)'(;//e/. Exet. Handbuch
(3d ed. Bruckner. 18B5), Meyer (5th ed. Kuhl, 1887),
Stier (18.50), Arnaud (1851), Rampf (1854), Fronmullor
(1859), Hoffmann (1875), Eeuss (1878), and E. H.
Pluniptre (1886). See also Kitsch! in Theolog. Stud. u.
Krit. (1861).
Jndeiihetze. See Jews, p. 329.
JlldSJe is the generic descriptive name given to
those wlio are invested with the power of judging
and deciding causes in the highest courts of common
law. In Great Britain— though it is otherwise in
America — it is not usual to designate the highest
class of judges by the epithet of judge, and British
lawyers never do so. Tlius, instead of saying Judge
Blackstone, Judge Pollock, Judge Eldon, the proper
description is Mr Justice Blackstone, Chief-barou
Polloclc, Lord Chancellor Eldon, &c., according to
the particular court in which they presided. In
Scotlatul the usual prefix to the name of a judge is
Loid ; and the judges there, on their appointment,
often assume territorial titles in addition to the pre-
fix 'Lord;' Kobert Macfarlane, for instance, becom-
ing Lord Ormidalc, whilst his wife remained Mrs
Macfarlane. In England the judges of the superior
courts are only called lords while they sit in court
or in chambers. The practice has long been for the
crown to confer the honour of knighthood on all the
i'udges of the superior courts of law and equity in
England, but not in Ireland or Scotland. All the
superior judges are appointed by the crown, and
since the Act of Settlement ( 1701 ) have held their
offices during good behaviour ; since 1 Geo. III.
cha]i. 23, they have also continued to hold their
appiiiiitnients not\vitlistan<ling the demise of the
crown. They can only be removed from their office
on the address of both Houses of parliament.
They are disc|ualitied from sitting in the House of
Commons. Judges in England may sue and be
sued in their own courts, but none may be judge in
his own case. No action may be brought against
the judge of a superior court for anything done in
Ills judicial capacity. Judges of inferior courts are
liabli- to be sued, but only when they have acted in
ba<l faith, or beyond the bounds of their jurisdic-
tion. The term judge is the proper title of the
judges of the county courts established in England
in 1846. In Scotland the phra,se is often a|>plied to
all judges, superior and inferior, whenever tiiey have
a fixed and ileterminate jurisdiction, in contra-
distinction to citmmissioners, who have an occa-
sional and temporary judicial authority delegated
to them.
In the United States the judges of the supreme
court are appointed by the president with the con-
sent of the senate ; in the courts of the several
states they are either ajipointed by the executive,
clecte<l by the legislature, or, as in most states of
lale years, chosen directly liy popular suftVage. A
judge is not lial)le to a civil action for acts ]ier-
lormed as part of bis official duty, but he may be
impeached lor any high crime or misdemeanour.
Judse-advooatt'-geiM'rul, the adviser of the
crown in proceedings to coidirm or revise the de-
cisions of courts-martial, lie is also the adviser,
in legal matters, of the Commander-in-chief and
Secretary of State for War. Before conlirniation,
the sentences of all courts-martial, with the evidence
adduced, are submitted to him ; and it is for him
to represent to the commander-in-chief any ille-
gality of iirocedure, or other circumstance render-
ing it undesirable that the Queen should be advised
to confirm the court's decision. He does not advise
as to the exercise of the prerogative of mercy. The
judge-advocate-geueial recei\'es a salary of £2000,
and is usually a member of the Hou.se of Commons
and of the ministry — changing, of cour.se, with the
latter. The judge-advocate-general is also the
title in the United States for the chief of the
bureau of military justice at AVashington.
The Di}niti)-jiiil(i(-adrocate is an officer holding
a temporary commission as legal adviser of court-
martial, to assist the court, and to see that no
injustice is done to the prisoner.
Judges, The Book of (Heb. ShOfetim — com-
pare Carthaginian Sufitoi ; LXX. Kritai, but in
Philo A'/V»if(to, 'judgments'), a canonical book of
the Old Testament, the second in the series known
as the 'former prophets,' relates to the periml in
the history of Israel from the death of Joshua to
the birth of Samuel. Its authorship — or rather the
authorship of any part of it, for it is drawn from
more than one source — is unknown, and its final re-
daction, as is shown by the presence of Deuteronomic
and other elements, cannot have taken place until
after the exile. Its composite character is shown
by the fact tliat it has two beginnings (see i. 1,
and ii. 6 ). The main section of the book, extending
from ii. 6 to xvi. 31, consists of an apparently con-
secutive narrative, grouped round six principal
judges — Othniel, Ehud, Ueborah, Gideon, Jeph-
thah, and Samson — the internals being filled with
the history of Gideon's son, Abimelech, and refer-
ences, more or less brief, to six minor heroes —
Shamgar, Tola, Jair, Ibzan, Elon, and Abdon. The
religious pragmatism of this narrative is oljvious ;
the liistory falls into running' cycles, all correspond-
ing to the scheme indicated at tlie outset by the
words : ' After the death of Joshua tlie children of
Israel did evil in the sight of the Lord, and forsook
the Lord God of their fathers. . . . And the anger
of the Lord was hot against Israel, and be deliviMed
them into the hands of spoilers . . . and they were
greatly distressed. Nevertheless, the Lord raised
up unto them judges, and was with the judge, and
delivered them. . . . And it came to pass when the
judge was dead that they returned and corrupted
themselves more than their fathers. . . . And the
anger of the Lord was hot against Israel,' &c. The
apparently consecutive character of the narrative
disappears when its chronological data are carefully
analysed ; from these we iiml that the chronology
of the section is hiised on two artificial alternative
schemes, either of which, but not both together,
can be reconciled with the datum in 1 Kings, vi. L
Thus the narrative of the greater judges was origin-
ally separate from that of the minor ones. The
religious standpoint of this main section of the
Hook of Juilges, taken along with other points of
internal evidence, shows that in the main it must
have been composed about the 8th century H.C.
There are signs of Deuteronomic redaction, liow.
ever; but, on the other hand, the section contains
elements that carry us much further back than the
century named — such elements, for example, as the
364
JUDGMENT
JUGGERNAUT
song of Deborah and the histoiT of Ahinielech. Of
tlie remaining jiortions of the Book of Judges, i. 1
to ii. "> is relatively old — older than the Hook of
Joshua, which relates to the same subject, the con-
quest of Canaan, but treats it in a much later
manner. The closing section of the book is made
up of two uiu-omiecte<I and independent narratives
of very different dates. The history of Micah and
the Danites (xvii. 1 to xviii. 31 ) is a piece of very
old history ; that of the Levite and the Benjamites
is considered by Wellh.ansen to he post-exilic, antl
in anv case must he regarded as comparatively very
late. '
See Wellhausen-Bleek, Einlcitunri (1878); also 'WeU-
h,iusen, Relirjion of Israel (Eng. tr.ans. p. 228 sqq.).
There are commentaries by Keil (Eng. trans. 186.5), also
in Lange's Bihvfwerk (1865), in the Speaker's Coinmen-
tar;/, and in the Knrzfjef. Kxeget. Handbueh by Bertheau
(184.")), by Stiider (1835), and by Moore of Andover
(18!)6).
Jiidgiiieut. See Hell, Resuhrection.
Jmlicatiire .4cts (1873-76), The, constituted
the English Supreme Court, comprising the Higli
Conrt of Justice, with a Chancery division (see
Ch.\ncery) and a Queen's bench division (see
CoM.MON L.\w); and the Court of Appeal (see
Api'e.vl).
JiidicinI Coiiiinittee. See Privy-couxcil.
.Iiidicial Faotor. See Factor.
JiMlifial Seuaration. in English law, is
the separation of two manied jiersons by order of
the Court of Divorce. Married persons may, if
they please, mutually agree to live separate, and
they may enter into a deed of separation for that
pnr)iose, which to some extent is recognised as
valid Ijy courts of equity. This is called \oluntary
separation. A deed of separation is alway.s revo-
cable by consent of the parties, though to some
extent binding on each, if the other do not consent
to renew the cohabitation. When the parties have
not mutually consented to separate, one of them
can compel a judicial separation for cert.ain gi-ounds
of misconduct. Thus, either party may apply on
the ground of adultery, or cruelty, or desertion
without cause for two years and upwards. When
a husband is convicted of an aggravated assault on
his wife, the court before which he is tried may
make .an order which is almost equivalent to a
judicial sfqiaration.
Married jiersons separated by deed or judicial
oriler are still married. Not being divorced, they
cannot marry again ; hut there is no longer the
duty of <'ohabiting. The conrt may award a
certain income to the wife after separation, and
may also make ordere as to the custody and main-
tenance of children. Hut, irrespective of this, the
wife becomes, to all int<'nts and puriio.ses as regards
her future property, in the same [msition as if she
were nnmarrieil. On the other hand, the husband
is no longer respcmsihle for maintaining his wife,
except so far as he may have heen ordered to pay
her alimony, and he is not li.ahle for her future
debts. In 18.j7 the law (ui this he.ad was materially
im|iroveil, and a new Divorce Court established.
See Divorce; also .Mahhiagk.
In Scotland the law was changed in 18G1, and
now nearly coincides with the English law in many
respects. Whenever a decree of separation a niensa
ft t/iurn is obtained at the instance of the wife, all
property which she m.iy acquire, or which may
•levolve upon her, is held entirclv separate from and
independent of her husband : she can bei|ueath it
hy will ,as if lie was deail. She can .also enter into
contracts, and sue and he sued in her own name, and
the husbjind is no limger liable for necess.aries or
her debts, except so far as he is bound by the decree
of separation to pay her aliment. The grounds of
judicial separation in Scotland also are nearly the
same as in England.
In the I'nited States the courts used till 1838
partial ilivorce a mc)i.<!a et thoro : but since then
the marriage C(mtract is either wholly dissohed or
the courts refuse to interfere.
Judith, a Jewish heroine, who saved her native
town, lietlndia, by a deed of unexampled daring
and devotion. She made her w.ay into the hostile
camp, and into the very tent of Holofernes. general
of Nebuchadnezzar. The general was bewildered
hy her beauty, and she plied him with wine till he
sank overpowered upon his couch. Then she cut
off his head, and fouiul her way out caining it w ith
her. Her townsmen were inspireil with a sudden
enthusiasm, rushed out upon the enemy, and com-
pletely ilefeated them. The tale is not mentioned
by Josephtis, and has from an early period been
held to be an allegoiy. It forms the suliject of the
apocryphal book of Judith, the composition of
which is put variously between the time of the
Maccabees and the time of the second Jewish war
under Hadrian. The exploit of .ludith has given
a frequent subject to art : here we may im-rely
mention the bronze group of Donatello at Florence";
the paintings by Botticelli, Cranach, Horace Vernet,
anil Etty ; the poetic elaborations of the theme by
Hans Sachs, Opitz, and Hebbel.
Jlldson. Adoniram, American missionary to
Burma, was born in Maiden, Massachusetts,
August 9, 1788. He graduated at Brown Univer-
sity in 1807, passed thiough Andover tliecdogical
seminary, and in 1812 married Ann Ha.seltine and
sailed fcu' Indi.O- There tliey joineil the llajitists.
After many diihculties they settled in Rangoon,
and ere long Judson began to preach and write in
Burmese, translating portions of the New Testa-
ment (1817-21). He received the degree of D.D.
from Brown University in 1823. In 1824 the
missionaries removed to Ava, where, during the
Burmese war, Judson was imprisoned ; and he stib-
se<]\iently l.abotired at Amherst, I'rome, Rangoon,
Maulmain, and, with remarkable success, among
the K.aren jungles. His devoted wife died at
Amherst in 1826. In 1833 his translation of the
Bible was complete<I, ami this was followed by a
Burmese-English dictionary, .ludson's .second wife,
widow of G. D. Boardiuan (rj.v.l, died in 1.S45
on the voyage home to America. He returned
to Burma in 1846, and completed his dictionary
at -Maulmain, but his health failed, and lie died
at .sea, on his waj' to Mauritius, 12th April 18.50.
His first wife was author of a ll/xtori/ of the
Burmese Mission, and assisted her husli.and with
his translations. His third wife, Emily Chublmck
(1817-54), was known in the literary worhl as
Fanny Forrester. See Lives by W.ayland ( Boston,
1853) and Jndsnn's son Edward (New York, 1S83).
Juggernaut, or Puri, is the name of a town
on the coast of Orissa, .at the southern end of the
delta of the Mah.anadi, cclebiivted as one of the
chief holy places in India. With a resident ]iop.
of 22,000, .and some 6000 lodging-houses for
pilgrims, it owes its reputation to a temple erected
there in honour of Vishnu, and containing an idol
of this Hindu god, called JiifidiiiKilli or JiKjiicr-
limit, ,a corruption of the Sanskrit word Jiirjini-
ndtha — i.e. Lord of the AA'orld. It was long a
s.ocred city of the Ibidilhists, the abode of the
Golden Tooth of Buddha. The first historical
mention of .I.agannath is in 318 .\.D. He repre-
sents Vishnu in all his m.anifestations, and is in .a
special sense the god of the iieo^ile. The great
festiv.als sometimes bring 200,000 pilgrims ; and ihe
.annual offerings m.ay .amount to as much lus i"37.liOO,
hesides .lag.annath's revenue of £31,000 from lands
an<l various religious houses. The temple enclosure
JUGGLERS
JULG
■U)5
comprises 120 temples, the chief |)af,'(>(Ia bein^ that
of Jagannath. with a tower 192 feet liij;h. Tliere
are twenty four annmil festivals in his honour, the
chief lieinj; the car festival, when Jajjannath ( who
is armless) is ilragLred on his car (45 feet high, 3.")
feet square, with sixteen wheels, each 7 feet in
diameter) to his country-house. This Ls less than
a mile ilistaut from the temple, l)nt the heavy sand
extends the short journey to several days, until the
exhausted devotees resign the task to professional
car-pullers, who have also to assist the idol home
agaiu. The car festival has Ijeen currently believed
to be the occasion of numerous cases of self-immo-
lation, the frantic devotees committing suicide by
throwing themsehes before the wheels of the heavy-
car. This is, it would appear, a calumny of Eng-
lish writei^. See Sir W. \V. Hunter's work on
Orissa (1872), in which he 'carefully examined the
wliole evidence on the subject, from loSO, when
Abul Fazl wrote, through a long series of travellei's,
down to tlie police reports of 1870,' and came to
' the conclusion which H. H. Wilson hail arrived at
from quite ditlerent sources, that self-immolation
was entirely opposed to the woiship of Jagannath,
and that tlie rare deaths at the car festival were
almost always accidental."
Jugglers. See CoxjCRiNG.
Jugular Vein. See Throat, Vein.
JugurtllU. king of Xumidia, s(ui of Mastan-
alial, who was a natural son of ilasinissa, was
carefully educated along with Adherbal and
Hiempsal, the sons of his uncle Micipsa, who
succeeded Ma--.iuissa on the throne. After Micipsa's
death Jugurtha soon caused Hiempsal to be mur-
dered ( 118 B.C.), whereupon Adherbal fled to Rome.
•Jugurtha succeeded in bribing great part of the
Roman senate, and obtained a decision in his
favour, freeing him from the charge of the murder
of Hiempsal, and assigning him a larger share of
the kingdom than was given to Adherbal (117
B.C.). But Jugurtha soon invaded Adherbal's
dominions, and, notwithstanding injunctions by
the Romans to the contrary, besieged him in the
town of Cirta(112 B.C.), and caused him and the
Romans who were captured w-ith him to be put
to death with honible tortures. Thereupon war
was declared against Jugurtha by the Roman
people : but, by bribing the generals, Jugurtha
contrived for years to bafHe the Roman power. At
last the consul, Q. Ca-cilius Metellus, proving in-
accessible to bribes, defeated him in 109 and 108
B.C., so that he was compelled to flee to the Mauri-
tanian king, Bocchus. Marius, who succeeded
Metellus in the commaud, carried on the war
against .Jugurtha and Bocchus, till at last Bocchus
ilelivered him up to Sulla, then the qua?stor of
Marius. He was carried in the triumph of Marius,
January 1, 104 B.C., and then flung into a dungeon
under the Capitol to die of hunger. Our interest
in Jugurtha is entirely due to the masteroiece of
history in miniature which Sallust devoted to his
ston'.
Jujube [Zizijphii.s), a genus of spiny and de-
ciduous shrubs and small trees of the natural order
RhamnaceiB. The species are pretty numerous.
The Common Jujube (Z. vulgnris) of the south of
Europe, Syria, &c. is a low tree, which produces
a fruit resembling an olive in sha))e and size, red
or sometinies yellow when ripe. The fruit is dried
its a sweetmeat, and forms an article of commerce.
Si/riij> of jiijuheji is u.sed in coughs, fevers, i"^c. ;
but the jujube poMe or pAte cle jujube of the shoos
of Britain is made of jmin-arabic and sugar, witii-
out any of the dried jelly of this fruit. — Tlie jujube
of India (Z. JujuUi) Ls a .similar small tree, with
rouml or oblong fniit, sometimes of the size of a
hen's egg. — A Chinese species of jujube (Z. uitida)
has a very pleasant yellow fruit about an inch
long : and other species not much inferior are
found in Africa, South America, and other warm
countries. — Tlie Lotus {Z. Ijjiua), a shnib 2 or 3
feet high, a native of Persia, the north of .Vfrica,
^.c, produces in great abundanci; a fruit aboul as
large as a sloe, and with a large stone, but liaving
a sweet farinaceous pulp, which the natives of
some iiarts of Africa make into cakes resembling
gingeioiead. A kind of wine is sometimes made
from it. This is believed by many to be the Lotus
of the ancient Lotophagi celel)rated by Homer. —
Z. Spina C7in'sti, another native of the countries
near the Mediterranean, is sometimes said to be the
jilant from the branches of which our Saviour's
crown of thorns was made, and is tlierefore calleil
! Christ's Thorn and Jew's Thorn, names which, for
the same reason, are also given to Pu/iidus
(iiuleatus. The fruit is about the size of a sloe,
oblong, and pleasantly acidulous. — Z. xtjlupi/rus, a
native of the coast of Coromandel, has gi'eenish
downy fruit about the size of a cherry, with an
eililile kernel tasting like a tilliert. The tree, which
grows aliout 20 feet high, yields a hard, durable,
yet light timber, wliicli when mature assumes a tine
orange colour.
Jlljny. the most northerly pro^ince of the
Argentine Republic, is a mountainous tract,
bounded on the AV. and N. by Bolivia, and has
an area of about 27,000 sq. m. Its minerals are
rich, but not worked to any extent. The chief in-
dustries are agriculture and cattle-raising : sugar
and wheat are the principal crops. The exports
(mainly to Bolivia) consist of cattle, mules, fruit,
chicha brandy, skins, gold-dust, and salt. Pop.
(est. 1888) goiOOO.— The capital, Jr.JUV, on the San
Francisco River, 44 miles >i. of Salta, has a custom-
house, a national college, a girls' normal .school,
sugar-houses and retineries, and 6000 inhabitants.
Jnkes, Joseph Beete, geologist, was born near
Birmingham, on 10th October 1811, and graduated
from St John's College, Cambridge, in 1836, having
studied geology under Sedgwick. In 1839 he was
appointed geological surveyor of Newfoundland,
an<l in 1842 he took part as naturalist in the
exploration and survey of Torres Strait, New-
Guinea, and the east coast of Australia. After
his return home he surveyed part of North Wales
for the Geological Sur\ey of the L'nited Kingdom
(1846-50), and in 1850 became local director of the
survey in Ireland. He also lectured on geology in
the Museum of Irish Industry and at the Royal
College of Science in Dublin. He died in tJiat
city, 29th July 1869. Besides writing niany
memoirs on geological and kindred subjects. Jukes
published Excursions in and about Nevfoiindland
(2 \-ols. 1842), Narrative of the Surveyinri V'oijage
of N. M.S. 'Fill,' in Torres Strait, d-c. (1847), and
A Sketch of the Physical Structure of A ustralia
(18.50) : but he is best known as the author of the
Student's Manual of Geolot/y (1857, 5th ed. 1890).
See his Letters, edited by C. A. Browne ( 1871 ).
Julf'il, a suburb of Ispahan (ij.v. ) iu Pei-sia.
•lillg, Beumi.vkd, philologist, was born at
Ringelbach, in Baden, 20tli .-Vugust 1825; studied
cla.s.sical and comparative philology at the uni
ver.sities of Heiilelberg and Berlin ; and after teach-
ing in gymnasia at Heidellicrg, Freiburg, and
Rastatt oecame in 1851 extra-ordinary |)rofcssiir
of Classical Philology at Lemberg ; in 1853 ordinary
professor at the university of Cracow, ami in 1863
at Innsbruck, where he died 14tli August 1886.
Besides his studies in comparative philology, ex-
tended to embrace the tongues of eiustern Asia, lie
devoted much attention to the question of com-
parative folk-lale.s.
Of his scientiBo publications the most iiiipurtaat are
366
JULIA
JULIAN
Vater's Litteratur der Grammatiken, Lexika und WSrlcr-
aammlunrjen alter Sprachen dir Erdt (2d ed. 184"), Die
Mdrchen des Siddhi-kiir (186(5), two collections of Jlon-
golian Mdrchen (1867 aiid 1868), a work on echoes of the
Ureek heroic epos amongst the Mongolians (lS6it), and
Uibtr Wcsen und Aufyabc dir Sprachicissaisehaft (1SG8).
Jlllia^ tlie only cliiUl of the Roman enipeior
Aujjustiis, was his daughter liy his second wife,
Scrilionia, and was born in 39 B.C. She was dis-
tinjrnished for her beauty and talents, and was
married at fourteen to Marcus Claudius Marcellus,
the sister's son of Augustus. After his death two
years later, she was married to Marcus Vipsanius
Agrippa, to whom she bore three sons and two
<laughters. He in liis turn died in the year 12 B.C.,
whereupon Julia was given in marriage ne.xt year
to Tiberius ; his mother, Livia, the stepmother of
Julia, pei-suading Augustus to tliis, in order to
secure the succession of Tiberius to the throne.
Tlie nuirriage was an unhajipy one, and the con-
duct of Julia herself far from irreproachable ; but
it was Livia's hatred rather than any lofty regard
for virtue that procured the unliappy Julia's banish-
ment to the isle of Paiulataria. I* rom Pandataria,
whither her divorced mother, Scribonia, accom-
panied her, she was removed to Rhegium, where
she was allowed by Tilierius to remain destitute
even of common comforts till her death in 14 ,\.u.
Her son, Agrippa Postumus, was put to death by
Tiberius shortly before the deatli of his nmtlier.
Her other sons, C. and L. Ca-sar, died in early age.
Her daugliters survived her. The elder, Julia, in-
herited her mother's frailty, and died in 28, in the
isle of Tiinienis, on the coast of Apulia, whither
slie had been lianished by Augustus twenty years
before for adultery. The younger, the virtuous
Agrippina (ipv. ), died In 33, in Pandataria, to
which she had been banished b^' Tiberius.
Jllliail< sumamed the Apostate, on account of
his renunciation of Christianity, Roman emperor
from about the end of 361 to the middle ot 3G3
A.D., was born at Constantinople in the later half
■of the year 331. He was tlie youngest son of Julius
Constantius, the half-brother of Constantine the
Great, and his full name was Flavins Claudius
JuUanus. On the death of the great Constantine
in May 337, and the accession of his three sons,
there was a general massacre of the male branches
of the younger line of the Flavian family descended
from Constantius Chlorus and his second wife Theo-
dora. Thus perished the father of Julian, his elder
brother, paternal uncle, and cousins, while he him-
self and his elder h;ilf-)iriitlier (Callus were alone
spared as too young to be dangerous. He lived a
loveless youth, under rigorous espionage, at Macel-
lum in Cappadocia and at Xicomedia, embittered
moreover oy the terrible tragedy he had just
escaped, which stripped him of all belief in the
reigning religion, and drove his ardent tempera-
ment for relief into the literary .'uid [)hilosophical
studies of his time. His secret apostasy seems
to have been begun at Nicomedia and consum-
mated at Ephesus under the iiilluence of the
Neoplatonist Maximus. In 35.t he spent a few
ha])py months at Athens in the study of Greek
philosophy, and among his fellow-students and
ac(juaintances here were the future Bishops Hasil
and Gregory Nazianzen. Gallus had been put to
death the year before, and in November 3,5.") Julian
was summoned to Milan to assume the rank of
C'lesar, and marry the emperor's sister, Helena.
The shy young student moved awkwardly amid
the atmos])here of policy and intrigue at the court,
but during the next live years he found more con-
genial occupation in the camp, and hy his skill and
vigour showed th.at he was a soldier as well as
a. philosopher. He overthrew the stubborn and
victorious Alemanni near Strasburg, subdued the
Frankish tribes along the Rhine and across the
river, and fixed his winter quarters at Paris. He
endeared himself to the people by lightening the
pulilic burdens, and to the soldiers by his personal
courage, his success in war, and the severe sim|)li-
city of his private life. In April 36(1 the emperor,
alarmed at his growing jiopularity, ilemanded that
he should send some of his best troops to serve
against tlie Persians, but his soldiers rose in insur-
rection and proclaimed him Augustus. He occu-
pied some time in consolidating; his power, then
sent forward one portion of his army through
Rha'tia and Noricuiii, another bv the northern con-
lines of Italy, while he himselt' with .'iOtX) cho.sen
soldiers plunged into the gloomy recesses of the
Marcian or Black Forest, and sailetl down the
Danube as far as Sirmium, where he waiteil to
unite his forces. Here he first threw ott' the mask
and openly declared himself a pagan. Here
also he learned of the opportune death of his
cousin at the foot of Mount Taurus (November 3,
361 ), which opened up to him the government of
the world. The first winter he spent in the im-
perial city in a course of public reforms, sweeping
away a host of corrupt officials who had long
battened at will on private bribes and exactions.
Towards Christians and Jews alike he ostenta-
tiously adopted a policy of toleration, but none the
less he devoted himself with all the enthusiasm of
the convert to the task of restoring the dignity of
the old religion. He was assiduous in the practice
of divination and all other superstitious ceremonies,
reopened and rebuilt the deserted temples, and
lavished his patronage upon the time-serving repro-
bates who deluded him into a belief in the reality
of their conversion. He stripjied the church of its
peculiar luivileges by every means short of persecu-
tion, but was mortilied to the heart by the little
success of his ardent propagandism alike among
the citizens .and the soldiers, although the latter
were unable to pay their due worship to the pei'son
of the emperor without seeming to bow to idols,
from the subtle way in which the imperial and the
divine sj'mbols were deliberately interminij;led. As
soon as he had .settled affairs in Constantinople he
set out on a journey through .Asia Minor to .\ntiorh.
Here he lived from July ,362 to the March of the
following year, and found its luxurious citizens
as inditt'ereut to his paganism as to Christianity.
Yet his zeal in reformation was less hateful than
his economic policy in fixing an arbitrary price on
corn in order to stave oft' a threatened famine. The
impudent Antiochenes revenged themselves upon
the sensitive emperor by lampoons an<l ridicule ;
yet he restrained his resentment, or confined it to
the pages of his Jllisopoi/on, an ironical satire on
their ettemiuate manners, full of the interest of
self-revelation. His famous attempt to relmild the
temple at Jerusalem was intended to falsify the
cherished prophecies of Christianity no less than to
plea.se the Jews; and the balls of llaine which
brought the work to a standstill were with one
accord accepted as miraculous evidence of the
special interposition of heaven. Much has been
written on this startling story, which even Ciibbmi
was obliged to receive with some respect, and the
case ff)r the miracle has been admirably put by
Newman in liis E.ssii;/ on the iliraclcs in Eurtii
Kn-ldiinxtiral Histori/ (1S42).
In March .363 Julian set out on his long medi-
tated expedition against the Pei-sian king Sapor,
and after a tedious march crossed the Tigris, and
advanced to the walls of Ctesiphon. He was led to
advance farther by the false promises of a Persian
traitor, and was at length forced to retreat through
ii barren country, under a burning sun, and
harassed by the swarms of the Persian cavalry.
The enemy were repeatedly beaten otr, but in one
JULIAN CALENDAR
JULIUS
367
of the attacks the emperor was woiimleil hy a
spear-thrust in the siile and fell fainlin<,' from his
hoi-se. Theoiloret tells ns how as liis blood spouted
from the wouml he exclaimed, ' Thou hast con-
quered, O Galilean ! ' — a poetical tale that is at
least an embodiment of a historic truth. He was
carried to his tent, where, after a few words of
brave philosophy to his weepin" friemls, he died
about midnit'ht on the eveninjr of June "26, 3t>3.
'Julian's ^ife was an accident,' says Beugnot.
' and at his death events reverted to their natural
channel.' He failed completely in the aims of his
life : and historj', says Mr Kendall, shows few
sadder examples of noble views distorted, great
powers misapplied, and high aims worse than
wasted. He was at once a soldier and a states-
man wTapped in a student's cloak, and his
character was made up of strange contrasts. He
was superstitious and fanatical ; loquacious, rest-
less, and irritable ; without either the calm dignity
of the Roman, or the graceful ease of the Greek ;
vain, pedantic, and hungry for applause : yet with
a heart passionately devoted to truth and athii-st
for the cooling watere of divine philosophy. He
was chaste and abstinent, just, liberal, and affec-
tionate : yet the story of his \vasted life, with moie
than the pathos, lacks all the charm that hangs
around the brow of the imperial philosoplier
Aurelius.
To Gregory Nazianzen, Chrysostom, Sozomen, Theo-
doret, and all the early Christian writers, the Apostate
was a monster of wickedness ; to Claudius ilamertinus he
was a figure above all taint of human intirmity. Tlie
veracious and competent military historian .\mmiauus
Marcellinus and the rhetorical Libanius are alike warm,
yet discriminating, panegyrists. Of modern writers the
most illustrious is <.iibbon, whose account is fairly just and
one of the most splendid passages in historical literature.
Yet, as Mr J. W. Barlow has shown [Hermathena, vol.
iiL 1879), his picture of Julian has sufl'ered from the
necessity for the appearance of severe impartiality. He
disUked his superstition, and throughout he damns him
with faint praise, and sneers at his virtue, as if it lacked
the merit of effort. Even the allusion to his uncleanly
personal habits — his long nails, ink-stained hands, and
populous beard — is scarce justified by the evidence, being
based on a mere ironical exaggeration of Julian's own, in
his Migopo'j'yn, to justify the excessive contempt of the
over-luxurious citizens of Antioch.
Julian's extant writings are a series of Epistles, mostly
addressed to men of letters ; nine Orations ; Caesares, a
series of satires in which past Ciesars are treated to caustic
satire from Silenus ; and the Miso}jogon. His most im-
portant work, Kata Ckristiajv^n, is lost. A serviceable
edition is that by F. C. Hertlein (Leip. 1875). See vols,
iii. and iv. of the Due de Broglie's L'&jlise et PEmpire
Romain au quatriemc SiMe (1856-69); Neander,
Kaiser Julian wad gein Zeitalter (1813; Eng. trans.
1850); J. F. A- Miicke, Flavins Claudius Julianus:
nach den Quellen (1867-69) ; and G. H. Kendall, The Em-
peror Julian : Patjanism and Christianitii, an expanded
HuLsean Essay ( 1879 ) ; Bisliop John AVordswortli's
article in vol. iiL (1882) of Smith and Wace's Dictionary
of ChriMian Biography ; and Alice Gardner, Julian, Philo-
iopher and Emperor (1895). The essay by Strauss, Der
homantiker auf detn Thron der Cdsartn (18-17), is only
a clever pamphlet aimed at Frederick William IV. of
Prussia, and his religious reaction. Ibsen's splendid
drama. Emperor ami Oalikean (1873; Eng. trans. 1876),
sketches a new ideal culture for the world to succeed the
Christian, as it replaced the classical
Julian Caloiiilar, Epoch, Year. See
C'.M.KNU.VK, CHRONDLOGY, \ li.VK.
Julien, Stani.slas Aioxan, a great French
Sinologue, was born at Orleans, 19tli Sejitember
1799, and became at twenty-one an assistant-pro-
fes.sor at the College de France. Ere long, under
Abel H«5niusat, he gave himself with such zeal to
the study of Chinese that he mastered its ilitli-
culties in le.ss than a year, and actually executed a
Latin translation of the philosopher Mencius (182-I-
26). From that time his lahoure were direeteil with
uninterrupted assiduity to the languages and litera-
ture of the far East. Ancient ami modern Chinese,
Manchu. Sanskrit, and the Mongolian tongues
were alike familiar to him ; and at the .same time
he knew almost all the European languages. He
succeeded Hemusat in 1832 at the College de
France, became in 18.39 keeper of the I'oyal
Library, and in 1854 head of the College Iniprriale.
He was also conservator of the i5ibliothe(|ue
Imperiale, and was specially charged with the
oversight of the Chinese department. He died
February 14, 1873. Julien gave admiraljle French
versions of specimens of the Chinese drama in his
Hoci-laH-hi ('the Circle of Chalk,' 1S32) and his
Tchao-chi-kou-eul ('the Chinese Orphan,' 1834) ; of
Chinese romances, by his Blanche et Bleu (1834), Lcs
ileiix Coiisiiies (1863): and Acaddnas, a collection
of Indian novels (1859). He was also the first to
make Chinese poetry intelligible. But a more valu-
able service still than these was his translating
the great manuals of Chinese religion and philo-
sophy, such as the Livrc dcs Rccomjjeiises et des
Pcincs (1S35), in which are contained the doctrines
of Tao-.se: the I.irn- de la Vote et de la Vcrtu ( 1841 )
by Lao-tse, written in the 6tli century B.C., and
forming the ohlest and most illustrious monument
of Chinese philosophy ; and aljove all, the Histoirc
de la Vie d'Hioucn-Tsang et de scs Voyages (}f^'i2),
a work of immense importance for the earlier his-
tory and geography of India, and the knowledge of
Buddhism. But not content with these brilliant
labours, Julien translated Chinese treatises on silk-
culture and the manufacture of porcelain. His
splenilid Sijnfaxe Xouvellc de la Langue Chinoise
appeared 1869-70.
Jiilich (Fr. Jidiers), a town of Rhenish
Prussia, on the Koer, 20 miles by rail NE. of Aix-
la-Chapelle. It is the Jidiacian of the Romans.
Until Its fortiKcations were razed in 1860 it ranked
as a fortress of the second class. Pop. 5234. — From
the 12th century Jiilich was the capital of an inde-
pendent conntship, created a duchy in 1356. In
14'23 Jiilich and Berg (q.v.) were united; and
Cleves was added in 1521. In 1609 a disimte arose
as to the succe.ssion, which was not settled till 1666,
when a decision was given in favour of the House
of Pfalz-Neulnirg, the Elector of Brandenliurg
obtaining Cleves. The Pfalz-Neuburg family he-
coming e.xtinct in 1742, Jiilich passed to the Pfalz-
Sulzbach branch, afterwards electors of Bavaria.
In 1801 the duchy was annexed to France, in 1814
to Prussia. See Ritter, Der Jiilicher Erbfolgestreit
(2 vols. 1874-78).
Julius, the name of three popes, of whom the
second anil third deserve especially to be noticed. —
Jl'Lir.s II., originally Giuliano della Rovere, a
nephew of Sixtus IV., was born at Albizuola, near
Savona, in 1443. He was vehemently opposed during
his cardinalate to the designs of Alexander VI. for
the aggrandisement of his family, and one of his
earliest measures on his election to the jiontilicate,
in 1.503, was to resume possession of the duchy of
the Romagna, which had been bestowed upon Ca'sar
Borgia. Julius was himself beyond all suspicion of
nepotism or selfish designs of aggrandisement ; but
his public career during his pontilicate was almost
entirely devoted to piditical and military enter-
prises for the complete re-establishment of the
)>apal sovereignty in its ancient territory — Bologna,
Ferrara, I'v.c. — and fm' the extinction of foreign
ilomination and foreign inlluence in Italy. In
pursuing his designs, for the purpose of compelling
from the republic of Venice the restitution of the
papal provinces on the Adriatic, Julius not only
entereil into the league of Canibrai with the Emperor
Maximili:in, Fenlinand of Aragon, and Louis XII.
368
JULLIEX
JUNAGARH
of France, Iput liad recoui^o to spiritual ariii>, by
placing; tlie lepvililic umliT the ban of the cliiuoh :
and on the submission of Venice, apprehemlinj; the
ambitious ilesiyns of Louis, he withiliew from the
league, and entered into an opposite alliance, the
' Holy League,' to which .^jiain and England were
parties. During this bitter ijuarrel with Louis XII.
the latter attempted, but ineft'eclnally, to enlist
the sympathies of the churcli against the pope.
The Council of H.sa, which was convened under
Louis's inlluence, was an utter failure ; and the
o])posing council, iifth of the Laterau, assembled
by .Julius, l)ut not brought to a close during hi.s
lifetime, completely frustrated the designs of the
French king. It has been said without grounds
tliat Julius, in his hatred of France, tried to draw
even the Turks into the league, but on the con-
trary one of his most cherished dreams was a holy
war under his own comniand. As an ecclesiastical
ruler Julius has little to recommend him in the
eyes of clnirchmen. As a political sovereign he
is described by Ranke as ' a noble soul, full of
lofty plans for the glory and weal of Italy : '
and Professor Leo considers him, with all his
defects, as one of tlie noblest characters of that
age in Ital.y. He was a liberal and judicious
patron of art, and a friend of the rising litera-
ture of the time. He died in February 1513.
There are Lives by Dumesnil (Paris, 1873) and
Brosch ((lOtha, 1877).— Jl'Llus III., born at
Home in 1487, was known before his elevation to
the pontificate as Cardinal del Monte. He was one
of the three legates of the pope under whom the
Council of Trent wa.s opened : antl after his election
to the papacy in 1550 he himself reopened (in 1551 )
that council, which had been suspended for up-
wards of two years. He is connected with English
history as having sent Cardinal Pole to organise
with Mary the reunion of the kingdom with Home ;
but his general government of the church is marked
by no very striking events, and his private char-
acter is sullied by the taint of nepotism. He died
in March 1.555.
Jllllieil (originally JuLiEX), Loris Axtoine,
was born at Sisteron, in the French department of
Basses Alpes, 23d April 1812. He studied at Paris,
and became a conductor of concerts there in 1836 ;
but leaving in 1838, made London his headipiarters,
and did nnich to ])oi)ularise music in England by
means of large bands, the best available ))lavers
and singers, and the most attractive pieces, includ-
ing his own 'Monster t^uadiilles.' He became
bankrupt in 1857, and retired to Paris, where he
was imprisoneil for debt. He died in a lunatic
asylum, 14th March IStiO.
•IiiIIiIIKIoi* {Jdlaiulliar), a city of the Punjab,
stands in the Doab or rich alluvial plain of the
same name between the Sutlej and the Beas, in
:!1 21' N. lat. and 75' 31' E. long., on the Sindh-
I'unjab and Delhi Railway between l'ml>alla anil
Iniritsar. The soil of the neighbourhood is very
productive ; and the city, though fallen from its
former greatness, in 1891 had t>(),202 inhabitants.
.JuUunder is a very ancient city, founded before
.\le\ander's invasion of India, and is referred to
in the Midiaihamta. — It gives its name to an
a<lministrative tlittrict of 1433 s(|. m. area (pop.
9<J7,583), and to a division of 12,600 sij. m. area
(pop. nearly 3,000,000).
•IlllllS. or IlTHTS, a genus of Millepedes, in the
class Myriapoda (see C'KXTIl'EDE).
July, the .seventh month of the year in our
calenilar, tifth in the Roman ealenilar, where it was
called Quintilis ('the Iifth'). Originally it con-
tained thirtysi.v days, reduced lirst to tliirty-one,
then to thirty, but was restored to thirty-one days
by Julius Cicsar, in honour of whom it was named
./«/// (Lat. Jiditis), his birthday falling on the
12th. In this month the sun leaves Cancer and
enters the .sign of Leo. According to Dove, the
mean temperature of July at London is 04" F. ; at
Dublin, OT; at Archangel, liO' ; at Berlin, 66*; at
Rome, 76'. The average summer temperature at
j New York is 72'-62; at San Francisco, 5S°'04. —
j The 'July Revolution' is that in France in .Inly
1830, by which Charles X. was set aside, and
LouLs- Philippe became king.
Jlliui^ges, Robert of, Archbishop of Canter-
bury, was a Norman by birth, and came to England
in the train of Edwar<l the Confessor, over whom
he acquired great inlluence. He wius made Bishop
of London in 1044, and Archbishop of Canterbury in
1050, and from the first was the head of the anti-
English party which gained a temporary triumi)li
in 1051 by the banishment of Earl Godwin and his
sons. Their return next year quickly drove him
into e.xile in Normandy. The AVitenagemot stripped
him of his archbisliopric, and he spent the re-
mainder of his life in the monasteiy of Jumieges,
16 miles SW. of Rouen.
Jumieges, Willi.\m of, a Norman monk who
compiled in Latin a history of the Dukes of
Normandy from Rollo down to 1071, which is of
some value in the contemporary part — the story of
the Conquest and early reign of William I. It is
printed in iligne's Patruluijim Curstts Cuttijilctiai
(vol. cxlix.).
Jnillillil, a town of Spain, 36 miles N. by W.
of Murcia, cultivates the vine and esparto gra.ss,
and manufactures salt, jars, silk, &c. Pop. 13,890.
Jllllina^ or J.\MUX.A, the principal feeder of the
Ganges, has its course wholly in Hindnstau. Its
source, at a height of 10,849 feet above the sea,
is in 31° 3' N. lat. and 78" 30' E. long., 5 miles N.
of Janmotri. After a southerly course of 95 miles
it breaks into the plains from the Siwalik Hills at
an altitude of only 1276 feet. It continues to How
south as far .as Haniirpur, beyond Agra, and
then turns to the east, finally joining the Ganges
from the right 3 miles below Allahaljad, after a
total course of 860 miles. As a rule its banks are
high and craggy. Many tributaries add their
waters to swell its current. Area of tlii! ilraiiuige
basin, 118,000 sq. m. The towns of Delhi, Agra,
Firozabad, Et;iwah, and Allahabad stand on its
banks. From each bank of the river, where it
emerges from the Siwalik Hills, a canal lixs been
constructed for irrigation purposes — the Eastern
Jumna Canal ( 18'23 .30), on tiie left bank, 160 miles,
and the Western (I817-'25), 433 miles.
Junipers, a term given by opponents to the
Sb.akers (q.v.), as also to some Welsh Methodists,
assumed to ■ jump ' as part of divine worship.
Juniping. See Athletic Si'dkts.
Juniltinu; Hare (I'cUetes aiffcr), a South
.\fricau rodcut, Spriin/ J/nasoi the I)utch colonists,
belonging to the same family (Dipodida;) as the
Jerboas (q.v.). The he.ad nuich resembles that of
a hare, although the ears are shorter ; the form of
the body is also like that of a hare, but the hind-
legs are very long an<l strong, like those of a
kang.aroo, ami the toes both of fore and hind feet
are armed with great claws ; and the tail is long
and bushy. Its powers of leaping are extraordinary ;
it clears '20 or .30 feet at a bound. Night is its
time of activitv, and it then makes mischievous
imoads on fields and gardens. It.s flesh is eaten.
Its range extends from Mozambique and Angola
to the Cape.
JuUiltfiirll. capital of a native state (area,
3283 sc|. III. ; pcqndation, .■f9l),0()0) of India, in the
Bombay I'resiilency, is situated on the peninsula
of Kathiawar, NW. of Bombay. One of the most
JUNCE^
JUNIPER
309
pictuiesij\ie towns in Iiuiia, it has au old citadel,
which contains several liiiddhist caves, as does
also the ditch surrounding it (see Dr Burgess,
Anti</iiitiis of Cutc/i fuiil Ki(thUtiiur). Pop. ( 1881 )
24,679; (1891) 31,G-4U.
Junce:r, or Ji'NCACE.E, a natural order of
endo,^'iii(>us plants, herbaceous, generally perennial,
with creeping root-stock; narrow, often tistular
leaves ; regular (lowers ; the perianth 6-partite ; the
stamens six ; the fruit a 3-valved capsule. This
order is nearly allied to Liliacea', notwithstanding
very great ilitl'erence of aspect ; for rushes ( Juncus)
are the best-known examples of it. The species,
about 200 in number, are mostly natives of cold
and temperate climates.
June, the sixth month of the year in our
calendar, but the fourth among the Romans. It
consisted originally of twenty si.x days, to which four
were added bv Komulus, one taken away by Nunia,
.and the montli again lengthened to thirty days by
Julius Citsar, since whose time no variation has
taken place. During this month the sun leaves
the sign of Leo and entei's that of Cancer. Dove
gives the mean temperature of this month at
London as 6P F. ; Dublin, 58° ; Paris, 63°; Vienna,
67° ; Rome, 7P.
Juns, JoH.\XN Heisrich, generally called
JrsG Stillisg, an original German writer, was
born at Im-Grund, in Na-ssau, r2th September 1740.
At fii-st he pursued his father's callings — tailor
and village schoolma.ster ; then (176S) he became
a student of medicine at Strasburg, where he wa.s
intimate with Goethe, who admired his simple,
pure, all'ectionate nature (see Wahrheit tend Dic/i-
tunc/, ii.). Next he settled (177"2) as a medical
practitioner at Elberfeld, and won fame as an
operator for cataract. Subsequentlj' he held the
professorship of Political Economy at Marburg
( 1787-lSW ) and Heidelberg. He died at Carlsruhe,
2d April 1817. He was brought up in a pietistic
circle, and the effects of his early training clung to
him all his life. Although lie wrote some semi-
mystical, semi-pietistic romances, and later in life
works on political economy, he only deserves to
be remembered for his charming autobiography,
H. Slilliiig's Jugend, Junrjlingsjahre, Wander-
srhfift, Httusliches Leben, uiul Lcltrjahrc (5 vols.
Berlin, 1777-1804: En", trans. is:i.")). His works
were published in 12 vols. (Stutt. 1843-44).
Jllllga Sir S.\L.\E, chief minister to the Nizam
of Hyderabad, was a member of a princely family
whicii since the founding of tlie Nizam's dynasty
in 1713 had furnished the state with its chief minis-
ters, and was born in 1829. Under his uncle, the
chief minister, Salar Jung was trained in otiicial
work, and in 1853 succeeded his uncle in his im-
portant otlice. He at once began to reorganise
the administration of the state, then in a most
deplorable condition. The finances were in such
a state that the BritLsli government had even to
pay the troops the Nizam Wiis permitted by treaty
to maintain in his own name ; and in order to
repay the loan the province of Berar was ceded to
the British. Salar .Jung's first care was to reduce
to oVjedience the mercenary .Arab sokliery. Then
the robber chiefs of the hill distiicts were crusheil ;
courts of justice were establLshed at Hyderabad ;
the police force was organised ; the construction
and repair of works of irrigation were attended
to ; and schools were established. During tlie
Mutiny of 1857 Sir Salar Jung remaineil faithful
to British interests in face of the opposition of the
people, who side<l with the insurgents. The Nizam
Afzul, an apathetic, .suspicious, and capricious
monarch, had lent his reforming minister no aid ;
he had rather hampered ami hindered him. But
on his death in 1809 Sir Salar Jung shared with
284
the most powerful noble of Hyderabad the post of
regent. In 1870 he visited England with the ho]ie
of obtaining the restoration of the Berar province,
but in this he was disappointed. After thirty
years of wi.se government, he died suddenly on 8th
February 1883. He was a Knight Grand Com-
mander of the Star of India.
Jung Bahadur. Sli;, prime-ndnister to the
Maharajah of Neiial, was born in 1816. His
uncle held a liigh [losition under the government
of Nepal, but was murdered at the instigation
of the queen, who appointed the nephew, Jung
Bahadur, conimander-in-chief of the army. \Vlien
in 1846 the premier was assassinated, Jung Bahadur
took vengeance upon the leading chiefs concerneil
in the crime and made himself jirime-minister. .\
conspiracy against him was quickly quenched in
blood ; the queen and the witless king were ban-
ished ; and the heir-apparent was raised to the
throne. During the Mutiny of 1857 he showed
his friendly feeling to the British by sending a
Ijody of Goorkha troops to their assistance. Jung
Bahadur was knighted and received a Grand Cross
of the Star of India. He died suddenly, 25th
February 1877.
Jungeriliailllia, a Linnrean genus of crvp-
togamous plants, containing a great number of
species, which some modern botanists have diviilcd
into many genera, and some have even formed into
an order, Jungermanniacea', although it is more
generally regarded as constituting a sub-order of
Hepaticse (q.v.). The distinctive characters of the
sub-order are that the spore-rn.ws open by four
valves, and that the isjiorcs are nii.ved with e/atcrs.
The species much resemljle mosses in appearance.
Many are natives of Britain, some of them very
common in moist places. The tropical species are
verj' numerous, and some of them are to be found
even on the young shoots and leaves of plants.
Jungfrail ( ' the Maiden ' ), a magnificent peak
of the Bernese Alps, attains a height of 13,671 feet.
It received its name either from the unsullied
purity and dazzling brightness of the snow liy
which it is covered, or from the fact that no travel-
ler had ever readied its highest point. Its summit
was first asceiuled by two Swiss gentlemen, named
Meyer, in 1811. In 1890 a railway from Lauter-
brunnen to its .summit was projected.
Jungle, a term now fully adopted into the
English language from Bengal (Sanskrit /(///'/'(/(f,
'desert'), and employed to designate those thickets
of trees, shrubs, and reeds whicli aliound in many
parts of India, and particularly in the unliealtliy
tract called Terai or Taraj-ani, along the .southern
ba,se of the Himalaya, and in tlie Sundarbans
(q.v.) at the mouth of the Ganges. The jnngles
are often inipa.s.sable, from the thick growth of
underwood, tall grasses, and climbing plants. The
soil is generally .swampy, and fever and other
diseases abound. Tigers and other beasts of [irey,
elephants, boars, deer, and other (|uadru[ieds may
be found in great numbers in these thickets, with
gigantic snakes, and multitudes of monkeys. The
jungle flora and fauna are very peculiar, and the
moisture and heat cany a tropical vegetation
beyond its usual limits northward to the lower
valleys of the Himalaya. See Indi.v, Benuai,.
.lungle-fowl. the name given in India to the
wild species of Gallin:e ((Itdlu.i frrriigimu.f) wliich
is the parent of our domestic barn-door fowl, and to
three other closely allied species (see Poi'l/ntV).
Juniper [Juui/Jirus), a genus of trees and
shrubs of the natural order Conifera-, suborder
Cupressinea^, having unisexual flowers, the male
and female generally on separate plants, and the
fruit a fleshy gidhnlc { pojnilarly a hciiij), containing
370
JUNIPER
JUNIUS
three small nuts. The species are all evergreen,
and liave small, narrow, rigiil leaves, wliii-li are
opposite, or in whorls of three or four, or imbri-
cated in four rows. They are natives chiclly
of temperate and cold regions, and are found in
Europe, Asia, Africa, and America. — The Common
.luniper (Juiiimr roiiiniiiiii.t) is found in all parts
of Europe an(i the north of Asia, uiul in the north-
ern parts of North America. Only in favourable
circumstances does it become a tree of 15, 20, or at
most 30 feet in lieiuht, and in general it is only a
shrub from '2 to G feet high. The fruit takes two
years to ripen. It is round, of a bluish-black
colour, with a whitish bh)iim ; is of the size of a
small currant, anil is produced in great abundance.
Fig. 1.
«, Jmiiperus communis ; h, J. sabina ; c, J. cliineusis.
The little nut.s or stones of the fruit have on the
shell three glands, which abound, before rijiening,
in an essential oil — 0/7 of Juniper — present also in
the young wood. This oil changes to a true turpen-
tine when the fruit reaches maturity, so that to
obtain tlie oil the green fruit must be u.sed. The
wooil is yellowish red, brownish in the heart, hard,
and fragrant. AVhen of suHicient size it is much
valued by turners. It is also used for veneering.
The berries have a strong and peculiar flavour, and
are nnich useil for flavouring gin, which derives its
name from them (see Gix). They also enter into
several medicinal preparations, being stimulant,
sudorific, and diuretic. — Oil of juniper is lighter
than water; specific
gravity, 0-8:?9. It
is limpid and nearly
colourle.ss, and is
obtained by distill-
ing the unripe fruit,
or the twigs, with
water. — Spanish
Juniper (J. o.ri/ccd-
ri(s) grows in arid
situations in the
countries round the
Mediterranean Sea.
Its fruit is about
the size of a hazel-
nut ; and from its
fruit and wood is
procured an essen-
tial oil of ilisagree-
able odour, called Iliii/e de Cade, whicli is used
in veterinary practice, [larticnlarly as a cure for
scab in sheep. — \'irginian Juniper (.7. r-irfjiiiiaua),
the Ked Cedar of North America, is an ev<'r-
green tree, often 30 .jO feet high, of conical form,
with horizontal branches and very small leave.s.
The berries are snmll and bright blue. The heart-
wood \s of a beautiful red colour, valneil by turners.
Fig. 2.-
-Brancli of J. communis,
with fruit.
&c., while for cigar bo.xes and lead-pencils it has
practically superseiled the now .scarce Bermudas
Cedar (J. bcrmudiana), a lofty tree, with veiy
fragrant reddish-brown wood. — The Ilinuilaya
Mountains produce several species of pmipcr trees
of considerable size, beautiful appearance, and
valuable wooil. — The Swedish junijier of liritish
shrublieries is merely a varietv of the ciimuKm
juniper. The Savine which is J. saOiiiK, is separ-
ately treated. See S.^VINE.
JlIIliHS, Lkxtek-s of, a series of seventy
letters signed Junius, whicli aj^peared in the I'liblic.
Advert isir between the 21st of .January 17G9 and
the 21st of January 1772. They were revised by
the author, and reprinted two UKUitlis later in two
small volumes by llenrv Sampson \Voodfall. An
edition which appeared in 1812 contained one
hundred and thirteen letters in addition to the
seventy in the author's edition ; live only of the
one hundred and tliirteen were signed Junius, and
one of the live, ilated 21st of November 17(i8, was
the lirst which ajipeared with thtit signature. Soon
after Junius began to write be attracteil attention
owing botli to his ajiparent familiarity witli current
politics and notable jiersons, aiul to bis boldness in
commenting tipon them, the climax being reached
by him in his letter to the king on the 16th of
December 1709. \\'oodfall was ]irosecuted for
printing and publishing it in the riil/ic Aihrrlijicr,
and acquitted on a technical point, while Abuon,
a bookseller, was punished for selliiig a reprint of
it. The audacity of Junius in bidding (Jeorge
III. remember that 'while the crown was ac(|uired
by one revolution, it may be lost by another,'
stimulated public cuiiosity as to the writer of that
letter and others. Burke was generally supposed
to be Junius till bis denial was accepted as conclu-
sive. Among the numy supposed authors of the
letters >vere Lord Shidburne, Barrc, Lord IJeorge
Sackville, Wilkes, Home Tooke, and Thomas,
Lord Lyttelton. It was not till after the publica-
tion of the edition of 1812 tluit the name of Sir
Philip Francis (ii.v.) was ]iublicly allirnjcd to be
concealed under tliat of Junius. John Taylor was
the lirst to advance what is now known as the
Franciscan theory. He wrote two books on the sub-
ject : the first appeared in ISl.'i, and was entitled
A Disvovcry oftltr Author of the Letters of J uniun :
the second in 1810, and was entitled The Identity
of Junius with (I Di.sliiiyi-.islieil Living Charaetcr
Estahlishcel. In the lirst Taylor argued that the
letteis were from the pens of Dr Francis and his
son ; in the second, that the son was the sole
author. I)e t^'uincey. Earl Stanhope, Lord Macaulay,
and other critics and historians of note ba\ e accepted
the Franciscan theory. Taylor was led to fiaine it
by reailing a letter wliich had appeared in the
Public Advertiser tm tbi' 2.'iil of March 1772 signed
Veteran, in w hich Lord Harrington is charged w ith
expelling Francis from the AVar Ollice. The
'Menuiirs' of Sir Phili]i Francis by Parkes and
Merivale appeared in 1807, eontaming private
letters from Francis in w hich he w rote that he had
resigned his clerkship and declined i)roinotion to a
higher post in the War UHice, and that he was on
terms of cordial intinuicy with the Lord Harrington
whom Veteran \ililied. The extant manuscripts of
Junius are said to have been writleii in a di.^guised
hand, and many fancied resemblances have lieen
traced between it and Francis's natural hanil.
AVoodfall, the jirinter of the Public Ae/vcrtiner,
Toiukins, tlie princiiial writingniitster of his day,
and other contemiioraiy authorities considered the
handwriting of the manuscripts to be not only
natural, but to bear a clo.-^e resemblance to that of
many men and women who lived wlien Junius
wrote. Moreover, it Wit-s not till half a century
after the publicati<m of Junius's own edition of his
JUNK
JUNOT
371
letters that the theory of a disguised hiiiidwriting
was started in order to get over tlie dillieulty that
the natural hand of Franeis was unlike that of the
.luniaii niaiiuscriiits. No direct or indisputalilc
jiroof has yet cniineeteil Francis with .Innins. The
anthorr-hiji of \\n: letters signed Junius remains
a mystery. Junius was not the only imiiortant
political writer of his time, many others lieing
oonspicuous and admired, yet the letters of Wilkes
ami Home Tooke, to name those of two jiopular
writers, were neither so unif<irndy hrilliant, nor
were tliey so carefully polished, as the letters
signed .Innius. This great anonymous writer set
a pattern for the leading articles, wliich were un-
known in his d;iy. and througli which newspapers
now inlluence public opinion.
See Juniii:! (2 vols. 1772); Junius, includiiiij Letters
bit the same Writer under other Siynatures (3 vols. 1812);
tri'- articles on ^-Junius' in l^ilke's P«y>tr.s uf a Critic;
articles in the Athenwum by the present writer; Chabot
and Twistleton, The Handwritinii nf Junius { 1871 ) ; and
11. K. Francis, Junius Revealed (18'J4).
Juilki a Chinese vessel, clumsy and incapable of
much seamanship or speed ; yet junks have proved
themselves seaworthy on voyages extending even
to .\merica and Europe. — Jnnk, in the British
navy, is a familiar term for the salt meat supplied
to vessels for long voyages — the name being prob- j
ably derived from tlie fact that it becomes as \
hard and tough as old rope, pieces of wliich are
officially styledyn^A'.
Junker. Wilhelii, traveller, was born of
♦ lernian parents resident in Moscow in 1840, and
.-•ludied medicine in (liittingen, Berlin, and Prague.
Proeeeiling to Africa in 1874, in the first instance
to Tunis and Eg'ypt, he in 1876-78 carried througli
a series of explorations among the western tribu-
taries of the L pper Xile, .going as far south as the
Kibbi, a feeder of the Welle. In the year follow-
ing ( 1879) Junker started from Cairo on his second
ami more important journey, his object being to
explore the basin and course of the river Welle-
Makua, which he followed down to 22° 47' 40" E.
long, and 3° l.'J' 10" X. lat. This river was eventu-
ally (end of 1887) proved by Captaiu Van Gele to
be identical with the L'bangi, a right-hand affluent
of the Congo. After spending four years among
the Monbuttu and Niam-Xiam, Junker prepared
to return home, but was prevented from getting
back to Egypt by the Mahdi's revolt, and had to
remain with Emin Pasha and Casati. But in the
end of 1880, a favouralile (jpportunity ijresenting
itself, he managed to find his way to the coast
through Karagwe, and reached Cairo again in
January 1887. He died at St Petersburg, 13th
February 1802. See his Rcisrn in AJ'ricn, JS7S-7S
(Vienna, 188!) ; English translation by A. H. Keane,
1S!)(I).
Jllllkors. the name commonly given to the
younger members of the squirearchy or landed
gentry of Prussia and the adjoining states. —
Junherthiiin was a term of reproach used in the
miildle of the 10th century to designate the
|)arty of reaction in Prussia, which found its nmst
strenuou.s supporters amongst the landed gentry.
•Illlio wa-s to the Koinan the abstraction of
wom.inhood a.s Jupiter was the abstraction of man-
hood. This is the genuine Unman conce]>li()n of
Juno, and to this we must look and not to any
nature-myth for the exjdanation of this deity. As
.\Iominsen lia.s said Ulist. nf It(,„iP., i. 28)^ what
ilistingui.shes Koman relij;i()ii from flreek is that in
the former 'to everything existing, to man and to
the tree, to the state and to the storeroom, a sjiirit
wa.s a-ssigned, which came into being with it and
jierished along with it, the counterpart in the
spiritual dnm.nin of the i>hv«ie-il plwnomennn ; to
the m.an the male genius, to the woman the female
Juno.' This is the first point to notice in analy.s-
ing this deity ; Juno is the counterpart in the
s|iiritual domain of the female princijile in the
human world. The next step in the analysis is
indicated again by Mommsen : ' In oceuiialions
even the steps of the piocess were spiritualised ;
thus, for example, in the prayers of tlie husband-
man there Wius invoked the spirit of fallowing,
of ploughing, of furrowing, sowing, coveringin,
harrowing, and so on, to those of in-bringing, up-
storing, and opening of the granaries.' Following
tlie indication thus given us we ob.serve that every
step in the life of woman, every function of the
female principle, was spiritualised by the Komans,
as is shown by the various titles given to Juno —
e.g. Virginensis, Matrona, Natalis, Juga, Jugalis,
Curitis, Domiduca, Iterduca, I'nxia, Pronuba,
Cinxia, Fluonia, Ossipaga, Upigena. These
spiritual counterparts of the \arious phases of
woman's life were, we may assume, probably not
originally all supposed to inhere in one individual
deity, but were separate and independent. .\uU
here we come to the third step in our analysis ;
these various spirits — the spirits of marriage, of
birth, of travail, iS:c. — came eventually to be
regarded not as separate spirits but as various
manifestations of one and the same ileity. AVhat,
then, was the thread round which these ideas so to
speak crystallised? It was in all probability the
figure of the Greek Hera. This undoubtedly
became known to the Romans through the cities
of Manila Gra'cia at an early period ; the ' female
Juno' became identified with her; the various attri-
butes of Virginen.sis, Matrona, &c. were naturally
assigned to the new, anthropoinorphic Juno; and
the other resemblances lietween Juno and Hera
were loans eti'ected at this and later times by the
Romans from the Greek. Juno as she appears in
Virgil is, of course, a reproduction of the Hera of
Homer. See Hera.
JllllOt, Andoche, Due d'Abrantfes, one of the
great Najioleon's generals, was born October 23,
1771, at Bussy-le-Grand, in Cote-d'Or, entered the
army a-s a volunteer in 1792, and distinguished
himself in the early wars of the republic. His
courage at Toulon caught the eye of Napoleiui, and
he carried him with him to Egjpt as adjutant. .-Vt
Nazareth he covered himself with glory bv putting
to flight as many as 10,000 Turks witli but .'iOO
horse. In 1804 he was made governor of Paris, and,
after a short stay as ambassador in Lisbon, was
appointed in 1807 to the command of the army for
the invasion of Portugal. In a short time l)y
his rapidity and skill he made himself miuster
of all the strong jdaces in the kingdom. I''or his
brilliant success he was created Due d'Abianti's,
and appointi^d governor of Portugal ; but he si|uan-
dered the fruits of his victory by his absurd prodi-
gality, and was ere long so severely defeateil by
Wellington at Vimiera that he was obliged to
conclude a convention at Cintra and retire from
Portugal. He subsequently serveil in Germany and
Russia, and was made one of the scapegoats for the
great Russian <lisaster. and sent to govern lllyria.
This, added to the efl'ect of former wounds in the
head, brought on mental derangement. He was
taken to his father's house at Montbard, near
r)ijon, and, two houis after his arrival, preeipitated
liimself from a window, .luly 22, 1813, fracturing
his thigh-lione. Amputation was i)erf(Unied, but
Junot frantically t<Me oil' the bandages, and ilied
seven days afterwards. — His wife, L.VtiHKTTK I>K
S.MNT-M'arTIN-Pkhmon (1784-1838), the aeeom-
jilisheil and reckles.sly extravagant Dnidiesse
d'Abranti'S, gained a re)uitation in the literary
world liy her Mi'iiinircs (18 vols. 1831-3o), and by
several minor works.
37-2
JUNTA
to
Junta {'assembly'), the name f;iven m Snain
w a lioch- of persons combined for iiohtu-al or
ailministrative purposes, whether sumnioued by
the sovereign or meeting on their own initiative as
lepresentatives of tlie people. The most fainous is
the central junta of 1808, with its provincial juntas,
chosen for the conduct of the war with !• ranee.—
In Euslish historv the Whig juuio was the name
given to the chiefs of that party in the reigns of
AVilliam III. and Anne. Tlie Junto was also the
name of a del)ating society founded by Benjamin
Franklin, which developed into the American
Pliilosophical Society in 1743. Here also may he
mentioned the interior committee of the privy-
council under Charles I., which was the germ of
the modern cabinet, anil which Clarendon says was
reiiroachfuUy called the Junctu. Its principal
members were Laud, Strafford, and Cottiugton,
the Cliancellor of tlie E.Kchequer ; the others were
Ju\on, the Lord High Treasurer, the two Secre-
taries. Vane and Windebank, the Marquis ot
Hamilton, and the Earl of Northumberland 'for
ornament.'
Jupiter, the chief god of the Romans. Etymo-
lo'dcallv identical with tlie Sanskrit Dyaus, the
(iPeek Zeus, and the Teutonic Tin or Zio, Jupiter
is one of the few gods that can safely claim to be
descended from the Indo-European primeval period,
and consequently one of the few exceptions to the
rule that, if a deity is common to the Greeks and
the Romans, he was boirowed by the latter from
the former in historical times, lint though Jupiter
was known to the Italians from tlie time when they
first became a separate branch of the hulo-European
people, it would be an error to imagine that every-
thin" that can be predicated of the Greek Zeus holds
gooil of the Roman god, or that tlie attributes of
Juijiter can be ascribed indiscriminately to the
Greek deity. We do indeed find that the same
tales are told about Jupiter by Mrgil and Ovid as
Lad been related about Zeus by the Greek poets
■whom the Roman writers imitated ; but it by no
means follows that these tales were known to the
Italians before their contact in historical times
■with the Greeks. On the contrary, it is m some
cases perfectly certain that the myths were bor-
rowed by the Romans from the Greeks. lor
instance, no mytli in wliicli Ai)()llo figures along
■witli Jupiter could possibly be an original Italian
production, because it was only in historical times
that the worship of Apollo was introduced from
Greece into Italy. In this article, therefore, we
must refer the reader for all that regards tlie Greek
god to the article Zeus. But, aUhough we propose
here to conhne ourselves to the Roman ileity, it is
i)y no means easv to determine tlie outlines of this
ii'.'ure in mythology as it appeared to the religious
consciousness of tiie Italians before they came in
contact witli Greek thought. We have but little
direct information as to the Italians of that period.
A few of the indiqitame.ii.ta or formuhe containing
the epithets of the gods wliicb were recited as a
sort of litany by tlie Roman jiriests liave survived
to us, but not enough for our purpose. ^\ e are
tlierefore reduced to general considerations And
from tliis point of view there is no reason whatever
for assuming that the resemblance between Jupiter
an<l the Greek Zeus was originally any greater
tlian that between Jupiter and the Sanskrit Dyaus
or tlie (lotbii^ Tin. As long as it was an accepted
thi'ory that the ancestors of the tireeks and Romans
dwelt together, and ajiart fioni the rest ol the
Indo-European family, for some time before im-
migrating into their respective historical abodes,
the case was ditlereut.
Now, however, this Pelasgian theory no longer
has the sanction of either philology' o'' archa'ology.
We must, therefore, conceive the difference between
JURA
the original Italian Jiipiter and the Greek Zeus to
have been determined by the general dilierences be-
tween Greek and Roman religion, lii the striking
words of Mommseu (i//.v/'-/c.y of Hume, i. '28), 'As
the Greek, when he sacriliced, raised his eyes to
heaven, so the Roman veiled his head ; for the
prayer of the former was vision, that of the latter
rcHection.' The Greek gods were thoroughly
anthropomorphic; they were represented by their
poets and their sculptors alike in the image of
man. The gods of the Romans were much nearer
the earlier stage of animism ; they were powei-s
whose good-favour could be propitiated and ill-
will averted by the proper ritual and by sacritice,
but they \vere not subjects for plastic art until the
time of Greek influence. This dillerence will at
once account for the fact that no myths whatever
attach to the Italian Jupiter— all that are related
of him were borrowed in late times from the Greek
Zeus. What we do find is that various epithets,
such as Lucetius and Elicius, Imbricitor, Frodigialis,
Depulsoi-, &c., are apjilied to him. And we may
conjecture that all such epithets were probably, as
some certainly were, originally part of the iiii/iffitd-
ineitta, with the recital of which the Itoman luiests
sou'dit to secure the favour of the god. In the
ue\t place it is to be noted that these epithets tend
to show that Jupiter was orig-inally to the Roniaii
just as abstract a figure as Janus ( ' the spint of
opening'), Juventus ('the sjiirit of youth ), or
Forculus ('the spirit of doors'), Limentiuus ('the
spirit of thresholds'), or Cardea ('the simit of
door-hinges'). And we may conjecture that the
Romans, who have retained the original Indo-Euro-
pean word for priest (/tuytcH. = Sansk. brahinaii)
which the Greeks lost, also present to us the
ori-inal animism of the Indo-Europeans more
faithfully than does the anthropomorphism ot the
Greeks. That Jujiiter was to the Italians, as to the
Indo-Europeans, the spirit of the sky, is shown by
his epithet Lucetius, which occurred in the Saliaric
Hymns. The same conception is at the bottom ol
the epithets which designate Juiiiter as the spuit
of thunder or of lightning-Jupiter Tonans, or
Eub'ur. As Jupiter Latiaris he preside.l over tlie
Latin alliance. As the supreme spirit apparently
he was besought to grant \ictory in war, and hence
the names Stator, Feretrius, Victor. The vintage
also stood under the care ot Jupiter Libei\ 1 be
Ides of every month were sacred to him. He W'l-s
also the spirit of oaths, Dius Fidius. I'lnally,
although many of the epithets applied to him caii
at once be recognised as appropriate to the original
character of Jupiter as s]iirit of the sky, such as
Elicius, Fulniinator, Pluvius, Imbricitor, Serenator,
Almus, Frugiferns, there are others, such as Stator,
Victor, &c., which cannot possibly be derived fioui
his functions as a sky-spirit, and which must there-
fore be accretions, possibly resulting from tlie
identiUcation of the Roman .lupiter with the cliief
..(.ds of the various allied states. The epithet
Capitolinus is derived from the temple on the
Capitol built by Taniuin, and the spirit inhaluting
that temple w;is, compared with the rest, Jupiter
Oi>tiiiius, Ma.\inius.
Jupiter. See Planets, and Solar Svstem.
lura (Scand. deor-n?, 'deer-isle'), an Argyll-
shire island, ', mil.- NE. of Islay, and -n miles W
„f the nearest point of the mainland. It extends
28 miles north-eastward; varies ill widlli tr
J mile at Loch Tarbert iu the middle, to 8i ijiilcs ;
and is 14.3 sq. m. in area. The western side is
ru.'.'ed and de-solate, the eastern green and pleas-
ing" The conical Paps of Jura are •2.')71 and '2412
feet high : and most of the surface is deer-forest.
Pop (1831) 1312: (1891) 619, nearly all (.aclic-
spcakiii" See IlEliluuiiS and CuKUlEVlii'nvtN.
JURA
JURASSIC SYSTEM
373
.llir:ta a range of ninuntains of a ix'culiar liiiie-
stciiH" fiiiination, oiilitip in composition, anil gener-
ally calleii Jurassic, whioh extends from the angle
formed by the Klionc .iml the Ain, in a north-
<;.%sterly direction (with a gradually declining
elev.ation) for more tlian 4.50 miles, to the njjper
ooui-se of the Main. Bnt it is usuiil to restrict the
n.imo to the ranges that lie along the frontier of
Switzerland .and Fr.ance — mainly in the depart-
ments of Pouhs, .Jura, and .\in. These constitnte a
plateau aliout 1.").5 miles long liv 40 wide, with an
average height of 2000 to 2500 'feet. The loftiest
peaks .are Keculet (.i643 feet), Cret de la Neige
(2I).).'?), Mont Tendre (.").il2), and Dole (.5.507).
The eastern face is much steeper than the western.
The r.anges .are broken by inimerons transverse
gorge.s or 'eluses.' Many roads .and railways
travei'se the chains, some of them of great strategic
importance. Limestone caves are nnmerons, and
tliey abound in m.agnificent stalactites ami in the
bones of extinct .animals. Some rivers of consiiler-
able size sink into the ground and re.appear after
some distance, as the Orbe, the Doubs, and the
Creuse. Fine pine-forests are a characteristic
feature of the scenery.
•InriU an eastern French dep.artnient, bounded
on the E. bv Switzerland. Area, 1928 sij. m. ;
pop. (1881) 28.-1.2G3; (1891) 273,028. The slopes
of the .Jura Mountains are thickly wooded, but
h.ave .also many pastures and meadows. At the
foot of the .lura come rich vine-lands. The river-
valleys are devoted to the cultivation of gr.ain
crops of v.arious kinds. The chief rivers are the
Doubs, Ain, and Ognon. Tlie vines yield G^ million
gallons of wine annually. The principal industries
are the working of iron, cheese-making, watch-
making, and turnery. Iron, salt, marble, clay
(for [lottery), and turf are the most important
minerals extracted. The department is divided
into four arrondissements, Lons-le-Saunier, Po-
llgny, Sainte-Claude, and Dole. Capital, Lons-Ie-
Saunier.
Jlira.ssic System, the name given to th.at
great series of Mesozoic strata which includes the
Li;us and overljin^ Oolites. The system receives
its name from the Jura Mountains, where strata of
that age are well developed. In England Jurassic
rocks extend over a large area in Yorkshire between
the mouth of the Tees and Filey B.ay, and stretch
south from the Humber along the western borders
of the great Hats of Lincoln and rambridge, from
which they sweep south-west .a.s a broad bolt across
the .Midlands to the Bristol Channel and the coasts
<if the English Channel between Lyme Kcfjis and
Durlestone Head. Duly a few patches of tJurassic
rocks occur in Scotland, as near Brora on the ea.st
cojist of Sutherland, and in some of the western
islands. In Ireland the system is e<iu.illy sparingly
represented, as near Larne and Portrush in Antrim.
On the Continent rocks of the same age are
developed over extensive regions. They form a
ring or zone-like belt surrounding the Cretaceous
and Tertiary dei)osits of the Paris basin, under-
neath which the Jurassic strata doubtless c(m-
tinue. Farther south another belt sweeps round
the central pl.ateau of France, and stretches s(mtli
to the Meditirr.anean. The most continuous areas
in Germany occur in Franconia, Swabi.a, and
l'[>per Silesia. Itocks of the same age occupy a wide
region in central .and northern Russia, while more
or less isolated are.T-s are met with in tlie Caucasus,
the Crimea, the Carpjithians, the Dinaric Aljis,
the A()i'nnines, &c. One of the most important
.lurassic tracts is that of the Jura Mountains,
extending between Basel .and (ieneva. Narrow and
bro.adcr belts of the same strata occur along the
northern and southern Hanks of the .Mps. The
system .also occurs in considerable force in the
north-east and the south of Spain.
The .lurassic system of Europe has been arranged
in the following groups :
Pitrbeckhn; mostly of fresh-wat«rnrigin ; they contain traces
of old land-surfaces (dirt-beds), with roots and steins of fossil
plants.
PoRTi.ANDiAN .' chicfly sandstoncs, marls, and limestone (Port-
land-stone ) ; marine.
KniKR[r>GiAN : dark shales and clay (Kimeridge Clay);
marine.
CoRALLiAN : limestones with corals (Coral Rag), clays, and cal-
careons grits ; marine.
OxKORDiAN : dark gray or blue clay (Oxford Clay) : ancl cal-
c^ireous sandstone ( Kellaway's Rock — Callovian); marine.
Bathonian : limestones, clays, and sands (Cornbrash, Bradford
Clay, and Forest Marble); shelly limestones (Great or Bath
Oolite). Stonesfield .Slate ; Fuller's Earth ; all marine.
Ba.iocian (or Inferior Oolite) : calc^reoua sandstones and grits
(Cheltenham); marine; represented in Yorkshire by estuarine
sandstones, shales, and limestones, with seams of coal and
ironstone.
LlASSir: sands and clays (Upper Lias) resting on limestones,
sands, clays, and ironstones (Middle Lias, Marlstone); below
which come limestones and dark shales (L.ower Lias); all
marine.
In India (Cutch) Jurassic strata, ranging from
the Bajocian up to the Portlandian inclusively,
attain a considerable thickness. The system is not
largely developed in North America ( Sierr.a Nevaila
and Kocky Mountains), but is notable in Colorado
for its remarkable reptilian remains. Finally it
may be added that Jurassic rocks have been
detected in S]>itzbergen, Siberia, Australia, New
Caledonia, and New Zealand.
Li/c of the Period. — The predominant forms
among the land-plants were cycads, conifers, ferns,
and eipiisetums, but with these were a-ssoci.ateil
tnte nujnocotyledoiious angiosperms, represented by
fossil fruits which are apparently referable to our
screw-pines ( Pandanacce ). This veget.ation was
widely spread over the earth's surface, flourishing
abundantly in Britain, and extending far into the
Arctic Circle.
The lower classes of the animal kingdom were
represented liy foraminifera and sponges, by a great
variety of corals, by ciinoids (both stalked and
free forms), by starfishes, sea-urchins, v'v.c. Corals
are especially numerous, and mostly belong to the
reef-building family of star-corals. Many of the
limestones of the peiiod. indeed, jiartioilarly those
of the Corallian, aresimply old coral-reefs. Amongst
crinoids one of the most characteristic forms was
Pentacrinus — a genus still living. Many genera of
sea-urchins occur ( Acrosalenia, Cidaris, DiadiMu.a,
itc. ), and with these were associated numenms
starfishes and brittle-stars. The most prominent
crustaceans were long-tailed decapods, to which
belong our modern lobsteis, prawns, &c. ; atul true
crabs were also present. Insects were representeil
by ancestral forms of cockroach, gia.sshop]ier,
earwig, ant, dragon-fly, mayfly, beetles, bugs, &c.
Brachio])ods, «luch formed so characteristic a
feature in the life of the Pal.-eozoic seas, had now
ceased to be dominant forms, although they were
still individually numerous. Mo.st of the old
Pala>ozoic types had disappeared before Jur.assic
times—two "surviving forms (Spirifer and Lep-
tana) dying out at last before the close of the
I-ia.s.sic stage. AVe note, however, the presence of
the inarticulate types (Crania, Lingula, Piscina)
which appeare<l (irst in Cambrian times and ^till
nourish in our seas. The most important Jura.ssic
brachiopods are Terebratula and IJhynchonella, of
which there were many species. Both genera have
survive<l to the present, but are reiiresentcd by
only a few .species. Amongst the lamellibrancli
molluscs many forms unknown in Pahcozoic times
imw m.ade their lirst ap])i'araiice, the most import-
ant types being the oysters (Ostiea, (irvphaa, and
Exogyra), together with Trig(uiiaand I'lioladomya.
(iasteropoils were fairly numerous, and compri.-ed
374
JURASSIC SYSTEM
JURISPRUDENCE
representatives of tlie whelks, spimne-shells, spiilor-
sliells, iSre. of existing sotis ; and it may l>e noteil
tliat the earliest recognisable freshwater univalves
( I'aluilina, I'lanorhis) date from .lurjissic times.
jjut the most characteristic molluscs of this period
were the cephalopods, both tetrahranchiate and
dibranchiate types. The former, or chambered
division, were represented l)y many forms of
Ammonites, several hundred species having been
chronicled ; and the latter, or ' cuttle-fish ' division,
by numerous species of Heleninlte. Among iishes
were giinoids, usually of small size, ami repre-
sentatives of the sharks and rays. But by far the
most important of the verteluates were the reptiles,
which lh)urislied in extraordinary abundance dur-
ing Jurassic times, and may well be said to be
the most striking and characteristic life-forms of
the jieriod. Chelonians or turtles, lacertilians or
lizards, and crocodiles are all represented : but the
most characteristic reptiles were the huge sea-
saurians, Ichtliyosaurus (q.v.), Plesicsaurus (q.v.),
and Pliosaurus (q.v. ). Another remarkable group
of reptiles were the pterosaurs or winged saurians,
of whicli tlie most noted was Pterodactylus (q.v.).
Contemporaneous with these were gieat Dinosaure
(q.v.), such as Ceteosaurus, jNIegalosaurus, Atlanto-
saurns, iS:c. , while bird-life was represented by the
toothed Archa'Opteiyx (q.v.), ■s\-ith its lizard-like
tail. The higliest forms of life were small mar-
sujiial mammals, some of which seem to have been
insectivorous, while othere were herbivorous.
P/ii/nical Conditions. — During Jurassic times the
area now occupied in the IJritish IslaTids by the
older locks appears to have been for the most part
dry land. The sea covered the north-east corner
of Ireland, and extended along the west coast of
Scotland over the site of what is now Skye, and it
seems in like manner to have occupied the Ncuth
Sea opposite the east coast, a portion of which in
Sutherland was covered by it. What are now the
high grounds of northern England and Wales and
the hciglits of Devon and Cornwall, together with
a ridge of Palajozoic rocks which extends under
London, were the chief land-areas in south liritain,
so that nearly all England was under water in the
earlier stages of the Jurassic period. The same
sea swept over vast areas of what is now the
Eurojiean c(mtinent. Tiie older rocks in the north-
west and north-east of France and the central
plateau of the same country formed dry land — all
the rest was submerged. In like manner, wide
regions in Spain were under water. In middle
Europe the sea covered nearly all the low grounds
of north Germany, and extended far east into the
heart of Russia, whence it passed north, and was
donlitless continent with the Arctic Ocean. It
occupied the site of tlie Jura Mountains, and
passed eastwards into Hoheniia, while on tlie south
side of the Alps it spread over a large jiart of
Italy, extending eiistwards so sis to submerge a
broad region in Austria-Hungary and the Turkish
provinces. In short, what are now the central and
southern jiortions of our ciiiitinent formed a great
archiiidago in which aiipcared numerous islands
large and small. The chief land-areas of the
European region, therefore, were confined to the
nortli and north-west. The existence of this
noitliern land is shown by the fact that, while
the liajncian of the south of England consists of
purely marim" accumulations, the contemporaneous
deposits in Voiksliire are largely fresh-water and
estiiarine.
The Juiiussic strata, which attain a thickness of
several thousand feet, point to considerable sub-
sidence ; the downward movement, however, was
not continuous, but seems to have been inter-
rupted by pauses. Taken as a whole the strata of
north-western and central Europe are indicative
of rather shalIo"-water conditions ; but the \\ aters
were often sutticiently clear to favour the abundant
growth of coral-reefs. After the deposition of the
Portlandian beds the sea<lisaii]>eareil from what are
now the low grounds of England. The succeeding
Purbeckian beds are for the most part of fresh-
water origin, and seem to have been laid down at
or near the mouth of some laige river, which
probably took its rise in the hills of Englaiul or
Wales, and Howed south across the ujiraised beil of
the Jurassic sea. Similar indications of a more
or less abruiit change from sea to fresh water are
atl'oided by the Jurassic of central Euro]ie. ,is in
northern France, Hanover, Westphalia, ami the
Jura in Switzerland. ^Vhile tlie Jurassic of
central and north-western Europe would seem to
have accumulated in somewhat shallow seas, the
contemporaneous strata of the Mediterranean basin
have a decidedly more pelagic as|iect. This
soiUliern development of the Jurassic is sometimes
called the Tithonian series. It is recognised in the
southern Alps, the southern Tyrol, the Venetian
and Dalmatian Alps, and the Carpathians, and
extends into northern Africa.
The climatic conditions of the Jurassic period
appear to have been extremely genial. Keef-liuild-
ing corals, for example, thuirishcd in latitudes
wliich are now some 3000 miles north of the
present range of reef-builders, while cuttlc-tishes
and Ammonites and large enaliosaui-s lived far
within the Arctic Circle.
Jlirieff. See DORP.AT.
Jlirieu. Pierre (163T-17I3), a French Pro-
testant divine, studied at Sedan and Sauniur,
received Episcopal ordination in England, and
after some years of the pastorate, became professor
at Sedan. " On the revocation of the Edict of
Xaiites (16S.)) he became pastor of the Walloon
church at Kotterdam, where till his death he busied
himself in interpreting the Apocalyse and in de-
I fending the Protestant faith alike against Arnauld,
j Bossuet, and P.ayle.
Jlll'isdirtioil. in Law, means the authority
^^ hicli a court or judge has to entertain a particular
case and decide it. The general rule is, that if a
court which has no jurisiliction to decide a par-
ticular case does decine it, the judgment is a mere
nullity. Jurisdiction may he limited either locally,
as in the ease of a county court: or personally, as
where a court has a quorum : or as to amount, as
when the Court of Session in Scotland takes cog-
nisance only of cases above the v.alue of £'2r> : or
as to the nature of the questions to be determined,
whether crimes or civil actions. Jurisdiction is
said to be concurrent or cumulative when it may
l)e exercised in the same cause by any one of two
or more courts at the choice of the suitor. In
criminal procedure, to prevent the collisi(m which
might arise from each of the courts claiming to
exercise the right, it has been est.ablished as a rule
that the judge who first exercises jurisdiction in
the cause acijuires a ri*'ht, jnrc 2)?'(rrenti(inis, to
judge in it exclusive of tlie othei-s. ' This right of
pieventicui plainly ap^iears to be peculiar to criminal
jurisdiction. In civil process it is the jnivate
pursuer who has the only ri'dit of choosing before
which of the courts he shall sue' (see INTEKNA-
TiriNAl. L.vw). Jurisdiction is said to be privative,
on the other liand. when the court having jurisdic-
tion is the only court entitled to adjudicate in such
cases. When a judge appoints another pei'soii to
act in his jdace as deputy or substitute he is said
to delegate his jurisdiction.
JlirispriUlCIK'C is the science of law which
professes to discuss the ininciples on which legal
rights should he jirotecteci and enforced ; or it may
be called the idiilosophy of law. In its literal
JURISPRUDENCE
JURY
375
sense the teiiu means merely kiio«le(lt,'e of the
law, and seems to have lieen so useil in the Roman
l;nv, from which it hiis lieen borrowed. The word
is often nseil in a iiopular sense in Britain as
synonymous with law, and it is also so used in
Fiance : Imt it is more correctly used in contradis-
tinction to law, as implying the system or supposed
methodical scheme emiiracing the principles on
which positive law is founded. The Institutes of
Justinian define jurisprudence, with a certain poni-
pousness, ,as 1>eing the knowledge of things divine
and human, the science of right and wrong. A
distinction is sometimes made between general
jurisprudence, wliieh investigates the principles
common to various systems of positive law, divest-
ing these of their local, partial, and other acci-
dental peculiarities ; and particular jurisprudence,
which conlines itself to the particular laws of
any country, say England, or France, or Scotland,
as an independent system taken by itself. Juris-
prudence thus embraces a wide range, as treating
of all those duties which are enforced between
man and man ; and yet it may be safely said
tliat lawyers, though dealing with the results of
the science every day of their lives, seldom give
any attention to the latent and general principles
on which these results are founded. The science
has been cultivatcil rather by students of philosophy
than by lawyi-rs ; and the distinctive colours of
the characteristic philosophies of England an<l
Scotland have tinged the jurisprudence of the
several countries. The utilitarianism of Locke
and Mill has given a practical or empirical
cliaracter to Knglish jurisprudence, which may be
seen in the legal works ot Hobbes and Bentliani,
and at its hardest in the 'cast-iron' system of
Austin, whose lectures were long the first English
authority on this subject. In Scotland, on the
other hand, a constant tradition of another tend-
ency has been maintained among scientific jurists
since the time of Lord Stair. Scottish juris-
pnidence has alw.avs had a closer attinity witli the
systems of the pliilosophical writers of France
and (Jermany, and bases its conclusions upon the
law of nature rather than upon experimental com-
Sarisons of varying systems of positive law. It is
eveloped in the works of Ferguson, David Hume,
Adam Smith, Dugald Stewart, and Professor
Lorimer. The recent tendency of scientific jurists
in England has been to abandon the emidrical
methods of treatment for the historical method, of
which the most prominent anil successful follower
was Sir Henry Elaine. In his work the element-
ary principles of jurisi)rudence are drawn from
a study of the history of legal conceptions and
institutions as they appear in remote ages and
among peoples at a i)riMiitive stage of civilisation.
Jury, a body of private citizens, sworn to tiy a
question of fact, or to .ussess the amount of a pay-
ment legally due. In almost all systems of law
the ordinary citizen or freeman is called to take
some part in the administration of justice. The
judirr.mti Roman law are sometimes compared with
modern jurymen ; and the judex wa." in fact a
private citizen, empowered to trj' questions of fact
and law under the general directions of a superior
magistrate. In communities of Teutonic origin,
and es])ecially in England, the pcoi]le— i.e. the
qnalilied freemen, or a selection from their number —
performed many important duties in civil disputes
and criminal trials. They acted as accusers, to
'present' ollenders against the law; they deciiled
what action should be taken on a proof by wit-
ne.sscs, compurgators, or ordeal ; they were them-
selves witnesses to the acts by which a title to
land was established ; ('vcn .sales of gooils were, in
old time, witnessed by a kind of jury of townsmen.
Many persons suppose that trial by jury, in the
T"
modern sense, is as old as King .Alfred : and a
cartoon in the Houses of Parliament endiodies this
iiopular belief. Dr Stubbs (see bis Coxstitiitinnul
listonj, chap. xiii. ) attaches great importance to
the popular element in the ancient courts ; but
he traces the modern jury system to a Prankish
origin. Inquiry by sworn recognitors, as described
in the Frank Capitularies, may have been adojjteil
in part from the Itonian imperial legislation. Tn-
tioduced into England by the Norman Conqueror,
this form of inquiry was developed into trial
by jury under the influence of the I'lantagenet
kings and their legal advisers. In course of time
the 'juratores' ceased to be regarded as witnesses,
or as judges of law and custom ; they acted on
proofs laid before them, and they took the law
from a presiding jvidge. The partisans of royal
prerogative would have gone further ; they would
have deprived the jurymen of their independence,
and compelled them to find the verdict dictated
by the judge or the advisers of the crown. After
a long struggle the independence of the jury was
vindicated ; while at the same time the judges
were freed from subservience to the crown ; the
functions of judge and jury were accurately dis-
tinguished ; and the rules of evidence were de-
veloped into a rational system. Trial by jury is
prized as one of the chief safeguards of the liberties
of the subject ; It is admitted to be the liest mode
of trial in criminal cases of importance, and in
those civil cases where damages may have to l)e
assessed for wrongs which afi'ect the person, family,
or reputation of the plaintitt'. In ordinary mercan-
tile cases the tendency in England is to dispense
with juries ; the adjustment of property riglits is
also left, for the most jiart, to the judges. In
political cases special importance attaches to the
rules of law which secure the selection of a fairly
rei)resentative jury. It is not pos.sible under
modern law to pack a jurv with parUsans of the
government. In those parts of Ireland where
popular feeling is hostile to the government, counsel
for the crown have been frequentlx- charged with
making an unfair iise of their right lo order a
juror to ' stand by ' when his name is called : but
it may be well to point out that jurymen are lialile
to be intimiilated by the people, in cases in which
party feeling is deeply aroused in Ireland, and that
the democratic spirit is not ahvays favourable to an
impartial administration of justice in any country.
In the modern criminal practice of England .'ind
Ireland several forms of jury are in use. The
Coroner's Jury consists of twelve men, usually
householders, summoned by a peace-odicer acting
under the coroner's warrant, to incjuire in cases of
sudden death, ^.c. If their inquisition, or recorded
verdict, charges any person with crime, the person
aceuscil must be arrested and brought to trial.
The (iranil Jury is a body of not less than twelve
and not more than twenty-three men, summoned
by the sheritt' to consider the indictments to be
preferred at a.ssizes, quarter sessions, or the Central
Criminal Court. They hear only the witnesses for
the prosecution ; if they think the evidence wholly
insuflicient, they 'ignore' the indictment, and the
foreman indorses it with the words 'no true bill.'
If they think there is a case which the accused
ought to answer, they fiml 'a true bill,' and the
accused is thereupon arraigned before a Petty
Jury, who inquire whether he is guilty or not.
The petty jury consists of twelve men, house-
holders or owners of iiroj)erty, whose names ,ire
called over from the panel, or parchment list ]ire-
pared by the sheriir. The prisoner may challenge
the array — i.e. he may allege that the panel i-< un-
fairly made u|). lie may challenge peremjitoriiv
thirty-five jurors in a Ciuse of treason, twenty in
p, ca.se of felony ; and either the crown or tlio
376
JURY
JUS DEVOLUTUM
accused may challenge any iiiiiiiber of juiois for
cause shown. When twelve men have been sworn,
counsel and witnesses for the ^irosecution and
defence address themselves to the jury ; the judge
interposes to decide points of law, or to remind
counsel or witnesses of their duty ; at the close of
the trial he sums up the evidence, and states
clearly to the jury the question tliey have to
decide. If the jury retire to consider their verdict
an officer is sworn to keep them ' without meat,
drink, or fire;' but the judge may allow them
til have a fire and reasonable refreshment. The
vcidict of tlie jury must be unanimous ; and it is,
generally speaking, conclusive; the prisoner can-
not be tried again on tlie same charge. Common
jurors do not receive any remuneration. On an
indictment or criminal information for libel Fox's
Act, passed in 1792, empowers the jury to lind a
general verdict on the whole matter in issue. The
judges, in certain jmlitical cases, had directed the
jury to find the defendants guilty on proof of publi-
cation of the paper charged to be a libel ; and the
act closes the last stage in the struggle for the
inde|iendence of juries in criminal cases.
Civil cases which come before a judge and jurj'
inaj' be tried by a common jury of twelve men,
whose names are called from tlie sheritt-s panel, as
in criminal cases. Both parties have the right of
clialleni;e to the array, or to the name of an indi-
vidual juror, for cause shown. Either jiarty may
demand a special jury — i.e. a jury chosen from a
special list, in which are entered the names of
persons possessing a property qualification higher
than is required in the case of common jurors.
Special jurors are paid ; the iiayment is usually at
the rate of one guinea for each case. The jury
must be unanimous ; but the verdict of a majority
may be taken by consent of the parties. If the
case is compromised a juror is withdrawn by con-
sent, and the case comes to an end. In the county
court small civil cases are sometimes tried by the
judge and a jury of five. For the use of the term
jury in connection with maimrial courts, see
M.VNOR.
In Scotland forty-five jurors are summoned in
criminal cases, of whom fifteen are chosen by lot to
try the case ; the verdict of a majority suffices. The
crown and the accused have each five peremptory
challenges ; and any number of jurors may be chal-
lenged on cause shown. In some ]ioints the po.si-
tion of the accused is better than in Kngland. He
is entitled to have a copj- of the indictment, a list of
the witnesses to be brought forward against him,
anil a list of the jurors— advantages which an I'^ng-
lisb prisimer has no legal right to demand, unless
he is accused of treason or misprision of treason.
Evidence is first given on both sides ; the counsel
for the i)rosecution then addresses the jury, and the
prisoner's counsel speaks last. In England the
prosecuting counsel may rejily if evidence is given
on liehalf of the accused ; and the Attorneygeneral
or Solicitor-general claims the right to reply, even
if no such evidence is given. Again, the jury in
Scotland may find the charge 'not proven;' and
this verdict is so far final that the prisimer cannot
be put on his trial a second time on the .same
charge. This rule gives the accused an additional
chance of escape ; but there is something to be
said against the expediency of permitting a verdict
which leaves the question of guilt or innocence un-
decided, .and allows the accused to go free without
clearing his character. Trial liy jury in civil cases
>yas no part of the ancient jiraclice of the Court of
Session — it w.as introduced in IS].') by an act which
adopted most of the English rules. As in England,
the jury in civil cases consists of twelve p(usons ;
but unanimity is not essential. If, after being
kept three hours in deliberation, nine or more of
the jury agree on a verdict, their \erdict is taken
as that of the jtiry. If, after being inclosed nine
hours, the jury cannot agree, the judge is entitled
to discharge them, and generally does so. The
judge may allow the jury refreshment after they
are locked up to deliberate.
In Ireland the jury haws are substantially the
same as in England. 'Until the passing of the Act
of 1871 (Lord OHagan's Act), .'U and :i5 Vict,
chap. 6.">, modified by .39 and 40 Vict. chap. 21, by
which the empannelling and summoning of juries is
made the subject of more stringent provisions, the
law in England and Irelaml was precisely similar.
But special legislation has from time to time
withdrawn from the consideration of juries in
Ireland for a limited period certain crimes of an
agrarian or ' i|uasi-political ' character in times of
great national excitement. By the Crimes Act, oO
and 51 Vict. chap. '20, special power, extemling as
high as that of imposing sentences of six months'
imprisonment, on conviction of certain specified
offences, were conferred on specially constituted
magisterial courts sitting witliout a jury. And
special juries for the trial of criminal charges may
be einpannelled in certain cases.
The Grand .Juiy in Ireland was till 1898 entrusted
not only with the ordinary criminal business per-
formed Ijy the grand jury in England, but also with
the entire local government of the country, county
by county, much as the same was formerly carried
on in England by the justices in Ciuarter Sessions ;
but the Irish Local Government Act of 1898 with-
drew all its administrative functions, and conferred
them on County Councils elected triennially. The
authority of the Irish grand juries dated from
.Vnglo-Norman times ; and laws, custom, and tradi-
tion of 700 years were summed up ami ascertained
only in 1836 by the Irish Grand .Iiiry .\ct.
In the United States English [irinciples have been
adopted ; and trial by jury is maile part of the
constitution in nuist of tlie states. There are some
states in which the jurors are empowered to decide
questions of law in criminal cases, and in some the
judge is forbidden to charge the jury on the facts.
A verdict can lie returned only on the unanimous
vote of a jury; and, with a view to securing impar-
tiality, each juror is required to swear that he is
free from any jireconceived opinion as to the case
on trial, and has no infmiuation calculated to influ-
ence his decision. The law permits the challenging
of individual jurors, both perem]>torily and for
cause ; and this right has frequently been grossly
abused for the purpose of delaying justice, as, for
example, on the trial of the murderers of Dr
Croniu at Chicago (18S9). The British colonies
have flamed their jury laws, for the most part, on
the English model.
Jury trial has been established in France (where
the verdict of a majority is sufficient), and in
many other contiiieiUal countries, in most of
which the institution will be found to bear a
general resemblance to the English jury. There
are, of course, endless difl'erences in detail. For
the particular rules as to i|ualificalions of jurors,
\c. in England, reference may be made to Arcli-
liold's T'ldctke and Stephen's Digest of Criminul
Procc<liiix.
.Iliryinast. a temiiorary spar, used to replace
a m.istwhicli has been lost from any cause, and
so to enable the vessel to reach some port for more
permanent re]iair.
.Ills Drvollltlllllt a phrase of ecclesia-stical
law used to denote the right of a church to pre-
sent a minister to a vacant parish if the p.itron
neglect to exercise his right within the legal time.
In the Established Church of Scotland, if a cure
be vacant by death or otherwise, a fit person mu.st
JUS GENTIUM
JUSTICE OF THE PEACE 377
be presented to the presbytery to supply the cure
within six niontlis after the occurrence of the
vacancy. If no appointment is made in tliis time by
the con<;re<;ation the right of presentation accrues
to the prest)ytery, and is called, /«»■ di-ru/i(fitm.
Jiis dentiuni. See International Law.
Jus Mnriti. a phrase used in Roman law, and
adopted in th'^ Scotoli law to denote tlie legal right
accruing to a luisband qua husband over his wife's
property. See Husband and Wife.
Jns Prima* Xoctis, the right of deflora-
tion of virgins, granted on the occasion of a
marriage to a special person, as a chief or a priest,
among many savage races, as the Kinipetu-Eskimo,
Caribs, and certain Brazilian trilies. We have
accounts by early travellers describing the custom
as existing in Nicaragua, Teneriti'e, Cambodia,
Malabar ; and Sugenheim asserts tliat the French
kings Philip VI. and Cliarles VI. could not, in the
14th century, induce the Bishops of Amiens to give
up tlie ancient right. Among many savages a simi-
lar privilege is freely granted to all the guests at a
wedding — perhaps a survival of a reward for help
in the abiluction, although Lubbock ingeniously
attempts to explain it as originally an act of
expiation for individual marriage. Again, a period
of privileged and unlimited license just before
marriage is not uncommon ; while we often meet
with the practice of lending a wife or a (laughter
to a stranger from juimitive notions of hospitality.
Dr Karl Sclimiilt in Ids erudite work. Jus Prima;
Noctis, cine gr.scluchllichc Untersuchioiff {Freihnrg,
1881 ), contends that this 'droit du seigneur' never
existed in Europe, having left no evidence of its
existence in laws, charters, decretals, trials, or
glossaries, and that the later belief in it is merely
' ein gelehrter Aberglaube,' which has arisen in
various ways, as from reports of individual cases of
tyranny and from an unnecessarily gross interpreta-
tion being attacheil to the line paid by the vassal
to his feudal lord for permission to marry. Bach-
ofen, Giraud-Teulon, and Kulischer regard they!/.?
primm noHis accorded to a special person as a sur-
vival from a primitive stage of promiscuity or com-
munal marriage, the ancient communal right being
in ci)urs(! of time taken away from the community
anil transferred to the priest, king, or noble, as its
chief representative. It is perhaps more simply
to be understood a.s a mere triliute that may be
exacteil as a right by supeiuor jxiwer, as by the
kings of Dahomey ; or a supreme mark of loyalty
or respect oll'ered to a chief or priest. This alleged
ancient seignorial privilege is the central point of
Be.iumont and Fletcher's odious play, The Custom
oftlic Country.
Jus Rclictil', in Scotch law, is the right of a
widow to a share in the movable or pers(mal pro-
perty of her deceased husband. See HUSBAND AND
Wife, Succession.
•Ilissieil, De, the name of a French family
whiili, for a century and a half, numbered among
its members some of the first botanists of the age.
— .Antoine de .Jf.s.siKU, born at Lvons, Gth July
IBSfi, and died at Paris, 22d April IT.IH, was iiro-
fes.sor of Botany and director of the Botanical
(!ard(!n at Paris, wrote various works on botany,
and edited Tournefort's In.stitulioncs Botrinicn;
(1719).— His brother, Beknaud de Ju.s.sieu, born
at Lyons, 17th August 16!)!), and died in Paris,
6tli November 1777, contented himself with assist-
ing .\ntoine and his son without seeking renown by
the publication of his own ob.servations. In I7")H
he w.us named suiierintendent of the gardens at the
I'i'tit-Trianon, and there arranged tlie jilants in
ac<'ordance with a natural system substantially
the same as that which his nephew Laurent
subsenuenlly elaborated in a more perfect manner.
He edited the second edition of Tournefort's ///.s-
foirc (let riantcs qui naissnit t/itns leu Enriron.i
<lc Paris (2 vols. 1725).— Antoink Laurent de
JussiEU, born at Lyons, 12lli A]iril 1718, died
at Paris, 17tli September ISSti, the nejihew and
]iupil of liernard, was appointed ]irofessor of
l)Otany at the Paris Botanical (iarden in 1770.
His Genera P/nntarum {17S0) laid down the prin-
ciples on which modern botanical cl.assillcation
is based (see Bot.vny). On tlie outbreak of the
Revolution the hospitals of Paris were put in
his charge. In 1793 lie organised the libr.ary of the
Museum, one of the best in Europe. In 1826 he
resigned his professorial chair to his son Adrien.
He jiublished numerous papers on botany in Anvales
(lu Museum (from 1804-20), and in Dirtioniiaire ties
Seicnees Nafurcllcs. — Adrien DE JussiEf, son of
Laurent, born at Paris, December 23, 1707, died in
the same city, June 29, 1853, succeeded his father
in 1826. On taking the degree of M.D. in 1824,
he presented as his thesis a valuable memoir on
the Euphorbiacea>. This was followed by equally
useful papers on the Rutaceie, Meliacea', and
Malpighiacea^, and a memoir on the embryo of
the Monocotyledtms. His Conrs Elcmcntairc de
Bofanique (1842) reached a 12tli edition in 1884.
A number of able botanists of all nations owed
their training to him.
Juste, Theodore, a Belgian historian, was
born at Brussels, 11th January 1818, became in
1859 keeper of the Museum of Antiquities there,
and in 1870 professor of History, and died 11th
August 1888. Juste was a voluminous writer, but
many of his works are of considerable value for the
history of his country. He is best known by his
Fonc/afeurs de la Monarchic Bclqc (27 vols. 186.5-
81). Many of his eariier works (18.'!0-80) are
abridged in Le Pantheon Natitmal (1881 ).
Jnste Iflilieil, a French term, signifying the
just mean, or, according to the common expression,
the golden mean. After the revolution of 18.30 this
term acquired a political signilication, and came
into very frequent use, because of the declaration
of the organs of Louis-Phili|ipe, that the juste
mi/ieu was the only principle of government which
could secure the welfare ot France.
Justice, HifiH Court of, one of the two great
sections of the English supreme courts, as arranged
by the Judicature Acts (q.v.). For the Scottish
College of Justice, see Court of Session.
Justice, Lord Chief, the title given to the
chief judge of the Queen's Bench Division of the
High Court of .Justice ; formerly given also to the
chief judge of the Common Pleas. He of the
Queen's Bench was, and still is. Lord Chief-justice
of England ; and on him were conferred, in 1S81,
the powers of the Lord Chief-justice of Common
Pleas, that ilivision of tlu! court being abolished.
Puisne (i.e. lesser or ordinary) judges in all divi-
sions of the High Court bear tlie title of Justice,
and are spoken of as ' Mr Justice Smith,' &c.
Jiistice-scneral, Lorh, the highest jud^^e in
Scotland, also called the Lord President of the
Court of Session (q.v.). Next to him ranks the
Lord Justice-clerk. See Jitsticiary Court.
Justice of tlie Peace. In 1264 the name
euslris jiacis ajipeais for the first time in I'.nglish
history. Until the thirty-fourth year of llic^ riign
of Edward 111. the odicers ap|iointed in c>.-ich county
to maintain internal order were invariably described
as guardians or conservators of the peace. Origin-
ally royal nominees, the conservators of the pence
were after the lifth year of Edward I., chovi-n (at
least occasiimally) by the whole community in the
county court, under the instructions of the king
conveyed by the slierilV. But after the deposition
378
JUSTICE OF THE PEACE
of Edward II. the a|ipointiii<>iit of special cii.itudi-.f
jxici.i was ordained liy ]>arliaiiu'nt (1 Kdward III.
stat. 2, eliaj). IG). The right of election thus taken
away from the people was soon vested in, and has
ever since been exercised by, the sovereign. While
the ])owi'r of ai>poiiitin<; justices of the peace now
iiractically helongs to the Lord Chancellor, it must
tie clearly undei-stood that the commission of the
peace is in theory the Queen's commission, and
that the Lord Chancellor h,as no such authority
over justices of the peace as he possesses over
judges of the county courts. The functions of the
ciistm/c^s jxicis appointed in i;!27 were rapidly and
widely extended by subsequent legislation ; and
36 Edward III. stat. 1, chap. 12, gave for the first
time to the old rimtodcs pacin their familiar modern
name. In 1.J90 a new form of commission was
agreed u])Ou, in whi<'h all the jiartieulars formerly
sjiecilied from a number of statutes were compre-
hended in words of general description. This was
presented to the chancellor, acc^epted, scaled, and
with slight variations h;is continued in use ever
since. Cnder Richard II. justices of the peace
attending <(uarter sessions were entitled to 4s. .a
day, payable out of the lines and amerciaments at
such sessions. It appeal's, however, that these
payments were often made out of the emoluments
of the sherilV, and they were abolished. The ollice
of justice of the peace has since been entirely
gr.aiuitous; but, alter the conversion of the con-
stabulary into ])olico, stipendiary magistrates exer-
cising a summary jurisdiction not unlike that of
the justices have been appointed in all large cities
and in many large towns. The office of justice of
the peace seems to have been held on several occa-
sions by a lady.
It is impossible here to trace minutely the history
of the multifarious duties which have at different
periods been discharged by the justices of the
peace. The statute 11 Henry VII. chap. .3, enabled
them to determine all offences except treason and
felony without a jury upon information in the
king's name. But this act was repealed in the
first year of the reign of Henry VIII. In 1653,
when the Barebones Parliament made marriage a
purely civil contract, justices of the jjeace were
empowered to hear the mutual declarations of the
contracting parties. They were authorised liy
their commission, and still have power, to receive
information with regard to any iiulietable ott'ence.
They were also invested with imiKutant adminis-
trative functions, such as the licensing of ale-
houses and the appointment of overseers of the poor
or surveyors of higlnv.ivs ; and as local authority
they transacled the chief county business, con-
trolled the county police, and levied the county
rates. The summary jurisdiction of justices of
the peace has, however, been detined and restricted
by recent legislation, and the liocal Government
Act of 1888 lias transferred to the new county
councils most of the administrative powers for-
merly exercised by the county justices in (|uarter
sessions. .See Coi'.N'l'V, and Qr.vHTKlt Skssions.
There are two classes of justices of the jieace —
those exercising jurisdiction within counties, and
those appointed for boroughs. Under the iMuni-
cipal Corporations Act, 1882, sect. 158, borough
justices have no authority to act at general or
quarter sessions for the county. County jiistic<'s,
on the other hand, have jiriiiiA fiirir conciinent
jurisdiction within any borough which forms part
of the county. This presumption is, however,
re])elled where tlw borough charter contains an
express clause to the contrary — called a iioii intru-
viilirr dausi! — and the boiongh h;Ls its separ.ate
court of (|uarter sessions. Again, in the civse of
borough justices no special i|ualilication beyond
that of residence in or within seven miles of the
borough is required. But a county justice must
have an estate of freehohl, copyhold, or long
leasehold in England or Wales of the clear
annual value of .£100, or a reversion expectant
(Ui leases for lives of £300 a year. By 38 and
39 Vict. chap. 54, it has now been further pro
vided that a person shall be deemed i|Ualifie(I to
be appointed a county justice who, being of full
age, has for the space of two years immediately
preceding his appointment been the occupier of a
dwelling-house assessed to the inhabited-house
duty at a value of not less than i'lOO, and shall
have been rated to all rates .and taxes in respect
of such premises. No sheritf can act during his
shrievalty as justice of the peace for the county in
which he is sheriff : and no pers(ui can be appointed
to act during banknii)tcy. The otlice of justice
of the peace, being conferred by the crown, sub-
sists only during the pleastire of the sovereign.
The commission appoints all the persons named
therein to keep the peace in the county specilied,
and any two or more of them to in(|uire of ;uul
determine offences committed in such county ; in
which number some particular justices with legal
or special qualifications were formerly directed to
be always included, and no business wxs to be d<ine
without their presence. The words of the commis-
sion ran quorum alvpicm ve.itrum A, B, C, D, <i<'.
iiniim esse volinnus; and the persons so named
were called justices of the i/iioriim. It is now,
however, the practice to include nearly all of the
justices in the <iuorinn clause.
The functions of justices of the peace are partly
administrative and partly judicial. The former,
which were exercised at special sessions, used to
embrace a great variety of subjects, but since the
Local Government Act, 1888, sect. 3, are now prac-
tically restricted to the licensing of ale-houses and
the ;i]ipointment of oveiscers of the poor. The
control of the police in counties will hencefmth be
undertaken by a joint committee of the county
council and of the justices in quarter sessions.
The latter fall into three cla-sses. (1) The justice
of the peace, like the ancient conservator jiacis, is
empowered to preserve the peace, to suppress riot,s
and aflrays, to take security for good behaviour,
and to order the apprehension and committal of
criminals. (2) At jictty sessions the justices mv
enabled to try certain minor oll'cnees summarily
and without a jury. (3) The commission of the
peace authorises any two or more justices to hear
and determine certain graver and indict.able offences
at (/itartcr sessions. The statute .34 Edward III.
cha)). 1, confirming IS Edward III. stat. 2,
chap. 2, enabled justices of the jicace to try at
quarter sessions all felonies and trespas.ses \\liafso-
ever committed within the county. Comparatively
recent legislation has expressly excepted from the
jurisdiction of qutarter sessions the most .serious
offences in the criminal law, .such as murder, per-
jury, forgery, bigamy, .abduction, itc, and only
the smaller misdemeanours ami fehuiies are now
triable at these courts. The orders and convictions
of justices out of .sessions can be .appealed against
to quarter sessions ; and an or<ler made at quarter
sessions may as a general rule be removed into the
Queen's Bench Division of the High Court by writ
of certiorari.
As to the liability of a justice of the peace, in
tlie ca.se of a justice acting erroneously within his
jurisdiction, an action will not lie without an
express allegati<m .and proof of malice and want of
iea.soiiable or jirobable cause. In the case of a
justice who either has no jurisdiction or exceeds
it, no such .allegation or proof is required, but no
action can be brought in regard to a convict 'on
or order till it has been qu.osheil upon ajqieal. ,0
In Scotland the duty of collecting evidence for
JUSTICE OF THE PEACE
JUSTICES
379
the prosecution of criminals restea orijnnally upon
tlio justice-clerk and the sherill'. When it was
proposed to hold a criminal inquirv, the sheritl',
under the authority of a writ issued bv the justi-
ciar, summoned the best and most cai>al>le men of
each l>urc;h, town, and barony witliin liis shire to
appear before the justice-clerk and give informa-
tion of the crimes done within their res])ective
bounds. This lieing done, it lay with the justice-
clerk to digest the materials thus returned to him,
and to make up from them a roll of the otlenders'
names, and a tile of dittay, or indictments for bring-
ing those pereons to justice. When the Scotch cir-
cuit system wa-s reorganised, a more regular and
effective method of taking 'dittay' was adopted;
tlie act of 15S7 em|iowered the king, on the aihice
of his chancellor, treasurer, and justice-clerk, to
appoint ' lionourable and worthie persons ... in
degree earles. lordes, barronnes, knights, and special
gentlemen lamled, experimented in the lovable laws
and customes of the realme. actuall indwellere in
the same shires ... to be constant anil continual
np-takers of ilittay.' This is the first statute deal-
ing with the institution of justices of the peace in
Scotland. The office was further regulated bv acts
in 1609, 1617, 1633, and 1661. The form of com-
mission is practically identical with that which
was settled for use in England in lo90. There is
no property qualification in Scotland ; but under
6 Geo. IV. chap. -IS, sect. 27, a solicitor cannot
be nominated a justice of the peace for any
county in which lie is practising. By 19 and
20 \'ict. chap. 48, sect. 4, the disqualification
does not extend to writere or procurators who
may be elected magistrates or deans of guild
in any burgh. The functions of justices are
partly administrative and partly judicial. The
Local Government (Scotland) Act, 1889, sect. 11,
has transferred to the new county councils the
powers and duties of the justices in relation to the
following subjects: (1) the execution as local
authority of the acts relating to gas-meters, ex-
plosive substances, wei<rhts and measures, habitual
drunkards, and wild birds; (2) the appointment
of visitors of public, private, or district lunatic
asylums ; and ( 3 ) the registration of the rules of
scientific societies under 6 and 7 Vict. chaj). .36.
As in England, the justices have still authority in
regard to the licensing of ale-houses, the adminis-
tration of the poor laws, &e. The jurisdiction of
justices of the peace is partly civil and partly
criminal. In civil questions between master and
ser\ant they have jurisiliction to any amount.
The justices can entertain applications for the
aliment of bastard children. The civil jurisdiction
of the justices is now practically superseded by
that of the sherilV court, unless to the limited
extent allowed by the Small Debt Act (12 and 13
Vict. chap. 34). There is no trace in Scotland of
trial with a jury before justices of the peace, as
in England at quarter sessions. The ordinary
criminal jurisdiction of justices is confined to
bre;i<;hes of the peace, petty thefts, and trifiing
a.s.saults, punishable by a small fine and imprison-
ment. A variety of penal statutes have conferred
upon the justices of the peace jurisdiction in
relation to the revenue, highways, fishings, and
public-houses. In Ireland the justice occupies
practically the same position as in England.
The institutiim of ju.stices of the peace exi.sts in
the United States of .\merica. In some of the
states these magistrates are apjiointed by the
executive, in othere they are elected by the people
and commissioned by the executive ; in soiue Citses
they hold office during good behaviour, but as a
Heneral rule tljey are appointed for a. limited ijericKl.
See liouvier's Law Dicttoiiari/ and Hoore's h'alcrul
and State C'otistitutwns.
Ju.STICE.s" Cl.Kr.K.— The justices' clerk is an officer
aiipointed by justices of the peace in England ( who,
although not themselves trained lawyers, are yet
called upon to ailminister many branches of the law)
to assist them in the discharge of their duties, to
advise them as to points of law and practice, to
take minutes of the proceedings in every ca.se, to re-
ceive and transmit fines, iS:c. Every clerk api)oiiited
after the passing of the Justices' Clerks Act, IS77,
unless he has previously held a similar appoint-
ment for a |>eriod of not less than fourteen years, is
required (<() cither to be a barrister of not less
than fourteen years' standing, or a solicitor to the
Supreme Court of Jiulicature, or (6) to have served
for not less than seven years as a clerk to a police
or stipendiary magistrate, or to a metropolitan
police-court, or to one of the police-courts of the
City of London. Under the same statute justices'
clerks receive a fixed salary instead of deriving
their remuneration, as formerly, from the court
fees.
Justices. Lords. Since the Norman Conquest
it has been the occasional practice in England for
the sovereign to nominate one or more persons to
exercise the chief powers of government during his
temporary absence from the kingdom. At first
this duty was imposed, princi]>ally although not
perhaps exclusively, upon the justiciar. But
when, after the death of Hubert de Burgh, the
functions of the justiciar were gradually distrib-
uted and his office itself was practically abolished,
ciistoc/cf: icr/ni or ' lords justices" were appointed to
govern the realm during the sovereign's absence.
The English sovereigns from Edward VI. to
James 11. were never, while actually reigning,
absent from England at all; and William III. in
the early years of his reign invariably left l^Mieen
Mary to discharge the duties of viceroy when
he went to the Continent. But after the death
of Mary lords justices appear to have been
appointed umler tlie great seal, on the occasion of
the king's absence, fi\'e times between 1695 aiul
1699. The names of the Archbishop of Canter-
bury and the Lord Chancellor were usually placed
at the head of these commissions. The Act of
Settlement (12 and 13 Will. III., chap. 2) pro-
vided ' that no person who shall hereafter come to
the crown shall go out of England, Scotland, or
Ireland without consent of parliament ; ' but this
clause was repealed by 1 Geo. I. chap. 51 ; and
George I. during five of his absences from Eng-
land (1719, 1720, 1723, 1725, 1727) left lords
justices to represent him. Similar appointments
were made by Geoi'ge II. after the death of t^ueen
Caroline : and George IV. on his visit to Han-
over in 1S21 delegated his authority to nineteen
guardians, of whom the Duke of York, heir-pre-
sumptive, was one. During the reign of Victoria
the propriet.y of an appointment of lords justices
was twice considered — on occasion of the royal
visit to France, and in 1845, when the Queen wjis
preparing to visit Germany ; and on the latter
occasion an interesting discu-ssion took i)lace in
the House of Lords. The view taken l>y Lord
Chancellor Lymlhurst was that, although the great
seal could not be used out of the realm, mandates
of the sovereign given by sign-manual out of the
realm were valid, and that it was ' in the bre.ast
of the sovereign,' on going abroad, to aj>iioint
representatives or not, a.s ndght be <leemed for the
l)ublic good. This debate practically settled the
question, and the nomination of lords justices luis
fallen into desuetude. These appointments were
usually made by lettei-s-patent under the great .seal,
but in one or two cases parliamentary confirmation
of the powers conferred by the king's authority
was obtained.
The power to create peers has only once been
380
JUSTICIARY COURT
JUSTINIAN
delegated — liy Charles T. in favour of Lord Her-
bert, afterwards Earl of (;lamorf;an, in 1044.
Lords justices have sometimes heen appointed to
carry on the <;overnment of lrelan<l in place of a
viceroy: hut in modern times this has only heen
done durinj; occasional alxsences of the lord-lieu-
tenant, or in the interval between the demise of
one lord-lieutenant and the app.'.intment of his
successor. These lords justices bavo usually been
the Primate, the Lord Chancellor, and the Com-
mander of the Forces.
Lords Ji.stice.s of the Court of Appeal.—
In 1811 it w.as found tliat the work devolving on
Lord Chancellor Eldon in the Court of Chancery,
and at the same time as Supreme Judge of Appeal
in the House of Lords, was too severe for his strength.
After considerable discussion it was decided to
a|ipoint a new judge, under the title of vice-chan-
cellor, to perform part of his duties ; and in 1851
Lord John Russell introduced into the House of
Commons a hill for the i-eform of the Court of
t'liancery. This statute (14 and 15 Vict. chap. 83)
transferred the entire jurisdiction of the Lord Chan-
cellor as head of the Court of Chancery to a new
tribunal called the Court of Appeal in Chancery.
The members of this court were the Lord Chan-
cellor himself, and two other judges who were
required to be at the date of their appointment
barristers of not less than fifteen years' standing,
took rank and precedence ne.\t after the Lord
Chief-baron of the Exchequer, and were styled
Lords Justices of the Court of Appeal in Chan-
cery. Shortly afterwards the lords justices were
'entrusted with the care and custody of lunatics
hy warrant iinder the Queen's sign-manual.' The
Judicature Acts established a new Court of Appeal
(see AppE.\L), in which there are four ex iMcin
members — the Lord Chancellor, the Lord CMiief-
justice, the Master of the Rolls, and the President
of the Probate, Divorce, and Admiralty Division —
and five ordinary members, who are called ' lords
justices' after their predecessors in the old Court
of Appeal in Chancery. The lords justices are
now merely members of the Court of Appeal, and
have no original jurisdiction in the Chancery
Division. Their jurisdiction in lunacy, however,
remains substantially unaltered ; and by section
51 of the Judicature Act of 1873 they were
appointed additional judges of the High Court
of Justice, so that they might exercise it more
elVectively, by the ai<l of all that original juris-
diction in Chaiu'cry which was formerly auxiliary
to the jurisdiction in lunacy. The lords justices
occasionally sit as additional judges of the High
Court of Justice. When acting in this capacity
they are bound by the judgment of a Divisional
Court, even although they may disapprove of
it, and would have reversed it in the Court of
Appeal.
Justioiary Conrt, the highest criminal court
in Scotland. Its judges are, since 188", the judges of
the Court of Session ( q.v. ) ; formerly there used to he
hut seven justiciary lords, five of them a)ipoiiitcd
by jiatent. It sits usually in Edinburgh, but also
holds circuit-courts twice a year in a number of
towns, four times at Perth, Dundee, and Aberdeen,
and six timers in Gla-sgow, the king<lom being
ilivided for that purpose into three divisions or
circuits. The jurisdiction embraces all crimes
whatever ; and it is an appellate court as regards
inferior criuunal tribunals. Its decisions are linal,
there being no appeal to the House of Lords.
Justifiable Homicide is the killing of a
human being without incurring legal guilt, as where
a man who has been iluly scuitenced is hanged ;
where one, in self defence, necessarily kills another
to preserve his own life, &c.
•Instin. surnamed the Martyr, one of the
earliest and most distinguished apologists of the
Christian church, w.as a n.ative of Flavia Neapolis,
the ancient Sichem, in Samaria. He was born
probably near the year 100 A.I>. His father Priscus
was a heathen, and Jvistin was educated in the
religion of his father. He became an ardent
student of the philosophy of his age, beginning
with the school of the Stoics, but finally .adhering to
that of the Platonists. His conversion to Chris-
tianity he ascribes in one pl.ace to the firmness of
the Cliristian martvi's, in another to a chance meet-
ing with a venerable stranger, Avho directed him to
the study of the .Jewish prophets, anil thmugh
them to the great Christian te.acher whom they
foretold. After his conversion he retaineil the garl)
of a philosopher, and .appears to have wandered from
pl.ace to place, as we find him disputing at Ephesus
and Rome, if not in other cities also. His
martyrdom is supposed to have taken ]ilace some
time between 148 and 165, but the story rests on
no sure historical evidence. The works of Justin,
although not very voluminous, are highly interest-
ing and important. The oidy books .ascribed to
him with cert<ainty are two Apoloijies for the
Christians, the first (the date is a matter of cimtro-
versy, and has heen placed .anywhere between 138
.and 160), addressed 'to Antoninus Pius,' the second
(perhaps an appendix to the first) 'to the Roman
senate:' and a Dialnjinc vitli Trj/phri the Jew
(date perhaps between 15.") .and 164), which profes-ses
to be the record of an .actual two days' disputation
held at Ephesus. These are extant in two MSS.
only, which agi-ee very closely with each other ;
one is at Paris (date 1364), the other (date 1541)
in the Phillipps Library at Cheltenham. The
Speech to the Greeks is po.ssibly .Justin's ; the other
works once ascribed to liim are certainly spurious.
The first edition of his works is tliat of Hobert Stephens
( Pans, 1.051 ). The Benedictine edition of Justin, by
Mar.an, appeared in 1742 ; and Otto's — the best— at Jena
(3 vols. 1842-47; 3d ed. 1871) it seqX There are good
translations of Justin in the Library of the Fathers (1^61 )
and Clarke's ..'InJc-AVrenc irtrar^ (1868), and a jopular
account in The Chrintian Fathers. See also monographs
bySeniisch (P.reslau, 1840-42), Aubi (Paris, 1875), Engel-
hardt ( Erlang. 1878), and Bishop Kaye (newed. 1888): and
Donaldson, //««. of Christ, Lit. and Doclrim (vol. ii. bSOti).
Justin* a Rom.an historian who fiourished, in
all probability, in the 3d or 4th century, .although
some assign him an earlier date. His Historiarum
Philippieeinnn Libri XLIV. is a selection, rather
than an abridgment, from the Historim Philippicee
of Trogus Pompeius, a work now lost, .and so called
from its being in the first inst.ance a history of the
Macedonian monarchy, but really a kind of history
of the world down to the Roman conquest of the
E.ast. There are editions by Diibner ( 1831 ), Ilartwig
(1860), and Riihl (1886).
Justin I. and II. See Byzantine Empire.
Justinian I> Fl.avius Anicius Justinianus,
nephew, on the mother's side, of the Emperor
Justin, w.as born in 482 or 483 A.I)., in the village
of Tauresinm, in Illyria. His original mime was
Cpranda. .\lthough of obscure parentage, the son
of a Slavonic pe;vsant, he shared the success of his
m.aternal uncle, Justin, being invited at an early
age to Constantinoi)le, where he received a careful
eilucation. When his uncle assumed the purple
in 518 he ap])ointed Justinian connnamler-in-chief
of the army of Asia. His t.o-stes, however, inclin-
ing him rather to civic imrsuits, he declined this
appointment, ami remained attached to the court
ot Constantinople. In .521 he w.as named consul,
.and during the remaining years of the reign of his
uncle he continued to exercise great inlluence.
In 5'27 the Kmperor .lustin, by the advice of the
senate, proclaimed him his partner in the empire.
JUSTINIAN
381
Jn.-tiu smviveil this steji but four iiioiilhs, and
in the same year Justinian \v;us piDi'laiiiieil sole
eni|)eior. ami crowned alonj; vitli his wife, the
faiiions Theodora, whom, despite of her more llian
diihious antecedents ;is an actress, he luul raised
to the position of his wife. Jnstinian, on his acces-
sion, was in his fortyliftli year. His reif,'n, which
extends over thirty-eiy;ht years, is the most brilliant
in the history of the late empire. Althonyh him-
self withont tlie taste or the capacity for military
command, he had the jrood fortune or tlie skill to
select the ablest generals of the last days of Itonian
military ascendency. Under the direction of his
generals, and especially of the celebrated Narses
(q.v.) and Belisarius (q.v. ), his reign may be said
to have restored the Roman empire, at least in out-
want appearance, to its ancient limits, and to have
reunited the East and West under a single rule.
In his first war — that with Persia — he concluded a
treaty by which the crisis that had so long threatened
Wius at least warded oil'; but the rejoicings which
celebrated its termination had, owing to a domestic
revolution, almost proved fatal to the authority of
Justinian himself. A conflict of the so-called Blue
and Green factions in the circus in 532 was but an
outburst of political discontent, which went so far
a.s to elect a rival emperor, Hypatius. Justinian
himself was struck with dismay, and had made
prcpaiations for flight ; but the vigour and deter-
mination of Theodora arrested the revolt. Narses,
with a relentless hand, repressed the tumults,
3(1,000 victims having, it is said, fallen in a single
day. By the arms of Belisarius, the ^'andal king-
dom of Africa was re-annexed to the empire ; and
the same general, conjointly with Narses, restored
the imperial authority in Kome, in Northern Italy,
and in a large portion of Spain. One of the most
e.xtraordinary, though in the end inetl'ective works
of the reign of Justinian was the vast line of forti-
fications which he constructed, or renewed and
strengthened, along the eastern and south-eastern
frontier of his empire. These works of defence,
and the construction of many public buildings both
in his capital and in other cities of the empire,
involved an enormous expenditure, and the liseal
administration of Justinian, inconsequence, prcs.sed
heavily on the ])ublic resources.
It is, however, a-s a legislator that Justinian has
gained his most enduring renowTi. His good for-
tune in oljtaining the services of able generals was
not greater tlian that which attended him in the
field of law and legislation. Brilliant as were the
triumphs of Narses and Belisarius, they were
indeed shortlived in comparison with the work
done by the celebrated Tribonian (q.v.) and his
coadjutors in the way of reforming and codifying
the law. Immediately on his acc(wsion Jns-
tinian .set himself to collect and codify the prin-
cipal imperial coustitutioiis or statutes enacted
jjrior to, ami in fi>rce at, the date of his acces-
sion. In this respect he followed the example
set by his predecessor, Theodosian. The code in
which these cuimtitatioiui were collected was pulj-
lislied in 5'2.S-'2i), and it contained a general pro-
vision by which all previous imperial enactments
were repealed (see CODK). But Justinian's am-
bition in the matter of consolidating the laws went
n]N(di further. Imperial constitutions made up but
a comparatively small part of the body of the law.
The bulk i>i it (what might be called the rtfiniiion
Ititr) was con Iain ed in the writings of the ,/«W.v<« —
i.e. of text wrilei-s and c<Miimentat«rs. Of these
writings there were at this time many hundreds of
volumes in existence, and, owing to want of agree-
ment in the opinions of the various writers, the
law was in a state of great uncertainty, not to say
confusion. To remedy this evil Jnstinian resolved
upon the publication of a single treati.se in w hich
the commentaries and other writings of the jurists
might be digested and harmimised. The prepara-
tion of this great work was entrusted to Tribonian,
with the a.ssistance of Tln'ophilus, a celebrated
professor of law at Berytns ( moilern lieyrout), and
two 01 her professors, and eleven advocates, .'ind it
was completed in the short jieriod of four years, ll
was iiublished in iifty books under the title
J)i(/c\ta <jr Patiih'ctw on 31st December 534.
While the UUjcst wa-s in cour.se of ]>rcparalion
.Instinian resolved on the composition of a third
legal work — viz. a systematic and elementary
treatise on the law which might serve as a text-
book for the use of students and as an intro-
duction to the larger work. The |)reparation of
this was also entrusted to Tribonian and his col-
leagues, and having been completed a few days
before the Digest, was published in four books on
the same day (31st December 534)un<ler the title
of Institutioncs. It is based upon the Institutes
of Gains, and is familiar to all modern lawyers
under the name of "Justinian's Institutes.' Mean-
time, while both the Diffcat and the Institutes
were being prepared, the Cwlc of 529 above men-
tioned was withdiawn from circulation and re-
published in 534 with some alterations, and especi-
ally with the addition of fifty new constitutions
(known as the Quimjuagintd Dceisioncs) which had
in the interim been pronounced by Justinian. This
new edition, in twelve books, is known a.s the
Codce Uepetitic PrwUctionis, and is the one which
has cinne down to us, no copy of the earlier
codex being extant. All these works ( Code,
Digest, IiistitKtes) were written originally in Latin,
and all of them were prepared with care and skill,
and testify to the great ability of Tribonian and his
co-editors. Upon the publication of the Digest
Justinian declared by a constitution that all previ-
ous law books and decisions were to be held as
superseded, and it was forliidden to refer to them
in the practice of the courts. During the subse-
quent years of his reign Justinian pronounced from
time to time several new constitutions or laws,
some of them making \ery important changes in
certain departments of the law. These (mostly in
Greek) were collected and published under the title
of Novdld' (i.e. 'the Novels' or 'New Constitu-
tion'). There were, so far as can be ascertaineil,
about 170 of these Novels. The Institutes, Digest,
Code, and No\els together make up what is known
as the Corpus Juris Cimlis.
The character of Justinian has been much can
vassed, and opinions are not agreed about it. I'ro-
copius. in two separate works, has painted him in
very ditt'erent lights. Making allowance, however,
for mneh exaggeration of his abilities by con-
tenqiorary writers, it may be said that he contrasts
favourably with most of the emperors, whether of
the earlier or the later empire. If his personal
virtues be open to doubt (and certaiidy vanity,
avarice, and inconstancy were in no small degree
characteristic of him), he, on the other hand, dis-
l)layed undoubted ability as a ruler, ami in the
main, just and upright intentions. He died on
14th November olio at the age of eighty-three,
and in the thirty-eighth year of his reign.
A few words must be said abimt the legislative
reforms carried through by Justinian. He was not
oidy a collector and codilier of the laws ; he also
introduced in many ilircctions the most funda-
mental clianges into the substantive l;iw itself.
The following; were the most important changes ;
( 1 ) He ameliorated the condition of slaves- depriv-
ing their nnisters of the power of pulling them to
death. He declared that any one who |>nt a slave to
death at his own hand shouhl be guilty of homicide.
(2) He greatly revolutionised the law of intestate
succession by giving to eognati (relatives on the
382
JUSTINIAN
JUTE
mother's siile ) an equal share with af/uati ( rehitives
on tlio father's siile) of the same iU'j;ree. These
two changes in the hiw were iirobahly in a hirge
measure inihiced by tlie circumstances of his l)irth.
He made consitleraUle changes in the law of ilivorce
anil as to the property of spouses, and he reformed
civil procedure in the way of makinj; it uniform,
and introducing a system of small-debt courts.
See tlie Life by Isamliert (Paris, 1>S.",G); by G. Body
(6th ed. 18SU); Newiiuui, Doctrine of Justinian (4th ed.
1885); Roby, Introduction to the Digest (1884); Muir-
liead, Roman Law (188G).
Jute and Jute Maiiufaotnres. Some
attempts on a small scale to uiili.-.e jute-tibre for
the manufacture of carpets werenuvle at Abingdim,
in Oxfoi-dsliiie, about the year 1820 or soon after
it. But it was at Dundee, which had long been
one of the principal seats of the linen industry,
that, in ISS'2 or 1833, the spinning and weaving of
jute Krst began to give prrunise of commercial
success. The fibre, then little known in Europe,
was at first received with sus]iicion, and for some
years it was slowly and somewhat stealthily intro-
duced as a te.\tile material. By the year 1850,
however, the
use of jute had
become exten-
sive, and since
then, owing,
among other
things, to the
improvements
in preiiaring
and spinning
machinery, the
manufacture of
this libre has
rapidly ex-
teniled, and is
now carried on
at Dundee, the
chief seat of
the industry,
on a gigantic
scale. Jute
c I o t li f o r
(Ju n ny-bags
(q.v. ) and fin-
native clothing
has long been
woven on
hand-looms in
Bengal, where the plants yielding the libre are
cultivated. Since 18'>7 a number of large jute-
mills, lifted up with textile machinery, driven by
steam-power, liave been erected in the neighbour-
hood of Calcutta. The comparatively snuill cost at
which jute can he raised and manufactured will
no doubt secure its ])ermanent success as a textile
industry : but the libre is decidedly inferior to tlax
in strength and esjiecially in duraliility.
.lute is obtained from the liarU of two closely-
allied species of plants belonghig to the lime-tree
order (Tiliaceie). One siiecies, Corchoru.i mp-
sii/arix, is cultivated in central and east Bengal ;
the other, C. olitoriiix, is grown, but to a more
limited extent, in the neighbourhood of Calcutta.
The former grows from ri to 10 feet, sometimes even
to 14 feet, in height, but tlje latter is rather a
smaller plant. The (diief dillerence between the
two is in the form of the fruit, which in C. tap-
suluris is globular, and in C olitoriiis much elon-
gated. Both are annuals with yellow llowei-s,
and they can be best cultivated <m a loamy soil
or upon one of clay and sand. The higher lands
prochu'e the lincst iiu;ilities of jute. Sucli .as
IS grown upon nmti-banks or upon submerged
lands is mostly larger and coai-ser. The sowing
Jute {Corchorus capsu!aris) :
a, floWLT ; b, fruit.
time, which is regulated by the nature and posi-
tion of the soil, extends from March to June.
When the plants Hower, which they do in some
places in the end of June, the cutting of the crop
begins, but this is often not done till the fruit
is formed. The harvest is not entirely finished till
October, and it is from late reaping, with the
plants in seed, that coarse jute is obtained, the
crop yielding the best fibre if cut during the flower-
ing period.
The fibre, which is the inner bark, is separated
from the stem by retting — i.e. steeping in water
(see I<'L.\X). Sometimes the jute is jilaced in
rivers, but more generally in tanks or stagnant
pools. To prevent any risk of discoloration of the
fibre in the process the jute stalks in sonu' districts
are first stacked for a few days to allow the leaves
to decay. According to the nature of the ^^ater
used and the character of the crop, the period of
retting lasts from two days to fully three weeks.
Care nmst be taken to stop the pi-ocess as soon as
the fibre begins to separate from the stem, other-
wise it rapidly deteriorates. It is believed that
retting weakens the fibre, and that if it could be
separated horn the l>ark by some inex)icnsi\e
mechanical process a better (|uality of jute than it
is now possible to obtain would be sent into the
market.
The best qualities of jtite are of a jiale clear
yellow or buff colour, with a silky lustre, ea-sily
spun and comparatively strong. But there are
at least half a score of well known commercial
varieties. Some are bright-ccdourcd, soft, and
strong, and such are best for textile falirics —
i.e. comparatively soft, for all jute is of a hard and
woody nature. Other kinds are coarse and strong,
and suited for making ro]ies. One or two varieties
which are of weak fibre .are siiited for making
jiaper. One kind, which is long, soft, and fine,
but of bad colour, is largely used for gunny-hags.
In order to lessen the harsh an<l brittle character
of jute it is subjected to a softening process on a
kind of crushing mangle, from cisterns attached to
the top of which oil and water are at the same
time sprinkled evenly upon it. Formerly whale-
oil w;us used for this purpose, but of late years a
heavy paraffin oil or some similar mineral oil lias
been largely substituted for it, a clian;;e which
caused a great fall in the price of whale-oil. The
mangle consists of four horizontal rows of fluted
rollers, 9 inches in diameter, between which the
jute passes in a continuous layer, entering at one
end between the first jiair of the two u]iper rows,
and coming out at the opposite eml between the
last pair of the two lower rows. Besides sim|ily
turning round, tlie rollers have also a slight lateral
motion, so that the jute is thoroughly crushed or
nipped. This crushing — together with the help of
the oil and water — softens the fibre, and prepares
it for the spinning processes.
Jute was formerly, and to a small extent
is still, siiun by two distin<'t iiroces.ses, called
'line' spinning and 'tow' siiinning, which cor-
respond to those in use fen- Hax. The main
dillerence between tlieni is that in ' line' sjunning
the tihre is heckled on machines with heckle-
stocks furnished with steel teeth, which dress
and separate the lini; or best p.art of the fibre
from tlie tow, or least valuable portion. In the
'tow' spinning the fibre is first carded on cardiiig-
engines, each of which has a peculiar arrangement
of revolvin" cylinders, armed with card points or
iiins of steel wire. What may be called the card-
ing process of spinning is no longer confined to
jute tow, but the whole of the jute is now-, as a
rule, spun on this system — i.e. it is not heckled at
all. Jute-fibre as obtained from the ]ilant being
from 6 to 7 feet long, and often considerably nioi-e,
JUTE
JUTLAND
383
It reijuires to lie broken into leiij^tlis of tioiii I4 to
IS inches. This is done ou the machine calloil the
bieakei-caiil, upon which also the jute is cleaned
and the libres laid more or less parallel by the
action of the card points. The jute leaves the
breaker-card in the form of a continuous lap or
sliver, 3 to 4 inches broad, and fifteen of these are
drawn out and delivered as a single sliver by tlie
second carding' engine, calleil the tiiiislier-card.
This attenuation is accomplished by the doffing-
rollers having fifteen times the surface speed of the
feed-rollers.
The sliver, or rather slivers, are next taken to
the drawiug-frame, where their fibres arc further
straightened and equalised. The drawing-frame
has feed-rollei's, travelling gills with steel teeth,
and drawing and delivery rollers. Here four sli\ers
from the finisher-card are caught by the feed or
retainin«r rollers, passed through tlie travelling
gills, and drawn out into one sliver by the drawing-
roUei-s, which, as well a.s the delivery-rollers, move
at i\ times the speed of the retaining-rollers. The
sliver from the drawing-roUei's is, besides, usually
iloubled by passing two of them between the
delivery-rollers. The process is repeated on a
second drawing-frame with finer antl closer teeth
than those on the gills of the first. The object of
doubling and drawing out the slivers so frequently
is that the thick place of one sliver may be cor-
rected by the thin place of another, and also that
the dilierent kinds of jute may be thoroughly
mixed Ijoth as to quality and colour.
Roving is the next operation, and the rovinfj-
fiamc in the arrangement of its rollers and gills is
similar to the drawing-frame, but in the former the
parts are smaller and the gill-teeth finer and more
closely set. As the sliver on this machine, after
being still further attenuated by drawing-out
rollers, requires to be twisted into a loose thread or
Move,' a spindle and flier are provided, as well as a
bobbin upon which to -vrmA it. Finally the bob-
bins of 'rove' are taken to the sjii/iiiui(/-frainc,
and spun into yam upon the ' throstle ' principle.
.See Spinning. "
Jute fabrics are for the most part woven of yam
retaining its natural colour. But for some pur-
poses it is bleached, and when used for carpets or
curtains it is dyed various colours. Although it
can only be made pure white with difficulty, it
readily bleaches j)ale enough to admit of its Ijeing
dyed without injurj- even to bright colours. Dyes
upon jute are, however, fugitive unless they are
dyed by a special and expensive process, which is
only carried out to a small e.xtent in practice. At
Ihindee the ordinary fabrics made of jute are
Hessians, sackings, camets, tarpauling, and back-
ings for floorcloth. The last-named are wo\en
ou looms of extraordinaiy width (see Floor-
cloth ). Dyed carpets, curtains, table-coveis, and
the like, of tliLs material, are attractive enough
in appearance, and carpets especially are largely
made. These are cheap but not very durable.
Millions of small, brightly-dyed prayer carpets for
.Moslems are sent from Dundee to the East.
Fabrics ma<le of jute are easily rotted by <lamp,
and cannot be often washed and dried like linen or
cotton goods without injuring them. This fault of
jute s(«>n betrays itself if it is mi.xed with tlax f(U-
towelling. Jute, from its somewhat glo.-<sy lustre,
is occasionally used to sophisticate silk ; and it has
been employed to some extent to make wigs and
other ai'ticles in imitation of those made of human
hair, chiefly for theatrical purjioses.
The following calculation made by Indian com-
mercial men in ISS."?, and (juoted in \Vatt's Dktio)!-
ury of Indian Products, gives an idea of the extent
of the jute trade in different [larts of the world.
Of raw jute to supply iia factones per week, Scot-
land (Dundee) required fully 18,400 bales, England
ISliO bales, and Ireland 730 bales: total for the
I'nitcd Kingdom, 21, (KM) bales. France requireil
weeklj' 4000 bales, Germany 2170 bales, and other
European countries between them 2000 and 3000
bales. The annual cousumpt in all Europe w;is
then estimated at 321,400 tons, or 1,SOO,000 bales.
There were actually shipped in the year 1SS2-S3
to Europe 2,364,400 bales, l)ut .some may have
been re-shipped. At that time the twenty-two
Indian factories consumed yearly 107,000 tons, and
other countries not included above (chielly America
and Australia) required another 107,000 tons. Tlie
total annual consumpt of raw jute in the woiid at
that time was thus about o3o,400 tons, the value of
which may be roundly taken at £0,iiOO,000. In
1S92-9S the jute annually shipped Iruni Calcutta
llui-luated from 2,216,000"bales to 2,990,000 bales ;
and the price varied from £10 per ton to £13, 15s.
In 1S96, one of the years when imports were
greatest, the total import was 340,649 ions, value
£4,167,492; while of jute yarn there were ex-
ported from the United Kingdom 37,224,300 lb.,
value £378,356, and of jute woven yoods, 257,146,200
yards, value £2,269,692. Of British exports, three-
fourths go to the United States, and an incrciiiing
quantity to Germany. Of 7190 textile manufac-
tories in the United Kingdom in 1S90, only 116
were jute-mills.
Duuilee ha^ no moniii>o!y : Indian rivaliy has
become fornudable. The number of Indian
steam factories, mostly near Calcutta, was, in
1S9U, twenty-four, giving employment to 49,000
persons, and using up annually 143,450 tons of jute.
From a comparative statement of the wages |iaid
to six classes of work-people in a Dundee and in a
Calcutta jute-mill, published in 1SS4, it appears
that in Scotland they earn from one-half to two-
thirds more than they do in India, witli the exceji-
tion of wea\ei'S, >\ hose pay is more nearly equal in
the two countries, and of unskilled labonrei-s, whose
wages are \ery small in the East. But it is said
that to produce a finished piece of jute fabric seven
persons in India are required to do as much as
three at home. The classes of goods manufactured
are, however, not exactly the same in both
countries, and for this, as well as for other reasons,
the com])arison cannot be very accurately made.
The value of jute manufactures (yarns and woven
fabrics) exported from the United Kingdom in
1894 was £2,423.913. The United States imiiort
annually some 20,000 tons of jute, besides 70,000
or 80,000 tons of jule-bults (lower part of stem
and upper part of roots). The States may be said
to jiay §10,000,000 annually for imported jiite
and jirte goods, though the' plant is now being
grown successfully in the southern states, and
though machinery is being developed with the view
of rendering America indepemlent of foreign jute.
•Jiiterbog, or Juterbogk, a town in the
Prussian province of Brandenburg, 39 miles by
rail SSW. of Berlin. Cloth, cigare, and wine are
manufactured. Pop. 6797. Near Jiiterbog is Den-
newitz, where the Prussians under Biilow defeated
the French under Ney and Oudinot, September G,
1813.
Jutland (Dan. Jijlliind), the <mly consiilerable
jieninsula of Europe that ])oints directly north, has
since early in the 10th century formed a portion of
the kingdom of Denmark 'q.v.). Area, 9754 s(].
m. ; pop. (1800) 942,120. Jutland is said to have
been inhabited in the earliest times by the
Cinibri (q.v.): hence it was called the Cimbrian
Peninsula or Chersonesus. In the 5th century it
was inhabiteil by the Jules, who took \<;\\i m the
exiiedilion of the Sa.\ons to England. The .Jules
were succeeded by the Danes, who, tmder the name
384
JUVENAL
JUXON
of Normans (Noitlimeii), frequently desolated the
coast of Geiniany ami France.
Jlireiiul. Deciniiis Junius Juvenalis was born
almut 55 A.D. at Aquinum, in the Volscian
country, wliere his fatlier, a free lionian citizen,
possessed an estate. He received the usual rhetori-
cal education in Rome, and became the friend of
Martial, ami at loa.st the acquaintance of Statins
and l^hiintilian. Probably under Titus, or early in
Domitian's rcijrn, he served as tribune in the army,
and in his native town filled the important posts
of censor and Hamcn of the deihcd Vespasian. We
kno«' from an inscription ajiparently written by
himself that he was in Britain and returned home
in safety, but there is no evidence that he was
there in a military capacity. That he was in
I'jjpcr Egypt is certain, but that he was lianished
thither by Hadrian is merely a more plausible con-
jecture than that he died an octogenarian under
Antoninus Pius.
His interest for posterity depends altogether on
his sixteen satires, still extant, which occujiy
the very first rank in satirical literature, and are
of priceless value as pictures of the Koman life
of the Empire. The order in which these com-
positions follow each other in the earliest manu-
scripts and latest editions seems to have been that
in which they «ere originally published. They
were grouped probably by Juvenal himself into five
books, and these were gnen to the Avorld at inter-
vals, during which he seems to have undergone not-
able changes of mood. The first book contains the
first five satires, and saw the light in the early years
of Trajan's government. It presents Juvenal's
poAvers at their highest and most sustained pitch,
fresh from living experience of Domitian's brutalis-
ing sway, the forms and effects of which constitute
their main theme. Book second consists of one
satire, the sixth, levelled at females in general, of
whom, in their degraded, uusexed condition under
the empire, he draws a well-nigh savage picture,
unrelieved by any touch of that chivalry which
belongs to a later and christianised civilisation.
By many (chielly French ami Italian) critics it is
reckoned his chcf-d'nttnr. It probably ap|ieared a
little before the death of Trajan. The third book
was published soon after Hadrian's accession, and
comprises the seventh, eighth, and ninth satires.
Interwoven with passages of earlier composition
than that date, the.se touch, without uniformly
nuiintaining, the high level of the preceding ones.
The fourth hook, also publislied under Hadrian, is
maile ui)of the tenth, eleventh, and twelfth satires,
and in the best of them, the tenth, on the 'Vanity
of Human Wishes,' notwithstanding its line de-
clamatory swing and its characteristic niisojjyny,
theie is a softer spirit, as of the ' years that bring
the philosoi>hic mind,' or at least"tem|>er tlie im-
Jietuosity of earlier manhood. The fifth book,
again given to the world in Hadrian's time, con-
tains satires thirteen, fourteen, fifteen, and sixteen,
and even more than its predecessor betrays the
softening intluence of age, while distinctly the least
vigorous and effective of the series.
Juvenal and Horace respectively reiiresent the
two schools into which satire Inis always been
divided; and from one or other of tliem every
classical satirist of modern Kurope derives his
descent. As Horace is the .satirist of Kidicule,
so Juvenal is the satirist of Indignation, .luvenal i
is not a man of the world so much as a reformer,
and he plays in K(uiian literature a jiart corre-
sponding to that of the pro)diets under the Jewish
dispensation. He uses satire not as a hranch of
comedy, which it was to Horace, hut as an engine
for attacking the brutalities of tyranny, the cor-
rujitions of life and taste, the crimes, the follies,
and the frenzies of a degenerate society. He has
great humour of a scornful, austere, but singularlv
l)ungent kind, and many noble Ihishes of a higli
moral poetry. It should be noted that the old
lioiiKDi genius— ii-s distinct fnun the more cosmo-
politan kind of talent formed by Creek culture— is
|>lainly discernible in Juvenal. " He is as national
as the English Horarth, who jierhajis gives a
better image of his kind and character of faculty
than any single English bumorist or moralist that
we could name. Juvenal has been better trans-
lated in our literature than almost any other of the
ancients. Dryden's versions of five of liis satires
are amongst the best things he ever did. l)r
Johnson imitated two of the most famous in his
Loiichii and I'aniti/ of Hiiiiuiii W i sites : and the
version of the whole of them by Gifl'ord is full of
power and character.
The latest and best editions of Juvenal are those of < ).
,Tahn (2d ed. by Bucheler, 1886), A. M'eidner ( Leip.
1889), and J. E. B. Mayor ( Loud. 1878-86). Other anno-
tated editions are those of Macleane, Lewis (with a
hteral prose translation ), and Pearson and Strong.
Juvenile Offender.**. In the eye of the law
persons are considered capable of comndtting crime
when of the age of seven, and are punishable like
other persons. But in England and Ireland, when
ever a person under the age of sixteen is convicted
and sentenced to be imprisoned, the court or magis-
trates may also sentence him to be sent to a refor-
matory scliool for not less than two or more than
five years. Such sentence, however, cannot be
passed upon an offender under ten years of age,
unless his offence is by law punishable with penal
servitude or imprisonment, or unless the sentence
come from a superior court, such as a court of
assize or of (pmrter ses.sion.s. Children who ha\e
not yet committed crime, but are in a vagrant and
neglected state, may also be sent to an industrial
school.
.Inxon. AVlLLI.\M, one of the figures on the liLst
'memorable scene' of Charles I., was horn at
Chichester in 1582. From Merchant Tayloi-s'
School he passed to St Jidin's College, O.xford,
and succeeded Laud lus its president in IG'21.
Already he hail held livings at St (iiles, Oxford,
and Somerton in Oxfordshire, and through Laud's
inHuence he became successively dean of Worcester,
prel)endary of Chichester, dean of the Chapel Itoyal,
and Bisliiip cif London. In 1685 also he was made
Lord High Treasurer— 'a dignity,' Laud writes
proudly, ' htdd by no churchman since Henry VII. s
time.' In Cliarles's vacill.ition about thefate of
Strafford, Juxon advised him to relu.se his a-ssent
to the bill, 'seeing that he knew his lordship to be
innocent.' He ministered to the king in his bust
moments, and it was into his hands that Charle-s
delivered his George with the word 'Kemember.'
During the Commonwealth Juxon amused hiuLseif
with his ]iack of hounds at liis country-liou.se in
<;loucestershire, and four months after the Bestora-
tion was appointed .Vn-hlpishop of Canterbury. He
dieil at Lamheth, -tth .lune 1663.
K
i^R'
4p'HitfH^ii^'L^
I^^K
fei^^^^i
is the eleventh letter in our
alplialiet. Tlie syiiihol \v;is de-
lived from tlie E''yptian hieio-
ilyphic picture ot a bowl (see
Alphabkt). When taken over
by the I'lia'niciaus the letter
was called J.tiji/i, 'the hand,'
the two slanting strokes being
probably sui)posed to repre-
sent the forefinger and the thumb. With little
change of form or name it was transmitted to
Greece a-s kappa, and then with the other Greek
lettei-3 it passed into the primitive alphabet of
Italy, where it was retained by the L nibrians
and the Oscans, but ultimately discarded by the
Etruscans and the Komans. That it belonged ori-
ginally to the Latin alphabet is proved by its occur-
rence in two or three of the earliest Latin inscrip-
tions, and by its retention in certain conventional
archaic abbreviations, such as KAL for valcndce.
It was not used in classical Latin, since after the
inventiim of G (see G) it was supertluous, the letter
C ha\ in-' acquiied jjrecLsely the same sound, that
of the sharp guttural mute, which is formed by
raising the tongue to the back of the palate.
Hence this sound came to be denoted by C in
the Latin alphabet and in all the alphabets derived
directly from it, such ;us Italian, Erench, and
Spanish ; while the symbol k was retained in the
alphabets which were directly or remotely influ-
enced by- the Greek, such iis Coptic, Russian,
Wallachian, Servian, Runic, Gothic, and German.
Thus in French the letter k is only used in modern
loan-words, such as kepi, or lulumctix : while iu
German c is confined, for the most part, to words
derived from Latin or French, such as criminal,
civil, ronsul, or caital.
In England, where the two influences met and
encountered each other, the usage is conflicting.
In the southern or Saxon shires, into which the
alphabet wa.s introduced liy Roman monks, c was
at first universal, A' being unknown before the l'2th
century. In the northern or Anglian shires, which
pos.sessed the runes, a script ultimately of Greek
origin (see RfNES), /,: is found in very early
MSS., such as the Rush worth (jospels. To the
Xortliumbrian missionaries, to whom the conver-
sion of Germany is chietly due, may be attributed
the use of /.instead of (• in the German alphabet.
After the Norman comiuest of England the pho-
netic power of c became uncertain, owing to the
introduction of its French value of .v in such words
aarili/, and hence in the 12th and following cen-
turies the use of k began to spread from the
northern counties to the east midlamls, and then
to East Anglia, being employed in the first instance
before the vowels e and /, where the value of c. Wius
most ambiguous. Hence in Middle English we
find k in the words Kcnl, keen, kith, kin, king,
keep, and keii ; and al.so before n in the wortls knave,
knee, kneiul, know, knot, and kniijht, in all of
which c had formerly been employed. It is also
u.sed in words of Sciindinavian, Dutch, or northern
origin, such iis ken, keij, ktd, kill, kilt, kindle, kirk,
kippered, kink, and in such modern loan -words an
Koran, kanijaruo, and kaleidoscope.
2S.-.
But on the
whole the usage in English accords nmre with
Latin and French than with Greek, German, and
Russian.
li-, a Himalayan peak. See GODWIN- AuSTEN.
Hsiilbil (.-Vrab., 'square house'), the name of an
oblinig stone building within the great moS(iue of
Mecca. See Mecca.
Kaaillil, a large species of Antelope ( q. v. ).
Kabbala. See Cabbala.
Kabul, or C.VBUL (the Kabura of Ptolemy), a
\ery ancient town which has figured prominently in
modern history. It was taken in 1394 by Tamer-
lane, and again in 1739 by Nadir Shah, wliose
son Ahmed Khan founded the Durani dyna-sty.
Timur made Kabul the capital of Afghanistan in
1774. It is memorable for the events which led to
the terrible disaster of 1S42 (see Afgha>'Ista.n ).
It was taken in September of that year by Pollock,
and its bazaar was destroyed ; after which it re-
mained unvisited by Europeans till the year 1879,
when Sir Louis Cavagnari was appointed Resident.
The story of his murder is still recent history. On
its capture by Sir Frederick Roberts the city was
again held by a British force for a time ; but after
the instalment of the Amir Abdur Rahman on the
throne, the British forces again evacuated Afghani-
stan in August 1S80.
Kabul is charmingly situated at the foot of the
Takht-i-Shah and Asmai hills which separate it
from the Chardeh plain. On a s])ur of the.se hills
south of the city is the fortress of Bala Hissar (or
'upper fort), once an important stronghold, but
now abandoned. The city, which is composeil
almost entirely of mud-built buildings with Hat
roofs, is traversed by the main bazaar, the streets
of which diverge from the central square and divide
the city into four cjuarters. The Kabul bazaar
rivals that of Kandahar, and includes every variety
of trade. Carpets, camel-hair cloth, and skins are
perhaps the chief sjiecialities ; but there are now
many shops in which European goods can be
purchased, and Kabul is rapidly a.ssuming the
general character of an Indian mart. Roads have
been improved and wheel traffic introduceil, cnlti\a
tion has been much developed, and new buildings
abided which greatly improve the city. Comnnini-
ciition with India is now regular and constant,
there is a growing trade with central Asia, and
the Afglian policy of e.\chisivene.ss towards
strangers has been greatly modified. The canton-
ment of Sherpur, situated about a mile north of
the Bala His.sar, where the British troops were
beleaguered in 1880, is maintained in good repair.
Close to it are still to be traced Ihi! outlines of
the old British entrenchment of 184(1. At the
western extremity of the Benuira ridge, which
flanks Slier|iur oti the north, is the English
cemetery, now protected by a high wall ami kept
in fairly good order. Kabul is celelnated for its
fruit, its grapes and melons being especially
famou.s. The elevation of the plain above sea-
level is about (iO()0 feet, which ensures a delight-
ful temperature and fine climate iu summer, but
is sometimes severely cold in winter, when j-now
occasionally covers the ground to the depth nt
386
KABYLES
KAFFIRS
several feet, and cnminunicatioii is frequently
inlinruiiled. 'I'lie jKipnlatidn of llie oily proliably
iloos not exceed 7U,0UU, and it is eoMijjosed of
all the varied elements of Afghan nationality.
Duranis (or true Afghans), (Jliilzais, Hazaras,
Tajiks, and Ki/.zilliashes form the chief Mohani-
niedan ])art of the iiojiulation, whilst Hindus
are nuinerons in one quarter of the city, and a
few .lews are aUo to he found.
The Kaiu'L Kiveu rises at Sar-i-Chashnia, near
the source of the Ilelniund, flows through Kabul
city, and, mainly liy a long series of preeiintous
defiles, finally reaches the Indus at Attok. The
length of its course (generally south-easterly) is
about 270 miles, and for the most part its volume
is insiguilicant, altliougli it sometimes Hoods the
country about Naoshera.
Kabyles. a branch of the great Berber race of
Nortli Africa. See Ukiujehs ; also Al(ieri.\, and
TlNIS.
Uadink. an island nil' the S. coast of Alaska,
separated from the mainland by Alaska Strait. It
is mountainous and heavily wooded, contains good
harbours, and has an area of 34G.5 sq. ni. It is
inhabitecl by a tribe of Eskimos, engaged in the
s.almon-hshery, and has a pop. of 1500.
Kspiiipeviser. See Denmark (Literature).
Kaf, the mountain which in Mohammedan
logrnd surrounds the world.
Kaffn. or Feodosia, a seaport in the Russian
government of Taurida, on a bay on the east side
of the Crimea, 62 miles E. by N. of Simferopol.
It is defended by walls and a citadel, and con-
tains the ruined palace of the Khans of tlie Crimea
anil a Greek cathedral. Near by is an Armenian
monastery ( 1442 ). Soap and caviare, camel-hair
carpets, and shec|iskin rogs are manufactured ; and
here is the only oyster fishery in Russia. The
h.'irbour is safe an<l spacious, but there is com-
paratively little sliipping. Pop. (1S91) 10,7%.—
The ancient Tlieodosia or Feodosia was a ilourisli-
ing colony of the Milesians ; in the 1.3th century
the Genoese founded here a successful trade-depot,
which they called Kafi'a. It fell to the Turks in
147.5, anil to the Russians in 1792.
Kaffir Bread, a name ^civen to several South
African specii's of Encephalartos, which, like
many othei-s of their order (Cycadacea", q.v.), have
mucli starch in their stems, and atl'ord a kind of
sago and a not unnutritious bread.
Kaffir t'orii. See Duuha.
Kaffirs (also spelt Kafirs and Caffres), a
well-marked division of the Bantu family of
the Ni^gro race, inhabiting the districts now
known as Swaziland, Zululand, the South African
Republic, Orange Free State, Natal, the Cape
Colony dependency of Pondoland. (Jriqualand
East, Tembuland, and Transkei. Tliey embrace
two main divisions, the Zulus (q.v.) and the
Kallirs proper. Thi! word 'Kaftir' is a corrupt
form of the Arab ' ICafir,' meaning 'unbeliever,'
and was borrowed finm the .\frican Mohammedans
by the Portuguese, and from them by the Dutch
and English. The Kaflirs projier never at any
time formi'd one united race, out have always been
splil uj) inio a numlier of tribes, tlie most influen-
tial of^ which have been the Ama Temlm, tlie
.■\ma-Xos,'i, (ie|iresented by the (icalekas and the
(laikas), and the .\ma-M|iondo. Of these the first
named are the tribe of royal blood, though the
greatest jiower has always been in the hands of
the Gcalcka chief. 'I'he Kaffirs are a fine, stalwart
race of men, well made, muscular, and tall. Their
skin varies in colour from light brown to sepia
black. Tlie racial diaracteristics depart more and
more from the strict Negro tyjio the farther the
tribe lies to the south. Yet in all the nose is
broad, the lips thick, and the hair woolly ; but it
does not grow in tufts, as is generally asserted.
They are fond of decorating their jiersons with
beads, .shells, and featbeis, and they ]uotect their
skins from the sun by rubbing them with fat and
red clay, which makes them look like poli>hcd
bronze. The women, upon whom devolves the hard
labour of cult iv;iting the fields, are individually of
inferior physiipie to the men. The jirincipal article
of dress is a tanned ox-skin ; but for this many have
within recent years substituted a blanket. ' They
live in beehive-shaped huts, grouiied in kraals or
villages. These huts are formed of strong wicker-
work frames thatched with reeds and grass, the
largest about 25 feet in diameter and 7 or 8 feet
high in the centre. They are a pastoral peiqile,
the chief occupations of the men being stock-
breeding and hunting ; but in quite recent times the
cultivation of the soil has begun to extend amongst
them. The care of cattle is the most honourable
em]doyment, and belongs entirely to men. Tliey
formerly worked in both iron .ind rojiper, and were
not unskilful in pottery and wood woru. The prin.
cipal articles of food are milk, maize, and millet.
Youths are circumcised at fifteen or sixteen, living
thereafter for a couple of months by Iheniselvcs ;
the entrance into womanhood is marked by the
ntdii/iiiie, a dancing festival closing a. jieriod of
seclusion. They practise polygamy, but tlie wives
are not of equal rank, and cannot belong to the
same tribal name as the husliand. The custom
known as nkiililoiiijM prohibits females from jiro-
nouncing the names of any of their husband's male
relatives in the ascending line, or any words
whatever in which the princi]ial syllables of such
names occur — a usage which leads to the women
using different words from the men almost to the
extent of a diflerent dialect. The three clicks of
the Ama-Xosa, usually represented by the sujicr-
tluous letters, c, q, and .t, are easily sounded .sejiar-
ately by Europeans, but are insurniomitably difficult
to the adult in combination. The rcdigious in-
stinct has never been very stnmglj' ileveloped
amongst this peiqde, and their rites consist merely
in sacrifices to a]ipease the malignant spirits on
every hand. Their suiueme being, Qaniata, is
iniliU'erent toman, and is seldom invoked in prayer.
Snakes are treated with great respect, being
regarded as a favourite form assumed liy ancestral
s]iirits. The belief in witchcraft is deeply rooted,
and the witch-doctor is generally a person of great
iiilluence in the tribe. The original fine moral
ipialities of the Kallirs— hospitality, honesty, and
truthfulness — have been greatly contaminated
through contact with vicious Europeans. At the
same tinu^ Christian missions have made consider-
able progress, and the well-known unsectarian
mission settli'inent of Lovedale (o]icned 1S4I ), so
•'enerously supported by the Free Church of Scot-
land, with its oflshoot, lilytliswood, 120 miles
distant, in the Transkei, has already bnnight thou-
sands of natives within the range of its influence.
The Kallirs have ever been notable for their
bravery. In war they arm themselves with oxhide
shields, .about 5 feet long, wooden clubs with heavy
heads, .•mil assegai.s. Politically they are organised
in a number of tribes, each subject to a heredi-
tary chief, whose jiower is supreme. Yet one
chief was recognised as ]iaramount of all the tribes.
Piirtly owing to the war-loving proiiensities of
the Kallirs, and partly to their cattlelifting raids
and disputes with the cidonists about cattle, Kaffir
wars have been frequent. In 1780 the Great Fish
River was declared the boundary of Cajie Colony
to the east, but the Kaffir incursions became .--o
troublesome that in ISIO 11 they had to be driven
back beliiml the Fish River by force of arms.
KAFIRISTAN
KAKAPO
387
After ;i siiiiilav little war, nmlertakcii for a similar
reasiiii, in ISli), iluriii^ which the Kaliirs made an
unsuccessful attack upon Graham's Town, the
houuilary w;ls ailvaiiced eastwards to the Kat
Ki\er. But i)eace «;us constantly heinj; broken.
In 1,S34 the lirst of the <,'reater Kaliir wars broke
out, and lasted until the following' year. But,
although the enemy were repulsed and their
territories up to the Kei River annexed by the
colonial government, the annexation Wii-s not
raiilied bv the home authorities until tlie termina-
tion of tlie next war (1S46-4S). The coni|uereil
districts were called British Kallraria, and from
I8o.'5 to 1S6.3 formed a separate erowncolony ; but
in the last-ijuoted year British Kali'r.aria was incor-
porated in Cape Colony. The power of the chiefs
w;i.s nevertheless still unbroken : in ISoU the turbu-
lent Gaikas. who had waged most of the former
wars, in conjunction with the rest of the Ania-Xosa
and the Ania Tenibu tribes, and a large body of
revolte<l Hottentots, once more invailed the colony,
but after a struggle of nearly three years were
successfully driven back. In 1856 the frontier dis-
tricts were settled by the men of the Cierman
legion who had fought in the Crimea, neaily 2500
in number. The last war broke out in 1S77 : the
(icalekas took up arms, and were joined by the
(iaikas, and eventually the Zulus also entered the
fray (see Zl"LUS). The war ended in the over-
throw of the power of the Kaffir chiefs, and the
gradual incorporation of their territory in the Cape
Colony. By 1888 all Katt'raria up to the frontiers
of Natal, with the single excei)tion of East Pondo-
land--which, however, was a British protectoiate
— had been included within the bounds of the Cape
Colony.
The Ama-Fengus, or Fingoes, are the remnants
of broken Ivatiir tribes ; they are despised by the
organised Kaliir races, and but for the protection
of the British would probably be little better than
slaves to them. They have always been loyal to
their protectors, and live .scattered from Zululand
to Cape Colony.
See G. Fritsch, Die Eingeborenen Sud-Afritas (1872);
grammars of the Kaffir language by Bleek (1869) and
Colenso ( 1855 ) ; Cliase and WUmot's History of the Cape
of Good Hope \ 181)9) ; G. M'C'all Theal's Kaffir Folklore
[1882], and History of South Africa (1888) ; and G. de
Eialle, Les Peapks de I'Afriquc (lii!^).
Kaflristail, a mountainous region of Asia,
lying between the Kabul lUveron the south and the
Hindu Kush on the north-west ; its eastern and
western boundaries are formed by the Cliitral and
Hanjshir rivers respectively, feeders of the Kabul.
Area, about 50(X) sci. m. This region of wild, narrow,
winding glens ana impa-ssable mountains (11,000
to 17, (MX) feet) has been for centuries the la-st
stronghold of primitive Aryan heathenism against
the encroachments of Islam. It is on this account
that the inhabitants are called by their Moham-
medan neighbours Kafirs — i.e. 'unbelievers,' and
their countrv Kafiristan. These people, about
2<X),(XK) in all, although speaking ditl'erent dialects,
are ethnically of one race. But they <lo not form
a political unity ; the tribes into wliich they are
ilivided are often at war with one another. The
only points of union between them politically are
their hatred of the Mohammedans and their pas-
.sionate love of independence. This they have suc-
cessfully maintained at diH'erent times against such
great con<[ueror.-i as .Mahmud of Ghazni, Tinmr,
and Uaber. The mountaineers are fair in coni-
plexi<m, the women often handsome. Contrary
to the custom of orientals, they do not sit cross-
legj'ed on the ground, but sit on stools ; and they
shake hands like Englishmen. Their dress is
madi- of goatskin ami goat's hair. They are fond
of wine and dancing. ^'ultivaVde .soil exist.s only
in small patches alongside the torrents ; conse-
quently the people follow chieHy pastoral pursuits.
Since 1S9.V95 Kaliristau is recognised by Britain
as under Afghan control, and it is now garrisoneil
by the .Amir's troops.
See Leitner's Kafiristan (Lahore, 1831); Tanner in
Proc. R G. & ( 1881 ) ; M'Nair in same ( 1884 ) ; Kiddulph,
Tribes of the Hindu Kush (18S0) ; Sir G. Robertson, The
Kafirs of the Hindu Kush ( 1896 ).
KagOSlli'ma, a town of Japan, on a large bay
of tlie same name, at tlie soutli end of Kiu-siu
Island, with manufactures of pottery and porcelain,
arms, and cotton. Pop. (1896) .55,197. It was
bombaided by the British fleet in 1863.
Kaifteiir Fall. See Essequibo.
Kai-I'llUg, capital of the Chinese province of
Honan, near the southern bank of the Hoanijho,
where the great inundation occurred in 1887, long
the chief settlement of the Jews in China. .Among
its 100,000 inhabitants are many Mohammedans.
Kaihis. See Elloka, Indus.
Kaill. an old term in Scotch law, used to denote
rent paid in kind, as in the shape of poultry or
animals, to a landlord.
Kaillite, a hydrated compound of the chlorides
and sulpliates of magnesium and potassium, used
as a fertiliser. See Magnesiu.m, Maxvue.
Kaiiiozoie. See Cainozoic.
Kaira. capital of a district in northern Gujarat,
•20 miles SW. of Ahmedabad by rail. Pop. 12,640.
KairM'ail, a decayed walled town of Tunis,
in an open, marshy plain, 80 miles S. of the
capital. It contains about fifty ecclesiastical
structures, of which the mosque of Okba, who
founeled Kairwan abovit 670, is one of the most
sacred of Islam. Outside the city, to the north-
west, is the mosque of the Companion — i.e. of
the Prophet ; this and other sacred tombs have
rendered Kairwan — i.e. ' caravan or restin<'-jjlace' —
the Mecca or sacred city of northern Africa. As
such, it has been jealously guarded from detilenient
by the presence of Jews and for the most part
of Cliristian travellers ; but it was entered and
explored by the French in 1881. Kairwan makes
copper vessels, potash, carpets, and articles in
leather. Pop. 15,000. See E. Rae, Countnj of the
Moor.'i ( 1877 ) ; Boddy, To Kaincdn the Hobj ( 1885 ).
Kaisarieb. See C^sarea.
Kai.serslautern, or Lauterx, a town of the
Ba\arian Palatinate, 52 miles by rail SW. of
Worms, ha.s of late years developed into an
important manufacturing place. The cliief manu-
factures are tissues, yarn, sewing and other
machines, ultramarine, furniture, beer, bricks, &c. :
anil there are ironworks, steam-sawmills, aiwl rail-
wav shops. Pop. (1875) 22,699; (1890) 37,047.
Frederick T. built a castle here in 1152 (destroyed
by the French in 1713); and near by the Freiich
rejiublican armies were defeated in 1793 and 1794.
See Jost, Gesc/iichte Kaisershiiitcriis (1886).
Kaiserswcrtll, a Prussian town on the Khine,
10 miles below Dusseldoif, with 2400 inhabitants,
is the se.it of the ileaconesses house founded by
Pastor Flicdiier. See Deaconesses.
Kaiser Wilhelm's Land. See New
(illNKA.
Kaitlial. an ancient town in the Punjab,
India, 93 miles NNW. from Delhi. It is con-
nected traditionally with the monkey-god Hanu-
nian, and in called in Sanskrit Kiijiisthtdo, the
'abode of monkeys.' It has saltpetrerellneries,
and manufactures lac ornaments and toys. It
became British in 1843. Pop. 14,754.
Kakapu, or Owr. PAltuor {Utrinops habrop-
tilus), a remarkable bird, a native of New Zealand,
388
KAKODYLE
KALISZ
Kakapo
(Striffops habroptilus).
lieloiigiii',' to tlie Parrot family (Psittacidip),
Imt of verv owl like appearance, ami, like the
owls, nocturual, or
nearly so, concealing
itself in holes dur-
ing the day, except in
very gloomy weather.
The kakapo takes
possession of a hole,
where one exists,
among stones or the
roots of trees, hut
seems also to have
the power of making
a burrow for itself.
It li\es gregariously.
The Hesh of the kaka-
po is more pleasant
and delicate than that
of any other parrot.
It has disappeared
fi-om the northern
island of New Zea-
land, and it will prob-
alily soon be extinct,
unless means are
adopted for its pro-
tection. It is the
only Iviiown bird hav-
ing large wings which does not use them for llight.
Kakotlvle. See Cacodvle.
killahari Desert, a vast tract of country
lyin" between Great Namaqualand and Ltechuaiia-
land, in South Africa, extending from the Gariei>
or Oran"e Kiver northwards to 21° S. lat., or the
verge of the Ngami region, a distance of nearly 600
miles, with an average breadth of about 3o0 miles.
Although called a desert, it is not entirely sucli
as that name implies. The region is an elevated
basin, 3000 to 4000 feet high, with numerous de-
pressions, and bordered in most parts by a wide
belt of sandy waterless country. But the rainfall
in the interior is sufficient to nourish a fair amount
of vegetation. Many parts are thickly covered
with hi"h, thnrny bushes, which harbour large
quantities of game. The inhabitants, called Ba-
kalahari, keep cattle and grow corn, and live by
these and bv the chase. Wandering Bushmen are
also found in the 'desert.' See Farini, Aa-unt: the
Kttluliari Desert { 188(3).
Kalailiata, or K.\l.\ii.i?, a seaport in the Pelo-
ponnesus of tirec'ce, on the (4ulf of Koron, is the
seat of an archbishop. Its exports (currants, ligs,
olive-oil, and soap) have an annual value of .some
i'300,000 ; its imports, of £500,000. Pop. 7609.
Kalamazoo', caiutal of Kalamazoo county,
Michi.'an, is tinelv situated on the river of the
same name, 14+ nules by rail ENE. of Chicago
It is the seat of the state insane asylum and of
Kalamazoo College (Baptist). The city is the
meeting-place of three important railways, and
has some tiftv busy manufactories of machinery
pajier, Hour,* carriages, windmills, agricultural
tools, furniture, &c. Celeiy is grown_ in large
quantities near the town. Pop. (1890) 17,853.
Kallie, a town of Prussian Saxony, on the
Saale, 17 miles S. of Magilelmrg. It has manufac-
tures of textiles, paper, and sugar. Pop. SS50.
Kali', or BoiticcoLE. See tiREEN.s, Sea Kale.
Kaleidoscope (from Gr. J.-alot:, 'beautiful,"
eidii.i, 'image,' and skopco, 'I see'), an ojitical
instrument invented by Sir David Brewster in
1H17. It consists, in its sim]dest form, of a tube,
thriiugli whose whole length pass two mirrors or
rellecUng planes, which are hiug(^d together along
one edge, and make with each other an angle
which is an aliquot part of 180°, whilst the one
end is litted up with an eyeglass, and the other is
closed by two glasses, at a small distance from
each other, between which are placed little frag-
ments of glass or other \ariously-coloured objects.
The eye looking into the tube now perceives these
objects multi|die(l as many times as the angle
which the retiecting planes'make with each other
is contained in the whole circumference of a
circle, and always .symmetrically disposed; and
the slightest shaking of the instrument produces
new lit'ures. There are various modilications of
the kaleidoscope, by some of which its power is
much increased ; for example the nurrors may be
adjustable at various angles measured with respect
to a \ariably distant centre, so that arched jiatterns
may lie obtained ; and it is not only a ))leasing toy,
but is sometimes used by pattern-drawers and
others, to whom it supplies endless varieties of
figures.
Kalends. See Calends.
Kalevala. See Fikland.
Kalian, a Chinese town, 110 miles NW. of
Peking, built opposite the passage through the
Great Wall, is one of the chief emporiums of the
Chinese tea trade with Mongolia and Siberia,
some •21,500,000 lb. being exported from here
annually. Textiles and smoked provisions are
imported from Sil.ieria and Pussia. Pop. 70,000.
Kali. See Alkali.
Kali, an Indian goddess, the wife of Siva (q.v.).
K:ilid;isa, the greatest ilramatisl. and one of
the most celebrated poets of India. He is known
especially through his drama Sdl.uiitcila ('The
Lost Kiiig'), which, first introduced to the notice
of the western world by Sir William Jones (1789),
created so great a sensation throughout Europe.
A recent translation is Sir M. Williams' (5th ed.
1887). Another drama of the same poet, and next
in renown to Sdlaintala, is the Vilcramorvatii ('The
Hero and the Nymph'). Besides thc'^e works
Hindu tradition ascribes to his authorship a third
drama, Mdlavikdgnimitra ; two epics, the Haqhu-
ruma and the K mndra-smnhhdvd : the Mi;i/ia-t/tita
and other poems. But it seems incredible that
these are all by one author, dill'ering as they do m
style : and it lias been assumed that there were at
least three Kalidasas. The date of the author of
Sdkitntala is also extremely debateable : it was
in the reign of Vikranuiditya of U jjain. I5ut there
have been several sovereigns of Ujjain bearing the
name from 57 H.i-. to 1050 A.I). Most likely the
Vikram;iditya in question reigned 500-550 A.D.
Kalif. See Cai.ie.
Kalilali wa Itiiiiiiah. See Bidpai.
Kalilljar. a liill fortress and hill-shrine in the
North-western Provinces of India, stands on an
isolated rock (1230 feet high), the termination of
a spur of the Vindhya Mountains, overlooking the
plains of Bundelkliand. The records of the place
go back to a period of great antiquity, the name
Kalinjar occurring in the Miil(dbluinitii as that (it
a city even at that time fai]iou>. The wli(de rock
is th'ickly studded with ruins of ancient Hindu
edifices and other works, including gateways,
temples, tanks, caves, .statues, inscriptions, iVc.,
the most celebrateil <if all being the remains of the
superb temple of Nil Kantha Mahadeo.
Kalisz. the capital of a government (area,
4890 s.|. m. ; Jiop. in 1897, 846,334) of the same
name in I!u>>ian Poland, lies on the frontier river,
the Prosna, 132 miles WSW. of Warsaw, and has
manufactures of cloth. The Kn/isdi of Ptolemy,
it is one of the oldest t«wns of Poland ; in its
vicinity numeious relics of anticiuity have been
discovered, and many ancient burial-mounds exist.
KALMAR
KAMARAN
389
Pop. (1802) 18,804. Two battles have lieeii fought
here : on "iStth October ITOti King .\iigiistiis of
IViLmd routed the Sweiles, anil on 13th Keliruary
lsl.{ the Ivussians <lefeat«l the Frencli ami Saxons.
Here, too, \v.a.s signetl on 28th February 1813 the
treaty of alliance between Prussia and Russia.
Kniniar, a town and seajiort of Sweden, capital
of a l:ia or county (are.a, 4436 sq. m. ; ])op. 2.34,27.))
of the same name, is situateil on an island in
Kalm.ar Sound, opposite the island of t)land. Tlie
town, which was formerly strongly fortiliod, though
the fortilications are now in great part levelled, has
a good h.irl>our, a handsome cathedral, and a, fine
castle, in whicli, on 20th .July 1.397, the ' Union of
Kalinar' was signed, whicli settled the succession
to the three northern kingdoms upon Margaret of
Denmark and her heirs (.see Denmark). The
commerce of the town is considerable, and it has
manuf.acturesof matches, chicory, and lol)acco, and
some shipbuii.ling. Pop. (1895)12,030.
Knlniia, a genus of plants of the natural order
Erice:!'. consisting of evergreen slnubs, mostly
about two or three feet high, natives of North
America, with red. pink, or white flowers, generally
in corymbs. The flowers are very delicate and
be-autifnl, and the corolla is in the shape of a wide
ami shallow bell. Some of the species are frequent
ornaments of gardens in Britain. They delight in
a peat soil. A', /ntifo/in, the Mountain Laurel, or
Calico Bush, occupies large tracts on the Alleghany
Mountains. It grows to the height of ten feet, and
the wooil is very hard. It is narcotic and danger-
ous : the leaves are poisonous to many animals.
and the honey of the flowers possesses noxious pro-
perties. A decoction of the leaves has been used
>vith advantage in cutaneous diseases, but taken
intem.ally it is fatal. A decoction of the leaves of
K. anf/ustifolia is used by the negroes of North
Carolina, of which state the plant is a native, as a
wash for ulcerations between the toes.
Kalnincks« a Mongolian race of people, scat-
tereil throughout central Asia, ami extending
westw.ards into southern Russia. The name is not
employed bj- the people themselves, but by the
Turkic races of Asia and tlie Russians to designate
the Diirbim (Derbend) Oirad or Four Allied tribes
of the Zungars, Torgod (Iveraits or Eleuths),
Khoshod, and Dorbiiil, who live in Zungaria ;
around Koko-nor in north-east Tibet ; in the dis-
trict called Ordus, within the gre.at loop of the
Yellow River of China ; on the svestern slopes of
the Altai (in Kuldja, &c.); and in the steppes
lietween the Don and the Volga an<l Ca.spian.
These tril>es constitute tliat great division of the
Mongol race known as Western Mongols. They
are nomads, possessing lar^e herds of horses, cattle,
and sheep. Their physical characteristics are those
Fecniiar to the ilongolian r.ice (see Mongols).
n religion they are nearly all adherents of Lama-
ism. Their language ditters from true or E,xstern
Mongolian only in being more phonetic ; but they
have .an alphabet of their own. Tlieir literature
consists principally of religious books and folk and
fairy tales. In recent centuries the most note-
worthy events in their history arose out of the
emigration of a large banrl of the Torgod from
Zungaria into Russia in l(i.')0. This band wa.s
followed Viy others composed r)f Diirhiid in 1673 ami
of Klioshoil in 1675. I'nder Ayuk.'i Klian(1670-
1724) the Kalmucks figiired as ,an important factor
in Russian politics, sometimes as enemies, some-
times ,as allies. But in 1771 a large bo<ly of them,
chiefly Torgod and Khoshod, being dissatlslieil with
the treatment they received at the h.inds of Russia,
returned to the empire of China ; after a march in
which they endured terrible suirerings, they settled
at Hi among the Altai Mountains. See the
brilliant account of the miseries of this march by
De Quincey (vol. vii. of Colleiled ]\'(>rh:<:). But
there still remain some 110,000 Kalmucks in
European Russia; in Asiatic Russia there are
jirobaldy ,55,000 more. The number within the
Chinese empire is not known.
Specimens of Kalmuck fairy talcs can lie read in Jiilg's
edition of the Siildhi-Kur (18(if>) and in vol. i. of
Bergmann's Nomadische Streifereien unter den Kal-
miihn (1804).
Kallia. or CVLN.V, a town of Bengal, 47 miles
N. of Calcutta and 28 E. of Bardwan, on the
Bhagirathi (Hooghly). The town contains numer-
ous temjjles, and is a station of the Free Church
(Scotliind) Mission. It does a large amount of
tratle by river, chiefly in rice and other natural
products. Tlie population li.as decreased from
27,3.36 in 1871 to almut 11,0IX).
Kalocsa, a town of Hungarj-, near the left
bank of tlie Danube, 86 miles S. from Budapest by
rail. It is the seat of an archbishop (bislmp's see
from 1000 to 1135), and has a cathedral, an arch-
bishop's palace ( with a library ), some monasteries,
and an observatory. The inhaliitants grow flax,
wine, &c. Pop. ( 1881) 15,789 ; ( 1891 ) 18,167.
Kaloiis:. See B.\T.
Kalj[>i, a town in the North-western Provinces
of India, stands among rugged ravines near the
bank of the Jumna, .50 miles SW. of Cawnpore. It
figured prominently in the wars waged against the
Mogul empire, came definitively into British hands
in 1806, and w.os one of the principal agencies of the
Ea-st India Comp.anv. Here on 23d May 1858 Sir
Hugh Rose ilefeated 12,000 of the rebels. The
town is mean in aimearance, the houses being
chiefly mud liuts. The population is decreasing —
18,514 in 1865; 12,713 in 1891. They manuf.acture
sugar-candy and paper, .and export giain, cotton,
&c. to Cawnpore and to Calcutta.
Kalnga, chief town of the Russian government
of Kaluga, 70 miles by rail NW. of Tula and
188 SSW. from Moscow. Situated in the centre
of the empire and on the naviga1)le river Oka, it
carries on an extensive trade, especially in corn.
It manufactures leather, oil, bast mats, tallow,
canities, iS:c. ; but its speciality is ' Kaluga cakes,'
sold throughout Russia to the extent of more than
£100,000 annually. Pop. (1896) 40,252. Kaluga
has often been a place of lianishment for poli-
tical ott'enders, among others of Sliamyl, the
Circa.s.sian chief. Area of government, 11,942 sq.
ni. : pop. ( ls!)7) 1,178,8.3.x The surface is fl.-it ; the
soil sand}', clayey, and only moderately fertile ; iron
ore is >\orked.
Kama, the principiil attiuent of the Volga, rises
in the Russian government of \'yatka, .ami after <an
almost circular coui-se (north-west by east and son tli-
e.ast to south-west ) of 10.30 miles joins the Volga from
the left 43 miles below the town of Kazan. Its
chief tributaries are the Vyatka, the Tchussovaya,
and the Bielaya, all navig.able. The Kama is navi-
gable from Perm, a distance of 9.30 miles. Area of
drainage liasin, 177, .560 sq. m. The river is free of
ice about 200 clays in the year, and constitutes one
of the most important highw.ays of communication
between Siberia and Nijni Novgorod and St I'eters-
burg.
Ksima. or KAmadeva, the Hindu god of Love.
In later Sanskrit poetry, he is the favourite tlieme
of descriptions and allusions; and mythology exalts
his power so much that it allows even the gwl
Brahmft to succumb to it. .Acconling to some
Pnr.'in.as, he was originally a son of BraliniA.
Kailia'rail. a little island in the Reil Sea, on
the Araliian side, nearly opposite Mn.ssowali, with
an area of 102 sq. in., and inhabited by a few fisher-
.
390
KAMCHATKA
KANAUJ
men. The island was annexed liy Britain in ISJS,
■\vliili' the teleyrapli cal>le was lifinj; hiid tci IJonihay.
Killlicliatkil ((•I'r. Ktdiil.-irhidl.d), a peninsula
of eastern Siberia, stretches south into tlie I'aeilic
between I'.ehrinj; Sea on the east and the Sea of
Okhotsk on the west. Area, 4(55,590 .sf|. ni. The
peninsula is Ion;,' and narrow, swelling out towards
the middle, and terminating in a point only 7 miles
distant from the northernmo.stof the Kurile Islands.
A chain of volcanic mountains runs down the
centre, and reaches 15,408 feet in Kojerevska and
1G,!IS8 in Kluchefskaya. The latter was in active
eruption at least twice in the 19th century ( 1854 and
1885 ). Hot springs al)ound. The coast on the south-
east is formed of rugged, precipitous clitls. The
principal river is the Kamcliatka, which Hows into
the I'aeilic. The climate is colder than in corre-
sponding latitudes in Europe, and very humid :
grass and tree \egetation are consequently lu.xu-
riant. The principal occupations of the inhabitants
ai'e fishing and hunting. Fum are the most valu-
able ]iroduction of the peninsula. The most useful
domestic animal is a peculiar kind of dog, which is
emidoyed in hunting and sledj^ing. Kamchatka was
annexed to Russia at the end of the ITtli century,
after the expedition of the Cos.sack chief AtUisuf.
Pop. 6500, made up of Kamcliadales, Koryaks,
Lamuts, and a few Russians. The Kamcliadales —
the ])rei)onderating race (2000 in number) — live
mostly in the scuith. They are a hardy people,
who dwell in winter in earth pits and in sumnuu- in
light huts. Their language has no known cognates :
hut they are now ahnost completely Russianised.
The fort of Petropaulovsk (pop. 350), with a magni-
ficent harbour that is covered with ice only during
a brief period of the year, is picturesquely situated
on the east coast. A British and French fleet
made an unsuccessful attack upon the place in
1854 ; since then it has not been fortified. See
Keniian, Tfnl Life in Siberia (5tli ed. New York,
1879); and Guillemard, Cniise of the Marchesa
(2 vols. Ijond. 1887).
Kaiiieiiet/>-Podolsk( Polish A"((/H/f «/«_•), capi-
tal of the Ru.ssiau government of Podolia, is pic-
turesquely situated near the frontier of Austrian
Galicia, on a steep rock al)ove the river Smotritza.
an affluent of the Dniester. 243 miles NW. of
Odessa and 40 NE. of Czernowitz. There are a
Roman Catholic cathedral ( 1361 ), a Greek cathedral
(16lh century), and an Armenian and several otiier
churches. The town was destroved bv the Mongol
chief Batu in 1240; taken by the Turks in 1672;
returned to the Poles in 1699 ; and annexed by
Rus>ia in 1795. Previous to the partition of Poland
Kamenetz was one of the stroniiest liulwarks of
that couiitrv .-igainst the Turks. Pop. (1871)
22,611 ; (1897) 34,483, one-half .lew.s.
KilllH'IIZ. a small manufacturing town of
Saxony, 22 miles NE. of l)r(^sden by rail. It was
the birthplace of Lessing. Poi'. 7211.
Kitlllt'S, the name given by geologists to banks
and riilgcs of gravel, sanil, I'v.c. associated with the
glacial deposits of Scotland. See AsAR.
KilllK's, IlH.xl;^ Home, Lorij, a Scotch pliilo-
sojiher, was born in Berwickshire in 1696, cdled to
the bar in 1723, ami by his merits fought his way
upwards to a leading iiosition there, bi'iiig raised
to the bench as Lord Kames in 1752, and maile
lord of justiciary in 1763. He divided his energies
between law and philosophy, and was no less noted
for his .amiability, his conversational powers, his
Siblic spirit, and his agricultnr.-il enterprise at
lair-Drummimd in Perthshire, He died at K<lin-
burgh, 27th December 1782. Besides books on
Scotch law he published a series of W(uks more
ingenious and interesting than well written :
Essays on the J'rinciples of Morality and Natural
IicUffiiiii (1751), a defence of the doctrine of innate
ideas at the expense of the freedom of the will ;
All Iiitrmliirtioii to the Art uf ThiiiLiiiri (1761 ), and
E/emciit.s- of Criticiifiii (nH2), two works much less
satisfactory than ingenious ; and ISlctchci of the
History of Man (1774), a miscellaneous and curious
collection of .speculations on all manner of subjects.
KilllllM'll, a town of Holland, situate<l near the
mouth of the ^'ssel, 5A miles by rail NW. of
Zwolle. It wa.s formerly a Hanse town and had a
considerable trade, which gradually left it as the
immth of the Yssel sanded up. But since the
middle of the 19th century the river apinoaches
have been improved, and the trade of the town is
reviving. The church of St Nicholas is one of the
linest medieval churches in the countrv. I'op.
( 1840) 7760 ; ( 1876) 16,454 : ( 1889) 18,767," who are
engaged in shipbuilding, commerce, tishing, and
toiiacco manufacture. Kanipen is the tlotliam of
the Dutch.
Ki'illinrei*. Engelbert, German traveller, was
Ixirn at Lemgo, in Lip)ie, on 16th September 1651,
studied medicine at Kiiuigsberg, and travelleil
(1683-94) in India, Java, Siani, and Japan, during
which time he s|ient two years (1692-94) in the
last-named country. He died cm 2d November 1716.
He published Aiiwnitates E.tutieee ( 1712), an<l after
his death appeared his History of Japan and Sitini
(Lond. 2 vols. 1727). Most of his writings exist iu
MS. in the British Museum.
ksilliplllliroil. See Fl.ooRCL<riii.
Kniiiscliiitka. See K.\MfHATK.\.
Knilltlli. or Kampti, a town and cantonment
of the Central Provinces, India, lying 9 miles NE.
by rail from Nagpiir, on the Kanhan River, here
crossed by a fine stone bridge, has a trade in grain,
timber, cattle, .salt, and j)iece-goods. Pop. (1881)
50,987; (1891) 43,1.59. The town d.ates from the
est.ablishment of the cantonment in 1821.
KaiiauHM-a. See Yokohama.
Kanakas. See Cooliks.
Kaiiara, Noi;th, a coast district of Bombay,
the most southerly in the Koiikaii ((|.v. ), lies
south-east of (loa, .and has an areaof 3911 s(|. m.;
pop. ( 1891 ) 446,351, mostly Hindus, speaking Kana-
rese (see INDIA, p. 103). For the most part it is a
wild forest-country. — Softii Kanaka, ii ediately
south of North Kanara, belongs to Madras, lis
area is .3902 scp m.; jiop. ( 1891 ) 1,056,051, overfour-
fifths Hindus. This district also contains a great
extent of forest-land, ami numerous wilil animals.
The ctipit.al is Mangaloie. Both North and Soulli
Kanara are partly occupied by the Western (Jhiits,
contain numerous rivers, and have a heavy raintall.
In lioth. also, malaria is very prevalent, especially
during the monsoon.
Kaiiai'is, Con.stantini-:, a hero of the Grei'k
w;n of inilelpcnilence, was born in the Isle of Ipsara
in 17,85, am! was iiiiister of a small merchant-ve.ssel
before the commencement of the war. In 1822 lie
blew up tlie Turkish admiral's shi|> in the Strait of
Chios, and later in the same year repeated his feat
in the harb(mr of T<'ncdos. In August 1824 he
aveiige(l the nivaging of Ipsara by burning a large
Turkish frigate and some trausjiort-shiiis whicli
wiTc carrying troops to Samos, and next year was
only prevented from burning the Egyjitiaii lleet in
the harbour of Alexamlria by an unfavmiiable wind
springing up. He was appointed to important
commands by the Greek president. Capo d'Istria.s,
was made senator in IS47. and was minister of
marine (1854 .55). He look part in the n'volutioli
of lsti2. and held ollice ri'peatedlv under the new
king. He died 15tli September 1,S77.
KaiiailK one of the gieat legendary centres of
Arvan civili-satioii iu India, to which the HinduLsm
KANAWHA
KANGAROO
391
of Lower I!eiij;iil attributes its ori^'iii, stood orifrin-
ally on the Uaiijjes, Co miles N\V. of Liickiiow. 1
At ineseut the site consists of a vast iimnlier of
ruins, extemlin;,' over the area of live villaj;es,
aliout 4 miles from the Gant^es, the river liavinj;
sliiiUtly altered its hed. The most remarkable
bnlldinjp are Mohammedan mausoleums. Its most
prosperous era was the 6th century ; early in the
lUh it fell before the sultans of Gluuui. Among
the ruins there is a modern town of some 17,000
iuhaliitauts.
Kanawha. Sec Charleston, fJitEAT Kana-
wha.
kaiiazawa, a town of Japan, on the west
.iiast of the main island, NW. from Tokyo, manu-
iMiiuri's porcelain and silk. Pop. ( ISUti) 8S,S"7.
Kaiu-hiiijaiiga. See Kinchixjinoa.
Kailllabar, or Candahar, the capital of
central or southern Afghanistau, situated about
•2(Hl miles to the SM'. of Kabul. It stands in 32'
37' N. lat. and 66" 20' E. long., 3484 feet above the
level of the sea. It is in the form of an oblong
square, while all its streets ran straight, and cut
one another at right anj;les. At the point of inter-
section of the two main streets there is a large
dome ( C/iar^ii ), 50 yards in diameter. Pop. vari-
ously estimated froni 25,000 to 100,000. Kandahar
is well watered by two canals drawn from a neigh-
bouring river, which send to almost every street its
own adequate supply ; and the same means of
irrigation have covered the immediate vicinity with
gardens and orchards. Kandahar is a place of
great commerce, trading with Bombay, Herat,
Bokhara, and Samarcand. Among its permanent
residents Kandahar ha-s a larger proportion of
Afghans, cliiefly of the Durani tribe, than any
other city of Afghanistan. There are numerous
Hindu, Tajik, and Persian merchants. About 2
miles to tlie northward rises a precipitous rock,
crowned by a fortress impregnable to everything
but heavy artillery. Here, amid all the disasters
of the war iu 1839^1, the British maintained their
ground under Bawliuson. Kandahar has been a
pivot for the history of that part of Asia during
more than 2000 yeai-s. It is supposed to have been
founded by Ale.xander the Great, although the
nauie is Pei'sian. A comparative lilank of upwards
of thirteen centuries in tlie history reaches to the
famous Mahmud of Ghazni, who wrested the .strong-
hold from the Afghans. From that epoch down to
1747, when the native rule was permanently estab-
lishe<l, Kandahar, with brief and precarious inter-
vals of independence, was' held by Genghis Khan,
Tamerlane, and by various rulers of Tartary, India,
and Persia in turn. In the war of 1878-80 the
IJritisli entered Kandahar unopjiosed, and they
held the city till 1881, some months after they had
evacuated the rest of Afghanistan ((|.v. ). Through
its being touched by the Sibi-Pishiu Railway (1891 )
on the south, Kandahar luvs greatly increased in
political as well as iu commercial importance.
Kandavil. one of the Fiji Islands (q.v.).
Kandy. an iidand town of Ceylon, on a beauti-
ful little lake among the mountains, 74 miles by
rail Nli. of Colombo. It is 1CG5 feet above the sea,
and has a mean annual temperature of 70" I". Here
are ruins of the jialace of the former nati^e kings,
ami a temple in which a reputed tooth of Buddha's
is jealously preserved (see CeyloN'). Pop. (1881)
22,026; (1891) 20,252.
Kane. Ef.isllA Kknt, an Arctic exidorer, was
boni in Philailelphia, I'nited States, 3il February
1820, graduateil in medicine at the university of
Pennsvlvaiua iu 1842, and entered the navy as a
surgeon, in which eajiacity he visited China, the
Ea.st Indies, .Arabia, Egypt, and western Europe,
subse()uently the west coast of Africa and Mexico ;
in this last country he did duty on the coast
survey. In May 1850 he commenced his career of
.Vrctic discovery as surgeon, naturalist, and his-
torian to the lirst Grinnell expedition. His account
of it appeared at New York in 1854, entitled T/ic
United Sffilcn Grinnell Expedition. In the spring
of 1853 he again set out, this time as commander
of an expedition ; the results of it are fully detailed
in his Sicontl Grinnell E.rpei/iliun in iSearcli of Sir
Jo/in Fran LI in (2 vols. Phila. 1856). He died at
Havana, where he had gone for his health's sake, on
February 16, 1857. See Life by W. Elder ( Phila.
1858), and the briefer one by M. Jones (Lond.
1890).
Kane. Sir Kobert, chemist, was bom iu
Dulilin, 24111 September 1809. He was educated for
the medical profession, in IS.'Vi was received as a
member of tlie Royal Iri.sli Academy, and in the
same year projected x\ie Dublin Journal of Mediedl
Seienee, which, at first confined to chemistry and
pharmacy, w;is afterwards extended to include
practical medicine. In 1840 he received the gold
medal of the Royal Society of London for his
researches into the colouring matter of lichens, and
in 1847 the Cunningham Gold Medal of the Royal
Irish Academy for his discoveries in chemistry.
From 1834 tiiri847 Kane was in-ofessor of Natural
Philosopliy to the Royal Duldin Society. In 1846
he originated the Museum of Industry in Ireland,
was appointed its first director, and the same year
received from the Lord-lieutenant the honour of
knighthood. He held for a number of years the
office of president of the Queen's College, Cork,
which he resigned in 1873, together with the
directorship of the museum. In 1877 ho W!vs
elected president of the Royal Irish Academy, and
he died 16th February 1890. His chief books are
Elements of C/iernistr}/ (1842) and Industrial Re-
sources of Ireland ( 1844).
Kangaroo {Marropus), a genus of marsupial
quadrupeils, of which there are many species, almost
all Australian, although a few are found iu New
(iiiiuea and neighbouring islands. The genus, lU*-
now restricted, contains, according to the most reli-
able estimate, twenty-three sjiecies. The kangaroos
are of ditt'erent sizes ; some of the Wallabies, which
%
■V^
The Great Kangaroo ( Macropuf giijanteua ).
really belong to the same "enus, being comparatively
small, while the Great Kangaroo \M. ifii/anleus]
attains a length of 8 feet, counting the long tail.
392
KANGAROO APPLE
KANSAS
They .ire pntiiely hcilnvorons — mainly grass feeders
—ami tlie twu lower iiu-isors, wliicli are elongated,
play upon each other like the blades of scissors and
croi) the grass. The tail is very thick and strong.
and the animal uses it as a third leg when moving
slowly. The hind-legs are very strong, while the
forelimhs are short. They are very jiowerfnl
animals, and the hind limb forms a very efVcctnal
weapon for ri])ping oi>en the bodies of dogs, with
the aid of which they are sometimes hunted. They
make enormous hounds, and get over the ground
very swiftly and gracefully. Some kangaroos can
jump a fence 1 1 feet higli ; most can jump one of
9 feet. In the districts where they are still numer-
ous, they are fornuilable consumers of pasture ;
two kangaroos eat .as much grass .as three shee|i.
They are treated as verujin, being hunted, shot,
poisoned, or killed liy means of extensive battnes —
'yarding' or 'driving' — when parties of horsemen
chase them into enclosures and kill them there,
many hundreds at a time. The skin is valuable
for leather, both for shoes and gloves. The llesh
is good eating, the tail being a delicacy, and pro-
ducing excellent souji. The great kangaroo was
discovered in 1770 on the coast of New South
Wales during Cook's first voyage. One of the
most remarkable types of kangaroo is the Tree
Ka.ng!ivoo {Dent/rohir/iis), in which the hind-limbs
have become proportionately shorter in accord-
ance with its arboreal life. The kangaroos and
Wallabies Ijreed freely in the Zoological Gardens
at Ijondon, and the young, as in all Marsupials
(q.v. ), are born in a very imperfect condition.
They remain within the pouch of the mother, or
retreat there in case of danger, long after they
have ceased to be nourished by the matern.al milk.
Kangaroo Al>l>le, a species of Solanum ((|.v.)
{S. laciniutiini), with a somewhat shrubby succu-
lent stem, smooth iiinnatilid or entire leaves, and
lateral r.acenies of Howers ; .a n.ative of Peru, New
Zealand, Austr.alia, .and T.asmania, in which latter
countries its fruit is called kang.aroo a])ide, and is
used a.s food. When unripe, it is acritl, .and pro-
duces a burning sensation in the throat ; but when
perfectly ripe, it is wholesome.
HailSaroo HviiSS (Anihistiria aiisfrah'.'i). the
most esteemed fodder-grass of Austr.alia. It grows
to a height much above that of the fodder-grasses
of liritain, afi"ords abundant herb.age, and is much
relished by cattle. Tlio genus is .allieil to Anilro-
l>ogon, and has clusters of llowers with an invcducre.
The awns .are very long and twisted, both in the
kangaroo grass and in a nearly allied species, A.
ciliafa, which is one of the most esteemed fodder-
grasses of India.
KailSfaroo I.slaild, an island of South
Australia, at the mouth of the ( iulf of St Vincent
(see map at .\I1KI,AII)K), is S7 miles by 34 broad,
with a line climate, poor and sandy soil, and 379
inhaliitants — all white.
Kailizsa. the name of two towns in Hungary.
(1) Nagy (or Cireat) Kani/sa, l.Sti miles by rail
SW. of iiudapest, ha-s an .active tr.ade in agricul-
tural products, and manufactures bricks, beer,
and spirits. Pop. 18,47.3. — (2) Old K.anizsa
(-Kanizsa) stan<ls on the Theiss, 15 miles SSW.
of S/egeilin. It grows corn .and tobacco, and rears
cattle and shee|i. I'op. l.ijOtiO.
Kaiio'. capit.al of a province of the s.ame name,
in the Negro state of Sokoto, Central .-\fiica, stands
in the middle of the country, about '2.")0 nules SSE.
of the city of Sokoto. The province, estim.atod
to contain .')00,()0() iidi.abitants, has from its beauty
and wealth been called the 'flarden of Central
Africa.' The wall which surrounds the town of
Kano Is ]') miles in ciicuit ; but the w.all embraces,
besides houses, gardens and cultivateil fields. The
place is the chief town of the Haussa (q.v.) race.
Pop. (according to I'lobinson ) in 1S96, IDU.OOO.
Kansas, the centr.al state of the American
I'nion, and the eighth in area, is hounded N. hy
Nebr.aska, K. by Alissouri, S. by copyrigiit ipw in i-.a.
Indian Territory, and W. by by j. b. i.ippincott
Colorado. It is about 400 mile's comi«i,y.
from e.ast to west, aiul 200 fiom north to south,
and cont.ains .an area of S2,0S0 sc|. m. The surface
is for the most jiart .a rolling prairie, rising in the
northwest to between 3000 and 4000 feet. Along
the eastern boundary the average elev.atiiui is 800
feet, and the rise is so gradual as to be impercep-
tible ; there are no mountains in the state. The
bottoms .along the Larger streams .are commonly
called v.alleys, and v.ary from J mile to .1 miles in
width ; in eastern Kansas they are ileeply de-
pressed, and .are skirted by bold blutfs rising to .300
teet, Init in the west the line between valley and
upland can hardly he distinguished. Kansas has
no uiivigable river except the Missouri, which
forms a portion of its eastern bmindary. The
Kansas or K.aw drains nearly h.alf the st.ate, and
the Arkansas drains another large portion ; the
Neosho .and M.arais des Cygncs furnish the
water system of south-eastern Kans.as. The
Larger streams, as the K.ansas and Ark.ans.as, .are
rivers of the plains, with light banks and sandy
bottoms ; but many of the smaller rivers have
rock bottoms, .and supply .abundant w.ater-power.
The timber of the state is found in ,a narrow belt
.along the watercourses, princijially in the east.
Kansas has .a climate subject to extremes of
temperature, but neither excessive cold ncu' he.at
prev.ails for long jieriods. There is .a gre.at pro-
])ortion of bright, clear weather in all seasons of
the year. While .a record of 106° F. above zero
h.as been observed, cases of f.at.al sunstr(d<e are
unknown, .and men pursue their ordin.ary outdoor
avocations with scarcely an interruption through-
out the year. The mercury rarely falls below
zero, and in many seasons the farmers [ilough
during every month of winter. The mean annual
lainfall is 37'10 inches ; hut in the west the sujiply
is nsuch Tuore .scanty, and in the u]iper Ark.an.sas
valley irrigation by means of ditches has been
introduced. The average annual tempeiature is
53° F.
The minerals of K.ans.as include lead and zinc
in abund.ance in the .south-east; coal of excellent
(|\iality, the coal Held occujiying all the eastern
portion of the state ; lignite in the west ; immen.se
l)eds of rock-salt ; and mineral paint, gj'psum,
good building-stones, brick cl.ay, .and material for
hvdraulic cement. The output of coal in the vcar
ISOO was 2^ million tons, of lead 50UU tons, and of
zinc 20,000 tons.
Kansas is .an agricultural .and pastor.al st.ate.
The soil throughonl is uniformly fertile, but there
is a considerable diireren(!e ill actual productive-
ness owing to the dillerence in the rainfall. The
area under wheat, maize, and oats is omt 10,000,000
.acres (1895). The annual iirodiiceof wheat maybe
set down as upwards of 70,000,000 bush(ds, of maize
nearly 1.50,000 bushels, of oats 4.5,000,000 bushels,
besides rye, barley, buckwheat, llax, potatoes,
bean.s, peas, sorghum (foi- sugar), and tobacco. (Jre.at
rjuantities of prairie h. ay are cut on the still un-
cultiv.ated jinihie lands. The state is especially
suitable for cattle raising, large stocks of cattle
and swine (.as well ;us horses, .sheep, &c.) are kept,
and iiieat-iia(d<ing is .a great industry in Kansas
City. Creameries are numerous, and more and
more attention is given to the r.aising of blooilcd
stock. Forestry al.so has engiiged (he attention
of the farmers, and thous.uids of acres of pl.anted
timber now break the surf.ace of the prairie.
The manufacturing industries are chiellv lliosc
KANSAS
KANT
393
connecteil with atrriculture ami stock-raisinc:. Of
these tlie most iinportaiit is liecf ami iiork parkin;,',
the iinnci]ial pstalilishments bein;: at Kansius City.
The tlouiin^inills are next in importance, ami
then the fonmlries, and the manufacture of stoves
and agricultural implements. The building of
railways be^an in Kansas in ISfiO; in 1890 every
county in the state save five had one or more lines,
their total length exceeding SSdO miles.
Kansas is ilivided into 106 counties, and sends
two senators and seven representatives to congress.
State otlicers ami menihei-s of the legislature are
elected every two years. The marked features of
the constitution are the liberal Homestead (q.v.)
exemption ; the privileges of married women, who
may carry on Inisiness and ludd jiroperty as if
single ; the sufTrage provisions, which allow women
to vote at school and municipal elections ; .and the
prohibitory st.atute whicli forldds the manufacture
or sale in K.ansas of intoxicating liquoi-s for other
than medicinal or mechanical purposes. There
are insane asylums at Topeka and (Jsawatoniie, a
hoys' reformatory at Topek.i, an asylum for the
blind at Kansas" City, a Sohliers' Orphans' Home
at Atchison, an institution for the education of
the deaf and ilumb at Olathe, and an a-sylum for
idiotic and imbecile youths at Winfield ; and the
state in 18S9 adopted also the industrial school for
girls at Heloit. In e.ach township two sections
(1280 acres) have been given to the common
schools, and the sale of these lands forms the
ba.sis of the perm.anent school fund, which amotints
to about S5.(X)0,000. The annual expenditure
is also about S5,000,000. In 1890 there were
12,1.5'2 teachers, instnicting 389. .570 children in the
elementary schools, besides 218 teachers in 16
secondary schools, with 3950 pupils. The state also
maintains a university at Lawrence, which had
542 students in 1890 ; an agricultural college at
Manhattan (.514 students): and a normal school
at Emporia (1120 students). There are also a
number of denominational and other colleges in
the state. Co-education prevails, with hardly an
exception.
History. — Kansas when fii-st known to white
explorers was occupied by several tribes of Indians,
from one of which, the Kaw or Kansa-s Indians, the
river and the state derive their names. The state,
save a small fraction, was acquired in the Louisiana
purchase, and was organisecl as a territory by the
passage of the Kansas- Nebr.aska Act in 1854. The
act provided that the question oF the existence of
slavery as a permanent institution in the territory
should be decided by its people. Kansas at once
became the battle-ground l>ptwpen the partisans of
slavery and freedom. Large p.arties from the bor-
dering slave-state of Missouri repeatedly invaded
the territory ; and armed colonists from South
Carolina and other southern states came to take
possession. These were met by immigrants from
the northern states. Both parties started towns
and settlements. Elections were attempted, but
resulted in the seizure of the polls by the pro-
slavery party and the refusal of the Free State
party to abiile by the declared results. Collisions
necame numerous, and robberies and murders were
committed. The Federal .adniinistration sided with
the pro-slavery party, anil used the government of
the territory' and the United States troops against
the Free State party. John Brown (q.v.) took
part in the civil war which prev.ailed, and many
lights that were almost battles took place. The
Free State party was steailily reinforced from the
north, and by the year 1857 seemed everywhere
in the .ascendant : but as late as May 18.58 occurred
what is known in Kansas history a.s the ' Marais
lies Cygnes massacre,' in which six Free State
settlers were killed and four badly wounded by a
party from Missouri. After several futile endeav-
oui's to organise, however, the A\'vandotte con-
stitution was linally adopted in 18.59, and on the
29th of January 1861 Kansas was admitted .as a
state of the I'nion. The civil war immediately
followed. Out of a pojjulation of 100,000 Kansas
sent 20.000 soldiei's to the field. Kansas snflered
greatly throughout the war, but the building of
railroads, begun during its continuance, was jmshed
with energy at its close ; immigration poured in on
a scale before unknown in America, and the career
of the state has since been one of almost unin-
teiTupted prosperity. The population of Kansas
ill 1860 was 107.206"; in 1890 it was 1,427,096. The
jiopulation of the |)rincipal cities in 189(1 was :
Kansas City, .^8.316 : Topeka, the capital, .SI. 0117:
AVichita, 23,8.5:i (.as compared with 4911 in 1880);
with Leavenworth, Atchison, and Fort Scott below
20,000 .and above 10,000.
Kansas City, the second city of Missouri, and
one of the gieat" towns of the west, is situated on
the south bank of the Missouri (here crossed by a
line railw.ay bridge), where the river makes a sharp
bend to tlie east, 283 miles by rail W. by N. of
St Louis. The notable part of the city is built
upon a series of steep hills, but the site has been
greatly improved by grading. Large sums have
lieen spent in laying sewers and water and gas
pipes ; and cable-tramways extend in all direc-
tions, the lines having a total length of at least
.35 miles. The state frontier-line bounds the city
on the west, and consequently a large sulmrb on
this .side, also called Kansas City, is in the adjoin-
ing state of Kansas. This suburb, connected with
K.ansas City by a remarkable elevated railway,
has a population of some 40,000, and contains
great stock yards and pork-packing establishments,
'riie larger Missouri town possesses numerous line
streets, and handsome residences on the hills.
Its public buildings include many well-designed
churches, a fine United States court-house, the
imposing building of the Board of Trade, and
several hos)iitals ; there are two medical colleges
here, and about thirty public schools. The city
is the terminus of a number of important railways,
and is a princip.al distrilmting centre for the rich
agricultural region to the south and west. Tlie
sales of farming implements alone in 1887 reached
815,000,000. 'i'here are great grain-elevators and
stock-yards, and pork-packing is a princijial in
dustry ; while the manufactories, mostly in the
lower section of the city, turn out railroad iron
and car-wheels, shot, flour, beer, butterine. soap,
fumiture. iV-c. Pop. (1860) 4418; (1870) 32,260;
( 1880) .55.785 : ( 1890) 132,61s. The .assessed valua-
tion in this Last ye.ar was .§53,017,290. See a jiaper
bv Charles Dudley AVamer in Harper for Octolier
1888.
Kansas River is formed by the junction of
the Smoky Hill Fork and the Solomon Kiver, in
Kansas, at .about 97 25' W. long., and Hows gener-
ally eastward to the Missouri, which it enters just
above Kansjis City. Length, nearly 300 miles, or
including its forks, 900 miles. Its chief tributary,
the Heimblican Kiver, has a length estimated at
.5.50 miles. The importance of tlie Kansas Kiver
for navigjition is, however, not great.
Kail-SIl', tlie most north-western province of
China (q.v.).
Kant. IMM.VNUEI., probably reputed at luesenl
tlie greatest of all modern jihilosophers, wius born
Aiiril 22, 1724, at Kiinigsberg, in Ejust I'rnssia.
where, February 12, 1804, in the eightieth year
of his age, as ])rofessor of Philosophy in the uni-
versity, he died. His life, as that only of a
.student and a teacher, oilers few vicissitudes.
His parents were of humble life, but pious,
394
KANT
lespt'ctable, good people — his fatlier a saddler, or,
iiKiie properly, a strap-maker. Tlie tradition is
tliat tlie family was of Scottisli descent, and tlial
the name was originally spelt Cant. The tradi-
tion is probably perfectly correct as regards the
descent; but even Kants grandfather is found to
have had his name already spelt Kand or Kant.
So far as school and college arc concerned Kant
may be considered as thoroughly educated ; but
during the whole course of these, up to his twenty-
third year, he must, as regards comfort, have had
but a poor and struggling time of it. For the
following nine veal's Kant supported himself as a
family tutor, the usual resource of the ordinary
German student, or indeed of the poor ambitious
student anywhere. IJecoming doctor of philosophy
in 1755, he qualified himself in the same year as
a priralim doceiis, and, as such, he remained for
fifteen years what we would call a private lecturer,
though in connection with the university. Not
till 177(1, when he was forty-six years of age, did
Kjiiit liecome an ordinary professor there (about
four years before that he had been promoted to a
sub-librariaushi]), with an annual dole of some
eleN'en pounds sterling). For nearly fifty years,
then, we may say that Kant was a teacher of
philosophy at Konigsberg — a very general one,
for he had to embrace in his lectures mathematics,
physics, logic, metaphysics, natural theology, an-
thropology, physical geography, and, more still,
P/ii/osophical E/icj/clojJUiha, to say nothing of
pyroteclinics and the art of fortification ! There
can be no doubt that Kant was acceptable as a
teacher, ami that his lectures were well attended.
We have an interesting testinnmy from Herder to
that etl'ect. His most iiopular course, however,
was, probably, his shallowest — that, namely, on
physical geography — though not without features,
as well curious in Kant"s regard, as, in themselves,
interesting and instructive. Only during the hist
twenty years of his life can it be said tliat Kant
was famous. Before that, even the correspondence
with Lambert and Mendelssohn is insufticient to
show that his excellent reputation locally had
ever been sensibly more general. With or without
name, he was the author of a separate work or
two that had made no mark ; and be bail occasion-
all.y written creditalile papers in the i)ulilic journals,
principally of his own neigliI)ourhood. lie was a
small, thin, somewhat rickety, bundle of bones ;
scarcely 5 feet high ; as the Scotch say, an au/c/-
fdirnid little body ; honest, tnitli-spcaking, per-
fectl.v well conducted, though nut reuiarkable for
his attendance in church ; kindly and gracious,
and, in his own slender, pedantic-easy way,
sufiiciently hospitable ; but, as evinced by the
modest request he refused to the sorely-straitened
Ficlite, with a tight enough grip on his own little
savings.
The writings of Kant can bo respectively assigned
to three periods, according as they precede, follow,
or belong to the dates of his three great Kritikcn
(Critiques). Of these the first is <Ae critical date,
17S1 : and of the wlude period that precedes it
the writings are, letters included, some thirty in
nnmlier. Now, let them he as they may, it is
niil perhaps imiiroliable that, hail K:iut died the
author of these writings only, both he and they
W(uild have been long ago forgotten. Neither his
Tliijiifjhts OH the True E.stinuile of Licimj Furccs,
nor his Ge>ie.r(tl Natural Hidori/ and Theuri) of the
Jicarens, nor his Drcaiits of a I isionari/ illustrated
Inj Dreams of Mitaiilii/sies, luir even his Latin
dissertation I)e Muiiili SeiisiiilU atiiiie I/iliila/i/jilis
Fur ma ct J'riHcipiix, would have availed, ii may
be, to operate a diversion whether for works <m-
workman. There is, of couise, in mie of the
smaller papers, the hint on Kant's part that the
opposing course of the tides is possibly acting in
retardation of the rotatory motion of the earth ;
but, otherwise, the four essays named form all
that is of any veritable importance in the first
literary period of Kant. Not but that, geneially,
all through this period, there is evidence of nnich
information and much intelligent curiosity on the
part of an earnestly-thinking iiatun^ that has
already attained to a certain largeness and freedom
of scope. The Thoii/jhta on the True Kstimate <f
Livitaj Forces was Kant's first p\iblication, jiml is
sufliciently creditable to a young nuin of twenty-
three, though on a question that at that mojiient
had been for S(une time already authoritatively
settled. It is, however, difficult to find in it either
the comprehensive inaugural programme of bis
idolaters, or even the prophetic excellences of his
more moderate admirers. The Thcori/ of the
Heavens was published in 1755 ; and as regards
the suggestion of a nebular hypothesis in that
reference Kant deservedly claimed for himself the
priority whether we look to Herschel or La|)lace.
Here, too, nevertheless, Kant only met with bis
usual bad luck for long. The little anonymous
booklet of two hundred pages attracted no atten-
tion, not even that of the king, to whom it was
dedicated. It may be attributed to Kant iis a
merit that, at this early date, he s]ieaks of the
possibility of there being planets in existence
l)eyond Saturn, as there is to be found in the
Fhysiad Geoijraphi/ a similar conjecture as regards
the existence of what are now called the asteroids.
But in the latter reference Kant was not the fiist ;
while his suggestion in the former was an inspira-
tion from an idea of his own in regard to comi'ts.
What, be asked himself, if, out and beyond Saturn,
there were planets in paths increasingly cccent lie
which, as it vcre, would tend on the whole to
make comets of planets ! It is but just to note
that, a year before its publication, the Thcori/ if
the Hcaeens had been already announced in the
essay that cmicerns the earth's rotation. When
one thinks of what speculations must have occu
pied at this time the ndnd of Kant, one must
acknowledge that all this speaks volumes for the
industrious inquiries and the ardent and original
refiections of this young man of thirty.
I'ublished in 1700, Kant's Dreams of a Vixionarif
Ls a rather remarkable paper. Kant, all his life, at
least longed to believe in the innnortality of the
sold and the actuality in existence of a world of
sjiirits. He was very much imiuessed, accordingly,
by all those stories in regard to the supeiiiatural
intuitions of Swcdenborg, so much so, indeed, tliat
he had actually bought, at the enormous expense of
.seven pounds sterling, the eight ipiarto volumes of
the Arcana Cwlcstia. And it is in conseiinence of
his reading in these volumes that he is led to write,
half-seriously and half-ashamed, this little, for him
excei>tional, paper, that is, however, onlv in the
air. Not but that there are, in all proiiability,
signs to be detected in it of that study of Hume at
last that led in the end to what has determined
itself as his proper work and as his pHqicr worth.
These, howe\ er, are but ob.scure and .semi-articulate
hints, and can hardly be regardeil as sullicieiit to
justify the editors of Kant in characteiising this
writing as * a/inoitncenient uf his greater cnter-
])rises. The DUsertatio dc Miindi Sensihilis atijne
Intclligibilis Fornut ct Principiis, published in
1770, is really the first of these, his critical
endeavours. It professes to sjicak of the form and
principles of both of the worlds to which we may
be .said to belong ; anil it certainly succeeds tn its
own wish in regard to one of them. For the world
of the senses, namely, it does find, before experience,
and in anlicipatiim i)f experience, actual ehiiieiits
of experience that are not due to experience at
KANT
30.-
all, pfic-eptions of thiugs that are uot due to the
jtcrre/itioii of things, but only to the iiiiiul itself,
only, as it were, to projections from within that
throw themselves without, and stand around with-
out. These are Time and Sp.-vce, which, original
or native to the faculty itself, are the it ^niuri
forms of perceptive sense. That, at least, is the
conclusion of Kant ; and, in that regard, he is now
alpout as complete in the iJissirtiitiun as he was
eleven years afterwards in the Cn'tiijiir. A similar
completeness does not follow him at present, how-
ever, in respect to the other or Intcllinible world,
the world of ideas, of the intellect, the name of
which also runs in the title. Prohahly no one
reads this Latin work in these days; but if any
one attempts it, most assuredly he will lind him-
self, in regard to « hat of the ititdliglbh world he
is to understand he ha-s learned from it, only exas-
perated. It is only possible to suppose of Kant
here, that, having succeeded to his mind in the
discovery of a priori forms of sense, he can as yet
only search anil search, and fiml himself vaguely
and variously bogged, in a similar attempt witli
reference to the a priori principles of the under-
standing, the intellect. For success in that respect
he had still to wait for the coming into his mind
of the idea of school-logic and the forms of the
syllogism.
That was the triumph of the great work of 1781,
the Critique of Pure Jieason. We know that what
le<l to the whole work of Kant w;is the endeavour
on his jjart to lind in the proposition of causality
that apodictic necessity, anil that rationale of it,
which Hume, as against his own solution of custom,
habit, challenged trom philosophy and the w (irld at
large. Evcri/ change must have a cause. Yes, said
Hume, but such an affair as change can only be
known by experience ; without experience it would
l>e unknown. Consequently, then, it Is but a fact
of experience, and, like every other such fact, we
know that it is-, but not that it must be. The
necessity we attribute to its appearance is only a
necessity of custom. On the contrary, says Kant,
we really do attribute to any apiiearance of change
a perfect certainty of necessity, a necessity abso-
lute, a necessity, not a dot or a jot, not one iota
less apodictic than we attribute to any pioposi-
tion, to any axiom of the mathematics. That the
shortest Hue is the straight line — our conviction in
that respect is not more fixed, jussured, immovable,
than our conviction that every effect, every change,
must have a cause. And so far, no doubt, Kant
was right. But what, then, further, of the reason
of this necessity, the rationale of it, the explana-
tion of it ': Seeing that the proposition of causality
is really an inferential projiosition — a proposition
with a conclusion, as it were, from premises — one
would have tliimght it natural on the part of Kant
to turn, in the tirst place, to the consideration of
reason and reasoning rather than to the considera-
tion of actual perception and sense. But, probably,
as has just been named, it Wiis the suggestion of
mathematics that led ti> this. To explain the
necessity of mathematics might be to exi>lain also
the necessity of cau.sality. We can leave Kant's
consequent proceedings to be pictured here ; it Ls
not ditlicult to n^alise how he came to his con-
clusion and to his belief in it. \ luathematical
truth dcpendeil just on the fa<-t of perception ; but,
inasmuch, again, as a mathenuitical truth was an
apodictic truth, the perception on which it de-
pended could not 1)6 a perception of experience.
Such perception could not hi; ii jiostcriori ; it must
l)e a jierception absolutely independent of experi-
ence ; a perception, consequently, then, special,
proper, and peculiar : a jjerception .vm; gimris — a
iierception « priori! But how could that be?
Why, only by space, which was the source and
the seat, and, so to speak, the blackboard ami
tablet of mathematics, being itself ii jiriori. But
if space were a priori, so would time be. As we
have seen from the Uisscrlutioii, this of u jiriori
perception, was probably Kant's fii-st acquisition
and conquest — towards the rationale he sought.
Evidently, however, it was still inadecjuatc to the
want. Time and space might be a jiriori, but
change, a mere experience of special sense, couM
not lie there. Could we not adil from the intellect
an inferential a jiriori form, which, availing itself
of the '( priori perceptive f jrm, might, in combina
tiou with it, gi^■e biith to an a priori scliemu in
supply of the entire virtue of necessity to every
actual instance of causality that could possibly
emerge? It was here now that the suggestion of
logic gave to Kant his whole tree of Categories as
si/itthescs in correspondence with the analyses of
tlie functions of Judgment. Judgments, proposi-
tions, were universal, particular, singular; attirnia-
tive, negative, infinite ; categorical, hypothetical,
disjunctive ; problematic, assertoric, apodictic. So
far, what was concerned was in its nature analytic ;
but if we supposed an equal number of synthetic
functions, then under the same four general rubrics
of Quantity, Quality, Relatiim, and Modality, we
should have the twelve correspondent categories of
unity, multitude, allne.ss; reality, negation, limi-
tation ; substance, causality, reciprocity ; possi-
bility, actuality, necessity. It is impossible to
follow Kant here in the working-out of all that ;
but it is really enough to understaiKl as much.
These categories now were eonstitiitiee : they
actually entered into the composition and con-
stitution of things as these presented themseh es
for the Iierception of sense. That is, as acting on
the a priori perceptive matter, or manifold of space
and time, they (the categories) gave rise to a pure
or a priori perceptive-intellectual schema that,
combining with the sensations of sense as these
came into consciousness (from whence they might),
produced, in projection around us, this ruled and
regulated, orderly, intelligible universe, in which
the necessity due to the categories was the \ery
source of law. To these constitutive materials
there were ailded, regu/ativc/i/, the three hhns.
Determined by the Category of Kelation in the
three forms which are found under it, there are,
generically, three forms also of the logical syllo-
gism, applicable respectively to the unconditioned
of the categorical synthesis in a subject, of the
hypothetical synthesis of the terms of a seiies, and
of the disjunctirc synthesis of parts in a system.
And these results, otherwise named, are the objects
of psychology, cosmology, and theology', or the
siml, the world, and Coil. These, however, jire
but ideas — only centres, as it were, for further
simi)lification and regulation among the categories
themselves. It is for the Critique of I'ractical
IleasoH now to come in and extend at least the
coiiriction of existence to these transcendental
objects of .soul. World, (iod ; and what suiiplies
authority and fulcrum to this critique in this is
the categorical imperative — the fact of the praitical
ego possessing a categorical imperative in deter-
mination of its own will. Considering that the
ego, theoretically, was declared to be no more
than an ideal — no more, so to speak, than a mere
logical diit iin a mere logical / — it is hard lo undei-
sland how, practically, it can rise at once into
such throne of an autocrat. But this is certain :
it is for his practical critique that Kant deserves
all our heartiest praise. So nnich has Kant what
he writes at heart here that all .■^eems to issue at
once from within him in ,i single breath. No
purer, no more li\iiig morality, has ever bfcn pro-
fessionally jiroducid by philosopher than glows iu
the Ethics of Kant.
396
KANT
KAOLIN
It would iipppar that when Kant had accoiii-
plishcd iu« much as this, lie tuiiied hack to hiok
upon it anil reflect. I have foun<I, lie seems to
have said to himself, my Catej^'ories in the ri priori
of the understandiii!,', and my Ideas in the o priori
of the reason. That is enonjrh for our theoretical
and practical interests ; hut what of our only otiier
jreneric interest that remains — what of our interest
that wfi call irxthrtir? That refers to a function
on our part that seems intermediate l»et\\'een the
other two— the theoretical and practical functions.
But these dependin;; respectively on the I'nder-
standin<; and Reason, is there nothing similarly
intermediate hetween these two again? Yes, there
is Juiignient. And so it wa-s that Kant was led
to his third great critique, the subjects of which
were generally, to say so, the products of .\rt — i.e.
Beauty, Suhlimity, Design. Beauty originated in
the harmony of our own two constitutive elements
— sense on the one side and intellect on the other.
Sublimity was the feeling of the exaltation in
mind above every menace and magnitude of sense.
Since design, so to speak, meant evident arrange-
ment liy another hand as though from without, it
was imiiossible to give it place, on such terms, in
our world ; which, in the contributions of special
sense (mere sensations), in time and space, in the
<;.ategories, the ideas, and .all else, was only a world
within — a world, indeed, all but wholly of our own
construction witliin. We could only say of it
(design), in such circumstances, that we ourselves
were so fashioned that we could only see into our
world as thotigk it were the product of an under-
.standing.
Among the remaining works of Kant there are
some of considerable bulk and some interest, but
little value — at least so far as originality is con-
cerned. Such are the -f^jf^Aro/Wof/Zf and the io7/A'.
The Streit cler FacnltMen, liecht.slehrp., Tuqeiid-
lelire. Religion innerhalb der Grcnzen cier blossen
Vernmift — all are well worth reading, and will
greatly help to a general understanding of their
author. In that latter respect the Prolrgomcna,
the criticism of Kberhard, and the essay on the
Progress of Metaphysics since Leilinitz and Wolff,
are specially to be signalised, and may even he
named indispensable. The essay in the jihilo-
sophy of nature, Mctnphysisrhe Aiifciti(jsgriiti(lr,
der Kntiiririssentirhiift, cannot well be neglected,
and still less, perhaps, various little essays in
natural history. Even the critique of Herder will
be found good, and, just on the whole, it may be
said that no work on Kant's ]iart, however small,
shoulil, if belonging to the middle or concluding
perioil, fail to be read. The little essays that bi^ar
on natural history, for example, however unimport-
ant they may ajipear, contain more than one
<leelarati(m that is of interest, in so far .as K.ant,
though .averse, lu-oh.abiy, to the dogma of direct
creation, h.as yet. in his perception of the existence
of ide.as, .and of actual cnncert on iile.as, in nature,
never .a thought of even the suggestion of a
mechanical evolution through ch.ance.
It is impossible to overr.ate the enormous impulse
which Kaut has Iieen the means of giving to the
stiiily of ])liilosopliy, both in ( ierniany .ami every-
where elsi' (as W(dl in .\meric.i, and the East .as in
Europe), (^uite a host of names, besides those of
Jacobi, Kichte. Sclielliiig, Hegel, Ilerhart. Kiause,
Schopenh.iuer, Schleieniiacher, might be mentioned
in this connection. It is not (piite certain, how-
ever, that Kant's work will prove to h.ave been
more in the end than one princi|)ally of suggestion.
We know not but that, if all that monstrous
gaunt m.aehinery — aslhetic, analytic, what not
— li.ad been oM'eied precisely as the machinery
proper for the ]>roduction of the necessity in
causality — we know not but that, if all that
monstrous waunt machinery ( time and space
them.selves .sliut up within it) had been seriously
offered, for that jiiirpose, from German)/, and in
the time of Hume — we know not Tmt that it might
have been received with something more un-
equivocal th.an a smile 1 But be that as it may,
and .assuming the constructions of K.ant to jirove
in themselves neither a solution for the problem of
the universe, nor yet for the problem of causality,
we have still to bear in mind what sin/f/extioii in his
regard means. Apart all consideration of his fol-
lowers, the truth is that it is to Kant we owe — with
discount only of .all necessary historical addition
— our entire metaphysical m.aterial at juesent.
Keally, whatever metal of speculation is anywhere
turneil now, the ore of it «as Kant's. The ( 'riliqiie
of Pure Eeanon, if not precisely to be named .a
liberal edxic.ation, very cert.ainly is, has been, and
will remain, an education in pliilosophy.
Bibliography. — A comjilete liibliogr.iiiliy of Kant
would cover pages, and is beyond tlie proportions of
this publication. AVe name only what will jirobably
be found most useful. Of the whole worl<s four edi-
tions may be mentioned, tliose of Rosenkraiiz and
.Schubert "( Leip. 1838-42); of Hartenstein (Leip. l.SIW-
.■5!>); .again of Hartenstein (Leip. l.Sti7-69); of V.
Kircliiiiann (I.oip. ISdS. and further). Benno Erdinaiin
(Leip. 1880) edits a notable edition of the Critique of
Pure Heason, and Reclam, of Leipzig, publishes a vei-y
ii-^efnl small edition of the same work, edited by Kehr-
bach. Of translations of the Critique of Pure Iiia»o»
into English there are those of Meiklejohn and Jlax
Miiller, and the text-book to Kant of Stirling. Abbott
and Bax also translate into English important works of
Kant, the one the Et/iiex and the other the Proleuomt'ua.
Of writers generally in regard to the philosophy of
Kant the following may be mentioned — German : Hegel.
Michelet, Erdmann, Ueberweg, Schwegler. Kiino Fischer,
L H. Fichte, Chalybaeus, I'lrici, Biedeniiann, Wcigelt,
Fortlage, Ritter, Kirchner, Drechsler, Liebmann, Ibiyin,
Oischinger, Schaarschmidt, Zeller, Drnhisch, Stttl'.n,
"Windelband, V. Hartmann, Krause, Volkelt, llulder,
Vaibinger, Staudinger, Lasswitz, Spicker, Paulsen. Thiele,
Cohen, Riehl. Stadler, Thilo, Lliihring, Sigwart, Falcken-
berg. French : Ott. Willin, "U'ocquitT, Fouclier de
Careil, Barchou de Penhoen, Saintcs, Jlaurial, Saisset,
Villers, Vacherot, Cousin. Italian : Oalupjii, Testa,
.Spaventa, Lilla, Cesca. English : Nitsch, M'illich. Hodg-
son, Laurie, Montgomery, Bolton, Ingleby, Adaiiison,
Seth, Hastie, Bowen, Morris, Porter, Caird, Watson,
JlahafTy, JMaguire, Monck, Green, Wallace, Alansel,
Lewes, Nakashinia, A. J. Balfour.
Kaolin. <ir China Clay, is fine white clay used
in making porcel.ain. Like less pure clays, it is
essentially a hydr(ms silicate of alumina, l>nt it is
.a coniiiaratively rare substance. The cl.ays found
in most localities contain iron in sutlicient quantity
to colour them red or bull' when burned in .a kiln, but
China clay is of a, pure, or nearly imre Mhite both
before .and after it is fired. This, together with its
refr.actory n.atnre, m.akes it of great value in the
m.auufacture of porcelain, of which it forms the
chief ingredient. It is .also used to .a cimsider-
able extent by p.aper-makers, and in less quantity
in the m.aking ot some chemical products. Ka(din
is .a product of the decomposition of the felspar of
a granitic rock. The name Kaolin is derive(l from
the Chinese Kiio-linij, 'high ridge,' the name of
hills near King tih-chin in Chiang hsi, .a chief
se.at of the porcidain manufacture in Chin.a. Clay
from this district w.as sent to Europe early in the
18th century by .Jesuit niissi(uiaries ; similar clay
was discovered in S.axony ; anil .about 17.").^ it was
discovered in Cornw.all, whence the chief English
supplies .are obtaine<l, some being also obtained in
Devonshire in all, about SO.OOO tons a year. K.io-
lin is found in France, and in Xebr.aska and other
.states of the .\nierican I'nion ; in the I'niti'il
States the annual consumption is some 18,()(H) tons.
See Cornwall, Eklspah, Pottery.
KAPELLMEISTER
KARLINGS
3'J7
KapellllK'Islcr ((lonuan), the iliieotor of uu
orchestra or ehuir, iiioie especially the hand of a
luliii;: iniiice in lleiiiiaiiy.
kapila, the founilev of the S:inkhya philo-
sophy, one of the philosophical systems of the
Hiniius. He is nsually leijuteil to have been a
son of Hiahina : hut he is otherwise described as an
incarnation of Vishnu.
Ka|»p«'l* See Cappel.
Kara, the name of a gold-mining district, in a
dreary \alley in eastern Silieria, about .'JOO miles
from Chita and nearly 5000 from St Petei'sburg.
The mines are the private property of the czar, and
are worked by convicts, of whom there are gener-
ally about 2000 stationed here. The annual yield
is 6400 oz. of gold. Since 1879 Russian political
prisoners have been regularly sent to this remote
region. See Kennan's interesting papers in the
Coitiiri/ Miniuziiic, June-August 1889.
Ksirai'lii. See Kurrachee.
Kara-<ieorge. See Czersy.
Kara-liissar. See Afium Kara-Hissar.
karait«'!>. See Jews (Bcligion).
Kara-kol. See Bokhara.
Karakorillll. ( l ) a name given, but according'
to the Ijcst neu^raphei-s erroneously, to the Muzta^'h
range, in the western Himalayas ; sometimes also
it is given, again erroneously, to the Knen-Lun
ran<,'e on the north of Tibet. The Mustag;!' or
Muztagh range is that part of the Himalayas
which Ties to the west of the Indus and e.\tends as
far as the head of the Gilgit Valley. It embraces
some of the loftiest peaks of the Himalayan
system. — (2) The name is properly apjiropriate to
a pass ( 18,550 feet), the culminating point of the
route between India and East Turkestan, in .35° 33'
N. lat. and north from Leh. — (3) Karakorum is
also used to indicate the old Mongolian capital,
to the north of the desert of Gobi, on the Orkhon, a
tributary of the Selcnga River. The ruins remain.
For the mountains, see Himalaya ; Asi.\, p. 485 ;
and Conway, Cliinbiny in tlic Kumkoram Muuntains
(1894).
Kara-kiiiii. See Kizil-kum.
Karaiiiaii. See Caramania.
Karailllia.sa. a river of India, divides Bengal
from the N\V. Provinces, and, after a course of
14t) miles, enters the Ganges from the right. The
Hindus hold it in the greatest abhorrence, and will
neither drink nor touch its waters, although they
an; of crystal clearness and abound in lish.
Karaiiisiii. Xii-hol.\.s :Michailovitch, the
greatest of Kussian historians, was born on 12th
December 171)5, at Mikhailovka in Orenburg.
His father, an officer of Tartar descent, placed
him in the army, but he soon left it to devote
himself to literary |)iirsuits, and, after a tour in
(lermany, Switzerlaml, and France, established
the Moscow JoKi-iuil, and published volumes of
tales, critical papers, translations, &c. The work
whicli tirst gained him a high reputation was his
Letters of a Riisxinn Traveller (<> vols. 1797-1801).
In 1803 he Wius appointed imperial historiip^'rai)her,
and from this time lalioured uninterru]itciUy at. his
Hi'.slori/ of Jiiixsiii (II vf>ls. IS Hi 29); but he only
brou^'lit it ilown to 1013, <lying on 3d June 1820
in the midst of his labours. In this great work,
the lirst really critical history of Russia, Karamsin
manifests so much enthusiastic lulmiration for men
like Ivan the; Terrible that it has been called the
■ Kpic of Despotism.'
Kara Sen is the portion of the Arctic Ocean
lying between Nova Zendilaaml the Yalmal I'enin
sula, oil' the Siberian coast. The river.s Obi anil
Veni.sei discharge their waters into its north-
eastern corner. Since Xordenskjold's famous
voya^'e in the Vc;/a (1875) the En;,disli navi;,'at(ir.
Captain Wiggins (who lirst demonstrated the
navigability of the sea in the previous year), has
more than once succeeded in carrying a cargo of
men^haiidise to the mouth of the Yenisei, and
getting back the same summer. The Kara Sea
being thus navigable for about two months (.luly
to September) in the year, it is hoped tli.it it can
lie made available for an important trade with
Silieria. Captain Hovgaard of the Danish navy
urged in the Scottish Ocor/nijj/iicdl Mai/dziiie {lUinn-
ary 1890) that this would be the most feasilile
route whereby to reach the North Pole.
KaratO^lill, a country of central Asia, forms
the easternmost province of Bokhara, and has the
Ivussian province of Ferghana (Khokand)on the
north. It is a highland region (6000 7000 feet),
and is traversed from east to west by the Surkhab
or Kizil-su, a tributary of the Ainu-Daria. .'\rea,
8310 sq. m. In winter (October to May) the
climate is very severe ; nevertheless much fruit
and corn are grown. The people, Tajiks by race,
number about 100,000, with about 5000 luimad
Kirghiz. The native khans claimed to be descended
from one of Ale.xander's captains, and only lost
their independence, to Bokhara, in 1808.
Karailli (Keroa-lee), a native state in Uaj-
pntana, separated by the river Chambal from
Gwalior. Area, 1208's(). m. ; population, 150,587,
Dearly all Hindus. It is a hilly country, especially
rich in timber. — The capital, Karauli, 75 miles N^V .
of Gwalior, is defended by a sandstone wall, 2 miles
in e.vtent. Pop. 25,607.
Karozait'. a town of Hungary, formerly cajiital
of Great Cumania, is sitnateil 99 miles by rail E.
by S. of Budapest. I'op. 15,825.
Karolia. an old name for the south-east part
of Finland, annexed to Russia by Peter the Great
in 1721. The Karelians properly so calliul are a
liranch of the Finnic race, about ,303,000 in inimber,
who dwell in the eastern ]iarts of Fiidand ami
the adjoining provinces of Russia from Aiehangel
to Tver. See Rae's White Sea Fcniusiila ( 1882).
Karens'. See Burma, Vol. II. p. 564.
Karikal. the second in importance of the
French possessions in India, is on the Coromandel
coast, 12 miles N. of Negapatam, and has an area
of nearly 53 sq. m. It is a fertile tract, well sup-
plied with rivers and canals, and larjiely given up
to the cultivation of rice. The pleasant little
capital, about a mile from the sea, has been four
times taken by the British. There is an active
trade in rice, priiicip'illy with Ceylon and the
.Straits Settlements. The annual revenue is about
.tl6,000. Poll. ( 1895) 00,376.
Karli. a Chaitya templecav(; in Bombay Presi-
dency, on the road between IJombay and Pocina.
In front stands a lion-pillar, sup]iortin.i; four lions,
anil bearing an inscription whicli asi'ribes its date
to the 1st century l!.c. The outer porch, 52 feet
wide, is closed liy the remains of a screen. The
dimensions of the interior are 120 feet by 45 feet
7 inches, the htught being not over 45 feel. 'I'lie
iiuildinj; consists of 'a nave and two side-aisles,
terminating in an apse or semi-dome, round which
the aisle is carried.' All the pillars aiv octagonal,
the seven behind the dagoba or Tojie (q.v.) being
plain, but the fifteen on either side of the nave
having richly ornamented capitals bearing elephants
and human ligures, all admirably executed. Over
the entr.uice is one gri'at window in the form of
a hor.seshoe directing the light mainly on the
dagoba. See Fergusson, History of Indian Arcki-
trrtlirc.
Karliii^s. See Carlovingians.
398
KARLSBAD
KAKUN RIVER
Karlsbad, l*'"'- Kailsbail, Kailskrona, Karls-
nilic. i>v:l\, see CaklsHAD, &C.
Karlsblirs; (Il""g- Gyuhi-FMrvar) a town
aiiil fortress of Transylvania, near the Maros, 1/0
miles E. of Szegediii by rail. Pop. 73S8.
Karma. See IUdduism, Vol. II. p. 518.
KariliatlliailS. a religions an.l coniMUinistio
.sect into Nvhid. the Isnuulis (q.v.) ,levelopetl in
\sia nnder tlie leail of Haiiidan Kavniat, a peasant-
prophet in the re-ion of Kufa. The secret society
iooii or-anise.! itself and began a fo'-mulab e
peasant war. Bahrein was overrun and in 900,
under Abu Said, the Kannathians took Hajr, north-
east of Vambu, and made it their capital. Damascus
had to ransom itself : Haalliec was taken and its
inhabitants put to the sword. Abu haul s son
\l)n Taher, succeeded him. In 923 he took antl
plundered Bassora ; next year he plundered a
caravan of 20,000 pilgrims returning from Mecca ;
and in 025 captured and plundered Kufa, kiUing
or enslaving the inhabitants. In 930 during the
Haii he took Mecca, killing 30,000 persons
choked the well Zem Zera with corpses, and cavrie.
awav the black stone. Then he tlireat_ened
Bafflad with only 500 horse from among his 10/, 000
arined zealots. During the next eight years there
was no Hajj, but it wa-s resumed on a payment
of 25,000 dinars by the calif to Abu Taher. Ihis
leader ilied in peace iu 943, leavin^,' the control ot
religion and politics to a council ot seven. After
a twenty-two years' absence the black stone was
brou"ht' back to Mecca by the Karmathiaus and
ransomed. During the next hundred years the
sect gradually succumbed to the sword and to
natural causes, but not until it had acted as a
powerful dissolvent on the califate.
Kariiac. See Thebes.
Kariiul. capital of a district in the Punjab,
India, 7 miles W. of the present course of the
.Jumna, and on the West em .lumna Canal. Ihe
poiiulation decreased from 27,022 in 18U8 to 23,133
in 1881, and to 21,963 in 1891.
Kiiriitlien. See Carinthia.
Karillll. a town in Madras Presidency, India,
no miles S. by \V. from Haidarabad (Hyderabad).
Fever is endemic. Pop. (1871) 25,579 ; (1891 )
24,576. — The rf/.vr;-/c<- separated on the north by
the Krishna from the Nizam's dominions— contains
•'440 so m., and in 1891 liad apo]>uhitioii of 683,718.
The canal of the Madra.s Irrigation Company
traverses it for 140 miles. KarnuJ sutt'ered very
severely during the famine of 1877-78.
Karr, Jean Bapti.ste Alphonse, a French
novelist who long survived his popularit.y, w;is
born at Paris, November 24, 1808. He was
educated at the College Bourbon ami early
devoted himself to journalism. Ills ,So»,< te.-,-
Tillcul.i (1832), the (mtconie of a disappointment
iu love, by its originality and wit found its
author an audience for a long series of novels,
of which (UhckUvc (1838) only need be men-
tioned here. In 1839 he became editor of Figaro,
and in the same year he started the issue of
Leu aiiepes, the gav and brilliant but sometimes
bitter satire of which brought bim many readers,
no little ill-will, and attemiited a.ssassination from
a woman's hand. These papers he collected in
seven volumes (1853'.->7)— an attempted revival
iif the series subse(|uently to 1870 proved a miser-
able failure. In 1S.>5 Karr went to live at Nice,
where he occupied himself with gardening. His
V'Jiiaqc (ititour dc monJarclhi (1845) is one of Ins
best-known books. His (Bwrcs compliV,:^ were
collected in 1860. He died Sejitember 30, 1890.—
His daughter, TiiEi!i>i-; Karr (born 1835), has
published tales and historical books.
Karroo, a generic name given to the high
plains of Cape Colony. But the word is more
usually iussociate.1 with the tireat Karroo, the
elevated basin, more than .3000 feet above sea-level,
and 350 miles long liy 70 to 80 wide, which lies
between the Nieuwcveld Beige on the north and
the Zwarte Beige on the south. It is not a sandy
desert ; after rain its rich red soil is covered w itli
a thick carpet of gia-ss and llowers. Ne\ertheless,
during nine months of the year, when rain does
not fall, it has a parched, barren appearance.
Lai'^e herds of sheep and goats (Angora), with
smaller Hocks of ostriches, cattle, and horses, are
pastured on it during the season of grass. The
dearth of water is now being in some parts obviated
by windmills and wells for procuring the water
that is generally found at some distance below the
surface. Two centuries ago this district was a
perfect paradise for game, which e\en yet is not
quite extinct. See H. A. Bryden, Klunf and
karroo {ISS9).
Kars, a fortress of Russian Armenia, lies about
110 miles NE. of Erzerum. It is situated on a
tableland of upwards of 6000 feet in elevation ; the
climate is therefore rather severe. Pop. (1890),
since the Turks and Lazes have migi-ated to
Turkey, 8672, mostly Armenians, who carry «ui an
active "transit trade." In 1828 Kars was taken tr.,m
the Turks by the Kussians under Paskevitch.
It was brilliantly defended by the Turks under
General Williams for six months in 1855. At the
beginning of the war of 1877-78 Kars was in\esteil
by the Kussians, but relieved in July by Mukh-
tav Pasha; besieged again in the autumn, it wa-s
carried by storm on 18th November 1877 by Ceneral
Lazaretl'. Kars, long a bulwark of the Ottoman
empire in Asia, was ,me of the Armenian fortresses
the cession of which to Itussia was agreed to by
the Beriiu Congress in 1878. It forms now a com-
manding position from a military jioint of \iew on
the plateau of Asia Minor, facilitating luture
a"<'ression towards Erzerum and Turkish Armenia
in'general. Kars, whose fortitications have been
recently augmented, is nearly imiuegnable. See
works "on the sieg'e of 1855 by Sandwith (18o6)
and Laurence Oliidiant (1856).
Karshi (anc. XaJ./tshcb), a town of Bokhara.
central Asia, stan.ls in a plain 95 miles SE. of
Bokhara city and SO SW. of Saniarcand. It is
surrounded by well-cultivated land and numerous
I'ardens. Conimercially it is of great imoortance
in the transit trade between Bokhara, Kabul, and
India. Its knives and firearms arc exported to all
parts of central Asia, Persia, Arabia, and Turkey.
The inhabitants, estimated at 25,000, are for the
most part Usbegs, with a mixture of Tajiks,
Indians, Afghans, and Jews.
Karst. See Croatia.
Kartouni. See Khartoum.
KArttikeya, tbe Hindu Mai-s, or god of war, a
being represented by the I'nriinic legends as sprung
froufsiva, after a miraculous fjishion.
KdrAll River ( Persian Kurdn ; the Ulai of
Daniel, viii. 2), the sole navigable river of Pereia.
Rising in the Zanlah Koh Mountains, near Ispahan,
it Hows west thri>ugh gorges of the Bakhtiari liauge
to Shuster, the capital of the province of AnUjistan
where it Ijeconu's navigable. At Ahwiiz a reach
of rapids and broken water bars the coni-se of
vessels to the Lower Kanin, and a canal from
Ahwiiz to a point about lA mile down stream
will have to be cut before t'lircmgh navigation is
possible. A tr.imway was in 1890 in course of
construction for the conveyance of piussengei-s ami
merchandise from the limit of navigable water to
\hwaz. Below Ahwilz the river varies in breadth
KARYOKINESIS
KATER
399
from 31)0 ti> 500 yards, jiml Hows for 117 miles
without an obstacle tlirougli a couiitrv naturally
ricli anil fertile, but now entirely uncultivateil.
Mobammerah lies at the junction of the Kanin
with the watei's of the Eui)lirates and Tigris
{Slintcl-Arab). As long ago as 1842 Lieutenant
Selby ascended the Kariin its far as Shuster,
and made a report urging the imjiortance of this
waterw.ay to English commerce. But it was not
till October 188S that, throngb the instrumentality
of Sir Henry Druminond Wolli', tlien British minis-
ter at Teheran, the navigation was thrown oi>en by
royal proclamation not to England only but to the
commerce of the world. It is difficult to exaggerate
the importance of this new trade route to Pereia,
to British India, or to England.
See AY. F. Ainsworth, The Khcr Kdrim (1890); Jom:
Soil. Geog. Soc, vol. ix. p. 26, vol. xiv. p. 219. and new
serie.s. vol. v. p. 120 ; and the Times of 4tli February 1890.
Kar.vukinesis. See Cell.
Masai. See Kass.\l
Kasanlik, or Kez.wlik, a town of Eastern
Koumelia, at the foot of the Balkans, 5 miles
from the southern eml of the Shipka Pass, and
87 miles NW. of Adrianople. It manufactures
otto of roses. Its capture by tlie Russians on 7th
January 1878 led to tlie surrender of the Turkish
defenders of the Shipka Puss. Pop. 20,000.
Haschail ( Hung. Kassa ), one of the oldest and
luindsomest towns of Hungary, is situated in the
beautiful valley of the Hernad, surrounded by vine-
clad mountains, 130 miles by rail NE. of Buda-
pest. The cathedral of St Elizabeth (built 1270-
1468) Ls the finest Gotliic editice in Hungary. The
town, which ranks as the jirovincial capital of
iiortliern Hungary, is the seat of a Roman Catholic
bishop, has various schools, an agricultural insti
tute, and a royal tobacco-factory ; stoneware, furni-
ture, starch, nails, and paper are also manufac-
tured. Kaschau is celebrated for its hams. Of
the Jesuit univei-sitv founded here in 1659 all
that now remains is tlie law academy. Pop. ( 1891 )
•?8.884. Kaschau figured prominently during the
Hungarian revolution of 1848.
Kashan, one of the most flourishing towns of
I'ersia, is situated in a well-peopled, well-cultivated
ilistrict, 3690 feet above sea-level, and 92 miles X.
of Ispahan. The vicinity is celebrated for its fruit,
particularly melons and pears, and the town for its
extensive manufactures of silk-stuHs, gold brocade,
glazed tiles (called all over Mohammedan Asia
ica-shi), carpets, ami coiiiier- wares. It is a large
town, and abounds, like all Persian towns, in
mosques, bazaars, and baths. Pop. 30,000.
Kasbsar< the political capital of ea-stern or
Chinese Turkestan, and, ne.xt to Yarkand, the
second place of importance, is di\iiled into Kuhna
Shehir ('old city') and Yenghi Sliehir ('new city").
The town and district of lv;ishgar have a popula-
tion of 120,000 souls. Tiie old city is a small forti-
fied place overlooking the Kizil River, 1>y which it
is sei)arated from the new city, said to have been
built in 1838. In this last-mentioned part of the
town stands the Orda — i.e. the palace of the Clii-
ue.se governor of the whole j)rovince, as well as
the Friday Mosijue (Juma M^esjid). The |)eoi)le,
mostly Turks, intermixed witli Tajiks. Ka-sligaris,
Hindus, and Andijanis, e.xcel in certain branches
of industr\', as the making of cottons, silks, car-
pets, saddlerj-, &c., and carry on trade, chieHy
with Rassia through Almati and the Terek Davan
Pa.ss, a trade supported by a pennanent Russian
consul, the only European dij>lomatist in this part
of Asia. Ka.s1igar, the centre of Mohammedan
learning in ea.stern Turkestan, is besides a famous
pilgrimage place to the shrine of Hazreti Appak
Khodja, who died here in 1693. The capital and
the country round it are noted for great fertility
anil for a variety of excellent fruits, ow ing to a ricli
irrigation derived from several rivers and canals
flowing from the north and the west. Its most flour-
ishing period embraces the time from the ciUKiuesl
of Arabs under Kuteiba until the appearance of
(ienghis Klian, from which time it experienced all
the revolutions ami wars raging on the confines of
Islam anil Chinese Buddhism. In 1758 the Chinese
took ]iossession of Kasligar, and witli sliort inter-
ruption it has remained in their power. The last
successful rebellion was that of Yakuli Kushbegbi
in 1864. Kasligar was visited by the mi.ssion of
Sir T. P. Forsyth in 1873, resulting in a treaty
between England and Yakub ; but since the
Mohauimedan ruler was vanquished and the
country retaken by the Chinese in 1877, Kasligar
has been left entirely to the political and com-
mercial influence of Russia. See Colonel Kurojiat-
kin's Kitsh(jaria (Eng. trans, from Russian, 1883).
Kaslikar. See Chitral.
Kashmir. See Cashmere.
Kaslioilbisll, a Slavonic dialect spoken by
200,000 jiersons near Danzig. It lias been debated
wlietlier it should be regarded a.s a dialect of Polish,
or as a form of the extinct Polabian.
Kaskaskia, a river of Illinois, rises in the east
centre of the state, flows south-west, and enters the
Mississippi at Chester. Length, nearly 300 miles.
On its riglit bank, a few miles from the mouth, is
the village of Kaskaskia, which was the tii'st capi-
tal of Illinois Territory.
Kassai, the great southern tributary of the
Congo (q.v. ). See also Batemans First Ascent of
the Kascii {\SS9).
Kassala. a fortified town, formerly the capital
of the Nubian district of Taka, stands on a triliu-
tary of the .\tliara, 260 miles S. of Suakiin. It
was formerly tlie most impoitant commercial centre
between the Nile and Abyssinia, and previous to
the Mabdi's rise had a population (with garrison)
of 20,000. When taken by the Italians in 1894 it
had only 3000. In 1897 it was restored to Egypt
' under the Anglo-Italian convention, and has accoid-
I ingly been garrisoned by Anglo- Egyjitian troops.
The re-establishment of order in the Egyptian
Soudan ( 1898) has restored to the place something
of its old importance.
Kassasslll. a lock on the canal between
Ismaiiia and Zagazig, in Egypt, 21 miles AV. of
Ismailia. In the Egyptian campaign of 1882, Aralii's
forces were routed here August 28.
Kasscl. See Cassel.
Hastainuni, capital of a province of the s.ime
name in .\sia Minor, stands 76 miles SW. of
Sinope. It manufactures cotton goods, leather,
&c. ; its famous copper-wares are no longer made.
Pop. 40,000. Here is the ancestral castle of the
Comneni ; the word ' Kastaiiiuni ' is said to be a
coriu))tion of ' Ciistra Comneni.'
kasviii. See Kazvin.
Katalltlill. the highest mountain in the state
of .Maine (q.v.), 5385 feet high.
Katpr, Hexry, an Englisli jihysicist, was born
at Bristol, 16th April 1777. Entering the arnjy
in 1799, he went out to India, and Wits actively
engaged in the great trigonometrical survey. Ill
health compelled him to retum home in 1S08; then,
after labouring for si.x years in the Royal Military
College, Sandhurst, he retired on half-pay. He
died in London on 20th .April 1835. His contribu-
tions to science are chiefly to be found in the I'liilu-
mijihir.al Trii iisdctiou.i hetwwn 1S13 and 18.32. The
most important of his memoirs relate to the deter-
mination of the length of the seconds pendulum at
400
KATHARINE
KAULBACH
tli(> latitiiile of London; tlic ' lloatinj,' colliniatoi-,'
un iiisinuiicnt for aiilin;,' tlic (leteniiiiiation of tlu;
liorizontal or zciiilli points, for wliicli invention lie
received the gold iiu-dal of the Itoyal Astronomi-
cal Society ; the British standards of length and
mass ; and compass needles. Conjointly with Dr
I,ardni'r. he was the author of ' A Treatise on
Mechaiiios' in the Cahhiet Ci/clo/jwdiu. For the
emperor of Russia he verified the Russian standards
of len-lh.
Katharine. See Catharink.
Katllia>var. a peninsula on the west coast of
India, l.xiri;,' lietween the Gulf of Camhay and the
llulf of Cutch ; the Brahman and native name for
it is Siirashti-a. Politically, the name Kathiawar
Afjeuey (formed in 1822) is gi\en to a collection of
187 states, some independent, some tributary to
native princes, and some (lOo) tributary to the
Britisli government in India, which between them
embrace the greater part of the Kathiawar Penin-
sula. .\rea of agency, 20,5511 sij. m. ; pop. (1891)
2,752,4(14. The states of the agency supply one-
si.\th of the total quantity of cotton exported from
Hoiubay. The resident of the agency lives at
KajUol'.
Katkoff. Michael Nikifokovitch, R>i.ssian
journalist, was born at AIoscow in 181S, studied at
the universities of Moscow, Kiiuigsberg, and Berlin,
and for some time tilled the chair of Philosophy at
Moscow. In 1801 he became editor of the Musruw
Otizcttc, the organ of the university, and eventu-
ally made it the most intluential journal in Russia.
At tirst an advocate of parliamentary government
and reform, Katkolf was converted l)y the Polish
rising of 1803 into a leader of the Panslavist move-
ment, and a fanatical su))porter of reactionary
government in Ru.ssia. He was ' the apostle of
national Russian ideas' in politics, and aci|uircd
an iuUucnce in the government eijual to, if not
greater tlian, that of the ministers (except the
chancellor), and is said to have been mainly iustru-
meutal in determining Alexander III. to his con-
servative and reactionary policy. As the champion
of the idea 'Russia for the Russians,' Katkotl'
urged the complete Russihcation, l>y force if need
be, of Poland and Lithuania, and of the Baltic i)ro-
vinces. He enjoyed an immense popularity its tlie
representative of Russian Chauvinism. He died
at Snamcnsky, near Mo.scow, 1st August 1887.
Kutiiiaiulliii. See Khatmandi".
Katrine* Loch, one of the most celebrated of
Scottish lakes, in Stirling ami Perth shires, 5 miles
E. of Loch Lomond and 9i W. of Callander.
Lying SU4 feet above sea-level, it curves 8 miles
eastsouth-e;i.stwaril, is nowbei'e quite a ndle broad,
and has a maximum depth of 408 feet, and an area
of .'JIl'.) acres. It discharges through Lochs .\chray
and \'ennachar, to the Teith ; and since 1S.")9 has
supplied tJlasgow (q.v.) with water. Huge Ben-
venue (2.393 feet) and Ben Aan (1500) rise steei)ly
at its lower end, whose shores are beautifully
wooded, with the mountain defile of the Trossachs
beyond. Here, too, are the ' Silver Strand ' and
Kllen's Isle, the chief scene of the I.in/i/ nf t/ic
Luke. Scott wius often here during 1790 1809,
as also in 1805 was Wordsworth with his sister
Dorothy. See her Tour in UKuthind, and Sir G.
Airy's T(}jioijruj)liij of tin; Ladij uf the. Lake (1873).
Kat River, a branch of the Great Fish River,
ill th<' Cape Colony, rising in the Didimaberg, in
the fertile valley of which a Hottentot settlement
wa-s formed in 1829. It was broken uji after the
rebellion of 1S51-52, and the valley now forms the
district of Stockenstrom (after Captain Sloi-ken-
strom), with an area of 240 sq. m., and a mixed
population of about 7000.
Kattiiniindoo, a substance somewhat resem-
bling gutta-percha, is the milky juice of the K;ist
Indian plant, Kiipliurbiii eitlti/nu/ii/uu, useil in India
as a cement.
Katydid, a name applied to numerous American
insects, nearly related to grasshoppers. They are
arboreal in habit, and are well concealed in the
foliage by their green colour. The true katydid,
abundant in the central and western states, is Ci/iio-
ji/ti/lliif: concani.'!, hut .Mii-njroiitriim ntiiicm'.i is
yet commoner, and there are several other species
belonging to these and other genera. In their
general habit, e.g. in the 'song' to which the .syl-
lables kat-y-did refer, and in the egg-laying accom-
plished by the long ovipositors of the females, these
lively insects resemble Grasshoppers (q.v.).
Katzbaoll. a river in the Pr\issian iiro\ ince of
Silesia, which falls into the Oder at Parchwitz. On
its banks, in the vicinity of Liegnitz, on 20th
August 1813 the French iinder Macdonald, 80,000
strong, were defeated by Prussian and Russian
troops under Blucher. The French lost 12,000
killed anil wounded, and 18,000 prisoners, with 103
cannon.
Kailb. See Caub.
Kaillf'liailll. Ani;ei,ica, ]iainter, was horn
30th October 1741 at Coire in the Orisons, Swit-
zerlanil. Whilst still a child she painted the
portraits of notabilities in Italy, and in Rome fell
under the good iutluence of Winckelmann. In 1700
La<ly Wentworth, wife of the British resident in
Venice, persuaded her to go to Lcuulon. There
she soon became famous iia a painter of classic
and mythological pictures, anil as a portrait-
painter. She was befriended by Reyiujiils, and
was nominated one of the very lirst batch of Royal
Academicians. But her life was for a while em-
bittered by a marriage (1707) into which she had
been tricked by a mere adventurer. It cost her a
large (lart of her fortune to get the marriage dis-
.solved. In 1781 she nuirricd the Italian i)ainter
Zucchi (1729-95), and, returning to Rome, lived
for her art in a circle of distinguished artists,
S)ets, and .scholars. She died 5th November 1807.
er numerous paintings are well known from
engravings by Bartolozzi and others. As a painter
she fails to attain to tlie lirst rank. Giaci' and
harmonious colouring do not atone for faulty draw-
ing and lack of originality. Angelica was also
an accomplished singer. Her beauty and talents
were sung by such poets as (loldsmith, Klopstock,
and (Jessner, and lier story has in recent limes
furnished a theme to Miss Thackeray. See Wes-
sely's Life of her in Dohme's Kiinst mid Kuiistler
(1877); DiMiii Univ. Mug., 1873; Art Junrnal,
1890; anil the Life by F. A. Gerard (1892).
Kaiirniann. ConstantinE VdN, a Russian
general of Clerman (Holstein) descent, wivs horn
Tiear Ivangorod in Russian Poland, on 3d May 1818.
He entered the army as lieutenant of engineers
in 1838, fought agiiinst the Circassians in the Cau-
ca-sus, and especially distinguished himself at the
siege of Kars in 185,5. In 1807 he was a|)i)oiiited
governor-general of Turkestan, and iit once set
himself to organise this province, then newly con-
(|uered ; in 1808 he occupied Sanuucand, and in
1873 conducted a siicce.ssful campaign against
Khiva. Through his energetic policy Russia be
came the predomimiting power in central .\sia.
General Kanfuiann died on 10th .May 1882 at
T.ishkend. See Boulger's Central Asian Purtraits
(1880).
Kaillbaell. Wii.hei.M von, a German painter,
was burn al .Arolsen, in the principality of W al
deck, 15th October 1805, and in his seventeenth
vear entered the Academy of Arts at Diisseldorf.
KAUNITZ
KAY
401
He was one of Cornelius's liest pupils, and followed
liiiu to Munich : from 18-4!) down to the yi-av of his
death lie was director of the Acaih'Uiy of I'aintinj;
in that city. Althoii;.di painting in the sevendx
ideal and allejjoncal spirit of his master. Kaulliacli
displayed from the lirst no lack of individual
genius. Among his first important productions
were sixteen mural paintings illnsi rating the myth
of Amor and Psyche, in the palace of Duke Maxi-
milian, and Apollo amongst the Muses, for a ceiling
in the Odeon. Then he executed a number of
designs from the works of Klopstock. ^^■ieland.
and Goethe in various royal apartments in Munich.
In 1834 Kaulbach completed his grandiose 'Battle
of the Huns,' representing the legend of the
struggle, continued in nnd-air, between the souls
of tlie Huns and Romans who had fallen before
the walls of Rome, which was regarded as the cul-
mination of tlie new German school. Neverthe-
less, the realistic tendencies of his genius came
out in his illustrations of Schiller, ('•oetUe's Faii.st,
and Reiiii'ke Fuchs, ami in his 'Mad-house.' In
18-16 KauHiach completed, on the heroic scale, the
'Destruction of Jerusalem by Titus.* For several
years from 1847 onwards he was occupied painting
the walls of the vestibule of the new nmseum at
Berlin with a cycle illustrating the progress of civil-
Lsation. This series embraced six colossal composi-
tions— ' The Tower of Babel,' the ' Glorious Age of
Greece.' the ' Destruction of Jerusalem," the 'Battle
of the Huns,' the 'Crusades,' and the 'Reformation,'
with numerous smaller designs. His last gi<;antic
painting is the ' Sea-tight of Salamis ' in the Maxi-
milianeum at Munich. In his later years he com-
posed illustrations to Goethe and Shakesjjeare, and
painted many portraits. He died of cholera at
Munich, 7th April 1874. See Mrs Howitt-Watt's
Art-Stiuloit in Mniiirh (2d ed. 1879). — His son,
Her.MANS, born at Munich on '2ath July 1846,
studied under Piloty, and paints historical pictures
of the genre cla-ss — such as 'Louis XI. and Olivier
le Dain," ' Mozart's Last Days,' ' Carousing Knights
Templars,' ' Seba.stian Bach and Frederick the
Great.' — A nephew, Friedrich (born 1822), and a
fraud-nephew, Friedrich August (born 1850), also
ecame painters of merit.
Kauiiitz. Wexzeliu.s Anthony, Prince vox,
Count of Rietberg, Austrian statesman, was born
at Vienna on ■2d February 1711, and began his
public career under Charles VI. Maria Theresa
employed him on diplomatic missions to the courts
of Rome, Florence, and Turin, and then ajipointed
him nnnister to the governcu' of the Austrian
Netherlands. He laid the foundations of his per-
manent fame as a diplomatist in 1748 at the con-
gress of Aix-la-Chapelle. As Austrian ambassador
at the French court in 1750-52 he succeeded in con-
verting the century-long enmity of the two states
into relations of amity and goodwill. In 1753
Kaunitz wjis appointed state chancellor, and in
1756 chancellor for the Netherlands and Italy, and
for ahuost forty years continued to have the prin-
cipal direction of Austrian iH)lilics. On account of
the jiart he played in the atl'airs of Europe he was
jocularly called the European coach-driver. As a
man he was very vain and confident of his own
abilities, narrow in his |MiUticaI views, regarding
exclusively the sui)po.sed interests of Austria, yet
sincere and upriglit according to his notions of
duty. He took a very active part in the ecclesiasti-
cal reforms of Joseph II.. and was always an earnest
and lilicral patron of the arts and .sciences : he
founded the art school of Vienna, and several
acatlemies in Lombardy and the Low Countries.
He retired from public life when Francis II.
ascended the throne, ami died 27th June 1794.
See Lives by Horniayr (in Ihr oslciTtir/iisc/tc
Flutiurh, vol. vL) and Beer ( 1872).
•286
Kauri Pine, or Kowrik (Dammwaaitxtialis),
a sjiecies of Dammar ( q.v.), a native of New Zcahuid.
It is a tree of great size and beauty, attaining a
height of 140 feet or more, with whorls of branches,
the lower of which die off as it l)ccomes old. The
timber is white, close-grained, durable, flexible,
and very valual)le for masts, vards, and ]danks.
The Fiji Islands, New Hebriiles, and Australia
produce other species. All of them are trees of
dark, dense foliage, and juoiluce a resin called
Kauri Resin, or Kauri Gum, and sometimes
.Vustralian Copal and Australian Dammar, of
which large (|uantities are exported from Auck-
land. It is sometimes found in pieces as large
as a child's head, of a dull amber cohmr, where
forests of these trees have fcninerly grown ; and is
now known to lie mingled with coal strata of
'I'ertiary age. It is also collected from the trees
from w hich it has newly exuded, and is then of a
whitish colour. D. orieiitalis, v. native of the
Jloluceas, exmles a similar resin, which is at lirst
white like crystal, and Ls called white dammar, but
with age it assumes a yellow amber tint.
Kava. See AvA.
Kavanagll, Julia, novelist, was born at
Thurles, in County Tipperary, in 1824. She was
the daughter of Morgan Kavanagh, an accom-
plished Irishman, author of various philological
works, and she grew up a girl of remarkable
beauty but of unusually small stature. Great
part of her youth was s]ient in Normandy, her
later life in Paris, Rouen, or Nice, where she
died, October 28, 1877. Her first work which
attracted attention was Madeleine, a Talc <;/'
Auvergne (1848); of its numerous successors the
best were Nathalie (1850), Daisy Burns (1853),
Adilc (1857), Queen Mab (1863), Beatrice (1865),
Silvia (1870), John Dorrien (1875), and The Pear!
Fountain (1876). The scenes of almost all her
stories are laid in her ado|ited country, and liir
studies of French life and character po.ssess a
reality and truth uidiappily but seldom found in
the fluent novels of foreign writers who ha\e light-
heartedly essayed these themes. Her jilots nuive
quietly but naturally forward to the denouement,
and skilfully preserve the interest, if they do not
feed the excitement, of the reader. Other well-
known books are A Su7nmer and ]i'inter in the
Two Sieilies ( 1858), French Women of Letters (1862),
English Women ojf Letters {IS6S), Woman iu France
during the Eighteenth Century (1850), and Women
of Christianit ij ( 1852) — a work which reveals beauti-
fully the sympathetic and religious nature of its
authoress, herself a devout Catholic.
Kaveri (Cauccry), a river of southern India,
rises in the Western Gh:its, and flows south east,
across Mysore and Madras, to the Hay of Mcngal,
which it enters through two princijial mouths.
Length, about 475 miles ; drainage, aliout 28,000
.scj. m. : flood disch.arge above the delta, 472,000 feet
per secoml. The Kaveri is of no value for navii;a
lion, its bed being rocky, with numerous rapids and
falls — as those at the island of Sivasamudram. in
My.sore, famous for their romantic beauty. Other
islands formeil by this river are Seringapatam, in
Mysore, and Sriringam, just above the delta. It is
of importance for inigation in Mysore and in
Coimbatore district, but especially in the nuirvel-
lously fertile delta. For this purpose the main
stream hits been dammed since the 4tli century A.D.,
the Coleroon (the northern branch) since 1838.
Katvi, a langmige of J..va (cj.v.).
Kay, JiillN, a famous Scotch caricaturist, was
born near Dalkeith in 1742, and from an early age
practised pros|ieidusly as a barber in I'Minburgh,
until in 1785 he opened a jnint shop for the sale of
miniatures and sketches of local celebrities etched
402
KAYAK
KEAN
by himself. He tlied February 21, 1826. Kay's
portraits have but little artistic merit beyond a
<,'i'nuiiie liuiiiour, yet he possessed somehow the
trick of catching the likenesses of his sulijects, and
the .series forms a unique and invalualile record of
the social life of the Edinburgh of his time. His
l)ortraits were collected and piihlisheil as A Series
of Original Portraits and Curicatiirc Ktr/iiiiijs by
t/ic late John Kai/, with Bior/raphicnl Sketclica and
Illustratirc Aiien/otcs (2 vols, quarto, 1S3S; new
ed. with additional plates, 2 vols. 1S77).
Kayak. See K.skimo.
Kaye, Sir John Willi.vm, the historian of
Englisli India, was born iu 1814, and educated
at Eton and Addiscombe Military College. He
served for some years in the Bengal Artillery,
but retired in 1841 to devote himself to litera-
ture. In 1806 he e itered the service of the
East India Coaipanj' in England, and, on the
transfer of the government of India to the crown,
was appointed to succeed John Stuart Mill as
secretary in the Political and Secret Department
of the India Office, a post which he retained until
failing healtli obliged him to retire in 1874. Three
Years liefore he had been knighted, and two years
later he died, .Inly 24, 1S7G. Kaye's works are
T/ic Histort/ (if the War in Afyhanistan (4 vols.
1851-53); Histurij ufthe Administration 0/ the East
Iitdia Compant/ (\S5S) ; The Life and Correspoml-
eiiee of Sir John M(dco/ ni { IS56) ; Christianity in
India ( 1859 ) ; History of tlie Sepoy War in India
in 1S57-SS (2 vols. 1866-71); and Essays of an
Optimist (1870 ). His account of the mutiny struggle
has "iven rise to much embittered controversy, but
despite its faults is a nolile monument of histori-
cal industry and insight. A revised edition of the
Sepoy War, along with Colonel Malleson's history
of the Indian Mutiny, together forming a connected
history, was completed in 6 vols, in 1890.
Kayes, or Khayes, a town of the French
Soudan, (m the river Senegal, is the terminus of
the railway being constructed froni St Louis in
1890. Top. GOOO.
KavSliuttleworfli, Sir James. See Edv-
CATKlX, \'ol. 1\'. p. 211.
Kazan, capital of the Russian government of
Kazan, and anciently capital of the Mongol king-
dom of the tiolden Horde, stands 3 miles from the
north bank of the Volga, and 200 miles E. by S.
from Nijni-Novgorod. The Mongol kingdom was
foundeil in llie middle of the 15th century on the
niins of the still more ancient Bulgarian empire
(.see Kll'Cll.VK.s). .*\t the same time the modern
city of Kazan was built 28 miles SW. of the former
city. In 1552 the Russians, under Ivan the Ter-
rible, carrie<l the town after a bloody siege, and
put an end to tlie Mongol kingdom. The krendin
or fortress embraces williin its walls the cathedral
(1552), which has a wcmder-working icon of tlie
Virgin, a magnilicent monastery ( 15.55), an arsenal,
iVc. The houses are in general one-storied, and
stan<l in the iniilst of gardens. The town has nearly
fifty churches, a dozen moscjues, and the Sumbek
Ti>wer, an object of veneration to the Tartars.
Kazan is th(> cliief intellectual centre of eastern
Russia, and a home of oriental study. The univer-
sity, founded by Alexander I. in 1S04, has four
faculties anil nearly 1000 students; the institutions
connected with it include a library of 80,000 vols.,
an observatory, a botanical garden, an anti(|uarian
museum, i*cc. Kazan is the seat of a Greek arch-
bishop. The jjrincipal objects of industry are
leather, soaj) (made from nuire's milk), candles,
gunpowder, books, hempen goods, cotton, sacred
pictures, &c. C'lo.se to the town are the shiiihuilding-
yards in which I'eter the Great built his Ciuspian
Sea fleet. The Tartar merchants of Kazan trade
as far as Bokhara and Persia on the one side and
to Asia Minor on the other. TIk^ central i>arts of
the town are occupied liy Russians ; the Tartars
dwell f(U- the most part in the suburbs. Pop.
(1871) 8(j,2(!2; (1805) 140,726. The town w.-vs
destroyed by lire during Pugatchetrs leliellion
(1774), and has sutt'ered severely from the .same
cause more than a dozen times, especially in 1815
and 1825. — The government, lying west of that
of Nijni Nov"orod, is traversed l>y the navigable
Volga and Kama, with their tril)utaries. The
'black earth ' soil produces rye and oats, with other
crops, agriculture being the main occupation of the
people. One-third of the total area (24,594 sq. m.)
is under forest. Pop. (1871) 1,739,909; (18S7)
2,113,9.54; (1895) 2,2.34,957.
Kazbek, or Casbeck. See Caucasus.
Kazvill. a town of Persia, 95 miles NAV. of
Teheran, <m the road to Reslit, manufacluies
brocade, velvet, cotton, and iron-ware, and breeds
camels and horses. Kazvin has obtained a new
commercial importance through the opening of the
Transcaucasian Railway ; the route c(uinecting
Persia with Europe goes by Kaz\in to Reslit and
Baku, and to facilitate this communication a
ehaitssde has been constructed from Teheran to
Kazvin. Pop. 40,000.
Kea is the native (New Zealand) name for a
genus of parrots, of which only three species are
known ; these a.re Nestor notabilis, A'. 7ncridionalis,
and iV. prodnetus, which last appears to have just
become extinct. N. notahilis is a mountain s[iecies,
confined to the South Island ; it was originally a
vegetable and insect feeding bird, but on the intro-
duction of sheep it began to frecpient the stations
and to feed on oti'al ; later on the parrot aciiuired the
more objectionable habit of destroying live sheep.
A number of birds band themselves together and
hunt out a weakly member of a flock, generally at
night. The sheep is worried to death by the
combined ertbrts of the parrots, whicli then jpio-
ceed to devinir the kidney fat. This is one of the
most reiiiarkalde instances known of a rajiid change
of habit.
Kcail. ErMT'ND, actor, w.as born in London, in
Gray's Inn, 4th Nov. (some authorities say 17th Mar.)
1787. His parentage also is doulitful, for, though
it is tolerably certain that Nance Carey, ilaughler
of George Savile Carey, was his mother, it is quite
uncertain who his father was. Kean is .said to have
declared himself to be an illegitimate son of the
Duke of Norfolk, but common trailition assigns to
him as parent either a tailor named Aaron Kean
or a builder named Edmund Kean. Nance Carey
being an actress, Kean from his infancy made occa-
sional appearances upon the stage, and when about
sixteen years old became a regular 'stroller,'
playing in Richardson's show ami other tcMi|>les of
the itinerant drama. After ten years' painfnl ex-
perience in various provincial circuits he siii'ceeded
in obtaining an engagement at Drury Lane Theatre,
where he made his famous liist appearance as
Shylock on "iOtli January 1814. His success was
immediate, and he at once took rank as th<! lirst
actor of the day, displacing even John l'hili|i
Kemble, whose powers were by this time declin-
ing. A period of wonderful success followed; hut
unlia])pily Ki^an's irregularities were as great as
his genius, and he gradually forfeited the public
approval, his reputation being linally ruined by
the eaiise eilt'-lire of Cox r. Kean {.lannarv 18'25).
In this wretched case Ke:in wa.s fiuiml guilty of mis-
conduct with the wife of one .■\hlerni.aii Cox ; and,
although he seems to li.ave been at least as much
sinned ag.ainst as sinning, a strange outburst of popu-
lar morality literally drove him off the stage, Eclin-
I
KEARSLEY
KEATS
403
burgli ]iaiticularly distinguishinj; itself in vigorous
denunciation of the unfoi tiinate actor. Kean tlieu
paid a long \isit to America, where he had on a
previous visit been very popular. He remained in
America till the end ol IS'26, and on his return
liome was cordially received ; Imt Viotli mind anil
boily had given way in his wild career, and he wa.s
the mere wreck of jiis former self. At last, on '2.>tli
March IS.'iS, he broke down hopelessly, while play-
ing Othello to the lago of liis son Charles, and
never acted again. He died at Richmond on loth
May 1833. Regarding Kean's genius as an actor
there can be no question. He was a master of
passionate expression, and excelled in characters
where the emotions are kept at highest tension.
In level passages he wa-s alisolutely bad, and had
no power to represent calm clignity : but in the
mental agony of Othello, the w ild passion of
Shylock, or the cynical devilry of Richard he wa-s
unapproachable. No better idea of the irregular
grandeur of his playing can be given than is con-
tained in Coleridge's saying, that ' seeing Kean
act was reading Shakespeare by flashes of light-
ning.' Kean's life has been ^vritten bv Barrj' Corn-
wall (1835), F. ^A■. Hawkins (1869), and J. F.
Molloy (2 vols. 1888).
Chakles John, son of the foregoing, was born
at Wateriord, 18th January 181 1. He was educated
at Eton for one of the learned professions : but
his father's extravagances and dissipations rendered
it neeessarj- that he should leave school and do
something to support his mother and himself. He
accordingly became an actor, in spite of the bitter
opi)osition of his father, who swore that he him-
self would be the tirst and last tragedian of his
name. Charles Kean made his Ih^t appearance, at
Dniry Lane, on 1st October 1827, in the character
of Young Xorval, and was received by the critics
with almost universal condenniation. But he
worked assiduously in the provinces, and studied
hard, until in time he attaine<l a fair position in
his profession, his efforts being greatly aided by
the genius of Ellen Tree, whom in 1842 he married.
In 1850 Kean became joint-lessee with Keeley of
the Princess's Theatre in Oxford Street, London,
and here he produced the long series of gorgeous ' re-
vivals ' which were the most conspicuous feature of
his career. In these, it is to be feared, upholstery was
more studied than acting. In 1859 he retired from
management, and virtually from the London stage,
though he played in America and the provinces to
within a few months of his death. His last appear-
ance was made in Liverpool on 29th May 1867, and
he died in London 22d January 1868. His wife
died 21st August 1880. As a tragic actor Kean
was not in the tirst or even the second rank, but
he was admirable in melodrama, and his acting in
such plays as Tlie Corsican Brutliers aiul Louis XI.
could scarcely be .surpassed. See his Life by J.
W. Cole (2 vols. 1860).
KpJir.sley, a town of Lanca-shire, 4 miles SE.
of Roltou. "Pop. 7253. In the neighbourhood are
coal' mines and paper-mills.
Keary, Anmie, novelist, was born 3d March
1825, at Hilton, in Yorkshire, where her father was
recti>r, liavin" sold out of the army and taken
orders after the loss of his estate in County Gal-
way. Her sympathetic insight into the hearts of
children gave her the fii-st impulse t<) write, and
ma<le the success of Little Wanderlin and the
Hcrofs of Aif/ard (written together with her sister
Eliza), a-s well as the later books, A Yitrh and a
LnnrnMcT lioxr , Mia tiiiil Chiirhtj, and Hiidl Kiiirjs.
She spent her life at Hull, Trent Vale in Stafford-
shire, London, Brighton, and Eastbourne, wintering
twill' near Cannes and once in Egypt. Of a .sensi-
tive and impressionable temperament wedded to a
strong nnderstanding, shepa.ssed through a troubled
spiritual experience, but found re.st in a fervent
Christianity with unwearied devotion to her friends
and to the pour. She died after a year's illnc^s at
Eastbourne, 3d March 1879. Two admirable books
outside her usual province were EnvUj Egyptian
History and The Nations Aruiuu/. Her first novel
was Ihrouqli the Shadows, and this was followed
by Janet's Hume, Clemency Frankly)), and ()ldh)ir)i.
Castle Daly was hailed as an Irish iioxel of unusual
excellence — while writing it she paid the island the
one brief visit of her life. Her latest work, and
perhaps her greatest, was A Doubting Heart. See
the Memoir by her sister (1882).
Heats, John : Oct. 1795— Feb. 1821. Young-
est to rise and earliest to set in that brilliant con-
stellation of poets who ennobled England during the
tirst half of the Nineteenth centuiy, John Keats,
both in himself and in his work, is one of the
most ]irofoundly interesting and attractive figures
in literature. In character, true, magnanimous,
modest, and tender; much tried and rarely fail-
ing : throughout training himself sedulously for the
highest achievement in poetry — his life, as man
and as artist, was one of persistent growth onward
and upward. It is to trace this develo]iment,
under both aspects, that the following narrowly
limited sketch will be mainly devoted.
John Keats was born in Finsbury, London, son
of a respectable livery -stable keeper ; sent early to
school at Enlield, where an elder boy, Cowden
Clarke, turned his boyish energies at thirteen
towards literature. Henceforward Keats read
much and widely. Greek, like Shakespeare, he
never learned, but eagerly sttidied manuals of
classical mythology' ; in Latin he began and ( after
leaving school) finished a prose version of the
Aeneid : and we cannot doubt that his passion for
melody, felicity of phrase, tenderness and beauty
in style, was developed or inspired by Veigil's
unequalled magical art. Quitting school in 1810,
Keats was first apprenticed to a surgeon ; then, till
1817, practised diligently in London, and, (for bis
age,), with success. But poetry had now become
paramount ; and his high sense of duty withdrew
iiim from a profession demanding imperiously a
man's entire devotion.
By 1816-17 Keats had found many friends and
associates; notably Leigh Hnnt, Haydon, Hazlitt :
— men of early promi.se, and ( Hunt and Hazlitt
at least ) of real ability, though sadly marred or
blighted by bad taste, vanity, and weakness. His
youth naturally led Keats at first to accept their
self-estimate and hence overrate their worth and
powers. Morally and intellectually lie could gain
little, except some genial literary impulse, fidiu
natures so inferior to his own : yet though famili-
arity in time cooled, he remained loyal to their
better qualities. His friendship was also sought by
Shelley. Their names have been united through
Aiiiinais ; but the wild eloquence, the chill Auroral
splendour of that "reat Elegy display no truth in
ttie portraiture of Keats, no touch of human pathos.
The two men were in fact, (generally speaking),
antagonistic in nature, princijiles, conduct, and
ruling ideas upon that art in which both were so
richly gifted : and hence familiarity, on the part
of Keats, now and later, was impossible. Otlieis
of less note, Reynolds, Dilke, Armitage Brown,
were more to Keats : but al>ove all his intense
unwavering affectionateness, (one of several points
in which he resembles Catullus), placed his two
brothers and sister by far highest in > alue.
This was the poet's student-period. Vergil was
his first — perhaps liLs most influential — love.
Clarke led him to Spenser at the close of 1813.
Homer in the fine extravagance of Chapman's
version, Chaucer, Shakespeare, Milton,
ipmaii s
\\'ord3-
404
KEATS
worth, — ' the best sort of poetry ' as he said, color
chc aaniio, became his bosoni-friends. Vet, except
ill early years, he imitated none : literature has
no poet more decisively original.
Thus far Eulield and Hami)stead (then un-
s|ioiled ) were the landscape, the free nature,
whence visions of beauty had been created by the
young poet's observant eye, ever 'on the object,'
ami his vivid imai,'ination. liut having (March,
1817) published his hist book, Keats found
'pastures new' at Carisbrooke, in tlie island now
for near forty years a home of the one modern
poet in whose genius we may trace a certain con-
genital likeness to his own. Here Keats worked
at EiKljiiiiiuii : but solitude was fever to that
tropically de\elopinK nature ; financial anxiety
also, (so badly was his slender fortune liandled by
aj^uardian), which never wholly left him, threw
the tirst cloud of dejection over his sensitive spirit ;
and he returned to Hampstead and his friends.
Eminent among these was now Bailey, tlieu study-
ing at Oxford, where Keats visited him during
Long Vacation, continuing Emlymion upon the
Isis. This may have been the sunniest moment of
}iis life. Bailey was apparently the friend who
called out what was best and deepest in Keats :
It is he also who has left us the most charming
sketch of bis cimvei'sation : {Co/i'ui, p. 76).
In 1818 Keats freijueiitly saw Lamli and Words-
worth, whose poetry, ( the Excursion especially ),
amongst that of his contemporaries, most deeply
atl'ected him. To nurse his much-lo\ed brother
Tom, rapidly failing under consumption, he now
moved to Teignmouth ; Eiidi/iiiiuii was finished;
Isabella, for his tliird volume, begun.
These were tlie last good days allotted to Keats.
His character and his aims as Poet were now
f<uined ; both have been much misinterpreted ; let
us here attempt to .summarize theiii. Manliness,
magnanimity, unsellishncss, force of human affec-
tion, chivalry to Monian, — are the dominant notes
of his nature : Hatred of wrong and meanness,
insight and generasity in act and judgment : — and
all f;uided by eminent good sense : Personally
piou(l ; — as to his abilities and work, almost
pathetically humble-minded. Keats was no sen-
sualist, as has been erroneously reported ; no vague
idealist ; for the first too un.seHish, — too clear-
headed for the latter : and from ]ierversity, in-
stability, and self-conceit singularly free.
A man's art is inevitably conditioned by his
nature. From that of Keats, sensitive yet strong,
modest yet asiiiring, when we add a freshness and
fullness of genius «hich recalls Chaucer and Shake-
speare, we might justly anticipate that he would
not fail to grasp the true idea of poetry under its
main heads, the iiiter[uetatioii of nature and of
humanity, — both always subordinate to beauty in
sound, words, and form. And we find that it was
in such wise that Keats, like Sophocles and Pindar,
A'ergil and Milton, consciously or not, regarded
poetry. He was an artist in the rarest and traest
sense ; this makes him so noteworthy ; it is this, not
EndijmiuH or Ili/iiciioii, which ranks him with the
(ireeks. Pursuing Beauty always as his goal, its
sensuous charm, in melody and in wealth of ilescrip-
tioii, — an impulse natural to a youth so gifted — often
largely over-ilominates his verse to 1818. Vet this
style from the first he felt was but the prelude to
the higher Muses ; the transit from Kiiphrosyiie to
I'rania. Keats was in truth a-- exi|in>itely human
as Shakespeare; alii'ady in the final piece of liis
first book he is lio|iing to ijuit the mere joys of
poetry
for a nobler life,
Where I iimy fllul the agonies, the .■itrife
Of huiimn hearts.
Uv 1818, in an admirable letter comparing Life to
a many-chambered house, he notes how he has
passed from M.aidcu-thought, — the bower oi youth,
pure yet pleasure-devoted, — to a ])lace oi dark-
ness: 'We iec\\.\\e Burdenuf the Mi/stcni.' Hence,
though he dares not yet ' [ihilosophise,' lii^ finds
that the only worthy ]iursuit is the 'idea of doing
some good to the world : ' that he ' can have no
enjoyment .... but continual drinking of know-
ledge : ' he rejoices that he luis kept his old
medical books. This feeling gradually masters
him : 'Scenery is fine, but human nature is liner:'
his longing is, not for vain praise, but for ' the
glory of making, by any means, a country happier.'
That the.se were not mere words, the details of his
life prove : whilst some realization of his liojies iu
poetry is gi\en by the volume of 1S'20. Ami if, by
twenty-four, he was only beginning to handle the
higher human interests ; yet may we not truly
say that his country has been made lastingly
happier by what Keats did thus leave us 'i
Returning to the story : Henceforth, in quick
sequence, the shadows deepen. (ieorge Keats
departed for America : John to the Lakes and
AVestern Scotland, Mhere what was to prove con-
sumption, developed by overfatigue, claimed him.
Then, (Dec. 1818) came the death of his brother
Tom : Last, the passion of fh'st-love for Miss Fanny
Brawue. They ijecame engaged ; but it was too
late : — Poverty, bodily decline, and above all his
own intensely lo\ ing heart, morbidly anxious, grad-
ually changed what should have been suiiport and
comfort to agony. Vet Keats struggled bravely.
As if purified by the trial, his genius now rapiilly
bore its rijiest fruit : almost all that his third
volume contains — the 'treasures for ever' be be-
queathed us — were written between llamiisteail,
Shanklin, and Winchester before Autumn, 1819.
Even yet he hoped to live by literature: but,
returning to Hampstead, health of mind and body
began unmistakably to fail: the fatal sign of lung-
bleeding ajipeared in February 18'20. Except the
(me swan-song of the last sonnet, hencefcutii it is
in letters only — letters which throughout his life
often rival his poetry itself in loveliness and siirpiiss
it in depth of thought — that the sorely -charged
heart finds exjiression.
In September Keats sailed for Italy ; the s,ad and
honourable care of nursing him taken by a ycmng
artist and friend, Severn. From Naples they
moved to Kome. There even the faint delusive
sun-gleams of consumption were soon o\ erclouded.
It is a relief to the gloom that the generous
wounded spirit now found meet rewanl from
Severn's devoteilness. Nearing death, the vague
'sentimental optimiMii ' which fonued lliint'ssub-
stitnte, and ]icrliaps his, for religiinis faith, proved
umivailing : Keats 'contrasting now the behaviour
of the believer Severn with his own, ackiio\vleilge«l
anew the ])Ower of the Christian teaching and
example, and bidding Severn read to him fnuii
Jeremy Taylor's //"/// Liriiicj ami Dyimj, strove to
l)ass the remainder of bis days in a temper of more
peace and constancy :' (Culriii.)
So, though the bodily sufi'ering and agonv of
remembered love were intense, calm came at last.
'He lay quiet, with his band clas]ieil on a white
cornelian, one of the little tokens' his Fanny 'had
given him at starting.' Thus, ' loveable and con-
siderate to the last,' — humbly, after his wont,
not (as misinter|ireted ) bitterly, he spoke of liis
own work ami name as 'writ in water:' until
with a ' Thank God, it has come,' his soul resigned
itself to Him in peace : ('23 Feb. 1S'21.)
Keats lies within the Aurelian Wall of Kome on
its southein side, where the faithful Severn was
also buried in 1879.
As 'Maker,' Keats presents two main juspects: ho
is far more an artist in the highest sense than most
KEATS
KEBLE
405
iiiiMlem poets : He has also left us masterpieces in
tliat stvle of art wliicli his few years alloweil liiiu
tinallv "to reach. The development of his character
anil ^teneral aims in poetry ha-s been traced -. the
parallel advance in his writing will be now luieHy
noticed.
The earliest volnme (1817) is frankly experi-
mental. Spenser apparently unsealeil the spring
of poetry for Keats : yet his three imitative pieces,
althongh Spenserian in musical How and wealth of
imageni-, are coloured everywhere (i» common with
a few short lyrics) by the sentimental tone of the
later Eighteenth century, and by slipshoil manner-
isms caught from Hunt." The tender chivaln' of his
nature glows through the technical inexperience of
the Ode to Woman : Some trochaic lines prelude to
his later success in that rare and difficult metre.
Several among the sonnets rise much higher : that
on Chaimian's Homer alone in the volume shows
hLs final mastery. Most interesting however are
live poems in the free, lovely, heroic metre of
Chaucer and the Elizabethan dramatists. Here,
dashed with youthful extravagance, bad taste, and
confused metaphor, we find that 'fascinating
felicity," that 'perfection of loveliness' in the
interpretation of Nature— (yet Nature externally
viewed, without reference to her inner or human
meanings) — which, in Matthew Arnold's estimate,
is not less than Shakespearian. Delight in beauty
for its own sake only is the leading note ; yet
while he wrote Keats "had before him the image of
Poetry by Raphael (in the Vatican fresco), — with
her outstretched wings and eager glance over Thi/ii/s
thfit he scarce could tell — things that lift the
thoughts of men : and acknowledges with candour
that these spiritual ilepths and heights of the art
are a-s vet beyond him.
J-:nrl'i/mion~, {ISIS), that 'feverish attempt, rather
than a deed accomplished ' (so, with his delightful
union of modesty and clear judgment, Keats named
it), in its mairi features of style carries on the
work of 181.5-17. We have "the ovev-sensuous
pictures, the fanciful and even tasteless coinage of
words : but also the myriad felicities of touch ; the
' morning freshness ' of Chaucer : many passages of
splendid vividness. Though the subject be Greek,
the treatment lacks Creek sobriety, finish, unity :
It is Elizabethan-Romantic. The ground-legend is
hardly traceable : a vague allegory may underlie
the whole — but the serious purposi; of the mediaeval
allegorists and Spenser, but moral beauty, are
wanting.
Two yeai-s only separate Endymion from the
concluding, the trea-sure-volume of 18'20. Keats in
this is not yet wholly disengaged from youthful
exuberance ; Even Lamia, his la-st and strongest
poem, is too Asiatic : Hi/pcrion, with pictures of
unsurpa-ssed magniKcence, fails in Epic unity and
int<?rest. That supreme beauty, never attained
except when it interprets human life in its mi.sery
and its greatness, is rarely touched. Yet the
growth everj'way is tropical : and praise would be
idle for the dignity and tenderness of the Odes,
the ])ictorial splendour, the atHucnce of charm
diffused throughout this little volume. One of
Pindar's noblest lyrics, we read, was written in
goM upon the walls of a Grecian temple. And
not a few of the poems imw before us might
ieserve a like honour.
Keats published only the three volumes of 1817,
i81S, 18'20, and in one edition each. \n ab.solutely
literal reprwluction of them, (the reprints to 1883
teeming with errors), with notes, has been edited
by the writer: including .a few 4irstrate jiicces from
the gieat mass of incomplete and infi-rior work,
withheld by Keats himself, but miule ])ulplic by the
cruel kindness of admirers.
S.e the Lives by Lord Houghton (1848) and Sidney
Colvin (1S86) ; the Letters, edited by Mr Colvin (1891) ;
and the Poem.i, edited by Drury ( 1896).
Keble. .Iohn, son of the Rev. John Keble of
Coin St .\lwyns, Gloucestershire, and Sarah Manle,
a lady of Scotch descent, wjus born at Kairford,
near his father's living, on April 2.">, 17il'2. His
father, a divine of the school ol Ken, educated his
son at home, and with such success that at the
unusually early age of fifteen he was elected to an
open scholai-ship at Corpus Christi College, Oxford,
then a small college, but nunibering among its
scholars many who rose to eminence in after-life,
such as Sir J. T. Coleridge and Dr .Arnold of
Rugby. His university career was unusually
brilliant, for in 1810 he gained a lirst-cla.ss both in
cla-ssics and matheriiatics ; in 1811 was elected
Fellow of Oriel College; and in 181'2 gained both
the Latin and Englisli prize essays. In 1815 he
was ordained deacon, and priest in the following
year, beginning active work as the c\irate of East
Leach, near his father's living, while still con-
tinuing to reside in Oxford, taking pupils and
examining. From 1818 to 1823 he was tutor of his
college ; but his heart was mainly in parish work,
and nis mothers death was the occasion v Inch
made him leave Oxford and return to assist his
father. There in the coiiiitry he did a work for
(»xford and the church which was of the most vital
importance. Three points need specially to be
singled out in this work. ( 1 ) First in time comes
the inlluence of his poetry. In I8'27 he published
with nnuh diflidenee, and 'only in deference to the
wishes of his friends. The Christian Year, or
Thoughts in Verse for the Sundays and Holydays
throughout the Year. The influence of this volume
wa-s not very great at first, but its excellence was
recognised by true critics, and later on, when the
Tractarian movement had made its writer well
known, and had stirred a deeper interest in its
theme, it had an influence which can scarcely be
overrated. For, though some of the poems are
rather obscure and somewhat constrained and
artificial, as though written to com]ilete the series,
yet the greater number have a genuine ring of
inspiration in them : the love of home life and of
nature, a calming, soothing sense of the ever-
present love of God, a sobriety of religious feeling,
and a sad undertone of grief for the nmral antl
spiritual degeneracy of the church are its most
striking characteristics. His own theory of jioctry
— that it is the vehicle for the cxprcs.sion of the
poet's deepest feelings, controlled by a certain
reserve — was explained in an interesting article in
the British Critic in 1838 on Lockhart's Life of Sir
Walter Scott. It was worked out at length and
illn.strated by an examination of the chief (!reek
and Latin poets in his Latin lectures delivered as
jirofessor of Poetry at Oxford, an office which he
held from 1S31 tiiri841.
(•2) His intercourse with Oxford was thus kept
up, and at the end of 1827 many of his friends
wished to see him elected to the vacant jirovost-
ship of Oriel, and he himself would willingly have
accepted sucli a recall to Oxford. It becanie, how-
ever, clear that a majority was in favour of
Dr Hawkins, and Mr Keble withdrew his cniidiila-
ture. But meanwhile a movement was in pro-
giess which ^^■as to affect Oxford to its centre.
5lr Keble had gathered round him in his curacy a
small knot of pupils, of whom the most striking
was Hurrell I-"rou(le. In that knot was formed the
impulse which generated the Tractarian movement.
Starting from the desire for a moral ami spiiitnal
revival of the English church, revolting from the
defects of learning and of taste which characterised
the Evangelicals, and nnich more fnun the secular
Erastianism of the dominant Whig partj', these
friends fell back upon the primitive ideal cj
406
KECSKEMET
KEEWATIN
the church, emphasising its essentially spiritual
character, laying stress on the reality of the
apostolical succession, of the jirerogatives of the
priesthooil, of the grace conferreil in the sacraments,
and insisting on a high spiritual ideal of life. In
his sermon on National Apostivsy ( 1833) Keble gave
the signal for active movement, and for the next
few years «as husily engaged with Newman,
Pusey, I. AVilliams, T. Keble, and others in the
issue'of the Trarts for the Times, until the series
was lirouglit to an end liy the puhlicatiim of Tract
No. 90 in 1S41. Meanwhile Keble had in 1835
married Miss Charlotte Clarke, the daughter of an
old friend of his father, and had removed to the
living of Hureley, where he remained until his
death.
( 3 ) Keble had not only been one of the originators
of the movement ; he was also, with Dr Pusey, the
steadying inthience which supported it under the
shock caused by Newman's secession to Rome.
For the last twenty years of his life he was the
trusted correspondent and confessor of many who
were in intellectual and spiritual anxietj-. He
was the constant champion of the church at each
critical moment, taking a prominent part by his
pamphlets, especially on questions connected with
marriage ami divorce, with the nature of Christ's
presence in the eucharist, and with the independ-
ence of the church tribunals. He also eontrilnited
much to the cause of theological knowledge by his
careful edition of Hooker's works, his life of Bishop
"Wilson, and his translation of St Irenieus. Perhaps
even more than in any of his writings he has in-
fluenced the church by his character. The type of
dutilulne.ss, whether to parents or to his church, full
of atl'ection for home life and of reverence for chil-
dren, generous to his friends, chivalrous and almost
Quixotic in his desire to saciihce himself for the
cause of the tiuth, indignant against injustice or
disloyalty, with an indignation tempered by severe
self-restraint, and ever striving after a deep
humility, he created an impre.-isiou of saintliuess,
and won for himself a rare mixture of love and
reverence. He died at Bournemouth on March 29,
18G6. Besides the works mentioned, he published
the Lyra Innoeeittium, Thoughts in Verse on
Christian Children (1846), a poetical translation of
the P.salter, and many theological pamphlets. Since
his death have been published a most valuable
volume of Letters of Spiritual Counsel, twelve
volumes of parochial sermons, occasional papers,
reviews, Studia Sacra, &c. A ])ermanent memo-
rial to him exists in Keble College, Oxford, erected
by suljscription after his death, and incorporated
on June 6, 1870. This was founded on tlie lines
of the report of a committee, in which he himself
had been nmch interested, for extending the uni-
versity by the building of a new college on more
economical i)rinciples : and it aims at providing an
academical education, at a less cost than the older
colleges, for members of the Church of England.
See Memoir of Kehle, by Sir J. Coleridge (1809) ; J. C.
Shairp, Essay (1866), and his Studies in Poetri) aiuj
Philosiipliy (1872); also a collection of nieinurials by
J. F. Moor ( 1866 ) ; and a short Life by the present
writer in ' lingUsh Leaders of Keligion ' (1893).
Kocskeiliel. a Hungarian town on a plain 55
miles by rail SK. of Budapest. Pop. (1890) 48,493.
Hedall. See I^ikdaii.
Kedroil. or Kidron, spoken of as a ' brook ' in
the English Bible, should rather he called (iis in
John, xviii. 1, new version, margin) 'ravine' or
'winter-torrent.' It is a gorge close to .Jerusalem
(q.v.) on the e.ist, running away in the direction
of the Dead .Sea. Water never flows in it, save
during the heavy rains of winter. At other times
it is a dry wady.
Keelliaillill^T. a punishment in use in the navy
during the ITtli and I8th centuries. The culprit
was suspended from one y.ird-arnj, then stiddenly
droppi'd into the water, and IuiuIimI lieneatli the
keel up to the yard-arm on the other side. This
was the mode adopted on large sijuare-rigged ves.sels.
On .small fore-and-aft vessels the delinquent was
let down over the bows, and was drawn aft vinder-
neath and along the keelson by a hauling-line, and
brought up at the rmlder-chains. (Cf. Marryat's
Dog Fiend.) Keelhauling was pra('tised on an
Egyptian corvette so recently as August IS82.
Keeling (or Kokos Keelixc;) Islands, a
grou]i of more than a dozen coral atolls in the
Indian Ocean, 12 S. lat. and abotit 500 miles SW.
of Java, are attached to the Straits Settlements,
are covered with cocoa-nut jialms, whence oil is
extracted, and are inhabited by about 400 Malays,
but owned b\- a Scotchman named Boss. Pigs and
rats are the oidy mammals ; there are no land-binis
but i)Oultry ; crabs, large and small, abound. Tlii'se
islands were discovered by Captain Keeling in 1009
and were visited by Darwin in 1836 ; it was upon
his study of them that he based his subsidence
theory of the formation of coral-reefs (see Coral).
Guppy in 1SS8 found here confirmation of Murray's
view. See CoR.\L.
KccnC', a pretty town of New Hampshire, the
capital of Cheshire county, on the Ashuelot River,
92 miles by rail N\V. of IJoston. Pop. 6784.
Keene, Charles Samuel, an inimitable artist
in black and white, born of Ipswich ancestry at
Hornsey, 10th August 1823, was educated at Bays-
w.ater and Ipswich, and. having tried both law and
architecture, wa.s at nineteen ap]ironticed to a
wood-engraver. He worked for Punrh from about
1S51 to within five months of his death ;it Hammer-
smith, on 4th January 1891. See I,ife by G. S.
Layard (1893), and The Work of John Keene, by
Pennell and Ches.son (1897).
Keep. See Castle.
Keener, or Lord Keeper of the Great Seal,
one of tlie great ollices of state, nractic.ally merged
since 1757 in that of Lord Chancellor (seeSE.\L). A.n
act was passed at the instjince of Sir Nicholas
Bacon, lord keeper, assigning or confirming to the
hol.ler of that office rank and precedence equal to
that of Lord High Ch.ancellor. Fron> 1558 to 171K)
there were eleven lord chancellors and twenty -one
lord keepers; from 1700 to 1757, six chancellors
and four keepers. The last lord keeper, appointed
in 1757, was LonI Henley.
Keewatin is little more than a geographical
expression for a part of the country lying north of
the province of Manitoba. Its extent ha'* been
considerably curtailed of late years by the delimi-
tation of the western and northern bounilarics of
Ontario anil the e.astern boundary of Manitoba,
and its area is now computed at 282,000 sq. ni.
On the south the district is bounded by .Manitoba
from its north-eiust corner to the western shore of
Lake Winnipeg. The western boundary is along
the west shore of the lake to near Norw.ay House,
whence it goes in a northerly direction to the .'>5th
degree of latitu<le, at the iioint where it intersects
the Nelson River, and tiien passes west to the
100th degree of longitude, which it follows north
to the limits of Canadian territory. On the east
the boundary is a continuation of the eastern
boundary of Manitoba until it reaches Hudson
Bay, where it follows the coast-line to the northern
limits of the Dominion. Keewatin is but little
known. It is nominally .administered by the
lieutenant-governor of Miinitoba, but is nearly
uninhabited, excepting by Eskimos in the nonli.
Norway House, an iuqiortant station of the Hud.Min
Bay Company, and one or two other posts belonging
KEF
KEITH
407
to tliat corporatitiii, are the only settlements in
the districts. The principal attraction is the
fame, large and small, witii which it abounds,
n some parts valuahle minerals are believed
to e.xist, but they have not been developed. The
country is well watered ami timbereil in many
places," but is not suitable for cultivation to
any extent. It embraces the northern part of
Lake Winnipeg, with it.s important fisheries, ami
includes the mouth of the Saskatchewan River,
which is navigable, except for a short distance,
for nearly 1000 miles. The Nelson River passes
through "the province, a-s well as the Churchill
and numerous smaller streams ; and the Chester-
field Inlet on the western side of Hudson Bay
penetrates nearly to its western boundary. The
projected Hudso'u Bay Railway is planned to pa.ss
through Keewatin. See HlLisON B.W.
Kef, El, a walled town of Tunis, 95 miles SW.
of the capital, perched on the side of a steep hill,
was noted in Carthaginian times for its temple to
Astarte. There exist a ruined temple, therma»,
and cisterns of Roman construction. Pop. 4000,
exclusive of a small French garrison. A picture of
early Christian life at this place is given in Cardinal
Newman's Cal/ista.
Kelil. See Steasbcrg.
lieiafhley ( pronounced Keetldey ), a market and
manufacturing town in the West Riding of York-
shire, on the Aire, amid the moorland scenery of
the Brontes' country, 9 miles NW. of Bradford
and 17 WNW. of Leeds. It has a parish church
(rebuilt 184Si, a (lOthic mechanics' institute (1870-
87), the Drake traile school (1713; rebuilt IS60),
extensive water- works ( 1876), and two public parks
of 9 and 15 acres gifted in 1887-88 by the Duke of
Devonshire and Mr J. Lund. The manufactures
of worsted and woollen goods, worsted-spinning
machinery, and sewing and wiishiiig machines are
important. KeiL'lilev was constituted a municipal
borough in 1882. "Pop. (1851) 13,050: (1881)
25,245; (1891) 30.810. See R. Holmes, Keighley,
Past and Present ( 1858).
Keis;htley, Thojias, a busy wTiter, was born
in Dublin in October 1789, and was educated at
Trinity College there. In 1824 he settled in Eng-
land to a life of lettei-s, which he pursued assidu-
ously till his death, November 4, 1872. His
histories of Rome, Greece, and England held their
place as school manuals until superseded by better
ix)oks : of less moment were his notes to Virgil and
Horace. But his Fairy Mythology (1850) largely
retains its value, as also to a less extent does his
Life, Writings, and Opinions of Milton (1855), and
his annotated edition of Milton (1859).
Rei Islands. See Key.
Keilll. TilKODOU, a distinguished theologian,
was born at Stuttgart, 17th December 1825,
studied under F. C. Baur at Tubingen : and wa-s
in turns revetent at Tubingen, vicar in Stuttgart,
deacon and next archdeacon at Esslingen, ami
profes.sor of Tlieologj- at Zurich (IHGO), and at
Giessen (1873), where he died, 17tli November
1878. He published valuable monographs con-
nected with the religious history of I'lm, Esslin-
fen, and Swabia ; two volumes of sermons, entitleil
'rciindesicorte ziir Gemcindc (1861-62); Cclsiis'
wahres Wort (1873); Aus dim Urcliristeiitnm
( 1878) ; but the work by which his name will best
be remembered is the noble contribution he added
to the Lives of Christ. The preliminary studies,
Die mensehliche Enticiekeliing Jcsit Chrisli ( 1861 )
and Die gesrhiehllichc Wiirde Jrsu (181)4), were
Worked U]) into /><;;■ gesrhichlliihr Christ us (M cH.
1866): but all three were preliminary to the great
Geschirhte Jesn von Nazara (3 vols. 1867 72 ; Kng.
trans. 6 vols. 1873 S3), a truly epoch-making work,
uneijualled in learning, acuteness, and insiglit.
Keim eliminates the miraculous element, but is in
the highest degree reverent and spiritual in tone,
regarding the person itself as the real miracle, tlie
ilivinity of Jesus us depending on the elevation of
his humanity attained through a sinlessnos which
of itself evidenced the miracle of Clod and his
presence on earth. Keim's Gesehiclite Jesii naeh
den Ergebnisscn hetitiger Wissensehafl ( 1873) was a
successful popular abridgment of his great work.
Kei River, CiREAX, a river of South Africa,
which in 1848 was made the boundary between
Cape Colony and Kaft'raria. Transkei is a magis-
tracy of Katl'raria, comprising Fingoland, the
Idutwya Reserve, and ticalekaland, and lying
between the Cireat Kei River and the western
boundary of Pondoland. The magistracy forms,
adnunistratively, a dependency of Cape Colony.
Pop. 1020 Europeans and 152,550 natives.
Keith, Admiral Lord. George Keith Elphin-
stone, Viscount Keith, was the son of the tenth
Lord Elphinstone, and was named after his grand-
uncle the tenth Earl Marischal Keith. Born at
Elphinstone Tower, near Stirling, 7th January 1746,
he entered the navy, saw service in most parts of
the world, and distinguished himself in numerous
engagements in the American war and the P'rench
wars. He conmianded the expedition in 1795-97
whicli took Cape Town, and was made Baron
Keith : and having had the command of the fleet
which landed Abercromby's army in Aboukir Bay
( 1801 ) he was in 1814 made viscount. He died lOtli
March 1823. There is a Life by Allardyce ( 1882).
Heitll, James, best known as Marshal Keith,
was born at the castle of Inverugie. near Peter-
head, 11th June 1696. He came of a family, repre-
sented now by the Earl of Kintore, « hich from the
12th century liad held the hereditary oflice of Great
Marischal of Scotland, and whose principal seat
was Dunnottar Castle (q. v.). Sir William Keith,
the tenth in descent from the founder of the line,
was created Earl Marischal in 14.">S : and (Jeorge,
fifth earl, his sixth descendant, in 1593 founded
the Marischal College in Aberdeen. His fourth
descendant, William, ninth earl (d. 1712), married
Lady Maria Drurnmond, a Catholic and strong
Jacobite, daughter of the fourth Earl of Perth,
and by her was the father of Marshal Keith and
of his' elder brother, George, tenth Earl Marischal
( 1693-1778). James was destined for the law, and
had studied at Aberdeen and Edinburgh, when in
1715 he engaged with his brother in the Jacobite
rising, and in 1719 in Alberoni's expedition to the
We.st Highlands, which ended in the 'battle' of
Glenshiel (q.v.). Both times the brothers escaped
to the Continent ; and James held for nine yeai-s
a Spanish colonelcy, and took i)arl in the siege of
Gibraltar ( 1726-27). But his creeil, the Episcopal,
was against him ; and in 1728 he entered the
Russian service as a major-general. He distin-
guished himself in the wai-s with Turkey and
Sweden, particularly at the siege of Otchakotf
(17.37) and the reduction of the Aland Islands
(1743). To be healed of a wound received on the
former occasion he visited Paris, and thence crossed
over to London, where he made his peace with the
Hanoverian government, and had more than one
interview with George II. In 1747, limling the
Russian service in various respects disagreeable,
he exchanged it for that of Pnissia. Frederick
the Gre.at knew bis merits, ami gave him at once
the rank of field-marshal. From this time his
name is associated with that of the king of Prussia,
wim relied .-is much on Keith's military genius as
he dill on the iliplomatic ability of his brother, the
Earl Marischal, whom he despatclieil on emba.ssies
to Paris and >iadrid. Keith's talents became still
408
KEITH-FALCONER
KELP
more conspicuous upon the 1)ieakin{; out of the
Seven Years' War (IToB). He sliare<l Freilerick's
<loubtful foitiines liefore Prafjue, was present at
tlip victories of I/otmsitz and Kossliacli, and con-
ducted tlie masterly retreat from Olmiitz. His
last battle was not far distant. On 14th October
1758 at Hochkirch (ij.v.) Keith, who commanded
the Prussian right wing, was shot dead wliile for
tlie third time cliarfrin'; the enemy. The Austrians
buried him honourably in the church at Hochkirch,
whence Frederick next year translated his remains
to the (iarrison church' at Berlin. There, too, in
the Wilhelmsplatz, Frederick in 1786 erected a
statue of the marshal, a replica of which in bronze
was gifted by King William to Peterhead in 1868.
Keith died poor and uninarried, but he left children
by his mistress, the Swedish captive, Eva Merthens,
who survived him till 1811.
See his fragmentary but valuable Memoir, ITli-S/f
(Spalding Club, 1843); the Memoir of Marshal Keith,
Kith a Sketch of the Keith Famili/ ( >'eterlieart, 1S69 ) ;
Carlyle's Frederick ; and the German Lives of Keith, by
Varnhagen von Ense (1844; new ed. 1888) and Lieut,
von Paczynski-Tenczyn (1889).
Keitli-Faleoner. See Falconee.
Kckul«',FRiEDRiCH August ( 1829-96), chemist,
born atDariiistailt, and ennobled as Von Stradowitz
in 1895, became juofessor at Ghent and at Bonn
(1865). He made important researches in the
chemistry of the org.anic substances, and jiublished
a famous' handbook of organic cliemistry ( 1861-67 ).
Keliit (also spelt Khelat and Kalat), the capi-
tal of Beluchistan, stands at an elevation of more
than 7000 feet, in 28° 52' N. lat. and 66° 33' E.
long., and coutainsabout 14,000 inhabitants. Seated
on the summit of a hill, Kelat is a place of great
military im|i(utance. It was occupied bj- England
(1839-41); and in 1877 a treaty was concluded
with the khan, by which a British agent, with
military escort, became resident at Kelat. In 1893
the Iniiian government deposed the khan for mis-
government, his son being proclaimed kh.an in his
stead. See Beluchistan.— Kel.\t-i-Giiii,zai is a
fortress of Afghanistan, 75 miles NE. of Kandahar.
Kclati \adiri. one of the strongest natural
fortresses in the world, in the Persian province of
Kborassan, and close to the Itussian frontier of
Transcas])ia. It was raised by Nadir Shah as a
defence against the Turkomans upon an elevated
valley in tlie Hezar Musjid Mountain, and shut out
from external (communication by lofty hills with
])recipices of 300 to 600 feet. Owing to Russia's
schemes upon Khorassan, Kelati Nadiri has re-
cently gained consider.ible im])ortance.
Kcllawsiys Rock, the name given to highly
fossiliferous beds of sand and calcareous sandstones
which occur near the bitse of the Oxford clay. See
Jurassic System.
KcIIci*. (■iiTTFltlED, German poet and novelist,
was bom at (ilattfelden, near Zurich, on 19th July
1819. He studied at first landscape-painting at
Vienua( 1840-42), but shortly afterwanls abandoned
jiainting for literature. From 1861 to 1876 he was
st^ite secretary of his native canton. The works
on which Keller's fame rests are the romance, J)er
ffriine Hcinrich (1804; new and revised ed. 1879-
SO); Die Leiite von Sclelvyla ( I8.">6), a collection of
short tales, of which .some, !is Itoiiiea tuul Juliet
(inf (lem Dorf, K/cidcr mac/ieii /.eiife, and Der
.Sc/iinicfl xeinen Gliickcs, are excellently told ; the
liumoristic Siehen Leejenchn (1872); Ziirirhcr
Norclkn (1878) ; a volume of Gesammclte Geilirhte
(1883); and the romance j1/rt;-A/fl Snieiiiilcr (1886).
Keller has a warm and fertile imagination, a rich
huMiour, and true poetic feeling; he excels in the
delineation of Swiss character. A collected eilition
of liis works appeared in 1889-90. He died 15th
July 1890. See Life by Brahm ( 1883).
Hellermanii, Francois Christoi-he, linke
of Valmy. liorn 28th May 1735, at Wolfsbuch-
weiler, in Alsace, entered a French regiment of
hussars at seventeen, and had risen to the rank
of major-general before the Kevoluticui broke
out. In 1792 he received the (MUiimand of the
Army of the Centre on the Moselle, repelled
the Duke of Brunswick, and by his daring
promptitude delivered France by the famous can-
nonade of Valmy. Vet on .allegation of treason
against the republic, he was imprisoned for a
year, .and only lilierated on Robes])ierre's fall.
He afterwards rendered important services in Italy,
.and on the erection of the Empire he was made a
niiirshal .and a duke. In the campaigns of 1809
.and 1812 he comm.anded the reserves on the Khine.
At the Bestor.ation be .attached himself to the
Bourbons. He was moderate .and c(uislitutional
in his views. He died 12tli September 1820. It
w.as his son (1770-1835) whose charge turned
Marengo ( q. v. ) into a victoiy.
Kells (originally Kcnlis), an ancient town of
County Me.atli, Leinster, Ireband, sitn.ated on the
Bliickwater, 26 miles liy rail \V. of Droghed.a. It
ha.s sever.al interesting .antiquities, including St
Columba's house, a round tower, and three or four
stone crosses. Kells w.as made the centre of a
bishop's see in 807 ; this was united to the see of
Me.atli in the 13th centuiy. Previous to the Union
Kells returned two memliers to iiarliament. Pop.
2822. A manuscript copy of the gospels, called the
Book of Kells, is beautifully executed with coloured
Celtic orn.anientation, and is believed to be the
work of the 9th century. It is now i)reserved in
the library of Trinity College, Dublin. See Illu-
min.\tion' of Manuscripts.
Kel|>(Fr. rrireeh) is the crude alkaline matter
produced by the combustion of seaweeds, of which
the most valued for this juirpose are FiiCKS resini-
losKS, F. nodosns, F. sci-raf>is, Lcimineiriet eiiijilutct,
L. hidbosei, Hiniatit/iei/iei lorcu, and Chordei plum.
These .are dried in the sun, .and then burned in
shallow excav.ations .at a low heat. About 20 or
24 tons of seaweed yield one ton of kelp. The
kelp met with in commerce C(Uisists of b;ird, d.ark-
giuy or bluish masses, which have an .acrid, caustic
tasie, and are composed of chloride of sodium, of
carbonate of soda, sulphates of .soda .and potash,
chloriile of pot.a-ssium, iodide of potassium or
sodium, insoluble salts, and colouring matter. It
used to be the great source of soda (the crude
(■arbon.atc ) ; but, as this salt can now be obtained
at a lower price and of a better (piality from the
decomposition of sea-salt, it is prepared in far les.s
quantity than formerly from ketji. A tiui of goo<l
kelp will yield about 8 II). of iodine, large quantities
of chhuide of potassium, and additionally, by de-
structive distillation, a large (|u;uilily of volatile oil,
from 4 to 15 gallons of paratlin oil, 3 or 4 gallons
of n.ajditha, and from U to 4 cwt. of sulpliate of
ammonia.
Till 1825, liefore the remission of the duty on
salt .and on Spanish barilla, the kelp manufacture
(introduced into Tyree in 1746) w.as carried on to
a very large extent in the north and west of
Scotland, and the v.alue of many estates in the
Highlanils and lleOiridi-s greatly increased in con-
•sequence. About the beginningof the I9lh century
some 20,000 tons, worth from f200.00ll to £3li0.00tt,
were m.ade annually <m the western coasts of .Scot-
land alone. Now the total annual produce in the
United Kingdom will hanlly exceecl 70(K> tons, at
.about f4 a Icui. The greater part comes from
Ireland, the remainder from the West liigldands
and the Channel Islands. The French supplies do
KELPIE
KEJVIBLE
409
not exceoil those of Britain. See Soda, Iodin?;,
Seawkkks.
Kclpio. See Demonolocv.
Kolsoy Beds, a sn1nlivisioii of the Pleistocene
acoiiiuulations, consisting; cliielly of <;iavel, eliaif;ed
with marine sliells ami remains of mammoth,
rhinoceros, \c., which occurs at Kelsey Hill near
Heilon, and other places in tlie neijjhbourliood of
Hnll. The gravel rests upon and is covere<l liy
bouldcrclay, and was probably deposited in the
sea, near the mouth of a river.
Kelso, a pleasant market-town of Roxburgh-
shire. 23 miles by rail WSW. of Berwick-onTweed
and .V2 (by roail 42) SE. of Edinburgh. It stands
on the north bank of the Tweed, here joined by
the Teviot, and spanned by Kennie's noble hve-
arcli bri.lge ( 1803), 165 yardi long. In 1 12(i David
I. translated to 'Calchou' a Tironensi.nn al>1iey,
founded by him at .Selkirk seven years before.
This, wrecked by the English under Hertford in
lo45, is now represented by the stately ruin of its
cruciform cliurch, Romanesque and Fii-st Pointed
in style, with a ma.ssive central tower 91 feet
high. Across the river, on the peninsula formed
by the Teviot, stood the royal castle and town of
Roxburgh, ileniolished in 1460 ; and 1 mile W. is
Floors Castle (171S-1849), the seat of tlie Duke of
Iloxburghe. Kelso itself has a town-hall (1S16),
corn exchange (1856), high school (1878), race-
coui-se, coach-building and other industries, and
memories of the '15, Scott, the Ballantvnes, and
Sir William Kairbairn. Pop. (1851) 4783; (1881)
4687: ils;)l) 417.5. See works by Haig (1825),
Cosmo Innes (1846), and Kutherfur'd (1880).
Kelt. See Salmon.
Kelts. See Celts.
K4-Iviii. Lord. See Thomson (William).
Keillble, John Mitchell, Anglo-Saxon scholar,
w,i-s the son of Charles Kemble, the actor, and was
>>orn in London in 1807. He had his education
partly under Dr Richardson, author of the Enrjlish
Dii-tionaiy, and partly at Buiy St Edmunds
frammar-school, whence in 1826 he passed to
riidty College, Cambridge, graduating B.A. in
1830. While an undergraduate he spent some time
at (iottingen, under the brothers Grimm, who seem
to have finally determineil his natural bent towards
Teutonic studies. The lii-st fruit of these was an
edition of the poem of Beowulf (183.3-37), to a
secoiul edition of which he ailde<l a translation,
with a glossary and notes. Not to mention several
minor publications, he edited for the English His-
toiical Society a valualile collection of charters
of the An"lo-Saxon period, entitled Codex Diplo-
maticits Jhvi Saxonici [Q vols. 1839-48). But his
most important work, which contains the chief
results of all his researches, is his untinisheil
Hintnru of the Saxons in Engluntl (2 vols. 1849;
new e(!. by W. de (S. Birch, 1876). Fnrtlier work
was interrupt(;d by sudden de.ath at Dublin, March
26, 1857. Kemble w;us for a good numy years
editor of the Britink mid Foreir/n Review; and
also held the olllce of Licenser of Plays.
Kemble. .Iohn Philip, eldest .son of Roger
Kemble, a well-known countiy nuinager, was born
at Pre.scot, in Lancashire, on 1st February 1757.
His father intended him for the Roman Catholic
l>riesthooil, aiul with this view he wa-s sent to a
seminary at Sedgeley Park, in Stallordshire, and
afterwanis t<) the English college at Donay. But
the stage mania was im him, and he became,
despite his father's earnest prohibition, an actiu'.
His first professional apiiearance wjis made at
Wolverhampton on 8th .lanuary 1776; he after-
wards joined the famous V'ork circuit, uniler the
command of Tate Wilkinson ; and he played also
in Ireland. The success of his great sister, Mrs
Siddons (q.v.), gave him the eagerly-covetid
ch.ance of a London appear.ance, and on .SOtii
September 1783 he played Hamlet at Drury Lane.
His reading of the character was original and strik-
ing, and, tliough his acting was not then what it
afterwanis became, it aroused the keenest interest.
He continued to play leading tragic characters at
Dnin- L.ane for many years, until, indeed, the shift-
lessne.ss of Sheridan forced him to leave tlie tliejit re.
In 1788 Sherid.in appointed Kemlile manager, and
his control of the theatre was notable for the care
and completeness with which Sh.akespeare and the
legitimate drama were produced. When driven
from Drury Lane in 1802 he purchased a share
(one-sixth) in Covent Garden Theatre, for which
be paid £23,000. He became manager of that
theatre, and made his first appearance there on
24th September 1803 as Hamlet. On 20th Septem-
ber 1808 the theatre wa-s burned to the ground, and
on the opening of the new building (18th Septem-
ber 1809) the notorious O. P. (i.e. 'Old Price')
Riots broke out, in which the Kemble family were
the specijil objects of jjublic execration. Kemble
retired in 1817. He took a formal farewell of the
Edinburgh public on 29th iNlarch of that year,
sjieaking a farewell epilogue written by his warm
friend. Sir W.alter Scott. His London farewell was
taken on 23d .lune in his great character of Corio-
lanus. He afterwards settled down at Lausanne,
where he died of apoplexy on 26th Feljrnary 1823.
.\s an actor Kemble probably has had no superior
in the dignified, stately characters of tragedy —
he was ' the noblest Roman of them all ' — and his
Coriolanus, his Brutus, and his Cato were perfect
imperson.ations. He wivs a magnificently hand-
some man ; stately, if rather stilt', in bearing : a
thoroughly intelligent and ediicated speaker, though
labouring under the disadvantage of a weak voice ;
and, above all, a man of remarkable intellectual
power. He was also emphatically a gentleman. —
Stephen, brother of the foregoing, was born in
Herefordshire, 3d May 1758. As an actor he was
chieHy remarkable for his enormous bulk, which
enabled him to pl.ay Falstatl' without stuffing. He
was for some eight years (1792-1800) manager of
the Edinburgh theatre, where he was in continual
hot water through lawsuits ainl other troubles.
He died in 1822. — Chakles, younger brother of
John and Stephen, was born at Brecon on 27th
November 1775. In 1792 he made his first .appear-
ance on the stage at Sheffield .as Orlando in As You
Like If, and on 21st April 1794 made his debut in
London, playing M>alcolni to John- Kemble's Mac-
beth. He continued on the stage till 1S40, when,
being appointeil Examiner of Plays, he retired from
the active exercise of his profession. He dinl on
12tli Noveml>er 1854. As an actor Kemble chielly
excelled in characters of the second rank, .anil his
Laertes, Cassio, and Jlacdutl' were scarcely less
j interesting than his greater brother's Hamlet,
I Othello, and Maclieth. In comedy he specially
distinguished himself, and his name is even yet a
tradition Un- gra<'e, delicacy, anil joyous Inightnes.s.
No man could i)lay gentlemen more perfectly than
Charles Kemble. — Two of Charles's daughters com-
plete the list of the Kemhies. Frances Anne
(Fanny Kemble), born in London, 27th November
1809, nuade her debut in 1829, when her tragic
acting cicMteil <a great sensation. In 1832 slie
went with her father to .\merica, where two years
later she marrieil Fierce Butler, a Southern ^danler.
They were divorced in 1848; and, resuming her
maiden n<'ime, she gave Shakespearian readings for
twenty years. She published dram.as, poems, auto-
biogi.apliv, vKc, and died in London, loth .lanuary
189.3.— Ai)KLAll)E (1814-79) wn.s distinguished as
an ojtera singer, but retired before her marriage
410
KEMP
KEN
witli F. Saitoris. She w;is author of A Il'ci/- hi a
Freiirh t'uiiutry House (1867) anil Hfediisa and
Vlhcr Tti/is (1S6S). See Percy Fitzgerald, 'The
Kcmblcs (2 vols. 1871).
Keill|>. Geoege JIeikle, architect, was born
at Moortoot, in Peeblesshire, 26th May 179.'), and
ii]! to the aj;e of fourteen assisted his father, who
was a shepherd. IJecomiug a carpenter and mill-
wright, he afterwards sought work in England and
France, everywhere settling in towns wliere he
could study fresh specimens of Gothic architecture ;
lint his intention of nraking a tour of Europe was
checked by news of liis mothers death, and he
returned to Scotland in 1S26. There he ultimately
became adniughtsman in Edinburgh, and executeil
drawings of Scottish cathedrals for a projected
Glasgow publication. This was abandoned, how-
ever, .as was also a project to complete Glas™w
cathedral, for which Kem]) had prepared a model ;
but in 183S liis second ilesign for the Scott Monu-
ment at Edinbur<;h was accepted. It is on this
work alone that Kemp's fame rests, for before the
completion of his fairy-like structure the architect
was drowneil in the canal at Edinburgh, on the night
of 6th March 1S44. See Life by T. lionnar (1892).
Kenilien, a town of Khenish Prussia, 7 miles
X\V. of Krefeld. It manufactures silk goods, wax
candles, vinegar, &c. Pop. 5952. There is another
Kempen in the Prussian government of Poseu, -tS
miles l>y rail NE. of Ureslau. Pop. 5787.
Kcinpis, Thoii.\s a, was so called from Kem-
pen, wliere he was born in 1379. His family
name was Hiimerkeu ( Latinised, Mlalleolus,
' Little-hanmier '). He was educated at Deventer,
and in 1400 entered the Augustinian convent of
Agnetenberg near Zwolle, of which his brotlier .lohn
was prior. Here he took the vows in 1406. He
entered into priest's orilers in 1413, and was chosen
sulp-prior in 1429, to which otlice he was re-elected
in 144S. His whole life appears to have been
spent in the seclusion of this convent, where he
lived to an extreme old age. His death took place
in 1471, at which time lie certainly had attaine<l
his ninetieth, anil most probably his ninety -second
year. The character ot Kempis for sanctity and
ascetic learning stood \'cry high among his con-
temporaries, but his historical rejiutatiou rests
almost entirely on his writings, which consist of
sermons, ascetical treatises, ])ious biographies,
letters, and hymns. Of these, however, the only
one which deserves special notice is the celebrateil
ascetical treatise On the Followhiii [or Iiiiitatiun)
of Christ, the autliorship of which is popularly
ascribed to him. In its pages, says Dean Alilman,
' is gathered and concentred all that is elevating,
passionate, profoundly pious in all the older mystics.
No book, after the Holy Scri|)ture, hits been .so often
reprinted, none translated into so many languages,
ancient and modern,' extending even to Greek and
Hebrew, or so often retranslated. At least eighty
editions «ere printed between 1470 and 1500 ; and
the total number of eilitions enumerated by Fr. Aug.
de Hacker (Exsai Bibliorj., Liege, 1864) w;is about
3000. Before his death in 1873 he had collected
evidence of more than 3000 additional eilitions.
The earliest English translation, by Dr .-Vtkinson,
canon of Windsor, w.os printed by Pynson in
loO.'J. It is strange that the authorship of a
book so popular, and of a date comparatively so
recent, should still be the subject of one of the
most curious controvei-sies in literary history. The
book, up to the beginning of the 17th century, had
been xscribed either to Thomas ;i Kempis or to the
celel)rated .John (lerson (q.v. ), chancellor of the
univcrsitv of Paris, except in one MS., which,
by a paljiable anachronism, attributes it to St
Bernard ; but from that time another claimant has
been put forward, Gersen, the so-called abbot of
A'ercefli, whose \ery existence has not been satisf;ic-
torily )iroved. His claim was strongly argued by
C'ajetan and many Benedictine writers, and later
by M. lie (Jregory {Mi'iiio/rc siir Ic vd-ituhle Aiiteur
(le rimit., 1830) and Renan, but the arguments
against it of Father Euseliius Anu)rt and Mgr.
Malou (lircherrhcs histor., Tournivy, 'id ed. 18.58)
remain unanswered. These three competitoi-s
have divided the voices of the learned, not
alone individuals, but public bodies, universities,
religious orders, the Congregation of the Index,
the parliament of Paris, and even the French
Academy ; and the assertoi-s of their respec-
tive claims have carried into the controvei'sy no
small amount of polemical acrimony. Hilton, an
English monk, has also een proposed as author ;
but the learned have now generally come to con-
cede the honour to Kempis. The theology of the
Imitation is almost purely ascetical, and (except-
ing the 4th book, which regards the euchiirist, and
is based on the doctrine of the real presence) the
work has been used indiscriminately by Christians of
all denominations. The most ancient perfect MS.,
written by Thomas's own hand, is in the ISourgoi'ne
Library at Brussels, and bears the date 1441, but
we know that this was not the protograph MS.,
and indeed two MS. copies exist of 1425, \Ve may
therefore date the completion of the work between
1415 and 1424. An exact facsimile was published
at London in 1879, with an introduction by Charles
Ruelens. Dr Carl Hirsche of Hamburg discovered
that in this its original form the work w;us character-
ised by rhythmical periods, cadenced sentences, and
frequent rhymes — a device not uncommon among
mystical writers. He found also upon the M.S.
marks of a peculiar system of punctuation, em-
jdoyed not merely to mark the sense, but also
to indicate these rliytbms to a, reader : and in 1874
he printed at Berlin an edition of the text in which
these were set forth for the first time by a re-
arrangement of the matter in the paragraphs. The
present division of the chapters into paragraphs
w!is originally made by the Jesuit H. Soninialius
(1.599); the further division into versicles was the
work of the 17tli-centurv editors. A new Eii'dish
translation, 'now for the tii'st time set fortli in
Kliytlimic Sentences according to the Griginal
Intention of the Author,' was published in London
in 1889, with a preface by Canon Liddon.
See KettievreU, Aut/torship of the De Imitntionc (1877)
and his 7'homnn a Kempis and the Brothera of tlie Common
Life (1882); Victor Becker, L'Auteur de V Imitation
(l.«S):Hirsche, Prnlniomriui :h drr /mi'^n'i'o (]87.'?-94) ;
L. "Wlieatley, The Storii of the Imitatio Clirisli (l.'*!)1 >.
'I'lie translation, with introduction, &c., by I>r Bigg (1807 ),
is hased, like all English translations, on that of .■\ntliony
Hoskins the Jesuit ( 1568-1015 ', itself a nioilemisation
of the oilier one by Richard Whytford (ed. 1520). See
the Hliliography in Wolfsgruber's f/cescn (1880). •
KeillOteil. a town of I!;i\aria, 54 miles S. by
E. of rim. The upper town grew up around a
monastery (Slh century) founded by disciples of St
Gall ; the abbot became a prince of the empire
(1.3()0), and the pl.ace a free town of the empire
(1289). There are some mannfacture.s. Pop. (1875)
12,682; (1895) 17,35,3.
Kcnipton I'ark, in .Middlesex, 4 miles W. of
KingstDii on-Tliames, once a royal residence, is now
noted for its race-meetings. See HoKSKKACIMi.
Ken, Thoma.s, an English bishop of saintly
memory, was born at Little Berkliampstead, Herts,
in .Inly 1637. His step-sister Anne Ken. twenty-
seven years his .senior, was the second wife of
Izaak Walton. He had his education at \\ in-
Chester, and at Ilait ll.all and New College, Oxford,
obtained a fellowship in the last named in 1657,
KENDAL
KENNEDY
411
and proceeded B.A. in 1661 and M.A. in 1C64. He
took oiders at twenty-live, and lielil in snccession
the country livings of Little Ea^iton in Essex,
Brixton in the Isle of Wi<;ht, and Eiist Woodhav
in Hants. Already he had lieen elected a Fellow of
Winchester College, and he now became also chap-
lain to the bishop, Dr George Morley. Here it was
that he prepared his Manual of Prayers for the use
of the Sr/io/ars of Winehester College (1674), and
^vTote his famous morning, evening, and midnight
hymns, the Krst two of which, 'Awake, my soul,
and with the snn,' and '(Tlorv to Thee, my (Jod, this
night,' are perhaps more widely known than any
other Englisii hymns. In 1674 Ken visited Rome,
and five veai-s later was appointed b.v Charles II.
cha]ilain to the Prince-ss itary, wife of William of
Orange, liut offended William by insisting that a
relative's promise of marriage should be kept, and
returned home in 1680, \\ hen he was appointed one
of the chajilains of the king. It was in March 1683,
on the king's visit to Winchester, that Ken refused
to give up his house for the accommodation of
Nell Gwynne. Later in the same year he sailed
to Tangiers as chaplain to Lord Dartmouth, and
seven months after his return (in A]iril 1684) was
appointed Bishop of Bath and Wells. It is said
that a-s soon as the king heard of the vacancy he
remembered Ken's fearless honesty at Winchester,
and asked. ' Where is the little man who wouldn't
give poor Xell.v a lodging ? Give it to him.' He was
consecrated in January 1685, and one of his first
duties was to attend the deatli-bed of Charles. The
chief public event of his bishopric was his trial and
acquittal among the ' Seven Bishops ' in 1688, for
refusing to read the Declaration of Inrlulgcnec.
At the Revolution he found himself unable in con-
science to take the oath to William, having already
sworn allegiance to King James, and was therefore
superseded in his bishopric by Dr Kidder in 1691.
He spent the remainder of his days in quiet retire-
ment at Lord Weymouth's seat of Longleat, re-
fusing to perpetuate the schism by consecrating
non-juring bishops. On account of his growing
weakness he declined to resume the duties of his
diocese on Kidder's death in 1703, and gladly
recognised his successor, ceasing to si^ himself
'Bath and Wells' from that time. He died at
Longleat, 19th March 1711, and was buried at sun-
rise of the 21st, beneath the chancel window in the
churchyard of Frome Selwood.
Bishop Ken was esteemed a great preacher in his
day, but his name survives now only from his
hymns, and from liLs saintlv personal character and
the intensity of his devotion. And his morning
and evening hymns deserve the world-wide reputa-
tion they enjoy, from the transparent sirM|)licity,
fervour, and truth with which throughout they are
informed. His Exposition on the Church Catechism
( 1685 ) is his most important work in prose.
Ken's poetical works were collected by liis great-
nephew and executor, W. Hawkins, in four volumes in
1721 ; his iirose works by J. T. Kound in one volume in
1838. Hawkins published a selection from the works,
with a Life, in 1713. A convenient collection of the
prose works is that by the Eev. W. Benham in 1889 for
the ' Ancient and Modem Librar>- of Theol(igii:al Litera-
ture.' There are Lives by the Rev. W. L. liowKs ( 2 vols.
18:«)-31 ), by ' A Layman'— Mr Anderdon— (1851 ), Dean
Plmuptru (2 vols. 1888), and F. A. Clarke (1896).
Kendal, or Kirby Kexd.m,, a market-towTi
of Wf-,tniorlHnd, on the Kent. 22 miles by rail N.
of Lancaster anrl 13 SW. of Ambleside. It is
a gray straggling place, Avitli an ancient Gothic
church, a ruined ca.stle ( the birthplace of Catharine
Parr), a town-hall (IS2S), and a grammar-school
(rebuilt in 1887). Flemings .settled here in 1.3.37,
ami the town Ijecaine famous for its woollens and
' Kendal-green ' buckram; whilst Pococke in 17.54
refers to its ' manufacture of a sort of frieze call'd
cotton, at 8d. a yard, sohl mostly for the ^^'est
Indies, for the slaves.' Nowadays the industries
include heavy textile fabrics, such as horse-cloths
and railway rugs, besides leather, snull', paper, &c.
Incorpor.ated as a inunici])al borough in 1575,
Kendal returned one member to parliament from
1832 till 188.5. Pop. (1851) 11,829; (1891) 14,430.
See two works by C. Nicholson ( 1832-75).
Kenia. MorxT. an isolated mountain mass in
eastern Africa, about 10' south of the equator,
and not far north of Kilima-Njaro, nearly in the
centre of British East Africa. It is also known
as Doenyo Ebor, or White ilountain, because its
summit is covered with perpetual snow. The crater
wall rises up to a height of 16,(X)0 feet, but the
loftiest pinnacle towel's up 3000 feet higher. Count
Teleki partly .iscended it in 1887, and Dr Gregory
got to beyond 17,000 feet in 1893.
Kenilworth. a market-town of Warwickshire,
on a small sub-affluent of the Avon, 5 miles X. of
Warwick ami 5 SSW. of Coventry. The castle,
founded about 1120 by Geoffrey de Clinton, was
defended for six months (1265-66) by Simon de
Montfort's son, and passed by marriage (1359) to
John of Gaunt, and so to his son, Henr>- IV.
It continued a crown possession till in 1563
Elizabeth conferred it on Leicester, -who here in
July 1575 entertained her for eighteen days at a
daily cost of £1000 — that sumptuous entertainment
described in Scott's Kcnilvorth. Dismantled by
the Roundheads, the castle has belonged since the
Restoration to the Earls of Clarendon. Its noble
ruins comprise ' Ca'sar's Tower,' the original Nor-
man keep, with walls 16 feet thick ; Mcrvyn's
Tower and the Great Hall, both buUt by John of
Gaunt : and the more recent but more dilapidated
Leicester's Buildings. There is a fragment ;ilso of
an Augustinian priory (c. 1122) ; and the parish
church has a good Norman doorway. Tanning is
the chief industry. Pop. ( 1851 ) 2886 ; ( 1891 1 417.3.
Kennebec, a river of Maine, rises in Moose-
head Lake, in the west of the state, and, passing.
Augusta, runs generally south to the Atlantic
Ocean. Its length is over 150 miles. It is navi-
gable for large vessels to Bath, 12 miles, and for
steamers beyond Augusta. In its course it falls
1000 feet, affording abundant water-power. Except
for a few miles from its mouth, the river is closed
by ice for fiom three to four months in the year ;
and many companies are engaged in harvesting and
storing tlie ice.
Kennedy. Benjamin Hall, one of the greatest
of modern scluiolniasters, was born in 1804, son of
the Rev. Kann Kennedy, second master of King
Edward's School, Birmingham, and had his educa-
tion there and at Shrewsbury under Dr Hutler,
whence he passed to St Jidin's College, Cambriilge.
His course was unusually distinguished : he carried
off the Porson prize thrice, the medal for the Latin
ode twice, and tor the Greek ode once, and graduated
in 1827 as senior classic, senior Chancellor's medal-
list, ami senior optime. Next year he became
Fellow and cla.ssiciil lecturer of his college, in 18.30
an assistant-master at Harrow, and in 18."ili w:us
anpointed to sncceed his <dd master, Dr Butler, at
Slirewsbury. Here for thirty years lie laboured
with assiduons vigour and conspicuous success,
forming for almost a generati<ni a series of brilliant
scholars, of whom need only here be nanied the
greatest, H. A. J. Munro, the editor of Lucretius.
The famous tSahrinac Corolla (18,50; 4th ed. 18Sm)
is an imperishable memorial at once of his own
brilliant scholarship and of the spirit ho could
inspire. There never was perhaps a more dexter-
ous .and clever versifier in tiotli (Jreek and Latin.
In 1867 Dr Kennedy w.as appointed professor of
412
KENNETH MACALPIN
KENSINGTON
Greek at raiiibriflp;e and Canon of Ely. He died
at Toif|ua.v. Apiil 6. 1889.
Among his books were PaJacstra Latina (1S50) ; Curri-
culum Stili Latini ( 1H58 ) ; tlie Public School Latin Grnm-
mar { 1871 ) ; an admirable school edition of Virgil, anno-
tated ( 187(1 1 ; and editions, with verse translations, of the
7?/jv/.s'of Aristophanes (1874), the Aoamcumonof -^Escliy-
lus (187S), and the 'Rlipus T'tfj-nnni/.t of Sophocles (1882).
In Between Whiles (1877) are collected many excellent
poetical pieces in Greek, Latin, and English. Other
w(M-ks were Occnsional Sermons (1877), Plato's ThetFtetu^,
witli translation ( 18SI ), and Klii Lrrtuns on the Revised
Translation nf the Xcv Tcstaincut (1882).
Keitiietli Macalpin. See Scotl.\nd.
K<'IIIli<>Ott. P-EN.IAMIX, .an eminent ISthcen-
tnry bililioal si-liolar, was born at Totnes, in Devon-
shire, -Vpril 4. 1718, son of the parish clerk and
master of a charity school, to which latter office lie
succeeded at an early age. Some rich friends who
recognised his promise hidped him to enter Wadham
College, O.xford, in 1744, and tliere he soon distin-
;;nished himself by his .acquirements in Hebrew and
theology, publishing, wliile still an undergradu.ate,
two striking dissertations. On the 'Tree, of Life in
Paradise and On the Oblntionx nf Cain and Abel.
Soon after he was elected Fellow of Exeter College.
In 1707 lie was appointed Radclitl'e librarian, and
in 1770 canon of cinist Church, Oxford, where he
died, August 18, 178.'). The great work by which
Kennicott's n.anie will be remembered is Iii's Vetus
Testament Hin Ilehrairum enm Variix Leetionihim (2
vols, folio, 17TG-80). Already in 17-53 .and further in
1759 he had published a work entitled The State of
the Printed Hebrew Te.rt of the Old Testament con-
sidered. This contained, amoiio; other things, obser-
vations on 70 Helirew MSS., willi an extract of mis-
takes .and various readings, .and strongly enf<n'ce(l the
necessity for .a nincli mure extensive coll.ation, in
order to ascertain or approximate tow.ards .a correct
Hebrew text. He undertook to execute the work
thus projected in the course of ten years, .and
laboured, until his health broke down, from ten to
fourteen hours a d.ay. In spite of consider.able
op]iosition from Bishops Warlmrton, Home, and
otiier divines, Kenuicott succeeded in enlisting the
sympathies and olitaining the support of the clergy
generally. Subscriptions to the amount of .t'10,()00
poured in, and many foreign scholars, .as Hruns of
Helmsta<lt, undertook to help forward the work by
collating MSS. in the libraries .abro.ad. For ten
years sulisequently to 1700 accounts of the progress
of tiie work were issued, and from first to host no
fewer than 01.5 Hebrew MSS. .and Hi MSS. of the
Samaritan Pentateuch were collated. The text
linally printed was that of Van der Hooght (with-
out vowel-points), with the various readings printed
at the bottom of the page. The Varia- Lertioncs
Vetcris Tcslameiiti {I'linna, 1784-88), published by
He Rossi, is a v.aluable addition to Kennicott's
Hebrew Bible, .lalin published at Vienna ( 180G) a
very correct abridgment, cmbracuiig the most itii-
jiortant of Kennicott's readings.
HoilllinstOII. a district of I„ambetli parish,
and a division of Laiiibeth parliamentary borough,
London. Kenninglon Ov.al, a litth' to the south
of \',au\liall I'.ridge, is a famous cricket ground.
KonOSis. See ClIRISTOUKiV, Jksus.
Kciisal <ire«'II. a cemetery on the north-west
of liOiidon, 77 acres in extent, was consecr.ated in
November I8;{2: here many of the illustrious sons
of England h.ave been buried, as Thacker.ay, Leigh
Hunt, Sydney Smith, Buckle, Sir Charles Kastlake,
.lohn Leech, Sir .lohn l{oss. Brunei, Mulre.idy,
K.'Tiible, l)r Hilidiu, Tom Hood, I'.alfe, Liston,
rii:iiles M.-illiews, .Madame Vestris, Tietjeiis,
Wilkie Collins, the Duke of Sussex, and his sister
the Princess Sophia.
Hrnsinstoil. a straggling parish in the west
of London adjoining Westminster, within which,
although notice<l here, are Kensington I'alace and
tiardens. The former, given to the nation in 1899,
and built of red brick, was the seat of Ileneage
Finch. E.arl of Nottingham .and Lord Chancellor,
from whose successor Willi.am lll.boughl it in IG89:
he and his wife Mary, (Jneen Anne .and her consort
Prince (ieorge of Denmark, .and (o'orge II. all
died within its w,alls, and it w.as also the birthplace
of tjueen Victoria. Kensington Gardens, which
at lirst only consisted of the grounds of '26 acres
attached to the palace, have been frequently
enlarged, and .are now 2A miles in circuit ; they are
connected with the northern part of Hyde Park liy
a stone bridge over the Serpentine built by Kennie
in 1826. At their southern extremity is the Albert
Memorial (1872), designed by Sir Gilbert Scott,
.and consisting of a bronze-gilt statue (by Foley) of
the prince seated, placed beneath a gorgeous <tanopy
ISO feet high, and surrounded by works of scnl]iture
illustrating the various arts .and sciences. D|)posite,
in Kensington Gore, is the Albert Hall (1807-71). a
huge circular building in the moilern Italian style,
of red brick with yellow dressings, useil as ,a con-
cert-room and capable of holding 10,000 persons ;
its cost was £200,000, and the interior measures
200 feet by 180 feet .and is 140 feet high. Other
buildings in the vicinity are the South Ken-
sington Museum, Natural History Museum (see
BuiTIstl MUSKUM), Koyal School'of Art Needle-
work, Royal College of Music (1883), City and
(iuilds of London Institute for the adv.ancement of
technical education (1884), and Imperial Institute,
the opening of which by Queen Victoria took
place in 1893. The parish church of St M.ary
Abbots — so called from the Abbots of .\bingdon, to
whom in 1107 a large p.art of the manor ol Kensing-
ton was granted — is a line building in the Gothic
style, designed by Sir tiilliert Scott ( 18(i!l), with a
s]iire 295 feet high. Close by is the town-hall
( 1880),and the Roman Catholic I'ro-c.athedr.al ( 1809).
Next to Kensington Palace, the most intcrestini'
building from a historical point of view is Holland
House, a qnaint mansion in the Elizalx-than style,
erected (1607) by Sir Walter Cope, and the great
resort of the AVIiig politicians at the commence-
ment of the 19th century. Amongst its occupants
have been Fairfax, the PailiameMtary general ;
Addison, who died in it ; Shippen, the famous
Jacobite; William Penii, the founder of Pennsyl-
vania; and Charles .lames I''o\, the statesman.
Campden House, ii'built in 1862 on its destruction
by lire, is noteworthy from the former house, erected
in 1012, having been the residence before her acces-
sion, of l^ueen Anne. Of the residences occujiied by
Swift, Sir Isaac Newton, .lack Wilkes. Wilbeiforce,
George Canning and his sou, Dr Dibdiii. Sir David
"Wilkie, William Cobbett, .Mrs Im-hbald, Count
Ddrsay, Talli'vr.and, Lord Macaulay, Th.ickcniy,
and .loiin Leech but few (races now remain. The
borough returns two membi'is to parliament. IVqi-
iilatiou of the entire civil pari.sli, which includes
Brompton, (1871) 120,299; (1891) 100,:108. See
Leigh Hunt's An Old Conrt Suburb ( 18.55), Loftie's
I'ielitrrsiiue Kensinijlon { 1888), and Marie Lichten-
stein's Holland House ( 1873).
SofTll KuNsi.NiiTON MrsKt'M was at lirst a tem-
por.ary edilice of iron and wooil (po|nilarly known
as ' tiie Brompton Boilers ') which was erected by
government (Science and .\rt Deiiartment) on part
of the estate purch.ased out of the surplus funds of
the Exhibition of 1851. It was opened in 1857, and
to it were removed various collections which hail
since 18.52 been exhibiteil in .Marlbiuough House.
This edilice hits been superseded by ]icrmam'nt
buildings— still in( iplete. The institution com-
ini.ses ( 1 ) the Art Museum, (2) the India Museum,
KENSINGTON
KENT
413
(3) various science eollections. The National
Art Training Scliool, tlie Noiiiiiil School of Science.
ami the offices of the Department of Science anil
Art also form [larts of the .same ^'rou)! of buildings.
The art collections comprise original works of deco-
rative art of all jieriods and countries : paintings,
chietly of the English school, hut including the car-
toon.s of Itaphael, the property of the crown : and
reproductions in pUister, metal, Ac. of sculpture,
architectural decoration, and silversmiths' work.
These have been acquired by purch;use, gift, and loan.
Tlie cost to the nation ha-s been about £400,000,
while the value of the gilts and bei|uests is esti-
mated at one million sterling. The India Museum,
originally belonging to the East India Company,
was handed over to the department iu 1879. The
science collections include machinery, naval models,
&c., and api)aratus for scientific teaching and re-
search. The museum also contains art and science
libraries. The visitoi-s average 850,000 yearly.
Monday, Tuesday, and Saturday are free days ; on
the other three days admission is si.vpence. A
system of circulation of examples on loan to pro-
vincial museums, science antl art schools and classes,
forms an important part of the operations of the
museum. Numerous catalogues, handliooks on art
subjects, and other publications have been issued.
The original iron building was removed in 1865
and re-erected as the branch museum at Bethnal
Green. The contents of this are chiefly loans, and
are changed from time to time.
The giadual development of the Science and Art
Department of the Committee of Council on Educa-
tion has been sketched at Akt, Vol. I. p. 457. The
department grants aid in connection with a system
of annual examinations, in which piizes and Queen's
medals are awarded ; payments to teachers on the
results of examinations and, to a limited extent, on
attendance ; scholarships and exhibitions ; grants
for buildings and apjiaratus ; and aid to teachers
while attending the Normal School of Science and
the Royal School of Mines, South Kensington. The
science examinations, for which an annual Directory
is published, fall under twenty-live heads ; and the
science division of the department, which in 1872
had under supervision only 948 schools and 36,783
pupils, passed under review, in 1889, 2026 schools,
giving instruction to 98,900 pui)ils in 6856 classes.
Kent, a maritime county in the SE. of Eng-
land, is bounded liv the Thames estuary, the
Strait of Dover, Sussex and the English Channel,
Surrey, and the county of London, whose crea-
tion in 1888 has reduced the area of the adminis-
trative county from 995,344 acres to 971,849
acres. Greatest length, 64 miles ; breadth, 38
miles. The surface is for the most ])art hilly,
except in the south-east, where lies a mar>liy
tract, some 14 miles long by 8 broad, and in the
north, where a line of marshes skirts the banks of
the Thames and Medway ; these last are backed
by a succession of wooded hills, stretching inland
and gradually increasing in height until they
culminate in the North Downs (see Downs), a
chalk range which traverses the midille of the
county from west to east, attaining at Knocksholt
Beeches, near Sevenoaks, a height of 78'2 feet aliove
the sea level. Below tlie.se downs lies the Weald
of Kent, a district abounding in beautiful scenery,
and ixjcupying nearly the whole southern side of
the county. Of rivers in Kent, besides that which
forms its northern lx)undary, the principal are the
Medway, Stonr, and Darent. The climate i.-- in
general nald and healthy, and the soil, which con-
sists principally of chalk, gravel, and clay, Ls
fertile, particularly in the south-east, where the
rich meadows of the Ilomney Marsh all'onl excel-
lent pasturage for vast Hocks of sheep. All branches
of agiiculture are extensively can-ied on, cspeciKlly
market gardening and the growth of Hops (q.v.)
and fruit of various kinds. In 1889 the extent of
land under cultivation as hop-gardens was .So, 487
acres, or a hop-lield almost live times larger than
that of any other hop-growing cimnly in Englaiul,
and orchards and market-gardens covereil 27,495
acres. (_)f other industries the princijial are the
manufacture of paper, bricks, and gunpowder. In
1890 coal of good rjualitv was found in a heading
adjoining the Channel lunnel ((j.v.jat a di|ith of
1180 feet. Large numbers of hands are iMuploM-d
iu the government establishments at the AVo(d«icli
arsenal and the dockyards of Chatham and Slieer-
ness ; whilst at Ashford are the locomotive and
carriage works of the South-Eastern Railway, and
at Whitstable and Favershani are important oyster-
fisheries. Kent is divided into five lathes, and
comprises 73 hundreds, the Cinque Ports (q.v. ) of
Dover, Hythe, Romney, and Sandwich, the cities
of Canterbury and Rochester, and 18 muniiipal
boroughs — in all 4.35 civil parishes, almost wholly
in the dioceses of Canterbury and Rochester. Vo]>.
(1801) 307,624; (1841) .549,353; (1881) 977,706;
(1891 ) 1.142,324 (in administrative county, 785,674).
The county includes eight parliamentar^- divisions,
and the parliamentary boroughs of Canterbury,
Chatham, Dover, Gravesend, Greenwich, Hythe,
Lewisliam, Maidstone, Rochester, and 'Woolwich,
with jiart of the borough of Deptford, each returning
one member. The county council numbers 96. The
chief towns, in addition to tho.se mentioned above,
are Ramsgate, Margate, Folkestone, and Tunbridge
'Wells, all popular watering-places. A peculiarity in
the tenure of land in Kent is that of Ga\ elkind ( q. v. ).
In historical associations the county is unusu-
ally rich. The earlier incidents down to the
Heptarchy are noticed at EngL-\ND, '\'o1. III.
pp. 348-49 : subsequent to the successive occupa-
tions of the Danes and Normans, during which
the county was the scene of many a battle, the
princiiial events iu its history are — the murder
of Archbishop Becket at Canterbury (1170); the
submission of King John to the Poi)e's Legate at
Dover (1215); the invasions by Louis, Dauphin of
France (1216); the insurrections of Wat Tv'.er
(1381), Jack Cade (1450), and Sir Thomas 'Wyatt
(1554); the encampment at Blackheath of the
Cornish insurgents under Lord Audley (1497) ; the
rising of royalists at Maidstone ( 1648), and its sub-
sequent suppression by Fairfax ; and the destruc-
tion of shipping in the Medway by the Dutch fleet
under De Ruyter (1667). Dover was the scene of
the death of King Stei^hen, and Favershani of his
burial ; at GreenAvich Henry ^'III. and Queens Mary
aiul Elizabeth were born, and Edward VI. died ;
Eltham Palace (now in ruins) was for a long time
a royal residence ; at Saves Court, Dei)tford, w hiob
occupied a portion of the site of the royal victual
ling yard, lived Peter the tireat whilst learning the
trade of a shipwright; and at Chislehurst Napoleon
III. died. Of its early inhabitants Kent has
numerous traces in the shape of Roman roads, and
many camps and barrows : at Aylesford and Harl
lip Roman villas and baths have been discovered,
and near the former place is a curious dolmen
known as Kits Coily House. Of edifices of a
historical or antiquarian interest it will sutfice to
specify here the cathedrals of Canterbury and
Rochester, the Norman fortress of the latter jilace,
with those of Chilham and Dover, ami the moated
mansions of Hever I the home of .Vnne lioleyn),
Ightham Mote (dating back to the 14th cen-
tury), and Leeds Castle (where Richard II. and
Joan of Navarre were impmoned ). Amongst
Kentish worthies are included Caxton the juinter,
FJli/.al>eth Barton the ' nun of Kent,' Sir Nicholas
Bacon, Sir F'rancis Walsingliam, Camden the anti-
quary. Sir Philip Sidney, Harvey the discoverer
414
KKNT
KENT'S CAVERN
of the circulation of blooil, the ' juilicinus' Hooker,
the Earl of t'hatlwuu ami his :son William Pitt,
Oeneral Wolfe, llicharil l.arham, author of tlie I)i-
tjolilslni I.i-jinids, till' historians llallain and (irote,
Charles Dickens, (iorilon Ta-sha, anil Cameron the
African explorer.
See the county histories of Hasted ( 4 vols. 1778-9!) ;
new and enlarged ed. 1S86, &c.) and Uunkin (3 vols.
185G-5K); also T. Fn.st's In Kent with Charles Dkknis
1 1880 ) : Ahell's History of Kent fur the Yi,n mj ( 1895 ) ; and
Bosworth's Kent, I'ast and Present (1900).
Kent, Dike of (1767-1820), fourth son of
George III., and father of Victoria (q.v.).
Kent. Ja:\ies, an American jurist, was born in
New York state, 31st July 17G3, graduated at Yale
in 1781, and was admitted to the bar in 1787.
After serving two terms in the legislature he was
professor of Law in Columbia College from 1794
to 1798, when he was appointed a justice of the
supreme court of Xew York ; and in 1804 he
became chief-justice, and in 1814 chancellor of the
state. In 1823 he retired from the bench, but he
continued his chamber practice for many years
after. Kent'.s principal publication was his famous
Cuiiimeniarics on American Law (4 vols. New York,
1826-30; 14th ed. 1894), a monumental work, which
has not yet been superseded in the United States.
He died i2tli December 1847.
Keiltigeril. St, the apostle of Cumbria, was son
of the Princess Thenew, who, being found to l>e with
child, was first cast from Dunjiender or Traprain
Law, and next exposed on the Firth of Forth in a
coracle. It carried her out to the Isle of May and
then back to Culross, where she bore a son ( about
the year 518). Mother and child were brought liy
shepherds to St Serf, who baptised them both, and
reared the boy in his monastery, where he was so
beloved that bis baptismal name Kentigern ('chief
lord ' ) was often exchanged for Mungo ( ' dear
friend'). Arrived at manhood, he planted a mon-
astery at Cathures (now Glasgow), whither he had
been led by two untamed bulls ; and in 543 he was
consecrated Bishop of Cumbria. In 553 the acces-
sion of a tyrannous prince drove him to seek refuge
in Wales, where he visited St David, and where,
on the banks of another Clyde, he founded another
monastery and a bishopric, which still bears the
name of his disciple, St Asajih. In 573 he was
recalled by a new king, Kederech Hael ( ' Roderick
the Bountiful'); and first at Hoddam in Dumfries-
sliiri', then at Glasgow, he reni^wed his missionary
labours. About 584 he was cheered by a visit from
Columba. He died 13th January 603 ( ' when he was
185 y<'ars old'), and was liuried at the right-liami
side of the high allar in ( Ilasgow Cathedral. .-V frag-
ment of a Life, composed at the desire of Herbert,
Bisho]) of Glasgow, and the longer Vita Kcntie/cnii
by Joceline of Furness, both belong to the later half
of the 12th century. Bisho]i Forbes gives transla-
tions of tliem, and we have ado)ited his rationalis-
ing chronology. Joceline's Life teems with mir.acles,
whicli were rooted so deeply in the ])o]iular fancy,
that some of them .s])rung up again in the 18th
century to grace the legends of the Cameronian
martyrs. Others are still coninuMiKuated by the
armorial bearings of the city of (U.isgow — a frozen
ha/el branch which his breath kindled into tl.ime.
St Serf's pet robin which he restored to life, a hand-
bell whicli he brought from Kcuue, and a salmon
which rescued from the depths of the Clyde the
lost ring of Kederech's frail ipieen. Nor is it St
Mungo only whose memory survives at Ghusgow ;
'St Knoch's Church ' commemorates his mother, St
Thenew. To the .s,iint himself there are eight
dedications in Cumberland, and fourteen in Scot-
land.
See Bishop Forbes's LivMof SS, Ninian and Kentirjem
(1874); .Skene's Cdtic Scotland (vol. ii. 1877); and
Beveridge's Culross and Tulliallun (1885).
Kontisll Fire, a form of applause at public
dinners or meetings of a political character, consist-
ing in clappiu" the hands in unison in a peculiar
rhythm m cadence, thus : u-o-', intensilied occa-
si()nally by the cry of 'rAh at certain intervals.
The effect' is very striking if the clapping is w ell
led and kept together, and may be taken to bear
some resemblance to the rattle of musketry tire.
Hence the name. The origin is more ob.scure. but
the ' vollies ' were probably first organised at the
great Kentish meetings in 1828-29 to protest
against Roman Catholic emancipation. In 18.34 at
a great Protestant meeting in Dublin (August 15)
Lord Winchilsea introduced 'his Kentish artillery'
as a novel and stirring feature, and Kentish l''ire
h.as ever since been a favtiurite mtide of apid.'uise
at Protestant, Conservative, or ' Orange ' meetings
especially in the north of Ireland.
Kenti.sh Rag is the local name given to a
gi'ayish blue ami occasionally arenaceous and clierty
limestone, which occurs at Hythe and other places
on the coast of Kent, in the Lower Greensand
Measures. It is sometimes CO to 80 feet thick.
Kentish Town, a district in St Panoras
parish, in the north of London.
Kent's Cavern, <>r Kent'.s Hole, is notable
for the evidence which it has furnished as to the
contemporaneity of man in Britain with various
extinct or no longer indigenous mammals. It
is situated in a small wooded limestone hill
in the immediate neighbourhood of ToKjuay, and
appeal's to have been known from time imme-
morial, although it diil not attract the attention
of scientilic men until 18'25. The early exploiei-s
of the cave, Northmore, Trevelyaii, MacKncry,
Godwin-Austen, and (in 1846) a committee of Ihe
Torquay Natural History Society, all succeedi'cl in
tinding Hint ini|denients niixeil up with the remains
of extinct animals. But these discoveries received
little attention until 1858, when the results of the
systematic exploration of Brixhain Cave by a com-
mittee of the Itoyal Society led to the aii])ointment
in 1864 of a similar committee by the British
Association for the examination of the ileposits
in Kent's Cave. The results of tliis exploration,
carried on under William Pengelley ( 1812-94 I. from
March 1865 to June 1880, at a cost of £1963, are
of the hi'jhest importance. They show that the
bottom of the cave is oaveil willi a succession of
sheets of .stalagmite, red earth, and breccia— all of
wlii(di have yielded relics of man and various ex-
tinct or no longer indigenous mammals. Amongst
the former are paheolitliic Hint tools and ini])le-
ments of bone, such as a needle with a well-foriued
eye, an awl, a harpoon, \c., also perforated
badger's teeth, which were iirobably used for orna-
mental purposes. The animal remains comiirise
those of li<m, bear, mamniotli, machairodus
latidens, rhinoceros, liya'na, reindeer, Irish elk,
red-deer, wolf, fox, badger, glutton, beaver, iVc.
In one part of the cave there occurred underneath
stalagmite a dark laver some 4 inches thick, which
consisted mainly of small fragments of clianed
wood. This doubtless wa.« an old hearth, round
which the paheolitliic cave-dwellers gathered to
roast bones for the sake of their savoury marrow.
The sheets of stalagmite are of inconstant thick-
ness— the lower one attaining in places a thickness
of 12 feet, while the upper one does not seem to
have exceeded 5 feet, and was frequently very
much thinner. The general character and struc-
ture of the cave-di'posits show that a iniilonged
time was re(|iiirerl for their accuiniilation. See M.
W. Pengelley's addre.ss to the British Association
( 1883 ), and the Life of him by his daughter ( 1897 I.
KENTUCKY
KEOKUK
415
Kentucky, a river of Kentiuky. is fi)niie(l by
two lork> which rise in the Cunilierlaml Mountains,
anil, after a winilinj; north-west course of about
■2o(l miles, enters the Ohio, 12 miles above Madison,
Iniliana. The river runs through part of its course
between perpendicular limestone walls. It is
navigable ijy steamboats to beyond Frankfort.
Kentneky. a state of the American Union, in
the great central or Mississippi Valley, lies be-
tween 36" 30' and 39" 6' X. Lit. cvpsTigiit isso in d.s.
and between 82° 3' and 89° 30' W. by j. b. Lippincou
long. Its greatest length from Compuir.
east to west is about 400 miles, its Vireailth from
north to south about 175 miles; its area is 40,400
sq. m. The eastern and south-eastern i)arts of the
state are mountainous, broken by the Cumberland
Mountains ( 2000-3000 feet ) and their oflTshoots.
Westward from this region is a plateau slojting
gratlually toward the Ohio and the Mississippi
rivers, which bound the state on the north and
west. Large cypress-swamps still exist in some
parts, especially in the south-west. Kentucky has
a river Ijoundary of more than 800 miles in length,
including a stretch of nearly 650 njiles along the
Ohio, 50 miles on the Mississippi, and 120 on the
Big Sandy. The Cumberland, Tennessee, Licking,
and Kentucky rivers rise among the mountains in
the east, and cross the state to the Ohio, whose
other large tributaries, the Green and the Trade-
water, i-Lse in the west. The consiilerable extent
of water thus available for navigation has lately
been increased by a sj-steni of river improvements.
Besides these natural highways of commerce Ken-
tucky has 2800 miles of railroad. Southward fiom
the Ohio River extends a semicircular tract of
land of Silurian formation ; here the soil is pro-
duced by the disintegration of the fossiliferous blue
limestone, and its fertility is unrivalled. This
section is the famous Blue Grass (q.v.) country, in
which the most exhausting crops, such as tobacco
and hemp, may be raised continuously for a series
of years without materially impairing the pro-
ductive value of the soil, the constant crumbling of
the fossiliferous shales restoring those constituents
which have been withdrawn by the rich growth of
vegetation. Surrounding the blue-grass country is
a somewhat narrow belt of Devonian shale ; its
soil is also very fertile, and tiie lower strata con-
tain petroleum. In the southern and south-eastern
parts of the state there are other trac^ts of De\-onian
<leposits, some of which yiehl heavy lubricating
oils. The eastern, the western, and the southern
portions of Kentucky belong mainly to the Car-
lH)niferous age, and the structure consists of sub-
carlM)niferous limestone, or of tnie carboniferous
deposits, with extensive coalfields. The coal-
measures are the result of several alternate ex-
posures and submersions, and average at least ten
g(Mxl beds of coal. Through the central part of the
state is a strip of land which appears to have
remained permanently raised above the sea during
the CarIx>niferous period, and thus forms a divide
lietween the eastern and the western coal-areas.
The eastern coalfield is a prolongation of the
.Appalachian deposits, and Ls about 10,000 s<|. m. in
extent. The western belongs to the Illinois tract,
and measures about 4000 so. ni. The coal is
bituminous, and some excellent caiinel occurs.
Next in importance to coal are the iron ores, which
are of excellent quality, and are found throughout
a <listrict of 20,000 sq. ni. in extent. Neither the
coal nor the iron deposits are worked as thoroughly
an their quality and their abundance would seem
to justify, but the output is increasing, (ialena
is found in some sections ; valuable building-stones
occur almost everywhere ; and salt is obtained by
boring in the coal and the oil regions.
Through the limestone formations the streams
have cut deep gorges, and within a region of about
HtHJO sq. m. in the sub-carboniferous structure,
much of the <Irainage is subterranean. The surface
topography is peculiar, ,as there are many round or
oval-shaped 'sinks' through which the water reaches
the uniferground streams. The long-continued
erosive action of the water has undermined a large
part of this region, and produced the numerous and
often extensive caverns which form one of the
remarkable physical features of this state. Of
these the best known, though possibly not the
largest, is the Mammoth Cave (q.v.).
Kentucky is densely wooded, except in those
places that are under cultivation ; at present about
two-thirds of the state is covered with virgin
forests. Anion" the prevailing species of trees
are the blue asli, the black walnut, various kinds
of oak, the pine, the maple, the tulip-tree, and the
sweet gum. Notwithstanding this large proportion
of forest land, Kentucky has always been one of
the leading agricultural states, and its products are
noted for their vaiiety. It is the princiiial tobacco-
producing state in the union. The state has always
been a centre for rearing domestic animals, and for
lireeding the finest giades of stock. A \ery large
percentage of the successful racehorses of the
L'nited States have been bred in Kentucky. The
peculiar advantages for stock-raising are due in
part to the excellent quality of the grass, and in
part to the mild salubrious climate, which jiermits
the cattle to remain unhoused in the jiastures
during the greater part of the winter. Kentucky's
principal manufacture is whisky, which is made in
large quantities in the central section. The smelt-
ing and working of iron are the only other manu-
facturing industries of any consideralde import-
ance.
Kentucky is divided into 117 counties, and con-
tains 19 cities and over 300 towns and villages.
The most important cities are Louisville, Coving-
ton, Newport, Lexington, and Frankfort, the
capital. The governor and the 38 state senators
serve for four years, the 100 representatives for
two. Besides two senators, Kentucky sends eleven
representatives to congiess. The state is practic-
ally out of debt, and has a permanent school fund
of §1,799,447. The enrolment of pupils in the
common schools exceeds 300,000. There arc several
important colleges and schools of higher education,
some of them atiiliated with the Kentucky L^ni-
versitv at Lexington. Pop. of the state (1860)
1,155,684; (1880) 1,648,690; (1890) 1,858,635.
History. — Numerous remains indicate that the
mound-builders lived herein considerable numbers;
but at the time of its first occupation by the whites
this region seems to have been a hunting-ground
vLsited by both the northern an<l the southern
tribe.s of Indians, and not permanently occupied by
settlements. The name Kentucky, signifying 'the
dark and bloody ground,' is supposed to commem-
orate the cimtlicts between the various warlike
tribes. One of the earliest pioneei-s was Daniel
Hoone (q.v.). This whole territory was included
in the original grant to the cohuiy of Virginia,
and in 1776 received the name of Kentiuky county.
In 1790 it was made a separate territory of the
United States, and in 1792 was admitted as a
state. Kentucky did not secede during the civil
war, and several campaigns were waged within its
borders.
Ke'oknk, a city of Iowa, is situated almost
at the south-east extremity of the state, on the
Mississippi Kiver ( here crossed by a railroad briilge ),
161 miles by rail ESE. of Des Moines. Keokuk has
a large trade, nine lines of railway touching the
town. The largest steamboats coul<l always come
up to Keokuk, and the ' Dcs Moines rapids,' imme-
diately above, are now passed by a great canal, 11
416
KEPLER
KER
miles long, which cost some 5 million <lollai-s.
Tlie town contains law. meilical, and eomnieri'ial
collejjes, anil has several fonmliies, saw and Hour
mills, and factories. Poji. (IS'JO) 14,101.
Koplt'l*. or KeI'I'LEK, Joh.VNX, one of the very
};reatust ;i.stronomers, was horn at M'eil der Stadt, a
village in Wiirtemlierj,', 10 ndlcs from Stuttgart,
27tli December IJTl. He was left to his own re-
sources when a mere child, his education depending
on his admission into the convent of Maulbronn.
He afterwards studied at the university of Tiihiu-
gen, applying himself chietly to mathematics and
astroinjmy. In 1593 he was appointed professor of
Mathematics at Gratz, and about 1596 commenced
a corresjjondence with Tycho Drahe (q. v.), which
resulted in his going to Prague in 1599 to aid
Tycho in his work. Tycho obtained for him a
government appointment, but the .salary was not
paid, and Kepler lived for eleven years there in
great poverty. He then obtained a mathematical
appointment at Linz, and iifteen years afterwards
was removed to the university of Kostock, poverty
still pursuing him. He died shortly afterwards at
Katisbon, 15th November 1630.
In character he was intensel.v enthusiastic,
imaginative, laborious, and persevering, all qualities
fitting him for the great task of transforming
astronomy from a merely fvnnal into a true
phijsiral science. Though ('o[pernieus (q.v. ) had
transferred the centre of the jdanets' movements
to the sun, these were still considered as com-
pounded of various circles, the ouly curve thought
tit for celestial bodies to pursue. No cause was
assigned for their movements, and no unity
observed among them, e.xcept in the one fact of
the sun being their centre. Kejder says, ' I brooded
with the whole energy of my mind ' on this subject,
asking ' why they are not other than they are —
tlie number, the size, and the motion of the orbits.'
In fact he had lirst to determine what the orbits
were before answering some of these questions.
But one question lay open before him. The perio<ls
of the planets were fairly well known, so were
their proportionate distances from the sun. Was
there any invariable relation between these? In
his Mjfstcrhnn, iiul>lished in 1.596, he triumphantly
proclaims that live kinds of regular polyhedral
liodies govern the live jdanetary orbits. Yet after
l)ul)lication he still continued to 'brood,' becoming
at length convinced that this theory was only an
eiTor, until after twenty-two years of patient study
and numberless speculative failures, he was able
at last to announce ( in his Ilaniiniilcc Miiiidi, 1619 )
that the ^s(/uarc of a iditncCa licfiotlic time is pro-
■poi'tioitfd to the cube of its iiicttn (tistititrt' fruni the
sun.' This rule is known as Kepler's TIdrd Law.
He saw clearly enough that it implies that the
planets are moved by a force greater near the sun,
and le.ssening with dist.ance, but he did not grasp,
as Newton after him did, the truth that this is an
attriietire force constantl.v acting towar<ls tlie sun,
nor could he therefore guess the law of its action.
Finding the theory of epicycles unable to bear the
strain of Tycho lirahe's accurate observations,
es]>ecially in the case of the planet Mars, he
endeavoured to lind a law for the planet's move-
ments which would be simple and satisfactory.
After enormous labour, and by a process of trial
and error, he found that ( 1 ) t/ic jilaiiet's orbit irus
an ellipse, uf wliieli the sun is in one focus, and (2)
that, as the planet (/escribes its orbit, its radius
vector traverses cmiiil areas in eipial times. These
rules (p\ihlished in 1609 in his work on The Motions
of Mars) are known as Kepler's First ami SccoikI
Laws respectively. These laws formed the ground-
work of Newton's discoveries, and are the starting-
point of modern aatronoiny. Uesides, we owe to
Kepler many discoveries in optics, general i)liysics.
and geometiT. A collected edition of his works
was published by Frisch ( 1S58-71 ).
For further information, see Brewster's Liven of Galileo,
Tiieho Brake, and Kepler { 1841 ) ; Keitlinger, Neumann,
and Gruner, Johannes Kepler (1868); and Whewell's
i/i.v«. of Inductive Sciciices ( voL i.).
Kcnpel, Augustus, Viscount, English
admiral, wius the son of William, second Earl of
Albemarle, and was born on 'Jd April 17'25. Entering
the navy, he serveil under llawkc in 1757, caiitured
tioree in 1758, took jiart in the battle of tj>uiberon
Bay in 1759, and in the ca]iture of Belleisle in 1761,
and commanded at the capture of Havana in 1762.
In 1778 he encountered the I'rench Uect oil' Ushant
on 27th July ; a sharp but indecisive action ensued;
hut owing to a disagreement between Keppel and
.Sir Hugli Palliser, his second in command, the
French were sull'eied to escape without a renewal
of the combat. Both admirals were brought before
a court-martial, but both were acquitted. The
all'air made a great stir in the country, the popular
verdict being on the side of Keppel. In 1782, in
which year he was created Viscount Keiqiel of
Elveden in Sutt'olk, he became First Lord of the
Admiralty, hut resigned on Pitt's accession to
govenuneiit. Keppel died, unmarried, on 3d
October 1786. See Life by T. Keppel ( 1842).
Keppel, Sir Hexrv, British admiral, ayounger
son of the fourth Earl of Albemarle, was born 14tli
June 1809. He saw service as captain during the
war against China in 1842, and in the campaign
against the pirates of the East Indian Archipela;.;o
shortly afterwards. During the Crimean war he
commanded a vessel in the Baltic and Black Seas,
and Hiially the operations of the naval hrig.ide before
Sehastopol. In 1857 he took an important part iu
the destruction of the Chinese lleet in Fatshan
Bay. He was promoted to he vice-admiral in 1867,
full admiral in 1869, a G.C.B. in 1871, and admiral
of the lleet in 1877. Sir Henry Keii]iel liius written
Exjjedition to Jiurncu with liajah liroohc's Journal
(3ded. 1847), Visit tothc Indian Arehipelaijo (185:ii,
and .-1 Sailor's Life under Four Horcreiyns (1899).
Ker, The Family of, supposed to be of
Anglo-Norman extraction, is found in Scotland
in the end of the 12th century. The jiresent
rejiresentatives derive their descent from John
Ker of Altonburn in 1357, whose great grandson
Andrew aci|uired Ce.ssford about 1440, and gave
origin in his three sons to the families of Ce.ss-
ford, Linton, ami (iateshaw, and in a grand.sou
to that of F'ernihirst. Sir Andrew Ker of Cessford
(died 1526), whose younger brother, George, was
ancestor of the Kers of F'amlonsiile, had two sons
— Sir Walter, whose grandson, Itobert, WiUs created
Earl of Koxburghe in 1616, and Mark, cumnicndator
of Newbattle, whose son, Mark, was created ICarl
of Lothian in 1606. The second Earl of Itoxbniglie
was only a Ker by his mother. He assumed the
surname of Ker, and his grandson, the lifth Earl
of Koxburghe, was created duke in 1707. .lohn,
third Duke of Koxburghe (1740-1804), w;us the
famous book-collector. Koberl Carr, the favourite
of James VI., created Viscount Kochester in 1611
and Earl of Somerset in 1613, belonged to the family
of Fernihirst.
Ker, John, D.D., Presbyterian minister and
])rofes.sor, was born in 1819 at the farndionse
of Bield, in Feeblesshire, ami early in life re-
moved with his parents to Edinburgh. He was
educated at the High School and university, and
wa.s for a time under Tholuck at Halle. He was
licensed as a preacher in 1844, and onlained at
Alnwick in 1845. lie acceptcil a call as a.ssisl
ant to Eitst Camidxdl Street Church, Glasgow,
in 1851, where, in the coui'se of a few years, his
[jopularity and the demands made upon his services
KERATIN
KERNER
41^
broke his health. From 1863 onwards ho travelled
iiimdi. visiting' America, and resiiUnj: in Italy. He
oeeupii'd the chair of Practical Training' in the
I'nited I'reshvterian Theolo{;ical Hall from ISTti
till his death! October 3, 18S6, and his al>iUly,
culture, large heartedness, and (juiet earnestness
inaile a deeji impression. His .s'c;-;;/i/h,s ( ISGS, 14lh
ed. ISSS: secon.l series ISSG, M ed. ISSS), by their
intellectual power, chastened eloquence, insight,
and spiritual tone, carried his n.ame far beyond the
bounds of his own denomination. His otlier works,
mostly posthumous, are The Psahns in History and
Bioura/t/ii/ (1886); Lectures on the History of
Prctirhinrj ( 1888 ) : Letters, 1SGG-S5 ( 1890 ) ; Thouahts
for Hairt and Life (1888). See Memorial Dis-
courses on his Death (1886).
Koratiii. See Horn.
K4'I'lM'Iil, a town and holv place in Asiatic
Turke\-, 60 miles SW. of Bagdad. Pop. 60,000.
The pilgrims number at least 200,000 ann\ially ;
and a railway was projected by Mitlhat Pasha,
when governor of the provinces, from Bagdad to
Kerbela in 1869. The contractors, however, failed
to carry out tlie works, thou"h actually com-
menced. The sanctity of Kerbela arises from the
fact that it is built on the site of the battle-
fiehl on which Hussein, son of Ali and Fatinia,
lost his life (680) in attempting to maintain his
right of succession to the califate. Every Shiite
Moslem throughout the world who can atTord it
seeks sepulture in the holy ground. Tlie num-
ber of dead Moslems conveyed from Bombay
alone is considerable. See Geary, Asiatic Turkey
(1878).
KorKiiclen's Land, or De.sol.\tiox I.sl.\nd,
of volcanic origin, situated in the Antarctic Ocean,
between -18= 39' and 49" W S. lat. and 68° 42' and
70° 35' E. long., being 8.5 miles long by 79 wide.
The surface is mountainous (Mount Boss, 6120
feet), and most of the interior is covered with an
ice-slieet and its glaciers. Numerous islands and
rocks encircle the coa-sts. The shores are very
irregular, long fjords penetrating far inland and
fonning good harbours. The climate is raw, and
storms are nearly constant. The islaiul was dis-
covered in 1772 by a Breton sailor, Kerguelen-
Treniarec, ami was visited by Captain f'ooU (who
christened it Desolation Island) in 1776, ami in
1S74 by the Challenficr, and by English, American,
and (Jerman expeditions to observe the transit of
Yenus. It was annexed by France in 1892.
Ki'i'Sfiielt'ii's Land Cabbage {Princ/lea
antiscorljiitica), the only known s])eeies of a very
curious genus of plants of the natural order Cruci-
fer.T, found only in Kerguelen's Land. It has a
long, stout, perennial root-stock, and a Ix/lled
lieail of leaves very similar to those of the common
garden cabbat'e. " Captain Cook lirst disco\eied
this plant, and directed attention to it. The root-
stocks have the flavour of liorse-radLsh. The
dense white heart of the cluster of leaves ta-stes
like mustard and cress, but is coar.ser. The whole
foliage abounds in a very pungent pale-yellow
essential oil, which is coniined in vessels that run
Eirallel to the veins of the leaf. The Kerguelen's
anil cabbage is n.sed by voyagei's, boiled either
by itself, or with beef, nork, &c., ehielly on account
of its anti.scorbntic qualities.
Kerki. a town belonging formerlv to Bokhara,
central .\sia, about 120 miles S. of Bokhara city,
on the left bank of the Amu Daria or O.xiis.
An important nlaee both commercially and strategi-
cally, it is the lialting-pl.ace of the caravans trailing
•from Bokhara to Herat, ami st.uids near tlie iliii'f
ferry over the O.xus. The fortress, consisting of a
high mud wall, Hanked by bastions, was in 188j
287
strengthened by Bussia, who in May 1887 occnjiied
it, and garrisoned it with regular troops.
klTlliadoo Islands, a group of volcanic
islands in the Pacific Ocean, 70U miles NF. from
Auckland in New Zealand. It consists of four
jirinciiial islands — Raoul or Sunday (7200 acres),
Macaulay (756 acres), Curtis, and li'Fs])erance —
and several smaller islands. A Mr Bell settled in
1878 on the islands, wliich in 1887 were declared jiart
of New Zealand. The climate resemliles that of
New Zealand. The group was discovered in 1788,
and annexed by Great Britain in 18S6. See S.
Percy Smith's Kermadcc Islands (1887).
Kei'llian< or KarmaX (ane. Carmania), one of
the eastern provinces of Persia, lying south from
Khorassan, and having an area of about 59,000
sq. m. The north and north-east are occupied by
a frightful salt waste called the Desert of Kerman,
which forms a part of the great central desert of
Iran. On this extensive tract not a Idade of grass
is to be seen. The southern portion, although
mountainous, is e(|ually arid and barren with the
north, except the small tract of Niirmanshir, to-
wards the east, which is fertile and well watered.
Roses are cultivated for the manufacture of otto
of roses ; silk and various gums are exported. The
inhaliitants. wlio number about CiOO.OdO, are chiefly
Persians proper : the rest are Guebres or Parsees,
Beluchis, and other wandering tribes.
Kernian, the chief town, is situated ne.ar the
middle of the province, in the central mountain-
range, and contains a population estimated at
30,000. The trade, though still considerable, is
verv small compared with what it was during the
IStii century, when Kerman was the great em-
porium for the trade by the Persian Gulf and the
Indian Ocean. In 1722 the town was destroyed by
the Afghans ; in 179-! it was taken and idllaged by
Aga Mohammed, and .30,000 of the inhabitants
made slaves. But the chief cause of the decline of
its trade was the fall of CJombroon (q.v. ), its port,
before the rising prosperity of Bushire. At present
Kerman is only noted for the manufacture of the
famous Kerman carpets (a sort of woollen rugs),
felts, and brass cujis.
Uermaiisliab (also Karmaxshah and Knt-
MANsiiAiiAN ), a flourishing town of Persia, capi-
tal of Persian Kurdistan, near the right bank of
the river Kerkhah. It is the centre of converg-
ing routes from Bagdad, Teheran, and Ispahan.
Its eonnnerce is considerable, and there are manu-
factures of carpets and weapons. A railway has
been projected from Bagdad, the intei-vening
country presenting no engineering diHieuUies.
But between Kermansliah and Teheran the country
is mountainous. Pop. 30,000.
K«'I'III4'.S, a dyestulT obtained from an insect
(see l)VKIN(i). The name is .also given to a cherry-
red mineral, usually in tufts of capillary crystals;
a mixture of sesquioxide and sesquisul]diiile of anti-
mony ; approximate composition ( Sb.,S:i l-jSbJJs.
It was formerly much useu for the .same i>urposes
as .James's Powder (q.v.).
Kernel*. .Andreas Justinu.s, one of the lead-
ing members of the ' Swabian School ' of jioets, was
born at Ludwigsburg. in Wiirtemberg, 18th Sep-
tember 17S(). lie studied at Maullnoiin, and after-
wards medicine at 'I'iibingen, and sctlled in 1818
as a physician at Wildhad, and tinally at Weins-
berg. Here he died, 21st February 1862. Along
with Ids' friends I'hland and (!. Schwab he pub-
lished Dcr jiuetischcr Aiinanacli (1812) and Dcr
dentsehe Divhtenrald ( 1813). But his chief poetical
works are lliiscsrhatten ran dem Schattens/iieli r l.nx
(1811); Huiiiaiilisehe ]>ii-htnnr)cn (1817): and /ler
letzte Jiliitciislranss ( 1852). His poetry apjiroaches
clo.sely to the Volhslicdcr in freslmess and simpli-
418
KEROSENE
KESTREL
city, and is lit up witli fileains of IminDiir ; but it
sometimes drops to the lower levels of romaiiticisiii.
He took a keen interest in the phenomena of
animal magnetism, and wrote several books on the
subject, one of which, Die Scherin von Prcvorst
(IS-29: Gth ed. 1892), excited <;re.at attention. See
Lives by Xiethamnier ( IS77 ) and Iteinh.'iid (1880),
and Du I'rel's Die Sc/icriii. von I'rcvorst (1S86).
Kerosene (Gr. ki'ros, 'wax'), one of many
names under which petroleum, jiaralfin, or shale
oils are sold in dillerent countries for burninj; in
lamps. The name ori^'inated in America, and is
still much used there in reference to iietroleum for
domestic use. It is the name also by which gener-
ally these mineral oils are known in India, China,
and the colonies, and under which they are im-
ported in tins and ca.ses from America, liussia, or
Great Britain.
Keroiinlle, Louise de. See Ch.\eles II.
Kerowlie. See Karauli.
Kerr.V. a maritime county in the south-west of
Ireland, in the province of ;\lunster, is bounded on
the N. by the estuary of the Shannon, and on the
W. by the Atlantic Ocean. Area, 1,185,918 statute
acres, or 1S.')3 sq. m. There are under crops about
170,000 acres, and of these 93,1100 are laiil down
as permanent pasture, some 30,000 are planted
Mitii potatoes, and 25,000 sown «itli oats. One-
fourth of the area is barren mountain land, and
more than U per cent, bog and maish. Maxi-
mum length, north to south, 07 miles; maximum
width, 55 miles. Its coast-line is about '2'20 miles
in length ; is fringed with islands, of which the
chief are Valentia (pop. 2920), the Bl.asqnets, and
the Skelligs ; and is deeply indented liy Kenmare,
Dingle, and Tralee B.ays. Between these and the
smaller bays are cxtensiims of the mountain-system
which stretches westward from the county of
AVaterford. The principal grou]) is Macgillicuddy's
Keeks, the chief summit of wliich, Carran Tual,
3414 feet, is the highest in Ireland. The rivers are
short and of little consequence. The county con-
tains numerous lakes, some of them, especially the
Lakes of Killarney (i|.v.), of ex(|nisite beauty.
The climate is mild, liut moist, especially on the
coast. The soil rests on slate and sandstone, with
limestone. Iron, cojiper, and lead ores abound, but
are not much worked. Slate and ilagstone are
quarried in Valentia. The manufactures arc in-
considerable ; oats and Imtter are the chief ex|>orts.
The fisheries on the coast employ nearly 2000 men
and boys. Since ISS5 Kerry returns four memliers
to the House of Commons! I'op. (1841) 29;j,.SS(l ;
(1871) 196,014; (1881) 201,039; (1891) 179,136,
nearly all Uoman C.Uholics. The countv is rich in
ancient ruins, including the remains of' jMuckro.ss
Abbey and lunisfallen.
KersnntOII, the name given to several larioties
of igneous rock which are rich in jdagioclivse fel-
spar and dark mica, and contain carbonates. They
occur in the form of dykes traversing the paheozoi'c
rocks of Brittany. The name is from Kerzanton,
<a small hamlet on the Brest Roads. Grainilar
varieties of kersanton are called kerstintite, while
those which have a marked i)orpliyritic structure
are known as micajiorphyrilcs.
Kersey, or IvniiSKYMERE, a variety of woollen
cloth, diU'ering from ordinary /«-«rtrf c/f/^/i by being
woven as a lirill (see Twil.l!). It is ea.sily distin-
guished from the common (doth by the diagonal
ribbed appearance of its upper side, where the nap,
not being raised, allows its structure to be seen.
A very thin line make of Kersey is called c.issi-
mere.
Kei'tcll. previous to being levelled with the
ground by the allies in 1855 the most important
port of the Crimea, with a large trade in the export
of corn, is situated on the eastern shore of the
peninsula, on the strait of Katla or Venikale,
which, 20 miles long and 3 to 25 wide, connects
the Sea of Azov with the Black Sea. The port
still has a traile to the extent of neariy .i;200,000
annually in grain, linseed, leather, fish, and caviare
(all exported). The mn.seum for the (ireek and
other antiquities <liscovered in the neighbourhood
w.os removed to the Hermitage at St Petersburg
after having been partly rilled by the allied soldiers
in 1855 (cf. U. "SWcYXwY^tm, Antiquities of Kerteh,
1857). Two and a half miles to the south of the
town are the fortified works ilesigiied to i)rotcct
the passage of the straits. Kertch, the ancient
Pantieiipaum or Bosporus, founded in the middle
of the 6tli c, n.r., by Miletans, w.as tiic caiiital of
the ancient kingdom of the Bosporus, and subse-
quently of a state founded by the son of Mithri-
dates, about 100 n.c. From "l318 to 1475 it was
a depot of the Genoese ; then it came into the
hands of the Turks; and finally, in 1771, it wa-s
accjiiired bv the Russians. Pop. with the neigh-
bouring Ye'nikale ( 1890) 30,000.
Kesteven, The Part.s of, the south-west
division of Lincolnshire (q.v. ).
Kestrel, or '^VI^•DHO^•ER [Falco tinnmiculm),
a small species of falcon found in the north of
Europe in the warmer months, resident in the
Kestrels {Falco linnunculus) :
1, the male ; 2, tlie female.
south all the year round, and particularly abund-
ant in Spain. In Britain it is one of the commonest
birds of prey, though its numbers were considerably
reduced by persecution before its harmlissness and
its utility as a check on the too rapid multi|dicalioii
of mice were fully recognised. The name wind-
hover refers to the birds graceful habit of balancing
itself in gale or calm, ji-s some other binls do, by
a slight, continuous lla])])iiig of the wings. JeH'eries
thus describes the iiiechaiiism of hovering : ' While
hovering there are several forces balanced : first,
the original impetus onwards; secondly, that of
the (lepres.sed tail dragging and stopping that
onward ccmrse : thirdly, that of the wings beating
downwanls ; and fourihiy, that of the wing a little
reversed beating forwards, like backing water with
a scull.' The food of the kestrel consists cbielly of
mice, but it also eats insects, which it catches
while on the wing, and occjvsioually small birds.
It rarely builds a nest of its own, but ajipropriatcs
one forsaken by another bird, or lays its eggs in
any convenient cavity. The eggs arc creamy
KESWICK
KEY
419
whito. thickly mottlcil with rethlish brown, or
sometimes entirely reiUUsh brown. The adult male
measures about 13 inches : the prevailing colour is
a yiale lirown marked with black : the head, neck,
and tail are bluish gray. The female is larger
than tlie male, and is reddish brown with bars of
black. The Lesser Kestrel (/'. ceiir/iris), which
has occasionally been found in liritain, closely
resembles the common species, but has the claws
white instead of yellow. The common sparrow-
hawk of the United States (/•'. sjxirfcn'iis) h also
a near relative, and .allied species are fonnd in
nearly all parts of the world. The whole group is
sometimes separated otl' from Kaico as a sub-genus
Tinnunenhis.
Keswick, a market-town of Cumberland, near
the conrtuence of the (ireta and the Derwent, l(i
miles XNW. of Ambleside, and liy a branch-line
(186.5) 18 W. of Penrith junction. 3(i SSW. of
Carlisle. In its immediate vicinity are wooded
Castle Head and beautiful Derwentwater (q.v. ),
whilst to the north towers Skiddaw (305S feet).
A great tourist centre, it is a pleasant little place,
lighted with the electric light in 1890, and possess-
ing half-a-dozen hotels, ,a good public library, a
recreation ground, a town-hall (181.S), lead-pencil
manufactories, and a church (1S.S9), besides the
old palish church of Crosthwaite, } mile north,
with Simtheys grave. Pop. (1851) 2618; (1891)
,*?76(i. See Lake Dlstrict.
KoSZtliely* a market-town of Hungary, on the
western shore of Lake Balaton, 11.3 miles by rail
SW. of Pesth. Pop. .=5393.
Kot, Robert, a tanner of Wymondhani, in
Norfolk, wlio raised the standard of insurrection
in that county in .Inly l.">49. Tlie cause of the
outbreak was a widespread dissatisfaction of the
country-people against the gentry. SLxteen thou-
sand men gathered round Ket, who raised his
mimic throne beneath the ' Oak of Reformation '
on Moushold Hill, overlooking Norwich. This
city was twice captured by the rebels ; on the
second occasion they held it until they were driven
ont by the Earl of Warwick, and compelled to fight
a battle, in which Ket was <lefeated and captured.
He was afterwards hanged at Norwich. The
insurrection never had more than a local .signifi-
cance. See the Rev. F. W. Russell's Rett's
Eehelllon (1860).
Hetcll, a broad, strongly-built vessel of two
masts — viz. the main and mizzen, formerly much
nsed for canying mortars, and called a bomb-ketch.
Ketch, J.vcK. See Execution.
Ketclllip, or C.\T.sri>, is a name given to^
certain sjiuces much valued for tlavouring soups,
meats, fish, &c. It may he prepared from a variety
of fruits and vegetables ; but the ketchups in most
ordinary use are those m.ade from common mush-
rooms (Ar/nricus mmpcstris), unrijie walnuts, atid
ripe tomatoes. The fruit or vegetable is first
broken or bruised with salt, and allowed to stand
for about twenty-four hours to extract the juice ;
the juice must then be expresscil, )uit into a pan,
and boiled with apjiropi-iate seasonings until it is
reduced to about half the (piantity. It should be
allowed to cool before it is bottled, and then, if
tightly corked, will keep for years.
Ketones. See .Acetones.
Kettcrins, a market-town of Northami>ton-
shire, 7.") miles NNW. of London by rail. The
parish church, dating from about 14.")0, and restored
in 1862, is a fine I'erpendicular structure, with
tower and spire. A town-hall and corn exchange
wa.s built in 1803; and Kettering has also a free
grammar-school, waterworks (1872), and mann-
factures of boot.s and shoes, stays, plush, brushes,
vtc. The charter for the market was given by
Henry 111. in 1227 to the monks of Peterborough.
Pop. of iiarish { 1861 ) 5845 ; ( 1891) 19,454.
Kctlletlriiiii. SeeDiuM.
KcHper, the npper division of the Triassic
System (q.v.).
Kew, a village in Surrey, G miles W. of Hyde
Park Corner, and on the riglit bank of the Thaines,
which is here crossed bv a line granite lindge,
rebuilt in 1899, and .55 feet wide. Foremost
among objects of interest at Kew are the Royal
Rotanic (Tardens and Arboretutn. containing mag-
nificent collections of plants and ferns, both native
and exotic, and of trees and shrubs. Established
in 17()0 by the mother of George 111., and made
a national institution in 1840, the gardens now
extend over 70 acres, and the arlioretum 178 acres,
anil the annual cost of keeping them up amounts
to about £20,000. In 1882 there were 1,244,167
\isilors to the gardens, whilst on 'VVbit-^londay
1800 it was computed that nearly 100,000 persons
were jidmitted. In addition to numerous hot-
houses and conservatories, the principal features
are a palm-house 362 feet by 100 and 66 feet high ;
a temperate-house of the same height, occupying
three-fourths of an acre : three museums ; a labor-
atory : the North gallery, containing sketches from
nature taken in dili'erent parts of the world ; and
the Pagoda, an octagonal ten-storied Iniilding 163
feet high. To the south-west of the gardens is
an oliservatory, cliielly used as a meteondogical
station ; here are kept the thermometer .and other
meteorological and magnetical instruments which
serve as standards for the United Kingdom.
Close to the northern entrance is Kew Palace,
formerly a favourite residence of George III.,
and of "Queen Charlotte, who died there. In the
church, built in 1714, and subsequently enlarged,
is an oi'gan presented liy (ieorge IV., and said to
liave been used by Handel. The late Duke and
Duchess of Cambridge are buried in the vaults,
and in the churchyard adjoining are the graves of
Gainsborough, the painter, and two less-known
artists, Meyer (George IIl.'s miniature-painter)
and Zofl'any. Sir Peter Lely once lived on the
Green. Pop- ( ISOl ) 424 ; ( 1881 ) 1670 ; ( 1891 ) 2076.
Ketvatiii. See KEE\vA,TrN.
Ke'weeiiaw Point, a peninsula of Michigan
(q.v.), ])roj(M-ting into Lake Superior, and coexten-
si\e with Keweenaw county ( 350 sq. ni. ; poj).
4270). It is famed for its copper-mines.
Kev, in Music, the series of notes, or scale,
in which modern music is written. Each note on
the staN-e may form the tonic or keynote of a scale,
which is called after the name of that note (see
Ml'sic). A piece is said to be in such and such a
key when that key i)rediuiiinates throughout ; and
the tonic harmony of the key is always to be found
at the close of tlie piece, unless it leads to some
further movement. It is held by many that each
of the various keys has a character, or colour, as
it is termed, of its own. In connection with
music, the name key is also given to the levers by
which the pianoforte, organ, v\.c. are jdayeil ; to
the levers on wind-instruments for ojiening or
closing certain of the sound-holes ; and to the
wrest used for tuning the pianoforte, drum, \c.
Key, Fl!.\NCl.s Scott, autlior of ' The Star-
spangfeil IJaiiuer,' was born in Marvland, 9lh
August 1780, |iractised law at Frederidc City and
at Washington, and became district attcniiey for
the District of Columbia. It was during the Ihilish
invasion in 1814, at the attack on IJaltimoie, which
he witnessed from an English man-of war. that
Key, after watching through the gray dawn to
see which Hag lloalcd over tlie ramparts of Fort
420
KEY
KHASI
McHeiiiy, wiote the woirls which have kept his
name alive. He died 11th Jainiarv 1843. A
cDlleclioii of his poems ajipeaveil in 1S.")7. There is
a liandsoini' monument hy Story, erected at the
expense of .lames Lick, at San Francisco.
Key. Tho.m.v.'s Hewitt ( 1799 IST.'i), head-
master of University College School and jirofes^or
of roni];arativc (Iramm.ar in I'niversity ("ollef^e,
London, was eminent as a Latin philologi.st and
author of a Lalin dnniniKO- and of a Lcitin-Kiigliah
DictiQiinrji (new ed. I.SSS).
ttev, or Iiei, IslaiKls. a small grou)! in the
East Indies, lyinf; S. of Dutch N'(!\v (iuinea and
NE. of Timor", consists of Great Key, Little Key,
and some sm.aller islets. Total area, 680 sq. m.
I'op. about -20,0(10, Malays and Alfuros; three-
fourths on Cleat Key. This is a long narrow
island, stretching north to south, volcanic in
origin, and with a rocky, hilly surface that rises
to nearly .'1000 feet. Little Key, situated to the
west of Great Key, is of coral formation, and
lies low : it is said to have made its appearance in
tlie niiildle of the I9th century during an earth-
quake disturbance. .Ml the islands are covered
with dense j\ingle. Valuable timber is the chief
product. Fishing is the chief occupation ; and
bcche,-dc-mcr is gathered. The group has been in
the hands of the Dutch since 1645. See (i. Langen
in Proc Roy. Gcog. Soc. (1888), and Scot. Geor/.
Mar/. (188S and 1890).— The islets of the Bahama
group in North America are called generally keys
or cays ( Span., ' rocks ' or ' reefs ').
KcyilC. St, a holy virgin said to have lived
about"490. whose name survives in an old church
in Cornwall near Liskeard, and still more so in its
famous well. Whichever of a newly-manie<l pair
lirst drinks of its water will bear rule throughout
their life together. All the world knows from
Southey's ballad the story of the bride who out-
witted her husliand by t.aking a bottle (o church.
The well is mcMtioneil Viy Fuller an<l Carow. but
the reader will (ind fuller details in (.'yrus Kedding's
Illiisfmtfd Itincruvi/ of Cornwall ( 184'2).
Keys, Tower of the. See Popk.
Key West, a jiort of entry and capital of
Monroe county, Floriila, is situated on the islaiul
of Key West ( Span. Cayo Hucso, ' Bone Keef ' ), 60
miles SW. of Cape Sable. It is a coral island, 7
miles long, 2 to 3 wide, and nowhere more than 1 1
feet above the level of the sea. There is a good
harbour, defended by a casemaled brick fort ; and
the buildings incbnle a customhouse, barracks,
and a marine hosjiital. The exports are salt,
turtle, sponges, fruits and vegetables, and cigars.
Dangerous reefs make the business of salvage im-
]>ortant. The warm and equable climate attracts
consumptives. The jdace was a great military and
naval centre during the war with Spain in 1S!)8.
I'op- (1S70) 5016; (1880)9890; (1890) 18,08.').
Khnbiirovka. at the junction of the Ussuri
with the Amur, is the capital of the Maritime
Province (c|.v.) of Siberia. Top. 30,000.
Kliairimi*. the chief town of Khairpur state, in
Sind, stands among marshes about 15 miles K. of
the Indus. It wa.s once a very important city.
Pop. 7000.— Area of state, 6109 sq. m. ; pop. (1891 )
131,9.'i7. mostly Mohannuedans.
Klialid. See M(is,\vi.iM.\, Calif.
Klialil'. See C.vi.iF.
liliailia. the reforming chief of the Il.'imang-
wato in the Bechuanaland (q.v.) Protectorate, was
born in IS46, ami on a visit to England in 1895
secured recognition for his stringent regulations for
exclusion of alcohol .and maintenance of order.
Kliaiiisiii, or Khamasin. See Egypt.
Kliail, a title of Mongolian or Tartar sovereigns
and nobles. A kliiinati: is a principality. Khan is
also a name for Caravanserai (q.v.).
Hhaildeisll. or Candeish, a district on the
northern edge of the Deccnn, in Bombay Presi-
dency, lies south of the Nerbudda and east of
Baroda, and is intersected by the Tapli river.
Area, 1(1,007 sq. lu. ; pop. 1,460,851.
Kliaiiia. See Canea.
Kliarasiii. See Khiva.
Kliarkofl'. capital of the Knssian government
of KliaiUolV, and one of the chief towns of the
Ukraine, is by rail 312 miles N\V. of Taganrog
and 465 S. by W. of Moscow. It is the seal of a
Greek bishop ami of a university, with four faculties
and about 900 students. Attached to the univer-
sity I rounded in 1805) are an observatory, a library
of 56.000 volumes, a botanical garden, anatomical
niusenm, (."src. This university was a centre of the
Nihilist movement. The chief industrial products
are su<;ar, .soap, candles, felt, brandy, tobacco, and
iron ; but the place is princip.ally celidnaled for its
four great fairs, at two of which (in horses and
wool) the united turnover amounts annnallv to the
sum of nearlv ,£3,000,000. Pop. (1873) 87,000;
(1895) 196,500".— The ;/0(rc;(mc»^ situated in Little
Ru.ssia, has an area of 21,0.35 sq. m. ; jiop. (1893)
2,537,900, principally Little Rnssi.ans and Co.ssack.s.
It forms a plateau of moderate elevation, seamed
by the deep-cut river-courses of the atlliients of
the Don. Nearlv one-half of the area is arable
land.
Kliarloillll. or KiiAirruM, once the most im-
IKirtaiit town in the eastern Soudan, stands on the
low tongue of land between the Blue and tiie White
Nile, just above their junction, 445 miles SW. of
Suakiin ( viA Berber), ami 1625 S. of Cairo, f<dlowing
the windings of the Nile. It w.-is founded under
the rule of Mehemet Ali (q.v.) in 1823, and soon
became a place of c(mimcrcial importance, and was
ma<le the cajjital of Egyptian Soudan. As startin";-
poinl and terminus of caravans to the interior, it
was notorious for its great activity in the slave-
trade. Ivory, ostrich feathers, gums, and tamarinds
were other articles of commerce. It shared the evil
fortune of the Soudan (q.v.) ; and (ieneral (iordon
(q.v.) defended it against the forces of the iMalidi
(q.v.) in 1884-85. Two days before the rescue
army reached it Khartoum fell, and (Jordon was
amo'ngst the slain (2()th January 1S85). Pop. then,
alxmt (10,(100 ; a half being Turks, (Ireeks, Syrians,
Arabs, and Kgy]ilian cr.aftsmen, the rest represent-
ing the varied races of Eastern Africa. But Khar-
toum was now deserted for Omdnniian. just below
and on the left bank of the river, which was the
cajiital of the Mahdi and his successor, the Khalifa,
till the advance of Kitchener's force in 1898. On
2<1 September the dervishes were routed and the
Khalifa's (lOwer broken at OnuUirman : and two
days after, the British and Egyidian Hags were
hoisted on the ruined residency where Gin<lon fell.
The pojuilalion of Gmdnrman was believed to be
100,000. After the occupation the administration
was rest(ued to Khartoum : ami in 18!i9 the (iordon
Memoriiil College was founded at a (Mist of over
.£100,000 -the design being to give the intelligent
n.atives of the region a good education, without
alarming their religious susceptibilities.
Hlliisi. .1 series of hills or step-like plaleatis in
Assam, on the watei-shed between the Biahiiiapiitia
and the Surma, and with the connectcil .laintia
Hills giving name to a district. The rainfall is
enormous, reaching in some parts in 1885-95 an
annual aveiage of over 500 inches. Lime, manges,
and potatoes are exported ; coal and iion ore
KHATMANDU
KHOI
421
exist, liut only the latter is extiaoted. The lau-
guase of the Ivhasis. an Indo-Chinese race, ' has no
analogy elsewhere in the whole of India:' it is
deserilied as " iiionosyllal)ic in the agiilutinative
stajre.' The pnneii)les of female descent and female
authority are the most marked among their social
customs. See Daltou's Ktliiiolagij nf Beiujal
{1S7-2I.
KhatlliaiKlll. Hie cai>ital of Nepal, stretches
for al)ont a mile north from the continence of the
IJa^limati and Vishinimati rivers. It contains a
great nuirilier of temples, many in pagoda shape,
with roofs of hrass, and others ilomed ; but the
houses are in general mean, their court yards tilled
with ruhliishdieaps, and the streets are narrow and
filthy in llie extreme. The principal building is
the imnien.se ugly i)alace of the Maharaja ; close to
its modern darhdr, or reception-room, is the large
military council-chamber, the Kot, where in 1846
most of the chief men of the state were ma.ssacred.
The population is about oO,000.
Kliaya, a genu.s of trees of the natural order
Cedrelaceie. The Kassou-Khaye of Senegal (A".
Soxgalcnsis), one of the most abundant forest-
trees in that part of Africa, attains a height of
eighty or one hundred feet, and is much valued for
its timber, called cciilccdra, or African mahogany,
wldeh is reddish coloured, very hard, durable, and
of beautiful grain. In the mai-shy coast regions
of (lambia the bark is administered in the cure
of fever, and Cavcnton has extracted an alkaloid
which has been suggested as a cheap substitute
for Qiiinia, a product of the bark of Hortia brazil-
iana.
Khayyaiu, Om.vr. See O.mar.
Kliazars. See Ch.\z.\rs.
Khedive, a title granted in 1867 by the Sultan
to his triljiitary the \'iceroy of Egypt, and since
then used by the latter as his official title. The
word ( pronounced as a dissyllable ) is derived from
Persian khidh\ and means '.sovereign.' It is there-
fore a more dignified title than vali, ' viceroy.'
Klielat. See Kel.vt.
Kher.son. or Cherson, capital of the Russian
government of that name, stanifs <m the Dineper, 19
miles from its mouth and .SI NE. of Odessa. The
town w;us laid out by Prince I'otemkin in 1778 as a
port for the construction of shi|i> of war ; but in a few
years, owing to the unfavourable character of the
river, it was supplanteil liy Odes.sa and NikolaieH',
both a.s a dock-yard and a commercial outlet. It
has a large trade in timber, an<l manufactures
soap, tallow, beer, and tobac'co. \\'ool-cleaiising is
an important industry. At Kherson Potenikin is
buried, and John Howard, the prison reformer;
died. Pop. (1871) 46,3'20 : (1898) 67,811.— The
(joi-crnitieiit bordei-s on the Black Sea, having the
Dnieper for its etustern boundary and the Dniester
for its western, while the interior is watered by the
Hug, Ingul, &.C., which form shallow, salt lagoons
next the sea. The soil towards the south is steppe-
land ; in the north, where it touches the 'black
earth' region, it is more fertile. Area, 'J7,oI.5
.•ill. m. ; pop. (1897) '2,7"28,iV23. There are seventy
(lernian (Swabian) colonies, with about ;'50,0()0
inhabitants. Agriculture, gardening, and cattle-
breeding are the chief occupations ; and there are
iron-foumlries, coriiunlls, machine-factories, tan-
neries, carriage - works, and braiuly - ilistilleries.
The government embraces several large towns, as
Kherson, Odessa, NikolaieH", Otcliakuti', Yelisavet-
grad, Voznesensk, and Tiriuspol.
Khiva, also called KlIAK.i.SM, Kiiw.vrizm, or
l'l!(iKNJ (anc. (.hiir/tsiiiiii), a khanate of Turke-
stan in central Asia, lies between 'AT 4.')'— 44' 30'
N. lat. and 50' 15' — 63* E. long., and contains
about ■2.'), 000 sq. m., the surface l)eing mostly a
sandy desert, with many fertile tracts scattered
over it. It is bounded on tlie N. by the Kussian
territory and Sea of .\ral, K. liy tlie klianate of
Hokhara, S. by Persia, and W. by the ('as])ian
Sea. The chief oasis, in w hich the cajiital Kliiva
is situ.ated, stretches from the mouth of the Oxus
or .\mu-I)aria for 200 miles along its banks, and
is watered by artificial canals supplied from that
river, to which it entirely owes its fertility. The
inhabited area is.-iluiut 5000 sq. m. The jioimlation
hiis been estimated to consist of '200,000 settled
inhabitants and nearly as many nomads. Amongst
them are I'zbegs, Karakalpaks, and Turkomans
(all rral-.\ltaic), Aryan Sarts and Tajiks, prob-
ably the original inhabitants of Khiva, and Kizil-
bashes, mostly liberated Per>ian slaves.
Khiva in ancient times was nominally subject
to tlie Seleucida' : subsequently it formed a part
of tl.e kingdoms of Bactria, Parthia, Persia, and
the Califate, and became an indeiiendent monarchy
in 109'2 under a lateral branch of the Seljuk dynasty.
The Khivans, or, as they were then called, the
C'horasmians, after conquering the greatest part
of Persia and north-western Afghanistan, were
obliged to succumb to the Moguls, under (Jenghis
Khan, in 1221. In 1370 Khiva came into the hamls
of Timiir. Timiir's descendants were sulidued in
1511 by Shahy Beg (called Sheibani Mehemmed
Khan by western writers), chief of the I'zbegs, a
Turkish trilie, and his successors ruled over Khiva
till the end of the 18th century, when they were
suiqjlanted by Kirghiz and Karakalpak princes,
and from the beginning of the 19th century by
the Kungrat branch of the I'zbegs. Ever since
the Russians entered central Asia they have com-
plained that the Khivans fostered rebellion among
their Kirghiz subjects, and plundered their cara-
vans. In 1717 Peter the Great endeavoured to con-
i|uer Kliiva, but was defeated, and in 1839 the
attempt was renewed by the Czar Nicholas, with
no better success. \\ ar may be said to have
recommenced when new Kussian forts in 1869 and
1871 were founded on the shores of the Caspian.
It was not, however, till 1873 that a great efl'ort
was made finally to crush Khiva. To diminish the
difiiculties of crossing the deserts the Rus>iaii force
was divided into five columns, each about 3<J0O
strong, to ap]>roacli Khiva liy dill'erent routes.
After enduring with admirable fortitude great
lirivaticms and fatigue, the Russians entered Khiva
on the loth of June. The khan agreed to pay a
war indemnity and to cede to Bokhara the
Khivau possessions on the right bank of the Amu-
Daria. .Shortly afterwards, however, these pos-
sessions, incliuling the seat of the Karakalpaks
near the embouchures of the Oxus, were incor-
porale<l with Russian tenitory, aiul now Kizil-
kum and the annexed part of Khiva form the
Russian government of Aniu-Daria, with an area
of 39,H'20 sq. m., and an estimated pop. of 109,600.
The re.st of Khiva is ruled by the kiiaii, under
Russian suzerainty. — Klliv,v, the capital of the
khanate, is on the Ilazveti Pehlivan Canal, in the
western portion of the great oiisis. It consists
almost entirely of earth-huts, not excepting the
residence of the khan, the only brick buiUlings
being three mosipies, a school, and a caravansarai.
Pop. 20.000. Other towns are 'i'enghi-rrgenj, the
commercial centre of the khanate, and Kungrat,
not far from the Aral. See works by \'ambery
(1864), liurnabv (1H76), Stunim (Eng. tians. 1885),
and Lansdell (1885).
Khoi, a town in the Persian province <if Azer-
bijan, on the highway between Erzeroum and
Tabriz, which lies 75 miles to the SE. Here .Selini
I. ilefeated the Persians in a great battle in 1514.
The surroumling ilistrict, which is a fertile plateau,
422
KHOIKHOI
KIACHTA
yields grain, fruit (especially niulbeiries), aiid
cotton. Top. 2J,0U0.
Klioiklioi. See Hottentots.
KIlojdHl. ;i walled town of Uussian Turkestan,
on llie Si[-l);iria, 75 miles S. l)y W. of Kliokand,
and I'M K. by N. of Saniaroand. It stands in
the midst of {,'ardens, and manufactures silk. At
one time independent, it was alternately in the
hands of the emirs of liokhara and Khokand until
the Kn.-isians seized it in 1S65. Pop. 35,000.
KIlwkaiHl. once a khanate of Turkestan, ex-
tending east of lU' long, over the whole of the
upper basin of tlie Jaxartes or Sir-Daria. IJut
long previous to the comiiiorcial treaty between
Kussia and Khok.-unl, in ISfiS, the khanate had
been coiilined to an area of some 30,000 sq. m.
In 1875 a rebellion against the khan, who was
already ])ractically a Russian vassal, led to
Ru.ssian intervention. After a lierce struggle the
immediate result was the annexation to Kussia of
all the territory of Khokand lying north of the Sir-
Daria. Now the whole khanate forms tlie Russian
government of Ferghana ((|.v.), a name under
which Khokand was famous throughout the East
during the nuddle ages. The town of Khokand
has 54,(XtO inhabitants.
KllOllsar. or Khun.s.\r, a town of Persia, in the
province of Irak-Ajemi, 80 miles NW. of Ispahan,
and on the route from that city to Hamadan.
Pop. |-J,(»00.
Kliorassail. the largest province of Persia,
bordering on Afghanistan, contains about 210,000
sq. m., of which nearly one-third is a vast salt
waste ; of the remainder a large portion con-
sists of plains of shifting sand. The fertile dis-
tricts are in the north, where the lagh range of
the EUmrz crosses the province, throwing out
.spurs, and forming a mountainous district, abound-
ing with fertile and well-watered valleys. Arti-
ficial fertilisation by means of canals was here
carried on to a great extent in ancient times, but
the incessant disturbances which have unsettled
the district for the last thousand yeais liave
almost jjut an end to this system. The cldef pro-
ducts are grain, cotton, silk, hemp, tobacco, aro-
matic and medicinal plants, fruits, wine, salt, gold,
silver, and precious stones, especially turi|Uoises,
also camels, horses, and asses. The chief towns
are Meshed, the capital, Nishapur, Kutchan,
Shahrud, Khaf, Kain, and Tebbes.
Khorassan means in ancient Persian eastwards,
and is saiil to have extended over all central
Asia in the north, to the Ilclnmnd on the S., to
the Pamir on the K. , and to the rasjiian on the W.
After the coiKjuest of the Arabs the country beyond
the Oxu.s iH'canie a pos.session of the Saujanide
dynasty, whilst Kharasm (the modern Khiva) was
taken by the Seljuks. Herat and tlie adjoining
districts remained in the ])ossession of the 'I'imur-
ides, though sometimes retaken by the Persians,
until linally it fell under the sway of the Afghans.
Khorassan, being sittiated on the higliw;iy of the
Turko-Tartar inroads into the west of Asia, had
always to bear the brunt of predatory hosts coming
from beyond the ( >xus, and its chief towns repeat-
edly sull'ereil destruction. Recently the invasion
has come from the west ; and the northern slopes of
the Kubbia .Mountains, together with the oasis of
Merv, incluiliiig the middle course of the Heri-rud,
liave been annexed by Russia. See MacOregor's
A'antrthx uf a Jounici/ throiifih Khonissaii ( 1879) ;
and for the ' Veiled Prophet of Khorassan,' see
MoKANN.\.
Klior.saba«l. See Nineveh.
Klio.srA. See Chosroes.
KllOtail. calleil locally Ii.ciii, a city and dis-
trict of eastern Turkestan, lying at the northern
ba.se of the Kucn-Lun -Mountains, and oidy six
miles from the desert. The district is rich in' gold
and jade, manufactures silk, and exports silk stull',
carpets, and jade ware. Pop. of city, 40,000.
Klllll'ja. a town of liritish India, lying ,")0 miles
S. of -Meerut and 50 SE. of Delhi, is the chief
commercial centre in the district of Rulan.lshahr.
There is a large ex[iort of raw cotton lo Cawnpore
and Calcutta. Pop. (1801) •_'(;,;!♦'.), chiclly I'athans
and lianiyas. The latter have banking' establish-
ments all over Imlia. They are Jains in religion,
and own a line modern temple.
Klllizistail ( anc. Siisiana ), a ))rovince of Persia,
having Ears and the Persian Gulf on the south, is
divided into two almost equal portions — the one,
the luirth-east, very hilly, the other, the southwest,
so level as to be almost a stagnant sea in tlie rainy
season, ami an arid waste in sunnner. Khu/istan
contains extensive pastoral districts, on which vast
herds of cattle are reared, and abouiuls in soil lltted
for rice, nuiize, cotton, sugar-cane, indigo. Under
the rule of the califs Khuzistan was one of the riche.st
provinces of the empire, and Ahwaz, the capital,
acquired world-wide reputation for its sugar,
carpets, and silk tnannfactures. With the down-
fall of the califate of Bagdad Khuzistan ceased
to be a rich province ; the highway of commerce on
the Kanin was shut u\>, and has been only recently
reoiiened. See K.\EI:n.
Kliyber Pass, the great northern military road
between the Punjab and Afghanistan, winds in a
north-westerly direction for 33 miles between the
projecting spurs of two enclosing ranges of hills.
The ]iass is merely the bed of a narrow watercourse,
and varies in width from 150 yards to '20, though
in one place it is only ' 10 feet or less.' It is
liable at times to be suddenly lloiwled. The nmiin-
tains on either side are in many places iicrpemlicular
walls of smooth rock, and can be climbed only in a
few places ; they vary in height from 1404 lo 3373
feet. Over the roughest parts of the jiass artillery
has to be dragged by men. The Kliybcr Pass has
been the key of the adjacent regions in either direc-
tion from the days of Alexander the tireat. Dur-
ing the Afghan wars of 1839-42 it was twice
traversed by a British army, in sjiite of an obstinate
defence by the natives. The lirst lighting in the
Afghan war of 1878-80 was in for<Mng an entrance
into this ])ass. It was stipulated in the treaty of
(Jandamak ( 1879) that the Anglo-Indian authorities
were in future to ha\e full conticd of this pass.
Kiai'hta. or Ki.vkhta, a town of the Russian
jirovince of Transbaikalia in Siberia, stands on a
tributary of the Selenga, 105 miles SE. from
Irkutsk, and close to the Chinese frontier, being
oidy .separated by a piece of neutral ground. I.-jO or
200 yards broa<l. from the Chiiu^se town of .Maima-
tchin. The jilace stands in a desolate valley, and
along with two other settlements, one 10 miles, the
other 2.^ miles distant, has a i>opulation of 9000
inhabitants. Ki.achta was aiipointed by the treaty
of Nertchinsk in 1689 the sole trading place
between Chiiui iind Russia: b\it down to 1727 the
general trade did not flourish much, because the
imperial crown reserved the fur tr.ide as a niono|ioly
ill its own hands. Krom 1727 cclclnaled fairs were
held here in December, when Russian furs and
cotton, cloth, and leather were exchanged for tea,
silk goods, iV-c. But since the treaty of Peking
(1860), when the treaty ports of China'were thrown
open to Russian vessels and trade was declared
legitimate all along the Russo-Chinese fnuitier, the
trade at Kiaclita has declined. The Itussian goods
are valued at i;500,000 a year, the Chinese at
£2,000,000.
KIANGSI
KIDNEYS
423
Kiaiiu;si, kiail^SII. provinces of China (q.v.).
li.i:io-t'liau, or Kiavchow, a port on the
south side of the peninsuhi of .'^lian-tung in t'liina,
leaseil liy Germany iu IS'JS. The liailiour is silted
witli saiiil, but ailvanta<;eously situated. In and
around the town live 20U,0U0 souls.
Ki«ld. William, pirate, \v;is a native of Scot-
land, bom [irobably at Cireeuock, and is supposed
to have been the son of a worthy Covenanting
minister who was put to the torture of the boot,
and «ho died in 1G79. The lad «ent early to sea,
saw much hanl service privateering against the
French, and g.iined a high reputation for stubborn
courag'e, and in 1691 a reward of £150 from the
council of New York city. At this time the
American colonies were supposed to be nests of
pirates who infested the Indian Ocean, and Coote,
Earl of Bellamont, was sent out by William III. as
go\enior of New York and Massachusetts with
special instructions to suppress the pest. A ship of
30 guns was fitted out by a private company in
Lomlon and given to Kidd, who was furnished,
moreover, not only with the usual letters of marque,
but with commissions under the great seal both
to act against the French and to seize pirates. In
January 1G97 he reached iladagascar, the chief
rendezvous of the ])iiates, but eie long disquieting
reports reached England that Captain Kidd was
playing the game of pirate himself. After a two
years' cruise he returnetl to the West Indies, and
a few months later had the temerity to go to
Boston without securing himself by a satisfactory
safe conduct. In spite of the halfinomises that
hail been made him he was arrested and sent to
England, where he was tried for piracy and the
murder of one of bis men. Of the latter charge he
wa-s formally found guilty, and hanged at E.xecu-
tion Dock, London, -iitliMay 1701, protesting his
innocence to the hist. He had buried a store of
trejtsure on Gardiner's Island, oil' Long Island,
which «as recovered and seized, amounting with
what was found elsewhere to i'UjOOO.
Kidderminster, a parliamentary and muni-
cipal borough and market-town of Worcestershire,
situated on the Stour 4 miles above its junction with
the Severn, and 14^ miles by rail X. of Worcester,
1'21 XW. of London. It Is a busy, thriving-looking
place, chielly noteworth.v on account of its carpet-
manufacture (see CARPET.S), which was first estab-
lisheil here in 17So. Worsted spinning and dyeing
are also carried on. Richard Baxter wa.s for four-
teen years vicar of the parish, and there is a statue
of him ( 1875). An illustrious native was Sir Row-
lanil Hill ; a marble statue of him w;us erected in
1881 at a cost of £1700. Among the public buildings
are the parish church. Early English to rerpemlicular
in style, with a noble pinnacled tower ; a Renais-
sance town-hall (1H77), a corn exchange ( 1855), a
free libnary, and a free grammar-school, founded in
1637. Kidderminster w;vs incorporated as a muni-
cipal borough by Charles I., and since 1832 returns
one member to parliament. Pop. of the entire
parish, which includes Lower Mitton or Stour-
port, (1801) 9639: (1881) 31,033; (1891) 33,326,
of whom 24,803 were within the municipal limits.
Hidliappinir. the ab.luction specially of chil-
dren : the word being derivcil from /.(>/, "slang for
'a child,' and tmi, or mth, cant for ' to seize.' The
law of the subject is given at AliULCTiOX ; the
charge of kidnapping frequenlly nuule against
Gyp>ii's is dealt with at i;vp.SIE.S.
Kidiiey-beaii. See Bean.
Kidneys, two glanrls having for their func-
tion the excretion of the urine. The human
kidneys are situated in tlie region of the loins,
one on each side of the spine, and are imheddetl
in a layer of fatty tissue. Their form is dis-
tinctive. They possess a convex outer border
and a concave inner border, the extremities are
somewhat enlarged, and the organ as a whole is
compressed from before
backwards. The aver-
age length of each kiil-
ne.v is a little nuire than
4 inches, and its usiuil
weight is from 4 to 6
ounces. The left kid-
ney is longer and nar-
rower tliun the right,
and in the female the
weight is slightly lo>-
than iu the male. Tin'
concave inner border
presents a longitudinal
iissure — the hilum — at
which the vessels enter;
in front there is .the
renal vein, behind it the
renal artery, and most
jiosterior the ureter,
which conveys the urine
to the bladder. When
the sides of the biluni
are hehl apart a deep
indentation is seen —
the sinus of the kidney Fig. 1.— Vertical Section of
— iu which the ureter Kidney :
dilates to form a large a. supra-renal capsuK-; W, corti-
sac, the pelvis of the c.il substance of kidm-y; cc,
1-1 I ,. ,, lneduIhiry,-^ubstanceotkidnev;
kidney. Investing the ((,(, tunica albugiuea; cee, the
kidney there is a tibroiis sinus or pelvis ; /, tlie ureter,
coat— the tunira a/ltii- proceeding to tlie bladder.
fjhtca — which readily
peels oil' from the sulistance of the gland to which
it adheres by minute processes and hue blood-
vessels. At the hilum it turns inwards, and
becomes continuous with the sheaths of ihe vessels.
Lender cover of this capsule there is an incomplete
layer of involuntary muscular fibre. The substance
of the kidneys Is dense, extremely friable, and of a
deep red colour. On making a longitudinal section
of the kidney from the convex outer border to the
hilum it is seen to consist of two diH'eient sub-
stances, which are named, from their position, the
external or cortical and the internal or medullary
substance, anauged in pyramids «ith Iheii- apices
towards the hilum.
The cortical substance forms by far the greater
part of the gland, and sends numerous prolonga-
tions inwards between the pyramids of the medul-
lary substance. It is soft, granular, and contains
numenms minute red globular bodies diltused
throughout il, which are called, from their dis-
coverer, the Maljiighian bodies. Its substance is
made up of the uriiiifiroiis tubes, capillaries, lym-
l>hatics, and nerves, helil together by an interme-
tliate parenchymatous substance.
The mediillai)j substance consists of pale reddish,
conical mas.ses, called the pyramids of Malpighi.
They are usually about twelve in nundicr, but vary
from eight to eighteen, and theirapices( the W'y<(V/(r)
point towards the hollow space (termed tlie sinus
m jiclvis) which occupies the interior of the gland.
The medullary structure is lirmer than the cortical,
and insteail of being granular presents a striated
appearance, from its being coinpo.sed of minute
diverging tubes (the uriniferous tubes), whiidi run
in straight lines through this portion of the kidneys,
after having run in a highlyconvolnled course
through the cortical portion. From the base of
each pyramid streaks pass through the cortex,
named nieilullanj rai/s, and the portions of cortical
.substance between tlie rays are called tUe /abj/rinlh
of the cortex.
424
KIDNEYS
Tlie cavity occupying the interior of the kirlneys
{the sinus or pelvis) is linnl liy nmoons nionilnane,
whicli, tluoii^li the medium of tlie uietor, is con-
tinuous with tliat of the liKadder, and which exten<l.s
into the tissue of tlie kidneys, to line the uiiiiifer-
ous tuhes. The mucous memhrane forms a cuiilike
cavity around the termination of each pyramid, and
the cavity, termed tlie ca/i/.r, receives the urine
from the open terminations of the tuhes, and con-
veys it towards the pelvis, from whence it passes
down the ureter into the hladder.
Each kidney is su])idied with blood by a renal
artery, a large trunk which comes off at right
angles to the aorta. The
blood, after the separation
of the various mattei-s
which constitute the
Urine (q.v. ), is returned
into the venous system
by the renal or emulgent
vein, which opens into the
inferior vena cava. The
nerves are derived from
tlie renal jilexus.
jL^h^^ ^''^ Malpighian bodies
/^CT^x^V* ' ^^^ found in all vertebrate
ff~i(V — animals. In nianim,ils,
W... '^\ which are theonly animals
in which there is a ilivi-
sion into a cortical and ,t.
medullary portion, these
bodies are only found in
the former. They are
for the most part of a
spherical, oval, or tlask-
like form. Their diameter
in man may range from
T5 to i5i of 'I'l inch,
the mean being ji^- A
small artery, termeil the
afferent vessel, may be
traced into each Malpigh-
ian body, while a minute
venous radicle, the rffcrent vessel, emerges from it
close to the point ,at which the artery hail eritereil.
The Malpighian body itself, situated in the laby-
rinth, consists of a rounded bunch or tuft of capil-
laries, derived from the afferent and terminating
in the efferent vessel, and enclosed in a cle.ar ,and
trans]>arent capsule — the capsule of Bowman — lined
with flattened epithelium. Each capsule is con-
tinuous with the uriniferous tube by a narrow
neek.
It now remains to consider the respective func-
tions of the .Malpighian bodies ami the tubes.
From the researches of Bowman and othei'S it
appears that in animals in which the urinary excre-
tion is passed in an almost solid form (as in birds
atid reptiles) the tufts are small and simple as
conip.ireil with those in the kidneys of animals
which (like man and most mammals) pass the
urinary constitiKuits dissolved in a large ([uantity
of water. On these grounds, as well as from the
fact that the anatomical arrangement of the tufts
is well calculated to favour the escape of water
from the bloo 1. Bowman arrived at the conclusion
that the function of the Malpighi.an bodies is to
furnish the lliiid portion (the water) of the urine.
Recent observations tend to show that the saline
ingreilients of the urine are also excreted by Bow-
man's capsule. The arr.angement of the convoluted
portion of the lubes, with a capillary network on
one side of their basement membrane, and secreting
epithelial cells on the other, is the exact counter-
liart of the .arrangement in other secreting glands,
and there can be no doubt that the functions of the
cells in the convoluted portion of the tuhes is to
separate from the blood the various organic con-
Fig, a— Plan of the Renal
Circulation in Man and
the Mammalia ( from
Ludmg) :
a, tenniiial branch of tlie
artery, giving the terminal
twig, a/ to the Malpighian
tuft, m, from which emerges
the efferent vessel, c/ Other
etrerent vessels, e. e, e, are
seen proceeding from other
tnfts, and entering the capil-
laries surroumiing the urin-
ilerous tube, (. From this
plexus of capillaries the
emulgent vein, ev, springs.
Fig. 3. — Biagranimatio View
of Tubules ( rijiht side, A)
and IJlood-vessels ( left side,
B) of Kidney.
(From Macalister.)
stituents (urea, uric acid, creatinine, ttc. ) which
collectively form the solid constituents of the urine.
It does not necessarily follow that these secreting
cells undergo rapid decay and renewal ; it is more
probable that they have the power of selecting
certain materials from the blood, and of trans-
mitting them, without the disintegratimi of their
own structure, to the interior of tlie tube. The
physical and chemical
characters of the secre- ■
tiou yielded by the kid-
neys will be considered
in the article L'kixe.
DlSE.\SES OF THE
KiDNEY.S.— By far the
most important are the
group included under
the general name of
Bright's disease, which
may be defined as com-
prising cases where
structural changes in
the kidneys, usually in-
llammatory, but with-
out suppuriition, lead
to the presence of albu-
men in the urine. Dr
Richard Bright pub-
lished in 1827 researches
showing that many
cases of dropsy are at-
tended by albuminuria
on the one liaml, and
liy marked changes in
the kidneys on the
other. His observations
have been confirmeil
and extended by many
subser|uent observers; and it is now agreed that
there are three dLstiiict groups of cases, differ-
ing much in causation, symptoms, course, and
post-mortem appearances, to wliicli the above
definition applies. These must be considered separ-
ately.
{\) Ciitarrliiil or Pureiielii/iiifitoiis Xr/j/iritis {in-
llammatiim of the kidneys). — In this form the
inllammalion affects chielly the secreting structures
of the kidney — i.e. the cells lining the tubules.
The kidneys are at first much ciihirgeil ; in acute
cases in the early stage redder than in health ; in
later stages and in chronic cases paler. If the
duration of the disease is hmg, however, they may
ultimately become much diminisbeil in size, so as
much to resemble, except in their paler cidour, the
kidneys in the cirrhotic form of Bright's di.scase.
This disease may often he traced to exposure to
cold : frequentlv complicates pregnancy ; ami occa-
sionally oecui's in connection w ilh most of the erup-
tive fevers, but particularly scarlet fever, of which
it is one of the most common ami serious comidi-
cations. In acute ca.ses it sometimes begins with
a rigor and elevation of temperature. l)roi)sy is
almost alw.ays one of the earliest symptoms, and
often appears lli-st in the skin of the eyelids. Pain
in the region of the kiilneys, headache, and vomit-
ing are usually luesent. The urine is scanty,
often bloody, and contains albumen and tube-cjists.
Symiitoms of I'rainia (q.v.) often occur. In
favourable cases comidete recovery takes jdace in
the course of a few weeks, all the .symjitonis
gradually subsiding. Frequently, however, thouLdi
the severer features of the case disajuiear, the
urine continues to contain albumen, ami tnedisea.se
becomes chronic. Death may result from ura'Uiia,
from dropsical etl'usiou, especially in the large
serous cavities, frci|m'ntly from the occunence of
some acute inllammalion, particularly of lungs,
jileura, or pericardium.
KIDNEYS
KIDNEY-VETCH
425
(2) Cirrhosis of the Kiilmys, or Iii/crstiliul Xc-
phrids. — In this form tlie morbid process consists
chierty in chronic iuHammalion of the connective
tissue of the kiilney, which leads to destruction of
tlie tuhuk's and glomeruli by cicatricial contrac-
tion. In ailvanced cases the kidneys are much
diminished in size, rough and nodular on the sur-
face, and red in colour. This disease is often trace-
able to gout, either inherited or acijuired, or to
chronic lead-poLsoning. It is rare before the age of
thirty, most common after forty or forty-live. The
chief feature of this aHection is its extremely
chronic and insidious nature, wliicli is so marked
that it is almost always for some secondary result
of the disease that the i)atient seeks medical advice,
and not for symptoms directly referal)le to the
kidneys. The earliest symptom is usually an
increase in the (juantity of urine, which contains
albumen only in small quantities, aud may some-
times be quite free from it. Hypertrophy of the
heart, with a hard pulse, is one of the most con-
stant features of the disease ; and in many ca-ses
.symptoms due to heart aftections are the first
wliich excite the patient's alarm. Persistent head-
ache, unaccountable vomiting or diarrhcea, failure
of siglit owing to albuminuric retinitis, simple
debility, symptoms of ura-mic poisoning, cerebral
hremorrhage (apoplexy), or the occurrence of acute
inllammation of some internal organ — all these
are among the occurrences which may lead to
the discovery of this singularly insidious disease.
It frequently becomes complicated by addition
of inllammation of the kidney tubules (above
described) to the primary process, and the symp-
toms are modified accordingly.
(.*J) U'ru!/ or Larilaceous Degeneration of the
Kidiuij. — As when this degenerative process ap-
pears in otlier organs, the smaller arteries and
capillaries are first and most affected ; later, other
portions of the organ partake in the morbid pro-
cess. But in the great majority of cases some
degiee of iiiHammation of the tubules is also
present. Like waxy degeneration elsewhere, it
can almost always be traced either to syphilis or
to prolonged sup|>uration. The flow of urine is
generally increased in the early stage, and contains
albumen. Dropsy is usually present, with some
others of the svmptoms enumerated above as
characteristic of tlie lirst form of Bright "s disease.
But in general the symptoms are rather variable,
and could hardly lead to the recognition of the con-
dition present apart from the clue given by the
previous history of the case aud the occurrence of
signs of waxy discjise in other organs. In acute
ease-s (first form) prompt and active treatment is
necessary, and is often signally successful. Con-
finenient to bed between blankets, li;'ht diet,
mainly or exclusively of milk, and tlie production of
very free action of the skin and bowels are usually
the chief jioints to be attended to. In the most
severe coses wet-cupping or bleeding from the arm
Ls sometimes required. Extreme care is necessary
till perfect recovery has taken place. In chronic
ca.ses warm clothing, with attention to the action
of the skill, strict regulation of the diet, avoidance
of alcohol, and where possible removal to a warm
climate during the cold .season can do much to keep
the disease in check. Kxiierience has shown that
under favourable conditions the course of the
disease may lie much more gradual than was gener-
ally believed by |)liysicians thirty years ago.
Alhiiininuria without Bright's disea.se may
occur in the course of fevers, in heart disease, and
many other morbid comlitions. It is now believed
by moit observei-s, though the subject is still
iiniler discii-sion, that it may also be pre.sent with-
out any ai'tual di.Hea.se. Ihvmoijlohiimriit (impreg-
nation of the urine with the colouring matter of the
blood ) is a troublesome, but, except in the ca.se of
infants, not a dangerous disease. Hnmaturia
(blood in the urine) is indicative of disease in
some part of the urinary passages ; but it is often
dilhcult to be certain wliat portion is at fault.
Besides Bright's disease, the most common con-
dition leading to it is stone in the kidney or
bladder. Kor 0 1 ;/ i-os tin'a ( sugar in the urine) and
Pulijuria (increase in the quantity of urine), see
Dl.\BETES.
aiunc in the Kidney. — The symptoms attending
the pa.ssage of a stone from the kidney to the
bladder have already been described (see Cal-
Cl'LUS); but it not infrequently happens that a
stone formed in the kidney remains there, or, though
it entei's the ureter, fails to escape, blocking it and
preventing the discharge of urine from that kidney.
In either case the symptoms are often somewliat
obscure and difficult to trace to their true cause.
When the stone remains in the kidney blood
generally appeal's from time to time in the urine,
and there is pei-sistent pain in the loin, often
aggravated by such movements as the jolting of a
carriage. Medicinal and dietetic treatment may
often prevent the formation of fresh stones, where
one has been discharged ; and sometimes even
seems to lead to the removal by solution of a stone
from the kidney. Operation has frequently been
resorted to during recent years for the removal of a
stone from the kidney, and ha.s in some cases
relieved the symptoms, even wlien no stone has
been discovered. Wlien a stone becomes impacted
in the ureter the kidney is gradually destroyed, and
either atrophies or becomes converted into a large
sac containing fluid. The remaining kidney gener-
ally becomes enlarged, and carries on the function
of excretion : but if its ureter subsequently becomes
obstructed in the same way death rapidly ensues.
Supjiurativc inflammation of the lailncy may
occur in the course of pyaemia, but usually results
from disease of the lower urinary ]ia.ssages (bladder
or urethra, hence often called surgical kidney), and
is a very fatal disease. The kidneys may become
the seat of tubercular disease, of malirjnaut tumours,
of hydatid cysts. But none of these conditions are
of common occurrence.
Floating or Movable Kidney. — One kidney, more
rarely both, may have its attachments to the
posterior wall of the abdomen so loosened ami
elongated that it can move about in the abdominal
cavity, somewhat as the intestines normally do.
This condition is much more common in women
than in men, and may either produce nosymi>tonis,
or lead to great discomfort and distress. In the
latter case it is usually possible so to adapt a
bandage and ])ad as to restrict the movements of
the organ and to relieve the symptoms.
Kidney-stones, the name given to small
nodules of reddish-brown ironstone veined with
calcite, which are common in the Oxford cl.ay in
the sea-clitt's and on the shore north of Weymouth,
Dorsetshire.
Kidney-vetoll (Anthyltis), a genus of plants
of the natural order Leguminosa', sub-order Papilio-
nace.'e, containing a number of species, some
shrubby and some herbaceous, natives chiefly of
the Mediterranean. They have the petals nearly
equal in length, and an oval 1-3 seeded jmhI,
enclosed in the permanent inflated and generally
downy calyx. The only British species is the
Common Kidney-vetch (.1. vulncraria). al.so called
Lady's Fingers, a herbaceous perennial, wilh pin-
nated unequal leaves, and crowded heads of yellow
(or .sometimes scarlet) flowers. It grows on very
ilry .soils, and is eaten with avidity by cattle, but
does not yield much produce. A. I'arbajovis
(Jupiter's Beard), from the south of Europe, is so
426
KIDRON
KIERKEGAARD
called on account of the lony:, silky hairs which
clothe the leaves, ami conspicuous bracts that
accDiiiiPHuy the Uowei-heads.
Hhll'UII. See Keduox.
Kicir, one of the oldest towns of Russia, and
ecclesiastically one of the most important, stands
on the Dnieper, Ijy rail 586 nules S\V. from Mos-
cow and 3S1 N. from Odessa. Accordinj; to tradi-
tion it W!is founded liefore the Christian era. In
882 it was made the capital of the Kussian princi-
pality, and reiuiuned so until llli!). Here in 988
Christianity was lii-st preached in Russia by St
Vladimir ; and ever since that date Kiett' has been
one of the chief ecclesiastical and intellectual
ceuti-es of Russia. The town was captured and
nearly destroyeil by the Mongols in 1240, and it
remained in their hands for eifjht}- years. Fiom
1320 to \M>9 it was in the possession of Lithuani-.i,
then of Pcdand down to 1654, in which year it was
anne.xed to Russia. The town is built on elevated
ground (350 feet above the river), trenched liy
ravines, and is connected with the opi)osite bank
of the Dnieper by a fine suspension bridye, built
in 1851. The most notable institution in the town
is the celebrated Petchersk monastery, which is
visited by more than a quarter of a nullion pil-
grims annually. Underneath the monastery are
a number of caves, containing tombs of the chief
saints of the Russian Church. The cathedral
of St Sophia, erected in 1037 on the spot wliere
Yaroslall' defeated (1030) the Petchenegs, contains
the tombs of the grand-ilukes of Russia, and a mag-
nificent altar, ornamented with beautiful mosaics;
the interior of the cathedral resembles a laby-
rinth. The cathedral church of the Assumption
harbours the bones of seven saints brought from
Constantinople, and has a beautiful belfry with a
peal of twelve bells. Altogether Kiell' has nearly
seventy churches, many of tbem with gilded domes
and pinnacles, which, seen from a distance, give
the city a striking appearancf. The university, re-
moved here from Vilna in 1833, has four faculties
and (1883) 1700 students. There are also theo-
logical colleges, a military school, and an arsenal.
Tlie industry is unimportant, except tiinning and
the numufacture of wa.x candles. Considerable
trade is done, especial I v at the fairs, the most
celebrated of which is lield during the last half
of January. Pop. (1871) 79,773; (1895) 194,300.
The fortress of Kiel!', begun by I'eter the (jreat
in 1706, anil now fortiiied in modern style, occupies
a commanding site on the right liank of the
Dniejier, and .serves as a cldef depot for war
material. — The (/ovcrnincitt endiraces great part
of the Ukraine, and is bounded on the north-east
by the river Dniei)er, which with its tributaries,
the Priepet and others, performs the functions of
drainage. Area, 19,685 .sip ni., more tlian one-half
of which is arable and one-liftli under wood. Pop.
(1897) 3. .'564, 433. Agricullure and horlii-ulture are
the chief occupations. The staple industry is the
manufacture of beet-root sugar (23,000 men em-
ployed in 70 factories); spirits, tobacco, flour,
machinery, and leather rank ne.\t. Trade is still
very largely in the hands of the Jew.s. In Peter
the Great's time the government of Kiell' enjbraced
tin; eastern part of the Ukraine and a large portion
of middle Ru.ssia.
Kiokic (Frcijcittctia Banksii), a scandent shrub
of the natural order I'andanaceie, yielding an eililde,
aggregated fruit, .said to be the linest indigenous
fruit of New Zealand. The kiekie is fo\ind in the
northern part of New Zealand. The fruit is a mass
of lleshy berries, and the jelly made of it tastes like
presiMved strawberries.
Kid, chief town of the Prussian i)rovince of
Sleswick-IIolstein, stands 66 miles N. by E. from
Hamburg by rail, at the head of a deep fjord (11
nules long) of the IJaltic, which admits large ships
to anclior close to the town. It is the headi|uarlers
of the Ceriuan Haltic Sea navy, and has imperial
shipbuilding-yards, slips, dry and wet docks, \c.,
naval marine stores, a naval academy, a naval
otlicers' school, and an <d)servatory (removed from
Altona in 1874). It is also an important commercial
port, some 1,100,000 tons of merchandise passing
in and out annually. The chief part of its trade Ls
carried on with the towns of Denmark and Sweden;
corn, coal, timber, and cattle being imported, whilst
coal, tlour, beer, butter, cheese, and Hsh are ex-
ported. The industrial activity is considerable, and
is mostly exercised in iron-foundries, shiidiuilding-
yards, corn-mills, breweries, and ciibinet-iuakers'
works. Kiel is the seat of a university, founded in
1665, with new buildings comideted in 1876; in
1889 it had 85 professors and teachers and 463
students. The castle, Iniilt in thi; 13th century
and enhuged by Catharine II. of Russia in the 18th,
shelters the uidversity library of 200.000 volumes
and a museum with sculptures by Thorwaldsen.
The Thaulow Museum contains Sleswick-IIolstein
carveil work of the 15th-18th centuries. The bay
is defendeil by a series of forts placed near its sea
entrance. For the IJaltic Canal to connect the
Elbe and the Day of Kiel, see P..\I,TIC Sk.\ : and
C.VNAI.. Kiel affords good facilities for batliing.
The old town, dating from before the 10th century,
has been enlarged by the .suburbs of P.runswick and
Diisternbrook ; the latter has beautiful [ironienadcs.
Pop. ( 1875) 37,270 : ( 1890) 69,172. Here was signed
in 1814 the treaty between Denmark, Sweden, and
England, by widch Sweden exchanged Pomeraiiia
for Norway.
Kiclot', the smallest of the Polish govennueuts
of Russia, on the Austrian frontier. Area, 3897 sq.
m. ; poll. (1887) 692,328. The cajiital, Kielce, 85
miles NE. of Cracow, has 10,650 inhabitants.
Kit'pcrt, IlKlXKIfH, cartographer and geo-
grapher, was born at Rerlin on 31st duly 1818, and
lirst established his reputation as a map-maker by
jireparing in co-oi>eration with Ritter the Atlas of
llcllas and tin: Ilrlhnic Coluiiicx ( 1840-40 ; new ed.
1870). Thereafter he gave his time and energy to
constructing atlases of the (Orient, esiiecially of the
Orient in ancient times, his best-known works in
this connection being the maps of Asia Minor, the
Osmanli empire in Asia, Caucasus, Palestine, and
Turkey, and atlases of the Ancient World
( historieo-geograiddcal ) in various forms, of which
the English edition (Atlafs Aiili(jiii(s) is familiar to
nearly everybody. Kiepert, who conducted the
tjeographical Institute at Weimar from 1845 to
1852, and from 1859 was luofessor of Geography at
Iterlin, wrote, amongst other works, Le/iiOiich tier
alien Ge(yraphic (1879), J.cilfadcii tier alien Uevrj-
rap/tic (iS79: Eng. trans. 1881), and numerous
papers, mostly dealing with ancient oriental
geography, in the I'raceetHnijs of the Uerlin
.Academy of Sciences. He died in April 1899.
Kicrkojjajiril, S6i:en A.usv, the greatest
thinker of Denmark, was born at Copenhagen, on
5th May 1813, led the simple hut bu.sy life of a
thinker" and writer, and died on 11th November
1855. He was :i very vohnninons author. His
greatest liooks are Either— Or ( 1843) and Stadia un
life's ]Vai/ (1845); these and many others were
'blisheil under lictilious mimes. Kierkegaard
lied the Socratic method to the examination of
the fundamental philosophical jirinciplcs of Chris-
tianity, regarded not as an oiganised t>r church
religion, but .as the religion of the iinlividual soul,
liotli his thought anil style are singularly original.
In dialectical skill, eloquence, and imaginative
qualities he is scarcely inferior to I'lato ; and to
pui
appi
KIESELGUHR
KILKENNY
427
these he joineil wit anil u h)ve of irony and jiaia-
dox. He hai l)een one of tlie most jiotent inliu-
ences in nioilern Dano-Norwe^an literature. In
his last years he nuule a Intter attack on the
otiieial church. See Life by (Jeor^' Urandes (in
Danish, 1877), and liio^irapiiical studies by Biir-
thold (in German, 1875-86).
Kieselgiihr. See Di.vto.ms, Dvnamite.
Kilaili'il. the j;reat volcano of Hawaii (ij-v.).
KilboMie. in Dunihartonshire, 4 miles XW. of
Gla.-<;jro\v, is the seat of the hujje .sewing-machine
works of the Singer r'om|iany, which cover 46 acres,
and employ about SIMM) hands. The town is part
of the ii(diceburgh of Clydeliank, whose population
increased from 3830 in 1881 to 10,589 in 1891.
Kilbiirii. See Kinbukn.
KiUIarc, a county of the ^irovince of Leinster,
Ireland, liuuuded by Dublin, ^^ icklow, Cineen's and
King's counties, Mcath, and Carlow. Its chief town
is Xaas, anil the otiier nmnicipal towns are Kildare,
Kiloullen, Maynooth (where is the Roman Catholic
College), and Athy, besides which there are quite
a number of small towns. The area is 418,8.36
acres, or 654 sq. m. ; the surface is generally flat
and the soil very productive. A great portion of
the county belongs to the central Carboniferous
Iilain of Ireland. In the northern ])art there is a
arge extent of bog, and the great Bog of Allen
covere some 40,000 acres, intersected by elevated
ridges of diy ground. From this bog rises the
Hill of Allen, a conical rock of porphyry and
greenstone, 300 feet higli. Towards the south-
east the surface rises to meet the hills of Dublin,
and in the south to meet those of Carlow. There
are a few small woollen, paper, and corn mills,
breweries and distilleries, but agricvilture is the main
occupation. The most fertile and best farmed dis-
tricts are the valleys of the Lill'ey and the Greese,
besides which rivers the county is watered by the
IJoyne and Blackwater (both having their source in
County Kildare), the Barrow and the Lesser Bar-
row. The Royal Canal, connecting Dublin with
the Shannon, traverses the northern jiortion, and
the Grand Canal traverses the valley of the Litl'ey.
To the south of the town of Kildare is the Curragh
of Kildare, an undulating plain of bright green
grass covering about 8(K)0 acres ; a portion of it
forms the Newmarket of Ireland, and on another
portion is the Curragh Camp. Kildare returns
two nieiiibci-s to the imperial parliament. Pop.
( 1841 ) 114,488; (1891 ) 70,206, of whom 87 Jier cent.
were Catholics. Kildare is noted for its antiquities.
There are old giant stone jiillars at Punches-
town, Harristown, Jigginstown, and Mullamast,
and remarkable earthworks near Niuis and else-
where. There are numerous sepulchral mounds
on the Curragh, anrl also the remains of a stone
circle. There are live round towers in the county,
and the ruins of a great many religions houses and
castles. See works by Uawson ( 1807 ) and U'Bvrne
(1867).
Kihiare. a town in Kildare county, .30 miles
S\V. of Dublin. St Bridget (q.v. ) foundeil a nun-
nery here, and the older name Dniiiii Ciiriir/h w.-is
changed to Cildard, the cell or church of the oak,
from an old tree under whose shadow the saint
built her cell. There are remains of three other
monastic in.stitntions, ami a roun<l tower, the linest
in the county, 103 feet high. Kildare was one of
the first sees founde<l in Ireland ; its lirst jirelate
died in .")19. The I'rotestant see (15.50) is now
nnited with Dublin, ami the Roman Catholic sec
foriM^ the diocese of Kildare and Leighlin. .After
the Norman invasion Kildare became a place of
considerable importance, ami a parliament was held
there iu 1309. It suti'ered severely, liowever, in
the wars of Elizabeth and during the great Civil
War, and has never recovered its former standing,
although historically one of the most interesting
old towns in Ireland. The reljellion of 1798-99
l)egan in Kildare, where, on the night of the SSd
May 1798, a number of ollicers from Dublin were
murdered by the insurgents. Prior to the I'uiou
it returned two memljcrs to the Irish parliament.
Pop. (1861) 14-26; (1S91) 1172.
Kilia. a town in the portion of liessarabia
ceded liy Roumania to Russia in 1878, is situated
on the northern bank of the Kilia branch of the
Danube, 20 miles NE. of Ismail. It has some
tishing and trade. Pop. (1SS4) 9079. The place
was captured liy the Russians in 1790, and ijoni-
barded by the allied lieet in July 1854.
Kiliail, St, the apostle of Franconia, a native
of Ireland, who, sent liy the jiojie as a missionary
bishop to the heathen, preached at Wiir/burg about
690, and was slain by his convert Duke tujzbert
for denouncing his marriage with (!eila, his
brother's widow. WUrzburg claims him for its
first liishop ; his day falls on 8th July.
Kilillia-Xjaro, an isolated mountain mass in
East Africa, standing between Victoria Nyanza
and the coast, just within the northern limit of the
German East African Company's territoiy, in 3' 20'
S. lat. and 37' 50' E. long. The mass consi.-ts of
two peaks, or rather craters, Kilio and Kiniaweuzi,
connected by a broad saddle (14,000 feet) studded
with lava hills. Kibo was climbed by Dr Meyer
in October 1889. Its highest jioint is about 19,680
feet above sea-level ; its crater is 650 feet deep
anil 6,500 feet in diameter. At the same time he
climbed the second liighest pinnacle of Kimawenzi,
and found it to be more than 17,250 feet high.
The crater rim of both peaks is covered with a
thick cnist of ice. See Petermanii's MittiiliDij/cn,
vol. xxxvi. No. 1 ; also H. H. Johnston's Kilaiuui-
jaro Expedition ( 1886 ).
Kilkenny, an inland county of Leinster, border-
ing on (jMieen's County, Carlow, Wexford, Water-
ford, and Tipperary. Its area is 509,732 acres,
or 796 scj. m. The proportion of bog is small,
and owing to this and the slope of the country
the climate is dry, salubrious, and temperate.
Vegetation is earlier here than in the rest of
Ireland, and the soil along the valleys <if the Suir,
Nore, and Barrow is very rich. In the northern
part there ;ire large tracts of moor devoted to sheep
and cattle, but almost nothing has been done to
improve the pasturage in the hilly districts. Kil-
kenny forms for the most part a continuation of
the Carboniferous-limestone jilain, but to the south
ami south-east the surface rises to a considerable
elevation. In the north there Ls another hilly
reguin forming part of the Castlecomer anthracite
coalfield. At present the output is about 80,0(X)
tons per annum, or more than one-half the annual
coal ])roduction of Ireland. In the western district
are the Walsh Mountains. The princijial rivers* are
the Suir, the Barrow, and the Nore, which all rise
in the Slieve Bloom Mountains, and after widely-
divergent courses empty them.sclves into Watcrford
Harbour. The chief towns are Kilkenny, Callan,
Thomastown, Freshfonl. I'rlingford, ami Castle-
comer. Pop. (1841) 202.420; (1891) 87,261, of
whom 94 per cent, were Calholic>.. Prior ti the
I'nioii Kilkenny returned sixteen members to the
Irish parliament, but now the county returns two
and the city one to the imperial parliameul. The
linen manufacture was once a jirospcnms imlustry,
but is now )iractically extinct, and I he woollen
manufacture is nearly so. There are a few brew-
eries, distilleries, tanneries, flour-mills, and marble-
polishing works.
Kilkenny, anciently part of the kingdom of
428
KILKENNY
KILLIGREW
Ossory, was formed into a county l>y Kin^j John
in 1210, and ilniinj; tlie Revolution wiis lioUl
by the Irish for James II. It was made an Enj;-
lisli settlement after the Norman invasion, and
was the scene of a hin;,' succession of contlicts
between tlie two races. The Norman remains are
very numerous, and among other anticjuities are
circular {groups of stones on Slieve (!rian and the
Hill of Cloghmanta, several cromlechs and ratlis,
numerous forts and mounds, live round towers,
and mona.-~tic ruins at Jerpoint, Hosljercon, Thomas-
town, Knocktopher, and elsewhere. The most
notable castle is (Iraney, in Iverk, supposed to
have been founded Ijy the Earls of Ormonde in
1521, and of which three towei-s are still standing.
The cave of Dnnmore, between Kilkenny and
Ciistlecomer, which opens with a natural arcli 50
feet hij,'h, is noted for its beautiful stalactite
chambers and its subterranean stream. At Silver-
wooil and liallyguunion are the remains of very
ancient lead-uunes. Manganese, marl, pipeclay,
nn^rble, and copper are still found. See J. t!.
K<diertson's Antiquities and Sccncri/ of Kilkcnmj
(1S5I I.
Kilkenny, the capital of the county of that
name, is also a county oi a city and parliamentary
burgh, returning one member to parliament. It is
situate<l <m the Nore, 81 miles S\V. of Dublin by
rail. Top. (ISol) 19,975; (1891)11,0-18. At one
time it was the seat of busy linen and woollen
manufactures, but very little of either now remains.
It is still, however, the centre of a considerable
industry in marble-polishing. In tlie neighlxmr-
hood are e.\tensive quarries of shelly lilack marble,
which is in extensive reipiest for chimney-pieces,
tond)stones, and other purposes. The name is
Celtic — Cil-Canice — the church of St Canice or
Kenny, a building dating from 10.52 and the
largest ecclesiastic.il edifice in Ireland except St
Patrick's at Dublin. It is in the Early English
style, 226 feet long by 123 across the transei)ts.
There are many old sepulchral monuments, and
quite close to the simth transept are the re-
mains of a round tower still 100 feet high. Other
ecclesiivstical remains are the i)rece|)tory of St
John's, founded in 1211: the Dominican abbey,
founded in 1225, still used as a Roman Catholic
church ; and the Franciscan abbey, founded in
1230. In 1857 was erected the Roman Catholic
cathedral, at a cost of £.30,000, a handsome build-
ing with a massive central tower 186 feet high.
On a precipitous rock above the Nore is the famous
castle of Strongbow and his .son ami successor, dat-
ing from about 1175, and restored during the 19th
century as a place of residence for the Marquis
of Ormonde. The grammar-school, founded in
the lljlli century, also stands on the banks of the
river, fronting the castle, and here Swift, Congreve,
ami liishop Berkeley received their education.
Near the city is the Roman Catholic college of St
Kyran. Several parliaments were held at Kilkenny
in the 14th century, and even down to Henry
VIII. it was the residence, occasionally at any-
rate, of the lord-lieutenant. It was here that in
1367 wius p;i.';sed the stringent 'Statute of Kil-
kenny,' meant to prevent the An;;lo-Irish from
becoming more Irish— forbiilding intermarriage,
&c. — and here that in 1642 the Assembly of Con-
federate Catholics gathered. Cromwell laid siege
to the city in 1648, and in 1050 it capitulated on
honour.ible terms. The principal trade of the city
is now in provisions, Ihrougli the port of Waterford,
by which it is uniled liotli by river and rail. The
faille of the ' KilkiMiny cats,' which fought till
nothing but the tailsi were left, was a satire on
the contentions of Kilkenny and Irishtown in the
17tli century about boundaries and rights, which
went on till both towns were impoverished.
KillaiMH'V. a small market-town in the ccninty
of Kerry, 1S5 iiiiles by rail S\V. of Dublin, 47 WNW.
of Cork, and 1 \ mile fKUii the lower Killarney Lake.
Its importance depends on the crowds of tourists
who conio to visit the famous lakes. The town
has been jiractically rebuilt, and now jiossesses
some sjiacious streets with a number of good
houses and public buildings. Most notable among
the latter is the Roman Catholic cathedral, a very
imposing structure, which, along with the liishop s
I'alace, was designed by I'ngin. There is also a
large Episcopal church, a lunatic asvlnm. a court-
house, and a railway hotel. Pop. ( 1851 ) 7127 : ( 1 S91 )
5510. There is a small trade in making fancy
articles to attract the strangers, principally from
the wood of the arbutus, which grows on the
islands. On the shores of the lakes are marble-
quarries, yielding several varieties — green, red,
white, and brown — and also some old copper-
mines. Near the town is the seat of the Earl of
Kenmare, whose estates were the scene of disturb-
ances, in connection with evictions, during the
Irish agitation of 1888-89.
Killnriiey, Lakes of, are a series of three
connected sheets of «ater, the lowermost of which
is within U mile of the town of Killarney.
The outflow is by the river Laune north west to
Castlemain Harlumr. These famous lakes are
situated in a basin in the midst of the mountains
of Kerry, some of which rise abruptly from the
water's edge densely clothed with trees from base
to summit. Arthur Vouiig called those which
surround the upper lake ' the most tremendous
mountains that can be imagined,' and said that
the wooded hills along the margins 'form the most
magnitlcent shore in the world.' This is exaggera-
tion, but the scenery of Killarney is very beautiful,
and in some of its aspects unique. It presents,
as Arthur Young quaintly .saul, an admirable
mixture of the beautiful and sublime. The lower
lake. Lough Leane, covers an area of 5001 acres,
and is studded with richly-wooded islaml-i. The
largest of the.se is Ross Island, on which is situated
Ro.ss Castle, an old stronglndd of the O'Donoghues.
Another island is the ' sweet Iiinisfallen ' of Moore's
.song, and on this is the picturesque ruin of an
abbey, fouiuled by St Einian the leper in the Utii
-century. The iijqier lake covers some 430 acres,
and is" also studded with islands. Between the
two is Lough Tore, covering 680 acres. L'oiinect-
ing the iipjier with the lower ami middle lakes is
the Long Range, a beautifully-wooded and jiictur-
esquely-winding stream 21 miles hmg- .\b(mt
midway in its course occurs the famous echo,
caused by a lofty rock called the Eagle's Nest.
Between the lower and the miildle lakes is the line
ruin of Miickross Abbey, founded by the Francis-
cans in 1440. -V jieculiarity of the scenery is the
luxuriant growth of arlmtnses on the islanil> of the
lakes, which add such richness and colour to the
general ell'ect. See works by Mr and -Mis Hall
(1843-78).
Killicrrankio, a beautiful wooded pas.s^ in
Perthshire, on the (Jarry River, 15 miles NNW.
of Dnnkelil. It is traversed by Wades (ireat
Highland Road (1732), and by the Highland
Railway (1803). For the battle, see Oit.Ml.v.M
(JOH.N).
Killiifl'OV. TiloM.vs. b(un in 1612, served as a
page in the household of (h.-ules I., and was after-
w.irds a dissolute companion of Charles 11. in
exile and his groom of the bedchamber aflcr the
Restoration. He ]iiililished in 1664 nine indill'erent
l)lays, which he tells \is were written in nine
ditleient cities. He was some time manager of the
king's comiiaiiy, and in his jiatent obtained per-
mission to give the female parts to women. He
KILMAINHAM
KIMCHI
429
Sir JdIiii Denliaiii's lines form his
r sjH.ke, Killi^Tew ne'er writ,
, they'd iimiie a matchless wit.
dieii in IG8S.
l>est ei>itaiili :
Hatl Cowley ne'e
C"nil»ined in one,
— Kn.i.iiiKKW, Sir 'Wii.i.iam, Iiis brother, was
Lorn in ItitHi, fon<;ht in the Civil War, ami ilieil in
169."i. His works include a comedy, Pcnidom, and
three tragicomedies, Sdindni, Onnasdes, and The
Siege of Urbhi.
Killlinillliaill. a township of Dublin couiitv
and a western sulmrli of D\il]lin city. To]). 539f.
Here is tlie Koyal Hospital for the reception of
wounded ami pensioned soldiers. It was orijj;iiially
founded hy Charles II., is conducted on similar
princijiles to the sister institution, Chelsea Hos-
pital, and provides for 2')0 inmates. Xear it is the
government prison of Kilmainham. The phrase,
'the treaty of Kilmainliani,' i>Iayed a jnominent
i-ole ill party political warfare in l'SS2. The plira.se
pointed to an allei;ed arrangement between Mr
Gladstone and Mr rarnell (then in Kilmainham
gaol), whereby the latter promised to use his iidlu-
ence to prevent ajirarian crime in Ireland on condi-
tion that a lejrislative iuea,sure atlectinj; the Land
Act of ISSl was introduced into parliament.
KiIlliai*II»<-k. the largest town in Ayrshire,
on Irvine and Kilmarnock waters, 15i miles by
rail NXE. of Ayr, and 2-t SSW. of d'asgow. It
received its name Ki/moEniiitocc {Gae]., 'church
of my little Ernin ' ) from the dedication of its
church about 1200 to an Irish saint of the 7th
century : and in 1591 it was made a burgh of
barony under the Boyds, from which date its ho.se
and bonnet making grew into thriving industries.
The great carpet manufacture was introduced in
1777, and the printing of calicoes in 1770, of
shawls in 1824; tweeds, winoevs, boots, &-c. are
also manufactured ; and the Glasgow and South-
western Itailway works were transferred hither
in 18.5S. The staple traile, liowever, is in connec-
tion with iron, owing to Kilmarnock's situation in
a great mineral district : and the October chee.se-
fair (established 185.")) is second to none in the
kingdom. The Boyds' Dean Castle, 1 mile \E.,
was reduced by fire to ruin in 1735 ; and the town
itself, which has sull'ered twice from fire (IGGS and
1800), and once from llood (ls.'>2). has few build-
ings of interest. The town hall (1805), the court-
house (1852), the corn exchange (1862), with its
Albert tower 110 feet high, and the new academy
(1876) may be noticed, as also may a statue of Sir
James Shaw ( 1848), ami the Kay I'ark of 41 acres
(1879). with its Burns' monunjcnt, a tower 80 feet
high, of Burns (i|.v. ) and of the Covenanters Kil-
marnock has memories ; and it was the birthplace
of Alexander Smith. Since is:i2 it has united
with Itutherglen, Dumbarton, I'ort-Glasgow, and
Renfrew to return one member to parliament, its
parliamentary boun<Iarv having been extemleil in
1885. lielweon 1875 and 1890 its valuation in-
creased from ffil,847 to i"9t;,495. I'oi). (1841)
19,398; ( 1881) '25,841 ; (1891) '28,447. SeeM'Kiiy's
Jlislori/ of Ktlmnrmvk ( 1848 ; 4tli ed. 1880).
KilOj^H'ainilie, a thousand grammes = 22046
lb. See .Miniiic ii\>^rEM.—Ki/of/i-((iii)iir-/iirlrc is
the amount of work done in lifting one kilogramme
one metre = "•2:i;i08 footpounds.— A' //oiHc^rc, a
thousanrl metres = .'aso-g feet = 0-6214 mile.— A7/o-
icalt, unit of activity in Mechanics = one thousand
watts = 1 '3406 liorse-i)ower = 1 -3591 cheval-vapcur.
Kilriisll, a small seaport of Ireland, on the
northern shore of the Shannon estuary, :i(> ndles
W. of Linjerick. It is resorted to for seabathing,
and exports grain and timber. I'op. 3805.
Hil.sytll', a town of Stirlingshire, 13 miles NE.
of Glasgow, with quarries and coal and iron mines.
Founded in 1665, it Mas made a burgh of barony in
18'2(). Here, on 15tli August 1645, .Montrose with
490(1 followers almost amiiliilatecl 700(1 Coveminteis
under Maillie ((iardiner's h'ndf Ciril War, vol. ii.
1889). A remarkable religions revival took place
here in 1839, originating in the preaching; of W. C.
Burns, afterwards missionarv to China. Top. (1851)
3949 : ( 1881 ) 54(J5 ; ( 1891 ) 6073.
Kilt. See HlGliL.\ND Co.srUME.
Kihva. See (Ji-ilo.v.
kilwillllilisr, a town of Avrshiie, on the
Garnock, 3A miles NNW. of Irvine and '26 SW.
of Glasgow. The stately Tir(mensian abbey,
founded in the 12tli and dcnudislied in the IGtIi
century, was dedicated to "Winnin, an Irish saint,
who is said to have founded a church here about
715. The traditional birthplace of Freemasonry
(q.v.) in Scotland, Kilwinning has also been
celebrated since 1488 for archery ; its July shooting
at the popinjay, placed on the steei)le ( 1(J5 feet
higli ), is deseriljed in Scott's Old Mortal itii, and
continued till 1S70. Eglinton Castle (1798), the
seat of the Earls of Eglinton (rj.v. ), is U mile S.E. ;
and the Eglinton Ironworks ( 1S46) atl'ord employ-
ment. Pop. ( 1 S61 ) .•i921 ; ( 1881 ) .3469 : ( 1891 ) 3835.
See works hy \Vylie ( 1878) and Lee Ker (1883).
Killlberlt'y, ca])ital ami chief town of Clriqua-
land West, South Africa, the most important inland
town of the Cape Colony, is situated .540 miles NE.
of Cajielown by rail ( .'JO hours ). I'op. ( 1891 ) '28,718,
more than half natives. "The British (lag was
first lioisted at Kimberley in November 1871 : but
(iriqualand West did not become an integral por-
tion of the Cape Colony tUl Gctober 1880. The
climate is healthy, though hot in summer ; the
neighbouring country, in all jdaces where water
can Ije olitaineil, fertile. The wants of the town
have been abundantly provided for by water-works
carried out at a cost of nearly half a milli(m sterling,
for which water is obtained from the Vaal Kiver.
(^)n the oiitlireak of the Transvaal war it was in-
vested by the Boers. 1ml after a siege of over three
montlis it was relieved on loth February 1900.
The rise of Kimberley has been raiiid ; and its
situalion is favourable to its further development.
It holds the direct road from Capetown and the
sea to the Orange Colony, the Trans\ aal, and the
immense territories to the north ; an<l is important
to travellers and ' u])-country ' traders as the em-
porium and starting-place for the interior. There are
a handsome town-hall, post-office, high court, public
library, and botanic gardens. Kimlierley owes its
existence to the di;imond-miiies. the working of
which dates only from July 1.S71, and of which
the most important, known as Du Toils Pan,
Bultfonlein, De Beer's, and Kimberley Central,
were amalgamated into one huge company, with
a share capilal of £3,950,(-100. The number of
diamonds found elsewhere in the whole worlil is
comparatively insignificant (see Catk Colon'V,
Vol. II. p. 734: also Di-\Mi)Ni), Vol. III. p. 7<)i ). —
Kimlierley is also the name of a fertile district in
the Fitzroy basin, in northern West Australia,
where gold was found in 1893.
Killl4*lli, Daviii, the most eminent Jewish gram-
marian ami exegete, was born about lUiO, pridiably
at Narbimne, where he spent the greater part of
his life, and died about l'2;i.5. His father, Joseph
Kimchl. was the !iutlior of a number of com
nientaries and other theological works. His
brother Moses wrote similar wmks and a Hebrew
(iramiiiar. His own celebrity, however, far
exceeds theirs, and even with competitors like
Kaslii and Ihn Ezra he has preserved his ]ilace as
the most popular of Jewish commentators. His
Grammar, Micklul, and his I,exicon, Sifcr hash-
orashim, have to a certain degree been tiie basis
430
KIMMERIDGE CLAY
KINCARDINESHIRE
of all subsequent Heliiew grainniare and lexieous.
His niininciitaiies iiicluile almost all the Ijixiks of
the Olil Testament. That on the Psalms was
editeil liy Sclnllei--Szin('ssy (Canib. 1SS5).
KiiiiiiU'ridiic Clay, the lowest series of the
Upper Oolite, consists of dark, hluishgray slialy
clay, which is sometimes ))ituminons and occasion-
ally (as at Kimmeridge in the Isle of Puiheck)
passes into a shale so rich in liitnniinoiis matter
as to he used as a fuel. In other places the clay
is calcareous, anil contains nodules of argillaceous
limestone or septaria. Near its base it some-
times shows sandy layers and clay ironstone. The
series attains a maxinnim thickness of COO to CGO
feet.
KillipoIllllS. a town of ^Vallachia, stands
in a valley at tlie foot of the Carpathians, SO
miles N\V. from liucharest. Pop. 9090. — .Another
town of tills name exists in the extreme south of
Bukowina. Pop. 5534.
Kill. Xext ok. When a person dies intestate
his real property devolves, according to English
law. on his Ileir (t|.v.), and his personal property
is distributed among his next of kin. The degrees
of kindred are divided into lineal and collateral.
The lineal consists of the ascending, such a-s father,
mother, grandfather, grandmother, ])aternal and
maternal, ami so on a/l iiiJinHinn ; and the descend-
ing, such as son, daughter, grandson, grand-
daughter, and so on lui infinitum. The collateral
kindred consists of brothers, sisters, uncles, aunts,
&.C., and the children of .such ml infinitum. The
mode by which the civil law eomputeil the pro-
pinquity of degree was this : it allowed one
degree for each per.son in the line of descent
e.Kclusive of him from whom the computation
begins, and in the direct line counted the degrees
from the deceased to his relative ; but as regards
collaterals it counted the sum of the degrees from
the decea-sed to the comnnm ancestor, and from the
common ancestor to the relatives. Thus, a brother
was in the second degree, counting one to the
father, and one from the father to the brother ;
a ne]ihew, and also an uncle, a great-grandfather
and a great-grandson, were all in the third degree ;
a son and a father weie in the first degree ; and
so on. This mode of computing the degrees of
kindred has been adopted in the law of England
and Ireland.
^VIlen a person dies intestate, leaving personal
l)roi)erty, there are two classes of rights to which
the next of kin are entitled : one is the right
to adniini-ster the estate, or to take out letters of
administration ; the other is the right to a share
of the property itself. As regards the right of
administration, the court has discretion to appoint
a lit person, but a [ireference is to be given to
the widow or widower, and to the next of kin.
Among the next of kin those are to be preferred
who are nearest in degree according to the above
computation : thus, a .son or father is preferred to
a brother, grandfather, or grandson ; and these to
a nei)liew, uncle, great-grandson, or gri^at-giand-
fatlier : and so on. In distributing the ])ers(malty
the willow takes one-third if there be children
or other dcscendanls, one-half if there be none.
Sul)je(!l to this claim of the widow, the next of
kin take according to the Statute of Distributions,
which slightly dill'ers from the order of the civil
law as to the degrees of priority ; thus, the children
exclusively take the whole if children survive;
if some of the chililren are dead, leaving issue,
then the issue collectively of each dead child take
an equal share with the living chiUlron, by what
is called the principle of re])resentation. If there
are none nearer than grandchililren, each family of
grandchildren take the share of tlie child whom
they represent, and the issue of a deceased grand-
child also take the .share of their parent. If there
are no descendants, the father, if alive, is entilleil
to the whole. If he also is dead, then the mother
and the living brothers and sisters ( together w itli the
issue of deceased brothel's and sisters collectively)
take each one share. After these are dead, then
grandfathers and grandniotliei-s, paternal and
maternal, and nephews and nieces, if alive, take
each a share. The right of representation— i.e. the
right of the children of a deceased person being
one of a class (and who, if alive, wouhl have been
one of the next of kin ) to re)iresent him, and take
his share — applies as far as the children of brothers
and sisters, (mt no further. The heir-at-law is one
of the next of kin, and takes his share of the
personalty, thimgli he also gets all the real estate.
The half-blood counts among the next of kin
e<|ually with the whole blood : males are not pre-
ferred to f(-males ; and the rule of primogeniture
has no applicaticm.
in Scotland the rules of priority among the next
of kin vary considerably from the above onler,
which luevails in England and Ireland. The chil-
dren, being entitled to an absidute legal share calle<l
Legitini (q.v.), take the father's ])ioperty in two
characters — one part as le'dtim, the otlier as being
next of kin — and the result is often iliHerent from
what olitains in England. Moreover, in Scotland,
though the heir-at-law may be one of the next
of kin, still he is not entitled to take such share
unless he collate the heritable estate (resign it to
the executors). The degrees of kindred are not
counted in exactly the same way. The father
never can take more than one-half, nor the mother
more than one-third, while any of the brothers and
sisters, or their issue, are alive. The half-blood
does not share e(|ually with, but in an inferior
degree to the full blood. See the tabular state-
ment in Patersons Compendium of English and
Scolc/i Lav.
Kiiiabalii. See Borneo.
Killbni'll. or Kll.lU'RX, a former fort of south
liussia, situated ojiposite Otcliakolf, on a long
narrow sandbank which forms the southern bound-
ary of the estuary of the Dniejjer. Paul Jones firet
suggested to SuvarolT that it sliould be fortified ; it
ligured promineiilly in the Kusso-Turkish wars of
1771-74 and 17S7 ; and during the Crimean war
it fell before the allies, October 17, 1855. The
fortifications were razed in 1860.
Kiiioar(iiiie.<sliire. or Tin; Mk.vrx.s, a mari-
time county of Scotland, with .\berdeenshire and
the Dee on the N., Eoifarshire .and the North Esk
on the S. and W., and the North Sea on the E.
The rocks are granite, gneiss, sandstone, conglom-
erate, mica-slate, clav-slate, limestone, and traji.
Area, .383 sq. in., or 245,346 acres, of which 120,050
are in cultivation, and 23,153 in wood. The county
may be diviiled into four sections — viz. the Coast,
the ' Howe o' the Mearns,' the tlrampians, and
Deeside. The coast-laml and much of the ' Howe '
is of superior (juality, and rents frcmi £2 to £3, UK
an acre. The ' Howe ' forms a continuation of the
Valley of Strathiii<ne (q.v.). The (Iranqiians, run-
ning .across the country from e.ist to west, parallel
to the Dee, with an average breadth of from 7 to
S miles, eo\er about 80,000 acres ; one of the peaks,
M(mnt Battock, is 2555 feet high. The Deeside
jiortiim of the county is a comparatively narrow
strip of light, sharp soil. There are few manufac-
tures in the county. The principal towns and
villages are Stonehaven (q.v.). the rounty town;
Itervie, a royal burgh ; Laurencekirk, a bonmgli
of barony; liancborv: and .lohnshaven. Of the
objects of antiiinarian interest the most noted are
Duiiiiottar Castle (q.v.) and Kaedyke's Camp, an
KINCHINJINGA
KINEMATICS
431
entieiiclinient seemingly on the Homan nietlioil, in
wliioh it has been suiiposcil that the ancient Cale-
donians nniler Galjjacus encamped prior to their
liattle with the Romans under Atrricola. Kincar-
ilineshire was the birthplace of IJeorge Wishart,
Ko1)ert Barclay, Dr J. Heattie, and Dr Thomas
Keiil : and the" father of Rol>ert Rums was born
in Dunnottar parish. Pop. (1801) 26,349; (1871)
34,(>30; (1881)34,460; (1891) 34,647.
kinrliinjiiiga, or K.vxciian.i.vnca, a peak of
the Himalayas, between Sikkim and Nepal, 28,176
feet in altitude.
Kill4lerg:arteil, the name of a kinil of school
or training-place for young ehililren — name and
thing imported from Germany. The principle was
first propounded (1S26) and the system invented
by Friedrich Froeljel (q.v. ). He wa-s early im-
pressed with the insufficiency of the teaching
and training given in the ordinary infant-school,
and with the fact that the loving instinct of the
mother leniained merely an instiixH, which re-
quired for the training of the child thoughtful
guidance and direction. He saw that the teaching
in the infant-school wa.s to a large extent tradi-
tional ; that the selection of subjects and exer-
cises depended on fashion, or upon the likings or
prejudices of the teacher, and not n\mn a genuine
Knowledge of the nature of children ; and that the
whole inocedure was based upon an induction of
facts and phenomena which had been hastily made,
and rested upon no firm grouml of principle. He
therefore set to work to study the ways and doings
of infants from their birth, and to note down
systematically what kind of mental food and what
kind of bodily activity Xature prompted them
at each stage of their existence to prefer. He
reached the following principles: (a) That Edu-
cation means a liarmonioi;s development of all the
bodily and mental powere; (o) that the spontaneous
is the raw material and the only element that is
valuable in education, and that the teacher must
connect all his instruction with these, and graft
it upon the spoutaneons activity of the child; (e)
that the work of the teacher is not to give know-
ledge ab extra, but to supjily material, means, and
opportunities in a rational anil harmonious order
for the child's mind spontaneously to work upon ;
and ((/) that in the presentation of their materials
or occupations there must be no 1>roak (in Natun't
non (latnr saltim), because all occupations which
tiain must be developed out of each other. The
early materi.als for instruction are called (/ifts,
because they are ])resented to the child only W'hen
his nature and stage of develoiiment call for them.
The province of the educator is to map out the
world of early childhood, and to engineer — i.e.
to give each step in — the paths to knowledge or
power in each subject ; the ])rovince of the teacher
IS to apply this general knowleilge to particular
ca-se.s, and with loving care and delighteil jiatience
to provide the right mental food — the most suitable
activities for each hour and stage of development.
His complete aim is the systematic cultivation of
all the powers in complete e(|uilibriuiTi. Hence,
while the infant-school goes too much into work
and drill, Kroebel's system calls for attentiim to the
individual child; he weaves the work into 'play'
(spontaneous activity), and he evolves 'drill' out
of the free individual desire for society. Ifence
Froebels large use of song and ilanco. He respects
freedom and the right onler of development so
mucli that he would not give a vortl to a child
until a mental necessity and desire had been
createil by an ordereil set of experiences for that
word ; and he cultivates the senses ami the hand
with the utmost care, so that perfectly accurate
perception and comparison may produce true and
clear conceptions, which again give rise to true
and just judgiuonts. 'All the byways to untruth,'
says Miss Shirrcll', ' such as exaggeration, confused-
ness of mind, inaccuracy of speech, are cut off.' The
child is not (aught, but /erf by a set of ordered ex-
periences to the perception of the principles of num-
ber (Arit/tnietic.) .and of space ( Geometry) ; and his
senses and powei's of hand and eye are cultivateil
by an elaborate series of exercises. The steps in
Froebel's system are ( 1 ) Spontaneiti/ or I'lay,
which, however, in a child is always serious and
never frivolous; (2) direction of this towards ex-
tern.al fact and truth; (3) weaving of spontaneous
powei's into ordinary occupations; (4) develop-
ment into self-culture, independent action, a love
of knowledge, beauty, and society. The pro-
cess, like the process of Nature, is slow, trantjuil,
and oiganic : but no part of it requires to be
undone. The child sees, imitates, or reproduces
and invents new forms : these are the three steps
in each subject for each pupil. Its most earnest
disciples give to it the name of The Xeto Edu-
eati'on.
The system has made great way in America, and
is now making way in England. There is a Fioebel
Society, which consists of a large number of thinkers
and workers in education. The London and Bir-
mingham school boards have introduced the system ;
and several training-colleges are working upon its
lines.
The best Enghsli books as yet on the subject are Laurie's
Eindfrijarten Manual ; Sliss .ShirrcfTs Kinderf/arten
{l>i7l')) and Kindcrriarten at Home (2d ed. 1889); Heer-
wart's Music for the Kindcrynrten (1877); Kobler's
Praxis (trans, by Miss Gumey, 4th ed. 1889); The
Kindcniarten ; FrocM. Soeietit's Papers ( 1880 ) ; B.arnard,
Proebci's Kindergarten ; Karl Froebel, Exptanalion of the
Kinderffarten.
KilldersCOUt Grit, name given to the coarse
grits and llagstones which occur towards the base
of the Millstone tirit of England (see C.arbonifer-
ois System). The rock forms the tableland of
Kinderscout in the Peak country. The grit is
quarried at Eyam iloor, Derwent Edge, and other
places, anil is used for engine-beds, foundations, and
reservoir work.
Kindly Tenaut. See Boeder.s.
KilK'lliatics is the science which treats of pure
motion. It involves the fundamental conceptions
of space and time and takes no direct cognisance
of force or mass. Strictly speaking, any kineniat-
ical problem dealing with motions that exist in
nature is at bottom dynamical, and every dyna-
mical problem is of necessity approached in the
lirst instance on its kincniatical si<le. Thus, to
take a familiar example, Kepler's laws of planetary
motion were purely geometrical and kinemalical
statements, from wliich Newton deduced the dyna-
mical law of universal gravitation. Again, the
Aaiitirnl Almanac is essentially a book of kine-
matical st.atistics, giving the po.sitions of the im-
portant heavenly Ijodics at definite successive
intervals of time, and not unfre<iuently the rates
of change of position ; and the calculation of these
statistics has a stiict dynamic basis.
Kinematics may be regarded as a geometry of
position into which the idea of time or duration
lias been introduced. Thus, change of position,
regarded a.s taking ]ilace continuously in time,
leads to the iilea of velocity, linear and angular.
Velcxily itself is, of course, subject to change, and
this change, regarde<l .as taking place continuously
in time, leads to the idea of acceleration, linear
and angular. The distinction of linear ami angular
an applied to velocities and accelerations is very
necessary for a. cle.ar study of the kinematics of
.systems of ]>oinfs, such as plane .and solid Cigures,
rigid or deforiuable, or of the kinematics of iluids.
.f.
432
KINETICS
KINGFISHER
Rotation, strain, twist, vortex are important cases.
The kinoinatics of solid lifjuros is a sulijoct of grow-
ing iiii])ortance to the nieclianician and cnjiineer ; so
mucli so tliat in tlie kinematics of macliinery we
liave a hij^lily-spccialisod iirancli of the sulijcct.
A glance at any oidinarv piece of iiiechanism, I'rom
a steam-engine to a sewinji-inachine, shows liow
various are the relative motions of the wheels,
rods, cranks, belts, and other pieces that build it
up. The function of a machine is dynamic — viz.
to transform energy to a certain end — but this must
be effected by suitable kinematical arrangements.
In .all modern treatises on dynamics and mechanics
a sei'lion is devoted to a. |iicliininarv study of
kinemalios. Iteuleaiix's Kiiirmtitics i>f Mtirliincry
(trans. IsTG) deserves particular mention.
Kinetics. See Dyx.\mics, Energy, Matter.
Kiiu'toscopc. See Edison, Zoetrope.
King (.\.S. ci/iiiiiff, from cijn, 'a kin,' 'a tribe,'
an<l the termination -ixy, 'belonging to.' Hence
ci/n-iiii/ is 'man of the tribe,' 'chief'). For the
origin of the kingly power, see tlie article Gdverx-
MENT; for the relation of king to people in Britain,
see E.\f;L.\N-D (Hi.stouv of), P.\rli.\ment; and
for the ])Osition of kings in other countries, see
the section on the constitutions of these countries.
King, WiLLi.\M RuFU.s, vice-president of the
United States, was born in North Carolina, 0th
April 1780, and was admitted to the liar in 1800.
He was a member of the legislature for three years,
was returned to congress as a War-Democrat in
1810, and represented Alabama in the senate from
1820 to 18-44. He was then minister to France for
two years, and a senator again from 1848 to 18j3,
when he became vice-president. He died, liowever,
en ISth April of the same year.
Kin»-at-ai'nis. See Hei;.\ld.
King <'«iintry. See W.mkato.
King-rmb (Limnlns), a curious animal, the
last of its race, usually referred to a special gro\ip,
Xiphosura, within tlie sjiider and scorpion class
Arachnida. \ huge
^:i?T^^^^^^ convex chitinous
buckler covers the
head and thorax, a
Hatter hexagonal
shield protects the
abdomen, while a
long s|)ear runs out
fidm the hind end.
There are twelve
jiairs of ajipendages
tn\ the ventral sur-
face, a pair in front
of the month, five
pairs of legs, the
bases of which sur-
I'ound tlie mouth
and are masticatory,
anil a cover or oper-
culum which over-
laps live pairs of
llatteneil abdominal
ajipendiiges, used in
swimming, and bear-
ing peculiar resiura-
Fig. 1. — TTndcr-surface of King- tory organs known
crah [Limiiliis puhiplumus). as gill-books. On
the top of the large
buckler there are two large compound eyes and
near the middle line two simple eyes. The internal
structures are no less peculi,-ir. The sexes are
separate, and the spineless larva' present a curious
resemblance to Trilobites.
The king-crabs attain a length of over two feet.
They live on muddy bottoms at a depth of 2 to 6
Kg. 2.— Young King-
crab, just liatclied
(greatly enlarged).
fathoms, where they sometimes swim slowly about
or more frequently burrow their way in the mud
by alternately bending .and straigiitening their
shields and spine. The food
consists for the most part of
marine worms, which are
sucked into the mouth and
there crushed. Limulus is
restricted to the warm coasts
of the Indian Archiiielago {L.
moturainim) and the east of
North .-Vmerica (L. polijphe-
niii.s). The genus first ajipears
in Jurassic strata, but th(!
allied IJellinurichc, represented
by Neolimulus in the Up]ier
Silurian and by other genera
of later date, seem to link the
king-crabs to the ancient
Trilobites. In some of the Indian islands the
spine is used for pointing arrows, and in tropical
America the shell .sometimes serves as a ladle.
See E. Kay Lankester, 'Jamulus an Arachnid,'
Qiiiirt. Jour. Jlicr. Sci., vol. xxi. 18S1 ; also vols.
xxiii. xxiv.
KinglisilCI* (A /redo ispiiht), a well-known
British and European bird, in the order of pies
or Picaria>, famous for its brilliant plumage and
lishlione nest. Though it measures only abcnit 7
inches in length from the tiji of the beak to the
enil of the tail, it is rendered conspicuous liy the
Hashing feathers, wliicli are predominantly blue and
green. To watch the kingfisher is dillicuU, for it
is shy and wary, and the jiowerful wings are used
ill singularly rapid fitful flight. The fish-catchin<'
bill is large and strong; the legs are short and
weak, but the toes are strengthened by being
ioineil for the greater part of their length, 'i'lie
bird freiiuents the banks of rivers and lakes
throughout Europe ; and in Britain is most at
home in the south of England. The cry is faint
but shrill, like ti-ti often repeated. Tlie king-
fisher feeds chielly on small fishes, which are
caught by a dexterous <livc, carried to the perch,
killed by a few blows on ;i br.anch, and swalloweil
whole. The bones are afterwards disgorged, and
used in part to form the nest. This is hiilden at
the end of a hole bored in the bank, and is often
anything but clean. The birds generally live in
pairs away from their fellows, whose intrusion on
the aiipropriated jireserves is jealously resented.
Kingfislier (AlceJo ispida).
The .seven or eight eggs, which are laid in Ajnil,
are almost s]diciical in form and very white, as is
often the case in hidden nests. Within the family
Ah'cdinida', of which the common kingfisher is type,
there are numerous genera with representatives in
KING GEORGE'S SOUND
KINGS
433
most parts of the world. The pied kiiifrlisher of
India and Africa (Ccri/le nidis) and the belted
kingfisher of North America ( Ven//e /luU-i/on ) are
coniinon forms. A sub family (Dacelonina') in-
chides numerous more omnivorous kinj.'tishei's with
stouter, Hatter bills. Of these the great laughing
jacka-sses of Australia (Dacelo) are notable repre-
sentatives.
The kingfisher is the old lialcvon, ' whose dead
body carefully hung by a single thread always
turns its lieak towards the wind,' a popular and
still surviving notion to which Shakespeare makes
more than one reference. With the halcyon the
imagination of the ancients played lovinj/ly, for
to tlieni the bird was Alcyone the daugliter of
-■Eolus and wife of the king of Trachis, the son of
the morning star, ' who, mourning in licr youth for
her lost husband, was winged by divine power, and
now Mies over the sea, seeking him whom she could
not find, sought throughout the earth.' 'The bird
i Ls not great, as Socrates continues in Lucian s
I dialogue ' The Halcyon,' ' but it has received great
. honour from the gods because of its lovingness ;
I for while it is making its nest, all the world has
the happy days which it calls halcyonid;e, excell-
ing all othei-s in their calmness.' So Aristotle,
cjnoting Simonides, says that the halcyon has its
young alxmt the turn of the year in winter, ' when
Zeus gives the wisdom of calm to fourteen days.
Then the people of the land call it the hour of
wind-hiding, the sacred nurse of the spotted
halcyon.' See R. Bowdler Sharpe's Munuf/rapk
of the Alccdinidic or Kingfishers ; Kuskiu's Eagle's
Nest ; and H.A.LCYOX Day.s.
KinsT Ceorge's Sound, an inlet 5 miles north
and south, and 5 miles broad, at the .south-west
angle of West .\ustralia, which is an excellent
roadstead, and contains two landlocked recesses.
Princess Royal and Oyster Harboui-s. Albany
(q.v. ), on Princess Royal Harbour, is a port of call
for mail-steamers. The fortification of the sound
has been recommended by some English military
authorities, and an imperial naval depot has been
proposed.
Kinslioril. a royal burgh of Fife, on the Firth
of Forth, 3 miles S. of Kirkcaldy by rail. It has
shipbuilding-yards, a bleachtield, manufactures of
dax and glue, and golf links. Alexander III. was
killed ( 1286 ) at Kinghorn Ness, and a monument
was erected on the .spot in 1SS7. Pop. 2036.
Kingluko, .Vlex.vxder Willi.\m, historian,
was liorn at Wilton Hou.se, near Taunton, in 1809,
and was educated at Eton and Trinity College,
Cambridge. He was called to the bar at Lincoln's
Inn in 1S37, and speedily acquired a lucrative
practice ; but he retired from the [jrofcssion in
18.56, in order to devote himself to literature and
politics. He lia<l already published, in 18-14,
Eollten, a work of eastern travel, written in a
graphic and poetic vein, yet with great truthful-
ness to nature, wlii(-h has always remained one
of the most jiopular books of English travel. He
was returned for Bridgwater in the Liberal interest
in 18.>T. tiKik a prominent part against Lord Palmer-
ston's Conspiracy liill in 1859, and in 1860 warmly
denounced the anne.vation of Savoy and Nice by
France. In 1S.j4 he went out with Lord Raglan
to the Crimea, where he had every facility for
watching the progress of the war. .\fter his
return he undertook the defence of the I'ritisli
commander in liLs lliitory of the !('«;• in the
Crimen (8 vols. 1863-87). As the history was
very largely based upon Lord liaglan's paiiers,
it lia.s l)een reganletl by some a.s a prejuiliieil
narrative of the war ; but from the literary point
of view opinion is practically unanimous that it
is one of the finest historical works of the 19th
288
century. The criticism of Na|)oleon HI. and the
second empire was so searching that the work
gave great oft'ence at the Tuileries, and its circula-
tion was prohibited in France during the Kmiiire.
Replies have been made to strictures uiion other
actors in the war, and occasionally witli success.
Hut the history remains on the whole a wonderfully
accurate, brilliant, and minute record of the great
struggle with Russia. In 1868 Kinglake was again
rt'turned for Bridgwater, but was unseated on jieti-
tion. He died 2d January 1891. See Life by limes
Shand prefixed to the new edition of Eulhcii (1896).
Kinglet. See Golden -crested Wren.
Kings, The First .\nd Second Books of,
in the English Authorised Version titled The
first Book of Kings, rommoniy called the Third
Book of Kings, and 2'he Second Book of Kings,
coin moldy called the Fourth Book of Kings. In
the ancient Rabbinical enumeration, implied in
Josephus and followed in the Peshito and by
Jerome, the Book of Kings (J/c?«r/«'«i ) was reck-
oned one, ranking fourth and last in the series of
the 'earlier propliets' (after Joshua, Judges, and
.Samuel) ; the division into two first appears in the
.Septuagint translation, where they are called the
third and fourth 'of the kingdoms' (Basilcion,
Heb. Mclacliotli), the books of Samuel forming the
lirst and second. Tliis division was copied by the
Vulgate, whence it passed into the 'common'
usage of Christendom. The separation between
Samuel and Kings is itself not original ; for the
lirst two chapters of Kings, concluding the life of
David, are consecutive with '2 Sam. ix.-.xx. and
by the same hand. Tlie books of Kings as we now
have them are evidenth' a compilation, and careful
examination shows that they have passed through
more than one redaction. In their composition at
least four elements can be distinguished : ( 1 ) In
1 Kings, xi. 41, reference is made to ' the book of the
acts (chronicles) of Solomon,' ami for the reigns of
subsequent kings there is very frequent mention
of ' the book of the chronicles of the kings of
Judab,' and of a corresponding book of the kings
of Israel. The exact nature of these chronicles
cannot now be determined ; but the probability is
that they were themselves compilations, chiefly
digests of a statistical and annalistic character,
further epitomised by the writer of the canonical
book. (2) The official records of the temple at
Jerusalem, though nowhere e.xpressly named, must
have been directly or indirectly the source of
much of the information given about the worship
there, especially under the reigns of Solomon,
Joasli, Aliaz, and Josiah. (3) The book owes
most of its vividness and pietures(|ueness to mate-
rials derived from a .series of unollicial narratives,
having their origin chiefly in the northern
kingdom, and in which the acts of the prophets
had special prominence. To this category belong
in particular the history of Elijah ( 1 Kings,
xvii.-xix., xxL), and the much more compliiated
.series of passages relating to Elisha, for the northern
kingdom ; and the story of the man of Cod from
Juilali (1 Kings, xiii.), for the southern. (4) The
main redactor has contributed the chronological
scheme of synchronisms in which the histories of
the two kingdoms are brought to<;ether under one
view, and has given a pragmatical tone to the
narrative by undertaking, in the case of each king,
an estimate of his religious character an<l work.
This is done in the spirit of the Deuteronomic
legislation, and it may be inferred with certainty
therefore that the main redaction did not take
l>lace till after the reformation of Josiah. The
i)hrii.seology of such |ias.sages as 2 Kings, viii. '22:
xiv. 7: xvi. 6 ('unto this day'), implies an earlier
date than the fall of the kingdom of J udali ; but
434
KING'S BENCH
KINGSLEY
evidence of a later pen is found in 2 Kings, xvii.
19, 20; xxiii. 26, 27), while 2 Kings, xxv. 27
seqq., biin>,'s us down to a far advanced period
of the exile. Important variations (especially in
the series of rather disconnected notes which form
a large part of the history of Solomon) between
the existing Hebrew text and that which must
have lain before the LXX. translators show that
the book was still in a somewhat fluid state at a
very much later date.
For discussion of the critical problems, see Wellliausen
in the fourth edition of Bleek's Einleituiui (1878), re-
printed in his C'omiJ'^sition des Bexateuchs, &c. (1889).
Of expo>itions, those of Thenius (2d ed. Leip. 1873),
Keil (2d ed. 1876; Eng. trans. 1872), Biihr (in Langes
Bihelwcrk, 18()G ; Eng. trans. 1877), RawILnson (in
Speaker's Commentary), and Keuss [La Bible) may be
mentioned.
King's Beiioli. See Common L.wv.
King's C'ollege, London, an institution ad-
joining Somerset House, Sti-aml, founded by royal
charter in 1828, and confirmed by act of parlia-
ment in 1882, and on the fundamental principle
'that instruction in the Christian religion ought
to form an indispensable part of every system of
general education for the youth of a Christian com-
munity.' The college being strictly in connection
with the Church of England, divinity lectures are
a regular part of its routine. The usual university
education for young men is provided in theology,
literature ( ancient and modern ), science, engineer-
ing and applied science, and medicine. It has also
a school of line art, and a ilepartment for the pre-
paration of candidates for the civil service. The
instruction is adapted for students abo\e the age
of sixteen, but there is a school (1830) for boys in
fonnection with the college, with workshops for
meclianical training. There is a branch at Ken-
sington for the higher education of ladies ; also
evening classes for students occui)icd during the
<lay. The museum has a collection of models and
instruments. For a sketch of the ri.se and progress
of the college, see The Cdchndioti of the Colkije
Jubilee (1881).
King's or Queen's €oHllsel are certain
barristers at law, in England and Ireland, who have
been appointed by letters-i)atent. The office is
entirely honorary, but it gives a right of pre-
audience in all the courts, according to the date
of appointment. The appointment practically
belongs to the Lord Chancellor. In s]iite of their
title, they are not prevented from being retained
and acting for ordinary clients, except that in
defending prisoners and acting in suits against the
crown they require a special license from the
crown, which is, however, never refused. In Scot-
land tlu're is no such distinction, but the ollices of
Lord .Ailvocate and Solicitor-general are practically
ciiuivalent. The appointment is for lite, but in
case of disgraceful conduct the letters-patent are
revoked, as was done in 1862 to Edwin James,
■who, in 1873, applied in vain for restitution.
The Queen's Counsels' robes are of silk instead
of the ordinary (alpaca) 'stutV of which the
junior's gown is nuide ; and 'taking silk' is thus
the common phrase signifying that an 'outer'
barrister has become a t^)ueeirs Counsel or t^.C.
'Taking silk' is frequently injurious rather than
advantageous to a professional career. A t^neen's
Counsel is iirohibited by legal etiquette from taking
a good deal of minor business which fell to his
share as a junior, and 'silk,' a stciipiiig-stonc to
the great men, is a stumbling-block to the small.
When a junior has reacheil the position in which
he feels justified, or is forced by the public opiinon
of his circuit, to 'apply for silk,' his demand is
very rarely refuse<l, or at jiiost postponed, and the
lionour is little mure than a necessary iuciduut in
every successful legal career. Henry Brougliam,
indeed, was debarred for some years from what
was in his case a professional right by the pcison.al
antipathy of tieorge IV. and Lord Eldon, ami it
was m)t until 1827, on the acce.'ision to power of
George Canning, that Brougham received a Patent
of prece<lence wliich clothed him in silk and gave
him all the professiimal advantages without the
actual title. But this is a striking and almost
a solitary exception. Of late years colonial
barristers have been gratified with the title of
Queen's Counsel conferred l)y the Lord Chancellor,
on representation made by the governor of the
colony through the Secretary of State.
King's Connty. an inland county of Inland,
in Leinster, is boundeil on the W. by the Shannon,
which separates it from Koscommon and (lal^ay.
It is 20 miles long from noith to south by ")8 « ide.
Area, 493,985 statute acres, or 772 sq. ni. <tf this
l'22,Io4 acres were under crops in 1889 ; ami of this
again nearly one-half was grass, whilst '24^ per
cent, was corn and green crops (oats, barhiv, pota-
toes, and turnips). Twenty-three per cent, ot the
total area was covered with bogs, including a large
part of the Bog of Allen. The population hivs
steadilvdecrea.sed— (1841) 146,857; (1861)90,013;
1 1881 ) "72,852 ; ( 1891 ) 65,563, of whom .">8,'264 were
Roman Catholics. The surface is flat, excciil for the
Slieve Bloom Mountains (17.33 feet) on the south
boundary. The soil, a light loam of me<lium
depth, resting on limestone gravel, is of average
fertility. 'The Grand Canal traverses the northern
])ortion of the county, and joins the .Shannon.
The river Barrow separates it from t,)ueen's
County on the south-east. King's County, con-
stituted a shire in 1557, and named in honour of
King Philip, returns two membei-s. In the north-
west is Clonmacnois Abbey, founded in .548, one
of tlie most interesting ecclesiastical ruins in Ire-
land. At Birr Castle Lord Kosse erected his great
telescope. The chief towns are Tullamore (5098),
Pars(mstown or Birr (4955), and I'ortarlingtou
(2357).
King's or Qneeu's Evidence. See Ap-
PROVEK.
King's E>il. See Scrofula.
Kingsley, Charles, born at Holne vicar-
age, Dartmoor, Devon, 12th .lune 1819. .\fter
education p.artly at King's College, London, he
went up to IMagdalen College, Cambridge, and took
his degree in 1842 — Hrst-c-lass in classics, senior
optinie in mathematics — and was immediately
ordaineil to the curacy of Eversley in Hampshire,
of which parish he became rector in 1844. There
he lived for the remainder of his life, having
marrieil a daughter of Mr I'ascoe Grenfell in the
year in which he was presented to his living.
His dramatic poem. The SaitiVs Tnii/eili/, ur The
True Hfuri/ of Elizabeth of Hii»(jarj/, an 'admir-
able representation of medieval piety,' a|)peared in
1848, and was immediately followed by two works
of a verv dillercnt character, Alton Loehc and Yaist,
both puldished in 1849. These brilliant novels are the
work of a Kadical, a 'Christian Socialist, ' and deal
with modern social questions in a lM)ld and a strik-
ingly original niiinner. The hero of Alton Loehc,
' tailor and poet,' is found in a London winkshop.
In Fcf(6< the condition of the English agiicultnral
lalxmrer is dealt with by one whose sympathy with
the peo|de is aristocratic, not democratii', who.se
radicalism is t'hristi.m, and not scejjtical, whose
entliusiiisin never degenerates into nnrciu^on, and
whose most brilliant invective is always balanced
by common sense. The influence of these books
at the time was enormous ; and if Kingsley wrote
nothing more of the same character, it was not so
luuch that time had modified his views as that LLs
KINGSLEY
KINGSTON-UPON-THAMES 435
views had moditieil the times. For two or tliree
veai-s previous to the pulilication of these novels
Ivingsley had thrown liinisell with all the ardour of
youth and of his own impetuous nature into various
schemes for the im|)rovenieut of the condition,
material, moral, and religious, of the workin^'classes,
a suhjeet of which wc all hear a good deal at the
present day, hut which was somewhat strange in
1844. In tills work he Wivs associated with ^Ir
Maurice, the recognised leader of the movement
known as ' Christian Socialism ; ' and he publishe<l
under the well-known p.seudonym of • Parson Lot '
an immense number of articles on current topics,
especially in the ClirUtiun Socialist and Pulitirs fur
the People. In 1853 appeare<l llijimtia, one of
his most fascinating works, a vigorous and brilliant
picture of early Christianity in conflict with Greek
philosophy at Alexandria in the beginning of the
5tli century. Westumnl Ho.' followed in 1855,
and the presentment of Klizabethan England and
the Spanish Main, of Devonshire worthies and their
Spanish foemen, is as lifelike as anything to be
found in the whole range of romantic literature.
The tone of the hook is hearty, Enjjlish, Protestant,
free, and, like the author himself, at (mce strong
and tender. In Tiro Years Ago ( 1857) he sketched
with a master hand the North Devon scenery
so dear to the west countryman ; and Here-
ward the Wake (1866), a novel of the days of
the Conqueror, brought the noble series of works
of fiction to a close. In 1860 the university of
Cambridge had chosen the author of Hypatia and
Westward Ho ! to be profe.s.sor of History, and
his inaugural lecture was published at the end
of that year under the title of The Limits of
Exaet Scienee as applied to Historij. The Roman
and the Teuton (1864) is also based upon his Cam-
bridge lectures.
In 1869 Kingsley resigned his professorship and
was appointed a canon of Chester; and in 1871 he
made the voyage that be had so Ion" contemplated,
to the tropics, of whose six'uery ne had already
written so enthusiastically ; and on his return to
Eversley from the West Indies he gave to the world
one of its most charming books of travel. At Last.
In 1873 Kingsley was appointed a canon of West-
minster and chaplain to the tjueen. He died
at Eversley on 23d January 1875. His Life, by
his widow, in 2 vols, published in 1876, is a bio-
graphy of deep and sustained interest. Kingsley
was by nature hot-tempered, enthusiastic, ami com-
bative, yet inhnitely sympathetic ami tender of
heart ; his ' muscular Christianity ' (a phrase he dis-
liked ) was cheerful and robust ; he had great and
varied information, a keen wit, and a mind's eye
that ever looke<l below the surface. His collecte<l
works till 28 volumes (1879-81). .-Vmong these,
besides those already named, and many volumes of
sermons, are Glaneiis ( 1854), The Heroes ( 1856), The
Water Babies (1863), Town (ieoluqy (1872), Prose
Idylls (IH~3), Health and Kdiiedtiou (IH14). Of
a sixpenny edition of the chief books (1889-90)
millions were sold.
Killi;»«ley, Henrv, brother of the foregoing
(jiorn 1830, died 1876), was educatcMl at King's
College. London, and Worcester Collegi-, Oxford.
From 1853 to I8.'j8 he resided in .Vustralia, and on
his retura commenced bis <'!ireer .us a writir of
tiction with a vigorous picture of colonial life in
Geoffrey Hanihjn ( 1 859 ). To this succeeded liarens-
/i<>e(1861), his masterpiece: Austin Elliut (18(i3):
The Hillyiirs anil the Burtons, another novel of
Australian life and maimers ( 1865), iVc. His iileal
of life Ls a noble anil a iiealthy one ; his works,
which show little skill in the (onstruction of the
plots, contain much that is pathetic, without any
tinge of sentimentalisin. His stylo Ls rather
vigorous than highly cultivated. I'Nir two years
(1870-^71) Kingsley edited the Edinburgh Daily
Berieu:
kiiiif's Lynn. See Lyxn.
kin^sniill Islands, another name for the
(lilbiTt Islands (i|.v. i.
King's llonntain. See Ferguson (P.vt
RICK ).
Kingston, chief town of Frontenac county,
Ontario, is situated at the head of Lake Ontario,
and at the mouth of the Cataraqui Creek, 161 miles
by rail EN'E. of Toronto. It has a number o,
handsome |mblic buildings, and is the .-eat of tin
Koyal Military College of Canada ( 1876 ), of t^ueen'^
University (1841), with mu.seunis and an observa
tory, and of the Royal College of Physicians ami
Surgeons (1854) and the Women's Medical College
(1883) affiliated to it. Here also are a busines.-
college and a collegiate and training institute foi
teachers. The city has, besides excellent lailwav
facilities, good w-ater-communication liy the lake,
the St Lawrence, and the Kideau Canal, which las^t
connects it with Ottawa. It possesses a large,
sheltered harbour, with an active trade, and strongly
fortihed ; and, besides busy shiiiyards, has manu-
factories of locomotives and stationary engines,
machinery, leather, boots and shoes, agricultural
implements, wooden wares, &c. (Jrant Allen ami
George Komanes are both Kingston men. Kingston
is the seat of an Anglican bishop and of a Roman
Catholic archbishop. Its site was occupied by the
old French fort of Frontenac. The town was the
capital of Canada from 1841 to 1844. Pop. (1881)
14,091 : (1891) 19,264.
Kingston, the commercial and political capital
of Jamaica iq. v.), stands on the north side of a
landlocked harbour, the best in the island, anil,
for its size, one of the best in the world. Pop.
(1891) -46,542. It was founded in 1693 1703, after
the neighbouring town of Port Royal had been
destroyed by an earthquake. From tliis place,
afterwards rebuilt, Kingston is distant 6 miles, the
breadth of its noble haven; while with S]ianish
Town, towards the interior, it has since 1846 been
connected by railway. In 1758 Spanish Town
was made the capital of Jamaica, bul in IS72tlie
.seat of government was removed to Kingston.
Kingston was visited in 1880 by a violent hurricane,
and in December 1882 well-nigh consumed by fire.
The city, having a slope to the sea of 1 in 60, is
well drained, but the harbour is lilthy. With a
gravel soil and a dry and temperate climate—
ma.ximum 9.'}' in hot season, minimum 56' in cold
— it is a healthy place. The most interest in;;
])ublic building is the Old Church, where Itcnbow
the 'old sea-dog 'is buried. There are tram-cars,
and the w.iter-sujiply is good. The ini|iorts have
an annual value of from £1, ,300,000 to iLi'iOt^OOO,
the imiports from £.500,000 to £700,000. See the
annual Handbook ofJamaiea and Jauutiea in IS'JG,
imblished by the Institute of .lamaica.
Kingston, capital of I'lster county. New York
stall-, stands oil the right bunk of the Hudson, 54
miles S. of Albany. It is a railway and canal ter
minus, and is the centre of extensive tnansit trade
by steamer. Enormous quantities of blue-stone
Hags are forwarded from Kingston, which is ;ilso a
principal centre of the hydraulic cement busine.ss,
and contains a number of breweries, tanneries,
Hour mills, foundries, brickvards, and other mauu
factories. Pop. (I8SII) 18,3-14; (1890) 21,261.
Kingslon-on-lliill. See Htm,.
Kingston-ll|»UII-Tlianirs, a municipal bor-
ou;;li .-iiid iiiai kct-town of Surrey, 12 miles S\V. of
Londiin, lies on the right liank of the Tliames,
here crossed by two bridges — one of stone com-
pleted 1828 and freed 1870, and the other an
436
KINGSTON
KINO
iron railway viailuct. Of late yearn, with its
suburlis of Norliitoii, Surbitoii, ami New Mai-
den, it has rapidly increased in size, its eiisy
access to London, coupled with its facilities for
boating and the pleiusant siirrunuilings of the
ueiglibourhood, notably Hampton Court, Cushy
ami Kiclunond Parks, having attracted large iiUMi-
bers of residents. I'opuhuioji of the pai ish, ( ISOl )
-143S: (1831)
(ISSlI 3."),SL>il; (l.SIII) 41„SS(i,
of whom "27,059 weie within tbt- municipal limits.
The parish church, of which William Coxe the his-
torian was once rector, has some tine monuments ;
the county council buildings, costing £36,000,
were undertaken in 1S90. In history, however,
Kingston has figured somewhat consjiicuously : in
S3S it was the scene of a great council, convened
by Egbert, king of Wesse.x, and his son Ethelwulf ;
seven of the Anglo-Saxon kings were crowned here,
as recorded on the coronation-stone still standing
near the market-place ; King John, who granted
the town its first charter, was a frei|uent vLsitor
in 120-1-15 ; in I'iti-l, during the civil war witli
Simon de Jlontfort, Kingston Ca.stle (of wliich no
traces now remain) was captured by Henry 111.;
Fairfax made the town his headquarters in 1047 ;
and a year later took place in the neiglibourhood
tlie last tight between the royalists and Round-
heads, when Lord Holland and the Duke of
Buckingluim were defeated. At Ham Common
liveil Gay's 'Kitty,' Duchess of yueensberry. See
Bidens Histury uf Kinijston-upoiiTliames (1852).
Kingston, William Henry Giles, a popular
writer of boys' stories, was born in London, 28tli
February 1814. His father was a uierciiant in
Oporto, and there nnich of his youth was spent.
At first a merchant, he iiad already ])nl>lished two
stories and a book of Portuguese travel, when in
1851 he found the work of his life in the immediate
success of Peter the Whaler, his lirst liook for boys.
During the ne.xt thirty years he ])ublished more
tlian 120 similar boidvs. all simple, vigorous, and
healthy in tone ; full of daring adventures, hair-
breadth escapes, and all tlie magic of the sea
which he not only loved but knew. His heart
never lost its wholesome glow of admiration for
any form of human heroism, and the simple and
sincere veracit.v of his style easily generated a corre-
sponding sympathetic enthusiasm in his young
readers. And he possessed in no small share the
pictorial imagination which enabled him to borrow
colour from travellers' accounts of countries he had
never seen. Amimg his most popular books w'ere
The Three Miilshipmen, The Three Lieuteniint.s, The
Three Cominanders, and The Three Adminils.
Kingston took an acti\e interest in many philan-
thropic schemes, as the mission to seamen, and
assisted emigration. He was knighted by the
<|Ueen of Portugal for his services in helping to
bring about a commercial treaty between Engl.ind
and Portugal. He died at Willesden, 5tli August
1N80.
Kin;;stOWII. a populous ami iiLjportant suburb
of Duldin, 7 miles SSE. from lln^ (J. P.O. Trains
run in 15 minutes to Dublin. Previous to 1817,
when the harbour works were commenced, it was
merely a lishing-village known as Dunleaiy. On
the occfusion of the visit of Geoige IV. in September
1821 its name was changed to Kingstown. The
situation of the town ami the invigorating air
have made Kingstown a favourite resilience for
the well-to-do classes having business in Dublin.
The mail packets .sail from Kingstown to Holyhead
twice a day, morning anil evening. Theie is little
general trade, though the harbour, com|ilete<l by
the Admiralty in 1.S.59 at a cost to the imperial
treasury of t'.S25,0OO, is one of the linest in the
United ICingUuni. The east pier is 3oOU feet iu
length : the west, ,5000 feet, enclosing an area of
over 250 acres, with a ilepth of from 13 to 27 feet.
Vessels drawing as much as 24 feet can come along-
side the quay at any state of tlie tide. Kingstown
is within the parliamentary divLsiou of South
Dublin. Pop. (1890) 25,0(K). '
Kingstown, capital of the British island of St
Vincent, iu the West Indies, stands at the south-
west extremity of the island, on a large bay, at the
foot of one of the simrs of Mount St Andrew (about
2000 feet). Poj.. 5593.
Killg-tc-ohiu. the principal seat of porcelain
manufacture in China, in tln' piovince of Chiang-
hsi, on a small river which falls into i^ake Po-vang
from the east. INip. 500,000.
King M'illiaiustown. capital of a division of
the same name on the Buffalo Kiver, in the SE. of
Cape Colony, SO miles ENE. of Grahamstown, and
by rail (1877)42 W\W. of E;ist London, on the
coast. It has considerable trade, military barracks
and stores, and a college. I'op. about 8000.
KinlvajOU (Cercoleptes caudivulritliis), a quad-
rujied of the group Arctoidea, and allied to the
raccoons and coatis. It has six inci.sors, one canine
tooth, and live molars in each jaw, the three hinder
molars tuberculous. The kinkajou is larger than a
polecat, has a yellowish woolly fur, climbs trees,
feeds on fruits, honey, iK:c., as well as on small
animals. It is a native of the warm parts of
America, from central Mexico to the Kio Xegro of
Brazil. It used to be classilied with the lemurs, to
which it bears not a little resemblance, particularly
in its habit of sitting on its hindqmirters and feeil-
ing itself with its hands. Sir K. Owen was one of
the first to show that here aiipearances are decep-
tive, and that the animal is a true carnivore.
Kinliel, JoH.\NN Gottfkiku, a German poet
and writer, was born at Oberka-ssel, near Bonn,
11th .\ugust 1815. He studied theology at Bonn
and Berlin, and then lectured on theology, after-
wards on poetry and the history of art. at the uni-
versity of Bonn. But, becoming involved in the
revolutionary movement of 1848, he wii-s imprisoned
in the fortress of Spandau, wlience, however, he
escaiied with the hel]) of his wife and Karl Schurz.
Settling in London, he earned his living by teaching
German until 1800, when he was appointed pro-
fess(n' of Aich:cology and Art at Zurich. There he
ilied, 13th November 1882. As a poet Kiiikel's
fame rests upon the ejiics Otto i/er Schiit: (1846;
56th ed. 1881 ), a graceful poem of the chivalry of
the Hhine; Dcr (Irobschmicd run Aidurrnctt (1872;
4th ed. 1887) : Marfjret, einc Durfijesrhiehtr ( 1872) :
Tunaifra (1883; 3il ed. 1886); two volumes of
(r'«<//(7i<<; ( 1843-68) ; and a drama, Nimrod (1857).
He iilso wrote a history of art (1845) ; a series of
essays on art subjects ( 1876) ; and monographs on
Kubens (1874), F'reiligrath (1867), &c. See Lives
bv Strodtnumn (1850), Am Kliyn (1883), Liibke
I 1893).— His lirst wife, JoH.\NN.'v (1810-58), a dis-
tinguished musician, wrote with her husband,
h'r-iih/iiiii/iii (1849). After her dc.-iih appeared
her novel, Hans lUeles in Lundun (1860).
Kinnaird Head. See Fk.vsekuihgh.
Kino, an a-triiigent .substaiu'e resembling Cate-
chu (q.v.), the concrete exudation of certain trop-
ical trees, esjiecially of I'teriiearpii.s iiiarsii/iium, a.
native of the forests of Madras and Cevlon. East
Indian kino is the kind which now chietlv occure in
commerce, and is the ordinary kino or i/um kiiiu of
the shojis. It is in small angular glistening frag-
ments, the smaller reddish, the larger almost black.
Thin |)ieces are ruby red. It is brittle and eiusily
powdered, has no smell, but has a very astringent
taste. Bengal kino is a similar astringent sub-
stance, produced by Butea froiidosa (see BUTEA).
KINROSS-SHIRE
KIPPIS
437
Botany Bay kiiio is the produce of Eiirah/ptiis
rcsini/cra. The astiinfrenoy of kino is due to
tannin and pyrooatechin. It is employed in cer-
tain forms of <liarrha\a as coi/i/i<iii>ii/ Kino povclcr
(with opium and ciimamon). The tincture of kino
forms a good gargle for the uvula. Kino serves
in India as a yellowishhrown cotton dye.
HilirOSS-sllire. the smallest Scotch county
after Clackmannanshire, lies lietween I'ertlisliire
and Fife, and, measuring 9J hv I'iJ miles, has an
area of 7H sq. m., or 49,812 acres, of which X\i~t are
water. Most of the drainage helongs to Loch
Leven (q.v. ), from which the surface rises to
encircling hills ~'.M to 1.573 feet high. A separate
county since 12.V2 and earlier, Kinross-shire unites
with Clackmann.anshire to return one memher to
parliament. Pop. ( 1801 ) 6725 ; ( 1S51 ) 8924 ; ( 1S8I )
6697 : ( 1891 ) after adjustment of areas with Perth
and Fife, 66.37, of whom 1920 were in the county
town, Kinross, 27 miles XNW. of Edinburgh, and
near the west eml of Looh Leven. See .lincas
Mack.-vy's Fife and Kinross-shire ( 1890).
KinsaICa a municipal horough and seaport of
County Cork, at the head of Kinsale Harbour,
which is formed bv the estuary of the river Bandon,
24 miles SSW. of Cork by a railway ( 1S6.3). Down
to the L'nion Kinsale returned two members ;
tlienceforwaril one until 188.5. The harbour, laml-
locked, is about 2 miles long, .ami is capable of con-
taining .300 ships. Its once tionrishing trade h.as
pa.s.seil to its rivals Cork and C^ueenstown. On the
Ohl Head of Kinsale, a promontory stretching south-
w.ard into the .-Vtl.antic, stands a lighthouse whose
light, 2.36 feet .above high-water, is visible for 21
miles. Pop. (18.51 ) 5506; (1891) 460.5. In I60I,
3000 Spaniards landed at Kinsale in order to fight
for tiie O'Neill confederacy. Here James II. landed
on 12th Maich 16S9, and here he re-embarked in
July 1690. In the following October the fort was
captured by Marlborough.
Killtyre, or C.\xtire (Gael, ceanntir, 'head-
land '), a long, narrow peninsula of Argyllshire,
between the .\tlantic and the Firth of" Clyde,
extending 42 miles south by westward, and 4i to
IH miles broail. At the north end it connects
with the mainland by the isthmus of Tarbert, IJ
mile broad, between East Loch Tarbert, a bay of
Loch Fyne, and West Loch Tarbert. The surface
is diversified by a ridge of low, moorish bills, with
many lochs, the highest point being Ben an-Tuirc
(1491 feet). Coal is found at Dnimlemble, 4 miles
to the west of Campbeltown (f|.v.). Machrihanish
Bay, on the west coast, just beyond, possesses
noted golfing link.s. A fair proportion of the
.soil is in cultivation. A lighthouse ( 1787), 297 feet
above .sea-level, stands on the .Mull of Kintyre
(the Epidiinn Promontoriiim of Ptolemy), which is
overhung by Ben-na-Lice (1403 feet), and is only
\Z miles distant from Ireland. The ancient seat of
the kingdom of Halriada (q.v.), Kintyre ranked till
tlie 17tli century as part of tlu; ll(d>rid('s, being
held successively by Norsemen, by the .Macdonalds
I of the Isles, and by Campbells. Its antifjuities in-
clude the ruins of the Cistercian abbey ol Sadilell,
' of the castles of Dunaverty, Oundonald, Saddell,
and Skipne.ss, and of many forts and pre Hefmiiia-
tion chapels.^ See T. P. Wliite'.s Arclimotogical
Sketches in Kintyre ( 1873).
Kioto. See Kyoto.
kiprliaks, a Turkic people, who in the Utli
century wen; settleil in the steppes of south-east
Ku.ssia, between the Cral and the \)<m, north of the
river Kunia. .'Vfter the death of Cenghis Khan, one
of his four sons, Batu, compiereil ( 1238 43) nearly
all the central anrl southern <listricts of Knssia, ami
founded the great empire of thetiolden Ilonleorthe
Kipcliaks, fi.\ing his magnilicent cam]) ( Tu rkic. nnln.
' camp,' hence the word Horde ) on the ^'olga. They
gradually acipiired the rmliments of civilisation as
they came into contact with the cultured peoples of
the west and south. The (iohlen Horde and the
ea-stern branch, the White Horde or eastern Kiji-
chak, were united about 1378 ; but this joint em-
pire w.os broken up by Tamerlane in 1390-95. Out
of the fragments were formed the small khanates of
Astrakhan, Kazan, the Crimea, <.K:c., all of which
were eventually absorbed by I'ussia. The modern
descendants of the western Kipcliaks are the Tar-
tars of Kazan, Astrakhan, the Crimea, iVc. (see
Takt.ar.s). The descendants of the eastern Kip-
cliaks are the Kirghiz (f|.v.), of whose three hordes
the middle one is still called Kipcliaks. See
Howorth, History of the Jloiir/ols { 1880).
KiplillS. RrDY.\RD, story-teller, was horn at
r!<iiiili.iy, 3()tli December 1865, the son of John
Lockwood Kipling, C. I.E., princi]ial of the Scliofd
of Alt at Lahore in the Pnniab, himself the .author
of llenst and Man in India ( 1891 ). liudyard was
educated at Westward Ho and elsewhere in Eng-
land, but returned in 1880 to India, where he liegan
to contribute verses, tales, and articles to Indian
journals, making his literary debut at Lahore in
1884 (in Echoes). But it was by his Departmental
/)(7//<-s (1st ed., Calcutta, \»HG)', P/ain Talcs from
the Hills (Calcutta, 1S88 ), and Soldiers Three { .Mla-
habad, 1889), that he became well known in Eng-
laiiil, and sprang at once into the front rank of
]ioiiular f.avoniites. The Sfori/ rjf the Gadsh/s, In
Black and White, Under the Deodars, Wee Willie
Winkle, and The Phantom liiekshrrir, followed close
on the heels of Soldiers Three, and like it formed
part of an Indian Raihray Lilirary published at
.Vllahabad. The City of Dreadful Xiifht ilhi>trates
certain a.'^pects of Calcutta. More ambitions, though
hardly so successful, wa.s the longer tale, 'The Lii/ht
that 'Failed (1891). The Barrack-Poom Ballads
( 1892 ), in verse more remarkable for \ igoiirof diction
and swing of rhythm than for the refinements of
poetic form, were amongst his most brilliant suc-
cesses; and Naulakha (1892), a longer tale, wa.s
produced in conjunction with Mr Balestier. Life's
Handicap (1891) and Many Inrcvtiims (1893) are
other collections of short talef^ and sketches, not
exclusively Indian in stibject ; and the magazines
compete for contributions from his pen. lnJ892-96
he lived mainly in the United States.
From the fii-st his sketches of the glories ami
disgraces and views of Tommy Atkins abroad,
and of the more myslerions and unfamiliar life ol
the natives, were felt equally to 'palpitate witli
actuality.' He .seems from an intimate and first-
hand knowledge of the minds and hearts alike of
natives and sokliers to render their own ideas in
their very words ; and he deals directly and simply
with the elemental passions of human nature, witli
love and hate, with shame and fear, witli joy ami
misery. The interlocutors, both high and low, are
freqm^ntly far from refined, reverent, or sinle.'^s ;
and it has been objected to his tales of Anglo-
Indian life that the tone is both fli]>pant and cynical,
and that too many of both his men and women
seem to be ' (ilaying at tennis with the seventh
commandment,' .as he himself words it. But un-
questionably he commands true i<'alistic ])ower, and
in his smallest niaster]iieces, pathos ami biiminir,
the ghastly and the comic, are combined with the
vraiscndda'ncc of an everyday experience. His in-
imitable Juneile Hook ( 1894) was followed by a
Second Jiinfjtc Book (1895). There were inore
Soldier Stories in 1896, ami the poem called Scrcn
Scax. Captains Conrar/coiis (1897) was a tale of
fishing life on the batiks of Newfoiimlland. The
Day's Work ( 1S98) was a (■i.llection of stories.
Ki|>|>is. Am)I:i;w. D.D., K.K.S. ( 1 725-95 ), horn
438
KIRBY
KIRKCALDY
at Nottinj;liam, studieil at Northanipton uiuler Dr
Dodilridjie, and from 1753 was minister of a dis-
sentiiij^ coni,'iegation in Westminister. He wrote
niucli for the m:ii,'azines, lielpeil to t'onnd tlie A iniiinl
Register, edited Lardner's worlcs ( 1 1 vols. ), wrote
Lives of tlie four Karls of Sliafteslmrv and Dr
Doddridf^e, and edited tlie new edition of the
B/nr/i'ii/i/ilii Tirituiiiiira (5 vols, folio, unlinislied,
1778 -9:{).
Kirby, Wili.i.vm, entomologist, wa-s Viorn at
Witnesliam Hall, Suttblk, lOtli September 175!).
He was educated at Ipswich j;rammar-scliool
and Cains College, Cambridge, graduated 15. A.
in 17SI, took orders in the following year, and
was first curate, after 1796 rector, of the iiuiet
SutlblU parish of Barliam, where he died, July 4,
1850. His piincipal works are Monographia Apitm
Auriliw (Ipswich, 1802), and Introduction to Ento-
moloqy (4 vcds. 1815-26), the latter written con-
jointly with Mr S]ience. The first was very favour-
ably received both at home and abroad, and at once
secured for Kirby a distinguished place among
European .savants. The second work is written in
the form of letters (fifty-one in number), giving a
familiar account of the habits, instincts, and uses
of insects, and remains a classical masterpiece of
rtilgarisation in the best sense of the word. To
the seventh edition Spence contributed an ap|ien-
ilix giving the history of the book. KirViy also
contributed a variety of very important entomo-
logical papers to the Linna^an Transactions. His
greatest tliscovery in this department of science is
that of the genus Stylops — the type of a new order
of insects, livin" in the larva state parasitically in
the bodies of bees. He also wrote one of the
Bridgewater Treatises, entitled llahita nnd In-
stiiii't.s of Animals (1835). Kirby was one of the
lirst members of the l^inna^an Society (founded in
1788), honorary president of the Entomological
Society, and Fellow of the Koyal and Geological
Societies. See the Life by the Kev. John Freeman
( 1852 ).
Kirchor, Ath.VXASH-s (1601-80), German
Jesuit, idiiliilogist, jihysicist, and inventor of the
magic- lanh-rn. See HiEROGLYl'lllcs ; and Life by
Brischar ( Wiirzb. 1877).
Kil'cllliott', GusTAV Robert, physicist ( 1824-
S7), became professor in lierlin I'luversity in 1874.
He distinguished himself in the departments of
elasticity, the mechanical theory of heat, optics,
and especially of spectrum-analysis. See Spec-
I'RUM : and L'ife by lioltzmann ( Leip. 1888).
Kil'^flliz, or KiH(:illz-K.\ZAKS, a peojile siiread
over till! immen.se territory bounded by the Volga,
the Irtisli, Chinese Turkestan, Ala-tan Mountains,
the Syr-l)aria, and Aral and Caspian Seas. A few
tribes of Kalmucks also live within these bound-
.iries. Over this vast tract reigns a dismal mono-
tony ; the C(mntry has scarcely any imjiortant
elevation or depression, excepting the Mogudjar
-Mountain in the north-west ; no river of conse-
iiuence runs through it, no great forest breaks the
uniformity of the scene : it is a vast stcjipe, con-
taining 850,000 s(|nare miles, sterile, stony, and
slreamless, and covered with rank herbage of
five feet high. It aboumls in lak<'s and marshes,
the water of which is generally brackish and unlit
for use, and in the southern jiortion lies the Kara-
Kum, an extensive sjilt desert. — The Kirghiz are
a Turkish ra<'e, and s]ieak a separate dialed of
the eastern 'I'uikish. Tliey have from time im-
memorial been divided into the Crcat, Middle,
and Little Hordes. The first of these wanders in
the south-west iiortion of the Russian steiijie,
partly in the Russian po.ssessions north of the Ala-
tan and Khokand, and jiartly in the territory of
China. They are subject to the rulers within
whose bounds tliev dwell. The Middle Horde
possesses the territory (called the country of the
Siberian Kirghizes) between the Ishini, Irtish,
Lake lialkhash, Khokatid. and the territory of the
Little Honle ; and also a great portion of the
Russian province; of Semipalatinsk. Russia has
gradually aUsorbed them, the result being finally
achieved by the victory over Khiva in 1873, anil
the formation of the new province of Amu-Daria.
The Little Horde (now more numerous than the
other two together) ranges over the country
bounded by the I'ral, Tobol, the Siberian Kiighiz,
and Turkestan. Like the Middle Horde, they are
claime<l as sulijects of the I'zar, though partly
in<lependent. This horde is partly agricultural,
partly nomad. A small ofishoot of the Little
Horde has, since 1801, wandered between the
Volga and the Ural River, and used to be under
the rule of the governor of Astrakhan.
The total number of the Kirghiz-Kazaks amounts
to 2,500,000 — a smaller number than in former
times when unchecked and uncontrolled they
moved from one end of central Asia to the other.
The Kirghiz are noted for their unbounded love
of adventure, wit, and poetical disposition. As
nomads they have retained most of the character-
istics of their race, they still cling to their ancient
habits and customs, and Islam has never taken a
firm hold on them. Since the sui)iuession of
haronfd ('forays') they have lost tlieir warlike
spirit, although they still abhor sedentary life and
cannot be persuaded to settle and live by agii-
cnlture. Russian schools in the ste])pes have
hitherto vainly striven to transform these in-
veterate nomads.
Kara-Kieghiz, called by the Russians Diko-
kameni Kirghiz (' Wild rock Kirghiz'), a nonuidic
people living mostly in the mountains between the
I.ssiK-kul and the Knen-Lun, and extending from
the eastern frontier of Ferghana to the Muzart,
are the oldest Turkish nomads of historical record.
They are divided into C^i/ and .SW (right and left
wings), and into the snb<livisioirs of Suit, Sari-
bagish, and Sajak. Their total numl)er amounts
to 324,000 souls, and their cattle is estimated at
upwards of 700,000 head. The dialect of the Kara-
Kirghiz has retained more of the ancient character
than that of the Kirghiz- Kazak.s, and their epic
poetry is particnlaily interesting. See M. N.
(Jrodekow's linely illustrated Russian work on the
Kirghiz an<l Kara Kirghiz of the Province of the
Syr-Daria (Tashkend, 1889 cl «■</.).
Kirin, capital of the province of Kirin, in Man-
chuiia, stands on the river Sungari, 220 miles
NE. of Moukden. It has an arsenal and powder-
factory. Fo]). 75,000 to 100,000.
Kirkcaldy, a seaport and market-town of Fife,
on the Firth of Forth, 15 miles N. of I'Minburgh.
Including the suburbs of Linktown and Newtown
of Abbotshall on the west, and I'athhead, Sinclair-
town, and Gallatown on the north-east, it is nearly
4 miles in length ; hence the name ' The Lang
Toun.' It was created a Kiyal burgh in 14.")0, and,
with Dysart, Kinghorn, and Itiirntisland, sends one
member to p.arliament. Its harbour is small and
shallow, but there is wet-dock accommodation for
ships of considerable burden, and a bill was passed
in 1890 for the construction of an entirely new
harbour on a large scale. Its manufactures are
.s]iinning Max, tow, and jute, and bleaching and
weaving linen yarns, wliich are extensively canied
on, the products being the usual varieties of linen
cloth; mechanical (including marine) engineering
on a large scale; iron-founding; an<l tanning.
There are also several potteries. The manufacture
of floorcloth and linoleum has been developed into
a great trade, and Kirkcaldy is the chief scat of
KIRKCUDBRIGHT
KISFALUDY
439
tins growing ami iiiipoitant iimiiufactnro. There
is also a direct exiiort tiade to the I'niteil States,
which in 1884-90 averaged over £75,0(Ht annually.
Pop. of parliamentary Imrgh (1841) .')704 : (1871)
12,422 : ( 1891 ) 17. 324 : of royal Imrgh, as e.Mendeil
in'lS76, (1891 ) 27,ir).V Kirkcaldy is the liirthplace
of Adam Sniitli : and Eilward Irving and Thoma-s
Carlyle were teacliers here.
Kirkciulhl'iulit. Sticw.vutrv of, a county of
south-west Scotland, wivslied on the south for 50
miles liy the Solway Firth, and elsewhere bounded
by Wigtown. Ayr, and Dumfries shires. Measur-
ing 41 by .S8 miles, it h.is an area of 954 sq. m. ;
is watered by the Xitli, Trr. Dee, Fleet, and Cree ;
and in the soutli-ea.st sends up conspicuous Criflel
(1867 feet), on the north-west border Merrick
(2764), the loftiest summit in the south of Scot-
land. The rocks are mainly Silurian, with intru-
sive granite and carboniferous iiatches ; the soil is
variously extremely fertile and extremely barren.
Little liiore than a fourth of the entire area is
in cultivation, though great improvements liave
lieen etl'eeted since the foundation in 1809 of the
Stewartry A''ricultural Society. Nearly 31 sq. m.
are occupied \v woods. Towns are Kirkcu<lbright,
New Galloway, Castle-Douglas, Dalbeattie, Gate-
house, Creetown, and Maxwelltown ; and the
antiquities include the Deils Dyke, Threave Castle,
and the eeclesiiistical ruins of Dundrennan, Lin-
cluden, New Abbey, St Mary's Isle, and Tongue-
land. The history of the Stewartry is sketched
under G.\llo\v.\y : among its worthies have been
Samuel Kutlieiford, Paul Jones, Thomas Brown,
and Alexander Murray. It returns one member to
parliament. I'op. ( 1801 ) 29,211; (1851)43,121;
(1881) 42,127; (1891)39,985.
KlRKCiDlilUiiHT, the county town, 30 miles SW.
of Dumfries by a branch-line '( 1864), is beautifully
situated on the left bank of the Dee, which
soon begins to broaden into Kirkcudbiight Bay,
opening into the Solway Firth six miles below.
Its name (pron. Kirkcoo'bri/) is derived from the
church of St Cuthbert, a-s old at lea.st as 1164 ; and
it is a royal burgh (1455), uniting with Dumfries,
&e. to return one member. Chief buildings are the
ctmrt-house (1868) and town-hall (1879); and a
lattice-bridge (1868), 500 feet long, spans the Dee.
The ivy-mantled ruins of the castle built by Mac-
lellan of Bonibie in 1582 still dominate the town.
Pop. (1841) 2606; (1891) 2.'>33. See Maxwells
Stcwartni of Kirh:iulbri<jht (3d ed. Castle-Douglas,
1878), aiid other works cited at G.\LLO\y.\Y.
Kirkdalc Tave. i" the vale of l^ickering,
Yorkshire, 28 miles W. of Scarborough, is famous
for the numerous remains of Tertiary mammals
which have been found in it. It was discovered
in 1821, in the cutting back of an oolitic lime-
stone rock in which it is situated. It was examined
by Buckland, and fully described l)y him in his
lieliquire iJiliivmnn:. Its greatest length Ls 245
feet, and its height is so inconsiderable that there
are oidy two or three jilaces where a man can
stand erect. The fossil bones are contained in a
deposit of mud that lies on the floor of the cave :
this is covered by stalagmite formed \>y the water,
highly charged with carbonate of lime, dropping
from the roof. The remains of the following
animals have been discovered : hy;i-na, tiger, bear,
wolf, wea-sel, elephant, rhinoceros, hii)popot.amus,
horse, ox, deer, hare, rabbit, water-rat, raven,
pigeon, lark, and duck.
Kirke, Coi.osei, I'kkcy («■. 1646-91), served
three yeare a-s an otlicer in Tangiers. After the
battle at Sedgemoor ( 1685), his men inllicti-il fearful
atrocities upon the unhappy followers of Monmouth
and their sus^iecteil sympathlsei's, a.s to make their
nickname, ' Kirke '» Lambs,' a byword for cruelty.
Kirke early deserted to William's side, and helped
to raise the siege of Londonderry.
Kirklinill. a market-town of Lancashire, 84
miles W. by N. <if Preston. It has a grammar-
school (1673), and manufactures of cotton, llax,
sailcloth, sacking, and cordage. Pop. ( 1851 ) 2777 ;
(1891) 400.3.
KirkilltilhH'll. a town in Dumbartonshire
(detached), on the Forth and Clyde Canal, 7 miles
NNE. of Gliusgow. Its Celtic name Cacrpentu-
lack ( ' fort at the end of the ridge ' ) referred to a
strong fort on Antoninus' A\all, which has left
some remains; and as early as 1170 it was made a
burgh of barony. Chemicals, iron, \c. are manu-
factured. In tiie southern suburb, Lenzie, are the
large Barony lunatic a.sylum (1875) and the Glas-
gow convalescent home ( 1864). Pop. (1851) 6342;
(1881) 8029; (1891) 10,312.
Kirk-Kilissia ( the 'forty churches'), a town
of Turkey, 104 miles NW. of Constantinople, with
which it lias a brisk trade in butter and cheese.
It is famed for its confections. Pop. 16,000, of
whom two-thirds are Bulgarians.
Kirkiiiaidoii. See John o' Gro.^t's.
H.irk-seS!«ioil. the lowest court in Presbyterian
churches, being the governing body of a particular
congregation, and compo.sed of the minister and
(dders of the congregation. See Prksuvteriaxism.
Kirkstall Abbey, a Cistercian abbey in York-
shire, stands 3 miles NW. of Leeds, in the midst of
modern manufacturing establishments. Next after
Fountains Abbey, it is the best-preserved monastic
ruin in the county. First founded at Barnolds-
wick in the same neighbourhood in 1147, but live
yeai's later moved, to its present site, the abbey
is mainly Transition Norman and Perpendicular
in style. The church Ls, like most Cistercian
churches, long and narrow, with little ornamenta-
tion, and a low tower. The abbey was presented
to the town by Colonel North in 1889.
Kirkwall, the capital of Orkney, on the east
coast ot Mainland, 49 miles NE. of Thurso, and
225 N. of Leith. St Jlagnus' Cathedral (1137-
1500) is a stately cruciform pile, mixed Norman
and Gothic in style. It measures 253 feet by 102
across the transept, and ha-s a central tower 133
feet high. The choir serves as a ]iaiish church. The
last vestige of the royal castle was demolished in
1865 ; but the rootless Earl's Palace ( 1607) remains,
and a tower ( 1550) of the Bishoi)'s Palace, in which
King Ilaco died in 1263. In 1876-79, £10,500 was
expended on drainage, paving, and water-supply ;
and the harbour, with an iron pier of 1866, h.as also
been much improved. Made a royal burgh in 1486,
Kirkwall unites with Wick, v^c. , to letum one
member to parliament. Pop. (1841). 3041; (1891)
3926. See Tudoi 's Orkncya and ii/ui/anffs ( 1883 ).
Kirrioillllil*. a small town of Forfarshire, 8J
miles N\\'. of Forfar by rail, with some linen weav-
ing. It is the birlbplace of J. M. liarrie, and the
' Thrums ' of his stories. Pop. ( 1891 ) 4179.
Kirsrbwasser (Or., 'cherry-water') is a
li.pieur m.ide from cherries, and highly esteemed
in t;erm,iny. The cherries, gathere<I when quite
ripe, and freed from their stalks, are iiounde<l in a
wo«ilen vessel, but so that the stones are not
broken. They are then left to ferment, and when
fermentation ii.as begun the ni.oss is stirred two or
three times a day. The stones are afterwards
broken, and the kernels bruised and thrown in.
By distillation kii-schwasser is obtained.— For
cliorry-brandy, see BRANDY.
Kisrallldy. Sandor (.Ai.kXANDKR), a Hun-
garian poet, was born at Siiineg, in the county of
/ala, on 2'2d September 177'2. He served in the
Austrian army from 1793 to 1801, and again in
440
KISHINEFF
KIT-CAT CLUB
1809. The rest of his life was devoted to literature
and faniiiii";. He established his fame hy a
collection of lyrics — his best work — entitled Hiiitfys
Luvcs (1801-7), which created extraordinary en-
thusiasm ; and his fame was further enhanced by
Legemls nf the Ohlfii 'Time in Hiiiir/firi/ (1807 : '2d
ed. 181'2). Kisfaludy also attempted the dnima,
but less successfully ; his best dramas are ,/u/tit
Hitnyadi and Litdislans the Cuiudiiian. He was
one of the founders of the Hunjiarian Academy of
Sciences, which has rendered inestimable service in
the advancement of the literary ami intellectual
life of Hunf^ary. He died at Slime^', SOth t)ct()ber
1S44. His Collected H'ocA-.s- appeared in 0 V(ds. in
1847', to which 4 vols, of Posthumuus Writings were
added in 1870.
Kakoi.v (Charles) Kisfaludy, younger brother
of the preceding, and regenerator of the national
drama of Hungary, was born at Tet, in the
county of Gyiir (Kaab), on 6th February 1788.
By quitting the army in 1811 he incurred the anger
of an austere father, and was obliged to earn a
l)recarious livelihood as an amateur artist, until in
1819 the success of a drama. The Tartars in Hun-
(/'try, made him suddenly famous. This was fol-
lowed by several others, all dealing with the jiast
history of his country, and b\- comedies based upon
popular life, the best of them The Student Matthias.
Kisfaludy steadily improved as a dramatist as years
went on." He died at Pesth, -ilst November 1830.
His C'tllccted Works were published in 10 volumes
in 18.31 (oth ed. 8 vols. 1859).— The Kisfaludij
Society, estal)lislied in honour of the lirothers in
1837, has rendered important services to Hungarian
literature.
KisIlinefT. capital of the Russiau government
of Bessarabia, stanils on a tributary of the Dniester,
16'2 miles N\V. of Odessa liy the railway to .lassy.
When it came into the possession of Russia in 181'2
it was a place of only 7000 inhabitants ; since then,
however, it has rapidly increased in size and
prosperity. The old or lower town abuts upon
the river ; the new town stands on clitl's between
400 and fiOO feet above the river. Pop. (1832)
Sn.dOO : (IS49) 42.(113: (1871) 102,427: (1897)
10S,.">0(i, composed ii: nearly all the surrounding
nationalities. Fruit, the vine, and tobacco are
grown : and tobacco and Hour are manufactureil.
Kishinetr is an important trading centre for Bess-
arabian native products. It is the seat of an arch-
bishop, and has a theological seminary.
Kislllll. or Tawilah (the ancient Oaracta),
a parched ami barren island of Persia, situated at
the entrance to the Persian Gulf. It is 55 miles
long, and luis an area of 515 sq. m. Salt and
sul|)hur, an<l the food-products of a few oases, are
all that the island yields. Poj). ,5000. The island
was visited by a severe earthi{uaUe in 18S4, twelve
villages being destroyed and some two liundred
lives lost.
Kismet. See Katk, Moiiammp:dani.sm.
Kiss, a familiar form of sahitation by touching
with the lips as an expression of respect or all'ec-
tion, in earlier times and still in uumy countries
used in the common intercourse of man with man,
but mostly limited by modern F.ngli.~hmen to the
domestic and dearer relationships of life. The
osciiliim was a formal syndtol of goodwill among
the ancient Itomans, and was adopted by the early
Christians, whose 'holy kiss' and 'kiss of charity'
carried the wcught of apostolic .sanction. The ' kiss
of peace' at the mass, in the E.astern Clinrch and
tlu' Mozaraliic and .Vmbidsian liturgies, is given
before the oll'ertoiy and consecration ; but in the
Itoman mass it follows the consecration and is
closely connected with the communion. About the
end of the IStli century the kiss of peace in the
West gave way to the osculatoriiim, called also the
inslrumentiim or tabcl/a jxtcis, l>ax, porijirale, or
freda, a jilate with a figure of Christ on the cross
stamped on it, kissed first by the priest, then by
the clerics and congregation. The kiss of peace
was given also at baptism, and is still given liy tlie
other bisho]is to a bishop newly consecrated, .iml by
the bishop) to a priest at his ordination ; and tln'
tJreeks still preserve the rite of giving the kiss of
peace to the dead.
The Christians early ailopted the iiractice of
kissing the altar as a mark of reverence to the
]ilace on which the eucharist is ofl'ere<l, and the
olliciating priest still (hies so reiieatedly in the
Roman mass. It is usual also to kiss the golden
cross of the sandal on the pope's right foot oh his
appointment to office, by newly-created cardinals
and by persons on being granted an audience.
Fven royal persons in former times paid this act
of homaite to the Vicar of Christ ; it is said that
Charles V. was the last that did so.
.See Kahle, Dc Osculo Sancto ( Konigsherg, 18G7) ; Valen-
tin!, De Osciilatioiie Pedum Jionuttii J^ontijicis (Kome,
1.5S-S): and Pougard. Ih'l Ikicio ite' Piedi t/c' ISommi
Pontefici (Kome, 1S07).
Hissillgeilf the most popular watering-idace in
Bavaria, is situated on the Saale, UO miles K.. by
N. from Frankfort-on-Main. Of its three mineral
s]irings (temperature 50'7'-51"2° F. ), the Rakoc/y
and the Pandur furnish saline and chalybeate
waters, while the Maxbrunnen is .acidulous ami
s.aline. The Solen-Sprudel is remarkable for the
periodical ebb and How of its waters, caused appar-
ently by the accumulation and discharge of car-
bonic acid gas. Besides these there are two other
springs near the town, and in the .same valley the
s]ias of Bocklet and liriu-kenau. The waters of
Kissingen are both drunk and used as liaths by
the patients, and are considered specially eHica-
eious ill cases of dyspepsia, skin diseases, afl'ectioiis
of the bowels, eyes, and ears, gout, &c. The
population (40'24) is increased by an influx of
13,000 to 14,000 visitors annmilly." Although the
existence of mineral (.saline) sjirings at this s|iot
was known as early as the 9th century, it was not
until the llilh that their medical projierties were
recognised, and not until the I9th that the springs
came to be in great repute. Between 500,000 and
600,000 bottles of the Kissingen waters are ex]iorted
annually. At Kissingen an attempt was made to
assassinate Prince Bismarck, by Kullmanu, on 13lh
.lulv 1874. See guides, all in (Icrman, bv Soticr
('2d'ed. 1883), Werner (3d ed. 1883), Diruf (5tli ed.
1884), and Ising (3d ed. 1885).
KistllSI. or KlusHNW, a river of southern India,
rises in the Western Chats within 40 miles of the
Arabian Sea, at a height of 4500 feet, in IS" l'
N. lat., and, flowing eastward across the peninsula,
falls into the Bay of Bengal after ,a course of 800
miles. Area of drainage basin, 97,050 sq. in. 'I'he
river forms for a consideralile distance the boundiuy
between the Nizam's dominicuis and .Madias Presi-
dency, and has a delta extending 100 miles inlanil.
It is Only navigable for about 50 miles during six
months of the year.
KistviM'ii. or ('1ST. See Bakrow, BruiAi,.
Kit-4'ilt Clllll. a society formed in London
about 1700, consisting of thirty-nine iiolilemcn and
gentlemen favourable to the succession of the House
of Hanover, and whose ostensible object was the
enc<nira<'eiiient of literature and the line arts.
Jacob Tonson, an eminent jiublisher, was founder
and .secretary: ami, not to mention dukes and
earls, it included Sir Robert Waljiole, N'aiibrugh,
Cougreve, Aildison, Sti'ele, and (iarth. The club
derived its name from having met for some time
in the house of Cliristoplier Catt, a pasti'ycook.
KITCHENER
KLAGENFUKT
441
Before its dissnlntion (about 17'20) esieli of tlie
iiieiiiliei-s tjave Tonsoii his half-len!,'tli portrait,
nainted a uniform size, by Kneller. Hence a
kit-cat is anv portrait of that size — about 36 in.
by iS.
Kitclu'iior. Hf.i;i!Ert, Lord, of Khartonin
anil Aspall in SutTolk, born •22d September I80O
at Gnnslioron^h Villa, near Ballyhm^fdnl, Kerry,
stndieil at Woolwich Academy, an<l entered the
Eni;ineers in 1871. On the" Palestine survey
1874-7S, and then on that of Cyprus till 1882,
he commanded the Ejiyptian cavalry 1882-84,
served in the Souilan campai^jn 188S-8.5, was
jiovernov of Suakin 1SS6-S8, and Sirdar of the
Egyptian arniv from 1890. As such, he recovered
Do'nL;ol,i( 18!)6),ilefeated the dervishesat the Atbara
( Apiil 1898), anil by the final victory of Oiiiduriiian,
2d Sept. 1898, nmted the Khalifa, and won back the
Soudan for Egypt. He was raised to the peerage,
having four year's before been created a K.t'.M.G.
In 1899 ho went with Lord Roberts to South .Africa
as chief of the statt'in the Transvaal War, and in
November 1990 he ivssuuieil chief command with
the rank of lieutenant-general. See G. W.
Steevens's U'it/i Kitchener to Khartum (1898).
Kitchen -mi«I<Ien (Dan. IjiMcn-miJchling),
mounds in Dtumark, N. Scotland, \c., prehistoric
refuse-heaps. Tliey are mostly lormed of oyster-
shells and other shelltish ; cont.ain only stone, bone,
or wood implements ; ami bones of the ilog and wild
animals. See ANTHROPOLOGY, Man, Stone Age.
Kite* one of the long-w ingeil, small footed, sliort-
beaked Falcoiiido". The typical genus is Milviis,
confined to the Old World, and represented by
half-a-dozen specie-s. Of these the Comumn or
Reil Kite {.Vi/ms ictiniis), found throughout
Enrope, is now very rare in Britain. It feeds on
Connnon Kite- or Glead {Mil tux iclinua).
ofl'al and small vertebrates of all kinds, and may be
ilestructive to young game and poultry. The Black
Kite (.1/. (HiV/cfcH*) ha-s been recorded in Britain;
the Pariah Kite {^f. fjorimhi) of India is a useful
scavenger: M. ixitriia inhabits .-\nstralia. L'nder
the title kite are also included the Black-winged
Kites (Elanus)of both hemispheres ; the beautiful
Swallow tailed Kite (ElaiioidesforJinituK), occurring
in the warmer parts of Xortli America; the Hook-
billed Kite ( Kostrhamus ) of South America ami
Florida, feecling, curiously enough, on fresh-water
snails ; and the large Bee-kite or Honey Bnzzard
{I'erni.i ajiirorii.i), inhabiting Europe and Africa.
Kits €oity House, the best-known dolmen
in England, stands on a hillside near the road
fi-om Uochester to Maidst<me, I4 mile NW. of
Aylesford. Three upright blocks of samlstone 8
feet high support a ' covering stone ' 12 feet long
so as to form a chamber. The name is supposeil
to be from old British words for ' the tomb in the
wood ' (cf. Welsh coed, ' wood '). See Dolmen.
kittiMillie. See Gt-LL.
KittO, .IiinN, an industrious and praiseworthy
writer on liiblical subjects, was born at Plymouth,
December 4, 1804. In his twelfth year he lost his
power of hearing in consequence of a fall from a
height of 35 feet. His father's circumstances were
at 'this time so wretched that young Kitto was
soon after sent to the workhonse. where he learned
the trade of shoemaking. In 1824 he went to Exeter
to learn dentistry with a MrGiove, who encouraged
him in his literary a-,si)irations ; and in 1825 he
published Essays ami Letters by John Kitto. In
the same year he was sent to the Missionary
College at Islington, where he learned printing. In
1829-33 he accompanied Mr Grove and family on
a tour to the East, visiting in the course of his
travels St Petersburg, Astrakhan, the Caucasus,
Armenia, and Pei-sia. The rest of his life was
spent in tlie service of the publishers, chiefly in
that of Charles Knight, whose failure led to le.ss
constant employment and pecuniary emb.arrass-
ments. In 1850 he received a civil list pension of
£100 a year. Stricken with paralysis, he died at
Cannstadt, in Wiirtemberg, November 25, 18.54.
His principal works are The Pieturinl Bible ( 18.38 :
new ed. 1855), Pietorial History of Palestine ( 1839-
40), History of Palestine (1843), The Lost Senses—
Daifness and Blindness (1845), Journal of Sacred
Literature (1848-53), and Daily Bible Hliixtrations
(1849-53; new ed. by Dr Porter, 8 vols. 18G7). He
also edited the Journal of Sacred Literature ( 1848-
53). In 1844 the university of Gie.s.sen conferred
on him the title of D.D. 'Kitto had a working
knowledge of Hebrew, Greek, Latin, and the
modern tongues. See his Life by Eadie ( 1857 ) anil
Ryland (18.56).
KiA-kiang, or CHIt:--CHl.\NG, a Chinese treaty-
port on the Yang-tsze-kiang. Pop. 53,000.
Kiling-ehow, chief city of Hainan ((j.v.).
Kiwi. See Apteryx.
Kizil-bashes, Persianised Turks. See Afgh.\N-
LST.\N, Khiva.
Ki7.il-lriiink. See Asia Minor.
Ki7.il-Klllll (meaning 'Red Sands'), a sandy
desert in Russian Turkestan, lying between the
lower courses of the Amu-Daria and Syr-Daria.
They stretch south-east from the Sea of Aral, and
rise from an elevation of 150 feet at the .sea to
2000 towards Bokhara. They are partly of shifting
nature and partly stationary, and are diversified by
numerous undulations or ridges of sand,^ between
which extensive patches of clay occur. North-east
of the Caspian .stretches the" Kara- Kum ('Black
Sands') desert, a former bed of the sea.
Kjerilir, Halfdan, composer, was born at
Christiania, 1.5th Seiitember 1815, and studied law,
but devoted himself to nuisic. He wrote mnch for
the piano, but is best known feu- his charming
.songs, full of melody and true Norwegian feeling.
Ho died nth August 1868. There is an English
album of his songs, the translations by Marzials
(1883).
KjolK-iiliavii. See Copenhagen.
klaueill'lll-t. the capital (since 1518) of the
duchy of Carinthia, in Austria, on the Glan, '262
miles' SW. of Vienna by rail. The palace of the
Prince-bishop of <!urk possesses a noteworthy
chai>el ; ami in the town there are schools of niinin,-,
agriculture, technical arts, &c., a library of 35,1)00
vols., ami the Rudolfinum museum. Klagenfun lias
442
KLAPKA
KLEPTOMANIA
a large wliite-lead factory, and luanufactures leather,
cast-iron, tobacco, &c. An active transit trade is
carried on. Pop. ( 1890 j 19,750. The fortifications
were dismantled by the French in 1S09, and now,
converted into pronienailes, separate the town from
its four sulmrlis.
Klapka. (JEoraiE, one of the most heroic
and skilful fjenerals of the Hungarian war, was
liorn at Teniesvar on 7th Ajiril 18'20. He rose
to the rank of lieutenant-general in the Austrian
army, but on the outbreak of the revolution placed
himself at the .service of the Hungarian govern-
ment, and took a jironiinent part in nearly all the
battles against the Austrians between February and
August; in more than one the fortune of the day
was decided by the troops under his command.
But the crowning glory of his career was his
defence of Komorn, w'liich he continued to hold for
some weeks after all the rest of Hungar^' had sub-
mitted. He lived in exile until the amnesty of
1867 let him return ; and he died 17th May 1892.
He wrote The Xntiimul War in Hiniijaiy and
Transtjlvania (1851), one of the best works on the
subject; The War hi the Ea.it (1855); and two
series of Memoirs ( 1850 and 1886).
Klaprotli. HEixmfH JrLir.s vox, orientalist,
was born at Berlin. 11th October 1783, tlie son of
Profe-ssor Martin Heinrich Klaprotli (1743-1817),
chemist and mineralogist. At fourteen under-
taking the study of Chinese, in 1805 he w'as
appointed interpreter to a Kussiaii embassy to
China. It wa.s stojiped on the frontier, when
Klaprotli took the opportunity of exploring Siberia,
as afterwards (in 1S07-8) the Caucasus and Georgia.
Returning to Germany in 1812, he settled three
yeai-s later in Paris, where in 1816 he was appointed
professor of .\siatic Languages, and where he died,
20th August 1835. From 1802 on« aids he published
innumerable works, in tierman and later in French,
on the subject of his travels, of Asiatic pliiUdogy
and ethnology, of Egyptian hieroglyphics, &c. A
lilot on their erudition and acuteness is his virulent
;issaults on other scholars. His Erfindung des
KoDipasses was edited by Wittstein in 1885.
Klaiiseilblirg; (Hungarian Kolozsrdr), one of
I he chief cities in Transylvania, is situated 95 miles
liy rail E. by S. from Grosswardein. It consists of
the inner town, fonnorly fortified, and of five
suburbs. Here are a university, w ith four faculties
(founded in 1872). and a Unitarian College, both
with libraries, an observatory, a music school, and
numerous other educational establishments. The
town possesses the national museuni, with anti-
(juities, scientific collections, and a library of
45,000 vols. Klausenburg was cai>tured by the
Hungarians under Bcm on Cliristnia,s Day 1848.
Machines, oil, and spirits are manufactured. Pop.
(1880) 29,921 : ( 1890) 32,729.
KlailStlial, the chief mining-town of the north-
ern liar/ Mountains, stands on a bleak plateau
(1985 feet), 25 miles XE. of Gottingcn. The ores
raised are silver, lead, copper, iind zinc. There is
a good mining acadeni)-, with library, museum, and
laboratory. Zellerfeld, divided from Klausthal by
a brook, is also a mining centre. The mines are
the |)ro])ertv of the Prussian government. Pop.
8871 ; but including Zellerfeld, 13,278. The men
are almost exclusively employed in the mines and
snielting-work;:.
Kli'lUT, -Ikvn B.vptiste, a distinguished
French scddicr, born in JIareli 1753 at Stnusburg,
where his father was a builder. He was destined
for an architect, but his opportune a-ssistance in a
Paris tavern brawl to two young (ierman nobles
obtained him a nomination to the military .school
of Munich, and afterwards a commission in the
Austrian army. Tliis, however, he resigned after
a few yeai-s, and returned to France to become
inspector of public buildings at Belfort. In 1792
he enlisted in the Haut Rliin volunteei-s, and
rapiiUy rose in rank, becoming general of brigade
in 1793. As such he commanded in the Vemlean
war, but was recalled for advocating more lenient
measures. Next ye.-ir, .as general of division in the
northern army under Jourdan, he led the left
wing at Fleurus, and captured Maestricht : and in
June 1796 he gained the brilliant victory of
Altenkirchen over the Prince of Wiirtemberg. " He
accompanied Bonaparte to Kgy|it as a general
of division, was dangeronsly wounded at the
capture of Alexandria, but recovered so .is to take
part in the expedition to Syria, and won the battle
of Mount Tabor (1799). " When Bonaparte left
Egypt he entrusted the chief command there to
Kleber, who concluded a convention with Com-
modore Sidney Smith for its evacuation ; but on
Admiral Keitli's refusal to ratify this convention
Kleber adopted the bold resoluti(m of rccoiKpieiing
Egypt, and destroyed the Turkish army at Helio-
polis. During an attempt to conclmle a treaty
with the Turks Kleber was assassinated Viv a
Turkish fanatic at Cairo, 14tli .June 1800. There
are Lives by Ernouf ( 1867) and Paj«d ( 1877).
Klociio-bok. See Antelope.
Kli-ist, E\v.\Ln CHRISTI.4N vox, German poet,
w.as born at Zeblin, near Kiislin in Pomerania, on
7th March 1715. In 1740 Frederick the Great
induced him to enter the Prussian army ; he was
severely wcmnded whilst leading an attack on a
hostile battery at the battle of Kuneisdorf, and
died twelve "days later (24tli August 1759) at
Fiankfort-on-the-Oder. The lyric poet Gleim fii-st
tiiuglit him how to develn]i his poetic talents. His
name is best known from his racmx, especially the
one entitled EriiliUiig, a sort of descriptive lyric.
Besides this he wiote tales (D/f Freundxehaft anil
Arisf), idylls (Irin, I'vrc. ), fables, and hvnins. The
latest edition of his Works was issued bv A. Saner
( 1884). See Life by Einbeck ( 1861 ).
Kleist, Heixrich vox, German dramatist and
poet, was liorn at Frankfort-on-the-Oder, on 18th
October 1777. At fii-st he followed the family
profession and entered the army ; but left it in
1799 to study, yet science he soon al)andoned for
literatnic. As a writer his aims and desires out-
ran his ability to execute, and his w oiks are marred
by want of clearness and artistic comjdeteness ;
in fact, he has some of the woi-st faults of the
Romantic school, to which he belongs. Neverthe-
less, his best jilays, such as I)er Priiiz ran Ham-
burg, Das hatehen von Ileilhronn, llermanns-
sehlaeht, and Der zerhroehene Kriig, possess sufli-
cient vigour and fidelity to life to make them
popular even at the present day. The best of his
tales is Mirhacl Ko/dhaas, a story of Brandenburg
in the middle ages. The morbid tendencies in his
character made him quail before the adversities
against whicli he had to battle, and at bust brcmglit
him to a suicide's grave. lie shot himself, after
fii-st shooting a woman whom he loved, and who
like him was weary of life, on the bank of Lake
Wan near Potsdam, 21st November 1811. His
works did not gain recognition until after his
death : they were fii"st made known by Tiirk, who
in I82(i ])ublislied Kleist's drsamnielte Seliriften (3
vols.; new eil. 1874). See Life by Brahni ( 1884).
KIcpllls. Greek brigands. See BltlOANDS.
Kloploiliailia (Gr. hleptd, 'I steal '). Among
the plicnomcna of certain minds that are not re-
gard e<l as technically insane or criminal are observed
inordinate tendencies to acquire, to collect, and
to hoard. All young children desire an<l will at
once appropriate whatever they fancy. So long as
such impulses do not interfere with the rights and
KLONDIKE
KNEE
443
property of others, or involve a tlii!;raiit breach of
law. they are reailily aiimitteil ,is an imlication of
disease, or .as an absunlity and eiventricity whieli
may help to consign the individual to an asylum or
to contempt, hut cimcern no one else. Bui when-
ever the amount of the object appropriated. <U' the
circumstances under which it is purloined, bring
the matter into a court of law, the act is treated
.as a theft. .Such conduct is often the result of
disea.se; it is rarely a dise:ise by itself. Tlie in-
clination to steal is a premonitory indication of
some forms of mental disorder: it is a characteristic
.symptom of many others, where violence, or de-
lusion, or incoherence leaves no doubt as to the
I source from which it springs. But there are other
' cases in which the morbid origin cannot be so
] clearly demonstrated— where the mind is clear and
cogent, the morals pure, and where theft is almost
the only proof of insanity. There is evidence in
favour of the opinion that the propensity to steal
may become so irresistible, and the will so impotent,
that the a|>propriation is involuntarj-, and the
perpetrator irresponsible. It then forms one of
the varieties of insanity (see the article Insanity)
characterised by defective inhibition. The gratitica-
tion of the im]nilse is commonly found associated
>vith physical changes and conditions which may
be regarded as incompatible with the healthy dis-
charge of the functions of the nervous system ;
but that connection is not invarial)le. and the best
mode of establishing the reality of such a disease
is to consider marked cases in relation to the
character, interests, and previous deportment of
the individual, to the nature of the articles taken,
.and to the motives. A baronet of large fortune
stole, while on the Continent, pieces of old iron
and of broken crockery. A clergyman of great
usefulness abstracted from bookshops anil stalls
hundreds of copies of the Bil)le. The objects are
often stolen ostentatiously, or without any ade-
quate precautions to conceal the attempt ; they
are often of no value ; the act is without motive,
promptly and spontaneously a\owe<l, and, if over-
looked, repeated. The article acquired is restored,
or disregarded : and although money is raiely
taken, bright and coloured objects most generally
excite cupidity.
See Bucknill and Tuke, Pgi/cholor/ical Medicine (.1853) ;
Clouston. ^rllltat Pi.ieuses (2d ed. 1887).
Klondike, or Klondvkk, a small tributary of
the Yukon river in the Canadian district of Yukon,
separated from the Xorth-West Territories in 1895.
The Klondike (properly Thrnn-duirk, ' jdenty of
tish') gives name to an extraordinarily rich auriferous
region, partially known ,as early as IST.f. (lold-
mining was being carried on on the Lewis and
Stewart rivers in the early eighties, l)Ut only in
1896 was gold found on the Klondike in such
abundance a-s to cause the desertiim of the adjoin-
ing digt^ings and to create a rush from Europe,
renewed in 1897 and 1898. Dawson, where the
Klondike enters the Yukon liver, is 60 miles east
of the Al.iskan (U.S.) frontier.
klopstock, Fkikduich Gottlieb, was bom
2il.luly 1724, al Qiiedliiiburg. Incited by Virgil's
jKne.iii and Milton's I'arailisc l.o.it, he resolved
to wiite a great epic ])oem whilst a tluMdogical
student at .lena (I74.'>), selected for his theme The
Messiah, and while at J^eipzig got the lirsl three
cantos ]mblished in a Bremen magazine (1748).
Theyjwere received with enthusia.sm, except by
(Jottsched, who denounced his language ami verse
structure as heretical innovations. He settled in
Hamburg in 1771 with a sinecure ap]iointment,
and pensions from the king of Denmark (since
17">1 ) and the margrave of ISaden. In 1773 the
last cantos of 7'hc Messiah were published ; the poet
died 14th .March 1S03. His name has (or rather
h.ad ) a very high place in ( ierman literature. For in-
>tance, he was taken by the (iottinger Dichterbund
as their model and poetic hero, and was greatly
admired liy young Schiller. Whatever may be
thought of the intrinsic value of his poetry, it
cannot be denied that he helped to inaugurate the
golden age of (lennan literature, anil exercised a
very beneficial intlnence on the national taste.
When he first beg.an to write, the literature of
Germany was dominated by French inthiences — a
cold, correct, unimaginative s]drit. Klopstock
broke loose from this despotism and breathed the
air of freedom into ( Ierman poetry. Odes, tragedies
— in which he introduces Arminiiis as a national
hero — and biblical dramas, with some hymns, con-
stitute the reniainder of his poetry. Of these his
0(/es alone possess interest and value now. His
works were collected and publislied in 12 vols. ( 1798-
1817), and in 9 vols. ( 18.39). The Messiah has been
translated into both English vei'se and prose. See
Life by Muncker ( 1887-88).
Kliiohevskayn. See K.\mch.\tk.\.
Knjipweed. See Cextaukea.
Kliare.^horoilgh, a market-town in the West
Riding of Yorkshire, on the Nidd, .3J miles NE.
of Harrogate and 17 WNW. of Y'oik. It has a
church (restored 1872), with interesting monu-
ments of the Slingsbys ; a grammar-school (1616);
remains of a castle (1170). in which Richard II.
was imprisoned, and which was dismantled in
1648 ; a " dropping well,' with petrifying properties ;
and St Robert's Cave, in which Eugene Aram
buried his victim in 1745. Mother Shipton is
claimed as a n.ative, and Jack Metcalf, the blind
ioad-sur\ eyor. Linen and woollen rugs are the
staple manufactures. Knaresborough returned two
members from 1550 till 1867, and one until 1885.
Pop. (1851) 5ob6: (1881) 5000: (1S91) 4770. See
works by Calvert (1844) and Grainge 1 1871 ).
Knee, the articulation between the femur or
thigh-bone, above, and the tibia or shin-bone,
below. A third bone, the ])atella, or knee-cap,
also enters into the structure of this joint ante-
riorly. The articular surfaces of these bones are
covered with cartilage, and connected together by
ligaments, some of which invest the joint and
lie external to it, while othei-s occupy its interior.
The synovial membrane is the largest in the body.
It lines the investing
ligament, and is \no-
longed on the front
of the femur above
the articular surface,
covers certain of the
ligaments in the in-
terior of the joint,
and forms folds on a
large cushion of fat
placed between the
tibia and patella.
The most im]iort-
ant of the external
ligaments .are the an-
terior or Lifiamctitiim
I'atella:, wliicli is in
reality that portion of .,„.,„".
the Q„a,/r,rej,s i:.c- ^ ertical Sagittal Section through
(„..„„_ /•-...: .. 1 ;,.i. the inner half of the Left
tensor Cruris whici
is continued from the
knee - cap to the
tubercle of the tibia ;
one internal and two
external lateral lig.i-
ments ; a posterior
ligament ; and a cap-
sular ligament, which
Knee (from Macalister) :
(7, ft'inur; h, tibia; c, patulla; d,
tendon of qiia(lrice|)s muscle; t,
li^anicntutn imtelliv ; /, suhcrureai
bursa; g. premlellar bursa; Kh,
internal semilunar cartilage ; t,
li^anicntum iK)Hticum ; k, Inner
head of gnHtrocueiuius.
siiriiiunds ihe joint in the
444
KNEELING
KNIOHT
intervals left by the preceding ligaments. The
positions of these ligaments are suttieiently in-
uicateil l>y their names. Of the internal ligaments
the two crucial, so calle<l because they cross one
another, are the most important. The e.\ternal
and internal semilunar cartilages are usually placed
amongst the internal ligaments ; they arc two
crescentic i>lates of fibrocartilage. The convex
border of each cartilage is thick ; the concave free
border is thin. Each cartilage covers nearly the
marginal two-thirds of the corresponding articular
surface of the tiliia, .and by its form <lpepens these
surfaces for tirnier articulation with the (Condyles
of the femur.
Tlie chief movements of this joint are those of a
hinge-joint — namely, lle.xion and e.xtension ; but it
is also capable of slight rotatory motion when the
knee is half-tle.\ed. During flexion the articular
surfaces of the tibia glide backwards upon the
condyles of the femur ; while in extension they
glide forwards. The whole range of motion of this
joint, from extreme flexion to extreme extension,
is about 135°. Judging from its articular surfaces,
which have comparatively little adaptation for
each other, it might be inferred that this was a
weak and insecure joint ; and yet it is very rarely
dislocated. Its real strength depends on the large
size of the articular ends of the bones, on the
number and strength of the ligaments, .and on
the i)Owerful nniscles and fascia- by which it is
invested. See .J0INT.S, where also the excision of
the knee-joint is discussed.
The KxEE-c.\p, or I*.\tell.\, is a Sesamoid Hone
(q.v. ), developed in the sinrfe tendon of the rectus,
cria-ciis, ntstiix /•xtennis, and vaitiis iiitrniiis muscles
— the great quadriceps extensor muscle of the leg.
It is heart-shaped in form, the broad end Ijeing
directed upwards, aiid the apex downwards. The
anterior or external surface is convex, perforated
by snuill apertures for the entrance of vessels, ami
marked by rough longitudinal stria- ; the ])osterior
or internal surface is sniootli and divided into two
facets by a vertical ridge, which corresponds and fits
into the groove on the lower articulating surface of
the femur or thigh-bime, while the two facets (of
which the outer is the broader .and deeper) corre-
spond to the articular surface of the two condyles.
This bone is liable both to dislocation and
fracture. Dislocation may occur either inwards
or outwards ; but it is most frequent in the out-
waril direction. The displacement may be <'aused
either by mechanical violence, or by too sudden
contraction of the extensor muscles in whose con-
joined tendon it lies ; and is most liable to occur
in knock-kneed, flabby pers^ons. Except in one
ran! v.ariety, the dislocation is capable of being
reduced without any difliculty. Fracture of the
patella may, like dislocation, be caused either by
niusc\ilar action or by mechanical violence.
Fr.acture by violent muscular action, .•xs when a
person in ilanger of falling forwards attem|)ts to
recover himself by throwing the body backwards,
is the more common of the two fcunis. The treat-
ment consists in relaxing the opposing muscles by
raising the trunk, and slightly elevating the limb,
which should be kept in a straight position. In
consequence of the great diliiculty of bringing the
broken surfaces into exact apposition it is very
difficult to obtain bony reunion of the ])arts, and
the case generally results either in mere ligament-
ous union or in no true union at all.
KlK't'Iill!; was probably the general posture of
the early Christians in ]irayer not regnl.ated by
public authority, lint the early church made no
distinction in language between kneeling and
proslratii>n. At communion the first prayer was
said kneeling, the rest of the liturgy standing. At
other times of service the rule was for all to kneel
in prayer except on Sundays and between Easter
and Whitsuntide. In the modern Catholic Church
kneeling is the usual attitude at prayer, as in the
Church of England. In the Ucunan and (!reek
churches, and with some Anglicans, the celebrant,
.after kneeling in .adoration, communicates standing.
In the Church of England, and in the Lutheran
Church, the sacrament is received kneeling;
Lutherans stand .at pr.ayer. Presbyterians sit when
receiving the comnmnion, and were till lately
accust(uned to stand at prayer; recently kneeling
at prayer has become the usual practice, save in
the remoter districts of Scotland.
Hlioller, Sir tioDFiiEV, a portrait-painter, was
liorn at l.libeck on Sth August l(>4t), ami learned
l>ainting under Hembrandt and Ki'rdin.ind llol.
Whilst studying further in Italy he chose historical
subjects, hut afterwanls gave himself entirely to
|iortrait p.ainting. In 1076 he went to London, and.
on the death of Sir Peter Lely in KiSO, was appointed
court-painter to Charles II. This oflice he retained
durini; the reign of .lames II., and ccirLlinued to lill
it after the Kevoluthm. In Kii)! W'illi.im III.
knighted him, and in ITlo Geoige I. m.ade him a
b.aronet. He die<l at Twickenham, Tlh N'ovemher
1723, iind a monument was erected to him in
Westminster Abbey, with a highly Laudatory
inscription by Pope. Kneller's best-known pro-
ductions are the 'Beauties of Hampton Court'
(painted by order of William 111.), his portraits
of the 'Kit-Cat Club,' and of nine sovereigns
(C'hailes II. to George I. of England, Louis .\|V.,
Peter the Great, and the Emperor ( 'harles W. ). He
painted avowedly for the love of money, and hence
never did justice to the undoubted talent he pos-
se.ssed. His reputation w,as due to his nipid brush
and his quick eye for likeness, .ami to the fact that
there was nobody to dispute supremacy with him.
For Kneller Hall, his house at Twickenham, see
P.ANii (Military).
Kiiirkerboi'ker. Herman .Ianskn, of Fries-
land, Holland, was one of the earliest settlers of
New York. A descendant, .lohainies (1749 IS'27).
was an intim.ate friend of Washington Irving, who
immortalised the name by his Ilist/iri/ of Xcic Yor/;
by 'Diedrich Knickerbocker '( •*<"!')• It ha.s since
been used as a generic teiin for New York families
descended from the origin.al Dutch settlers.
Klliu^llt. Chari.es, author and ]iublislier, was
born in 17111. The son of a Windsi>r lioid^sellcr, in
ISll with his father he established the Wniilsor niitl
Eton Express, s\ni\ continued loeilit it until I.S'21,at
the same time printing the Etoniini. The I'/aiii
E)i<jlisliiiwn (18'20-'2'2), which was the lirst attemni
to i')roduce cheap literature of a high lone, was jointly
edited by Ch.arles Knight and Coniniissionnr Locker
of (ircenwich Hospital. Ilcnioving to London in
1S2'2, Knight began to publish imiioitant works in
various clas.ses of literature, and he also founded
K>ii(//it's (Jidtrlcrhj Mdijdziiir, to which .Macaulay,
Praecl, Moultrie, and other writers of promise con-
tributed. In 1827 he became connecteil with the
Soc-iety for the Dill'usion of I'seful Knowledge, for
which he iiublishcil nianv valuable win ks and si'rials,
including the I'liiiii/ 'Mmjazi)!,- ( 18.32 -t.') ), which
attained a circulation of '2(H),0(M) cojiies weekly.
Knight began to issue in IS:{8 the I'niinf Ci/rld/iiii/in,
upon which he expended for contributions alone the
sum of C-tO.OOO. This was followed by the E)i;j/is/i
Oi/c/ojiirdiri ( I8r)4 (il ), the Ilrilis/i Al minim-, and its
Com/xtiiio)!. Knight edited the I'irlorid/ Shdlcr-
sprare, and was the author of W'illiiun ShiiI.e-
sprarc: (i Hioqroplni. He likewise issue<l Tlif Land
(Co [.in- /(('and other w(uks. In 1803 Knight
published Onrc. I'/juii a Time, whi(di consiste<l of a
collection of p.apers from the periodicals; and in
1855 Knowledge is Porter, a work based upon two
KNIGHT
KNIGHTHOOD
445
smaller viiluiiies -liigiilts of Machincri/ ami Hiffhtx
u/ Iiidiistri/ — which secured a large sale at a time
when the imjnovemeiits in machinery exciteil a
hostile feeling' and the relations between ca|>ital
and laliouv were consideral)ly strained. In 18t)2
ICnit^'ht cDMipleted his Pujni/ar Hixtmij of EiKjland,
ipon which he had been eni;aj;ed for seven veare.
His PassiKje^ uf a ]\'urkhi(j Life (/iirinij itnlf a
Centunj, which appeared in lS6:i-(x>, recounted the
strugjrles of his own life its well its gave interestiii<'
pictures of the numerous literary and political
|iei-sonages with whom he had been associated.
Kiiij^ht's compilations, Halfhuurs iritk the Best
Aiithoin, Hulfhours of EnglUh Hixtoii/, and Half-
hours u-ith the Best Letter-writers, have become
widely pojiular. Hy his appointment in 18(X) lus
puldisher of the /.owrfoH Cuzelte .Cl-2("l per annum
w.u- assured to him. He <lied at Aibllestone. Surrey,
9tli -March 1S73. tjee Life by goddaughter (1S92J.
Knighthood. The word ' knight ' is the
modern eiiuivalent of the Anglo-Saxon cniht,
which meant originally a youth, and afterwards a
-ervaut or attendant, and .soon came to be lestricted
to the military attendants upon nobles and great
oHicers of state. Tliis pei-sonal relation was
subsequently strengthened by the feudal relation
of tenancy, in virtue of wliich the knight held
land of his superior under condition of rendering
him military service in return (see Feudalism).
The origin of medieval knighthood, as a solemn
investiture and profession of arms, is involved in
obscurity. Embryonic forms of the institution can
Ije traced amongst the early Teutonic nations, and
especially the Franks. The customs of chivalry
associated with King Arthur and Charlemagne's
jialadins are of course those of a later era, the epoch
of the romance writers. The custom and practice
of knighthood were established in England, but as
an essentially feudal institution, by the Norman
kings. The system of knight-service empowered
the king, or a su]ierior lord who was a subject, to
compel every holder of a certain extent of land,
called a knight's fee, to become a member of the
knightly order, his investiture being accounted
proof that he posse.ssed the requisite knightly arms
and Wiis sufficiently trained in their use. " After
the long war l>etween France and England it be-
came the |jractice for the sovereign to receive
money compensations from subjects who were
unwilling to receive knighthood, a system out of
which grew a series of grievances, leading eventu-
ally to the total abolition of knight-service in the
reign of Charles II.
The ceremonies practised in conferring knight-
hood have varied at diflerent periods ; but two
broadly-marked ceremonial forms may be recog-
nised, the simj)le dubbing and the formal investi-
ture as a semi-religious ceremony. In general, in
the more elaborate ceremony, fasting and bathing
were necessary preparatives, and the actual crea-
tion Wiis jireceded by solemn confession and a mid-
night vigil in the church, followed by the reception
of the eucharist. The new knight otl'ere<l his sword
on the altar, t<j signify bis ilevotion to the church
anil determination to lead a holy life. The sword
was redeemed by a sum of money, had a benedic-
tion pronouncerl over it, and wasgirded on by the
highest ecclesi;i.sti<; jiresent. The title was con-
ferred by biniling the sword and spurs on the
candiilate, after which the |>erson who conferreil
the oriler tlealt him a lilow on the cheek or sliouliler,
.saying, ' IJe thou a good and faithful knight.' or
words to that ell'ect. The new knight then took an
oath to protect the distres-sed, to maintain right
against might, and never by wmd or ileed to stain
his (jharacu-r a-s a knight and a Cliristian. The
ridigious character of the ceremimy .seems to have
become thus prominent in and after the foundation
of the militant monastic ordei-s in Palestine, as the
Knights Templai-s (see Tkmi'L.vks) and Knights of
St John (see Hosi-IT.VLLKl!.s). A knight might be
degiaded lor the infringement of any iiart of his
oath, in which case his si)urs were chopiied oil' w ith a
hatchet, his swcud broken, his escutcheon reversed,
and some religious obser\ ances were added, tluring
which each piece of armour was taken off in suc-
cession, and east from the recreant knight. This
ceremony «as of \ery rare occurrence, but was per-
formed in ettigy ;is late as 1814 in the case of Lord
Dundonald ( q . v. ).
' Knights errant ' were they who wandered seek-
ing foemen worthy of their steel, and ac(|uiring
fame at joust and tourney, by maintaining the
])re-eminence in beauty and virtue of the ladies to
whom they had vowed service. The ( unhistoiical )
'Knights of the Kound Table' (see Akthik) and
the paladins of Charlemagne (see K(.)L.\XD) are
types of those whose mission it was to succour
distressed damsels and destroy tyrants ; and Amadis
(q.v.) may be taken as a representative hero of
those romances of chivalry which Cervantes satir-
ised in DoH Quixote. Sad specimens of the military
knights in a degraded condition were the robber
knights (Eaubritter)oi Germany, who lived largely
by levying blackmail on merchants or by sheer
plunder.
Knighthood, originally a military distinction,
came, in the 16tli century, to be occasionally con-
ferred on civilians, its a reward for \aliiable services
rendered to the crown or community. The tirst
civil knight in England was Sir Willia'm "Walworth,
lord mayor of London, who won that distinction by
slaying the rebel \\a.t Tyler in presence of the
king. Since the abolition of knight-service knight-
hood has been conferred « ithout any regard to pro-
perty, as a mark of the sovereign's esteem, or as a
reward for services of any kind, civil or militarj'.
In recent times it has been bestowed at least as
often on administrative officials, scholars, lawyer's,
physicians, artists, and citizens as on soldiers.
Although knighthood could originally be conferred
by any person of knightly condition, the right
to bestow it was early restricted to persons of rank,
and afterwards to the sovereign or his representa-
tive, as the commander of an army. In England
the sovereign now bestows knighthood by a verbal
declaration, accompanied with a simple ceremony
of imiiosition of the sword, anti without any patent
or written instrument (see AccoL.iDt;). In some
few instances knighthood has been conferred by
patent, when the pei-sons knighted could not con-
yeniently come into the presence of royalty, as in
the case (jf governors of colonies, or other jiei'sons
occupying i>rominent situations abroad. The lord-
lieutenant of Ireland also occasionally, but rarely,
exercises a delegated power of conferring knight-
liood. The monosyllable 'Sir' is ])rehxed to the
Christian names of knights and baronets, and their
wives have the legal designation of ' Dame,' which
in common intercmirse becomes 'Lady.' For the
existing orders of knighthood, see ()KI)EK.s, H.\TH,
Gartek, Thistle, Golden Fleeik, \c.
Pei'sons who are simply knights, without belong-
ing to any order, are calleil in England Knights
Bachelors. Knighthood of this kind is now only
conferred in Great Uritain. A degree of knighthootl
called Banneret (q.v.) formerly existed in England
an<l France ; it was given on the lield of battle in
reward for the |)erforniance of .some heroic act.
It is noticeable that, whereas the German word
for knight is Bitter, the word kneeht, etymologic-
ally the same as knight, means the squire or a still
humbler attendant of the knight. The French
knight (see LkchdN ov Hoxoih) is ihem/ier, the
Italian curaliere. The form of helmet which the
requirements of the later heraldry have apiiropri-
446
KNIGHT-SERVICE
KNOTS
atetl to knights is figured under Heraldkv (fig.
xi.). For Knights of tlie Shire, see Parliament.
See Grose, Militarij Antiquities ; Stubbs, Constitutional
Historu : Nicolas, Britisk Orders of Kniiikthood : Hallaui,
Europe during the Middle Aiies ; C. Mills, hist'irii of
Chivalry (\?:2i)\ Gautier, La C/ievahrie{lSSi): Keibisch,
Geschichte des Riltcrthnms (1842); Schreekeustein, Vie
Bittcrwurde { 18>S4) ; Major Lawrence-Archer's Orders of
Chicalri/ (XSSS).
Kiiight-sorvice. See Tenihe.
KnislltS »f Labour, a national labour organi-
satiim ill Ihc riiilcl States, founded at Pliiladelphia
in IStii). It is to lie distinguished from trades-unions
a-s embracing all classes and kinds of labour, even
clerks, sempstresses, \-c., and extending, through
its local assemblies, over the whole country. The
professed objects of the body are just and reason-
able, and such as appeal strongly to public syiii-
patliy. The first general asseinlily was held in
1878 : from this year the iiuinbers rapidly increased,
and the oaths of secrecy formerly administered were
aiiolished soon after. " In 1883 there were 5:5,000
members, in 1886 there were 730,000 ; in 1886 and
18S7, however, the system of 'boycotting' having
been introduced, the business of the country was
greatly disturbed, ami since then the strength of
the organisation has declined. At the convention
of 1888 the total was admitted to have fallen below
500,000 ; and dissensions further weakened the
body. Unavailing opposition to the pcdicy of the
leaders led to many witlidiawals, and the power of
the organisation was weakened. See GllANUEltS,
INTET!NATI0NAL, TUADE UNION.S.
Kniu;lits Toiiiplai-s. See Templars.
kllip|><'l'<l<>lliliu;. r.KRNAKD, a noted leader
(1527-.36) of the fanatical Anabaptists (4. v.).
Kiiittiiig. See Hosiery.
Kuoi-k, a village in County Mayo, Ireland, 17
miles ESE. of Castlebar, where an alleged lumin-
ous apparition of the Virgin ajipeared on the chapel
wall in 1880. For a considerable time afterwards
crowds of pilgrims Hocked to the scene, and numer-
ous miraculous cures were reported. Pop. of parish,
3241.
Kiiock-kiiee. See Leg.
kiiuh'. Sec Sevenoaks.
Kliut [Triiijja aiinitiis), a wading shore-bird of
the family Scolopacidie, in the same genus as the
dunlin, stints, &c. It is a regular autumn visitor
to Britain, esiiecially to the eastern estuaries, but
breeds in the far north, an<l ranges a-s far south as
the West Indies. The general colour, in sunimer,
is reddish brown, finely mingled with black, gray,
and white : in winter the pluiii.age becomes mostly
ash gray, and on the under parts white. The total
length is about 10 inches. Its food consists in
great part of small bivalves, but buds and insects
are also eaten. The bird used to be caught and
fattened for the table.
Knot, the divisicms of the log-line on board
ship ( marked by l.nul.s), (!acli having the Mime
rdalion to a geographical mile as twenly-eight
.sec<iiids has to an hour. Hence the nuniber of
knots in the log-line which run ont in twenty-eight
.seconds rejire.sents the number of geogiaidiical or
nautical miles an hour which the ship is going at
the lime. The geogiajdiical mile is ,};,{\\ of a mean
degree of a meridian on the earth (sec 1)K(u;ke),
anil is therefore r.'nth of GOO.m English statute
miles ; hence whi'ii a sliij) is going ' 13 knots, " it
is travelling really at llie rale of about l.") I'^iiglish
miles an hour. Sec 1, 111;.
Knots and Splircs include all the various
methods of lying, fastening, and joining ropes or
cords. From l.W to 200 dilVerent kiiuls of knots
may be enumerated, mostly used on shipboard,
though almost all occupations using ropes or
cordage have special kinds of knots adapted to
their diti'erent re<iuirenients. \Vhile the great
majority of these are ^mrely technical, there are
a few so "'enerally useful in the e\eryday occur-
rences of life that they may be shortly described.
The figures represent the various knots before
they are drawn taut, the better to show the
method of tying. Generally, the rci|uirenients of
a useful knot may be stated to be that it should
neither ' slip ' nor 'jam' — i.e. that, while it holds
without dantjer of slijiping while the strain is on
it, when slackened it should be easily untied again.
Tlie simplest knot is the conimon one tii'd on the
end of a thie.ad or cord to prevent it slijiping. By
passing a loop instead of the end of I lie cord the
common slip-knot (fig. 1) is formed; and a useful
fixed hiop is got by tying a siiii|)le knot, or the
'figure of 8 knot' (2), on the loop of a cord. One
of the simplest and most useful running-knots for a
small cord is made by means of two simple knots
(3). Tlie most secure method of fastening a
line to, say, a bucket is the standing bowline (4) ;
and a running bowline is formed by pa.>^sing the
end a through the loop h, thus making a running-
loop. Another good knot to make fast a bucket
is tlie anchor-bend (o). ~ Out of the score or so
of methods of fastening a boat's painter the one
which will be found most useful is the well-known
two half-hitches (6). The timber-hitch (7) is use-
ful for attaching a line to a spar or a stone, and
the clove-hitch (8) is invaluable for many purposes.
It is very simple and cannot slip.
A siniple method of fastening a rope to a hook
is the blackwall-hitch (9), where the strain on the
main mpe jams the end so tightly against the
liook that it cannot slip. There are many methods
for shortening a rope temporaiily, one of them
being the sheepshaiiK, the simplest form of which
is shown in fig. 10.
Of the methods for uniting the ends of two
^- ,. -3^
cords the simi>lest and one of the most secure is
the common reef-knot (11), which must be cme-
fnlly ilistinguished from the 'granny '( 12), which
will jam if it does not slip; the reei'-knot wiil
KNOUT
KNOW NOTHINGS
447
do neither. For very small cords or tliroad tlie
best knot is the weaver's (1.'?). The lisheriiian's
knot is a very useful one for anjjlers, and is formed
by a simple knot in each cord hein^ slipped over
the other { 14) ; when drawn tant it is very secure,
and it is eiusily separateil l>y pulling the short ends.
A useful method of uniting larf;e ropes is shown in
tig. K") : tie a sim|de knot <)n the end of one rope
and interlace the end of tlie other, and draw taut.
This tie may also be made with the ligure of S
knot. For very large ropes the carrick-bend ( 16)
is the simplest and most secure. The bowline-
bend is formed by looping two bowline-knots into
each other. For attaching a small line to a thick
rope the becket-hitch ( 17) is very useful.
Splwint/ is the process em|doyed to join two
ropes when it is not advisable to use a knot. The
three chief varieties of the s]ilice are the short-
splice, the long-splice, and the eye-splice. The
short-splice is made by unla\ing tlie ends of two
ropes for a short
distance and tit-
ting tlieni closely
together ; then, by
the help of a niar-
linspike, the ends
are laced over and
under the strands
of the opposite
rope, as shown in
lig. IS. When each
strand has been
passed through
once, half of it is
cut away and the
remainder passed
through again ; half of the remainder being also cut
away, it is passed a third time, and, when all the
strands are so treateil, they are hauled taut and cut
close. This reducing tlie thickne.ss of the strands
tapers off the splice. The long-splice is employed
when the rope is used to run through a block, as
it does not thicken it. The ends of the two ropes
are unlai<l for a much longer distance than for the
short-splice, and similarly placed together. Then
one strand is taken and further unwound for a
considerable distance, ami its vacant place (illed up
with the corresponding strand of the other rope, and
the ends fa.stened as in the short-splice. Other two
of the strands are similarly spliced in the opposite
direction, and the remaining two fastened at the
original joining-place. The eye-splice is, as the
term implies, used to form an eye, or round a
dead-eye, and Is shown linished in fig. 19.
To prevent a roi)e fraying at the ends a variety
of methods are employed, the simplest being to
serve or whip the end with small cord. Other
methods are by interlacing the ends, one of which,
the single- wall, is shown at lig. '20, the ends after-
warils being drawn taut and cut short.
The theory of knots, from the .scientilic point of
view, was lirst treated of by Listing in his ' Vor-
studieii zur Topologie' {Gijttiiiffer Slui/ieii, 1847);
and the subject Ls most exhaustively considered by
Professor Tait {Trans. Itoi/. Soc. Edin., 1870-77),
in a paper in which the various kinds of knots are
analysol according to their number of crossings,
and tludr • knottiness,' ' beknottedncss,' and ' knot-
fulness ' are dealt witli.
Shu Dana, Svamitu^ Mnnnftl {9th ed. ]8ti;i); Tom
Bowling, Book of KikiU (18(i(l): <lHi>tain Alston, Seu-
iiuinxhip (new ed. 1871); J. Tom Burfea-s, Knots, Tiea,
anil SiJicu (1884).
Knout, an instrument of punishment intro-
.luc.-d into Russia under Ivan III. (14()2 1.")().5). It
was a w hip with a handle !) inches long and one com-
ple.'w lp>h, comprising a lash 1(> inches long, with a
metal ring ; a continuation w itli another ring ; and
finally, a Hat lash of hard leather, 21 inches long, and
ending in a beak like hook. TheoH'ender \v;is tied to
two stakes, stripped, and received on the back the
specified number of hislies ; KHJ to 120 were etjuiva-
lent to sentence of death, but in manv cases the
victim died under the o]ieratinn long "liefore this
number was completed. Tlie wliiiiping wasinfiicted
by a criiidnal. For the knout Nicholas substituteil
the pleti, a tliiec-thonged lash, ami this was dis-
used, save in certain penal settlements, by Ale.\-
ander II. ( Knout is the French spelling of a
Russian word s|)elt by the Germans /,«»<, and by
Russians, Germans, and French alike pronounced
kenoot ; in English, usually but absurdly lunrt).
Kiiowlos, J.VMES Sheridan, dramatist, wjis
born at Cork, '21st May 1784, the son of a lexico-
grapher and teacher of elocution, who was cousin-
german to Richard Brinsley Sheridan. The family
removed to London in 1793, and here young Knowles
became intimate with Hazlitt and Lamb. He had
early shown a strong bent for an actor's life, and
after serving a while in the militia, and studying
medicine for a time, he made his first appearance
at the Crow Street Theatre, Dublin. But he never
attained much eminence in this profession, and
subsequently he conducted a school for several
years in Belfast and Glasgow. It was at this time
lie lai<l the Inundation of his fame as a dramatist.
His Briuii Boroihine (1814) and Caius Gracchus
(1815) were first performed at Belfast. Virginhis,
his most efi'ective play, had been a success in
Glasgow before Macready in 1820 produced it at
Covent Garden. Besides William Tell, in which
Macready achieved one of his greatest triumphs,
Knowles's best ]days are Love, Tlie Hunc/ihatk,
Tlie Love Chase, and The Wife. His works attract
by the strong human feeling that beats beneath
their antique dress, and several of them are still
among standard acting-plays. Knowles appeared
with fair .success in many of his own pieces ; but in
his later years he forsook the stage for the i)ulpit,
became a Baptist preacher, and drew large audiences
to Exeter Hall. His earnestness and enthusiasm
were great, and two controversial works written to
combat Roman- Catholic doctrines dis|ilayed con-
siderable acuteness. From 1849 Knowles had a
civil list pension of £200 a year. He dieil at Tor-
([uay, 30th November 18()2.
KllOWltOIlia, a genus of South African plants,
of the natural order Ranunculacea-. A', rc.siraloria
is remarkable for its acridity and blistering power.
The bruised leaves are used at the Cape of Good
Hope instead of cantharides.
Know IVotllilISS, the popular name for the
Native .Vmerican party which was formed in the
United States shortly before ISoo, gained consider-
able .successes in that year, lost its ground hope-
lessly in 1856, and soon after disap|ieaied from
American politics. Its distinctive princi))le was
that the government of .America must be in the
hands of Americans ; naturalisation was to follow
only after twenty-one years' probation, and allegi-
ance to any foreign potentate lU' power — presum-
ably including the po]ie — was to be a bar to selection
for political oHice. The order was a secret one, and
the popular name arose from the meniliei's pro-
fessing always to 'know nothing' when (|uestione(l
about it. In the state elections of 18.55 the (larty
earned most of New England, besides New Ymk,
Kentucky, and California, and gained some successes
in other stales. In 1856 they nominated Mr Fill-
more (q.v.) for re-election to the presidency, and
pidled nearly 875,t)00 votes ; but tliey gained the
electoral votes of Maryland only, and this defeat
was the death-blow of the ]i;irty. Nevertheless,
its radical piimipb-. in the form of revolt aj^ainst
the tendency to allow political (lower to fall into
448
KNOWSLEY
KNOX
the hands of a particular body of foreifjn-born
citizens, occasioually reappeai's in American politics.
In Boston, for instance, in 1889 the native-liorn
citizens combined to snatch the city fjovernment
from Irisli hands ; and the unsuccessful attemiit to
defeat the Tammany Hall nominees at New York
at the same time exhibits a similar reaction at
work.
KllOW.sley. a village of Lanc:ishire, 5 miles XE.
of Livfipool. where — one mile from the village — is
Knowsley Hall, the seat of the Earl of Derby, which
contains valuable paintings by Rubens, Kembrandt,
Teuiers, Claude Lorraine, and other great mastere.
KilOX, John, the great Scottish Reformer, was
born at tiiflbrdgate, a suburb of the town of
Haddington, in 1505, the year preceding the birth
of his famous countryman, George Buchanan.
Knox ha.s himself told us in a single sentence all
that is delinitely known of his family connections.
'My lord,' he represents himself as saying to the
notorious Earl of Bothwell, 'my grandfather,
grandsire ( nuiternal grandfather), and father have
served under your lordship's predecessoi's, and some
of them have died under their standards.' He
received the elements of his education in the
grammar-school of his native town, and in 15'2'2
was sent to the univei'sity of Glasgow. St Andrews
was nearer his home, and possessed the more
famous university ; but he was probably drawn to
Glasgow by the fame of the most distinguished
literary Scotsman of his generation — John Major,
the schoolman. For this reason, at least, Buchanan
was sent to St Andrews, though (!lasgo^^• was
nearer his native place, when Major had migrated
to the former university. At Gla.sgow, under
Major, Knox could have been subjected to none of
the inlluenees of the great intellectual revolution
which snlislituted for the studies and methods of
medievalism the ideals of the Revival of Lettere.
Like all his educated contemporaries, he learned to
speak and write Latin with perfect lluency ; but it
was always with an idiom that showed he had
none of the humanist's scruples regaixling purity of
language. What he learned from Major wius the
art for which that scholar was renowned through-
out Euro|)e — the art of logical exercitation ; and
Knox's writings everywhere show that all through
life he had a natural delight in the play of dialectic.
He left the university witliout taking the degree
of Ma-ster of Arts, thus by the con<litions of all
the medieval universities precluding himself from
the career of an academic teacher.
During the eighteen years that follow his leav-
ing the university Kno.x passes completely out
of sight. All that is known of him during this
period is that from 1540 to 1543 he acted as notary
in his native town of Haddington. As in the
documents that establish this fact liLs nanu'
appears with the addition of 'Sir,' the title of
priests who were not Masters of Arts, Knox niust
iKive been in orders in the Gliurch of Rome till as
late ius 1543. In 1544 we lind him acting as tutor to
the sons of Dougla-sof Longniddry and t'ockburn of
Ormiston — families, it is to be noted, lioth favour-
ably ilisposeil to the new opinions in religion now
rapidly making their way in Scotland. Through
these families he Wiis brought into contact with
(jeorge Wishart, who had lately returned from
travelling in {jermany and England with the
burning zeal to gain his country to the Lutheran
reformation. Krom this ])eriod the future direction
of Knox's life was decided, and tlienceforward with
an intensity and self-devotion never surpjissed he is
the apostle of the cause with which his name is
for ever identilied — the establishment in Scotland
of what he deemed the only true conception of the
primitive church ab based on the teaching of Christ
and the apostles. We have reason to believe that
even before this date his sym])athies were on the
side of reform in leligion ; but the teaching and
example of Wishait seems lirst to have bronght
to him the clear consciousness of his mi.ssion.
Knox identilied himself with Wishart with all the
impetuosity of his chaiacter, and was in the habit,
he tells us, of carrying a two-handed sword before
the preacher. When Wishart wa.s seized by the
emissaries of Cardimil Beaton, Knox would
willingly have attended him to the la-st ; but
Wishart, who knew the fate in store for him,
rejected the offer. ' Return to your bairns ' ( mean-
ing Knox's pupils), he saiil, 'and God bless you.
One is sufficient for one sacrifice. '
^^'ishart Wiis burned at St Andrews in March
1541), and in May of the same year Cardinal Beaton
was murdered. The cardinal's nnnderers held pos-
session of the castle of St .\ndrews ; and, as Knox
was known to be the eneniy of Beaton (though he
had no share iu his assassination), he was forced
(1547) for his own safety to join them with his
]>upils. Here his zeal and theological attainments
nuide him so conspicuous that, at the instance of
the leaders of the reforming party (Sir David
Lyndsay among the rest ), he was formally called
to the ministry, and i>reached with much accept-
ance in the castle and parish cinircli of St Andrews.
A few months later tlie castle surrendered to tiie
French : and in the teeth of the express terms of
capitulation, the more prominent of the besieged
party were sent as prisoners on board tlu' French
galleys. For eighteen months Knox remained a
ca])tive, his first winter being s|ient in a galley on
the Loire, the second in prison in Uoueii. His
constitution was not naturally robust, and his hard
exiierienee during these two years seriously im-
paired his health for the rest of his life. The
breach of faith on the part of the French, ami the
ignominy to which he was subjected, were never
forgotten by Knox, ami nnist in jiart explain and
justify his life-long conviction that no good thing
could come of French ]iolicy or French religion.
In February 1549, on the expre.-^s intercessicm of
Edward VL, Knox regained his lilierty. As it
was still unsafe for him to return to Scotland, for
the next four years, till the death of Edward VI.,
he made his home in England. From all that is
known of him during these years it is clear that
he made himself a person to be reckoned with by
those at the centre of authority in the country.
By his preaching at Berwick he gave such offence
to the Bishop of Durham that he was removed to
Newcastle, where it was supposed his inlluence
would be less mischievous. In 1551 he was
appointed one of six chaplains to Edward VI., and
in 155'2, at the suggestion of the Duke of Northum-
berland, he was offered tlie bishopri(M)f Rochester.
As the duke's object in suggesting the aiipointment
was simi)ly to check, sis far as he could, what he
deemed the dangerous activity of Knox, the offer
was unhesitatingly rejecteil. Knox's importance
in Englaml is still further jiroved by the tact that
along with five others he was ccmsulted by .Vrcli-
bisho]) Cranmer regarding his forty-live (afterwards
forty-two) articles of religion; and it has been
lately established that largely on Knox's repre-
sentation the thirty-eighth article was so couclied
as to commit the Church of England to the
Genevan doctrine of the eiu'liarist.
On Mary's accession Knox, like the majority of
the Reformed ministers, hail to seek refuL'C on the
Continent. That lie ndglit be within call shonlil
circumstances ])ermit bis return either to Scotland
or England, he took np his aboile at Dieppe till
the beginning of the following year (1554), when
he proceeded to Geneva. In July of this year he
was again in Dieppe, ' to learn the estate of Eng-
KNOX
449
land;' but with Mary of Lorraine its re''eiit in Scot-
iaiul, and Mary Tudor as queen of Knyland, ho was
convinced that for the juesent both these eountnes
were closed against liiui. He accordinj,'ly accepted a
call from the English congregation at Frankforton-
tlie-Main, where, however, on account of a dispute
regarding the use of the Book of Common Prayer,
he renuiined only a few months. At Geneva he
found a congregation of his own way of thinking ;
but, eager to be an apostle in his own country, he
once more returned to Dieppe (August 1.').'),')),
whence he ventured into Scotland in September.
He remained in Scotlaml till July of the ne.Kt year,
resiiling chielly iu Ediuburgli, but making preach-
ing journeys into various parts of the country.
Tl>e new doctrines were steadily spreading iu Scot-
land, but as yet their sujiportei's were not strong
enough to present a conliilent front against the
government. It was at his own risk, therefore,
tliat Knox remained in the country ; and at the
prayer of the congregation in Geneva he returned
to that town in .July 15.50. It wa.s probably during
this visit to Scotland that he married his first wife,
Marjory Bowes, to whom he seems to have been
engaged during his sojourn in Newcastle. For the
next two yeai^ he remained in Geneva, ministering
to his congregation, and seeing much of Calvin,
whose influence on Knox regarding all the great
questions of the time was afterwards to bear fruit
in the ordering of affairs in Scotland. To this
period, also, belong several of his minor writings,
and notably his Firat Blast uf the Trumpet arjainst
the monstrous Se(ytmcnt of ]Vomeit, the publication
of which he must afterwards have regretted in the
interest of the cause he had most at heart.
Meanwhile, iu Scotland the ground was being
prepared for the great work in store for Knox.
Under Mary of Lorraine as regent, the I'rench
influence had come to be regarded as a danger to
the independence of the country, and a sense of
this danger threw many into the party of reform.
The unworthy lives of the old clergy, and the
cupidity of many of the nobles, worked in the
same direction. In 1557 the advocates of reform
bound themselves by what is known as the First
Coceiumt to do all in their power to etl'ect a
religious revolution; and by 1558 they felt them-
selves strong enough to summon Knox to their aid
iu the work he deemed the mission of his life.
In M.iy 1559 Knox found himself again in Scot-
land, which he never again left for a jirolonged
period. He at once became the life and soul of his
party. -■Vt the moment of Ids arrival the Lords of
the Congregation, as the Protestant nobility termed
themselves, were in open revolt against the regent.
By his ]»reaching at Perth and St Andrews Knox
•jained these important towns to liLs cause, ami by
(lis labours in Edinburgh, of which he was ap
pointed minLster, he also won a strong party against
the government. But the Reformers of their own
resources could not hold their ground against the
regent, suljsidised by France with money and
soldiers. Maiidy, therefore, through the efl'orts of
Knox, who all through his public career was deep in
the politics of the time, the a.ssistance of England
was obtained against what was now deemed the
French invasion. The help of England proved
effective; and by the treaty of Leith (1500), and
the death of the regent the same year, the insnr-
fent party became masters of the country. The
Istiitcs of Parlianumt having met on August 1st,
the miiiLsters were onlered to draw up a Confession
of Faith which .should embody the new teaching ;
and on August ITtli Protestantism was formally
established iis the religion of the country. Having
gained thus much, the ministers, desirous of practi-
cal results from their victory, drew up the first Boo/,-
of Disei/jline — a document ever memorable in the
289
history of Scotland, and admirable in itself for its
wise and liberal suggestions for the religious and
educational organisation of the country. These
suggestions, however, were little to the mind of
the majority of the Protestant nobles, who, ' jier-
ceiving their carnal liberty ami worldly commo-
dity to be impaired thereby,' sneeringly spoke of
them as 'devote imaginationis.' In the revolution
that had been accoujplished Knox had been the
lea<ling sidrit : but he saw that the victory was as
yet only lialf gained, and that the deadliest struggle
had still to be decided.
The return of the young queen to Scotland
(August 15G1) revived all the old di.ssensions, and
introduced new elements into the strife of parties.
By every oiuni<m she held on religion, on the rela-
tions of prince and subject, on the fundamental
principles of life, Mary was scjiarated as by an
abyss from the party represented by Knox. If we
may judge from the langu,ige which each held of
the other, Knox and she failed to find one point
on which genial intercourse was possible. As
the minister of St Giles (then the only Reformed
church in F^dinburgh ), Knox believed that Mary
was his special charge. Iler iiersonal conduct,
therefore, no less than her public policy, was made
the subject of his most stringent criticism ; and
during the six years of her reign his attitude
towards her was that of uncompromising antagon-
ism. The celebration of mass in Holyrood Chapel
in defiance of the late religious settlement first
roused his wrath ; and a sermon delivered by him
in St Giles led to the first of those famous inter-
views with Jlarv, the record of which makes such
a remarkalde portion of his Hislor)/ of the Reforma-
tion. The division of ecclesiastical property, by
which those in actual possession received two-
thirds, the Reformed ministers one-third, was a
further ground of quarrel with the new govern-
ment. The delay of Mary to coidirm the late
religious settlement also gave vise to the gravest
anxiety on the part of Kno.x and his brother
nunlsters. In view of the precarious interests of
the great cause, Knox spoke out with such frank-
ness as to alienate the most powerful noble in the
country, and the one whom he respected most
— Lonl James Stuart, afterwards the Regent
Moray. The marriage of Mary with Darnley
(1565) again, however, led them to common
counsels, as both saw in this marriage the most
serious menace against the new religion. In the
subscqvient revolt, headed by Moray and the other
J'rotcstant nobles, Knox nevertheless took no
part, and remained at his charge in Edinburgh.
But afti'r the murder of Pii/zio he deemed it wise,
considering Mary's disposition towards him, to
withdraw to Kyle in Ayrshire, where he appears
to have written the greater part of his History.
The events of the next two years— the murder
of Darnley, Mary's marriage with Botlnvell, and
her subsecpient flight into Knglaiul — again threw
the management of attairs into the hands of the
Protestant jiarty ; and under Moray as regent the
acts of 15(i() in favour of the Reformed religion were
duly ratilied by the Estates of the Realm. As in
the former revolution, Knox was still the same
formidable force the nobles had to reckon with ;
and at Stirling at the conwiation of Janu!s VI.
( 1.5()7), and at the opening of parlianjent the .same
year, he ))reacheil in that strain whiili gave his
.sermons the character and imi)orlaMce ol public
manifestoes. The assa,ssinali(>n of Moray in 1570,
and the consequent formation of a strong party in
favour of Mary, once more endangered the cause
to which he had devote<I his life, ami the possession
of the castle of Edinburgh by the (itiecn's sup-
porters forced him to remove to St Andrews for
safety. He had already had a stroke of apoplexy,
450
KNOXVILLE
KOCH
ami he was now but the wreck of his former self,
Imt his spirit was as indomitalile a-s ever. The
ilescriptioii of him at tliis period by James Melville
can never lie omitted in any aioimnt of Knox.
' Heing in St Andrews he was very weak. 1 saw
him every day of liis doctrine <;o linlie and fear, with
a furriiij;; of martriks aliout his neck, a .stall' in the
one hand, and j;ood godly llichart Ballanden, his
servant, holding np tlie other oxter, from the aliliey
to the parish church ; and be the said Kichart and
anotlier servant lifted uj) to tlie jiulpit, where ho
liehoved to lean at his lirst entry ; but or lie had
<lone with his sermon, he was so active and vigor-
ous that he was like to ding that pulpit in blads,
and lly out of it.'
It was the desire of his congregation of St Giles
to hear him once more before he died. Accordingly,
by sliort stages, he made his way to Edinburgh,
and on the 9tli November 1572, at the induction
of his successor in office, he made his last public
apjiearanee. He died the same month at the age
ot sixty-seven, and was 1)uried in the churchyard
then attached to St Giles, behind wliicli churcli
a small square stone in the pavement of Parlia-
ment Square, marked 'I. K., 1572,' now indicates
the spot wliere he is supposed to lie. The saying
of the Hcgent Morton at his grave, ' Here lyeth a
man who in his life never feared the face of man '
((,'aldiuwoi)d), was the most memorable panegyric
that could have been pronounced to his memory.
Knox was twice married. His lirst wife, Mar-
jory Bowes, died in 1560, leaving him two sons.
15y his second wife, Margaret Stewart, daughter
of Lord (Ochiltree, wliom (little more tlian a girl)
he married in lotU, he bail three daughtere. His
widow and ail his family survived him.
In their broader features the character of Kno.x
and of till! work he achieved cannot be misread. In
himself he stands as the pre-eminent type of tiie
religious Reformer— dominated by his one tran-
scendent idea, indill'erent or hostile to every in-
terest of life tliat did not subserve its realisation.
He is sometimes spoken of as a fanatic ; but the
term is lianlly a|)plical)le to one wlni combined in
such degree as Knox the sinewdest worldly sense
witli an ever-ready wit and a native humour that
declares itself in his most serious moments ami in
his treatment of the loftiest subjects. To blame
liim fiu' intolerance or harshness is but to pa.ss
judgment on his age and on the type to which he
belongs. It is his uni)uestioMable tribute tliat the
work he acconijilishcd was the fashioiung anew of
his country's destinies. The revolution he was the
main instrument in effecting was not merely the
sulistitution of one set of dogmas for another: it
was the transformation of the national ideals, the
(piickening of t\w national life, the victory of \»in-
ciples wliicb eventually assureil to Scotland the
flee and natural development of the life of her
peo])Ie. It has to be added that by his Historn of
the ltcfi>ri)i(itioH in- Scotliinil Knox holds a place of
his own in tlie liistorv of literature. His narrative,
as was to be expected, is tliat of one who saw only
a single as[)ect of the events lie chronicles : but the
impress of the writer's indiviihiality. stamped on
every |iage, renders his work possibly unique in
English literature.
See M'Crie, Life of Knox (1811; 7th ed. 1835); The
Works of John Knox, edited by David Laing (6 vols.
184G-64); Carlyle, /ferocs and HooWorship ; Lorimer,
John Knox and the Church of Enijland (1875); short
works by Sirs MacCiinn ( 1S95) and Taylor Iiines (18UG);
and tlic Life by the present writer (1895).
Kliowillc, a city of Tennessee, stands amid
)iicluiesi|uc scenery on the Hcdston Hiver, at
the lieail of steamboat navigation, 105 miles E. of
Nashville. It is a railway junction, and has
manufactures of iron goods, wooden wares, flour,
&c. Here are the state university and the agri-
cultural college, the stiite school for deaf-mutes, an
industrial school for coloured puiiils, and a hand-
some post-ollice. Pop. ( 1880) 10,917 ; ( 1890) 22,.">35.
liliur ail«l Spell (called by Strntt ' Northen
Spell), an old English game idayed with a ball,
which is ' risen ' from a trap and bit with a liat made
for the purpose. The ball, called the 'knur,' is
made of wood, a little bigger than a walnut. The
bat, Ccalled a 'tripstick,' as it is also used to spring
the trap or 'spell,' consists of a ]iiecc of liard wood,
6 by 4 inches, and 1 inch thick (the pommel),
attached to a supple handle from .') to 4 feet long,
which the |dayer grasps with luitb bands, giving
the full swing of his body with the stroke. The
game consists of the cumulative distance of a given
number of strokes, the player who has the greatest
numlier of yards being the winner.
Klllltsfoi'd ('Canute's ford'), a ]ilcasant-look-
ing town of Cheshire, 15 miles SW. of Manchester
by rail, the Cranford of Mrs Gaskell's sketches,
with manufactures of cotton, worsted, and leatlier
goods, and a pop. of (1851) 31'27; (18S1) 4'290.
In 1888 the elder .son of Sir Henry Holland (q.v.)
was created IJaron Knutsford. See H. Green's
Jlistunj of Kiiiitsfurd ( 1859).
liu.VKIliU a forest track and eleidiant-iueserve,
extending from the sea to the Outenii|ua Mountains
in Cape Colony, 150 miles W. of Port Elizabeth.
Kostlst (Phascolarctus cincrciis), a m;usupial,
restricted to eastern Australia, of the family
Phalangeridic, and pretty nearly resembling the
Phalangers in dentition, but having tlie molar
teeth much larger. The toes of the fore feet arc in
two nppiisiible groups, of two or three, a character
Koala [Phmcolarctua ctnereua).
not found in any other <|uadniiied, but well adapted
to grasjiing the brmichi's of trees, on which (he
koala often hangs willi its back under st, lik(!
the sloth. There is scarcely any rinliiiieiit of a
tail. The general form is not unlike that of a
young bear, whence the name of 'Native Bear.'
The female carries her young on her back for a
long time after it is capable of leaving her ixmcli.
KoltiM'. See 1).\H-1'"C'U.
li4»bolds. See tJoHI.IN, DeMONOLOGY.
KocIk K.\ui„ botanist, was born at Weimar,
6th June 1809. He studied at the universities of
Wiirzbuig and Jena, and in 1S;!6 undertook a
scientilic journey to smithern l!ns>ia. In l,S4."?-44
he visited .Armenia, Kurdistan, Tianscancasia, and
the Crimea. He was a|ipoiiilcd extra-ordinary
professor of Botany at Jena in KS.Sti, and in 1S48 at
Berlin, where he died, '25th May 1879. His chief
work is his Doidro/orfic (1869-72); but he also
published several books of travel, Hcitriit/e :ii ehier
riora t/e.s Oricn/.s (6 jiarts, 1848-54), anil a map of
Transcaucasia and Armenia.
KOCH
KOLA NUTS
451
Koch. KoHKRT, an eminent bacteriologist, was
l)orn at Klaustlial, in tlie Harz, 11th December
184.'!. studied at Gottingen, and practised medicine
at Hanover and elsewliere. His investigations in
connection with woiinds, septica-mia, and splenic
fever g,ained him a seat on the imperial board of
health in 1S80 : and his further researches in micro-
scopy and bacteriology led to his discovery in 1S82
of the Baci/liis tuberculosis. In 1883 he wa-s made a
privy-councillor, ami appointed leader of the German
expedition sent to Egypt and India in quest of the
choIeragerm(see B.VCTKKIA, lig. o; alsoC'lloLEU.\).
In 18So he was appoinletl i)roIessor at Berlin, and
in 1891 director ot the new institute for infectious
diseases. He made valuable investigations on
rinderpest in South Africa, leading to a method of
propliylactory inoculation ; and in 1898 he began
a two years' series of investigations on malarial
fever in Italy, Greece, E.ast Africa, India, and New
Guinea. For Koch's jiostulates, see Ger.m ; and
for his tuberculin, see Tubercle, p. 317. He has
written on splenic fever (1876 and 1882), on wound
poison ( 1878), and other subjects.
Hork, Ch.\rles Paul de (1794-1871), born
at Pa.s.sy, near Paris, was the son of a Dutch
banker who perished on the scatl'old during the
French Revolution. He devoted himself to litera-
ture against the wishes of his relatives, and
produced an endless series of novels, vivacious,
piquant, and readable, but hardly reaching the
dignity of literature. However, they will retain
their value as pictures of lower middle-class life in
Paris in the first half of the 19th century, especially
in its shadier sides ; and they display a marvellous
fertility in the invention of incidents, more or less
equivocal in character, in the life of the French
bourgeoisie, its cabarets, and its guingettes. His
undeniable gifts are marred by a coarse vulgarity
that seems in grain, and an utter absence of
style. Yet his stories were for long immensely
popular, and we know that for thirty years they
were the sole reading of Major Pendennis. Here
may merely be named Georgette : Giistare : Le
Barbier <le Paris : La Femme, le .Mari et I'Amant ;
Mumrs Paritiennes. The collected edition of his
works fills .56 vols. (1844-45). See his Memoirs
written by ///hiav//" ( 1899).— Henri de Kock, his
son (born 1821 : .lied 17th April 1892), followed his
father as closely as he could, with a series of far
weaker novels. Another work is his Souvenirs de
A'fi/,„lfr,ii in. a Wilhelinskulie (1871).
lio«liak. See Kadi.\k.
Kohat', the headquarters of Kohat district, in
the Punjab, is plea.santly situated in a mountain-
valley, 37 miles S. of Peshawar. It is surrounded
by a wall 12 feet high, ami has cantonments to the
east and a fort to the north. Guns and rilie-barrels
are manufactured near by. Pop. (1881) 18,179;
(1891 ) with cantonment, 27,0(J3.— The ili.striet has
an area oi 2771 sq. ni., ami a iiop. of 203,175.
Koiiolrtli. See Ecclesi.\stes.
Koll-i-liAr. See Dl\mond.
Kollistail. a name given to certain mountain-
ous r.giiiii> in Persia, -Afghanistan, and Turkestan.
Kohl. See Alcohol.
Kohl, .loHANN OeokO, traveller and author,
was born .it Bremen, April 28, I80H, studied at
Oottingen, Heidelberg, anil .Munich, and settled in
Dresden in 1838. From this point he nuule e.\cur-
sions to every important district of Europe, and
on his return from each expedition i)ublislied his
experience in a series of works. In 18.-)4 he went
t<i America, where he snent four yeai's, .and jire-
pared a series of maps for the government. Ite-
tiirning to ("Jermanv he became city librarian at
Bremen, and there died on 28tli October 1878. His
writings include works on Austria, Britain, the
Rhine, the Alps, Rus.sia, Denmark, the Nether-
lands, Istria, Dalmatia, and Montenegro (all be-
tween 1842 and 1851 ) : also books of travel in
Canada (1850) and the United States (New York,
1857); and histories of the di.scovery of America
(18G1: Eng. trans. 1862), of the north-eastern
coast of America ('Maine Historical Collections,'
Portland, 1869), and of Magellan Strait (1877).
Kohler, Reinhold, a learned student of the
history of literature, was born at Weimar, 24th June
18.30, studied philology at Jena, Leipzig, and Bonn,
and accepted in 1857 the post of a librarian in the
ducal library at AVeiniar, of which he became the
chief in 1881. Besides numerous contributions to
the learned journals, such as his admiiable notes
on J. F. Camjibell's tales in Benfey's Orient und
Occident (vol. ii. 1864), he published works on the
Diotii/sialca of Nonnus (1853), on Kleist's AVorks
( 1S62 ), on Herder's Cid and its sources ( 1867 ) ; and
edited Alte Bcrgmannslicdcr (1858), four dialogues
of Hans Sachs (1858), Kunst id)cr alle Kiinste (a
1672 translation of Shakespeare's Taming of the
Shi-cic), Dante and the German translations ( 1865),
AVieland's Oberon { 1868), and Schiller's ^Est/ietisclie
Schriften (1871). His admirable notes to Kreuz-
wald's Estnische 3Iarchen (1869) and Laura Gon-
y.enhach's Siciliaiiisr/ic Mrirr/ii-n (1870) are known
to all folklorists. He died 15tli August 1892.
Kobl-rabi (Ger. Ko/il-rUbe, 'Kale-turnip;' so
P'rench Choii Pave), a cultivated variety of the
Kale or Cabbage {Brassica oleracea), distinguished
by the swelling of the stem just aliove the ground,
in a globular form, like that of the turnip, but
with the leaf-stalks si)ringiiig from the swollen
p.art, and adding to the peculiarity of its appear-
ance. This is the part which is used, and its uses
are similar to those of the turnip. It is a common
field-crop in Sweden.
Koil. See Aligarh.
Koko-nor, or Kuku-nor, a lake of Tibet, near
the frontier of the Chinese province of Kan-su, tills
a depression surrounded liy mountains, and lies,
according to Prjevalsky, 12,097 feet above the
level of the sea. Its very salt waters, exquisitely
blue in colour, cover 66 miles by 40. It contains
five islands, one with a Buddhist monastery.
Kok-ra Wood, or Cocu.s AVood, the wood of
an Inillan tree, Lcj/idosta<-/ii/s Roxburghii, which
belongs to a very small natural order, Scepaceie. It
is imported into Britain in logs of 6 or 8 inches in
diameter, havin" the heart-wood of a rich deep
brown colotir and very hard ; and is much used in
the manuf.acture of Hutes and other musical in.stru-
ments.
Kokstadt. See Griqualand E.\st.
Kola, a place of only 770 inh.abitants, but worthy
of notice its the most northern town of European
Russia. It is situated fm the iieninsula of Kola,
is the capital of Kussian Laiiland, and h.-is a capa-
cious harbour. The peninsula of Kola is a dreary
expanse of forests and lakes, but has several ranges
of mountains, one of which, the Umbdek Mountains,
on the east side of Lake Imandra, rising to .3.300
feet, is the second highest (after the Caucasus) in
Russia. See I{ae's White Sea Peninsula ( 1882).
Kola >'llts, or Guru Nijts, the seeds of Ster-
culia acnininala, a tree native to the regions of
Africa south of 7° 30' lat. From the 17th century
traders brought home marvelhms stories of these
nuts; but it was in 1865 that Dr I )aniell discovered
that they containiid an alkaloid iilcntic.il with that
found in tea, cofl'ee, mate, and guarana, and from
that time? they hiive received more attention. In
the Soudan they are valued so highly that no
gi'eater honour can be given than the prt»eutation
452
KOLAPUR
KONG
Stcrculia acuminata :
u, the uut.
of some of the nuts. In times of drought a single
nut has bought a
slave, while a hiide
of the highest
famil}' has often
been sold for a
handful. This ex-
cessive value is
due to the pos-
session of reniaik-
able virtues, the
explanation of
Avhii-h is still want-
ing. The natives
chew the nuts, ex-
tracting the juice
and spitting out
the fibrous matter.
By means of it
they profess to
>\ ithstaud hunger,
thirst, sleep, and
exhaustion. An-
alysis reveals only
about 2 per cent,
of theine, tea and
cofl'ee containing
from -J to .3 per
cent., while there is also a small amount of volatile
oil ; hut this does not account for all its virtues,
and the explanation given is that it is used in the
fresh state, and, like coca, loses its powers on
drying. In Africa the seeds are only transported
when carefully wrapped in leaves resembling lotus,
and are frei|uently moistened. As imported into
Europe they vimloubtedly, like tea and cofl'ee,
po.ssess a stimulant value, but beyond that their
virtues are douljtful. In Africa they possess a
reputation for purifying and clarifying muddy
water, but it does not appear that they are superior
to otiier mucilaginous seeds for this pur[iose. In
certain forms of diarrlnea they are usetul, and may
be taken, like tea, as a decoction. They have been
recommended for diiisomania, but their utility in
this respect is small. The rotten nuts and those
which had become dry began to be exported in 1877
to Germany and Fiance, for the purpose of mixing
with chocolate ; and in recent years v.uious pre-
parations— kola |);i.ste, chocolate, aerated water, i.S:c.
— have been introiluced, the value of winch is doubt-
ful. Dilute alcohol extracts most colouring ami
extractive matter from the seeds, and this tincture
or a decoction may be used for adniinisteriu" them ;
but the best and simplest way is to cliew tlie seed
by itself, or take the powder mixed with some
sweetening material.
Kolilimr {KuUiiijiiir), the cai)ital of a tributary
state in Bombay, 144 miles S. by K. of I'oona,
with manv handsome modern buildings ami an
active trade. I'o|i. (IS'Jl) 4.5,815.— Kolapiir .sy«^e
has an area of 2Sl(i sq. m., and a poj). of SI13,131,
nine-teiitlis Hindus.
Uulariaii.s. See Inui.v, Vol. VI. p. 103.
HolKllffi "'■ Kalguef, an island of Kussia, in
the .Arctic Ucean, belonging to the government of
Archangel. Area, 1350 .sq. ni. It is visited in
summer by fur-hunteis, walrus-hunters, and fowlers,
who caiiture cider ducks, swans, and other sea-
birds tliat yield down. The only permanent in-
hal>ilants are a few Samoyedes.
Kolill, or KOLI.IX, a town of Bohemia, on
tlie ICIbe, 38 miles by rail E. by S. from Prague, is
a centre of the sugar industry of the country, and
manufactures chendcals, oil, metal wares, <S.c.
Poj). 11,630. A great battle was fought, .lune
18, 1757, in its vicinity between 54.1)00 Austrians
luider Marshal Daun and 31,000 Piussians under
Frederick II. The latter were defeated with a total
loss of 14,(K)0 men ; the Austrians lost 8000.
Kollar. Jan, Slavonic poet and scholar, was
born '29th July 1703 at Mossocz, in the north-west
of Hungary, studied at Presburg and Jena, ami in
1819 became (lastor of a Protestant congregation
at Pesth. His lii-st work w;»-s a volume of I'uems
(1821); tliis wa.s followed by an eidargcd edition
of the same entitled The Daiajlitn- uf Ulury (1824),
his greatest work. He also published a collection
of Slavonic Volk-sonys (2d ed. 1832 .33), and some
books on the Slavonic peo|)les and languages. He
Wits made professor of Archaology at A'ienna in 1849,
and died there, January 24, 1852. See the Auto-
biograjihy included Lu his» CW/cc/Cf/ ^Yurks (2d ed.
4 vols. I'iague, 1868 ).
Kolliker, Albert von, anatomist and embry-
ologi.st, was born at /urich on 6th July 1N17, studied
natural sciences at Zurich, Bonn, and Kirliii, was
ai)pointed profes.sor of Physiology and Comparative
Anatomy at Zurich in 1845, and in 1847 exchanged
this for the chair of Anatomy at Wiirzburg. He
is princijially distinguished by his labours in the
department of microscopic anatomy and on the
development of the embryo. Among his principal
works nmst be named his Hdiidbueli ilcr Inucbe-
Ic/ire tics Mcnschoi (translated for the Sydenham
Soci(!ty by Busk and Huxley as .( Mtm mil oflliiman
i Histotofjfj), Die Sijt/tonojihortr of/n- Sc/iirimuij)oii//}t'n
vu)i McKsiiiti. the Cliulhiirjcr Pcporl on I'ennatulida
(vol. i. 1880), and Eiiiwivl.cliuitjxfjcscliicldc lies
Moixrhcii u. d. Iwheren Thicre. 1 n association with
\im Siehold he started the important Zeitsehrift
fur vi.ssoiscftajt/ic/ic Zooloi/ic,
Kiilii. See Cologne.
lioloilioa, a town of Austrian Galicia, on the
Prulh, 43 Uiilesby rail NW. of Czernowitz. Situated
not far from a rich iietroleum region, il has works
for relining petroleum anil for making ]iarallin •
candles. Pottery is, however, the staple manufac-
ture. Pop. .30,160 (nearly half are Jews).
Koluilllia. a town of lUissia, on the Moskva,
08 miles by rail SE. of Moscow. It manufactures
silk, linen, leather, soaii, ami machines. Pop.
(1894) 28,323. Here the Mongols under Batu
defeat(^d the Ivussians in 1237.
Ii«>lo.srsir. See Klausenbhrg.
Kollxoli; Alexei Vassilievich (1809-42), a
Kus.sian jioet of the people, left but few songs, yet
those among the choicest lyrics of Itussian poetry.
Kolyma', a river of ciustern Siberi.i, llowing from
the Stanovoi Mountains 995 miles noith east to the
Arcl ic ( )ci'an. It is only free from ice during eleven
weeks in the year. Its waters are full of lisli.
lioilioril, a town and fortress in Hungary,
situated on the island of Scluitt, in the Danube,
which is here crosseil by a bridge of boats, 48 miles
N\V. of Pesth. The town, which is irregularly
built, with narrow, gloomy sUim'Is, contains ( 1891)
13,072 iidialiitants, who trade in com and tindier,
cultivate the vine, and carry on fishing. The
fortress, one of the strongest in luirope, com-
menced in the end of the 131li century, W!i.s greatly
enlarged and strengthened by Matthiius Corviinis ;
the fortifications were again restored and improved
in 1805-9. It requires for its defence at leiust
15.000 men aiul 4tM» pieces of artillery. Although
taken bv I'erdinand 1. in 1.V27, it successfully with-
stood the Turks in 1.543, 1594, and U163. Klapka
held it for the Hungarians against the Austrians
from October 1848 to September 1849.
KoiliT. a distri<-t of \Ve-sl .Africa, stretching
from 8' 30' to 12' N. hit. along the upper cour.se of
the Conioc (mouth at Grand I!ius,sam on the Ivory
Coast), and measuring some three ilc;irecs of longi-
tude. The district is a plateau, whose average
KONIEH
KOOTENAY.
453
elevation is 2300 feet above sea-level, rising in a
few groups of peaks up to 6000 feet. The Kong
Mountains of the geographers are attirnieil by Binger
to be merely isolated granitic peaks only 300 feet
above the plateau. The people, Maiuliiigoes by
race ami Mohainmeilans by religion, manufacture
cotton .stulls and carry on indigo-dyeing. The
capital of the state is the town of Kong, with from
12,000 to 15,000 inhabitant.s. This district was
declared a protector.ate of France in 1889. See
Bull. Soc. G(ofj. dc Paris (1889) for a paper by
Captain llinger.
Koilioll. or Ivoxiv.v. See ICONirsi.
Konigr, I'kiedrich, the inventor of the steam-
pres.s, was born at Eisleben, ITtli April 1774. He
became a printer, and at the same time eagerly
f)roseouted scientific stmlies. Havin" devoted
limself to the invention of means of printing
by machinery, he applied in vain for the neces-
sary pecuniary a-ssistance in various quarters, his
schemes being rejected as impracticable ; but at
last Thomas Bensley, a printer in London, came
forward to his support, and a p.atent was obtained
in 1810 for a press which ]irinted like the haiul-
press by two Hat plates. \ second patent was
obtained in ISII for a cylinder-press, and others
in 1813 and 1S14 for improvements upon it. This
improved machine was adopted in 1814 by the
proprietors of the Tinifi. In the later part of
his life Kfinig was a partner in a company for
making steam printing-presses at Oberzell, near
Wiirzburg, in Bavaria. He died 17th January 18.S.3.
See Printinc;, and Goebel's monograph (Stutt.
1883: Fr. trans. Paris, 1885).
Kollissrriitz, a town of Bohemia, on the Elbe,
73 miles liy lail E. by N. from Prague. It is the
seat of a bishop, and has a Gothic cathedral.
The fortifications erected in 1780-89 have been
recently rjizeil. Here Ziska was buiietl in 1424.
Pop. ( 1890) 7815 : with its four suburbs, 16,500. A
signal victory was gained here by 240,000 Prussians
over 220,000 A ustrians on 3d July 1866. The Prus-
sian loss was 9000 men, the Austrian 21,000, with
22,000 prisoners. The Austrians name the battle
Si'uloxca from an adjoining village nearer the centre
of the battlcfiidd.
Huiligsbors* ^ town and fortress in East
Prussia, situated on the river Pregel, 4i miles from
the Frisches Haft' and 366 by rail NE. from Berlin.
The original nucleus of the place was the block-
hou.se built in 12.')5 by tlu; Knights of the Teutonic
Order, but, although foundetl so long ago, Kiinigs-
berg is ,a modern town ; scarce any of its old
buildings now exist. The castle, which grew out
of the blockhouse, belongs chiefly to the 16th and
18th centuries. It wa-s the headquarters of the
grandmaster of the Teutonic (Jrder, and from 1525
to 1618 wiis the residence of the Dukes of Prussia.
In the ca.stle chapel (built in 1592) Frederick I.
crowneil himself tii-st king of Prus.sia in 1701, and
William I. was crowned in 1861. The cathedral,
now the Kneiphof parish church, is a Gothic
stnicture, erected in 1333 and thoroughly restored
in 18.56; in an adjoining building Kant (q.v.)
lies buried. The \iniversity was founded as a
Lutheran institution in 1544, and rebuilt in 1844-
65. Connected with it are an observatory ( 181 1 ),
a zoological iim.seum (1819), a botanical garden
(1809), a library of 2(X),0(X) volumes, together with
the usual laboratories and collections. The
number of otlicjal teachers wa.s 96 and the number
of students 760 in 1M89. {)nv of the most imposing
edifices in the town Is the new exchange (1875).
The academy of painting, a music school, and a
commercial school m.ay l>e mentioned. Of the
industries the foremost place belongs to the iron-
works, ca.sting ami machinery-making ; next come
the m.anufacture of pianos, thread, tobacco, beer,
the confection marchpane, i!v:c. Printing and the
preparation of meerschaum (175 tons annually) are
also prosecuted. Kiinlgsberg is one of the chief
continental centres for the tea trade, and ships
immen.se quantities of corn. The exports aver-
age in value £8,118,670 annually, and consist
mostly of grain, flax, and hemp, with smaller
quantities ot timber, wool, spirits, sugar, and rags ;
the imports average £10,117,800, and embrace, be-
sides grain, flax, and hemp for transport, tea,
woven goods, metal wares, herrings, timber, chemi-
cals, and coals. Large merchant-vessels which
cannot a]>proach the town unload and load at
Pillau, 28^ miles by rail to the west, at the entrance
from the Baltic to the Frisches Haft". It is pro-
po.sed to construct a channel through the lagoon
(haff), with a depth of 20 feet, from Pillau to
Kiinlgsberg. Pop. (1875) 122,636; (1890) 161,066.
The town w.as first fortified in 1626; but was con-
verted into a modern fortress of the first class in
1843 and since. Konigsberg was occupied by the
Russians in 1758 and by the French in 1807. See
works by Fabcr ( 1840) and Schubert (1855).
KoiligslliittO, a rapidly growing centre of
great coal, iron, zinc, and copper works in Prussian
Silesia, 110 miles SE. of Breslau by rail. It was
constituted a town In 1869, out of several nnning
villages. Pop. (1885) 32,072; (1891) 36,502.
Koiiigsiiiai'k. count Piiii.irr Christoi'h
VON, a Swede by birth, born about 1662, who,
having entered the service of the Elector of Hano-
ver, was accused of carrying on a love intiigue with
Sophia Dorothea, wife of the Elector George, after-
wards George I. of Englan<l, and suddenly dis-
appeared on 1st July 1694. It is believed that he
w,as murdered. Sophia was confined in the castle
of Ahlden until her death in 1726. See a Qnnrferh/
article ( 1S85 ) ; Vizetelly, Count Kuni</sinai/c { lf>90 ) ;
and WiUium's Loi-e of an Uncrowned Queen (1900).
— M.\RIE -VuRORA, Counte-ss of Konigsmark, sister
of Count Phllipp, born at Stade in 1670, became
in 1694 the mistress of Augustus II., Elector of
Saxony, and by him mother of the celebnited
Marshal Saxe (q.v.). When Augustus grew tired
of her she entered Quedlinburg nunnery, and died
prioress of it, 16tli February 172S.
Koiligsteill, a fortress of Saxony, once re-
garded as impregnable, but now of no military
Importance, stands on a rock 800 feet above the
Elbe, 24 nules SE. of Dresden by r.ail. Here the
Saxon .army yieliled to Frederick tlie Great In 1756.
KiilliiCS^Vill'tt a town of Bohemia, 14 miles by
rail SE. from Eger, is situated in a romantic valley,
has a line c:ustle belonging to Prince Metternicli,
chalybeate and acidulated springs, and a bathing
establishment. Pop. 2112.
Koilkail. the name given to the strip of coast
districts In liumltay Presidency. The breadth varies
from 1 to 50 miles, as the Western Gluits approach
or recede from the sea. Konkau is rather a geo-
graphical than an administrative <llvislon, and In-
cludes, besides North Kanara, the Uiltish districts
of Kiitnaglii, Kolaba, and Tliana, Bombay Island,
three native states, and Goa, with a total area of
17,00) square miles, and a population of 5,0(X),000.
Tlie .uiinial rainfall is over 100 inches.
Koiirad. See Coxr.vd.
Koodoo. See Antelope, Eland.
Koo(4'lia.V« a river of British Columbia which
lisi's in Canada, )iasses through corners of Montana
and Idaho, Imt retuiiis to Canada at;aln, and, after
a course of 450 ndh'S (during which it forms a
lake ), falls into the Columbia River. (!old is largely
fouml in its basin, especially since 1894, and several
mining towns have sprung up.
454
KOPECK
KORAN
Kopeck, a Russian bronze coin, the liiiiidredtli
part i)f ii KouMe (q.v.), and equivalent to H
fartliiiij,' of sterling money.
K«t|>I>:ii'lH'rg. See FALtN.
Korais. See Corais.
Kordll ( Arab. , from karaa, ' to read ' ), The
Iic(i(li)i(j, by way of eminence ; a term firet applied
to every single portion of Mohammed's ' Revela-
tions,'used at a later period for a greater number
of these, and linally for their whole body, gathered
together into the one book which forms the re-
ligious, social, civil, commercial, military, and
legal code of Islam. The Korftn is also known
under the name of Furgan (' discrimiii.ation,'
'test'): further, of Al-Moshaf (The Volume), or
Al-Kitab [The Book, in the sense of 'Bible'), or
Al-Dhikr ( ' the Reminder,' or 'the Admonition').
The Koran is, according to the Moslem creed, coeval
with tjod, uncreated, eternal. Its first transcript
was written from the beginning in rays of light
ui)()n a gigantic tablet resting by the throne of the
Almighty ; and upon this tablet are also found
the divine decrees relating to things ]iast and
future. A copy of it, in a book bound in white
silk, jewels, and gold, was brouglit down to the
lowest heaven by tlie angel tJabriel, in the blissful
and mysteiious ' night of power or destiny,' in the
month of Ramadan. Portions of it were, during
a space of twenty-three years, communicated to
Mohammed. l)oth at Mecca and Medina, either by
Gabriel in human shape, 'with the sound of bells,'
or through inspirations from the Holy Ghost ' in
the Prophet's breast,' or I)y God himself, 'veiled
and unveiled, in waking or in tlie dreams of night.'
Traditions vary with respect to the length of the
individual jiortions revealed at a time, between
single letters, verses, and entire chapters or Suralis
(Arab., 'cour.ses,' as of bricks in a wall). The lirst
revelation forms, in the present arrangement of
the book, verses 1-5 of surah xcvi. , and begins
with the words : ' Read [[jreach], in the name of
thy Lord, who has created all things !'
Moliammcd dictated man}- of his inspirations to
a serilie, in broken verses or in linished chapters,
ami from this copy the followers of the Prophet
procured other copies — unless they i)referred learn-
ing the oracles by heart from the master's own
mouth. TIk! original fragments were without any
attempt at a chronological or other arrangement,
promiscuously thrown into a box, and a certain
number were entirely lost. A year after the death
of Mohammed the scattered portions were, at
the instance of Abu-bekr, collected by Zaid Ibn
Thaliit of Medina, the Prophet's am.anuensis, 'from
pahu-leaves, skins, blade-boniw, and th(^ breiists of
men,' and faithfully copied, without the slightest
attemiit at mouhling them into shajie or sequence,
togetlier with all the variants, the repetitions, and
the gaps. This volume was entrusted to the keeji-
ing of Maf/a, one of the Prophet's wives, the
daughter of Unuir. A second redaction was in-
stituted in the thirtieth year of the Hegira, by
Calif Othman, to lix the text and the reading
according to the t^oraish idiom ; many dilleicnlj
rea<liMgs being current among the lielievers. He
ordered new copies to be made from the original
fragiiuMils, in which all the variants were to i)e
ex])unged, but without any further alteration
being introduced ; and the old copies were all e(m-
signed to the llames. With respect to the suc-
cession of the single chajiters — 114 in nundier —
no attempt was made at establishing continuity,
but they were ])laccd side by side .according (ci (heir
res|iective lengtlis ; so that immediately after the
introductory fatah or e.\ordium follows the longest
chapter, and the others are ranged after it in
decreasing size. They are not numbered in the
manuscrii)ts, but bear distinctive, often strange-
sounding headings, as the Cow, Congealed Blood,
the Fig, the Star, the Towers, Saba, the Poets. \c.,
taken from a particular matter or person treated
of in the respective chaptei's. Kvery chapter or
surah but one begins with the introductory for-
mula : 'In the name of God, the Merciful, the
Com|)assionate. ' It is generally stated at the
beginning whether the surah Wius revealed at Mecca
or at Medina. Every chapter is subdivided into
smaller portions [AyCtt, 'ver.ses,' lit. 'signs'), vary-
ing in the ancient 'seven editions' or primitive
copies (of Medina [two], Mecca, Kufa, Basra,
Svria, and the ' \'ulgar Kilitiiui '- reduced by
Is'oldeke to four editions) between (iOOO and 00,36.
The number of words in the whole book is 77,639,
and an enumeration of the letters shows .3'2:i,015 of
these. Other — encyclical — divisions of the book
are into thirty ajzfi and into sixty ahzfib, for the
use of devotional readings in and out of the mosque.
Twenty-nine surahs commence with certain lettei's
of the alphabet, ' of which God alone know s the
meaning.'
The contents of the KorAn .as the basis of Moham-
medanism will be considered under that head,
while for other questions of authorship and ehnm-
ology we nmst refer to MollAMMKI). But the chief
doctrines laid down in the book are that there is
one God, one true religion, and a day of juilgment.
When mankind turned at diller<'nt limes from
truth, God sent pro|ihets to lead them back to it,
Moses, Christ, and Muhanimed being the most dis-
tinguished. Both ]iunisliments for the sinner and
rewards for the pious are dejiictcd with great
dill'u.seness, and exemplified chielly by stories taken
fiom the Bible, the Apocry]>hal writings, and the
.Miilrash. S|iecial laws .and direction.s, admoni-
tiims to moral and divine virtues, more particu-
larly to a coin|deteand unconilitional resignation to
(Joii's will ('Isl.am'), legends, principally relating
to the p.atriarchs, .and, almost without excepti(Ui,
borrowed from th(^ .lewish writings, form the bulk
of the book, which throughout beais tlie most
ji.alpable traces of .lewish iiilliiciice. The Hebrew
serijitures were known to MohamiiH'd by oral com-
munication only : hence fre(|Uently odd confusion
in stories taken from that source.
The general tendency and aim of the Koii'in is
foun<l pretty clearly indicated in the beginning of
the second chapter: 'This is (he book in which
there is no doubt: .a guidance for the jiioiis, who
believe in the i>i>/ste?-ie.\ <if ftiHh, who ]ierforiii their
praycru, give alius from what we have bestowed
ui>(m them, who believe in the revelation which
we made unto thee, which was sent down to
the prophr.t.s before, thee, and who believe in the
future life,' &c. To unite into one the three
principal religions which he found in his ccuintry
— .Iiidaism, Christianity, and Hejithenism- was
Mohammed's ideal : and the Kor:iii, properly read,
di.scloses constantly the alternate llalleries and
threats aimed at each of the three ]iarties. Cer-
tain abrog.ations niaile by the Prophet himself of
s])ecial pa.ss,ages in the Korj'in are due to the
vacillating relation in which he at lirst stood to the
ditl'erent creeds, t<i concessions lirst made and then
revoked. Witness the ' Kiblah.' or the jilace where
the believer wius to turn in his prayer, being at
first .Jerusalem : and also forbearance to idolaters
forming one of the original jirecepls.
Tlie K(uAn ex])resses the thoughts and idea-s of
a Bedawl Arab in Bedawi language and metaphor.
In the mailer there is endless repclilion, little
iirdcr or coherence, and not a lilllc iiiiiuisislency.
Till? style is vi'ry uiiei|ual : often nolde and torcible,
often familiar or dull. Accejited as the iiiiiaeuUuis
utterance of the Almighty, tlie Koran stands above
criticism, and is not proved but assumed to be the
KORDOFAN
KOSCIUSKO
455
unappioaoliable staiulard of jriaiimiatical ami even-
other merit. It is written in prose wherein the
links of each sentence rhyme with one another,
anil frenerally the same rhyme is niaiiitaineil
throiii;li the whole chapter. This is ami wius a
coninnm literary form, ami to it the Arabic lan-
guage Iiy its symmetrical formation of words lends
itself very reailily. Refrains are introduced in
some surahs ; and plays upon words are not dis-
dained.
The outward reverence in which the Korfin is
held tlirouj;h()\it Islam is exeeedin^'ly fireat. It is
never held lielow tlie girdle, never loueheil without
previous ijurilication ; and an injunition to that
ellect is <;enerally found on the cover which, in the
eastern binding, overlaps the boards. It is con-
sulted on weighty matters ; sentences from it are
inscrilied on l)anners, dooi-s, and tlie like. Cireat
lavishne.ss is displayed upon the material and the
binding of tlie sacred volume : the copies for the
wealthy are sometimes written in gold, and the
covei-s blaze with gold and |)reci(ms stones. Nor
is anything more hateful in the eyes of a Moslem
than to see the book in the hands of an unbeliever.
Ilie Koran has been commented upon so often tliat the
names of the commentators alone would till volumes.
Thus, the library ot Tripoli, in .Syria, is reported to have
once contained no less than 20,000 diti'ercnt comment-
aries. The most renowned are those of ^^amachshari
(died .53'.t H.), Beidhawi (died 6S.5 or 716 H.), Mahalli
(died 870 H.), and Soyuti (died 911 H.). The principal
editions are those of Hinckelmann ( Hamburg, 1(!!I4 ),
Marracci (Padua, 1008), Fliigel (18.S4). be.sides many
editions (of small critical value) printed in St Petei-s-
burg. Kasan. Teheran, Calcutta, Cawnpore, Serauipore,
&c. The fir.-.t, but very imperfect, Latm version of the
Koran was made by Robertus Retensis, an Englishman, in
114:1 ( ed. Iia.sel. 1543 ). The principal translations are :
into Latin, that of Marracci (1698); into Emjlish, Sale
(17:54 ; ed. by Kev. E. M. Wherrj-, 4 vols, 1882-86 ), who
expbtins .somewhat while he translates, and whose notes
are voluminous and invaluable, Rodwell (1861; 2d ed.
1878), and Palmer (1880), whose rendering is the best;
into French. Savary (1783), Oarcin de Tassy ( 1829), Kazi-
mirski (1840; new ed. 1884): into Gennan, MegerUn
(1772), Wahl (1828), UUniaun (1840); besides Pei-sian,
Turkish, Malay, Hindustani, and other eastern transla-
tions. Of concordances to the Koran may be mentioned
those of Flugcl (1842) and Kazem-Bek (St Petersburg,
18.59), and that publisiied at Calcutta in 1811. Anion;.;
authorities whose works may be consulted on the Konin
are Marracci, .Sale, Savary, Wahl, Ueiger. Ainari, Sprenger,
Lane, .Muir, Weil, Noldeke, and Lane Poole.
Kordofail. or the White Land, lately a pro-
vince III the Egyptian Soudan (q.v.), is separated
from Sennaiir on tlie K. by the White Nile, and
from lJarl'"(lr <m the W. by a stri)! of desert. It
extends from 12' to 16' X. hit. and from 29" 30' to
32' .30' E. long. ; its area, ini^ludirig Takalla on the
S., lias been e.slimated at 41,.jOll scj. in., and its
]iopulation at 280,000, of whom three-fourths are
slaves. The province is traverseil by no rivers ;
but water is foiiml almost everywhere at a compar-
atively short depth. The surface is inidulating.
The chief produce of the soil is millet, the |)rin-
cipal food of the inhabitants. tJiim trees, iiiimosius,
thorny plants, and |>rickly grass are common, but
there is no forest timber, (lunis, hides, ivory,
ostrich-feathers, ami gold are exported. Cattle ami
camels are bred in great numbers. Three-lifths of
the jMipuiation are settled : the rest are nomadic.
The aborigines belong mainly to the Nuba stock,
but use a negro tongue and are mostly pagan.s.
There is a large element of nomad and slave-
hunting '.Vrabs,' Moslems in faith. The capital
is El-(.»lieid, with about .30,000 inhabitants, situated
in the centre of the country. In the end of the 18tli
century Kordofan wsls conquered by the ruler of
Seiinaar, then by the sultan of Dar-Kllr ; in 1821 it
was annexed by Mehemet Ali of Egypt, but wius
lost to the Egyptians by the Mahdi's revolt in
1883. Since 1899 it has "been part of the recon-
stituted Egyptian Soudan (see Soudan).
Korea. See Core.v.
Koriier, K.vkIj Theodou, a patriotic German
poet, the son of Schiller's friend. Christian (!.
Korner, was born at Dresden, 23d September 1791.
After irregular studies at Freiberg, Leipzig, and
Berlin, young Kiirner, through Kotzebue's inllu-
ence, was apiuiinted dramatist to a Vienna theatre;
for it he wrote some light conie<lies, such jus Der
driine Domino and Der Nachtirachter, and some
tragedies, of which Zrhiy, a work full of noble en-
thusiasm, was the most successful. Tlie uprising
of the German nation against Napideou inspired
Korner with ])atiiotic ardour. He joined Liitzow's
celebrated corns, and not only displayed heroic |)er-
sonal courage in many encounters, but encouraged
his comrades by fiery patriotic songs. These, pub-
lished in 1814 under the title of Leicr mid Sc/iirert
( Eng. trans. Li/re and SvorrI, 1839), are regarded by
the Germans with a kind of sacred admiration, and
have gone through a great number of editions. The
most famotis of these pieces is the Schvert-lAed,
composed in a pause of battle, and only a few
lioui-s liefore the author fell in a skirmisli, between
Schwerin and Gadebusch, on 26th August 181.3.
He wa-s buried near Wobbelin ; there his father
an<l mother and sister were also interred. A
collected edition of his wcuks in one volume
(Berlin, 18.34; new ed. 1879) was iniblished by
Streckfuss. A biogr.aphy of the poet, written by
his father, has been translated into English, ' with
selections from his poems, tales, and dramas,' by
G. F. Richardson (Lond. 2 vols. 184.5). A museum
of Kiirneiiana was formed at Dresden in 1 873. See
Lives bv Lehmann ( 1819), Erliard ( 1821 ), and Bauer
( 1883 ) ;" also Jonas' life of his father ( 1881 ).
Koros, Nagy ( ' Great Kiiriis ' ), a town of
Hungary. .5.5 miles SE. of Budapest by rail. I'op.
(1891) '2.5,484— Kiss Koros ('Little Kiiros'), a
small town, 66 miles by rail S. by E. of Budapest,
is tlie birthplace of Petiifi. Pop. 6734. Both
places grow wine. See Cso.M.v DE KoROS.
KoroskO, a small village of Lower Nubia,
with a few wretched huts straggling ahmg the
right bank of the Nile, about midway between the
lirst and second cataracts. Here tlie Nile boat*
land the goods that are conveyed by caravan to
the Soudan.
Kurvei. See Corvei.
Kosciusko (KasciuszKO), Tadeusz, a Polish
general and patriot, wa.s born on 12tli February
1746 in, Lithuania, He chose the career of arms,
and was traitied in I' ranee. In 1777 an unlia|)py
love atl'air drove him to the United St.ites, where
he fought for the colonists and advanced to the
rank of brigadier-general. He returned to Poland
in 1786. When Russia attacked his country in
1792, Kosciusko held a jiosition at Dnbienka for
live days with only 4000 men against 18,000
Rus.sians. In spite of this the pusillaninnms
King Stanislaus submitted to the Empress Cath-
arine, whereupon Kosciusko resigned his comniand
and retired to Leipzig, After the second jiartitioii
of Pol.md he put himself at the head of tlie national
movement in Cracow, and Wits appointed dictator
ami commander-in-chief (1794). Ills defeat of a
greatly su]ieiior force of Russians at Raclawice
WiUs fiillowed by a rising of the Poles in Warsaw.
He established a provisional government, and took
the field against the Prussians, but, ilefeateil, fell
back ujion Warsaw ami maintained himself there
valiantly, until the approach of two new Russian
armies induceil him to march to meet them. He
wiLs overpowered by superior numbers in the battle
456
KOSHER
KOSTROMA
of Maciejowice, 10th October 1794 ; ami, covered
■with wounds, he himself fell into the hands of his
enemies— it is then th.at De Sejjur falsely makes
him exclaim, ' Finis PoloniiC ! ' Two years hater tlie
Emperor Paul restored him to lilierty. He spent
the remainder of his life chietly in France, jirose-
cutins agricultural pursuits. When Napoleon, in
ISOti, formed a phui for the restoration of Poland,
Kosciusko refused to lend himself to the Frencli
monarch's designs. The achlress to the Poles, which
Napoleon ])uhlished in Kosciusko's name in the
Monitcur, was a fabrication. In KSU he liesought
the Emperor Alexander to grant an amnesty_ to
the Poles in foreign countries, and to make him-
self constitutional king of Poland. He settled at
Solothuru in Switzerland in 1810, and died on
loth October 1817, by the fall of his horse over a
precipice. His remains were removed to Cracow
(q.v.) by the Emperor Alexander, and were laid
side l)v"siile with those of John Soliieski. See
the blograiihies by Falkenstein ('2d ed. 1834),
Chod/.ko (1837), and Michelet (in La Potuync
Martyr, 1863).
Kosher (Heb., 'right,' from i/ashar, 'to be
right'), pure, according to the Jewish ordinances.
Thus ' Kosher meat ' is meat killed and prepare<l by
Jews after the Jewish manner, and so lit to be
eaten by Jews.
Hoslill* a town of Prussia, 5 miles from the
Baltic Sea and 8.5 NE. from Stettin. There are
iron-founilries and manufactures of paper, soap,
bricks, &c. It formerly had a mint. Pop. (1885)
17,277.
KOSSOVO, the 'Field of Blackbirds,' a plain in
Turkey, near the Servian frontier, west of the
Prishtina, on wliich two sanguinary battles were
fought — ( 1 ) between Sultan JSIurad I. aiul the
Servians under their Tsar Laziir on Llth June 1380 ;
both sovereigns fell, and the Servians lost their
independence in conso(|Uence of their defeat; ('2)
between the great Hungarian general Hunyady
and Sultan Murad 11., on 17th to llJth October
1448, when the former was defeated. See Madame
Mijatovich, Herbiait National Songs about Kossovo
(Lonil. 1881 ).
Kossutb, Lori.s, the leader of the Hungarian
revolution, was born in 1802 at Monok, in the
county of Zeniplin, in Hungary. His family was
of noble rank, Imt his parents w<ne poor. He
studied law at tlu; Protestant college of Saros-
patak, and jiractised for a time. In 18;{'2 he
commenced his political career at the diet of
Presburg as the deputy of absent magnates,
and as editor of a journal which, owing to the
state of the law, was not prinl(Ml, but tran-
scribed aiul circulated. The sulise<nu'nt ]iulili-
cation of a lithograjihed ]iaper led, in May I8.'!7,
to Kossuth's imprisonment. He was lil)erated
in 1840, anil became the editor of the I'csti I/ir-
lap, a, newspaper in the modern sense of the
word, in which lie advocateil views too extreme
for many of the li!)erals anuuigst the nobles,
but which took strong hold of the youth of the
country. In IS47 he was sent by the county of
Pcsth as deputy to the diet, and soon became
the leader ot the opjiosition. He advocated the
emancipation of the peasants, the abolition of all
feudal rights and privileges, the freedom of the
press, &(_:, and, after the French revolution of 1848,
0|)enly demanile(l an inilependent government for
Ilungarv ami conslilutional government in the
Austrian hereditary territories. To his speeches
must ill great p.art be ascribed not only the Hun-
garian revolution, but the insurrection in Vienna
in March 1848. On the resignation of tlie ministry
in September IS48 he found himself at the head
of the Committee of National Defence, and pro-
secuted with extraordinary energy the measures
necessary for carrying on the war. As a reply to
an imperial decree, dated 4th Marcli, abolishing
the Hungarian constitution, he induced the
National Assembly at IJebrcczin, in April 184!),
to declare that the llapsburg dynasty had fcu'fi'itetl
the throne. He was now appointed provisi(uial
governor of Hungary ; but being ilisappointcd in
his hopes for the intervention of the Western
Powers, and finding the national cause jeopanli.sed
by the interference of Kussia. he endeavoured to
arouse the peoi>le to a more desper.ate efl'ort.
The attempt was vain. F'indiiig that the dis-
sensions between himself and Giugei (q-v.) were
damaging the national cause, he resigned his
dictatorship in favour of the latter. After the
defeat at Teniesvar on 9th August 1849 he found
himself compelled to tlee into Turkey, where he
was made a prisoner; but, though his extradition
was demanded both by Austria and Kussia. the
Porte resisted their claims. In Seiitember IS.'il he
was liberated by the iuHuence of Knglaml ;ind the
United .States, and, the Kepublican government of
France refusing him a passage through their terri-
tory, he sailed in an American frigate to England,
where he was received with every demonstration
of public respect and sympathy. In December of
the same year he landed in the I'nited States,
where be met with a most enthusiastic reception.
He returned in June 1852 to England, and there
lie chii^lly resided, until Sardinia and France pre-
pared for war with Austria ; when, on condition
of something delinite being <buie for Hungarian
independence, he proposed to Napoleon to arrange
a Hungarian rising against Austria. He secured
England's neutrality in the event (if the war
extending to Hungary. The peace of \'il!afranca
bitterly disappointed Kossuth, but <lid not dis-
hearten him. He made two other attemjits (in
1860-61, in conjunction with Cavour and with the
help of Najioleon ; in 1866, with the aid of Victor
Emmanuel ) to bring about ;i risingagainst Austrian
rule in his native country, but without llnal success.
When in 1867 Deak etVected the recoiuilialion of
Hungary with the dynasty, and initiated a ttioi/ii.s
vh-c)i(/i between the two parts of the Austro-
Hnngarian monarchy, Kossuth retired from active
political life. He afterwards lived mostly in Turin,
and, although never tired of ilenouncing the
]iolitical and economical alliance between Hungary
and Austria, abstained from conspiring or agitat-
ing against it ; but he refused to .avail hinuself of
the general amnesty ( 1867), and to return to his
native land to take the oath of fealty to the
dynasty he had once dethroned. In 1880-82 he
published thrire volumes of Memories of iiii/ Exile
(Elig. ed. vol. i. 1880); others followi'd ill 1890.
He died in Tuiiii, 2(lth March iS'.ll. ami on 1st
April was buvieil amiilsl national solemnities in the
Protcst.-uit church at Budapest. See bis letters
( 18(i2 and 1872), and works on him (in Oermaii) by
Horn I IS.-,I ), Fi('i ( 1849), and Somogyi ( 18114).
Kostoildil. or Ki STUN 1)1 1., a town of liulgaiia,
near the Struma or Strymon, 43 mih's SW. of Solia,
has gold ami silviu' mining, warm baths, numcKuis
ruins, and a Creek archbishop. Pop. 11,383.
KostroillU. capital of a Russian government,
stands near the junction of the Kostroma with
the Volga, 216 miles by rail NNE. from Moscow.
Of late years the industry of the town has shown
great ad\"anc('s. The spinning ;ind \\c;i\iiig of
cotton and linen, the manufa<'ture of brandy, dye-
ing, corn-grinding, ami tanning are the chief
industries. Pop. (1891) 28, 143. -The tjorcrvment
of Kostroma has on the west the government of
Yarosl.alV .and im the east that of Vyatka. Area,
32,490 sq. m. ; pop. (1897) 1,428,89.3. "
KOTAH
KRAKATOA
457
Hotall, the chief town of a native state of the
same name in liajmitaiia, standinj; on the riulit
bank of tlie Chamhal, is a hot, unhealthy city,
with a poll, of 40,270. The area of the state is
3803 s.|. ni. : pop. ( 1891 ) ,520,267.
Kotheil. a town in the (Jerniau duchy of
Anhalt, down to 18.53 capital of the principality
of .\nhalt-Kothen, stands liy rail 22 miles N. from
Halle and 31 SSE. from Magdehnrj;. The castle
of the former dukes {the line became e.vtinct in
1847) w:us rebuilt in 1597-1B06 after a lire. In
the cathedral of St Jame.s there are some antiiiue
glass windows. The industries embrace iron-
foundries, sugar-factories, iStc. Pop. (1875) 14,403;
(1885) 17,473.
Kotow', the ceremony of prostration, with
striking of the forehead on the ground nine times,
performed before the emperor of China. The
British envoy. Lord Andierst, in ISIG refused to
perform the degrading ceremony, and the point
was finally conceded by the Chinese in the treaty
of 1857. Kotowing is unknown outside of China.
Kotzeliiie, Aigt-st Fkiedrich Ferdinand
VON, a (JerTuan dramatist, wa.s born at Weimar on
3d May 17GI, filled various offices in the public
service of Russia, and from an early age was a
facile writer of plays, tales, satires, historical
works, \-c. ; he was stabbed to death at Mannheim,
23d March 1819, by Sand, a Jena student, because
he had ridiculed the Biirschenschdft movement.
Besides iiuarrellin^' with (Joetlie, Kotzebue satir-
ised the leadens of the Romantic school. Among
his dramatic performances, the chief merit of which
consists in their knowledge of stage-ett'ect, their
lively dialogue, and clever but superficial character
drawing, may be mentioned Mrnschcnhtiss tiiid
Rene ( known on the English stajje as The Stnoujcr ),
Die Hussiten vor Xaiiiiibiirij, Die hriiirn K/inr/s-
berge, Der armc Poet, Arinnth itnd Eddsinn, Die
Kreuzfahrer, Ol.iavia, tkc. Kotzebue wrote no fewer
than two hundred dramatic pieces, which have been
collected in editions of 28 ( 1797-1823) and of 44 vols.
(1827-20).— His son. Otto von KoTZEBtE, born
on 30th December 1787 at Revel, accompanied
Krusenstern round the world in 1803-6, and after-
wards made two long voyages of e.vploration in
the Pacific, discovering amongst others the Kru-
senstern Islands, Kotzebue Sound, and the Suwarotl'
Islands during his first voyage (181.5-17); during
the second expedition (1823-26) he visited the
Samoa group, the Philippines, the S.andwich
Islands, i<:c. He died at Revel on 15th February
1846. His two books, descriptive of his voyages,
were both translated into English ( 1821 and 1830).
Koumiss is an intoxicating beverage made by
the Kalniiicks from fermented mares' milk; and
artificial koumiss made of .a.-;s's and cow's milk has
been used in cases of consuni|>tion.
Kovalevsky, Alex.\ni>ei!, embryologist, was
born 19lh November 1840, and liecame jirofessor at
St Petersburg. He is known foihis researches on the
embryology of invertebrates which led to Haeckel's
Gastnea theory ; for hisdisco\ery of the life-history
and true position of the .\sciiliaiis ; and for investi-
gations of the development of the .-Vmphioxus,
IJalanoglossns, Sagitta, and lirachiopods. See
Ascmi.\Ns, Embryology.— His bmther, Wolde-
MAIi (1843-83), professor of Pala-ontology at Mos-
cow, became bankrupt, and died by his own hand.
— Woldemar's wife, SoN.;a or Soi'lIlK (1850-91),
daughter of a Moscow artillery oHicer, made a bril-
liant name for herself tlnoughiint Europe as a
mathematician, was professor of .Mathematics at
Stockholm, and left a brilliant series of novels, of
which Vera Baiaiitzont was translated in 1895.
See Leffler's monograph on her (trans. 1895).
Kovno, capital of the Russian government of
Kovno, stands near the conllucnce of the \ ilia and
the Niemen, 523 miles by rail S\V. of St I'oters-
burg and 94 EXE. of Kiinigsberg. The town,
founded in the 11th centurj-, was made a stronghold
of the Teutonic knight.s. Long the chief com-
mercial town of Lithuania, it hail lost nearly
all its trade when it was annexed by Russia in
1795; but since the construction of the r.iilway it
has recovered its commercial imjiortance. Grain,
llax, linseed, rags, and timber are exported. Pop.
73,543, about one-half Jews. — The ijuvcniment of
Kovno touches Prussia and Poland. Area, 15,690
sq. ni. ; pop. (1897) 1,549,972, of whom three-
fourths are Lithuanians and 14 per cent. Jews.
Kowlooil. the Chinese peninsula opposite
Hongkong (ij.v.), of which SJ miles were ceded to
Britain in ISUl, and nearly 200 square miles addi-
tional were granted by China to Britain on lease
for ninety-nine years from 1S98.
Koyillljik. See Assyria, Nineveh.
Kozlof. a town in the Russian government of
Tamboir, is the meeting-place of the railways from
the Caspian, the Sea of Azov, and Moscow ( 123
miles N\V.). Pop. 28,350.
Km, or Krao, the isthmus connecting Siam
with the Malay Peninsula, whose minimum breadth
is 44 miles. Most of the schemes for a ship-
canal propose to utilise the estuary of the
Pakshan, which separates British from Siamese
territory, and penetrates 17 miles inland. A
riilge of land 7i miles wide and 250 feet high is
all that then separates the Pakshan from the head-
waters of the Chunipon, which Hows eastwards
to the Gulf of Siam. A canal here would shorten
the journey from Ceylon to Hong-Kong by ,300
miles, and "that from Calcutta to Hong-Kong by
540 miles. A railway across the same narrow belt
of land has also been suggested. See Loftus,
Journey across the Isthmus of Kra ( 1883).
Kraglljcvatz, a town of Servia, 61 miles S.
of Belgrade, has an arsenal, a cannon-foundiy, and
a small-arms factory. Till 1842 it was the resi-
dence ot the Servian princes. Pop. (1895) 13,500.
Kraill. See Carniola.
Krajova, a town of Roumania, 154 miles by rail
\s . of Bucharest. In the neighbourhood are pro-
ductive salt-mines. Pop. .33,000, mostly engaged
in commerce. Here the woiwode of Wallacliia
defeated Sultan IJajazet in 1.397.
Krakatoa, or Krakatau, a volcanic island
in the Strait of Sunda, between Java and Suuuitra,
was in 1883 the scene of one of the most tremen-
dous volcanic disturbances on record. From May
the volcano on the island had been ejecting its
contents in showers of ashes; during 26th, 27th,
and 28th August the crater walls fell in. together
with a part of the ocean bed, carrying with it two-
thirds of the island (total area before the eruption
13 s(]. in.), and creating two small islands, which
subsei|uently disappeared. At the same time a
gigantic ocean-w.ive inundated the adjoining coasts
of Java and Sumatra, causing a loss of .36,.500 lives,
anil the destruction of .300 villages, and then careered
round the entire globe. The noise of the eruption
was heard for a distance of 2000 and even .3000
miles. The occurrence likewise set u|) a series of
concentric atmospheric waves, which travelled at
least three times round the earth. The dust and
other finely-comminuted debris cast up by the
explosion gave rise during three years or more to
weird sun-glows of wondrous beauty, those seen
in Great Britain in November 1883 being especially
grand. See E. Mef/.aer in I'llrnnann's Mittcilu)if/cn
(1886); Jii/iurt of the Kniktitua Committee of the
458
KRAKEN
KREUZER
Royal Society (Lond. 1888); and G. J. Sjiiions,
The Erujition of Krakatoa (1888).
Krakoil. a futmlons animal, fii-st described liy
tlio Ncirwi><,'ian lii>li()|) Pontopiiidaii in IToO, and
from time to time said to have liecn seen in tlie
Noiwe^'ian seas. Its back is de.><cTil)ed as abont a
mile and a lialf in ciicumfercnee ; it rises from tlie
sea lilie an islaml, stretches out niast-lil<e arms,
capabl),' of ilraf;j,'inj; down the largest ships, and
when it .sinks again into the deep cau.ses a wliirl-
)iool in which large vessels are involved to their
destruction. It makes the waters round it tliick
and tnrliid, and thus is .able to devour the shoals
of fishes that swim to the jilace .attracted by the
nnisky scent. This f.act, together with its numer-
ous arms, point to one or other of the large
class of cuttlclishes as the true original of the
Scan<liiiavian kr.aken. The fable of the kraken
has considerable analogy t() the more recent stories
of the great sea-serpent. See John Gibson's
Monsters of the tiea (1S87).
Krniiieria. See K.vttasy Root.
KraiiiH'li. See Ckanach.
Kraii;u;aiiiir. See Cranganore.
Krapotkiii. See Kropotkine.
Krasiiovodsk, a Russian military station and
harbour, on the east side of the t'aspian Sea, in
the Tianscaspian territory. Po]!. 427.
Krasnoyarsk, the chief town of the Siberian
government of Yeniseisk, on the Upper Yenisei,
370 miles E. from Tomsk, is the centre of the gold-
washings of the province. Pop. ( 1871 ) 12,974 ;
(1S94) 17,154.
KraszeT.ski. Kraziiiski. See Poland
(LlTKltATURE OK).
Kraiise, Karl Christian Friedrich, a Ger-
man philosopher, born 6th May 1781 at Eisenberg,
stuilicd philosophy at Jena under Fichte an(l
Schelling, qualilicd as a privid-dueent in that uni-
versity in 1802, but removed in ISO.) to Dresden,
where he lived till 181.S. His learned work on the
doctrines of Freemasonry (1810), advocating their
rational reform, drew upon him the resentment of
the (iernian Freemasons. .-Vfter residing for a time
in Berlin, lecturing in the university, he settled
in Giittingen, where he lectured on all the branches
of pliilosophy (I823-.S0), and drew around him a
number ot enthusiastic disciples, including tiie
philosophical jurist, H. .\hrens. He never obtained
a i)rofessor.ship, notwithstanding his success and
]iopularity as .a dueetit. his incessant industry,
and the versatility and fertility of his genius, in
1S31, after an amelioration in his circumstances, he
removed to Munich, wlicre Ilaailer befriended him,
but Sclielling treated him with coldness, and in the
midst of further disajiixnutmeuts and struggles, he
suddenly died there of apoplexy, 27th September
ls:i2. Krause is deservedly ranked with Ficlite,
Schelling, Hegel, Herbart, and Schopenhauer, .a.s
one of the masters of the German philoso]jhical
movement inaugurated by Kant. His earlier works
(180;{-14) are written in an elegant and Mowing
style, Imt he limited the circulation and popularity
<if his later w ritings by the excessive ]iurism of his
tierman terminology, which eschewed all foreign
terms and revelled in the most elaborate native
comiKUinds. This literary idiosyncr.asy has made
Krause for the novice the most unreadalile of all
philosophical writcis, an<l even /.eller declares his
German to be at times ' a-s unintelligible to (!er-
mans as if it were Sanskrit.' The most popular
of his writings is his sketch of the Ideal of
Hum.anity (/>« Urhild tier Meiisrhheil, 1812). His
svsteiu of philosophy is cxpoundi'd in various
(sketches and outlines of the philosophical sciences
(Logic, 1803, 1828; Ethics, 1811; Philosophy of
Right, 1803, 1828; Sketch of the System of Philo-
sophy, 1828), and most fully and delinitely in his
' Lectures on the System of Pliilosophv' ( 182S) and
his ' Lectures on the Funclanienlal Truths of
Science' ( 182!) ). Since his death many of his works
have been edited by Leonhardi, Ahrens, lioder,
Wiinsche, an<l Hohlfeld. The Ji/e<i/ of Hitmanity
has been summarily rendered into Spanish (by Del
Rio, 1860) and Italian, and an Flnglish transla-
tion by Hastie appeared in ISiU). Professor
Tiberghien of liru.ssels has alily summarised and
illustrated Krause's philosopliy in French. Pro-
fessor Flint has given an adniiralile summary of
Krause's philoso)>hy of history in his Philusojihii
uf llislor)/. and Professor Lorimer shows apprecia-
tion of Krause's philosophy of ];iw in his Institutes
of Lair. The translation of Plh-iilerer's I'liilnso/iliy
of lietiyion contains a sketch of Krause's Absolute
Philosophy of licligion. I'.ut Krause's system of
Iihilosophy, as a w hole, which, as regards his view
of the relation of the world to God, he called
raiientheism ('all-in-God'), in contradistinction to
the Pantheism of the other schools and the Dualism
of the deistic tradition, has not yet obtained
adecpiate expression in English. Kroebcl, the
foumlcr of the Kindergarten system, followed
Krause's doctrines. There are monographs in
German by Hohlfeld (1879), Procksch (1880), and
Martin (1881).
KroaSOtO. See CREA.S0TE.
Kroatiiie. See Creatin.
Krefeld. one of tlie most imiKirlant manu-
facturing towns of (Jermany. stands abcnit 4 miles
from the left bank of the Fthine and 12 N^V. of
Diisseldorf. It owes its importance to the settle-
ment here, in the 17th and ISth centuries, of
refugees from .Juliers and Berg, and the neigh-
bouring countries, compelled to leave their homes
by religions jiersecntion ; they established the silk
and velvet manufactures for which Krefeld is now
noteil. In 1 885 the number of looms engaged in
these manufactures was 29,837, and the value of
the fabrics exiM)rted was upwards of i.'2,975,000.
Here are large railw.ay repair shops, iron-foundries,
.and works for making machinery, aiul manu-
factures of chemicals, soap, sjiirits, \c. The town
possesses ,a technical schoid of weaving, &c. Pop.
( 1875) (12,84(1 ; ( 1890) 105.370.
Kroilieiirllllg. a town of Ru.ssia on the
Dnieper, 74 miles by rail SW. of Pullowa. I'^rom
1765 to 1789 it was the chief town of New Russia ;
it is now the seat of great industrial activity,
especially in wool, timber, and tohacco, and of
factories t'oi agricultural machines, leather, tobacco,
candles, iVc. Pop. ( 1871 ) 30,472 ; ( 1897 ) 57,879.
Kremlin. See Mo.scow.
Krcninit/. one of the oldest towns of Hungary,
in the co\inty of Bars, lies in a dee]i, gloomy valley,
S3 miles N. from Budajiest. It is famous for its
gold and silver mines, which, however, are less
productive now than formerly, and its mint. Po]i.
8550, almost entirely of Gernum origin.
KrcniS. a town of Lower Austria, at the con-
tinence of the river Krems with the Danube, 47
mill's by rail W. by .\. of Yienna. Pop. 11,042.
Kroinsicr. on<' of the jircttiest towns of
Moravia, on the March, 35 miles E. by N. of
Briinn. It is the summer residence of the .Arch-
bishop of tiliniitz, whose line palace contains a
tiicture-gallery, a numismalic eollcclion, and a
library of .37,000 vobnncs. From 22d November
1848 to 7th .Mandi 1849 this town was the seat of
the .Austrian Constitutional Diet. Pop. 12,816.
Krou/or from (he cross {l.reiiz) fcnincrly con-
spicuous upon it is a small copjicr coin still in use
in Austria, 100 making a llorin or "uldcn (ninninal
KREUZNACH
KRILOF
459
value, 2s.). Till 1876 it \va.s current also in
southern Germany as the 60tli jiart of a f^ulden
(see Florin). Tlie kreuzer was hrst coined in the
13th century, in Tyrol, and was originally of silver.
KrOllZIISM'll* ii town of Hhenish Prussia, dating
from the (Hli century, on the Nalie, 3.") miles by
rail SSE. of Cohlonz. Its chief manufacture is
clianiiiagne, its principal tradi' in wine .and corn :
hut it is most notalile for its salt si)rin<;s. These
were discovered in 147S, and, being serviceable in
scrofulous and other affections, attract over 5000
visitoi-s annuallv. Their temperature ranges from
about 50° to ilb' K. Pop. (1895) 19..344. !Se.-
Engelnjann's Wiitcis of Krciiziiach (Lond. ISSO).
Kriofisspiel ('war-game') was introduced in
18'2-l by Lieutenant von Keiszwitz of the Prussian
army, after several veai-s spent in perfecting
the game as originally designed by his father.
It aims at giving interesting representations of
military nianceuvres on .a contoured map of suffi-
ciently large scale to show all the features of the
ground, and enable their effect for cover, com-
mand, or concealment to be duly allowed for. The
troo])s are represented by metal blocks coloured
red for one player and blue for the other, and made
to the same scale as the map. One officer takes
command of each side, assisted, if necessary, by
subordinate ollicers. An umpire, with generally
two a.ssistants, superintends the game. A ' general
idea' of the military situatiim is issued to each
side, and contains wliatever information it is con-
sidered ]>robable that each would have under the
circumstance.s. A 'special idea' follows, giving
such details as the strength and com|iosition of
each force, its distribution at the commencement
of the game, the immediate object in view, the
date and hour of the imaginary time at which
operations commence, and any information as to
the enemy which may be in the possession of the
commander-in-chief, represented by the framer of
the scheme. The 'special idea' for one player will
dili'er from that for the other, and must not be seen
by him. The wind, weather, state of the country,
&c. are usually assumed to be as on the day of
playing.
Each player tlien frames his orders, and is strictly
lielil to them. Three copies of the map are gener-
ally used, though one is enough if the jilavers are
only allowed access to it in turn when the other's
trooits are covered up. tjn ' red's ' maj), if three are
available, only his own troons are shown, until, as
the game progres.ses, it is decided by the umpire
that he could see some of ' blue's' men, when pieces
representing those only which are so seen are placed
on it. 'Blue's' map is similarly treated, but on
the tliirrl, or umpire's map, both sides are com-
pletely represented. The game proceeds by moves,
each of two minutes' imaginary time, the space the
dill'erent arms would cover in that time at ordinary
marching rate being laid down on a scale, and
thereby transferreil to the map. The player points
out the direction in which he wishes each body of
men moved, and the assistant umpire then meiusures
oil' the rlistance and places them. The same num-
l)erof moves is given siTiniltaneously to both players,
and the number of moves given at a time grow" less
as thi'V come nearer, until perhaps only half a move
can be given, or the rpiestion ari.ses whether any
ailvance can be made on one sirle or the other. This
and all similar jioints must either be decideil by the
umpire frou' a consideration of the situation, or by
a tlirow of the ilie. Rules are laiil down for the
guid.mce of umpires : thus, ' re]iulsed ' troops cannot
come into action again for ten minutes ( live moves),
'defeated ' troops cannot do so for twenty minutes,
and if ' totally defeated ' are removed from the map.
The victorious side loses half as manv as the ' re-
pulsed' or 'defeated,' and one-third as many as the
■ totally defeated ' troops. If the die is used a table
of possil)iUty decides such ijuestions as 'can guns
come into action under infantry lire,' the odds
being 3: "2 in favour of the infantry at 500 yards;
2 : 1 at 400, and so on. These odds also determine
the loss ]>er battalicm or si|uadron by means of
another table, which allots certain faces of the die
to either colour, and regulates the loss in ]iro])ortion
to the miniber of dots on the face which turns u]>.
Tims, in a question where the odds were 5 : 1
against 'red,' if the single dot turned up, 'bine'
would be ' repulsed ' with a lo.ss of si.x per battalion ;
if two, three, or four dots turned u]>, ' red ' would be
'defeated' with losses of eight, nine, or eleven per
battalion : and if live orsi.x dots turned up, ' totally
defeated' with losses of lifteen and eighteen jier
battalion. Tables of losses from artillery lire an<l
infantry lire at various ranges, and under diii'erent
conditions are also used, and the time required for
destroying or constructing bridges, &c. laid down.
Intelligence of the enemy, if seen by a scout, is
obtained from the umpire, w ho allows himself to be
questioned, l)ut frames his answeis in accordance
with what the scout would be likely to know.
Orders sent to detached bodies of troops cannot
take effect until sufficient time has elapsed for an
orderly to reach them ; and, if diiected to go across
country, at each fence the die must be thrown to
ilecide whether he gets over without a fall. Every-
thing is done to make the conditions of the game
.similar to those of actual warfare, with the result
that the players cannot fail to realise the value of
time in military operations, the difficulty of ascer-
taining the enemy's movements, anil the necessity
for clear and definite orders. The umpire decides
w hen the game shall cease, which is generally when
one side has clearly obtained the mastery or gained
his object. See Vernois. T/ic Tuclical Wiir Guine
(trans, by Macdonnell, 18S4).
Krilof. Iv.vx Andkeevich, the La Fontaine of
Russia, was born at Moscow, February 14, 1768,
the son of a penniless infantry captain. At fourteen
he lost his father, next Idled f<u' some time a
post in a public office at St Petersburg, but gave it
up after his mother's death in 1788, to try in turn
writin'' dramas, and the joint editing ami jiublish-
ing of literary magazines. For some years he found
shelter at the country seats of Prince Sergius
Cialitzin, acted till 1804 as his secretary when
military governiu' of Livonia, and next wandered
aindessly about the towns of Rirssia, finding his
amusement in card-playing. About the close of
the year 1805 at Mo.scow he showed some of his
fables to the poet Dmitrief, who jirinted them in
the Moscow S//rr/iit(ir. They were at once success-
ful, and thus Krilof, at forty, found in what his
strength really lay. The first collection of his fables
(twenty-threi^ iji number) appeared in 1809; the
second, containing twenty-one more, in 1811. He
returned to St Petersburg in 1806, ami soon after
obtained a government a]ipointment which in 1821
he exchanged for a congenial jiost in the lm|ierial
Public Library under bis fiiend (tleninc. Honours
were now shttw ereil upon his heful ; his years gliiled
peacefullv away ; he was comfortably oil', and
much beloved liy all r.anks of society, no less for
his kindliness and goodnature than for his care-
lessness in dress, his laziness, his excessive smok-
ing, ami a thousand amiable eccentricities. He
died November 21, 1844, and the vast spontane-
ous concourse at his funeral in the Nevsky I'ros-
]iect sbowcil bow closely he hail toucheil the
popular heart of Russia. A line bronze statue of
liim was erected in the Sunnncr (iarden.
Krilof was careless of fame, but could not help
being a consummate artist, ami the Horalian
niriosa feliritns is one of the most characteristic
460
KRIMMITSCHAU
KRUPP
marks of his versification. His shrewd h\imour
and keen thoniiih •j'^'ii'i' satire are all liis own, no
less than that insif;lit born of sympathy which has
fjiven snoh reality and Irnth to his {jfliniiisps of
Kussian men and manners. His slijjhtest fahles,
however li^'ht and nierely hninorous they seem,
are stamped lhroiij;hoiU liy bro.ad humanity and
intense althouj^h enlij;htened patriotism. Yet he
is never d\ill or tedious, and his moral never lacks
the saving grace of spontaneity. Withal lie is a
genuine fabulist, with rich measure of that shrewd-
ness wra|)]>e(l in simplicity, that sense of the varied
individuality veiled in the dumbne.ss of the brute-
world, and that mastery of the art of compressing
the essentials of a story into a few concise and
straightforward lines, which mark only the greatest
masters of the art.
For Krilof" s life may be read the memoirs in Russian
by Pletnef ami by Grot, and the admirable sketch pre-
fixed by the late W. R. S. Ralston to liis Krilof and his
Fables, a prose translation; in its first edition (1868), of
ninety-tliree fables ; in its fourth ( 1883 ), of Hfty-five more.
Tliere are good translations into French verse by Charles
Parfait ( 1867 ) ; into German by Ferdinand Torney ( 1842 ),
and an anonymous lady (18tJ3). See also chap. vi. voL 1
of ISutliLTland Edwards, The Russians at Home (1879).
KriinillitSCliail, a town of Saxony, 45 miles
S. of Leipzig by rail, manufactures buckskin
and vicuna wool, machinery, (S:c. Pop. (1870)
17,705; (1885) 19,755; ( 1895) 2.S,553.
Kris, a dagger or ])oniard, the universal weapon
of the inhabitants of the JIalayan Archipelago.
Malay Kris.
It is made of many different forms, short or long,
straight or crooked. The hilt and scabbard are
often nnich ornamented. Men of all ranks wear
this weapon, and those of high rank when in full-
dress sometimes carry three or four. In Java women
sometimes wear it.
Krisliiin. See Vishnu.
UroiU'lllU'rg, an iron-manufacturing town of
Rhenish Prussia, 4 miles S. of Elberfekl. Pop.
8858.
Kronos. See S.vruRN.
Kronstadt (Magyar Brassd), an important
trading and irou-niannfacturing town, and capital
of a Hungarian ccmnty in the extreme south-east
of Transylvania ; it is' 261 miles SE. of Pesth by
rail, near' the Carpathians, and 18."i0 feet above the
sea. The pop. (30,7;J9 in 1890) includes Saxons,
Szekler, Magyars, Koumanians, Greeks, Armenians,
and Gypsies. — For the Kussian Kronstadt, see
('|;(>NSTAI)T.
Ul'oonii'll, or Kliooiiovs (also s|)elt Kriimcn
and Kniliiii/.s), a Negro people inhabiting for the
most part tlie Pepper Coast of (iuinea, \Vest .\frica.
They belong to two divisions, the tirebo or Ge<lebo
and the Kroomeii projier. The (Jrebo are agricul-
turists and traders ; the Kroomen are bold and skil-
ful boatmen, and are emidoyed for the surf-boats
all along the coast of that part of .-Vfrica. Their
language is (dosely related to the Mandingo tonglu^
KropoJkilie, I'n'N''!'; I'ktki!, Russian Nihilist,
was born at .Moscow iu )84'2, of one of the noblest
houses in the em))ire. At fifteen lie entered the
Corps of Pages at St I'etersburg, whither, after live
years' service and exploration iu Siberia, lie returned
in 1867 to study mathematics for four years at the
university, whilst acting as secretary to the Geo-
graphical Societ.v. In 1871 he explored the glacial
deposits of Finland and Sweden ; in 187'2, whilst on
a visit to Belgium and Swit/crland, he associated
himself with the extremest section of the Inter-
national. Two years after his return to Russia he
was arrested (March 1874), but in .July lS7(iescaped
to England. From Switzerland ho wiis expelled in
1881 ; and at Lyons be was condemned in 1SS3 to
five years' imprisonment. Release<l in 1S8G, he re-
turned to England. lie is author of I'aro/c.<: (Vim
IUco/tc{\l^s:^).fii j:iiti!iiriHaiidFir)ickrn'.suiis{\HS7),
Mcmoirx of a licvotutionist (1899). and articles in
the Eiiri/. Biitatiiiim, the present work, &c.
HrJidoiicr, Barh.vra Juliaxa von (1766-
1824), daughter of H.aron von Vietingliofl", was
born at Iliga. .Married to Baron von Kriidener, a
Livonian nolilenian who was lUissian ambassador
at Venice, she for years lived apart from him in
Riga, St I'etersburg, and Paris. In 1803 she pub-
lished a novel, Vri/cric, edited by Sainte-Benve in
1855, supposed to be jiartly autobiographical. Next
her thoughts turned to religion. She came in
contact with .Jung-Stilling, ami ultimately gave
her.self up to ex.aggerated religious mysticism. She
appeared as the herald of a new religious era,
and impressed the Emperor Alexander of Ru.ssia.
Obliged to withdraw from France, she retired to
her paternal estates near Riga. See Krug's Con-
rcrsdfiwin irith Madame roii Kriidi'ncr ( 1818), and
Lives liv Evnard (1849), Lacroix (1880), and
Cl.arence Ford (1893).
Kriiscr, Stephanus Johannes Paulus, born
10th Oct. 1825 at Rastonburg iu Cape Colony, with
his fellow-Boers 'trekked' to Natal, the Orange
River Free State, and I he Transvaal, and in the war
against England (18S1) was appointed head of the
government. In 1883 he wiis elected president of
the Transvaal Republic, ami again in 1888, IS93,
and 1898. On the failure of negotiations to remedy
the Outlamlers' grievances he, with Mr Steyn, presi-
dent of the Orange Free State, on 9th Oct. 1S99
presented an ultimatum which was virtually a
declaration of M'ar, and for which his government
had liccn preparing for years. This was followed
by the invasion of Natal and Cape Cobmy ; an<l the
war, which lasteil till the end of 1900, resulted in
the annexation of the Transvaal and Orange Free
State as British colonies. In Nov. 1900 Mr Krugev
sought nifuge in Europe. See Jameson ( L. S.);
and Slatham, Paul Kriajcr and liis Times ( 1898).
Ki'iiiiiiuadicr. FitiEDiticii Wilhelm (1796-
1868), anti-rationalist theologian, born at Mbrs-
on-l!bine, was latterly chaplain to the Prussian
court. Translations of his l)ooks on Holomoii and
Elijah the Tishbitc were popular. See bis Auto-
biographv (1869), .anil the Lehenscriiiiicriiiiijeii
(1889) of his brollier, Emil Wilhelm. His father,
Fr. .-Vdfdf Krummacher ( 1768-1845), wrote the well-
known I'arahchi.
Kl'lipp, Alfred, head of the gigantic iron and
steid works at Essen in Prussia, was born in humble
eircumsl.inccs there in 1812. lie succeeded his
father, who li;ul founded a small inm forge there in
1810, and took control of the works in 1848, when
be found ' three workmen and more debts than
fortune.' Almost simultaneously with the intro-
duction of the Bessemer .steel process in 1857 and
the use of the steamhaminer came the demands
from artillerists for larger guns, ami from railway
companies and shiplmilders for more ilurable
materials of construction. Enipp established at
Es.sen the lii'st Bessemer steel works erected in
Germany, and the first forging hammer as welj.
The first steel gun manufactured at E.s.sen (1847)
was a 3-i>ounder muzzle-loader. Krupp showed iu
KRUSENSTERN
KtfENEN
461
the International Exliiliition of 1S51 a (i-ixmndi'i'
steel gun. To Kiu|>ii unilouliteilly lielongs the
credit ot introilucinj; steel iis a material for gun
coustrnrtion, ami of pioneering that material for
many years when it was disregarded by the Govern-
ments. In 1862 he exliibited a cast-steel block
weighing "20 tons, which w:is designed to show
wliat the Essen works were capable of doing in the
manufacture of ordnance. He showed a similar
block at I'aris of 50 tons (1867), and a block of 52
tons at Vienna in 1S73. At the Diisseldorf Exliilii-
tion of ISSO he showed a steel gun of 100 tons
weight, being the first to demonstrate the iiossibility
of producing a piece of ordnance of such enormous
size. The manufacture of cast-steel axles wiis
begun in 1S52, and of tires from solid forged pieces
in 1853. The subseijuent history of the Essen works
is an ei>itome of the reeortls oi the German iron and
steel industry. In all mattei-s of technical and
industrial development Krupp took a leading part.
He acquired large mines and collieries, and every
vear saw additions made to his establishment at
tssen (q.v.). The works cover about UMX) acres,
and al>out 20,000 pei-sons tind employment there in
all departments. Kru|)p was a man of much deci-
sion of character, and great iienetration. Naturally
Germany owed him much, and was not slow to
acknowledge her obligations. The late Emperor
AVilliam frequently visited him, and it was prob-
ably to this circumstance that the popular rumour
of his ))artuei'ship in the works was due. Kru])]!
supplied artillery to almost every government in
Europe, and was the recipient of many foreign
orders and decorations. He died 14tli July 1887,
anil sixty thousand people attended his funeral.
— His sou, Alfred, succeeded as head of the great
house at Essen : and under him was manufactured
in 18S8-90 the 135-ton gtin for the fortifications of
Cronstadt. See Cannon ; and Alfred Kiiijij>, by
Badeker ( Es.sen, 1888 ).
Kriisensterii, Ad.am John, Baron von, a
Russian voyager, was born 8th November 1770 at
Haggud in Esthonia. After serving for some time
in the British navy he was commissioned by Alex-
ander I. of Russia to command a naval expedition
for exploring purposes in the North Pacific. In the
coui-se of a three years' voyage ( 1803-6), the first
made round the world by a Russian navigator, he
discovered the Orloll" Islands, and explored the
Marquesas and Washington groups, the west coast
of Yezo, the coast of Saghalien, and the northern
Kurile Islands. But he failed in the second object
for which he was sent out — the opening of Russian
trade with Japan. He published an account of his
voya"e (3 vols. Petersb. 1810-12), which was soon
translated into the principal languages of Etirope
(Eug. ed. 1813); and to this lie subsequently addeil
Coittribulionis to the 11 inlrorjrapltrj of the J'ueific
Ocean ( 1819 ), ,1 Has oft/ie I'ucijic Oecau, with Recitcil
den Mimoires Hydruijruitldqucs ( 1824-27 ), and other
works on the same subject. Knisenstern died on
12th August 1846 at his estate in Esthonia. See
Memoir by Bernhardi (Eng. trans, by Sir John
Ross, 1856).
Krylov. See KuiLOF.
kshatriya. See C.v.ste.
Kllbun. a river of the Cauca;!ius (q.v.), and the
name of a province.
Kllblai Khan (called by the Chinese Cld-
Tsu), more properly KlllliiL.u Kn.\N, the Grand
Khan of the Niongols and emperor of China, was llie
ftrand.son of Gengliis Khan througli his fourth son
Tuli. During the reign of his brother MatiGU
(1251-59) Kublai completed the conquest of tlie
northern Chinese ( Kin ) empire ( begun by Genghis )
and took jios-^ession of north China. On the death
of Mangii, Kublai was proclaimed khakhan or
Great Khan, but had a formidable rival in his own
brother Arikbuka, and after he had suppressed him,
in Kaidu, a descendant of Gengliis Khans third
son Oghotai, who struggled against Kiiblai through-
out the whole of his reign. Kulilai, who was an
able and energetic prince, adopted the Chinese mode
of civilisation, greatly encouraged men of letters,
made Buddhism the state religion, creating the
office of Great Lama in Tibet, and manifested an
enlighteiuKl care for the welfare of his subjects.
But he was also an ambitious sovereign and a prince
who loved magnificence. He overthrew the Sung
dynasty of southern China, compelled Corea, Cochin
China (Champa), Burma (Mien), Java, and some
Malabar states in India to acknowledge his suprem-
acy. An attempt to invade Ja|ian ended in disaster.
He established himself at Tatu or Klian-baligh
(Cambaluc, the modern Peking), and there founded
a new dynasty — that of Yuen — the first foreign
race of kings that ever ruled in China. Including
the western Mongol states of the Golden Horde (m
the Volga and the Ilkhans in Persia, Kublai's
dominions extended from the Arctic Ocean to
the Strait of Malacca, and from Corea to Asia
Minor and the confines of Hungary — an extent
of territory the like of which had never before,
and has never since, been governed by any one
monarch in Asia. The splendour and ]iomp of his
court inspired the graphic pages of Marco Polo
(q.v.) — who spent some time at the residence of
the Mongol emi)eror of China — and at a later date
the imagination of Coleridge. See Yules Marco
Polo (1875), and Howorth's Histury of the Motujols
(part i. 1876).
Klu-li Beliar. See Behar.
Kill'llt'H. AbI!.\h.\m, an eminent Dutch theo-
logian, w;us born at Haarlem, 16th September 1828,
studied at Leyden, and became at the close of 1852
an e.xtra-ordinary, in 1855 an ordinary professor
there. He was lector of the university, 1861-62.
His fiist important work was \n& Historisch-Crilisch
Onderzoek uaar hct Ontstaan en de Verzamelinij i-aii
de Boeken des Uuden Vcrbuiids (3 vols. 1861-65;
trans, iti part by Colenso, 1865), which had a
great intluence on Old Testament scholars both in
Englarul and (iermany. The result of the critii-al
movement which he inaugurated, although it was
first suggested by Graf, has been to entirely re-
construct the history of Israel, the priestly code
and the historical portions connected with it being
made the latest element in the Pentateuch. This
view of Old Testament criticism has since been
made familiar to Englishmen through the work of
iple II
• K uen
was develoi)ed further by Kuenen in his best-known
book, De Godsdicnat ran Israel tot den Ondergang
van den Joodschen Staut (1869-70; Enw. trans.
3 vols. 187;J-75), and in the carefully revised and
considerably fuller second edition of his Vnderzoek
(the Hexateuch, 1885; the Proi)lietical books,
1889). In the i)reface to the latter he says: 'In
setting forth, fi>r the first time, the complete and
systematic critical justification of the (iralian hypo-
thesis, 1 am MO longer ailvocating a heresy, but am
expounding the received view of Euroi)ean critical
.scholarshi|>.' Other works of Kuenen's, only less
important than these, are De Profeten en de Prvfetie
onder Israel ( 1875 ; Eng. trans. 1877) and J^'atiunid
Religioiis mill Universal He/ii/ions, the Hihbert
Lectures fur 1882. Besides these Kuenen has made
countless contributions on bililical cpieslions to the
learned iimrnals, especially the well-known Theu-
loffisch 'lijdsrhrift, established in 1867. He died at
Leyden, 10th Uecember 1891. In critical insight
and constructive ability, he stood at the bead of the
Old Testament critics of his time ; Ewald's mantle
had fallen on hini. His firm grtusp of historical
462
KUEN-LUN
KUH-HORN
nietlioil has jriven an unusual lucidity and force
to liis argument, and enaliled him to bring almost
for the first time the history of Israel into line with
the history of other peoples of the ancient world.
For, leaving the sjieoial supernatural question aside,
its development must otherwise have been organic
and normal, and this Kuenen was the firet historian
conclusively to demonstrate.
Klieil-Lllll, a great mountain-chain of central
Asia, wliich forms the northern wall of the Tibetan
phiteau, as tlie Himalayas do the southern. Start-
ing from the Pamir phiteau (82° E. long.), the
Kuen-Lun extends e;istward as far as 94° E. long. ,
forming an arc to the north. The entire region,
which varies from 100 to 150 miles in widtli, is
covered with snow, and in many places with gigantic
glaciei-s. Between the chains lie narrow \alleys
of a very steep inclination. Storms of sand and of
snow, often ot both commingled, rage violently in
winter. The peaks of this region measure from
1S,00U to '2.5, 000 feet in altitude, and the passes
from 1.3,000 to 18,000 feet. These mountains were
almost unknown until the explorations of the
Russian General Prjevalski, 1876-S8.
HllKc Coins are the early Mohammedan
coins engra\ed with inscriptions in the Kufic or
epigrapliic Arabic character, as distinguished from
the Neskhi or cursive writing (see AKAni.\, Vol. I.
p. 367); but tlie term is often ajiplied erronemisly
to Arabic coins in general. In the early years of
the califate the gold and copper coinage of the
Byzantine emperors and the silver coinage of the
Sassanians were used and imitated. The Arabic
historians refer to several attempts to introduce a
distinctive Mohammedan coinage prior to 7(5 A. II. ;
but, witli tlie exception of two or tliree isolated
specimens in the Paris Biblioth6que Nationale, on
which unmismatists are not agreed, there is no
numismatic evidence for any such experiments. In
76 and 77 A. H. (695-96 A. D.)" the Calif 'Abd-el-Melik
issued gold coins with his own image instead of
that of the By/antine emperor ; but, the representa-
tion of living creatures being opposed to the law of
Moliannaed, this coinage was discontinued, and a
reformed gold currency, engraved solely with Kuhc
inscriptions, was inaugurated in 77 A. H. This was
supplemented with a silver currency on similar lines
in 79 .\.H., and the earliest dated copper coin
appeared in SO A.H. The gold coin was called a
dhiiir (from the denarius), the silver a dirhem
(dr.achma), and the copper a fc!s (foUis). The
first weighed on the average 65 grains troy, "979
fine, or rather more than our half-sovereign ; the
dirhem weighed aliout 45 grains, '970 line, or rather
more than our sixpence, but was nuich larger and
thinner ; the weight of the fels was irregular.
The earliest coins present chiefly religious formuhus
and the year of issue, to which the silver and some
of the copper added liie name of the mint-city.
The names of the califs first appear on gold and
silver under the 'Abbiisis ; l)Ut with this addition,
and sometimes the names of governors and viziers,
the gold and silver currency of the Moslem empire
remaineil practically unchanged until the 4th cen-
tury of the Ilegira (f].v. ; the lOth .\.I).), and even
then the break-up of the empire of the califs into
numerous minor dynasties did not bring wilh it any
more serious modllications in the coinage than the
introduction of the names of princes and sultans
and some variation in the style of the inscri])tions.
During the whole of this period the Araliic char-
acter on the coins is still almost universally Kufic ;
but in the 4th century local peculiarities begin to
ai>pear, and various styles are developed, which
may be termed trnnxitiointl Kufic. Examples of
tlie.se are seen in the coinage of the Ghaznavis of
2{oi'th-\vest India, and still more marked in the
is.sues of North Africa and Si>ain. such as those
of the I'Yitimi califs. Occa.sional idio.syncra.--ics, in
the introduction of Roman an<l Byzantine images,
and even of the figures of Glirist and the \'irgin,
are seen on the coins of the Mest)i)otamian dyn-
asties of Turcoman race in the (ith century of
the Hegira ( l'2th -V. u. ). wliich also present beautiful
examples of highly-decorative Iraiisitioual Kufic.
In the 7th century ( 13tli A.V.) the Kufic was
generally superseded by the Neskhi character
throughout the coinage of the Moliamniedan world,
and attained its greatest perfection on th(^ ciMiency
of tlie dymists of Granada and Fez, the shahs of
Persia, and the rulers of Delhi. Mongol and Sans-
krit inscriptiims are incorporated wilh Arabic in
the legends of coins struck by the ilescenilants of
(Jenghis Khan in Persia and the Indian kings.
Kufic coins are of inestimable value to the his-
torian, for they supply him generally with the
names of kings, governors, and califs, and those
of their liege-lords, heii-s-appaient, and viziers, and
often a short pedigree of their ancestry, together
with the city where they struck the coins, and the
year, and sometimes even the month, of issue. A
complete list of Mohammedan coins is a skeleton
history of the Moslem emidre in all its ramifications,
and not seldom a prince or dynasty unknown to
history is revealed by the coins alone.
Tiie principal modern authorities on the subject are
•■xizet. lil' Hunts de la JVumuynatiqiie Musidmatu (ISGS);
Sauvaire, Mat-'i-iaux pour scrvir a tliistoire de ht Niimis-
matique Musulmiim' (li^b, &c.); Tiesenliausen, jl/onnaiM
des Khalifis Orimtaux (1873) ; I.avoix, Cataloiiue des
Mommies Musulmnnex di: la Bibliotheque Nationale ( vol.
i. 1S,S7); Stickcl, Hnndlntch zar moriji'idiindischtn Miinz-
/i«n(/e (1870); S. Lane-Poole, Catalogue of the Oriental
and Iiulian Coins in the British Museum ( 12 vols. 1875-
90), Catalogue of the Mohammedan Coins in the Bodleian
( bS88), Essai/s in Oriental Jfumismatics (1874 and 1877),
I 'uins and lledals. their Place in History and Art ( 1885) ;
H. .S. Poole. Cataloiiue of Persian Coins in the British
Museum (1888); and among older works, .Marsden,
Xuniismata Oriental ia (1825; and new ed. 1874, ff. ),
I'"riieiiii. /'errnsio (1825).
KlliJClcr. Fkaxz, a German historian of art, was
liorn at Stettin, January 19, 1808, studied at Berlin
and lleidellierg, and in 1833 became a professor in
the .Vcademv of Art and a docciit at the university
of Berlin. "He died March 18, 1858. His most
valu.ible work is a Handbiirh der Gc.iv/iir/ife dcr
MakrrI, ron I\un.-ilantin d. Or. Iii.s (iiif die ticiicre
Zelt (2 vols. 1837). (Jf this the part relating to
Italian art \v;\s transl.vted by the Eastlakes (5th ed.
1887), and that relating to" the German, Sjianish,
French, and Dutch schools by Head. Kuglers
other principal works are a Hiiinlliiirli dcr Kiui.st-
qc.ir/iirldc (1841-42), an unfinished Crsriiic/dc dcr
Hmduimt ( 18.').")-60), and a Life of Frederick the
Great (with ill. by Menzel, 1840; new ed. 1887;
Eng. trans. 1843 aiid 1877). He is also favourably
known as a poet and as the author of several
dranuis.
Kllll-lioril. Ai.i'KNiioRX, or ALrHous, a
simple musiial instrument made of wood or bark
with a cu]>i)ed mouthpiece, formerly emiiloyed by
the mountaineers of Switzerland and other countries
to convey signals or alarms in war-time, but now
only used by cowherds— heme the name. It is
varicmsly maile from 3 feet to about 8 feet long,
nearly straight, curving at the end, and widening
into a bell, and has the iieeuliarly tender sound
produced by the cupiied mouthpiece in conjunclioii
with the wooden tube. It has the ojien harmonics
of the tube; and its melodies, which among the
monnlains have a cliarm all Ihcirown. are played
(Ui the notes (', (1, (', E. G.— A similar instrument,
called Lure, is used in Sweden, ami kimlied ones
ill the Himalayas and among the Indiana in South
America.
KUILENBURG
KURDISTAN
463
Kiiiloiibiira;. See Cri.KNiiORc.
Kllka. '»■ KiKAWA. See BoRSU.
kll-KllIX Klail. a secret organisation wliicli,
saiil to liave Ijeen foiiiulcd in 1866 at Pulaski,
Tennessee, orijrinally for jjurposes of amusement
only, soon ilevelopeil into an association of ' rej;u-
latoi's,' anil became notorious for the lawless deeds
of violence i)erformed in its name. The proceedin.i;s
of the Kn-KUi\ in the southern states are only one
feature of the iletermined stru;;gle to witlihold from
the emancipateil slaves the riglit of votinj;. The
outrajres and murders which convulsed the country
in 1868-69 ended in the calling out of troops aiul
the formal disliandment of the society in March of
the latter year; but its name and often its disguises
were used for yeai-s after to cover the violence of
political ilesperadoos.
Klllja< a town of Zungaria, central Asia,
stands on one of the great highways leading from
China to west Turkestan, and on the Hi. This
river rises on the northern slope of the Tian-Shan
Mountains, and Hows north and north-west into
Lake Balkhash, after a coni-se of about I'M
miles. Kulja is the chief town of a fertile district
that produces excellent corn, rice, cotton, tobacco,
wine, an<l fruits, whilst its ]iastures support largf!
herds of horses, camels, cattle, and sheep. This
district (Kulja or Hi) revolted against China in
1865, wa.s occupied by Kussia in 1871, but ten years
later restored to the Chinese. Kussia, however,
retained 4357 sq. ni. of the western part, now incor-
porate<l in the province of Semirvetchensk. Thi'
Chinese ]irovince has an area of 23,130 sq. m. and
a population of 7(1,000. In 1876 the population of
tlie entire province whilst in Russian hands was
132,0(X). The town of Kulja has about 12,500,
mostly Chinese inhabitants. Xew Kulja, 25 miles
to the west, was destroyed by the rebels in 1866 ;
previous to that date it had 75,000 inhabitants.
See Proc. Itoy. Geog. Soc, August 1880.
Kllllll, a village of Bohemia, 3 miles NE. of
Teplitz, was the scene of a bloody conliict between
tlie French and the allied Prussians and Russians
on 29th and .SOtli August 1813. The French, num-
bering 40,000 men, were commanded by Ceneral
Vandamme ; the Ku.ssians, during the tirst day's
condict, were 15,000 strong, and were commanded
by General Ostermann. During the night the
latter were heavily reinforced, and on the second
day ISarday de Tolly assumed the comman<l. The
result w;is the complete wreck of the French army,
which lost in these two days little sliort of 20,000
men ; Vandamme capitulated with 10,000 men.
Kiiltiir-kaiiipt'. See Cermaxy.
Klim. next to Meshed the nu)st sacred city of
Persia, is a straggling, half-ruined, uninviting
town on the commercial road between Ispahan and
Teheran. Its many shrines and tombs dedicated
to Mohammedan (Shiite) s.aints, especially the
reputed tomb of Fatima, the daughter or sister of
the great imam Riza, annu.ally attract several
thousands of pilgrims. Pop. 20,(J00.
Kliniailioto', a town on the west coast of the
islaml ol Kiu siu, Japan. Pop. (1895) 69,828.
kiiiiiaiiia. See Cumania.
Klllliailll. a district in the Northwest Pro-
vinces ol India, with an area of 70OO si|. m. It lies
chielly on the south slope of the Himalayas, anil
comprises a number of summits rising to over
20,00f) feet. At their foot a great waterless forest,
10 to 15 miles in breadth, lills the country with
wild jungle, except where clearings have been made
by the liilltribe.s. Mines of iron, copjx^r, and lead
exist, but few have yet been worked at all. There
are numerous important tea-gardens in the district.
Almora(q.v.) is the administrative headquarters.
Pop. ( 1891 ) 563,181, nearly all Hindus.
kllllliss. See KoUMl.ss.
kiiniiiiel. See Liqueur.
klllll-qiiat. See Oranim;.
klllldllZ. a river and state of Afghan Turkestan.
See Afcuanistan.
klllier.sdorr, a village in Prussia, 4 miles E.
of Frankfort-onthe-Oder, was the scene of one
of the most remarkable battles of the Seven Years'
War, fought on 12th August 1759, in which Frede-
rick the Great with 48,000 men, after gaining a
half victory, was completely defeated by the allied
Russians and Austrians, 78,000 men strong. The
Prussian loss was 18,500 men, with almost all their
artillerv and baggage, while their opponents lost
16,000 inen.
klinglir, a town in Kussia, 50 miles SSE. from
Perm, 'carries on tanning, boot-making, and
tallow-boiling. Pop. (1885) 11,882.
klllliglllldc St, daughter of Count Siegfried
of Luxemburg, and wife of Uuke Henry of Bavaria,
who was crowned king of the tiermans in 1002, and
emperor in 1014. According to legend, she vindi-
cated her chastity by walking barefoot over hot
ploughshares. After her husband's death in 1024
she retired into the convent of Kaufungen, near
Ca.ssel, which she had founded, .and here she died,
3d March 1030. Pope Innocent IIL canonised her
in 1200.
kupfcrsclliefer, one of the series of strata
whicli make up the 'Dyas'type of the Permian
System ( ([. v. ) as it is developed in Germany. The
bed consists of black bituminous shale, about 2
feet thick, abuiulantly charged with well-preserved
remains of various tish, coniferous leaves, fruits,
i&c. The organic remains are abundantly coated
and even re])laced by copper ore ( hence the name
of the bed ), which has been extensively worked
along the Hanks of the Harz.
kura, a river of the Caucasus (q.v.).
kliraill. a river rising in Afghanistan near
the northern end of the western Suliman range,
and Howing through British territory into the
Indus near Isakhel. Its valley affords a famotis
pass into Afghanistan.
klirdistail' ('the Country of the Kurds'), an
extensive geographical, though iu)t jiolitical, region
of Asia, for tlie most part included within a line
drawn from Sivas in Asia Minor by way of Diar-
bekr, Sulimanieh, Kermansbah and I'rmia (in
Persia), Mount Ararat, and Erzerdm, bacdc to Sivas.
Kurdistan thus lielongs to both the Turkish and
Persian monjiicliies, chietly to the former, and I'on-
tains about .50,000 sq. m., with a population esti-
mated at more than 2;^ millions, thus ilislributed —
nearly U milliims in Turkey, 700,000 in Pei-sia,
45,000 in Russian Transcaucasia, and .about .^OOO
on the Afghano- Persian frontier ( trans|ilanted
thitlier by Nadir Shah). The country embraces
till- mountain-chains that abut n]ii>u tbi^ .Armenian
plateau on the south, and upon the Iranian jdateau
on the east. Thus its surface ranges fnnn 5000 up
to 15,000 feet in altitude. Between the mountain-
chains, the summits of which .are generally densely
wooded, lie grassy |)lateaus. Numerous rivers force
their way through the mountains at right angles to
the directions ol their main axes, .-ind go to feed the
Tigris ami the Euphrates ; chief of these tributaries
.are the two Zabs, the Batman su, ami the two
branches of the Euiihrates. The principal pro-
ducts of the soil and of native industry are wool,
butter, sheen, gum, gall-nuts, hides, raisins, anil
tob.acco, which .are sold out of Kurdish districts
to the annual value of il 10,000. The bulk of the
464
KURFURST
KUSI
inliubitants are Kurds ( the ancient Carduchi), a race
partly noniail and pastoral, and i)aitly settled and
agricultural. The Kurds, who spt'ak a laii^'uage
called Kernianji, derived from an old I'ersian dialect,
have from time immemorial stooil on the same level
of civilisation. They are predatory and impatient
of political subjection, but recognise a code of rude
chivalrous honour, anil are hosj)itable and brave.
They live under chiefs of their own, hut are nomin-
ally subject to the Porte and the Shall of Persia
respectively. Their origin is traced back to the
Turanian (iutu or Kurdu, who were a powerful
people in Assyrian limes. After the fall of Nineveh
they gradually became niergeil in the Medes and
were Aryanised. Kurdistan, having been ruled suc-
cessively by the Persians, Macedonians, Partbians,
Sassanians, and Romans, is exceedingly rich in
antiquarian remains, most of which are still un-
examined. The great Saladin was of Kurdish de-
scent. In 18S0 an extensive Kurdish rising again.st
Persia took place, apiiarently in the hope of secur-
ing independence. The inhabitants, with the ex-
ception of certain ])eeuliar and esoteric sects, and
the Nestorians (ij.v. ), |)rofess Mohammedanism.
They have cruelly plundered and slaughtered their
Armenian neighbours. The chief towns are Bitlis,
Van, Urumia, Diarbekr, and Kermansbah.
See Millingrn, H'lW Life amomi the Koorda (1X70);
Lerch, Forsehumjcn icbcr die Kurdcn (St Petersburg,
1857-58); Jaba, Recueil de Notices el Recita Kourdcs
(1860); and Jab.i's Dictiomuiire Kunk-Frani;aise, with
Justi's valuable preface ( 1879).
Kurfurst. See Elector.
Kiiria-lliiria Islands, a group of li\e
islands, situated 21 miles from the south-east coast
of Arabia, in 17' 30' N. lat. and 5i> 10' E. long.:
area, 21 miles ; pop. .34. The ancient Insula
Zenobii, they were ceded to England in 18.")4 by
the Imam of Muscat. On one of them is a signal-
ling station of the Eastern Telegraphs Comiiany.
(Juano of an inferior quality is obtained from them.
Klirilcs. a sparsely-populated group of islaiuls,
nunjbering twenty-six in all, and extending like
a chain from the southern cape of Kaiucbalka to
the eastern extremity of Ye/o in daiian, to which
empire they belong. By a treaty made with l!ussi;i
in 1S75 the Jajjanese surrendered claims on the
southern part of Saghalien, and received in ex-
change the more northerly jjortion of the Kuriles.
The large.st islands of the group ari' Iturup and
Kunashiri, frequently visited by seal-hunters. A
migratory race of |)it-ilwellers, calling themselves
KurielsUy Ainos, and numbering about sixly souls,
is found on the islands, the remnant of a people
which formerly iidiabited Yezo (see Tniiisiicliuiis
of the Asiatic Hocicli/ of Ja/iaii, vol. x. p. 190).
NVith the exception of these pit-<lwellers and a few
Japanese and Aiiio families on tlie soutliern isles,
the population remains in this misty and inhospit-
alde region only during the summer, ius long a-s the
iishing season lasts.
Ulirisclies Hall', a fresh-water lagoon of East
I'russia, extending til miles south from Memel ;
width in the south, 28 miles ; average width, 14
miles. It is connected with the Baltic by the
' Memel Deeps,' a channel about .500 y.irds wide
and 20 feet deep. The spit of sand-dunes, oiu; to
two miles wide, that separates it from the Baltic,
is encroaching on the hair at the rate of eighteen
feet anuually.
Kiirlaiitl. See CouKLANi).
Klirrat'irce, (Karachi), the capital of Sind and
of K\irrachee district, and the chief port of entry
for the Punjab, stands at the northern end of the
great Indus delta, and close to the frontier of
Beluchistan. It is a tenninus of the Sind, Punjab,
and Delhi liailway, and is 1169 miles by rail (about
half that distance direct) SW. of Delhi. Kurrachee
has an extensive harbour, sheltered by a lueak-
water and a long reef. >at the extremity of which is
a lixed light 120 feet above the sea. The laiiding-
]dacc is on Kiamari Island, which is connected willi
the town by the Napier mole, 3 miles long. The
entire cost of the great harbour imi)rovements, coui-
jdeted in 1873, wa-s £450,000; and there is now a
lowest depth over the bar of 20 feet. Kurrachee
is a modern town, and its public buildings aiul
churches are generally uninteresting, the nujst
attractive being the Frere municipal ball (with a
library and museum ), named after Sir liartle Krere
(q.v.), of whom there is also a statue here. To the
east .and north are the cantonments, and, close by,
a public garden of 40 acres. The jdace is generally
healthy, and not so hot as the inland districts
of Sind ; and there is now ,a good watersupi)ly.
There are ironworks and several large cotton presses
in the town, the cotton of Sind and the Punjab
forming an iini)ortant article of exjiort. The prin-
ci])al exports, however, are wheat and oil-seeds.
The annual trade of the ]>ort has risen to aliove
£7,000,000; the inland tr.ade extends to Afghan-
istan and lielucbistan. Po]). ( 1881 ) 73,.5tj0 ; (1801 )
10."), lO'J, with the cantonnu'uts. — Kurrachee district
has an area of 14,1 lo sq. m. ; pop. 500,880, mostly
Mohamnu'dans. See Baillie, Kurrachee, Fast,
Present, and Fidurc (1890).
Klll'.sk. thecbief town of the Kussi.an government
of Kursk, 312 miles by rail S. by W. of Moscow
and 274 NNE. of Kietl. The chief industry is
tanning; but soap, tobacco, candles, and spirits are
also manufactured. Kursk is celebrated for its
orchards, and has an observatory. Pop. (1871)
31,754; (1897) 02,908. Near the town a fair is
held after Easter, when more than £1.250,000
worth of connnodities are disposed of, the chief
being cotton, silk, and woollen fabrics, sug.'ir, tea,
leather, horses, &c. — The ejorernmcnt of Kursk, in
the middle of south Russia, contains 17,931 s(|. ni.,
three-fourths fertile arable land (black eartli)-
Pop. (1897) 2,394,893. The i)rovince is watered by
luimerous feeders of the Dnieper and the Don.
Kurtz, JiiiiANN HElNliini, tlu'ologian,wasb(un
at Montjoie, near Aix la-Chapelle. Kitli Decemlier
1809, and was lirst (U^stined for a commercial career,
but early devoteil himself to the study of theology
at Halle and P.oun, an<l became in 1835 religious
instructor at the gymn.asium of Alilau, in 1850
ordinary professor of Church History (in 18.59 of
Exegesis) at Dorpat. He retired in IK70, and lived
at Marburg till his death, 2(jtli Ajiril 1890.
His writings are numerous, ami scmie. owing to their
usefulness, have been exceedingly popular, as the LcliHmch
der lieilinen (Je.ichichte (1843; Kitli ed. 1884), Clirisll.
Itiliaiwikelire (1844; 13tli ed. ],S83), JliUiselie Geschiclile
mit Frlatdcrunijen ( 1847 ; iHtli ed. 1882 ), ami AbriKx der
A'i>r/(tw/tS(7i!o/i<c (1852 ; 11th ed. 188(1). His works ui
the department of biblical criticism include iJas Mosaische
(>/)/«■ (1842), mUl u7hI A.itronomie (1842), Zii'e Einh<it
der (Icnesis (1840), Zi'r Thmloiiic der J'mlmcn (18(J5),
and especially G'esehichtc des Allen Jliindcs (1848-55)
and Frkldruwj des Briefs «» die Hebriier (1809).
His most iniportant book.s, however, are tliose devoted
to church history, bis Hnmlhiicli der allr/emeincn Kirchen-
iiesrliiehte (18iJ3-.5(J), and the invaluable manual, Lehrbuch
drr Kircliciir/isclnetite fiir titndiiniid' (18411; 9th ed.
1885). Of tiie last there are three Englisli translation.s.
lilirillliail, a niissicui-station of the London
Missionarv Societv in Bechuanaland, about 130
miles NW. from ' Kindierlev. It was for many
years the scene of the labours of Dr Mollat, and
there Livingstone also labourcil.
Hiisi, a consider.able tributary of the Ganges,
ri.ses in the Nepal Himalayas, totbe north-west of
Mount Everest, and Hows generally south, in a
rapiil stream, with a great boily of water, to the
KUSKOQUIM
KYTHUL
465
main river. Its length is about 3'25 miles, and it is
navigable, although with dirticulty, by boats of ten
tons, to the Xejjal frontier. Its beil is constantly
shifting to tlie westward, and its Hoods have turned
wide tracts into sand and jungle.
Klis kuqililll. See Al.\sk.\.
Kllstl'Ildji. or more properly since 1878 Con-
ST.\NZ.\, a seaiiort in the Dobrudja, Koninania,
stands on the Black Sea, at the end of Trajan's
wall and of the railway to Tchernavoda on the
Danube. The harbour is e.xposed ; but corn, wool,
cattle, and hides are exported. Pop. 5000. Not
far distant from the town was Tomi, the place of
Ovid's banishment.
Kiist«'iilaii(l. See GoRZ.
Kiistrill. a town of Prussia and a fortress of
the lirst rank, is situated in the midst of extensive
marshes at the oonlluence of the AVarthe with the
Oder, 51 miles E. of Berlin by lail. It was first
fortified in 1535-43, and was held by the French
from 1806 to 1814. Klistrin is also an important
railway centre. Pop. (1885) 15,105.
Klltahia. or KiT-W.a. (the ancient Cutiieiuu),
:i town of Asiatic Turkey, in Anatolia, stands 70
miles .SE. of Brusa, at a point where great com-
mercial highways cross. Its inhabitants, variously
estimated at 30,000 to 60,000, cultivate opiuni,
tobacco, corn, and vegetables, and export wool,
mohair, and opium.
Klltais. See Transcaicasi.^.
lilltteilberST* '■'■ mining-town of Bohemia, 185
miles by rail NXW. of Vienna. Its silver-mines
were worked at least as early as the 13th century,
and the lirst silver grosrhen were struck here about
1300. The town contains a number of fine old
buildings, and has miscellaneous manufactures.
Close by is an imperial tobacco factory, with 2000
hands. ' Pop. (1890) 13,563.
Kutll'soff. Michael Ilarioxovich, Prince of
Smolensk, a Russian field-marshal, was born 16th
September 1745, entered the Russian army at the
age of sixteen, and in 1784 became major-general.
He distinguished himself in the Turkish war, and
was ai)pointed in 1805 to the command of the first
army corps against the French. In 1.S12, notwith-
standing his advanced age, as conimaiider-in-chief,
he fought Napoleon obstinately at Borodino (i|.v.),
and obtained a great victory over Da\oiit aii<l
Nev at Smolensk. Tolstoi calls him 'the genius
of llussia and of the war.' He died 28th .\pril
1813.
K^villl. See Gaboon.
K.vailisillK* a method of jireserving ships from
Dry Kot ((i.v.), by injecting into the pores of the
wood a solution of corrosive sublimate, was in-
vented by John H. Kyan (born at Dulilin, 1774;
died in New York, 1850).
Kyauite. See Cy.vnite.
K>'d. Tllo.MA.s, dramatist, born in the autumn
of 155s, seems to have been educated at Merchant
Taylors' School, and was most likely brought up as
a scrivener under his father. His bloody and bom-
bastic tragedies of the Titus Andruiiicus ovt\e.v early
brought him reputation. Tlie.se were the two
plays having fm- their hero Jeroiiimo, marshal of
iipain. The lirst, dealing with the hero's earlier
history, was not published till 1605 ; the seconil
was licen.seil in 1592 lus The Spunish Tnu/cdy, but
the earliest extant copy is dated 1594. The pro-
duction of both may perhajis be dated lietween
1584 anil 1589. Ivyd published, in 1.594, a tedious
tragedy on Pompey's daughter Cornelia, translated
290
from the French, almost certainly ])ioduccd The
Rare Triumphs of Love and Fort line (1582) and
Soli/niaii and Pemcda ( 1592), and has been credited
with a greater or less share in other plays. He
was a close friend of Marlowe, shared the odium of
his irreligious opinions, and is supposed to have
died in poverty in 1595. His name now survives
only ill .Jonson's 'sporting Kyd and Marlowe's
miglity line.' F. S. Boas edited him in 1901.
Kjit", the central district of Ayrshire (q.v.).
K> dtu, or Ml.-VKO, for over a thousand years the
ca|iital of Japan (q.v.), is situated on a Hat jilain
about 26 miles inland from Ozaka. A high range
of hills to the east separates this plain from Lake
Biwa, and on these some of the finest temples con-
nected with the city are built. The city is rect-
angular in form, the longer streets running north
and south, parallel to the Kamo River, w liicli tlows
along the base of the ridge. At the northern end
are situated, in an enclosure, the plain wooden
buildings where the emperors of Jajian dwelt so
long in seclusion. The Honganji temples of the
Monto sect of Buddhists, fine structures of their
kind and the centre of the Buddhist faith in Japan,
rise at the southern end of the city. The streets,
though narrow, are clean and attractive, and the
whole city has an air of relinement. The
singing-girls of Kyoto are noted for their graceful
dances. The pottery, porcelain, crajies, velvets,
and Virocades of Kyoto are highly esteemed ; its
embroideries, enamels, and inlaid bronze-work, are
marvels of skilful handicraft. Pop. ( 1895) 318,280.
Ky'rie Elei'son (Gr. KuHc dccson, 'Lord,
lia\e" mercy '), a form of prayer which occurs in all
the ancient Greek liturgies, and is retained in the
Roman Catholic nia-ss. It follows immediately
after the introit, the priest and the server saying
alternately ' Kyrie eleison ' thrice, ' Cliriste eleison '
thrice, and again ' Kyrie eleison ' thrice; the triplets
are understood to be addressed to the three Persons
of the Trinity. The Greek words have always lieen
left untranslated in the Latin liturgy. In their
translated form they are known to Anglican chnrcli-
nien as the 'lesser litany,' and occur in the order
for morning and evening prayer, and also in the
Litany ; processional litanies in the early church
began with the phrase, and sometimes included as
many as a hundred repetitions. The First Prayer-
book of Edward VI. (1549) retained the 'lesser
litany ' after the introit ; but in 1552 it was em-
bodied in the short petition that follows each of
the commandments, which were then inserted in
the communion office.
Kyrh', John (1637-1724), philanthropist, was
styled the ilan of Ross by Pope, having resided for
the greater part of his life in the small town of Ross,
Herefordshire. Hespenthistimeand forluiieinliuild-
ing churches and hospitals, on an income amount-
ing to £600 a year. Pope celebrated his praises in
his third Moral Epistle, and Warlon said that lie
deserved to be celebrated beyond any of the heroes
of Pindar. The Kyrie Society is a modern asso-
ciation named after him, and was started by Misses
Miranda and Octavia Hill in 1875, and founded in
1877 by Prince Leopold and others. The society
seeks to bring the infiuences of natural and artistic
beauty home to the lives of the People by means
of the decoration of workmen's clubs, of hospital
warils, and of dwelling-houses; by the encimiagc
ment of window-gardening ; providing concerts for
the people : and by .securing open spaces, both in
town and country, to be laiil out as public gardens.
See an article in Good Words, 1881.
Kythlll. See Kaith.^L.
L
the twelfth letter in our alpha-
bet, is descended from the Phoe-
nician character called the ' ox-
goad," lamed, whence the Greek
name lambda was derived. The
letter lamed was probahly a
do^jraded form of the Hiero-
glyphic picture of a recumbent
lioness, from which the hind-
quarters have disappeared, leaving two straight
lines, one of which represented the outstreteheil
fore-paws and the other the chest (see Alphabet).
The early Greek form J, passed o\er to Italy, wliere
it became L. From [,, through the intermediate
stage I-, the Greeks got the form |\ (which was
transmitted to the Runes), and this finally
became A in the Greek capitals and \ in the minus-
cules. Our own minuscule form 1, in which the
horizontal bar is evanescent, was derived from the
old Roman cursive. The Roman numeral for oO
was L, but this is not the letter of the same form,
liut was obtained from the western form of the
Greek letter chi, the successive stages being X, Y>
■Xr- ii and finally L-
The letter I is usually termed a 'liquid,' but is
more correctly designated as a 'front palatal.' It
has a great affinity with r, the positions of the
vocal organs for forming / and r being nearly tlie
same. In sounding /• the breath escajies over the
tip of the tongue, while for / the tip of the tongue
touches the front palate or the base of the gums,
the l>reath escaping over the two sides of the
tongue, and the vibrations of the soft lateral edges
producing slight oscillations in the force of the
breath, whereas in the case of r a stronger trill is
cause<l by the vibration of the tip of the tongue.
In the Spanish //, the Italian (jli, and in the
English word gloni, the contact with the palate is
made by the middle of the tongue instead of by the
tip.
Owing to the atlinity between I and r they are
frequently interchanged. In some languages the
same sign was used for both sounds, in others either
/ or r is wanting. The old Egyijtians seem to have
made no distinction between the two; in (dd Pali
the signs were interchanged ; the Japanese sign for
r was borrowed from a character which represented
I in Chinese ; while the Polynesians substitute /
for ;■ in foreign words. In English a Latin /• has
become I in such words as plum [pruuun), turtle
(turtur), j>ur/)le (purpura), marlili: (marinor), and
pilgrim (pcrrrjriiius). We have the converse
change in cha/iter from i-apituliun, and larrudcr
from lavendula, while cutuiiel is now pronounced
curnel.
The letters d and ;/ have also an allinity with /.
We have the change of d to / in Inrruma for
dacrumfi, liiujua for diiif/ua, lapilhis from lajiidu-
lus, sella from sediila, allufntor from ailloipidr. In
the numerals eteren and tirelrc the I is also
believed to rejirescnt a primitive f/. We finil the
change of « to I in asellus for asiiiulus, collci/iitui
for conlei/ium, and liologiia from Bononia.
In the spelling of several English words the
letter / has fallen out, as in such and caeh, from
the old English swilc and (elc. Though pre.served
in the spelling, it is not heard in the words alms,
palm, calm, yelk, half, would, and should. A linal
/ is often nnite in the Scotch dialect, as in «' for
all, fa' tor fall, fu' ior full. In modern French it
sometimes fades to ((, as in au.c for a Ics, du for
de le, c/teraux for chcrals. In Italian it may
become /, as in piano from planus. On the other
hand, / is intrusive in u-indlass from <). E. u'inda.is,
and in nn/rtle from m>/rtus, principle from princi-
jiiuin, and participle from particijiium. From a
false analogy with would and shoulil, where the /,
derived from will and shall, is radical, it has crept
into the spelling, though not into the pronuncia-
tion, of could, which is the past tense of can. The
M. E. form coude luis no /, while the Dutch hondc
and the German honnte have preserved the n which
belongs to the root.
Lailgor* in South African campaigning, is a
camp made by a ring of ox -wagons set close
together, the spaces beneath being filled up «ith
the baggage of the company.
Laalaild. or Ldll.vnd, a Danish island in the
Baltic, at the southern entrance to the Great Belt,
36 miles long by 9 to 15 broad, with an area of
445 s(i. m., and a pop. (IStlO) of (i7,913. The
surface is remarkably flat, and the soil exceedingly
fruitful. Forests of beech and oak cover ujivvards
of 50 sq. m. The capital is iMariho (pop. '2403);
the largest town, Nakskov (pop. 5'278), with a
good harbour and considerable trade.
Lab'ariini. the famous standard of the Roman
emperor Constantine, designed to commemorate
the miraculous vision of the cross in the sky, which
is said to have a|ipeared to him on his way to
attack Maxentius, and to have lieen the moving
cause of his conversion to Christianity. It was a
long pike or lance, with a short transverse bar of
wood attached near its extremity, so as to form
something like a cross. On the jioint of the lance
was a golden crown sparkling with gems, anil in
its centre the mysterious monogram of the cross
and the initial letters of the name of Christ, the
letters X and P— Gieek for CH and R— being
combined (see CROSS, Vol. III. p. 582). From
the crossbeam depended a squaie purple banner,
and surrouniled by a rich border of gold eni-
broiderv. The cross was substituted for the
eagle, formerly perchetl on the Roman standards,
and there were sometimes otlier emblems of the
Saviour. Between the crown and the cross were
heads of the em|)eror and his family, and some-
times a figure of Chi i>t woven in gold. The origin
of the word is still uncertain, 'in spite,' says
Gibbon, 'of the etbirts of the critics, who have
inefl'ectually tortiirc.i the Latin, Greek, Spanish,
Celtic, Teutonic, Illyric, Armenian, I'i.c. (and, he
nught have ailded, Basque] in search of an ety-
mology. '
LalM'l. See Her.vldry, and C.\dkncy.
Lahiata- {Lamiacc(c of Lindley), a natural
order of exogenous plants, containing almost '2500
known sjiecies, mostly natives of temperat<M-limates.
They are herbaceous, or more rarely half shnildiy,
and have 4cornered stems .-uid o|ipo>ile branches;
also opposite leaves, without stipules, abounding
LABICHE
LABOUR
467
in receptacles of volatile oil. The tloweis are often
in cymes or heads, or in wliorls, or sometimes soli-
tary. .\ i;eneral characteristic of thi.s order is an
aromatic frajiraiice, which in many species is very
agreeable, and makes them favourites in our
gardens ; but some are weeds with an unpleasant
oilour. Many are natives of liritain. Some are
useil in medicine, and others in cuokery for flavour-
ing. >[int. Marjoram, Rosemary, Lavender, Sage,
Basil, Savory, fliyme, Horehound, Halm, Pat-
chouli, Germander, and Dead Nettle are examples
of this order.
Labiohe, Eugene Marin, a French dramatist,
was born at Paris, oth May IHl.'j, studied at the
College Bourbon, and ne.Kt travelled in Italy. His
first dramatic piece was the popular farce M. de
Coijllin { 1838 ), whioli was followed during the ne.\t
forty years by a long series of over a hundred
comedies, farces, and vaudevilles. These were
all marked by rare mastery of stage technique
despite the usual droll improbability of the plots,
intimate knowledge of human nature, crLsp and
sparkling dialogue, and a lambent humour that
is often caustic but never unkindly. He collabor-
ated at one time or another with Gondinet,
Delacour, Legouve, Augier, and other dranuatists.
His Frisette (18-t(j) was the original of Morton's
' Bo.^ and Co.\.' Among the most important of
his pieces are Le C/iapeaa de PailU d'ltalie ( 1851 ) ;
L' Affaire de la Rue de Lourcine ( 1857) ; Le Voyai/e
de M. Perrichon ( 1860 ) ; Les Fetitcs Oiseaiix ( 186.'5) ;
Celiiitare le BieiiAime ( 1863 ) : La Ccttjnoite ( 1864 ) ;
Le p/us Ilcureux des I'rois { 1870) : Doit-on le dire
(1873); Les Trade Millions de Gladiator (1875);
Le Prix Martin ( 1876) ; La CU ( 1877 ). A success-
ful collection of bis pieces apjjeared under the title
Theatre de Labiche (10 vols. 1879), with an intro-
duction by Augier. Labiche wiis elected to the
Academy in November 1880, and died 23d January
1888.
Lablaclie, Luigi, operatic singer, was born in
Najdes on 6th December 1794 : his fiither w.is a
Frenchman, who had tied from Paris tluring the
horrors of the Revolution, his mother an Irish-
woman. His fii-st eng.agement as a singer was at
the San Carlino Theatre at Naples, in 1812. He
afterwards sang with much success at Palermo
(until 1820), at Milan, Rome, Turin, and Vienna;
in the la.st-named city a medal was struck in his
liimcmr. From 18.30 to 18.52 he sang nearly every
winter at Paris, and annually maile visits to
London, St Petersliurg, ami various cities in
Germany. In London lie was perhaps a greater
favourite than even the wonderful Grisi. Lablache
died at Naples on 23d January 1S58. His voice, a
deep bass, has hardly ever lieen eciualled either in
volume or quality ; and his acting, particularly in
the characters of Figaro, L>on I'.artolo, Don Pius-
quale, Leporello, &c. , was almost as remarkaljle
as his singing. He gave instruction in singing to
Queen \'ictoria.
Lnhoulayc, EDnuARD Rene de, a distin-
guisiied French jurist, w.i-s born in Paris 18th
January 1811, became an advocate, and in 1849
was a|>pointed profes.sor of Cinnparative Jurispru-
dence in the College de France. His most im-
))ortant works are on French law, and a llixluirr.
Politi'/iie des fyatsl'nis, JOM-ITSO (3 vols. 1855-
66; 6tli ed. 1876). He also edited the Ileriie Jlis-
toriqiie (I8.J.7-69), ami its successoi-s, the lievtie de
Lttjtslation (1870-76) ami Nonrelle Jieriie His-
iori'iiie (from 1877). LalKHilaye attJiined some
distinction as an essayist and story-writer ; some
of his tales, including the liiimoroiis Paris en
Am^ririuK, h.'ive been translated into English. He
took up a consistently modeiale position in p(diliis.
and inconsequence gained the enmity of extremists
on both side.s. He w;us elected to the National
Assembly in 1871, and in 1876 became a life senator.
He died iltli May 1883.
Labour, in Pcditical Economy, may be delineil
as eti'ort for the satisfying of human needs. It is on<!
of the three leading factors in production, the other
two being land (or natural objects) and capital;
and it is more fumlaiiiental than capital, which
originally is the result of labour. In the vast circle
of industry labour has a great variety of functions,
which may be tlius chissified : ( 1 ) Producing of
raw m.aterials, as in mining and agriculture; (2)
manufacturing in the widest sense of the word, or
transformation of raw materials into objects service-
able to man; (3) distribution, or transference of
useful objects from one place to another, as deter-
mined by human needs; (4) personal services
rendered by physicians, teachers, &c.
A distinction insisted on by many economists is
that into productive and unproductive labour.
The former consists of those kinds of exertion
which produce utilities embodied in natural objects.
Unproductive labour, like that of the musician,
while both useful and honourable, does not add to
the material wealth of the community. Tlnnigh it
has the appearance of undervaluing some of the
highest services that can be rendereil to the com-
munity, the distinction has a general validity.
Labour directly employetl in rendering natural
objects serviceable to man may in the language ol
political economy be distinctively called productive.
Hut in order to obvi.ite a too narrow and iilistract
view of the subject it Is hardly necessary to point
out that the labour of the phj'sician or teacher may
be indirectly most productive, in.asmuch as it in-
creases the efliciency of the workman by promoting
his health and intelligence. And apart from the
special services rendered by great teachers and
artists, and which cannot be mea.sured in material
wealth, they raise the general level of production,
and even of material civilisation, by inspiring men
w itii liner tastes and higher needs. For the wants
to which productive labour ministers vary at
diirerent stages of social development, and grow
more refined as the human race advances.
The social and legal forms in which labour has
appeared have also varied with the |irogress of
civilisation. In the early stages the labour of the
chase, fishing, &c. was performed by the men,
while the drudgery devolved on the women and
slaves. But at that stage few slaves existed. It
was not till the agricultural stage was reached that
coni|ueriiig tribes spared the conqiiere<l in order to
utilise their services as workers. Ancient civilisa-
tion was ba.sed almost entirely on compulsory
labour. The pyramids and other great works of
Egy|)t and Babylonia were possible only because
governments could command forced labour on a
colossal scale. The more highly develojied societies
of (ireece and Rome rested on the same basis.
It is a disputed c|uestioii bow far free labour ex-
isted in the early Teutonic settlements of England
and other countries. The question is evidently one
of degree, for the Germans possessed slaves long
bef(ue the great emigrations heg.an, and even in
Enjrland they did not entirely exterminate the
natives. The medieval organis.-ition of society,
where definitely constituted, rested on serfdom —
i.e. the mass of the workers were att;iched to the
soil, and rendereil fixed services in labour, in kind,
anil latterly in money. While the condition of
serfdom greatly varied, there can be no doubt that
its tendency was to de|iress the free and raise the
servile cultivators to something like a common
level. The free workers of the towns organised
tliem.selves in Guilds (q.v.). In the coui-se of the
14tli century serfdom began to pass away in Eng-
land. Its disappearance was followed oy euaut-
468
LABOUR DAY
LABRADOR
nients for tlie regulation of labour in the interest of
the niliiii; classes. The lirst, anil one of the greatest,
I'xaniiiles of this was the Statute tif Lahuiircrs oei-a-
sioneil hv the scarcity of labour eonse<iuent on the
Black Death. The 'main ol)ject of this statute,
Nvhich wa-s passed in 1349 and was repealed only in
the early yeai-s of Elizabeth, wa-s to U\ the amount
of wa.i,'es ; and it was superseded by a statute of
Elizabeth which, besides ordaining an apprentice-
ship of seven years, empowered the justices in
.piarter sessions to li.\ the rate of wages both in
imsbandry and handicrafts. This act of Elizabeth
was not iei)ealed till 1814. The i)oor law enacted
at the close of her reign in 1601 may be described
:is a metliod of supplementing the low wages li.\ed
by the ju.stices (see I'oot! L.WV).
Towards the clo.se of the 18th century the effect
if the industrial revolulion was to organise labour
in large factories and similar undertakings ; and in
the early ilecades of the 19th the growing ideas of
freedom had begun to make other great changes
in the condition of the workers. The riglit of com-
bination received in 18'24 was utilised in the forma-
tion of trades-unions ami co-operative societies,
and the admission of the working-men to the
franchise has given them a .share in the political
life of the country. Changes similar to those in
England have taken phice, only much later, in the
countries of the European continent. The emanci-
pation of agricultural labour from serfdom, which
was effected in Fran(^e at the Revolution of 1789,
was not conijileted in central Europe till 1848, ami
in Ku.s.sia not till IStil. Laws for the regulation
of labour are now intended not to fi.\ wages as
formerly, but to protect the weaker class of workers.
Such are the Factory Acts in England, which also
have been followed by a corresponding develoi)ment
abroad. Efforts for the international organisation
of labour proceeding from socialism have been
followed by the international conference for the
regulation of labour, which met at Berlin in 1890.
Another great result of social evolution in the
most advanced countries of the world has been the
more or less conscious and delinite constituting of
the labouring class as a separate class, with interests
at variance with those of the ])ossessors of land an<l
capital. The solution of the questions connected
therewith is now universally regarde<l as the most
pressing duty of statesmen and economists (see
SOCIALI.SM). In this connection it is maintaineil
on the basis of the old political economy that
labour, thus narrowly delined as the attriljute of a
special cliLss, is the source and measure of value.
For treatment of this fallacy, see Valle. See also
DiVl.SION Of LAIiOllt.
Sec Professor Thorolil Rogers' Six Centuries of Work
and Waijm; also popular edition, Wm'k and Wains; and
the cliapters on labour in tlie various systematic works on
political uconuniy.
Lsihoill* Dsiy is a legal holiday in some parts
of the United Slates, as in New York (the lirst
Monday in September). Tiie banks and govern-
ment ollices are closed, labour is snsiiended, and
ihe labour organisations parade the streets and
bold meetings. In Europe, as a result of the
Labour Conference at IJerlin in 1890, in numy
parts of the Continent the 1st of M;iy was to some
extent observed as a labour holiilay.
Labuiirdoiiiiai.s, Bi;i: ihand Francois M.uik
1)E, a famous French naval officer, was born Feb-
ruary 11, 1(199, at St Malo, and alrea<ly in 17'2.'iwas
captain in the naval service of the French Indies.
Next year he distinguished himself so greatly at the
capture of Mabe on the Calabar coast that he was
permitted to add its name to his own, In IT:14 he
was appointed governor of the islands lie de France
and Uourbon, and his wise measures ere long made
them tlourishing colonies. In 1740 he was given
command of a sipnulron in East Indian waters, and
during the ne.xt live years he inllicted great loss
U)")!! England. In September 174U he compelled
Madras to capitulate, but failed to push his success
in consideration of a contribution of nine million
livres. Accu.sed by Dupleix of betraying the in-
terests of the com])any, he returne<l to Fails in
1748, where he languished three years in the
Bastille, but was set free and declared guiltless in
1732. He died September 9, 17o3. Like most
Fienchinen he wrote Mcinoircs ( 1750), but his name
best survives from its mention in Paul ct ]'in/iiiie.
A monunient wa-s erected in 1859 at Port Louis
on the lie de F'rance. — His grand.son, IJertrand
Francois Malic de Labourdonnais ( 1795-1840), w<is
a famous chess-player, and wroti^ a Life of his
grandfather (1827).
Labwiirors. The only peculiar laws atl'ccting
labourers are where they come within the de.scri])-
tion of 'wcirkmen' given in the Employers and
Workmen Act, 1875. The act delines 'workman'
as 'any person who, being a labourer, servant in
husbandry, journeyman, artilicer, handicraftsman,
miner, or otherwise engaged in manual labour,
whether under the age of twenty-one years or
above that age, has entered into or works under a
contract with an employer.' The act [uovides such
lalxmrers a speedy, easy, and cheaj) mode of re-
covering their wages when the amount is small, and
aft'ords masters an easy method of correcting mis-
demeanours and ill-beliaviour on the jiart of the
workmen. Laliourers' wages are iirohiliited from
being jiaid in kind or with goods by the Truck Act
(q.v.). Other measures affecting labourers are the
Factory Acts (q.v.), the extension of the franchise
(see Parliament), the establishment of national
Education (ipv.); the Workmen's Compensation
Act, 1897 (see LlAUlLiTV OF EMl'f.ovi:i:s) : see
also the articles Ali>oT.MENTS, tlAXcs. Trauks-
INIOX.S, MA.STEIi AND SERVANT. Kumbeis of Irish
labourers still come over to England and Scotland
at harvest time, returning again Avhen harvest
is ended. Italians to the number of 87,000
annually leave their homes for unskilled labour
(as on railway laying) in Austria, Cermany, and
France. A )iromineiit feature in the social economy
of .several Russian jirovinces (Samara, Saratoff,
Yaroslav, Vyatka) is the huge annual migration
of their male iiopulation to work in more iiojjulous
centres of Russia as smiths, masons, plasterers,
cai iieiiters, biiatmen, gardeners, iVc. For descriiition
of the condition of English agricultural labourei-s,
see books by Jetl'eiies (q.v.). Heath's KiKjIish I'cas-
antry ( 1874) and Peusant Life in the West of Eng-
laiai ( 1880), and Jessopp's Arcady (1887).
Labrador is the north-eastern peninsula of the
North .\meiican continent, lying between Hudson
Bay and the (iulf of St Lawrence. 'I'lie coasts were
probably visited by the Norsemen about tlie year
1000; they were again sighted by Cabot in 1498.
In 1500 a Portuguese navigator, Cortereal, seems
to have visited it and to have given it its name,
which means ' labourers' land.' Labrador extends
from 49' to (>.T N. lal., and from 55" to about 79"
W. long. The greatest length from the Strait of
Belle Isle to its northern cajie, Wolstcnholme, is
1100 miles; its area, 4'20,0(IO sq. m., or nearly live
times the area of Creat Britain. The Atlantic
coast is stern and i)recipitous ( 1000 to 40(KI feet
high), entirely destitute of vegetation, ili'cply iii-
ileTited with nai row fjords, and fringed willi chains
of rocky islands. 'I'lie i ■! ]iarts of l.ahradcn-
have been but very imperfectly explored ; Ihe
greater liart consists of a plateau, some 2000 feet
above sea-level, and mostly covered with tine
forest trees, lire, birches, die. Numerous lakes,
LABRADORITE
LABUAN
469
inclinlinp; Mistassini (q.v. ), also exist iiilaml, ami,
connectin<; with the rivei-s, atl'ord in suiniiier con-
tinuous waterways for <;ieat distances. 'I'he only
inhaliitantsof this interior plateau are free Indians,
noiuads. There are numerous rivei-s, 2tK) to SOO
miles loni; and 2 ami 3 miles wide at their mouths,
flowing towards the Atlantic and Hudson liay.
The (Irani! Kails are 316 feet in perpendicular heijiht,
but from 4 miles ahove this, to the sea, there is a
magnilicent, almost continimus fall of 20(1(1 feet.
These rivers ahcuind in lisli, especially salmon and
white-Hsh. The princijial fur-hearing animals are
hears, wolves, foxes, martens, otters, heavers,
lyn.xes, \-c. Of the mineral resources little is
known: hut iron and Laluailorite (q.v.) are cer-
tainly ahundant. The climate on the coast is very
rigorous, owing mainly to the ice-laden Arctic
current which washes the .shores. The short
three-months* summer is marred l>y the swarms
of mos<|uitoes an<l lilack Hies. The mean annual
temperature at the niission.ary stations varies
from 22' to 2S°. The winter is <liy, bracing, ami
frosty. The part ilraining to the St Lawrence
belongs to Quebec, and fcuius indeed the larger
part of Quebec province ; that draining to Atlantic
belongs (since 1S09) to Newfoundland; the rest
is, since Isi),"), the territory of L'ngav,a. The great
wealth of Labradiu- is its lish — cod, salmon,
herrings, and trout. As many a.s ."0,(X)(J lislier-
men from Newfoundland, Caiuida, and the United
States visit its Hshing-grounds in the season. The
annual catch is valued at more than £1,000,000.
There are some GUOO permanent settlers, Kskimo
and French Acadians, in the coa.st region, collected
chiefly at the .Moravian missionaiy stations — Nain
(founded 1770), OkUak, Hebron, Hopedale, &c.
.See A. S. Packard in Bnllelin of the Ainfriran Geo-
graphical Sncielfi ( 1.SS7 and 18S8), and his Labrador Coast
!1S92); Hind, Ezplorations of ike Labrador Peninsula
lS6:i); and R. F. Holme in P'ror. Boii. Oeog. Soc. (188S).
Lilbradoi'ite is one of the group of the
Felspars (fj.v. ), ami a very important rock-
forming mineral. Tlius, it is a principal ingredient
in many diorites, b.i.salts, gahbros, and andesites.
It is met with also in certain volcanic tutt's ( Etna).
As a rule it is colourless or gray, and seldom trans-
parent. Here and there it occurs in large masses
a.ssociated with schistose rocks, as on the coast of
Labrador. This massive kind (Labrador stone)
often shows a beautiful play of rich colours, takes
a tine pcdish, and is cut into snu(t-bo.\es.
Labridae. See \Vr.\.s.se.
La Bruyire, -Ie.VN DE, was born at Paris in
164.J. He belonged to a middle-cla.ss family, and
wa-s educated by the (Jratorians, the rivals of the
Jesuits. After leaving the Oratory he was chosen
tf) aid Bossuet in educating the dauphin, and in
1673 w.os appointed treastirer of France for the city
of Caen, a post which he resigned through ilisgust
at the rap.ocity of his fellow-otlicials. He became
tutor to the Due de I5ourlM)n, the grandson of the
Great Cimde. and spent much of his time .it Paris
and C'hautilly witli the Comics, from whom he
receiveil a pension until the date of his death. His
Ctiractitri-s appeareil in 16SS, ran through eight
editions in seven ve.ars, and gained for its author
a host of implacable enemies as well a.s an immense
reputation. The book consisted of two jiarts, the
one being a translation of Theophr.astus, the other
a collection of maxims, reflections, and cliar.icler-
porlraits of the men and women of the time. To
these portraits has been mainly due the wide and
Ia.sting po|)ularity of the I'liriirU'ren. La I'.ruyeri',
hi.s eilitor Walckcnaer Ili-s truly said, ' made mirrors
on which by some magic property the relleeteil
face.s of a whole generation of men and wiunen
have become indelibly impressed.' Bitterly a.s.sailed
for his personal satires, La Bniyfre found a
powerful protectress in the Duchesse de Bourbon,
a daughter of Louis XIV., who is said, with what
truth cannot be determine<l, to have aided him in
the composition of the later sketches which he
embodied in his work. His enemies, headed by
Fontenelle and Tliom;us Corneille, were twice .able
to secure his rejection when he tried for a ch.air in
the Academy. In ItiflS, however, he was elected,
his success being greatly due to the energetic
ettbrts made on his behalf by his patroness,
who is said to have resented to a str.atagem bv
which certain .Vcademicians were prevented from
voting against him. La Bruycre — who never
married — died on May 11, KiiMi, his death being
caused by <a decoction of tobacco administered to
him by the king's |>liysician with the view of
relieving him from an attack of apo])lexy. l>e|iorts
that he had been poisoned by his enemies were at
one time current, but have since been thoroughly
disproved. His DinloipiCK snr le, QiiiHisme were
issued in 1699. They were directed against
Fenelon, and show none of the literary power so
conspicuous in the Cararh^rcs.
Though he cannot rank with Montaigne or Pas-
cal, La Hniyere is .a moralist of high standing and
a writer of the highest excellence. Sainte-Beuve
aflirmed that bis book should be at the hand of
every author, and that to read parts of it d.aily
would be no less helpful to every critic than the
study of the Imitatio to every one of a tendei
and devotional spirit. In his style the clearness,
precision, and chissic elegance of the Louis XIV.
men are united with a [lithiness, a freshness ol
phnvse, and a richness of cidour suggestive of the
prose of a later epoch. Like most workers in
apothegm and epigram, he falls at times into
triteness .and exagger.ation ; but he has singularly
few dull pages. His book is built on no regular
plan, and to this its peculi.ar charm is in no small
measure due. The writer perpetually varies his
subject and bis manner. Vou have here a pregnant
maxim, a cle.ar-cut epigram, .a piquant .anecdote,
an old truth reset with no\el felicity of phrase —
here a i).age of acute literary criticism — here a bit
of di.alogue as cris]) .and bright .as the talk in a
sp.arkling comedy — here a character-sketch, racy
with ironic malice, and humour, and wit — there a
pa.ssage glowing with a sombre reiuessed indigna-
tion which proves how deei)ly the author resented
his countrymen's wrongs. A great writer r.alher
than .a great thinker, his insight into character is
shrewd r.ather than profound. It has been truly
remarked by Snard that, while Montaigiu- has
painted man .as he is in all times and in all places.
La liruycre h.as oidy painteil the courtier, lawyer,
financier, and hoiirrjeois of the days of Louis XIV.
The best edition of La Bruycre is that inchulcd iu
the series Lea Grands Ecrivains de la France, edited by
G. Scrvois (3 vols. 1864-82); a recent Knglish transla-
tion of the Cararti'rrH is that by Helen Stott I181K)).
See the notice by Suard prefixed to the edition of 1838, an.:
Life by Scrvois in tlic 'Grands Ecrivains' .scries (1882).
Lahliail. an island 30 sq. m. in area, lying 6
mih^s from the northwest coast of Boiiieo. Besides
possessing a good harbour (\'ictoria), it has an
extensive bed of excellent coal, which has been
worked, though not with commercial success.
Labuan is an active market for the products of the
neighbouring islands ( Borneo anil tlie Sulu Archi
pelago) — sago, edible binls'-iu'sts, camiihor, gutta
])erch.a, india-rubber, r.attairs, jicarls, tortoiseshell,
and beesw.ax. Sago-llour is manuf.ictured. .Average
value of exports, i:.S3,K00 ; of imports. .LSI ,(MH). The
island became British in I.S46, and since 1891 is
administered by the British North Borneo Com-
pany. Pop. (>()fl(), nmstly Malays and Chiinse.
See Brooke (Silt .Ia.mes).
470
LABURNUM
LAC
Laluil'lllllll {Ci/tisHs Lnbiiniiim), a small tree,
a native of the Alps and other mountains of the
soutli of Europe, nnieh planted in shruliberies ami
pleiUiiire<'roumls in Britain, on acconnt of its
fjlossy foliage and its large pendulous racemes of
yellow flowers, which are i)roiluced in great aliund-
ance in May and June. It is often mixed with
lilac, and when tlie latter preponderates tlie com-
bination has a tine etlect. In favourable circum-
stances laburnum sometimes attains a height of
twenty or even forty feet. It is very hardy, and
nowhere tlourislies better than in the north of
Scotland. It is of rapid growth, yet its wood is
hanl, line grained, and very heavy, of a dark-brown
m dark-green colour, and much valued for cabinet-
work, inlaying, and turnery, and for making knife-
handles, musical instruments, &c. The leaves,
bark, and particularly the seeds, are nauseous and
jioisonous, containing Ct/tisiiic. an emetic, purga-
tive, and narcotic princijde. AocMents to children
from eating laburnum seeds are not unfreipient ;
but to hares and r.abbits laburnum is wholesome
food. A fine variety of laburnum, called Scotch
Laburnum, by some botanists regarded as a dis-
tinct species {C. alpin us), is distinguished by broader
Labnrnmn ( Ci/tisus alpin us ).
leaves an<l ilarker yellow flowers, which are pro-
iluced later in the season than those of the common
or English laburnum. Tlie form known tis Adam's
Laburnum (C L. adiiini), now occasionally .seen
in British gardens, originated in the ,Jardin des
I'lantes at Paris, alxiut 1H40, and is peculiar in
producing the ordinary flowers of the common
laburnum and those of another species (C. pur-
piireits) in an irregular and indiscriminate way
over its branches. The peculiarity is considered to
he the result of grafting or budding the one species
on the other.
Laliyi'illtll. the name of some celebrated build-
ings oi aiitiipiity, consisting of a series of intricate
chambers or ]iassag(^s. Of these the most cele-
brated were the Egyptian, the Cretan, and the
Samian. The Egyptian was visited by Herodotus
and Strabo, and was reckoned one of the wonder-s
of the world, containing 3000 chaniber.s. It was
built on the shore of L.ake Mu;ris, and its founda-
tions werct discovered by Lepsius (see Favv('.m).
The Cretan labyrinth was supposed to have been
built by iJa'dabis for King Minos, to contain the
Minotaur. The only mode of linding the way out
of it was by meiinsof a hank or skein of linen thread,
which gave the clue to the dwelling of the Minotaur.
The Samian labyrinth was constructed in the age
of Polycrates (540 B.C. ). Other inferior labyrinths
existed at Nau|dia, at Sipontum in Italy, at Val
il'Isuica in Sicily, and elsewhere; and the name
of labyrinth was applied to the subterraneous
chambers of the tomb of I'or.sena, supi)oseil to be
that now existing as the I'oggio (iazella, near
Chiusi. Labyrinths called mazes were at one time
fa.shionable in gardening, being imitations, by
hedges or borders, of the Cretan ; the best known
in modern times is the Maze at IIam|)t<ui Court.
'i"raii.->ver&e i,eutiuu of a 'IVtulli of
Mii.'ftodomfditntx f/i{/atittu,-<, en-
larged (after Owen).
Maze at Hampton Court.
.\n ancient story told in Fabyan's C'/iroiiidc, also
in Higden and other early historians, and blindly
followed by their successors, makes a maze at
Woodstock the scene of Queen Eleanor's apo-
cryidial vengeance upon Fair Kosamond.
Labyriiitliodoiits. or Stkgoci:i'ii.\li, a race
of extinct Amphibians, the remains of which are
found in the Permian, Carboniferous, and Tria.ssic
stiata. Many of
them were giants
comjiarcd with our
modern amphibi-
ans, from which
they also diH'ered
nuirkedly in pos-
sessing an arma-
ture of bony plates
in various degrees
of completeness.
The order includes
numerous genera,
some of the sala-
mander type,
otherslimblesslike
sn.akes, and lead-
ing on to the
modern Ca"cilians.
The name Labyrinthodont refers to the mazy
]iattern exhibited on a transverse section of the
teeth of some genera. .Sonie of these ancii'ut forms
were probably responsible for footpiints in the
rocks which u.sed to be jilaced to the credit of a
more or less mythical animal, C/icirut/icn'iim. See
7'c.rtliuu/i u/ l'(i/av)itolv</i/ bv Nichols(m and Lvdek-
ker (Edin. 1890).
Ii<l(*a best known in tlie form of shell-lac, is a
coloured resinous substance of great importance in
the arts. It is produced by a small insect— from
j'jth to iSitli of an inch in length — called Cuiiiis
larca (Cartiria lacat of Signoret), belonging to the
sub-order Homopteia of the Ilemiplera, or Bugs.
Lac is found in India. Burma, Siam, China, and in
some of the islands of the Eastern Archipelago.
The lac-insect lives upon the young branches of
many dill'erent species of trees, but the best lac
is collected from two or three sjiecies of lig,
Zizjiphiis and Iliilea fruiit/oxa.
As soon as the young are hatched they crawl
about in search of sappy twigs. To these they lix
tbeniselves by their prolio.scides, and immediately
begin to form their lac cells or cocoons. Tlie.se
have one anal aperture and two others for the
admission of air, and in their cocoons the insects
remain in a lethargic state for two and a half
months. The females, which greatly outnumber
LAC
LACE
471
tlie males, never leave the spot to wliich they
attach tlieiiiselves, but the males escape liy a
ventral opening in the cocoon. After inijiregnation
the female feeds voraciously on the juice of the
twig to which it is lixeil, increases in size, and
continues to form lac. Tlie lac surrounds all parts
of the insect except the mouth and the three aper-
tures already mentioned. When the young are
perfectly formed they issvie hy the anal opening in
the lac incrustation. Naturalists are ifivided in
opinion as to whether the lac is secreted hy the
insect itself, or whether it is not merely the resin-
ous juice of the trees altered in character hy the
insect while making its puncture, or just after it is
made.
The appearance of the incrustation varies. It
often takes the form of coalesced rounded pro-
minences, at some places surroumling, at others
scattered over, the branches : but in other instances
it looks, superficially, more like a thick, irregular
outer layer of hark roughened on the surface. The
incrustation is cellular, each cell indicating the
position of the insect which formed it. SficK-
iw is the name given to it when the incrustation
is still attached to the twigs, which are usually cut
into pieces from three to six inches long. The
next step is to remove the lac by a roller moving
on a platform, the detached fragments being after-
wards |)laced in tubs of water, and beaten by pestles
or trodden by men. It is now in the state of sced-
lac. The water left in the tubs is coloured red by
the bodies of the insects, and, after this water is
evaporated, the red substance is made into cakes,
forming the lac-dye of commerce (see Dyeing).
After drying the seed-lac is melted in cylindrical
cotton bags before charcoal fires, and, by twisting
the bags, forced through the pores of the cloth. It
drops into troughs, and is either allowed to spread
oat itself, or is spread by a strip of leaf upon a
roller, into a thin sheet. After the impurities are
broken out, the flakes are packed in bags, forming
the shell-lac oi commerce. Another form is button-
lac, which is made liy letting the melted lac drop
into rounded pieces from I-H inches in diameter.
In India a good deal has been done in the cultiva-
tion of lac by transporting the encrusted branches
to suitaljle forests alxnit a fortnight before the
young insects begin to move about. The twigs
with the insects in the larval state are tied on
branches of trees whi<^li have been selected for the
rearing of future broods. Tlie inland trade for the
year 1889 was valued at 101 lakhs of rupees.
Lac has many industrial applicatiims. Shell-lac
varnish is more extensively employeil than any
other spirit varnish. One variety of it is French
Polish (q.v. ) for furniture (see also L.\f'QUP;R). Lac
api>lieil as an alcoholic solution is used to stitt'en the
calico frame of silk hats (see H.\T). In fine sealing-
wax it Ls the most important ingredient, and either
alone or mixed with other bodies it forms a good
Cement (q.v.). Personal ornament-s, such as chains
and bracelets, are largely made of lac in India,
and, when mixed with sulphur and some colouring
matter, it is used there for coating wooden toys.
Anotli'T mixture of lac with vermilion, closely re-
sembling rerl .sealin<'-wax in appearance, is applied
by the <,"binese to the surface ilecoration of boxes,
trays, va.ses, and other small articles.
LaCi or L.\KH, from a Sanskrit word meaning
'one hundred thousan<l,' is generally em]iloycd in
India to indicate 100,000 rupees, the nominal value
of which is £10,000 or §48,600 : but in conseijuence
of the depreciation in the value of silver the real
value is only £8333 or $40,500.
Laccadives (Sansk. LuLshu Ihiinn, 'the
Hundred Thousand Islamls'), a group of fourteen
cural islands in the Arabian Sea, between 10' and
14° N. lat., and about 200 miles AV. of the Mala-
bar coast. Area, 744 sq. m. ; po]). (1801) 14,440.
They are low and Hat, and all but two are com-
paratively barren. The cocoa-nut is the chief
jdaiit, and coir (cocoa-nut fibre) the staple ]iro-
diict. This and jaggery, cocoa-nuts, copra, tortoise-
shell, an<l cowries are carried over to the mainland
by tlie men, who are brave and skilful sailors.
The number of large boats owned in the islands is
184, of small craft 719 ; the annual exports average
about £17,000. The group was discovered by Vasco
datiamain 1499. The northern islands are attached
to the Madras district of South Kanara ; the rest
belong to the rajah of Cannanore, but since 1877
have been administered by the collector of Malabar.
The people are Mohammedans of Himlu descent,
their language Malayalam, except in Jlinikoi,
which iiroperly belongs to the Maldive group and
retains its language.
Lace is an ornamental fabric of linen, cotton,
silk, or gold and silver threads, made by looping,
knotting, plaiting, or twisting the threiid into
<lefinite patterns, of contrasted open and close
structure. Three distinct varieties of lace are
made, two by handwork, known respectively a.s
needle or point lace and pillow-lace, and one by
machinery. To hand-made lace the term real lace
is sometimes applied, and, although it may be made
in all or any of the varieties of thread al)ove
enumerated, in general it is composed of white
linen thread of exceedingly great delicacy and
tenuity. Machine-made lace on the other hand
usually consists of cotton thread of high counts, but
it cannot lie used of such fineness as linen ; while
with machines it is quite impossible to rival the
combined grace, delicacy, and strength of orna-
mental structure obtainable by the skill and patience
of the handworker. Nevertheless niacliiue-made
lace is a marvellous triumph of mechanical in-
genuity, and more inventive genius has been de-
\oted to its production than has been bestowed on
any other branch of textile industry.
Lace on one side, as needle or point lace, is closely
allied to embroidery ; pillow-lace is derived from
and merely an elaboration of plaited fringe- work ;
and machine-lace is a development of fancy weav-
ing. Although we have the.se three distinct methods
of lace-making, combinations of the whole may be
found in one (liece of modern lace, and frequently
the products are so similar that it requires botli
experience and close observation to distinguish
what is made by the needle from the plaited pro-
duct of the pillow, or even the twisted lace of the
machine. Technically, lace consists of two elements,
the pattern, flower, or gimp which forms the closer-
worked and more solid portion of the fabric, and
the ground or filling which serves to hold the
jiattern together and in its proper place. In some
varieties of lace, however, the ground is almo.st
entirely wanting, and the jpattcrn holds together
by joining at the eilges where two portions of the
design meet and touch. In other ca.ses the ground
consists of ties or biiiles, thin loops or i>laits passing
from the eilge of one portion of the pattern to
another contiguous, and thus tying them together.
More fi('i|Ufntly the ground consists of a delicate
filmy honeycomb called a rcseaii, of which the
simplest form is the bobbin-net, now nnide by
machinery. On the riseau the ]iattern is some-
times stitched down after being .separately made,
such lace being known as appliqnf or aiqdicil : in
other ca-ses pattern and re.seau arc formed together
by needle or bobbin or by both. Other technical
terms are met with in the description of lace — as
noidonnct. a stout thread or several threads together
em)doyed to outline the pattern ; picol, a minute
loop workiMl on the edge of ties or flowers for their
enrichment ; and modes, which are ornamental
-
472
LACE
fillings, variations of the reseau, which is always a
plain honevcDiiili mesh.
I'oi)it-lare is a fiiliiic which appears to have been
arrived at thrDUgli the ell'orts to produce light,
graceful, and airy etl'ects in embroidery. It is not
known to liave been made earlier than tlie first half
of the 16th centviry ; and its original production, ,is
well as its most varied triumphs, are associated
with Venice. The st.ages by which it developed
from embroiderv-work can lie traced from the illus-
jj^fpiPPPfP^^
1^^^
Fig. 1. — Part of Liturgical Veil or Cover, '\\\ puulo a mw/lia
or lacis work.
t'ig. 3. — Kose-point, \'enetiiin,
18th century.
trated pattern-books for embroiderers which were
issue<l early in the 16th century. In these books
we lind two styles of work intermediate between
embroi<lery and lace-niaking, one of which consists
of patterns cut out of stuif, and liaving the cut
edges sewn over witli a l>iitton-bole stitch, sncli
work being known to the Venetians as piintu
liirjliato. The second method of pnxlucing a lace-
like ell'ect was by cutting tlie indiviilual threads in
any te.\ture in aci^onlance with a dellnite pattern,
and drawing out the cut portions, the resulting
design, partly open work and partly close, being
known as /iiiiito tinito. The converse of this con-
sisted in darning in iiatlcrns on a gauze m other
Fig. 2. — Keticclla Needle-point Lace, Italian. IGtIi century.
open woven te.\ture, a class of wmk termed by
the Il.ilians /)(/h7o a mar/lia (see fig. I ), and by the
Kretuh Im-is or laxxis — whence our ' lace,' whicli lias
taken the ))lace of the earlier name pnti.'iniu-iit or
jjtisniienf. The earliest true needle-lace of \'enice,
known as piiiifu in iiria or rcliccUti, was in its
ilesign similar to the cut work of the pattern books,
showing only rectilinear and geometrical forms, as
in fig. 2. A gradual development c.-m be tniceil
from such sininle forms into rich lloral ornaments
aud scrolls, till early in the 18th century, in the
very delicate needle-jioint with meshed ground
known as point clc Vhiise d ri'svnii, we come to the
richest and most elaborate products of the north
Italian needlewomen. The most ch.aractcristic
and valuable of the laces of Venice is that known
in Britain as rose-point (French gros-poinl) ( I'lg.
3), whii'h consists of patterns worked in relief
like .sculptured work, forming
strong and solid Ihiwcrs and
scrolls, held in ])osition by lies
or brides enriched with picot.'*.
With such lace the i-olies of
great ecclesiastics and wealthy
nobles were adorned, and it was
also eniploved for the ornament-
ation of altar covers and other
I'biucb textures. In the making
of point-lace the design is first (Irawn on a ]>iece of
l)arcbment, which is then stitched down to a back-
ing of stout linen. Over the lines of the design
one or more threads of linen are stitched lightly
down, and the slow work of filling up the pattern
with button-hole stitches
proceeds on the thread
outline s(i obtained. The
methods of working are
numerous, and some of the
stitches indeed have been
lost, but commonly the
iialtern or cloth is obtained
liy laying down a series of
threads parallel to each
otlier, as in lig. 4, and
shown. For the brides or reseau a single tliread
may form the foundati(Ui, it also being clo.sely
stitched over, as seen in fig. 5. When pattern
and fillings are finished, it remains only to cut the
LACE
473
stitclies which hold the outlining thieails to the
parchment and the linen hackinj;. thus lil)eiatin<;
the lace. From Venice the art of making point-
lace travelled out to other Italian towns, and west-
ward to France and Flanders. Principally owing
to the elt'orts of the minister Colhert, who in llitio
chartered a company with exclusive privileges for
ten years and a suhsidy of .'{6,000 livres, the art
was lirndy estahlished in France, ateliers being
e3tahlishe<l in several of the ])rinciiial towns.
Among these places Wivs Alencon. where Venice
lace of very line quality was being made by a
lady named Laperriere prior to the establishment
of Colbert's company. Alencon lace and tlie
closely-allied fabric maile at the neighbouring town
of Argentan attained great perfection during the
18tli century. The dolgris employed were dis-
tinctively P'rench in character, and the reseau and
modes which formed the filling showed a minute
and filmy delicacy nnapproached by the products of
any other district (fig. li). I'oint-lace also formed
one portion of
the manufac-
ture carried on
at Brussels.
The ground
of the old
r.russels lace
is sometimes,
though rarely,
of needle-
(loint, but the
llower, which
is made sep-
arately and
sewed on, or
a])iilie<l to the
ground, is, in
fine specimens,
I' r e i| u e n 1 1 y
iiceille-made.
['ilhiv - lacr.
It is an un-
ilecided ques-
tion whether
])i 1 1 o w-lace
originated in
Italy or in
Flanders.
From a picture by (inentin Matsys, painted in
1495, we liave evidence that the making of pillow-
lace, was known in Flanders at that early date;
but about the same time it was also being worked
in Venice nniler tlie name of Mrrlitti. a piombini.
While point-lace making lias always been the dis-
tinguishing character of Italy and the south, the
making of pillow-lace became and remains dis-
tinctively a.ssociated with the Flemish towns and
with Englaml. For the jiroduction of pillow-lace
the pattern is first drawn in full size on a piece of
parchment, which is then fastened to a pillow or
cushion niiule to rest in the lap of the worker, and
into which pins may be ea.sily and firmly stuck at
any required point. The paitern is then pricked
over with jiin-lioles at every point where iiins
rec^uire to i>e inserted in the subsetiuent work of
twi.sting anil plaiting. The lace maker is also
provideil with a series of small bobbins, round the
upper part of which the threail to be useil is wound,
and even for the production of .i half inch band of
lace of simple pattern a va.st numliiM of pins and
aa many a.s fifty bobbins may be reijuircd, while
for elaborate patterns twelve hundred l.obbins may
be brought into requisition on a single ]iillow. The
whole work in pillow-lace is the result of twisting
and plaiting, ami the pattern is often outlined and
sometimes filled up with thread of a stouter char-
acter than that used on the mesh and fillings. The
Fig. 6. — Portion of Aleni,'on Lappet ;
French, late 17th or early 18th
century.
to
The mesh of
that of Mechlin,
simplest ground in the pillow-lace consists of the
twisted net or bobbin-net, originally made on the
pillow, but now entirely
made liy inachinerv
(see fig. 7). More
commonly the net is
partly twisted and
partly plaited ; and the
variations in the mesh
so formed are charac-
teristic of the difl'erent
da.sses of pillow-lace.
Thus, the mesh of
Mechlin lace consists of
four twisted and two
plaited sides, as seen in fie
Brussels pillow-lace is similar
lint the plaited
sides are longer
(tig. 9), while
the V a 1 e u-
ciennes mesh
is plaited
t hrou ghout.
These differ-
ences in the
form of the
ground of pil-
low-laces give
a different
appearance to the recticulations.
pattern of the lace is worked so as to give
appearance of plain woven cloth (see lig. 10),
\ alenciennes mesh renders that vari-
ety more solid and durable than any
of the others. Much of the modern
Brussels lace has now a machine-made
ground instead of the ancient pillow-
meshes, on which the separately-made
flowers are ajiiilied or sewed by the
imperce]itible line joining-stitch. The
making of pillow-lace in Honiton and
other localities in the south-west of England was
begun towards the end of the 16th century by
refugees from the Low Countries. In 166'2 parlia-
ment, desirous of encouraging native lace-making.
Fig. 8.
The flower or
it the
The
Fig. U.
Border of Mechlin IMlow-lace, early 18th century,
prohibited the importation of all laces of foreign
manufacture. Lace- workers were thereuiion en-
couraged to settle in England : but as the line
Fig. 12.
-Valenciennes Pillowlace, with reseau
late 18th century.
;jiound,
thread necessary for their work was not forth-
coming they were forced to return to their native
474
LACE
■f)r-.«;-:.-«
' .'?i!S!^^
■| '•>%''
*i^^^l
^K' -
^K,.'-
. ■.•"3;4'-V:*^H
^■(■^•.'^y
-^-^■'.- ■•: ■
■ '-^B
■i#'^;^
V- :
fc^^r-
:.*-■•,
, ■'■"-"-'«
Rt^'-i>^
>-i../ '••-
-Av'iM
^te^:
'. ■ - ^
^^^WW^^y
V •
^^K^'/-
.-r'-^^^H
^^^^^Vn. > ..
- * ;■ / '
^^^^^1
^V^^v-:,
"■' '< '%.. • ■
'^^H
^^^E ; '~ '
J."-' ■
'--r^^^l
^^k'r-r,'/
J
..^^H
, . __
"''^^H
»-',/■■'
/
~l^^l
^•i^v.
\ ^'- '-
I^^>
^^Ib&^*
'-' 'jii^^^l
Fig. 13. — Portion of Honiton
Lappet, 18th century.
land. A vigorous smiigglinj; trade l)etween Brussels
and England ensued, and the lace so introduced
was freely sold as English point, whence Urussels
lace came to lie generally known as Point (f Auijle-
(erre. Honiton lace from the 17th century down-
wanls has continueil to he made in the same style
as the Flemish laces, hut at no time has it attained
the celebrity acquired by tlie products of the great
centres of the pillow-lace making in Belgium
and the north of
France. Fig. 13
is ,1 line example
of Honiton lace-
work.
The successful
imitation of hand-
made lace hy
machine-work,
:iml the conse-
i|uent enormous
cheapening of
material which
hears a super-
(Icial resemblance
to the costly pro-
duct, has proved
almost fatal to
1 he arts of needle
and jnllow-laee
making. Of late
years an attempt
has been made to
re-establish the
manufacture of
line ])oint-laces
ou the island of
15 u r a n o, near
Venice. Similarly, (^H'orts have been made to
revive the iudustry in Honiton, and at the present
time much is being done to encourage the develop-
ment of the art in various directions in conven-
tual and other establishments in Ireland. The
stimulus in all these cases is, however, obviously
artilicial, and it cannot he said that there is at
jiresent any really healthy iiulicatiou of revived
demand for these supreme products of patience and
ingenuity.
Machine-hire. — The ground and simplest element
of pillow-lace being a network of meshes, the earliest
elibrts of inventors were directed towanls the ]iro-
ducing of machinery for fabricating similar netting.
The hosiery-frame, which had been invented by
William Lee towards the end of the 16th century,
was the lirst ajiparatus with which it was atlem|iteil
to make a lacenet, and about 1764 a modilication
of the frame was devised by which an ojien loop-
net was )irodnccd. By the various devices familiar
to liand-kuiltcrs fancy jiatterus could be [iioduced
on this machine. 'I'he loop fabric, howevei', had
the great disadvantage of unravelling freely at any
jioint where it was broken, as it was constructed
of a continumis single tlireail. At a suhsefjuent
]ieriod what was known as the warp-lace niachiiu'
was introduced, in the use of which a separ.ate
thread is su]i]>lied to each hooked needhMMuployed
in the proiluction of (he web. On these war|p-
threads loops are formed by mechanical iricans, and
as they can he moved by the machine either to the
right or to the left, neighbouring warps and loops
are joined together, ami in this way a solid wei),
which can he cut withoul unravelling, is <ditained.
Towards the end of the I.Sth century a great
variety of ligurcd lace began to be nuiile on the
warp-machine, and in a greatly improved form it
si ill continues in use.
A new era, however, in niachiiu: lace making
wa.s inaugurated when, in ISOO, .lohii Heathcoat
patented his second bobbin-net machine, by which
it was made jiossible to twist or wrap round each
other an indetinite number of threads, and to cause
any one thread to traverse, mesh by mesh, every
other thread in the width of the fabric being
netted. The bobbin-net machine of Heathcoat
became the foundation of an enormous industry,
and the inventor reaped both honour and amide
pecuniary reward for his reniarkalile ingenuity.
His frame has been modilied by many inventors,
but the most important im|iidvemenls were ett'ected
by .lohn Levei-s in 1813. The lace-making machine
now principallv used is known as the Levei-s
machine, but of its complicated structure it would
be (|uitc imiiossible to convey any idcar concejition
within moderate limits. The structure of the
simjjlest fabric pro-
<luced by it is shown
as it appears on the
frame in fig. 14 ; and
when dressed and
linished this falnic has
the appcaraiK'e indi-
cated in tig. 7, which is
c<inimon liobbin-net. It
will be seen that the
texture is formed of a
series of vertical paral-
lel threads which may
be taken to represent
the warp of a common web, these lieing diagon-
ally crossed and intertwisted with others which
may be looked on as weft-threa<ls. The frame or
loom holds the warp-threads vertically, a space
being left between each sufficiently wide to admit
of a shilling being passed edgeways between
them. Bidiinil these threads, and cones]ioiuling to
the interspaces, is a row of ingeniously c(iii>tiucteil
Hat bobbins or reels resting in an arrangement
called a cumb-hur or holl-hai: These are so placed
that with the fir.st movement of the machine each
bobbin, which carries its (bread with it, jiasses
through two of the parallel and jierpendicular
threads of the warp, and is lodged in .'inotber and
similar bolt-bar in front of the warp, liut this
front bolt-bar, besides an advancing and leceding
motion, has another niovenient, called shoijqinei —
from right to left. When it receives a bobliin by
its forward motion it draws hack, bringing the
bobbin and thread through two of the upright
threads; then it shogs or moves to one sidi', and
goes forward again, taking (he thread through the
next two warp-threads, and lodging the bobbin on
the hack holt-bar again, one distance beyond its last
space ; this it recovers by the next niovenient, and
it again pa.sses through the lirst sjiace, to be again
received by the front bolt bar. By these move-
ments the bobbin- thread istwisteil iiuite round one
upright (bread of the w :irp ; another movement
then shifts the bijbhin, so that it will pass through
the next pair of upright threads, .■uid so carry on its
work, the warp-threads moving at the same time,
unwinding from the lower beam, and being rolleil
on the upper one. There being twice <as many hob
bins as tliere are threads in the warp, <'ach boll bar
having a set which it exchanges with (he other, and
all being regulated with great ni<'ety, a w idtb of lace
is made in far less time than has been rei|uireil to
write this short ilescription. The additions (o anil
variations ujion these operatiims (which only apjily
to bobbin-net), for the production of |iatterns, are
numerous and com]ilicated— each patlcin recpiiring
new combinations : but they all di'iieiid u|i(Ui (he
variations which can be given (o the movements
of the flat disc-like bobbins.
(luld Liiee and Sili-n- /,(fcc.— The socalled gold
thread which is used in textiles c<insist.s of silver-
gilt wire, or for coinnioner purjioses copper-gill
wire, either round or tlattenen into a fine ribbon.
LACE-BARK TREE
LACONIC
475
Tliese wires may be so useil for wea\iny and
embroidery purpcises, but generally what is called
gold thread consists of a yellow thread of cotton
or linen round which the llattened j;old wire is
s|iirally wound so as to coiiiiilelely eiicjvse it.
Silver wire is similarly i)re])are<l ami used, bein"
wound on a white insteait of a yellow luusis. tJold
and silver threads may be used in onlinaiy lace-
makin'', but what is generally termed ^old and
silver lace consists of l)raids, ribbons, and bands
of tliese materials employed for embroidery and
braiding', and for the ornamentation of uniforms
and ottii-ial robes, badges, i*i:c. The use of gold
and silver wire in textiles is of great antifjuity,
and sumptuous garments enriched with precious
metals must have lieen used in Egypt for royal and
priestly personages in the time of Moses ; for we
find (Exod. xxxix, 2, 3) directions for making
gold-embroidered robes for Aaron in the wilderness.
The making of gold and silver lace is a-s.sociated
with the ril)bon industry, and it is usually prose-
cuted in districts where that trade is located.
Lefebure, Emhroiilery and Lore, their Manufacture
and Histonj (Eng. trans. 1888).
.See Felkin, Machinf-urowiht Hosiery and Lace Marvu-
facture (18G7); Palli.-ier, Hiistory of Lace (1875); The
Art of Lace Makinij ( 1881 ) ; Seguin, La DenteUc
(1874) ; Despierres, HiMoire du Point d'Alcn^on { 188S) ;
Doumert, La Dentelle (1889); Lefebm-e, Embroidery
and Lace (Eng. trans. 1888); and the catalogue of Jlr
Chick's Collection of Antique Lace, to which this article
is indebted for illustiations.
Lace-bark Tree (Lagctta Untearia), a tree
of the natural order Thymele.aceie, a native of the
West Indies. It is a lofty tree, the inner bark of
which lia.s all the appearance of coarse lace. A
"overnor of Jamaica is saiil to have presented to
Charles II. a cravat, frill, and ruffles made of it.
LaoediPiuoii. .See Spaet.\.
Lare-leaf. See L.\ttice Le.\f.
Laet'pede, Bernard de la Ville, Count
DE, French naturalist, was born on '2tith December
1756, at Agen, and was appointed curator of
Natural History in the Itoyal (;ar<lens at Paris in
178.). At the kevolulion he became profes.sor of i
Natural History in the .lardin dcs Plantes and \
at the university. He was made a senator in
179<t, a minister'of state in 1809, and in ,1814 a
peer of France. He ilied of smallpox at Epinay,
near St Denis, 6th October 182.5. Besides con-
tinuing Buffon's Xatiirat Histori/ at BuH'on's own
request— in Hixtoircdcs Reptiles (2 vols. 1788-89)—
Lacepfede wrote Histuirc Nutnrelle dcs Poisson.i
(6 vols. 1798 1803), which, in spite of numerous
errors, was long held in high esteem, and works
on the Cetacea, the Nedurctl Histori/ of Man, Les
Af/es de la Nature, and a (iencral History of
Europe (18 vols. 1826). Lacepede was likewise
a highly-accomplisheil musician, and published La
I'oHi'iue de la Musioue (2 vols. 1785). An edition
of his works appeared at Paris in 3 vols, in 1876.
Laeertidae. See Lizakk.
Larliaise, Kkaxcoi.s u'Aix de, a Je.suit, lx)rn
of a nolile family, 25th August 1624, in the castle
of Aix, now in the department of Loire, made his
studies at llolian, and wjus alreaily a provincial of
his order when Louis XIV. selected him for his
cimfes.sor on the death of Father Ferrier in 1675.
His jiosition was one of great difliculty, owing to
the diO'erent parties of the court, ai«l the strife
lx!tween .lansenists and Jesuits. In the most
important <|uestions of hi.s time Father Lachaise
avoided extreme courses. A zealous Jesuit, and
of uKHlerate abilities, he yet sustaine<I among his
contemporaries the reputation of a man of mild,
simple, honourable character. Mailame Maiiitc-
nou could never forgive him the little zeal with
which he opposed the reasons urged ag.iinst the
publication of her marriage with the king; but
during the thirty-three years that he lilled his ollice
of confe.ssor he never lost the favour of the king.
He died 20th January 1709.— Louis XIV. built
him a country-house to the east of Paris, the large
garden of which was in 1804 converted into a
burial-place, and is known as the I'cre-la-C/iaise,
the resting-place of many famous men. See P.-\IilS.
Laches, in English law, is a word used (from
Fr. Itichcr, 'to loosen') to denote negligence or
undue delay, such as to disentitle a party to a
particular remedy, or to relief. According to the
common law this principle has no application ivs
regards the crown ; but various statutes, chiefly
the so-called A'ullmn Tempus Act (9 (!eo. III.
chap. 16). have restricted the rights in this respect.
Laclline, a town of Quebec, Canada, 8 miles
S\\'. of Montreal by lail, a favourite summer resi-
dence. There is a canal hence to Montreal to
avoid the Lachine liapids of the St Lawrence.
Laclllan, a river of Australia, a tributai-j' of
the Murrumbidgee, which itself, a little farther
down, enters the Murray (q.v.).
Lachmaiiii. Karl Konrad Feiedrk-h Wil-
HELM, a celelirated (lernjan critic and philologist,
was born, 4th March 1793, at Brunswick, studied
at Leipzig and (Jcittingen, became an extra-ordinary
profes.sor at Kiinigsberg in 1818, at Berlin in 1825,
and an ordinary professor there in 1827. He was
admitted a member of the Acaflemy of Sciences
in IS.W, and died 13th March IS.".].' Lachmann's
.scholarship was extraordinary alike in profundity
and range. He wa-s equally devoted to chussical
and German jjliilology, and illustrated both by a
singularly subtle and sagacious criticism evolved
in strictly scientilic method. Among his most
important productions are his editions of the Nibe-
iunr/cnlied, the works of Walter von der Vogel-
weide, Propertius, Catullus, Tibullus, Babrius,
Avianus, Gains, and the Agrimensores Komani.
In his Bctracldungen iiber die Ilias (supjilemented
by Haupt, 1847) he maintained that the Iliad
consisted of sixteen independent /«//.< enlarged
and interpolated in vaiious ways. The smaller
edition of his New Testament ajipeared in 1831
(3d ed. 1846): the larger, in 2 vols., in 1842-50.
The design of the last of these works was to
restore the Greek text as it existed in the Eastern
Church in the 3d and 4th centuries; and Lach-
mann attached the greatest value to the readings
found in the old Latin and Greek western uncials,
where he found ditl'erences in his oldest eastern
texts. His latest undertaking was his edition of
Lucretius (18.50), which Monro styles 'a work
which will be a landmark for scholars as long as
the Latin language continues to be studied.' See
the Life by Hertz (Berlin, 1851 ), and also J. Grimm
in vol. i. of his Klcincrc Sc/iriften.
La<-Iir> iiial Orjiaiis. See Eve.
Lackawanna Kiver, Pennsylvania, is a
tributary of the Sus(|uehanna, and its valley nearly
coincides with tlie Wyoming and Lackawanna coal
basin (55 miles long), which ])roduces half the
anthracite mineil in the Vniled Slates.
La <'oildaniine, Cuaklks >L\hik i>k, French
geograiihiT ( 17111-74), served in the army, travelled
extensively, «n<l was sent with others to Peru
(17.35-43) to measure a degree of the meridian
there. On his return he explored the Amazon,
anil brought the first definite information as to
india-rubber. He also brought Curare (q.v.) to
Europe, and wrote in favour of inoculation.
Laconic. The Spartans, or Lacedanionians
(whose country was called Laconia), systemati-
callv endeavoured to confine themselves to a sen-
47tj
LACORDAIRE
LACRETELLE
tenlious l>revity in speaking and writing ; hence
the term Iwonic lias been applied to this style.
Lnrordaire, Jeax Baptistk Hkmu, was
horn at lleceysurOurce, in the departiiienl Cote-
d'Or, March 12, I80'2. He was educated at Dijon,
and there began to study law. In 1822 he went
to Pari.s, an<l pr.actised successfully for two years
as a barrister. His religious views were quite
unsettled at this time. 'lie was a deist, like all
the youth of his day, and a liberal, like almost
every Frenchman, but without any extreme views.'
The .spiritual change in him caiiie suddenly, ami
then his true life began. He gave up his profes-
sion, entered the college of St Snipice in 1824, and
was ordaine.l priest in 1827. In 1S28 he became
chaplain of the convent of the Visitation and in
1829 cha]ilain of the College Henri IV. Marked
out by his Liberalism, he was asked to help the
Abbe Lamennais and Montalembert in the estab-
lishment of the Ai-e>ni\ the well-known High
Church and Radical newspaper. In 18.31 Lacin--
daire and Lamennais were summoned by Govern-
ment, but acquitted, for writing in tl'ie Arenir
against the a])pointment of tliree bishops by
Louis-Pliilippc. Soon after this Lacord.aire and
Montalembert opencil a free school in Paris, claim-
ing as a right the liberty of teaching promised in
the charter of IS.'iO. The school was closed by
the police, and Lacordaire and ^Montalembert
were tried and fined one hundred francs. Thir-
teen months .after its first appearance the jmblica-
tion of the Ai-eiiii- was suspended, and, being con-
•lemned by the pope, was tlien linally given up. In
IS."?-!: Lacord.aire gave a series of Conferences to the
students of the College .Stanisl.as which attracted
{ji-eat attention, and led the wav to his f.amous
Conferences in Notre Dame, delivered in 183,5 and
1836. His .audiences were immense, his success ,as
a preacher was at its height, when he smldenly
withdrew and went to Home, feeling the need for
lumself of silence and solitude. Jn 1839 lie entered
the novitiate of the Dominican order, and in 1840
reappeare<l in the pulpit of Notre Dame, clothed in
the habit of a Dominican monk. The ne.\t three
yeai-s of his life were spent partly in France and
partly in Italy. In 1843 lie lesnrned his Conferences
in Notre Dame, and continued them till 18,51. In
the revolution of 1848 Lacordaire accepted the
republic, and was elected to the Constituent
Assembly, but resigned his seat ten days after
his election, as he found he was nnsuited for the
storms of parliamentary life. His last Conferences,
delivered at Toulou.se in 1854, are the most elo-
quent of all. After linisliing these Conferences he
undertook the direction of the military school of
.Sorreze, and at this post lie remained till his ile.ath,
which took place in IStil, a ye.ar after his election
as Academician. L.acoidaire was one of the greatest
of modern prcacdiers and orators. He laid hold of
the thoughts of the day, he understood the dilli-
culties he had lo deal "with, and he won men to
the truth by his eloquent reasoning and by his
love for their souls. A collectcil edition df his
works appeared in Paris (9 vols. 1872). See Lives
by Montalembert (I,8(i2; Eng. tran.s. 1863), Dora
Greenwell ( 18(i7), and Lear ( 1882).
Laotllirr. Mrnamental or useful articles of
brass, such lus gas-littings an<l .some kinds of furni-
ture, are usually laccpiered to preser\e the surface
from disi-oloration or corrosion. Iron, tinjilate,
and other metals and alloys are also sometimes
Lacquered. The laccpicr u.sed is composed essenti-
ally of shelllac or seed-lac, or both, dissolved in
spirits of wine. ISut its composition varies con-
siderably. One kind consists of 2 iiarts of shell-
lac dissolved in 20 parts by weight of alcohol,
less than 1 part of turpentine being mixed with
it. It is customary, however, to add small
quantities of one or more gum-resins, sucli as
sandar.ach, amber, and aniiiie, to the lacquer,
which is coloured with gamboge, dragon's blood,'
and other substances. The brass, which is first
heated till the hand can just safely touch it,
generally receives two coats of lac(|uer": but some-
times the first coat is put on when the metal is
cold. In the case of dark l.acqueiing the brass is
fii-st bnmzed and coated with bl.ick lead. Coal .and
tobacco smoke, as well .as the vapour or fumes of
some chemical substances, injure lacquered surfaces.
Lai-qiicr-mirc—Yhii laccpier used for the cele'
brated lacquer-ware of .lapan ditlers entirely
from the lacquer used for br.ass. The body of this
wjvre is of wood, and the lacquer or varnish with
which it is coated is the juice of the l.acqiier-
tree jli'/i IIS veniidfcra), sometimes also called the
varnish-tree. This remarkable lacquer not only
forms a very hanl surface, but, unlike other
y.arnishes, it stands a considerable heat without
injury, so that in .lapan lacquered vessels are used
for hot sou|is and hot alccdiolie drinks. There are
numerous kinds of .Japanese lacquer-ware, the
simplest kind being perhaps that with the grain
of the wood seen, for which a line transparent
lacquer is used. For black l.acquer-ware the juice
or varnish is ilarkened with galls and a salt of
iron, and for red it is mixedwith ,about 20 per
cent, of cinnaliar ; orpiment, oxide of iron, and
Prussian blue being also used as colours. In the
case of gold .and silver lacquer- wares the varnish
is mixed with about 30 per cent, of the powder
of these metals in a fine state of division, so that
when the surface is polished it shows a metallic
lustre. Tin is used to imitate gold, the yellow
hue being given by colour in the varnish.
The Lacquered snrf.ace of the best ware is
pre|i.ared by a very tedious process, owing to the
number of coatings it receives. For the .several
preliminary ones crude lacquer is used, together
with a single coating of powdered biscuit earthen
ware and w.ater, the surface being rubbed with .a
whetstone after e.aeh. Two or three more coatings
of lacquer .are next ajiplied, e.ich being nibbeil
with ch.aicoal and water. For the linishiiig coal
the best Lacquer is employeil, and this is piiiished
with calcined deer-horn, finely iiowdere<l, the linger
and a little oil bringing up 'the final glo.ss. The
various articles made, such as boxes, ves.sels, tr.ays,
cabinets, &c., are decorated either by inlaying
^yitll metal, ivory, or mother-of-pearl, by speck-
ling and gilding with gohl or siher, by il'csigns in
colour, by relief paintings, or by carving. The art
of l,aci|uering is a very ancient' one in .Japan, and
fine specimens of old work bring very high prices.
La«'r«'t»'ll«'. Je.vx Cii.\I!i,i;.s Dominkjue de.
jouinalist and liistorian, was born at Metz on 3d
Seplemlier 17<!6. He was .attracted to Paris on the
oullir<'ak of the Kevolution ; but there, instead of
following his jnofession, that of an ailvocate, he
turned liis abilities to journalism, and helped to
edit J.e Joia-ind ilcs ijelnits and l.r .Iniinial di
Paris. He managed to escape the Heign of Terror
by enlisting in tin- army ; but soon inocnred his
release and relurne<l to' journ.alislic work in the
capital. In 1810 he was nominated censor of the
press, having the year pievious been appointed
professor of History in the university of Paris
This post he iMdil'down to 18.53. From 1811 .-i
member of the French Academy, he became its
president in 1816. Lacretelle died near M.lcon
on 2(itli March 18.5.5. He wrote a series of works,
respectable, but of no very onlstaiidiiig merit,
dealing with the history of France from the time
of the ieli;;ious wars down to the middle ol
the 19th century. Of these the most useful
are Histoire du Dix-huiti&me Siicle (6 vols. 1808),
LACROIX
LACTIC ACID
477
Pr(cis Historitiue dc la Revolution (3 vols. 1801-6),
and llistoire ae Frame peiiihiiit Ics Gitcrrcs de Jleli-
ition (4 vols. 1814-10).— His eMer broUiei. PlKHKK
Louis (1751-1824), ilistiiij;uislieil liiinsolf as an
aJvocate and journalist, and liv his writings on
law subjects.
LiU'roiv. I'.ML, Fieiuli niiscfllaiieous writer,
better known by bis pen-name of 1'. L. J.\('()li,
BlBl.loi'Ull.i;, was born at I'aris, on 27tli l'\"bniarv
180(5. AVbilst still at school he bejjan to edit
editions of the old French cliussics, as Marot, Uabe-
lais, &c. Hut it was in the lield of tlie historical
romance that he won liis spurs as a writer. His
industry was iirodigious, and the number of works
that issued from his pen immensi'. Besides activ(dy
assisting in more than one journalistic enterprise,
he wrote romances, plays, books on history, on
manners and customs, and on bibliography, and
edited memoirs, biographies, ^.c. His most valu-
able produi-tions were a series of works on the
liabits, manners, customs, costumes, arts, sciences.
and intellectual condition of France from the
middle ages ilown to tlie lOtli century. His
bibliographical works are also valuable, especially
those in connection with Molibre. He wrote two
elaborate works on the Historji of Pro.stiti(fioii,
Iiublished under the name of Pierre Uufour.
•"roni 18,"),") onwards Lacroix was custodian of the
Ai-senal librarv of Paris, and died in that city on
16th October 1884.
Lat'ruiv, Sylvestre Fr.\scois, a French
mathematician, w;is born in Paris in 1765, taught
mathematics from 1787 in different educational
establishments connected with the army, then in
the Normal School, the Polytechnic, the University
of France, and the College de France successively.
He died on 'iotli May 184:j. He is not remarkable
for original discovery in mathematical science,
but deserves to be remembered for his Traite
du Calcul Differentiel el Iiiter/ral (Paris, 1797;
7th ed. 1867), and its continuatioii, Traite dcs
Diffifences et i/es S^rie^ (1800), which are com-
plete compilations of the results of all previous
research.
La Crosse, a Canadian field game [dayed with
a ball and a long stick (5 or 6 feet) of light hickory,
lient at the top like a bishop's cro/.ier ( Fr. crosxe).
Strings of deerskin are stretched diagonally acro.ss
the hooked portion of the cros.-^e in ditlerent ilirec-
tious, forming a network — not so lightly as in a
battledore or teimis racquet, nor so loosely as to
form a bag. Only one ball is employed, made of
iudia-rubber, and 8 or 9 inches in circumference.
The Crcsse and liail.
Posts or poles about 6 feet high, with a small Hag
at the top of each, complete the equipment. The
players are usually twelve on each side, but their
number, as well as the distance of the goals apart,
is nearly optional. The object of the game is for
one side to drive the ball through their opponents'
goal. The ball must not be touched with the hand
or foot, but is scoopeil up fronj the ground with the
bent end of the crosse, on which it is carried hori-
zontally, while the ])layer runs towards on<- of the
goals, trying to ilodge las antagonists. If it seems
prudent, he pitches the ball oil' his crosse towiirds
one of his own .side who nniy be in a better position
to cany it towards the goal. The players must not
strike, trip uj), or gntxp one another, nor ninst any
<me lay hold of the crosse of another ; a player may
strike the ball oil' an opponent's cro.sse with his own
cros.se, and not by any other means.
The National La t 'rosso As.socialion of Canada
was founded in 1867, and in the same year an
Indian team visited Great Britain. Afterwards
other Canailian teams ]dayed in England and
Scotland, and several local (dubs were formed ; in
a few places the game is very jiopular.
Lsi Crosse, cajiital of La Crosse county, Wis-
consin, stands on the Mississippi, at the month of
l^a Crosse Kiver, and at the junction of si\ railways,
195 miles by rail WNW. of .Milwaukee. It con-
tains a Roman Catholic cathedral and over a .score
of other churches, a convent, an orphanai'e, two
hospitals, excellent schools, and a public library.
The city liiis a large trade in lumber and grain.
The manufactures include farming-implements,
engines and boilers, sashes and blinds, i*\.c., and
there are several large lunil)er-mills, iron-foundries,
and breweries. Pop. ( 1870) 7785 ; ( 1890) 25,090.
Lacryilia tiiristi, a wine of a sweet but
piquant taste, ;uid a most agreeable bouquet,
which is prt)iluced from grapes grown on Mount
Vesuvius. The kind most esteemed is the light red,
the dark amber-coloured coming next. But the
genuine wine is \ery expensive, as only a small
((uantity is produced ; and the name ( derived from
a moniistery on the mountain) is commonly given
in Naples to Capuan and other second-class wines.
See Wine.
Laetantiiis, Ltciis C.i;Liu.s (or C.«cilius)
FlUllI.-VNl's. an eminent Christian ajiologist who
nourished in the early part of the 4th century.
His Italian descent is more than dubious, but it is
certain that he was brought up in Africa, although
it is very unlikely that he was a pujiil of Arnobius.
He seems to have .settled as a teacher of rhetoric in
Nicomedia in Bithyuia, and most likely he was
converted there by witnessing the marvellous con-
stancy of the Christian martyrs under the tenth
and most savage persecution of Diocletian. About
the year 313 he was invited to Gaul by Constantine
the Great, to act as tutor to his son Crispus, and is
supposed to have died .about 325. His principal
work is his Dii-hiormii Iiistitutiviuiiii Ubri cii., a
production both of a jiolemical and ajiologetic
character. His theology is somewhat crude, and
he has been accu.Mid of error in his treatment of the
doctrine of the Holy S])iril — his Chiliasm and his
e.schatology Mere not peculiar to himself. Among
his other writings are treatises He Ira Del and De
Mortibus I'erseeutiiriiiii, both inscribed to his dear
friend, the famous Donatus. His style is remark-
ably i)Ure, justifying his title of the ' Christian
Cicero.' His character apjiears to have been ele-
vated but austere, perhaps somewhat soured by the
poverty and trials of his life.
Lactaiitius was remarkably popular in the noddle ages,
and MSS. an<l jirinted editions of lii.s works are numerous.
Dufresnoy in his edition (2 vols. 1748) enumerates as
many as S(i editions of his entire works, besides separate
editions of his ditTerent treatises, from 14()1 to 1739 .\. D.
The best editions are those in vols, x.-xi. of tlie DiU.
Pat. Keel. /.at. by (Jersdorf (Leip. 1842-44), and Miyne'!,
I'atrijtoiiia (vol. vi. 1S44). There is a translation in
Clark's .'Viite-Xieene Library.
Laetalioii. See Milk, Breast.
Ijacteals. See UujestioN, Vol. III. p. 815.
Lartir Arid. CH3CH(OH)CO.,ll, the acid con-
tained in sour milk. In the pure state it is a
c<ilouriess, transjiarent, syrupy liquid, of specific
gravity 1-215. It is witjiout smell, has a sharp
!iciil taste, and is niiscibli- with water, al<-<diol. and
ether. It is formed in milk by lhi> fiuinenlalion of
the milk-sugar undc^r the influence of an organised
ferment. On a large scale it is usually iirepareil from
478
LACTOMETER
LADY
cane-sugar in the following manner : 7 U). of cane-
sugar and A oz. tartaric aciil are dissolved in 4 gal. of
water and" allowed to stand for a few <lays ; then
4 oz. of rotten rheesc ruhhed up in a gallon of sour
niilU, and '24 Hi. of zinc oxide ( zinc white) are adiled,
and the mixture is tlioroughly stirred and kept at
a temjierature of ahout 105° F.'for eight or ten days.
The liiiuiil is hoiled to stop the fermentation,
filtered, and evajiorated till the zinc lactate which
it contains crystallises; this is then re-di.ssolved
in water, decomposed with sulphuretted hydrogen,
the mixture filtered to free it from zinc sulphide,
and evajiorati'd on a water-hatli.
Lactic acid occurs very widely distributed as a
product of the natural fermentation of sour vege-
table materials, such as sauerkraut ; it is also found
in the stomach and intestines. An isomeric acid
of the sanie composition hut slightly different pro-
perties, called sarco- or para-lactic acid, occurs as a
product of waste of animal tissues, and is found in
mu.scle of all kinds, especially after violent exertion
or artificial tetanus. Sarco-lactic acid has been
frequently detected in Idood soon after its removal |
from the body, in quantities usually below 1 part
per 1000, but it apparently does not occur in normal
healthy blood while in the body.
The tests for lactic acid are not very satisfactory.
On addition of lead acetate and alcoholic ammonia
to a solution containing lactic acid an insoluble
lead lactate, 3PbO,2C3H.,03, is precipitated as a
white powder. The properties and ainount of water
of cry.stallisation of the zinc lactates are also char-
acteristic. Most of the lactates are crystalline and
.soluble in water.
Lactometer, or Galactometer, a very simple
instrument for testing the richness of milk ; it con-
sists of a glass tube graduateil to 100 parts. New-
milk is )ioured in up to the toji of the graduated
part and allowed to stand ; and when tlie cream
has completely separated the value of its quaii
tity is shown by the niiiiiber of parts in the 100
wliieli it occujiies. Another form of instrument
was invented by Doert'el, consisting of a small
hydrometer with a scale 2 inches long divided
into 20 degrees, the zero being placed at the point
to which the instrument sinks in water, ana the
20tli degree corresponding with the density 103X3.
This instrument is preferred by the continental
chemists; and 14' is held to show milk undiluted
with water.
Laetiicai'iiiiii. See Lettici;.
Ladakll'. one of the outlying goveruoiships of
Caslniicre, in the valley of the I'liper Indus, and
behind the great central range of the Himalayas.
The l.adakhis, some 20,000, are of Turanian stock
and Ihiddhists in religion. The capital is Lcli
(q.v.). See Casiimkiie.
Lad'ailllin (Arab. Unli'oi; Gr. /edcnion), a curi-
ous, delicately-scented, resinous gum which exudes
from certain kinds of Cistus, chielly C. crc(icu.i, C.
hdrin, and C. hiKrifiiliiis, growing in Crete, Cyprus,
and i>arts of Asia Minor. C. Ittilitiiiknis, strange
to say, does not produce the gum. I,adanum,
under the name of Labdanuni, is alluded to by
liiowning in I'lirdcdxiis ; and there are interesting
articles under Lui/ruiiiiii and L(''(/c in the Krencli
K>ir)/r.lo/)t-(/ie, ix. 172 and 336, in which the gum
is .saiil to be colleeteil (Ui fringes of leather attached
to long ]joles, and drawn over the shrubs in the
heat of the day. In Cyprus at the present time
the gum is ai'tually collected from the beards of
the goats that browse among the bushes, a system
mentioned by Ileroilotus, iii. 112. At one time
ladanum was used in medicine and as a perfume ;
it is now, in the form of small black balls, a costly
toy lingered by soft handed idlers in the Levant.
LadiUt iSee Enuauine.
Ladiii;;, Bill of. See Bill of Lading.
Ladu. See GoNDOKORO.
Lad'ogfU L.VKE, the largest lake of Europe, is
situated a short distance N. of St l\>tersburg, in
Russia, being crossed by the frontier line between
that country and Finland. It is 12!) miles in length,
78 in breadth, and 0998 sq. m. in area. The .south
ern and eastern shores are low and marshy ; but on
the north-west the coast is broken, ami rises into
dill's. There, too, are numerous islands. The lake
receives the waters of Lake Onega and Lake llmcn
in Russia and of Lake Saima and other lakes in
Finland; and its own waters are carried oil' to the
(iiilfof Finland by the Neva (q.v. ). The average
depth of Lake Ladoga does not exceed 300 feet,
except in the north-west, w here over a limited area
the depth is about 730 feet. The navigation is
exceedingly dangerous owing to the shallows, saml-
banks, and sunken rocks with which the lake
alionnds, and to the winds and gales which pre-
vail during the months it is free from ice (May-
October). In order to obviate tlu! dillicuUies of
navigation, canals have been constructed to con-
nect the mouths of the rivers that reach it along
the south and south-east slim-es. The principal
is the Ladoga Canal (70 miles long and (iO feet
wide). This canal system forms the thoroughfare
for a very extensive traffic (some 20,000 vessels an-
nually, carrying merchandise v:i,lued at .t'0, 000,000)
between the Volga and the Baltic, so extensive,
in fact, that the government have recently seen
fit to construct a new canal parallel to the old
Ladoga Canal. Comiiiunication by water subsists
between Lake Ladoga and the Wiiile Sea as well
as the Caspian. The fauna of tin; lake is arctic
in character. Two of the islands in the north-west,
Valaani and Kone\elz, are each the seat (if a
monastery, founded in 960 and 1393 respectividy,
which are visited by thousands of iiilgrims every
year.
Ladroiies. or Mariana Isl.vnds, a groii)> of
fifti^eii islaiiils in the western racilic, north of the
Carolines, in 13—21 N. hit. and 144 — 14tr K. long.,
disposed in a row almost iliie north and south;
their united area is about 420 ift\. m. They were
discovered 1)V Magellan ( 1521 ), whose sailors calleil
them the 'thieves' {Lfi<b-i>iie.s) Islands,' from the
thievish proiiensity displayed by the natives : in
lOOS thev received the nanie of Mariaii.a Islands.
In IS99"tlicv were sohl by Spain to the Uiiiteil
States. A channel divides the islands into two
grouiis. The live to the south are low and Hat,
tboscMo the north moiintaiuoiis ; most are thickly
wooded, and all are well watered, fruitful in cocoa-
nuts, rice, maize, cotton, sugar, tobacco, and indigo.
The area cultivated, however, is small, and the
trade is of little consequence. The iieople are
mostly indigeiums Chamorros and Tagals from
Luzon, besides a mixed race of partly Spanish
descent. .\t the time when the islands were dis-
covered the inhabitants were reckoned at 60,000,
hut the present iiopulation is only about 8700.
Under the Siianish rule their former gaiety and
cheerful imlustry have changcil to chill, apathetic
indilleicnce and' laziness, and their heathenism to
an outward Christianity which places no chi'ck on
license and immorality. The largest islanil is
Guam, with an area of 198 sq. m., and a pop.
of nearly 7000 ; on it is the only town, Agai'ia.
Lady, a woman of distinction correlatively to
Lui-d (q.v.), useil in a more extensive seii.se in
common parlance correlatively to </C)ilkiiiriii. As
a title it belongs to peeresses, the wives of peers
and of lords by courtesy, the word Lady being in
all these cases prelixed to the pi^era^-e title. The
daughters of dukes, marquises, ami carls are by
courtesy desigaatcil by the title Lady prelixed to
LADYBIRD
LAENNEC
479
their Christian name ami surname ; a title not lost
by niarriaj;e with a commoner. 'Lady,' prelixeil
to their husbands surname, is the usual title of
wives of Baronets (((.v.) and knights. See COUR-
TESY Titles, Addkess (Fokms of).
Ladybird (Coccinelht). a genus of nretty little
beetle.s, generally of a brilliant red or yellow colour,
with l)lack, red, white, or yellow spots. The form
is nearly hemispherical, the under-surface Hat, the
thorax and head small, the antenna' and legs short.
When handled they emit
a yellowish tluid, with
a disagreeable smell.
Adults and larva> feed
^A -m wm,'^ chiefly on aphides, an<l
/*^ ^ - •• V^ ^''''' ""^* most useful to
i ■m ^^-v liopK^owers and other
jWk— I .''J*- agriculturists. The eggs
are laid under the leaves
of plants, on which the
larva; afterwards run
about in pui-suit of
Ladybird(CoccijM'?/a occHata), aphides. In late autumn
magnified. the surviving adults find
safe corners, and hiber-
nate till spring. Ladybirds occasionally occur in im-
mense numbers, and from ignorance of their use-
fulness have sometimes been regarded with super-
stitious dread. The family of which the genus is
type, Coccinellida:, includes about 1.500 species, of
which forty or so are Britisk One of the com-
monest forms (C septem-punctata) is found over all
Europe, and in parts of Asia and Africa. The
name is apparently a modification of Ladijhug,
lady referring to the Virgin Mary, a.s the German
name Maricnkafcr suggests.
Lady Chapel, a chapel dedicated to the
Virgin Mary ('Our Lady'), and usually, but not
always, placed eastwards from the altar ^^•hen
attached to catheilrals. Henry VI I. 's t'liapel at
Westminster is the lady chapel of that cluircli.
Lady-day, one of the regular (juarter-days in
England and Ireland, on which rent is generally
made payable. It is the "25111 of March in each
year ; l>ut in some districts Old Lady Day ( April
6) is still observed as the terra day. See Annun-
CIATIOX.
Lady WemiAthyriumJilixfctmina, or Asplen-
ium filix fuimitia), a beautiful fern, common in
nioLst woods in Britain, witli bipinnate fronds
sometimes two feet long. Tlie whole plant has an
extremely graceful appearani'e. It is said to possess
the same anthelnuntic properties as the male fem.
Lady's Slautle {AkhemUla), a genus of herb-
cold climates, of the natural order Rosacea-, sub-
order Sangui.sorbea' ; having small and numerous
Uowei-s, an S-cleft calyx, no corolla, and the fruit
surnmnded by the pei-sistent calyx. The name
lady's mantle, signifying Mantle uf Our Lti(/i/—i.e.
of the Virgin Mary— is derived from tlie form of
the leaves. — The Common Lady's Mantle {A.
i-ii/rjan's) is abundant on banks and in pastures
throughout Britain. Its root-leaves are large,
plaited, niany-lobed, and serrated ; its flowers, in
corymbose terminal clusters, are usually of a yellow-
ish-green colour.— The Alpine Lady's' Mantle (A.
alpiiM) grows on Scotch mountains, and has digi-
tate serrated leaves, white and satinv beneath.
—A common Britisli plant is the Field Lady's
Mantle, or Parsley Piert (A.— ox Aphancs —
anriisis), found in jiastwres, an astringent and
diuretic, said to be u.seful in cases of stone in the
bladder, by producing a large secretion of lithic acid.
Lady's .Slipper ( Ci//>ripe(/iiim ), a genus of
lilanls of the natural order Orchi(le;e, of which one
species, C. Culceol ii.i, is a native of liritaiii, li<'ing
found in a few [daces in the north of Kngland, and
is reckoned one of the most beautiful of the British
orchids. The genus is remarkable for the large
Alpine Lady's Mantle {Alchemilla alpina) :
n, a flower.
aceous plants, chiefly natives of temperate and
"i Ci/prijxdium spectabilix : b, flower and leaf uf
C bavhainm.
inflated lip of the corolla. Several very beautiful
species are natives of the colder parts' of North
America. C. s/jcctabilis is a North American
species; C. barba/ iim, a. native of Java. Both are
in cultivation, tlie former in hardy collections, the
latter in liotliouses.
Ladysillitll, a small town in Natal (named
from a colonial governor's wife), 14(1 miles NW.
of Duiliaii liy rail. On the outbreak of the Trans-
vaal War in 1S99 it, including the army of Sir
George White, was invested by the Boer forces,
and after a siege of one hundred' and twenty days,
was linally relieved bv .Sir Itedvers Buller on I'Sth
reliruaiy'lilOO. I'op.' al l '2000.
Lnclit'll. a nortliern suburb of Brussels, with
( IS'Jl ) 2.'), '21 1 inhabitants. In it is the ciypt of the
Belgian royal family in the new Gothic cliurch of
the Virgin, and a royal palace {built in ITS'J), which
previous to its destruction by tire on 1st January
1890 contaim«l valuable works of art and his-
torical documents. The palace has been rebuilt in
the same style as the one destroyed.
LaeniKM*, 1{i:nk TiitioDoiiK h'vcintiie, a
distingnislii'il physician, was Ikuu at lj>iiiiiiper, in
Lower Brittany, 17th February I7S1. He stmlied
medicine under his uncle at Nantes, and at Paris
480
L^TARE SUNDAY
LAFFITTE
under Coivisart, to whom the medical profession
is mainly indebted for the introduction of percus-
sion in the invest if;at ion of diseases of the chest
(althouj;li tlie orijiinal discovery is due to Auen-
lirugKer). In 17!!!' Laennec was an army-doctor in
the tield ; in KSU he became the chief editor of tlie
Journal dc Mc(/cciiir : in 1816 lie was appointed
ciiief physician to tlu? Ilopital Necker, and it was
there that lie soon after nuide the discovery of
' mediate ' auscultation, or, in other words, of the
use of the Stethoscope (q.v. ). In LSI!) he published
his Tndfc t/c I'Ausctittation Mediate, which has un-
doubtedly produced a greater efiect, in so far as the
advance of dia<;iiosis is concerned, than any other
single book. His treatise had not long appeared
when indications of consumption were discovered in
his own chest 1)V means of the art of his own
invention, and after a few years of delicate health,
during whicli he continued to practise in Paris, he
retired to die in his native province, 13th August
1826. See his Life by Lallour (Quimper, 1868).
Ljetare Sunday. See Golden Uo.se.
L;p>'iilo.se. See Sug.-ve.
Laf'iiyottO, ca|>ital of Tippecanoe county,
Indiana, on the Wabash River, and on the AV abash
and Erie Canal, 6.3 miles NW. of Indianapolis, at
the intersection of live railways. It is a flourishing
city, in the midst of a rich prairie country. Laid
out in 18"25, it contains numerous churches, the
Purdue state uidversity, and manufactories of
farndng-implements, machinery, cars and wagons,
&c. Pop. (1880) 14,860; (1890) 16,243.
La Fayette, iI.\D.\ME de, the reformer of
Freneli romance-writing, was born in 1634, her
lather being a marshal and governor of Havre.
She married tlie Conite de La Fayette in 1655, and
was a mendier in her youth of the literary circle
which met in the Hotel cle Kambouillet. She was
the intimate friend of Mine de Sevigue, and in her
thirty-third year formed a liaison with La Koehe-
foucawld, whicli lasted until his death in 1680.
She died in 1693. Her novels Zi^f/i; and the iV//(-
cesse de CUves led to a reaction in taste against the
fantastic and long-winded romances of such writers
as La Calprenc'de ami Mdlle de Scudery. She had
a genuine command of (lassion and knowledge of
character, and in her I'riiieessc dc Clems gave a
vivid and faithful picture of the court-life of her
day. She commitleil, however, a curious ana-
chronism in transferring the men and women of Louis
XIV. 's age to the court of Henry II. ; for example,
her Dnchessede Valentinois is Mine de Montesiian,
the Prince de Clfcves is the Comte de La I'ayet te, and
the Due de Nemours is La Itochefoucauld. Her
novels, says(!cruzez, were more than a novelty, they
were almost a revolution. Her Ouirret t'utnjiUtes lill
5 vols. (1812; new ed. 1882); of her ,l/<«((/(Vfi' the
bested, is by Asse( 1890). See Hanssonville's mono-
graph ( 1891 ), and Ste-lieuve's I'urtraits dc Feinmes.
Lafayette, M.\uie Je.vn P.vul Koch Yves
(;ii.I!E1;t -MoTiEK, M.\1KH'IS de, was born in the
castle of Chavagiiac, in Auvergue, Seiitember 6,
1757. He belonged to an ancient family : came to
his estates at thirteen; married three years later;
entered the army, and sailed, in spite of the at least
jirofessed ojiposition of the court, for America in
1777, to otter his sword to the colonists in their
struggle for incl<'j)cnd('iice. He became an intimate
and admiiiiig friciid of Washington, who gave him
the command of a division after his conduct at
the battle of liraiicly wine. The treaty between \\u:
insurgents and I'' ranee at once led to war belween
France and England, ami Lafayette returned to his
country early in 1779. Six months later he again
cro.ssed the Atlantic, was charged with the defence
of Virginia, and had his share in the battle of
Yorktown, wliicli practically closed the war. On
a third visit to North America in 1784, after the
conclusion of jieace, he was received in such a
manner that his tour was a ccmtinual triumph.
Lafayette had imhiheil liberal principles in the
freer air of America, and was eager for reforms in
his native country. He was called to tlie Assembly
of Notables in 1787, and sat in its successor,
the Assembly of the States (Jeneral, and in that
which grew out of it, the famous National Assendilv
of 1789. He took a prominent part in its jiroceecf-
ings, and laid on its table, on the 9th July 1789,
a declaration of rights based on .IcH'crson's Declara-
tion of Independence. He was soon appointed to
the chief command of the armed citizens, where-
upon he formed the National Guard, and gave it
the tricolor cockade. Indeed, in the first stages of
the llevolntion, it seemed as if the ' tiramlison-
Crom well -Lafayette' had the destinies of France
in his hands. But the fever of revolution soon
surged too hotly for the constitutional channels
in which he would have had it How. He struggled
incessantly for order and bniiianity, yet was
mortified to the heart by the furious violence of
the mob which butchered F'oulon and bi.inilished
the reeking heart of the commandant lierthier
before his eyes. The Jacobins hated his modera-
tion, while the court abhorred his reforming zeal,
and both combined to defeat him in his canvass
against Petion for the mayoralty of Paris. Along
with Bailly he fimnded the club of the Feuillants,
and he supported the abolition of title as well as
of all class privileges. After the adoption of the
constitution of 1790 he retired to his estate of
Lagrange till he received the command of the army
of Ar<lciines, with which he won the first victories
at Phili]jpeville, .Maulieuge, and F'lorennes. But
the hatred of the Jacobins increased, and at length
Lafayette, who had come from the army to Paris
publicly to denounce the Jacobin Club, finding on
his return to the camp that he could not persuade
his soldiers to march to Paris to save the consti-
tution, rode over into the neutral territory of Liege.
He was seized by the Austrians and imiiri.s(med at
Olmiitz till Bonajiarte obtained his liberation in
1797 ; but he took no jiart in public atiairs during
the ascendency of Bonaparte. He sat in the
Chamber of De)iuties from 1818 to 1824 as one of
the extreme Left, and from 1825 to IS.SO he was
again a leader of the opp(]silion. In 1830 he took
an active part in the revolution, ami coiiimanded
the National Guards. In 1824 he revit^ited America,
by invitation of Congress, who voted him a grant of
2()0,000 ilollars and a township of land. He died at
Paris, 20th May 1834.
See his M' moires H Corrcapondance (8 vols. 1837^40);
studies by Ket'iiaiilt Wariii (1824) and S;irraiic (ISS'-M;
Ijfe l>y li. Tuckcrmaii ( Nuw York, 1889); two books by
Bardou-x (1892); tlie Diary and Letters of OaueiTiieur
jl/or7*w ( 1 888 ) ; and lioniol's 7^rtr(/''i/'«''"" dc la France
a VStabli use incut dtn Etuts Unis (1889-91).
Lallitte, J.\<"i;ues, a French banker and states-
man, born at Bayonne, 24tli October 1767, began
life as a banker's clerk in Paris, and in 1805
began business on his own account. He soon
acquired great wealth and in 1814 was maile
governor of the liank of France. After the second
restoration he joined tlu^ opjiosition in tln^ Cham-
ber of Deputies, and enjoyed the highest iio]uilarity
in Paris ; he was elected by all twenty .sections
in the city in 1817. In 18.30 he made his house the
hcadiiuarters of the friends of the revolution, and
out ot his private means supiilied great part of the
funds for carrying tbnuigh the movement. In
November he was entrusted with the formation of
a cabinet, but he only held power until 12tli March
following. Mcanwhil(! he was obliged to .sell his
jiroperty to pay his debts. A nalional subscri|i-
lion preserved him his hotel in Paris; and from the
LAFITE
LAGOS
481
ruins of hi^ fortune he founded a new Discount
Bank in 1837. As tlie gDveinnient receded from
the princiides of the revohition of 1830, Latlitte
became more and more active in oiiposition. In
1843, to the j;reat displeasure of tlie court, he was
elected president of the Chamber of Deputies. He
died at I'aris, ^eih May 1844. The Sottroiirs i/c
J. Ldffifte, raconles par liii-mcme (3 vols. Paris,
1844 ), were written by Marchal.
Lalite. See Borde.vux.
Lafontaine, Je.\N DE, was born on July 8,
1621. at Chateau-Thierry, in Champagne. His early
education was neglected. He was placed in a
clerical seminary, which he soon quitted to under-
take his father's duties as master of woods and
forests. Early in life he devoted himself to the
study of Kabelais, Marot, and other old writers,
and set himself to the composition of verses — all of
them more or less worthless. In 16o4 he published
a verse translation of the Eiinuclinsoi Terence, and
then went up to Paris, where he won the favour of
Foiujuet, who awarded him a pension of 1000 francs
on condition that he furnished a piece of verse
quarterly. Tlie vei'ses thus i)roduced showed con-
siderable originality, and their author became the
darling of the ladies of highest distinction in Paris.
During six years he wrote little, abandoning him-
self to a life of gallantry and to social meethigs
with Molicie, Bofleau, and Racine. His Contes et
Nouvelles en Vers appeared in 1665 ; his Fables
Choisics mises en Vers in 1668; and his Ainours de
Psyche et tie Cujtidon in 1669. Among his chief
patronesses were Marguerite of Lorraine and the
Duchess of Bouillon, and for nearly twenty years
he was maintained in the household of Mine de
la Sabliere. In 1684 he read an admirable Dis-
coiirs en Vers on his reception by the Academy, to
which he was admitted much against the wish of
the king. In her later years Mine de la Sabliere
became devout, but Lafontaine attached himself
to the dissolute Prince de Conti, pursuing in his
old age the follies and dissipations of his youth.
She died in 1693, and for his two remaining years he
was cared for by Mine d Hervart, who maintained
him until his death, which occurred at Paris on
April 13, 1695. During an illness about two years
before he had allowed himself to be converted in
so far at least as to acknowledge the impropriety of
the Contes and, it is .said, destroy a new play. He
was one of the idlest, the most reckless, the most
frivolous and dissipated of men, but he wa.s like-
wise one of the most lovable and charming, as he
was assuredly one of the most gifted.
The subjects of the Contes are taken from Boc-
caccio, Ariosto, Machiavelli, Kabelais, the Ilejila-
meroH, the Cent Nuurelles iioiiviUcs, Apuleius,
Athen;eus, and other writers. The stories are retold
with inimitable skill, Lafontaine surpassing in wit
and in narrative dexterity the aulliors with whom
he challenged comparison. Nothing could be easier,
more sparkling, more ingeniously and gracefully
turned than his verse. The language h;is a racy
archaic llavour, the style combining the elegance
of the ITtli century writers with something of the
Kabelaisian richness. The subjects are nearly all
of the grossest description, and their ''rossness is
in most ca.ses artfully heighteneil by Lafontaine.
His story of Alaciel, for example, is a deeply-
degraded versi(m of the sombre though volu]itumis
tale told by Boccaccio. As for the Fuhhs, their
charm is undying, and they are free from the impro-
priety of the (yjulrs. It has been truly said of lliciu
by Silvestre de Sacy that they suiiiily three several
delights to three several ages — ' flie child rejoices
in the freshness and vividness of the story ; the
eager student of literature in the consummate art
vrith which it is told ; the exiierienceil man of the
world in the subtle rellections on character and life
which it conveys. ' Nevertheless the general verdict
of Frcncli critics on Lafontaine can hardly fail to
seem unduly high to his English readers. Theodore
lie Banville, for exanqde, maintains that he is not
merely an artist suineme in lyric cmiiedy, but a
great romantic poet, in whose work tlipie is alwavs
a 'window mien to heaven.' Such praise is hardly
judicious. Lafontaine was a siiarkling satirist, a
brilliant versitier, a well-nigh incomparable master
of the ditlicult art of telling a story in rhyme. He
combined, as another critic has said, tlie Hower of
tiie esprit Ganlois with a perfume of antiiiuity. He
was a great — not merely an amusing — writer, but
he was not a great jioet. With all its graces, his
verse has not the melody, the passion, the power of
suggesting a beauty and mystery beyond tne exact
meaning of the words, which distinguish all high
lyric work. But on the other hand it would be hard
to name a French poet, saving Molicre, who has
given such delight to others than his countrymen as
has been given by Lafontaine.
See Sainte-Beuve's Portraits Littiraircs, vol. i. ; Ban-
ville's Petit Traite de Pocsie Fran^aise : Taine's Essai sur
les Fabtesde La Fontaine ; and Lucas Collins' La Fontaine
and other French Fabulists {VAii'2). The best editionsare
by Marty-Laveaux in the Bihlioiheque Elzeinricnne ; A.
Pauly in Leinerre's Collection des Classiqaes Frani;aises ;
L. Moland in the Libraire des Bibliophiles ; and Uirard
and Dtsfeuilles in the Grands ^crirains.
Lago Maggiore. See M.\ggioee.
LagOIIiys. a genus of rodents, much resembling
hares or rabbits, but with limbs of more equal
length, more perfect clavicles, longer claws, longer
head, shorter ears, and no tail. There arc aliout a
dozen species, one in south-east Europe, one on the
Kocky Mountains, and the rest on the iiiountains of
northern Asia. They are about the size of guinea-
pigs, and make burrows, but are particularly in-
teresting for their habit of stacking choice herbage
for winter use. The stacks of the Siberian species,
the Alpine Lagomys or Pika (L. alpiiiiis), are said
to be utilised bj- the sable-hnnters for fodder.
LagOOH(Lat. lacuna, 'ahollow,' 'ajiool'jisa
species of lake formed by the inertlowing eitlier of
the sea or of rivers, or by the iutiltration of water
from these ; and hence lagoons are sometimes
divided into fluvial and marine. They are found
only in low-lying lands, such as the coasts of
Holland, Italy, the Baltic, and the east coast of
South America ; are generally shallow, and do not
always jnesent the same aspect. In some cases
they are completely dried up in summer ; in others,
after being once formed, they jireserve throughouf
the whole year the character of stagnant marshy
pools; and in others again the sea, which re-iinites
them to itself in winter, is sejiarated from them in
summer by a bar of sand or shingle.
LagO.s, a seaport on the south coast of Portu-
gal, 30 miles ENE. from the extremity of Cape St
Vincent. Pop. 7900, mIio lish for tunny and
sardines. In tlie bay of La^os Admiral Boscawen
defeated the French Toulon fleet, August 18, 1759.
Lagos, a British colony, an island, and a town
on till' (iiiiiica coast of Africa. The co/«h.i/ extends
from o to 6 E. long., and comprises the islands of
Lagos and Iddo (annexed in 1851 ), the districts of
Palma and Leckie ( 1862 ). district of Badagry ( 1863),
Katanu (1879), .\ppa (1883), and Maliiii, (Jgbo,
and .lakri (1885). Area of colonv, 1071 sq. m.
Tlie inhabitants (85,607 in 1891 ) are "iiiostly Negroes
and two-l birds pagans, though Mdh.uiniiedanisni i>
making great headway. Average annual value ot
exports (palm oil, palm kernels, ivory, giiiii copal,
cotton, and (luiiiea grains), i"582,04() ; of iiii]iorts
(spirits, tobacco, cotton goods, and hardware),
£466,370. Trade is carried on principally with
482
LAGOSTOMUS
LA HOGUE
England and Germany, to a less extent with the
United States, France, and Brazil. The islniid has
an area of S:l sq. ni. ; and at its western end
stands the loicn, the principal commercial place on
this part of the coast, and the onlv safe liaroour for
a ilist<ince of 1000 mik-s. Pop. 40;000. The 1)ishop
of the Niger territory resides here ; hut Laf,'os itself
liclonfjs to the diocese of Sierra Leone. Previous to
tlie interference of the British La^os was one of the
cluef entrepots for the e.xport of sl.aves. Created a
separate <,'"^ernnient in 1863, tlie colony formed
part of the West African Settlements (from 1H66)
and of the ( !old Coast ( from 1874 ) successively. In
1886 the present colony was constituted.
Laifustoimis. See CiiixcuiLL.v.
La;£rail^4', Joseph Louk, Comte, the great
algeliraist, was born at Turin, 25th January
I7;i6. His father, who, as well as his mother,
was of Fiench descent, was war-treasnrer to the
Piedmontese government. In later life Lagrange
explained his first ajjplication to the study of
nuithematics by the fact that the family prop-
erty ha<l been lost in speculations. At the age
of seventeen a paper of Halley's in the Phito-
sophicdl Trrinsactions turned him towards algebra
and analytical geometry, and then his powers
developed with striking precocity. In 1754 he
was ajipointed mathematical profe.ssor in the
Koyal Scliool of Artillery ; at the same time
he discovered a seiies for diHerential exi)ansion
analogous to the binomial theorem of Newton, and
attracted Euler's attention by a letter on the
general solution of certain isoperimetrical problems
which had been proposed to the best mathema-
ticians in Europe. He also corresponded with
DAlembert, tlien the leader of French scientific
society. At Euler's suggestion Frederick the (Ireat
appointed Lagrange to succeed him as director of
the Academy of Berlin. Before leaving Piedmont
he did much original work in integration and
partial dillerences, applying mathematical methods
to physics and astronomy, and assisted, in 1758,
to found the Turin Academy of Sciences. In 1762,
by his completion of the Calculus of Variations,
the main tlii!ory of which had been foreshadowed
in his discussion of isoperimetricals, and his in-
vestigations of sound, harmonics, &c. by new
analytical methods, Lagrange gained a European
reputation, though at the expense of his health,
whicli was never afterwards robust. His memoir
on the moon's liljration, which in 1764 obtained
the pri/(! of the French Academy, lironglit into
.I)rominc>uce his great ' principle of virtual veloci-
ties,* which was presently to be so largely utilised
in dynamical problems. Lagrange gave the first
complete proof of Laplace's generalisation, that,
so far as the laws of motion are concerned, our
solar system is necessarily stable and permanent,
because all the changes of the iilanctary orbits,
caused by their reciprocal gravitation, are periodic.
While in I'rnssia, from 1766 to 1787, Lagrange
read befcne the Berlin Academy about sixty disser-
tations on the application of the higher analysis
to mechanics and dynamics. From the leading
results of these nuMnoirs and of his previous work,
duly marshalled and systematised, arose Lagrange's
principal work, the Micaiiique Anal>/ti</iii\ which
w:us ]iublislied (1788) in Paris under the super-
vision of Legendre. The central theory, unifying
tlie science of dynanncs in all its developments,
was the principle of virtual velocities wliich he had
established in 17<)4.
Just liefore the issue of the M(canique Anahf-
ti</uc, Lagrange arrived in Paris, to be welcomed
by the court and lodged in the Louvre with a
jiension of (iOOO francs. In 1791 he was elected
foreign member of the Royal Society of London.
He comiuanded univei'sal respect even in the crisis
of the Revolution, and was a])))ointed professor in
the Normal and Polytechnic Scho(ds, one of the
first members of the Bureau des Longitudes, and
was enthusiastically in favour of the new decimal
ami metrical system. He was appointed member
of the senate under Bonaparte, who also bestowed
on him the title of Count and the Cnind Cross of
the Legion of Honour. He did more than any
other, except Euler, to develop the applications
of the infinitesimal calculus.
Partly owing to his weak cotistitntion, Lagrange
was extremely regular in his habits, abstemious
in food, with his work ever most systematically
distributed. His various treatises, read to the
Academies of Turin, Berlin, and Paris, now fill
seven quarto volumes. Other important works
are Thiorie des Fonctions (2d ed. 1813), Lr<:ons sur
le Calcul des Fonctions, Efsolutian des Equations
Numeriqncs. Lagrange died at Paris, lOth April
1813, and was buried in the Pantheon. A new
edition of his works, in 16 vols., was undertaken
in 1867.
La Giiaira. See Gi-.vira.
La Hague, the north-west extremity of the
peninsula of Cotentin, in the north of France, over
against Alderney of the Channel Islands. It is
crowned by a lighthouse, 158 feet high. This
must not be confounded with La Hogue ( (j. v. ).
La Ilarpe, Jean Francois de, French writer,
born at Paris, November 20, 1739, first attracted
attention in 1763 by a successful tragedy, War-
icak. His fame was further enhanced by a scries
of eloquent E/or/cs. But his other plays an llie
classic model, such as Tiinulcon, I'haraiiwiit/, and
(liistave Wasa, entirely failed. MHaiiic, I hiloc-
ti^tc, and Coriohoi were more successful. His best-
known works are, however, his critical lectures,
liulilisbed in 12 vols. ( 1799-1805) as Liji-iu\ i>a Cunrs
dc Littcndure, which long remained a standard of
literary criticism. That portion which relates to
ancient literature is of little value, and that which
treats of contemporary writers is entirely worth-
less, owing to the bitterness and pride of the critic ;
but the intervening portion gives a fairly complete
critical history of F''rench literature. His Cwre-s-
pDiidance Lifteraire, puljlished in 1801, by the
bitterness of its criticisms rekindled tierce contro-
versies. The Revolution, at its commencement,
found no nmre ardent admirer than La Ilarpe : but
after five months' imprisonment for refusing to
countenance the extremes to which the immoderate
zealots of the movement pushed nuitters his views
entirely changed, and he became a firm supporter
of church anil crown. A posthumous work, I.n
Vi.si(jii de Cazvttc, must be ranked amongst the
best achievements of his ]ien. His graceful style
and keenness of observation are perhaps more than
counterbalanced by his partiality, vehemence of
judgment, aiul superficiality. La Harpe died
February II, 1803. See Sainte-Beuve, Cuuseries
till J.iDiili, vol. v.
Lallll. an important affluent of the Rhine (q.v.)
in its middle course.
La llou^lHN a roadstead <in the east side of the
peninsula ot ( 'ulciilin, in the north of France (not
to be confoiindcd with Cape La Hague, q.v. ). (In
May 19, 1692, the Frencli licet of forty-four sail
uruier Tourville, which Louis Xl\'. had collected
for the purjiose of invading England in support of
.lames 11., was defeated here by the condiined
Knglisli and l)ulcli Iliads of ninety vessids under
the Ja<'obile .\ilmiral Iv'usscll. Twelve huge Ficncli
line cif-batlh' ships wliich took refuge in the sliallow
roadstead of La Hogue were destroyed, under the
eyes of King James, by boats' crows led by Admiral
liooke. See Macaulay's History.
LAHORE
LAIS
483
Lahore, capital of the runjal), stiuuls in 31°
34' N. lilt, ami 74 21' E. loiif,'., near llie left bank
of the Mavi. I'op. (l.SdS) l'J5,4i:i : ( IWll ) 176,S54,
of whom SG,413 were Mussulmans. Lahore eoveis
t>40 aeres of prouml, ami is sunounded bv a
brick wall 11! feet IukIi- The city is entereil by
metalled roads thnmjxli thirteen gates. The fort
occupies a commamlin^ position to the north-east,
and near it are the mosque of Aurun^zebe and
Ruujeet Singh's tomb. The English civil station,
some 3 miles long, is called Anarkalli, and a broad
road, the Mall, connects this with the government
house and the Lawrence Gardens. 'I'hree miles
farther is the military station or cantonment of
Mi;in Mir, one of the dreariest and most unhealthy in
India. The Punjab University, largely endowed
by native chiefs and gentlemen — Moslem, Sikh,
and Hindu— is one of the most nourishing educa-
tional establishments in India. There are also the
Oriental College, the (iovernment College, Govern-
ment Medical School. Mayo Hospital, the Roberts
Institute, and a good museum containing many
fine specimens of Gru'co-Bactrian sculpture.
'The origin of Lahore is uncertain, but is certainly
not later than the "tli century A.u. Under the
Mogul em]iire the city reached its greatest size
and magnilicence, and is said to have had a popu-
lation of over 1,000,000 souls. Akbar and Jahan-
gir lived at Lahore, and the remains of the beau-
tiful and magniliceut buildings erected by them
and otlier great Mogul emperors are still consider-
able, as well as Jaliangir's wonderful gardens at
Sliiidra and Shalimar. Since the time of Aurung-
zebe nothing of importance has been constructed.
In 1799 lianjeet Singh, the Sikh ruler of the
countrv, removed the seat of government to Am-
ritsar, "about 30 miles to the south ; but in 1846 a
British Council of Regency (of the Punjab) was
established in Lahore, in 1849 the young Maharaja
Dhuleep Singh transferred the government of the
state to the East India Com])any, and Lahore be-
came the capital of the new British province of the
Punjab. Lahore is an important railway centre ;
lines from Kurrachee and Peshawur are connected
there with the south road leading to Delhi and
Bajputana, to Calcutta, and to Bomljay.
"Tne Laliore district is one of the most important
of the Punjab, with an area of .3ti48 .sq. m., and a
po|>ulation of abo\ e a million. The IJdri Doali Canal
is an imi>ortant government irrit;ation work, and
no le.ss than 500,000 acres in the district are culti-
vated by means of artiticial irrigation of some sort.
Lsihr« a town of Bailen, on a small affluent of
the Rhine, 20 ndles SSE. of Strasburg by rail, with
nianuf.-ictures of cottons, pottery, &c., and printing
establishments. Pop. 9937.
Laibacfa, cai)ital of the Austrian crown-land
of Carniola, and formerly of the kingdom of Illyria,
lies in an e.xtensive plain on the river Laibach,
7 miles above its junction with the Save, and 92
by rail NE. of Trieste. The streets of the old
town, which goes back originally to Roman times,
are n.arrow ami irregular, those of the new suburbs
wide and handsome. The town was fortilie<l from
1416 down to the beginning of the lOtli century.
The castle is now used as a ]irison. Lailjach has
been a bishop's see since 1461, and hiis a cathedral,
national nmseum, &c. It is likewi-se a place of
some commercial and industrial importance, hav-
ing cotton-factories, bell anil iron foundries, cloth
and woollen goods nianufiw^tories, and an imperial
tobacco-factorv. To the south-west of the tow'n
is the Laibacli Mora-ss, ui)wards of HO .so. m. in
extent, three-fourths of which have been brought
under cultivation ; the remainder affords a su|pply
of turf. Interesting lake-dwellings h.-ive been dis-
covered in the inora.s.s. Pop. (1890) 30,.505. A
congress met here in 1821 to regulate the affaii-s of
Italy.
Laidlaw. Wii.i.i.am, the friend and latterly
amanuensis of Sir Walter Scott, was born al
lilackhouse in Selkirkshire in November 1780.
After farming with but little success at Traquaii
ami Libberton, he settled in 1817 a-s a kind ol
factor and manager on the estate of Abbotsford.
and was Scott's trusted counsellor in all hi^
.schemes of improvement. Here, with the e.xcep-
tiim of but three years after the disaster in Scott'.'-
all'airs, he lived till Scott's death in 18.32, his con-
stant companion and household friend, honoured by
an affection that his loyalty deserved. Laidlaw'.>-
ac(]uaintauce with Scott began in the autumn
of 1802, and he sup])lied some of the materials foi
the third volume of the Miiisirehi/ of the Sluttish
Border. The sweet and simple pathos of his owi
ballad, ' Lucy's Flittin',' would alone have kept th(
name of ' Willie ' Laidlaw from being forgotten evei,
were that name not safely enshrined in a hundred
pages of Lockhart's Life of Scott. After his great
nuister's death Laidlaw was factor successively on
two Ross-shire estates, and died at his brotlier's
farm at Contin in that county, 18th May 1845.
See two papers in Chamhers's Edinburgh Journal
for July 26 and August 2, 1845.
Laillg, David, a learned antiquary, was the
son of an Edinburgh bookseller, and was born in
1795. For thirty years he followed his father's
trade, earning the esteem of all the antiquaries
and .scholars of his time by his renuirkable know-
ledge and his readiness to communicate it. In
1837 he became librarian of the Signet Library,
a post which he held till his death, October 18,
1878. Laing was honorary secretary of the Banna-
tyne Club throughout, and himself edited many
of its Issues ; while his contributions to the Trans-
actions of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland
were innumerable, yet all stamped with character-
istic thoroughness. He received the decree of
LL.D. from Edinburgh in 1864, and left 1)eliind
him a private library of unusual value even for
bis e-xceiitional opportunities ; many books at the
sale in Londim realised unlieard-of prices. A
valuable collection of MSS. was bequeathed to
Edinburgh University.
David Laing's knowledge of the ecclesiastical and liter-
ary history of Scotland was profound, and his more im-
portant works will long retain their value. These were his
edition of Robert Baillie's Letters and Journals (3 vols.
1841-12), the works of John Knox (6 vols. 1846-64), and
of the Scottish poets. Sir David Lyndsay, Dunbar, and
Henryson. His literary Ufe covered the long period of
more than sixty years, and death surprised him busy on
Wyntoun and a new edition of Lyndsay.
Laing. M.\LC0LM, a meritorious Scottish
historian, was born on the mainhind of (jrkney in
1762. He was educated at Kirkw.iU and Edin-
burgh University, and was called to the bar in
1785, but never became a successful advocate.
He died in November 1818. He wrote in 1793 the
last volume of Henry's Hintorij of Great Britain,
and in 1800 published his own llixtor;/ af Seot/and
from James VI. to Anne. In the 1804 edition
occurs his attack on Queen Mary for participation
in Daruley's muriler. His I'oenis of Onsian is a
liercc oiisbuighl on Maci>bersoii.
Laing's Nek. See Colley.
Lairesse, Ger,\.rd (1640 1711), a Dutch
iiaiiiter with cla.ssical sym]iathies, e.'cerciseil an
inlUience on art schools through his Art of I'aintlug
(Eng. trans. 1738). This work was compiled from
notes of his conversations with friends an<l pupils
after he had become blind (in 1690).
Lais, the mime of one or, more probably, two
(Jreek courtesans, celebrated for e.\traordinary
464
LAISSEZ FAIRE
LAKE DISTRICT
beauty. The eldei" is believed to liave been born
at Corinth, and nourished during the Peloponnesian
war. Slie was supposed to be tlie most graceful
woman of her time m Greece, but in character slie
Wiis ca|>ricious, and greedy of money, and in her old
age she gave way to intemperanee. — Tlie younger
appears to have been born in Sicily, but came to
Corinth when still a cliild. Slie sat as a model
to the painter Ajielles, and is .said to have been
stoned to death by some Thessaliau women whom
she h;id made jealous.
Lnis<«<'Z Fairo is a plira.se which expresses the
attitude towards the State of the school of political
economists founded by Adam Smith. The phrase is
usually traced to Gournay, merchant and economist
of the Physiocratic school. But it is said first
of all to have been the renionstrance of French
merchants against the system of the great states-
man l-'olbert, who established a minute regulation
of industry by the State. They believed that the
best thing the State could do for industry was to
leave it alone. The phrase therefore embodied the
})rotest of private industrial enterprise against
minute, vexatious, and oppressive regulation by a
French state, which at that time represented only
the court and a narrow jirivileged class, which was
often incapable, and always engrossed in war,
intrigue, and other pursuits alien to industry. ]5ut
in England more than any other country it has
been accepted as a watchword of free trade and
free industry, as contrasted with the prolecti\e
sj-stem and state regulation generally.
Lake, Gei:.\i:u, Viscount, born STth July 1744,
sei veil in Germany ( ITliO), America, and at Vinegar
Hill (ITOcS). He defealeil the forces of (Jwalior at
Aligarh and Delhi (1803), Sindia at Leswanee
(KS03), and Holkar near Furruckabad (ISU4).
Created a baron (1803) and viscount (1807), he
died in London, 20th l-'ebruary ]S(J8.
Lclke ( Lat. laciis) is a portion of water sur-
rounded by laud. Lakes are of two kinils — fresh-
water and saline — and have been formeil in various
ways. Takinjj lirst the freshwater la/.es, tliese
may be grouped as follows : ( 1 ) Obstruction Lukes.
—Some of these are more or less temporary sheets
of water, such as the lake-like expansions of certain
rivers, ami the deserted loops of river-channels.
Other temporary lakes are due to the operations of
the beaver ; to the choking of the narrower pass-
ages of a river-channel by drifted vegetable debris
or river-ice ; or to the advance of a glacier across
tlie mouth of a lateral valley. Now and again
roek-falls and landslips olistruct the drainage of
valleys and give rise to lakes ; and similar results
have been brought about by the advance of lava
across a valley. (1) Crater Lakes. — These occupy
the craters of extinct or quiescent volcanoes. (3)
Sink Lakes. — These lie in hollows caused by sub-
siilence of the surface conseciuent upon the removal
of underlying soluble rocks, such as rock-salt, and
calcareous and gyjiseons rocks. (4) Earth-movciiteut
L^akes. — Uneipial movements or warping of the
earth's crust have occasionally originated ludlows
by direct subsidence. It is possible also tliat local
elevation by aH'ecting the lower ends of valleys
may sometimes have obstructed the How of rivers,
and_ thus given rise to lakes. (.5) Gtarial Lakes.
— These consist of («) hollows of erosion or roek-
bujiiits, which have been excavated by glacier-ice,
and (6) hollows caused by the unequal distribu-
tion or accumulation of glacial detritus during the
glacial period. (ti) Siihtcrraiiean 7,((/,T.v.— These
are loiind chielly in calcareous regions, where they
occupy the underground channels which have been
exca\'ated by the chemical and mechanical .action
of water (see Caves). Tliey are met with also in
volcanic regions, filling, or partially iilling, the
cavities which are sometimes seen in lava-Hows
(see Lava).
Fresh-«ater lakes are very unequally distributed.
They are most numerous in those regions which
were overflowed by land-ice during the glacial
jicriod, as in the Ihitish Islands, Scandinavia,
Finland, &c. , Canada, and the ailjoining United
States. Lakes occur at all heigiits above the
sea ; the most elevated being Lake Tsana in
Abyssinia (7500 feet). Lake Titicaca in the
Bolivian Andes (12,500 feet), and Askal Chin in
Tibet ( 16,600 feet). The largest lake in the world
is Lake Superior, which covers an area of 31,200
sq. m., and has a mean depth of about 475 feet.
Lake Baikal, in central Asia, is the largest and
deepest mountain-lake, its area being 13,500 sq.
m., and its mean depth 850 feet, but in places it
reaches a depth of more than 4000 feet. Some of
the mountain-lakes of Europe also attain great
depths ; thus, Lake tieneva is 1000 feet, Lago
Maggiore 1158 feet, and Como 1358 feet.
ScUt Lakes. — Two kinds are recognised : (a)
portions of the sea cut oil from the general oceanic
area liy epigene or hypogene agencies; (b) lakes,
originally fresh-water, which have been rendered
saline by evaporation and concentration. Those of
the lirst group range in size from mere pools and
lagoons uji to inland seas, such as those of the
great Aralo-Caspian depression. The Dead Sea
and the Great Salt Lake of Utah are good examples
of the second group of saline lakes, which might
be defined shortly as lakes which have no outlet to
the ocean. The Caspian Sea is 97 feet below the
level of the Black Sea, has an area of about 170,000
sq. m., and is from 2500 to 3000 feet deep in the
dee]iest jiarts. A still more de]iressed area is that
of the Dead Sea, the surface of which is 1292 feet
below the level of the Mediterranean Sea.
Lake DiiStru't, the name applied to the
])icturesque and niountainons regmn comprised
within the counties of Cumberland, Westmorland,
and a small ])ortion of Lancashire, Milliin which are
grouped as many as sixteen lakes or meres, besides
innumerable mountain tartis and streams, and a
series of mountains rising in four points to a height
of over 3000 feet. The district extends aliout 30
miles from north to south by about 25 from east
to west, and contains within its compass the utmost
variety and wealth of natural scenery, soft and
graceful beauty ever alternating closely with
grandeur and sublimity. Indeed nowhere else in
the woild perhaps is so much \aried beauty to be
found within so narrow a space. The district is
visited e\cry year by thousands of tourists, who
are able, from Keswick or Ambleside as a centre,
to explore the whole region, and climb all its chief
mountains within a week. But it must not be
forgotten that many of the most lovely spots lie
out of the orilinary routes, and that for tho.se
travellers who can alloid the time tlieie is ample
occupation for a mncli longer period. ITie Lake
District is fringed by such consideralile towns as
Penrith, Kendal, Lancaster, Barrow, Cockermoulh,
and Whitehaven ; and already railways bring the
travidler. from ilill'ercnt ]points of the compa.ss, to
Keswick, to Windermere, to Coniston, and to Boot.
The principal lakes are Windermere. Estlnvaite
Wat<,'r, and Coniston in the south ; niswalerand
Hawes Water in the east; l!:is.senthwaite in the
north ; Wast Water, Ennerdale Water, liutter-
mere, and Crummo<d< Water in the west : and
Derwentwater, Tliirlmere, (Ira-sniere, and Kydal
Water ill till- be.arl of the district. The highest
mounlain-sumiiiits are Sc:ifell I'iUe (3210 fci't),
Scafell (3101 feet), llelvellyii (3118 feet), and
Skiddaw (3000 feet), all easily accessible, in great
iiart even on pony liack. liesiiles these there are
liundredsof mountains a-udj/ikcs, many clothed witli
LAKE DISTRICT
LAKE-DWELLINGS
185
the richest greenery. The hikes are feil and emptied
by beautiful mountain-streams and hrc/:s, often
forming noble waterfalls and foircx, like Lodnre
Falls, near Der\ventwat<^r ; Dungeon (nil 1-alls,
near Orasmere : Stoekgill Korce, near Ambleside:
Scale Korce, near Crummock Water ; Aira Force,
near Patterdale ; and Dalegarth Force, near
Boot. Among the place.s most visited, besides
these, are the towns or villages of Keswick, Conis-
ton, Bowness, Hawkeshead, Ambleside, Ulverston,
Rosthwaite, Grasmere, Patterdale, and Borrow-
dale ; the Lanmlale Pikes ; the Duddon Valley,
celebrated in AVordsworth's series of sonnets ;
Honister Pass, and Kirkstone Pass ; the Castle
Rock of St John, celebrated in Scott's Bridal of
Triernmin ; and such minor but imposing mountain-
peaks as Blencathara or Saddleback (2847 feet),
near Keswick; Coniston Old Man (2633), near
Coniston ; and the Great Gable ( 2950 ), near Wa-st-
dale Head.
But far more even than its romantic natural
beauty is the rare interest that ha,s been added to
this district by the group of illustrious jioets who
made it their home aljout the beginning of the 19th
century, and who were somewhat unintelligently
grouped together by unsympathetic critics as form-
ing the ' Lake School ' of poetry. Of these the
most illustrious was Wordsworth, who has inter-
fireted for us with marvellous fidelity and force the
ife — animate and inanimate alike — of the country
which he knew and loved. His Excursion is the
best of all guide-books to the Lakes — Wordsworth-
shire, as Lowell aptly terms the district ; and
students of English poetry will never lose an
interest in those hallowed scenes in which the
modern High-priest of Nature first expounded tlie
cooperative spiritual harmony between man and
nature hei-self, and tauglit how the mute life in
nature ever leads ujiwards to the conscious life in
man and the creative force in Goil. He wa-s born
at Cockennouth ; lie had his education at Hawkes-
head school ; he lived thirteen yeai^s in three
houses at Gra.smere, and thirty-seven at Rydal
Mount ; and he lies fittingly, with his wife, his
children, and his gifte<l sister Dorothy, in Gnus-
mere churchyard, in the midst of the scenery he
has made enchanted. His first lioiisc at Gras-
mere, Dove Cottage or Town Knd, his home from
December 1799 to .May ISOH, and of De Quincey
for more than twenty years thereafter, w;us bought
in 1890 by public subscrii)tion for permanent pre-
servation a.s a memorial of Wordsworth. His life-
long friend and brother-poet, Southey, lived for
forty years at (Jrcta Hall, near Keswick, and rests
in Crosthwaite churchyard bard l)y. Here also at
Greta Hall Coleridge lived awhile, often visiting the
Wordsworths ; and here his children were brought
up by Southey. The hapless Hartley Cole-
ridge lived long at Nab Cottage, near Rydal
Water, and is buried besiile Wordsworth
in Gra.smere. Christopher North lived at
Elleray, near Windermere ; Shelley lived
some time at Keswick after his marriage,
and .Mrs Hemans at Dove Xest on Winder-
mere. Harriet Martineau had her home at
the Knoll, near Ambleside ; and not far off is
Fox How, where Dr Arnold found rest from
the strain of Rugby, and where he died.
James Spedding was born at Bassenthwaite,
and here was visited by Edward Kitztierald
and Tennyson ; and tlie latter lived some
time at Tent House on the east bank of
Coniston Lake. At Brantwood, near Conis-
ton Lake, Ruskin resided during the later
years of his life. The poet Gray spent a
fortnight of 1769 in traversing the Lake
District, and his Journal shows that he
looked before his time at nature with 'dis-
tinctness and unaffected simplicity,' in
Wordsworth's phrase. Hither came in the
.summer of 1802 Charles Lamb, with his sister
Mary, to spend three weeks with Coleridge
at Keswick. He appeai-s to have thoroughly
enjoyed the new experiences, yet in a letter
to his fr'ieiid Manning (24th Septeiiiber 1802) he
writes with a spirit worthy of Dr Johnson : 'After
all. Fleet Street and the Strand are better places
to live in for good and all than amidst Skiddaw.'
Wordsworth himself wrote a Description of the Scenery
of the Lakes in the North of Emjland (1822), in which it
is interesting to see how the descriptions glow with recol-
lected love, and how hot is his imiignation against all
wanton attempts to artificialise the face of nature. He
would have denounced the Manchester scheme for bring-
ing water from Thirlmere, and actively supported the
aims of the ' Lake District Defence Society ' ( establi.-ihed
in 1883).
See Professor Knight's English Lake District, as inter-
preted in the Poems of Wordsworth (1878), and his
Throiiyh the Wordsworth Countri/, with 56 engravings
by Harry Goodwin (1887); also Harriet Martineau's
Emjiish Lakes, with illustrations by W. J. Linton ( 1858),
T. G. ]5onney's English Lake Sccner;/ (1876), and Edwin
Waugh's Humbles in the Lake Countri/ (ISUl) and In
the Lake Countri/ (1880). Of the inmimeralde guides
maybe iiieiitioncd those of "W. Hutchinson (1776), T. West
(1780), J. ltn(ls<.n 1 18-13), Miss Martineau ( 18.55), James
Payn ( l.Sail and l,si;7), H. I. Jenkinson'.s Practical Guide
and his Tourist Guide ( 1879), Baddeley's Thorouiih Guide
(1880), and G. R. MiU, The En;ilish lAikes (1896).
Lako-dwclIinKS (Ger. rfahlbauten, 'pile-
dwellings ), habitations placed on platforms .sup-
ported by jiiles, or other substructures, in the
shallows around the margins of lakes, have only
recently become known to arclu-eologists, although
the fii'st notice of a lake-dwelling community
was written by Herodotus in the 4tli century
B.C. He describes certain tribes on Lake Prasias
in Macedonia as living in huts on platforms sup-
ported on piles which were approachetl from the
land by a single narrow bridge. It now appears
that from the very earliest times down to the
commencement of the historic period there were
lake-dwellings of various descri^llions in the lakes
of central Europe, and that a similar custom con-
tinued in Scotland and Ireland to much later limes.
Owing to an extraordinary subsidence of the waters
of the Swiss lakes in 1854 the remains of a lake-
dwelling were discovered at Meilen in the lake of
Zurich, and it was speedily found that similar
486
LAKE-DWELLINGS
remains of pile-dwellings, each indicating the site
of a lelie-lioil in the mud of the lake-bottom, ex-
isted in proximity to the shores of most of the lakes
in Switzerland. Since their first discovery the sites
of these ancient settlements have heen thoroughly
explored and systematically desrrihed by I)r Keller,
F. Troyon, and others. The relics of this singular
phase of early civilisation, which have been care-
fnlly gathered into the museums of Switzerland,
di.sclose the comlition of the industrial arts among
the lake-dwellers, as manifested in the successive
stages of the stone, bronze, and iron periods of
their culture and civilisation. There is nothing-
known of the origin of the lake-dwelling iili.ase of
social life. It has been suggested that a desire for
greater security from attack than could be all'orded
by a cluster of dwellings situated on the m.ainland
first led to the selection of natural islets .as the sites
of habitations, and when this h,ad become an estab-
lished custom the transition w,as easy from the
selection of natural islands to the construction of
artilicial islands where natural sites for habita-
tions isolateil by water did not exist. As a matter
of fact there are several varieties of artificial lake-
dwellings of which the sequence is not certainly
known. The .substructure is usually all that
remains. It has been found in some instances to
be a mass of stones, and in others a mass of brush-
wood, built uj) from the bottom of the lake. The
more common form in Switzerland, however, is a
sulistructnre of jiilcs, driven into the lake-bottom,
and the heads brought level to supjiort the platform
for the huts. Where the water is deep and the
bottom soft, the jiilcs arc driven only for a short
distance, and stones accumulated around and
among them to keep them in iiositioii. In some
cases the lower ends of the ]iiles iiave heen mortised
into a kind of horizontal framework of logs, to give
greater stability to the superstructure. The piles
are usually tree-trunks with the b.ark on, and the
]>latfornis were frequently the same, though some-
times the trunks were split or roughly boarded.
On this platform the huts were erected. Nothing
usually remains of them, but in son\e instances the
remains of the lower tiers of lioarding have heen
detected. In all cases in which the form of the
huts could be determined it has been rectangular.
But it seems deducible from the curvature of some
■.,,..T^.-ir,rT.,>.,,i, :..,3i..u^^.->x,.l.ni-.-i^"-^tL--"--:'-"i.j^;iil L ^ L r-r_ I J ■-'
niHllULUll i.V.I fm-TTtf
SSfS
Fig. 1. — Lake-dwelling restored.
pieces of hardened clay, witli the marks of inter-
woven branches upon them, that circular hu(s of
wattles and daub were also constructed. They
were doubtless thatched with straw and reeds.
There were many huts on one platform, and a
narrow gangway was generally carried on piles
from the jjlatform to the shore. Sometimes a ilug-
out canoe seems to have been used instead of a
gangway, but as they seem often to have had
horses, sheep, goafs, and cattle on tlie ]ilatform,
the gangway would be in such cases a necessary
adjunct to a settlement, the piles of which ha\i'
been occasionally found to indicate a superlici.al
area of 1()0,0U() si|nare feet, and which w;is therefore
practically a village on piles, 'j'be number of lake-
ilwellings discoveied in the lakes of Swilzerlanil
exceeds o!H' Ininilrcd and forty. The Itest known of
these are .MciliMi in the lake of Zurich. \Vangcn in
the lake of Constance, Kobenhausen in the small
and partially dried-np lake of Pfiiflikon, and
Moosseedorf in the snuiU lake of that name, all
stations of the stone age ; Moringen in the lake
of IJienne, Estavayer in the lake of Neuchatel, and
Morg(!s in the lake of Genev.a, all stations of the
bronze age ; and .Marin, otherwi.se known as La
Tene, in the ninth end of the lake of Neuchatel, a
station of the iron age.
In the settlements of the stone age the cutting
implements, such as axes, knives, saws, are made
only of stone. As Hint is not abundant in Switzer-
land, the larger iniplemenls. such as axes, are gener-
ally made of diorite, serpentine, and other hard and
tough stones, and sometimes even of nephrite and
jadeite. The smaller implements, .such as knives,
saws, arrow points, and sjiear-heads, are usually
made of chipped Hint, but the axes are cut out of
the block by a sawing process, the cuts being made
to some dejith on oiiposite sides, and the parts separ-
ated by a blow, riiose axes or axe hanjmers that
were ])erforated by a b(de for the haft were bored by
a drill of soft wood worked with sand. The stone
axes were, however, for the most part mere wedges
not [Hnforated for the haft, but fixed in a .socket in
the end of a short piece of stag's horn, through
which the perforation for the handle was made.
Sometimes the handle itself was perforated, and
oiu; end of the stag's born nu>unting, which carried
the stone axe socket(?d into its other end, was
mortised into the handle. IJitumen was used as a
cement to fix the stone tools of all kinds in their
handles of horn or wood. .Arrow-iioints, notclied
or bail)ed, and haj poon-points for spearing fish
were made of bone. The pottery of the stone a-ie
settlements wils coai-se but plentiful, and the cook-
ing vessels were occasionally of large size. The
lake-dwellers of tlie stone age were agriculturists,
LAKE-DWELLINGS
487
cultivatiiij; on the adjacent mainland tlieir crops of
wheat, liailey, millet, and flax, and rearing; flocks
and herds, the cattle being sonietinics stalled uj)on
the platforms. They were hunters and lisliers, and
their food seems in consequence to have been both
varied and plentiful. Amongst the animals they
hunted, .and whose remains have been found in the
relic-beds underneath the dwellings, are the urns
and bison, the elk, the ibex, and chamois, the
wild-boar and stag; and they kept the domestic
o.x, the liorse, swine, sheep, goats, and dogs. They
stored nuts and dried apples cut in halves ; and
among the charred remnants of tlieir food frag-
ments of their cakes of bread have been discovered.
To the same charring action of the tire which
seems in several cases to have consumed the huts
we owe the preservation of many specimens of their
textile fabrics, woven of well-spun tlaxen threads,
and of their fishing-nets, an<l mats made of ba-st or
fibre of the lime-tree, and ropes and lines of plaited
twigs, or cords of flaxen thread.
The pile-dwellings of the bronze age appear to
have been placed fartlier from the shore than those
of the stone age. The settlements of the
bronze age also exhibit an increase in the
nural)er of domestic animals, and a corre-
sponding decrea.«e in the number of wild
animals used for food. The ])ottery,
though not thrown upon the ^^•lleel, is „
finer in form and much more highly orna- "
men ted, often with patterns of great
elegance, painted in black or red, and
sometimes inlaid with strips of tin. In
settlements founded in the bronze age,
such as that at Morges in the lake of
Geneva, bronze is almost the only material
used in the manufacture of their imple- ^
nients and weapons ; and consequently "
stone and bone implements are as rare in >
them as bronze implements are in the o
earlier settlements. But there are a i>
number of settlements which seem to have *
existed during the transition period, in the 1
relic-beds of which the implements of stone o
and bronze are found mingled together.
The forms of the l>ronze objects found in
the lake-dwellings do not materially difl'er
from those geneially found dill'used over
central Europe. One feature of the lake-
dwellings is the abundance and variety of
the bronze ornaments, and the extraorilin-
aiy development of the pins with orna-
mental heads, which are foun<l of all sizes
up to 15 inches in length. The bracelets
are penannular, often hollow, or C-shaped in
section, and decorated on the convex surface
with a variety of ■ sunk patterns composed of
combinations of straight lines and circles. The
principal varieties of the implements and weapons
of bronze are axes, chisels, gouges, saws, sickles,
knives, daggers, spear-heads, swords, hammei-s,
and anvils. The knives are very abundant,
and there is one large variety, with a curved
and almost scythe-sliaped blade, haviii" a thick
back, whicli is characteristic of the lalce-dwellings.
There is a smaller knife with an oval or cre.scent-
shaped blade, so thin and sharp that it ha.s been
taken for a razor. The swonls are mostly of the
broail-bladed and slightly tapering form found in
central Europe, and often have their handles also
of bronze. Moulds of stone for costing the diderent
varieties of bronze implements, weapons, and orna-
ments have been found in the relic-beils, showing
that the articles were manufactured in the settle-
ments in which they were iLsed. In the princijial
settlement of the bronze age at Morges the inimber
of bronze articles found exceeds iiW.
The settlement of Marin iu the lake of Ncu-
chiitel is the best known of the lake-dwellings of
the iron age. As the area occupied by the piles is
about 1200 feet long by 2.")0 feet wide, the settle-
ment was undoubtedly a large one. Several cal-
drons of thin bronze with iron ring-handles attached
to the rim were found here ; and a number of
small articles of bronze were also found, none
of which were of bronze age types. The weapons
were all of iron. They consist of short double-
edged swords, the edges straight to within a short
distance of the point, and large, broad, and thin-
bladed spear-heads, sometimes oval or leaf-shaped,
but usually with wa\y or indented edges. Several
of the sword-blades are damascened, after the
ancient method of damascening by welding together
stri|)s of metal difl'erently prepared, and some have
makers' marks. The sheaths are of iron, beaten
very thin, and are remarkable both for their
elegance of form and the peculiar nature of their
decoration. This has been sometimes supposed to
be Etruscan, but it much more closely resembles
the style of ornamentation which is now known in
France as Gaulish, and is common to a series of
•io
0
.0
<3
C
«o
%
0
'■CO
Fig 2. — Ground-plan of Crannog in Drumaleague Lough.
grave-mounds occurring both in France and Switzer-
land. The other articles found at Marin are
shield-mountings, fibula', I)uckles, bridle-bits, and
hatchets, all of iron, a number of rings or bracelets,
be.ads, iS:c. of coloured glass, ])laying dice and other
small olijects of bone, pieces of Roman i)otterv,
and Komau and Gaulish coins. The latest of the
coins is of the reign of the Koman Emperor
Claudius, 41 to 5-t .\.I).
There is no means of computing the antiquity
of the earlier lake-dwellings of Switzerland, but
Dr Keller remarks on this point that, 'although
the actual determinatioii of the age of the lake-
dwellings is doubtful, yet we may say with perfect
certainty that they are more than 2000 years
old, and with a considerable amount of |iiob-
aliility that they reach back from 1000 to 2000
years before Christ.' Lake-dwellings have al!*o
been found on the Italian siile of the .Mps in the
lake of t;aida and the I-ago .Maggioie : in Savoy in
the lakes of Hourget .and I'alailru ; in .Vustria in
the beil of a dried-up lake at Laibach, an<l in
several small lakes near Salzburg, and in Itavaria
and I'omerania. In Scotland and Ireland, where
488
LAKE-DWELLINGS
LALANDE
they are numerous, tliey are known as Crannogs
(q.v.), from the Celtic word cranii, 'a tree.' The
cranno^. liowcver, are not constructed like the
Swiss pile-villajres. They are either jialisaded
refuses on small islets of natural formation, or
artilicial islets formed of lirusliwood, stones, and
earth, and steadied and protected by piles driven
thnninh and around the mass. The problem |ire-
sented to the crannof;-liuilders was to construct, in
a maximum de]ith of 10 or 12 feet of water, a solid,
compact, and generally circular island, with a radiu.s
of 51) feet or thereby, apable of proviiling a jier-
manent means of reKig_ and shelter for a consider-
able number of men and animals. The process is
thus described by Dr Munro : ' Over the site chosen
a circular raft of tree-trunks laid above liranches
and brushwood was formed, and above it additional
layers of logs, together with stones, gravel, &c.,
were heaped up till the mass grounded. As this
process went on, poles of oak were inserted here
and there, the rough logs forming the horizontal
layere were pinned together, and at various levels
oak-beams mortised into one another were stretched
across the substance of the island and joined to the
surrounding piles. When a sufficient height above
the v,ater-line was .attained, a prepared pavement
of oak-beams was constructed, and mortised beams
were laid over the tops of the encircling piles which
bound them firndy together. The margin of the
island was also slantingly shaped by an intricate
arrangement of beams and stones, constituting
a breakwater.' Frequently a wooden gangway
stretched to the shore ; in other cases the only
means of access was by canoes, hollowed out of
o.ak-tree trunks. Much the same system of con-
struction appeal's to have been followed in Ireland.
The plan ( fig. 2, p. 487 ) of one of two crannogs in
Drumaleague Lough, in the county of Leitrim, given
on a scale of I inch to 20 feet, shows a circle of
piles enclosing a space of 60 feet in diameter, with
remains of supplementary circles at several points
in the interior of the main or outer circle. In the
centre is the log-pavement. A, about .So feet by
25 feet, probably the floor of the log-house, which
was the principal building on the crannog. In the
centre of this pavement is a hearth -pl.ace, B,
covered with tlal stones, still showing traces of
fire. On the outside of the pavement is another
hearth-place, C, on a bed of still' clay, while
around a large tree-root, D, the top t)f which h.as
been dressed with a hatchet, and which ni.ay have
served as a table, were found the refuse of the
daily fooil in the shape of the broken and split
bones of deer and swine. The crannogs are gener-
ally very much smaller than the Swiss lake-settle-
ments, ami from the uiiture of their construction
there is no relic-bed. Those of Ayrshire and Gallo-
w.ay in Scotland have yielded objects iliiting from
the time of the Konian occupation of Scotland to
quite recent times. The most characteristic objects
recovered from the Irish crannogs belong to the
period of the Norse incursions, ranging from the
.Sth to the loth .and 1 1th centuries. There have
been a few exceptional instances of the discovery
of implements of stone and bronze age types in
apparent association with the crannog structures,
but so far as is yet known there is no crannog in
Scotland or Ireland thai can with any degree of
certainty be .assigned to the age of stone, or to the
age of bronze. They seem to belong (exclusively
to the inui .age and the historic period. There
are frequent references to the use of crannogs as
refuges and strongholds in the early Irish aiuials.
and in Scottish and Irish historical documents of
the IGth and ITtli centuries. The first traces
found in North .Vmcrica of anything resembling
the laUe-dwellings of Eurojie are at th(! mouth of
Na .luau's Creek, a tributary of the Delaware.
The custom of living in wooden houses erected
on piles over the watei's of a Lake, river, or inlet
of the sea is still practised by barbarous tribes,
and h.is been described by many travellers in the
Malayan Archipelago, New Guinea, Venezuela, and
in central Africa. When Ojeda, Vespucci, and
the other discoverei's entered the lake of ilarac.aybo
in 1499, they found an Indi.an village coiistructal
on piles above the water, and thence calle<l it
Venezuela ( ' little Venice '). The dwellings of the
Pa)iuans .along the coasts and river-banks of New
Guinea are Iniilt of bamboo .and raised on st.akes,
and are grouped together. Cameron saw regular
vill.ages of pile-dwellings on Lake Mohrya in
central Africa, each separate, and accessible only
by jealously-guarded canoes.
See Munro, The Lake-dwellings of Europe (1890);
Keller, The Lake-dwdli»<js of Switzerland (trans, by
Lee, 2d ed. 1878); Munro, Anrimt Scottish Lakc-dieeli-
iniis, or Crannogs (1S82); AVood-Martiu, The Lake-
difellinfjs of Ireland (18S(j).
Lake of the Tlioiisaii«I Islands, an ex-
pansion of the St Lawrence (q.v.) extending abimt
40 miles below Lake Ontario. It contains some
1500 rocky islets, the largest. Wolfe Island (48
sq. m. ; pop. 2383), measuring 21 nules by 7.
Lake of the Woods, a large lake of North
America, studded with immerous wooded islands,
mostly in Ontario, but touching also I\Iiinit(d)a and
Minnesota. Gold was found about it in 1897.
The lake is nearly 100 miles long, and about .300
in circuit. It is fed by the Rainy I!i\er, and
drained by the Winnipeg.
Lakes (originally pre|iared from Iftc, whence
the name) are pigments or colours formed by pre-
cipitating animal or vegetable colouring matters
from their solutions chiefiy with alumina or oxide
of tin. Cochineal and madder lakes are the only
ones used by aitists. The former are prepared with
Cochineal (q.v.) and alumina, and according to their
shade of red, or purple red, are known as carmine,
crimson lake, scarlet lake, purple lake, and Floren-
tine lake. These were formerly much employed for
landscape-work by water-colour painters, aiul are
still in request for flower-painting, but they have
not much stability. The madder pigments of this
kind, called rose madder or niadiler lake and
madder carmine, are on the other hand (piite per-
manent, both as water-colours and oil-colours, and
are much prized by artists. There are several
yellow lakes made, but they are fugitive, and con-
sequently but little useil.
Paper-stainers and decorators use several pink
lakes prepared by saturating a strong decoction
of Braail-wood ami other ilye-woods with chalk,
starch, and a little alum. To these such names as
\'enetian, Florence, and IJerlin lakes are applied.
The two best lakes used by decoratore are crimson
anil n]<u-one lakes.
Lakh. See L.vc.
Lakshllli. in Hindu Mythology, tlie name of
the ccmsort of the god Vishnu (q.v.), and considered
also to be his female or creative energy.
Lahiiide. Jcseph .Ikkomk Le-Fi;.\ncais dk, a
French astronomer, w.os born at liourg, 11th July
1732. Sent to P.aris to qualify for an advocate,
he was attracted to astronomy, whidi he studied
under Delisle and Lemonnier. The latter per-
suaded the Academy of Paris to send Lalande to
Berlin in 1751, to <leterndne the moon's parallax,
whilst Lacaille was sent to the Cape of Good Hojie.
On his return he was aiipointed one of the astron-
oiuei's-royal, and in 17H2 succeeded Lemonnier
in the professorship of Astronomy in the College
de France, .a post whi(di he held down to his death
on 4tli April 1S07. He lectured with gri'at success,
and published several astrouuiuical works of a
LALITA-VISTARA
LAMAISM
489
popular kind, as well as works of greater scientific
value In 179:> he was appointed Director of the
Paris Observatory. His character was marked l.y
extreme vanity : nevertheless he contrihiited jjieatly
to the general progress of astronomical science.
His principal work is Traite d'Astroiiomic ('2 vols
1764- .3d ed. 3 vols. 1792). In 1802 he instituted
the Lalande prize for the most notable astrono-
mical book or observation of the year. I
Lalita-Vistara is the name of one of the
most celebrated works of Buddhistic literature.
It belongs to the nortliern Buddliists, but is of
unknown origin and anticinity, existing only in a
debased Sanskrit version. It contains a narrative
of the life and doctrine of the Buddha Sakya-mum,
and is considered bv the Buddhists as one of their
nine chief works, treating of Dharma, or religious
law.
LallyTolleiidal, Thom.a.s Arthi-r, Count
DE L.A.LLV and B-\ROX DE TOLLEND.VL, a French
ceneral, was born at Romans, in Danphine, in
January 1702. His father, Sir Gerard Lally, was
an Irish Jacobite refugee, and commander of an
Irish regiment in the French service. Lally distm-
•^uished himself as a soldier in Flanders, especially
at the battle of Fontenoy ; accompanied Prince
Charles Edward to Scotland in 1745 : and in 1756
was appointed commander-in-chief in the French
East Indian settlements. He commenced vigorous
hostilities against the British, took many towns
and besieged Madras itself : but, having sustained
a severe defeat, he was compelled to retreat to Pon-
dicherry, which was attacked in March 1760 by
land and sea bv a greatly superior British force.
Lally, however," held out for ten months ; then,
capitulating on 16th January 1761, he was con-
veyed as a prisoner of war to England. But, hear-
ing that he had been accused of treachery and
cowardice in India, he obtained leave to proceed to
France for the vindication of his cliaracter. There
he was thrown into the Bastille, and kept two years
before his trial took place. The parliament of Paris
at last condemned iiini to death for betraying the
interests of the king and the Indian Company, and
the sentence was executed on 9th May 1766. But
his son, supportetl by the powerful assistance of
Voltaire, (nocured a' royal decree on 21st May
1778, declaring the cond'emnation unjust, and re-
storing all the forfeited honoui-s. See Malleson's
French in India (new ed. 1884), and Hamont's Ftn
dun Empire Franqais aux hides (1887). •
That son, Trophimu.s Ger.vrd, M.\rquis de
L.^LLY-TOLLESDAL, boin in Paris, 5th March 1751,
was one of those nobles who in the States General
of 1789 united with the Third Estate ; but, alarmecl
at the democratic tendencies of the National
Assembly, he afterwards allied himself with the
court. He laboureil to procure for France a con-
stitution with two chambers and a privileged aristo-
cracy ; and earnestly sought to protect the king,
but wiis himself obliged to flee to England. After
the Kevolution of 18th Brumaire, he returned to
France. Louis XVIIL made him a peer. He died
at Paris on 11th March 1830. He wa.s the author
of a famous Defence of the French Emigrants ( 1794);
and a Life of Wenttcorth, Earl of Strafford (2d ed.
1814).
Lama. See Llama.
Lailiai.sin (from the Tibetan bl.ama, 'spiritual
teacher or lonl') is the name of the religion pre-
vailing in Tibet and Mongolia. It is Buddhism
corrupteil by Sivaism, and by Shamanism or spirit-
worship. As ancient ISuddhism knows of no wor- j
shi|) of God, but merely of an adoration of saints,
the latter is also the 'main feature of Lamaism.
The es.sence of all that is sacred is comprised by i
this religion under the ' three most precious jewels ' i
—viz. the ' Buddha- jewel,' the 'doctrine-jewel,'
and the 'priesthood-jewel.' The first pei-s(m of
this trinity is the Buddha: but he is not the
creator, or the origin of the universe : as in
Buddhism, he is merely the founder of the doc-
trine, the highest saint^ though endowed with all
the qualities of su)irenie wisdom, power, virtue,
and beauty, which raise him Ijeyond the pale of
ordinary existence. The second jewel, m the
doctrine, is the law or religion— that which is,
as it were, the incarnation of the Buddha, his
actual existence after he had disappeared in the
Nirvfina. The third jcAvel, or the priesthood, is
the congi-egation of the saints, comprising the
whole clergy, the incarnate as well as the non-
incarnate representatives of the various Buddhistic
saints. The latter comprise the live Dhyani-
Buddhas, or the Buddhas of contemplation, and,
besiiles, all those myriads of Bodhisatvas, Prat-
yeka-Buddhas, and pious men, who became canon-
ised after their death. Inferior in rank to these
saints are the gods and spirits, the former chiefly
taken from the Pantheon of the Sivaites. The
highest position amongst these is occupied by the
four spirit-kings— /"(//•«, the god of tlie firma-
ment ; Yama, the god of death and the infernal
regions ; Ytimihita/.a, or Siva, as the avenger in his
most formidable shape; and Vaisrarana, or the
god of wealth. The worship of these saints and
gods consists chiefly in the reciting of prayers and
sacred texts, and the intonation of hymns, accom-
panied by a kind of music whicli is a chaos of
the mostunharmonious ami deafening soumls of
horns, trumpets, and drums of various descriptions.
During this worship, which takes place three times
a dayf the clergy, summoned by the tolling of a
little" bell, are seated in two or more rows, accord-
ino- to their rank ; and on special holidays the
temples and altars are decorated with symbolical
figures, while oH'erings of tea, flour, milk, butter,
and others of a similar nature, are made by the
worshippers ; animal sacrifices or ofl'erings entail-
ing injury to life being forliidden, as in the Bud-
dhistic faith. Lamaism has three great annual
festivals. According to Hue, there are rites corre-
sponding to baptism and confirmation ; and the
principal religious ceremony closely resembles high
mass. Lamaism does not allow the interment of
the dead. Persons distinguished by rank, learning,
or piety, are burned after their death ; but the
ceneral'niode of disposing of dead bodies in Tibet,
as in Mongolia, is that of exposing them in the
open air, to be devoured Ijy birds and beasts of
prey. The Lama must be present at the moment of
death, in order to superintend the proper separation
of body and soul, to calm the departed sjunt, and
to enable him to be reborn in a happy existence.
One of the most interesting features of Lamaism
is the organisation of its hierarchy. Its summit
is occupied by two Lama popes, the one called
Dalai-lama, i.'e. Ocean priest, or priest as wide as
the ocean— the ' Grand Lama.' residing at Potala,
near Lhassa— an<l the other bearing the titles of
Tesho-tama, Ilof/du-lamti, or I'an-rhhi-n. In iheoiy,
both popes have the same rank and authority, in
spiritual as well as in temporal matters; but, as
the Dalai-lama possesses a much larger territory
than the other, he is in reality much more power-
ful. Next in rank are the Khidiiktiii, who may
be compared to the lionwin Catholic cardinals and
archbishops. The third degree is that of the Ivliu-
bilghans or llobilghans. Their number is very
gre'at. These three degrees represent the clergy
that claims to be the incarnation of the Buddhistic
saint-s. The Dalai-lama and the Panchhen were
in their former lives the two chief disciples of the
great Lamaist reformer, bTsong kha pa, who is
reputed to have founded in the 14th century of
490
LA MANCHA
LAMARCK
the Cliristian era the present system of tlie Lama
hierarchy. Tlie Kluituktus were in tlieir ]>rior
existences other BucUIliistic saints of very great
renown ; ami the Kliulii|i,'hans are tliose reborn
hosts of saintly patrons wlioni the temples and con-
vents of Lainaisni possess in boundless numbei'S.
In order to ascertain the re-incarnation of a
departed Lama, various means are relied upon.
Sometimes the deoea-sed had, before his death,
conlidentially mentioned to his friends where and
in which family he would reappear, or his will
contained intimations to this effect. In most in-
stances, however, the sacred books and the official
astrologers are consulted on the subject ; and if
the Dalai-lama dies it is the duty of the Pan-
chhen to interpret the traditions and oracles. It is
understood that the imperial court at Peking has
more to do with the selection than is admitted by
the jiriests. Down to 1880 there had heen no fewer
than 103 Dalai lamas.
Besides these three classes of the higher clergy
Lamaism possesses a lower clergy, which, having
no claim to incarnate holiness, recruits its ranks on
the principle of merit and theological prolicieney.
It has four orders : the pupil or novice, who enters
the order generally in his seventh or ninth year ;
the .assistant priest ; tlie religious mendicant ; and
the teacher or abbot. All the members of these
orders must make the vow of celibacy, and by
far the greatest number of them live in convents,
the nunil>er of monks, in proportion to the popula-
tion, being enormous. A Lanialst convent consists
of a temple, wliicli forms its centre, and of a
number of buildings connected with the tem]>le,
and a|)iiroi>riated to the meeting-rooms, the librarv,
refectory, dwellings, and other spiritual and worldly
wants of the monks. At the head of the convent is
a Khubilglian, or an abbot, the latter being elected
by the chapter and appointed by the Dalailama,
or tlie ])rovincial Khubilglian. In addition to these
orders of monks and convents, Lamaism has like-
wise its nuns and nunneries. The Lamaist bible
hears the name of bKa'g/iir [or Kaii(fjiir), 'trans-
lation of the words,' namely of the Buddha. It
contains not less than 1083 works, which in some
editions (ill 102 to 108 volumes in folio.
See BCDDHISM. Lh.\ssa, Tibet; Kiippen, Die Lamaische
Hitrarchie (HSotl); Hue, Souvenirs (1852); Ritter's
Erdkunde(\i81): Rliys-Davids, i'Mt/J/iwm (1880); E. F.
Knight, Where Thee Emvires Meet (1893); L. Austin
■\Vaddell, The Jliidtlliism of Tibet, or Lamaism (1895);
A. H. Savage Landor. In ike Forbidden Land (1898).
La llaiiclia. See Maxch.\.
Laiiiaiitin. See Manatee.
Laiiiai'ck, Jean Baptiste Pierre Antoine
DE MdNNET, Chevalier de, evolutionist, born at
Bazentiii in I'icardy, 1st August 1744, w-as educated
for the church at the Jesuit College of Amiens,
which he left at the age of seventeen to join the
French army then warring in Germany. Having
gained rapid ]iroiii()tion to officer's rank, be was
sent in 17()3 to the garrisons at Toulon and
Monaco, wliere he became impressed with the
Mediterranean flora. Accidental injuries led him
to resign his position, and brought him to Paris,
where he wa-s forced to work in a banker's office,
while his spare energies were devoted to the study
of plants. In 1773, thanks in part to Button, he
liublislied a Flore FrcinQctise, in which he applied a
new analytical method of classification. As tutor
to Bulh)n's son, he had the opportunity of visiting
Holland, (iermany, and Hungary. In 1774 he be-
came a member of the Fiench Academy and Carde
de I'Herbier ilii Jaidin du Koi — the nucleus of
the famous |>ost-revolutionary Jurclin i/a Pla/itcx.
In one of the tnelve chairs a.ssociated with this
'Jardin' Lamarck remained for twenty five years
as professor of what we would now call Invertebrate
Zoology. In 1801 or earlier he had begun to think
actively about the relations and origin of species,
ex])ressing his conclusions in 1809 in his famous
Philosophic Zoologiqnc. Of his other great work,
Histoire tics Animaiix sans Vcrtcbrcs, he liublislied
seven volumes between 1815 and 18'22. Hard worl;
and illness enfeebled his sight and left him for the
bust ten years of his life not only blind but jioor.
To one of his two daughters he dictated the last
volume of his Invertebrate Zo(dogy, while to keep
himself alive he wa-s forced to jiart with .some of
his treasured collections. Greater than his con-
temporaries and immediate successors dreamed,
Lamarck died in comparative obscurity, 18th
December 1829, aged eighty-five.
Apart from his contributions to classification and
descriptive zoolog\-, Lamarck had a twofold iiiiiiort-
ance, as an expositor of the now accepted theory of
descent, and as an inquirer into the still debated
factors in evolution. It is easy to find in his
Philosophic Zoologiqnc ]iassages which foreshadow
many modern suggestions in regard to evolution,
including the theory of natural selection ; but the
gist of his thinking is fairly ex]iressed in the follow-
ing propositions : ( 1 ) Every considerable and sus-
tained change in the conditions of life produces a
real change in the needs of the animals involved ;
(2) change of needs involves new habits ; (3) altered
function evokes change of structure, for ])arts for-
merly less used become with incrca-^ed exercise
more highly developed, other organs in default of
use deteriorate and finally disappear, while new
jiarts gradually arise in tlie oiganism by its own
efforts from within (c/forts tic son sentiment
interieur) ; (4) gains or losses due to use or disuse
are transmitted from jiarents to ofl'sju ing.
There can be no doubt that Lamarck, though
beyond doubt an indeiiendent thinker, was in-
fluenced by Butlbn, and also perhaps by Erasnms
Darwin, whose Lores of the Pltmts li.ad been trans-
lated into French in 1799. On his cimtemporaries
he exercised little influence — in fact it was not till
the Darwinian revival of ;vtiology that the worth
of Lamarck began to be justly aiipreciated. To
those who deny the transmisj-ibility of all char-
acters individually acquired in direct response to
changed functions and surroundings, the theory
of evolution according to Lamarck seems to he
based on an undenionstrated if not erroneous hypo-
thesis ; to those, on the other hand, who believe
that individually acquired characters are trans-
missible from parents to ofl'spring, Lamarck's theory
is part of the solution of the evcdutionist's puzzle.
Thus, while the majority of naturalists in Britain
and Germany side with Darwin and Weisniann
against Lamarck, there is in France a distinctly
Lamarckian school, and a Reunion of his admirers
has been instituted ; while in America what are
called ' Neo-Lamarckian ' views are vigorously
upheld by many naturalists of eminence, such as
Cojie, Hyatt, and Packard, who seek to explain
evolution according to fundamental 'laws of
growth,' plus the inherited effects of use and
disuse and of environmental influence.
See BuFFO.v, Dakwix, U.\rwinian Theory, Evolu-
tion, Heredity, &c. S. Butler, Eeotution, Old and
New (Lond. 187'J) ; J. V. Carus, Gcschiehtc der Zoologie
(1872); C. Claus, Lamarek ah Bet/riimler tier Desctndenz-
theoric (1888); E. D. Coiw, The Orit/in of the Fittc-t
( Lond. and New York, 1887 ) ; Cuvier, ' filoge de M. de
Lamarck,' Acad, des Sciences (1832); M. Duval, 'Le
Transforniiste Franv^-iis Lamarck,' an admirable sketch of
his life and work, JIult. Sim: Anlhropol. tome .xii. (I'aris,
1889); E. Hacckel, Die JValiiranschaiimui roji Daruin,
Goethe, und Lamarck (1882), and translation of his
NatUrliehe Sehopfunfjsgeschichte ; Lamarck, Jlistoirc des
Animavx sans Vertibrcsi 1815-22), rt-cdition by Dcshayes
and Milne-Kdwards (1835-45); P/iHusiijihir 'Zoolonitjue
(1809), re-edition with valuable biographical introduction
LA MARMORA
LAMB
491
by Ch. Martins (1873); Lamarck, par tin Groupe de
TransformiaUs, sfs Disciples (1887); A. S. Packard.
Introduction to Staji^ard Natiirai Histort/ {ISH^i); and
R Perrier, La Philosophic Zooloyique aiant Daiicin
(1884).
La Ular'iiiora, Alfonso Ferrero, Marquis
DE, Italian general and statesman, lx)ni at Turin,
ITtli November 1S04, wlio, enterini; the army,
became known as a zealous reformer. He wivs
decorated for distinguished conduct in the national
war of 1848, and jiromoted to general of brigade.
In 1849 he entered tlie cabinet as Minister of War.
In 18.5.5 he withdrew from the ministry to assume
the command of the Sardinian troops in the Ciimea,
and at the close of tlie war was invested with the
Order of the Bath and the Grand Cross of tlie
Legion of Honour, and reentered the ministry in
his former capacity. He took part in the war of
1859, by Avhicii Loniliardy wivs acfjuired by Italy ;
and was appointed commander-in-cliief of the
Italian army in 18G1, and in 1864 prime-minister.
In the campaign against Austria in 1866 he lost
the battle of Custozza, and had to sustain unpleas-
ant controversy as to his management of the cam-
paign. Latterly he was intrusted with several
diplomatic missions ; he preferred the French to
the Prussian alliance; and his publication (1873)
of the secret negotiations between Prussia and
Italy incurred the censure of Prince Bismarck. La
Marmora died 5th January 1878. See a monograph
by Massan (1880).
Lamartine, Alphosse M.\rie Louls he,
French statesman and author, was born at Macon,
21st October 1790. He came of an ultia-royalist
stock, and was educated in royalist principles.
Up to 1815 a considerable portion of his time
■was spent in Italy, a country for which he had
a deep attection. On the fall of Napoleon and
the establishment of the Bourbons, Lamartine
proceeded to Paris and entered the ranks of
the Garde Koyale. He soon returned to Italy,
however, which he traversed on foot ; and here,
as his Ell-ire and Julie testify, he e.\])erience<l
a i)assion that kimlled into energy those poetic
gifts which ultimately made him one of the great
singers of France. His first JMeditations were pub-
lished in 1820, and at this period he was a])pointed
Fii'st Secretary of Legation at Najiles. He subse-
quently became churgi d'uffuirca at Florence, where
he remained for live years, acriuiring a witle know-
ledge of internatii>nal politics. Lamartine married
an English wife, .Marianne Birch, who shared in her
husband's labours and aspirations. In 1829 Lamar-
tine, foreseeing impending diHiculties, declined the
?iost of Secretary ot State for Foreign Att'airs in the
'oligiiac ministry. He accepted a nji-sion to the
new king of Greece, Leopold of Belgium (elected
iltb l''el>ruan- ISSO; resigned loihMay). At the
same lime he published his llaniiiDiie.s Fuiliijties ct
Julir/ieiiscs, wliicli e.xcited such enthusiasm that lie
was unanimously elected to the Academy. Lamar-
tine, still a royalist in ]>iinciple, disapproved
of the revolution of July 18;i0. His frieii<ls nomi-
nated him at I)unkeri)ue and Toulon for election to
the Chaniljer of Deputies, but h(^ was defeated at
both places, an<l went on a tour to the K:ust. He
wrote an account of his travels, entitled Souvenirs
cfOrie/it. Recalled to France in 1S:U, he was re-
turned for both Macon and Bergues, and elected to
sit for the latter place. But Macon being his native
place, his fellow-townsmen would not be denied,
and re-electe<l him almost unanimously in 18.'i7.
Between 1834 and 1848 Lamartine wrote and pub-
lished his Jorcli/ii, La Chute dun Anife, and the
celebrated work, the Histoirc des (lirondins, « hich
the Conservatives erroneously alleged « as the cause
of the revolution of 1848. The historian merely
saw further into the future than most of his coti-
temporaries. The Orleanist rigime was repugnant
to him because of its du]>licity, and when the
monarchy fell he accepted the inevitable. It was
he who insisted upon an ajipeal to the )ieople.
He was a mcinlicr of the I'nivision.-il (Joveniment
which formally iiroclaimed the Ki'|)ublic at the
H6tel de N'ille. The new ordi^r having been estab-
lished on the basis of liberty, eipiality, and frater-
nity, the ministry was cimstituted -with Lain.utine
a-s >Iinister of Foreign .Vtt'airs. Lamartine, who was
the presiding genius of the government, endeavoured
to rule the country according to the principles of
constitutional liberty, but there was an extreme
party, headed by Louis Blanc and Lcdru Itoliin,
which sought to establish national workshops and
to etlect social changes of a sweejiing character.
A formidable outbreak on the 15th of ^lay, result-
ing from the refusal of the A.ssembly to ajipoint
a Minister of Labour, and which eventually led
to the e.\pulsion of Louis Blanc, was suppressed
by the vigorous elt'orts of Lamartine. In June,
however, a more serious rising occurred, upon
which the executive committee resigned their
functions, and conferred the command of the forces
on Cieneral Cavaignac. After a terrible conflict the
insurrection was suppressed. Lamartine had already
ste])j)ed down from [jower, and from the time when
Louis Napoleon acquired the ascendency through
unscrupulous means his political career practically
closed. He now devoted himself to literature, imb-
lishing in the order named the two series of the
Confalcnccs, his Haphael, Ocncvitrc, the Taillrur de
Pierres de St-Point, and that valuable contribution
to the study of continental politics, the Histoire de
la Restauration. He likewise edited several Col-
lections of his former writings, Discours divers, and
issued monthly his Entretiens Fumilicrs. Lamar-
tine continued to take an interest in public atlairs,
discussing them eloquently with his friends, but
his patriotic spirit re\'olted against the iron rule of
Napoleon III. In consequence of his straitened
circumstances, parliament voted Lamartine a mode-
late pension, and the Paris town-council presented
him with a chalet in the Bois de Boulogne. He died
on Feliniarv2S, 1869. See the Life bvLadv JI. Dom-
ville(188S), aud by Deschanel (2 vols. Par. 1893).
Lainbt Ch.\RLES, essayist, critic, and humorist,
was born on the 10th of February 1775, in Crown
Oliice Row, in the Temple, London, where his
father was clerk and contidential servant to Samuel
Salt, a wealthy bencher of the Inner Temple. For
this, as for many other details of Lamb's private
and domestic life, we are indebted to his essays,
which form the best of all coiiimentaries on his
biography. (His father, John Lamb, is the Lovel
of the essay on the 'Old Benchers of the Inner
Temple.') There were seven children born to John
Lamb and his wife in the Teiiqjle, of whom three
only survived their early childhood —Charles Lamb,
his sister Mary, ten years older than himself, and
a yet older brother, .lohn. Charles received his
first schooling at a humble academy, out of Fetter
Lane, but at seven years of age he obtained,
through Samuel Salt, a inesentation to Christ's
Hospital, where he remained for the next seven
years. His school experiences, and the friendships
he formed, notably that with Samuel Taylor
Coleridge, three yeai's his senior, are again f.uiiiliar
to all readers of the Essays uf Elia. At the jige
of fourteen he left school with a fair amount of
scholai'ship, and an intensified love of reading.
He might have stayed and become a drcriau — as
the higliest-cla-ss boys were denominated -and so
jnoeeeded to the university. lUil the ixhiliitions
were given on the understanding that the bolder
was to take holy orders, and Lamb's unsurinount-
able stammer barred him from that profession.
Lamb left Christ's Hospital in November 1789.
492
LAMB
At that time his brother Jolin lield a post in the
South Sea House, of which Sainuel Salt was a
deputy governor, and Charles was soon presented
tlnouj;h the kind oHices of this frien<l to a hunilile
situation in the same company ; liut early in 17!t'i
he obtained i)romotii)n in the shape of a clerkship
in the accountant's otlice of the India House, where
lie remained for more than thirty years. In this
same vear Samuel Salt died. The occupation of
his old clerk and servant was at an end ; and with
his legacies from his employer, Charles's salary,
and whatever Mary Lamo could earn by needle-
work, in which she was proficient, the family of
four (for John Lamb was living a comfortable
bachelor life elsewhere) retired to hrimble lodgings.
In 179G we tind them in Little Queen Street,
Holhorn, and it was there that the terrible disaster
occurred, destined to mould the career and cliar-
acter of Charles Lamb for the whole of his
future life. There was a strain of insanity in
the children inherited from the mother. The
father, who had married late in life, was grow-
ing old and childish ; the mother was an invalid,
and tlie stre.ss and anxiety of the many duties
devolving on Mary Lamb began to tell upon her
reason. In an attack of mania, induced by .a slight
altercation with a little apprentice girl at work in
the room, Mary Lamb snatched up a knife from
the dinner-table, and stabbed her mother, who had
interposed in the girl's behalf. Charles was him-
self present, and wrested the knife from his sister's
hand. It w.as a critical moment in the young
man's history. The father was all l)ut imbecile ;
the mother was no more ; and the whole direction
of all'airs for the sister's future remained with
Charles. The inquest resulted in a verdict of
temporarj' insanity. Mary would in the natural
course have been transferred for life to a public
asylum ; but, by the intervention of friends, the
brother's guardianship was accejited by the author-
ities as an alternative. To carry out this trust
Charles Lamb from that moment devoted his life,
sacrificing to it all other ties and ambitions, and
never flagging in duty and tenderness for thirty-
eight years. It was inevitalde that the family
should leave the scene of this ' day of horrors ; '
the old father witli his son Charles reniove<l to
Pentonville, where at successive lodgings they
remained until the father's death. The house in
Little Queen Street no longer stands. With two
or three other houses .adjoining, it has been pulled
down, and a church now stands >ipon its site — a
not unfitting memorial of the spot where Lamb
con.secratcd his future life by an act of devotion as
remarkable as any recorded in the annals of litera-
ture. .Mary Lamb remained subject to attacks of
temporary aberration for the rest of her life. The
attacks were usually foreseen, and at such seasons
she was removed to some suitable asylum. The
length and frer|ueney of these periods of absence
increased, until the closing years of her luother's
life, when she was e.\iled from him during the
greater part of each year. In the meantime
Charles Lamb had fallen in love, but renouneed all
ho|)e of marri.age when the duty of tending his
otherwise homeless sister had ap|icared to liim
paramount. The history of his brief attachment,
to which there is frequent pathetic allusion in his
writings, is ol)Scuie. The girl, who appears in his
earliest sonnets as Anna, and in his essays as Alice
W., was in fact named Anne Simmons, and
resided with her mother in the village of Wiilford,
in Hertfordshire — the scene of Lamb's early ro-
mance of JiosaiHiinit Gmi/. Lamb's grandniotlier,
Mrs Field, was housekeeper at lilakesware, a
dower-house of the I'lumer family, closely adjoin-
ing Wiilford ; and during Lamb's fiec|Uenb visits
to Blakesware (immortalised in one of the loveliest
of his e.ssays as ' Blakesnioor, in Hertfordshire )
he had made the girl's acquaintance. She after-
wards married a jlr liartrani, a London silver-
smith, and is referred to under th.it name in the
essay Dream Children,
Lamb's earliest poems, written in 1795, were
prompted by this deep attachment. Two simnets
on this theme, with two others on ditl'eient topics,
were included in S. T. Coleridge's earliest volume
of poems, issued at Bristol in 1790. In the follow-
ing year a second edition of Coleridge's poems
appeared, ' to which are now added poems by
C^iarles Lamb .and Charles Lloyd.' The latter
w,as a young man of kindri^d poetic tastes, who.se
acquaintance Lamb had made through Ciileridge.
Here, as before, the poetic influence under which
Lamb wrote was the same that had so stiangidy
nioveil Coleridge, while still at Christ's Hospital —
the graceful and mel.anclioly sonnets of \V. L.
Howies. In the following year Lamb and Lloyd
made a second venture in a slight volume of
their own ( Blank Verse, by Charles Lloyd and
Charles Lamb, 1798); and here for the first time
L.amb's individuality made itself felt in the touch-
ing and now famous verses on the 'Old Familiar
Faces' — like so many of his memorable utterances
in prose and verse, full of autobiof^raphical allusion,
and yet gaining rather than losing in permanence
of charm through the circumstance. It was, how-
ever, in prose, not in verse, that he was to find his
true strength.
In the same year as the Blank Verne just men-
tioned he published his little prose romance. The
Tale of Iion(tniHiitl Gray and ijltl lil/nd Margaret ;
■anil four years later his Jolin Waodvil — the fruit
of that study of the dramatic poetry of the Eliza-
bethan period, in the revived study of which he
was to bear so large a part. Lamb hail little or
no dramatic faculty. The little phiy was crude
and valueless as a drama, but with detached
pass.ages reflecting much of the nnisic and quaint-
ness of Fletcher and .Tonson. .Meantime, Lamb
and his sister were wandering from lodging to
lodging, too often forced to leave through the
rumour of Mary Lamb's malady which followed
them wherever they went. Thev had lived at
imu-e than one house in Pentonville — they were in
Southampton Buildings in KSOO and ISdl— and
then removed to Lamb's old familiar neighbour-
hood, where they continued forsi.xteen years. The
early years of their residence in the Tenqile were
among the hardest and saddest of their lives.
They were very poor ; Charles's experiments in
literature had as yet brought him neither money
nor reputation ; and the gradual accession of new
friends that might have brighlriicil ihcir jiath had
the drawback of l)ringing Charles face to face with
social temptations which he could not resist. A
very niodeiate indulgence in wine or si)irits seems
to liave speedily all'ected him, and his shyne.ss and
his impediment of speech made him eagerly resort
to what for the moment made him forget both.
' Wo are very poor,' writes Mary Lamb in 1S04 ;
and again in ISO."), ' It h;is been sad and heavy
times with us lately.' In Lamb's anxiety to raise
a few ]iounds, rather than from any coniidence in
his dramatic faculty, he began to write a farce,
which the proprietors of Orury Lane accepted, and
))roiluced in December ISOIi. It was the now
famous farce Mr //. — famous, however, not for its
success, but for its failure. His love for things
dramatic soon found a mure prolilalile outlet in a
commi.ssion from William (iodwiii to conlribule to
his 'Juvenile Library,' tlien in course of publica-
tion. For this series Ch.arles and Mary wrote in
IH07 their well-known Talcs from Shakespeare —
Mary Lamb making the version of the coineclies,
Charles that of the tragedies. This was Lamb's
LAMB
LAMBALLE
493
fii'st success. It brought liiiii sixty guineas, and
what wus more valuable, liope for the future, ami the
increased eontidunce and recognition of his grow-
ing circle of friends. As one consequence of the
success, the brother and sister composed jointly
two other children's books — Jlrs Leicester's Schuol
( 1807 ) and the Poetry for CliiUlrcn ( 1809). Charles
also made, single handed, a prose version of tlie
Atlcentures of Uli/sses. Another more important
consequence was a commission from the Longmans
to edit a volume of selections from the Elizalictlian
dramatists. The volume at once exhibited Lamb,
to those who h,ad eyes to see, as one of the most
profound, subtle, and original of English poetical
critics. Three years later a conviction of the same
fact would be deepeneil in tliose who knew that
the unsigned articles iu Leigh Hunt's liej/eetur, on
Hogarth and the tragedies of Shakespeare, were
from the same hand, and that a ])rose writer of
new and iiniqvie <|ualit_\' was showing above the
dull level of tlie conventional essayist.
Li 1817 Lamb and his sister left the Temple for
rooms in Great Russell Street, Covent Garden.
Next year an enterprising young publisher induced
him to collect his scattered verse and prose in two
neat volumes, as the Word's of Charles Lamb, and
this publication naturally paved the way for his
being invited to join the stall' of the London
Miifjazinc, then newly started. Lamb was re-
quired to contribute light prose essays, and was
wisely allowed a free hand. His first essay
apjieared in .\ugust 1820, 'Recollections of the old
South Sea House,' the public oltice in which his first
small salary was earned, and where his elder
brother had remained a high-placed and prosperous
clerk. Lanil) signed his lirst paper £//((, borrowing
for a joke the name of a foreigner w ho had been
fellow-clerk with him in the otlice. The signature
was continued through Lamb's successive con-
tributions to the magazine ; and as he placed it
on the title-page (without his own) of the first
collected edition of the essays in 1823, it became
indissolubly connected with the work. The series
came to an end, ;is far as the London 3I(iijnzine
was concerned, in 1825. 'f/ie Lust Essai/s of Ella
were collected in a second volume in 1833.
In August 1823 Charles and ilary quitted their
rooms over the brazier's in Russell Street, and
made their lirst experiment as householders in a
cottage in Colebrooke Row, Islington, with the
New River (into which George Dyer walked in
broad daylight) flowing within a few feet of their
frontdoor. Moreover, they were now im the eve of
making a pleasr.nt addition to their liousehold in
the form of a young friend, the orphan daughter
of an Italian teacher of languages at Cambridge.
Charles and Mary Lamb virtually .a<lo]ited Emma
Isola, ami she wn-s treated as a memlier of their
family until her marriage with Edward Moxon the
publisher, in 1833.
Early in 182o Lamb, who had been for some
time failing in health, was allowed to resign his
post in the India House, the directors liberally
granting him as pension two-thirds of his then
salary. Having now no tie to any jiarticular
neighbourhood, the brother and sister were free to
waniler. They took lodgings — and subsequently a
liouse— at Enileld ; but Mary Lambs health be-
coming gradually worse and necessitating constant
su](ervision, they parted with their furniture and
gave up hou.sekeeping. They finally removed to
the neighbouring village of I'Mnionton, where in a
small cottage, hard by the clmrch, they sjient the
la-st year of thidr joint lives. It was a melancholy
vear. Lamb's own health wa.s sufl'ering. They
iiad lost their young friend Emma Isola. The
absence of settled occupation had not brought
Lamb all the comfort he had looked for : the
separation from his London friends, and the now
almost continuous mental alienation of his .sister,
left him companionless, and with the death of
Coleridge in tlie summer of 1834 the chief attrac-
tions of his life were gone. In December of the
same year, while taking one day his usual walk
on the London Koad, he stumbled and fell, slightly
injuring his face. The wound was in itself trifling,
but erysipelas ensued, under which he rapidly sank,
and he passed quietly away, without pain, on the
29th of December. He was buried in Eihnonton
churchyard. His sister survived him nearly thir-
teen years, and was buried by his side in May
1847.
Lamb's place in literature is unique and unchal-
lengeable. As a personality he is more intimately
known to us than any other iigure in literature,
unless it be Samuel Jolinson. He is familiar to us
through his works, which throughout are com]iosed
in the form of personal confidences : through his
many friends who ha\e loved to make known his
every mood and trait ; and through his letters, the
most fascinating body of corresiiondence in our
language. It is a dangerous thing to say, but it may
be doubted whether, outside a necessarily limited
circle, his works are read so much for their own
sakes as for the light they throw upon the character
of their author. It is the harmonious concord of
dissonances in Lamb that is the secret of his
attraction. The profound and imaginative char-
acter of his criticism, which at its best is unerring,
and with it the reckless humour of the Bohemian
and the fargcnr ; the presence of one lamentable
weakness serving to throw into stronger relief the
])atient strength of his Iifes:ruggle ; his loyalty
and generosity to his friends, even when they
abused it most ; and all this llowing from one of
the most beautiful acts of devotion in the records
of self-sacrifice : the wild fun of Trinculo and
Stephano, alternating with the tenderness of
Miranda and Ferdinand, or the profound philo-
sophic musings of Prospero — and all these, like
Ariel, now ' flaming distinctly,' n:)w 'meeting and
joining' — it is this wondrous blending of ojiposites
that has made Lamb, save to the 'sour-coni-
]dexi(med ' and matter of fact, one of the most
dearly loved among EnglLsh men of letters, and
with every sign that this love is one which no
changes of taste are likely to diniinish.
Our chief authorities for Lamb :ire lii.s own writings,
and tile Life and Letters, and Fimd Memoriafit, l>y the
late ilr Justice Talfourd. Later editions of tliese works
have appeared, enlarged by Percy Fitzgerald and AV. C.
HazHtt. There is a quite separate iiii'iuoir of Laiiih, of
considerable interest, by the late B. "\V. Pnicter ( ' Barry
Cornwall ' ). Another memoir, and a complete edition
of Lamb's works and correspondence, by tlie writer of
the present article, are ])ublislied by Messrs ^laciuillan.
E. V. Lucas's Lamb wad tlie Lloinls (1898) should also
be cited as an interesting work.
Liiiiib, WiLLi.\M. See Melbourne.
Laiiiball«'.MAniKTniii!i:si; Louise ok S.^voy-
Cai;ic;nan, I'ijincicsse he, was bom at Turin, 8th
September 1749, the ilaugliter of the jirince of
(Jarignan. Beautiful and charming, she was made
by Marie Antoinette sii]ierinteiident of the royal
household, and her own intimate friend and com-
panion. I'rincess Lamballe jiroved her devotion
to her royal mistress by returning to France
(whence she had escaped to England) after the
unsucces.sful flight from Versailles, by sharing the
queen's imprisonment for a week in the Temple,
and finally by refusing to take the oath expressing
detestatiiin of the king, quei^n, ami nionarcliy (3d
Se|>teniber 1792). As slie stejiped out of the court-
room on that fatal day she w<is cut to the ground ;
lier body was given up to the fury of the populace,
who paraded her hea*l and heart on pikes in front
494
LAMBAYEQUE
LAMENNAIS
of tlie queen's windows. See Lives 1)V Leseiire ( 1865),
IJertin ('2(1 ed. 189-t), iuul Sir F. Monluliore ( KS96).
Laillbayeqiie, a province of Peru, with a (lo]).
of 8G,000, is mostly a rainless, barren region, with
some fertile valleys. — The capital, Laniliayp(|np,
situateil 7 miles from the mouth of the river
Lamhayeque, lies 128 miles N\V. of Trujillo, and
has manufactures of woollen aud cotton fabrics.
Poi>. mm.
Lambert, D.w-ncL. See Obesity.
Lambert. Johaxx Heinrich, a philosopher
and mathematician, was born 29th August 1728,
at Miilliauseu in Upper Alsace. He was success-
ively clerk, secretary, and private tutor, studied
assiduously all the time, and at last lived the life
of a private gentleman. In 170+ Frederick the
Great made him a member both of the Council of
Architecture and of the Academy of Sciences. He
died at Berlin, 2.5th September 1777. Lambert was
the first to lay a scientific basis for tlie measure-
ment of the intensity of light, in his Plwtometria
(1760); and he was especially skilful in applying
the analytical methods of mathematics. A work
on analytical logic from his pen, Ncucs Organon
(2 vols. ' 176-1), was greatly valued by Kant, with
whom Lambert kept up a correspondence. Of his
other works we may mention Kosmologische Briefe
(1761) ami Aiilage ~iir Architektoiiik (XTiX). See
Hnber's Life of him (1829) and Lepsius's mono-
graph on his philosophy (1881).
Lambert) Johx, one of the chief soldiers in
the great Civil War, was born in the parish of
Kirkby Malham, in Yorkshire, September 7, 1619,
studied at the Inns of Court, but on the outbreak
of the war became a captain under Fairfa.v, and
thereafter showed such conspicuous capacity and
courage that he rose rapidly in rank. At Marston
Moor lie led Fairfax's cavalry on the right wing,
was commissary -general of the army in the north
after the formation of the 'new model' (1645),
major-general of the northern counties (1647),
lielped Cromwell to crush Hamilton at Preston,
captured Pontefract Castle in March 1649, after a
three months' siege, and was thus absent from
London during the trial of the king. In 1650 he
went with Cromwell to Scotland as major-general,
led the van at Dunbar, next traversed Fife
and defeated the opposing army at Inverkeithing,
followed Charles through the western shires to
Worcester, and on the day of Cromwell's 'crowning
mercy ' commanded the troops on the eastern bank
of the Severn. He took a prominent part in the
installation of Oliver as protector, but actively
opposed the ]iroposition to declare him king. He
was unal)le to take the oath of allegiance to the
Piotector, and became completely estranged from
him. ,\fli'r his deutli he became the head of the
cabal of malcontent oliicers which overtluew the
feeble administration of Richard Cromwell. Lam-
bert was now looked u|)on as the leader of the Fifth
Monarchy or extreme republican party; suppresseil
with considerable vigour the royalist insurrection
in Cheshire, August 16.59; and two months after-
wards, dismissing tlie remnant of the lluriip Parlia-
ment, virtually governed the country along with
liis oHicers uiuler the title of tlie 'Committee of
Safety.' Mcuik frustrated his designs ; he was sent
to the Tower, tried in 1662, aud banished toCueiii-
sey, where he died in 1683.
Laillbessa. or LAMHiiSE, an Algerian town of
1700 iiilialiilanls, 65 miles SSW. of Coustantine,
stands ami(Ul the iiii|iosing ruins of the ancient
l.amhe.sis, capital of Numiiiiiu
Lambeth, a meliopolitan iiarliamentJiry
borough in Surrey, forms j^iart of tlie south-west
ipiartiM- of London, and since 1885 returns four
members. The old borough of Lambeth, which
had a much larger area, returned but two mem-
bers. Lambeth Bridge dates from 1862. Lambeth
Palace luus been the ollicial residence of the arch-
bisliojis of Canterbury since 1197. It contains a
splendid .series of portraits of the archbishops, and a
valuable library of .'iO.OOO volumes, with many tine
MSS. The Lollards' Tower, so named in com-
paratively modern times from the notion that
heretics were here imprisoned, was really a water
tower. It dates from 1434, but hits been restored
and modernised. See the Kev. .1. Cave-Browne's
Luinbi:th Fatace ( 1883). For Lambeth Degrees, .see
Degrees. The Lambeth Articles, drawn up in
1595 by Archbi>-liop Whitgift and others, were nine
in number, and pronouncedly Calvinistic in doc-
trine. They were disapproved by lilm^en Elizabeth,
and were never iu force. See also Doultun.
Lamb's Lettiiee. See Corn Salad.
Laillb'.S->VUOl, an old English beverage, com-
posed of ale and the pulp of roasted apples, with
sugar and spices.
Lamellibraiiehiata, See Bivalves.
Lamellieoriies, a very numerous family of
beetles, fm- illustration of which see COCKCHAFER,
Dung-beetle, &c.
Lameness is commonly due to some abnormal
condition either of the joints or of the muscles and
fascite of the lower limbs : mere diH'erence in length
between the two limbs, even to the extent of an
inch or more, is not necessarily incompatible with
a natural gait. It is generally one of the earliest
symptoms of disease in the joints : and permanent
stiffne.ss of any of these, whether the re-sult of
disease or of injury, always involves some ilegree
of lameness. The weakness and imperfect develop-
ment of the muscles which usually follows infantile
paraly.sis Ls one of the commonest muscular causes.
Severe wounds or rupture of any of the imiiortant
mu.scles must also be mentioned. L'nnaturally
shaped or ill-fitting boots, with the corns, Imnions,
distortion of toes, and other ill etiects they produce,
are a fertile source of lameness ; but conditions
thus pnxluced are generally in some degree amen-
able to treatment. Among the causes most a)it to
be overlooked are the slighter degrees of llat-foot,
of contraction of the calf-muscles, or other muscles
whose tendons are inserted into the bones of the
foot, and of the plantar fascia. See also the articles
Legs, Artificial Limbs, Club-foot, <S:c.
Lameniiais, Fei.iciti^-Robert i>e, was born
at St .Malo, loth June 1782, the fourth of the si.ic
children of a merchant and shipowner, who was
ennobled in 1788 by request of the States of
Brittany for his patriotic services and for supjdying
cheapene<l corn to the poor during a time of
.scarcity, but who was too modest lo use Ids title
or the privileges it bore. His mother w;i.s a saintly
woman of remarkable ability and of Irish descent,
who died when he was but live years old. He grew
up slender and small in stature, nervous and weak
in health, but lively and restless in teuiiieratuent,
and from a very early age he took to books, and
read widely at his will in his uncle's library. He
loved music, and bcciuiie expert iu swimming,
riding, and fencing, anil it is said fought a iluel
with credit in 1802 or 1803. Hut the dominant
]ia.ssion of his youth was solitary study, and Ids
earliest coni]ianioiis were doubt and melancholy.
It is a fact not without significance that his (irst
coiiiniunion wiis deferred till he was twenty-two,
at the time when his eldest brother .lean was
ordained a jpricNt. The pair retired about the end
of lfSO.5 to the solitude of their joint estate of La
Chesnaie, two leagues from Diiian, and there,
amiilst almost savage surroiimlings, but in an
ample library, the real education of Lameiinais
LAMENNAIS
i95
began. In 1807 he translated the Guide Spirituel
of Louis de Blois : Napoleon's police suppiessed
his Reflexions siir V fit at ilc I'fjjlisc (1808). He
received the tonsure in March 1809, and his letters
of that period reveal a vein of lofty and soniowhat
mystical devotion ami an inward joy of which
he was to taste hut little in later years. Hut
study, prayer, and meditation could not satisfy
all tile cravings of his nature, and this exaltation
of mind soon gave place to the malady of genius,
that vague unrest and distaste for the ]uesent
which was the fiuulaniental undertone in the con-
stitution of Lamennais. The years from 1806 till
1814 he spent in a narrow range of stuilies, shut
out from the world, the vultures of vague unrest
tearing at his heart, while he remained forging the
weapons of controversy. He taught mathematics
in his brother's seminary, shared his quarrel with
the new university, and wrote together with him
the ultramontane and anti-Gallican Tradition de
l'£glisi' SKI- I' I list it tit ion dcs Eveqiics (1814). In
1815, during the Hundred Days, he took refuge
in London, where he w.as befriended and much
influenced by the Ablje Carron. In November he
returned to Paris, and with sore misgivings both
before and after he was ordained priest at Vannes.
At Paris in March 1S16 he wrote the first volume
of his famous Essui sur I' Indifference en matii're de
lieliijion ( 1818-24), a magnificent, if paradoxical, <le-
nunciation of the right of private judgment and the
doctrine of toleration— itself but a virtual unbelief,
' a new kind of persecution against the church. '
The whole is a polemic against the individual
reason on which certitude cannot rest ; its con-
elusion that the unity of society depends ultimately
on the unity of truth, and that all systems but the
Catholic destioy one another and lead to scepticism.
Three difi'erent systems of indifference are in turn
examined and refuted : ( 1 ) that of those who,
repudiating religion for themselves, believe that it is
necessary for the (leople — atheism, and the organ-
ised religious polity of the empire; (2) that of
those who believe leligion to be necessary for men,
but that God has not given any special revelation
of how He would be woi-shipped — natural religion,
and ISth-centnry deism; (3) that of those who
believe in a divine revelation through a book, but
hold that God has left men to interpret it for
themselves — Protestantism. In the Defense de
rEssai he answered opponents of the most opposite
camps, advocates of freeiiom in thought, Galilean
monarchists who refuse<l to admit that the source
of all authority was the holy see, and Ultramon-
tanes them.selves, who took fright at a bold attempt
to find support for the ('hristian revelation in an
analysis of liuinan tradition.
Ill 1824 Lamennais received a liattering reception
at Koine, and it is said that Leo XH. was anxious
to give the new IJossuet a cardinal's hat. But
soon after this other dreams than those of a imre
theocracy enthroned in the Vatican began to fill his
mind, and already notions of popular liberty ap|)i'ar
in the I'mr/riis de la Itccol ittion ( I,S29 ). The revidu-
tion of July (IH.SO) (juickened his pulse, and in the
famous journal L'Avenir, founded in .Se|)teniber,
with his young friends Lacorilaire, Montalembert,
and the .\hl>e (lerbet, i<le!us strange to I Itraiiion-
tanism were eagerly advocated. Hut the ol<l
cliini:era refused to he rejuvenised, the .Jesuits
anil bishops took fright at the new doctrines of
liberty of the press, of instruction, and of di.'^cus-
.•>ioii, and the journal was suspended by spiritual
authority in 1H31. Lamennais, Lacordaire, and
Montalemlicrt set out for Koine to lay bare their
hearts to the Holy Father. The disiustrous story
hi told in Les Affaires de Home (!8,S6). one of the
most interesting of all the writings of Lamennais.
Hia Ilolinesa liregory XVI. gave the ardent tribune
but a quarter of an hour's audience, talked to him
of art, pointed out the claw in a lion of Michael
Angelo's, and, according to the Abbe Kicard.
ofi'ercd him a pinch of snutV. After waiting in vain
for an opjiort unity of conference, they returned
doubtful and dislieartened at the cowardly chicanery
and worldline^s of Kome. A severe condemnation
reached them at Munich, .•iOtli .Vugust IKi'i, the date
of the beginning of the second life of Lamennais. He
signed obedience, but the iron ha<l entered his soul.
He retired to La Chesnaie, .and there watched with
sinking heart a more shameful betrayal still of his
Ma.ster by the Vicegerent of Christ in the final
extinction of Polish nationalitv. crushed to death
by Russia with the sympathy of Austri,a and before
the approving eyes of Kome. Here, in one week
of restless walking under the oaks, he ]ioured
out the prophetic inspirations of his wliole heart in
the Paroles d' un Croyunt (18.'?4), a glowing poem
rather than a treatise, expressed in rhythmical
prose arranged in short verses like those of the
Bible, under forms now parabolic, now direct, at
one moment recalling the gloom of the Inferno,
at another the tenderness of the Imitation. The
apocalyptic empyrean is a region far above the rules
ot logic, and it is impossible to set forth precisely
the doctrine of this strange book further than to
describe it as an illusion of a perfect society, ideal.
Paradisaic, governed by love, hindered awhile by
the wickedness of despots, but ultimately to be
efi'ectuated by perfect liberty. The book made an
extraordinary sensation ; Sainte-Beuve tells us bow
he found the compositors gathered round while one
of their number read the MS. aloud, his voice
trembling with emotion. To churchmen it was
' the apocalypse of Satan,' ' the bonnet rouyc planted
upon a cross.' It brought about the complete
rupture of the apostle with his old associates ;
repulsed by the pope, he had made his appeal to the
people against Rome, itself become faithless to its
mission, and henceforth he belonged to the people
alone. His further books. Le Livre dii People,
line Voix de Prison, Du Passi et de I'Arcnir da
Peuple, were but weaker echoes of his masterpiece.
For one he got a year's imprisonment in Sainte
Pclagie. In the revolution of 1848 he started
paper after paper, and poured forth a succession of
liamphlets while struggling on bravely against
broken friendships, ill-health, and poverty. His
l)iety survived the shipwreck of his faith ; he had
the gift of attaching friends who still loved the
man whatever his opinions, and to these he poured
forth his thoughts in impetuous swiftness as he
paced up and down, his limbs trembling with
emotion. George Sand describes his austere and
majestic face, the brow an unbroken wall, furrowed
between the eyebrows with those perpendicular
wrinkles which, Lavater says, belon" exclusively
to those of high capacity who tliiiiK justly and
mdjly — its rigid austerity ever lightened and
humanised by the sudden smile of tenderness. To
the last he nMuained a Breton even to his accent.
His ideas and emotions alike ever tended towards
excess and to alisoluteness of conviction ; his tem-
perament was framed for .sufleriiig, and his iiassion-
ate devotion to truth, the foundations of which
yet slipped from uiiiler him, made his intellectual
life a very martyrdom. Lamennais .sat in the
Constituent .Assembly till the runji d'iiut ended his
dreams of popular liberty. At his death, which
occurred February 27, 18")4, he refused to make his
peace with the churcdi, and wa.s buried, by his own
desire, without religious rites, in an unmarked
grave among the poor at Perela-Chaise.
In liis C<trre.tpond(ince, edited by M. Emile ForKucs
(2 vols. 1858 ; lid v<il.,ed. by his son, M. lOugcne Forgues,
1886), wu see the ebb and flow of his stormy emotions for
twenty years. His brother and sister kept back from
496
LAMENTATIONS
LAMMERGEIER
publication many of his papers, but five posthumous
volumes appeared under the care of Foryues ( 1855-58 ), of
whicli at least one volume, that entitled Mflaniics philo-
sophiqu'S it littevains, was quite wortliy of his name.
M. Blaize, the nephew of Lamennais, edited his (Kunre
ImUlitts (2 vols. 1S6G), mainly composed of additional
letters. Amid the storms of his later life he foiuid con-
solation in writing his serene and large-minded Esquinse
d'uiic Fhilomphie (4 vols. 1840—40), perhaps the most
really remarkable of all his works.
See lilaize's A'ssai iJi'«/r«/)Ai9«e (1858); Sainte-Beuve,
in Portraits Contemporains, vol. i., and Nouvtaux
Linidis, vols. i. and xi. ; Guizot, in vol. iii. of his Mimoires ;
E. Scherer, in vol iv. of his Etudes sur hi LitUraturc
Contemjiuniiiie ; Eenan, in Essaw de Morale et de
Critique (1859); K Dowden, in Studies in Literature,
17S9-1S77 (1878); and Paul Janet, La Philusophie de
Lamennais (1890).
Lailieiltations, Huok of, a canouical book
of tliu (tld Testament whicli, in the present
arrangenieut of tlie Hebrew Bible, occupie.s the
si.xth place auiong the Hagiographa (uetweeu
Ruth and Eccle.'^ia.stes ), and bears the superscrip-
tion 'Ec/iK ( ' Ah, how ; ' see chaps, i. 1 ; ii. 1 ; iv. I ).
In tlie Talmud ami elsewhere it is called the book
of Kinoth ('elegies' or 'dirges'), a name whicli
reappears in the Septuagint title Threnoi ( Lat.
Lamcntationes or Lnmcntu). The fuller title,
Lamentations of Jeremiah, is found in the Syriac
and in some MSS. of the Septuagint, but is not
so old as the shorter foiin. The book consists of
five dirges or laments, the first four of which are
alphabetical acrostics (like P.s. cxix.) ; each of the
five consists of twenty-two verees, except the third,
which has sixty-six. In general character the first
four are very similar, each beginning with a repre-
sentation of the great calamity that has befallen
the city and people, and then 'rising througli the
thought of Jeliovali's righteousness to the hope of
his just vengeance on the enemies of his people.
The fifth dirt'ei-s from the othei-s in that it taKes
the form of a prayer and is throughout pervaded
by a sense of Jehovah's wrath, which is spoken of
as having been long continued. The tradition,
which attributes the authorship of Lamentations
to Jeremiah, can be traced to a note prefixed to
the Septuagint translation, where, as in the Syriac,
they are now attaclied to the book of that prophet.
Perhaps, indeed, this tradition is already imidieil
in '2 t'hroM. xxxv. ij, in which case the supposed
reference to Josiah must be sought in Lam. iv. '20.
The internal evidence is rather against the atlriliu-
tion of tlie Book of Lamentations to the jirophet.
Niigelsbach, following Ewald, has shown how
completely dill'erent is its style from that of Jere-
miah ; some of the indications that were at one
time supposed to make for his authorship dis-
appear on closer examination ; and the anticipated
restoration of Israel is somewhat dissimilar in the
two works.
See Ewald's Dichter des Alien Bundes, vol. i. (2d ed.
1866 ), and the commentaries of Niigelsbach ( 1868 ; Eng.
trans. 1871), Keil (1872; Eng. trans. 1874), and Payne
Smith (in Speaker's Commentary).
Lailicttl'ic, Jii.iKX Offr.w de, French philo-
sopher, liorii at St Malo on Christmas-day 1709,
stuilicd first for the church, but subsi>(|uenliy went
over to medicine, and was trained liy Bocrhaave
at Leyden. He entered the French army as
surgeon in 174'2; but the publication in 1745 of
a thoroughgoing materialistic work, Vlli.stoirc
Xuturelle Uc lAiiie, traduite dc I'Ant/htis <k H/iarjt
(a fiititi(nis name), roused such a feeling of odium
against him that he was compelled to seek refuge
in Leyden (174G). The work was of course
Lamettrie's own. But in Leyden the fear of per-
Becution still dogged his footsteps : lie published
L' Homme Machine (1748), and was glad to esca])e
a threatened arrest by accepting an inxitation
from Frederick the Great of Prussia to settle in
Berlin. In Germany Lamettrie continued his
materialistic studies in L' Homme Plantc (1748),
L'Art lie Jonir (1751), La Volitptf, and otlier
works. A good deal of the enmity exciteil against
him wivs occa.sioned by cynical and satirical books
which he published against the medical men,
including such great authorities as Bocrhaave,
Linnaus, Astruc, Winslow, Arc. Lamettrie died at
Berlin on lltli November 1751. Frederick himself
wrote a memoir, which he caused to be juefixed to
the philosophical works of Lamettrie (2 vols. 1774).
The best account of Lamettrie is in Laiiges i//»7or!/
of Materialism (1878-81). See also the studv by
Quepat ( Paris, 1873 ), and that by Du BoisKeviiiond
(Berlin, 1875).
Lamia. Dkmosology.
Laniiiiaria. See Se.vwekd.s.
Lamination, the anangement of rocks in thin
layers or laniina>, the condition of a large pro)>or-
tion of the earth's strata. Shale dejiosits exhibit
this structure very plainly, being frequently easily
separalde into the thin lamina' in which they were
originally deposited. Shale is the fine sediment
that settles down at the bottom of some traiuiuil
or sliglitly-nioving water. Tlie lamime indicate
interruiition in the supply of tlie materials, which
may lia\e been occasioned by successive tides, by
fiei|uent or ])erio<lical floods, or by the carrying
medium having access to a suiijily of ditt'erent
material, pa.s.sing, e.g., from mud to sand, and
back again to mud. The lamiiue of the brirk-clay
dejiosits are separated, in many places, by the
finest sprinkling of sand, which is almost invisible
in the vertical sections. The layei-s are occasion-
ally obvious, from their being of difl'erent shades
of colour, often produced by the bleaching of the
layers when they were de])osited ; but frequently
the various lamina' of a bed are so united, and the
bed so homogeneous, that except when the face is
exposed to weathering, the laminated structure is
not visible. This condition seems to have resulted
from the shortness of the interruptions in the
deposit not permitting the solidification of any of
the layers until all was deposited, when the whole
set cohered together as a single bed.
Lammas-day, the 1st of August, is one of
the cross quarter-days, or half-quarter days, in
England. On this day, whicli is the feast of St
Peter ad Vincula, it w;is cuslomary in early times
to make otlerings of the first-fruits of tlie harvest,
and hence the feast took the name of Hlafimcssc
(lit. ' loaf-mass'), afterwards corrupted into Lam-
mas. In Scotland it was an ancient practice with
farmers to pay the half-year's rent iiue at Whit-
sunday on Lamiiuus-day.
Lammer$;oi«>r (Gypactos barhatus), a large
bird of ]irev. also called the Bearded Vulture or
Bearded (Iritlin. The full-grown bird is of a shining
brownish-black colour on the upper )iarts, with a
white stripe along the shaft of each feather ; the
head is w hitisii, with black stripes at the eyes : the
neck and under-]>art of the body are rusty yellow.
It Is the largest bird of prey in the Old Wmld,
measuring almost 4 feet high when sitting, nearly
5 feet in length, and from 9 to 10 feet in ex|ianse
of wing. Though liy no means luave, it is bold and
rapacious, swoojiing down on hares, lambs, young
goats, chamois, \c. , and sometimes, it is said, on
infants. But a-s the feet and claws are compara
tivelv weak, luily young and light animals are
lifted, and it is very ilitlicult to bcdieve the circum-
stantial tales of their carrying cliildreu. The usual
food consists of animals nevvly killed, but carrion
and even ofi'al are not despised. Unce common in
the Alps, it is now very rare, but occurs not un-
frec]uently in Sardinia, tlie Pyrenees, North Africa.i
LAMMERMOORS
LAMPREY
497
moutitains, and the Himalayas, where it often soars
higli above tlie loftiest peaks. 'Die liimnierj^'eier
Luinmergcii.i
I- harbalui ).
is said by some to be the original of the fabulous
' roc. '
Lailiuiorilioors. a l)roa(l ran-ie of moorish
hills in Haddinjjtoii and Berwick shirts, extend-
in;; east-north-eiustward from the vale of (Jala
Water to the German Ocean at St Abb's Head,
ami culminating in Lammer Law ( 1733 feet).
Lainorici^re. Christophe Leon Louls
Jrcu.vULT DE, a French general, was born at
Nantes, Gth February 1806, entered the army as
an engineer in 1826, and saw active service in
Algeria, taking part in nearly all the military
events which occurred in that country between
1833 and 1847. It was through his energy chiefly
that the war against Abd-elKader was brought
to a successful end by ilie capture of that chief
in 1847. In June 1848 Lamoriciere commanded the
attack on the barricades in Paris, and quelled the
anarchic tumults of the Socialists. He was war-
minister (hiring the government of Cavaignac ; but
was arrested on the occjLsion of the coup d'eliit of
2d December 18.51, and banished from France.
AVhen the Italian war of independence threatened
the safety of the liope, LauKnioiere ])rocee(led to
liome in 1860, and was appointed by PiiLs IX. com-
mander of the pa]>al troops. He was, however,
defeated at Castellidardo by the Sardinian general,
Cialdini, on 18th September, an<l on the 29th
capitulated at Ancima. He dieil near Amiens on
lOili Sei)tember 186,). See Lives by Keller (2 vols.
Paii>, 1873; new cd. 1S!)1 ) and Ua'stoul ( 18'J4).
La .llotte Fuiiqii«'. See Foucjue.
LaiUUblack is the soot or amorphous carbon
obtained by burning bodies rich in that element,
such as resin, jietroleunj, and tar, or some of the
cheap oily products obtained from it. The supply
of air is limited or eonlrolleil .so as to [iroduce a
smoky llaiiie, and the smoke i)a.sses into a chanil)ur
with some arrangement for receiving the abundant
deposit of soot. For some of the liner iiuaiilics <if
lampblack this soot or carbon is purilled by heat-
ing it in closeil vessels. .V large i|uantity of l.imp-
black lia.s been made in the liiited .States by the
imiierfijct combustion of natural gas. Lampblack
is a useful jiigment for artists both in oil and water
colour, a coarser kind Iwing employed by house-
painters. It in the chief ingredient in Indian Ink
292
(q.v.), and along with boiled linseed-oil forms print-
ing-ink. Of it is formed the i)igment for the carbon
paper used in tlie Autotype I'rocess (q.v.). Lamp-
black is also employed in the preparation of some
kinds of leather, ami for other purposes.
Lailipodll'sa. a small island of tin' .Mediter-
ranean, l.!)0 miles S. of Sicily, and 80 F. of Tunis.
Belonging physically to the Afric.-in continent, it
has since 1843 been ailministratively reckoiied ]iart
of the Sicilian commune of Licata. It has 19 miles
of coast, and a small harbour. Fruits are grow n,
and some grain. Po|i. 1074.
Lampeter, a market-town of (.'ardigaushire,
27 miles by rail NXE. of Carmarthen. It is the
seat of St David's Theological College ( 1827 ), which
has the power to grant B..\. and B.D. degrees.
Pop. 1443.
Lamprey (Petromyzon), a genus of round-
mouths ( Cyclostomata, q.v.), nearly allied to the
Hag (q.v.), and like it dili'ering markedly from
true lisiies in the absence of jaws, paired lins, and
.scales, and in the presence of peculiar gill-pouches.
An eel-like form, a slimy skin, a gristly skeleton,
■a primitive brain imperfectly roofed in, a single
median nostril, a suctorial mouth with numerous
horny teeth on the lips and on the large piston-like
tongue, seven pairs of gill-pouches (whence the Ger-
man name neiiit-aiigc, 'nine-eyes') opening by as
many apertures to the e.xterior, and connected inter-
nally with a tube lying beneath and communicating
with the adult gullet, and the striking dillerences
between young and mature forms are among the
less technical characteristics. They diU'er from hag
in the development of a dorsal fin, in the fact that
the nasal passage ends blindly without opening into
the pharynx, and in several peculiarities of the
respiratory and other systems. Along with Petro-
myzon, there are several genera — e.g. Mordacia
and Geotria from the coasts of Chili and Australia —
differing only in detail. Lampreys occur both in the
rivers and seas of the north and south temiierate
regions, and at least some of the nuirine forms
spawn and pass part of their long larval life far up
rivers. They seem to represent an ancient race,
more primitive than fishes, and, though their gristly
skeletons are unknown as fossils, certain structures
called ' couodonts ' from very early strata are
identified by some as lanjprey teeth.
The habits of lampreys are in many ways
curious. Thus, though they will cat worms,
larva*, small crustaceans, and dead aninuils, they
have also learned the audaciously aggressive habit
of fixing themselves to fishes, and scraping holes
in the skin. The mouth sticks like a vacuum
sucker, the toothed ttingue works like a niston,
and both flesh and blooil are thus obtained by a
sort of jiarasitism which reminds one at once of
leech and hagfish. ■ When eng'aged in sucking
they are carried about liy their \ ictims, and salmon
have been ca])tured in the middle course of the
Khine with the marine lamprey attached to them '
(Giinther). As the name Petromy/on suggests,
they also attach themselves, as if to rest, to stones
in the bed of the stream, or it nuiy be even to the
bottom of boats. Some species are able to move
stones of considerable size to form nests, and their
grip is so tirm that it is occasionally dillicult to
detach them from their hold. When the mouth is
occupied in its suclmial work, water passes in as
well as out by the respiratiuy apertures. The
spawning occurs in s|iriiig, usually far up rivers,
and according to sonu; the mature forms die after
reT)roduction. From the snuill eggs young develop
which live wallowing in the .sand or mud of the
streams, and feed on miinite animals. They are so
dilferent from the parenls that in the ciiso of the
small lampern {!'. bnaichiulis) tliey were for long
498
LAMPREY
LAMPS
refen-ed to a distinct fjenus Animocoetes. The
head is sniiill, the upper lip senii-ciiciilar, the lower
lip small and sepaiate, the mouth toothless and
not suctorial, the eyes rudimentary and hidden,
the future ^'ullet (as distin;;,'uished from the alio\e-
luentioned respiratory tuhe) not yet developed, and
so on. There is in fact a metamorphosis in the
history of the lamprey, as was discovered "200
Laminuy (l\lrui,u:zoii mannits i.
years ago l>y a Strashurg fisherman Baldner, hut
overlooked till August Miiller Avorked out the
curious story in 185(5. In the small river lampern
— and analogous facts are prohahly true for the
others — the change to the adult form i> frequently
postponed until the August of tlie fourth or liftli
year, wlien it completes itself rapidly.
There are three British species — the sea-lamprey
(P. j)ian'iii(s), over 3 feet in length, mottled green-
ish hrown ; the riveriamiiern (P. JIuvititilis),
nearly 2 feet, dark hluish with silvery .sides; the
sandpiper, jiride, stone-grig, or small lampern (7^.
branchialis m planer i), lianlly one foot in length,
like the preceding .species in colour. The marine
and river lampreys, though despised in Scotland,
have heen esteemed as good eating .since Roman
times, heing especially palatahle in pies and potted
preserves. They are caught in halted haskets
or traps, and their eel-like tenacity of life makes
them useful halt stores.
LuillIlS are contrivances in which to utilise the
illuminating i)Ower of lluid light-giving material.
The most primitive lam))s were ]iroliahty skulls of
animals, or certain kinds of seashclls. The |irin-
ciple of these natural lamjis was long retained in
the ancient earthenware and metal latnjis of Kgypt, .
Greece, and Home, and in the stone cujis and ho.\es
of northern nations. Such lam])s were called lychna
by the (Jreeks, and hirrrnir, hy the Romans. Speci-
mens ohtained from the excavations of the ruins of
Tarsus, I'omjieii, .and llerculanenm, and from other
sources, show that they were made in considciahle
variety. A very jirimitive form of Lamp, called a
'crusie,'was in use in Scotland until mineral oils
were introduced hy James Young ahout lS,5f).
Animal fats and hsh oils were the jirineipal suh-
stances <ised in all parts of the world for hurning
in lamps till veg<'tal)le oils were introduced —vi/.
colza or rape, and other seed oils .-ind nnl oils of
various kinds. The vegetahle oils, Ijeing more
limpid in character, admitted of improved and
more complex means of hurning them. Progress
in this direction liegan in Krancc; with Leger, who
in ITS.'J ado|iteil Hat rihhon wicks in jilace of the
old round, thick, and smoky wi<-k. He was fol-
lowed in 1784 hy .Aimc .Aigand (q.v.), who in-
troduced rounil cylindrical hnrners ; and round
hurner.s, whether for oil or gas, are still known hy
his name iis Argand hnrners.
In the use of fatty oil.s, the ordinary ca]iillary
attraction of the wick was insullicient to maintain
a uniform How of oil to the flame, and various con-
trivances were used to keep the oil as nearly as
possihle at one level. In 1S03 M. C'.arcel introduced
an excellent mechanical nielhoil of forcing the oil
up hy means of clockwork. This lamp, however,
was too easily disarranged, and too expensive
to come into general use. It was not till 183o
that Franchot invented his lam]!, known as the
'French Moderator.' The main features of this
lamp are a cylinder or oil-container with a tuhular
piston resting on the surface of the oil. This ]iiston,
fieing acted ujion hy a spiral spring ])laced hetween
it anil the top of the cylindi'r, hnces the oil up
through the piston and so maintains a constant
supply of oil to the fiame. The spring was wound
uji hy rack and pinion. The unetjual tension of
such a .spring, ami the correspondingly unenual
flow of oil, was counteracted (or 'moderated' — •
hence the name of the lamp) hy placing a tapering
iron rod in the ascending tuhe. This lamp was
simple and ell'ective, and soon su])|ilanted all other
mechanical arrangements for cont Killing the How of
oil to the hurner ; and it is the lamp still used hy
the few (leople who hum colza or rape oil in prefer-
ence to mineral oils.
Mineral oils are known under various names, such
as parallin, petroleum, kerosene, crystal oils, &c.,
for the lighter sorts : and for the heavier or speci-
ally high list kinds such names as ndneral s]ierm
or mineral colza are used. These oils, heing nnich
more limpid and \olatile than the fatty oils, rise
freely in lamps hy the onlinary suction of the
wicks, and, heing rich in carhon, a plentiful supply
of oxygen is ahsolutely necessary to pirfccl coni-
hustion. The main jnohlem, therefore, to he
solved in the construction of a good jiarallin or
petroleum lamp was to secure a current of air
powerful enough to consume the carlxm contained
in the oil, and so prevent its pa.ssing oil' in the
form of smoke.
Previous to the introduction of nuneral oils,
c,anii)hine, which is ,a volatile hydroi'arlion spirit
distilled from turpentine, wa.s hurned in Young's
■ Yesta ' lamp, introduced in \S'M. His lamp was
constructed on the round or Argand principle, with
a hutton or dellector over the centr.-il air-tuhe, and
a constricted chimney. The leading features of
this lamp have heen followed in many of the later
developments of mineral oil lamps with circular
wicks. But the common tlatwiclc jiarallin lamps
now so familiar to every one were lirst made hy
Stohwasser in lierlin, and introduced into (Ireat
Britain in 1S54. Since then the manufacture
of iiaraliin lamps has grown to he .an industry
of great importance, and is carried on largely in
Fngland, Ciermany, and the Pniteil States. The
numher of patents in all these countries for parallin
or kerosene lamjis has heen enormous, hul most of
them refer simjily to slight modilicatlons of existing
types. AVe cannot do more here than mention some
of the chief improvements ellected.
Mineral oil lamps are made with flat wicks and
with circular wicks. The circular or Argand form
of !am|i has heen generally adopted in continental
countries. The hody of the lamp or oil container
is made of glassware or mclal, mounted on a
pedestal. The outward ca.sing of the hurner is
made of hra^s perforated for the admission of air.
In the centre of the hurner the wiek-tuhe or hohler
is inserted. t)ver the wicktuhe in llatwiek
hnrners a metal dcnne is placed to ilellect the air
into the llanie. .\cross the dome there is a slit
or ohhmg opening for the ll.anie to pass through,
and a cliimney 8 or 10 inches high, resting on a
gallery at the hase of the dome, creates the current
of air necessary to pinfect comhuslion of the oil.
Flat-wick hnrners have the advantage of heing
more easily trimmed and the llame more easily
controlled than round hurners. They admit also
LAMPS
LANARKSHIRE
499
of a better supply of oxy<;en to all parts of the
tlanie than has ueen possible with orilinaiy rouml
burners, and are in conseiiuence less liable to
smoke. The most snocessful lamp developments in
Great liritain have tlierefore hitlierto been in Hat-
wick burners. In 1865 Messrs Hinks of liirmingham
introduced the Duple.\ lamp, with two i)arallel
wicks and two openings in the dome, producing
two tiames. This form of lamp rapidly became
very popular, and still deservedly continues so.
In 1874 Ca])tain Doty patented his Triplex lamp,
witli three liat wicks arrangeil in the form of a
triangle, open at each corner, so that an abund-
ance of air circulates freely all round each of the
three wick-tubes. There are three openings in the
dome, and three llames which ilistribute the light
nearly equally in all diiections ; and this no other
flat-wick burner does. This is a powerful burner ;
it has little tendency to smoke, and is easily
managed.
The great difficulty with round-wick burners has
been to procure a sutScient supply of oxygen to
the inside circumference of the flame, so that
they are very liable to smoke after burning for
a short time. To obviate this very serious objec-
tion a round burner was introduced, with a circular
air-channel passing up from the base of the lamp
through the reservoir and through the burner,
which supplied a good current of air to the inner
side of the circular lianie. This lamp of necessity
was made of metal, and, having a metal tube pass-
ing from the burner down tinough the oil-con-
tainer, was thus liable to raise unduly the tempera-
ture of the oil, and was considered too unsafe for
general use. In 1885, however, Messrs Defries
introduced an improved lamp of this type, with
a thin metal casing enclosing the portion of the
wick inside the oil reservoir, and open only at the
bottom, so that no oil or oil vapour can escape from
the lamp except by passing up through the wick
from the bottom of the reservoir. liy this means
the Defries lamp becomes a perfectly safe lamp for
domestic use. But it is still not free from the
drawback which attaches to all circular burners —
viz. the difficulty in ordinary domestic use of trim-
ming the wick quite level all round.
A still later advance in lamps for burning mineral
oils ectmomically is a lamp patented by Messrs Ross
& Atkins, which applies to oil illumination the
regenerative inverted Argand (irinciple so success-
fully employed by Siemens in gas-lighting. The
mechanical difficulties of producing an inverteil
shadowless flame with oil are obviously very much
greater than with gas ; but these difficulties have
been successfully overcome in this lamp, now
introduced to the public by the Wanzer Conqiany,
under the name of the Down-flame Shadowless
Lamp. The essential features are an annular
reservoir, with three converging (lat wicks, which
unite to form a circular flame ; a gliiss cu)) under-
neath the flame : and a compimnd chimney above.
The flame curves inwards, and the products of
combustion passing up through the centre of the
burner heat the fresh air on its passage through
the burner to the llame. It is doubtless this feature
which gives to this lamp its greater economy in the
consumption of oil, considering the intensity of
light proiluced.
Mineral oils are now extensively used for heating
and cooking, anil the burners employed for tliese
purpo.ses are generally ada]>tations of the flat-wick
type. Captain Doty in 180H jiatented a lightbou.se
lamp for burning mineral oils, and this nu^thod of
lighting liiis since been adopted by all the important
lightliou.se services of the world, with much advan-
tage to the mariner, and great economy as com-
pared with the use of rape or colza oil (see Light-
HOCSE). These lamps consist of one or more
concentric wicks, and are capable of producing a
very powerful light ; one by Sir James Douglass,
engineer to the corporation of the Trinity Iliuise,
has eight concentric wicks, and produces a flame
whose intensity is equal to 1400 candles.
COMPAK.VTIVE TABLE.
Consutnp- Consuniptioo of
,. , , Candle- ticiu of oil oil per hour
l>peoIl.aiiip. power. per hour, peronillepoKer,
in gruitu. Id i^iiia.
1-in. flat^wick burner 13i 650 4S
Duplex II 25 1250 .50
TripUx „ 39 1750 iS
DelVies' circular burner,
li-iu. diameter 49 2290 17
Waiizer down-flame burner,
2J-in. diameter 90 3050 34
To liurn mineral oils successfully both theorj' and
experience teach the absolute necessity of keeping
all parts of the burner perfectly clean, so that the
ingress of air to the flame may not be lessened
or impeded by deposits of carbonised wick, which
accumulate unless removed from time to time \\ hen
lam]is are in use, and v\liicli moreover become a
source of danger from their liability to ignite.
Long experience has also .shown that a most
fruitful source of annoyance in burning these
oils arises from the presence of water or moisture
in the oil or in the lamp. The greatest care should
therefore be taken to lieep the oil and the lamps
perfectly free from water, and new wicks should
be carefully dried before being inserted in the
burner. See also Safety-lamp, Ll'ciges.
Lamp-shell [Terchratula], a genus of brachio-
pods, or a popular name for the whole class. See
BRACHIOPOD.S.
Laiu'pyris. See Glow-worm.
Lanarka the coitnty town of Lanarkshire, on a
slope near the right bank of the Clyde (q.v. ), 33
miles by rail SW. of Edinburgh, and 31 SE. of
Glasgow. It has an interesting ruined cliurch, a
large Catholic chapel (1859), the county buildings
(1836), a good racecourse, memories of Wallace,
and some weaving and other industries. A royal
burgh since the 12th century, it unites with Fal-
kirk, &c. to return a member to parliament. Pop.
(1851). 5008; (1891) 4.579.— Xew Lanaek, U mile
S. by W., is a manufacturing village, founded in
1783 by David Dale, and for twenty-eight years the
scene ni the social experiments of his son-in-law,
Kobert Uwen. Pop. ( 1831 ) 1901 ; (1891 ) 672.
Lanarkshire, or Clydesdale, a Scottish
county, enclosed by Stirling, Dumbarton, Linlith-
gow, Edinburgh, Peebles, Dumfries, Ayr, and Ren-
frew shires. Its length is 50 miles, its gieatest
breadth 32 miles, and its area 889 sq. ni. Drained
almost entirely by the Clyde ( q.v. ) and its numerous
affluents, Lafiarkshiie is sulidivided into three
wards, of which the upper or southern comprises
."{.32,3.38 acres, the middle 194,211, and the lower
42,319. Tliese otter a striking diversity of Jispect
— lonely uplands, smiling orchards, busy coallields
and manufacturing district. The principal hills
are (Ireen Lowther (2402 feet) and far seen Tinto
(2.3.35) ; whilst the mining village of Leadhills ( 1300
feet) is the highest in Scotland. The luedominant
rocks are Silurian, old red .sandstone, and carbon-
ifenuis, and the county possesses great mineral
wealth — coal, ironstone, fireclay, shale, and lead,
with some silver and even gold. The coal alone
in the Lanarkshire coalfield is estimated to exceed
2000 million tons. The soil is as various as the
scenery ; and b.irely one-half of the whole ••uca is
in culiivalion, whilst in 1888-89 woods occupied
20,148 acres, orchards 591, and market-gardens
1313. The orchards of Clydesilale were famous as
early as the time of liede, and yiehled into the
19tli century 1'8(M)0 per annum : but now the ground
is more profitably employed in producing straw-
500
LANARKSHIRE
LANCASHIRE
berries, fjooseberries, vegetables, &c. for tlie Glas-
};ow market. Tlie climate is moist, mild and "enial
in many of the lower districts, but often cold and
boisterous on the uplands. Lanarkshire is not a
great grain county ; but much of it is excellently
adajjtej for the rearing of stock ami for dairy jiur-
poses. The sheep are Cheviots and lilack-facod,
the cattle Ayrshires ; and tlie celebrated Clydesdale
carthoi'ses i.ssue from a Flcniish cross (aliout 17'20).
The mineral, textile, and other industries are very
extensive, and are noticed under the towns — Glas-
gow, liutherglen, Lanark, Hamilton, Airdrie, Coat-
bridge, Motherwell. Wishaw, i<;c. Be.sides pre-
historic and Uoman remains, Lanarkshire contains
the castles of Bothwell, Douglas, and Craignethan
(Scott's ' Tillietudlein '), the priories of IJlantyre
and Lesmahagow, and the battlelields of Langside,
Urumclog, ancl Bothwell Brig. Among its worthies
have been Joanna Baillie, Dr .lohii Brown, Sir
Colin Campbell, Thomas Campbell, Lord Dun-
donald, David Livingstone, and Sir John Moore.
Though only the twelfth in size, Lanarkshire is
far the most populous and wealthy of all the
thirtv-three Scottish counties. Valuation (1875)
£1,714,183; ( 189U)£2,'226,3j2. Poi>. ( ISOl ) U7,6!)2;
(1841) 426,972; (1881) 904,412; (1891)1,105,899—
an increase due largely to the transference hither of
the portions of Glasgow formerly in Kenfrewsbire.
See works by Hamilton of "Wisliaw ( 1S31 ), Irviu}; and
Murray ( 1S61-G4), and otherb cited at Gl.vsgow, Clyde,
CO.VTBItlDGE, BlG(;.\K, &c.
LaUCIiSllire is a county palatine of England,
ranking sixth in point of area, first in population,
and lirst in return of revenue from all sources. It
forms the north-western division of England,
stretching along the shore of the Irish Sea from
the rivur Duddon and the mountains of Cumber-
land on the north to the river Mersey on the soutli.
It is bounded on the E. by Yorkshire, on the W.
by the Irish Sea, on the \. by Cumlierland and
Westmorland, and on the S. by Cheshire. The
extreme length from N. to S. ( including the
hundred of Furne.ss) is 75 miles, and the greatest
breadth at the south end 43, and at the north end
10 miles. The ciicumference is 240 miles, and the
area 1905 sip in., or 1,219,221 statute acres. Bop.
(1801)()73,4S6; (1821) I,0.-)2,94S; (1841) 1,667,054;
(1861)2,429,440; (1881)3,454,441; (1891)3,926,760.
The ratable value increased from .£10,029,967 in
1868 to £18,623,910 in 1890.
The coast is level, free from rocks, and has
numerous estuaries stretching far into the main-
land. Its ports are the only ones accessible to
large vessels betw'een Milfoid Haven, in South
Wales, and the estuary of the Clyde. This, with
the ejise with wliich the coast is approached from
the interior, has made the county the principal
outlet for the cimimerce of the country in a
westerly direction, one third of the wli<de foreign
trade of Great Britain being carried on from its
ports. The chief rivers are the .Mersey, Kibble,
Lune, Wyre, Kent, Leven, and Duililon. The
rainfall in Lancashire is sometimes twice as great
as on the east coast ; the climate is mild. The
lofty hills on the east shelter it from the land
winds, while the prevailing winds, tliose from the
south and west, are rendered niihl fnuji tlieelb-ctof
the Gulf Stream. This humidity of climate is said
to contribute to the superiority of the liner kinds
of cotton threads mannfiictured in Lancashire. An
outlying portion of the county, calleil Furne.ss, 25
miles long by about 20 wide, is separated from the
main portion by Miueciimbe Bay, and seems as if
it proiierly ought to belmig to tiie Lake District.
Conlston, Eslliwaite, and Wimlerniere lakes lie
within the Ixnders. The highest i>oint here is
'Coniston Old Man' — 'alt niaen,' or the 'high
rock ' — 2633 feet above the sea. The larger division
is intei-sected in the north and east by branches of
the hill-system which runs southward tbrongli the
counties of 'i'ork and Derbv, the chief eminences
being Pendle Hill ( 1831 feet ),'Bleasdale Moor (1709),
Boulsworth Hill (1689), and Kivington Moor
(1545). The soil is peaty in the upland districts,
but for the most jiart a fertih> loam in the Hats.
Oats and jiotatoes are geninal crops ; w heat grows
well in the scmthern division. Coal is the chief
mineral pixHiuct, the coallield being estimated at
217 sq. m. in extent. The latest estimate of the
'quantity raised in one year ani(uinted to I9,l'20,0()0
tons. Limestone and iron are common in the north.
Lead, copper, suliihur. and lircclay are also found.
The whole surface of the county is covered with a
network of canals and railways which connect the
principal manufacturing and cominercial centres
(see Manchestek, Liveiu-odi,, Pkk.st()n, Bl..\ck-
BURN, &c. ). Lancashire is the great centre of the
cotton manufacture of the world, having about two-
thirds of the entire trade (see CoTTOX). The
other textile manufactures, such as woollens, silk,
carpets, are likewise of considerable importance.
It IS pre-eminent in the manufacture of engineers'
tools; and the making of all kinds of iron ;ind steel
machinery is extensively carried on. Shipbuilding,
sailmaking, the manufacture of boots and shoes,
hosiery, and kindred trades are also in a lliuirishiug
condition. The county returns, since 1885, twenty-
Ihree members to parliament (formerly eight),
besides those for the boroughs. The phrase,
' Lancashire Witches,' which is now used as an
expression of admiration for the young maidens of
the county, arose from the prevalence of the crime
of witchcraft in Lancashire in the reign of James I.
So many as twenty witches w ere trieil and executed
at the Lancaster Assizes of 161'2. Twelve of these
were the witches of 'Pendle Forest,' and eight
belonged to the witches of 'Samlesbury.' A few
years previously, Ferdinand, liftli Earl of Derby,
was sup|iosed to liave been murdered by witchcraft.
At the time of the Beformation the Koman Catholic
party was extremely strong in Lancashire, and
religions houses of great wealth and inlluence
existed in every district, twenty-two being sup-
jiressed by order of King Henry A'lll. ; this in-
cluded the abbeys of Furness and Whalley (.see
F'URNESS). An unusually large proportion of the
land-ownei-s still adhered in the reign of James L
to their old faith, and in 1604 six juiests were tried
at the Lancaster Assizes and executed. Those
connected with tin; (innpowdcr Plot expected to
nnise the Catholics of l,ancasliire, but entirely
failed to do so. The whole of tin? district was
continually unsettled and full of discontented
recusants, .some of them of Koman Catholic and
others of I'nritan opiniims. The people of Lanca-
shire have long been noted for their love of music
anil natural history, there being amongst them
many working-men who are botanists and ento-
mologists of repute; while their politics and
oiiinimis have had such inlluence in the country
that the |iroverb has arisen that ' A\ hat Laiicjusliiie
thinks to-day England says to-morrow.' Amongst
eminent names connccterl with Lancashire are those
of .MrsGaskell, Mrs (;. L. Banks. Miss Martineau ;
of Koscoe, De t^)uiiicey. Sir Bobert Peel, Horrocks,
Dalton, Hodgkinson, Joule, Greg, Bamford (the
weaver poet, 1788-1S72), William Henry the
chemist. Sir W. Fairbairn. Sir J. Wliitworth,
James Martineau, ( iladstone ; and names connected
with the success of the cotton trade, as John Kay
(inventor of the lly-shuttle ), Crompton, Ark-
wriglit, Ilargreaves. The Lancashire dialect,
renowned for tei'seness and vigour, is illustrated iu
works by J. Collier (' Tim Bobbin). Ben Biierley,
Edwin Waugli. See maps at .M.VNcllEsTEK and at
L.\KK DiSTUlur.
LANCASTER
LANDAU
501
See Baines, Laiufuhire (1836; new ed. by Croston,
1888): Espinasse, L«iicaxAice 7roW/iiM(187;>-77) ; Nodal
and .Milncr, Dialects (1882) : and works bv Kutterwortli
(1811), lirimlon (1806, 1882, 1892), Axon (1883).
Lancaster, the capital of Lanoasliire, is pictur-
esquelv situatetl on an eniinenoe on the left b.ank
nf tlie Lune, 7 miles from its mouth, ,5U NNW. of
Manchester ami 231 \\V. of Lomlon by rail. The
ancient castle, which overlooks tlie towTi, was
built on the site of a Roman cistle, and wius
restoretl by John of Gaunt, ' time-honoureil Lan-
caster;' it is now used .t-s the county ^aol. The
church of St Mary (15th century) contains some
■jood oakcaninipj and stained gla-ss. The Ripley
Hospital is an asylum for orplian cluMrcn. The
houses are built of tlie freestone qriarried in the
vicinity. The I.une is here crossed by a bridge of
five arches, erected in 1788, and by an aquednct
carrjinj; tlie Lancaster Canal across the river.
Owing to the sanding of tlie Lune, large ve.ssels
have to unload at Glasson. 5 miles distant. The
chief manufactures are furniture, cotton, silk, oil-
clotli, table-covers, m.achinerv, ami r.aihvay plant.
A public park was presented in 1881. Sir I!.
Owen, the anatomist, and Dr Whewell were born
at Lancaster. In 1098 the town was nearly burned
to the ground. A ver>- ancient municipal borough,
it returne<l two members to parliament from 1.547
to 1867, when it wtis disfranchiseil for corrupt
practices at elections. Pop. (1881)20,663: (1891)
31,0:«. See works bv Hall (1843) and Simps(m
(1852).
Lancaster, (1) capital of Fairfield county, Ohio,
on the Hocking River and Canal, .■>2 miles SE. of
Columbus, with machine-works and railway shops.
Pop. ( 1890) 7-555. — (2) Capital of Lancaster county.
Pennsylvania, 69 miles by rail W. of Philadelphia.
Besides a large court-house and numerous churches,
it contains the Franklin and Marshall (Germ.-in
Reformed ) College, and a theological seminary of
the .same bmly. There are large cotton-mills, and
tanneries, breweries, potteries, .and a number of
other manufactories ; and extensive warehouses for
tobacco have been built. Founded in 1730, Lan-
caster was the capital of the state from 1799 to
1812. Pop. ( 1870) 20,2.33 : ( 1890) .32,011.
Lancaster. Dichy of, w.ns created in the
reign of Eihvard 111., the dignity of county palatine
being at the same time conferred upon the duke.
The heiress marrying John of tiaunt, son of the
king, the duchy w.as settled upmi him ami his heira
for ever by royal charter in 1362. Heniy IV., third
Dnke of Lancaster, on his accession to the throne,
pa.ssed a law in which it was provided that the
inheritance of the house of Lancaster should be
held by him and his family sei)arate from the crown-
lands. E<lward IV. in 1461 ordained, with the
consent of parliament, that the duchy of Lanca-ster
should be annexed to the crown, but ' held
separately from all other hereilitaments.' Tlii.s
arrangement has continued until the present time,
and the affairs of the duchy have thus enjoyed
an independent administration, and formed no
part of those hereditary revenue-s in view of which
the Civil LLst was grantetl. The revenues of
the duchy have increased from £29.(J0() in 1847 to
£86,284 net at the eml of 1888, the p.ayment to
Her Majestv at these two periods lieing respectively
£12,0(X) and £,50,000 sterling. Tlie.se proceeds
are wholly exempted from parliamentary control,
except that the annual account for receipt and
expenditure is jiresented to parliament. The
chancery cif the duchy of Lancaster is still a crowii-
ollice. and was at one time a court of appeal for
cliancerj- of the county palatine, but is now merely
nominal. The oilministration of justice lia.s since
1873 been assimilated to that of the rest of
England. The office of chancellor is a political
appointment : it is the ]>ractice to confer it on a
statesman of eminence, fref|uently ,a nieml>er of
the cabinet, who is expected to devote his time to
such larger (luestions occupying the attention of
government as do not fall within otlier depart-
ments. The emoluments of the olVice are about
£2(KM) a year. For the House of Lancaster, see
Hknry iV.. v., VI. ; and Exgl.vnd, Vol. IV.
p. :{.5i.
Lancaster. !^llt J.\mk.s, an English navigator
who commauileil the first lleet of the East India
Company that visited the East Indies in 1600-3,
and on his return home was knighted. He had
previously been a .soldier and a merchant in P<h'-
tugal, had visited the E.ist Imlies on his own
accowiu in 1.591-94, ami in 159.5 had captured
I'ernambuco in Urazil. He was one of the oiiginal
board of directors, and afterwards did miicli to
)>romole the voyages of Wayniouth, Hmlson, and
Rallin in search of the Xorth-west Passage to India.
The strait leading westwards from the north of
Batlin Bay w.os in 1616 named Lancaster Sound by
Baffin. Lanc.ister died in May 1618. See Sir Clem-
ents R. Markham's Voyages of Sir James Lancaster
(Hakluyt Soc. 1877).
Lancaster. Joseph (1778-1838). See Bell
( .Vndkew ), Educatiox.
Lancaster iinn. a species of rifled cannon,
named after its inventor, which had a bore of
oval section. It failed during the Crimean war,
and was supei"seded.
Lancaster Sonnd, a western outlet of Baliin
Bay, in 74' 20' X. lat., connected with Boothia
Gulf on the south by means of Prince Regent Inlet.
Though this opening into the Arctic Ocean was
discovered by Baffin in 1616, it was first navigated
by Parry in 1819.
Lance. tlEORC.E, painter of fruit and still-life,
was liorn at Little Easton, near Duiimow, in Esse.x,
on 24th March 1802. He studied uiuler Haydon, liut
discovered that his strength lay in painting fruit,
game, and similar subjects. Specimens from his
brush in this line were exhibited year after year at
the Royal Academy and British Institution. His
admission that he had ' restored ' parts of Velaz-
quez' ' Bo.ar Hunt' caused a stir of controversy in
1853. Lance died at Sunnyside, near Birkenhead,
on 18th .lunc 1864.
Lancelet. See .Vmphioxus.
Lancers, a l>raiich of Cavalry (q.v. ) introduced
into the British service in 1816.
Lancet-window. See E.vki.y Enolish.
Lancewood, a wood valuable for its great
strength and elasticity. It is produced by the
small tree Gnottcria rirgata (natural order Anon-
ace.-e). -Another species, G. lauri folia, yields the
wood called White Lancewood, wliich, however, is
not much used. Lancewood is of great value to
coach-buildoi-s, by whom it is used for shafts and
carriage-iiolcs, for which it is especially fitteil. The
part usecl is the main trunk of the tree, which is
very straight, and rarely more than 9 inches in dia-
meter with the bark on. It conies in small quan-
tities from the West Indies, chiefly from Jamaica.
Lancins Collesc. or Si Niciiol.v.s CoLi.wiK,
a well-known Iioy>' school, conducted on High
Church principles, .and situated at Lancing, 8 miles
W. of Brighton, on the south coast of Englaiul.
Founded in 1S4S, it lia-s branches at Shoreham,
Hurstpierpoint, and Ardingly, all, like Lancing, in
Sussex.
Land. See E.vrth, Geology, Cpiie.w.vl,
W.vTEU : also Land Laws, Agrici'LTVHe, Soils.
Landan. See Cahrlvge.
502
LANDAU
LAND LAWS
Landau, a town of the 15:ivarian Palatinate,
11 miles \\'. of the lUiiiie ami 17 SW. of Spires.
Founded and made an iiiiiierial eity in the 13th cen-
turj', it has some iiiteiestin<; old churches, and
played a prominent pait in history as a fortress.
Durinj; the Thirty Years' War it was taken eight
times; in 1(588 it was fortified by Vaulian for Louis
XIV., liut surrendered four times during tlie war
of the Austiian succession. In ISUi IJavaria became
mistre.ss of it : and in 1S70-71 its fortilications were
levelled to the ground. Poii. 11,395.— Landau,
another town of liavaria on the Isar, 72 miles NE.
of Munich, has 31(j.") inhabitants.
Laiulaill*. a .sanitary station in British India,
in Dehra IJiin district. North-west Provinces, form-
ing part of the toftn of Mussooree (or Masuri ;
pop. 3106). It is on the slope of the Himalayas,
7459 feet above the sea.
Land-crab. See Cr.\b.
Lander. Kich.\rd, the discoverer of the mouth
of the Xiger, was born at Trnro on 8th February
1804, and in 1825 accompanied Clapperton as his
servant to Sokoto. There Cla|iperton died, and
Lander, returning to England, pulilished an account
of the exjjedition. The British government then
entrusted to him aiul his brother John (1S07-39)
the prosecution of further researches along the
lower course of the Niger. In 1830 they proved
that the Quorra, or Niger, falls by many mouths
into the Bight of Benin. They ])ublished a Journal
of an Expedition to Exjilore tlic Niqcr (3 vols.
1832). In the course of a third e.xpeilition in the
same quarter, Richard Lander was wounded Ijy the
Niger natives, and died in consequence at Fernando
Po on 2d or 7th Feb. 1834. The storv of tljis tliinl
journey is contained in Laird and OlJfield's Narra-
tive of an Expedition into the Interior of Africa hy
the Ilircr Xiijer [2 \-o\s. 1837).
Landeriican, a small seaport of France, stands
at the head of the harbour of IJrest, 12 miles by rail
NE. of Brest ; it has linen manufactures, tanneries,
candle-works, and shiidiuilding. Po]i. 8003.
Landes, a maritime de[iartnient of southern
France, one of the largest and most thinly peo]ded
in the country, is bounded on the W. bv the Bay
of Biscay. Area, 3598 sq. m' ; pop. ( 1876) .303,508 ;
(1891 ) 297.842. The chief river is the Adonr(navi-
gable). The greater portion of the department con-
sists of the /amies, tracts of barren san<l, interspersed
with marshes and forests of pine and oak aiul cork,
forming one of the dreariest regions in Europe. The
inhabitants are mostly of Gascon race, small and
the reverse of robust in a]>pearance, yet capable of
great endurance. They herd sheep (no longer
requiring to traverse the marshes on stilts), grow
wine, and extract the products of the forests
(timber, resin, cork, charcoal, I've. ). Fowling an<l
fishing also yield good rt^turns. The Bayonne hams
are obtained from pigs bred and fed in the lander:.
Beside-s wine, the .soil is made to yiidd rye, maize,
wheat, &c., especially in the hilly district called
Chalosse, to the south of the Adour. By nu'ans
of draining operations and the planting (since
1787) of forest trees rapid progress has been made
in the reclamation of the soil and its cultivation.
Although it has a coast-line of 75 miles long,
the department does not po.sse.ss a single harbour.
A belt of sand-dunes, '2k miles wide aiul reaching
300 feet in height, fringes the seashore from north
to south. About 20,000 tons of iron ore are
smelted annually. The mineral sjirings of T)ax
were known to the liomans. The railw.iy frcmi
Bordeaux to liayonnc passes through the district
from north to south. The department is diviiled
into three arrondissements, Montile-Marsan, St
Sever, and Dax. Caiiital, Montde-Marsan. See
France, Vol. IV. p. 771.
Landgrave, a title of superior distinction borne
by certain counts (ijraf) — e.g. of Thuringia and
Hesse — in the former (Jernian empire. They were
the constitutional successors of the old rulers
(counts, grafe) of the original counties (qaiie) of
the (Jerman empire, and as such claimed the rank
of princes (of the first class) of the empire.
Land$;unrd Fort. See II.vRwicn.
Land Laws. Land being the universal .and
necessary ba.sis of existence of the human race, it
has in all countries been deemeil to be subject to
rules of use and possessi(m established by the com-
munity. Of these rules in the earliest stages of
society we have no written record, for they were
in force before writing was imented. But we .'ire
able to trace their proliable origin and first develop-
ment partly from trailition. partly from customs
which survive in later i)eriods, and partly from
investigation of the systems in force in rude nations
when they lirst come within the view of ccnupetent
observers. The f(nniation of rules begins when
civilisation or jiopulation has advanced so far as to
render the regulation of contlicting rights desirable.
Prior to that time the only law was that of the
strongest : each man or each tribe occupied what he
or it eouhl coniiuer, and so much as it w.os within
the ]iower of either to defend from hostile aggres-
sion. Hunting, and afterwards ]iastur,age, were the
only uses to which land was then devoted. But
as the tribes grew in numbers, and a nomad life
became fatiguing, or inade(juate to .supply the
means of existence, incipient agriculture led to
the establishment of settlements more or less
permanent. It is at this stage that we begin
to meet with the recognition of rules for the
regulation of culture and jiossession. The Koman
writers, who examined with marked interest
the contemporary institutions of their (lerman
enemies, show us one of the earliest stages of
settled life. The wealtli of the tiilie lay still in
herds of cattle, but a portion of the laiul around
the villages was cultivated. This land wa.s annu-
ally allotted to heads of families, and was changed
in rotation from one to another, so as to ensure
equality. Such arrangements survive in iMirojie to
the present day. In Servia and some of the adjacent
principalities the family property is still held in
some degree in common, and every member of the
household is considered to have a riglit to reside in
the familv dwelling, and to share in the produce of
the family fields. The Kussian niir, or villjige,
]U('serves similar characteristics. It is a com-
munity recognised by the state as joint-proprietor
of the village lands, and jointly responsible for the
taxes. The lands theuiselves, with their ai)iiortion-
ment of taxes, are allotted by the ccuumunity among
its several families. Where the land is ]ioor the
division is seldom changed, but where it is rich a
fresh arrangement is made at frei|uent intervals or
even every year. This \illage system prevails al.so
in India, though there t\m division lias become
permanent. In (ireat liritain, as will be seen here-
after, its existence was uncpiestionable, and traces
of it survive even at the present day in the customs
and nomenclature of numerous districts.
Such rudimentary systems are, however, from
their own nature destined to extinction as ]iopula-
tion increases. The family grows into the village,
but the village linils its bounds restricted more and
more by the pressure of neighboui-s, while every
year the numoer of mouths to be fed within its
limited s]iace becomes larger. Thus more labour
and more luanure must be given to the soil to
extract from it increased return, and the individual
who has made his allotment mine fertile than his
neighbour's does not willingly exchange it for one
which lias been comparatively neglected. If he
LAND LAWS
503
has either power or influence, which prohahly liis
natural enerfjy will procure for him, he insists on
retaining: his own plot, and on lianilin;; it on to
his own family. As all who are in the like position
will make a li)ie claim, it easily becomes establisheil
as a right, ami the more that labour is emjjloyed
on the seiiarate proper! v the more imprej;nablc docs
the title tend to become. This stage has always
been reached by the time that the nation in whicli
it prevails comes to have a recognised code ami
written l.aws. The laws of the Israelites (it matters
nothing whether prescribed by Moses, or compiled at
■a later ilate from traditicm, or from theories of sound
policy and justice) recognised th.at the tribe had a
title to a certain district, but that e.ach member of
the tribe hail an absolute and indefeasible right to
his own separate portion of land. This right was
gnardeil by a law, at once of equal partition and
of entail, under which alienation was only valid
for a term of forty-nine years. In Greece private
ownership w.is fully established. In Rome every
family had its perm.anent share allotted to it. The
survival of the idea of community was limited to
the common lands, which by conquest became of
immense extent. But the object of the agrarian
agitation which covei-s so many pages of Roman
history w;».s not to revert to the original com-
munity of possession, but only to secure that of
the remaining common lands each citizen, however
poor, should be deemed entitled to receive a grant
for his future posses-sion in e.xclusive and private
property.
From this general sketch of the origin of private
property in land we may now proceed to consider
its tlevelopment in modern times, and especially in
the United Kingdom.
The system of ownership of land in England
under the Saxons was substantially the same as
among their Germanic ■ancestoi's. There was still
ample space for all. The village community re-
mained the unit of social arrangements, and held
generally large areas of forest or heath in common,
on which every villager had a right to pasture stock.
The small area of land uiuler tillage was appro-
priated to individuals, sometimes in undei'stood
permanence, especially where a family held a posi-
tion of pre-eminence, sometimes under a custom of
more or less frequent redivision or appropriation.
This village system, with its rights of common,
survived far into the period of Xorman occupa-
tion : anil in numerous districts it may still
be traced in the divisions and names of fields,
anil in the local customs. 15ut a vast change of
principle w.os intnxluced by the Xorman Conquest,
liringing with it the ideas of feudalism which had
grown up on the (,"ontinent. Under this theory
the whole land of the realm w,as deemed to be
vested primarily in the sovereign. By him it
was granted in knight-fee t<i certain nobles or
gentlemen, who in return were bouiul to perform
all cluties of a vassal to his lord, and in especial
to furnish a contingent of armed men to support
him in war. Default in these duties involved
forfeitvire, but if performed punctually (or so far
as the lord could enforce punctuality) the vassal
wa.s supreme in the temtory gianted to him. By
degrees he gained the right of subinfeudation —
i.e. of making similar grants of portions of his land
to others, to be held by them !is his vassals. This
privilege was abolished in England Ity the statute
Quia Emptorc.i, 18 Edw. I., which recognised the
right of a vassal to sell, but re(|uired that the
purchaser should hold subject to thi^ original lord.
At a still later jieriod the owner of land in England
acquired the right of devising land by will (.'Ji
Henry VIII. chap. 1). But the system of feud.al
tenures was swept away in Englanil by the statute
12 Charles II. chap. 24, which abolisheil all services.
already long fallen into disuse, of the nature of
military aid to the sovereign. Meantime the char-
■acter of the laml laws had been ehielly all'ecteil by
the struggle between parliament, re|)resenting the
wishes of the great nobles, the courts of law,
guided by judges s]irnng mainly from the peo]>le,
and the Court of Clianccrv, which in its earlier
st.ages Wiis inspire<l by the church. The statute De
Donis established entails. But these were defeated
by fictions, called fines and recoveries, sanctioned
by the courts of law. Parliament ]>assed acts for-
bidding alienation of lands in mortmain, ehielly
in order to prevent the aggrandisement of the
church. But the.se were defeated l)y the Court of
Chancery giving eflect to trusts f<n- religious cor-
porations. Parliament by the Statute of Uses, 27
Henry VIII. chap. 10, annulled such trusts. But
again the judges defeated the statute by declaring
that it did not apply where a trust was created to
hold for another, «ho again wa-s to hold for a third
person. At last a device was hit upon by the
ingenuity of lawyers under which the etl'ect of
entails h.as been attained by means of what are
called Settlements, under which the operation of
natural motives is brought into play to induce
each successive owner to restrict himself to a life-
interest only. By this system, which applies to a
very large proportion of the land of England,
estates are preserved in families, from one genera-
tion to another, but at the cost of grave evils,
arising from the restraint placed on the powers of
the actual ]iossessor.
In Scotlanil the feudal .sy.stem supereeded that of
clanship ; and the chief of the clan, who was at first
only the village headman, acquired in the eye of
the law the sole title to the land which supported
the community. But subinfeudation was never
abolished in Scotland. It formed the basis of the
system of conveyancing till past the middle of the
19th century, and it is still in practical use in the
creation of 'feus.' Entails also, in all their strict-
ness, were recognised as \alid from the year 1696,
and only since 1S48 have been subjected to restraints
resembling those whicli were from the first imposed
upon them in England by the hctions which were
sanctioned by the courts of law. Legislation sub-
sequent to 1S4S has enabled every owner under an
entail to acquire the fee-simple on paying to the
ne.vt hell's the estimated value of their interests.
Eeudalism held sway in France down to the
Revolurion. The introduction of modern ideas of
taxation even aggravated its hardsliiiis, for the
great nobles secured exemption from these imposts,
which thus fell the more heavily on their v.assals.
Both in France and tiermany the vassals were also
heavily burdened with the obligation of forced
labour, partly due to the st.ite for the mainten.ance
of roads, I'i.c., but ehielly to the immediate lord,
who thus obtained the ailvantage of gratuitous cul-
tivation for his own lamls. while the i>ea-^antrv were
left to devote more inconvenient sea.soiis to the
work of their small farms. In France this system
was swept away by that Revolution to which it
had so largely contributiMl. The Coi/c SujtolCoii
now regulates the law, which, except that on death
it directs the conqiulsoiv division of land among
the whole of the children, practically re>eMibles the
law of England. In Germany the feudal system
disapjieared under the celebrated legislation of Stein
and liardenberg. To purchase their relief from
the duty of forced labour and other exactions of the
lords the peasantry surrendered a ])ortioii of their
lands to the lords, and were declareil to hold the
remainder free from any service. Laml banks were
at the same time establisheil, which made advances
to those who desired to bu> up rights of eiimmon
aflecting their lands, or to commute rents for a
payment in money.
604
LAND LAWS
In northern Europe feudalism took no root, and
land has generally been held hy small freeholders
who were the cultivators. The system passed from
Scandinavia to Orkney and Shetland, where the
same tenure exists to a considerable extent under
the name of udal ri^dit.
The ]irinciiiles which are involved in the owner-
sliip of land receive illustratiim in modern systems
where new or Miia|i)iropriated lands have to be
settled. Generally speaking, lirst occupation is
recognised in sucli cases as a suHieient title to
exclusive and permanent ownership. There is, how-
ever, an unwritten law almost universally iti force
that occupation must be actual, and not merely an
assertion of li.^ht over more .•uea than tlie settler
can actually work. This understanding crystallises
into the rule that the occu]>ati<)n must be only of a
limited space or 'claim,' and that actual labour of
a sjiecilied amotint nnist be expended on it within
a delinite period. Such rules are instituted
wherever bodies of men establisli thenisehes,
whether as miners, shepherds, or farmers. When the
connniinity has existed for a short time, and is so
far permanent .as to have organised a government,
these or similar rules are enacted as laws, and the
authority of the whole community is asserted over
such portions of territory as lie within its powers
to defend, and which are not yet appropriated to
individuals. The state generally sells these in
plots to private individuals for a certain fixed price.
This system prevails both in 15ritish colonies and
in the United States. In the latter the remaining
public lands are vested in the separate states,
several of which have established a ' Homestead
Law,' under which each naturalised citizen is
entitled to claim a free grant of a certain portion
of unoccupied land on conditicm of actually culti-
vating it. ( For the present division of land in
Britain, see Agriculture, Vol. I. p. 102 ; see also
United St.\te.s, itc.)
From the foregoing sketch it may be seen th.at
the fundamental idea of ownership in land, in the
leading systems of village comnninities and of
feudalism, is that it is ultimately vested in the
state or nation. But it is equally apparent that
individual ownership, subject to stich services or
otlier eipiivalent as the state may ilcmaud, is
universally recognised as the most useful form in
which land can be employed. It applies the
stimulus of individual prolit and enjoyment to
the culture and imiirovement of the soil. Under
this influence an enormous amount of capital has
in all countru's, but in tlie most marked degree in
(Jreat Hritain, been invested in tlie reclamation of
the land from its original state of nature, whether
a-s forest, prairie, or swamp. The fee-simiile
value of the land as it at present exists, in the
majority of cases, represents not the original value,
but little more, very often considciably less, than
the mere expemliliire of capital wifliiu the last
century on erection of farm-boiiscs and farm-build-
ings, cottages, and fences, on making roads, on
draining, levelling, embanking. war|)ing, or such
otlier im]irovements ;vs the situation demands.
These outlays have been made on the unileistanil-
ing that the state would deal with them on the
same jiriiicipli's as with investments in factories,
railways, dwelling houses, or other species of recog-
nised individual |)ioperty — i.e. that it would apply
to them the general rules of ownership and succes-
.sion establislii'd in the community at large. Such
rules permit all projieity wliate\'er to be taxed and
even to be appropriated by the state «lieii the
)public good r<'i|iiin>s ; but they rei|iiire that no one
class of owners shall be treated dillerently from
otlierR, and that if anything is taken for the public
benefit the public shall ])av its fair market jirice
to the uwner.
A number of schemes have been proposed for
what is vaguelv called ' nationalisation of the
land.' Tlie.se all start from the juinciple which
has been seen to form in most countries the basis
of land tenure, that the land is the property of the
nation : and their object is to assert this principle
in the direction of recovering possession for the
nation from imlividuals. The first of these pro-
pos.als in the present d.ay was made by ^Ir Herbert
Spencer, who, in his ISon'al Statics, su-'gested that
lainl should be behl by the state and let for short
terms to the higliest offerer. Subsei|uently Mr
(ieorge (q.v.) iiro])osed that, without divesting the
present holders, land should be taxeil in their
liaiids to the amount of the full rental value, ex-
cluding only so much value as had arisen from
imjirovements effected by the luesent hol<lers or
their ancestors. Dr Alfred Ku.ssell Wallace 1ms
proposed that the state shouhl acquire the land of
the country on payment of compensation to present
owners, such coiiipensali(Ui in his lii-st suggestion
being limited to their life-interest, but in later
eilitiims being extended to the value in fVe-simple.
He also urges adoption of a modified fortn of the
Homestead Law ot the United States, by which
every citizen slunild be entitled to claim ,a sufficient
extent of ground for a house and garden out of
land in any situati(ui not already devoted to that
jiui'iiose. For this be would ]iay rent to the state.
The agricultural land of the country in Dr Wal-
lace's scheme is to be let by the state to tenants in
perpetuity, subject to the obligation of ' occupying
ownership' — that is to say, of being farmed by
themselves without intervention of tenants. Other
ideas, less distinctly f(uniulated by their authors,
contemplate the gener.al division of the land into
small portions suHicieiit only for the mainten.ance
of a single family, wliiidi is recommended as
'restoring the jjeoiile to the land ;' while others
suggested the ultimate cultivation by the com-
munity, under undefined arrangements of a .socialist
character. Thus it cannot be said that, as yet,
any apjiroach to agreement on a distinct system
has been arrived at by the advocates of the idea of
nationalisation of tiie land. The fundamental
(piesti(m whether any or what comjiensation is to
be made to existing holders has yet been scarcely
debated ; the shock to the security of property if
one species he ccmfiscated has not been estimated ;
the (litlieulty of discrimin.ating between original
value and value adde(I by outlay of capital has not
been ap|uoached ; and finally the c|ii('stion whether
tlie nation woiihl gain on the one b.-uid by the
transfer from one set of holders to another, or on
the other by the substitution of state for individual
cultivation, has not in any quarter been entered
on.
As a midille .scheme between existing private
ownershi]! and nationalisation, Mr Mill brought
forward the doctrine of the right of the state to
what he called the 'unearned increment' of land.
His idea was tliat when land rose considerably
in value from the mere fact of its proximity to a
town, from a general rise of (uices. or from other
circumstance not dependent on the skill or capital
of the owiu'r, the public should ln' entitled to
appropriate the rise In itself in the shape of ,a rent
or tax. The idea of an 'unearned increment' in
the value of agricultural land is, Imwever, scarcely
tenable, as it is the fact that any such increment
is due (as has been shown above) mainly to the
invcslnient of capital by successive owners. The
application of the doctrine would, therefore, occur
generally in the c-i^i' of l.ind adjoining towns. Hut
the growth of towns is largely due to private enter-
]>rise stimulated liy the hojie of juolit. The confis-
cation or proliibition of .such profit, which would be
involved in a law permitting a municipality to take
LAND LAWS
505
possession of land or buildings at its original value,
would annul tlie operation of private enterjuise.
This is an entirely novel factor in modem progress,
and one of which the full ellects can hardly be fore-
cast.
Under the name of ' Betterment,' the increase of
value due to municipal improvements in restricted
areas (e.g. a new street, liriilge, or the like) ha.s in
America been subjected to a "laduated tax, and
this proposal has also been lately brought forward
in Great Britain.
The mischiefs arising from the aggregation of
large extents of land in the hands of one owner
have also been the subject or motive of legislative
proposals. The statute book contains one notable
effort to restrain it, in the Thcllusson Act (q.v. ).
Such aggregatitm is, however, fostered by entails and
by the rule of primogeniture, while the subdivision
of land is the result of laws of succession which
prescril)e that land shivll be divideil equally among
children. That this slnnild be done in cases of
intestacy, while the parent is still Jillowed the
option of be(|ueathing the whole to one son, would
be the effect of merely abolishing the rule of primo-
jjeniture. But the Code yapolron makes equal
division among children a compulsory nile. The
rule itself is, however, much older in many
countries, and in the United Kingdom it has existed
from time immemorial in the Channel Islands.
Itne evil which Hows from it is the excessive
morccllonent, as it is termed in France, of
estates in land. But this result is partly attribut-
able to the system of subdividing every separate
portion of the paternal estate, which obviously is
not a necessary condition. In practice a restraint
on inconvenient minuteness of subdivision is found
in the habits of the population. AVhere these tend
towards emigration (which is largely the case
in the Channel Islands, but not in France) the
inheritor of a very small fraction of land readily
sells it to a neighbour, ami uses the price to set
himself up in trade, or for the purpose of emigra-
tion. A graver e\il is that the same family eon-
sequences follow from compulsory division as were
shown by Bacon to attend entails on the eldest
.son. Children are apt to attend with impatience
the father's death, which puts them in assured
possession of their jiatrimony, and lilial duty is
we.akened by the knowledge that disobedience
involves no penalty. A middle course has been
suggested — that children should have absolute right
to only a portion of the paternal estate ( as is the
case in regard to personal projierty in Scotland
un<ler the law of Legitim, q.v.), but that the parents
should have power of bequest over the remainder.
To arrest aggregation it has also been proposed
that no owner of property, whether in land or per-
sonalty, shiHild be entitled to bequeath more than
a fixed amount to any single individual, though
with full power to bequeath tlie whole of the estate
to such persons as he chooses, subject to the above
restriction.
Land has also been employed in all countries
for the subsidiary purpose of forming a security
for debt, as by mortgage in Kngland or herit-
able security in Scotland. This also tends to
aggregation, a.s it relieves the owner from the
necessity of selling a part when in need of reaily
cash. Estates so burdened are, however, little
better than leaseholds. The owner is neces.sarily
short of capital to improve them, while led to keep
up the appearance of greater wealth than he
actually possesses. The lender of the money is
also a strict creditor, seldom inclineil to grant
indulgence in time, and never to concede abate-
ment in amount even in bad .sea-sons. The evil is
very ancient and very widely spread. It was the
occasion of many insurrections in Uome, and at
this day is even more prevalent on the Conti-
nent than in Britain. Vast tracts of land in
eastern Furope are passing from the hands of the
peasantry into those of money-lenders, and in
India the same class of speculat(u's, availing them-
selves of the strictness of British law for the
recovery of <lebt, are becoming a scourge of the
country. The .Jewish law met the mischief by the
laws against usury, and by the law of restitution
at the jubilee. In 1880 the suggestion was
offered (Boyd Kinnear, I'rhiciplcs of Properfi/ in
Land) to attack the evil at its root by declaring
that land shall not be a subject of preferential
<lebt, while liable like all property to sale for ]]av-
ment of general debt. If such a rule were estab-
lished no one would lend on land, and the owner
who desired to raise money would be compelled
to sell a i)ortion. What he retained would l>e
free from debt, what a purchaser acquired would be
equally free, and every possessor would be a real,
instead of lictitious owner of a smaller but more
beneficial estate.
The cultivation of land may be either by the
owner or by a tenant. The former is the natural,
and almost always the most advantageous method,
in the interests of the comnuinity, for it tends to
induce the largest outlay on improvements which
bring enhanced returns. The first departure from
this idea takes the form (unknown in Britain,
but common on the Continent, and not infrequent
in the United States) of cultivation on shares, or
mHctirie. Under this arrangement the landlord
furnishes land and generally stock, the tenant
gives the labour, and the produce is shared in
certain proportions, frequently in moieties. It
involves a close superintendence by the land-
owner or his steward to ensure that the stock
is not made away with, ami that his fair share is
handed to him either in kind or in cash. The
next stage of the arrangement forms the system,
once universal in Scotland, of 'grain rents,' where
the tenant binds himself to pay annually the value
of a fixed quantity of different species of grain
according to the market prices then prevailing,
these being annually ascertaineil in Scotland by
the 'striking of the Fiars ' (q.v.). The last stage
is the agreement to pay a fixed money rent
irrespective of crops or prices. It is preferred l>y
tenants in times of prosperity, as it leaves them
the whole benefit of increased crops or rise in
prices. The term during which the arrangement
continues is in foreign countries very generally
seven or fourteen years, in Scotland usually nine-
teen : while in England it has been most freciuently
only from year to year, and in Ireland it was often
for lives. The last is the worst, because the most
uncertain of all. The lease from year to year has
gaineil a sort of expectation of iiermanency ; the
lease for definite terms enables the tenant to make
positive arrangements, but it h.is the dis,a<lvantage
of disposing him to cultivate le.ss liberally as the
termination approaches. To meet this the Agricul-
tural Holdings Act entitles him to payment by the
landloril for the unexhausted value of certain speci-
fied beneficial outlays made during his tenancy.
In Ireland the majority of the tenants prior to
18;i'i held under lea.-^e : but after that date they
were gradually converted into yearly tenant.s. The
])revailing rule, however, was that they continued
in po.sse.ssion, at such rents as they could l>ay, from
generation to generation. In 1800, and subse-
quently in 1870, 1881, and 1887, the legislature
introduced successive restraints on the lamlliud's
right of eviction. The position of t<'nants sub-
sequent to the last-named statute is l>rielly as
follow.s. They all hold in permanence, subject to
evictiiui only in the event ot non-payment of rent.
Even if evicted on that ground they may recover
506
LAND LEAGUE
LANDLORD AND TENANT
possession by paying the arrears within six montlis
after notice. They are entitled also, althoujih
evicted, to receive payment for any ])ornianent
iniiiiDVLMuents tliey have made. They may sell or
hecpiealh their rij;)it of tenancy at pleasure. The
rent is lixed (if the tenant desires) by the Land
Commissioners, after examination l>y vahiere ; but
it is subject to revision every fifteen years — so,
however, that it is not to be raised in respect of
any improvements made in the interval l>y the ten-
ant. During three years of low i)rifes (18S6-8i))
the tenant was entitleil to obtain a new valuation
and reduction, and all judicial rents were further
reduced according to an otticial scale, based on
current prices for each year. In ISS'2 an Arrears
Act wiped out all arrears then due by tenants,
on jmyment of only one year's rent. In 1870 the
' Brigiit clauses ' granted advances by the state to
the extent of tw'o-thirds of tlie price to enable
tenants to purchase the fee-simple of their holdings
from landlords wlio were disposed to sell. Tlie
'Aslibourjie Act' in 1885 extended this boon to a
sum sufficient to cover the whole price, and the
tenant paying interest on this at 4 per cent, jier
annum for forty-nine years clears himself of the
full amount. The amount to be thu-* advanced bv
the st.-ite was at first limited to £.">,0()0,000. In ISSS
£o,()()(),00U more were granted ; and these sums being
ab.sorbed, a bill was in the session of 1890 intro-
duced into parliament extending the sum to about
£30.000,000, under some slight modilications. The
Land Law Act of 1890 extends :ind siniplilies the
fixing of fair rents, .siniplilies purchase, and extends
the powers of the Congested District Bo.ard and
facilitates advances from the Land Commission.
For the land-tax imposed in liritain on land and
houses for purposes of revenue in lieu of the ancient
subsidies, scutages, tallages, tenths, and such
occasional taxes, see V.^hations. The land-
taxation and land-revenue of India are discussed
at p. 11.5 of this vol. ; for the i)roportion of the land-
ta.x to other sources of revenue in various countries,
see China, Tikkkv, &c. See also the articles in
this work on :
Agrarian Laws.
Afiricultural Hold-
ings Act.
ARriculturo.
Allotments.
Capital.
Commons.
Communism.
Conveyancing.
Crofters.
The following works may be consulted : Von Maurer,
Gescliiclttc derMiD'kcn-Vcrfassioig in Dnitschland [IS'iG),
and other works ; Na.sse, Ueber die mitlclnlterUche Fchl-
gemdnschnft in Knijland (1869; Eng. trans. 1871);
Laveleye, Primiliic Propr Hi/ (Hiig. trans. 1878); Maine,
Vil!a;ie Communities (1871); Seebohni, The J'-yu/U.^h
Villd'ic Communilj! (1883); the 'Cobden Club Essays,'
Systems of Land Ten ure ( 1870 ; new ed. 18,81 ) ; Brodrick.
Ewilish Tjund and Land Laws (1880); Wallace, Laml
Nationalisation (1882); Prothero, Tite Piomrm and Pro-
gress of ICnijiish Farminij (1888); the present writer's
Principhx of Pi'opertii in Land (1880); l\, iM. Garnier,
Tlic KniiUs'li Landed Interest (WJQ) % Shaw Lcfcvre,
Aqrarian Tenuren (1893); Sir F. Pollock, The Land
Laws (188.S; new ed. 1896).
liSIIld LrailflK'. in Ireland, founded by Davitt
((j.v. ) ill ).s,9, 111 purclia.se land fori be tenants, and
supiuessed ill 1881 as illegal. See IlilCI.AND.
Luiidlord and Teiiaiiti I'limitive custom
often recognised two classes of tenants — those
having lixed rights, wbo were in some sort owners
or part owners, and those who derived their rights
from the grant or contract of a superior. The
British authorities in India b.ive been compelled
to take note of these ]iiiniitiv(! forms of tenure;
in Bengal and elsewhere tenancv laws have been
Entail.
Ken.
Feudalism.
Game Laws.
George, Henry.
Heir.
Homestead.
Hypothec.
Labour.
Slortinain.
Political EcoiiuniN .
nent.
.Sale.
Koeialism.
Teinds.
Tenure.
Tithe.
Village Comniunities.
Waste Lands.
Will.
fa.ssed for the protection of cultivating occupiers,
n the Roman law tenancy appears in two forms.
Loration is an agreement of letting and hiring;
the rights of tlie jiarties are derived fnim the con-
tract between them. Kniji/ii/lrusi.'i is tenure in
[lerpetnity, or for a long term, at a lixeil rent.
Feudalism, as Sir II. Maine has shown, combines
Konian ideas with primitive custom. The duniiniis
of liiuiiiin law is a iniv.ate person ; the (/oitiitnis of
I feudal law is the political superior of whom land
is held. By the Knglisli common law, which was
formed under feudal inlluences, the dominium of
all lands was vested in the king as lord paramount ;
so that even a freeholder, holding to liiniself and
his heirs for ever, is technically described as a
tenant in fee-simple. AVIien the freeholder makes
a formal lease of his land, the lessee on entering
acquires a limited interest which is protected by
rules of common and statute law. .\ mere con-
tract or agreement for a lease, not embodied in a
formal conveyance, creates rights as between the
jiarties, but it gives no interest in the land at
common law. Eipiity, however, compels the les.sor
to fulfil his contract by executing a formal lea-se.
\ formal lea.se must be made by deed, unless it be
a lease for three years or less at a rent ecpial to
two-thirds of the improved value. An agreement
for a le.ase must be proved by writing ; and the
Stamp Act requires tliat it should be stamped as
if it were a lease. A tenant who has no formal
leiusc or written agreement to show is, in strict
theory, only a tenant at will ; but if his landlonl
■accepts rent from him he is entitled to a reason-
able notice to (piit. The English courts held long
ago that a tenant from year to ye<ar was entitled
to six months' notice, terminating with a year of
the tenancy, and the Agricnltur.al Hohlings \eX
requires twelve months' notice in the case of agri-
cultural tenants.
I'nder a lease or agreement, possession is trans-
ferred to the tenant during the term agreed. There
is, on the landlord's jiart, no iiii]died warranty a.s
to the state of the premises, except in the case of
a furnished house. A person wlio lets a house
furnished is taken to warr.ant that it is in a habit-
able .state. The landlord usually reserves the right
to re-enter and put an end to the tenancy in case
of non-]iayiiient of rent or other breach of covenant ;
but he is not now permitted to take full advantage
of such stipulations in cases where the tenant is
inepared to make iiecuniary compensation for his
default. Rent in ariear may be recovered by
action, and also by the landlord's special remedy,
Di-stress (q.v.). If a tenant fraudulently removes
his goods in order to avoid .h distress, the landlord
may, within tliirty days, seize ami sell .such ;;o(ids
wherever found, unless they have pii.ssed into the
hands of a honitjide purchaser for value. The ten.ant
li.as a light to assign his interest, or to sublet : but
this light is, in practice, re.stricted by providing
that the tenant shall not ;issign or sublet without
his landlord's consent. An agrii-ultural tenant bad
a coiiiiiion-l;iw right ti> ciiiblcmcnts - i.e. be might
reap the crop he had sown, even if liis term e.vpired
before harvest; and now an Act of 18.51 enables a
tenant to keep pos.sessioii till the end of the year,
though the interest of the |iersoii under whom he
holds may have expireil. Extensive powers of leas-
ing li.ive been given to tenants for life .and other
limited owners of settled land. In tracing the
changes m.ade by statute in the law of landlord
and tenant, we observe that feuilal and customary
ide.as have been giving way before the aiiplication
of commercial jirinciples. So far as England is
concerned, the results of the change have been
good on the whole. Landlords ,ind farmers have
been encouraged by tb<" contraci system to invest
large sums in buildings, drainage, <S;c. ; and a
LANDON
LANDOR
507
larj;e amount of food is tliiis raised with a com-
i)aratively small exiu'iidituie of labour. In Ire-
land tlie Enu'lisli system has been widely intro-
duced : Imt the i)ea.sant farmei-s liave always chin};
to primitive idejis and customary rij;lits. 'I'hey
regard themselves as owners of the laiiil, suhject
to a triliute rent, and they think it unjust that
rent shcmld lie raised liy coni|ielition. .See Lajjd
Laws, Kkpairs.
For the Enghsli law of landlord and tenant, see the
standard work of M'oodfall ; Irish legislation on this
subject is expounded in Koche and Kearden's Irish Land
Code. See also the Report of the Duke of Richmond's
Commission, presented in 1882.
In tlie law of Scotland a lease assumes tlie form
of a contract, Ijinding on the parties : and hy a
statute of 1449 leases were made binding on sin-
gular successors — i.e. on those who may purchase
from the lessor. If the lease be for more than a
year it must he in writing, the term and the rent
should be specified, and possession must be taken
by ilie tenant. A written obligation to grant a
lea.se is equivalent to a lease ; and an agreement
for a lease must be stamped as a lease. When the
term of a lease has expired it may be continued
from year to year by 'tacit relocation.' The
remedies given to a landlord in respect of rent
have been restricted liy an Act of 1880, which
abolishes the right of hypothec in respect of any
lan<l, exceeding two acres, let for agriculture or
pasture. It h;is long been the practice of Scotch
proprietors to grant farming leases for nineteen
years. The Agricultural Holdings Act, 1883, is
designed to give ailequate security for tenants' capi-
tal invested in improvements : and the Crofters'
Holdings Act, 1886, has conferred on small tenants
in Highland counties rights somewhat analogous
to the 'three Fs.' as understood in Ireland.
See Hunter on Landlord and Tenant, and the Reports
ot the Richmond Commission (1882) and the Crofters
Commission ( 1884 ).
In the United States the law of Louisiana is
based on the civil law ; in all the other states
English principles seem to have been adopted.
Distress has been abolished in some states, but
the landlord's remeily is prai-tically iireserved to
him by the law of liens ami attachments. In case
of non-payment of rent the landlord may enter
and dispossess the tenant, on giving him the notice
required by law (see Stimsons American Statiilc
Lull). Commercial piinciples have been more
rigiuously apjdied to land in America than they
are in England or Ireland : no special protecticm or
favour lia-i been extended to agricultural tenants.
Landoil, Lktitia Euzahetii, was born in
Chelsea. August 14, 1802. At an early age she
contributed short poems to the Literary Gazette.
Between the years 1824 and 1838 she published
several volumes of poems, and three novels, liesides
contributing to ' Annuals,' the A'cit- Munthlii Maf/a-
ziiie, anil the Literari) Gazelle. In 1838 she married
y\r Maclean, the governor of Capt; Coast Castle,
ami went out there with her husband at once.
Two months after her arrival she died suddenly
from having taken an overdose of tinissic acid,
which she h.ad been in the habit of using as a
remedy for spasmodic atrections to which she was
suhject. Her ]>oems and novels, written under
the initials ' L. E. L.,'show genius, and were in
their day exceedingly popular. See Life and
Literary Hemains, by Laman Ulanchard (1841).
Landor, WAt-TKR Swace, w.as born at A\'ar-
wick, ."iOtli January 177'). He was the chlcst son
by a second mariiage of I»r Lamlor, a medical jirac-
titioner in that town. His mother was Elizabeth
Savage, of a well-known Warwickshire family.
At the age of ten he was sent to Kugby School,
from which he was expelled for insubordination.
After two years spent with a private tutor, Lamlor,
now in his eighteenth year, entered Trinity College,
Oxford. -At the university he gave further proof
of his impracticable temper — pursuing his own
independent course of stuily, and tl;iunting lils
political opinions so ostentatiously as to gain for
iiimself the name of 'mad .lacobin.' For liring a
gun into the room of a Tory undergraduate, and
absolutely refu.sing to nuike any statement to the
president, he was rusticated in 1704. He pub-
lished a volume of Poems in 1795. Keturning
home, he shoitly afterwards quarrelled with his
father, and left the liousi' 'forever.' A reconcilia-
tion having been eli'eeted, Landor retired to South
Wales on an allowance of £150 a year, with the
liberty to live as he pleased. As the result of a
diligent study of Milton and Pimlar he jiublished
his Gebir in 1798. The poem found a few ardent
admirers, and was the occasion of bis lifehmg
friendship with Soutliey ; but it failed, as it has
done ever since, to find acceptance with the
majoi-ity of those interested in jioetry.
tin the death of his father in 1805 Land(n- settled
in Bath, where his style of living went beyond even
his now considerable income. In 1808, with a band
of volunteers raised at his own expense, be went
to Sjiain to assist in the emancipation of that
country from the yoke of Xapoleon Bonaparte.
The following year he purchased the estate of
Llanthony in South Wales, where he mainly lived
till 1814. Landor had bought the estate with the
intention of doing all in his jiower for the good of
his tenants and the neighbourhood in general.
Before long, however, he quarrelled all round with
his neighbours and his tenantry alike, and adminis-
tered his afl'airs with so little judgment that ruin
stared him in the face. In 1811 he had married
Miss Thuillier, a step he took in the true Landorian
manner, after a casual meeting with the lady at
a liall. The utiion proved an ill-assorted one,
and in 1814 he quitted her and cros.sed to F' ranee.
Throughout all his domestic troubles Landor,
who had in singtilar clegree the faculty of for-
getting the actual cares of life, had ne\er ceased
to occupy himself with literature. The most
notable production of this period is his tragedy of
Count Julian, which De (|luincey has jiraised in
the strongest terms, but which the maj<irity even
of Lander's admirers find defective in all the quali-
ties indispensable to a successful drama.
After a short sojourn in Tours Landor, accom-
panied by his wife, who had rejoined him, pro-
ceeded to Italy, where, living in succession at
Como, Pisa, and Fhuence, he remained till 18.15,
with the exception of a short visit to England. To
this ])eriod belongs the best known of all his works,
the Iniiiiiinarii I'lmrrrsalinns, ,a first instalment of
which was jmlilislied in England in I8:{|. A second
quarrel with his wife in 1835 led to liis return to
England, where he settled in liath till 1858. Dur-
ing these years Landor wrote much in prose and
ver.se. As the most .solid contributions to his f.ame
should be specially mentioned the E.raminalio)!
of Sliakenpeare (1834), the J'entaiiieron (1837),
Perirles anil Aftjtasiei. and his llellenies. The
writing of Latin verse li.ad from Landor's youth
been one of his .serious occupations, and in 1847
he ptiblished a collection of his Latin poems under
the title of I'ormata et luseri/ilione.i. In 1858 an
uidiajqiy scandal (see T)ri/ Stieks Fatjolri/, by W.
S. Landor), which involved him in an action
for libel, again forced him to make his home in
Italy. .After an unsiu'ccssfnl attempt to live
with his family in Florence, by the advice and
assistance of friends, chief among whmn was
Browning, he took rooms by himself in that city.
Here, with health and faculties in wonderful
508
LANDRAIL
LANDSHUT
preservation, visited '>y men who have since lieoome
lamous in literature and art, Lamlor lived till his
death on 17th Sojiteinlier 1864, jissiduoush- compos-
in-; to the last both in ]irose and verse.
liy liis sinf;ularly imjiosinp; personal appearance,
his iin|ii'rioMs will, and his massive int('llij;once, this
'unsulidnalilo oM Uoman.' as Carlylc called him,
was one of the most ori^'inal tij.Mm's anions his con-
temporaries. .-V hrief record of I,andor's life perhaps
unduly emiihasises the least attractive aspect of his
character. Irrational in the hifrliest degree in the
everyday conduct of life, he yet ins]>ire(l all'ection
and esteem in men whose opinions cannot ho <lis-
regarded. Southcy and Francis and .lulius Hare
were his friends of many years" standint;, an<l in the
latter ]>art of his life, .loiin Forster (afterwards his
biogr.apher), Charles Dickens, and others all testify
to the essential nobility of his character. By a
narrow circle of admirers Lan<lor is ranked with
the <jreat names of Euslish literature. In the
scul|itures(|ue severity of his verse they find a
perfect reproductiim of the finest work of the
ancients. His prose they place even higher than
his verse, asserting that a judicious selection from
the IiiKif/iiinr// C'oiin'nr(tin)is wmM he 'one of the
most beautiful books in the language — that is to
say, in the world.' For the majority even of culti-
vated readers, however, Landor holds by no means
so supreme a pl.acc either as a poet or writer of
prose ; and the very subordinate place assigned to
him in every histcny of literature clearly marks
where he stands in the .aggregate oi)inion of his
countrymen. While it is admitted that there are
'.shining elevations' in all his work, the general
impression seems to be that his form, .alike in his
prose .and verse, is essentially artificial and facti-
tious, .and that the subject-matter of both is l.irg(dy
vitiated by the same irrationality which displayed
itself so grotesfpiely at every period of his life.
See torstor, Lt'/r find Wnrk-.'i of Lanilnr ; Sidney
Colvin, jAnttltir (* English Men of Letters' scries) ; Mrs
Lynn Linton, Mem inisc( arcs of Landor {Frasrr'x Mnii.,
July 1870); Lonl Hdugliton, Mmmimphs ; H. Wheeler,
Lcttcra and UnjuiUt.s/ifd Writiiii/a of Landor {l.SI)7);
Swinburne, Jlim-i-l/anirit. Mr Jioythorii, in Jiifitk Lfonai^
embodies Dickens's inipression.s of Landor ' with his
intellectual greatness left out.'
Landrail. See Coex-crake.
Laiul.shei'g'. a town in the Prussian [irovince
of ]{randenl)\irg, on the Warthe, 80 miles by rail
NNF,. of lic'rlin. Its industrial establishments
incluile sawmills, m.achine-works, breweries, dis-
tilleries, i*s.c. ; there is .a large trade in timber.
Pop. ( 18S.5) -Ji.SOO; (IS!).'.) 30,483.
liaildsrapc-sardciliim' <leals with the dis-
|)ositii>n of ground, water, buildings, trees and
other plants which go to the eomposilinn of venl.int
land.scape. Such in a bro.ad sense is tlie diilinition
of the art ; for it may be employed to create a
beautiful and harmonious scene wliere only nature
in barren wildness reigned before, or to merely
imjjrove and adapt existing natural beauties and
resources to the rei|uirements of taste and conveni-
ence. I.andsea|ic-ganlening has been |iractiseil
from the earliest ilawn of civilisation, but little of .a
reliable kind is known of the style or features of
the gardens of the .lews, the Phomicians, As.syrians,
or even those of the ancient Greeks. All that we
learn from (Jreek writers respecting the charac'ter
of their gardens is that they all'oided slnide, co<d-
ness, repose, fri'shness, .and fr.agrauee. The (ireeks
cultivated the sister art of architecture so well as
somewhat to neglect gardening -. hence Lord li.acon's
remark in his JCsmii/ on Gardens, that ' when ages
gi"o\v to civility .and elegance, men come to build
stately sooner than to garden finely,' as if garden-
ing were the greater perfection.
The Romans introduced landscape-gar<lening
into Uritain ; but the art was lost when the
country was abaiuhuied by them to the Saxons.
As, however, it had meantime been fo.stered in
Fr.ance, it w.as probal)ly reintroduced by the
Normans. Henry I., .according to Henry of Htint-
ing<lon (lli.sl. lib. vii.), hail a park (hdhildliiiiirm
firfirtiin) at \Voodstock, and it is conjectured th.at
this park may have surrounded .a m.agnilicent
Roman vill.a, the ruins of which— covering about 6
.acres in extent — were discovered (Ui the I'denheim
estates early in the lOth centuiy. If the conjec-
ture is well founded, Blenheim m.ay be regarded
as the most ancient site .as well as the granilest
ex.ample of landscape-gardening in lirit.ain — .accord-
ing to many, it is the grandest in Kuropc. William
Kent (lUS-t-1748) an<i L.ancelol Brown (171.'j 83),
better known as 't'apability Brown,' may be ccm-
sidered as the foumlers of modern English land-
scapeganlening. See works by Loudon (1,8'22),
Repton (1840), F. R. Elliott (1878), and H. E.
Milner ( 1890).
Laiidsoer, Siii Edwin IIrxry, an English
animal-painter, son of the engraver .John Landseer,
A.E.R.A. (1709-1.852), w.as born in London, 7th
March 1802. He was carefully trained by his
father to sketch .animals from life, and beg.an
exhibiting at the Royal .Ac.a<lemy when oidy thir-
teen : but the first work that brought him promi-
nently licfoie the pulilic w.as 'Fighting I>ogs get-
ting Wind,' exhibited in 1818. Down to about
1823 he w.as content to reproduce the natur.al
expression and ch.aracter of animals; after that
d.ate his .anim.al pieces are gener.ally made sub-
servient to some sentiment or idea, without, how-
ever, losing their correctness .and force of diaughts-
m.anshi]). Dogs and <leer were his favourite and
best sulijects; the scene of several fine ]iictui-es is
laid in the Highlands of Scotland, which he first
visited in 1824. In LS26 he waselected an .V. I!..\., in
1830 an R.A., and in 18.50 w.as
udited.
Amon^
his most celebrated pictures are ' 'I'lie Cat's Paw,
'The Illicit Whisky-still,' 'High Life and Low
Life,' 'King Charles Spaniels,' '.lack in Olliee,'
'Suspense,' 'Bolton .\bbey,' 'Highland Shepherd's
Chiei .Mourner,' ' Dignity and Impudence,' ' I'c.ace
and War,' ' Laying down the Law,' ' The ( 'liallenge,'
'The Sanctuary,' 'Monarch of the (ilen,' 'Stag at
Bay,''Th(' Random Shot,' 'Night and Morning,'
' The Cliihlren of the Mist,' ' Deerstalking,' ' Flood
in the Highlands,' 'Man Piopo.scs, but Cod dis-
|)oses,' and 'Swannery invaded by .Sea-eagles.'
The bronze lions at the foot of Nidson's Monument
in Trafalgar Sipi.are, London, were modelled by
him. Land.secr w.as elected president of the Uoyal
Academy in l.SOU, but declined the honour. The
last <lozen years of his life were clouded by inueh
mental suliering, .and he died October 1, 187.3.
He is buried in St Paul's. Most of Landsi'cr's best
pictures arc well known from the excellent engniv-
ings of tliem done by his elder brother TlloM.XS
(1790 1880). Anothel- brother, ClI.MiUCS (1799-
1S79), was a painter of historical scenes. .See
LcDx/sccr by F. C. Stephens (1880), ami Loftie's
Laiidaeer mid Aiiiiiiril I'liinliiiij (1891 ).
Land's Lnd. See Cornwall.
liandslint, a picturesque town of I'pper
Bavaria, <mi the Isar, 44 miles by rail NE. of
Munich. Of its eleven clmrches, St Martin's ( 1477)
has a stci'ple 430 feet high. The castle of 'I'laus-
nitz (c. 1'.'32) was jiartially restored in 1872 74.
L.andshul has .several breweries, numufactories of
tob.aeeo, wagons, hats, \c., and .an active trade
in corn. The Dominican monastery (1271) was
the seat of the uidversity, removed hither from
Ingolst.adt in 1800, and transferred to Munich in
18'2(5. During the Thirty Years' War and the war
LANDSKNECHT
LANE
509
of tlie Austiiivn succession Lanilslint was several
times caiitureil ; auil here on 16th April 1S()9 the
Austrians ilrove haik the lia\arians, Imt were in
turn (lefeateil bv Napoleon live days later. I'op.
(ISToi 14,780: " (ISSo) 17,873. See works by
■Wiesen.I ( 1S,")S 7S) and Kaleher ( 1887).
LUIMlskllOCllt. See FlIEE L.\XCES.
LaiKlskruua. a seaport of Sweden, stands on
the Soiiuil, lli miles NNE. from Cojienliaj^en. It
ha.s a good harbour, carrie.-^ on su;,'arielininj;, An\t-
buildim,', ami the manulaclure of toliaeco ami
leather, e.\port.s considerable corn and butter, and
imports raw siijjar, coal, anil grain. Fop. (1875)
9084; (1888) 20.354. The town was a fortress
down to 1870. Opposite Landskrona in the Sound
lies the island of Hveni, on which Tycho IJrahe
built his observatory of tlranieuborg.
Laildslips, large portions of land which from
some cause have become detached from their
original |)osition, and slid down to a lower level.
They are especially commiui in volcanic districts,
where the tremlding of the earth that frequently
accompanies the eruption of a volcano is sufficient
to split oti' large portions of mountains, which slide
down to the jdains below. Water, however, is the
chief agent in producing landslips. It operates in
various ways. The most common method is «hen
water insinuates it.self into minute cracks, which
are wiilened and deepene<l by its freezing in winter.
AVhen the tissure becomes sutticiently deej), on
the melting of the ice a rock-fall or landslip is
produced. Sometimes, when the strata are very
much inclined, and rest on an impermeable bed
like clay, the water which percolates down through
the more porous rocks above softens the clay,
which becomes sli|)perv, whereupon the superin-
cumbent ma.ss slides over it to a lower level. This
took place on a large scale in Dorsetshire between
Lyme and Axminster in 1839, an unusually wet
season ; a nia.ss of chalk ami greensand here slid
over the slipi>ery surface of a bed of liassic clay
down into the sea. Of a like kiml were the slip of
the Hossberg. in Switzerland, in isoii (see GoLD.\u),
and that which overwhelmed the village of Elm,
in Glarus, in September 1881, when al)oul 200 lives
were lost. Another notable landsliji was that of
the Bocca di Brenta in south-we.st Tyrol in the
year following ; and at Zug in 1887 a landslip
carried twenty-seven houses, with ele\en persons.
into the lake. Landslips of a ditl'erent kind
have been produced in peat-mosses, which, be-
coming by heavy rains thoroughly saturated with
water, have burst their- natural boundaries and
discharged themselves on a lower level. The
most remarkable ciise of this kind is that of the
Solway Moss, which in 1772, owing to rains,
spread it.self in a ileluge of black mud over
400 acres of cultivated lields. In 1880 a nmst
<lestructive landslip occurred at Xaini Tal, a
health-resort on the southern slopes of the Hima-
layas. The town wa.s partly built on a gieat slop-
ing terrace of shaly deposit overhanging the lake,
anil this becoming saturated with the heavy
autumn rains, it suddenly slij)ped forward, burying
many houses in its ilebri.s. Forty Euro])eans and
from" lUO to 200 natives lost their lives. See Boo.
Land-siirvi'jiiiK, See Sukvevin(;.
Lail(l\v«'lir ('Land-defence'), a military force
in the (Jcrman and Austrian ein|)ires, forming an
army reserve, but not always retained under arms.
Its menil>ers, although can- is taken that they are
sulliclently e.xercised, .spend most of their time in
civil pursuits during peace, and are called out for
nnlitarv service only in times of war or of com-
molioti. (During the agrarian clisturbance.s in
Galicia in 1890 the Laiidwehr was employed for the
first time against tiie pea.sant labour movement.)
The Pnis.sian system of land-defence was called
into existence in 1813, when the Landwehr was
organised according to Scharnhorsts plan. At
lirst it was designe<l solely as a land-defence,
properly so called, ami not, what is now the case,
its an integral jiart of the regular army. Every
German capable of bearing arms, after serving in
the standing army for seven years, now has to
enter the Landwehr, and remain in it for other live
yeai-s. In exceptional cases the Landwehr may
be tilled up from the Landsturm, which is not
reckoned |)art of the army, and is called out only
in the event of invasion : in both tiermany and
Austria it embraces men u]i to the age of forty-
two (in Austria, for retired otficer.s, till sixty). For
the period of service in the Austrian Landwehr,
.see Akmy, Vol. 1. p. 436.
Laiio, Ed\vard AVilliaji, the most eminent
of English Arabic scholars, aiul the well-known
translator of the Arabian Nigld.s, was the son of
the Kev. Theophilus Lane, LL. D., prebendary of
Hereford, and his wife, Sophia (Gardiner, a niece
of Gainsborough the painter, and was born 17th
September 1801. After education at the grammar-
schools of Bath and Hereford, he began life, like
his brother Bichard (i|.v. ), as an engraver; but the
need of a warmer climate took him to Eg>])t, and
with that country the whole of his sulisequent
work was connected. The result of his first ( 1825-28 )
and second (1833-35) visits to Egypt wjis his
Manners and Customs of the Modern Egyptians
(1836; 5th ed. 1871), a work immediately recog-
nised ;is of unrivalleil accuracy and completeness,
and still the standard authority on the subject.
This was followed bv the translation of the Thou-
sand and One Xi(//its (1838-40: 2d ed. 18.59, and
many reprints), which was the lirst accurate render-
ing of the tales, and (though necessarily abridged,
on account of the olijectionable nature of some of
the incidents) is still the standard library edition.
The numerous and instructive notes on Moham-
med.an life, literature, and .superstition apiiended
to the translation have been separately issued
under the title of Arabian Soeietij in the Middle
Ages (1883). -A. volume of iScleetions from the
Koran appeared in 1843 (2d ed. 1879). Lane's
third visit to Egypt (1842-49) was devoted to
laborious preparation for the great work of his
life, the limbic Lrxicon. for which his extra-
ordinary familiarity witli the Aiabic language and
literature and his intimacy with the learned of
Cairo peculiarly fitted him. The cost of this vast
undertaking was borne by the fourth Duke of
Northumberland and afterwards by his widow.
Lane toiled without cessation for twenty yeai-s,
with the zeal of a Scaliger, before he began print-
ing, and then his lirst five ipiarto volumes came
out ( 1863-74). The Lexieun was instantly accepted
thnnighout Europe as the supreme authority. He
died at Worthing, 10th August 1876, before com-
pleting it, but the publicatiim of the remaining
portions wiis carried on (1876 90) by his grand-
nephew, S. Lane-I'ocde. In recognition of his
unwearied devotion to le:irning he received a Civil
List pension ; the French Institute in 1804 elected
him a correspondent : and he was made a Doctor
of Literature at the tercentenary of the University
of Leyden. bee S. Lane-I'oole, Life of Edward
Williant Lane {IS'~).
Lane, Kich.vkd James, engraver and litho-
gia])hic artist, elder brother of the preceding, was
born in 1800, and traineil as an engraver by Charles
Heath so successfully that at the age of twenty-
seven he Wius chosen an A.I!..\., jiartly lui the
strength of a fine engraving after Lawrence.
Litliography, however, was just tlien coming in,
and Lane abandoneil engraving in favour of the
510
LANERCOST
LANGENSALZA
new art, in wliich 'he displayed a dignity and
refinement of expression and an instinctive sym-
pathy with his originals which have never been
equalled.' His pencil was so delicate that his
lithographs have often been mistaken at the
first glance for line engravings. As a draughts-
man in pencil or chalk he was very successful.
In 1820 he executed an excellent profile of tlie
Princess \'ictoria, then ten yeai-s of age, and he
afterwards made portraits of most of the meni-
bei-s of the royal tamily, and w;vs ajipointed litho-
grapher to the Queen "and Prini-e Consort. His
best lithographs (wliich number more than athou-
sand) include Lawrence's cycle of (leorge IV., his
own grand-uncle Gainsborough's sketches, and
many works of Leslie, Landseer, and G. Richmond.
He wiis also no mean sculptor, and attracted
Chantrey's hearty admiration by such modelling
as his life-size figure of his brother Edward. In
his last years he directed the etchini'-class at the
South Kensington Art Schools. He died aist
November 1872. See .Vag. of Art, August 188L
LanerCOSt, an Augustinian priory, founded
about 1169, lies in the valley of the Irthing, 16
miles NE. of Carlisle. It is partly in ruins : but
the nave has been restored and is now used as
a parish church. The Lanercost C/irouide, 1201-
1346, a valuable source for Border history, was
really written, not at Lanercost, but at Carlisle.
It was edited in 1SS9 by Joseph Stevenson for the
Bannatyne and Maitland Clubs. Naworth Castle,
1 mile ' S. of the priory, is associated with the
' Belted Will Howard ' of Scott's Lay of the Last
Minstrel; it contains old armour, tapestry, &c.
See R. S. Ferguson's Lanercost (1870).
LaiirrailC, tlie first archbishop of Canterbury
after the Norman Conquest, was born at Pavia
about 1005, and educated at Pavia for the law.
About 1039, however, he left Italy, and founded a
school of law at .\vranches, which soon became one
of the most po)iular in France. Three years later
he took the monastic vows at the Benedictine
monastery of Bee, and in 1046 wiis chosen its
prior. He figured prominently in the Berengarian
controversy as to the real presence, ranging him-
self against Berengarius. About 1053 he came
into close contact with William of Xormandy.
Although he at first condemned this j)rince's mar-
riage with his cousin, he afterwards (lO.iO) went
personally to Rome to procure the papal disj)ensa-
tion for it. As a reward for this service William
made him piior of his new foundation, the abbey
of St Steiihen at t.'aen ( 1(«)2). and in 1070 iironioted
him to the jirimacy of England by nuiking him
Archbislio]) of Canterbury in place of the (Icposed
Stigand. Lanfranc still continued to be Williain's
trusty adviser, helping him both to fill the English
sees with Normans ami to nuike the royal power
supreme above that of the church. He died in
May 1089, leaving commentaries, sermons, letters,
ami a work against Berengar (ed. 1648 and 1844).
See Hook's Luxs of the Arc/ibislio/>s.
Lailfrey, Pikkke (1828-77), author, born at
Chariiberv," wrote on the church and the philo-
sophers (1855), es.s.ays on the Revolution, and a
history of the popes; but is best known for Jijs
famous ( hostile) Ilistoire de Kajiulcon I. ( 1867-75 ;
8th ed. 1875; trans. 1872-80). He wius successively
moderate republican deputy, ambassador to Swit-
zerland, ;uh1 senator.
Laii;;. .Vndkkw, a remarkably versatile writer,
wjis born at Selkirk, March :ji, 1844, and was
educated at Edinburgh Academy, St Andrews
University, and Balliol ('(dlege, Oxford. He to(d<
a classical first-class, and was elected Fellow of
Merton College in 1868. Ere long he plunged
into the sea of literature, and soon became one
of the busiest as well as the brightest writers in
the world of London journalism. He treats the
most varied subjects with the same light, humorous
touch, and he touches nothing which he doe-s not
adorn, although on serious themes he sometimes
falls short of the sericmsness that his reader has a
right to expect. He hius taken a forenn)st part in
tlfe controversy with Max iliiller and his school
about the inteVpretation of mythology and folk-
tales, and it may safely be said that to his brilliant
polenuc have fallen most of the honours of the field.
He was made LL.U. of St Andrews in 18S5, ami in
1888 was elected the first Gitt'ord lecturer at that
university. His chief books are Uallads and
L i/rics of Old France ( 1872 ), Ballades in Bine China
(1880), Helen of Troy (1882), Myme^ a la Mode
(1884), Grass of Parnassus (1888), and Ballades of
Books (1888), volumes of far more than merely
graceful verse; Custom and Mi/t/t (1884), and
Mi/th, Ritual, and Ilcliffion (2 vols. 1887), a solid
contribution to the study of the philosophy and
religion of primitive man. written with unusual
directness and vigour, and lightened up by a wealth
of felicitous ilbustration. Admirably clever and
entertaining volumes, on subjects ranging from
pure literature, as well as folklore and iirimitive
religion, down to the by-\vays of bibliographei-s
and gossip of the ilay, are The Library (1881 ), In
the n'ronr/ Paradise (1886), Books and Bookmen
(1886), Letters to Dead Atdhors (1886), Letters
on Literature (1889), Lost Leaders (1889), Old
Friends: Essays in Ejiiitolary Parody (1890). He
tianslateil wilii exquisite skill Aucassin and A /cu-
lette (1887), produced the faultless edition of Per-
laulfs Popular Talcs ( 1888), and selected the fairy-
tales forming the Blue Fairi/ Book ( ISS9), the Atio
Fairy Book, &c. He himself translated Theocritus,
Bion, andMoschus (1880) : and shared (with Butcher,
Leaf, and Myers) in brilliant translations of the
Odi/ssci/ and the Iliad. He was edit(U- of the
' Ahbo'tsfor.l ' Scott ; wrote a history of ^t Andreas
(1893). a novel. The Monk of Fife (1895), an edi-
tion of Burns's poems (1896i), a Life of Lockhart
(1896), Pickle the ii>;/ ( 1897), and Prince Charles
Edirard ( 1900 ). He contributed Brii-N.S and SCOTT
to this Eniyclopa'dia.
Lanse. Friedrich Albert, philosopher, was
bom at Wald, near Solingen, 28tli September 1828,
and died at Marburg, 23d November 1875. He
wrote a most valuable History (f MatcrialisM
(Eng. trans, by Thomius, 3 vols. 1878-81).
Lailge, Joil.\NN Petkr, theologian, bora 10th
Ainil 181)2, at Sonnborn, near Elberfeld, studied at
Bonn, aiul after holding several prustoral charges
became professor of Theology at Zurich in 1841,
and in 18.54 at Bonn, where he died, 9th July 1884.
He wrote many works, of which the best known
are a Life of Jesus Christ (1839: Eng. trans, by
Marcus "Dods), treatises on dogmatics (1849-52),
Christian ethics (1878), hermeneutics, tlieoh)gical
psNchology, and his great Bibchrcrk, a sern-s of
commentaries on the gospels (trans, into Englis^h),
and, with other scholai-s, on the wliide Old and New
Testaments (also trans, into English).
Lail^olaiul (i.e. 'long land'), a low, fertile
Danish island, .33 miles long by 5 broad, situated
at the .southern entrance to the Great Belt, be-
tween Fiineii and Laaland. Area, 106 sq. m. ;
pop. (1880) 19,9(K). Princii)al products— corn, llax,
cattle, timber, fish. Chief town, Rudkjobing ( poi).
3179). on tin- west coast.
Lail!i»'lisal/a, a town of the Pins.sian orovince
of Saxony, 13 miles l.v rail N. by W. of (lotlia, with
a pop. of "( 1885) 10.924, and woollen ami cloth manu-
factures. Here occurred, on 27th .Iniie 1866, an
encounter between 19,0(H) Hanoverians and 8200
Prussians; the latter were at first defeated, but
LANGHOLM
LANGTON
511
beintr reinforced compelled tfie fovmer to capitulate
two ilays* later. Not far from the town is a sulphur
spring; that attracts 600 visitors annually.
Langholm, a market-town of Dumfriesshire, at
the junction of Ewes aud Wauchope Waters with
the Esk, 23 miles SSW. of Hawick, aud •>-2 (by a
luanohlinc) N. of Carlisle. Near the town-hall is
a niarlile statue of Adjuiral Sir I'ulteney Malcolm
(171W-1S3S), and on Wliite Hill an obelisk to his
l)rotlier, General Sir John Malcolm ( lTtilJ-lS33 ).
Shepherd's plaid and tweeds have been numu-
factui-ed since 1832. In 1890 Thomas Hope, a
New York merchant and native of Langholm, left
£80,000 to found a hospital here. Langholm is a
burgh of barony (1643), under the Duke of Buc-
cleuch. whose seat, Langholm Lodge, is close by.
On the site of the town the Douglases were de-
feated in the battle of Arkinholni (1-155). Pop.
( 1831 ) 2-2IH ; ( ISSl ) 4209 ; ( 1891 ) 3t)43.
Lauglioruo, John (1735-79), for a time
rector of Ulagdon in Somerset, devoted most of
his life to literature, and published a long series
of ]H)ems, tales, translations, &C. He is best
known ;is having, with his brother AVilliam
(1721-77), produced what has always ranked as
the standard translation of Plutarch.
Laiiskat, or L.vxkh.vt, a port on the east coast
of the NW. part of Sumatra, uear the borders of
Atcheeu, is famed for its wells aud shipments of
petroleum.
Lailglaiul. or Langley. AVilli.vm, the sup-
posed name of the author of Piers the P/otvinan, of
whose life some few facts have been constructed
from the internal evidence ollered by the poem,
mainly by the industry of Profes.sor Skeat. He
was born a fninklin or freeman "s son aliout 1332,
probably at Cleobnry Mortimer in Shropshire;
went to school, possilily in the monastery at Great
Malvern ; became a clerk, but, having married
early, could not take more than minor orders, and
earned a poor living by singing the placebo, cliriqe,
and ' seven psalms ' for men's souls, and by copying
legal documents. He lived many yeare in London,
was named ' Long Will ' from liis stature, and pro-
longed poverty seems to have made him embittered
and somewhat churlish in disposition. The la.st
trace of him is in his poem of liiehard the Eedeles
(850 lines), from wliicli we learn that he was at
Bristol in 1399.
The full title of his famous poem is The Vision
of WilliaiH coneerning Piers the Plotrmnn, together
with Vita de Doiccl, Do-bet, et Do-l)est secundinn
Wit et liesoun. It e.xists in three different forms
or recensions, distinguished l)y Professor Skeat as
the A, B, and C texts. Of these the first was com-
posed about 1.362, and contains only 2567 lines. In
It the Vision of Piers the Plowman is (|uite distinct
from the Vision of Dowel, Do-bet, and Do-best,
the former consisting of a prologue and 8 passus
( 18.33 lines ), .and the latter of a prologue and 3 pas-
sus (734 lines). The B te.xt, the form of the poem
which best represents the genius of the poet, was
written after 1.377, and contains about 7100 lines,
consisting of the two Visions as before, the former
arranged in a prologue aud 7 passus, the latter in 3
prologues ;itid 10 jia^sus. The lirsi part of the 1!
text, giving the Vision of the Field f\ill of Eolk, of
Holy Cliurch, and of L;idy Meed, next the Vision
of the Seven Deadly Sins anil of Piers the Plowman,
was adnnralily edited by Profes.sor Skeat as a
school-book in the Clarendon Press series (1869).
The C text w.ls jirobably not <'omposeil till l.'WO. It
adds about 2.")0 lines to the poem, and is arr.inged,
without prologues, continuously in 23 passus.
This long poem has great defects as a work of
art, but the moral earnestness and energy of the
author sometimes glow into really noble poetry,
particularly in his invectives against injustice an<l
wrong, the idleness and jiride of the clergy, and
especially the dissolute habits of the mendicant
friars. The theological discussions are not s(ddom
tedious, but are brightened by vivid glim])ses of
the life of the poorer cla.sses in his <l,'iy, aud some
of tin' allegorical representations, as of the Glutton
and Sloth, have sumething of the reality of life.
The conception of the Plowman grows as the poem
proceeds, and from a mere honest labourer he passes
into a personilication of the reforming spirit, and at
one moment becomes identified with ( 'hrist himself.
The writer is no precursor of Lollardism on its
speculative side, or s]iecially a Itet'ormer other than
in his revolt from the slavish liypocrisy of form
apart from tlie inward power of religion, and his
longing f<u' a return to simi)le scripture truth
without sacerdotal domination.
The metre of the poem is alliterative, but
irregular. The dialect is mixed, but mainly Mid-
land, with occasional introduction of Southern
forms, aud the vocabulary is of unusual extent.
The earlier editions of Robert Crowley (1505), Owen
Rogers (1561), Dr Whitakcr (the C text, 1813), aud
Thomas "Wright ( 1842 ) were superseded by Professor
Skeat's exhaustive and final edition for the Early Knglish
Text Society : Part I. (A text), 1867; Part II. (B text),
1869 ; Part III. (C text, with Richard the Redder), 1873;
Part IV., Xotes, 1877 ; Glossary. &e., 1884. A more con-
venient edition of this was issued by the Clarendon Press
in 1886 ( 2 vols. ), the three parallel texts being printed
together. See J. J. Jusserand, La Poesie Mtigtique de
William Laiii/land (1893).
LailSI'CS, a town in the French department of
Haute-ilarne, is situated at an elevation of 1530
feet above sea-level (one of the highest towns in
France*, 184 miles ESE. of Paris by rail. A
place of ndlitary importance as key of the com-
munication between the Seine anil the Khone,
it has been strongly fortified since 1868, and has
a cathedral of the 12th and 13th centurv. Pop.
7157. Langres (anc. Andentatiuinum) in Cicsar's
time was tlie capital of the Lingoues, a name cor-
rupted into Langres.
Lail^side, a southern suburb of Glasgow, with
a pop. of 6023. Here, after her escape from Loch
Leven, Queen Mary's forces were totally defeated
by the Regent Moray, 13th May 1568. ' A monu-
ment (1887) commemorates the battle.
Lailg-SOIl. a town in Tongkiug, situated north-
east of Ha noi, near the frontier of the Chinese
province of Kwang-si. It was a centre of opera-
tions in the Franco-Chinese war of 1884-85.
Laiistou. Stephen', famous in the history
of the liberties of England, was born about 11,")0,
but where is uncertain, Lincidnshire, Yorkshire,
and Devonshire all claiming him. He received his
eilucation in the univei-sity of Paris, where he
was the fellow-student aiul friend of the future
Pope Innocent 111. : he rose to the oHice of
chancellor of the imiversity. Innocent after his
elevation gave Langton a post in his household,
and afterwards ma<le him a cardinal (1206).
On occashm of the disputed election to the see of
Canterbury in 120.5-7 Langton was recommended
by the pojie to those electors wlni had come to
Rome on the aiipeal, and, having been elected,
was consecrated by Innocent himself at Viterbo,
June 27, 1207. His a]ipointment was resisted
by King .lolin (o.v.); and for six years Langton
was kept out of the see, only bein^ adnutted when
John made terms with Innocent in 121.3. In the
conflict of John with his liarons Langton was a
warm partisan of I he latter, ami his nanu' is the
first of the subscribing witnesses of .Magna Charta.
-\nd, although the popeexcomnmnicated the barons,
Langt(m refused to publish the excommunication,
and was in consequence suspendctl from liLs fuuc-
512
LANGUAGE
LANSDOWNE
tions by the pope in 1215. But after the accession
of Henry in. he was reinstated (1'21S) in his see,
anil fioMi that time chielly oecii)iiecl liiniself with
churcli reforms till his death, which took place July
9, \2'2S. .See I)r Hook's /.iccn uf the ArchbklwjK of
Cuiitcrhuri/, vol. ii. ( 18G1 ).
Luusuage. See I'hilolocv : and Universal
L.VNGiAGK, Voice, Lkttkrs.
Lailglieduc, a former province of the south
of France, hounded on the K. hy the river Khone,
on tlie S. hy the Mediterranean and the counties
of Foi.\ and Koussillon, and on the W. by Gascony
and Gnienne. It is now embraced in the depart-
ments of Lozfcre, Card, Ardcche, Aude, Herault,
Upper Loire, Tarn, and Upper Garonne. The
name is derived from /dtir/iie il'oc, the southern
French dialect, or Provencal (ii.v.), so called be-
cause the people used oc instead of oui for 'yes,'
as in the northern provinces. During the perioil
of the Roman empire this part of Gaul was
prosperous and wealthy, a home of enlighten-
ment. In 412 the Visigoths founded the king-
dom of Toulouse (one of the chief cities of Lan-
guedoc, Montpellier being the other), and were
only overthrown in 759 by Pepin the Frank.
Two centuries later this part of France was
immediately subject to the count of Toulouse, one
of the great feudatories of the kingdom. The
story of the religious wars of the 12th and 13th
centuries has been already recounted under Al-
bigenses (ij.v. ). For the Languedoc Canal, see
Canal.
Lanidie. See Butcher-bird.
Lailkfivatilra, one of the chief religious works
of the J>uddliists, which treats of theii' religious
law, and of some of their most abstruse pliiloso-
phical problems.
Lankester, Edwin Ray, zoologist, was the
son of l)r Edwin Lankester (ISli-Ti), scientilic
writer, and was born in London, 15th May 1847.
Educated at St Paul's School and at Christ Church,
O.\ford, he was fellow and tutor of E.Keter College,
and in 1872 became professor of Zoology and Com-
parative Anatomy in I'niversity College, London.
He is F. U.S. ami LL.L). Among over a Inuulred
scientilic jmblications by him are memoirs on
'Fossil Fishes of tlie Old Ked Sandstone' in the
PhilusojMcal I'ransactiuns, and works on Cum-
paralicc Longeviti/ (1871), on Degeneration (1880),
and on Advancement of Science ( 1890).
Laiiiier. See Falcon.
^ Laniics, Jean, Duke of Montebello, a
F'rench marshal, was born, the son of a livery-
stables keepiM-, on 11th Apiil 1709, at Lectoure
(tiers), entered the army in 1792, and by Iiis
conspicuous bravery in most of the battles of the
Italian cam])aign fought his way up to he giMicral
of brigade l)y 1790. He rendered Napoleim im-
portant service on the ISth I'.rumaire. On 9th
June ISOO lu^ won the b.attle of .Monteliello, whence
Ills title, and bore a princip.-d share in the battle
of Marengo. He commanded the left wing at
Austerlitz, and the centre at .lena, and distin-
guished himself at Eyl.iu and Friedland. Being
sent to Spain, he defeated General Caatanos at
Tudela, "22(1 November 1808, and took Saragossa.
In IS()9 he again serveil on the Danube, and com-
manded the centre at Asjiern ('22d May), where
lie had both his legs taken oft' by a cannon-shot.
He was carried to Vienna, and died tlieie, ;ilsl May.
He was interred, lirst in the Pantheon, afler\v:uds
in PiMc liiCliaise, in Paris.
Laiillioil, a town in the French de]iartment of
Cotes-du-Nord, im the (nier (which is navigable for
sea-going shi]>s to this point ), 09 miles bv rail EN K.
of Brest. Pop. 589:j.
Laiisdowil. a hill (813 feet) to the north of
Bath, comnuinding a prospect of exceptional beauty.
Here stands a tower of 130 feet, built by Beckford,
and two miles bevond was fought the battle of
Lan.sib)wn, 5tli Ju"ly 1043, when Waller's entrench-
ments were stormed by the Cornisli royalists. On
the spot where the heroic Sir lievil (irenville fell
Lord Lansdowne raised a monument in 17"23.
Laiisdowiic. Henkv Petty Fitzmaukice,
third Mai!(,uis of, was the .son of the lirst marquis,
better known as the Earl of Shelbnrne ('i.v.), and
was born in London, July 2, 1780. He received
his education at 'Westminster School, Kdinburgh
University, and Trinity College, Cambridge, where
he grailuated in 1801. Born in the purple of politics,
be was returned for the burgh of Calneat the age of
twenty-two. He ranked himself among the o]ipo-
nents of Pitt, and took a leailing jiart in that attack
on Lord Melville which brought home to him the
charge of corruption. When Pitt died Lord Henry
Petty — as he was then stvled— succeeded him as
member for Cambridge University, and also as
Chancellor of the F^\che(|uer in Ihe administration
of 'AH the Talents' formed by Lord (Irenville,
but held ofhce for about a year only. In 1809,
and after having represented the " borough of
Canielford for a slunt time, he succeeded by the
death of his half-brother to the nianjuisate of
Lansdo\™e. .\ sincere tho\igh cautions Liberal,
he in 18'20 entered the Canning cabinet : ami in
the short Goderich administration he ]iresided at
the Foreign Ottice. Wlien, in 1830, the Whigs
came into power under Lord CIrey, Lansdowne
became President of the Council, "and took an
active part in the jiassing of the Keform Bill of
1832. He held this otiice, with a shmt interval,
till September 1841. Five years later, under Lord
John Kussell, he resumed his ]inst. taking with it
the leadership of the House of Lords, and held
it till 1852. In that year he was requested
to form an administration, but consented to serve
without otiice in the coalition cabinet of Lord
Aberdeen. When that ministry fell in 18.55, Lans-
downe was again asked to acceiit the premiership,
but he once more declined, .iltliough he conscnteil
to help Lord Palmerston as he had hcliicd Lord
Aberdeen. He refused a dukedom. After the
death of the Duke of Wellingtim Lansdowne was
recognised as the patriarch of the House of Peers,
while almost up to his death his advice was
asked at his scat of Bowood hy the leaders of the
Liberal party. He w.as the attached pers<mal
friend of the tjuceii. Foml of literature and of
the coin])any of men of letters, he formed a great
library, and one of the best collections of ])ictures
and statuarvin the kiug<lom. He died January 31,
180.3.
The political biographies of the ]>criod in which Lans-
downe livt'd abound in rt'fercnctjs to him. A considurablo
lunnber of his letter-s on public aH'airs appear in Lord
Mdboiiriic's Paiiers, wlited by Lloyd C. JSandcrs (1889).
The Life of Lord John Jiti.tni/l, by Spencer "NValpole
( 1889), illustrates in a reniarkablu niamier the quiet but
great influence exerted by Lansdowne in the councils
of his ]»arty.
liaiisdowiio, Henry Charles Keith Petty
FriZM AiRirE, litlh Mai;(,iUisok, was b(irii .l.inuarv
14, 1845. Educated at Eton and Balliol College,
O.xford, he succeeded to the mar(|uisate in 1800,
anil, attaching himself to the Liberal |iarty, was a
Commissioner <if Exch<M|uer of Great liritain and
of Treasury of Ireland from 1808 to 1872. Between
1872 and 1874 he was Undersecretary for War.
In 1880 he .again look ollice under .Mi (Jladstone
as Under-secietaiy for India, hut resigned owing
to a dill'erence with his chief over the Compensation
for Disturbance (Ireland) Bill. In 1883 he was
appointed tiovernor-general of the Dominion of
LANSING
LAODICEA
SIS
C;inatla, iu 1888 Governor-geiieial of Indiii, in 1895
Secretary for W'lir, ami in 1900 Koreij^n Secretary.
See a liook Iiy (i. W. Forrest on liU Indian ail-
iiiini>tnilion ( IS'.l-l).
LailsillS* tl"' capital of Michigan, on both sides
of the Grand Uiver, 85 miles WNW. of Detroit, at
the meelin>;-^>oint of four railways. It contains
the state cajiitol, lihrary, reform school, and a^'ri-
cultural collejre, a school for the lilind, and sc^voral
manufactories. Lansinj; «;is settled and made the
state capital in 1847, and incoriiorated as a city in
1859. Pop. ilSTO) .VJ41 : (IWIOi IS, 10-2.
Lillisiliuluil'g:. a town of New York, on the
Hudson, 10 miles above Albany. It contains an
.Vu^ustinian priory, and has extensive manufac-
tures of brushes and oil-cloth. Pop. 10,550.
Lillltcrii, in Architecture, an ornamental struc-
ture raised over domes, roofs, &c., to give light and
ventilation. The dome of St Paul's Cathedral and
many other large domes are crowned with a lantern.
Where a lantern is for the ])urpose of giving light
it is called a /<(H<«;ni-/(V//(^ In Gothic architecture
a liiiiteniluirer is frequently placed over the centre
of cross churches — the vault being at a consider-
able height, and the light admitted by windows
in the sides. York and Ely cathedrals, and many
churches in England, have such lautern-towers.
Lailtcrn-fly ( Fulgom), a genus of Heniiptera,
type of a family Fulgorida^, allied to Cicadidie, but
with legs more a<la]>ted for leajjing, and without
organs for producing sound. There are aljout a
score of siiecies, all tropical, most from South
America, the rest in Asia and Africa. The fore-
head bears a remarkable empty dilatation or ' lan-
tern,' quaint in form, sometimes towards an inch
■X!^jz^
Lantern-fly {Fulyora lanteiiiaria).
in lengtli. The name lantern-fly was originally
;;iven to /•'. Innlernaria, a species f(iun<l in Guiana,
mea-suring about 3 inches in length. The iritlated
projection of the forehead is said by some to be
at times very brilliantly luminous ; but the evi-
dence is contradictory, and most naturalists refuse
to believe in the luminosity of any of the species.
It is possible that the luminosity, if genuine, is
only occasional and of se.\ual signilicance. In the
Chinese Lantern-fly (F. luiulclarln) the prolonga-
tion of the forehead is comparatively narrow.
Lan'thaniini (syni. La, equiv. l.S9), so named
from the (jreek lanthimciii, 'to lie hid,' is a
metal which was dLscovered by Mosander in 18.'J9 in
Cen'te, a hydrated silicate of Cerium (q.v.). It is
of little chemical interest, and Ls of no practical
valui'. See DlDYMUM.
Lanzi. Lukji, Italian anti<inary, was born at
.Monte deir Glmo, near Maeerata, June 14, 1732.
He entered the order of the Jesuits, but devoted
his time to the study of cl.tssical antiquities and of
Italian jiainting. He re^idell chiefly at Klorence,
where he died, .March 30, 1810, and was buried by
the side of Michael Aiigelu ia tiie church of Santa
293
Laocobn.
Croce. The principal monuments of his learning
are the works tiai/i/io i/i Linqmi Etrusca (3 vols.
1789), in which lie insisted upon the kinship
of Etruscan with Latin, Oscan, Umhrian, and
Greek; and Sturia I'lttorica d' Italia (1792-!8()fi;
Eng. trans, by Thomas Roscoe, G vols. 18'iS).
Lanzi also wroti^ works on Etruscan vases, an-
ticjue sculptures, \c. His posthumous works were
imblished in 2 vols, at Florence in 1817. See Life
in Italian by Cappi (1840).
Lao*'OOII< according to classic legend, a
priest of Apollo, afterwards of Poseidon, in
Troy, who married against the will of the former
god, and who warned his countrymen against
admitting the wooden horse into Troy. Feu- one
or both of these reasons he was destroyed along
with his two sons
by two enornn)US
serpents which came
up out of the sea.
This legend is not
Homeric, but of later
origin. It was a
favourite theme of
the Greek poets, and
is introduced in the
^Encid ( ii. ) of Virgil.
The subject is repre-
sented in one of the
most famous works
of ancient sculpture
still in existence, a
group discovered in
1506 at Rome, on the
side of the Esquiline
Hill, and purchased
by Pope Julius II.
for the Vatican. It
was carried by Bona-
parte to Paris in 1790, but recovered in 1814.
The whole treatment of the suliject, the anatom-
ical accuracy of the ligures, aiul the representation
both of bodily pain and of passion, have always
commanded the highest admiration. According
to Pliny, it was the work of the Khodian artists,
Agesander, Polydorus, and Athenodorus ; various
dates have been assigned to it, from 200 B.C. till
200 A.D. ; but the be.st authorities place its date
at a little before 100 B.C. F'oran admirable a'sthetic
exposition of its merits, see Lessing's Laocobn ( 1766;
new ed. with bibliography by Bliimner, 1880 ; Eng.
trans. 1836, 1853). There is a recent German
.Monograph by Kekule ( 1883 ).
Laodailli'a. in Greek heroic historj-, the
daughter of Acastus and wife of Protesilaus. Her
husband was the first of all the Greeks who fell by
a Trojan hand, being killed as In- leaped on shore
from bis ship. Laodamia prayed of the gods to
give him back to her for but three hours. Her
prayer was gianted ; Hermes led him hack to the
up])er world; ami, when the fatal moment to return
had come, Laodamia died with him. This ncdde
story has lieen treated by Wordsworth in veree
worthy of the theme.
Laodiri^a* a name given to several cities— eight
at le.ist can be distinguished — founded or rebuilt by
the Seleucid rulers of Syria ; it is adapted from
Laodice, a favourite name for the female relatives
of these sovereigns. Of the cities so called, the
most famous and most interesting was situ-
ated 2 miles from the banks of the river Lycus in
I'hrygia, and on the great commercial road leading
from the Ionian cities to the Euphrates. 'I'he
district in which it stands ha.s fre<iuently sufl'ered
from eartliquak<s, and the city was more than
once in part overthrown by them. It finally began
to decay at the period of the Usnianli iuvasions.
514
LAOMEDON
LAO-TSZE
and is now a heap of uninterestin<; ruins, known as
Eski-Hissar. Art and science liourished among
the ancient Laodiceans : it was tlie seat of a
renowned medical scliool, produced some famous
philosophers, and in its mint was struck a vahiable
series of coins, which come (U)wn to the time of
Diocletian, lint its ^'reatest importance is due to
the fact that it was one of the chief homes of
early Christianity, designated one of tlie seven
churches of the Apocalyjise, but doomed to unhappy
niemoiy as ' lukewarm and neither cold nor hot '
(Rev. iii. 16). Prohahly the fact is traceable
to the -settlement here of great numbers of Jews
at that period. The important ecclesiastical
council of I.aodicea, held here in 363, adopted
resolutions concerning the canon of the Old and
New Testaments, and concerning ecclesiastical
discipline. A second council, held here in 476,
condemned the Eutychians. — Another of these
cities Laoilicea Avill be found described under
Latakia (q.v. ).
Laoill'edoil. king of Troy (q.v.), and father of
Priam.
Laon, chief town of the French department of
Aisne, is situated on a steep isolated hill (594 feet),
87 miles by rail NE. of Paris. Occupying a natur-
ally strong position, it has been a fortress since the
5th centviry ; its citadel is surrounded with ruinous
walls. From 515 to 1790 it was the seat of a bishop.
The cathedral, a Gothic edifice of the l'2th centiiry
Avitli a hanilsome facade, and the bishop's palace,
now used as a law-court, still remain. The inhabit-
ants are noted market-gardeners, producing excel-
lent artichokes and asjjaragus. In the 10th century
the city was the ])lace of resilience of the Carlovin-
gian kings, and cajiital of Francia. At Laon, on
March 9 and 10, 1.S14, Napoleon I. was repulsed
by the allies under BlUcher and Billow ; and it
surrendered to a German force on 9tli September
1870, when the explosion of the ]>owder-magazine
by a French soldier cost some 500 lives. Pop.
(1872) 10,243; (1891) 13,939.
Laos. See Shans.
Lfto-tSZC, a celebrated philosopher of China,
fenerally ri'imted to have been tlie founder of
'iioism, which ai the present day shares the allegi-
ance of the Chinese with Confucianism and Bud-
dhism under the appellation of San Chiao, ' the
three doctrines' or ' teachings.'
According to the most likely account, Lao's birth
took (ilace in 604 li.c, lifty-four years before that
of Confucius. His surname was Li (meaning 'Plum'),
and his name Erli (meaning ' Ear'), whicli after his
death gave place to Tan, denoting some i)eculiarity
in the form of his ears. He comes before us as a
curator of the royal library in the cajiilal city of
Loll, not far from the present city of Loh-yang in
Ho-naii. The designation Lao-tsze means the ' old
philosopher.' The two Chinese characters may also
be translated ' the old .son or boy :' and the k'g(Mid-
ary writers have taken occasion from this to relate
that the child was carried in his mother's womb for
seventy-eight, .some say for eighty -one, yeai-s, and
that he was born witli the white hair of an old
man. Confucius and Lao seem to have met several
times. One interview at the capital in 517 H.c.
is pretty well established. It was not entirely
amicable, but left a strong impression on the mind
of Confucius. He .said at the close of it to his
disciples, ' To-day I have .seen the Old Philosopher
(Lfto-tsze), and can only liken him to the dragon
who mounts aloft on the clouds, I cannot tell how,
and ri.ses to heaven.' So it was that Li firh came
to be denominated ' Lao-tsze.' Nothing certain
can be said of (he length of LAo's life. Sze-ma-
Ch'ien, the historian of ancient China, tells us
that he cultivated ' the T&oand its characteristics,'
his chief aim being to keep himself unknown ; that
he resided long at the capital, and then seeing the
decay of the dynast\' of Chan, «ent away to the
gate which led out of the royal domain towards the
regions of the n<ntli-west ; that there he was recog-
nised by Yin Hsi, the keeper of the gate, the place
of which is shown in the present Shan Chan of Ho-
nan, and was prevailed upon to write out for him the
treatise called the 'J'uo 'J'e/i Kin//, which luus come
doM'n to lis as the only reconl of his teaching.
Cli'ien adds that after giving this writing to the
keeiier ' he went away, and it is not known where
he died.' Such is the substance of all of importance
whicli the great historian, writing in the '2d century
B.C., cimid tell of Lao-tsze. He says nothing of the
pre-existences attributed to him, nor of his subse-
quent travels in the west, where he became ac-
qiiaiiited with the wisdom of India and even Judea.
These and other marvels are later and fabulous
additions to Ch'ieu's brief account, and arose in
imitation of the legends of Buddhism ami through
misconceptions of the meaning of the Tdo Ti h Kiuif.
Some doctrine of the T;io had come down from
the most ancient times, and a father, or at least a
most important teacher, of it is claimed in Hwang
Ti, the mythical sovereign of the '27th century B.C.
It served especially as a discipline adapted to ])ro-
mote longevity and to preserve life. Lao-tsze
entered into this, and the doctrine assumed in his
hands a more subtle character. It is not ea.sy, how-
ever, to say what he meant by his Tdo. ' It was
the originator of heaven and earth : it is the mother
of all things.' At the same time it is not a personal
being. ' It might appear,' he says, ' to have been
before God.' 'It gave,' says Chwang-tsze, the
ablest of all Lao's followers, ' their mysterious
[ existence to spirits and to God (or to gods).' The
character T;*io proj)erly means ' i)atli,' 'course,' or
' way ; ' and it is in this sense that Lao uses it. His
' great way ' is but a metaphorical expression for the
way in which things came at lirst into being out of
the primal nothingness, and how the phenomena of
nature continue to go on, in stillness ami iiuietness,
without striving or crying. Of the same kind
should be the inlluence of the Tao in thi' conduct
of individuals and of government. That things may
come to the rigiit and successful issue they must be
carried on without etl'ort or jiurpose. The secret of
good government is to let men alone. The appeal
to arms is hateful. All learning is injurious. The
wisdom of men defeats its own ends. Tao works by
contraries, and the secret of its strength is its weak-
ness. In many of tlicse teachings Lao-tsze may
seem to be only a visionary dreamer, but he enunci-
ates many lessons of a very high morality. Its
fundamental quality is humility, which he compares
again and again to water, soft and weak in itself,
yet able to attack and overthrow the strongest and
lirmesl things. With humility he associates gentle-
ness and economy, and calls them his • three juecious
possessions.' He even rises to the greatest of all
moral principles, the returning of good for evil, and
enunciates 'recompensing injury with kindness.' He
nowln^re speaks clearly of the state of man after
death ; but Chwaiig tsze teaches that life and death
f(dlow each other in endless succession, or like the
sequence of the four sea.sons. There is nothin"
about religion or religious wor.shi]) in the Tiw Teh
Kiiin. The origin of Taoism jis a religion cannot
be placed earlier than our 1st century. It was not
till after liuddhism found its way to China tliat
the other system began to have images, temples,
monasteries, and nunneries. The ]iui'suits of
alchemy, communications with spirits, concoctions
of the cli.i:ir ritw and pills of immortality are
among the phases which it has assumed at dill'er-
ent times; but such things have no connection
with the teaching of Lilo-tsze.
LA FAZ
LAPLACE
515
See Stanislas Julien, Le Litre de la Vote et tie la Vertu
(1^2); Clialiiiers, The Spcculatiotis of the Old Philo-
sopher (lH4(i); F. von Strauss, Lao-tse's Tdo Ti Kinij
(1870); K. von Pliinckner, Lao-tse, Tdo Ti Kimj, Dcr
Wat zur Timeml (1S70): Douglas, Confucutnism and
Taoism (187U); Leg'.'e, Bcliyions of C/ii'na (1880) ; Bal-
four, Taoist Texts (188i) ; and CHINA, Vol. III. p. 190.
La Paz, ( I ) ii elepartnieut of liolivia, lionloriiit,'
on IV'iu. witli an area iit 171, '-'(in s(|. ni., and a
pull. (189,")) of ,")n,'),(IUO, nol inclucliny sonic •-'oUO
wild Indians. Tlie La Paz coidillcia contains the
loftiest peaks of tlie IJolivian Andes, and much of
the surface of the department is a dry platean ; but
in the east the >ireat mountains sink to the phiin,
and tlie country is richly watcreil. — The capital,
La I'az, lies at the foot of a stee]) valley 1 l.D.Vi feet
above tlie sea, 42 miles SK. of Lake Titicaca. It
has a handsome but unlinished cathedral, and a
college, seminary, and medical school ; but the
liouses are mostly of mud, and owing to the
extremely uneven' site luesent a very irregular
appearance. Tlu; iuhabitants, mostly Indians and
half-breeds, carry on an active trade in cojiper,
alpaca- wool, cinchona, &c. Pop. (1889)57,000. —
(2) A town of Entre Kios province, in Argentinia,
on the Parau:!, 'iSO miles by river N. by W. of
Buenos A\ res. Pop. tj800.
La P^rouse, Jk.vn Fr.-\ncois de G.\l.\up,
Count de, a French navigator, was boru near
AIbi, in Languedoc, on 22d August 1741. He
distinguished himself in the naval war against
England (1778-83), especially by destroying the
forts of the Hudson Bay Company. Two years
after the conclusion of peace he was chosen to
commanil an expedition of discovery sent out by
the French government. He sailed in August 178.3
with two ships, visited the north-west coast of
America, explored the north-eastern coasts of Asia,
where by sailing through La Peronse Strait between
Saghalien and Vezo he discovered that each of these
was a separate island. In February 1788 he sailed
from Botany Bay ; after tliat all trace of biin was
lost. In 1826 it was fully ascertained by the
English Captain Dillon that both of La Perouse's
ships had been wrecketl in a storm on a coral-reef
oil' Vanikcnd, an island lying north of the New-
Hebrides. The account of the early portions of
La Perouse's voyage, preparcil from journals sent
home by him, "was published under the title of
yoi/cir/e aiitoiir du Aluni/e (4 vols. Paris, 17i)7 ;
new ed. in 1 vol. 1888).
Lapis Laz'llli (Lat., 'azure stone," the lazuli
being for .\raliic hijward, the name of the stone;
azure is a corruption of liiju-ard), a mineral of beau-
tiful ultramarine or azure colour, consisting chielly
of silica and alumina, with a little suljihuric acid,
.soda, and lime. The colimr varies niiicli in its degree
of intensity. Lapis lazuli is often marked by white
.spots and bands. It is generally found massive,
and is translucent at the edges, with uneven, finely
granular fracture, but sometimes apjicars crystal-
lised in rhombic dodecahedrons, its primitive form.
It is found a.ssociated with crystalline limestone
amongst schistose rocks ami in granite, in Silieria,
China, Tibet, Chili, &c. The liiiest specimens are
brought from ISokhara. It seems to have lieen the
only stone of any intrinsic value known to the
Egyptians under the Pharaohs. The ancients
used it much for engraving, for va.ses, &c. (see
King's Xiituriil Uistunj nf (Iriiia). It is exten-
sively employed in ornamental and mosaic work,
and for sumptuous altars and shrines. It is easily
wrought, anil takes a good polish. The valuable
J)ignient called I'ltraiiiarine (i|.v.) is made from it.
t is one of the minerals sometimes called Azure
Stone. '
Lailitllil', a mythical race inhabiting tlie moun-
tains of Tliessaly. They were riili-d by I'iritlious,
a son of Ixion and lialfbrotlier of the Centaurs.
At the marriage of ririthous to llipiiodaiiiia, the
Centaurs, tlown with in.solence and wine, attemiited
to carry oil' the bride and the other women, but
were overpowered after a bloody struggle by the
Lapitlup.
Laplace, Pierre Simon, jM.\r()Ui.s de, the
greatest mathematician and theoretical astronomer
since Sir Isaac Newton, born 28tli March 174H, was
the son of a jioor farmer at Beaumont near Trou-
ville, in Normandy. He studied at Caen, through
the assistance of some charitalile neighbours, and,
after teaching mathematics at a military school in
his native town, went to Paris and attracted tlie
notice of D'Alembert by a paper on dynamics.
Wlien ajipointed professor in the Koyal Military
School he soon aciinirecl a reputation by bis mas
tery of the wliole range of iiiatli<>inatical science
and its aiiplicatimi to certain ililliculties in practical
astronomy— solving a prolilein which both Kuler
and Lagrange had grappled with in vain. Chosen
an associate of the Academy of Sciences in 177:! anil
member in 178.'), he meanwhile, by his powerful grasji
of the analytic method of dealing with gravitating
masses, established the great generalisation that
our planetary system is staljle — that what had been
termed irregularities were not disturbing the general
equilibrium, but, on the contrary, necessary to it.
This complete solution of tlie ' mechanical problem
of the solar system,' as he termed it, has bestowed
upon astronomy the 'Three Laws of Laidace.'
Here, as well as in his great treatise to be presently
mentioned, the special service of Laplace w as that
he set forth comprehensively in one homogeneous
work the leading results which had severally
lieen attained by Newton, Halley, Clairaut, and
Euler, at the same time proving their harmony and
interdependence. The singular insight of Lajilace
as an ivstronomer was apparent in his exjilanation
of the ' secular inequalities ' shown by ancient and
modern observations in the motions of the planets
Jupiter and Saturn. He was the first to construct
a complete theory of the satellites of Jupiter, and
his investigation of the tidal theory nas been
characterised by Airy as ' one of the most splendid
works ' in the history of mathematics.
The successive governments of France agreed in
honouring Laplace. He helped to establisji the
Polytechnic and Normal Schools in Paris, became
one of the liist members of the Bureau des Longi-
tudes, and soon after was appointed president.
After the 18th Bruniaire Bonaiiarte made Lajdace
Minister of the Interior, thougii only to supersede
him in six weeks' time. In 1799 Laplace entered
the senate, where he made a report on the necessity
of returning from the lievolution calendar to the
Cregoriaii ; in 1803 he was a]i|iointed chancellor of
the senate, lie was created count under the empire,
and in 181;) a peer, in 1817 a marquis, by Louis
XVIII. His opponents attributed the latter honour
to his having voted for the deposition of Najioleon
in 1814, accusing him of servility, which was also
alleged in 1827 «hen lie liccame an 'ultra-royalist.'
Elected to the .\cademy in IslO, he was next
year a])poiiited president. In bis memoir on the
'attraction of spheroids' are first set forth the two
celebrated means of applying analysis to physical
problems — Laplace's coeilicients and the poten-
tial function — which are requisite in the theory of
attractions and in the more abstru.se parts of elec-
trical science.
Besides many original treatises on the application
of mathematical methods to lunar and planetary
problems, molecular |)liysics, electricity, and mag-
netism— mostly memoirs to the French academies —
Laplace published the four following books. Tlie
Micimir/uc Cilrnlc, with supplements ( o vols. Paris,
1799-1825), stands alone amongst works on matlie-
516
LAPLACE
LAPLAND
inatical astronomy as a systematic demonstration
of tlie highest results in natural |ihilosi)]iliy. Tlie
E.vponilwn tin iSi/staiic du MimiU: ( ITitti ; Oth eil.
1824) was written for non-mathematicians, anil has
lieen a<huire(l for the excellent style as well as for
its clear anil concise statement of all the leailing
astronomical facts and theories. In a note at the
end of the later editions occurs the famous Nehular
Hypothesis (see NiCIU'L.E), which many have
deemed to he of not less importance than many
of the results obtained liy great niathematic effort.
As early jis 1784 Laplace issued his Thcoric du
Mouvciuciit et de la Figure dcs Pliiiii'tcs, and in
181'2-14-20 his Th(one aiialytiquc dis Fruhahiliivs.
'I'he last remains a classical work to algebraists,
though extremely diHicult, the theory being applied
not only to ordinary chances and avi;rages, out to
causes of ]ilienomena and vital statistics.
Lajdace was gifted with great power of memory
and keen scientiHc sagacity, as well as with
singular skill in interpreting nature by means of
the higher mathematics. He showe<l some personal
vanity, but was of an amiable disposition, frequently
assisting young men of promising parts. His con-
stant good health was partly attributable to his
abstemiousness. Lai)lace died at Paris, 5th March
1827. In 1878 the Academy undertook a 13-vol.
edition of his (Eurrcs compUics.
LaplaiMl is neither a political nor a geographi-
cal unity ; it is simply the collective name for the
extensive region in the nortli of Europe that is
inhabited by the Lapps. On the N. it is bouniled
by the Arctic Ocean, on the XW. by the Atlantic,
on the E. by the White Sea ; its southern limits
coincide, roughly s]ieaking, with 66" N. lat., tiimigh
Lapps are sometimes found as far south as 63° N.
lat. Ill Norway and Sweden. Norwegian Lapland
is of course a mountainous country, its coasts cleft
by the narrow, steep-walled fj<uds. In Swe<lish
Lapland the most characteristic features are ridges
with narrow valleys between, the latter generally
partly hllcd with long, narrow lakes. Farther
east, in Finnish and Kussian Lapland, the surface
is more level, the rivei>i and lakes become more
numerous, marshes are frequent, and ne.xt the
Arctic Ocean barren tundras ; and many square
miles are covered with forests of lir and spruce!
N'et low ranges of iiills occur in some distri<'ts, as,
tor instance, the I'mbdek Mountains, in the
peninsula of Kola. .Some of the lakes are of large
size : Lake Enare or Inara, in Finnish Lajjland,
has an area of 1147 scj. m. ; Lake Imandra is
05 miles hmg by 9 w ide ; and Lake Nuot, .'J5 miles
hmg by 7 wide. The ri\'er Tana, which Hows
nortli to the Arctic Sea, is the second longest river
of Norway ; and several other rivers of considerable
size How into the White Sea and the tjulf of
Botlinia, as the Tuloni, the Keiiii, &e. The
summer is short ami coiii))aratively hot, owing to
the fact that the sun scarcely ever sinks below the
horizon during the tliriH,' months that summer lasts.
During this perioil the mosquitoes are a terrible
l)lagiie. For seven or eight weeks in winter the
sun does not rise above tlie horizon ; comiiarative
darkness prevails ail the time, except wlien the
snow-covered landscape is illuminated by the
weird ccnuscations of the aurora borealis. The
i'.old in winter is excessive, the Iheiniomeler
generally indicating sixty degrees of fmst, and
sometimes more ; but owing to the luevalent still-
ness of the air the cold is not felt so severely as
might be expected. Tli<! total Lapji pojiulation is
:il)Out 28,000, thus distributed : 18,000 in Norway,
7000 iu Sweden, nearly 800 in Finland, and 2(K)0 in
Russia. 15ut there are also nuiiK'i'ous settlers be-
hmging to these four nationalities in Laplaml,
cliieHy engaged in agriculture, hunting, trading,
and in administrative work, some of them uo doulit
. the descendants of the criminals transported thither
from Denmark three centuries ago.
[ The Lajqis, who call themselves Sabnie or Sabme-
ladsjak (the Norwegians call them Finns, whilst
the Finns they call Kva>ns or Qva'iis), belong to
the Ural-Altaic stock, and are consecpiently closely
related to the Finns (Suomi). As a race they are
the shortest ]ieo)de in Kurope (4 or 5 feet in
height), and the most bracbycephalic. In other
respects they are sparer of body, with dark, bristly
hair and scanty beard, and short, often bamly, legs.
Although not very muscular they are callable of
great exertion and fatigue, and frequently live to a
great age (eighty or more). The mouth is large,
the lips tliick, and the eyes small and piercing,
but not obliquely set. The Lapps are usually dis-
tinguished as Mountain, Sea, Forest, and Kiver
Lapps. The Mountain La|ips, the backbone of the
race, are nomads ; they move constantly from i>lace
to place in order to lind sustenance (Arctic moss)
for their reindeer herds, their only source of wealth.
In summer they go down to the fjords and coasts,
but spend the rest of the year in the mountains
and on the plains of the interior. The Sea Lapps,
mostly impoverished ^Mountain Lapps, or tiieir
descendants, dwell in scattered hamlets along the
coast, and live by lishing. The Forest and Kiver
Lapps are nomads who have taken to a settled
mode of life : they not only keep domesticated
reindeer, but hunt and fish. The nomad Lapps
live all the year round in tents. The reindeer
supplies nearly all their wants, exce]it coll'ee,
tobacco, and sugar. They li\e on its llesh and
milk ; they clothe themselves in its skin ; and use
it as a beast of burden. In winter, harnessed to a
boat-sliajied sledge (pulk), it takes them the long-
est journeys, across frozen hikes and rivers, and over
the mountains, and through the forests. It is coni-
])iited that there are 400,000 reindeer ill Lapland,
for the most part semi-wild. In his personal habits
and in his clothinij the Lapp is the reverse of
cleanly. He is, however, very good-natured,
rather prone to self-indulgence when the oppor-
tunity presents itself (which is not often), but at
other times sober enough. As a rule, he is ' saving,
almost miserly,' 'sellish and 'cute in all his deal-
ings,' not very trustworthy in the matter of speak-
ing the truth, but on the w hole inclined to take
lif(! easily. His imagination is easily excited, and
he is reai^ily susci^ptible to religious impressions of
a sensational type; a notable ' epidemic ' occurred
at Koutokeiiio in Norwegian Lajiland in 1848-51.
'I'he Lajijis all profess Christianity ; those of Nor-
way ami Swe<leii belong to the Lutheran Church,
those of Kussia to the Greek Church. I^apland
witches, who are, more correctly sjieaking, wizards,
have been famous from very early limes. The
jirincipal instrument of divination was a curious
oval-sliaiied drum, covered with a variety of figures
and signs. In very early times the Lapi>s ludbably
came much farther .south in both Scandinavia and
Russia ; the bones of men of a short race, idcnlilied
with the Lapps, have been discovered in several
ancient Scandinavian burial mounds. The Norse-
men treateil the Lapps as a subject race as early as
the 9lli century, but had to recomiuer them ill the
14tli ; the Russians followeil suit in the lltli, and
the Swedes in the 10th. From the KUli to the
I7tli century the Lapjis were ke|il in a state little
better than slavery by Swedish adventurers known
as nirkarlians. lint at the present day both the
Scandinavian governments bestow upon them every
kindness.
See Sir Arthur de C'.ipell Urooke, A Winter in Lapland
(1827); Lxstailius, Jonrnul (\>VM); TroinliuU, Under
tlir liaya of thf Aurora Boriaiia (2 vols. 188.')); Du
t'liaillu, 7'iu Land of the Midnit/IU Hun (2 vols. 1881);
Itee, White Sea Peninmla (1882)"and Land of the Nortli
LA PLATA
LARAMIE
517
Wind (1S75); Lieutenant Temple in Proc. Boil. Gcoft.
.Soc. (1S80); Lcem, An Account of the Ldplitnilcis of
Finmark (Pinkerton's Vopaijei) ; and David JlacKitchie,
The Testimony of Tradition ( 18'J0 ). For folklore, see also
Friis, Lappish Afi/lholoiji, &c. ( 1871 ) ; Donner, Lifder der
Lappen (lfi'6) : and Poestion, LappUindischc Mdrchen,
ic. ( 1SS5). Many Lapp and Finnish parallels are given in
Jones and Kropfs Mwjmr Folk-talcs [li<S[>).
La Plata, the capital of the Arjjeiitinian pro-
vince of Buenos Ayres, was foumleil in 1S8'2, after
Buenos Ayres city, from whicli it is aliout 30 miles
SE., hail been niaVle the federal capital. The new
city was rapidly liuilt, with wide streets, that are
now mostly paved, and over a score of open squares;
the central portion is lit with the electric light,
the rest with kerosene lamps, ami there is a service
of tramways. The only liuildin.^s of note are the
hai^dsonie eapitol and other oltices of the govern-
ment, an observatory, several chapels, and a line
railway station. There are scores of hotels, inns,
and cafes. The city has a college, and, 7 miles
away, a hospital and an a.sylum for the insane.
Among the manuf.actories already established is
one of cotton and woollen tissues. A canal con-
nects a harl)our « Inch has been constructeil at La
Plata with a larger outer harbour at Ensenada, on
the La Plata Paver. Pop. (1888) of municipality
(including, however, Ensen.-xila and a country dis-
trict of nearly 60 sij. m.), 50,80.3.
La Plata, Rio dk, a wide estuary of South
America, between Uruguay on the north and the
Argentine Republic on the south, through which
the watei-s of the Parami and the I'ruguay sweep
down to the ocean. It is alxmt '200 miles long,
•28 wide at Buenos Ayres, and UO miles broad at
its mouth, between Maldonado and Cape Saii
.Antonio. The northern shore is somewhat steep
and lofty, but that aloni; the province of Bueno>-
Ayres is low and Hat, with wide sandbanks that
prevent ships from approaching closely to the
shore. The estnary ha-s thus no shelter from the
tempe.stuous storms that come from the sonlli-
west ; and even the only good harbour, that at
Montevideo, is open to the south-east. The afflu-
ents of the La Plata drain an area estimated at
1,600,000 sq. m., anil the outHow of the estuary is
calculated at about ,J2,000,(MK) cubic feet per minute
— a volume exceeded only by that of the Amazons :
the yellow, muddy stream is recognisable (iO miles
out at sea. For the navigation of the affluents, see
P.\R.\fil AV, P.\R.\N.i, and I'lUGCVY. The estuary
was discovered in l.il.5 or 1516 by Diaz de Soils,
who was shortly afterwards roasted and eaten by
the Indians on its bank. See Sir Horace Runi-
bold's (imtt Silver Bircr ('2d ed. 1890).
La Porte, capital of La Porte county, Indiana,
at the junction of several important railways, 50
miles ESE. of Chicago. It manufactures wooden
and woollen goods, and ships large quantities of
ice. Pop. T19.J.
Lappenbers, .Iohann Martin, a German
historian, was born 30th .Inly 1794, in Hamburg,
and pursued liistorical and ijolitical studies in Edin-
burgh, London, Berlin, and ( Idttingen. He became
the re])re.sentative of his n.ative city at the Prussian
court in 18'20, and in 18'23 Wius a]>pointed keejier of
the archives to the Hamburg senate, an appointment
whicli he held for forty years. He died at Ham-
burg on '28th November 186.5. The book by which
he is liest known is the careful and painstaking
Genchichtc, von F-mjInml (2 vols. 1834 37), which
wa-s continued by Paiili 13 vols. 1853-58), and
translated into English by B. Thorpe (3 vols. 184.5-
.57). Besides this Lappenberg com])leted Sartoriiis"
Hi.slorii of the Oriffin of the, ilemuin Ilmisa ('2
vols. 1830), wrote Imoks on the histoi-y of Heligo-
land and the Steelyard in London, and edited
valuable historical documents relating to Hambnrg
and Bremen, and old cliroiiiclers, such lus Thietniar
of Merselmrg, Arnold of Liil>eck, iS:c. — these latter
for Pertz's Moniimenta (Icrmanice Historica. See
Memoir by E. H. Meyer (1867).
Lapsed ( I.dl'xi), the designation applied, in the
early centuries of the Christian churcli, to those
who, overcome by heathen persecution, did nol
continue faithful to the Christian religion. They
were distinguished .according .as they had s.acriKceil
{sacrijiaili ) or burned incense ifhnrijiruti) to idols.
or had purcha.sed a certificate (//tc/ZiM) from the
authorities to the efi'eet that they had done so
(libeUatici). Afterwards, during "the Diocletian
persecution, those were included among the lapsed
who had given up copies of the Scriptures ( ?r«(//
tores). The lapsed were at first punished by ex
communication, .and their reception into the church
again was strenuously resisted : but in the 3i'i
century a milder course was generally adopted
with regard to them. The treatment of the lapsed
was one of the practical questions most earnesth
discussed in the early church. See No\'.\tian ;
also DllNATI.ST.S. •
Lapwilli; ( Vanellus vulgaris), a common British
bird in the jilover family Char.adriid.a?. The familiar
cry is eclioed in tlie names Pnirif, Scotch I're.s
weep. Old English Wi/jic, and French Di:rhiiit :
while the regular, slow ilapinng of the long, rounded
wings is referred to in the title lapwing. It
Lapwing ( VaneUws vulgaris ).
usually resides in Britain all the year, and is widely
distributed across Europe and Asia. Its haunt:
are marshy pastures and moorlands ; its food worms,
slugs, and insects ; its nest little more than a depres
sion in the ground ; its eggs, four in number, olive
green to stone-buff in ground colour, with blackish
brown blotches, are laid in .\pril. When dislurlieil
the female runs from the nest, while her mate, with
devious Hight and anxious cries, strives to divert
attenlion away from the nest. .After the young
are hatched, tiie parents both exhibit loving solici-
tude. The adults are about a foot long, with crested
head and very beiiutiful nluiiiage, which almost
baffles brief description. The birds themselves are
e.aten, and the eggs are highly esteemed. Most of
the plover eggs sold in Britain are lapwings' eggs
gathered in the Nctbirlands and North Gerniaiiy.
See Plovki: ; and Howard Saundei-s, Manual of
liriti.'ih Birds.
Lar, ca)>ital of the district of Laiistan, in south
Persia, situated on a well wooded phain, 60 miles
from the Persian (iulf and 170 SE. of Shiiaz; with
tradi' ill toliacco, cotton, and grain. Pop. 12,(M)0.
La Kaiiiee. See Oiida.
Laramie, a river which rises in northern
Color.ido, flows generally NE. through south-
eastern Wyoming, and enters the North Fork of
the Platte at Fort Laramie, after a course of about
518
LARBOARD
LARDNER
200 miles. If <x""ps name to a large couTity <if
Wvomiiii;; to the Laiaiiiic Plains, a treeless [ilateau
of \Vyomin<;, aUoiit 7->l>() feet aliove sea-level, ami
some"30(Xl sq. m. in e.\tent : ami to the Laramie
Mountains, a Rocky Mountain range which l)oun<ls
this plateau on the north and east. Laramie City,
Wyoming, on this great plain, ami on the Union
I'acilic itailroad. ."iT:5 mile> W. of Omaha, has a
rolling-mill an<l lailway shojis. I'i>p, GSSS.
L.\li,\JllE ISEU.'i, the name given liy American
geologists to certain strata wliieh appear to be
intermediate in age between the Cretaceous and
Tertiary. The strata are well developed in Utah
and Wyoming, and consist chiefly of lacustrine
strata : they contain numerous se.ams of lignite,
and hence ' are often called the lignotic series.
While the vertebrate remains of the Laramie are
essentially Mesozoic in character, the plants are
just as iineiiuivocally Tertiary. It would seem
from this that a Tertiary flora was contempor-
aneous with a Cretaceous fauna.
Larboard. See Steering.
Larceii.v. See Theft.
Lar<'ll [/.Kri.r), a genus of trees of the natural
order Conifera', differing from lirs( Abies) in having
the cones ovate-oblong, about an inch in length,
the scales of which are atteniiated at the tip, and
not falling oft from the axis of the cone when fully
ripe, and the leaves deciduous and in clusters,
e.Kcept on shoots of tlie same year, on which they
are single aiul scattered. The Common Larch
{L. eiintprra or Al/ics Lari.c) is a native of the
mountains of the south and middle of Europe, and
is found also
in Asia, where
it extends
much farther
north than in
Eurojie, even
to the limits
of perpetual
snow. The
date of the
introduction
of the larch
into Ih'itain is
lixed by some
authorities at
about l()29;
but it was for
many years
treated as a
rare and curi-
ous plant, and
grown in ])ots
in green-
houses by the
few that pos-
se.ssed it, till
the
f the
Coimuon Larch {Larix europwa)
t, twig with slinots ; h, twig with male (m) "^•^■''^''
and I'ciimle (/) fiowcr-s : c, mature eoiie; ^ .^^^^^
d, needle with section. )niddle
18th century
when it began to be extensively planted ;is .a forest-
tree. It has changed the aspect of whole districts,
particularly in Scotland, where it was introiluced
at Dawick", reeblesshire, in ITio, and at Dunkeld
and lilair, Perthshire, in 1738. The ])erfectly erect
and regularly tapering stem of the larch, its small
branches, its regular conical form, and its very
numerous and very snuill leaves, m.ake its as])ect
l)eculiar, an<l very dillerent from that of any other
tree seen in liritain. It attains a height of (10 to
100 feet, and an age of '200 years. The larch grows
rapidl,v, and is usefnl even from an early age ; the
thinnings of a jilanlal ion being emiiloyed for ho|)-
poles, palings, \-c., and the older timber for a great
variety of purposes. It is very resinous, does not
readily rot (many notable Italian pictures are
painted on panels of larch ), is not readily attacked
by worms, and is much used in shipbuilding. It is,
however, very apt to warp, and is theiefore not well
suited for planks. Larch hark is used for tanning,
although not nearly eijual in value to oak-bark. In
Siberia, where large tracts of larch-forest are not
unfrei|uently consumed by accidental lires, the
scorched stems yield, instead of a resin, :i gum simi-
lar to gum-arabic, reddish, and completely soluble
in water, which is known as Orniburrj (ii(»), and is
used for cementing and in medicine, ami, notwith-
standing a somewiiat resinous smell, even as an
article of food. In warm countries a kind of
Manna (q.v. ) exudes from the leaves of the larch
ill the hottest season of the year, h;iving a sweetish
taste, with a slight llavour of turpentine. It is
gathered principally in France, and is known as
Bn'an^on Mainia, or Larch Mnntiti. The larch
woods of Britain liave of late years sufl'ered greatly
from a disease in which the centre of the stem
decays; the nature and causes of this disease are
very imperfectly understood, but it seems to be
suliiciently ascertaine<l that those iilantations are
peculiarly lial)le to it which are formed where any
kind of lir has ])reviously grown, and those least so
which are regularly thinned, so that the trees enjoy
.abundance of fresh air. The larch does not dislike
moisture, but stagnation of water is very injurious
to it, .and thorough drainage is therefore necessary.
There are varieties of the comuuin larch remark-
able for crowded branches, for pendulons branches,
and for other jieculiarities, wliich are sometimes
planted as ornamental trees. The Common Ameri-
can Larch (L. (imcricaiia) — the Tamarack or Hack-
m.itack — distinguished by very small cones, is
common in the northern jiarts of North America,
and on the Alleghany ^lountains, often cover-
ing extensive tracts. It is a noble tree, much
resembling the common larch, .and its timber is
highly valued. t)ther American species are the
AVestern Larch (L. ocrideni(ili.i) — also called Tam-
arack— and the smaller, alpine, L. Li/ii//ii. The
Himalayan Larch (L. Gn'/fi//isu) abounds in the
Himalayas, but is generally a small tree, '20 to 40
feet high. Its cones are larger llian those of the
common larch. The Gohlen Larch (L. Kdiiijijiri),
a native of Japan, is described by Fortune, who
introduced it in 1852, as a beautiful tree grow-
ing to the height of about 120 to VM feet, with
corresponding girth of bole. It has not proved
hardv in any except the mildest jiarls of liritain.
SeeC. Y. I\Iichie, The Larch (Edin. 1882).
Lard, the fat of the hog. Until after the first
qn.artcr of the 10th century lard was only used for
culinary purposes and as the base of various oint-
ments in nieclical use. The enormous extent, how-
ever, to wliiili jiork was raised in .-Vmcrica rendered
it necessary to liml some other apjdications for .so
valuable a material, and large qnantities were
])ressed at a low temjieratnre, by which the stearine
and oleine were scjiarated. The former w .o-s used
for candle-making; and the latter soon became an
imjiortant article of coirimerce as a lubricant, under
till" name 'lard oil, which was f(mnd to be a valu-
able lubricant for machinery. See Oil., Stkarine.
LardlK'r. Dionvsiu.s, a successful i)o))ulariser
of physical science, was born in Dublin, lid April
17!t:t, and, after four years as clerk to his father,
a solicitor, entered Trinity College. He first
attracted attention by a Treatise on Alficbraic
CIciiiiictri/ ( 18'2.'l), and a work on J^iffcmitial
and Jiiicr/ra/ Calritlus (182.">). liut he is best
known as the originator and editor of Larchier's
Ci/cl/ipai/ia, a series of 132 volunu's on .scien-
tilic subjects, published between 1830 and 1844.
Lardner liiniself wrote the volumes treating of
LARDNER
LARK
519
mechaiiios, hydrostatics, geometry, aritlinietic, heat,
ami electrioity. This was followed iiii by the
historical series entitled the Cabinet Lihrari/ (I'J
vols. lS30-3"2) aud Museum uf Science and Art
(12 vcds. I854~5l)). He also wrote several useful
liandbooks of vavio\is branches of natural philo-
sophy, lu 1828 Lardner had been appointed
professor of Natural l'hiloso|)hy an<l Astronomy
in I'niversity Collejte, London ; but in 1840 lie
lost his chair tlirouj;h ninninj; away with the wife
of an army oflieer, who claimed i'SdOO damages
from him. However, Lardner went to the United
States, and there made live times that sum by
lecturing;. He lived in Paris from 1845 to 1859,
and died at Naples on 29lh April 1S59.
Lardner. N.\thaniei.. an English divine, wa.s
born at HawUslinrst, in Kent, in 1084, and stmlieil
in London, afterwards at Utrecht and Leyden. He
belonijed to a body of English Presliyterians who
had become Unitarians. He died at Hawkshurst
on 24th .luly 1768. His Creflihiliti/ of the Gospel
Historif (2 vols, in 1727 and 12 vols, in 1733-55)
and his Jewish and Hcatlien Testimonies (4 vols.
1764-67) have secured for him a jilace amonf; the
inoilern npoloijists for Christianity. See the Life
by Kippis preli.xed to his works (10 vols. 17SS1.
Laroail. Edmund, Frencli Canadian author,
was born at St (Jregoire. Province of Quebec, 12th
March 1848, and was educated at the college of
Ste Marie de Mannoir, at Victoria Ct)llege, and at
M'Gill University. He was called to the bar in
1870, became piofessor of Law in M'Ciill Univer-
sity in 1876, and in 1886 was elected in the
Liberal interest to the provincial legislature. Hi~
works, written in French, include histories ol
Canadian law (1872) and literature (1874), and
Melanges historiqnes et litteraires (1877).
Lares, Peiiate.S. llaiies. The Lares were
tutelary deities lielonging originally to the Etruscan
religion, ami worshipped especially as the pro-
tectors of a particular locality. In Roman usage
they were usually regarded as tlie tutelary deities
of a house (familiares or domestici). and their
images stood on the liearth in a little shrine
(aetles), or in a small chapel (lararium). We
find also Lares comjiitales (of cross-roads). Lares
ricoriim [of streets). Lares rn>r(lcs{oi the countrj'),
&C. See ANCK.STOU WflTISHIT'.
The Penates were the old Latin guardian deities
of the Inmsehold, and of the state regarded as a
union of households. Their seat was originally
in Lavinium, and the name is generally joined
with Di. By a natural enough case of metonymy
both the words Penates and Lares came to be used
as ei|uiv;ilent to a home or a hearth.
The .Manes were the deified souls of the departed,
the gods of the Lower World considered its benevo-
lent spirits, in contrast to lame .and Icmiircs, male-
volent spirits ; but the name frequently applied
merely to the departed spirit, ghost, or shaile of a
dead person.
These divinities were by no means exactly differ-
entiated from each other, an<l obviously all owed
their existence to the fundamental idoius under-
lying the woi-ship of ancestors, with its altar, the
domestic he.arth — the most ])ersistent and perhaps
the oldest of all the religi<ms of man.
Largo, a village of Fife, on Largo Bay, and at
the biu-e of Largo Law (965 feet), 14 miles NE. of
Kirkcalily. It has a bronze statue by T. Stuart
Burnett ( 1885) of Alexander Selkirk, who was born
here. Pop. of i)arish, 2324.
Largo, an Italian word, used in music, to
denote very slow time, and especially in composi-
tions where the sentiment is rpiile solemn. J.ar-
ghetto is the diminutive of Lanju, the time being
slightly quicker.
Largs, a watering-place of Ayrshire, on the
Firth of Clyde, 14 miles S. of (Jreenoek, and 11
N. of Ardrossan liy a railway opened in 1885.
Here on 12th October 1263, in a w,ar between
Scotland and the Noi-se colonies of Man and the
Isles, Alexander 111. defeated Ilaco of Norway,
who with 160 ships and 20,000 men had descended
nil the co.ast of Ayrshire. I'op. (1851 ) 2824 ; ( 1891 )
3IS7. See Wemi/ss Bai/ ami Largs (VvaaXay, 1879).
Larieio. See Pine.
Larida-. See Cum,.
Larissa (called by tlie Turks Ycnisher), f.amous
in ancient times .as the chief town of Thes.saly,
is now a place of 13,169 inhaliilants, one-third
Greeks and onethiid Turks. Larissa was ceded
by Turkey to Greece in 1881. It stands on the
Salambria (anc. I'cnrus). in the fertile |)lain of
Thessaly, .anil has manufactures of silk, cotton, and
tobacco. It was the centre of the Turkish opera-
tions in the war of Greek Lilieration, and was
occupied liy the Turks in the war of 1897.
Laristan, the south-west part of the Persian
province of Kernian (ipv.). Area, 22,954 sq. m. ;
pop. about 90,000.
Lark (Alamla arvensis), a familiar songster,
otherwise well known as the symbol of poets and
the victim of epicures. It is included among
Passerine birds, type of the family Alaudidte,
Lark [Alauda arvensis \.
which comprises over 100 species, widely distrib-
uted in Europe, Asia, and Africa, with spreading
stragglers in Australia and North America. The
plumage is usually sandy brown, the colour of the
ground; the lower legs bear scales, behind and be-
fore : the hind-claw is very long and straight ; the
bill is strong and conical. The skylark measures
about 7 inches in length ; the males and females
are alike in plumage; the food consists of in.seets,
worms, and seeds. It nests in April, making a
structure of dry grass in a hollow in the ground,
usually among growing gra.ss or cereals. The eggs
(three to five) are ilnll gray, mottled with olive-
l>rown ; two broods are usually leareil in the season.
Great crowds of larks come to Britain from the
Continent in autumn, and later on there is a
general movement southwards. It Inus been
introduced into Australia and New Zealand, and.
to .some extent in the L'nited States.
'The lark is a ciealuie of light and air and
motion, whose nest is in the stublde and whose
tryst is in the clouds." Its song 'at heaven's gale,'
idealised by Shelley, Wordsworth, Hogg, and other
poets, 'is not especially melodious, but blithesome,
sibilant, and unceasing.' ' Its type,' Burroughs
well says, ' is the grass, wlicre the bird makes its
home, abounding, multitudinous, the notes nearly
all alike ami in the same key, liut ra|iid, swarming,
prodigal, showering down as thick and fast lus
drops of rain in a summer shower.' The bird very
520
LARKHALL
LA ROCHEFOUCAULD
rarely sings on the ground, but when soaring or
descemlinj,'.
Tliere is no doubt that larks wlien very numer-
ous, as tliey often are, may do considerable damage
to autumn-sown wheat or young green crops. Tliis
fact is sometimes urged to excuse the custom of
catching them for the cage or table. They are
caught in horsehair nooses, or netted, or shot after
being attracted and mesmerised by 'twirling' some
bright glistening object. ' It is estimated that,
during last century, in Leipzig alone over live
million larks were received annually ; in 1S54 there
were brought to the London markets over 400,000;
and the oliicial returns state that in 1867-G8 more
than a million and a quarter were taken into
Dieppe. '
In Europe there are several other common
species of lark — e.g. the Wood-lark (A. arborca)
and the ("rested Lark (.4. cristata), the former of
which is locally distributed in England and Wales,
and the latter a rare visitor. Among the other
genera may be noted the Shore or Horned Larks
(Otocorys), with a hornlet over each eye; these
are ' the only larks which occur regularly in the
western hemisphere.' One species (0. alpestris)
has occasionally been found as a straggler in
Britain, just as the species of -Uauda occasionally
wander beyond their usual range.
Larkhull. a small town of Lanarkshire, 3 miles
SE. of Hamilton, with coal-pits and mills. Top. f>34SI.
Larkliaiiat the capital of a district called ' the
Eden III .Siiid," stands loO miles X. of Hyderabad
by rail. It manufactures silk and cotton cloth,
and has a great cotton market. Pop. 13,1SS.
Larkspnr {Delphinium), a showy and ])opular
genus of garden -flowers of the natural order
Ranunculacere, natives of the temperate and cold
regions of the northern hemisphere, and compris-
ing both annual and jjerennial species. The well-
known Rocket Larkspur (D. Ajacis), a native of
Switzerland, and the Branching Larkspur (D. con-
solida), a native of most parts of Europe, doubt-
fully so of Uritain, are fandliar examples of the
annual species ; and Harlow's Larkspur ( D. liar-
loivii) and the Great-llowered Larkspur (/J. ijraii-
dijloruiii) are not unfrequent examples of the
perennial species ; but many more showy varieties
have been produced by cultivation and selection
which have displaced the older-fashioned .species.
D. (iluciali: is one of the nujst distinctively alpine
plants in the world. D. Stap/iisar/ria, corru])ted to
Stavesacre, yi^hls an alkaloid extract from its
seeds, named Delphine, which is highly poisonous
even in very small doses, acting ohietly on the
nervous system.
Lar'llUka (ancient Citiiim), the chief port of
Cyprus, 27.|. miles S. of Nicosia. A small fort built
by the Turks in IG'2.") is now used as the ilistrict
gaol, and Ihi: English have built a convenient court-
house, custom-house, and other public ollices on the
sea front, as well as two iron jiiei's accessible at
all times by small boats. Seagoing vessels are
obliged to lie H mile from the shore owing to
the shallow water. The Greek church of St
Lazarus, an ancient Byzantine building, is in good
preservation, and there is an Knglisli liurial-ground
attached to it with monumental inscriptions as oM
as KiS.). Even if Cilium be not the Cliittim of
the Old Testament, it is certain that the king of
Citium paid tribute to the .\ssyriaii Sargon in 707
B.C. as appears from a cuneiform inscription on a
bas-relief dug up at Fjarnaka in 1846, and now in
the mu.seum at Berlin. C'arobs, or locust-beans,
cotton, and grain are exported ; and goods of
western manufacture of all kinds arc im|iorteil,
chielly from Germany. A most interesting fair
called katakUtsmos, ' the deluge,' and held every
year fifty days after the Greek Easter, is tradition-
ally sujiposed to be the anniversary of the birth of
Aphrodite, and is attended by Ortliodox Christian
Cvpriots from all parts of the island in immense
numbers (cf. Jhrudotiis, i. 199 1. Pop. 78.3.'?.
Lariie. a market and seaport town of County
Antrun, at the entrance of Lou<;h Larne, 2j miles
NE. of Belfast liy rail. There is daily communi-
cation with Stranraer by mail steamer. Pop. 4522.
La Roclieroiii-aiild. I'i!.\xcois, Die de, was
born at Paris on the l.">lh September 1613. He
belonged to an old family, and his father was made
a duke by LimisXUI. in 1622. During his youth
he was known as the Prince de Marsillac. His
education was .somewhat neglected. He joined the
army when a boy, and was jircsent in liis seven-
teenth year at the siege of Casal. His life, says
Sainte-Beuve. might lie divided into four periods,
to each of ^^•hich might be assigned the name of a
woman — viz. Mme de Chevreuse, Mme de Longue-
ville, Mme de Sable, and lime de la Payette.
As a young man he showed an ultra-romantic
temperament. Under the influence of Mme de
Chevreuse he devoted himself to the cause of the
queen in opposition to Richelieu, ami became
entangled in a series of love-adventures and
political intrigues, the result being that on the
flight of Mme de Chevreuse he w.as forced to live
in exile at ^■erteuil from 16.39 to 1642. About 1645
he formed a liaison with the beautiful Mme de
Longueville. He then joined the Frondeurs and
was severely wounded at the siege of Paris. He
was very uiducky in his political schemings. His
father died in 1650, and in 1652 he was again badly
wounded, whereupon he retired to the country to
restore his health, which had been shattered by
twenty years of battle and adventure. On
Mazarin's death in 1661 he repaired to the court
of Louis XIV., and abimt the same time began
his liaLson with Mme de Sabl^. A surreptitimis
edition of the Mrmoires, which he had written
while living in retirement, was published by the
Elzevii-s in 1662, and as the book gave wide offence
he disavowed its authoi-shi]>. without, however,
finding many to acce|)t his denial. His lii'flrxiims,
(III &iitciices ct Mri:riiHi:s Morii/r.i apjieared in 1665.
Xo book, said Voltaire, did more to form the taste
of the nation. The first edition contained 316
pcnsic'i, which were afterwards expanded to about
700. His last years were brightened by his friend-
ship with Mme ile la Fayette, which lasted until
he died at Paris <m March 17, I6S0. In his early
life he bad married Andrcc de \'ivonne, by whom
he had five sons and three daughters.
The Maxiiim vary in length from two or three
lines to about half a page. For brcvitv, clcarne.ss,
and finish of style they could hardly lie excelled.
Their writer did not seek to play the part of the
mere epigrammatist, though he has now aiul then
sai-riliced his thought for the sake of striking and
pointed ex|iression. A vein of melancholy runs
through the book. It is the work of a man of
singularly keen and subtle intellect, who was
deeply verseil in life, aiul had formed independent
judgments on most of its relations. He was a re-
nior.seIc.ss analyst of man's character. ' Everything
is reducible to the motive of self-interest '—such is
us\ially said to be the keynote of all his philosophy.
That is not, however, exactly correct, ihnugh it is
true of the book in the nuiin. La Kochefoucauld
tracks out self-love in its nu)st elusive forms and
under its cunningest di-sguises. He lays it bare
with the most piercing insight and pitiless trench-
alley. But he oci-asionally ovei-states his cii.se
against humanity, tluiiii^;h forgetluliiess of the fact
that self-love is not the only motive by which men
are impelled. Head in certain niomls, the Maxinu
LAROCHEJAQUELEIN
LARYNX
521
seem a onisliitiju' exposure of man's baseness and
folly : read in otheis, they seem little l>etter than
a iMorhiil libel on human nature. But of their
writer's depth and keenness as a thinker there ean
be no more (juestion than there can of his wonder-
ful mastery of tei-se and incisive phrase.
Sec French Life l)y limiriltau ( LSflo), and the article on
' La UochcfoucaidJ' inchuloii in Samte-Beiivc's J'ortraits
(/(■ Fcniinis. The best cditiiin of Ids works is that by
i;ilbert and (lourdault (;i vols. lSi;8-S4), in the series of
Ortntds ]^i-rir(iiii.-< i/c fa Fi-Kitce.
LarooliojsMiueleiii, Du Verger de, an old
noble family of France. Tlie name Du Verf^er is
derived from a place in I'oitou. (ruy du Verger
married, in 1.505, the heiress of the seigneur of
Larochejaciuelein. Several of his descendants dis-
tinguished thcTuselves by their devoted loyalty to
the old royal house against the fury of the French
Revolution. — Hen'IM, Comte de Laroeliejanuelein,
born in 1772, was an otticer in the guard of Lotus
XVI., and after the 10th of August 1792 left
Paris to put himself at the head of the insurgent
royalists in La Vendee. He signali.sed himself Ijy
many heroic deeds, and for a time successfully
repelled the republican forces, but was severely
defeated by Westermann, 21st December 1793, and
escaped with difficulty. He raised a new liody of
troops, however, in I'pjter Poitou, Init was killed
in a battle at Nouaille, 4th iLareh 1794. His
her(dc words to his soldiers are memorable beyond
most: 'Si je recule, tuez-moi ; si j'avance, suivez-
nioi ; si je meurs, vengez-moi!' — His brother,
Louis Dt" Vekger, Marquis de Larochejaqnelein,
born in 1777, emigrated at the commencement of
the Revolution ; returned to France in 1801, but
resisted all Napoleon's efforts to win him, and in
1813 pl.aced himself at the head of the royalists in
La Vendee. Louis XVIIL appointed him in 1814
to the command of the army of La Vendee, and
during the Hundred Days he maintained the
royalist cause there, supported by the British.
He fell in battle at Pont des-Mathis, 4th June
1815. His wife, ^Lvrie-Louise Victoire, Mar-
quise de Larochejaqnelein (1772-1857), published
Memoirex of the war, of which she was an eye-
witne.ss ( Hordeau.x, 1815), which are of real value
to the historian. See her Life by Nettement {3d
ed. Paris, 1S7('>).
La Rocliolle. See Rochelle.
Larrey, Dojiinique Jean, Baron, a cele-
brated French surgeon, was born at Beaudean, near
Bagneres-de-Bigorre, in the Pyrenees, in .Inly 1760,
studied medicine in Toulouse, and after graduating
served as surgeon in the navy. But in 1793 he
transferred his skill to the army, an<l introduced
the ' Hying ambulance ' service. After teaching
for a short time at Toulon and Val de Grace, he
joined Napoleon in It.ily in 1797 : and frmn that
tiirii; onwards invariably accompanie<l the success-
ful Corsican in his canipaigns. In 1805 he was
placed at the head of the medico-surgical depart-
ment of the French army, and a few years later
was created a baron of the empire. Larrey con-
tinued to till important offices till 18.30, when he
retired from that i>f surgeon-general of the Hotel-
des Invalides. He died at Lyons, 25th .Inly 1842.
From his pen came valuable treatises on army
surgery and the treatment of wounds ; they were
translated into most Kuropean languages. .See the
(Jcrm.iu memoir by Werner ( 1885).
Larva^ the young f<niii of an animal after
leaving the egg, but before acquiring adult charac-
tcri.sties. Tadpoles of Frogs (q.v.), caterpillars of
Insects (q.v.), nauplii and zoe.r of Crustaceans
(q.T.), the quaint young of Kchinoderms (q.v.),
&c. are good illustrations. There may be no
larral stage, when the embryo grows continuously
into the adult form ; on the other hand, the larval
life nuiy be longer than that of the adult. Many
larval characters are recapitulations of ancestral
forms ; others are special modilications .adaptive to
larval life. See the Rev. J. Seymour's I.aiva
CoUccliiiij (I ml Breeding (1890).
Larynx (Gr. larynx) is the organ of voice, and
plays an important |>art in the respiratory process,
as all air ]ia'*siiig either to or from the lungs must
pass through it. It is a conqdex piece of mechan-
ism, resembling a box composeil of pieces of carti-
lage which are capable of executing movements,
and enclosing the vocal- cords by which ]ihonation
is produced. The larynx is situated between the
trachea, or windpipe, and the ba.se of the tongue,
at the upper and front part of the neck, where it
forms a considerable projeoticm (especially in nu'ii):
it opens su]ieriorly into the /i/iari/ii.r, or throat,
and inferiorly into the windpipe. The principal
cartilages of which the skeleton of the larynx is
composed are five in number — viz. the thyroid
and cricoid cartilages, the epiglottis, and the two
arytenoid cartilages.
The t/n/roid (dr., 'shield-like') consists of two
square plates of cartilage united in front at an
acute angle, which forms the projection com-
monly known as the pomiim Adami, or Adam's
apple. Each of these plates is piolonged at
the upper and lower posterior coineis. The thy-
roid cartilage forms
almost the whole of
the anterior and
lateral walls of the
larynx. The cricoid
(Gr., 'ring-like')
cartilage is a ring
the lower margin of
which is parallel to
the first ring of the
trachea, an<l to tin'
last-named it is unit
ed by fibrous mem
brane. Its tippc i
border is connectiil
in front with the
lower border of the
thyroid cartilage liy
a thick yellow fibrous
tissue. It presents
two articular sur-
faces on either side
— viz. a lower, which
articidates with the
inferior cornu of
the thyroid carti-
lage, and an upper,
winch is oval in
form, and supports
an arytenoid carti-
lage. The ari/-
tcnuid (Gr., 'ladle-
like') cartilages are
pyramidal bodies
resting on the oval
articular surfaces at
the upper and pos-
terior part of the
cricoid cartilage.
When in nitu they present a concave posterior
surface. From their connection with tlie vocal
cords, and from their great mobility as compared
with the two larger cartilages, the arytcncdds play
a very important part in the mechanism of the
larynx. The e/ti</lutli.i is a very tlexible cartilag-
inous valve (fig. I,/), siHiated at the ha.se of the
tongue, and covering the ojiening of the larynx.
Its direction is vertical, except during deglutition,
when it becomes horizontal. It is attached inferi-
Fig. 1.
Cartilages of larynx and epiglottis,
and upper rings of trachea, seen
from beliind : a, arytenoid carti-
lages ; h, sviperior cornu of thy-
roid eartilage ; c, its inferior
cornu ; t/, posterior surface of
cricniti ; /, epiglottis, with its per-
forations ; i, upper margin of thy-
roid ; h, its left inferior tubercle ;
/, trachea.
522
LARYNX
orly l)y a kind of pedicle to the angle of the thyroid
cartilage. Upon removing the investing niucons
membrane the cartilage is found to be (lerforated
by numerous foramina. Each perforation ailniits
some fasciculi, of yellow, elastic, ligamentous
tis.sue, which expands on its anterior aspect, and
secures the return of the epiglottis to its vertical
position, independently of any muscular action.
Such is the skeleton of the l;uyn.\, han^'ing as it
does from the hyoid bone, witli which it is con-
nected by the thyrohyoid ligament and certain
muscles.
The various cartilages which have been described
are connected with one another by ligaments,
the chief of which are those known as the true
and false vocal cords. In their quiescent state the
former do not lie parallel to each other, but con-
verge from behind forwards. The lenyfth of the
vocal cords is greater in the adult male than in
the adult female, in the ratio of three to two.
In infancy they are very short, and increase regu-
larly from that period to the age of puberty. The
mucous mcMiilirane of tlie larynx is part of the ex-
tensive resi)iratory tract, and is remarkable for its
extreme sensibility. The length of the chink or
aperture of the glottis, which is directed hori-
zontally from before backwards, varies, like the
Fig. 2.
A, larynx an<l trachea on deep inspiration ; B, on phona-
tion ; C, during falsetto not«; D, appro.\iniation of the
ventricular hSLHils or false cords as it occurs in straining.
vocal cords, until the period of puberty, when its
length, in the male, undergoes a sudden develop-
ment, while in the feinahi it remains stationary.
In the adult male it is about eleven lines in lenijth.
The larynx is provided witli two sets of muscles :
the extrinsic, by which the whole organ is elevated
or depressed, and the ititriimc, whicli regulate the
movements of the various segments of the organ in
relation to one anothci'. By the action of tbe.se
latter muscles, aideil, in some cases, by the ex-
trinsic nm.scles, the tension of tiie voc'al cords may
be increaseil or diminished, and tlie size of the
i)j)eningof the glottis regulated at will (see VoiCK).
The nerves of the larynx are derived from the
superior and inferior laryngeal branches of the
pneumogastric or vagus nerve.
That the larynx is the organ of voice is easily
proved. Thus, alteration in the mucous membrane
covering the vocal cords causes hoarseness or other
change of voice ; ulceration of the vocal cords
ilestroys or injures the voice; opening the tiachea
below the vocal cords, or section of the infeiior
laryngeal nerves, destroys the voice ; and sounds
like those of the voice may be ])roduced by experi-
ments on the dead larynx.
DISEA.SK.S OF TllK t^AKYXX. — Lnij/nffitis, Or in-
flammation of the larynx, may be either an acute
or a chronic affection. Acute laryngitis, in its more
severe form, which is fortunately rare, commences
with a chill, which is followed by fever, with a
full strong pulse, a hot skin, and a Hushed face.
There is also soreness of the throat, hoarseness of
the voice, great difficulty in swallowing, and a
feeling of extreme constriction of the larynx.
There is a i)ainful stridulous cough, but only a
little niuois is ejected. Great ditticultv in breath-
ing occurs in severe cases, the act ot' inspiration
being prolonged, and wheezing results, in conse-
quence of the swollen membrane of the glottis im-
peding the entrance of air. On examining the
larynx, the epiglottis is observed to be of a bright
red colour, erect, and may be so much swollen as
not to he able to descend, and may close the glottis
during deglutition ; the other parts of the larynx
are seen to be more or less swollen according to the
severity of the case. The patient may exhibit
symptoms of "reat anxiety and distress ; his lips
may become blue, his face of a livid paleness, his
pulse irregular and very feeble, and at length he
may sink into a drowsy state, often jueceded l)v
delirium, and quickly followed by deatli. The dis-
ease is very rapid, ending, when fatal, in three or
four days, and occasionally in less than <me day.
Although we have here described what may occur
in exceptionally severe cases, acute laryngitis
rarely passes beyond hoarseness, a feeling of con-
striction, slight feverishness associated with cough
and marked hoarseness.
Laryngitis is most commonly due to exposure to
cold ; but the intlammation rarely reaches a danger-
ous height in these cases. The dangerous forms
are usually the result of injuiy (e.g. swallowing
boiling or corrosive substances) ; or they may be a
secondary result of ulceration, or <lue to infectitm,
such as erysiiielas. In simple cases c<uilinement to
a warm room, with soothing steam inhalations,
will, if the voice be reste<l, usually ellect a cure.
In severe ca.ses sucking ice, leeching, scaiilicalion
of the swollen parts, and even tracheotomy may
be necessary. In persons who use the voice much
the ati'ection is apt to become chronic, or indeed to
be chronic from the beginning without the super-
vention of an acute attack. Laryngotomy is dis-
cussed at Tkachkoto.mv.
Ulceration may occur in phthisis, sypliilis,
lupus, and after tyjihoid fever. Cancer of the
larynx may lead to ulceration, but the primary
disease constitutes a tumour. Innocent growths
are also met with, the more common varieties
being pajiillomata (warts) and libi-omata. Par-
alysis of the laryngeal muscles may involve those
muscles only which close the glottis, in which case
the all'ecticm is often due to hysteria and easily
cured. Paralysis of the muscles which open the
glottis or allecting all the muscles is usually due to
some grave disease of the nervous system, chest,
or throat, and is often incurable. The treatment
must dejiend U]ion the condition discovered by
larvngoscoi)ic examination in each case.
'i'liK Lakvngo.scoi'K. — -Altliough successful at-
temjits had been previimsly made by Garcia to
explore the reces.ses of the larynx by means of !i
reliecting mirror, it was not until two German phy-
siologists, Tiirck and Czermak, took U]) the subject,
in 18.57 and 18r>8, that the great im]iortance of laryn-
gosco]iy wa.s first generally recognised. The laryn-
goscope is a small mirror jilaccd on a stalk attached
to its margin, at an angle of from 120 to l.W",
the stalk being about six inches in length. The
mouthpiece of .a large rellector, with a central
opening through which the observer looks, is held
between the molar teeth ; or, what is better, the
rellector may be attached to a spectacle fnime
or forelieail band by a stiltly working ball-and-
socket joint. The rays of the sun or of a
good lamp are concentrated by means of this
LA SALETTE
LAS CASAS
523
reHector on tlie larviij,'eal minor, wliicli is placed
against the soft palate and uvula. The larvum'oal
mirror, previously warmeil, and introdueed with the
riu'lit hand, whicli rests liy two iini.'ei's on the jaw,
is maintained at such an inclination thiit it throws
the li^ht ilownwards and illuminates the parts to
he examined, while at the same time it rellerts the
imaijes of these p.arts into tlie e\e of the observer
thronjih the central opening of the rellector. By
this means we can look throuj,'li the larynx into
the trachea or windpipe, and can see the actual
position of small tumours, ulcers, &c., whose exist-
ence would otherwise have been at most only sus-
pected ; and the precision and accuracy of dia-
jrnosls to which we can thus attain enable ns to
em]doy rational nieans of local treatment to an
extent th.at was quite impossilile before the intro-
duction of larvnj^oscopy. It is also jiossihle to
illnuiinate the larynx by throwing a powerful and
concentrated light upon the front of the throat, and
introducing a mirror into the dark mouth (Durch-
Ictirlilidiri of German pliysicians).
La Salette. See Salette.
La Salle, a city of Illinois, at the head of
steam-navigation on the Illinois River (here crossed
by bridges), 99 miles by rail WSW. of Chicago,
with which it is also connected by the Illinois
Canal. Bituminous coal is mined here, and the
city has a large zinc-rolling mill and smelting-
furnaces, besides manufactures of glass and iron
wares. Pop. 7S47.
La Salle, Abbe de. See Schools, Christian.
La Salle. Kobert Cavelier, Sieiu de, one
of tlie greatest French explorer.s in North America,
was born at Rouen in 1643. Settling in Canada at
the age of twenty-three, he began his travels with
an attempt to reach China by descending the Ohio
River, which he supposed to empty into the Pacific.
As soon as he found that the great .southern streams
drained into the Culf of Mexico he formed the ])ro-
ject of descending the Mississippi to the sea. After
many and severe hardships tiiis long voyage was
concluded, and the arms of France set up at the
mouth of the gre.at river, on 9th April 1(582. Two
yeai-s later an expedition was fitted out to establish
a permanent French settlement on the C!ulf, whicli
should secure France's claims to the Mississipju
valley. Hut La Salle's had fortune pursued him ;
he mistook Matagorda Bay for a moutli of the
Mississippi, landed there, and then spent two years
in unsuccessful journeys to discover the great
river, while his colonists and soldiers gradually
dwindled away. His harshness of manner, more
than his want of success, embittered his followers,
anil he was a,ssassinated by some of them in March
16S7. See works by Francis Farkman (q.v. ).
Lascar, in the East Indies, signilies |iroperly a
camp-follower, but is generally ap|)lied to native
sailore on board of British ships, as, for instance,
the large steamers of the Peninsular and Oriental
("ompany. The Lascars make good seamen, being
both temperate and docile. They are mostly
Mohammedans, and speak, besides their native
dialects, a tinifiin fmncn based on Hindustani, with
English, Arabic, and other word.s.
La.s'earis. (.'o.nstantink, a Greek scholar, who,
after the capture of Constantinople by the Turks,
Hed to Italy, where he was instrumental in reviv-
ing the study of Greek. He wits a descendant of
the royal family of Niciea. Francesco Sforza, Dnke
of Milan, made him tutor to his daughter Hip-
polyta. Hut more important scenes of Lascaris'
labours were Rome ( where he settled in the train
of Bessaiion ), Naples, and Messina ; at this last
city he taught rlietoiic and (ireek letters until
his death in 149.3. His Greek grammar, entitled
Eroteiiiata, and dated 1476, w.os the earliest Greek
book printed in Italy. His library, which is very
valuable, is now in the Escorial. — .loilN or .I.^Nl'S
L.v.scaeis, a member of the same family, siirnamed
Uhynd.VCEXI'S, born about 144"), who also found
an a.sylum in Italy after the fall of Constantinople,
was employed by Lorenzo de Medici in the collec-
tion of ancient, especially Greek, classical atithor.s.
On the death of Lorenzo, Lascaris went to Paris,
where he taught (!reek with the coniitenanco of
Charles Vlll. and Louis Xll. ; but he eventually
seltled in Rome, and w.as appointed by Leo X.
superintendent of his (ireek press and of a seminary
for young Greeks. He was, moreover, employed
as ambassador at the court of Francis I., and after-
wards at Venice, and died in Rome in 15.35. From
Rome he edited several edifiones jiriiiripcs of the
Greek classics. His own works were chiefly gram-
matical, with a volume of letters and e|iigrams.
See Villemain's Lascaris, on les Grccs clii 15'" Siicle
(Paris, 1825).
Las Casas, Bartolo.me de. Bishop of Chiapa,
in Mexico, surnamed the Apostle of Ihr Indians,
was born in Seville in 1474. He studied at Sala-
manca, sailed with his father in the third voyage
of Columbus, and again in 1502 accompanied
Nicolas de Ovando, the new governor, to His-
paniola. Eight years later he was ordained to the
priesthood. In 1511 he was summoned to accom-
[lany Diego "\'elasquez to Culia, and he a.ssisted in
the pacification of the island, and its division into
repartimicntos or allotments of natives, and was re-
warded in the usual way by an e,ncomi(nd(t or com-
mandery of Indians, held together with his friend
Pedro de Renteri.a. But ere long a burning love
for the unhappy natives and indignation at their
sufferings filled his heart ; and he gave up his own
slaves, and went to Spain, wdiere lie ])revailed on
Cardinal Ximenes to send a commission of inquiry
to the West Indies. Its proceedings by no means
satisfying his zeal, he revisited Spain to procure the
adoption of stronger measures for the protection of
the natives. Finally, to prevent the entire extirpa-
tion of the native race by the toils to whicli they
were subjected, he proposed that the colonists
should be permitted to import negro slaves for
the more severe labours of the mines and sugar-
jil.antations ; and the jnojiosal was adopted. Las
Casas has on this account been represented as the
author of the slave-trade, although it has been
])roved to ha\e existed before this i)roposal was
made, and it should be remembered that afterwards
he bitterly repented the advice that he had given.
He al.so attempted to carry out Castilian peasants
as coloiii.sts to the "West Indies, but failed in his
scheme, and spent eight years ( I.'i22-.S0 ) of mortilica-
tion in austere seclusion and devoted .study within
the walls of a Dominican convent in Hispaniola.
In 15.30 he again visited Spain, and, after missionary
travels in Mexico, Nicaragua, Peru, and Guatemala,
returned to devote four years to advocate the cause
that lay closest to his heart. During this jieriod
he wrote his Veyntc Jiazones and his Brcvissima He-
larion lie In Drstrut'i-ion dc las Indias, which w.as
soon translated into the other languages of Europe.
The rich bishopric of Cuzco was oflered to him, but
he iireferred tlie jioor one of Chiapa, and reached
its chief city, Ciudad Real, in 1544. He was
received with the most active hostility by the
colonists, and was .soon mortilied to the heart by
(yliarles V.'s time serving revocation of the New-
Laws, which bis own devoted energy had extorted.
He maintained his ground that the granting of
encomieiidas to ])rivate per.sons was llagrant in-
justice, but bowed his head to the storm, returned
to Spain, and resigned his see (1.547). Three years
later he argued befiue a Junta at \'iilladolid with
splendid force and eloquence against Sepulveda,
who defended the right of carrying on war against
52*
LAS CASES
LASSALLE
the Indians. In 1555 he appealed in terms of
marvellous boldness to Philip II. not to sell the
claims of the crown to the reversion of the
encomiendas, and was snccessfiil in thns avertin<;
a measure which would have l)roni;lit final and
hopeless slavery upon the Indians. His last work
was to get the aiit/ioirin or court of justice restoreil
to the oppressed natives of tluatemala. He ended
his life in a convent in Madrid, July l."i66, at the
a<,'e of ninety- two. His most important work, the
unlinished Ilistnria tic his Jm/inx, was printed in
1875-76. See the adnurable Life by Helps (1SG8).
Las Cases, Emm.vniel Dieidoxne, Comte
HE, the historiof;rapher and companion of Napoleon
in St Helena, was born in 17i)(), near Revel in
Lanjjnedoc. He was ,a lieutenant in the navy be-
fore the Revolution, but then fled from France,
and supported himself in Enj,'land l>v [)riv,ate
teachinj,'. After Napoleon became consul. Las
Cases established himself as a bookseller in P.aris.
A work that he wrote. Alias historiqiic (180,'?-4),
attracted the attention of the emperor, who made
him a baron, and employed him in the administra-
tiim. After Waterloo lie obtained leave to share
the exile of Napoleon in St Helena, and there the
ex-emperor dictated to him a part of his Memoirs.
In 1816 Las Cases was sent back to Europe, and
after Napoleon's death pnldished Memorial tli-
Ste-nmnc (8 vols. 182I-2.S), of which O'Meara's
Napoleon in Exile is a kind of continuation, lioth
works attack Sir Hudson Lowe, Napoleon's keeper,
charginj; him with undue harshness towards his
pri.soner. Las Cases died at Passy, loth May 18-42.
LaSCO, JoH.\N'N-E.s .\, or Jan L.V.SKI, Polish
reformer, was a man of high family and was born
at Lask, in the modern government of Piotrkow,
about 1499. He was educated at ("racow by
his uncle, chancellor and primate of Poland, and
chose to enter the church. He studied further in
Rome and Bologna, was ordaine<l in 15'21, and two
years later at Basel came in contact with Erasmus
and Farel ; the former by his will left his library
to A Lasco. From this journey the young Pole
returned in 15'26, his mind greatly exercised with
the question of church reform. At length he was
caught in the current of the Reformation, and,
quitting his native land in lo.'iS, he settled at
Louvain in the Netherlands. But a year or two
later he moved to Emden in East Friesland. The
countless of that litlli! province appointed him
superintendent of church all'airs, and he used
his inlluence to establish a presbyterian form of
church government. The Emden Cntce/tixm, defin-
ing the religious doctrines of the East Friesland
Church, was in great ]iart his work. But in 1550
he accepted an invitation by Cranmer to visit
Englaml — he liad already passed the winter of
1548— 19 there — and became heail of an inlluen-
tial congregation of Protestant refugees in Austin
Friars, London. Mary's accession in 15.53 drove
him back to Emden and scattered his (lock.
After staying a while in Frankfort-on-Main, he
finally returned to Poland in 1.556. There the
Reformation v.as m.akiug rapid headway, and was
a.ssisted in no inconsiderable degree by the labours
of A Lasco as superintendent of the churches in
Little Poland. He died at Pirczow, on Sth Jan-
uary 1560. See DiiUon's Jo/in a I.asro {ling, trans,
from the German, I8S6), which oidy brings the
narrative down to A fiasco's second arrival in
England ; G. Pascal, Jean cle Lasco (1894).
Laslikar. See Gw.\hor (city).
Las I'alnias, iljlef town of the Canary Islands
(q.v.), on tln^ north ejist coast of Gran Canada, is
the seat of a bishop, ami has sea-bathing and ship-
building-yards. Pop. 17,754.
Lassa. See Lha.ssa.
Lassalle, ?'EnniN'.\ND, who may justly be
regarded a-s the historic originator of the social-
democratic movement in (Jermany, was born at
Breslau, April 11, 1825. Like Karl Marx, the
founder of international socialism, he was of Jewish
extraction. Lass.alle's father was a pros])erons
merchant, who intende<l that his son also should
follow a business career. But as young Ferdinand
prcferreil a student life, be went to the uidversities
of Breslau ami Berlin, where he devoted his time
chiefly to philology and iddlosophy. In philosophy
he was a disciple of Hegel ; and it was his first
literary andiition to write a work on Heraclitus
from the Hegelian point of view. During a stay
in Paris be made the acquaintaiu'e of Heine, who,
like so many of Lassalle's friends, formed the
highest opinion of his talent and energy.
On his return to Berlin in 1846 he met the
Countess Hatzfeldt, a lady at variance with her
husband, a wealthy German ncdile of high rank.
Taking \i\> her case, Las.salle prosecuted it before
thirty-six tribunals, and after eight years of litiga-
tion forced the husband to a compromise on terms
most favourable to the countess.
As a decided ailberent of the denuicratic republic
Lassalle to<dv a part in the revolution of 1848, and
for disobedience to the authorities at Dii.sseldorf,
where he then resided, spent six months in prison.
He lived in the Rhine country till 1858, when he
returned to Berlin ; and .-it the .same date brought
out the work on Heraclitus, which had been laid
aside during the Hatzfeldt suit. It at once gave
bim a high [dace in the learned circles of Germany.
In conducting the Hatzfeldt case Lassalle had
gained a very consideiable legal knowledge, and
this he now utilised in writing a work on the jdiilo-
sophy of law, entitled Si/xfem of Anjiiiyed Hieihts
(18t)i). It was an attempt to ajqdy the historical
method to legal ideas and institutions, but we may
well question whether he has not often re.'ul into
history the(n-ies of very doubtful validity.
For many years after 1848 no o]i])ort\inity for
fruitful action had occurred to men of democratic
opinions. The opening of the Bismarck era in
1862 was therefore a welcome event for I.ass.alle,
the aim of the latter being ti> resuscitate the
demwracy in face of the half hearted Liberalism of
his time. His first effort was to show the futility
of the Liberal jiolicy in o]iposing army reform.
A lecture delivered in the s]iring of ]8()2 'On the
connection of the present period of history with
the idea of the working-cdass ' strongly brought out
the contrast between Lassalle's position and the
Liberalism of his day. In his Open Letter to a
comnnttee of German workmen at Leipzig (1863)
he still more clearly expressed his dissent from
the current Liberalism, and in luminous and com-
])rehensive language exp(mnded the leading points
of his social democratic ]irogramnie. His success
in advocating his views now encouraged him at
Leipzig to found the I'niversal German Working-
men's Association. Its jirogramme was .a simple
one — by all legal means to agitate for universal
sullrage. In the autumn of 1863 Lassalle con-
tinued his agitation on the Rhine, and in the
winter of 1863-64 he attemjited to gain Berlin over
to his cause, hut without success. The chief
litcraiy product of the winter was his liiixtiat-
Sehulzc, or t'upital iiiid /.iilioiir, in which he
attacked Schulze-Delitzsdi, the i]rondnent repre-
sentative of German Liberalism. In May 1864
Lassalle held the last 'glorioiis review of his army '
on the Rhine.
In the summer of 1864 Lassalle met on the
Rigi Helene von IXinniges, a laily whom he
had previously known, and by wliiuu he had
been fascinated. They resolved to marry, but
encountered the strongest opposition from the
LASSALLE
LASSEN
525
lady's parents. UndiM- pressure from them the
l:iily at last reiiouiiceil l.assalle in favour of the
Walhu-hiau Count Kaoowitza. Mad with raj,'e and
niortiliiation, Liissalle sent lo botli her fatlier and
lover a challenjje, which Wiis accepted by the latter.
At the Carou^'e, a suhurh of Geneva, Las.salle fell
mortally wounded, and died two days afterwards,
Auj,'ust 31, l.Sti4. His unworthy end in such a
miserable all'air can hardly be reirarded as an
accident ; it was the outcome of the weaker
eleuieuls in a remarkable character.
Liissalle has left no systematic exposition of his
views. In the Ji((.ttiatKii/iiilzi\ Avhich is the nearest
approach to such an exi)o.sition, we lind philosophic
statement too frei|uently interruided by unprofit-
able controversy and unju.->tiliable abuse of his
opponeut. We can only fjlean from his works the
most important points of his teachiuf;. Lassalle
held that the historical development of Europe is
to culminate in a democracy of labour, in which
political interests shall be subservient to social —
the social democracy. The democracy of workers,
who are destined to be the makers and repre-
sentatives of the new order, are to be guided by
science and tlie hii;he>t ideals of culture and nn>ral-
ity. But they cannot by their isolated efforts fulfil
this high mi.->iou ; they need organisation. This
organisation they will lind in the state, which is,
and shoulil be, simply the great association of
workers, inasmuch as they constitute the over-
whelming majority of every community. The
Liberal or bourgeois regime has degraded the state
to the function of policeman or mere protector of
property. It will be the aim of the new epoch to
raise the state to its high and ancient position,
iis the promoter of freedom, culture, morality, and
progress ; its mission is the development of the
iiumau race in the way of freedom.
The working-class, however, need adequate
material means to enable them to rise to the high
vocation reserved for them. At present they are
crushed by the iron law of u-ages, the law which
holds the central and decisive position in the sys-
tem of Lassalle, and which therefore requires a
more lengthened statement. In his exposition of
the law Lassalle founds on Uicardo and the classi-
cal economists generally. It was the doctrine of
those economists that the workman's wage repre-
sents what is necessary for his subsistence (in
accordance with the standard of living usual anmng
his cla-ss) and for the continued supply of labour
in his family. It is not a lixed (juantity ; it ri.ses
or falls according as the sup]dy of labour de-
crea-ses or increiises in proportion to the demand
for it. A rise in wages leads to greater comfort,
more marriages, &c., and thcM* tend to increase
the supiily of labour, and thereljy again to lower
wages. A fall in wages leads to want, sickness,
abstinence from marriage, <.Vc. , and these teiul to
diminish the supply of labour, and thereby to rai.se
wages. There is contimial oscillation, but it
never rises permanently above or falls perman(Mitly
below the point necessary for subsistence ami the
continuance of the working-class. Thus, so long
as the present economic order, of which the ircm
law of wages is an implicate, continues, its inevit-
able operation leaves no hoi)e of real im]irovement
for the working-d.-uss ; in other words, it follows
from till- iron law that the existing order must be
fun<lamen tally changed.
For the iron law of wages is merely an im]dicate
in the rejgime of ca|iital, the exposition of which
Is the main theme of the liaslkttSoliulzi;. With
La-ssalle capital is a liLstorical category, the rise of
which we can trace, the disappearance of which
uuiler altered circumstances we can foresee. The
historical conditions necessary for the rise of capi-
tal were the opening of the world-market through
geographical discovery, colonisation and conquest,
the dcvcKipmeiit of machinery, and of tlie division
of labour, and aliove all the approjiriation of the
instruments of labour by a class, who, employing
another cla.ss of labourers free but destitute of
capital, pay them a subsistence wage and ])ocket
the surplus. Thus the general exposition of capital
leads us back again to the iron law of wages.
It is the gist of Lassalle's polemic against
Schulze-Delitzsch that the working-class cannot
by their unassisted elibrts escape from the iron law
of wages. The state, who.se function it is to pro-
nmte and facilitate tlie great juogressive movements
of humanity, must furnish them with the necessary
cai>ital. As the easiest and mildest means of tran-
sition Lassalle brought forward bis scheme of pro-
ductive associations with state-credit, by which the
workmen would be their own capitalists, would
secure the full product of labcur, ami would thus
gain for themselves the entire benelit of an ever-
increasing production. His scheme would more-
over ]irovide the organic germ of an ince.ssant
de\elopment, for the associations would themseh'es
combine into credit and insurance unions, until the
industries of the whole country should form a well-
ordered unity, superseding the present anarchic
condition of things by a systematic, rational and
equitable organisation of labour. As the associa-
tions would be self-governing, there would l)e most
adequate guarantee for freedom ; the state would
simply see that its credit was not abused. In
ell'ect the socialism of Lassalle is a collectivism,
resembling that of Kodbertus and JIarx, but in
many obvious points also difl'ering from theirs.
Since La.ssalle's time, the political economy of
Geiniany has been revolutionised, and the social
democrats are an increasing power in the lleichstag
and the country.
Bernstein edited for the social democratic party in 3
vols, an edition of Lassalle's socialistic writings ( 1891-94).
See the articles M.\R.X, SOCIALISM : monographs on
Lassalle by Bernstein ( Eng. trans. 1 S93 ), Brandt ( 1895 ),
Aaberg (18S3); Brandes, Ferdinand Lassalle (2d Ger-
man ed. 1888); Muhring, tieschichtc dcr iJvutschtn iiocial-
demokratie ; Laveleye, Le SoHalisme conianporain (Eng.
trans. Socialism of To-day) \ J. Kae, Conkiitjwrari/
Socialism ; W. H. Dawson, Gentian Socitilisiti and
Ferdinand Lassalle; the Countess Kacowitza's Memoirs
( 1879); and George Meredith's Tnujic Comedians.
Lassoil. AViLLl.VM, astronomer, born at I><dton,
in Lancashire, on 18tli June 1799, ' belongs to that
class of observers who liaxe created their own
instrumental means.' He built himself a private
observatory at Starlield, near Liverpool, about
18'20, and observe<l there ilown to IStil. There, too,
he cimstructed and mounted eiiuatorially rellecl-
ing telesci>])es of 9 inches aperture and 2 feet
aperture successively. The speculum of tlie latter
was polished by means of a machine of La-ssell's
own invention. With this .same telesciqie he dis-
covered the satellite of Neiitune (1S47); the
eighth satellite of Saturn (1848), simultaneously
with Prof. Bond of Harvard; and two new satel-
lites of Uranus (18.')1). In ISOl he went out to
Malta, and there set up a rellectiiig tidescope of
4 feet a])erture and .■?" feet focal length, mounted
e(|uatorially ; with this he made ob.servations until
Isiw, chieliy of nebiihc and tlii' satellites he had
discovered. After his return to ICiighuid he trans-
ferred his oli.servalory to near Maiilenliead. There
he died on 5th October 1880. See Mi moirs of
Aslron. Sor., vol. xxxvi., fin- his work in M.alta,
anil Trans. Uni/. Hoc. ( 1874) for a descri|ition of his
polishing-machine
Lassen. <'11I;isiian, orientalist, was born on
'12t\ Oi-lolin ls(i(t, 111 Mcigen, in Norway, and studied
at (Jhrisliaiiia, Heidelberg, ami Bonn. He assisted
Schlcgel in the imblicatiou of the Jidindi/ana and
526
LASSO
LATHAM
Hitopadesa , and translated into Latin Jayadeva's
Gitagovinda. He also associated himself >vitli
Eugene Buinouf in the Essui sur le Pali ( I'aris,
182t)). In 1830 he became extraordinary and in
1840 ordinary professor of Ancient Indian Lan-
guaj;es and Literature at Honii, and tau^lit there
until liisahled by blindness in l.S(i-l. He edited
many Sanskrit works, deeply investijjated the
relations of the oriental langna^^es and antii|uilies,
and published several very important books.
Amongst them are works on Persian Cuneiforms
(1836 and 18-15); on the Greek Kings in Bactria
(1838); Instilutioncs Lingnw Prao'iticm {IS37);
his great work on Iiidische Altertlmmskunde, a
critical history of Indian civilisation (1844-61 ; new
ed. 1867-74), ^.c. He has oontiibuted much to
our knowledge of the cuneiform inscriptions, of
the inscriptions of ancient Italy, and of the ancient
and modern Iranian dialects. He was one of the
co-founders of the Zeitsi:lirift far die Kiindc dcs
Mori/fii/atides. Lassen died at Boim, 9th May
1876.
LilS.SO (Spanish l(izo), a tliin, well-plaited
rope of raw hide, used in Siianish America for
catching wild cattle, (tne end is fastened to the
saddle gear of the man wlio uses it, the other ends in
a small brass ring, by means of which a running
noose, usually 8 feet wide, is formed. The rider
holds a coil of the lasso in the left hand ; with the
right he dexterously whirls the open noose round
his head, and burls it (to no great distance, but
with a wonderfully sure aim) so as to fall
over a given object — round the horns of a wild
ox, or the like. In Mexico the lasso is in rcaia
( ' the rope ' ) ; thence the term lai-iat for a kind
of lasso in the United States. The lasso has been
used in warfare with deadly effect. See B0L.\.S.
Lataki'a (Turk. Ladikii/cli), a <lecayed seaport
of Syria, Mith a sanded-u)) harbour, stands on a
rocky cape 75 miles N. of Tripoli. It possesses
remains of Roman buildings, having been a
flourishing port during the early empire ; it was
still a wealthy city at the time of the Cru-sadcs.
The present town occn|>ies tlie site of the ancient
Laodicca ad Mare, which was founded by Selencus
Nicator, and named after his mother. Pop. esti-
mated at 10,000, who export tiie Latakia tobacco,
grown on the hills in the interior, and some grain,
silk, sponges, oils, &c.
Latcaii, Louise. See Stigmatis.vtion.
Latt'OII-isail. a large triangular sail, common
in the .Mediterranean. See S.\II.,.
Latent Ilvat. SeeHE.\T, ami Ev.vpohation.
Latent Life, a phrase often used to describe
the physiological ('oiidition of organisms in which
the functions are for a lime suspended, without
losing the jiower of futine activity. The condition
is one of the grades between full life and total
death, and was contrasted by Claude Bernard with
the ' constant life ' of most organisms, and with the
'oscillant life' of those which hil)ernate. It is
illustrated by dry seeds and (piiescent spores, by
encysted ova and Protists, and by those animals
and plants (e.g. paste-eels and lichens) which
survive desiccation. See DKSirc.vno.N', LlKK.
Lateraii, Ciitriicii ok St John, the first in
dignity of the Itonian churches, and styled in
Roman usage 'the Mother and Head of all the
churches of the city and the world:' as cathedral
church of Rome it sur|iasses St Peter's in dignity.
It is called Lateral! from its occui>ying the site
of the splendid palace of Plautius Lateranus,
whii'li, having esi-heated (66 .\.I). ) in conserjuence of
Lateranus being iniplicated in the conspiracy of
the Pisos, became imperial property, and wa-s
I given to St Sylvester by the Emperor Constantine.
It was originally dedicated to the Saviour; but
Lucius II., who rebuilt it in the middle of the l'2tli
century, dedicated it to St John the Ba]itist ; in
1586 it was completely demolished by Sixtus V.,
and rebuilt from plans by Fontana It has been the
scene of five councils, regarded as o'cumenical by
the Roman Church (see Coi'Nt'll, ). The Lateran
Palace was the habitual residence of the popes
till the I4tli century. It is now under the control
of the Italian government. Pius IX. converted a
portion of it into a ninseum of classical sculpture
and early Christian antiquities. In the jiiazza of
the church stands the celebrated relic called the
' S<'ala Santa,' or ' Holy Staircase,' which is rejuited
to be the stairs of Pilate's house at .leru.salem,
miule holy by the feet of our Lord as be |i;issed to
juilgment.
Laterite. a mineral substance, the ])roduct of
the disintegration and partial decomposition of vari-
ous igneous and schistose rocks. It often attains
a very considerable thickness, es])ecially in tropical
regions, where the heat is extreme and the rainf.all
at certain seitsons is copious. In such regions the
chemical decomposition of rocks is more or less
rapidly eflfected, and the resulting i)roducts may bo
swept by the rains over wide areas. The earth so
formed is generally red in colour, as in Ceylon,
where in the dry season it is blown alxmt iis a tine
<lust, and imparts its hue to every neglected article
and to the dresses of the inhabitants. The red-
ness of the streets and roads .-Utracts the notice of
every stranger at Galle and Colondx). In the
Deccan laterite derived from the (hu-omposition of
the basalts of the great plateaus reaches a thick-
ness in many places of u]iwards of 150 feet. The
red colour is due to the presence of iron oxide ; but
when this is absent or in small quantity the laterite
may be whitish or yellowish.
Latex, in Botany, the sap of i)lants after it has
been elaborated in the leaves. See S.\l'.
Latliaill, Roiiiciti' (JoliDoN, ethnologist and
philologist, was born '24111 March 181'2, at the
vicarage of IJillingborough, in Lincolnshire. Kroni
ICton he passed in 182!) to King's College, Cam-
bridge, of which in due course he was elected
fellow. In 1842 he took the degree of M.D. ; but
nine yi^ars before a tour in Uenmark and Norway
had led him to direct his attention particularly to
Scandinavian ]ihilology. Prom 1842 to 1849 he
held appoiutinents in connection with London lios-
]iitals; already in 1839 lie had been elected )jro-
fessor of the Kuglish Language and Literature in
ITniversity College, London ; ;ind in 1852 he became
director of the ethnological ilepartment of the
Crystal Palace. His first work was Aorwoi/ iiud
the Aorireifiaiis (1840), followed by translations
from Tegncr's FrilJiiuf's Siain. His well known
work, Kiiijlisli I.iDii/iiKifi'. published in 1841, wi-nt
through numerous editions. Tlie Xidiiral Jli.tturi/
(;/' l/ie Varieties of Mniihiiiil (1850) was justly
accepted as a valuable contribnlion to ethmdogy.
Among his other works may lie menlioued his
edition of Tacituss (icniuitiia, with philological
and historical not(^s ( 1850) ; Kt/iiiolur/// of tlie British
Co/oiiies (1851); Kth/ioloi/i/ of the British Islands
( 1852); Jtlaii and his Mi'irtitiu>is{ 1851 ); Jlesrri/itirc
Ethiiolorin ( 1859 ) ; The Bthiiolvi/i/ ofKiirojie ( 1852) ;
Natire litices of the lliissinii Kiii/iire ( 1854) ; a new
edition of Johnson's Dietioiiiirii ( 1870) ; Oittlincs if
(r'ciieral vr /lerelojiiiotdal I'hiluloi/i/ (1878). The
fact should be s|iecially emphasised that in 1862
Latham entered the lield against Lassen, Bopp,
I'ott, (Iriiinii, and Max .Miiller, declining to accept
the central .Asian theory of the 'good .\rvaii,' and
aHirmiiig the view, since advanced by Penka,
Sclirader, Isaac Taylor, and Sayce, that the Aryan
LATHE
LATIN LANGUAGE
527
race oriiiinated in Europe. He sutl'ereil for yeare
from apluisia, and died at I'ntnov 9lli Maroli 18S8.
Since ISU3 he had been in reeeii>t of a ^'overn-
nieut pension of £100. See the lonj; oliituary l>y
T. Watts in the Athcnivum for 17th March 1888.
LatllO. See TrUNINO.
LatllOIII House, the seat of the Earl of
Lathom, in Lancivshire, 45 miles ENE. of Ormskirk.
It is a Grecian mansion, built about 1750. Its
Sreilecessor was splendidly defended by Charlotte
e la Tremouille, Countess of Derby, against Fair-
fax in 1(U4.
Laths. Laths are small strips of wood of vari-
ous len^'tlis, rarely more than 4 feet ; they are made
either by splitting latlnvood. which is the Norway
spruce Kr (Piiius ahirs), or else they are sawn
from Canada deal. The sawn laths are a modern
introduction, due to the development of steam
sawmills in Canada, which thus use up the small
IX)rtions of the lumber. Laths are used for nailing
to the uprights of partition-walls and to the rafters
of ceilings ; they are placed slightly apart to
receive the plaster, which, by being pressed into
the intervals, is retained, and when dry is held
securely on the wall. Slatei-s" laths are longer
strips of wood, nailed on to the framework of
the roof, for the purpose of sustaining the slates,
which are fivstened to the laths by nails.
Latliyriis. See Sweet-pea.
Latil'iiii«iia. See Agraei.\n Laws.
Latimer, Hugh, Protestant martyr, was born
at Thurcaston, near Leicester, about the year 1485.
' My father,' he tells us, 'was a yeoman, and had no
lands of his own ; only he had a farm of three or
four pound by year at the uttermost, and hereupon
he tilled as much as kept half a dozen men. He
had walk for a hundred sheep ; and my mother
milked thirty kine. He kept me to scliool . . .
and was as diligent to teach me to shoot as to learn
nie any other thing.' An only son, Hugh was sent
at fourteen to Cambridge, in 1510 (while still an
undergraduate) was elected a fellow of Clare, and,
haWng taken ordei-s some nine years Itefore, was in
1523 apjiointed a univei-sity preacher. In 1524
for hisIj.D. thesis he delivered a philippic against
Melanchthon, for he w ;is, in his own words, ' as
obstinate a papist as any in England.' Next year,
however, through much talk with liilney (q.v. ),
he ' began to smell the Word of (!od, forsaking the
school doctors and such fooleries,' and .soon becom-
ing noted as a zealous preacher of the reformed
doctrines. The consequence of this new-born zeal
was that many of the adherents of the old faith
were strongly excited against him, and he w;is
embroiled in controversies. The question of the
divorce brought Latimer more into notice. He was
one of the Cambridge divines appointed to examine
;i-s to the lawfulness of Henry's nuirriage. and he
declared on the king's side. This secured him the
royal favour, and he was made cha]ilain to .\nne
Boh-yn and rector of West Kington in Wiltshire.
In 1.5.35 he w;is consecrated Bishop of Worcester;
and at the opening of Convocation on 9lh June
lo.'lG he preached two powerful sermons urging the
work of reformation. After a while that work
rather retrograiled than advanced, and Latimer
found himself with his bold opinions in little favour
at court. He retired to his diocese, and laboured
there in a c<mtinual round of 'teaching, preaching,
exhorting, writing, correcting, and reforming, either
as ability wouhl serve or the time would bear.' This
was his true vocation ; he was an eminently practi-
cal reformer. Twice ilnring Henry's reign he was
sent to the Tower, in 1539 and 1.54i), on the former
occa-sion re-signing his bishopric. At Edward VI. s
accession he peremptorily declined to resume his
episcopal functions, but devoted himself to preach-
ing and practical works of benevolcni'c. The |>ulpit
was his great power, and by his stirring, homely
sermons' he did much to rouse a spirit of religious
earnestness throughmit the land. At length by
Eilward's death (155;}) he was stayed in his course
of activity. In April 1.554 he was examineil at
Oxford, and committed to Hocardo, the common gaol
there, where he lay for more than a twelvemonth,
feeble, sickly, worn out witli his hardships. In
September 15.35, with Kidley and Cranmer, he was
brought before a commission, and after an igno-
minious trial was found guilty of heresy and handed
over to the secular power. On Ititli October he
was burned with Kidley o]iposite Balliol College,
exclaiming to his companion, ' lie of good I'omfort,
Master Ridley, and play the man : we sliall thi.s day
light such a candle by Cod's giace in England as I
trust shall never be put out.'
Latimer's character presents a combination of
many noble and disinterested qualities. He was
brave, honest, devoted, and energetic, homely and
popular, yet free from all violence ; a martyr and
liero, yet a plain, simple-minded, unpretendin"
man. Humour and earnestness, manly sense and
direct evangelical fervour, distinguish his sermons
and his life, and make them alike interesting and
admirable.
His sermons, letters, &c. were edited, with a memoir,
by the Rev. 6. Elwes Corrie (2 vols. 1844-45). See also
TiiUoch's Leaders or the Reformation (1859); and the
Lives Viy Gilpin (1755), the Kev. it. Demaus (1809), and
R. M. and A. J. Carlyle ( 1900).
Latin Empire, the name given to that por-
tion of the Byzantine empire which was seized in
r204 by the Crusadei-s, who made Constantinople
their capital. It was overthrown by the Greeks in
1261. See BvzANTiXE Empire.
Latin Language and Literature. Latin
is one of the members of the Aryan or Indo-
European family of languages. In ancient Italy
several languages were in use ; of which the Etrus-
can, spoken in Etniria (q.v.), and the lapygian,
spoken in the south-east of the peninsula, were
non-Aryan, and very ilistinct from one another
and from all the other Italic tongues. The latter
fall into two main groujjs : the Cmhrij-Siiltilliun,
including Umbrian, Oscan or Sanmite, and Sabine ;
and the Latin, spoken in Latium, and pndiably at
one time in Campania and Lucania, afterwards
partly Helleuised. This Italic group seems to
have had closer affinities w ith the Celtic tongues
than with (Jreek (see Greece, \'(d. V. ]>. 384). Eor
the relation of tlie Italian tribes to (me another,
see KciME. Latin was the language <if Home. The
growth of Itome led to the dominance of the Latin
over the others ; and under Greek inlluence Latin
became a great literary tongue.
Latin has played a great part in the history of
language, entering largely, ius it did, after Kmne's
conquests into tlie dialects of Sjiain and (!aul,
countries thoroughly permeated by Homan life and
civilisation. Thi? liomance languages are built up
on Latin, are indeed Latin in a new dress. Italian
may be described as modern Latin ; French and
Spanish, the latter es|)ccially, are based mainly on
Latin ; and English, of eoui'se, has borrowed laigtdy
from Latin. (See Komance I-axciages, the rele-
vant sections on the Italian, French, Spanish, and
other Komance tongues, ami English L.vngiai;e.)
Latin rellects admirably the leading character-
istics of the Koman ])eople. It is the language of
a practical, hard-headed people, who fell them-
selves called to rule, to give laws, and to establish
order. A'irgil's famous vei'se, 'Tu regere inqierio
populos, Komane, memento' {.Kncul, vi. 852),
happily exjucssed the genius of Konie. Latin, it
lin-s been said, is the voice of Empire and of Law;
528
LATIN LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE
it Kuits history, pulitics, jiirispnuieiice, the husi-
ness of the law-eouil, hut it is not i)liaiil oi- lh'xil)le
enough to lend itself to the sul>tleties of jihilosophi-
cal speculation or to tlie relinemenls of tlie highest
j>oetry. Horace, with all his skill, eviilently found,
in the composition of his odes, that Latin did not
run very easily into a lyric mould.
Of literature, properly so calle<l, there was nothinp;
at Home till the 3rd century l',.V. It then took the
form of annals ; we can hardly diginfy it with the
name of 'history.' These annals were, in i)art at
least, hased on old family clironicles, which the
conservative spirit of the Homans jealously guarded.
Family life in the great houses of Rome was in-
tensidy strong; a funeral was .always a very solemn
and impressive ceremony, and was never complete
without an oration commemorating the merits of
the deceased man. These orations, or at anyrate
the heads of them, were committed to writing and
treasured in the family archives, and in them the
annalists of the 3d century n.c. found their mate-
rial.s. The early history of Home would, in fact,
he nuide up of the memorials of a few nohle families.
Tlie systematic treatment of it was undertaken
towards tlie close of the 3d century by Fabius
Pictor and Cincius Aliinentus, who, however, wrote
in Greek, feeling no doubt that as yet Latin was
hardly equal to the demands of literary composi-
tion. The famous jSIarcus Porcius Cato, the Censor,
as he was styleil, who had fought in the great war
with Hannibal, and who lived on into the middle of
the 2d century B.C.. seems to have been the father
of Latin prose. His history of his own time, and
his Orighics, in which he <liscussed the origin of
Itonie and of some 'other cities of Italy, were the
lii'st iin])ortant works written in the Latin language.
Only a few meagre fragments have come down to
us.
Contein]iorarv with these men were two poets,
Na^vius and Knnius — metrical annalists we may
call them — who gave the Komans histories in verse
of tlie first and second Punic wars. NiB\ius wrote
ill the old native Italian metre — .Satnrnian, as it
was termed ; Knnius ( half a (!reek by birth) intro-
duceil the Greek hexameter. With these two poets,
both men of considerable genius, Latin literature
made a decided advance. A few poor fragments
of their works are still extant, sutlicient to show
that they accepted the current legends and tradi-
tions about the origin of Home.
Side by side with these essays in ei)ic poetry
there grew up .a dramatic literature, to whicli
Enniiis and N:cvius also contrilmted. This aro.se
in the 3d century li.u. out of rude old Italian stage
representations connected with poijular festivals, and
from a growing actpiaintance with Greek culture,
which by this time was widely ilillused throughout
Italy. The rough Latin humour, not much better
than a sort of horseplay, could not evolve anything
that deservi'd to be calleil the drama till it had
come into conta(tt with (Jieek art. The lirst play
is said to have been exhibited on a Itoman stage
under the superintendence of Livius Andronicus,
a Greek from Tarentum, whom we may regard as
the father of Roman dramatic poetry. From that
time the theatre became a recognised institution
among the Romans. Tiie |)lays of Andronicus
were ada]>tations, almost translations, from the
Greek ; for the most part they seem to have lieen
clumsy, inartistic performances. Still, they were
popular and very widely cinMilated, and ga\e the
Romans a decided taste for theatrical entertain-
ments. Ennius and N;rvius improvc.'d on Ihcm ;
nor did they conline Ihemsidves to a servile imita-
tion of the Greeks, but aspired to build uj> a truly
national drama, taking their subjects Iroin old
Roman legends or even from the iiistory of their
time. Tragedy as well as comedy, though never
enually popular, now took its ])lace at Rome.
Tnrough Ennius more espeei;dly the rather ijues-
tionable moral inllnence of the clever an<l subtle
Euripides, with its cosnio])olitan an<l denationalis-
ing tendencies, liltered down into the Roman mind,
with the result of somewhat weakening the libra of
Roman character. Of Ronuiii tragedy, however,
we know but little ; sensational horrors seem to
have been peculiarly attractive, fostering perhaps
the vile taste which subseipienlly found its gratiii-
cation in the gladiatorial combats. Of comeily the
chief and to us the best-known representative is
Plautus, deservedly a most jiopular jioet with tlie
Roman peojile, as his twenty extant plays testify,
full as they are of original huiijour, of luight, witty
dialogue, and funny, laughable incidents. Plautus,
it seems, was exhibiting his plays in the latter
part of the 3d and the early years of the 2nd
century B.C. Terence followed at no distant inter-
val ; six of )iis comedies which have come down
to us show that a rather more relined ami culti-
vated taste was coming into fashion. There is
something of a moilern tone and llavour about
Terence. He is a jjleasing, graceful w riter, w itiiout,
however, much originality ; lie in fact did little more
than reproduce Greek comedies, es2>ecially those of
Menander.
There was another branch of literature alongside
of the drama, distinctively Roman, so that Quin-
tilian ( x. 1, 93) says of it ' it is all our own.' This
was satire — 'satura,' as the Romans called it — by
which they seem to have meant both a sort of
rude iliamalic medley or miscellany, and a string of
reflection, in a poetical form, on mankind and the
world in general. Indeed all poetry that could not
be classed as epic or dianiatic came under the head
of satire. There was nothing necessarily satirical
in our sense about it. Ennius was a writer of
'satires' in the old meaning of the idira.>-e : but it
was Lucilius, in the latter lialf of tlie 2d century
li.C, wlio introduced what we understand by
'satires,' and jireiiared the way for Horace and
Juvenal. It was from the poets of the old Greek
comedy, from Aristophanes, Eupolis, and Ciatinns,
that he borrowed the idea of ]K>litical satire, in
wdiicli, it seems, he allowed himself the utmost
freedom. The i)ublic men of the day were the sub-
jects of his attacks, and he lashed them, it is said,
with merciless severity. His versilication wai
rough, but he was undoubtedly a man of real wit
and genius. \Ve have unfortunately only a few
scraps of his jioetry.
Prose lilciature was but poorly represented in
the '2d century !!.<;. by a few inferior historians, or
rather annalists, of whom Cicero ami Tacitus express
a very mean oi>iiiion. They seem to Iuino oeen
utterly uncritical chroniclers, ridiculously preten-
tious, and always straining after rhetorical etlect.
In the early jiart of the 1st century was a historian
of some merit, Si.senna, who described the social
war and the civil wars of Mariusand Sulla. Cicero
speaks of him with considerable praise (Brutus,
G4), and Sallust (Jii(/iirt/iii, O.')) says that in his
treatment of the period of Sulla he was a careful
and painstaking writer.
In till- 1st century n.c. Roman literature m.'ide a
great ailvaiice. A man of jinidigious learning anil
industry, Marcus Terentius Varro, poured forth a
multitude of works on every variety of suliject, dis-
cussing agriculture in a treatise which has come
down to us, and idiilology, grammar, and anti>|uities
in elaborate dissertations which are unhappily lost.
A'arro, too, was .a jirolilic writer of 'satires," which
in his case seem to have taken the form of moral
and jihilosopliical essays, more or less resembling the
jiajiers in ihiiliumhler and i'>//ctiat(jr, or Cicero's short
dialogues on 'friendship' and 'cddage. ' Varro's
heart was with the old lite of Rome, and he liked to
LATIN LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE
529
ridicule the new lights ami (iieek philosophy, then
liecouiinj^ fashionahle. Indeeil he Wius a witty ami
lively sjitiiist, as we may see from our extant fra;;-
ments, and lie must certainly have been one of the
very first of Konian men of letters, a profoun<l
stmlent ami a clever essayist.
Cicero w:us ten years junior to A'arro. It was
the aim of his life to create a perfect prose style,
and in this he ha-s j,'enerally been regarded as suc-
cessful. As head of the lloman bar he was accejjted
as. an arbiter of finished rom])ositi(m and of correct
taste. His speeches were iiublished after careful
revision as political iianiphlets. In his numerous
lihil<)so]iliical works he dexterously adapted Latin
to tireek thought and speculation, achieving with
considerable success a ditHcult work which had
hitherto been but very imperfectly accomplished.
The general verdict on him is, and as far as we
can see will always be, that he was a consummate
artist in style, if not a deep or fruitful thinker.
In poetry, in the first lialf of the 1st century,
there was a new departure, a school which formed
itself on the model of the Greek fashionable poets.
At the head of this movement stands Catullus, the
first to naturalise tJreek lyric metres at Rome, a
man of genuine poetic feeling and with true pathos.
There is a more hearty ring about his poetry than
in the more elaborate odes of Horace. Catullus
had a touch of genius as well as scholarship and
culture. His poems — the coarse ones too, it must
be feared — accurately reflect the tone of gay Koman
fashionable society. A widely ditt'erent poet was
the earnest and philosophical Lucretius, w ho in his
De Rcriiin Nutiira puts the doctrines of Epicurean-
ism, acceptable no doubt to many of his contem-
poraries, into the dre.-ss of hexameter verse, in which
lie consideralily improved on Ennius. There is a
stateliness if not much grace about the hexameters
of Lucretius. The subject-matter of his work is
decidedly unpoetic, but the genius of a poet makes
itself felt in several passages. In the midst of a
dreary wilderness are many beautiful spots and
resting-places.
The later ]iart of the 1st century was the great
age of Konian poetiy, the age of Virgil, Horace,
and Uvid, familiar names throughout the whole
civilised world. The fact that we happily possess
their works entire is a proof of the high estimation
in which they were held. Much of what is best in
modern poetry is distinctly traceable to their in-
spiration. It has been the fashion to speak of this
period as the Augustan age.
Virgil (70-19 B.C.), said to have been a great
admirer of Lucretius, to whom he was evidentl.y
Indebted, has the special merit of having brought
Latin hexameter verse to exiiuisite perfection.
There are no hexameters in the whole range of
Latin poetry to com])are with those of Virgil. His
peculiar charm lies in a nice subtlety and refine-
ment of expression, which makes the work of a
translator almost hoi)eless. Every sc-holar recog-
nises the great difficulty of \'irgil. His Fastoials
(l!uc<dics) and his four Georr/irn, poems on the
various pliases of agricultural life, and written, it
would seem, to stimulate a healthy tiuste for rural
pleasures, were direct imitations of Creek originals.
Along with minute descri[itions of lainiing opera-
tions, which he forces into verse w ilh extraonlinary
ingenuity, are beautiful and highly poetic episinles
— as, for instance, when he sings tlie prai.ses of the
farmer's life by way of C(mclusion to his second
Georgic, or tells the tale of Orpheus and Eurydice
in the fourth and last of these iioems. In his. /■,'«<■/(/
he imitates Homer ; here he writes with the defin-
ite purpose of stirring lloman patriotism, tracing
back Home's origin to Troy and to the ^ods, while
he seeks to please Augustus by suggesting a com-
parison I»ctwcen him and the Trojan hero ^Eneas.
2{)4
Virgil stood high in the emperor's favour, and rose
from the rank of rather a small country squire to a
foremost [dace in the great fasliionalile world of
Home.
Horace (65-8 B.C.) was a man of very humble
origin, the son of a father who hail been a slave,
but he received a lilieral education, w liicli his natural
genius enabled him to turn to good account. His
Odes are to a great extent imitations of Greek lyric
poetry, his metres are borrowed from the Greek ;
still there is much that is truly original in them,
much that is distinctly Itonian, and there is an
indescribable charm about the exijiiisito linish of
the language. Their peculiar grace .-uid beauty,
which to all Latin scholars are nio.st delightful,
seem to evaporate even in the most skilful transla-
tions. In his satires and epistles, the most poimlar
of his writings, because so full of homely common
sense and a pleasant, genial humour, there is a
charming lightness of touch, an easy natural style
and manner w hich perhaps have never been equalled.
His laugh has no bitterness ; of satire in one sense
there is ne.xt to nothing in these amusing essays.
'The terseness of his language,' it has been well
said, 'is that of a proverb, neat because homely.'
Like Virgil, whose friend he was, Horace enjoyed
the favour of Augustus.
Ovid (43 B.C.-18 A.D.) is the most voluminous of
the Koman poets, and his facility in poetic coni-
I)osition seems to have been absolutely boundless.
His verse is a marvel of cleverness and ingenuitj'.
His great poem, the Metamorphoses, is a collection
of mythological stories, turning on the change of
men and women into animals, trees, plants, or
Howers. His Fasti or limnan Calendar, a sort of
poetical almanac, abounding in well-told stories
of old Kome and her heroes, is on the whole
pleasant reading. His love poetry, on which he
specially prided himself and no doulit took great
delight, are very bright and playful, in style and
expression almost perfect, but they have not much
depth of sentiment, and here and there they are
so sensuous as to be positively offensi\e. One can
well understand how it was said of him that he
corrupted the morals of the youth. He luis been
fairly well described as the poet of fashionable
society. From some cause unknown to us he
was forced to end his days in a sort of Siberian
exile on the shores of the Black Sea.
Two poets, writers of elegiac verse, contem-
poraries of Ovid, deserve a ]iassing mention — Pro-
pertius and TibuUus : the first learned, pedantic,
anil obscure, yet often rising with true poetic
fervour into a manly dignity and nobleness of
thought; the latter sweet and tender, with a
decided tinge of melancholy, the melancholy of a
Koman who resigneil himself to what he regarded
as the fallen fortunes of his country, and who
deliberatel.v kept aloof from the inqierial court.
Tibullus was the friend of Horace and Ovid.
Prose-literature in the 1st century B.i'. was re-
presented by Ca'sar, Sallust, and Livy. The great
Citsar wrote the history of his camiiaigns in a style
admirably suited to the subject-matter, and recog-
nised by all scholars as a specimen of the best and
purest Latinity. Sallust (8G-:U li.c. ), whom we
know through his narratives of the Catiline con-
spiracy and the war with Jugurtha, modelled him-
self <m Thucydides, and like liim aimed at a ]ihilo-
sophical treatment of history. As yet Kome had
had mere annalists ; in Sallust she found a man
who really deserved to be called a 'historian.' Of
his Histories, a work which is said to have treated
of the ]icriod iiiiiiii'diately following Sulla's death,
we have but fragments.
Livy (59 li.c.-19 A.u.) was simply a man of
letters, taking no part in polities. His great work,
the history of Uonie from the begiimiug down to
530
LATIN LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE
9 B.C., tlie .year of tlie last campaign of Diusiis in
Germany, and of liis death, written durinj,' tlie
reign of Augnstus, with whom he Wivs on friendly
terms, tlnnigli himself a re[)ublican, was comprised
in I4"2 books, of which we possess 35, the last of
these bringinj; ns down to 1G7 B.C., the year of the
anne.xation of Macedonia as a jirovince to Konie.
Livy's treatment of his snbjcot evidently became
fuller and more detailed as he approached his own
time. Hence the loss of Ids later books is irre-
parable. As it is, we have not adeqnate material
tor a thorough history of Rome in the 1st century
B.C. Livy's style is all that can lie ilesired, bright
and lively, as picturesque as that of our own
Macaulay, but he is not a learned or critical
writer ; he wrote for the public generally, not for
scholars or antiquaries ; Ids aim in fact was to
popularise the history of Home and to magnify her
empire, not to sift the legends ^^•hich had gathered
round her origin and early growth.
The last years of Augustus, and indeed most of
the 1st century a.d. , were, as regards literature,
almost a barren desert : no poetry of any account, no
forensic oratory, which uncler tlie empire had little
scope, and no history. With Domitian, tlie last of
the Caesars (SI-9H .\. D.), came a revival of lettei-s,
the silver age of Latinity, as it has been called,
marked by the names of Juvenal, Tacitus, Pliny
the Younger, and Quintilian. Under Nero indeed
there had been a few minor lights in literature : the
satirist Fer.sius, spirited and dramatic, but obscure
and aftected, reminding one here and there of
Browning ; Lucan, author of a poem once read in
schools and universities, describing under the title
Pharsalia the civil war of Ca'sar and Ponipey ;
and Seneca, whose numerous essays on morals
and philosophy, embodying as they do what was
best in Stoicism, have much of a modern, even of
a Christian, tone. To these we may add the
witty epigrammatist Martial and the learned and
laborious Pliny the Elder ('23-79 A.D.), in who.se
Natural Histori/ we have a comprehensive work
on geography, botany, zoology, medicine, wdth
attempted e.\])lanations of every kind of natural
phenomena. A coni|nlation rather than an original
work, it is very useful as giving us an insight
into the physical philosophy of the ancient world.
Juvenal's satires — satires in our sense of the
word, bitter and savage — were published in the
early part of the '2d century .\.I)., under Trajan
and Hadrian. The man's honest indignation against
the vulgar rich and the cringing tribe of parasites
and fortune hunters, with which Uonie swarmed,
has mir hearty symjiathy, and it is expressed in
pure, vigorous l..atin. Johnson has imitated two
of his satires in his London and his Vanitij of
Human Wishes.
The most consiucuous literary ligure of the age
was the great historian Tacitus, wlio was not, like
Livy, a man of letters and nothing more, liul who
was practically aciiuainteil with public life, and had
distinguished himself at the Konian bar. An under-
tone of satire runs through his writings, which at
many points remind us of Carlyle. He sums uji
a character with a few trenchant epithets, and
throws out reflections which have passed into ]iro-
verbs. There is pcrliaps no anciml author wlio
has sup])lied more material for the modern essayist
and historian. His concise and nervous style at
once arrests the reader, and again and again de-
mands from him a very considerable mental ten.-.ion.
His life of his father-in-law, .Agricola, governor of
Hritain under Domitian, a m;ist('rpiece of bio-
graphy, wits written in !).S A.l). ; so too was his
Ocrinaiii/, a descri|ition of the native jiopulation
of that country, with a ski^tch of its geography — a
Buliject which must have been interesting to Komans
who knew how little impression their arms had made
on tlio.se wild regions. In his Annals and His-
tories, much of which has been unfortunately lost,
he describes the period from the accession of Tiberius
to that of Xerva ( 14-OS .\.l). ). .-Vll that remains to
ns is his history of the reigns of Tiberius, Claudius,
Xero in jiart, (iallia. Otiio. Vitellius, and of the
rise of Vespasian. His Hisiorics, as he termed the
memoirs of his own time, were evidently written
with great fullness of detail, and the lo.ss of the later
books is much to be dejilored. In these we .should
have had a minute and trustworthy narrative of the
three last Ca'sars, and of the better time which
began witli the brief reign of Nerva. Suetcmius, a
writer of the same period, tlie author of biogiaiddes
of the twelve Ca-sais, which have come down to us,
supplies but very poorly our delicicncy.
With Tacitus we may couple his intimate friend,
Pliny the Younger, as he is known in contradis-
tinction to his uncle, whom we have already men-
tioned. The name is generally fannliar as that of
the m.an who as the governor of a Itoman lu'ovince
in Asia Minor came into collision with the early
(.'brislians, and gave his opinion of them in a letter
to the Emperor Trajan. I'liriy's letters, dealing as
they do with every variety of to|ne — politics, litera-
ture, art, society, with glimpses into his home-life
and descriptions of his villas— and written, too, in
a plciusing style of good Latinity, rank among the
best literary sjiecimens of the period. They are of
special interest as illustrating aspects of Roman
life which would otherwise be unknown to us.
A work also of great merit lias hajipily come down
to us from the pen of an eminent professor of
rhetoric, Quintilian, who is said to have numbered
Pliny among his juipils. It is a treatise on rhetoric
and liindred subjects, written in the reign of Domi-
tian, discussing with dee|> learning and sound
critical taste tlie whole subject of education, and
concluding with a short sketch of (ireek and Konian
literature in its special connecticui with oratorical
training. Scholars have always ailmired its diction.
Latin literature is from this time almost a blank,
re|>resented only by a few feeble writers whose
names are not worth noting in a brief summary.
The age of what we call classical liatin was tinally
over. Petty rhetoricians and e|iitomisers alone
survived. Coming down to the close of the 4th
century a.d., the jieriod of the Emperor Theodosius
(the lirst of that name), we light on a writer who
has been described as ' the last subject of Koine
who composed a profane history in the r..atin lan-
guage,' Ammianus .Marcellinus, the historian of the
periotl from ttG to .'JTH -V.I). Katber moie than the
half of bis work is extant; in this we have a full
account of the reigns of Julian, Jovian, N'alentinian
I. and II., and Valens — in all twenty-live years of
the history of which he bad a personal knowledge.
He is a good, ii.sefnl writer, but hardly a man of
liHters. The last of the classic poets, Claudianus,
tlourislicd about the same time.
In the last years of the otii and the lirst half of
the Gtli century .\.l). lived the learned lioelhins,
w hose work on the consolation to lie derived from
pliiloso])hy {Dc Consolatione) was translated by
King Alfred. There is something of a mystery
about Koethius : whether he was a Christian or
halthcatlu'ii philosopher i> uncertain ; he seems to
liave liovei'c<l on the borderland betwuin the rising
and the decadent belief.
Latin was now the language of the Christian
church of the West, and the Vulgate the current
\ersion of the Scriptures ; in Latin, more or less
cultured, were written the wdrks of the Latin
Kathers, of the theologians and thinkers of the
middle ages; sonorous Latin hymnologv with
rhyming metres grew up ; and l.aliii remains still
the language of the services in the ( 'atholic Church.
Learning and literature almost died out for
LATIN UNION
LATITUDE AND LONGITUDE 531
centuries, tlie period we call the dark a;;es.
Latin in its fusion in the ("ellic and Teutonic
dialects was quite losing its distinctive character,
although it is true that Home imposed not only
her yoke li\it her language on Spain and tJaul :
still, as regards language, her victory was won
with heavy loss. The grammar and syntax indeed
were to a gieat extent retained : hut, with the
introduction of the definite and indelinite articles,
of the auxiliary verb, the addition of a number of
words from the barbarians, and the utter disregard
of quantity in pronunciation, Latin underwent a
conijilete cliange, ami was at last transmuted into
its derivatives, the Romance languages. In its
corrupted form, however, it was for a long period
a living language, but it cejvsed to Ije so in the 10th
century. With the revival of lettei-s in the 15th
and 16th centuries Latin recovered itself: Ciceron-
ianism became the f;isliion, Enismus being one of
its most eminent representatives. Latin for tlie
time established itself as the recognised medium of
communication in the learned world ; and almost all
books of any importance, theological and scientific
treatises, were written in that language. The con-
troversial works of the English and Swiss reformers
were written in Latin ; so were the works of Bacon,
and Newton's Principia — to quote but a few
examples. In the universities professors lectured
in Latin : candidates for degrees disputed in Latin
theses ; the giace before and after meals was in
Latin — a usage still surviving at Oxford and Cam-
bridge and in the Inns of Court. Notes to editions
of the cla-ssics, both critical ami explanatory, were
always in Latin ; and Dr Arnold thought it neces-
s.^ry to apologise in the preface to his Thucijdides
in 1830 for deviating from the universal practice.
It was indeed a true instinct which assigned the
Latin language a principal place in our schools
and universities. Not only is it the key to a most
important literature, but it throws infinite light on
the history of language in general, as well as on
the particular languages of modern Europe. Hence
it is an admirable instrument of mental discipline.
See the articles in tliis work on the several Latin
authors referred to; those on Alphabet, Abvan Race,
Drama, Church History, Fathers of the Church,
Graffiti, Hvmxs, Ixsckiptioxs, Philology, Renai.s-
8ANCE, Rome, Romance La.nguages ; the grammars of
Roby, Kennedy, Madvi^', Kiihner, Stolz and Schinalz ;
the (Jeruian works on the history of the language and
literature by Bahr (new ed. 1873), Bemhardy (1872),
ilunk (new ed.lSSl ), TeuH'el ! trans. 1873 ; German .")th ed.
IHDO); .Simcox's History of Latin Literature from Ennius
to Boethiiis (\S6'i) ; CiatiyxeW's Ifi^tori/ of Moman Liter-
ature (187'J); Browne's HiKlorii of Roman CUunical
Literaturr (new ed. 1884); .Sellar's Roman Poets of the
Republic (new ed. 1881) sniof the Aiiyustan Age(new
<d. 1884); Wilkins's trimcr ; Tyrrell's Latin I'ortrii
(1895) ; and Mackad's Latin Literature. Mayor's UiUio-
ijraphic Clue to Latin Literature (1875) is based on
Hiibner. iSte also W. M. Lindsay, Tlie Latin Lawjuaije,
a Hiniiirlnil Arroiint of its ."i'JUuUs, Stfnu, and Flexions.
Latin I'llioll. See lilMKTALLlSM.
Latitude Uiul Loilifitllde, in Geography,
denote the angular distane(-s of a place on the
earth from the equator and first meridian respec-
tive!}'. The latitude of a place is the angle
subtended at the centre of the earth by the arc
of the meridian from the equator to the place in
question. The hmgitiide of a place is the angle
at the earth's axis between the plane of the lir.st
meridian and that of the meriilian of the place.
Latitude is reckoned from the ei|uat(U- to the
poles, the equator having 0^ lat., and the iioles
90' X. and 90' S. respectively. Longitmle is
reckoned along the equator or along a parallel of
latitude from the first meridian ; but jus nature lia.s
not in thi.s ca.se supplied us with a fixed starting-
point, it is necessary to fix upon one in an arbitrary
manner. Cardinal Hichelieu in the 17th century
proposed to use the meridian of Ferro, one of the
Canary Isles, for this )uirpose, ;ts this meriilian
lay to" the west of all the Old World iuiil to the
east of America. The -Aral) geogra|diers had also
reckoned longituih- from the ' Fortunate Isles.' For
convenience the meridian of Ferro was sul)se(|uently
reckoned ;i-s exactly '20' W. of Faris, and thus lost
its independent character. The meriilian of (ireen-
wich came into widest use, being universal as the
zero of longitude in sea-charts .and in the 1,'ind
maps made in the United Kingdom and the I'nited
States. Large scale m.aps of the I'nited States
are usually marked with longitudes west from
Creenwich and also the number of degrees from
W;t.sliington. One set of engraved meridians
serves for this purpose, as Wasliington lies 77° W.
of Greenwich. I?y the decision of a conference of
delegates from almost all the civilLsed countries
in the world, held at Washington in 1884, the
meridian of Greenwich was accepted as the uni-
versal prime meridian, from which longitudes were
mea-sured to + 180° (or 18(J' E.) and - 180° (180'
W. ) ; the French delegate dissented, and in France
maps are still drawn to the prime meridian of Paris,
although reference marks to Greenwich longitude
are now usually added. On German maps the
meridian of Berlin was .sometimes employed, in
Italian maps that of Kome, and in Russian maps
that of Pulkova Observatory (St Petersburg) is
still commonly used together with that of Ferro.
The determination of both latitude and longitude
depends upon astronomical observation. The prin-
ciple on which the more usual methods of finding
the latitude depend will be understood from the
following considerations : To an observer at the
earth's equator the celestial poles are in the
horizon, and the meridian point of the equator is
in the zenith. If now he travel northwards over
one degree of the meridian the north celestial
pole will appear one degree above the horizon,
while the meridian point of the equator will
decline one degree southwards; and so on, until,
when he reached the terrestrial pole, the pole of
the heavens would be in the zenith, and the
equator in the horizon. The same thing is true
with regard to the southern hemisphere. It thus
appears that to determine the latitude of a place
we have only to find the altitude of the pole, or
the zenith distance of the meridian point of the
equator (the complement of its altitude). The
method most usual with navigators and travellers
is, by means of a sextant, to observe the
meridian altitude of a star whose declination or
distance from the equator is known ; or of the sun.
whose declination at the time may be found from
the Aaufiidl Alminnir ; the sum or dill'erence
(according to the direction of the declination) of
the altitude and declination gives the meridian
altitude of the equator, which is the co-I.-ititude —
i.e. when subtracted from 90° leaves the latitude.
The determination of the longitude is less easy,
and long presented insuperable practical dilliculties.
All methods depend on measuring the diU'erence
between local time and the time of the liisi
meridian, which, reduced to degrees (at the rate ol
300° per day, or 15° for every hour, or 1° for 4
minutes), gives the longitude. Eclipses of the sun.
moon, or Juiiiter's satellites, occultations of fixed
stars by the moon, the time occupied in the momi's
transit over the mi'ridian, iVc. are occurrences the
e.xact period of which are calculated in advance in
Greenwich time. When om; of these phenomena
is observed the true (ireenwich time can at once
be obtained from the Xuiitical Aliiniiiar, and the
local time Innn direct observation is the only other
datum rc(|uired. Tiic longitude of stathuis on
land cimuect^'d by telegraph with an observatory
532
LATITUDINARIANS
LATTICE LEAF
is most readily aiul accurately detennirieil hy an
exchan<;e of time sij;iials ; the exact iiositioii of
every observatory is always ascertained to a lii^li
decree of accnracv liy ri-]icatcd oli^crvalioiis of
celestial plicnoniena. Tliu two methods in use
■aiiiong travellers and on hoanl ship are remarkahle
for their eomliinatiim of simplicity with accuracy.
The lirst ami most common consists merely in
deteriuininf; at what hour on the chronometer
(which is set to (Jreenwich time) the sun crosses
the meridian. If, when the sun is on the meridian,
at the i)lace of ohservation, the chronometer points
to 3 hours 52 minutes, the ditl'erence of longitude is
58°, and the longitude will he W., as the sun has
arrived over the place lati:r tli.an at Greenwich ;
similarly, if the sun he over the meridian of a ]dace
at 9 hours 40 nunutes a.m., the longitude is 35° E.
(by the chronometer). The accuracy of this method
depends evideutl.v ujion the correctne.ss of time-
keepers (see HouOLOGY). The other method — that
of 'lunar distances' — is much used at sea in order
to check the results of chronometer measurements,
and uuxy lie thus explained : The angular dis-
tance of the moon from certain lixed stai-s is
calculated with great aei^uracy (about three years
in advance) for every three hours of Greenwich
time, cand published in the JS'iiiiticu/ AliiKtiiac.
The moon's distance from some one star having
been observed, and corrected for refraction and
parallax, and the local time having also been
noted, the ditt'ereuce between this local time and
that time in the table which corres/iottds to the ^aiite
distance gives the longitude. When ajiplied to a
heavenly body, the terms latitude and longitude
h.ave the same relations to the ecliptic and its i>oles,
and to the point on the ecliptic called the Equinox
(q.v.), that terrestrial latitude and longitude have
to the e((uator and a lirst meridian. The positions
of a heavenly body relatively to the equator are
called its Declination (q-v.) and Kiglit Ascension
(q.v.). See also DEciKEK.
Liltitudiliariaiis, a name applied by con-
temporaries to a school of theologians within the
English Church in the latter lialf of the ITtli
century. It grew out of the earlier mo\ ement in
favour of a more liberal constitution for the church,
represented by the names of Falkland, Hales,
Jeremy Taylor, and Chillingworth. This earlier
nmvement w;is mainly ecclesiastical, aiming at a
wider extension of the Anglican Church system;
the later Wiis nulinly philosophical, and had still
more directly in view the interests of rational
religion. The school was represented by a succes-
sion of well-known Cambridge divines, of whom
the chief were Wbichcote, Smith, Cudworth. and
More. Starting from the same ground as Hales
and Chillingworlh, in the disregard for authority
and tradition in matters of faith, and the a.ss(;rtion
of the supremacy of reason as the test of truth,
their liberalism takes a higher flight, and brings
us to the discussion of larger questions and prin-
ciples of a more fundamental aiul far-reaching
character. The Cambridge divines, nurtured on
Plato and the later I'lalonists, sought to weil
]ihilo.sophy to religion, and to conilrm the union on
an indestructible basis of reason. Theirs was the
lii-st attempt to link together ])hilosopliy and
('hristianity ever made by any Protestant school ;
and, indeed, the (ii'st true attempt since the days
of the great Alexandrine teachers to ccmstruct a
]ihiloso]ihy of religion at once free and conservative,
in which the rights of faith and the claims of the
speculative intellect should each have free scope
and blend together for nnitual elevation and
strength.
See the articles on Chillinowobth, Falkland, Hales,
Smith, kc ; and Principal Tulloch's Rational Theoloyy
lit England in the Si-i^ciitei-nt/i Ccntitri/ (2 vols. 1872).
Laliiiiii. See Rome.
Latoiia. or Leto. See Apollo.
Latuiir d'.luvorsiiM'. Theoi-hile JI.alo
CdKRET DE, dulibcd by Najioleou ' I'irst (Jrenadier
of the Armies of the Re|)ublic,' was born, 23d
November 17-13, at Carhaix in Finistere, of an
illegitimate branch of the family of the Dukes of
Latour d'Auvergne. He eidisted as a musketeer
in 17C7, and distinguished hinrself at the siege of
Port Mahon in 17S2. But he steadily refused
advancement in military rank, and was killed, a
simple captain, on 28th June 18(W) at Uberhausen,
near Neuburg in Bavaria. His remains were
carried to Paris and interred in the Pantheon on
4th August 1880. French biograidiies are full of
instances of his daring v.-dour, his Spartan sim-
plicity of life, and his chivalrous affection for his
friends. When he died the whole French army
mourned for him tliree days ; his sabre was placed
in the church of the Invalides at Paris ; and every
morning, till the close of the empire, at the muster-
roll of his regiment his name continued to be called,
and the senior sergeant answered to the call : '3Iurt
ail champ rC honiicur' {Dead on the held of honour).
Latour d'Auvergne was also a respectable student
of languages, and wrote licchcrches siir la Luiigite,
rOric/ine, ct les Antiquitis lies Bretons ( 1792). See
Li\ es by I'.ubot dc Ker.sers ( 1S74 ) and Simoud ( 1895).
La Trai»|>e. See Tkai-i'ists.
Latreille. Pierre Andre, French naturalist,
was Ijoru, 29th November 1762, at Brives, in the
department of Correze. Though he completed his
education for the church, he gave himself cliielly to
entomological studies. In 1798 he w;is commis-
sioned to arrange the entomological colh'ctions in
the Museum of Natural History at Paris, and in
18.30 was appointed to the chair of Natural History
(along with De Blainville) in the same institution.
He died at Paris on 6th February 1833. In 1796 .
he published his great work. Precis des Caractdres
Oeiicrii/iics des Insectes — an important step towards
a truly natural system of ent<uuology. The more
important of his other works are the i:>alainaiulrcs
( 1800), Si/ic/es ( 1801 ), Cnistaces ct Iii^ecles ( 14 vols.
\H02-ry), lieptiles (1802), Genera Cnistaceuriim et
Inseeturum (4 vols. 1806-9), Cun^derations sur
rOrdrc Naturel des Animaux (1810), Families
Katiirelles du, Hdijne Animal (1825), and Cours
d'Kntuniolu(jie (2 vols. 1831-33).
Lattt'll ( Fr. laton, 'brass '), a term .s|)ecially
■ajqilied tn sheet-brass, but also used for sheet-tin
and tinned iron-plate.
Latter-day Saiiit.s. See Mormons.
Latti4'<^ Leaf, also called Lace Leaf, AVater-
VAM, or OfVlRAXIiKANO {Oucinindra fcncstralis),
an aquatic plant belonging to the natural order
Juncagineu'. It is best known as the lattice-leaf
l)lant, from the singular resemblance of the leaves
to ojien lattice-work. The plant is a native of
Madaga.scar, and wa.> introduced into England
about 1850 by the Rev. \V. Ellis. It grows on the
margins of running streams in shallow water. The
leaves grow in radiating clusters, and lloat im-
mediately under the surface of the water ; in out-
line they are oblong, rounded at biuse and point,
from 9 to 12 inches long. Their peculiar structure
is due to the absence of the cellular tissue which
fills u|> the spaces between the nerves or vein> of
ordinary leaves, the veins, which in this instance
are almost geometrically parallel longitmlinallv and
transversely, being alone coated with cellular
matter and iiarenchyma. The tlower-stems rise to
the surface of the water and there divide into two
spikes of flowers, which are accompanied by con-
spicuous while bracts. The plant is not only
curious but useful as an article of footl to the
LATUDE
LAUDANUM
533
natives, who cat tlie yam-like roots. The native
name of the plant is Oiirirandraiio, which means
literally water yam. Tliere are several other species
of Ouviranilra, hut none so remarkalile and in-
teresting as the lattice-leaf plant, which is fre-
quently to he seen growinj: in hothouses. See
AQIATIC I'L.VSTS for illustration.
Latlldo, Henri M.vzek.s dk, jnisoner in the
Ba-stille, w.-vs born at Montajrnac, in Lanpueiloc, 2M
March 1725. A younj; .artillery othcer, he sou};ht
to secure Mailanie ile Pompadour's favour hy le-
vealing to her a plot to poison her. The plot was
discovered to he of his own contriving, .and lie was
sent to the Bastille in 1749. In spite of inf;enious
etTorts to escape, he remained in prison till 1777,
when he was released on condition of living in his
native village. But having come to Paris again,
he w.as imprisoned till 17S4. At the Revolution
he was treated as a victim of despotism ; but he
died forgotten, 1st .lanuarv ISO.i. See the mono-
grapli hy Thierry ( 179'2 : new etl. 1889).
Lilllbail* an ancient town of Prussian Silesia,
on the Queiss, 15 miles liy rail E. of (iiirlitz, carries
on linen ami cotton weaving, i)rinting, bleaching,
&c. Pop. ( 1895) 12,634. It was destroyed by the
Hussites (1427 and 14.'?11, and hv tiie Swedes
(1640).
Land. Willi.VM, Archbishop of Canterbury, was
born at Ue.ading, a well-to-do clothier's son, on 7th
October 1573. From Heading free-school, where he
' h.ad the happiness to be eilucated under a very
severe schoolmaster,' he passed at sixteen to St
John's College, Oxford, of which four years later he
was admitted a fellow. Ordained in 1601, lie made
himself olmoxious to the university authorities by
his open antipathy to the dominant Puritanism ;
bnt his solid learning, his amazing industry, his
administrative capacity, his sincere and unseltisli
churchniansliip, socm won liim l>oth friends and
patrons. One of these was Charles Blount, Earl of
Devonshire, whom in 1605 Laud married to tlie
divorced Lady Rich (an otfence that ever weighed
heavy on his conscience) ; another was Bucking-
ham, to whom he became confessor in 1622, having
a month previously disputed before him and the
counte,ss his mother with Fisher the Jesuit. Mean-
while he rose steailily from preferment to prefer-
ment— incumbent of live livings (1607-10), D.I).
(1608), president of Ids old college and king's cliap-
lain (1611), Prebendary of Lincoln (1614), Arch-
deacon of Huntingilon (1615), Dean of (iloucester
(1616), Prebendarv of Westminster ami Bishop of
St Davids ( 1621 ), Bishop of Bath and Wells, Dean
of the Chapel Royal, and a |)rivy-councillor (1626),
Bishop of Londcm (1628), Chancellor of Oxford
(1630), and finally Arclibishop of Canterbury
(1633). That very week he received two oilers of
a cardinal's hat ; Imt ' my answer,' he writes in liis
Diary, ' was that somewhat dwelt within me, which
would not sull'er that, till Rome were other than it
Ls.'
-Already, after Buckingham's assassination, he
had virtually become the lirst minister of the
crown, one with Strati'oid and Charles I. in the
triumvirate whose aim was ■absolutism in chunh and
state, and which thus stood np]>osed to Puritanism
•alike and democracy. Laud's task, a grateful one,
was to r.aise the English Church to its rightful posi-
tion of a branch, if a younger branch, of the Church
Catholic, to root out Calvinism in England ami
Presbyterianism in Scotland. In the former country
he ilrew up a list of 'Orthodox' and 'Puritan'
ministers, wlioni, the wheat and the tares, he pro-
ceeded to .separate by sc(dding, suspending, depriv-
ing. Freedom of worslii|i was wilhdi.iwn from
W.alloon and French refugees ; Englishmen abroad
were forbidden to attend Calvinistic services ; and
at home ' gosjiel preaching, justilicatiini by faith,
and Salibatananisni wen^ to bo supersedeil by an
elaborate ritual, by the doctrine of the real presence,
celibacy, and confession, and by the Book of Sports
(q.v.)— changes rigorously enforced by the court of
High Commission and the Star Chamber. Nor was
a policy without result which checked the develop-
ment of Puritanism within the Anglican com
munion ; which raiseil up a school of such Laudian
clergy .as Cosin, Nicholas Ferrar, George Herbert,
Juxon, Manw.aring, Montague, .ami Wren ; which
has borne later fruit in the Nonjurors, the Trac-
tarians, .and the Ritualists : and which to-day has
a standing memorial in every Anglican church
throughout the world — the altar-wise jiosition of
the Holy Table. In Scotland it was otherwise.
There the tentative effort maile by James I. and
Laud in 1617 to give back life to dead Episcopacy
had merely failed. Laud's second attemjit (1635-
37), involving the thorough Anglicising of the
Scottish Church, gave birth to the riot in St Giles',
Edinburgh, that riot to the Covenant (<|.v.), the
Covenant to the ' Bishops' w.ar,' and this in turn to
the meeting of the Long Parliament, which on
18tli December 1640 impeached the archliishop of
treason, and ten weeks later sent him to the Tower.
He would not escape ((Jrotius urged him to do
so); and at last, after a tedious and complicated
trial before a handful of peers, of whom never more
than fourteen were present, and of whom the
Speaker alone sat through the whole proceedings,
after a defence that extorted praise even from
Prynne, on 17th December 1644 he was voted
'guilty of endeavouring to subvert the laws, to
overthrow the Protestant religion, and to .act .as an
enemy to parliament.' The judges un.animously
declared that this was not treason ; but under an
unconstitutional ordinance of attainder, ami the
g.allows reluctantly commuted for the axe, he was
beheaded on Tower Hill, lOtli January 1645. He
was buried lirst in the church of All-Hallows, Bark-
ing, and in 1663 translated to the ch.apel of St
.John's at Oxford.
To Heylin Laud is ' the holy martyr ;' to Laud's
accusers 'the great incendiary;' to Macaulay just
'a ridiculous old bigot.' To us he seems rather a
typical college don, fussy, restless, high-handed,
concerned about trifles, cold and unsympathetic, as
little in mind as in person. Withal, he w,as child-
ishly superstitious, Ids Diary teeming with omens
and silly dreams, as ' Dreamed of the m.arriage of
I know not whom,' and ' Dreamed of the burial of
I know not whom, and wakeil sad.' .Superstition,
of course, w,as a failing of that age ; so, too, wa.s
the chief sin of which L.aud stamls accused — intol-
erance. For if Laud cut oil I'uritans' ears, the'
Puritans cut oil' Laud's head. His great ndsfortune,
indeed, was that he rose, like the parasite ivy, to
eminence. Had he lived and died a college luesi-
dent, his wiuspishness would h.ave long since lost its
sting, and his memory survived only as that of the
founder of the chair of .\rabic, and a munilicent
benefactor of the liodlei.aii Lihrary.
Of Laud's works, collected in the Anglo-Catliolic
Library ( 7 vols. <l.xfonl, 1847-60), by far the most inter-
esting is Ilia Diary, wliicli was published hy Wharton in
UiiH. I*etcr Heylin, Laud's chaplain, first wrote his bio
graphy, (.'t/pyitiituK Anij/ininun (1068); ami there are
modem lives hv be Has f lS;i(i). Mozley (1845; repuhlisheti
in Essni/s^ 1H78), Hook { Lifcx nf Airhhisfiojt.t, 1875).
A. V. iienson (1887), C H. Sinipkinson (18114), an.;
K. H. Hutton (181)5). See also the articles, with work^
there cited, on Ch.vklks I., STRAtFuKi), CniLLlNGWoiiTH,
HALE.S, Jerkmy Taylor, and Fbvnne.
Laildaillllll. or more correctly TlxcTt'liK (iK
Ol'UM, is the most gem-rally used of all the |ircpara-
tions of opium. It is obtained hv macerating the
sliced or powdered drtig in dilute spirit, and filtering.
534
LAUDER
LAUENBURG
It is of a (leeji lnownish-rod colour, and possesses
the iH'oiiliar (h1()\u- ainl s 11 of opium. One of
the t,'''<''itt''<t objections to it is that it is liable to
tjreat \ariatioiis of strenKtli- When the tiuctuie
of o])iiini is ordered a delinite strength is always
obtaiiipil. but tinder the name of Idiuhiiiinii various
compounds are sold, and the former term should
therefore alone be used. liandanum is a ]io\verful
anoilyne and soporilic, but is more iialile to cause
headache than the solution of one of the s.ilts of
morphia. Its {general action and its uses will be
described in the article Ol'llM. The dose for an
adult varies from ten minims to a drachm. To
children (as is the case with all opiates) it must be
piven with extreme caution. Our minim, or about
two dro])s, has been known to luove fatal to an
infant. See ToisdN.
Lailtlei*. a i|uaiut little royal burgh of Berwick-
shire, ou Leader Water. 25 miles SE. of Edin-
liurjih. Near it is Thirlestane Castle, the seat of
the Earl of Lauderdale. Till 188.3 it united with
Haddington, ^c. to return one member to jiarlia-
nient. Pop. 719. See James IIL ; and for the
town's immemorial tenure of Lauder ('ommon,
Gomme's Village Comminiitics (1890).
Lauder. RonErtT Scott, subject .and portrait
painter, was born .at Silvermills. near Ediuliini,'li,
ill ISO.'i, studied at the Trustees' Academy and in
London, and in IS.SO was elected a member of the
recently founded lioyal Scottish Academy. lie
lived ill Italy .and at Munich in 1833-38, .and then
chietlv in London till 1849, when he returned to
Edinbur<,'b. He died there, Slst Ainil 1869. Amonf,'
his best works are two jiortraits, 'Christ teachiui^'
Humility,' and 'Sentinels,' all in the National
( lallery of Scotland ; scenes from ' The Ibide of
Lammermoor,' 'The Tri.al of EiHe Deiins,' and 'Me^'
Meriilees.'— His brother, .I.\MKs Eckford Lauded,
U.S.A. (1811-69), w.os also a subject-painter. His
works include ' Hag.ar,' in the National tlallery of
Scotl.and ; 'The Unjust Stew.ard;' and 'The Wise
.and Foolish Virgins.'
Lauder. Sin Thomas Dick, Bart., was born
in 1784, the eldest son of Sir Andrew Lauder of
Fonntainhall, Haddin{;toushiie. He served for ,a
time in the •26tli (Caineicuiiau ) regiment, succeeded
to the baronetcy in 1820, and lived at the Grange,
near Ivlinburgh, from 1831 until his death on 29lh
May 1848. For the last nine years of his life he
was .secretary to the Hoard of Manufactures and
of Fisheries. Of L.auder's two romances, Tlic Wolfe
iif Biideiiijcli and Lorliamlhii, the former is still a
popular book. His best works are not these, how-
ever, but his Muniijsliirc Floods (1830) ami, especi-
ally, Scottish Jiiir.rs, which was appearing in Tuit's
Miifjiiziiie when his death cut the series of papers
short. His Lcfjciitlarji Tales of the Hir/hlands (3
vols. 1841) m.ay .al-^o be mentioned. In ]>olitics a
Liber.al, and of unwearying public spirit, Laudiu-
was in private a loval)le ami accf>m]ilished gentle-
man. liOrd Cockburn, who describes him as 'the
greatest favourite with th<? mob that the Whigs
li.ave,' says : ' Lauder coulil m.ake his way in tli(!
world as a player, or a ballad-singer, or a street
hddler, or a geologist, or a civil engineer, m a
surveyor, and easily and eminently as an artist
or a layer-out of ground.' See IJr .lohn Brown's
preface to the re]iriiit of Seottisli Ilivcrs ( 1874).
Lauderdale. .Idun Maitlanh, Dike ok,
who eanieil the di'lestation of his countrymen, was
liorii at J.elhinglon (now Lennoxlove), near Had-
ilington, '24tli May 1616, son of the (iisl Karl of
Lauderdale. In his youth he simulated anient zeal
fi)r the Covenanting cause, and W!us actually one of
the Scottish commissioners at the Westminster
As.sembly of Divines. He succeeded as second
earl in 1645, was taken i)risoner at Worcester in
1651. anil confined nine years in the Tower. Before
the IJestoration he had gaine<l the king's ear, and
he now became Secretary of State in Scotland.
He founil the noljles impoverished and corrupt
lieyoud all luecedent, and for the lirst seven years
he was engaged in an incessant struggle to main-
tain his |)lace with rivals like .Middleton as un-
scrupulous as himself, as well as with more ojien
and honourable opiiosition from ('larendon and
others in England. He made himself indispensable
to Charles, who liked his clever and caustic wit,
and felt no repugn.ance at his sensuality, his
ribaldry and his drunken buffooneries, his slobber-
ing mouth and heavy face brutalised bv vice, ;is
we see it still in Lely's portrait. ilis main
(d)ject was to bring about the absolute power of
the crown in church and state, and for this end he
laboured with the most unceasing iiersistence,
using p.atriotism, honour, and religion alike as mere
ji.awiis in his unscru]nilous game. He wiis ever
l)oId, full of resource, and quick to recognise the use
to be made of such creatures as the brutal Kothes
and the ' Judas' Sharp. His harsh measures goaded
the poor peas.ants of the west country into the
rebellion of 1606, but the greater guilt of the High-
land inv.asion during the winter of 1677 .and the
.spring of 1678 lies on the shoulders of the bishops
no less than of the ruthless Lauderdale. He
formed a militia of '20,()t)0 men re,a<ly to do the
bidding of the king anywhere, and drilled the
Episcopal Chundi into complete subservience. He
was a member of the king's ])rivy-council, had a
seat in the famous C.abal ministry, and was created
a duke in 167"2. Fresh intrigues against him of
the Scottish nobles, in concert with Sluaftesbury in
London, reached their height in 1674, but were
foiled by his own aliility in counter-plots and the
king's persou.al regard for him. (In the 7tli May
1(>78 a vote was carried in the House of Commons
for an address to the king praying for Lauderdale's
removal from the roy.al ])ieseiice for ever ; but two
days later, through lavish use of court iutimidalicm
and the Speaker's corrupt management of I he forms
of the House for procuring adjournments, the
address when i)reiiai"ed was thrown out by a single
vote. Another short struggU' with Hamilton in
the Convention of Estates left him again trium-
phant, and for two years more he held his jiower,
until unable from inlirmity to hold it hniger.
Lauderdale in his later life married the ambitious
Lady Dysart, and it was alleged h.ad cleared the
w.av by hastenin.g the di'ath of hi-< countess. He
had but one (laughter, and his dukedom died with
him, while the earldom and family titles passed to
his brother. He died, worn out by debaucheries and
the .anxieties of constant intrigue, at Tuiibridge
Wells, 20th August 1682, and eight months later
was lai<l in the Abbey Church at Haddiiigt(ui,
but not to rest, accoriling to iiersistent jiopukar
tradition.
Sec two athnirablc articles toj^ether embracing his
whole jmlilic career, by Osimiinl -Viry, in the Qmirtciiy
liieietr (vol. clvii. 1S.S4) and the Kiit/liah Hiatorical
Itcriew ( vol. i. 1880 ), based on the .'<('> voluines of Lauder-
dale MSS. in the Bntisli Museum, each containini; from
100 to l.'iO documents. A selection from these was edited
liy Mr Airy for the C^amdeii Society (3 vols. 1884-85).
Laudoil. See Ldt.DON.
Lauds. See Bueviauv.
Laueiihuru. or S.vxe-Laienhi'im;, a (ierman
duchy, fonmuly united to the crown of Denmark,
and lying on the right b.ank of the I'^lbe between
Hidstein and Mecklenburg. In the 12th century
this district was compiered by the dukes of
Saxony. In 1'260 .lohn I., sou of Albert 1. of
Saxony, foumled the dneal House of Saxe-Lauen-
burg. After the extinction of this line, it wji-s in-
herited by the Duke of BrunswickCelle in 1702,
LAUGHING GAS
LAUREATE
535
jxnd iKisseil into the possession of the Hanoverian
kinj,^ of Ureal liritaiii, was seizwl alonj: with
Hanover by the French in 1!S03, and afterwards,
with some ehan^'es ot iHumdarv, wiu< made over to
Frnssia, and by Prussia transferred to Denmark
(ISlti), but witli reservation of all rights and
privileges. Hy the treaty of Giistein (1S65) it
came again into the possession of Prussia. It
has an area of 457 sq. ni., and (in ISSo) 49,861
inhabitants, and is a wellcultivated and fertile
country. In ISTO Lauenburg was finally incorpor-
ated with the province of Sleswick-Holstein, of
wliicli it is now a district. Prince Bismarck was
oH'ered, and accepted the title of Duke of Lanen-
bnrg on his retirement from otiice in 1S90. — The
town of Lanenburg, once capital of the duchy,
stands on the Elbe, 25 miles SE. of Hamburg. It
has a pop. of 474S. It contains the old ducal palace,
dating from 1182.— Lavenbvrg, in Pomerania, 38
miles N\V. of Danzig, has flax and woollen spin-
ning, iron-founding, and inaehine-making. Pop.
7214. It was originally a town of the Teutonic
Knights (from 1322), tlien of Poland { 1454r-1657),
and linally of Brandenburg.
Laii^liius Gas. See Nitrogen, and An.es-
THE.SI.\.
Langliing Jarkass. or Great Kingfisher
( Daccio ijigas ), a bird belonging to the Alcedinida?
(see Kingfisher), but in some respects an aberrant
form. It has the general build of a kingfisher, but
is not a fisher. It feeds upon insects, reptiles, and
even small mammals. The peculiar hoot which it
utters has, of course, given to it its name. It lajs
its iiearl-white eggs in a hole in a gum-tree. There
is another closely allied species (D. tenrliii), of iden-
tical habits ; both birds inhabit Australia.
Laiince. See Eel.
Laillioeston. till 1838 the county town of
Cornwall, on tlie Kensey, a tributary of the Tamar,
36 miles NW. of Plymouth and 50 W. of Exeter
by branch-lines opened in 1865 and 1886. It has a
liandsome granite church ( 1511 ) ; the circular Nor-
man keep of a castle which figured mucli in the
Great Rebellion, and in which Fox the Quaker
was imprisoned (1656): an old gateway; and a
new town-hall ( 1887 ). A municipal liorough since
aliout 1227, l..aunceslon returned two members till
1 s:i2, one^ till 1 885. Pop. ( 1851 ) 3397 ; ( 1891 ) 4345.
See A. F. Bobbins, Lauiiceston, J^ast and Present
(Launceston, 1885).
Laiincrstoil. the second city of Tasmania, is to
the north of the island what Hobart, tlie ca]iital, is
to the south — the chief ]iort of entry and mart of
trade. It .stands in a valley enclosed by hills at the
junction of the Esk with tlie Tamar, whicli, after a
course of 40 miles, enters Bass Strait (q.v. ) at Port
Dalryniple. It is accessible to ships of considerable
burden, and carries on a thriving commerce with the
jirincipal Australian ports, having steam communi-
cation twice a week with Melbourne, and with
Sydney fortnightly. There is a railway ( 133 miles)
to Hobart. Tlie town is supplied witli water from
St Patrick's River, 15 miles E. The principal
buildings are the government-house, new |>ost-
oflice, convent, theatre, town-hall, .md mechanics'
institute ^vitll a library of 13,000 volumes.
Launceston was incorporated in 1858, and rai.sed to
a city in 1889. Pop. (1881) 12,753 : ( 1891 ) 17,208.
Launch, the largest l)oat belonging to a ship,
p'or steam-launch, see Boat ; for the process of
launching ship.s, see ShipuI'ILDING.
Laura. See Moxachlsm.
Laurai'Cil*. a natural onler of exogenous
plants, consisting of trees or shrubs which have
leaves without stipules, and Howers in panicles or
umbels. The perianth i.- 4 6-cleft; the stamens are
opposite to its .segments, and twice as many. The
fruit is a one-seeded berry or drupe ; the fruit-stalk
often enlarging and becoming lleshy. This order
contains about 4.50 known species, mostly tropical.
The Laurel (q.v. ) is the only Eurojiean species.
An aromatic and fragrant character pervades the
order, and amongst its products are cinnamon,
cjvssia, and other aromatic barks, also a number of
aromatic fruits somewhat resembling nutmeg (see
Nl'T.MKG). The timber of some species, as green-
heart, is valuable ; some are esteemed for their
medicinal barks, as greenheart (bebeeru)and sa.ssa-
f ras : some for their secretions, of which camphor
i=; the most important. Oreodaphiic opifrra, a
South American tree, yields a camphoraceous
volatile oil in great r|uantity if mere incisions are
made in its bark. The fruit of some species is
agreeable, as the Avocado Pear (q.v.). A very few
remarkable species, forming the genus Casytha,
have been tinited with this order by many botanists,
although others separate them as a distinct order.
They are climbing parasites, like dodders, found
in the woods of the hottest parts of the globe.
Lauroate. Poet, an otKcial attached to the
household of the English sovereigns. His early
history is inv(dved in some obscurity. In the Dumcs-
(hty Booh we linil one Berdic described as ' Joculator
Regis,' anil a certain Roger or Rahenis, king's
minstrel, is said to have fonnded the monastery of
St Bartholomew in Smithfield under Henry I. We
read of Richard I. canying William the Foreigner to
Palestine to sing hisex]iloits, and of Edward I. tak-
ing the Carmelite friar, Robert Baston, with him to
Scotland in 1304. The latter ap|i<arently went also
for the same purpose with Edward 11. to Bannock-
burn, but was captured by the Scottish soldiers and
forced to celebrate their prowess instead, as the
price of his freedom. The badness of his verses
(rhymed hexameters) was humorously ascribed by
the next century Scottish writers to the unw illing-
ness of his conscience. We read of one John Kaye
attached to Edward IV. as versifier {versijicator),
and before this period we meet the term ' laureate '
applied on the one hand to one who had earned the
lauiel wreath at one of the universities for rhetoric
and versification in Latin, and on the other to any
poet of surpassing merit. Skelton was one of the
former, and proudly styled himself ' Poeta Skelton
Laureatus' in the headings of his Latin poems;
the term 'laureate poete' applied by Chaucer to
Petrarch bears the latter sense. The lirst i)oet-
laureate in the modern sense was Sjienser, who w.as
granted a pension of £50 l)y Queen Elizabeth in
1591 ; but tlie first who received the office b\ formal
letters-i>,atent was Ben Jonsoii. His salary was
100 marks, raised by Charles I. to the same number
of pounds sterling, witli the addition of a tierce
of canary. James 11. was mean enough to dis-
continue the allowance of wine, but it was after-
wards resumed, until commuted for £27 a year in
the laureateship of Pye. It was long the duty of
the poet-laureate to write an ode on the king's
birthday — 'his quit rent ode, his peppercorn of
])raise,' in Cowper's |jlirase ; but this task fell
into abeyance towards the end of the reign of
; (Jeorge III. The list of poets-laureate preserves the
memory of a few names else almost forgotten ; but it
contains Spenser, Ben Jon.son, Dryden, Southey,
Wordsworth, and Tennyson. Tliecom]dele list, with
the years of olliee, is as follows -. Edmund Spenser
(1.59I-99), Samuel Daniel ( l.")99 1619 ), lien J(ms<m
(1619-.37). followed by an interregnum until
1660; William Davenant, knight ( 1660 68), .lohn
Dryden (l(i70-89), Thomas Shadwell (1689-92),
Na'hum Tail ( 1692-1715), Niclxda- Ro«e ( 1715-18),
Laurence Eusilen, clerk (1718-.'!0), Colley Cibber
(1730-57), William Whitehead (1757-85), Thomas
Warton, clerk (1785-90), Henry James Pye ( 179l>-
536
LAUREL
LAURUSTINUS
1813), Robert SouUiev (1813-43), ■\Villiam Wonls-
woitli ( 1S43 -,■)()), Alfivil Ti-iiriv>ciii ( 18.".ii-!)i'), Aifre.l
Austin (apixiinleil in 1S9B). Sih; W. Hamilton, The
Poets Laureate of Etirjland ( 1878) ; Kenyon West,
The Lanreiitcs of England ( 1896).
Laurel ( /.ff»r»«),a genus of Lauraceip, lestiicted,
containiiij; only a single species, the Noble Laurel
or Sweet I?ay (L. nobilis), a native of Asia Minor,
but now (lill'used over a!l the countries around the
Mediterranean Sea. It is often a mere bush of
15 feet or less, Imt sometimes becomes a tree of .SO or
even 60 feet high. It has rather large, lanceolate,
leathery, shining leaves, reticulated with veins,
and axillary clusters of yellowish-white tlowers of
no beauty. The fruit is oval, bluish-black, and
about half an inch long. Both the leaves and the
fruit are bitter, astringent, and aromatic, and were
formerly much \ised in medicine as a stomachic
and stimulant. The leaves are still used in cookery
for llavourmg. They contain a volatile oil (oil of
sweet hail), and a bitter, gummy extractive. See
the article B.vv, and the illustration there.
By the ancient (Jreeks the laurel was called
daphne: it was sacred to Apollo. Berry-bearing
twigs of it were wound round the forehead of
victorious heroes and poets ; and in later times
the degree of Doctor was conferred with this cere-
mony— whence the term laiireation ; and, accord-
ing to some, the term Bachelor (q.v. ). And to
this day a laurel-crown is the emblem of the honour
to which poets, artists, and Avarriors aspire.
The Noble Laurel is connnon in shrubberies in
Britain, but not nearly so common as the species
of Cherry-laurel, which share with it the name
Laurel, a-s do not a few other shrubs botanically
very different, but somewhat similar in their ever-
green foliage.
Laurel-cherry, or C'herry-l.\urel, i.s a name
given to those species of Prunus ( sub-genus Cerasus )
(see Cherry)
which have
evergreen
leaves. They
have small
flowers in long
racemes, and
small fruit — the
fruit of a naus-
eous taste — and
most parts of
the plant, but
particularly the
buils, leaves,
and kernels,
r e m a r k a b 1 y
abounding in
liyd rocyan ie
(prussic) acid,
and therefore
N'ery poisonous.
The t^ommon
Cherry-laurel j
(often spoken
of sinijily as the
Laurel or Com-
mon Laurel, or
even more er-
roneously as the Bay Laurel), Pruniis {Cerasus)
LanrocerasiiSy is a shruli, sometimes of the very
largest size, with large ovate-lanceolate, convex,
smooth, remotely serrated, shining, light-green
leaves, and erect racemes of (lowers. It was dis-
covered towards the middle of the 16th century
by Belon, at Trebizond, and thirty years later
introduced by Clusius through the iiuperial am-
ba,ssador at Constantinople, and planted at Vienna,
whence he soon widely ilistrihuted it. Ceranl
thus mentions it as a choice garden shrub in
Common Cherry-Laurel
( Pr units LauroceraMts),
England before the end of the century. It is
now natur.alised throughout the south of Europe,
and is one of the most conimon ornamental shrubs
in Britain, where it sullcrs only from such severe
frosts as are of rare occurrence. It is propa-
gated by seeds, layers, and cuttings. Its leaves
resemble bitter almomls in smell and taste, and
have in great abundance the same essential oil
(.see Almonds, Oil of), and hydrocyanic acid.
Erom these loaves, by maceration iii' water for
twenty-four hours, and subsequent distillation, is
obtained the Luiarhuatcr, or Chcrri/dnnrrl irater,
formerly employed in medicine tis a substitute for
hydrocyanic acid. The leaves are sometimes em-
ployed also for flavouring puddings, sauces. &c.,
and are safer for such purposes than oil of bitter
almonds, but ought to be used with caution, fatal
accidents being on record. A bottle of clierry-
laurel leaves bruised and moistened is often carried
{ by entomologists to kill their captured prey.
j Neither the essential oil mir the hydrocyanic acid
seems normally present during tjie life of the
leaf ; both are believed to be produced by the
decomposition of amygdalin, or by a ferment, but
neither of these has been successfully isolated.
Several varieties are in cultivation — notalily, e.g.,
var. latifolki, large leaved ; eoU-hica, dwarf, with
narrow, shapely serrate leaves ; and caueasica, w Inch
is said to be the handsomest, hardiest, ami most
vigorous of all. Another species, also very common
as an ornamental shrub in Britain, but not (piite so
hardy, is the Portugal Laurel (I'ruiins or Cerasus
lusitaniea ), a large shrub — sometimes a tree — with
smaller dark-green leaves ami lateral racemes. It
does not grow so well under the shade of trees as
the common cherry-laurel. From the dissimilarity
of form, size, and tint of their leaves, these species
contrast well in the shrubbery. The variety
myrtifolia is small and compact. Tiie North
American cherry-laurels are Priiniis earoliiiiana of
tlie southern states, and P. ilinfolia of (.'alifornia,
both small .and handsome evergreens.
Laiirciltinil System, the name given to the
lower division of the Arch;ean System (ij.v. ) in
Canada. For the Laurentian Kange of nu)untains
(also named from the St Lawrence), see C.\X.\D.\.
Laiii'i.stoii, Alex.\xi)I!k .LvcguEs Behn.vrd
L.vw, M.Mtijtis i)E, marshal and peer of France,
was a grand nephew of .John Law, the linancier,
and was born at I'ondiclierrv, 1st February 1768.
He was Napoleon's comr.ade at the Artillery School,
received rapid preferment in the army, aiul held
di]domatic apiiointnu'nts .at Copenhagen ami
London. After Austerlitz ( ISO.'i ) he took possession
of Venice. He held high commands at ^\'agram
(ISO!)) and in the retreat from Moscow (1812).
He fought at Bautzen (1813) and Katzbach, and
was taken prisoner at Leipzig. Already ennobled,
he was maile a peer by Louis Will, as not having
joined Naiioleon during the Hundred Days, .iiid
l)ecame marquis in 1817 anil marshal in 18'21. He
died lOth June 1828.
Laiirilllll. a nnuinlain (1171 feet) of Attica,
NW. of Cape Coloinia, and connected by a railway
with Athens. It was famous in ancient times for its
silver-mines, but these were already exhausted in
Strain) s ilay. Since IS74. however, the great heaps
of slag have been prolitably worked, and fresh
deposits of argentiferous lead and of zinc oic have
also been found, so that the nmst important mining
in the kingdom is carried on here. In 1887 neaily
60,000 tons of ores of every kind were ex]iorted,
besides 2779 tons of jiig-lead. The mining town
that has sprung u]) has a pop. of over oO(H). See
Xdtioiial lorliir for .luly 1888.
Laiiriistilllis ( Viliumum Tinu.i, see VrBt:R-
NTM I. .1 iMaiilitiil evergreen shrub, a native of •'
LAURVIK
LAVATER
537
south of Europe ami Noitli Africa, ami beloiijiing
to the natural order t'aprifoliacea-. Its beavity is
enhanced by its habit of thjwering in winter. The
Howers are white, in corymbs, and are succeeded
by small black berries with a bhie bloom, which
inriame the mouth, if eaten, like those of Mezeron
(q.v.), and are siiid to be violently purgative, yet
are the favourite food of certain birds. Laurus-
tinus sutlers from severe winters in Britain, and
will not endure the winters of northern Europe and
the colder regions of America.
Laurvik. a seanort of Norway, at the head of
a small fjord on tlie western side of Christiania
Fjord, 98 miles bv rail SSW. of Christiania. It
has several sawmills, ,and exports timber and other
products to the value of £155,000 annu.allv ; annual
imports, t'170,510. Pop. ( 1886) 11,196.
Lausanne, ca|)ital of the Swiss canton of
Vaud, is picturesquely situated on the sotithern
slope of the Jura ^lountains, close to the northern
shore of the Lake of Geneva, on which the village
of Oucliy (where Hyron wrote The Prisoner of
Chi/Ion) forms its harbour. Two principal parts
of the city are separated by a valley, across which
a Hue bridge (617 feet long and 82 feet high) wius
thrown in 1844. Lausanne is famous for its educa-
tional institutions ; amongst these institutions are
the new cantonal university, opened in May 1891,
and an industrial, music, and other schools. The
cathedral, a beautiful Gothic building, begun in
the lOtli century' and com]deted in the 13th, is the
greatest ornament of the city ; this church was the
scene of the disputation between Calvin, Farel, and
Viret in 1536, which led to the introduction of the
Reform,ation in the city. Here are the cantonal
museum of natural history and antiquities, and
the Arlaud Museum (1846) of Art, &c. Since
1875 Lausanne has been the seat of the Federal
Tribunal, which decides all questions pending
between the several cantons, and between the
cantons and the federal government. Lausanne is
much frequented by visitoi-s from all parts of the
world. Here Giblum resided for many yetare, and
the house in which he wrote the greater part of
the Deelinc and Full is still shown. John Kemble,
the actor, died and w.os buried here. The town
has little industrv, but considerable trade. Pop.
(1888) 31,049, of whom 86 per cent, are Reformed,
and 78 per cent, speak French. Benjamin Constant
was a native of Lausanne.
Lail.sitz. See LusATi.v.
Lailt«'l*brunnen, the name of an Alpine
valley in the Swiss canton of Bern, tlirough which
Hows the Welsse Liitscliine, one of the principal
feeders of the Aar. The valley is surrounded by
perpendicular walls of sandstone from 1000 to 160<)
feet in height, down which pour about a score of
waterfalls. Of the.se the finest is the Staubbach
( ' dust-stream ' ), 866 feet in height.
Laiitvorscliiebnns. See Grimm's Law.
Laiiziin. See BiRox.
Lava, any rock ejected from a volcanic orifice in
a state of fusion. Lavas ditfer mucii in liquiility at
thetiiiie of eruption — the basic laviis being more liuid
generally than those that contain a high percentage
of silica. The surface of a lava-stream, which
speedily cools and hardens, is generally moie
or le.ss porous and vesicular, from the escape of
the confined t;ases ; but, as rock is always a bad
conductor of fieat, the interior often remains long
in a liquid condition, permitting the continued
How of the stream sometimes to a very great
distance from the orilice from which it has been
discharged, notwithstanding its indurated covering.
The end of the stream is a slowly-moving nia.s»
of loose porous blocks, rolling and tumbling over
each other with a loud r.attling noise, being pushed
forward in fits and starts by the viscid lava, when
it hursts the hardened crust and rushes on. The
structure of the interior of a solid lava-stream shows
a compact and homogeneous rock, a.ssuming a more
or le.ss crystalline structure as the cooling has
been the work of a longer or shorter period of time.
Caverns are sometimes formed in lava-stre.ams by
the escape of the molten mass below, leaving the
cooled crust standing like the roof of a tunnel.
Laval, capital of the department of Mayenne,
and one of the most picturesque towns of France,
is situated on the river Mayenne, 46 miles by rail
E. of Rennes. Its chief buildings, both dating from
the 12th centurj-, are the cvuciform cathedral and
the old ducal castle of the Tremouilles (a pri.son
now), in whose courtyard young Philip de la Tre-
mouille. Prince de Talmont, was guillotined by
the Republicans in 1794. Since the 13th century,
when Flemish weavers settled here, the town h.as
been the centre of a district noted for its linen-
manufactures — linen, ticking, sackiu", &c. In the
vicinity the Vendeans defeated the Re[iublicans in
1793. 'Pup. 11872)24,255: (1891)38,405.
La VaU'tta. See Valetta.
Lavalette, Father. See Jesuit.s, p. 314.
La Valliire, Loulse Feancoise de Lacaime
Leblanc i>e. a celebrated mistress of Louis XIV.
of France, was born at Tour's, in 1644, of an ancient
and noble family. At an early age she lost her
father, and was brought to court by her mother,
who had manied a second time. She was not a
great beauty, and was slightly lame ; but the
winning charm of her manners, and the sweetness
of her face, quickly took captive the iitlections of
the king. She really loved Louis, and bore him
four children, of whom two died in infancy ; but,
altliough she and they received wealth and titles
of honour, she never lost her sensitiveness to the
dishonour of their birth. AVhen Madame de Montes-
pan became the royal f.avourite she retired into a
Carmelite nunnery in Paris, where she took the
veil in 1674. She died 6th June 1710, after having
spent more than thirty years in penances ancl
religious austerities. Her Reflexions snr la Miscri-
corde de Dieu par line dame pcnitcntc (1680) was
re-edited in 18^. A collection of her letters was
published in 1767.
There are Lives of the Duchesse La Valliere, by Quatre-
mere de Koissy ( 1823 ). Cai>efigiie ( 1859 ), Houssaye ( 18ti0 ),
and Duclos ('4th ed. 1890). See also Lair (1881), and
Pauthe (1891).
La'vater, Joh.xxn K.\.spar, writer on physiog-
nomy, was born on 15th November 1741, at Zurich,
studied there under IJodmer and Breitinger, and
iu 1769 received Protestant ordei's. He early
gained a high reputation by a volume of poems,
ent\t\ed Schweizerlicdcr (liai }. His next juiblica-
tion w,\s A ussichten in die EtciijKrit (ivol-^. 1768-78),
of which several editions were soon called for. The
tone of this and similar works is one of high
relignous enthusiasm, mingled with asceticism and
a considerable leaven of mysticism. From 1769
he ofiiciated in the or]>hanage church in his native
city, and from 1778 in the church of St Peter.
He brought his keen powei-s of observiition and his
skill in judging character to bear upon physiog-
nomy, which he attempted to elevate into a science,
in his most celebrated work, J'/iysiot/noinisrhc Frag-
menle ziir Br/ordiriin;/ der Mcnschenkennt niss and
.Mensc/ien/iebe (i \oh. 1775-78). This work, which
Holcroft first translated into English (3 vols. 1793),
is written in an e.vtrav.igant and iiiilaled style.
It gave rise to much discussion, was bitterly
attackeil, as by Nicolai, although (Joethe greeted
it with luai.se, and occasioned not a little display
of wit and humour from Lichtenberg and otliersi.
538
LAVAUR
LAVOISIER
Lavater was the clinseii spiritual adviser of many
|iei-sons in Switzerlaml and Ccimany, witli wIkhii
lie maintained an unwearied e<)rre.s]ii>ndenee. On
liis tours in (Jermauy lie was received with extra-
ordinary marks of popular esteem ami honour.
Whilst'tendinj,' the wounded on the street at the
capture of Zurich by Massona, "iGth Se])teniber
1799, he received a wound, of tlie ell'ects of which
he ultimately died on '2d January IStll. His IV;-
mischtc Schr'ificit appeared in 2 vols. (1774-81 ) and
his SammUiche kleinerc promische Scliriftcn in 3
vols. (1784-85). See Lives by Gessner (1802),
Heisch (English, 1842), and Muncker (1S83), and
mono^M-aphs bv Steck (1884) and Von der Hellen
{1SS8I.
Lavaiir. a town in the Fiencli department of
Tarn, on the Ajjout. 2.5 miles ENE. of Toulouse.
A bishop's see from 1317 to 1801 , it was the stron<,'est
fortress of the Albi;,'enses, but in 1211 was taken by
Simon de Montfort. Poj). 4G51.
Laveleyc, Emile Loris Victor de, political
economist, was born at Bruges on 5th April 1822,
studied at Paris and Ghent, and was appointed to
the chair of Political Economy at Liege in 1864.
His works include De la ProprifU et de ses Formes
Primitives (\ii~i ; Eng. trans. 1878) ; Lettres (V Italic
(1880-84); Le Sueiaiismc Catitrmpurain (\^S\ ; 3d
ed. 1886; Eng. trans. 1885); Moments d' Economic
Politique ( 18S-2) ; Jm I'eiiinsulc des JIuUmiis (18S6 ;
curtailed trans. 1887); and works on 'rural
economy' iu the Netherlands, and on current
topics of the day, such as education, luxury, the
gold question, and democracy. He contributed to
ihe Jicriic dcs IJciu; Mvinirs and some of the
English reviews. He was made a baron just before
his'deatli, 2d January 1892. See Life by Count
Goblet d'Alviella (1892).
La Vl'lldi'e. See Vendee.
Lavender {Larandnla), a genus of labiate
|>lauts, having the stamens and style within the
tnhe of the corolla, the upper lip of the corolla bilid,
the lower triiid. The Comnion nr Narrow leaved
Lavender (/,. rem or L. (tn(fu.itifolia), grows wild
on stony mountains and hills in the south of
Europe, and in more northern regions is very
generally cultivated in gardens. It has a delight-
ful aromatic fragrance, and an aromatic bitter
taste, and contains a great quantity of a volatile
oil, oil of liircnder. The whole i>lant ])Ossesses
stimulant pro|)erties, and is used in medicine, but
particularly tiie s])ikes of the tlowers, as a tonic,
stomachic, nervous stimulant, iKrc. Lavender-
lloweis are often put into wardrobes to keep away
moths, and are much used in perfumery. Oil of
Lavender is procured by distillation of lavender-
llowers with water, and is rather lighter than
water, pale yellow, very lliiid, and very fragrant ;
it requires 70 lb. of tlowers to yielil I lb. of oil.
,S/)irit of Lnn/idir is made by distilling lavender-
flowers with rectilied spirit; I.nvcndir ]Viiter, mn'.
of the most popular of all jierfumes, by dis.solving
oil of lavender with smaller quantities of other
volatile oils in rectilied sjiirit. Lavender is exten-
sively cultivaleil for its tlowers .at and near Mitcham
in Surrey, and at Hitcldn (q.v.)in Hertfordshire,
liroadleaved Lavender ( /.. lutifolia or /,. spicii) is
also a native of the south of Euro|)e, but is more
tender than common lavender. It is also le.ss
flagrant, and the oil which it yields is called Oil
of Spike, and sometimes Foreign Oil of Lavender.
This oil is used by jiainters on porcelain, and in
the preparation of varnishes.
Layer, a name given to a number of kinds of
seaweed, which are used as food, especially Por-
jihyra vuli/aris anil P. lariniata, of the sub-gro\ip
Floridete, or red seaweeds (Alga-). These plants
grow on rocks and stones in the sea, and are not
unfrequent on the Hritish shores. They consist
of a very thin, flat, jiurple frond, which is not
gelatinous. The frond of /'. rnli/aris is wavy and
undivided, that of /'. lariniata (sometimes called
Sloke) is deeply cleft, and h;us the segments lobed
and cut .at tlie edges. La\ er is sometimes stewed
and brought to table ; also ]iickleil and eaten with
|ie]iper. vinegar, and oil, or with lemon-juice. It
is regarded as u.-el'ul in scrofulous atlVctions and
glandular tumours, a ])roiierty widoli it (irobably
owes to the iodine which it contains. Porphyra
is the 'red laver' of commerce. The name of
Green Laver is given to U/ra latissima, of the sub-
group Chlorophycea", or green alga'. It is a com-
mon seaweed of the British shores, the frond of
which is green, mcudiranous, broail. Hat, wavy,
anil sometimes inllaled. It is bitterish, but is
often used in the same way ius the true laver, and
possesses sindlar ]iroperties.
La Villeiiiartnie. TmioDoitE Cl.wdk Henri
Hei;s.vut, \ii'iiMTi; de, Celtic antiiiuary and
scholar, was born of an aiudent Breton family
at Quim])erlc, 6th July 1815, and became in
due time a member of the Institute, and a corre-
sponding member of the Berlin .\cademy. His lirst
important work was Jlar:a:i:rri: (2 vols. 1839;
Eng. trans, by Tom Taylor, 18(i5 ). a collection of
]ioi)ular Breton songs and melodies, with a French
translatiiui and notes. Lnfmtumitely the scientific
value of this wink was seriously impaired by the
embellishments added to the ballads by the editor,
and the composite product of artilicially made his-
tory and allei'ti'd archaisms can he accepted neither
assouiul litciaturi^ nor as sale pliilology. The author
was insi)ircd by glowing p.itiiotisni and a loo f;u'ile
imaginaticui, but his conscience failed to teach him
the respect that is due to the grave dignity of his-
tory. Ibit Brittany is not the .Scottisii Highlands
of Macpherson's day, ami iireton schol.irs are too
learned for such iniposilions. An admirable ex-
posure of the defects of M. de la N'illemarqucs
work is Luzel's paper. Lrs Chants du BarzazBreiz
( 1872 ). He died 9tli December 1895.
Later works are Contcs populaircs deji Anciens Bretons
(2 vols. 1842), Poemes des lianlts Brcluns ( 1850), Noticea
des PrincipiiHX Manuscrits des Anciiiis Bretons i\So6),
Le Grand Sliistire de Jdsus (iStio), La Li'i/ciide Ctlliqut
en Irlaiide, e»» Cainbrie et en Bretagnc ( 1859), Myrdhinn
on VEncluinteur Merlin (1861), Les Romans de la Table
romlc (3d ed. 1S60), and J'oemes Bretons du Moi/eH'dffe
(1879). He also edited Le Gonidtc's Dielionnaire
Frcin'ais-Brcton (Saint-lJriuUc, 1857).
Lavoisier. Antdine L.vlrent, the founder of
the antijililogistic or modern chemistry, was born
in Paris, on 26tli August 1743, and devoted himself
to seientilic studies, particularly to chemistry. In
order to obtain means for more fully prosecuting
his investigations he accepted, in 1769, the ollice
of farmer-general. In 17(i8 he was made an acade-
mician. .As director of the government jiowder-
mills, he discovered in 1776 a way of greatly im-
proving the quality of gunpowder ; and in 1791 he
was appointed a commissioner of the treasury. He
rendered great .service in the aiiplication of chemis-
try to agriculture. A statement of his ]irincipal
discoveries, and of the gre.it (lart he i)laved in the
establishment of modi'rn chemistry, will be found
under CllEMIsriiV : his discovery of oxygen wius
wholly indiqiendent of Priestley {see Nature, xxvii.,
also W.VTEK). Lavoisier's services to science could
not save him from the jiopular rage against farmei-s
of the taxes during tlie Heign of Terror, ami he
died by the guillotine, 8th May 1794. His princi-
p,al work is the Traiti- flli' mental re ilc t'himie
(1789). His Comjilcte Works were |mlilished in
4 vols, in 1864-68. See his Life by Grimaux ( Paris,
\HHH); Kdinhurffh Hcvieu; July' 18!M) ; Berthelot,
Ln Rivohitiun Vliimiquc: /.ai'oijticr (1890).
LAW
LAWFELDT
539
Law is a term wliicli must l>e variously delineil,
accoriling to its apiilicatiou. The laws of nature,
as exixiuniloil by men of science, are general l)ro-
iiositions as to the order in which physical events
liave occurred, and will i>rohal>ly recur ; the moral
law, or the law of God, is a hody of truth thrown
into the form of rules for the fiuidance of human
conduct. But when we speak of law we usually
mean to indicate the law which is set and enforced
liy civilised states. Law, in this sense, derives its
sanction, or binding force, from the penalties by
which men are constrained to obey it or punished
for breaking it. The earliest source of law is cus-
tom : the customary rules of a primitive community
formed tlie basis of the Civil Law at Home, as they
form the basis of the Common Law (c].v.) in Eng-
land. Customary law is rigid and formal : in a
progi'e.ssive society it is relaxed and iinprovcil by
the u.se of legal fictions, by the inlluence of Ei|uity
(<|.v.), and by legislation." At Rome, for example,
the growing commerce of the city compelled the
praetor to go beyond the civil law (which was a
law for Romans "only ), and to devise a new law of
nations, ba-sed on principles of equity, such as all
civilised men could understand. When the Romans
began to study Creek they identilied this law of
nations with the law of nature, as expounded by
the Stoics. The civil law, amended and rational-
ised by successive pr*tors and emperors, has fur-
nished most of the nations of modern Europe with
the greater part of their legal rules and ideas ; even
England, while refusing to liorrow directly from
the Corjni.-< Juris Cin'/ia, has derived no small part
of her law from that source. Scots law has largely
ilrawn its principles and nomenclature from Roman
law.
It is usual to distinguish puldic law (constitu-
tional and criminal) from private law (which
applies to personal status, family relations, pro-
perty, and contract). Canon Law (q.v.) is not
received, as an entire system, by any modern
state; but its rules are followed in defining the
powers and functions of ecclesiastical persons. The
Law of Nations, or International Law (q.v.), is also
divided into public and private.
See such works as Maine's Ancknt Law, Colquhoun's
Cirif Law, Austin's Jurisprudence, and Pollock and
Maitland's Histoni of English Law ( 1.S95 ) ; also the articles
Code, Congre.ss, Cbiminai. Law, Jirlsprudesce, Jury,
Jo.sTisi.vx, L\xD La'vs, Parliament, &c.
Law, .John, originator of the Mississippi
Scheme, and famous for his credit oi)erations
during the minoritv of Louis XV., was Ixirn at
Kdinburgh, 21st April IHTl. His father was a
goldsmith and banker, and jiroprietor of the estate
of Lauriston, near Edinburgh. Law early showed
a most remarkable talent for arithmetic, algebra,
and kindred sciences. At twenty he removed to
London, where he found admission into good
society, but was soon compelled to Uee, in conse-
quence of a duel in which he killed his .-idversary.
He went to Amstenlam, and spent his time in
studying the credit ojierations of tlie bank. About
the year 1700 he returneil to Edinburgh, a zealous
arlvocate of a ]>a|)er currency : but his proposals to
the Scottish parliament on this subject met with
an unfavouraide reception. He now visited difl'er-
ent parts of the Continent, where he won and lost
vast sums in gambling and speculation, but sought
in vain to win the favour of governments for bis
linancial schemes. At bust he settled in I'aris, and,
in company with his brother William, set up in
171t) a private bank. This Wiw soon so successful
anil |)rosperou» that the Duke of Orleans, the
regent, adopted in 1718 Law's i)lan of a national
bank, ami issued prodigious quantities of bank-
not<!.s, which enjoyed perfect credit, whilst the
ordinary national \>onds remained, as they had
long been, at a juice far below their nominal value.
In 1719 Law originated his Mississippi Sc/icmc
(q.v.), and the following year Wiis made a Coun-
cillor of Stale anil Comptroller-general of Finances.
When the bubbles burst he became an object of
popular hatred, and found it best to quit France.
After wandering here and there he tinally settled
in Venice, where lie spent his last yeai-s poor and
forgotten, yet to the very end occupied with plans
for restoring himself to power and prosperity. He
died Slst March 17'29. See Wooil's Life of Law
(Edin. 1824), and Thiers, Law ct son !iystemc des
Finances, of wliich there is an .\merican transla-
tion (New York, 1S59). An edition of his works
wa-s i)ublished at I'aris, 184.S.
Law. William, one of the ablest controversial-
ists of the 18th century, was born a grocer's son at
Kingsclitt'e, in Northam]itiuishire. in lliSfi, entered
Emmanuel College, Cambridge, in 170,'j, and be-
came a fellow in 1711. At the accession of George
I. he found himself unable to subscribe the oath of
allegiance, and consequently forfeited his fellow-
ship. About 17'27 he became tutor to the father
of Edward Gibbon at Putney, and here, or at Cam-
bridge Avitb his pu|iil, be sjient ten years 'the
much honoured friend and spiritual director of the
whole family.' Gibbon, in his autobiography,
speaks of the unworldly thinker with unusual
warmth as 'a worthy ancl pious man who believed
all that he professed, and practised all that he
enjoined.' 'I'lie elder tUbbon died in 1737, and
three years later Law retired to his native village,
and there was .soon joined by his disciples, Miss
Hester Gibbon, sister of his pupil, and Mrs Hutche-
son, a wealthy widow. The two ladies had a
united income of about £3000 a year, and most of
this they sjient in those works of charity to which
they devoted themselves in their seclusion, which
lasted over twenty years. Law rose at live, and
spent many hours of every day in silent meditation
:aul in exercises of devotion. About the year 1733
he had begun to study the writings of Jacob
Boelime, and most of his later books are more or
less expositions of his mysticism. Law died in his
retreat, April 9, 1761. " AVilliam Law, however
unworldly in his theology, was a strong thinker
and a consummate dialectician. He won his first
uiumphs against Uisbop Hiiadly, in the famous
Bangorian controversy, with his Tiirec Letters
(1717). His Jiemar/:s'on Mandevillc's Fable of the
Bees (1723; republished by F. D. Maurice, 1844)
is a masterpiece of incisive logic, caustic wit, and
tei-se and vigorous English. Only less adinirable
is the Case of Reason (1732), in answer to Tindal's
able book, Christianiti/ as old as thc_ Creation. But
the most famous of his works remains the Serious
Call to a Dei-oiit and lloUj Life (1729), to which
Dr Johnson a.scribed his lir.st religious convictions,
and wliich profoundly influenced the Wesleys, and
earned the praises lit" (iilibon. Of Law's mystical
works may be n.imed Tlie W'aij to Divine Know-
ledi/c, and The Sjiirit of Lore (1752).
There arc two collected editions of his works, each in
9 vols.— tliat of 171)2 and that of Jloreton (1893 c< »(?.).
See C Walton's Nol'S and Materials for a Complete Jiio-
graiihy (1848), Canon Overton's William Law, Nonjuror
and Mi/stic (1881), and i)r Wliyte's Characters and
Cliaracierislicsuf ]yilliain Law ( 1892). See also Lecky's
Uistorii of Kn'/I'ind in the ISth Century; and Leslie
Stephen's Eivjlish Thomjhl in the ISth Centurij.
Law Ait«'ii<. See SoLirrroii, Agent.
La» burrows, Lkttku.s of, in Scots law, a
writ coniniaiiiling a person to give security against
oll'ering violiiiie against another. See Pe.\('E.
Law <'oiirts. See C'ouKi's of L.wv.
LawlVldt, or Lavkli), close to Maestriclit
in IJelgium, wius the scene of the defeat of the
540
LAW-MERCHANT
LAWRENCE
coniliined Austrian, Dutch, and English forces
under tlio Duke of Cumberland by tlie Krench,
commanded by Marslial Saxe, on '2d .Inly 1747.
Law-llier«'ll!lllt, a name often used in law to
denote tlie ciistoiMs wliieli h.ave <;rown up among
merchants in reference to mercantile documents
and business, such as bills of exchange, bills of
lading, «S.-c. These customs become incorporated
with, and form part of, the common law, and are
binding as snoh.
Lawn, a line kind of Linen (q.v.), from which
bishops' sleeves are made. For grass-lawns, see
Gakdexinc.
Lan II Tennis. See Tennis.
Lawrence. ( l ) capital of Douglas county,
Kansas, on the Kansiis Kiver, 34 miles SSW. of
Leavenworth by rail. It is the seat of the state
univei-sity (1864), and has mannfactures of flour,
eastings," furniture, &c. Pork-packing is exten-
sively carried on. Lawrence was founded in 1854
by Free-soil settlers, shared in the viident struggle
against slavery (see K.\XSAS), and was partly
burned by (iuantrell's guerillas in 18G3. Pop.
(1885) 10,'6'25.— (2) One of the capitals of Essex
county, Massachusetts, and an important manu-
facturing city, on both sides of the Merrimack
River, 2G miles N. of Boston, with which it is con-
nected by two railways. The river, which here
falls 28 feet in half a mile, is crossed by two rail-
way and two otlior bridges, and by a dam of
granite, 900 feet long and 40 high ; and canals on
either bank conduct the water to the mills. The
mills, some of which are amongst the largest in the
world, manufacture cotton and woollen goods,
cloth, and paper ; and engines, boilers, machinery,
clothing, hats, &c. are also produced here. Pop.
(1870) 28,921 ; (1880) 39,151 ; (1885) 38,845.
Lawrence, St. See St Lawrence.
Lawrence. Sr, the Deacon, a m.artyr of the
early church, tlie subject of an elaborate hymn by
Prudentius. According to the legendary account, he
was born at Huesca in Spain, and became a deacon
of Rome in the pontificate of Sixtusl. (.3d century).
In the persecution of Valerian, being summoned
before the pr;etor as a Christian, and tieing called
on to deliver up the treasures of the church, he pro-
duced the poor and the sick, who were his special
charge ; and on his persisting in his refusal to
sacrifice, he was condemned to be broiled on a
gridiron. The martyrdom is umiuestionably his-
torical, its probable date 258. His day is the 10th
August. The Escorial (q.v.) is dedicated to him.
Lawrence. Ceouge Alfked, novelist, wa-s
born in 1827, and from Rugliy passed to Balliol
College, Oxford, where he grailuated with a second
in cl.assics in IS.jO. He was called two years later
to the bar, was also a mililia oHi(-('i-, au<l died in
Edinburgh, 23d September 1S70. Of liis nine or
ten novels the best is Oiiij Llrhii/x/ntic ( 1857).
Lawrence. Lonn. .John Laird-Mair Lawrence
was one ol twelve children of Lieut. -col. ,-Vlexander
Lawrence, an Irish I'rotestanl, who served in the
Mysore campaign and at the storming of Seringa-
patani. Born at Kichmond, Yorkshire, 4tb March
1811, he obtained in 1S27 a presentation to Hailey-
blirv Collegf!, where he carried oil' the chief prizes.
His first years in the Indian civil service were spent
in Delhi anil tlie neighbourliood. On the annexation
of the Punjab Lawrence was ajipointed commis-
sioner, and afterwards lieutenant-governor. His
administration of this once anarchic jirovince maile
him deservedly popular willi Kuropeaiis ami natives
alike. He useci every ellort to I'lirh the ojipression
of the people by their chiefs, devised a ration.il
system of land tenure, and devoted his whole
time and energy to the work of restoring peace and
prosperity. It was through the influence which he
then acquireil over the native population that he
was able to render such eflective service during the
Indian Mutiny. Indeed, it is no exaggeration to s,ay
that he then pi<ived himself to be tlie mainstay of the
Hritish dominion in India. The once restless Sikhs
had become so .attacheil to his linn and beneficent
rule that Lawrence was en.'ibh'd to disarm the
mutineers in the Punjab, to raise an army of .59,000
men, .and to capture the city of Delhi from the
rebels after an eventful siege of three months. So
timely was this succour, and so great had been his
foresight, that he wius thereafter styled ' the saviour
of India.' On his return to England he re<'eived the
thanks of parliament, with the grant of a pension of
£1000 a year. He was made a baronet in 1858, and
a privy-councillor in 1859. In 1801 Lawrence was
nominated one of the knights of the ' Star of India,'
In 1863 he succeedeil Lord Elgin as Governor-
general of India ; he was ma<le .a member of the
Indian council, and the Court of Directors of the
East India Company granted him .a life pension of
£2000 a year. His live years' administration of
the Indian empire was marked by the same wisdom,
foresight, an<l iirudence as distinguished his career
in the Punjab. His financial jiolicy was based
upon sound principles; he tocdc a strong per-
sonal interest in the many social problems which
Indian statesmen h.ave to confront ; and his foreign
jiolicy w;is generally approved of. He diil not
believe in British interference in .Asia beyond the
frontier of Imlia, and was especially ojijiosed to
intriguing in Afghanistan. In 1869 lie was raised
to the House of Peers as P.aron Lawrence. Lord
L.awrence was chairman of the London School-board
from 1870 till 1873. He devoted the last days of
his life in parliament (1878) to an exposure of the
policy which led up to the disastrous Afgli.an war,
and which he had vainly striven to counteiact in
his retirement. He died 27tli .Inne 1879. See his
Life bv I'.osworth Smith ( 1883), Sir Richard Temple
( 1889), ami Sir C. Aitchison ( 1892).
His elder brother, Siu Henry Montgomery
Lawrence, was born at .Matuia, Ceylon, 28th
June 1806. In 1823 he joined th(! Bengal Artillery
near Calcutta, where Havelock w,as stationed at the
same time. He took part in the lii-st Burmese war
in 1828, in the first Afghan war in 1838, and in
the Sikh wars of 1845 and 1848; and in 1848 he
was made K.C. B. In 18.'>6, while in charge of
the Kaj]iutana province. Lawrence published two
articles pointing out the <langer of reducing the
strength of the British army of oc<'upalion in India,
and the latent causes of mutiny, which might burst
forth at any time. These warnings were more than
jnstilied by subsequent events. In March 1857 he
was appointed to tlie charge of atl'aiis in Lncknow,
and clid all that he could to restore <-onteiitment
there. But the mutiny broke out in May, and
Lawrence saw that it would inevitably spread
throughout India. He made extensive prep.aratiims
at Lncknow, and it was owing to his wonderful
foresight that it wa-s made possible for a mere
handful of Eunqiean soldiers todefend tITe liesidency
for about four months against an army of the rebels
which was in possession of the town. Sir Henry
Lawrence himself was injured by the explosicm of
a shell on 2il .luly 1857, .and died two days after-
wards from the effects of the wound. His death
was a gre.at blow to the little garrison, but they
held out bravely till the end of Sejitemher, when
relief came from Cawnjiore. In addition to bis
reputation as a statesman ami soldier. Sir Henry
Lawrence is known as a pliilantliropist, and wa.s
the founiler of the Lawrence .Military .\sylums in
the Punjab, Kajputana, and Madras. He devoted
the most of his income to these and other deserving
institutions. A marble statne has been erected to
LAWRENCE
LAYARD
541
liis nieiiiorv in St Paul's Catlieilral. Sfe liis Life
l>y Sir lli'itiiTt Kclwunlfs ami Hi'iiuan ileiivale
(is?;!), anil lliat liy .M'l.uod Iniiu.-- 0S9S).
Lawr«'llfe. Sir Thomas, portiaitiiainter and
I'resiileiit of the Hoyal Acadeiiiy, was Ixnu at
Bristol, an innkeeper's son, on 4th May 176'J, and
at the early ajje of ten yeai-s hetjan to draw portraits
in crayonsat Oxford, afterwards at liath. At the
age of eijjhteen lie entered as a student of the Royal
Academy, havinjx a little while previously taken to
painting; in oil. In 1791 he was elected associate,
and in 1798 full member. After Ueynolds' death he
wius appointed limner to the kinj; in 179'2, and was
knighted in 181.5: and on IVnjamin West's death
in 1820 he succeeded liim as President of the Royal
Academy. He died in London, 7th January 1830.
Lawrence was the favourite portrait painter of his
time, had an immense jiractice, and obtained higher
l)rices perhaps than were paid to any pievious por-
trait-painter. His talent was overrated during his
lifetime ; his work, in siiite of the elegance and taste
that often distinguish it, scarcely rises above the
conventional level. See Life and Correspom/ence
vf Sir T. LauTencc, by Williams (1831 ) ; and Lord
R. Gower's Romneji and Laicience ( ' (Jreat Artists '
series, 18S2) and Sir T/iomns Lawrence (19U0).
Lawrence, Sir Willi.vm, Bart., F.R.S., a
distinguished surgeon ( 1783-lSli7), became in 1815
one of the professors of Anatomy to the Koyal
College of Surgeons, and in 1829 a lecturer on
Surgery to St Bartholomew's. He wrote important
works on The Treatment uf Hernia (1807), An
Introduction to Comparative Aneitomu and Physi-
ology (1819), and A Treatise on the Venereal Dis-
cuses of the Eijc ( 1S3I ).
Lanreuceburg, a city of Indiana, on the
Ohio, 22 miles below Cincinnati. Pop. 4284.
Lawsoil, Cecil (1851-82), landscape-painter.
e.\hibited at the Academy in 1870, but remained
obscure, many of his |)ictures being rejected by the
Academy, till 1878, when his ' Minister's Garden '
and a ' Pastoral ' at the Grosvenor made him
famous. The short remainder of his life was a
brilliant success. See his Life by Gosse ( 1883).
Lawsouia. See Henna.
Law-terms. See Tek.ms.
Lawyer, in the United Kingdom, Ls not a
technical term of law, but a ])opular name given to
those who are either practitioners of the law or
intimately coimected with its administration. \n
(jreat Britain and Ireland lawyers are subdivided
into two main classes (see Attokneys, Solicitok,
Barristers, Advocates). In the United States
an attorney acts as counsel, and vice vcrsil, there
being no similar subdivision of the profession, and
the expediency of the subdivision has often been
canvassed in tiie United Kingdom of late years.
LayaillOII, the son of Leovenath, calleil in the
later text of his poem Laweman the son of Leuea,
was, as he himself tells us, a priest at Ernley (now
Arley ), on the banks of the Severn, near Bewdley,
and apjieai's to have nourished about the close of the
12tli century. Nothing more is known concerning
liim. He produced an amidilied imitation of Wace's
Brut d'Anijlcterrc, the value of whiih is not so
much literary a.s linguistic, althongh it is the earliest
existing poem of considerable length in llic English
tongue. It wa.s ctrnfcs-sedly a compilation from
Bede, St Albin, and Au.stin, and more jiarticularly
W'ace. Wace's lirut contains 15,:J(XJ, and Laya-
mon's .32,250 lines, the additions consisting of
dramatic speeches jmt into the mouths of the ligures
and of an extension of the Arthurian riinian<-e
with names of persons and ]>laces sujiplied. The
author seems to have been a .simple, pious, and
patiiutic priest — iu his own words ' it came U> liim
in mind and in his chief thought that he would tell
the noble deeds (it the lOnglisb.' The versillcation
is very arbitrary and riule, exhibiting sometimes
the alliteration of Anglo Saxon, ami .sometimes the
rhyme of French poetry. The language shows us
the Anglo-Saxon changing or changed into Early
English, and a study of its peculiarities of grammar
and phraseology enables us to trace the jiroce.ss by
which the Saxon of .\lfred and the Chronicle became
transformed into the English of Chaucer an<l Wyclif.
Sir Frederick Madden pointeil out that in the earlier
of the two MSS. (13th century ) of Layamon's iJ;-»^,
there were less than iifty words derived from the
Normans ; while in the second (written about 1250)
twenty of these are dropped and only about forty
more added. There are thus but ninety words of
French origin in the two texts, together nmre than
5(),S(10 lines.
The work was edited, with a literal translation, notes,
and a t;raniniatical glossarj', for the Society of Antiquaries
of London by Sir Fred. MaddeTi (3 vols. Lund. 1847). See
vol. iii. cliap. (i 1 1888) of Morley's Enrjlisk Writers.
Layard, Sir Austen Henry, G.C.B., English
traveller and diplomatist, was born in Paris, March
5, 1817, and ])assed his boyhood in It.aly. At six-
teen he was sent to London to stu<ly law. In 1839
he set out on an overland journey to Ceylon. Trav-
elling along the banks of the Tigris in 1840, he was
struck with the rnins at Nimrud, jioiuted out by
tradition as the site of Nineveh (q.v. ), and felt an
irresistible desire to exiimine the remains. In 1842
Botta, consul at Mosul, conducted some extensive
excavations at Ivhorsabad ; and Layard, returning to
the region, again directed his attention to Nimrud.
It was 1845 before he could obtain the requisite
means and facilities for his search, and he then, with
the help of some Arabs, began secretly to dig in the
mound supposed to contain the ruin.s. His excava-
tions were resumed in 184G and 1847, and his energy
and perseverance were rewarded by the discovery of
the ground remains of four distinct jjalatial edifices.
The most remarkable discoveries were made in the
North-west Palace, supposed to have been built by
Sardanapalus. The walls had been lined with large
slabs of gypsum or alabaster, co\ered with bas-
reliefs and cuneiform inscriptions. Many of these
were sent to England by Layard, together with
gigantic winged liuman-headed bulls and lions,
and eagle-headed deities. They were placed in the
British Museum, of which they have since remained
the chief attraction (see ASSYRIA). Layard at
first conducted his search at his own expense ; he
was in 1845 liberally assist e<l by Lord Stratford
de Kedclitl'e, then British ambassador in Constan-
tinople; and eventually, as the value of these
s|)eciniens of the Assyrian art began to be known,
tiie House of Commons voted a sum of £.3000,
which was applied by the trustees of the British
Museum in continuing the excavations under Lay-
ard's superintendence. On his return to England
he published a narr.ilive of his ex|dorations under
the title of Xincrc/i and its laniuins (1849), and
another work entitled Mijnumentsiif Xincrcli( 1853).
He was presented with the freeilom of the city of
London, received the honour of D.C.L. from the
university of Oxfonl, and was Lord Rector of Aber-
deen University in I8.")5-,">G. In 1852 he Ijecanie
M.P. for Aylesbury, ami in 1800 for Southwark ;
in 1801-(itj he was Undersecretary of State for
Foreign Ad'airs, and thereafter Chief Commi.ssioner
of Works. In I8G9 he went as British ambas-
sador to Spain ; and in 1877-80 he was ambas.sador
to Conslanlinople. His nnirkedly philo-Turkish
sympathies iluring and after the war with Russia
|)rovoked comment at home. In 1878 he received
the Order of the Bath. In 1887 he published
his Early Adrcntiircs in Persia, Babylonia, and
Suaiana. He died 5tli July 1894.
542
LAYING
LEAD
LayinS. or Laykhing, a mode of propiigating
trees, slirubs, and iicreniiiiil lii'il>aeeous iilatits
wliicli is very fre<|iU'Mtly eiiii)loyed liy gardeners
and niirservnien. It consists in bending and t';ust-
ening a branch, so tliat a portion of it is imbedded
in earth, tliere to throw out roots, the extremity
being macle to grow erect in order to form a new
phmt. The se])aration from the parent phuit is
not elVected till the Layer is sntliciently provi.led
with roots. Any injury which prevents tlie free
return of tlie sap greatly promotes the formation of
roots, and a notch is therefore usually made in the
under side of the branch, at the i)lace where the
formation of roots is desired : it is also often a little
split up from the notch : and sometimes a ring of
bark is cut otf, or a wire is twisted round it. Tlie
time which must elapse before the layer should be
separated from the parent plant is very various ; a
few weeks being sutlicient for some, and two years
requisite for others. Many plants which cannot
readily be propagated by cuttings are more easily
and si'icccssfully propagated by layers.
Lav-rcatler. in the .\nglican Church, is a lay-
man who receives authority to read the lessons or a
part of the service. The" incumbent can permit
any one to read the lessons, but for authority to
reail the morning or evening prayer a license from
tlie bishop of the diocese is required. The absolu-
tion, of course, cannot be read by a lay-reader, nor
any part of the communion service, but he may
receive permission, especially in connection with
missions, to preach, or to read the sermons of
others. Readers ( Uvtures, ancif/nditai ) have existed
as an order in the church from at least the M cen-
tury : in the Greek Church they constitute the lirst,
in the Latin Church the second of the minor (nders
that lead to the priesthood. (The oHice was
anciently a favourite one with wellborn youths :
Julian, afterwards the Apostate, was in his
younger years a reailer in the church of Xicomeilia. )
Their duty at first was only to read ( and perhaps to
interpret f the lessons; afterwards they were often
employed also as bishops' secretaries, and had siime
other functions assigned to them. The appoint-
ment of readers in the Anglican Church received
the .sanction of the bishops in ISGG ; but they were
not to be ordained.
Lazarus. Moiarz (born 1824), Hebrew philo-
sophical writer, is since 1873 professor at Berlin.
La/.ai'ftr, Pout, a line natural harbour, 40 to
60 feet deep, and 8 s(i. m. in extent, in liroughton
Bay on the east si<le of Coiea. It is .•{90 miles trom
Vladivostok to the north and 4S0 from Fort Hamil-
ton to the south, and is free from ice in winter.
Lazaretto. See Leprosv, and Ql-.\r.\ntine.
La/.arists. See Vincent ve Paul.
La/.istail. a coast strip at the south-east corner
of the iilaek Sea, partly Turkish, partly Russian,
inbaljited Ijy the rough Lazes. See UeoHGIA.
La/.lllitC, or AZUKITE, a mineral long con-
founded with Lapis Lazuli (ipv.), but, although
sonu'what similar in colour, very dillerent in com-
position ; consisting chiefly of phosphoric acid ami
alumina, with magnesia and protoxide of iron. It
occurs imbeddeil in iiuartz, or in lis.sures in day-
.slate, in Styria, North Carolina, Brazil, &c.
Lazzaroili (Ital. Inzzaro, 'leper;' probably
from their being outcasts or separate from otlier
citizens), until lately a special cla.ss of the in-
habitants of Naples.' They had no lixed habita-
tions, regular occupation, or secuic means of suli-
sistence, but occasionally obtained employment as
messengers, iim-tcrs, boatmen, itinerant vendors of
food, &C. They performed an important part in
all tlie revolutions and niovenients in Naples, and
were wont annually to elect a chief ( Capo Lazzaro),
who was formally recognised by the government.
Le, or Leii, the walled caiiital of Ladakh (q.v.).
stands 3 miles from the bank of the Indus. ll,5:iS
feet above the sea. Pop. estimated at about 4000.
Le is one of the chief markets of the trade between
Tibet and Chinese Turkestan on the one hand and
the Punjab on the other.
Lea. a tributary of the Thames, rises near
Houghton Regis in" P.edfordshire, Hows south-east
through Hertfordshii-e, then south between Middle-
sex and E.ssex, and joins the Thames near Black-
wall, after a course of 46 miles.
Lead i« one of the metals which have been
known from early times. It is nienlioned in Job,
xix. '24, and articles made of it by the ancient
Romans— some of them inscribed and dated— such
as water-pipes, «-ater-tanks, weights, rings, and
small ornamental cylinders, are still preserved.
As examjiles found in the grounds of some of the old
abbeys and cathedrals show, the Roman method of
making pipes from sheet-lead, which ditl'ers from
the modern way, continued in use till late in the
middle ages. Small lead weights of curious forms
have been found among Viking remains dating
as early as the 10th century. l)f lead compounds,
litharge and red lead were known to the ancients.
Lea<l (symbol Pb, atomic weight 'JOT) is a soft
metal of a bluish-white colour, tending to gray,
and having also a bright metallic lustre when
newly cut or melted. Its .surface soon tarnishes,
however, when exposed to the air, by taking on a
thin film of what is sujipo-sed to be suboxide. But
ti xiilation increases .so slowly that lead suH'eis
less than most ordinary metals i-ither by exposure
to atmosjiheric agencies or by being |>laced in damp
soils. Lead can be scratched with the nail, and
easily cut with a knife, and it nuikes a streak upon
paper. Its specifii^ gravity varies from ir3.52 in
the in"ot to 11-36.3 "when" rolled into sheets, ami
its meUing-])oint is 633'' P. (334' C). It is highly
malleable and in a less degree ductile, but its
tena<'ily is small— a wire ^'A\> of an inch being un-
able to carry a load of 20 lb. I.eail is not a good con-
ductor of heat or electricity. When gently heated
it can be forced by jiressure thrmigh ijcrfoiations,
so that jiijies and slilid rods for rillebuUets, i^c. are
in this way nianufacture<l. It is well to bear in
mind that jiipes, gutlors. and cisterns made of lead
are iniiired by hot water. The two former are
often twisted and ren<leied useless by the constant
How of hot li(niids through them. Neither sul-
phuric nor hydrochloric acid in the dilute state
has any action upon lead.
The'Action of Lead ii/)ii>i Wider is of great im-
portance, because the metal is so much employed
tor iiipes and cisterns, ami because le.id salts dis-
solved even in minute (|uaiitilies in drinking-water
act as cumulative poisons, and are therefore in-
jurious when taken for some length of time into the
system. Lead is rapidly acted upon by pure water
to which air has access, such as rain ; and it is also
dis.solved to an appreciable extent by the water of
rivers or lakes wlii<-h is practically free from lime.
In these cases the water after passing through lead
pipes has an alkaline reaction. The combined
action of air (i.e. of its free oxygen) and water
oxidises the lead. After a lime this hydrated
oxide which dissolves is cmiverted by atmospheric
carbonic acid into an insoluble basic carboiiat<' of
lead. The oxiile is again lonned and the corrosive
a(dion continues or may continui\ Bicarbonate or
suljihate of lime, which are c(mimon salts in potable
waters, prevent water acting on lead. So do some
other salts; but ammonium nitrate, on the other
han<l, assists the solution of the lead. Sir Robert
Cluistison found that a very small amount of peat-
LEAD
543
extract in solution prevents the action of an other-
wise pure water upon lead. 15ut in the case of even
a soft and almost pure water, like that supplied
to Glivsgow from Loch Katrine, the action is so
slow that short-service ]>ipes of lead when con-
stantly used are harmless.
Native lead is of rare occurrence, but it has been
found very sparinj;ly in a few places. The metal
is obtained chiell; from f;alena or sulphide of lead,
which forms veins in ditl'ereut <;eoloj;ical formations.
There are several o.xides of lead, two of which,
plumbic oxide and red oxide, are of importance
in the arts.
Plumbic Oxide (monoxide of lead, massicot,
litharjje), PbO. Ma.ssicot, from which red lead is
manufactured, is obtained in the form of a yellow
powder by heating lead to dull redness. Litharge
IS produced when lead is oxidi.sed, a.s in the cupella-
tion furnace, at a high temperature in a current of
air. The melted litharge flows from the cupel into
iron pots, and after cooling breaks up into crystal-
line scales of a lolour varying from a pale to a
reddish yellow. This is called flake litharge, and
when ground it is termed butt' or levigated litharge.
Both massicot ami litharge enter into the com-
position of Cements (q.v. ). Litharge is used in
the fabrication of oil-varnishes to increase their
power of drying, in the preparation of leail
plaster, and for glazing earthenware. Red Oxide
of Laid (red lead or minium), PboOj, is occasion-
ally found native. Its manufacture is referred to
below. There is another kind of red lead, called
orange lead, containing more oxyn;en than minium.
Plumbic Peroxide (binoxide of lead, puceoxide),
PbOj, is obtained by treating the red oxide with
dilute nitric acid. This oxide, which is of a brown
colour, is used mixed with sul])bur along with other
ingredients for tipping some kinds of matches, the
mi.xture of puceoxide with sulphur being spon-
taneously innainmable when rubbed.
The most important lead salts are the follow-
ing: Plumbic Carbunate (carbonate of lead, white
lead ), PbfJOj : the cerussite of mineralogists, and
now largely mined iu the I'nited States as an ore
of leaU. White lead is manufactured on a large
scale by the process described below. Plumbic
Chloride (chloride of lead), I'bCl... The minerals
niatlockite and mendipit« are both oxychlorides of
leatl. By a process introduced by H. L. Pattinson,
a basic chloride of lead is made for use as a white
pigment, which is, however, not so serviceable as
ordinary while lead. Lead Acetate (sugar of
lead ), Pb(C\.H30.^)„, .3H.,0, is prepared by dissolving
mas-sicot in dilute acetic acid. It can be obtained
in transparent crystals or iu scales by evajiorating
the solution. It is soluble in U part of cold water,
and in eight parts of alcohol. Like litharge, it is
used in the manufacture of oil-varnislies, and it is
an important substance in medicine. For the
chroniate of leail, which is employed as a yellow
pigment, see under Chko.mum.
The following are some of the tests for leiul
compounds in solution : An addition of hydro-
chloric acid produces, unless in very dilute solu-
tions, a white precipitate of lead chloride unaltered
on ailding ammonia. Sul|)huretted hydrogen |)ro-
dnces a black precipitate, and this precipitate
when heatwl with strong nitric acid is converted
into insoluble white sulphate of lead, f'hromate
of potiush ])roduces a yellow precipitate, which lias
the .same appearance as the |>recipitate this clirom-
ate gives with baryta, but the chromate of lead
Ui soluble in caustic potash, while chromate of
baryta is insoluble. Lead compounds, when mixed
with a little carbonate of soda, are ea.sily reduced
U) the metallic state if heated on charcoal in the
inner blowpipe llanie.
Ores and Smelting. — Until recent years only a
small quantity of lead was obtained from any other
ore than (lalena (i].v.). This is a sulphide of lead
(lead, 86 (J ; sulphur, 13'4), and is found exten-
sively, more or less pure or associated with other
ores, in Great Britain, Germany, Spain, and other
European countries. About one-third of the
British supply is obtained from the Crossfell dis-
trict, where the counties of Cumberland, Durham,
and Nortliumlierland meet. A few other KiigUsh
counties, Wales, the Isle of .Man. and Scotland,
also yield lead. The total qtiantity of ore now
annually raised in Great Britain is about 50.000
tons, yielding nearly 40,000 tons of lead — less than
was formerly usual.
The United States is now a large producer of
lead, the Colorado smelting-works alone, which
first rose into importance in 1S7S, yielding a.s much
as 70,000 tons in the year 1887. The works and
mines of this state are chiefly at Leadville, where
much of the ore obtained is cerussite or native
carbonate of lead. The earlier discovered Nevada
lead-veins produced 31,000 tons of lead in 1877,
but only 34U0 tons in 1887. L'tali, Idaho, Montana,
New Mexico, ilissouri, and Kansas also produce
lead. The total lead produce of the United States
in ISSHi w;is 187,000 .short tons (of -2000 lb.).
Some of the rarer lead minerals, not already
mentioned, are auglesite or sulphate of lead,
lanarkite, which is a basic sulphate, pyromoridiite
or phosphatocbloride of leail, and bournonite,
consisting of the sulphides of lead, copper, and
antimony. All galena is more or less argentif-
erous.
Galena when taken from the mine is broken up
into small jiieces or reduced to powder, and the
impurities, in so far as these can be removed
mechanically, separated by machines noticed under
Metalluegy. If the dressed galena is nearly
pure, as it often is, the smelting operation is simple.
A charge of ore amounting to at least 20 c« t. is
first partially roasted or calcined for about two
hours on the bed of a reverberatory furnace, such
as is shown in tig. 1, which results iu one portion
I'it'. 1. — Section of a Reverberatory Lead-furnace :
a, hearth on wtiicll ore is .spread ; b, tlie fireplace or grate ;
c, the lire bridge ; d, cliiinncy ; f, e, workiuy doors ; /, open-
iug for supplying ore ; g, tap-hole.
being converted into oxide and another into sulphate
of lead, while s(une of the sulphur goes to form
sulphurous acid, which escapes as gas. There remain
on the hearth of the furnace oxide, sul|>bate, and
some unaltered sulphide of lead. These, when
the heat is raiseil .ind tli<! furnace doors closed to
practically stop the supjily of air, react upon each
other, forming sulphurous acid and metallic lead.
Towards the end ot the process some lime is thrown
in to aid in the manipulation of the slajr and unile-
composed tue ; and when a further portion of metal
is extracteil from these the iiieltcd lead is run oil
into a vessel, and the slag removed from the fur-
nace. The changes which take place iu the later
544
LEAD
or melting stage of the process are shown by the
following equations :
( 1 ) 2PbO + PbS = rbj + SO.,.
(2) PbSOj + PbS = Pbj + 2SO2.
In the nortliern lead ilistricts of Great Britain the
calcined ore is lemoved from the revorberatoiy fur-
nace and .siueUed witli the aid of a blast of air ou a
separate ore-hearth called the ' Scotch furnace.'
Owing to lead being to some extent volatile at a
red heat, a consiilerable iiuantity of the metal would,
if not prevented, pass from the suielting-furuaces
into the atmos])here as smoke or fume, anil cause a
loss of, sometimes, 10 per cent, of what the ore
should yield. Moreover, lead smoke destroys
vegetation for some distance around the furnaces,
and herbage on whicli the fume condenses is apt
to i)ois(>n animals feeding upon it. At Holywell in
Flintshire, Alston Moor in Cumberland, and at other
lead-works this smoke is conveyed through a system
of flues whose combined length amounts in some
eases to several miles. Sometimes it is one very long
tlue. The fume condenses on the sides of these Hues,
openings being left to collect it. Condensing cham-
bers are also used, in one form of which the lead
fume is precipitateil liy being forced through water.
These condensei's are constructed to save the expense
of long Hues, but sometimes both are employed.
The lead is of course extracted from the collected
fume. In the Harz ilountains, and in some other
lead-mining and smelting districts lead is extracted
from complex ores — that is to say, from argentif-
erous galena associated with comparatively small
quantities of the sulphides of copper, iron, zinc,
and antimony, togetiier with a gangue of quartz
(silica), alumina, calcspar, heavy-spar, and brown-
spar. For such ores what is called the precipita-
tion hij iron or the iron-reduction process is, in
some cases at least, more suitable than the air-
reduction process described above. A certain
lirojiortion of iron is added to the charge of ore
in a blast-furnace, with charcoal or coke for fuel,
because the sulphide of lead is completely reduced
when heated with metallic iron, since this metal
i'lg.
Vertical Section of tlio Pilz Blast-funiace for
lueltini; Lead :
a, liL'artli ; b, tuyeres, by wtiicli air-blast enters; c, watcr-
jacliet ; d, tap-hole; e, cover; /, flue.
has a greater athnity for sulphur than lead. The
reduction of these complex ores is, however, rather ,i
combination of processes than a single one. IJesiiles
lead aiul silver, copper and sometimes other metals
are obtained as accessory products.
As an example of a water-jacketed blast-furnace
for lead smelting we give in iig. 2 a vertical section
of the cupola-slia|)ed one called the I'ilz furnace
now in use at Freiberg, and which has also been
adopted in the United States. It has eight tuyeres,
and varies in size from 4 feet in internal diameter,
and 14 feet high from the hearth-plates, up to 20
feet in height, with a proportional width acros.s.
In the United States, liowever, the Kachette or
rectangular form of blast-furnace seems to be pre-
ferred, because its capacity can be increased by
lengthening it on i)lan without also increasing the
height, as must be done if a circular furnace is
made larger in diameter. The pressure of the blast
in these furnaces is from i to 1 lb. per square inch.
The ore smelted at Leadville, Colorado, is, as
already stated, largely cerussite or carbonate of
lead, and this is easily reduced in a blast-furnace
by coke or charcoal.
De.silrrrisiiiij, A-c. — Lead usually contains anti-
mony, tin, zinc, and other metals as impurities.
These are .sei>arated by fusing the metal in shallow
pans, when the foreign metals form oxi<les, ami as
such are skimmed oil'. Le.ad reduced from galena
always contains a little silver, of which 8 or 10
oz. to the ton of lead is a very common \>vo-
portion, although it often exists in much larger
quantity, and as little as 2 oz. to the ton can now
Fig. 3. — Desilverising Pot :
«, pot ; 6, tireplace ; c, main flue.
be profitably extracted. The desilverising process
patented by H. L. Pattinson of Newcastle-on-
Tyne in 1S33 is still much used. A series of ('ast-
iron pots about 6 feet in diameter (see Iig. 3)
is used in the process. The argentiferous l(>ad from
the smelting furnace is melted in one of these and
alloweil to cool slowly, and at the same time it is
briskly stirre<l. A portion of the lead is thus made
to separate in small crystals, which, as ]pure lead
solidilies at a higher temperature than when it is
alloyed with silver, loaves the lluid jiortion richer
in silver. Suiipose that the lead to begin with
contains 10 oz. of silver to the ton ; ihi'ii if two-
thirds of the charge of this pot, which is usually
the centre one of several, is transferred as crystals
to another pot it will onitain only about 5 oz.
of silver to the ton. The one-third remaining in
the liquid state will contain 20 oz. of silver to the
ton. \Vith both portions this i>rocess is rejieated
several times, the one becoming poorer, and the
other richer in silver after eacli crystallisation.
AVIien the lead is enriched to the extent of from
250 to .'iOd oz. of silver to the ton the concentration
is usually stopped, although it is sometimes carried
a good deal further. The silver is then obtained
from this rich hwd by melting it on a Mat bone lush
cu]iel, ]ilaced in a reveiberatory furnace, and ex-
]iosing it to a ciini'nt of air which reduces the lead
to the oxide, or lillitinic of eoiiiTiierce, leaving the
silver on the cu]iel. Fully 320.000 oz. of .silver are
in this way annually separated from I'.ritish lead,
the latter" at the same time being improved in
quality.
LEAD
545
Tlie Kozaii process for desilverisiug leail is tlie
same in principle as PattinsonV, except that steam
is used iiisteail of manual labour, the result being
that there is a considerable saving in the cost.
Another method of desilverisiug lead, known a-s
Parkes' process, was patented in 1S50. IJy this
method the silver is separated by adding to the
melted lead from 1 to 2 per cent, of zinc, which has
a greater artinity for silver than lead. The zinc
carrving the silver with it forms, on cooling, crusts
on tlie surface. From these crusts the zinc is after-
wards distilled, leaving silver mixed with some
lead a.s a residue. A raodilication of Parkes'
method was patented in France by Condurie in
186G. He uses superheated steam for the separa-
tion of the zinc from the crust or scum, and for
getting rid of any foreign metals remaining in the
desilverised lead. It is said that a very pure com-
mercial lead is obtained by Condurie's process.
Rolled out into sheets, lead is largely used for
rooting houses and for water-cisterns ; and water-
pipes are now made from it without soldering, a.s
already stated. It is also of great service in the
construction of large chambei's for the manufacture
of sulphuric acid. Its value for the manufacture of
shot is well known. Alloyed with antimony, vVc,
it is largely consumed for type-metal, and w ith tin
for solder. Much lead is also required for the
manufacture of pewter, Britannia metal, &c. See
Alloy.
White Lctul or Carbonate of Lead is a substance
very extensively used as a white pigment, as a
cement, and for pottery glazes. White lead is still
largely made by the old Dutch proces-s. Metallic
leail is cast into the form of stars, gratings, or thin
perforated slabs in such a way as to facilitate its
conversion into the carbonate. These pieces of
lead placed in earthenware vessels, like flower-pots,
containing a little weak acetic acid, are built u|)
in tiers in the form of a stack, and surrounded
with spent tan or hoi-se-dung. The heat given out
from the dung volatilises the acid, which along
with the air changes the surface of the lead into
the basic acetate, and this is, in turn, converted
into the carbonate by the carbonic acid given oil'
from the hotbed. Metallic lead requires from four
to eight weeks for conversion into white lead, dur-
ing which a repetition of these reactions goes on.
In 1S90 a company was formed in London to work
K. Maclvor's process, which consists in acting upon
oxide of lead (litharge) by a solution of acetate of
ammonia, and then precipitating carbonate of lead
from the solution by injecting carbonic acid. By
this ])rocess white lead is veiy quickly made. The
acetate of ammonia is recovereel and used again.
Minium, lieil Lead, or Red Oxide of Lead, is
much consume<l in the manufacture of Hint-glass,
as a cement, and as a pigment. For ghuss-making
it requires to be made of very pure lead, as a
slight trace of copper would impart a colour to the
glass. Minium is prepared by heating massicot
or monoxide of lead to a temperature of 600° F.
in iron trays, in an oven, carefully avoiding fusicm.
More oxygen is thus gradually absorbed ; and a
bright-red conqiound is formed which is the red
leail of commerce. Orange lead, made from white
lead instead of from massicot, is a very pure kind
of reil lead.
Yellow Lead. — TliLs name is sometimes given by
manufacturers to a mixture of the oxides of lead
and antiniriny, which is to some extent u.sed to
give a yellow colour to earthenware and as a
pigment. — The so-called Black J^ead (q.v. ), of
which pencils, &c. are made, contains no lead.
Leau-poisoning, or Plumblsm. — Minute doses
of lead introduced into the system for some time
bring on peculiar and distinctive symptoms. In the
ISth centurv, before its cause was a.scertaine<l, the
disease was well known in Poitou ( hence called
'coliea pictonum'), in Devonshire, and in th<^ West
Indies. It was proved Ijy Sir George Baker in 1767
that it was due in each cxse to the ])resence of lead
in the ])revalent alcoholic drink of these regions —
wine, cider, rum respectively, owing to its intro-
duction during the process of manufacture. It is
occasionally met with in consequence of the action
of water, generally very soft water, on the lead
pipes through which it passes to the consumers,
liut it most often attacks persons brought much
into contact with lead compounds, such as makers
of white lead, workers in the glaze of potteries,
painters, and pluml>ers. The intestinal canal and
the nervous system are aft'ected ; gout also occure.
See W. D. Prendergast's monograph on lead-
lioisoning (1898).
( 1 ) Lead or painter's colic is much the most
connuon form of the disease. It consists in more
or less severe attacks of pain in the abdomen ( see
Colic), not differing much except in their per-
sistency and frequent recurrence from pains other-
wise produced, attended by obstinate constipation
and frequently by vomiting. They may be so
slight for some time that they do not interfere with
the sufferer's continuing his work. Lead-colic is
rarely fatal ; but may be so if the cause of the
affection is not recognised.
(2) The commonest affection of the nervous
system is paralysis of some of the voluntarj'
muscles ; usually those first and most aft'ected are
the exten.sor and supinator muscles of the forearm,
and the muscles of the ball of the thumb ; and
from the characteristic deformity thus arising the
condition is termed irriMt-droji. Uther mu.soles may
be (ii'st or alone affected : but in almost all cases
the muscles of the upper limbs are those where the
disease manifests itself. It is not certain whether
the nerve-trunks or the centres in the spinal cord
are the primary seat of morbid change. Atrophy
of the brain-substance, or of the optic nerves,
epileptic attacks, and coma occasionally occur as
results of lead-poisoning. All the nervous dis-
orders are generally preceded by lead-colic.
(3) The association of gout with lead-poisoning
is frequent : and the former is certainly sometimes
]iroduced by the latter. But it is probable that
gouty subjects are specially sensitive to the action
of lead. Cirrhosis of the kidneys (see Kidnkv.s,
DISE.4SES OF ) occure in some cases ; but whether
it is ever a primary effect of lead-poisoning, and
not due to induced gout, is not quite certain.
Besides the more obvious effects of the poison
above described, there are others of great import-
ance, as they aid in the discovery of the cause ot the
di.sease. The most distinctive is the formation of
a dark line along the edges of the gums close to the
teeth, due to precipitation of lead in the form of
sul^)liide in the tissues. The general health usually
sutlers, the complexion is sallow and the skin dry
and harsh.
Prevention. — The most important point to be
attended to is that those exposed to the cause of
the di.sease should ])ay scrujiulous attention to
cleanliness ; should never eat in their workrooms,
or without washing their hands ; and where dust
containing lead is present should wear respirators
during their work. Lemonade or some other drink
.slightly acidulated with sulphuric aci<l should be
useil as .1 beverage, for it forms the insoluble and
inert sulphate of lead with any other lead com-
pound which has obtained access to the stomach.
Where the watersuiqjly is at fault lead pipes must
be discarded, or means must be taken to render
the water hard before it is admitted to the pipes.
Treatment. — When lead is present in the system
and causing any of the symptoms above described,
its removal can be effected by the ailmini.stration of
546
LEAD
LEAF
iodide of potassium (see loDIXE). Sulphuretted
batlis, formerly recommended, are of doubtful
etticacy. Lead-colio rerniiros the free adnuiiistra-
tion of castor-oil or otiier purjratives ; and lead-
paralysis is often henelited by stimulation of the
atlected muscles by electricity.
Load, on shipboard. See SOUNDING.
LoUiUlills. a villafte of Lanarkshire, the highest
in Scotland, being about i:)()Ofeet above sea-level,
on Glengonuer Water, 45 miles SSW. of Eilinburgh.
-Vllan Uamsay was a native. T>ead has been nnned
here for at least six hundreil years, the annual
output ranging between 700 and IMIO tons of lead.
Pop. 99S. See Irving's Laiicirishire {18G4).
Leadiliu; <tll<'slioil is a technical expression
in law to denolc a (picstion so put to a witness
as to suggest the answer that is desired or expected.
Thus, if a witness is asked : ' Was he dressed in a
black coat ? ' it is supposed the witness will answer,
' Yes ;' whereas the proper way of putting tlie cpu's-
tion is : ' How was he dressed ? ' or. ' ^\"hat kind of
coat ? ' \c.
Leadvillc. a mining-town of C'oli)rado, capital
of Lake county, stands in a valley 10,'200 feet
above the sea,' 70 nules {1,51 by rail) SW. of
Denver. Its mines produce gold, silver, and lead
(see i)age 544). The town, which was incorporated
in 1878, cont.ains nvimeious smelt ing-furnaces and
stamp-milU Pop. (I8S0) U.S20; (1890) 10,384.
Leaf* Leaves are lateral organs develoi)ed from
the stem or Axis (q.v. ) of the )dant below its grow-
ing |)oint. They never bear flowers, ,and after reach-
ing llieir full development they retain their form
and size unchanged until deatli, after which they are
removed from the stem either by graibial decay
(most monocotyledons) or by breaking oil' at a
distinct articul.ation (most dicotyledons). They
normally consist of two main parts, a. stalk or
petiole, and a blade or lamina, the latter being
usually flattened and expanded. They may also
possess lateral appendages or stipules at the
base of the petiole. Physiologically considered,
they .are of tlie highest inii)ortance, as can liest
be understood after examination of their minute
anatomy. The petiole resembles a stem in struc-
ture ; tiie blade, however, is distinguished by the
great development of cellular tissue, through which
the hbro-vascular bundles pursue a course usually
similar to that which they possess in the stem,
thus exhibiting tlie parallel and reticulated vena-
tion so characteristic of Monocotyledons (q.v.)
and Dicotyledons (q.v.) respectively. Taking
Fig. 1. — Transverse Microscopic Section of a Leaf :
a, upper epidermic l.iyer witli cuticle : h, palisiulc pareiieliyina;
c, spongy i>arencli>nnu ; d, lower epidermic layer witli stuiiiata ;
e, libro-vascular bundle.
common exam]>les of such leaves, it is easy to
make out all tlie juincipal tissues (see 15.\i!K);
(1) thus, by tearing the leaf obliquely, we can re-
move shreils of dry, colourless, transparent epi-
lirrmis, which exposes the subjacent (2) cellular
ground tissue or ipaicnchyma. which is ilark green
on tlie u|i])er, ami paler because of looser texture
on the lower side, while (3) the iibro-vascul.ar
bundles can. readily be ]uepared as a skeleton by
scraping, ux better by maceration. .\ thin trans-
verse section placed under the microscope shows,
proceeding fnuu above downwards, (1) the uinier
eiiidermis. a continuous layer of empty cells, with
walls often considerably thickened, especially on
the ujipcr surface, to form the so-called cuticle;
(2) the iiarenchyma, which contains the tibro-
v;i,scular bundles, and which is readily distinguish-
able into two chief layers. Above is the .so-called
'palisade ]iarenchyma,' in which the cells are elon-
gated vertically and placed close together like the
posts of a palisade, and below this lies the loose
Iiarenchyma of tlie middle and lower surface of
the leaf, in which the cells are pidyhedral and
loosely arranged, leaving irregular air-jtassages.
Kinaliy we have the lower epidermis, in which
numerous o]ienings, the IStomata (q.v.), )ilace the
spaces in the parenchyma in continuity with the
external atmosphere.
The essential function of leaves resides in their
chlorophyll-containing parenchyma, in which, in
]iresence of light, carbonic acid (('<>;) is decomposed
with evolution of oxygen into the atmosphere and
formation of starcli (see L'HLOKdrilvi.l., VKiilo-
TAiii.K Pnvsioi.ooY). This proce.>is has. of course,
nothing to do with the function of llespiration
(q.v.) — oxidation of protoplasm with formation of
carbonic acid which is going on constantly during
life in all the tissues of plants as well as of
animals ; it is a compensatory process whereby the
green plant is enabled to repair its respiratory
losses of matter and eneig.v, and jirovide for its
continued growth by the lixing of new matter from
the atmosphere and new energy from the sun.
The newly-formed starch is lirst distinguishable
in the form of granules, which are visible in the
substance of the chloiophvll grains, is then digested
into a soluble body, probalily glucose, an<l carried off
by the descending Sap ((pv. ), to be either directly
assimilated to form new ]iroto|ilasni. or to be recon-
verted into starch and stored for future use.
The functions of the blade of tlie leaf are .shared
to some extent by the petiole, by the green cel-
lular onvelojie of the stem and branches (which
thus not unfrequently come to replace the leaves
altogether, good res]iective instances being fur-
nished by cactuses and acaciivs), and often by the
calyx and ovaries; in short, every part of the
plant exposed to light tends to utilise it by ])ro-
ducing cliloropbyll, excejiting only those jiarts of
the tlower wtiere, in current phia.se, more con-
spicuous colouring matters are required for the
attraction of insects.
The forms of leaves arc greatly varied, often
obviously in adaiitation to the habit of the jilant,
large and free-growing jdants which obtain un-
obstructed light most frequently bearing simple
or slightly lobed leaves, while the smaller vegeta-
tion generally produces leaves either long, simple,
and narrow (e.g. grasses), or highly com]iound, with
small leallets (e.g. ferns), so as to seize as many
as possible of the bi(d<en sunbeains which have not
been intercejited by the lotlier plants, while casting
a.s little shadow as jiossible U]ion each other.
Again, the leaves of aipiatic plants, if lloating, are
simph? and largely ex|iande<l, .so as to maintain
their position and obtain the niaxinium of light
(e.g. water-lily and piuid weed), but if submerged
are usually di.ssected into lilifonii segments (water-
primrose), so as to allow the water to How un-
obstructed, .ind thus constantly renew tli<? supplies
of carbonic acid. .Again, where in one and the
same plant the leaves on the lower and upper
LEAF
547
portion of the axis are in difl'erent circumstances,
their form is also varied, and we liave tlie hetero-
phyllous condition, which can be seen in many
mndplants, Init perhaps most conveniently in the
water-buttercup ( Ranuticnl its aiimttilis), which
possesses l>oth floating leaves which are sim]il(',
and suhnierjied leaves which are highly dissected.
So, too, plants which grow in dry and sandy situa-
tions, and obtain scanty supplies of water, either
owing to drought or to too pervious soil, very fre-
quently store their water in their leaves, which
tlius become succulent, and preserve it from the
evaporative action of the sun by the aid of a
thickened epidermis containing unusually few
stoniata.
A^ain, leaves may acquire entirely new functions,
and liave their form altered in correspondence with
these. Where tlie plant is a climber the whole or
part of the leaf may be modified into a tendril ;
where it is insectivorous it may be converted into
a fly-trap (see lNSECTivoRor.s Plants) ; or, a.s in
the very highly specialised Nepenthes, we may have
the base of the leaf of ordinary form and function,
the middle twining as a tendril, and the tip hol-
lowed and enlarged into a complicated pitcher.
cal, and so on. Innumerable variations in detail
arise, however, according to the shape assumed by
the ape.x, the margin, or the base of the leaf. The
apex may be ofitiisr or ariitc, refuse or acuminate ;
1
Fig. 2.
A, B, fonus of leaves— a, circular; h, elliptical; c, oval;
</. linear; f, spathulate; /, ovate; g, oblong; h, reuiform;
i, liaiitat« ; k, sagittat« ; I, pointe<l ovate ; m, ovate-lanceolate.
C, Leaf-tips — a, acute ; h, obtuse ; c. retuse ; e/, acuminate.
D, Leaf-margins— c, entire : / serrate ; ij, dentat* ; li, crenatc ;
i, undulate; k, labulate ; t, divided.
Where protection Ls required, new modifications
present themselves ; if herbivorous mammals
threaten the existence of the plant, the leaves or
leaf-tips may become converted bodily into thorns,
or covered with epidermic prickles. Bitter or acriit
secretions, too, may develop, or stinging haii-s he
produced ; while, if ants are to be guarded again.st,
a hairy or glandular epidermis is the surest pro-
tection. Such at least are the interpretation.s
. ommonly current (.see D.vrwini.vn Tukdrv).
Such ]iiiysiological considerations being gnusped,
irimparatively little stress need be laid (save for
purposes of specific description) upon the elaborate
nomenclature of leaf forms with which botanical
ttxt-books are apt to lie overburdened.
The parenchyma oT~the blade may be either in
one continuous jiiece, when the leaf is said to be
simple, or cut u]) into separate leaflets, >\ hen it is
termed eomjiouuil. Simple leaves may be con-
veniently reduced to three main form.s, the eir-
culnr, the cllijiticnl, or the oeal, according to the
respective length and position of the longitudinal
and the transverse diameter ; the linear leaf being
thus regarded as an elongated variety of the ellipti-
a, peltate leaf derived from A b.v backward prolongation of the
lobes; 6, ainplexicaul leaf; h' , perfoliate; 6", connate — all
derived from B ; c. pedate leaf, its branching represented dia-
granunatically in d.
the margin ma.v be serrate or waci/, or parted into
lobes so deep as to furnish transitions to the eoni-
potind leaf; the base may be hastate or rcniforni,
and so on. If the leaf base be prolonged beyond
the insertion of the petiole and its lobes unite, we
obtain the peltate condition familiar in the com-
mon Indian Cress (Tropa'olum ). If the petiole be
absent, the leaf becomes sessile upon the axis ; if
its lobes are produced downwards, as in the reni-
form leaf, they clasp the axis, and the leaf is
termed amplexicaul : if the lobes coalesce on the
other side of the axis, it becomes perfoliate : and
if they unite with those of a similar leaf aiLsing on
the opposite side, the [lair are said to be rotiiKite.
In compound leaves the leaflets may arise one
from another on each side of a median lobe, as in
the pedate leaf of Hellebore, or may ra<liate in
palmide fashion from a common point — the end ol
the petiole, as in horse-chestnut ; or, as is most
frequent, tliey may be placed at intervals along
the miilrib, like the ribs of a feathei-, when ve
have the pinnate arrangement, of which the ash
furnishes a fanuliar example. The simjilest case
of pinnate structure is where the lateral loljes or
pinnie are only two, as in the ternate leaf of clovei- :
complex cases also are frequent, termed bipinnate,
tripinnate, or decompound, according as secondary,
tertiary, or even quaternary series of leaflets aie
develo]ied.
How little morphological iiuportance can be
attached to these countless variations of form is
well illustrated by the study of the development
of the apparently similar 'pinnate' leaves of palms,
dicotyledons, and ferns. In the palm the pinnate
character is seen to be due to a mere tearing of a
primarily simple leaf, by the midrib continuing to
clongat<' after the parenchyma is developed ; in
dic(ityledons the lobes develop separately, but
sometimes from above downwards, and sometimes
from below upwards : while in ferns the leaf is pro-
duced by a series of regular bifurcations of the
growing point alternately to right and left, the
lii'st ])iiina being thus eqniviilcnt to all the rest of
the leaf, and the .'ipparcnt midrib ji false axis, re-
sulting from numerous separate dichotomies.
The comparatire inorpnotoijn of leaves is of the
greate.st interest. The es.sential conception, which
floated before the eyes of Wolfl' and of Linnaeus,
wius renewed by Goethe, and systemalised bv De
Tandollo, is that of a fundamental corresponilcnce
or seri'd hoinnlui/i/ among all the outgiowtlis
from the sides of the axis— from the lowest and
earliest, the seeil leaves or cotyledons, upwards
through the leaves ])roper to the bracts, and even
thence through the ])arts arranged u]i(>n the floral
axis — the se/i(ds, composing the ealyu:, and the
548
LEAF
LEAGUE
petals, forming; the inner floral envelope or curolla,
bein" still nioililieations of the leaf type, which we
linally lind most liij,'hly nietaniorphoseil in the
staiML-ns ami jiistils (see Flowkk)-
The transition from leaf to liract can he seen in
any Howeriug |>laiit, that from bracts to calyx may
he conveniently stmlieil in tlie mallow, that from
sepals to petals in the cactus, that fronr petals to
stamens in almost any jjarden rose (which indeed
appears to have su>Cf;ested the whole theory), and
that from leaves to carpels in many monstrous
llowers, especially the double cherry. Our con-
sideration of the pinnate type of leaf-formation
having shown that such apparent resemblances in
adult anatomy are not necessarily real, it becomes
necessary to test our theory by actual observation of
the development of flowers. Embryology here fur-
nishes an absolute confirmation — leaves and sepals,
petals, stamens, and carpels, are all seen to develop
as precisely similar proce.sses of cellular tissue from
Fig. 4.
a, developmeut of coinpouud from simple leaf; 6, imiaripinnute
leaf: c, trifoliate leaf; d, palmate leaf; e, development of
pinnate leaves. /, of palm by tearing, ff. of dicotyledons by
development either ( 1 ) basifuj,'al, or (2) basipctal.
the sides of the axis ; and when the forms of leaves
are fairly borne in mind, the apparent anomalies
of flower structure become clear. Thus, the outei'
caly.x (epical ij.c) of a strawl)errv is readily seen to
lie composed of the united stipules of the .sepaline
leaves, the numerous stamens in five bunches of
the St John's wort become resolved into a whorl
of compound staminal leaves, anil so on. While
petals are obviously modifieil leaves, there is groun<l
both developmental and analogical for regarding
them, in some if not- all cases, as liarren stamens
specialised Ui the attra»;tion <tf insects ; llieir rela-
tion to the leaf tyjie becoming more remote (see
Stamen ; and Grant Allen in Xatiirc, July 1882).
The arrangement of leaves upon the axis (termed
lihyliotaxis) is always definite, and possesses a high
degree of interest, although perliaps rather mathe-
matical than morphological. An a.scending sjiiral
line may in all CiLses he traceil round the axis
through successive leaf bases, and these are found
to occur at fixed ilistances, including a certain
fraction of the circumference, most commonly i, J,
i, I, or /i, although higher fractions of the same
' convergent series ' — viz. 5"^, J J, &c. — or fractions of
diirerent .series, and even transitions from one system
to another, also not unfrei)uently occur, especially
in such complex arrangements as the scales of
fir cones, ^\^len leaves are opposite there are two
primary generating spirals ; when whorled there
are three or more. Ihe mode in which leaves are
folded in the bud, termed prcj'uliatioii or reriKiliuii
is of interest, since it is definite for each species.
termeit pn
ce it is defi
See A'an Tieghem's, Sachs's, \ ines's, and other
text-books; also Lubbock's Flowers, tYuits, and
Leaves ( ' Nature ' .series).
Leaf-insect, or '\V.\lkisg-lkaf {PhylUum),
a very remarkable genus of orthopterous insects,
of the family l'hasmid;e (q.v. ), natives of the East
Leaf -insect ( Phi/Ilium siccifolium ).
Indian region. The abdomen is flattened out, and
covered in the wingless females by a ]iair of wing-
coveis which together look exactly like a leaf.
The colour is green, and the suggestion of midrib
iind netted veins is marvellously mimetic. The
legs are also flattened, green, and leaf-like. The
male has functional wings, Ijut is also remarkably
mimetic. As the insects live among leaves, and
are sluggish, their detailed resemblance to the
surroundings cannot but he usefully jirotective.
The name of the commonest .species (P. siecifolium)
refers to the fact that when the insects die the
green colour changes into that of a withered leaf.
See Ml.MlcKV.
League (Lat. Icucu, 'a Gallic mile,' a word
of Celtic origin), a measure of length of great
anticiuity. The Komans estimated it as equivalent
to 1500 Uoman paces, or 1'376 modern Kuglish
miles. The league wa.s introduced into England
Ijy the Normans, jirobably before the battle of
Hastings, and had been by then lengthened to two
English miles of that lime, or '2^^ modern English
miles. At the present day the league is a nautical
measure, and signifies the "JOlh jiart of a degree —
i.e. .■? geographical miles, or ;{45G statute miles.
The French and other nations use the .same nautical
league, hut the former nation had (until the intro-
duction of the metrical system) two land-me;i«ures
of the same name, the legal pcstingleague = '2'42
English miles, and the league of 25 to the decree =
270 statute English miles. For the tierman league
or Meilc, see IMlLE.
League, a term employed to designate a
political alliance or coalition. The niosl famous
leagues were the /Etolian and Achaian Leagues, the
Lombard League, the Hanseatic League (<j.v. ), the
leagues of C'ambray ( ' Holy League'), Sclnnalkald,
Nuremberg (' Catholic League'), and Wiir/.hurg in
the Thirty Years' War (q.v.); also the Solemn
League and Covenant, the .Anti-corn-law League,
the Land League. Hut the name has a peculiar
importance in the history of F'rauce, as ajiplieil to
the op|)osition organised by the IJuke of Ciulso
(q.v.) to the granting of the free exercise of their
religicm and iiolitical nghts to the Huguenots.
This league, known as the Holy League (•Sainte
Lifi'ir), was formed at IVronne, in l.">70. to
maintain the predominance of the Koman Catholic
religion ; but the object of the Guises was
rather to exclude the Protestant piinces of the
LEAKE
LEATHER
549
blooil from the succession to the throne. For an
account of the civil war that ensued, see Hkxuy III..
llENRY IV., and CuLSK; and for its full history,
see Mifrnet's Histoirc dc In I.igiie (.5 vols. 1829).
Lonke, William Martin, tonofiraiiher _of
Greece, was born in London on 14th .lanuary 1777,
and, having in 179-t obtained a commission in the
artillery, was sent out five years later to instruct
the T\irks. He was employed on various other
missions in the Levantine countries, till in 1S'2;5
he retired a lieutenant colonel from the army ;
in 1S:IS he married the widow of Marsden, the
orientalist : and he died at I!rii;hton on tith Jan-
uar\' 18G0. With critical acnteness and soundness
of Judijment he combined great learning and an
admirable power of clear statement. His principal
works are Researches in Greece (1814); The 2'o/iu-
graph 1/ of Athens (1821); Journal of a Tour in Asia
Minor ( i824 ) ; Travels in the Morea ( 18.30 ) ; Travels
in Northern Greece (1835); Greece at the End uf
Twenty-three Years' Protection {\Sol); and Xu/nis-
matica Helleniea ( 1854). See Memoir by the I{e\-.
J. H. Marsden (1864).
Leaillington. a fashionable watering-place of
j WarwicksliiVe, is beautifully situated on the Leam,
! a tributary of the A\on, 2 luiles NE. of Warwick.
I It is wholly of modern growth, having become
i important only since the rediscovery of its mineral
; waters in 17S4. They are saline, sulphureous, and
' chalybeate ; ami the watering-se;vson lasts from
October till May. The town, too, stands in the
centre of a good hunting countiy. Among its
buildings are the Pump-room ( 18G8), the Warne-
ford Hospital (1832), a.'^sembly-rooms ( 1813), music-
hall (1821), the tennis-court (1847), the college
(1844), the new municipal offices, and the line
old parish church. The manufacture of cooking-
ranges is an ini]iortant industry. Visited by the
Duchess of Keut and the Princess Victoria in
I 1830, Leamington eight years later received the
\ name of 'Royal Leamington Spa.' It was incor-
porated in 1875, and since 1885 has united with
Warwick to return one member to parliament.
Pop. (1811) 543; (1851) 15,092; (1891) 26,9.30.
See F. W. Smith's Leaminr/ion IVaters (1884).
Leaiider. See Heko.
Leap-year. See Calendar.
liCar, Edward, author of the inimitable Tlook
of Xonsoise, was born at Holloway, London, 12th
May 1812. From his boyhoo<l he had a passion for
painting, and from the ago of lifteen he had lo make
{lis own living. Later he was sent by the Earl of
Derby to Italy and tireece, where he jiainted many
lamlscapes in AUiania, Athos, the Morea, and the
islands of the .Egean. He exhibited at the Koyal
Academy from 18.50 until 1873. His later years
were spent in Italy, and at San Kemo he died,
January .30, 1888. Lear made himself better
known by his illustrated books of travels than by
his p.aintings. Of these the most important were
his Sketches of Rome and its Environs (1842);
Illustrated Excursions in Itali/ (ISilj); Journal in
Greece and Albania (1851), wliich called forth the
praises of Tennyson in a well-known |ioem — ' I
read and felt that I w;us there ;' Journal of a Land-
scape Painter in Vidahria ( 1852) ; In Corsica ( 1S69).
The Hook of Xonsensc (1846; 25tli ed. 18H8) went
at once to the heart of all English children.
The extraordinary facility and felicity of the
rhymes, and the high level of humour, wit, and
good sen.se, maintained throughout, have kept for
it ita place in popular favour. More Xonsensc
Jiliynics followed in l)S7l ; Nonsense Honr/s, Stories,
ami JJotany in 1870; Laughable Lyrics in 1876.
Leil.se< the contract establishing the relati<m
Ijctween landlord and tenant. The granting of
leases, commonly for a term of nineteen years, has
become common in Scotland since 1312, .and to this
system is largely to he a.-^cribed the rajiiii imiirove-
ment in agriculture in Scotland during the past
century. Every lea.se has its own peculiarities jis
drainage, to houses, cropping, iVc. See litlLDINfi
Lease, Landlord and Tenant, Land Laws;
and, as to the compensation for unexhausted
improvements, Aiii;icuLTtn!Al, llDLiiixii.s Act.
LEASEllf)!,]) is a dependent teinire derived either
from a freehold or a copyhidil, and held by lease.
Schemes for the enfranchisement of leaseholds
(allowing persons having long leases of small
portions of land a right to purchase the fee simple)
concern m.ainly Building Leases (q.v.). See also
ORorND-ra;NT.
Leasillj^f-lliaking, in Scotch law, meaiis sedi-
tious words, which constituted an oU'ence punishable
with death by statutes of 1.584 and 1585. The
punishment was afterwards mitigated to tine and
imprisonment, or both, at the discretion of the coui t.
Leather consists of the skins of animals chemi-
cally modilied by tanning and otherwise, so as to
arrest that proneness to decomposition which char-
acterises unprepared skins, and to give to the
substance greatly increased strength, toughness,
and pliancy, with insolubility and inalterability in
water. Some method of preparing skins so as to
make them wearable must have been known from
the very earliest times, and there yet exist remains
of tanned leather made in Egyjit not less than 900
years B.C. In modern times the methods and prin-
ciples of leather-making have come to be well
understood; but the processes employed in the
manufacture have not been seriously modilied ; the
attempts made to hasten the essentiallj' slow pro-
cesses having met with but limited success. There
are three methods by which leather is prepared
first, and by far the most important, with tan
barks and other vegetable substances cimtainiii;:
tannin ; second, by tawing with alum, bichromate
of potash, and other mineral salts; and third, b,\
shamoying or impregnating the law skin with oil.
The skins of all animals used for leather-making
consist chielly of a fibrous gtdatigenous sulistance
called collagen, which on being boiled forms the
ordinary gelatin of commerce, with an interlilirous
compound called coriin, insoluble in water, but
which in common with collagen tmites with tannin
to form the insoluble an<l unalterable compound
tanno-gelatin, the chemical basis of tanned leather.
The compounds are similarly acted on liy bichm-
mate of potash and other mineral salts in tawing,
whereby insoluble combinations are formed.
The skins of all animals may be made into
leather; but in practice the raw materials of the
manufacturer consist of the skins of certain animals
which are reared and slaughtered i)rimaiily for
other purposes, and of which the supply is sufli
ciently large to form the basis of a great industry.
Large skins, it may be remarked, such as those of
oxen and horses, are in tr.ade termed hides ; those ot
calves, sheep, goats, and other smaller creatures arc
called skins. Of all leather-making hides the most
important are those of oxen, which are primarily
distinguished a-s ox, cow, aiul bull hides, ami call
skins. To the tanner they coim; in several forms
and from many i|uarters. The first source oi
supply is the local slanghtcr-honse, from which tbi'
newly-llayed skins calleil market hides are ob
tained. From abroail ox-hides come either as wet oi
dry salteil hides, or as simply dried hides, the great
sources of supply being Australia, the Cape of Oooii
Hope, the Itiver Plate and South .\merica gener
ally, and China ami .lapan. From the East Indies-
there come vitst i|uantities of small hides termed
kips, both .salted and tanned. liud'alohides are
550
LEATHER
imported in lar<re quantities from Singapore,
Uatavia, Bombay, Kurraolieo, ami Calcutta. Hoi-se-
liides are liroufilit in cunsiilerable quantities from
South America, and the knacker's yards at home
supply fresh hides, whieli, however, are generally in
had condition. Sheep-skins, from the v;ist quan-
litie.s yearly availalile in nearly all parts ol tlie
world, are a most important source of leather.
Heside.s native supjilies llie British market chielly
obtains them from Australia and New Zealand, the
Cape, .and Buenos Ayres. (Joatskins and kid skins
come from tlie Cape, the East Indies, Asia -Minor,
.•ind Switzerland ; out m.any of the East Indian and
.-Vsiatic skins are when imported already tanned,
and require only dressing-. A now important source
of leather is from seal-skins, the supply of which is
derived from the (ireenkand an<l Newfoundland
lisheries. Other skins which have only a local or
a limited market are tlie walrus, rhinoceros, and
elephant, from wldcli leather of ureat tliickness,
suital)Ie for polishing-wlieels and other meclianical
purposes is ol)tained ; and lioj; or ]iig skin is .an
important .source of leatlier for saddle-making and
other purposes. The .skins of various species of
deer and antelope, i)orpoise and kangaroo, .are also
sources of leather ; and from the Cape there are
occasionally sent to the London market skins of
the gnu and zelna. As sources of leather for
fancy articles there may be mentioned the alligator
(a leather now extensively imitated ), an<l certain
snakes' and sh.arks' skins.
Tiniiiiiiii. — The operations of tanning and the
duration of the process vary very widely according
to the n.ature of the tanning materials employed,
the nature an<l thickness of the hides anil skins
under treatment, and the class of leather being pro-
duced. The sources of Tannin (q.v. ; and see B.MiK)
are exceedingly numerous, but oak-bark is the most
important, and that which produces the most v.alu-
able and substantial of all leathers. Oak tannage
is, however, a very tedious process, and the common
practice is now to hasten the completion of the
operatiim by mixed tann.age, in which more rapidly
acting agents play a ])art. In America hemlock-
b.ark from Alt/rs (■inmilnixis is the most important
tanning material ; .and the mimosa or wattle barks
of Australia are very largely used in the colonies
as well <as in Britain. .Stamlard extracts con-
taining a tixe<l jjercentage of tannin have also come
into favour for rajud tannage. But, with all the
devices which h.ave been suggested, tanning is
essentially a slow operation, and it cannot be
forced through without injury to the resulting
leather, any more than can the operations of roast-
ing Ijeef or toasting bread lie hastenc<l tmduly.
The many proce.sses which have been suggested,
involving chielly the use of strong tan liquors, or
ooze , as it is technically called, anil the transfusion
of these lii|Uors through the hides, have resullcd
generally in the production of hard and intractable
leather, or of .a .superlicial tanning only. Such
imjierfectly made leather gets an aiipe.ar.anee of
uniformity and linish by being impregnated with
grape-sug.ar, or with sulphate of magnesia, chloride
of barium and other salts, which add weight, but
which otherwi.se are the most rank and deleterious
adulterants.
In the treatment of ox-liide.s for tlie production
of, say, sole-le.ather, the lii'st object of the tanner
i.s to clean and soften the hide. This is done by
washing with water, and if necessary working
the hide under stocks (ill the whole is uni-
formly soft and pliant. The unliairing and re-
moval of the scarf skin is the next operation,
for which in English tanneries the hides are
steeped in ])its containing lime-water, while in
America the plan adopted con.sists of sweating
the bides, or artificially iieating them till incipient
putrefactive fermentation is set up. The hides are
afterwards stretched over a t.anner's be.am, and
the hair and scarf skin are removed by .shaving
with ,a tleshing-knife. At the same time the fle.sli
side is gone over, and any fr.agments of lihie or fat
ailhering to it are )iared away. .Ml traces of lime
in the hides must lie got rid of, and that .sometimes
is ert'ecteil in the tirst tan-]iit, containing, acid liquors
weak in tannin, .and sometimes by ' bating ' in ' pure '
— which is ,a warm decoction of jiigeons' or other
fowls' dung. The tiuxhof opemni/i of actual tan-
ning varies endlessly, but in general it m.ay be said
to consist in suspending or depositing in Layers the
hides in a successive series ot pits containing tan
liquor or ooze which is weak at liist, but which as
the tanning proceeds is made increasingly rich in
t.annin. In the early stages of the t.anning the
hides are frequently h.andled or turned over in the
t.an-pits, as often .as two or three times daily at
first; but as the tanning ]u'ogresses this handling
becomes less and less frequent, till in tlie final pits,
in which strong liquor is used, and where, more-
over, the hides are interstratilied with raw hark,
they may rest for six weeks without being dis-
turbed. When linally taken from the t.an-pit the
hides are carefully drained in a hea]i covered over
from the light, after which they are suspended in
the loft for drying, in which condition ihey form
rough leather, h.aid, uneven, ami refractory. To
finish the hides they are damped and softened in
water, scoured to remove the Iplooni from their
surface, then liberally oiled and the whole sur-
f.ace worked over by pressure with .a three-sided
steel implement called a striking-pin. This oper.a-
tioii removes all creases and smooths out .and
solidifies the leather — an operation carried further
and finished after renewed oiling, by rolling the
hide on a smooth floor under a heavy hand-roller.
For both these operations very eflicient machinery
is now generally substituted for the old method of
hand labour. The different portions of an oxhide,
and of .all hides in some degn'C. jiossess distinct
qualities which render them available for special
applications; hence in the trade they receive
distinctive
n.ames, .and /\ j \
frequently are J K J ^^
sejiaratelv ,-^^ ..^AJL?s/|_kj_
dealt in. An \'',/'V^
entire hide ^ <■- -'
is termed a
(■/■o/)(sce fig.);
one - half the
cro|>cut longi-
t u d i n a 1 1 y
forms a side ;
the pieces
around the
ni.ugins are
d(!signated as
on the dia-
gram, .and col-
lectively form
the iilfal : the
n e cli an d
shoulilcrs are
sometimes de-
tached from the Imtt, which forms tlie hide minus
tlie qff'ic/, and half a butt cut lengthways makes a
Ound.
Dressed Leather. — I'lidcr this head there is
embraced a great range of leathers which after
tanning undergo a varied series of finishing opera-
tions at the hands of the currier and Icathcrdresser,
to fit them for the diverse uses to wliidi dres.sed
leather is applied. The currier has to do with the
paring down of the flesh .side of the leather, to
smootli its surface, and to equalise its thickness ;
Z'-JJ
LEATHER
LEATHERWOOD
551
ami he also, when desirable, splits hides by means
of ii luaohine into two or more useful layei-s or
splits. His further and jirincipal operations liavo
for their objects the rendering of the leatlier soft,
Hexible, and waterproof, and givinj; it the tinished
surface, grained or smooth, waxed or blackened,
glace or enamelleil, dyed, iVc. For stulling the
leather, which is the most essential operation of
the currier, it is hrst softened in water, then the
surface is gone over with a scraping tool or slicker,
and while still wet it is liberally covered with a
dubbing composed of mixed tallow and cod-oil.
As the moisture evaporates from the leather the
grease penetrates and thoroughly permeates the
whole texture. For the numerous operations of
currying and tinishing leather elaborate machinery
is now employed, which h.os almost entirely super-
seded hand work.
Morocco leather is a term whicli now applies
rather to the tinish of a certain class of goods than
to the source of the skin of which it is formed. It is
a richly grained and dyed leather, originally and
projierly miule from goat-skins tanned in sumach ;
but now sumach-tanned split calf-skins and sheep
skins are the source of much so-called morocco.
Sheep-skins roughly tanned and undressed are
termed basils ; dressed and dyed as for morocco,
but linished smooth, they form roans ; and split
sheepskins (the tlesh sides of which go to be
shamoyed to form wash-leather) tanned and dressed
are known as skivers. Russia leather is now any
smooth finished thin leather, impregnated with the
empyreumatic oil of birch-bark, which gives the
substance its peculiar odour and insect-resisting
qualities. Originally it wa-s made in Russia of
dressed calfskins.
2'awing consists in dre.ssing skins with certain
mineral salts, and is useful principally for glove
leathers and the so-called kid-leather employed for
the uppers of lailies' boots. It is also by tawing
that furriers' skins are prepared, and hides and
skins in the hair generally preserved. The
process of tawing a lamb-skin may be taken as a
typical e.\ample of the process, which, however,
is much varied, as experience suggests. The
.skins are generally limed on the tlesh side with
cream of lime to detach the wool, which Ls removed
as in ordinary hide-tanning. After thorough cleans-
ing, the pelts are steeped for two or three weeks
in a pit lilled with water and lime, being taken
out from time to time, and draine<l on sloping
benches. When removed finally from the lime-pit,
the skins are worked with tlie knife, to render
them still more supple, and they are then put into
the branning mixture. This consists of bran ami
water, in the proportion of two pounds of bran to
a gallon of water. From this mixture, in about
two days, they are transferred to another bath,
consi>ting of water, alum, and salt. After the
proper amount of working in this nnxture, they
umlergo what is called the |>asting, if intended to
form white leather. The jiaste is a mixture of
whi-aten-bran and sometimes Hour and the yolks
of eggs. They are usually worked in a rotating
cylinder with this paste and water, and are found
in time to have absorbed the p!i.ste, leaving little
more than the water. If the skins are not intended
to he white, other materials are often useil, and
much pigeons' and dogs' dung is employed. Liistly,
the skins are dried and exandned, and, if necessary,
the pasting is repeated ; if not, they are dippiMl
into pure wat<!r and worked or stakeil by pulling
them backwards and forwards on what is called a
stretching or softening iron, and smoothed with a
hot smoothing iron. Numerous other tawing jiro-
ce8.Hes are in use and have been suggested, one of
the most promising of which was the chrome tan-
ning of Dr Heinzerling, introduced about 1876. In
this tlie active agent is bichromate of potash ; after
treatment with which the leather is st\itted with
paratlin : but the expectaticms of the j)romoters of
this method of treating leather have not been
fullilled, the demand for chrome-tanned leather
appearing to have nuile fallen away.
Sluiiiioi/iiiri consists simply in impregnating and
saturating skins with oil. The name is deriveil
from the fact that the process was originally
applied for the preparation of the skins of the
Alpine chamois, and as it was also viseil for other
deerskins the name buck-leather or buckskin was
also given to the preparation. Sliamoy-leather
now consists principally of the llesh splits of sheep-
skins. The oil is worked by means of stocks slowly
into the interstices of the skin and there becomes
oxidised, forming a kind of conddnation with the
gelatinous constituents, and yielding a iieculiarly
soft and spongy texture. A good deal of the buti-
leather of commerce is piepared by a. i)rocess which
jiartakes of the features of both tawing and
sh.inioying.
( )w iiig to the fact that tanners derive a large
proportion of their hides and skins from local
sources, and dispose of most of their leather in the
home-markets, it is not possible to gauge the
extent of the trade by published returns. That
the international movements of the trade are on a
great .scale is, however, ni.ade plain by the follow-
ing figures. Into the I'nited Kingdom in 1SH9 the
imports were: dry hides, 57"), 158 ewt. : salted
hitles, 647,250 cwt". ; leather, 104,916,924 lb., of a
value of £6,667,265 ; boots and .shoes, 100,487
dozen pairs. The exports were : dry hi<les, 365,701
cwt. ; salted bides, 52,76S cwt. : foreign leather
unwrought, 19.214,996 lb. ; ISritish leather. 143,140
cwt. : and wrought leather, value £413,600; boots
and shoes, 11,127 dozen pairs ; saddlery and harness,
value £574,401. The imports into" the United
States in 1887 were: hides and skins (other than
furs) §24,219,101 ; leather and leather manufac-
tures, §10,9.33,570. Exports : hides and skins,
8765,655 ; leather, .§10,4.36, 13S. See separate articles
on Parchmext, Veli.uii, Fir.s ; works bv Collins
1 1876), Hunter ( 1885), and Watts (1885) ; and C.
T. Davis's Manufacture of Leather (Phila. and
Lond. 18S5).
Leutliei'-dotll. sometimes called American
leather-cloth, or more brielly American cloth, is a
textile fabric coated on one face with certain mix-
tures of a Hexible nature when dry .so as to re-
send)le leather. Unbleached calico is the most
common grimnd or backing employed, and this is
coated with boiled oil, dark ]iignients, driers, and
sometimes other ingredients, made uji to such a
consistency that the mixture can be uniformly
spread on the cloth by rollers. Another method
of making leather-cloth is by coating calico with
■ lincdenm cement' (see Fi.ouKCLOTH ). A third
and extensively used coating consists of gelatine
rendered insoluble by some chendcal agent, to
which glycerine is sometimes added. ^ But the
dill'erent ndxtures which are or have been employed
in nuiking leather-cloth are numerous, and many
of them h.ave been patented. .V good (juality of
leather-cloth when employed for covering chairs
and sofas h.ts considerable duiability. As a cover
to writing-tables it is even more durable th.an
morocco leather, and it is not one fifth of its
price. A thicker kind of leather-cloth than that
manufactured for upholstery purposes is made of
coated linen and used for covering coaches, anil
there are other ajiidicatioiis of this substance. It
is more dur.able when glazed with a varnish than
when liidshed in iiidtation of morocco leather.
Leatlierwood (D/rcn /in/ustn.s), a deciiluous
shrub of .3-6 feet higli, with the habit of a miniature
552
LEATHES
LE BRUN
tree, a imtive of North America. It belongs to
the natural onler Tliynieleace;!'. The bark and
wood are exceedinjily "toaj;h, and in Canada the
bark is >ised for roiies, baskets, &c. The leaves
are lanceolate-oblonj; ; the (lowers are yellow, and
appear before the leaves.
Leatlies, Staxlev, was born at Ellesboroii<rli,
Bucks, where his father was rector, March 'Jl, ISSO.
He was educated at Jesus College, Cambridge;
graduated 15. .V. in 1852; took orders four yeai-s
later : and, after serving several curacies, became in
1863 professor of Hebrew in King's College, London,
and in 1869 minister of .St Philip's, Regent Street.
He was Boyle lecturer (1868-70), Hulsean lecturer
at Cambridge in 1873, Banipton lecturer at O.xford
in 1874, and Warburtonian lecturer at Lincoln's
Inn (1876-80). Further preferments were a pre-
bend in St Paul's ( 1876) and the rectory of Cliffe at
Hoo, near Gravesend (1880). Leathes was made
D.D. by Edinburgh in 1878, and sat on the 01<1
Testament Hevision Committee. His books in-
clude The Witness of the Old Testament to Christ
(Boyle Lectures), The Gospel its own Witness
( Hulsean), Religion of the Christ (Bampton),
Studies in Genesis (1880), The Foundations of
Moralit;/ (1882), Christ and the Bible (188.5), and
several vohiines of sermons. He died in May 1900.
Leaven. See Ye.v.st, Bread.
Leavenworth, fourth largest cily of Kansa,s,
and capital of Leavenworth county, on the Missouri
River, 2,5 miles N\V. of Kansas City by rail. First
settled in 1854, it is now a handsome town, of
broad avenues, and contains a Soldiers' Home, the
state normal school, and large factories and nulls.
Eight lines of railway centre here, and the river is
crossed by a line iron bridge. Adjoining the city
is Fort Leavenworth (1827), an important depot
for troops and supplies, with large barracks, <S.'c.
Pop. (KSSO) 16,r)-)0; (ISnO) 19,768.
Leaves. See Leaf.
Lebanon, a nnnintain-range in Syria, e.xtend-
ing from tlie latitude of Horns in the north (.34° 43'
N.) to that of ilount Hermon (33" 24' N.) in the
south. The word Lebanon is derived from a Semi-
tic root meaning ' white ; ' and this name is given
to the mountains, not because their peaks are
covered with snow (as they are even in sum-
mer), but because of the whitish colour of their
rocks. The mountains belong geologically to the
Cretaceous system, and consist principally of lime-
stones and chalks. They are divided into two
parallel ranges, the Lebanon on the west and the
Anti-Lebanon (or more correctly .\nti-Libanus) on
the east. Between them lies the deep valley of
the Buka'a (the ancient Crele-Syria), which is from
4 to 6 miles wide, and is watered by the rivers
Litany and El-Asi (the ancient Oroiites). The
former Hows soutii-westwards, then, turning
abruptly to the west, reaches the sea a little
north of Tyre ; whilst the latter flows in the
opposite direction, and, after crossing the plains
of Hamath, likewise turns to the west to the
.Mediterranean. The highest summits occur in
the north in both ranj^es, but are higher in
Lebanon than in Anti-Lebanon : in the former
they vary from 10,018 (El Kazil>) to 7000 feet and
less, antl in the latter are about 8(HX) or 9000
feet. In both ranges the eastern versant is the
steeper and sterner. The western slopes of
Lebanon are broken by numerous deep tr.ansverse
valleys, running between the spurs that the main
chain sends down to the very edge of the sea,
where they often terminate in bold headlands.
The western slopes of Anti- Lebanon are not so
much cut up by valleys as those of Lebanon, but
are more barren and nu)re broken hy crags and
bare rocks. The valleys and the lower slopes of
the hills are generally verdant with vegetation.
The vine is extensively grown, and wine is made,
but is all consumed at home. Mulberry-trees
hgure prominently ; for the manufacture of silk is
one of the most important industries <it the moun-
taineers— it was introduced from China in .Jus-
tinian's time. Olive-groves and orchards (nuts
aiul tigs) abovind everywhere. The higher slopes
are in many districts covered with forests of
oak, cypress, pine, plane, iS."c. Contrary to the
current belief, remains of the great cedar forest of
Solomon's time exist in more ])laces than the single
grove of 377 trees .at the head of Kedisha Valley
(see Cedar). Thickets of low scrubby bushes,
generally thorny, and often aromatic, are found at
nearly a\\ altitudes. Tobacco, wheat, barley, and
millet are the chief crojjs cultivated. Owing to the
elevated situation, the clinuite is healthy and
l)racing. Streams of clear water are numerous. The
inhabitants ( estimated at 221,000 in all ) are a hardy,
ruddy race of people, of Syrian ( .Vraiua'an) descent,
who keep large herds of sheep and goats. The
]ire(loininating element is the Maronites (q.v.),
more than two-thirds of the total ; next come the
Druses (q.v.). Besides these there are Moham-
medans, members of the Greek Church, Metawild
(a sect of Shiite Moslems), and a few converts
of the American Protestant and the Roman Catholic
missionaries of Eeyrout. After the bloody ijuarrels
of the Druses and Maronites in 1860, the district of
Lebanon was separated (1861) from the Turkish
pashalik of Syria, and put under a Christian
governor, the European jiowers constituting them-
selves the 'guardians' of the new province. See
Conder's Palestine (1889) and Baedeker's Palestine
by Dr A. Socin.
Lebedin. a town of Russia, 87 miles NW. of
Kharkotr. Pop. 14,788.
Lebrija (anc. Nebrissa-Veneria), a town of
Spain, 44 miles by rail S. by W. from Seville.
Pop. 12,864.
Le Brnn. Charles, French historical painter,
born in I'aris, 24th February 1619. He was jiatron-
ised in his youth by Nicolas Poussin, who took him
to Rome, where he was kindly treated by the
Barberini, and studied for four years. He then
returned to Paris, and was employed by Fouijuet
on his chateau of Vaux, and afterwards hv Cardinal
Mazarin, Anne of Austria, and Louis XlV. He
was the hrst director of the Goljelins Tapestry
Works on its foundation by Colbert in 1662. For
nearly forty yeare ( 1 647-83 ) Le Brun exercised an
immense anil despotic inlluence over French art
and artists, and is usually considered the founder
of the French school of painlitig, Poussin being
rather an Italian than a French artist. From
1668 to 1683 Le Brun was employed by Louis
XIV., and given an absolutely free hand in the
direction and management of the decoration of the
palace of Versailles; but Mignard being favoured
by Louvois on his accessinii to pnwer, and the
younger artist consulted by the King as to the
c()m|)letion of the work, Le Ihun, who could brook
no rival, retired, sickened, and died. Pith February
1690. See works by Genevay (1885) and Jouin
(1S89).
Le Itrnil. Maiuk, born in Paris, llilli ,\pril
1755, was a daughter of one Vigce, a painter of
little note, and in 1776 married J. B. P. Le Brun, a
picture-dealer and grandnephewof Charles Le Brun.
ller great beauty, as well as the charm of licr paint-
ing, speedily made her the fashion in Paris and at
\'ersailles. ' Le Brun de la beaiite le peintre et
le modfele ' was the friend of La Harpe and
D'.Membert, cojjied (ireuze, and jiainted all the
line ladies and gentlemen of the ilav. Her first
portrait of Marie Antoinette (in 1779) led to a
LECCE
LECONTE DE LISLE
553
lasting fiieiulship witli the queen of France. She
subsLM[uently paintoil iiuiiierous ipoitraits of various
nieuibers ot tlie royal fauiily, and in 1783 was
admitted, on the proposition of .iosepli Vernet —
thougli after much opposition on account of her
sex — a member of tlie Koyal Academy of Paintinij.
She became more than ever the fashion, but h>ft
Paris for Italy at tlie outbreak of the Itevolution
in 17SS), and after a species of triumplial progress
through Eurone, being admitted a member of the
principal academies of painting, incluiling that of
bt Petersburg, she .arrived in London in 1802.
There she painted pcutraits of the Prince of Wales,
Lord Byron, and other celebrities. In 1805 she
returned to Paris, where she lived until her death
(30th March 1842), and where her siitun was ever
the resort of artists, amateurs, and people of
fashion. Of unblemished character, of great
industry, and of immense charm both of manner
and of jiei'sonal appearance, Madame Vigee Le
Brun enjoyed a lifelong popularity. Her drawing
is correct, her imagination moderate, her colouring
delicate, graceful, and pleasing. Her delightful
portrait of hei-self, gay and smiling, now in the
Uffizi gallery at Florence, is well known. Many of
her best works are in the Louvre gallery in Paris.
See her Souvenirs (3 vols. 1837), a work illustrated
with 662 portraits and 200 landscapes, chiefly taken
in England and Switzerland.
Lecce (formerly called Tekrv DI Otranto),
a town of S(mthern Italy, 7 miles from the Adriatic
and 24 liy rail SSE. of IJrindisi. As Lycia (hence
Lecce) it w;vs the seat of a countship in Norman
times. Here tobacco, cotton, woollens, and linen
are manufactured, and there ls a large trade in
olive-oil and wine. Lecce has a cathedral and
numerous churches, one — St Nicholas — dating from
the 12th century. Pop. 22,051.
Lech, a right-hand tributary of the Danube,
rises in the Alps in Vorarlberg, flows northward
past Augsburg, and after a course of 177 miles
loins the Danube a few miles east of Donauworth.
It is a mountain-stream and not navigable. Near
Kain, not far from its mouth, the imperialist
general Tilly was defeated and killed on 5th April
16.32 by the Swedes under Gustavus Adolphus.
Leclller, Gottii.\rd Victor, theologian, wa-s
born at Kloster Keichenbach in Wiirtemberg, 18th
April 1811, and after various preferments came to
Leipzig in 1858 as professor of rheology. There lie
died 26tli December 1888. His flrst "book was a
history of English Deism (1841). The Apostolic,
and Postapostolic Times (1851 ; 3d ed. 1885) was
translated into English in 1886, and John JViclif
and his English Precursors (1873), by Lorimer, in
1878. He also wrote a history of jjresbyterian and
synodal church organisation (1854), and, with
Oerok, a Commentary on Acts (Eng. trans. 1879).
Lecky, Wii.i,i.\M Edward Harti'of.k, a
historian and philosopher, was born near Dublin,
March 2(i, 18.38, and educated there at Trinity
College, where he graduated B.A. in l.H.')9 and
M.A. in 1863. Already in 1861 he had publLshed
anonynmusly The Leaders of Public Oiiinion in
Jrelaml, four brilliant essays on Swift, Floo<l,
Grattan, anil G'Connell. Later works were his
learned, luminous, .and di.spa-s.sionate Ilistorii of the
Pise and Influence of the Spirit of Pationalism in
Europe (2 vols. 1865), History of European Morals
from Auffu-itus to Charlcmar/ne {2 vols. 1869), and
Ilistori/ of Enijlaml in the Eighteenth Centuri/ (8
Tola. 1878-90). The l,a.st is not a history in strict
chronological form, but rathera philosophical study
of events and their causes, relieveil by an admirable
series of lini.sbeil historir'.al portraits. Perhaps the
ablest and most original portion of the work is the
treatment of the American war of in<lependence :
the pages on Ireland are very valuable. A volume
of poems ( 1S91 ) hardly raised his repulation.
Dcinocrarij and Lilierli/ (1891)) is anli-Kadical in
tone. Lecky, who througliout the HomeUulo con-
troversy was a decided Unionist, was elected M. P.
for Dublin I'niversity in 1895.
LeHairf, I'.hmk-Jean, was born at .-\isysur-
Annancon, 100 miles S.K. of Pails, !4tli" May
1801. Fii-st eng.aged in farm-work, and afterwards
as a mason's ajiprentice, he started for Paris, where'
lie arrived friendless and ]icnniless, and apprenticed
himself to a house-painter. He provetl a capable
and industrions workman, .and in his twenty sixth
year began business on his own account. By energy
and by doing good work he soon secured .a large
business and took the front rank in the trade. His
desire to lienelit his workmen and do away with
the existing ant.agonism between employer and
employed led him to take M. Fregier's advice, ami
allow the workmen to participate in the prolits ol
the master. Besides, he compelled people to be
honest by issuing pamphlets exposing the tricks ol
the painting trade by means of which bad and
scamped work was passed oil' for good. He also
discovered a method of utilising white of zinc,
instead of white of lead, much to the benefit of the
workmen's health. His system of Profit-sharing
(q.v.), which worked most successfully, was begun
in 1842. He died ]3tli July 1872.
Le Clerc. Jnux, better known as .lOHANNES
Clericu.s, a Reformed theologian of somewhat free
opinions, was born at Geneva, 19th March 1657,
made his studies there in philosophy and theology,
next repaired to (Jrenoble, Saumur, Paris, and
London, gradually adopted the Itemonstrant theo-
logy, and became in 1684 professor of Philosophy
in the Remonstrant seminary at Amsterdam. In
1728 a stroke of apoplexy robbed him of speech ;
he died on 8tli January 1736. His works were
over seventy in numbei', many of a polemical
character. In his controversy with Richard Simon
he revealed opinions which were startling then,
however innocent now, on the composition and
Mosaic authorship of the Pentateuch, an<l on
inspiration generally, and especially as applied to
Job, Proverl>s, Ecclesiastes, and Canticles. His
commentaries on the Bible began with Cienesis in
1693, and were not completed till 1731. Another
important contribution to its subject w.as his
edition of the Apostolic Fathers of Cotelerius
(1698). No less valuable were his serial publica-
tions— Bibliothique Unirerselle et Historique (25
vols. 1686-93), Bibliothique Choisie (28 vols.
1703-13), and Bibliothique Ancienne et Moderne
(29 vols. 1714-26).
Leeliise. See Cusia.
Leeooq, .\lexandre Charles, composer of
comic operas, w.as bom .at P.aris, 3d June 1832, and
trained at the Conservatoire. From his tirst sue
cessful opera, I.c Docteiir Miracle (1857), he shows
Ott'enbiich's inlluence and tendency. His best
known works are La Fillc, de Madame Anqot
(1872), Girofic-Girojla (1874), Le Petit Due (1877).
Lecoiite de Lisle. Charle.s Makik, a great
French poet, was born on the island of Reunion,
October 23, 1818. He was carefully educated, and
after some years of travel settled to a literary
life in Paris. His early enthusiasm for Fourier's
dreams soon ilisajipcared before the wisdom learned
of experience, but his ardent temperament found
a, more lasting poetic impulse in Greek ideals
and in the sympathetic study of oriental \>a!i-
theism. He succeeded to Victor Hugos chair at
the Academy in 1886. Ilesides bis original poems
he translated Theocritus, An.acreon, the Iliad and
Odijsscij, Hesiod, the Orphic lli/iniis, ^'Eschylus,
Horace, Sophocles, and Euripides. His Poemea
554
LECOUVRBUR
LEDRU-ROLLIN
Antiques (185*2) and Poisies Nouvelles (1854)
he collected as Poisics Completes (1858). Otlier
voliiiiies :ire Pocnics Bfirbares (1862), Poenirs J'la-
ffiqiics ( 1S84), Dcniiers Pohncs ( 1895). He died 17th
Jiily 1894. He exercised a profound inllneiice on
a.11 the voiinjjer (iciets of his time, and was head of
a school ealled, fidni theii orj,'an, ' Lcs I'aniassiens.'
He has a j;reat ^lower of .sjinpathy with the dunih
emotion in the life of nature, the va.ster aspects of
which — the viri;in forest, the immense sea, the
profound sky — the readei- ever feels the presence
of, like the {;ronnd-i>lan on which his poetic
phantasies are hiiilt. He stands aloof from, yet
comprehends, the hot emotions that perplex the
heart of man, and surveys the drama of the
ages not with the eye of a Michelet or a Hugo,
but with the calm, uninipassioned intuition of
pure intellect. His vei-sihcation is marked by
classic regularity and by serene faultlessuess of
form.
See the admirable essays by Paul Bourget in Nouveaux
Essais de Fsttchologie Contempoyalnc, and Jules Lemaitre
in the first series of Les Cmitemporains.
Lecoiivreiir. Adrienne, actress, was born
near Chalons, 5th April 169'2, made her debut at
the Comedie Fiancaise in 1717, and soon became
fauums for her power as an actress, her fascinations,
and the niiml>er and eminence of her admirers,
amongst whom were Marshal Saxe, Voltaire, and
Lord reterborougli. Her deatli, -iOth March 17.30,
was ascribed to poison administered by a rival,
the Duchess Uouillon. This is the plot <\t the play
by Scribe and Legouve, in which Itachel, Sarah
Bernhardt, and others have won distinction. See
her Lettres, edited by Monval (1892).
Lectern (Lat. lectori mn or lectn'ciiini), a
reading-desk or stand,
properly movable, from
which the Scri|)ture
/ijisDiif: {/i'i-ti(jiics), which
form portion of the
various church-services,
are chanted or read.
The lectern is of very
ancient use, of various
forms, and of ditlerent
materials. The most
ancient lecterns are of
wood, a beautiful ex-
ample of which is that
of Kamsay Church,
Huntingdonshire (about
Ib^O), represented in
the woodcut; but they
were fre([neiitly also
made of brass, and
often in the form of an
eagle (the syndxd of St
.lolin the Kvangelist),
the outspread wings of
which form the frame
supporting the volume.
Sometimes a ' pelican
in her piety ' takes the
place of an eagle.
Lcrtioiiary. See Lessons.
L«'«"flir»'S. At most liritish universities,
lectureships have been endowed for the |H'rpetnal
dis.scmination of opinions favoured by the founder;
and to these, which were originally almost always
of a theological or religious kind, have lately heen
addeil some of a wider interest, embracing science,
philosophy, archa-ology, history, and the like.
Among theological lectureships in Englaml of
greater or less antiquity are the 15ami)ton, delivere<l
at Oxford ; the Hulseau, at Cambridge ; the IJoyle,
at London; the Warburtonian, at Lincoln's Inn;
Lectern.
the Congregational Union lectures, instituted in
1873 in continuation of the former Congregational
lectures ; and the llibbert (in comparative religion),
at Oxford and Lonilon. TheDonnellan lectures are
given at Dublin ; the l!ainl,Croall, and Cunningham
lectures, at Kdinbuigh. The Fernley lecturers folh)W
the place of meeting of the NVeslevan Methodist
C(mference. Courses of tiitlbrd lectures on natural
religion are delivered at all the Scotch universities,
while the Burnett lectures — hardly now to be
recognised as identical with the original foundation
— are connected with Aberdeen. At Cambridge
are the Itede lecture ami the Clark lectures m
English literature ; at Edinburgh, the Hhind in
archieology ; while the chief towns in Scotland are
visited by the Combe lecturers on jihysiology, and
I)eripatetic Unitarians of the M't^uaker founda-
tion. Distinct from these are such professoi-ships
for a fixed period as those of poetiy and art at
Oxford ; the endowed readersluiis, as in ancient
history and the like, at the uiaversities ; the
courses of lectures given at the Koyal Institution
or the Edinburgh IMiilosophical Institution ; or
endowments for special inir])oses, as the Harvey,
Croonian, and Plumian orations. The Lowell
Institute at Boston provides annual courses of free I
public lectures on religion, science, and the arts, I
and since its toundation (lS.39-40) has found \
audience for ni.any <listinguished English as well
.OS American lecturers. See separate articles on the
more important of the above lectures.
Lecytllidaoea', a natural order of exogenous
plants, or sul)-order of Myrtaeea', the distinguish-
ing characteristic being that the fruit is a large
woody capsule, with a nundjcr of cells, which in
some species renuiins closed, and in some ojiens
with ,a lid. All the known species, about forty,
are natives of the hottest parts of South America.
Brazil Nuts (q.v. ) and Sapucaia Xuts (i|.v.) are the
Acccls of trees of this order. The Cannon-ball Tree
(q.v.) belongs to it.
Ledil. in Greek Mythology, the wife of the
Spartan king Tyndareus, whom .lupiter visited in
the disguise of a swan. The commonest legend
makes her the mother of both Castor and Pollux
(q.v.) by the god. The story has supplied a theme
for many works of art.
Ledhliry. a pleasant, (dd-fashioned market-
town of Herefordshire, 13 miles ESE. of Hereford.
It has an interesting church, Romane.s(|ue to Per-
l)endicular in stvle, St Catharine's Hos]>ital ( 12.32 ;
rebuilt 1822), and a clock-tower (1890) to the
memorv of Mrs Browning (q.v.). P<q). of parish
1 18.31 )'42ti4; ( 1S!H ) 4;{(».3.
Ledrii-Rolliii. .\lex.\xdre Auouste, 'the
triliune of the revolution of Kebruary (1848), as
Louis Blanc was its a]iostle and Laniartine its
orator ■( Victor Hugo), was born in the house of
Scarron at Fontenay, near Paris, 2d February 1807.
Admitted to the liar in 1830, he made a name
!us defender of Republican journalists ,and men of
like views during tlie reign of Louis-Philippe,
anil subsequently obtained a great reputation as
a democratic at;itator ami leader of the working-
men's jiarty. He was electcil in 1841 deputy for
Le Mans, and sat of coui'se on the extreme Left.
Visiting Ireland at the height of O'Connell's
agitation for repeal of the L^nion, he was present
at several of the Liberator's monster meetings, and
at Tara was hailed as a delejjate from France.
In lS4(i he ]iublishe(l an A/i/iii (iii.r 'J'i<irfn//ciii:i,
in which he declareil 'universal sull'rage' to be
the only panacea for the miseries of the working-
cljus.ses. lie wjis an active promoter of the reform-
meetings that jireceded the commotions of 1848.
t)n the outbreak of the revolution he became a
member of the Provisional Government, as minister
LEDUC
LEE
555
of the Interior, and in May was elected one of tlie
five in whose hands the Constituent Asseinhly
placed the interim i,'overnnient. But he oll'ended
his supporters, his colleagues, and the moderates hy
his arhitrary and iniudioious conduct, and resigned
his portfolio on istli .June. He next ventured on
a candidature for the presidency against Louis
Xa|>oleon in Decemher. hut was ignoniiniously
beaten. An unsuccessful attempt to ]irovoke an
insurrection against his fortunate rival, on 13th
June lS-19. put an end to his jxditic.al activity
and his intluence. He tied to Englaml, where he
hecame one of the leailers of the party who sought
to control from one centre the democratic agitations
throughout Eurojie, and so give unity and consist-
ency of ]iur])ose to their etl'orts ; and he signed the
manifestoes of the revolutionary committee along
with Kossuth, ilazzini, and Kuge. Hut in les.s
than a year he jiuhlished a passionate invective
against the land which had given him an asylum,
Dc la Dicadcncc de VAiiglcterre. For the ne.xt
twenty years he lived alternately in London and
Brussels, being only amnestied in l!S70. After his
return to France he was elected to the Assembly
in 1871, and again in 1874. He died on 31st
December 1874, at Fontenay. His Discotirs
Politi'jiics ct Hcrits Divers appeared in 2 vols. 1879.
Ledlir. See VlOLLET-LE-Dlf.
Ledum, a genus of plants of the order Ericaceae,
suborder Khodorea^, consisting of small evergreen
shrubs, with comi)aratively large flowers, of which
the corolla is cut into live deep petal-like segments.
The species are natives of Europe and North
America ; some of them are common to both. The
leaves of L. latifoUiiin are said to be used in Lab-
rador as a substitute for tea, whence it is sometimes
called Labrador Tea. Sir John Franklin and his
party, in the arctic expedition of 1819-22, used in
the same way the Leditm pahistre, which produced
a beverage with a smell resembling rhuljarb, yet
they found it refreshing. The leaves of both these
shrubs possess narcotic jiroperties, and render beer
heady. They are regarded as useful in agues,
dysenteiy, and diarrhtea.
Lee, Axs. See Shakek.s.
Lee, Frederic Rich.\1!D, an English landscape-
painter, was bom at 15arnstai>le, Devonshire, in
•lune 1798, and cho.se the army for his profession.
But being obliged by ill-health to <init it, he turned
his attention to painting ( 1818) and w.-us a constant
exhibitor at the Koyal Academy from 1824 till 1870.
He was elected an A.K.A. in 1834 and K.A. in
18.38, retiring in 1871. Lee was one of the most
thoroughly national painters of his day, the river
scenery, parks, leafy lanes, and picturesque
villages of his native country forming the favourite
subjects of his pencil. He died in t'ape Colony,
4th June 1879.
Lee. UoiiKRT, D. U., wa.s born at Tweedmonth,
11th November 1804, and educated at Berwick
(where he was also for a time a boat-builder)
and St Andrew.s. In 1833 he became minister
of a chapel of ea.se at Arbroath ; in 18.30 he was
transferred to Campsie, and in 1843, after the Di.s-
ruption, to the vacateil charge of Old (Jrcy friars,
Edinburgh. In 1S4() he was ajipoinled aUo pro-
fe.ssor of Biblical Criticism in Edinburgh Lniver-
.sity, de.an of the Chapel itoyiil, :iriil uiie of the
Queen's chaplains. In 1844 he riiceivcd his doctor-
ate from St Andrews. In 1857 he began his
reform of the Presbyterian church-service. He
restored the reading of prayei-s, as well ius the
custom of kneeling at prayer and standing during
the singing; and in 1803 lie introduccil a harmonium,
in 18fw an organ, into his church. These 'innova-
tions ' brought down U|)on him bitter and hanussing
attacks, extending over many years ; and ' the
Greyfriai-s case' was still jiending before the
(lencral Assembly when, on 22d May 18ti7, Lee
fell from his hoi'se in Princes Street, struck with
paralysis. He died at Torquay, 14th March 1868.
His works include a Hnndhook of Jh volioix^ Pfaijrnt for
Public Worship (3d ed. 1803). a i.V/fj-cnce BiUe'ilSoi),
Tlw Famihi and its Duties (1803). and The Jieform of
the Church (1864). See Life by R. H. Story (2 vols.
1S70).
Lee, Robert Edw.vrd, was fifth in descent
from Kichard Lee of Shropshire, England, who
emigrated to Virginia in the copyright isno in us.
reign of Charles I. The ancestor by j. b. Lippbicott
of the Lee family in Virginia company,
receiveil large grants of land located between the
Potomac and Itappahaniiock rivers, known ;is the
Northern Neck, and here he built the original
Stratford House, which was burned some years
after. In the liiter edifice, erected hy his giand-
.son. Thomas Lee of Stratford, were born the
distinguished brothers, Kichard Henry Lee ( 1732-
04), mover of the resolution in favour of American
Independence and a signer of the Declaration ;
Francis Lightfoot Lee (17.34-97), a signer of the
Declaration; and William (1737-95) and Arthur
Lee (1740-92), diidomatists. There also, on 19tli
January 1807, was born the subject of this sketch,
the son of (ieneral Henry Lee, a cousin of the
preceding. At the age of eleven he lost his father,
and at eighteen he entere<l the Jlilitary Academy
at "West Point. He graduated second in his class
in 1829, and received a second-lieutenant's com-
mission in the engineers. In 18.32 he married Mary
Custis, daughter of George \\'ashington I'arke
Custis, adopted son of George Washington, and
grandson of his wife by her t'lrst marriage. He
became first-lieutenant in 1830, and captain in
1838. At the beginning of the Mexican war in
1846 he was appointed chief-engineer of the central
army in Mexico. General Winfield Scott praised
him highly in official reports for his services
at the siege of Vera Cruz. At the storming of
Chajiultepee he was severely wounded, and for
meritorious services received his third brevet
■promotion in rank. In 1852 Colonel Lee was
in command of the United States Military
Academy, and in the three years of his adminis-
tration greatly improved its efliciency as a
training school for officers. His ne.xt service
was as an officer of cavalry on the Te.xan liorder
in 1855-59. ^Vhen on a furlough in October
1859, the time of the John Ihown raid, lie was
put iti command of a small force and ordered
to Harper's Ferry to capture the insurgents.
Colonel Lee was in ccunmaml of the ilepartment
of Texas in 1860, but was recdled to Washington
early in 1861 when the ' irre]uessible conflict'
between the free and the slave states seemed
imminent. When Lee reached the capital in
March 1861, .seven states had passed ordinances
of secession from the Cnion, and h.aci formed
the Southern Confederacy. Virginia seceded from
the I'nicm on Ajiril 17, .and Cidoriel Lee, believ-
ing that his supreme jiolitical allegiance was due
to his state rather than to the Union, felt com-
pelled to send his resignation to tieneral Scott,
which he did on the 20th of A|.ril. The hitter
struggle between his personal preferences and his
high .sense of duty is shown in the words of his
wife, written to a friend at the time. ' My hus-
band hiis wept tears of blood over this terrible
war ; but he must as a man and a Virginian share
the destiny of his state, which has solemnly pro-
nounced for independence.' Williiii two days after
his resignation from the United .States army he
was made coiiimaniler-in-chief of the military and
naval forces of Virginia.
General Lee was devoutly religious, and a life-
556
LEE
LEECH
long member of the Protestant Episcopal Church.
His purpose to draw his sword only in di^fence of
liis native state was niodilied l>y its joining the
Southern Confederacy, and the chan^'e of the
capital from Montgomery, Alaliaina, to Kicliniond,
Virginia. Whi'U the Confederate Congress met in
Kichmoiid, with representatives from eleven .states,
in May l.SOl, live lirigadier-generals were appointed,
of whom Lee ranked third. He had at (irst no
active conmiand, l)Ut remained at Richmond to
superintend the defences of the city till the autumn,
when he was sent to oppose (ieneral Kosecrans in
West Virginia. In the spring of 1862 he was .sent
to supervise the co.ast defences of Ceorgia and
South Carolina ; but when .McClellan's ' on to
Richmond ' advance with 100,000 men was .assured,
Lee w.as summoned to the capital. General Joseph
E. .Jolniston, chief in comnifind, w,as disabled by a
wound at the battle of Seven Pines, May 31, 1802,
and Lee was put in comm.and of the army .around
Richmond. The masterly strategy displayed by
Lee, and the desperate lighting of his army in the
famous seven days' b.attles around Richmond, de-
fe.ated the purposes of McClellan's Peninsular cam-
paign, and belong rather to the history of the war
than to personal biography. The s.ame ni.ay be
said of his battles and strategy in opposing Cener.al
Pope's movements, his inv.asion of M.aryland and
Pennsylv,ani.a, .and other prominent events of the
war. The incre.asing resources of the North .and
the decreasing resources of the South could only
result in the final success of the former. It was no
news to Lee to be told of ' the hopelessness of
further resistance' by General Gr.ant in his note of
April 7, I860, and the common desire of both com-
manders ' to avoid useless efl'usion of blood ' was
creditable to both. On April 9, 186.5, Lee surren-
dered his army of al)out 27,80.5 men to General
Grant at Appomattox Courthouse, Virginia, and
the four years' war was practically ended. That
General Lee undertook ill-judged movements, as his
advance into Pennsylvania, and that he trusted too
much to his lieutenants in matters of importance,
has been the opinion of .some critics ; and prob-
ably his unwillingness to throw blame on govern-
ment officials who i)lanned, and on subordinates to
whom he entrusted the execution of the plans or
parts of them, has given more apparent than de-
served grounds for such criticisms, .\fter the close
of the w.-ir he frankly accepted the result, and
although di'|>rived of his former property at Arling-
ton on the I'otomac, and the White House on tlu;
Pamunky, he declineil proffered offers of pecuniary
aid, and .accepted the presidency of Washington
College, since called the Washington and Lee
University, at Lexington, Virginia. Here he de-
voted hinlself assiduously to the proper duties of a
college president, gaining the affectionate esteem
of the faculty and stmlents as he had of the officers
and soldiers of two armies in former jears.
Ex))osure in the Held in 1863 had resulted in
rheumatic inllamm.ation of the pericanlium, which
became more painful and freiiuent from exposure
to cold or violent exercise, till a severe attack in
1869 greatly impaired his heart's .action. Prom a
second attack, in September 1870, be did not re-
cover, but grew weaker till his death, Oololier 12,
1870. His widow died in Lexington, \'iigiiiia,
November 6, 187.'5. Generjvl Lee had three .sons
and four claughlers. The eldest son, <!eorge
Washington ('ustis Lee, graduated at the head
of his cla.ss at West Point in 1.8.54, resigned as
first-lieutcn.ant in the I'niteil States army in I8(il,
was an ai<le-de-camp to .lefferson Davis, 1801 6.'!,
major-general of a division of the army of northern
Virginia in 1864, and successor of his father as
president of the Washington and Lee University in
I87L William Henry Kitzhugh Lee, the second
son, was an officer in the United States army, and
major-general of cavalry in the Confe<lerate army.
He was elected to the .50tb and .51st congresses.
Captain Itoliert K. Lee of the Confederate cavalry
was the tliinl son.
.\ bronze equestri.an st.atue of (Jeneral Lee, by
Mercie of Paris, erecteil mainly by the women of
the South, was unveiled in Iticiimond, Virginia, in
1890. The height of the whole structure, including
,an elaborate monumental pedest.al, is 61 feet 2
inches, the equestrian ligure being 22 feet 2 inches.
See the Life i>v .1. K. CooUe ( 18^1 1, that by Long
( 1887 ),and that by his nephew, Kitzhiigb Lee ( 1894).
Lee, S.VMl'EL, an English orientalist, was born,
14th M.ay 1783, at Longnor. in Shropshire, studied
at tjueen's C(dlege, Cambridge, in 1819 was chosen
professor of Arabic, and in 1831 rcgiiis professor
of Hebrew, and died rector of ISarley, in Hertford-
shire, 16th December 1852. His reputation rests
upon a Grammar of tlie Hfbrciv LdnfpiiKjr. (1827) :
Bonk of Job, translated from the Orii/iiail Hebrew
(3 vols. 1837); Ilebrcu; Chaldrr, aiii/Kiiii/ish I.eri-
con (1840): a translation from the .Vrabic of the
Travels of Ibn-B.atnta ( 1833) and from the Syri.ac
of the J'heophania of Ensebius (1843). He also
wrote Sermons on the Stmhj of the Holij Scriptures
(1830), Erents and Times if tlic Visions of Daniel
and St John (18.51), .and an fn</)(iri/ into Propheeij
( 1849). He took charge, for tlu- Ihitisb and Foreign
Bible Society, of editions of the Syriac Old Test.a-
ment, the Syriac New Test.ament or Peshito, the
Malay, Persian, and Hindustani llibles, and the
P.salms in Coptic and .\rabic.
Locoll. •ToHN, humorous draughtsman, was
born, of Irish descent, in Lond<m, 29th August
1817, his father, a cultured .and excellent man,
being Landlord of the London Coffee lIou.se, Lud-
gate Hill. He w.as educated at the Charterhouse,
where he was a fellow-iuipil of Thackeray's, his
friend throughout life, who .at school was deemed
the better caricaturist of the two, ami who after-
wards published an .admirable estim.ate of Leech's
art [Qiiarterhj lieriew, December 18.54). He
next studied me<licine ,an<l surgery, and during
his attendnnce at St P.arlholomcw's Hospital his
artistic skill found exercise in the ]iroduction of
.anatomical drawings. Before long he adopted .art
as a profession, and at the age of eighteen pub-
lishetl Etchinqs and Shefchiutjs, bij A. I'oi, Esq.
.\bout 1838 iie was contril'uting to Bell's Life:
and in the fourth number of Punch, 7tli Augn.st
1841, we find his first contribution to the journal
with which his name is mosi closely .as.sociateil,
.and with which he was connecte(l till the time of
his death. The cartoons which be designed for
Punch, especially those dealing with inciilents in
the pcditical life'of Lonl lirougbam, Lfud Palmer-
ston, and Lord .lolin Kusscll, and tlie powerful ami
terrible 'General Fevrier turned 'rraitor,' are
full of high qualities, and have been published
separately. But even more delightful are the
smaller woodcuts, drawn easily and freely, ami
dealing in gently humorous fashion with sulijects
of everyday life". In thc-c. as it has been truly
.said, 'lie has entered with genial sympathy into
every i)hase of the many-sided English life of
the hunting-field, the seaside, the b.allroom, the
drawing-room, and the nursery,' 'he h.a.s turned
caricature into cbar.acter, .and left behind him
not a little of the history of his time and it-s
follies sketched with inimitable grace.' Various
series of these designs have been ccdlecteil in
volumes entitled Pictures of Life and Charaeter
from the Collection of Mr Punch; and in 1862
a collection of them, enlarged by a mechanical
process, and coloured by the artist himself in a
combination of oil- and water-colours, was brought
LtEE~CHEE
LEECHES
557
together in the Egyptian Hall, London, and formed
an excejitionallv popular exhibition. In tlie inter-
vals of work for I'liin/i Leech contributed much to
other journals and publications, iucludin;; woodcuts
in Once a U'lik ( lSo9-G'2) and The l/lti;itratcti Lun-
'lou Sews (1S.')6), in The Cuinic English and Ltitiii
(iramimirs ( LS4(n, Hooil's Comic Ami iial {\Si2),
.Smith's ]\'ussuil liuirl ( 1S43), ..I Little 'Tour in
Ireland (lSo9); etchings in Bcntlci/'n Miscellany
and JerroUVs iSliillintj Maijazine, in the Christmas
books of Dicken.s, the Comic History of England
[ 1847-48), the Comic Histort/ of Hume { 1852), and
the Hanitlcy Cross sporting novels ; and also drew
several lithogra|>hed series, of which Portraits of
the Children of the Mobility (1S41) is the most
Important. At length the artist's health began
to sutler from incessant overproduction, he fell
into a state of nervous irritaoility and prostra-
tion, and died at Kensington, 29th October 1864.
See Dr John Browns John Leech (1882), F. G.
KittoiVf Biographiccd Slctch (1883), and the Life
by W. V. Frith, W.X. (1891).
Lee-€hce. See Litchi.
Leeches ( A.S. hvce, ' a physician : ' Hirudineti
or Discojihora ), a class of worm-like animals,
usually suctorial parasites, sometimes genuinely
carnivorous. They are widely distributed in fresh
and salt water, and occasionally on land. The
body is extensile and ringed, but the superficial
rings do not correspond to the tme segments ; no
appendages are present, but there is a posterior
attaching sucker, and the mouth is powerfully
suctorial ; the body-cavity is almost obliterated
by a spongy growth of connective tissue ; the
animals are hermaphroilite.
The Medicinal Leech (Hiriido medicinal is),
formerly much used in blood-letting, has a
slightly flattened body 2 or 3 inches in length,
greenish black in colour, mottled on the under
side, and with six rows of reddish and yellowish
spots along the back. The skin is slimy and
frequently cast.s its cuticle ; there are 102 super-
licial skin-rings, with sense-spots on every lifth,
while ten distinct eve simts are bonie on the head.
TliL ilediciii.J I.- mi > Ih
•i-
Tire animal is very nniscular, moves rapidly by
alternately fixing its oral and posterior suckers, and
swims with graceful nmlulations. The nioutli con-
tains three semicircular 'saws,' each with eighty
to ninety minute teeth of lime and chitine, by tlie
.saw-like action of which the leech gives its char-
acteri.stic triradiatc bite. From animals thus
bitten the leech sucks blood, and falls oil when its
many-pouched gut is gorged. A secretion from
the pharynx .seems to keep the blood from coagu-
lating, and after a heavy meal the leech can I;ist
and digest for a year. Its opportunities arc in
many circumstances few and far between, but it
certainly makes the most of them. About the
leech's own blood, it is worth noting that it is
coloured red with luemoglobin. Leeches are at
home in slow streams and in marshes, sometimes
venturing ashore in search of victims higher than
the insect larva-, fishes, and amjihibians wTiich they
may hit upon in the water. The eggs are laid
about June in the moist ground by the side of the
water, and are enclo.sed in cocoons which are
secreted from the skin. The growth of the young
leech is slow, may continue in fact for four or five
years, while the total length of life sometimes
reaches a score. The medicinal si)ecies occurs in
Britain, but is much commoner on the Continent.
When the medical use of leeches, which is of
ancient origin, was a constant practice, the swamps
of western France were \ery important sources of
supply. There the vamjiires \\ere sometimes fed
by driving old horses or cattle into the enclosures,
and the primitive custom of wading in the water
till the leeches fix on the bare legs is still practised
by collectors. It is calculated that thirty millions
used to be employed annually for medical purposes
in France and Enghmd, but nowadays they have
gone much out of fashion ; yet a hatchery near
Hildesheim still raises some 3A millions annually.
When kept by apothecaries they ought to be
alloweil free play in a closed glass auuariuni with
water-plants, instead of Ijeingliuddled together in
a dark vessel.
Leeching, or the application of leeches for the
purpose of abstracting blood, is sometimes used
instead of venesection, where general depletion is
indicated, particularly in children ; but much more
often for the purpose of local depletion in localised
intlammations. In the diseases of infants and
young children, leeches must be apjilied with
caution. In applying leeches the part should be
thoroughly cleaned, and the leeches, after being
dried by rubbing them in a clean linen cloth,
should be placed in an open pill-box, or in a wine-
glass, and applied to the spot at which it is desired
that they should attach themselves. When it is
wished to affi.x a leech to the inside of the mouth,
it is placed in a narrow tube called a leech-glass.
When the animals will not attach themselves
readily they may sometimes l)e induced to bite by
moistening the part with milk or blood. They
usually dro|i ott' when tilled ; if they do not, they
njay be induced to do so by sprinkling them with
conmmn salt ; thev must never be i)ulled awav.
The quantity of blood w hich a leech is capable
iif drawing may be estimated on an average at
ubijut a drachm and a half, besides what flows
from the wound after it has fallen oil'. It is usually
desirable to promote to some extent this How,
which is readily done V>v the application of warm
fomentations or poultices. The bleeding generally
slops spontaneously after a short time ; if it goes
(in longer than is desirable, the application of the
Ihili of a hat, or of a bit of cobweb, will usually
check it. If these means fail, a little cone of lint
should be inserted into the bite, over which a com-
press should be laiil and a bandage applied ; or the
bite should be touched with a stick of nitrate of
silver (lunar caustic) scraped to a point. Leeches,
when applied to the mouth or interior of the nose,
have been occasionally swallowed, and have given
rise to very unpleasant symptoms. A nn)derately
sti'ong sidution of common salt readily dishulges
them. The 'artificial leech,' .sometimes used, is a
mechanical arrangement for jiroducing a small
freely-bleeding wouml in the skin.
The Horse-leech (llainuvis sangiiisiiya), whose
' daughters ' ( whether of this precise sjiecies or not)
'cry (jive, give,' is common in Hritain and else-
where. It is aliout -ik inches iji length, feeds
largely on earthworms, but has blunt teeth, and is
not used medicinally. Another horse-leech is the
558
LEECHES
LEEDS
voracious Aulastoma, which is camivorous rather
than parasitic. Among tlie numerous land-leeches
which attack liorses, cattle, and men, one of the
most trouljlesonie is llaminiipso rei/lo/ih'ci, graplii
eally described hy Sir James S. Tennent. It is
only aliout an in<-h lonf; and as thin a.s a knitting-
neeiile. Imt it imrsues its desired victims with con-
sideralile rapidity, and makes itself most irksome
both to man and beast. So abundant are laud-
leeclies in some warm and moist parts of the East
lIorsL- Leech.
that soldiers and workmen are sometimes fatall>'
weakened l>y the mirnite but pers^istent lilood-
lettin^'. All the above and some other genera,
such as the eight-eyed Xephelis of our ponds, are
called Guathobdellida", being usually provided
with three tooth-plates, but without a 'proboscis.'
In another set, Khyncobdellid;c, the forepart of
the body is retractile and forms a proboscis. Here
are included many interesting forms : the little
fresh-water Cleiisine. sometimes found with the
young attached to the parent ; the large, warty,
marine I'ontobdella. which fastens on rays ; Pisci-
cola on fresh-watei- fishes, such as ijeich and carp ;
and Branchellion, with numeious lateral leallets of
skin. The largest leech known is the South
American Macrolx/c/hi valdiviaiui, a carnivorous
form living in moist earth, and sometimes said
to measure two feet and a half.
See C. O. Whitniai) in Quart. Juui: Micr. Set. for
1886; Moquin-Tandoii, Monographic de la Famillc ties
Hirudin^es, with Atlas ( 2d ed. 1846) ; Verill, Fresh-water
Letches (Washington, 1875).
Leeds, the lirst t<iwu in Yorkshire, and fifth in
England in jioint of populaticm. is a parliamentary
and municipal liorongb, returning since 188."! five
members to the House of Commons. I5v rail it
Ls 25* miles SW. of York, 196 NNW. of London,
and il2 SSE. of Carlisle. It is situated in the
north-west of the AVest Itiding of Yorkshire, in the
valley of the Aire, ami is the seat of important
manufactures, especially of ch>thing in all its
branches. The ready-made clothing industry,
especially, gives employment to more hands than
anything else. The woollen trade carried on
here, and in the surrounding towns and villages,
exceeds in extent that of any other part of
England. It has been estimated tliat general
goods to the anntial v.alue of t'l 1.000,000 pass
through the warehouses in Leeds. The iron in-
dustries, which have been largely developccl.
employ about .')0,000 persons, and are now as
important as the woollen manufactures. The
manufacture of leather is carried on in some of
the largest tanneries in the kingdom, and about
100 firms are engaged in making boots and shoes.
The other chief manufactures are those of loco-
motives (both for rail .and tramway), agricultural
machines, gla.ss, paper, ti)l)ac(o, oil, chemicals,
earthenware, worsted, and silk. Kormerly llax-
spinning was extensively carried on, but it is
now fast dying out. H will thus be seen that
Leeds depends for its prosperity not upon any
one staple industry, but upon tlie great variety
of its manufactured products. The goods tralllc
by rail, canal, and river is immen.se.
There are thirty-four churches in Leeds, eight
Koman Catlndic and about eighty dis,senting
places of worship. The chief church is St I'eter's,
which is in Kirkgjite, and wa-s rebuilt in 1888
at a cost of £29,770. It is 180 feet long by
86 wide ; the tower is 139 feet high, and con-
tains a peal of thirteen bells. The church also
ccmtains some fine monuments, one of which wa.*
erected in memory of those natives of Leeds
who fell in the Crimea. The most interesting
church in the town is St John's, New liriggate,
consecrated by Archbishop Ncile in lti.'34, an al-
most tiniijue example of a " Lauilian ' church,
and still retaining the original fittings. The
other principal building's are chieHy of recent
erection. The town-hall, comiileted in 1858, is
'2oO feet long, 200 feet broad, ami the tower
is 225 feet high. It covers "iliOO square yards.
The great hall is 161 feet long, 72 feet wide,
and 75 feet high. It is richly decorated, and
contains one of the largest aiul most powerful
organs in Europe, besides statues of Edward
Baines and Robert Hall, formerly members for
the borough. There arc also colossal statues of
Queen Victoria and the I'rince Consort in the
vestibule, and of Wellington in the front of the
building. Contiguous to the town-ball are the
municijial buildings (comprising, besides the vari-
ous corporate offices, reading-room, free library,
and tine art gallery), and the schocd-board olliccs,
the whole forming two handsome and substantial
blocks of buildings.
The Ceiieral Infirmary was erected in 1868 from
designs by Sir C. (i. Scott, at a cost of £120,000,
and contains acL'ommodation for .SOO in-patients.
The mechanics' instilute, erected in 1867 at a
cost of l'2.j,000, contains a Icclure-liall accommo-
dating 1700 persons. The grammar-school, bnilt
in IS.')!), at a cost of t'Ki.OlMt. from designs by
ISarry, is a cruciform Dccuratcd stiucture. Other
buildings are the Corn Exchange, a handsome
structure of an oval form : the new post-ollicc
(fronting tlie handsome City Scjuare) ; the York-
shire Penny Bank ; Brown's Bank ; the Coli.seum,
the most convenient public hall in the town :
the Philosophical Hall, with a line museum; the
Wcslevan training-college, erected in 186S ; Turkish
i;allis'(cost I'll, 0011) ; Beckclfs Bank, a line work
by Sir (;. C. Scott. There is also a library of 80,000
volumes, founded by Priestley in 1768. Among
charitable institutions may be menlioned the
I)is]icnsary ; Hospital for Women :ind Children ;
Tradesman's Benev(dent Society ; Industrial
Scliocds ; Convalescent Home: a handsome work-
house; the Ueformatory at .\del, where about
sixty juvenile criminal arc usefully em|doyed in
agricultural ami other occupations. Leeds has also
a"l!oyal Exchange, which was opened in 1875, a
Stock Exchange, two general markets — one of
which is a handsome structure of iron and gla.ss— a
new cattle-market, white cloth hall, three terminal
railway stations giving access to seven railway
companies, eleven lianks, and four theatres. The
ohl colonred-cloth hall was pulled ilown in 1889.
ThcYorkshireCidlege. an impoi lant centre of higher
education established in 1874, has now nearly forty
professors and instructors in its two dei>arlmcnts
of science, techimlogy, aiul arts ami of meilicine ;
it is alliliated to the Victoria Cnivcrsity. A large
and imposing jiile of (Jothic buildings was devoted
to its use in 188r>; the new School of Medicine,
opened in 1894, cost flO.IMIO. Some sixty Board
schools, accommodating 6."), 0110 children, have been
erected since 1870, iiu-lmling the Central Higher
Crade School for 20(M) scholars, opened in 1889,
and the Southern lligher (Ji.ole School. A com-
plete system of tranr lines radiates from tin- centre
of the 'town to all the outlying snbmbs, electricity
(on the trolley system) being the motive-power.
Kirk.stall Abbey ('(.v) is about :{ ndles from Leeds.
Binindhay Park, ."? miles from Leeds, was bougbl
by the corporation in 1872, at a cost of £140,IK)0,
aiul converted into a recreation ground for the
LEEDS
LEEUWENHOEK
559
use of tlie ]inblic. Adel t'huicli, about 4 miles
from r.ei'ils. \v;i,s erected 11-10. Near it liave been
found remains of a Itoman station. I'oii. (ISol)
172, 270 : ( ISSI ) 309, 112 ; ( KS9I ) liop. of borou^rli—
since 1888 a ' county borough ' — :ili7,505. Since 1893
the mayor is styled Lord Mayor.
Amongst Leeds wortliies are Dean Hook (q.v.),
who wajs vicar of I,eeds; Priestley, theologian and
cliemist ; Cope anil Kliodes, the artists ; the Teales,
physicians, ic. ; besides the Uecketts, the Raines's,
the (Jotts. tlie Fairbairns, the Denisons, the Kit
sous, and other prominent families, which have been
closely identilied with the interests of the town,
and whose memlters liave been noted for their
public spirit and philanthropy. Among the books
on Leeds may be mentioned lt,ilph Thoresby's
Difdttas Lco(/it:it6'i.s, or To/to(/nt/j/ti/ of Old Leeds
(1713); Haines's Historic Sketch of Leeds (1822);
and Jackson's Guide to Leeds ( 1889).
Leed.s, Tho.m.vs O.sborne, Dike of, better
known in history as Earl of Danby, English states-
man, was the son of a Yorksliire baronet, and
was born in 1631. He entered parliament for
York in 1661 as a warm supporter of the king and
of the Established Clinrch. He first held office in
1667 as an auditor of the Treasury ; after that his
|iromotion was ra]iid : in 1671 he was appointe<l
Treasurer of the Navy, in 1673 Viscount Latimer
and Baron Dauby, and in 167-t Lord High Treas-
urer and Earl of Danby. He endeavoured to
enforce the laws against Roman Catholics and
Dissentei's ; and, though be disliked French aggres-
sion, and so far favoured the Dutch party that
he effectively used his intluence to get Princess
Mary married to 'William of Orange in 1677, he
lent himself to be the agent of Charles, and on his
behalf negotiated with Louis XIV. for bribes to the
English king. Louis, however, intrigued success-
fullyfor Danby'sdownfall: the Commons impeached
hiiu in 1678 on si.x different counts, the chief of
which weie treating traitorously with foreign powers
without the con.sent of council, aiming at the in-
troduction of arliitrary power, and squandering
public money. He was not brought to tiial, but
kept in the Tower until 1683, juthough Charles
gave him at once a full pardon. This the Com-
mons refused to recognise, and, in spite of a dissolu-
tion, still persisted in the impeachment. Danby
is chielly remembered in history for the part he
jdayed at the revolution of 1688. When James
began to threaten the Established Church Danby
returned to active political life. He signed the
invitation to William of Orange and secured York
for him. His reward was a rise in rank from earl
to marquis (of Carmarthen ) and the presidency of
the council, virtually the chief |dace in the govern-
ment. Hut he again bribed as he had done ihiring
his lirst administration, and pr.'ictised the same un-
scrupulous method.s of government. He was createil
Duke of Leeds in 1694. 15ut in 1695 he was im-
pejvched a second time, for having himself accepted
oOtK) guineius from the East India Comiiany iis the
])rice of liis influence in .securing an i-xtension of
their chartered privileges. He again managed to
stave off condemnation ; but his power Wiis now
virtually gone, and in !\Iay 1699 he hnally retired.
After tliat his jirincipal public appcanuice Wiis to
speak in defence of Sacheverell in 1710, when he
stnltifieil himself by condemning the iirinciple of
the revolution. He died at Easton, in Xortliamj)-
tonshire, on 26th July 1712. See Life bv T. P.
Courtenay (18.38).
Leek (Allium Porrum of some ; see Allium), a
biennial plant, believed now by many of the best
authorities to be a cultivated variety of the liritish
s^iecies Allium Auipeloprasum, a well-known
biennial »j>ecie8 of the Onion family, much esteemed
for culinary purposes. In gardens much attention
is given to its cultivation. The more liberal the
culture the more delicate and tender is the jiroduce ;
therefore it is generally grown in trenches, which
have a liberal supply of manure dug into them in
the same way as celery. The stems are blanched
by earthing up, which increases their delicacy.
Scotland is famous for the spleiulid (|uality of its
leeks, and Musselburgh is the centri' in which
the most ajiproved kinds are grown for seed-saving.
Seeds grown there have a special commercial
\alue, which is due entirely to care, year after
year, in selecting only the best types for the
purpose of seed-saving. St David, patron saint ol
Wales, is credited with having advised the Britcms.
on the eve of a battle with the Sa.xons, to wear
leeks in their caps, so as easily to distinguish
friends from foes, and thus to have helped to
secure a great victory. Hence the Welsh custom
of wearing leeks in their hats on St David's Day.
See Shakespeare's Heiiri/ I'.
Leek, a manufacturing and market town of
Staffordshire, on the Churnet, 13A nules SSE. of
Maccleslield, and 24 NNE. of Stafford. The parish
church, dating from IISO, but mainly Decorated in
style, was restored by Street in 1867-75. There are
also a grammar-school (1723), a cottage-hospital
(1870), and, \h mile distant, the ruined Cistercian
abbey (1214) ()f Dieulacres (De la Croix). Leek
manufactures sewing and embroidery silks, and is
the chief English centre for dyeing silk (see Silk).
The Nicholson Institute comprises a Free Library,
and Art School, \-c. Pop. (1851) 1877; (1S9'|)
12,760. See Sleigh's Hisfon/ of Leek (2d ed. 1884),
M. H. Miller, Old Lee/ce ( Leek. 1891 ).
Leer, a commercial town and port on the Leda
iu?ar where it enters the Ems, in the Prussian pro-
vince of East Friesland, 32 miles N W. of Oldenburg.
Pop. 10,.399.
Leet. The court leet, in England, was a court
of a manor, townshiji, iSrc. for election of certain
officers and trial of minor offences. The import-
ance of these courts is now very sm.ill, but there
are manors, \-c. w here they are regularly held.
Leeiiwardeil. capital of the Dutch jirovince of
Friesland, stands on the Harlingen and Croningen
Canal, 113 miles by rail NNE. of Ctrecht. It
contains handsome law-courts and town-hall, has
an ancient palace of the Princes of Orange, a
library with valuable archives, and a dozen
churches. Linen fabrics, mirrors, pianofortes, and
w.agons are manufactured. Leeuwanlen is one
of the largest fruit and cattle markets in Holland,
and does considerable trade in agricultural produce,
groceries, wine, and brandy. Pop. (1873) 27,108;
( 1896) 31,398. In the 13tli century it was situated
on an arm of the sea, which subsequently samled
up. See Ha\ard, Dead Cities of the Zuydcr Zee
(1876).
Leeiiweiilioek. .Xxtox van, one of the most
successful pioneer mieroscopists. was born at Delft
on 24tli October 1632, enthusiastically ]iursued
microsco]iic work with self-made instruments in
1634, ma<le many important discoveries, ;ind ilicd
at Delft on 27th August 1723. Hi' supplemented
Harvey's discovery of the circulation of the blooil
by tracing the caijillarii's in the frog's foot, defined
the red blood-corpuscles of \'ertebrates, was the
lirst to notice definitely what arc now called uni-
cellular organisms, ami corroborate<l, though with
erroneous interpretation, the discovery of male
elements or spermatozoa by his stmlent Liidwig
Hainm. His investigations of minute structure
led him to detect the fibres of the lens, the fibrils
anil striping of muscle, the structure of ivory and
hair, the scales of the epidermis, the distinctive
characters of Kotifers, and many interesting histo-
560
LEEUWIN
LEG
logical facts in regard to insects. Much of his time
and attention was given to a long series of investiga-
tions into spontaneous generation, of whicli tlieory
he was a decided opiwnent. In the course of these
studies he ascertained and i)roveil. amongst other
results, that oak-galls are primarily caused hy tlie
ilevelopment of an insect's egg deiiositeil in the bark ;
that weevils are hatched, not frum wheat, but from
an insect's eggs deposited in wheat ; that the Ilea is
jiropagated in a similar manner to other insects,
not originated from (hist, or sand, ur tlie dung of
pigeons, as was commonly believed ; that Apliides
;ire viviparous -, that ei-ls, instead of being produced
from dew, are likewise viviparous ; and that
mussels are not generated from mud or sand, but
from spawn. He also extended his inquiries to the
growth of trees, and showed the ditl'erences that
exist in tlie structure of the stem of monocotyledons
and dicotyledons. The greater part of his dis-
coveries and investigations were described in papers
(112) contributed to the Philosujiliii-nl Tntiisnctidns
of the Koyal Society aud jjapers ( '2t) ) printed in the
Memoirs of the Paris Academy of Sciences, of both
which bodies Leeuwenhoek was a member. The
most complete collection of his Works appeared at
Leydeu in 4 vols, in 1719-22. A selection of these
was translated into English by S. Hoole (2 vols.
Loud. 1798-lSUl). See the "Life in Dutch by
Uaaxmau (Leydeu, 1875).
Leeiiwill, Cape, the south-west corner of
Australia, notable on account of the tempestuous
weather usually encountered there.
Leeward Islands. See Antigua, AVest
Indie.s.
Lcfebvre, Francois Joseph, Duke of Danzig
and Marshal of France, was born at Kull'ach, in
Alsace, 25th October 1755. He entered the army
at the age of eighteen, and was a sergeant in the
French Guards when the Kevolution broke out.
He was engaged for some time on the Moselle and
Hhine, fought at Fleurns, Altenkirchen, and Stock-
ach, and rose in rank with wonderful rapidity. In
1799 lie took part with IJonaparte in the overthrow
of the Directory, and in 1SU4 was made a Mar-
shal of the Empire. He also conducted the siege
of Danzig, and after its capture was created Duke
of Danzig. He distinguished himself in the early
part of the Peninsular war, aud suppressed the
insurrection in the Tyrol. During the Russian
campaign he had the command of the Imperial
Guard, and in ISU of the left wing of the army
which resisted the advance of the allies in France.
Subnutting to the liourbons after Napoleon's abdi-
cation, he was niadt' a peer, a dignity restored to
him in 1819, though lie had sided with his old
master during the Hundred Days. He died in
Paris, 1 Ith September 1820.
Leilio.sia. See Nicosia.
Lcfort, Fkanoois Jacob, favourite of Peter
the Great, was born at Geneva in 1653, being
descended from a family of Scottish extraction
which had settled in Piedmont, afterwards ( 1585)
in Switzerland. He served for a time with the
Swi.s3 Guard at Paris; but went to Kus^-ia in 1075,
and attracted the notice of Prince Galizyn, who
made him a commander of the new troops raised to
counteract the inlluence of the 'strelitzes' or old
militia. Having taken a leading jiart in the
intrigues which made Peter sole ruler after the
death of his brother Ivan, Lefort was advanced to
to be first favouriti: of the czar, and next to him
the most important personage in Kussia. .\ man
of great ability, Lefort hacked up Peter in his
projects of reform, remodelled the army and laid
the foundation of the navy, and in l(>!t4 was made
admir.'il and generalissimo. When Peter umler-
took his visit to foreign countries in 1097 Lefort
was made chief of the embassy in the train of
wliicli the czar travelled incognito. He died 12th
March 1699. See Lives (in German) by Posselt
(1866) and Blum (1867).
Left-handed. See Rioht - handedness;
BltAiN, Vol. 11. pp. 391, 392.
Leg. the lower limb, or, in the usage of anato-
mists, that part of the lower extremity which lies
between the knee and the ankle. It consists of
two bones, the Tibia and Fibula (see SKELETON,
Foot), and of masses of muscles (together with
nerves and vessels) which are held in jiosition by
coverings of fascia, and are enveloped in the general
integument. The shaft of the tibia is of a triangular
prismoid form, and presents tlirce surfaces and three
borders. The internal surface is smooth, convex,
and broader above than below ; except at its upper
third, it lies directly under the skin, and may be
readily traced by the hand. The external and the
posterior surfaces are covered by numiTous muscles.
The muscular ma-ss forming the calf (formed by
the fiaAtrocnemius, salens, and p/antitris muscles) is
peculiar to man, and is directly connected with
his erect attitude and his ordinary mode of pro-
gression. The anterior border of tin? tibia, the
most prominent of the three, is po]iularly known
as t/n: sltiii, and may be traced down to the inner
ankle. The libula. or small bono of the leg, lies on
the outer surface of the tibia, and articulates with
its upper and lower extremities, and with the astra-
galus inferiorly. It atl'ords attachments to manj'
of the muscles of this region.
This region is nourished by the anterior .and pos-
terior tibial arteries into which the |ioplitcal artery
divides. Both these arteries occasionally renuiie
to be lied by the surgeon in cases of wounds or
aneurism. The blood is returned towards the heart
by two sets of veins — the deep, which accompany
the arteries, and the superticial, which are known
as the internal or long saphenous, and the external
or short saphenous veins. These superficial veins
are very liable to become permanently dilated or
varicose (see Varicose Veins), if there is any
impediment to the free transmission of the blood,
or even from the mere weight of the ascending
column of blood, in persons whose occupation
requires continuous standing. The iier\'es of the
leg, both sensory and motor, arc derived from the
great sciatic ner\ e and from its terminal branches,
the internal popliteal and the external popliteal or
peroneal ner\e.
In eases of fracture or bruhoi hij the two bones
are more frequently broken together than .singly,
and the most common situation is at the lower
third. AVIiat is known as Pott's fracture consists
of fracture through the lower third of the libula,
with fracture of the projecting lower end of the
tibia.
Ulceration of the leg is a frequent consequence
of varicose veins, and the very condition wliicli
causes the veins to dilate (continuous standing) is
an etl'ectnal preventative of the healing jirocess, to
ensure which complete rest, with the leg raised so
as to assist the return of the blood, is neces.sary.
Bandy, or bow, leg is a condition which may
a]i|iear as the result of muscular contraction before
a child has been placed on its feet. In .such a cjuie
the natural curve of the tibia is merely exaggerated.
It is associated with Rickets (i.e. a deliciency of
lime salts), in which the child li.as the habit of
sitting tailor-wise, and thus bending the tibia
forwards and outwards in its lower (liiid. Some-
limes one leg is bandy and the other in kneed.
This is produced in a. soft-boned child by the mother
or nurse always carrying the child upon the .xame
arm and using the other arm to clasp the child's
legs across the front of her body. See I'oor, Knee,
LEGACY
LEGEND
561
HiPJoiNT, Clubfoot, Achilles Tesdon, &c. ;
also Ami-utatiox, Artikicial Limbs.
Lesacv i* "■ lH'i|uest or gift of pei-sonal property
by will. Ill EnglanJ it is provided by the Wills
Act of 1837 that if a legacy is given to the wit-
ness of a will, or to his or her wife or husband,
the legacy is void ; also becpiests to supei-stitious
uses are "void, as, for exanipU^ to maintain a
priest, or an anniversary or obit, or a lamp in a
cliurcli, or to say masses for the testator's soul,
or to circulate pamphlets inculcating the pope's
supremacy. Legacies of money for charitable
pur|)oses, as for the use of scliools, chuiihcs, v^c. ,
are valid, but if tlie money is directed to be laid
out in the purchase of Ian<l for such purposes the
legacv is void by what is called the Mortmain Acts
(amended and consolidated by the Mortmain and
Charitable Uses Act, 1888). Certain favoured in-
stitutions and charities are exempted from the
operation of these acts.
Legacies are divided into specific, general, de-
monstrative, and cnmulntive. A sperific legacy
means a legacy of a delinite thing, as a particular
liorse, picture, silver-plate, v*tc., or a sum of stock
in the funds. A general legacy means a sum of
money, without it being stated out of what fund
it is to come, and it is payable out of the assets
generally. The important difference between these
two kinds of legacy is this, that if the subject-
matter of the speciHc legacy fail, as if the horse die
or be previously sold, &c. (adem])tion), the legacy
is gone, and no compensation is given for it after
payment of the testator's debts. But legacies given
for valuable consideration do not sutTer abatement ;
while, on the other hand, if there is not enough
to pay all the general legacies, then they must
abate-^i.e. share the loss — whereas the specilic
legacy, if it e.\ist, must still be paid in full. A
demonstrative is something like a general legacy,
but a particular fund is named from which it is to
be satislied. It is not liable to ademption by any
act of tlie testator, nor Ls it liable to abatement
with general legacies as long as it does not e.xceed
the fund from which it Ls to be paid. A cumulative
or substitutional Ls a second legacy given to the same
person, ami the question for settlement in that
case is whether the later gift is in addition to or in
place of the first. A legacy is not payable by the
executor till a year has elapsed after tlie testator's
death, for it is presumed he requires this time to
inquire into the state of the property ; and tliLs is
true even tliougli the testator has ordered the
legacy to be paid within six months after the
death. If a legacy is left to an infant under
twenty-one it cannot be paid to the father or any
other relative without the sanction of the Court of
Chancery. Formerly, if a legacy was left to a
married woman the hu.sband was entitled to claim
it, unless it was left to her separate use, or unle.ss
she was unprovided for by the husband ; but now in
all cases the wife gets for her separate use all pro-
perty coming to her. Interest is due on legacies
from the time when the principal sum is payable —
i.e. one year after the death — unle.ss otherwise
snecilieil. If the legatee die before the testator
tlie legacy lapses — Le. becomes void ; hut there are
some exceptions, a-s wliere tlie legatee is a child or
grandchild of the testator. A legacy to a creditor,
if equal to or greater than the debt, Ls presumeil to
be in satLsfaction thereof. If the estate from wliicli
a legacy is claiiue<l do not exceed £50(), an action
to compel payment may be brought in the county
court. The person to whom the remainder of the
property is left after all claims are di.scharged is
called the residuary legatee. — In Scotland the
rules as to legacies are mainlv the same, but a
verbal legacy up to £100 Scots (£8, 6s. 8d.) L* valid.
In Scotland a legacv can be enforced in six months
2W.
after the testator's death, and bears interest at 5
per cent, from such death. If a legacy is left to a
married woman, the property in it vests in her;
she can enjoy the income, but cannot dispose of
the corpus without the concurrence of her hus-
band.
In the United Kingdom, where the whole per-
sonal estate is under £100 there is no legacy duty,
and for under £300 the fixed inventory duty of
.SOs. ' is deemed to be a full satisfaction of any
claim to legacy duty. ' In other cases the rate is
inversely as the degree of relationship. The bus-
baiicl or wife of the testator pays no duty ; the child
or lineal descendant, a parent or lineal ancestor,
pays 1 per cent. ; a brother or sister, or their
descendants, 3 per cent. : othei-s, in priqiortion to
their remoteness, 5 and 6 and 10 per cent. The
last is in all cases the maximum rate. The royal
family are exempt from legacy duty. See Jarman
on Wills, and ^Villiams on Executors.
Legal Fiction. See Fiction.
Legal Tender. See Tender.
Legate, the name of the ambassador or repre-
sentative, whether temporar^• or permanent, sent by
the pope to a particular church. In the later con-
stitution of the church three classes of legates are
distinguished : ( 1 ) Legati a latere, ' legates de-
spatched from the side ' of the pontitT, who are
commonly cardinals ; (2) Legati missi, called also
'apostolic nuncios,' and including a lower giade
called 'internuncios;' (3) Legati nnti, 'legates
born,' whose office is not personal, but is attached
bv ancient institution or usage to the see or other
ecclesiastical dignity v.hich they hohl. Of the last
class there were examples in most national churches ;
thus, the Bishop of Thessalonica was legate born for
lllyricum, the Bishop of Aries for Gaul, the Bishop
of Mainz for Germany, the Bishop of Toledo ( thouwh
his claim was often disputed) for Spain, the Arcli-
bishop of Canterbury for England, &C. ThLs insti-
tution, however, has gone entirely into abeyance ;
and, indeed, the authority of legates is nuicli modified
in tlie modern church. In the medieval times the
legate claimed full papal jurisdiction in the country
assigneil to him, even overruling the local jurisdic-
tion of the bishops of the national church. This
led to many disputes ; to refusals to receive legates,
;is in France, where the legate was obliged to wait
at Lyons till his credentials should have been ex-
amined and approved at court ; and to counter legis
lation, as in England to the statute of 16 Richard
II., commonly known as the Statute of Premunire.
The Council" of Trent removed the ground of
contention by abolLshing all such claims to local
jurisdiction as trenched upon the authority of the
bishop.s. The legate, in the modern church, is little
other than the ambassador, mainly for spiritual
purposes, of the pope. He is hehl as belonging to
the dii)lomatic body, and by the usage of Catholic
courts enjoys precedence of all other ambassadors.
The legates at the more important courts have the
title of nuncio, at minor courts of internuncio.
In 1800 there were apostolic nuncios at Vienna,
Munich, .Mailrid, Paris, Lisluui ; internuncios at
the Hague and Rio Janeiro, and an apostolic
delegate at t^uito. In the States of the Church
(q.v.) the governors of the Legations were called
legates.
Legato ( Ital., 'tied'), in Music, means that the
pa.ssage is to be performed in a smooth manner,
the notes being played as if Imund or tied together,
or in such a manner that the one note is as it were
rouniled oil', or Hows into the fidlowing one.
Legend, a name somewhat loosely ajiplied on
the one hanil to the creations of mythology, ami on
the other to the more or less historical accretions
that ever tend to grow around the names of heroes
562
LEGENDRE
LEGHORN
who impress the popular imagination. Interesting
examples of entirely baseless le<;enils in their turn
hecoining historical may he seen under the names
Pope Joan ami Williaiii Tell. It is ever the fate
of a great name to he enshrined in falde, and this
fact all'ordod a l>a.sis for Strauss in his lamous ,
attempt to reconstruct the history of Christianity.
The term legend was early ajiplied to those religious
traditions which, in the earlv ilays of Clirlstianity.
clustered round the gospel history : this tendency
to mythic emhellishment having further showed
itself in connection with the later saints and
martyrs. This curious practice of interweaving
truth with fahle no ilouht arose from a credulous
love of the wonderful, an exaggeraticm of fancy,
and an ecclesiastical enthusiasm, at times even
pious fraud helping to <lisseniinate such embellished
and unreliable narratives. But, intermixed with
falsehood as these so-called legemlary tales were,
they gradually crei)t into the Eastern and Western
Churches, and in the course of centuries gained
an entrance into the national literature of Christian
nations. Already the same process had made the
Talniml the strange medley of sense and nonsense
that it is. It should be added that, in the Koman
Catholic Church, the lives of saints and martyrs
were commonly known as Icr/rndi, because chapters
were to be read (/lyeiidit) 'out of them at matins
and in the refectories of the religicuis houses. One
of the best-known medieval i-ollections is that
known as the tJolden Legend (ii.v.). Capgrave's
Lcf/enda Aiiglitr, printed by Caxtou in the 15th
century, was a kind of precursor of the monumental
Acta Hancturum of the Bollandists ((|.v.).
See the articles FoLKLOUE and SIVTHOLOGY. An
admirable discussion of the ancient Greek heroic legends
and their relation to mythology will be found in the first
volume of Grote's lii.stury.
Loaciulre. .'\di:if,S M.\1!IE, a very disliii-
guisheil mathematician, was born at Toulouse in
175'.>. After studying at the College Mazarin in
Paris he gained the attention of D'Alembert, ami
through him was aiil)ointed i)rofessor of Mathe-
matics at the Military School. After several jiroofs
that he had mastered the modern analysis, and
especially on account of his memoir on the attrac-
tion of spheroids of revolution, Legendre was in
1783 chosen member of the .Academy of Sciences.
Appointed in 17H7 one of the commissioners to con-
nect (;reenwich and I'aris by triangulation, he was
chosen member of the lioyal Society of Loiulon.
In his rejiort Legendre gave the lirst enunciation of
the ' proposition of spherical excess,' now con.sidered
an essential theorem of trigonometry, just ;vs in
180() he gave out the lirst proposal to use the
'method of least .sijuares' in las ^ouvelks MHhoden
pour hi DHeriniiuttivn r/rx Orhilca tics Cotnt'te.s.
Under the empire Legendre was aiipointed hoimrary
member of council for life, and member of the
Commission of I'uldic Instruction, having already
been ajijiointed to the llureau iles Longitudes ami
examiner at the INdytechnic. In 18'27 api)e,-ir(Ml
his 'J'niilr (/rs FniirlioH.s Ellljiti<jues, a suhje<>t
with which his name must remain permanently
associated. He wrote several other mathemalic;(l
treatises, some of the highest importance. His
Thiorie des Nnmhres (18;«)) is still a classical work
and evinces much original power. His best known
book is his Elrmnttx dc (U'omHric (1794), which
has been translated into many languages— by
Thomas Carlyle into Knglish ( 1824 ). It is probably
due to an attempt to supersede Eucli<l as a text-
book ; and if so it is one of the most successful.
Legendre died in Paris on lOtli January IS.'JS.
L«';ilJ<'. James, an eminent Chinese scholar, was
born at lluntly in Aberdeenshire in 181.'), and was
educated at King's College, Aberdeen, where he
graduated in 1835. He passed afterwards to High-
bury Theological College, London, ami went
out' to Malacca, arriving in Decendier 1839, a.s a
missionary to the Chinese in connection with the
London Missionary Society. For some time he took
charge of l)r K. Alorrison's Anglo-Chinese college
there; next laboured fin- thirty years at Hong-
k(mg; and Wiis appointed in 1.S7(J to the newly-
fou!ided chair of the Chinese Language and Litera-
ture at Oxford with a Corpus Christi fellowship.
His gieatest works have been his editions of
C/iincac Classics and books about Confucius and
Jlencius (18()-2-93). The Confucian texts and
Taoist texts form six vols, in the Sacred BooLs of the
East. A Life of Confucius, the works of Mencius,
ami the Shc-Kin(j are separate publications. He
published also a series of lectures on 'llic licliiiiuns
iifC/iitia (1880), and wrote many important articles
on Chinese matters, including tlie arliides on China,
Confucius, Lao-Tsze, Mencius, the Taii>ings, &c.
in this work. He received the degree of D.D. from
New York (1841), and of LL.D. from Aberdeen
(187U) and Edinburgh (1884). Of the C/iinese
C/d-ssu-s (arranged in 7 vols.), a second ed. of vol. i.
appeared in 1893. He died •29th November 1897.
Lr^lioril (Ital. I.iriiruo) runs Naples very close
for the rank of seconil busiest seaport of Italy
(Genoa being the lirst) : it is situated on the west
coast, by rail 13 miles 8W. of Pisa and &1 W. by
S. of Florence. Its impmtance as a connnercial
emporium dates from the decline of I'isa ; its growth
was esiiecially rajiid after it fell into the hands of
Florence in 1421, for tlie Medici |)rinces encouraged
its ]irosperitv in every way. Cosimo 1. declared
it a free )iort, the lirst in the Mediterranean,
and invited forei'Mi traders to settle there, and
there is still a large foreign element amongst
its merchants. Early in the 19th century it wiis
a great depot for the British trade with the
Lev.-mt, but slowly lost this position aftei the 3d
decade, because the British merchants began to send
their goods to their destinations direct. Leghorn
ceased to be a free jiort in 18()8. At the present
moment its foreign commerce, which is carried on
chietly with Britain (Newcastle and CarditV),
France (Marseilles), and the United States, is le.ss
in both bulk and value than its coa-sting trade,
and since 1873 the former has been decrejusing,
whilst the latter has been incrcasiu'r. The foreign
commeice was carried on in 1885-95 by a total of
about 10(10 vessels per annum, entered and cleared,
of near .TOO, 000 tons, whereas the home trade en-
gaged tiOOO vessels of '2,000,000 tons. The imports,
principally spirits, sugar, dyeing materials, woven
goods, corn and Hour, and macldnery, may have
an annual value of over .f2. 000, 000 ; the exports,
embracing wine, silk, marble, olive-oil, boracic
acid, hemp, inm, preserved fruits, leather, coral,
and straw-hats ('Leghorn hats;' see Sth.vW),
average £l,,i00,000 annually. The harbour (im-
proved in 1854-63) is an enclosed ba-sin, on
which stand ar.senals and shipbuilding yanls. One
yard employs 1'200 men, an.l builils the great
Italian ironclads. The roadsleail is |irotecled by
an ;utilicial breakwater, built in 1S.S3, which sheltei-s
vessels against .all winds excei)t the southerly.
There is a lighthouse (since l;i03) between the
harbour basin and this outer breakwsiter ; and on
I he shore, outside the harbour, stands a laz.-irelto.
liesides shipbuilding, the most important industry
is the manufactuie of coral ornaments, by some
0001) women who work in their own homes. The
value of the coral ornaments exiiorted has sunk, how-
ever, from upwards of .f3(K),000 per annum to less
than half that vabu', in conseijuence of the fall in the
price of coral. The houses of Leghorn aic for the
most part nn)dern and widl built, lofty, ami roomy;
the streets are broad iind clean ; and there are some
LEGION
LEGITIM
563
fine squares wlonied with statues of tlie };ranil-
ilukes of Tuseaiiy. Tlie iiortli westcni iiortion of
the city is inteix'cteil liy imnieious canals ; henoc
it is calk'il 'New Venice.' Tlie most interest iiij^-
of the puhlie Imililinfp are tlie cathedral {17th
century), its facade ilesigned hy Inijio Jones, the
Jewisli synajjogue (ranking for size next in Europe
to that of Amsterdam), the former grand-ducal
palace (1605). iS:c. The Academy of Sciences.
with a lilirary of 40,tKX) volumes, 'and the naval
academy deserve mention. The sulphur-springs
and sea-hathing attract a large concourse of visitors
in the season. Leghorn is defendeil both land-
wards and seawards by forts, bastions, and other
fortitications, constructed for the most jiart in
1835-37. Smollett and Krancis Horner lie buried
in the cemetery of the English church. Pop. of
the city (IStii) 83,543; (lS71) SO, 948 ; (1S81)
78,988 ;■ of the commune (1S71) 97,096: (ISSl)
97,615: (1895) 104,500.
Les^iou. in the Koman military system, corre-
s(punded in force and organLsiition to what in modern
times we should call a vorjix d'arm(e. It diii'ereil
in constitution at diU'erent periods of Koman
history. In the time of the republic a legion
comprised 4500 men. thus divided : 1200 liustafi,
or inexperienced troojis ; I'JOO jirinrijjcs, or well-
trained soldiers; 1200 vditcs, or skirmishers; 600
triarii, or pi/rim', veterans forming a reserve; and
300 equites, knights who acted as cavalry, and
belongeil to families of rank. During this period
the legions were formed only for the season ; stand-
ing armies being of later growth. The hastati,
principes, and triarii formed three sejiarate lines,
each divided into 10 ntaiiijiloi or companies, of 1'20
men e.ich in the c;ise of the two front lines, and
of 60 men in the triarii. A maniple wius com-
manded by a centurion or captain, who had a
second-ceuturion, or lieutenant, and two sub-
officers, or sergeants, iiniler him ; as non-commis-
sioned ofiicer there was a ilcranus, or corporal, to
every si|uad or teut of ten men. The jjriinijjilii.i,
or senior centurion of the triarii, was the most
important regimental otlicer, and commanded the
legion in the absence of the tribunes. The 300
cavalry formed a regiment of ten titrma-, or troops
of 30 horsemen, each uniler three (Ifcurioits, of
whom the .senior had the command. The stall' of
the legion consi.^ted of .six tribunes, who managed
the paying, quartering, |irovisioning. &c. of the
troops, and who commanded the legion in turns
for a period each of two months. This changing
command, although inconvenient, lasted till the
times of the civil wars, when a hr/ii/iis, or lieu-
tenant-general, w;is appointed as permanent com-
mandant of the legion. In thi- time of Marius
the mani|iular form.ition w;is abolished, the three
lines were assimilated, ami the legion Wiis divided
into 10 cohorts, each of 3 maniples. Soon the
cohorts were raised to 600 men, making the legion
6000 infantr>-, besides ca\alry an<l velites. Jt was
ranged in 2 lines of 5 cohorts each ; but C;esar
altered the formation to 3 lines, of respectively 4,
3, anil 3 cohorts. During the later emiiire "the
legion became complex and unmanageable; many
sorts of arms being thrown together, and balist;e,
calapuh-. and onagers added by way of artillery.
lif<;ioii ol" Honour, an order of merit
in.-titiilid liy Napoleon in 1802 as a recompense
for military and civil .services. It w,us ostensibly
founded for the protection of republican princijiles
and the laws of equality, every social gr.ade being
equ.illy eligible. The constitution and incidents
of the order have been repeatedly changed by the
successive executive iiowers of France during tlie
coui-se of the 19th century. At its first institution
the order embraced four cla.s.ies ; to these a liftli
was added in 1852. .■\t the same time the original
star was changeil into a cross. .\t the present
time there are live cla.sses — granil crosses, ol
whom there are 70; grand odlcers, llxed at 200
members ; 1000 commanders ; 4000 oliicers ; and
25,000 chevaliers or knights. Eoreigners are
eligible as members, but they are not counted in
their resjiective cla.sses. In each cla.ss three-lifths
of the members must be .soldiers or sailors. On
the obvei.se of the live-ra>ed white enamelled
cross is a female head representing the republic,
surrounded by the words lujjitl/lir/uc Fnairaixc,
1S70 : on the reverse are two crossed Hags and the
motto Honiictir ct I'atrie. The cross is suspended
In- a wreath half of oak, half of laurel, leaves.
The ribbon is watered scarlet silk. The military
members receive each a pension : those of the fir.-."t
class get 3000 francs a year, those of the second
2000. of the third 1000, of the fourth 500, and of
the lifth 250 francs. Candidates in time of peace
must lia\e served in some military or civil capacity
for twenty-five years ; exploits in' the lield or severe
wounds constitute a claim in time of war. Two
distributions take place in the year. The nomi-
nation of military [lersons takes place on parade,
and of civil in the supreme courts of justice. No
ignoble punishment can be indicted oil a member
of the order so long as he belongs to it. To rise
to a superior rank it is indispensable, at least for
natives of France, to have passed tlirougb the
inferior grades. In addition to the order 40,000
medals are distributed amongst the rank and file
of the army. Each medal entitles its bearer to
a pension of 100 francs annually. The total
annual expenditure of the order amounts to seven
million francs. The vast numbers holding this
order, and the insignilicance of many of the per.sous
on whom it has been conferred, have detracted
much from its value. At the date of the battle of
Waterloo there were 48,000 members, of whom
only 1400 were civilians. In the reign of Napoleon
III. the order embraced 64,800, and in 1872, 69,179
persons ; but a law was passed in that year that
only one new member shoulil be added for ever\
two vacancies in the civilian ranks and one fcii
every three or four in the military. This reduced
the membership to 53,848 l>y 1890. The order
gives free education to 401) of the daughters,
sisters, and nieces of its membeis.
Leg-irous. See HAXDcrpFs.
Lcgitilll, or Bairn's Pakt, in the Scotch law,
is the legal provision which a chiUl is entitled to
imt of the movable or personal estate of the
deceased father. The extent of the jirovision
varies according as the wife of the f;Ulier of the
child survives or not. If a wife survive, and also
children survive, the movable estate is divided
into three equal jiarts. One is the widow's Jus
7ic/((to- (see Husband and Wife), another is
the children's legitim. the other third is the
Dead's Part (q. v.), whicli the father may be(|ueath
by will if he jileases ; lint if he make no will, then
it goes to the children as next of kin. If the
wife is dead, then half is legitim, and the other
half is dead's part. Moreover, a father, though
in his lifetime he may, without any check from
bis children, squander his pnqierty, still is not
allowed on his death bed to make gifts so as to
lessen the fund which will supply legitim. The
children's claim to legitim may be qu.ilirn'd by
an antenuptial contract of marriage, wliicli pro-
vides some other provision to the cliildicn in lien
of legitim ; but, as a general rule, the children's
claim cannot be defeat<'d by anything the father
can do by means of a will or what is equivjilent
to a will. The legitim is claimable by all the
cliildren who survive the father, but mit liy the
J
564
LEGITIMATION
LEIBNITZ
issue of those children who have predeceased. It
is iniiiiateiiiil what tlie a;;e of this child may
lie, ami whether nuirriod or not. Children claim-
ing legitim must, however, give credit for any
provision or advance made by the father ont of
his movable estate in his lifetime. All the
cliildrcn, though of dill'erent marriages, share in
the k'gilim. In England and Ireland there is
no similar right to legitim, for the father can
l)equeath all his property to strangers if he pleivse ;
nut a similar custom, now aholislied, once existed
in the citv of London and York. By the Married
Women's 'Property Act, 1881, the (children of any
woman who dies" domiciled in Sctjtland has the
same right of legitim in regard to her movable
estate as tliey have in the movable estate of their
father.
LfUitillliltioil. in Law, is the act by which
children liorn Bastards (q.v.) are made lawful chil-
dren. By the common law of England bastardy is
indelible. The maxim is ' Once a bastard, always
a bastard.' By the civil and canon law, on the
other hand, the subsequent marriage of jiarents
who have children begotten and born out of
lawful wedlock legitimates the children. This
principle of legitimation by subsei|ucnt marriage
prevails, with modilications, in the law of France,
of Germany, of Holland, an<l of Scotland. It also
jirevails in most of the states of the American
Union ; in some it has been adojjted by statute.
In the reign of Henry III. the bishops of England
sought to introduce the rule of the canon law into
the law of England, and petitioned the lords to
consent that persons born before wedlock should l)e
legitimate so far as regarded inheritance. The
earls and barons returned the famous answer of
the Statute of Merton, 123.5 : 'We will not change
the laws of England, wliich u]< to now have been
used and approve<l.' The Legitimacy Declaration
Act of 1858 provided that any native-born British
subject, domiciled in England or Ireland, or claim-
ing any estate in England or Ireland, may apply to
the High Court of Justice for a decree declaring
that the jietitioner is the legitimate child of his
parents. In the I'nited States cases have occurred
in which bastards were legitimated by special acts
of the legislature.— There is another kind of legiti-
mation, known as legitimation l>y royal letters.
This does not confc^r upon bastards the full rights
of lawful children, but only gives up such rights to
the jirojierty of bastards as the law confers upon
the crown.
Legitimists, the followers of the elder Bourbon
line, as opposed to the Orleanists. See BOURBOX,
Ekance.
Le^llilSO. one of the four fortified towns of
NoitlK'rn Italy known as the t^iadrilatcral (q.v.),
is situated on the A<lige, Xi miles by rail SE.
from Verona. It has a considerable trade in rice,
corn, and silk. Pop. 3514. The fortilications were
razed by Napoleon in 1801, but rebuilt fourteen
\ ears later.
Lotfro.S, .Vl.l'llONSE, i)aintcr and etcher, was
born at Dijon in 1S37 of jioor parents, who appren-
ticed him to a house-i)aiiiter. He lirst attrai-ted
attention by pictures exhibiteil in the Paris
Salon between Ks.")!) and ls(i:>. But three years
later he settled in London, and becoming a nalnral-
ised Englishman was in 1876 ai>poiiitcd Slade Pro-
fessor of Fine Arts in University College, London.
The subjects he paints best are the rural scenes,
and the peasants ami huinlilc jniests, of Erance.
His admirable artistic method and the austere sim-
plicity and reserve of his style, though they secure
liim warm admirers amongst artists, have not made
him ])opiilar. See DiMiii UniBersity Miirjuziitc
■880) and AH JovrnrU ( 1881 ).
Leguiue (Legumen), in Botany, a fruit con-
sisting of a single carpel, two-valved, and with the
seeds — one or many— attached to the ventral suture
only. It is commonly called a jmd, and occurs in
most of the species "of the great natural onler
Leguminosa' (q.v.), of which the bean and pea are
familiar examples.
Leglllllill. SeeC.v.SLlN.
Li'UIIIllillOsa' (Fabaccw of Lindley), a great
natural (jider of exogenous plants, containing her-
l)aceous plants, shrubs, and trees, many of the
latter of the greatest magnitude. The leaves are
alternate, usually compound, and have two stipules
at the base of the leat-stalk, which often .soon fall
off. The inflorescence is various. The calyx is
inferior, live-parted, toothed or cleft, the segments
often uneiiual. The petals are live, or, by abortion,
fewer, inserted into the base of the calyx, usually
unequal, often Papilicmaceons ((|.v.). The staniens
are lew or many, distinct or variously united. The
ovary is one-celled, generally of a single caniel ;
the style simple, the stigma simple. The fruit
is a legume, which is simply a pod comiioseil of
two valves, as in the i)ea and the bean. The
seeds are generally nnmennis, rarely solitary, occa-
sionally with an "aril, often curved: the cotyle-
ilons very large.— There are three sub-orders :
( 1 ) Papiiionacea", with i)apilionaceous Howers ;
(•2) Ca'salpinete, with irregular Mowers and spread-
ing |ietals : (3) Mimo.sea-, with small regular
flowers.— Tills natural order contains almost
7000 known species, of which about ."iOOO belong
to the sub-order Papiiionacea- ; it is therefore,
after the great order Composila', the most ex-
tensive of all the natural orders of tlowering
plants. They are spread over all (larts of the
worhl, fiom the equator to the poles, but their
number is greatest in tropical and subtropical
regions. They are applied to a great variety of
purjioses, and some of them are of great im])ortance
in domestic economy, the arts, medicine, Oi:c. To
this order belong the Bean, Pea. Kidney-bean, and
all kinds of pulse : Clover, Li(|Uorice, Broom,
Laburnum, Lui)ine, Senna, and many other
medicinal plants. Tamarind, Logwood. Indigo,
and many others which alliiril dyes, &c. ; the
Acacias, jlimosas, &c. Many siiecies are interest-
ing on account of their beauty of form, foliage, or
llowcrs. In the see<ls of many is found a nitrogen-
ous substance called Lq/ioiuiic (q.v.) or Vegetable
Casein.
Le'lli$;ll, a river which Hows 120 miles through
eastern Pennsylvania to the Delaware Kiver. Some
of its scenery is very pictures(|ue, but the valley is
more famous" for its "rich mines of anthracite coal.
L<'il>llit7. (more accurately but less commonly
Leiuni/.), GoTTFlUKii Wii.iiEi.M, distinguished
for almost universal scholarshiii, esjiecially in
l)hilosoi>hy and mathematics, was born on 1st July
I04G at Leipzig, where his father (died 1652) was
professor of Moral I'hilosoiihy. He attenile<l the
Nicolai school in L<'iiizig, but learncil much more
from indeiiendent stuily— he taught himself to read
Livy whilst still a b"oy of eight- and at lifteen
entered the university of Leii>zig to study law. He
spent some time also at Jena working at matlie.
niatics. Being refused his iloctor's degree at Leipzig
on account of bis youth in llUiG, he graduated at
Altibnf, the university town of Nuremberg. In the
following year he gained a warm and admiring
]iatron in Baron von Boineburg, formerly chief
minister to the archbishoii elector of Mainz. At
Boineburg s suggcstiim he pre.scnte<l to the elector
bis Suva Met/iudus DovciuU DiscctK/ii/ite Ji(ris, con-
taining a i)ropo.sed reform of the Corjnis Jiijis and
of the teaching of jurisprmlence ; and the elector
took the young scholar into his service. Amongst
LEIBNITZ
565
other duties iu which Leiliiiitz eiiii)loyed his pen
■was to advocate, in 161)9, tlie claims of the count
palatine of Nenburg to the crown of Poland.
Three years later he was summoned to I'aris to
explain at greater length the views he had laid
down in an essay entitled Consilium ^gi/ptiaciiiii,
which elahorated a plan for the conquest of Eg>-pt ;
though the real object of the work wa.s to divert
the attention of Louis from projects in and upon
the tierman states. This plan of Leibnitz is believc<l
to have sugge-sted the invasion of Egj-pt which
Napoleon attempted in 1798. The tour was extendeil
to (joniion, where Leibnitz became actjuainted with
Oldenburg, Boyle, and Newton : in Paris lie had
already learned to know Arnauld. Malebranche,
and Huygens. His intercourse with Huygens and
Newton stimulated his interest in mechanical and
mathematical questions : he invented a calculating
machine and devised wh.at was in many respects a
novel method of tlieralculus(q.v. ; and see Newton.
Fluxions). This gave rise to a controversy with
Newton as to which of them first invented this
valuable mathematical method. In 1676 Leibnitz
quitted the service of Mainz, and entered that of
Hanover. The duke .appointed him custodian of
the library at Hanover; and tliis city was hence-
forth Leibnitz's headquarters. But liis energies
found scope outside the library : he effected im-
provements in the drainage of the mines in the
Harz and in the coinage, arranged tlie lilirary at
Wolfenbiittel (where Lessing afterwards laboured ),
and in 16S7 visited various cities in Germany,
Austria, and Italy to gather materials for an
exhaustive historj- of the Brunswick ducal liouse.
The pope offered him the headship of the Vatiean
Librarj' ; but Leibnitz declined the offer, since the
acceptance of it W(mld have compelled him to be-
come a Roman Catholic. The ta.sk of working up
his materials into connected history- employed a
good deal of his time in subsequent years. Philo-
sophy, too, absorbed .a large proportion of his most
serious thought. -\nd in the discussions that were
carrietl on with a view to the reconciliation of the
Protestant and Koman Catholic churches Leibnitz
took a prominent part, his princi|)al correspondent
being Bossnet. In 1686 there was published from
his pen the Systemo T/ico/o/jiciim, composed
a.s a response — conciliatory — from the Protestant
side to Bossuet's Exposition tie la Foi. Subse-
quently, on the failure of these negotiations, Leib-
nitz endeavoured, but with the same want of
succe.ss, to reconcile the Lutheran and the Reformed
churches of Prussia. He wa.s more successful
in enlisting the interests of reigning ]irinces in
scientific societies. He induced Frederick I. of
Pnissia to found (in 1700) the Society of Sciences
at Berlin, and was himself m;i<Ie first president; and
he suggested the establishment of similar societies
in St Petersburg, Dresden, and Vienna, which were
afterw.ards instituted in e.acli of those ca)iitals.
Whilst on a visit to Vienna in 1712-14 he was
created a i)rivy-councillor of the empire ; he was
also made a b.aron ( Freiherr) of the emiiire. When
George of Hanover ascended the thion(! of England
Leibnitz, who some yeai-s before had vigorously
supported his father'.s claims to the elector's hat,
was disappointed at not being invited to .acconipanv
liim. But shortly afterwards he died, on Htii
November 1716, at Hanover.
The philo.sophy of Leibnitz holds an inter-
mediate place between the dualism of Descartes
and the monism of Spinoza (whom he visited at
Ain.tterdam in 1676). His system is individual-
istic anrl dogm.atic. He taught that the primary
and e.s.sential quality of all substance is active
force. Sulistance exists only in the form of atoms
or niona<ls, which are simple and similar in con-
stitution, but differ qualitatively : each is a self-
contained individuality. AH monads jxissess two
intrinsic properties — perception, or the capacity to
mirror the universe, and appetite or striving. The
degree of perfection with which each monad retlects
the nnivei-se depends upon its individual character
— i.e. u])on the peculiar consensus or balance of
relations th.-it exist between the active .ami the
pa.ssive elements in its nature. And the entire
scries of monads, from the very highest ((lod) to
the very lowest, were so constituted, and so
arranged from the first, that, whilst each obeys
the laws of its own self-determined devekqunent
independently of all othei's, it is at every mimient
in complete accord and harmony with .-ill the
rest. The body of man is a complex of separate
monads ; his soul is a single monad, the sub-
stantial centre of his being. Yet no monad can
act upon another monad ; the active force of each
cannot p,a.ss out of itself. But the doctrine oi
general 'pre-established harmony' explains howand
what relations do subsist between them, and so
between liody and soul. He compares body and
soul to two clocks wbicli have been constructed
in the beginning in such a w.ay, and so perfectly,
that both can be depended ujion to keep exact
time with each other without any bond of con-
nection or any interference from without. (Jod is
the primary, supreme, perfect monad ; from Him
all others proceed as ' fulguvati<ms ' or radiations.
Plants and stones are likewise monads; but in
their case the perceptive capacity is more or less
blurred or slumbering — an adumbration of the
modern doctrine of uncf)nscious perception. Since
God is the contriver of the universal harmony that
prevails amongst all created things, this world
must be the best of all possible worlds (see
OcTiMiSM). The real cogency of Leibnitz's argu-
ment depends upon his great logical instrument, tlic
princii)le of sufficient reason : there is a sufficient
reason why this worlil should be the best of all
possible worlils, and there is no sufficient rea-son
why it should be otherwise. His theory allowed
him to demonstrate that there is a substantial
agreement between faith and the deliverances
of reason. The Leibnitzian ethics are deduced
from the i)ro]ierty of striving inlierent in ever)
monad— the final aim being perfection, reached
through individual freedom.
Leibnitz was also a ]noneer in the science of com-
parative philology. He took stejis to collect speci
mens of various distant languages, in Asia and
elsewhere, and studied them in a scientific manner.
He recognised two great divisions of s|)eech, tlir
Aramaic, which included Arabic and Hebrew, and
the .laphetic or Celto-Scythian, which coincideil
])retty nearly with what was subse(|uently called
the Indo-Germanic or Aryan family of speech. Cf.
M.ax Midler. Srienceo/Lanf/noi/c.
l.cibnitz left no complete systematic accoimt of Ins
philosupliical views. They have to be gathered from
several collections of lettei^s, essays contributed to the
journals Acta EritdiUn'itm, Journal <tes Savantg, &c.,
and a few treatises, such a.s He Principio Indiridiii
(16631; Exxai tic Tlu'oil icr'r sur la Jlonte de Vieu, la
Liberie tie V Homme, el V Oriiiine du Mai { 1710); Princij,i-
de la Nature it dc la Grdce (1718 ) ; ilonaitolotjie ( 1714 ) .
and Nouvetiux Esstaitf xnr I'Enteudemenl (176.5). In this-
last work he closely criticises Locke's celebrated Exsat/ in,
the Human Understanding/ ; and supplements the English
pliilosoplier's tnaxiii) of Nihil eat in intellectii ipmd n<n,
fuei'it insiu.fu, by adding n>.si ipjie inlellerlus. I''dition>
of Leibnitz's writings have been ptd>lislied, tliongli none
is conqilete, by I'litens (li vol.s. (ieneva, 1 768 ), by Pel tz
and Gerhar(lt"(19 vols. 184;i-U0), and bv O. Klopp (II
voh. 1862 84). The best Life is Guhrauer's (2 vols.
1842-46). See also biographical works by Kirchner
(1877) and E. Pflcidcrer ( 1870). and I'.odeniann on lii>
Correspondence (188*.*). Feuerbach ( 1837), Zinimerniann
(1847, &C.), and K. Fischer (1867) have written on hie
philosophy.
566
LEICESTER
LEICESTERSHIRE
Leicester, tlie county town of Leicestersliire,
a iiinnieip.il, pailiaiiientaiy, and county l>nrnu};li,
is situatoil on tlie Soar, a tiiliutary of tlip Trent,
■2-2 miles S. of Nottiii;;liani. .'!S ENE. of liiiiiiinn
'lani, 20 NNE. of Ku^^liy. ami 97 NNW. of
London. Traditionally founded Ijy tlii' Itrilisli
kinj; Lear, it occupies the site of tin? Honian
liatw : and pavements, urns, and other Roman
relics have heen found, while the '.Jewry Wall,'
•20 feet hij;h and 7") long, which f,'ot its name
from the medieval •ghetto, is composed of rnbhle
and Itoman hricks. Its present name conies
from the An;;lo-S,axon Lrirrea.ttir, or ' fortress
of the 1,1'ire,' ivs the river was calle<l of old.
The Norman castle, dismantled l>y Charles I.
in 1645, is represented chiellv hy the modernised
assize hall, and hy an artiheial earthwork, the
Mount or Castle View, on which stood the doiijon-
keep ; the Abbey of Black Canons (114:i), where
Wolsey died in 1530. is au insiijnilicant if
l)ictures(|ue ruin. In tlie Blue Boar luu, demolished
about l.S'2i), Itichard 111. slept the ni^dit before
Bosworth ( US.i) ; and his corpse was hrought back
hither for burial. A handsome memorial cioss or
clock-tower (186S) bears the effigies of Simon de
.\Iontfort, Earl of Leicester, Sir Thon\as White,
.^Ideriuan Newton, and William of Wyggeslon.
There is a statue also of Robert Hall : and anumg
the other edilices are the old town-hall, with good
carving and stained glass of Henry VIL's time ; the
new nninicipal buildings (1876), Queen Anne in
stvle, with a clock-tower 134 feet high : the post-
otiice (1887), public baths (1879), free library
(1870), scho.il of art (1876), opera-house (1877),
poor-law otHces (188,3). corn e-X change ( 18.V2), lunatic
asylum (183G), the museum (1848), rich in local
antiquities ; the Wyggeston Hospital Schools ( 1513 ;
rebuilt 1877-78); and live interesting old churches
— St Nicholas', St Mary's, All Saints', St Margaret's,
and St Martin's, the last with a spire 218 feet
high. The New Walk is a pleiisant tree-shaded
promenade; the iacec(mr.se of 1806 is now a
recreation ground, known as the Victoria I'ark,
its succes.sor being at Oadhy, 3.^ miles distant ;
the --Mjhey public park was o])ened by the Prince
of Wales'in 18S2: and there is a third ))ublic i)ark
called the Siiinney Hill Park. The abnormally
rapid growth of Leicester has been dne to its
central position, to its transit facilities by three
railway com])!inies and by water, and to the great
extension of its industries. The manufacture of
]>lain and fancy hosiery, introduced in lOSO, is
equalled only by Nottingham ; in th.at of ]>egged
iind riveted boots and shoes Leicester vies with
Nortliamiiton. Iron-founding is also cariied on,
with mannf.actures of elastic welibing, sewing-
cotton, lace, lambs-wool. \c. There is co.al in the
neighbouvh I, and a Large sewage-farm. First
cliartereil by King .lohn, Leicester has returned two
members to parliament from Edward I. 's time. It
has ligured prominently in the anti-v.accinalion
contest. l>o|i. ( 1801 ) 17,Vi05 : ( 1861 ) 68,056 : ( 1871 )
95,084; (1881) 122,351 : (1891) 174,624.
See local histories by Throaby (1777-i'l), T. Kubinson
1793), James Thompson (l.S4!l-71), Hollin>;.s ( lS:Vi),
Itobcrt l!ca<l (1881 ), ami Mrs T. Fiddiiif; Johnston.- ( 1 MI2 ).
Leicj'stcr, RoisKitr Dudlkv, Eaiu, of, born
abiuit 1.5:12, was the liftli son of John Dudley,
Duke of NcirlhuMilicrlanil, and grandson of tlie
notorious EdMiiind Dmlley, who was belieadeil for
treason by Henry VI 11. His father was execntid
for the iiarl which he took in the c;uise of I,ady
•lane (!rey (<|.v. ), and he was himself sentenced
to death. He was libi-rated in 1.5.54 ; ami in 15,58,
on the acce8.sion of Elizabeth, ,a great career openeil
before him. He was nia<le Miister of the Horse,
Ivnight of the Garter, a I'rivy-councillor, High
Steward of the university of Cambridge, Baron
Dudley, and Hnally in 1564 Earl of Leicester. For
these high honours he seems to have been indebted
mainly to a handsome person and a courtly manner.
In 1,550 be had married .Vniy. daughter of Sir .lohn
Uobsart. She liveil in the cnunlry. and early in
1560 removed to Cumnor I'lacc, Berkshire, the
house of Anthony Eorster, a creature; of her
husband's, where, on 8tli September, she was found
lying dead, with her neck broken, at the foot of a
staircase. It was generally believeil at the time
that she was murdered, and that Duilley, if not
Elizabeth herself, was an accessory to the crime.
This belief receives some support from certain
discoveries made in the archives at Simancas,
which indicate that a plot to poison her w.a-s
actually entered into before her death. Elizabeth
continued to favour Leicester in spile of his un-
]K)pularity in the country and of his secret marriage
in 1573 to the Dowager L.ady Shetlield. In 1563
she had suggested him .as a husband for Mary,
l^ueen of Scots, and in 1575 she consented to be
m.agnificently entertained by him at his castle of
Kenilworth (q.v. ). In 1.578 he bigamously married
the widow of AValter, Earl of Essex, and when
the fact wius revealed to Eliz.abeth, she was gre.atly,
but only temporarily, olVended. In 15S5 lie com-
manded ,an expedition to the Low Countries, of
which ne.xt year be was apiioiiited governor — an
expedition that is notable chietly for tlie unsuccess-
ful siege of Zutidien, in the course of which Sir
Philip Sidney, his ne])hew, met with his death.
In 1587 he ag.ain showeil liis military incapacity
in the s.ame field, and had to be recalled. Vet in
1.588 he was a]iiioiii(ed to command the fences
.assembled at Tilbury, to defend England against
the Spanish Armada. He died suddi'idy on 4th
Se])temberof the s.auie year at Cornbury, in Oxford-
shire, of ]M)!son, siiid rumour, intended for his wife.
See Eliz.miki'H, with works there cited ; and the
article 'Robert Dudley' by Mr S. L. Lee in vol.
xvi. of the Dictioiian/ of S\'i(liiiii(i/ liitujntjiliy
(1888).
Leicester of Holkliaiii. I'iium as Wh.i.iam
CoKK, E.MiL OF, was born on 4th May 17.52, a
descendant of the famous lawyer Coke. He was
one of the liist agriculturists of England ; by his
ellbrts for the improvement of farming norlh-west
Norfolk was converted from a rye-growing into a
wheat-growing district, its system of cultivation
was entirely revolutionised for the better, ami more
stock and of better breeals was kejit on the farms.
When in 1776 be su(a-eedcd to his estates they
yielded an annual rental of t'22(l(i: at his deatli
they brought in .£'20,000 and more. Thesheep shear-
ing festivals at Ilolkham were celebrated the country
over. Coke represented Norfolk in the House of
Commons during the greater part of the period
from 1776 to 1833. He was a st.aunch Whig, and
a striuig su^iporter of Fox. In 1837 he was created
I'^arl of Leicester of Ilolkham, to distinguish the
title from the Earldom of Leicester, already held by
the Townshend family. Coke refused every other
title exceiit that of Earl of Leicester, because that
title had been borne by his great-uncle, but on his
death in 1759 had become extinct. He died at
Longf(M.l Hall, Derbyshire, 30tli June 184'2.
Leicestersliire. a midland conntv of England,
surrounded by Nottingham. Lincoln, Rutland,
Northainjiton, Warwick, and l)eiby shire.s. It ha.s
a maximum length and breadth of 44 miles by
40, and contains 803 sq. m.. or 514,164 acres.
Pop. ( ISOl ) 131,081; (1841)215,867; (1881)321,258;
( 1891 ) 373,984. Its surface is mainly undulat-
ing tableland, the highest ground being at Cham-
wood Forest in the north-west, where B.uilon Hill
rises to a height of 8.53 feet above sea level. The
Soar, itself an affluent of the Trent, which for a
LEICHHARDT
LEIGHTON
567
short distance Tiordei's tlie oonntv <>n the north,
is, with its tributary tlie Wreak, tlie iiriiicinal
river. The soil, viminj; in fertilitv, is ;,'ein'rally
loamy : in the north-west are vahial)k' coal mines,
also pranite, slate, and limestone ipiarries, but,
the fireater jiart of the lounty bein^' under pas-
lure, the (juaiitity of corn i^rown is coni|iaratively
small. According to the agrieultunil returns
for 1889 the area under corn crops was (mly
73,.'>82 acres, ami under j,'reen crops 'iO.D.'i.') acres,
whilst 341,90.5 acres were laid dowu as permanent
pasture or jrrass. Hence the jirincipal objects of
ajjriculture practised in the county are grazing and
sheep and cattle breeding, Leice-.tershire being
especi.ally noted for its breed of the former. Of
manufactures the principal are those of hosiery
and boots ami shoes; basket-making is carried on
at Castle Donnington ; and Stilton cheeses are for
the most part made in this cimnty. Leicestershire
comprises six hundreds, the parliair.entary and
municipal borough of Leicester, and 332 parishes,
almost entirely in the diocese of Peterborough, and,
for judicial pur|>oses, in the Midland Circuit.
Leicester is the a-ssize town, and other towns are
Ashby-de-la-Zouch, Hinckley, Loughborough, Lut-
terwortii, Market Harborough, and Melton Mow-
bray, the last two being great hunting centres.
Si.'v niembei-s are returneil to parliament, and the
county council consists of fifty-one members. In
historical annals the principal event associated
with the county is the battle of IJosworth Field
(1485), in which Kichard IlL lost his life. Amongst
persons of note identified with Leicestershire may
l)e mentioned Wyclif, Cardinal Wolsey, Lady Jane
Grey. Mary t^ueen of Scots, Iteaumont the drama-
tist, George Villiers, Duke of Buckingham. Cleve-
land the poet, tieorge Fox, Simpsdu the mathe-
matician, Dr Johnson, Lord Macaulay, HoVart
Pasha, Colonel Burnabv, and ht-^t, but not least,
Daniel Lambert. See the histories of the countv
bv Burton {16'22: id ed. 1777), Nichols (4 vols.
1795-181.5), and Curtis (1831 ).
LeiHiIinrdt. Friedrich Wiluklm Lidwr;,
explorer in Australia, w;is born at Trehatsch, south-
east of Berlin, on 23d October 1813, and studied
philology at Giittingen and natural science at
Berlin. In 1841 he ]in)ceeded to Australia. There
he conducted an expe<lition ( 1843-48) from Moreton
Bay, in Queensland, north-westwards to the (Julf
of Carpentaria, and then, skirting its south and
west shores, finally reached Port Kssington. In
the end of 1846 he maile an unsuccessful attempt
to cross the ba.se of Cape York Peninsula. In
November 1847 he again started from Moreton Bay
with the intention ol cros>iiig the entire continent
from east to west, but he wjis lost in the interior.
Nothing authentic ha-s been heard of him since
.\pril 3, 1848. The Joiinitil of bis first journey
wa-s published in London in 1847. and his Letters
in German in 1881.
Leigh, a town of Lancashiie, 21 miles NE. of
Liverpool and 16 AV. of Manchester. Silks and
cotton goods are extensively manufactured ; iron-
foundries, breweries, malt kilns, and ghiss works
count amongst the |irincipal industrial establish-
ments. In the vicinitv are productive coal-mines.
Pop. ( 1861 ) 10,621 ; (i8Hl > 21,734 ; ( 1891 ) 28,702.
See Worsley's Hittorij uf Lciyl't ( 1870).
LeiKlltOII, FliKDKKicK, Loitl), p. Pv.A., was
born at Scarborough 3d December 18.30. His
father was a doctor, but he early recognised his
son's bias towards iiaiiiting, and g.ave him what
he deemeil the best training for his jpiofession.
Frederick's early years were spent in a series of
grand tours. He visit<'il Uonu;, Florence, Frank-
fort, Berlin, Paris, and Bru.ssels, and everi-wliere
he received instruction from the most distinguished
mastei's. At fourteen he was already a promising
stmlent at the .Accademia di liellc .\ni at Florence.
.Vt Frankfort he came under tlie inlliieiice of Steinle.
a frigid Teuton, the friend and disciple of (Jverbeck ;
and there remained a certain coldness in his colour
which proved that he never (inite lived down the
results of Steinle's tuition. He made his first
appearance at the Uoyal Academy in 1S.55 with
his famous pictiire 'Cimabue's Madonna carried in
Procession through the Streets of Florence.' This
work was an immediate success and was purchased
by the tjueen. Of his later works m,ay be men
tioned 'The Triumph of Music' (1856), 'Paolo
and Francesca' (bsiil), 'The Odalisque' (1862),
' .-Ariadne ' ( 1868), ' Hercules wrestling with Death
(1871), 'The Harvest Moon" (1872), 'The Daphne
l)lioria' (1876), ' Weddeil ' (1882), 'Cymon and
Iphigeneia' (1884), ' .-Viulromache ' (1888), 'The
Bath of Psyche '( 1890). He also won consider-
able distinction ixs a sculjitor, and in 1877 his
J 'Athlete struggling with a Python ' was purchased
' out of the funds of the Chantrey Bequest. In 1864
he was elected Associate of the Royal .•\cademy.
[ Five years later he took his place among the forty.
On the death of Sir Francis Grant in 1878 he was
elected President and was knighted. He was
created a baronet in 1886. He received a grand
medal of honour for sculpture at the Paris Exhibi-
tion of 1889, and the universities of Cambridge,
Oxford, anil Edinburgh conferred u|>on him their
honorary degrees. He was created Lord Leighton
of Strettcm on 1st January 1896, died, unmarried,
on the '25th of the same month, and was buried in
St Paul's. Lord Leighton was a scholar and a man
of the world as well as a painter, and discharged the
duties of his onerous position with marvellous tact
and success. Under his presidency the Academy
enjoyed a material prosperity and soci.al influence
which it attained under no (me of his ]iredecessors.
As an artist he was always inspired by the loftiest
ideals, and assiduously cultivated the 'grand style.'
Neither realism nor archaeology ever availed to turn
him aside from the straight path ; but it may be
objected that his temperament was rather that of
the scholar than of the .artist. Of his I)a]dine-
phoria (sold in 1893 fiu- £3700) Holman Hunt said,
■ It is the very noblest painting jiroduced in modern,
[ if it does not excel all of ancient, times.' See Mrs
.Andrew Lang in the Ail Aiiiiiik/, 1S85, and ,a mono-
giaph liy Eriiest Uhys (1900).
Lei^lltOU. RoiiERT, perhaps the rarest Howei
that has grown out of Scotch theology, was born in
1611, but where is as yet ipiite unc-ertain. He w;is
the second son of Dr Alexander Leighton ( 1.568
c. 1649), Presbyterian minister in Lonilon and
Utrecht, the autlior of A n A/>jiiitl tu the Parlitmcnt :
or fawn's Plcti anninst thr J'rc/iiric (I6'28), which
earned him from the tender mercies of Lauil the cruel
punishment of scourging, the pillory, luanding and
mutilation, heavy fine, and c\i»v ini]irisonment.
At si.Nteen the boy went to the university of Edin-
burgh, where be gra<luated M.A. in 1631. The
only record of his college d.ays is a sarcastic and
obvious epigram on Aikeidiead, the ])rovost of
Edinburgh. He next s]ient some years in France,
aiul wideneil his spiritual .'^ymiiathies by living
some tinie with Koman Catholic relativesat Douay.
Hi? was ordained Presbyterian minister of New
battle in ll>41, signed the Coven.ant .along with
his parishioiu'rs two year;- later, and, in .-pite of
Burnet's account of his lack of sympathy with his
brethren, ajipears to have t.iken his part in all the
Presbyterian policy of the time, and even to have
represented the Synod of I/ithian in a inissicm to
Lon<lon. The famous story of his being questioned
'whether he pleached to the times' and of his
retort that surely they might ' permit a poiu'
brother to preach Jes\is Christ and eternity ' is
568
LEIGHTON
iinauthenticated. At tliis periinl he was a fre-
(luent visitor to Loudon, and after 1646 lie went
thither once a year. About the chise of 16,V2 lie
applied for leave to resign his charge, on the plea
of inability to perform its duties from ill health
and weakness of voice, and early next year he «as
allowe<i to do so on being apjiointeil Principal of
the univei-sity of Edinburgh.
Here he remained nine years, and Burnet testilies
to his remarkable influence over the students.
Elsewhere he tells us of the wonderful effect of
his preaching, which yet displeased Presbyterian
zealots from its haranguing method, without heads.
Leigliton's Prwlect tones Theologicfv are extant
to show the kind of Latin orations which he
delivered weekly. Most of the Scniioii.s and the
Coinmcidurii on tlic First Epistle of Peter were
the work of the Newbattle period. The Restora-
tion placed oil the throne an absolute king with
a rooted determination to force Episcopacy on
Scotland. Leighton after nuich reluctance was
forced by the king himself to become one of the
bishops of the new ecclesiastical regime, but with
characteristic modesty chose for himself Diinhlane,
the poorest of tlie new dioceses, although the
elevation was to him 'a mortilication greater
than a cell and haircloth.' The worldly minded
.Sharp at first had his scru]des about receiv-
ing new ordination ; to the saintly Leighton, in-
different to the mere externals of religion, this
was a detail of no great moment. On the north-
ward journey he discovered the true motives of
Sharp and his brother bishops, and left them at
.Morpeth to avoid their hateful triumphal entry
into Kdinburgh. For the next ten years the
beautiful little town of Dunblane was his home,
an<l here he Laboured with a sinking heart to
build up the shattered walls of tlie cliurcli,
although he soon lost all hope of success, while
his work 'seemed to him a lighting against God.'
It was characteristic of the man that he never
would permit him.self to be addres.sed as 'my lord,'
and that he only apjieared in parliament when
church matters were in dispute. His conception
of Episcopacy w,as similar to that suggested by
Archr)isho|) llssher, and his aim was to preserve
what was best in the two systems as a basis for
comprehensive union, 'reconciling the devout on
different sides.' But nowhere among his unworthy
associates did he liml any ' such appearance of
seriousness or juety as became the new-modelling
of a church,' and he only succeeded in being mis-
understood by both sides, his moderation being
misread by the fiercer I'resbyterians as 'pretended
holiness, humility, and crncilixion to the world,'
assumed as 'a cloak under which to creep toward
iironiotion' — 'a mere hetiaval of religion with a
kiss.' The severity of Ids life, his unworldliness,
;i,nd even his cidibacy, were thought to savour of
Romanism, .and already his recommendation of his
favourite bo(d<, Tlie Imitiition, to the Edinburgh
students, had given oflence to rigid Presbyterians
like Dickson, who refused it because ' self and
merits run through it.' Row characterises him .as
'carrying like a pawky prelate,' and says that his
condescensions madi' the Dunbl.ane clergy think ' he
was but striihinfi cicam in their mouths at lirst.'
The continued )iersecutions of the government, bent
on playing out ' a forlorn after-game,' drove him to
London in U)6.5 to resign his see. He told the
kinjj he 'could not concur in the (ilanting the
Christian religion itself in suiOi a m.anner, much
less a form of government.' Charles apjiarenlly
listeneil with respect, and the good bishop w,-is
persuaded to return. Again in 166!t he went to
London to advocate his scheme of Accommodation,
and after his return voted in favour of the unjusti-
fiable Assertory Act — a weak piece of compliance
which lie repented all his life. Immediately after
he assumed the duties of commendator of the arch-
diocese of Glasgow, while still continuing for some
time Bishop of Diinljlane. Next followed his fruit-
less conferences at Edinburgh in 107O and 1671
with leading Presbyterians on behalf of Accommo-
dation, and his sending through the western
counties itinerant advocates of the ciiuse. In
despair of success he begged fin- permissiiui to
retire, and at length about the close of 1674 was
lieniiitted to lay down his archbishopric. His
letter to Lauderdale (December 17, 1674 ) describes
his sickness and sense of his own unworthiness,
iuid his desire to sjiend the remainder <if his life
in ipiiet retirement, as well as 'pity to si'c a | r
i-hurcli doing its utmost to destroy both itself and
religion in furious zeal and endless debates alii>ut
the empty name and shadow of a ditterence in
government, and in the meanwhile not having of
solemn and orderly public woisliip so much as a
shadow.' Ilis last ten years he spent in calm
preparatiim for his end, in the house of his widoweil
sister, Jlrs Lightmaker, at Broadhurst Manor in
Sussex, frequently preaching in the church of
Horsted Keynes, in the south transept of which
he lies. His death, which was the result of an
attack of pleurisy, came suddenly. S.'ith .lune U).S4,
ill an inn — as he often said he wished it should-
iu Warwick Lane, London, whither he had been
summoned by Burnet to an interview with Lord
Perth, just aiipointed Lord Chancelhu- of Scotland.
No man ever lived more intensely absorbed in
the love of God than Leighton : no saint was ever
filled with a greater measure of the s])irit of Christ.
It was characteristic of him that he never Ihouglit
his writings of any value, that he ]irinted nothing
liimself, and that he left orders for his MSS. to
lie destroyed ; yet no religious hooks reveal adei^per
spirituality, a more heavenly exaltation and devo-
tion. And no less womlerful is their sweetness
ami beauty, wedded to sincerity and intellectual
strength, as well as their broad catholicity of
spirit — tlie direct outcome of a large mind mouldni
in Christian charity. He saw the good that
underlay all ecclesiastical systems, and yet
recognised how jirofitless all might become if
allowed to interpose between the human soul and
Gotl. Love of peace was with him a |iassion,
thmigli unluqipily he fell on evil days and unhapiiy
methods of conciliation. The best tribute to his
memory is from the pen of Burnet, wlio says at
the coiudusion of his I'astonil Cure, 'in a free and
fre(|uent conversation with him for above two and
twenty years, I never knew him say an idle word
that had not a direct tendency to edification ; and
I never once saw him in any other tem]ier but that
which 1 wished to be in in the last moments of my
life.' And ag.ain in the llisturij of 11 is Uirn 'lime
he says: '1 bear still the greatest veneration for
the niemory of that man that 1 do for any person ;
and reckon my early knowledge of him, which
haiipened the year after this [ Leighton 's ]iromotion
to a bishopric], and my long and intimate C(Uiver-
sation with him, that continued to his death, for
twenty-three years, among the greatest blessings
of my life ; and for which 1 know I must give
account to (iod, in the great day, in a most par-
ticular manner.' Of great modern Englishmen
none has esteemed Leighton more higlily than
Coleridge, whose Aids to Refieetion indeed is based
on aphorisms culleil from his writings.
Leighton k-ft his library to Dunblane, whicli has another
memorial of its great bisliop in the 'Bishop's Walk' along
the Iianks of the Allan Water. In tlie liihtiothccn Lciiiliton-
iaiia there were originally more than l.^iOO volumes, and
upwards of 1200 still remain, more than 200 of which
have interesting; marginalia. His first editor was his
friend Dr Fall, who printed most of the works from 1692
LEIGHTON-BUZZARD
LEIPZIG
569
to 1703. The chief later editions are those of Doddridije
( 174S ), Jermeiit ( 1805-8 ), Pearson ( 1825), and Aikiuan
( 1831 ). The last three editions have Uves of the author, of
which Pearson's is full and gooiL The best and most com-
plete edition is that of tlie K«v. William West, although
the method of editing is nut entirely to be connnended, and
the anti-Presbytorian prejudice ill befits the subject. The
work was tlie labour of a (luarter of a century, and vols.
ii.-vi. were issued 1809-70 ; vol vii., ' Remains,' in 1875.
Vol, i., to include the Life and Letters, is not yet pub-
lished. There is an admirable volume of Select i'-tiis from
the Writings, witli a brief Memoir (1883), by the Kev. Dr
Blair of Dunblane. .See also the last scholar's * Biblio-
graphy of .A.rchbishop Leighton ' in the British ami
Foreign Evangelical Mcvieic for July 1883.
Leigllton-BllZZnrd. a maikettuwn (if Bed-
foril.sliire, uu thf (hi^e, 41 njik's liy mil NW. of
Louilon. Its line erucifonn cluircli, mainly Kaily
English, lias a spire of 193 feet, ami was lestoreil
in 1886; in the market-place is a jientangnlar
cross ; tlie com excliani^o was built in 18G2. Straw-
plait is the staple industry. The sulli.x Buzznni
is a corruption of Beamlesert or Bosard, a great
family here in tlie 14th century. Pop. (1851)
4465;" (1881) 5991.
Leinillgen. a mediatised princely House of
Germany, dating back to 1096. In 1779 the head
of one of the branches into which it liad become
di\"ided, the Count of Leiiiiiigen-Dachsburg-
Hardenbnrg, was raised to the rank of a prince
of the empire ; but the peace of Luneville deprived
him of his ancient possessions, about •25"2 square
miles in extent, on the left b.ank of the Kiiine.
Though no longer an independent prince, the head
of the House retains liis rank and wealth, and
owns extensive possessions in Bavaria and Hesse.
The mother of Queen Victoria had for her tirst
husband the Prince of Leiningen.
Lfinster, one of the four provinces of Ireland,
occuiiies the south-east portion of the country.
See IREL.yxD.
Lcipa, a town of Bohemia, 40 miles N. by E.
of Prague. It has some niaiiufactuies of woollens,
cotton, glivss, and steel. Po]i. 9090.
Leipzig ( Fr. Lrljisic), the third commercial city
of Germany, is situated in a large and fertile plain
in tlie kingdom of Saximy, 80 miles by rail WNW.
of Dresden, and 101 SSW. of Berlin, within 6A miles
of tlie Prussian border, and 3 miles above the June
tion of the three small streams, Elster, Pleisse, and
Parthe. The inner or ancient town, the centre of
the Imsiness acti\ity, with narrow and crooked
.streets and quaint houses, is separ.ateil liy a broad,
tree-shaded promenade (laid out since 1784 on tlie
site of the old walls) from the much more extensive
modern suburbs, bounded in their turn by a girdle
of busy manufacturing 'village.s.' Uf these last,
lieudnitz, Eutritzsch, (johlis, and others were incor-
porated with the city in 1889 and 1890. The \m\i.
within the official city limits was in 1800, 3'2,14ii:
in 1860, 8.5,394; in issO, 149.081; and in 188.5,
170,.342, incluiiing a garrison of 3373 ; in 1895, in-
cluding all the villages incorporated in the pre
ceding yeai^, the population was 399,963. Many
handsome edifices have been erectecl, numercnis
line streets laiil out and buill, and great civic
ini])rovementsefrected at Leiiizigin the last (juartei
of the 19tli centniy ; but few of the public build-
ing.s are specially icmarkable. 'I'lie two l^rinl■i|>al
city churclies, the Thoniaskirche .mil the Nicolai
kirche, date resiiectively from 1496 and 1525 ; the
quaint old Kathliaus, or town-hall, from 1.556. The
old Pleissenbiirg ( built in 1213, rebuilt 1.551) was
leiieatedly besieged (in tin- Thirty Veais'Wnr) and
taken ; all but the lower was deniolislied since 1895.
Amongst the modem buildings an; the .Mniiicipal
Theatre ( 1868), one of the largest and handsomest
in (ieriimny ; the Museum (1856-.58; enlarged in
1883-86); the new Exchange (1884-86): the
Observatory ( 1861 ) ; the Booksellers' Exchange
(1888), with an interesting museum; St Peter's
Church (1885), a line specimen of modern German
(Jotliic; and the magnilicent Imperijil Law-courts,
opened in 1895. I'lie noble New (icwandhans
has .since 1884 superseded the old Gewandhaus (so
called bec.-uise originally a drapers' hall), in which,
since 1781, some of the best concerts in Euroiie
were given. Leipzig contains numerous squares
and open spaces, atl'oriling ample room for the
stalls and booths of the retail dealers .at the fairs.
The largest is the Augustus-Platz ; the quaintest
the Market-place, in which a large war monument
for 1870-71 was unveiled in 1888. The Rosenthal
and the Johanna-Park are line parks on the out-
skirts ; while farther out are line oak and beech
woods.
Leipzig resembles Edinburgh in being an im-
portant legal, educational, and book-publishing
centre, though in its other commercial interests
it far outilistances the .Scottish capital. It has
been the seat of the sujueme court of the German
em]iire since 1879. 'I'he foundation-stone of a
new building for this trilmnal was laid here in
1888. The univer.sity, founded in 1408 by a
secession from Prague, has 182 professors and
lecturei's, and more .students (averaging over
.3000) than any other (iermaii university except
Vienna, Berlin, and Munich. The Augusteum, or
main building, is in the old town ; but it is supple-
mented by spacious medical and physical laliora-
tories and other 'institutes' (forty-eight in num-
bei) in other parts of the town, including a new
liluary-building containing 350,000 vols, and 4000
MSS. The City Library has 100,000 vols, and 1500
MS8. Among the numerous other educational
establishments are two gymnasia, a justly famous
School of Commerce, a conservatory of music (400
pupils), reckoned amongst the lirst in Europe, and
many literary, artistic, and scientific institutions.
The hospital system of Leipzig is one of the best
developed in Europe, and has largelj- benefited the
medical faculty of the university. As a seat of
trade Leipzig is inferior only to Hamburg and
Berlin among the towns of Germany. The chief
articles of commerce are fure and skins, cloth,
leather, and books. The famous Leipzig fairs are
held at Easter, Michaelmas, and the Nmv Year,
and last from three to live weeks. Their origin
is traced as far hack as 1180; their importance
dates from about 1,5(M), and they reached their
greatest jirosperity at the end of the 17th and the
end of the 18lli centuries. The accession of Saxony
in 1833 to tlie German Customs Union (Zoll-
verein) gave another tillip to the business of these
fairs; but since 1865 the growth of railways and
telegraphs, and the greater numbers of com-
mercial travellers have gradually reduced their
imjiortance, though tliey are still attended by
about 30,(X)0 strangers, including Jews, Turks.
Greeks, Armenians, Persians, ;ind even (of late I
Chinese. Transactions to the extent of over
£10,000,000 sterling are .said to take place at the
Kiister fair. Leijizig ranks next to London and
Paris as a seat of the bookselling and publishing
trade. Nearly ,500 houses are eng.iged in the
book-trade, and there are also about eighty
printing establishments; while type-founding has
lieri! its chief centre in Germany. The (Jerman
booksellers liave established a common exchange
and clearing house at Leipzig; and at the annu.il
settlements of .accounts at the Easter or Jubilate
fair six thousand principals are said to be here
represented by their lommissioners. The wool-
market, in .lune, is still imirh fie(|Ueiitcd, tliough
the amount of wool odered for .sale in 1888 (alKiiit
218,000 lbs.) wa.s less th.in half that otlered in 1878.
570
LEITH
LEITRIM
Aniuiig tlie chief iniiiiutiictures (canieil on iniiiiily
in the 'villages') are pianofortes, iiai)er, chemicals,
oils, scientilic instruments, sjiirits, beer, tobacco,
and some textiles. Iron founding is also carried
on. The waxcloth industry is dccliiung.
Leipzig, formerly Lil>/k or Mjizlc (from the
Slavic Lip or lAiia, a 'lime-tree'), originally a
Wendish settlement, is first mentioned as a town
in 1015. In the latter part of the l'2th century it
had from 5t)00 to 60(K) mlialiitants, iind it rapidly
grew in importance and prosperity under the
fosteiing care of the margraves of ^leissen, who
granted it numerous commercial privileges. Leip-
zig siillcred greatly in the Thirty N'cars' War, in
which it was live times besieged and taken, anil
again in the Seven Years' War; and although the
commercial changes connected with the French
Revolution at lii-st all'ected it very favourably, yet
it suti'ereil not a little amidst the terrible struggles
of the yeai-s ISI'2 and 1S1.3, when it was alternately
in possession of the French and of the allies. In
1866 it was occupied for some months by Frnssian
troojis. In recent year.s Leipzig has been noted
as the head(iuartei-s of the Socialistic party in
Germany. The famous Leipzig Conference be-
tween Luther, Eck, and Carlstadt, which took
place in the Pleissenburg in loIO, an<l the Leipzig
Interim (see IXTEItlM) of 1548 are important in
the history of the Reformation. Leipzig was the
birthplace of Leibnitz and of Waguer ; J. S. Bach
was director of music in the two chief churches,
and 'cantor' in the Thomasschule from 17'24 till
1750; and Mendelssohn was director of the
(iewandliaus Concerts from 18.15 till 1841. In
literary history Leipzig is famous as the seat of
the Saxon or Leipzig school of criticism, headed
by Gottsched (q v.). One of the scenes in Goethe's
Faust is placed in Auerbach's Keller, in Leipzig,
still shown, with old frescoes illustrating the legend
used by the poet.
The Innnediate neighbourhood of Leipzig has
been the scene of two battles of great importance
in the history of Germany and of Kurope — the
battle of Leii)zig, or of Hreitenfeld ('|.v.), on
September 7, lO.'ii : and the great battle of Leipzig
— called the Batik of Nations— irinn the 16th to
the 18th of October 1813. The latter was one of
the most bloody and decisive of those which
effected the deliverance of Europe from French
domination. The troops under Na)i<deon in this
battle amo\inted to .-iliout bSO.dOlt men, iuid those
of the allies, commanded by Prince Schwarzenberg,
Marshal IJliicher, and Bernadotte, Crown-prince of
Sweden, to almost .100,000. The loss of the French
was reckoned at about 30.000 killed and wounded,
and 18,000 prisoners; that of the allies at about
52,000. The vii'tory of the allies was complete,
and the French had to evacuate Leipzig.
See works on Leipzig by Grosse (1817-42), Sparfeld
(1851), Knescliku (1870), Wuttke (1873), Hasse (1878),
Hirschfeld ( 1887 ), Moser, Benndorf, &c.
Lritll. the fifth largest tow^n in Scotland, an
important seaport, and a municii)al and parlia-
mentary burgh, stands on the southern shore of the
Firth of Forth, at the mouth of the \V,-iler of Leitli,
2 miles N. of F.dinburgh (c|.v.), with which it is
now connected by a continuous line of street. It
is even less attractive than most seaport towns;
still, great ini])rovements have been ell'ected since
1877, and some of the public buildings are not bad.
Among them are the court-house or town-hall
(1827), customhouse (1812), exchange, corn
exchange (IsO'i), Trinity House (1816), hospital
(18.50), S.iilors' llomi' (18,8.1-84), and St James's
Episcopal Churcli (18(12-69), by Sir G. G. Scott,
with a spire 180 feet high. Leith Fort (1779)
is now the artillery headiiuarters in Scotland.
The harbour-works" have cost upwards of a
million sterling. They comprise five docks, con-
structed between 1801 and 1881, with an area of 43
acres, besides a sixlh(I892-1901), wilhan area of 60
acres; seven graving-docks; and two piers. 1177
and 1041 yards long. The foreign, colonial, and
coasting tr.ade of the port is great and increas-
ing. In 1896, 4282 ships with an aggregate
tonnage of 1,5,56,917 tons entered, and 4038
ships of 1,544,050 tons cleared. The imports
(corn, chemicals, sugar, wooden and linen yarn,
timber, fruits, i.S;c.) have an annual value of more
than £8,000,000; the exports (coal, iron, cotton
goods, i<.-c. )of about .f3,000.00(l There is regular
steamboat commuiiicalion witli London, tlie north
of Scotland, several continental ports, ;uul New
York. Slii|pbuilding has of recent years become a
large and iiiipoi taut industry : and extensive em-
ployment is also all'orded by larj^e flour-mills,
sugar-relineries, distilleries, breweries, engineer-
works, sawmills, rope-works, chemical works,
<S:c. Leith w.as constituted a iiarli.-imentary
burgh in 1833, and with Fortobello and Mussel-
burgh returns one member. Its nine months' siege
by the Protestants (1559-60), the surprise of
it's citadel by the Jacobites (1715), and royal
visits, innumerable are the chief events in its
history. Home, the author of Ihnifihis, w.-us a
native; John Logan was a minister: and Robert
Nicoll is buried here. Pop. (1841) '26,026: (1881)
59,485 ; ( 1891 ) (i8,707. See works by A. Campbell
(1827), D. II. Roberl.son ( 1851), J. Marline ( 1888),
and J. C. Irons (1898) ; see also EDlNr.fUGH.
Leitlia* an Austrian stream rising in Lower
Austria, and flowing NE. to join the Danube
nearly along the frontier of Lower Austria and
Hungary. Since the reorganisation of the empire
in 1867, it has become usual to sjieak of Hungary
and the lands belonging to the Hungarian crown
as TraHS-leit/iaii, and the rest of the enijiire as Cis-
Icithan — thus giving the stream a factitious im-
portance.
Leitllieritz, an old town, i)artly walled, of
Bohemia, at the liejul of steamboat navigation on
the Elbe, here cros.sed by a bridge 1805 feet wide,
34 miles W. by N. of Prague. Here are a cathe-
dral ( 1671 ) and a bishop's palace ; and in the town-
house (1535) valuable archives are ]irescrved.
Brewing is tlie st;iple industry. Fruit, wine, and
hops .are extensively grown. Pop. 10,8.54.
Leitmotiv. See Motif, "Wauneh.
li4'itoiuis4'llK an old town of Bohemia, 85
miles ESE. of Prague, with a fine castle, a Piarist
college, and manufactures of linens, woollens, jute,
\-c. Pop. 5'2.58.
I>4'itrilll. a county in the north-east of the pro-
vince of Connaught, in Irelaml. Its greatest
length, north-east to south-west, 51 miles; greatest
width, 21 miles. Area, 37t>,212 acres, or 588 sq. m.,
of which 282,400 are arable, 11 )ier cent, barren,
and 7 per cent. bog. The county touches the ocean
on the north, and is divided into two |iarts by
Lough Allen (q.v.), from which the Shannon forms
the south-west boniid.'iry of the county. The
southern division contains numerous small lakes.
The northern division is intciscctcd by several
ridges. To the north of Lough Allen the soil,
except at rare intervals, is unfavourable for agri-
culture, and the climate damj) and ungenial.
Leitrim is more a grazing than a tillage district,
53 iier cent, of its area being glass land. Potatoes
and oats are the only criqis of consequence.
Coal is found in the Lough ."Mien biusin : and
iron and lead ores are abundant, although
mining operations arc^ very sparingly carried on.
Linens and coarse woollens are manufactured for
domestic use. The county town is Carrick-on-
Shannon. Leitrim returns two mendjers. Poi>.
LEKIN
LEMMING
571
1S41) 155.297: (18G1) 104,744; (1881) 90,372;
I IS91 ) 7S,6I.S. Leitriiii wa-s reiluoed by tlie Eiifilisli
in the rei^;ii i>f Eli/;ilii'tli. l>ut levcilted in 1588, siil)-
mittiug once more in 1UU3. The confiscations «hicli
lolloweil tlie Civil War practically extingnished the
]iative proprietary and tlie family of (I Koiirk to
whom it had once belonj;ed.
Lekill ( Li-hin ), the transit duos of China ( q. v. ).
Leiaild, Charles Godfrey, an American
antlior, \v;is horn in Phil.adelphia, 15th Auj;ust
1824, graduated at Princeton in lS4(i, and after-
wards studied at Heidelberg, Munich, and Paris.
He wa-s admitted to the Philadeliihia bar in 1851,
but turned from law to journalism. From 1809 he
resided chietiy in England, .and investigated the
language and customs of the Gypsies, a subject on
which between 187.3 and 1890 he jmblished four
valuable works. Leland is most widely known,
however, for his dialect poems in ' Pennsylvania
Dutch,' the famous Hans Breitmann Ballads
(1871). Other works are The Pod r;/ and Mystery
of Dreams (1855), Meister Karl's Sketch-book
(1855), Legends of Birds (1864), Fit-Sang (1875),
Algonquin Legends ( 1884), Etruscan Remains and
Popular Tradition (1892), Hans Breitmann in
TV/ro/ ( 1895), besides a translation of Heine. See
his autol>iogra|ihical Memoirs ( 189.3).
Leiaild. John, horn in London about 1506.
was ciiucated at St Paul's, then at Christ's,
Cambridge, and All Souls', Oxford. He became
chaplain to Henry VIII., who in 15,33 commissioned
him as ' king's antiquary,' with power to search for
records of antiquity in the cathedrals, colleges,
abbeys, and priories of England. The next six
years he devoted to his tour with unresting dili-
gence, and collecteil ' a whole world of tilings very
memorable,' to the arrangement of which he gave
the remainder of his life. His church preferments
were the rectories of Pofeling, in the marches of
Calais, and Haseley in Oxfordshire, a canonry of
King's College (now Christ Church), Oxford, and
a prebend of Salisbury. His la-st five years were
darkened by insanity, from which he found relief
in death, April 18, 1.5.52. He had laboured in vain
with gigantic industry to arrange and digest his
vast collection of materials, into which burrowed
his sncces.«ors, Stow, Camden, William Burton,
and Dugdale.
ilost of his papers are now in the Bodleian and British
Museum. Besides his Commentarii de Scriptorihus Bri-
tannicis (ed. by Anthony Hall, 2 vols. 1709), his chief
remaining works are The Itinerary (ed. by Thomas
Hearne, 9 vols. 1710-12) and De Jifbus Britannicis Cot-
Icctanfa (ed. by Hearne, 6 vols. 1715). For his life, see
the Lireg of Ltland, Hearne, and Wood, edited by W.
Huddesford(2 vols. 1772).
Lclsind. John, an eminent ISth-century Eng-
lish a|)ologist for Christianity, wa-s born at Wigan,
in Lanciusliire, in 1691, and educated at Dublin,
where he was a Presbyterian minister from 1716
till his death in 1766. His first jmblication wius A
Defence of Christianity ( 17.33), in answer to Tindal's
ileistical work, Christianity as Uld as the Creation.
Thi-s wa-s followed by 2'he Divine Authority of the
Old and New Testaments, in answer to ^Io^gan's
Moral Philosopher. Hi.s most imiiortant work is
.1 View of the Prineipal Dcistical ll'ritrrs that hare
appeared in England (1754-.56). Leland wa.s, in
Leslie Stephen's phrjuse, the ' most worthy, pains-
taking, and commonplace of divines,' and many
more than the few that read it still regard his
work as a .satisfactory demolition of deism. To
his Discourses on Various Subjects (4 vols. 1768-
89) was prelixed a Life.
Leiy. SiK Pktkr, painter. wa.s the son of Captain
Van der Fae.s, nicknamed Du Lys, or Leiy, from
having been bom in a house the front of which wa-s
decorated with a flcnr-de-lis. The future painter
was born at Socst. in \\'estplialia, in 16IS. lie
settled in London in 1641 ami took to portrait-
painting, having hitherto essayed landscapes and
historical subjects. He was employed successively
by Charles I., Cromwell, and Ciiarles II.. the last
of whom nominated him court-painter and con-
ferred on him the honour of knighthood. From
the death of Vandyck he was the first painter
of the day in England down to the arrival of
Kneller. Lely, 'a mighty pnnid man, and full of
state' (Pejiys), had great skill in execution, especi-
ally in painting female portraits, though he failed
to m.aster the secrets of individuality. His best-
known |iieces, apart from portraits of his royal
jiati'ons, are the Beauties of the court of Charles
II. at Hampton Court. He died in London in
1680.
Leiiinii. Lake. See Geneva (Lake ok).
Le .linns. See Mans.
Leinberg (formerly Lciirenburg ; Polish name
'Lwow'), the capital of the Austrian kingdom of
(Jalicia and Lodonieria, is situated on a small
tributary of the Bute, in a nanow basin among
hills, 212 miles E. of Cracow. It is defended by
a citadel, around which the modern town lias
grown up. Pop. (1869) 87.109 : ( 1890) 128,419, ot
whom about 40,000 are Jews, ^^ hilst nearly 100,000
speak Polish. Lemlieig is the seat of a lloni.an
Catholic, a Greek United, and an Armenian
archbishop, and has nearly thirty churches and
several monasteries ; in the 17th century .and
earlier it was called the 'town of the monks.'
Severiil of the churches are fine buildings, .as the
Dominican, which contains a gre.atly vener.ated
image of the Virgin ; the Greek cathedral, built
in tlie Italian style in 1740-79 : the Gothic Kom.an
Catholic cathedral (1350-1460) ; and the Armenian
cathedral, dating from the 14tli century. The uni-
versity, founded in 1784 and reorganised in 1817,
ha.s more than 900 students. Its library contains
86,000 volumes and 470 MSS. Here .also is the
seat of the national institute founded (1817) by
Ossolinski, with a library of 81,000 volumes and
3000 MSS., chieiiy of Polisli literature, and large
collections of med.als, coins, antiquities, paintings,
engravings, &c. There is a considerable trade in
Hax, hemp, cloth, leather, and agricultural pro-
ducts. The niannf.actures embrace machinery,
earthenware, oil, beer, i*i;c. Foundeil in 12.59,
Leniberg w;is an imi)ortant city of Poland from
1;J40. It has been several times besieged, on the
la.st occasion in 1848. It fell to Austria at the
tirst partition of Poland.
LeiUluillK (Myodes), a genus of rodents, nearly
allied to voles, but with much shmter eai"s and
tail, larger and stronger claws, and a heavier body.
The most noted s]iecies is .1/. Imtmus, an animal
about the size of a rat, with variegated black and
tawny fur, an inhabitant of the northern Scandi-
navian mountains, where it ordinarily feeds on
reindeer-moss and other lichens, gr.iss, catkins of
birch, iV'c. Bleeding several times in the course of
a year, .and producing four or live at a birth, it
multiplies so much that, periodically, v.ost troops
migrate from their native mountains. They pro-
ceed persistently in a straight line (according to
some alw.ays westwards ), swimming rivers, cross-
ing mountains, entering towns, devouring, breed-
ing, anil dying as they hurry on. They move
clued v in the niglit or early morning. Bears,
wolves, foxes, lynxes, hawks, and owls follow and
prey upon them, .and most of the survivors finally
drown thcnisehcs in the sea. thus pitifully re-
ailjusting the balance between iiopiil.ation and
subsistence. For ingenious tliecuies and curious
details alH>ut the migration, see Romanes, Mental
572
LEMNOS
LEMON
Evolution in Animals (1883). In times of preva-
lent superstition lemmin<rs were often exorciseil
by tlie priests, and tlie peasantry of Norway
supposed tlieni to fall from the clouds. During
Lemming {Miiodes lemmus).
the Ice A"e tlie lemming extended as far south as
the Alps, liut it now is distinctly arctic. An allied
species [31. ufiensis) occurs in Siberia and North
America. Another quite distinct ' lemming' ( Cioii-
cuius forffKritnx}, inhabiting the arctic regions of
both hemispheres, turns white in winter.
Lcilino.S a Turkish island in the northern
part of the .Egean Sea, is situated 40 miles SE.
of Mount Atlios and about the same distance S\V.
of the Dardanelles. It is nearly split in two by
a large bay on the south coa.st and anotlier nn the
north coast. The interior consists of an undulating
plateau. None of the hills exceed 1400 feet in
height. Area, 180 s(). m. ; pop. about .SO, 000, all
Greeks, except 5000 Turks. Tlie principal pro-
ducts are corn, wine, and tobacco. In antiijuity
and all through tlie middle ages tlie most notable
producit of the island was the ' Lemnian earth ' or
'sealed earth,' which was in general request as an
antidote ag.ainst snake-bites, also as a remedy in
cases of plague, dysentery, &c. It was extracted
only on one day in the year, August 6, with an
accompaninient of religions ceremonies, from a
spot near the ruined site of the ancient city
Hepha'stia, in the north-east of the island. It
has now gone out of repute, and very little is
extracted every year. It consisted of silex to the
extent of two parts in three, with some ,aluiiiina,
oxide of iron, w.-itcr, an<l natron. In .ancient times
the island is stated to have possessed an active
volcano ; at the (iresent date there exist no traces
of volcanic action. Lesbos was regarded by the
Greeks as sacred to Heplia'stus. It was comiuered
by the Persians in the reign of Darius Ilystasjies ;
but Miltiades wrested it from them for the
Athenians. In 16.57 it passed into the bands of
the Turks, from the Venetians. Tiie chief town
is Kastro (the ancient .Myrina), a fortilied place
on the west coast, with .'iOOO inhaliitants. Lemnos
is a place of banishment for Turkish political
otlenilers. See Tozer's Islands of the Mgian
(1S90).
Lo .lloilie, .James MacPhersox, Canadian
author, was born in t^uebec, '24th J.anu.ary \'S'27>,
and practised as a successful barrister there for
some years, but quitted the active work of bis pro-
fession in 18.58, on being appointed superintendent
of Inland Hevenue at t^uebec. He writes with
equal facility in Kiiglish or Krench, and is the
most prolific author that Canada has produce<l.
He has made special studies of ornithology, ardue-
ology, and other branches of science j and liLs works
er thirty in number — include some valuable
sketches of Canadian history.
Lcilioilllie. doilN Emii.i;, Eremh journalist,
was born in Lonilon on 17th Octolier 1815 of
French parents, and joined the stafl'of the Journal
dcs Debats as English correspondent in 1840. Sub
sequently he was appointed editor of that news-
]iapcr, and guideil it skilfully and succe.-;sfully
through all the vicissitudes of political strife. In
1870 he was elected a member of the Academy, and
in 1888 a life senator. He died 14th December 189'2.
His Jitudcs Critiqnes (18,5'2) and Noufellcs i,'/udes
( l.SlVi) contain specimens of his best style.
LoillOIU the fruit of a small tree {Citnis
Limonum) belonging to the same natural order as
the Orange (Anrantiaccir). The general character
of the leaves and flowers and fruit of the IcMKmtree
is so well illustrated in the accompanying cut that
description may be dispensed with. There arc many
varieties of the lemon, but they may all be in-
cluded under the following four <listinct types : ( 1 )
The Commim or Genoa Lemon, which is tlie most
plentiful in the shops. (2) The Thin-skinned Lemon,
which is of large size, having a thin smooth .shining
fragrant rind, with an almost entire absence of
white spongv matter beneath it. The pulp is very
delicate and juicy, with a delicious aroma. (3)
The Sweet Lemon, which, while having the ex-
ternal appearance of the lemon, has the pulp sweet
like that of the orange. (4) The Citron Lemon, or
the Ligurian Lemon of commerce. It is a large
I
Lemon ( Citrus Limonum ).
oblong fruit, with a thick rough warted rind, which
is eatable. The pulp, however, is the least delicate
of all lemons.
The iieculiar and grateful flavour of the juice of
the lemon is mainly due to citric acid. It forms,
when properly diluted, an agreeable and refreshing
drink (see Lkmonade), and is useful in febrile and
inflammatory di.seiu^es. The most valuable of its
properties, however, is the prevention and cure
of scurvy ; hence it or the very similar lime-juice
(see Ll.ME) is an important article in sea stores.
The well-known uses of the rind, either fresh or
preserved, in the cook's and the confectioner's arts
for flavouring and ornamenting dishes, cakes, and
candies need only be alluded to, to show the im-
portance of the lemon to civilised man. The essen-
tial oil (see lielow) is obtained from the rind. The
lemon is largely cultivated in all the warmer
countries of the south of Euro])e and those border-
ing on the Me<literrancan, and it is naturalised in
.some parts of South America and in the East and
LEMON
LEMURES
573
West Indies, and in parts of Australia. See Bon-
avia, 'I'he Cii/tirtitci/ Oriimjes and Lemons of India
■ind Cei/lun(lS90).
The Oil or Essence of Lemons is extracted from
the fresli lemon peel either by pressure or hy dis-
tillation. The former is the usual method. The
peel, removeil from the fruit, is bent so as to rupture
tlie oil vesicles, and the oil is collecteil in sponges,
or the peel is sometimes riusi)ed with short needles,
and the exuding oil collected. The yield is vari-
able, amounting on the average to 10 oz. of oil from
400 fruits. The oil has the same composition as
tliat of turpentine — viz. Ci„H,6, hut it contains a
small cjuantity of cyniene and other oils. While it
is often adulterated with turpentine, there is no
doubt that the fragrant portion, even in genuine
oil, can be removed, leaving about 90 per cent, of
liquid having a decided turpentine odour. This
fragrant portion, according to some authorities, is
an oxygenated substance, and therefore ditfei's
distinctly from the bulk of the oil, which has the
composition pre\iously stated. Its chief use is as a
flavouring agent, the ordinary essence of lemon of
the shops consisting of a solution of the oil in
alcohol. It also enters into most perfumes, such
as eau de Cologne, \c.
The so-called Salt of Lemons, or Salt of Sorrel, is
the binoxalate of potash. See Oxalic Acid.
LeniUU, Mat.K, born in Loudon, ."0th Xovember
1S09, was educated at Cheara near Kiisom, and
in 1835 wrote a farce, the lirst of a Ion" series
of lueloJranias, operetta-s, iVc. He produced, more-
over, several novels ( the best, perhaps, F'alkner Li/le,
1866), children's stories, and essays, and appeared
as a lecturer and public reader. In 18-tl he helped
to establish Punch (q.v.), of which for the first two
years he was joint-editor with Henry Mayhew, and
thereafter sole editor till his death, which took
5 lace at Crawley, Sussex, 23d May 1870. See
osepli Hatton's Reminiscences of Mark Lemon
(1871).
Lemonade is formed by adding two lemons
sliced, and two ounces of white sugar, to a rpiart
of boiling water, ami digesting till cold. It is a
useful drink for allaying thirst, and a.s a refrigerant
in febrile and inHammatory complaints, and in
luemorrhage, in which cases it should be given iced.
Aerated Water (q. v. ) flavoured with sugar and
essence of lemons is also called lemonade.
LeiIIOII-gra.SS (Andropogon, schicnanthus), a
perennial gra,ss, a native of In<lia, Arabia, &c.,
three to four feet high, and possessing a strong
lemon-like fragrance. .\n essential oil is obtained
from it which is used in perfumery. See Gr.\SS-
01 L.
Le Moyne, Ch.^RLES, French ])ioneer, was born
in Normandy in 1626, and, piDceeding to Canada in
1641, lived among the Huron tribe of Indians, and
foui'ht with the Iroquois. In 1068 Louis XIV.
made him .Seigneur de Longueuil, and afterwards
also de Chateaugiiay. He was for some years
captain of Montreal, and ilied in I6s.'i. Of liLs
eleven sons, nearly all became distinguished. The
eldest, Charles, Baron de Longueuil, was born in
16.56, and in his youth served in the Krcnch army.
He was made governor of Montreal and liaron in
1700, and became commandant general of the
colony. He ilied at Montreal in 1729. His
descendant, Charles Colmor (Jraiit, had his
Canaflian title of seventh Baron de Longueuil
Kfficially recognised by the Queen in 1S80.
.Vnother son, Jose^>ll, became an otlicer in the
French navy, and in 1694-97 brought ves.sels to
Hudson Bay to co oper.-itt; with land forces under
Ills brother Iberville. He subsequently conveyed
colonists U) Ix>uisiana, surveyed its coast, and
aided in capturing I'ensacola.
Leilipriire, .Iohn, was born in Jersey about
176o, and ciluiatcd at Winclieslcr and PembioUe
College, Oxford, lie was in luiii liead-niaster of
Abingdon and Exeter grammar-schools, rector of
Meeth in Devonshire ami of Newton-Petrock, and
died February 1, 1824. His famous Classical Die-
tionarij ( 1792 ) remained for many years the standard
work of reference in England on ancient mythology,
biography, and geography. Another work of Lem-
prierc's was Viuccrsal Bioijrajjhy (1808).
Lemur (Lat. lemur, 'a ghost'), a genus which
has given its name to a large group of mammals,
the lemurs. These animals appear to stand be-
tween the Insectivoraand the monkeys. The hand
with an opposable thumb is fashioned after that of
the monkeys, but in most structural features they
either show atfinitics to lower grou])s or are peculiar.
The German name, ' Halb-Aflen ' ( ' Half-.Vpes'),
Ring-tailed Lemur ( Lemur catta ).
as also the term ' I'rosimii,' which has been applied
to the group, indicates its position at the base of
the Primates. The Lemurs are forest-dwellers, and
mainly nocturnal in their habits. They can be for
the most part readily tamed. One of the chief
points of interest attaching to the group is its pecu-
liar geographical distribution. By far the major-
ity of the genera are confined to the island of Mada-
gascar ; a few forms are found in the Orient, and
on the African continent. Their range from Malaya
to Madagascar has been accounted for by the sup-
posed former existence of a continent (for which the
name 'Lemuria' was projxjscd by Mr Sclater)
connecting these now widely-.separated regions.
Undoubted remains of tlie.se animals have, how-
ever, been found in Kurope and in America ; this
of course indicates their wider range in ancient
times ; the isolation of genera at the present day
is therefore probably clue to the disappearance of
forms occupying the intermediate liacts of country,
and no Lenniria is necc.s.sary. liesiiles Lemur, the
"enera Imlris, Pro|jithecus, Ilapalemur, Sepilemur
Cheirogaleus, and the curious and aberrant Cheir-
omys (see Aye-.WE) are confined to Mailagascar.
The Angwangtilo (Arctocebus) and Peroilicticus
and Oalago (q.v.) are .\frican. TIk; Tarsier and
Nycticebu-^ are found in Malava, and the Loris in
Ceylon. Some of the fo.ssil ^orms show allinities
with the Insectivora, others with the Ungulata.
Le'llllires, the general designation given by the
Kiiiiians to all spirits of dcparli'd persons, of whom
the good were honoured ius J. arcs (ii.v.), and the
batl (Larvte) were feared as capable ui their night
574
LEMURIA
LKNORMANT
journeys of exerting a malignant influence upon
mortals. The festival called Lcmun'a was lii'lil on
the 'Jth, 11th, anil l.Sth of May, ami was accom-
panied with ceremonies of washing; hands, throwini;;
black licaiis over the head, <.S:c. , and the [ironuncia-
tion nine times of tliese words : ' Bej^one, you
spectres of the house ! ' wliich deprived the lemures
of their power to harm. Ovid describes the Lemuria
in tlie lifth l)ook of liis Fasti.
Li'lllliriu. See Lemlk.
LciISI^ a river of eastern Siberia, rises amid the
mountains on the north-west shore of Lake Baikal,
in the government of Irkutsk, Hows tirst north-eiu-t
to the town of Yakutsk, where it is 6i miles wide,
then north to tlic Arctic Ocean, into wliich it falls
by several mouths, formini; a delta '250 miles wide.
Its course is 3000 miles in len^'th, the area of its
basin 772,000 sq. ni. Its chief affluents are the
Vilui (1300 miles) on the left, and the Vitim
(1400), the Olekraa (SOO), and the Aldan (1300)
on the right. Navigation on the Lena is o]ien
from Yakutsk upwards from M,ay till October.
During spring tlie waters of the river regularly
overflow their banks. The Lena is a priiici]ial
artery of the trade of eastern Siberia. The river-
ine sand of the Vitim and Oleknia yields richly
in gold ; salt, coal, iron, copper, and argentiferous
lead exist. Large ((uantities of mammoth ivory
have been found in the delta. See G. W. Melville's
In the Lena Delta { 1SS5).
Leiiail, Nicoi.AUs, the pen-name of NlC0L,\u.s
NiK.Mii.scil vox Stkichlexau, German poet, who
was born at C'zatad, near Temesvar in Hungary,
13th August 1802, an<l studied law, then medicine,
at Vienna. But his was a ' melancholy nature ; the
conn)ass of his soul ever trembled back to the pain
of lite.' Although a num of deep feeling, and with
a good deal of the true lyric inspiration, his life
wa,s rendered unhappy by his morbid )ioetic dis-
content. In 1S32 he travelled to the United States,
hojjing to lind there the peace and satisfaction
which he could not get in Europe ; but he returned
in the following year a still further disappointed
man. From tliis time he lived alternately in
Vienna and in Stuttgart, in the latter city in close
intimacy with the writers nf the Swabian school
(Schwab, Kerner, Mayer). On the eve of his
marriage in 18-t4, he was suddenly struck down by
insanity ; he lived in an .asylum at Oberdobling
near Vienna until his death, On 22d August 18o0.
Lenau's poetic power is shown to best advantage
in his sh<H-t lyric etrusions, especially those (e.g. —
Sehitflicder) associateil with the land of his birth.
His best longer jiieces, as Faust ( 1836), Sacuiiavola
(1837), Die Albiuenser (1842), cannot claim the
merits of artistic completeness and unity, in sjnte
of the rich fancy and feeling, anil the tiery temiier
of the poet, dis]>layed in individual passages. Ills
Sdiiiintlirlie Werhe appeared in 4 vols, in 1855, with
a biography by Aiuistasius Criin. See Lives by
Schnrz ( 18,55) ;iiid Frankl ( 1885).
Loiiclos, NiNDN l)K, one of those characters
that could have ap])eared oidy in the French society
of the 17th century, was born of good family at
Paris. 15th May lUlC. Even as a child she wa.s
remarkable for her beauty and grace. She was
carefully educatt^l, spoke several foreign languages,
excelled in nmsic and dancing, and had a great
fund of sharp and lively wit. At the age of ten
she read Montaigne's Essays. Six years later she
commenced her long career of licentious gallantry
by an amour with the Conite do Chatillon— to
whom succeeded innumerable favourites, but never
more than one at a time. Among her lovers we
nniy mention the Marciuis de Villareeaux, (he
Marquis cle Sevignc, the great Conde, the Due
de Larochefoucauld, Marshal d'Albret, Marshal ,
d'Estrees, the Abbi d'Effiat, and La Chatre. She
had two sons, but never showed in regard to them
the slightest instinct of maternity. The fate of
one was horrible. Brought up in ignorance of his
mother, he followed the rest of the world, and con-
ceived a passion for her. When she informed him
of the relation that subsisted between them, the
unhappy youth was seized with horror, anil blew
out his brains in a frenzy of remorse — a calamity
which did not seriously affect Ninon. She was
nearly as celebrated for her manners as for her
beauty. The most lespectable women sent their
children to her house to a<'(|nire tiiste, style, jiolite-
ness. So great was her nqmtation that, when
t^ueen Christina of Sweden came to Paris, she said
she w ished particularly to visit the French Academy
and Ninon de Lenclos. We may gather some idea
of her wit and sense from the fact that Laroche-
foucauld consulted her npon his maxims, Molicre
j upon his comedies, and Scarron upon his romances.
She ilied 17th October 1706, at the age of ninety,
having preserved some remains of her beauty
ahuost to the last. Mirecourt's Memoircs is a
romance ; the letters attributed to her are mostly
spurious, but there is a notice of her letters to St
Evremond in Sainte-Beuve's Caii.ieries du Lundi.
See also Capeligue's Ninon de Lenclos ( Paris, 1864).
Lencorail, a Russian seaport on the Caspian
Sea, 130 miles S. of Baku. In the vicinity are
celebrated sulphur-springs. Pop. 5540. It was
surrendered to Ku.ssia by Persia in 1813. Excava-
tions carried on here in 1890 yielded important
prehistoric remains.
LeiK'Ziza. an ancient Polish town, SO miles
WSW. of Warsaw. Pop. 15,546.
Lending. See Loan.
Lennep. a town of Rhenish Prussia, 18 miles
E. of Diisseldorf and 9 S. of Barmen, with manu-
factures of cloth, iron, &c. Pop. 8844.
Lcnneu, .lACon van, born at Amsterdam,
25lh .March 1802, i^ proudly called by his country-
men the "Walter Scott of Holland.' The .son of
a professor of rhetoric w ho was distinguished as a
Latinist and as a ]ioet, he was educated f(jrthebar,
pas.sed as a barrister, and soon achieved a great
reputation for legal knowledge. Yet witliout
neglecting his extensive practice he for more than
thirty years cultivated literatuie with assiduity
and success. Lennep first ajqicared ,as an author
shortly before 1830 in a work on national legends,
immediately followed by his comedies. His most
popular works have been comedies, Ilet Durji aan
die lirenzen and Jlet Durji urer die Grenzen. Of
his numerous novels several (including The Hose of
Tkkania and 'I'he Adoiited ,S(/» ) have been trans-
lated into English, French, and (Icrnian. He
wrote much for the stage, translated from Hyron
and other English poets, ami |iublished a Dutch
history for the young. He died August 25, 1868.
Lennox {Lennaehs, ' lields of the Leven ' ), an
anciciil Scottish tenilory, c(imii]i>ing the basin of
the Leven and Loch Linnond — the whole of Dum-
bartonshire, great part of Stirlingshire, and por-
tions of Perth anil Kenfiew shires. It gave name
to an earldom (1174 I5S1 ), and then to a dukedom,
conferred by Charles II. (q.v.) in 1680 on one of his
illegitimate sons, Cliailcs, Duke of Richmond and
Lenniix, wlm in 1702 .~old ibe l.enno.v e.--tates to
the Marquis (if Montru.se. Sec (ioiiDoN; ami The
Lenno.e, by Sir W. Fra.ser (3 vol.s. 1874).
Lenno\tO>rn. a village of Stirlingshire, 11
miles N. by K. of (Hasgow by rail, with bleach-
works, ]i]int-works, and alum-works. Pop. 2838.
Lenorniaut. Fka.Ncois, an archaologist and
.scholar of altogether exceptional genius, was born
in i'aris, 17th January 1837, the son of Charles
LENS
LENSES
575
Lenomiant ( 1802-59), himself profoundly learned in
Egyptology, nmnisniatics, and archiiMAogy gener-
ally, moreover, a fearless defemler of tlie faith.
The boy w;is early initiated into the studies of his
life, at twenty carrying ntl' the prize in nninis-
maticM of the Acadt'inie des Inscriptions with his
Essai ywr Al Chmsijii-iftiuit ih\i Jfonudirs (/f.v LmjitU'fi
( lSr>ti ). At twenty-three he was digging at Eleusis,
and his explorations he continued, in the intervals
of his work as sublibrarian at the Institute ( 1862-
72), and professor of Archaology at the Bihliotheque
Nationale (1874-83), until his robust health hnally
broke down in Calabria from sheer over-work,
together with the effects of a wound received when
serving its a volunteer during the siege of Paris.
He returned to Paris to die — a true martyr to science
— December 9, 1883. I'erhaps there was never a
scholar who gained laurels from so many fields as
Lenomiant, and certainly no man ever brought
to the study of the paat a greater combination
of exhaustive learning, wide grasp of detail, and
brilliant intuition, with unwearying enthusiasm and
luminous power of exposition. From numismatics
and arclueology proper he passed perhaps too easily
to -Assyriology, comparative philology, ancient
history, and biblical antiquities ; still, he has left
behind works of the greatest interest and value in
these widely ditt'erent fields. His divination rather
than discovary of the existence of a non-Semitic
element in the language of the cuneiform inscrip-
tions— the Accadian — was perhaps Ids greatest con-
tribution to science, but it would be diflicult to
overpraise his essay on the propagation of the Plue-
nician alphabet, and his {jreat and brilliant con-
structive work — one of the best attempts ever made
to buttress the historical value of the early books
of the Bible — Lcs Origincs tic I'Histoire d'apris la
Bible (3 vols. 1880-84).
Other works are Manucf tCHiKtoirc Ancicnne de rOrient
(3 vols. 18IW-t;9 ; 9th ed. 1881, with a 4th vol. by Babelon,
1885); Lettres Assi/rioloiiiques (5 vols. 1871-79); Les
Premieres Cin'hsatioiin (2 vols. 1874); Les Sciences
Occulted en Asie (2 vols. 1874-75); La Monnuic dans
FAntiquite (3 vols. 1878-79); Monnaies et Midailles
(1883); and La Grande Grece (3 vols. 1881-84) and
A travers fApufie tt la Lucanie (2 vols. 1883).
Lens, a town of France, in the department of
Pas-de-C'alais, 1" miles by rail SW. from LUle.
Here are coal-mines, sugar factories, sail-works,
&c Pop. (1891) 13,862. At Lens Conde defeated
the Archduke Leopold on 20tli August 1648.
Lenses. A lens is a piece of ghvss so shaped as
to refract rays of light really or aiiparently radiat-
ing from a jxiint, and make them deviate so as to
pass, or to travel on as if they had passed, through
another point. Every system of lenses, however
complicated and whatever lie the mutual distances
of the lenseji, will, if the whole be centred on a
common axis, inoduce a real image somewhere in
front of, or el.se will apjiear to luoduce a virtual
image somewhere behind, the last refracting surface.
The rays on lieing traced through the complex
combination — e.g. a telescopic — undergo numerous
deviations : ultimately there is a deviation which
might have been ec|ually produced by an equivalent
lens ; ei|aivalent, however, in no other .sense than
as producing an equal ultimate deviation, for the
image is not formed in the same place is the single
'equivalent lens' would have formed it in. The
system of lenses is approximately equivalent in its
action to a simjde lens u/k* a determinate shifting
of the focus. llencea.simple lens-diagram, modilied
so ius to represent this shifting, will represent the
aggregate effect of the most complex .system of
lenses. When the subject was looked at from this
point of view it was found by (!auss, followed up
by Listing, that the whole theory of lenses can
be treated generally ; the most couiple.Y system of
lenses can be replaced in every case by a region of
space traversed by the common axis of the lenses,
at right angles to which axis there are six char-
acteristic iilanes, the relative positions of which to
some extent depend upon the refracting media and
their forms iind mutual distances, but which also
juesent certain invariable properties and mutual
relations. Tlie.se six planes are ( 1 ) the incidental
focal plane (F, lig. 1 ) ; (2) the incidental iirincipal
idane, P, and (3) the incidental nodal plane, N ;
(4, 5, and 6) the refractional principal, nodal, and
focal planes, P', N', and F'. The princijial
properties of these planes are : all pencils of rays
Fig. 1.
converrfng from any point on the incidental focal
plane F (provided in this as in all other cases
that no ray is so far from the axis as to give rise
to spherical aberration ) emerge parallel to one
another ; conversely, all rays incident parallel to
one another come to a focus at a point in the
second focal plane F'. An object on one inincijial
plane, P, has an equal-sized image on the other, P'.
Any ray appearing on incidence to make for the
point where one nodal plane, N, cuts the axis,
emerges parallel to its former course, but apparently
coming from the corresponding point in the second
nodal plane, N'. Rays arriving parallel to the
axis pass on emergence through tlie axial point of
the focal plane F'; rays passing through the corre-
sponding point in plane F emerge parallel to the
axis. These a.xial points are the Foci of the lens-
system. These jiroperties are diagrammatically
shown, with exaggeration of the distances of the
rays from the axis, in tig. 1.
In this diagram the six planes are represented
as equidistant ; they are generally not so ; their
I'ig. 2.
position has to be calculated. The calculation
(see Pendlebuiy, Lenses and Si/stcmjs of Lenses)
necessitates the use of standard fomiulic involving
576
LENSES
continued fractions ; the pliysical principle under-
lying these is that the imaj,'e (real or virtual)
produced liy one refraetin-; surface is taken as
the object of the next, and so on in succession
until the position ami deviation of the enierj;ent
rays is estahlished. Tlie tixed relations between
the mutual distances of these planes are : FN =
PF' ; F'N' = PF : and PF = PF'/ai, where /* is
the ratio l>etween the refractive index of the linal
and that of tlie original medium. The matter is
greatly simplilied when, as in the ordinary case,
the linal and tlie original media are the same (lens
or tehwcope in «//■); then m = 1. each nodal plane
coincides with tlie corresponding principal phme, and
FP = F'P'. Tlie diagram takes the form indicated
by lig. 2. If we come now to the simplest case,
that of a single thick lens in air (fig. 3), the
standard formula^, according to this method, are
AF = - ixrr' - (fi - I) trji^ifi -~1 ) ; A'F' =
iurr' - (M - 1 ) <»7 A (^ - 1 ) ; AP = - <r/A ; A'P' =
- tr'lh andPF = - P'F' = - ni-r'/i\{fj. - 1) ; where
A stands for {m(''' - '') + (m - 1) t}. In these
formuUe »■ is the radius of the .\ surface, measured
towards the centre and towanls the right ; /■' that
Fig. ;'.
of the A' surface, measured in the same way ; f is
A.\', the thickness of tlie lens : fj. is its refractive
index as compared with tliat of the surrounding
medium (air) = 1. As an example, let us apply
these formuUe to a biconvex lens of crown-glass,
/u = 1 -oOO : let the radii be c = -t- 4 inches at A
and ;•' = - 6 (negative because measured ti> the
left) at A' ; and let the thickne.ss be 1 inch. Put-
ting these numerical values instead of the letters
in the formuhi', we get AF = - 4'69 inches ; F is
469 inches from (to the left of) tlie A surface.
A'F' = + 4o5 inches; F' is 455 inches from A'.
AP = -I- 028 ; the principal plane is to the right
of A, inside the lens. A'P' = - 0'41 : the second
principal plane is to the left of A', inside the lens.
The two iirincipal planes are therefore both insiile
the lens, 0-."?l inch apart, and are nearer the more
curved face of the lens. The distance Fl' = F'P',
between either focus ami the corresponding princi-
pal plane, is 4''J() inches, and this is the focal (lia-
tance or the focal length of the lens ; this, not the
distance between the focus and the centre or the
surface of the lens. The two focal distances are
equal ; hence if we could by reversing the lens
make the jn iiic-ipal ]ilanes exchange places, the
action of the lens would be the .same in both posi-
tions ; but this cannot be done with an unsyni-
metrical thick lens by simply revei-sing it in its
setting, on account of the unsymmetrical |iosition
of the planes within the lens. If we take the ten
Fig. 4.
cases in which the lenses are respectively : ( 1 ) bicon-
vex (;• positive, r' negative; erjuicimvex if - r =
r' ) ; (2) planoconvex (r = infinity and 1/r = 0 ; r'
negative); (3) eonve.xo-plane (r+, c' = inlinity,
l/r' = 0); (4) biconcave (r - , r' +) ; (5) plano-
concave (r = oo, >•'+)•, (6) concavo-plane (r - ,
r'oo); (7) convex meniscus (c -t-, /-f , /' greater
than ;■) ; (8) concave meniscus ()■-,;•'-,)■ numer-
ically greater than;'); (9) convexo-concave (r -f,
r' + , r greater than »■' ) ; (10) concavo-convex ( r — ,
)•' -, )■' numerically greater than r) — we lind, on
giving the proper signs to the respective terms
in the standard forniuhe above, that ni lenses with
a flat face one of the ]irincipal planes coincides
with the vertex of the curved surface; that in all
double concave and practically in all double convex
lenses the principal planes arc within the lens itself ;
that in lenses 7 and 8 the planes lie oulsiile the
conve.x face until the concave face is tlatteneil so
far as to draw one of them uiion the lens; and
that in lenses 9 and 10 tlie jilanes lie outside the
concave surface until its curvature increases so far
as to draw the nearer plane into the lens. We
also lind that in all simple lenses whose edges are
thinner than their centres PF is negative (i.e. F is
to tlie left of P), and the lens makes parallel rays
incident upon it to converge upon some point in
the opposite focal idane ; while in thick-edged
lenses PF is positive and PF' negative, and the
planes lie in the order F'PP'F, tho.'^e rays which
were parallel before incidence being divergent on
emergence, and holding a coui-se <is if they had
come from some point on that focal plane which
lies on the same side of the lens as the source itself.
When the incident rays are parallel to the axis and
to each other, on emergence they converge really
upon the opposite focus of a thin-edged lens or
appear to diverge from the virtual focus of a thick-
edged lens.
When the incident rays diverge from a point not
on the focal plane they come to a focus at a definite
point elsewhere than on the second focal plane.
'""[F T*^
Fig. 5.
Fig. 5 diagramniatically illustrates this for a con-
vergent lens. A pencil from X converges on X' :
the geometry of the figure shows ( by similar tri-
angles) that FP/XP + F'P'/X'P' = 1. Hence, if
PF or P'F', the focal length, be written /, and the
distances XP and X'P' be written d and rf', then,
numerically, /(1/rf-f 1/rf') = 1. Fig. 6 illu.strates
the same thing for a divergent lens : FP/XP -
F'P'/X'P' = - 1, or, numerically, //rf -f/d' = - I.
LENSES
577
These equations ^\e, nuiiieiically, the relations
between </ ami rf', the distances of the oljject X
and the iniaj^e X' resjiectively from the oonespond-
ing priuoipal phines P and P'. The j,'eneral num-
erical formula which covers these relations is that
if rf = XP and rf' = XT' and PF = PF' =/, /
being taken as numerically nej,'ative in convergent
and positive in divergent lenses, then
/a
rf+rf'j " " '•
If an object occupy a plane passing through X at
riijlit angles to the axis, the corresponding image
will (aberration .apart) be in a similar plane passing
through X'. Fig. 7 shows rays from tliree points
of an object passing through the nodal points P
and P' and emerging parallel to their former coui-ses.
Fig. 7.
The size of the image is easily seen to be to that of
the object as (/' is to d. In a convergent lens the
image of a distant object is inverted and real; there
is a real crossin" of rays in the image, and the real
image is formed suspended, as it were, in space,
invisible from points not in the path of the rays ; a
screen of card, of ground glass, or of tissue paper
may be placed so as to coincide with the real image,
which then becomes visible on the screen : if the
eye be removed to a sufficient distance in the path
of the rays the inverted real image in space itself
becomes visible as an object in space between the
lens and the observer, an inverted reproduction of
the original object ; and this inverted copy is, for
all distances between the object and the lens e.x-
ceeding twice the focal length, smaller than the
original object, and for all such distances between
twice and once the focal length it is greater than
it. AVhen the object is placed within the focal
distance d is less tlian/, and d' is therefore numer-
ically negative; the image is virtual; no screen
will at any place receive an image ; but the rays
come to the eye as if they had proceeded from a
larger object more remote from the lens on the
original side of it ; whence such lenses are com-
monly emiiloyed a.s magnifying glasses. Whenever
the image formed is a real one the object and the
image are interchangeable ; an object placed in
the positi(m of the real image will produce a real
image on a screen placed in the jiosition of the
original ol)ject. A comparison of fig. C with figs.
5 and 7 will .show that the virtual image formed
by a divergent lens is smaller than the object and
is not inverted.
In all these cases the lenses are supposed to have
an ai>i)reciable thickness. If, however, we assume
that tlie thickne.ss Ls negligible, the forinulie given
above are nio<lified by suppression of all terms con-
taining t; they become simply PF = AF=_/' =
- r/fia -i)^/^l■'), or 1//= - (m - 1 ) ( !/'• - i//-');
and AP = 0. \\ hence the principal planes coalesce
and blend with the surfaces ; and the ordinary lens-
formuhe are obtained, in which /, the focal dis-
tance, means half the distance between the two
focal points. The result is only approximate, as
the numerical example already di.scusseil will
show when treated in this way. There ;• = -^ 4 ;
r" = fi : M == 1 -500 ; whence /'= -{i(5 + S)J"' =
•><17
- 4 "8 inches, and the distance between the two
foci is inferred to be 96 inches ; whereas we have
previously seen this distance (including PP') to be
10''24 inches. On the a.-isum]ition now made, a
lens is reversible ; for in tlie formula we find that
when the radii exchange places both change their
signs, the result being the same. On giving the
proper signs and numerical values to r and r' in
the simplified formula, it is easy to arrive at the
numerical value oif for a lens of any form : iff be
negative, the lens is convergent (thin-edged); if
positive, it is divergent. Tlien, / having been
found, the relation between /", d, and d' can he
found by giving d and /" their ])roper signs and
numerical values in the general ei|uation//rf + fjd'
= - 1. If we find d' negative we infer a virtual,
if positive a real image. For example, a ciown-
glass lens (/t = I'oOO), biconcave ; r = - 4 inches ;
/ = + 4; 1//= Ml-5 - 1) (-:^^ - j) = + i; / =
-f 4, a divergent lens. Object at distance, saj',
d = 196 inches ; .-. d' = - 196/50 = - 3-92 inches ; a
virtual inuvge, smaller than the object in the ratio
of 392 to 196, or one to fifty. Again, a similar lens,
but biconvex ; ;■ = 4 ; r' = - 4 ; ..y" = ~ 4 inches, a
convergent lens. Let the object be at 204 inches ;
d = 204 ; /= - 4 ; .•. rf' = 4 08 inches — a real image,
smaller in the ratio of 4'08 to 204, or one to fifty.
Let the object be at d = 3^ inches : .". d' = - 28 and
the image is virtual, enlarged in the ratio of 28/3J,
or eightiold, by the use of the lens as a magnifying
glass. The nearer the object to the focus the
greater the enlargement. To nuike the image
equal in size to the object, d nuist be eqiial to d' :
then - fid + - fjd = - \ = - 2f/d; and d' = d =
2f. With a convergent lens adjust the positions so
tha.t the object and its image on a screen are of the
same size ; then they are at a distance of four times
the focal length from each other. In this way,
neglecting the thickness, the focal length of a con-
vergent lens may be ascertained. It may also be
ascertained by means of an ol)ject (spider-threads
or a piece of nuislin), and a telescope focussed for
a very distant object ; diiect the telescope towards
the spider-threads ; interpose the lens to be ex-
amined ; shift it until the spider-threads are dis-
tinctly seen in the telescope ; the spider-threads
are then in the focus of the lens, which causes the
rays from them to pass parallel into the telescope.
Adivergent lens has its focal length measured by
conjoining it with a convergent one, which neu-
tralises or overbalances its efl'ect : if - F be the
focal length of the convergent combination, - /
that of the convergent lens, and/' (unknown) that
of the divergent lens, - j. + y, = - y '• t'»^ devia-
tion produced by a lens is inversely proportional to
its focal length, and the equation states the pro-
position that the convergence produced by the one,
together with the divergence produced by the
other, is (^ijual to the convergence produced by the
combination.
When the light from an object is mixed the
refractive index m differs for each colour ; the dis-
tance of tlie image is diflerent for each snectral
colour ; thus a series of images are formed behind
one another, the violet in front and the red l>eliin<l:
those behind are larger and overlap, and therefore
the image appears to have a spectral fringe of
colour, red outside. To jirevent this chromatic
aberration images of two or more colours, say the
blue and orange, shouhl be brouf;ht to the same
plane and he of the same size ; this is done for two
colours or wave-lengths by comI)ining a crown-
ghuss convergent of excessive power with a flint-
glass divergent lens ; the curvatures are so chosen
that the spectral dispersion produced by the one
578
LENT
LENTIL
is compensated by the re-corabination produced by
the otlier ; but, since in the two materials the re-
fractions and dis])ersions are not proportional to
one anotlier, tliere remains a bahince of deviation
accomplished without chromatic dis|ii>rsion. New-
ton thought dispersion and deviation to be always
proportional to one another, an<l a<-hromatism
therefore impossible; IJr Hall in 17:!3 found this
not to be so, and made achromatic lenses, hut did
not publish his discovery. Dollond in 1757 first
introduced achromatic lenses. When two colours
are achromatised there is still some chromatic
aberration as regards the rest ; to bring a greater
number of colours to the same focus requires a
greater number of refracting surfaces.
In all the preceding it has been assumed that the
lenses are narrow, or that the pencils of rays fall
on the centre of the face, and that the objects are
small. When the object is viewed by the lens
under a wide angle a plane object gives an ellip-
soidal, paraboloidal. or hyoerboloidal image, which,
when real, cannot be wholly received in focus upon
a plane screen ; and oblique rays fail to converge
upon precise points, and hence, even on a screen
so curved as to receive the oblique pencils of rays
when at their greatest concentration, the image
will not be equally distinct all over. Further
(spherical aberration), if the lens be too wide, or
its curvature too considerable, the rays falling on
diflferent zones of the lens are, as it were, received
by prisms of different angle ; those incident on
exterior zones are more sharply refracted than
those nearer the axis, ami their focus lies at a point
some distance nearer the lens than the geometrical
focus (longitndinal aberration), and the image is
thus distorted, so that the image of a square object
formed by a single convex lens ajipears to be draw-n
out at the corners, and that formed by a concave
lens appears to have its corners squeezed in ;
besides which there is blurring, for pencils incident
near the edge have their foci not even on the axis,
but short of it. To remedy these defects, which
cannot all be thoroughly dealt with at the same
time, various ' aplanatic ' combinations of lenses of
different curvatures have to be employed to build
up a compound 'equivalent lens;' and these com-
binations have to be adapted to the particular i)ur-
pose for which the lens-system is to be used (see
Parkinson's and Coddington's Optics). The pro-
perty of refracting light-rays possessed by lenses
necessarily applies also to heat and actinic rays ;
whence the use of lenses as burning-dasses (in
which parallel heat-rays from the sun are brought to
a focus at the principal heat-focus of the lens) and
photographic lenses. The heat-focus is somewhat
farther, the actinic focus somewhat nearer to the
lens tiian the light-focus is ; but, by the api)lica-
tion of the i)rinciples of correction for chromatic
aberration, the visual and the actinic forms are,
in the last case, made to coincide.
Lent (A.S. Loirtcii = Get: Lciiz, 'the spring;'
Gr. Tessarakoste : Lat. Q uMlraijesima — hence Ital.
Quaresima, Sp. Cunrcsma, Fr. 'Carcme), the period
of fasting before ICaster. Such an observance was
old even in the days of Ireuiius, but without any
uniformity— some fasted one day, others two; but
the period was gradually extended by the 4th cen-
tury to about forty days. The Greeks from the
6th century have commenced their alistinence from
meat on the Monday in Sexagesima week, and
from cheese, <.K:c. on the Monday in IJuinquagesima
week; Sundays and Saturdays and the I'east of the
Annunciation being deducted. In the West only
Sundays were excejited from the fast, which .some-
times began with Sexagcjsima or IJuinquagesima,
until, in the 8th or i)th century, it was linally hxed
to commence with Ash Wednesday ('|.v.), between
which day and Easter-Sunday (omitting the Sun-
days, on which the fast is not observed ) forty clear
days intervene. The rigour of the ancient observ-
ance, which excluded all tlesh, and even the so-
called 'white meats,' is now much relaxed; but
the |>rinciple of ]H>rmitting but one meal, with a
slight refection or collation, is every where retained.
In the Anglican Ghurch Lent is retained a-s a
church season of the calendar, with s]iecial ser-
vices, and proper collects and prayers ; but the
observance of the fast is left to the discretion of
each individual. See F.\ST ; also Holy Wkkk.
Leutball. William (1591-16ti'2), barrister, was
born in Henley, entered St AIl)an Hall, Oxford,
and was Speaker of the Long Parliament ( llltO-.i:!).
He was again made Speaker in IG.Ii, and in llioG
iiecame one of Cromwell's peel's.
Lentiblllariacea'. a natural order of exogen-
ous plants, allied to Primulaceie. It has also
intimate relations with Scrophulariacea-. It con-
tains nearly '200 known siiecies, all herbaceous,
and all living in water or marshes. They abound
chierty in the tropics. A few species of Bladder-
wort "(see Insectivorous Pl.vnts) ami Huttcrwort
(q.v.) are its only representatives in Britain.
Leutk'els. See B.\rk.
Loiltil {Erviim /ens), an annual plant belonging
to the natural onler Leguminosa'. It is a native
of the countries bordering on the Mediterranean,
and has been cultivated from the very earliest
times. In Egypt and Syria it is still made into
pottage, and another favourite mode of cook-
ing it in those countries is by parching it in a
frying-pan. The lentil is extensively cultivated in
the warmer parts of Germany, France, and the
south of Europe generally. It is also cultivated
to some extent in Asia. The Hindus, in common
with the Egyptians, regard it as the best food on
wliich to undertake long journeys or laboriinis
work. Flour of lentils is highly nutritious and
contains, according to Playfair, more nitrogenous
matter than any other edible legununous plant.
Einhoff found iii 3840 parts of lentils 1'260 parts
starch and 14.'J3 parts analog(ms to animal matter.
The foods known as Beva/enio arahica and Krni-
lenta arubica (words compounded of the botani-
cal name of lentil) are simply specially prepared
forms of the tlour of
lentils, in no way
suiierior to the ordin-
ary Hour which can be
purchased at gieatly
less prices. Mixed
with peas in tlie mak-
ing of i)easou|), lentils
diminish the ten<lency
to liatuleiu'C, and lentil
soup is much esteemed
l>y vegetarians and
others in Britain. By
Roman Catholics len-
tils are eaten during
Lent, both in soups
and in the form of hari-
cot, as a substitute for
llesh-food. The lentil
is a weak, straggling
)dant, rarely exceeding
18 inches Vigh, often
much more dwarfed,
having |)innate leaves
terminating in tendrils.
The llowei-s .-ire white,
lilac, or pale blue, small,
and formed like tliose
of a i)ea. There are
three varieties of lentil recognisetl in the couiitries
in which it is cultivated : the small brown, which is
Lentil.
LENTINI
LEO
579
the lightest flavoured ami the best esteemed for
souiis and haricots; the veHow variety, whieli is
slightly larger ; and the lentil of I'rovence, which
has seeds as large as a small jica, hut is better
appreciated as fodder for cattle than for the grain
as food for man. It has been fre(iuently suggested
that lentil might be {jrown as an agricultural crop
in Uritain, and its cultivation has been attempted,
but without success, not so much from ilehciency
of warmth as from excess of atmospheric moisture.
It is sown at the rate of about H bushel per acre,
and its cultivation and harvesting are similar to
those of the Tare (q.v. ), to which it is related.
The produce in grain is fully a fourth less than
that of the tare, and in respect of straw it does
not yield a third of tlie weight of that crop. The
grain, however, on the Continent sells at twice
the price of pe;is.
Leiltini, a town of Sicily, stands east of Lake
Lentini, near the site of the ancient Leontini, 17
miles by rail S. by AV. of Catania. Pop. 12,740.
Leo, the fifth sign of the Zodiac (q.v.).
Lro. the name of thirteen among the popes of
the Koman Catholic Church, of whom the following
call for particular notice. — Leo I., suruanied 'the
Great.' who is held a saint of the Koman Catholic
Church, and is one of the most eminent of the
Latin Fathers, was born of a distinguished family j
at Rome about the end of the -ith century. On !
the death of Si.\tus III. in 440 Leo was chosen
as his successor. It is in his pontihcate that tlie
regular series of papal letters and decretals may be
said to commence. Leo's letters, addressed to all
parts of the church, exhibit prodigious activity and
zeal, and are used by Roman controversialists as
an evidence of the extent of tlie juri.sdiction of the
Roman see. In a council held at Rome in 449 he
set iiside the proceedings of the Council of Ephesus,
which had pronounced in favour of Eutyches (q.v.),
summoned a new council at Chalcedon, in which
his legates presided, and in which Leo's celebrated
' Dogmatical Letter ' was accepted ' as the voice of
Peter.' He interposed with Attila (q.v.) in defence
of the Roman city and people, ancl subsequently
with Genseric (q.v.). Leo died at Rome in 461.
His works, the most important of which are his
Letters and Sermons, were first printc<l in 1479,
and afterwards by Que.snel (2 vols. Paris, 1675);
but much Ijetter editions are those of Cacciari
(1703-55) and Ballerini (1757). See books by
Areudt ( 1835), Perthel ( 1843), Saiiit-Cheron ( 1846),
Gore (ISSO), and Feltoe {Lih. Fidhas, xii., 1896).
The pontiticate of Leo III. is chiefly noticeable
as the epoch of the formal establishment of the
Empire of the West. He w.us a native of Rome,
and succeeded Hadrian I. in 795. During the
greater part of the 8th century the pojies,
through the practical withdrawal of the Eastern
emperors, had e.xerci.sed a temporal supremacy
in Rome, which was fully recofiiiised by the gift
of Pipiii. and placed under the protectorate of
the Frank sovereigns, who received the title of
Patriiian. The pontiticate of Leo, however, wa.s a
troubled one. and in 799 he was treated with much
violence, and obliged to flee to Spoleto, whence he
afterwards reijaired to Paderborn, in order to hold
a conference with Charlemagne. < )n his return to
Rome he Wits received with much honour by the
Romans, and the chiefs of the conspiracy against
him were sentenced to banishment. In the follow-
ing year (800) Charlemagne, having come to Rome,
was solemnly crowned and saluted emjieror by the
po[)e, and the temporal sovereignty of the i)ope
over the Roman city and state was form.ally estab-
lished, under the suzerainty, however, of the em-
peror. In 804 Leo visited Charlemagne at his
court at Aix-la-Chapelle. With Charlemagne's
successor, Louis le Dcboiinaire, Leo was embroiled
in a dis))ute about the right of sovereign jurisdic-
tion in Rome, which had not been brought to a
conclusicm when Leo died in 816.
Leo X., (iiovanni de' Medici, the second son
of Lorenzo the Magnilicent, was born at Florence
in December 1475. From his cradle he was
destined to the ecclesiastical career. His educa-
tion was entrusted to the ablest scholars of the
age ; and through the influence of his father
with Pope Innocent VIII. he was created cardinal
at the unprecedented age of thirteen years, in
1488. In the expulsi(m of the Medici from Flor-
ence, after the death of Lorenzo, the young
cardinal w;is included, and he u.sed the occasion as
an (qqiortunity for foreign travel. He was em-
ployed as legate by Julius II. : and during the war
with the French, he was taken prisoner in the
battle of Ravenna, but socm afterwards eflected
his escape. t)n the death of Julius II., in 1513,
Carilinal de' Medici was chosen pope at the early
age of thirty-seven, under the name of Leo X. His
first appointment of the two great scholars Bembo
and Sadoleto as his secretaries w;i,s a jiledge of
the favour towards learning which was the charac-
teristic of his pontificate ; but he did not neglect
the more material interests of the church and the
Roman see. He brought to a successful conclu-
sion the fifth Council of the Lateran (see Council)
and the schism which was threatened by the rival
Council of Pisa. He concluded a concordat with
Francis I. of France, which continued to regulate tlie
French church till the Revolution. In the political
relations of the Roman see he consolidated and,
in some degree, e.xtended the re-conquests of his
warlike |)redecessor, Julius II. , although he also used
his position ami his influence for the aggrandise-
ment of his family. His desertion of the alliance
of Francis I. f(n- that of his rival, Charles V.,
although the subject of much criticism, was dictated
by a sound consideration of the interests of Italy.
But it is most of all as a patron of leaiiiing and
art that the reputation of Leo has lived with
posterity. Him.self a scholar, he loved learning for
its own sake ; and his court was the meeting-jioint
of all the .scholars of Italy and the world. Hi'
founded a Greek college in Rome, and established
a Greek press, which he endoweil nninilicently (see
Rex.VISS.\NCE ). In the enccmragement of art he w'as
no less munificent. Painting, sculpture, architec-
ture were equally favoureil ; and it is to his vast pro
ject for the rebuilding of St Peter's, and to the step
to which he had reccnir.se for procuring the neces.sar.\
funds — his )iermitting the preaching of an indul
gence, one of the conditions of obtaining which was
the contribution to this work— that the first rise
of the Reformation in tiermany is ascribed. He
himself seems to have regarded the movement as
of little importance, descriliing it ivs 'a squabble
anmng the fiiars ; ' ami though he comlemneil
the ]iropositions of I.,uther, and issued a commis-
sion to inquiie into his iloetrines, his measures
on the whole were not marked by much severity.
His iiersonal habits were in kecjiing with his taste
— splendid and nninificent in the highest degree ;
but in his moral conduct he maintaineil a strict
propriety, and his character, although not free
from the stain of nepotism, the \ icts of that age.
and more modelled on the ideal of an enlightened
prince than on that of a zealous and ascetic
churchman, was beyond .ill imputation of unworthi-
ness or irregularity. His ileath, which occurred
rather suddenly on 1st December 1521, during the
public rejoicings in Rome for the taking of Milan,
W'as by some iuscribed to poison; but there seems
no solid rea.son for the suspicion.
See Koscoo, Li/c and I'oidijUate of Leo X. (1805);
Audin, H Moire de Lion X. (6th ed. 1886); Hcrgenriither,
580
LEO
LEON
Leonis X. Retjesta (1884 et seq.) ; Eanke, Hutorp of the
Popes; Syuionds, Reiiaiasance in Italii (1875-86); M.
C'reightou, History of the PajMeii duriiuj the Period of
the Iteformation (vols. Ui.-v. 1887-91).
Leo XIII., the '258tli Koiiian ])ontiH", was born
at Caipineto, the sdu of Count Ludovico Pecoi,
2il March 1810. EJueateil first at the Jesuit
College of Viterbo and the schools of the CoUegio
Komano, he proceeded to the College of Noble
Kcclesiastics. He greatly si''iialised liiniself in
inatheniatics, physics, and imilosophy. In 1830
he sustaineil a public disputation in the last-
named branch of learning, and carried oti' the lirst
prize. He also frequented the schools of the
jionian University to learn canon and I'ivil law.
Having became Doctor of Laws, he was appointed
by Pope (iregory XVI. a domestic prelate and
Keferendary of the Segnatura in 1837. He then
took holy orders, received from the pope the
title of prothonotary apostolic, and was appointed
in succession apostolic delegate at Benevento,
I'erugia, and Spoleto. He was a vigorous ad-
ministrator, and while at Benevento put a stop
to brigandage. Sent to Belgium as imncio in
1843, lie was created archliishop of Damietta to
qualify him for the ofiice. Three years later he
was nominated archbishop of Perugia, and in the
consistory of December 19. 1853, lie was created
a cardinal by Pius IX. He was a member of
.several of the congregations of cardinals — includ-
ing those of tlie (Jouncil of Kites and of Bishops
anil Regulars — and in Heptember 1877 he was
selected by the pope to fill the office of Cardinal
Camerlengo of the Holy Koman Church, lu that
important capacity he liad control of all business
except foreign afl'airs. Upon the death of Pius
IX. in 1878 Cardinal Pecci was elected as the
representative of the Moilerates. He assumed
the title of Leo XIII., and adopted an opposite
policy to that of his pretlecessor. He restored
the hierarcliy in Scotland, and composed the
religious difficulty with Germany, so that when
a dispute arose in 1885 between Cermany and
Spain a-s to the ownership of the Caroline Islands
he was requested by Prince Bismarck to act as
arbitrator. In political matters Leo has per-
mitted the Irish bishops to indulge their own
views. In May 1888 the pope issued a decree de-
nouncing the methods adopted in the Irish Plan of
Campaign. He has nianifestcd enlightened views
in many directions, but on questions afiecting the
church and his own status as pontifl he has held
staunchly to his rights. He regards himself as the
despoileii sovereign of Kome, and as a prisoner at
the Vatican ; has refused the income voted him by
the Italian parliament ; and persistently declines to
recognise the law of guarantees. He has protested
against here.sy and 'goiUess' scl Is, ami in his
encyclicals has allirmed that the only solution of
the socialistic problem is the influence of the
papacy. He constrained the French clergy and
the Krencli monarcliists to accept the republic,
but encouraged the Hungarian Catholics to oppose
the civil marriagi; law {l.sn4). In 1883 he opened
the archives of the Vatican for historical inves-
tigations, and he has made himsidf personally
known as a jioiit, chiefly in the Latin tongue.
The jubilee of liis ejiiscopate in 1893 was
celebrated with even greater pilgrimages to
Kome, congratulatory aildresses, iVc, than lliat
of his priesthood in 1887. In 189l> he issued an
encyclical pronouncing Anglican orders null and
void.
Siee Leonis XIII. Pont. Max. Carmina (1883), and tlie
Lives by De W.ial (Munster, 1878), A'idicn (Pari», 1K79),
O'Ri-illy ((.'olognc, 1887), Scrclaes (Paris, 1894), Jc-yus
( 1896 ), M'Cartliy ( 189<> ), Narfoii ( trans. 1899 ) ; see also
liis Addresses, iic, in Tlic Pope and the People (1895).
Leo III., 'the Isaurian,' ruler (718^1) of the
Byzantine Empiie (q.v.).
Leo Afrii'UIIIIS (properly Ai.HA.ssAN IBN
MoH.VMMEl) Alwazz.\N), a Cordovan Moor, who
at the close of the 15th century made extensive
travels in northern Africa and Asia Minor. P.iUiiig
into the hands of jiirates, he was sent to Kome,
and accejited Christianity ; but afterwards he
returned to his old faith." He left an account of
his African travels in Italian, which, first printed
by Ramusio in 1559, was for long the chief source
of information as to the Soudan.
LcobseilUtZ, a town in Prussian Silesia, 24
miles by rail X\V. of Katibor, has large corn-
markets. Pop. (1875) 11,425; (1895) l-2,(jU4.
Leo'ohares one of the most distinguished
sculptors of the Attic school of the 4tli century
B.C., w,as a pupil of Scopas, and Pliny ascribes to him
the sculptures on the west side oi the Mausoleum
(q.v.). He was one of the privileged artists who
were permitted to make portraits of Alexander the
Great. Three statues of Zeus are known to have
been executed by him. His '(ianymede carried
ofi' by an Eagle ' Avas famous throughout the
ancient world. In collaboration witli Lysippus he
produced a colossal group in bronze, >vhich repre-
sented Alexander at a lion hunt, while he him-
self was responsible for clnyseleiihantiiie statues
of Alexander and his family. The wcnks of
Leochares are all lost, but there is a coiiy of the
Ganymede in the Vatican; and a bust of Alexander
may be a cojiy of one of his.
Leo Ilebr:eus. See Abarhanel.
LeoiIlillStei* dmuKmnced Lousier), a market-
town of Herefoidshire, on the Lug, 13 miles N. of
Hereford. A monastery was founded here in 658 ;
and the fine church of a later jiriory presents every
style from Norman to Per|iendicular. It was
restored by Sir G. G. Scott in 1801), and enlarged
in 1879. The quaint old timber Butter Cross
(1633) was in 1855 transferred to a new site to
make room for an Italian town-hall ; there is al.so
a corn exchange (1859). Leather gloves are the
staiile manufacture, and there is a great trade in
hops and cider. Incor]ioiated as a municipal
borough by l^ueen Mary, Leominster till 1868
returned two memliers, and till 18S5 one. Pop.
(1851)5214; (1881)6044; (1891)5675. See his-
tories by Price (1795) and Townsend (1863).
Leon, an ancient kingdom of Spain, ei|uivaleut
generally to the moclerii provinces of Leon,
Palencia, Valladolid, Zaniora, and Salamanca. It
was the earliest Christian kingdom, next after
A.sturias, to be formed in Spain, after the Moorish
wave of conquest began to recede. It dates from
the Kttli ceiilnry, and was united with Castile first
by Eenlinand the (ireat in 1037, and finally in
1230. The modern province has an area of 6165
so. 111. and (1887) a pop. of 380,229. The country,
which is intersected by the Douro and the Minim,
is mountainous, being invaded on the north by
the Cantalirian Mountains. The soil is generally
fertile. The inhabitants are for the most part
uneducated and lazy, but honourable, hosjiitable,
and good-natured ; they have many jieculiar cus-
toms, and all the pride of pure Spanish descent.
In the high districts south of Salamanca there are
remnants, as is believed, of the old Gothic tribes,
and at Astorga the MariKjaios are v.-iriously .sup-
|)oseil to be descendants of' the Ccltibcri, the Visi-
goths, or the Moors. — Leon is also the name of a
part of BliiTTANY.
Leon ( the Lr<ii(i srptima qemina of the Komans),
caiutal of the former kingdom and of the modern
province of the same name, but now a sleepy
agricultural town, is situated in a i>lain, 250 miles
LEON
LEONARDO DA VINCI
581
by rail N\V. of Madiiil. The lioautiful cathedral
(c. 1195-1512), a spociinen of th<! ]mii'st Early
Pointoil, is French in character ami prciliahly in
origin, Imt was so much 'restored' during 1.S55-
86 that it is hard to say what is old and what
modern ; it contains the tonihs of many sovereigns
of Leon, saints, ami martyrs. Leon is the centre
of the Spanish linennianiifacture, and has a cele-
brated horse-fair ; it was formerly the chief seat of
the Spanish wool-trade. I'op. l.'!,4-16.
Leon, a city of Nicaragua, on an extensive
plain, 32 miles by rail (1SS2) SK. of its port,
Corindo. Once the hoa.st of Spaiiish America,
founded at the heail of Lake Managua in 1523,
removeil hither in 1610, and sacked hy Dampier in
1685, it is now partly in ruins, and of its noble
buildings only the churches remain. The massive
cathedral has been several times employed as a
citadel during the civil wars, but has suffered
very little. Pop. , including the contiguous Indian
pueblo of Subtiaba, about 25,(MJ0.
Leon, PoxcE DE. See Ponce de Leon.
Leonardo da Vinci, painter, sculptor, archi-
tect, and engineer, was born in 14.i2, at Vinci, a
village in the Val d'Arno, between Pisa and Flor-
ence, the natural son of Ser Piero Antonio da
Vinci, notary to the Signoria of Florence. His
mother, named Caterinji, afterwards married a
villager of Vinci. He was educated in his father's
house, and soon began to show signs of that
bright and versatile genius which distinguished
him through life. As a child he was especially
remarkable for his aptitude tor arithmetic, and for
his skill in music and drawing. xVbout 1470 he was
placed by his father in the studio of Andrea del
Verrocchio, by whom he was instructeil in painting
and modelling, and where he had Perugino and
Lorenzo di Credi as fellow-pupils. So rapid was
his progress that before hmg he began to take part
in the production of his masters pictures, and his
hand can still be traced in Verrocchio's ' Baptism
of our Loril,' in the Academy at Florence. In
1472 his name appears in the books of the guild of
painters as an independent artist, and he was
patronised hy Lorenzo de' Medici. His cartoon of
'The Fall,' mentioned hy Va.sari as designed for
tapestry, has di.sappcared ; indeiMl of his work of
this i>eriod, which iiicduded various marble figures
and terracotta heads, all that now remains is an
unfinished canvas of ' The Adoration of the Kings,
in the Utiizi, and a kneeling figure of ' St Jerome,
in the Vatican.
He would appear to have been about twenty-eight
when he visited the Ea.st, serving as engineer to
the sultan of ' Babylon ' or Cairo, and visiting
Cypnis, Constantinople, and Armenia ; and in 1482
he settled in Milan, and attached himself to
Loilovico Sforza, then guardian of his nephew the
Duke (iian Galeazzo, whom he afterwards suji-
planted. An autograph memorandum, intended
for presentati(m to his patron, still exists, in which,
after staling his various (jnalilications as an archi-
tect and engineer, he concludes, ' I can execute
.sculpture, whether in marble, bronze, or terra-
cotta; also in painting I can do as niuch as any
other, be he who he may,' and particularly specifies
his reailiness to undertake the execution of a bronze
eouestrian statue of Lodovico's father, Francesco
Sior/.a, the celebr.ated condottiere. Drawings for
the general de.sign and various det.ails of this statue
exist in the royal collection at Windsor. The
model wan exhibiteil in 1493; but the statue was
destined never to he completeil in metal, for the
I0O,(K)0 pounds of bri>nze which Leonardo rcquireil
for its ca.sting were never forthcoming. The model
still existed in 1501, but since then all trace of the
work has been lost.
During the progress of this statue Leonardo was
also engaged upon a picture which, even in its
present faded and dilajiidated condition, remains
the best monument of his genius and one of the
masterpieces of the world. This is the famous
'Last Supper,' commissioned jointly by the Duke
and the monks of S.anta Maria delle Urazie, to he
painted on a\\all of the refectory of the convent.
It was ccuuploted in 1498, but its execution prob-
ably extended over several previous ye.-us. Ban-
dello, in one of his novels, lias given us a vivid
glim]ise of Leonardo at work upon this great
.subject; of the hushed voices of the monks and
their visitors as they watched the busy figure
painting there from early dawn, wholly absorbed
in bis pursuit, and forgetting even to eat ; and of
how the artist would sometimes leave the mounted
figure of F'rancesco which he was modelling in the
citadel and return to the convent by the shortest
way, merely that he might add to his picture a
single touch or two. The moment of Ins chosen
scene upiui which the painter has seized is that
when Christ has just pronounced the words ' One
of you shall betray me,' and their effect upon the
disciples is portrayed with the most <lelicate and
subtle truth. There is an elaborate description
and criticism of the work from the pen of Goethe.
The after-history of the ' Last Supper ' is a sad
one. Owing to the dampness of the wall, and
to the method of oil-painting — not fresco — upon
plaster that had been adopted, it .soon showed
signs of deterioration, and it has repeatedly been
found necessary to repaint it ; yet still, through all
the retouching of others, the profound feeling and
dignified composition of the master do not fail to
assert themselves. His sketches for various of its
parts still exist at 'Windsor, in the Brera Gallery at
Milan, and in the Louvre. It has been very fre-
quently cojiied, and it was chieffy from a drawing
made by M,atteini from the copy by Marco
d'Oggionno that Kaphael Moighen executed his
celebrated line-engraving, published in 1800.
Among other paintings done in Mil.an were
portraits of Lucrezia Crivelli and Cecilia (iailerani,
mistresses of the duke, works that cannot now be
identified, though ' La Belle Ferronnieie ' of the
Louvre has been regarded by some as the former
likeiie.s.s. The intluenee of Leonardo upon art in
Milan was clearly marked and lasting, for he
founded an academy there in which Beltiafiio and
Andrea Salai, his favourite pupil, received instruc-
tion ; .and the great Bernardino Luini, whether or
not he actually studied under the master, certainly
imbibed and turned to his own uses many of the
characteristics of his method. Leonardo was aK"
much eniploye<l by his patron as an engineer. He
devised a system of hydraulic irrigation of the
plains of Lomhardy, and acted as <lirector of the
court festivities and pageants.
After the fall and imprisonment of the Duke Lodo-
vico in 1,")()() Leonardo retired to I'hucnce, and by
I.'>02 he had eiiti'ied the service of C:esar Borgia,
then Duke of Komagna, as architect an<l engineer.
in which ca]),acity he was entrusted with the niosi
amide authority. Records of his work during t\n>
[leriod apjiear in the notehooksand maps preseried
at Windsor. In the following year In? returned to
F'lorenee, when he commenced a Madonna and
(Jhilcl with St Anne for the Servile monks, a
subject, however, of which only the noble cartocui
now in the Diploma Gallery of the Koyal Academy.
London, was comideted.
We now reach the iieriod of Leonardos famous
contest with Michael Angelo, an artist who a]i[>ears
always to have regardeil his elder rival with dislike
and jealousy. Both painters received commission-
to decorate the Sala del Consiglio in the P.ilazzi
della Signoria with important historical compo.si-
582
LEONARDO DA VINCI
LEONINE VERSES
tions. Mieliael Angelo chose a subject of ' Sokliei-s
smprised while Hathin^,' an jnciilent from tlie
Florentine wars with the Pisans. Leonardo dealt
with 'The Battle of Antrhiari,' 1440, in which the
Florentines vanquished the armies of Milan. Two
veal's were spent in the preparation of his cartoon ;
hut, having employed a methoil of paintiiiy; iijion
the plaster — prohahly with wax — wliich proved a
failure, lie in loOli abandoned the work. The
cartoim is now lost, hut its gfi'^ral composition
may be gathered from Lucensi's engraving (1558),
and from ' The Battle of the Standard,' engraved by
Kdelinck from a free copy by Kubens of its prin-
cipal group. About 1504 was completed tlie most
celebrated of Leonardo's easel-j^iictures, the half-
length of .Mona Lisa, third wife of Zanobi del
(Jiocondo, upcm which he had been engaged at
intervals during four years — a work purchased by
Francis L for 4(X)0 gold tlorins, and now one of the
chief treasures of tlie Louvre. The colour here, as
not seldom in tlie artist's work, has darkened with
time, but still the picture remains a triumph of
subtle .and relined ]iortiaiture. Another work,
now lost, ]iortrayed the celebrated beauty (Jinevra
Benci ; and Pacioli's Dc ilivina VroportiDiie, pub-
lished in 1500, containeil si.vty geometrical hgures
irom Leonardo's hand. As had been the case
in Milan, so here in Florence he powerfully influ-
enced contemjiorary artists. Fra I'artolommeo,
Jacopo da I'ontormo. (Jliirhmdajo, and the sculji-
tor Bandinelli all prolited by his ex.amjde.
The linal period of Leonardo's life was spent in
the service of France. In 1506 be visited INIilan ;
and in the same year he was em])loyed by Louis
XIL, who died in 1515, when Leon.ardo was in
Rome, competing witli Michael Angelo for the execu-
tion of the fac.ade of San Lorenzo in Florence. The
young French king, Francis L, bestowed on him,
in 1516, a yearly allowance of seven hundre<l scudi,
and assigned to his use the Chateau t'loux, near
.\mboise ; and it was here that the great artist
expired, 2d May 1519. The well-known story that
he ilied in the royal arms is untrue. Among
his later works is 'The Virgin of tlie Kocks,' now
in the National (iallery, London, of which a vary-
ing version is jin'scrved in the Louvre, where also
is another of bis works of the time, a figure of ' St
John the Baptist,' and a 'Saint Anne,' somewhat
similar in ilesign to the Royal Academy cartoon.
In his art Leonardo was hardly at all iiilluenceil
by tlie anticjue; his ]iractice was founded upon the
most iiatient and searching study of nature. He
occu]iii's a su])reme pl.ace as an artist in virtue of
his unrivalled jiower of delicate draughtsman-
ship, of his nobility of style ami command over
the subtleties of expression, of his skill in cliiar-
oscnro and easy m.astery of the comiilexities of
light and shade, of modelling and relief, and of
aerial peis|iective. So few in number are the
autlieiitic, comideted, and well-preserved works by
his hand that have reached us that he may be
most fully studied in his drawings. Bicli collec-
tions of these are preserved in the Ambrosian
Library, Milan ; the Louvre, Paris ; the Boyal
Gallery, Florence; the Albertina (ialleiy, Vienna;
the Academy, Venice; the British .Museum; and
the. I'oyal Library, Windsor. Mis (-(debrated
'Trattaio della Pittura,' dealing with all dcpavt-
ments of the jiainter's art, was iiiiblishe<l in Italian
in 1651, translated into l'"ieiich in the same year,
.and into Knglisli in 17'21 : but a more coniidete
manuscript was discovere<l by M.aiizi in the Vati-
can. an<l by him publisheil in ISIV. His contem-
poraries bear witness to tin' splendid personal
apjiearance of Leonardo; but the only undoubted
portrait of him that survives is the iwdile beanled
liead in the Koyal Library, Turin, a red chalk
drawing by his own hand.
The voluminous manuscripts of Leonardo, written from
right to left — for the painter was left-lianded — and
evincing his profound research in almost every branch
of science, are jiroserved at Paris, Milan, Windsor,
in the Britisli iliiseuni, in the South Kensington
Museum, anil at Hulkham. See Kichtcr's Literary
Work» of Lronnrdo fin 17/iri' (ISS.S), and \\\s Leonardo
( Lond. 1880); Mrs Heaton's Xco?trir(^) dn Vinri ami his
Worku (1874) ; the fac-siinile reproduction of his manu-
scripts by Ravaisson-MoUien (Paris, 18S1-'.K>) and by the
Italians (18fl4 ctso/.); and books by t'zielli (1S72-85),
Seailles ( 18'.t2), and KugOne Miintz (trans. 1808).
LoonfortC a walled Sicilian town, 49 miles
by rail \V. liy N. of Catania. Poji. 15,()45.
Leoili. Lkone (1509-90), goldsmith, medallist,
and scul|itor, worked at Milan, (5enoa, Brussels,
and ^Madrid, and w.as the rival of Beiivcnnto Cellini
in talent, in vice, and in violence. See the nnmo-
graph by Phm (Paris, 1SS6).
Leoil'idns I., son of Anaxandrhles, king of
Sparta, succeeded his half-brother, Cleomenes I.,
about 491 B.C. When the Persian monarch Xerxes
approached with an immense army Leonidas
opposed him at the narrow pjuss of Thernio|iyl<'e
(480 li.c.) with a force of .SOO Sjiartans, and rather
more than 5000 auxiliaries. The Persians .attempted
in vain to win over Leonidas by the ]iiomise of
making him ruler of the whole of Cireece ; and
when Xerxes sent a herald calling the Greeks to
Lay down their arms, the Spartan answered : ' Let
liim come and take them.' The treachery of one
Ephialtes having made it impossible to bar any
longer the progre.ss of the foe, Leonidas and his
little band, having sent away the auxiliary force,
threw themselves on the swarming myriads, and
found <a heroic death.
Leonine <'ity. See It.\ly, p. 247.
LeOIlillO Ver.ses, irregular forms of Latin
verse which arose in the middle .ages under the
influence of the minstrels, who ajiplied the accentual
system of verse to Latin in deliance of quantity.
They were used for ejiigranis, satires, and also for
the hymns of the church, and were fairly natuiiil-
ised in Kuiope by the end of the 11th century.
Tlie name specially apidies to verses rhymed as
well as accentual, and more especially to groups
of altern.ate hexameter and pentameter verses,
rhymed at the middle and end. They owe their
name to Leoninus, a canon of the church of St
Victor, in Paris, .about the middle of the 12tli
century, or, as otliers say, to Po)ie Leo II. , who
was a lover and improver of iiiusic. The linest
])oeiii in this form is the famous J)c Vvnttmjitu
Mtmdi of Bernard of Morlaix. A familiar example
is the couidet :
lliiiiion languf^af, mouaclius tunc esse vole&af,
.\st ubi ctiio'ahoV, iimnsit ut ante/iiif.
Another is the famous eiiit.aph of Bede in the
Galilee Chapel of Durham Cathedral :
Hac sunt in iossa Ba-diu venerabilis ossa.
Traces of this kind of versification appear here
and there in the Boman pools, espc<'ia,lly in Ovid,
in some of whosi^ Kpistles, indeed, they are as
coMimon on an average as once in every eight lines.
An examide from Uvid is
Quot ca'lum sUUtis, tot liabet tua Roma puf//(is.
Camden gives some curious specimens from
Walter de Mapes, Michael, the Cornish Jioet, and
Dan Kliiigham. a monk of Linton. The story of
the Jew who, having fallen into a refuse-iiit on
Saturd.ay, would not be helped out, becau.se it was
/lis Sabliath, while the Christian, who offered him
assistance, refused to do so 7icjt day, because it
was /lis, runs thus in Leonine verse :
Tciiile inatuis, Salovioji, epo te de st«rcorc tntlam ;
Sabbata nostra colo, dc at^ircore surcere noltt.
Sabbata nostra ijuidtm, Salomon, cclebrabis ibidem.
LEONTIUS OF BYZANTIUM
LEOPARDI
583
We find the same nietiical device employed in
many En;,'lisli poems, as in iSlielley's Cluml.
LeontillS of Byzailtillin. a monk who wrote
against various licresies in tlie Otli century. There
is a mono^'raph on liim ( in German ) hy Loofs ( 1S87 ).
Leopard (Fells pardu.t), one of the larger
Felida' (q.v.), now generally supposed to be
identical witli the jian'tlier. Great confusion has
prevailed in the nomenclature : the panther and
pardalls of the ancients are not certainly know-n :
the jaguar was erroneously described as the panther
by Button ; the puma is" often called panther in
America ; the leopard is known by the name of
Leopard ( Fctii pardus ).
tiger in Africa ; and, as Sir .J. E. Tennent tells us,
it is by mistake often called cheetah in Ceylon.
The leoi)ard is at lionie in Africa, from Algeria to
Cape Colony ; it is also found in Asia, from Pales-
tine through central Asia to Manchuria. The
ancients, distinguisliing the leopard by non-existent
attributes from the panther, gave it the name on
the supposition that it was a hybrid between the
lion [leo) and the pard or panther (pardiis) ; as the
girafle or camelopard was thought to be a hybrid
of the camel and the pard.
Supposing the leopard and panther to be one
species, we may describe it as characterised by a
peculiar gracefulness, slenderness ami llexibility
of form, with a very long tail, and spotted fur, the
spots being arranged in numerous rows along the
sides, anil each spot composed of live or six small
spots arranged in a circle or rosette. The general
colour is yellowish ; the lower parts lighter ; the
spots darker than the general colour of the fur.
A black variety is known which is not a distinct
species. The leopard is extremely agile, and
possesses the power of leaping and also that of
climbing trees in great perfection. It haunts
womled places, and is seldom to be found in open
regions of long grass, like the tiger. Deer and
antelopes are its habitual prey ; but it is equally
ready to feed on pigs, ]ioultry, or whatever animals
may be found in the vicinity of a farm or village.
The size and strength of the leopard render it as
dangerous to man as any of the Feliihc ; but it
generally seems to dread and flee from man, unless
a.s.sailed. It is very ca))able of domestication.
Leopardi. (il.vcoMo, the most distinguished
poet r>f modern Italy, was born at Hecaiiati, in the
Slarch of Ancona, attli June 17i)8. I'.oth his parents
were noble; but both were poor. The cciticlitions
of Leopardi's early life were certainly uiiccnigcMial,
though his inheritt^l temper disposed him to exag-
gerate evervthing distasteful to his own instincts.
His father \iad tTie predilections of a scholar : but
in religion and ])olitics he was a reactionary,
and in the management of his family unsym-
pathetic and arbitrary. From the first there
was no real V)ond of sympathy between father
and son, and the mother, thongli kindly and
conscientious in the dischar-'o of lier duties, does
not seem to have touched her son's heart. All
through his l)oyhoo<l Leopardi was an omnivorous
reader ; and his faculty ot aoi|uisition can be com-
pared only to that of the younger Scaliger. 15y the
age of sixteen he luul read tlirough all the Latin
and Greek classics, and could w rite with accuracy
French, Spanisli, English, and Hebrew. That he
also read with insight is pro\ed by the fact that
at sixteen he wrote a commentary on I'lotiiuis, of
which Sainte-Beuve could say that ' one who had
studied Plotinus all his life could fuid something
useful in this work of a lioy. '
Leopardi was unbajipy at home; and, conscious
of his own extraordinary gifts, he eagerly desired
to visit Rome, where he hoped to find the ideal
world of the scholar and man of letters. From
ccmscientious though petty scruples, his father long
iilHiosed this wish ; but at length, in the strangely
mistaken hope that Giacomo might at liome be led
to enter the church (for which he had been origin-
ally intended), he gave his permission (1822). A
year's residence in Rome wrought in Leopardi a dis-
illusion, which gave the final bent to his fundamen-
tal views of life. It was the time, it is to be remem-
bered, when Italy was demoralised by the French
domination ; and' in Rome itself the tone even of
the best society was despicable. An acquaintance
« itli Niebulu- and Bunsen, both of whom spoke of
him as a prodigj-, was almost the sole redeem-
ing experience in the capital of Italy. It was
with feelings of relief, therefore, that in 1823 he
returned to Recanati. For the next ten years,
partly of choice, but also largely of necessity, he
devoted himself to literature. From his earliest
days he had been of feeble .and sickly constitution,
anil as he grew older his ill-health Ijecame more
frequent and overmastering. As a confirmed in-
valid, he lived successively in Bologna, Florence,
Milan, and Pisa, and finally quitted Recanati in
1830. In 18.33 he accompanied his devoted friend
Ranieri to his house in Xajdes, and there in con-
stant bodily anguish and hopeless despondency he
lived till 1837. He died on the 14th of June in
that year.
Leopardi claims recognition at once as a scholar,
a poet, and a thinker. Had his health permitted,
and had he so chosen to devote his powei-s, there
can be no question that he would have taken his
place in the front rank of the students of antiquity.
Immediately subsequent to his death the original
productions of Leopardi were classed %yith the
highest creative eflbrts the world has seen. His
Opcrette Monili, cimsisting mainly of dialogues in
which he expounds his peculiar philoso]ihy, were
compared for originality and power with the writ-
ings of Pascal, the writer whom he at least nmst
closely resembles in tone of mind as well as in
l)hvsical constitution. .\s a jioet it was as.serted
that Dante alone of all the Italians \yas his eoual
in expressiveness of character and genius. Of late
years, however, a more sober estimate has been
formed of Leopardi's claims both as a poet and
thinker. It is now generally recognised that his
narrow range of symi>athy and the essentially
feeble spring of his nature debarred him from the
highest creative effort. The pessimism of which
he is the recognised exponent in poetry, and which
is equally the burden of his prose, was unquestion-
ably the' genuine expression of Leopardi's deepest
nature as well as of liis reasoned conviction. The
note of i)essimisni has often been sounded by other
poets besides Leopardi ; but it remained fi>r him
to extract its full poetic context from a jihilosophy,
the first and last word of which is the 'void and
nothingness' of all human life and ett'ort.
584
LEOPOLD I.
LEPROSY
The works of Leopard! were edited in 1845 at Florence
by Ranieri in six volumes. The most noteworthy of liis
writings are, in poetry, his Caitte and Can-oni, and a
piece entitled ' Continuation of the Battle of the Frogs
and Mice ;' and, in prose, the Dialogues and Essays classed
under tlie title Operette Morali. His Essays and Dia-
logues were translated intu English by Charles Edwardes
in 1882, his Poems by Fredericlt Townsend in 1888. See
Gladstone's Glcanbvjs, vol. ii. ; Sainte-Beuve, Portraits
Contemporains^ torn. iii. ; and Antona-Traversi, Studj 8U
Giacomo Leopardi (Naples, 1888).
Leopold I., kiiiji of tlie Belgians, son of Francis,
Duke of Saxe-Cobiirf,', and uncle of Queen Victoria,
was l)orn at ColmrR on 16th December 1790. After
receiving an excellent literary and scientific edu-
cation, lie became a ;,'eneral in the Ku.ssian army,
and was present at tlie battles of Liitzen, Bautzen,
and Leipzig. Whilst on a visit to Englanil after
the peace of 1815 lie won the afTections of the
Princess Charlotte (q.v.), tlie heire.ss of the throne,
married lier, and was naturalised by act of parlia-
ment in 1816. The princess died in 1817 : and
Leopold twelve years later married moiganatically
Caroline Bauer (q.v.). He received in February
1830 the offer of tlie crown of Greece, accepted it
uhder conditions, Init abdicated in May. In .Inne
1831 he was elected king of the Belgians, and
crowned at Brussels '21st July. As a monarch he
conducted himself with great prudence, firmness,
and moderation, with constant regard to the prin-
ciples of tlie Belgian constitution. He died loth
December 186.5, and was succeeded by his son,
Leopold II. See Belgiu.m, Congo.
Leopold, Prince. See Alb.vny.
Lepage. See B.-vstien-Lepage.
Lepanto (anc. Naupadus), now called by
the Greeks Epakto, a small town of Greece,
and the seat of a bishop, is situated on the
north side of the entrance to the Gulf of Corintli.
During the Peloponnesian war it wa-s one of the
chief naval stations of the Athenians. In the
middle ages it was given by the Byzantine emperor
to the Venetians, wlio fm'tified it so strongly that
in 1477 it stood a siege of four months by .30,000
Turks, and in 14!)!) was only taken by Bajazet II.
at the head of 150,000 men. Near Lepanto took
place the celebrated naval battle between the Turks
on the one side and the Papal galleys, and those
of the Venetians and the Spaniards, on the other,
on 7th October 1571, in which the Christians,
commanded by Don John of Austria (q.v.), achieved
a decisive victory. Of the Turks 30,000 fell or
were taken prisoners, whilst 1.30 Turkish vessels
were captured, and 12,000 Christi.an slaves liberated ;
the Christians lost 8000 men and 15 galleys. In
this battle Cervantes lost an arm. The town
became Greek in 1829.
L'Ep«5e. See EpiiE.
Lcpidodeiidroii, a genus of fossil plants
which occurs in Carboniferous and Upper Devonian
strata. Several species are recognised, most of
which attained a large size — 40 or 50 feet long and
more than 4 feet in iliameter. They were tree-like
lycopods — their living representatives being th(^
low-growing club-mosses of our mountains. The
stem tapered upwards and blanched dicliotomously,
and was either covered with linear one-nerved
leaves, or where these had fallen was marked with
more or less prominent ovate or lozenge-sh.aped
leafscai-s, arranged in a spiral mtmner. The fruits,
whi(di were either terminal or lateral, were elon-
gated, cylindrical bodices, composed of a conical axis,
around which a great quantity of scales were com-
pactly imbricated. The fos.sils described under the
name Kiwrria are now known to be the decorticated
stems of Lepidodendron. So again the fruiting
branches were formerly included under the genus
Halonia, while the cones were named Lepidostrobus.
Some of the roots (Stigmaria) met with in the
underelays of the coal-inea-sures also appear to
belong to Lepidodendron.
Lepidop'tera (Gr., 'scaly- winged'), an order
of Insects (q.v.). See also BuTTKHFI.V, CATER-
PILLAR, Moth.
Leyidosireil (Or. 'scaly siren;' L. paradoxci),
one of Ihe mudlislies or Di|)noi, a native of Brazil,
Paraguay, itc, but rather rare. It measures about
4 feet in length, and is probably carnivorous. lis
general cliaracters, along with 'those of the two
other genera, Ceratodus (q.v.) and Protoiiterns,
will be described under Mud-fi.siies.
Lepidosteiis. See Bonv Pike.
Lepi'dll.S, an illustrious Roman family of the
ancient -■Emilian gens. .M.\RCUS .Emilius Lepi-
DUS, when war broke out (49 B.C.) between Caesar
and Pompey, declared for Cfesar. During his own
absence in Spain, Ca'sar made Lepidus dictator of
Rome and his colleague in the consulate (46 li.c).
He afterwards supported Antony, and became mie
of the triumvirate with Octaviiuuis and Antony;
liut bis weakness of character made him inferior to
the other two, who assigne<l him .\frica as his iiro-
vince (40-39 B.C.). I'ltiniately his legions deserted
to Octavian, who allowed him to retain his wealth
and the dignity of pontife.x maxinius. He died
13 li.c.
Lc Play, Fredkrio (lS06-82), engineer and
economist, w;us professor in the School of .Mines at
Paris, and a senator. He was a commissioner at
several exhibitions, and wrote Lcs Oia-riers Euro-
pcens (1855), La Rrformc Soriale (1864; 7th ed.
1887), L'Orr/amsation (In Trnvnil (1870; 5tli eil.
1888), on the family, on the English constitu-
tion, La Constitution csscnticllc de I'Humnniti
(1881), &c.
Leprosy. The terminology of this disease is
somewhat confused ; it was called by the ancients
c/c/j/ianliii.iis and lepra, but the latter term at least
was also used of other forms of disease ( of psoriasis,
for example). In modern times, too, both these
names have been applied to other disea-ses as
well ; E/c/i/iantiasis Aralium (q.v.) is distinct from
leprosy, which is distinguished as Elephantiasis
Gncconiin, or Lepra Arabnm. It is also some-
times called Leuntiasis.
History and Distribution. — It is liiglil.y probable
that what is now known as leiuosy was one of the
diseases, though certainly not the only one, s]iokon
of by that name in the Engli.-h Bible; Leviticus
xiii. deals specially with the rules for the detec-
tion and isfdation of cases of leprosy. It is not
mentioned there prior to the S(ij<Mirii of the Israelites
in Egypt. It is worthy of note that it was regarded
by the earlier Greek and lioman writers a.s an
Egyptian disease. But it certainly existed in India
and China at very early periods. Kegarding its
first apiiearance in Eurojie nothing is known. It
has been supposed that it was brought from the
East by the Crusaders ; but there is evidence that
it was prevalent long before the first crusade.
During the middle ages it was extremely common ;
lazar-houses, dedicated to St Lazarus (from whom
lei)ers were called also lazars), existed throughout
Europe, including the British Islands, for the recep-
tion of lepers, though in all likelihood not for them
exclusively. Etl'orts were made to secure stringent
isolation. The <dd .lewisli lejier with his rent
garments and melaiudioly cry, ' I'nclean 1 unclean !'
was rejiroduced in the medieval leper, with a gray
gown and a clapper to announce his approach.
Since about the 14tli century leprosy has been
steadily declining in Euro|)e. From Shetland
wliere (as also in Cornwall ) it lingered long, :
LEPROSY
LEPSIUS
585
leper, of a leprous stock, w.os sent to Eilinbursli
Iiifirinary in 179S, anil a fow I'itses occurred in tlie
beginning of the 19th century. Liherton, near
Edinburgh, is believed to take its name from the
leper-house established there.
At the present day the only part of Kurope where
it is common is Norway ; but it also occurs in Ice-
land, on the Russian coasts of tlie Baltic and Gulf
of Finland, in south Russia, in Portugal, 8iiain,
Italy, Turkey, (irccce, and many of the MeJiter-
ranean islands. Kccrywhere in Europe, however, it
Ls found only in liniiteil districts. In Africa it
is met with almost all round the coast and in the
adjacent islands. In Asia it occurs in all the
countries and most of the islands on the south,
from Arabia and Persia to China and .Japan. In
America it occurs in New I>runswick, in Central
America, the West Indies, and the northern and
eastern parts of South America. In the United
States and in Australia ciuses have occurred, but
almost all among the Chinese immigrants ; in New
Zealand it is much more common anumg the natives.
In the Sandwich Islands it seems to have first ap-
peared about 1S.")0, but has spread with alarming
rapidity ; it is also met with in some others of the
Pacilic islands ( for the leper island of Molokai and
its institution, see H.\w.\ll). The .seclusion of
lepers is in most places carefully aimed at. Larger
or smaller leper-hospitals are found in all countries
where lepers are numerous ; notalile ones being at
Bergen, Tracadie (in New Brunswick; adminis-
tered by devoted religious sisters ), Robben Island
(near Cape Town); there are upwards of a dozen
in India.
Cause and Mode of Spreading. — The above list of
localities is enough to show that the disease is not
dependent upon climate. There has been a general
belief from time immemorial in countries where it
occurs that it is contagious ; but, though numerous
ca.ses are met with of persons temporarily residing
in districts where the disease is prevalent who have
become affected by it, instances are extremely rare
in which they have communicated the disease to
others in countries where it is not endemic; and if it
is contagious, it must be under very rare and excep-
tional condition.s. Almost all (|ualitied observers,
however, believe that the disease, or a constitutional
tendency to it, is strongly hereditary. Evidence
has recently been adduceil which seems to show that
it may be communicated by vaccination from a
leprous child. In.sanitary conditions, lilthy habits,
and unwholesome food are generally believed to
favour its occurrence ; though persons in comfort-
able circumstances are by no means exempt. Some
authorities, among whom Mr .Jonathan Hutchinson
is prominent, think that 'in .some way fish-food,
and especially when either salted or deconijiosed,' is
the main cause of its origin. In 1.S74 Hansen of
Bergen found a bacillus, extremely like the bacillus
of tubercle, afterwards discovered, in the att'ecteil
tissues ; and his observations have been confirmed
by many other observers, so that there is no doubt
that this organism is a constant feature of the
disea.se.
Symptoms and Course. — The disease is usually
very sfow and insidious in its ai)pearance and ]iro-
gres.s. The earliest symi)tonis are debility, depres-
sion, loss of appetite, and general constitutional
disturbance. Two forms of the disease are rec'og-
ni.se<l, tuliercular and uiiw.sthclii; leprosy, according
to the tissues first and chielly involved. In the
tubercular form the earliest recognisable change
consists in the appearance of reddish-brown spots
on the skin, usually of the lindis, tender to the
touch, and somewhat swollen. They may dis-
appear, leaving the skin only slightly thickened ;
but repeateil attacks occur and ali'ect wider areas ;
ultimately the skin of the face becomes thickened.
puckered, and nodulated, giving a ' peculiar, heavy,
moros(» expression;' the hands and feet become
similarly ailected ; some of the nodu!ale<l spots form
into deep intractable ulcers ; owing to changes in
the cornea the sight is dimmed or lost ; the niucons
membrane of the mouth and throat becomes thick-
ened, anil the voice reduced to a hoarse whisper.
In the ana>sthetie form certain of the nerves are
cbielly att'ected, and before any visible changes
occur sensation is lost in the areas of skin supplied
by them. Mutilation of the fingers and toes often
occurs, the bones being destroyed, or the whole
parts dropping oil', often without pain. This form
is generally slower in its ])rogress than the tuber-
cular form, but freiiuently leads to the develop-
ment of the latter. In whatever way the disease
begins, the constitution is slowly enfeebled, and
the sutl'erer falls a ready victim to .some intercurrent
malady ; for leprosy is seldom itself the direct cause
of death.
Treatment. — The disease may under favourable
conditions remain quiescent for long periods. In
the Tracadie lazaretto there have been patients
who have suft'ered from lepiosy for fifty years.
Cases have even been reported of complete recovery.
Improvement has sometimes followed the use of
tiurjun (q.v.) and Chauhnoogra oils. But in the
vast majority of eases no treatment h.as proved of
any use in arresting the progress of the disease.
See a monograph on True Leprosy by Liveing {ISZ.*?) ;
and the works on ,Skin Diseases by Wilson, Hutchin.son,
and others. For medieval leprosy, see Sir J. Y. Simpson
in Edin. Med. and Sun/. Jour. (1846-47); for leprosy
in India (where in 1888 there were 13o,0U0 lepers, or,
according to other estimates, 250,000), see Vandyke
Carter's work (1873); for leprosy on Kobben Island,
see Btackivood's Mai/azine for 1889.
LepsillS, K.\RL Rl(_'H-VRD, Egyptologist, was
born at Naumburg, ^Sd December 1810. His father,
Karl Peter Lepsius ( 1775-1S.")3), a magistrate there,
was himself a zealous antiquary, and published
learned treati-ses on the local antiquities. The
younger Lepsius studied at Leipzig, Gcittingen,
Berlin, and Paris. His first work was Die Palrio-
(jraphie als Jlittel iter Siinirlifor.srhuiig (18.34), for
which he obtained the \ olney prize of tlie French
Institute. This was followed by works on the most
ancient alphabets and other kindred subjects. In
1836 he a.ssociated himself intimately with Bunsen
at Rome, and eagerly prosecuted his favourite
studies there. Between 1834 and 1842 he published
his I.ettre a 31. lioscUini sur V Alphabet liifrdgly-
pliiqne, and, in the Tran.iactions ol the Arclueologi-
cal Institute, a number of dissertations on the monu
nients of Egyptian art and their general architec
tural style. He also apiilied himself to the study
of the ancient Etru.scan and Oscan languages, the
remains of which he published in his Inseriptioncs
L'Dihrica; et Osca; (\^^\) ;\nA other works. In 184'2
he was |)l,'iced at the head of an antiquarian expedi-
tion sent to Egyi't by the' king of Prussia, and on
his return three years later was apiiointed ordinary
professor in Berlin. IWs Dciikinidir iiiis yligi/plfii
luiil Acthiopicn (12 vols, folio, with 903 plates.
1849 GO) was published at the expen.se of the king
of Prussia, and remains a masterpiece of patient
genius and erudition. His Clirunolugie dcr .li-gi/p-
iir and l.^ehcr dru cr.itcn Acgi/pt. Uiittcrhrrix hiid
the foundation for a scientific treatment of the
earlier parts of Egyptian history. To the study
of Egyptian aiclueology he joined the investigation
of the languages, history, and monuments of the
regions farther up the Nile. Other works are his
letters from Egypt, Ethiopia, and Sinai (ISiVi); a
commiinieation on the Egyptian iiioinimeiits( 18.53);
the work in whieli he e\|iounds the Stiinilanl
Alphabet, a modified Roman alphabet for hitherto
unwritten languages, now used in many ca-ses
586
LEPTOSPERMUM
LE SAGE
( 1855 ; in its second edition, published in English in
1863, adapted to 120 languages); a work on the
Egyptian ell and other measures ; the Kuiiitishurli,
a list of kings (1858); the Tot/leiihtieh (1867), the
Egvjitian Book of the Dead (q.v.). He wrote alsoon
Chinese, Araliic, and Assyrian philology; wa-s editor
of the Berlin Zeitsclirift of Egyptology, nienilier
of the Royal Academy, ilireetor of the Egyptian
section of the Royal Museum, and chief-lilirarian
of the Royal Library at Berlin. He w.os a creator
of Egyptology as a scientific study, and a devoted
and single-minded scholar of the best type. He
died 10th July 1884. iSee Ebers, Richard Lcp^iiis,
cin LcbcnshiM (1885; Eng. trans. New York,
1887).
LeptOSltrrilllllll. a genus of trees and shrubs,
natives of Australia, New Zealand, ike, of the
natural order Myrtaeea", sub-order Leptospermea^.
They are evergreen, with leaves somewhat resem-
bling those of myrtles. Some bear the name of
Tea-tree, as L. Icnif/crmn, L. beicciitiim, L.flexuosum.
and X. iiriiiiilifloruiii, because the leaves have
been used as a substitute for tea. L. scoparinm
is sometimes called the Ncii- Zealand Tea-plant,
sometimes the Broom -tree or Duqicood-tree. It is
common both in New Zealand and Australia.
Lerida. a town of Spain, cai)ital of the province
of Lerida (area, 4762 s(|. m. ; pop. 285,417 in 1887,
having decreased from .314,530 in I860), on a tribu-
tary of the Ebro, 114 nules by rail W. by N. of
Barcelona. The second city of Catalonia, Leriila
has a castle and two cathedral churches, one an
ancient Byzantino-Moorish edifice, now used as a
barracks, the other a modern GracoRoman build-
ing. It carries on manufactures of woollens,
cottons, leather, paper, and glass. Pop. ( 1877 )
20,369; (1884) 17,672. Near Lerida, the Celti-
berian Ilcrda. Scipio Africanus defeated Hanuo
(216 li.c.) and Ca'sar, the lieutenants of Pompey
(49 B.C.). The (ioths made it a bishop's see .and
held here a council of the church in the 6th
century. In 1300 a university was founded here ; it
is now extinct. The town has been several times
besieged, on the last occasion by the French in 1810.
Lf^I'ill.S, a small grouji of French islands in the
Mediterranean, 2^ miles SE. of (.'annes. t)n Sainte-
Marguerite ( the ancient Leroiia ). 4 miles in circum-
ference, st.-mds a fortress in which the Man with
the Iron Mask and Marshal Bazaine were at ditl'er-
ent times confined, and from which Bazaine escaped
in 1874. On Saint-Honorat (anciently Lerina), 2
miles in circuit, are the ruins of the once famous
monastic school. Vincent Lerinensis, a monk here
(died 450), was the author of the famous definition
of Catholicism (see ('ATUOLlc Church).
Leriuoiitolf, Mikh.vii, Yi-rkvitch, one of
Russia's greatest poets, called the ' ]inet of the
Caucasus,' was born, of Scotch e.\tracti(5n ( Lear-
mont ; jirobably traci>alile back to Thomas the
Rhymer), in Moscow on 15th October 1814. Hewas
educated at Moscow and in the school of pages at
St Petersburg, and, entering the army, was sent on
active .service in the Caucasiis. There he was shot
dead in a duel on 15th July 1841. The death of
Pushkin gave him his first i)c)etic inspiration, which
took shape in an impa-sioued appeal for vengeance
on I'usbkin's slayer, lint it w.as the sublime scenery
of the Caucasus that insjiired his best poetic pieces,
such as Tlic Novice, The l)eiiion, I.tinail Bey, Valerik,
&c. One poem from his pen, J'lte Son// il/thc Czar
Ivan Vasilie'riteh, is highly jiraised as a successful
attcm])t to reproduce the s]iiritof the Little liussian
pojpular iioclry. A Byronic note runs thrdugli most
of Lermontofl's poetic work. In 1839 he ijulilislied
a good novel, A Hero of Vnr Time : this is said to
have occa.sioned the duel that cost him his life.
See Turner, Studies in Russian Literature (\99i^) ;
Blaekwond's Magazine ( 1884); and George Brandes,
Impressions of Russia ( 1890).
Lern<pidi<P. a family of Copepod crustaceans,
of which the females are parasitic on fishes and
grotesquely degenerate, the adults showing hanlly
a trace of crustacean structure. See F'tSH-LOt'SE.
Leroy de St Ariiaiid. See Sr Arnaid.
LerM'ick, the county town of Shetland, on the
east coast of Mainland and on liressay Sound, 116
miles NE. of Kirkwall. Demolished and refounded
in the 17th century, it has lieen greatly imi)roved
since 1850, and has a town-ball (1883), county
buildings ( 1872 ), water and diainage works ( 1871 ) ;
whilst, to meet the rapid growth of its shipping
and fisheries, extensive harbour-works ( jiier,
wharves, <.<.c. ) were carried out during 1883-86.
Pop. ( 1831 ) 2750 ; ( 1881 ) 4045 ; ( 1891 ) 3930.
Le Sage. Alain-Rene, was born in 1668 at
Sarzeau in Brittany. His father ilied in 1682,
leaving him to the care of an uncle, who .so mis-
managed his afi'airs that he began life with little
more capital than genius and an education received
at the Jesuit school at A'annes. In 1692 he went
to Paris to study law, but an early marriage drove
him to seek a less tardy livelihood in litciature.
His first work was a translation of the letters of
Arista»netus in 1695, ami about the same time he
made the friendship of the Abbe ile Lionne, who
was owner of a good Spanish library collected by
his father the ambassador, of which he made Le
Sage free, with a pension of 600 livres to enable
him to profit by it. The first fruit was the project
of a Thcfitrc Espaijnol ; but all that came of it was
one volume in 1700 containing two plays, the
Traitre puni and Don Felix de. Mendoee, imit.ated
from Rojas and Lope de Vega. In \'{Y2 Le jioint
f/'honnciir, from A'o hoy amigo para aiiiigo of
Rojas, failed on the stage. His next venture
(1704) was a rifacimento of Avellaneda's Don
Qiti.rote. The year 1707 was the turning-point in his
fortunes. Do7i Cesar l^rsin, from Calderon's I'eor
cstei que csfaba, was played with success ,at cimrt,
and Crispin rind de son maitre in the city ; and
more successful than either was the Diabte lioitcux,
the framework, title, and first chapter of which he
took from the Diablo Cojuclo of Guevara. In 1708
he ofVered the Theatre Francais two ]days ; La
Tontine was accepted, but shelved, and not pro-
duced until 1732; Les Ktrennes was lejected, as
rules (lid not allow one-act pieces before Easter.
Le Sage toiik it back, and altered and expanded it
into Tnrearet : but the financiers it satirised, after
an attempt to buy him off with 100,000 livres,
organised such an oi)position against it that it was
.saved only by an ortler from the Daiiiihin. Le Sage
was not a man to submit to cajirice. It is told of
him that when the Duchesse ilc Bouillon, at whose
house he w;is to have rea<l 'J'lireiirrt . received him
with a hauglity reprimand fur kcc]iing her waiting,
be rei)lied, ' \'ery well, madame, if 1 have made you
lose an hour I will make you gain two,' and with a
bow walked out ; and it was no doubt the same
spirit of independence th;it made him go over in
1709 from the Thci'itre Francais to the ojiposition
Thcfttre de la Foire. Inle.ss the Amants ,/atoux
of 1736 be his, he made no attemjit after this to
return to the regular drama, but cuntinued to
supply the F'oire stage with slight ])ieces of the
kind it was restricted to, which he published from
time to time in the volumes composing the ThfAtre
de la Foire. For these the Persian tales which he
helpeil bis friend Pelis de la Croix to put into shajie
in the Miltr el iiit jaurs were of great service to him.
But the success of the Diable Boitenx was too
encouraging to allow him to neglect the Simnish.
In 1715 ail Blax (vols. i. and ii.) came out, followed
in 1717-21 by an attempt at an Orlando. In 1724
LE SAGE
587
came the thin] and, lus it seemed, hist vol. of Git
Bias, and in 1726 a new edition of the Diahic
Eoitnijc, doubled in bulk by additions of his own
and from Santos. In 1732 be {;ave Ids (hizmmi de
Alfarnche, 'purged of suiierlluous moralities,' and
lioherf Chevnlier de Beaiichcnc, the life of a
buccaneer wliose widow, he savs, furnished the
memoirs. In 1734 he took the title of Estehaiiilln
Gonzalez, hut very little else, from the original
Spanish. In 173.> the fourth vol. of Gil Bias
appeared, and also the Journfe lies J'arqin's : in
1736-38 the Bachetier de Salamatiijue, the 'remain-
der biscuit' of Gil Bias: in 1739 liis |)lays, in two
vols. ; in 1740 La Valise trouvce, a volume of letters ;
ami in 1743 the Milamje Amiis'iiif, a collection of
faceti:e from his memory or his notebook. Tiiat
yejvr brought his tii-st sorrow, tlie ileath of his
eldest son Itene. otherwise Montmenil the come-
dian. Le Sage had a contempt for actors and
their calling, and when his son adopted it he
disowned him. Hut in time, Itrought round to
see him in Tiireaiet, he was conquered by his
own creation alive in the genius of his son, and
the estrangement ended in their being drawn
together more closely than ever. The death of
liis son and his own increasing infirmities, particu-
larly his deafness, made hiin abandon Paris and
literary life, ami retreat with his wife and daughter
to Boulogne, where his second son, Julien, held a
cauonryin the cathedral ; and there, in the Hue du
Chateau, he died in 1747, in his eightieth year. Of
himself, pereonally, there is very little on record.
He was withdrawn from society by bis deafness,
from which lie was a sufferer as early as 1709, and
lived a quiet, retired, industrious life, surrounded
by his family ; and j)erliaps their devotion and the
loving care with which they tended him in bis last
days are more eloquent than any eulogy of his
character and virtues that preacher could pro-
nounce.
Le Sage's reputation as a dramatist and as a
novelist rests in each case on one work. The
author of Tvrenret might, under favouring circum-
stances, liave done anything in comedy short of
dethroning Moliere, but a-s it is he has no claim
to a place in the iii-st order of dramatists. But
whatever severe critics may say, the author of Gil
Bias stands in the front rank of the novelists by
the common ctmsent of the great ma-ss of readers
of all nations. On the other hand there are some
who deny originality to one who borrowed ideas,
incidents, and tales from othei's — Espinel, Kojas,
Mendoza, Quevedo — as Le Sage did ; and some
who go still further, and deny that the author of
Gil Bias was anything more than a transbitor.
The question of what constitutes originality would
he out of place here, but the other is simply a
question of evidence which may be brielly summed
np. It was primarily Voltaire who raised the
issue. Le Sage had juit him into Gil Bias as Don
Oaltriel Triaquero, and he in return said in his
Siecle de Louis XIV. tliat Gil Bias wna 'entirely
taken from y,« VidaU de lo Ksciidiero Dom Uliircns
(f Oljrego,' showing that he had never seen the
book he quoted, and could not read it if he had.
Backed by his name, the ligment had a wide circu-
lation, especially in Spain, and the I'adre Isia was
set on to develop it, which be did in his own
peculiar fashion (see I.SL.v). The Comto de Neuf-
ch.'iteau liaving taken iiji Isha seriously, was replied
to by Llorente, wlm maintained that though Isla
w.as in jest he had truth on bis side. His own
theory was that in the Lioniie library Le Sage
found a MS. novel, called the B/tehelor of Sala-
maiira, written, proliably by Solis the historian, in
165.5, and that out of this he carved Gil Bias,
serving up the remainder afterwards under the
original title. The argument, in brief, is that
Gil Bias is cro\viled with details of a kind that Le
Sage, who never was in Spain, could have b.ad no
knowledge of, .and could not have got from books.
Of these det.ails, howevi-r, a good many need not
have had any more recondite source than ]Jo7t
Quixote: and for the rest Le Sage would have
said that he only womlered at his own modera-
tion, for be could have taken ten times as many
from tlie jilays and picaresque novels in the abbe's
liluarv, and from bocd<s of travclleis like -V.aissens
van Sommelsdyck, I'.ertaut, and .Mme I)'.\ulnoy.
Hut 1/lorente jmiuts out that over a hundred
places, often oliscure hamlets that few Spaniards
even ever heard of, are named, in general correctly,
wliieli is a proof of some' exceptional source of
information ; but sometimes incorrectly, a proof
that tlie source was a MS. not a juinted one.
But a plain tale will put liim down ; the names
are in old French ni.aps. Of a score picked out
as manifest misreadings from a ^IS.— Giajal,
Kodillas, Luceno, t'astil Bla/o, t^c, all but one
are in the map of Spain juiiited in Paris by Jaillot
eirca 1695, and all the notalilo ones in that of
1713. just two years before Gil Bias appeared.
From maps, too, come Le Sages blunders in
topography — e.g. putting Penatlor on the road to
Salamanca, Alcalii between ALadrid .and Segovia,
Penafiel between Segovia and Valladolid, Liria
'sur les bonis du Ouadalaviar.' Finally be urges
Le Sage's familiarity with secret history and
the private .atl'airs of Olivares, his daughter's
man-iage (.\i. 9), and his a<loption of JIargarita
Spinola's son (xii. 4) ; and asks how C(mld he have
known matters and names not to lie found in ]irint,
save from a contemporary MS. ; which, as before,
bis misreadings, Niebles for Xiebla, Abrados for
Abiados, Valeasar for ^'alcaicel, liear witness to?
But again the answer is simple. He found
'Niebles 'and 'Abrados,' as well as the marriage
story in the translated Anecdotes du miiiistire
d'Ulii'aies (Paris, 1722), and put the very words
of the book into the mouth of Oliv.ares, whose
portrait (xi. 2) is word for word from the Anec-
dotes. ' A'aleasar ' he found in the Relation de ce
qui s'est pass6 it la disgrace d' Olieares ( Paris, 1 650 ),
from which he took the Count Duke's curious 'con-
fidence' to Gil Bias, and, also, sundiv names cited
l)y Llorente. <.)ne by one, in sliort. the suiqiorts
give way, and the MS. theory falls to the ground.
Nevertheless, in tlie absence of rebutting evidence,
its ))lausibility imposed u]ion some good critics,
the author of 'Wlio Wrote Gil Bias.'' in Blacl:-
v<iod (1844), A. H. Everett, and Ford, among
others. All admit, however, that the translator
has left the stamp of bis nationality indelibly
impressed upon the work ; the mystery lies in
its wealth of detail. Llorente puts the matter
in a nutshell when he asks why did Le Sage, if
he was the original author, give himself so much
needless trouble? Why so particular to name
'Toralva,' when it would have done just as
well to say 'a village near Cuenca'/' The
answer is that Le Sage was before all things
an artist, aii<l knew the value of details in j>ro-
ducing the verisiinilituile he aimed at. In this
resjiect and many others he was like bis great
contemporary Defoe. He spared no pains to make
his conception a reality to his reader. When lie
sent (lil Bias on a ionrney he was not content to
gener.alise his road, lint lookeil up the villages he
bad to jiass through on the best map lie could
linil. \\'ben he brought him to an inn, he went to
the novels and plays for inn furniture and com-
pany and conversation. This is the rationale of
'lis borrowings, and it is this, a-s much ivs his
delightful style, that makes him the prince of
raconteui-s. He was the first to jierceive the capa-
bilities of the picaresque novel, and with tlie
588
LESBOS
LESLIE
culinary genius of his nation (by no means con-
fined to artists like him wlio could make a
savoury rafjout out of an old boot) he got riil
of its crudities, brought out its flavour, and
served it uii with a sniirc piijudntc of liis own.
In so doing lie advanced the novel of real life an
important stage, and, to his honour be it said,
no abuse of realism can be laid to his charge. In
the words of Scott, ' Ilis muse moved with an un-
polluted ste]), even where the path was somewhat
miry.'
Lesbos, or Mytilene, a Turkish island in the
.il'igean Sea, lies 10 miles from the coast of .Vsia
Minor, north of the Gulf of Smyrna. It is tri-
angular in shape, with two deep inlets on tlio
south-east and south-west, and is for t!ie most
part mountainous, reaching 3079 feet in Ilagios
Elias (Olympus). The soil is fertile and yields
good crops of olives, the oil being the chief ex-
port. In ancient times wine was a specialty.
The climate is delightful. Tlie chief drawback
of the island is the earthquakes, which occur
pretty frequently. Area, 676 sq. m. : pop. 30,000,
mostly Greeks. The ancient capital was .Mitylene
(on coins Mytilene) ; the existing town, called
Castro, ' a straggling dirty village,' has a jiopulation
of about 12,000. It stands on a peninsula on the
east coast, is defended by a medieval castle, and
has a shallow harbour. Other ancient cities were
Metliynma, Pyrrha, Antissa, and Eresus. The
modern town of Agiasso has 7000 to 8000 in-
habitants. The island was early colonised by
/Eolian immigrants. Between 700 and 500 B.C.
it was the flourishing home of poets and literary
men, as the names of Alc;eus, Sappho, Ter-
paniler, Pittacus, Theophrastus, Theophanes, and
others will attest. The Lesbians made themselves
masters of considerable territory on the opposite
mainland of .\sia Minor. But in the 6th century
B.C. it was for about sixty years siibject to Persia.
In 476 it joined tlie Athenian league, but, revolting
in 429, was promptly reduced to obedience again.
Then it belonged s\iccessively to Macedonia,
Pontus, Rome, and Byzantium. From 1355 to
1462 it was owned by a Genoese merchant family,
who lost it to Sultan Mohammed II. Of!' its shores
the Turks were defeated by the Venetians in 1690
and 169S, and by the Greeks in 1821. The island
has been called Mytilene from the middle ages
down to the present time.
See Couze, Reise auf Lesbos (1865); C. T. Newton,
Trarels and Disroiri'irs in the Levant (2 vols. 1865);
Koldewcy, Die autism Ilaureste der Insel Lesbos (ISOO);
and Tozer, [slands of tlie .Eyean (1890).
liCsczyiiski. See Pol.\nd, Louis XV.
Le.s<;liians. See C'.\uc.\sus.
Li'slic, a town of Fife, 12 miles SW. of Cupar,
and 3 \V. of Markinch by a branch-line ( 1861 ). It
has llax-spinniiig, bb^acliing, and paper works.
Pop. 3421.
L«'sli«'. Lesly, or Lksi.ey, The F.\mii,v ok, is
first found between 1171 and 1199, when .Malcolm,
son iif liartholf, obtained Lesslyn or Leslie, a wild
pastoral parish in .MxM-deenshire. Ilis ilescemlants
took their surname from their lands.
Earls and iJnl.c of Ratltci. — The family was
ennobled in 1457, when George Leslie of Kothes
was made Earl of Kothes and Lord Leslie. The
fourth earl w;is father of Norman Leslie, Master of
Kolhcs, the chief actor in the murder of Cardinal
Beaton. John, the sixth earl, who ilied in 1641,
distinguished himself as one of the ablest of the
Covenanting leaders. Ilis son became Lonl Chan-
cellor of Scotland in 1607, and in 1080 was created
Duke of Rothes, Marquis of Ballinbreich, Karl of
Leslie, &c. These honoui-s became extinct upon
his death without male issue in 1681. The earldom
of Rothes went to his elder daughter, in whose
family the title has continued.
Earls of I.crciK — Before the family left .Micr-
deenshire it had thrown oil" braiu'hes, some of
which still nourish there. The chief, that of Bal-
qnhain, gave birth to several men of mark, such iis
the learned John Leslie, Bishop of Ross ( 1.527-96),
the devoted champion of Mary (Jueen of Scots ;
Sir Alexander Leslie of Auchintoul, a general in
the Muscovite service, who died govenmr of
Smolensko in 1663; and Charles Leslie (q. v.). A
still more distinguished man w,as Alexander Leslie,
who rose to be a field-marshal of Sweden under
Gustavus .\dolphus. Recalled to Scotland in 16.39,
be took command of the Covenanting army, and in
1641 was made Earl of Leven and Lord I'.algony.
He died in 1661, and his honours and lands eventu-
ally passed to his great-grandson, David Melville,
third Earl of Leven and second Earl of Melville.
His descendant succeeded as eleventh Earl of Leven
and tenth Earl of Melville in 1889.
Lords Lindures. — The second son of the fifth
Earl of Kothes was createil Lonl Lindores in 1600.
The title has been dormant since the death of the
seventh lord in 1775.
Lords Xeurir/:. — David Leslie, fifth son of the
first Lord Linilores, served with distinction under
Gustavus Adolphus, and, returning to Scotland in
1640, acted as lieutenant-general to the Earl of
Leven. He was present at Marst<m Moor, ami
surprised and routed Jlontrose at Phili^lhaugll.
Taken prisoner by Cromwell at Worcester m l(i51,
he suffered imprisonment in the Tower till the
Restoration. He was made Lord Newark in 1(161,
and died in 1682. The title has been dormant since
the death of his great-grandson, the fourth lord, in
1791.
Coiint.i Leslie. — Walter Leslie, a younger son of
the House of Balqnhain, distinguished himself in
the Austrian army, and in 1637 was created a
count of the empire, as a reward for his services
in the niurder of Wallenstein. He ilied with-
out issue in 1667, when he was succeeded by his
nephew, James, a fielil-marshal in the -\ustrian
service, who died in 1694. The title became extinct
in 1844.
Leslie, <-'HAi;i,l'.s, nonjuring divine, was liorn
at Dublin on the 17th July 1650, studied at Trinity
College, Dublin, and, having taken orders in 1680,
became chancellor of the cathedral of Connor in
1687. Dei)rived at the Revolntion for declining
the oath of allegiance, he retired to England and
wrote against Papists, Deists, Socini.'ins, .lows,
and (^)uakers, as well as in supjiort of the n(m-
juring interests. He went with the Pretender to
Italy after 1715, but returned to Ireland in 1721,
and died 13th April 1722. His ,S'/(oj-(! and Kasi/
Method irilh the Jocv ajqieared in 1684; h\^ Short
and h'asi/ Method with the Deists in 1694 : he issued
a collected edition of his Theolorjieal ]\'nrhs in two
folio volumes in 1721 (new ed. 7 vols. 1832). See :\
Life by R. J. Leslie ( 1885).
Leslie. Charles Robert, genre painter, wiis
born in London on 19th October 1794, his parents
being Americans. lie was educated at Phila-
delphia, to which city his i)arents took him in
1800. In 1811 he returned to England, and entered
a-s a student in the Royal Academy, West, Fuseli,
and Allstcm exercising the earliest influence over
him. The first i)icture that brought him into
notice w,as 'Sir Roger de Coverlev going to
Church ' (1819). In 1821 'May-day in the Reign
of t^neen Elizabeth ' secured his election as an
.'Vs.sociate of the Academy ; and ' Sancho Panza
and the Duchess,' exhibited in 1824, obtained for
him the rank of Academician. Leslie's principal
pictures are scenes from the works of Sliakespcare,
LESLIE
LESSEPS
589
Cervantes, Le Sage, Jlolicie, AdJison, Swift,
Sterne, Fielding, and Smollett. (iieat jKiwer of
expression, and a delicate perception of eliaracter
and of female beauty, are bis strongest points. In
18.33 be accepted tlie appointment of professor of
Drawing at tlie military academy of West Point,
New York; but gave np tbe post early in tbe
following year, and returned to England. From
1S4S to 1852 be was professor of Painting at tbe
Koyal Academy. He died in London on .")lb Jlay
ISoi*. His lectures were puldislied in IS.V) in tbe
useful Handbook for Yuuiitj Painters ; be also wrote
an able Life of Constable (1843), and began tbe
Life and Times of Sir Joshua lieyno/ds, completed
by Tom Taylor. Tbe Autobiographical liceollcr-
tioHs of Leslie were edited by Tom Taylor (18G0).
— His son, (Jeoege Dl'NLOl' Leslie, born in Loudon
in ls:>d, whose aim lias been "to jiaint pictures from
(be sunny .side of English domestic life,' was elected
.\.K.A. in 1808 and K. A. in ISTG. See his Letters
to Marru ( 1893) and Overside Letters (1896).
Leslie. Fk.\xk, ])ublisber, wa.s born at Ipswicb
in 1821, bis proper name being Henry Carter, ami
at seventeen was placed in a mercantile bouse in
London. ' Frank Leslie " was tbe name be adopted
in sending in sketches to tbe Illustrated London
News, and tbe success of these determined liim to
join the stall' of tbat paper. In 1848 be proceeded
to tbe L'nited States, where he assumeil tbe name
of Frank Leslie by a legal process, and in 18o4
founded tbe Gazette q/ Fashion and tbe Nev; York
Journal. Frank Leslie's Illustrated Neuspapcr
was commenced in 1855 (German and Spanish
editions later), tbe Chimney Corner in 1865 ; and
afterwards the Boys' and Girls' Weekly, the Lculy's
Journal, aiul a number <if other periodicals were
published by him. He died lOtb .January 1880 ;
his widow then assumed bLs name and carried on
his business.
Leslie. Sir John, a celebrateil natural philo-
sopher, was born at Largo, Fife, 16tb April 1766.
He studied at St Andrews and Edinburgh univer-
sities, and in 1788 became tutor to two young
Ajnericans, with whom be proceeded to Virginia
and other parts of America, returning to London
in 1790. Duriug the next fifteen years be was
variously employed in scientitic writing or travel-
ling on the continent with pupils, but all tbe wliile
engaged in experimental research. The fruits of
his laboui-s during this period of bis career were a
translation of Button's Xatural History of Birds
(1793), tbe invention of a diflereutial thermometer,
a hygiometer, and a photometer, and the j>ublica-
tion of bis important Experimental /m/uiry into
the Nature and Propagation of Heat (1804).
For this latter work tlie Koyal Society awarded
Leslie tbe Rumford ineiial for scientific research.
In 1805 be obtained tbe chair of Mathematics
at Edinburgh, in spite of a good deal of opposi-
tion from tbe clergy, who objected to bis ajiproval
of Hume's theory of causation. He occupied
it for fourteen years, but most of bis leisure
time was occupied in scientitic experiments. In
1810 be iuventeil tbe process of artificial refrig-
eration, which has since been put to so many-
practical uses. In 1819 be was transferred to the
chair of Natural Pbilosophy, where bis peculiar
talents found their proper spliere. During tbe next
few vears be wrote numerous articles and jiub-
lisbed several works on natural philosophy and
matliematics ; but bis chief claim to the gratitude
of tbe scientific world lies in bis useful inventions,
sucli as the pyroscope, atmometer, athrio.scope,
and the iirominence which be gave to experimental
illustration in bis university lectures. In 18.32 be
was created a Knight of tbe Guelpbic Order ; on
CU November of the same year be died, at liis
estate of Coates, in Fife, near bis birthplace. See
Memoir by Macvey Napier ( 1838).
Leslie, Tiidmas Emv.Mii) Ci.ikfe, political
economist, w;is born in County Down, Ireland, in
1827, and educated at Trinity College, Dublin.
He qualilied for tbe bar, but in 1853 was appointed
to tue chair of Economics and Jurisprudence at
Belfast. In tbat city be died on 27tb January
1882. His writings, mostly fragmentary in char-
acter, were collected in two books entitled IVie
Land Systems (1870), containing studies on tbe
land question in Ireland, Belgium, and France,
and Essays in Political and Moral Philosophy
( 1879), which treat piincipally of the gold question
and economic method. Leslie was a strenuous
advocate for tbe study of economic problems in tbe
light of tbe historic method, instead of tbe purely
analytic method of liicardo. He introduced tbe
works of continental economists, such as Koscher
and Laveleye, to tbe notice of English students.
Lespiuasse, Cl.mre Francoise, or Julie
jEAXXEELEONORE,wiisborn9tb Nov. 1732,at Lyons,
an illegitimate daughter of the Countess d'Albon.
At first a teacher, she became in 1754 a companion
to Madame du Dett'and, whose friends, especially
D'Alembert. she quickly attached to bersell. After
tbe inevitable rupture tbat followed, she was en-
abled by tbe bounty of her friends to maintain a
modest salon of lier own. The charm she exercised
was in no wise due to beauty, for she was jilain in
face, and, moreover, disfigured by smallpox ; yet
convei-sation was brighter and more harmonious, and
wit more brilliant in ber circle than anywhere else
in Paris. Unfortunately for her jieace she had a
heart sensitive to love, and the passion she was
capable of at foi'ty for the young Spaniard, the
Marquis de Mora, and two years later for M. de
Guibert, cost ber tbe deepest pangs, when tbe fu-st
died and the second was separated by marriage.
The famous D'Alembert had long admired and
loved her, but her aliection for the pbiloso]:iber
never cost her tears. She died at Paris, 23d ^lay
1776. ]Many of ber letters to her two lovers have
been published, and these are aglow with fire and
passion. Indeed, in their first editor's metaphor,
her phrases buru tbe paper on which they are
written.
Tlie famous Ltttrea were published in two volumes in
1809. Later editions are by J. Janin ( 1847 ) and Isambert
(1877). M. Charles Henry's Ltttres infilites (1887) were
mostly addressed to Coudorcet. The editor's introduc-
tion is much too high-i>itched. A justcr judgment will
be found in vol. ii. of Sainte-Beuve's Causeriei du Luiiji.
Lesseps. Ferdix.\sd, Vicomte de, engineer,
w,as born at Versailles, November 19, 180.5. Edu-
cated for the diplomatic profession, he filled suc-
cessive appointments at Lisbon, Cairo, Barcelona,
and Madrid. In 1854 he conceived bis great scheme
for cutting tbe Suez Caiuil, and in January 1856
he received a letter of concession from the Viceroy
of Egypt. Kobert Steiibenson and other English
engineers questioned tbe luacticability of the
scheme, but De Lesseps overcame all obstacles.
A com])any was formed, and tbe works were begun
in 1860. The great uiulertaking was completed
(see Canal, and SlEZ) in August 1869, the canal
being formally opened on 17tb November following.
The successful engineer was created K. C.S.I, by
t^ueen Victoria, ami received tlie honorary freedom
of tbe city of London in 1870. The Paris Societe
de Geograidiie awarded him 10,(KK) francs : he was
appointed a Grand Cross of the Legion of Honour;
and after the publication of bis History of the
Canal he was awarded 5000 ftjuics by the French
Academv. In 1873 the Paris Academy of Sciences
elected liini a free member, and in 1881 he was
elected president of tbe French Geographical
Society. In 1883 be sought to conclude an
590
LESSEPS
LESSING
anangement with the Britisli government for a
second Seuz Canal. Meanwhile, work ha<l begun
on his stupendous scheme for a I'anania Canal (see
Canai,, and Panama ), a scheme destined to issue in
disaster and disgrace. For in 1S92-03 the maiiage-
nient was charged with breach of trust, and live
directors were condemned — Lessees, now a broken
old man, to five years' imprisonment and a line,
as was also his .son Charles. The sentence was
ultimately quashed ; but he fell into dotage, and
died 7th December 1894. He wiote Uuciiineuts
pour scrcir i'l I'Histuirc dii Canal tic ^ucz (4 vols.
1875-79; trans. 187ti), a,ii<l SoiiDcnirx i/e Qnnrante
Alls (1SS7; trans. 1887). See books by Ferricr
(18S7), G. B. Smith (L'd. ed. 1895), Bridier (1899).
LessillS, GoTTHciLD Epukai.m, reformer of Ger-
man literature, wiis born, the son of the pastor of
Kanienz, in Saxony, on 22d January 1729. From
the school of St Afia, at Meissen, where he had
spent live years, he entered in 1746 as a theological
student at Leipzig. But, instead of studying
theology, he made haste to acouire a knowledge of
men and of the world, to polish his manners, to
learn bodily and social accomplishments, and to
improve his taste, and developed that strong,
manly independence which was always one of the
most striking traits in his character. Moreo\er,
he cultivated a love for the stage, and began to
write plays, mostly comedies, in the French style.
All this sorely grieved his strictly orthodo.x parents.
And yet, both at Meissen and at Leipzig, Xessin"
manifested an ardent thirst for knowledge and
truth ; he had great intellectual parts, and read
hard. But his mode of life at the university ran
him into debt — a state that was more or less chronic
to him throughout his life ; then in 1748 the theatre
was closed ; and he sufl'ered from an innate restless-
ness that never let him abide long in one place.
Accordingly, braving his father's serious dis-
pleasure, he Quitt(!d Leipzig, having resolved to
earn a li\ing by his jien, notwithstanding that the
calling of author was held in little or no repute.
After a few months' stay in AVittenberg, he
travelled to Berlin to join Mylius, a clever man,
but branded as a freethinker by the orthodox.
Along with him Lessing published Bcitraf/e ziir
Historic (Ics T/icaters (175(1), and independently
wrote plays, translated, did literary hack-work ;
but his cidef stay was the Vossischc Zcitung, to
whicli he contributed criticisms. He soon felt,
however, that he himself stood in need of greater
culture, and in the end of 1751 he withdrew to
AVittenberg to study at leisure ; at the same time
he pleased his father by taking his master's degree.
The result of his toil in the Wittenberg library was
a series of Viiii/iiyitiuns { 1751 ) of unjustly maligned
or forgotten writers, such iis Cardan, Lenuiius, iVc,
in which he gave bolil utterance to his strong love of
justice ami his scorn of narrow intolerance. Later,
in Eiii Vadcineciiin fill- Hcrrn S. O. Lanyc (1754)
he displayed as unrelenting an lio.stility to jire-
tentious and self-satislied ignorance. Keturning to
Berlin after a year's absence, he resumed his former
occupations. At this time too he became intimate
with Moses Mendelssohn, Nicolai, and Kander.
He also pulilislied four volumes of his colhicted
writings, and, along with Memlelssohn, an essay
on Pope, ciii ]ihtajjhi/in7:cr (1755). Hut he still
strove to make the tlieatre an engine of popular
culture : he wrote the tragedy 3Iiss Sara Saiiiji.iuii
(1755), in which he revolted against French
theatrical traditions in favour of English nioilel.s.
For dramatis pcrsomr he took jieople of tnidille-
cl;i>s life, and so carried on the movement begun
by Lillo, the dramatist, and Kichard.son, the nove-
list, in England, and by Diderot in France. Tlie
success of this work tempted Lessing back to the
theatre, reopened, at Leipzig ; but he only stayed
there a short time. In May 1756 he set off, as com-
panion to a young gentleman ( Winkler) of that city,
<in an extended tour ; but they had only reached
Holland when they were hastily summoned home
by the outbreak of the Seven Years' War. Lessing
then remained some time in Leipzig, to be near his
friend the jioet Ewald von Kleist.
In 1758 he was once more in Berlin, assisting
Mendelssohn and Nicolai to bring out a new
critical journal, Littcratiirbriefe. In the work he
did for tliLs publication Lessing takes a distinctively
higher place : he refu.ses any longer to sulmiit to
the degrading dictatorship of French literary ta.ste,
combats the inllated pedantry of the (lottsched
school, and extols Shakespeare above Corneille as
the hi'diest type of dramatic writer. In these
letters he displays most of the admirable (|ualities
of his mature style ; his insight is penetrating
and sure ; his manner vivacious, often ironical or
satirical ; his intellect is strong and logical, yet
supple, and works easily : and his language is clear,
forcil)le, and elegant. He always possessed the
power of making dry subjects interesting. From
November 1700 to the spring of 1705 Lessing
enlarged his knowledge of men Ijy acting as
secretary to (General \'on Tanentzien, go\erm>r of
Breslau. During these years he wrote two of his
greatest works, Laocoon (1766) and 31 i una von
Barnhdm (1767). The former is a critical treatise
defining the limits of poetry and the jilastic arts.
It affords an admirable illustration of Lessing's
critical procedure. He plunges at once into the
midst of the argunjent, takes up various \ie\vs one
after another, examines them, contrasts them,
searches and sifts lliem from all sides, and exhausts
upon them the lesources of the dialectical njethod ;
then out of what survives this intellectual contlict
he constructs his final conclusions. Yet the move-
ment of thought is simple, natural, and logical ;
we are led to <liscover the trutli by the .same paths
by which the author arrived at it originally. His
essays on the Fable (1759) and the E/ji'/rani
(1771) are both adnnrable instances of the same
method. The comedy Minna von Barn/iclm show s no
trace of imitation of foreign models : it is the first
national comedy of the Germans on the grand
scale, and is a great ad\ance on Lessing's early
dramatic efforts. After Frederick the Great had
refused to nominate him keeper of the Koyal
Library at Berlin, Lessing was glad to accej)! the
post of critic to the new national theatre at Ham-
burg in 1767. Out of thesi; new duties grew the
celebrated llainhargiscia' J)vainatiivf/ic (1769), in
■which he overthrew finally the dictatorship of the
French drama and worked out the thoughts that
had for many years bi'cn ripening in liis ndnd.
This theatre too soon faileil, and Le.ssing was again
left without fixed occupation. Y'et he was never
long idle, especially so long as there was error to
combat, and ignorance and pedantic vanity to ex-
pose. For, though a scholar himself, he always
regarded learning not as an end in itself, but as a
means : he always accounted truth superim- to
mere knowlcilge. He was n.aturally fond of dis-
jiutation, and .so we soon find him in the thick of
another controversy, this time with Klotz, a \oung
Halle professor. On this occ;usion he had a double
])urpose to serve — to defend his Laoroon and to
expose the inetensions of the men who set them-
selves up ius leaders of (ierman scholarship. The
chief fruits of this ccmlroversy from Lessing's pen
vare Brie/e anti(juarisclan /H/(f</<4- (1769) and iVie
die Allen den Tod ijehildrt ( 1769).
In October 1769 the Duke of Brunswick olfereil
Lessing the librarianship of the Woll'enbiiltel
library ; he accepted it and entered upon his liuties
in the following .May. Here at last lie settled for
good, and in 1770 married Eva Konig, the widow of
LESSON
LETTERS
591
a Hamburg merchant, but lost her after little more
than a year of happy married life. He at once
began to publish some of the less-known treasures of
the library in a series of volumes entitled Zur
Gcichif/tte iiiid Litteratiir (6 vols. 1773-Sl ). Hut in
177'2 he wrote the tragedy Emilia Gulotti, wliich in
spite of grave faults, notably the absence of dramatic
necessity for the catastrophe, is one of the greatest
tragedies in German literature, certainly the greatest
Lessing wrote. Shortly before his marriage he
carried out a long-cherished desire, by spending
eight months in Italy, though a;? companion to the
hereditary Duke of Brunswick. His hist veai-s were
occupied with theological controversies. In 1777 he
published the famous Wolfcnbiittdsclic Fragmcnte,
a rationalist attack on Christianity from the pen of
Keimarus (q.v. ). This book, wliich wa-s almost
universally attributed to Lessing, provoked a storm
of replies from orthodox Lutherans. The best of
Lessing's counter-attacks were the polemical Anti-
Goeze (177S), directed against his chief assailant,
and the tine dramatic poem, Xatliaii dcr Wcise
( 1779 ), one of the noblest pleas for tolerant humanity
ever penned. This last was supjdementeil by
Die Erziehung dcs Meitscltengcschlcchts (1780),
which is extremely rich in suggestive thought.
Le.ssing's last work was Ernst und Fcdk ( 1778-
80), five dialogues on freemasonry. He died loth
February 1781. The best edition of his Sdniml-
liihe Schriftoi is Lachmaun's, reissued by Muncker
in 1886 serj. His chief works have been often trans-
hiteil into English. 8ee Kont's Lasiiig ct rAuli-
ijiiite (1899) ; Lives hv Danzel and Gulnauer ('id
ed. 1880), Erich Schiiiidt (2il ed. 1889), Sime ( 1877),
Helen Zimmern (1878), and Kolleston (1889) — the
last three in English.
Lesson ( Lat. lectio ), a reading, especially a
portion of Scripture appointed to be read, as in the
Common Prayer-book. Tlie oldest Latin lection-
ary — a service-book, either containing the les.sons
for the year in full, or noting their beginning and
end — was called the Comes ('companion'), and
dates from the 5th century. The Roman Lection-
ary wiis remodelled in the Sth century. The
changes in the Anglican calendar of lessons were
sanctioned by act of parliament in 1871. Formerly
the lessons consisted invariably of full chapters — a
rule that was sometimes embarrassing, as in the
case of Act.s xxi. — but in the revised lectionary
they are frequently shortened and diti'erently
arranged ; also, nearly all the lessons from the
A]>ocrypha have been left out.
L'E.Strailge. Sir Kooer, a busy royalist pam-
phleteer under Charles II., was born at Hunstanton
in Norfolk in 1616. He narrowly escaped hanging
as a spy for a ])lot to seize Lynn in 1644, and was
instead imprisoned in Newgate, whence he escaped
after four yeai-s. Pardoned by Cromwell in 16.5.3
through personal entreaty, he lived quietly till the
Kestoration made him licenser of the press. He
carried out his functions rigorously, but it should
be remembered that such were his instructions. He
fought in all the quarrels of the time with a shower
of pamphlets, vigorous, and at least not coarser than
those of his antagonists ; and he holds a place in the
history of journalism by his successive papers. The
Public Intelligencer, The London Gazette, and The
Obserx-ator. In the intervals of controvei-sy he
showed that he was not without a taste for better
things by translating .'Ksop's Fables, Seneca's
Morals, Cicero's Offiirs, the Colloquies of Erasmus,
Quevedo's Visions, and Josephus. He died in
1704.
Le Sueiir, Elsiache, painter, was born in
Paris in 1617, and died there in 1655. The Louvre
pas.sesse8 3C religious pictures by him, and 1.3
mythological, the former including* his great series
of 20 paintings illustrating the life of St Bruno
( 1645-48), and his ' Preaching of St Paul ' ( 1649).
Letlie. in Greek mythology, the .stream of
forgetf Illness in the lower world, from which souls
ilrank before passing into the Elysiaii Fields, that
they might lose all recollection of eartlily .sorrows.
Letliington. See M.\itl.\ni).
LetO. See A I'l 11,1,(1.
Lettor of .lljirqilO (Fr. Icttre de marque,
'a commission to plunder;' cf. Littr^, iii. 4.56), the
commission authorising a privateer to make war
upon, or .seize the property of, another nation.
Letters of marque were abolished among European
nations at the treaty of Paris in 1856. See Pliiv.v-
TEER.
Letters are conventional marks or visible si''iis
of the elemental sounds of spoken language. The
earliest symbols of sounds represented syllables
rather than sini|)le sounds, and it was only gradu-
ally that syllables were reduced to their ultiiiiate
elements, all alphabets yet bearing marks of the
syllabary origin and displaying various imjier-
fections of e.xcess and defect. The distinction
between vowels ( ^uvotvTa and ^av-qevTa ) .and con-
sonants (Hfwva ypafx/iara) is as old as Platos
Crati/liis, but the earlier methods of classification,
which ofl'ered no definite line of demarcation,
have given place to a more scientific method and
more precise terminology. A consonant is the
sound or noise resulting when the breath is closely
squeezed or stopped at some part of the mouth or
breath passage. This passage has two outlets ;
one at the lips, the other at the nose. In the case
of some consonants the passage is closed at a given
point — e.g. at the lips in j>, l> : at the teeth in t,
d ; at the palate in /.-, ;/ ; while the nose-passage is
closed by the bottom ( iicida ) of the soft palate. In
the case of other consonants the passage is not closed
but only narrowed, and the breath sounds against
the narrow walls, as in /, s, ch, &c. The nose
channel is left open in pronouncing «, m. In the
case of vowels the breath is not checked or closely
narrowed at a given point, but passes freely
through the mouth-pa.ssage, aud they may be
classified according to the place of their articula-
tion in this passage owing to the horizontal or
vertical movements of the tongue. They nuiy
also be distinguished as open (or wide) and shut
(or narrow) ; in the latter there is more convexity
of the tongue and a sense of ettbrt in pronuncia-
tion. Consonants, again, are classified according to
the point in the mouth-passage at which they are
articulated. Furthest liack we have the gidtiiral
sounds, with articulation of the tongue and the
soft palate ( velum ), hence called the Velar
Gutturals, as tlie sounds of /.■ and g before the vowel
sounds a and o, ch in German nch, and ng in sing.
Further forward we lla^e the Pahitals, which
result from the contact of the tongue and lianl
palate, as k and g before c and /'. Next come the
Dentals, where the tongue, teeth, and front of
the palate are the instruments of articulation —
e.g. t, th, d, sh, r. The Labials, or lip-sounds,
are those which are formed eitlier by Ijotli the lips
or by the under li]i and upper teeth, ji, h, m,/, r.
Again, consonants m:iy also be cliussified acc<ird-
ing to the form of their articulation. When there
Ls a complete check or closure of the mouth ■pa.s.sage
at the point of articulation, consonants are called
Mutes or Stopped or Explosives, as k, g, t, d, j>, b.
The ancient grammarians divided mutes into Tenucs
and Mcdiir, the former including /,', t, j>, the latter
g, d, li. When the month-passage is narrowed but
not completely clo.sed at the jioint of articulation,
we have the Open or Fricative consonants, such as
r, »•, /, z, r, the last four of which are al.so called
Spirauts. When the passage is stopped iu the
592
LETTERS
middle but kept open at tlie sides, we Ijave a
Divided sound, such as /. AVlieu the nosepassage
is left open we have tlie Kanals m ami ii. N takes
its character from the nature of the nei^'lihourinj:
sounds — e.g. it is guttural in sink, but dental in
tent.
Again, consonants may be di\ided into Voiced
and Voiceless. The voiced or soft consonants are
pronounced with a vibration of the vocal clionls.
To this class belong the Nasals h, m ; the Liquids
I and r ; the Medi;e ij, d, h ; the Aspirated Media;
gh, dh, bh ; and the S|)irants z,j, i\ The Voiceless
or Surd consonants are the Tenues p, t, k, y, the
Aspirated tenues /•/(, th, ph, and the Spirants s,/.
There are some sounds which can play the jiart
of either consonants or vowels, as the Semi-vowels
/ and It. In the same way, m, n, i-, I between
voweis are purely consonantal, but before or after
consonants they can be vocalised or made sunaiit.
Besides all these difterent sounds we have the
introductory (jlidcs, represented by the smooth and
rough breatliings.
Such is the variety and complexity of the
different sounds which are attempted to be repre-
sented in the letters of alphabets. These, how-
ever, merely satisfy roughly jnactical needs, and
in no case represent all the sounds actually em-
ployed in any language. Accentuation, which is
an important element of speech, is rarelj' denoted,
and still more rarely is quantity. The alphabetic
symbols remain comparatively unchanged, while
the souiuls they represent are constantly changing.
Hence the literary spelling often corresponds but
inditlerently with the actual soiinds of tlie words,
and in English especially this has grown into so
heavy an additional burden on the memoiies of
learners tliat many scholars have been led to
advocate the adoj)tion of a seientilic jilumctic
system of spelling. Thus, in Knglish there are at
least forty-three easily distinguished sounds, ^^•hile
the written alphabet has only twenty-six letters
or symbols to repre.sent these. Again, our alphabet
is redundant, containing three superlluous letters,
c, q, X, so that there are actually Ijut twenty-three
letters wherewith to represent forty-three sounds !
Many persons amongst ourselves are unable to
pronounce certain letters, as / and ;• ; others change
r or / to d, and we observe that children foi' some
time habitually substitute dentals for "utturals, as
tat for cut, ti.'is for /./iw. This is iiuite distinct from
phonetic diversiru-alion which follows certain delin-
ite laws, the observation of which formed the basis
of scientific etymology. We find that some lan-
guages lack certain sounds which to us seem indis-
pensable. Thus, the Mohawks and Hurons em])loy
no labials ; the Society Islanders are destitute of
gutturals (the name of Captain Cook became Tutc),
and the Australian dialects of .v, as are also several of
the I'olynesian languages, where its place is taken
by h (cf. Lat. sal and (ir. hals). Again, d is never
used in Chinese, Mexican, or Peruvian ; n is absent
in the language of tlie Hurons ; and even in so per-
fect a languagi! as Sanskrit we have no /', no soft
sibilants, no short i; and u. Greek has no //, no
w, no soft sibilants : Latin has no soft sibilants,
no native 8, <P, x< English is deficient in guttural
breathings like the (lerman arh and ic/i, although
tliese are plentiful enough in Scotland. High (icr-
man has no w like the English w in wind, no t/i,
dh, eh, j. While Sanskrit has no /, Arabic has
no /A The letter y is absent in Finnish (despite
the name — given it by its neighbours), Lithuanian,
Tamil, Mongolian, and Burmese. No Chinaman
ever ju'onounces r, Christ being rendered Ki li ssi:
111. It is also absent in tlie language of the Hurons,
Mexicans, and Kallirs. Max Miiller gives the
following enumeration of the consonants in a few
alphabets : Hindustani has 48 consonants, of which
13 are classical Sanskrit aspirates, nasals, and
sibilants, and 14 Arabic lettei-s. Sanskrit has 37
consonants (or with the Vedic I and lli, 39);
Turkish, 32 (of which only 25 are really Turkish) ;
and Persian, 31 (of which 22 are really Persian, the
rest Arabic ). Arabic has 28 ; the Kattir ( Zulu ), 26,
besides the clicks. Hebrew has 23 : English, 20 ;
Greek, 17 (3 compound) ; Latin, 17 (1 compound);
Mongolian, 17 or 18; Finnish, 11 : Polynesian, 10
native consonantal sounds ; some Australian lan-
guages, 8; of the Melanesian languages the poorest,
the Duauru, has 12, others 13, 14, and more. Again,
some races find exceeding ditticulty in distinguishing
some of our sounds. Thus, the Sandwich Ishinders
habitually confuse /.■ and i, and we find the .same
word written by Protestant missionaries with k, by
French missionaries with t. Even in Canada the
lowei' classes say inikicr and itwikii for metier and
moitii. And even so respected a lexicographer as
Noah Webster actually says in the Introduction to
his Dictionary that in English the letters c/ are pro-
nounceil as if written tl, and (jl ius if dl.
Tlie foregoing is mainly taken from the following : J.
E. King and C. Cooksim's admirable Principles of Sound
and Iiiflexion (18iS8), tlieir Introduction to the Compara-
tirs Grammar of Greek and Luti7i (1890), and Max
Midler's Lectures on the Science of Lamiuaiie (2d series,
lect. iv. 1864). 8ee also the articles in the present work
on Alphabet, Guammae, Grijim's Law, Phonetics,
Spelling, and on each of the lettei's of the alphabet.
Letters forms one of the most delightful
branches of literature, and one moreover in which
English possesses abundance of the finest examples.
Most biographies that are now written contain the
letters of tlie hero, and these usually oiien up his
heart to the rea<ler far better than pages of descrip-
tion of his qualities ; while they also supply, by con-
scious or unconscious self-revelation, something of
tlie peculiar interest that belongs to autobiography.
But here may he remembeied tlie warning words of
Dr Johnson written d prujios of Pope: 'Tliere is no
transaction which oti'ers stronger temptations to
fallacy and sophistication than epistolary inter-
course. In the eagerness of conversation the first
emotions of the mind often burst (Uit before they are
considered ; in the tumult of business interest and
passion have their genuine ett'ect ; but a friendlj'
letter is a calm and deliberate performance in the
cool of leisure, in the stillness of solituile, and
surely no man sits down to deiireciate by design his
own character.' It is unlia]i]iily the fact that the
conditions of modern lite are generally unfavour-
able to the ]iroduction of letters of the best class,
which are the fruit of calm and ample leisure no less
than of sympathy. The railway, the iienny post,
the telegram, and the postcard have combined to
destroy letter-writing as a pursuit and an art.
There is nowadays scarcely such a thing as eurrc-
spoudcncc in its good old sense — what Southey calls
' perhaps the greatest gratification which the pro-
gress of civilisation has given us ; ' letters are only
written when necessary, and consequently are too
often completely impersimal and entirely uninter-
esting. Hence familiar letters, intimati^ and ca-sy
in tone, fluent and seemingly careless in style, have
almost disappeared, ami in their stead we have only
the ephemeral, bald, disjointi^il, essentially unliter-
ary, and it may even be ungrauimatical productions,
which, the moment their immediate purpose is
served, are straightway consigned to the extinction
for which they are lilted, and to which end indeed
they were designeil.
(.if letters Bacon says ' such as are written from
wise men are of all the words of man, in my judg-
ment, the best; for they are more natural than
orations and public speeches, and more advised
than conferences or present speeches. So again
letters of state from such aa manage them, or are
I
I
LETTERS
593
privy to them, are of all others the best instruc-
tions for history, ainl to a diligent reader the best
histories in themselves.' Undoubtedly this is true,
and the letters of such men as Cassiodorus, Crom-
well, Marlborough, Nelson, Washington, and Wel-
lington, as well as such vast collections as the Cecil
Correspondence, and the like, will remain documents
of the lii^t importance to the historian ; while the
theologian will never cease to count the epistles of
Gregory Xazianzen, Basil, Chrysostoni, Ambrose,
Augustine, and Jerome among the richest sources
available for a close study of the development of
doguia and the movement of ecclesiastical history.
Again, such collections as Pascal's Proiu'}i<:i'ct/
Letters, Swift's Drapiers Letters, and the Letters of
Junius only belong in a secondary sense to this de-
partment of literature, and lack the peculiar pereonal
charm that belongs to such letters as those of Cicero,
Horace Walpole, or Madame de Sevigne.
Of all the favourite letter-writers of the world
Cicero is both the earliest and remains almost the
greatest. More than 800 of his letters are extant ;
and all are natural, sincere, outspoken. The very
frankness of his vanity and an almost feminine
desire to please give a siugular pleasure to his
reailer ; and his own phrase in one of his letters —
' lit enim nescio quid ut quasi coram adesse videar
cum scribo aliquid ad te ' — reveals in a single sent-
ence the secret of hb perennial charm. And he
was singularly happy in a correspondent so sym-
pathetic and intelligent as Atticus, to whom alone
he sent as many as 400 lettei's, for Montaigne tells
us how the want of such a judicious and indulgent
friend to whom to address kept him from adopting
the epistolary method for publishing his whimsies
which otherwise he would have preferred. The
only other important Latin letter-writers are Seneca
ami Pliny, but the one ofi'ends by prosy and tedious
moralising, the other by a prolix and grandiose
manner that soon proves tiresome.
The Paston letters, over 1000 in number, are lucid
and unallectod and give us our best insight into
the inner domestic life of the loth century ; but the
earliest English letter-writer of high rank is James
Howell, whose Familiar Letters shared with Mon-
taigne the honour of being one of Thackeray's two
' bedside books.' Howell says ' familiar letters may
be called the larum bells of love,' and elsewhere
ailmirably describes his own compositions in the
sentence — 'that's a true familiar letter which ex-
presseth one's mind, as if he were discoursing with
the party to whom he writes, in succinct and short
terms.' Nowhere can we find more shrewdness,
wit, wisdom, and keenness of observation, all com-
bined with heartiness and sincerity ; none knows
belter how to brighten his page with a men-y quip
or a lively storj'.
15ut our greatest letter-writers remain but three,
or at most four : Cray, Horace Walpole, Cowper, and
Charles Lamb. Gray's work is fastidious, precise
perfect, but never laboured, and always completely
sincere. It suggests the finished scholar unbending
to please a friend, and the perfection is a consum-
mation that came of itself, unstudied and unsought.
Pope and IJolingbroke wrote for fame — their writ-
ing ever suggests an intellectual exercise, and even
the letters between Pope and Swift are never entirely
free from consciousness ; but Gray wrote for love,
and Ills letters, with those of Cowper and Chitrles
L-imb, stand by themselves. Horace Walpole said
of himself that he lived 'a life of letter-writing,'
and he remains pre-endnent alike in the number
and the remarkable felicity of his letters. He is
by turns gay, goorlhumoured, piquant, keen, sar-
ca.stic, but is always clever and often even genial,
although not seldom the reader detects the presence
of ellort and atl'ectation. Still, all defects apart,
judged in respect of both quantity and quality, aud
2as
of the extraordinary range of subjects handled, he
remains without a rival the prince of English letter-
writers.
Lady Mary Wortley Montagu's letters are
unusually lively, clever, and amusing, but are
marred by a constitutional indelicacy of tone as
W'ell as a vanity and a consciousness of skill that
will not hide. Chesterlield's letters to his natural
son show great shrewdness and powers of observa-
tion in a finished if over-elaborated style, but reveal
a iiioral meanness of view that stamps the linislied
man of tlie world as but a sorry gentleman. The
letters to his godson, written in later life, and first
published by the late Lord Carnarvon in USKO, show
a higher tone, but are poor performances if judged
from the point of view of letters written to a child.
The letters of Dorothy Osborne to Sir William
Temple are delightful bej'ond most ; those of Sir
William himself, so long admired as models of
serene and stately English, have ceased to interest
the modern reader. But Lady Kachel Russell's
lettere, the apologetic scraps written by Steele to
his wiie Prue, and Swift's letters to Stella preserve
a charm that defies the touch of time. Other 18th-
century letters of interest are those of Mrs Delaney,
covering half a century, Fanny Burney, Miss Berry,
one of Walpole's later correspondents, and Harmah
More. Dr Johnson's letters are always admirably
vigorous and direct, and one at least is among the
most memorable things in English literature ; but
he never put his strength into this form, anil indeed
disliked to write freely in letters from the after-use
that might be made of them. Jane Austen's letters
are not characteristic of her unique genius; Burns's
are artificial aud disappointing ; Sterne's mawkish
and unreal ; Goldsmitlis good, but few and unim-
portant. But the century closes well with the in-
imitable masterpieces of Cowper, throughout full of
tenderness, grace, vivacity, wit, and sense.
Of 19th-centuiy letters the characteristic ex-
amples of Charles Lamb stand first. Even the
slightest show the peculiar charm of his touch,
and all are stamped with the sign-manual of genius.
Scott's letters are hearty, genial, and honest;
Byrou's clever, trenchant, aud somewhat unreal.
There are many good letters of Southey, Crabbe,
Sydney Smith, Leigh Hunt, De Quincey, Lockhart,
^iacaulay, Dr Arnold, Hood, Washington Irving,
Emerson, Carlyle, Lady Dull' Gordon, and Kuskin.
Thirlwall's Letters to a Friettd, and Thackeray's
Letters, published in 1887, are unusually good
collections. Shelley is an author not yet judged
sensibly by either set of readers, but it is enough
to say of his letters that they are neither so much
above his poetry as ]\Iatthew Arnold would place
them nor as far below it as they ajqicar to Mr
Swinburne. The letters of Mary Godwin to Imlay,
written towards the close of the ISlb century, are
deeply interesting; those of Keats to Fanny
Brawne do injustice to the memory of a sovereign
poet, and should never have been printed. But
indeed the love-letter is almost always a flower
that will not bear being plucked from the stalk
on which it grew, and those that are nowadays too
often read aloud in breach-ofpromise cases are
almost always as unreal as the shortlived passion
that inspireil them. Of later 19th-century English
letters none stand out greater than those of Mrs
Carlyle an<l Edward I'it/gcrald, which have indeed
already been lifted into the rank of the English
classics in this kind.
Of German letter-writers it may be enough to
name Schiller, (Joethe, and Humboldt ; of French,
\'oiture, Madame de Maiiilinon, Mailame du Def-
fand, Sainte-Bcuve, (Jeorgc Sand, .Mcrimce, and the
unapproachalile luime of Ma<lame de Sevigne. The
sovereign quality of this great letter-writer is her
naturalness and goodness of heart, combined with
594
LETTERS
LETTUCE
an unmatclied facility of sympathetically realising
the emotiimal e.\|)eriences of others, and of adilini^
reality and life to everything; she tonelied. None
ever possessed in richer measure the woman's gift
of that warmer interest in the smaller commerce of
life, and that aptitude for treating social or pulilic
matters from the ]irivate .ind personal point of
view which give half their charm to the Icttei-s of
women. She tells her daughter, to whom she wrote
with overllowing atlection for twenty live years,
that she lets her pen ' run on and take its own
way. ... I commence always without knowing
how far I shall go; I know not whether my letter
will he long or short.' Horace Walpole says of her,
' She h ,s tlie art of making you acquainted with all
her acquaintance, and attaches you even to the spots
she inhabited.' There is no writer whose inherent
foodness has been repaid with a warmer love than
ladame <le Sevigne, or whose supremacy upon an
intellectual throne is less likely ever to be shaken.
The EnglLsh reader will find the form of the ancient
Roman letter in the example preserved in Acts xxiii. The
modern Englisii letter differs from the older only in being
somewhat less ceremonious and less varied in form. Tlius,
*sir' alone was once nearly miiversal as the form of ad-
dress, but is now considered cold. Again, ' bonoirred sir'
and ' respected sir ' have almost disappeared, and un-
happily also such beautifiU forms as * heart ' and ' sweet-
heart.' Howell often ends with 'yours inviolably,' 'yours
entirely,' ' yours in no vulgar way of friendship ;' Horace
"Walpole says * yours very mucii,' ' yoiU"S most cordially,'
and once, to Hannah More ui 1789, 'yours more and more.'
Puritan writers often used forms strange to modem ears,
such as ' yours in the bowels of Christ.' Ba.\ter in his
certamen epistolare with Peter Heylin delightfully sub-
scribes hunself ' yours in so far as you are for the truth.'
In earlier times it was customary to add on the outside
directions to tlie bearer, as ' Haste, ba^te,' and in otficial
lettei-s even such pointed provocatives of speed as ' Hide,
ride, for your life.' Underlining is a detestable practice,
equivalent to a confession of weakness in being forced to
borrow sti-ength from adventitious aid, and crossing is a
device happUy practised by but few men at least, although
it had its use in days of dear postage. Many, however,
indulge in a postscript, without which it is said no lady's
letter is complete.
The earliest guide to letter-writing extant is Angel
Day's Ewjlisli Hecntary (15U9). Ajiother, by Gervase
Markham, is entitled Conceited Letters ; or a most Excellent
Bundle of New WU (11)18). Forms of letters, with much
else, were also given in the popular Academic of Compli-
ments (1071). Of such books there is now great abund-
ance ; but, while occasionally helpful, they are by no
means an unmixed blessing, being no doubt responsible
for many ridiculous j)hrases that are in too conunon use.
But to them the world owes the masterpieces of Richard-
son, who, in his labours upon a guide to correspondence,
discovered tliat he could write novels that could melt
the hearts of the women.
See W'iUiam Roberts, History of Letter -mnting, from
the Earliest J'criod to the Fifth Ccntur// ( 1S43) ; Charles
Knight, Naif-hours with the best Letter-writers aiidAuto-
hiot/rapkcrs (two series, lS(i7-08); George Seton, Gossip
about Letters and Letter-writers (1870); W. IJaptisto
Scoones, Four Centuries of Enr/tish Letters (1880) ; and
Robert Cochrane, The BritUh Letter-writers (ISS'i). The
two last books are excellent collections, full, yet adnnrably
selected. There is a collection of Love Letters of Famous
Men ant Wuiin n of Past and Present Centuries {'2 vtil^.
1888 ) by Mr Merydew. The copyright of letters remains
with the writer (see COPVKIUHT).
Letters. For Lettei-s Patent, see Paten T.S ;
for Letter of .Vttorney, see Attouxey.
Letter-wood. See Buead-nut.
Lettre.s de Claeliet, the name given to the
famous warrants of imprisimment issued hy the
kings of France Ijefore the Itevolutioii. All roy.il
letters (letircs roi/ati.r) were either Icttres paleutrs
or let' Ks de car/ict. Tin; former were o|ien, signed
by the l.ing, and countersigned hy a minister,
and liad the great seal of state ai>pended. Of
this kind were all oidinances, grants of privilege,
&c. Hut these checks on arbitrary power did
not exist with regard to lettres de cachet,
also called lettres c/o.vc.v, or sealed letters, which
were folded up and sealed with the king's little
seal (ceiclict), and hy which the royal pleasure was
made known to individuals or to corporations
and the administration of justice was often
interfered with. The use of lettres de cachet
became much more frequent after the accession of
Louis XIV. than it had been before, and it wa-s
very common for ])ersons to he arrested ujion such
warrant, and cla|)ped into the Ihustille (c|.v.) or
some other state-juison ; where smne ot tliem
remained for a very long time, and scune for life,
either because it was .so intended, or, in other
cases, because they were forgotten. It was not
always for political reasons that lettres de cachet
were obtained ; sometimes private pei-sons got
troublesome members of their families hrcnight to
reason in this way. The lieutenant-general of the
police ke]it forms of lettres de cachet ready, in
which it was only necessary to insert the name of
the indiviilual to be arrested. Sometimes an arrest-
ment on lettres de cachet was a resource to shield
criminals from justice.
Letts* a hratich of the Lithuanian race, who in
manners, customs, aud nuxle of living do not dill'er
much from the Lithuanians jiroper. They live in
south Livonia, in Courland, and Vitebsk, and in
the north of Kovuo in Itussia, and number about
1, '200,000 i)ersons. Early converted to Christianity
by the Teutonic Knights, they are now mostly Luth-
erans, though some 50,000 have been won o\er to
the Greek Church. All are peasant agriculturists ;
since the abolition of serfdom they have uuule
remarkable progress, both socially and intellectu-
ally. Their language is not so archaic as Lithuan-
ian ; but they posse.^ valuable treasures of juqudar
poetry, proverbs, riddles, ivrc. See I'hnann, Lcltinrhe
Volkslicder (1874), and iiielenstein. Kin Tdusoul
Lcttische Eutsel ( ISSl ) ; also Von Dorneth, Die
Lcttcn unlcr den Deutxehen ('2d cd. 1887), and C. F.
AVatson, Uebcr den Icttischcii VvHsstaiiim (IS'22).
Lettuee (Lactaea), a genus of plants belong-
ing to the natural order Composita-, sub-order
Ciehorace;e. The Garden Lettuce (X. .satirit) is
supposed to he a native of the East Indies, but is
not known to exist anywhere in a wild ^tate, and
from remote antiijuity has been cultivated in Kun)|)e
as an esculent, and particularly as a sahul. It has
a leafy stem, oblong leaves, a s])reading, llatto]ii)ed
panicle, somewhat resembling a c(M'yinb, with yellow
Howers, ami a fruit without margin. It is now
generally cultivated in all parts of the Morld where
the climate adndls of it ; and there are many
varieties, all of which may, however, he regarded
as sub-varieties of the Cos Lettuce and the
Cabbage Lettuce, the former having the leaves
nmre oblong and ui>right, requiring to be tied
together for blanching— the latter with rounder
leaves, which spread out nearer the ground, and
afterwards hi}ll or roll together into a head like a
small cabliMge. The lettuce is ea-^y of iligotiou,
gently laxative, and moderately nutritions. The
white .and somewhat naicolic milky juice of this
plant is inspissated, and used under the name of
LaHitcariam or 'I'hriiltirc as an anodyne, sedative,
opiate medicine. The best and most useful kind
ot this juice is obtained by making incisions in the
dowering stems, ami allowing the juice which
Hows to <lrv <ipon them. In uiihl winters lliey
may be kept reaily for planting out in spring.
The other species of this genus exhibit nothing
of the bland quality of the garden lettuce. The
Strong-scented J.ettuce (L. virosci) is distin-
guished hy the prickly keel of the leaves, and
LEUCADIA
LEUKAS
595
by a black, smootli seed, with a rather broad
niar;j;iii. It is found in some ^larts of liiil^iin.
Lacliiairiitiii, is prepared from its fresh^'alhcrcd
leaves in the lloweriuj; season. The U'aves have
a strong and nauseous, uarootio and opium like
smell. L. percitiiU adorns with beautiful bhic
llowera the stony declivities of mounUiiusaiid clefts
of rocks in some parts of Germany, as in the Harz,
&c., but is not a native of Britain, whicli, however,
posses.ses one or two otlier species in (lualities
resembling L. virosa.
LeiK'adia. See Leukas.
Leiu'litonbers. See Beaiii.\kn.\i.s.
Leucine, or Amido-capkoic Aciu, a pro-
duct of the decomposition of albumincms materials
occurrinj; in many of the juices of the aiiinial body :
formula CjIIiiO.NH,. A substance isomeric, hut
not identical, with uatural leucine can he prepared
artilitially.
LeUcippiISa the founder of the Atomic School
of Greek philosophy, and forerunner of DemiK'ritus
(q.v), was born in Abdera, and llourLshed ill the
be^^inninj; of the tith century B.C.
LeiieiseilS, a j;enus of fresh-water fishes, of
the family Cyprinid^, containini,' a ^'reat number
of species, anmng which are the Koach, Dace,
Chub, Minnow, &c.
Leiieite (Gr. leukos, 'white'), a rock-forming
mineral which occurs in the form of icositetrahedra
belonging to the cubical system. It has a hard-
ness = 5 J - 6, and a specific gravity = 245 - 250.
The colour is white, a.sh-gray, or smoke-gray. It
usually contains many inclusions, such as (divine,
augite, and other minerals, together with glass
enclosures, gii-s-bubbles, and occasionally fluid
lacuna'. Unlike culiical minerals, it exliibiis a cer-
tain ilegree of double refraction, believed to he due
to conditions of unequal tension existing within
the crystals. When exposed to a temperature
of 500" C the crystals become perfectly isotropic.
Leucite occurs only in volcanic nx-ks, and those
in which it occurs have a restricted distribution.
Leiiekart, Ri'Dolf, zoologist, was Ijorn 7th
October 182'J at Helinstadt, and studied at Gottin-
ilGn. In 1S5*) he became professor of Zoology at
Gies.sen, and in 1S(J9 at Leipzig; he specially dis-
tinguished himself by his study of the Entozoa.
His great work is The Piinisites of Man { Eng. trans,
by Hoyle, 188H). He died 6th February ),S!)H.
LeiK'OCytheillia (Gr. leukos, 'wh'iie,' eytos, 'a
cell,' and luKiiiii, ' blood') is a disease in which the
number of white corpuscles in the blood is greatly
increased, while there is a simultaneous diminution
of the red corpuscles. The disease was noticed
almost at the same time (in 184.5) by .loliu Iluglies
liennett of Edinburgh an<l Virchow of Wiirzhurg;
the former giving in 1852 the name l.eucucythwmia,
while the latter gave it in 18-47 the less expressive
name of Leuhemia or Wliile lilooil. The increase
of the white or colourless cor|JUscdes seems to be
always accompanied, and pniliably causeil, by
changes in some of the lym]dialic tissues of the
hotly. Of thi'se by far the most common Is en-
largement of the spleen, which sometimes attains
an enormous size. In many cases this is as.sociated
with eidargement of lymphatic glands, and less
commonly with a peculiar change in the marrow
of the bones ; and occa.sionally one or both of
these conilitions may be present without enlarge-
ment of the spleen.
The first symjitom usually noticed by the patient
is enlargement of the abdomen, in coiiseinK'nce of
the increase in size of the spleen. Weakness,
breath lessness, hii-morriiages in various situations,
an<l often enlargement of the liver succeed ; and
the dLsease almost always proves fatal in two or
three years at iiu>st. It may occur at any age ;
but is most common between twenty and fifty, and
in the male .sex. Nothing is known as to its cause,
except that a considerable proportion (one lifth or
more) of those atl'ected have at .some previous time
sullercil from ague. Treatment seems sometimes to
have proved eflectual in the early stages ; cases have
been recorde<l where iiuinine, iiliosidiorus, cod-liver
oil, iodide of iron have arresteil what appeared to be
1 commencing leucocytbemia. I!ut after the diseiise
i is fully established all treatment has as yet pruveil
unavailing.
LeiH'ol, C^HyN, is au organic base olitaiued
by the distillation of coal-tar, and is isomeric with
<|uiiioHne.
LeiK'Ollia is the term applied to a wliite
ojiacity of the cornea (see Eye). It is the result
ot acute inllamnuUion, giving rise to the formation
of cicatricial tissue <m the ulcerated surface, or
between the layers of the cornea. It is sometimes
re-absorbed on the cessation of the inllammation,
and the cornea recovei-s its transparency; but in
many eases it is persistent and incurable.
LeucorrllOPa (Gr. leukos, 'white,' and rheo,
' I How ' ), ])i)pularly called vltit.rs, is the name
ai)plied to an abnormal mucous or muco)iurulent
discharge from the female generative organs. It
is a prominent symptom in many foruis of female
disease ; and the treatment must Ije directed to the
morbid condition on which it depends. Antiseptic
or astringent vaginal douches are generally of use
in diminishing the excessive secretion and the
annoyance caused by it.
Leiictra« a village of Bo'otia, in ancient Greece,
famous for the great victory which the Thebaus
under E|>amiuondas (([.v.) here won over the Spar-
tan king Cleombrotus (371 li.C).
Leilk (Fr. Loiche], a town (])op. 1411) in the
Swiss canton of Valais, on the right liank of the
Khone, 15 miles above Sion. It is the railway
station, on the Simplon railway, for the But/is of
Leuk (4U43 feet above sea-level), situated 5 miles
northward at the hejul of the Dala gorge and the
foot of the ascent over the Genimi pass. At this
hamlet of O.JO inhabitants there are lodging-houses
and hotels for the accommoilation of jiatients and
tiavellers. The springs have a high temperature
(1"2-1'-199' F. ), are saline, chalybeate, and sul
phureims, and are used both for ilrinking and bath
ing, chielly in skin and stomachic diseases. The
patients (mostly J'rench, Swi.ss, and Italians) le
main many hours in the water, talking, reading,
iv;c. See guide-books by Brunner (0th cd. 1887),
Wolf ( I8sa), and Von Werra ( 1886).
Leiika.s. Leucadia, or Santa Maura, one of
the Ionian Islands, lies close to the west coast of
Greece ; about 660 B.C. the Corinthians cut through
the peninsula that joined it to the mainland. It
resembles the Isle of Man in shape, and is "20 miles
long by 8 wide, with an area of 110 stj. m. The
backbone of the island is a riilg<; of white lime-
stone ; bcnci' the name (leukos, 'white'). \\'ine,
olive-oil, and currants are the principal pKjducts.
The island is much subject to earthi|Uakes. I'op.
'25,0(K), cliielly (iiceks. The west coast is bold and
preciidtous. and terminates south in the alirupt
headland (•2(K) feel) known to the ancients as the
Leucadian rork. on wbich stood a temple to .\pollo,
and from wliicli oni'c a year a crijiiinal was bulled
into l\w sea liy way of sicrilice. It was from the
same point that Sappho, the poetess, and .-\rtenMsia
of Ilalicarnxssus threw themselvc^s into the waves.
— The capital, .-Vmaxichi or l,eukas, on tlu; east
coast, is the seat of an archbishop, and has a
population of 3800. It was nearly de-troyeil iiy
an carthipiake in 18'2.j. \'enice was mostly mistress
59G
LEUTHEN
LEVEN
of this island from 1684 to 1800 ; it was occiii)ied
liy Hritiiiii in ISIO. See IONIAN Islands; also an
in'oount of the island by Paitsch in K>y(i>izuu(/s-
hi'/t, 9j, to I'ctennanns Mittcilumjcn (1889).
Lcntbeili a village of Prussia, in Lower Silesia,
10 miles AV. of IJreslau, celebrated for the victory
won there, .5tli December 1757, by Frederick the
(ireat, witli .'54,000 men, over the Austrians under
Prince Charles of Lorraine at the head of 90,000.
The Austrians lost 10,0110 killed and wounded,
12,000 jirisoners, and ll(j pieces of artillery; the
Prussians, 6500 killed and wounded. The result
was the reconquest of the greater part of Silesia by
the Prussians.
Leiltzo, Em.\nuel, painter, was born at
Graiind, in Wiirtemberg, in 1816, was brought
up by his parents in America (at Philadelphia
and at Fredericksburg, Virginia), and afterwards
studied and ])ainted in Europe from 1841 to 1859,
his home for fourteen years being at Diisseldorf.
He settled in New York city in 1859, and died at
Washington, 18th July 1868. His works include
three scenes from the life of Columbus, .several
from English history, and a number depicting
events in the war of the Kevolutiou, including
'Washington crossing the Delaware.' One of his
last works was the ' Westward Ho ' mural picture
for the staircase of the capitol at Washington.
Lcuwcuhoek. See LEEi\vf;NHOEK.
Levaillaut. Fr.VNCOIS, traveller and ornitho-
logist, was born in 1753 of French parents living
at Paramaribo, in Dutch Guiana. In 1777-80 he
studied natural history in Paris, and then spent
more than two years in exploring the southern
parts of South Africa (1781-84). His death
occurred at Sezanne, south of Epernay, on 22d
November 1824. He published accounts of two
of these e.xjieditions, not altogether free from
imaginative details and exaggerations, under the
title Voi/tiffcs daits riiiUricur de I'Afriquc ( 1 790-96 ).
Several books by him on birds are marred hy the
same faulty tendencies ; those on African binls, on
the new and rare birds of America and India, and
on paroquets are the most valuable.
Levant ( from the Ital. Lcvuiitc, the 'Orient,'
or 'Rising' — i.e. the East), a name employed to
designate the eastern parts of the Mediterranean
Sea and the coast regions of Syria, Asia Minor,
and Egypt. In a wider sense, it is applied to all
the regions eastward from Italy, as far as the
Euphrates and tlie Nile. — f.eniii/iiies is a name
given to per.sons mainly of Krank extraction born
in Turkey and the towns <if the Levant. — Levanter
is a stormy wind blowing up the Mediterranean
from the Levant.
Lev^C the French name, u.sed also on the
Lower Mississippi (q.v.), for an embankment.
Lev'ce, originally a reception held in the mon-
arch's bedchamlier at the hour of rising (Fr. Iccer).
See Court, Pkivshntation at.
liCVcllt'rs. an ultra-republican sect or ]iartv
which became noticeable in the ]>arliamcntary
army in 1647, and two years later produced a
formiilable mutinous outbreak. Tlie chiitf leader
was .lolin Lilburne (1618-57), who, whipped and
imprison(Ml by the Star Chamber in 1638, bad risen
in the army to be lieutenant-colonel. He became
an indefatigable agitator; thought t^romwell's re-
])ublic too aristocratic, and ilemanded greater liberty
of conscience anil numerous ]>arlianientary reforms ;
and was repeatedly imiirisoned for the trejison in his
jiamphlets. A jiart of the army mutinied in April
1649 in support of lik(! views, and soon there were a
thou.-iind insurgiMils, wlio were speedily surrounded
near London and forced by Cromwell into surrender.
Similar risings elsewhere were also swiftly dealt
with.
Levelling. Level is a term ap]ilied to sur-
faces that are parallel to that of still water, or
perpendicular to the direction of the iilumb-line ;
it is also applieil to the instrument employed
in determining the amount of variation from per-
fect levelness. The instrument is a cylindrical
glass tube very slightly convex on one; side, and
so nearly filled with water, or. what is better, with
alcohol, that only a snuill bulible of air remains
inside. The level is then mounted on a three or
four legged stand, with its convex side upwards,
and by means of a pivot and elevating screws is
made ca|iable of assuming anj- required position.
If the level be properly constructed the bubble
should lie exactly in the middle of the tube when
the instrument is properly adjusted, and at the
.same time the line of sight of the telescojie attached
to the level should be accurately ])arallel to the
surface of still ^^ater. In ordinary levels this
lirst condition is seldom seen, and, instead, two
notches are made on the glass to mark the position
of the two extremities of the bubble when the
instrument is level. The tube and bubble should
be of considerable length to ensure accuracy. The
leveller requires two assistants, each furnished with
a pole from 10 to 14 feet higli, and graduated to
feet and inches, or feet and tenths of feet. If he
wishes to measure the height of A above B, he
may do this by beginning either at A or B. Let
the latter be the case : then one assistant is placed
at B, holding his pole upright ; the other is sent
forward to C (which nnist be below the level of the
tojiof the pole at B); the surveyor, who places him-
self between them, reads oil' the height B/<, which he
puts down in the back-sight column of his book, and
then turns the level to C, reading ollC/«, which is
entered in the front-sight column. The surveyor
and his assistant at B then take u]) n(^w po.sitions,
the latter at D; the backsight i'c and tne front-
siglit D« are rea<l oil', aiul the juoces-s is repeated
till one of the a.ssistants reaches A. The e.xce-ss of
the sum of the back-sights over that of the front-
sights gives the height of A above 15. A little con-
sideration shows that this method only holds true
when pra('ti.sed on a small scale, and ccmseirnently
in extensive surveys the level (ius found by the
above method) must be reduced by an allowance
for the earth's curvature. See works by F. W.
Simnis(1884) and T. llolloway (1887).
Leveil. a small seaiiort and police-burgh (1867)
of Fife, on the Firth of Porth, at the mouth of the
river Leven, 11 miles bv rail NE. of Kirkcaldy.
Pop. (1841) 1827: (188i) .3568; (1891) 4577. A
good golf-links adjoins the town.
Leveil, Locil, a saltwater loch, between
Argyll and Inverne-ss shires, extending lU miles
westward to a junction with Loch Linidic, near
Itallachulish, and broadening to 24 niilcs. Its
scenery is savage, and the How and ebb of the tide
very strong. See also LucULEVKM.
LEVER
597
Fig. L
Lever. ^t> inflexible roil— straight or bent, as
the ca«e may be — supported at some point of its
length on a prop which is called the fulcrum, and
having a resistance to be overcome ami power to
overcome it applied at other two points. The
general principle governini; levers ot all sorts is
that the power and the
resistance mnst tend to
produce opposite rotations
round the fulcrum, and
that their monient.s — the
product of either of them
into the shortest distance
between the line of the
direction of its applica-
tion and the fulcrum —
must be numerically
equal ; or, in other words, the power and the re-
sistance are in the inverse ratio of their resjiective
shortest distances from
the fulcrum. When this
is the case there is equi-
librium ; when either
' moment " predominates
Fig. 3. there will be rotation.
These conditions may be
fulfilled whether the power P, the fulcrum F, and
the resistance W stand in the order PFW, PWF,
or WPF ; and hence levers are popularly divided
into three classes. In the
first class (PFW)— fig. 1
for a straight lever, fig. 2
for a bent one, equivalent
to a straight lever since P
and W are parallel — we
and he is thus able to exert his fnll muscular
strength.
Af have the Balance (q.v.),
the spade (when used for
raising earth ), the seesaw ;
I or, as (louble levei-s, scissoi-s
and pincers. In the second
Fig. 3. class (PWF, fig. 3) we
have crowbars ( P the hand,
W the resistance of the body pushed, F the ground ),
hoat-oars ( P the hands, W at the rowlock, the
resistance of tlie boat, F the comparatively fixed
position of tlie oar-tip in the water), wheelbarrows;
and, as double levei-s, nutcrackers ( P the hand, W
the nut, F the hinge). In the third chiss (WPF,
fig. 4) we have fishing-
rods, whips, umbrellas,
and most instruments used
with the hand alone, and
coal- and sugar-tongs ; and
many instances in the
muscular system — e.g. the
biceps muscle and fore-
arm of man (fig. 5), his
^^W deltoid muscle and
^^ shouliler, the pectoral
Fig. 4. muscle and wing of birds.
Levei-s of the third class
always work at a mechanical disadvantage as
regards power ; but what is lost in power is gaineil
in speed and range of nmvemcnt — e.g. the biceps
mu.'icle, since CA, fig. 5, is about one sixth of tlio
distance between tlie elbowjuint and tlie palm of
the hand, must exert a 6 lb. pull on A in onler to
raise a 1 II). ma-ss in the hand (setting ivside the
weight of the forearm it~sclf ). Levers of the second
order always act at a mechanical .'ulvantage as
regards power; and in those of the first order a
given pressure may overcome a greater, an ei|ual,
or a less resistance, according to the ratio of the
arms. A subsidiary advantage of levers of the
.second order Is that when a man lifts weiglit by
one of the first order liis power is limited to his
own weight hung on the lever, whereas with one
of the second order his push or pull is upward,
When a large mechanical advantage is required
this may be obtained, without using bai-s inordin-
ately long, by means of a conibiuation of tlieni
(as m fig. 6). Here the levei-s have their arms in
the ratio of .S to 1, and a little consider.ation will
make it plain that a power, P, of 1 lb. will balance
the weight of 27 lb. But in this instance the
particular defect of the lever as a mechanical
power shows itself prominently ; for if the "27 Ui.
Fig. 6.
mass has to be lifted two inches, the power
requires to act downwards through (2 x 27 or)
54 inches ; and, as the extent of sweep of the
power cannot be largely increased without incon-
venience, the advantages of this contrivance are
confined within narrow limits.
Lever, Charles, a jiopular novelist, chietly
remembered for the rollicking fun of his Irish
stories, was born in Dublin, 31st Augtist 1H06.
He graduated at Trinity College, Dublin, in IS27,
and then removed to Gottingen, where he studied
medicine, and sulisequently returned to Dublin to
complete his academic career. His most popuLar
work, Charles 0'MaUe>i, is a reflex of his own col-
lege life in Dublin, and many of the incidents in
the novel, as in many of his late productions, are
drawn from his own experiences of the world. Prob-
ably in 1824, and certainly at .some time between
1S27 and I8.'i2, he spent a considerable time in the
b.ackwoods of Canada and Xorth .-\merica, and
subsequently eniliodiod his experiences in Can
Cregan undArthur V'Lrdnj. Keturned to Ireland,
he practised medicine first at Kilrush in County
(iahvay, and afterwards at various other country
towns, collecting material for his stories of Irish
country life. Having married a Miss Baker, he
went in 1837 to piactise medicine at Brussels, and
while there wrote llarnj I.orrequer, and afterwards
Charles 0'Ma//eit for the Dtibliii I'liicersih/ Ularfii-
zine, then recently started. Heturning to Dublin,
he published Jarl; lliiiton in 1841, and from 1S4'J
to 1845 acted iis editor of the Dublin Unicersitij
Magetzine, and wrote Nuts and Xutcraekers, Arthur
G'Learij, Tuiii Ihirke. of Ours, and The O'Douoghuc.
In 1845 lie again went oil' to the Continent, going
first to Brussels, then to lionn .ind t'arlsrulie,
where he liveil for siime time, and pulilishcd the
Knight of (iiri/nne. He then moved cm to Florence,
and wrote Jiolanil Cashel, anil thence to Spez/ia,
where f.uttrel of Arran, Con Cregan, Sir Jasper
598
LEVERET
LEVITA
Carcir, ami The Dodcl Fcimilii Abroad were pio-
(lueeil ill rapid sucei'ssion. Tlieii, siuiilenly and
completely elianfrinf; his style, lie wrote tlie
Fortunes of Glencore, follinveil liy a tnily liisli
story, 'I'hc Martitts of I'm-Miirfhi. ami 'J'/ie
Daltnu.i, the hero of which is an Enfjlislmian
travelliii;; on the Continent. Lever wivs then,
in 185'2, appointed liy l^ord Derhy to he British
vice-consul at Sjiezzia, ami continued to write,
pulilishins l>iwnijmrt Dinni, One of Them, Geraltl
yUzfienild, Sir liniol.e Fvshnnihe, Tliid liojl of
Noreritt.'i, and contrilmting some racy ]iapers to
Blac/.wunii'ti Mitgetzhie under the sohriipiet of ' Cor-
nelius O'Dowd.' On May 2, 1867, he was promoted
hy his old ]iatron Lord i>erl>v to the consulslii]) at
Trieste, where he died 1st June 187"2. Lever's later
hooks, tlioiiL;!! marked hy j^reater care and more
thonjiht than those of the Lfjrreqner school, ami
even that strange and hrilli.ant composition entitled
A Daifs Hide, are alrea<ly dead ; and it is only hv
his hrilliant and racy sketches of a phase of Irisli
life which was passinj; away even as the sym-
pathetic young chronicler caught its features
that Lever still lives, and may continue to live
when Ireland is as dull as Lincolnshire ami as
(U'deily as Claphani. Lever's wandering life on the
continent of Europe, and especially in Helginm,
where he fell in with a great iiumher of Peninsular
and Waterloo officers, and collected a vast store of
traditions of the great hattles and of those who
fought them, gives an additional zest to many of
his books. They are all something more than mere
sketches of rollicking in Ireland, and their boister-
(Mis fun is relieved, and even retined, hy constant
changes of scene, the rellex of J,ever's own wander-
ing and wayward life, and of his own restless
genius.
One unfortunate result of Lever's novels has been
to create a false idea of Irish society, and still more
of the Irish character. The Irish of to-d.ay at least
are singularly unlike those ]>ortrayed in the novels
of the O'Miillei/ type, and, much as the social con-
ditions of the country have altered in the last
sixty years, a great deal of what was carelessly
dashed off by Lover, .and which at any time w,is
but brilliant caricature, has U'en curiously enough
accejited by most of his readers as an accurate
reinesent.ation of life in Ireland. Apart from his
powers as a writer. Lover was one of the most
iirilliant conversationalists and one of the most
.agreeable companions of his tinie ; a striking per-
sonality, lie w.is at home everywhere, knowing
everybody, a welcome guest in all societies and in
.all countries. The only ]iiiblished .authority for
Lever's life is a poor memoir by l''itzpatrick ( 187!) :
new ed. 189(i). See also Satnrdm/ Ilcricie, vol.
lxi.\. p. 743.
Leveret, the young of the hare during the first
year of its age.
Leverrier. TTrhain .Ii;.\n .lo.sKrn, a great
Krencb astronomer, Wius born .at St Lo, in Niu'-
mamly, 11th Alaicli ISll. He wa.s admitted into
the Kcole l'olytechnii|ue in bs.'il, w.as subseiiuently
em]doye<l for some time under the board for the
.administration of tobaccos, and as early as 183H
distinguished himself by his papers on the com
binations of phos])horiis with hydrogen and o.xygen.
Next year the ]d.ace of te.acher of astronomy at
the l*olyleclini(jue was ofreied him, and in this w.ay
Leverrier was led to become an astronomer. His
Tables da Mcrenre, and .several memoirs on 'the
secular inequalities,' ojieneil to him the door of the
Aoadi'iny in 184(i. At the instigation of Arago he
applieil himself to the examination of the disturb-
ances in the motions of I he planets, from which
the existence of an umliscovered planet could be
inferred ; and, as the result of his laborious calcula-
tions, directed the .attention of a.strononiers t« the
point in the heavens where, a tew days .afterw.ards,
the planet Neptune was .actually discovered by
tialle at Berlin (see also An.vMs, .1. ('.). Fo'r
this Leverrier was rewarded with the (irancl ('ross
of the Legi(m of Honmir, a professorship of .as
trononiy in the Faculty of Sciences at Paris, ami
v.arious lesser homnirs. When the rev(dutioii of
1848 broke out Leverrier sought distinction .as
a democratic politician ; the department of La
Manche chose him in May lS4'.t to be a member
of the Legislative Assembly, where he at once
became counter-revolution.ary ; and in 18.52 Louis
Napoleon made him a senator. In 18,54 Leverrier
succeedeil Ar.ago as director of the Observatory
of Piiris, <an otHce which, save during an interval
of three years (1870-7.S), he held till his de.ath,
2:)d September 1877. See Bertrand's Flogc in the
Mem. de TAead. des Seirneex.
Levi, the third son of .lacob and Leah (lien.
xxix. .34). He is conspicuous through the p.art he
took with his brother Simeon in the .slaughter of
the inb.abilants of Shechem ((Jen. xxxiv.). .J.acob
pronounced this curse on them both, that they
should be scattered among Isr.ael ((ien. xlix. 7).
In Kg.vpt the House of Levi had divided itself into
three families, those of (iershon, Koliath, and
Merari. At the distribution of Palestine no tribal
territory was allotted to them, but only forty-
eight scattered cities. In the Pentateuch they
are .set apart as the servants of the sanctuary, but
they might not perf(uni .any priestly function, the
priesthood being reserved fiu' one Levitical family,
that of A.aron. The history of the Leviles has
been matter of controversy. Some have assumed
that Levi is sim]dy t he eponynums .ancestor of the
Levitical caste, and unsuccessful etr<n'ts have been
made to denv that Levi was originally a tribe at
.all. See Wellhausen's Jfixtor;/ of Israel (1885).
Levi, Leone, b(un 6th ,lu!y 1821 at Ancona,
settled in Liverpool in 1844, and in 1.S.52 became
professor of the Principles and Practice of Com-
merce in King's College, London. He died 7tli
May 1888. Among his works were Coiiiinereinl
I.dir of the World (1850; re|)nblished as Jiitenni-
tionul Commercial Lau; 187.'^); On Taxation ( 1870);
History of Jii'itisli Co/jniierre {\H'2) ; ll'ar and Its
CUmseqiicnres ( 1881 ) ; Warjes of the JVorhinij Classes
(18.S5): Jiitrrnedional Luu' (\mT).
Leviatiinil, a term that occurs hve times in
Scripture, in every case but <me ( Ps. civ. 2()) de-
noting the crocodile. Some think that in Isa.
xxvii. 1 it !( presents the great ]\v(lion which
appears in Egyptian monuments.
Levttil, El. IAS, a Jewish grammarian and
exegele, was born at Neusliidt on the Aisch,
near Nuremberg, in 14(i.5. One of the then
frequent exjuilsions of the Jews forced him to
seek refuge in Italy, where he held a high iiosi-
tion as teacher of Hebrew, first in \'enice, next
in I'adu.a, finally in lionie (1.514). Cardinal
Egidio here became his patron and Jiupil, but
even he could not prevent Levit.a's ag.iin being
expelled this city, together with his .lewish
brethren, in 1.527. He then returned to ^'enice,
where he lived for the most part until his death,
154!l. His ]iiincipal exegetical works .are on .lob,
the PsaliMs, Pnivi'ilis, and Amos. Other im-
]iorlant works arc his Massorelh Jfainniasorrlli, a
treatise on the vowel-points ; a Hebrew gram
mar; and a Talmudic and Targumic Dictionary.
Most of his works have been repeatedly edited .ami
[lartly IraTislated by Buxtorf, Miinster, l''agius,
and others, who owed most of their Hebrew know-
ledge to Levila exclusively. He is called not only
J/a/eri, \>\il AshAenasi ('the Cernian '), y/"''(f'/(Mr
('the master'), i"tc.
LEVITES
LEWIS
599
Lovitos. See Levi.
Leviticus. See Pentateuch.
Levkosia. See Nico.si.v.
Levilksu till 188-2 the capital of Fiji (q.v.).
Le^iilose. See Sugar.
Lew (Fr. ler^e) is the compulsory raising of a
body of troops from any specitieil class in the coni-
miinity for par|)oses of general defence or otience
when the existiiij; military forces are insufficient
to meet the necessities of the case. When a
country is in danger of instant invasion a Icree
en tnassc is sometimes made — i.e. every man
capahle of hearing arms is re(jaired to contribute
in jjoi-son towards the common defence. On less
urgent occasions the levy may be restricted to a
class, as to men between eighteen and forty years
of age.
Lewald, F.vxny, German novelist, was boni
of .Jewisli parents »'; Konigsl)erg, on 24th March
1811, but professed i 'hristianity in her seventeenth
year. She bej'an to write when about thirty, and
from 1S40 liv-xl in Berlin ; in 18.5.5 she married
Adolf Stahr : 1805-76), the literary critic. She died
at Dresilei? .)n .1th August 1889. Fanny Lewald
wa-s perhap.< the most important woman novelist in
Irt-'rmany luring the middle of tlie 19th century.
She wa? posse-ssed of keen powers of observation,
anL wrote in a sober, matter-of-fact style, which,
1' jwever, wa,s not incompatible with a strong
.ludercurrent of restrained feeling. She wa.s an
especially enthusiastic champion of the emancipa-
tion of her sc-\. Her realistic tendencies brought
her into conflict with the Countess von Hahn-
Hahn, whose unreal sentinientalism she success-
fully parodied in Dioqenn (1847). Her best book
is perhaps Vuii Gmi:hleelit :it Gcschlecht (186.3-65).
An English translation of Stella (1884) appeared in
the same year. At ditlerent times she visited many
parts of Europe with her father and her husband :
Iier books ou Italy (1847) and Great Britain ( 1852)
were the most valuable outcome of these journeys.
See her Mcine Lcbetugescliiclitc (6 vols. 1861-63).
Lewes, the county town of Sus.sex, 50 miles
S. of London, is picturesquely situated on the
ea-stern declivity of one of the South Downs, at
the foot of which Hows the navigable river Ouse
on its course to the sea at Newhaven, 7 miles
distant. Pop. ( 1801 ) 4909 ; ( 1881 ) 11,199 ; ( 1891 )
10,997. The chief objects of intere.st are the
ruins of a priory and castle which once stood
here, the former built (1072-78) by William de
Warenne, Earl of Surrey, who with his wife
Gundreda, a daughter of William the Conqueror,
was buried within its precincts. Of the cjistle
which stood on high gnmnd in the centre of the
town, the keep and gateway, the only portions
now remaining, are occupied by the Sussex Archai-
ological Society as a museum. Lewes has seven
churches, mostly Perpendicular in style, .a county
liall (1812), free library (1802), .school of science
and art (1868), and a town hall (1872). The
chief tratle is in corn, malt, co.ils, anil lime, whilst
new.spai)er-printing and tanning are extensively
carried on. Till 1867 the town returned two
members to parliament, till 1885 one. \ charter
of incorporation was granted in I8S1. liace-meet-
ings are held three times a year ni\ar Mount H.-irrv
on the Downs, where, on the 14th .May 12IU. a great
battle was fought between Heiuy III. .uid the in-
surgent barons under Simon de .Montfort. See
works by Horsfield (2 vols. 1824-27), Mantell
(1846), and Lower (3d ed. 1880).
Lewes, (;koroe HenrV, litterateur, was born
in London, a popular comedian's gr.andson, 18th
April 1817. Eilucateil partly at (Jreenwii-h nniler
Dr Burney, and partly in Jersey and Brittany, lie
left school early to enter first a notary's office, and
then the house of a Russian merchant. He next
tried walking the hospitals, but could not stand
the horrors of the operating-room; so in 18.38 he
proceeded to (Jermany, and remained there nearly
two yeai-s, studying the life, language, and litera-
ture of the country. On his return to London he
fell to work writing about aiivtliing and every-
thing as a Penny Encyclopa'Aist and Morning
Chronicler, as a contributor afterwards to a dozen
more journals, reviews, and mag.azines, and as
editor of the it7K/(r( 1851 -.54). and of the Fortnir/htli/
(1865-66), which he himself had founded. He
'began life,' says Mr F'rederic Harrison, 'as a
journalist, a critic, a novelist, a dramatist, a
liiographer, and an essayist ; he closed it as a
mathematician, a physicist, a chemist, a bi<dogist,
a psychologist, and the autluu' of a system of
abstract general philosophy.' The change was
rendered piissiblo, Mv Leslie Stephen points out,
l)y Ge<uge Eliot's liter.ary successes. Lewes was
married unhappily and had children, when his
connection with her began in July 1854; it ended
only with his death at their house in Regent's
Park, .30th November 1878. An intellect clear
and sharp, if not remarkably strong, a wit lively
and piquant, if not very rich, syniiiatliies warm,
if not wide, and a style as firm as it is graceful,
made Lewes one of the best of critics and bio-
graphers ; as a populariser of philosophy he was
inferior to none, as a populariser of science inferior
to very few.
His works, besides a tragedy and a couple of novels
(1841-48), include the Bioijrttpfticdf Hinttn-it of Pliilostq^hii
(1845 ; recast in the 3d edition of 18C7 as The ffintori/ of
PkUosophy from Thales to Comte) ; The Spanish Drama,
Lope de Vtya and Calderon ( 1846 ) ; a Life of Robes-
pierre (1848) ; Comtc's Philosophy of the Sciences (1853),
which is much more than a mere translation ; tlie admir-
able Life and Works of Goethe (1855) ; Seaside Studies at
Ilfracombe (1858); Phvsiolo'i'i of Common Life (1859-
1)6) ; Studies in Animal Life (1862) ; Aristotle (1864) ;
On Actors and the Art of Acting (1875) ; and Problems
of Life and Mind { 1874-79), its five volumes dealing with
' The Foundations of a Creed,' ' The Physical Basis of
Mind,' ' The Study of Psychology,' and ' Mind as a Func-
tion of the Organism.' See Eliot (George), with work.s
there cited, and an article by Anthony Trollope in the
Fortnirjhtlii for January 1879.
Lewis, or Sn.\ke River, the great southern
branch of the Columbia (q.v.). See Id.\HO.
Lewis. See Louis, and Lewi.s-with-Harris.
Lewis. Sin George Coknewall, state^sman
and author, was born in London, 21st October
1806, son of Sir T. F. Lewis, Bart., of Harpton
Court, Radnorshire ; and « as educated at Eton
and Christ Chinch, Oxford, where in 1828 he
took a lirst-cl.ass in classics and a second-class
in mathematics. A i)ii]>il of Austin's, he was
called to the bar of the .Middle Temple in 1831,
and succeeded his father as Poor-law Commis-
sioner in 18.'59. He sat for Herefordshire from
1847 to 1852, and for tlie Radnor Boroughs from
1855. After holding minor government oflices,
he rose rajiidly to be linancial secretary to the
Treasury, Chancellor of the Exchequer under
Palmei-ston (18,55-58), Home Secretary (1859-61),
and Secretaiy at War. He .succeeded his father as
second baronet in 18.55, and died 13tli April 1S63.
He was an earnest and sincere politician, and his
business capacity, sound sense, vaiieil knowledge,
and moral and intidlectual i|ualities made him a
notable figure in tlie |uiblic and political life in
Enghand.
His e.\traordiiiary versatility may be gathered from a
list of his works, whicii include a trcati.se on the Orifjin
and formation of the Romance Lani/uaijc (1835), The
Fables of liabriiia. The Use and Abuse "/ Political Terms,
The Injiuence of Authority in Matters of Opinion (1850),
600
LEWIS
LEYDEN
his famous Inquiru into the Crcdibililii of Ancient Roman
Historic (1855— against Niebuhr), The Met/tod of Obser-
vation and Keasoninff in Politico, Local Diiturbanets
and the Irish Church Question (ISSU), The Government
of Dependencies, Herefordshire (flossar;/. The Astronomii
of the Ancients (1859), and Dialo;iue on the Best Form of
Government (1859). He was editor of tlie Kdinburiih
Rerieio from 1852 to 1855. See liis Letters (1870), and
Basehofs Literarii Studies (1S79).
Lewis, M.\TTiiEW Gregory (' Monk Lewis ' ),
was born in Lnnilon, fltli July 1775, ami educated
at Westminster, at (Mirist Church Colle^'e, ( )xfovd,
and at Weimar, where he was introduced to (Joethe.
In 1794 he went as an attache to the Ha^ue, and
there, inspired hy Ulanvill (his mother'.s favourite
author) aud the Mysteries of Udolpho, wrote at
nineteen Amhrosio, or the Monk (1795), the grue-
some, unclean romance which made him so famous
that in 179S Ids invitation to dine at an Edinhurjjh
hotel could elate Scott as nothing before or after-
wards. A musical drama, The Castle Spertre
(1796), The Bravo of Venire (1804), and a host
more of blood-and-thunder plays, novels, and tales
are happily forgotten ; but two lines at least
survive of one of his ballads, Alonso the Brave.
In 1796 lie entered parliament as a silent member,
aud in 1812 he inherited from his father two large
estates in Jamaica. So to better the condition of
his slaves there, good-hearted, lachrymose, clever
little ' Mat ' forsook the society of the I'riuce
Regent, Byron, and all his other great friends, and
m.ade the two voyages, in 1815 and 1817, which
furnished materials for his one really valuable
work, tlie jiosthumous Journal of a. West India
Proprietor (IS.'U). On his way lumie, in the Gulf
of Florida, he died of yellow fever, 13th May 1818,
and was buried at sea. See his Life and Corre-
spondence (2 vols. 1839).
Lewisliaill. in Kent, 6 miles SSE. of Charing
Cross, since 1885 a parliamentary borough, with
07,500 inhabitants.
I Lovisia. a genus of jilants, of the natural order
I Portnlacace;e (see PURSLANE), named in honour
of the American traveller, Meriwether Lewis
(1774-1809). /-. rrUiriva is found in the regions
of his explorations, on the west side of the Kocky
Mountains. Its tliick, branching roots are gathered
and are highly valued by the Indians as nutritive,
and also a.s restorative. It has a showy rose-
coloureil (lower. Another species, L. liraehij-eali/x,
is found in I'tah.
LowistOII, a city of Maine, on the Andro-
scoggin Kiver, 35 miles N. of Portland. The river,
■which is crossed by several bridges, has here a fall
of 50 feet, and the water-power is distributeil by a
dam an<l canal to numerous mills and factories.
The principal manufactures are woollens and
cottons, and these are jjroduced in very large
quantities. Lewiston contains a Uaptisl college.
Pop. (ISSO) 19,08:!; (1890)21,701.
Lovis-witll-IIarriS. an island of Scotland,
the largest ami most northerly of the Outer
Hebrides, separated from the mainland by tiie
Jliuch, and containing the town of Stornoway
(q.v.), 43 miles N\V. of Poolewe and 180 N. by W.
of Oban. Its length is (iO miles; its greatest
breadth is 28 miles ; and its area is 8.')9 miles, of
which 683 belong to Lewis, the Hoss-.shire portion,
in the north, and 176 to Harris, the Inverness-shire
portion, in the south. The coasts are wild aud
rugged, the chief indentations being liroad l!ay
and r.,ochs Krisort, Seafcnth, Resort, and Koag.
The Butt of Lewis, a jjromontory at the extrenu'
north, rises sheer from the sea to a height of 142
feet. Gneis.s is the predominant rock ; and the
surface, attaining 2662 feet in Harris and 1750 in
Lewis, consists mainly of hill, moor, and moss,
treeless and almost shrublcss, with nnich peat and
fresh-water lakes innumerable. Less than 4 per
cent, of the entire area is in cultivation. In 1844
'the Lews' was purchased for .£190,000 from the
Maekenzies of Seafortli by Sir .James .Matlie.son
(1796-1878), who expended i'330.000 on improve-
ments. Pop. (1801) 12,104: (1831) 18,440: (1891)
30,726, mostly Gaelicsiieaking. See C.VLI.ER-
NI.SI1, CiioFTERS, Hebrides ; and W. A. Smith's
Lcxcsiana ( 1875).
Lexicon. See Dictionary.
Levillgtoil, ( 1 ) capital of Fayette county.
Kentucky, stands in the fertile blue-grass region,
at the junction of four railways, 77 nnles S. of
Cincinnati. It is a handsome city, its principal
edifices the court-house, the state university,
and the state lunatic asylum. The fine Henry
Clay monument also is noteworthy. There are
manufactures of spirits, hemp, and, especially, of
tobacco. Pop. (1S80) 16,0.56.— (2) A village of
Mas.sachusetts, 11 nules WNW. of Boston, where
the lirst blooci of tlie Revolution was shed, Aju-il
19, 1775. A monument has lieen erected in memory
of the eight minute-men who fell in this first
confiict. — (3) Capital of Lafayette county, Missouri,
on the Mi.s.souri Kiver, 42 miles by rail (84 by
water) E. of Kansa.s City. It contains Baptist iind
Methodist ladies' colleges, and has muniilactures
of hemp and woollen goods. Pop. 3996. — (4) A
pretty village of Virginia, on the North River,
32 miles NNW. of Lynchburg, is the terminus of
the James River and Kanawha Canal, and contains
the Washington and Lee University and the
\'irginia Military Institute. Here Roliert K. Lee
aud ' Stonewall ' Jackson are buried. Pop. 2771.
Lex TalioiliS, the law of retaliation, common
among all ancient and barbarous nations, by wliidi
an eye for an eye and a tooth for a tooth \vas con-
sidered the appropriate punishment.
Leyden. or Leidex, a town of ILdland, st;ind3
on tlie Old Rhine, 5 miles from the North Sea, and
by rail 9 miles N. by W. of the Hague and 31
W. of Utrecht. It is a typical Dutch town,
spotlessly clean, with canals bordered by avenues
of trees, and sleepy squares and streets. Its pre-
dominant (diaracteristic is an air of academic repose ;
anil the town is the seat of a celebrated nnivei'sity,
which formerly attracted students from all parts
of Furope, including Sir Thomas ISrowne. Evelyn,
Boswell, Goldsmith, Jolin Wilkes, .Vlexamler
Carlyle, .-Vlexander Monro, and several other dis-
tinguished Scottish surgeons, and numbered
amongst its professors some of the greatest names
in the world of learning: Grotins, Descartes,
Salmasiiis, Scaliger, Boerliaave, Henisterliuis,
Ruhnken, Valckenaer, I've, besides Arminius aud
Gomarus, have all either studied or tau,L;lit at
Leyden. It was founded in 1575 by WilHam of
Orange as a reward to the citizens (tlu'y them-
selves selecting this boon in preference to a re-
mission of taxes) for their heroic defence .against
the Spaniards from October 1.573 to October 1574.
At the present time it is frequented by about 800
students, and h,as some fifty professors and teachers.
Its collateral institutions include a lilirary of
160,000 volumes and 5000 MSS., many of them
valuable oriental and Greek MSS. ; a botanic
garden, which has counted Linna-us ,ind I'.oerhaave
amongst its directors ; ,a museum of natural historv,
<me of the finest .and best .arr.anged in luiriqie ; a
museum of antii|nities, with especially valuable
Egyptian monuments; an ethnographical museum,
the nucleus of which was Siebidd's .Japanese collec-
tion ; and .an observatory. The senate-liall is hung
with the portraits of more than a hundred celebrated
Leyden ]irofessors. The t^)wn art museum contains
pictures by Rembrandt, Jan Steen, Gerard Douw,
LEYDEN
LHASSA
601
Lucas of Leydeii, the family jSIieris— all natives of
the town, and othei's. Hi'ic too were born some of
the Elzevirs, the C('lcl)rate(l printers, wtiooavrieil on
a branch of their li\isiness in l,ey<hMi. ami Jolin of
Leyilen, the Anal)a])tist. Tlie nuaint and iiietur-
esque town-hall dates from 1574-98. There are
nearly a score of churches, the most notable
among them being St Peter's, with monuments
to Boerhaave, Scaliger, Camper, Arminius, «!v.c. ,
and St I'ancras, with a monument to Van der
Werf, the hero of the siege. In the centre of
the town stands an old nmnd tower, which is
said to date from the lloman occupation. Leyden
was in the 1.5th century famous all over Europe
for its manufactured cloth, baize, and camlet.
The same industries, but to ,a much less extent,
together with the manufacture of cotton, twine,
and y.arn, the dyeing of cloth aiul leather, &c.,
are still carried on. Leyden is the seat of a school
of navigation. In 16o0 the population numbered
100,000 ; I)ut a century later it had fallen to three-
quarters of that number, and by the beginning of
the I9th century to .30,000. In 1876 it was 40,724,
and 46,379 in 1SS9. In 1S07 a portion of Leyden
was destroyed liy the explosion of a barge laden
with gunpowder on one of the canals.
Lcyd«'ll. John, [loet and oriental .scholar, was
born, the son of a shepherd, at the vilhage of Den-
holm, Koxburghshire, 8tli September 1775. In 1790
he entered EdinV)urgh University, and was licensed
as a preacher or ' probationer ' of the Church oi
Scotland in 1798. He proved an ardent and enthu-
siastic student, with a hunger for knowledge, whicli
led him into studies out of the routine, inclnding
many European and oriental languages. His strong
n.ative talent and varied gifts and attainments,
in spite of his uncouth manners, secured him the
attention of some of the most eminent persons of
the day, including Constable, Henry Maclcenzie,
Kitson, the Duchess of (t<ndon. Lady Charlotte
Campbell, and Richard Heber, by whom he was
introduced to Scott. He aided the latter in gather-
ing materials for his Border Mitiatrr/si/, contributing
an article on fairy superstitions, and on one occa-
sion he walked between 40 and .K) miles to procure
the words of a ballad which were awanting. He
■was also a contributtu- to Lewis's Talcs of Wonder.
His first prose work was Discurcrici iind Settlements
of Eurojicnns in Xortlicrn rind ]Vcstcrn Afrirtt
(1799). Meanwhile his translations and original
Eoetical contributions to the Ei/in/mrij/i Magazim-
ad attracted attention. For a period of six months
(1802) he edited i\\e Scots Mcojazine. Before leav-
ing his native country he had compUtted his Scenes
of Iiifancif, de.irn'jithr. of I'ci-wtdrt/c { 1803). In
1803 he sailed for India as assistant-surgeon on the
Madnxs establishment. After four months' service
in Madra-s general hospital he was appointed
surgeon and naturali-st to the commission for the
survey of My.sore and Travancore (1804). His
health gave way, he was live tinies given up by the
phj'sician, but sick or well he continued his acquisi-
tion of languages. He resided for a time at Pena)ig :
came back to ('alcutta (18(J6); wrote .an essay on
Hindustani di.alects; was appointed professor in the
Bengjil College, ami afterwards jmlge at Calcutl.a.
Through the intluence of Lord .Minto he was
appointed comniLssioner of the Ccmrt of Uequests,
then assay master of the mint. Meanwhile he
translated the (!osi)els into live ditVerent languages.
When the expedition against Java w.is undertaken
Leyden accompanied Lord Minto thither as inter-
preter ; anil at liatavia, in th(! exploration of a
musty, unventil.ited library, which cmitained many
In<lian manuscri[)ts, he contracted a fever, of which
he died, August 27, 1811.
Leyden's versilication is soft and musical, but
hi.s ballads with their marvellous melo<ly have
taken a higher place than his longer poems. Next
after Scott ancl Hogg, s.-iys Principal Shairp, he
has done most to illustrate his native region. His
attainments as an urienl.alist were extracudinary ;
he had a greater or less aci|uaintance with at least
thirty-four languages or dialects. Lord Cocklpurii
speaks of him as ever in a state of excitement,
and ever panting for things unattainable by onlin
ary mortals. .V monument to Leyden has been
erected at Denholm (1S61). Scott descrilies him
as of middle statuic, of athletic build, features
well proportioned, lively dark eyes, a clear, some-
what rud<ly comph^xion, and light-brown hair.
Leyden's chief liter.ary remains are a preliminary
dissertation to an etlition of the Coiiiplai/nt of
Scot/and ( 1801 ) ; an ess.ay on the ' Languages ami
Literature of the Indo-Chinese Nations,' printed
in Asiotic Hescarr/ics, vol. xix. ; his 3Iemoirs of
Bahcr (q.v. ), partly by Er.skine (1826): MrdKi/
AiDiu/s (1821). See his Poetical Ilcmcdns, by
Morton (1819); I'ocms itnd Ballads, with reprint
of memoir by Scott (1875); and Poetical Works,
with memoir by T. Brown (1875). See also A.
Constable and his Literary Correspondents (3 vols.
1873) ; and Calcutta lieriew. No. 61.
Leyden. Lucas Van. See LtcAS.
Leydeiibiii's. or Lydenburg, a town in the
Transvaal (l>op. 2000), on aTi elevated plateau, .about
ISO miles NW. of Delagoa Bay. The district is rich
in minerals, and gold has been worked since 1873.
Leyden Jar. See Electkicity.
Leys, Heniu Jean Auguste, Belgian painter,
was born on 18tli February 1815 at Antwerp, in
which city most of his life was spent, ami where
he died on 26th August 1869. He was created
baron by Leopold I. in 1862. Leys is one of the
best modern artists in the style of the (dd Flemish
masters. His most valuable and nuist character-
istic pictures are inspired by the private life and
stirring history of his native land — ' Itembrandt's
Studio' (1837'), 'A Flemish Wedding' (18;i9),
' Public Worship in Antwerp Cathedral,' 'A Village
Fete,' 'A Musical Party' (1846), 'liubens Fe.asted
by the Ciunsniiths of Antwerp' (1851), 'New-
year's Day in Flanders,' 'Luther Singing in the
Streets of Eisenach ' ( 1862), ' Erasmus in his Study,'
'Institution of the tiiddeu Fleece, ' and .a scries of
frescoes in his own dining-room repiesenting the
history of a 'Flemish Festival.' The last jears of
his life were occupied in painting six scenes from
the liistcny of Antwerp in the 16th century on the
walls of the great hall in the town-house of
-•Vntwerji. Alma Tadenia studied under Baron
Leys. See Sulzberger's Henri Leys ( Brus. 1885).
Lezc Majesty (Nornnm I'r. ; Lat. hcsa niajes-
tits), an ofl'ence against sovereign power. See
TliKASON.
LliassaCthe Seat of the Cods'), the capital
of Tibet and sacred (dty of the Lamaist Buddhists,
is situated in a fertile plain, 11,910 feet above the
sea, and surrounded by mountains ranging from
'2000 to 1000 above that'.altitu.le. The city stands
in 29' :i9' N. lat. and 90' r,'' E. long., about 45
miles NE. of the junction of the Ki-chu with the
Yaro San-po : the former river flows past the city
westwards about a mile to the south. The city
proper is surrounded with a wall, and consists of
a clo.sely-packed .issembl.age of good stone ami
brick houses and shops, with ecclesiastical build-
ings, chielly temples, sandwiched in between.
• lutside this central city lie extensive suburbs, the
bouses standing in gardens, ranged on each side
of broad, tree-.-haded streets. The mona.-<teries,
some lifteen in number, are .scattered over the
jilain and in the suburbs. Just outside the central
city on the northwest stands a conical hill, Potala,
which is thickly encrusted with palaces and tcmiiles.
602
LHERZOLITE
LIANAS
their roofs all gilded ; this is the abode of the Grand
Lama (see Lamaism). If Potala is the Vatican of
the IJiuUlhists, they have their St Peter's in the
temple of Labvang "or Clio-kluui';, which overh)()ks
the trreat square in the very heart of tlie city. The
most sacred of its shrines contains a life-size ima^'e
of Buddha and images of several other notal)ilities
of the liuddhist faith. Near the north end of the
citv stanil two famous teniple.s, known as Kamo-
C'hhe and Morn, tlie monks of which practise
sorcery and magic, and grant degrees in the same.
The n'lost celebrated of tlie monasteries are perhaps
those known as the Four Ling, from the heads
of which the regent of Til)et is always chosen :
Chiakpori, the medical university ; Dai-pung, the
school of Buddhist philosopliy ; and the Gahlan
Laiuiuserai ('2.5 miles NE. of the city), the abbot
of which is one of the highest dignitaries in
the Buddliist church. But Lha-ssa is sometliing
more than the ecclesiastical and religious centre
of the Buddhist faith ; it is an important trad-
ing centre, a terminus for caravans to and from
India, Caslimere, liiirma, China, Mongolia, and
Turkestan. The principal article of commerce is
tea ; next to this come silks, carpels, rice, tobacco,
horses, sheep, musk, European and Indian manu-
factured goods, iS:c. There is an important colony
of Kaslimiris, who, though Mohammedans, are
tolerated because of their usefulnes.s as traders.
The resident population, e.vclusive of the garrison
and the monks, is about 15,000. The number of
inmates in the individual monasteries ranges from
3000 to 7000, or even more. The Chinese maintain
a small garrison (some 500 men ) ; and the Chinese
emperor is represented by two resident oliicials,
who, though they do not sit on the supreme
council of the Grand Lama ( who is also the civil
ntler of Tibet), e.xercise considerable influence on
the government indirectly. The resident popula-
tion is, however, generally augmented by a lloat-
ing po])ulation of pilgrims and traders, in numbers
varying from 40,000 to S0,000. The women of Lhassa
go about with jierfect freedom ; they stain their
faces with black spots. Tibet became tributary to
China about 1720, and has never since shaken off the
yoke. Owing to the jealous exclusiveness of the
Tibetan and Chinese authorities, and the close
watch thev keep all along the frontiers, it is be-
lieveil that only three Europeans have entered
Lhassa during 'the 19th century, namely the
Englishman Manning (in 181I-1'2) and tlie Frencli-
men Hue and Gabet (1846), though several Euro-
peans reached the city in previous centuries. But
since about 1866 specially trained Indian explorers
have from time to time been sent into Tibet by
the Calcutta authorities ; to them we owe mo.st of
our newer information about that strange country.
See Hue's Tmrels in 'J'ttrUirii, T/iibil, <tc. (2 vols.
1844); Narmthw of the Mission uf O. linrik mid of the
Joiinu'i/ of T. Manninij to Lhasa, edited by C. Markliam
( 187<) ) ; 'Explorations by A k in 'J'ibot,' in Proc. Roij.
Gcoii. Soc. (1885); and papers by G. Sandberg, in Nine-
teenth Century (October 1889) and Contemp. Review
(July ISIK)).
lilici'xolitc. an igneous rock consisting (if a
granular or line-graineil aggregate of olivine,
pyroxene, enstatite, and picotite. It derives its
name from Lake Llieiv. in tiie Pyrenees.
L'llApitnl. .Micilici, DK, French statesman, \yas
born at Aigueperse in Anvergne in 1504, studied
law at Toulouse and I'adiia, and settled as an
advocate in Paris when about thirty years of age.
In 1547-48 he represented Henry II. at the Council
of Trent; then for some years he held high MWf
in the houseluild of MargaVet of \'alois, Duchess of
Herri. His apiiointiiicnt in 1.554 as superintendiail
of linauces was but the i>relimiiiaiy to his nomina-
tion as chancellor of France six years later. His
policy was one of moderation ; especially did he
endeavour to assuage the lierce rancour of the
religious quarrel by slaying the hand of the
Calliolie persecutors, by resisting the introduction
of the Inquisition, and by promoting such con-
ferences, i.Vc. !us that of 'Poissy. But after the
peace of Amboise (1.563) he lost ground with
Catliarine de' Medici, and in 15GS he resigned the
chancellorship. He sjient the rest of his life in
retirement on his estate of Vignay near Etampes,
and died there (or at Bclesbat) on I3tli .March 1573.
His Latin poems, speeches, memoirs, \c. were
pulilislied in 5 vols, in 1824-2.5. See Life by Ville-
ni.ain (newed. 1874 land monographs by Taillandier
(181)1 ) and Dupre-La.sale ( 1875).
Liability (Liiiiiled) .Vfts. See Company.
Liability of Llliplo.ver.s. An emidoyer is
in law responsilile for reparation of wrongs or
injuries done to str.angers by his servants while
they are acting within the course and scope of
their service. But where a master has forbidden
the doing of the thing from which damage arises,
or where a servant wilfully or maliciously does an
injurious act to serve his own private ends, Hie
master will not be liable. The Employer's Liability
Act of IS80 so far extended the favour of the law
to workmen as to make employers answerable to
their servants for the negligence of those to whom
they have delegated their authority. It gave, in
certain cases of injury specilied in the act, the same
right of nqiar.ation to workmen against their em-
ployers as is enjoyed by strangers. But it was
limited in its sciqie, and did not apply to ser-
vants not engaged in manual labour ; nor w.as
any ])rovision made against employers and work-
men contracting tliems(dves out of the act. The
Workmen's Compensation Act of 1807 still further
extended the liability of employers by making them
liable to their workmen for all injuries arising out
of their employment from whatever cause, except
their own wilful misconduct. ' Negligence " is not
necessary to create liability, and even where the
greatest care is taken the employer is still liable,
as he is also to workmen eiiijdoyed by ,a sub-con-
tractor. Any scheme of 'contracting out' of the
.act must be cei tilled by the Ilegisiiar of Friendly
Societies to be as f.-ivourable lo the workmen as
the .act itself. The act was (uigin.-illy limited to
certain specified industries, but practically included
all workmen exce|it agricuUural labourers, seamen,
and domestic servants; and the amending act of
1900 exteniled its apiilication to agricultural
labourers in the widest sense of the term. The
amoniit of compensation is as follows: when a
workman is killed, leaving dependents, a sum from
.-tl.'iO lo £300; when no dependents are left, a sum
not exceeding .-CIO for medieal and funeral exjienses;
when total or partial disablement results, a weekly
payment not exceeding t'l. The liability thus im-
posed has been met by various forms of insurance,
mainly supjilied by accident insurance companies.
See Damages; an'd Ma.stku and Servant.
Lia Fail. See ('(ikonation.
■iiakhov Islands. See Nkw SiniiRiA.
Lianas, a term lirst used in the French colonies,
in Ihe form linnes (from Her, to bind), for the
woody, climbing, and twining i)lants which abound
in tropical forests. Such plants are comiiaratively
rare in colder climates. aUhough the honeysuckles
and some species of ('leiiiatis all'ord familiar ex-
amples of them : but the lianas of liopieal countries
overtop the t.allest trees, descend again to the
ground in vast festoons, jiass from one tree to
another, and bind the whole forest together in a
maze of living network, and often by cables as
thick as those of a man-of-war. Many part.s of the
forest, as in the alluvial regions of the Amazons
LIAS
LIBEL
603
ami Orinoco, thus boponip im|ienetialile without
the aid of the hatcliet, and the heasts which inliabit
them eitlier pass tlirou^h narrow covered paths,
kept ojien l>y continual use, or from houfih to
liou^h far above the ;:round. Many lianas— a-s
some of the species of Wri^ditia— become tree-like
in the thickness of their stems, and often kill by
constriction the trees wliich ori^rinally supjiorted
them : and when tliese have decayed tlie convolu-
tions of the liana-s exhibit a womlerful ma-ss of
confusion majmihcent in the luxuriance of foliage
and flowers. Xo tropical flowei-s excel in splendour
those of some liana.s. Amonj; them are found also
some valuable medicinal jilants, as sarsaparilla
(Smilax, order Liliacea-). 'I'he rattans (Calamus,
order Palmacea^) and vanilla (order Orchidacea?)
are lianas. Botanically considered, lianas belong
to orders which are often quite ditterent. Trop-
ical plants of this descriiition are seldom seen in
our hotiiouses owing to tiie dilliculty of their cul-
tivation.
Lias. The lias is the lowest division of the
Jurassic System (q.v.). The beds composing it
may be considered a-s the argillaceous basis of tliat
series of rocks, consisting of more than a thousand
feet of alternations of clay and limestone, with but
a few unimportant deposits of sand. It consists of
the following groups : Upper Lias (400 feet), Marl-
stone (-2001, 'Lower Lias (900).
The Upjier Lias consists of thin limestone beds
scattered through a great thickness of blue clay,
more or less imhirated, and so aluminous that it
lias been wrought for alum at Whitby. Above
this clay come sandy dejiosits. The Marlstone is
an arenaceous deposit, bound together either by
a calcareous or terrnginous cement, in the one
case passing into a coarse shelly limestone, and in
the other into an ironstone, winch has been exten-
sively wrought both in the north and .south of
England. The Lower Lias beds consist of an
extensive thickness of blue clays, intermingled
■n-itli layers of argillaceous limestone. In weather-
ing, tlie thin beds of blue or gray limestone become
light brown; while the inter-stratified shales retain
their dark colour, giving the (piarries of this rock
at a distance a stripe<l or ribbon-like appear.ance,
whence it is supposed the miner's name lias or
layers is derived.
The Lias is highly fossiliferous, the contained
organisms being well preserved ; the fishes are often
so perfect as to exhibit the complete form of the
animal, with the lins and scales in their natural
position. Numerous remains of ])lants occur in
the lignite and in the shales. The mime Gryphite
Limestone has been given to the Lias, from tlie
great quantities of Unjjilicii i)iriirva, a kin<l of
oyster, found in it. Fish-remains are frequently
met with ; the reptiles, however, are the most
striking forms. They are remarkable for the
great numbers in wliich they occur, for the .size
which many of the species attain, and for the
adaptations in their structure which fitted them
to live ill water. The most noteworthy are
species of Ichthyosaurus and I'lcsiosaurus (q.v.).
The Liassic rocks extend in a belt of varying
breadth across Kiigland, from AVhitby, on the coa-st
of Yorkshire, .south to Leicester, then south-west
b)- (iloncester to Lyme Hegis in Dorsetshire.
Libilllilis, a Greek Ho|)hist or rhetorician, was
born at .\iiti<ich, in Syria, about .314 .\.I). He
studied at Alliens, and began to teach there so
successfully that he soon moved to Constantiiio]de.
There his prelections were so attractive that he
emiitii'd the benches of the other teachers of
rlietonc, who had him exiielled from the city on
a charge of 'magic' He tlien proceeded to Nico-
mcdia ; but after live years returned to Constan-
tinople. Ultimately, in 3o4, he -settled down in
his native city, where he died about 393. I..il>anius
was the instructor of St Clirysostom and St lia-sil,
who always remained his friends, though Libanius
was himself .a pagan, aii<l a great friend of the
Empenu- .Inlian. His works, whicli are mostly
extant, consist of orations, declamations, lettere,
\c. The most conijilete edition of the orations
and declamations is tliat by Heiske (4 vols. 1791-
97), and of the letters that by .J. C. Wolf (1738).
See Lives by Petit (Paris, IStiC) and Sievers ( lierlin,
IS(iS).
Libanon. See Leb.wox.
Libation (Lat. libwc, 'to pour out'), literally,
anytliing poured out before the gods as an act of
homage or worship; a drink-offering. The term
was often extended in signification, however, to the
whole offering of which this formed a part, and in
which not only a little wine was poured upon the
altar, but a .small cake was laid njion it. This
custom prevailed even in the houses of the Romans,
who at their meals made an otl'ering to the Lares
in the fire which burned upon the hearth. The
lil)ation was thus a sort of lieathen 'grace before
meat.' Even so late as the last quarter of the 19tli
century Mr Bent found at Samos the sponde or
libation poured out on the floor before drinking.
Libail. a seajiort of Courland, Kussia, on
the Baltic, by rail 14t> miles W. by S. of Riga. It
possesses a fine harbour, admitting vessels that
draw 17 and 18 feet, and free from ice except
for less than a fortnight in the year. Its impoi-t-
ance as a ]ioint of export luis greatly increased
of late years. Its exports, consisting of grain, lin-
seed and linseed oil-cake, petroleum, eggs, spirits,
flax, hemp, Ike, have an annual value of £.3,000,000
or more (British trade constituting a fourth); its
inqiorts, chiefly coals, herrings, artificial manures,
cotton, dyewood, and iron, under £2,000,000 ( British
trade nearly half of that). In 1890-95 tlie Russian
government sjient £'2,500,000 on constructing a lii-st-
cla-ss naval and commercial harbour. Tiieie already
existed shipbuilding-yards and .-i school of naviga-
tion. The industries include iron founding, brew-
ing, oil-jiressing, &c. Lihau is much frequented as
a sea-side resort. One of the churches contains an
organ ( 1886), one of the largest hi the world. Pop.
( 1874) 10,707 ; ( 1880) 27,418 ; ( 1895) 39,000, mostly
of Cierman nationality.
Liltol is any imblication by printing, A^Titing,
l)aiiiting, or the like signs, tending' to injure the
reimtation of any one or expose him to hatred or
contemirt. A blasphemous, treasonable, or sedi-
tious publication is also termed a libel. Slander
(q.v.), on the other hand, is defamatory spoken
matter. An acti(m for libel will lie though it can-
not be shown tli.at any ajipreciablc pecuniary loss or
(lainage has resulted from the ]mlilication : such
lo.ss or damage is an inference of law when the
writing, v^vc. either is obviously defamatory or was
so in the circumstances. Any definite loss is called
special damage, and if jiroperly brought before the
court is taken into account when coniiiensation is
awarded.
In England the libelled jiarty may seek redress
civilly or criminally. If civilly he must jirove that
the matter Wiis published of him falsely and mali-
ciously, for the truth of the alleged libel (jiistifirn-
tioit) is an .absolute defence to a civil action. The
defendant, besiiles repelling these pleas, may also
bring forward some special defences. Thus, he may
allege privilege, which is either ijiialijitii or uli.sultilc.
Qualified privilege arises wlieri; maiteis of private
interest are concerned. So a communication
between cm]doyei-s as to the character of a servant
is, if made iii good faith and without express
malice, inotected. Ab.solute privilege arises where
604
LIBEL
LIBERIA
the ailniinistration of iustico or affairs relating to
the ])ublu> service are involved. Thus, statements
in a judicial allidavit, or in a reiiort ^jroperly made
by an otKcer to his superior cannot allord a cause of
action (see Coxfidkntiality). The Statute of
Limitations also provides that actions for liUel must
be commenced within six years of the occurrence of
the act comiilaine<l of. Criminally, the remedy for
a libel is bv indictment (usually after iiroce<'din;;s
before! a in.a^'istrate ), or (though more rarely) by
criminal information. This last is either filed by the
Attorney-general himself, in which case it is called
an ex ojjicio information, or by the queen's coroner
and attorney by the direction of the t^ueen's Bench
Division oii the application of some private indi-
vidual. An ex officio information is usually for a
libel that seems to threaten some danger to the
state ; in the otiier kind of criminal infornuitiim,
a,s the alleged otVence is against a private person,
it must be .shown that the ordinary remedy is in-
applicable.
The net, so to speak, of the criminal law is
much more comprehensive than that of tlie civil
law. Thus, a prisoner may lie prosecuted for
libelling a dead person, if an attempt to bring
contempt ami scandal on the deceased's relatives
can be proved ; the libel need not have been pul)-
lislied to a third party ; it may have been directed
against a company or sect, and not against any
particular individual ; it may be quite true, but
unless its pul)lication was for the public advan-
tage (even this limited defence was only intro-
duced by Lord Campbell's Act of 1843) this is no
answer. In all these cases the civil law affords
no remedy. Previous to 1792 the judges took upon
themselves to decide whether the matter was libel-
lous or no, leaving merely to tlie jury the (luestion
of publication ; but in that year Fox's Act declared
and enacted that tlie jury should have power to
'give a general verdict of guilty or not guilty upon
the whole matter put in issue upon the indictment
or information.' ISesides the common law various
statutes make libels against private persons, and
also seditious and blasphemous libels, punishable
by fine or imiuisonment. But ju-o.secutions for the
la-st kind, except under very special circumstances,
are not at the present day of probable occurrence.
'If,' said Loril Coleridge, in tlie modern case (1883)
of theQueen r. Hams.iy and Foote, 'the decenciesof
controversy are observed, even the fuiulamentals of
religion may be attacked without a person being
guilty of blasphemous libel.' Though this dictum
has been questioned, it m,ay safely be taken as a
correct exjiosition of the present state of the
matter. See r.i.Asi'illCMV, Skditiox.
The law of libel as it affects newspapers requires
some special notice. Under Lord Campbell's
Libel Act of 1843 the defendant in any action for
libel containe<l in a public newspajicr may plc.-ul
absence of gross negligence ami malice, and that
he published an apology at the earliest moment
possible. He is also at liberty, on filing such ]ilea,
to pay into court a sum of money by way of
amends. The Newspaper Libel and llegistration
Act, 1881, as amen<led by the Law of Libel .Vmend-
ment Act, 1888, provides that fair reports of proceed-
ings at public meetings and in the law-courts sliall be
rivilcged : that .actions against various defendants
ibels ]uactically the same may be consolidated ;
that before criminal proceedings are taken against
persons connected with a newspaper for a libel
therein the leave of a judge at chambers must
be obtained ; that defenclaiits in lilxd actions and
their wives are coni])etent, though not compellable,
witnesses; that in jiroceedings Ix't'ore magistrates
matters of justilication may be gone into, .and Ih.i,!
there may lie a summary conviction followed liy a
fine not exceeding £50 for libels 'of a trivial char-
I
acter.' In Scotland the law of libel is different in
some im])ortant respects from that of England. The
chief points are : ( I ) there is no nulical distinction
lietween liV)el and slander, both are equally de-
famation; (2) damages are awarded as a solatium
for wounded feelings; (3) libel and slander are
actionable, though not what is technically termed
in England /j»6//.«/(ff/ i.e. communicated to a third
person; (4) reports of public meetings .are more,
protected by the common law of Scotland than by
the common law of England, though the exact
limit has not been judicially settled ; (.5) the
Scotch system of public prosecution renders
criminal charges for libels on individuals extremely
rare.
In the LTnited States the law of libel follows the
common law of England, exceiit that the so-called
Se<lition Law (1798) expired in 1801, and li.as never
been renewed, and that, generally speaking, it is a
valid defence, whether in civil or criminal prosecu-
tions, to show that the matter coni|ilained of was
true and w.as published for justifiable ends. Privi-
lege, however, is much further extended than in
England.
Libel has several speci.al legal meanings. In
the English spiritual courts it is ' a declaration
or charge drawn up in writing on the part of
the plaintiff which the defendant is obliged to
answer.' In the civil and criminal courts of Scot-
land it is the form into which the complaint against
the defender or panel is |)ut. It is also the name
for the written charge against an accused person
in a church court in Scotland.
The leading English text-book on libel is Odgers ( 2d
cd. 1887 ; supplement, 1 890 ). Earlier treatises by Starkie
and Folkard are now out of date. Eraser's Law of Lihel
in its relation to the J'rrss (1889), and Sliortt's Law
reUitinf} to works of Literature and Art (2ded. 1884) are
useful for reference. In [Scotland the special treatise by
Borthwick (1826) is antiquated; the last editions of
Erskine & Bell supply the best information. Guthrie
Siaith's Law of Damaijes (2d ed. 1889) in.ay also be con-
sulted.
Libellnln. See Dragox-i'i.v.
Liber. See Bast.
Liberals. See Whio.s.
Liberia, a Xegro republic on the Pepper (7oast
(tiuinea) of West Africa, extending north and east
of Cape Palmas. The coast-line measures about
500 miles. The boundaries in the interior are not
determined, but the republic is considered to
extend inland for a distance of "200 miles. The
coast-region consists of mangrove swamps, lying
behind a belt of sand-dunes, is traversed by numer-
ous rivers, and interrupted by projecting headlamls
of rock. About 20 miles or so inland the surface
begins to rise into undulating uplands. The
climate and vegetation are tropical. The temiiera-
ture is pretty even, scarcely ever less than 75" F.
or more than 88' F. The rainy season lasts about
seven and the dry season five months. The soil is
well adapted for the cultiviitioii of coffee, the prin-
cipal crop grown after the food-plants rice and
manioc. The more important articles of export
are coffee, sugar, palm-oil and palm-kernels, cocoa,
arrowroot, caoutcliouc, ivory, kola nuts, i<:c. The
total value of the trade does not probably much
exceed half a million sterling. The iiojiulation
amounts to 1,0()8,(J00, of whom 18,000 are liberated
American slaves and their descendants, the re-
mainder indigenous Negroes, including I lie Kroo-
men (q.v.). Capital, Monrovia (pop. ."{OOO), now
greatly decayed. Liberia owes its origin to the
American Colonising Society, wdiicli in 1821
bought land on this coast and settled a small
body of freed .\frican slaves. The cidony grew
and prospered ; newcomers arrived in large num-
bers from the United States, and fresh lands
LIBERIUS
LIBRARY
605
continued to be bought. In 1847 tlif free and
independent republii', of Liberia was constituted ;
and it lias enlarged its boumlarics at least four
tiiues since then, beinj; joineil ten yeai-s later
by the Negro republic Maryland (founded as a
colony in IS'21, as a republic in lSo4), to the east
of Cai>e Palnuis. The constitution of Liberia is
modelled on that of the United States : there are
a president and House of Representatives ( 13
members), elected lor two years, and a Senate (S
members), elected for four years. No white man
is allowed to acquire citizen's rights or to hold pro-
perty. There is no standing army, but all citizens
capable of bearing arms are enrolled in the militia.
Slavery is declared illegal. Complete religious
toleration exists, the ilethodist forms prevailing.
The state debt amounts to £100,000, but no in-
terest has ever been |iaid since the loan was made
in 1871. English money is current, though accounts
are kept in dollars and cents ; and English weights
and measures prevail. The republic does not enjoy
much favour in the eyes of the native Negroes, nor
yet of those in the United States, although a few
immigrants still continue to arrive from year to
year. Not only have the Liljerians failed to make
any impression on the aboriginal inhabitants, tlie
])eople they were sent to civilise, but they them-
selves are relapsing in numy respects towards bar-
barism : they are lazy and quarrelsome, and ape
the woi-se manners of the whites, though there are
some honourable exceptions.
See Biittikofer, Rcisebikfer aus Liberia (2 vols. Leyden,
18yO ) ; Bourzeix, La Ripublique de Liberia ( Paris, 188" ) ;
and AVauwermans, Liberia (Brussels, 1885).
LiberillS, a native of Rome, succeeded to the
see of his native city in 352, on the death of Pope
Julius 1. For refusing to conlirm the decree \\hich
condemned Athanasius he was in .335 banished to
Thrace by the Emperor Constantius. Hut three
vears later he returned to Rome, expelled his rival,
Felix II., and reseated himself on the papal throne.
He died on 24th September 366. See Arils, and
Ath.\x.\siu.s.
Liberty, Eqiialit.v, Frateruity {Libert^,
Egalite, FraternUe), the motto of the French
Republic, dates from the time of the fii-st revolu-
tion. Equality, it should be noted, merely means
equality before the law ami tlie absence of class
pri\-ileges. The motto gives title to a Mork by Sir
J. F. Stephen (1873). For the Cap of Liberty, see
Bonnet. The custom of planting trees of liberty,
crowned with a bonnet rouf/c, uecame common
during the Revolution.
LilKTty of the Press. See Pke.ss.
Libidibi. See Diviuivi.
Libonriie, a town in the French dei]artment
of Cironde, at the continence of the Isle with the
tidal Dordogne, 22 miles by rail NE. of lionleaux.
It is one of the ancient free towns founded by
the English, about 1269. Woollens and ndlitary
clothing are manufactured. Pop. (1872) 12,713;
(1891) 14,24.5.
Libra, the seventh sign of the Zodiac (q.v.).
Library. As soon as men were so far advanced
in civilisation its to commit their thoughts to writing
in any portable form, whether on papyrus, bricks,
])archment, or i)aper, there were books and con-
secpiently libraries. The lirst of such libraries
wouM probably be the collection of sacred books
belonging to the temples of the gods, and under the
care of priests. The archives of the state wouhl
al.so be gathered together in the palaces of princes
jiccessible only to a privileged few. But public
libraries in the modem sense of the ti.'rm in-
stituted for the purjjoses of research in all branches
of knowledge— nave existed in the most remote
antiquity. As early as 3800 years B.C., according
to Professor Sayce, Sargon I.," the Semitic ruler of
Accad, founded such a library in that city. Here
was de|josited the great work of llabylunfan astro-
nomy, 'TIte Observations (if lid, which in later recen-
sions has come down to our day. Thi^ luime of the
keeper of Sargon's library, Ibni-sarru, the most
ancient librarian on record, is ]ireser\cd to us on
his seal, which is still extant. Libraries of a
similar kind were formeil in all the chief cities of
Babylonia. Their contents, or copies and transla-
tions made from them, were linally gathered together
to enrich the more famous Assyrian library estab-
lished in the palace of Koyunjik at Nineveh
by Assurbanipal. This great library was rich in
history, astronomy, grammar, sacred hymns, and
legends, and the science of divination and demon-
ology. The books were on briclc tablets, papyrus,
and leather. The number of tablets is estiinated
by M. Mcnaut at about 10,000, making some 500
of our modern volumes of ."jOO pages in 4to. The
greater portion of these tablets, as is well known,
have been recovered and dei)osited in the British
Museum. The library of Assurbanipal was in-
tended for the puldic good. In a note apjiended
to a grammatical treatise the king says : 'I have
written it upon tablets ... I have placed it in
my ])alace for the instruction of my subjects.'
The books were methodically arranged and num-
bered, and the rea<ler requiring a volume handed
to the librarian a ticket inscribed w'itli the requisite
number.
In ancient Egypt there was an immense litera-
ture, and Diodorus Siculus describes the library of
King Osymandyas, identified with Rameses I., as
having over its door the inscription, ' Dispensary
of the Soul.' At a later period the Ptolemies of
Egyi)t vied with the kings of Perganius in forming
magnilicent collections. An account of tho.se estab-
lished in Alexandria has already been given (see
Alex.\ndrian LlBR.\BY). Of' the libraries in
Greece we know very little. Pisistratus is the most
ancient collector named by Greek historians, and
Aristotle, who left behind him a large library, is
said to have inspired the so\ereigns of Egypt with
the taste for collecting.
It is characteristic of ancient Rome that the first
great libraries of the city should have been formed
of the spoils of war. .tmilius Paulus brought to
Rome al)out 168 D.c. the libraiy of the king of
Macedonia. LucuUus formed a large collection of
books which he liberally threw o|)en to all scholars;
but the first public library, luoperly so called,
appears to have been that established by Asinius
Pollio, 39 B.C., which he appropriately placed in
the temple of Liberty. Julius (':csar intended to
erect a public libraiy, but left his design to be
carried out by Augustus, who founded two, the
Octavian and the Palatine. Other emperors were
zealous in aihling to the number. The chief of
these was the Ul])iau Lilirary, instituted by Trajan.
At Byzantium Constantine began to collect the
('hristian books which had escaped the destructive
inquisition of Diocletian.
After the irruption of the barbarians the work of
building up libraries had to be begun de. noru. The
ravages of fire and war had substantially destroyed
the ancient collections. The classical literature was
naturally negh^'tcd liy the Christians, whose own
literature had sullered largely from the hostility of
the pagans. Hut the genus of our modern libraries
were laiil in the cloister. The monks of the order
of St Benedict especially were the collectois, trans-
lators, and bookmakei's of the early middle ages.
England may be said in this matti'r to have led
the way. The moiuusteries of Canterbury, York,
("royland, Whitby, anil Durham were at an early
date possessed of good libraries. Alcuin, when at
606
LIBRARY
Toure, urged Cliarleniagne, who was zealous in
the restoration of learuiug, to send iuto Uritaiu
for books. Among the more famous liliraries
abroiid may be mentioned those of the monxslie
communities at Fiilda, L'orvei, and St (Jail in
Geruiauy, Monte Cassino in Italy, Fleury and
Clugny in l'"rance. The books here stored were
naturally in large part theological, though the
Latin cla&sics were not neglected. A good idea
of the contents of such libraries may be gathereil
from the catalogue of Christ Church, Canterbury,
and some otlier similar lists printed by Edwards
in his Mfiiir/ir.i of Lihrwics. It is said that no
less than GOO catalogues of monastic collections are
preserved in the liljrary of Munich.
The period of decline in monastic learning in
Eurojie generally coincided with the revival of
classical studies and of secular literature ; ami the
collecting of books once more became the honour-
able ambition of princes and private persons.
Italy was in this respect especially distinguished.
Colucciii, chancellor of Florence, himself a gi'eat
collector, wrote a treatise urging the establishment
of public libraries. Xiccolo Nicoli at his death in
1436 bequeathed his library for public use. Fol-
lowing these examples Lorenzo de' Medici formed a
magnificent library. I'rederick, Duke of Urbino,
did the same ; and Corvinus, king of Hungary, left
at his death in 1400 a collection of 50,00) volumes.
Among ])rivate collectors, at an earlier date in
Great Britain, Richard Aungerville (q.v.), Bishop
of Durham, nuist not be omitteil, nor Guy de Beau-
champ, Earl of Warwick, who in 1315 be<|ueatli<'d
a collection, chietly of romances, to Bordesly
Abbey, Worcestershire.
Britain was, however, but slightly touched with
the spirit of the literary revival which elsewhere le<l
to the zealous gathering together of the relics of
antiquity. The destruction of monasteries and the
prejudices of the Keformei's led rather to a reckless
destruction of books, and the ICith century was a
dark age in the library history of the nation.
Henry \'ll. had possessed a collection of three or
four hundred choice volumes. Henry VIII., while
he was disbui'sing nearly £11,000 on jewellery, w;is
content to spend £124 on books and binding.
Edward VI. did something, Mary and Elizabeth
very little, towards increasing the royal library.
Archbishop I'arker ami others made a great etl'ort
to induce Queen Elizabeth to form a pulilic library
after the pattern ' set us by the more civilised
nations, as Germany, Italy, and France,' but
without success. The want of a national library
continued to be felt for another century and a half.
In the reign of William 111. the writer of a
pamphlet, .said to be Richard IJentley, then keeper of
the royal library, describes it as having l)een in a
flourishing condition in tlie time of .lames I., and
since ' fallen into decay to the gre.-it ilisliononr of
the crown and the whole nation.' He proposes that
there should be a new royal library erected and
supj)orted by a yearly revenue settled on it by
parliament. The proposal was not carried out, but
in 17."i!) George If. incorporated the lil>rary, then
containing about 12.0(10 volumt's, with the recently-
foumied collection of the Rrilish Museum (q.v.).
Meanwhile, during the 17th century, many im-
portant collegiate and local libraries were founded
throughout the kingdom. Sir Thomas Itodlcy
founiled the great library wliich bears his name
at the 0,\ford rnivcrsity in HiO'i; and while he
was r.ansacking the Lomlon bookstalls for liis pur-
pose he encountered .•Vrclibishop I'sshcr, who was
bent on the same errand on behalf of the newly-
established librarv of Trinity College, Dublin
( KiOl ). The Bodleian Library contains over 4(K),0(I0
printed volumes and 30,000 .MSS. The university
of Edinburgh, a little later (1627), received a
valuable accession to its collection from Drumniond
of Uawthornden, and at the close of the century
( 1082) the Faculty of Advixiates entrusted to Sir
George ilackenzie the task of buihiing up their
library. The uuivei-sity liluary of ('.•imbriclge had
been founded in the loth century, but received a
considerable addition by a benefaction of Cieorge I.
It is now estimated to contain more than 200,000
volumes. In London Archbishop Bancroft f<uinded
the Lambeth Library in 1010 ; and Sioii Ccdiege, a
guild of the clergy of London and its suburbs,
loundeil a library in 1629. tJnod libraries were
also established in some of the English towns
— Leicester, Norwich, Bristol, and notably Man-
chester, where Humi)lirey Clietham in 1053 ifounded
for public use a library which at one time was
larger than any out of London and the two uni-
versity cities. The minor libraries of the several
colleges of the universities, and of the Inns of
Court, also deserve mention, for. though not always
large in number of volumes, they often contain
valuable collections on special subjects, manu-
scripts, rare printed books, and incunabula.
All these libraries, as a rule, passe.s.sed little or
no endowments, and depended largely for their
growth u|)on pri\ate donations. BiKlley, however,
obtained from the Stati(uiers' Hall in 1610 a grant
of all books there entered. By an act of iiarliament,
14 Clias. II. chap. 33 (1662), printers were ordered
to present copies of such hooks to both universities
and the royal library. The Coi>y right Act of 8
Anne, chap. 20 (1710) re(|uired nine copies to be
]irovided for the royal library, then at St James's,
th(! two English universities, the four Scottish
universities, the Faculty of Advocates, Edinburgh,
and Sion College, London. The iirivilege attached
to the royal library passed with the gift of its
books to the British JIuseuni. After the legisla-
tive union with Ireland it Wiis extended (41 Geo.
III. cliap. 107) to the libraries of Trinity College,
and the King's Inn, Dublin — thus making in all
.1, tax upon publishers of eleven copies. The num-
ber was, however, in 1S.35 reduced to live : and a
yearly grant in compensation was made to the
other six libraries, based on a calculation of the
average value of the books received by tlieiu
thnmgh the copyright ta.\ during the three pre-
ceding yeai's. From this grant IMinburgh I ni-
versity receives £575 : Glasgow, £707 ; St .Vmlicws,
£630: Aberdeen, £320; King's Inn, Dublin, £435;
ami Sion College, £363.
.-\bout the middle of the IStli century we hear of
the lii-st circulating lilirary established in London.
Gne was opened in Birmingham by Hntton in 1757.
-Vbout the s.ime time ,a prtqirietai v librarv made
its apjiearance in Liverpool. 'I'lie Leeds library, in
the estalilishment of which Dr I'riestlcy took a pro-
minent part, dates from 176H. It now contains about
80,000 volumes. Great Britain still remained in the
early years of the 19th century far beliiml the
rest of Europe in the number and value as well as
the accessibility of its libraries. Mine than three
hundred years .ago Bishop Bale lamented that there
was not in each county .at least one librarv ' for the
preservation of noble works, and preferment of
good learning.' In the ne.xt century Jidin Evelyn
ileclared that Paris ahuie was able to show more
libraries than all the three nations of ( Ireat Britain ;
and, even after the foundation of the British
Museum, (Jibbon was so little contented with its
abundance that he reciuded his opinion that "the
greatest city in the world is still destitute' of a public
library.' But in the middli' of llie lOtli century
interest in the subject was awakened, and a great
movement took place in the directiiui of extemling
anil popularising libraries. While a royal com-
mission w.as enquiiing into the management of the
British Museum, iu 1849 a .select committee, on the
t
LIBRARY
607
morion of William Ewait, M.P. for Dumfries, was
appoiiiteil by the House of Cominons to rejiort on
tlie best means of ' extending tlie establishment of
libi'aries freely open to the public, especially in
large to^^^ls in Great Britain and Ireland.' IJefore
this committee was laid a map of Europe (printed
in the report) exhiliitinj; by various shades tlie
relative provision of books, in lilirarics publicly
accessible, as compared with the population of tlie
several countries. On this map the smaller Ger-
man states are represented by tlie lij;htest lines,
indicating the richest supply, and Great Britain
^^•ith the darkest shade or poorest provision. The
statistics furnished in illustration showed that in
Saxony for everj- hundred inhabitants there were
417 books ; in Denmark, 412 ; in Bavaria, 359 ; in
Tuscany, 261 ; in Prussia, 200 ; in Austria, 167 :
in France, 129 : in Belgium, 95 ; while in Great
Britain there were only 53 books to every hundretl
inhabitants. It may be remarked that in 1S50 the
British Museum in point of magnitude stood fourth
in the list of European liluaries. It now holds the
second place. The following table shows the
increase of the European libraries at that time
containing over 400,000 \olumes in the coui'se of
the next thirty-one veal's :
1890. 1S3I.
Paris, Xational Library 824,000 2,370.000
Munich, Royal Library 600,000 1,026,000
.St Petersburg, Imperial Library 446,000 1,026,000
London, British Museum 435,000 1,550.000
Copenliagen, Roral Library 412,000 490,000
Berlin, Koval Library 410,000 766,000
.1
Mr Ewart s bill, giving power to certain districts
to establish free libraries and to tax the inhabit-
ants for that purpose, passed into law in 1850, and
has since been supplemented, amended, and ex-
tended to Ireland and Scotland bv the acts of 1855,
1866, 1871, 1877, 1SS4, I.SS7, and 1889. It is applic-
able to any borough, ilistrict, or parish, whatever
the amount of pdjiulatinn : a meeting of the rate-
payers may be obtained by the requisition of ten
of their number addressed to the town-council or
other local board, and the adoption of the act is
decided by a majority of those present at the meet-
ing, or, if the local authorities prefer it, the will of
the majority may be obtained by the issue of
voting papei'S, insteail of the convening of a public
meeting/. All such libraries are to be open to the
public nee of charge. Some of tlie larger towns at
once took advantage of tlie act. Manchester led
the way in 1S52. The libraries of Liverpool and
Birmingham were opened in 1860. Each of these
libraries now contains more than 100,000 volumes.
Yet the movement did not become general for many
years. In 1868 there were only fourteen libraries
established under the acts. Ten years later the
number had increased to eighty-one. A complete
list of places where the acts have been adopted,
with the dates of their ailoption, furnished by Mr
Greenwood in his ' Public Libraries,' brings the
number in June 1890 up to 208. Before 1886 there
were only two parishes in London jirovided with
free libraries. In 1 890 there were twenty-one estab-
lisheil within the boundaries of tlie metropolis.
The English act was extendeil to Scotland in
18.54, and the Krst town to profit by it was
.\irilrie. The free liliraiy of Dundee was founded
in ISWi, and has 70,0(X) volumes, spending annu-
ally £KKX). Edinburgh was compar.itivcly rich in
libraries belonging to professional boiiies ami
learned societies, and wsui slow to adopt the acts.
There Ls in Edinburgh or elsewhere in .Scotland no
national librarj- sujiported by the exchef|uer as in
Irelan<l ; but the Advocates' I^ibrarv, now (•ounting
320,0(X) volumes, being lilierally thrown open to all
stinlenU, served many of the purposes of such a
library ; and the Signet Library, a general collec-
tion as well as a legal libraiy {82,000 vols, in all),
founded and maintained by the Society of \Vriters
to II. M. Signet, was easy of access to strangers.
The university library contains 180,000 volumes.
In 1886, however, the city was persuaded by the
munificent donation of Mr Amlrew Carnegie to
establish the Free Public Library, which was
opened with ,50,0(10 volumes in .liiiie 1S90. Glas-
gow is still without a library under the acts, but
the deficiency is in small part sujiplied liy the
Mitchell Liliiary, founded by a beijuest of the late
Stephen Mitchell, .and opened in 1877. This
library, which has rapidly grown and is specially
rich in local literature and Scotti.-h poetry, now
contains over 80,000 volumes. It is open to all
pei-sons over fourteen years of age.
In Dublin the libraiy of Trinity College retains
the copyright privilege, and has 223, (KlO volumes.
The King's Inn libraiy, founded in 1787, which,
as has been said, had the copyright tax commuted
for an annual sum, is comparatively small (tiO,(K)0),
and restricted to members of the legal profession.
The National Libraiy of Ireland, established in
Dublin in 1877, and transferred to a new building
in 1890, w.os formed in part by the collection of the
Koyal Dublin Society, and now numbers 100,000
volumes. It was placed under the Science and Art
Department of South Kensington, and is in receipt of
an annual grant of £1000 for the purchase of books.
France is remarkable for the number and excel-
lence of its provincial libraries open to the public,
while its capital is better provided than any other
city in Europe. The Bibliotlicque Xationale,
which is the largest in the world, is of ancient
origin, and contains the collections of many French
kings. Its modern liistory may be said to date
from the librarianship of De Thou. In 1617 it
obtained the right of two copies of every book
published in the kingdom, and at the eml of the
century it was thrown open to the public. At the
beginning of the 19th century it contained 250,t)00
printed books, 83,000 JISS.,'aiid 1,5(X),000 eugrav-
ings. The Revolution enricheil it with many for-
feited collections of private persons ami religious
communities; anil Napoleon augmented the gov-
ernment grant for purchases. The number of its
volumes is now well over three million. Fourteen
other libraries, most of which are open to the
public, and to all of which access can be obtained
without ditliculty, add about 1,200.0<H) to the
number of volumes available to the Parisian reader.
There are, moreover, a number of niiinicipal
libraries in the city. The most notable provincial
libraries, from many of which books are lent out,
are — taking tliein in tlie order of magnitude —
those of Bordeaux, (iieiioble, Aix, Nantes, Besan-
con, Kouen, Troyes, and Douai ; the lii'st iiiimlier-
ing 300,000 volumes, and the last over 100,000.
An important feature of the bibliotliecal system of
F'rance is the school lilirary. In 1862 it was
ordered that to every |irimarv school in the country
there should be attached a lilnarv, under the care
of the schoolmaslcr, for the use of the children, their
parents, and others. They are supported partly
by the department and partly by a government
giant. In 1882 there were already established
under this system 20,000 of these school libraries.
Throughout the German empire the several slate
libraries and the universities are well jirovided
with books, which in many cases can be borioweil
for use outside the libraries. Berlin has over
seventy libraries. The royal libiaiy, founded in
16.59, was openeil to the public in IWil. A few years
later it became entitled to a copy of every l«)ok
publisheil within the royal dominion, ami it spends
.f48(K) a year on purcha.ses. It now contains alMint
800,000 volumes. The royal library at Munich
owes its origin to Albert V., Duke of Bavaria, iu
608
LIBRARY
the niiiWle of the 16th century. It is the largest
collection in Germany, and is j)articularly rich in
incunabula. The nuniher of juinted volumes con-
tained in it is estimateil to exceed a million, and it
possesses some 2G,000 MSS. In Dresden there are
forty-nine libraries. The royal library, founded
in the IGth century, now contains oUO.OOO volumes.
About 10,000 volumes are annually lent out to
500 borroweis. The royal library' of Stuttgart
is an e.\ample of rapid growth. It was estab-
lished in 17U.>, .■uid in 1880 boasted of possessing
about 425,000 i)riiited books and 3800 .MSS. It
enjoys the copy jirivilege of Wiirtemberg. The
annual number of borrowers is about 1800, and the
books lent out 17,000. In the Darmstadt library
there are half-a-million volumes, and as many in
the university of Leipzig. The universities of
Bonn, Berlin, Bre.slau, Gottingen, Halle, Heidel-
berg, Munich, Tiiliingen, and Wurzburg contain
from 200,000 to 400,000 volumes each ; wliile Stras-
burg University library, burned in 1870, in twenty
years' time counted 640,000.
In Austria-Hungary the universities of Cracow
and Gratz, both open to the public, contain
over 100,000 volumes, and that of Budapest
nearly half-a-million. In Vienna the imperial
library, foun<leil by the Em]>eror Frederick III.
in 1440, acquired a large portion of the famous
library of Corvinus, and since 1808 has been
entitled to the copy pri\ilege of all books pub-
lished within the empire. It is estimated to con-
tain about 500,000 volumes, of which 20,000 are
MSS. The university in the same city is also in
possession of the co])y privilege, and has about
300,000 volumes, which are freely lent out. Alto
gether there are in Vienna more than a humlred
libraries.
Italy, as might be expected, is rich in old
libraries, in incunabula, and manuscripts. The
national library of Florence has over 400,000
volumes, the national liljrary of Milan has .300,000,
and lh;it of Venice has the same. The royal library
of Parma has nearly 200,000, and Milan ])ossesses
two libraries with as manv. The universities of
Bologna, Genoa, Naples, tisa, and Turin have
libraries of the first class. But all these yield in
interest to the Vatican Library at Rome, which is
probably the oldest in Europe. In mere number
of books it is exceeded by numy, but its 220,000
printed volumes are of the greatest value, and
its 2.">,000 MSS. include some of the most
Jireciou.-* in the world. The Vatican is the private
ibrary of the pope, but scholars can gain access
to it by jiermission. As yet, tinfortunately, the
want of catalogues is a drawback to its usefulness.
In Kome, also, the pulilic lilirary, Vittorio Eman-
uele, to which has Ijeen joined the Bibliutheca
Ca.sanalense, founded by Cardinal Casauata in
1700, was made up in great part from the old
Jesuit library of the Collegio Romano and other
suppressed religious institutions, and now contains
about half-a-million printed volumes and 7500
MSS. The conliscated monastic libraries helped
largely to swell the aggregate number of volumes
available for ])ublic u.se. In 1875 it apjicars that
650 of these collections were added to the contents
of public libraries already in existence, while lus
many as 1050 were used for the formation of more
than 400 new comnninal libraries. In Italy all
the i)ublic libraries, thirty-two in number, including
the national libraries, the university libnirics, ami
the collections of certain academies, are under the
authority of the minister of Public Instruction,
and their internal management, even to the
comi)ilation of their catalogues, the keeping of
registei-s, and the ])urch;ise of books, is regulated
by a code of rules emanating from the state.
Ill iSpain the national library at Madrid is of the
largest class, with 10,000 MSS. and more than
400,000 printed vohimes. It enjoys the copy-
right jirivile™ for all books published in the
kingdom. The Escorial, thougli much smaller,
is valuable, and the same may be said of the
university library of Salamanca. The national
library of Lisbon has as many ^ISS. as that of
Madrid, and half as many printed books. The
large municipal library of Oporto, founded in 1833,
was enriclie<l by the collections of sujipressed
religious houses. Both these libraries claim
copies of all books published in Portugal.
In Belgium there are ten large libraries open to
the public. The Bibliotheciue Royale at Brussels
(with which were incorporated the ancient library
of the dukes of Burgundy and a large part of the
Bollandists' collection ) contains more than 350,000
volumes, 30,000 MSS., and 100,000 prints. The
privilege of coi)ynght is accorded to publishers
only on the condition of their presenting copies
of their publication to this library. The university
libraries of Ghent and Louvain contain over 250,000
vohimes, and that of Liege more than 100,000.
In Holland there are libraries, o]ien to all
inquirers, containing from 100,000 to more than
double that number in Amsterdam, the Hague
(royal library), Leyden, and Ftrecht.
In IX'iimark the royal Hbr.irv of Coiienhagen,
begun in the middle of the lOtli centurv, has more
than half-a-million of vidumes, including a rich
collection of incunabula and 18,000 MSS. It
was opened to the public in 1793, and exacts
two copies of all books published in the kingdom.
The university librarv in the same city has about
250,000 printed volu'nu's and 4000 MSS., and also
enjoys the privilege of the national coj)y tax.
The largest collection in Sweden is the royal
library of Stockholm, with about 270,000 volumes.
The university librarv of Upsala is not far behind.
The university library of Christiania, in Norway,
contains about 250,000 volumes.
In Russia the universities of Dorpat, Helsingfors,
Kieff, Moscow, and St Petersburg have libraries
of more than 100,000 volumes each, but they are
not generally open to other than members of the
several bodies. The imiierial library at St Peters-
burg, founded at the beginning of the 18th century,
is, however, open to all ])ersoiis over twelve years
of age, and in the number of its |irinled books as
well its manuscripts it sur|iasses the royal library
of Munich, posse.ssing as it does about 1,1.52,000
printed volumes and about 26,000 jSISS., some of
which are of the highest \ alue. Here is preserved
the famous Code.x Sinaiticus. This library has
grown largely since the beginning of the 19th
century. It lias more than <loubled since 1850.
In 1810 the law re(|uired two copies of every
publication in the emiiiie to l>e deposited here.
The United States of .\merica liave not had the
o^)l>ortunities of Euroiie in the gradual accumulation
oi princely collections in the course of centuries,
or the advantages possessed by France or Italy in
the more recent ai)|>ropriation of the books and
treasures of monastic houses. Moreover, the
States, until 1850, showed comparatively little
interest in the institution of public libraries outside
the universities. In that year the total number of
libraries containing' 5000 volumes or ujjwards which
could be said to \>e accessible to the public was
estimated at eighty-one, containing among them
an aggregate of 980,413 volumes — considerably less
than the total number of volumes to be found in
the single city of Paris. The movement in favour
of free public libraries took place in America about
the .same time as in Englatid, and since that date
nowhere ha.s the accumulation of books been 80
rapid as in the States, ami nowhere ha.s the
economy and management of free public libraries
LIBRARY
LIBRETTO
609
been carried to greater perfection. In 1876 the
nuiiilier of public libraries rejrfstered was 3842,
ccmtaiiiing upwards of 12,u69,0l»0 volumes. In
the middle of the century there wa.s no library
in the States with a.s many as 75,000 volumes.
In 1890 there were at least a dozen witli over 100,000.
Among the older collections the most notable is
that of Harvard I'niversity, established in 1638.
In 18r)0 it was estimated to contain in all 72,000
volumes. The number has now risen to more than
250,000, and it increases at the rate of 7000 volumes
annually. Yale College, New Haven, which had in
1850 some 21,000 volumes, miw has about 180,000.
Official libraries have been formed in eoimectiou
with every state, to which admission is free. The
largest of these is the libr.ary of the state of New
York at Albany, numbering about 140,000 volumes.
The library of congress at Washington, which
includes the scientilic collection of the Smith-
sonian Institution, is the national library of the
United States. It claims, under the copyright
laws, two copies of every publication, and has in
addition an annual grant from congress of nearly
S60,000. The building now in course of erection
will when completed be the largest national library
in any country. Of the free town libraries the
most important is that of Boston, founded in 1852.
In 1881 it had 395,000 volumes, and now has
620,000. In Pennsylvania there are 433 libraries,
with a gross total of about two million volumes.
Other great libraries have been established and en-
dowed for public use by the munificence of private
individuals. The Astor Library at New York,
founded by Jacob Astor and augmented by his son
and gramfson. w.os opene<l in 1854, and was able
to spend on books §18,000 a year. The Lenox
Library, also at New York, was established in
1870 by Mr James Lenox, who left an endowment
of over a million dollars. The Astor, Lenox, and
Tilden Libraries were incorporated liy a law of
1895 into one having 4,000,000 volumes and an
endowment of 88,000,000. Another notable dona-
tion was the Newberry bequest, which became
available in 1885, of more than two million dollare
for the establishment of a free public library in the
north division of Cliieago.
In Canada, as vet, there are but few public
libraries. That of Toronto, established in 1883,
has, however, been a marked success. It now
contains about 58,000 volumes. The library of
parliament at Ottawa, founded in 1815, has over
100,000 volumes. In ^Australasia the library move-
ment is striking deeper root. It was calculated in
1887 that there was a i)ublic library in Victoria for
every 4H00 of the inhahitants, as against one for
every 277,000 in the United Kingdom. There are
in Victoria 425 libraries. The Melbourne public
library, founded in 1853, has by the Copyright Act
of Victoria privileges like tho'se possessed by the
IJritish Museum, and contains 430,000 volumes,
pamphlets, and parts. In South Australia there
are 140 imblic libraries, ami in New South Wales
160. In 1896 there were in New Zealand 304, and
in Tasmania 40 libraries.
The literature of the subject is a large one. Mono-
gra])hs have been written on the principal libraries,
ancient and modem ; and reports on the national libraries
have been issued from time to time by the governments
of France, Italy, United .States, &c. The most complete
general history will be found in the valuable series of
works by Mr Edwards, already referred to, Memoirs of
Libraries {2 vols. 8vo, 18.~>1>), Libraries and Foundcm
of Librariei (18C5), Free I'oun Libraries (1869); and
Free Public Libraries, by T. Greenwood (3d ed. Lond.
ISy^J ). See also the Report from the Select Committee
on Public Libraries (1849, 3.">7 pp. fol. ); an international
U.st of libraries ( Leip. 1890 ), by P. E. Riehtcr ; How U>
Form a Librar;/, by H. B. Whoatley (1880); The
Lihrani, by A. Lang (1888) ; G. F. Chambers, Digest of
299
the Lavs of Piihlic Libraries (1889); the little treatise
of Mr J. r>. Mullins on Free Libraries and JVeics Rooms,
On the subject of librarj* manaj;enient and cognate sub-
jects nmch practical information will be found in the
volumes of The Librari/ Journal (1876 to the present
time), >fcw York; the Transactions and Proceedings
of the Librari/ Associxitlon of the United Kiniidom, and
in The Lihrarii, the present organ of the association,
edited by Mr M'Alister. Petzhuldt's Katechismas der
Bibliothekenlehre will be found a useful hand-book.
Compare also the articles Bibliography, Books, Book-
Bi.vDiNG, Indexing, &c.
Libratioil (from Lat. Jihrci, ' a balance,' mean-
ing an oscillating motion), a term denoting certain
movements of the moon, chiefly aj/jxirc/it, which
have an important effect on the ajiparent position
of the lunar formations. A short study of the.se
reveals puzzling changes in their place from night
to night. Those near the ed^e of tlie disc disappear
and reappear in a seemingly irregular way, while
central formations approach or leave the centre in
harnu)ny with this motion. These appearances are
due to an apparent motion of the moon by which
its globe seems to turn slightly round to each side
alternately, so that we see a little further round
lier globe on all sides in turn than we would do
if she kept absolutely the same face towards us.
This motion, as it refers to the north and south
edges of the moon's disc, is called libration in lati-
tude ; as it refers to the east and west edges, it is
called libration in longitude. The libration in lati-
tude arises from the inclination of Ijoth the lunar
equator and orbit to the ecliptic. From the relation
between these two factors tlieir eflects always rein-
force each other, so tliat when the moon rises above
the ecliptic in her orbit she also inclines her under
side to us, and when below the ecliptic, her upper
siile. The libration in longitude arises from the un-
equal speed of the moon in her orl)it (see MooN')
condjined with her sensibly uniform rotation. She
is thus sometimes before or behind her mean place,
and we can see a little round her west or east edge
respectively. An observer at the north or south pole
of tlie earth will also from his jiosition see a little
nmnd the north or south edge of the moon's disc, and
for intermediate positions the etiect has intermediate
values. In the same way an observer in the tropics
will see further round the west or east edges of the
moon, as he is carried from west to east by the
earth's rotation. These effects are known as the
diurnal or pnredlactic libration. The maximum
libration in lon'gitude is nearly 6° 50'. That in
Latitude equals 7" 53'. The diurnal libration may
rise to 1 2'. These numbers refer to the apparent
displacement of lunar markings in lunar latitude
and longitude.
Lihrotto (Ital., 'little book'), the book of an
opera. lu too many cases it is deplorable, from
the absence of any literary quality, plot, or con-
sistency ; and this largely because, almost from the
lieginning, any j)oetic or dramatic powers were
forced into the I'rocrustes' beil formed by the re-
quirements of the musician's art. The Italian
librettos are especially jmor, but many of their
English and German rivals run them hard in this
respect. Among the most noteworthy librettists
havelieen Metastasio, Calzabigi, ami I-'clice Romano
in Italy ; Quinault, Marmontel, Scribe, Harbier,
Meilhac and Halcvy, as well a,s Sardou, in France;
the poet tieibel ( who wrote I^ordctj for Mendels-
sohn) and Schikancder (who wrote the Zauber-
fldte, !kc. for Mozart) in Ciermany ; and (iay,
Alfred liunn, Kdward Fitzball, Theodore Hook,
Phanch(^, and (iilbert in England. Wagner stands
alone, in that, after the Fli/ini/ Dutchman, he
himself wrote the liljrettos of liis great music-
dramas, becoming, to use his own wonls, * first
of all a poet.' IJryden, Addison, Fielding, Chat-
610
LIBRI-CARRUCCI
LICENSING LAWS
teiton, ' Monk ' Lewis, Voltaire, and Rousseau,
besides Sheridan, Diclvcns, and Marie Lemon, have
attempted liliretto-writing ; while numerous sub-
jects tor operas have been taken from the works
of Shakespeare, Goldsmith, tioethe, Scott, Hugo,
&c.
Libri-Carriirci, Guii.laume Brutus Icilius
TiMOLEON', C'olXT, matlicmatioian and biblio-
^aplier, was born at Klorence, '2d Jainiary 1803.
AVhen only twenty years of age he was appointed
professor of Mathematics in the university of Pisa.
But in 1830, being compromiseii in the Liberal poli-
tical nuivement, he llect to France as a refugee, and
there fouinl a patron in Arago ( whom he afterwards
attacked in a most spiteful manner). He was
naturalised, and in 1833 elected member of the
Academy of Sciences, professor at the Sorbonne,
Chief Inspector of Public Instruction, and Super-
intendent of the State Libraries. He was, more-
over, decorated with the Legion of Honour, and
appointed editor of the Journal des Savants, &c.
An enthusiastic bibliomaniac, he found means to
collect a magnificent library for himself: but, be-
ing accused of abstracting hooks and valuable MSS.
from the pul>lic libraries, he lied to England. In
his absence he was tried, and condemned, in June
1850, to ten years' inii)risounient. Lihri-Carrucci
was the author of a learned Histoire des Sciences
MatlUmatiqucs en Italie (4 vols. 1838-11), of
MImoires de Muthimatiques et de Physique (\%29),
and other works. He died on 28th September 18G9
at Fiesole in Italy.
Libi'is, Ex. See Bookpl.vtes.
Libya, the name given by the ancient geo-
graphers to that portion of Africa (q. v.) between
Egypt, Ethiojiia, and the Atlantic.
Lice {Pa/iculidm), a family of small, wingless,
parasitic insects, included beside bugs, aphides,
Coccidie, &c. in the order Hemii)tera or Hhynchota.
The body is tiat, thc^ legs are short and furnished
with firmly -grasping claws, the mouth is suctorial,
the eyes are simple. They live on or partly in the
skin of vertebrates, usually mammals, and suck
the blood of their hosts. The pear-shaped eggs or
' nits ' are attached to hairs,
feathers, and the like ; the young
have no metamorphosis, thougii
they may moult as usual. Three
species occur on man. The head-
louse (Pediculus capitis) occurs on
the scalp ; the body-louse (P. eesti-
7nenti) lays its eggs in clothes, and
is the P. tabcscnitium of the ' lousy
di.sease' in regard to which many
fabulous reports are on record.
Both multiply rapidly and give
PerficuZus capitis, great annoyance, usually prevent-
magnified. able by cleanliness, and removable
by various (e.g. white precipitate)
ointments in the first case, by destroying the clothes
in thesecond. The 'crab-louse' {PIdhirius jiiibisox
inguimdis) is fortunately rarer; it occurs on various
parts of the body — pubic regions, a.\illa, eyebrows,
■&c. The true lice harboured by dogs, horses,
cattle, swine, &c. are referred to the genus Hicman-
topinus. The 'bird-lice' ( Mallophaga) have mouths
aila))ted for biting, and are not included in the above
family or even (mler, being more nearly allied to
the termites than to the bugs. A common and
large genus infesting birils is Philopterus ; species
of Tricliodectes occur on dogs and sheep.
Lieen.SC. See G.vme, Doo, Marriage, Ex-
cise, vV.C.
Lieeiisili;; La>V.S. From an early ])erioil the
English parliament devoted special attention to the
trade in intoxicating liquors. That trade was
always the chief source of the revenue derived fronj
excise duties and licenses. A "eneral scheme of
excise formed part of Pitt's budget of 1784, and
was embodied in the Consolidation Act of 18'26,
which is the basis of the existing law. In 1880 the
malt duty was abolislieil ; but brewei's and distillers
are still recpiired to take (mt an excise license and
to j)ay duty according to the quantity manu-
factured. Wholesale or retail dealers in beer,
spirits, or wine must also take out a license. The
duties on retailei's' licenses were transferred to the
county councils by the Local Government Act of
1888.
In the case of the manufacturer and the whole-
.sale dealer only the excise license is required ; but
the retail trade in liquor has been placed, for more
than three centuries, under the supervision of the
justices of the peace. Every person who keejjs or
intends to keep a public-house must obtain a license
from the magistrates before taking out bis excise
license. An act of 1830 ])ermitted beer licenses to
be taken out without applying to the magistrates ;
but later acts have brought all beerhouses and
refreshment-houses under their control. I'luler the
general Licensing Act of 18'28 special sessions aie
held once a year for the grant and renewal of
licenses, and at intervals throughout the year to
hear applications for transfer. In counties new
licenses are granted Ijv the special sessions, but
they must be conlirmed by a committee of the
county justices. In boroughs ha\ ing ten or more
acting justices, new licenses are granleil by a com-
mittee and confirmed by the whole body of justices.
The license thus granted and confirmed is in force
for a year. On applying for a renewal the a]ipli-
cant need not attend in person unless rei|uirc'd by
the justices to do so ; objectors are not heard unless
due notice has been given to the aiqilicant, and
evidence must be given on oath. jVIagistrates in
licensing se.ssions are deemed to be acting judici-
ally ; they must hear the ])arties fairly ; but they
have discretion to grant or refuse any ajqilication,
and there is no appeal from their decision on the
application for a new license. Even a license-holder
cannot claim renewal as a right ; he has no vested
interest. But renewal is, in fact, veiy seldom
refused to persons of decent character, occujiying
suitable premises ; and the practice of the magis-
trates has made license-bidders so far secure that
a license is treated, for certain purposes, as if it
were a vested interest. Probate ihity is paid on
the value of a license held bv a deceased person ;
but his representatives may oljtain a return of the
duty if the magistrates refuse to renew. Licenses
for the sale of drink to be consumed oil' the i)remises
are subject to rules less strict than those which
apply to the publican's license. The 'oil' license'
rcipiires no confirmation ; and the groniuls on
which it may be refused are limited and delined by
the Wine and Beerhouse Act of bstifl. For the
detaileil jirovisions of the acts relating to this sub-
ject, see Stone's Justices' Manual.
The English licensing acts are complicated and
confused ; hut parliament is unable to deal with
the subject as a whole, by reason of the cimtro-
versies which have been raised on jiarticular points.
There are now very few ad\ocates of ' free trade in
litpior ;' nor is there any strong body of opinion in
favour of the American high-license .system, or of
the 'Gothenburg system,' under which the munici-
palities would take over the liquor shiq>s and
manage them in the interest of the comnnmily.
In England all parties seem to ailmil that the
trade must be restricted as far as possible. Mr
Bruce's Act of 187'2 ( modified in some of its details
by the Act of 1S74) restricted the is.sue of new
licenses, subjected tlie publican's tra<lo to stricter
supervision, increased the penalties for misconduct,
LICENTIATE
LICHENS
611
ami shortened tlie lioni-s within wliicli liquor may
be sold. Since the passinj; of the Ait ot 1S7'2 no
very important change lias been made in the law ;
Imt the temperance party has put tcnward \arious
schemes of local option, by which it is proposed to
enable a majority of the ratepayers in a district to
reduce the numlier of licensed houses, or even to
prohibit the sale of liriuor altogether. In 1890
the government projiosed to arm the county
councils with powers which might have enabled
them to reiluce the inimlier of iniblic-honses. But
the scheme of compensation p\it forward by the
government was so ill received tliat they were com-
pelled to drop their proposals.
In Scotlanil the licensing arrangements intro-
duced by the Home Drummond Act of 1S'2S bear a
general resemblance to those which were estab-
lished by the English act of the same year. The
Forbes ^^ackenzie Act of 1853 introduced a new
form of magistrates' certilicate (since amended by
acts of 1862 and 1887), the effect of which is to
prohibit the sale of liquor between the liours of
11 P.Jr. in large towns, or 10 P.M. in the country,
and 8 A.M., and during the whole of Sunday. The
question of grocers' licenses has been much dis-
eu.ssed in Scotland, and in 1878 a Royal Commis-
sion reported on the subject. See Dewar's Liquor
Laws for Smtland.
In Ireland licensing authority is exercised, as a
general rule, by justices of the peace, and the law
is similar to that of England : it is, however, in
some points more favourable to the publican. The
defects of the law and the la.xity with which it is
administered have led to the multiplication of
licensed houses of an infeiior character. ' Six-day
licenses' were introduced by an act of 1874 ; and in
1878 total closing on Sunday was made part of the
law for all Ireland, except in the five largest towns
in the island. See Exci.SE, Inn, Temperance ; and
for restrictive legislation with regard to the sale
of intoxicating drinks in the British colonies and
in portions of the United State.*, see LiQUOR L.A.WS.
Licentiate, one of the old univei-sity Degrees
(q.v. ). Among Presbyterians a licentiate is a per-
son licensed or authorised by a ijresbyteiy to preach,
and who thus becomes eligible to a pastoral charge.
Licben. the name of a group of skin diseases,
very variously employed b}- ditlerent writers, but
now "enerally restricted to cases characterised liy
' the development of solid persistent papules which
undergo but little change till they gradually dis-
appear.' The commoner Ekin-eruptions formerly
called lichen, L. simplex and L. tropicus (or
'prickly-heat'), are abortive forms of^ eczema.
Jsone of those retained under this name is common.
L. eircumsrriptus occurs in bright red ])atches on
the back or front of the chest in adults, apparently
from the irritation of thick woollen garments worn
next the skin. L. xrrofutosorum is a pale, very
chronic papular eruption, sometimes seen in deli-
cate children. L. planus or ruber is the most
characteristic and important of the group : it
manifests itself in raised Hat patches, of a dull-
red colour, usually very chronic in their course,
often somewhat itchy. It does not usually inter-
fere much with the health : ocelli's generally in
adults, never in young children ; and commonly
yields to treatment by arsenic.
Liehenill is a starch like body found in Iceland
moss an<l other lichens, from which it is extracted
by digesting the moss in a cold, weak solution of
carbonate of soda for some time, and then boiling.
In most of its relations it corresponds with ordinaiy
starch.
Lii'hen.S, familiar plants which form encrusting
CTowths on rocks and stones, on the stems and
branches of trees, on walls and fences, and on the
earth itself. They are common in every zone, and
at all levels from the .seashore to the numntain
summit. Usually the tirst plants to settle on a
bare, stony surface, they slowly hide the naked-
ness of the rock with their (lat incrustations or
shaggy tufts, generally "ray or greenish, yellow or
red in colour. Especially familiar are the yellow
patches which beautify old walls, the hoary tufts
which grace decaying trees, and the gray elniiips
which raise their cup-like fructifications on damp
rocks. They are hardy, long-lived plants, able to
survi\'e prolonged desiccation.
In 18GG I)e Bary hinted that lichens were not
single plants in a class by themselves, but that
they were double plants, each made up of an
intimate combination of an alga and a fungus.
Two years later
S c h w e n d e n e r a
virtually estab-
lished this so-
called ' dual
hypothesi s. '
' As the result
of my re-
searches,' he
says, 'all these
growths ( lich-
ens ) are not
simple plants,
not individuals
in the ordinary
sense of the
word ; they are
rather colonies,
consisting of
hundreds and
thousands of
individual s,
among which,
however, one
dominates,
while the rest
in perpetual
captivity pre-
pare the nutri-
ment for them-
selves and their master. This master is a fungus,
a parasite which is accustomed to live upon others'
work ; its sla\es are green alga>, which it has
sought out, or indeed caught hold of and com-
pelled into its service. It surrounds them, as
a spider its prey, with a fibious net of narrow
meshes, which is gradually converted into an im-
penetrable covering; but, while the spider sucks
its prey and leaves it dead, the fungus incites
the algal found in its net to more rapid activity,
indeed to more vigorous increase.' This view has
been corrobonitcil by many botanists, especially by
Hornet, Treub,
Kees,andStahl,
and is accepted
by most, though
it is only fair to
say that it is
still denied and
resented by
some distin-
guished licheno-
logists. The
l)roof of the
theoiy is two-
fold : the two
component sets
of cells have
been studied apart and referred to their position
among Alg.c and Fungi : while, on the oilier hand,
it is possible to manufacture lichens by bringing
together the respective alga; and fungi which in
Fig. 1. — Usnea larbata, a fruticose
lichen, natural size :
a, fructificatioiis ; /, disc by wliicli it is
attached to the bark of 'the tree.
Fig. 2. — Section through Colhma
putjjoifumj niagniticd 350 diameters :
The tlireads are the fungus; the round
colts thcalKn^
612
LICHFIELD
LICHTENSTEIX
nature are wont to grow in jiartnership. For these
reasons liolu'ns are regariIo(l not as single, l>ut as
double organisms — as an intimate union of algal
and fungal cells, living in mutual helpfuluess or
symbiosis. Some at least of the algal cells can live
apart, and some hccome a.ssooiatod with several
fungi to form ilillerent liclieiis ; hut it must he
clearly recognised that the customary conihinations
are of long standing, since the partner fungi do not
and cannot Uvc independently. As to the physio-
logical conditi us of the partnershi]), it is enough
here to notice that root-like filaments from the
fungal cells absorb water and salts from the rain
and the substratum, and pass this inorganic
material to the alga' ; that the latter, like all green
plants, are able in sunlight to split up the carbonic
acid absorbeil from the air, and to build up organic
compounds like starch ; that these organic products
pass by osmosis from the algal-cells to the fungus,
while it is likely enough that the waste products
of the fungus are in turn utilised by the alga.
(It is, however, quite probable that the fungi of
some lichens in favourable situations among decom-
posinr' vegetable matter absorb this in the usual
lungiil fashion.) To the curious complementary
association of fungi and algae to form lichens, a
parallel has been demonstrated by Geddes, Brandt,
and others, in regard to Radiolarians and some
other animals, with which 'yellow cells,' or '.sym-
biotic alg;e,' live in habitual partnership (see
SvMBlosi.s). Lichens propagate by spores de-
veloped in various ways from the component
fungus, but with these the partner alg.'e uuist be
speedily associated. In some cases, indeed, fungal-
spores and algal-cells are liberated together. An-
other frequent mode of multiplication is by means
of brood-buds, which consist of a few algal-cells
plus a separated portion of the fungus.
Most of the lichen-forming fungi are Discomy-
cetes or Pyrenomycetes ; the associated alg;e are
very varied — e.g. Palmellacea>, Chroolepideu", Nos-
tocaceaj, Confervacea^, &c. There are about 6000
species of lichens, for the classitication of which
reference nuist be made to the cited literatuie.
Lichens assist in weathering the surfaces of rocks,
into the substance of which the fungi sometimes
send numerous filaments, and they are thus the
preparers of soil and the forerunnere of higher
vegetation. 'Iceland ^SIoss' {Cetraria islandica)
is used for food and medicine ; ' Reindeer Moss '
( Cliidonia ranqifcrinn ) is the fodder of the reindeer,
and is also utilised in Scandinavia for the manufac-
ture of a sort of brandy ; pigments known as
Litmus, Orseille, &.c. are procured from Roccella
tinctoria and E. fuciformis, both marine.
See ALG.e, Fungi, Stmbiosis. See also De Bary, Com-
paratire Morphology of Futuii, &c. (trans. 1887); A.
W. Bennett and G. Murray, Handbook of CrypUujamic
Botany (1880); Bornet, Michcyc/ics aur lea (ronidics dfs
Lichens (Ann. Sc. Nat. xvii. and xix. 1873-75); K.
Goebcl, Outlines of Classif. and Morph. (trans. 1887);
Cli. Luersson, Med. Phann. Botanik (1878); Schwen-
dener. Die Al'jenti/pen d. FiechUnqonidien (ISGO); Sachs,
Text-book of Botany (trans. 1882); Stahl, Beitr. z.
Entwiekelung d. Flechten ( 1877-78 ) ; W. A. Leij,'hton,
Liehen-fiora of Crreat Britain and Ireland {3d ed. 1884).
For the works of Johow, Kees, Treub, Tulasno, and for
the systematic works on lichenology, see references in the
above. For a protest against the ' dual hyi)othesis,' see
il. C. Cooke, Britisli. Fresh-water Alga ( Inter. Sc. Series,
1890).
Licllfii'ldt a municipal (and till 1885 parlia-
mentary ) borough of StalVordshire, and the seat of
a bishopric, is pleasantly situated in a valley
watered by an allluent of the Trent, 15 miles Sh.
of Stafh)rd and 118 NW. of London. Population
(1801) 4712; (1881) 8;J49. Its cathedral— a noble
pile, measurini' 411 feet by G6 (or 149 across the
trausepta), and surmounted by three to were with
spires, the central 258 feet high — dates from the
13th century, when the Mercian see, founded in
656, and constituted an archbishopric 786-800, was
after its translation to Chester in 1075, and siibse-
cpiently thence to Coventry, reestablished here at
its original seat. Despoilecl, and with its central
tower beaten down during the siege of Lichfield by
the parliamentarians (1043), the cathedral was
subsequently (1661-70) etl'ectively repaired, and of
late years (1860-84) both the e.\terior and interior
have been most ably restored at a cost exceeding
£40,000, whilst in 1885 a statue of Queen Victoria
by the Princess Louise was i)laced in a niche of
the building. At the north-east angle of the Close,
adjoining the cathedral, is the Bishop's Palace
( 1687 ), and hard by once stood the castle ( of which
no traces now remain) in which Kichard II. held
high revelry at Christmas 1397, and where two
years later, after his deposition from the throne,
he was confined a prisoner. Amongst other edifices
may be noted the grammar-school, at which
Addison, Dr Johnson, and Garriek were educated ;
two hospitals founded 1495 and 1504 : the theo-
logical college (1857); and a concert hall occupy-
ing the site of the theatre at which ^Irs Siddons
made her first appearance after her marriage. In
the history of tlie town the i)rincipal incidents,
other than those noticed above, have been its
partial destruction by fire ( 1291 ) ; five visitations
of the plague, which in 1594 claimed 1100 victims,
and 821 in 1645-46; a "reat storm (1593) which
blew down the steeples of two of its churches ; and
seven royal visits. Its 87 bisho])s include St Chad,
De Clinton (who commenced the cathedral), De
Langton (who added the Lady Chapel, now thrown
into the choir, and rich in stained glass brought in
1802 from the dissolved monastery of Herckenrode
in Belgium), Abbot, afterwards Archbishop of
Canterlinry ; Hacket ( who carried out the restora-
tions of 1661-70), Hurd (the tutor of George IV.),
and George Augustus Selwyn. A statue of Dr
.Johnson was erected in 1838 in the market-place,
opposite the house in which he was born, and which
was bought by a Mr Johnson in 18S7 'to save it
from the hands of spoilers' {jS'utcs and Queries,
November 19, 1887). Among residents or natives
have been Ashmole (founder of the Ashmolean
Museum at Oxford), i$Lshop Newton, Dr Darwin,
and his biographer Miss Seward, and llonora
Sneyd, afterwards ^Irs Edgeworth. Lichfield
gives the title of Earl to the family of Anson.
See Harwood's Lichjidd (1806), Erdeswick's Staf-
fordshire (revised ed. 1844), and Beresford's Lich-
field ( ' Dioce-san Histories ' series, 1883).
Licliteiiborg, Georc Chiustoph, physicist
and satirist, was born on 1st .luly 1742, at Oberram-
stadt near Darmstadt, and educated at (iottingen,
where he held the chair of Mathematics from 1770
till within a few years of his death, on 24th
February 1799. Two visits to England (1769 and
1774) inspired him with a love for things English ;
he had a great admiration for (Jarrick, and wrote
a witty commentary on Hogarth's copperplates,
Ausfiihrliche Er/ctiiriinff der Hogartlisclien hnjfcr-
stiche (1794 et scq.). In Germany he enjoys a high
reputation as a satirist, Lavater being an esjiecial
sufferer at his hands. All his writings were desul-
tory and occasional, and mostly seini-i>hilosopbical
in spirit ; they show a keen insight into human
nature. The best collected edition is that by his
sons, 14 vols. 1844-53. See Grisebach's Gedanhen
und Maximal aus Lichtenberg' s Sclirifteii (with
biography, 1871), and Meyer's comparative study
of Swift aiul Lichtenberg (1886).
LicllteilSteill. a town of Sa.\ony, on the Rod-
litz, 45 miles SSE. of Leipzig. Pop. 5395. See
also LlECHTK.NSTEIX.
LICK OBSERVATORY
LIEBIG
613
Lick Observatory is 'milt on the lowest
(4227 feet) of the three summits of Mount Hamil-
ton, 20 miles hy a line mountainioad E. of San
Jose, California. For its erection and equipment
$700,000 were left by James Lick (1796-1876), an
American millionaire, whose remains are interred
in a vault within the foundations of the pier that
supports the great telescope. This instrument ha-s
an object-glass of 36 inches in aperture, the founder
requiring it to be ' superior to and more powerful
than any telescope ever yet made ; ' and it is pro-
vided with a photographic attachment which enables
it to be used as a gigantic camera in the photo-
grajiliy of stars. "When completed the observatory
was made over to the University of California. See
Professor Holden's Handbook of the Lick Observatory
(San Francisco, 1888).
Lietors. See Consul, Fasces.
Liddell. Hexry George, joint author of
Lidtlell and Scoffs Greek Lexicon, was born in
1811, and educated at Charterhouse and Christ
Church, Oxford, where he took a double first
in 18.33. He was made tutor of his college, and
in 1845 professor of Moral Philosophy in his
university. After acting for nine years ( 1846-
55) as head-master of Westminster School, he
returned to Christ Church as dean. From 1870
to 1874 he was vice-chancellor of the university.
The Lexicon (1843; 7th and delinitive ed. 1883)
was based on the German one of Passow. It soon
became indispensable to students of Greek, and a
smaller edition was issued for the use of school-
boys, an intermediate one in 1S90. Dr Liddell's
fellow-worker was Robert Scott, D.D. (lSll-87),
master of Balliol (1854-70), and Dean of Rochester.
Dr Liddell wrote a useful History of Rome (lUba ;
abridged as Tin: Student's Home). He resigned the
deanship in 1891, and died ISth January 1S98. See
Life Ijy Thompson (1S99).
Liddesdale, Kuxburghshire, the valley of the
Liddel, which flows 27 miles SSW. near or along
the Border (q.y. ) to the Esk 12 miles X. of Carlisle.
Liddon, Henky P.\rey, D.D., was born at
North Stoneham, Hampshire, 20th August 1829,
the son of a naval captain, and at the age of seven-
teen went up from King's College School, London,
to Christ Church, Oxford, where in 18.50 he
graduated B.A. with a second-class in classics,
and in 1851 obtained the coveted Johnson theo-
logical scholarship. Ordained in 1852 as senior
student or fellow of Christ Church, from 1854 to
1859 he was vice-piincipal of Cuddcsdon Theological
College. He was appointed prebendary of Salis-
bury Cathedral in 1864, and was select preacher at
Oxford in 1863-65, 1870-72, 1877-79, and 1884.
Dr Liddon was a member of the Hebdomadal
Council at Oxford from 1866 to 1875. In tlie
former year he delivered Iiis famous Eampton
Lectures on tlie Diciniti/ of Our Lord (1867 ; 13th
ed. 1889). In 1870 Dr i.iddon was created Canon
Kesidentiarj- of St Pauls Cathedral, and in the
same year was appointed Ireland professor of the
Exe^'esis of the Holy Scripture in Oxford Uni-
versity, when he was created D.D. and honorary
D.C.L. He resigned the Ireland profcssorshi]) in
October 1882 in consequence of ill-health, and
owing to the same cau.se it is understood that he
m'lre than once aftej-wards declined a bishopric.
In 1869 he republished from the Guardian a
sketch of 'Walter Kerr Hamilton, Bishop of
Salisbury.' He eilited in 1874 liishop Andrcices'
Manual for the Sick, Dr Pusey's Prayers for a
School liny in 1883; issued a selection of Private
Prayers in 1884; and in conjunction with Dr
William Bright wrote the Enyltsh Church Defence
Tracts. Canon Liildon's senimns have exercised
a profound iulluence upon the thought of the
time, and many of them have been published,
including those upon his friends Pusey and Bishop
Wilberforce, the sermons preached before the uni-
versity of Oxford, Lent lectures, and discourses on
church troubles. Dr Liddon strongly opposed the
Cluircli Discipline Act of 1874, and as warmly
supported (by letters in the I'imcs) Mr filadstones
crusade against the Bulgarian atrocities in 1876.
He took a great interest in the Conference for the
Reunion of the Churches held at Bonn in 1875, and
translated Professor Reusch's account of the con-
ference, writing also a preface for the same work.
Canon Liddon was the most able and eloquent expo-
nent of Liberal Hi^h Church ]5rincii)les. He had Ion"
been engaged on the Life of Dr I'usey, when he died
suddenly at Weston-super-Mare, 9tli September 1890.
Lie. Jox.\s, the most popular novelist of Norway,
was horn at Eker, near Drammen, on 6th November
1833. He studied law at Christiania, and practised
as an advocate for a few years at Kongsviiiger ; but
at length he abandoned his profession for literature.
His novels give admirable realistic j)ictures of life in
Norway, especially of the fisher-folk of the west
coast. His popularity is due to the sunshine of
kindliness and delicate poetiy that lights up his
books, to the healthy tone of his writing, his fidelity
to nature, and his genial humour. His best novels
include The Visionary (1870, trans. 1S94), wliich
rapidly ran through half-a-dozen editions ; The
Three-master 'Future' (1872): The Pilot and his
Wife (1874; Eng. trans. 1877), of which five
editions were exhausted in the first year ; Go on
( 1SS2) ; A Prisoner for Life ( 1883) : The Fami/i/ at
Gdje {iSS3], his best novel; A Whirlpool (l»Si) ;
The Cmnmander's Bauffhtcrs (\SSG) : the excellent
Married Life {,1%^',) ; and Maisa Jons (1889), the
life of a Christiania seamstress. Jonas Lie, more-
over, has published two collections of Short Stories
(3d ed. 1880, and 1885), a vohime of popular Poems
( 1866 ), and a successful comedy, Gralou-'s Cat {ISSO).
Liebig. Justus, Feeiheer vox, chemist, was
born at Darmstadt on 12th May 1803. The bent
of his mind showed itself early. He studied
chemistiy at Bonn and Erlangen, and in 1822 went
to PaiTS to perfect his studies. There he was
introduced by A. von Humboldt to Gay-Lussac,
who took him into his private laboratory, and
along with him proved that the fulminates are
identical in composition with the cyanates. Hum-
boldt two years later secured for Liebig the appoint-
ment of professor of Chemistiy at the uni\ersity of
Gies.sen. This chair he exchanged in 1852 for the
corresponding one at JVIunich. He died on 18th
April 1873. In 1845 he had been created Baron
(Freihcrr). Liebig was one of the most illustrious
and fruitful chemists of his age, not less renowned
for his investigations and discoveries in i>urc
chemistry than for his researches in ap]ilied
chemistry, and not less honoured for the reforma-
tion he efl'ected in chemical method than for his
hijj;hly important applications of chemical know-
ledge to the furtherance of the arts of life. As the
inventor of the extract of beef and the prepared
infant food, his name is known almost everywhere
throughout the civilised world. He was the
founder of agricultural chemistry, and thus the
greatest reformer of practical agriculture in the
19th century. Closely connected with his work
in this department were his researches into the
nutrition of plants. He taught that each of the
nonvolatile saline ingredients found in the ash is
essential to the life and growth of the plant, and
that the plant gets them from the soil ; this in
coni-se of time exhausts the soil and nuikes it
barren, unle.s.s the elements which go to nourish
the plant be resupplied to it, whether by means of
manure or through the chemical action of the
614
LIEBRECHT
LI^.GE
weatlier. Tims he directed attention to tlie cycle
of transmutation between tlie mineral, the ve^'c-
table, and the animal kingdoms. In the depart-
ment of animal physiology he made notalile con-
trihntions to chemical science, demonstratin;;,
amongst other things, that the heat of the animal
body is wholly produced by the processes of internal
combustion attendant upon the disintegration of
nutritive niattei-s ; that ditl'ercnt kinds of food
serve dillerent purposes in the body, and so adnut
of classiKcation : tlial animal fat is produced within
the animal organism from sugar and starch ; and
that spontaneous combustion in the human body is
an impossibility. The phenomena of fermentation
he explained as being purely chemical. He also
investigated the constituents of the juices of tiesli,
and (along with Wfilder, q.\'.) of uric acid, with
most important results. Tliis brings us to the
region of pure organic cliemistry. One of the most
brilliant instances of the application of the methods
of organic analysis in chemistry was Liebig's and
Wohler's discovery of the compound radicle benzoyl
from the study of oil of bitter almonds and its
derivatives. His investigations into the constit-
uents of alcohol and its derivatives led him to
o|)pose the existing view, that of the French chemists
Dumas and BouUay, who regarded alcohol and
ether as hydrates of olefiant gas ; whereas Liebig
denied the existence of the olefiant gas, and
believed these compounds to be derivatives of a
radicle ethyl, consisting of carbon and hydro-
gen. In the course of tliis inquiry he elicited for
the first time chloroform and chloral ; and it was
whilst investigating the conversion of alcohol into
acetic acid that he discovereil the compound
aldeliyde. Tlien, by the clever use of the idea of the
polybasic iiroi)erties of certain acids, he succeeded
in determining the constitution of organic acids.
Among the practical discoveries and apiilications
of Lielng may be mentioned the invention of silver-
coated mirrors, an easy method for the preparation
of potassic cyanide, now so largely used in electro-
plating, his plan for making unfermented bread,
and his methods for analysing mineral waters.
When Liebig began to teacli there were no public
chemical laboratories in (lermany. By his initiative
one was established at (Jiessen ; and from that have
grown the admirably-eiiuipped physical laboratories
of the (Jerman and other universities. Besides
stimulating the study of chemistry in this way, he
vastly extended the use of the method of organic
analysis, and invented such useful chemical ai)par-
atus as the appliances for analysis by combustion,
the tube for deternuning molecular weight, and
Liebig's condenser. His most important treatises,
all translated into English, were Anlcitunfj ziir
Atialyse organischer Korper (1837); Die Chemie
in Hirer A nivendung auf At/ricultur vnd Pliysiologie
(1840); Die Thierchemie' (\8i2) ; Handbuch der
orgtcniichcn Chemie (1843); Cliemischc Untersuch-
ungeii iiber das FleiscJi uiid seine Znbereitung zum
Nahrungsmi/tel (imi); Die Gru/idmifze der Agri-
cttlturcheinic (1855); Cliemisehe Briefi; (1S44); be-
sides numerous papers in scientific iournals (317
in the /?«»/. Soc. Ti-ans.). See works bv A. W.
Hofm.-mn ('l876) and W. A. Slienslone (1895).
Liehrccllt, Felix, a learned linguist and folk-
lorist, was born at Namslau, in Silesia, 13tli .March
1812; studied at Breslau, .Munich, and Berlin ; an<l
became in 1S40 professor of the German Language
at the Athenee Koyal in Lie''e, from whicli he
retired in 1867. Liebrecht early made his name
known by a series of admirable articles in various
learned journ.als on the origin and d illusion of
popular stories, and by translations enriched with
ample annotations no less valuable than the
original works themselves. Among these are
Baaile's Pentamerone, uder das Miirchen alter
Miirchen, with a preface by Jakob Grinnn ('2 vols.
1846); the Jtiirlaani und JositpJiut of Joannes
Damascenus (1847); Dunlojj's Gcschic/itc der I'to-
sadichtinigcn, with large a<lditions (1851); and
an edition of the non-historical mythological por-
tions of GerviLse of Tilbury's Otiii Jm/icrialia
(1856). Professor Liebrecht collected his scattered
papers in Ztir Volksl.iindc (1S79), a work which
lias a place on the shelves of all scientific students
of comparative folklore. He died at St Hubart, in
Belgium, in August 1890.
Lie<'llt<'nst<'in. an independent principality of
Euroipe, separated from Switzerland on the west
by the Bhine ; on the civst it is bounded by
A'orarlberg. Area, 61 sq. m. ; pop. 9124. It is "a
mountainous district made up of the lordshi]) of
Vaduz and the countship of Schellenberg. The chief
town, Liechtenstein, formerly called Vaduz ( poj).
1018), lies 28 miles SSW. of Bregenz on Lake Con-
stance. The inhahit.-uits carry on agriculture, rear
cattle, and cultivate the vine. They are exempt
from military duty. Liechtenstein, with several
other small states, formed the fifteenth member of
the German Confederation until its dissolution in
186G; but in the I'lrnmn, or full Couiu-il of the
Diet, it had a separate vole. The Prince of Liech-
tenstein, whose family is one of the most ancient
in central Europe, possesses extensive estates in
Austria, Prussia, anil Saxony. The little state is
a constitutional sovereignty, and is ruled by the
prince and a legislative assembly of fifteen mem-
bers, twelve elected by the people and three by the
prince. Liechtenstein belongs to the Austrian
customs, postal, legal, coinage, judicial, and taxa-
tion svstems. See works by I""alke (3 vols. Vienna,
1868-83) and Kratzl (4th ed. Brunn, 1884).
Li«'gC (tier. Liittich, Flemish Luih), a city of
Belgium, occupies a picturesque site at the con-
fluence of the Onrtlie with the Meuse, by rail 62
miles S. by E. of Brussels and 47 SAV. of Aix-
la-Chai)elle in Germany. It consists of the old
town, built on the hills that overlook the Meu.se on
the left, the new town, down below on the right
bank, and several suburbs. Notwithstanding its
great manufacturing industry, it is a beautiful
city, with elegant bridges, handsome sqiiares and
gardens, and fine churches an<l private houses. Its
defences consist of a ring of nuidern forts and the
old citadel, built in 1650, on the high ground on
the left bank of the Meuse. The cathedral church
was originally St Lambert's, founde<l in 712,
destroyea by the Frencdi reptiblicans in 1794, and
wholly renuived in 1802. Since that date St Paul's,
founded in 968 and complete<l about 1528, with a
good carved pulpit by Geefs, has been the church
of the see. Amongst the remaining churches
are two (St Denis and Holy Cross) which date
from the lOth century, and three (St James', 1016-
1528; St Bartholomew's, lltli and 12th centuries,
with a beautiful brass font of 1112; and St Martin's,
IGtIi century) with some architectural pretensions.
The most notable amongst the .secular buildings
are the former bishop's palace, built in the Late
Gothic style in 1508-40, and now converted into
law-courts and administrative olliccs, ami the
university. This last was founded in 1817, and
has about 70 teachers and 1210 studenl.s. The
usual adjuncts are attached, including a museum
with valuable cave remains, ,i library of 110,000
vols., a school of mining, and a ])olytecliiiic school.
Situated in the centre of the east Belgian coal-
mining district, Liege is one of the first manu-
facturing cities in Belgium. Its great slajde is
the making of firearms, of which it turns out
annually (an average of nearly 9(X),00(I) mure than
twice the number of liirmingham and St Ktienne
together. But manufactories of wool, leather, and
LIEGNITZ
LIEUTENANT
615
iron-plates, together with, in a secondary degree,
iron and other metal works, breweries, and distil-
leries, give eniiiloynient to large numbers of men.
The government have heie a cannon-foundry and a
small-arms factory. At Seraiiig (q.v.), 3 miles dis-
tant, are the manufacturing establishments founded
bv the Englishman Cockerill (q.v.). Pop. (ISTfi)
llo.SjI; (ISiU) 160,!S4S, mostly Walloons. The
Bishop of Maestricht transferredthe see to Liege in
720 ; his successors afterwards attained to the dig-
nity of princes of the empire and bore the title of
Duke of Bouillon. The histoiy of Liege is a long
struggle between the bishop-priucesand the liberty-
loving burghers of the city. The latter rose in oi)en
revolt in 1407 and 1464, and on subsequent occa-
sions ; and it frequently happened that a new
bishop could only gain entry into the city when he
came with .a foreign army at his back, as in 1648
and 1684. The city was seized by t'liarles the Bold
of Burgundy in 1467 : but he had to do his work
over again, and did it with ruthless severity, in
the following year. Liege was again conquered in
1691 by the French, in 1702 by ^larlborough, and
once more by the French in 1792. The Congress
of Vienna ai^signed the city and the episcopal
territories to the Netherlands ; but in 18.31 they
were incorporated in the new kingdom of Belgium.
See Histories by Gerl.iche (.3d ed. 1875) ; Henaux
(3d ed. 1876); and Hock (1885); and compare
Scott's Quentin Durward.
The proinnce of Li6ge, with an area of 1117 sq. m.
and a pop. (1888) of 738.694, lies between the
Belgian provinces of Limburg on the north and
Lu.xemburg on the south. In industry it ranks
second among the provinces of Belgium, with one-
fifth of the total output of the kingdom. Amongst
the industries must be mentioned the woollen,
iron, coal, steel, zinc, lead, silver, cotton, cloth,
machinery, firearms, straw-hats, &c. Cheese ( Lim-
burg) and butter are the most valuable of the
agricultural products. Very large numbers of
pigeons are reared eveiy year as messenger birds —
ui 1886 nearly a million.
LiegllitZ. a town of Prussian Silesia, on the
Katzbach, 38 miles W. by N. of Breslau. The
town dates from the end of the 10th century. In
1163 if was chosen by the Dukes of Lower Silesia
as their place of residence, and from 1241 to 1675
it was the capital of the princii)ality of Liegnitz.
In the neighbourhood fWahlstadt) the Jlongols
in 1241 defeated the Poles, and filled nine sacks with
the ears of their slaughteri'd foes. Liegnitz came
into the hands of Prussia in 1742. Here in 1760
Frederick the Great routed the .\nstiians under
Loudon, and in 1813 Bliiolier defeated the French
(Katzbach). It is now a place of great and varied
industrial activity : iron-foundries, machine-shops,
pianoforte-factories, and manufactures of woollens,
cloth, hats, and gloves, with turnery, brick-making,
and potierv. indicate the chief branches. Pop.
(1875) 31,442; (1890)46,874.
Lien (the tacita hyjiotheca of the civil law), in
English, Irish, and American law, means the
security or hold over goods or lan<l for a debt
which is due from the owner of the goods, &c.
to the person in whose possession they are for
the time. Possession is in general essential to
constitute a lien, for the nmnient the goods
are voluntarily parted with the lien is gone.
There is an e.xception, however, in the oa.se of
traders like factors, and a lien, though lost,
may revive if the property comes again into the
possession of the creuitor. Liens an; geneial or
particular. Thus, a solicitor has a general lien
over his client's money, jiapers, and title-deeds till
the .amount of his bill of costs is paid. So have
bankers, dyers, calico-printei-s, factors. A particular
lien is a lien over goods, for a debt contracted in
respect of such goocfs, as for the price of them, or
some labour expended on them. Thus, a miller has
a lien on the Hour he has ground, a trainer on the
horse he has traine<l, &c. A general lien is
favoured by law ; a particular lien is construed
strictly, for it acts in favoiir of one creditor as against
the others. There are also maritime liens and
equitable liens, which <lo not require possession to
constitute the right. The Statute of Limitations
does not affect a lien, since it does imt take away
the right, but only bars its ordinary enforcement
by action. In Scotland lien is generally called
either Hetention or Hypothec (see Hypothec).
See works by D. Y. Overton (New York, 1883)
and L. A. Jones (2 vols. Boston, 1888).
Licrre, a town of Belgium, 11 miles by rail
SE. c)f Antwerp, has manufactures of silk, lace,
shoes, beet-root sugar, with salt-works and breweries.
The Gothic church of St Gumniar ( 1425-1557) has
a tine rood-loft and a picture by Mending. Pop.
(1896) 19,300.
Lieutenant (Fr., from Lat. locum-tenens,
'holding the place of another'), a term applied to
a vai'iety of offices of a representative kincf. Thus,
in military matters, a liev.tenunt-yeneral is next in
rank to a general, a lieutenant-colonel next to a
colonel. But the title lieutenant, without quali-
fication, denotes the second officer and deputy, or
locum-tenens, of the trooji, battery, or company
commander. In the horse and field artillerv- he has
a distinct command — viz. one section of the battery,
consisting of two guns with the men, horses, and
wagons belonging to them. — Captain-lieutenant, an
obsolete rank, was the subaltern who commanded
the ' colonel's company ' in each regiment. The
pay of a lieutenant varies from 6s. 6d. a day in the
line to 1 Os. 4<1. in the Life Guards. Second-lieutenant
is the rank given to officers on first joining, corre-
sponding to that of Cornet (q.v.) and Ensign (q.v.)
which formerly existed.
In the British navy lieutenant is a misnomer,
and conveys no adequate idea of the rank of the
officer bearing that title. His functions from the
time of his promotion, and for some eight years
afterwards, conespond generally to those of a
captain in the army, with whom he ranks, and his
ordinary pay is lOs. a day. On attaining, how-
ever, eight year.s' seniority he ranks with a major
in the army, and wears .•m additional stripe of gold
lace on his sleeve and a star on his epaulettes as
the distinguishing marks of his increased rank, and
he now also receives pay at the rate of 12s. a day,
which is further increase<l to 14s. after twelve years'
service. The anomaly of the title now conies in,
for, although holiling field officer's r.ink, he is still
only styled lieutenant. In foreign navies the
ditficulty is met by there being an intermediate
rank between lieutenant and commander. In the
German and Austrian navies these officei's are
styled 'captain-lieutenant,' in the American
' lieutenant-commander,' and in the French
'lieutenant de vaisseau.' Half-pay ranges from
4s. to 8s. 6d. a day. Six years' service alloat as
naval cadet and midshi|)man are requisite to
qualify an officer for the rank of lieutenant, and
the candidate for that rank has also to pa.ss a satis-
factorv examination in seamanship and general pro-
fessional knowledge, which in these days includes
navigatifm and pilotage, gunnery in all its branches,
including battalion anil lield-gun drill, electricity
and torpedo work, including laying down submarine
mines, and also a fair general knowledge of steam.
As leaders in all miiujr enterprises, such as boat
expeditions, cutting out, &c., lieutenants in war-
time carry otT most of the laurels awarded to
actions of singular personal daring.
616
LIEUTENANT
LIFE
Sublieutenant — formerly mate or pjissecl midship-
man— is the intermediate rank in the na^T between
midsliipman and lieutenant. When a midshipman
has completed the necessary sea-service, lie p.osses
his examination in seamanship for the rank of
lieutenant ; if successful, he liecomes an acting-
sub-lieutenant, and is sent home to join the Naval
College at Greenwich, where he studies for nine
months previous to passing his final examination
in navigation, mathematics, &c. ; he then has to
pass through the jjunnerv and torpedo schools, and
also an examination in pilotage. Should he suc-
ceed in obtaining a first class in all the subjects
for examinatiim, he is promoted at once to lieu-
tenant, otherwise he is confirmed in the rank of
sub-lieutenant, and has to serve at sea in that
rank until his turn for promotion comes round.
Unless specially promoted, sublieutenants have
to serve about four years before obtaining their
promotion. The obtaining of a first-class in all
subjects is therefore an object of considerable
importance.
Lioiiteiiaiit, Lord-. See Lord-lieutenant.
Lieilteiiaut-OoloueL in the British army,
is nominally the second ofiicer of a regiment ; but
virtually a lieutenant-colonel commands every
battalion of infantry and regiment of cavalry, the
post of colonel being merely an honourable sine-
cure, \\\X\\ usually £1000 a year attached, awarded
to a general ofiicer. The lieutenant-colonel is
responsible for the discipline of his battalion, the
comfort of his men, and ultimately for every detail
connected with their organisation. In this he is
allied by two majois, an adjutant, and a quarter-
master.' In the artillery and engineers, where the
rank of colonel is a substantive rank, with tangible
regimental duties, the functions of lieutenant-
colonel are more limited, one having charge of
every two or three batteries of artillerj-, or two
companies of engineers. The pay of a lieutenant-
colonel varies from 17s. per diem in the infantry of
the line to £1, 9.'. '2d. in the H jsehokl Cavalry.
JLieiitcnant-KeueraL See General.
ILioiiteuaiit-governor. See India.
Lif6< in Biology, is a general term for the exter-
nal r.nd internal activities of an organism in rela-
tion to its environment. These relations may be
referred to the organism as a unity, or they may
be expressed more fundamentally, though incom-
pletely, in terms of the physical and chemical
changes in the living matter. Between the habits
of an organism and the changes in the protoplasm
there are, for higher plants and animals, three
intermediate grades of interpretations — in terms of
the functions of or"ans, the properties of tissues,
and till" phases of cell-life. But, beyond the higher
and lower limits of observable organism (m the one
hand and of analvsable protoplasmic changes on
the other, the biologist can speak with no special
authority, whatever liis opinions may be as to the
common denominator — matter and energy, or about
the transcendental interjiretation of an intelligent
organism (see BioLocy, Cell, Protoplasm).
Characteristics of Ortfanisms. — The boundary
between living and not-living matter is much less
distinct than rough ins]iection suggests, but it is
quite possible to i>oint out certain characteristics
which distinguish living organisms from other
objects of our experience which are not-living.
Some of the most striking of these characteristics
may be summed u]> in the three words — Contin-
uity, Khythm, and Freedom. (« ) So far as our ex-
perience goes, all organisms originate from other
organisms, and in normal cimditions become them-
selves parents. This fact of continuity is real aii<l
liternl enough to Ien<l a certain attribute of immor-
tality to life, as may be gathered from the articles
Heredity, Embryology, Evolution. (6) Organ-
isms take in matter and energy as they live and
grow, while on the other hantl they also expend
energy and are subject to material waste ; they fee<l
and work, rest and act, grow and reproduce, in fact
pass through a rhythmic cycle of changes such that
waste and repair are for variable periods kept in
approximate eiiuilibriuni. From wliat we know of
the living-matter or 'physical basis of life," it seems
that two vital processes of upbuilding and down-
breaking, of composition and decomposition, of
synthesis and analysis, of anabolism and kata-
bolism, sum up the changes in the protoplasm (see
Anauoli-sm, Function, Protoplasm). (<■) As to
freedom, while organisms are mudi more dejiendent
upon their environment than are inorganic bodies,
it is equally true that they attain more apjiarcnt
freedom. The sustained equilibrium of an organism
is unified and dynamical : it admits of direct action
U]ion surroundings, of active thrust as well as more
[liussive pariT. of activity which is sometimes called
' automatic ' or ' spontaneous,' because it does not
occur in direct or traceable response to stimulus
from without (see Environment).
Definitions. — Life, like other fundamental facts,
eludes definition. Bichat described it as ' the sum
of the functions which resist death,' a definition
superficially contradictory to Claude Bernard's
epigram, 'La vie, c'est la mort.' According to l)e
Blainville, 'life is the twofold internal movement
of composition and decomposition, at once general
and continuous,' while Spencer's often-qunled de-
finition describes it as 'the definite combinatiim of
heterogeneous changes, both simultaneous and suc-
cessive, in correspondence with external coexist-
ences and setjuences.' Lewes defines life as 'a
series of definite and successive changes, both of
structure and composition, which take place within
an individual without destroying its identity ; '
while Joseph Cook as a transcendentalist calls life
' the invisible, individual, co-ordinating cause
directing the forces involved in the i>ro<luction and
activity of any organism possessing individuality.'
l''inally, Lafitte, as an expositor of Comte, regards
life as 'a general, internal, and continuous jihcno-
menon of composition and decomposition, occurring^
in a definite organism, placed in a fit medium.'
For practical purposes, life is the internal and
external activity of an organism in relation to its
environment.
The conditions of life vaiy enormously, for
organisms are able to adapt themselves to most
diverse environment, including under that term
conditions of space and pressure, moisture and
oxygen, food, heat, and light, <S;c. The animal life
of the deep-sea illustrates interesting ,ada]ilati(ins
to great though doubtless unfcit jjrcssure, to d,-uk-
ness, and other peculiar conditions ; the miniiiiuni
life of dried-up spores, Proto/oa, ova, small aninuils,
and seeds shows the possibility of persistence for
prolonged periods without water ; the fauna and
flora of arctic snows and seas on the one haml,
and of hot springs on the other, illustrate extreme
adaptations to diverse temperature conditions : and
there are abundant illustrations, from fasting men
upwards, of the length of time during which life
may continue without food. A few facts may be
cited : small nematodes will survive desiccation for
fourteen years, and, tlumgh the tales of germinating
mummy 'wheat are highly unsatisfactory, it is
certain that cereal grains may germinate after ten
years' desiccation, and seeds of lieguminosa' alter
several decennia. Seeds rich in ferments and oils
have much less po\\er of surviving than those in
which starch predominates. As to temperature,
dry yeast will live after exi)osure to 70° C., an<l a
portion survives even at 100° C. ; Pasteur heated
dry fungoid spores without fatal results to 120° C,
LIFE
LIFEBOAT
617
but the same when moist were killed at the lioiling-
point. Some bacteria are said to resist boiling,
out the reverse is usually true. Kiihne killed
marine Amoeba? at 35° C, while freshwater forms
stood 10° more. Kven seeds have been known
to withstand )00° C, but it is familiar that a longer
exi>osure to much lower temperature is usually fatal.
Higher plants have been known to survive burial
umler a glacier for four yeare ; and fishes, frogs,
&c. have often revived after being frozen hard in ice.
Dry yeast, according to Cagniard de la Tour {quoted
by Huxley), siir\'ived - 60° C, but when moist
was killed at - 5° C. ; yet Cohn cooled bacteria to
- 1S° C. without death, and seeds have suivived such
an extreme as - 120' C. To illustrate the diverse
sensitiveness of animals. Semper notes that a tem-
perature about tlie freezing-point of fresh water kills
Infusoria but not pond-snails, that the minimum of
vital activity in the former was seen at 4° C. , in tlie
latter at 12° C, yet the optimum for both is the
same — viz. about 25° C. No better instance of
experimental work can be referred to than l)r
Dallinger's researches, in which he was able slowly
to educate Monads which normally lived at a
temperature of 18° C. to thrive at over 70' C. Of
the internal conditions of chill-coma, and of the
vita minima under extremes of heat, desiccation,
&c., we know almost nothing.
See Desiccation, Exvironment, HrBEBNATiON ; also
Huxley's Anat. of Invert. Animals (Lond. 1S77), Sem-
per's Aninial Life {Inter. Sc. ^^e^ies, Lond. 1881), and
NViesner's Bioloijie der Pfianzcn {Vienna, 1889).
Origin of Life. — It is not a dogma, not yet a
'law of Biogenesis,' but a fact of experience
that all living organisms arise from other living
organisms — omne vivum e vivo. See Abiogenesis,
Bathybius, Heredity, Spoxtaneous Genera-
tion.
But those who advance beyond an agnostic
position as to this problem, and speculate beyoml
the limits of our experience, give the following four
answers to the question of the historical origin of
living organisms : ( 1 ) Life originated under condi-
tions beyond the sphere of scientific inquiry. Thus,
Alfred Russel AVallace postulates a ' spiritual
inllux ' at the origin of life, while theologians are
usually more explicit {see Cre.\tion). (2) Organ-
isms or germs of organisms were brought to the
earth by meteorites from elsewhere. This hypoth-
esis, supported by Sir Williatii Thomson, shifts the
responsibility of the problem ofl" the shoulders of our
planet, and leaves the problem of origin — elsewhere.
(3) ' The question as to the origin of life,' Professor
\V. Preyersays, 'is not less transcendental than that
as to the origin of matter and energy. In regard to
the latter, it is axiomatic that they had no origin,
but are eternal, otherwise matter and energy have
arisen out of nothing.' So in regard to life, he
argues that it had no thinkable beginning, and that
it is as legitimate to suppose that the inorganic
originated from organisms as to suppose the con-
verse. In regard to this suggestion it may he
noted that while it is quite true that nnicli of the
inorganic on the earth has arisen from the work and
waste, remains and decomposition of organisms, the
forms of life supposed to have ])ersisted in the
ancient 'tracts of fluent heat' must have been
extraordinarily different from any which we now
observe. (4) Living matter evolved of itself from
matter which was not living, as the outcome of
unexplained processes of chemical upbuilding or
synthesis. Professor Ray Lankester suggests
further that the firet protoplasm fed upon ' the
antecedent steps in its own evolution,' ' ujion the
albuminoiils and .such other compounds that ha<l
been brought into existence by those proce.'<ses,
which culminated in the development of the first
protoplasm.' This hypothesis is most in harmony
with the general theorj' of evolution, of which how-
ever it forms no integral part. It has against it
the constant fact of experience and rcstilt of experi-
ment that all life .springs from life, besides serious
difficulties in connection with that chemical upbuild-
ing or synthesis, which it is so easy to postulate and
so dilficult to understand. See also LONGEVITY,
iMMdHTAI.ITV, TrANSMIGRxVTION, I'IIK-KXISTIC.NCE;
and for Life .Vssurance, see In.suranck.
Lifeboat* a boat adapted to live in a stormy
sea with a view to the saving of life from ship-
wreck. Its qualities must be buovaucy, to avoid
foundering when a sea is shijuiecl ; strength, to
escape destruction from the viol(>nce of waves,
from a rocky beach, or from a collision with the
wreck ; great lateral stability, or resistance to up-
setting; speed against a heavy sea; facility for
launching and taking the shore ; immediate self-
discharge of any water breaking into her ; the
important advantage of self-righting if upset ; and
stowage room for a large number of passengers.
Although Henry Greathead (1757-1810), a boat-
builder at South Shields, has very generally been
credited with designing and building the first life-
boat about the year 1789, yet it is certain that Lionel
Lukin, a coach-builder in Long Acre, who was not
a resident at a seaport but a native of an inland
town, Dunmow, in Essex, designed and fitted a
boat which he called an ' unimniergible ' boat, for
saving life in cases of shipwreck, some four or
five years before Greathead brought forward his
plan for a lifeboat. Lukin took out a patent for
liis boat in November 1785, and a liamborough
coble which he fitted up was reported to have
saved several lives in the course of the first year of
its use. Nothing eft'ectual, however, was done for
the shipwrecked mariner until the year 1789, when
a terrible wreck took place at the mouth of the
Tyne, all hands being lost at a short distance from
the shore, in the presence of thousands of specta-
tors who were powerless to render any assistance.
As the result of the strong feelings which this
(lisa.ster aroused, a committee was formed at South
Shields, and premiums ofl'ered for the best model
of a lifeboat. From the ])lans sent in two were
selected, one by William ^^'ouldhave, a painter,
and the other by Henrj' Greathead ; the latter
eventually received the premiuni, and Greathead,
being a boat-builder, was employed to construct a
boat on his own plan with some of Wouldhave's
ideas introduced. This boat was 30 feet long by
10 feet wide, and rowed ten oars double banked ;
it was of the form of a steamer's ))aildlebox boat,
with stem and stern alike, and had a curved keel,
which was entirely Greathead's invention. It had,
however, no means of freeing itself of water or of
self-righting in the event of being upset. Life-
boats on this plan were promptly placed on dillerent
parts of the coast, and were the means of s.aving
altogether some hundreds of lives, and even now a
few boats of this type are to be found on the north-
east coast.
In the year 1823 Sir William Hillary pub-
lished a powerful appeal to the nation on the
subject of the great lo.ss of life from shij)wrecks on
our coast, and in the following year lie induced
Thomas Wilson, M.P. for the city of Londcm, to
take stejis to convene a meeting at the Lomlon
Tavern, which lesulled in the establishment of the
Uoyal National Institution for the Preservation of
Life from Shipwreck {now known as the Koyal
National Lifeboat Instituticm ), under the patron-
age of George IV. and other members of the royal
family, the two archbishops, the princi|ial bishops,
and many noblemen and gentlemen. For many
years the society diil good work on the coast in
providing and maintaining lifeboats, and reward-
ing their crews, &c., but after a time its work
618
LIFEBOAT
laiifjuislied. In December 1849, liowever, another
deplorable accident took place at the mouth
of the Tyne, when the South Shields lifeboat,
on the Greatliead plan, which went out, manned
by twenty-four pilots, to tlie iu^sistance of a sliij)-
wrecked crew, was ujiset, and drifted ashore
bottom up, no less tli;in twenty of her brave
crew being drowned under the boat. This lament
able disiister once again called public attention to
the lifeboat work, and in IS.'iO Admiral the Duke
of Northumberland oll'ered the sum of a hundred
guineas for the best model of a lifeboat. In
response 2S0 models and plans were sent in, a
selection of which was afterwards sliown in the
Great Exhibition of iSol. James Beeching of
Great Yarmouth proved to be the successful
candidate for the ottered premium, and he con-
structed a twelve-oared boat on his plan ; it was
36 feet long, and was the lirst self-righting lifeboat
ever constructed. Others followed ; but, this type
of boat not proving altogether satisfactory, the
Lifeboat Committee requested one of their number,
James Peake, Assistant-master Shipwright in
Profile.
Fig. 2 —Deck Plan.
Body Plan.
Woolwich Dockyard, to embody as many as pos-
sible of the good <)\ialilies of the best ]dans into a
new design. This was accordingly done, and such
a lifeboat was built in M'oohvich Dockyard, at the
expense of the government. Many moditications
anil alterations were afterwards made in the boat,
and this design of lifeboat Ikus been gre.atly im-
proved of late years by the officers of the Uoyal
National Lifeboat Institution, so that the self-
righting lifeboat can truly be designated an
omnium f/at/tcriiiii, and cannot be looke<l upon as
any one mau's design or invention.
The following drawings show the general outline
an<l princiiial fittings of a 34 feet by TJ feet self-
righting boat. Fig. 1 gives (he profile or bro,i<l-
siue view, the shaded \>tirt showing that devoted to
the air-cases, which give extra buoyancy. The
letter A shows the deck, and the unshaded p.irts
the relieving- tubes, by which any water that
breaks on board escapes. The shaded part of the
keel, B, represents the ballast, composed of iron.
The festooned lines are the life-lines outside the
lioat, for men to catch liold of when overboard.
in fig. 2 the unshaded space. A, represents the
uncovered part of the deck ; H, the relieving- tubes;
C, the side air-ca.ses above the deck ; D, the end
air-ca.ses : E, the ventilating scuttles ; E, the
water-ballast tanks ; U, the plugs ; and H, the
pumps of the balla.st tanks. lig. 3 represents the
l)ody plan or cross-sections at various distances
from stem to stern. Fig. 4 gives the midship
section.
The lifeboat transporting-carriage is a very im-
portant au.xiliary to the boat. Nearly every life-
boat, except a lew of the larger size, is iirovided
with a carriage, on which she is kept in tlie boat-
house ready for immediate transportation to the
most fa\i>urable position for la\inching to a wreck.
A lifeboat is thus made available for a greater
extent of coast th:in she otherwise would be : and
even when launched from abreast of the boat-house
she can generally be much quicker conveyed to the
water's edge than without a carriage. In addition
to this ordinary use, a
carriage is of inmiense
service in launching a
l)i)at from a beach ;
iiiileed, to such an ex-
tent is this the case
tliat a boat can be
readily launclied from
a carriage in a high
surf, when without one
it would often be very
dilhcult to do so. The
carriage consists of a
fore and main body.
The latter is formed of
a keelway, and of bilge-
wavs attached to it,
.tnd resting on the main
axle, the boat's weight
being entirely on the
rollers of the keelway.
Its leading character-
istics are that while for
launching it forms an
inclined plane, down
which the boat can be
launched oil' the rear
end with consiilerable
impetus ; it can also be
used for replacing the
boat, the incline plane
being reversed by re-
moving the fore-car-
riage. A very full
equipment of stores is
supplied to the lifeboats of the Institution, such
as cork life-belts, anchors and cables, grapnels and
lines, life-buoys, lanterns, rockets, and many other
articles, together with |iortalile or launching skids.
The boats of the National Lifeboat Institution,
and all belonging to them, are kept in roomy and
substantial boat-houses, under lock and key, in
charge of paid coxswains, under the general super-
intendence of local honorary committees of resi-
<lents in the several localities. Each boat has its
a]ipointed coxswain at a salary of iS, and an
a-ssistant at £2 a year, with further allowances
under special circumstances. The crew consists, in
addition, of a bowman, and as many boatmen as
the boat pulls oars. The members of the vohuiteer
crews are registered, and, wliercver practicalile, at
leiist double the innuber of men rec|uire(l are
i-ntered on the register. Such men are mostly
resident boatmen, fishermen, or coa.«tguardmen.
On every occasion of going afloat to save life the
Fig 4 — Midship Section.
LIFEBOAT
LIFE-SAVING APPARATUS 619
coxswain and each of tlic crew receive alike from
tlie funds of the Institutinn (whether siuecssful or
not) 10s. if by Jay, and fl if hy ni;,'ht : and usually
4s. each for every time of fioiiig alloat for exercise.
A reward of 7s. is given to the man wlio lirst lirings
intelligence of a wreck at such a distance along the
coast as not to be in sight of the cojustgnard
station or other lookout. A flag hoisted by day,
and the firing of a c.arronade (or other alarm
signal) b}' niglit, are the well-known signals for
calling the crew to^retlier. On boardini; wrecks,
the preservation of life is the sole consideration.
Should any goods or merchandise be brought into
the lifel)oat, contrary to the coxswain's remon-
strance, he is authorised to throw them overboard.
The average cost of a lifebo.-it station is £10.50,
and is made up as follows : Lifeboat and her equip-
ment, £700 ; boat- lumse, £.350. The average annual
expense of maintaiinng a lifeboat station is £70.
The Royal National Lifeboat Institution in 1890
liad 297 lifeboats under its management on various
])arts of the co.osts of the United Kingdom. They
were instrumental during 1SS9 in saving 4'20 lives
from different wrecks, besides preserving a va.st
amount of property, and assisting to save or abso-
lutely saving 17 vessels from partial or total destruc-
tion. Besides the launches resulting in the saving
of life or property, the lifeboats went out 141 times
in response to signals of distress or what were sup-
posed to be such, only to lind either that the vessels
were out of danger or that inconect signals had
been made. During the year the Institution also
granted rewards for the saving of 207 lives by
means of shore-boats, lishing-boats, or by other
means, so that the committee bestowed rewards,
in the year 1889, for the saving of 627 lives, mak-
ing a grand total of .34,670 lives, for the saving of
which the society has granted rewards since its
estahlisliment in 1824. Kvery effort is made by the
committee to place and maintain the lifeboat
service in the highest state of efficiency, but this
cannot possibly be done without a very large
annual outlay. In 1890 the Institution produced
the latest novelty in shi])building in the shape of
a steam lifeboat, which was named the ' Duke of
Northumberland,' and stationed at Harwich for
trial. The Institution ha<l for several years been
earnestly endeavouring, by the offer of gold and
silver medals and in other ways, to find a means
of propelling lifeboats mechanically. A steel steam
lifeboat of 1890 was propelled by a turbine wheel.
To the end of 1896 the total number of lives saved
was 40,.544 ; in 1896 alone, 461 lives and 20 vessels.
The expenditure for the year wjls .£75,417.
Lifebi>at societies have been successfully organ-
ised on tlie principles of the Koyal National Life-
boat Institution in France, Germany, Spain,
Russia, Austria, Italy, Turkey, Holland, and Den-
mark. In the United States the life-saving service
is a government organisation, under the Treasury
Department at Washington, and extends to both
the sea and lake coasts. There are three classes of
stations : ( 1 ) complete life-saving stations, with
resident crews ; ( 2 ) lifeboat stations, with a resident
keeper only and volunteer crews; and (.3) pro-
visioned houses of refuge, in charge of a keeper, for
the desolate ea.stern coast of Florid.i. At many of
the stations the Lnglish lifeboat is used, but its
weight and draught are too great for use .along the
Mat Atlantic sand-beaches, and there it has been
superseded hy the light American surf-boat of cedar,
fitted with air-ca.ses at the ends and cork-fenders.
The (irst lifeboat station wa." built at Cohasset,
.Massachusetts, in 1807 ; the lirst stations erected
liy the government were eight, placed on the New
•lersey coast, between Sandy Ilocdi and Little Egg
Harbor, in 1848. The whole coast is now divided
into 12 districts, and the splendid conception of a
girdle of stations round all the sea and lake shores
promises to be fuHilled. On the Atlantic coast
they are place<l 5 miles ai).art, on an average, and a
system of patrol is carefully maintained. The cost of
a fully equipped station is about .?6000,and of a house
of refuge about half that amount. The keepers
receive §700 a year, the crow each SoO a month.
Life Canards. See Gu.-\iu)s.
Liferent, in Scotch law, means a right to
use a heritable estate for life, the person enjoying
it being called a liferenter. For life-estate, in
English law, see E.state.
Life-saving Apparatus. Life-buoys and
life-belts and other life-saving ap])liances are inven-
tions for the iireserv.ation of life in cases of ship-
wreck. In the meicantilo marine and passenger
ships there are now life-belts for every man and to
spare. Buoys are carried on the bridge and at the
stern of most ships in the mercantile marine. The
danger to ships' ordinary lifeboats is that, from
being so long out of the water, unless attended to
they get so dry that when floated they fill.
Altliough against regulations, these boats have been
known to be filled with cargo. Sometimes the
handiest lite-buoy is an empty water-cask, well
bunged U]), and with ropes around it to hold on by.
There are various kinds of buoyant pillows, life-
jackets of india-rublier cloth, and mattresses. The
cork-mattress of Admiral Sir A. P. Kyder can float
three men in an upright position.
The life-belt ot tlie Koyal National Lifeboat
Institution, designed by AJmiial Ward in 1854, is
made of cork covered with
canvas, an<l is both strong
and Inioyant. It has four
separate compartments,
so that if one should be
Itunctured and burst the
belt's buoyant power is
not entirely destroyed. It
is represented in the fig.
Each lifehoatmans life-
l)elt must have sufficient
e.xtra buoyancv to su])port
a man lieavi"ly clothed,
with his head and
shoulders above the water,
and to enable him to sup-
port another person be-
sides liiiii.self. It must be
flexible in order to fit
tightly into the shape of
the wearer. There is a
division between the upper
and lower ])!irts so that it can be securely fastened
round the waist, and not impede breathing or the
muscular action of the chest or arms.
The Merchant Sliipping Life-saving Appliances
Act, 1888, stipulates that the owner and master
of every British ship must see that it is provided
with such boats, life-jackets, and other appliances
for saving life at sea as .ire best adapted for securing
the safety of the crew and passengers. The penalty
to the owner if in fault in proceeding on a voyage
without the necessary life-saving appliances, or. if
these have been lost or destroyed, is .£100; to the
master .£.50, if in fault. The rules which came into
force on 1st Ncivember 1890 were drawn u|i by ii com-
mittee ai)]ioiiitiMl liy the I'resident of the Board of
Trade, and may be made, rescinded, and varied by
the Board. The niles under this .act give the num-
ber of boats for steamships carrying emigrants, tlie
boats under davits being sufficient to accommodate
all pei'sons on l)oard. If the boats under davits do
not furnish sufficient accommodalioii, then addi-
tional wood, metal, collapsible, or other boats of
approved description, or approved life-rafts shall be
Life-belt.
620 LIFE-SAVING APPARATUS
LIGHT
carried. Ships of tliis class must also carry not less
tliaii one approved lifelmoy for every boat jilaced
under davits, and lifebelts sufficient for each pei^son
on board ship.
The same regulation as to boats and life-belts and
buoys applies to sailing-ships, to steamships carry-
ing passengei'S between jilaces in the United King-
dom and ports in Europe between the Elbe and
Brest, e.\cei>t that a ddiciency of boats or life-rafts
may be made up by an equivalent number of
approved buoyant deck-seats or deck-fittings. Not
fewer than six approved life-buoys must also be
carried, and life-belts sufficient for every one on
board. The same applies to other steamships
carrying pa.ssengers within certain specified limits
of the lionie trade : there are also rules for steamers
going short excursions, and for those plying on
rivers and lakes. The boats must be of lifeltoat
construction, -with api)roved appliances for lowering
them. A life-raft must for every person carried
have 3 cubic feet of strong and serviceable enclosed
air-tiglit compartments. Approved buoyant ajjpar-
atus shall be deemed sufficient for a numlier of
pers(ms to be ascertained by dividing the number
of pounds of iron which it is capable of supporting
by thirty-two. An approved life-belt shall mean a
belt which does not require to be inllated before
use, and which is capable of floating in the water
for twenty-four hours with 15 II). of iron suspended
from it. An approved life-buoy shall be built of
solid cork, and fitted with life-lines and loops,
and capable of floating in the water for at least
twenty-four hours with 32 lb. of iron suspended
from it. All life-belts and life-buoys must be so
placed on board ship as to be reailily accessible to
passengers.
Mortars and Rochets. — ^When a lifeboat is not
at hand, or a raging sea and shoal coast render
its use impracticable, a distressed ship may often
receive help from shore by means of the mortar or
rocket-apparatus. Captain IManby in 1807 invented
his life- mortar, to discharge a shot with curved
barbs that would lay hold of the rigging or bulwarks
of the ship ; the rocket-apparatus is based upon
this. Sergeant Bell of the Royal Artillery had
previously ( 1791 ) devised a method of liriiig a shot
and line from a distressed ship. Colonel Boxer,
Trengrouse, Dennett, Carte, and othei-s made
variations and improvements in line-throwing ap-
paratus. (The Lyle gun, the invention of Captain
D. A. Lyle, United States army, weighs only 18.5
lb., has a much longer range than the epouvrette
mortar, and combines the other advantages of great
strength and simplicity, requiring only the inser-
tion of a cartridge with a line attached to the
shot.) The usual method of procedure is to fire a
rocket over the wreck ; by the light line attached
the wrecked crew haul out the whip or double
or endless line rove through a tail-block. A
thicker rope is pulled over to the ship by means
of the line, and a hawser by means of the rope, on
which articles can be slung and drawn to and fro.
The life-buoy being run out along the rope, the
crew can be saved one by one ; or, by the life-
car, introduced in America about 1848, seven or
eight can be drawn ashore at a time. The IJfe-
rocket Department is under the Board of 'I'rade.
There were '292 rocket-stations in (Ireat Britain in
1889, 7 cliiriadder stations, and 4 heaving-line an<l
life-buoy stations ; and 220 lives were saved by
means of the rocket-apparatus in 1888-89. In 1881
6.57 lives were saved. The coasts of the United
Kingdom are classified into coastguard divisions or
wreck-registrars' districts, and the coastguard-
inspector has control overall the rockets, mortars,
buoys, belts, anil lines kept at the various seaside
Stations in his district. At each station is kept a
cart, expressly made to contain all the requisites for
the rocket-apparatus, ready packed. The Board of
Trade now gives a sum of money for every life
saved, besides medals for special acts of braver}'.
Liffcy, a river of Ireland, wimling 50 miles west-
ward and east-northeastward through Wicklow,
Kildare, and Dublin counties, to Dublin Bay.
Lifts» Under this term are included numerous
contrivances for raising weights. Such machines
have various names : hoists — usually hand-worked
and for lifting light goods in warehouses ; elevatore
— chiefly used for taking passengers or their
luggage, &.K. to the upper floors of large hotels,
business ])remises, ttc. — and so on. There are also
special Elevators (q.v. ) for grain. Lifts are often
on a large scale, such, for example, as occur on
certain canals in iilace of locks at changes of level
— where jiracticatly a section of the canal is alter-
nately raised and lowered ; and again on under-
ground railways to bring passengers to the surface
level (there are notable examples at the Mersey
Tunnel ).
Lifts consist primaiily of a cage for the people
or goods raisecl, a shaft in which this cage worKs,
and the necessary machinery for raising or lowering
the cage. There are two chief methods in use for
this latter purpose ; in the (me the cage has
attached to its top ropes or chains whieli are
wound up on a barrel or drum : in the other the
cage is lifted by hydraulic pressure ai>plied directly,
or through the iutervention of chains and ropes.
The ropes in use are, for light work, hempen ; for
heavy work, steel-wire ropes or chains. It is usual
to counterbalance the dead-weight — i.e. the weight
of the cage ; in this case the rope attached to the
top of the cage is generally not the lifting rope.
The cage-rope is simply carried up to the top of the
shaft, over a pulley tluMe, and has suspended at
its other end the counterbalance ; the working ro))e
operates the shaft of this pulley, and so lifts tlie
cage. This saves a good deal of waste work, since
the load lifted each time is only the net load,
passengers and goods.
Hoists all require to be provided with some auto-
matic clutch arrangements in case the chains or
ropes lireak, water leaks off, the rams or pistons
fracture, Ike, otherwise the cages would run down
«itli destructive velocity. These clutches are
iisually some form of catch kejit clear of the side
guides in ordinary working, but set in .action by
compressed springs wheti <an accident liajqiens.
They should always be regularly tested to see if
they are in working order.
Liisaineuts are cords, bauds, or membranous
expansions of white fibrous tissue, which iday an
extremely important ])art in the mechanism of
joints, seeing that they ])ass in fixed directions
from one bone to another, and ser^•e to limit some
movement of a joint, while they freely allow others.
Ligaments have been arranged in three cla.s.ses : ( 1 )
Fnniciilur, rounded coids, such as the external
lateral ligament of the knee-joint, the perpen-
dicular ligament of the ankle-joint. Sec. ; (2)
Fti.tcicular, fiattened baiuls, more or less expande<l,
svich as the lateral ligaments of the elbow-joint,
and the great majority of ligaments in the body ;
(3) Capsuhir, which are barrel-shaped expansions
attached by their two ends to the two bones
entering into the fmination of the joint, which
they comiileloly but loosely invest : they constitute
one of the chief characters of the ball andsocket
joint, and occur in the slioulder and hip joints.
See JoiNT-S.
Lisan. See Flotsam.
LisiatlirOt iu Surgery. See BLEEDING.
Liifbt. The general doctrine of Light is now
only a part of tTie general theory of Badiatiou,
J
LIGHT
621
wliicli comprises Radiant Heat and Actinic and
Electric Kadiation as well as Lit;lit ; but, since the
battle as to the nature of radiation in general was
first waged round light itself, it is convenient to
consider light as representing all the forms of
railiation. By elementary obser\ation it is found
that light travels (Avithin a uniform medium) in
straight lines in all directions : that it accordingly,
when proceedin-; from a pointora very small source,
covers areas which vary as the squares of the dis-
tance ; that shadows obey a similar law ; that it is
seen some time before the corresponding sound is
heard : all which points to a quick propagation of
something in straight lines. What is this which
is propagated — matter, motion, or condition? The
simplest explanation was that luminous bodies
emitted something material whose impact aftected
the sensitive eye ; that the reflection of light at
surfaces was due to elastic rebound of this quick-
travelling material. These phenomena niignt he
equally well explained by waves travelling and
being reflected ; but Sir Isaac Newton could not
reconcile himself to the notion of waves travelling
in straight lines and not spreading. This difficulty,
which we now know not to be a real one, inasmuch
as it is only a question of proportion between the
breadth of the wave-front and the distance between
succes-sive waves whether a wave-motion shall or
shall not travel in straight lines, led him to adopt
and develop the corpuscular or emission theory of
light. According to this all luminous bodies emit
with equal velocities (a troublesome postulate,
since the retarding attraction of the sun is so much
greater than that of a candle-flame) a number of
elastic corpuscles (whose mass must be extremely
small, otherwise, with the velocity of more than
186,000 miles per second, theii- momentum would
be destructive), which travel in straight lines, are
reflected, and are refracted (provi<leil that they
travel more rapidly in the denser medium than in
air or in vacuo, in a direction at right angles to the
bounding surface between the rarer and the denser
medium ). But here begin the difficulties : refrac-
tion is always accompanied by reflection, whence
some corpuscles enter the denser medium, some
rebound ; hence a theorj- of easy fits of reflection
and transmission had to be developed, and this
involved as its explanation a theorj- of vibration
of a general medium some way in advance of the
travelling corpuscles, so as to aid or check their
entrance into the denser medium. Newton dis-
covered that the different colours of the spectrum
were unequally refracted in glass ; from this he
liad to infer that there were as many diflerent
kinds of molecules emitted as there were colours
in the spectrum. Then, again, shadows are not
absolute ; the shadow of a hair produced liy sun-
light pa-ssing through a minute pinhole in which
stands a droplet of water is bright in the centre ;
hence explanations had to be provided to account
for the bending of rays round an object : then
these explanations failed to account for similar
phenomena ol)served when light was reflected from
two mirrors. The theory became loaded with a
ma.ss of hypotheses devised to explain each par-
ticular phenomenon ; but the great authority of
Newton maintained its vitality down to the time
and person of Sir David Brewster.
The wave-theory of light was suggested by Grim-
aldi, Hooke, and others ; was formed by Huygens
(1678), who explained douV)le refraction; lay in
abeyance until Young revived it at the beginning
of the 19th centurj' ; was developed by Fresnel
(1815 onwards); and ha.s now definitely disjilaced
the eniLssiontheorj'. According to it light consists
of vibrations in an all-pervading ela-stic jelly-
like ether ; the vibrations are, unlike those of
BOiuid, in directions at right angles to the direc-
tions of i)ropagation ; and ' rays of light ' are mere
lines showin"; the direction of propagation of (and in
isotropic media at right angles to ) the corresponding
portions of the wave-front. This theory involves the
admission of a vibrating ether; so, indeed, did New-
ton's. The transmission in straight lines is easily
explained ; ^)oints lying to one side are not affected,
because diflerent parts of the wave-front neutralise
one another's eft'ects, if the wave-length be rela-
tively small : even sound travelling through large
apertures travels in straight lines. The wave-
theory readily explains renection ; in refraction it
assumes that the waves travel less rapidly in the
denser medium (which is found to lie true, and
therefore disposes crucially of the eniission-theoiy ),
and it explains the accompanying reflected wave ;
it explains double refraction, polarisation, inter-
ference, colour (different wave-lengths), difl'raction,
&c. Dispersion is not yet completely explained,
because data are wanting, though Cauchy s ideas,
as developed by Sir William Thomson, have shown
that this is a phenomenon of waves of dift'erent
lengths passing through finely non-homogeneous
matter. The wave-theorj' has also proved the
means of forecasting most recondite and unexpected
phenomena.
But, then, what is a 'wave?' It is not neces-
sarily a wave of motion. All the phenomena are
explicable as phenomena of rhythmical disturbance
of some kind, and the ' wavetheoiy ' really goes
no further than to state this. The rhythmical dis-
turbance may be one of position (wave-motion), of
stress, of electrical condition, possibly of twist in
the ether. According to Clerk-Maxwell's theory
eveiy portion of the ether in the path of a beam
of light is subject to rapidly-alternating stresses
transverse to the ray, and is therefore in a rapidly-
alternating electric and also in a rapidly-alternating
magnetic condition : and the curious relations now
known to exist between beams of light and the
field of force of a magnet lend the greatest prob-
ability to this theorj-. Besides, Hertz's dLscoveiies
(see SIagxetism) have shown that phenomena of
exactly the same character as those of light, and
differin" only in wave-length, exist in the magnetic
field while induction is going on ; and all the
phenomena of light, radiant heat, and actinic
radiation are reduced to phenomena of electro-
magnetic radiation between certain limits of wave-
length.
The velocit.v of light is found by timing the
eclipses of Jupiter's satellites when they are at
the greatest and the least distance from the earth,
by astronomical abenation-observations, by findin"
(Fizeau) what speed must be given to a cog-wheel
to make it rotate one tooth's-breadth while light is
going to a given distant mirror and returning, by
finding (Foucault) what positi(m is ultimately
assumed by a ray which travels from a source to
a rotating mirror, thence to a distant mirror, and
thence back to the original mirror, which by this
time has been rotateil somewhat. In the last
method it is found that the interjiosition of optic-
ally denser or more refractive media retards the
light. The mean of all observations is that light
of all wave-lengths travels in vacuo with a velocity of
30,057,400,000 centimetres or 186,772 miles "per
second ; in air with a velocity less than this in the
ratio of 10.000 tr) IO,00;i. The length of waves can
be ascertained from measurement, at a suHicient
distance, of the fringes produced by Interference
(q.v.), or by the u.se of difl'ractiongratings ruled
with H lines to the centimetre, in which case the
wave-length for any particular colour is in centi-
metres the »th part of the .sine of the angle of de-
flection of that colour in the first 'difl'raction-
spectnim,' a result easily reached through the
general theory of waves. The wave-lengths of
622
LIGHT AND AIR
LIGHTHOUSE
radiant heat, light, ami actinic radiations rani'e
from T,U cm. or xT.sTnr incli(tlie longest invisihle
heat-rays, Lant,^ley) to nnraTruu <""•• <"' ujrsWsii i"ch
(invisible actinic rays) ; the visible limits are TjJnr
and TTiJs J cm. The frequencies or number of waves
per s'econd accordingly range from '20 millions of
millions to 40,000 millions of millions per second,
the extreme visible limits being 392 and 757 millions
of millions per second.
See ABEER.1TI0N, Diffraction, Dispersion, Ether,
Interference, Optics, Photogr.aphy, Polarisation,
Radiation, Reflection, Refraction, Shadows,
Spectrum; and Tait's Lifiht, Glazebrook's Phi/sical
Optics, Stokes's Burnett Lectures on Light.
Light and Air, RinUTS to. An owner of land
has a right to tlio light and air which pass over it ;
he has idso the right to obstruct the light and air
by erecting walls and l)uildings. If my neighbour
builds a house on the edge of my land, lie does not
thereby acquire any right against me ; I may build
on my land so as to darken his windows. But I
may, 1)V express or implied gi-ant, vest in him the
rigiit which is called a Servitude or an Easement—
tlie right to forbid the erection, on my land, of any
building which obstructs his lights. Up to this
point the Roman, Scotch, and English law are
alike in principle. Tlie English law ( as amended
by the Prescription Act of 1832) allows an ease-
ment of light to be acquired against a neighbour
by twenty years' enjoyment, without any grant.
In Scotland such rights are not acquired by lapse
of time ; unless a servitude has l)een created, an
owner may at any time build so as to darken his
neighbours windows, provided he does not act
wantonly, emulously, or so as to cause a nuisance.
Rights to air generally go along with rights to
light ; and the right is confined to air coming
through windows, &(■. The Englisli law does not
recognise any <'eneral right to air, such, e.g., as the
right to forbid buildings which i>revent air from
reaching a windmill. Roman law permitted an
owner to acquire a servitude of prospect— i.e. the
right to forbid buildings which shut out a tine
view ; but the English law regards this as a fanci-
ful and inadmissible right. In the United States
rights of view— i.e. rights to open windows and to
forbid buildings which obstruct theui— may be
acquired by one owner against another ; and in
some states" they may be acquired by uninteirupted
enjoyment for twenty or fifteen years. See Ros-
coe's Difiest of the Law of Linht (Lond. 1881), and
Stimson's Amcrk-an Statute Law.
Lighter. See Barge.
Liglltfoot, John, one of the earlier Hebrew
scholars of England, was boru in 1602 at Stoke-
upon-Trent, in StaHbnlshire, son of the vicar of
Uttoxeter. He had his education at Christ's
College, Cambridge, and, after taking orders,
became chaiilain to Sir Rowland Cotton, himself
a fair Hebraist. In 1629 appeared his Entbhiii, or
JSUscellanics Christian aiiel Judaical, dedicated to
Sir R. Cotton, who in 1630 presented him to the
rectory of Asliley in Stall'ordshire, where he
laboured with ince-ssaiit zeal for twelve years. He
next removed to London, and was chosen minister
of St BartholoTuew's, to the parishioners of which
he dedicated his lluiulful of Gkaiiinija out of
the Book of Exudus { 1()43). Liglltfoot was one of
the most inlluential members of the Westminster
Assembly in 1643, but often stood alone, as in the
Erastiau controversy. In the same year he was
chosen Master of Catharine Hall, Cambridge, and
rector of Much .Mundcn in Hertfordshire, and in
165.5 vice-chancellor of the university. At the
Restoration he comi)lied with the terms of the Act
of Uniformity. He died at Ely, IJecember G, 1675.
The chief works of this great Rabbinical scholar were
the imfinished Harmony of the Four Evangelists among
themselres {16ii^oO); Commentary upon the Acts of the
Apostles (lti45); The Harmon;/, Chronicle, and Order
of the Old Testament (1G47); of the NVw (1().55); and the
Horce Hebraicw et Talmiidicic (Ui.")S-74; last part post-
humously), the great labour of lus life. The best edition
of his whole works is that edited by the Rev. J. R. Rit-
niati, with a Life (13 vols. I8'2--25).
Lightfoot. Joseph Bauiikr, D.D., Bishop
of Uurliam, was born at Liverjiool in 1828, and
was educated at Trinity Coilego, Cambridge,
wliere he graduated B.A. in 1851 as a wrangler,
senior classic, and Chancellor's medallist. lie
was elected a Fellow of his college in 1852, and
gained the Norris University prize in 1853. Or-
dained in 1854, he became tutor of Trinity College
in 1857, Hulsean professor of Divinity at Cambridge
in 1861, canon of St Paul's Cathedral in 1871, and
Lady Rlargaret professor of Divinity at Cambridge
in 1875. He received bis doctor's degree in 1864,
was Whitehall preacher in 1SU6, was appointed
examining cliaplain to the Archbishop of Canter-
bury in 1868, honoiary Fellow of Trinity College,
Cambridge, in 1872, "select preacher at Oxford,
1874-75, and one of the Depnty-clerks of the Clo.set
to Her Majesty, February 1875. In 1879 Dr Light-
foot accepted with great reluctance the bishopric of
Durham, in succession to Dr Baring. Although
confessedly the most learned New Testament
scholar in tlie church, his powers of adminis-
tration had not been tested ; but in the end his
appointment wa-s not only justified so far as the
diocese of Durham was concerned, but in the wider
interests of the Church of England at large. While
pursuing in private his own studies, ho made
Bishop-Auckland a centre of learniu'' and teaching
for his clergy. He likewise devoted himself with
untiring energy to the practical work of his see, and
speedily gained the all'ection and confidence of all
with w'liom he came into contact. The work of the
Church Temperance Society and the White Cross
Army was specially furthered by his exertions. His
munificence was unbounded, and one of his last
acts was to build a church at Sunderland as a
thank-idl'ering for what seemed to be his recovery
from a serious illness in 1888. Dr Lightfoot's in-
fluence at Cambridge as a great Christian teacher
was of incalculable importance, his high personal
character as well as his learning having immense
weight and influence. A supreme grammarian and
painstaking textual critic, he gave the world admir-
able commentaries on the epistles of Paul to the
Galatiaiis ( 1865 ), Philippians ( 1 868 ), Colossians and
Philemon (1875), to eacdi of which were apiiended
interesting dissertations. Unhaiipily he was unable
to complete the Pauline Epistles, and his exhaus-
tive work on the Apostolic Fathers remains also a
splendid fragment, embracing luily the two ci)istles
ascribed to Clement of Home (1869; Appendix,
1877; new ed. 1890), and Iijuatiiis and Polyearp
(1885 ; 2d ed. 3 vols. 1889). Other works were On
a Fresh Revision of the Enqlish New Testament
( 1871 ), an edition of Dean Mansel's treatise on The
Gnoslie Heresies of the First and Second Centuries
( 1875), and four volumes of sermons published pos-
tlinmously in 1890. He contributed to the Journal
of Philolotjy, Dr Smith's Dietionarics of the Bible,
()f Christian Antiquities, and Christian Biography,
and published in succe.s.sive numbers of the Content-
porari) Review a crushing and detailed answer to the
anonvnious writer of Supernatural Ri'lii/iou (col-
lected 1S89 ). Dr Liglltfoot, who was never married,
died at Itournennuith on December 21, 1889, and
was buried at Durham.
Lighthouse, a building erected on sonie con-
spicuous iiart of the coast from which a light is
siiown at night to guide mariners, and which serves
as a landmark by day. Aids to navigation comprise
LIGHTHOUSE
623
lighthouses, lightsliips, Iieaoons, buoys, fog-signals,
ami huuiuiaiks. Lighthoust-s are generally placed
on salient points of tlie coivstline, islamls, isolated
or sunken rocks, low promontories, ami sandbanks,
each requiring stiiictures specially designeil to
meet the exigencies of such varied sites. When
placed on lieadlands or large islands lij'hthouses
are very much alike in general features, tlie differ-
ences being mainly in the height of the towei^,
depeuiling on the distance at which the light requires
to be seen, and the lighting apparatus. Towere
erecte<l on isolated wave-swept rocks in the open
sea, such as Smeaton's Eddystone (now superseded
by Sir James Douglass's tower), Stevenson's Bell
Rock, Walker's Bishop and WoltV Rocks, Alan
Stevenson's Skerryvore, David Stevenson's North
Unst, and Messrs Stevenson's Dhuheartach and
Chickens Rock lighthouses, Alexander's Jlinot's
Ledge and Spectacle Reef in America, and Brehat
in France, are triumphs of engineering.
The history of lighthouse construction and
illumination may be said to extend over a period
of more than two thousand yeai-s ; but the regularly-
organised life-preserving system of modern light-
house engineering goes hack very little further than
the beginning of the 19th centuiy. None of the
early lighthouse buildings now exist. The Pharos
of Alexandria (.S31 B.C.) gave its name to its suc-
cessors. The Romans built lighthouses at Ostia,
Ravenna, Puteoli, and other ports. The Phoenician
Pharos at Coruua was reiiaired during the reign
of the Emperor Trajan, was re-established as a
Iiglitliou.se about 1634, and in 1847 had a dioptric
apparatus placed in it. On the cliff at Boulogne
there are the remains of a liglithouse ascribed to
Caligula (40 .^.D. ), and at Dover there are remains
of another Roman pharos. Corduan, at the mouth
of the Garonne, has seen all the improvements, from
the open chauffer, in wiiich billets of wood were
burned, to the dioptric liglit combined with a four-
wick lamp. Until the end of the 18th century the
lighthouses of Britain and America were few in
number, and of an inferior description in the great
essential of a lighthouse — viz. sending the greatest
numl)er of rays of light towanls the horizon. !Man}'
of the public lights in England were private pro-
perty, as was also the case with the Isle of May in
Scotland, the patent for which was ratified in lt>41.
There were only twenty-hve lighthouse stations and
si.x lloating lights in England at the beginning of
tlie 19th century. In 1786 the Northern Lighthouse
Board was constituted by act of parliament, but
such was the then state of commerce that the act
provideil for only four lighthouses ; now there are
no fewer than sLxty-seven lighthouses under the
Board's jurisdiction. The Irish Lighthouse Board
wa-s constituted about the same period. The coast
anil harbour lights in Great Britain and Ireland
are now upwards of 880 in number. In the United
States of America the lirst act of congress relating
to lighthouses was i)assed in 1789, and there are
now in American waters 2375 lights and lightships
and 246 fog-signals.
The early lighthouse towers had on their summits
grates or chauffers, in which billets of wood or coal
were burned, but though expensive to maintain —
some of them using 400 tons of coal yearly — were un-
certain in their ajipearance, varying with the ever-
changing character of the atmosphere. Such coal-
lights survived in Scotland till 1816, in England till
1822, and on the iSaltic till 1846. As an example
of a modern lighthouse tower we may take Skerry-
vore, which is 139 feet in height an(r42 feet in dia-
meter at the base, containing a nia.ss of .')8,.i80 cubic
feet of granite. The foundations of all the towers
exposed to the .sea are quarried out of the solid
rock, and all the courses are dovetailed or joggled
together into each other by various devices, and
they are made soliil feu- about 20 or 30 feet above
the foundaticm, where they become divided off into
rooms, one above another, access to which is
obtained by means of ladders. The dithculties of
building are very great, as may be judged from the
following facts : Winstanley's Edily stone took four
seasons to erect, and was finally swept away,
Rudyerd's and also Smeaton's Kddystones took
each tliroe years, the Bell Rock took four years,
the Skerryvore live, and Dhuheartach three and
a half, the great dilliculty being to effect a landing
of men and materials. At Minot's Ledge, off the
Massachusetts coast. General Alexan<ler got only
30 hours of work in the first year and 137 in the
second, and the histmies of the Bell Rock, Skerry-
vore, Dhuheartacli, Chickens, E<ldystone, and some
others tell the .same tale. The cost of lighthouses
may vary much ; for instance, the Bell Rock
cost £61,000, Skerryvore £86,000, Spectacle Reef,
on Lake Huron, £60,000, Bishoj) £3.i,000, Dhuhear-
tach £80,000, and North Unst £32,000 ; and it will
be easily seen that an ordinary land station, fully
equippeil, will cost much less — as a matter of
fact, about £5000 to £10,000. Liglit- vessels cost
about £9000.
Oil-lamiis were used in lighthouses at the end of
the 16th century ; but liquid fuel often gave way
to candles of tallow or wax. Smeaton s famous
Eddystone was lighted with twenty-four candles,
five of which weighed 2 lb. The use of lamps led
to reflectors. The early ones were about 18 inches
in diameter, and made of small squares of mirror
glass, set in plaster of Paris, the lamps having
torch-like wic-ks, the fuel ordinary whale-oil.
These lamps did not give good results, and the
flat wick, though an improvement, was still un-
satisfactory. It was reserved for Argand (q.v.) to
devise the cylindrical wick-burner. The height of
the flame in the argand lamp varied with the
level of the oil in the fountain, anil Carcel ilevised
the arrangements for supplying a su)ierabundance
of oil to Keep the burner cool. Argand's inven-
tion is said to have been also discovered by
Teul^re, who combined his lamp with the use of
reflectors.
By placing a parabolic mirror behind a flame
(fig. 1) all the rays of light proceeding from
the focus and falling
upon its surface are
reflected parallel to
the axis, and emerge
in a beam of light.
Such reflectors are
generally 21 inches
in diameter for
fixed and 25 inches
for revolving lights,
their power being
equal to 350 to
450 times the un-
assisted flame. By
arranging a number
of rellectoi-s on a
frame there can be
sent, all round the
horizon, a number of
beams of light of
practically eciual in-
tensity, thus producing a Jircil light; and by
assembling tliem on a frame having three or more
faces, and making this frame revolve, a rerolving
light results, the rotation of the frame thus pro-
ducing a succession of light ami dark intervals.
These reflectors are used in some of the most
characteristic lighthouses in Britain. By arranging
reflectors in a certain manner on a frame, ami
causing it to revolve, a group-lhushing light can he
produced — i.e. one giving two or three Hashes in
Fig. 1.
624
LIGHTHOUSE
quick succession, followed by a long interval of
itarkness.
The ordinary parabolic reflector allows about
one-tliiril of the rays to escape pa.st the lips by
natural divergence. To prevent this wsiste Mr
Thomas Stevenson, in 1849, devised the holophotal
reflector (fig. 2), whicli consists of a lens, L, with a
parabolic mirror, «, and a hemispherical mirror, bb,
which returns all the rays falling upon it back to
the flame.
To Augustin Fresnel (q.v. ) belongs the honour
of inventing and first employing, in 1822, the
dio])tric system for lighthouse pur])oses in com-
bination with a central lamp having four con-
centric wicks. He was apparently ignorant of what
Iiad been done by Button and Condorcet in propos-
ing, for burning purposes, to build up lenses in
separate pieces with the view of reducing the
thickness of glass and correcting to a large extent
spherical aberration. So he devised the lighthouse
lens, which is plano-convex, 3 feet 3 inches in heiglit
by 2 feet 6 inches in breadth, composed of a central
disc, surrounded by annular rings gradually
decreasin" in breadth as they recede from the
centre. If these lenses be assembled on a frame
with eight or more sides, having a lamp in their
common focus, and be made to revolve, a dioptric
revolving light is produced. The lens implied a
central lamp and a flame of great intensity, whicli
Fresnel and Arago
devised, and in
which they ad-
hered to Argand's
principle of the
double air-cur-
rent ; and they
also took advan-
tage of Kuniford's
idea of a lamp
with concentric
wicks. The
lenses, however,
not interce]iting
the rays of light
proceeding from
the flame above
and below them,
Fresnel designed
an arrangement
of inclined lenses,
and mirrors above
the lenses, and
silvered mirrors
Fig. 3,— Stevenson's Holophotal below them,
Kevolving Light of the first order, which, to some
extent, obviates
this defect. When designing the revolving
apparatus for Skerryvore, Mr Alan Stevenson
substituted prisms for tlie mirrors below the
lenses, and also introduced totally reflecting
prisms for first order lightvs, and, in 1849, Mr
T. Stevenson dispensed witli the double agents
above and below the lens, and substituted holo-
photal prisms which parallelise tlie rays in every
plane (lig. 3). The holophotal ap]iaratus is now
universally adopted for revolving liglits. Fresnel
devised the fixed light varied by flashes by
placing straight refracting jirisms on a revolv-
ing frame outside a fixed apparatus. An exten-
sion of this is the condensing revolving apjiar-
atus whicli has been carried to such perfection
in Scotland, whereby straight refracting or re-
flecting prisms revolve, and intercept the rays
from a central fi.xed apparatus, so as to pro-
duce darkness over the section.s they subtend,
while they spread the rays which they intercept
£■•■■■
m
;::y
Fig. 4.
uniformly over, and thus strengthen, the inter-
mediate sections (fig. 4). The power is in-
creased in proportion to the duration of the
intervening periods of darkness. There have been
devised by Dr Hopkinson group-flashing lights by
splitting up the lens into two or three portions so
as to give two or more flashes (tig. 5).
The most notable improvement of recent times in
revolving apparatus is what Messrs Stevenson
Fig. 5. — Holophotal Triple-Hashing Light, first order.
suggested in 1869, ami to which they have given
the name hypcr-radiuiit. The radius >vhicli they
adopted was 1330 mm., that of Fresnel lieiiig 920
mm. The first lens of this size was made to Messrs
Stevenson's design by Messrs Harbier and l''eiicst re,
Paris. AVIien combined with the large tlanics de-
veloped by the increased size of burners now used,
this apparatus, when completed with the enlarged
prisms above and below the lenses (fig 6), leaves
LIGHTHOUSE
625
little to be desired, as all the rays of light are acted
on, excessive heat is avoided, and biforiii and tri-
form arrangements are rendered unnecessary, as
one central tlame is alone required. It is optic-
ally tlie most efficient apparatus yet made.
Stevenson's Hyper-radiant Light.
Fresnel not only gave us the dioptric revolving
light, but also the fixed dioptric apparatus, show-
ing all round the horizon a vertical strip of light,
depending on the diameter of the central Hame.
It is said that
owing to difficul-
ties of construc-
tion Fresnel
adopted a poly-
gonal form of
thirty-two nar-
row lenses for the
refracting hoop ;
but -Mr Alan
Stevenson, when
introducing the
dioptric light in-
to Britain, de-
signed a truly
cylindrical belt,
to the different
sections of which
he i;ave a rhom-
boidal form with
oblique joints
( fitj. 7 )- He also
had executed on
the large scale
totally reUeoting
i>rismatic rings,
'"ig. 8 is a iliop.
trie spherical mirror, which shows a dioptric liolo-
fdiote, and lig. 9 the dioptric mirror as imjiroved
)y Mr J. T. Chance, which is largely used in light-
houses, a-s is also the azimuthal condensing light,
iniroduceil by Me.ssrs Steven.son in 1857, to suit
the requirement.') of narrow sounds on the west
coast of Scotland, where the light did not require
to be of equal power in all directions. .As shown
by the chart (fig. 10), it is obvious that on the siile
next the shore no light is required, acros.s the .sound
a feeble light is all that is necessary, while up and
.300
7. — Fixed Light, first order.
down the sound the sea to be illuminated is of
greater or loss extent, requiring corresponding in-
tensity. Various ap|ilications of Stevenson's con-
densing princii)k' are
now extensively used
in lighthouses. The
apparent light is
another of ^Ir T.
Stevenson's devices
for indicating, by
means of a beam of
parallel rays thrown
from the shore, the
position of a rock
lying at some dis-
tance off. By means
of apparatus placed
on a l)eacon on the
rock, the rays of light
from the shore are
reflected seawards so
as to give the appearance of a light on the beacon
( fig. 1 1 ). Dioptric apparatus were divided into six
orders until Jlessrs Stevenson designed the hyper-
radiant apparatus ; the following table gives the
internal diameter and height of the optical-glass
of each :
Fig. 8.
Dioptric Spherical Mirror.
Iut«nial Diameter.
Hyper-radiant. ..8 feet 8'72 inches.
l.st Order 6 „ 0-44 ..
•2d 4 .. 712 ..
3d 3 " 3-37 .,
4th 1 .. 7-68 .,
5th 1 .. 277 ..
6th .. 0 .. 11-81 i.
Height of Glass-work.
11 feet 10-28 inches.
8 .. 8-5
7 .. 0
5 .. 1-5
2 .. 8-06
1 „ 10
1 „ 55
Lanterns. — The lantern, or framewoik of glass
and metal which contains the lighting apparatus,
is an important part of lighthouse economy. The
early lanterns had
vertical and hori-
zontal sash-bai-s,
but in 1835 Mr
Alan Stevensim,
when he introduced
diagonal frame-
work for the diop-
tric light, extended
it to the lantern.
The diagonal astra-
gals do not inter-
cept light in any -
azinmth through-
out their whole
height, and this
trigonal arrange-
ment secures a
structure of great
Fig. 9.
Chance's Improvement on Fig. 8.
rigidity and strength. The
astragals are of gun-metal, 1 inch section, glazed
with plate-glass J incli in thickness, unless in
peculiarly exposed situations, where it is used J
inch thick. The first order lantern is 12 feet in
Fig. 10.
diameter, and 10 feet in height of daylight, with
an outer and inner dome of coi)per. Mr Alan
Stevenson designed a helical lantern in 184G, but it
was not executed. Sir James Dougla.ss, however,
recently designed a lantern with helical a.stragals
626
LIGHTHOUSE
Fig. 11.
14 feet in tliametei', glazed with glass ^ inch in
thickness, bent to the proiier curve. In the Scot-
tish liglitliouses 'storm-panes,' which are glazed
copper frames, are always in readiness in ciuse of
breakage of a pane. They arc Hxed to the astragals
by screws. There is no instance in the Northern
Lighthonse service of a lantern-pane being broken
by the force of the wind, l)ut they are occasionally
broken by birds or by stones being driven against
them (hiring strong gales.
Lamps. — The earliest lighthouses had lamjis with
two or more spouts each with a skein of cotton,
until Argand and Teul^re gave us the cylindric
burner, Carcel the arrangement for causing a
How of oil over the burner, Kumford the idea
of concentric wicks, and Arago and Fresnel the
four-wick lamp. Mr Alan Stevenson added a
fifth wick, and other lighthouse engineers have
increased the
number. These
burners were
suitable for con-
suming animal
or vegetable oils.
The extensive
use of parathn
led to its adop-
tion in light-
houses, but suc-
cess was only
attained with
the one-wick
burner until
Captain Doty,
in 1868, devised
burners which
develop a flame of great purity and intensity in
concentric wick lamps. Single-wick burners draw
their supply by the capillary action of the ■nick,
but with multiple-wick burnei's the oil is supplied
by cisterns placed above the level of the Inirner, or
from below by ])umps worked by clockwork, or by
pressure exerted by a weighted piston. When
vegetable or animal oils are employed with multiple-
wick lamps the burner requires to be kept cool and
the wicks |)revented from charring by causing a
superabundant sujiply of oil — nearly three times
greater than is consumed — to flow over the wicks,
the overflow rumiing back to the cistern. AVhen
]iaiatlin is used, however, the fluid is not allowed to
rise beyond a certain height in the wick-cliambers,
the overflow being returned by a tube to the
fountain. The satisfactory results in increiused
l)hotogenic power and economy arising from the
use of i)arallin have led to the diameters of the
burners being much increased. Sir James Douglass
has devised burners having seven, eight, and nine
concentric wicks, which, of course, greatly increase
the candle-power. Messrs Stevenson pointed out,
in 1809, that much of the light from burners of
greatly increased diameter, when used with revolv-
ing apparatus, was not condensed by the lenses,
and not i)roperly utilised, and that special apjaratus
was necessary, and hence their proposal of the
hyper-radiant ajiparatus already referred to.
lUuiiiiiKints. — Almost every kind of oil, .animal
and vegetable, has been used in liglitliouses —
whale, sperm, seal, lard, olive, cocoa-nut, hempseed,
colza -but these have been supersedeil by |)araMin,
not only on financial but on iihotogenic groniuls.
Sperm-oil was long the illuminant used in British
lights, but it gave way, in 184.5, to colza at a saving
of one-half the cost, while it has been succeeded by
paraflin, which has raised the power of the lamps
Iroin 10 [ler cent, in the four-WKdc burner to over
100 per cent, in the one-wick lamp. Messrs
Stevenson, in 1870, set at rest the comparative
merits of colza and paraflin, and, when the isolated
rock station of Dhubeaitach came to be lighted in
1872, they introduced paraflin as the illuminant.
It may be stated that in the Scottish liglitliouses
alone a sum of between £4000 and £.50(10 is annu-
ally saved by the use of paraflin, while the jiower
of the lights has been exalted; and most light
liou.se authorities have followed their exam|ile.
Paraflin can be readily obtained with a specillc
gravity of 0'8'2, and a flashing-point, close test, of
125° to 150° F., and even as high as 250' F. The
following is the consumption in gallons per hour of
the Dotv ])araflin buriieis : 1 wick, 015 ; 2 wicks,
■055 ; 3 wicks, 126 : 4 wicks, -205 ; 5 wicks, ■373 ; 6
wicks, '499. The use of gas was suggested ^^ hen
giis-lighting was in its infancy, and the experiments
did not succeed. Wherexer gas can be had, and
proper precauticms are taken, there can be no
doubt of its utility for lighthouse purpo.*cs ; but
when it requires to be specially made at a light-
house station, either from coal or paraflin. it is ex-
pensive. Fm- harbour-lights, where the sup^dy
can be readily had, it has long been used witli
satisfactory results. In 1827 ISlr Wilson erected a
very simide ]iiece of m.achinery at Troon for ]iroduc-
ing an interiiiiltent light from gas, whereby the
alternations of light and darkness were got by
shutting oft' the "as so as to extinguish the light,
and again as suddenly letting on the full sii|)ply,
the gas being re-ignited by a separate small burner
supplied by a ' bypass yalve.' Mr T. Stevenson
propo.seil to make intermittent gas-lights by causing
the flow of gas to produce intermittent action by
means of a dry meter. The meter is so made as to
Eass gas suflicient to keep a small jet constantly
nrning. The full flame of the large jet continues
to burn until the action of the meter cuts oti' the
supply, and the small jet is again kept burning
alone until the full supply flows to the larger jet.
Mr Wigliam of Dublin has devised a system of
gas-burners, having live rings of 28, 48, 68, 88, and
108 jets, the diameter of the rin^s varying from 4
to 11 J inches, the power being 250, 680, 990, 1400,
and 2300 standard candles respectively. These
burners require no glass-chimney, and all or any
of the rings can be used to suit the state of the
atmosphere. He has also strongly advocated, and
has introduced at some lighthouses in Ireland, a
.system of superposed lenses, which have been
styled biforni, triform, and quadriforni lights, each
tier of lenses having an inde|)endent burner. Sir
James Douglass ha-s devised six and ten ring
gas-burners, the gas issuing from surface holes, as
in the ordinary argand, the power being 850 and
2500 camlles respectively. These burners require
a glass-chimney. The result of the South Foreland
experiments is that, for ordinary lighthouse pur-
iioscs, paraflin is the most suitable and economical
illuminant, and this agrees with the conclusions
arrived at by Messrs Stevenson in 1870.
Electric Lig/it.— The electric light was first
shown to the mariner in 1858 from the Foreland
lighthouse, the generating machine being that of
I'rofessor Holmes; but since that date more
powerful machines have been devised. The alter-
nate current machines of liaron de Meritcns have
been used with good results at the Isle of May
and other lighthouses. The Isle of May machines
are of the L type, of the largest size hitherto con-
structed, and weigh about 4?; tons each. The in-
duction arrangement of each of the two machines
consists of 5 sets of 12 iiermanent magnets, each
magnet being made up of 8 [dates. The armature,
which makes OtM) revolutions ])er niinute, is driven
by a belt from the engine — 16 horsepower — is two
feet six inches in diameter, and is composed of 5
rings with 24 bolibiiis on each, arianged in groii|>s
of 4 in tension and 6 in quantity. With the circuit
open each niachine develops an electromotive force
LIGHTHOUSE
627
of 80 volts, iiieasiii-ed at tlie distribiitoi- ; ami with
the circuit closetl tliroujih an arc, 40 volts. An
average current of 220 amperes is developed, thus
vielding an electrical enerjrj- of 8S00 watts, or 11 '8
lioi-se-power in the external circuit. The five rings
are so arranged that J, ;, f, i, or the whole of the
current of a machine can, at pleasure, be sent to
the distributor for transmission to the lantern, and
the two machines can be coupled and the full cur-
rent from both be employed <luring hazy weather.
The current is conveyed to the lighthouse — a
ilistance of 880 feet^ — by solid copper conductoix
1 inch in diameter, with scarphed joints bolted
and soldered together. The lamps are of the
Serrin-Berjot type, with some modifications —
notably the shunt or by-pass, whei-eby a large
percentage of the current goes direct to the lower
carbon. The carbons, which are 16 inch in dia-
meter, have a core of pure graphite, and burn with
gieat steadiness at the rate of 2 inches per hour.
The dioptric apparatus, originally used with the
electric arc, was too sniall, and Messrs Stevenson
in 1865 suggested that it should be third order,
and this was generalh' adopted ; but at the Isle of
May it was made second order condensing, so
as to give a group of fovir flashes in quick succes-
sion, with intervals of darkness of thirty seconds,
the whole light being condensed into three degrees,
the resulting beams being equal to three million
candles with single power, and six million with
double power. It is seen thirty per cent, oftener
than a first-class revolving dioptric light. At
Souter Point, the Forelan<ls, Lizard, the apparatus
is third order. At St Catherine's and Tino it is
second order, while at Mac<iuarie it is first order.
Characteristics. — The following are the main
distinctions in use: (1) li.xed lights; (2) the re-
volving light, which at equal periods comes into
view and gradually attains its full power and then
giadually di-sappears ; (3) revolving red and white,
showing alternately flashes of red and white light ;
( 4 ) flashing, showing flashes at short intervals ;
(5) intermittent, which bursts instantaneously into
full power, and, after remaining as a fixed light for
a certain period, is suddenly eclipsed; and (6)
group flashing, consisting of two or more fla.shes
separated by short eclipses, the groups being
separated by a longer eclipse. The use of colour
is resorted to for danger arcs, or when another
characteristic Ls not available. The two colours
employed are red and tjreeu, generally i)roduced by
coloured chimneys over the lamps. Experiments
made at Edinburgh show that light, in passing
through red glass, should be 4A times stronger
than for a light of the natural colour — a loss
slightly redeemed in thick weather owing to the
red rays not being so nmch absorbed.
Machines. — If the apparatus revolves, motion is
generally produced by clockwork and by the fall
of a weight. In the case of small apparatus,
Messrs Stevenson produced motion by means of
the heat from the burner causing a fan to revolve,
which has since been adopted in the Trotter-
Linberg system.
Distribution. — The coa-sts of all countries have
three lines of defence. There are first great sea
lights which indicate imi)ortant ' landfalls,' and
require the most powerful apparatus ; secondary
liglits which, tliougli not requiring to be so
powerful as those of the first order, are of great
importance, as indicating turnin^'-jioints in the
navigation ; and, lastly, harbour lights to guide
sliips into havens of safety. It has Vjeen laid down
a.s an axiom by lighthouse engineers that over-sea
lights of similar character should not be placed
nearer each other than 100 miles, and that if
possiVde lights near coastlines much frequented by
shipping should be designed to overlap each other.
Lirfhtships. — Light -vessels are moored in situa-
tions where it would be im])ossible to erect a light-
house. They are generally wooden sliijis, ICS feet
in length between perpendiculars, and 23J feet
beam, strongly built, copper fastened, and sheathe<l
w-ith muntz metal. The North Carr Lightship, at
the entrance of the Forth, is moored by a Ig-inch
studileil chain cable and 3-ton anchor, as it is in a
very exposeil situation, and the eii'dnes for the fog-
signal are driven by steam. The lantern is 8 feet
in diameter, of .steel, carried on a steel mast. The
api)aratus ccmsists of eight fixed dioptric apparatus,
each of 180', fitted with spherical mirrors and
argand lamps. Each apparatus, with its fountain
I and lamp, is hung on gimbals, so balanced as to
hang vertically in any position of the mast within
30 degi-ees of the vertical.
Early light-vessels had small lanterns suspended
from the yard-arms. Mr K. Stevenson, in 1807,
introduced a lantern which surrounded the mast,
and all subsequent lightship lanterns have been
made on his plan. All floating lights had catop-
tric appar.-itus until Messrs Stevenson, when de-
signing the Hooghly lightships, employed diojitric
apparatus. Sir James Douglass has done much to
improve the lanterns of light-vessels, and intro-
duced two- wick lamps instead of single argands.
Fo/jf-sir/nals. — The average duration of fog on
the whole coast of England is only slightly over
400 hours yearly, though in some parts it reaches
1080 hours. In Scotland the average is under 400
hours yearly, while at some parts of the coast of
the United States the average is 2226 hours yearly,
the higliest being 2454 hours. There are few coast
lighthouse stations where a phonic signal would
not be a useful auxiliary, as tfiere are times when
the most powerful lights, even the electric, are
obscured by dense fog, when the sailor must be
guided by signals addressed to the ear. Various
instniments have been used, .such as bells, gongs,
steam-whistles, guns, sound-rockets, tonite charges,
I reed trumpets, and sirens sounded by compressed
I air or steam. The Daboll fog-horn and siren are of
American origin, the siren being the most powerful
in use ; but, though it has Tieen heard at distances
of upwards of 20 nautical miles, there are certain
conditions of the atmosphere when its efl'ective
range is limited to 2 or 3 miles. Though bells are
not efl'ective signals, no fewer than 55 of them
are used in British and 158 in American waters ;
and since 1811, when Stevenson introduced fog-
bells at the Bell Rock Tower, all subsequent rock
lighthouses, owing to the want of space for other
signals, have been supplied with them. Such rock
towel' bells vary from 3 cwt. to 2 tons. It has
been found that when struck by a hammer outside,
instead of by a clapper, the sound is heard at a
greater distance, and when the lilows are struck in
rapid succession for a short time the sound is more
penetrative. For the sake of distinction two bells
of different tone, struck after each other, are some-
times used. Gongs, struck by hand, are still em-
ployed on board some lightships ; but though the
sound is distinctive it is nut lieard at any great
distance. Steani-wbistles are hugely used in the
United States, and guns are still employed at a
few stations. Sound-rockets are charged with the
ordinary composition to carry the rocket up to a
height of 600 feet, when a charge of cotton powiler
is exploded with a report like the discharge of a
piece of ordnance. The charges of cotton powder
are generally 4 ounces, but 12-ounce chaiges are
sometimes useil when there is wind along with the
fog. Tonite signals are used at eleven stations in
Britain. The charges consist of small cylindrical
discs of dry cotton jiowder (tonite), 4 ounces in
weight, each having a hole up the centre for re-
ceiving the detonator, which is a copper tube
628
LIGHTHOUSE
LIGHTNING
containiiij; fulminate composition. The charge is
tireil liy connectiuj; it witli an electric calile attached
to a small electro-niajxnetic macliine ^.tandinj; in
the li<;ht-room. A liglit framework or jib is fixed
outside the lantern, counterbalanced and raised by
means of wheel-work to about 12 feet above the
lantern. When the charge and detonator are
attached to the ends of an electric cable, the jib
is hoisted, the firing handle of the electric machine
is raised and smartly pushed down, when the fuse
anil detonator lires the charge, whicli gives ,1 loud
report. An arrangement is made so that the
circuit cannot be closed until the jib and charge
are raised to the full height above the lantern.
The Daboll born is a metal trumpet in wliich a
metallic reed or tongue IS inches long, '2A inches
broad, and varying from { to ^ inch in thickness at
the free end, is ma<le to viljrate l)y compressed air
or steam being lilown through it. This signal is
effective, though not so powerful as that of the
siren. The siren ccmsists of a trumpet having two
discs, 12-inch diameter, one of which is fi.\ed, and
one rotating with radial slits cut in them. The
rotation is from loOO to 2000 times a minute, with
air at 20 lli. pressure per square inch. Holmes' siren
is automatic, consisting of two cylinders having
angular slots, one being li.\ed and the other free to
rotate within the fixed cylinder ; the compressed
air impinging against the inclined sides of the
slots causes the inner cylinder to revolve, the rapid
passage of one row of slots over the other produces
a series of vibrations which give the note desired,
and notes of different pitch can also be produced.
Sirens are used at 41 stations in British waters.
At Ailsa Craig, Messrs Stevenson adopted a central
station, the compressed air, at 75 lb. i)er square
inch, being conveyed to distances of J and A mile
respectively. The south signal gives 3 blasts in
quick succession every 3 minutes, the first a high
note, the second a low note, the third a high note ;
while the north gives one blast of 5 seconds duration
every 3 minutes. These signals are so arranged as
to begin to sound about li minute before each
other, and never together. The motive power is
live gas-engines, one being spare, the gas being
made from the paraffin used in the lighthouse
lamps. As regards the distance to which the
com|iressed air is carried, this was a new departure
in fog-signalling. These signals are actuated by
compressed air, the motive-power being hot air,
steam or gas engines, or, as at Corse-wall in Scot-
land, by Priestiuan's oil-engines, with ordinary
lighthouse paraffin oil as the exidosive.
Administiation. — liritish lighthouses are man-
ageil by three boards — the Trinity House for
England, the Commissioners of Northern Lights
fur Scotland and the Isle of Man, and the Ballast
Hoard, Dublin, for Ireland ; the Hoard of Trade,
by the Mercantile Marine Act of 1854, having
control over the three boarils in finance and other
matters. Some colonial lights are also und<'r the
control of the lioanl of Trade. For tlie I'nited
States of America a Lighthouse Hoard was cim-
stituted in 1S52, the Treasury defraying the cost
of erecting and maintaining lighthouses and other
aids to iiavigati(m. In France the lighthouse
service is under the minister of Public Works and
a special 'Commission dcs Fhares.' In Sweden,
Norway, Holland, Denmark, Russia, and Aiistria
the lighthou.se administration is under the Admir-
alty or minister of Marine. In Spain the system
of administration is similar to that of France.
Litjhtkeepers. — At lighthouse stations on shore
there are two keepers, while at rock stations
there are generally four, one being always on
shore by rotation. Where there is a fog-signal
at any station there aie generally three keejiers,
and at electric light station.s there are five, one
of them being a mechanical engineer. The crews
of light-ships are eleven in number, three of the
crew and the master or mate getting on shore by
rotation.
See J. Smeaton, Eddystone Lighthouse (171I1); K.
Stevenson, Bdl Rock Lighthouse (1824); Alan Steven-
son, Skrrri/vore Lighthouse, with Notes on Lighthouse
Illumination (1848), and Treatise on the Histuni, Con-
struction, U7id Ifluniination of Lighthouses (1850);
IJavid Stevenson, Lighthouses (18G4); M. L. Keynaud,
Memoire snr VEclairmie et le Balisatie dcs CCtes de
France (18(!4); L. Renard, Les Phare's (18G"); G. H.
Elliott, European Lighthouse St/stems (1875); M. E.
Allard, Mcntoire snr flntcnsit^ et la Portee des Phans
(1876); Thomas Stevenson, Lighthouse Construction and
lUumination ( 1881 ) ; M. L. Keynaud, Phares et Balises
( 1883 ) ; Sir Jaines Douglass's Opening Address to tlie
British Association (1886) ; E. P. Edwards, Our Seamarks
(1886); 1). P. Heap, Ancient and Modern Linhlliousts
(1889) ; and Minutes of Proceedings of the In.^titntiim uf
Ciril Engineers.
Liglltlliug (Fr. Mciir, Ger. Blitz), the name
gi\eu to the visible discharge of electricity between
one group of clouds and another, or between tin;
clouds and the ground. Thunderclouds, well
known by their dark and heavy look, belong
usually to the <'umulus ty])e (see Ci-OIDS), and are
found at all heights from close to or almost touching
the ground up to about 6000 feet. Hut most of the
summer thunder-clouds in Great Britain float at
an altitude of from 1000 to 3000 feet. On elevated
mountain-tops, 12,000 feet high or more, lightning
and hail showers accomjiany the passage of cirrus
clouds over them. Li'ditning oc^curs in three dis-
tinct forms, commonly called forked-lightning,
sheet-lightning, and ball- lightning, the last class
serving also as a convenient term for unexplained
phenomena.
For/:cd-h'(/litiii)tij apjiears as long Hashes pass-
ing from cloud to cloud or between clouds and the
ground. It gets its name from the apparently sharp
bends it makes, but most photograjihs of lightning
show it in a wa\y or ribbon-like form. Occasionally
it splits into several Ijranclies at one or both ends.
1
I
Photograph nf I.iglitning (from Kuou'lrdgc, June 1889).
These flashes fre(|uently piuss between clouds .several
miles apart, lengths of 6, 8, and even 10 miles having
been oi>served. The thunder whicli accompanies
this finni of lightning is due to the intense and
sudden heat developed in the path of the dischiirge
ex[ianding the air with ex]ilosive ra]iidity. As
sound travcds slowly com|iared with electricity and
light, the noise from dill'erent ]iarts of Hie flash
reaches the ear in succession, .anil aided by echoes
from the clouds, produces the proliuiged rolling of
the thunder-peal. The distance away of the flash
can be cstiiiialed by the time between the flash and
the beginning of the thuiuler, every 5 .seconds being
equivalent to 1 mile ; 50 seconds or 10 miles is the
LIGHTNING
629
gieatt'st observed interval at which thunder has
been hcaril.
S/teet/iijkliii/ig, sometimes called siimmer-liglit-
ning, is a frequent accompaniment of warm weather
in temperate climates and an almost daily pheno-
menon in most tropical regions. It appears as a
dilVuse glare lighting up a whole cloud, is often of a
reddisli colour, and is believe<l to be due to dis-
charges of feebler intensity than those causing
forked-lightning. It may occasionally lie merely
the rellection on the cloud of a distant thunderstorm
invisible to the spectator.
Balllirihtning is an as yet unexplaine<l pheno-
menon ; forked and slieet lightning are the gigantic
analogues of the spark and glow from an electric
machine, but nothing resemliling the slow-moving,
luminous globe described by those who have seen
ball-lightning has ever been produced artiticially.
The hall has been estimated at from a few inches
to over a yard in diameter; and, while not atlectiiig
anything that it does not directly touch, acts like
an explosive shell on any solid body in its track,
throwing tlown walls, making holes several feet
deep in the ground, or ploughing long trenches :
sometimes disappearing with a loud report, at
others gradually getting smaller till it vanishes.
This destructive and dangerous form of lightning is
happily very rare. Allied to lightning is St Elmo's
Fire (q.v. ). See Arthur Parnell, The Action of
Lightning (1882).
Death b)/ Lightning is always instantaneous,
and is probably always caused by the shock to
the brain and nervous system. The post-mortem
appearances are extremely variable. Sometimes
no marks of injury are found : but more often
lacerations, bruises, bums, and occasionally even
fractures of bones are present. The clothes may
be burnt or torn, even when the surface of the body
is not injured ; metallic substances on the person
may be fused, and steel magnetised. Wlien the
accident is not immediately fatal, the consequences
are still more variable : insensibility, paralysis,
burns, wounds, loss of hair, eruptions on the skin,
hemorrhages, loss of speech or of one or more of the
special senses, may all occur. Tlie treatment must
be directed to the special symptoms, which are liable
to great variations. Sir B. Brodie's advice is as
follows : ' E.xpose the body to a moderate warmth,
so as to prevent the loss of animal heat, to which
it is always liable when the functions of the brain
are suspended or impaired, and inflate the lungs, so
as to imitate natural respiration as nearly as pos-
sible.' These means should be fully tried, as
respiratory action has been restored after more
than an hour's suspension.
LlGHTSlSG-CONDUCTOli ( Fr. paratounene, Ger.
Blitzableiter). The object of a lightning-con-
ductor is twofold : first, and most important, to
drain away the electricity from |iassing clouds and
thus inevent tlie occurrence of lightning in its
neighbourliood ; and secondly, when unable to do
this, to receive and convey to earth tin; lightning-
flash without damage to the building to wliich
it is attached. The first oVjject is best secured
by the lightning-conductor being a sharp-pointed
metallic rod standing clear above all surrounding
buildings, trees, vtc. ; while the second necessitates
its having considerable diameter to carry the short-
lived but intense current produced by the Hash :
both require that it should be in thorough metallic
connection with tlie earth. Tlie action of tlie
lightning-conductor may lie illustrated by an
electric machine. When the machine is in action
the prime conductor, wliicli corresponds to the
thunder-cloud, <lischarges a rapid succession of
flashes or .sjiarks ; but if a pointed metallic rod is
belli near it all sparking cea.ses, the electricity is
drawn ott' silently as fast as it is generated by the
machine, while if a ball or blunt rod is placed near
the conductor in tlioron^li connection with the
ground the sparks will pass to it as the easiest jl-iss-
age to earth. Good copper is almost six times better
a conductor of electricity than iron, and therefme
lightning-conductors are usually made of copper ;
but they may be equally well constructed of iron if
made 2i times the diameter, so as to eipialise their
c(mducting power. For ordinary buildings tlie dia-
meter of the rod should be at least A incli for copper
or IJ inch for iron : lighthouses and similar exposed
buildings are usually fitted with copper conductors
1 inch in diameter. Instead of ,a solid rod, wire-
rope of equivalent size is frequently used for con-
venience of adjustment to the buildings. The top
of the conductor, always a solid rod, ends in a blunt
point surrounded a few inches down by three or
tour sharp points projecting obliquely upwards, Imt
not rising as high as the toj5 ; these points ought to
be platinised or gilded to prevent oxiilation. The
rod must project higher than any other part of the
buililing. It has been found that, roughly speaking,
a liglitning-conductor protects from (lirect Hashes a
conical space equal to its heiglit with a radius at
the base of double its height. Thus, a rod standing
6 feet above the gable end of an (Uilinary house
will protect the roof ridge for 12 feet along, but if
the house is more than 12 feet broad will not pro-
tect the other gable. All large masses of metal in
a building, more especially the roof-gutters, should
be connected with tlie lightning-conductor, as they
may otherwise form a broken connection to eartli
and conduct the lightning with dangerous sparking
at the breaks. Sharp bends must be avoided in the
conductor, and any joins in it should be biased, or
embedded in a large mass of solder, so as to avoiti
any lisk of heating at the junction by imperfect
contact. Perhaps the most important part of the
lightning-conductor, and certainly the part in wliich
it is most difficult to ensure satisfactory arrange-
ment and workmanship, is the connection to earth.
Dry earth is practically a non-conductor of electri-
city ; damp earth is a moderately good conductor,
and, being of infinite area compared with any light-
ning-conductor, can safely receive any discharge.
Tlie problem therefore is to make a satisfactory
junction with a sufficiently large area of dani]) soil.
This is usually done by attaching to the lower end
of the lightning-conductor a brass plate about a
yard square, and burying it in a damp spot sur-
rounded by gas-coke. Sometimes the lightning-
conductor is connected to an iron water or chain
pipe, but not a gas-pipe, as the risk of setting fire
to the gas from a spark at a break must not be
incurred. A faulty earth connection makes a light
ning-conductor worse than useless. Every large
building requires more than one conductor, and
perfect safety can only be ensured by a town or
district having a sufficient number of conductors to
drain passing thunderclouds of their electricity
and prevent flashes from ever occurring. The
first lightning-conductor was erected by lienjamin
Franklin on his own house in I'hiladelphia in 1752.
See Kiliiihiivgh llci-icw for July 18S4 ; and (>. .1.
Lodge, Liglitning Conductors ( 18'J2).
LlOHTNlXii-rKlNT.s are apiiearances sometimes
found on the skin or clothing of men or animals
that citber have been struck by lightning or have
been in the vicinity of the stroke, and are currently
believeil to be pictorial representations of surrounil-
ing (dfjects or scenery. The existence of such
prints appeal's, from a theoretical point of view,
highly imiirobable, as the essential conditions of
forming a |ihotographic image are wanting ; still,
several ap]iarently well-authenticated instances
have been recorded, one or two of wliich may
serve to give a general idea of what are meant by
lightningprints. On the 14th of November 1830
630
LIGHTS
LIGONYI
lir;litning struck the Chateau of Benatonniere, in
La \'enilee ; at the time a laily ha[:ipene<l to be seated
<iu a chair in the salon, and on the back of her dress
were printe<l minutely the ornaments on tlie liack
of the chair. In September 1857 a peasant-girl,
while herding a cow in the department of Seine-
et-Marne, was overtaken by a tliunderstorm. She
took refuge under a tree ; and the tree, the cow,
and herself were struck witli lightning. The cow
w;i.s killetl, but she recovered, and, on loosening
her dress for the sake of respiring freely, she saw
a picture of the cow ui)on her breast. Tliese anec-
dotes are typical of a great mass of others. They
tell of metallic! objects printed on the skin, of
clothes while Ix'ing worn receiving impressions of
neighlionring olijccts, or of the skin being pictured
with surrounding scenery or objects during thunder-
storms. One object very generally spoken of as
being ])rinted is a neighbouring tree. This may
be accounted for by supposing that the lightning-
discharge has taken place on the skin in the form
of the electric brush (see ELECnaciTY), which has
the strongest possible resemblance to a tree, and
that this being imprinted on the skin by a slight
charring of the tissues in its track has led observers
to confound it with a neighbouring tree. Of other
prints it would be difficult to give a satisfactory
account, though observers have done something in
imitation of tlieni. When a coin is placed on glass
and a stream of sparks poured on it from a power-
ful electrical machine, on the glass being breathed
u])on after its removal a distinct image of the coin
is traced out by the dew of the lireath. The parts
of the glass surface in contact with the metal
liaving received a ditl'erent charge from the rest,
a selective action by the glass on the dew of the
breath takes place ; but this is very difl'ereut from
the permanent image of the anecdote. With all
due allowance for the possible printing-power of
lightning, the accounts given of it in most cases
bear tiie stamp of exaggeration.
Lights, Use of, in Public Worship, a practice
which prevailed in the .Jewish (Exod. xxv. 31-39)
and in most of tlie ancient religions, and which is
retained both in tlie Roman and in the Oriental
churches. The use of lights in tlie night-services,
and in subterranean churches, such as those of the
early Christians in the catacombs, is of course easily
intelligible : but the pr.actice, as bearing also a sym-
liolical allusion to the ' Light of the World ' and to
the ' Light of Faith,' was not contined to occasions
of necessity, but appears to have been from an early
time an accompaniment of Christian worship, espe-
cially in connection with the sacraments of baptism
and the eucharist. The time of the service in which
lights are used has varied very much in dillbrent
ages ; but eventually it was extended to the entire
time of the mass. In other services, also, lights
have been used from an (!arly period : e.g. lighted
tapers were jilaced in the hand of the newly baptised,
a usage still retained in the Roman Catholic Church.
Two candles are de ri(/iiei(r at nia.ss, and four ivt
high mass ; but the most profuse use of lights is
reserved for Benediction, and other services con-
nected with the Exposition of the Host. The usage
of blessing the Pa.schal Light is describeil at IIoLY
Week. The material used for lights in churches is
either oil or wax ; the latter in jienitential seasons,
and in services for the dead, being of a yellow colour.
.An oil lamp always burns in a lionian Catholic
church to indicate the iiresence of the Host in the
tabernacle on the altar. In the Anglican Church
candlesticks, and in some instances candles them-
selves, are retaine<l in many churches, on the com-
munion talile, but in the majority of instances they
are nut lighted. The use of lights, excejit wlii^re
required for giving light, has been declared illegal
more than once since 1855. In the Presbyterian
and Independent churches the symbolical use of
lights is rejected as superstitious.
Liinie, Ch.vkles .Toseph, Prince pe, son of an
imperial tield-iii.ushal whose seat wa.s at Ligne,
near Tournai, was born at Brussels, 23d jlay
1735, and as an Austrian soldier served at Kolin,
Leuthen, Hochkirch, &c., in the war of the Bava-
rian succession, and under Loudon at the siege of
Belgrade (1789). Meanwhile he hail undertaken
various diplomatic missions and received numerous
distinctions. A Belgian liy birth, an .Austrian
subject, the favourite of Maria Theresa and Cath-
arine of Russia, the friend of Frederick the Creat,
Voltaire, Rousseau, he wa-s always a most welcome
guest at the court of Versailles and in the Paris
salons. He died 13th December ISI4. Of his
literary remains there were published Mdongen
(34 vols. 1795-1811), (Euvrrs Posthiimcs (6 vols.
1817), a life of Prince Eurane (1809), and a collec-
tion by ALtdaine de Stael of his Lettrcs ct Peiisee-f
(1809). A new edition of his works in 4 vols, was
pulilislied at Brussels in 1860. See a monograph
by Thiirheim (Vienna, 187G), and the Edinburgh
Eci-kn- for July 1890.
Ligniu. See Cellulose.
Lignite, or Brown Co.al, a mineral substance
of vegetable origin, like common coal, but diU'ering
from it in its more distinctly fibrous or woody
formation, which is sometimes so perfect that the
original structure of the wood can lie discerned with
the microscope, whilst its external form is also not
unfrequently preserveil. In this state it is often
called Wood Coed ; and it sometimes occurs so
little mineralised that it may be used for the pur-
poses of wood, as at Vitry on the banks of the
Seine, where the woodwork of a hotise has been
made of it. From this to the most perfectly min-
eralised state it occurs in all difl'ei'ent stages. It
is often brown or brownish black, more rarely gray.
It burns without swelling or running, with a weaker
llame than coal ; emits in burning a smell like that
of peat, and leaves an ash nuire resembling that of
wood than of coal. Wherever it occurs in sullicient
abundance it is used for fuel, although as a rule
very inferior to common coal. Lignite occurs spar-
ingly in Britain — the chief locality being Bovey
Tracey in Devonshire, where it has long been
worked. The principal repository of lignite in
Euro])e is the Oligocene System (q.v.) of (leriiiany,
in which some of the beds attain a great thickues.s.
Over the eastern slopes of the Rocky Mountains
lignite is widely distributed, but the beds are rarely
thick enough to be of economic importance. Thin
beds of lii'uite are associated with the oligocene
basalt rocKs of Iceland (where it is known as
'Surtnr-brand ') and the Faroe Islands, just as is
the case with the similar formations in Antrim and
Mull.
I'nlike wood, it is soluble in nitric acid and in
alkaline hypochlorites, and refractory to catistic
potash solution ; in the latter respect it resembles
coal, which is, however, not .soluble in hypo-
chlorites.
Ligiiiiiii RIio«lii. See CoNVoLyuLUS.
Ligiiiiiii Vitii'. See Guaiacum.
Ligliy. a Belgian village, 13 miles by rail \E.
of Charleroi, famous for the defeat of the Prussians
under Bliicher by the French under Xaiioleon, Kith
June 1815, the same day on which Ncy s ciimiii.ind
was engaged with the British under \\ eliingtoii
at Qnatre-Bras. The Prussians lost 12.(M«) men
and "21 cannon ; the French, 7000 men. See (iard-
n(!r's Qiiatre liras, Liyny, anil IVatcrloo (1882).
Ligonyi. or Elgon, a mountflin, 14,000 feet
high, situated to the west of Lake Baringo in East
LIGULATE
LILLE
631
Equatorial Africa, with extensive artiticial caves,
some iiihabiteil.
Liglllate. in Botany. See Composit.e.
Li^liori. St Alfonso Maria de, founder of
till' iinli'r of LiiiHoriiVns or Keileiiiptorists, was born
of a nolile family at Naples, '27th September 1C96,
ami embraced the profession of the law, which,
however, he suddenly relimiuishcd to devote him-
self entirely to a reli^'ious life. He received priest s
orders in 1725, and in 173'2, with twelve com-
panions, foundeil the association now called by his
name. In 1762 he was ajipointed Bishop of Sanl"
Ajjata dei Goti, in the kingdom of Naples, and his
life as a bishop was a model of the pastoral char-
acter ; but shrinking from the responsibilities of
such an otfice he resigned his see in 1775, after
which date he returned to his order and continued
to live in the same simple austerity as had
characterised his early life. He died at Nocera dei
Pagani, August 1, 1787, and was canonised in 1839.
Liguori is one of the most voluminous and most
popular of Catholic theological writers. His works
embrace almost every department of theological
learning — divinity, casuistry, exegesis, history,
canon law, hagiognaphy, asceticism, and even
poetry. His correspondence also is voluminous,
Ijut is almost entirely on spiritual subjects. The
principles of casuistry explained by Liguori have
l)een received Avith much favour in the modern
Roman schools ; and in that church his moral
theology, which is a modification of the so-called
' probaljilistic system ' of the age immediately
before his own, is largely used in the direction of
consciences (see CASUISTRY). Liguori's r^eo/ogr/re
Moi-alis (8 vols.) has been reprinted numberless
times, as also most of his ascetic works. The most
complete edition of his works ( in Italian and Latin )
is that of Monza (70 vols.). They have been trans-
lated entire into French and German, and in great
part into English, Spanish, Polish, &c.
The LiGfORiAXs, called also Redemptorists,
are a congregation of missionary priests founded
by Liguori in 1732, and approved by Pope Bene-
dict XIV. in 1759. Their object is the religious
instruction of the people and the reform of public
morality by periodically visiting, preaching, and
hearing confessions, with the consent and under the
direction of the parish clergy-. Their instructions
are ordered to be of the plainest and most simple
character, and their ministrations are entirely
without pomp or ceremonial. The cono;regation
was founded originally in Naples, but it afterwards
extended to Germany, Switzerland, and Austria.
In France, England, Irelaml, and America, though
houses of the congregation have been founded, their
place is in great measure occupied by tlie more
active congregation of the Lazarist or Vincentian
Fathers (see Vixcest de Paul).
.See Fabcr, Life of St Alphonso de Liguori (4 vols.
1840) ; Meyrick, 'Moral and Devotional Theology (1857);
and a short Life published by Sinipkin in 1880.
Lig^iiria. See Genoa, Rome.
Li Hung CIiaUK, Chinese statesman, was born
2lith .January 1H23, rose to be governor of Kiangsu
( ISOl ), and with ' Chinese ' Gordon (q.v. ) drove out
the Taipings. He founded the Chinese navy, pro-
moted tlie mercantile marine, and at the disastrous
war with Japan (1894) was chief minister. He
was disnii.sse<l and restored, negotiated peace,
and visited Europe in 1896. He intrigued with
Russia, .and in 1900 left his post at Canton to take
a conspicuous (but suspected) part in the negotia-
tions after the relief of the Legations. See Life
by R. K. Douglas (1895).
Lilac (S>/rinf/a), a genus of Oleaccie (n.v.).
Bnsbecq (q.v.) it was who introduced tlie Com-
mon Lilac (S. vulgaris) from Persia as well as
the tulip into European gardens. From ^'ienna
it soon spread, so that it is now to be found
lialf wild in the hedges of some parts of Europe.
There are nianj' varieties. The llowers grow in
large conical panicles ; are of a bluish ' lilac '
colour, jiurple or white, and have a very delicious
odour. '1 he leaves are a favourite food of
cantharide-s. The bitter extract of the unripe
capsules has very marked tonic and febrifugal
properties. The wood is fine-grained an<l is uscil
tor inlaying, turning, and the making of small
articles. A fragrant oil can lie obtained from it by
distillation. The Chinese Lilac (iS'. c/ihicimis) has
larger flo^^ ers, but with less powerful odour, and the
Persian Lilac (S. jicrsica) ha.s narrower leaves.
Both are often planted in gardens and pleasure-
grounds. There are several other species.
Lilburiie, Joliii. See Leveller.?.
LiliaoCJr. a natural order of endogenous plants,
containing about 1200 known sjiecies. They are
most numerous in the warmer parts of the tem-
perate zones. They are mostly herbaceous plants,
with bulbous or tuberous, sometimes fibrous roots ;
rarely shrubs or trees. The shrubby and arbores-
cent species are mostly tropical. The stem is simple,
or blanching towards the ton, leafless or leafy. The
leaves are simple, generally narrow, sometimes
cylindrical, sometimes fistular. The flowers are
generally large, with six-cleft or si.x-toothed peri-
anth, and glow singly or in spikes, racemes, umbels,
heads, or jianicles. The stamens are six, oii])osite
to the segments of the perianth ; the pistil has a
superior three-celled, many-seeded ovary, and a
single style. The fruit is succulent or capsular ;
the seeds packed one upon another in two rows.
This order contains many of our finest garden,
"reenhouse, and hothouse flowers, as lilies, tulips,
dog"s-tooth violet, lily of the valley, tuberose, crown
imperial and other fiitillaries, hyacinths, Glvriona
supcrba ; many species useful for food, as garlic,
onion, leek, and otlier species of Allium, asparagus,
the Quaniash or Biscuit Root (Camassia escii/oita)
of North America, the Ti {Dracwna tenniiialis or
Cordyline Ti ) of the South Seas, &c. ; many species
valuable in medicine, as squill, aloes, iS:c. ; and
.some valuable for the fibre which their leaves yield,
as New Zealand Flax, and the species of Bowstring
Hemp or Sanseviera. — This natural order has been
the subject of a number of splendid works, such as
Redoute's Xcv Liliacies (8 vols. Paris, 1802-16).
Lilitli. See Adam.
Lille (Flemish Rysscl), a manufacturing town
and fir.stclass fortress of France, chief town of the
department of Nord, is situated on a sub-tributary
of the Scheldt, in a fertile district, 66 miles by rail
SE. of Calais. Lille derives its name from the
castle around which it originally arose, and which
from its position in the midst of niai-shes was called
L'Isle. It was founded early in the Uth centurj'
by the counts of Flanders. From 1305 it was
mortgaged to France, but passed to Burgundy in
1365. Louis XIV. conquered the town in IG67,
and, though it was recaptured by Marlborough and
Prince Eugene in 1708, the Austrians restored it
in 1713. In 1792 it successfully resisted the deter-
mined attacks of the Austrians. Its present
defences consist of a pentagonal citadel, the work
of Vauban, and a .series of seven forts encircling the
town. The old fortifications were for the most part
levelled from 1858 onwards. The town is modern
liuilt and i)OSsesses few notable buildings except
the church of Notre Dame (1S55), and the town-hall
with the museum, the famous ^Vicar collection of
drawings by the Old Mastei-s, and a library of
41,000 volumes. The principal institutions are a
Catholic ' free university,' imlependent faculties of
medicine and science, technical schools, a music
63l>
LILLEBONNE
LILY
school, and an academy of art. Lille is a jrieat
centre of textile industries : the spinning of linen
and cotton, the manufacture of thread, damask,
cloth, tulle, tickinf,'s, iSrc. — these textile industries
give employment to nearly 20,000 workpeople — of
toliacco, heer, paper, and sugar, dye-works, l)leach-
ing-tields, the fabrication of machinery, and oil-
works indicate the chief industries. Pop. (1S72)
152,77.') : ( 1886) I.5I,.397 : (1801 ) UiO.OOG. See Van
Hende, Histoire etc Lille (2d ed. 187.")).
Lilleboiinc, a town of Normandy, on the
Bolliec, 28 miles WXW. of Rouen hy "r.ail. The
Julia Bona of the Romans, it liiis very interesting
remains of a Roman the.atre, laid open in 1812; a
l.ithcentury church ; and a ruined castle of William
the ('on(|ueror. Po|). 5852.
LillilHlIlero. the famous political balLad that
'sung .lames II. out of three kingdoms.' A scur-
rilous attack on the Irish recruits, it is said to have
been written hy Lord Wharton in 1686, and the
setting is ascribed to Henry Purcell.
Lillipilt. the name of a fabulous kingdom
described by Swift in Gidlircr's Travels, of which
tlie inhabitants are not greater in size than an
ordinary man's finger.
Lillo, Georoe. English dramatist, was liorn in
London on 4th Fe1>ruary 1693, and died on ."M
Sejitember 1739. Whilst carrying on the Inisiness
of a jeweller in London he wrote seven plays,
two of which are frequently printed in collections
of acting-pLays. These are Fatal Curiosity (\'iSQ)
and George Barnwell (1732), both admiral)ly con-
structed and with truly tragic conclusions, though
the languiige is inflated and conventional. His
Arden of Fcvcrsha m (wnitun in 17.36, not published
till 1762) is a weak version of an old anonymous
plaj- bearing the same title, written in 1592 and
reprinted by A. H. Bullen in 1888. Apart from
the tr.agic 'quality of his pla^^s, Lillo deserves
mention as oeing almost the first English play-
■wTight to take his characters from middle-class
life. For long it was an old custom to act Georqe
Barnicell in certain London theatres on the niglit
after Christmas and on Easter Monday. See Lillo's
Dramatic Works, with Life (2 vols. 1772).
Lilly, William, astrologer, was born at Dise-
wortli, Leicestershire, 1st May 1602. He was
educated at Ashby-de-la-Zouche, and in 1620 found
his way to London, where for seven years lie
served an ancient citizen, married his widow, an<l
on her death in 1633 obtained a fortune of £1000.
He now turned to astrology, soon acquiring a
consideral)Ie fame and large profits as a ca-ster
of nativities and a predictor of future events.
In 1634 he obtained permission from the Dean
of Westminster to search for hidden treasure
in the cloister of Westminster Abbey, but was
driven from his midnight work by a storm, which
he ascri1)('s to demons. From 1644 till his de.ath
he annually issued Ida 3Icrlinus A/igticus, Junior,
containing vaticinations, to which no small im-
portance was attaclied by many. In the Civil
War he attached himself to tlie parliamentary
l)arty as soon as it promised to be successful, and
was rewarded with a pension, but it is highly
unlikely that his own .accounts of his intimacy with
Lcnthall, Whitelocke, Aslimole, and others are
true. After the Restoration he was for some
time imprisoned, on the supposition that he was
acquainted with the secrets of the Rei)ublicans ;
but being set free, he retired to the country. He
w.as ag.ain a]i)irehended on suspicion of knowing
something of the causes of the great fire of London
in 1666. He died, 9th .lune 1681, at hi.s estate at
Hersham in Surrey. Lilly wrote nc^arly a score of
works on his favourite subject, which are of no
value whatever, except to illustrate the knavery
of their author and the credulity of his country-
men. Dr Nash's judgment of him .as 'a time-
serving r.ascal ' may be allowe<l to stand — he was
gibbeted by Butler under the name of Sidrophel.
See his History of his Life and Times { 1715).
Lily {LJliiim), a genus of plants of the natural
order Liliace;e, ccmtaining a number of s))ecies much
prized for the size and beauty of their llowers.
The perianth is bell-shaped, and its segments are
often bent back at the extremity. The root is a
scaly bulb, the stem herb.aceous and simple, often
several feet high, hearing the llowers near its
summit. The White Lily (X. candiduni ), a native
of the Levant, has been long cultivated in gardens,
and much sung by poets. It has large, pure
white flowers, as nuich prized for their fragrance
as for their beauty. The Orange Lily ( L. tndhi-
ferum), a native of the south of Eurojie, with large,
erect, orange-coloured flowers, is a well-known and
very showy ornament of the flower-g.ardcn. Tlie
Mii'rtagon ' or Turk's Cap Lily ( L. Martugon ), a
f
a, Lilium teetaceum ; b, Lilium chaiccdoniciim, Scarlet
Turk's Cap.
native of the south of Europe, and allied species
with verticillate leaves and droojiing flowers, are also
common in gardens. L. chalccdonicum, a native of
the Levant, is a very brilliant species, and has been
in cultivation about 300 years. Tin; Tiger Lily (L.
tigrinum) is a native of China, remarkable for the
axillary buds on the stem ; and some very fine
species are natives of North America, .as L. sujicrOuni,
which grows in marshes in the L'nited .States, has
a stem 6 to 8 feet high, and reflexed orange flowers,
spotted with black ; L. canadcnsc, &c. Several
very fine species have been introduced from Japan,
.as L>. juponicum, L. spcciosum, and L. lancifolinm.
The bulbs of L. pomponium, L. Martagon, and
X. hamtschacense are roasted and eaten in Siberia.
Tliat of L. candidum loses its acridity by dryiii",
roasting, or boiling ; when cooked it is viscid,
pulpy, and sugary, and is eaten in some parts ojt
the East. Lilies are generally pronagatcd by olfsct
bulbs. A single scale of tlie bulb will, however,
suffice to prodtice a new plant, or even part of a
scale, of wliich skilful gardeners avail themselves.—
The name lily is i)fton popularly extended to flowers
of other genera of the same order, and even of allied
orders. For Lily of the Nile, see ARUM. See also
Fleub-de-lis.
LILY
LIMBORCH
633
Lily of the Valley ( CanraUaria
majalis ).
Lily. Gigantic { Diin/anthes crccha), of Aiis-
ti;ili:i. ;i plant of the natural oiiler AnuuvlliiU'a\
with llowerinjjsleni 10 or 14, sometimes '20 feet high,
hearing at ton a cluster of large crimson blossoms.
The stem is leafy, hut the largest leaves are near
the root. This plant is fouml cui both the mountains
and the sea-coast of New So\ith Wales, and is of
spleniliil beauty. The libre of its leaves has been
found excellent tor ropes and for textile faluics.
Lily of till' Valley {ConraUrayi), a genn.s
of plants of tlie natural order Liliacea', having
terminal racemes <if llowers ; a white, bell-shaped,
or tubular 6-cleft or G-toothed periantli ; a 3-celled
gennen, with two ovules in eacli cell, and a succu-
lent fruit. The species commonly known as the
Lily of tlie Valley (C. majei/is), tlie MaihUimc or
!Maytiower of
the Germans,
grows in bushy
places and
woods in
Europe, the
North of Asia,
and North
America, and
has a leafless
scape, with a
raceme of small
flowers turned
to one side. It
is a universal
favourite, on
account of its
pleasing ap-
pearance, the
fragrance of its
flowers, and
the early sea-
son at which
they appear. It is therefore very often cultivated
in gardens, and forced to earlier flowering in hot-
houses. Varieties are in cultivation with red,
variegated, and double flowers. The berries, the
root, and the flowers have a nauseous, bitter,
and somewhat acrid taste and purgative and
diuretic eft'ects. The smell of the (lowers when in
large quantity, and in a close apartment, is nar-
cotic. Dried and powdered, they become a ster-
nutatory. The esteemed E(,ni d'or of the French is
a water distilled from the flowers. — Allied to Lily
of the Valley is Solomon's Seal (q. v.).
Lily, John, eujihuist. See Lyly.
Lilyba-iiin. See .M.\1!.s.\l.\.
Liiye, or Lily, AVii,i,i.\m, classical grammarian,
was born at Odiliam, in Hampshire, about 1466,
and graduated at Oxford, being elected demy of
Magdalen in 1486. Having taken his B.A. degree,
he travelled to the E.ust ; and at Rhodes, then the
home of the Knights Hospitallers, he learned
Greek from refugees from Constantinople. He
afterwarils spent some time studying Greek and
Latin in Konie and Venice, and returned home about
1509. After teaching for a while privately in Lon-
don he w;vs aiii)oi-iteil ( 151-J ) by Dean Colet the first
hea<l-m<%ster of the new St I'aul's school ; this [jost
he held till he was carried oil' by the plague towards
the enil of ir>22. Lilye, who has good claims to be
considered the first who taught Greek in L)ndon,
had a hand in Colet's Brcvhshmt IiLstUiitio, which,
as corrected by Lilye's friend Era-smus, and re-
dacted by Lilys himself, was known a.s the Eton
Latin Gramnwr. Lilye's share embrac:ed the lines
on the genders of nouns, beginning * Propria (|u:c
maribus,' and those on the conjugation of verbs,
' As in pra-senti,' if no more, liesides this he wrote
Latin poems, i)rinted along with those of another
great friend, Sir Thonaas More, at Basel in 1518,
and a volume of Latin veree against a rival school-
master, entitled Antibossicon ad Gulielmiim Hor-
manniiin ( 1521 ).
Lilllil. the cajiital of Peru, lies in a broad valley
6 miles E. of Gallao, its jiort, with which it is con-
nected by two railways (9 miles). A small stream,
the lliniac, flows through the city, which is laid
out in regular lines, with wide, straight streets,
thirty-three plazas, and houses mostly of one
story. The scat of an archbishop, it contains not
less than seventy-two sacred huildings. and the
cathedral (rebuilt 1746) is, after that of Mexico,
the most noteworthy in Spanish America. Among
other buildings that call for mention are the Fran-
ciscan an<l Dominican monasteries, the latter ]ios-
sessing the loftiest tower in the city; and the
houses of congress, formerly the headquartei,s of
the Inquisition and of the university. The uni-
versity (l.WI) is now housed in the old .Jesuits'
college ; and there are also a theological seminary
and several special schools, besides a botanical
garden and a national library. The last institu-
tion was looted during the Chilian occupation
(1881-83), and numerous statues and works of
art found their way at the same time to Santiano.
This disaster, added to earthquakes and revolu-
tions, has wrought sad havoc in Lima, Avhicli
remains still picturesque and beautiful, but some-
what shabby and very dirty. The trade is left
almost entirely in the hands of foreigners. The
manufactures are not of importance, but include
the casting of iron, copper-smelting, and the pre-
jiaration of furniture, silver-ware, gold-lace, and
stampeil leather. There is a railway to Oroya
( 128 miles ). Lima was founded as Ciudad dc los
Beyes (the monarchs of Spain and the Three
Magi), on 18th January 1535, by Pizarro, who
was murdered here in 1541, and sleeps in the crypt
below the cathedral. The name was afterwards
changed back to that of the Indian village that
had occupied the site. Earthquakes have been
numerous, the most disastrous, that of 1746,
destroying 5000 out of the 60,000 inhabitants.
The climate of Lima is agreeable and on the whole
healthy, althou;;h consumption and fm'eis are com-
mon. 'Pop. (1876) 101,488; (1895) 100,194.
Lima, capital of Allen county, Ohio, 71 miles
N. of Dayton, on the Ottawa River, where several
railways cross. It has steam-mills and manufac-
tures of engines, furniture, &c. Pop. 7567.
Liinasol. or Limassol (Gr. Lemisou), the chief
seaport of Cyprus. It has no harbour, but the
water is not so shallow as at Larnaka ; and there
is a large trade, chiefly with France, in wine and
carobs. Limasol is the only place in Cyprus where
English troo])s are permanently (jtiartered — some
in the town and 300 three miles inland. Pop.
( 1878) 6000 ; ( 1S90) nearly 10,(100.
Lillia->VOO<l. a name of the dye-wood also
called Pernandiuco-wood and Nicaraguaw.ood.
See BllAZlL-wooii.
Lilllb.M'll. a Saxon town, 10 miles WNW. of
Chemnitz, with hosiery manufactures. Pop. 10,494.
LillllU'I' is half the iield-equipage of a Cannon
(q.v.).
Lillli»OI*<>il. I'mi.ll' v.\x. Remonstrant theo-
logian, was born at Amsterdam in 1633, studied
there ami at I'trecht, and afterwards served as a
preacher at Gouda and Amsterd.am, and became
in 1668 |)rofe.ssor in the Remonstrant college at
Amsterdam, where he died in 1712. Of his numer-
ous and learned works most valuable for the fnll-
nes.s and clearness of its exposition is his Jiisfifii-
tioncs Theiilorfitv Christiaiiw (1686; .■>th ed. 1735).
An English translation of this, 1)y W. .lones, Wius
634
LIMBCRG
LIME
])rinteil in 1702 : ami of liis History of the Inquisi-
tion, by S. Chandler, in 1731.
Liinlllirg, <a tenitoiy on the Mense, lying
Ijetween the provinces of Liege and Urabaut, was
create<l a conntship soon after its annexation by
the German king (870). Shortly after 1151 it
was made a dnchy. The battle of Woeringen
( 1288 ) gave it to the Dnkes of Brabant, after which
it shared the fortunes of that state. At the peace
of Miinster (1648) it was divided between tlie
I'nited Provinces and Spain, but was again united
under French rule from 1794 to 1830, and from 1830
to 1839 under the Belgian king. In 1839 it was
once more divided, the lands to the west of the
Meuse remaining with Belgium, whilst a long
narrow- strip on the east side of the river was con-
stituted the Dutch province of Limburg. The soil
of both provinces is in parts fertile, though large
portions of the area are covered with moors. The
marshy district of the Peel intrudes into the north
of Dutch Limburg. The Belgian province has an
area of 931 sq. m. and a pop. (1891 ) of 223,531.
Capital, Hasselt. The area of the llutch province
is 930 sq. ni. ; pop. ( 1891 ) 259,593. Capital, Maes-
tricht. — The well-known Limhiirtj c/ieese is made
at the little town of Limburjr (pop. 4768), the
former capital of the duchj', wiicli is now in the
province of Liege, 19 miles E. of the city of Liege.
The old castle was destroyed by the French in
1(575. — Limburg-.\n-der-Lahx, a town of Hesse-
Xassau, 32 miles E. of Coldenz bv rail, has a fine
Catholic cathedral (1243). Pop. 6485.
LiinbllS, the name assigned by Roman Catholic
theologians to that place on the fringe of hell
{Limhiis patriim) in which the just who died be-
fore Christ were detained till His resurrection, and
also where infants are kept who die in original sin
without baptism {Limbii^ infantimn). Limbus is
not a place of torture, but of a joy imperfect, and
therein unlike the joy of heaven. Infants suffer
only the ' pain of loss,' and in no respect the ' pain
of sense,' tlie most aggravated of tlie tortures of
Hell (q.v.).
Lime is tlie monoxide of the metal Calcium
( q. V. ), and is known in chemistry as one of the
alkaline earths. Its symbol is CaO, its equivalent
is 56, anil its specific gravity is 3'08. In a state of
purity it is a white caustic powder, with an alka-
line reaction, and so non-fusiljle as to resist even the
bent of the oxyhydrogen Hame (see LiME-LIGHT).
It is obtained by heating pure carl)onate of lime
(as, for instance, white Carrara marble or Iceland
spar) to full redness, when the carbonic acid is
expelled and lime is left. This compound, CaO,
is known as quicklime, or, from tlie ordinary
method of obtaining it, as l)iir)icd lime, to distin-
guish it from tlie hijilrnte of lime, or slaked lime,
which is represented by the formula CaO,H20. On
pouring water on quicklime there is an augmenta-
tion of bulk, and the two enter energetically into
combination ; and, if the proportion of water be not
too great, a light, white, dry powder is formed, and
a great heat Ls evolved. On exposinj^ the hydrate
to a red heat the water is expelled and quickiime is
left.
If quicklime, instead of being treated with water,
is simply exposed to the air, it slowly attracts both
aqueous vapour and carbonic acid, and becomes
what is termed air-slaked, the resulting compouiul
in this case being a powder which is a mixture of
carbonate and hydrate of lime. (Jwing to this pro-
perty quicklime is employed to prevent instruments
and otlier objects from being rusted or otherwise
injured by damp. A jar is |)artly tilled with lime
and placed beside the articles in a glass case or box.
Lime is about twice as solul)le in cold as in boil-
ing water, but even cold water only takes u]) about
--J3 of its weight of lime. This solution is known
as lime-water, and is much employed both as a
medicine and as a test for carbonic acid, which
instantly venders it turbid, in conseijuence of the
carbonate of lime that is formed being insoluble.
It must, of course, be kept carefully guarded
from the atmosphere, the carbonic acid of which
would rapiilly afiect it. If in the preparation of
slaked lime considerably more water is used tlian
is necessary to form the hydrate, a white semi-lluid
is produced, which is termed milk of li)ite. On
allowing it to stand there is a deposition of
hydrate of lime, above which is lime-water. Milk
of lime is much used as a whitewash.
Lime prepared for building and other purposes
by burning limestones in kilns often contains a
considerable amount of impurity. 15ut certain
kinds of slightly impure are better than pure lime
for making mortar. On the other hand, the lime
which enters into the composition of plate and
sheet glass, and which is used in some chemical
industries, requires to be obtained from a nearly
pure limestone. Chalk and white marble consist
of almost pure carbonate of lime, but many of
even the dark coloured limest<mes from ditt'erent
geological formations do not contain more than
from 2 to 5 per cent, of foreign bodies, and these
when burned generally yield a lime sufficiently
pure for most purposes. Some limestones, again,
contain from 20 to 30 per cent, of impurities, which
commonly consist of silica, clay, magnesia, oxide
of iron, and other bodies. These impure kinds
often yield excellent hydraulic lime, which is very
generally made by burning a limestone containing
from 12 to 20 per cent, of silica, or of clay in which
silica predominates. A less valuable hydraulic
lime is prepared from a limestone containing a
consider;u)le amount of magnesia as well as
clay. According to the absence or presence of
foreign bodies, their nature and extent, limes are
clas.sed as (1) rich, fat, or pure lime: (2) im-
pure or poor lime; and (3) hydraulic lime (see
Ce.MENTs). When the percentage of magnesium
carbonate in a limestone is high it is called a
magnesian limestone, and this requires less fuel
to burn it than a pure or nearly pure limestone.
See Dolomite.
Besides the uses of lime noticed above, it is
emi)loyed in the purilication of coal-gas, in the
unhairing of hides tor tanning, in the preiiar.ation
of stearic acid for candlemaking, for caustirising
alkalies, in the smelting of some metals, .S.C. Lime
jirecipitates organic impurities from vegetable
solutions c<mtaining sugar.
The followinc' are the most important of the salts
of lime. Sid/mate of lime (calcium sulphate) is
found native free from water, CaSO^, as the
mineral Aidii/drite (q.v.), but more abundantly in
the hydrated form, CaSOj,2II.jO, as Gijpsiim. Sul-
phate of lime is a constituent of sea-water, and
IS also frequently present in drinking-water. For
laboratory use a solutiim of .sulphate of lime is
made by sh.aking up the powder of burnt gypsum
in water. See C.\LCHM. and GvpsiM.
Carbonate of lime (calcium carbonate, CaCOj) is
abundantly present in Ijoth the inorganic and
organic kingdoms. In the innrg.mic kingdom it
occurs in a crystalline form in Iceland spar,
Aragonite, and marble : while in the amorphous
condition it forms the dill'erent varieties of common
limestone, chalk, \c. It is always present in the
ashes of i)lants, and it is the main constituent of
the shells of crustaceans and molluscs, and occui's
in considerable quantity in the bones of man and
other vertebrates. See Li.me.stone ; an<l BllLIMNO
Stone, M.vkble.
Chloride of Calcium, CaCl.., is a remarkably
deliquescent substance and one of the most soluble
LIME
LIME-LIGHT
635
of salts on account of its peat attraction for
nmisture. In tlie solid state it is much uscil lor
drying; jjases, and the pipes of freezing machines
arc lilled with a solution of it to convey the low
temperature produced to the cooling vessels.
There is a comliination of lime with an organic
acid — viz. o.xalate of lime — which is of great im-
portance in pathology as a frequent constituent of
urinary calculi and sediments ; for a description of
it. seeOxAUC Acid.
I'here are several compounds of pliosphoric acid
and lime, of which the most important is the
trihnsic phosphate of lime ( tricalcium ortho-
phosphate), sometimes termed bone phosphate,
from its being the chief ingredient of hones. This
phosphate is represented l>y the formula Ca^PoO^,
and occurs not only in bones, but also in the
minerals apatite and phosphorite, and in the
rounded nodules termed Coprolites (q.v. ). It forms
four-fifths of the ash of well-burned bone, the
reuiaining fifth being chietiy carbonate of lime. This
ash is kno^vn as hone-earth, and is emjiloyed as a
manure and in tlie preparation of phosphorus, &e.
The soluble salts of lime give no precipitate \\\t\\
caustic alkalies, but yield a white precipitate with
their carbonates. These reactions are also common
to the salts of barium and strontium. Solution of
sulphate of lime gives a white precipitate with the
Silks of barium and strontium. The most delicate
test for lime is oxalate of ammonia, which, even in
very dilute solutions, throws down a white pre-
cipitate of 0-\alate of lime. This precipitate is
insoluble, except in mineral acids.
For the suostance commonly designated as
ehloride of lime, see Bleachixcj Powder. For
lime as manure, see M.\nl"RES.
Lime-compounds in Materia Medica. — Quicklime,
in association with potash, either a-s the Potassa
CUM calcc, or as Vienna Paste, is occasionally used
as a caustic. Lime-ieater, mi.xed with an equal
quantity or an e.xcess of milk, is one of our best
remedies for the vomiting dependent on irritability
of the stomach. From halt an ounce to two or
three ounces may be thus taken three or four times
a day. Its use as a constituent of CaiTon oil in
burns Ls noticed in the article Liniment.s. Chalk,
oi- carbonate of lime, when freed from the impurities
with which it is often a-ssociated, is used as a
dusting-powder in moist excoriations, ulcers, &c. ;
and, in the form of chalk mixture and compound
poirtlcr of chalk, is a pojmlar remedy in various
fortns of diarrhoea. A mixture of an ounce of
precipitated carbonate of lime and a (piarter of an
ounce of finely-powdered camphor is sold as
Camphorated Cretaceous Tooth-powder.
Lime, or Linden (Tilia), a genus of trees of
the natural order Tiliaceie, natives of Europe, the
north of Asia, and North America. Tlie species
are very similar ; graceful umbrageous trees, with
deciduous, heart-shaped, serrated leaves, and cymes
or panicles of rather small yellowish-green flowers ;
each cyme or panicle accompanied with a large,
oblong, yellowish membranous bractea, with netted
veins, the lower part of which adheres to the
Hower-stalk. The wood Ls light and soft, but
tough, durable, and particularly suitable for carved
work. It is much used Ijy turners, and for makin"
l>illboxes. The charcoal made of it is often u.seu
for tooth-powder. It Ls regarded by the makers
of gunpowder as beinij superior to every other
for their purpose ; it is used also for medicinal
purposes and tor crayons. The use of the fibrous
inner bark for making ropes, mats, and other
plaited work is noticed in the article I'ast. It is
also u.sed as a healing application to wounds and
sores, being very mucilaginous, and abounding in
a bland sap. The leaves are in some countries
used as food for cattle, bnt cows fed on them
produce bad butter. The Howei-s have an agree-
aide oilour, and abound in honey, much sought
after by bees. The celebrated Kocno Honey,
much valued im medicinal use and for making
liqueurs, is the produce of great lime forests near
Kovno, in Lithuania. The infusion and distilled
water of the dried flowers are gentl,\' sudorific ami
antispasmodic. The former is in France a popular
Lime-tree ( Titia eitroptea):
a, a ttower.
remedy for catarrhs. The seeds abound in a fixed
sweet "oil. The European Lime, or Linden {T.
curopwa), often attains a large size, particularly
in rich alluvial soils. Some botanists distinguish a
small-leaved kind {T. parvifolia or microphi/lla)
and a large-leaved {T. grandifolia) as different
species ; others regard them as mere varieties.
The Hooded or Capuchin Lime is an interestiuf'
monstrous variety. The lime-tree Ls often planted
for shade in towns ; and the principal street of
Berlin is called Unter den. Linden, from the rows
of lime-trees which line it. The lime is a very
doubtful native of Britain, although indigenous
on the Continent from Scandinavia to the Medi-
terranean. In Britain the lime-tree is generally
propagated by layers. The American Lime (2.
americana, or T. ylahra), commonly called Bass-
wood in America, has larger leaves than the
European species. It abounds on the shores of
Lakes Erie and Ontario. Other species take its
place in more western and more southern regions.
Lime, the fmit of Citrus Liinrtfa, similar to the
Lemon (q.v.), but usually globular, with a nipple-
like protuberance at the" apex. It is regarded by
many botanists as a hybrid between the orange and
the lemon. There are many varieties, varying
more or less in slia])e and size, and in the more
essential characteristics of relative thickness,
flavour, acidity, and juiciness of the rind and
pulp. The tree varies as much in dimensions as
the fruit, according to kind. It appeare to lia\e
originated in the East, but in some of the varieties,
such as the Bcrr/amottc lime and Adam's Ajwle —
which is often liut erroneously confounded witli the
Shaddock (q.v.)— and others, it has been cultivated
from the remotest times in Italy, the south of France,
and the Mediterranean region generally. The uses
of the fruit are the same practically a-s those of the
lemon, the juice being equally efficacious as an
antLscorbutic (see ScfUVY).
Lime-iiKllt< l^^'''t produced by a blowpipe-
flame directeil against a block of pure, compressed
quicklin\e. Tin' lime, which ought to be warmed
I lieforehand, becomes brilliantly incandescent. The
blowpipe-llame may be produced in various ways :
' ( 1 ) blowing oxygen through a spirit flame — light
636
LIMERICK
LIMESTONE
obtained, about 150 eandles ; (2) oxygen under
inessure. and coal-gas from the mains, biouglit in
concentric tubes to a nozzle, where the mixture is
burned in a Hne jet — light, about 200 candles ; (3)
oxygen and coal-gas, both under pressure — liglit,
about 400 candles; (4) the same, the coal-gas or
the oxygen saturated with benzoline or ether or
both lienzoline and ether — light, up to 800 eandles
when botli are employed ; (.5) warm oxygen, satur-
ated with benzoline, gives light up to 13.50 candles;
(6) oxjgen and hydrogen, nj) to aoout 800 candles.
The mixed gases at the nozzle are explosive, and
the greatest care must be taken to see that the
flame is not allowed to run back or the mixture to
take place elsewhere tlian at the nozzle. In tlie
Ciise where oxygen is saturated with combustible
material the apparatus is so stuti'ed as not to
allow an explosion to travel backwards in it. Lime-
light was used on the stage as far back as 1837-38.
but was inii)roved in 1851-52. Thomas Drummond
( q. V. ) gave his name to an improved type.
Limerick, a county of the province of JNIunster,
in Ireland, separated by the Shannon on the N.
from Clare, and bounded JE. by Tipperary , S. by Cork,
and W. l)y Kerry. Its extreme length is 35 miles,
its extreme breadth 54 miles ; area, 680,842 acres,
or 1063 sr|. m. Pop. ( 1841 ) 330,029 ; ( 1861 ) 217,223 ;
(1S81) 180,632; ( l.Slll ) 158,912, seven-eiglillis
Catliolics. It is an undulating plain, except on its
extremities, north and south. The soil in general
is fertile, especially the district called the Golden
Vale, which comprises upwards of 150,000 acres,
and a portion beside tlie Shannon below Limerick.
Of the entire area 578,240 acres are in culti\ ation :
61 per cent, is grass-land, whilst barren soil and
bogs cover only 6 per cent. Potatoes and oats
are the principal crops, wheat and clover occupy-
ing the second place. Dairy-farming flourishes ;
woollens, flour, and paper are manufactured. The
county returns two members to the House of
Commons. Limerick is the only town of any
size. The county formed part of the territory of
Thomond, the princi|)ality of the O'Briens. After
the English invasion it fell, after many vicissi-
tudes, in great part to the Desmond Fi'tzgeralds
— the confiscated estates of the last earl (1586) in
Limerick containing 96,165 acres. Limerick is
more than usually rich in antiquities, both ecclesi-
astical and civil, of the Celtic as well as the
Anglo-Norman period. There are a great number
of mon<astic ruins at Adare, Askeaton, &c. See
the county history by Fitzgerald and M'Gregor
(2 vols. Dublin, 1826-27).
Limerick, ea])ital of Limerick county, Ireland,
stands at the head of the estuary of the Shannon,
120 miles Ity rail WSW. of Dublin. It constitutes
both a county of a city and a parliamentaiy
borough, returning one member to parliament ;
l)revious to 1885 it returned two. The town
consists of English Town, the original English
.settlement made in the reign of King .John,
on King's Island ; Irish Town, which lies imme-
diately to the south, on the left bank of the
river ; and Newtown-Pery, to the south of Irish
Town, the newest and handsomest jiart of the
city, dating from 1769. There are few objects of
interest except the Protestant cathedral of St
]\Iary, founded in 1180, and rebuilt in 1490; tlie
Konian Catholic cathedral, a Gothic structure
erected in 1860; and the line bridges acro.ss the
Shannon. Limerick manufactures a little lace,
grinds Hour, and cures bacon. Fourth among Irish
seaports, it has a graving and a floating dock, and
extensive quays; imports grain, petroliMim, wine
and spirits, and timlicr to the annual value of
.1683, (K)0 ; the exports lluctuate from i"18,000 to nil.
Poj). ( 1851 ) 53,448 ; ( 1881 ) 38,555 ; (1891 ) 37,155.
In the 9th century Limerick wa.s an imjiortant
Danish settlement, and remained so for two
centuries longer; but the Danes were then ex-
pelled by the Irish. In 1174 the town fell into
JEnglish hands. Ireton made himself master of
it in 1651. At the Revolution Limerick was
the last stronghold of James II. in Ireland.
William III. himself unsuccessfully assaiilted it in
1000; but in the f(dlowing year his general
tUnckel had better fortune : the place was C(mi-
pelled to capitulate on 3d October. By the terms
of the treaty of Limerick the bulk of the Irish
army was permitted to enter the military service
of France, and the Koman Catholics were guar-
anteed full religious and political liberty. The
violation of the civil part of this treaty by the
dominant Protestant party during the "reigns of
William III. and Anne, down to the 19tli century,
has given to Limerick the title of the ' City of the
Violated Treaty.' See lRKI..\Nr), p. 205; and
Linahan's history of the town ( 1866).
Limestone, the popular as well as technical
name for all rocks which are composed in whole,
or to a large extent, of carbonate of lime. Few
minerals are so extensively distributed in nature as
this, and, in some form or other, limestone rocks
occur in every geological system. Carbonate of
lime is nearly insoluble in pure water, but it is
rendered easily soluble by the i)resence of carbonic
acid gas, which occurs in a varialjle quantity in all
natiiral waters, for it is absorlied liy water in its
passage through the air as well as thniugh the earth.
Carbonate of lime in solution is consequently found
in all rivers, lakes, and seas. In evaporation water
and carbonic acid gas are given oft, but the car-
bonate of lime remains uniidluenced, becominj'
gradually concentrated, until it has supersaturated
the water, when a jirecipitation takes place. In this
way are formed the stalactites whicli hang icicle-
like from the roofs of limestone caverns, ;ind the
stalagmites which rise as columns from their flooi-s.
Travertine (Tiber-stone ), or Calcareous Tufa (q. v.),
is similarly formed in running streams, lakes, and
springs, by the ileposition of the carbonate of lime
on the beds or sides, where it encrusts and binds
together shells, fragments of wood, leaves, stones,
&c. So also birds nests, twigs, and other objects
become coated with lime in the so-called petrifying
wells, as that at Knaresborough. From the same
cause pipes conveying water from boilers and
mines often become choked up, and the tea-kettle
gets lined with ' fur.'
AVhile water is thus the great storehouse of
carbonate of lime, very little of it, however, is fixed
by precipitation, for in the ocean evaporation does
not take place to such an extent as to permit it to
dei)osit ; besides, there is five times the quantity of
; free carbonic acid gas in the water of the sea that
is required to keep the carbonate of lime in it
in solution. Immense quantities of lime are never-
theless being abstracted from the sea, to form
the hard portions of the inimerons animals which
inhabit it. Crustacea, mollusca, zoojihytes, and
foraminifera are ever busy separating the little
particles of carbonate of lime from the water, and
solidifying them, and so sujiply the nuUerials
for forming siilid rock. It has been fouml that
a large portion of the bed of the Atlantic between
Eunqio and North America is covered with a light-
coloured ooze, composed cliielly of the jicrfect or
broken skeletons of foraminifera, forming a .sub-
stance, when dried, which in appearance ami struc.
ture closely resenildes chalk. In tropical regions
corals are building reefs of enormous magnitude,
correspomling in structure lo many of the lime-
stones mcl with in various geological systems.
The chief varieties of limestone are Chalk (q.v.);
Oolite ((I.V.); Comjxtct Limestone, a hard, smooth.
LIME-TREE
LIMPET
637
finegrained rock, generally of a bluish-gray colour ;
Cn/sta/linc Limestuiic, a rock which, Iroiii nieta-
niorphic action, has become granular ; liiio-graineil
white varieties, resenil)ling loaf-sugar in texture,
called Sacc/tarine or ^tatuta-i/ Marble. Particular
names are given to some linu'stones from the kind
of fossils that abound in them, as Numiinilite,
Ililipuritc, and Crinoidal limestones ; or the pres-
ence of impurities or admixtures of other mineral
matter may give rise to varieties, as argillaceous,
ferruginous, siliceous, carbonaceous, and nuigncsiau
limestones. Hydraulic limestones contain a cer-
tain proportion of silica and alumina which
forms a mortar that sets in water. Many lime-
stones, again, derive their name frotu the system
to which they belong, as Silurian, Devonian,
Carboniferous, Jurassic, &c.
Lime-tree. See Lime.
Liiiiriord. See Denmark.
Lilllitiltion is a term used, in English law, in
two senses : ( 1 ) A limitation of propcrtij is a form
of words used in a deed or will to mark out the
extent of the interests given. Thus, if land be
granted to A and his heirs, the words ' and his
heirs ' are words of limitation ; they indicate that
an estate of inheritance is given to A.
(2) Limitation of Actions. — To protect persons
in possession of property, and to prevent the raking
up of old disputes, a time is lixed within which
actions must be brought. An action to recover
land must be brought within twelve years ; if the
owner allows that time to elapse without asserting
his right his title is taken away. Actions to
recover debt or damages mvist be brought within
six years; for assault, within four years; for slander,
within two years. In Scotland actions to recover
land must be brought within forty years ; for
ordinary debts, within three years ; and for bills
of exchange, within six years. See Pre.scription ;
and Buswell's Statute of Limitations, vnth English
^c/6- ( Boston, 1889).
Limited Liability. See Company.
Limits, Method of. See Calculus.
Limma. an interval which, on account of its
exceeding smallne.ss, does not appear in the practice
of modern music, but which, in the mathematical
calculation of the proportions of dill'erent intervals,
is of the greatest importance. The limnia makes
its appearance in three dilVcreut magnitudes — viz.
the great limma, which is the dillerence between
the large whole tone and the small semitone, being
in the proportion of 27 to 25 ; the small limma,
which is the difference between the great whole
tone and the great semitone, being iti the propor-
tion of 135 to 138 ; and the Pythagorean limma,
which is the dillerence between the great third of
the ancient.s ( which consisted of two whole tones )
and the perfect fourth, the proportion of which is
a-s 25(3 to 243.
LilllllieilS (tir. limne, 'a swamp'), a genus of
]>ulmouate Ga.steropods, living in fresh water in
all parts of the wr)rld, and feeding on vegetable
matter. The shell is thin and pale, capable of
containing the whcde aiumal when retracted in
danger or burie<l in the mud during ilrought. It
is a somewhat elongated spire in Limna-ns, coiled
in one jjlane in the allied genus I'lanorbis, and
limpet-like in Ancylus. An anatomical ))e(uliarity
of interest in the ailnit aiumal is the persistcni'C on
the head-region of a structure directly derived from
the embryonic ' velum ' (see Gasteropou.s). Lim-
HiHus amU other freshwater snails often lloat and
glide shell downwards at the surface with the foot
expanded like a boat, the lung-sac being partly
u>ed an a hydrostatic apparatus. Semper has maile
numerous experiments on Limmeus, showing how
they vary in relation to their suiToundings. Thus,
he was able to rear a dwarf brood by kec|)ing them
in coidineil vessels. Most fresh. water snails come
to the surface periodically to breathe the air
directlv, <aiul then return to their gra/.ing-grounds
heneatli ; some are said to utilise the air-bubbles
on water-plants ; while others have become ad:i|ited
! to deep water, renuxin at the bottom, and use skin
1 and lung-chamber as substitutes for gills. Jlore
over, in the young forms the lungsac at lirst contains
water. The eggs, enveloiied in a glairy substance,
are laid on stones or aquatic plants, and atlbrd
convenient opportunities for the study of develop-
ment. Limna'us is a u.seful inmate of a fresh-water
aquarium, keeping the water clean ami unchokcd
by alg;e. The immerous and prolilic species per-
form a similar function in pontfs and streams, and
furnish food for fishes and birds. They are often
infested by parasites, of which many eom])lete their
life-liistory in higher hosts. Thus, Limnaus staij-
rutlis lodges for a while the Liver-Uuke (q.v. ) of
the sheep.
Limiioria. See Boring-animals.
Limoges, capital of the French department
of Haute-Vienne, and of the former pro\-iuce of
Limousin, is picturesquelv situated on the Vienne,
by rail 248 nules S. Iiy "W. of Paris and 21 S N.
of Toulouse. Its most imposing building is the
Gothic cathedral, begun in the 13th century and
completed in 1851. The staple industry is the
manufacture of porcelain, which employs more
than 5000 people. One-half of this product is
exported annually to America. The enamel-work,
for which Limoges was formerly celebrate<l, is now
no longer carried on. There is a fine ceramic
museum (1867). The manufacture of flannel,
cotton, paper, &c. are the chief secondary indus-
tries. Pop. ( 1826 ) 48,862 ; ( 1891 ) 67,817. Limoges
was the birthplace of DAgue.sseau, Vergniaud, and
Marshals Jourdan and Bugeaud. It was an im-
portant town under the Romans, and in spite of
plagues, fires, and sieges (the worst that by the
Black Prince in 1370), from all of which it has
suffered severely, it is still a place of note. It had
its own mint from the 4th century down to 1837.
See an article in Harpers Monthhi for October 1888 ;
the article Enamel ; and Rupui's L'(Eurre de Limoges
(1890).
Limoil. a port of Costa Rica, founded in 1861,
on the (.'aribbean Sea. The railway begins here,
and the place has a landing-pier. There are con-
siderable exports from this place of cotl'ee, caout-
chouc, cocoa-nuts, sarsaparilla, vegetables, wood,
and hats. Pop. 1400.
Limuiiite. or Brown Iron Ore, hydrous
ferric oxide. This ndneral occurs most frequently
in the form of librous aggregates, or earthy and
amorphous masses, and never in that of delinite
ciystals. It has a hardness of 5'5, a specihc
gravity of 3-3 -39, and a yellowish-brown streak.
It is the yellow colouring niatter of chalybeate
springs. Rocks containing iron are often stained
brown or yellow from the conversion of the iron
into limonite.
Limousin, or Limosin, Leonarp, painter in
enami-i, was horn eirea 1505, and llovirished from
1532 to 1574 at the French court. He was <Mie of
the Limousin school of enamellers. See E.N'.vmel.
Limpet ( Patella), a genus of Gasteropod
Molluscs, in the Zygobranch section. The animals
are most fandliar objects between tide-marks on
rocky coa-^ts, are covered by a conical shell, with
the apex directed slightly forward, and remain lirndy
fixeil when the tide is out, adln'ring by the large
oval or circular 'foot,' which acts like a vacuum-
sucker on the rock. How lirndy tliej- adhere, unless
638
LIMPOPO
LINCOLN
taken by surprise, every wanderer on tlie shore
has tested, yet the 'oyster-catcher' ( H;ematopus )
nianajjes with adroitness to detach tlieni. They
move slowly abont under water, browsing on crust -
in;; seaweeds with the hel]) of a peculiarly lony
' radula ' or ras|>inf; ribbon, which m the common
limpet (P. rii/f/dfis) is nnich lon^'iT than the bixly,
and beai-s IGOrows of teeth, 12 in each row, 19-2H
in all. It is noteworthy that the limpets show a
certain local memory, for they return after a short
journey to their old resting-iilaces, which, after
prolonged usage, may be marked by distinct de-
pressions, especially if the rock be calcareous.
The -'ills form a circle of leaflets between the foot
and the edge of the mantle ; the internal structure
is comi)le.\ after the fashion of gasteropods ; the
sexes are distinct, and breed in spring. Limi)ets
are occasionally used for food, but oftener for bait.
' A species found on the western coast of South
America has a shell a foot wide, which is often
used as a basin.' There are numerous species of
Patella, and many allied genera, though it is not
yet demonstrated that all the forms usually associ-
ated with Patella deserve the
place which their shells and raspers
suggest. The key-hole limpets
(Fissurellid.f) form an adjacent
family, marked e.\terually by a
hole at or near the ape.x of the
shell, or by a notch on the
anterior margin. Another e.xter-
nally similar but more remote set
of ' limpets ' are united in the
family Acraieidte, of which Aciiiaii
testmlinaik is very common on the
northern coasts of North America.
They are often called 'slipper-lim-
pets,' from the presence or an in-
ternal flange on the ineipiently
spiral shelf, and are generall.\
attached, sometimes as commen-
sals, to other molluscs. The genera
Calyptra>a and Crucibulum, nearly
related to the above, are known
as ' cup-and-saucer-limpets.' For
anatomy, see K. J. Harvey Gibson,
Traiisaclions Royal Society, Edin.,
1SS4-S3.
Limpopo. See Ooiti.
Liiiiiiliis. See King-crab.
Liiisicre, or Lynakei;,
THOMA.S, physician and scholar,
was born at Canterbury about
1460, studied at O.xford, and was elected Fellow of
All-Souls' College in 1484. Shortly afterwards he
went to Italy, where he learned (jreek from Chal-
condylas aiul studied under Politian ; he graduated
in meiliiine at Padua. About 1501 Henry VII.
made him tutor to Prince Arthur and king's physi-
cian. This latter ollice he continued to lill during
the reign of Henry VIII. At the same time he
practised in London ; he also founded the Royal
College of Physicians. Late in life he entered the
church and held several henelices. He died 20tli
October 1524. Liiuvere was one of the earliest
champions in England of the New Learning. He
translated several of the works of Galen into Latin
tluvt was praised for its elegance and i)urity, and
wrote some grammatical treatises — the most im-
portant, De Emcmhtta Stnirttira Latini Scrinonis
( 15-24). See Life by l)r Noble Johnson (1835).
liillSires. a town of southern S]iain, 90 nnles by
rail KXK. of Cordova, is celebrated for its mines
of lea.1 and copijer, which yielil 40,000 to 50,000
tons of argentiferous ore annually. There are in
the town lead and iron foundries, and gunpowder
and ilynamite factories. Pop. 31,000.
Lilicllldeil* a ruined abbey, H mile NNW.
of Dumfries, at the Cluden's influx to the Nith.
It was founded about 1164 for Benedictine nun.s.
See M'Dowall's Chronicles of Liiicliiden (1886).
Lincoln, a city of England, the capital of I.hi
colll^l^re, and a parliamentary, county, ami nunu
eipal liorough, is situated on the Wilh.am, 42 nules
S. of Hull, 33 NE. of Nottingham, and 130 N. by
W. of London. Built on the slope of a hill, which
rises 210 feet above the river, and is crowned liy
the cathedral, the city is im|)osing in efl'ect, and
can be seen from afar in the flat fen-country. It is
very aiu:ient, is irregularly laid out, and contains
many interesting specimens of early architect\ire—
nota^ily the castle, commenceil in 1086 by AVilliam
I. : the Newport Gate, or Kcunan arch, on the
north side of the city ; the Exchequer and Stone-
bow gateways, the latter su]iportiiig a guildhall of
medieval architecture : the Jew's House (Norman),
associated with the legend of Hugh of Lincoln (ci-v.);
St Mary's Guild ( Nornuin ) ; ami the middle gram-
mar-school (to which additions have recently been
made), founded in 1567 in the Grey Friars. I!ui
ap.W Hi
I t^m^^mw^
Lincoln Cathedral.
the chief glory of Lincoln Ls its cathedral, ad-
mittedly one of the linest in England. Erected
between 1075 and 1501, it measures 5'24 feet by S2
(or '250 across the transepts), ami in style is mainly
Early English. Its matchless central tower ( 1235
131 li and 265 feet high) was previous to 1547 sur-
mounted by a spire, as till 1808 were the two
western towers (comjileted 1450). (Jther notice-
able features are the west front (partly Norman),
with its three doorways (1123); the Galilee or
south ]ioich (eircii 1'240); the I)cc(U'ated choir
(1'2.'>4), with its rich sculpturing; the decagonal
chapter-house (restoreil since 1888); Norman font
(1075-93); and (ireat Tom of Lincoln (see article
ISm.I. ), hung in the central tower, which also con-
tains a mellow-chinnng clock ( 1880). Besides the
cathedral, there are fourteen churches of various
dates, a county hall (1823-'26), theological college,
Kcho(d of .science, .and bishop's palace ( 1886-87) em-
bodied with a former palace of 1149. Several iron-
foundries and important manufactories of agricul-
tural machinery aie in ojieratioii here, and an active
trade is done in flour. The horse-fair, held annu-
ally in the spring, is one of the largest in the world,
LINX'OLN
639
ami the race-meetinj)^, which take i)lace on the
Carholnie, date back to at least the leijjn of
.James I. One memher is returned to parliament
for the city, which, moreover, is the depot of the
Lincolnshire rejrinient, and gives the interior title
of earl to the Duke of Newcastle. In the history of
Lincoln the most noteworthy incidents have been
frequent invasions bv the Danes ( 786-875); great
fires (1110 and 1124); a battle (1141) between
the adherents of Stephen and the Empress Matilda
during their struggle for the English crown ; the
second coronation of Henry IL (115.V58); an
earthquake ( 1185), which did much dami\ge, especi-
ally to the ciithedral : the b.attle of Lincoln, or
Lewis Fair, fought 4th June 1218 ; five parlia-
ments held here between LSOl and 1.386; six royal
visits ; and lastly, the siege of the town, and dese-
cration of the cathedral, by the parliamentarians
under the Earl of Manchester ( 1(544 ). Among the
sixty-four bishops of Lincoln were Kemigius, who
in 107.3 transferred the see hither from Dorchester
in Oxfordshire ; St Hugh of Avalon ; Robert Gros-
seteste ; Cardinal Beaufort ; Fleming and Smith,
the respective founders of Lincoln and Briisenose
colleges at Oxford : Cardinal Wolsev ; Tenison
and Wake, afterwards archbishops of Canterbury ;
Thiirlow, a brother of the Lord Chancellor ; and
Christopher AVordswortli, the founder of the theo-
logical college. Pop. (1801) 7398; (1831) 11,873;
( 1881 ) 37,313 ; ( 1 Sfll ) 43,983. See the works cited
at the article Lincoiashiee.
Lincoln. ( l ) capital of Nebraska, stands in a
fertile j>rairie country, on Salt Creek, 66 miles by
rail SAA . of Omaha. Laid out in 1867, it is a
handsome and tliri\-ing city. The public buildings
include the state capito], university, prison, and
insane asylum, and the L'uited States court-house.
There are numerous manufactories ; limestone is
largely quarried, .and there are great salt-works
near.' Pop. (1880) 1.3,003; (1890) 55,154.— (2) A
town of Khode Island, 6 miles N. of Providence,
comprising several cotton manufacturing villages.
Pop. (1890) 20,355.— (3) Capital of Lojj.an county,
Illinois, 28 miles NNE. of Springfield, manufiic-
tures f.arm-implements, and is the seat of Lincoln
Univei-sity (Cumberland Presbyterian) and of an
imbecile asylum. Pop. 6725.
Lincoln. Moint, a pe<ak of the Rocky Moun-
tains, in Colorado, about 8 miles NE. of Leadville,
reaching a height of 14,297 feet. A railway has
been constructed to the silver-mining works at the
summit, and here is a meteorological station con-
ducted by Harvard College, another station being
placed at a lower level (13,500 feet).
Lincoln. Abr.\ii.\m, sixteenth president of the
Inited States, was born in Hardin county, Ken-
tucky, 12th February 1809. He copyright isoo in u.s.
w as descended in the si.xth genera- by j. b. Lippincott
tion from Samuel Lincoln, who compiiir.
emigrated from Norwich in England to Massa-
chusetts about 1638. Samuel's grandson removed
to Berks county, Pennsylvania, and died there in
173.5. The family history henceforward marks the
•advancing wave of settlements, first south-west-
ward, skirting the eastern slope of the AUeghanies,
then surmounting these mountains ami spreading
over the Ohio v.alley. Samuels great-grandson
rested in A'iri^nia ; his son, Abraham, followed the
])ioneer Daniel Boone to Kentucky, and while
clearing a farm in the forest was killed by Indians
in 1784. Abraham's son, Tliomjis, theii but .six-
years old, grew ui) without educatiim, and in 1806
niaiTied Nancy Ilanks of the same pioneer stock.
Abraham, the future president, wa.s their secoml
i'hild, but lost his mother Ijefore he was ten years
olil. His restless father had crossed the Ohio in
1816, and made a new home in the forests of
Indiana, just before its admission as a state. In
1819 he brought from Kentucky a second wife,
Sarah (Bush) Johnston, a worthy woman, who
trained her step-children as faithfully as her own.
Abraham learned the little that was"t.aHght in the
backwoods schools, and was employed in rough
farm-work until at the age of nineteen he took on
a flat-boat a cargo to New Orleans. His first close
view of slavery made a lasting impression on his
mind.
When Lincoln was twenty-one his father re-
moved to central Illinois, where the son assisted in
felling trees, building another log-cabin, and split-
ting rails for fences. After a second trading voyage
to New Orleans he returned to be a clerk in a
country store at New Salem, Illinois. When the
Indian chief Black Hawk disturbed the northern
part of that state in 18,32 Lincoln served a few-
weeks as captain in an uneventful campaign.
Being defeated as a candidate for the legislature,
he purchased a small store, but its failure left him
burdened with debt. However, he was made
village postmaster, and also deputy to the county
surveyor, and the light duties allowed him time to
study law- and grammar. Elected to the legisla-
ture in 1834, he served until 1842, when he declined
further nomination. He had become leader of the
Whigs, and was influential in having the state
capital removed in 1839 from A'andalia to Spring-
field, where he had fixed his residence. Tliither,
too, came Mary Todd (1818-82), the daughter
of Robert To<ld of Lexington, Kentucky, and
in November 1842 she was maiTied to the rising
lawyer. In 1846 Lincoln was elected to con-
gress, but his service was limited to a single
term. ' Professional work was steadily drawing
him from interest in politics when in 1854 Stephen
A. Douglas, by his Kansas-Nebraska bill, repealed
the Missouri Compromise of 1820, and reopened
the question of slavery in the teriitories. The bill
roused intense feeling throughout the North, and
Douglas resolved to defend his position in a speech
at the state fair at Springfield in October. Lincoln,
invited by his Whig friends to reply, delivered on
the same day a speech which first fully revealetl
his power as a political deliater. Against his wish
' Honest Abe ' was then elected to the legislature,
and the Whigs of that body endeavoured to send
him to the United States senate, but finally at his
request joined in electing Lyman Trumbull, an
anti-Douglas Democrat. When the Republican
party was organised in 1856 to oppose the exten-
sion of slavery Lincoln was its most prominent
leader in Illinois. At its first national convention
in the same year the delegates of his state presented
him as a nominee for the vice-presidency. But he
did not attain a national reputation until 1858.
Then Douglas, seeking re-election to the United
States senate, began a canvass of Illinois in advo-
cacy of his views of ' pojiular sovereignty. ' Lincoln,
as candidate for the same position, arranged with
Douglas for a series of clebates. The contest
attracted the attention of the w-liole country ; but
though the general verdict was in favour of Lincoln
and Ills cause, the peculiar arrangement of the
legislative districts gave Douglas the immediate
a<fvantage, and secured his election.
In another memorable oration in the Cooper
Union, New York, in February \S&), Lincoln
proved that the founders of the repuldic hail
desired the restriction of slavery. In Alay of that
.year the Republican convention was held in
Chicago, ami on the third ballot nominated him
for the presidency. The Democratic party held its
convention in (Charleston, but w;vs unalile to agree
on a candidate. Dougliis was nominated by one
wing, Breckinridge by the other. After an in-
tensely- exciting campaign Lincoln received a
640
LIXCOLN
LINCOLNSHIRE
popular vote of 1,866,462; Douglas, 1,375,157;
P.ieckinriajie, cS47,95;{ ; and Bell, 590,631. Of the
electors Lincoln hail ISO ; Breckinridge, 72 ; Bell,
39 ; and Douglas, 12.
Tlie pro-slavery leaders forthwith put in execu-
tion their plans for the secession of their states.
South Carolina moved lirst, and with the six Gulf
states formed, in February 1861, the Confederate
States of America. Lincoln, leaving Springfield on
1st February, passed through the |)iincipal northern
cities, making brief addresses at \arious points,
and reaching Wasliington on tlie 24tli. His in-
augural address on 411i JIarch declared the Union
perjietual, argued the futility of secession, expressed
his determination that tlie laws should be faithfully
executed in all the states, deprecated the impend-
ing evils, and made a touching appeal to all friends
of the Union. Of the seven members of Lincoln's
cabinet four had been Democrats, three Wliigs ;
two were from 1)order slave-states. The chief
places were given to W. H. Seward of New York
( secretary of state ), and Salmon P. Chase of Ohio
(secretary of the treasury). Edwin M. Stanton
was made secretary of war in 1862.
On April 12, 1861, the Confederate general Beau-
regard attacked Fort Sumter in Charleston har-
bour. The civil war being thus commenced, Lin-
coln called a special session of congress, summoned
7.3,000 militia foi- three months, and ordered the
enlistment of 65,000 regulars for three years. He
proclaimed a blockade of the southern ports, and
endeavoured to make it effective. The Southern
Confederacy soon had control of eleven states, and
put in the field 100,000 men. The tiist important
battle was fought at Bull Run, Virginia, July 21,
1861, and resulted in a disgraceful rout of the
Union army. Further account of the military and
naval events of the war belongs to general history.
The struggle which sanguine statesmen predicted
could be ended in a few months was prolonged over
four years, with dreadful sacritices of men and
means. Foreign intervention, wliicli seemed immi-
nent at the outset, was with difficulty averted.
After si.xteen months, in which the disasters to
the Union army had outnumbered tlie victories,
Lincoln declared to Horace Greeley the line of his
conduct : ' My paramount object is to save the
Union, and not either to save or destroy slavery.
If I could save the Union without freeing any slave,
I would do it ; if 1 could save it by freeing all the
slaves, I would do it : .and if I eoiihl do it l)y free-
ing some and leaving others alone, I would also do
that." One month later the time had come for
decision, and on September 22, 1862, just after
-McClellan's victory at Antietaiu, Lincoln pro-
claimed that on and after January 1, 1863, all
slaves in states or jiarts of states tlien in rebellion
should be free. On the following New-year's Day
the linal proclamation of emancipation was made.
This greatest achievement of his administiation,
wrung from him by the exigencies of civil war, was
completed and made immutable by the passage
of the Thirteenth .A.inendinent of the Constitution,
M-hicli he ])laiined and urged, though it was not
fully ratilied until December 1865.
In July 1863 Grant's capture of Vicksburg
restored to the Union full control of the Missis-
sippi River, while Meade's defeat of Lee at Gettys-
burg destroyed the last hope of the Confederates
to transfer the seat of war north of the Potomac.
In November of that year, at the dedieation of the
National Cemetery at tlettysbnig, Lincoln delivered
a brief address, closing with these words : ' We
here highly resolve that these dead shall not have
ilied in vain — that this nation, under God, shall
have a new birth of freedom — and that government
of the j)eo]de, by the jieople, for the peojile, shall
not iierish from the earth.'
General Grant was called to the chief command
of the Union army in March 1864, and entereil
ujion that policy of persistent attriticm of the Con-
federate forces which linally brought peaie. In
the Republican Convention at Baltinioie in .lune
Lincoln was unanimously nominated for a second
term. The Democrats at Chicago in August
declared the war a failure, yet nominated (■cncial
McClellan. In November Lincoln received of ilie
popular vote 2,216,000, and JNIcClellan 1,800,000;
of the electoral votes Lincoln had 212, McClellan
21. In his second inaugural address, in March 1865,
Lincoln rose above the ordinary range of such occa-
sions, and like an inspired pioiihct set forth the
luofimnd moral signilicaiu-e of the treniendous war
which he saw drawing to a close. A niontli later
he had entered Richmond, from which Grant had
driven Davis and Lee. Lincoln returned to ^Vasll-
iiigton to consider the new problems presented by
the overthrow of the Confederacy. But his work
was already finished. While seeking relaxation
with his family at Fords Theatre he was assassi-
nated by J. Wilkes Booth, an actor, and died on
the next morning, Ajiril 15, 1865. The national
rejoicing over the retuin of peace was turned into
grief for the martyred president. The whole
civilised world joined in expression of sorrow for
his fate.
Lincidn was 6 feet 4 inches in height, with long
limbs and large hands and feet, daiTc complexion,
broad, liigli forehead, deep-set gray eyes, ami coarse
black hair. He was slender, wiry and strong, mild
and patient, fair and direct in speech and action,
scorning all tricks and subterfuges, steadfast in
principle, sympathetic and charitable. He was
a man of strict morality, abstemious, and familiar
with the Bible, though not a professed member of
any church. His pulilic life was devoted to the
good of his fellow-men, and his fame is established
as the saviour of his countiy and the liberator of a
race.
Of liis four sons, Robert Todd Lincoln, born
August 1, 1843, was the only one to reach m;in-
hood. He was secretary of war in the years
1881-85, and was United States minister to England
in the years 1889-93.
.See Arnukl, The Life of Abraham Lincoln (1885);
Henidon and AVeik, Tlir Histoyf/ and Personal Rtrolhc-
tiirns of Afira/iaiti Lincoln (3 vols. 1889); Nicolay and
Hay, Abraham Lincoln: A History (10 vols. IMill ) ;
J. T. Morse. Abraham Lincoln (2 vols. 1893).
Lincoln. Benjamin, an American general, was
born at Hingliani, M.assachusetts, 24tli .lanuary
1733 ; in 1776 reinforced Washington after the
defeat on Long Island, and served with him that
year; in 1777 was appointed major-general, was
wounded in October, and disabled until the
following August ; then received command of the
soiitlieni department, and in 1780 was besieged by
Clinton in Charleston, and compelled to ca]>itulate.
He was exchanged a year later, took part in the
siege of Vorktown, and was dejiuted to receive
Coniwallis' sword. Hi; was secretary of war from
1781 to 1784, and died 9th May 1810.
Lincolnshire a maritime countv of England,
.and, after Yorkshire, tlie largest in tlie coiintrv, is
bounded on the N. by the estuarv of the Humrier;
E. by the North Sea, the Wash" and Norfolk; S.
by Cambridge, Northampton, and Rutland shires;
and W. by Leicester, Nottingham, anil York shires.
Measuring 75 miles from north to south and 48
miles from east to west, it has a .seaboard of .about
90 miles, and contains 2672 srj. in., or 1,767,879
acres. Pop. ( 1801 ) 208,.557 ; ( 1881 ) 469,919 ; ( ISIII )
472,878. The surface is comparatively Hat: along
the coast stretches a line of low-lying marshes,
varying in breadth, from which in places the sea is
f
LINCOLNSHIRE
LINDSAY
G-11
only kept out l>y means of earthen emliaiiknients.
To the west of these marshes lie the Wolds, aranj;e
of elialk downs, which, commencin;,' near Bartou-
on- 1 lumber in the north, extend thence in a south-
easterly direction for ahout 40 miles to the neigh-
bourhood of Spilsby and Horncastle. The western
siile of the county, from the Humlier in tlie north
through Lincoln to Crantham in the south, consists
]irincipally of light uplands, whilst in the soutli-
e;ust are fens forming part of the ISedford Level
(q.v.). The etfort,s to drain the Kens and the Isle
of Axholme encountered great opposition from the
' stilt- walkere,' from the reign ot Charles I. down
to the first quarter of the 18th century. The
chief rivers of Lincolnshire, l>esides that which
forms its northern boundary, are the Trent,
Witham, and Welland ; and a noticeable feature
of the county are the numerous canals which
intersect it — Car-dyke and Koss-dyke, the two
largest, being probaldy the work of the Komans.
Clay, sand, loam, chalk, or peat, varying with the
locality, are the ))revailing soils. Near Ancaster
limestone is extensively quarried, and in the west-
ern districts ironstone abounds. The chief crops
are corn and turnips, and in places flax is culti-
Aated ; but from an agricultural point of view the
county is best known for its rich 'warp-lands'
along the banks of the Trent, and for the immense
flocks of sheep grazed on its pastures. Horse-
breeding, too, is extensively prosecuted, the horse-
fairs at Horncastle and Lincoln attracting many
foreign and London dealers ; and amongst other
industries may be noted the manufacture of agri-
cultural implements and machinery, and the great
shipping trade and fisheries connected with the
port of tirimsby.
Lincolnshire is divided into three distiicts or
' Parts,' as they are called — viz. the Parts of
Holland in the southeast, comprising the greater
part of the Fens, the Parts of Kesteven in the
south-west, and the Parts of Lindsey, which is
by far the largest, oceu|)ying the remainder of the
county. These Parts, each of which has its own
county council, are sulxlivided into thirty-one
wapentakes or hundre<ls, the city of Lincoln and
the municipal boroughs of Boston, Grantham,
(Ireat (irimsby, and Louth, with part of that of
Stamford (the remainder being in Northampton-
shire), and contain in all 757 paiishes, almost
entirely situate in the diocese of Lincoln and mid-
land circuit, the assizes being held at Lincoln.
For parliamentary purjjoses the county is divided
into .seven divisions, and the lioroughs of Boston,
tirantham, Grimsby, and Lincoln, each of which
returns one member. Other towns are Cleethorpes
(practically a suburb of Grimsby), Gainsborough,
Sleaford, .Spalding, and Sutton.
The history of the county apart from Lincoln
is soon told. It was here that in 1536 first broke
out the insurrection known a-s the ' Pilgrimage
of Grace,' which had for its object the restoration j
of popery and re-establisliment of dissolved monas-
teries ; and in 164.3, during the Civil War, Ancaster, [
Gainsborough, Grantham, and Winceby were the
scene of contests between the rival forces. To
the antiquarj' Lincolnshire is of special interest on j
a<>count of the beanty of its many churches — ,
Moston, Crowle, Grantham, Heckington, Louth,
Long Sutton and Tattersh.all amongst them ;
whilst of other places of interest it will suffice to
mention here the ruined abbey of Crowlaml,
and liolingbroke Castle (of which but little
remaitLs), the home of John of Gaunt and of
his son Henrj' IV., who was bom there. Other
eiiiiii(!Mt pei-sons a.ssociated with the county include
.lolin Fo.ice, the inartyrologist ; William CecU,
Lord Burghley ; Ca|)tain John Smith ; Archlnshop
Whitgift ; Hevwood, the dramatist; Sir Isaac
■.m
Newton ; Thomas Sutton, founder of the Charter-
house: I)r Busby, headmaster of Westminster;
John Wesley ; Scott, the commentator ; Sir John
Fraitklin ; Dr Dodd, the forger ; Dr Lingard ; Lord
Tennyson ; and Profe-ssor Conington. See works
by Allen (2 vols. 1834) and Sir Charles Anderson
(1880), and Mnrrav's Uandbuok to Lincolnshire
(1890).
Lincoln's Inn. See Inns of Couut.
Liucrusta. a decorative material invented by
Walton (see Flookcloth ), is a compressed sheet
of cellulose, paper, cork, &c. , imjjregnated with
linseed-oil and resin, and while still plastic, im-
pressed with moulils so as to make raised patterns.
It is tough, leathen,% impervious to water, and
much cheaper than embossed leather.
Liud, Jenny. See Goldschmidt, Madajie,
Liiulan. P-VUL, man of lettei-s, was liora on .3d
June IS.'i',) at ^lagdeburg. He trained himself for
journalistic \\ork in Paris, returned to Germany
in 1863, and has since edited various journals, in-
eluding Die Gcgemcart and Xonl itnd iSiitl, both of
which he founded. He has laboured in three or
four other fields of literarj- activity. Amongst the
earliest fruits of his industry were the pleasantly-
written books of travel, A us reHc/(e« ( 1864) and
Alls Paris (1865), and later Aits der Nciien Welt
(1884). His skill as a writer of critical sketches
in a satirical and humorous manner is shown in
Hannlusc Briifc eincs dcutsrhen Kleiitstctdters
( 1870) and Litcrarischc Eiiclcsichtslosifjkcitcn (1871 ),
and his calilne as a literary critic in studies on
Molii^rc ( 1871 ) and Alfred de Miisset ( 1877), and in
Dramaturgischc Blatter ( 1875-78 ), Niichternc Bricfe
aiis Baireitth (1st and 7th ed. 1876), Baireiitlier
Briefc (5th ed. 1883), and Aitfsat:c (1875). But
he is perhaps better known as a writer of plays and
novels, the subjects of which are taken almost
exclusively from modern life. The former possess
the merits of lively dialogue and a fair degree of
dramatic power ; the most successful wa-s perhajjs
Maria iind Mugdalena. A collection of his thea-
trical pieces was published in three volumes as
Theater (1873-81). The novels include Herr iind
Frail Bcu-cr (7th ed. 1882), Togfjenburg (3d ed.
1883), Mai/o (5th ed. 1884), a romance cycle,
Berlin (188'6-HO), and Die Brudcr (lS9i). He has
written works of travel, and in 1895 became
manager of the court theatre at Meiningen.
Linden. See Lime.
Lin«lisfarne. See Holy Island.
Lilldlc.V. John, botanist, was born on 5th Febru-
ary 1799 at Catton, near Norwich. His father, the
author <tf--l (iitide to Orchard atid Kitfhen Gardens,
owned a nursery garden. Botany attracted young
Lindley's attention at an early date. When little
more than twenty he went to London, and wrote
for the Encyclojxedia of Plants. In 1822 he was
appointed sussistant-secretary to the H<u ticultural
Society, and in 1829 professor of Botany in I'ni-
versity ( 'ollcgc London. He retired from this chair
in 1860, and ilie<l at Turnham Green on 1st November
1865. His works include the Synopsis of British
/•Vor« ( 1 829 ) ; lidrodnrtidii to the \atural System
of Botany (1830): Outline of the Structure and
Physiologii of Plants (2 vols. 1832) ; Flora Medico
(1838); the Vegctatdc Kingdom (1846), a standard
work on the subject of chi-ssification : and 2'heory
and Pravtiii: <f llortiridtnre (2il ed. 1855). Along
with W. Hutton he published The Fossil Flora of
Great Britain (3 vols. 1831-37).
Lindsay, a Scottish historical house of Xorman
extraction. Sir Walter de Lindsaj-, settling in
Scotland under David I., acquired Ercildoun in
G42
LINDSAY
LINEN
BeiwicUsliive. ami Lutliiess in East Lotliian. His
descemlaiit, William Lindsay, J usticiaiy of Lothian
in the I'JtIi ci'iituiy, acciuiieil Crawfonl in Cly<les-
dale, niairied Princess Marjory, sister of King
William tlie Lion, and had three sons. The two
elder lines of these eniled in heiresses, and <"iaw-
ford eventually came to the descendants of William
of Luftness, the third son.
EarU of Crawford atul Duke of Montrose.
—Sir Alexander Lindsay, youn<;er brother of Sir
James of Crawford, the hero of Utterburn, acquired
Glenesk and Edzell, and his son David married the
sister of Robert IIL, and was created in 1398 Earl
of Crawford. Their chief seat was Finhaven, in
Angus. The family attained its climax of power
under David, lifth earl, who was made Duke of
.Montrose in USS. The grand-nephew of the duke
was known as ' The Wicked Master;' and his C(ui-
duct leil his father to transfer the earldom to David
Lindsay of Edzell, the next heir. He, however, left
it at his death to the son of the 'Wicked Master.'
This line ended in the sixteenth earl, and by
arrangement, Lord Lindsay of the Byres succeeded
to the earldom of Crawford in preference to the
descendants of the uncle of the sixteenth earl,
who bad been created Lord Spynie, and the inter-
mediate cadets of Edzell and Balcarres.
Lord Lindsay of t/ic Byres, Viscount Garnocl:
— Sir William Lindsay, younger brother of the
first Earl of Crawford, acquired extensive estates
with his wife, a daughter of Sir William Mure
of Abercorn. His grandson was made Lord Lind-
say of the Byres, county Haddiuglon, in 1445,
but their priiu'ii)al residence was Struthers Castle
in Fife. The tenth lord was in 1644 created Earl
of Lindsay ; and, as slated above, under a new
patent of Charles I. he became seventeenth Earl of
Crawford. He ^^as High Treasurer of Scotland.
His grandson l>y a younger son was created Vis-
count Garnock in 17u3. The fourth Visccmnt Gar-
III ick succeeded as twenty-lirst F.arl of Crawford ;
and his son, the twenty -second Earl, dying in 1808,
was the last of the direct line of the Byres.
Earls of Balcarres and Crauford. — The Lind-
says of Balcarres, in Fife, weie a branch, and
eventually the representatives, of the Lindsays of
Edzell. The first was Lord Menmuir, Secretary of
State to James YL His son David was created
Lord Lindsay of Balcarres in 1033, and his grand-
son, Alexander, Earl of Balcarres in 1651. On the
death of the twenty-second Earl of Crawford,
James, seventh Earl of Balcarres, became twenty-
third Earl of Crawford. A further claim was pre-
ferred without success to the dukedom of Montrose,
conferred by James IIL, by the late Earl of Craw-
fonl (q.v.). See his Lires af the Linilsai/s {\Hi'i},
and Jervise's Land iftlie Lindsays ('2d ed. 1882).
Lindsay, Sir David. See Lyxdsay.
Lindsay of Pitscottie. See Pit.scottie.
Lindsey, Pakts of. See Lincolnshiue.
Lindsey. Thkoi'hii.u.s (1723-1808), one of the
first English Lnitarians (q.v.), was a native of
.Middlcwich, Clioshire, a Fellow of St John's
College, Cambridge, an Anglican clergyman till
1773, and author of several works. See his
Memoirs by Belsham (1812).
Lino. Breaking the. See Clerk, John ; and
Tactrs, Naval.
Linen. Flax, like wool, has been used a.s a
material for woven fabrics from a very remote
fieriod. Not only are there frequent references to
inen in the Bible and other ancient records, but,
owing to the wonderful clurability of the fibre,
many linen mummy-cloths of great age and .some
of extremely line texture have been found in Egypt.
That country must have been long celebratecl for
its linens, because it is known that sonu> of the
finest sorts used by the ancient Greeks and Komans
were woven on Egyptian looms. Just Ijefore the
Christian era the cultivation of tiax was extensive
in Italy, and it was probably by the Uomans that
the growth of tlax for textile purposes was intro-
duced into Britain. Since that tinu? the art of
spinning and weaving this fibre by ])rimitive
methods luus no doubt been continuously juactised
in countries that were occupied by the Romans,
and at all events it can be traced over the greater
part of Europe from the 6th or 7th century, till in
comparatively recent times it almost entirely
ceased to be a domestic industry, and became
located in certain centres a-s an important textile
manufacture. Interesting specimens of figured
stufis, such as Damask (q.v.), comi)ose<l entirely of
linen and also of silk and linen, and made in Italy
and Siiain as early as the 14th century, may be
seen in one or two industrial art nniseums in Eng-
land and on the Continent. Tlie ground of the cele-
brated Bayeux Tapestry (q.v.), made in the 11th
century, is of linen, wliich, by means of careful
cleaning, is now of an alnuist snow-white colour.
Flanders seems to have acquired some celebrity
for the weaving of table-linen as early as the 11th
century, and from that time till long afterwards
Flemish weavers were occasionally settling in
England. Among the Huguenots, who in the
17th century sought refuge in England and other
countries, were many workmen skilled in the mak-
ing of linen fabrics, and these artisans did much
to help this and other industiies wherever they
settled. A government boanl of manufactures was
established in Ireland in 1711, and another in
Scotland in 1727, both of whicii, by a system of
bounties, encouraged the linen trade in several
ways. In England the linen manufacture was
also a-ssisted bv bounties, which did not finally
cease till 1832." The year 17S7 nutrks the firs't
introduction of a mil! for sjiinning linen-yarn by
machinery in the I nited Kingdom. It was built
at Darlington, and the i)atentees of the nuichines
were J. Kendrew and T. Porthouse. In Scotland
the lirst fiax spinning-mill was erected near Glamis
in 1790, and one or two others were set agoing
in Fife very soon afterwards. Although the power-
loom of Cartwright was applied to tlie weaving of
cotton in 1785, it was not till 1S12 that the first
factory, which had any real success, for weaving
linen by power, «as established by C. Turner & Co.
of Limehouse, London. Speaking generally, the
improvements in the machines for spinning and
weaving cotton have been more rapid than in those
employed for the manufacture of linen.
ilendiuii. — The piepiiration of the fibre of the
flaxplant into the state in which it is sent to
si)inning-mills is described under the heading
Fl.\x. At the mill it gets a rough sorting, and is
then heckled, a process which has been in use for
centuries. A han<l heckle is an oblong stock of
wood studded with strong steel teeth about 7
inches long in the case of the first or 'rufier'
heckle. The heckler takes a handful or strick of
Hax by the middle and draws the root end several
times through the teeth. He then turns the strick,
and in the same way heckles the opposite end.
The llax is next similarly treated on a heckle with
finer teeth, and if it is to be spun into due yarn it
is further combed on still finer heckles. The
object of the process is to separate the tlax into
two portions — viz. ' line,' whicli is the long and
best pcutitm, and ' tow,' which is the short and
ravelled portion. What are called vertical sheet-
heckling machines are now extensively employed.
This kind of machine consists of emlle.ss leather
sheets nmving over rollers placed at some distance
apart with jiroper driving-gear. A number of
LINEN
LINGA
643
liet'kle-stocks, placed at regular intervals, are
lixeil on the surface of these sheets or bands, two
of which are placeil opposite to, and so near each
other that their respective heckle-pins intei-sect
wliore the actual heckling takes place. At this
part of their course the sheets move in a nearly
vertical ilirection downwards, and heckle the llax,
which is fixed in a holder and han^ down between
the sheets. There are other kinds of heckling-
niachines.
Pref>nriiig. — After the heckling, the llax 'line'
is carefully sorted into qualities, and tlien uniler-
goes a treatment on certain machines called ' pre-
paring.' These are of the same nature as the
machines used in the corresixinding stages of the
spinning of jute, under which head they are brielly
noticed : but they will be more fully described under
.SrixxiXG. They are (1) the spreadiny-frainc,
where the llax is first formed into a continuous
ril>l)on or sliver. (2) The dnnrinrj-frames, on each
of which this sliver is ' doubled ' and drawn out by
rollers through travelling gills with steel teeth, a
sinnlar arrangement forming part of the spreadiiig-
frame. There are generally three, and occasionally
four, drawing- frames, each successive frame having
finer gill teeth than the one before it, and from
eight to fifteen slivers delivered by one of these
machines are drawn out into one sliver by the
next. The object of so much dotibling and draw-
ing Ls to produce a sliver of very uniform size
throughout, and with the fibres all parallel. ( 3 ) The
ivi-intj-fmme through which the sliver is pa-ssed
singly ; it is so far similar to the drawing-frame
in construction, but with a flyer and bobbin for tlie
now greatly attenuated sliver, wliich is slightly
twisted by the former and wound upon the latter.
Flax-tow is carded in the same way as Jute (q.v.),
and then goes through the preparing processes just
described.
Spinning. — The ' rove' or ' rovings' are spun into
yarn on the 'throstle' invented by Arkwright.
This machine is also used in spinning cotton, and
it does not differ in principle for either fibre (see
Spixsixg). a peculiarity in flax-spinning is that
for all fine yarns the fibre is spun wet — the tem-
perature of the water used being 120' F. By this
treatment a given weight of flax can be spun into
a much greater length than formerly, and a better
yarn is produced. Dry spinning is, however,
adopted for coarse and heavy yarns.
Weavittfi. — The hand-loom' is still applied, to
some e.xtent, to the weaving of fine linens, but for
linen fabrics generally tlie power-loom is in almost
universal use. It was found to be a nmch more
difficult task to adapt the power-loom to linen than
to cotton owing to the want of elasticity in flax-
yarn. The construction of looms is explained
under We.wixg, and the bleaching and calendering
of linen and other fabrics are described under these
several heads.
Linen is manufactured in most European coun-
tries, but on the Continent the industry attains
much importance only in France, Belgium, and
(ierniauy. Tlie neiglibourliood of Court rai in
Belgium, and Westphalia in Germany, have long
had a reputation for producing yams of extreme
fineness lor costly lace. France is celebrated for
her cambrics and beautiful damaaks. In the
United Kingdom the finest linens are made at
IJelfiust and other places in Ulster, the ela-sses of
goods made being lawn and cambric handkerchiefs,
surplice linens, printed linens for dresses, damask
table-linen, shirtings, sheetings, and towellings.
At Dunfermline and several other places in Fife,
Scotland, linen dama-sks, diaper towelling, an<l
plainer fabrics of medium weight are largely manu-
lactured, upholstery linen being chiefly made at
Kirkcaldy. Linen goo<ls of similar character are
extensively woven at Barnsley, in Yorkshire.
Heavy fabrics, such as sailcloth, canvas, and
sacking, are made at Dundee, Arbroath, and a few
mori! Forfarshire towns.
Of our great textile manufactures the making
of linen fabrics is the only one that shows signs
of becoming a contracting industry. For sever;il
kinds of heavy goods it has to compete with jute,
and for certain medium and fine fabrics with
cotton. Compared with these, linen is a costly
textile, and its advantages of strength, glossiness,
and, in the fine qualities, of not being easily soiled
seem insufficient to keep np the former demand for
it for some purposes. The great fault of llax is
that the steeping process does not remove all the
natural gum in the fibre. It has been stated by
experts of high standing that, if the gum could be
completely taken out by some inexpensive process,
there is no reason why flax should not be spun as
easily as cotton. For some fabrics, such as sheet-
ings, which not many years ago were most largely
made of linen, cotton, owing to its greater warmtli
atid cheapness, is now preferred ; and for others,
such as damasks, the two materials are of late
years often used together.
The total annual value of the linen manufactures
exported from the United Kingdom has for some
yeais past averaged between five and six million
pounds .sterling.
The manufacture of linen in the LTnited States
has never been extensive, the limited quantity of
flax grown there being raised more for the seed
than the fibre.
Line Spectriiin. See Spectrum.
Lilies^ of Force. See Magnetism.
Ling (Moh-a vulgaris), a fish of the family
Gadida>, abundant on most parts of the British
coa-sts, and elsewhere throughout the northern
seas, and in value almost rivalling the cod. In
form it is much more elongated than the cod, and
even more than the hake, with which it agrees in
having two dorsal fins and one anal lin, tiie anal
and second dorsal long ; but it ditt'ers from the hake
in having a barbel below the chin, and teeth of
unequal size on the jaws and vomer. The ling is
generally three or four feet long, sometimes nu)re,
and has been known to weigh seventy pounds. The
colour is gray, inclining to olive, the belly silvery,
the fins edged with white. The tail-fin is rounded.
The gape is large, and the mouth well funushed
with teeth. The ling is a verj- voracious lish,
feeding chiefly on smaller fishes. It is also very
prolific, and deposits its spawn in June ; the ova,
as usual in the Gadidte, are jielagic. It is found
chiefly where the bottom of the sea is rocky.
Great numbers are caught in the same manner as
cod, by hand-lines and long lines, on the coasts of
England, Scotland, the Orkney ami Shetland
Islands, &c. ; considerable numbers are also taken
by the trawl. Most of them are split from head
to tail, cleaned, salted in brine, washed, dried in
the sun, and sent to the market in the form of
Stock-fish. They are largely e.xporteil to Spain and
other countries. The air-bladders or suiiiuls are
pickled like those of cod. The liver also yields
an oil .similar to cod-liver oil, which is used for the
supply of lamps in Shetland and elsewhere. Two
other species of Molva from the coasts of Europe
have been described.
Ling. I'Kiiii Uexkik. See Gymnastics.
Linga (a Sanskrit word which literally means a
sign or symbol) denotes, in the sectarian woi-ship
of the Ilinilus, the Fhallus (q.v.), as emblem of
the male or generative power of nature. The
Linga-worship prevails with the Sivaites (.see
India, p. 106). Originally of an ideal and
mystical nature, it has degenerated into practicea
644
LINGARD
LINLITHGOW
of the grossest description : thus taking the same
course as the "siiniUir worsliip of the Clialdoeans,
Greeks, and other nations of the east and west.
The manner in which tlie Linga is represented
is cenerallv inoll'eiisive— a pillar of stone or other
. ^ Pil
cvliudrical' objects heing held as appropriate sym-
bols of the generative power of Siva. Us counter-
part is Yoiii, or the symbol of female nature as
productive. See Muir's Sniishrif JVxts (vol. iv.),
and Kittel's moiiograpli (Basel, 1870).
Lill''ard. .Iohn, historian, was born at Win-
cheste" 5th February 1771. Both his parents were
Lincolnshire Catholics, his father a carjienter, his
mother the daughter of a respectable farmer who
had been ruined bv the penal laws. A promising
boy he was sent in 1782 by Bishoj) Talbot to the
Kii'dish College of Douay (q.v.), where he remained
tiirin 1793 it was broken up by the Kevohition.
The Catholic Relief Act enabling Catholics to
open schools in England, the Douay comnuinity
was transferred lirst to Crook Hall, near Durham,
anil in 1808 to I'shaw. Lingard, who had accepted
the office of tutor in Lord Stourton's family, in 1794
resumed his theological studies, and, next year
receiving priest's orders, became vice-president of
the collei-fe, prefect of the stuilies, and professor of
Philosophv. In 1811 he accejitcd the secluded
mission of Hornby, near Lancaster, declining the
otter of the presidency of Maynooth, as fourteen
years later of a cardinals hat ; and here he ' grew
old in illustrious obscurity.' He twice visited
Rome, in 1817 and 1825; in 1821 obtained his
doctorate from Pius VII. : and in IS.TO received a
crown pension of £300. He died at Hornby, 17th
July 1851, and was buried in the cloister at Ushaw.
His lirst important work, the Antiquitii of the
Avnlo-Saxon Cliun-h (2 vols. 1806; 3d and much
enlarged ed. 1845), was but the pioneer of what
eventually became the labour of his life— a History
of England to 16SS (8 vols. 1819-30; 6tli ed. 10
vols. 1854-55). This from the outset attracted
much attention : and the first two editions brought
its author £4133. It was fiercely assailed m the
Kdinburqh Revicv: : but Dr Lingard in his reply
displayeii so much erudition, and so careful a regard
for original authorities, that the result was to add
materially to his reinitation as a scholar and a
critic. The chief mark of its Catholic origin is not
seldom the absence of Protestant bias and pre-
judice ; .still, it is as declaring the views of a candid
and judicious Catholic that the later volumes retain
a permanent value. The earlier volumes have
been largely .superseded. For Lingard s minor
writings, which were numerous, see the ISIemoir by
Canon Tierney, prefixed to vol. x. of the dth ed.
of the Hisliinj.
Lillgua-Fraiica, the corrupt Italian which
has been employed, since the jieriod of the Geimcse
and Venetian s'upremacy, as the language of coni-
mcrcial intercourse in tlie Mediterranean, especi-
ally the Levant. Any language which serves a
sin'iilar purpose, as, for instance, Swahili and
Haussa in Africa, and the Chinook jargon in the
north-west of the United States, is called gener-
ically a linrjiia-fninca. Compare ' pigeon English,
under China.
Lilltfllla. a genus of Bracliiopoda (q.v.).
Liii;:iila Flass. See Cambrian System.
LillinicntS (from tlic Latin word liniir. 'to
besmear') may be regarded, in so far as their physi-
cal i)roperties are concerned, as ointments having
the consistence of oil, while, chemically, most of
them are soaps— ihul is to say, compoumls of oils
and alkalies. In consequence of their slighter con-
sistence, they are lublied into the skin more readily
thiin ointments. Among the most important of
them arc : Liniment of Ammonia, popularly known
as Hartshorn and Oil, which is prepared by niixing
and shaking together .solution ot ammonia and
olive-oil, and is employed as an external stimulant
and rubefacient to relieve neuralgic and rheumatic
pains, sore throat, &C. : Soap Liniment, or Opodel-
doc, the constituents of which are soai>, camphor,
and spirits of rosemary, and which is used in
sjn-ains, bruises, rheumatism, v*i:c. ; LininirnI of
Lime, or Carrou Oil. which is prepared by mixing
and shaking together equal measures of olive i)r
linseed oil and lime water ; it is an excellent appli
cation to burns and scalds, and from its Keneral
enqdoyment for this purpose at the Canon iron
works' has derived its popular name : Camphoi
~ inimcnt, consisting of camphor dissolved in
niilior
olive-
oil, which is used in sprains, bruises, and glandular
enlargements, and which must not be confoumled
with Compound Camphor Liniment, which contains
a considerable quantity of ammonia, and is a
powerful stimulant and rubefacient : and tlie
Opimn Liniment, which consists of soaji liniment
and tincture of opium, and is much enqiloved as
an anodyne in neuralgia, rheumatism, ^.c. These
are the chief liniments according to the old delini-
tion. but the term has gradually come to be ajqilied
to tinctures intended for external use. Such .are
the liniments of aconite, belladonna, cantharides,
iodine, Ac, which are made by treating the drugs
with alcohol, and thus obtaining a concentrated
tincture.
Lillkopillg. one of the oldest towns in Sweden,
capital of East tiothland and the seat of its liishop,
stands 3^ miles S. of Lake Roxen and 142 miles by
rail SWr of Stockholm. The Romanesque cathe-
dral, which dates from the 12th century, is one of
tlie finest churches in Sweden. Since 1887 Linkiip-
iiig has had direct communication for vessels with
the Baltic, and now exports timber and gildc.l
mouldings. Pop. (1875) 8112; (1890) 12,649.
Links. See tioLF.
Lilllcy, THOMA.S, English musical composei,
was liorii at Wells in 17.")2. He first gained a
reputation at Bath as teacher of singing and
conductor of the concerts in the Assembly Rooms.
P.ut in 1775 his son-in-law Sheridan induced him
to compose great iiart of the music for his opera
The Duenna, and persuaded him to go to LoikIoii
to superintend its performance. In the following
year the two, in conjunction with R. Kord, bought
Garrick's share of Diury Lane Theatre. During
the next fifteen years Li'nley was musical director
of this theatre,' composing numerous occasional
iiieces and the music of the operas Ventle Shep-
herd (1781), Carnival of Veniec (1781), Selima
and Azor (1784), Strangers at Home (1786), Lore
in the East (1788), &e. Linley's name stands
highest, however, as a composer of music for songs
and elegies — it is simple, sweet, melodious, and yet
lively. He died in London on lOlh November 179.").
Two of his sons inherited his musical talent.
Thomas (1756-78), who possessed real genius and
was a friend of Mozart in Italy, and AVlLl.l.\M
(1767-1835), who composed a number of glee.-,
songs, &c.
LilllitllKOW. an ancient royal burgh, the
county town of Linlitligow.shire, lies 16 miles A\ .
of EdinburL;h, near the southern shore of Linlithgow
Loch, which, l."iO feet above sea level, covers 102
acres, .and deejiens westward from 10 to 50 feet.
On a promontory, 66 feet high, stands the stately
ruin of Linlilligow Palace, mostly rebuilt between
1425 and 1628, and fin'd by Hawley's dragoons in
1746. It w.as the birthplace of James V. and Mary
Stuart. The neighbouring parish church of St
'Michael's is a very good Decorale.l structure of
mainly the 15th and lOtli centuries : within its
south' transept James IV. received the lltidd.ii
LINLITHGOWSHIRE
LINNET
G45
warning. Another event in Linlitligow's liiston- was
the nuirder of the Regent Moray. The Cross Well
(rel)uilt in 1SU7) anil the new town-hall (1889) are
al>o noteworthy. With Falkirk, &c., Linlithgow
returns a niemher. Pop. ( 1831 ) .•JIST : { 1x91 ) 4155.
See Wahlie's llistonj of Linlitlitjuu- (M eil. 1879).
Liulitligowsliiro. or West Lothi.vn, a
Scottish county, washed on the north for 17 miles
by the Firth of Forth, and elsewhere hounded by
Edinburgh, Lanark, and Stirling shires. Its length
south-westward is '22 miles, its average breadth 7
miles, and its area 127 sq. ni. The only large
streams are the Almond on the south-eastern, and
the Avon on the western boundary ; and the prin-
cipal eminences are Cairnuaple (1016 feet). Cockle-
rue (912), Dechmont Law (686), and Glower-o'er-
'em (559), the last with a monument to General
Adrian Hope, who fell in the Indian Mutiny. The
rocks are carboniferous, with igneous intrusions ;
and coal has been largely mined since the 12th
century, as also are ironstone, fireclay, and shale.
Excellent sandstone is quarried at Biuny. The
soil is generally fertile, except to the south and
south-west, where it is moorish or rocky ; and a.s
much as 73 per cent, of the whole area is in cultiva-
tion, whilst woods cover 4982 acres. Towns,
noticed separately, are Linlithgow, South Queens-
ferry, Bathgate, Bo'ness, and Broxburn ; among
the mansions are Hopetoun, Dalmeny, Dundas,
and Kinneil : and the antiquities include prehistoric
and Roman remains, the Romanesqtie church of
Dalmeny, the castles of Barnbougle, Blackness,
Niddry, &.C., and the preceptory at Torphichen of
the Knights of St John. The county returns one
member to parliament. Pop. ( ISOl ) 17,844 : ( 1841 )
26,872; (1891) 52,808. See Sibbald's History of
Linlithgowshire (1710), and Small's Castles and
Mansions of the Lothians (1883).
Liuiiiea. See Caprifoliacele.
Linnifns, Carl, ennobled in 1757 as Carl vox
LixxE, the founder of modern botany, was born at
Rashult, in the Swedish province of Smaland, on
2.3d May 1707. His father, the rector of the
parish, destined him for his own profession, the
church. But whilst still a child Carl showed a
jj.ossion for flowers. He was sent to school at
Wexio, then pa.ssed on to Lund ( 1727 ) and L'psala
universities to study medicine ; but his real study
was botany. In 17.30 he was appointed assistant
to the professor of botany in Upsala. The
greater part of 1732 was occupied m executing
a commission from the L'i)sala Academy of
Sciences — an exploring trip through Swedish
Lapland, the botanical results of which were pub-
lished .as Flora. Lapponica in 1737. His diaiy of
this journey was translated into English and pub-
lished by Sir .1. E. Smith in 181 1 a.s Lachexis
Lapjionica. Then followed a journey of scientilic
exploration and survey through the province of
Dalecarlia. In 1735 he went abroad to take his
doctor's degree at Harderwijk in Holland. Pass-
ing on to Leyden and Amsterdam, he founil en-
cf)uragement in Gronovius, to wlioin he showed
the -MS. of the Si/ste»ia Natitnv, .and helpful
patronage in Boerhaave, who introduced him to
the wealthy Dutch banker, Clillbrd. CliH'ord, who
had a m.agniticent garden and greenhouses and
botanical collections, employed the young Swede
to arr.ange them for him. It was the .autunm of
1737 before he w,as done with the work. But in
the meantime he had paid a visit to England, and
puljlished some of his most famou.i books, such as
the Hiistemn Xatiirw, Fundamenta Botaniiu, Genera
Plantfiritm, Critira Botanica, in which he expounded
his celebrated system of cla-wsification, based on
dilfeiences in sexual characteristics. This system
of Linmeu.s, although intentionally an artificial
one, was predominant for a long time in the
botanical schools of Europe (see BoTAXy). On
his way home he was tempted to stay nearly a
year at Leyden to help to arrange the botanical
garden belonging to the university. Then he paid
a flying visit to Paris, where he became acquainted
with Bernard and Joseph de Jussieu. On reaching
home he practised as a physician in Stockholm for
three years with brilliant success. In 1741 he was
appointed professor of Physics and Anatomy at
L i>sala, but exchanged this chair for that of
Botjiny in the following year. With this post was
combined the directorship of the botanical gardens.
During the many yeare that Linnanis taught
botany his fame and his lectures increased the
number of pupils attending the univereity from
Hve to fifteen hundred. Tlie years 1745-46 were
marked by the publication of the Flora Utiecica and
Fauna Succica, the latter embodying the results
of fifteen yeare' labour; 1751 by the Philosophia
Botanica; and 1753 by the appearance of Species
Plantarum, in which he lirst rally established the
custom of using a second or trivial name in addition
to the generic name, by which to identify a plant.
Just previous to his appointment as professor he
conducted a scientific journey through the islands
of Oland and Gothland, in 1746 a similar journey
through the province of West Gothhand, and in
1749 another in the province of Skane, of all of
which he wrote descriptive accounts in Swedish.
Linnfeus died on 10th Januaiy 1778. See Thronnh
the Fields with Linnmus, by Mrs Florence Caddy
(2 vols. 1887), which supersedes the Life (Eng.
trans. 1794) by Stoever.
The LixxEAX Society was formed in London in
1788, and obtained a royal charter in 1802. Its
founder and first president was Sir J. E. Smith,
who jjurchased the books and MSS. and botanical
collections of Linnseus after the death in 1783 of
the great botanist's son, and from whom they
passed into the hands of tlie society in 1828.
Liniiell, Johx, artist, was born in Loudon in
1792, in 1805 entered as a student at the Royal
Academy, and distinguished himself greatly during
his course, not only in painting, but in sculpture
and engraving. He was a pupil of lienjamin West
and Varley, and himself taught drawing to Mary
Wollstonecraft Shelley. He painted many portraits
of eminent men, as his friend Blake, Malthas,
Whately, Peel, and Carlyle. His Landscapes were
mostly painted from the sweet scenery of Surrey.
Of these need only be named ' Harvest Showers,'
'A coming Storm,' ' Autumn,' and 'The Heath.'
Linnell died at Reilhill, January' 20, 1882. See his
Life by A. T. Story ( 1892).
LilUiet (Acanthis), a genus of Passerine birds in
"^^^V
,:^
^.
.i^
Linnet (Acanthii cunnabina).
the finch family Friiigillida^, familiarly represented
by the Grey, Red, or Rose Linnet (Acunthis
646
LINOLEUM
LION
cannabiiia). This bird is coinnion in Britain, and
wiilely distributed in Europe and in nortli-wcst
Afiica. It is ratlier under 6 inclies in len^lli,
and exhibits, as its common names suggest, a
marked seasonal chanj^e of phimage. It feeds
on soft seeds, and breeds in spring. Tlie nest,
made of soft stems and moss, lined with wool
anil down, is especially common in furze and other
low bushes. The eggs (4 to 6) have a bluish-
white ground, speckled with reddisli Ijrown or pur-
i)lish red ; two l)roods may be reared in the season.
The linnet or 'lintie' sings well, is amenable to
e<lucati(>n, and is but too often caged. In the
mountain-regions of Scotland it is represented by
the 'Ticile or Mountain-linnet (A. flavirostris),
while other Hritish species are the Mealy Kedpole
{A. linaria) and the Lesser Redpole (A. riifexceiis),
the smallest of British linches. The Green Linnet
is the Greenlincli (Ligurmiis chloris).
Liiioloiiiii. See Floorcloth.
Linsceil. the seed of flax, largely imported from
the t'ontinent and India, for ma"lcing linsced-oil
and rii/-rf(/,-i: In making these tlie seeds are lirst
bruised or crushed, then ground, and afterwards
subjected to pressure in a hydraulic or screw press,
sometimes without heat, and sometimes with the
aid of a steam heat of about 200° {93-4° C).
Linscedoil is usually amber-coloured, but when
perfectly pure it is colourless. It has a peculiar
and rather disagreeable odour and taste. It
is chielly used for making varnishes, paints, &c.
That made without heat (cold-drnwn iinsccd-oil)
is p\ucr, and less apt to become rancid, than
that in making which heat is applied. By cold
exjiression the seed yields from 18 to 20 per
cent., and with heat "from 22 to 27 per cent, of
oil. Linseed-oil boiled, either alone or witli
litharge, white lead, or sulphate of zinc, dries
much more rapidly on exjiosure to the air than
the unlioiled oil ; and boiled or dri/inff oil is
particularly adajited for many uses. — The Oil-cake
(cj.v. ) made in expressing linseed-oil is very useful
for feeding cattle. Linseed itself is excellent food
for cattle and for [loultry. The seed coats abound
in mucilage, which forms a thick jelly with hot
water, and is very useful for fattening cattle. —
JJiisred-iiicfd, nuioii used for poultices, is generally
ma<le by grinding fresh oil-cake, but it is better
if made by grinding the seed itself.
Lint was the name given to linen cloth or rags
when shredded or scraped down so as to form a soft
material, suitable for dressing wounds and soaking
u]) discharges. This is now su])erseded by a cotton
cloth s]iecially wo^•en for the purpose, witli one side
.soft iind lluHy. See also Flax.
Linton, Sir Jame.s Drumgole, water-colour
and oil painter, was born in London, 26lh Decem-
ber 1840. He laboured with success to elevate the
status of his favourite branch of art, painting in
water-colours; and in I8S3 the Institute of Water-
colour Painters, of which he had been elected a
member in 1 867, was reorganised, its title being
lienceforth the lioyal Institute of Painters in
AVater-colours, and its exhibitions being thrown
open to everybody, not confined, as hitherto, to
members. Linton himself was chosen president in
1884, ami in the following year wa-s knighted. His
most successful pictures are those of single lignres.
As a painter in oil his most notalde jirodurlions
are the 'Marriage of the Duke of Alliany,' painted
by royal command in 188"), and a series illustra-
tive of the Kith century f(M' a |)rivate house at
Notlingliam.
Linton. \\'ii.i.iam .Iamks, wood-engraver and
author, Wius born in London in 1812. As a wood-
engraver he may be said to be the most artistic
who ever lived. Some of his finest work may be
found in the pages of the Illustrated London Neuv.
to which he frequently contributed, from its com-
mencement till he linally went to the I'nited
States in 1867. As an author, the zealons chartism
of his youth tinged nnich of his work. Among his
various works may be mentioned 'J'/ic I'luin of
/Vcer/oHt ( 1852), Clnrihcl and other Poems (1865),
several volumes of T/ic English liepuhlic. Home
Practical Hints on Wood-enr/ravinff (1879), Life
of Thomas Paine (1879), A Manual of Wood-
cngruiunt/ {188i), Poe7ns and Translations (1889),
and 7'Jic Musters of IVood-engraring ( 1890). He
died 2ntb Dec. 1897. See bis Memories (18951.—
His wife, Eliza Ly.xn, bom at Keswi.'k. loib Feb.
1822, had ijublisbed lier Kr.st novel a dozen years
before their marriage in 1858. Together tliey prc>
pared a volume on The Lake Countri/ (1864), hf
lurnishing the ilhistr.ations jind she the letterpress ;
in 1867 they separated. Mrs Lynn Linton was an
indefatigaljle worker, and her novels were many :
'The True History of Joshua Davidson (1872) and
The A utohioejreiphti of Christopher Kirldanil ( 1S85 )
are of heavier calibre than the rest. She did a
freat deal of magazine work, and her ' (iirl of tbi'
'eriod' articles in the Saturda;/ Jierieu- appeared
in a collected form in 1883. Slie died in London
14th July 1898.
Linz, capital of the crown-land of Ujiper Austria,
is situated on the right bank of the Danube, which
is here crossed by an iron bridge 7S0 feet long. 117
miles liy rail W! of Vienna. Pop. (1890) 47.685.
It h.as a si)lendid new tlotbic cathedral (1862-90),
the old catliedral church ( 1670), the bishop's palace,
the national museum, a library of 33,000 vols.,
a bishop's seminary, a commercial school, &c.
Owing to its situation on the Danube and to its
being an important railway centre, Linz is a bn.sy
commercial place ; its industries include the manu-
facture of woollen goods, tobacco, linen, leather,
machinery, &c. Shipbuilding is likewise carrieil
on. As a place of some strategic imjiortance Linz
has been besieged on several occasions, notably by
the peasants in 1626, and <luring the war of I lie
Austrian succession in 1741 anil again in 1742.
Here peace was signed between the Kmpenn- Fenli
nand III. and George Kakoezy of Transyhania in
1645, and in the vicinity Bernadotte defeated the
Austrians in 1809. See works by Krackowizer
( 1875) and Hiptmair (1885).
Lion {Felisleo), the largest and most majestic
of the Felida\ It is, -vvhen mature, of a nearly
uniform tawny or yellowish colour, ]ialer on the
under-parts ; the young alone exliiliiting spots like
those connnon in the Felida'. The male lias usually
a great shaggy and flowing mane; and the tail,
which is pretty long, terminates in a tuft of hair.
The wliole frame is extremely muscular, giving,
with tlie large head, bright-Hashing eye, ami
copious mane, a noble Jippearance to the animal,
w liich, with its strength, has led to its being called
the ' king of beasts,' and given rise to fancies of its
noble and generous disposition, having no founda-
tion in reality. A lion of the largest size measures
about 8 feet from the nose to the tail, ami the tail
about 4 feet. The lioness is smaller, has no mane,
and is of a lighter colour on the under-parts. The
strength of the lion is such that he can carry oil' a
heifer as a cat carries a rat.
The lion is an inhabitant of the troiiical and
subtropical regions of Africa and Asia. It was
anciently much more common in Asia, and was
f(nind in some ])arts of lMiro|)e, ]iarticularly in
Macedonia and Thrace, according to Herodotus and
other authors. Tlie Cave Lion ( Felis spcla'a). whose
bones are met with in cavi
L.ion [re/is spc/a'd )• wnose
,-e-denosits of England and
the Continent, hardly did'ers from Felis leo. Tlie
lion is not in general an inhabitant of deep foichts
LION
LIPOGRAM
64V
but rather of open plains, in whicli the slielter of
ocoa-sional luislies or thickets may be foiuul. The
breeding-place is always in some much scchuleil
retreat, in which the young — two, three, or four in
a litter — are watched over with great assiduity by
Lion ( Felis Ico ).
both parents, and, if necessary, are defended with
great courage — although, in other circumstances,
the lion is more disposed to retire from man than
to assail him or contend with him. When met in
an open country the lion retires at first slowly, as
if ready for battle, but not desirous of it ; then more
swiftly ; and finally by rapid bounds. If compelled
to defend himself he manifests great courage.
The lion often springs upon his prey by a sudden
bound, accompanied witli a roar ; and it is said
that if he fails in seizing it he does not usually
fiursue, but retires as if ashamed ; it is certain,
lowever, that the lion also often takes his prey by
pursuing it. and with great perseverance. The
animal singled out for ])ursuit, as a zebra, may be
.swifter of foot than the lion, but greater power of
endurance enables liim to make it his victim. Deer
and antelopes are perhaps the most common food
of lions. The lion, like the rest of the Feliihe,
is pretty much a nocturnal animal ; its eyes are
adapted for the night or twilight rather than for
the day. It has a horror of tires and torchlights ;
of which travellers in Africa avail themselves,
when surrounded by jirowling lions in the wilder-
ness by night, and sleep in safety. Lions rapidly
disappear before the advance of civilisation. In
India they are now confined to a few wild districts ;
anil in South Africa their nearest haunts are far
from Capetown and from all the long and fully
settled regions.
The mane of the lion, and the tuft at the end of
the tail, are not fully developed till he is six or
seven years old. The tail terminates in a small
prickle, the e.xistence of which was known to the
ancients, having been discovered by Didymus Alex-
andrinns, one of the earliest commentators on the
Iliufl : it was supposed bv them to be a kind of
goad to the animal when lashing liiuiself with his
tail in rage. The prickle has no ronncctidn with
the caudal vertebra-, but is merely a little nail or
honiy cone, about two lines in length, adhering to
the skin at the tip of the tail. It has been stated
to occur also in the leopard.
There are several varieties of the lion, slightly
dillering from each other in form and colour, but
particularly in the development of the mane. The
largest lions of the south of Africa are remarkable
for the large size of the head ami the great and
black mane. The Persian and other Asiatic lions
are generally of a lighter colour, and inferior in
size, strength, and ferocitv to the African lion.
Guzerat and the south of tersia produce a some-
what smaller variety, remarkable as being almost
destitute of mane.
The lion is easily tamed, at least when taken
young, anil when abundantly supplied with fooil
is very docile, learning to perform feats which
excite the admiration of the crowds that visit
menageries. The greatest of lion-tamers, Van
Amburgh, died in liis bed at lMiiladeli)hia, 29th
November 1865 ; still, exhibitions of this kind
are not unattended with danger, as too many
instances have proved. Lions were made to con-
tribute to the barbarous sports of the ancient
Komans ; a combat of lions was an attractive
spectacle, and vast numl>ers were ini|)orted into
llome, chiefly from Africa, for the supply of the
amphitheatre. Pompey exhibited 600 at once. —
Lions were kept in the Tower of London from the
13th century till 1834 ; and one died here
in 1770 after seventy years' conlinement. They
have not unfrequently bred in the menageries
of Europe (with i)articularly good results in the
Dublin Zoological Gardens ), and a hybrid between
the lion and the tiger has occasionally been pro
duced. For the lion in heraldry, see Hekaldry.
Lioiiardo da Vinci. See Leonardo.
Lions, ( in.F ok ( Golfc dn Lion ), the large gulf
of the Mediterranean on the south of France, ex-
tends from the frontier with Spain eastwards to the
Hyeres Islands.
Lipari Islands, known also as the .lioLlAN
ISL.VXDS, a volcanic group in the Mediterranean,
consi-sting of half-a-dozen larger and numerous
smaller islands, with an aggregate area of 116 sr|.
m., and situated oil' the north coast of Sicily, north-
west of Messina. They rise to 3170 feet above the
level of the sea ; many of the smaller islands form
part of the rim of a gigantic crater. The ancient
classical poets localised in these islands the abode
of the fiery god Vulcan — hence their ancient name,
Viilrriniif Iiisnhv. Their collective population is
18,000, of whom neariy 8000 belong to the island of
Lipari (area, .32 sq. m.), the most impoitant uf the
group. The ne.xt in size are A'ulcano, Stromlioli,
Salina. Filicudi, Alicudi, and Panaria. The |n-in-
cipal products of the islands are grapes, figs, olives,
wine (Malmsey), borax, pumice-stone, and sulidiur.
The warm springs are much resorted to, ami the
climate is delightful. Lipari, the chief town, is a
bishop's see and a seaport, and has 4968 inliabit-
ant.s. Stromboli (.3022 feet) is almo.st constantly
active; Vulcano (1017 feet) is so intermittently;
the rest are extinct.
Liparitc. an igneous rock, so called from its
occurrence in the island of Lipari. It has a wide
geographical distribution, and is also known as
Rhyolite and t,)uartz-trachyte. It is a highly acidic
rock, and has a ghissy base, often more or less
devitriiied. Throughout this base are scattered
qu.artz, sanidine, |)lagioclase, and biotite ; and
other minerals may al.so lie present. The more
compact varieties often exhiliit sphenditic and
tluxion structures, which occasionally impart a
kind of laminated or b.'indcd iis))ect to the rock.
Other varieties of texture range from compact up
to coarse-gr.iined and granitoid.
Linetzk. a town in the Russian government of
Tamfiofl', on the right bank of the Voronezh, a
tributary of the Don, and .3<K) nnles by rail SSE.
from Moscow, was founded in 1700 by I'cter the
(Ireat, but only began to llourish at the commence-
ment of the 19th century, when the admirable
qualities of its chalybeate springs became known.
It h.os a large annual influx of visitors during
summer. Pop. (1894) 15,860.
Lipourani (Gr. hipO, 'I leave out,' and
i/rmiiiiiii. '.a letter') is a species of verse charac-
648
LIPPE
LIQUEUR
terised by the exclusion of a certain letter, either
vowel or consonant. The earliest known author of
lipograniniatic vei'se was the Greek i)oet Livsus
(born 53S B.C. ) : anil it is recmiled of one Tryphio-
(lorus, a Gr;i'co-Ef;yptian writer of the same period,
that lie composed an Odyssey in '24 hooks, from
each of which, in succession, one of the letters of
the Greek alphabet was excluded. Fabius Claudius
Gordianus Kulgentius, a Christian monk of the Gth
century, performed a similar feat in Latin. In
modern times tlie Spaniards have been most
addicted to this laborious frivolity. Lope de Vega
wrote five novels, from each of which one of the
vowels is excluded ; and several French poets have
also practised the trick. See Henry B. Wheatley's
book on Anagrams (ISG'2).
Lil>l)e« or, as it is generally called, but in-
correctly, Lippe-Detmold, a small principality of
northern Germany, lying between \Vesti)halia on
the W. and Hanover on the E. The Weser touches
it on the N. and the Teutoburger Wood crosses it
in the S. Area, 475 .sq. m. : pop. (1875) 112,442;
( ISSH)) 12S,4!)5, of whom only 4332 were Catholics.
The (iresent constitution of Lippe dates from 1853 ;
capital, Detmold (q.v.); other towns, Lenigo and
Horn. The surface is hilly ; woods cover 28 per
cent., and are well cared for. The principal oceu]ia-
tion is agriculture, with the rearing of cattle and
swine. The products of these callings, with tim-
ber, salt, meerschaum pipes, tobacco, and starch,
are the chief results of the industrial activity ex-
ported. Every sjiring some 12,000 of tlie inhabit-
ants spread themselves over central Europe, as far
as south Russia, to burn bricks, and return lionie
in the autumn. The little country is governed by
an administrative college, and a House of ( twenty-
one) Representatives, elected directly by the penide,
who are for that purpose divided into three classes.
The piinces of Lipjie belong to one of the oldest
sovereign families of Germany, and can he traced
back to the 10th century. The first who took
the name of count of Lippe was Bernhard in 1129.
Tlie family split into three branches in 1013 —
Lippe, Brake, and Schaumburg. The second of
these became extinct in 1709. For the third, see
ScH.^lMlirKa-LlPPE. See historical works (1847-
87) by Falkinann.
Lippi, Fra Filippo, commonly known as Lippo
LiPPi, a Florentine painter, was born in 1412 ; but,
losing his parents whilst still an infant, he was
entrusted to the Carmelite friars of Florence when
only eight years of age. In the story of his life
as told by Vasari there are several romantic
incidents ; but most of them are now discredited,
except that he alxlucteil Luerezia Buti, a ward or
novice of the coment of St Margaret at Prato, and
afterwards married her. Lippo Lippi, who studied
jirincipally Masaccio, (lainted religious subjects,
which he conceived and designed from a hiinian
standpoint. His greatest work wjus done on the
choir walls of the cathedral of Prato —illustrations
of the lives of John the Baptist and St Stephen.
He was busy executing a series of incidents from
the life of the Virgin in the cathedral ajise at
Spoleto, when death arrested his hand for ever,
alpout 8th (Jctobcr H(i9. Besides these works he
painted several Madonnas and altarpieces. amongst
these hist one for the nunnery chapel of S. Am-
brogio, Florence, the subject of Browning's poem.
Lipjio Lippi liad a staunch patron in Cosinio de'
Mi'dici. See Cmwe in XinctceutU Ceiitiinj, I89G.
His son, FiLlPPlNi) Lippi, wa.^ born at Florence
in 1460, and educated at Prato. His artistic style
has a strong element of originality, but also shows
the influence of his father and Botticelli. His
most celebrated frescoes are scenes from the lives
of St Peter and St Paul in the Brancacci chai>el at
Florence (cf. Masaccio), incidents illustrating the
character of St Thomas Aquinas in the Minerva
church at Koine, and subjects from the legends
of St .lohn and St Philip in Sta Maria Novella
at Florence. His best easel-pictures include ' The
Virgin and Saints" (in the I'flizi at Florence), 'The
Adoration of the Magi,' 'The Vision of St Francis.'
Filippino died in April 1504 at Florence.
Lippincott, Joshua Bai.lixger, an American
publisher, was born of Quaker parents in Bur-
lington, New Jersey, in 181(j, had charge of a book-
seller's business in Philadelphia from 1834 to 1831),
when he founded the house of J. B. Lipjiincott .S:
Co., and by 1850 was at the head of the bocd<-
trade in Philadelphia. He died January 5, ISSfi,
and the firm was converted into the J. B. Lipiiin-
cott Company, the authorised American publishers
of the present edition of this work. Lippincott' s
Magazine was established in IS08.
Lippstadt, a town of Prussia, on the river
Lippe, 30 miles E. by N. from Dortmund. It has
manufactures of spirits, beer, cigars, brushes, ropes,
inm, &c. Founded in 1 UiS, it Ma-s captured by the
Spaniards in 1620, and by the French in 1757.
Pop. 11,. 304.
Lipsilis, Richard Adelbert, a great German
theologian, was born at Gera, February 14, 18.'J0,
studied theology at Leipzig, and, after serving there
as nrivat-docent and professor extraordinary, was
called to fill a chair at Vienn.a in 1861, at Kiel in
1865, and at Jena in 1871- He died 19tli August
1S92. Lipsius made contributions of the greatest
importance to theological science in the lields of
dogmatics and the history of dogma, the philosophy
of religion, and New Testament exegesis and criti-
cism. In 1875 he founded the Jahrhuchcr fin-
Protest. Theologie. Among his books are O'/aiibc
and Lchre (1871), Die Qtiellen der Rom. Petrus-
sage (1872), Lehrbuch der Evangeliscli-Protcst. Dog-
matik (1876), Die apoknjphen Aposte/gcschic/itcii
itiid Apo.itellegenden (1883-87), and Philusophie
und Religion (1885).— Of his brothei-s, Justus
Herm.vsn (born at Leipzig, 9th May 1834)
is eminent as a philologist. After teaching
at Leipzig, Meissen, Grimma, he became in 1S69
extra-ordinary professor of Classical Philology at
the university of Leipzig, and in 1S77 ordinary
professor of the same, and director of the Russian
l)liilological seminary. His books are an edition of
the De Corona of Demosthenes ( 1876), and of Meier
and Schomann's work, Der Attischc Prozess (1883-
85). He also collaborated with Curtius, Lange,
anil Ribbcck in the well-known Leipziger Stiidicn,
established in 1878. Their si>tcr >IaI!1E (born at
Leipzig, ."iOtli December 1837) hius made valuable
contributions to music ami its history, under the
])Seudonyni of La Mara, the most important being
.Mnsil.erl. IStudienkopfe (5 vols. 1868-82), Gedankcn
lirrithmtcr Miisiker iibcr Hire Kunst (1873), and a
(Jerman translation of F". Liszt's Chopin ( 1880).
Li<|lieiII*> This name is given to the very
numerous alcoholic preparations which are flavoured
or perfumed and sweetened to he more agreealde to
the taste. Aniseed Cordial h prepared liy flavour-
ing weak spirit with aniseed, coriander, and sweet
fennel seed, and sweetening with linely-clarilied
synip of refined sugar. Clove Cordial is fiavourcd
with cloves, bruised, and coloured with burnt
sugar. Kiimmel (a Russian and (Jernian liqni'ur,
named from the German name of the herb cumin)
is made with sweetened spirit. Ilavoured with cumin
and caraway seeds, the latter usually so strong as
to conceal any other flavour. It is chiefly made at
Riga. Maraschino is distilled from cherries bruised,
but, in.stead of the wild kind, a fine delicately-
flavoured variety called Marazqnes are used m
Dalmatia. Xoi/au, or Crime de Notjaii, is a sweet
I
LIQUIDAMBAR
LIQUOR LAWS
649
conlial flavoured with bruised bitter-almomls. Pep-
ixnuiiit is usually sweetened gin, flavoured with
essential oil of peppermint. Chartniise, Ciini^oa,
and Kiisc/iwasscr have separate articles. Bene-
(lietine is made at Fecamp. Absiiit/tc ((j. v. ) is not a
li(iueur ; Vcrmniith isalcoliolised white wine, aroma-
tised with wormwood, gentian, angelica, germander,
and oranges. Clierrv Brandy and Sloe Gin are
sweetened spirits tlavoured with cherries and sloes.
Licillidambnr, a genus— the only genus —
<if the order Altingiaceie. They are tall trees,
reinarkable for their fragrant balsamic products.
L. styraciflua, the American Lic^uidambar, or Sweet
Cluni tree, is a beautiful tree with palmate leaves,
a native of Mexico and the United States. It
grows well in the milder parts of Britain. Its
wood is of a hard te.\ture and fine grain, and makes
good furniture. From ciacks or incisions in the
bark a transparent, yellowisli balsamic fluid exudes,
called Liquid Liqiiidambar, Oil of Liquidambar,
American Storax, Copahn Balsam, and sometimes,
but erroneously, White Balsam of Peru. It gradu-
ally becomes concrete and darker coloured. Its
l)roperties are similar to those of storax. That of
commerce is mostly brought from Mexico and New
Orleans. — L. oriciitale, a smaller tree with palmate
leaves, is a native of the Levant and of more eastern
regions, and yields abundantly a balsamic fluid,
which lias been supposed to be the Liquid Storax
ini]]orte.l from the Levant ; but on this point there
is a divei-sity of opinion.
Liqnidation, the winding-up of any business,
but applied more particularly to joint-stock com-
panies. The liquidation of insolvent firms is treated
under BANKRUPTCY ; that of registered companies
is regulated by the Companies Acts, which provide
three modes of liquidation: (1) by the court, (2)
viduntarj-, and ( 3 ) subject to the court's supervision.
Compulsory liquidation may be ordered on petition
by a creditor or contributory ; voluntary liquidation
iiiay be resolved upon by an extraordinary or a
special resolution of the shareholdei-s ; and a super-
vision order may on petition and cause shown be
pronounced in a voluntary liquidation.
In any case the liquidation is conducted by a
liquidator, who in court liquidations is appointed
)iy the court and called 'orticial liquidator,' but in
voluntary liquidation is chosen by the shareholders.
The liquidator's duty is to wind up as speedily as
possible, but he may cany on the business tempor-
arily should that appear necessa-y for a favourable
realisation. He must also prepare a list of con-
triljutories, if the capital is not fully paid uii or the
company is unlimited. This list, which is made up
from the register of shareholdei-s, consists of members
in their own right and those liable as representatives
of others. In addition to these, there is a list (H)
of those who have been members within a year of
the winiling-up and who are liable, if the existing
meiiibers are unable to satisfy the necessary con-
tribution. They can only, however, be called upon
to contribute in respect of unpaid debts incurred
liefore they cea-sed to l>e members. A contributorj'
cannot set off a ileht due to him by the company
against calls by the liquidator so long Jis any credi-
tors remain unpaid. The claims are ranke<l and
adjudicated upon very much a.s in bankruptcy, and
the surplus, if any, is divideil among the sliare-
liiilders. Unregistered companies, except railway
companies incorporated by act of ]>arlianieiit, may
he wound up under the provisions of the Companies
.\.t^.
Li<|Uids. See articles on Boiling, Capillaritj',
Cohesion, Diflusion, Evaporation, Heat, Ilyilro-
dynamics. Hydrostatics, Matti^r, Melting-point,
(.isiiiosis, Solution, Spheroidal Cimdition, Surfac(!-
teiision, and Viscosity.
Liquorice ( Oliici/n-liiza ), a genus of perennial
herbaceous plants of the natural order Leguminosw,
sub-order Papilionaceic, having long, pliant, sweet
roots, and generally creeping root-stocks : pinnate
leaves of many leaflets, and terminating in an odil
one ; flowers in spikes, racemes, or heads ; a 5-cleft,
■2-Iipped calyx, and a '2-leaved keel. The ancient
Greelv name, now the botanical name, signifies xwcet
root, and from it, by corruption, liquorice and other
modern names are derived. The roots of liquorice
depend for their valuable |iroperties on a substance
called Gli/ci/rr/iiziuc, allieil to sugar, yellow, trans-
parent, uncrystallisable, soluble in both water and
alcohol, and forming compiniuds both with acids
and with bases.
They are a well-
known article of
materia inedica,
and were used by
the ancients as
in modern times,
being emollient,
demulcent, very
useful in catarrh
and irritations of
the mucous nieni-
b r a n e. — The
roots of the Com-
mon Liquorice
{G. f/labra) are
chietiy in use in
Europe. The
plant has st«nis
3 to 4 feet high,
and racemes of
whitish violet-
coloured floweis.
It is a native of,
the south of
Europe and of
many parts of
Asia, as far as
China. It is cultivated in many countries of
Europe, chiefly in Spain, ami to some extent at
Mitchaiu in Surrey and at Pontefract in Yorkshire.
The roots are extensively employed by porter-
brewers. They are not imported into Britain in
considerable quantity, but the black inspissated
extract of them {Black Sugar or Sticl: Liquorice) is
largely imported from the south of Europe, in rolls
or sticks, packed in bay-leaves, or in boxes of about
2 cwt., into which it has been run. Liquorice is
sometimes used in the manufacture of sweet tobacco.
Liquorice is propagated by slips ; and after a planta-
tion has been made almost three years must elMise
before the roots can be iligged up for use. The
whole roots are then taken uj). Liquorice requires
a deep, rich, loose soil, well trenched and manured :
the roots penetrating to the ilepth of more than a
yard, and straight taproots being most esteemed.
The old stems are dearwl ofl' at the end of each
season, and the root-stocks so cut away as to prevent
overgrowth above ground next year. The plant is
projjagated by cuttings of the root-stocks. — The
roots of the Prickly Liquorice ( G. echinata ) are used
in the same way. chiefly in Italy and Sicily, liussia,
and the East.— The only .\merican species is G.
Ic/iiilota, which grows in the plains of the Missouri.
Liquor Laws. Restrictive legislatiun with
reg.ird to the sale of intoxicating drink is almost
confined to the Englisli-si)eakin<' peoples, and has
been carried further in some of the British colonies
and in portions of the United States than it has
gone as yet in the United Kingdom. Sunday
closing, forexamjde, which is partial in themolher-
countrv, is very general in the ihiughter-lanils, and
the principle of local ojition with reganl to li(|uc
licensing is widely spread in the colonies
Liquorice (Glycprrhiza glabra)
a, root.
I to li(|uor
ies, wliilo
650
LIQUOR LAWS
LISBON
total prohibition exists in the state of Kansas and
in some otlier Anieiican couiniunilie.s.
In those of tlie United States in wliicli tliere is
not a local majority in favour of i)roluliilive le^'is-
lation, the Hijih License system is lieiiij,^ gradually
adoiited, with the eft'eet of" destroying disreputable
saloons.
The Dominion of Canada has a local ontion law,
under which the localities have ])ower by a bare
majority of votes to close without compensation all
places for tlie sale of drink. The act provides for a
reversal of the operation upon a change of local
opinion, and while tlie act has been largely put in
force it has been snbsci|uently suspended in many
districts. In addition to this law, which is known
as the Scott Act (1878), and applies to the whole
Dominion, there are restrictive laws in several of
the jirovinces. In some, as in Ontario, the maximum
numlier of licenses that can be granted is regulated
according to po])ulation, and sale of drink is for-
bidden on Saturday evenings as well as on Sundays.
(Jenerally speaking, it may be said that in all tlie
)iro\inces of the Dominion, except Quebec and
British ('(dumbia, there is a good deal of restriction,
and in the North-west Territories there is total pro-
hibition of the sale of alcoholic drink — a prohibition
which, however, was originally imposed by the
Dominion government for the jmrpose of preventing
sale of drink to Indians, but which has been con-
tinued ill sjiite of the ]>resent existence of a very
large white majority. Throughout the ''reater part
of Canada two provisions prevail, wliicli exist also
in many states of the American Union and in some
of the Australasian colonies. The one is that
known as the Civil Damages clause, which provides
that wherever any person comes to his death by
suicide or ollierwise during intoxication the seller
of the lit[Uor that caused the intoxication Is liable
to an action for damages. The other is a provision
that the relatives of intemperate persons may
notify sellei-s of drink not to sell it to such jiersons,
and that magistrates may put such persons under
notice as habitual drunkanls, to whom also drink
cannot be sold. This last law, with re.gard to
putting persons under special prohibition, is being
gradually ado|)ted in all new liquor acts passed by
British colonies and by American states, nut there
are considerable variations in the mode of ajiplica-
tion. In some cases the law is so severe that both
the publican and the habitual drunkard are subject
to punishniont if the drunkard is found in the
neighbourhood of the licensed house. In certain
colonies and inovinces, in addition to relatives and
magistrates, ministers of religion may put the
law in force ; and there is a general teiulency to
strengthen clauses sharply restricting the liberty
allowed in the llnited Kingdom for the consuni|i-
tion of drink by persons who are given to the
immoderate use of lii|Uor, and who, owing to such
use, waste their projierty, endanger their health,
and diniinish the comfort of those aliout them.
Turning to the Australasian colonies, Victoria
]iossesses, alone among English-speaking countries,
the )irinciide of local option accKimpanied by com-
pensation. New Zealand and (,>uecii-laiid pos-
sessed in 1890, when South .Australia and Tasmania
were entering ujion, legislation more similar to that
of Canada. The New Zealand act creates elective
Jit^ensing committees, but no new licen.ses can be
granted until the ratepayers have deteiniined on a
poll, by a bare majority, that the number of licenses
may lie increaseil. In Queensland two-tliirds of
the ratepayers in any locality have jxiwer to close
all houses, and a bare majority jiower to reduce
the number of licenses or to put a stop to the issue
of fresh licenses. In New South Wales tliere exists
a mild form of local ojilion as to new licenses or the
increase of licenses, which, however, can scarcely
he said to exceed an expression of local opinion for
consideration by the licensing magistrates.
The South African colonies have stringent legis-
lation, not very well enforced in jiractice, against
the sale of drink to the aborigines, but interfere
less than does the I)omiiiion of Canada or than do
the Australasian colonies with the drinking habits
of the white population.
In the crown colonies there is an extraordinary
variety of legislation upon the licensing of lumses
for the sale of intoxicating liquors. In many there
is Sunday closing, some imitate the .>^elf-governing
colonies in forbidding the sale of drink to niincu-s,
but few of them possess any form of local o]ition.
although that sy.stem exists in sonic, as, for
example, the liahamas.
Throughout Canada and Australia, as in the
Ihiited States, there is a large party in fa^■our of
total prohibition; and the example of the state of
Kansas is pointed to as shoving the ad\anta"es
of the system. On tlie other liaud. in CMiiaila,
Australia, and some of the United Slates there i^
much evasion of the present laws ; and this evasion
has been in the Dominion one of the chief causes
which have led to the jibandonment of the prohibit-
ive provisions of the Scott Act in districts where it
had previously liecn put in force. Generally sjieak-
ing, however, it must be noted that the tendency of
legislaticm and of opinion in the ICiiglish-speaking
countries is towards an extension of the principles
either of local option or of prohibit ^'in.
Much attention has been called m iiarliamcnt to
the li(jUor question in India and Cevlon, and it has
been asserted (and the House of Commons, to
judge by a vote in which the government was de-
feated ill 1889, seems to have credited the assertion)
that the Indian government has tried to stiniiilatr
the sale of drink among natives with a view to
the improvement of the revenue ; while a simihu
.attack lias been made upon the ccdonial government
of Ceylon. The Indian government stoutly denies
the charge, and maintains not only that it has had
no such intention, but that the measures which
have been taken of recent v cars are rather calcu-
lated to decrease than to stimulate the .sale of
drink. On the other hand, there can be little
doubt that the sale of drink in India has increa.sed,
the government maintaining, however, that this
has been only a consequeiure of a change in the
h.abits of the people and of the increase in the rate
of wages. All organs of native o)iinioii ajiipcar,
nevertheless, to su|)))ort the view taken by the
majority of the House of Commons. Some otlicial
writers," and others friendly to the government of
India, have argued that there has in fact been no
increase in the consumption in India of intoxicating
li(|Uois, and that the increase shown bv statistics is
only the result of the sujipre-ssion of illicit distilla-
tion. It is, however, obvious that, in face of the
strong opinion which exists uiion the subject in
India and in the House of Commons, government
will have to take steps to check that consumption
of strong drink which is obnoxious to the religious
views of most of the Indian people. See Lli'liNsiNG
L.\W.S, GOTHENHURO. TEMPER.ANCK.
Lira (Lat. libra )■ See Fr.-VNC.
Lil*ia< a town of Spain, stands on a fertile plain
14 miles NW. of Valencia. Pop. 9445.
Lii-iodciulrou. See Titlip-trkk.
Lisbon (I'ort. IJshmt), cajiital of Portugal,
stands on tlie northern shore ol the Tagus ( 7V7»),
.•it the slioulder of its bottle-shaped bay— an expan-
sion of the river — and 9 miles from the river's
mouth; it is 41'2 miles liy rail WSW. of Madrid.
The city extends for some 7 miles along the shore,
and climbs up the slopes of a low range of hills,
occupying a site which for imposing beauty is
LISBOX
LISKEARD
651
surpa-sseil by only two other cities in Europe —
Constantinople and Naples. The oldest part of
Lisbon is tliat whioh escaped the earthquake of
1755; it lies on the east, round the citadel, and
consists of narrow, intricate streets, not over clean.
It is still known by its Moorish name of Alfania.
The western portions were Iiuilt after the eartli-
quake, with wide and regular streets, fine squares,
and good houses. The sunnuits are nu)stly crowned
with what were formerly large montusteries, now
dissolved. The cathedral of the ' patriarch,' built
in 1147, restored after 1755, has a Gothic facade
and choir; its interior is gloomy. The large
church of St Vincent contains the tombs of the
royal (Braganz.i) family. The church of Estrella
has a dome of white marble, and is a reduced
copy of St Peter's at Rome. In San Eoque
is a chapel thickly encrusted with mosaics and
costly marbles ; it was first erected in Rome, and
consecrated by the po])e saying mass in it, before
it was set up in Lisbon. But the linest structure
in the city is the mona-stery and church of Uelem,
a monument to the great seamen of Portugal ; it
was begun in 1500 on the spot from which Vasco
da Gaiua emliarked ( 1497 ) on his momentous
voyage. It is constructed for the most ]iart in the
Gothic style, with an abundance — a superabund-
ance— of decorative ornament, and has magnificent
cloisters. Inside the church aie new tombs ( ISSO )
to Camoens and Vasco da Gama, and the grave of
Catharine, wife of Charles II. of England. The
monastery is now used as an orphanage and found-
ling hos])ital. Neither of the royal palaces, that
of the Necessities, or that of Ajuda at Beleni,
possesses features of great interest. A fine S(piare
facing the bay is sunounded with government
offices, the handsome custom-house, and the marine
arsenal. The arts and sciences are not in a
flourishing condition, notwithstanding the exist-
ence of an academy of sciences (1779), with a
library of 60,000 vols., an academy of arts, a
polytechnic school (chiefly fen- the technical
branches of the army ), .a medical school, a con-
servatory of mnsic, a pulilic library of 200,000 vols.
and 9500 M.SS., natural history and other museums,
two observatories, &c. There are also a military
arsenal, a mint, a large lazaretto, a military and
a naval .school, &c. A magnificent aqueduct,
completed in 1738, brings water to the city from
springs 14 miles to the north-west. It withstood
the shock of the great earthquake, although it
crosses a valley 263 feet above its lowest point,
and on thirty-five arches, the longest 110 feet.
In the cemetery of the English church Fielding
was buried in 1754. The population of the city
■Wixs 246,.S43 in 1S78; but the munici]ial boundaries
were enlarged in 18S5 so as to include Belem
and other suburbs, and in ISOl the po]inlation Mas
308,700. The figures quoted include :j5,000 Gallegos
or natives of Galicia, \\ ho serve as water-carrieis,
j.ortei-s, &e. A series of forts protect the seaward
approaches to the city. The harbour is one of the
finest in the woild, lieep, well sheltered, and large
enough to hold all the n.tvies of Europe. Never-
theless, in 1890 1900, the government were sjiending
£2,400,00(1 in improving the port, which is entered
annually by 2.")00 to .3000 vessels of about 2,000,000
tons burilen (of which 50 i)er cent, is Biitish), im-
l>orting i>rincipally corn, cotton goods, sugar, fish,
coal, timber, tobacco, coffee, and petroleum lo a
value of between £5,(XK),000 and £(i. 000,(100 a
year. The exports, whose armual value mav be
£4.IMJ0.(P00, embrace wine, cork, fish, cattle, oil,
salt, anil fntit.s. Much ol the total trade is from
anil with the Portuguese colonies— such imjiorLs
as cocoa, colVee, andindia-nibber coming llience.
But the trade of Lisbon is small compared with
«•!,„. it wn,. ;., 1'.,.. r palmy days. The .share
what it was in I'orti
of the Portuguese in this trade is exceeded not only
by the share of Great Biitain, but by that of France
and that of tiermany. The nmst important indus-
tries of the city are in gold and silver wares and in
jewellery ; next come cotton-spinning and weaving,
the manufacture of silk, hemp, chemicals, hats,
boots, tobacco, soap, cutlery, and stoneware, and
iron founding.
Lisbon is a contriiction of Olisipo, the name by
which the place was known when it was the caiiital
of the Lusilanians ; it was also sometimes called
l'lyssi|ii)o, to connect it with a myth about Ulysses.
From the Romans it passed to the Goths, and from
them was wrested by the Moors in 71(i. They
called it El-Oslibuna, and kept their hold of it
down to 1147, when Alphonso I. of Portugal seized
it with the help of English, Gernum, and Flemish
crusaders. In J373 the city was captured and in
gre.at part burned l)y the Castilians, who again
laid siege to it eleven years later, bnt without
success. It w.xs made the capital of the kingdom
by John I. in 1422. In 1580 it was seized by Alva for
Philip II. of Spain ; and it Avas from this port that
the ' invincible ' Armada set sail. When the Duke
of Br.a^anza roused his countrymen to shake otl'the
Spanish yoke (1640), he recaptured Lisbon, and
once more it was made the capital. But the city
was doomed to misfortune : it had been three times
taken from the Moors by the Christians previous
to 1147, it had suffered from a severe earthquake in
1344, and had been visited by the plague in 1.348;
but the greatest disaster overtook it on 1st Novem-
ber 1755, when, in less than ten minutes, the
greater part of the city was made a heap of ruins,
from .30,000 to 40,000 persons were killed, and
damage done to the extent of nearly 20 millions
sterling — one of the greatest earthquake convul-
sions on record, the shock being jierceptilde in one
direction as far as Scotland, in another at Mitylene
in Asia Jlinor, .and in a third at Fez in Morocco.
The French were in possession of the city for ten
months during 1S07-8. The tale of Lisbon's mis-
fortunes Avas completed by a series of milit.ary
revolts during the second quarter of the 19th
century, especially in 1831, and by a bad attack
of yellow fever in 1859. St Antony of Padua,
Camoens, and Pope John XXI. were natives of
Lisbon. See Macedo, Guide to Lisbon (1875).
Lisbliru, a market-town, partly in Antrim,
partly in Down, on the Lagan, 93 miles by rail N.
by E. of Dublin and 8 SW. of Belfast. The im-
port.-mce of tlie place is due to the Conway family,
who liuilt a castle here in the time of Charles I.
and introduced the existing industries. It is a
clean and well-ordered town, and manufactures
linens, damasks, muslins, &c., and has flax-spin-
ning and lileaching. Its parish church is the
cathedral of Down, Connor, and Dromore, and con-
tains a nu)numcnt to Bishoj) Jeremy Taylor, who
died here in l()(i7. Till 1885 Lishnrn retuiiicd one
member to parliament. Pop. (1851) 6569; (1881)
10,755; (1891) 12,2.'>0.
LisieilX (ancient Aoriomar/us Lexovioiiim), a
town in the French department of Calvados, .30
miles by rail E. by S. of Caen. In the church of
St Pierre (1045-1233; a cathedral down to 1801),
Henry II. of England married (1152) Eleanor of
(inienne. Lisieiix is the centre of an extensive
m;iiiufacture of coarse linens {crcioiDic.i. from the
original maker), woollens, flannels, cottons, \c.
Pop. ( 1872) 12,520 : ( 1891 ) 16,260. Four miles dis-
tant is Val Richer, where stood the abbey of which
Thomas Bccket was first abbot, and the ruins of
which were made into a summer residence for
Guizot.
Liskenrd, a municipal borough in Cornwall,
stands on steep hills oveilooking the Looe, 18 miles
6.52
LISLE
\VX\V. of Plymouth. It has manufactures of
leather and iron, and a lively trade with the neij,di-
bourini; mines. St Martin's oluirch, Perpendicular
in style, and restored in 1879, is one of the largest
in Cornwall, and has a tower of the 14th century.
The town-hall (18.59) is a good Italian building.
A stannary or coinage town, Liskeard was made a
free borough in 1250 by Richard, king of the
Konians, wlio built a castle here. Till 18.32 it
returned two ineinbei-s ( Coke and Gibbon the most
illustrious), and then till 1885 one member. Pop.
( 1851 ) 4380 ; ( 1881 ) 4531) : ( 1891 ) 3984. Two miles
.south is the spring of St Keyne (q.v.). See Allen's
Hi'sfori/ of L hi card { 1856).
Lisle* Alicia, the aged widow of one of Crom.
well's lords, was beheaded at Winchester on 2(1
September 1685 for having sheltered one Nelthrop,
a rebel fugitive from Sedgeraoor. Thirty-six years
before, at Charles I.'s execution, she had said that
her ' blood leaped within her to see the tyrant fall.'
Lisle. See KotGET DE Lisle.
Lisinore, a town on the Blackwater, in Ireland,
in the two coiinties of Cork and AVaterford, and
43 miles SW. of Waterford city. Tlie cathedral,
the jiarish church since the see was united to
Casliel, was rebuilt in 1663, on the site of a monas-
tery founded before 540, and a celebrated school
of learning from 635 till its destruction by the
Danes in 833. The castle, originally founded by
John Lackland in 1185, was the residence of the
bishops till the 16th century. In 1587 it wiis given
to Sir W. Raleigh, who sold it to the ' great ' Earl
of Cork, and in it his son, Robert Boyle (q.v.),
was born. It was twice besieged during the Great
Rebellion, and on the second occasion (1645) it
yielded to the parliamentary forces. In 1753 it
passed to the Duke of Devonshire. Lismore
returned tw'o members from Charles I.'s reign to
the Union. Pop. 1660.
Lismore (Gael., 'great garden'), an island of
Lorn, Argyllshire, in Loch Linnlie, 1 furlong from
thejnainland, and 8 miles N. of Oban. It rises to
417 feet, and is lOA miles long, IJ mile broad, and
6014 acres in area. Besides a lighthouse (1833), it
contains several interesting remains — the choir of
the cathedral ( 1236) of the pre- Reformation diocese
of Lismore or Argyll (since 1749 used as the parish
church); Achanduin Castle, the residence of the
bishops ; and Castle-Rachal, a Scandinavian fort.
Pop. ( 1831) 1790; (1891) 561, mostly Gaelic speak-
ing. See also G.\eltc L.vsgu.vge.
LiSSa ( Pol. LeszHO ), a town of Prussia, 40 miles
S. by W. of Posen, was during the 16tli and 17th
centuries the headr|uarters of the Bohemian Brethren
in Poland ; here were their most celebrated school,
a seminary, a printing-oflice, and their archives.
The town grew u[) round a colony of that sect, to
whom the Leszczynski family afforded an asylum
early in the 16th century. It wa.s burneil by the
Poles in 16.56, and again by the Ru.ssians in 1707 ;
but is now a jilaee of ( 1890) 13,116 inhabitants.
Li.SSSl, an island of Dalmatia, in the Adriatic
Sea, 32 miles SW. of Spalato. It has an area of
40 sq. m., is mountainous, grows good wine and
olive-oil, and has 7871 inbaliitants — 4317 at the
capital, Lissa. The island was held by Great
Britain from 1810 to 1815. OH' it the Italian lleet
was defeated bv the Austrians under TegetthoH'on
•iOth July lS(i6." See T.VCTICS (NaVAL).
Lissajoiis' Figures. See Solxd.
Lister. Joskpii, Loud (ere. 1897), P.R.S.
(from 1895), kniglit of the Prussian order 1' our If
Md'itc anil of other foreign orders, was born at
I'pton, Essex, 5th April 1827, the son of the
micifwcopist .loseph J. Lister, F.R.S. (1786-1869).
He graduated at London University in arts (1847)
LISZT
and medicine (1852), and became a Fellow of the
Royal College of Surgeons, England, in 1852, and
of the Royal College of Surgeons, Edinburgh, in
1855. He was successively assistant-surgeon and
lecturer on surgeiy, Eilinburgh : regius luofessor
of Surgery-, Gla.sgow; professor of Clinical Surgery,
Edinburgh ; professor of Clinical Surgery, King's
College Hospital, Loudon (1877); and was maile
surgeon extra-ordinary to the (jueen. In aildition
to important observations on the coagulation of the
blood, the early stages of intlanimation, and other
matters, his great work has been the introiUiction
of what is known a-s the Antiseptic (q.v.) .system
of surgery. This system and the tlieory upon
which it is based are now almost universally
accepted ; and their acceptance has in great
measure revolutionised modern surgery, removing
some of its most serious ilangers, and thus greatly
widening its field of usefulness. Lister has been
awarded many foreign honours, and received the
medal of the Royal Society in 1880, the prize of
the Academy of'Paris in 1881. He is LL.D. of
Glas;
ow, and Cambridge, and D.C.L.
has written various papers and
Edinliurgh
of Oxford; anc
lectures. He was made a baronet in 1883.
Listoil. John (1776-1846), low comedian,
played from 1805 to 1837 at the Haymarket, Drmy
Lane, and the Olympic. ' Paul Pry ' ( 1825 ) was his
most popular creation. See H. B. Baker, Our Old
Actors (new ed. 1881).
Liston. Robert, a celebrated surgeon, was
born at Ecclesniachan manse, near Linlithgow, in
1794. He studied at Edinburgh .and London,
and settled in Edinburgh in 1818 as lecturer on
surgery and anatomy. His surgical skill, and
the rapidity with which his operations were
performed, soon acquired for him a European
reputation ; and in 1835 he accepted the invita-
tion of the council of I'niversity College, Lomlon,
to till the chair of Clinical Surgery. He soon
acquired a large London practice; in 1840 be was
elected a member of the council of the College of
Surgeons ; and in 1846 he became one of the Board
of Examiners. In the veiy climax of his fame,
he died 7th December 1847. His most important
works are Elements of Suri/cri/ ( 1831 ) and Pmctieal
Surgery (1837). His uiicontrollable temper and
strong language involved him in various (piarrels
with his profession.al brethren, yet he always suc-
ceeded in obtaining the regard and esteem of his
pupils.
Liszt. Fr.\nz, pianist and composer, was born
at Raiding, in a Germ;iii-si)eakiiig district of
Hungary, on October 22, 1811. His father, Adani
Liszt, steward of Prince Esterhazy's estates, luul
himself musical gifts, and guided the precocious
talents of his son with great judgment. At the
age of nine Franz played in i)iil)lic at Oedenlmrg,
and afterwards ;it Presbiirg. when several Hun-
garian noblemen offered the means for liLs educ.it ion,
and he was taken to Vienna, where he studied
under Czerny and Salieri. On Decemlier 1, 1822, he
appeared at a concert there, and the audience were
in raiitures with his playing; April 13, 1823, was
the date of a memorable concert, after which
Beethoven ascended the plallorm and kissed the
boy — a reminiscence to which he always alluded
with veneration. He proceeded to Paris, and,
though admittance to the ('(m.servatoire wits denied
by the inllexible Cherubini, he continued his
studies under Paer and Reicha. " He soon became
a favourite in Paris salons, and made a tour to
Vienna, Munich, Stuttg.irt. and Strasburg, with
unmistakable success. He visited England thrice
in 1824-27. but met with scarcely so much apiuecia-
tion. In 1827 his father died, ami he entered on a
He was repelled by the
LISZT
LITANY
653
then low estate of musical art and artists, and his
stronj; religious feelintjs drew him towards tlie
church. He was also fascinated by Saint Sinion-
ianism, and at intervals the attractions of the
world influenced him strongly. In 18.S1 he heard
Paganini, and was lired by the resolve, which he
carried to triumphant issue, to become the Paga-
nini of the pianoforte. He became intimate with
most of the great /ittfrateiirs then in Paris, more
especially with Lamennais, Lamartine, Victor
Hugo, and Geor™ Sand, who exercised a marked
influence upon liim, as did also Chopin. From
1835 to 1845 dates his relationshi]) with the
Countess d"Agoult (q.v. ), known in literature as
Daniel Stern, who bore him three children, one
of whom, Cosima, became the wife of Von Billow,
and subsequently of Kichard ^Vaguer. The
enthusiasm which his playing e.xcited in Paris, as
elsewhere, has been graphically depicted by Heine.
In 1849, at the height of j)opularity, he retired to
AVeimar to diiect tlie opera and concerts, and to
devote his time largely to composition and teach-
ing. Here he brouglit out remarkable works denied
a hearing elsewhere — e.g. Wagner's Lohengrin and
Berlioz's Bcnvetutfo Cellini; and the little town
became the centre of musical life in Germany.
Here, too, commenced the close relationship with,
and incalculable services rendered to, "Wagner.
In 1861 he resigned his appointment, and Ids life was
subsequently diviiled mainly between Weimar,
Rome, and Budapest, in which latter city he was in
1870 appointed president of the Academy of Music.
In 1865 he received minor orders in the Church of
Rome, and was afterwards known as Abbe. The
record of his visit to London in 1886 is that of a
triumphal progress. His influence was irresistible.
Passing through Paris, he travelled to Baireuth,
where, after attending several of the festival per-
formances, he was attacked by hopeless illness,
and breathed hLs last on July 31," 1886.
All things considered, he may be regarded as
at the time the foremost figure in the musical
world. As a pianist he was simply unapproach-
able ; he exercised a charm bordering on the
fabulous. HLs supreme command of technique was
forgotten by hearers in admiration of the poetic
qualities of his playing. That he Avas equally
unique as a teacher is amply evident from the en-
thusiastic veneration of his pupils, among whom
are many of the greatest living masters of the
pianoforte. His literary works on music, though
rather rhapsodical, are of real value ; they include
monographs on Chopin and Franz, and a volume
on the music of the (Jypsies. His influence in
bringing to a hearing some of the gi'eatest works of
other musicians was invaluable. As a composer
there is some difficulty as yet in properly estimating
his work. His transcriptions for the [)iano, at
leiist the livter ones, are universally considered the
finest ever made ; his Hungarian rhapsodies may
be deeme<l the highest reacli of this form of com-
position. His pianoforte works are of enormous
numlier, and not yet completely known. All his
original works have a very distinct, sometimes a
very strange individuality. He has the merit of
creating, in his twelve synirihonic poems, a new
form of orchestral music. Their most distinctive
features are the carrying out of a dehnite 'pro-
gramme,' and the VVagnerian use of the ieit-
viotiv, by which unitv is given to the whole i)iece.
One or two masses, the 'Legend of St Elizaoeth,'
and a few other works, embody his religious
a-spiratioiis, Avitli reverence for old forms. His
songs have a peculiar charm. As a man he
])Os.se.-i.sed a most striking personality, and exer-
cised a powerful fa-scination on all who came in
contact with him. To call his generosity princely
is to do houour to the title. The whole proceeds
of every one of his concerts subsequent to 1847,
which must have amounted to an enormous sum,
were devoted to the benefit of othere.
See his Letters ( trans. 1894 ) ; the Lives by Miss Ka-
mann (2 vols. I.eip. 1880-93, trans. 1882), Nohl (trans.
Chicago, 1884), M.irtin (1886), Uu Beaufort (1886), and
A. GoUerich ( Leip. 1888): the Eecolkctions (1888) of
iliss Janka AVohl ; and the Corre^yjondencef lS41-t>lt
betireen Ww/nfr and Liiszt (£ng. trans, by F. Hueffer, 2
vols. 1888)."
LitHIiy (Gr. litaneia, 'supplication'), a form
of prayer in which the same thing is repeated
several times at no long intervals. Hence in Latin
the word is always used in the plural, litaniw.
The common formula, Kijrie ctei.mn, Chriatc
cici.ion, Kyrie cleison — 'Lord, have mercy upon us
— Christ, have mercy upon us — Lord, have mercy
upon us' — is the simplest ('lesser') litany. The
word may be properly applied to the forms common
among the Eastern Christians at different points
during the celebration of the eucharist ( see LITURGY)
and other services, in which the deacon recites
a number of short supplications, and the jjeople
reply after each ' Kyric elcison.' This practice
formerly existed in the West at the commencement
of the liturg\- : it is still preserved in the Ambrosian
rite during Lent ; and the ninefold Kyric of the
Roman rite is merely a sun-iWng remnant of the
same thing, the responses having been presened,
although the prayers have been dropped. Owing
to the litany being a form of public prayer
specially adapted for and used in public processions,
the word litaneia has now obtained among the
Greeks the secondaiy and technical meaning of a
procession, and the word regularly applied by them
to the forms of united jjrayer conducted by the
deacon is ektene.
In the Latin churches the word litany is now
used to indicate a special service or form of suppli-
cation of medie\ al origin, in which, after the simple
Kijrie and the invocation of Christ and of the Holy
Trinity, follows a very long string of saints' names,
each followed by the response ' Pray for us ;' then
a series of clauses naming difl'erent evils, and a
series of adjurations based on events in the life of
Christ, both followed in every instance by the
response ' Deliver us, O Lord ; ' and next a series
of supplications, beginning ' That it may please
Thee,' to all of which the response is 'We beseech
Thee, hear us.' After this comes the triple invoca-
tion of Christ as the Lamb of God, tlie simple
Kyrie again, the Lord's Prayer, Psalm Ixx., a
series of pieces of an intercessory character, and a
very large number of prayers or collects. It may
be observed that in the medieval editions the
names of local saints are generally found mingled
with the others. According to the present Roman
nile the use of the litany is only absolutely
commanded upon the Monday, Tuesday, and
Wednesday before Ascension Day, when a \>\n
cession is made to implore a blessing tipon the
fniits of the earth, and which are thence called
Rogation (or 'asking') Days, and upon St Mark's
Day ( April 25 ), when a procession is made to pray
for public health during what is in the south an
unhealthy jiart of the year. The litany is, how-
ever, ordered ujion nearly every occasion of public
supplication, such as war, famine, pestilence, &c. ,
and is subject to great alterations, especially
after the Lord's Prayer, to meet the special
occasions. It is also used on all si)ecial occasions,
such as ordinations, consecrations, iSjc, with special
alterations, and, in an abridged form, before the
Mass on the eves of Ejuster ami Pentecost.
The form of the litany used by Anglicans i-.
a translation of the pro-Keformarion one, but
extremely free. The invocations of saints and the
psalm are entirely omitted. Its use is prescribed
654
LITCHI
LITHOGRAPHY
upon all SimJays, AVednesilays, and Fridays, when
it is used either as a special service or apneiuled to
morning prayer. It is also used at ordinations.
It does not possess the same elasticity as the
Roman for adaptation to ditl'erent occasions.
It may be worth adding that in the Latin
churches there are also two other litanies, the use
of which is permitted in jiuhlic worship, but which
do not fin-m any part of the church service. Both
begin like the' litany proper. The first is called
that of the Holy Name ( or sometimes ' of Jesus ' ).
In this the invocation of the Trinity is immediately
succeeded Ijy a lon^ series of invocations of Christ
under dili'erent titles (such as 'Jesus, Good
Shepherd,' 'Jesus, King of all the Saints'), with
the constant response ' Have mercy upon us.' The
other litany is called that of the Blessed Virgin
( or .sometimes 'of Loretto'). In it the invocation
of the Trinity is succeeded by a series of titles
addressed to the Blessed Virgin.
There are also a v.ast variety of other so-called
litanies, mostly of French origin, and generally
designed to invoke some particular saint under "a
string of complimentary epithets, on the model of
the litany of the Blessed Virgin. Their public use is
prohibited, and there is no more guarantee of tlieir
doctrinal soundness than may attach to the approval
of any bishop given to the book of prayers for per-
sonal use in which they may happen to'be found.
Litclli, or Lke-chee (Xephelium Li-tchi), one
of the most delicious fruits of China, Cochin-China,
and the Malay Archipel.igo. The tree which pro-
duces it belongs to the natural order Sapindacea?,
and has pinnate leaves. The fruit is of the size of
a small walnut, and grows in racemes. It is a red
or laeen berry, with a thin, tough, leathery, scaly
rind, and a colourless, semi-transparent pulp, in the
centre of which is one large dark-brown seed. The
pulp is slightly sweet, subacid, and verv grateful.
The Chinese preserve the fruit by drying, and in
the drieil state it is imported into Britain.
Literary Fund, Royal, was founded in 1790
by David Williams, an ex-dissenting minister, the
friend of Franklin, Mackintosh, &c., and was in-
corporated in 181S, its object being to relieve
literary men of all nations. In 1889 grants to the
amount of £'209.5 were made to forty authors.
From 1790 till 1889 a sum of £109,000 has been
thus distributed. The expenditure is met by the
subscriptions at the anniversary dirmer, and invest-
ments ; the income was £.3850 in 1889.
Litharge. See Lk.\ii.
LitllUfOW, AViLLl.v.M, Scottish traveller, was
born at Lanark in 1.58'i. He had already visited
the Shetlands, Bohemia, Switzerlaiul, \-c. , when,
in 1010, he set out from Paris, by way of Italy and
(ireece, to Palestine and Egypt, i)erforming most of
this and his subse<iuent journeys on foot. His
second tramp led him through North Africa from
Tunis to Fez and back, and home by way of Hun-
gary and Poland. In his third and last journey
( 1U19-'21 ) to Spain ciA Ireland, be was seized as a
spy at Malaga, tortured both by his jailers and by
in(|uisitors, and only released through the agency
of the English consul. After he returned to Lon-
don he became an object of commiseration to the
king and las court, (iondomar, the Spanish am-
bas.sadiir, promised him reparation, but contented
himself witli promising. So Lithgow assaulted, or
by another account was as.saulted by, him in the
king's ante-room, for which he was clapt into the
.Marshalsea. He died at Lanark, perhaps in 164.").
His enphuistic but most interesting liarc Ai/rcii-
turcx uiiil-Frtine/iil J'crii/i-iii(i/in>i)i was published in
a complete form in 1032 ( l'2th eel. 1814), though an
incomplete version came out in 1014. IJesides this
he wrote accounts of T/ie iSiegc of Breda (1637) and !
the Siec/e nf Newcastle ( 1645 ; new ed. 1820), i'oc;,,,-
(ed. by James MaidTneut, 186.3), and other works.
Lithic Acid. See Vmr Acni.—Lithir Acid
I)ti(tlicsis is the term enijiloyed in medicine to
designate the condition in which there is an excess
of lithic (or uric) acid, either free or in combina-
tion, or both, in the Urine (q.v.).
LitllillUI (.syni. Li: equiv. 70; sp. gr. 0-59:iG)
is the metallic base of the alkali lilliia, and derives
its name from the Greek word lithus, 'a stone.' It
was discovered by Arfvedson in 1817 in some
Swedish minerals; but since the introduction of
spectroscopic research it has been found to be
widely ])rescnt in many mineral waters, in the a.>h of
plants, Ac. The metal is of a white, silverv appear-
ance, and is much harder than .sodium or pota.ssium,
but softer than lead. It admits of being welded at
oidinary temperatures, and of being drawn out
into wire, which, however, is inferior in tenacity to
leaden wire. It fuses at 356° (180' C). It is' the
lightest of all known solids, its .specific gravity
being little more than half that of water ; it decom-
poses water at ordinaiy temperatures. It buins
with a brilliant light iii oxygen, chlorine, and the
vapours of iodine and bromine. It is easily reduced
from its chloride by means of a gahanic battery.
When lithium is burned in air it forms an oxide,
lithia, Li„0, along with a trace of a higher oxide.
This o.xide, when treated with water, yields a
hydrate, LiOH, having alkaline properties and
resembling soda and jiotash. Lithia forms a series
of salts (carbonate, chloride, citrate, &c.) analogous
to the potash and soda salts, and all of these, when
placed in the tlame of a Bun.sen burner and ex-
amined with the spectro.scope, show characteristic
red bands by which their presence can always be
asceitained.
In medicine the salts of lithia hold a high jdace
as solvents of uric acid. The carbonate an<l citrate
are used for this purpose, and are said to be much
more efficient in cases of gout and gravel than the
potash salts.
LitilOgraphy (Gr. llthos, 'a stone,' and
ijniji/ic/ii, 'to write'), the art of printing from
stone, and one of the most important of the repro-
ductive arts, was invented in 1796 by Aloys Sene-
fehler ( 1771-1834). In thatyeara piece of music—
Senefelder's first work— was piintcd from the stone,
and in 1800 he ])atented his invcnti(m in Bavaria,
most of the German states, and Austria. After-
wards he opened establishments in London and
Paris, Ijut did not succeed \cry well. The great
secrecy and jealousy with which the new art was
guarded by its patentees pre\ented progress being
made, and it was not till many years afterwards
that their complicated manipulation became suf-
ficiently simplified for the rapid advance which
tlien became possible. Senefelder, on whom the
king of Bavaria settled a iiensicm, lived to .see his
invention brought to complete perfection.
The principles on which lithography is founded
are ( 1 ) the strong adhesion of greasy substances
to calcareous stone ; (2) the atfinity of one greasy
body for another, and their antipathy to water";
(3) the facility with which calcareous stone imbibes
water. It follows that, if a greasy line be drawn
on a prepared stone, its adhcsicui' is such that it
can only be erased by entirely removing the surface
of the stone so far a,s the grease has |)enetrateii.
If water be i)Ut on the surface of the stone it
remains on those parts not covered with grea.se ; a
roller charged with greasy ink may then be passed
over the stone, the ink ailhcring' to the greased
portions, while the parts wet with water will repel
the ink and reniain clean. A iiicce of |i,iper jmt on
the stone, if pressure be applied, will receive an
imi)re»sion in ink of the greasy line. The covering
LITHOGRAPHY
Gj5
of tlie stoue witli a solution of gum-arabic (to be
afterwards described) is an almost indispensable
aid to the water in resistint; the ink.
There are various methods employed in litho-
{rniphy — drawing on stone with pen or brush with
liijuid ink ; ilrawing on paper, and transferring to
stone : engraving on stone ; drawing on stone with
crayons or solid ink, transferring from en;rrave<l
plates or woodcuts, &c. These ditter only in the
manner of api)lying the greased drawinjjs to the
surface of the stone. The printing from them is in
nearly all cases identical.
'The Stones. — The immense quarries of Solenhofen
in Bavaria furnish the best stones ; others of
inferior quality are obtained in France and Italy.
The stones are composed of lime, clay, and sili-
ceous earth, and are of various hues, from a
pale yellowish-white to a liglit butt', reddish, pearl-
gray, blue, and greenish colour. Tho.se of a vini-
form gray colour are the best. They are found in
beds, commencing with Layers of the thickness <>t
paper : the thickness required for printing-stones
i)eing from alxiut 2 to 4 or 5 inches. When in
the quarry they are soft and easily cut to any
required size. They are afterwards ground face to
face with sand and water, and when quite level
polished with pumice-stone, and tinally with
smooth polishing stoue. Sheets of zinc faced A\-ith
thin coatings of artificial stone have been intro-
duced, Init not as yet with nuich success.
The writing and drawing inks and crayons
are composed of lard, hard soap, wliite wax,
shell-lac, Venetian turpentine, carbonate of soda,
and Paris black. The proportions used and the
methods of manufacture vary considerably. All
descriptions can be purchased ready prepared.
The greasy ingredients are the important parts ;
the black is only added to enable the artist to see
the effect he is producing as he goes on.
Writing or drawintf on stoue is performed with a
fine pen or brush, or a niling pen lor straight lines.
The ink is rubbed down witn a little water and
under gentle heat, in the same manner as China ink,
and the subject may be traced as for a drawing
on paper. Great care is necessary in handling the
stone, as its affinity for grease is so keen that a
finger-mark would develop into a black blot in
printing. When the drawing is finished it is
covered over with a solution of gum-arabic in
water. This gumming fills up the pores of the
st(me on the undrawn parts, and prevents the
greasy lines of the drawing from spreading. The
stone is then removed to tlie printing-press and
prepared for printing. The giim is fii-st washed oH'
with clean water, enough remaining in the pores of
the stone, however, to assist the water to resist
the ink in the subsequent printing. The stone is
then damped with a canvas cloth, and a roller
(made of wood or iron, covered with one or two
thicknesses of llannel and an outer covering of fine
leather) charged with printing-ink is passed over
the stone till ever}' part of the drawing is thoroughly
inked. Any accidental grease or finger-marks will
now become vLsible, and must be removed with
acid, scraping with a knife, or ])olishing with
polishing stone. When the drawing is made satis-
factory the stone Ls washed over with a weak
.solution of nitric acid in gum-water. This etching,
as it is called, is a very important operation. If
applied too strong the acid would remove the draw-
ing completely from the stone ; but when diluted to
the pr(ii>er strength it gently eats away the surface
of tlie bare parts of the stone, opening up the pores
fur the better ri<'e|>tion of the gum to be afterwards
applied, thoroughly cleans it from greiusesoils, and
sliar|)ens the lines of the drawing. When the
stone is sntficiently etched the .acid is washed oil'
a!id another coating of jrniii .ipplied : when this is
dry it is again washed oft", and, usually, to clean
the stone from the dmwing-ink, the surface is
washed with turpentine. For all that can be now
seen on the stone the work is quite lost ; but it
is only the black ink that is washed oil': the grease
lines are in the stone, wliich is all that is necessary.
The stone is now damjicd with a cloth and inked
with a roller till all the drawing is black again : a
piece of paper is placed on the top, passed through
the press, and when taken oil' has received an
impression of the drawing. The damiiing and
inking is repeated for every impression, and when
the stone is put away or left for a time it is, for
preservation, covered with the indispensable gum,
which is again washed off when printing is resumed.
The ink for black printing is composed of Paris
black, ground up with varnish made from boiled
linseed-oil.
Writings and drawings made on prepared paper
and transfeiTcd to stone for printing are, perliaps,
the most important items in general litliograpliic
work. The transfer paper is prepared on one side
with a coating of isinglass, Hake-white, and gam-
boge, and afterwards smoothed by passing several
times through a press over a heated stone. The
writing or drawing is made on this preparation with
a pen or fine bnish with the lithographic transfer
ink, and when finished is transferred to the stone
in the following manner. The paper is put for a
few minutes between ilamped blotting-paper. A
warmed polished stone is put in the press, the
paper is placed with the coated side upon it, and
passed several times through the press, after which
the paper is damped with water and gently rubbed
with the fingers till it comes easily off, leaving the
drawing adliering to the stone. The stone is
gummed over and proceeded with as already
described. After the first inking-up, and before
etcliinw, any defects in the transfer can be touched
up witli a pen or brush. In France and some other
countries this cla.ss of work, however, is generally
either directly drawn or engraved on the stone.
Fresh impressions of lithographs, of engravings
on wood, steel, or copper, and of letterpress may be
transferred to and printed from the stone by the
above process, the paper used being prepared with
a special composition, and the ink a mixture of the
writing and priming inks. Many subjects, such
as music titles, \c., are engraved cheaply on zinc,
e.vpressly to be transferred to stone. When the
design is small and required in large numbers, it
may be transferred many times on one stone,
and many printed on one sheet of paper at every
impre.ssion.
Engraving on stone, so called, is another method
of putting a drawing on stone, and is as follows.
A polished stone is covered with a coating of gum
slightly coloured ; this is afterwards roughly
washed off, leaving only a very thin film of the
gum, wliich can be easily cut thnmgh. On this
ground the drawing is executed with etching-jioints
of diamond and steel of various breadths, exactly
its in etching, the surface of the stone being cut
through the gum in making the lines. When the
drawing is finished any greasy matter is rubbed into
the lines and allowed to remain an hour or two till
the stone has imbibed enough at the lines. The
gum is then washed oil', and the stone damped and
inked and proceeded with as above, except that
engraved stones are generally inked with a dauber
— i.e. a i)iece of wood covered with one or two
pieces of llannel, with which the ink is nilibed into
the lines.
The following modification of this process is very
useful when a photograph or ilrawmg has to be
copied in line for the stone. A thin sheet of
gelatine is placed over the subject to be copieil,
and, it being transparent, a careful ilrawing nmy
656
LITHOGRAPHY
LITHOMARGE
be made on it with etching-points. M'hen linisheil,
lithogiapliic ink is rubbed into tlie lines and the
fielatine placed on the stone and the drawing'
transferred by passing tlirougli the press. The
weak point of tliis process is that the gehitine
is apt to warp on the stone and spoil the transfer ;
in which case the drawing is lost.
Clwll;-iliaivi>i{is were, before the invention of the
steam lithographic press, and still on rare occasions
are, drawn on grained stones. The giain, coaree or
line as required, is imparted to the stone by grind-
ing with sand of varying degrees of fineness. The
drawing is made on the stone with lithographic
crayons in the same manner a-s the ordinary draw-
ing clialUs on ordinary crayon-paper; when linished
it is proceeded with as before. Very beautiful
work can be jiroduced in this way ; bnt as, owing
to various causes which are too technical for mir
space, the grained stone cannot be printed at the
steam-machine, and hand-press printing is too ex-
jiensive for modern requirements, such woik is now
almost invariably executed by the f/raiticd-pupcr
process. A sheet of copper or other metal is
grained on the surface by aijuatint, stipple, or
ruling-machine ; paper, coated with a white trans-
ferring ground, is passed tlirough a press on the
face of the prepared plate, becomes impressed
with the grain, and may be drawn on with litho-
graphic chalks in the same way as a grained
stone. This drawing is transferred to a Jfat or
polished stone in the same manner as writing or
pen drawing, and printed in any lithograi)hic ])ress.
Very good work is produced by this process, l)ut the
result of the somewhat artificial grain of the copper-
jilate is inferior to the beautiful grain of the
ground stone. In the United States drawings are
made on grained stones and impressions trans-
ferred to Hat stones for printing ; but this process
has not found much fa\'our in Great Britain.
Photo- lil/io(/r(iph)j Is a very useful method of re-
])roducing in any size, for stone printing, exist-
ing drawings, such as architects' plans, maps, &c.
A photo-negative of the required size is taken
from the drawin" to be reproduced, and is exiioscd
to light over a tliin film of bichromatised gelatine
on paper. The paper, after being soaked in water,
which takes out the bichromate unaltered by the
liglit, is stretched on a sheet of glass and carefully
inked with a velvet roller. The ink only adheres
to the ])arts rendered insoluble by the light, anil
which have remaineil dry during the soaking, and
leaves the solulile parts, which are wet, quite clean.
This is transferred to stone in the ordinary manner.
C'hro»ii>ltt/ioi/rap/ii/ in the most beautiful of all
the methods of printing from stone. The object
V>cing to produce, as nearly as possible, fac-siiniles
of pictures in colour, it is necessary to emi)loy a
number of stones, in some eases as many as twenty
or thirty, each jjrinting a sei)arate tint, to i)rodnce
tlie inlinile variety of colovir in a finished colour-
dr.awiiig. The usual method of piocedure is as
follows. A careful outline of the entire design is
drawn on, or transferred to, a stone ; from this,
called the /:ci/, as many copies are printed as there
are colour-stones required. These impressions are
dusted with dry blatd; or raddle, and, being .set olf
on the colour-stones, form guides to the artist in
drawing in the various colours ; after which the
key lines can be wa-shed away with water. On one
of the.se stones the general etl'ect of the picture is
sometimes drawn, and this, printed in a neutral
gray, forms the basis of the linished print. The
other stones ar(! drawn separately to corrcsjiond
with the ditl'erent colours required to produce the
neces.sary ell'ect. It will be easily understood that
in arranging the various colouis with their varying
degrees of de|)th on the ililVerent stones, the projjer
amount of force to be given to each, and the elVecl
likely to be produced by printing one tint over
another, have to be considered, and gi\e scope
for a great deal of professional skill. There are
many difl'erent methods of drawing the tints on the
stone which are too technical for our limits. The
finest work is done by stipple, drawn by hand with
a line brush, a method in which French and
German artists on stone are very skilful. The
colour stones are printed in the manner already
described, except tnat coloured inks are used in-
stead of black. The ditVerent colours, varying in
number from imir or five to twenty or thirty, being
printed by separate impressions on the same ])aper,
it is obvious that great care is neces.sarv to see that
every impression is exactly fitted to the others, or
exactly registered, as it is called. Several mechani-
cal appliances are used to secure this exactness.
When the necessary number of impressions have
been printed and the stone has to be cleaned for
another subject, tlie surface must be laboriously
polisheil down till every vestige of grease is re-
moved.
Such is a brief outline of the difl'erent methods
employed in lithography, Imt each method is cajiable
of infinite number of variations in the hands of
ditt'erent operators.
Lit/iof/rapliic presses vary as much in constrncliim
as those for the letterpress. The hand-pres- is
very simple. The stone is placed on a movable
table, and a tympan, an iron frame covered with
leather, folds down over the paper when placed
on the stone. It is then rolled under the srnijjcr,
generally a piece of boxwood fixed in an upright,
which ap])lies the pressure. The damping and ink-
ing are done by hand.
The first self-acting lithographic machine, intro-
duced into Britain by Sicliel of Berlin and Vienna,
failed from the fact that it was constructe<l, like
the hand-press, with a scraper arrangement for the
impression. This produced too much friction,
rendering speed dangerous, and work dillicult to
keep on the stone ; and it was not till about IStiO
that the machine as at present in use, with a
cylinder for the pressure, was introduced from
France. It is somewhat an adaptation of the
letterpress single-cylinder machine ( see PRlNTlN<i ),
and a very Ijrief description will suffice. The
stone is placed on a movable bed, which can be
raised or lowered according to the thickness of the
stone. The sheet is fed in at the top of the
cylinder, whence a gri|qier arrangement leads it
over the stone. At one end are the dampins;-
rollers, which are covered with some soft absorb-
ent fabric ; and at the other the inking-rollers,
covered with the finest French leather, with ink-
ing-tablo, duct, and distributors. The stone passes
first under the dampers, then to the inking-rollei's,
thence back to the cylinder to print the imjiression,
and so on ad infinitHm.
Zincography, the invention of Klierliard ot
Bavaria, is an application of lithography to zinc
plates instead of stones, with some necessary
modification of the etching and i)rinting. Its only
advantage is in connection with very large subjects,
as the zinc is more portable and le.ss liable to
Ijreakage than stone.
See G. A. Audsley, Chronw-lithoiirafthii, a popular
treatise (44 plates), and W. D. Richmond, TluOramm<ir
of Lithoyraphii and Colour and Colour Prinlimj us
applied to Lithoyraphy (6th ed. 1887), both in Wyinan's
Tcchn. Scrii'S.
Litholosy (llthos, 'a stone') is a name some-
times used for that division of geology which con-
siders the constitution and structure of rocks, apart
from their relations in time or position to each
other. See (ii;c)l.oGY.
liitlioiliar;;!'. an earthy or elay-like mineral
substance, sometimes called Mountain . Morrow
1
LITHOPHAGID^
LITHUANIA
657
(Ger. Steinmarl-), consisting chietly of silica and
alumina, with oxiile of iron and various colouring
substances, derived from tlie decomposition of
various minerals. It is soft, greasy to the toucli,
and adheres stnmgly to the tongue. It is generally
white, yellow, or red, often exhibiting very beauti-
ful colours. It is found in (ieriiiauy, Russia, &c.,
also in the tin-mines of Redruth in Cornwall.
LitllOI>lias:i<l:C (Gr., 'stone-eaters'), a term
sometimes applied to the molluscs which bore holes
for their own residence in rocks. See BORIXG-
ANI.M.VLS.
Lithotomy (Gr. Utfios, 'a stone;' tome, 'the
act of cutting '), the teclinical name for the surgical
operation popularly called cutting for the stone.
As most of the symptoms of stone in the bladder
( which are noticed in tlie article C.^LClLf.s ) may be
simulated by other diseases of the bladder and
adjacent parts, it is necessary to have additional
evidence regarding the true nature of the case
before resorting to so serious an operation as
litliotomy. This evidence is aflorded hy munding
the patient — a simple preliminary operation, which
Consists in introducing into the bladder, through
the natural urinary passage ( the urethra), a metallic
instrument, by means of which the stone Ciin be
plainly felt and heard.
Lithotomy has been performed in various ways at
difterent times, both in the perineum and above
the pnbes. The earliest form of lithotomy is
known as cutting on the gripe, or Cehus's method.
It received the former name from the stone, after
being tixed by the pressure of the fingers in the
anus, being directly cut tipon and extracted. The
Marian method, founded on the erroneous idea that
membranous parts would not heal after incision,
while their dilatation Wiis comparatively harmless,
was the operation mainly in vogue "for nearly
200 years, till Frere Jacijues introduced what is
essentially the method now in use. Cheselden
(1727) and Liston in the first half of the 19th cen-
turj- perhaps most deserve mention among the
many surgeons who have subsequently improved
upon the original operation.
The lateral operation, so called from the lateral
direction in wliich the incision is made into the
skin of the perineum and the neck of the bladder,
in order to avoid wounding the rectum, is tliat
which, with various minor modifications, is gener-
ally employed at the present day. Frcre Jacques
seems to have devised the method and to have
practised it with much success; and in 1702 he
I)ublished a description of it. The advantage of
this operation, by which a free opening, sufficiently
large for the extraction of all but verj' large stones,
can be maile into the bladder Avithout laceration of
the parts or injury- to the rectum, was immediately
recognised by the leading surgeons of the time, and
the Marian process was at once universally given
up. Other varieties of the perineal operation are
termed median, bilateral, &c.
The suprapubic or high operation was first per-
formed by Pierre Franco in 1561, and has occa-
sionally been employed ever since. It has recently
been proposed by some surgeons to use it in pre-
ference to perineal lithotomy in the majority of
cases ; but it Ls generally reserved for stones of
large size which cannot be crushed and are difficult
to remove through the outlet of the pelvis.
From the shortness of the female urethra and tlie
extent to which it can \x; dilated, and, ailditionally,
from the comparative rarity of calculous atl'ections
in women, the operation of lithotomy is seldom
reqiiireil in the female sex.
The danger of the operation increases with the
age of the patient. Statistics of 1827 cases of
lateral lithotomy in England, collected bv Sir
302
Henry Thomson, show a mortality gradually rising
from 5-7 per cent, in the patients under twelve
years of age to more than 31 jier cent, in those over
seventy. The more general adojition of lithotrity
has greatly diminished the number of cases in
which lithotomy has to be resorted to.
Lithotrity ( Gr. , ' stone-crushing ' ), the surgical
operation of breaking up a stone in the bladder into
such small fragments that they may readily be
expelled by tlie urethra. Although the importance
of such an operation has been recognised from the
earliest time, a Frenoli surgeon, Civiale, who com-
menced his researches in I.S17. but did not perform
his first operation till 1824, may be regarded as the
discoverer of lithotrity. The instrument by which
the disintegiatiou of the stone is eflected is intro-
duced in the same manner as a catheter or sound
into the bladder, and, after catching the stone,
either bores, hammers, or crushes it to pieces. The
stone is grasped by the blades of such
an instrument as that shown in the figure,
auu tlie blades are then forcibly approxi-
mated to each other by means of a screw.
The various fragments are gradually
broken down in the same way till tliev
are small enough to be discharged througli
a catheter introduced for the purpose.
Since the operation was first intro-
duced, the instruments employed both
for crushing the stone and for evacuating
its fiagments have gradually been im-
proved ; and experience has shown that
this method is capable of superseding
lithotomy in the adult in the vast
majority of cases where an operation for
stone is necessaiy.
It used to be considered advisable in
the case of all but very small stones to
crush and remove only a portion of the
calculus at one time. To Bigelow of
New York belongs the credit of recom-
mending (in 1878) the method now
adopted by almost all surgeons. He
gave it the name of /itholapa.ii/ ( ' stone-
evacuati(m'), but it only ditTers from lithotrity in
that the procedure is completed at one sitting.
This improvement was an outcome of the teaching
of Otis of New Vork, who found it possible to
introduce instruments of larger size, and therefore
more effective than had been previously considered
safe.
In adults the only conditions which generally
make lithotrity unadvisahle are 'extreme size, with
hardiie.»s of structure in the calculus it.self, and
conlirmed narrowness or other obstruction in the
urinary passages, rendining the employment of
adequate instruments impossible' (Sir 11. Thom-
son). In chiUlren the risk attending lithotomy
is much less than in adults ; but the ditticulties of
lithotrity, in consequence of the small size of the
uretlira, are much greater : in boys, therefore, tlie
former operation is still generally preferred, except
in the case of very small stones.
Lithuania, a former giand-duchy of Europe,
conqiosed of three groups of territory : ( 1 ) Lithuania
projier, or Lilva, corresponding to the modern
Ru.ssian government of \ilna, with Troki ; (2) the
duchy of Samoghitia ; (3) Rus.sian Lithuania, com-
prising I'olesia, HIack Russia or Novogrodok, White
Russia or .Minsk, .Mcislav, Vitebsk. Smolensk,
Plotsk, and Polish I.ivonia. But in the loth cen-
turj- Lithuania extended as far south as Oiles.sa and
the .Sea of Azov, and as far east as the river Moskva.
The Lithuanians, a race to whom belong the Letts
(q.v.) of Livonia, the Cours of Courland, and the
BonLssians or ancient inhabitants of East Prussia,
constitute one of the main divisions of the Indo-
658
LITMUS
LITTORAL DEPOSITS
Europeiin stock ; to them are sometimes added the
Yatvyags or yadz\ iiijrs, who dwelt on the upper
tributaries of the 15uy and Niciiien, thus making
about 3i millions in all. The .Iniiuls, 700,000 in
number, are a branch of the Lilhuauians proper.
The Lithuanian tongue is spoken liy about IJ
million ; in some respects it conies nearer Sanskrit
than any other Aryan language, though it contains
a strong" admixture of Slavonic words. Along with
Lettish and the extinct Old l^russian it constitutes
the Baltic family of the Aryan branch of languages.
Owing to its many archaic forms and the early
stage of its development, it possesses wi-eat value for
students of comparative philology. The literature
is exceptionally ricli in poetry, popular tales, &c.
The poetry is frecpiently full of the very breath of
nature. See works by Schleiclier (18.54 to 1S76)
and Bezzenberger (1S77 and 1882), and collections
of songs by Kliesa and Ivui-schat ( ISl,"! ), Nesselmann
(1853), Brugmann and Leskien (1882); Vecken-
stedt's Mi/t/icii, Sar/eii, &c. (1883); Ch. Bartsch,
Litauischc Mclodien ('Z parts, 1887-90). A Lithu-
anian literary society was formed in Tilsit in 1879.
As a race the Lithuanians are fair and \\ell
built, with fine features and Ijlue eyes. They have
strong religious temperaments, and, though they
belong to the Roman Catholic an<l Greek Catholic
churches, they cling tenaciously to heathen re-
miniscences and customs. They have l>een kept
in a state little superior to serfdom by German and
Polish landowners, but since 1803 the Russians
have allowed them to become, to some extent,
ownei~s of the soil. Agriculture, cattle-breeding,
and bee-keeping are the principal occupations.
The country they inhabit is covered with vast
primeval forests aiul with numerous marshes and
lakes. These circumstances have impressed traits
of peacefulness, melancholy, and loneliness, but at
the same time of sweetness, upon both the national
character and the national songs. For many cen-
turies woi-ship was performed in the forests, and
great oaks are still objects of religious veneration.
They have never had any towns, only \illages,
and have always relied for protection ujion the
dense forests and the extensive marshes. Nothing
authentic is known as to the history of this people
prior to the 13th century. The first jnince to gather
the scattered tribal chiefs around him was Ringold
(1230-3.5); his policy of centralisation was con-
tinued by his son Mindovg (died 12G3), who even
consented to be bajjtised, but afterwards apos-
tatised. During these reigns the Lithuanians
waged almost incessant war against the Ijivonian
Older and the Teutonic Ivnights (see Livoxi.v).
Olgerd (1345-77), after reviving (along with his
brother Keistut, the legendary national hero of
the Lithuanians) the principality of Lithuania,
extended his comiuests into southern Russia. His
son .Jagiello (1377-14.34) married the heire.ss of
Poland (q.v.), thus forming the lirst link of connec-
tion between these two states ; the last link was
welded in 1.569 by their complete political unity.
In the interval Lithuania had been governed by
grand-dukes appointed by the king of Poland. By
the three partitions of Polaiul Hussi.a acquired the
bulk of the grand-duchy (Polotsk, Troki, Brest,
Novgorod-Syeversk, and the governments of
Groilno, Kovno, Vilna, Moghileff, Vitebsk, Minsk);
the rest fell to Prussia, liut pa-ssed in 1814 to
Russia. See Histnrics bv Schliizer and Gebhardi
(Berlin, 1785) and Leiewel (Paris, 1861).
Litiniis is a well-known colouring matter,
wllich is obtained from several lichens, but chielly
from Lerniiora tartnrcn. The lichens are powdered
and digested with ammoniacal fluids (urine, for
ex.ample) till they umlergo decomposition. Alum,
potash, and lime are then added, ami the mixture is
allowed to stand till the maximum degiee of colour
is observed. Sand and chalk are added to give a due
degree of solidity, and the nuuss is then dried in
cubes, and is ready for the market. The exjiot
nature of the changes which ensue is not altogether
known : it is, however, certain that the pigment
is originally red, and that it only becomes lihie
on the addition of alkalies or of lime. This hUie
colour is again changed into a red on the additiim
of a free acid. The use of litmus-paper and tinclure
of litmus for the purpose of detecting the acidity
of fluids, &c. is known to every student of chemistry.
See Test-papehs.
Litre, the unit of the French measures of
capacity, both dry and liipiid. It is the volume
of a cubic decimetre (see Mt:TRE), and contains a
kilogramme of water at 392" (4° C.) in a vacuum ;
it is equal to O"2200967 British imperial gallon,
and is therefore less than a quart — 4^ litres heiiig
roughly equal to a gallon. Tlie litre is subdivided
decimally into the decilitre, centilitre, and millilitre
(respectively TTrth, -rJirth, and -rtruntb of a litre).
Ten litres make a decalitre; 100, a Itectolitrc; 1000,
a kilolitre. The hectolitre is the common measure
for grain, and is equal to 034.39009 British imperial
quarter, or nearly 2^ imperial bushels.
Little, Tilo.M.\.s. See MooRE.
Littleboroiisll, a town of Lancashire, 3J
miles NE. of Rochdale, of which it is virtually a
suburb, and in the manufacturing industries of
wliicli it shares. Pop. of parish, 10,406.
Little Falls, a post-village of New York, on
the Mohawk River, 73 miles '\VN^V. of Albany, on
the line of the Erie Canal and of two railways.
The Mohawk here passes tliroii";h a narrow rocky
gorge, with falls of 44 feet, gi\ing water-power to
several mills and factories. I'op. 8910.
LittlehailiptOII, a seaport and watering-place
on tlie coast of Susse.v, 18 miles W. of l!right<m
and 63 SW. of London. It is the port for Arundel.
Pop. 3926.
Littlemore, a hamlet 2Jl miles SSE. of Oxford,
famous for its as.sociations ( 1828—13) with Newman.
Little Rock, the capital of Arkansas, is
situated on the south bank of the Arkansas River,
2S0 miles from its month, and 345 miles by rail
SS\V. of St Louis. It contains the state capitol,
pri.son, and asylums for the blind and deaf mutes,
a United States arsenal, a Roman Catholic cathe-
dral, court-houses, a university, a medical school,
&c. Pop. ( I8S0) 13,138 ; ( 1890) 25,874.
Littleton, or Lvttleton, Sik Thomas, Eng-
lish jurist, was born in 1402 at Fiankley House,
near Bromsgrove, Worcestershire, his motiier being
the heiress of Thomas de Littleton, lord of the manor
of Fiankley. He was recorder of Coventry in
14.50, king's sergeant in 14.55, in 1466 judge of com-
mon ])leas, and in 1475 a knight of the Bath. He
died on 23d .\ngnst 1481. Littleton's • authelitical
reputation' (Fuller's phiiise) rests on his work on
'J'ciuirc.i, which was originally written in Norman-
French, or rather law French. It treats of the
English law relating to rights over land, and
was the first scientific attemjit to cla-ssify the
subject. It seems to have been first printed in
the year of its author's death, if not before,
and passed through numerous editions. The lirst
translation into English was made jucdialily as
early as 1.500. It was the original text that Coke
commented upim in his famous C'vI.e upon I.itthtuii
(see Coke). The changes in the laws relative to
property have greatly diniinisheil its value, and it
IS now Utile studied by lawyers: yet it is con
sideied a model from the clear ami logical manner
in wllich the snliji'ct is handled.
Littoral Deposits, accumulations formcil ii
.shallow water along a shore line. They ai
LITTRE
LITURGY
659
generally gravelly and arenaceous in character,
anil exhibit rapiit alternations of finer and coarser
grained materials.
Littrt', Maximihen Pail Emile, an eminent
Fremli iiliilologist ami philosopher, was bom in
Paris, 1st February 1801. He lirst stiulied medi-
cine, but ere long gave himself to philology, master-
ing Sanskrit, Arabic, Greek, and the chief modern
languages. One of his tii-st tasks was a translation
of the works of Hippocrates (10 vols. 1S.39;-61).
which at onto opened for liim the door of the
Academy of Inscriptions. Littri; held democratic
opinions, distinguished himself on the barricades in
1S30, and was one of the principal editors of the
Xatiuiud down to 1851. He embraced Comte's
Positivism with great ardour, and defended it ably
in pamphlets and in journal articles, but he did not
sliiire the disciples" undi.scriniinating enthusiasm
for the Mjister's later works. Disappointed at the
results of 1S4S, he retired from active politics, re-
signing even his oliice of municipal councillor of
the city of Paris. Keturning to a life of study.
Littre continued his researches in the history of
medicine, at the same time working ardently at
the history of the French language. His article,
La Pofsie Homcriijuc et /'Anciemie Poesie Fraii-
caise (1847), attracted great attention. It was an
attempt at the translation of the first book of the
Iliad m the style of the Trouvferes. The Academy
of Insc^riptions chose Littre, in place of Fauriel, in
1844, to be one of the commission charged with
continuing VHistoire LltKraire de France, and he
is one of the authors of vols, xxi.-xxiii. In 1854
he was appointed editor of the Journal dcs Savants.
Littre's pi-incipal work is his Dictionnaire de la
Langtie Francaisc (4 vols. 1863-72; supplement,
1878), a monitnient of patience and erudition.
This splendid work — the real thesaurus of the
French language — did not prevent the French
Academy in 1863 from rejecting its author, whom
Bishop Diipanloup denounced puV)licly as holding
immoral and im))ious doctrines. Just before the
siege of Paris Littre's friends compelled him to
quit the capital. In January 1871 Gambetta
appointed him professor of History and Geography
at the ficole Polyteehnique. Xext month he wa.s
chosen representative of the Seine department in
the National Assembly, where he sat with the
party of the Left. On the 30th December 1871 the
French Academy at last admitted him to member-
ship ; whereupon Bishop Dupanloup resigned his
seat. Littre published Medecitie et Medecins in
1872. In 1875 he receiveil honours from Leyden
ami from the Austrian Academy. He died at
Paris, 2d June 1881.
Other works of Littre's were : French translations of
Strauss's Life <if ./m«s (1,^39—40) and of Pliny's Nutwal
HiMorp ; Histt-'ire de la Larujue Fran^-aixe (2 vols. 18G2),
Faiolea de I'kiluaupliie Foaitive (1859), Aiujuste Comte ct
la Fhilogopkie Po*i£/rc ( 1863 ), Awjuste Comte et Stuart
Mill (1866), La Science au Point de Viie F/ulomphique
(1873), Littirature et Histoire (1875), Fnt'iments de
Fkilox'/phie Positive et de Sociolotfie CfntemjM/raine
(187G), and (Eiirret Comptiles WArniand Carrel (1857).
His £t\ide8 it Olanurea pour faire unite d CHiMoire de
la Laiiffiie Prancaiae (1880) contains an interesting
account of the origin of his great Dictionary. See also
Saintc-Beuve's Notice sur M. Littri (liHaA) ; the Ldin-
l.iinih Renew (1882) ; and the Cenlurii (1884).
Litlirg)'* ''■ word derived from the Greek leitonr-
t/ia, signifying originally a 'service,' such as those
remlered by citizens to the state. By the trans-
lators of the Septuagint it was anplied to public
worshii), and among the Greeks tlie sense is now
limited to the celeliration of the eucharist. The
woril at one time enjoyed a wider signilication,
and in English the term liturgy is still sometimes
loosely used to indicate a general body of forms
for public worship prevailing in a particular com-
munity ; but by the more correct writers it is used
in the same exclusive sense as is the original by
the Greeks. The present article is designed briefly
to sketch the history and development of the forms
used in the celebration of the eucharist or Lord's
Supper, exclusive of those employed only by
Protestants.
With regard to the form used by Christ Himself
(Matt. xxvi. 2t>-'28; Mark, xiv. 22-24 ; Luke,
xxii. 19, 20; 1 Cor. xi. 23-'25) only three features
are recorded, besides the taking hold of the bread
and the cup. These are that lie ( 1 ) gave
thanks (cucharisfi-siis) and blessed, that (2) He
brake, and that (3) He administered. To these we
must necessarily prefix, on any subsequent occa-sion,
the layin" of the table and the placing upon it of
bread and wine. It appears from Acts, x.x. 7-12,
that the ceremony was preceded by a sermon or dis-
course, and from 1 Cor. xiv. 16 that the blessing
was regarded as identical with or part of the thanks-
gi\'ing (etichuristia), which was tlie name given to
the whole of the principal formula : while we learn
from Tim. ii. 1, 2, that the thanksgiving contained
a prayer for all men, and from 1 Cor. xiv. 16 that
at the conclusion of the thanksgiving the word
'Amen' was answered. The Xew Testament also
contains no less than five directions (Rom. xvi. 16,
1 Cor. xvi. 20, 2 Cor. xiii. 12, 1 Thess. v. 20, 1 Pet.
V. 14) with regard to the giving of a religious kiss,
and it is hard to escape the conclusion that this
ceremony must have been associated with the prin-
cipal act of worship, the eucharistic celebration.
Whether any such thing as a liturgy had yet
been committed to writing in the time of the
apostles is unknown. At anyrate it is evident
from 1 Cor. xiv. 16 that the use of a fixed form was
not obligatory. Moreover, there are certain p;issages
that occur both in the writings of St Paul and in the
so-called Clementine liturgy, which, in the judgment
of some of the most eminent critics (notably Dr
Neale), appear from the context in each case to be
quoted in the epistles from the liturgy, and not in
the liturgy from the epistles. It is a plausible
conjecture that a form or forms may have been
drawn up as models, without the celebrant being
tied to their strict use.
The martyr Justin in his first defence of Christi-
anity gives a scanty and confused account of the
liturgy, from which, however, it is possible to
gather the si.x points above mentioned, with three
additional facts — viz. that portions of the Old and
Xew Testaments were read before the sermon,
that after the sermon there were prayers of an in-
tercessory character, and that the kiss was given
after these prayers and before the bread and wine
were jilaced upon the table. Justin also mentions
that the thanksgi\ing was very long.
Some words used by Justin may mean that in his
day a custom already prevailed which in any case
was certainly in force very soon after. This was
the rule of secrecy {Disrijtlina Arcani, q.v.) by
which all uubaptised persons, including those who
were actually under preparation for baptism ( cate-
rJioumenoi), were dismisseil from the assembly as
soon as the sermon was o\er, and which was later
extended so as to conceal from them as far as pos-
sible the knowledge of what afterwards took nlace.
This rule h;us caused Western writers to divide the
liturgy into two parts, the first, up to the sermon
inclusive, being termed the Mass of the Catechumens
{Missa Cateihunienuram), and the rest the M;iss
of the Faithful [Mi.ssii Fidelnim). Other persons
unfit to be present at the celebration were disnussed
at the same ]H)int. This twofold division made by
western writers must not be confused with a two-
fold division made by the Easterns, who call all the
portion which follows the commencement of the
660
LITURGY
thaiiksf^ivini; by the tlistinotivc name of tlie A»a-
p/iont ( ' ort'eriiij; '), wlieiico the leniis I'lo-Aiiaphora
ami Anaphora to ilistin;,'uisli the two portions.
The t'lementiiie liturgy is found enibeilded in
the compilation called the Ajmstolic Conslitulions
(q.v.). It is not known where it was used, but
as it is in striking harmony with the account given
by Justin, wlio was writing at Rome, it seems
probable that it is tlie form once used iit anyrate
in that city.
The rule of secrecy is jirobably the main reason
for the e.xtraordiuary scantiness of allusions to the
eucliarist among early Christian writers. Into
these it is needless to enter here. It suffices to say
that all known liturgies later than the so-called
Clementine are divisible into five distinct schools,
called res]ieotively the Roman and the Ejdiesian,
which are Western, and the Ilierosolymitan, the
Babylonian, and the Ale.vaiidrian, which are Eastern.
All these, however, show their comnu)ii origin by
consisting of certain main parts, although all do
not contain all these parts, and the parts them-
selves are not always arranged in the same order.
These parts are of course called by ditt'erent names
in ditt'erent countries ; those u.sed liy English
scholars, wliidi are mostly <lerived from those of
the Roman liturgy, will be here given in lirackets,
and generally employed. The ceremony ordinarily
begins with some opening hymn (introit), and
there is often a short litany, always with the
Greek response of Ki/n'c lici.ion. There is often,
also some confession or acknowledgment of sin and
prayer for pardon. There is then a jirayer or
prayers, and some jiortions of the Scriptures are
read, interspersed with psalms (U' hymns, and end-
ing with a reading from the (iospels, after which is
usually preached the sermon, if there be one. The
ne.\t stage (ott'ertory) is the spreading u])on the
altar of apiece of linen or silk (corporal), and the
placing of the bread (host) and vane upon it, except
in the case of the pure Alexandrian form, where
this is done first of all. Except among the Ar-
menians, a few drops of water are added to the wine.
There are in any case some prayers. After this,
e.xcept in the Roman school, the kiss ( Pax, ' kiss of
peace ' ) is given. The thanksgiving is then intro-
duced with some form of the words, ' Lift up your
hearts' {Sur.iiim corda) — Answer, 'We lift them
up unto the Lord :' 'Let us give thanks unto our
Lord God' — Answer, 'It is meet and right.' The
first part (preface) of the thanksgiving always
closes with some reference to the angels who
never cease to cry aloud — aiul here the people join
in singing some short hymn, beginning ' Holy,
holy, holy. Lord (Jod of Sabaoth ' (liiincttis or
Triumphal Hymn)- The continuation (canon) of
the thanksgiving then comes to a rehearsal of the
circumstances of the institution of the eucharist,
reciting the words of Christ (consecration), and
this again is followed by a brief remembrance of
His life, and by a particular jirayer, which will bo
.spoken of hereafter. The thanksgiving closes with
a short doxology, and 'Amen' Ls answered. The
Lord's Prayer is then said, either before or after
which the Sacrament is broken, and a portion put
into the chalice. About this point the .sacrament
in both kinds is often lifted up (a ceremony jiro-
perly termed the Elevation, but now often the
Little Elevation), as though to invite the com-
municants to ap|iroach, and the words ' the holy to
the holy ' are usually uttereil. In the Roman
school the kiss is given now. Next conies the
administration of the communion, [jreceded by
some prayers of preparation, and accompanied or
followed by a psalm or hymn. The whole service
ends with prayei's of thanksgiving for the com-
numion received (post-comnuinion), and a bencilic-
tion. It will be remarked tliat in the above sketch
one im])ortant feature is not mentioned — viz. the
prayer for all men (the Great Intercessi<m ). It
occm-s in all the liturgies, but it is placed at dif-
ferent points, and it is in the i)articular point at
which this prayer occurs that the ditt'erence l)etween
them mainly consists. All the liturgies also have
adopted the use of the Nicene Creed, though they
ditt'er as to the point at which they interpolate it ;
but, as the creed itself dates oidy from the ^th cen-
tury, and forms no integral part of the ceremony,
this is a matter of little moment. It is to be re-
marked that in all the rites some portions of the
service (even such as are not pei'sonal to himself)
are said by the priest inaudibly (secreto), a singular
custom which may perhaps have arisen after the in-
troduction of congregational singing, and owe its
origin to the desire, on the one hand, not unduly to
protract the service, and, on the other, not to omit
either the singing or the prayers.
In the West the use of the word liturgy has been
almost entirely superseded, except in the disquisi-
tions of the learned, by some form of the word which
a]ipeais in Latin as missa and in English as mans.
The derivation of this word has been disimted, but
it is admitted that it is connected with the pro-
clamation, Itc ; miasa est, often nuide at the end of
the lionum mass, and it may now be regarded as
certain that it is a mere corniption of misxin, and
means simply a dismissal. In the Western rites
the bread is always unleavened. The language is
normally Latin, which was the common literary
tongue when these rites were com])ose<l, and has
never been changed. They have a custom, intro-
duced about 1100 A.D., that, immediately after the
utterance of Christ's words of institution, in each
case the celebrant should lift the sacrament above his
head, and this is now commonly called by Westerns
the elevati(m, while the true elevation, or lifting of
the .sacrament, as though to intimate that the
moment of comnuinion is at hand, is by them
called the Little Elevation. Hv a custom sanctioned
in the loth century, the cele'lmint only (with the
exception of the kings of France at their corona-
tion, and a few of the assistants at a papal high
mass) comnuuiicates from the chalice. The manner
of conducting the service is divided into High,
Sung, and Low Mass. A High Mass is sung, with
a deacon, sub-deacon, and other assistants, and the
use of incense. A Sung Mass is sung by the priest
and choir or congregation, but there is only one
clerk and usually no incense. A Low Ma-ss is read
by the priest with one clerk, and without either
music or incense. A Low Mass occupies .about half
an hour, the othei's ( with simjile music ) about three-
(juarters of an hour. Very many priests celebrate
it every day, so thai it sometimes takes place scores
of times in the same church on the same day.
(A) The Roman liturgical famUy is often called
the Petrine, and is traditionally ascribed to the
apostle Peter. It is certain, however, that the
early Roman Church was a lireek church, ^^"hen
its liturgy became Latin is unknown; possibly
the Latin liturgy is of African origin. There
is no trace of tlie change before the 4th century.
The distinctive features of the Roman family are
the peculiar position of the Pax, and that the
great intercession (except the prayer for the dead,
which hasi)erhaps, however, been misplaced ) occurs
between the Sanctus and the Consecration. It is
represented by two main litcs.
(a) The Roman. This is the common Roman
mass familiar in most i)arts of the world. The
Rouum liturgy has .several varying forms, such
as that used by the Dominicans (who, as in the
Alexandrian sdiool, jdace the bread €anil wine on
the alt.ar at the beginning) .'ind the Carthusians.
These jneserve the usages of particular times and
places in the middle ages, as was also the case with
LITURGY
661
the Saruiii, the Aberdeen, and other medieval rites.
There are also some French variations, especially
that of the chnrch of Lyons, hut tlii'ir peculiarities
may have to do with survivals from the (iallican (see
below). It has also been translated into Slavonic,
into Armenian by the Dominicans, and into Chinese
by the Jesuits, but of these the Chinese has never
come into use, and the Armenian is extinct.
(6) The Ambrosian liturgy is tliat of the ecclesi-
astical province of Milan. Its main interest for
scholai-s lies in the fact that it is a development,
fiarallel to, but independent of, the present Koman
itnrg>% from some earlier form of the lattei', which
has been the common parent of both, and that it
preserves some features of this jiarent which have
been lost or much obscured in the Koman use.
(B) The origin of the Epiiesian or Ephesine
family of liturgies is tr.aditionally ascribed to St
John. Its distinctive feature is that the great
intercession does not form part of the thanks-
giving, as directed by the apostle Paul, but is
placed after the close of the otTertory, and immedi-
ately followed by the Pax, before the thanksgiving
begins. It is almost extinct, but was once repre-
sented by at least three branches, of which one
oidy survives. («) The Mozaraliic liturgy is the
ancient liturgy- of Spain, and owes its present name
to the fact that those who continued to practise it
had lived mixed with the Arab population. It
would have died out altogether had not the cele-
brated Cardinal Xiraenes established a special
chapter to celebrate it in the cathedral of Toledo,
and sanctioned it for the holders of a few isolated
benefices, so that the practice of this liturgv" is now
confined to a side-chapel in the cathedral of Toledo,
and the use of a few individuals. It is written in
a verii' peculiar dialect of degraded Latin, and the
existing texts are corrupt, some portions having been
avowedly added by Cardinal Ximenes, under whose
care all the service-books of this rite were edited.
(6) The (iallican or ancient liturgy of Gaul is
totally extinct. Xo copy of it is known to exist,
and tKe attempt to reconstnict it from fragments
and incidental notices has largely exercised the
industry and ingenuity of the learned, (c) The
Celtic liturgy, as imported by Patrick into Ireland
and by Coluraba into Scotland, was undoubtedly
(Iallican in form. (lililas the Wise introduced the
Roman liturg>" in the Ttii century, and it gradually
took the place of the other, which was finally
stamped out in Scotland liy St Margaret, and soon
afterwards in Ireland, where it lingered a little
longer. Its remains are more .scanty than those of
the (Iallican. What litnrgv- was used by the early
British (i.e. Cymric) Christians is unknown. It
may liave been either Roman, (jallican, or both.
There is even a mention of a ( ireek liturgj' in Wales.
In the three Eastern families the bread (except
among the Armenians) is always leavened. They
are celebrated as a rule in the cla-ssical literary
tongvie of their respective countries. With regard
to them it luus to be observed that, while the majority
of the Christians who use them belong to the Ortho-
dox (vulgarly called the Greek), the Xestorian, or
the .Monoi)hysite communions, there is everywhere
a minority who adhere to the communion of Rome,
and that, while employing, with only very slight
did'erences, the same liturgies, there is between
them a very grave doctrinal difference as to the
con.secration whidi cannot l)e ignored by the liturgi-
cal schoLar. In each of these families the place of
the prayer which fidlows the remembrance of the
life of Christ in the Roman liturgy is occupied by a
form invoking the Holy (Jhost to descend upon the
elements that they may be tlie body ami blood of
Christ. The Catholics maintain that the consecra-
tion is effected solely by tiit; words of Christ, and
that this prayer is therefore to be understood in
the same sense as in the corresponding one in the
Roman liturgy — viz. as merely asking that the sacra-
ment may be blessed to the receivei-s, and that the
Holy Ghost is invoked to descend upon it in order
to enable the communicants to 'discern the Lord's
body' (1 Cor. xi. 29), in a manner somewhat
similar to that in which He descended ujion Christ's
natural body at tlie time of His baptism, in prepara-
tion for tlie work of His ministry. On llie contrarj',
the bulk at least of the Easterns outside the
communion of Rome maintain that this invocation
is essential (if not indeed the sole essential) to the
consecration, which is not efi'ected, or at least com-
pleted, until it has been uttered. It may be added
that the Eastern Catholic clergy are in the habit
of saying low masses without music and generally
without incense, and that their celebrations are as
frequent as those of Latins ; while among the Ortho-
dox and Monophysites there is a daily celebration
in monasteries and cathedrals, but in ordinary
churches only on Sundays, holy days, and special
occasions ; and among the Nestorians, although
the celebration is nominally presciibed for all Sun-
days, Fridays, and holy days, it is not uncommon
to find only a sort of Mass of the Catechumens per-
formed even upon many Sundays.
( C ) The origin of the Hierosolymitan or Jenisalem
family of liturgies is ascribed to the apostle James.
Its distinctive feature is that the gieat intercession
occurs just before the closing do.xology of the thanks-
giving. («)The earliest existing form is a liturgy
in Greek, called by the name of the ajiostle, which is
now obsolete everywhere, though it is said to have
long lingered on in some of the Greek islands, for St
James's Day only. However ancient may be some
portions of it, especially in the thanksgiving, it
contains in its present form comparatively recent
features, the dates of which are known. {/>) The
Constantinopolitan. There is a liturgy (originating
from the Church of Cajsarea) called by the name of
St Basil, abridged from that of St James, and of
which the inaudible parts of the anaphora have
again been abridged, under the name of St John
Chrysostoni, although it is very uncertain how far
B;»sil and Clirysostom are really to be credited with
the work. These liturgies, or rather this liturgy
(since the ditt'erences are only in the inaudible part),
is the only one in use in the Orthodox communion,
and is celebrated in Greek, Arabic, Slavonic, and
Georgian. A stranger entering a Greek church is
liable to be struck, if not confused, by the way in
which the actual liturgy, mostly inaudible, is over-
laid with litanies and hymns of varying length, and
still more by the almost entire concealment of the
altar behind the screen called the eil.oiiostdsion
('image-stand'), (c) The Greek rite in Italy. A
good many Italians, especially in the south, belong
to the tireek rite. They now use the Constantino-
politan liturgs'. There was once, however, a native
Sicilian (ireek liturgy, of which a text has been
published by Assemani, and of which certain pecu-
liar local practices are probably survivals. The
members of the Basilian order in Italy had also a
peculiar form of Greek liturgy, which may now be
regarded as extinct, a.s the i)resent government has
suppressed all their mona.steries, and the surviving
members have mostly if not universally adoi>ted
the pure Constantinopolitan. Their liturgy was
generally regarded as tho Constantinopolitan
allected by Wcsternisms, but this point has not
been sudiciently investigateil. (</) 'I'he Armenian
liturgy is an adapted translation of the (Ireek St
Ba-sil. The language is Armenian. There is no
eikotiostasioii , but a veil is sometimes drawn round
the altar. The celebration of this rite is far more
pom])ous and spectacular than that of any other
used among Christians, (c) The Syriac liturgy of
St James ai)i)ears to be a free translation from an
662
LITURGY
early form of the Greek. Devout Syrian ecclesi-
astics seem to have had a sort of passion for coni-
posinji; paraphrases of the inanilihle parts of the
anajihora. ami there exist at least some forty sueli
compositions, sometimes (lijriiilieii Ijy the name of
liturgies. Tliis liturgy of St .lames is that used
by the section of the native Christians of India
(' Christians of St Thonuis') who have abandoned
tlie communion of Rome and their own ancient
Babylonian rite, and embraced Monoiihysitisni.
(/) The Constantinopolitan rite has hail a great
effect upon the forms of the Alexandrian or Egyp-
tian liturgy, which is treated below under E.
(D) The origin of the liabylonian scliocd of the
liturgy, otherwise called the Assyiian or Chaldean,
is ascribed to the apostle Thaddeus. The language
is Syriac. The distinctive feature is that the great
interces.sion occuis after the remembrance of the
life of Christ and before the invocation, which
immediatoly precedes the closing doxology of the
thanksgiving. The oldest e.xistiug form is that of
the liturgy called 'of the Apostles,' and is certainly
of profound antiquity. There are two paraphrases
of the anaphora of this liturgy, one of which is
called the liturgy of Theodore of Mopsuestia ; the
other is named by the Nestorians in honour of the
founder of their sect, l)ut they appear to be as a
whole older than the time of these persons. In the
churches of this rite the sanctuary is a separate
room, somewhat after the manner of the Holy of
Holies of the Jewish temple, and the whole cere-
mony is of severe simplicity. The liturgy of Mala-
har, or original liturgy of the native Christians of
India ( ' Christians of St Thomas '), is a form of the
Babylonian liturgy of the Apostles, but is said to
have suffered much ignorant meddling, under the
influence of the Portuguese, at the synod of
Diamper (1.599).
( E ) The Alexandrian litiirgical family represents
the form of the liturgy belonging to the Church of
Egj-pt, and its origin is .ascribed to the evangelist
Slark. The properly distinctive feat\ire is that the
gre.at intercession occurs between the Siirsum corda
and the Siindiis — viz. in that part of the thanks-
giving called the preface. Its existing monuments
have all been corrupted by divers e.xternal inlluences,
anil tlieir history is very obscure, (a) The normal
or original form is called the liturgy of St Mark, and
is in Greek. Like that of St James, it contains
passages, especially in the thanksgiving, of which
It would be rash to measure the antiquity, but, as
we now have it, it h.as undoubtedly been modified
under Constantinopolitan inlluences, and probably
since the triumph of Monojihysitism in Egypt. It
contiimed to be used for many centuries by the
Orthodox, but is now extinct, iis they have adopted
the full rites of Constantinople, (h) Kenaudot h;is
published what he believed to be an Alexandrian
edition of the Constantinopolitan liturgy of St
Basil, (c) At wli.at period the Coptic or native
langu.age was substituted for the Greek is uncertain,
and the i)resent writer is inclined to the belief that
it w.os a device of the Monophy. sites to iii)|ml.arise
their heresy and emph.asise their separation from
the Orthodox. But whoever the translators may
have been, they were confronted by the fact that
the population were to a great extent bi-lingual ;
many fornuihe were familiar in Greek, and the
theolo"ical terminology was mo.stly Greek. Accord-
ingly the liturgy was translated into a sort of jargon
of Coptic mixed with Greek words, many fornniUe
were left in Greek, and the deacon was providc^d
with a set of biddings in Greek so ample as nearly
to amount to a translation of the prayers. The
liturgy so produced w.as tli.at which bears the name
of St Cyril. It is a free translation and .adaptation
from that of St Mark, but from a recension earlier
than that of wliich we possess any Greek text. It
is now almost extinct. (<!) A fresh anaphora was
composed, called by the name of St Basil, and in
which the gre.at intercession is transferred to the
latter part of the thanksgiving, as in the Hieroso-
lymitan family. It is now used only on some rare
occasions, (c) A third .anaphor.a w.as conipo.sed,
called by the name of St (iregory, and this, joined
to the pro-anaphora of St Cyril, constitutes the
ordinary Coptic liturf;y. A fresh linguistic difli-
culty has however arisen. Coptic is totally dead,
and Ar.abic has become the language of Egypt.
Hence the sermon is of course in Arabic, some parts
of the liturgy are always, and the Creed ami Lord's
Pr.ayer often, said in Arabic ; each ]>ortion of Scrip-
ture is read in .Vrabic as well .as Coptic, and Arabic
hymns are introduced. The service is, in fact, tri-
lingual. Coptic churches .are generally very plain,
the altar is surrounded by a wooden partition, and
tlie ceremony is not showy. Incense is l)urneil almost
without ceasing from the beginning until the con-
secration, (f) The Abyssinian liturgy is in Ethiopic,
and is called that of the Ajiostles. It is an adapted
translation of the Coptic St Cyril. Here also tliere
has been a considerable tendency to comjiose para-
phrases of the anaphora, of which as many ii-s ten
are known to Western scholars.
It remains to mention a few extern.als which are
common to all these families. All light wax tajiei'S
during the celebration, however bright may be the
natural light (see Lights), and Incen.se (q.v.) is
universally burned. Fans (q.v.) came into use in
the southern countries where flies are triuiblesonie,
liut as a rule they have now become mere orna-
ments carried in processions. As to vestments,
the Chasuble (q.v.) is univereally worn by the
celebrant ; nor is there any trace of a time wlu>n it
was not. As, however, it is origin.ally a mere round
piece of stuff with a hole in the middle for the head,
the hands can only be used while wearing it by
raising it at the sides or in front. Hence in the
Koman, Ephesian, and Babylonian families it is cut
up at the sides and hangs down before and behind ;
among the Orthodox the front part below the breast
is cut aw.ay ; in the Alexaiulrian rite, and by the
Armenians and some of the Syrians, it is entirely
split up the front, and becomes a mere cloak. In
.all the families is also worn a long gown down to
the feet, which is in English called an .-l/i (q.v.).
This, with its accompanying girdle, of course re-
presents the long tunic worn by orientals. The
stole is a strip of stuff worn by the priest round his
neck, and by the de.acon over his left shoulder. It
seems to be the tulith or religious gainient of the
Jews, which must of course ha\e been worn in prayer
by Christ and His earliest disciples, .and which, as
usually arranged, exactly resembles a stole. The
mriiilplrs ( in Greek, i'/)i/ii<iiu7:ia ) are cull's seemingly
used simjily to conline the sleeves of the alb ; the
corresponding object worn by Latins, however, is
])ut on the left arn\ only, and luus a long flaj) ; and
some have maintained that it wiis originally a
pocket-handkerchief. The ((mice is really a veil or
covering for the head, and by the Copts it is so
worn until the thanksgiving. In the other families
it is generally pushed ilown upon the neck, and the
Armenians, by embroidering it, have made it into
iv sort of ornamental collar.
The liturgies used by Protestants are either, as
among Anglicans, adaptations of the Homan rite,
or, as among Presbyterians, forms altogether newly
invented, biuicd upon Scripture and convenience
only. The latter process has resulted in some in-
teresting coincidences, such as the general intro-
duction among Presbyterians of the ceremonial
in-bringing of the bread and wine at the offertory,
called by the Greeks 'the (ireat Entrance;' while
one schocd g.ained the ]iopular name of ' Liftei's,'
from iiractising the Elevation. It may, however.
LIUTPRAND
LIVER
663
be remarkeil that Spanish Protestants liave always
shown a great leaning to the Mozarahic liturgy,
tlie reivson for which is plain enough, since it is
not Roman, ami is nndonhteiUy ancient and in-
tensely national ; anil it is not inii)rol>al)ly owing
to the inHuence of Spanish refugees in London
tluit in the second (and present) Anglican liturgy
tlie great intercession (the 'Prayer for the Clnircli
Militant') has heen placed in the otVertory. The
liturgy used by the body commonly known as
Irvingites is reiiiarkable for its literary merit.
Litorgical literature is exceedingly voluminous. For a
single volume the reader may be referred to the Rev. C.
E. Hammond's TJturriics Eastern and Western (0.\f. Clar.
Press, 1878). Much matter will be found in the late Dr
Xeale's Introduction to the Historii of the Holy K(i.-<te.rii
Church. As regar<ls the Roman and Constantinopolitan
rites, books are plentiful; as to the Armenians, the
Armenian Church, by the Rev. E. F. K. Fortescue ; for the
Indian Jfonophvsites, The Christians of St Thomas and
their Litur'ji(.%'hy the Rev. G. B. Howard; for the Nes-
torians and Chaldeans, The A'cstorians and their Biluals,
by the late Ur Badger; and for the Copts, The Coptic
Sunday M:>rninir Service, by the present writer, will
supply information of a practical kind : while for other
or more recondite studies recourse may be had to the
authors cited by Mr Hammond. Ihe doctrine of the
eucharist, and its history before and after the Reforma-
tion, is treated in the articles Lord's Sdpper. Prayer-
book ; see also S.\cra51ent, Transl'Bstastiatiox.
Lintpraildt or Luitprand, an author to whom
■we owe much of our knowledge of the history of
the 10th century, was horn of a distinguished
Longobard famiiy in Italy about the year 922.
He entered the service of Berengar, king of Italy ;
but, lia\-ing fallen into disgrace, he repaired to
Germany, and served the Emperor Otto L, with
whom he returned to Italy in 901. Otto made
him Hishop of Cremona, and afterwards sent him
on an embassy to Constantinople. He died about
972. His Aiiteipodoxis treats of the period fiom
886 to 950. He wrote also Dc Rebus Gestis Ottonis
Magni Imperatoris, covering the yeare 960 to 964,
and De Legatione Constantinopolitand, a satire on
the Greek court. The best edition of liis works is
printed in Pertz's Monumoita GermcuncE, vol. iii.
See Kcipke, Dc Vita Liiitprcmeli ( 1842).
Livadia (anc. Lehndeia), a town of Greece,
60 miles NW. of Athens, destroyed by earthquake
in 1894. Pop. 5000. From it the northern part of
modern Greece used to be called Livadia.
Livadia, the name of an estate, with a couple
of palaces and magnilicent gardens and vineyards,
belonging to the empress of liussia, situated on
the south coast of the Crimea, 30 miles SE. from
Seba-stopol. The entire neighbourhood is sprinkled
with the ca.stles and villa.s of Russian notabilities,
who come here for seabalhin;; in the autumn.
Liver. The liver is the largest gland in the
body. It weighs from 3 to 4 lb., and measures
alM)ut 12 inches from side to side, ami G or 7 inches
from its anterior to its jiosterior bonier. It is
situated in the right hypochondriac region, and
reaches over to the left ; being thick liehind, convex
on its upper surface, where it lies in the concavity
of the diaphragm, and concave below, where it rest.s
against the stomach, colon, and right kidney.
This lower surface pre.sents a fi.ssnre diviiling the
organ into a right and a left lobe. The liver ia
retained in its position by live ligaments. Be-
siiles the right and left lobes, there are three smaller
lobes. Tin great bulk of the organ is, however,
made up of the right lobe, wliicli is si.\ times as
large .as the left. The vessels of the liver are the
liep.-itic artery, which comes otV from the co'liae
axis, and sniiplies the organ with nutrient blood ;
the portal vein, which conveys to the liver the
venous blood of the intestines, spleen, an<l stoniaeli,
and from which (after the vessel has ramified like
an artery) the hepatic veins arise and convey the
blood from the liver into the inferior vena cava.
In fact, the liver is a great glandular mass placed
in the path of the veins passing from the stomach
Fig. 1.— The Liver :
A, right lobe ; B, left lobe ; a, depression for colon ; b, depres-
sion for right kidney and capsule ; cc, coronary ligament,
inferior layer : dd, surface uncovered by peritoneum ; «, gall-
Itladtier; ff, fissure for gall-bladder; gg, transverse fissure;
h. lobulus quadratus ; i, umbilical vein ; j, hepatic duct ; k,
hepatic artery ; I, ductus venosus ; mm, fissure for ductus
venosus; n, vena portje; o, lobulus caudatus ; jt, lobulus
Spigelii : g, inferior vena cava ; r, fissure for inferior vena
cava ; ss, longitudinal fissure.
and intestines towards the heart. The blood, laden
with nutritious matter, has to pa.ss through the
liver before it can get into the general circulation ;
in its passage it comes into intimate relationship
with the minute hepatic cells, which alter its con-
stitution, abstracting or adding various constit-
uents. The bile is one of the pro-
ducts of the liver cells, which, ob-
taining their raw material from
the blood, secrete this Uuid into
tiny ducts (drains). These join
with other vessels to form larger
and larger ducts (just as veins join
with other veins to form larger
vessels), which finally leave the
liver and pass towards the gall-
bladder. Here the Bile (q.v.), which
is constantly secreted, is stored nj)
ready to be discharged into the
intestine during digestion. The
bile, which is of a brown, or in
some animals, of a green colour, is
coloured by ]iigments (liilirubin,
biliverdin), which are undoubtedly
decomposition products of lianio-
"lobin, the colouring matter of the Fig. 2.— Diagram
of Liver :
intestines ; p,
portal vein
Ijreaking up in-
to cai)illaries a-
mong liver cells
(c);blood subse-
quently passes
to heart (A).
blood. It a|)pears, therefore, that
the red corpuscles of the blood
which contain this pigment are
continually Kufl'erin<; di.-^solution,
probably the old and useless cells
being destroyed within the body
by the agency of other cells.
\Vhether their destruction actually
takes place within the liver is not yet alisolntely
certain, but it is certain that the liver removes their
colouring matter from the system. Occasionally it
hapi)ens that the liver may have a heavier task
thrown upon it than it can undertake. Thus, a
rapid dissolution of corpuscles may take jilace from
various conditions; for instance, there may be an
exce.ss of blood after a bloodless ami)Utati<m, where
the blooil of a limb before the operation has Ix-en
driven into the rest of the body; or, again, when
the blood from the after-birth has been allowed to
How into the buily of a baby. In the.se ea.ses the
liver may be unalJle to excrete all the i)ign)eiit and
664
LIVER
jaundice will arise. A similar ooiulition will follow
any obstriictinn to llio outHow of liile from the
liver (gallstone, inflammation of iliicts, iS-o. ). The
already secreted bile will in tliat case jiass l)ack
into the system tlirou'.'h the alisorlient lymiihatics.
In the bile are certain orjranic salts, taurocholate
and glycocholate of sodium. It is probable that
these result from the destructiini of albumen, per-
haps that of the red blood-corpuscles. Oi these
salts and their role in the economy there is much
to be learned ; they are probably in part reabsorbed
from the intestine into the blood.
The.se functions of the liver commence at an
early peiiod of intrauterine life, the excreted bile
aceuuuilatinj; in the intestine, and forminj,' the
greenish substance, meconium. After birth the
bile m.-iy be looked upon not only as an excretion
from the body, but as performinj; in its outward
Sassage throngh the intestine the part of an aid to
inestion and al>sorption ( see lilLE, Dige.stion ).
]?ut the liver has other and jierhaps equally im-
portant functions to perform. It is a great store-
house of food material. When the body is well
nourished the liver cells store a certain quantity of
fat, which they can part with during starvation.
In stall-fed animals, beer-drinkers, &c. the liver
is loaded with fat, while the liver {p{it( dc foic
gras) of the Strasbnrg goose is a mass of fat, with
hardly any vestige of the original tissue left.
Claude Bernard was the discoverer of one of the
greatest functions of the liver. It ap]iears that
carbohydrates and protcids absorbed in a solulile
form into the blood are, for the most part, seized by
the liver andprevented from entering the general
circulation. The liver retains them chiefly in the
form of glycogen or animal starch, C,oH;„0,oHoO ;
and after a good meal as much as 5 per cent, of
the organ may consist of it alone. This glycogen
is then discharged from the liver, proljably in the
form of a soluble sug:ir, as the economy is in need
of it. Wo have here a wonderful provision for
regulating the food-sni)ply to the tissues, for it
would be of obvious disadvantage to them were
they inundated with pal>ulum directly after each
meal, and then left without any at all. Many
parts of the body, the muscles for instance, are
capable of storing glycogen on their own account ;
but this power is limited, and the great glycogen
storehouse is the liver.
We have already seen that there is evidence
that proteid substances are broken down in the
liver. The greater part of the nitrogen of the
proteid is excreted by the kidneys in the form
of urea, which substance, .is has experimentally
been sliown, has its primary origin in the liver
itself. If carbonate of ammonia be injected
through the organ it is converted into urea,
which appears in increased quantity in the blood,
and is excreted by the kidneys. After a highly
nitrogenous diet urea in like manner appears
in the blood, the nitrogen having sejiarated from
the proteiil molecule. In birds and reptiles, where
the nitrogen waste of the body is uric acid, not
urea, the former substance is also formed by the
liver, extiriiation of the organ causing a marked
diniinuticm in the uric acid formation.
DiSK.vSE.s OF THE LlVEl!.— The liver, like other
organs of the body, is subject to disorder and dis-
ease. It is subject to congcsti(Ui from exposure to
cold, and it is certain to suller from any pro
longed violation of the laws of dietetics.' The
European living in India who persists in tlie food
habits of a cold climate, although he lives in
a warm one, is certain to develop a 'liver.' The
beer-drinker acquires a fatty liver, and the dram-
drinker an organ in which the cellular elements
have ^'reatly diminished, the mass of the organ
becoramg mere (ibrous tissue. The most important,
because the commonest, malady connected with
disorder of the liver is that known as biliousness.
The acute form, or 'bilious attack,' has been
shortly noticed under Bile (q.v.); but many
persons suil'er habitually or for long periods from
an allied condition. The symptoms are very
various; but the most common are.duU pain with
a feeling of weight in the region of tiie liver, and
pain in the right shoulder, usually worst after
nieals ; a bitter taste in the month, with coated,
yellowish tongue, dull headache, giddiness ; some-
times drowsiness, sonuHimes sleeplessness ; and
generally more or less depression of spirits. The
condition is most apt to occur in those who take
too much or too rich food or drink, with too little
exercise. It is i)robably caused not merely by
deficient secretion of bilo, but by imjierfect per-
formanc^o of the other functions of the liver, especi-
ally the disintegration of albumiiuiid bodies. For
the removal of the condition the most important
mea.sure is proper regulation of the patient's
habits. Great care in diet must be enjoined,
particularly as regards alcoholic drinks. Of these
malt liquors and sweet or strong wines are the
most injurious : but it is generally best to abstain
from them altogether. Iticli dishes must be
avoided, and sugar and meat be taken in moderate
amount. Exercise in the open air is very im-
portant : riding is the most, walking probably
about the least, useful form. With regard to
dmgs, mercurials (e.g. blue pill) often give great
relief; but their liabitual use is dangerous. A
daily draught in the morning of some saline
aperient is generally desirable ; and nitro-h^dio-
chloric acid in small doses, with some bitter tonic,
is often very useful. Biliousness seldom seriously
shortens life, but it often grievously interferes
with its enjoyment, and with the power of doing
work with any vigour or satisfaction.
Cotigcstiijii of tlie liver occurs in at least some
cases of biliousness, and in intlammation of the
organ ; but also in consequence of disease of the
heart or lungs causing interference with the return
of blood through it. In long-standing cases of this
disease the substance of the liver j)rcsents a pecu-
liar mottled apjiearance, Mhence it is called >iul»ie<j
liver. — lii(ll-stoitcs (see CALCULUS) and Jaundice
(q.v.) have already been considered.
Acute infainination (hcpntitis) and abscess may
occur in the course of other diseases, especially
pya>mia ; but in their most characteristic form they
are much more common in hot countries, and in a
large proportion of the cases accompany or follow
dysentery. The symptoms are extremely variable ;
there may be fever, p.-iin, or weight in the liver and
right shoulder, and (iisturbance of digestion ; but in
some cases all these are absent. If the abscess be
in the anterior part of the liver, its presence may
be indicated by bulging, or enlargement with
alteration of shape of the organ ; but if deeply
seated no indication of its presence may be found.
Treatment. — In the early stages the disease some-
times seems to be checked by the administration of
large doses of ipecacuanha and the application of
poultices or hot fomentations ; and even when an
abscess is present it may subside spontaneously, or
may discharge through lung, stomach, bowels, or
skin with a favouralde result. Such cases, how-
ever, are exce]itional ; and the introduction of tlie
aspirator and of antiseptic methods has shown that
surgical interference in such cases need not be
dreaded as it once was. Evacuation and opening
of liver abscesses have in fact in recent years sa\ed
many lives that would otherwise in all ])robability
have been sacrificed.
Acute i/rllow atro/ili;/ of the liver is a curious and
hapjiily rare disease, chiefly aH'cctinj; young women,
in which rapid ami intense jaundice, attended by
LIVER
LIVERPOOL
6G5
severe nervous symptoms (headache, ileliriiim,
coma, &c.), but without fever, ahuost invariably
leails to a fatal issue in a few days. After deatli
the liver is found much diminished in size ; and its
secreting cells are rciUicetl to a mass of oily debris.
The symptoms much reseuible tliose of phosphorus
poisoniug ; but the causes of the disease are as yet
obscure.
Cirrhosis of the liver, or interstitial lirpittitis ( Gr.
kirrhos, 'yellowish'), begins as an intlainmatory
atlection, in which lymph (see Ixfl.\M.m.vtion) is
ertused in the areolar tissue surrounding the
branches of the portal vein. The smaller branches
become obliterated by the ]iressuie, and, as the
lymph subsequently contracts, larger branches of
the veins and ducts become strangulated, and the
surface of the organ a-ssumes the uneven or bossed
appearance known as hobnailed, in this aft'ectioii
the liver is i>robably at fii'st somewhat enlarged,
and occasionally remains so, but in general as the
contraction of the eftusion goes on it at length
becomes considerably smaller than the natural size.
The ordinary cause of this disease is si)irit(lrinking,
and it is popularly known a.s the giii-driitlcer's liver.
The obstruction to the portal circulation occasions
the etlusiou of serum into the peritoneal cavity ;
and this eftusion often goes on so rapidly as soon
to force up the diaphragm and impede respiration.
The lower extremities may become anasarcous, but
the arms and face are never affected. The portal
obstruction often also gives rise to hemorrhage
from the bowels or stomach. In a fully developed
case of cirrhosis the liver is so altered in stnicture
that p.-illiative treatment is all that can be at-
tempted. ThLs must be directed to the relief of
the dropsy, and, if medicines fail to remove or
diminish it, temporary relief may be olitained by
tapping ; but the disea.se is a very hopeless one.
Amongst the other affections of this organ are
the fatty liver. The liver in this case is much
enlarged, of a pale colour, and rounded at the
edges ; the disease is most commonly found associ-
atetl with phthisis and in cases of general obesity.
Closely allied to this is the lanlaceoiis or ivaii/
liver (see Waxv Dlsease). Tubercle, syphilitic
disease, and different forms of cancer, generally
secondary to cancer elsewhere, are not unfre-
quently fouml in this organ. It is also much the
most frequent -seat of Hydatids (q.v. ).
Liverpool, situated on the north bank of the
Mersey, in Lanca-shire, is — if we include Birken-
head, on the opposite side of the river — the second
largest town in the United Kingdom. A port
not only for the adjacent manufacturing districts,
but for the commerce ^^'ith America, it ranks in
maritime importance before the metropolis itself
— a circumstance due to its position on the
west coast of England. It is situated at three-
quarters of an hour's distance by railway from
Manchester (3U miles), four and "a quarter houi-s
from London (201 miles), si.\ hours from Edin-
burgh (•220 miles), and seven houi-s by rail and
steamer from Dublin. The rise of Liverpool is
remarkable. In the middle of the 14tli century
it contained only 840 inhabitants and IGS cottages;
whilst in 1561 its population was only 090. 'JThis
I deca<leiice accounts for the circumstance that
though the town was represented in ])arliament
in 1'2!»6 and 1.306, there were no membei-s sum-
moned between the last-named date and 1547.
It is interesting to note here that Francis Bacon
(afterwards Lord Chancellor) was M.P. for Liver-
jiool in the years 15S8-92. It was not until 1647
that Liverpool was made a free port ( having been
subject down to that date to the Chester officers) ;
anil it was Hot erected into a separate parish until
1C97, when its jmpulation niiintered about 5(KJ0
souls, and its shipping about 80 vessels. Between
1710 and 1760 its jjopulation increased from 8160
to 25,780, and its commercial navy from 84 ve.ssels
to 1245. In 1700 its lii-st regular dock was built
on the site where the custom-house stands at the
present day. From 1760 to 1800 the population
advanced from 25,700 to 77,700 inhabitants, the
shiiiping from 1200 ve.ssels to 5000, and the amouiil
of dock-dues collected from £2300 to £28,300,
nearly two-thirds of the increase taking i)lace
during the last fifteen years of the period. The
chief cause of this extraordinary progress was tlie
rapid growth of the cotton industry : the consump-
tion of raw cotton having risen from 5,000,000
lb. in 1781 to 48,000,000 lb. in 1801 ; while the
oihcial value of cotton products exported had, in the
meantime, increased from £355,000 to £7,051,000.
Simultaneously with the mechanical revolution
brought about by Hargreaves, Arkwright, Cromp-
ton, and others, there came an increased foreign
trade, and an augmented inland business, owing
to the opening of the Bridgewater (q.v. j Canal in
1771. About the same period, too, a great start
was given to the shipbuilding trade of the port by
several extensive orders received from government :
some 15 vessels of war being launched between
1777 and 1782, of very considerable tonnage, and
ranging between 16 and 50 guns. Liverpool as the
leading port connected with the African trade,
almost monopolised the traffic in slaves between
Africa and the West Indies, iS:c. As late as 1807
her shipowners had 185 vessels engaged in the
business, capable of carrying about 44,000 slaves.
By the close of the last century Liverpool had far
outstripped Bristol in coniiiiereial importance.
But great as was the progress made during the
closing twenty years of the ISth century, it was far
exceeded in the 19th ; in 1881 the population with-
in the municipal boundary was 552,508, and within
the parliamentary boundary 601,050. In the next
decade there was however an apparent decrease,
the population of the city at the census of 1891,
after some readjustment of areas, was 517,951, ancl
of the parliamentary borough, 584,471. Adding to
this the ])opulation of Birkenhead (q.v.), on the
opposite side of the river, we get 684,328 ; so that,
with other adjoining places, the total population of
what may be termed the port of Liverpool is about
700,000. A \ery large number of merchants,
brokers, tradesmen, clerks, and working-men,
whose daily occupations are in Liverpool, have
their residences on the Cheshire side of the river.
The ]iassenger traffic between the two sides of the
river averages 69,000 per day, of which 44,0(K) are
by the various ferries and 25,000 through the iSIersey
railway tunnel. The progress in population and
tonnage compares as follows :
Population.
Liverpool, Birkeubead.
SbippiniT. Dock Due&
Tona. £.
1781.... 39,000 1,500 40,500 200,000 6.000
1801.... 85,300 3,100 88,400 469,700 28,."i00
1821 144,700 4,700 148,400 839,800 94.600
1841... 311,700 21,900 333,000 2,426,400 176,500
1861.... 477,000 73,000 660,000 4,997,200 444,400
1881.... 686,400 103,400 789,800 7,893,900 705,600
1891 730,000 130,500 8(>0,50O 9,772,.'iO0 1,117,900
The figures include the suburbs of both places. Of
the entire i>opulalion it is estimated that 150,000
are Irish aii<l al>out the same number Welsh.
The effect of the .Manchester Ship Canal on the
trade of Liverpool has not lieeu so injurious as was
at one time expecteil. It does not follow that what
Manchester secures Liverjiool loses ; and the more
economical management of tlie Dock Estate, and
the reduced railway charges which the competition
of the canal enforces, may in the long-run actually
bring more liusiness to Liverpool.
In 1894 the total tonnage of ships that entered
and cleared at Liverpool (excluding coastwise sail-
666
LIVERPOOL
ings) was 10,489,578, as comparetl with 14,433,580
at Loiiilon, and 10,478,301 at CariUn'. The iiiiiMiits
of colonial ami foieij;n meiohandise at Livoiiiool
show a valne of £9r),G30,489 : the o.\i)Oils of lionie
produce to foreign iKHts, £78,080,3.")!), and of foreign
and colonial in-oiluce, £1,2.")4,037. The wliolo
foreign liadeof ljiveii>ool in 189.') was £186,250,875,
as coinpaved with a total at Lomlon of £'224,718,320;
all other ports dividing amongst them the re-
maining 40 per cent, of the trade of the
whole countrv. I^iverpool accounts for al)o\it
one-liftli of the IJritish tonnage, one -tenth of
the foreign, an<l one-sixth of tlie total, and only
falls behind London in respect of the foreign.
Liverpool ligures for one-fourth of the imports,
more than two-fifths of the exports, and nearly
one-third of the entire foreign trade of the United
KingiUim. Of 145 million cwt. of bread -stuH's
imported, 28 million came through IJverpool ; as
did also 3A million out of 6 million cwt. of bacon,
hams, beef, pork, and lard ; 3 million out of (5
million cut. of rice ; 6), million out of 175 niilUon
cwt. of nnrefined sugar ; and 23 million out of 40
million lb. tobacco. Liverpool shipped £4G,342,0t)O
out of £71,986.000 worth of cotton i)roducts ex-
ported ; £9,232,000 out of £25,006,(K)0 wortli of
woollens: £2,942,000 out of £5.5.V2.(I00 worth of
linen.s; £11,705,000 out of £;io.,sii(i.(lOO woith of
metals ; £4,502,000 out of £12,939,000 worth of
machinery: and £1,489,000 out of £3,168,000
wortli of hardware and cutlery.
This gigantic trade has given rise to the
magnificent system of docks extending along the
margin of the river for a distance of nearly 61
miles, containing 25 miles of quay-space and 380
acres of water-space, besides 9 miles of quay-
space and 164 acres of water-space at Birkenhead,
making a total of 34 miles and 544 acres respec-
tively. There are also 17 acres of water-space in
the docks worked by the various canal companies,
and tliere are besides 14,920 feet of graving-docks,
of which 2430 feet are in Birkenhead. The total
area of the Dock Estate is 1083 acres in Liverpool
and 506 acres in Birkenhead. The whole of the
docks (except the Saltbouse, King's, and part of
the George's and Queen's) have been Imilt since
1812, and are regarded as amongst the greatest
engineering triumphs of the 19th century. Several
of the docks are enclosed with large warehouses :
the erection of those round the Albert Dock cost
£.358,000. The dock itself cost £141,000. The
warehouses round the Waterloo Dock contain
large gr.aiii -elevators, which are a wonder in them-
selves. For the accommodation of tlie river traffic
(pas.senger, goods, and mails) there is a floating
landing-stage, 2063 feet long and 80 feet wide,
with seven large bridges connecting it with the
shore ; also a lloating bridge, 550 feet long and 35
feet wide, by means of which an ea.sy incline for
carriage traffic is maintained at .all stages of the
tide. The steamer traliic, conducted bv regular
liners with every port of importance in tlie world,
draws large numbers of emigrant and other
jiassengers to the town. The total amount, of
capital invested in the Dock Estate is £17,088,683.
See the article 1 )0CK.
Of the seven railways in direct connection with
the city, the North- Western, Lancashire and
Yorkshire, and Midland have handsome passenger
stations, and nnmerons "oods stations are s])rea<l
over the town and on the line of docks. There are
live tunnels under the town. The jMeisey lailw.ay
tunnel, 12.30 yards long, connecting Liverpool with
liiikenheail, was begun in 1881, and opened by the
Princi^ of Wales in 1886. Tlie capital invested in
the Mersey Railway amounts to £2,224,000.
Kumlier of i),assengers in 1890, 9,318,235. Prior to
1857 the water-supply of tlie town was derived
chiefly from the works at Bootle and Harring-
ton. In 1850 steps were taken to erect the ^orks
at Kevington ( near Bolton ), whicli were opened in
1857. In 1881 the foundation of new water- works
was laid at Lake Vyrnwy, about 25 miles from
Oswestry and 45 miles in a straight line from
Liveij)aol. Liverpool has several extensive ship-
building-yards, iron and br.ass foundries, chain-
cable and anchor smithies, engine-works, tar and
turpentine distilleries, rice and Hour mills, tobacco,
cigar, and soap manufactories, breweries, sugar-
relineries, roperies, glass-works, chronometer and
watch manufactories.
Tiie architecture of the town has been gieatly
improved in the latter half of the 19tli century,
and it now possesses many tine thoroughfares,
thron"ed with numerous splendid edilices. The
domed Town-hall, in the Corinthian style, was
originally built in 17.54, but has since been con-
siderably enlarged. St George's Hall is a grand
building in the Gra^co-Boman style, nearly 500
feet long, built between 18.'18 and 18.54. It com-
prises the assize court, a great liall !69 feet in
length, 87 feet in width, and 74 to 82 feet_ high ;
and a smaller concert-room. The organ in tlie
great hall cost .£10,(X)0, and the entire building
£:S30,000. Municipal Offices, Customhouse, Sailors'
Home, Bolice-courts, Workhouses, Baths and Wa.sh-
houses. Water-works, ,and Gas-otlices are ,a!so note-
worthy. The Free Library and Museum, o|iened
in 1860, and presented to the town liy Sir \\'illiain
Brown, cost £40,000 ; with it are incorporated the
Museum of Natural History presented by the
thirteenth Earl of Derby, and the Museum of
Antiipiities presented by Mr Mayer. Other in-
stitutions are the Walker Art Gallery, iircsented
by Sir A. B. Walker, Bart., at a cost' of £35,000:
the I'icton Keading-rooni, erected by the coriioration
at a cost of £25,000 ; the Botanic Gardens, 01)ser\ -
atory, the Liverpool College, Liverpool Institute,
Queen's College, Medical Institute, Royal Institu-
tion, the various schools attached to the national
and other churches. Academy of F'ine Arts, the
Kxcliange, Lyceum, and Atheiueum, news rooms
and libraries, and numerous associations devoted
to commercial, political, philosophical, scientific,
and religious atlairs. University College, on the
model of (J wens College, A\as inaugnrated in 1882 ;
the endowment is over .£125,000. The college,
afliliated to the Victoria University, Manchester
(see Owens College), had, in 1890, sixteen pro-
fessors and lecturers in the literature and science
ilepartmeiit, and fourteen chairs in the medical
department. There are about one hundred chari-
table institutions in the city. There are some 270
churches and chapels, of which 92 belong to the
Established Church, 29 to Koman Catholics, 25 to
Welsh Nonconformists, 24 to Presbyteiians, 21 to
Wesleyans, 18 to Methodists, 17 to Ijaptists, 14 to
Independents, and 30 to various bodies, including
6 Unitarian chapels, 3 .synagogues, a F'riends'
meeting-house, ami a Greek cliurch. The see of
Liverpool was create<l in 1880, with an endowment
of £100,000, raised by public subscription. There
are seven cemeteries, only one of which is situated
within the city.
The buildings devoted to commercial pursuits
are also very fine and numerous. Amongst them
are the Exchange, Liverpool and London Insurance
Chambers, Royal Insurance, ami t^ueen Insur-
ance buildings (all local companies), and many
others. The Exchan>'e was originally built in
1803-8, but was rebuilt and enlarged in I86-M)7.
The cost of tlie new building, which st.-inds upon
about two acres of ground, was about £600,000.
The general merchants and brokers, shipowners
and brokers, metal merchants and brokers, wool
brokei-s, leather brokers, &c. meet daily in tlie
LIVERPOOL
LIVERWORTS
667
news-room — 175 feet lon<;, 90 feet wide, and 50 feet
higli. The cotton iiiercliants and brokers meet
(according to the cnstom of nearly a ci'iitury) in
tlic o])en air, in the spacious area or ' Hags.' Tlie
style of the buildin-' is French Renaissance. Of
eliibs there are the licform, Junior Keforni, Con-
servative, Palathie, E.xchange, &c. There are
fourteen banks in the town, and several of them
are possessed of very large and handsome business
premises. Amongst these may be nameil the
branch of the Bank of England, and the Liver-
pool, Union, North-Western, Parr's, District.
Commercial, National Provincial, and North
and South Wales l)anks. Of monuments the
chief are those of the Queen, Prince Albert,
William IV., Nelson, Wellington, Iluskissou, and
Beaconstield, besides several in the Town-hall,
St George's Hall, Free Library, and parks. The
parks are eight in number — tlie Stanley, Sefton,
Prince's, Botanic, Kensington, Newshani, Sheil,
and Wavertree.
The market-days are Wednesday and Saturday,
for general agricultural produce, and Tuesday and
Friday for corn. The fairs for horses and cattle
are held July 25th and November 11th. The
corn trade transacts its business in the Cora Ex-
change, Brunswick Street, and there is an exten^^
sive market for the cattle-dealers in Kensington.
For agricultural produce there is the Northern
Hay Market. For edibles of all kinds there are
St John's, and St James's, Gill Street, and St
Martin's markets. There are six daily (four
morning and two evening) and four weekly news-
papers, besides the Daily Telegraph and Bill of
Entry, exclusively devoted to shipping mattei's,
three weekly literary periodicals, and one scientific
monthly magazine. Since 1SS5 Liverpool returns
nine members to parliament.
The name Liverpool first occurs in a deed of
1190 : the etymology is not improbably the Cymric
Llyvrpwl, ' the expanse at the pool,' or ' the pool at
the confluence.' The Derby (Stanley) and Sefton
(Molyneux) families, whose mansions are only a
short distance from the town, have from the earliest
times been intimately connected with the borough
and city. Several members of both families serveil
the oftice of mayor in the 16th, ITtli, and 18th
centuries. Amongst other worthies, natives of the
town, may be mentioned Jeremiah Horrocks, the
eminent a-stronomer ; George Stubbs, eminent as
an animal painter ; John Deare, sculptor : John
Sadler, inventor of jiainting on pottery ; Peter
Letherland, inventor of the patent lever watcli ;
Mrs Hemans, the jioetess ; Benjamin Spence,
sculptor : and William Roscop, poet, historian,
and banker. Other ' Liverpudlians ' of eminence
in various departments of life were Viscount
Carilwell, Bishop Liglitfoot, General Earle, Mr
(iladstone. Sir James Picton, A. H. Clough,
Meadows Taylor, the actor Sothern, Ansdell,
(hunter, Waterliouse, A. W. Hunt, Walter Crane,
W. S. Jevons, and the new ' Liverpool .school ' —
a term held to comprLse J. A. Noble, William
Watson, Hall Caine, R. Le tJallienne, and othera.
See Baincs, HMory of the Commerce and Tovti of
Liverpool ( 1852) ; Picton, A/emoririh of Liverpool (2 vols.
187:i; 2d ed. 1876); and The Cotton Trnde of Ureal
Britain, v:ith a Higtort/ of the Lirtrpool Cotton Market,
by tlie writer of the present article ( 1886).
Liverpool, Robkrt B.vxks Jkxkin.son,
E.Mtl, OF, statesman, was born 7th June 1770, the
son of the first Flarl ( 1727-1808). He wjus educated
at the Charterhouse and Christ Chunh. Oxford, and
entered parliament in 1791 .is member for Rye.
Like his fatlier he wa.« a Tory, but with Liberal
ideas on trade and finance. In 1794 he became a
member of the India Hoard, and in IHOI foreign
secretarj' in the Addiiigtou ministry, when Tie
negotiated the unpopular treaty of Amiens. In
180.3 he was createil Lord Hawkesl>«i> , and on
Pitt's return to power he went to the Home Office,
as it was thought desiialile he should ccmtinne to
lead the House of Lords. On the death of Pitt
he was invited to form an iidministiatiim, but
declined in consequence of the schism in the Tory
party. In 1807, however, he again took the Home
Office, under the Duke of Portland, and ne.xt year
succeeded his father as Earl of Liverjiool. In Per-
ceval's ministry of 1809 he was Secretary for War
and the Colonies, and in this ca])acily was charged
with pusillanimity in connecti(m with the Penin-
sular war. After the assassination of Perceval in
1S12 Lord Liverpool formed an administration
which it was predicted would not last for six
months, but which in fact existed for nearly tifteen
years, and then fell only through the illness of the
juemier himself. The first ten years of the Liver-
pool ministry (1812-22) iiave been severely criti-
cised. The partition of Saxony, the abandonment
of Poland, the union of Holland and Belgium, the
Austrian establishment in Italy, the alleged
connivance of England in the suppression of the
revolutionary agitation in Naples, the mismanage-
ment of the finances, the increase in the duty on
foreign corn, the coercive measures adopted for
dealing with discontent in England, are all pointed
to as so many proofs of the incapacity or despotic
sympathies of the English government of this
period. Lord Liveijjool himself was a Free Trader,
and regarded the Corn Law of 1815 as merel}" an
experiment; and when he was joined by Htiskisson
ana Canning he began to liberalise the tarift". He
also desired to retain a portion of the property tax,
wliicli would have obviated the necessity for fresh
taxes ; and, as it only afl'ected men with incomes of
upwards of £200 per annum, its retention would
iiave been a distinct boon to the working-classes.
But Whigs and Tories alike opposed it. Notwith-
standing the blunder of the sinking fund, Lord
Liverpool's financial policy generally was of a
sound and enlightened character ; and his admin-
istration was an economical one. As a states-
man, his chief title to remembrance lies in the fact
that he united the old and the new Tories at a
critical period, and in a manner which neither
Canning nor Wellingtcm could accomplish. On
February 17, 1827, he was stridden with apoplexy,
but he remained nominally prime-minister until
-\pril, when Canning formed a new government.
He died 4th December 1828. See the Life h\ C.
D. Yonge(3 vols. 1868).
Liver-rot. See Fhke.
Liverworts {Hejuitica;) are green flowerless
jilants closely allied to mosses. They grow pro-
tusely on damp rocks, not unfrequentlv on leaves
and stems in moist tropical regions, anil sometimes
even in the water. The majority are prostrate
creepers, but others raise themselves in upright
leafy growths, intermediate between the wholly
leaf-like Thallopliytes (e.g. seaweeds) and the
higher Cormophytes (e.g. fern) in which distinct
stemstructures are developed. There is a marked
dill'erence in structure between the upper and
lower surfaces : thus, the fonner turneil towards
the light bears cliimney-like openings {stomata),
while the under side next the substratum gives off
attaching ami absorbing unicellular outgrowths
(rhizoi(ls) which are jihysiologically comparable to
the roots of higher plants. If a young plant float-
ing in water be illumined wholly from beneath,
the rhizoids will develop on the up]ier surface — i.e.
away from the light as usual. The growth is
usually forked or diehotomous, and is often re-
markably profuse by the nniist river-side or in the
dam)) greenhouse. The plants die awaj' behind
668
LIVERY
LIVINGSTON
as they push ahead with fresh growth, and apart
from tliis tliey multiplv asexually l>y means of
detaehahle clumps of ce^ls (ov gc/»mrc], which are
often formed in special cups on the npper surface.
Life-history of Liverwort {Marchantia pol>iinorpha) :
1 and 2, developing thallus ; 2 shows the cup with gemnicc ;
3, section across thallus, showing cliiiuney-shaped stoma and
sreen cells under, and mucilage cell on left; 4, male hats;
5, development of antheridia ; 6, antheridium nearly ripe ; 7,
antherozoid ; 8, female hat ; 9, 10, archegonia before fertilisa-
tion ; 11, 12, 13, fertilised egg di\iding ; 14, immature sporo-
gonium, containing spores and elaters.
Like the Hydra among animals, liverworts may be
artificially propagated hy being cut into fragments,
and they have remarkable powers of surviving pro-
longed desiccation.
On the vegetative thallus male and female hats
or leproductive organs are borne, on the same or on
diftWrent plants, often with a quaint umbrella-like
or niusliroom-like form. From a female cell fer-
tilised by an actively motile male element there
arises a new spore-bearing veneration, but this, as
in mosses, remains connected with the sexual plant.
Within the spore-cases of the spore-])roducing
generation there are long spring-like cells [elaters],
which twist anil iintwist as moisture is absorbed or
given off, and in so doing help to scatter the iii)e
spores. From the latter the new liverworts are
established, the life-history thus illustrating the
usual alternation of generations between oophvte
and sporophyte. The cla.ss Hepatica? includes five
orders : ( 1 ) Jungermanniaceoe — e.g. Jungermannia
and Pellia ; (2) Monocleacea; — e.g. Mimoclea ; (3)
Anthoceroteie — e.g. Anthoceros ; (4) Kicciacea' —
e.g. Kiccia and Kiella — the latter remarkable for
its submerged liut erect thallus, which forms a con-
tinuovis spiral round a central axis ; (5) March.m-
tiacea?. — e.g. Marchantia, Lunularia, and Fegatella.
The al)undant Marchaidia puiymorpha is a con-
venient type for the i)ractical study of the cla-ss.
See Bennett and Hurray, llamlhook of Crtjpto-
gamic Botaiii/ (hoi\d. I8S9).
Livery ( through the Fiench from Lat. Uberare,
'to deliver'), a word derived from the custom
which prevailed under the Merovingian and Car-
lovingian kings of dclivcrinii splendid habits to
the members of their hou.seholds on great festivals.
In the tlays of chivalry the wearing of livery was
not as now confined to domestic servants. The
duke's son, as page to the iirince, wore the prince's
livery, the earl's son bore the duke's colours and
badge, the son of the esquire wore the livery of
the linight, and the son of the gentleman that of
the esiiuire. Cavaliers wore the livery of their
mistresses. There was also a large class of armed
retainers in livery attached to many of the more
powerful nobles. The livery colours of a family
are taken from their armorial bearings, being
generallv the tincture of the field and that of tlie
princip.ll charge, or the two tinctures of the field
are taken instead where it has two. They are
taken from the first quarter in etise of a quartered
shield. These same coloui-s are alternated in the
' wreath ' on which the crest stands. The royal
family of England have sometimes adopted colours
varying from the tinctures of the arms. The Plan-
tagenets had scarlet and white ; the House of Y(U'k,
murrey and blue ; white and blue were adopted by
the House of Lancaster ; white and green by the
Tudors : yellow ami red by tlie Stuarts, and by
William III. ; and scarlet and blue by the House
of Hanover. An indispensable part of the livery
in former times was the Ba<lge (q.v. ).
Tlie freemen of the T.'i city guilds or corporations
wliidi embrace the cliU'erent trades of London are
called liverymen, because entitled to wear the livery
of their respective companies. In former times the
wardens of the companies used yearly to deliver to
the Lord Mayor certain sums, twenty sliillings of
which was given to individuals who petitioned for
the money to enable them to procure sufficient
cloth for a suit, and the companies juided them-
selves on the sidendid appeaiance which their
liveries made in the civic train. Till the IJcform
Bill in 1832, the liverymen had tlio exclusive
privilege of voting for members of parliament
for the City. The twelve chief corporations are
the Mercers, Grocers, Drapers, Fishmongers, tlold-
smitlis. Skinners, Merchant Tailors, Ilabciilashei's,
Salters, Ironmongers, ^'intners, and Clotiiworkers.
A royal commission was appointed to inquire into
the City companies in I8S0, when their charitable
or trust income was returned at £200.000 a year,
their corporate income at ui>wards of £.550,000, .iiul
the capital value of their projierty (in the Citv, in
the funds, in estates all over England and in
Ulster) at £15,000,000. The annual cost of the
hospitality exercised by the coni]ianies w;is esti-
mated at" £100,000; aiid of the 20,000 hereditary
members about 12,000 were said to belong to the
working-classes. The commission's gigantic Report
was issued in 1884.
Liviiigstou. See Guatejial.v.
Livingston, an eminent American family,
descended lineally from the fifth Lord Livingstcm,
the guardian of Mary (Jueen of Scots, an<l fnun
his grandson, the Rev. John Livingston (l(i03-
72), minister of Ancrum in Teviotdale, who was
banished for refusal to take the ojith of allegiance
to Charles XL, and from 16U3 was pastor of the
Scots kirk at Rotterdam. His son Robert was
born at Ancrum in 1G54, went to America in 1073,
settled at Alliany, and received a giant of a \a.st
tract of land, which he had erected into the m.inur
and lordship of l^ivingston. He died in 172.5.
One of his grandsons was Philip Livingston ( 171()-
78), who sat in the fii-st Continental congress,
and was one of the signei-s of the Declaration of
Independence. Another was William Livingston
(1723-90), the 'Don (Quixote of the Jerseys.' who
was the first governor of New Jersey (1770 !H)),
and conspicuous for the energy and ability of his
administration. The most distinguished of the
family, however, were the brothers Robert R. and
Edward Livingston, great-gr<andsons of the first
Robert.
Robert R. LiviNr..sTON" was born in Xew York
city, 27th November 1740, graduated at King's
(now Columbia) College in I7().5, and was admitted
to the bar in 1773. Sent to congress in 1775, he
was one of the fi\e members of the committee
charged with drawing up the Declaration of In-
deiiendence. AVhen the ciuistitution of the state
of New York was settled he was api)ointed chan-
cellor, a dignity he retained till ISOl. He wiis
then sent to Paris as minister iilenipotentiary, and
successfully negotiated the ce.s>ion of Louisiana to
the United States. He enabled Fulton to construct
his first steamer, and introduced in America the
LIVINGSTON
LIVINGSTONE
669
use of sulpliate of lime .as a niamire, and the
merino sheep, ami in many other ways distin-
guisheil himself as a national benefaclor. He died
on 26th Fehruarv 1813. There is a biography bv
F. De Peyster (New York. 1876).
Edw.vrd Livint.stox. jurist and statesman, \va.«
born at Clermont, New York, '26111 May 1764, and
gi'aduated at Princeton in 1781. He was called
to the bar in 1785, and soon obtaineil an extensive
practice. He had spent his youth among the
loumlei's of American independence, all of whom he
hail known as visitoi-s of his father — a justice of the
New York Supreme Court — and he at once attained
a prominent position. He sat in congress from 1795
to 1801, when he became U.S. district attorney for
New York, and mayor of New York city ; but in
1803, owing to the niisappropriiitions of a subordi-
nate, he found himself considerably in debt to tlie
federal government. He at once lianded over his
whole jiroperty to his creditoi-s, threw np both his
appointments, and resolved to quit New Y(U'k.
Louisiana had just been annexed to the United
States through his brother's negotiations ; and in
1804 he settled in New Orleans, where he at once
obtained lucrative piactice at the bar. During the
second war with England he was aide-de-camp and
secretary to General Jackson ; and from 1822 to
1829 he represented New Orleans in congress. In
1823-24 Livingston was employed in reducing to
system the civil code of Louisiana — for which task
Ills wide acquaintance with juiTsprudence rendered
him peculiarly fitted. He was also coinniissioned
to jnepare a, new criminal code, and in a prelimin-
ary treatise he laid down the principles on which
he was to proceed. He proposed the abolition of
the punishment of death, and a penitentiary system,
which at once drew general attention to his labours.
His book was repiinted in London, translated into
French, and was very favourably received in
England, France, and Germany. His code of
crimes and punishments was completed, but not
directly adojited. Livingston was elected in 1829
to the United States senate, and in 1831 ap-
pointed secretary of state. Two years later he
went to France as minister plenipotentiary, and
succeeded in securing payment of the indemnity
on account of French sjioliations. He died on
2.3d May 1836. See the Life by C. H. Hunt (New
York, 1864).
Livingstone. Dv^aD, missionary and traveller,
was bom at Blantyre in Lanarkshire, 19th March
181.3. His parents, who were in humble life, were
of devout and exemplary character ; his father in
]>articular being a great reader, especially of travels
and missionary intelligence, and much interested
in the enterprise of the 19tli century. At the age
of ten David became a worker in a cotton-factory
at Blantyre, and continued in that laborious
occupation for fourteen years. Ills thirst for know-
ledge led him to read all that he could lay his
hands on ; be used also to attend a night-class,
after the long hours of the fattory, for the study of
Latin. The reading of Dick's I'/iilosophi/ of a
Future State was not only the means of a profound
impression on liLs own mind, but kindled tlie desire
to devote his life iis a missionary to the service of
Christ. Deeply impressed with the advantages of
medical training to a missionari,', lie resolved to
qualify him.self in medicine, as well as the other
attainments looked for in a missionary. The
Lonilon Mi-ssionary Society having accepted the
offer of Ills services, he went to Lomlon to complete
his stuilics. His first desire was to labour in
China, but, war having broken out between that
country and (Jreat Britain, this wish could not be
fulfilleil. The Hev. Kobert MoH'at's visit at this
time to England turned many hearts to Africa —
Livingstones among the rest; altimately he was
appointed to that field, and, having been ordained
on 20tli Novemlier 1840, he set sail for Africa,
reaching Lattakoo or Kuruman, Moffat's settle-
ment, on 31st July 1841.
For several years Livingstone laboured as a
niissi(mary in the Bechuana country, at Mabotse,
Chonnana, and Kolobeng, places that were chosen
by him just because they were in the heart of
heathenism. The convei'sion of Sechclo, chief of
the Bakwains, and several of his tribe was a great
encouragement. Repulsed l)v the Boei-s in an
efl'ort to plant native missionaries in the Transvaal,
he directed his steps northward, discovered Lake
Ngami, and found the country there travei'sed by
fine rivei's and inhabited by a dense population.
His anxiety to benefit this region led llMally to his
uiulertaking to explore the whole count ry west-
wards to tlie Atlantic at St Paul de Loanda and
eastward to the Indian Ocean at Quilimane. Liv-
ingstone had married at Mabotse Mary, eldest
daughter of the Rev. R. Moft'at, and now he found
it necessary to send her, with their cliildren, to
England, tliat he might be free for this vast and
perilous undertaking. To aceomidish it occupied
Irom 8th June 1852, when he left Capetown, to
26th May 1S56, when he arrived at t^uilimane.
This journey was accomplished with a mere handful
of followers, and a mere pittance of stores, amid
sicknesses and other bodily troubles, perils, and
difficulties without number. But a vast amount
of valuable information was gathered respecting
the country and its products', its geography and
natural history, the native tribes, the regions that
were favourable to healtli, and some great natural
wonders, such as the Zambesi Falls. Livingstone,
however, found that the Londf)n Missionary Society
were not willing that he sliould be to so large an
extent an explorer, and some time after returning
to Britain he resigned his office as one of their
missionaries.
At home Livingstone was welcomed with extra-
ordinary enthusiasm, receiving the acknowledg-
ments and honours of scientific societies, universi-
ties, town-councils, and other iniblic bodies in every
quarter of the country. In addition to these tokens
of honour the fifteen months spent at home were
signalised by three things : the writing of his book,
3iissio)iari/ Travels ( 1857 ), which was received with
the liveliest interest ; his visit to Cambridge, awak-
ening the enthusiasm of many of the students, and
leading to the formation afterwards of the ' Uni-
versities Mission;' and his appointment by Her
Majesty's government as chief of an exjiedition for
exi)loring tlie Zambesi and its tributaries and the
regions adjacent.
On this expedition Li^'ingstone set out on 10th
March 1858. While successful in many ways, it
led to not a little disappointment. Livingstone
explored the Zambesi, the Shire, and the Rovunia ;
discovered lakes Shirwa and Nvassa, ami came to
a decided conclusion that Lake Nyassa and its
neighbourhood was the best Held for both com-
mercial and niLssionary operations. His disap-
poiiitinents arose from the grievous defects of a
steamer sent out to him by government; from the
death of comrades .and helpers, including his wife
and Bishop .M.ickenzie ; from the abandonment of
the Universities Mission ; from the oiiposition of
the Portuguese authorities ; but mainly from the
distressing discovery that, encourageil by Portu-
gue.se traders, the slave-trade was extending in
the district, and the slave-traders using his very
discoveries to facilitate their infamous traflic. At
length a despatch recalling the expi'<lition was
received, 2d .luly 1863. Livingstone at his own
cost had brought out a new steamer, but she
could not be ]>ut on the lake. l)enres.sed though
he was, he ex|iloi'ed the northern lian'ks of Lake
670 LIVINGSTONIA MISSION
LIVRE
Nyassa on foot ; then in his own vessel and under
his own seauianslui) crossed the Indian Ocean to
Bombay ; and after a brief stay there, returned to
Britain, reaching London on "iSd July 1864.
At home Livingstone had two objects — to expose
the atrocious deeds of the Portuguese slave-
traders, and to find means of establishiug a settle-
ment for missions and commerce somewhere near
the head of the Kovuma, or wherever a suitable
locality could be found. His second book, Tlie
Zambesi aiui its Tributaries ( 1865), was designed to
fnrther these objects. He wa.s again received with
every demonstration of honour and regard. A pro-
posal was made to him on the part of the Royal
Geograjihical Society to return to Africa and settle
a disputed ([uestion regarding the watershed of
central Africa and the sources of the Nile. He
said he would go only as a mLssionary, but was
willing to help to solve the geographical problem.
He set out in August 1865, rid Bombay and
Zanziljar. On 19th March 1866 he started from
the latter place, first of all trying to find a snit.ible
settlement, then striking westward in order to
solve the geographical prolilem. Througli the
ill-behavi<nir of some of his attendants a report of
his death was circulated, but an expedition headed
by Mr E. D. Young, R.N., ascertained that tlie
report was false. Livingstone pressed westw.ird
amid innumerable hardships, and in 1869 discovered
Lakes Meoro and Bangweolo. .-\11 the wldlo he
was doing what he could for the religiims euligliten-
ment of tlie natives, (jl)liged to return for I'est to
Ujiji, where he found his goods squandered, he
struck westward again as far as the river Lualaba,
thinking it might possibly be the Nile, hut far
from certain that it was not what it proved after-
wards to be, the Congo. Returning after severe
illness once more to Ujiji, Livingstone found Mr
H. IL Stanley there, who had been sent to look
for him by the pro|irietor of the Xriv York Heriild.
But no consideration would induce him to return
home till he had maile one more etl'ort to solve
the geographical problem. He returned to Lake
Bangweolo, but fell into wretched health. His
sufferings always increasing, when he reached
Chitambo's village in Ilala he was obliged to give
in. On the morning of 1st May 1873 he was
found by his attendants on his knees, dead. His
faithful peo))]e embalmed his body as be.st they
could, carried it amidst the greatest perils to the
shore, where it was put on board a Britisli cruiser,
and on 18th April 1874 it was buried in West-
minster -Abbey. Among the remains brought home
were his Last Journals, brought ilown to within a
few days of his death ; these were published in
1874. Stanley suggested the name of Livingstone
for the main stream of the C(mgo (hence tin?
Baptist Mission on the Lower Congo was called
the 'Livingstone Inland Mi.ssi<m'), and Mr H. H.
Johnston propo.sed that )iart of the East African
teirilory accjuired by Britain in 1890 — the lo\\i'r
drainage area of the Zambesi — should be called
Livingstone Land.
See Professor Blaikie's Personal Life of DaritI Lii'imi-
stone (1880); the short Life by Thomas Hughes (18811) ;
and 8ir H. H. Johnston, Licinyatonc and the Keploralivii
of Central Africa ( 1891).
LiviiiKstoiiia Mission was based im a sug-
ge.stion made by Dr Livin:;st()iie tlial Lake Nya.-sa
(ci.v.) was the best position for the establishment
of a mission with a view to the annilnlalion of
the Forluguese and Arab slave-trade on the east
of -Vfrica. Its first settlement Wiis at Ca])i'
Maclear at the .south end of the lake; but this
was abandoned in 1883 for a healthier site at
Bandawe. half-way U]) the west shore. An exjiedi-
tion, coslin'' about £1)000, was equipped in 1875 by
the Eree Cliurch of Scotland for establishing the
mission here ; and another station, called Blan-
tyre, after Livingstone's birthplace, was planted
in 1876 by the Established (liurch of Scotland
in the Shir6 Highlands, witldu easy distance
of the lake. As yet the chief iiulustries are
iron manufacture, basket-making, and cloth manu-
facture from the bark of trees and cotton. With
the exception of the 70 miles of the Jlurchison
Kails, there exists nubroken water -communica-
tion between the bead of Nyassa and the Indian
Ocean. The African Lakes Company has done
much to pronn)te missions, civilisation, and c(nn-
merce. It blasted a road from the north end of
Nyassa up the heights to tlie ]dateau between it
and Tanganyika, at a cost of i'4000, supidieil by .Mr
Stevenson, after whom the road is nameil. It
launched steamers, educated the natives in handi-
crafts, and liad to stand the brunt of attacks from
savage neighbours, Arab slave-traders, and I'ortu-
guese hostility. But since 1890 the country is
under the British flag, and is part of Nyassaland
(see NvASS.i) or British Central Africa.
Living. See Livv.
LivillS Alldronicns, the father of Roman
dramatic and epic poetry, was a Greek by birth,
]M-obably a native of Tarentum, and was carried a
slave to Rome in 272 B.C., but afterwards liber-
ated by his master. He translated the Odi/ssey
into Latin Saturnian verse, and wrote tragedies,
comedies, and hymns after Greek models. Mere
fiagments are extant, collected in L. Midler's
Livi Andronici ct Cn. Nwri Fabidarum Bcli(jiii(e
(1885). See L.vrtN.
Livonia (Ger. Livland), one of the three Baltic
provinces of Russia, to whicli belong also the islands
of Oesel, Mohn, and Kuno, contains an area of
18,153 sq. m. It forms the eastern side of the Gulf
of Riga, and lies Ijetween Esthonia on the north
and Courland on the south, being separated from
this latter by the river Dwina. The country is
mostly Hat, and nearly one-fourth of it is covered
with forests. Lakes and streams and marshes are
common. The soil is only of moderate fertility ;
nevertheless agriculture, the chief occupation, is
carried on in a skilful manner, rye, liaiiey, oats,
flax, and potatoes being the inincipal crops. Dis-
tilling, brewing, iron-founding, oil-pre.ssmg, and
cork, wool, and paper manufacture are the more
important industries. Sawmills are active. The
fisheries are valuable. Pop. ( 1870) 1,000,876) : ( 1893)
1, '270,530, of whom 43 per cent, are Letts, 41i i)er
cent. Estbonians, S per cent. Germans, and 5 per
cent. Russians. The Livonians jiroper, a Einnic
ra(« akin to the Esthonians, have dwindled
down toaliout 2400. Capital, Riga; other towns,
Dcnpat, Pernau, Wenden. In the first decade of
the 13th century the principality was given to the
Knights of the Order of the Sword, who in 1237
were merged in the order of the Teutonic Knights,
and maintained their sovereignty against the .Arch-
bishop of Riga, anij against Sweden, I'oland,
Lithuania, and Ru.ssia down to past the middle of
tlie 16th century. Krom that time Livoida was a
bone of contention between I'olaml, Sweden, and
Russia, until its incor[ioration with the last-named
country in 1721. Since the middle of the 19th
century, and especially since 1881, the Russians
have made determined efforts to 'russify' the
province.
Livorno. See Leohorn.
Livro, the name of an ancient French coin,
derived from the Kouum Libra. There were livres
of different values, the most inqiortant being the
Lirrr Toiirnois (of Tours), which was considered
the standard, and the Lirrc I'arisis (of Paris),
which was equal to five-fourths of a livre Tonnioi.s.
It was divided into '20 sous, each of 12 deniers. In
LIVY
LIZARDS
671
I'Q-) the livre was supersedeil by the franc ( 80 francs
= 81 livres Tournois). — LiVRE wius also tlie ancient
French unit of weight, and was equal to about 1 lb.
avoirdupois; the kilo<;raninie (see GRAMME) has
talvLMi its place.
Livy. Titus Livirs (59 B.C.-17 a.d.), Rome's
greatest historian, was born, according to St Jerome,
at Putaviuui (now Padua) in the Venetian province,
in Julius Ca?sar"s first consulshiii. Of a noble and
wealthy family, he received the usual education in
rhetoric and philosophy, and on coming to Rome
was admitted to the court of Augustus. Inde-
pendent in character and means, lie never flattered
the emperor like \'irgil and Horace, but, avowing
his jirelerence for the re|)ublic over the nuuiarcliy,
he foresaw in the giowth of lu.xury the fall of the
empire, and in the loss of freedom the end of Rome.
He praised Brutus and t'assius and sympathise<l
with Pompey, at the same time stigmatising Cicero,
an accessory to the murder of C;rsar, as having got
from Antony's bravoes only his deserts. Of the
great C;esar himself he doubted whether he was
more of a curse or .a blessing to the common-
wealth ; and throughout his history he seems to
have mentioned Augustus but twice, and that inci-
dentally— though in reply to the Greek Timagenes,
the detractor wliile the guest of Augustus, he says
that by restoring peace and allaying civil strife the
emperor had reinvigorated Rome to overcome a
thousand armies more formidable than the Mace-
donian Alexanders. Such frieiuiship as they had
for each other Livy and Augustus never lost —
Augustus taking a lively interest in the progress of
Livy's work, while Livy seems to have been still
intimate enough at court to e.xhort the future
Emperor Claudius (born 10 B.C.) to the study of
history. Livy had a son, also, it is believed, a man
of letters, and a daughter married to Magius the
rhetorician. He visited various parts of Italy —
among them Campania and the Neapolitan sea-
tward, and, probably in disgust at the aliasemeut of
the senate and the cruelties of Tiberius, he returned
to his native Patavium to die.
Li\-j-s work, recording the history of Rome from
her foundation to the death of Drusus, 9 B.C., was
published in instalments, and comprised 142 books,
of which those from the Iltli to the 20th, and from
the 46th to the 142d, have been lost. Of the 35
that remain the 4lst and 43d are imperfect. The
last writer to notice the history as still entire is
PrLscian the grammarian (otli century). Its volu-
ininousness, the labour and cost of transcription,
and i)ossibly the vindictive hatred of emperors, like
Caligula, to its republican spirit, combined, it is
supposed, to lessen the number of copies, till those
that snrWved must have perished in whole or in
part, with such pagan liliraries as Gregory the
Great is known to have burned. The hope, re-
newed at intervals, of recovering the lost books
has never been realised ; the ' perioch.'e,' or sum-
maries of the contents of each book, composed in
the wane of Roman literature, to catalogue names
and events for rhetorical purposes, have all, how-
ever, come down to us, except those of books 136
and 137. But what has been spared is more
than enough to confirm in modern days the
judgment of antiquity which jilaces Livy in the
forefront of Latin writers. His impartiality,
subject always to a conviction just esca|)ing
Chauvinism that Rome morally and materially
was the gieatest ' birth of time,' is not less a
note of his work than his veneration for the good,
the generous, the heroic in man. His style, save
where the text still delies the commentator, is as
nearly perfect as is compatible with his ideal of
the historian. The narrative Hows deep and full,
never straying beyond its banks nor growing turbid
within them, picturesque on all due occasions,
interesting and animated tlirou"h historic tracts
often dreary in themselves. Niebuhr found in his
rich, at times sombre, glow of colour another proof
of his Venetian origin : certainly for portraiture of
character he is the Titian of historians. The
fastidious, ]>ossibly jealous, Asinius Pollio detected
in his Latinity a i)rovincialism redolent of Patavium,
but latter-day scholars seek for this ' Patavinitas '
in vain — find, in fact, nothing more than the lii'st
faint streaks of the silver age revealed in an occa-
sional preference for poetic diction. His defects
in the 'fierce light' of modern research are more
apparent to us than even to his contemporaries, por
investigation of facts he did not go far afield ; our
own Hume is not more of an arm-chair historian.
He declined even at the instance of Augustus to
verify an important inscription in the temple of
Jupiter Feretrius, and he omitted to consult the
epigraphs inscribed in the temple of Diana on the
Aventine, the treaties concluded by Itome with
Gabii and Ardea, even the Icilian law which
Dionysius examined with such pains. Acccjiling
history as fine art rather than as science, he was
content to take his authorities as he found them,
and where they difVered to act the eclectic, guided
by taste or predilection. Yet his work remains
monumental, in spite of all the streaks in the
marble, and the modern reader never fails to
appreciate that impulse of the Spaniard from
Gades who made a pilgrimage to Rome just to see
Livy, and having done so returned satbfied.
The bibliography accumulated round Livy is a hbrary
in itself. Gronovius, Drakenborcb, Kuddinian, and, in our
own day, Madvig, Alscliefski, "Weissenborn, and Cocchia
have contributed much to piu-ify his text and illustrate
his meaning. He has yet to find an adequate translator
in English, though meritorious versions of parts of his
history ( that of Church and Brodribb for example. Books
xxi.-xxv.) have been pubHshed, and there is a transla-
tion of the wliole, in fine Elizabethan Englisli, br Phile-
mon Holland (1600). See the book by the Eev."W. W.
Capes in ' Classical Writers ' 1 1879) ; J. H. Taine's Essai
sur Tite Lire {li-60) ; and Prof. Seeley's introduction to
his edition of Book i. (1871).
Lixiviation ( Lat. lix, 'ashes' ), a term employed
in chemistry to denote the process of washing or
steeping certain substances in a fluid, for the pur-
pose of dissolving a portion of their ingredients,
and so separating them from the insoluble residue.
Thus, wood-ash is lixiviated with water to dissolve
out the carbonates of soda and potash from the
insoluble parts. The solution thus obtained is
called a lixivium, or ley.
Lixouri, a thriving town in Cephalonia, on the
west side of the Gulf of Argostoli. It lies opposite
the capital, Argostoli (q.v.), at a distance of less
than 3 miles, though the road round the gulf is
nearly 20 miles long. Pop. 8000.
Lizard Poiut. See Cornwall.
Lizards ( Lacertilia ), an order of reptiles occupy-
in;; a somewhat central position in that class. The
body is visually well covered with scales, reaching
a climax in the tubercles and spines covering the
Australian moloch, but very much reduced in the
geckos and amphisba-nas. There are generally fore
and hind limbs, but either pair may be lo>t, or
both in such serpent-like forms iis the slow-worm
(Aiif/iiis fniiiitis) and the aniphisba'iias. Shoulder
and liip girdles are always present, in rudiment at
lejLst. Unlike snakes, lizards have non expansible
mouths, aiul almost always movable eyelids ami
external ear-openings. The teeth are fused to the
jaws, not olanted in sockets; the protrusible tongue,
broad anil short in geckos, aganias, and ignamus,
long and tiMiiiinally clubbed in channi Icons, is ill
most lizards a narrow, worm-like, biliil organ of
touch. There is a transvei-se cloacal .iperture, a.
urinary bladder, and a double copulalury organ.
672
LLAMA
LLANDUDNO
Most are oviparous, Imt a few — e.g. the slow-worm
ami our Hritisli Xoirj/d (Zuufurii) vifi/iiini — briiij;
forth their young living. Lizards, though most
abundant in the tropics, and absent from very cold
countries, are virtually world-wide in distribution.
There is one marine form, Orcoccj)/i(tl us (AiiiMi/rhi/ii-
chiis) cnstatiis, from the Galapagos: most of the
rest are terrestrial. Yet the geckos climU on rocks
and trees, the giant \'aranida' are semi-aquatic,
the amphisbiena-s are subterranean, and the arboreal
dragons (Draco) take long swoops through the air
from branch to branch. The food generally con-
sists of insects, worms, and similar small animals,
but some prey upon larger animals, and others are
vegetarian. "Lizards are usually active, agile ani
mais, lieautifully and often protectively coloured.
They are noteworthy for britlleness in the caudal
region, and for their power of reproducing lost tails
or even legs. Amoii" the most remarkable form>
may be noted the Geckos (q.v.) ; the large monitors
(Varanus), which attain a length of six feet, and
prey ujion small mammals, birds, frogs, fishes, and
eggs ; the jioisonous Mexican lizard, lleloderiiut /tor-
riJiiin, with large poison-gland and fang-like teeth ;
the worm-like Amphisbasnas ; the Slow-worm,
whicli illustrates so well the tendency lizards have
to break in the spasms of capture ; the large Iguanas,
which frequent tropical American forests, and feed
on leaves and fruit ; the sluggish spiny ' Horned
Toads' (Phrynosoraa) ; the Aganuis, taking the
place of the iguanas in the Old \^'orld ; the Flying
Ihagon ( q. V. ) ; the Australian frilled lizanls (t'hlamy-
dosaurus), with a peculiar collar of skin; the re-
pulsive molocli ; and the divergent Chama'leons
(q.v.). The unique New- Zealand lizard, Sphenodim
or Hatteria, with its remarkable persistent pineal
of foraging for itself make it most valuable for
transport in the rough and steej) mining regions of
the Andes. In many places, however, mules have
to some extent replaced the llamas. The males
carry a hundredweight about twelve miles in a
day. The females, which are kept for breeding.
Coniinoii Lizard {Laeerta vivipara).
eye, is to be regarded as the sole survivor of a
distinct order — Khyncocephalia (see Si'HENODOM).
There are four British lizards, the commonest
being Laccrta vivipara and the Slow-worm. Two
otlier species of Lacerta— Z^. a/jilii: and the green
L. viridis — have a local distribution in the south of
England and the Channel Islands. The modern
forms are cla-ssilied in twenty-one families, includ-
ing over 1600 species. Though Lacertilia i)robably
began about the I'ermian times, their remains are
not numerovis before Tertiary strata. See (.;. A.
Boulenger, Catalogue of the Liz.ards in the British
Museuin (3 vols. 1885-87).
Llama, or L.vm.v (Auchenia lama), a most
tiseful South American ruminant of the camel
family. It is probably a domesticated variety of
the guanaco (Anchcnici haaiiaru), whose herds
roam with the rheas on the plains of Patagonia,
or climl) on the Cordillera.s. As a beast of burden
the llama wius in general use at the time of the
Spanish conquest, and its sure-footedness and power
J_l._:._ ,_. l'( lama).
are smaller and less strong than the males. The
animal is larger and stouter than the allied species
the Alpaca (q.v.), stands aliout three feet high at
the shoulders, and keeps its head raised. It is
gentle and docile, but is likely enough to squirt its
yellow spittle in the face of tormentius. Tlie hair,
which may be black or white, reddish or yellowish,
Ls too roilgh to be much used except for coarse
materials and string ; the flesh of the young animal
is good to eat.
Llailbcris, the 'Chamonix of Wales,' 9 miles
ESE. of Carnarvon, lies at the north-west base of
Snowdon, and near the foot of the wild Pass of
Llanberis. The two lakes of Llanberis, 2 and \\
miles long, ai-e sadly disfigured by slate-quarries.
Pop. of parislu ISen 1364; (1881)3033; (1891)2818.
Llaildair. a small town of Glamorganshire, on
the right bank of the Tatt', 2 miles N\\'. of Cardiff
(q.v.). It is the seat of a very ancient bishopric,
said to have been founded by St Duljricius, who
died in 612, and among whose successoi-s have been
St Teilo and Bishops Godwin, Shute Barrington,
Richard Watson, Sumner, and Copleston. The
cathedral church, in virtue of which LlandatV is
a 'city ' — one of the smallest in Britain — was built
between 1120 and the first half of the 13th century,
and is mainly Early English in style. It had fallen
into utter ruin in 1575, but in 1735-52 w;us barbar-
ously patched up into an ' Italian temple.' In 1843-
69 it was thoroughly restored. Pop. 2747. See
works by E. A. Freeman ( 1850), Bishop Ollivant
(18601, and R. J. King • 1873).
Llaildilo. a town of South Wales, on the Towy,
14 miles K\K. of Carmarthen. It gives name to a
group of Silurian strata. Pop. 1533.
Llandovery, a municipal borough (1484) of
South Wales, oil the Bran, 25 miles ENK. of Car-
marthen. It gives name to a groui) of Silurian
strata. Pop. 1728.
Llandudno, a fiishionable watering-place in
Carnarvonshire, North Wales, is situated on the
level neck of a promontory between the Great and
Little Urine's Heads, 48 niiles by rail WNW. of
Chester. Its bracing and delightful climate, its
goo<l sea-bathing, and its picturesque surroundings
—the Great Orme's Head (700 feet) commanding
views of Snowdon and Angle.sey, and even (if -Man
and the Cumberland mountains— have combined to
raise Llandudno since 1841 from a small fishing-
village to a yearly resort of some 20,000 visitors,
LLANELLY
LLOYD'S
673
with many hotels and boarding -houses, hydro-
pathies, a" fine promenade, a pier (1250 feet), a
'ni.iriiio drive' (oA miles), iK.o. Resident pop.
(ISol) ini : (1SS1)'4S39: (1891)0065.
Llailt'lly* •I manufacturing town and seaport of
Carmanlieii>liire, South Wales, 11 miles WNW. of
Swanseju The mineral wealth of the vicinity, and
the easy access to the sea, have raised it from a
mere village in 1 SI 3 to a town of considerahle eoui-
mercial imiiorlauce. The C'auiUriaii copper-works
employ a great number of the inhabitants ; there
are also silver, leail, inm, an<l tin works, potteries,
chemical works, &c. Large docks have heen eon-
structeil, and coal is largely exported. With Car-
iiiartheu it returns one member to parliament.
Top. ( 1S51 ) N71U : ( 18S1 ) 19,655 ; ( 1S91 ) 24,307.
Llanfairrefliail, a pleasant little watering-
place of Carnarvonshire, North Wales, at the base
of Penmaeumawr, 7 miles WSW. of Conway.
Pop. of parisli ( 1S51 ) 809 ; ( 1891 ) 2407.
Llansollen, a town of Denbighshire, Nortli
Wales, picturesquely situateil on the Dee, 22 miles
SW. of Chester and 26 XW. of Shrewsbury. It
has a town hall (1866) and flannel manufactures,
and is \ isited by tourists on account of the beauty
of the famous Vale of Llangollen, and for its anti-
quities, among which are Dinas Bran or Crow-
Castle, Valle Crucis Abbey (1200), and Eliseg's
Pillar (8th or 9th century). Plas Newydd, i mile
S. of the bridge, was for half a century the resi-
dence of the two Irish recluses, the ' Ladies of the
Vale,' or ' Maids of Llangollen,' Lady Eleanor
Butler (174.5-^1829) and Miss Sarah "Ponsonby
( 1755-1831 ), who were visited here by Madame de
Genlis, Miss Seward, De Quincey, and many other
celebrities. Pop. 5546. See Simpson's History of
Llangollen (3d ed. 1852).
Llanidloes, a municipal and parliamentaiy
borougli of Slontgomeryshire, North Wales, on tlie
Severn, 5UA miles NW. of Herefoid by rail and 56
SW. of Shrewsbury. Its interesting church, built
partly with materials from Cwmhir Abbey, was
restored in 1882. Considerable manufactures of
flannel and other woollen fabiics are carried on ;
and in the neiglihonrhood are extensive lead-mines.
With Montgomerv, &.C., Llanidloes returns a mem-
ber. Pop. ( 1851 )'3045 ; ( 1881 ) 3421 ; ( 1891 ) 2574.
Llanos (Span., 'plains,' from Lat. planus,
' level ; ' pron. li/a'nos) are vast plains in the north-
ern portion of South America, in some parts barren
and sandy, in othei-s covered with luxuriant grass
and stockeil with itmumerable herds of cattle. (Jver
great portions, however, there is a lieavy growth of
timber. The Uaneros resemble the Gauchos ( q. v. )
farther south.
Llanthoiiy, on the Honddu, in Monmouth-
sliire. 20 miles N. of Abergavenny, a Cistercian
abbey, founded in 1108. Its church and chapter-
house form a tine ruin in the Transition Norman
style. In the Prior's Lodge, now an inn, Walter
Savage Landor lived for three years after his mar-
riage, until driven away by worries that harassed
all his life. He had spent much toil and money
on attempts to improve the natural sterility of
the soil. Four miles up the valley is Llanthony
' Monastery,' founded by ' Father Ignatius.'
Llcrena« a town of Si>ain, 83 miles by rail N. of
Sc-ville. Near here the British cavalry routed the
French cavalry on April 11, 1812. Pop. .").VJ2.
LU'W«'l.vn. See Bkkcknock.siiike.
Llorcnte. Ju.vn Antonio, the historian of
the Spanish Inquisition, wa.s born at Kincon del
Soto, near Calahorra, in 1756. He was trained for
the priestluH)d and took orders early, but his studies
were cliielly secular — history, arelueology, and juris-
prudence—and in his memoirs he confes.ses an
303
inclination to the French philosophv of the day.
His advancement, howe\er, was rapid. He became
vicar-general of the tlioce.se in 1782, agent of the
Inquisition at Logrofio in 1785, and canon of Cala-
horra and secretary to the Inquisition in 1789.
The projected reforms in the i>roccdure of the Holy
Office brought him into close connection with
Jovellanos, and the imprisonment of the minister
drove him into retirement for a time ; but in 1805
he found favour with Goiloy, whom lie served by
justifying uu historical grounds his attack on the
fueros of tlie Basque Provinces. In 1806 he was
made canon of Ttdedo, and was on the high road
to a bishopric when Napoleon put a stop to his
|)romotion. He was, however, included among the
Notables assembled at Bayonne to ratify the French
u.surpation. King Joseph, who stood in need of
ailaptable Spaniards, gave him a seat in his council
of state, and appointed him to sundry posts m(U-e
or less connected with conliscation ; and in 1809,
when the Inquisition was sup[)ressed, i)laced all its
archives in his hands that he might write its
liistory. But the times aft'orded little leisure for the
task. The ebb and How of war kept Joseph always
on the move, and Llorente followed his fortunes
with a fidelity that would be admirable but for
the fact that his life was not safe among his own
counti-jnien. After the battle of Vitoria he effected
his retreat to Paris, and there, translated into
French under his own eyes by Alexis Pellier, the
work came out at last in 1817-18. The Sjjanish
edition did not ajijiear tUl 1822, as the Inquisition,
restored by Ferdinand, survived till 1820. The
\ alue and importance of the book, notwithstanding
its want of method, were recognised at once.
There was a 2d edition in 1818, and translations in
German, English, and Italian followed si)ee<lily ;
but it provoked bitter feeling, to which Llorente
added in 1822 by his Portrait Politique ties Popes,
and at the instance of the clerical jiarty he was
ordered to quit France forthw itli. He set out for
Madrid, and a few days after his arrival died
(Februaiy 5, 1823), broken down by the fatigues
of a hasty journey in severe winter weather.
Llorente's time-serving char.acter, his animus
against the Inquisition, the Church, and the pope,
and his admi.ssion of having burned documents
have been urged as reasons against his trust-
worthiness. But the most learned of his opponents,
Hefele, can bring no graver charge against him
than tliat the number he gives for the victims at
I Seville in one year should have been distributed
over several years and among several cities. His
account of tlie burning of some of the paiiers is
perfectly straightforward, and his sentiments as to
the Inquisition are always frankly declared. It is
open, of course, to its apologists to say that he
may have kept hack facts in its favour, but critics
of unimpeachable impartiality and competence,
Prescott, Ticknor, anil Buckle, to name no others,
testify to the accuracy ami honesty of his work.
His minor works, some twenty or thirty in number,
include an account of the origin of the fueros of
the Basijue Provinces ; the Annals of the Inquisi-
tion as far as the year 1530 ; a short autobiography,
in which he defends his F'rench partisanship as
prudent patriotism ; and his Critical Obserrations
on Gil Bias ( 1822). See Lsi.A and Le S.\GE.
Lloyd's is in the first ])lacc an association of
underwriters, each of whom conducts his business
according to his own views. For those view s, or for
the business transacted hy individual underwriters,
Lloyd's as a corpmation is in no way responsible,
except that the cuiumiltce of l,li>yd's before the
election of any underwriting member requires that
the candidate shall place in the hamis of the
committee .security to meet his underwriting liabili-
ties. For many years this custom has prevailed,
674
LLOYD'S
and the total secuiities thus placed at the disposal
of the coiniiiittee of Ll()y<l s ainount to al)Out
£4,000,000. It is dilliciilt to cstiniate the value
of piopertv annually insured at IJoyd's, hut it
probably amounts to" about £400,000, (ioo. Lloyd s
a-s a corporation, and the committee as its execu-
tive, have little to do with marine insurance.
Their business is to conduct tlie ali'airs of Lloyd's
in its corporate capacity, to carry out the sujiply
and distribution of ship])int; intelligence, and to
guard a.s trustees the cor|)orate funds and corporate
pro])erty.
The name of Lloyd's is derived from a coft'ee-
hou.se kept by Mr Edward Lloyd in the 17th cen-
tury. In 1692 Lloyd's cotleebouse moved from
Tower Street to Lombard Street, where it became
the centre of shipping and underwriting business ;
and in 1774 Lloyd's moved from the coiree-house
in Lombard Street to the north-eastern premises of
the Royal Excliange, where it occupied, on the first
floor, the rooms hitherto held by the East India
Company The wars, which lasted from 1775 with
but short pauses till 1815, raised Lloyd's to the
high position which It now holds, bringing home
to merchants the necessity of covering their risks
as elt'ectually as possible. High premiums a<le(]uate
to high risks were ottered. Merchants of wealth
became insurers of property alloat, and tens of
thousands w-ere written in the names of single
underwriters at Lloyd's. The wars had the effect
of bringing foreign marine insurance from all parts
of the world to Great Britain, since the security
of Lloyd's then, as now, was unequalled in the
world. The membership of Lloyd's has greatlj-
increased : in 1S.")0 there were 210 underwriting
membei-s ; in 1800, 592.
In the second jilace, Lloyd's is an enormous
organisation for the collection and distribution of
marine intelligence. The intelligence department of
Lloyd's was originally established at Lloyd s cott'ee-
liouse to meet the imblic desire for information
with regai'd to vessels at sea. Lloyd's Neics was
established in 1696, and resuscitated in 1726 under
the name of Lloi/d'n List, which is thus the oldest
newspaper e.xLsting in Europe at the present time,
with the e.xception of the London Gazette. The
intelligence department at Lloyd's ha.s continually
developed. During the Napoleonic wars the
government was often indebted to the committee
of Lloyd's for the earliest information of trans-
actions all over the world.
The great wealth of Lloyd's, and the fortunes
made there, attracted general attention, and in
1810 parliament appointed a committee to inquire
into the atl'airs of the institution. From this in-
quiry Lloyd's emerged victoriously, and since that
time has "continued to assist in the promotion of
every measure which might aid in the preservation
of life at sea, the ]irevention of fraud in connection
with marine insurance, an<l tlie rapid collection and
distribution of maritime intelligence to all interested.
The corporation luis its agents in every port, and
there is no line of sea-coast in the whole world
which is not watched by some repre.'^entative of
Lloyd's. In 1871 Lloyd's was incorporated by act
of parliament. The general introduction of tele-
graphy has caused an enormous development of the
information received atanddistributeil from Lloyd's.
Various works are i)ublished by the cor|)oration for
the benefit of the mercantile community, such as
Lloyd' s List, Lloyits Weekly Stiipjiinij Index, and
Lloyd's ConfideHliul Index. The Mereantilc Navy
IJst, International Code List, and British Code
List are edited by the UegisI rar-general of Seamen,
and published by Lloyd's. At Lloyd's is also main-
tained a Captains' Iteyister, showing the services
of every master in the mercantile marine ; and
much coniidential information of great value to
underwriters is collected in the secretary's office
fm- the benelit of members and subscribers to the
corjjoration.
The value of signal-st<ations as a means of i)ro-
viding early shi|)piiig information is great, not only
to underwriters, but to owners of vessels and car-
goes, as it is frequently of advantage that a vessel
making for some particular port should be inter-
cepted ami ordered to some other ])ort. Vessels
arriving off outlying signal-stations bring imiiortaiit
intelligence as to derelicts and wrecks passed on
their voyages ; as also information of vessels in dis-
tress and requiring assistance. Vessels arriving
from long voyages overdue are also rejHJrted at these
stations. Not one vessel in ten bound to ]iorts in
the United Kingdom from distant ports arrives at
her terminal port without fust being reported from
one of Lloyd's signal-stations. The corporation of
Lloyd's now holds a similar position with regard to
signal-stati<ms to that occupied by the corjioration
of the Trinity House with regard to lighthouses.
These valuable aids in the preservation of life and
property are one of the latest developments of this
great corporation. Lloyd's also maintains an ' In-
quiry OHice,' where the relations of the crew or
passengers in any vessel may obtain information
without cost concerning the movements of that
vessel or any other matter of interest to them.
Lloyds KisiiisTiiit is a society voluntarily
maintained by the shipping comnmuity with the
primary object of classifying vessels according to
their strength and etiiciency for the safe carriage of
cargoes. It is the recognised authority on such
matters in the United Kingdom, and also to a very
considerable extent iu foreign countries. The
society's atl'airs are managed by a committee of
fifty members, composed of merchants, shipowners,
and underwriters, elected to rei)resent the important
shi|jping centres of the country. The numerous
duties of the society are executed nnder the control
of the committee by' a stall' of 134 ship and engineer
surveyors in the United Kingdom, and of 121 ap-
pointed at the principal foreign ports. Kules are
published annually by the society, embodying the
best current practice in the construction of ships
and engines. Both new and old vessels can be
classed nnder these rules. In the case of a new
vessel the plans for construction are in the first
in.stance submitted to the committee, by whom
they are examined and returned with such modi-
fications as are considered requisite. The build-
ing of the vessel then proceeds under the super-
vision of the local surveyor, and when she is
completed the surveyor forwards a detailed re-
|iort for the consideration of the committee by
whom the character is assigned.
Wood .sliii)s are a.ssigned the character Al as a
lirst class for a term of years varying according to
the materials and fastenings used in their con-
struction. Lower grades of character are expressed
by the .symbols Al in red and .E. Iron anil steel
vessels are cla.ssed for an indefinite jjeriod under a
system of frequent surveys, the varying degrees of
strength being indicated by the characters lOOAl,
90A1, and SOAl. Nearly 90 per cent, of tlie ton
nage constructed in the United Kingdom is built
under the supervision of the society's surveyoi>
and classed in the register-book. Altogether,
over 8000 vessels of nine and a quarter million
tons hold a classilication assigned by Lloyil's
Kegister, subject to periodical inspection by the
society's oflicers.
The inspection of the machinery and boilers of
steam-vessels during and after construction comes
also within the scope of the society's functions.
Under the authority of government it controls the
testing of anchors and chains at eight out of the
nine provinghouses iu the country, in accordance
LLOYD'S BONDS
LOAN
675
with the provisions of the Chain and Anchor Act of
1871. It tests tlie steel iiitemled for use in con-
struotiiig ships and lioilers, and inspects hirge forc-
ings and eiustings ; it provides for the survej' and
chissilication of yachts ; ami it has been entrusted
by government with the fixing of niaxiniuni load-
lines to merchant-vessels.
Lloyd's Register issues annually to its sub-
scribers a register containing particulars of the
classification of vessels to which characters have
been assigned, together with many other details,
constituting a very full record of their construction,
history, iS.c. All other s("agoing vessels of the
world of 100 tons and upwards are included in the
work, which contains jjarticulars of the age, builil,
tonnage, dimensions, ownei-ship, iS.c. of some 32,000
vessels. The society ha.s existed in its present form
since 1834, when it superseded two rival institutions
having a similar object. The offices of the society
are situated in White Lion Court, Cornhill, London.
Amongst several marine institutions bearing
the name of Lloyd in dillerent parts of the worhl,
the most important are the Austrian and the North-
(iernian Lloy<l. The former has its seat at Trieste.
It was organised as a marine insurance society in
1833, but three yeare later enlarged the sphere of
its activity by founding also a sliare company for
steam-navigation to the Levant and Black Sea.
Its vessels also traverse the Ked Sea and the Indian
Ocean, going as far as Hongkong. The North-
(Jerraan Lloyd is primarily a shipping companj',
whose headi)uarters are at Jiremen. It was founded
in 1857, and maintains communication by means
of lar^e, swift, and excellently e(|uii)ped ocean
steamsliips with New York and Baltimore, Brazil
and the River I'lale, and (since 1885) with eastern
Asia and Australia. See V. Martin's Ilialory of
Lloyd's (1875), Aiuials of Lloyd' a liaji.ster (1884),
and Chambers's Jottnud i 1880).
Lloyd's Bonds are obligations by railway
companies undei- their seal, puiporting to be for
work done, or for materials supplied for the pur-
poses of an undertaking, and covenanting to pay
the debt and interest thereon. Thej' were devised
by the eminent English coun.sel, John Horatio
Lloyd, to enable railway companies to exceed the
powers of borrowing money granleil to them by
parliament. The Lssue of these bonds has some-
times been abused, being made without consent of
the shareholders or of the statutory debenture
holders of the company ; but they are valid only
when granted in lumd Jide to contractors and
others, for work actually done, or materials sup-
plied. They cannot be given for a mere loan of
money to the company ; and a company issuing
them otherwise than authorised by statute forfeits
to the crown the amount of the bond.
Llywarrh Heii. See W.ai.es (LiTKR.\TURii).
Loacll, a name applied to the members of a
group of fresh-water lishes in the carp family
( CyprinidiB ). The mouth bears six or more barbels ;
the scales are small or absent; the air-bladder
is more or le.ss enclosed in bone. Most belong to
the genus Nemachilus, which includes numerous
carnivorous and edible forms freijuenting rapid
streams, and represented in Britain Ijy iV. bar-
Uilidiis, called in Scotland the Beardie. It is a
small lish, about 4 inches long, of a yellowish-white
colour, with bnjwn spots. The largest Kuropean
form, Misi/iiniiis J'ussil/s, not uncommon in ('•er-
maiiv, approaches a foot in length. A rare British
species is Cobilis tu/iiii. See Giinther's Iiitrodiir-
tiiin lij titc ,'iliuhj of Fishes ( Edin. 1880).
Load-line. See Plimsdi.l.
Loadstone, or Maonivtic Ihon Oki:, a
mineral consisting of a mixture of the ferric and
ferrous oxides, FeOFejOj or FcjOj, remarkable for
its highly magnetic qiuility. The name loadstone
or lodestone ('leading-stone') is derived from its
power of drawing or leailing bits of iron ; the
earliest magnets were pieces of loadstone, and the
value of the ore for making a mariner's compass
(see CoMl'.vss) was early known : ' the lodestarre
[polestar] dr.-iweth the lodestone as llie lodestone
the steel.' Loadstone is black, and has a metallic
lustre ; its hardness = 5"5 to tj'5, and its specific
gravity = 4'9 to 5'2. It is one of the most
common constituents of eruptive rocks, occurring
in these generally in the form of small octahedra
or irregular grains. Some rooks, such as certain
ha.salts, contain so much magnetite as strongly to
affect the compass. Larger and well-defined crys-
tals are met with in the crystalline schists, more
especially in chloriteschist. Magnetite also occurs
massive, associated with other iron ores, forming in
some places irregular bedded sheets amongst the
crystalline schists, and in other [daces entering
largely into the composition of mountains, as in
.Sweden — one of the richest iron-bearing regions
in the W(nld. The iron-.sands which occur here
and there in river- be<ls and along certain sea-coasts
consist of magnetite which has been dciivcd from
the degradation of eruiitive nx'ks.
Many strange beliefs have been held about the
properties of the loadstone, and an interesting
account of the true and untrue among these is
given by Sir Thomas Browne in his Vidr/ur Errors
(book ii. chaps. 2, 3). Thus, one species was said
to attract tlesh ; again, its operation was hindered
by garlic, b^- the diamond, by quicksilver. Heavy
bodies such as chariots of iron could be suspended
in the air by systems of magnets arranged. Again,
it possessed valuable medicinal properties in cases
of dropsy, ruptures, and gout ; and bad, moreovtM-,
magical cllicacy to detect incontinence and theft,
to divine, and to atl'ord means of communication
with absent friends.
Loam. See Soils.
Loan, an express or implied contract whereby
the property of one person is transferred into the
|)Ossession of another, the borrower undertaking to
return the thing or money lent to the owner. The
delivery of chattels (movable property) by way of
loan or dei)osit is in English law called a bailment.
When goods are thus delivered merely for the con-
venience of the owner, as in the case of goods kept
by a friend without charge, the depositary is liable
only for gross negligence. If they are delivered
merely for the advantage of the bailee, as in the
case of a gratuitous loan, the depositary is bound
to use the strictest diligence. Wliere the arrange-
ment is for the advantage of both parties, as in tlie
case of furniture hired from a shop, ordinary dili-
gence will sutlice.
A loan of money is usually made on an under-
taking by the borrower to rejiay the money lent,
and to pay interest thereon. The rate of interest
was formerly restricted by the laws against Usury
(q.v.), but there is now no law in the United
Kingdom to prevent a lender from stipulating
for any interest, however exorbitant. A lender
has, of cour.se, a right of action against the
borrower ; but he generally emleav ours to secure
himself by obtaining some special and easily-
enforced right against the debtiu- and his proiierty.
He may, f<n- example, take a bill of excliange
or |jronii.ssory note for the .amount, so as to
acquire the special rights which the law confers
on the holder of a negotiable instrument. Or
he may .secure himself by obtaining specific rights
over some part of the debtor's pmiierty. Thus,
the debtor may give him posse.ssh)n of some part
of his property by way of Pawn (q.v.); or, it he
retains possession of liis property, he may make a
676
LOANDA
LOBSTER
formal conveyance of it to the ci-editor by way of
Mortgage (q.v. ).
Loans are contracted not only by inilividuals, but
by governments and iiublic bodies.. Tlie aggregate
debts of municipal corporaliims in the Liiited
Kingdom is very large, and the National Debt
((|.v.) amounts to nearly 700 millions sterling.
Loans of this class con.sist of cajiital sums, advanced
fur the mo.^^l part by jirivate perMjn.s, in considera-
tion of payment of jirincipal and interest oi' in
consideration of annuities paid to the lender.
When the subjects of one state lend money to the
government of another, as, for e.\ample, when
English investors buy Turkish bonds, international
(piestions may arise in regard to payment. But it
is now an acce|)ted ma.xim that investoi-s as such
liave no claim to the assistance of their govern-
ment. When people lend money to Turkey they do
so to obtain a higli rate of interest ; and they know,
or ought to know, that ' high interest means bad
security.' See C. Cotton's Loans Maiiual ( 1S91).
Loailda, S.\ixt P.vil de, chief town of the
Portuguese possessions on the West Coast of Africa,
lies on a small bay, some 210 miles S. of tlie mouth
of the Congo. It has broad, tree-shaded but dirty
streets, several churches, forts (1578), and tlie
residences of the governor and bishop. The harbour
is gradually sanding up, so that vessels lie H mile
from sliore. In 1888-92 a railway wa;5 made to
Anibaca, 140 miles inland : gas was introduced
in 1893. Pop. 50,000, of whom about 15,000 are
Europeans.
LoangO, a coast district of West Africa, stretch-
ing northwards from the mouth of the Congo to about
4' S. lat. By the Berlin conference of 1885 it was
divided between the Congo Free State, Portugal,
and France. The natural features and productions
do not ditter from those of the adjacent i)arts of
Africa (see Coxuo, (;.\Boox). The inhabitants,
who call themselves Batiotes, are fetich- worshipi)ers.
The town Loango, formerly a jilace of 15,000 people,
consists now of only a few mercantile establishments.
Loasaccif, a luitural order of calycitloral
e.xogens, natives of America, and chielly from the
temperate and warmer parts of it. There are about
seventy known species, herbaceous plants, hispid
with stinging hairs. The genus Loasa sometimes
receives tlie pojuilar name of Cliili Nettle.
Lobail. a town of east Saxony, 12 miles SE. of
Bautzen, has mineral springs and manufactures
of linens, cottons, woollens, <S.c. Pop. 0977.
Lobclia« a genus of corollitloral exogens of the
natural order Lobeliaceie, named after the French
botanist Matthias .le Lobel (15.S8-1616). This
order is nearly allied to Canipanulacea", one
of the most consjucuous dili'erences being the
irregular corolla. It contains almost 400 known
species, natives of tropical and tempeiate climates,
aliounding chiefly in damp woods in America and
the north of India. They are generally herb-
aceous or half-slirubl)V, and have a milky juice
which often contains much caoutchouc. A poison-
ous character lielongs to the order, and some are
excessively acrid, as Tiipa fncUlci, a Chilian and
Peruvian plant, of which the very smell excites
vomiting ; yet the succulent fruit of one species,
Centro/ioi/uu surhiamr.n.six, is eatable. — The genus
Lobelia is the only one of this order of which any
sjiecies are British. The Water Lobelia ( J-. Diiit-
•inaniii) is frec|uent in lakes with gravelly bottom,
often forming a green carnet underneath the water
with its densely-matted sun-cylindrical leaves. The
(lowers are blue, the llowciing stems rising above
the water. To this genus belong many favourite
girden-llowers, as the beautiful Cardinal Flowers
( L. airdiiiiilis, L./nlfjciis, and /,. .yilciii/ciis) ami the
Blue Cardinal (/.. si/j)hilitka), natives of the warmer
parts of North America, perennials, which it is usual
to protect during winter in Britain. To ibis genus
belongs also the Indian Tobacco of North America
(L. iiijlata), an annual, with an erect stem, a foot
high or more, with blue llowei-s, which has been
used as a medicine from time inuueniorial by the
aborigines of North America; both the llowerin"-
herb and the seeds are im])orled into Britain. It
is the former, compressed in oblimg cakes, which is
Lobelia erimis (garden variety).
chiefly employed. A liquid alkaloid, Lobelina, and
a peculiar acid, Lohclic acid, have been obtained
from it. In small doses it acts as di.iphoretic and
expectorant ; in full doses, as a powerful nau.seating
emetic ; while in excessive doses, or in full doses
too often repeated, it is a powerful acro-narcotic
poison. It is the favourite remedy of a special
class of empirics, and consequently deaths from its
administration are by no means rare. I'hysicians
seldom prescribe it now, except in cases of asthma.
Lob Xor, a dried-up lake of central .■\sia, in
the desert of tlobi. I'rjcvalski in 1S85 found 4U0
l)ersons, mixed Turks and Mongols, settled on
its conlines. See Asi.v, Vol. I. p. 480.
Lobo, Jeeonimo, a Jesuit missionary, born at
Lisbon in 1593, went out to India in 1G21, but
travelled back to Abyssinia in 1625, an<l was for
nearly ten years superintendent of missions in Tigre.
He died at Lisbon in 1678. From Lobo's Portu-
guese MS. account of his travels in Abyssinia the
Abbe Le''rand imblished a French translation in
1728, and of this again iJr .lohnson produced an
abridged English version in 1735 — his lirst work.
Sir Peter Wvche also translateil into English parts
of Lobo's MS. in 1669.
Lobos Islands, two small groups of rocky
islands, about 12 miles of!" the coast of Peru, famous
for the great quantity of guano which they pro-
duced.
Lobster (Honiarus vulgaris), a species of
Crustacean, of the order Decapoda, sub-order
Macrura (see Ce.W'KI.sh ). It diil'ers from the cray-
fish princii)ally in the following characters : the
last ring of the thorax is not movable, but continu-
ous with the rest ; the scale of the antenna is small ;
there are twenty branchia' on each side, and the
claws are very powerful and unequal. (Jne claw,
usually the left, is thicker, more globo.se and
heavier than the other, the bitingeilges being
furni>.he<l with blunt tubercles of ditlereiit sizes:
the other claw is more slender and elongated, and
its biting-edges are furnished with numerous snuiU
teeth. As an exception two claws, both of one
kiml or the other, may occur in the same indi-
vidual. The colour during life is a beautifidly
clouded and varied bluisli lil;ick, which changes to
a nearly uniform red on boiling. It sometimes
attains "to the weight of 12 or 14 lb. when loaded
LOBSTER
LOCAL GOVERNMENT
677
with spinvii, altlioiijj;h a lobster of 1 11>. weight or
even less is tleeined verv lit for the market. The
eggs (2000 to 1'2,000. of which perhaps 1000 are
hatched) are ilepositeil from the ovidiicts in autumn,
and then become attached by adhesive threads to
the swimnierets or abdominal appendages of the
female. They are carried by the parent in this
manner for .several niontlis, finally hatching about
June and July of the following summer. When
hatched the young swim al>ont actively in the
water, not .at fii'st crawling or walking like the
adults. They dilTer from the .adults in structure,
chiefly in having outer appe.ndages to the thoracic
limbs : when fii-st hatched they are about half an
inch in length. Lobstei's are exclusively carnivor-
ous and very voraciotis. They are also very
pugnacious, and in their combat.s often lose their
limbs. But they exhibit in a remarkable degree
the phenomenon of recrescence, limbs rapidly
gron-ing again of the same form and structure as
Norway Lobster (Ifephrops norvegicus).
those that ha\e been removed, though several
moults are required before the full size of the new
member is attained. Moulting, or the casting of
the shell, occurs in adult lobsters once a year, in
the young much oftener, in very old individuals
not .so often. The creatures are fairly abundant
on the coasts of the IJritish Lslands and other parts
of Europe. They are caught for the market in
traps made either of basket-work or of netting
stretched on wooden frames, each trap having one
or more reentr.int orifices for the entrance of tlie
lobsters. The traps are baited «-ith dead fish. In
ISS.1-9.5 the number of lobsters landed annually on
the coasts of England and Wales varied between
500,000 and 700,000. The landing price is from
£4, .5s. to £4, 10s. per 100. In isno a lobster-pond
w,a.s undertaken at Loehbuie in .Mull. — The Ameri-
can Lobster ( //. iimcrirmni.i) and the Cape Lobster
( //. capenxis) are the only other species kno«ai of
the genns Ilomams. The former is as valuable as
the European species ; its claws are much larger
than those of tiie latter. (!reat ijuantities are
canneil and exiiorted from Xova Scotia and Xew
Brunswick, an(I from Portland, Maine, i*cc. The
Norway LoV)ster ( A>/)/((o;<.« nonxgicus) is frequently
taken on the British coasts, and .ap]ii'ars in the
markets. The eyes are kidney-shaiii'd. and not
round, as in the common lobster. Tlio claws have
also a more slender and prismatic form, and the
colour is a pale llesh odour. It is said by some to
be the most delicate of all the cru.st.aceans ; by
others, to be inferior to the common lobster. The
Spiny Lobster, or Sea ('r.ayfish ( Peiliniinis vtilijarii),
is not uncommon on the rocky coa-sts of Britain,
particularly in the south. It is believed to be the
jCarabijs of the (ireeks, and the Lorusta of tlie
Homans. It att.ains a length of about 18 inches.
The shell is very hard, and the whole body is rough
witli short si)ines. The antenn:o are very long,
much longer than those of the common lobster.
There are no claws or pincei-s, the first pair of feet
being very similar to the others. The Spiny
lolistcr is brought to m.arket in London and else-
where, but is inferior to the common lobster.
Other species of these genera are found in other
p.arts of the world. For anatomy, &c., see Iluxlev,
2'Ac C'ra ////.?// (1880).
Lobworm, or Li'cAVORM (Arcnicola pisca-
ioriim), one of the more sedentary Cha'topods, ex-
tremely abundant on the British shores, and very
valuable as bait. It lives head down-
wards in a hole in the sand, which is
partly lined by a yellowish-green agglu-
tinating secretion from the skin of the
worm. The hole is made as the animal
e.ats its way in earthworm-like fashion,
and the devoured material, from which
small organisms and organic debris are
extracted, is passed out on the surface as
spiral coils or 'casts,' familiar to every
one who has walked over a low-tide
stretch of sand. The animal is larger
tlian the earthworm, sometimes a foot
in length, and greenish brown in colour.
The body is divided into a thickened
anterior region, a median part with
thirteen pairs of gill-tufts brightly
coloured by the red blood, and a thinner
jjosterior portion. Tlie appendages are
degenerate, but are re])rcsented by two
rows of weak bristles on to the end of
the gill-bearing region.
Local Goveriiiiieiit is a term
used, in the United Kingdom, to express
the control and administration of the
local affaii-s of separate divisions and
districts of the country by subordinate
authorities. It is thus contrasted with
imperial government, or the control and
.administration of aH'airs for the wliole country by
the supreme legislative and executive authority.
Prior to the Reform Act of 18,3'2 local govern-
ment in the United Kingdom was of a very rudi-
mentary character. The management of local alVairs
was almost entirely in the hands of the propertied
and privileged classes ; the great mass of the people
bad little or no participation in it. As reg.ards the
counties and rural ilistricts, the justices of the peace
in Englan<l, the commissioners of supply and justices
in Scotland, and the gr.andjury and (.ustices in Ire-
land were the exclusive governing autliorities ; while
burghal all'aii's were pr.actically in the bands of close
corporations, either self-elected or chosen by privi-
leged classes of burgesses. The first step towards
realising local self-government Wiis the reform of the
municipal corporati(uisin 1832 , So, whereby the town-
councils were made elective. Since then the coui'se
of legislation in this direction has been one of steady
progress. Thus, in settling the government of
urban communities — such as the local board dis-
tricts of England .and the police burghs of Scotland
— the legislature ha.s given them ii-s full control of
their all'airs as the reformed nninicipal boroughs.
So the establishment of the ]ioor law systems for
each of the three kingdoms between ls:i.') and 184,"),
and the creation of poor-law unions in England an<l
Ireland, first introduced life and .activity into the
rural districts. The great area of local administra-
tion is, especially since the Local Government Act
Lobworm
( A rcnicola
piscator-
um).
G78
LOCAL OPTION
LOCK
of 1888, the county, anil is fully treated under that
head. Other important areas, separately treateil,
are the parish and horough, for both England and
Scotland. In Ireland, besides the county and town,
the union liad exce|)tion.al iinportanee ; and till the
Irish Local Government .\<M<)f ISilS s\ipprscded it
by County Councils, the ^'rand-jury (see JvitV) had
wide adniiuistrative powers. The (optional) trans-
fer of most of tlie proceedings in Scottish juivate
bill legislation to Scotland ( hy act of 1899) increases
tlie autonomy of the northern kingdom.
The Local Government I'.oard, to which in 1S71
tlie powers of the English I'oorlaw Board (18:U)
were transferred, is, in form, a committee of the
Privy-council, but the work is .lone by the political
heads of the department (the president and parlia-
mentary secretary, both usually members of the
House of Commons) and a staff of clerks. Among
the matters placed under the supervision of the
IJoavcl may be mentioned the areas of parishes, &c.,
local ta.\ation returns, the administration of the
po(M-law, sanitary improvements, baths and wash-
houses, vaccination, and tlie prevention of disease.
The Local Government Board of Scotland is pre-
sided over by the Secretary for Scotland. From
the nature of the case, the nmltiiilicity of .subjects
inclnded in Local Government are best treated in
a large numlier of separate articles, some of which
are noted below.
Hee I'robyn, Local Gorernmcnt ami Taxation (1882);
Goudy and Smith, Loml Government in Scotland ( 1880 ) ;
.Mackenzie Chalmers, Local Gorernmcnt ( ' Citizen Series,'
1871-83); Lor.al Government and Taxation, by various
authors, in 'Imperial Parliament Series' (188.5); H
Odgers, Local Govern ment (1899); also the several
articles :
.Advocate (Lord).
Appeal.
Borough.
liui-ial.
Cliaiinel Islands.
City.
Coroner.
County.
Coiiuly Courts.
CrinlhKil L:i«-.
education.
Government.
Hygiene.
Ireland.
Jury.
Justice of the Peace.
Licensing Acts.
Lonl-Heuteiiant.
Man ( Island ).
Nuisance.
Parish.
Police.
Poor-laws,
Prisons.
Privy-council.
Procurator-fiscal.
Pro.secutor.
Roads.
Scotland.
Sheriff.
Socialism.
Tax.
AVarrant.
Local Option is a term for the power which
temperance reformers have of late sought to secure
for the ratepaying inliabitants of any community,
enabling them to regulate the liipior trafbc within
their bounds as to a certain majority of them shall
seem best, either by maintaining unchanged,
increasing, diminishing, or wholly suppressing the
himses for the sale of intoxicating liquor.s. See
LicEN.siNG, Liquor Laws, and Temperance.
Loclia'bcr, a district in .southern Inverness-
shiie. The Lochaber Axe is a variety of the
Ilalhcrt ((|.v.), with a long handle and a bill like
blade, behind which, on the other side of the shaft,
is a formidable hook. This weapon was formerly
used by tlie Highlanders of Scotland and by the
native Irish, and 'is believed to have been intro-
duced into both countries from Scandinavia ' (.see
Si'otl's ]V(irn-li:ij). It was carried by the ohl city
guard of Edinburgh. The song ' Farewell to
Lochalicr' is by Allan IJamsay.
liOClllcvcil, a beautiful oval lake of Kinross-
shire, 23 miles NNW. of Edinburgh. Lying 353
feet above sea-level, and engirt by Benarty (1167
feet), the West Lomond ( 1713), and other hills, it
measur(\s 3J miles by 2 ; discharges by the Leven,
flowing 10 miles eastward to the Firth of Forth ; is
10 to 90 feet dee|) ; and has an area of 340li acres,
drainage operations having reduced its si/e by one-
fourth in 182(j-36. Of seven islands, the largest
are sandy, treeless St Serfs Inch, an early seat
of till- Cnldees (q.v.), and Castle Islam!, with the
14tLccutury keep of a ciustle which in lo07-68 was
for ten months the prison of Mary Queen of Scots.
Since 1G33 and earlier the loch has been famous for
its delicate )iink-flcslied trout, and since IS.'iO for its
lly -fishing, there now being twenty boats on it. and
some fifty annual angling competitions, whilst the
vcarlv take has varied from W.Yl tnmt of r)38."> lb.
ill 1877 to '23,516 of 21,074 lb. in 1888. and 10,9.33 of
9201 lb. in 1890. See Robert Burns-Begg's History
of Lochlcvcn Castle (2d ed. Kinros.s, 1877). See
also LUVEX (Locn) ; and for Lochs Lomond, Long,
&c., see Lomond, &c.
Lorllllia'ben, a market-town of Aniiandale,
Duiiifrie.sshire. 10 miles by rail NE. of iJumfries.
It stands amid seven lochs, two of which contain
the rare vendace, and hius a town-hall (1878), with
a statue ir front of it of Robert Bruce, and the
mined castle of the Bruces. A royal burgh, it
unites with Dumfries, &c. to return one member.
Pop. 1039. See W. Gialiams Lochmabcn (18G5).
Lock, an arrangement for fastening doore,
drawers, &c. , and requiring a key or other
similar contrivance to
open it. The early
Egy]itians used locks
of rude construction,
generally made of
wood; and locks and
keys of bronze and
iron have been found
in large numbers in
Pompeii and Hercu-
laneuiii. Fig. 1 re-
presents the ancient
Egyptian lock in section : ri is the case, fastened to
the door ; b, tlie holt ; in the njiper jiart of the case
are three openings, c, each containing a ]iin with a
head to prevent its falling too far down. When the
bolt is pushed home towards h, the pins fall into the
corresponding three holes, d, preventing its being
withdrawn. The key is a piece of wood, c, which
is pushed into the ojiening, /, in the bolt, and by
means of its three pins the pins in the case are
jmshed up while the bolt is witiidrawn. An exactly
similar lock is still used in the F'aroe Islands, ami
one very like it in St Kilda. The Chinese for
many hundred years have had a ninch superior
wooden lock with tumhler.s.
During the 15th, 10th, and 17th centuries very
ingenious and complicated locks, richly ornamented
with hammered iron-work, were made, especially
in (Jermany, and in every collection may lie seen
more or less fine specimens. These, however, were
necessarily \'ery e-xjicnsive, and could only be used
by the wealthy, and the lock in ordinary use up to
the beginning of the 19th centurv was the common
-ft>-a^(fc>^
Fig. 1.
Fig. 2.
Fig. 3.
spring-lock shown in fig. 2, and which is still used
for ordinary purposes. The bolt, o, passes Ihroiigh
an ojiening in each side of the case, an<I is held in
position by the two notches, bb', which are pressed
against the bottom of the oiieniiig, c, by the spring,
i/, as the bolt is locked or unlocked. The key,
acting in the semicircular notcli, e, in the boll,
pushes it either to one side or the other as rci|uiiccl ;
the fig. represents the bolt midway between open
and locked. Certain notches in the key filling
into corresponding wards, /, fasteneil to the plate
of the lock, arc supposed to prevent any other
LOCK
079
iiKtiuiiient l>nt its own koy from openiii!; tlie lock.
The Hi^t im]ii(>venieiit on tliis was the common
tumhlerlock (lit:. 3), which represents the simplest
form of it : " is the holt : h. the tumliler, with a
projectiini, c, which is jiresseil by the sprinj;, (/,
into the notches, f, e, aeconling as tlie Iock is open
or slint. The key, t)y the one movement, raises
the tnmWer and moves tlie holt.
Barron's lock, patented in 1778, was a develop-
ment of the tnmbler ]>rinciple. By putting the
notches in the centre ot the l«dt instead of on the
top edge, the pin in the tumbler had to be lifted to
an exact hei-icht to pa.ss the bolt, rendering it much
more ditlicull to i)ick. Barron subsequently added
a .second tumbler which had al.so to be jiassed by
the bolt. Barron's form of construction is still in
use, and it may be consiilered the parent of the
inoilern manv-tnmbler or \vver lock, of which
Mo.ses Bird s (1780) was the first.
The lock patented by Joseph Bramjili in 1788,
and still one of the recogntsed best locks for
certain purposes, is of a
ililterent construction. An
inner barred turning inside
.1 fixed cylinder hivs a cen-
tral ])in on which the key
works. Tlie key (fig. 4) is
a simple pipe with geiiei-
ally four slits, a, a, and a
pin, h ; when it is inserted and pressed down, the
slits press on corresponding slides working in the
inner barrel, till, arriving at a certain ]ioint, the
banel is released and can be turned round by the
pin, 6; another pin on the barrel moves the bolt.
A spiral spring on the central pin keeps the slides
in their original position till pressed down by the
key. The varying depths of the slits in the key
agree with the distance which the difl'erent slides
have to be pressed down ; and, as no two loclvs are
alike in this respect, each key can only open its
own lock. So nnich conlidence had the Alessrs
Bramah in this lock that during the Great Exhibi-
tion of 1851 they ottered a prize of two hundred
guineas to any one picking it, which prize was
f;ained by Jlr Hobbs, an American, who occupied
fourteen days in devising and making tools, and
liftv-one hours actually at work on the lock.
Fig. 5.
Chuldi's lock, originally J>atenteil in 1818, is
a further development of the many-tumbler
princij)le. It is shown in tig. 5, which re-
jire.sents it unlocked, and with tlie inner plate
removed the better to show the movement : a is
the bolt ; b, the tumblei-s, six in this instance,
w liich move inile|iendently on the common pin, c,
each having one of the six springs, (/, to keep it in
po.sition. Tlie slump, c, riveted to the holt, must
pass through the r/afc, f, in all the tumblers before
the bolt call he shot. .As this gate is in a did'eient
position in even' tumbler, they must be raised to
correspondingly different heights bct'ore they coin-
cide for the stump to pass. For this jnirpose the
key, /■, has difl'erent steps so arranged that, when
it is turned in the lock, each step raises its own
tumbler to the projier height, and the step nearest
the end of the key, /, shoots the Imlt; the stump
p.assing through the coinciding gatings and sli]i-
ping into the .space, (/, ■■i.-< the tuml)leis, lelea.sed
liy the key, resume their original position. In
opening the lock the rever.se of this movement-
takes place. A pin, /(, fixed on the backmost
tumbler and reaching over the tops of the others
is called the detector. Should any false key be
tried in the lock when locked, or any other means
used which should raise either of the tumblers
too high, an ingenious arrangement fixes it
so that the lock is obstructed and cannot be
opened, even with its own key, till the fixed tnm-
bler is released. This is done by making an extra
forward movement of the key, wIk-ii the tnmbler
will resume its normal position. This detector
movement is intended as a prepuution against
hurglai-s, and also to record any attempt to pick
the lock. False notches, i, i, are made in the
tumblers to defeat attempts to pick the lock by
feeling for the different gatings by backward pres-
sure of the b(dt ai)plied by ingenious instruments —
a method, difficult as it may seem, which has been
successfully used against all tumbler-locks, unless
specially safeguarded. A movable circular curtain
attached to the keyhole in the inner plate is moved
by the aftermost step of the key, //(, as it is turned
round. This prevents an inspection of the tumblere
for picking i>urposes by means of a reflector intro-
duced into the keyhole, while they are moved by
any instrument, as nothing can be turned round in
the lock without also turning the curtain.
Hobbs's jirotector lock has a series of tnmblevs as
in Bird's and Chnlib's locks, but, in addition, has
what is termed a protector, shown in fig. 6. It
consists of a shaped lever,
ij, h, working on the pin, f,
which is riveted into the
bolt. A, and it is ke]it in
position by the friction
spring, e. The stum]), li
is fixed to the protect m-,
and, passin" through a
licde in the bolt, acts on
the tumblers (not seen in
the fig.) at the other side
of the bolt. This arrangement entirely prevents
feeling for the gatings of the tumblers by pressing
l)ack the bolt. If any attempt is made to push
back the bolt when locked, it only moves the pro-
tector enough to bring down the long arm, a, in
front of the pin, d (fixed in the back plate of the
lock), as shown in the fig. This prevents any
further movement of the bolt till the protector is
set free by a slight turn of the i)roper key. This
lock, when in combination with another ingenious
anangenient calleil the rcro/riiir/ nozzle, which
prevents tampering \\ ith false keys, has success-
fully resisted all attempts to pick it.
Lord Urimthoipe (formerly Beckett Denison)
invented a modification of the tumbler lock which
locks with a h.indh-, only leijuiring a small key
to open it. The keyhole is so narrow that no
instrument strong enough to injure the lock can
be introduced. It has other advantages, and its
inventor claims that it is uniiickable. It has not
been iiatcmted. He is also the inventor of a dust
excluder for the key-holes of locks, operated by a
spiral spring.
Many other varieties of the tumldcr or le\ur
680
LOCK
LOCKE
lock have been invented wliicli we have not space
to ilescrihe.
Coiiihimit/OH locks are somotiiiies nsed for burglar-
proof safes. In these locks tlie tniiil)k"rs are reiire-
senteil by wheels, generally four in nunibor, which
can be turned indeiiendently in connection witli an
index on the outside of the safe. The lock can only
be opened by niakinj; certain movements of the
handle on the index, which cause the gatings in the
wheels to coincide. The combination of numbers
on the index with tlie dillcrcnt wluels can bo altered
at pleasure, and, of course, the lock can only bo
opened by those knowing this combination. The
weak point of this lock is that the combination
may be forgotten. The Yale time-lock is an im-
provement, by Mr Yale of Pliiladclphia, on the
time-lock invented by Kutherford of Jcdljurgh,
Scotland, in IS.'M. A watch in combination witli
the lock may be set so that the lock can only lie
opened at a i)articuhir hour even by the owiu-r.
Chanr/cable-hc}! locks were first introduced into
England by Mi- Hobbs, who brought Day aiul
Newell's parnutojitic lock to London in 1S5I.
After many improvements, Mr Hobl)s ])erfocted
this lock in ISGi, and in 1865 the lirni of Hobbs,
Hart, & ("o. introduced a simpler and cheaiier
form of it. By an ingenious niodihcation of the
tumblers, which we have not space to describe,
the lock may be locked by any one of a great
number of keys, but can only be opened by means
of the one which locked it. Some of these locks
afford a possible choice from about 1)0,000,000
keys, any one of which will lock it, and which
must be used to open it again. To avoid the
necessity of having a number of ke.\s, dili'erent
webs are supidied which lit on the key-pipe to form
the key. The welis may be kept in tlie safe, one
taken out at random to lock up with ; the web
removed from the key carried away in the waist-
coat jiocket, and the key hung up anywhere, use-
less till the wel) is 1>rouglit back.
In the ordinary safe locks tlie bolts are neces-
sarily on a large scale, anil, to prevent the
carrying about of a key of corresponding magni-
tude, the bolts are usually shut by means of a
handle, and a small lock with a small key locks
one of them and fastens them all.
/,«<(7(-locks used on street doors which shut of
themselves, and are oi>ened by means of a handle
inside and a key
outside, do not
cliller in prin-
ciple from other
locks. The Yale
latch-lock is an
iigenious luodi-
licatiou of the
)rinciide of the
Egyptian lock
(lig. 1). It is
shown in sec-
ti<m in lig. 7 ;
II, h is the key,
full size : h. i;
d is n movable barrel turning inside the lock ;
1, 2, 3, -t, 5 are live pins pressed down by spiral
springs working in holes in the fixed part ; c,
/, g, /(, i are five corresponding pins moving
in holes in the inside barrel: they are of irregu-
lar lengths, and when the key is out, c, /', i/,
h, i drop down, as shown by {\ii'. dotted lines,
allowing 1, 2, 3. 4, f) to drop into the holes in the
barrel, lixing the lock. As the key, which has
indentations exactly correspond in" with the vary-
ing lengths of e, /, g, /(, /, is pushed in, it raises
those jiins till they and 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 coincide at the
junction of the barrel and the fixed jiart of the
lock. The barrel may then be turned and a pin on
it shoots the bolt, not shown in the fig. The key
is a thin piece of tem|iered steel weighing only a
small fraction of an ounce, and the keyhole corre-
spondingly narrow.
Locks made for various purposes, such sus dooi-s,
drawers, writing-desks, portfolios, cupboards, iSrc,
however dirtering in arrangement, are all con-
structed on the same princiide. The jun/loc/:, in
which the lock is a se|iarate arrangement, is pre-
ci.sely similar to other locks excejit in slia])e. It
has also a movable bow wliich is hooked into £
staple or other fastening and then locked.
Locks for drawers, cupboards, and the like,
wliicli only require to be opened on one side, an'
generally made with a central pin on which tin-
key, with a pipe, works; but in locks which must
be" opened from both si<les this arrangement is
iinpossilil(', and the key is s(did, working tliroiigli
a hole in the lock. It must, however, be symmetri-
cal, so as to exactly reach the turning ]dace of the
lock fnun either side. Locks which are mortised
into the thickness of the door are called mortise
locks.
Many ingenious automatic hatches have been
invented for cabinets and the like, which shut of
themselves when the door is closed, and can be
pulled open without a key or turning a handle :
they are used when security is not rerjuired, only a
means of keeping the door closed.
See Price's Treatke on Locks aiid Kci/s ( 1856) ; Sir E.
Beckett (Dinison), Treatise on Locks; Hol)bs and Toin-
liiison, Treatise on the Construclinn of I^ocks {new ed.
1868); and G. H. CSiubb, Protection from Fire mid
Tliiurs (1878).
Lock, on a river or canal, is an arrangement of
two iiarallol tloodgates, by which communication
is secured between two reaches of dili'erent levels.
Without locks, canals are an impossibility in any
but exceptionally level country. The ])riiiciple
of locks is explained in the article Can.\l, \o\.
II. p. 697. The invention of the lock has been
claimed for the great Leonardo da \"iiici or other
Italian engineer of the loth century : but there
seems ground for affirming that the luinciple was
known and used in Holland a hiimlied years
earlier.
Lock of a gun. See GrN, FlRE.\KMS, and
Iil!EECII-I.O.\l)IN(;.
Locke, John, mie of the most cons])icnous
figures in the intellectual history of modern
Europe, in whom, directly or indirectly, the course
of oi)iiiion, especially in the 18th century, is
probably more represented than by any other man.
Locke was a native of Somerset; jieliiton, the
rural home of his youth, is 6 miles from liristol.
It was at Wringtoii, 10 miles from Heluton, that
he was born, on the 29th of .Vugn.st 16.'i2. Our
liicture of his boyhood is faint. He lost bus pious
mother when he was a child. His father, a country
attorney, was a considerable factor in the forma-
tion of his mind, during fourteen years of hninc
training in the small Puritan lumseliold, which
c(uisisted of the father and an only brother, who
died young. In Locke's tenth year the Civil War
broke out. He was at Westminster School in the
years in which the a.ssemlily of Puritan divines was
discussing Calvinistii- theology, and ill oiii' of wliicli
he may liave seen the tragedy at Whitehall in
which the Pnritan revolution ciilmiiiated. In Ki.Vi
we find Locke at (Jxford, after which the i>ictiire
becomes more ilistinct. Christ Church was then
ruled by John Owen, the Puritan divine, and
Cromwell was chancellor of the university. The
.\ristotle of the schoolmen still determined the
course of study, much to the dissatisfaction of
young Locke, who preferred facts to words, and
persons to books, liut free experiential iiKjuiry
LOCKE
681
was finding its way into Oxford, tliougli not into
coUejiC leotviies, and Locke afterwanls confessed
the early inlluence of the spirit of Descartes njion
himself.' The Restoration fonnd him in 16G0 a
senior stndent in Christ Clinrch. For a time
lie lectured as a college tutor, till the little
property of Belnton became his by inheritance
.after the de.ath of his father in 1661 . He h.ad
now to determine his career. Notwithstanding
an inclination to theology, his growing sympathy
with free inquiry, in reaction against scholasticism,
and against the intolerance and fanaticism of
which he complained among the Puritans, dis-
cour.aged an ecclesiastical career. ' I fonnd,' he
says sarcastically, ' tli.at a general freedotn is but
a general bondage, and that tlie popular jisserters
of liberty .are the greatest engrossers of it too, and
not unjustly called its keei)ers.' Experiments in
medicine, which much engaged him in these years,
show his bent to the inductive interpretation of
external nature, ami aversion to the ' vermicul.ate '
questions of the schools. I'efore 1666 he wa-s in a
sort of am.ateur pr.actice in Oxford, and, although
he never took this degree, he was in after-life
familiarly known among his friends as ' Doctor
Locke.' The philosophic temperament is apt to
make a merely professional career irksome ; and,
besides, he inherited a delicacy unfavourable to
medical pr.actice, which ended in the chronic con-
sumption and a-sthma ag.ainst which he br.avely
struggled in later yeai"s. Thus medicine did not
absorb his attention. Pioblems of society, the
relations of church and state, and above all the
right and <lnty of religious toleration, as his com-
monplace books prove, were revolved in his thoughts
in those Oxford years, always in sympathy with
individual freedom and in a spirit of prudential
utilitarianism.
It w.as in the summer after his return from
Germany, where he had spent the winter of 1665,
that an incident occniTed which finally determined
this last disposition, for thenceforward he w.os
'often a man of business, and always a man of the
world, without much undisturbed leisure.' Medical
prjictice accidentally brought him into connection
with Lord Ashley, soon after fii-st Earl of .Shaftes-
bury, who was visiting Oxford for his health.
The meeting ended in a lasting friendship, sus-
tained by common interest in lilierty ; and in the
following year Locke, at Exeter House, became
Lord Asldey's confidential secretary. The change
did not check his scicntilic experiments, in which
he was encouraged by Sydenliam and other savants
with whom life in London opened intercourse,
while the political experience of Exeter House
was in the line of previous interests. It was not
long after he entered it that the turning-point in
Ills intellectual career was reached. A reunion
of friends, meeting in the winter of 1670-71 for
the di.seussion of problems social and theological,
perplexed in certain inquiries, welcomed Locke's
suggestion, that before |mrsuing them they should
face a previous investigation — .as to what questions
the human understanding was or w;vs not fitted
to deal with. This problem, then undertaken by
Locke himself, proved unex]>ectedly large. His
best energies, given to it during the seventeen
following years, issued in 1690 in the famous Essay
(Joncerning Human U ndemtantlinc).
Those seventeen years were spent partly in
England, amidst the tumult of public atj'airs,
])artly on the Continent in comparative retire-
ment. In 1672, when .Shaftesbury became chan-
cellor, Locke was made .Secretary to the JJoard of
Tr<ade. The fall of Shaftesbury three years later
enable<l his secrctarv to retire to France, where
he lived till 1679, /or health .and study, cliietly
at Montpellier and at Paris. In France he
formed friendships witli physicians, naturalists,
.and travellei's more than with metaphysicians;
although it w.as the brilliant era when French
metjipiiysic was represented by Arnauld and
M.alebr.anche, whilst Spinoza was (till 1677) in
HoU.and .and Leibnitz in Germany. In 1679
Locke returned to Lonilon and to Sh.aftesbuiy, who
W'as restored to power for a short time, and lived
with him in the ye.ars of plots and counterplots
which preceded the earl's tlight to Iloll.and in
November 1682. Locke, under suspicion in Eng-
land, as the confidant of Shaftesbury, became
before the end of 16S3 .an exile in Holland, then
the European home of religious and civil liberty.
There, during live years of exile, he resumed the
studies which atl'airs in Kngl;ind had often inter-
rupted, and m.atured voluminous writings for the
pre.ss. At Amsterdam Limborch, the leader of
liberal theology in Holland, and Le Clerc, its most
eminent man of letters, became his intimate
friends. The intercourse strengthened Locke's
theological liber.alism, and soothed the pains of
exile, .aggravated by the witlulrawal of his senior
studentship in Christ Church, of which he was
suddenly deprived in 1684 by the king's command.
His first home in Holland was at Amsterdam :
his last was at Rotterdam, where the Essay was
finished.
The political struggle which had been going or
for half a century in England was consummated
by the Revolution of 1688-89, of which, then un-
known to fame, he was to be the philosophical
defender. This opened the way for his return,
to play his part in authorship, with Lon<lon at
first as the stage of operations. Immediately
afterwards, in Febniary 1689, he declined, for
health's sake, the post of ambassador at Branden-
burg, contented with a modest Commissionershi]i
of Appeals as otlicial recognition by the new
government. The coui-se of atiairs after the Revolu
tion fell short of his hopes. The Toleration Act
of 1690 was inadequate, and the withdrawal of
the Comprehension Bill, for uniting England in
ii liberal national church, was another disjippoint-
nient. Locke made his first ai)pear<ance as an
author late in life. He turned to authorship in the
public interest of individual freedom — religious,
political, and intellectual. An Epistola cle Toler-
anlia was his first contribution, written in 1685,
addressed to his Dutch friend LimI)orcli, published
.anonymously at Gouda in Holland in 1689, a few-
weeks after his return to England, and translated
into English in the following summer by 'William
Popple. A treatise on Viril Government, ready
for puldic.ation when he came home, followed early
in 1690 ; this w;is also .anonymous, and, like the
Epistolu, a defence of in<lividu.al liberty in another
relation. Its economical ]irinci]iles anticipate Hume
and .-Vdam Smith, and its principles of jurisprudence
are in .advance of Grolius and Puffendorf. The
Essay Conceniiiir/ Ihuiuin TJinlcrstaniihuj appeared
in March 1690, unfolding the philosophy of which
the tr.actates on Toleration and on Ciovernment
were special .applications. The Essay was Locke's
first public acknowledgment of autlmrship. His
philosoi)hy is embodied in these three wcuks.
His ailments b.id incre.a-sed in London. It was
then, in I(i9l, that the home of his old age, the
brightest of all his homes, opened to receive him.
This was the manor-house of Oates in Essex, near
Epping, the country-seat of Sir Francis Miisham.
Lady Masham wjis the accomplished daughter of
Cudworth (q.v.), the philosophical theologian:
Locke had known her family before he went to
Holland. Here, for the fourteen remaining yeare
of bis life, he enjoyed as much iloinestic peace,
literary leisure, and social intercourse a.s wfis con-
sistent with broken health and occasional public
682
LOCKE
service in London, and his work in the study was
resunu'il witli oliaracterislic industry and method.
The ahundant authorship of tlie two iireceiliiif;
years now involved him in controversies which
lasted to the end of his life. Tlie Aiiswei- of a
certain Jonas Proast of Queen's College, Oxford,
to the Episto/a cic Tolcnmtia had led to Locke's
SeroHil Letter in 1690. A rejoinder in I6!)l was
followed by an elaborate Third Letter in 1602.
tjucstions of economics and the currency were
subjects of other tractates in 1691 and 1G9."),
\Vhen he was in Holland he had corresponded
with his friend Edward Clarke of Chipley in
Somerset about the education of his son, and
those letters made the substance of the TItoiifilits
on Kdiieation in 1693, a characteristic work wliich
still holds its place anionj; educational classics.
Proposals for ecclesiastical coMi]irehension, and liis
own desire for union amon^ Chri.stians, made
him anxious to show how few and simple the
essential facts of Christianity were, and to
bring men to .agree to difl'er about all beyond.
One result was the anonymous volume, in 169.5, on
the Reasonableness of Christianity, in which he
tried, in the spirit of the Essay, to recall Cliristi-
anity from the verbal reasonings of dogmatic
ilivines, wliich had disturbed the unity of the
church, to its original simplicity in Scripture.
This theological departure, followed by excursions
in criticism in the last years of his life, vhich
ai)peared as ])osthumons Commentaries on St L'uid's
Epistles, was a distinctive feature of the literary
life at Oates. In 1696, as a Commissioner of the
]>oard of Trade, with an income of £1000 a year,
he was again involved for the four following years
in official cares. Hut they were not years of
literary idleness. Successive editions of the Essay,
in 1694, 1695, and 1700, with important additional
cha|)ters in the lirsl and last ; defence of its philo-
sophy against the adverse criticism of Xorris,
Stillinglleet, Sergeant, Burnet, Lee, and Leilmitz :
an Examination of RLalebrancIie, and Hemarks on
Norris, published posthumously ; vindications of
tlie Heasonableness of Christianity against theo-
logical critics ; and the well-known tractate on the
Conduct of tlie Uiidcrstandinij, kepi him busy in
the study at Oates. The Essay, translated into
Latin and French, was spreading over Europe.
IJul he was now gathering himself for the end.
In 1700 he ceased to publish. One attack only
moved him in the four years which followed. In
1704 his old adversary Pr<iast renewed the con-
test, and the fragment of a Fourth Letter on Toler-
(dion, published in llie i>ost]iumous volume, ex-
hausted Locke's remaining strength upon the
theme tluit had engaged him at Oxford forty years
before, and had been the ruling idea ever since.
All tliat summer he declined, nur.sed by Lady
Masham and her step daughter Esther. On the
28tli October 170-4 he pas.sed away, as he said, 'in
perfect charity with all men, and in sincere com-
munion with the church of Christ by whatever
names Christ's followers call themselves.' His
tomb may be seen on the .south side of the parish
church of High Laver, a mile from Oates, bearing
a l.,atin inscription prepared liy his own hand.
Locke's Essay presents the philosophical founda-
tion of the right of the individual thinker to
follow freely the lindings of experience; ami,
partly even by its met.i])hysical defect.s, it has
suggested the chief problems which have occupied
mcxiern thinkers since it appeared. Its 'design,'
according to its own words, was, ' to inquire into
the original, certainty, and extent of human
knowledge, together with the grounds and degrees
of belief, opinion, and assent;' — and this as a
means to correct the chief cause of human error,
which its author found in men's proneness to ex-
tend their inquiries to matters beyond their reach,
and then to cover their ignorance by empty phrases,
or 1)V dogmas which they assumed to be "innate,'
and therefore out of the re;u'li of criticism. He
wanted to make a faithful report, fouiuled simjily
upon mental facts, as to how far a merely human
understauding can go, in the way either of certain
knowledge or of more or less probable presum]ition;
and in what man must be contentei! with ignor-
ance. Although a true report might show that
human knowledge must for ever ' fall far short of
perfect comprehension of whatsoever is,' it might
be 'sufficient for our state;' and at anvrate we
cannot overcome facts.
The Essay is divided into four books. Only
the fourth deals directly with its 'design.' The
(irst book is a preliminary argument against the
innateness of any part of our knowledge, meant
to oiien the way for the statement of Locke's
main ]iosition — that whatever any man can know,
or reasoualily believe in, or even conceive, is
dependent on human experience. The essence
of the Essay is in its proof that knowledge cannot
in any degree have been consciously innate in
e.ich man ; for it must be in all cases a gradual
growth, dependent upon experience, in which we
are liable to error. The argument might be thus
jiut : All truths and all errors are expres.sed in
propositions, and every proposition contains two
terms, which, if the proposition is intelligible,
must each contain an 'idea' <u' meaning. We
may have ideas without having knowledge, but
we cannot have knowledge, or even opinion, with-
out having ideas; for 'having ideas, Locke tells
us, means 'speaking intelligibly.' Propositions
which contain ielealess terms cannot exjiress truth,
or even error, and only connect empty sounds.
Now, how do the ideas or meanings which ean
form the subjects and predicates of our jiroposi-
tions enter into human consciousness? All our
ideas, the most complex and abstract, as well as
the sim]ilest, Locke undertakes to show, are ideas
which refer either to data that happen to have been
presented through our live senses, or to o]ierations
of mind which have been made objects of reflection.
If we pretend in words to extend our range further,
' W(" shall succeed no better than if we went about
to clear the darkness in the mind of one born blind,
talking into him the ideas of light and colours.'
Words which do not mean either what is sensuous
or what is mental must be empty words. The
proof of this fundament;il thesis is ofiered through-
out the .second ami third books, which thus prepare
for the settlement of the imqier problems of the
Essay in the fourth. Much of the proof consists
of logical and psychologic;il analysis of the meta-
physical ideas of space, duration, inlinity, sub-
stance, personality, causality, and power, which
are taken as 'crucial instances.' If even those
ideas must depend upon experience in order to
become ideas, a fortiori none others can have
been consciously born with us before we had ex-
perience. The proof is that, if all elements due to
experience are left out, the ideas now mentioned
must disappear. In the \'M\\ and most of the
remaining chapters of the second book this argu-
ment is worked out. liut here Locke seems too
ready to take for granted that, if those crucial
ideas are unrealisable without data of ex]ierience,
it necessarily follows that they involve nothing else
than accidents of external or spiritual experience.
He was led to interpret 'innateness' as he did
p.utly by his assumption that nothing can be ' i/i
a mind ' of which the mind is not at the moment
conscious. He thus overlooks the fact that we
are conscious at each iiKiment only of a small
part of what — because potentially involved in, and
presupiiosed by, our spiritual experience of the
LOCKE
LOCKHART
683
universe — responds consciously in each man s iniiul
on an ailequate ajipeal.
After tliis analysis of the possilile range of man's
iJeas, Locke passes to the intuitive iiml demon-
strable, the prohahle, ami the erroneous judgments
into which ide;\s enter. AVe are thus led into the
fourth hook, which reports upon the intuitive
facts and principles which constitute knowledge.
Locke's refusal of innatene.ss (in his meaning of
'innate") to ideas, .and a furtiori to knowledge
which dejiends upon ideas, does not imply that he
ignores intuition. t)n the contrary, after arguing
strenuously against tlie innateness of our ideas of
morality and of (mmI. he is not le-ss strenuons in
arguing for our having an intuitive certainty of
the truths of ])ure mathematics and abstract
ethics, and for our being intuitively certain of
the individual fact of our own existence as self-
conscious, as well as of the existence of external
things, as far as they are actually felt, and above
all for our having a denxmstrable knowledge of
the existence of God or Eternal ilind ' as certain
as any conclusion in pure mathematics.' Indeed,
in his ' demonstration ' of Gods existence lie pre-
supposes in oui- idea of causality transcendental
elements with which his description of that idea
in the seconil book can hardly lie reconciled. On.
the whole, we have intuitive knowledge (so Locke
reports) in abstract logic, in abstract mathematics,
and in abstract ethics; and we have also an in-
tuitive knowledge of the facts of our own existence,
of the existence of actually fell things of sense,
and of the existence of an Eternal Spirit : it is on
the light of intuition, he says, 'that all the certainty
of this kimwledge depends.' But all else upon
which human understanding cjin be exercised is
referred by the Essny to the spheres either of moie
or less probable "resumption or of ignorance. All
judgments abon absent things of sense ; about the
relations among the qualities of matter, primary
and secondary, or about its laws ; and about the
attributes of spirits human or divine, can at the
most be probable jiresumptions. Hence jirobability
is virtually the guide of human life. Science of
absent facts of sense (if science means intuitively
demonstrated truths) is beyond man's reach. Tlie
chief exercise of a human understanding must be
bal.incing of probabilities and comparing the rela-
tive weight of objections, alike in the so-called
physical .sciences and in common life. 'Whether
physical science, or even the probalile jiropositions
of ordinary life, could be f<UMii!d without the latent
presence in experience of universal and necessary
judgments, presupposed in, while incai>al)le of
being referred to, its contingencies, Locke does
not inquire. His aversion to ijresuppositions and
maxims, to which he traced the empty verbalism
and dogma against which he constantly warred,
seems here to influence him. He sometimes wrote
a.s if he failed to see that, without presu])positions
and principles of some sort, intellectual and moral,
being ready to spring out of their latency into
ex])ei'ipnce, there ccmid be neither rea.soned scepti-
ci-m nor rea.sonable faith. The most significant
{)hilosophical discussions of the last two centuries
lave been about the presence or absence of trans-
cendental presuppositions and principles in our
experience ; and about mans c(msei|uent relation
to the infinite and the eternal. IJcrkeley's
I'rinriitles of Uiiinmi Knuwlcih/':, Hume's Jinjniri/
into tlie understanding, Keid's Inrjiiii;/ into the
?rincipli*s of common sense, Kant's Kriti/. of Pure
Icasoii, Hegel's ontological dialectic, Comte's
positivism, and Herliert Spencer's generalisations of
universal evolution and inv(duti>m, are all in their
respective ways concerned with qnesliuMs aliont the
roots of experience which Locke left indeterminate.
Locke's teaching in bis other works is influ-
enced by what is taught in his Essatf. Thus, his
fav(nirite idea of free toleration for tlie individual
expression of religious belief— then a paradox, now
a commonplace— is founded on the dependence
of man's knowledge on experience and on the
unfitness of iiersecution as a means of introduc-
ing truth to a human mind ; Avhile his refusal of
toleration to atheists is in harmony with that
' mathematical certainty of God's existence" which
he reports to be attainable by every man who
uses his f.aculties enough. The same intellectual
individualism pervades what he wrote about
government, the education of the young, and the
reasonableness of Christianity.
Locke's character is reflected in his works. In
all that he wrote and did he is privemineiUly him-
self, in his caution and calculation with an ajiproach
to timidity, steady adherence to the concrete of ex-
perience, indifl'erence to abstract speculation, sus-
picion of mystical entliusi,-ism, calm reasonableness,
love for truth, and ready submission to facts even
when they could not be reduced to system in a
human understanding. His temperate aim was
not to explain the univei-se, but to adapt his own
intellectual life and that of others to the actual
conditions. He sought to awaken the intellectual
spirit, and to bring about an amendment of the
operations of the understanding, more than to solve
the enigmas of existence. Hence the lasting educa-
tional value of his authorship.
Niuuor.nis editions of Locke's works, individually and
coUectivcly, have appeared, about 40 of tlie Essnii alone,
besides tran.slations into Latin, French, and German. Of
the collected editions none are adequate, but the best is
probably that of Bishop Law in 4 quartos ( 1777 ). .^iiiong
criticisms of the Essay, the Noureaux Essais of Leibnitz
(176.5) still takes the foremo>;t place. Cousin'.s Lectttres
on Locke (1829). Webb's Inttlkrtualism of Locke (1S.57),
and Green's criticism in his Introduction to Hume ( 1874 )
are noteworthy. .See also Fowler's Locke { ' English
Men of Letters,' 18ti0), and the present writer's Locke
(1890), and his critical edition of the Essay ('2 vols.
1894).
Lockerbie, a market town, with a great
August lamh-fair, in .Aniiandale, Dumfrie.sshire, 15
miles ENE. of Dumfries and '26 N\\'. of Carlisle.
Pop. 2:«1.
Loeker-Lainpson, Frederick, son of a
naval ofhcei, was born in 18'21, served some yeai's
as precis writer in the Admiralty office, and made
his name widely known as a writer of unusually
bright and clever vers ile socictc by his Lone/on
iyr/'/w ( 1857), collected from the various papers in
which they had appeared. Later books are Lyi-a
E/i'f/cDitiariim (1867) and Palf/iwor/: (IS79). In
IS.'jO he married a daughter of the seventh Eiirl of
Elgin, who died in 187'2 ; and in 1874 the daughter
of Sir Curtis Lampson, when Locker adileil the
name of Lampson to his own. In 1878 his daughter
was m.arried to Lionel Tennvson. He died SOth
May ISil.-). See My Confidences (1896), which is
an autohiograiihy.
Loekharta John Gib.sox, was horn in Cambus-
nethan manse, near Wisliaw, 14th July 1794. All
his boyhood was spent in <!hisgow, where at eleven
he pa.ssed from the high school to the college, and
whence at thirteen, with a lialliol Siiell exhibition,
he went up to Oxford. In 18i:j he look a lirsicl.ass
in classics ; then, alter a visit to the Contiiient (to
Goethe at NVeimar), studied law at Edinburgh, and
in 1816 wiis called to the Scottish bar. But he was
no speaker; and having while still at Oxford
written the article 'Heraldry' for the Eilinhiirf/h
Encyclopniliii, and soon after Iranslated Sclilegel's
Lectures on llic History if Literal iirc, from 1817 he
took more and more to literature, and with Wilson
became the chief main.stay of HlnckirooiVs Moyaziiie.
In its pages he first exhibited the sharp and caustio
684
LOCK HAVEN
LOCRI
wit, his most salient cliaracteristic, that made him
the terror of liis Wliij; oiiponents. Peter's Letters
to /lis Kinsfolk ('2il pil.' 18101, a clever skit on
Scottish society, was followed hy four novels —
Valerius (\^1\). a romance of the times of Trajan :
Ailam BIfiir (1822): Urrjivnlil Dalton (1823), a
tale of iinivei-sitv life: and Mnlthew Wrild (1824).
Of these Aiffim iiluir alone retains its vitality— the
strong, sad storv of a <;<>"il nian's fall and repent-
ance : Heniy James has likened it to Hawthorne's
Searlet Letter. The spirited Aneient S/ninish
Ballads appeareil in 1.S23; Lives of Burns and
N:ipoleon in 1828 and 182!); and the Life of Scott,
Loiddiart's masteriiiece, in 1837-38. He had met
Scott first in >Lay 1818, in April 1820 had married
his eldest d.aughter. Sophia, and for five and a half
years had divided his time ]iretty enually hetween
'Edinliurgh and Cliiefswood, near Abbotsford. In
1825 he removed to I>ondon to assume the editor-
ship of the Qiiarterly L'crieir, at a salary of £1 00
per annum ; and tliis post he retained till 1853,
in 1.843 hecomin',' also auditor of the dncliy of
Cornwall, a sinecure worth £400 a year. But his
closing years were clouded by illness and deep
dei>ression : by the secession to Rome of his only
daughter, with her husband, Mr Hope-Scott (i\.\:):
and by the loss of his wife in 1837, of his two boys
in 1831 and 1853. The elder of them was the
'Hugh Littlejohn' of Seotts Talcs of a Grand-
father : the younger, Walter, was a scapegrace in
the army. Like Scott, Lockliart visited Italy in
search of health : like Scott, he came back to
Abbotsford to die— 25th November 1.854. He is
buried in Dryburgh at Sir Walter's feet. See his
Life (dill Letters, by Andrew Lang (1896).
Look Haven, capital of Clinton county,
Pennsylvania, is situated in a beautiful mountain
valley', on the south bank of the West Branch
of tiie Susr|uehanna lUver (here crossed by a
briilgo), and on the West Branch Canal, 09 miles
NE.^of Altoona by rail. It contains a state
normal school, large foundries and tanneries,
macliine-shops and mills, an<l has an active trade
in lumber. Pop. 7.'!45.
Lock nospital. in Loncbm, for female con-
tagious diseases, was founded in 174(5, the chapel
in''l764, and the a-sylum in 1787. The Loke or
Lock, in Southwark, from which it derives its
name, was an ancient lazar-house, and was itself
perhaps so-called from Fr. lui/iies, 'rags' or 'lint.'
Lock-jaw. «eo Tkt.vnus.
Lockport. cai)ital of Niagara county. New
"Vork, on tlie Erie Canal, 25 miles NNE. of Bull'alo
by rail. Tlie canal here passes tlirouyb a deep
cfiannel, several miles long, cut in the soliil lime-
stone, and falls GO feet, liy ten combined doubh>-
locks. Its surplus water drives a number of lumber,
flour, and wo(dleu and cotton mills, besides other
factories, foundries, machine-shops, &c. Pop. ( 1880)
13,522; (1890) 10,038.
Lockyer, Sin Joskph Normax, K.C.B. (since
1897), w,as Ijorii at Hugby on 17th May 18.30, and in
1857 became a clerk in thi> War Ollice, being subse-
quently transferred to the Science and Art Oepart-
ment. " In 1869 he was elected an F.R.S., juid
in 1870 wasappointed secretary to the Royal Com-
mission on Scientilic Instruction, made lecturer r>n
Astronomy at the Normal School of Science at Soutli
Kensington, and sent out to Sicily as head of the
eclipse exjiedition. In tlie following year he headed
a similar expedition to India and was elected liede
lecturer at Cambridge. Ho had already in 1866
discovered a new metliod of observing the son : and
in 1874 he gained the RunifonI modal of the Royal
Society, and w,as appointed eilitor of Nature. He
is an able popular lecturer on astronomical
physics, and has written Elcinentary Lessons in
Astronomy (1868), Stxidies in S/teetrum An<ili/sis
(1878), Contributions to Solar P/ii/sies (1873), 7'/ic
Speetroseope and its Appl ieat ions {iH~3), a primer
on Astronomii (1875), StarGazinr/ (1878), and
Chemistry off he .s'(ni. (1887). In' 1888 he was
Bakerian lecturer.
Loclc, a Swiss town, 10 miles NW. of NeuchAtel,
is one of the chief seats of the Swiss watch
making industry. Pop. 10,464.
Locomotion. See Flying, Horse, &c.
Locomotives. See Stkam-exgise and Rail-
WA\.
Locomotor Ataxia, or Tabes Doesalis, is
a remarkable disease of the nervous system, the most
characteristic symptom of whicli is a want of jiowei
of co-ordinating the muscles. The lower linilis .are
almost always first and most severely alTected, and
the patient walks with a peculiar gait ; he lifts
the feet high and brings them down with a stamp ;
he has dilliculty in baiancing himself : iind though
lie m.ay be able to walk prc'tty well in a stiaiglit
line on level ground, ,any more complicated move-
ment (turning round, surmounting or avoiding
obst.-icles, iVc. ) much increases his unsteadiness.
When deprived of the aid of sight (in the dark, or
on closing the eyes) these dilliculties are much
aggravated. In tlie great majority of cases sensa-
tion is early afVected ; and he may complain that
he .always feels as if he were w.alking upon a thick
carpet. The power of the muscles is in many
ca.ses (|uite unimpaired.
Besides the symptoms of incoordination, .and
often hmg preceding them, are others, someof which
are so characteristic that they m.ay lead to the
recognition of the disease. Severe shooting pains,
especially in the lower limbs (called liyhtninq
pains), are frequent. Similar pains in the region of
the stom.aeh, associated witli vomiting, faintncss,
(S:c. (ifa.strie. eriaes): paralysis, often transient, of
one of the eye-muscles ; extreme contraction of the
pupil ; atrophy of the optic nerve ; a peculiar form
of inllammation of one or more joints, are all met
with in .a certain proiiortion of cases.
The progress of the ilisease is always slow and
uncert.ain ; it may ^'ciu'rally be nu'as\ired by years,
often by decades : but, altlnmgh in some cases the
condition of the patient may remain stationary
for years, it generally becomes gradually worse.
Death usually results from some intercurrent
disease. Locomotor ataxia gener.illy begins be-
tween the ages of thirty and fifty, ami is much
more common in the male sex. It seems some-
times traceable to severe acute illness, to chill,
over fatigue, injury, &c., .and many of those who
sutler from it have previously had syphilis ; but
in a large number of cases no cause is discoverable.
After death a fibrous degeiieraticm (sclerosis) of
the whole or part of the posterior columns of tlie
.spinal cord is found. The extremely uncertain
course of the disease renders it very difiicult to lie
certain of the eU'ect of treatment, though many
dillerent methods have been advocated, .and asserted
to produce amendment if not cure. The most
hopeful ca-ses are those which follow syphilis ; for
in them a prolonged .antisy))hilitic treatment not
nnfretiuently seems to lead to great improvement
or even disappearance of the symptoms.
Loci*i« .1 peoide of ancient (ireece, ilivided intc
two distinct tribes, ililleriiig in customs and
I civilisation. The one, known as Locri Epicnemidii
and Opuiitii, dwelt on the mainland overag.ainst the
island of Eulwea, whilst the other, c,allc<l Locri
Ozobe, lived on the northern sliore of the (iiilf of
Corinth. The chief town of the eiislorn Locri was
Opus, of the western .\mpliissa. -.A colony from
one or the other of these tribes founded (eirea 710
B.C.) in South Italy the celebrated city of Locri,
LOCUS
LOCUST
685
wliich stoiKl near the sDiitlieni extremity of the
Hruttiaii |>eiiiiisula. Locri wiis geneiully in opposi-
tion to Homo, lirst as tlie allj- of the Syracusaus,
then of the Carthajjinians. Excavations were
carrioil out here in 18S9-90.
Locus, in (Jeometry, ileiiotes tlie line or surface
traversed hy a point which is constrained to move
in accordance with certain determinate conditions.
Thus, the locus of a point wliicli must always pre-
serve the same uniform distance from a lixed point
is the surface of a sphere : hut if the motion he
at the same time confined to a plane, the locus
then will be a circle : this is an illustration of the
division into so/id and jihine loci which prevailed
among the ancients. In moilern Geometry plane
loci are treated under the name of Curves (q.v.).
Locust, a name applietl to the members of a
family (Acridid;p) of orthopterous insects nearly
related to j;rasshoppei"s. It is unfortunate that the
family LocustitUe and the genus Locusta do not
include what are usually called locusts, but the
related gnu-^shoppei-s, katydids, &c. Locusts in
the popular sense, members of
the family Acridid;e, are large,
ground-loving insects, of world-
wide distribution, famous for
their voracious vegetarian ajipe-
tite. In size they vary frnni \
inch too inches in length. They
have strong hind-legs with great
leaping powers, large heads with
formidable mouth-organs,
shorter antenna- and robuster
bodies than gra.'-shoppei-s. Both
winged and wingle.<sforms occur,
the form(!r with strong powers
of flight, though tliey are
doubtless aided in travei'siiig
seas and continents by the prevailing
The females have strong ovi|>ositoi-s by
they bore holes for their eggs ; the males are
witliout the grasshoppers' stridulatiii" organ at
the base of the wings, but rub their thighs
against the edges of the wing-covers. The
numerous eggs are laid in holes drilled in the
ground ; the youu" develop with incomplete meta-
morphosis, and wlieu hatched generally resemble
the parents except in the absence of wings. From
the first they are gregarious, and excessively
voracious except during their repeated moults ;
they devour all green things, and even one another,
and are often forced by stress of hunger and ex-
cessive multiplication to migrate in great swarms,
' which have been traced over a stretch of country
many hundreils of miles in length.' They periodi-
cally appear in destructive hordes, ' thick as snow-
flakes,' darkening the sky in ' myriads numherle.«s,
the rushing of whose wings is as the sound of a
broad river.' Their ceaselessly moving jaws make
a noise comiiarable to a spreading ilanie or to
' chariots in battle;' in a few hours cornlields are
reduced to bare stalks or stubble ; ' the land is as
the garden of Eden before them, and behind them
a de-solate wilderness.' The prophet Joel's descrip-
tion is at once vivid ami accurate. Their ravages
somi-lijues cause wi(h?spreail famine anil ruin ;
their rotting corp.ses jiroduce pestilential ellluvia.
In many countries they are eaten, roa-^teil or frieil
in butter, preserved in brine, plain boilecl, or dried
in the sun. ' In taste the red locust, which is the
female, resembles green wheat, having a very
deli(«ite vegetable flavour.' One of the most
famous and ilestructive forms Ls the Hocky Moun-
tain Locust, Vuliiiitcnux simliis ; the most abundant
niigratorj' species of the Ea-nt, so often mentioned
in the Scriptures, is I'licliHtj/liis viii/rttluriiin.
Acridium, CEUipoda, Stcnobotunis are among the
numerous other genera of importance. See Gr.a,SS-
Hol'l'EK : and for a complete account of the Kocky
Mountain Locust, see C. \'. Kiley in Reports of
United States Entomological Conimi.ssion ( Wash-
ington, 1877-8" ). For the ' seventeen years' locust '
or harvest-fly of North America, see ClCAD.\.
Locust Destruction. — Numerous systems both in
the Old and the New World have been adopted
for destroying these terrible swarms. The.v were
beaten down as they flew ; they were pushed into
hat's as they crawled, and their eggs were collected
ana burned on a very large scale before the young
were hatched. A bounty has been ottered for their
destruction, in Minnesota, for instance, so nmch
a bushel being |)aid, and thousands of 1)ushels
brought in. But no method was of any practical
avail, until in Cyprus, under British administra-
tion, a system w;i.s perfected which has been so
completely successful that it may be saiil to be
the only one worthy of notice or consideration. It
was suggested as early as 1870 by an enterprisin"
land-owner in Cyprus, Mr Richard Mattel, ana
was modilied and perfected by Mr Samuel Brown,
winds,
which
Locust (Pachijtylus migratorius).
government engineer-in-chief in the island in 1881.
Sir Mattei wits created a C.M.G. in 1886.
By his system, based upon a close observation of
the nature and habits of the Insects during many
years, the locusts are caught w bile they are ' on
the march ' — that is to say, while ( some ten days
aftei' they are hatched ) they march across the
country in countless hosts or ' armies.' Mr Mattei,
having observed that no obstacle causes them to
turn back in their onward progress, but that they
climb and crawl over everything that bars their
direct course, and that furthermore they are
unable to obtain foothold on any perfectly smooth
or ]polislied surface, hit upon the ingenious ex-
pedient of barring their ])rogress by means of long
canvas screens put up on stakes and furnished at
the top with a iiand of varnished leather or what
is called American cloth. Deep pits are dug at
intervals of some few yards on tlxe side of these
screens facing the advancing hosts, and the locusts,
reaching the obstacle and being unable to surmount
it owing to the polished surface on the upi)er edge,
fall down and are cau'dit in the pits, which are
theniseUes ed''ed and lined to a dei>th of a few
inches with polished zinc. Finally, the locusts as
they fall into the pits an- rendered ineai)able of
crawling out, not only by the smooth surface of the
zinc, but by the superincumbent weight of the
tens of thousands of fresh victims that are Jier-
petually ]iouring in upon them. By tliLs system
the locusts in Cyprus were in live years entirely
destroyed, and at a cost, though large for Cy])rus,
certainly not excessive, amounting to less than
£13,000 a .vcar. But the magnitude of the opera-
tions conducted for this comiiarativelv moderate
sum of money may be gatliereil from the statement
that there were employed over half a million yards
of canva-- screen, and thirteen Ibou.sand zinc traps,
with stakes, tools, and tents for the men engaged,
G86
LOCUST-TREE
LODGINGS
in proportion. Locusts were trapped (in 1883) in
about "26,000 pits, anil a far lar^'er iiinnber of holes
were actually iliij; : while a sjjecial stall' of no
less than "iGSl persons was employed during the
campaign. Nor was the destruction on a scale in-
commensurate with these immense preparations.
The numlier of the slain in 1S!S3 is estimated, after
careful calculation hv .Mr Brown, a.s heinj,' nearly
20l).000,()00,0()(), with'an expenditure of only £12,300.
And in tlie following year the enemy still remained
sutlieientlv numerous to supply a list of casualties
numherini; over 56,000,000,000 locu.sts. Taking
these nun'ihers together at, say, '2.")0,000,000,000 for
the two years ISSS:? and 1884, and the expenditure
during the same period at £27,000, we lind the
cost of slaying locusts has been 2s. a million, which
i.s perhaps as economical a slaughter of living
creatures as is recorded in the history of nature or
art. Locust destruction on this .system was only
commenced in 1881, and in 18S6 there were few if
any locusts in Cyprus left to he destroyed. See
the National Review for March 1888.
L«CUSt-trcC. a name given in diflerent parts
of tlie world to ilifferent trees of the natural (Uiler
Leguminos.-i'. The Carob-tree ( Ceratuniii xi/iqua ) is
often so called in the countries bordering on the
Mediterranean, and its pods are tlie locust-beans
of our shops (see C.\EOB). The Locust-tree of
America {Itobinia pseud-acacia), also called the
False Acacia, or Thorn-acacia, and on the
continent of Europe and in Britain very generally
the Acacia, is a valual)le and (extremely be;uitifiil
tree (see RouiNlA). The wood, known as i,ac«*<-
■wooil, is useful for all purposes in which great
strength, and especially toughness, Ls remured :
'locust,' indeed, is the slang term in the United
States for a policeman's baton. Tlie Honey
Locust-tree (q.v.) of America is a (ileditschia.
The Locust-tree of the West Indies is Iliiiiienwa
courharil, a gigantic tree whose pods also supply
a nutritious matter, a mealy substance in which
the pods are embedded. The bark of the tree is
anthelmintic; it yields a kind of resin called
Aiiime (cj.v. ), and it is valuable as a timber-tree,
the timlier (also known as Locust- icuod) being
close-grained and tough.
Lode, a miner's term for Veins (ij.v.) in which
minerals occur. See OKK-lHiPOSlTS.
Lodestar (lit. ' way-star,' or star tliat shows
the course), an old name for the Pole-star (q.v.).
Lodestoiie. See Loadstone, JLvonetism.
Lodi^VC (anc. Luteva), a town in the French
department of llerault, at the foot of the ('evennes,
43 miles by rail NW. of MoiitpelHtM', .A bislio|)'s
see till 17!J0, it has a cathedral, founded in 950,
but rebuilt in the 14th century. Cardinal Fleury
was a native. Pop. 9225.
Lodge, Edmunij (1756-18.39), successively
Lancaster, Norroy, and Clarenceux herald, pub-
lished lUustratioiis of British Histori) (3 vols.
1791), a Life of Julius Caisar (1810), and an
annual Pceraije ; but is best known as author of
the /Portraits of Illustrious I'ersonar/es of Great
Britain (4 vols. fol. 1821-34), the cost of engraving
and printing which exceeded £40,000.
Lodife, Tuo.MA.s, English dramatist, romance-
writer, and poet, was born at West Ham aliout
15.')6. After studying at Trinity College, Oxford,
he entered at Lincoln's Inn, but seems to have led
a wild and rollicking life, using his pen occa-sionally,
a.s in a duel with (Josson, against whom he defended
stagephiys in a couple of pamphlets ( edited by 1).
Laing for the Shakespeare Society in 18.i3). In
l.j89 !)l he varied his life by taking part in two sea-
expeditions against the Spaniards, in the neigh-
bourhuud of the Azores and Canary Islands. On
the liret of these voyages he wrote an euphuistic
romance, Eosalyude ( 1590 ; reprinted in Hazlitt's
S/ia/:es/)care's Library, vol. ii., and again, separ-
ately, in 1887), which supplied England's great
dramatist with the chief inciileiits, and even more
than the chief incidents, of .Is Vau l.ihe It. Lodge
himself wrote two second-rate dramas. The Wounds
of Civil ir((r{1594; reprinted in Hazlitt's Dodsley's
Select Collection of Old Plays, vol. vii. ), and A
Loolcing.ylass for London and. Knr/land (1594),
written in collaboration with Kobert Greene (q.v.),
another dissipated author. He wius generally
stated to have been a player, until the point was
eliectively disproved by C. M. lugleby in 1868.
But he is believed to have taken a meilieal degree
at Avignon, and to have written a History of the
Plague {1603). He died himself of the plague in
1625. Of his remaining writings we may mention
A Fig for iI/o«uM ( 1595 ; reprinted in Sir ,\. Bos-
well's Frondes Cailuca; 1817); translations of
Seneca (1614) and Josephus (1602); Life of
W'iUiani Lonijheard (1593); History of Boh in the
Divcll, Wits Miserie, and Glaucus and Silla {\H)(;ms,
one of wiiicli suggested the plan of Shakespeare's
Venus and Adonis, 1589). See the Works, edited
by Gosse (4 vols. 4to, 1884).
Lodgings in another person's house consti-
tute the relation of landlord and tenant. It is
not necessary that the contract shoulil be in
writing, though it is liiLjhly exiiedieiil. In Eng-
land, unless there has been ])art ])erforniaiice, a
verbal contract to let lodgings cannot he enforced,
since it is an agreement relating to land, and so
void by the Stiitute of Frauds. But where a
furnished house is let, and a written agreement or
lease is used, it is absolutely necessary that there
should be a stamp on such writing, which, if
adhesive, must lie cancelled by the parties under
a penalty of £10. One of the risks which the
lodger in England ran was that if his laii<llord,
L, were himself a tenant to A, then, if Ls rent
were in arrear, the lodger's goods might be taken
by A to pay this, for the rule was that all goods
found on the premises (witli certain delinite excep-
tions, of which this was not one) C(mld be taken
uniler a distress for rent; but by the 34 and .35
Vict. chap. 79. 1871, it was |)rovided that, if the
lodger has ]iaid the mesne (or intermediate) lanil-
lord, the su]ierior landlord must leave his goods
ahme ; if he has not paid the mesne landlord, then
he may jiay the supeiior landlord in lieu of the
mesne landlord, and again obtain protectiim for his
goods. Tbesl.-itute 2 and 3 Vict. chap. 71, sect. 38,
provides that a police-magistrate may award eoni-
pen.sation up to £15 for wilful damage done by
lodgers. The Larceny Act, 1801, makes the steal-
ing of chattels or fixtures by lodgers a felony
punishable by imprisonment for two years or
jieiial servitucle for .seven years, according to the
value of the thing stolen.
A lodger is entitled to the use of the door-bell
and knocker, and the hindloid impliedly jiiomises
that the rooms are fit f(U- oeeuiiation. In letting an
unfurnished house there is no such implication. A
lodging-house keeper, even where he keeps a board-
ing-house, which iie.irly resembles an Inn (q.v.), is
not liable for the s;ife custody of the lodger's goods.
He is merely liable for ordinary care : but he does
not warrant at all hazards that the goods will not
be stolen. Even if the lodger's goods are stolen by
a servant of the house, the lodginij;-house keeper is
not liable. The notice to <[uit depends on how
the lodgings were taken. It they were taken by
the week, a week's notice is sullicient ; if by the
month, a month's ; and if by the quarter, a ([uarler's
notice, unless smne other agreement was made.
Hence, if the lodger quits without notice, he is
' liable for one week's, or month's, &o. rent, even
LODT
LOG
687
thougli the landlord put a notice in tlie window.
The lodging-house keeper may distrain the lodger's
goods for Hnpaid rent. When a lodger refuses to
ijuit the lodgings after a notiee has exjiired he
eannot he put out hy force, but in many cases a
summary renu'dy is gisen for recovering possession.
Since ISOS a lodger is entitled to vote for members
of parliament in boroughs, if he pays rent of the
clear annual value of £10, provided also that he
has resided twelve mouths in the district, and \n\t
in his claim to be registered. The lodger-franchise
wius e.vteniled to counties by the Representation of
the People Act of 1884. In Scotland the lodgers
goo<ls cannot be taken by the landlord of the
lodging house keeper for rent, nor is it yet decided
whether the householder's lia1)ility in case of loss
of the lodger's goods is equal to or less than that
of an innkeeper. ""
Common. Loi/ffiiiff-ftoKseii, where poor people lodge
by the night, are subject to police supervision.
The Public Health .Act, 1875, movides (in continua-
tion of earlier statutes) for their registration and
inspection, and enacts that they are only to be
kept by registered keepers. Before being licensed
they are inspected by the medical officer of health,
every room being uu^iisured and restricted to a
specitied number of lodgers. Every room has this
number painted on the door, and a copy of the
police regulations Is posted up in a conspicuous
part of it. The keepers are bound to thoroughly
cleanse all the rooms, stairs, &c., as often as by-
laws shall direct, and to keep a proper supply of
water. If fever break out notice must be given to
the local authority. These duties are enforced by
means of penalties. The same act directs that, if
any ])erson sulfering from any dangerous infectious
disorder has lodged in any rooms, such rooms must
be disinfected to the satisfaction of a legally rjuali-
lied meilical practitioner, as testified by a certificate
signed by him, before they are agaiu let. Similar
provisions are in force in Scotland ami Irelaiul.
Of recent years very great improvements have been
etl'ecteil in common lo<lging-liouses. In most large
towns in Great Britain 'model lodging houses '
have been erected on approved plans, wherein
greater privacy is ensured in the sleeping quarters,
and a complete system of ventilation secured.
The latest inventions in cooking apparatus, wash-
ing-houses, &c. have been introduced ; while read-
ing, recreation, and bath rooms form indispensable
parts of these establishments. See V.vgrants.
Lodi> a town of North Italy, stands on the
Adda, 18 miles by rail SE. of Milan. It has
a Romano-Gothic cathedral dating from the l'2th
century ; manufactures of linens, silks, and Ma-
jolica porcelain; and a great trade in Parnie.san
and Stracchino cheese an<l wine. Pop. 18,G8i). —
LoDl Vecciiio, a ruined village, 4 miles W., was
ilestroyed by the Milanese in 1111-58. Here
Bonaparte, on 10th May 1796, forced the long
and narrow bridge in the face of a tremendous lire
from the .Vustrian batteries.
Lodoilirria ( l-at. for Vladimir), fonuerly an
indepenilent i)rincipality in Volhynia, has, since
the division of I'olaml in 177"2, constituted an
integral |)art of the Austrian 'kingdom of Galicia
and Liidomeria.' See (i.M.lciA.
Lodz, sometimes calleil 'the Manchester of
Poland,' lies 76 miles S\V. of Warsaw on a branch
railway. It consists chiefly of one main street, 6
ndles or more long, and ha.s luore than 1'20 manu-
factories making cotton and woollen stulls. Pop.
( 1870) 39,078 ; ( 1881 ) 49,.09'J ; (1895) with enlarged j
boundaries, 140,300, nearly half Gernian.s.
Litrss. See L6.SS.
Locwc, .loiiANN Carl C!ottfrikd, composer,
was iMjrn .'JOth Xovcndier 1796, between Kotiien
and Halle, the twelfth son of a schoolmaster. He
becanu' a choir-boy at Kiithen, later stu<liod music
and theology at' Halle, and in 18'21 settled at
Stettin, where he became successively profe.s.sor
in the gjinnasium, nuisical director to the city,
and organist. He made visits to Norway, Swedeii,
and France, aiul in 1847 sang and ]daVed before
the English court in Lon<lon. He died 'JOth April
1869. He composed five operas (of which only
one, jf'/ie Tlircc Wishes, was performed), sixteen
oratorios (several of Ihetn for voices oidy, without
accompaniment), and numerous symphonies, con-
certos, duets, and other works for the pianoforte.
But his ballads are his most notable bequest to
posterity ; they are, many of them, remarkable
dramatic poems, and in some respects Loewe may
claim to liave done for the ballad what Wagner
(lid for opera. Gehring, in (i rove's lUitinnarii
( 1880), said that Loewe's ' nmsic has gone for ever ; '
but more recently a good ileal of attention lia.s
been called to the liatlads. See The Art liallad,
Loeire ctnd ^rhiiherf, by A. Bach ( Edin. 1890).
Lofl'tt Capel, described by Byron in Eiirjllsh
Bards as ' the Maecenas of shoemakers and preface-
writer-general to distressed versemen : a kind of
gratis accoucheur to those who wish to be delivered
of rhyme, but do not know how to bring forth.'
This description, though iu)t the ill-nature of it,
was so far jvist that Lotlt was the patron of Bloom-
tield, and stood sponsor to his Farmer's Boy. Lotlt
himself was a London banister of the M'hig per-
suasion, with a ta.ste for letters, esjiecially ])oetry ;
he wrote some legal treatises and magazine articles,
and books on theological, astriinoniioal, political,
and poetical subjects. All are now forgotten. He
was born in London on 14lh November 1751, and
died at Moncalieri, near Turin, on '26th May 1824.
See GcHtlcman's Mayazine (1824).
Lwro'dcil, or Lofoten, a chain of islands on
the north-west coast of Norway, between 67° and
69" 15' N. lat., and stretching south-west and
north-east for 150 miles. Tliey include the
Lofoten proper and the Vesteraalen, lying farther
north. The largest islands are Hind, Ami, and
Lang in the Vesteraalen grou]>, and East Vaag,
West Vaag, Flakstail, and Moskenfis in the
Lofoden proper. Total area, 2247 sq. m. All of
them are rugged and moinitainous, many of the
summits being crater-shaped. In several pl.aces
they present walls of bare rock rising sheer from
the ocean. The highest point is 3090 feet above
sea-level. The waters on the east side of these
islands are visited in .lainiarv to March every year
by vast shoals of codlish, which attract a large
licet of fishermen. The average number of boats
is 5000 to 6000, manned by 28,000 to .•J0,()00 men ;
and the produce of the fishery is about 30,000,000
fish, 24,(J00 barrels of cod-liver oil, and '25,000 to
'26,000 barrels of roe. The fishing is attended with
considerable danger, on account of the sudden and
violent stoiins from the west, and of the strong
currents which set in between the islands (see
Maelstrom ). Besides fishing, sheep-farnnng is
also carried on, ius, owing to the inlluence of the
(julf Stream, the winters are mild ami grass grows
abundantly. The permanent ]Jopulation inimber
about '20,000.
Lo{; is the instrument by which a shi|p's rate
of motion through the water is measured. In it.s
oldest and simplest form it is a ouadranlal piece of
teak-wodd called a log-ship, loa<li'd in the arc .--o a.s
to float vertically, point ui>wards. Every hour or
two hours it is hove overboard for twenly-pight
seconds, or, if the ship is going veiy fast, for four-
teen seconds. It is attache<l to a line called the
log-line. The sup|>osili<m is that wheu lii>ve into
the sea it will remain stationary in the water while
688
LOG
LOGAN
the log-line is freely paid out from a reel held by
hand cm lioard. In actnal practice a conical canvas
bag, called a log-bag, with its open mouth facing
the vessel. Is often used instead of the log-ship.
The log-line, whicli is .attached to the log-ship or
to the log-bag, is divided into ecinal sections by
pieces of marline which are tucKed througli its
strands, each section being tliat |iart of a geogra-
pliical mile whicli twenty-eight seconds is of an
hour, so that tlie number of sections of the log-line
which rnn out dnrhig twenty-eight seconds is the
same .as the nnMd)er of geograpldcal miles which
tlie ship is going per hour at the time of testing
the speed. To facilitate counting the number of
sections of the log-line which have been ])aid out,
one, two, three, I'vrc. Knots (((.v.) are tied on the
Fig. 1. — Rotator with four vanes.
tails of the pieces of marline. In practice, each
section is made 46 feet 8 inclies long, which is
designedly rather shorter than the tlieoretical
length.
A ship's ])rogress through the water is, however,
much more generally obtained, especially near
land, by towing continuously a small cylindrical
tube to which are attached ol)lique vanes, usually
four in number. This rotator, as it is called,
revolves as it is towed with a speed which is pro-
portional to the speed of the vessel. This propor-
tion is ascertained liy experiment by the makers,
aiul a registering apparatus, consisting of the usual
cog-wheels and i)inions, records the revolutions of
the rotator, and so records the progress of the shij).
In the older foi-m of this log the registering gear is
not justitied in regarding any form of log as an
instrument of ])recision.
Log-buuh. — The courses steered, distances run,
wiiul, state of tlie weather and sea, leeway, daily
employment of the crew, .and other incidents, which
in the liist instance are noted at the moment in the
bridge-liook or deck-hook, are daily entered in the
log-book, which thus becomes the diary of the ship.
Official Log-book. — The otiicial loghook is a book
issued by the Board of Trade at the beginning and
returned to that department at the end of each
voyage. It contains a record of the crew and their
chara(!ters, ship's draught of water, otlences com-
mitted, deserti(ms, sickness, deaths, medical treat-
ment, collisions, \c. , and is thus a .sort of civil or
police record of the voyage.
Logan. John, poet and sermon-writer, was
born at Soutra, in Midlothian, in 1748. His
father was a small farmer, but was able to send his
son to college. In l""."} he was licensed as a
preacher, and from his eloquence and fervour in
the pulpit soon hecame so popul.ar that he was
chosen nnnister of the second charge of South
Leith parish that same yeai-. In ITSli, however,
owing to intemperate habits, and for kindred
reasons, he was constrainetl to lesign his charge,
after which he proceeded to London, and there
engaged in literary work. He died there, December
■28, 1788. Besides two volumes of sermons and
lectures which were ])nblisheil after his death, he
was the author of a tragedy called liiiiimi/iia/c, hut
this, after a single ]ierform.ance at the Edinburgh
Theatre, was withdrawn from the stage. In 1781
he published a volume of poems, which, though
coldly received in critical circles, speedily reached
a second editi(Ui. His name is best known now in
connection with that of Michael Ihau'e and the con-
troverted authorship of the 'Ode to the Cuckoo'
and certain of the I'araphrases. The nu)st elTective
statement in behalf of Logan's claims which has yet
appeared will be found in two papers by the Kev.
Robert Small, Edinhurgh, which were published in
the Brit.inh and Foreign K run gel teal
Rerlew for 1879. Tli.at Logan is en-
titled to a place among the miniu' poets
of Scotland is sulliciently attested,
though there were nothing more, by
his exquisite lyric, ' The Biaes of
Yarrow. '
Fig. 2. — Log Register ( A ), with governing fly-wheel ( B ) attached,
the tow-line being hooked on at C.
attached directly to the rotator, and is towed with
it through the w.ater. The progiess of the ship can
in this case only he ascertained by hauling the log
on board. In the newest forms the rotator alone is
in the water. The registering gear is contained in
a small case which is secured to the tall'rail of the
ship, or to an outrigger, so that it can be con-
veniently read at any nu>ment, the revcdutions of
the sulunerged rotator being transnutted to the
tall'rail register by the tow-line which also rotates.
A lly-wheel or rotating triangle or dumli-bells are
placed on the tow-line between the rotator and the
register, but close to the register, to secure greater
smoothness in the working of the latter. The
registering dial is usually graduated to knots
(nautical miles) up to 100, and a smaller dial gives
subdivisions of a i|uarter of a nautical ndle. An
automatic bcdl rings at every rciile. But even under
the most favourahle circumstances a navigator is
Logan, John Ai.ex.vnder, an
.\merican statesman, was born in
Illinois, the son of an Irish doctor
there, in 1826. He served in the
Mexican war, was admitted to the
bar in 18.i2, and was electeil to ciui-
gress as a Democrat in 1858. He
raised an Illinois regiment at the
begiiming of the civil war, and
served with credit to the hist battle, retiring
with the rank of major-general. In IS(iU he was
returned to congress .as a Ucpnblican, and was one
of the managers of the impeachment of I'resident
Johnston. He was chosen a United States senator
in 1871, an<l was returned to the senate in IH79 and
in 1885. In 1884 he was nominated by the Itepul)!!-
cans for the vice-presidency of the United States,
but was defeated along with .lames (I. Blaine
(q.v. ). He died in Washington, 'iOtli December
188(i. There is a Life by G. E. Dawson (Chicago,
1887).
Logan. Sii! AViLLi.vM EdM()NI>, geologist, was
born, a Scotch baker's son, at Montreal, in Canada,
im 20lh .\pril 1798, and in 1814 was sent over
to Ediid)urgh High School. Eor ten years he
worked in a commercial countinglnnise in London,
and was then, about 1828, sent to Swansea to
take charge of the linances of a copper-smelting
LOGAN
LOGARITHMS
fi89
coni|)any. Whilst living in South Wales lie ])re-
pareii {reological maps of the coal-liiisins in that
part of the country, and liis work «a.'- so well done
that it wius incorporated in the 1-ineh maps of the
Geological Survey. In 1842-71 Logan wius director
of the Canadian Geological Survey. He was the
discoverer of the Stigmaria underclays and of the
EozooH Canadcnse (q.v.). He was knighted in
1856, and died in Wales, 2'2d June 1875. See the
Life by Harrington ( 1883).
Logan. See RocKiXG-SToxE.
LoganiaceaP, a natural order of corollilloral
exogens, consisting of trees, shrubs, and hcrliai'tMius
plants, with opposite entire leaves, and usually
with stipules, which adhere to the footstalks, or
form sheaths. A few species of this order occur
in Australia and in the temperate parts of North
America : the rest are all tropical or subtropical.
No natural order of plants is more strongly
characterised by poisonous properties. It includes
the genus Strychnos (q.v. ; and see Nux Vomica)
and the Curari Poison (q.v.). See also Spigelia.
Logansport, capital of Cass county, Indiana,
ia 75 miles N. by W. of Indianapolis, at the cross-
ing of three railways, where the Eel River joins
the Wabash. There are extensive railway-shops,
besides flour ami luml)er mills and foundries ; and
the town has a large shipping trade in grain, pork,
&e. I'op. (1880) 11.198: (ISOfl) l.S,32S.
Logarithms, a series of numbers having a
certain relati(jn to the series of natural numbers,
by means of which many arithmetical operations
are made comparatively easy. The nature of the
relation will be underetood by considering two
simple series such as the following, one proceeding
from unity in geometrical progression, the other
from 0 in arithmetical progression :
Geom. series, 1. 2, 4, S, 16, 32, 64, 128, 256, 512, &c.
Arith. series, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, &c.
Here the ratio of the geometrical series is 2, and
any term in the arithmetical series expresses how
often 2 has been multiplied into I to produce the
corresp<mding term of the geometrical series ; thus,
in proceeding from 1 to 32, there have been 5 steps
or multiplications by the ratio 2 ; in other words,
the ratio of .32 to 1 is compounded five times of the
ratio of 2 to 1. It was this concejition of the
relation that led to giving the name ot Logarithms
to the terms of the arithmetical series, the word
logarithm (Gr. lofjon aritUmo.i) meaning 'the
number of the ratio.s.' As to the use that may
be made of such series, it will be observed that the
sum of any two logarithms (as we shall now call
the terms of the lower series) is the logarithm of
their product — e.g. 9 (= 3 -i- 6) is the lugarithiu of
512 (=8 X 64). Similarly, tlie diti'erence of any
two logaritluns is the logarithm of the (juotient of
the numbei's; a multiple of any logarithm is the
logarithm of the corresponding number raised to
the power of the multiple— e.g. 8 ( = 4 >; 2) is the
logarithm of 256 (= 16-), and a submultiple of a
log.arithm is tlie logarithm of the corresponding
root of its number. In this way, with complete
tables of numbers, and their correspoiuling log-
arithms, a<ldition is made to take the place of
multiplication, subtraction of division, multiplica-
tion of involution, and division of evolution.
In or<ler to make the series above given of ])rac-
tical u.se, it would lie necessary to comjilete them
by interpolating a set of means ))etween tlu? several
terms, as will l>e explained below. We have chosen
2 as the fundamental ratio, or ba.'^e, as being most
convenient for illustration ; but any other number
(integral or fractional) mi;.'ht be taken ; and every
different ba.se, or radix, gives a different .-ystem of
lognriilims. The system now in use has lU for its
3U4
base ; in other words, 10 is the number whose log-
arithm is 1.
The idea of making use of series in this way
would .seem to have been known to Archimedes and
Euclid, without, however, resulting in any practical
scheme; but by the end of the IGtli century trigo-
nometrical operations had become so complicated
that the wits of several mathematicians were .at
work to devise means of shortening them. The
real invention of logarithms is now universally
ascribed to John Napier (q.v.). Baron of Mercliis-
tonn, who in 1614 printed his Canon Mirabilis Loij-
arithmorum. His tables only give logarithms of
sines, cosines, and the other functions of angles ;
they also labour under the three defects of being
sometimes -I- and sometimes - , of decreasing as the
corresponding natural numbei's increa.se, and of
having for their ?Y(f//.c(the number of which the
logarithm is 1 ) the number w hich is the sum of
I -I- 1 -). _ — - -f - — jj— =-f, &c. In many calculations,
however, the latter is an advantage rather than a
defect. These defects were, however, soon re-
medied : John Speidell in 1619 amended the tables
in such a manner that the logarithms became all
jiositive. and increased along with their correspond-
ing natural numbers. He also, in the sixth edition
of his work ( 1624), constructed a table of Napier's
logarithms for the integer numbers, 1, 2, 3, &c. , up
to 1000, with their differences and arithmetical
complements, besides other improvements. S]ieid-
ell's tables are now known as hi/jicrholir lofiarithma.
liut the greatest imi)rovenkent was made in 1615,
by Professor Henry Briggs (q.v.), of London, who
substituted for Napier's inconvenient ' radix ' the
number 10, and succeeded before his death in cal-
culating the logarithms of 30,000 natural numbers
to the new radix. Briggs's exertions were ably
seconded ; and before 1628 the logarithms of all the
natural numbers up to 100,000 had been computed.
Computers have since chiefly occupied themselves
rather in repeatedly revising the tables already
calculated than in extending them.
Construction of Tables. — The following is the
simplest method of constructing a table of log-
arithms on Briggs's system. The log. of 10 = 1 ;
the log. of 100 (which is twice compounded of 10)
= 2 ; the log. of 1000 = 3, &c. ; and the logarithms
of all powers of 10 can be found in the same
manner. The intermediate logarithms are found
by continually computing geometric means be-
tween two numbei's, one ":reater and the other less
than the number required. Thus, to find the log.
of 5, take the geometric mean between 1 and 10,
or3'162..., the corresponding aritliTin'tic mean (the
log. of 1 being 0, and that of 10 liciiig 1 ) being 05 ;
the geometric mean between 3162... and 10, or
5'623..,, corresponds to the arithmetic mean be-
tween 0'5 and 1 or 075; the geometric mean be-
tween 3162... and 5'623..., or 4'216..., hius its log-
arithm = i (0'75 -t- 5) or 0'625 ; this operation is
continued till the result is obtained to the neces-
.sary degree of accuracy^ In this example the
twenty-first result gives the geometric mean
= 5000,003, and the corresponding arithmetic
mean = 0'698,970, w hich is in ordinary calcula
tions used as the logarithm of 5. Since division
of numbers corresponds to subtract ion of logarithms,
and since 2 = V', the log. of 2 = log. 10 log. 5 =
1 - 0-698970 = 0-301030. The logarithms of all
])rime nuniViei-s are found in the .same way Jis that
of 5 : those of composite numbers are obtained by
the addition of the logarithms of their factors ;
thus the log. of 6 = log. 2 -t log. 3 = O.StllOIiO +
0-477121 =0-778151. This method, though simple
in iirinciplc, involves an enormous .-imonnt of calcu
latum ; and the following methoil, which depends
on the modern algebraic analysis, is much to be
690
LOGARITHMS
LOGIC
preferred. Aceordin^' to this iiietliod, lo^'aritlims are
oiiiisiderod as iiidicfs or jiowers of tlie radix : thus,
10" = 1, 10"--»'™ = 2, 10»-^'''-' = 'A. 10- = 100, &c. ;
and the laws of lo^'arithms then become the same
a-s those of indices. Let r represent the radix, y
the natural luimber, x its logarithm ; tlien y = »•',
or, piittinj; 1 + a for r, y = ( 1 + « )' ; and it is
sliown by the binomial and exponential theorems
(see the ordinary works on Algebra) that ?/ = 1 +
p-^c- px'
+ &c., where p = r - \ -
i(r - 1 y- + J(i- - 1)'- , ^c, the former equation
expressing a ininilier as the sum of diH'erent
multiples of its logarithm and the radix. If 1//) be
1 1
substituted for x, then y = 1 + 1 + - — ^ + - — ^j— ^ +
&c. = 2'7I8'2S18'2... wliieli, as before mentioned, is
Napier's radix, and is generally called e. Hence
r = e'', or /) is the logarithm of >■ to the base or
radix e. Then, referring to the above-mentioned
value of p, we have log, ;• ( i.e. log. of r to the base
c) = /• - 1 - i(r - 1)- + \(r - 1)' - &c., or, as
before, putting 1 + « for r, log, (1 + a) = a — a-/2
+ a'jS - &c. ; a series from which log„(l+a)
cannot be found, unless a be a proper fraction. But
if we put - a. for a, log, (!-«)=-«- a-/2 -
a73 - &c. ; and, subtracting this expression from
the former, log, ( 1 + a ) - log, (I - a) or log,
1 + a/1 - « = 2(« + ci'/S + a^/o + iSic); and, for
the sake of convenience, putting ( h + 1 )/« for
(1 + «)/(! - (t), in which case a = ]/{2h + 1), we
finallv obtain log, (u + l)/« = 2^1/(2« + 1 ) +
l/3(2« + !)■' + l/r)(2« + 1 )5+ &c. ;■, or log, (« + !) =
log, u + 2'1/(2h + 1) + 1/3(2!J 4-1)-; + \/5{'2u + 1 )■"•
+ &c.\. If 1 be put for u in this formula, the
Napierian logarithm of 2 is at once obtaiiieil to any
degree of accuracy re(iuired ; if 2 be put for ii, the
Napierian logarithm of 3 can be calculated, \c.
Now, as logarithms of any system have always the
same ratio to one another as the corresponding loga-
rithms of any other system, no matter what its base,
if a number can be found, which, when niultiidied
into the logarithm of a certain number to one base,
gives the logarithm of the same number to anotlier
base, this multiplier will, when niulti|died into iiiii/
logarithm to the Ihst base, j)ro<luce the correspon(l-
ing logarithm to the other base. The multiplier
is called the modulus, and, for the conversion
of Napierian into common or Briggs's logarithms,
is equal to 0 •4342944 ... ; so that, I u find the commott
liujnrHhin (if itiiif iiiniihcr, first fiiiil the Napierian
loiinrithiii, mill midtiplii it hij 04342!I44...
As in Briggs's system the logarithm of 10 is 1,
and that of 100 is 2, it follows that all numbers
between 10 and 100 have for th<!ir logarithms unity
-I- a proper fraction ; in other words, the integer
portion of the logarithms of all numbers of two
ligurcs is unity ; similarly, the integer ]iortion of
Ihe logarithms of numbers between 10(1 and 1000
is 2, ami, in general, the integer jiortion of the
logarithm of any number expresses a number less
by unity than the nundxsr of ligures in that
nuinlier. This integer is called the clMracterintic,
the decimal portion being the maiiti.isa.
As the logarithm of 1=0, the higarilbms of
quantities less than unity would naturally !"• nega-
tive ; thus, the logarithm of l would he 0:i0103.
But, for convenience in working, the mantissa
is kei)t always positive, and the negative sign
only atl'eets the charaeteristie ; the logarithm of
A or 0 5 would thus be 1 (iySOT, the characteristic in
this and similar cases expres.sing, when the frar
tion is reduced to a decimal, the number of pl.u-es
the lirst figure is removed from the decinuil i>oint ;
thus, the logarithm of 00005 is 4-69897.
TMrections for the use of logaritlinis in calculation will
he found preti,ved to any set of nKithcniaticut tables.
The tables most distinguishuii for accuracy are the French
ones of Callet, balalide. liagays ; Mutton's, tllose which
liabhage produced with the aid of his calculating niaclnne,
JShortrede's, and Sang's ; and the German ones of Gauss,
Schriiu, Bruhns, Von Vega, Hreiniker. A serviceable
handbook is CluimhenCi Mathematical Tables, editetl by
Pryde.
LoSjS'iila an Italian word signifying an o]ien
arcade, enclosing a passage or open .-Lpaitment.. It
is a favourite class of building in Italy and other
warm countries. The Loggia de' Lanzi at I'lorence
is one of the finest examples extant ; and the
Loggie of the Vatican, whicli are arcaded passages
nmnd the interior of the eortile of the jialace,
ornamented with beautiful jiaintings and arab-
esques by Raphael and his pupils, are well-known
specimens.
Logic may be most briefly defined, in accord-
ance with the etymology of the word, as the
.science of reasoning or ' the art of thinking.' It
is a scientific account of the laws which regulate
the passage in thought from one statement to
another, and which must be observed if the think-
ing process is to be valid. The theory of every
operation is later than its ]ierformance, and men
were accustomed to think correctly long before
they began to reflect upon their thinking faculties
and the processes by which their results were
reached. The attention which Socrates devoted
to the meaning and justificatiim of general names
is signalised by Aristotle as the beginning of logi-
cal theory. It was Aristotle himself, however,
who first elaborated the idea of the science, and
defined its sphere by separating it from tlie meta-
physical questions with which logical discussions
are always associateil in his predecessors. The six
treatises afterwards collected under the name of
the 0]-ijano)i contain the gist of what is still taught
as formal logic ; but the term logic was probal)ly
first used by the Stoics in the wide sense with
which we are familiar. Aristotle himself possessed
no single name for the science of which he w;is the
founder.
The independence which Aristotle conferred upon
the new science has enabled it to survive to the
l>resent day almost without change, and with very
few additions of im])ortance. But, while the edifice
of Aristotle remains architectonically complete
upon its own basis, it has liecome customary to
add to this science of logic proper a second part,
called Mixed, Material, or Inductive Logic, em-
bracing an account of the methods of science and
the ciunliti<ms of scientific ]irciof. The modern
version of the Aristotelian Logic is then c-illed. by
way of distinction, I'ure or Formal Logic. The
meaning of this designaticui is that logic, as such,
takes no accmmt of lhc*/;/'///c/' of our reasonings—
i.e. of the things reasoned about : it deals solely
with the form or skeleton of the rea-soning jirocess
itself. Thus, if we say, ' Knglishmen are white-
skinned,' logic has no occasion to ccuisider the
truth of this statement as a matter of fact or
sciences ; it deals only with the form of the pro-
])osition or judgment as a geiu'ral logii'al nn)nld
into which any pair of notions nuiy be litleil. It
treats the )iroposition, in short, only so far .a.s it is
expressible in the form, 'X is Y.' 'I'o this abstrac-
tion from all questions regarding the ade(|uacy of
our notions, and the material truth of our asser-
timis, fornuil logic owes its ciunpletene.ss as a
science. It looks upon thought, not as the ex-
pressi<m of the truth of things, but as a series of
mechaniisal operations, and its aini is to lay down
the general or symbolic forms which these opera-
tions must assume in order to insure that the end
shall be consistent with the beginning. It is
apparent, then, that in any reasoning process
formal logic only guarantees that the conclusion
LOGIC
G91
is tiiie if the premises from wliieli we started were
true. It lias iioforiliii<,'ly been called llie lo^ic of
co.isistency, ;is opposed to iiuluclioii, wliidi seeks
to lie a lo^^ic of tnitli. I'lire lo^'ic takes ils material,
as it were, rea<ly-maile from tlie hands of t)hser\'a-
tion, and merely watches over its correct manipula-
tion. Reasoning in the strict loj;ical sense is, in
fact, merely analytic ; the conclusion only brings to
explicit consciousness what was implied or involved
in the premises. Formal lo<;ic is thus, in its most
general aspect, an application, by means of many
subordinate rules, of the laws of identity and non-
ci)ntradiction. Practically, however, it is of great
service in clarifying tlie thought of the individual,
though, in a sense, merely teaching him what he
knows already.
Formal logic is usually treated under the three
heads of Notions, Judgments, and Rea-sonings ; or,
if regard be had to the verbal expression of thought,
the Notion, Ju<lgment, and Reasoning appear re-
siiectively a.s Term, Proposition, and Syllogism.
Though pure logic has strictly nothing to say
about the formation of general names or the
ailcijuacy of our notions, it is customary for logi-
cal writers to expound uiuler the lirst head the
nature of generalisation and definition — the pro-
cesses bv which our notions are forme<l and tested.
The Judgment, however, may be taken as the unit
in logic, for it is only in their relation as subject
and predicate of a judgment that notions become
susceptible of logical treatment. The combination
of two judgments (inv<dving three notions), in such
a form that a thiid judgment is deduced from them,
constitutes a Syllogism — e.g. 'All fishes are cold-
blooded. The whale is not cold-blooded. There-
fore the whale is not a fish.' The variations of
this fundamental type of reasoning constitute the
scholastic doctrine of the moods and figures of
the Syllogism. As an a])]iendix to this exposition
of the normal forms of inference there follows a
discussion of the ditt'erent classes of fallacies to
which any deviation from them may give ri.se.
It is in this ;ispect that logic vindicates its claim
to be 'a cathartic of the human mind.' F"or, like
ethics, logic is a normative science ; that is to say,
it does not, like the physical sciences, or like psy-
chology, simply gener.alise facts. Its laws are not
statements of what always happens, but rules of
what ought to be done. This distinctiim contains
the answer to the fpiestion, <mce much debated,
whether logic is a science in- an art. The question
is essentially a dispute about words.
The iierception that jjure logic treats thought
simply .as a process of comparison and cla-ssiCcation
li.us induced a number of recent logicians ( chiefly
English) to attem])t an extension of Aristotle's
scheme by a thoroughgoing ap]ilication of the
notion of logical quantity. Thus, Sir W. Hamilton
maintained that the relation between subject and
predicate in a jiroposition is that of logical equation.
The proposition, ' All men are mortal,' means, when
fully expressed, 'All men are some mortals.' If
the predicate be thus ex|)licitly quantilieil, it is
eviilent that we may substitute for the coiiula the
algebraical symbol of equaticm. This doctrine,
which is known as the Quantilication of the Predi-
cate, was expounded by Archbishop Thomson,
Spencer Baynes, and others. It leails to a
multiplication of the old propositional and syllo-
gistic forms, but in its Hamiltonian form it has
been shown by Venn to rest on a confusion of
views. A sinnlar line of thought has been worked
out by .levons, who defines iiiference as ' the
substitution of similars.' He would make the iiro-
jiosition run — 'All men are mortal men' (.All a
is ith). De Morgan's formula for the propositiim
resembles this; b\it his innovations, as well as
lioole's development of logic into a branch of
mathematics, are rather specimens of the ingenuity
of their authors than tran.scripts of actual tliought-
proces.ses. They show no signs of taking their
place as a permanent ad<lition to logical doi'trlne.
The same may be said of Jevons' Method of
Indirect Inference, hy which he claims to have
reached the same results as Boole without the use
of mathematics. The Method consists in "develop-
ing ' all the possible combinations of the terms
mentioned in the premises, and then proceeding,
by eliniination of tho.se which violate the comli-
tions there laid down, to reach those combinations
which are consistent with our data. Jevons
ajiplied his princiide in the invention of a logical
machine which effects this process of counting
out with unerring accuracy ; but where the terms
are multiplied to any extent the operation is, of
course, cuml)rous in the extreme.
Bacon is commonly regarded as the founder of
Inductive Logic. In his Ni>i'um Vrganum he put
himself at the head of the revolt against the schol-
astic logic which marked the men of the Renais-
sance, and, though his own apprehension of scien-
tific method was gravely defective, his eloquence
and his position made him the most influential pro-
phet of the scientific movement which Galileo and
others had initiated. In ])oint of fact he came to
supplement the old, not to supersede it ; but he
allowed his dislike of the abuses of the Aristotelian
logic to carry him away into indiscriminate denun-
ciation. Bacon's animus is perhaps excusable as
the zeal of the reformer : and it may be granted
that in the Aristotelian logic, as in Greek philo-
sophy generally, there is a tendency to let the
study of words usurji the place of the investigation
of facts. The middle ages had exaggerated this
tendency by habitually assuming the distinctions
existing among things to be correctly and ade-
quately rendered by traditional names. Beyond
this. Bacon's diatribes against 'syllogism' betray
a misapprehension of the real function of formal
logic, which, as has been seen, makes no preten-
sions to be an instrument of scientific discovery.
Inductive theory has received many developments
sitice the time of Bacon, notably at the hands of
J. S. Mill. The progress of science has made it
easier to formulate its methods and to determine
the conditions of valid scientilic proof. It is sulii-
cient here to ])oint (Uit that, whereas in fonnal or
deductive logic, reasoning juoceeds fnmi a whole
to the particulars included under that whole, we
seem in inductive logic to rise, in reliance on the
uniformity of nature, from observation of par-
ticulars to the enunciation of a universal proposi-
tion. The nature of the certainty which belongs
to such scientific generalisations is one of the sub-
jects which the pliilosojihy of indiii'tiou has to deal
with. The profound interest and value of these
investigations, when compared with the rigid
framework of symbols with which ]>nre logic i)re-
sents us, may well lead men to overestimate the
former at the expense of the latter. But the two
disciplines are essentially distinct; and the exact-
ness and .scientific completeness of pure or formal
logic will always constitute it a valuable educa-
tional instrument.
BlBi.lOGB.\PHY. — The liandiest elementary manuals of
logic are tho.-^e by Jevons and Fowler — Jevons' Etement-
arij Letigtms in Lof/ic, Fowk-r's JJeductive ami Inductii-c
Lofjic — to which may be added M'liately's Lo(/ic, an older
book, and Keynes's Formal Loyic^ which is somewhat
more advanced. .'Vniong larger treatises in l-.nglish of
comparatively recent date may be mentioned Mill's Loffic,
Hamiltr>n'.s Lrrtures on f^/ic, Ueberweg's J.ot/ic (trans-
lated ), Hradley'a J-'ritifipleit of Loijic, liosanquet's Loifir^
Venn's Empirical Lot/ic, Jevons' I'rincipUi of Scienrc^
Ijotze's Lof/ic (translated). The (feniiaii works of Sig-
wart and M'uiult sliould also be named, 'i'honison's Oul-
692
LOGOGRAM
LOIRE
lines of the Laws of Thowjht, Baynes's New Analytic of
Loyical Forms, .Tevons' Pure Loijie and Other Papers,
Venn's Si/mbolic Loijie, and the works of De Morgan and
Boole deal with proposed developments of logic on alge-
braic lines. There is an elaborate history of logic by
Prantl in German ; and the works of Trendelenburg in
German and of Hamilton and ilausel in English are also
valuable in this connection.
Logosraill (Or. logos, 'a word,' and gramma,
'a letter') is simply a complicated or multiplied
form of the Anagram (q.v.), where the puzzle-
monger, instead of contenting himself with the
formation of a single new word or sentence out of
the old by tlie transposition of the lettere, racks his
brain to discover all the words that may be ex-
tracted from the whole or from any portion of the
letters, and throws the wliole into a series of verses
in which synonymic expressions for these words
must be used. 'The puzzle lies in ascertaining what
the concealed words are, and, througli them, what
is the primary word out of which they have all
been extracted. A specimen is given in Henry 15.
Wheatley's book on Anagrams {186'2), in which,
out of the word ' curtains,' no less than ninety-three
smaller ones are framed.
Logos (Gr., 'word,' and al.so 'reason, 'correspond-
ing in Latin to both oratio and ratio) is a term
that has played an important part in philosophical
and theological speculation, long ere the ' Word of
God ' came, tlirougli the fourth gospel, to be ideuti-
lied with the second person of the Cnristian Trinity.
The notion of a certain self-manifestation or revela-
tion of the Godhead, standing in some way between
the infinite and the Unite, has from time imme-
morial been the property of the whole East. With
the Stoics the Logos is the active principle living
in and determining the world (see Stoics). The
apocryphal writers of the Old Testament personify
the ' Wisdom ' spoken of in Prov. viii. 22, and give
it the functions of a Logos. In tlie Targunis Mcmra,
'Word,' is constantly used instead of God or Jeho-
vah. In the Jewisli- Alexandrine philosophy (see
Pmi.O) the Logos is the Divine Reason, the Power
of all Powers, the Spirit of God. The doctrine of
the Logos reaches its fullest development in St
John's Gospel, where it is the Word of (iod incar-
nate. See John (Go.spel of), Christ, Trinity.
Lo^rono (Lat. Julia Briga), the capital of a
Spanish province, on the Ebro, 65 miles E. by
N. of Burgos. It has manufactures of woollens,
machinery, and leatlier goods. Pop. 13,393.
Logwood, the dark red heart-wood of llama-
torglon campechianiiiii, a tree of the natural order
Leguminosse. This tree, which is a native of
Mexico and Central America, and has been natur-
alised in some of the West Inilia Islands, grows to
a height of 20 to 50 feet. Tlie tree is generally
felle<l when about ten years old, and the sapwood
being worthless is hewed oil' with the bark. The
heart-wood is slightly heavier than water, hard,
anil close-grained. It has a slight smell resembling
that of violets, is astringent, and has a sweetisli
taste. The source of the colouring pro]ierties of
logwood is a crystalline substance called liiematoxy-
lin, CjbHijO,,, itself colourless when |)urc, but in an
alkaline solution in the presence of oxygen (air)
it become-s converted into hienuitein, 1'i,J1i^.<>b,
which iw of a purple-red colour. For dyers' use
ground or ra.sped logwood is moistened and made
ui) into heaps or layers in a moderately warm
place, where, turned over at intervals, it undergoes
lermentation, ammonia being one of the ijroducts
of the i)rocess. The result is that Incniatoxylin is
iirst formed and afterwards Incniatein, crystals of
which, of a reddish-brown colour and greenish
lustre, coat the particles of wood. The Inematein
or colouring matter is easily dissolved by placing
the rasped wood, .so treated, in hot water. Extracts
of
id als
ogwood also are made for dyeing purposes.
Logwood, although itself dark red, does not produce
red colours either alone or with any of the ordinary
mordants in use for it. Shailcs of purple, blue,
lavender, drab, and gray are obtained from it with
suitable mordants, but none of these are ]iermanent.
Its most important application is for dyeing black
eohmrs (see Dyeinc ). It is also used iii the manu-
facture of writing Ink (cj.v.). As a medicine log-
wood is sometimes given in cases of chronic diar-
rluea. The introduction of coal-tar colours has not
as yet materially diminished the use of logwood as
a dyeing substance, as the (juantity sent to Great
Britain in 1888 (62,306 tons, valued at .£366,131)
rather exceeded the aimual average imports twenty
years earlier.
LolHMIgrill. the hero of an old High German
poem, written in the end of the Kith century. He
was the son of Par/.ival, and a knight of the Grail.
At King Arthur's command he was taken by a
swan through the .air to Mainz, where he fought
for Elsa, daughter of the Duke of Brabant, over-
threw her persecutor, and married the lady. Then
he accompanied the emperor to light against the
Hungarians, and subsequently warred against the
Saracens. On his return home to Cologne, Elsa,
contrary to his prohibition, persisted in .asking him
about his origin. After being asked a third time
he told her, but was at the s.ame time canied away
by the swan back to the Grail, lliickert's edition
(1857) of the poem is the best. The poem is a
continuation of Wolfram (q.v.) von Eschenb.acirs
Parziral. Wagner made it the subject of his great
opera, Lohengrin (1.S48).
Loir. See DoR.MOfSE.
Loire (ane. Liger), the longest river in France,
has its source in the Cevennes, in the department
of Ardf'che, at an elevation of 4511 feet, flows in
a north and north-western direction through the
centre of Fiance as far as Orleans, where it bends
round to the south-west and continues on to Tours ;
thence it follows, in general, .a western course to
its embouchure in the Bay of Biscay. It is ti<lal
to Nantes (q.v.), 35 miles from its nioiith. Entire
length, 620 miles. It becomes navigable a little
above Koaiine, 550 miles from the sea. At one time
the depth of the water at its mouth was IHA feet .at
ebb-tide ; now it is oiily about Ol feet. This is due
to the vast quantily of sedimentary matter the
river brings down with it. To the same cause are
due the numerous islands that obstruct its lower
course and the sandbanks that lie athw.art its
mouth. The Loire is notorious for the destructive
inundations it causes, although the lower part of
its course is protected by large dykes or lerres, 20
feet high. The ])riiicipal triliutaries are the Nievre
and the Maine (which is formed by the Sarthe, its
allluent the Loir, and the Mayenne) on the right;
and the Allier, Clier, Inilre, and Vienne, on the left.
The Loire is canalised along considerable stretches
of its course, and is connected with the Seine, the
Saoue, and the harbour of Brest by canals. Its
valley is extremely fertile. Area of drainage basin,
44,450 sq. m. See 'J7te Seine anil the Loire, with
sixty one illustrations by Turner (new ed. 1886).
Loire, a de|)artment in the southeast of France,
formerly jiart of the province of Lyonnais and the
comity of Forez, comprises the arrondi.ssements of
^lonlbrison, Koanne, .and St Etienne, with .St
Etienne for its capital. Area, l.S.'W s(|. m. : pop.
(1872)550,611; (1801)616,227. The biusiii of the
Loire in this department is a rather unfruitful
valley, but the moiiutains yield iron and lead,
and the coalfields an^ the richest in Fr.ance.
Some 17,000 miners are employed in the extr.action
of nearly 3,000,000 tons of coal annually, 25,000 in
the iron industries, 12,000 in the silk, and 5500
LOIRE
LOLLARDS
693
in the cotton industries. 'Woollens, linen, glass,
paper, leather, &c. are likewise inanufactureil.
Wine, fruit, fmlder, and potatoes are the principal
agricultural products, liniher anil turpentine are
yielded bv the pine woods. .Mineral springs abound,
;l-* at St CJalniier, St A11)an. &c.
Loire, Haitk, a dciiartment of central France,
formed out of the former province ui Languedoc,
the duchy of Auvergne. and the district of Forez,
and bounded on the south by Lozere and Ardeche.
The Loire crosses it going northwards, the AUier
going north-westwards. Area. 1915 sq. in. ; pop.
1 1S72) 308,732 ; ( 1891 ) 316,735. The .surface forms
a plateau, deeply trenched by river-courses ; it
ranges in elevation from 2000 to .3000 feet, and
rises in peaks and domes uj) to 5755 feet above
sea-level (Mount Mezenc). In spite of the un-
generous nature of the soil, agriculture is the
chief calling of the inhabitants. But about 120.000
persons find employment at home in making lace
from wool, cotton, flax, silk, gold, and silver.
Some thousands of the inhabitants leave their
bouses for a time every year, to work in other parts
of France. Coal and building-stone are worked.
The arrondissements are Lo Puy, Yssingeaux, and
Hrioude ; the capital, Le Puy.
Loire-Inf^rieure. a maritime department in
the west of France, formed out of the southern
portion of the old province of Brittany, and com-
prising the arrondissements of Nantes, Ancenis,
Paimbffiuf, Chateaubriant. and St Xazaire, with
Nantes for its capital. Area. 2654 sq. m. ; pop.
(1872) 602,206; (1891) 645,26.3. It has a coast-
line of 78 miles. The l^oire, flowing westwards,
intersects it and forms a wide estuarj' ; the Vilaine
skirts its north-west boundary. In the south of the
department lies the lake of Crand-Lieu, 26 sq. m.
in extent. The interior is on the whole flat, and
the soil fertile, producing cereals, potatoes, beet-
root, hemp, and fodder. Bees are kept. There
are fine oak and pine forests. Salt marshes
are numerous along the shore. The vineyards
yield annually about ,30 million gallons of wine,
and the orchards some 44 million gallons of cider.
Granite, slate, and limestone are quarried. The
industrial establishments include ironworks, sugar-
refineries, glass-works, factories for tinning fruits
and sardines, &c. St Nazaire has grown into an
important seaport, having taken the place formerly
occupied by Nantes. Shipbuildini; is carried on at
Nantes. The coast-fisheries ana general export
trade are extensive.
Loiret, a department of central France, formed
out of the old provinces of Orle.anais and Bern, and
comprising the arrondissements of Orleans, Mon-
targis, Oien, and Pithivieis, lies on the northern
loop of the Loire. .Area. 2614 sq. m, : pop. (1872)
355.021: (1891) 377.718. The <-ounlry is for the
most part an elevated, fertile ])laiii, proilucing corn
and wine in abundance, except in the sandy dis-
trict of Sologne, lying south of Orleans, the chief
town. Loiret contains several large forests. Cattle,
sheep, and bees are e.xtensively reared. Pottery
and porcelain, sugar, vinegar, and soap are the
principal industrial products.
Loir-Ot-riier. a department of France, formed
out of the old province of Orleanais, comprises the
arrondi.s.sements of Blois, Vendome, and Komoran-
tin. The Loire flows through it south-westwards,
almost bisecting it. The south-eastern portion
belongs to the infertile district of Sologne. The
Loir crosses it parallel to the Loire farther to the
north-west. Area. 24.52 sq. m.; pop. ( 1872) 268,801 ;
(1891)280,958. The depart nt is almost a uni-
form plain. The chief products are corn, fruits,
wine, beetroot, and timber. Fish, poultry, and
bees aliound. Principal town, Blois.
Lojsi, a decayed town of Spain, on the Genii,
32 miles by rail W. of Cranada. It sutfered severely
from cartliciuake in 1885. Pop. 18,249.
Lokoroil. a town of Belgium, 11 miles by rail
NE. of (Thent, with manufactures of linen, cotton,
and woollen goods, lace, chemicals, and tobacco,
and large bleach-fields. Pop. (1890) 19,667.
IjOki* a demigod in the Si:iiidii]a\ iaii inytbologA'.
He did not belong to the race of the ,Ksir, but to
an older dynasty. His ajqieaiance is beautiful,
and be is pos.ses.sed of great knowledge and cunning.
He often brings the new gods into ilitficulties, from
which, however, he again extricates them. Hence
he is to be regarded as the principle of strife and
disturbance in the Scandinavian mythology ; the
' Spirit of Evil,' as it were, mingling freely with,
yet e.ssentially oyiposed to, the other inhabitants
of the Norse heaven, very much like the Satan of
the Book of Job. By his artful malice he caused
the death of Balder (q.v.). See SCANDINAVIAN
Mythology.
Loklliail. the reputed author of a certain
number of Arabic faliles, who gives a title to a
Siort of the Koran. He is variously said to have
been a Nubian slave contemporary with David, and
the son of Job's sister or daughter ; but others again
follow M. Derenbourg ( /'rfWcs de Loqmiin le Sage,
18.50) in identifying him with Balaam, both names
signifying ' devourer. ' It is now geneially admitted
that the fables attributed to his name are late and
of Greek origin. See The Thousand Nights and a
Night, Lady Burton's edition, vi. p. 260.
Loliiiiii. See Darnel, and Rye-grass.
Lollards, a name given to the followers of
Wvclif. Lo//ardiis was a Latinised form of the
old Dutch lollacrd, literally 'a singer of psalms,'
a term which had been applied to a sect in
Brabant akin to the Fraticelli and Beghards ; but
in English u.sage it was confounded with the
native word toiler, 'a lazy fellow.' Wyclif's
Bible had supplied England with the phraseologj'
and the seminal ideas of a popular theology, and
his peripatetic ' poor priests' ])ip:iclied evangelical
religion fearlessly throughout the land. Oxford
University was a stronghold of the new doctrines,
which were most widely sprea<l in the district be-
tween the Thames and the Trent. The Lollards'
petition to parliament in 1395 contained the famous
twelve Concltis^ions against temporal possessions of
the church ; the ordination of unfit priests, the
celibacy of the clergj', and all vows of chastity :
exorcism, and blessing of inanimate objects ; tian-
substantiation, the holding of secular offices b)'
priests, prayers for the dead, pilgrimages, image
worship, compulsory auricular confession, war.
capital punishment, and such trades as fostered
luxury, like those of the goldsmith and the
armcmrer. ^lany also objected to oaths, denied
the necessity of bajitism for salv.ation, .and held
marriage a mere civil contract. The corruptness
and ignorance of the preaching friai's made the pro-
gress of the new doctrines the easier, and ere long
they had obtained enormous influence. There is
no doubt that Lollardism prepared the soil for
the Peasant revolt of 1.381. Its popularity was
imperilled by the extravagance of its devotees, and
its adherents fell oil' iapi<lly uiuler Henry I\'..
being vigorously persecuted by Archbisho]) Arundel,
ute, T)c Ihrretico Comhitrrndo, was passed,
liam Sawtre, a Norfolk priest, was burned
The statute,
and \Vi
in 1401, .lohn Bu.lby in 1410. 'Yet the Lollards
remained numerous enough to be foriidilable al the
accession of Henry V. Its most prominent sup-
porter at that period was the martyr Sir .lohn I Hd
castle (q.v.), of Cobham, on whom many mocking
ballads were written, and whose name was travestied
for nearly two centuries after as a fat, dissolute old
694
LOLOS
LOMBARD
knit;lit, his month full of Scripture phrases : lie was
the prototype of KalstafI'. Karly in 1414 oeeurred
tlie ohscure attempted rising near London, which
sent forty Lollards to their doom and proveil the
death-hlow of the cause, but it was not till four
years later that Oldcastle himself was eajitured
anil put to death. During the early years of Henry
VI. the Lollards were sharply ])ersecuted in London
and the eastern counties, ,and some imlividuals
were burned at London and Norwich. Hut ere hing
the government ceased to be strong enough for any-
thing beyond self-preservation, though it need not
be supposed, because the persecution ceased, that the
opinions had died out. After the accession of Henry
^ IL the ])er.secuti(ni was renewed, and hencefor
ward the Lollards appear as a secret brotherhood,
called the ' known-men ' or ' jiist-fast' men, marrying
only among themselves, and instructed by itinerant
readers in conventicles. Aniersham, Colchester,
and Newbury are noted as strongholds. From the
time of Henry VIIL Lollardy becomes merged in
the rising Protestantism, but it is worth noting
that most of the Marian martyrs came from Lollard
districts, and that mu(-li of their spirit and teach-
ing reappears strongly in Puritanism. Lollardism
made its way into Scotland in the l.")th centuiy, and
became especially strong in the south-weslern coun-
ties, in later times the strongholil of the Covenant.
In 1494 thirty persons belonging to the district of
Kyle in Ayrshire were tried before James 1\'. in
person, ancl dismissed with a caution to adhere to
the doctrines of the church. Piers Plou-man reflects
closely the religious unrest of its time ; but the
same is by no means true of Chaucer, whose Parson,
when he objects to profane swearing, is denounced
as a Lollard.
An interesting account of Lollard principles may
be gathered from Keginald Pecock's Peprcssm- of
Ocerinui-li JS/iuiiiii;/ of the Clcrijii ( ed. by Churchill
Babington, Itolis ' series, 18ti6), written about
1450. Here the writer assails the three erroneous
'trowings' maintained by Lollardists, or liiblemen,
as he styles them. These were ( 1 ) that ('hi'istian
men owe allegiance to nothing but the law of (lod
as stated in Holy Scripture ; (2) that any Christian
is capable of grasping its plain meaning, if meek
and willing to understand; (;j) that no one who
has so grasped the meaning of Scri|>ture need
listen to any clerk's interpretation from Scripture
or reason, especially the latter. In the Lolhirdist
assertion that there was no need of human learning
to open upSciipture, they but antii-ipated a delusion
not \inknown among Iflth-cenlui y evangelicals.
Their claim that none but those enlightened by
grace could umlerstand Scripture opened a wider
door for self-delusion and error.
See Shirley's Fasciailus Zizammum (Rolls series,
18.58); two i).'Lpers by James Gainhier in Stmiica in
Eiiiilixli Ifi.ilarii ( IHSl); and the article Wyclifkk.
Lolos. a fair-complexioned aboriginal jieople on
the frontiers of China and 'i'iliel. mainly in Sze-
chwan ami Yunnan.
Loillhard. PkticI!, one of the most famous of
the Schoolmen, was born about the beginning of the
12th century, at a village near Novara, in L(un-
bardy. He was educated at Bologna, and canu» to
France witfi recommendations to ISernard of Clair-
vaux. Mis uMc'ommon talents soon procured him
a chair of thiiology in Paris. In ll.">!l he was ap-
pointed IJishoji of i'aris, but he ilied in the fcdlow-
ing yt-ar. He was very generally styled Mar/it^lrr
Senioiliwiim, or the ' Master of Seuten<-es.' from his
work Sciife.iitirinim I.ihri IV.. an arranged collec-
tion of sentences from .Augustineand other l''athers.
on points of Christian iloclrine. willi cJpjei'tions and
replies, also collected from other authors of repule.
The tirst book treats of God ; the second of the
^^
Fig. 1.
creature ; the third of the incarnation, redemption,
and the virtues ; the fourth of the seven sacraments
and eschatology. A subtle heresy, Niliilianism,
was detected by some in Peter's teaching, and the
theological docl(us of Paris in i;i()0 denounced it in
sixteen jiropositions culled from his writings. Peter
Lombard's work was the subject of many commen-
taries down to the time of the Heformation. His
writings were edited by Aleaume (L(mvain, 1541)).
Lombard Aroliitootiire is the style which
was invented ami used by tiie Cothic invaders and
colonists of the north of Italy, from about the age
of Charlemagne till it was superseded by the im-
portatiim of the Pointed style from France in the
beginning of the Kith
century. The architecture
of the Lombards was
derived from tin,' debased
Roman style which they
found in the country —
the general plan of the
churches, and the general
form of the pillars, arches,
&c. , being almost identical
with those of the Uoinaii liasilicjis (q.v. ). Putin
detail, l{oman traditions are almost entirely aban-
doned, and instead of the debased acanthus leaves
ami fragments of entablatures the Lombanls
adopted a freer imitation of natural forms in their
foliage, and covered their buildings with repre-
sentations of the lights and lHinting-exi>editions
in which they delighted.
The north lif Italy be-
longed at the time of
Charlemagne to the great
German empire, and thus
we find nearly the same
style of architecture in
Lombardy and in Ger-
nianv as far north its the
Baltic (see Rhenish
Architecture). Few
early examples of Lom-
bard architecture exist.
In the unruly times when
the style originated, the
buildings were no doubt
frequently destroyed by
fire ; this seems to have
led to the desire to erect
fireiiroof structures, and
thus the earlier as well
as almost all the later
examples are vaulted with
stone. The earliest ex-
ample is a small chapel
at Friuli, built jirobably
during the Sth century,
and it is coveted with an
inter.sectiug vault. Ex-
amples of this date are
rare in Italy; but in
Switzerland, where the
style is alnH)st identical,
several interesting speci-
mens of early architec-
ture remain, such as the
churches of llomain-
Motier, Granson. i'.iyerne,
iS;c. We tliere lin'd the
|)eculiar arch-ornament so
characteristic of Lom-
bardy and the Rhine (fig.
1 ), ami we can trace the
timid steps by which the
Gntbs ailvanccd in the art of vaulting.
The vaulting is the leading featiiie of Lombard
architecture, and from it spring the other distinguish-
Fit'. -'■
Plan of the I'alliedral of
Novara.
Scale 1 incli = 100 fi-ot.
LOMBARDS
LOMBARDY
695
in;; forms of the style. Thus, the plain, round
pillars, with a sinii>le base ami capital, wliicli
served to support the side-walls anil roof of a
Inisilica, are chan^'ed for a iMinipoinul pier, made
up of several shafts, each restin;^ on its own base,
and eacli provideil witli a capital to carry the par-
ticular part of tlie vanltinj; assi<;ncd to it. This
change is deserving of particiihir notice as the fii'st
j;erni of that i)rinciple which Wius afterwards de-
veloped in the (!othic (q.v. ) styles. Buttres.ses are
also introduced for the first time, although with
small projection.
The cathedral of Xovara is one of the most
striking examples of l.omliard arcliitecture. It
helonp; to tlie lltli century. The plan (lit;. '-)
is derived from the olil basilican type, havin;,' at
the west end an open atrium, with arcade around,
from wliicli the church is entered by a central door.
The interior is divide<l into central and side aisles,
with vaulted roof, and terminated with an apsidal
choir. At tlie end of the atrium opposite tlie
church is situated the
baptistery. The same
general arrangement of
plan was common in
the German churches,
where the atrium was
.sometimes at a. later
period roofeil over and
included iu the nave,
and the baptistery
changed into the west-
ern apse of the double-
apsed churches.
San Micliele at
Pavia and San Am-
brogio at Milan are
also good early ex-
amples of this style.
In l)oth the grouping
of the piers into
vaulting .shafts, wall-
" arch shafts, &c. is
complete, and that
beautiful feature of
the style, the arcade round the apse (lig. 3), is
fully developed. The atrium and west front of
San Ambrogio form one of the hnest groujis of
Lombard architecture.
Lombards, a [people of Germanic descent, who
were called by the Latin writers Longobardi or,
more correctly, Langobanli, a name which is
dill'erently derived by ditl'erent authorities. ' Long
beard,' Latige lirirdf — 'a long fertile plain beside
a river,' borde being used iu that signilication in
the Lower Elbe district, and /oiiga pnrta or
barte = 'a long battle-axe,' have all been suggested
as original forms of the name. The people so
designated fii"st apjiear in history as settled about
the Lower Elbe, in Hanover and western I'riissia, at
the dawn of the Christian era. In the two centuries
that followed they came more than once into
conllict with the Romans : and then till the end of
the 5tli century nothing more is known about
them. When next mentioned (rirca 45.5) the
I/ongobardi were settled in Moravia, and were
tributary to the Herulians. The opi)ression of
these ma-sters stung them into revolt : they sub-
dued the Herulians, and after tlieiii the Gepid:i>,
and established themselves as the ruling race in
I'annonia. I'nder .Allioin, their king, they invaded
Italy in SOS, and at the end of three years had
pos.ses.sed themselves of the greater part of Northern
and Central Italy, Pavia being the last city to
submit. They subse<|Uently extended their power
as far south fus Spoleto and Heiievento, both of
which duchies were held by Lombard dukes.
His second .successor, Authari, a-ssunieil the Koinan
title of Flavius, and under the influence of his
queen, Theodelinda, a Prankish princess, the nation
began to change its Arian faith for the Catholic.
The Longoliardi, though never a numerous race,
were distinguislinl above most of their Germanic
brethren lor their lieice love of war and their
rude mannei's. IJut in Italy they soon fell nn<ler
the influence of the existing civilisation : they
adopted the Latin language, began to Imild
churches and found mon.a-steries, and gradually
became a.ssimilated with the Italians. King
Rothari in 64,3, and his successors, embodied
the legal customs of the Liunbards in a code,
written, iKjwever, in Latin — Li'ip's Lijutjnhftrtlornm.
Liutprand, king from 712 to 744, made an un-
successful attempt to subdue all Italy. His
strongest opponent was the pope, who summoned
the Franks to his assistance. Charlemagne in
774 overthrew the Lombard dynasty, and hail him-
self crowned king of the Franks anil the Lombards ;
and thenceforward the Lombards were entirely
merged in the Italians. The only traces extant of
the Longobard language are a few names. Their
earliest historian whose works survive, Paul the
Deacon, wrote in Latin. See Lomb.vrdv.
The 'Lombards^ in Enghind. — In the 13th
century Italian merchants from Lucca (even as
early as the 9th century), Florence, and Piacenza,
and at a later date from \'enice and Genoa
also, visited England for pur]inses of trade. They
came originally to collect the taxes and dues
payable to the pope, which they tiansmitted in
large part in the shape of wool. They also traded
on their own account, and in course of time, settling
in the country, were granted special privileges, such
as the right to farm the customs and to conduct the
transactions on exchange. The niercliants of Flor-
ence, for instance, had branches at P>oston, Lynn,
and Northamiiton, as well as at London, and
regularly bought the wool of some '200 mona-steries
in England and Scotland. On occasion they lent
large sums on loau, and gradually took up the
business of banking, as it was understood in those
days: Edward III. owed the Florentine hou.se of
Bardi the sum of 900,000 gold ducats, and another
house of the same city, that of Peruzzi, 600,000
ducats. The Jews even took ailvantage of the
favourable position of these It.alians : many of them
braved Edward I."s edict of expulsion (1290), and
stayed behind under the character of Lombard
merchants, the name by which these Italians were
generally known to the English. In London the
Lombards dwelt principally in the street now called
Lombard Street, still the chief centre of the banking
interest. They eventually incurred as much odium
a.s the Jews, not only becau.se they exacted interest
for their loans, but also because the commercial
privilege.s accorded to them were lielieved to injuri-
ously afi'ect the native English merchants.
LMIIlltai'dy. that jpart of Upper Italy which
lies between the Alps ami the Po, having the
territory of V^enice on the east, and Piedmont on
the west. Its geographical characteristics are dis-
cus.sed under It.M.y. Its history begins with the
conquest by the Romans in 222, who called it Gallia
Cisalpina. After the break up of the Honian
empire it was successively in the hands of Odoacer,
the Ostrogoths, the liyzantine emperors, and the
Lombards (q.v.). Charlemagne incorporated it in
his empire, but from .H43 it was ruled by ,i sciiarate
line of kings, though before the kingdom ended (9lil )
it hiul liKiken U|i into a number of independiuit
duchies and civic republics. The Lombard cities,
like those of Flanders at a later epoch, grew wealthy
by industry and trade, and niiitured a vigorous
love of freeilom iiml independence. They resisted
sturdily and successfully the attempts of the em-
perors Frederick I. and 11. (q.v.) to curtail their
696
LOMBOK
LONDON
lilierties, forminj; themselves into strong lea^'ies,
wliicli were iiowcrful oiiougli to rci\it the eiMjierors
in pitched battles. But, freeil from tliieatening
danger, they l>egan to quarrel amongst themselves,
and the country was for many years more or less
distracteii hy internal dissensions. After the death
(1447) of the last duke of Milan, whose ancestor.
Count Azzo, had Mcc|uired the sovereignty over
nearly all Lombardy in 13.37, the country was made
an object of contention between the king of France
and the emperor. The last named having got the
li(!ttor in the contest. Lombardy pa.ssed through
Charles V. to Sjiain, which held possession of it till
1713, when tlie duchies of Milan ami Mantua came
into the bands of .\ustria. Napoleon made it iiart
of the Cisalpine republic, the Trans])adaMe republic,
and the kingdom of Italy successively. But in 1815
it was restored to Austria, and associated with the
newly-acqtiired Venetian territory. In ISoQ Loni-
l)ardy was given up to Italy, and divided into the
)>rovinces of Bergamo, Brescia, Conio, Cremona,
Mantua, Milan, Pavia, and Sondrio. See Hodg-
kins, Itrili/ rnid her Invaders (vols. v. and vi.) ; W.
K. Williams, The Communes of Lombardy (1891).
Loillbok. See SUNDA IsL.\NDS.
Loiiibroso. See Criminolooy.
Loilinild, Loch, the 'queen of Scottish lakes,"
in Dumbarton and Stirling shires, lies 23 feet above
sealevel, and is 22 miles long, J mile to 5 miles
wide, 6 to ()3() feet deep, and 27 sq. m. in area. It
is studde<i with thirty wooded islands ; receives the
Endrick and six other principal streams ; sends otl"
the Leven 7 miles .southward to the Clyde ; con-
tains trout, pike, and perch ; is sometimes frozen
over as far northward as Loss ; and is engirt by
bills and, towards its head. Highland mountains,
the highest of which, Ben Lomond (q.v.), attains
3192 feet. In 1263 Norsemen launched their galleys
on Loch Lomontl, having drawn them across the
narrow isthmus of Tarbet ; on Inchcailloch stood
of old a nunnery : and a cave is associated with
both Bruce and Kob Koy.
LoillZSl. the capital of a government in Poland,
80 miles NE. of Warsaw, was formerly one of the
most important cities of the country, hut is now
of seconiiary rank only. Pop. 15,000.
London is situated on the north or left bank
of the Thames, about 60 miles from the sea, in
,51° 30' 48" N. lat. and 5' 48" W. long. It may he
reckoned the capital of the British empire, hut the
Houses of Parliament and the offices of government
ar(! in the adjoining city of Westminster. The
Thames at London Bridge is about 900 feet wide,
being much wider both above and below. This
fact ])rol)ably accounts for the original foundation
of the city, which, according to many authorities,
took place in 43 A.D. , when Aulus Plautius was the
Roman governor of Britain. The name is Celtic,
and would appear to signify a fort on a lake or
lagoon, the 'riiames being here a tidal estuary
which coviMcd all the low-lying land on wliicli
Kotlierbitbc, Xowington, Southwark, .and Lambeth
are now situated. It seems likely that the easiest
fonl across the river was at Westminster, where it
was widest (more than 1200 feet), and that by the
building of London Bridge at the narrowest place
the old Watling Street from Dover toward Chester
was diverted. The olil line led from Edgware
through Totliill Fields to Westminster, where
Stane (iate still marks the place of crossing. The
newer road turned eastward at what we call tin;
Marble .\rch, and, pa-ssing diagonally from Newgate
through the city, crossed by the briilge, and wa.s
carried on towards Dover on embankments among
the shallows, the sites of which are still markeil by
such local names as Stone Street and Newington
Causeway. The course of Watling Street in the
city was again diverted, probably in the 13tli cen-
tury, to make way for the extension of St I'aulV
Cathedral, and now no longer leads in the dir(H:tioii
of Newgate.
During the greater part of the Roman occupation
of Britain London consisted of two forts, one at
either end of the bridge : and Ptolemy, the geo-
grapher, puts London in Cantium, where, and not
on the left bank, it is very possible the largest
of these forts may have stood. The )inwalled
suburbs seem to have heen iionnlous and wealthy
from an early period ; and, wlien abandoned l>y
Suetonius, thev were burned by lioadicea in 61 A.D.
They were stift undefended in 2.S() and t he subse-
quent years, when the rebel em|i(Mors, Carausius
and Allectus, held both sides of the channel,
making Clausentum (Bittcrne, near Southampton)
their headquarters in Britain. Asclepiodotus, the
general of Constantius, defeated Allectus in the
neighbourhood of London, .and under one of the
Constantines the place began to he looked upon
with favour and to be extensively fortiheil.
The wall which for so many centuries wi\.s
destined to defend the boundaries of the city was
built between 350 and 369, and enclosed a space
which has been computed at 380 acres. In this
Roman wall there was a gate due north of the
l)ridge in what is now Canmmile Street, and
another at the spot at which the Watling Street,
crossing the Fleet or Holborn, took its course
towarils Tyburn. The new city was defended on
the east Iiy the Lea and its extensive marshes,
and on the west by the Fleet, whose waters were
tidal as far up as wh.at we call King'.s Cross.
Traversing the middle of the city was the narrow
stream of the Wallbrook, with the harbour of
Dowgate at its confluence with the Thames, and
from the remains which have been discovered it is
probable that the chief Roman fort, before the
l)uilding of the outer w.all, was on the east or left
bank of the Wallbrook, and extended far enough
eastward to cover the approaches to the bridge.
Some bastions of peculiar strength where the wall
reached the Thames on the site of the Tower gave
rise to the medieval tradition that the Tower of
London was built by Julius Caesar. From 369 till
412 London was reckoned the capital of Britain,
and enjoyed the title of Attifiixta. .\fter the
Roman departure London disapjiears from history
until 457, when the Britons, fleeing before the
victorious Hengest, took refuge behind the Roman
wall. How far it availed them for defence we
know not. London does not again emerge from
complete obscurity for about a century and n, half,
but in 604 we find it named as the 'Metropolis'
— i.e. the ecclesiastical cai>ital — of the East Saxons.
Mellitus was appointed first bishop, but the Saxons
soon expelled him, and Christiiinity did not make
much way with them until F.thclbert. king of
Kent, the over-lord of the K:ist Saxon king, took
the matter in hand. A little later we hear for the
first time of a tribe of Middle Saxons, but London
was evidently a place of but small importance,
apart from its bridge, as the Saxons preferred to
fight without walls, and as no doubt the Roman
defences had become greatly dilapidated. At
length during the Danish wars they became com
pletely ruinous, and London was abandoned and
lay desolate during the long period of thirty years,
the lifetime of a whole generation.
To King Alfred we must look as the real foumler
of modern Lomhm. He saw the possibilitie.s of
the place a.s a bulwark against the Danes, and,
repaning the wall .and gates, ni.ade the ])lace again
habitable. There is a tradition that he specially
rebuilt anil slreiigthened a work on the silc^ of the
Tower. During the long period of ilisastcr which
followed his reign, the kingdom of some of liis
LONDON
G97
successors consisted of little else lint Lomloii, which
the Danes were never ahle to take, men thoii;xh
they made a canal round Soutlnvark, and half
ro»"ed, half dra-igeil their ships tn Westminster.
Undoubtedly the settlement made in London,
whether hy Alfred or hv one of his immediate
successors, formed the <rerm of the sul)se(|uent
municipal Government. Athelstan is often pomted
to as tiie kinj; who chiefly restored London, and.
as we have nothing else, tradition must lie received
\\ ith some respect. The Roman lines of road and
the gates were abandoned. New gates at .Milers-
gate, Newgate, and Bishopsgate were constructed,
anil posterns seem to have been opened at Lndgate
(A.S. Lyd/jatt, 'a ])ostern'), Cripplegate (A.S.
Crepulgeat, ' a covered w.av ' ), anil possibly at wh.it
was afterwards Moorgate. There were two great
market-places, one near the western gate, in which
the folkmote was held, and where stood the church
of St Paul : and the other in East Cheap, of which
the only modern remains are Leadenhall Market and
the fisli-market at Billingsgate. The West Cheap
wiu^ bordered by the highway still called Cheapside,
which led from Comhill, the northern extremity of
the East Cheap, by a bridge over the Wallbrook
t<) the Westgate. now Newgate. There were niany
empty spaces within the circuit of the walls, and,
if we may judge by the comparative size of the
local divisions, the first settlers chose the shores of
the Thames and the lines of the two great roads
for their habitations. It is very probable that
ecclesiastically the city was divided into three
great parishes; one, of which St Paul's was the
church, to the westward ; a second, of which St
Mary Aldermarj- was the church, in the centre ;
atid a third, possibly dedicated to All Saints, or
All Hallows, in the east.
The municipal government before the Norman
conquest was not very complicated in form, and
may \>e compared to that of a county elsewhere
in England. The lords of manors in the city
were represented by aldermen of wards, and the
ward division is the oldest with which we are
acquainted. Everj- magnate had his ward ; and
the government was carried on by the bishop
who was alilerman of the ward about St I'aul's,
and the portreeve who had the Portsoken outside
the city to the east. It Ls not ea-sy to unravel the
knot presented to us by the names we meet with
in ola records of city officials in and before the
11th century. A guild, composed chiefly or wholly
of aldermen, was perhaps, under the n.ame of
Knighte.n Guild, the governing body : but this is
bv no means certain, nor is the tra<lition that King
K<lgar was their first founder. Some such body
existed ; its members transmitted their rights to
their sons, and they may or may not have become
the governing guild of tlie city. The king's reeve,
or portreeve— /;o/y probably denotes a market —
answered to the shentf or shire-reeve of a county ;
and the aldermen of wards had many and extensive
powers on their respective estates, answering to
those exercised in a county by the lords of manors.
The reeve vinited in his own ])erson m.iny oHices
afterwards separated. He was chamberlain or
trea.surer ; he was 'vicecomes,' and accounted to
the king's exchequer for the fanu of the city ; he
was coroner ; he was e.sclieator ; and he often bore
office .OS a royal niini.ster, like .\nsgar, ' the staller,'
who fought and was woun<led at I listings. Wil-
liam recognised the great i>osition ami ancient
rights of London in a special charter by which the
|)rivileg&s enjoyed hy the citizens uniler Eilward
the ConfftH.s«r were contirmed to them ; but the
most important grant from the crown w:is that of
llcnrj' I., who, in 1101, in recognition no doubt of
the assistance Lmdon ha<l given him in his success-
fal attempt to seize the crown, allowed them.
among other things, ( I ) the right to elect their ovm
chief-magistrate, and (2) the farm of Middlesex
at an annual rent, with power to appoint a slieriH'
of that county. These extraordinary' grants, with
that of leave to hunt in the neighbourhood of
London, are so unlike what we should expect from
a Norman king, that some have been tempted to
suppose that they were all renewals of privileges
enjoyed under the Saxon kings, and there is much
plausibility in this view, but their recognition led
eventuall.v to the establishment of the mayor.
The sheriiTs of London and sheriff of Middlesex
were no longer ' high ' sheriffs : they were the
nominees and deputies of the whole body of the
citizens. As at Winchester, and some other places,
the mayor does not seem to have received any
royal acknowledgment during his first years of
office; but the date 1189 is generally assigned as
that of the first year of Henry, the son of .Vilwin,
an alderman of old family. There seems to be a
question whether this Ailwin is to be iilentilied
with a citizen of that name who in 1125, with all
his brethren of the Knighten Guild, became canons
of the priory of Holy Trinity at the newly-opened
Algate (now corruptly called Aldgate), and con-
ferred, with the king's leave, the title of an alder-
man (of the ward of Portsoken) on their prior,
Norman. Be this as it may, the necessities of the
kingdom, and the difficulties consequent on the
payment of the ransom of Richard I., must be
taken as causes for the recognition of the new chief-
magistrate ; and down to our own day, when
(Local Government Act, 1888) this ancient custom
was abolished, the citizens elected annually, on
Midsummer Day, two sheriffs for the city, one of
whom was sheriff also of Middlesex on alternate
days. They are now elected for the city only.
They enter on their office on Michaelmas Day, and
the citizens then proceed to choose the Lord Mayor.
Legally any citizen is eligible for the mayoralty,
but for many generations the senior alderman who
has not passed the chair is chosen.
This may be the most convenient place in which
to name the chief municipal officers. The mayor,
who has been called 'Lord Mayor' from time
immemorial, is held to rank as an earl, but within
the city boundaries next to the sovereign. In
commissions of Oyer and Terminer bis name pre-
cedes even that of the Lord Chancellor, and since
the reign of Edward III. he has sat as a ju<lge.
At first the Lord Mayor was a representative of
the city in the House of Commons, and he still
takes a seat at the opening of parliament on the
ministerial bench. He attends at the Law Courts
to be sworn in on the 9th November, and holds
office for a year. He is in tlie city in the position
of the Lord-lieutenant of a county, and a com-
mission of lieutenancy is issued to him and the
magistrates he may nominate. The Chamberlain
is tlie city treasurer. The ottice was separated from
that of mayor when the mayoralty was temporarily
superseded in the reign of Edward I. He is the
oflicial guardian of the orphans of citizens, ami li.us
special charge of apprentices. He is annually re-
elected during good conduct. The Recorder is the
legal adviser of the Court of Aldermen, (ieoffrey
Hartpole, elected in 13()4, was the first Recorder.
The Common Serjeant stands in the same ])osi-
tion toward the Coinmon Council, who have also
their Common Clerk, now called town clerk. The
fii"st Conunim Serjeant was Thonies .luvcnal, elected
in 1290. The Court of .Aldermen now con.sists of
twenty-six members, of whom the senior sits for
the ward of Bridge without, or the borough of
Soutlnvark. The others are elected by the city
wards.
The Common Council was first elected in 1200,
when twenty-five citizens were chosen by the
698
LONDON
wards to take council with the aldermen. There
are now 'iiKi lomninn councillors.
The Coinnion Hall consists only of mcniliers
of the Ijivery Companies, and has olitaiiicd or
usurped many of the rights of the whok' body
of citizens. An act passed in 172.") regulates
admission to the franchise of the city through the
livery, Imt seems to have been foundeil on a mis-
apprehension, as the Act of 1475 which it was
supposed to (M>nihin does not seem to have ever
existed. Admission to the citizenship could be
obtained by application to the Hustings Court,
as well as by joining a company, but the latter
course, being the easiest, became usual, and so
was supi)osed necessary.
The hustings, a meeting of the whole liody of
the citizens, was called in other cities Portmanni-
niote, and was an assembly under cover, as dis-
tinguished from the folkmote, held at first in the
open space between St Paul's and West Cheap,
and afterwards in Smithtield.
The growth of tliis municipality was slow. At
first the rights of the aldermen possessed of heredi-
tary jurisdiction interfered «itli its jjrogress ; but
by degrees all the wards were able to elect their
aldermen. The interference of the crown also
greatly retarded the prosperity of the city. Never-
theless, commerce increased, and the settlement
of such foreign merchants as tho.se of the so-called
Steelyard, ,and of the Lombard and other Italian
bankers, raised London by the time of Edward
IIL to a wealthy and prosperous condition. In
reading a detailed history it is observed that weak
sovereigns caused a depression of trade, while
under a strong government confidence was re-
stored and capital was safe. Henry III. was
constantly at feud with tlie citizens, wliom hi;
greatly opjiressed, leaving to his successor tlie
task of dealing with the disorder he had created.
Edward I., to use the language of contemporary
chroniclers, 'took the city into his own hands,'
and his ministers. Sandwich and Breton, govern-
ing like mayors, with the help of the ahlermcn
and the common council, brought everything into
order. In 1'2S)0 tliey expelled the Jews. After
twelve years the mayoralty was restored. Under
Edward II., again, there was disorder and dis-
content in the city, the great body of the citizens
adhering to the party of the queen. Under
Edward III. London prospered, new privileges
were granted to the mayor, and the French wars
were extrem(dy jiopular. In the end, however,
a reaction ensued, and under the weak govern-
ment of Richard 11. things did not improve. The
usiirpation, as many deemed it, of Henry IV.
could hardly have succeeded had it not been for
the support of the city; and Henry V., whose
I''rencli victories inllated trade, was most popular
witli the citizens. Henry VI. was unable to
grapjile with the inevitiihle period of dc]iression
whi(di naturally followed; and his (pieen, .Margaret
of Anjou, failing to gain the confidence of London,
whose importance to the Lancastrian cause she
did not kin)\v, contrived to divert the weight of
the city influence into the opposite scale. The
reign of Edward IV., with his .strong conuuercial
instinct, by reviving and creating outlets for
foreign trade, restored the prosperity of tlie city.
Under the Tudors there were great (luctuations.
Although the settled government of Henry \i\.
tended on the whole to the satisfaction of the
city, his continual exactions and the heavy fines
ho imposed for trivial ollenees, alienated its
loyalty. The accession of Henry VIII. was au
occasion of rejoicing. The tenets of the Hefor-
m;Ltion were \\"arml_\' welcoined in London, w liei'e
the priests, monks, and friars lia<l lieconie a heavy
burden ; and at first the high-handed i)roc('cdings
of the king in the sni)pression of the religious
houses and the confiscation of their endowments
was a popular measure. The further suppression
of guilds under his successor led to a considerable
change in the feeling of the citizens, many of
whom, but for the religious ]ier.secuth)n under
(,)ueen Mary, would have been very willing to
return to the old faith.
The guilds had for centuries been an integral
part of the social life of the citizens. The muni-
cipal guild, or what we know of it, has already
been mentioned. At an early |)(uiod after the
Conquest we hear of 'trade guilds,' that is, of
combinations of men of one calling for leligious
and other purposes. The many attem|)ts made of
late to distinguish between trade guilds and
religions guilds have ended in failure, for all guilds
were religious, and most religious guilds were trade
guilds as well. As time went on the governing
body occasionally found it convenient to consult a
trade guild on the regulation of their particular
business. This was especially th<' case under such
mayors as Walter Harvey (l'271-7'2), who, indeed,
made an endeavour to enrol every citizen under the
banner of a guild of his trade, and to fornnilatc rules
for each. Though he failed, his ideas took root ;
and in a few years many of the guilds obtained
royal chartere forming them into companies, able
to bold lands, and in some cases, as that of the
goldsmiths and that of the fishmongers, to regu-
late the conduct of their res|)ective trades. The
old guilds were thus generally merged in the com-
panies «hose governing bodies acted as trustees
of the fniuls of the guilds. There was ]u-obably
a good deal of confusion between the guild pro-
perty and the companies jiroperty, but for the
most part that of the guild couhl lie ilistinguished,
because it was applied to religious purposes. The
act which confiscated these fun<ls made, of course,
a profimnd impression on the city. Some com-
{lanies were wholly ruined, having perhaps no
unds but those which nught be ai)plieii to a
'guildable use:' and others, more pros]ierous,
fcmnd it expedient, and even necessary, to sell
their company estates in order to buy the guild
estate which they had administered. The com-
panies which recovered from this heavy blow
prospered for the most part eventually, and those
now extant deal with large charitable funds and
hohl large estates, to the great benefit of their
tenants aiul their pensioners.
Under Queen Elizabeth the work of the Kcfor-
ntation \\as contijiued and conipleted. The history
of the church in Lcmdon was gnMtly complicated
with that of the nninicipality. We have .seen
that the bishop was an aldernum ; but at a very
early peiiod, a period in fact so early that no
record of its date survives, the ecclesiastical and
lay administrations drifted ajiart, and the church
had less and less concern in tli(Millairs not strictly
religious. There are historical reasons for believ-
ing that St Paul's was at first a parish church,
but before the end of the 12th century, perhaps
as a consei(nence of the great fire of ll.'?6, the
parochial arrangements of the whole city were
readjusted, new parishes were formed and their
boundaries marked, and a gicat number of new
churches were built. The dean ami the loidly
camnis of St Paul's no huiger cared to have the
common people worshipping in their church, and
built St l'eter-le-t,)uerne, at the corner of Clieap,
with St (Jregory an<l St Kaith closely adjoining
St Paul'.s, the one at the east end, the other at
the west. The canons of St Marlins built St
Ved.-ist's, and the friars of Newgate Street St
I'^ven's ; and ]irivate individuals or wealthy alder-
men incri'ased the number of churohes as long iis
the.y could obtain parishes to attach to them.
LONDON
699
I
When land failed for this purpose, they founded
chantries, some in St Pauls, some in otlier mon-
astic and parochial churches. No doubt tl\e act
Quia JCiiintorcs. which in 1290 prai-tiiiilly forliade
the suhdivision of manoi's, had its inlluence in
restrictinj; the niulti]>licatii>n of churches, but the
number of city parishes (114) was out of all pro
portion to the population, great comparatively as
that must have been ; and, since churches were
built ratlicr as chapels where m;vss might be cele-
brated than for any other purpose, the later
Puritan and Protestant idea, that they should be
places where a large number of people could listen
to sermons, had no intluence on their dimensions.
Although there was no abbey in the city, if we
except St Mary's in East Smitlitield, a Cistercian
house founded by Edward III., and sometimes
called Eastminster, which never tiourished, the
number of priories, colleges, and hospitals was
immense. The AVhitefriars had a large Inmse on
the south side of Fleet Street in the western
suburb. The Blackfriars occupied the south-
western corner of the city, and had leave to
divert the course of the wall between Ludgate
and the Thames. The Greyfriars were within
Newgate, on the site noAv occupied by Christ's
Hospital. Close to them was St ^lartin-le-Grand,
a very ancient foundation for canons, which, in
the later yeai-s of monasticism, having fallen into
decay, was attached to AVestniinster Abbey.
Close to the FrancLscans on the north, but with-
out the wall, was the Austin Canons' house in
Smithtield. Elsing 'Spital was within Cripple
gate. The Austin Friai-s had great buildings
near Moorgate, and St Helen's Priory, for nuns,
occupied tlie eastern side of Bishopsgate Street.
The canous of the Holy Trinity held Aldgate,
and south of their priory was that of the Crutched
Friars. The suburlis teemed equally with re-
ligious houses, and there were several minor
foundations within the city. The number of mass
priests attending altars in St Paul's alone was
reckoned at over one hundred ; and the great pesti-
lence of 1348 iidded largely to the chantries and
chapels. In the 15th century this state of things
Ijccame an intolerable burden, ami contem|iorary
literature is full of complaints. Unfortunately, in
abolishing mon.asticism the beautiful churches of
the monks and friars were not respected, and
although one or two were named as worthy of
])reservation as preaching-houses, all ])erislied
e.\ee]it a portion of Austin l'riai"s ami the nnns'
aisle of St Helen's. The Austin Friars' church,
wholly disgui.sed under a niist.aken idea of 'restora-
tion,' still remains ;is a Butch church. Even St
Paul's was mutilated : the campanile and the
cloisters known its Pardon Churchyard were
ruined ; and after the destruction of the lofty
spire, 520 feet high, by lire in l.'jtil, the whole
cliurch fell into a very dilapidated condition.
The intluence of the churph t<dd also upon
London in another way. The addition of suburbs
to the city as ' wards without ' wiis prevented l>y
the ring of ecclesiastical estates which grailually
elo-sed round it. On the east was Stepney, a
manor lielonging to the bishop. The mayor and
corporation obtained a leiuse of the manor of Fins
bury from a prebendary of St Paul's in 1.315, and
held it till 1807, when it w,as taken up by the
Ecclesia-stical Commission. To the westward there
were several preliendal manors, and outside
Temple Bar was the great ])arisli and manor of
St Margaret, Westminster, which belonged to the
abbey. Southwark was annexed to the city in
l.'i27, and w;is made .a 'ward without' in 1550.
But in a<ldition to Porlpool (nowCoay's Inn), St
Pancras, Hugmere (now St Giles's), and Blooms-
bury, the .Moor (or Mora), at Cripplegate, Fslinp-
ton, Hoxton, and Eald Street (now Old Street),
St Luke's, all of which were manors belonging to
canons of St Paul's, the Knights of St John had
Clerkenwell ; the canons of St Bartholomew,
I Canonbury ; the abbey of Barking had Tyburn,
! or the eastern half of the parish of St Marylebone ;
I the Knights of St .lohn had the western half,
or Lylleston ; the alibey of Westminster owned
Paddington and Westbourne ; and the abbey of
Abingdcm, Kensington. Finally, the abbey of
Westminster held Chelsea for a time. It will l>e
seen that every extension of the city jurisdiction
was effected with great ditiicult\', and the ft'ects of
the division of the monastic estates by the Tudor
dynasty did not greatly benefit the city, which in
fact only ol)tainecl St Bartholomew's Hospital and
the Grey Friar's from Henry Vlll., and Bridewell
from Edward VI.
The accession of Queen Elizabeth "ave a con-
siderable impetus to London trade. Her reforma-
tion of the coinage was only one item of a settled
policy : and the Merchant Adventurers, chartered
iiy her father, now stepped into the place previ-
ously occupied by the Germans of the Steelyard,
which was abolished at the instance of the famous
Gresham. The last charter of Queen Elizabeth
was granted to the East India Company. The
silk manufacture, driven out of Flanders by the
cnielties of the Spaniards, was naturalised in
England ; and even the short-sighte<l policy of
the first Stuart could not rejire.ss the lajadly-
growing enterprise of the Londoners, whom the
discovery of America and of a sea-passage to
India stimulated to greater and greater exertions.
While the wealth and population of London
thus increased during the Kith and part of the
17th century, the city itself became less and less
fit for habitation. Its unhealtliiness was partly
caused by the ileficiency of the water-supply,
partly by overcrowding. The plague .scarcely ever
left its narrow streets and filthy alleys. Th-
sanitary arrangements of the time of Edward 1.
were scarcely suited to the needs of the time of
James and Charles. But, known only to a few
Londoners, Sir Hugh Myddelton. by bringing
clean water to the city in aliun<lant i|uantity.
bestowed upon it the greatest possible boon. This
was in 16'20 ; but some forty or fifty veal's ela|>se<l
before the New River was made generally avail-
able. In the meantime the citizens were over-
whelmed with one great misfortune after another.
James I. ha<l reverted as far as he c<ml(l to the
mistaken policy of such kings as Henry III. and
Kichard II. ; but it was reserved for Charles I.,
after a long series of highhanded ])roceediiigs, t<)
seize the money of the city goldsmiths ilcposited
in the Tower. His downfall was certain when the
city turned against him : but. excejit for a very
brief period, the Commonwealth found litlle favour
in London, and Cromwell imposed one humiliatiiui
after another upon the citizens. Charles 11. was
warmly welcomed, and it was mainly owing to the
co-()i>eiation of the wealthy nierchants with M<uik
that his return was jwssible. But Charles followed
in the footsteps of his father. Extortion and op-
]>ression were the instruments of his policy, ami in
lt>72 he closed the Exche(|uer, and ruineil nearly
all the London bankers at a blow. He never
afterwards was able to win the confidence of the
citizens, on whom two other di.saslei-s of even
greater vehemence had already come — the Great
Pl.ague of 1665 and the (!ieat Fire of 1606.
There had been many ]uevious visitations of the
plague, and to that of 16'25, long known as the
(ireat Phigiie, .35.000 deaths were attributed. But
the ciudeniic of 1665 threw all others into the
shade. It commenced at St Giles's, in the suburbs,
and the official statements enumerated the deaths
700
LONDON
during the year at 97,306. As the population was
reckoned at about r)()0,000, it will be seen that
nearly a fifth perished.
There had also been many great fires, but tliat
of 16()6 exceeded them all. " It commenced on tlie
2(1 September, at 1 o'clock A.M., in Pudding Lane,
and raged for live days. It was estimated that 396
acres of houses were destroyed, fifteen city wards
were coiisumcil utterly, and' eight others damaged,
comprising 400 streets, 13,200 private houses, 88
churches and St Paul's Cathedral, and 4 city
gates. The loss in mere money was estimated
at about 4 million. It took London many years
to recover from this terrible misfortune. Sir
Christopher Wren built a new St Paul's, and
also gave us St Stephen's, Wallbrook (until
1.SS8, when it was in great part ruined by the
])arocliial authorities), the chief monument of his
powers after the cathedral, the spire of St Mary-
leBow in Cheapside, and many other beautiful
buildings, including the Monument, -set up near
where the fire began. This is a Tuscan Doric
tinted column 202 feet high. St Pauls has a dome
404 feet high and 145 feet in external diameter ;
the length of the building east and west is 500 feet.
Street, commenting on tlie superiority of St Paul's
to St Peter's as an architectural composition, say.s :
'The great magnitude of the latter may strike the
vulgar eye with admiration in the contrast ; but
the rudest taste must appreciate the surpassing
merit of the former in the form and arrangement
of the cui)ola and the noble peristyle' (see Wrkn ).
It contains many memorials, the best of which are
Wellington's, in'tlie Consistorial Court, on the south
side of the nave, by Stevens ; Lord Melbourne's,
by Marochetti ; and a recumbent figure of (leneral
(iordon, by Hoehm. In the crypt are buried Lord
Nelson (1805), Reynolds (1792), Turner (1851),
Wellington (1852), Land-seer (1873), and Wren
him.self ( 1723). The Exchange (q.v.)of Sir Thomas
Gresham was burned, rebuilt, and tlien biirned
again, and fin.ally relniilt in 1844 by Sir William
Tite. The (iuildhall, partly of the 13th century,
partly of the 15th, which had been the scene of so
many historical events, was damaged in 1666, but
not destroyed, and was handsomely restored first by
Jarman, an eminent contemporary of Wren, and
more recently by Sir Horace Jones. Among the
churches s])ared by the fire is St Bartliolomew's,
in part, a fine Norman structure; St Giles's, Cripple-
gate, built 1545, in which .John Milton (born in
IJread Street, 1608) was buried, 1674; St Helen's,
Hishopsgate, full of fine monuments ; St Katharine
C'ree, said to have been designed by Inigo Jones,
1631 ; and St Andrew Undershaft, in which is
Stow's monument.
During the rest of the reign of Charles II, and
tlie whole of that of his successor, the city and the
ccnirt were more or less at variance; and in 16S3
Charles took London, to use the old ])liras(', into
his own hands. The Lord Mayor was deposed, the
charter was seized, and both aldermen, and also
a so-called Lord Mayor, in reality a warden, were
appointed by the king. At first James II. carried
r)n his brother's ijolicy towards the city. .At the
news of the landing of the Prince of Urange the
charter was sent hack, but the concession came
Loo late, and the judicial murder of Alderman
Cornish was too fresh in the minds of the citizen.s.
In December 1688 they formally petitioned William
to assume the crown, and in a few hours found
ample funds for his use. Subserpient events were
largely inlluenced by the city, and it has often
been observed that the opposition of London, in
old times fatal to a king or his family, has of late
(•(jujilly all'erted the fortunes of a ministry. King
(leorge III. was galled by the .su]nemacy of the
citizens as Henry III. had been before him ; but
he made no way against them. The last events
that need be noticed here are the establishment
of the Bank of England in 1694 ; the removal of
the old wall and its gates in 1760; the clearing
of the houses from London Bridge about the same
time, and its complete rebuilding in 1831, when
it was only one of a large number of bridges. A
great number have been built since then ; the
latest addition, a bridge below the Tower, is an
engineering work of great importance, which will
add greatly to the picturesque jispect of the east
of London." See Bridge, Vol. II. p. 446.
The population of the city has dwimlled year by
year, and especially since the multiplication of
railways. Few tradesmen now live in their place
of liusiness, and the dill'erence between the number
of people who actually reside within the ancient
boundaries and of those who only come in to
business is immense. In 1881 there were 6493
inhabited houses and a jiopulation of 50,526 ; but
25,143 houses were used during the day, when the
population rose to 261,061. Tlie ratealde value of
property was, in 1887, no less than £3,7(i7,000. Mean-
while the suburbs have si)read in all ilirections,
and the houses of Londoners are found in Berkshire,
Buckinghamshire, Hertfordshire, and Sussex, as
well as in Kent, Surrey, Essex, and Middlesex.
The city has its own police force, in six di\isions,
with seven stations and two courts — one at the
Mansion House, the official residence of the Lord
Mayor, and one at the Guildhall. Several railway
stations have been made within the precincts of
the city, as the Temple, RIackfiiars, the Mansion
House, the Monument, and Mincing Lane on the
Metropolitan Railway, with ('annou Street Termi-
nus, which stands exactly on the site usually
claimed for the Roman jiretorium. Thi; diocese
of London has varied very frequently in extent,
having at one time comprised Middlesex, Essex,
and Hertfordshire, besides the city. It now con-
sists of the city Avith Middlesex, and that part of
the new county of London which was formerly
reckoned in Jliddlesex. The bishop resides in
Westminster, and at an ancient manor house of
the see at Fulliam. There is a dean of St Paul's
who resides close to his church, on the site of the
old brewhouse of the chapter. He is assisted by
four residentiarj' or stagiary canons, and by a
precentor, a chancellor, and two an-hdeacons, and
there are thirty canons of the old foundation, now
usually called prebendaries, an<l a college, incor-
por.ated by Richard II., of minor canons.
Lonilon formerly returned as many as six mem-
bers to parliament, of whom two were supposed
to be on duty at a time. From about l.'i57 the
number was usually four. Under the Reform Act
of 1885 it Wius reduced to two.
Like other ancient towns the city of London had
its own customs, some of which still have the force
of law. Thus, by the custoin <if London, everj'
shop is deemed an ' open market ' for the goods
usually sold there. There were also special rules
.IS to the pnisecution of certain cl.-isses of oll'enders,
i.*i:c. The London custom which governed the suc-
cession to personal proiierty was taken .'iway in
1 856. There is a customary right of foreign
Attachment (q.v.).
TllK CdUNTY OF LdMidN. I'lider the Local
Government Act of 1888 a new county w.is defined,
to consist of the suburban parishes of Middlesex,
Surrey, and Kent^ These parishes, or a great
])art of them, h;id ]ircviously been described in
certain .acts as 'the Metropolitan Area,' a term
(|uite inapiiro])riate. By the .Act of I88S a county
council was provided f<ir Ibis ilistricl, and the juris-
dictions formerly existing of the city of London, and
the authorities of the tliree counties were aliolislie<l.
Before describing the new county we may point
LONDON
701
out that uinler this act the county of Middlesex
(([.v.) was removed from the sheritisliip of the
citizens, and divided, one part forniiiit; a new
county of Middlesex, and the otiier, united
with parts of Surrey and Kent, forming the
new county of London. The work of the County
Council has been multifarious and far-reachiii<;,
and has evoked a correspondiii<; amount of criti-
cism. By the London Governmeul Act of 1899
the administrative county of Loudon, with the
exception of the City, which had licretofore been
under the authority of more tlian a hundred and
twenty local authorities (vestries, district boards.
burial hoards, &c.), was reorganised into twenty-
eight municipal lioroughs, each under a municipal
council. These boroughs are : Battersea, Hermond-
sey, Bethualljreen, Caniberwell, Chelsea, Deplford,
Fiusbury, Fulliam, Greenwich, Hackney, Hammer-
smith, Hampstead, Holborn, Islington, Kensing
ton, Lambeth, Lewisliam, Haddington, l*o|dar. Si
Maryleljone, St Pancras, Shorcditcli, Soulhwark
Stepney, Stoke Newington, Wandsworth, Weslmin
stcr, Woolwich. The councils have all the powei
and duties of the old vestries and district boards
and some of those of the Londou County Council.
The suburbs form a ring round the city, and the
ell'orta of the medieval rulers were directed — first,
to restricting as much as possible their growth ;
and secondly, to bringing them, when they were
settled, under the control of the city. In this policy
the Londoners were unsuccessful. The suburbs
grew in spite of city and parliament ; ami by 1222
a continuous street united Westminster with Lon-
dou ; another stretched beyonil the T<iwcr to
Slepnev ; and a third, (lowing out of ISishopsgate,
reached northward to Islington. In the same LHIi
century the city made its linal attempt to keep the
suburbs under control. A great 'ward without was
formed westward, extending to the Tem|pl(e and
lioll)orn Bars; and, on the north, iiart of Moor-
tields was ni;ule a ' wanl without ' in the jurisdiclio;i
of the alderman of Bishopsgate. But, except for
the formal addition of Southwark in Surrey, made
in 1327, eonlirmed and delined in 1550, no further
extension of the city liberties took place. The
estates of the churcli stopped the way. London
was surrounded by manors, of which ecclesiastical
dignitaries and monastic bodies were the lords.
Foremost among these were the canons of St I'aul's
and the Bishop of London. Stepney, an immense
parish to the eastward, belonged to the bishop, all,
that is, except such parts of the precinct of the
Tower as were taken out of it. On the west the
Abbot of Westminster had the parish of St Mar-
garet, which at liret came up to the Fleet, at what
we know as Ludgate Circus, and was with (liffi-
culty ]ire.ssed biu-k beyond Temple liar. The abbol
ccmtinued to hold the cliurchcs iu the new ward,
and the dean and chapter still present to St
Bride's, Fleet Street. On the north, the canons
702
LONDON
of St Paul's held Cantlei's, now Kentish Town,
Eal<l Street, Hoxton, Islington, and St Pancnus,
while Mora and 'VVenlocksharn were parts of the
)>arisli of St (Jiles, Cripplesate. (Hher canons,
monks, and friars, and the Knights of St John and
of the Temple had holdings in Smitliliidd and
Canonhiiry, at Clerkenwell and in St Johns Wood,
and in the Temple. All these church estates were
in hands which hitterly resented any interference
on the part of the city ; and when the monastic
orders were aholished, their estates were for the
most part granted to individuals at least as
tenacious of their independence. The canons of
St Paul's had already for the most part ceased,
owing to the prevalence of a corrupt system of
le;using, to own except in name the manors of which
they had heen the lords. In the more distant
parishes sinular influences were at work, and
except in Westminster, where the abbot and his
successor, the dean, held the reins of local govern-
ment, the parishes of the so-called Jletropolitan
Area were governed by elected vestries and other
such institutions, and tlie lands were divided and
parcelled out in freeholds, some large and a few
small, .among ownere who had little general control
or influence.
The precinct of the Tower, eastward of the city
wall, was formed partly by aggressions on the
'I'hi-- 'lower of LoBilon from the River.
citizens, partly by acquisitions from the loid of
Sti'imcy, an<I ]>artly by reclamations from the
'rh:niies. Two bastions of the olil wall, generally
called Itoman, and certainly dating back to the
reiga of Alfred (see above, p. 696), were removed,
and the White and Wakefield towers were built
on them. They were fenced round by a palisade
at first, hut by the end of the 12th century the
piecincts comprise<l 26 acres, about 12 being covcreil
with buildings. lhin<lulf, a monk of lice, designed
the White Tower, begun in 1078. Tlie works went
on steadily, the chapel of St John in the White
Tower being supplemented by the parish or pre-
cinct church of St Peter ' ad Vincula ' on the
(Jreen in the reign of Henry II. The keep is
!il)proximately in the centre, and is snrroiinded
by walls and towers formiug the inner an<l outer
wards. The towers of the inner ward were those
chiefly used for prisoners' lodgings, but a cont-
plete royal palace was in the soutli-ea.stern corner.
Of this palace, from which Queen Anne Boleyn
went to her death on the adjoining green, scarcely
a vestige remains. The lieutenant's lodgings,
where, or in the chief- warder's hou.se next door,
Lady .lane (Grey) Dudley lived, is in good pre-
serv.-ition, but is now, for some unknown reason,
called the Queen's House. The ISeaucbamp and
Devereux towers seem to have held the most illus-
trious prisoners ; they, with the Hell Tower, in
whicli Fisher, liisho)) of Kochester (1534), and
Mary, Countess of Lennox (156.5), were conlined,
form the western side of tlie inner ward, being
united by a curtain wall, on wiiicli the ]>risonei-s
walked. Unfortunately, the inscriptions from
many dirt'erent chambers have been brought to-
gether in the princip.al room of tlie lieauchamp
Tower, by which their histiuical significance has
been in some cases wholly lost. Here we see,
among others, memorials of the incarceration of
the six sons of John Dudley, Duke of Northumber-
land (beheaded 1,553). Of them, John, the eldest,
was released and died ; Ambrose, the second,
became Earl of Warwick, and lived till 1599;
Guildford, the third, w.as liclieaded on the same
day as his wife, 12th February 15.54 ; Robert, the
fourth, is best known a-s Queen Elizabeth's Earl
of Leice.ster, and died in 1588; and Henry, the
youngest, was killed in the French wars in 1558.
Other illustrious prisoners were Edw.ird, Earl of
■\Varwick, called the last of the I'lantagenets,
beheiided 1499, and his sister Margaret, Countess of
Salisbury, beheaded 1541 ; Edward Seymour, Duke
of Somerset, beheaded 1552 ; Sir
Thonuvs More, 1535; Thomas Crom-
well, Earl of Essex, 1540; Queen
Catharine Howard, 1.541 ; Henry
Howard, Earl of Surrey, 1547:
Henry Grey, Duke of Sutl'olk, 1.5.'J4 :
.Sir "\Valter Raleigh, beheaded at
Westminster in 1618; Thomas
Wentworth, Earl of Strallbrd,
1641 : William Laud, Archbishop
of Canterbury, 1645; James Scott,
Duke of Monmouth and Buecleuch,
16.85 : James Radclill'e, Earl of
Derwentwater. 1716 ; and the Scots
birds implicated in the risings of
1715 and 1745 — Kenmure. 1716;
ilmarnock and Balmerino. 1746;
id Lovat, 1747. Many of these
i-ioners were buried in St Peter's
lunch, which having been burned
1 1512 was rebuilt in time to
reive the bodies of t^ueen Anne
oleyn and other victims of the
Tudor times. It wius ' restored '
some years ago in a very thorough
manner, every vestige, except some
monuments, of the period which witnessed these sad
scenes being carefully obliterated. The crown jewels
were long kept in the Brick Tower, at the north-
eastern corner, but in 1867 were removed to a
chamber in the Wakefield Tower. This chamber,
in which they are now exhibited, b.as shareil the
fate of the chapel, every vestige of its occupation
by Henry VI., probably at the very time of his
death, having been carefully ■ rest<ned ' aw;iy. The
great collection of armour, founded by Henry \'II1.
in his palace at Greenwich, is on the upper tloor of
the White Tower. Two or three pieces date from
before the time of the Tudors. 'Ihe ticket -olfice,
by which the visitor enters the fortress, is on the
site of a men.agcrie which ilates back to the time
of Henry I., whence the saying 'to seethe lions,'
meaning to visit the Tower. The piincipal feature
of the outer ward is St Thom.as's Tower, or the
Traitor's (Jate, facing the Bloody or Ganlen Tower,
the entrance of the inner ward. The view of the
Tower from the westward is miicli interfered with
l«r' the m^w bridge, hnt, exceiit for some
h.arraeks and the demolition of tin; palace, has .'
very much the .aspect it bore in the 17th century.
K still
LONDON
703
The new briJge just mentioned starts from the
iMiundary between tlie jirecincls of the Tower ami
that of St Katharines Hosiiital. an institution
founded hy Matilda, the i|ue('n of Ste|dien, and
refounded in V2''.i by Eleanor, ipieen of Henry III.
It still subsists, liavinfi been spared at the Kefornia-
tion, but was removed in 1827 to the Regent's
Park, and St Katharine's Dock made on the old
site. A little farther east, still on the Thames
bank, we come to one of the numerous divisions,
known a.s the Tower Handets, into which the
original parish of Stepney ha.s been parcelled. This
used to be Ratolift'e and Wapping, but has long
been known a.s St George's in the East. Next to
it is Limehouse. .a name whose original fomi, Lime-
hurst, surticiently denotes the old character of the
region. Next to Limehouse is Poplar, which
includes the Isle of Dogs, ;i kind of delta formed
by the river Lea. which derives its name from its
docks. Farther inland are Bethnal Green, a vast
district, chiefly covered with factories and with
the houses of the lower cl;uss of artisans and
lalwiurers. Mile End, Old and New Towns, whose
names show their situation on the great eastern
road made through Aldgate (see above) in the
l'2th century, which led to an arched bridge,
locally known as the Bow, where there had
previouslj' been only the dangerous Stratford over
the Lea. These parishes, with Whitechapel north
of the Tower, form a complete ring ronnd Stepney,
where an ancient church, dedicated to St Dunstan,
still stands among surroundings very different
from those which marked the district when the
bishojis of London had .a |ialace here, with wide
parks, and the noble hunting-gnmnds of Hackney
and Homsey on the hills beyond ; when Edward 1.
held a parliament in 1299 at the house, near the
church, of the mayor, Henry le Waleys ; when the
good Dean Colet had a country house here, where
he wa-s visited by More and Era.'^mus ; and when
Bishop Ridley, the martyr, surrendered the manor
to Lord Wentworth, the same whose loss of Calais
is said to have been the proximate cause of the
death of Queen Mary I. Since Wentworths death
the estate has been divided among many owners,
and there are few traces of antiquity anywhere.
The Bethnal Green Museum of the Science and Art
De])artment is in a style not likely to improve the
architectural ta.ste of the neighViourhood, but has
housed and exhibited various line collections of
pictures and works of art. Much of Hackney,
which adjoins Stepney on the north, has been
kept open ; an old park of the bishops being now
laid out as Finsbury Park, and the commons and
fields eastward to the Lea having been rescued
from the builder. South of this ilistrict, which
stands high, are Haggerston and Hoxton, densely
populated parishes, comprising the ancient Shore-
ditch, and reaching to the city wall. Westward
are the two divisions of Finsbury, St Luke's and
Clerkenwell. In St Luke's wiis the ' .Vrtillery
Ground,' or place of exercise for volunteer bowmen,
from which the modern .\rtillery Comp.my took its
rise. In Clerkenwell, liut not strictly speaking of
it, is the Carthusian monastery, now :i kind of
refuge for decayed gentlemen', known as the
Charterhouse. here wa-s formerly a schoid, in
which John Leech was eilucated as well sus
Th.ackeray, who de.scribe.s the place under the
name of the Slaughterhouse. In the Lilierty of
Saffron Hill Wiis a palace of the bislio|is of Kly,
and their chapel, a. beautiful building sold to
the Roman Catholics in 1H74, still exists in Ely
Place. Clerkenwell, the site of the lion.se of the
Hospitallers, has still its St .loiin's Ciate, with
memories of Di' ,Jolinson. Northward and west-
ward, we come to a group of old prebendal
manors. Islington has a very ancient history
extending back to the time of the Conquest ; Stoke
Newington with a curious ol<l church ami a new
one : St Andrews, Holborn. in whicli Lord Beacons-
field was liaptiseil, and in the cenietery of which,
in Shoe Lane, Chatterton was buried in 1770;
Portpo<d, the original name of the grouml now
covered by Gray's Inn, whose great ornament
w.a.s Lord Bacon ; and Rugmere, now known as
St (iiles's and Bloomsbury. The last named dis-
trict, in which the British Museum is situated,
was brought l)y the good Lady Uiichel Wriothesley
to her second husband, William, Lord Russell
(beheaded in Lincoln's Inn Fields in 1083), and
still Ijelongs to her descendants, the dukes of
Bedford. The celebrities of Bloomsbury have been
too numerous to mention : but we cannot forget
HichanI Baxter, who lived in Southampton, now
Bloomsbury Square: Charles Dickens, who lived
long in Gower Street and in Tavistock Square ;
and Charles Lamb, who lived in Little Queen
Street.
In St George the Martyr, a small parish taken
out of Holborn, is Queen Square, called after
t^ueen Anne. Macaulay lived at 50 Great Ormond
Street while he was a boy. St Giles's, long a
rookery of wretched tenements, has been greatly
dean.sed and improved of late, but the too famous
i Seven Dials continue to deserve an evil reputation.
I Some of the streets and squares of the district were
places of repute two centuries ago. Nell Gwynn
lived in Wardour Street, the Duke of Monmouth
in Soho Si|uare, Dryden in Long Acre and in
(Jerard Street. The small parisli of St Paul,
Covent tiarden, boasts of a church designed by
Inigo Jones, of the greatest vegetable and flower
market in London, and of innumerable literary
associations. In Bow Street w.is Willss Coflee-
liouse, where Pei)ys met Dryden ; Turner, the
lanilscape-painter, was born in Maiden Lane ;
Charles Lamb lived in Russell Court : and Pope,
Sheridan, Butler, and Prior are among the names
we meet with in the history of the locality.
We now reach the Strand. Beginning at its
eastern end, next to Temple Bar, we have the
colossal buildings of the New Law Courts ( 1874-
82), of which George E. Street was the original
designer ; but so thwarted by meddling authorities,
that only the best features, such as the noble hall
(2.S8 feet long) and the tower, can lie considered
his. North of the courts is Linccdn's Inn Fields,
the largest square in London. Here is situated
the College of Surgeons, with its museum, and the
museum of Sir John Soane. Clo.se to the Law
Courts is the church of St Clement Danes, by
Wren, in winch a brass tablet marks the .seat
habitually occujued by Dr Johnson. On the south
side .are Arundel and Norfolk streets on the old
site of Arundel House. Essex Street i-ommemo-
rates the residence of Queen Klizaheth's unfortu-
n.ate favimrite in the Outer Temple. A brook
ran through Milford Lane, and in Strand Lane is
a bath of Roman origin. Next, to the westw.ard,
we come to the charming littl(> church of St Mary,
by (Jibhs, .'Uid to Somerset House, now full of
government offices, built by Ghambei-s (178G),
after a design of Inigo Jones. Here Anne, ijueen
of James I., resided. The name is derived fnnn
the Duke of Somerset (beheaded IS.'iS), who built a
hou.se here. The streets on the north side comnete
with Fleet Street as the headquarters of periodical
literature. Before we reach Waterloo Bridge (see
BltltJCK) we are in the precinct of the Savoy, con-
tenninons with a manor grante<l by Henry III. to
Peter of S.avoy, uncle of Queen Eleanor. Here
John of (iaunt resiiled till the palace wils burned
by the rioters of I.'j81. Chaucer, who married a
sister of the iluke's third wife, Wiis much here. It
afterwards became a hospital, of which the chapel,
704
LONDON
dedicated to St John the Baptist, only reinaiiis.
In it (iaviii Dou-^las, Bisliop of Dunkeld (died
lo'22), lies liuried. Fuller otticiated here dnrinjjthe
rei^'ii of Charles I. The lios|iital was suppressed
in 170;j, and the chapel made ' royal ' in I'TS.
The Thames Emhankment (lSG-l-70) horders
the Strand from the city round a ^reat bend of the
Thames at Charing' Cross to Westminster. When
we pass the city lioundary near the Temple, we are
abreast of the liuilding of the London School Hoard,
by Mr Norman Shaw, K.A., next to which, with a
short interval, is the river-front of Somerset House,
by Chambers, one of the best elevations in London.
Gardens beautifully laid out conduct us past the
Savoy, the Adelphi Terrace, an Egyptian obelisk
bearing the names of Thothmes IIL ( 18th dynasty)
and Rameses II. (19th dynasty), and the old gate-
way which marks the site of Buckingham or York
House, where Bacon was born in 1561. Charing
Cross station occupies the site of Hungerford
Market. The cross in the court toward the Strand
is believed to be a copy of the Eleanor Cross
erected by Edward I. The statue of Charles I.
stands on its exact site. Northumberland Avenue
was made in 1874 over the site of the last of the
great riverside palaces with which the Stranil was
formerly lined on the south. Trafalgar S(|uare is
on the site of the old King's Mews. Its chief
ornament is the church of St Martin ' in the
Fields,' bv Gibbs ( 1726). The National Gallery is
a poor building (by Wilkins, 18.38). The National
Portrait tiallery behind it was opened in 1895.
The monumental Corinthian column to Nelson is
very conspicuous, with four lions by Landseer at
its base. Behind it is a statue of (ieneral Gordon
by 'Thornycroft. There are other statues, all
poor. For Whiteliall, see Westminster. A
statue of George III., by Wyatt, is in Cockspur
Street, wliich leads us past the Haymarket and its
great opera-house to \Vaterloo Place, where is
Bell's Guards' Memorial, a very poor figure of
Victory in bronze, the Uuke of York's (Tuscan
red granite) column with statue by Westmacott ;
and monuments, mostly very bad, to Franklin,
Lord Clyde, Lord Lawrence, iVc. The clubs in
Pall Mall are in many cases justly admired, and,
except those most recently liuilt, are in good pro-
portion, especially the Reform, designed by Barry,
and the Carlton, by Smirke, and give a stateliness
to the street, sadly wanting as a rule in London.
At the War Otlice is part of Schomberg House,
occupieil by Gainsborough, the painter. When we
reach St James's Palace (in Westminster) we turn
uf> St .James's Street, noting at the corner a beauti-
ful insurance-otlice by Mr Norman Shaw. ( Ipposite,
on the west side, are .several well-iiroportioned clubs,
but some new buildings, covered with ornament,
intended apparently to conceal weak dcwigns, go
far to s|poil the view. Near the top of the iuscent
are White's, Boodle's, Brooke's, and Arthur's clubs,
all celebrated in the social annals of the century,
and on the site of Crockford's, the Devonshire. In
Bennett and Arlingtim streets we are reminded of
one of the members of the Cabal. Lord Salislniry's
obtrusively ugly house looks on the Green Park.
In Arlington Street resided another iirime-minister,
Walpole, an<l afterwards his son, Horace Walpolc.
Piccaililly begins a little to the eastwanl of
Waterloo I'hure (see above) and its continuation
Regent Street, and is called from .a kind of tea-
garilen, Peccadillo Hall, which stood where the
CriUirion is now. The formation of Regent Street,
which was t<) lead from Carlton House (where the
York column now stands) to the Regent's Park,
which was beautifully laid out on the old Mary-
lehone common, must be ascribed to Nivsh, to
whom must also be assigned the street frcmts,
often very beautiful, although executed only in
stucco. In the Regent's Park are situat^ed the
Zoological and Botanic Gardens. In Piccadilly
there are still .some tine ]ialaces, as Devonshire
House, Northampton House, the residence of I,ord
Rothschilil, an<l Apsley House, but the tine.st of
all, Burlington House, has been altered and added
to in a wretched style, and the architect-earl's
design can hardly be made out. Here are lodged
the Royal Academy, the Royal, the Antii|uarian,
the Linnean, and several other learned societies.
The gardens are covered by the exhibition nH)ms
of the academy, and liy the olliccs and theatre of
the university of London, in a very debased style,
overloaded with ornament. The only church in
Piccadilly is St dames's, the parish having been
taken out of Westminster in 1684. It was built
by Wren, at the expense of Jermyii, Earl of St
Albans, who is generally believed to have been the
second husband of t^ueen Henrietta Maria, and who
is commemorated in the adjoining Jerniyn Street.
The exterior is ])lain, but the interior is the nmdel
and criterion of what a Protestant church should be.
Northward an<l westward is the great parish of
St (ieorge, Hanover Square, separated from West-
minster in 1724, which comprises Mayfair, Grosvenor
Square, and Belgravia, extending from Oxford
Street on the north to the Thames on the south.
It contains many churches, more or less dependent
on St George's, but though some of them are Tery
costly, not one calls for separate mention. The
mother-church is heavy in design, except the
portico. It is by .lohn James. The parish nearly
all belongs to the Duke of Westminster, whose
ancestor. Sir Richard Grosvenor, married in 1676,
Mary Davies, the heiress of two city families, by
which these then open fields had been acquired,
not without litigation, in the reign of Queen Eliza-
beth. The whole estate consists of an almost
circular portion around Grosvenor Square, extend-
ing along Oxford Street from Davies Street to Park
Lane, and bounded on the east by the w.iter-
course of the Tyburn : and a southern portion,
bounded on the west by the Westbourne, which
divides it from Chelsea, and on the east by Grosvenor
Place, Vauxhall Bridge Roa<l, and some irregular
streets down to St George's Sipuire, which is on a
site named in a map of 172,'i, as -Mr Weston's
garden.' The new churches on this niagnilicent
estate are typical of the other li\iildings. There is
not one which can be named as of good, or even
tolerable, design. Belgrave S(|uare and Eaton
Place, and the adjacent region are all in stucco.
Grosvenor Place is in a French style, very debased.
Dorchester House, iu>t on, but bordering the estate
in Park Lane, is handsome, having been designed
by its owner with the as.sistanee of Vulliamy. In
Stanhope Street is Chesterfield House, nnich (lulled
about, but still line, and worthy of its designer,
Ware. Grosvenor House has few architectural
features, but the picture-gallery in I'ark Lane in in
a fair classical style, and the screen in (Jrosvenor
Street has been admired.
Of St Pancras, large as the parish is, there is
very little to be told. It contained, apparently,
several of the manors of the canons of St I'aul's,
and a curious little church, much injured by
modern, and indeed recent, restorations, shows
Norman features. It is close to the St Pancras
terminus of the Midland Railway, and is well
worth a visit for the sake of the graveyaril adjoin-
ing, wliich, though much curtailed by the railway,
still comprises some interesting nionument.s, those,
for examjde, of the (ireys, lords of Porlpool, now
Gray's Inn; of Walker, the lexicogr.apher ; and of
Sir John Soane. Many refugees during French
and Italian troubles were buried here. In the
parish is Kentish Town, the olil prebendal manor
of ' Cantler's ' or Cantelupe's, called after au
LONDON
705
ancit'iit ciiiioii, and now the estate of Loiii
t'aniilen. Soniprs Town used to belon;: to the
family of Soiiiei's Cooks. Tlie new ])ai'ish church
of St Pancras is a very conspicuous ol>ject in
the Euston Hoail. Tt was liuilt in what wjus
thouiiht to he a Grecian style in lS-2'2. by the
Inwoods. Another renuukahle Ipuildinj; is the
Midlanil terminus with a hotel, liy Sir G. G.
Scott, one of the largest liuildin.us of the kind.
Tiibiini was anciently the name of the jiarish
which we know as St JIarylehone. It presents
some curious and interestinj; features. Unlike
most parishes it seems never to have been con-
tained in a sinirle manor, hut was divided hefore
the dawn of history into two at least, if not three.
This divisiim, nr inclusion, may have heen caused
hv it.s remote ami lonely situation. A hrook ran
through it, ' the hourne from which no traveller
returns,* its source hid<len auumg the wooded hills
of Middlesex : and the little church of St .John was
in 14fM) pulle<l down because it had been so often
broken into ami robbed. A new church was built
higher up tlii' brook, where there were a few
houses, and the place is still known from its new
dedication, St Maiy Me Bourne,' The brook was
known as the Tyburn, the earlier form of which
points to a double stream, and the original church
probably stood on a kind of island, a site now
covered by the bookseller's shop of Mr Bunipus.
The ea.stern part of the parish lornied the manor
of Tyburn, and belonged to the abljey of Barking.
It was leased out to various people, and in the l.^th
century wa-s held I)y Thomivs Hobson. Henry
VIII. held the manor, and t^ueen Elizabeth granted
it on le.ose to Forset, who in the succeeding reign
bought it His descendants sold it to .John Holies,
Duke of Newcastle, for £17,o00, and it has ever
since descended in his family, Lady (Jssington
being the i)resent owner. The western part of the
paiTsh was the manor of Lilleston, now commemo-
rated in Lisson Grove, and descended much like
the eastern half, through lejiseholdei-s, Avho held
from the Knights of St .John (whence St John's
'\A"ood), down to Sir William Portnuin, whose
descendants now own the greater jiart of it. The
western boundary is the Kdgware Koad. The
place of execution for the city of London and the
county of Middlesex was at first by the burnside,
where in 1.3.30 Koger Mortimer, Earl of March, was
handed. As the suburbs increased and crept to-
wards St Marylebone, the gallows were removed
farther we.st. In 1.512 they stood in the adjoining
manor of Lilleston, close to the modern Marble
Arch, and eventually they were set up for each
execution at the foot of Edgware Road. A house,
recently rebuilt, the New Inn, is ]>ointed out as
the place where the stout beams of the triangular
gibbet were kejit. At one or other of the jdaces
thus indicated, the Holy Maid of Kent (1.5:J4),
many priests in the reign of Elizabeth, Felton, the
a-ssassin of Buckingham (lU'JtS), .Jack Sliejipard
(1724), .lonathan \\\\,\ (172o), Lord Ferrers (ITCO),
Mrs Brownrigg (1767), and the IJev. \V. Dodd
( 1777) were hanged, with an innumerable company
of less notable criminals. The last execution here
was that of .John .\usten (17n.'l|. It mav be worth
while here to note that Tyburnia is not in Tyburn,
nor yet in Lilleston, but in Faddington. The
number of eminent inhabitants ami natives of St
Marylebone is very great. Hogarth rej>resented the
church, now a parish ch-ajiel, in his Uake's Progress.
(Jibbs, the architect, Giblion, the historian, Hoyle,
who wrote on games, and Charles Wesley, the
liymn-writ<!r, ni.ay be mentioned as having liveil or
died in the iiarish. Besiiles these, we must not
omit the Harley family ami their famous colli'ction
of MS.S. now in the liritish Museum ; Oxford
Street is called after E<lward Harlev, second Earl
305
of (Jxford and Mortimer, who manned the Holies
heiress.
North of St Marylebone is Hamjistead (q.v.),
with its splendid open heath, some parts of
which are as much as 4."i(t feet above the sea.
Paildington lies wholly westward of the Edg-
ware Hoad. It was early divided into two manors,
I'adilington and Westbournc, the latter named after
a little stream the origin.-tl soiiice of the Serpentine,
lioth belonge<l to Westminster .\bliey, t>nt the
eastern manor having been appropriated to the
■ bishojiric of Westminster, with most of the
other estates of that short-lived see, went to the
see of London, while Westbourne is still the ]>ro-
perty of the abbey. There is little of intc>rest in
either clivision. The threat Western Kaihvay and
its terminus cover a large part of both, olilitcrating
Westbourne (ireen where ills Sidilons once liveil.
A small part of Kensington (Jardens is in ^\■est-
l)0unie, and in the adjoining manor is a cemetery
which belongs to St George's, Hanover Square, and
contains the grave of Lawrence .Sterne.
Westward of Kensington (i|.v.) is Hammersmith,
.a populous suliurb, taken out of Fulham, which
reaches down to the Thames, ami forms the western
extremity of the county. A very interesting church,
St Paul's, built here in 1631 by Sir Nicholas Cris]ie,
has recently been pulldl down, ami a new church
of great size, but otherwise unworthy of the site,
has been built in its jdace. It is designed in a
mock-Gothic style. In a better style are some
nunneries and other institutions nf the Koman
Catholics.
Fulham boasts of an ancient church and of the
so-called 'palace 'of the bishops of London. The
manor which is, or was, conterminous with the
parish, has Ijeen the jnnperty of the see from time
iinmemoiial, and remains the one residential estate
of the Ipishoji. The house, which lias sometimes
been described as the ohlest inhabited house in
England, surrounds a courtyaril. A chapel, conse-
crated by liishop (afterwaril Archlushop) Tail in
1867, is adjoining the house in the grounds. The
exterior is unnecessarily ]ilain, but the interior is
handsome. The house contains a hall built by
Bishop Fletcher ( lo95), and the arms of Bishoji Fitz-
james (dieil l.")22) are in the conrtyanl and in the
garden, which lies veiy low but contains many tine
trees and shrubs. Tlie church of Fulham is very
plain but contains a few line monuments. In the
churchyard are the graves of eight bishops. Close
to them is a tomb which bears the name of Theodore
Hook (died 1841), who had a house, now removed,
in the village. Of late years the numerous pleasure-
grounds and open spaces of Fulham have lieen
covered with second-class hotises, and we have but
.scanty remains of Parson's Green, North EmI, and
other cla-ssical localities. Chelsea (q.v. ) adjoins
Fulham.
Crossing the Thames, we reach that ]iart of
Surrey which h.as lieen incluiled in the new county,
liatterse.a is cliielly remarkalile now for the beauti-
ful park, oiiened in IfS.VJ, close to which was the
residence ot Henry St .lohn, Viscmint Bolingbroke
(died 17.>1 ). Westward of Baltersea is Wands-
worth, south of it is Clapbam, and beyoml that
Peuge, in which is the Crystal Palace, usually
called from the neighbouring Sydeidiam. .\11 these
are covered with streets, iiitcrspcrsi'il here ami
there with villas. Kennington, thesite of a manoi
house of the jninces of Wales, Brixton a little
farther scnith, and Niu"wood, on the summit of the
.southern line of hills which enclose what is called
the London Basin, come next, and the manor of
Lambeth faces Westminster. The archbishops at
lirst renteil the house from the see of Kochesler, on
account, no doubt, of its convenient situation.
They linally acquired it by exchange in ll'.Ui. The
706
LONDON
clcmiestic ]iarts of tlie liouse .are iiiodein, but the
fli;i]M'l \v:i.- Imill :ili(mt 12.30, tlie 'Ijiillanb' Tower,'
144(1, the ^'ateway, 1490, anil the hall, now the
lihrary, in 16G3. There are many beautifiil MSS.
anil rare printed hooks in the lihrary. The assooi-
atiims of Laniheth with the greatest men in
Kn;.'laiiil are too nunierons to he iletaileil here, Imt
wo may remember that llisho]! I'arker (ilietl 1575)
is Imrieil in the ehajiel, anil tliat this was the scene
of More's refusal to accept the kinjj's supremacy.
St Mary's parish chnrch is close to the -late ami
contains monnments of archbishops IJancroft, '
Tenison, ami Seeker. Two moilern buildings are
very conspicuous at Lambeth — Doulton's terra-
cotta factory, sonth of the palace, and St Thomas's
llos|iital, which unl'orliinately faces the Hoitses of
Parliament, havinj; been removed to this site in
IS71 to make way for London Bridge station. The
architecture is unusually ngly, even in London.
l'"rom this point eastward to Southwark (see
above) the low peninsula, formerly submerged at
every high tide, is occupied «ilh mean streets and
lanes, and with great -warehouses, stores, and
wharves ; the only point of interest being that on
which Shakespeare's Hankside Theatre tlio Globe
stood. 'J'he apjiroaclies to Waterloo ISridge prob-
ably cover the site. Eastward of Southwark are
Berniondsey, where a tine and famous alibey
nourished liefore tlie Reformation, of which nothing
remains, and Kotherhithe, at an abrupt bend of
the Thames. Both districts are densely covered
with factories and labourers' dwellings. Farther
inland and to the southward are Newington,
Walworth, the immense parish of Camberwell, with
Dulwich College and picture-g.allerv, and Peckham.
.All are densely populated, but present few objects
of .antiquarian or picturi'sque interest.
Eastward of Canilierwell we enter those p.arishes
which are taken from Kent. They comprise Lewis-
ham, a good part of which is still open ; Deptford,
(ireenwich, and Woolwich, which includes some
tields on the north side of the Thames. There are
many interesting sites in this district. At Dejit-
ford was Sayes Court, which John Evelyn lent to
Czar Peter ;" Eltliam Palace, with its ancient hall,
built by Edward IV.: the Woolwich Academy, for
Koyal Engineers and Artillery : and Creenwich
(q.v.), with its magnilicent hospital and its p.ark.
and the observ.atory from which we and most
civilised nations reckon longitude.
The commerce of the vast area thus briefly de-
scribed is in great part carried on in the City ; but
the best retail shiqis .are in the Strand, Itegent
Street, and Bond Street. The statistics of the
cattle-markets are published at intervals, and show
a constantly increasing demand and supply. The
tonnage of the ixnt now exceeds 6 millions, and
the total trade e.xceeds 226 millions sterling. The
rateable value of the whole county, including the
city, amounts to over 30 nuUions sterling. The
annual consumption of food includes 2 million
quarteis of wheal, 400.000 oxen, l,.'iOO,000 sheep.
8 million head of poiiltiy, 400 million pounds of
lish, .500 million oysters, 180 million iiuarts of beer,
8 million qu.irts of spirits, and .'{() million quarts of
wine, besides coal to the amount of (i million tons.
The following tables show some London statistics :
POP. IN V.\RIOU.S A1!E.\S IN 189L
Acres. P.ip.
Citv of Lonilon 868 37,094
County of I.oinloii( with City) 75,442 232,118
London School Hoard District • ,.
ReKistrav-gcniirar.s Tables of Mortality.. 7.1,334 4,211,0,%
Metropolitan and City Police Districts.. 441, iJ5'.) 5,633,332
London within the Kegistr.ar gener.al's district :
( 1801 ) !r)S,8(i:f ; ( 1S41 ) 1.948,417 ; ( ISOl )2,0.S3,9S9 ;
(1871 i:i,2.'>4,2()0; ( 1881 ) .S,81ti,4s:! ; ( 1S91 ) 4,21 l,0."iU.
Uatable value within .Metroiiolis Management
Act: (1859) £12,045,476; (1869) £16,2.')7,643 ;
(1879) £23,960,109; ( 1889) £31,592,387. Miles of
streets : ( 1801 ) 470 ; ( 1821 ) 610 ; ( 1841 ) 905 ; ( 1861 )
1290; ( 1881) 1740. Houses: (1801 ) 130,000; (1881)
520,000.
IiuporU of Foreign
and
Produce of United
Foreign Aud Colonial
C'otoufat MenrhHIkdUe.
Kingdom exiwrted.
Produce exported.
1885.
. . £132,699.036
£,50,517,252
£34,845,773
1886.
. . 128,008,767
46,126,495
34,456,430
1887.
.. 129,430,751
46,023,152
35,339.715
18SS.
. .. 13.S,1S3,4(>6
60,211,258
37,572,768
1895.
. . . 145,047,445
44,613,355
35,057,5211
The customs revenue was: (1865) £10,942,913;
(1885) £10,584,956; (1895) £9,479,788 (as ag.aiust
£3,0.30,405 at Liverpool). The total foreign trade
of London is over a fourth of th.at of the I'niteil
Kingdom, and is to that of Liverpool as £225,000,000
is to .£187,000,000, For some industries Loudon is
more important than any other town in the
kingdom. In 1891 there were 83,448 dressmakers,
milliners, &c., in London, 52,346 tailors, 35,009
printers, and 31, ,867 cahinelmakers.
The death rate of London in 1855 wa-s 24'3 per
1000 ; in 1881-90 it was 21 -4 ; it is now little over
17. In London in 1891, 65 per cent, of the popu-
lation were London born, and there were 59,390
]ier.sons of Scottish birth, .and 66,465 of Irish birth.
Of 95,053 foreigners, 26,920 were German, 12,034
Russian, 14,708 Polish, 10, .366 French, 5138 Itali.au,
4903 American (U.S.). 42.S9 Dutch, 3041 Austrian,
2244 Spanish, 2044 Belgi.an, 1432 Swedish, 1011
Norwegian, 827 Danish.
See Stow's .S'uri'c/y (1599); Maitland's fi't'ston/ (1756);
Newcourt's Rei>ertorium (2 vols. 1708); Cunningham's
Handhonk (1849; new ed. by AVheatley, 3 vols. 1891);
Wharpe's London and the KintHlum (1894); Paul's
Vanishing London (1896); Thome's Environs (2 vols,
1877); 'VTalford's Greater London (2 vols. 1885);
Baedeker's Htimlhonk (1,'<89); Button's Litrrarii Land-
marks (4th ed. 18.S8); CasseU's Old and A'cic London
( 6 vols. 1887 ) ; Loftie's /.o/k/oh (1890); the larger ( 1892)
and smaller ( 1893) works by \V. Besant ; and many local
histories. See also the following articles in this work :
I
naiiking.
liiidge.
British Museum.
I'haiierliouse.
rii.-lsi-a.
I'tirist's Hospital.
Club.
Covent Garden.
Deptford.
Dock.
Fire.
Fleet Prison.
Greenwich.
GuiM.
Hanipstead.
Hospitals.
Immigration.
Kensington.
Kew.
King's College.
Mint.
National Gallery.
Newgate.
Newsiiapcrs.
Obelisk.
Parliament.
Poliee.
Koyal Acadclny.
Uoyal Woriety.
Sydenham.
'IVniple liar.
Thames.
Tlieatre.
Water.supply.
Westminster.
Woolwich.
This title was
l.oiulon, Univeksitv of.
originall.v assumed by the non-sectarian institution
afterwards known as I'niveisity College, London,
the line building of which, situated in Gower
Street, W.C., was opened in the autumn of 1828.
The functions of the college were conlined to teach-
ing ; but in 1834 its promoters ap]ilied to the
government of the ihiy for power to grant degrees.
.Meanwhile, King's College (q.v.) had been founded
by .adherents of the Church of England: and it
seemed not improbable th.at other colleges of
similar character would be (as indeed they were)
established. If, therefore, the degree-giving power
li.ad been accorded to Iniversity College, there
would have been no excuse for refusing it to Kings
and other colleges. Hence, to avoid the multipli-
cation of little universities, the government fe-
solved to institute a body which should examine,
but not teach, leaving the colleges to teach, but
not examine— at lea.st, not for degrees. A charter
constituting such a body ( the University of London )
was issued by the crown on November 28. 1836,
and this charter was up to that of 1S63 (valid till
11)110) followed by four other.s, as well as by two or
three supplemental charters, varying the consti-
tution or extending the powers of the university.
LONDON
707
For the first twenty-two years of its existence the
university comprised («) the yoverninj,' body, or
senate, made up of a ("hanccUor, a Vice-chancellor,
and thirty-six ' Kellows ; ' ami (6) tlie athliated col-
lejjes and medical scliools. At lirst University
and Kini^'s were the only alliliatcd collej^es ; but in
twenty years the number of the arts ci>lle^es had
<;rown to about lifty, and of tlie medical schools to
nearly twice ;i.s many ; and of each class only a
small minority were in London. Almost a revolu-
tion in the university was ert'ecled by the charter
of 1858 (of which the charter, dateil 18ti3, iuid in
force till 190U, was an amended form). I'revionsly
candidates for decrees in arts, althou^di they might
matriculate from aii\ where, had been required to
l)roduce a certilicate of two years' study at an
atliliatecl collej;e ; but now this reiiuirement was
abolished, and cainlidates mij;lit acquire their
knowled<;e when, where, and as they chose. The re-
<|uirenients from medical candiilates, however, were
not relaxed, and imleed were subsequently made
more stringent. The same charter also introduced
the graduate body, under the title of 'convocation,'
into the constitution ; and all masters of arts, all
<loctors, and all bachelors of a certain standing,
upon payment of a trilling fee, became memliers of
i-onvocation. This body became the parliamentary
<;onstituency. Again, this charter instituted the
.Science faculty : and it took away from the fellows
the power (which some of them had exerci.sed) of
acting iis examiners. The chief organic changes
between 1S5S and 1899 were the institution of
degrees in music and the opening of the university
to women. The latter change was a gradual pro-
cess : at first women were admitted to a series of
special examinations under a supplemental charter
of 1867 : but uniler a later supplemental charter
(1878) all the examinations and degrees, and all
the exhibitions, scliolarships, prizes, and medals
were thrown open to them upon precisely the .same
conditions as to men. The held covered by the
operations of the university nuiy be described as
imperial rather than local. Its charter declares it
to have been founded for the l>enetit of all classes
and denominations of Her .Maji'>ty's faithful sub-
jects, without any di>lin<:tion whatsoever, both in
the United Kingdom and elsewhere. In conformity
with the character thus profe.s.sed, certain examina-
tions were to be held at numerous provincial centres
ill Great Britain and at a few colonial centres.
Hut the university itself originateil none of these ;
they were instituted only upon the application of
recognised authorities at the .several centres.
Tlds very feature, however, and the <letachment
of the university from the otice attilialed colleges,
were the immeiliate cause of a lively .agilatioii for
a 'Teaching I'niversity ' for Londim, which s]irang
up in 1884, and led to negotiations which in liHK)
issued in the reconslitution of the university.
The senate in 1887 made some con<;essions, but
rejected the claim of the colleges to be represented
at its own board. University and King's Colleges,
in comliination, thereupon petitioned the Pdvy-
council for a university charter of their own : while
the Koyal ('olleges of I'hysicians anil Surgeons,
also in combination, petiii<nied for the power of
granting degrees iti metlicrine cuily. To investigate
the merits of the points at issue, a Koyal Com-
mission was appoinleil in the spring of 1888. The
report of the conimi.ssiou, issued in May 1889, ])ro-
poundeil a scheme for the reorganisation of the
university which otlered harsher terms to the senate
than tho.se that were rejected in 1M87, without,
however, satisfying tin- two great London collegi^s.
The senate therefore reopened negotiations with
these colleges, and otlered still nnin; extensivt; con-
cessions than those prescribed by the commission.
The University of London Act of 1898 made pro-
vision for its reconstitution as a teaching body, and
for the appointment of a commission, whose statutes
for the reorganisation and regulation of the uni-
ver.sily received the royal sanction in 1900. The
senate now consists of a chancellor, a cliairnum of
convocation, and lifly-four persons nominated by
the crown, by convocaticm, by University College,
Kings College, the Itoyal Colleges of Physician.s
and Surgeons, Lincoln's and (iray's Inns, and the
Inner and jNIiddle Temples, by the Incorporate<l
Law Society, and the ( luilds Institute. Convocation
consists of the chancellor, the vice-chancellor, all
members of the three standing ccnnmittees of the
senate not already on convocation, and the regis-
tered graduates. .Members of convocation, not
being women or otherwise disqualilied, constitute
the parliamentary cimstitneucy (4000 in number).
Instead of four there are now eight faculties — ■
Theology, Arts, Laws, Music, Me<licine, Science,
Engineering, and Economics and Political Science.
The faculties consist of university teachers, nomi-
nated by the Koyal Commission, appointed by the
university, aiul admitted by the senate. The
schools of the university in 1900 were in the several
faculties, or in one or more faculties : University
College and King's College, in London, for all the
faculties ; Hackney College, New College ( H.unp-
stead ), Regent's Park College, Cheshunt College,
the Richmond Wesleyan College, and the London
College of Divinity in theology ; Holloway College
and Bedford College in arts and science; the Royal
College of Science in its one faculty ; the South-
eastern College of Agriculture at Wye ; the medi-
cal schools of St Bartholomew's, the London, (hiy's,
St Tlionias'.s, St George's, the Middlesex, St Clary's,
Charing Cross, and Westminster Hospitals, and
the London School of Medicine, for women ; the
Central Technical College of the City and (Juilds
of Lomlon Institute in engineering ; the London
School of Economics and Political Science in that
faculty. The Royal College of Music and the
Royal Academy of !Music were not willing to be-
come a school of the university save on inadmis-
sible conditions : the commissioners therefore ex-
cluiled al.so Trinity College and the (iuild Hall
School of Music, but recognised teachers of the
three first- mentioned institutes as teachers of the
university. They regretted that, guided by the
Gresham Commission, they felt precluded from re-
cognising the training colleges of London and its
neighbourhood, as giving too much piominence to
elementary teaching and to training for eh-mentary
teaching. Boards of studies consisting of teachers
of the university and others are appointed by the
senate to deal with groups of subjects. Thirty-two
boards were provided for. The series of examina-
tions f<u- both sexes begins with matriculation,
from which IhiMe is no exemption. Numerous ex-
hibitions and other prizes are open to competition
ammig honours camlidates at many of the exam-
inations. The regnlalioirs for these examinations
and all bylaws are laid ilown by the senate, often
u|)on the recommendation of colleges, examiners,
or convocation ; but no such rules are valid until
they have been approved by the Home Secietary.
The growth of the university, at least in point of
numbers, was rapiil, es|iecially after IS.'iS. In 1838
there were "j;! candiilates for matriculation, of whom
22 jiassed ; in I8.")8 there were 299 candidates, of
whom 249 ]ia.sseil ; in 189') there were .S420 candi-
dates, of whom 1710 passed; and the increase in
the higher examinations ha.s been on a similar
scale. For the liist thirty years the university had
no fixed abode; but in 1808 the government ordere<l
the erection of a new building, specially for it,
in ISiirlington Gardens, W. ; this was completed,
opened by the l^neen, and occuiiied in 1870. In
1900 arrangements were made and sanctioned by
708
LONDON
LONDON PRIDE
tlie Treasiiiv for lioiisim; the iie«ly ie(>r^:aiiisiHl
tliiiversity in parts of the liuililiiigs of tlie liii]ierial
Institute at South Kensiiijjton. As the university
was the ehild of tlie j;overnnieul of 1X3(5, holh that
anil sneceediiij; rrovernnieiits ieco;.'nise(l the iluly of
sii|i]>orlin^' it; ami year liy year an estimate of
expenses has lieeii hiiil before ]iarliamenl, ami
covered liy a vote. On the other hand, all the
receipts from fees have been elaimed by tlie
Kxeluvjiier ; but up to the year ISTfi these searcely
equalled a third of the total cost of the university.
Owinfc, however, to the increase in the nnmlier of
candidates, the fees recei veil in 1SS!I{ nearly fl.'i.Odll)
more than covered the whole vote for workinj; ex-
penses, leaving the Treasury chaij;eable with the
costs of the Iniililing. stationery, i^tc, altogether
equal to perhaps another £8000. The grant in
180il 1900 was £18,840.
rxiVEIiSITV Coi.LEcE, at the time of the re-
constitution of the university, had in its fa<-uUies
of arts and laws, and of science, forty-four jirofessoi-
ships, and in that of medicine twenty more. Its
governing bodies, under president and A'ice-presi-
deiit, are a council and a senate — the latter com-
])rising all the professor.s. King"s College (q. v.) is
the subject of a sejiarate article.
On the reconstituted university see besides the Calendar*
tlie reports of the Commission, and the statutes. Professor
Karl Pearson's The New ITniifrsitii of Lnmiim (18!)3),
di.scussiiij^ the various schemes till tlien projtosed.
liOlldoil. a city and port of entry, capital of
Middlesex county, Ontario, is situated at the junc-
tion of the two branches of the Thames, 116 miles
by rail S\V. of Tcuonto. It is a handsome city,
regularly built, and contains many line buildings;
anil the aim of its founders is visible in the names
of the principal streets— I'all Mall, Oxford Street,
Piccadilly, Cheapside, iV-e. — as well as of the river,
«lii(di is crossed by a Westminster and a Hlack-
friars liridge, and of the Covent (iarden Market,
Hyde I'ark, and St Paul's Cathedral. The centre
of a rich agricultural district, and connected by
railway with all parts of Canada. London carries
on an extensive traile in the produce of the country ;
while it has also large iietrcdeum relineries, and
many foundries, mills, tanneries, and other manu-
factories. It has several colleges (including the
\Vesterii University) of gooil standing, lunatic and
orphan asylums, a convent, and a hospital ; and
its white sulphur-springs attract many invalids.
Londiui is the seat of Anglican and Itoman
Catholic bisho]is, and returns one member to
parliament and one to the provincial legislature.
Pol), (issl ) l!l,74(i: ( 1891) 31, OUT.
LoihIoii <'lay. See Eixkm: Sv.stem.
LoildtMldorr.V, a maritime county of the pro-
vince of lister, in Ireland, 40 miles long by 34
broad, is bounded N. by the .Atlantic, and elsewhere
bv -Antrim, Lough Neagh, Tvnuie, and Donegal.
Area, 816 sq. m. l'<q). (1841) 222,174: (1861)
184,206; (1881) 164,001 : (1801) l.VJ.OOO, of wli.nii
67,748 are Catholics, 48,!).'{6 Picsbyleri.ins. and
27.730 are Protestant E]iiscop:ilians. The sur-
face list's the farther one travels inland, .Mount
Sawell, on the southern border, being 2236 feet
high. The coastline (.'50 miles long) is generally
bolil ami jneeiiiitons ; lint tin- shore of Lough Koyle
is in most places an unvarying jdain, large tracts
having been reclaimeil. The river 15anii from
Lough Xeagh forms part of the eastern border of
the county. The river Koyle intersects its western
extremity. The prin(i|ial crops are oats, potatoes,
llax, and turniiis. Thirty -seven jier cent, of the
area is permanent gnuss, and a huge proportion of
the cultivated soil is meadow land and clover.
Linen (shirt-making) is the staple industry.
The lislierles, both oil' the coivst and in the
rivers aiul lakes, are valuable. The county
returns two members to parliament, and the
county town, Londonderry (q.v.), returns one.
The other towns are Coleraine and Limaviuly.
The county owned in ancient limes the sovereignty
of the (CNeil sept. It was subjected to English
authority in the end of Elizabeth's reign. In 1600
the confiscated estates of the native Irish chieftains
were granted by the crown to the ccuporation of
London, the management being vested in the Irish
Society, a body twenty -six in number, electeil by
the common council, one-half retiring each year.
Portions of the cininty were assigned to twelve of
the livery ciuiijianies. At tliei)resent time the Irish
Society anil half a dozen of the Lmidon companies
own more than one-fourth of the entire county ; but
several of these last, notably the Drajiei's' Company,
have .sold their estates to the occupying tenants
under the .\slibourne Act.
LoihIoiuIc rry. or Dekrv, a city, seaport, and
parliamentary bonnigh in the north of Ireland, is
situated on an eminence overlooking the ri\er
Foyle, 3 miles from its month and 18 miles from
the entrance to Lough Kovie, bv rail 163 miles
NNAV. of Dublin and 95 NW. of Helfast. Pot..
(18.51)19,888; (1871)24.242; (1881)29,162; (1891>
33,200. Loiidondeny grew up round a monastery
fiumdeil here in o46 by St Colnmba. It was fre-
quently held by the Danes from tlie 9tli to the 11th
century. The town formed part of the escheated
territory granted to the London companies, and
under their management rose to some im]iortance,
and was strongly fortified. In the Irish war of
the Hevolution thirteen Londonderry a]ipientices
closed its gates against James 11. ; and the towns-
ftdk. sliimting 'No surrender,' manned the w;ills.
The 105 days' siege that then ensued, from April
to August 1689, is one of the most celebrateil
events in Irish history, and its memories are aimmg
the most Stirling causes of party animosity. The
walls still surround a part of the town one mile in
circunifeience, but now the greater part of the cit.v
lies outside them. The four main streets diverge
from a square in the centre of the city calleil the
Diamond. The left bank of the river is connected
by an iron bridge, 1200 feet in length, with an
extensive suburb called Waterside. The Protestant
cathedral dates from 1633 ; it was restored in 1886.
A handsome Homan Catholic cathedral, the court-
house, guildhall (erected in 1890 at a cost of
t'20,000), harboiir-ottices, post-office. custom-lMUise,
and banks are the other idiief buildings of note.
The histmical events of the siege are ciiiimemorated
by a triumidial arch -one of the gates of the city
— erected in 1789 and a column in honour of the
Hev. George Walker, w ho was governor of the city
and the soul of the defence. The Presbyterian
theological Magee College was fnnndeil in ISii.').
The industrial establishments include linen (shirt-
making) factories, distilleries, iron-foundries. Hour-
mills, and shipbuilding-yards. There are valuable
salmon-lisheries in Lough Eoyle. The harbimr is
ilecp, extensive, and safe. The great Atlantic
liners (Allan, Anchor, and State) stop at the
entrance to Lough Eoyle both in going to ami
coming from .America. The im|ioits (which in-
clude grain. Hour, timber, and spirits) reach an
annual aver.ige value of £76,480 ; the exports,
chietly agricultural jiroduce, vary in value from
l'6(KI0 to £3.')0 annually. This is exclusive of an
extensive coiusting trade. Londonderry returns
one member to the House of Commons. See
■)ohn Hempton's Siege ami Jlistury uf Lontlomlerry
(1861 ).
LoiuloiHlorry, M.Mii;i'is ok. See Ca.sti.k-
liEAi.ll.
London I'ridf. See Saxifkaoe.
LONG
LONGEVITY
709
LoilS* Loi'll. !i lieautifiil Scottish sea-locli,
striking' otl' from the KiitU of I'lydi'. 17 iiiih's north-
iiortli-ejvstwaril between the eounties of Arfiyll aiul
I)iniiliarton. ami 3 lurlon<,'s to 2 miles liroail. It
semis oH" Loch Coil (i|.\. ) : is llanUeil tiy stee]) anil
faiitiustie miiuiitains, 'J()00 feet liifili : and at Arroehar,
near its head, a|i])roaches to within Ijf mile of
Tarhet on Loeh Lomond. A railway from Helens-
Imrgh to Fort William, eommenced in 1SS9, skirts
its eiistern shore. Since 18G2 the loeh lia.s been
Hiefiled with the dredjriiigs from the Clyde at the
rate of I ,'Jo(),000 tons a year.
LoilS. (iKouc.E. scholar, was Imni at I'oulton,
Lancashire. 4th November 1800, and from Maccles-
tielil went nji in ISIS to Trinity Collejre, Cambridge.
In IS'il he was bracketed with Maiden ami
Macanlay for the Craven scholarshij) ; in IS'2'2
<.'raduated as a wrangler and senior Chancellor's
medallist, and in 1823 was made Kcllow of his
<'ollege. In 1824 he accepted the chair of .Ancient
Languages in the university of Virginia, United
States; btit he returned to England in 1828 to
becmne (Ireek |>rofes,sor in London I'nivei'sity.
Subse<)uently, at different perioils of his life,
lie taught iis |irofes.sor of Latin at Universit.v
<'<dlege, London ( 1842-46). reader in jurisprudence
and civil law to the Miildle Temjile (1846 40 », and
<lxssical lecturer at Hrigbton College (1849-71).
He had a share in founding the Koyal (Jeograpliical
S<K-iety (1830). and from 1831 took an active
interest in the Society for the Ditlnsion of I'seful
Knowledge, writing books for its library and
editing its Jiiiiniul nf Eihirrttimi. I>ut the /iiiif/mim
o/iits of his life was the editing (183:j-46) of the
I\-iiiitf i'tirhipd'tHii, to which he was one of the
most valuable conlrilmlors. Besides this he eilited
the liioijiiijiliinil DirliiitKirji (1842-44), Knight's
Politiriii DiitioiKirii { 1845 46 ), the excellent liih/io-
tlierit C/(iistrii series, and many admirable versions
■of cla.ssic anthoi-s. He also translated Selections
J'lom Pliildieh's /.irex. Thoughts of M. Aurelitis
(1862), and fUseoiirses of E/iictetii.s (1877). con-
tributed extensively to Smith's Cliussical diction-
aries, ami wroti' fln/iiir of the Itoiuan JtepiiUir in
5 vols. He ilied lOtli August 1879.
Luilgail {ycjiheliiiin Loniinii ), one of the finest
•of fruits, of the same genus with the Litchi (q-v. ),
but reckoned superior to it.
Loim Braiiril. a fashionable bathing-place of
New Ji-rsey. on the .\tlaiitic Ocean, some 30 miles
S. of New York lity and 13 S. of Sanily llook.
Here are many costly 'cottages,' occupieil only in
i^nmnjer. Pop. 7231.
liMimcliailip. the racecoui'se, lying on the
south-wot side of the Bois du Boult)gne, on the
west of Bans, where tlii' race for the (h-diiil I'rlx is
run. It was formerly the custom fiu' the great
fidk of Paris to drive out in this direction, as far
as the old nunnery of Longcliamp ( founded in 1260),
during the week prece<ling Kiistcr.
Lwilifl'liailip. Wii.i.rAM |)K. a Norman of low-
birth, and a favourite of King IJichard I. The
latter, on his acces.sion, maile Longcliamp Bislion
of Kly, and in 1 l!K) joint-justiciar of Knglaml with
Hugh de Piidsey ; in nil] he was likewise maile
papal legate. But his ambition, bis .■irrog.iiice, and
liis unpopular mannei-s, combined wiib bis oppres-
sive taxation, made him greatly disliked, and
Itichard wa-s obliged to send him back to Nor-
iimiidy.'" He regaineil the royal favour by bis
energy in raising the king's ransom ; his reward
oaiiie in the appointment of chancellor. He died
in 1197, having been overthrown by the parties
of .John, (leotl'rey Plantageni't, the Barons, and
AValter de Coutances, some time before. He <lis-
liked till- Knglish, and disphiveil his contemiit for
them in llie coarsest way, declaring thai he ilid not
understand their language and would not speak it.
Nevertheless be \v,as a clever and energetic ruler,
administered strict justice, and was faithful to his
|)rince. .See the French monogra]ih by L. Boiviii
Cbamjieanx (Evreux, 1886).
Loilg«'vit>'. A term which in popular usage
has come to mean great length of life instead of
merely length of life : therefore, after a discussion
of centenarianism, will follow a short account of
the general theory.
The wide-spread belief that there are cases on
record of persons living to the age of l.M) or even
200 years, and that centenarians are iiuiiierons, is
owing to a general love of the marvellous backed
by superstition, and also to the fact that noteil
writers, such as Haller the physiologist, accepted
and reasoned u])(m many such stories. But in 1862
Sir G. C. Lewis wrote in Notes and Queries an
article in which lie professed disbelief in any case
of a life exceeiling 100 years ; he pointed out that
neither the peerage and baronetage nor the books
of insurance companies contained any evidence of
such, and further that the current stories were
nearly all of persons of humble rank, careless of
registration, so that their statements could not he
verilied. This led to great coiTespon<leiice in Xotes
anil Queries and elsewhere : the editoi , Mr Thonis,
took the matter up, went into it with great care,
and compiled his work on longevity which is
authoritative. He examined many stories of very
ancient pei-sons, showing them to be baseless: while
as to stock historical cases of Thomas Parr, Henry
Jenkins, and the Countess of Desmond, reputed to
be 152, 169, and 140 respectively, he found th.-it
there was no satisfactory evidence. For .lenkins
there was none save his own assertion. Parr was
before his death a celebrity, the poet Taylor wrote
his life with numerous dates of various events, and
Harvey in bis post-mortem report repeats the popu-
lar hearsay — this is all the eviilence to be found.
As to the' Countess of Desmond. Mr Thonis gives
conclusive reasons for believing that the stories
from which her age is deduced really relate to two,
if not three, ladies of that title.
The evidence which is often said to exist in the
registers has been proved in many eases to refer
to two pei-siuis of the same name : and in one
noted c.Tse, Carr of Sluueditch, said to be 207, the
2 wa.s found to have been written upon the top
of 1. As to tombstones, the age .309 in one ca.s('
being certainly some village chiseller's manner of
writing 39, will serve as an example. In fact,
a review of the evidence shows that while Lewis
was right in renouncing his contention that no
certain instances of a greater age than 100 existed,
a belief in lives of l.'iO years is no longer imssible.
It remains to add that there is no scientilic evidence'
to su]iport the belief that the length of human life
was once much greater than it is in modern times,
nor the converse opinion that the length of life has
been increasing since the Psalmist cited it at three-
score and ten. All that we certainly know is that
in civilised countries the average length of life has
been for many obvious reasons emphatically on the
iiicrciuse for se\ eral centuries.
There is another i|uestion of common interest :
How shall we live to attain great age? There have
lieen many teachers with many fads; but from the
varieil modes of life of those who have liveil long
it is jirobable that as no amount of fee<ling will
make a man tall who is destined to lie short, so no
amount of care will prolong the life of one destined
Iodic young. St .Antony lives a life of excessive
austerity and he dies at 105. Titian is all his
life about a court and he paints a line picture at
ninet.y-si.x.
Statistics have been accumulated, and such
general facts a.s that married people live longer
710
LONUEVITY
LONGFELLOW
tlinn iiniiiaiTieil, that women live longer tliaii iiioii. '
anil tliat tlie clergy have loiijjer lives than othei-
))iofessi(inal men have heen estalilislu'd : hut
(leduitions from facts such as these are unsafe in
the present state of scieuce — the whole suhject is
too complex.
Turning now to the general question of the
length of life of plants ami animals, we inay
notice at the outset that the unicellular organisms
cannot and ilo not die after the fivshion of those
ill which death seems to be the necessary p'ice paid
for a ' hody ; ' that increase of intelligence natur-
ally tends to lengthen life ; that perfecting of the
reproductive processes has the same result ; that
many males live much longer than their mates,
and so on. More than one popular adage makes
size the criterion of longevity, but it is at most a
partial factor; for wlule an elephant lives '2()() years
and a mouse only 6, carp and pike may attain the
age of the former, and one of Sir John Lubbock's
queen ants surpassed the mouse by almost 9 years.
A horse often lives 40 yeai-s, but the donkey may
exceed this, while lioth are o\itstripped by the
gohlen eagle (CO), by an almost centenarian captive
raven, by a toad, or even by Sir .John DalyeH's
sea-anemone 'Grannie,' which, after its removal
from the Firth of Forth, lived in an aquarium
for .59 years— from 1828 till 4th August 1887.
Flourens supposed that the length of life was live
times the period of growth, but this does not hold
even approximately for the majority of animals.
Rapidity of life is another factor; thus the sluggish
amphibian is lung-lived, and trees may survive over
2000 years, in contrast to the transient life of many
of our rapidly growing, brightly Howering anrnials,
or the yet more ephemeral existence of many in-
tensely "active insects. But on the other hand ants
and bees often live for many years, and some of the
most active birds attain a great age. According to '
SVeism.ann, ' Duration of life is really dependent
upon adaptation to external conditions ; its length,
whether longer or shorter, is governed by the needs
of the species, and is determined by precisely the
same mechanical process of regulation as that liy
which the structure and functions of an organism
are adapteil to their environment.' In other words,
he maintains that the duration of life is lixed |
by natural selection ; that, given the rate of
reproduction ami the average moitality, the
length of life characteristic of any species is
such that the numbers under fixed conditions will
remain constant. His essay is suggestive, but
natural selection is at present called upon to
exjdain too much : for instance, he believes that
that principle has determined that no creature sliall
long survive the period at wliich its reproductive
activity ceases ; but he does not seem to ol)serve
that a cn^ature may not have sutiicient energy for
reproduction and yet quite enough to maintain life
in an ordinary way for many years, as is notably
the co-se with women. It may be note<l that the
unicellular animals in natural conditions probably
never or hardly ever die a natural ileatli : they
may be eaten uj), but, violence apart, they are
virtually immortal ; they divide, but in this there
is no death. In fact, death probably began with
the multicellular organisms, as the price paid for a
body.
For general aspects of human longevity, see 'VV. .T.
Thonis, Lotnieviti/ of Man ; G. M. Humphrey. OhI Af/f ;
Burn IJaiU-y, Moilern Mrthusdahs. For Rcnural theory,
pee E. Kay Lankester, Comparntire Lonfftfiti/ : and
Au^st Weismann. Easnt/s vpon Hrrcditii (trans by
I*oult<)n, &c.), which contain abundant references to other
literature on the suhject. .See also Infi'sokia, PRr)To7,fi.\,
KEPItoDfCTIOX, iNsKCTs; F. Ilildebrand, /'i> /.(■'<ci(.w/''»»r,
tic. iter I'tianzai^ in Engler's Botan. Jahrfnteh, Bd. ii.
( Lei|i. 1881 ) ; and, for furtlier literature, Geddes and
Thomson, Bmliition of Sex (1889).
L(>ll£tVllu>v. Hexrv Wad.sworth, born in
rurtland. Maine, I'.S.A., February 27, 1807, and
died in t'aniliridge, Ma.ssachusetts, copj-right is* in u.s,
.March 24, 1882. He inherited the i.y J. b. Lirpincvtt
best blooil of the two Massa- '■,.ii,|«u,.v.
chusetts colonies — Pilgrim and I'uritan. His parents
were in ea-sy circunistances, and gave him the best
education which the schools of the time afforded.
At the early age of eighteen he graduated fron>
Bowdoin College in Brunswick, Maine, in the class
with Hawthorne, his life-long friend. His rank in
col'ege was lii«;h, especially in languages, ancient
and modern. His translaticms then and afterw.ird
were noted for a felicity and point ([uite beyond
the reach of ordinary scholars. In 1,820 the trustees
of the college sent him to Furojie to (|nalify for the
chair of Foreign Languages and l,iter;itnres ; and
he spent a year and three-ciuai teis with this end
in view in France, Spain, Italy, and (lermany.
After his return home he married in 1831 Miss-
Potter of Portland, who died in Rotterdam ii»
ISS."), while they were making a tour in Europe;;
she is commemorated in the touching jioeni, T/i'
Fditlstcps of An(i>is. He h.ad written poems while
at college, and published them in magazines,
cliietly in the United Stutix l.iti niry Hiizi'.ttr. His
tirst book, omitting his numerous linguistic works,^
was a version of T/ic Co/i/as nf Dmi Jorfje Max-
ritiiie, a grave and stately ]>oeiii, in itself probably
interior to Longfellow's fortunate translation.
Oiiire Mei\ an account of his liist tour, aijpeared
in 1835; and Hi/periiiii. which is a journal of a
later trip, in 1839. Moth are interspersed with
translations of German ]ioems, and both have a
permanent value as indicating the develoiunent ot*
the poet's mind and art.
In November 1831) he became jirofessorof Modern.
Languages and Literature in Harvard College, and
held the chair nearly eighteen years, being suc-
ceeded by Mr Lowell. Co/era nftln- Xitpit. his tirst
book of <iriginal verse, appeared in 18.39. This-
gave to the world a. distinctly new impression of
tenderness, manly sentiment, and melody, and tiv
the author an assured place among poets. The-
impression was deepened by the Jltil/iii/s (1841),
including 'The Skeleton in Armour.' 'The AV reck
of the Hesperus,' 'The Vill.age Blacksmith,' ' Kx-
celsior.' and others, rmiiis on !^/iiriii/ ajipearerf
in 184'2. By this he gave evidence of his moral
convictions and courage, for at that time anti-
slavery poets and oiatiu's were unpoimlar to the-
last degree. In 1843 was published T/ie Spa7iis/i
Student, a drama slight in sulistancc, but full
of movement and gaiety, and brilliant in local
cohnir.
He made a third visit to F.nmpe in 1842, and on
his return the following year was married to Miss
Frances Ajipleton of Boston, a beautiful and
accomplished woman, the mother of his live chil-
dren. He made cidlections of poems, including
some of his own transl.-itions : j'/ie !)'<((/( 1845),
'J7ie Ksli-dii ( 1847) — both now very scarce — and The
Poets (niff I'oetrii of Eniiiiir ( 184o'). This la.st is a
large and important work, in which he was aided
by his friend C. C. Felton. The Jie/fri/ of Bnieiex
and other J'oeinx i\.\il»Muetl in 1846. In the follow-
ing year he gave to the world what is ])ndjably his
most pcqiular ]ioem, Ke<ini/eline, a tale of the
French exiles of .-Xcadia, known and admired by
reailers of every degree, and translated into most
modern tongues. Opinions may dilVer as to the
use of the hexameter measure ; but, while critics-
debate, the vital interest of the |pathctic story
seizes upon all hearts. Kiimiifii/h. a juose tale,
aiqieared in 1849. The Seoxio'e iiiid the Fireside
(18.')0) contains 'The Building of the Sliip,' one of
the linest of his iioenis, which hius a great hold upon
tlie people of the I'nited States on account of the
LONGFELLOW
LONGINUS
711
i,'rainl ]ianiotie invocation with wliicli it closes.
Till' Gnhlrn Ldjetiii (\SM), liaseil upon an ancient
(iernian ballad, Dn- Amir Hiinrirli, by Haitniann
von Alio, is a striUinu' ["'em, nieilicval in tone and
well sust.iiin'd. tlionj,di not a iMastcr|nece. His
j;enius is sliown at its best, in Iliiiinithn (18r>.'i),
fonndi'il n|>on tiailitions and li'ircnds of tlio North
American Indians. The li^'ht and tiiiipiiiL; tneasure,
the sinijilicity of phiaso, and the well-calcnlated
repetitions at lirst give an ini|>ression of artlessness,
almost of baldness ; bnt whoever reads the poem
with enlighteneil eyes finds, nnder this easy flow of
j worils, a series of poetic conceptiinis, the suggestion
I of noble and enduring images, and the mastery of
just expression. 'The Courtship of Mi/es Struidi.s/i
' (18.5S)is a story in hexameters of the early days
; of tlie Plymoutli colony in Massachusetts. To the
people of New England this jioem has an inexpres-
sible charm on accmint of its liistorioal associations :
it is a mirrcn' of the life of the I'ilgiims. The story
is interesting in itself, and is told with easy grace.
The poet was descended from the Priscilla of this
poem, whose well-known question, ' Why don't
you speak for yourself, John?' i.s the keynote of
the hook. Tah.i of a H'lii/.i/'ilc Inn is a poem which
appeared in parts, in ditl'erent volumes ( 186.S, 187'2,
1874) — its plan suggested evidently by the Canter-
burl/ Tales. The Inn was in Sudbury, Massa-
chusetts, famous a century ago. and the poet has
gathered there acomp.my of well-known men whom
lie portrays, ami who in turn tell stories, some of
which are from Boccaccio and other early writers,
and some original. Floirr.r-ile-Lucc ( 1867), though
not so famous as other collections, shows in its
twelve short poems some of the poets most ex-
quisite workmanship. The New Eiuflund Tragedies
(1868), in blank ver.se, treats mainly of the Salem
witchcraft in the latter part nf the 17tli century.
The next work was a complete and faithful trans-
lation of the three parts of Dante's Divine Conicdn
(1867-70). Christ ns, a Mi/stiri/, being the gospel
story in blank verse, appeared in 1872. This was
afterwarils printed with The Golden Ler/end and
The Xen- England Tragedies consecutively. Three
Books of Song, containing the conclusion of Tales
of a Wayside Inn, Judas ]\Iarrah<nii.<<, &c. , was
published in 1872 : Aftermath, \n K'i -, The Masque
of Pandora, in 1875. This last volume contains a
poem, ' Morituri Salutamus,' written for the fiftieth
anniversary of the poet's gradualion from college.
The occa.sion, which was noticed throughout tlie
United State.s, was most imiiressive and all'ecting.
/Ccra/«os(1878) an'd Ultima Thule (1880) were the
last of the long series. No menti(m is made of
his many contributions to magazines and reviews.
Poems of Places, a collection undertaken by the
poet without too niui'h thought of the magnitude
of the tivsk, reached .'U v(dumes.
He paid a l.a-st visit to Europe in 1868-69, and was
received in England with honour and love. The
greater and most fruitful part of Longfellow's life
was passed at (,'ambridge, .Mass.achusetts, where
he lived in a stately colonial house wliicli had
been the headquarters of Washington during the
siege of Boston, ami which remains as he left it.
His striking features, his full lieard, and his
massive lieail, crowned with abundant silvery hair,
gave him a singularly noble look. He wa.s free
from the faults of many literary men — never
exhibiting envy or jealousy, and ]ireserving always
a serenity and amiability that won the hearts of
all who met him. His rel.itions with his conteiri-
|ioraries — Emerson, Hawthorne, Holuies, Lowell,
and Ag.i-ssiz — were intimate and hearty, and the
literary society in which he moved was simple
and ch.ariiiing.
He began as a translator, and in many respects
his translations were his best work. He was
! not a minute or methodical observer, but w.o-s
open to all the impressions of nature, and his
vei-se has a general rather than a particular
truth in reganl to the external world. He was
I not a profound student of human nature, and
seldom throws any startling light into its secret
rifts and contradictions ; but he knew mankind
in general, esjiecially in their tender fibres, their
j interior life of alternate hope and depression,
and in all that makes the delight of home. Of
modern jmets he is the one w ho has best ex])ressed
the feelings of natural men in reg.-ird to love and
maternity, ]ieace and goodwill, death and the
I future life. The wide gamut and ]ierfect accord of
his symjiathies have made him the poet of the
peojjle without losing the regard and the respect
of the cultiv.ated few. How large a place he fills
can best be estimated by consideiing the void that
would be left if the Voices rjf the Night, Erangeline,
and lliairatha, and the long succession of poems
could be blotted out from the memories of men.
He did not consider himself one of ' the grand old
masleis,' nor one of
the bards su1)]iiiie,
Wlinse distant footsteps' echo
In the corridors of Time.
If he was not gre.at among the half-dozen great
poets, he was amimg those who have made the
iiest use of their talents. The faculty of full and
just, as well as of delicate and suggestive expres-
sion, developed by patient study, gave to hi.s
thoughts ami sentiments a value and currency for
which greater men have sought in v.ain. After all
<leductions there remains a gre.at and almost in-
comparable treasure in his varied and beautiful
works.
Sec his Life by his brother, the Eev. 8.ainiiel Long-
fellow {o vols. l88fi-87); and the nieinorial volume
published shortly after his death by the present writer.
Loiiju; Finn. See Fr.\ud.
Loii;;ror<l. an inland county of Leinster,
Ireland, bounded on the W. by the Shannon and
on the S\V. by Lough Ree. Its maxiiiiuiu
length is 29 miles, its maximum breadth 2(1.
.-Vi-ea, 421 sq. m. Pop. (1841) 11.1.4!l[-, (ISCI)
71,604; (1881)61,009; ( 1891 ) .52,647— 01 jier cent.
Rom.an Catholics. The surface is fm- the most part
flat, and the soil on the whole fertile, though
extensive tracts of bog exist. Oats and l)otatoes
are the principal crops ; 51 per cent, of the area
is permanent grass. The ccmnty is stnddeil with
numerous small lakes, and is crosse<l by the Koyal
Canal. Marble of good quality is found. Linen
and coarse woollens aie manufacliiicd, and laige
i|uantities of butter are made. The ccninty returns
two members to p.arliament. Loiigfoul anciently
f(U'med part of the kingdom of Meatli, ami was
included in Heniy Il.'s grant to Hugh de Lacy.
It was erected into a county in 1564. The an-
tiquities are of much interest, the islands of Lough
Itee being esijccially rich in monastic remains. —
LiiXCKDiti), the county town, on the river C.-iiiilin
anil a liianch of the lio.val Canal, 76 miles N\V.
of Dublin liv rail. Its best building is the m>w
llomau Calhcdic cathedral (1840-9:1). Pop. :1.S27.
Luimilllis, Dionysus C.vssiis. a famous I'la-
tonic philosopher and rhetorician of the ltd centurv,
born at Eniesa or at .Vtliens, about 21;! A.Ii. lie
studied at .Mexandria, under .Amnionius, and he
himself taught rhetoric in .Athens, wheie the
famous I'orpliyrv w.as a pupil. Later he settled at
Palni\"i;t. and bee.'inie chief counsellor lii the
eclebniteil (jiueen Zenobja, whom he abelti'd in her
determination to shake ofl' the liomaii yoke. Kor
this he was beheaded ii-s a traitor, by comman<l of
the Emperor ,\iireli,an, 273 A.l>. The only work of
his that icniains is the famous treatise /'(•(■(' Ili/jisons
712
L,ONG ISLAND
LONG PARLIAMENT
('On the Siililiiiie '), the authenticity of which has
been iniimjincil. 'I'liere are editions hy Kj;j;er ( 1S.S7 )
and Otto Jahu (18G7). See Vancliei's AVhi/cs
criliqiics siir le Traitc tin Sublime ((leneva, 1854).
LoilS Island, an ishmd which fonus three
counties of the stale of New VorU, lioumied N. by
Lon;; l>lanil Sounil. K. and S. l)y tlie Atlantic
Ocean, and W. Iiy the Ea.st Kiver (spanned 1)y the
Brooklyn suspension liridge). It is 115 miles long,
and from 12 to 24 in width, with an area of 1(582
sq, m. On its .south shore is a series of lagoons,
the largest 40 miles long and 5 or (i wide. A line
of low hills rises in the interior to 384 feet. There
are numerous small lakes ami watercourses, and
market-gardening especially is carried on with
success — for the most part liy ( o'rnians. l>ut
much of the island is waste land or foiest, and such
po|iular watering-places as Coney Island (i|.v.) are
idanted among deserts of sand. There is still a
good deal of game, and the lisheries and oyster-
beds are very valuable. The island has nearly
100 miles of railway. The principal towns aie
Hrooklyn, Long Island City, and Flushing. Creed-
moor (ipv.) is the principal American riHerangc.
Long Island was the scene of a campaign in ITTIi,
in which Sir Hemy Clinton lin.illy ccimjielled
Washin.ulon to eviicuate the island. Pop. (1870)
.540,048; ( 1890 ) l,02n.(l!17. See Xkw 'S'uIIK.
L(>N(; I.SLANU Siirxii, lying lietween Long
Island and the mainland of New Vork and Connec-
ticut, is from 2 to 20 miles wide, ami from 75 to
about 200 feet in depth. It is navigated by an
immense number of coasting-vessels and steamers.
and receives the Thames, Connecticut, Housatonic,
and other rivers on its northern shore.
Long Island City, on Long Island, separated
from New Vork city by the East Itiver and from
Hnxdvlyn by the navigable Newtown Creek, was
formed in 1870 from live villages. It is a railway
terndnus, and has some extensive manufactories,
including oil-relineries, and carjiet and piano works.
Pop. I 1880) 17,1211; (181I0) .30,,S96.
Lon;;itud<-. See L.vtitidk.
L<»n<j:laii4l. W illi.v.m. See L.wiiL.WD.
Lon;i;nians. a well-known tirm of London
publi.vjiers, whose name has been associated with
high i-la.ss literature for five generations. Thonuis
Longman (UiilO 17.)5), descended from .a line of
Bristol merchants, was Imiinil apprentice to .lohn
Osborne, bookseller, Lomliard Street, whosedaughter
he married. The earliest tille-])age bearing the
imprint of T. Longman is the Countess of
Moreton s Daili/ E.rcrcisc (1065). The name of T.
Osborne also appears on the title. Longman bought
the business of William Taylor, |iulilisher of
Iiuhiiisiiii Vnisdf, conducted in Paternoster How.
and in 1726 moved there, the i>iesent site of
the lirm. As was the custcmi at that time, the
first Longman held shares in many imjiortant pub-
lications, such as lioyle's Works, Ainsworth's I.ritiii
Diftidiiiirji, the VijrUijxvdia of Ephraim Chambers,
and rlohnsnn's htrtionart/. His nephew and suc-
cessor Thom.'is Longm.an (17.'il 07) brought out a
new edition of Chambers's Ciirlopn-ditt. Cnder
Thomas Norton Longman (1771 1842) th<' firm
reached a high point of literary and commercial suc-
cess, anil from time to time fresh blooil was iiitro-
diieeil in the partners, Me.ssi-s Hurst, Kees, Orme,
Brown, Oreen, and Hidierts. When the govern-
ment was about to impose an additional (bity on
paper, siibsei|uent to that of 1704, the Longman
firm used such arguments as averted that calamity.
At that time the house had ne.-irly lloo.ooil surik
in various schemes. Liinlley Muriay's (•iiiuiiinir
was a good ])roperty, while the firm li.id a literary
connection with Wcudsworth. Soulhev. Coleridge,
Scott, .Moore (who received f.SOWfor j.id/d Jtoo/Ji ),
Sydney Smith, and others. Byron's Etii/Zi-sli Biiri/s
was rejected because of its severe handling of the
Lake ]>oets, whose works were issued by Longman.
After t 'onst.able's (ipv.) failure in ls2t) the J-Jt/iii-
b((iy/i Urriiw became the property of the lirm. Some
of tiie forenu)st authors of the day were contributors
to Lardner's Vubiiict Ciiclojjdiliu (1,829-46) in 132
volumes. The ne.\t guiding .s]iirits of the firm were
Thomas Longnuui (1804-79), eldest son of T. N.
Longman, who issued umler his special care a
beautifully-illustrated New Testament, and William
Longman (1813-77), the third son. The latter
figured as an author and historian, and printed
privately a Six Wirl.s Tour in Sti-it:crluiitl, con-
tributed to the A/jiiiic Joiinnd, was a president
of the Al|>ine Club, and wrote Lcrtiircs t»i the
History vf Etiqittiiil ( bS.59), Ilisfun/ of the Life and
Times of Edintnl HI. (1869), .ind Uixtoii/' of the
Three VotlietlraU of St I'util { 1873). The event
of this generation was the publication in succes-
sion of Slacaulav s Iaujs ( 1842) ami Essai/s ( 1843),
and History. Tlie famous chei|Ue for £20.000 paid
to Macaulay 'on account' of his share of the profits
of the third ami fourth volumes for the first few
months (18.55) is still i)reserved. The absorption
of the stock-in-tiade and business connection of
the Parkers in 1863 intro<liKed the works of .1.
S. ilill, Froude, aiul Sir <'ornewall Lewis. The
Trareller's Library was an excellent cheaj) serie.s.
The partners of the fifth generation are now
Thoina,s Norton Longman and (leorge lienrv
Longman, son.s of Thom:is Longman, and Charles
James Longman and H. 11. Longman, sons of
\Villiam Longman. One of the earliest ventures
of this generation was Lord Beaconslield's Eiii/y-
mion, for which they gave the author 1" 10,000.
Lord Beaconsfield's other works had come into
possession of the firm in 1870, when they published
Lotliair. Since the stoppage of Eraser's JIayazine
a si.vpenny magazine has been published by the
house— /,o«i//;(((/i.v. A paitner, Thomas Brown,
left in 1869 £10,000 each to Hut l!ooksellei>' Provi.
dent Itetreat and Institution, in which the lirm hius
since been nntch interested. In 1890 Kivingtou's
business ami stock was bought by the Longmans.
Uivington's was the only business which exceeded
that of the Limgmans in anti(|uity, and by this
j purchase a friendly rivalry of over 150 yeais came
to an end.
Long ParliaUK'nt. the mime by which the
liftb parliament summoned by Charles I. is known.
It succeeded the Short Parliament, dissolved after
three weeks, and met November 3, 1640. It began
its work by reversing all the tyrannical and illegal
acts of the i>ast eleven years, with the abolition of
the Star Chamber anil High Commission, and the
impeachment of Stiall'ord; while it secured it.self by
an act that it could not be dissolved without its
own consent. Just befoie Charles I.'s trial it was
' purged ' by Colonel Pride of 96 members displea.s-
ing to the army, and the remnant— the ' Kump ' —
continiu'd to sit until its tnembers were turned out
by the Lord (ieneral Cromwell, April 20, 1653.
The "Bumi)' was recalled by the oilicers on the
failure of Hichard Cromwell to maintain his
authority, and of the 160 members who had con-
tinued to sit after the king's death about 90
I returned to their seats. Proving once nM>re dis-
pleasing to the army, they were again turned out
liy (ieneral Lambert. Tliey were restored amid
the ilissensions of the otticers, as the only body in
the country having any kind of legal atithority,
anil, on the motion of .\shlev Cooper, the members
ejected by ' Pride's I'urge ' returned to their seats.
.•\fter issuing the writs for a new election it
I dissolved itself, March 16, 1660. Thus ended the
j Long Parliament, which, twice expelled and twice
restored, had lasted for twenty years.
LONGKIDUE
LOOCHOO
ri3
Longridst'* •' ^"'i'" iniiiiufacturin;.' town of
Laueiisliiie, tjj milt's !»■ rail NE. of I'rt'stoii, on the
>iile of the Louj;ij(lf.'e Fell, wliifli fxti-rnls .);. miles
N E. to the Uoiinilarv of Voiksliiie. Here are
I're.-ton reservoirs, ami manufaetures of roiloii
•^ooils, nails. Oi:e. Top. 4101. See Toiii (_'. Sinilli,
llitl'ny of Luntjrkliic ( 1S!S9).
Loiiuships. See SciLi.Y Islands.
LongStrt'Ot. James, an American general,
Itoru in South Carolina in IS'21, -iradnated at West
I'oint in 1842, foujilit in the Mexican war. and in
IMtil entered the ( imfederale service. He took
iiart in both bailies ui l!ull Itun, thai of Williams-
iiurg, those around Kichmond, and at Fredericks-
buri;, CiettYsburg, ('hickamauga, and the \A'ilder-
ness. Known to the soldiers jvs ' OUl Pete,' he ' was
considered the hardest lighter" in the Confederate
service. He was minister to Turkey in ISSO-Sl.
LoilgtUII. a municipal borough of Stafford-
shire, is situated at the southern extremity of
the Potteries. -IK miles SE. of Stoke-ujion-Trent,
and included within its )iarHamentary boundary.
It was incoriMiraied as a niuniciiial borough in
lS(io, and its municipal bimndaries were extended
in 188:^. The prosperity of the town is due to the
manufacture of chi-ia and earthenware, though
malting, brewing, and brick-making are also
♦■arrieil on. Close bv are ironworks and collieiies.
Pop. I 1S51 ) lo.l4'.» : ■( IS81 ) KS.O'iO ; ( 1891 ) :M,327.
Loiiguenil. Bakoxv of. See Le ^NIoyxe.
Loiiuiieville, Di"che.ss df (1619-79), the soul
4if the Fronile (ij. v. ).
LoilgWOOll. SeeSr Hki.ena.
Longwy, a sm.-ill town and fortress in the
extreme north of the French department of Meurthe-
et-Moselle, 18 miles WSW. of Luxemburg. The
fortress capitulated to the Prussians in 1792, 1815,
and 1871. Pop. 5(j().5.
Lonnrot. Ei.IAS, a great Finnish scholar and
folklorist. was born at Samnuitti in Nyland. 9th
April 1802. He studied medicine, and ])ractised
for twenty years in Kajaini, but in 1853 on Castrens
4leath succeeded to the ch.air of Finnish at Helsing-
fors, from the duties of which he retired in 1802.
He helped to fonnil the Finnish Literary Society
at Helsinglors in KS.'il. and made throughout his
life journeys through the whole of Finland, as well
as the neighbouring parts of Lapland, Hussia, and
Sweden, in order to colli'ct the remains of poetry
and tradition lingering among the [leople. The
Jirst fruit of the.se iniiuiries \\:us a collection of
more or less ancient linnish folk-songs, Kaiitc/f
<I829-.31), after which followed in 18:i5 the great
■epic of the KaUrnln. His Kmitclitiir (1840) wtis
a collection of hrical folk-poetrY : Sona/uskiijti
(1S42), of proverbs; . I /-(iv«V »/.*/«'( 1844 ; 2d ed.,
much enlarged, 18(51 ), of ridilles. No le.ss important
were the contributions to Finnish ]ihiloIogy which
bis profound knowledge of the popular dialects
♦■nabled him to make. His latest work Wius the
great Finnish Dictionary (2 vols. I8G0-80). He
died at his native place, i9tli March 1884.
Lou.s-Ic-Suiiuier, capital of the French de-
partment of the Jura, stands in a basin of the Jura
Alountains, surrounded with vine-clad hills, 42
miles by rail E. by S. of Ch.'ilonsur Saone. It
wa.s fonniled in the 4th century, when its salt-
springs were discovered ; these are still in use for
liathing, and salt Ls manufactured from them.
Mi-lons, white wine, ami mathematical instruments
are produced. Pop. (1H72) 10,(528; (1891)12.427.
li'iuget de Lisle, the author of the Miiistilkiijie,
V as lioni here.
LoO« a rouml game at cards, formerly callcil
lanterloo. .About live players make the best
j.':i!Ne. Each |iiits down a st.ike to form a //ox/ ,•
the dealer stakes ilouble. Three cards are dealt
to each ])layer as at whist, and an e.xtra hand,
called miss. The top canl of the stock is then
turned up for trumps. Each player in rotation
looks at his hanil, and ilrrUurs whether he will
jilay, resign, or take miss. If he takes miss he
must play it. The declared players i)lay one card
j each m rotation, the carils thus played forming a
I trick. The highest whist card wins, or if trumped,
the highest trump. The winner of a trick leads
to the next. The cards |ilayed remain face tip-
wards before the players. If the leader holds ace
1 of trum]is (or king when ace is turned up), he
I must lead it : if he has two trumps, he must lead
, one. He is not obliged to lead ibi' highest, unless
(«) it is the ace (or king, ace being turned); or
\ (h) there are only two declareil players. Subse-
quent players nnist follow suit, and must head
the trick if able. If not able to follow suit, ami
holding a trump, they must lieail the trick by
trumping. The winner of the first trick nuist lead
a trump if able. In other respects the play is as
at whist. The winners of the tricks divide the
pool, one-third for each trick. If only one declares
to play, the dealer plays miss for the pool : tricks
won l>y miss remaining in to auj;ment the next
pool. If only the dealer declares to jday, he takes
the poid. If each declared player wins a trick it
is a suir/le, and a fresh pool is staked as before, the
deiil [lassing to the left of the i)revious dealer.
If any declared player fails to win a trick, he is
Iviieil the anumnt in the jmioI ; the player who now
deals ])uts in a single stake, no one else contribut-
ing. It is advisable to lix a limit beyond which a
player cannot be looed. If there is more in the
])ool, the player is only looed up to the limit.
There are no recognised laws of loo. The Blen-
heim Club, for mauY years the best authoritY on
I loo, issued laws for ilie use of the members. These
, laws are re)niblished in Ituinid (itnnis at Cards
( De La Hue & Co. ).
Lo«». The. See Apeldorn.
LooclloO (otherwise Lliihiii m- lHn Kin), a
gr«mp of thirty-seven islands, of which the most
considerable are Dshima and Okinawa. The
islands extend at irregular intervals in a south-
westerly direction from Kyushu in Japan, .and
form the prefecture of ()kinawa in that empire.
Their aggregate area is 1863 scj. m., an<l the
population amounts to only 160,000. Linguist-
ically and ethnically the Loochooans are almost
identical with other Japanese, and their mannei's,
eiistoms, and religious observances (Shintoist ) bear
a close affinity. They were formerly subject to
the lord of Satsuma. and |iaid an annual tribute,
having been comjiletely subjected in 1609. China
has made a claim iijion the islands, which she
still holds in reserve, but they are essentially
.lapanese soil. The men do not shave the hair
like the .lapanese ; they pin it (m the crown of the
bead, with a star in front. The women tattoo
iheir hands. The streets are paved with stone,
and stone walls ten or twelve feet high, giving
the streets a desolate appearance, enclose the
houses, which are similar in structure and arrange-
ments to Japanese houses ; the tiles used for
roohng, however, are not black, but reil in colour.
There are no shops in Loochoo. oidy a market place
in ea<b town. The food of the people consists
principally of sweet potatoes, pork, and li>h, a
pig being usually kept by each family. < Ishima
po.ss"s.ses a good harliour, but Nafa, the imrt of
Shinri, capital of (Ikinawa, is an unsafe anchorage.
Sugar is largely raiseil, also the sagop;ilm, and an
aromatic variety of orange : the 'oa nut palms
do not .seem to yield fruit. -A small breed of ponies
is found on the islands.
7U
LOOFAH
LOKD-LIEUTENANT
Loofall. EcvpTlAN. Umlei- this name the
filirinw |Hiition of tlie fruit of one or two species of
Liiff'i (n,xt. ord. Cucurliitaoe;v) is sold in Knf^laml
for use as a Uatll-sjion^re or Hesh-ruMier. Tiiere are
about ten species of the genus known, hut tlie
'towel gourd,' as this liath-sponge is sometimes
called, appears to be obtained chielly from L.
cecfijptini-n. In the West Indies the fruit of L.
acutunrjula yields a similar network of (ihres, and
it is there Jised as a sponge or dislicloth. The
fibrous portion of these gourds is also worked up
into liaskcts ami small ornamental articles.
Lookiiiii'-alnss. See Mirror.
Lookout Hoillltnill. a ridge extending from
near Chaltaiiiiog.i, in Tennessee, across the norlh-
west corner of (Georgia, and into Alaliama, and
rising to 1600 feet above the Tennessee Kiver. It
was carrieil bv General Hooker in the battle of
24tli November 1863.
Loom. See Weaving.
Looillis. Elias, an American physicist, was
born at Willington, Connecticut, 7th August 181 1,
graduated at Yale in 18.S0, and was tutor there in
1833-36. After a year's study in Paris he was
professor (18,37-44) of Mathematics in Western
Reserve College, Ohio, of Natural Philosophy
(1844-60) in the University of New York, and of
Natural I'hilosophv and Astronomy (from I860) at
Yale. He died " loth August iS89. Professor
Loomis devoted much of his time to origiiuil
research, was the author of over a hundred scientific
treatises, and published a series of text-books on
matliematics, natural |ihilosophy, astronomy, and
meteorology, oi which more than ,")(HI,000 copies
were sold.
Loon, or Loom. See Diver.
Loo.sostrife. See Lythrace.k.
Lope «lc Vega. See Yega.
L4»l»e/.. See Paraguay.
Lo|>liol»rniieIiii. See Bosv Fishes.
Lo<|lint (Eridholrjid Jajionini), an esteemed
Chinese and Japanese fruit, of the natural order
Rcsacea", sub-order Kosea", and of a genus closely
allied to Mespilus (Medlar). It has been intro-
duced into Australia and is now abund.-int there.
The tree or shrub which produces it attains a
height of 20 or 30 feet, but in cultivation is seldom
allowed to exceed 1'2 feet. It is a beautiful ever
green, with large oblong wrinkled leaves, and
white flowers in terminal woolly ]ianicles, having a
fragrance like that of hawthorn-blossom ; the fruit
is downy, oval, or pear-shaped, yellow, and about
the size of a large gooseberry. 'The seeds have an
agreeable flavour which they impart to tarts. The
loquat lives in the open air in the south of
England, ,aud (n'oduces fruit ; but a warmer climate
is rei|uired for fruit of line f|uality. It is hardy
about London and southward in England. It may
be grafted on any species of Mespilus.
Loraiitliaeea'. See Mistletoe.
Lorea. a town of Spain, 36 miles SW. of Murcia.
The gloomy and decayed Mocu'ish part of the town
is picturesquely situated on an eminence crowned
by a fortilied castle, whilst the modern town spre.-ids
ovit on the fertile plain at its foot. Here are salt-
petre, gunpow(l(>r. and lead-smelting works, and
manufactures of clotli, and in the neighbourhooil
silver and sulphur mines, \-c. Pop. ( 1884) 28,4'22.
Lord (A.S. hlafiird : from hinf. 'loaf,' and,
probably, ireard, 'keeper,' ' ni.aster ' — i.e. master
of the house), a title given in (Ireat Britain to
persons noble by birth or by creation. Peers of the
realm are so styled, including such archliishojis or
bishops as are memliers of the House of Lords, who
are Lords Spiritual. I!y comtesy, the title Lord
, ( IS.MD.SdO; (18a'>)
Islands bears the
■'s Island is one ot
is given to the eldest sons of ilukes, marquises, anil
earls, prefixed to an inferior title of the peerage,
and to the younger sons of dukes and marquises,
prefixed to their Clirisl ian name and surname (see
CofHTESYTlTI.Esi, The following perxius, amon;.'st
others, bear the title Lmil in virtue of their employ-
ments— the Lord-lieutenant of Ireland and Ijords-
lieutenant of counties, the Lord Chancellor, Lord
Privy Seal, Lords <if tlie Treasury and of the
Aduiirally, the Lord High Ailniiral. Lord C.reat
Chanilierlaiu and Lord Chamlicrlain, Lord lli<.'li
Consialile, Lonl High .\luiorier, Lord High Stewaid,
Lord Steward of tlie Household, Lords in Waiting,
Lords of the Bedchamber, Lords , Justices, the Lord
Chief-justice, the Lonl Mayors of London, York,
and liulilin, and the Lord Provosts of Edinburgh,
(ilasgow, Aberdeen, and Perth, and the Lord
Advocate of Scotland (see special articles on
Tkeasi-rv, Justice, Mayhr, &c.). The judges
of the Courts of Session and Justiciary in Scotland
have the title 'Lord' pretixecl to Iheir surname or
some territorial designation assumcil by tliein : and
throughout the three kingdoms judges are addressed
as 'Mv Lord' when presiding in court. See Ad-
dke.ss"(I<\)rms OF), Nolill.lTV, an<l Pakmament.
Lord Howe Islands, a main island. "> sip m.
in extent, witli some small islets, Iving in the
Pacific in 31 33' S. lat. and l.^)!! .')' E. long., :i'lll>
miles E. of Port Macquarie in New South Wales.
It was discovered bv Lieutenant Hall in I7^s,
colonised in 1840. and is attached administratively
to New S(mth Wales. The llora is very rich,
banyan-trees being particularly consiiicuous. The
surrounding waters are full of lisli. The island
consists of three volcanic ridges, rising to '2840 feet,
and is crescentic insha]ie. Pup.
60. — A group of the Solomon
same name ; and a Lord Howe
the Society Isle.s.
Lord-lieutenant of a County, a per-
manent provincial governor appointed bv the sove-
reign by p.atent under the Creat Seal. The ollice in
England arose from the occasicuial commissions of
arra.v issued by ihe crown in times of danger or
disturbance, re(|uiring experienced persons to muster
theinliabitants of the counties to which the commis-
sioners were sent, and set them in military order.
The rigid of the crown to issue such commissicms
was denied by the E(mg Parliament, this question
proving the immediate cause of the breach between
Charles 1. and his .snbjects. Their legalit.y was
established at the liestHiation by a declaratcuy act.
'I'he lord-lieutenant, who is nsu;illy a ]ieer or other
large land-owner, as a rule is also the Ciislos Jiulii-
/oniiii (q.v.). He is at the head of the magistracy,
and is the chief executive authority. Under him,
and of his ai)iiointing, are ]iermanent deputy-
lieutenants. He rec(unmends (|ualified persons for
the olfice of justice of the peace. Militia jurisdic-
tion formerly belonged to him, 1ml is now re-
invested in the crown in 1871 (seeCouNTV).
Lord-Ii4'ntenaiit of ltiEi,AM), the viceroy
or ilepuly of the so\rrei;;ii to whom the government
of Ireland is nominally committed. The olfice has
existed from a remote ])erio(l, the appointmc^nt
having been made under ilitl'erent designations.
The powers of the lord-deputy, as the viceroy was
frequently called, were in e.irly times very exten-
sive, almost regal. In the latter part of the ISth
century the lord lieutenant resideil litlh' in Ireland,
visiting it only once in two years, to hold the
session of parliament. Some lords-lieutenant ni'ver
went to Ireland at all, and occjisicuially, instead of
a viceroy, lords justices ( see JusTIci-;s. LiiHDs) were
appointed. Since the I'niiui the lonl lieutenant lia«
constantly resided in Duidin.
The lord-lieutenant is a|q>ointe<l nridei the liieat
LORD OF THE ISLES
LORD'S SUPPER
715
Seal of the I'niteil Kiii'r<lom, and lieai-s the sword
of state as the synihol of his vicere;i,'iil ollice. He
lias the assistance of a inivv -fouiuil. at ]iieseiit
eonsistiti"; of lifty-live meniiiei-s, apimiiitcd hy the
S(»verei;ni. and of otticers of state. He is <'oiiiiiiis-
sioned to keep the peace and the hiws and customs
of Ireland, and to see that justice is impartially
administered. He has the control of the police,
and may issue orders to the general commandini;
the troops for the support of the civil authority,
the protection of the public, the defence of the
kin<:dom, and the suppression of insurrection. He
is the t;rand .Master of the Onler of St Patrick, and
may himself ciuifer simple knighthood : and, pre-
vious to the disestablishment of the ('hurch of
Ireland, had the disposal of much preferment, as
well as all the other patronage of the country.
The granting of money, lands, and pensions, of
all titles of honour except simple knighthood, the
appointment of privy-councillors, judges, law-
othcers, and governor of forts, and the a])point-
ment to military commissions are reserved to the
sovereign, acting, however, on the lord-lientenant's
a«lvice and recommendation. In recent years,
more especially since his chief-secretary h.as been
a member of the cabinet, the position of the lord-
lieutenant has become little more than .an ' orna-
mental' one: and the abolition of the ollice is
now contemplated. A memori.al signed by ahnost
all the Irish peers was presented to Lord Sails-
bury in 1S,S!1 praying for such .abolition, which
Iiail been .actually arr.anged for. as long ago ,as
184,S, by Lord .lolin Russell, Lord Clarendon hav-
ing accepted oHice in th.at year on the uiuler-
standing that he was to be the Last lord-lieutenant
of Ireland. On the occasional or temporary
absence from Ireland of the lord-lieuten.ant,
lords justices are ai>iiointed, who are usually the
Lord ("liancellor, the Vice-chancellor, and the
Comm.ander of the Forces. The .salary is £'2(),(X)y,
with .a residence in Dublin Castle, as well
a.s one in the I'hienix Park. His tenure of ollice
depends on that of the ministry of which he is a
member. By Act HI (leo. IV. chap. 7, .a Roman
Catholic is ineligible for the lord-lieutenancy of
Ireland. There have been over thirty-five lords-
lieuten.ant since the I nion.
Lord of the Islos. a title borne by a r.ace of
chiefs who nileil the Western Islands of Scotland
with .almost regal authority. They were descended
from Somerled the Lord of Argyll, on whom David
I., having in 1135 expelled the Norwegians from
Arran and Hute, conferred these islamls. After-
wards, however, he qu.arrelled with Malcolm IV.,
and with a powerful force sailed up the Clyde, and,
near Renfrew, encountering the royal army under
the High Steward of Scotland, was defeated and
killed, 1 l()4. His three sons. Dugal, Angus, and
Kegin.ald. by his m.arriage with the d.aughter of
Olaf the Red, the N'orwegi.in king of the Isles, in-
herited the south isles along with a share of his
mainland pos.sessions. One of his grandsons left a
danghter and heiress, married to .\lexander, son
and iieir of W.ilter, High Stewanl of Scotland, who
in her right obtaineii the isle of liute. Sonierled's
sons alternately siiled with the Norwegians and
the Scots in their contests for the sovereignty of
the Western Isles, which repe.ateilly ch.aiiged
masters. Hut after the defeat of Haco, his suc-
cessor in l'J(i«) ci'iled all the Western Islamls to
Scotland, on condition that a certain annual sum
should be ]iaiil to Norway. Henceforward the
descendants of Somerled held their ])ossessions as
vnss.als of the Scottish crown. They were re]ire-
senteil at this time by three great nobles -thi- Lord
of Lorn, who in the war of indepemlence took
part with Comyn ami lialiol, .Angus of Isla, and
.Mian of the North Ish-s, who supported the claims
of Bruce. Angus fought at Bannockburn, and it
is said that Bruce, when he was alxuit to bring
up the reserve, addressed him in worils adojited .as
a motto Ijy some of his descendants, 'My trust is
constant in thee.' .lohn, his son and hi'ir, joined
the iiarty of Edward Haliol, but he w,as ultiiiiately
p.ardoned by David II., and coulirnu'd in his posses-
sions. By his first m.arriage he obtained the isles
of Uist, Barra, Eigg, and Rum, and assumi'd hence-
forth the title of Lord of the Isles. He married,
secondly, M.argaret, daughter of liobert. High
Stew.anl of Scotland (.afterwards Robert II.), who
bore him three sons. Donald the eldest, second
Lord of the Isles, in right of his wife cl.ainied
the e.arldom of Ross in opposition to the Regent
Alb.any, and in attempting to make good that
claim he fought in 1411 the celebrated battle of
Harlaw". His son Alexander, third LonI of the
Isles, w.as .allowed liy .lames I. to inherit the
earldom of Ro.ss from his mother; but notwith-
standing he took up arms .ag.ainst the king, w.asted
the crown-lfinds near Inverness, and burned that
town. James promptly attacked and routed the
rebels, .and their leader was fain to throw himself
on the mercy of his sovereign. He presented him-
self before the king in the church of Holyrood,
clothed only in bis shirt and tirawers, and hold-
ing his unsheathed sword by the ])oint, and fall-
ing upon his knees, surrendered his sword and
implored the royal clemency. His life was spared,
but he was imprisoned for two yejirs at T.antallon.
During the minority of J.ames II. he held the
ini|>ortant office of .Justiciar of Scotland north of
the Forth. In 1-14,") he entered into a secret .and
tri'asonable league with the F.arls of Douglas .and
Crawford, but died .at his castle of Dingwall before
any overt acts of rebellion h.ad been committed.
His eldest son John succeeded to his titles and
est.ates. and carried on similar insurrectionary
proceedings. But after the nuirder of the Earl
of Douglas liy James II. he took fright, and
entreated the forgiveness of the king, which
with some hesitation was granted to him, and
he was made one of the w.ardens of the Marches.
After the death of James II., the earl, .along with
the exiled Dougljvses, entered into a treasonable
league with Edward IV. of England for the con-
quest .and p.artition of Scotland, and raised the
standard of reliellion. His est.ates were in conse-
fiuence forfeited, but on his submission he wils
restored to the lordship of the Isles ; the earl-
dom of Ko.ss Av.as annexed to the crown. In
his old age his nephew and heir, apparently
with his approl)ati(m, at the head of his v.ass.als
endeavoured to recover pos.session of that e.arldom.
.lames IV., who at this time filled the throne,
availed himself of the opportunity to break uji
that confederacy of the islanders, which had
jiroved so troublesome to the pe.ace of the country ;
and in the parliament of Jlay 1403 John, fourth
and last Lord of the Isles, wa.s forfeited and
deprived of title and estates. He retired to the
monastery of Paisley, and dying about 149.S, w.oa
buried beside his ancestor Robert II. In l.')40 the
Lordship of the Isles w.xs annexed to the Scottish
(Town, and from it the Prince of Wales derives one;
of his titles. See A. Mackenzie's Histon/ of the
MaetlonaliU (uid /.f,nh o/ !/„■ /.v/..v(Inv. 1882).
Lords-aiHl-Lildies, a popular name for the
common .\rMm (i|.v. ).
Lord's nay. Sc- SAimATH.
Loral's Sll|>p<*r. one of the sacraments of the
Christian religion, so called from its being instituted
at su|)per by the Lord .lesus Christ. It receives also
the names of Kucharist and Communion. With
the ex(a'|)tion of the (,|uakers, all sects of Chris-
tians, however ilifl'erent their views as toils nature,
716
LORD'S SUPPER
! _-
ajiii'ee in celeliratin^' it as one of the most saeieil
rites of relif;ioii. The present article is written
from the point of view of tliose wlio admit more or
less tlie iilea of a historical ilHveh)pmeMt of the
<loctrines conm^eleil with the Lord's Supper: the
views of Koman Catholies, who hold that the
iloctrines of their church (m the subject were
delivered hy our Lord and His ajiostles, and have
from the first centuries been tau;:ht in substance in
the church, will be found under TltAN.SlliSTANTlA-
TION.
The circumstances of sorrow aniiil which it was
instituted, and its intimate relation to the crown-
ing work of Jesus, His death, liad, at the very
outset, made a dee]) impression upon the early
church. We have four accounts of the institution,
one from each of three evangelists, ami one from
St I'aul ( 1 Cor. x., xi.): and those who holil the
iloclrine of the Ileal Presence see in .bdm vi.
an allusion to the Eucharist. Not only was the
solemnity, in conformity with the original institu-
tion, re|)eated daily in conjunction with the so-
called 'Love-feasts" {Affu/i'V, q.v.), and retained as
a separate rite when these feasts were set aside, but
at a very early jieriod it was believeil to possess a
peculiar eflicacy, and soon ideas of the wonderful
and mystical became associated with it. The Lord's
.Supper was celebrated on every important occa-sion
of life — a.s when entering on marriage — or Bo
commemorate departed friends and martyrs ; to
those that could not be present at the meeting
4if the congregation, s\uh as prisoners and sick
persons, the indis|H'nsable food of heaven was
carried liy the ileacons, and in .some churches the
communicants took part of the materials of the
feast home with them, that they might welcome
the "ift of a new day with consecrated food.
Heathens and unworthy persons, and Catechuniens
(q.v.) also, were excluded from this lioly mystery.
As early as tlie 2d century, Ignatius. .lustin Martyr,
and IrenM'us ailvance the (ipiMii>M thai the mere
bread and wine become, in the Kiicliarist, some-
thing higher — the earthly, something heavenly —
without, however, ceasing to be bread anil wine.
Though tlie.se views were opjiosed by some eminent
indiviilual Christian teachers, such as Urigen, who
took a iigurati\e conception of the sacrament, and
depreciated its etlicacy, yet both among the people
and in the ritual of the church, more particularly
after tlie 4tli century, the miraculous or super-
natural view of the Lord's Supper gained ground.
After the 3d century the oliice of presenting the
bread and wine came to be coiiKiied to the ministers
or priests. This juactice arose from, and in turn
strengthened, the notion which was gaining giound,
that ill this act of ])reseiitation by the priest a
sacrihce, similar to that once olt'ered up in the
death of Christ, though liloodless, was ever anew
presented to God. This still deepened the feeling
of mysterious signilicance and importance w^itli
which the rite of the Lord's Sujiper was vieweil,
and led to that gia<lually increiusiiig splendour of
celebration which under Gregory the Great took
the fciriii of tlie mass. See Lnincv.
For a long time there was no formal declaration
of the mind of the church on the presence of Christ
in the Eucharist. At length, in the first half of
the 9tli century, a discussion on the point was
raised by the Abbot of Corvei, Paschasiiis I{ad
bertus, anil Katiamiius, a learned monk of the
same convent ; they exchanged several violent con-
troversial writings, Ih' S(ii((inii(r. et Cariiurr Duiiiiiii,
ami the most distinguisheil men of the time took
part in the discussion. I';uscliasius maintained
that the bread and wine are, in the act of coii.secra-
tion, transformed liy the omnipotence of God into
that very body of Christ which was once born of
Mary, nailed to the cross, and raised from the dead.
I
According to this concepti<m nothing remains ot
the bread and wine but the milward form, the
taste, and the smell: while Katiamnus would not
allow that there is any change in llii' brca<l and
wine themselves, but granted that an actual trans-
f<Mniation of their jiower and etlicjicy takes place.
The greater accordance of the lirsl siew with the
credulity of the age, its love of the wiiiiderful and
magical, as well as with the natural desire for the
utmost iios>ilile nearness to Christ, in order to be
unfailingly saved by Him, ami the aiipareiitly
logical character of the inference that, wiieie the
power, according to universal admission, wjis
changed, there must be a change also of the sub-
stance— all these concurring inilncnces brought it
about that, when the views of Kalramnus were
in substance revived by lieieiigarius, Canon of
Tours, in o)ipositioii to Lanfranc, .\ichbi>hnp of
Canterbury, and Cardinal Humbert, the doctrine
of Transubstantiatioii, as it came to be called,
triumpheil, and was olticially ap]iroved by the
Council of Koine in 1079. In the fourth Lateran
Council at Koine (1'215), umler Innocent III.,
Transubstantiatioii was declared to be an article
of faith : and it has continued to lie so held by the
Homan Catholic Church to the present day. The
(ircck Catholic Churi'li sanclioni'd the same view
of Transubstantiatioii at the Synod of .Jerusalem in
1072. Kor the Calixtines and Taboiites, see Hl'ss.
The Keformation of the IGth century again raised
the question of the nature of the Eucharist. The
Lutheran C'hnich rejected from the first the Catholic
doctrine of Trausubstantiatiim, as widl as of the
iiia.-s- i.e. the constant renewal of the sacrilice of
Christ -;uid merely taught that, through the jiower
of (iod, and in a way not to be explained, the liody
and blood of Christ are present in, with, and under
the unchanged bread ami wine ('Coiisubstantia-
tion'). Ill opposition to this doctrine, it was laid
down by Zwingli that the Lord's Sii]iper is a mere
commemoration of the death of Clirist, and a ]iro-
fession of belonging to His church, the bread and
wine being only symbols : a view which is adopted
in substance by Soeinians and Arminians. Luther
bitterly o)iposed the symbolical view, especially
towards the latter jiart of his career; Zwingli's
iloctrine was more lepugnant to him than the deeper
and more mystic Cathidic dud line.
Calvin sought to strike a mi(hlle course, which
has been substantially followeil by the Uefonued
Churches. According to him, the body of Christ is
not actually present in the bread and wine, which
he also holds to be mere symbols. But the 'faith-
ful ' receiver is, at the moment of partaking,
brought into union with Christ, through the
meiliuiii of the Holy Spirit, and receives of that
heavenly )iower (etlicacy) which is always emanat-
ing from His glorified body in heaven. Melanch-
thon, in this controversy, was inclined to the
views of Calvin : but he thought a iiiiiim might he
efVected by adopting the declaration tliat Christ
in the Eucharist is ■truly and really' present (not
merely in faith). The endeavours of .Melanchthoii
and ills Jiarty, by arbitrary alterations of the
Augsburg Confession ami other means, to efleet
a public reconciliation only served to rouse among
the ]iartisans of Luther a furious theological storm,
and the result was the establishment of the views
of Luther, and the final separation of the Lutheran
and Keformcd Chuichiw.
Tlie whole cimtroversy relates to the mode in
which the body and blood of Christ are presimt in
the Lord's Supper: for it was agreed on all hands
that they are present in some way. The Iteformed
theologians argued that jjir/niiir is a relative term,
opposeil not to distance, but to ab.sence ; and that
presence, in this ca.se, doe-s not mean local near-
ness, but presence in eflicacy. Here they parted
LORD'S SUPPER
717
co!ii]inny both with the Kmiian Catholic Church and
with the Lutherans. Tliey were williiij; to call tliis
presence • real' ( • i' ('""y ^^•»it words,' as Zwin^li
said ). nieaniut; true and ethcacious. hut they would
not admit cor|ioral or essential presence. Hut while
the Uefornied Churches were at one in holding' tliat
by receivint: the hoily and blood of Christ is meant
reeeivinj; their virtue and etiicacy, there is some
difference in their way of e.xpicssin'.; what that
efficacy is. Some said it was their ethcacy as
broken and shed i.e. their sacrificial eflicacy ;
otiiers, in addition to this, speak of a mysterious
supernatural efficacy tiowinj; fiom the {;lorilied
body of Christ.
With refiard to the Iteformed Churches, it may he
remarked that their Confessions on this iioint were
mostly formed for the express ]iur])ose of compro-
mise, to avoid a hreach with the Lutherans. Hence
the lanjrnage of tliese Confessions contains more of
the mystical element than the framers of them
seem, in other parts of their writing's, to favour.
And it is remarkable that the An;L,'liean Confessions,
which were framed under different circumstances,
lean nn>re to the symbolical view of Zwinjjli than
ilo those of most of the Reformed Churclies. The
Thirty nine Articles, after layiiif; down that, 'to
sueli as with faith receive the same, it is a p.artak-
ing of the boily of Christ," repudiate the notion
of Transiibstantiation, and add, ' The body of
Christ is >;iven, taken, and eaten in the Supper
only after an heavenly and spiritu.al manner. And
the mean whereby the Ijody of Christ is received
and eaten in the Supper is faith.' Tlie Anfjlican
Church is divided on this, as on several kindred
topics, into two parties : with one the symliolical
view of the rite is predominant ; the other party
reprobate this view as 'low," and maintain an
uhjectire ' mystical presence ' of the thiiif; signified,
along with tiie sign. The view of the latter party
a.s to the sacriticial nature of the Sacrament
approaches very closely that of the Church of
Rome. For the various points of difference
amongst Anglicans as to vestments, the eastward
position, &c., reference must be made to the liooks
cited below. In the Mackonochie case (1869) it
was decided that the celebrant had no right to
kneel chiring the prayer of consecration : in the
Purchas case ( 1S71 ). that he had no right to adopt
the eastward position.
The Presbyterian Church adopted substantially
the views of Calvin. The words of the West-
minster Confession are : ' That doctrine w hicli
maintains a change of the substance of bread and
wine into tlie substance of Christ s oody and blood
(commonly called Transubstantiation ) by conse-
cration of a priest, or by any other way, is repug-
nant not to Scripture alone, but even to common
sense and reason. . . . Worthy receivers, out-
wardly partaking of the visible eleincnts in this
.sacrament, do then also inwardly by faith, really
and indeed, yet not carnally and corjiorally, but
s]iiritiially, receive and feeil u|ion Christ crucilied,
and all l>enelits of His death : the body and blo<id
of Christ being then not corporally or carnally in,
witli, or under the bread and wine ; yi'l as really,
but spiritually, present to the faith of believers in
that ordinance a-s the elements themselves are to
their outwanl senses.' But the tendency is nowa-
days to regard the rite in its commemorative
character, and the signs as means of working uiion
the mind and feelings siibji'ctividy, rather llian as
the vehicle of any objective, mystically operating
grace.
This variety of dogmatical njiinion its to the
Kiicharist naturally gave rise to variety in the cere-
monials of its observance. The Catholic notion of a
mysterious transformation jiroduced the flrearl of
allowing any of the bread anil wine In drop, and
led to the substitution of wafers (fiontitr, obhil(i') for
the breaking of breail. The doctrine of the 'real
union,' which declares that in the bread a.s well as
in the wine, in each singly and by itself, Christ
entire is present and tasteil— a doctrine which was
attested by wafers visibly bleeding- causeil the cup
to be gradually withdrawn fnun the laity and noii
officiating priests (see LlTt'ROY) : this practii'e was
lirst aMthoritatively sanctioned at the Council of
Constance, 141"). All the I'leformeil Chuiches
restored the cup : in the Greek Churcii it had never
been given. From the same feeling of deeji rever-
ence for the Eucharist the communion of children
gradually came, after the I2th century, to he dis-
continued : the (ireek Church alone ailmits the
]iractice. (irounded on the doctrine of Transub-
stanti.ation, the Creek and I toman Catholic Chuiches
hold the ■elevation of the host" {/lostiii, 'victim or
sacrifice') to be a symbol of the exaltation of Christ
fnuu the state of humiliation : connected with this
is the '.adoration of the liost,' and the carrying it
about in solemn procession. The use of leavened
bread in the (ireek Church, and of unleavened in
the Roman Catholic and Lutheran, of water mixed
with wine in the Konian Catholic and (ireek
Churches, and of unmixed wine in the I'rotestant
Churches, iniignified into importance liy .symbolical
explanations, have given occasion to the hottest
controversies. The greater part of the Keformeil
Churches agree in breaking the hreail and letting
the conniiunicants take it with the hand (not witli
the mouth); and this practice is owing to the
original tendency of those CInircbes to the sym-
bolical conce])tion of the Eucharist, in wliich the
breaking of the bread and the pouring out of the
wine are essential elements.
It has been contended that the early Christians
celebrated the Lord's Supper daily, but a weekly
celebration — originally in the evening along with '
the agapee — is more probable. Abuses at the
AgaiKV (i|.v.) led to the separation friun them of
the Lords Supper, which now took place in the
morning. Early synods ordained that the faithful
should receive the comnninion at all the higher
festivals— Eidphany, Easter, Pentecost, Christmas.
Early morning c<unmunion, received fasting, is the
rule with Catholics and High .\nglicans, mid-day
coirimunion being allowed to aged a7id invalid
persons. The JMoravians always celebrate the com
miinion in the evening. In the Roman Catholic
Church, it is usual to reserve ]iortions of the Sacra-
ment after celebration for the purpose of permitting
the sick to comnninicate in their own houses. As
to knei'ling or sitting at communion, see KNKKLIXti.
In the Kiiglisli Church it was usual to exclude non-
communicants fr(un being present during the rite,
as the ancient church excluded catechumens: but
neither the inoileiii Catholic Church, the High
Anglican, nor the Presbyterian i>ractise this ex-
clusion. In the Highlands of Scotland, through a
morbid awe of eating and drinking unworthily,
it is custiuuary for <levo\it Christians to postpone
commnnicaling till late in life. (If late some
teetotalers insist on the use of unfermented wine
ill the Lord's Supper.
Rut although the great divisions of the Christian
worhl have ccmtinued as churches to adheie to
those ibiclrines about the L(ud's Suii|ier wliich were
fixed and stcreoty]ied in .Acts of Council and .\ilicles
and ( 'onf<'ssioiis about the time of the Retoriiiation,
we are nol to >iip|iose that the opinions of indivi-
ilnals within those churches continue e(|ually uni-
form and fixed. Even Roman Catholic theologians.
like Rossuet, have sometimes endeavoured to under-
staml the doctrine of the church in a philosophical
.sensi> : and in the Lntlieraii ('linii'h the greatest
variety of opinion prevails. Scmie uphohl uni li
lied tlie dogmas of Luther; others accept them with
718
LORELEI
LOKKAINE
ex|ilanation ; Hegel even iincleitook to jrvouml tliciii
on siicoulative reason. Otliers, as Si-lilcicrniaolier,
wiiiilil have rec-ourse to the views of Calvin as a
means of reconciliation with the Itefornietl Churches.
Even all 'supernatiirar theoloj'ians do not ailhere
strictly to the formulas of the church : while
rationalism in all its pluises tend.s to the pure
symholisni of /winj,'li.
.See the relevant works of Hooker, Barrow, Jeremy
Taylor, Waterlaud, Burnet, Calvin, Hodge, Oosterzee,
Dorner, Schmid ; and Hagenbach's /fi^tori/ of Doflriiic ;
Willierforce, Durtriiie of the Hull/ Eucharist (1845);
Pusey. Dtirtriiie of the Heal Presence (1.S55); Scudamore,
y<jliti<i Kncharisticn (1875); J. H. Blunt, ijirtionarii of
Doclriiial and Historical Theoloijii (1870); Ebrard, iJu*
DoijitM vom Abembuahl (ISiS); Kahnis, Die Lehre vom
Abendmahl (1851); Ruckert, Das Abendmahl (18.56);
Howson, Before the Table (1875); Armstrong, The
Siicriiinents of the JV^civ Testament (New York, 1880);
Dean Stanley, Christian Institutions ( 1881 ) ; Bridgett,
HiMonj of the Holy Eucharist in Great Britain (1881) ;
and a Clerical Siimposinni on the Lord's Supper^ by
Luthardt, Pressenso, Littledale, and others (1881).
Lorelei, or LlUiLEl {h-.i = slate-rock), a rock
which rises jierpendicularly from the IJliine, to the
height of 427 feet, near St Coar. It used to he
dangerous to boatmen, and has a celebrated echo.
But the name is best known from Heine's song of
the siren who sits on the rock combing her long
tresses, and singing so ravishingly that the boat-
men, enclianted by the music of her voice, forget
their duty, and are drawn upon the rock and
perish. The legend is not, however, ' a mdrchen
of olden days;' the first form of it was an inven-
tion of Clemen.s Drentano, published in his ballad
' Zu Bacharach am Kheine wolint eine Zauberin '
(1800). It soon passed into a popular legend, and
has suggested several variants to modern Ger-
man poets. See Leirabach, Die Lorclei-DicldiuKjcn
(1879).
Lorenzo. See Medici.
Loreto. an interior department of Pern, watered
for thousands of miles by the Maranon and its
tributaries. Area, 3.3,000 sq. m. ; pop. 61,12.5. The
quickest route from the coast to this province,
which is only some 700 miles distant in a direct
line, is round the north coast of South America
and up the Amazons, a journey of G500 miles. The
cai)ital is Iquitos (ipv. ).
Loretto diroperly LoRETO), a city of Italy,
stanils '.i miles from the Adriatic and 15 by rail
SSK. from .\ncona. It has a royal pala(te (designed
by liramante), and 4134 inhabitants ; but is chiefly
noticeable as the site of the sanctuary of the
Blessed Virgin Mary called \... ; Sitiitit. Camt, or
Holy House, wliicli is reputed to be the house in
which the Virgin lived in Na/areth. It was miracn-
lously translated, tirst, in 1201, to the neighbour-
hood of Fiume in Dalmatia, thence in 1204 to a
wood near Recanati in Italy, and was finally trans-
ferred to its present site in 120.5. The churcli of the
Santa Casa stands near the centre of the town,
before it a colossal bronze statue of Pope Si.xtus V.
Its great central door is surmounteil by a s|)U'ndid
bronze statue of the Mailonna ; and in the interior
are three bronze doors with bas-reliefs, represent-
ing the priin-ipal inents of scrijitnral and ecclesi-
astical history. The Holy House itself is a single
apartment of no great size, originally of rndc
material ami construction, but now cased with
white marble, and exquisitely sculptured, after
Bramante's designs, by Sansovino, Bandinelli, and
other artists. The subjects of the bas-reliefs are
taken from the history of the Virgin Mary, with
the excejition of three <m the eastern side, which
are devoted to the legends of the Holy House
itself. The image of the Virgin w hicli it contains
is traditionally believed to have been carved by
St Luke. The rest of the interior of the church is
rich with bas-reliefs, nios.-iics (liy Domenichino and
tJuido Keni), frescoes, paintings, and carvings in
bronze. This shrine is visited by about 50,000
pilgrims annually, though formerly the number
averaged 20(1,000.'
L'Orieilt. a seaport in the French deiiartment of
Morliihan, situated on a good bay, 116 miles by
rail N\V. of Nantes, is a well-built town, with a
deep and spacious harbour. It was fmuided
in 1()64 liy the French East India Company: but,
after the ruin of their trade by the English towarila
the close of the next century, their jdant wjis
acquired by the government, who since 1815 have
made L'Orient the principal naval shipbuilding-yard
in France. The dockyard .ami arsenal are conse-
quently among the best and largest in the country,
and the jilace ranks as a fortress of the .second
class. LDrient hits schools of n.avigation and
m.arine artillery, ami an ob.sSrvatory. The inhabit-
ants are engaged chiefly in shi]diuilding and its
cognate trades, and in fishing (especially sardines).
The trade does not exceed a total of 100,000 tons
aninnilly. Pop. ( 1872) 30,028 ;( 1801 ) 41,065. Oil'
this port the British lleet under Eord Bridport
defeated the French under ^"illaret-Joyeuse on 23d
June 1705.
Loriiner (Fr. lunnier, from l,at. lorinii, 'a
thong'), a maker of bits, spurs, stirrup-irons, nu'tal
mountings for saddles and bridles, and generally
of all articles of horse-furnitnre. In London the
lorimers, who had previously formed part of another
guild, were incorporated by letters-patent in 1712;
in Scottish burghs they have been comprehended
as a branch of the corporation of Hammermen.
Loriiner. .I.\mes, jurist, was born at Aber-
dalgie, in Perthshire, on 4th Novenrber 1818,
studied .at Edinburgh, Geneva, Bonn, and Berlin,
was called to the Scottish bar in 1845, and in 1862
appointed profes.s(n- of Public ami International
Law in the university of Edinburgh. In 1873 he
took a principal share in founding the Institute of
Internatiiuuil Law. He dii'd on 13th Febru.ary
1800. Besides being a busy ccmtributor to the lirst
edition <if this Enrijclopwdia and to the Eiliiihiinih
and Sortli British L'cricics, he wrote, from tlie
standpoint of the historico-])olitical school, lluml-
hook of the Law of Urothmd ( 1862 ; 5tli ed. 1885) ;
Coiislitiitionulisiii of the Future ( 1865 ; 2d ed. 1867);
JiCftsous for the Stud)/ of Jurisjyrudniec as a Seicuce
( 1868) ; Iiislifulrx of Law ( 1872 ; 2d ed. 1880) ; and
Jiistitutrs (fthc Law of Nations (188.3-84), besides
The I'liircrsitics (f Scotland (\i\iSi)\ Political I'ru-
r/ress not iiecrssarily Democratic ( 1857 ) ; and Studies,
Xational and 1 iiternationed ( 1891 ).
Loris. a genus of Leinurida', with rounded heads
and ]pointcd snouts, slender bodies, very large eyes,
and rudimentary tail or none at all. The genus
h.as twii other names, Stenops and Nycticebus.
The twi> species known aie iiotli natives of the
East Indies. The largest species, L. tardir/radus,
is not so large as a cat ; the other, Z. tjracilis, is
much snniller. They spend the day asleep on a
br.inch, the body rolled up, .and the head liidilen
lietween the legs. Their fur is rich and soft. Their
motions are slow, and they advance stealthily on
the insects and birds on which they prey.
l/<iril«-. See .AlidVLl, and AUUVLL (Dt'KES OK).
Lorraine was incorporated in the (lerman
empire in 8.55, when Lothair II., son of the Em-
peror Lothair I., (ditained the lands between the
Scheldt, Meuse, and Bliine, called Lotharingia, or
Lorr.aine (Gcr. Lothrii(ijeii). It at first inclmled
Alsace and Friesland ; but tbese provinces were
separated from it in 870. .\liout Oil the ruler
was eh^vated from the <lignity of count to that
of duke. Ill 054 Lorraine was ilividi'd into two
LORRAINE
LOST PROPERTY
•19
duchies. Upper ami Lower Lorraine. The latter
came into the haiuls of tlie DuUes of IJralwiit
in the hefiiiiuintr of the ISth century, ami from
that time was known ius 15rahant. It was in-
oorjioraleil in Bnr^'nmly (q.v.) by Philip the (iood
in U'J9, anil now forms j>art of the l<in;;ilom of
Bel;;ium, and the provinces of Brahant and
c;uclderlaml in Holland. Upper Lorraine con-
tinned to be i;overned by its own dukes till 17."ti,
when it w;i.s given to Stanislas, exd<ing of Poland,
ami on his ileatli in ITliti was uniteil to !•" ranee. It
was afterwards .snbdivideil into the departments of
Meuse, Moselle, Menrthc, and Vosjjes. The dis-
trict lying between .Metz and the Vosges, which is
called German Lorraine, was ceded to Geiuiauy at
the peace of 1871. See ALSACE-LORR.ilNE.
Lorraine, <-'l.\iue. See Cl.\ude Lokraixe.
Lory, a common name for the members of a
family "of parrots, technically known ii-s Tricho-
glossiihc, rigidly coulined to tiie Australian region.
They are beautiful, gregaricnis, noisy, quick-tlying
birds, feeding on fruits, and gathering the nectar
of rtowei-s with their brush-like tongues. The two
largest genera are Trichoglossus and Lorius ; alto-
gether there are about ninety .species. The name
lory is also e.\tenile<l to the genus Eelectus, in a
different family of parrots.
Los Anseles. the most populous city of
^ontliern California and capital of Los Angeles
county, is 4S3 miles SE. of San Francisco by
the Southern Pacitic Itailroad. It is one of the
<ddest towns in the western states of America, and
wa-s already a thriving place when the Franciscan
fathers established a mis.sion here in 17S1 ; its
full name being I'nehli) de la Reina de los Anrjcles.
In 1S35-47 it wjvs the capital of the state of
California. To-day it possesses a handsome opera-
house, the University of southern California, a
magnificent observatory, a Roman Catholic cathe-
dral, and over one hundred Protestant churches.
There are magnilicent botanic gardens, parks,
many line public buihlings, and a crematory. The
Spanish population is ra[iiilly disappearing, and of
the 50,935 inhabitants in 1S91 they formed an in-
-significant minority. The i)op. in 187tl was only
.')7"28 ; in 1880, 11,183. Los Angeles is the centre
of the orange-growing industry, and in the city
alone are two reservoii-s, with a capacity of 850,000
gallons, used solely for pnrjioses of irrigation. The
residents are principally occupied in the cultivation
and e.\port of oranges, grapes, and other fruits, as
well as the manufacture of wine. A great number
of invalids and others seeking a fine climate le.sort
to Los Angeles in the winter. See California of
the South, by Lindley and Widney (1888).
Los.s, or LoE.s.s, a loamy deposit of Pleistocene
age, abundantly developed in the valleys «f the
Khine, the Danube, the Rhone, and many of their
tributaries. It is a pulverulent yellowish-gray or
Virownisli loam, homogeneous and noii-|dastic, and
consists iirincipally of clay with small angular
grains of quart/, and e.\tremely ndnute scales of
mica, t<igetner with a larger or smaller admixture
of carbonate of lime and some iron o.xide. It has
a tendency to cleave in verticiil ])lanes, ami thus
forms clitis where streams intei-seet it. The or-
ganic remains of the lo.ss consist princiijally of land-
shells of existing species, but now and again fresh-
water shells are met with. (Occasionally, also, the
remains of man and the Pleistocene niannnals are
encountere<I, such as mammoth, woolly rhinoceros,
reindeer, glutton, &c. In some places again are
found ridii-s of lemming, marmot, jerboa, &c., and
other forms which are suggestive of steppe condi-
tions. Geologists are still in some doubt ;us to the
oriu'in of the liisH. The deposit is of such variable
thickness (from a few feet up to 100 yards), and
occurs at such very different levels, that it seems
l>robable that more than one agency w;is concerneil
in its formation. Much of the lii.ss was i)idbably
deposited from the Hood-waters that escaiied from
the great ice-fields and melting snows of glacial
times. Some of it again seems to have been the
result of the weathering and disintegration of ]ire-
existiiig accumulations, and the washing down of
the disintegrateil material by rain. .Vnd it seems
likely enough that the superficial portions uf Ihivio-
glacial loams may have been modified to some
extent by the action of wind. Kichthofen, indeed,
has maintained that the liiss is essentially a wind-
blown accumulation — a conclusion he came to fioni
a studyof the liiss of China (q.v., p. 184). This theory,
however, does not explain many of the phenomena,
and the general ojiinion of geologists is in favour
of the aqueous origin of loss as a whole. The
Knropean loss is undoubtedly associated with the
glacial deposits of the Continent, and in North
America, where loss is strongly develojied, the
same relationship obtains. The geologists of the
United States Geological Survey maintain that the
liissic accumulations which cover enormous areas
in the great basin traversed by the Mississijipi and
its aitiuents are es.sentially of Huviatile origin.
For a general account of the Eui'opean loss, see J.
Geikie, Prehistoric Europe (1881), and Address to Geol.
Sictiim, Brit. Assoc, Newcastle Meclimj (1889). For
American loss, see Sixth Annual Report, U.S. Geol. Siirreti
(188.")). For Chinese loss, see Kichthofen's great work
on China; also Geol. Matjaziite (p. 293, 1882).
Lo.st Property. In point of law. the finder
of lost property is entitled to keep it until the
owner is found ; but there are certain circum-
stances in w liich the keeping of it will amount to
larceny. The rule in England is that, if the finder
find the property in such circumstances that he
either knows the owner, or has reasonable grounds
for believing that he can be found, then the taking
of the property with intent to keep it will be lar-
ceny. If, for example, a ser\ant finds a sovereign
in her masters house, anil keeps it, that is larceny ;
so, too, where the prompter on the stage of a
theatre picked up a £50 note which had been
drop])cd by one of the actors. On the other hand,
if at the time of finding there be no reasonable
]Mobability of ever discovering the true owner, then
there is no larceny, even though the finder does
afterwards acquire knowledge of or reasonable
probability of discovering the true owner. Again,
there cannot be a conviction if the finder did not
when he took the goods intend to convert them, or
if he was under the reasonable im]>ression that the
owner had abandoiieil his right of property therein.
It has also been decided that the mere keeping of
a lost article, in hopes of getting a lew ard for giving
it up, though the owner be known, <loes not
amount to larceny. There is also no <d)ligation on
the finder of lost pro]jertv to incur expen.se in
advertising for the owner ; and it is to be borne in
ndncl that the real owner is not divested of his pro-
jierty by the loss, but can demand it from whoso-
ever is ill possession of it. But lost bills of ex-
change and notes, if transferred for valuable cou-
.sideraticm without notice, become the property of
the transferee. Moreover, the loser of a bill or
note |)ayable to bearer could not at Englisli com-
mon law sue the party liable either on llie bill or
note itsi'lf, or on the indoi-semeiit, but by sec. ti9
of the Bills of Exchange Act, 1882, the cinirt may
order that the loss of the instrument shall be no
defence to the action if a proper indemnity be given.
In Scotland, also, the tenor of a lost bill may be
establi.-,hed by a ]iroce.ss for proving the tenor. The
finder of lost projierly is not entitleil to it, where
the ]U'operty con.sists of gold, silver, &c. , hiilden in
the earth, in which case the treasure-trove l>elong8
720
LOST TRIBES
LOTZE
to tlie crown ; and the liniler is Ipounil to '/isp
notice thcieof, under a iieiialty, tliou^di he is
not guilty of theft till 'oHice he f(mn<l,' or till
the coroner's jury have declared it crown proiierty.
It is not theft to convert unclaimed wreck.
Lost Tribes. See Babylonish Cai'tivity,
ASCI.ci-IsUAKI.ITE THKORY.
Lot (anc. 0/ti.s). one of the largest tributaries
of the (Jaronne in Krance, rises in Mont Lozcre,
u section of tlie Cevennes, Hows in a {renerall.\-
western direction, hcinfr known at first as the Olt,
through the (leiiartnients of Lozeve, Aveyron, Lot.
and Cotet-Caronne. and joins the (Jaronne from
the right at Aiguillon. after a course of nearly
."JOO miles, nearly two-thirds being navigable.
Lot, a dciiartment in the south of France,
formed out of the old jirovince of (iuienne, ami
comprising the .arrondissenients of Cahors, (lour-
don, and Kigeac, is watered by the Dordogne and
the Lot. Area, 2012 sij. m. ; jiop. (1872) 2M1,4(14:
(1891) 2.J3,S85. The eastern disiricts are invaded
by the Causses plateaus of the Cevennes. The
valleys are fertile. Wheat, maize, tobacco, fruits,
chestnuts, and wine are the more important pro-
ducts. .Slieep-breeding is largely carried on. bul-
ling, tanning, and the manufacture of woollens are
the only branches of industry. Caiiital, Cahoi-s.
Lot. Sec DiVIX.VTIOX, SOETES ViRCII.I AX.-K.
Lot-«'t-(>aronnO, a department in the south-
west of France, formed out of the old provinces of
(iuienne .and (lascony. It comprises the arron-
di.ssemcnts of Agen, Villeneuve, Marmande, and
Ncrac, and is watered by the Garonne and its triliu-
taries, the tiers and Lot. Area, 2067 s(|. m. ; pop.
( 1841 ) :?47.07:! ; ( 1801 ) 295,560. The department is
a rolling plain .and extremely fertile, except in the
south-west, where it is iinaded by the Landes
(q.v. ). The j)rinciiial products are wheat, maize,
wine (20 million gallons annually), hemp, fruits
(the plums (if Agen are particularly celebrated),
tobacco, ])otatocs, tlax, and oil-plants. I'ine, cork,
and chestnut woods are numerous. Poultry are
reared in great numbers for exportation. Manu-
facturing imlustry is exhibite<l chielly in metal-
works, |>aper-niills. woollen and cork factories,
distilleries, jind tanneries.
Lotlliilll, the whole territory anciently between
the Tweed and the Firth of Forth, which, from 547
a ]iortion of liernicia or Xorthumbria. was not
liinilly annexed to Scotland till 101 S. The name
is now restricted to Haildington, Edinburgh, and
Linlithgow shires, which are called respectively
East, Mid, and West Lothian. From it the Kers
(q.v.) take the titles of Earl .ami Manpiis (if Lothian.
See ScKTLAXri and Bokdkrs.
Loti. PlKliKK. See VlAlIJ.
Littions. or Washes, are remedies, usually
(lilulc, (if a liipiid, but not of an oily nature, which
are applied to circumscribed portions (if the surface
of the body. The oidy ]ireparations described umler
this name in the Urilish PharmacoiHcia are the
yellow and black mercurial lotions, used genenilly,
particularly the latter, in cases of syphilitic migin.
lnn\imerable lotions are used, however, foi' various
cdnditions and diderent parts of the body. The
most important groujis are antiseptic, solutions of
corrosive sublinnite, carbolic acid, boracic acid,
\c. ; sedative, containing opium, belladonn.'i,
acetate of lead, iKi: : stimulating, containing cap-
sicum, sulphur, chloride or suljihate of zinc, I've.
|jOto'|tl><l>i •''''■' 'lotus-eaters'), a name applie(I
by the .iiiiicrits to a peaceful and hospitable people
inhaliiting a district of ("yrenaica, on the north
coast (if .Africa, and much depending for their sub-
sistence on the fruit of the lotus-tree, from which
they also m.ide wine. According to Homer, they
received Tlysses hospitably, when, in the coni'se
of his wanderings, he visited them along with his
companions, on whom, however, the sweetness of
the lotus-fruit exercised such an intluence that
they forgot all about their native country, and had
no desire to return lumie. This feeling of happy
languor has been expressed with marvellmis felicity
by Tennyson in his ]ioem 'The Lotus-eaters."
L<»ttt'ry. See (; AMBLING.
Lotus. The name /.o/o.s- (Lat. /,o^/'.v) was given
by the (ireeks to a inimberof ditl'erent plants whose
fruit was used for food, (jne of the most notable
of these is the Xi:i//i/i)i.i Lotus of the north of
Africa and the south of Europe, a shrub belonging
- ■'\'\, " .^'-
Nymphiea Lotus.
to the natural (uder Rhamnea^ (see .Ju.ll'BE). — The
frnit of the Diospyni.i Loins, or Pate Plum (q.v.),
is the Eurojiean I,otc. — The n.anie lotus w.as als(»
given to sever.al beautiful sjiecies of Water lily
(q.v.), es]ieci,ally to the I'lue Water-lily ( A"//'"/'/'""
cimilea) and tlie Egyjitian Water-lily ( -V. /ofii.i).
which grow in stagnant and slowly running water
in the scuith of Asia and north of Africa. The
Niliiijiltirfi lotus grows in the Nile and adj.acent
livulets, and has a large white Hower. The root
is eaten by the people who live near the lake Man
zaieh. The rivulets near Damietta abound with
this Hower, which rises 2 feet above the water. It
was the rose of ancient Egypt, the favourite (lower
of the country, .and was often made into wreaths
or garlands, placed on the foreheads of women, or
held in their hands, and smelt for its fragrance.
It freciuently apjiears in the hieroglyphs, where it
re])reseiits the I ]i]ier Country <u- Southern Egypt,
and ca]>itals of columns, jnows of boats, and heads
of staves were often f.ashioned in its shape. In
mythology it was the emblem of Nefer Tumi :
Hiupocnitcs is seated upon it : and there was a
m\slical lotus of the s\in. fhe lotus of Chinese
and Hindu myth(dogy is the Nelumbo ((|.v.).
Lotto. LoHKN'Zi), |iainter. w.is liorn about 1480
in Venice, and died about l."i.j6 in Loretlo, where
he was latterly supported by the Santa (Jasa, on
which he had bestowed his property. He painted
mainly religious and allegorical subjects. See
monograph by Herenstm (London, 1895).
Lot/4'. lii'lioi.K lli-;iiMANX, ]ihilosopher.
was born at Itautzen in Saxony, on 21st .May
1817, studied both medicine and philosophy at
Leipzig, was apixiinted ])rofessor of the latter
subject at the s.anie univei-sity in 1842 and at
(iottingen in 1844: in 1881 he tnoved to Herliii.
but died on 1st July of that year. It was as a
]ihysiologist that lu- tii-st attracted notice by his
articles contributed to Wagner's Udiidiriirtirtim-li
tier I'lnjsioliiijir. In these he combated the now
exploded doctrine of vitalism or a specific ' Lebens-
LOUDOX
LOUIS IX.
721
kiaft,' anil ai;jueil for a tliorougli-<joiiig mechanical
treatment of the phenomena of life. Tlie same
views were expressed in his O'oieral P/i //.■iio/n;/;/ of
Bodily Life (1851), ami led many to rank him with
the materialistic thinkers of the day, though his
real philosophical position, to which he remained
constant through life, had been already expressed
in his Mctaphi/sik, piihlished in 1841. The most
comprehensive statement of his views on nature
and man is contained in his Microrosmus, published
in .3 vols, in lS.=>6-64 ( tth ed. 1SS,> ; Eng. trans. 2
vols. 18S6). By this book, which he calls 'an
attempt at an anthropology,' and in which he in-
vokes the example of Herder, he is most widely
known. Its attractive style and the semi-popular
character of some of its disquisitions have contrib-
uted to make it read beyond the schools. A more
systematic presentation of his thought on which
he was at work towards the close of his life was
cut short by death. Only two of the three promised
volumes appeared, the first on Logic (1874; 2d ed.
1880; Eng. trans. 1884), and the second on Meta-
physics ( 1879 ; 2d ed. 1884 : Eng. trans. 1884 ). In
addition to the works named, his Medieinische
Psychohffie (IS5'2) and his Oeschichtc dec Msthctik
in Dciitschland (18G8) deserve mention. The
paragiaphic summaries of his lectures which he
was wont to dictate to his students, published in a
series of small volumes since his death, afford a use-
ful conspectus of his views. Their publication and
translation into English may be taken as a sign of
the important influence which Lotze had of late
come to exercise upon contemporary thought.
Philosophically, Lotze comes of tlie lineage of
Leibnitz and Herbart ; he starts, that is to say,
from the standpoint of individualism or monadisiii.
But he has also been po« erfully influenced by Hegel
and the German iilealists, and he rounds oli' his
individualism witli the doctrine of one infinite real
Being, within which individuals act and live. He
considers this tlie only supjiosition which can
explain the action of individual things upon one
another. Lotze carries on, however, a constant
polemic against what he considers the exclusively
intellectual and abstract character of Hegelianism,
and his own philosophy may be treated as in great
part a justification and rea.ssertion of feeling — in
other words, of the demands made by man's
ethical, a'sthetic, and religious instincts. His
other polemic is against the so-called scientific
philosophy of the age. While conceding to
mechanism its fullest rights in the explanation of
events, Lotze everywhere insists that mechanism
gives only, as it were, the scatfolding of existence,
and that the meaning of the universe can only be
read in the light of the Highest Good. Mechanism
must be regarded philosophically as the instrument
of pvirpose. Lotze's doctrine is therefore a teleo-
logical idealism, largely ba-sed on ethical considera-
tions. His distinction, however, is not that of a
systeni.atic thinker, and he combats the deductive
tendency of his predecessors in German philosophy ;
his worfcs otter us acute and suggestive reflections
on the cliief sul)jects of philo.sopliical interest. See
H. Jones, Tlic I'kilusuphy of Lotze ( I8iJ.j).
London. Gideon Ersst, FiiEiHEun von,
Austrian generalissimo, was horn on 2il I'ebniarv
1716, at Tootzen, in Livonia, whither his .ancestor
had migrated irom Ayrshire in the 14tli century.
In I73'2 he entered the Kussian service, but ten
years later exchangeil into that of Austria, soon
afterwards marrj'ing and turning Catholic. In the
Seven Years' War he won the title of Kreili<'rr
( Baron ) at Hochkirch ( 17.")8) ; at Kunersdorf ( 1759)
he turned defeat into victory ; and his lo.ss of the
battle of Liegnitz (1760) was due mainly to Lacy
and Daun. As fieldniarHh.al he connnanded in the
war of the Bavarian succession (1778), and against
306
the Turks (1788-89), capturing Belgrade and Sem-
endria. He died at Neutitschein, 14th .July 1790.
For an admirable estimate of his great military
genius, see his Life by Colonel Malleson (Loud.
18S4).
Loudon, ■loiix Cl.vidil-s, a distinguished
botanist and horticulturist, born April 8, 1783, at
Cambuslang, in Lanarkshire. He became a
"ardener, and in 1803 published Ohscrrations on
I.tiying out Public Squares, and in 1805 .a Treatise
oil Hothouses ; later lie wrote, with an ardour that
neither ill-health nor poor circumstances could
abate, a long series of books on botany, mostly
of a somewhat popular character, which have
contributed much to extend a knowledge ot th.at
.science and a t.aste for horticulture. Amongst
these are the Eiicijclopicdia of tiardenimj (1822),
and of Agriculture (1825); the Greenhouse Com-
panion ( 1825) ; the Encyclopadia of Plants ( 1829),
and the Arboretum et Frnticctum Briiannicum
(8 vols. 1838), containing a very full account of the
trees and shrubs, indigenous or introduced, growing
in the open air in Britain. This last is his gre.atest
work ; but the expense attending the publication,
owing chiefly to the number of plates, involved
him in pecuniary ditiiculties. He died at B.ays-
water, December 14, 1843. Loudon established
four difi'erent magazines, which he edited simul-
taneously with his Arboretum. In his work he
was greatly aided by his accomplished and devoted
wife.
Loughborough, a municipal borough, incor-
porated in 1888, of Leicestershire, 11 miles NNW.
of Leicester. The Decorated parish church dates
from the 14th century, but has a I'erpendioular
tower. The grammar-school w.as founded in 1495,
the girls' grammar-school in 1849, and a free library
in 1885. Ho.siery is the st.aple manufacture ; and
bell-founding «as introduced in 1840, the great
Bell (q.v.) of St Paul's being cast here in 1881.
<Jther industries are dyeing, brick-making, and the
manufacture of machinery. There is an active
trade in coal. .John Howe .and Cleveland were
niitives, and Wedderburn took hence his title Lord
Loughborough. Pop. (1851) 10,900; (1891)18,196.
See Diiiiock-Fletcher's two monographs (1883).
Loughrca'. a market-town in County Galw.ay,
beautifully situated on a little fresh-water lake, 17
miles SW. of Ballinasloe. It has ruins of a castle
and Carmelite monastery, both of about 1300.
l>oi>. 3159.
Louis I. of Bavaria. See Bavari.\.
Louis IX.. or St Lor is, king of Fr.ance,
born at Poissy, April 25, 1215, .succeeded his
father, Louis VIII., in 1226. His mother, Blanche
of Ca.slile, a woman of great talent and sincere
piety, was regent during his minority, and bestowed
on him a strictly religious education, which materi-
ally influenced his character and policy. When
Louis attained his niajoiity he became involved in
a war with Henry 111. iif England, and by his
victories compelled the English king to .acknow-
ledge French suzerainty in Guieiine. During a
dangerous illness he made a vow that, if he
recovered, he would go in persim as a crnsader,
and accordingly, having appointed his mother
regent, he sailed in August 1248, with 40,000 men
to Cyprus, wlience, in the following spring, he pro.
ceeded to Egypt, thinking by the coni|Uest of that
country to open the w.ay to Palestine. He took
Damietta, but was afterwards defeated and taken
prisoner by the Mohammedans. A ransom of
KMJ.OOO marks of silver procured his release on
M.ay 7, 1250, with the remnant (6000 men) of his
army. He jiroceeded by sea to Acre, and remained
in Palestine till the death of his mother ( November
1252) compelled his return tu France. Having n
722
LOUIS XI.
LOUIS XIV.
large number of blood-relations among tlie dukes
and counts of France, he used these to strengthen
the ' legitimist ' loyalty to his house, determined
by the Pragmatic Sanction the relation of the
French Church to the pope, founded the theological
college in Paris famous under the name of ' La
Sorbonne,' gave France a new judicial organisa-
tion by setting up in the provinces royal courts of
.justice or parliaments, whicli superseiW the juris-
diction of the ' lord of the manor,' and grailuallv
gave rise to the noblesse de rohc, fiom amongst whicli
the kings recruited their civil servants. A code of
laws was brought into use, known as the £tablUse-
ments de St Louis. Louis embarked on a new
crusaile, July 1, 1270, and proceeded to Tunis ;
but a pestilence breaking out in the French
camp carried oft' the .greater part of the armv and
the king himself. He died August 25, 1270'; and
his son, Philip III., was glad to make peace and
return to France. Pope Boniface VIII. canonised
him in 1297. See the Vie de St Louis by Joinville
(q.v.), Louis's friend, and Wallon's Life of him (2d
ed. Paris, 1878).
Louis XI.. king of France, the eldest sou of
Charles VII., born at Bourges, July 3, 1423, was
from his boyhood eminently cruel, tyrannical, and
perfidious. He made unsuccessful attempts against
his father's tbione, was compelled to ilee to
Brabant, and sought the protection of Philip the
Good, Duke of Burgundy, with wliom he remained
till his father's death in 1461, when he succeeded
to the crown. The severe measures which he
immediately adopted against the great vassals led
to a coalition against him, at tlie head of which
were the great Houses of Burgundy and Brittany.
Louis owed his success more to his artful ])olicy
than to arms ; and, the war threatening to break
out anew, he invited Charles the Bold, Duke
of Burgundy, to a friendl.y conference at Peronne
in October 1468. His agents meanwliile had stirred
up the people of Lioge to revolt against the duke,
in_ return for which deed Charles made him a
prisoner, and compelled him to associate in the
punishment of Liege. Full of resentment, Louis
then stirred uj) against Charles the Flemish towns
and the Swiss i-epu1jlics. It became from that
time a practice with French kings to have Swiss
mercenaries in their jiay. The Swiss defeated
Charles twice, and killed him in a last battle
( 1477 ). Louis theu claimed Burgundy as a vacant
French lief, hut wa-s prevented from gaining
possession of Charles's Flemish lands bv the
marriage of Mary, the rightful heir, to Maxiinilian
of Austria. The troops of the latter defeated the
French at Guinegate (1479), but the war was
renewed on the death of JMary. A peace >vas con-
cluded at Arras, December 2.5, 14S2, by wliich the
counties of Burgundy and Artois were handed over
to France. Louis was also successful — after the
use of means far from honourable — in ainu^.xing
Provence to the crown as a lapsed fief. In onler
to weaken his feudal vassals he greatly increased
the power and number of parliaments, an institu-
tion agreealile to the towns and to tlie middle class,
and to which he began to grant a voice in matters
of state. His favourite residence was the ehiiteau
of Plessisles-Tours, close to Toure. His cliief
advisers ami favourites were Olivier le Dain,
originally a barber, but made a count ; Tristan
I'Hermite, and Cardinal Baluc. He spent tlie
l.itter years of his reign in great misery, in exces-
sive horror of death, which suiierstitious and ascetic
practices failed to allay. He died at Plessis-les-
Tours, August .30, 1483. He is said to have been
the autlior of Les cent NonvcUcs nuui-ellcs, a .sort of
imitalion of the Decameron, and of the Rosier dcs
Gueri-cs, a book of instruction for his .son. He
founded three universities.
See the conteniporarj' Memoires of Philiiipe de C'omines
(q.v.); works liy Legcay (1874), Willert (in Enghsli,
1870), Buet (2d ed. 1886), and \'aesen and L'haravay
(1885 H se(j.); and .Scott's Qvaitin Durwanl. The
weU-known play Louis XI. is by Delavigne.
Louis XIII., king of France, son of Henry IV.
and .Marie de' Medici, born at I'^ontainebleau. 27th
September 1601, succeeded to the thnme on the
assassination of liis father, 14th May 1610, his mother
being called to the regency by 'an edict of the
parliament of Paris, which had ac(|uired a riglit to
speak in the name of all the otiicrs. .She entered
into close alliance with Spain and the pope, and
betrothed the king to Anne of Austria, daughter of
Philip in. of Spain, upon wliich the Huguenots
took up arms ; but peace was concluded at St
Menehould on 5th May 1614. The king, who was
now declared of age, conlirmed the Edict of
Nantes, and in the same year the French L'tats
Gincraux — consisting of members of the clergy,
the nobility, and the middle classes, a body more
ancient than the p.arlianients, and in which the
boui-f/eoisie sided with the kings — were summoned
for tlie last time, as the events proved, till the
reign of Louis XVI., for this constitutional
chamber showed itself powerless to agree ujion and
follow out a policy. The restoiation of Catholic
church-rights in Beam led to tlie religious
war, in which the Protestants lost almost all
their ])laces of security, and which ended in
1622. After the de.atli of De Lnynes, in 1624,
Richelieu, afterwards Cardinal and Duke, lie-
came tlie chief minister of Louis. His jiowerful
mind obtained complete control over that of the
weak king, and his policy efl'ected that increase of
monarchical power, at the exjiense of Protestants,
nobles, and parliaments, which reached its con-
summation in the reign of Louis XIV. The over-
throw of the Huguenots was completed by the
capture of Kochelle, 20th October 1628, at the
siege of which the king took part in jierson.
Kichelieu now led Louis to take part in the Thirty
Years' War, openly supporting Gustavus Adolplius
and the Dutch against the Spaniards and Austiians.
The latter yeare of Louis's reign were signalised by
the getting possession of Alsace and of Koussillon,
acquisitions whicli were confirmed in the following
reign. Louis died 14th May 1643. I'lider his
reign was prejiared the period of French ascendency
in Europe. His queen, after twenty-three yeai-s
of married life, bore a son in 1638, who succeeded
to the throne .is Louis XIV. ; and in 1640 a second
son, Philip, Duke of Orleans, the ancestor of the
present House of Orleans.
See Marie de' .MEnici, Eicheliec ; and French works
bv Bazin (new ud. 4 vols. 1846), Topin (1870). and Zellcr
(1871)).
Louis XIV., king of France, born at St
Germain-en-Laye, I6tli Sejiteiiiber 1638, succeeded
his father, Louis XIII., in 1643. His mother, Anne
of Austria, became regent, and Mazarin (q.v.) her
minister. During the kings minority the dis-
contented nobles, encouraged by Spain, sought to
shake oil' the authority of the crown, and the civil
wars of the Fiundc (q.v.) arose. Pe.aee was con-
cludeil in 1659; and in the following year Louis
married the Infanta Maria Theresa, a princess
possessing neither beauty nor other attractive
qualities. Little was expected from the .\onng
king; his eiliication had been neglected, and his
comluct Wii-s dissolute ; Imt on Ma/arin's death in
1661 he suddenly assumed the reins of goveriiiiient,
and from that time forth carried int<i ellccl with
rare energy a jiolitical theory of pure despotism.
His famous saying, 'L'etatcest moi ' ('1 am the
state'), expies.sed the princijile to which everything
wa.s accommodated. He had a cool .and clear
head, with much dignity and amenity of iiiaimci's,
LOUIS XIV.
Kreat activity, and indomitable perseverance.
Tlie distress "caused by the reli^'ious wars had
created throughout France a longing for repose,
which wivs favourable to his assumption of absolute
i)4iwer. He was ably supported by his ministers.
Slanufactures began to llourish under the royal
protectiim. The tine cloths of Louviers, Abbeville,
and Sedan, the tapestries of the (iobelins, the
carpets of La Savonnerie, and the silks of Tours
anil liVons acquired a wide celebrity. The wonder-
ful talents of Colbert (q.v.) restored prosperity to
the ruined finances of the country, and provided the
means for war; whilst Louvois (q.v.) ap]ilied tliese
means in raising and sending to the lield armies
more thoroughly equipped and disciplined than any
others of that age.
On the death of Philip IV. of Spain Louis, as his
soninlaw, set up a claim to part of the Spanish
Netherlands; and in 1667, accompanieAby Turenue
(q.v.), he crossed the frontier with a powerful
army, took many places, and made himself master
of that part of Flanders since known as French
Flanders, ami of the whole of Franche Comte. The
triple alliaiiee — between England, the States-
general of Holland, and Sweden— arrested his
career of conquest. The treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle
(1668) forced him to surrender Franche Comtc.
He vowed revenge against the States-general,
strengthened himself by Clerman alliances, anil
purchased with money the friendship of Charles II.
of England. He seized Lorraine in 1670 ; and in
May 1672 again entered the Netherlands with
Conde and Turenne, conquered half the country in
si.\ weeks, and left the Duke of Luxembourg to lay
it waste. The States-general formed an alliance
with Spain and with the emperor, but Louis maile
himself master of ten cities of the empire in Alsace,
and in the spring of 1674 took the field with three
great armies, of which he commanded one in
person, Conde another, and Turenne a third.
Victory attended his arms ; and, notwithstanding
the death of Turenne and the retirement of the
Prince of Conde from active service, he continued
in subsequent years, along with liLs brother, the
Duke of Orleans, to extend his conquests in the
Netherlands, where, by his orders, and according
to the ruthless policy of Louvois, the country was
fearfully desolated. The peace of Nimcguen in
167S left him in possession of fortresses in the
Spanish Netherlands and of Franche Comte. He
now established Chumbrcs </e lUiiiiion in Metz,
Breisach, and Besancon, packed courts of law, in
which his own will was supreme, and which con-
fiscated to him, as feudal superior in right of his
conquests, territories which he wished to acquire,
seignories belonging to the Elector Palatine, the
Elector of Trfeves, and others. He also, on
.■?Otli September 1681, made a sudden and successful
attack on Strasbnrg, a free ( iernian city, the
posses.sion and fortifiratiim of which addeiLgreally
to his power (m the Kiiine. The acc|uisition thus
made a treaty in 1684 confirmed to him.
Louis had now reached the zenith of his career.
All Europe feared him ; his own nation had been
brought by tyranny, skilful management, and
milit.iry glory to regard him with .Asiatic humility,
admiriu" and obeying; all remnants of political
independence had been swej)t away ; no Assemblies
of the States or of the Notables were held ; the
nobles lia<l lost both the ilcsire and the aliility to
a-ssert political power ; the municip.al corporations
no longer exercised any right of election, but
received appointments of odicials from the court; the
J)rovinc(^s were governed by uiti-.iitlanis, who were
immediately respimsible to the ministers, and they
to the king, who was his own )>rime-minister.
Even the courts of justice yieldeil to the alisolute
sway of the monarch, who interfered at pleasure
\Vith the ordinary course of law, by the appoint-
ment of commissions, or withdrew "otienders from
the jurisdiction of the courts by LMns cle Cac/tct
(q.v.), of which he issued about 9000 in the course
of his reign. He asserted a right to dispose at bis
ideasure of all properties within the boundaries of
his realm, and took credit to himself for gracious
moderation in exercising it sparingly. The court
was the very heart of the political and national life
of France, and there the utmost splendour was
maintained ; and a system of etiquette was estab-
lished which was a sort of perpetual worship of
the king.
It was a serious thing for France and the world
when Louis fell under the control of his mistress,
Madame de Maintenon (q.v.), whom he married
in a halt-private manner in 168.5, and who was
herself governed liy the Jesuits. One of the
first etl'ects of this change was the adoption of
severe measures against the Protestants. \\'hen it
was falsely reported to Louis that his troops had
dragooned all heretics into conversion, he revoked
the Edict of Nantes in 168.5, and then ensued a
bloody persecution ; whilst more than half a
million of the best and most industrious of the
inhabitants of France fled, carrying their skill and
industry to other lands. Yet Louis was by no
means willing to yield too much power to the pope ;
and, (piarrelling with him concerning the revenues
of vacant bishoprics, he convened a council of
French clergy, which declared the pajial power to
extend only to matters of faith, and even in these
to be dependent upon the decrees of councils.
The Elector of the Palatinate having died in
May 1685, and left his sister, the Duchess of
Orleans, heiress of his nu)vable property, Louis
claimed for her also all the allodial lands ; and
from this and other causes arose a new European
war. A French army invaded the Palatinate,
Baden, Wiirtemberg, and Treves in 1688. In 1689
the Lower Palatinate and neighbouring regions
were laid waste by fire and sword. This atrocious
proceeding led to a new coalition against Fiance.
Success for a time attended the French arms, par-
ticularly in Savoy and at the b.attle of Steinkerk.
Reverses, however, ensued ; the war was waged for
years on a great scale, and with various success ;
and after the French, under Luxembourg, had
gained, in 169.S, the battle of Ncerwinden, it was
found that the means of waging war were veiy
much exhausted, ami Louis concluded the jieace
of Ryswick on 20tli September 1697. The navy
destroyed, the finances grievously embarrassed, the
peo])le suH'ering from want of food, an<l discontent
becoming deep ,and general, Louis placed the Count
D'Ari'enson at the head of the police, and estab-
lished an unparalleled system of espionage for the
maintenance of his own despotism. The power of
Madame de Maintenon ami lier clerical advisers
became more and more absolute at the court, where
scandals of every kind increased.
When the death of Charles II. of Spain took
place, on 1st November 1700, it was found that
Louis had obtained his signature to a will by which
he left all his dominions to one of the grandsons
of his sister, who had been Louis's (pieen. l.iiuis
supported to the utmost the claim of his grandson
(Philip v.), whilst the Emperor Leopold su]iported
that of bis son, afterwarcfs the Enqieror ( 'liarles
VL But the power of France was now weakened,
and the war had to be maintained both on the side
of the Netherlamis and of Italy. One blooily
<lefeat followed another ; Marlbonmgh was victori-
ous in the Low Countries, and Prince Eugene in
Italy ; whilst the forces of Louis were divided and
weakened by the employment <tf large liodies of
troo]is against the Camisards in the Ccvennes, for
the extinction of the last relics of Protestantism.
.
724
LOUIS XIV.
LOUIS XV.
Ou the lltli A]ni\ 171."? pe.ioe was conclmleil at
Utrecht, the Kreiioh prince obtaining the Spanish
throne, l>nt France sacrificing vahiaUle colonies.
A terrH)lo fermentation now prevailed in France,
and the conntrv was almost completely ruine<l ;
but the mcmarch maintained to the last an unbend-
ing despotism. He died, after a short illness, 1st
September 1715. He was succeeded by his great-
grandson, Louis XN'. His son, the daui>hin, and
his eldest grandson, the Duke of Brittany, had
both died in 1711. Louis had a niimbor of natural
children, and he had legitinilsed tho.se of whom
Jladame de Montespan was the mother ; but the
Paris parliament, which made no objection to
recording the edict when required by him, made as
little objection to annulling it when recjuired by
the next government. The ' works ' of Louis XIV.
(6 vols. Paris, INOli), containing his Instructions for
his sons, and many letters, afford important in-
formation as to liis character and the history of liis
reign. The reign of Louis XIV. is regarded as the
Augustan age of French literature and art, and it
can hardly be doubted that France has never since
produced poets like Corneille and Racine in
tragedy, or Molicre in comedy, satirists like
BoUeau, or church orators and divines like Bossuet,
Fenelon, Bourdaloue, and Massillon.
SeeXuHaire'sSierlcde-LouisXIV. (1740), the Mhnoires
of Saint-.Simon (1788; in English, abridged, 1870); and
other works by Gaillardiu (6 vols. 1871-76), Cosnao
(8 vols. 1874-81), Cheruel (4 vols. 1878-80), Miohelet
(3d ed. 1.S7.5), Michaud (1.S82-83), Chotard (IHltO), Du
Cause de Nazell ( 18',tll ), Pardee (1886), Hassall (lt>'J5) ;
for "le stj'le Louis Quatorze' in art, Genevay (1887).
Louis XV., king of France, the great-grandson
of LouLS XIV., born at Versailles, i5th February
1710, succeeded to the throne 1st September 1715.
The Duke of Orleans, as first prince of the blood,
■was recent during the minority of the king, whose
education was entruste<l to ilarshal ^'illeroi and
Cardinal Fleury. The regent and the country
l)ecame incomprehensibly infatuated with the
financial schemes of the Scotsman Law (cj.v. ).
All available capital was drawn away from agri-
culture and trade, pocketed by the financial cliques,
the court, and the state, whose debt was thereby
substantially reduced, aiul worthless paper-monej'
issued instead. Every kind of imlulgencein luxury
and vice accompanied in high pl.aces this financial
insanity. When Louis was fifteen yeai-s of age he
married Maria Lesczyuski, daughter of Stanislas,
the dethroned king of Poland. .A.t the death of
the regent and of his shameless prime-minister
Cai-diual Dubois, Louis reigned personally, and put
at the head of affairs bis old, wise, and prudent
teacher Cardinal Fleury, who repaired somewhat
the economic disasters of his predecessors, and set
his face against a warlike policy.
Louis having become involved in the war of the
Poli.sh Succession through his father-in-law, the
duchy of Loriaine was without much fighting
obtained for the latter, and for the French crown
after him. When the war of the Austiian succes-
sion broke out (1740) Cardinal Fleury was avei-se
to burdening the state with fresh debt and new
military charges in support of the claims of the
prince-elector of JSavaria to the imperial crown.
Louis was then falling under the influence of a
number of voluptuous and immoral noblemen, who
set up a barrier between him and his wife, and
delivered him into the hands of vice. Fleury lost
ground ; the government became a toy for ambi-
tious courtiers and dissolute women, in the satis-
faction of whose vanity war was declareil against
Austria. After a course of easy conquest in 1741
the French were badly beaten in 1742 : regret and
worry broujjht Fleurv to the grave in the next
year. But in the following yeai-s France, in alli-
ance with Frederick the Great of Prussia, was
repeatedly victorious on land, at Fontenoy (l7-i->),
for instance, where Louis delighted his latest
mistress with the flight of English, I)\itch, and
Austrian troops, though on the sea the English
put an end to the French navy and sea-faring trade.
When peace was signed at Aix-la-Chapelle France
had nothing to .show save the ruinous disorganisa-
tion of her finances.
The king now sank completely under the control
of Madame de Pomiiadour, who was both concubine
and procuress, and to whom he gave notes on the
treasury for enormous sums, amounting in all to
hundreds of millions of livres. War broke out
again with Britain concerning the boundaries of
Acadia ( Nova Scotia ), and was for souie time
prosecuted with considerable vigour. In 1756 an
extraordinary alliance was formed between France
and Austria, contrary to the polic\' of ages, and
chiefly through the influence of Madame de I'om-
padour. Directed ag^ainst Prussia as a threatening
Protestant power, this alliance had no other result
than Frederick the (ireat's complete victory over
the French at Kossbach. The state of the finances,
the dispirited condition of the army, and the out-
ciy of the ilistressed ])eople were not sullicient to
induce the king to make peace ; but, governed
by his mistress, he obstinately jjcrsevered in war,
even after the terrible defeat of Minden in
1759 : whilst the British conquered almost all
the French colonies both in the East and West
' Indies, with Cape Breton and Canada. A peace
most humiliating to France was at last concluded
in 1763.
Louis, although indifterent to the ruin of his
people, and to everything but his own vile pleasures,
was reluctantly compelled to take part in the con-
test between the Paris parliament and the Jesuits
(q.v.), the result of which was the suppression
of the order in 1764. The parliament, embcddened
by success in this cimtest, now attempted to
limit the power of the crown by refusing to
register edicts of taxation ; but the king main-
tained his own absolute and supreme authority,
thanks to the indifference with which the people
and the middle class viewed the privileges of the
noblcsne dc robe. The Due de Choiseul was now-
displaced from office, .a new mistress, Madame du
Barry, having conn; into the jilace of Madame
de Pomi)adonr ; and a ministry was formed under
the Duke d'Aiguillon, every member of which w;is
an enemy of the ])arlianients and abjectly immoral.
The councilloi-s of the ])arliament of Paris were
removed from their offices, and banished with great
indignity ; an interim parliament was a|)i)ointed
(January 1771), which duly obeyed the court.
The princes of the blood protested against this
arbitrary act, which left them without any means
of apjieal against the royal will. The king, when
told of the ruin of the country aiul the misery and
discontent of the people, only remarked that the
monarchy would last as long a.s his life, and con-
tinued his cour.se of sensual pleasures and trilling
amusements. He boa.sted of being the best cook
in France, and was much gratified when the
courtiei-s ate eagerly of the dishes which he had
prepared. His gifts to Madame du Barry, not-
withstanding the embarrassment of the finances,
in five years amounted to 180 millions of livre.s.
At last Louis, whose constitution was alreaily
shattered frum the effects of a life of vice, w.is
seized with smalljiox, and on 10th -M.ay 1774 he
died in abject misery, so far from being regrette<l
that his funeral was a .sort of jiopular festival, and
was celebrated with pasquils ami merry ballads.
Such was the end of Louis ' le Bien-ainie. '
See Voltaire's Silcle dc Louis XV. (2 vols. 1768-70),
and other works by Tocqueville ( 2d ed. 1847), Bonlioinme
LOUIS XVI.
LOUIS XVIL
725
(1873), the Duke Je Broglie ( Ens. trans. 1S79), Vaudal
( 1SS2), Perkins ( WJ7 ), and Waddin-ton ( IS'Jl ).
Louis XVI.. king of France, Tiorn 23(1 August
lT.i4, \va* the lliiril son of tlie lUiuiiliin, Louis, only
son of Louis XV. He was styled Due de IJerri
until, by the death of his father and his elder
broiliei^, he became dauiihin. lie had a vigoious
frame, Wiis fond of hunting ami nianly exercises,
took gieat i^leasure in making locks and such
mechanical laboui's, and showed an a|>tituile for
geometry but none for political science. In the
midst of the most corrupt of courts he grew up
temperate, honest, and moral. He was married on
lOtli May 1770 to ilarie Antoinette, the youngest
daughter of the Empress Maria Tlieresa.
AVhen Louis iiscended the throne the public
treasury was empty, the state burdened Avith a
debt of 400C) millions of livres, all borrowing credit
Wii-s exhausted, the people were crushed under the
weight of taxes, and all respect had gone from
king, court, church, and governing classes. Per-
sonally full of good-will, he faileil to restrain the
excesses of his brothers and to resist the influence
of his proud and high-handed consort. He yielded
unAv-isely to the advice of his first prime-minister,
Maurepas, an incompetent and narrow-minded
courtier, in restoring to the Paris and provincial
parliaments their semi-political rights in the matter
of public expenditure and local taxation. The
accession of Malesherbes and Turgot to the ministry
heralded thoroughgoing reforms, which Voltaire
hailed as the ' ilawn of the age of reason ' in French
politics. But these proposals, accepted by the
king, were rejected by the court, the aristocracy,
the parliaments, and tlie church. Turgot resigned
his office. Yet Louis succeeded in the remission
of some of the most odious taxes, the abolition of
the last relics of serfdom, the abolition of torture
in judicial investigations, a reduction of the exi)en-
diturc of the court, and the foundation of institu-
tions for the benefit of the workini'-cla-sses. He
was for a time extremely popular, tliough deeper
reforms were rendered impossible by the opposition
of the privileged cla.sses and the obstinacy of the
queen. In June 1777, when the state' of the
finances seemed nearly desperate, Necker was made
Director-general, and succeeded in bringing them
to ;i more tolerable condition, without any very
radical change; but, from the interference of France
in the American war of indepen<lence, he was
obliged to propose the taxation of the privileged
clii.'ises hitherto exempted. Their re.sistance com-
pelled him to resign. The American war swallowed
up the revenue of three yeai's. The apjiointnient
in 1783 of Calonne (q.v. ), a spendthrift, to the
finances renewed for a while the splendour of the
court. At his wits' end, he advised the calling
together of an Assembly of Notable-s, .such as the
inonarchv, especially under Kichelieu's premier-
ship, had occasionally summoned to its lielj). The
nobh-men, clergymen, state-ollicials, councilloi-s of
parliament-s, and municipal officers thus collected
showed him bitter hostility, and, when he revived
Neckers proposals, compelled him to lly to London.
His sncce.ssor, Lomenie de Brienne, obtained some
conces-sions and some new taxes. But the jjarlia-
nient of Paris refnse<l to register the edict of taxa-
tion, a-H oppressive to the people ; for the extrava-
gance of the court and the queen began to be freely
spoken of in a nation now fully acipiainted with
trie facts. The convening of the States-general
wa.-* demanded from every comer of France. The
king registereil the edicts in a /if de justice, and
banished the councillors of parliament to Troyes,
but ere long found it neces-saiy to recall them, anrl
experienced from tlieni even a stronger opjiosition
than before. On 8th May 1788 he dissolved all the
parliaments and established a new kind of court
{Com- Pleniac) instead: but this act of despotism
set the whole country in llames. Matters became
still worse when on Kith August ai)peared the
famous edict, that the treasury shonlil cea.se from
all ca-sh payments except to the troojjs. Ihienne
was compelled to resign, and Necker again became
minister. An Assembly of the States of the king-
dom, in abeyance since 1614, was resolved upon ;
and by the advice of Xecker, who wished a counter-
poise to the influence of the nobility, clergy, aiul
court, the Third Estate was called in double num-
ber, while in other respects the precedent set in
1614 was adhered to.
The subsequent history of Louis is given under
the head Fkance. All readei's of liistory are
familiar with the melancholy incidents of his life,
from the opening of the Assembly of the States
(5th May 1789) down to his tragic e.xecution. At
ten o'clock in the morning of the 21st of January
1793 he died by the guillotine, in the Place de la
Revolution. Great precautions were taken to pre-
vent any rescue. As the e.xecutiimer bound him
Louistore himself free and exclaimed: 'Frenchmen,
I die innocent ; 1 pray that my blood come not upon
France.' The rolling of drums drowned his voice.
The share of the French in the American war of
independence is a bright and almost romantic epi-
sode in the drama of this reign. Franklin kindled
in excitable Paris such enthusiasm for liberty and
democracy that the Marquis de Lafayette and
some other ideal-loving gentlemen crossed the
sea in defence of England's colonies. A formal
alliance ensued, and assistance was given in men,
money, and sliips.
.See M.MiiE Antoixette, Necker. Ti'kgot, Mibabeac ;
and wnrlis hv Soulavie (1801), Boumisseau.-i (lN2il),
Droz ( 2d ed. 1858 ), Capefigue ( 1844 ), Tocqueville ( 2d ed.
1850), and Jobez (3 vols. 1877-93).
Louis XTII., Charles, second son of Louis
XVI. of France, born at Versailles, 27th JIaicli
1785, received tlie title of Duke of Xormandy, till,
on the death of his brother in 1789, he became
dauphin. He was a promising boy. In the earlier
days of the Revolution he was sometimes dressed
in the unif(uiii of tlie National (iuard and decorated
with the tricolor to gratify the populace. After
the death of his father he continued in prison — at
first with his mother, but afterwards apart from
her — in the Temple, under the charge of a brutal
Jacobin shoemaker nameil Simon, who treated
him with great cruelty and pushed him into vicious
excesses, so that he became a mere wreck both
in inin<i and body. After the overthrow of the
Terrorists he was — perhaps intentionally — forgot-
ten, ami died Sth June 1795. A report spread
that he was poisoned, but a commission of iihysi-
cians examined the body and declared the report
unfounded.
All the attemids made by Louis XVIII. in 1815
to find the remains of this most hajdess victim of
the Revolution proved fruitless, and this fact gave
room for the appearance of a succession of false
dau]diins, whose claims deluded many honest
royalists in France. tJf these the first was Jean
Marie Herv:igaull, the son of a St Lo tailor, born
in 1781, who ran away from home at fourteen, and
soon fmind many suiiportei-s in Brittany, Nor-
mandy, Champagne, and Burgundy. In 1802 he
was sentenced for his imiiostnrc to a four years'
imprisonment, and later, under Naiioleon's em]iii'e,
wiis conlineil in the Bicctre, where lie ilietl in 1M2.
Another false Louis, who attracted .some attention
under the name Charles of Fiance, was Mathurin
Brumean, born in 1784 at Bezins, the son of a
maker of woorlen shoes. He early took to a roving
life, was committed as a vagrant in 1803, next
spent some yeai's in North America, returned to
push his claims in France, and wjis sent to prison
(26
LOUIS XVIII.
LOUISIADE ARCHIPELAGO
for seven yeare at Rouen. After the July re\olu-
tion lie disappeared. The third false Louis XVII.,
who attracted unich attention in 1SS3 and IS.'U,
was the so-called Due de Kichnumt, whose projier
name was Kran^ois Henri Hebert, a native of the
Hoiien district. The idea that he was a son of
Louis XVI. lirst possessed him about 1828. After
the July revolution he protested in a series of
writings against Louis-Philippe, and attempted
to push his claim by Mnnoircs. In 1S:M he was
sent to jail for twelve years, but eijjbt months
later .succeeded in niakinj; an escape to Lomlon,
where he died in 1845. Perhajis the most remark-
able claimant was the Potsdam watchmaker, Karl
Wilhelm Naundorf, whose claim rested on a strik-
ing Bourbon lesemldance. After many crosses in
Uerlin, 8|iandau, and Brandenburg, besides a three
years' imprisonment, be found his way to France
in 1833, but was e.xpelled three years later. He
made his way to England, and died in 1845. His
children assumed the name of Bourbon, and in
1851 and 1874 raised fruitless actions before the
Paris law-courts against the Comte de Chambord.
See Elizabeth Evans's ^'tory of Louis A' VII. (1893).
Louis Will., ST.4.NKLA.S Xavikr, the next
younger brother of Louis XVI., born at Versailles,
17th November 1755, received the title of Count de
Provence. In 1771 he married Maria Jo.sephine
Louisa, daughter of \'ictor Aniadeus III. of Sardinia.
After the accession of Louis XVI. to the throne he
assumed the designation of Moiisifiir, and became
an opponent of every salutary measure of the
government. He lied from Paris on the same
niglit as the king, and was more fortunate, for,
taking the road by Lille, he reached the Belgian
frontier in safety. ^Mth bis brother, the Count
d'Artois, he now issued declarations against the
revolutionary cause in France, which had a very
unfavourable ett'ect on the situation of the king.
The two brothers for some time held a sort of court
at Coblenz- L(uus joined the body of 6000
Emigres who accompanied the Prussians across
the Uhine in July 1792, and issued a manifesto
even more foolish and extravagant than that of
the Puke of Brunswick. After the death of his
brother, Louis XVI., he proclaimed the hitter's
son king of France, as Louis XVII., and in 1795
himself assumed the title of king. The victories of
the republic and Napoleon's enmity to the Bourbon
family compelled him frequently to change his
place of abode, removing from one country of
Eurojie to another, till at last, in 1807, he founil a
refuge in England, and purchased a resi<lence,
Hartwell, in Buckinghaiiishire, where his wife died
in 1810, and where he remained till the fall of
Najiolcon opened the wav for him to the French
throne. On 2fith April 1814 ' le Dc.sirc,' as the
royalists style him, landed at Calais, after twenty-
four years' exile. His return, under the protection of
the allied armies, had been prepared for by Talley-
rand. Then began the ascendency of the ' legitimist '
party. The powerless empress-regent was super-
seded by a jirovisioiial government, the Na])oleonic
constitution Wits set asiile, and, in keeping with the
doctrine of the 'divine right of kings,' all jiower
was claimed by LouLs XVIII. Using his discre-
tionary rights, he granted to the nation a constitu-
tional charter, establishing a House of Peers and
a Chamber of Deputies, and vouchsafing a few
elementary citizen-rights, but in every es.sential
respect he resumed the baneful traditions of the
ancient monarchy. See Fh.wck.
The nobles .and priests exercised an inlluence
over the weak king which leil to .severe treatment
of the Iin|)erialists, theRe]iublicans,and the Piotest-
ants. Tliis opened the way for Napoleon's return
from Elba, when the king and his family lied from
Paris, remained at Ghent till after the battle of
Waterloo, and returned to France under the pro-
tection of the Duke of Wellington. He issued
from Cambrai a i)roclamation in which he acknow-
ledged his former errors, and promis('<l a general
amnesty to all except traitors. But the Cbaml)er
of Deputies, elected with many irregularities, was
so fanatically royalist and reactionary that the
king, by advice of the Emperor Alexander of
Russia, dissolved it : whereuj>on arose royalist
plots for his dethronement ;ind the abolition of
the charter. Baiuls of assassins were collected
by nobles and priests in the provinces, who slew
hundreds of adherents of the Revolution and of
Protestants, and years elapsed ere peace and
good order were in any measure restored. Driven
by royalistic fanatics, the king dismissed his too
moderate prime-minister Decazes, and could not
prevent an army from passing into Spain to m.iin-
tain there the light of absolute kingship. He died
16th September 1824. See Petit's Louis XVIII.
(1885).
Louisa, queen of Pnissia, was born 10th March
1776, at Hanover, where her father, Duke Karl of
Mecklenburg-Strelitz, was then commandant. She
was married to the Crown-prince of Prussia, after-
wards Frederick-AVilliam HI., on 24th Decemlier
1793, and was the molhcr of Frederick-William
IV. and William III., afterwards eni])eror. After
her liusliand's accession to the throne she became
exceedingly popular, her great beauty being united
with dignity and grace of manners, and with much
gentleness of character and active benevolence.
This popularity was increased by her conduct dur-
ing the period of national calamity that f(dlowed
the battle of Jena, when she displayed not only a
patriotic spirit, but no little energj' and resolution.
Slie especially endeared herself to her ]ieoplc by
her bearing when compelled to endure insult at the
hands of Najioleoii. She died in Strelitz, lOtli
July 1810. 'i'he Prussian Order of Louisa, the
Louisa School for girls, and the Louisa Cover-
nesses' Seminary were instituted in her honour.
There is a beautiful monunient .and portrait-statue
of her by Ranch in the mausoleum at Charlotten-
burg. See her Life and Times, by E. H. Hudsiui
(1877), and Cernian works by Horn (1883) and
Martin (1887).
Loilisbui*g. a port on the south-east coast of
Cape Breton Island, Nova Scotia, 27 miles SE. of
Sydney. It is now inhabited only by a few fisher-
men : but there are the ruins of the old town,
which under the French had a large export trade
in cod, and was the strongest fmtress in North
America, until taken by the English in 1758. It
had already been captured by the New England
cohmists and an English squadron in 1745, and
restored in 1748; now its fortifications, which had
been thirty years in building and cost over a
million sterling, were demolished, and it giadually
sank into ruin.
Louis-d'or (i.e. '(Jolden Louis'), a gold coin
which was introduced into France in 1641, and
continued to be coined till 1795. The louis-d'or
ranged in value from about I6s. 7d. to 18s. 9Jd.
sterling. — In some parts of Germany, in the old
coinage, were gold pieces of fi\e thalers, often
popularly called loiiis-d'ur, and the name has
been occasionally applied to the French 7ta])oleo>i
or JO-fritnr piirr,
Loilisindc AlH-llilM'IsigO. a group of isl.ands
belonging to Ibilish New Guinea, and forming an
eastward extension of that island. It embraces
Sijdest (45 miles long bv 4 to 10 miles wide),
Kossel, St Aignan's (28 miles long by 8 to 9 miles
wide), anil a vast numlier of smaller islamls. AH
are mountainous, rising to ,35(l() in St Aignan's,
an<l covered «ith vegetation. The inhabitants are
LOUISIANA
LOUIS-PHILIPPE
'■27
numerous, but wild, and liead-huntei-s ; they seeui
t<> partake of both Malayan and Papuan charac-
teristics.
Louisiana, one of the Gulf states of the Amer-
ican I'nion, extends about 20() miles from north to
south and 290 fiom east to west. c«rjTisht isao in u.s.
Its land area, includingthe marshes »•>■ J. b. Lippincott
bordering on the tiulf, is 40,790 sq. company.
ni. : its inland waters cover '2li'2S sq. m. ; total area,
4S,11S sq. ni. This area is diviiled nearly equally
betweeu alluvial lands and uplands. The mean
elevation of the state above sea-level is 75 feet, its
liighest point 48-4 feet. For 2.5 miles inland from
the (iulf, marshes subject to tidal How cover one-
eighth of the .state's entire stirfaee: low, sandy pine
flats and prairie lauds occupy about one-eighteenth
each, araole lands one-eighth, the flood-plains near
the rivers one-tenth, and bluff lands, pine hills, and
uplands more than one-tilth each. Most of the large
rivei-s flow above the level of the surrounding
country on ridges formed by their own deposits,
anil the plains around, protected by dykes (called
levees), slope away into dense, wooded swamps.
The bottom-lands of the Mississippi are from 20
to 70 miles in breadth, those of the Ked, Ouachita,
and other streams range from 6 to 20 miles. But
although the flood-plains lie below, there is a large
area above the rivers' higli-water mark. The up-
lands embrace all the northern and north-eastern
parts of the state, inclining gently towards the
south, and crossing these are bluff lands, extending
through the alluvial lands to the Gulf, and forming
wonderful 'islands' covered with vegetation. Nor
is the immense plain sunounding these bluffs ever
inundated, but elevated and fertile, traversed by
deejj bayous (as minor and tributary streams are
called here). Even in the coast marshes occasion-
all.v an island-hill rises, with soil firm and fertile ;
and at other points cattle graze, whilst thousands
of acres yearly are being drained and reclaimed and
planted with rice. Besides the Mississippi the chief
rivers are the Red, Sabine, Ouachita, and Pearl ;
the entire river navigation of the state reaches
nearly .S800 miles, and there are also several con-
siderable lakes.
The mean temperature of Louisiana is from 60°
to 75 F., the climate being softened by the waters
\vithin and around the state, the profuse rainfall
(47 to 73 in.), and the breezes from the Gulf. The
vegetation in most parts is luxuriant. The forests
are dense with trees — pine, cypress, oaks, cotton-
wood, magnolia, poplar, beech, &c. Fruits are
abundant, oranges and tigs the most important.
The staple crops are cotton, sugar, rice, and maize.
The Louisiana cotton crop is about a tenth of the
whole cro]) of the I'nion ; its rice crop is a half of
the total [iroduce of the States ; and m some years
the sugar crop of the state makes 95 per cent, of the
produce of the Union. Wine is also made.
The principal manufactures are shingles and
tanks, cotton-seed oil, machinery, tobacco, and
clothing and InKits and shoes (by machinerj),
besides the cleaning and polishing of rice and tlie
refining of sugar and molasses. Tlie only mineral
of importance is rock-salt, which is found in inex-
haustible quantity at Petit Anse on Avery's I.sland ;
but hematite iron ore and sulphur have also been
discovitred, besides lignite of little, if any, value.
Louisiana is divided, not into counties, but
parishes to the number of 59. The other officials
are elected in the us\ial manner, but tlic judges of
the supreme court are appointed by the governor
for a term of twelve years. Those of the courts
of ajijieal are elected by the General Assembly for
eight yi'ars, and in tlie countrj' districts and in
New Orleans the judges of the district courts are
appfiinted by the governor, being elsewhere elected
for four years. The civil law prevails in Louisiana,
a code based on the Code Napoleon having been
.adopted in 1825. The state returns six memliei-s
to congress. Education is fairly well provided for,
and increased attention is being devoted to the
free schools. The State University and Agricultural
and Mechanical College is at IJaton Kouge, the
State Normal School at Natchitoches ; the Southern
University, at New Orleans, is endowed by the
state, and in the same city is the Tulane Univer-
sity, with departments for ladies and for training
in the manual arts. See New 0rle.\ns.
The state forms part of the province of Louisiana,
purchased from France in 1803, which occupied an
enormously larger area than the state — namely, the
whole western basin of the Mississippi from Jlexico
to the Canadian lakes. (See United States, and
the map there at p. 388.) In 1682 La Salle (q.v. )
sailed down the nver and claimed the countiy for
France, naming it Louisiana in honour of Louis
XIV., and planting a colony at a point 38 miles
below the present site of New Orleans. After an
unsuccessful attempt at colonisation by Iljerville,
the territory was handed over to the Mississippi
Company, under John Law (see Mississippi
Scheme), and New Orleans was founded. The
company collai)sed in 1720, and Louisiana re-
verted to the crown in 1732. It was ceded to
Spain in 1762, retroceded to F'rance in 1800, and
sold to the United States by Napoleon, for
60,000,000 francs, three years later, being admitted
as a state in 1812. although the portion between
the Mississippi and Pearl rivers was not actually
acquired until the Florida purchase of 1819.
The battle of New Orleans (8th January 1815)
and several changes in the constitution are the
only noteworthy events in its history until the
civil war. Louisiana seceded in January 1861, and
New Orleans was captured on 24th April 1862.
More than a hundred battles were fouglit within
the limits of the state, leaving ruin behind, whose
ert'ects are felt to this day. Prosperity, however,
is returning, and is established on a basis more
sound and satisfactorj- than of old. The finances
of the state are in a healthy condition, her bonds
nearly at par. Since 1877 political disturbances
and outbreaks which had followed the period of
reconstniction have ceased, railways have been
extended, and the assessed valuation of pro-
perty enormously increased ; and Louisiana's chief
troubles have been from the bursting of the levees,
although none have proved so disastrous as the
terrible flood of 1874, when one-sixth of the state
was inundated. See C. Gayarre, Histuiy of Louis-
Ulna (3d ed. 4 vols. New Orleans, 1885).
Population. — The principal cities are New Or-
leans, Shreveport, Baton Kouge (the cajiital), and
Monroe, all tlie subject of separate articles. The
population Ls very mixed. The negroes in the
country districts are somewhat in excess of the
whites, of whom about one-sixth each are of French
(some Acadian), German, or Irish descent. Those
of Frencli descent are called Creoles — a term which
in Louisiana does not iniply a'l.v admixture of
African or Indian blood. Tliere are also a number
of Spanish and Italian descent. In most of the
southern iiarishes French is habitually spoken by
the people ; and Spanish also is still retained.
Pop. (1820) 153,407; (1860) 708,002, including
326.726 slaves and 18,527 free coloured people;
( 1H80I 9:i!),046 ; ( 1S90) 1,118,587.
Louis Xapoleon. See Napoleon.
Loilis-l*lliIil»|>«« '^'"g "f t''<^ French, born in
Paris, tub October 1773, was the eldest son of
Louis l'hiliin>e Joseph, Duke of Orleans.^ He
received at his birth the title of Duke of Valois,
and afterwards that of Duke of Chartres. His
education was entrusted to the care of the cele-
728
LOUIS-PHILIPPE
LOURDES
brated Madame de Genlis. He entered the National
Guard, and liecanie a member of the I'hib of Friends
of tlie Constitution, afterwards that of the Jaeobins.
Alonj; with his father, he renounced his titles, and
assumed the surname of Egalitt'. He showed both
courage and capacity in the wars of the republic ;
but liis situation became very dangerous after the
unsuccessful battle of Neerwinden (1793), in which
he commanded I lie centre. He was included in
the order for arrest issued .against his general-in-
chief, Dumouriez, and on the 4th April escaped
along with hiui into the Austrian territory. He
sought in Switzerland a place of security for his
sister Adelaide, wandered about amongst the moun-
tains for four months, and accepted a situation as
teacher of geograjdiy and matliematics in a school
at Keichenau, near Chur, assuming the name of
Chabaud-Latour. He afterwards wandered for some
time in the north of Eurojje, and then went to
the United States, where he spent tlnee years.
In 1800 he took up his abode at Twickenham,
near London, with liis two younger brothers,
both of whom soon after died. In 1809 he
married Marie Amelie, daughter of Ferdin.and I.
of tlie Two Sicilies. On the fall of Napoleon he
hastened to Paris, where he was received v.'ith dis-
trust by Louis XVIII. After the second Restora-
tion he recovered his great estates, which the
imijerial government had sequestrated. Disliked
by the court, be was very popular in Paris. The
revolution of 1830 — the ' July revolution ' — having
ended in a victory of the constitutional party
over the republicans, be was ajipointed lieutenant-
general, mainly on tlie proposal of the banker
Lafitte and of General Lafayette. Throwing
to the winds the divine riglit of the Bourbons, he
accepted to reign as the elect of the sovereign
people, under the tricolor Hag of the republic
and of Napoleon. He had against him the
ultra-royalists and the republicans, and identilied
bis rule with the bourgeoisie, wlio .supjiliod him
with a policy, ministers, and inoney, in return
for their ascendency. He was dubbed with the
nickname of roi-citoyen, bis system was called
that of Justc-milieii, and his advisers were set
down as doctrinaires. He reigned for the material
interests of France, and for those of the House of
Orleans ; himself a most wealthy king, the country
prospered under his rule, and the middle classes
amassed considerable riches. Unfortun.ately, his
kingshii) rested on a democratic basis, to which it
giew more and more untrue. The revolution of
1830 bad been an event of Eurojiean importance,
and r.ang in a revival of li1>eralism in many
states wliere Louis- Pldli]ipe wo\iId luive thought it
quiNotic to give it diplomatic or military assist-
ance. Nor could he countenance the socialistic
and communistic doctrines made popular among
the republicans at home by I'roudlion, Louis
Blanc, .and others. The p.arliamcntary franchise
rested on a fr.anchise whic'i limited the electors to
the aristocracy of wealth and their !iangers-on.
The ])easantry aTid working-cias.scs were ignored,
and left a prey to ])olitical agitators. The political
corruption of the /joiirr/eoi.sic, and its wholesale
bribery by the king, united .all extremists in a
cry for electoral reform. Louis- Pliiliiqie ran tlie
gauntlet of eight attempts at murder, which all
failed. A man of great ability, but of little
character, lie w as by fear carried, with liis ministers,
into jiatlis of reactionary violence. The royalistic
statesman Uoyer-Collard joined Odilon Barrot and
the reimblican Left in resistance to the muzzling
of newspa]iers. Trial by jury was tamiiered with.
Prince Louis Napoleon Bonaparte seized tliis
op]iortunity of .acting twice the part of a ]irctcnder
( 1830, 1840). The l)uke of Orleans' deatli in 1842
left the throne without a direct heir-apparent.
Re)mblic.ans, socialists, communists became more
and more tlireatening. In vain did Louis-Philippe
provide, by campaigning in Algeria, an outlet for
the military spirit of his subjects ; in v.ain did he
li.x their attention on fiueign afl'airs by su])portiiig
the kingshi]) of Mehemet AH in Kgy))t. A home-
policy of reform b,an(|uets, hit upon by the re-
imblican leaders .as tlieir most .suitable form of
attack, and severely repressed (Ui the part of the
government by recourse to an obsolete law of the
'ancien regime,' led to violent deb.aies in the
Chamber, in which Thiers, then in the o]i]iosition,
helped to we,aken the position of the prime-
minister Guizot. Yet parliamentary means were
about to foil the re]iublican deputies, when the
Paris mob rose in arms on the 22d and 23d of
February 1848, with the comidicity of the regular
troops, the nation.al gu.ards, ami the municipal
police. Louis-Philiiipe disnlissed Guizot, and
promised reforms ; but it was too late. He was com-
pelled to abdicate, .and, amiilst the indilVcrence of
almost every rrenchman to his fate, ended a reign
remarkable for the wave of liberalism in Mliicli it
took its rise and the whirlwind of democracy that
swe]it it aw.ay. Deserted by his courtiers, he Med
to the coast of Normandy along with his queen,
concealed himself for some days, and at lenjjth
escaped to Newhaven under the'name of Mr Smith.
He died at Claremont, 26th August 1850-
See the .articles BouKBON, France, Guizot, Orleans
(Duke of); works by the Marquis de Flcr.s (I8!t2) and
Imbert .St Amand (1893), Cretineau-.)oly (2 vols. l.H(i2),
A. llumas (2 vols. 1852), Nouvion (4 vols. 18G1 ), Vil-
lault de Geraiiiville (3 vols. 1870-71)), Vantibault (1889),
ViUencuve (1889), and Hainel (1,S90).
Louisville, the largest city of Kentucky, a port
of entry and capital of Jeii'erson county, is situated
on the Ohio, 130 miles below Cincinnati. The
river here forms a series of rapids — the ' Falls of
the Ohio ' — descending 22 feet in 2 miles ; except
at high-water steamboats pass these by a canal.
The city, which covers about 20 sq. m., is hand-
somely built, with wide and regular streets, im a
level iilaiii, and sloping up from the river. It has
.a Kom.an Catholic c.athedr.al and 150 other churches,
a law school, four nie<lical colleges, colleges of
dentistry and of pharmacy, a s<'liool of ]diariiiacy for
women, ami a good system of ]iulilic scliocds. Here
also is the state institution for the blind ; allogether
there are some forty public and private charit.able
institution.s. Louisville is the greatest market for
tobacco in the world, and has large pork-jiacking
establishments, distilleries, and tanneries. Exten-
sive m.anufactures of jilouglis, furniture, castings,
gas and w.atcr Jiipes, m.aehinery, flour, and cement
are also carried on. The city is the tenninus of a
number of railway lines ; the Ohio is cro.ssed here
by two railway bridges, one of them nearly a mile
long. Louisville w.as founded in 1778, .and in 1780
named in honour of Louis X\'l. of France, whose
troops were then a.ssisting the Americans in the
w.ar of independence. A gre.at p.art of the town
was destroyed by a cyclone in March 1890. Pop.
( 1880) 12:!,' 758 ; '( 1.890) 101,105.
Loillt'. a town ill the extreme south of Portugal,
10 miles Irom the co.ast, Poji. 14,448.
Luiipill^-ill, or TltE.MBLlNG, a disease ppiilemic
or I'lideiiiic ill sheep and lanilis in e(dd spring
we.atlicr, characterised by tremblings, loss of power,
coiiliaction of the guild, and odd motions like in-
voluntary 'louiiing' (leajiing). The brain is alVected,
and someiinies the lungs ami heart.
LoiirdcSa a French place of iiilgriiiiagc in
Halites I'yrem^cs, 12 miles SSW. of 'i'arbes by rail.
Po]i. G.">17. The town nestles at the fool of a high
rock on a Jilaiii bounded to soulhwaril by the
foot hills of the Pyrenees. The bile was u Uoman
LOURENgO MARQUES
LOUVOIS
(29
niilitan- station, and was successively lield by
N'amlals, Visijiotlis, Franks. ]iasi|iu's, Saracens.
Albijrenses, Eu<;lisli (after 1300), and the lords of
lle.i.'Ti. Here, in a niche above one of the caves
of the Massabielle rocks, the Blessed Virgin is said
to have appeared at noon on the 11th February
1S.5S to a poor trirl fourteen years of age, called
Bemadette Soiibirous ; the a])i)arition wa-s seven-
teen tinie-s repeated diirinj; tlie succeeding si.\
months. A spring rising from the spot, which
was hitherto unknoA^•n to exist, was endowed
with miraculous powers ; and many miracles were
reported. Crowds Hocked to the place ; and the
barriers erected by the sceptical local authorities
(ISoS) were soon afterwards removed by command
of the emperor. The Bishoji of Tarbes then ap-
pointed a commission of ecclesiastics and scien-
tists to inquire into the extraordinaiy events that
had occurred at Lourdes during the last six months.
After investigations extending over three years,
the commission decided in favour of the appari-
tion of the Blessed Virgin Mary, the ecstasies of
Bernadette, and the miracles wrought by the water
of the spring. A gi-eat basilica ( 1876) now adorns
the scene ot the miracles, and on a level with its
crypt has been added the church of the Rosary
(18S9) for the accommodation of the pilgrims who
visit the spot. Tlie most important piljrrimage is
the National pilgrimage in August, nunibering, in
1897, 60,000 persons. The miracles and other
notable occurrences are duly recorded in the An-
luilcs de Lourdes, conducted by the Fathers of tlie
Immaculate Conception, to whose care the grotto
and its appurtenances have been confided.
See works on tlie subject by H. Lasserre ; Colin ( 1889 ) ;
Father Clarke, S.J. (1887); Barbe (trans, by Alice Mey-
nell, 1894) ; and Zola's famous novel, Lourdes (1894).
Loiiren^^o Ularqiies. or Lorenzo M.^kques,
a I'ortuguese station on Delagoa Bay, east coast
of Africa. Fop. (1896) 3692, of whom 1544 were
Portuguese, English, Italians, &c. It is the ter-
minus of the railway to Pretoria, which was open
to the Transvaal fr<mtier (.52 miles) in 1887, and
all completed in 1895. In the Boer war of 1899-
1900 it was the scene of much intrigue, and hence
Kruger sailed to Europe. See DeL-\go.\ B.-\y.
Louse and LoiISCWOrt. See LiCE, Pedi-
CUL.\KIS.
Lontb (pron. soft t/i, as in loathe), a mari-
time county of the province of Leinster, and tlie
smallest county in Ireland, is washed for 49 miles
on the east, from Carlingford Lough to the river
Bovne, by the Irisli Sea. The average width of
the county is 10 miles. Pop. ( 1841 ) 128,240 ; ( 1881 )
77,684 : ( 1891 ) 71,038. Area, 202,123 acres— 89,815
under tillage. Potatoes, oats, barley, and turnips
are the pidncipal crops ; 40 per cent, of the total area
is under grass. The surface is flat, with the excep-
tion of a range on the north, wliicli culminates in
Carlingford Mountain (19.35 feet), overlooking the
bay of that name. The soil of tlie level districts
is fertile, and agriculture reaches a high state of
efficiency. Coarse linens are manufactured. The
fisheries are valuable, esjiecially the c)yster-fishing
in Carlingford Lough. The chief towns are Drog-
heda, IJundalk, and Anlee. Louth, which an-
ciently formed part of the territory of t)igial or
Argial, was occupied by I)e Courcy in 11S3, and
formed into a county by King John in 1210. It
abounds with Celtic antiiiuities, some of great
interest. There are two round-towers, at Monas.
terboice and at Dromiskin. At Mcllifont are the
remains of a beautiful abbiv. In Drogheila several
mined alibeys are still vi.sible, as also at Louth
and Carlingford. But the most interesting of all
the relics of antifjuity are the sculptured crosses
of Monasterboice, of which the larger is 18 feet in
heiglit. The county returns two membei'S to the
imperial parliament.
Louth (hard (li, as in /ot/i), a municipal
borough of Lincolnshire, on the rivulet Liid. at
the foot of the Wolds, 27 miles KN'K. of Lincoln,
contains a beautiful parish church in the Perpen-
dicular style, built in the IStli and rebuilt in the
15th century, with an octag(mal spire (l.')0]) 288
feet in height, 'one of the noblest in England.' and
an Edward VI. grammar-school. Buiiis of Ijouth
P.ark Abbey, built by the Cistercians in 1)39. e.xist
14 mile E. of the town. Iron-foundries, carjiet-
factories, breweries, and cairiage-\\ orks are in op(>i a-
tion. Louth is connected with the Huniber bv a
canal (1761). Pop. (1851) 10,467: (1891) 10,040.
See the corporation records, ed. by Coulding ( 1892).
LOHVain (Ger. Lmren, Flemish Lcin-en). a
city in the Belgian pro\Tnce of Brabant, 19 miles
by rail E. of Brussels. In the 14tli century the
town was rich, prosperous, and large (200,000
inhabitants), due to its cloth manufactures and
its position as the capital of Brabant (from 994).
In 1382 the townsmen revolted against their
rulere, and the harsh punishment meted out to
them drove large numbers away to England. The
town was the seat of a celebrated unix-ei'sity,
founded in 1426. In the next century it had 6oilO
students, but was suppressed in 1797. Keconsti-
tuted in 1817, it was in 1835 transferred to private
hands, but Ls still a Catholic universitv, witli about
1600 students. Tlie lilirary contains' 250,000 vols.
The old walls, forming a circuit of live miles,
have been demolished. The modern town covers
only part of the enceinte, the rest being occujiied
by gardens. A statue of Father Damieii was
erected in 1894. A severe blow was struck at
Louvain's prosperity by a terrible visitation of the
plague in tlie 16th century. The modern induslry
is confined chiefly to bell-founding, brewing, and
the manufacture of leather, paper, lace, starch, and
chemicals. The town-house is a richly-decorated
Gothic building (1448-69) ; the church of St Peter
has a beautiful flamboyant rood-loft, a wrought-
iron chandelier by Qiientiii Matsys, and some good
l)ictiires ; in St Gertrude's Church are fine carved
oak stalls. The Weavers' Hall (1317) was ajipio-
priated liv the universitv in 1679. Po]i. (ls77)
33,917; (1891)40,698. In 891 KingAinulf gain.Hl
here a great victory over the Northmen, and built
a castle against them. It used to be known jis
CiVsar's Castle ; a few fiagiiients of it still remain.
See Histories by Plot (1859) and Molainis (1861).
LouvierSt a town in the French department of
Eure, 16 miles S. of Kouen, has a Gothic cathedral
of the 13th to the 15th century, and celebrated
cloth (since 1681) and ticking manufactures, besides
s]iinning-mills, dye-works, &C. Pop. 9273.
Louvoi><. Fk.\>coi.s Michel le Tellier,
M.\R(H'l>^ I'E, the war-minister of Louis XIV.,
was born in Paris, 18th January 1641. His father
w;is Chancellor and Secretary of State in the war
department ; the son joined him as assistant-
secretaiy in 1662, and became war-minister in
1668. The iii-st great task he set himself was to
organise the armies of Fiance. He created a
standing army, gave it a corps of oflicers recruited
by coiiijiulsion from among the nobility, estab-
lished commissariat and hospital services, and
founded the Hotel des Invalides and various mders
of merit. In the drilling of the armies he had a
ready agent in Martinet, whose name is not yet
forgotten in military life. His labours bore their
fniit in the gieat war thai ended with the jicace
<if Ninicguen ( 1678). During the following years
Louvois t<iok a leading part in the caiitiiic of
Strasburg, in 1681, in time of jirofound iieaci', and
in the persecution of the Protestants through the
730
LOUVRE
LOVEDALE
dicagonnailes after the Revocation of the Eilict of
Nantes. Louvois, a man of stronj; will, was over-
bearini; and antocratie, brutal and cynical, un-
scnipuloiis in his means, but consistent and sinj;le
in his aims — tlie aj;;;randisenient of France and tlie
maintenance of his own position. He died sud-
denly on IGtli July IG9I. See Life bv C. Kousscl
(6th' ed. 4 vols. 1879); and Chotard's'XoKis X/K.,
Loiivois, Vatiban (1890).
Louvre (Fr. fomxrt, ' the opening'), an orna-
mental opening of a turret shape, placed on the
roof, to allow the smoke
or foul air to escape
from large apartments,
such as halls, kitchens,
&c. These were par-
ticularly required in
ancient times, when the
fire was ]daced in the
centre of the room, and
there was no chimney
to cany otf the smoke.
They are frequently
used as ornaments
where not required for
nse, and are then glazeil
and made into Lanterns
(q. V. ). The sides of
the louvre were lined
with liorizontal over-
lapped boarding, with
a space between the
boards, which let out
the smoke without
Hence, this sort of boarding,
the windows of bell-towers.
For
Louvre.
admitting the rain.
frequentl.v used for
&c. , acquired the name of louvrc-boanlitiij.
the palace of the Louvre, see Pauls.
Luvage (Lir/Ksticum), a genus of plants of the
natural older Umbellifera;, allied to Angelica ; the
fruit is elliptical ; each carpel has live sharp some-
what winged ribs; and there ai'e many vittaj in the
interstices. Common Lovage (i. officinale, or L.
Leinsticiim) is a native of the south of Europe,
with teruate deconqiound leaves, and obovate,
wedge-sliaped leatlets. It is sometimes cultivated
in gardens, and, notwithstanding its strong and
peculiar odour, is used as a salad plant. Its roots
and seeds are aromatic, acrid, and stimulant, and
are used to cure tlatulency and to excite pers|iira-
tion. A liquor called toi-ai/c is made from them.
— Very similar in appearance and qualities is the
only Hritish species, Scottish Lovage (L. smtiriim),
a native of the .sea-coasts. It is eaten, both raw
and boiled, by the Slietlanders. The llavour is
aromatic, but acrid and veiy nauseous to those
unaccustomed to it.
Lovat, Simon Fu.vser, Lord, was born aliout
11)70 at Tanich in IJoss-shire. About the begin-
ning of the 14th century his ancestor and name-
sake, after whom the clan Frascr were called in
Gaelic MacShuiii, 'son.s of Sinion,' had migrated
from Tweeddale to Invemess-shire ; and Hugh, bis
grandson, had been made Lord Lovat in I t,31.
Our Simon was educated at King's College, Aber-
deen, took bis M.A. in 1695, having the year
before accepted ;i commission in a regimcul, raised
for King William. In 1696 his father, on the
death of his grand -nc|)hew. Lord Lovat, assumed
that title; ami Simon next year attempteil to
abduct the late lord's daughter and heiress, a child
only nine years of age. Baflled in this, he seized
and forcibly nnirried her mother, a lady of the
Athole family— a crime for which he was foiind
guilty of high-treason and outlawed. After four
vear.s of petty rebellion (during which, in 1699,
he succeeded his father as twelfth Lord Lovat),
on Queen Anne's accession, in 1702, when the
Atliole family became all-powerful, he Hed to
France, but a twelvemonth later returned to
Scotland as a Jacobite agent. He was ;it the
bottom of the ' l^lueensbcrry jjlot.' in which he
professed to reveal the i)olicy of the exiled court
and a plan for a Highland "rising ; but the dis-
covery of his duplicity obliged him once more to
escape to France. There, by one (the more prob-
able) account, he was kept for some years a
prisoner at Saunnir ; liy another, turne<l 'Jesuit,
and became a |)opnlar preacher. He was still the
darling of his clan ; and in 1714 they sent
Major James Fraser as a sort of ambassador
to bring him over. Next year his cousin's hus-
band, the holder of the estates, having joined
the rebellion, Simon found it his interest to take
the government side ; his clan at once left the
insurgents ; and for this good service he obtained
a full iiardon, with possession of the Lovat ter-
ritory. His life for the next thirty years was
active in intrigues for the consolidation of his
influence ; and the man who had heietofore had
audience with ]Mary of Modcna and the (Irand
Monarque now sought and obtained a s|ionsor
for his first-born in (4eorge I. In the '4.') Lovat
tried to play a double game, sending forth the
clan under his son to fight for the Pretender,
whilst to his friend and neighbour, Duncan Forbes
of Cullodeii, he made constant ]irofessions of
loyalty. Cullodeu lost, and his castle (ired by
Cumberland's soldiery, he fled to an island oil
Loch Morar, where he was found biding in a
hollow tree. He was brought n]i to London, on
the way beinw sketched at St Albans by his friend
Hogarth, and, after trial by inipcacbment before
the House of Lords, was beheaded on 9th Ajiril
1747. At his trial he defended himself with
ability and dignity, and he met death gallantly,
Horace's line on his li|)s, ' Dulce ct decorum est
jjro patria mori.' He is buried in the Tower. A
iinished courtier, a good scholar, and a most
elegant letter- writer, Lovat was also a ruHian,
a liar, a traitor, and a hypocrite. A ('ultured
savage, he stands as the incarnation of the clan
system at its worst, the very ojiposite of Scott's
'Fergus Maclvor.' During the lifetime of the
lady he had ravished he twice more married — in
1710 Margaret, daughter of the Laird of (!rant,
by mIidui he was father of Colomd Simon Frascr
(17'2(i-.S2) and three others; in 1733, Primrose
Campbell, of the Argyll family, whom he had
inveigled into a house of ill-fame in Edinburgh,
and w ho also Ixue him a third son, Colonel Archi-
bald Fraser (1730-1815).
See Hill Burton's Life of Lorat (1847), and works
tliere cited ; also the Autobiography of l_)r Alexander
Carlyle, Sir W. Eraser's Chiefs of Qrant (1883), Mr
Hender.son's ai-ticle in the Diet, of Nat. liioriraphi/ (vol.
sx. 18811), and Major Fraser\i Maiiitseript, edited by
Colonel A. Fergusson (2 vols. 1889).
Love, Family of. See Family of Lovf..
Lov«-a|»|>U'' See Tomato.
Love-bird, a name given to various small
pariots, but csjieciall.v to those included in the
genus Agajjornis. These are at home in the
forests of th(? Etliio])ian region, are predomin-
antly green in jduniiige, and are very altcclion.'ite
both in their native haunts and in captivity. 'I'lie
name is, however, extended to the species of other
genera and from other regions.
Loveilale. an imjiortant educational ami
mission station in Siuitb Africa, 050 miles NE.
of Cai)etown, and about 40 miles W. of King
William's Town. It was founded in 1841, and
has been genenui.sly sui)j>orted by the Free Church
of .Scotland. I'esides giving a general education.
LOVE-FEASTS
LOWELL
731
it aims specially at training; teacliei-s for native
schoiils, anil teaching sucli arts of civilised life as
printing, bookbinding;, telegraphy, sinith .and car-
penter work, and the like. Its highest numbers
— titO in 1876 — have not since been equalled.
There w.-is printed at Lovedale in 1887 a brief
imlividual record of over 2000 natives, as well as
a few hundred Europeans, wlio had been educated
here, and the result was crcditalile in a surprising
degree to the institution. See K.vffiks.
Lovi'-foasts. See Agap.«.
Lovelace. Kich ard, Cavalier lyrist, was born
at Woidwich in 161S, the eldest son of a Kentish
knigiit of old family. Wood tells us he had his
education at the Charterhouse, and at Gloucester
Hall, O.\ford, where his uncommon beauty and
graceful yet modest mannei-s made him the darling
of the fair. Naturally he found his way to court,
anil went on the Scotch expedition in 1639, after
which he retired awhile to his estate. In April 1642
he was committed to the Gatehouse at Westminster
for presenting to the House of Commons a petition
from the royalists of Kent ' for the restoring the
king to his rights, and for settling the govern-
ment.' and was only released on bail of £40,000.
In the Journals of parliament this large sum is
put as personal hail to the extent of £10,000, with
a siircli/ for £5000. Thus Lovelace throughout
the struggle was confined to the mortifying part of
a prisoner on parole, but he spent his estate in the
king's cause by furnishing money to his brothers
and friends. In 1646 he took part in the siege of
Dunkirk, .and w,as flung into prison on returning to
England in 1648. During this imprisonment he
revised his poems, and in 1649 published Liicasta,
the name formed from Lux casta, his epithet for
his love, Lucy Sacheverell, who married, .says
Wood, another on the stray report that Lovelace
had died of his wounds at Dunkirk. After the
kings execution he was set at liberty, but his
estate was spent, and liLs last years were darkened
by dejection and distress. He closed the trageily
of his life in a mean lodging in Gunpowder Alley,
near Shoe Lane, in 1658. Next vear his brother
collected his poems as Lucasta: Postluime Poems
(16-i9). His tr.agedy, The Soldier, and his comedy.
The Scholar, were never published, and are lost.
Most of Lovelaces work is slovenly, obscure, and
insipid, but his name survives secure of its immor-
tality from two of the most faultless lyrics in
the Language — ' To Althea from Prison ' and ' To
Lucasta on going to the Wars.' The best edition
of his poems is that edited by W. C. Hazlitt (1864).
Love-lie.s-bleediiig. See Amar.vnth.
Lover, Sa.mikl, artist, novelist, song-writer,
and dramatist, was bora in Dublin, the son of a
Protestant stockbroker, 24th February 179". In
1818, after three years' study, he established him-
self there as a marine-painter and miniaturist ; and
to about the same date belongs his debut in litera-
ture, though it w;is not till 1S32 that his lirst book
a|ipeared, [.er/eiuli and Stories of Ireluml, illus-
trated, like many of its successois, with his own
etchings. Ror<i O'More (18.36) at once became
popiilar, ami, as dramatLsed by him, ran through
lOS nights ; still, its sHCce.s.s li.os l)een cpiite eclipsed
by Hambi Aiiibj (IS42), a rollicking story of Irish
life. Meanwhile, in 1S37, Lover settled in London,
and wrote much for the |>eriodic.als, till, iii 1S44, his
eyesight beginning to fail, he started an entertain-
ment, railed ' Irish Evenings,' which wa-s a hit both
at home and in .Xnierica (1846-48). In 1856 he
received a pension ; and he died at St Helier,
.lersey, 6th .July 1868. Of his songs may be men-
tioned ' The .Angel's Whisper,' ' Mrdly liawn,' 'The
Lowb.acked Car,' and 'The Four.leaved Shamrock.'
See Lives by Bernard ( 1874) and Symington ( 1880).
Low Arellipelaso. the most easterly group
of Polynesian islands, known also as Pauniola,
Tuaniotu, Pearl or Llangerous Islands. They aie
^ about eighty in number, very flat and thiidv
peopled (8000 in all), and sui rounded by coral
atolls. Since 1846 they are under a French pro-
tectorate. There are rich pearl-lisheries ofl' these
islands. See Polynesia.
Low Countries, the Netherlands. See Hol-
land, Belgium.
Lowe, Sir Hudson, the custodian of Napoleon
in St Helena, was born at Gal way, 28tli .July 1769.
ICnterintj; the army in 1787, he served in various
parts of the Mediterranean, and in 1808 caiiitu-
lated at Capri to the French. Hut in the follow-
ing year he helped to conquer Zante and Ceplia-
lonia, and then for nearly two years acted as
governor of Santa Maura, Ithaca, and Cephalonia.
He was afterwards for some time attached to the
Prussian army commanded by Bliicher. On 14th
April 1816 he reached St Helena as governcn- of the
island. Napoleon had landed there on the 17th
October of the previous year. The strictness of
Lowe's watch upon the di-sturber of the ])eace of
Europe brought down upon him nuich obloquy,
and exposed him to bitter and ranc<u'ous attacks
from Napoleon's friends and admirei-s, especially
from 0'i\leara [Xapoleon in Exile, 1822). He w.as
even assaulted in London in 1822. His defence of
his conduct and acts may be read in his Mfmnrial
rtlatif ala Captivite de Napoleon a Ste-HiUne (2
vols. Paris, 1830) and in W. For.sytli's Captirity of
Xapoleon at St Helena (3 vols.' 1853). In 1825
Lowe became commander of the forces in Ceylon.
He died lOtli July 1844. See Napoleon ; aiid K.
C. Seaton, Sir Hudson Lowe and Napoleon (1898).
Lowe. Robert. See Sherdrooke.
Lowell, a iiiaiiufacturingcity of Massachusetts,
the birthplace of Whistler, on the ^lerrimac River,
and at the junction of se\eial railways, 25 miles
N. by W. of Boston. The site is uneven and
hilly, and the river falls 33 feet, all'ording great
hydraulic power, which Ls controlled by a charfered
conijiany. Steam-power, however, is now exten-
sively used in the large mills and workshoi)S.
These, the principal of which are .also in the h.ands
of corporations, include a great number of cotton
and woollen factories ; 2,500,000 yards of cotton
are produced here in a week. Among the other
manufactures are leather, paper, an<l iron goods,
chemicals, carriages, iVc. Lowell was incorpor-
ated in 1826. Tl:e operatives were for years
gathered from the rural districts fifty or .a hun-
tlred miles round, and lived in boarding-houses
built and owned by the corporations, and kept
under strict management. Foreign emigration has
brought a large resident manufacturing population.
Evening and tecliiiical schools, reaiiing-roonis, a
free library, and lectureships are maintained, and
unusual attention is paid to the well-being of the
work-people. Pop. ( 1880) 59,485 ; (1890) 77,696.
Lowell, Jaiies Russell, poet, essayist, and
dijilomatist, was bom in Cambridge, Ma.ss.acliu-
setts, February 22, 1819. He copyrigbi isw in r.s.
came of a family distinguished in by j. b. Lipriucoti
many ways. His father, a friend Couip»ny.
of Channing's, was minister of the West Church in
Boston. The future poet entered Harvanl College
in his sixteenth year and graduated in 18.38, but
without any special rank. His abilities, however,
were early recognised : all bis youthful contempor-
aries were sure of his coming fame. His father had
an unusually large libraiy, not restricled to theo-
logical subjects, and the son w;is left to browse
in it. The variety and extent of his reading wius
the foundation of ids future scholarship, and the
source of those stores of allusion and anecdote for
732
LOWELL
LOWESTOFT
wliioli his writings and conversation are equally
reinaiUalile. The severe studies which made him
a scholar came long after his univereitv coui-se.
In his twenty-second year he puhlislied .1 Year's
Life and other Poems. ' He studied law, hut never
seriously sought to ^jractLse. In company witli
Robert "Carter, in 1843, he edited The I'ioiiecr, a
montlily magazine, with Hawthorne, I'oe, and
AVliittier for contributors; but after three issues
the publislicrs failed. In 1S44 he publislieil a
second volume of poems, in which were seen grow-
ing power and gieater promise. In the same year
he married Maria White, a beautiful and intel-
lectual woman, herself the author of some charm-
ing poems. In 1845 he published Conversations on
the Vld Poets, an original and suggestive book, but
immature in style and treatment. In 1846, at the
outbreak of the Mexican war, he published a satiric
poem in the Yankee dialect, purporting to have been
written by a rustic named Hosea Biglow, and edited
by the Rev. Homer Wilbur, an amusing i)edant, in
which the policy of the pro-slavery party and
the conduct of the United States government
toward an unoffending neighbour were held uj) to
scorn and ridicule. It was apparently a trille, but
it had immediate and universal success ; and from
this slight beginning came the Biqioiv Papers, per-
haps the highest expression of the poet's genius,
and beyond douljt the first of mod(M-n satires in
English. It is tlie soul of New England character;
racy with its droll humour, and sparkling with its
nutorrowed wit ; but its rare qualities are fully
appreciated only by those to whom the rustic life
and the dialect are familiar.
The year 1S48 was productive and memorable.
It was the year of European revolutions and of
boundless hopes among enthusiasts for the future
■ if mankind. A great many serious poems were
written at this time, and formed a third volume,
lie wrote The Vision of Sir Launfal, one of the
best, as it is one of the most popular, of his poems ;
also A Fable for Critics, given to the world anony-
mously— a series of witty and dashing sketches of
.Vmerican authors. It is full of puns ami grotesijue
rhymes, done in a ' liap|iy-go-lucky ' style, but is
not ill-natured, and has a basis of good sense.
After all tlu'se years it is seen that his judgments
of men and tendencies were almost prophetic.
In 1851 he visited Europe with his wife, then in
delicate health, and returned in 1852. Her death
occurred early in 1853. In 1S57 he was married in
Portland, Maine, to Miss Frances Dunlap, who
died in London in February 1885.
In 1S55 lie was appointed piofesscu- of Modern
[.languages and Literature in Har\ard College, to
succeed Longfellow, and thereupon went to Europe
to prosecute his studies. While still holding this
chair, and delivering lectures which were menun-
able, he edited the Atlantic Month/i/, beginning in
185", an<l afterwards, along with Charles E.
Norton, the Xorth American licricu; from 18G3 to
18U7. Commemoration Ode, a notable ])ocm, was
written in 1865 in honour of the alumni who had
fallen in the war of the rebellion. The Cathe-
dral (1S70), a poem marked liy ]U'ofound thought,
but lightened by some playful passages, was
siiggesteil by a visit to Chartrcs. Three patriotic
odes were written ( 1875-76), one for the anniversary
of the battle at Concord, one for the Wasliington
Elm in Cambriilge, the other for the centennial of
the Fourth of July.
His ])rose writings— il/»/ Study Windows and
Anion;/ mtj BooI;s-Aia\c Ingli qualities, and arc
likely to be enduring. Some or the essays, such
as those upon Chaucer, Dante, Sh.ikes|)eare, and
Uryden, are masterpieces of literary art. The
sentences are animated, not so much with crack-
ling epigrams as with airiness : they are (perhaps
too frequently) studded with recondite allusions,
and are often lustrous with poetic images. It is
always evident that it is a poet who writes. To
the author's friends the most delightful of his
prose works is Fireside Trarels, containing his
recollections of Cambridge Thirty Years Ago.
The second series of Biglow Papers appeared
during the civil war, in wliich the poet's three
nephews and other near relatives gave their lives
for the Uni(m. This volume is naturally graver
and upon a higher plane of thought aud sentiment.
Certain passages ( probably the best he has written)
show an intensity of feeling rare in human experi-
ence ; in others the .scenery ami the seiusons are
painted «ith loving touches ; and the nide ilialect,
so far from being a blemish, lends an indelinable
charm to the tenderness and to the descriptive art.
Lowell was an ardent aboliti(uiist, and from the
first gave himself unreservedly to the cause of
freedom. In this, iis in all things, he showed him-
self an heir of Puritan blood, faithful to the right,
without regard to popularity. In siudi poems as
The Present Crisis he came to his countrymen with
a ' burden ' like a Hebrew i)roiiliet.
He was appointeil in 1877 minister of the United
States to the court of Madrid, and was transferred
in 1880 to that of St James, where he remained
until 1885. One of his volumes. Democracy (1886),
contains some of the brilliant addresses he made
while in England, and one volume. Heartsease
and Ene (1888), embraces later )ioems, inchiding a
few written long before for the Atlantic Montlily.
The post of minister to Great Rritain is the
highest in the gift of an American juesident, and
that Lowell should have been sent to represent his
country in the old home of the race sufficiently
shows the estimation in wliicb he was held, for lie had
never been a politician. He wrote a life of Haw-
thorne in the 'American Men of Lettei-s ' series
(1S90): The Old Emjlish Dramedists appeared post-
liumously in 1893. He lived at Elnnvood (in Cam-
bridge), "the hou.se in which he Wiis born ; and there
he died 12th August 1891. His Collected Writings
were published in 10 volumes (1890-91). See J'/fe
Poet and tlie Man, \>\ the jircsent writer (1893),
and DrE. E. Hale's I'vu-cll and his Friends (l^^i-i).
LoM'ell Institute, at Boston, Mass., founded
by John Lowell (1799-1836), a Boston merchant.
See Lectuhes.
Lower Eiiipire. See Byz.\ntine Empihe.
Lowestoft, a municipal borough and seaport
on the Sufiblk coast, 118 miles NE. of London by
rail, and 49 from Ipswich, has of late years rapidly
grown in favour as a watering-place, its healthful-
ness ami tlie picturesqueness of its neighbourhood,
combined with its exsy means of access to the Uroads
(q.v.), all tending to its jiopularity. The older iiart
ot the town, w hich lies to the north, is built on a
cliff facing the sea, on its summit being a light-
house ( 1874) 123 feet above the sea-level, whilst at
its base, on the Ness— (he most easterly point of
land in England— stands another lighthouse ( 1SU6).
The modern part of the town, which has a line
esplanade 800 vards long, extends southwards into
the jiarish of'Kiikley, and is separated from the
old town bv tlic liarbour, formed partly by two
piers extending seawards 1300 feet, and partly bv
Lake Lotliing, a j^iiece
of water stretching inland
two miles : adjoinnig the harbour is a dock ( 18S3)
with a depth of water at low tide of ISA feet, and
extensive lish-markets (1865-83), the property of
the (ireat Eastern Railwav, who in 1887 conveyed
inlan.l from the port 26,935 tons of fish, principallv
herrings, mackerel, and soles. On the new South
Pier is a sjdendid pavilion, opened in 1890.
Other features of interest in the town include
the parish church ( of which Whiston, the niathe-
LOW GERMAN
LOYOLA
r33
iiiatician, ami Potter, the translator of Greek
plays, were former vicai-s), 183 feet in len>rtli, and
sur'niounteil bv a tower and spire I '20 feet high,
datin;,' from the lirst half of the 14th century ;
towntuill (1857), noticeable for its stained-<;lass
%vindows ; hospital (1S82), with acooiiiinoilation
for thirty inpatients: and Bellovue I'ark (1874),
not far from which Wiis found the clay formerly
used in making Lowestoft china. The principal
incidents in the history of the town have been
visitations of the pl.ague in 1349, 1547, 1579, and
160.3, on the last occasion the disorder raging with
such fury tliat 280 pei-sons died within live months
and 316 in the year ; its occupation in 1G43 by Crom-
well, who entered the town at the head of 1000
troopei-s, and, seizing several royalists, sent them
prisonei-s to Cambridge ; its partial destruction by
hre in IQH : a great naval engagement, which took
place ott' the coast on the 3d June 1605, when the
Dutch were defeated with loss of eighteen ships ;
and the landing of George IL on his return from
Hanover, 14th June 173(3. Pop., including that of
Kirklev, (1801) 2.509: (1841) 5304; (1891) 19,150.
See works by Gillingwater ( 1790) and Nail (1866).
Low German. See Germ.\xy, Vol. V. p. 186.
Low Latiu, a term often applied loo.sely to
the Latin spoken and written after the fall of the
Roman empire, as well as during the middle ages.
The process of deterioration from cla-ssical models
had already begun even in the time of Cicero, but
it rapidly grew until were formed gradually in
different divisions of the dismembered empire those
distinct varieties out of which grew the modern
Romance tongues. See RoM.\xcE L.\ngu.\GES.
Lowndes, Willi.am Thom.\s, a London book-
seller (died 1843) to whom we are indebted for The
Bihliographcr's Manual of English LUcrdtnre (4
voLs. 1834; see BlBHOGRAPHV) and The British
Librarian ( 18.39 ).
Low Sunday, in the Roman Catholic Church,
is the lirst Sunday after Easter. It is so called in
contra-st to the great festival whose octave it ends.
In France and Germany it is usually called Quasi-
moilo. from the first word of the introit? ( 1 Peter,
ii. 2 ) in the Mass.
Lowth. Robert, a learned English bishop, was
born NovemI>er 27, 1710, at Winchester ; his father
wa.s rector of Buriton. He was educated at
Winchester, whence, with a reputation both as a
scholar and poet, he passed to New College, Oxford,
in 17;iO. In 1741 he was appointed professor of
Poetry, and hence arose his famous De Sacra Pocsi
HehrcEorum PneleHioncs Academics, published in
175.3. In 1750 Bishop Hoadley conferred on him
the archde,i<'onry of Winchester, and in 1753 the
rectory of East Woodhay in Hampsliire. Lo«th
became D. D. of Oxford in 1754, prebendary of Dur-
ham and rector of Sedgetield in 1755, a Fellow of the
Royal Societies of London and Giittingen in 1765,
Bishop of St Davids in 1766, of Oxford a few months
after, of Londcm in 1777, and died November 3, 1787.
Besides his lectures, his two principal works are
Life of William of Wykeham (1758) and Isaiah,
a HCir Translation ( 1778 ). Lowth's Prrrlrctioncs
was one of the lirst books that treated the Bible
jMietry as literature, ami though most of his criti-
cism, save the doctrine of poetic parallelism, is long
since olwolete, he gave a new direction to the
bildical criticism of Herder and later critics.
Loyola. Igxatics de, is the name by which
history knows Ifiigo Lopez ile Recalde, the youngest
son of Bertram de I^oyola .and Marina Salez de
Balili, who wa-s l)om in the year 1491 at his an-
cestral castle of Loyola, in the Basque province of
Gniptizcoa. After the scant training of that age
in letters, he wa.s received as a page in the court
of Ferdinand ; bat the restraint and inactivity of
court-life were distasteful to his enthusiastic mind,
and under the auspices of his relative, the Duke
of Najura, he embrace<l the profession of arms.
The details of his career as a soldier disjilay both
the excellency and the irregularities of his anient
temperament, thrown undirected among the tempt-
ations iis well a.s the iluties of ,1 military life.
Of his bravery and chiviilrous spirit many re-
markable instances are recorded, and one of these
proved the turning-point of his career. In the
defence of Pampeluna he was severely wounded in
both legs, (me being fractured by a cannon-ball, and
the other injured by a splinter ; and having been
taken prisoner liy the French, he was by them
conveyed to his paternal castle of Loyola, where
he was doomed to a long confinement. After an
operation, the results of which had well-nigh proved
fatal, he eventually recovered; and with his return-
ing strength he appears to have resumed his habit ual
levity. In order to remove a deforndty which
had resulted from the first setting of his wounded
limb, he consented to the painful remedy of having
it re-broken in order to be res(>t. After this opera-
tion his convalescence was even more slow : and,
the stock of romances by which he was wont to
relieve the tedium of confinement having been
exhausted, he was thrown upon the only other
available reading, that of the Lives of the Saints.
The result was the creation of a spiritual enthu-
siasm equally intense in degree, although in kind
very different from that b.y which he had hitherto
been drawn to feats of chivalry. The spiritual
glories of St Francis or St Dominic now took,
in his aspirations, the place which had been before
held bv the knights of medieval romance. "With
souls like his there is no middle course : he threw
himself, with all the fire of his temperament,
upon the new aspirations which these thoughts
engendered.
Renouncing the pursuit of arms, and with it all
other worldly plans, he tore himself from home and
friends, and resolved to prepare himself for the new
coulee which he contemplated by a pilgrimage to
Jerusalem. With a view to his immedi.-ite prepara-
tion for this holy task, he retired in the garb of a
beggar to the celebrated monastery of Montserrat,
where, on the vigil of the Feast of the Annuncia-
tion, in 1522, he hung up his arms, as at once a
votive ottering significative of his renunciation of
the works of the flesh, and an emblem of his entire
devotion to the spiritual warfare to which he was
from that moment vowed. From Montserrat he
set out barefooted on his pilgrimage, the first step
of which was a voluntary engagement which he
undertook to serve the poor and sick in the hospital
of the neighbouring town of Manresa. There his zeal
and devotion attracted siu-h notice that he with-
drew to a solitary cavern in the vicinity, where he
pursued alone his course of self-prescribod austerity,
\intil he was carried back, utterly exhausted, to
the hospital in which he had before served. To
this physical exhaustion succeeded a state of
mental depression, amounting almost to despair,
from which, however, he arose with spiritual powers
renewed and invigorated by the very struggle.
From Manresa he repaired by Barcelona to Rome,
whence, after receiving the papal benediction from
Adrian VI., he proceeded on foot, and as a mendi-
cant, to Venice, and there embarked for Cyprus
and the Holy Land. He would glailly have
remained at .lerusalem, and devoted himself to
the proiiagation of the gospel among the infidels;
but finding no eiuouragement, returned to Venice
anil Barcelona in 1.524.
Taught by his first failure, he now resolved to
l)rei)are himself liv study for the work of religious
teaching, and witli this view was not ashameil to
return, at the age of thirty-three, to tlie study of
73+
LOYSON
LUBECK
the very ruclinients of grammar. He followed up
these elementary studies by a further course, lirsl
at tlie new university of Aleala, and afterwards at
Salamanca. In both places he incurred tlie censure
of the autiiorities by some unauthorised attempts
at religious teaching in public, and eventually he
was induced to repair to Paris for the completion
of the studies thus repeatedly interrupted. Here,
again, he continued jiei-sistently to struggle on
without anv resources Imt those which he drew
from the charity of the faithful : and here, again,
lie returned to tiie same humble elementary studies.
It wa.s while engaged in these studies that he first
formed the pious fraternity which resulted in that
great organisation which has exercised such iu-
nuenee upon tlie religious, moral, and social con-
dition of the modern world. From the close of his
residence in Paris Loyola's history has been told
in tlie history of his 'order (see Je.suits). From
the date of liis election as the first general of his
society lie continued to reside in Rome. To him
are due, not alone in the general spirit, but even
in most of their details, all its rules and constitu-
tions ; from liim also originated several works of
general charity and benevolence, tlie germs of great
institutions still maintained in Uome. But the
great source of his influence upon the spiritual
interests of tlie world is his well-known E.iciritUi
Spiritualift, of which an account has l>een already
given. He died at Rome, prematurely, worn out
by his long austerities, July 31, 1556. He was
beatified in 1609, and canonised in 1622.
His Life lias been written in almost every European
language. The biomapliies of Kibadaneira (1572), Maflei
( IsSo ). IJouliours ( 1C79 ), Daurignac ( 18(15 ), Denis ( 1885 ),
are well known ; and there are books by .Stewart Kose
( 1891 ), Father Hughes ( 1892 ), Gothein ( Halle, 18i)G ), and
H. Joly (trans. 1899).
Loyson. See Hyacinthe.
Loziire, a department in the south of France,
derives its name from !Mont Lozere, one of tlie
summits of the Cevennes (q.v.). It comprises the
arrondissements of Mende, Florae, and Marvejols.
Area, 1996 sf|. ni. ; pop. (1872) 135,190; (1891)
1.35,527. Caiulal, Mende. The department forms
the south-east extremity of the central uplands of
France, and embraces the highest peaks of the
Cevennes ( Pic de Finiels, 5584 feet). These moun-
tains are the birthplace of numerous ri\ers, which
go down to feed the Rhone, the (laronne, and the
Loire. In the mountains the climate is severe,
and little grain is produced. Potatoes, chestnuts,
fruits, hemp, and flax are the more important pro-
ducts, and silkworms are bred. The department
contains some of the grandest scenery of France in
the eroded limestone districts of the 'Causses.'
See Martel's Les Civennes ( 1890), and lietliam-Edwards,
The Itoof nf France (1889).
LliailS Prsibangr. a Shan state on the Upper
Mekhoiig, ceded to France by Siam, with other
territory, in 1893. See Sh.ws.
Liihiiurk, Sir .John, B.\eon Averury (ere.
1900), son of the astronomer and matlieniiitician,
Sir J. W. Lubbock (1803-65), was born in London,
.■\pril .30, 1S34, and educated at a private school
and at Kton. At fourteen he entered his father's
banking-liouse, anil in 18.56 became a partner. He
was chosen honorary secretary to the Association
of London Hankers, first president of the Institute
of Bankeis, and served in the International t'oinage
Comniis.sion, as a member of the Public Sclioid
Commission, the Advancement of Science Coiii-
niission, the Education Commission, and the Gold
and Silver Commission. In ISiJo and 1868 he con-
tested West Kent unsuccessfully in the Liberal
interest, but wjis returned for .Maidstone in 1870;
anil on losing his seat in 1880 he was returned
for London University — since 1886 as a Liberal
Unionist. As a politician he has devoted himself
chielly to financial and educational subjects, and
has succeeded in passing more than a dozen im-
portant public measures, including the Bank Holi-
days Act ( 1871 ), the Bills of Exchange Bill, which
regulates the whole law relating to cheques, bills,
and promissorv notes, the Ancient Monuments Bill
(1882), and the Shop Houi-s Bill ( 1889). He is an
lionorarv graduate of Oxford, Cambridge, Edin-
burgh, l)iililin, and Wiirzburg : was vice-cliaiicellor
of the university of London from 1872 to 1880;
is a trustee of the British Museum ; and has
acted as president of many of the .scientific societies,
being president of the British Association in 1881.
President of the London Chamber of Commerce,
and chairman of the London County Council, he is
best known as a man of science for his researches
on the ancient vestiges and remains of man, and
on the habits of insects, especially bees and ants.
Besides more than a hundred memoirs to various
societies, he has puljlished Prdiistoric Times, as ill us-
f rated hi/ Ancient Remains and the Manners and Customs
of Modern Saraijes (1865); The Oriijin of Civilisation
and the Primitive Condition of Man (1870) ; The Origin
and Metamorphoses of Insects (1874) ; On British Wild-
flowers, considered in Eclation to Insects (1875); Ad-
dresses, Political and Educational (1879); Sci<ntijie
Lectures (1879); Monograph of the Thi/sanura and
Ciillembola : Fifty Years of i'cience, an inaugural address
to tlie liritish Association (1881 ) ; Ants, Bees, and Wasps
(1882); Flowers, Fruits, cmd Leaves; On Brpresenta-
tion ; The Senses and Instincts of Animals (1888); and
The Pleasures of Life (1887; 20th ed. 1890; 2d series,
1889); The Beauties of Nature (\S9-2); The Use of Life
( 1894 ) ; and an interesting work on The Sceneri/ of
Sirit:erland (IS96).
Ltllieok, a free city of Germany, and great port
on the river Trave, 12 miles fnun the Baltic, and 40
by rail NE. of Hamburg. It was founded by Saxons
in 1143, in place of a former Wendish town of the
same name, lower down the Tiave. The founda-
tions of its prosperity were laid by Henry the Lion,
Duke of Saxony, who gave it a charter, and took
unusual pains to encourage its budding commerce.
He also built a cathedral, and transferred the see
of t>ldenbnrg to LUbeck. Frederick Barbarossa
not only confirmed, but greatly enlarged, its i>rivi-
leges, and Frederick II. made it a free city of the
em])ire. From this time it made rapid progress as
a trailing centre ; it Mas from the first one of the
most influential menibers of the Hanseatic League
(q.v.), and eventually its head. The citv became
in short the commercial metropolis of the Baltic
and northern Eurojie. This jnoud position was
due in some measure to the liberal encouragement
of several successive emperors, but in still greater
measure to the prudent guidance of the oligarchical
council, conipo.sed of men elected from the families
of the great merchants. The decay of Liibeck was
necessarily invidved in the decay of tlie Hanseatic
cities generally. The eventful diclatorshiii of
SVuUenwever ('l53.'J-37) was the last dying effort
of the Leagiie. Full administrative rights were
not conferred upon the burghers or citizens until
1848. At the present time the constitution, em-
bracing a senate ( 14 members) and a representative
assembly (120 members), is thoroughly democratic
in spirit. The French held Liibeck from 1806,
when they captured it and plundered it — excejit for
nine months in 181.3 — down to the treaty of
Vienna, which m.ade it a free town of the German
Confederation. The traditional connection with
ILamburg and Bremen, the last survivors of the
Hanseatic League, was kept up till 1879. Never-
theless, in 1866 Lubeek joined the North (Jeiinan
Confcileiation, and in 1868 the Customs Union
(Zol/verciii).
The free city possesses 115 sq. ni. of territory,
LUBKE
LUCANt>>
r35
including the port of Tiavemiiiule, near tlie niotith
of the river. The total popuhition was 7ti,485 in
1890, of whom 63.o00 wen" in the city of Liibeck
(44,799 in 1875). The inilustries are more varied
than im|)ortant, the chief being the manufacture
of cigars and vinegar, brewing, braiuly-distilling,
soap-boiling, and iron-founding. l.iiibeck is the
great centre for trade between Hamburg and tlie
cities of (iermany on the one side and the countries
that border the Baltic on the other. The imports
reach an annual value of about 9J millions, and
the exports of 8 millions. This traliic is mostly
transit business; for instance, corn, timber, spirits,
linseed, paper, tar, aud butter are brougbl from
Russia ; timlier, iron, steel, and copper from Sweden ;
butter and corn from Denmark and Finland ; wines
anil .spirits from France; coals (4o, 000 tons), grind-
ing and other stones, and iron wares from Great
Britain ; and petroleum from North America. The
port is entered annually by an average of 2300
vessels of 443,000 tons. The Trave was deepened
to lo feet in 1878-82. A scheme for a canal to
connect Liibeck with the Elbe has been postponed
owing to the Kiel-Elbe Canal.
The streets of the city are mostly wide and
pleasant. The city-wall was demolished in 1802
or converted into promenades. The churches in-
clude the handsome Gothic St Mary's, tirst erected
in 1163-70, though the existing edihce dates from
1276-1310, with two towers 407 feet high, old
sarcophagi, masterpieces of old German sculpture,
and pictures by Overbeck and others ; the cathedral,
founded in 1173, and enlarged in the 14th century,
with a tower 394 feet high, and an altarpiece by
Memling ; St James's, liuilt before 1227, and St
Peter's, before 1163, which contain tine old )iaint-
ings and monuments ; and St -i^gidius, which has
an excellent organ. The town-house is the most
notable amongst the secular buildings ; it is built
of red and black glazed bricks. Tlie hospital of
the Holy Spirit, dating from the 13th century, is
adorned with admirable \vood-carving. There are
a school of navigation, a library of 98,000 vols.,
ethnographic, antiquarian, zoological, and art col-
lections, iS:c. The state debt amounts to £692,380.
See Max Hoffmann, Gesrhichte der Freieti- nnd ffiinse-
Stadt Liibect (1889-90); Pauli, Liihecksche Ziistdnde
im Mittetaltcr (1872) ; and 'Waltz, Liibeck unler Wullen-
wever (3 vols. 1855-56).
Liibke, Wilhelm (1826-93), author of a score
of liooUs on the history of art in Germany, France,
Italy, \'c., was born at Dortmund, studied at Bonn
and Berlin, taught the history of art at Stuttgart
and Karlsruhe, and was finally director of the art
galleries of Baden.
Lublin, cai)ital of a Polish government, stands
on a sub-tributary of the Vistula, 96 miles by rail
SE. of Warsaw. It wjis once a great commercial
city, has a 13th century cathedral, and was plun-
dered by the Mongols. There are manufactures of
tobacco, beer, candles, soap, &c. , and a large trade in
corn and wool. Pop. ( 1871 ) 24,4.56 ; ( 1891 ) 53, 137.
Here wa.s signed in 1.569 the Ire.ity of union between
Lithuania and I'oland. — The f/orcriiiiif»t has an
area of 6497 sq. m. and a pop. ('|891 ) of 1,059,9.59.
Lubricants, unguents interposed between
.surfaces in machinery which work on one another,
with the object of lessening the Friction (q.v.),
and thereby diminishing the wear and tear, ami
lessening the waste power taken up in overcoming
friction. Various unguents are in use : animal fats
and oils, such as tallow, sperm-oil, lard, iVc. ; vege-
table oils, as, for example, olive nil and rape-oil ;
and many mineral oils. The particular unguent
bi->t suite<l for any purpose is a matter of cim-
siderable importance. Where the pressure be-
tween the two surfaces is great it is necessary to
use oils with body or thickness, since the lighter
oils are readily squeezed out from position. Siierm-
oil, for instance, is a very good lubricant, but not
so satisfactory for heavy loads and high tempera-
tures. Many oils again, especially vegetable oils,
deteriorate much faster in use than others by
evaporation of their volatile constituents.
Liica della Robbia. See Konm.v.
Luoan, tiEOEGE Cll.VRLE.S BlNGH.\5I, E.VKL OF,
British geiuMal, was born on I6th Ajiril 1800, and
succeeded bis father, the second carl, in the title in
1839. He was put to school at 'Westminster, ami
on leaving entered the army. He accompanied the
Iiussian troops under General Diebitsch as a Aolun-
teer against the Turks in 1828. As commander
of a division of cavalry in the Crimea he fought at
the Alma, Balaklava, and Inkermann (see Ci;ime.\n
War). Appointed lieutenant-fjeiieral in 1858 and
G.C.B. in 1869, he became field-marshal in 1887.
He died 10th November 1888.
Llioania, a province of ancient Italy, south-east
of Calabria, and bordering on the Gulf of Taren-
tum. It was inhabited by an Oscan j)eople, and
corresponds nearly to the present province of
Potenza and part of Salerno.
Lucanus, M. Anx.eus (39-65 a.d.), whose
Pharsalia heads the epic poems of the sihcr age,
was born at Cordulra,, capital of the pro\ince
Ba'tica, the centre of Roman inlluence in Spain,
and of a literary school which lasted on into
medieval times. Among the leading Corduban
families were the Anna'i, of whom Annanis Seneca,
the rhetorician, had three sous — M. Anna-us Seneca,
the Gallio of tlie Acts of the Apostles ; L. Anna'us
Seneca, the pliilosopher ; and M. Anna'Us Mela,
who married Acilia, daughter of Acilius Lucauus,
a noted orator of the place, and by her became
father of M. Aiin;eus, who received the cognomen
Lucanus from his maternal giandsire. Rome's
irresistible attraction for the outlying world bad
already drawn thither Seneca, the philosopher ;
and liela, with his wife, followed, to place their
son, an infant prodigy, under his uncle's eye for
the usual training in rhetoric and moral science.
Young Lucan took kindly to the hereditary cul-
ture, and under Pahi?mon the grammarian, and
Cornutiis the Stoic, of whom Persius the satirist
was also an admiring pupU, he became proficient
in the merits which won the apjilause of the lecture-
room. Indeed, his aptitude for prose and verse
was ominous of the fatal fluency which evolved the
first three books of the Pharsalia while yet in his
teens. Hatred of tyranny was the prevailing note
of the patricians, and Lucan shared the hopes of
his order as to Nero's government, not inauspi-
ciously begun. But the imperial pupil of Seneca
ere long betrayed the lower side of his character :
and a morbid vanity, courting the ajiplaiise of
the circus and the theatre, made him the rival of
charioteers and poets, and, among these, of Lucan.
At first the young emperor and the young poet
were friends, and Xero s favour had conferred on
the latter the ijuastorship, with which he entered
the curia as well as the augural priesthood. But
imperial vanity ' beai"s no brother near the throne,'
and Nero's self-love was mortally wounded when,
in a gre.at jiublic contest, the palm went over his
head to Lucan. The emperor's marked discourtesies
were returned liy his successful rival with satire
and with redoubled efl'orts to outshine him, till
Nero was stung into forbidding Lucan either to
]>iiblisli ])ocms or to recite them, .\biiiit that time
the Pisonian consjiiracy had been hatrhing, and
the emperor's increasing follies ,and barbarities
hastened its development. Lucan became one of
its ringleaders, and with characteristic impetuosity
was already di.sc<mnting its .succes.s, when tin' news
•36
LUCARIS
LUCERNE
came to him that it was discovered and he himself
betrayed. At first his demeanour was wortliy of a
Stoic : then his courage declined, till it sank so low
that — quite falsely, it is heliexed — ho accused his
own mother Acilia of heing jirivy to tlie nlot, in
hojies that the matricidal emiieror mij;ht be con-
ciliated by a similar crime ! lint in vain. He was
ordered to ilie. ami, having had his veins opened, he
bled to death in the bath, reciting an appropriate
passage from one of his poems.
Except a few fragments, we now have notliing of
Lucan's many writings but the Plutrsalia in ten
books, recounting the mighty duel of Pompey and
Cains Julius for the empire of the world. Though
always freely criticised, its acceptance in antiquity
and in modern times has been great. From
Tacitus to Scaliger and Macaulay it has found
praise and censure in pretty even proportion. Its
defects are mainly those of youth — inspired youth
trained in a school where epigram and antithesis
were sought after as the chief merit of style. It is
frequently bombastic, sometimes obscure ; so un-
steady, moreover, in its delineation that it is open
to doiiljt whether its hero is not Caius .Julius after
all, rather than the Pompey who is characterised
as 'Magnus' throughout. When at its best its
merits are those of eloquence rather than poetry ;
and for its many brilliant and apt ' sententiiB ' it
justly enjoys an 'immortality of quotation.' Its
Koman patriotism strikes so true a note that with
all pioneers of liberty it has been a favourite— par-
ticularly in the Enjjiand of the 17th century. In-
deed, the historian of the Long Parliament. Thomas
May, not only ^^Tote a respectable translation of
it, but also a still more respectable continuation in
the language and verse of the original. Howe's
translation, considered by Johnson to be one of
the best in the English language.
There are other English translations in verse by Mar-
lowe 1 Bk. t ), Sir Ferdinando Gorges, aud E. llivUey
(1897); and in prose by fl. T. Riley (1853). There are
editions bv « >iiclendoi-p, Burnianu, Haskins (18S7), Hosius
(Teubner," 1S93), and Francken ( 1S;I5-9S ).
Lncaris, Cyril, a Greek theologian, wjis born
in Crete in 1572, studied at Venice and Padua,
and subsequently in Geneva, where he became im-
bued with the Calvinist doctrines. Taking holy
orders, he rose by 1621 to the highest dignity in
the Greek Church, Patriarch of Constantinople.
An outline of liis public career will be found under
GUEEK Church {Vol. V. p. :W7). In June 1037 he
was seized in Constantinople, hurried on board a
vessel, aud it was never properly ascertained what
became of him. According to some he w as strangled
in the ship which bore liimott'; according toothers,
he sutfered this fate in a castle on the shores of the
Black Sea. His doctrines have been repeatedly
condemned by Greek synods.
LlirarilC, a Dormer Window (q.v. ), especiallj-
in a church spire.
Lliras vail Leydon, whose proper name was
Ll'c.vs .Iacou.sZ, Dutch painter and engraver, was
born in Leyden in 1494. An e.Ktremely precocious
artist, he painted a picture of St Hubert when only
twelve, and the celelirated print, ' Mahomet and
the Monk Sergius,' was engraved when he was oidy
fourteen. I5ut he was not enrolled in the guild of
St Luke at Antwerp in l.>22. He practised
successfully almost every branch of painting, and
as an engraver ranks as the equal of Albert
Diirer in everything e.\cept fertility of design.
His range of subjects was very wide, and em-
braced events in sacred history, incidents illus-
trative of the manners of his own ])eriod, and
portraits. He was on terms of ititimacy with
Mabnse, and held friendly intercourse with Diirer,
whose talents he admired without jirofessional I
jealousy. He died in lo.33, having been conlined
to bed for six years. Amongst his most cele-
lirate<l pieces are the ' Hill of Calvary,' by some
regariled as his masterjiiece, ' .-Vdam and Eve
expelled from Paradise,' ' Ecce Homo,' 'A Girl
and a Dog,' the 'Card Party,' 'St Jerome,' and
' Christ healing a Blind Man.'
Llicca. chief town of an Italian |uovince,
is situated in a plain, bounded by picturesque
hills and irrigated bv the Serchio, 14 miles by
rail NE. of Pisa. Pop. (1 894) 77,300. 'Lucca
the In<iustrious ' has a great trade in olive oil and
silk, the latter manufacture introduced in the end
of the 11th century. The cathedral of St .Martin,
begun in 1063, has a cedar crueilix re])Uted to have
been bnmght to Lucca in 782; this Volto Santo
('Sacred Countenance') is mentioned by Dante.
The church also contains several fine paintings,
the tomb of Maria Guinigi (cf. Buskin's Mwlcni
Pfiintcrs, v(d. ii.), aud valuable archives. There
are nearly forty other churches, some dating from
the 7th and Sth centuries. A splendid aquediu-t
(18"20) supplies the town with water from the
Pisan hills. The munici])al buildings (1578) con-
tain a valuable collection of paintings. Lucca is
exceptionally rich in artistic and scientific institu-
tions. The city was a bislioiuic as early as 347,
and in 1726 was made an archbishopric. The
environs abound in delightful villa,s. In a charm-
ing valley, 16 miles N. of the town, are situated
the mineral baths of Lucca, which lia\e been
famous since the 15th century. Their temperature
varies from 96° to 136' F. — The province, which has
an area of 5.38 sq. m. and a pop. (1895) of 289,800,
is famed for the fertility of its soil and the
superiority of its agriculture. The Lucchesi
are a frugal, shrewd race ; numbers leave home
in search of employment, and they form a large
proportion of the itinerant fignre-vendms, organ-
grinders, and stucco- workers of Europe.
Lucca (anc. Liica) was made a Roman colony in
177 B.C. It was erected into a duchy by the Lom-
bards, and its meichaiits traded in English wool
from the 9tli, but more especially from the 12th
century. The town had a most cliequered history
down to 1369, when it became an independent re-
puldic, which lasted till 1797. In ISOSit wasere<ted
into a principality by Napoleon for his sister Elisa
Baociochi, and in lsb5 passed to Maria Louisa of
Spain, queen of Etruria. Her son, Charles Louis,
ceded it to Tuscanv in 1847, on obtaining posses-
sion of Parma and f'iacenza.
Liireua, a town of Spain, 36 miles S. l)y E. of
Cordova, is famous for its wine ami breed of horses.
Pop. 2I,-271.
LlU'Cra (the ancient Liiccriti of the Samnite
war), a town of Southern Italy, 12 miles by rail
NW. of Foggia, has a cathedral dating from 1.302,
and a famous ruined castle of Frederick II., who
died, however, at the neighbouring castle of Fioren-
tino. Pop. 14,067.
Lucerne ( Mcd/rcr/o stttiva), a species of Medick
(q.v.), one of the most valuable of the loguminons
jiiants grown for the supjily of green food to
cattle. It is a native of the south of Europe,
and has been cultivated there from an unknown
antiquity. It is not \erj' largely grown in Britain,
but in some jilaces very sviccessfnlly, chielly in the
drier parts of the south of England. The climate
of m.any districts of Scotland is not too cold for it.
It is largely cultiv.ated in some jiarls of North ami
South Americ.i. It endures great droughls, its roots
penetrating very deep into the ground. Sir John
Bennet Lawes states that at Rothamsted he has
fouiiil it the best of all forage-cro])s for a drought.
It delights in a rich and calcareous soil, and never
succeeds on damp soils or tenacious clays. It is n
LUCERNE
LUCIGEN
73T
peroimial, anil if kept free from weeds affords good
crops for six, seven, or more yeai-s. It is sown in
rows, at 10 or 14 inches ajiart, and may be mown
several times in a year, siowin-^ very (|uickly after
being mown. The quantity of inoduce is very
great— sometimes from 20 to .SO tons per annum —
and few otlier forage-plants are ready for use so
early in spring. Lucerne ha.« a rather erect stem,
leaves with tliree ohovate-ohlong toothed leaflets;
purplish-blue or sometimes yelhiw flowei's in many-
nowered racemes, and pods twisted two or three
times round. It ou"lit to be mown before it comes
into flower, as it tlien becomes filirous and less
nutritious. In Spanish lauds it is called Alfalfa.
Lnceme (Ger. Luzem). the capital of a Swiss
canton, 59 miles SE. of Ba.sel, 147 SSE. of Stra.s-
burg, and 177 NNW. of Milan. It is very beauti-
fviUy situated at the point wliere the Reuss issues
from the northwest extremity of the Lake of
Lucerne, and is partly surrounded (on the north)
with medieval towers. Near the lake, rising from
the middle of the Reuss, is an old tower, which is
said to have been a lighthouse ( lurcnia ) in Roman
times, whence the name of the town. Outside one
of the gates is the Lion of Lucerne, hewn (1821)
out of the solid rock after a model by Thorwaldsen, a
monument to the Swiss guard who perished at the
Tuileries in 1792. Near by is the Glacier Garden,
with rocks illustrating the action of ice. The town
is a busy centre for tourists and siimmer visitors
to Switzerland. Pop. (1894) 21,778.— The canton
has an area of 579 sq. m. and a pop. (1894) of
1.^5,813. The soil is fruitful in the valleys : in the
more mountainous parts the rearing of cattle is
carried on to a great extent, large qtiantities of
cheese being made. The highest elevation in this
canton is 6998 feet, a peak of Mount Pllatus. The
inhabitants are mostly of German race and language,
and belong to the Roman Catholic Church, except
about 5650 Protestants, to whom the free exercise
of their religion was first accorded in 1828. The
canton threw ott'the yoke of Austria in 1332, and,
joining Schwyz, I'ri, and I'nterwalden, formed the
nucleus of the future Swiss Confederation. The
constitution of Lucerne is a representative demo-
cracy. The legislative body is the Great Council,
one member being elected by every 1000 citizens ;
the executive is vested in seven members, who are
not of the council. See Switzerland.
The Lake of Lucerne, called also Vienmld-
stdttersee ( ' Lake of the Four Forest Cantons ' — LTrj,
Unterwalden, Sch«-j'z, and Lucerne), is one of the
most beautiful sheets of water in Europe. In shape
it resembles roughly a cross with a crumpled stem ;
its shores .are mostly stee]) and rocky. Length from
Lucerne to Fliielen, 23 miles ; average breadth,
alwut U mile : area, 44 sq. m. The chief places on
its banks are Lucerne, Kiissn.uht, and Alpnach at
the north-west, and Fliielen near its southwest
extremity. It forms part of the St Goth.ard route,
and is navigated by steamboats, but is liable to
SHd<len and violent storms. The lake is rich in
a-ssociations of 'William Tell (q.v.) and his story.
Lncian, one of the most interesting, giaceful,
and amusing of Greek writei^, wius born in
Samosata, the principal town of Conmiagene in
Syria, probably about 125 A.n. Intended liy his
parents to be a sculptor, Lucian early .'usserted his
own decided preference for letters. Having learned
Greek and studied under some teacher of rhetf)ric,
he practised as an advocate for a short time in
Antioch. He then turned to the composition of
show speeches (epideictic oratory) and to reciting
them as a means of making a living. His pro-
fessional career thus ma<le him a travelling artist ;
and in the quest for suitable festivals at which to
deliver his declamations he travelled through Asia
307
Minor, Greece, Macedonia, Italy, and Gaul.
Having thus made a fortune and a name, he settled
in Athens, still the intellectual cajiital of the
world, anil there devoted himself to the study of
iiiiilosophy. There, too, he produced a form of
literature hitherto, as he claims, unknown. This
was humorous dialogue. In his old age he reverted
to his lirst love, recitation. He accepted a good
appointment in Egypt, wliere at an advanced age,
eighty or ninety years, he died. A Semite liy race
but not by education, a subject of Rome but not a
Roman, a writer of Greek but not a Greek by birth,
Lncian was by circumstances singularly freed
from every tie, prepossession, or prejudice which
might have stood at all in the way of his deriving
the largest possible amount of amii.sement out of
the world. Nor was this all that fortune did for
him : she brought him into the world at an age
when the old faiths, the old philosophy, the old
literature, were all rapidly dissolving in decay,
and when what the new would be was an insoluble
problem. For satire, whose nature is simjdy to
deny, never was there a fairer field ; and Lucian
revelled in it. The old faith was gone, and the
inherent aljsurdity of retaining the old deities
without the old belief is brought out by Lucian in
the Dialogues of the Gods, Dialogues of the Dead,
Prometheus, Charon, Menippos, Icaromenippos, and
others. AVhether the old philosophy was the more
disgraced by the shallowness or the vices of those
who professed it in Lucians time it would be hard
to tell from his Si/mposium, /{aliens, lUim Prasis,
DrajjeiCF, &c. The old literature had lieen dis-
placed liy novels or romances of adventure of the
most fantastic kinil, which Lucian parodies in his
True Histories. In fine, there is no department of
life with which he is unacquainted or from which
he fails to raise a laugh. His extensive travels
gave him abundant material, and his extensive
reading gave him ancient instances to confirm and
illustrate his own experiences. His Greek, though
not absolutely pure Attic of the best times, is but
little removed from it ; and this is to be accounted
for by the fact that he learned Greek as a foreign
language, and consequently picked it up from
Plato and not from the streets. Apart from the
purity of his Greek, his style is perfectly delightful,
simple, pellucid, and sparkling. The editio prin-
ceps is dated 1496, Florence. The editions by
Hemsterhuis and Reitz {cum versione Latina et
notis variorum, 1730^5) and by Lehmann ( 1822-29,
in 9 vols. ) have not yet been superseded. See works
by Croiset and Sommerbrodt (1888), and Lucian,
the St/riMn Satirist, by Lieut. -col. Hine (1900).
Lucifer (Lat., 'light-bringer'), the morning-
star ; see Pl.\net.s. The church fathers attached
this name to Satan in the belief that Isaiah, xiv. 12,
which refers to the king of liabvlon, contained a
reference to the Prince of Darliness : cf. Luke,
X. 18.
Lucifer Matches. See M.vtches.
LucigCU, one of the most powerful artificial
lamps, and specially well adajjied for lighting
large spaces, whetlier open or covered. The
light, whicli is i)roduced by burning creasoteoil,
is brilliant ami dill'used, and does not cast black
shadows like the electric light, as the flame gives a
broad glow resembling very much the eflect of the
sun. The construction of the lamp is exceedingly
simple. The tank or oil- reservoir is a plain circular
ilrum, to the to]) of which the burner is fixed. The
burner-tube, E, extends to the bottom of the drum,
pa.ssing through an outer tube F, which is pierced
with holes through wlii<-h the oil is straiiiecl, ••iiid
pa-sses down into the small well, L, in the bottom of
the tank. The compressed air enters the drum at H,
and forces the oil up the tube, £, to the oil-cone L
738
LUCILIUS
LUCKNOW
The heated air from the coil, C, enters the aiiimhir
space between tlie oil -cone and burner, wliere tlic^
air and oil become amalgamated and escape in the
form of a spray or vapour \vhi<'h is immediately
inllanimable. There are various forms of the
Section of a Lucigen Lamp :
A, air supply; B, stopcock for controlling supply of air to
buniLT : li', stopcock for controlling oil-feed ; C, coil for
heating air; D, burner; E, burner-tube; F, strainer-tube;
G, drip-cock for condensed moisture ; H, air to drum ; I, oil-
cone ; J, for oil supply ; L, oil well.
Lucigen, which was first used in 1885 ; but for
a universal lamp the vertical type worked by
compressed air may be taken as tlie best, which,
with about 18 lb. pressure at the burner, gives the
most regular and ettective light.
Lll<*ilill(>< Konian poet, the creator of that form
of ])oetic satire which was wielded so brilliantly
by his successors, Horace, Persius, and .luvenal.
He wa.s born at Suessa Aurunca, in Campania,
probably in 1()4 or l(i6 B.C. Other dates given or
suggested are 148 and 180. He was on intimate
terms with the Younger Scipio, umler whom he is
said to have served at Numantia, and of Ladius.
He was a thorough nuiii of the world, and wrote in
a bidd, independent tone, choosing for his subjects
contemporary events, persons, all'ectations, vices,
(S:c. He enjoyed great popularity during his
lifetime, so much so that at his death in 102, at
Naples, he was lionoure<l with a jiublic funeral,
although he had never held any public oflice. He
wrote thirty books of Satires, of which nothing but
fragments remain, preserved in great jiart by tlie
grammarians. The iiest editions of these fragments
are lyachmann's( lierlin, ISTIi) and L. Midler's ( Leip.
187'2 ). w ho also wrote Lchcii unci Wcrke des Liicilius
(1870).
IjIK'illil ('the light-bringing'), a name ap]died
botli to Diana and to Juno — to the latter, Juno
Lucina, as the especial divinity that ]iresiih!s o\er
childbirth, corresponding to the Ilithyia of Greek
mythology. See JfN'o.
Ulrke, CllTTFHIED CHI{ISTI.\N FRIEDRiril,
Protestant theologian, was born '24th August 17111,
at Kgeln, near Magileburg, and was professor of
Theology at Honn (1818-'29), and at tJottingen,
where he died 14th February 18.55. His "leat
work is his comnientary on Jolm (1820-25; ."id ed.
1850-.5()) ; other works are on the Apocalyjise
(•2(1 ed. 1848-52), and on New Testament Henne-
iieutics (1817).
Luokeil>vald<*. a town of Prus.sia, 31 miles by
rail SSW. of Berlin, has cloth and hat manu-
factures. Pop. 18,. 'JOS.
LllfkllOW (l.iilhnao), cajiital of the province
of t'udh, and the fourth largest city in India, stands
on the river Gumti, by rail 42 miles NE. of Cawn-
pore and 199 XW. of Benares. The city is interest-
ing, not only as the capital of the former kingdom of
( •udh, and for the memorable (lart it played in the
Mutiny, but also as a centre <if modern Indian life,
a chief school of native music and poetry and of
Mcdiammedan theology. The appearance of magni-
ficence and splendour w liicli the city presents when
seen from tlie outside is not borne out by close
internal inspection, though a vast improvement
has been ett'ected since the Mutiny. The chief
architectural glory of the jdace is the Imambara or
m.aiisoleum of Asaf-ud-I)auhi, the fourth Nawab,
who did so much to embellish Luckuow with
magnificent buildings. This edifice, built in 1784,
stands within the Machi Bliawan fort (built by
Asaf's predeces.sor), and is now converted into a
British arsenal. The Kiimi Dorwiiza, a grand and
massive gateway, leading out of the fort, the
magnificent Residency palace, and the country
palace of Bibiapur, besides luimerous minor build-
ings, were all erected by the same [irince. The
Jama Masjid or chief mos(|ue, and the huge palaces
of Chattar Manzil, Kaisar Bagh, Farliat Baksli,
four royal tombs, and an observatory (head-
quarters of the rebels during the Mutiny ) are the
most noteworthy amongst the remaining public
buildings, though the jialaces are remarkable for
little else except their great size, debased style of
architecture, and gaudy decorations. The educa-
tional establishments embrace Canning College,
established in 18(34, now with five dejiartments ; the
Martiniere College, where 120 soldiers' and civil-
ians' sous are educated ; and more than two ilozen
mission and other schools. The staple of the
native industries is gold and silver brocade, besiiles
which there are — muslins and other light fabrics,
embroidery in gold thread and silk upon cotton and
velvet, glass, clay-UKmlding, shawls, jewellery (but
declining), and paper. There are here extensive
railway w tirkshops. Lucknow is a busy commercial
town, trading chiefly in country pr()("liu^ts (grain,
butter, sugar, molasses, spices, tobacco, oil-seeds),
Eurojiean piece-goods, salt, leather, &c. Pop.
(18(59) 2S4,779; (1881) 2tJl,;iO;i; ( 1891 ) 27;),028, of
whom 20,t)00 were in the cantonments just out-
side the city: and in religion KiO, (100 were Shiite
Mu.ssulnians and the rest mainly Hindus.
The site of the present fort was originally
occupied by a small village called Lakshiiiaiipur,
founded by" a brother of Kama Chandra, the hero of
the epic J!tniiiii/t(ii(i. The city iliil not, however,
rise into importance until it was made ( 1732) the
capital of the independent state of Oudh (q.y.).
Lucknow covered itself with glory by the stirring
events of which it was the scene during the mutiny
of 1857, an<l which have been enshrined in splendid
verse by Tennyson. The insurrection broke out on
the night of SOtli May. Sir Henry Lawrence had
already fortified the Kesidency and garrisoned it
with ;^50 liritisli troojis. An attcm|it to check the
advance of the enemy at a place 8 miles from the
city was defeate<l on '29111 .lune, and two days later
the British were besieged. On 4lh .Inly Sir Henry
Lawrence died, from ,a wound caused on tlie 2il liy
,a bursting shell. Three times in succession the
little garrison, commanded on the first occ.-ision by
-Major Banks, on the last two by Brigadier Inglis,
beat back the assaults of the enemy. On 22d
September Havelock (q.v.) and Outram, with a
relieving force, captnreil the Alum-bagh (q.v.).
and on the 26tli reached the Kesidency.- Again
tlie siege was formed by the rebels, both of the
LUCON
LUCULLUS
739
Resulencv and the Alum lia;;h. The hitter was
succoureil by ISir Colin Campbell on 10th Novem-
ber. Then, after diivinf; the mutineers out of their
two principal strongholds, Sir Colin reached the
garrison in the city (16th November). Six days
later the gallant Havelock died of dysentery. Sir
Colin Campbell, leaving Outram with 3o()0 men
to hold the Alum-bagh till his return, escorted the
civilians, ami the ladies and children, to Cawnpore.
In the first week of March 18.5S he returned to the
attack upon the rebels at Lucknow, who ha<l mean-
while entrenched themselves in the city. It cost
a week's hard fighting to subdue them {9-15th
March ) : the issue ended the mutiny.
There are recent books on tho mutiny and siege by
Ladv Inglis, I'he Siege of Lucknow (1892); Forbes
Mitchell, The Great Mutinii (1895); and JI'Leod Innes,
Lucknoic and Oiidc in the Mutini/ (1895).
Lll^on, an episco|>al town of 6.301 inhabitants
in the south of La Vendee, on the railway from
Nantes to Bordeaux, and on the canal of Lucon.
Richelieu was Bishop of Lucon ; and many battles
were fought here in 1792-97.
Lucretia. the wife of L. Tarquinius Collatiniis,
famous for her heroic virtue. She was sliamefuUy
outraged by Sextus Tanjuinius, whereupon she
summoned her husband and a group of friends, and,
after malung them take a solemn oath to drive out
the hated race of Tarquins from the city, plunged
a knife into her heart. Of the poetic elaborations
of the story the most famous is the li>ng Mape of
Lucrccc of Shakespeare's youth. See Brutus.
Llioretins, Titus C.\ru.s, Roman poet, lived
in the first half of the 1st century B.C., but of
the particulars of his life we really know noth-
ing. A story was current some time after his
dejith that he died raving mad from the ed'ects
of a love-potion administered to him liy his wife
Lueilia, and on tliLs story Tennyson has founded
a, very striking and powerful ))oeni ; but it
would seem to have been a malicious invention,
started by some hostile critic, or jjossibly by an
early Christian writer who took delight in assuming
that a cham|)ion of unbelief and materialism must
have come to a bad end. The great — indeed, the
only — work of Lucretius is an essay in hexameter
vei-se, ' On the Nature of Things ' ( De Ecrum
yitturu), in six books, containing upwards of 7400
lines. The work wa.s said, but on no good
authority, to have lieen revised by Cicero. All
we know is that Cicero once brielly alludes to it
[Epist. ad Quintum Fratrem, ii. 9), ob.serving that
there are several tliishes of genius in the poem, and
that much skill is shown in the composition. This
is a very fair criticism, and it ha-s commended itself
to general acceptance. The poem, we take it, ^^•as
on the whole coldly leceived by Roman readers,
ami with the moderns Lucretius has never been a
jiopnlar cla.s.sic. The subject-matter of his work is
not generally attractive, nor is the versitication for
the most part plea-sing or harmonious. Lucretius
a.spired to popularise the philosophical theories of
iJeniocritus an<l Epicurus on the origin of the
universe, with the special purpose of eradicating
anything like religious belief, which he is always
savagely denouncing as the one great source "of
man's wickedne.ss and misery. In this he is
terribly in earnest, and he is never so eloquent as
when he is striking at this hated enemy. The
often-quoted vei-se, 'Tantuni relligio jiotuit suadere
nialorum,' e.xpres.ses his innermost conviction, and
out of this sjirings his finest an ' most vigorous
poetry. .\ calm and tranquil minrl was his
snmiiiuiii buniim, and the only w.iv to it lay
through a materialistic i)hilosophy which teaches
that immortality is an empty ilream. To Lucretius
this was a positively deliglitful thought ; he hailed
it as a sure deliverance from the worst terrors
which haunt men's minds. The univei'se, as it
exists, wji-s, he held, evolved out of ultimate
elementary atoms, infinite in number, streaming
downwards in \oid space, like a huge snowstornj ;
this, or something like it, was the theory of Dcmo-
critus. Creation, as we undei-stand it, is impos-
sible ; nothing can come out of nothing, neither
can anythinc; be destroyed; destruction is only a
n.-vme for a change of substance. Life, miml, soul,
iVc. are simply parts of the nuin in the same scn.se
as his limbs, and being in their nature corporeal,
being, as we should say, functions of the body,
they perish finally with the body, or at least so
perish as to leave no survival of coiisciousnes.s.
All knowledge is derived from the senses, which are
in fact our only test and criterion of truth. All
jdienomena can be exj>lained by luitural causes,
and thus the door is closed against any belief in
the divine or supernatural. Lucretius, in fact, is
substantially in accord with modern materialism,
and he often reminds >is of some of the newest
theories of modern science. For instance, he ex-
plains contagious diseases by the perpetual Hying
about in the air of minute particles, germs as we
call them, injurious to life ; and again, iu his
account of the various types of animal life as they
successively apjieared on the earth, we have souie-
thing like anticipations of the 'survival of the
fittest,' and of the Darwinian theory of evolution.
Every now and then, indeed, there is quite a
modern flavour about the doctrines of Lucretius.
Still, it Is as a poet that he has his chief interest
for us, though the man himself, in bis intense
earnestness, no doubt put his jdiilosophy before
his poetry. A very readable book might be made
up with the title 'The Beauties of Lucretius.' His
poem abounds in strikingly picturesque phrases,
such as only a great poet could have originated ;
scattered up and down in it are episodes of ex-
quisite (lathos and vivid description, perhaps
hardly to be equalled in the whole range of Latin
jjoetry. Now and then he allegorises some of the
jiopular myths and legends, showing how they fore-
shadow moral truths, and in such passages he is
one of the sublimest and most impressive of poets.
For a full discussion of Lucretius and his poetry, see
Professor .Sellar's Roman Poets of the Jie public (1863);
Professor Veitch's Lucretius and the Atomic Theory
(1875); and The Atomic Theory of Lucretius, by John
Masson ( 1884 ). The first edition of Lucretius was
jirinted about 1473 at Brescia ; this was followed iu 1500
by the Aldine (published by Aldus), and in 15()3 by the
edition of Lambinus, which from that time held its place
for upwards of three centuries as the standard text. In
1832 appeared the edition of the great German scholar
Lachniann, in which the te.xt was thoroughly revised,
;ind on this in 1870 ilunro greatly improved, adding a
most valuable commentary and a chise and vigorous
prose translatiDM. Crcecii's translation into Kiiglish
verse (1714) was the work of an enthusiastic adnurer
of the poet and his philosophy ; it is on tlie whole a
good piece of work, but is Uttle known.
liUCUlIlIS, L. Licixiu.s, a very distinguished
Koman general, born abimt 110 B.C. In the fii'st
Mithridatic war he commanded the fieet as legate
of Sulla. In 74 B.C., as consul, with Cilicia for
his province, he defeated Mithridates (q.v.), and
almost annihilated his army on its retreat. In 71
B.C. Pontus became subject to the Ronuins. The
measures which Lucnilus imw introduced in the
government of the province of -Asia show that he
was a just, wise, and humane adndnistrator ; but
his troops grew disall'ected on account of the strict-
ness of his disciidine. In the spring of 69 B.C. he
marched into Armenia, and gained a complete
victory over Tigranes. In the fidlowing year he
gained another great victory at the river Arsaniiis
over a new army led against him by Tigranes and
740
LUCY
LUGANO
Mithridates ; but the niutinous sjiiiit of the legions
daily increased, and soon he could do nothing;. At
last lie was superseded by l'oiii]iey, and left Asia
in 66 B.C. In conjunction with the aristocratic
party, he attempted to check the increasinj; ]iower
of Ponii>ey, ami the atteni))t cau.sed tlie coalition
known as the lirst triumvirate. But he was ill
fitted to act as leader against such uii.scru]iulous
men, and soon witlidrew altogether from political
affairs. During his jniblic career he had acquired
(but not unfairly) |)riidigious wealth ; and he spent
the remainiler of his life s<irronnde<l by artists,
poets, and philosojihers, and exhibiting in his
villas at Tusculum ami Neapolis, and in his house
and gardens at Home, a luxury and splendour
which became proverbial. He died about 57 B.C.
Lll(*y, St, a virgin who was martyred under
Diocletian at Syracuse. She is the patron of the
blind, and is commemorated on 13tli December.
LlldditOS. bands of workmen who went about
the midland counties of England between 1812 and
1818 destroying machinery, to the introduction of
which they attributed tlie want of work conse-
quent on the commercial depression. They took
tliis name from one Xed Ludd, a Leicestershire
idiot, who had in a passion destroyed some stock-
ing-frames thirty years before, and their outrages
commenced at Nottingham in November 1811, and
extended during the following spring and summer
through the counties of Derby and Leicester, and
through Cheshire, Lancashire, and Yorkshire. In
July 1816 they broke out with greater vigour, and
destroyed every lace machine in Loughl)orongh,
while their leader openly declared his readiness to
march 100 miles to destroy any nuachinery working
under ]irice. In October of the same year another
party broke thirty machines in Leicester ; but soon
after, the riots of the Luddites are lost sight of in
the wider and more formidable political riots which
marked this period, and make the social history of
1816 little more than a long catalogue of disturb-
ances. See 'Tlic liisint/s o/ the Luddites, Chartists,
and Pliir/-drc(ioe7s, by Frank Peel (2d ed. 1888).
Liideiisrlieid. a town of \Vestphalia, 19 miles
ESE. from Elberfeld-Barmen, is the se.at of numer-
ous hardware manufactures, such as metal buttons,
buckles, teaspoons and teapots, mountings for
unibrellas and sticks, and musical instruments,
besides iron-foundries and macliine-shoi)s. Pop.
(1875)8555; (1885) 15,067.
LlldrritzIaiHl, a name sometimes given to
Angra-I'e(|Uena (i|.v.) and the adjoining territory,
now part of tJerman NamaqualaiKl.
Llldlliaiia. capital of the Ludhiana district
(area, 1375 sq. m. ; i)op. 618,835 in 1881 ), in Pun-
jab, India, stands 8 miles from the south bank of
the Sutlcj, and on the Sind, Punjab, and Didhi
Kailway. It was founded in 14SI) by flic princes
of Delhi, and is now a thriving corn-nuirt and has
manufactures of Cashmere shawls, scarves, cottons,
turbans, furniture, and carriages. Pop. 44,16.3.
The shrine of a Mohammedan saint here .attracts
a large concourse of pilgrims every j'ear.
LimIIoW. a market-town an<l munici|ial borough
of Shropshire, at the Corves inllux to the 'I'eme,
28 miles S. of Shrewsbury. It is a very old and
interesting ])lace, with two noble nuuiumcnts of
antiquity. First, there is the massive' Norman
keen, 110 Scut liigli, of the castle, where I'rince
Artliur wedded Catharine of Aragcm, and died less
than five months afterwards ; where, in the ban-
queting-hall, Milton produced his Com its ; and
where, too, liutler wrote lludiliriis. Captured by
King Ste|dien, the Lancastrians, and the Itounil
heads, it was finally dismantled in 1089. Secondly,
there is the cruciform collegiate church (restoreil
1863-91 ), Perpendicular in stvl
feet high. The
with a tower 130
e grammar-scUool, founded in 1282,
ami refounde<l in 1552, is almost the ohlest in the
kingdom ; and one of seven gafes still remains.
From Edward l\".'s reign till lsii7 Luillow returned
two members, then one till 1S85. Stanley Weyman
is a native. Pop. ( 1851 ) 473(1 ; ( ISSl ) 5035 : ("lS91 >
4460. See works by Wright (1826-6!)) and Baker
(2ded. 1889); and for Ludlow formation, Sll.fHiAN.
Ludlow, Edminii, a sturdy English republican
••mil regiciile, was born of a good old family at
Mai<Icii Ihadley, Wiltshire, in 1617 ; stu<lieil at
'I'rinitx College, t)xford; and at the oullireak of
the Civil War was a student in the Temple. He
volunteered into Essex's lifeguards, saw service
under Waller and Fairfax, was returned in his
father's room to parliament for Wiltshire in 1646,
sat among the king's judges, and had a place in
the council of state of the ('(unnionwealth. In
1651 he was sent to Ireland as lieutenant-general
of lior.se, and held the chief command for six
months between the death of Ireton and the arri\al
of Fleetwood. He refused to recognise Cromwell's
protectorate, and until his death took no further
part in public atl'airs. Returned to parliament for
Hindon in 1659, he urged the restoration of the
Runqi, held conoLLand iigain for a few months
in Ireland, was nominated by Lambert to the
committee of safety, an<l strove in vain to reunite
the broken ranks of the old republican party.
Four months after the Kest(nation he fled to France
for safety, making his way to Vevey in Switzer-
land, where he lived in security, troubled only by
the dread of Cavalier assassins. After the Kevolu-
tion he returned to England, liut, the House of
Commons ]iresenting an address to William III.
craving for Ids arrest, he returned to Vevey, and
died there in 1692. Ludlow's Memoirs is one of
the best contem])oraiy sources of knowledge we
{)ossess, and its author was a man of solid, slub-
)orn, and truthful temper. It covers the whole
period from 1640 to 1688, and w.as lirst printed in
three volumes in 1698-99; new ed. by Firth (1894).
Llldwisfsblir;::. a town of Wiirtemberg, 8 miles
\. of Stuttgart, it grew up round a hunting castle
founded in 1704 liy Dnke Eberhard Ludwig, is the
second royal residence, and one of the principal
garrison towns, of the kingdom ; and has a military
school and a royal castle, with picture-gallery and
splendid gardens. Pop. (1885) 16,187. Ludwigs
burg was the birthplace of 1). F. Strauss, Justinus
Kerner, Miiricke, and Friedricli Vischer.
LlldM'is;s4-ailHl. See Ckumanv, Vol. V. p. 172.
laidwisfsliat'eil. a town of the Bavarian Pala-
tinate, stands on the left bank of the Uhine, oppo-
site Mannheim. It wasgr.intcd town rights only ir
Is.lO, and has grown ra|)i(lly owing to its numu-
factures (soda, aniline dyes, wagons, iSrc. ) and its
trade in iron, timber, coal, and agricultural i)ro-
ducts. Pop. (I8(i4) 3911; (1875) 12,093; (1885)
21,042; (1890) .33,216.
LllU'a. See LooK.vil.
Lugano, a town in the Swiss canton of Ticino,
stands on the imrth-west shcne of the lake of the
same name, 49 miles by rail N. by W. from Milan.
In appearance the place is thoroughly Italian ;
villas stml the lower slones of the hills embosomed
in vineyards, olive .and orange groves, chestnut
and walnut woods. The church of Santa M.aria
degli Angioli has interesting works of art by Luini.
An important cattle fair is held here in Octcdier.
Mazzini and the It.alian jiatriots made Lugano their
head(|uarters for some time after 1848. From
.Monte Salvatore (2982 feet), in the vicinity, a
nuignilicent view may be obtained. Pop. 6129. —
The Lake of Lugano, also called Cekesio, lies at
J
LUGDUNUM
LULLY
741
the southern foot of the Alps, SS9 feet aliove sea-
level. Its length is I4t inilcs, its average hrea<ltli
IJ mile; area, IS^ sq. iii. The depth varies very
greatly, the maximum heing 945 leet, whilst the
average is only about 246 feet.
LiiKduiiiini. See Lyons, Leyden.
Lll$;o {Liictis Aiigusti of the Romans), capital
of a province in tlie northwest of Spain, is situated
on the Minho, 72 miles by rail SE. of Conmna,
anil is still surrounded with old walls, high and
tliick, with towers. It lias a cathedral built in
1129-77, and manufactures of linen and leather.
It was celebrated ;vs early a.s the time of the
Romans for its warm sulphur bath.s. Pop. (1894)
19,701. — The province, a mountainous but agri-
cultural region, drained by the llinho and its
tributary the Sil, and rich in minerals that are but
little extracted, ha-s an area of 37S7 S(|. m., and a
pop. (1887) 4.'?1,644.
LllgO, a town of Italy, 18 miles by rail W. of
Ravenna, ha-s a traile in corn, hemp, wine, and a
celebrated fair (all Septeiuber). Pop. 9189.
Liigsail. See S.\ii..
Liisworin. See LoBWOEjr.
Lnini. <»' Lovixo, Bersardixo. a painter of
the Lombard school, was born about 1470 at Luino,
near the La^o Maggiore. He developed his skill
in the school of Leonardo da Vinci ; indeed many
of his works used to be attributed to Leonardo.
Luini's principal charms are a certain poetic giace
and beauty. He died some time after 1530. He
painted frescoes in tlie Ambrosian Libiary, in the
Brera Gallery, and in the church of St llaurizio,
all at Milan. Other works hang in the church .at
Lugano. His best-known ea-sel-works include
'The Virgin Enthroned' (Brera), 'The Daughter
of Herodias ' ( Lotivre ), ' Christ disputing with the
Doctors " and ' Vanity and Modesty ' ( London ), &c.
Luini is one of the live great painters whose
'supremacy' Ruskin lias allirined. See G. V.
Williamson's Bernardino Luini (1899).
Luke (Lonkas — i.e. Lucas, perhaps shortened
from L w:an us, as Silas from Silvanus ), a companion
of St Paul, mentioned in Col. iv. 14 as ' the beloved
phvMcian;' his absence from the list in Col. iv.
10 1 1 leads to the inference that he w:vs a Gentile,
and his name is suggestive of an Italian origin.
Church tradition since Eusebius hius made him a
native of Antioch in Syria, and will have it that
he was one of ' the seventy ' mentioned in Luke, x.
1, 17, that after Pentecost he laboured in Bithynia,
Greece, and Gaul, and that, after attaining a gooil
old age, he dieil a martyr. The further traditiim
that he was a painter cannot be traced to an earlier
date than the 8th century. lie is named for the
first time as author of the third canonical gospel in
the Muratorian canon ( 2il century ) ; and tradition
has ever since been unvarying in ascribing to him
both that work and its continuation, the .Vets (q.v.)
of the -Apostles. With respect to the date and
authorship of the last-mentioned I k, all that can
be said here is that the majority of moilern critics
are of opinion that it cannot have been written by
a companion of St Paul. When coniiiared with the
genuine ei>istles of that apostle, it exhibits many
important discrepancies in detail ; of these the
most striking perhaps are those which are seen
when Acts xv. and Gal. ii. are carefully read
together. The author of the Acts, however, had
.access to a variety of written, as well .as oral,
sources of information, and to the former class
belonged the document the juesence of which can
still be distinguished in his narrative by the use of
the iironoun 'we.' There is giMi<l reason to believe
that Luke Ls the coiniianion of St Paul who here
speaks in the first person, and, this being so, it is
not difficult to understand the process by which
the authorship of the whole work ultimately came
to be attributed to him. .\s regards the third
gospel it is to be observed that its author in his
l)reiace expressly disclaims to have been an eje-
witness of any of the events he records, and does
not make the least pretension to anv special
apostolic sanction or authority. He is frankly a
compiler, working after a considerable accumula-
tion of literary material lias taken jilace : who
hopes to excel those who have gone before him in
fullness of matter, accuracy of detail, comprehensive-
ness of scheme, and orderliness of method. That, if
not himself a Gentile, he writes chiefly for Gentile
readers is evident from such circumstances as the
manner in which he habitually makes use of the
Septuagint translation, his abstinence from Arama-
isms, his referring to localities always by their
(ireek names, and the like. Amongst the docu-
ments employed by him the most important were
the collection of 'logia,' or discourses and .sayings
of the Lord by Matthew, and some form of the
gospel according to Mark (.see Gospels). He must
have had other sources for the details he has handed
down regarding the nativity, and for the canticles
which he alone has preserved. Working as he did,
most proliably in Rome, it was natural that he
should reflect in his gospel much of the teaching of
St Paul ; the fact that he did so is indicated in the
! tradition ( Eusebius) according to which that apostle
I alluded to the work of Luke in the expression,
'My gospel.' As regards date, the third gospel
must be placed at least later than the destruction
of Jerusalem (Luke, xxi. '20, '24; xix. 43, 44), and
also in all probaliility some years later than the
gospel according to Matthew.
See tlie coiiiinontarie.s of Langc. Meyer, Keil, P. Camp-
bell (1892), and Flummer ( 1«I7 ) ; anil GosPEi.s.
Lllkllga. an intermittent outflow from Lake
Tanganyika (q.v. ) into the Congo.
Llllea, the capital of the Swedish county of
Norbotten, is situated at the mouth of the river
Lulcil, on the north-west coast of the (iulf of
Bothnia. It exports timber, tar, salmon, reindeer-
hides, and the produce of the Gellivara iron-mines
(situated 1'26 miles NW. from Lulea). In October
1888 a beginning was made with the construction
of the northernmost railway in Europe (3(14 miles
long), to run from Lulea north-westwards across
the nortli of Swerleu and Norway to Ofoten Fjord
in the north of the latter country. Pop. 3392.
Llllly, Giovanni B.\tti.sta, musical composer,
w;is a Florentine by birth, born in 1633. Taken to
Paris whilst still a boy, he attracted the attention
of Louis XIV. by his violin-jilaying. The kin^
made liim director of the royal orchestra, and
eventually (1672) director of operatic aflairs in
Paris. In collaboration with tjuinault, Lully com-
posed a great number of ojienas. some of which
kept the stage until the time of Gluck (circa 1778).
It was by making the ballet an essential i>art of
the opera that Lully achieved this success. The
favourites amonirst his operas were Th(s(c, Amiide,
Phafton, Atyn. /*(',«, and Aci.i ct Galathh'. He died
at P.aris on •22d March 1687. .\ friend of Moliere,
he composed music for some of his comedies. See
Ol'ER.v ; and Hadet's great monograph ( 1801 ).
Lully. Raymond, 'the enlightened doctor,'
was born at Palma, in Majorca, in 1'234. In his
youth he led a dissolute life, and served for
some time as a common soldier: but, a complete
revulsion of feeling taking jdace, he withdrew to
solitude, and gave himself up to ecstatic meditations
and the study of the occult sriences. This sudden
change of life produced in Lully a fervid and
enthusiastic state of mind, under the influence of
which he formed the project of a spiritual crusade
742
LUMBAGO
LUNAWARA
for tlie conversion of the Mussulmans, an iilea lie
never afterwards al)ancl()ned. In pni-suancc of this
project he commenced an earnest study of theology,
philosopliy, and the Arabic languaj;e, and after
some years published his great work, Ar.^ Geiiernlh
sive Magna, which lias so severely tested the
sagacity of commentators. This work is the de-
velojinient of the method of teaching known subse-
quently as the ' Lullian method :' a mechanical aid
to the mind in the acriuisition of knowledge and
the solution of all iiossilile problems by a systematic
manipulation of certain fundamental notions (the
Aristotelian categories, &c.). He even invented a
machine (of tin or pasteboard) to assist in this
great task. Yet in this departure from schohvstic
logic, and his zeal for a true interpretation of
nature, he was really a jirecuisor of Bacon.
Lully subsequently imblished another remark-
able work, Lihri XII. PrincipioriiDi Pliilosoph.
contra Aferroistcts, and, full of the ])rineiples which
he had developed in this book, he went to Tunis
in 1292 to argue with his Mohammedan opp(ments.
Ere long he was thrown into prison and condemned
to banishment. After lecturing at Naples for
several yeai's he proceeded to Kome, thence to his
native island of Majorca, thence to Cyjirus and
Armenia. In 1.306 he again sailed for Africa,
entered the city of Hugia, now Bougie (q.v.), in
Algeria, was again thrown into prison, and again
banished. At I'aris he lectured against the prin-
ciples of Averroes. But his missionary zeal could
only be satiated by martyrdom. Sailing once more
for Africa, at Bugia he was stoned and ill-treated
so that he expired a few days afterwards on board
a Genoese vessel ( 1315). The Lullists combined a
religimiK mysticism with a belief in alchemy.
See Helfferich, Bainuoiul Lull (185S); Canalezas, irtv
DoctriiMS de R. LuHo (Madrid, 1870); and the editions
of his works by Salzinger (Mainz. 1742) and Rossello
(Palma, 1886rt sf?.).
Lumbago is a rheumatic atlection of the
nuiscles or fibrous tissues in the lumbar region, or
small of the back. It is often first recognised by
the occurrence of a shar[) stabbing pain in the loins
upon attempting to rise from the recumbent or
.sitting position. It is sometimes so severe as to
confine the patient to bed and in one position, from
which he cannot move without intense suffering ;
but in milder eases he can walk, although stifny
and with pain, and usually with the body beiit
more or less forward. It may be distinguished
from intlammation of the kidneys by the absence
of the peculiar direction of the jiain towards the
groin, as also by the absence of the nausea and
vomiting and other constitutional symjitoms which
usually accompany the disease of the kidney.
The causes of lumbago are the same as those of
sub-acute rheumatism generally. The complaint
may arise from partial e.xposure to cold, especially
when the body is heated, and violent straining
will sonietinu>s induce it. In jierscms with a strong
constitutional tendency to rheumatism the sliglitest
exciting cause will bring on an attack of lumbago.
The treatment must vary with the intensity of
the atlection. In most cases a warm bath at beil-
time, followed by ten grains of Dover's |)owder,
or full doses of alkaline remedies, as citrate of
liotassiuni, will speedily remove it ; and, as local
remedies, a mustard poultice, a mixture of chloro-
form and soap-liniment, or the ajiplication of the
heate<l hammer made for the jmrpose will be
found serviceable. (See also the treatment for
RilKU.M.VTi.SM.) The ilisorder has been known to
completely disajipear after one application of the
hammer, which shonhl be heated in a spirit-liim]i
to somewhere about 2(K)\ and then be rapidly
brought in contact with points of the skin over
the painful parts at intervals of about half an
inch. Each application leaves a red spot, but
blistei-s seldom occur if t)ie operation is properly
performed. The application of a hot iron, use'd
just as in ironing clothes, with two or three folds
of blanket between it and the skin, frequently
gives great relief.
Lniiiber. See Timber.
Liiiiiiuosity. See LicaiT, Phosphorescence,
PHciTOMETRY.
Lllininons Paint, a phosphorescent powder,
such as sulphide or oxysuliihide of calcium, ground
up with a colourless varnish or other medium, .antl
used as a paint. Even after d.aylight is over the
Phosphorescence (q.v.) goes on, and the object
painted remains visible in the dark. See Balmain's
British patent. No. 4152 (1877).
Lllllllisnc'ker, or Lu.mi'Fish (Ciidoptcms), a
genus of fishes of the fanuly Discoboli, havin" the
head and body deep, thick, .and short, the back
with an elevated ridge, which contains within it
the anterior dorsal fin, the skin without scales, but
with rows of rough bony tubercles, the fins rather
small, and the ventrals united by a membrane so as
to form a, sucking disc. — One species (C. Jnmpux)
is common on the coa.sts of Britain, p.articularly in
the northern parts, and is still nnue plentiful in the
Luiiipsuckt
nptirus lumpus).
seas of more northern regions. It is frequently,
especially in spring, taken in large numbers in
.siilmon stake-nets. It has a grotesque and clumsy
form, but its colours are very fine, especially those
of the male, combining various shades of blue,
purple, and rich orange. It attains a pretty large
size, sometimes weighing seven pounds. The lump-
sucker preys on smaller fishes. Its sucker is so
powerful that a ])ail containing some gallons of water
luas been lifted when ,a lumpsucker containe<l in it
was taken b.v the tail. It deposits large adhesive
ova which stick together in large ma.sses attached
to stones or jiiles near low-water mark : they are
guarded during development by the male. The
young are without the tubercles and resemble tad-
poles : they have the ventral suoJ<er even when
first hatched. It breeds in spring. Its llesli is
insipid at some seasons, but verv fine at others,
and is much used for food in nortlicrn regions. It
is known in Scotland as the Cixk-paiiUr, probably
from the resemblance of its dor.sal ridge to a cock's
comb : the female, which is larger than the male,
is usually distinguished as the hen-paidle.
Lunacy. See I.ns.vnity.
Lunar Caustic. See C.\ustic.
Lunar Theory, a term em]iloycd to denote
the a pridi-i deduction of the moons motions from
the principles of gravitation. See Moox.
Lunawara. a small state of India, under
British protection, in the province of (lujaiat, has
an area of .388 sip m. and a pop. of 75,4.")0. The
region is hilly, stony, and well wooded. The
capital, from which the state derives its name, is
LUND
LUPEROALIA
743
60 miles N. bv W. from Baroda, near tlie Malii
Kiver. Pop. 9059.
Llllltl (Loniliuiim Gothoniiii ), a city of (Jotlilanil,
in the extreme .«iOutli of Sweden, l>.v rail ."{74 miles
SW. of Stockholm and 10 XE. of Malniii. In the
10th ccntnry it was a larj;e and iiowerful city, wa-s
made a liishopric in 104S, ami an archbishopric
in 1104. The archbishop claimed ecclesiastical
supremacy over the whole of Scandinavia. At the
same period Lund wa.s the chief scat of the Danish
power in the Scandinavian peninsula, and for a
long period the capital of the Danish kingdom ;
at the epoch of its greatest prosperity it is said to
liave had 200,000 inhabitants. But after the intro-
duction of the Reformation by Christian III. in
1536, the city began to decay, and had sunk down
to a mere village before the end of the ITtli cen-
tury. The principal building is the line Koinan-
esque cathedral, dating from the 11th century ; it
ha.s an imposing crypt. Lund owes its re\ival to
the founding there of a university in 166S by
Charles XI. It Ls now attended by about 800
students, and has a library of 120,000 volumes
and 3tH)0 >1SS., an excellent zoological nuuseum,
and a botanic garden. Tegner was a professor
from 1813 to 1826, and here he composed his master-
piece, Frithjof. Pop. (1885) 14,835.
Llindy (Scand., 'grove island'), a granitic
island of Devonshire, in the mouth of the Bristol
Channel, Uj miles NWV. of Hartland Point,
17 N\V. of Clovelly, 24 W. of Ilfracombe, and 30
SSE. of St Gowans Head in Wales. It measures
3.J miles by 1 ; has rocky and precipitous shores,
with only one landing-place on the south side;
and attains an altitude of 525 feet. Here, near
the southern end of the island, is a lighthouse,
built iu 1820. The clitls are the resort of multi-
tudes of sea-fowl. The antiquities include pre-
historic kists, remains of round towers and a
chapel, and the ruined ca.stle of the Mariscoes
(11th to 14th centuries), from whose time on
into the 17th century Lundy was a stronghold
successively of pirates, buccaneers, privateers, and
smugglers. It figures in Kingsley's ]\'cst ward Ho .' :
was the death-place of ' Judas ' Stukely ; was garri-
soned till 1647 for Charles I. ; and in 1834 w;us pur-
chased for £9870 by the Heaven family. Po]).
(18511 34; (1881) 177; (1891)53. See Chanter's
Liiiirhj Ishnirl { 1877).
LUlieblirg, a town of Hanover, situateil on the
river Umenau, 31 miles by rail SE. of Hamburg.
Its streets are narrow and its houses medieval, but
its suburbs are modern. The 15thcentury cluirch
of St Michael contains the tombs of the Liineburg
princes. The Kve-aisled church of St John dates
from the 14tli centuiy, is pure Gothic in style, and
has a tower 371 feet hign. The medieval town-
house is ailorned witli old pictures and stained glass.
A salt-mine, discovered in 900, still lias an annual
yield of 21 ,2.30 tons. There are also a gypsum-mine,
iron-works, chemical manufactories, iVc. Liine-
burg lampreys are well known in (Jermanv. Pop.
(1885) 19,.336. Although existent in 795, the place
only began to acnuire importance after the found-
ing of the Bene<lictine monastery in 904 ; it was
greatly increased by the settlement here of large
numbers of the people of Bardowiek. destroyed in
1189. Liineburg afterwards joined the Hanseatic
League, and wa.s the capital of an inilependent
ducliy. But it lost the greater part of its privileges
iu the 16th century, and in the 17th suH'ered much
from the Swedes auil their enemies. It began to
revive again in the 19tb cenlurv. Near by the
Allies defeated the I''reii<h on 2d April 1H13.
The principiility of Liineburg, or ratbei llruns-
wick- Liineburg, existed fnuii 1235 to 1.36!), from
1373 to 1532, and from 154G onwards. From the
princes of this house is descended the reigning
house in Great Britain (see Brunswick). — South
of Liineburg stretches for .50 miles on end the
Liineburg Moor (Hcu/c), a grazing ground for
sheep. It produces also honey, buckwheat, and
numerous wild berries, and is largely clotlie<l with
line heather. See History by Jiirgens ( 1891 ).
Lllliel. a town in the south of France, 14 miles
by rail XE. of Montpellier, with a traile in Mus-
catel wine and brandy. Interesting hujuan remains
have been found in a cave at Pondres, 6 miles N.
of Lunel. Pop. 6460.
Liiiietto. See Fortific.\tion.
Lllll('ville« a town in the French department
of Meurthe-et-Moselle, at the confluence of the
Meurtbe and the Vezoiise, and 20 miles by rail
SE. of Nancy. It was formerly a residence of
the Dukes of Lorraine; their palace, built by
Duki! Leopold, iu ■which the Emperor Francis I.
w.vs born, is now used as a cavalry barrack, this
town Ijeing one of the largest cavalry stations in
France. Here was signed the peace of Luueville,
on February 9, 1801, between Germany ami France,
on the basis of the peace of Campo-Formio (q.v.).
The industry embraces gloves, hosieiv, cottons,
&c. Pop. (1872) 12,251 ; (1886) 20,114."
Lungs. See Be.spir.\tion (Oug.vx.s of); and
for diseases of the lungs, the articles on Consump-
tion, Pneujioni.\, Pleurisv, &c.
Lungwort, or Oak-lung.s (Stida pulmon-
cin'ii ). a lichen v\ith a foliaceous, leathery, spread-
ing thallus, of an olive-green colour, pale brown
when dry, pitted with numerous little ca\'ities and
netted, much lacerated; the shields (apothet-iu)
marginal, reddish lirown with a thick border. lb
grows on trunks of trees in mountainoiis regions,
in Britain and other European countries, some-
times almost entirely covering them with its shaggy
thallus. It has been used as a remedy for pul-
monary diseases. It is nutritious, and, when
properly prepared, aft'ords a light diet, capable of
being used as a substitute for Iceland moss ; yet
it is bitter enough to be used as a substitute for
hops. It yields a good brown dye. — The name
lungwort is also given to a genus of phanero-
gamous plants (Pulmonaria) of the natural order
Boraginea>. The common lungwort (/'. offirimilis)
is a rare and rather doubtful native of Britain,
although common in some parts of Europe. It has
ovate leaves and purple flowers, and was formerly
employed in diseases of the lungs, but seems to
have been recommended chielly Ijy a fancied resem-
blance to the lungs in its spotted leaves. It is
nnicilaginous and contains nitre. It has been used
as a pot-herb.
Lunkall, better L.-VNKA, Sansk. 'island,' is
s]iecially used of Ceylon, and also of a great to-
bacco-growing district in the delta of the Ciodaveri.
Lupcrcaliai, a festival among the ancient
Romans, held on the 15th of February, in honour
of Lupercus, the god of fertility. When Rome
began to seek a CJrecian origin f<n- its religious
ceremonies Lupercus was identilied with Lyca'an
Pan, and his worship w.as said to h.avo been intro-
duced by Kvander, the Arcadi:ui. Modern scholai'S
place no value on s\ich statements. Lupercus is
uelieved by them to have been one of the oldest
pastoral deities of Italy, and everything that is
Known regarding him and his rites favours this
view. These rites were of the rudest and most
primitive character, and indicate a high antiipiity.
Goats and dogs were sai'riliced ; afterwards the
priests (called /,»//c;r/) cut up tlie skins of the
victims, aud twisted them into tbongs, with which
they ran through the city striking every one they
met, especially women, who put themselves in their
744
LUPINE
LUKISTAN
wav hoinng that the kwI of fertility would lie pro-
pitious towards them. As the festival is lielieved
to have heen at first a shepherd one, this runiiint;
ahout with thongs is undei^tood to have heen
intended as a symbolical purilicatiim of the land.
The jilace where the festival was held was called
the Lupercal, and was situated on the Palatine
Hill. It contained an imajre of Lupercus, covered
with a goat's skin. Lupercalia were also held iu
other cities of Italy.
Lupine ( Liijiinus), a genus of plants of the
natural order Leguminosa-, suborder l'apilionace:e,
mostly annuals, but some of them perennial her-
baceous plants, some half-shrubby ; and generally
having digitate leaves, with ratiher long stalks.
The ffowers are in racemes or spikes, the caly.x
two-lipped, the keel beaked, the filaments all
united at the ba.se. The species of lupine are
immerous, and are chiefly natives of the countries
near the Mediterranean Sea, and of the temperate
parts of North and South America. The White
Lupine {L. albus), a species with white llowers,
has been cultivated from time immemoiial in the
south of Europe and in some parts of .Asia, for the
sake of the seeds, which are farinaceous and are
used as food, althougli when raw they have a
strong, disagreeable, bitter taste, which is removed
by steejiing in water and boiling. They were a
favourite kind of pulse amongst the ancient (ireeks
and Romans, and still are so in some parts of the
south of Europe, altho\igh generally disliked l>y
those who have not been accustomed to them.
The Yellow Lupine (L. bitriis), so called from its
yellow flowers, and the Egyptian White Lupine ( /,.
Thcnnia), which has white flowers ti]iped with blue,
are also cultivated in the south of Europe, Egypt,
&e. for their seeds, which are similar in their
qualities to those of the white lupine. In many
countries lupines, and particularly the white lupine,
are cultivated to yield green food for cattle, and
also to be iilougheil down for manure. They grow-
well on poor and dry sandy soils, which by this
process of grecn-manurinf! are fitted for other
crops. ^Lany species of lupine are cultivated in
our flower-gardens, having beautiful white, yellow,
pink, or blue flowers. The flowers of some s]iecies
are fragrant. No lujiine is a native of Britain.
L. pcrcniiis adorns samly places from Canada to
Florida with its fine blue flowers.
Liiptoii. TnoM.\s G. (1791-1873). See En-
geavi.no, V.d. IV. p. 381.
Lupiiline. See Hors.
Lupus is a chronic disease of the skin, in which
dull or livid tubercles are develojied, having a
tench'ncy to destroy or so seriously to afi'ect the
adjacent tissues, with or without ulceration, as
always to lea<l to indelible cicatrices. It was
formerly known as noli jiw tuinjcrc. The disease
usually attacks the face, especially the ahe of the
nose and the lips, but may occur on almost any
part of the body. It usually begins in childhood
or early adult life, but may recur at a later period.
It more often affects the female se.x, and is not
contagious, nor usually hereditary. It is, in its
severer forms, a terrible disease, but is hapjiily of
somewhat rare occurrence. It derives its name
from the Latin lupus, 'wolf,' in consequence of
its destructive nature. See TriiKIli'l.E.
Lupus usually conimences with the appearance
of one or two circular or oval, dull-red, somewhat
translucent tubercles, about two lines in diauK^tei.
After a time these tubercles increase in number
and size, and take on new characters. They may
ulcerate, constituting the variety known as Litjins
exedciix, iu which case the ulceration may jiursui'
a superficial or a deep course. Scabs aie formed
over the ulcers ; and as these scabs are thrown oil'
the ulcer beneath is found to have increased in
extent, till great destrwcliim of the soft ]iarts and
( in the ca.se of the iio.se ) of the cartilages is ett'ected.
The ulcer of lupus has thick red edges, and e.xudes
a fetid, ichorous nuitter in con.sideralde quantity.
When they do not ulcerate, the tubercles are softer
than in the previous variety, and form patches
of considerable extent, the intervening skin and
cellular ti.ssue also swelling and exhibiting here
and there dull-red points, which are the summits
of the imbedded tubercles. The lijis become much
enlarged, the nostrils closed with the swelling, the
eyelids everted, and the whole face hideous. This
variety is known as Lupus non cxctlcns.
The progress of lupus is usually slow, and the
suti'erings of the patient less than might be expected,
in consequence of the sensibility of the parts being
diminished from the first. The complaint may
continue for years, or even for life, but is seldom
fatal. Its causes are not well known ; it is
thought that a scrofulous habit predisiioses to the
disease, but in many of those att'ecteil the health
is otherwise excellent. A bacillus has been found
in the diseased tissues, never abuiulantly, which is
inilistinguishalde from the tubercle bacillus ; but
lupus is so rarely associated with tuberculous
disease elsewhere that it is doubtful whether the
two organisms are actually identical.
Trc(diiu'i(t. — It is of course desirable that the
patient's general health be brought into as vigorous
a condition as possible ; and for this purpose cod-
liver oil, iodide of iion, ami other tonics are often
useful. Hut no internal remedy seems to have any
reliable effect upon the disease. The local treat-
ment has passed through many variations : the
apidic.ation of strong escharotics, repeated incisions,
or scraijing away of the diseased tissues, were often
successful in modifying or arresting the disease.
Less severe measures, however, fust recommended
ill 1886 by Unna of Hambuig, have inoved very
efficacious. Chief among these is the constant
application to the diseaseil parts of iilasters made
for the purpose, ccmtaining salicylic acid, which,
while it has little ett'ect upon the healthy skin,
causes gradual breaking down and remo\al of the
diseased tissues, and creasote, which x'eatly
diminishes the pain caused by salicylic acid alone.
Under any method of treatment, however, the
disease is apt to be obstinate and troulilesoiiie.
Luray Cavern, a ca\e, not large, but remark-
able for the vast number and extraordinary shapes
of its stalactites, is close to Luray village, X'irginia
(90 miles NW. of Kichmond). Many of tlie.se
wonderful columns exceed 50 feel in length ; num-
bers of tliem are hollow, giving out li<dl-like notes
when struck : and the colours range from waxy
white to yellow, brown, or rosy red. The cavern,
which is lit with the electric light, attracts
thousands of visittu's every year.
Lurcher, a name applied to any dog with a
distinct crvss of f/rei//iouii(/. The commonest form
of the lurcher is the first cross between the collie
and the greyhound, though in some instances they
have been bred for m.uiy generations without a
fresh cross. As the luichci' combines to a great
extent the speed of the greyhound and the sagacity
of the collie, no hare is able to escape him. The
owner of such an animal is an object of suspicion
to e\erv gamekeeper.
LurSfan. a thriving town of Ireland, in County
Armagh, 'iO miles S\V. of Belfast by rail. ^ It is
buf ;i miles .sDuth of the slioies of Lough Neagli,
and the country around is populous and fcrfile.
It li.is thriving loanufacturcs of cambrics, lawns,
damasks, and diaper.s. I>(q.. (1891 ) 11, -129.
Luristan, a mounlain(ms lu-ovincc in the west
of Persia. Area, 15,060 sq. m. : iM.p. about 300,(J<)0.
LURLEI
LUTHER
r45
It coirespomls louglily to the ancient Snsi.ina, was
the seat of the ancient Elaniite empire, and is now
ocoiipieil by numerous minor tribes.
Lurlei. See LoKELEi.
Llisntia (f-niisit:), a Wonilish ilistrict now be-
longiuj; in part to Saxnnv ami in part to Prussia.
It was formerly divided into I'pper and Lower
Lusatia, wliich constituted two independent mar-
j;raviates, includinj; an area of about 4400 sq.
m. and a pop. of about half a million. IJisen in
1319 to Hohemia, and obtained by Matthia-s
Corvinus in 147S, Lusatia was transferred to
.Saxony in le.SS ; but, by the Congress of Vienna,
the whole of Lower Lusatia and the half of I'pper
Lusatia was ceded to Prussia. The portion left to
Sa.xony now forms the circle of Bautzen.
LllshaiSt a warlike race occupying the little-
known Lushai Hills in Cachar ( Assam ), Chittagong
(Bengal), and the adjoining parts of Burma. To
check their raids on British territory, expeditions
have been required — in l>571-72, and again in
1S89-90. Their country is now British.
Liisiads. See C.vMOENs.
Lll^iiiiUail. a picturesque town in the French
tlepartment of Vienne, 17 miles SAV. of Poitiers.
It has a very fine church dating from the 11th
century, but its castle, associated by legend with
the fairy Melusine (q.v. ), wa-s razed Ijy the
•-'atholics in 1574. The House of Lusignan gave
two titular kings to Jerusalem, and four kings to
Cj'prus. Pop. 125.5.
Liisitania. See Portuo.vl.
Lu.stre. the characteristic appearance of a
bright metallic surface, or of air within gla.ss
under water as seen under certain angles of total
reflection ( see Keflectiox ). It is supposed to be
due to the eontiict between the images in the t\\ o
eyes, which do not coincide in respect of bright-
ness all over the field. A similar result may be
obtained by looking with one eye at a white-and-
black and with the other at a black-and-white
object, the form, sizes, and positions of the objects
being such as would otherwise have enabled the
observer to blend them into a single stereoscopic
image (see Stekeoscope) ; the opposition of bright-
ness makes the stereoscopic binocular image assume
a lustrous appearance.
Lustrnui (from liiere, 'to puiifv ' or 'e.xpiate'),
the solemn ottering made for e.xpiation and purifi-
<?ation by one of the censors in name of the Roman
peojile at the conclusion of the census. The
animals oti'ered in sacritice were a boar (»».?), sheep
(or/.s), and bull (taiinis), whence the ottering w:lx
called Suoictauritia. As the census wivs i|uin-
queiinial, the word lustrum came to mean a period
of five years.
Lute ( -A.rab. FJ Oiid), an obsolete stringed
instrument, which three hundreil years ago wa-s as
pojiular as is the piano to-day. It was introduced
into Europe by the Araljians. from whose language
it derives its name. The .Arabian lute was made
of twenty-one pieces of maple-wood, with a Hat
face, a round back, and three rosettes in the face.
The strings were eight in number, and were tuned
in i>airs. The date of its intro<luction and dis-
semination through Europe is shortly after the
conquest of Spain by the Arabians. The European
lute posses.sed originally eight strings. This number
was not increased for nuiny centuries. Three new
strings were then ad<lcil, bringing up the nuniber
to eleven : of the.se two were tunerl alike, and the
odd one, wliich wa.s also the highest, was called
chanterelle. The need of accommodating the lute
to the chromatic .scale procured the adilition of
thirteen new strings, until in the ITtli century the
total of twenty-four was reached, beyond which
number the augmentation <lid not continue. At
that date the lute commonly in use in Europe con-
sisted of a table of lir or ]iine ; a body or belly,
composed of convex ribs of jiinc ; a neck, or finger-
board, of bard Wdod, on which were frets, consist-
ing of catgut strings fastened tightly round the
neck ; a head, on which were placed the pegs
or screws that tightened or relaxeil the strings
in tuning : and a bridge, to which the strings were
attached at one end, the other end being fastened
to a jiiece of ivory, lietween the head and neck. Of
the twenty-four strings twelve ran over the finger-
board and twelve by the side of it. The performer
used his left hand to press the frets, and struck
the strings with his right. There were many
varieties of the lute ; the treble lute was the
.smallest, the bass lute the largest. The theorbo
was a double-necked lute, of wliich the archlute
and the chitarrone were two subordinate varieties.
A peculiar description of notation, called tuhlature,
was employed in music written for the lute. The
strings were represented by parallel lines, on which
were placed letters of the alphabet, referring to
the frets : thus, A marked that the string was to
be struck open : B, that the first fret was to be
pressed ; C, the second, and so on. Over the lines
were placed crotchets, quavers, &c. , which denoted
the lengths of the various notes. The Aral>ian
lute is still extant in the East, of a form nearly
identical with that described. The European lute
survives only in the guitar and similar instruments.
The lute is represented on the sculptures of the
Egyptian tombs, so that the antiquity of the instru-
ment is immense. For the European lute, .see
Becker's Hmismiisll: in DoitsrhJntid (1840); for
the Araljian lute, Rowliotham's History of Music,
vol. iii. (1887).
Lllte (Lat. liitian, 'clay'), in Chemistry, denotes
a substance employed for ett'eetually closing the
joints of apparatus, so as to prevent the escape of
vapour or gases, or for coating glass vessels so as
to render them more capable of sustaining a high
temperature, or for repairing fractures.
Lutetia. See Paris.
Llltliardt. Christoph Ernst, Lutheran theo-
logi.in, liorn at Maroldsweisach in Lower Fran-
cimia, 22d JMarcli IS'23, studied at Erlangen, and
became professor of Theology at Marburg in
1854, and in 18.56 at Leipzig. His Commentary
on John's Gospel ( 18.52 : 2d ed. 1875) has beeii
translated into English, as has also St John tlif
Author of tlie Fourth Gospel, and works on the
saving, the fundamental, and the moral truths of
Vlm^liiunty i A/io/ogetisr/ic Vortragc). He is also
author of a Compendium der Dogmatih ( 1865 ; 9tli
ed. 1893 ), Die Ethik Luthtrs ( 1867 ), and DicAniiI.e
JCthik ( 1887), besides collections of lectures and
sermons. See his Reminiscences (2d eil., 1891).
Lllther, M.^RTIX, the greatest of the Protestant
Heformei-s of the 16th century, was born at Eisleben
on the 10th November 148.'!. His father wa-s a miner
in liumble circumstances ; bis mother, as Melanch-
tlion records, w;is a woman of exemplary virtue
(crcmjilin- rirliilu/n), and i>eculiarly esteemed in
iter walk of life. Shortly after Martin's birth his
parents removed to Mansfeld, where their circum-
stances ere Umg improved by industry and pei'se-
verance. Their son w;is sent to school ; ana both
•at home .iml in school bis training w:is severe.
His father sometiiries whip]ii'd bim, he says, ' for a
mere tritle till the blmxl came,' and he Wiis subjected
to the schi>lastic rod fifteen times in one day !
Luther's schooling was completed at Magdeburg
anil Eisenach, and at the latter place he attracted
by his singing the notice of a gooil lady of the name
of Cotta, who provided him with a comfortable
home during his stav there. Here under Trebonius
746
LUTHER
he niaile jjoocl iirnf;iess in Latin. In 1501. when lie
had readied liis eif;liteentli year, he entered the uiii-
vei'sity of Erfurt, with the view of iiiKililyin>,' him
self for the lefjivl profession. He went tliron<;li the
lisual stndies in the classics and the sehoolnien, and
took his degree of Doctor of riiilosoidiy, or Master
of Arts, in 1505, when he was twenty-one years of
a<;e. Ere this, however, the death of a friend, and
the terror of a thunderstorm, had ileenly ini|iressed
him ; and he was led to the study of the Scriptures.
Not content with the gospels and epistles in the
lectionaries, and failing to find elsewhere a complete
Bible (though the whole Vulgate had been trans-
lated into German before his time ; see BiBLE, Vol.
II. p. 127 ), he h.ad recourse to the Vulgate in the uni-
versity lilirary. His heart was touched, and he re-
solved to devote himself to a spiritual life. He sep-
arated himself from his friends and fellow-students,
and withdrew into the Angustinian convent at
Erfurt. Here he spent the next three years of his
life — years of iieculiar interest and significance ; for
it was during this time that he laid, in the study
of the Bible and of Augustine, and with the assist-
ance of his life-long friend Staujiitz, the foundation
of those doctrinal convictions which were after-
wards to r(mse and strengthen him in his .struggle
against the [lapacy. He describes verv vividly the
spiritual crisis through which he pas-sed, the burden
of sin wliich so long lay upon him, ' too heavy to
be borne,' and the relief that he at length found
in the clear apprehension of the doctrine of the
'forgiveness of sins' through the gr.ace of Christ.
In the year 1507 Luther was ordaineil a juiest,
and in the following year he removed to Witten-
berg, destined to derive its chief celebrity from his
name. He became a teacher in the new university
fonniled there Ijy the Elector Frederick of Sa.xony.
At lirst he lectured on dialectics and physics, but
his heart was already jjiven to theology, and in
1509 he became a Bachelor of Theology, and com-
menced lecturing on the Holy Scripttires. His
lectures made a great impression, and the novelty
of his views already began to e.\cite attention.
'This monk,' said the rector of the university,
' will puzzle our doctors, and bring in a new
doctrine.' Besides lecturing, he began to preach,
and his sermons reached a wider audience, .and
produced a still more powerful inHuence. They
were printed and widely circulated in (iermany,
France, and England, so that the doctrines of
salvation by free grace were dill'nsed throughout
Europe. His words, as Jlelandithon said, were
' born not on his lips, hut in his soul,' ;ind they
moved jirofoundly the souls of all who heard them.
In loll he was sent on a mission to Home, and
he has described very vividly what he saw and
heard there. His <Ievout and tinqnestioning
reverence — for he was yet in his own subsei|uent
view 'a most insane papist' — appears in strange
conllict with his awakened thonghtfulness and the
moral indignation at the abuses of the ]ia|iacy
beirinning to stir in him. It was wlwii climliing
on his knees the steps of the so-called judgment-
seat of Pilate that the words, ' the just shall live
liy faith,' Hashed upon his soul and ilrove him to
his feet.
On Luther's return from Uome he was made a
Doctor of the Holy Scriiitnres. and his career as a
Keformer may he said to have commenced. The
.system of indulgeni'es had reached a scandalous
height. The idea that it was in tlie jjower of the
church to fmgive sin had gradually grown into
the notion that the pope could issue pardons of
his own free will, which, being dispensed to the
faithful, exonerated them from the consequences
of their transgressions (see iMifl.clCNCE). The
sale of these pardons had become un organi.sed
part of the ])apal system. .Money was largely
needed at Rome to feetl the extravagances of the
papal court ; and its numerous emissaries sought
everywhere to rai.se funds by the sale of 'indul-
gences : ' the (irincipal of these was John Tetzel,
a Dominican friar, who had established himself at
.liiterbog (1517). Luther's indignation at the
shameless traliic which this man carried on finally
became irrepressible: '(iod willing,' he exclaimed,
'I will beat a hole in his (hiiiii.' He drew out
ninety-five theses on the doctrine of indulgences,
wliich on 31st October he nailed up on the door of
the church at Wittenberg, and which he ollered to
maintain in the university against all impugners.
The general jiurport of these theses wa-s to deny
to the pope all right to forgive sins. This
sudden and liold step of Lntlier was all that was
necessary to awaken a widespread excitement.
Tetzel was forced to retreat from the borders
of Saxony to Frankfort-on-the-Oder, where he
drew ont and published a set of counter-theses,
and publicly committed those of Luther to the
flames. The students at Wittenberg retaliated by
burning Tetzel's theses. The elector refused to
interfere, and the excitement increased as new
comhatitnts — Hochstratten, I'rierias, anil Eck —
entered the field. Eck was an able man, and an
old fiiend of Luther's, and the argument between
him and the Keformer was especially vehement.
In 151S the latter was joined by MiOanchthon, who
became one of his dearest and most trusteil friends.
.^t lirst the pojie, Leo X., took little heed of the
disturbance ; lie is reiiorted even to have said whei)
he heard of it that ' Friar Martin was a man of
genius, and that he did not wish to have him
molested.' Some of the cardinals, however, saw
the real character of the movement, which gradu-
ally assumed a seriousness evident even to the
po]ie ; and Luther received a suninions to ajipear
at Koine, and answer for his theses ( 1518). (Iiiee
again in Kome it is unlikely he wouhl ever have
been allowed to return. His university and the
elector interfered, and a legate «as sent to Germany
to hear and determine the case. Cardinal Cajetan
was the legate, and he was but little fitted to deal
with Luther. He would enter into no argument
with him, but merely called upon him to retract.
Luther refused, and fled from Augsbuig, whither
he had gone to meet the papal represenlative. The
task of negotiation was then undertaken by Miltilz,
a tJerinan, who was envoy of the pope to the Saxon
court, and by his greater address a temiiorarv
]ieace was obtained. This did not last long. The
Reformer was too deejily moved to keep silent.
God hurries and drives me,' he said; 'I am not
master of myself : I wish to be quiet, and am
hurried into the midst of tumults.' Dr Eck and
he held a memorable disputation at Leipzig (1519),
in which the subject of argument was no longer
merely the question of indulgences, but the general
power of the pope. The disputation, of course,
c.anie to no )iractical result; each controversialist
claimeil the victory, and Luther in the meantime
made progress in freedom of o]iiiiion, ami attacked
the ])apal system as a whole more boldly. Erasmus
and Hutten joined in the ccmlliet, which waxed
more loud nnd threatening.
In 1520 the Keformer published his famous address
to the ' Christian Nobles of Germany.' This was
followed in the same year by a treatise On the
liril)iil(»iisli Cii/ilin'ti/ iif till- Cliin-ch. In these
works, both of which circulated widely, and power-
fully inlluenced many minds, Luther took firmer
and broader ground ; he attacked not only the
abuses of the jiapacv and its pretensions to
supremacy, hut also tlie doctrinal system of the
Church of Kome. 'These works,' Kaiike .•*ays,
'contain the kernel of the whole Kcformation.'
The pupal hull containing forty-one theses was
LUTHER
7iT
issueil again.st him ; tlie dread dncumcnt, with
i otlier jiaual buoks, was! bunied before an assembled
multit\iae of doctors, students, ami eitizens at the
I Elster Gate of Wittenberg. Germany was con-
I vulsed with excitement. Eck(who had been tlie
chief agent in olitaining the bull) tied from
1)lace to place, glad to escape with his life, and
jUther wa.s everywhere the hero of the hour.
Charles V. h.'ul at this time succeeded to the
empire, and he ccmveiujd his first diet of the
sovereigns and .states at Worms. The diet mot in
the beginning f>f \'y2l ; an order was issued for the
de.stniction of Luther's books, and he himself was
summoned to appear before the diet. This was
above all what he desired -to confess the truth
before the assemliled powers of Germany. He
resolved — having received a safe conduct — to obey
the summons, come what would. .\11 (Germany
was moved by his heroism : his journey resembled
a triumph : the threats of enemies and the an.\ieties
of friends alike failed to move him. ' I am resolved
to enter Worms,' he said, 'althougli as many devils
should set at me as there are tiles on the house-
tops.' His appearance and demeanour before the
diet, and the lirmncss with which he held his
ground and refused to retract, all make a striking-
picture. He was not allowed to defend his opinions.
'Unless I be convinced,' he said, ■by Scri|)ture
and reason, I neither can nor daic retract any-
thing, for my conscience is a cajitive to God's
word, and it is neither safe nor right to go against
conscience. There I take my stand. I can do no
otherwise. So help me God. .\men.'
On his return from Worms he was seized, at the
instigation of his friend, the Elector of Saxony,
and safely lodged in the old castle of the Wart-
burg, riie att'air \v as made to i^ssume an aspect of
violence, but in reality it was designed to secure
him from the destruction which his conduct at
Worms would certaiidy have provoked, he having
been placed under the ban of the empire. He
remained in this shelter for about a year, concealed
in the guise of a knight. His chief employment
was his translation of the Scriptures into his native
language. He composed various treatises besides,
and injured his health by sedentary habits and
hard study. His imagination became morbidly
excited, and he thought he saw and heard the Evil
One niockin" him while engageil in his literary
tasks : the lilot from the iukstan<l that he hurled
at him L? still shown on the wall of his chand)er.
The subject of the persinality and presence of
Satan was a familiar one with Luther, and he has
many things about it in his Tdlile-tallc.
The disorders which sprang up in the progress of
the iteformation recalled Luther to \\ ittenberg.
He felt that his presence was necessary to restrain
Carlsta<lt and others, and, defying any danger to
which he might still 1)0 exposed, he returned in
1522 to the old scene of his labours, rebuked the
unruly spirits who had acipiired power in his
absence, and resumed with reneweil energy his
interruj)tetl work. He strove to arrest the exce.sses
of the Zwickau fanatics, and counselleil peace and
onler to the intlamed peasants, while he warne<l
the princes and nobles of the unchristian cruelty of
many of their doings, which had driven the jieople
to exjuspi-ration and frenzy. At no period of his
life is he greater tlian now in the stand which he
made against lawlessness (m the one band and
tyranny on the other. He vindicated his claim to
be a Keformer in the highest sense by the wise and
manly |>art which he acted in this great social
crisis in the history of Germany. In this year also
he published his acrimonious reply to Henry VIIL
' on the seven s.aeraments. Although he had been at
first united in a common cau.se with Erasnnis,
estrangement had gradually sprung up between the
scholar of Rotterdam and tlie enthusiastic Uefoimer
of ^^■ittenbcrg. 'I'liis cstrangementcame to an oiicn
breach in the year l.j'2."), when Erasmus published
his treatise l)c Libera Arhitrio. Luther imme-
diately followed with his counter-treatise, DeHcrro
Arhitrio. The controversy raged loudly between
them ; and in the vehenjenee of his hosti"lity to the
doctrine of Eras)nus Luther was led into various
a,ssertions of a very cpiestionable kind, beside.s
indiilging in wild almse of his opponent's character.
The quarrel was an unhappy one on both sides;
and it must be confessed there is especially a want
of generosity in the manner in which Luther con-
tinued to cherish the dislike which sprang out of
it. In the course of the same year Luther married
Katharina von Bora, one of nine nuns who, under
the inlluence of his teaching, had emancipated
themselves from their religious vows. The step
rejoiced his enemies, and even alarmed some of his
friends like Melanehthon. But it greatlj' con-
tributed to his happiness, while it served to enrich
and strengthen his character. All the most
interesting and touching glimpses we get of him
henceforth are in connection with his wife and
children.
Two years after his marriage he fell into a
dangerous sickness and dejiression of spirits, from
Avliich he was only aroused by the dangers besetting
Christendom from the advance of the Turks. Two
years later, in lo'iO, he engaged in his famous con-
ference at JIarburg with Zwingli and other Swiss
divines. In this conference he obstinately imiin-
tained his peculiar views as to the sacrament of
the Lord's Supper (q.v. ), and, as in the controvensy
with Erasmus, distinguished himself more by the
inflexible dogmatism of his opinions than by the
candour and comprehensiveness of his arguments,
or the fairness and generosity of his temper.
Aggressive and reforming in the first stage of his
life, and while he was dealing with practical
abuses, he was yet in many respects essentially
conservative in his intellectual character, and he
shut his mind pertinaciously after middle life to
any a<lvance in doctrinal o[)inion. The following
year finds him at Coburg, while the diet sat at
Augsburg. It was deemed prudent to entrust the
interests of the Protestant ean.se to Melanchthon,
who attended the diet, but Luther removed to
Coburg, to be at hand for consultation. The
drawing up of the Augsburg ('onfession (((.v.)
marks the culmination of the German lleforma-
tion (l."):!0); and the life of Luther from hence-
forth possesses comparatively little interest. He
survived sixtei'u years longer, but they are years
marked l)y few incidents of importance. He died
at Eisleben on Isth Eebruary 154(), and was buried
at Wittenberg.
Luther's character presents an imposing com-
bination of great tpialities. Endowed witli broad
human sym|iathies, massive energy, manly and
aflectionate simplicity, and rich, if sonu'tinies
coar.se humour, he is at tlie .same time a spiritual
genius. His intuitions of divine truth were bold,
vivid, and penetrating, if not eomiirehensivi' ; and
he possesseil the art which God alone gives to the
finer and .abler spirits that He calls to do special
work in this wmhl, of kiiulling other souls with
the fire of his own convictions, and awakening
them to a higher consciousness (if religion and
duty. He was a lender <if men, therefore, and a
Heformcr in the highest sense. His powers were
fitted to his ap|>ointed task : it was a task of
Titanic magnituile, and he was a Titan in intellec-
tual robustness and moral strength and courage.
It was oidy the divine energy which swayed him,
an<l of which he recognised hiiriself the organ, that
could have accomplisheil what he did.
View him as a mere theologian, an<l there are
748
LUTHER
LUTHERANS
otiiers wlio take hii,'her rank. There is a lack of
patient thouglitfulness and philosopliical temper in
liis doctrinal discussions; l>ut the absence of these
very (pialities gave vigour to his bold, if sonietiiiies
crude conce|itions, and enableil him to triumph in
the struggle for life or death in wliioh he was
engaged. To initiate the religious movement
which was destined to renew the face of Europe,
and give a nobler and more enduring life to the
Teutonic nations, required a gigantic will, which,
instead of being crushed liy opposition, or frightened
by hatred, should only gatlier strength from tlie
fierceness of the conliict before it. To clear the
air thoroughly, as he himself .said, thunder
and lightning are necessary. Upon the whole,
it may be said that history presents few greater
cliaracters — few that excite at once more love and
admiration, and in which we see tenderness,
humour, and a certain picturesqne grace and
poetic sensibility more happily combined with
a lofty and magnanimous, if sometimes rugged
sublimity.
Luther's works are very voluminous, partly in
Latin, and partly in (ierman. ,Vmong those of
more general interest are his Table-talk, his Letters,
and Sermons. His Commentaries on Galatians
and the Psalms are still read ; and he was one of
the great leaders of sacred song, his hymns, rugged,
but intense and expressive, having an enduring
power.
The most important complete editions of Luther's
works are tliose of ^Vittenbe^g ( 12 vols. German ; .S vols.
Latin, 1539-.i8) ; Halle, ed. by Walch (German, 24 vols.
1740-53) ; and Erlangen and Frankfort (67 vols. German ;
.■^3 vols. Latin, 182(i-73). A splendid new and complete
<;dition Avas commenced at Weimar in the year of the
fourth centenary of his birth (]8S3).
His Bru'fc, iScmheltnihin unit Bcilcnken were edited
by De Wette and Weidemann (6 vols. 182.5-56); the
Briefwcchsel, by Burkhardt (1866), and by Enders (1884
ft seq.)\ his PoUthche Scriftcn, by Mundt (1.S44); his
Kirciienpoditle, by Francke ( 1844 ) ; his TUfhreden, by
Forstemann and Bindseil (1846-48); his Geistliclw
Lieilir, by Wackeniagel (1856), Godeke (1883), and A.
Fischer ( 1883 ). A good selection of the lesser wi-itings
is that entitled Martin Luther al$ Deutscher Klassiker
<3 vols. Frank. 1871-83).
Of the many Lives tlie most important are those of
Meurer (3d ed. 1870), Jiirgens (3 vols. 1846-47), Kostlin
( 2 vols. 1875 ; 3d ed. 1883 ; also a popular ed. 1883 ), PUtt
and Petersen (2d ed. 1883), and Kolde (1884 ct seq.).
There is an English life of merit by Peter Bayne (1887),
and well-kn(twn essays by Carlyle, Fronde, TuUocb, and
others. See also Dr Charles Beard's admirable book,
Martin Luther and his Reformation in Germany until
the Close of tlic Diet of W.irms ( 1889).
On Luther's theology there are works by Th. Harnack
(1862-86), KiJstUn (1863), and Lommatsch (1870). The
Catholic view is fairly given by Dollingcr, and in Janssen's
Gesckichte des Dcutschen i'olkes.
LlltllcrailS, a designation originally applied
by their adversaries to the Keformers or the
16tli century, and afterwards distinctively appro-
priated among Protestants themselves to those
who took part witii Martin Liither against the
Swiss Keformers, particularly in the contro-
A'ersies regarding the Lord's Supper. It is so
■employed to this day as the designation of one
of the two great sections into which the Protestant
<,'hnrch was soon unh.ippily divided, the other being
known .'IS the Reformed Church (q.v. ). To the end
of I-uther's life perfect harmony subsisted between
him and his friend Melanchtluju ; but already there
were some who stood forth as more Lutheran than
Luther, ami by whom Melanchthou was denounced
as a 'cryptoCalviuist ' and a traitor to evangelical
Iratli. After Luther's death this party became
nmre confident, and, holding by Luther's words,
without having imbibed his s])irit, changed his
evangelical doctrine into .i dry scholasticism ami
lifeless orthodoxy, whilst extreme heat and violence
against their opponents were substituted in the
puli>it itself for the zealous ])reaching of the
gosjiel. The princiijal seat of tiieir strength was
in the university ol Jena, whicdi was founded in
1557 for this very object, and maintained their
cause against Wittenberg. Great intolerance was
manifested by this jiarty ; and no controversy was
ever conducted with more bitterness than the Sacra-
men tarian Controversy.
Towards the end' of the 17th century the
Lutherans of Ciermany found a new object of
hostility in the Pietists (q.v.); and in tlie 18th
century they came into conflict with national-
ism (q.v.). When, after the wars of the P'rench
Revolution were over, the Prussian government
formed and carried into exec\ition a scheme
for the union of the Lutheran and Reformed
churches into one national church, leaving them
free to use either the Lutheran or Heidelberg con-
fession, an active opposition arose on the part
of those who now began to be known as O/el
Lutherans. Separate congregations were formed,
and an attitude of open hostility to the government
was assumed by some; whilst others, more nnxler-
ate, but holding the same theological opinions,
continued to maintain these opinions witliin the
United Erangctical Churc/i. The separatists were
for some time severely dealt with by the govern-
ment, and al)out 1837 many left their native
country to found Old Lutheran communities in
America. After that time greater toleration was
practised, and in 1841 the ()1<1 Lutherans became
a legally-recognised ecclesiastical body in Pi'ussia.
A freer Neic Lutheranism, claiming to lepresent
Luther's spirit rather than the dogmas of the
old Lutheran systematists, has since 1848 become
jiractically dominant in most parts of Protestant
Germany, in Prussia as well as elsewhere, under
the leadership of such men as Hengstenberg,
Hofmann, Harless, Luthardt, Thomasius, and
Kahnis.
Lutheranism is the prevailing form of Protes-
tantism in Germany ; it is the national religimi of
Denmark, Sweden, and Norway ; and there are
Lutheran churches in the Baltic provinces of
Russia, in Holland, France, Poland, and the
United States — in which latter country there were
in 1890 as many as 7911 churches, with 1,(186,048
members. In all there are some ihirty millions
of Lutherans. Amongst the Lntlieian .symbolical
books the Augsburg Confession (q.v.), Luther's
Shorter Catechism, and the Formula Coticordice
(see CoxFESsiON.s) hold the princi|ial jilace. The
chief ditl'erence between the Lutherans ami the
Reformed is as to the real /inxe/a'e of Christ in
the sacrament of the Snp)ier ; the Lutherans h(dd-
ing the doctrine of ronsub.itantiation — Christ's body
])resent ' in, with, ami under the unchanged bread
and wine' — althongh lejecting transubstantiation
(see Lord's Srpri:n ; Te.vn.substanti-vtkin ;
and ZwiNGLI); whilst .some of their more
extreme theologians have asserted not only the
jiresence of tlie human nature of Christ in the
Lord's Supper, as Luther did, but the absolute
omnipresence or ubicjuity of his human nature.
Other iioints of ditl'erence relate to the allowance
in Christian worship of things iniliU'erenl {laliii-
jihora); and many of those things at first retained
as merely tolerable by Luther and his fellow-
refiuiuers have become favourite characteristics of
some of the Lutheran churches — as crucili.xes and
]dctnres in places of worship, &c.
In its constitution the Lutheran Church is
geneially unepi.iropal, without being properly prrs-
hgtrrian. It is consistorial (see CONSISTOKY),
with the civil authorities so far in |)lace of
bishops. In Denmark, Sweden, and Norway there
LUTON
LUXEMBURG
749
are bishops, and in Sweden an arclibisliop (of
Upsala), but their powers are very liniiteil.
See the works of the old systematists Chemuitz, Joliann
Gerhard, Hutter, Quenstedt ; Hasc's Uuttcrus Redivirua
(1828; 12th ed. 1883); the dogmatical works of Twesten,
Nitzsch, and Martensen ; and the church histories.
LlltOIlt a market-town of Heilfonlshire, on the
little Lea, among the Chiltern Hills, 31 miles by
rail WW. of London. St Mary s Church, mixed
Decorated and Perpendicular in style, is a noble
structure, with a flint-work tower 90 feet liigli, a
baptistery chapel, and many interesting monu-
ments. It has been restored since ISe.j. Luton is
the chief seat in England of the straw-plait (for
liats, bonnets, Ike), an industry which dates from
the reign of James L, and employs 20,000 persons
here and in the neighbourhood. The Plait-hall
(1869) is a tine building; and there are also a
town-hall, corn exchange, people's park, \c. Luton
was re-incorporated as a municipal borough in 1S76.
Pop. (ISol) 10,648; (1891) 30,006. See F. Davis,
History of Lid on ( 1855).
Lntterworth, a small town of Leicestei-shire,
on the Swift, 8 miles XNE. of Kugby. The fine
old chnrcli, restored by Scott in 1867-69, contains
the pulpit and other relics of Wyclif, who was
rector from 1374 till his death on 28th December
1384. He was buried here, but in 1428 his remains
were dug up and burned, and the ashes cast into
the Swift. ' This brook conveyed his ashes
into Avon, Avon into Severn, Severn into the
narrow seas, they into the main ocean ; and thus
the ashes of Wickliffe are the emblem of his doc-
trine, which now is dispersed all the world over.'
Pop. of parisli 1800.
Llittii-li. See Liege.
Liittrillghauseil. a manufacturing town of
Rhenish Prus.sia, 5 miles SE. of Elberfeld. Cloth,
calico, and silk, hardware, and brandy manufac-
tures are carried on. Pop. 10,498.
Liitzcil, a small town of 3501 inhabitants, in
the Prussian province of Saxony, famous for two
great battles fought in its vicinity. The first, a
brilliant victoiy of the Swedes in the Thirty
Years' War, took place on 6th November 1632
( see GusTAVfs Adolphus ). The battle on 2d May
1813 w,i.s fought somewhat farther to the south, at
the village of Grosgorschen. It was the first great
coiillict of the united Russian and Prussian army
with the army of Xapoleon in that decisive cam-
paign ; and the Frencli were left in possession of
the field.
LUtzow, LiDWio Adolf Wilhelm, Freiherr
VON, born in Bramlenburg on 18tli May 1782, died
at Berlin on 6th December 1834, gave his name to
a. celebratetl corjis of \olunteei-s, raised in Silesia
during the war of liberation in 1813. It included
several celebrated men, jis .lalin, Theodor Kiinier,
Ike, and was renowned for its anient patriotism
anil niagnilicent courage. The men uniformed
themselves, anil are often spoken and sung of as
the ' Black RiHes ' (Jiigcr). Liitzow's wife was the
Countess of Ahlefeldt, the friend of Immerniann.
Luxcmboiirs:, Die de. Francois Henri de
Montmorency Bouteville, one of Louis .XIV.'s cele-
brated mai-shals, was born at Paris on 8th January
1628. A posthumous son, he was trained by his
aunt, mother of the Great Conde, to whom he stuck
faithfully all through the wars of the Fronde. After
16.")9 he was jiardoned by Louis XIV., who created
him Due do Luxembourg ( 1661 )— hebad juslm.irried
the heiress of the House of Luxembourg Pincv. He
again took the field in 1667, serving unilerCondc in
the invasion of Franche-Comte ; but, receiving an
independent command lagainst the Netherlands in
1672, he successfully invaded the enemy's country,
and when compelled to retreat in the winter of
1673 led back his men in such a masterly way jus
to win the reputation of being one of the" greatest
generals of the age. His chief exploits during the
continuance of the war were to storm \'alencienne»
and to defeat the Piince of Orange at .Mont-Cassel
and St Denis. He had been made marshal in
1675. Soon after the conclusion of peace ( 1678) be
quarrelled with the all-powerful minister Louvois,
and was not employed again on active duty for
twelve years. The story that Louvois implicated
him in the atlair of the poisoners of Paris is prob-
ably a myth, though Luxembourg seems certainly
to have spent some part of 1680 in the Bastille.
In 1690 lie was sent to take command in Flanders,
and defeated the allies at Fleurus, and in the follow-
ing year he twice more routed his old opponent,
William III. (formerly Prince of Orange) at Stein-
kirk and near Xeerwinden. He died at Paris on
4th January 1695. Luxemliourg had an unfailing
instinct of the right thing to do on the field of
battle, and when to do it. In action he was prompt
and bold ; but often failed to reap the full advan-
tages of victory owing to his indolence. He w-as a
little man and hump-backed, and addicted to self-
indulgence.
Llixeillblirs. an independent grand-duchy of
Europe, wedged in between France, Prussia, antl
lielgium. It consists of a plateau, furrowed with
j valleys, and connecting together the uplands of
1 Lorraine, the Forest of Ardennes, and tne Elfel ;
nearly all its streams flow to the Moselle, which for
some 20 miles forms its eastern border. Tlie country
is well wooded, yields wheat, llax, hemp, and rape-
seed, grows wine ( \\ million gallons in good years),
and is rich in iron ore. The extraction and smelt-
ing of this mineral is, next to agriculture, the prin-
cipal occupation. But leather, gloves, pottery,
cloth, paper, sugar, beer, and spirits are manu-
factured. Area, 998 sq. m. ; pop. (1871) 197,528;
(1890) 211,088, neariy all Catholics, and of Low-
German stock, though French is the language of
the educated classes. For commercial purposes
Luxemburg is included in the German customs
union. The dignity of grand-duke belonn;s to the
head of the House of Orange-Nassau, and as such
was held by the kings of Holland from 1815 to 1890,
when, on the death of King William HI. without
male issue, it pas.sed to Adolf, Duke of Nassau. The
little slate is ruled by a House of forty-live Repre-
sentatives. The head of the government is the
minister of state, with whom are associated direc-
tors of Uiiance, justice, and internal affairs. — The
Bi'lijiitn pi-i»unc(. of Luxemburg, which down to
1839 formed part of the grand-duchy, lies contigu-
ous to this last on the west ; it constitutes the
south-eastern extremity of the kingdom of Bel-
gium. In its physical features and its main pro-
duct it differs little from its neighboiir-state, the
grand duchy. .\rea, 1706 sq. ni. ; iioji. (1891)
212,041. Cldef town, Arlon. — The lii.storij of the
grandduch}' of Luxemburg begins with the his-
tory of the city. On the site of this there stood in
the 8lh century a castle, which in 7.38 was given
by Charles Martel to the abbey of Treves. Tlie
foundi-i- of the lirst line of counts was Siegfried,
who ill 063 acquired the castle of Lnciliiibiircli or
Liitzelburg (i.e. Luxemburg). In 1136 the count-
ship ]ia.ssed to the Counts of Xiinmr. The fourtli
Count Henry was elected emperor as Henry VII.
in 1.308, and his son John became king of lioliemia.
In 13.')4 the title was raised from count to duke. In
1444 tlir duchy was united with I'.iiigiiiidy, and
shared the liisloiy of that state down to 16.")il, but
it was reckoned a member of the German empire.
From 16.59 to 1713 Luxemburg w;is held by the
French king. It was again annexed by the French
in 1795, and two yeare later made the department
of Forcts. But in 1815 the Vienna Congress created
750
LUXEUIL
LYCH-GATE
it a separate state, a member i)f ilie (Jermaii Con-
federation, but gave it to William 1. of Holland.
And this position was again declared definitive of
the eastern section in 1839. By the London treaty
of 1867 it was made a completely indepL'iident
state, and the Prussian garrison witlnlrew froni the
fortress of Luxemburg. — LuXEMHUlio, the capital
of the grand-duchy, by rail is 42 miles N. of ^letz
and 32 S\V. of Treves. Its situation has often
been compared to that of Jerusalem : the city
stands on a roidiv platform, connected with the
neighbouring country oidy on the west, and else-
where engirt by a steep valley, 200 feet deep, in
■Kvldch nestle tlie industrial suburbs of Klausen,
Pfatlenthal, and (Irund. The intermediate gorges
.are crossed by line viaducts. The Spaniards,
Austrians, French, and Dutch, who successively
lield possession of the town, so increased and
strengthened its fortifications, hewn, like those of
Giliraltar, in great part out of the solid rock, that
in the beginning of the 19th century it was con-
■sidered to be, with the exception of Gibraltar, the
strongest fortress in Europe. But they were de-
molished in accordance with the treaty of London
of 1867, and the site of the walls has been laid out
as beautiful gardens. There are in the town the
ruins of Count Mansfeld's palace and the cathedral
(built in 1613). Pop- ( 1!S75) 15,954 ; (1890)18,187.
See works by Coster (1869), Schotter (1882), Weivcke
(188tj), Eyschen (18811), and Pflips (1894), aU in German ;
and one in French by Glasener (1885).
Lll\euil. a French town in Haute-Sa6ne (pop.
4550), 15 miles NW. of Belfort, with remains of the
monastery founded by St Columbanus in 590.
Liivor. See Thebes.
Luyiie.s, Due DE (1578-1621), the unworthy
favourite of Louis XIII. of France, was a page at
the court of Henry IV., and became ultimately
peer of France and chancellor.
Llizeril. See Lucerne.
Luzon', the largest of the Philippines (q.v. ).
Luz'ula< a genus of plants of the natural order
JunceiE, differing from rushes in having a Sseeded
instead of a many-seeded
capsule, and in having .soft
]ilane leaves, which are
generally covered with
thinly-scattered longish
hairs. Tlujy do not grow
in wet places, like rushes,
but in woods, pastures,
and elevated mountainous
situations (see Ku.SH).
Perhaps there is no more
couimon Ibitish jilant than
the Field-rush (/.. ram-
pcstris), a jilant of very
humble growth : its flower-
ing spikes congregated into
a close head, their dark
colour relieved by the
whitish yellow of the
anthers, profusely adorn
ilry pastures in s|]ring. It
is of no agricultural value.
Tlie species which grow
uiuler the shade of trees
l)reserve their verdure in
winter, adding to the
beauty of the scene, and
improving the cover for game.'
Lyall. KnN.\, the pen-name of Ada Kllcn li.ayly,
author of .s<'venil popular novels written with a jmr-
pose, was born ami educated at Brighton, had
vague ideas of becoming a novelist even in her
tenth year, ami at .school wrote a good deal of
Field-rush
{Luziila caiiijteiitn'a).
amateur fiction. Her first novel. Won by Waiting
(1879), was followeil by her most Jiopular story,
Donovan (1882), written at Lincoln, with its Mvpiel
We Two (1884); these are a plea for that charity
which takes no account of even the shar[iest differ-
ences in creed and religion. Her other books are In
the GoUlcn Ddi/s (1885); Kni(jlit Krntnt (1887),
partlv written in Italy, where most of the ideas
for this novel were derived ; Aitt(i/iio(/rciji/ii/ of a
Slander (18S7); Derrick Vanqhan and A Hardy
Norseman (1889 ) ; and a child snook, Their Happiest
Christmas ( 1889). Her novels are characterised by
thought and quiet humour ; her descriptions of both
nature and hnman nature are usually vivid and
graceful, .'ind coloured by her own experience of
travel. Most of her tales turn on seif-sacrilice,
while the A utohiorfraphy of a Slander is directed
against the sins of the tongue. She conceives
her characters first, then surrounds them with
the chain of circumstance for the due di^velop-
ment of the story. Like George Kliot with the
Liggins im|iostiire. the real 'Edna Lyall' has had
to assert herself against an impostor in Ceylon who
had adopted her name. Statistics of tlie books
read at several libraries show Edna Lyall's novels
to have been most in demand over a certain period.
Lycantliropy. See Were- wolf.
Lycaoilia, in ancient geography, a country in
Asia Minor, bounded E. by Cappadocia, N. by
Galatia, W. by Pisidia, and S. by Isauria and
Cilicia. Its capital was Iconium (q.v.).
Lycvillll (Gr. Lnhcion), originally the name of
a place in the immediate neighbourhood of Athens,
consecrated to AjioUo Lyrciiis, and noted for its
shady wood and beautiful gardens, but jiarticularly
for its gyiuiiiisium, in which Aristotle and the
Peripatetics taught, and from whi<'h the Komans
borrowed the same name for similar institutions.
In more modern times the name lyceum was 'dveu
in honour of Aristotle to the higher Latin scJiools
in which the Aristotelian philosophy formed a prin-
cipal branch of education ; and at the jiresent day
the name is variously applied to educational and
literary institutions, especially to the French schools
called Lycees (see France). The term lyceum is
frequently employed in America for what would
be called in England an academy, association, or
society. It may signify also the building in which
the society meets.
Lycll-gatC ( A.S. lie or liec, ' a body,' ' corpse '),
or CoRP.SE-GATE, a churchyard gate covereil with a
roof. It is very common in many parts of England
Lych-gate.
anil Wales. The bodies of per.sons brought for
burial are set down under the shelter of the roof
while the o])ening words of the .service are read.
LYCHNIS
LYCDRGUS
751
Lvcli gates me very rare in Seotlaml ; tlie ilhistra-
tioii represeuts oue at JJlackford CLurcU, in I'eitli-
sliire.
Lycllllis. a ^einis of jilants of tlie iialinal
onler Caryopliyllacea'. They are herbaceouts
jilaiits, generally perennial, and natives of tem-
perate countries. Several are found in Britain.
The Kagged Robin (L. Jius-cwuli) is one of the
most freijuent ornaments of meadows and nmist
pastures; the German Calehlly ( /,. viscaiia) is
very rare, and generally found growing on almost
inaccessible precipices ; the Ked Campion ( A.
tliiirna) and the M'hite Campicm {L. respcr-
titia) abound in fields, hedges, and the bordei-s
of woods. The last two are dioecious, and,
.strangely enough, the female of the first and the
male of the second are very common, while the
male of the lirst and fenuile of the second are
rather rare. The Howers of X. ves/jcrtina are
usually fragrant in the evening. The Scarlet
Lychnis { L. Chalcedonica ), a native of Asia Minor,
is a frequent and brilliant ornament of rtower-
borders. Some of the species have saponaceous
properties.
Lycia« a country on the south coast of Asia
Minor, bounded on the \V. by Caria, on the N. by
Phrygia ami I'isidia, and on the E. by Pamphylia.
It is a mountainous region, formed by lofty spurs
of the Taurus, whicli reach 10,000 feet in height ;
the valleys are very fertile. The most ancient
inhabitants are said to have been two races called
Solymi and Termihe. The Lycians are prominent
in the Homeric legend of the Trojan war. Lycia
maintained its independence against Crresus, king
of Lydia, but wa-s afterwards made subject to the
Persians an<I Syrians, and then to Rome. During
the time of its independence it consisted of twenty-
three confederate cities, of which the principal
were Xanthvis (the capital), Patara, Pinara, Olym-
pus, Myra. and Tlos ; and at the head of the whole
confederation was a president or governor called
the Lyciarch. Manv monuments and ruined build-
ings (tem])les, tombs, theatres, &c. ) and other
antii|uities testify to the attainments of the
Lycians in civilisation and the arts, which they
seem to have derived in large measure from Greek
sources. Sir Charles Fellows, about 1840, was the
lii-st to discover and point out the interestini'
character of these Lyeian remains. A beautiful
collection is preserved in the British Museum.
There e.xist abso inscriptions in which a peculiar
alphaliet is used, closely modelled upon the Greek,
the language of which apjiears to be inllected like
the Indo-Germanic languages, and was probably
akin to Zend.
See Fellows, Diseoveriei in Lycia ( 1841 ) ; Spratt and
Forbes, Travch in Lycia ( 1847 ) ; M. Schmidt, The
Lyciaii Imcviplions (18<)!l); Saycc, Principles of Com-
parative Pliilolot/y (M ed. 1885); and Treubcr, Ge-
sckichtc der Lykicr ( 18K7).
Lycopodiacca^ form a class of isosporous
vascular Cryptogams, containing two orders with
four genera. Order L : Lvcopodiere includes the
genus Lycopodium, with about 100 species which
are universally distributeil ; and the genns Pliyl-
loglossum with only one siiecies (P. DnuniiKjiulii),
found in Australia and New Zealand. Order IL :
Psilote:e includes the genus Psilotum, with two
species which are found in the tropics of both
hemispheres, and the genus Tmesipteris, with only
one known species, which is epiphytic on tree-fern's
in the southern hemisphere.
Of the four genera the Lycojiodium is best known
under tlie name of ' (lub-mo.ss ' or ' Stag'shorn '
IIIOS.S,' but there is no more than a superlicial I
resemblance between it and the true mosses |
(Muscinex-). Tlie stem may be creeping as in '
L. ctamttiiin, the common club-moss of the British
Isles, erect jis in L. Selaijo, which is also a British
species, or shrubby and stout as in some tropical
species.
The Lycopodiacce have mostly a dichotomous
form of branching. The stems, except in the
shrubby forms, are slender, and never reach more
than a few feet in length. The leaves are small
and undivided, usually overlai)i)ing and completely
protecting the stem. Sjiecial
branches are spore-bearing,
and one sporangnim is liorne
in the axil of each leaf.
Only in some fossil forms are
there two kinds of spores
(heterosporous). The .siHire
develops a green prothallus,
which sends root-hairs into
the soil, or a colourless,
tuberous suliterranean pro-
thallus : but both forms pro-
duce on the same individual
antheiidia and archegonia ;
the former produce sperma-
tozoids, and the latter
oospheres. Fertilisation oc-
curs as in the Fern (q.v. ).
The sporophyte plant which
results from the fertilisation
of an oospheie by a spei-ma-
tozoid is the consjiicuous
generation, while the oophyte
or prothallus is the incon-
spicuous generation. The
roots are simple, and may
arise at any point of the
stem near the ground. A
number of tiattened vascular
bundles unite at intervals
longitudinally in the centre
of the stem to form a single
axile cylinder, which is sur-
rounded by a sheath, while
the rest of the stem around
this is made up of thick or thin walled cells. The
elements of the bundle resemble those of ferns. A
simjde strand jiasses from the axile cylinder to the
midrib of each leaf. Alternation of generations is
very strongly marked in Lycopodium, but >ege-
tative reproduction of the sporoiihyte may occur
by means of bulbils in the axils of the leaves or
on the roots, or l)y means of adventitious buds on
the stems.
The I.ycoi>odiacepe are very closely related to the
higher forms, the Selaginellacea', which are hetero-
sporous plants, and to the lower forms, the Ferns,
which have simjder siiorangia.
The spores of Lycopodium are used for coating
pills, and the hands rublied o\cr with the s|iores
may be dipped in water without being wet ; they
are also used for Hash lights in i)yrotechnic displays.
Many species are medicinal. L. duvdtiim is emetic,
and A. SclcKjo, cathartic. The spores of many form
a i)owder which is benelicial in ulcerations, &c.,
and A. ii/pimim is used as a dye. The Lyeoiiodiacea-
may be regardeil as the degraded survivors of
treelike forms that were very plentiful in the
forests of the ( 'ai boniferous period.
LyriirtfllS. the lawgiver of Sparta, is usually
ilated about 820 n.c. He was uncle of the young
king Charilaos, and governeil the state wisely dur-
ing his nephew's infancy, then travelled over Crete,
Ionia, and Kgypt, ancl on his ii'turn, linding his
counlry in coiiijilete an.aiehy, made a new division
of luiipeily. aiKI remodelled the whole conslitutiiin,
militaiy and civil. Next he bound the cilizens by
oath not to change his laws until he came back,
and (hen left Si)arta to be no more seen. His
Club-moss ( Lyco-
podium claiatiim) :
roots ; b, creeping
st<?m ; c, upri^'ht stem ;
d, vegetative branches ;
e, stalk bearing the
sporangiferous brandies.
/. /." 3t spore-bearing
leaf; ^, same in sec-
tion ; ft, h', sporan-
gium ; i, vein of spiral
vessels.
752
LYCURGUS
LYELL
nieniDiy was honoured as tliat of a god with a
temple and yeaily sacriliees.
LyciirgllS, an Attic orator, horn ahout 396 u.i:,
was a [nipil of Plato and Isocrates, and warmly
supported Demostlioncs' policy. He was thrice
appointed manager of the revenue. He died in
328. Of his lifteen speeches hut one is extant.
Lyddite, a powerful explosive (like nieliuitp),
made from picrate of jiotash. It is made at Lydd,
near New Komney, in Kent, where there is a
Government artillery range. See Picric Acid.
Lydgate, -Iohx, an admirer and imitator of
Chaucer, was hoiii at Lydgate, near Newmarket, in
Suti'olk, about 1370, and became a monk in the
Benedictine monastery of Burj' St Edmunds. He
studied some time at Oxford, travelled into France
and Italy, and returned a nia-ster of their poetry.
In the monastery he appears to have taught the
rhetoric and philosophy of his time, and he wrote
Soetry with eijual ease upon the most widely
itt'erent themes. His death probably occurred
about 1450, and we have his own evidence that his
last years were harassed by poverty. I'ntil his old
age he seems to have been more of the poet than
the monk, hut among his later works are a metrical
Life of St Edmund and the Legend of St Alban.
Ritson has enumerated in his Bibliographia Poctica
no fewer than 251 ])ieces written by Lydgate, and
most probablj' even this list is incomplete. A selec-
tion from the minor poems was edited by Mr Halli-
well for the Percy Society in 1840. Lydgate's longer
works are the Storie of Thebes, the Troy Book, and
the Falls of Princes. The Storie of T/iebes is repre-
sented as a new Canterhur\' tale, told by the author
after joining the company of pilgrims at Canter-
burj'. It is written in rhyming ten-syllable coup-
lets, and contains about 4780 lines. Its sources
are the Thebaid of Statius and the Teseide of
Boccaccio. The versification is rough, and, indeed,
it cannot be ilenied that the poem is dull and pro-
lix to a degree, the prologue alone exce])ted. The
Troi/ Book was undertaken about 1412, at the
request of Prince Henry, afterwards Henry V.,
and was finished in 1420. It is written also in the
ten-syllable couidet, and is divided into live books,
and founded on Guido di Colonna's Latin prose
Historia TroJ<(>Hi. Its best-known passage is the
long panegyric on his ' Maister Chaucer ' in the
thinl liook. The Fulls of Princes, divided into nine
books, is written in Chaucer's seven-line stanza, and
contains upwards of 7000 stanzas. It was written
in 14.30 by desire of Hum]direy, Duke of Gloucester,
and is foundeil on a French paraplira.se by Lawrence
de Premierfait of Boccaccio's Latin work, De
Ciisibiis Viriirii/n Jlliintriiim. (Jther works that
may merely be mentioned here are the Daunce of
Marhdhre, or Dance of Death, translated from the
French ; the Court of Sripicnn: ; and the Temple of
Glass, a copy of Chaucer's House of Fame.
Lydia, anciently a country of Asia Minor,
bounded on the W. by Ionia, on the S. by Caria, on
the E. by Phrygia, and on the N. by Mysia. It is
said to have been originally inhabited by a people
called Ma'onians, though the Lydians, an allied
tribe, probably occupied the plain of Sardi.s. The
country was celebrated for its fruitful soil —
except the barren Katakekmimene (burned uj))
volcanic region in the east — and its mineral
wealth, particularly for the gold of the river
Pactobis and of the neighbouring mines of
Tmolus, but was in later ages infamous for the
corruption of morals which jirevailed amongst its
inhabitants, and especially in Sardis (q.v. ), its
capital. The Lydians, shut out from the .Egean
Sea by the Ionian Greeks, developed great com-
mercial activity inland. They likewise dis-
tinguished themselves in the textile arts. Thej-
were believed to have been the inventors of
coined money, and of dice and other games.
Many elements of their civilisation seem to have
been derived from the Hittiles : Hittite governors
ruled for some time at Sardis. The sun-god
.■\ttys and Cybele, the mother of the gods, the
HittiteBabvlonian Tamniuz and Tstar, were the
deities principally worshipped. Three dynasties are
recorded to have ruled over ancient Lydia : the first,
wholly mythical, was founded by Attys ; the second,
usually called the Heracli<l, from its founder being
a reputed son of Heic\iles by Omphale, has been
identified with the Hittites ; the third was founded
by Gyges about 690 B.C. This king created a
powerful Lydian empire, which attained its great-
est period of splendour under his descendant Croesus
(q.v. ) the rich, who was slain by Cyrus the Persian
in 546. Sardis thereafter became the western capital
of the Persian empire. Lydia was subsequently
subject to Athens, Macedonia, and Rome one
after the otlier. The merest fragments remain of
the language, which was apparently Indo-European.
For the Lydian mode, see H.\rmoxy ; and for
Lydian stone, Touch-stoke.
Lye, a term sometimes used to denote all solu-
tions of salts, but more u'enerally appropriated to
solutions of the fixed alkalies, potash and soda,
in water. The solutions of caustic potash and soda
are called caustic lyes ; those of their carbonates,
nuld lyes. The fluid which remains after a sub-
stance has been sejiarated from its solution by
crystallisation is called the mother lye.
Lyell, Sir Charles, geologist, was the eldest
son of Charles Lyell, Esq., of Kinnordy, Forfai-shire,
where he was born 14th November 1797. /Vflcr
receiving his early education at Midhurst, in Sus-
sex, he entered Exeter College, Oxford, and grailu-
ated as B.A. in 1819. At Oxford he attended the
lectures of Bucklaml, and thus acquired a taste for
the science he afterwards did so much to promote.
After leaving the university he studied law, and
in due time was called to the bar ; but his circum-
stances not rendering a profession necessary for a
livelihood, he devoted himself to geology, and
made tours in 1824, and again in 1828-30, over
various parts of Euro]ie, and published the results
of his investigations in the Transactions of the
Gcoloqical Socicti/ and elsewhere. His great work,
The Principles of Gcolocfxj (3 vols. 1830-33), may
be ranked next after Darwin's Origin of Species
among the books which have exerci.sed the most
jiowerful inlluence on the direction of scientific
thou'dit in the 19th century. It broke down
the belief in the necessity of stupendous con-
vulsions in past times; and taught, as had hmg
before been maintained bv llutton and Playfair,
that the greatest geological changes might be
produced by the forces still at work on the earth.
It was subsequently divided into two parts, pub-
lished as two distinct works — viz. The Principles
of Geology : or the Modern Changes of the Earth
and its Inhabitants (12th ed. 1876); and The
Elements of Geology : or the Ancient Changes of
the Earth and its Inhabitants. 'The Geological
Evidences of the Antiquity of Man ( 1863) startled
the jnil)li(^ by its unluassed attitude towards
Darwin's Oriqin of Species. Lyell also ])ublished
Travels in l^orth America (1845) and A Second
Visit to the United States (1849). During the
second sojourn, when he also visited Nova Scolia,
he estimated the recession of the rock at Ni.igara,
and the amount of deposition of alluvium at the
delta of the Mississippi. On the opening of
King's College, London, in 18.32 Lvell was ap-
pointed profes.sor of Geology, an otiice which he
soon resigned. In 1836, and again in 1850, he
was elected president of the Geological Society,
LYKEWAKE
LYMPH
753
anil ill 1SU4 luesident of the British Association.
He w;is kni<;liteil in 184S, anil created a l>aronet in
1864. He ilieil 2'2il February 1S7."), and W!i.s buried
in Westminster Alibey. See his Life, Letters, and
Juiinuils (i vols. ISSl ) ; and the article GEOLOGY.
Lykewake. See Wake.
Lyly, Jdiix, romance-writer and dramatist, was
born in the Weald of Kent about loo.S. He became
a student of Majidalen College, Oxford, in 1569;
B.A., 27th April l.=i73 ; M.A., 1st June l.)7.5. In
Lansdowne MS. 19 is pre.served a Latin letter
(written in 157-1) in which he begs Lord Burghley to
help liini towards procuring a fellowship at JNIag-
dalen College ; but the; application does not appear
to liave Ijeen successful. He afterwards studied
at Cambridge, where he was incorporated M.A. in
1579. Failing to gain preferment at the univer-
sities, he followed the court. Among the Harleian
MSS. are two undated ]ietitions to Queen Elizabeth,
begging that he might be appointed Master of the
Revels. In the first he writes : ' I was enterteyned
yo' Ma*" s'vant by yo' owne gratious fauour,
strengthened with condicions, that I should aynie
all my courses at the Eeuells ( I dare not saye with
a promise, but a hopefull Item to the rev'con ) for
«"='' these 10 yeres I have attended with an un-
wearyed ])atience, and nowe I knowe not what
Crabb took me for an Oyster, that in the midst of
yo' sunshine of your most gratious aspect, hath
thrust a stone betweene the shells to eate me alive
that onely line on dead hopes.' The tone of the
second letter is even more desponding : ' Thirteene
yeres your higbnes seruant. liut yet nothing. . . .
A thou-sand hopes, but all notliing : a hundred
promises, but yet nothing. ' He found a patron in
Lord Burghley, who gave liim some post of trust in
his liousehold. In 1589 he took part in the Martin
Marprelate controversy, and incurred the enmity
of Gabriel Harvey, who described him in Pierce's
Supcreror/ntion ( 1593 ) as ' a mad lad as ever twangd,
never troubled with any .substance of witt orcircum-
.stance of honestie, sometime the fiddle-sticke of
Oxford, now the very bable tbauble) of London.'
The authors of Athente Cantabricjienses (ii. 326)
state that he was returned for Aylesbury to the
parliament of 19th Febinary 1592-93 ; for Appleby,
24th October 1597 ; and again for Aylesbury, 7th
October 1601. In December 1597 he addressed to
Secretaiy Cecil a letter expressing disappointment
at not obtaining advancement. From the register
of St Bartholomew the Less, London, it appears that
he was buried 30th November 1606. He was
niaiTied, and had children, was short of stature,
and very fond of tobacco.
Lyly's most famous work is his Eiiphues, a
romance in two parts. The hrst part, Kiijihues, the
Aiiittumij of Wit (4to), was published in the sprin"
of 1 579 ; the second part, Euph iics and his England,
followed in 1580. In court circles the romance was
received with great applause. Edward Blount, the
publisher, who collected Lyly's plays in 1632,
declared : ' Our Nation are in his deljt for a new
English which hee tauglit tliem. . . . All our Ladies
were then his Schollers ; And that Beautie in Court
which could not Parley Euphueisme was as little
regarded as shee which now there speakes not
French.' In the Monastery Scott drew, in the
person of Sir I'iercy Sliafton, the character of a
euphuistic gallant ; but the portrait is barely
recogni-sable. One peculiarity of this ' new English '
is the constant emjiloynient of similes drawn from
fabulous stories ( of ela.s.sical and medieval writers)
concerning the properties of animals, plants, and
minernls. Another is the exces.sive indulgence
in antithesis. Lyly cannot relate the simplest
incident without introducing antithetical nourishes
and fetching illustrations from bestiaries and
308
herbals. This unnatural style of writing was not
Lyly's invention, but was to a large e.xtent modelled
(as Professor Landmann has shown) on the example
of the Spani^^b writer (lucvara. I^ord Berners and
others had translated works of CJuevara ; but the
Spaniard's claims were forgotten, and Lyly was
regarded as the pattern of refinement. (Jreene,
Lodge, and others set themselves to imitate
Euphues, but their aii'ectations were seldom so
deliberately extravarant as Lyly's. Later the
euphuistic style was iield up to derision. Drayton
speaks scornfully of
Lyly's writing then in use ;
Talking of stones, stars, plants, of fishes, flies,
Playin"^ with words and idle similies.
The matter of Eiiphues is more commendable than
the manner. Sound advice is offered on the sub-
ject of friendship, love, travel, tlic nature and
education of children, morality, and religion.
Lyly's comedies (wliicb were performed before
the queen by children's companies ) are more read-
able than Ills romance. The earliest, as we learn
from the prologue, was The Woman in the Moone,
first printed in 1597, but produced in or before 1583.
Campaspe and Sapho and Phao were published in
1584; Endiniion in 1591 ; GaUathcn and 3Iidas in
1592 ; Motltcr Bomhic in 1594 ; and Love's Metamor-
phosis in 1601. With the exception of The Woman
in the Moonc, these comedies (on pastoral and
mythological subjects) were written in prose.
Though they display little dramatic power, they
are fanciful and attractive entertainments. Fre-
quently the dialogue is pointed and sparkling. The
delightful songs were first printed in the collective
edition of 1632; 'Cupid and my Campaspe played'
is in modern anthologies.
Lyly's plays were edited by Fairholt in 1858 ; Euphues
by Arber (1868); the Emliimton bv Mr G. P. Baker
(1895). See C. G. Child's Li/lif and Euphuism (1894).
Lyme Regis, a seaport and watering-place of
Dorsetshire, at the mouth of the Lyme rivulet, 5
miles SE. of Axminster and 23 W. of Dorchester.
The Cobb breakwater, dating from the 14th century,
was reconstructed by go\ernment in 1825-26.
Chartered by Edward I., and incorporated by
Elizabeth, Lyme returned two members till 1832,
and then one till 1868. It beat oil Prince Maurice
(1644), and was Monmouth's landing-place (1685).
Natives have been Sir George Somcrs, Captain
Coram, and Miss Mary Anning, the discoverer of
the Ichthyosaurus anil Plesiosaurus in the Lias
rocks here, which are largely r[uarried. Pop.
(1851) 2661; (1881) 2047; (1891) 2365. See
Roberts' Historij of Lyme Ecf/is (18.3-i).
LyillillgtOlI, a municipal borough of Hamp-
shire, at the mouth of the Lyminglon River in
the Solent, 12 miles (by a branch-line IS) SW. of
Southampton. The .saltworks lielong to the Jiast ;
and yacht-building is now the principal industry.
Lymingtim is also of some importance as a watering-
place. It comm.ands line prosiiects of the Isle of
Wight, and its vicinity abounds in charming
scenery. Till 1867 it returned two members to
parliament, and then till 1885 one. Pop. (1851)
2651 ; (1881), with extended aiea, 4551. See works
by Garrow (1825), Grove (1835), and King (1879).
Lyilinll (Gr. Iijmpha, 'water') is the term
applied by physiologists to the fluid contained in
the Lymnhatics (i|.v.). It is a colourless or
faintly-yiMlowi>b lluid, of a rather saltish tiuste, and
with an alkaline reaction. It coagulates shortly
after its removal from the living body, and forms
a jelly like, semi-.solid niiuss, which continues for
some time to contract, so th.at at last the clot is
very small in |iroportion to the expressed senim.
Onndi-roscopie examination the lymph is seen to
contain cor])Uscles which dn not in any respect
754
LYMPHATICS
LYNDHURST
Diagram of Lymphatic
System :
a, small artery or capillary
ft-oin which lymph ( blood-
plasma) exudes; b, cell
bathed by lymph ; c, small
lymphatic into which
lymph collects; d, lym-
phatic gland ; e, vein into
which the lynnph is re-
turned.
iliffei' from the colourless blood-cells, molecular
granules, fat-globules, and occa-sionally blood-cor-
puscles.
Lyiliphatics arise in the f(jrm of a network of
lymiili capillaries which lie in the minute inter-
cellular spaces of the body, and in addition form
large lymph cavities, such
as the peritoneal, {jleural,
:::5Tj>^ y &c. The lymph is then
^\// /^/ conveyed by larger and
-<^ y larger vessels, to the ven-
ous system, on entering
■which it mixes with the
blood. The lymph of the
left side of the trunk, of
both legs, of the left arm,
and the whole of the chyle
is conveyed into the blood
by the thoracic duct ;
while the lynijih of the
right side of the head,
neck, and trunk, and of
the right arm, enters the
circulation at the junction
of the axillary and internal
jugular veins on the right
side by a short trunk,
guarded at its opening by
valves. On its way the
lymph passes through small
glands of the size of a pea
or bean called lymphatic
glands. Thus, those of the arm pass through the
lymphatic glands of the axilla, those of the leg
through the glands of the groin, and those of the
head and face through the glands of the neck.
The lymph arises primarily from the tluid part of
the blood which exudes from the capillaries, oathes
the cells and tissues of the body, and then, after
supplying them with food and receiving their
excretions, passes on once more to enter the cir-
culation, being carried there by the lymphatic
vessels. The corpuscular elements are chiefly the
products of the lymphatic glands. See Chyle,
ClRCl"L.\TIOX.
Lyncllblirg. a city of Viigiuia, lies in a pic-
turesque mountain-region, on the James River,
which is here spanned l)y several biiilges, 124 miles
by rail W. by S. of Kichmond. It is a thriving
place, with the electric light and electric trams,
and has several foundries, a cotton-mill, a fruit-
canning factory, and manufactories of nails, farm-
ing implements, fertilisers, and furniture, besides
tobacco, which is the sta|ile of the town's trade.
There are twenty-four leaf-tobacco factories, and
an even larger number of others. Pop. (1S80)
15,9.59; (1890) 19,709.
Lyiioll LatV, the summary trial and
meiit of otlenders by private and unautl
persons. This mode of administering justice has
been necessarily employed in countries newly
settled, where the power of the civil government is
not yet sutiiciently established. The frei|Uency
with which it has been resorted to in the southern
and western states of the .American L'nion, how-
ever, as a punishment for serious criminal ollences,
is to be referred rather to a doubt on the part
of the mob as to the adequacy of the ordinary
legal machinery. In the six "years 1884-89 the
number of murders in the U'nited States wa.s
reported as 14,770, of legal executions 558, and
of lynchings 975. Of course, the infliction of
any minor nunishment without legal trial con-
stitutes lyncli law (see ViGli.AXrK Societiks), but
the simple term 'lynching' u.sually implies capital
punishment. — The phrase has been variou-sly traced
to a Virginia soldier and to a Virginia farmer of
punisli-
tiiori.sed
that name, to one L'iTich who was sent out from
England about 16S7 to sui)press piracy, and to a
mayor of G<alway (q.v. ) in Ireland ;' while yet
another tradition refers it to Lynch Creek,' in
North Carolina, where the forms ol^ a court-martial
and execution were "one thnmgh over the lifeless
body of a Tory, who liad already been precipitately
hanged to pre\ent a rescue.
Lyildlllirst, a Hampshire vill.nge, the capital
of the New Forest, 9 miles S\V. of Southampton.
Its church ( 1863) is a brick Early English structure,
with conspicuous spire, good stained glass, a monu-
ment by Flaxman, and a fresco by Leighton of the
'Ten Virgins.' Near it is the verderers' hall, with
Kufus's stirrup. Pop. of parish, 1589.
Lyndliiii'st, John Si.ngleton Copley, IUkox,
thrice Lord Chancellor, was the son of J. S. Copley,
R.A. (q.v.), and wa-s born at Boston, Massachusetts,
•21st May 177"2. At three, with his mother, he
followed the painter to London, where, from 1780
till his death, his home wivs at 25 (ieorge Street,
Hanover Square ; ami, after a private education at
Chiswick, in 1790 he entered Trinity College, Cam-
bridge. In 1794 he came out second wrangler and
second Smith's prizeman, next year got a fellowship,
and in 1796 paid a six months' visit to the States,
travelling tlirough them with Volney. On his
return to England he began to study for the bar,
to which, however, he was not called till 1804,
when he joined the Midland circuit. He worked
assiduously, but success was 'very, very slow' till
1807, and not assured till 1812, when he made a
real hit by his ingenious defence of a Luddite
rioter. In 1817 he obtained the acquittal of
Thistlewood and Dr Watson on their trial for high-
treason ; but for the next state inosecution,
four months afterwards, the government secured
him on their side, and in 1818 he entered parlia-
ment for a government borough. Henceforward,
whatever his former politics, he continued a fairly
consistent Tory, and as such his pronn)tion was
ra]>id. In 1819, as Sir John Copley, he became
Solicitor-general, in J824 Attorney-general, and in
1826 blaster of the Kidls. 'When Canning was
charged to form a ministry he oH'ereil the Great
Seal to Copley, who was raised to the Up])er
House as Baron Lyndhurst ; he remained Lord
Chancellor under three administrations from 1S27
to 1830. At the close of the latter year his
Whig opponents made him Chief-baron of the
Exchequer, which oHice he exchanged for the
woolsack during Peel's brief administration
(1834-35). He next led the ojqiosition in the
Ui)]>er House to the Melbourne ministry, his annual
reviews of the session doing much to reanimate his
liarty and jiave the way fi>r its retuin to power in
184l' He then for the third tinii' became Lord
Chancellor, and held the (Ireat Seal till the ilefeat
of the Peel government in 1846. After that time
he took little part in homo politics, but his voice
was often heard on matters of foreign policy.
Threatened with blindness for the last fourteen
years of his life, he died 12th October 1863,
at the great age of ninety-one. I.yndliurst's
attainments as a clear-headed lawyer have never
licen questioned ; his judgments — that, for instance,
in the great case of Small v. Attwood ( 1832) — have
never been excelled for lucidity, method, and le"al
acumen. In the House of Peers he had not his
equal as a debater. Still, he was not a great
statesman, lawgiver, or orator, mainly perhaps
through lack of earnestness. His character has
been blackened by Lord Campbell [Litr.t of the
C/iKiiccl/ors, vol. viii. 1869), and eulogised by Sir
Theodore Martin (Life of Lord LijHilhmst, 1883).
For the act that goes by his name, see DECEASED
Wife's Sister.
LYNDSAY
LYNN
755
Lyiidsny, i>r Lindsay, Sir David, of the
MoL NT, one of tlie best, and lonj; the most popular
of tlie older Scottish poets, was the son of^ David
Lynilsay of Garniylton (now Garleton), in East
Lothian, whose OTandfather wa^s a son of Sir \Vil-
liani Lyndsay of the Byres. The ])()et is said by
Chalmers to have been born at the Monnt about
the vear 1490, but Laiiij; in his recent edition of
Lyndsay (1ST9) notes the absence of evidence on
tliis point, Chalmers having apparently assumed
it as a consequence of his supi)Osition that the
poet's father was 'David Lyndsay of the Mountht,'
while Laing has shown that this was the poet's
grandfather. The name of 'Da. Lindesay ' occui-s
m the list of 'incorporated' stuilents in St Sal-
vator's College, St Amlrews, for the year 1508 or
1509. It may be that of the |)oet. We cannot tell
when he entered the royal service, but in October
1511 he is found taking part in a play acted before
the court of James IV. In the following spring
he was appointed ' keeper ' or ' usher ' of the prince
who, when little more than a twelvemonth old,
became James V. ; and his verses preserve some
]>lea>ing traces of the care and atrection with
which he tended the king's infant years. His wife,
Janet Douglas, had long the charge of the royal
a|)parel. In 15'2-t the court fell under the power of
the queen-mother and the Douglases, and Lyndsay
lost his place ; but four years afterwards, when the
Douglases were overthrown, Lyndsay was made
Lyon King-of-arms, and at the same time received
the honour of knighthood. In this capacity he
accompanied embassies to the courts of England,
France, Spain, and Denmark. He appeal's to
have represented Cupar in the parliaments of 154'2
and 1543 ; and he was present at St Andrews in
1547 when the followers of the reformed faith
called Knox to take upon himself the office of a
public preacher. He died childless before the
summer of 1555.
Two editions of Lyndsay's poems were published
in France in 1558 ; and these editions, with a
few pieces added, were republished by Charteris,
an Edinburgh bookseller, in 1568. Nrunerous
editions appeared subsequently, indicating the
great popularity which Lyndsay long enjoyed.
For fully two centuries, indeed, he was what Burns
lia.s since become — the poet of the Scottish people.
His works were in almost every house, liis vei'ses on
almost every tongue. Like Burns, he owed part of
his popularity no doubt to his comjilete ma-sten' of
the popular speech. But, like Bums, Lynilsay
would have been read in whatever language he
chose to write. HLs verses show few marks of the
highest poetical |)ower, but tlu^ir merits otherwise
are great. Their fancy is scarcely less genial than
their humour, and they are full of good .sense,
varied learning, and knowledge of the worhl.
They are valuable now, if for nothing else than
their vivid pictures of manners and feelings. In
the poet's own day they serveil a political purpose,
by preparing the way for the great revolution of
the Kith centuiy. It has been said that the verses
of Lyndsay did more for the Beforniation in Scot-
land than all the sermons of Knox. Like Burns,
Lynilsay shot some of his sharpest shafts at the
clergy. The licentiousness that characterises his
ver-e must be attributed in part to the age in
which he lived. The earliest and most poetical of
his writings is The Drcnie ; the most ambitious,
The Motiiirchie ; the most remarkable in his own
day, perhaps, wa.H The ,Safi/rc of the Thric Kxtttitis ;
but that which is now read with most [ilea-sure,
both for the charm of its subject ami for its
freedom from the allegorical f.ushion of the time, is
Th'- Uiitoric of i>rjiii/rr Mcldntiit. .\ good eilition
of Lyndsay's works is that of Chalmers (3 vols.
Lonil. 1800); but in (Hiints of detail it is less
accurate than that of David Laing (3 vols. 1879).
A number of his poems have been edited bv J.
Small and F. Hall for the Early English 'I'ext
Society (4 parts, 1865-71); and tlie Scottish Text
Society have undertaken a new edition.
Lyndsay of Pitscottie. See Pitscottie.
Lyiiedoch, Tiioma.s t;i!AHAM, Loud, British
general, was tlie son of the laird of Balgowaii in
Pertlishire, and was born on I9tli October 1748.
He raised in 1793 the 90th regiment of foot, and
with it served at Quiberon and Isle Dieii. He
distinguished himself at the capture of Minorca
(1798), conducted the siege of Valetta (Malta),
which capitulated (1800) just after he was
superseded in the command, took jiart in the
retreat to Corunna and in the Walcbcren expedi-
tion (1809), at Barrosa, near Cadiz, gained a
splendid victory over the French (1811), and
then under "Wellington distinguished himself at
the siege of Ciudad Rodrigo (1812), was present
at Badajoz and Salamanca, commanded tlie left
wing at Vittoria (1813), captured Tolosa and St
Sebastian, and, lastly, coninLinded a body of troops
in Holland, with which he defeated the enemy at
Merxeni, but failed in an ill-advised attempt to
storm Bergen-op-Zoom ( 1S14). Three months later
he was created Baron Lynedoch of Balgowan, and
in 1821 was promoted to the rank of general. He
was the founder of the Senior United Service Club
in 1817. He died in London, 18th December 1843.
See Lives bv J. JI. Graham (2d ed. 1877) and A.
M. Delavoye(1880).
Lyiiu, or King's Lynn, a seaport, parlia-
mentary and municipal borough of Norfolk, at the
mouth of the Great Ouse, 48 miles WXW. from
Norwich and 99 N. by E. from London. It still
retains traces of the ramparts and a fo.sse, which
once guarded it on the landwai<l side, and abounds
in picturesque old timbered houses, ornamented
with carved work. Of its four churches the princi-
pal are cruciform St Margaret's, varying in style
from Norman to Perpendicular, and 240 feet
long, with two towers, one of which till 1741
was surmounted by a spire '2."")8 feet high — and
St Nicliola.s (1146-74), with a modern spire (1869),
which replaced one blown down in the same
hurricane a-s that of St Jlargaret's. Other
features of interest include the Red Mount
Chapel, octagonal, noticeable for its richly-orna-
mented roof ; the hexagonal tower of the Grey
Friar's ; a grammar-school, founded in or before the
reign of Henry VII I., at which Eugene Aram was
once usher: a guihlhall, in which is preserved the
Red Register of Lynn, one of the earliest paper
books in existence ; customhouse (1683); hospital
(1834-47); museum (1854), with a good collection
of British birds; library ( 1883); and two extensive
docks ( 1869-84), admitting vcs.sels drawing 21 feet
at springtides. A considerable trade is carried on
in corn, oilcake, coals, and timber, and large num-
bers of shrimps are caught and sent to fjondon ;
but the imports of port wine, for which Lyim was
formerly noted, have of late years nmch fallen oil'.
In Edward I.'s reign it was one of the iirincipal
ports of the kingilom ; in 1397 it ranked liftli
amongst the towns contrib\iting 'loans' to meet
the royal necessities; in 1474 the Hanse merchants
had a factory or 'steelyard ' here : aiul in the lirst
half of the 16th century it was a llourisbing seat of
cloth manufacture. In 1549, during Kot's (cpv. )
rebellion, one body of the insurgents was encamped
here, and in 1643, during the Civil War, the town
ca]iitulated to the parliament:uy force after three
weeks' resistance. King.Iohn ( who in 1'204 granted
the town its lirst charter), the dowager ipieen
Isabel (a resident for twenty-eight years at Castle
Rising, a few miles distant), Edward III., Henry
756
LYNN
LYONS
VI., Eihvaid IV., Heiirv VII., and Oliver Crom-
well iill visited Lynn, w^iich wa.s the birthplace of
John Capgrave the olironicler and of Hishon Keene ;
and the residence of tlie physician Sir \Villiani
Browne, and of Dr Charles IJurney. Pop. (1801)
lO.Onii: (lS9i) lS,;j(iO. At Sandrin'LjiKUii, 7^ miles
X. liy E. of Lynn, is a residence of the Prince of
"Wales, the house, completed in 1S70, being in the
Elizabethan style of architecture. See liichards'
Hktonj of Lynn (2 vols. 1812).
Lynil< a city and port of jNIassacIiusetts, on
Mas.sachnsetts Bay, 10 miles NNE. of Boston,
with which it is connected by train and trann\ay.
Most of the houses arc Imilt of wood ; among them
are many handsome villas belonging to Boston
merchants. The principal industry is the manu-
facture of ladies' and children's shoes — mainly for
the West and South— of which 10,000,000 p.airs
have been jnoduced in one year. There are also
large tanneries here. Though founded in 1629,
Lvnn became a city only in 1850. A great fire
here in 1889 destroyed i>i'operty worth 85,000,000.
Pop. (1880) 38,27-1 ^(1890) 55,727.
LyiltOll and LyilllIOIltll. two villages of Xorth
Devon, on the Bristol Channel, 18 miles XE. of
Barnstaple by rail (1896), 17 E. of Ilfracomlie, and
20 AV. of Minehead. Lynmouth stands close to the
sea, and Lynton lialf-way up tlie clitl. 428 feet above.
They were ' discovered ' in 1883, and have since been
developed, now jjossessing a clitt'-railway 1000 feel
in vertical ascent, electric light, nine hotels, I've.
Shelley stayed at Lynmouth in 1812; and Soutlnn
called it 'the finest spot, e.xcept Cintra and Air;i-
bida [near Lisbon], that I ever saw.' Joint popu-
lation ( 1881 ) 1212 ; ( 1S90) 2300.
LyilX, a genus of Felida^, having a less elongated
form than many others of that fanuly, the body
elevated at the haunclies, long fur, a short tail,
aud the ears tipped with tufts or pencils of hairs.
Tlie European Lynx [Lijnx- rinialus).
They are less courageous than other Feliihe of
similar size, and prey on small quadrupeds and
birds. It has been said that they kill and dev<mr
tlie skunk. In jmrsuit of birds they climb trees.
Tliey are generally of a sullen aud suspicious
temper, and not easily tamed. The species are not
numerous, but widely distributed ; the distinctions
of species and varieties are somewhat uiu'crtain.
The European Lynx (L. vin/fitiia) is common in
many parts of Europe and Asia, chielly in moun-
tainous and woodeil districts. Its colour is vari-
able, but generally of a tlark reddish gray, spotteil
with reddish brown, the belly whitish. It is about
three feet long, and proverbial for acuteness of
sight. It is hunted in winter foi- its fur, which
is always in demanil in the market : but many of
the lynx skins imported from the north of Asia
probably belong to other species. Those of Xorth
America, and probably also many of those of the
north of Europe and of Asia, are the skins of the
Canada Lyn.x (L. aiiiiK/ciisis or /,. buiralis),
which is generally of a hoaiy gray colour, a broad
space along the back being blackish brown. It is
rather larger than tlie European Lynx, ami more
clumsy in form. The Bay L,ynx (/,. ni/iis) is found
in more southern parts of North America, both in
mountainous and in swampy districts, and often
makes great havoc among poultry ; it is commonly
called ill America the wild cat. But as :ill these
forms graduate into one another they sIkiuIiI inob-
ably be referred to a single species. The Asiatic
species are the Caracal and the Tibet Lynx.
Lyou Court, the court in Scotland which lia.s
jurisdiction in questions regarding coat-armour
and precedency. It is presided over hy the Lyon
King of-arms. See Hkh.\ld.
Lyouesse. See Cohnwall.
LyoilIiaiSa a former pro\ ince of France, was
bounded on the W. by Auvergne and on the S. by
Languedoc. Its territory coincides nearly with
the present departments of Rhone, Loire, Haute-
Loiie, and Puy-de-Dome.
Lyons ( Fr. Lyon ), the second city of France,
stands at the conHuence of the Khone and the Saone,
by rail 315 miles SSE. of Paris ami 218 X. by W.
of Marseilles. The commercial and fasliion.able
quarters of the city lie on the long narrow tongue of
laml between the rivers, and are connected with
the suburbs beyond by more than twenty bridges.
This central part of Lyons contains many narrow
streets, with tall gloomy houses : but much has been
done to lighten it since 1852 by the making of long
straight, wide streets, and the opening np of squares.
In tliis district stand the museum (1667), with
\aluable Koman antiquities, a library of 120,000
vols, and 1500 MSS., pictures by the great masters,
and other art collections ; the church of St Martin
d'Ainay, the oldest in Lyons, going back to the
10th century ; St Xizier Church, at first the
cathedral, a fine 15tli-ceutury Flamboyant building,
with the crypt in which St Pothinus is said to have
officiated ; the graceful town-house, built in 1646
and restored in 1702 ; the museum of arts and
industry ; the academy, with five faculties ; the
hos]>ital, founded in the 6th century, and perhaps
the oldest in I'lance. though the present building
dales only from 1773 ; and the arsenal. To the
north lirs the suburb of La Croix Ilousse, where the
silk-wea\ers dwell. Across the Saone, and (Ui its
right bank, is the steep, high suburb of Fourviires,
the ancient Forum Veins of Trajan, whose summit
(410 feet) is now crowned by the church of Notre
Dame (the new church begun in 1872). Here is the
miracle-working image of our Lady of Fourvieres
that is believed to have preserved the city from the
cholera in 1832, 1835, and IS.'iO; it is "visited by
thousands of pilgrims annually, who.se olVerings
cover the walls of the chinch. From its tower,
which is surmounted by a gilded statue of the
A'irgin, 18 feet high, a view can be had of the distant
Alps. On this elevated site too stands the church
of St Irenaus, in the crypt of wliiih are |iieserved
what ]iurport to be the bones of 19,000 Christian
martyrs who ]ierished in the ]iersecution by Severus.
At the foot of the hill next the Saone is the archi-
episeopal cathedral of St John, of the Kith and
litli centuries, with magnificent stained-glass
windows of the same date and Ji celebialed clock
of 1598 ; the jialace of the archbishop, who ranks
;is primate of France ; and the law courts. On
the left bank of the Hlione, which is so low that it
has to be protected with embankments to jirevent
it from overllowing and Hooding the city, is the
handsome new suburb of Les Brotteanx, teriiiin-
LYONS
LYRE-BIRD
757
ateJ oil the north hy the park of tlie Tete d"Or, in
which are an oriental nmseuni, a zoolojrical collec-
tion, and a line botanical garden ; while more to
the simtli is the sqnalid snburl) of La (luillotiere.
Lyons possesses also a Roman Catholic University
with three faculties, a tirst-class veterinary school,
a school of art with 1200 pupils, of great value for
the silk manufactures, a school of the industrial
arts, a municipal library of 66,000 vols., a natural
history and other museums, and a silk-conditioning
house. The city is a fortress of the first rank,
being defended by a double ring of forts. Pop.
( 187-21 .301.868 ; ( 1891 ) 39S,027, or, of the commune,
438,077. The staple industry is the silk; it is
computed that there are in all, within the city and
its environs, from 75,000 to 85,000 hand-looms and
20,000 power-looms employed in this manufacture.
Raw silk is imported, principally from China
(28 per cent.), Japan (24 percent.), Itah- ami the
Levant, and France, to the annual value of
£2,124,650, and manufactured silk goods exported
to the yearly value of £9,510,960 ; the annual
production reaches in value £43,936,000. The
commodities speciiilly characteristic of the Lyons
manufacture used to be heavy figured studs, such
as velvets, satins, watered silks, plushes, moires,
and so fortli ; but of late years, owing to a change
in taste or fashion, there has been a growing
demand for lighter stuffs dyed in the piece. Silk-
dyeing and printing give employment to nearly
4000 workmen ; 25,00>0 more are engaged in the
various chemical industries (dyes, starch, candles,
soap), machinery-making establishments, foundries,
brass-works, fancy-ware manufactories, gold and
silver goods, hats, paper, mathematical instiuments,
and numerous minor branches. The admirable
Eosition of Lyons makes it a great emporium of trade
etween central and southern Europe. Besides
importing silk raw and exporting it manufactured,
chiefly to Creat Britain and the L'nited States,
cotton is imported from America and Egypt, and a
large amoiuit of business done in cloth and linen,
chestnuts, coal, charcoal, cheese, and wine and
spirits. Tlie ILst of notable persons born in Lyons
includes Ciermanicus and the Roman emperors
Claudius, Marcus Aurelius, and Caracalla, Jules
Favre, Roland, Say, Suchet, the De Jussieus,
Ampere, Recamier, Bonnet, Delorrae, Meissonier,
and Jacquard.
Tlie Romans settled a colony here in 43 B.C. and
made it the starting-point for their great network
of highways througli Gaul. It soon became the
ecclesiastical metropolis of that great province and
its first commercial and manufacturing town, under
the nameof Lugdunum. But ill fortune attended
it : it was burned to the ground in 59 A.D., and
again in 197 ; it suftered severely during the
barbarian invasions ; and was connuered by the
Saracens in 736. Yet it was visited by gleams of
glorj- : in 478 it was made capital of the Burgundian
kingdom, and, passing to the empire in 10.32, was
invested with self-government and the privileges of
a free imperial town. But after the condeiiinati<m
of the Emperor Frederick 1 1, at the Council of Lyons
in 1245 the city reverted to the French crown.
The introduction of the silk industiy must be set
down to the credit of Francis L The Reformation,
entering from Cleneva, had a short but violent
reign ; the emigration of the Huguenots struck a
blow at tlie industrial prosperity of the town from
which it dirl not recover for some time. In 1789
the city embraced the cause of the Revolution,
though royalist feeling was also strong here. In
1792 it refused oljcdience to the National Conven-
tion : in revenge it was besieged, cajitured, its
buildings destroyed, its naiiic changed (till 1794)
to Ville-Afrranchii-, and WMMJ of its citizens
slain under the direction of Collot d'llerbois.
Couthon, and Fouche. The 19th century was chiefly
memorable for trade riots, which sometimes, as in
1831, 1834, and 1849, assumed very formidable
dimensions. Since the war of 1870 it has been
known as a focus of red republicanism.
See Histories by Clcrjon (4 vols. 1829-35), Beauliea
(1838), Monf;Ucon (8 vols. 18i;6-70). Metzger (9 vols.
1881-85), the topographical account by Joanne (1885),
and works by Josse ( 1892 ) and Steyers ( 1895 ).
Lyre, one of the oldest forms of stringed instru-
ment. It was introduced into Egypt from Pales-
tine during the 18th dynasty, and was common
among the Greeks even in the lieroic times. Most
of the barbarians who invaded the Roman empire
were acquainted with the lyre, and must have
independently attained the knowledge of it. The
common Greek lyre was made of a tortoiseshell,
with blocks inside, similar to those nsed in a
violin, to modify the strain of tlie strings.
The shell was covered with bull's hide, and two
horns were fastened to one side of it, one bom at
each extremity of the side. A piece of wood
served as a crosspiece, and was fastened from the
tip of one horn to the tiji of the other. Seven
strings of gut were tied to the crosspiece, the other
ends being secureil at the bottom of the shell.
Pegs for tlie strings were added to the crosspiece
by the later Greeks, likewise a bridge to prevent
tfie strings toucliing the shell, and two sound-holes
cut in the shell in order to increase its resonance.
The lyre, unlike the lute, cannot be stopped by
the fingers and its sounds thereby multiplied. Its
sounds can be no more in number than its strings.
Consequently, since the rise of the modern scale,
the lyre, whose strings were never more than seven
or eight in number, has been unable to cope with
the growing exigencies of an intricate music, and
lias fallen into complete desuetude.
Lyre-bird, or Lyre-tail {Mouira), a genus
of birds, of which the best-known species (jl/.
stiperba) is a native of New South Wales, where
it is generally called the Lyre Pheasant. The
proper place of this genus has been much disputed
by ornithologists,
though it un-
doubtedly belongs
to the Passeres. A
bird about the size
of a pheasant, it
frequents the
hrii.sh, or sparsely-
wooded country,
in the unsettled
parts of New South
Wales, but re-
treats from the
more inlialiited
districts, being
extremely shy and
difficult to ap-
^iroacli. It is by
tar the largest of
all songbirds, and
possesses the
power of imitating
the song of other
birds and the
sounds of other
animals, imitating
even the bark of
the dingo. The
tail of tlie male is
very remarkable
and splendid,
twelve feathers being very long, and having very
line and widely-seiiaratcd barbs; whilst, besides
these, there are two long middle feathers, each
Lyre-bird {Mrmira fuperba).
758
LYRIC
LYTHRACE.S;
of which has a vane only on one side, and two
exterior feathers, curved like the sides of an ancient
Ivre The lyre-bird makes a domed nest. A
second si.ecies (31. albcrti), also Australian, has
been named in honour of Prince Albert. llie
lyre-shaped fealhere of its tail are comparatively
short and destitute of bare.
Lyrio, the name dven to a certain species of
poetry because originally accompanied by the music
of the lyre. It is rapid in moNement, as belittm.'
the expression of the mind in its emotional and
impassioned moments, and naturally its pnncipal
themes are love, devotion, patriotism, lriends_hip,
and the Bacchanalian spirit. It was a favourite form
amou" the ancient Greeks and Komans, anil here
it may be enou-h to mention the names of such
masters as Sappho, Pindar, Tyrtaeus, ^fem'-nides, of
manv unknown writers in the Greek Anthologi/,
and of Catullus and Horace. The most imijortant
form of the modern lyric is the soiifh ^vith its
reli"ious sister, the hijmn, neither of which, as we
iniMit expect, extends usually to any great number
of lines Lyric poetry obviously concerns itselt
with the thoughts and emotions of the writers
own mind, and is thus subjcdh-c as opposed to
the epic, for example, which is essentially ohjechve
in character ; while from beginning to end it
should express but one incident, situation, or
spasm of emotion. Modern English literature is
remarkably rich in poetiy in lyric forms, although
it would be difficult to bring together any tl';?e ot
their contemporaries to outweigh Goethe, bchiUer
and Heine. As admirable examples of devotional
lyrics may be named INIilton's 'Christmas Ode,
Byron's hebrew Melodies, Moore's Sacred Melo-
dies, and our thousand hymns of greater or less
poetic value; of love-songs, the masterpieces of
Herrick and other Caroline lyrists, and of Burns,
the best dozen of whose songs stand safely tirst in
their order, as well as, in later times, the unmatcheil
utterances in Tennyson's Maud of the love-passion
in its swift progress from hope to despair ; of loyal,
and patriotic, and martial lyrics, the Royalist, and
especially the Jacobite group, Campbells '\e
Mariners of England,' ' Hohenlmden, and The
Battle of the Baltic,' Burns's 'Scots wha hae,
Byron's ' Isles of Greece,' and Tennyson s ' Charge
of the Light Brigade ' and 'The Last Fight of the
Kevenge.' An admirable selection from the whole
range of English poetry is Palgrave's Gulden Trea-
sur?/ ( 1861, often reprinted ). See SoNC.
Lvs or Leye, a tributary of the Scheldt, ri.'^es
in France near the little town of Lysbourg, in the
department of Pas-de-Calais, and Hows in a north-
eaitern direction, joining the Scheldt at Ghent in
Belgium after a course of 130 miles.
Lvsailder, a famous Spartan warrior and
naval' commander, of extraordinary energy and
military skill, but not less remarkalde for the
cunning, revenge, and ambition by which he was
characterised. He spent part of Ins youth at the
court of Cyrus the Vounger, and m •*"' B.c was
api)ointed to the command of the Spartan fleet,
from which time he constantly prosecuted the
desi.'u of overthrowing the Athenian power, in
orde'^ to exalt that of Sparta. He defeated the
Athenian lleet at the promontory of Notuiin ; and,
bein<' again entrusted with the management of the
fleet'ifter the defeat of his successor, Callicratidas
(405 II c ) he wa-s again victorious. He swept the
southern part of the .Egean, and made descents
upon both the Greek and the Asiatic coasts He
then sailed north to the Hellespont, and anchored
at Lampsacus. An immense Athenian fleet soon
made its api>oarance at .Kgosiiotami, on the oppo-
site siile of the straits, amounting to ISO ships.
Of these, 171 were captured by Lysander a lew
days after. The blow to Athens was tremendous.
Everywhere her colonial garrisons had to surren-
der and Spartan influence predominated. I'lnally,
in 404 K C, he took Athens itself. His poimlurity
now became so great, especially in the cities of
Asia HHiior, that the Spartan ephois dreaded the
consequences, especially as they knew how am-
bitious he was. Every means wa-s taken to thwart
his designs, until finally it would ajii'ear that he
had resolved to attempt the overthrow of the
Spartan constitution; but thi-s scheme was pre-
vented by his death at the battle of Haliartus in
the Bffiotian war (395 B.C.). His Life was written
by Plutarch and by Cornelius Kepos.
Lysias. the fust Greek orator who attained
perfection in his own line, was the son of Cephalus,
who, foreisjiier though he was-he came froni
Syracuse— succeeded in making his house one ot
the centres of intellectual lite in Athens Lysias
himself was bom in Athens, probably about i.ii
BC (the date is very uncertain), was educated
aion" with children of the best Athenian families,
and "at fifteen years of age joined the colony
planted by Athens at Thurii, where his early
manhood was spent. The failure of the Athenian
expedition against Sicily made it advisable tor
Lvsias like other friends of Athens, to leave
Tliurii and in 412 he returned to Athens and
continued his rhetorical studies, not for pro-
fessional purposes, for he and his brother Pole-
marchus were wealthy, imt from choice. I he
choice proved in the event a wise one, tor the
Thirty Tyrants, in 404 B.C., stripped the brothers
of all' their wealth, killed Polemarchus, and only
failed to kill Lvsias because he lied to Megara.
The first practical use to which Lysias put his
eloquence was, on the fall of the Thirty (403) to
avence his brother's death l;>y i>rosecuting Eratos-
thenes, the tyrant on whom the principal responsi-
bilitvfor the legal murder of Polemarchus rested.
He "then practised, until his death at the age
of eighty, with singular success as a writer of
siieeches'for persons engaged in litigation. Aocord-
im. to Dionysius of Halicarnassus, he composed
"33 such speeches, and only failed in two instances
to secure a favourable ventict. From an examina-
tion of the thirty-four surviving soeeohes, we can
see that Lysias 'is at all times and m al mattere
surprisingly and delightfully lucid in both thought
and expression : he rarely indulges in a metap lor,
he is always .lirect, and uses simple, commonplace
lan<aia"e for his simple narrative and common-
sense aTguments. But though simple his narrative
i'. never monotonous: it is lively, graceful, and
entertaining. Another quality, which both con-
tributed to his practical success and lieli.s to (dace
his speeches amongst the most entertaining ot
Greek literature, is his power of character drawing.
The first edition is Aldus' ( 1513) ; the best ed.tum of
the text, Teubner's: a school t-dition, Cobet li ( Amst.
18G3). Selections, with German notes by Frohbciger and
Kauchenstein. See Jcbb's Attic Orators ; and ]51ass, Die
Attische Bercdsamkeit. _
liVte. Henry Fr.xxcis, hymn-wnter, born at
E,h,am. near Kelso, 1st June 1793; in 1SV2 entered
Trinitv College, Dublin : took orders in ISlo ; ami,
his health having faile.l three years f'>'l'^'- ^'/'^,') '';*
Nice, 'iOth Nov. 1847. His Poems, chic/h/ hrlnjious
(1833' reprinted as ]\Iiseella)ieom Poems. IS(i8),
Memoh- of^ Henry Vaughan ( 1847), &c., are almost
fon'otten ; but ' Abide with me. ' Plea-ant are thy
courts,' and other hymns keep his memory green.
See Life prefixed to his Hiiikiuis ( 18.)0).
Lvtlinill. a watering-place of Lanca.-lnre, on
th^nonhslmre of the Bibble estuary, 14 n.iles ^\ .
of Preston, and 7 SSE. of P.laekpool. Pop. 412-.
I vthraoea-. a natural order of exogenous
phu.l rhielly I'erbs, an.l rarely shrubs or trees.
LYTTELTON
LYTTON
r59
The oilier contains about 40 yeneia ami upwards
.of 300 species, chiefly natives of the tr()i)ics ; but a
few are fouml in Europe and in North ^Viuerica.
Astrinjjent qualities are ascribed to some of the
species. The onler is well represented in IJritain
by the well-known Loosestrife (Li/thiiim sa/icaria).
w'liioh fjrows abundantly on tlie margins of ponds
and streams and in moist mea<lows, in some parts
of the country imparting character to the landscape
by its broad masses of puri>le llowers. The Henna
(q.v. ) of Egypt is produced by Lairsoiiia iiicnnis,
a plant of this order. The leaves of another
( I'cmp/i is (ifidiilu) are said to be a common pot-
herb on the coasts of the tropical parts of Asia.
The leaves oi Ammania vesicatoiia, an East Indian
aquatic plant, are very acrid, and are sometimes
useil as blisters. Physocali/inma Jlwihumla, a
Brazilian tree of this order, growing about 30 feet
higli, furnishes the valuable rosewood (the American
tulipwood ) of commerce.
Lytteltoil. George, Lord, son of Sir Thomas
Lyttelton of Hagley, in Worcestershire, was born
in" 1709, and educated at Eton and Christ Church,
Oxford. He entered parliament in 1730, where he
soon acijuired eminence as a' speaker, held several
high political offices, was raised to the peerage in
1759, and died 22(1 August 1773. Lyttelton had
once a considerable reputation as an author, and
his poetry gained him a place in Johnson's Lives of
the Poets. His l>est-known prose works are Obser-
vations on tjie Conversion and Aponfles/iip of St
Paul (1747), Diedoques of ike Dead (1760), and
History of Henry it. (1764). See his Memoirs and
Correspondence (2 vols. 1S45). — His son, Thomas,
Lord Lytteltox (1744-79), who was as- con-
spicuous for ]irofligacy as his father for virtue,
died three days after a nocturnal warning by a
dove and a white lady (Chambers's Boo/: (f Days,
vol. ii. p. 625). The Poems by a Yoiinq Xobleman
(1780) may partly at least have been Ids, but the
Letters of 't/ie /ate Lord Lyttelton (,2 voh. 1780-82)
were probably by Combe ( ' Dv Syntax ' ). A
Quarterly reviewer (1851) identified him with
'Junius.'
Lyttleton, Sir Thomas. See Littleton.
Lytton, Edward Bulwer, Lord, novelist,
playwright, essayist, poet, and politician, was
born at 31 Baker Street, London, on 25th May
1803. He was the third and youngest sou of
General Earle Bulwer ( 1776-1807)' of Heydon and
Bailing in Norfolk, by Elizabeth Barbara Lytton
(1773-1843), the heiress of Knebworth in Hertford-
shire. As a child a devourer of books, his favourites
Amadis de Gaul and the Faery Queen, he took early
to rhyming, and went to scliool at nine, though
not, it may be unluckily, to a public one, but to six
private tutors in succession (1812 21). In 1820 lie
jjublished Ismael and other Poems, and about the
same time was 'changed for life' by a hopeless, tragic
first love.^ .A.t Trinity Hall, Canibridge (1S22-25),
he read English history, political economy, ineta-
phy.sics, and early English litei ature ; s])oko mucli
at the Union ; carried off the Chancellor's gold
medal for a poem upon ' Sculiiture,' but took only
a p.'u'-s degree. Meanwhile, in a long- vacation
walking-tour (1H24), he had visited the grave of his
lost love in the Lake Country ; and there, in Scot-
land, and in the north of England, had strange
adventures with cut-throats and most imixissible
Gyi>sies. Now, his college life ended, he alternated
awhile between I'aris and London ; and in London,
in December 1825, he met Ko-in.i Wheeler ( 1802-82),
a beautiful Irish girl, whom in August 1827, despite
his mother, he married. It wa-s a most unhapiiy
marriage. She bore him a daughter, Emily
(1X2H-4M), and a son, the future Earl of Lvtton":
in 1836 they separated. But his marriage did this
for him : it called forth a marvellous literary
activity, for the temporary estrangement from his
mother threw him almost wholly on his own
resources. He had only i"200 a year, and he lived
at the rate of £3000; the deliciency was supplied
'out of his well-stored jiortfolio, his teeming brain,
and his indefatigable industry.' During the ne.xt
ten years he produced twelve novels, two poems,
one political pamphlet, one pl.ay, tlie whole of
Enyland and the Enylish, three volumes of Athens,
its llisc and Fall, of which only two ever were
published, and all the essays and tales collected in
the Sliidiiii, to which must be added his untold
contributions to the KdinburyJi, the Wcstniinstrr,
the New Montlily (of which he became editor in
1831), the Examiner, Ike. His Wertherian Fall:-
lanil, published anonymously in 1827, gave little
promise of the brilliant success, both at home and
abroad, of Pclham (18'28), the clever persiflage
of whose dandy hero is still delightful. No two
readers agree on the relative merit of his books, but
indeed this very divergency of opinion as to which is
really his masterpiece only illustrates his amazing
versatility. Certainly Pelham is better than Paul
Clifforel (1830), a marvellous idealisation of the
highwayman, as Eugene Aram ( 1832) is of the mur-
derer ; but most will rank it as inferior to the exquis-
itely fanciful Pilgrims of the Rhine (1834) or to
one or another of his four splendid historical novels
—The Last Days of Pompeii ( 1834), Rienzi ( 1835),
The Last of the Barons (1843), and //«raW (1843).
Then, there is his domestic trilogy, The Caxtons
(1850), Mfy A'orel (1853), and What will he do ivith
it? (1S59), Sterne-like, yet strangely un-Sterne-
like, surpassing Thackeray for peasants and Dickens
for gentlemen, and both in knowledge of the world
of politics. Or there are Zanoni (1842), A Strange
Story ( 1862), and, shorter but stronger than either.
The Haunted and the H(iunters{Blacl:uood's Maga-
zine, 1859). No English story of the supernatural
comes near to this, and w by ? — because he wrote
here as a believer, as a serious student of astrologj',
chiromancy, occult lore generally. These books
are triumphs in the art of fiction in its most
widely differing divisions, and taken together,
display an unexampled range of powers. Here
the readei' finds at once vast knowledge, rich
suggestiveness wedded to profundit.v of thought,
fresh insight info perplexing psychological and
social problems, lireadth of view, wit in richer
measure than humour, together with an unusual
power of handling \ivid incident and a rare mastery
of plot-construction.
Of his plays it must suffice to .say that the Lady
of Lyons (1838), Bichelicu (1838), and Money
(1840), all three of which owed something to hints
from Macready, still hold the stage as firmly as
the masterpieces of Gohlsmith and Sheridan; of
his ])oems that King Arthur (1848). ami even St
Stcj'he/is (1860) and the Lost 2'ales of Miletus
(1860), will all be forgotten when the IS'eu- Tinion
( 1846) is still kept in remembrance by the savage
answer it provoked from Tennyson.
In 1831, at the age of twenty-eight, he had
entered jiarliament as member for St Ives, and
attached himself to the Kcform party : but Lincoln
next year returneil him as a I'rotectionist Liberal,
and t"hat seat he hehl till 1841. In 18.38 the
Melbourne administration conferred on him a
baronetcy for his brilliant services as a pamph-
leteer; in Dec. 1843 he succeeded, by his iiiofher's
death, to the Knebworth estate, and assumed the
additional surname of Lytton. He now .sought to
reenter ]iarliamciit, in 1847 contesting Lincoln
unsuccessfully ; and in 1852 he was returned as
Conservativeniember for Hertfonlshire. Deafness
hindered him from shining as a debater, but he
made him.self a .successful orator. In the Derby
760
LYTTON
{,'oveniment (1858-59) lie was Colonial Secretary,
and signalised his brief tenure of office tiy calling
into existence the two vast colonies of British
Colunihia and tiueensland. In 1866 he was raised
to the peerage as Baron Lytton. He died at
Torqnay on 18th January 1873, and was buried in
^^'estlllinster Abliey.
I.iirtl Lytton's works in all exceed sixty, and fill more
than 110 volumes. To those already mentioned may be
added The Disoxvned (182!)), Dei'ereux (1829 ), Oodolphin
(1833), Enmt Maltrarers (ISil ), Alice (\U1), Leila and
Cahleron ( 1838), ICiiilit and Moriiinr/ (1841), rocms and
Ballads, chiejbi from Scliiller (1844), Lucretia (1840),
Caxtonia-na '(1803), The Comiivi Race (anonymously,
1870), A'oirim Chillingly (1873), The Parisians (1874),
and Pausanias the SjWH-tad (unfinished, 1876). The Lije,
Lvtlcrs^and Lilerari/ Bemaim of Lord Lnlton (vols. i. ii.
1S.S3), by iiis son, comes down only to 1832, so must be
supplemented by the political Memoir, also by the Earl
of Lytton, prefixed to the Speeches of Lord Lytton, ( 2 vols.
1874).
Lytton. Edward Robert, Earl of, poet,
diplomatist, and statesman, was born in Hertford
Street, London, 8th November 1831, and was edu-
cated at Harrow and at Bonn. In 1849 he went
to Washington as an attache and private secretary
to his uncle, Sir Henry Bulwer (q.v.); and sub-
sequently he was appointed attache, secretary of
legation, consul or chargi d'affaires at Florence
(1852), Paris (1854), The Hague (1856), St Peters-
burg and Constantino]de (1858), Vienna (1859),
Belgrade (1860), Constantinople again (1863),
Athens (1864), Lisbon (1865), Madrid (1868),
Vienna again (1869), and Paris (1873). In that
last year he succeeded his father as second Lord
Lytton, and in 1874 became ininisler at Lisbon, in
1876 Viceroy of India, at the same time receiving
the tirand Cross of the Bath. The chief events of
his viceroyalty were the ]iroclamation of the (,*ueen
as Empress of India at the grand Delhi durbar on
Ist.Ianuary 1877, and the outbreak in 1879 of the
tediims and unpoimlar Afghan war. In 1880, on
the fall of the Beactmsfield government, he resigned,
and was made Earl of Lytton ; in 1887 he was sent
by Lord Salisbury as ambassador to Paris, and
there he died 24th November 1891. His works,
published mostly under the pseudonym of ' Owen
Meredith,' include Ch/teiinicstra (1855), a dramatic
poeru; T/ic JVanclc/rr (1859); Liicilc (1860), a
novel in verse ; Serbs/:i /jrsmc (1801), translations
from the Servian: The Itinrf (// ^imfM/.s- ( 1863), a
prose romance ; Orvfil, or the Fool of Tiincs ( 1869) ;
F<ihlcs ill Soncf (1874); Glcnai-cril {2 vols. 1885),
an epic of modern life ; After Paradise, or Leqends
of Krite ( 1887) ; Marah ( 1892') : and Kinrf Poppy
(1892). A selection from bis Poems by Mi.ss M.
Betham-Edwards appeared in 1890.
M
the thirteentli letter in our
alphabet, is ultiinately derived
from the hieroglyi)hic picture of
an owl. In the capital letter
M the two peaks are the lineal
~cendants of the two ears of
liio bird, retaining between
them a not inapt representation
of the beak, the first of tlie
vertical strokes corresponding to the breast (see
Alphabet). In the scrijjt form m the central
hanger represents the beak, on either side of which
are two curves corresponding to the ears. When
the symbol wa-s taken o\er by the Phu-nicians from
the Egyptian hieratic the zigzags in the form ^
were sui>posed to resemble ripples, and hence the
letter received the name mem, ' the waters,' and
this name in the Greek alphabet became mu, owing
probably to assonance with the name of the follow-
ing letter nu. Our minuscule m is descended from
the old Roman cursive, through the Irish semi-
uncial and the Caroline minuscule.
The sound of i/i is defined as a labial of the nasal
class ; that is, if the vocal organs are placed in the
position for pronouncing the labial b, and the breath
is allowed to pass into the nose, the sound pro-
duced is that of )/i. Hence m ha.s a great attraction
for 6, as in li»ih, nimble, from A.S. lim and nimot,
or in number, from the Latin numenis. Sometimes
m becomes h, as in marble from marmor. So also
we find the t«o nasals, m and n, interchanging
according to the nature of the contiguous con-
sonants. Thus n changes to m before a labial, as
in imperator for inperator, while m changes to n
l)efore gutturals and dentals, as in ronjitx and con-
conVui, or in ant from O.E. wmcte, ransom from
Tcilemptiijuem, and cotoit from computarc.
llaartens, M.\.\rte-V, is the i)en-name of J.
M. M. van der Poorteu Schwarz, a Hollander, bom
in 185S, who, having spent part of his boyhood in
England and been at school in Germany, was edu-
cateil at a home univer.sitj' for law. He is known
as the author of a series of powerful novels in
nervous English, including T/ic Sin of Joost Ave-
limjh (1889), A Qne.stlon of Teste, God's Fool, The
Gnntcr Glory, and My Ludij Nobody ( 1895).
-Ilaas. See Meu.se.
llaa.strieht. See MAKSTRinrr.
llal>. ' the fairies' midwife,' who delivers men of
dreams. Shelley in Queen 3fab iir.ikes her f|ueen of
the fairies— a dignity really belonging to Titania,
the wife of Oberon (q.v. ). Mab's praises have been
sung by Sliakesiieare, lien Jonson, Hcrrick, Dray-
ton, and other EnglLsli ])oet,s.
Maliillon, -Ieax, a leamed Benedictine, born
23d Novc'mber 1632, at St Pierremont, in Cham-
jiagne. He studied at St Uemy, in lO.ni entered
the Henedictine order, was placed in 10.j8 in the
monastery at Corbie, in IOCS became keeiK-r of the
monuments at St Denis, and from 10G4 worked,
Avitli slupenilons erudition, in the abbey of St
tJerniain ilesPrcs at Paris. Here he died, 27th
December 1707. He nia<le many journeys intofier-
Mumy and Italy for purpose-s of research, lie aided
DAcheiT in the preparation of his vast historical
collection, the Spieilcgium ; undertook an edition of
the works of St Bernard ( 1667 ) : and constructed a
general history of his order. Acta Sanrtormn ordinis
S. Bencdieti in Sfcculorum classes distributa (9 \ols.
folio, 1668-1701). His classical work De Re Dip-
lomatira appeared at Paris in 1681. Other works
are Vetera Analrcia (1675-85), Mnsaiim Italicum
( 1687-89), and Annates ordinis >S'. Bencdieti (6 vols,
folio, 1703-39). His posthumous works, including
many letters, appeared at Paris (3 vols. 1724).
See Kuinart, Vic de Jean MubiUon (1709) ; Chavin de
Malan, Sistoirc dc Dom Mabillon et de la Conijregation
de Saint-Maiir (1843); Jadart. Dom Jean Mabillon
(1S79) ; and E. de Broglie, Mabillon, 1664-1707 (1888).
UlabillOgioiI. See HERr.E.ST, and Wales.
niabletliorpe, a village on the coast of Lin-
colnshire, 13 ndles by rail (1888) SE. of Louth,
with hard and extensive sands, to which thousands
of the working-classes of Leicestershire, Notting-
hamshire, Derbyshire, Yorkshire, and Lancashire
are carried every summer by cheap day-excursion
trains. Close by is a sublnerged forest. Pop. 640.
Alably, Gabriel Boxnot de, elder brother
of Condillac ((j.v.), born at Grenoble on 14th May
1709, studied at the Jesuit College in Lyons, and be-
came secretary to the minister Cardinal Tencin, his
uncle. But before many years had passed the two
had quarrelled, and Wably gave himself np to a
studious life. He died at Paris on 23d Ajnil 1785.
He entertained a great adnnration for the ancients,
especially for the institutions of Sparta, and con-
stantly illustrated his writings by the acts and
lives of Solon, Phocion, Lycurgus, and Cato. In
this dej)artnient his chief Tiooks were Entretiens de
I'hocion (1763); I'arallelc dcs Romains et des
Francois (1740), in which the latter came oft' second
best ; and Observations sur VHistoire de la Grice
( 1766 ). His De la Manicrc d'Fcrirc I'Histoire (1783)
contains severe strictures on Hume, Bobertson,
(Jibbon, Voltaire, and other historians. Lc Droit
Public de I'Europe [ll-iH) \va.!> the outcome of his
ollicial life. See Guerrier, L'AbbC- de Mably(\SS6).
llablISC J.\N, whose real name was (Joss.vkut,
a Flemish jiainter, was born at Maubeuge ( Mabuse)
.ibout 1470, and entered the jiainters' guild of St
Luke at Antwerp in 1503. His life and work are
divisible into two well marked sections. In the
earlier jiortion, during wlrich he dwelt mostly at
Antwerp, his ]iaintings- principally allarpieccs —
show that he studied Mending, \'an der Weyden,
and t^nenlin Matsys ; their inlluence is especially
apparent in an 'Adoration,' now at Ca-stle Howard
in Yorkshire, and in altarpieces at Scawby in
j England, and Tongerloo in Belgium. The most
I cidebrated of his early pictures, a ' Descent from
the Cross,' painted for the church of Middclbnrg
in Holland, was burned in 150S. In 1508 Malinse
accompanied Philip of Burgundy to Italy, when
he went to arrange the treaty of Cambrai. This
set the fashion to subsequent Flemish painters
of spending some time in the .sunny, art-loving
south. Mabu.se rctumeil home with his style
greatly niodilied by the study of Leonardo, Michael
.\iigelo, and Bajiiuiel ; but the modilicatiou was
762
MAC
MACARONIC VERSE
one that too often tended towards mannerisms,
and to the introduction of contenii)orary jiortraits
and details into religious pictures. After his return
he resided ehielly at Wyck, iliddelhur;,', and Ant-
werp, and died at the last-named |)Iace on 1st
October 1532. His later works emhrace three
classes — subjects from Greek mythology, as Nep-
tune and Amphitrite, and Danai-, characterised by
strong traits of coarse realism ; portraits, as of the
children of King Christian II. of Denmark (about
15'2S), of a princess of Portugal, and of Jean Caron-
delet (1517); and religious subjects, including 'St
Luke painting the Madonna,' 'Christ in Agony,'
'Adam and Eve,' and several Madonnas. Mabuse
was a painstaking workman. Nearly all his
pictures have rich architectural backgrounds, but
the ligures are stiff and stony ; the coloui-s are
bright, sometimes gaudy.
Slac (contracted M'), a Gaelic prefix occurring
frequently in Scottish names, as Macdonald,
M'Lennan, and the like, meaning 'son.' It cor-
responds to the son in names of Teutonic origin, as
Davidson ; the Fitz in Norman names, as Fitz-
herbert ; the Irish 0, as in O'Connell ; and the
AVelsh Mfap, shortened into \rp or '/), as Ap Richard,
whence Pricliard.
]Msicadam, John Loudon, inventor of the
system of road-making known as ' macadaniisin<r,'
the son of James MacAdamof Waterheadof Deugh,
Kirkcudl_>right, was born at Ayr, 21st September
1756. He went to New York in 1770, entered his
uncle's counting-house, became a successful mer-
chant, and on his return to Scotland in 1783 bought
the estate of Sauchrie, Ayrshire. He began in 1810
to make experiments in the construction of roads,
which became a passion with him, and in gaining
experience he tr.ivelled 30,000 miles, and spent
£5000. In ISIG he was aiipointed sur^-cyor to the
Bristol Turnpike Trust, and re-made the roads there
cheaply and well. His advice and assistance weie
now sought in all directions, and his methods
formed tlie subject of a select committee of the
House of Commons in 1819. Instead of going deep
for a ' bottoming,' he worked on the top ; the road-
metal, from 1 to 2 ounces in size, was scattered to
a depth of from 6 to 10 inches, and when shaken
and jiressed together, made a top-covering as close
as a wall (see Ko,\D). Macadam, impoverished
through his labours, petitioned jiarliament in 18'20
for his expenses and some reward. His petition
was repeated in 1823, and he was voted .flO.OOO
and apj)ointed Surveyor-general of Metropolitan
Roads in 1827. He declined a knighthood. He
died at Moti'at, Dumfriesshire, 2Gth November
1836. He puldished A Practical Essai/ on the
Scientific Repair and Preservation of Public Roads
(1819), Remarks on the Present State of Road-
mal.inij ( 1S20), and Ohscrrations on Roads (1822).
Uli'.ill Mis.sioil, the largest Protestant mission
in France, was founded in 1871 by the Rev. Roberi,
Whitaker McAll (bora 1821,' .lied 1803; see
the Life published in 1890) and his wife. It
now possesses more than 100 stations (some 40 in
Paris), and is supported by Protestant Christians
of all denominations in Hritain and the British
colonies, and the United States. Twelve years
after its foundation, the missi.m hehl within the
year 15,000 meetings, attended by close on a million
of persons (mainly of the nmst neglected and irre-
ligious classes), paid '20,000 house-to-hous(! visits,
and ilistribute(l more than 500,000 Bibles and tracts.
Miicno, a Portuguese settlement on the south
coast of China, on the west side of the estuary of
the Canton River, Hongkong being about 40 miles
distant on the o]>posite side of the .same estuaiy.
The settlement occupies a small peninsula project-
ing from the south-eastern extremity of the is'land
of Hiang-shang, and is defended by forts built on
the higli grounil overlookiug the town. The
islands Colovane and Taipa also belong to the
settlement, whose total area is 4A sq. m. and pop.
close upon 70,000, of whom less than 5000 are
Portuguese, the re.st being mostly Chinese. The
jjrincipal public buildings are the cathedral and
churches. Macao is one of the healthiest jiorts
in China, though the heat is e.xce.s.sive during
the southwest monsoon. The greater part of the
revenue of the settlement is derived from licensed
gambling-houses. The Portuguese obtained per-
mission from the Chinese authorities to settle in
Macao in 1557. The Chinese, however, until 1S86
exacted from them an annual ground-rent, and
retained jurisdiction over their own people. The
anchorage of the port is defective ; large vessels
cannot approach nearer than six miles. Since the
rise of Hongkong the commerce of Macao has
suffered severely. Shortly after it was declared
a free port (1845) it became the head.jnarters of
the coolie trade, especially with Peru and Cuba ;
but in consequence of fearful abuses the British and
the Chinese constrained the Portuguese govern-
ment to abolish the trattie in 1873 (see CooLlES).
The trade of Macao (the name of which was for
long a synonym for stagnation and decay) showed,
in 1885-90, some signs of reviving. The import
trade, mainly in the hands of Chinese and Parsees,
had in 1889 a value of £755,057, the chief item
being Patna o)iium ; other imports are kerosene
( formerly from America, now largely from Batoum ),
piece goods, yarn, and provisions. The exports,
valued at £716,755 in 1889, comprise tea, oils, silk,
and rice. The export of tea from Macao to Lomlon
alone was 2,500,000 lb. British merchants have a
share of the export trade, but not the Portuguese.
Macao is the seat of a bishop and the headqviartcrs
of French missions in China. A grotto is shown
here in which Canioens (q.v.) is traditionally
believed to have written his Liisiad during his
banishment.
llararoni (orirfnally lumiis of paste and cheese
squeezed up into balls ; from Ital. maccarc. 'to
bruise or crush'), a jieculiar manufacture of wheat
W'hieh for a hmg time was conlined to Italy, and,
in fact, almost to Genoa; it is now, however, made
all over Italy and at Marseilles and other jdaces in
the south of France. Strictly speaking, the name
macaroni applies only to whealen paste in the form
of pipes, varying in diameter from an ordinary quill
up to those now made of the iliameter of au inch ;
but there is no real difference between it and the
line threadlike vermicelli, and the inniute variety
of curious and elegant little forms which, umler
the name of Italian pastes, are used for soups.
Only certain kinds of wheat are apjilicable to this
manufacture, and these are the hard smts which
contain a large ]iercentage of gluten. The wheat
is first ground into a coai'se meal, from which the
bran is removed. This 'semola' is worked no into
a dough with water; and for macaroni ami ver-
micelli it is forced through gauges, with or without
mandrcds, as in wire and Jiipe drawing ; or for /mstes
it is rolled out into very thin sheets, from which are
stamped out the various forms of stars, rings, iVc.
Macaroni forms a large article of home consump-
tion, and is exjiorted to all parts of the world,
DIararonir Verso is properly a kind of
humorous poetry, in which, along with Latin,
words of other languages are introduced with Latin
inllections and construction; though the name is
sometimes applied to verses which arc merely a
mixture of Latin and the unadulterated vernacular
of the author. Thus ' lassiis ki.ssare boiueas ' ( ' to
kiss the bonnie la.-<sies'), and ' burnanteiu extin-
guere thirstum,' are parts of macaronic hexameters.
I
MACAROON
MACAULAY
763
Teofilo Folengo, called Meilinus Coccaius (1491-
1554), a witty and <aaceless Benedictine, liiis
l>een erroneously rej;arded as the inventor of mac-
aronic poetry ; but lie was the th-st to employ the
term in this sense. His Jlciccfiroiicu (1517) is a
lonj; satiric poem, in which Latin and Italian are
mingled. A predecessor of his by half a century
was Oda-ssi or Oda.\ius of Padua. Good specimens
are found in the Malatle Imaginaire, and in
the Epistolw Oltscurorum Virurum. The I'ulemo-
Middinia (1683), ascribed to Druniniond of Haw-
thomden, but rather by sin obscure pamphleteer,
Sanmel Colvill (writing about 1680), is probably
the best-known liritish example. Fortunately
macaronic poetry has not been very extensively
cultivated, although s|ieciniens of it may be found
in the literature of almost all European countries.
See Gentbe, Oeschichte dcr Maciironischcn Poesie
(1829); Octave Delepierre's Macaroneana (1S52), and
his De la Litteralure Macaronir/ite (185C); Morgan's
Macaronic Poetrii I New York, 1872 ) ; Brunet's LitUraturt
Jl/aoaroiiiV/ue (1879): and Portiorli's Opcrc Macaroniche
di Merlino Coceaio (3 vols. Mantua, 1S82-89).
Macaroon (from the same root as Macaroni),
a kind of l)iscuit made with the meal of sweet
almonds instead of wheaten or other Hour.
Macartney, George Macartney, Earl, an
administrator and diplomatist, wa-s born of Scottish
descent at Lissanoure, near Belfast, Ireland, on
14tli May 1737. On leaving Trinity College, Dulj-
lin, he entered (1759) the Inner Temple, London.
As envoy-extraordinarj- to Russia, he concluded
(1767) a commercial treaty ; from 1769 to 1772 he
was Chief-secretary of Ireland; and from 1775 to
1779 he was governor of Grenada, in the West
Indies, but was compelled, after an honourable
defence, to give up the island to Count D'Estaing,
and was himself carried prisoner of war to France,
though he soon contrived his exchange. The East
India Company in December 1780 appointed him
governor of JIadras, and six yeara later promoted
him to be governor-general ; but his weak state
of health obliged him to decline the honour. He
had already had some experience as member of
both the English and the Irish parliaments, and
had been raised from a knight (created in 1764)
to a baron in Ireland (1776). A duel with an
officer named Stuart, wliom lie had expelled the
service in India, brought him a severe wound shortly
after his return home from India. The first diplo-
matic mission to China from fJreat Britain was
headed by Macartney, now an Irish viscount, in
1792 ; before his return home he was made an
Irish earl (1st March 1794). After undertaking a
confidential mission to Italy (179.5-96), he went
out a-s "overnor of the new colony of the Cape
of Good Hope (1796); bnt ill-health compelled
him to return home in November 1798. Three
years later he wa.s oHered a place in the Addington
ministry, but he declined the honour. He died at
Chiswick on 31st March 1806. In 1796 he was
made Baron Macartney in the British peerage.
See Life, prefixed t<^) (Sir) J. Barrow's edition of
hb* WriliiiifS ( 1807 ).
.Macassar, the most southern portion of Celebes,
contains the chief town and port, Macassar, on the
west coast of the southern peninsula, with a pop.
of 20,fK)0. See Cei-KHKS.
Macanlay, Tho.mas Bahinotox, Lokd, one
of the most popular ami brilliant of British essay-
ists and historians, was bom at Bothley Temple,
Leicestershire, 25tli (Jctober 1800. He came of a
Scottish Celtic family, several of whose represent-
atives were ministers of the Church of Scotland.
Two of them — Macaulay's grandfather, John
Macanlay, who died minister of Cardross, and
Kenneth, author of a history of .St Kilda — came
into contact and collision with Samuel Johnson,
when touring in the Hebrides in the company of
Boswell. Zachary Macanlay ( 1768-1838), " the
father of the future historian and ]Militician, had
a somewhat chequered career as an estate manager
in Jamaica, but in the later years of his life was
best known as an energetic and single-hearted
member of the ' Clapham Sect' of philanthroidsts
of which Willierforce was the acknowledged head.
He was married in Bristol in 1799 to Selina Mills,
the daughter of a Bristol (Juakcr, and the [uipil
and friend of Hannah More. Macaulay was the
first offspring of this union, and was named after
his father's brother-in-law. His earliest years were
spent with his family in London. From infancy
he showed that ins.atiable thirst for knowledge,
that prodigious tenacity of memory, and that
talent for phrase-making, which were subsequently
to be the delight and the envy of his contein-
])oraries. At the age of seven he wrote a com-
j)endium of Universal History and three cantos
of the ' Battle of Cheviot ' in imitation of Sir
AValter Scott. His parents while noting ' marks
of uncommon genius ' in their son, and encouraging
him in every way, never flattered him or paraded
him before others as a prodigy. Thus he grew up
a simple child delighting in, Init unconscious of his
faculty, 'playful as a kitten,' and devoted to his
brothers and sisters. In 1812 he was sent to a
private school ke|(t by the Rev. Mr Preston, a Low
Church clergyman, at Little Shelford, near Cam-
bridge. There, and at Aspenden Hall in Hertford-
shire, to which Mr Preston removed in 1814, he
remained till his time came to go to college. lie
studied hard and read omnivorously ; the taste for
novels and light literature generally which he now
acquired and never lost, brought him more than
one rebuke from his father.
In October 1818 Macaulay went into resi-
dence at Trinity College, Cambridge ; but he
detested mathematics, and cannot be said to have
distinf'uislied himself as a student. Yet he twice
won the Chancellor's medal for English verse, and
obtained a prize for Latin declamation. In 1821
he carried oil' a Craven university scholarship ;
took the degiee of B.A. the following year ; and in
1824 was elected to a Fellowship, He was one of
the most brilliant dis|>utants in tlie Union Debating
Society, and made the friendsliiji of the ablest of
his contemporaries, including Praed, Komilly,
Charles 'V'illiers, Moultrie, ami above all Charles
Austin.
In 1826 Macaulay was called to the b;ir and
ioined the Northern Circuit. But he had no
liking for his nominal profession, and made no
attempt to secure a practice. Already, indeed,
literature had irresistible attractions for him. In
1823 he became a contributor to Knir/ht's Qiiartcrly
Magazine, along with Praed and others of his
Cambridge friends. In it there first appeared some
of his best verses — in particular Jrrij, The Spanish
Arniad(t, and Nasehy. Certain of his prose articles,
such as Tlic Fragments of a Jioman Talc, and
Scenesfioin t/ie Athenian L'lirls, 'show,' saysCotter
Morison, 'such a natural turn for a dialogue and
dramatic misc en seine, that it says a great deal for
Macaulay's good sense and literary conscientiousne.ss
that lie remained content with this lii-st success, and
did not ciintiniK' to work a vein which would have
brought him ])roiiipt, if ciihemeral puiinlarity,'
In 1825— the year in which he took his degree of
M. .\. — be Wiis discovered by Jelliey, then on the
outlook for ' some clever young man ' to write for
the ICdiuhiirgh Itcvieu: The famous article on
Milton appeared in the August number, and the
unequivocal success which it met with not only
seemed him a position in literature, but was the
means of opening to him the doors of society
764
MACAULAY
and politics. But Mao.iiilay's first thoughts were
for his family. It was now in straitened circum-
stances, owing chierty to his father being too much
absorbed by the agitation for the abolition of the
slave-trade to attend to his business. Macaulay
ungrudgingly took upon himself the task of su])-
porting his brotliers and sisters by his pen.
Fortunately it was now in great demand. For
nearly twenty years he was one of the most prolific
of the writers to the Ec/inbiiri/h Jicvicw, and out of
sight the most popular. Macaulay was, however,
claimed by politics. Certain of his articles had
attracted the attention of the chiefs of the Whig
party to which he had attached himself. In 18.30
lie entered parliament, having been presented by
Lord Lansdownc with the pocket-borongh of Calne.
He threw himself with his usual intensity into the
work of the House of Commons, and in his first
session made a speech in favour of the bill for the
removal of Jewish disabilities. But it was in the
debates that preceded the passing of the Reform
Bill that his great powers as an orator were in
reality first manifested. While devoting himself
to parliament, ' rivalling Stanley in debate and
Hume in the regularity of his attendance,' he dis-
charged the duties first of Commissioner, an<l then
of Secretary, to the Board of Control. At the
same time he wrote steadilj" for the Edinburgh
Rei-icii; an<l made almost as great a reputation as
a convei-sationalist in society as he had already
acquired as a parliamentary debater.
On the passing of the Reform Bill of 1832,
Macaiilay had exchanged Calne for Leeds. Mainly
for the sake of his family he accepted the office
of legal aihiser to the Supreme Council of India,
wiXXx a salary of £10,000 a year attached to it.
Accompanied by his favourite sister Hannah, who in
Dec. 1S34 married Mr (afterwards Sir) C. Trevelyan,
he sailed for Calcutta (by Madras), Feb. 1.5, 1834.
In Imlia he worked as hard as he had done in Eng-
land. Besides discharging his duties as member of
the Supreme Coiincil, he acted as chairman of two
connuittees — the committee of Public Instruction,
and the committee appointed to prepare a Penal
Code anil a Code of Criminal Procedure. In the
former capacity he drew up an elaborate minute,
in which he successfully counselled the teaching
of European literature and science to the natives
of India. To Macaulay also must be a-ssigned the
lion's share of the great work performed in con-
nection with the Indian Penal Code, of which
Sir James Fitzjames Stephen has said : 'It is
to the French Code Penal, and I may add the
North German Code of 1871, what a finished picture
is to a sketch. It is far simpler and better ex-
pressed than Livingstone's Code of Louisiana, and
its ])ractical success has been com]dete.' For a time
Macaulay was extremely unpoiuilar with a section
of the British population of Calcutta, owing to the
active ])art he took in bringing about a judicial
reform known as the Black Act, which withdrew
from British subjects resilient in the ]>rovinces of
India the privilege of bringing civil ajipeals before
the Sujireme Court of Calcutta. During his stay
in India he read enormously, and wrote for the
Edinburgh Review his essays on JIackintosh and
Bacon. In the beginning of 1838 he returned to
England with the competence lie had saved from
his ofiici.'il salary.
After a pleasant tour in Italy, Macaulay returned
to political life, though not without reluctance, as
he was already laving the foundations of his great
historical work. In 1839 he' was elected member
for Kdinbnrgli, and the year following entered Lord
Melbourne's cabinet as Secretary at War. His
most impoit<int work at this time wa-s the writing
of The Lai/s of Ancient Borne, which had been
partially inspired by his visit to Italy. Never ha.s
purely civic iiatriotism received a more spirited
poetic rendering than in this volume. It appeared
in 1842, and won an immense popularity. Next
year he published his cidlecteif E.s.'^di/x in three
volumes. While his party «ere in oiijiosition, he
deli\ered a numlier of weighty speeches in the
House of Commons on subjects which interested
him. By one of these he converted Sir Robert
Peel, and indeed the majority of the House, to his
views of copyright : in another he <leclared, ' Of all
the institutions of the civilised world, the Estab-
lished Church of Ireland seems to me the most
absurd.' His connection with the Edinburgh
Review ceased in 1845; he had now commenced
his History of Enghind from the Accexsion of
James II. M hen Sir Robert Peel's admiinst ration
fell in 1846, ^lacaulay took the office of Paymaster-
general of the Forces, and was re-elected trium-
phantly for Edinburgh. A variety of circumstances,
however, of which probably the sup[iort he had
given in parliament to the jMaynooth Grant, was
the chief — led to his defeat at the general election
of the following year.
Macaulay regarded this defeat as a signal for
his retirement into private life. In 1852 he was
again returned for Edinburgh without any exer-
tion on his own jiart ; but he made few speeches
after his reap|iearance in parliament, and gave
himself up almost entirely to his History, The
fiiTst two volumes appeared in 1848, and at
once attained a greater amount of popularity
than had ever before fallen to the lot of a purely
historical work (see LoxGMAX). Next year he
was elected Lord Rector of the univei-sity of
tJlasgow. He had a severe illness in 1852, and
from this he never completely recovered. In 1855
the third and fourth volumes of his great work were
given to the public, and were as cordially received
as their predecessors. The following year he re-
tired from the representation of Edinburgh. In
1S.")6, also, he left the bachelor chambers lie had
occupied for fifteen years in the Albany, and took
up his residence in Holly Lodge, Canipden Hill,
Kensington, where he lived till his death. In 1857
he was raised to the peerage under the title of
Baron Macaulay of Rothley. In the same year he
was elected a foreign associate of the French
Academy of Moral and Political Sciences. Among
other honours which came to him in his last years,
and which he especially prized, was his nomination
to the Prussian Order of Merit, and his election to
the High Stewardship of the borou";li of Cam-
bridge. While working steadily at his History,
he found time to write for ihe Enryclopndia
Britannica articles on Atterbury, Bunyan, Gold-
smith, Samuel Johnson, and William Pitt. Though
conscious that the ailment from which he sud'ered
— weakness of the heart, complicated with asthma
— would prove fatal, he took as keen an interest
as before in the well-being of his relatives and in
the fortunes of his country. The end came on the
28th December 18.")9 ; ' he died as he had always
wished to die — without pain, without any formal
f.arewidl : preceding to Ihe grave all whiun he
loved, and leaving behind him a great and honour-
able name, and tlie memory of a life, every action
of which was as clear and transparent as one of his
own sentences.' He was buried in Poet's (_orner,
Westminster .\bbey, on 9tli January ISGO. The
fragmentary fifth volume of his History which he
left liehind him was |iublislied in IStil.
The reputation of Macaulay is certainly not what
it was during his lifetime or immediately after his
death. He has been convicted of historical in-
.iccuracy, of s.iciificing truth for the sake of ejii-
gram, of allowing personal dislike and party bias
to distort his views of men and incidents. He looks
too much at the mere material side of life. Asa
MACAW
MACCABEES
765
thinker lie is ileficieut in balance, repose, inward-
ness, and modesty. In his writinj; there is far too
mucli light and" far too little shade ; he not
infrequently confounds the foanunj; Inirry of his
own words with the march of events ; the splen-
dour of his style sometimes degeneiates into garish-
ness ; occasionally when he plays the censor, he
almost sinks into insolent brutality. It must be
admitted also that he was too declamatory to be
accorded a place in the front rank either of poets
or of historians. But as a narrator of events he
has no rival, and hardly even a second ; he is lucid-
ity itself. The intellectual solidity and energy of
Jlaeaulay, the lireadth and variety of his know-
ledge, the fervour and dignity of his patriotism —
these remain untouched by posthumous criticism.
And in his nephew's biography he stands revealed
as the most ati'ectionate and unselfish of relatives,
loyal in bis friendships, pure-minded as a child,
generous, upright, and courageous. Of no public
man. of no man of letters, can the nation be more
whole-heartedly proud than of Macaulay.
The authoritative work on the life of Lord Macaulay
is the Life ami Letters — a must admirable Ijiography — by
his nephew, .Sir George Otto Trevelvan, the first edition
of which was published in 1876. -\ Life of his father by
Viscountess Kimtsford appeared in 1000. Of the in-
numerable estimates of Macaiday whicli have appeared
since his death. Cotter Morison's ilonograph m the
* Engbsh Men of Letters* series (1882), an essay by
Mr John Morley {Critit-at JlisccUanies, 1886), and an
elaborate study by iL Taine ( Hislortf of English Litera-
ture, vol. ii. 1871) may be mentioned.
Maoaw. See P.\RKOT.
Maoaw-tree, Gre.\t (Acrocomia sclerocarpa),
a palm of the same tribe as the cocoa-nut, a
native of the West Indies and of the warm parts
of America. It is called Macoi/a in Guiana and
Macahtiha in Brazil. It is from 20 to 30 feet high.
with pinnated leaves from 10 to 15 feet long. The
fruit yields an oil of a yellow colour, of the con-
sistence of butter, with a sweetish taste, and an
odour of violets, used in the native regions of the
tree as an emollient in painful afl'ections of the
joints, and e.\teusively imported into Britain, where
it is sometimes sold as Palm Oil, to be used in the
manufacture of toilet-soaps.
3lacbotll. hereditar>- mormacr or niler of Moray,
married Gruoch, granddaughter of Kenneth mac
Dubh, king of Alban. In 1040 he slew Duncan,
king of Scotia, near Elgin, and succeeded him on
the throne, though to Thorfinn, the Norwegian
earl of Orkney, he had to yield the region north
and east of the Tay, and Cumbria and Lothian
seem to have remained faithful to Duncan's infant
sons. His seventeen veal's' reign is commemorated
in the chronicles ;us a time of plenty. He granted
lands to the Culdees of Lochleven 'with the utmost
veneration and devotion ; ' and, alone of Scottish
kings he made a pilgrimage to Home ( 10.50), and
there gave large alms to the poor. Malcolm Can-
more, King Duncan s eldest son, hail lied to Kngland
on bis father's death ; anil in 10.54 his uncle Siward,
Earl of Northnmbria, led an army into Scotland
against Macl>eth. A bloody but indecisive battle
was fought near Scone ; and it was not till tliree
years later that Malccdm, making a flesh inde-
jiendent attempt, drove ilacbeth into .\berdeen-
.-hire, and killed him at Lumphanan. 1.5th .\ugust
10.57. Such practically is all that is known lor
certain of the ' lilieral king,' as St Berchan styles
Macbeth. The fables immortalised I)y Shake-
.sjieares genius have for pedigree Ifaphael Holinshed,
out of Hector Biicce, out of Boece's ferule fancy
and Wyntoun. See Skene's Celtic Scotland ( 187(5).
Mareabees, a word of uncertain meaning and
origin, but the name Makkabi, originally given
to Judas Maccaba;us, i.s possibly connected with
Mugr/ab, ' hammer. ' The founder of the Maecabean
dyn;isty, Jlatithjahu, or Mattathias, a priest (not,
a.s generally supposed, a high-priest, nor even of
the family of high-priests), was the first i.tlio made
a stand against tne persecutions of the .lewish
nation and creed by Antiocluis Ejiiphanes. He
and his family were called Hasmoneans (Gr.
Asamonaioi). At the beginning of the tioubles he
had retired, together with his five sons, Jocbanan,
Simon, Jehudali (Makkabi), Eleazar, and .lonatlian,
to Modiin, a small place between Jerusalem and
Joppa, to mourn in solitude over the desolation of
the holy city and the desecration of the Temple.
But the Syrians pursued him thither. He being
a person of importance, Apelles, a Syrian captain,
endeavoured to induce him, by tem|)ting jnomises,
to relinquish his faith, and to embrace the Greek
religion. He answered by slaying with his own
band the fii-st renegade Jew who apjiroached the
altar of idolatry. This gave the sign for a sudden
outbreak. His sons, together with a hamlful of
faithful men, rose against the national foe,
destroyed all traces of heathen worship, and fled
into the wilderness of Judah. Their numlier soon
increased ; and not long after, they were able to
make descents into the adjacent villages and cities,
where they circumcised the children, and restored
everywhere the ancient religion of Jehovah. At
the death of Mattathias (ItiG B.C.), which took
place a few years after, Judas Makkabi (100-101
B.C.) took the command of the patriots, and
repulsed the enemy, notwithstanding his superior
force, at Mizpali, Betbsur, and other places, recon-
quered Jerusalem, purified the Temple, and rein-
augurated the holy service (164 B.C.). Having
further concluded an alliance with the Romans,
he fell in liattle against Bacchides (161 B.C.). His
brother Jonathan, who succeeded him in tlie
leadership, renewed the Roman alliance, and tak-
ing advantage of certain disputes about the Syrian
throne, rendered vacant by the death of Antiochus,
acquired the dignity of high-priest. But Tryphon,
the guarilian of the young Prince Antiochus Theos,
fearing his influence, invited him to Ptolemais, and
had him there treacherously executed. Simon, the
.second brother, was elected by the Jew ish connnon-
wealth to assume the reins of the national govern-
ment, and was formally aecogiiised both liy
Demetrius, Tryphon's antagonist, and by the
Romans as ' chief and ruler of the Jews.' He com-
pletely re-established the independence of the
nation, and the year after his succession ( 141 B.C.)
was made the starting-point of a new era. The
almost absolute power in his hands he used with
wise moderation ; justice and righteousness flour-
ished in his days, and 'Judah piospered as of old.'
But not long (seven years) alter his accession to
the supremacy, he was foully murdered (136 B.C.)
by his own son-in-law, Ptoleiuy, who vainly hoped
to succeed him. l''or the subsequent history of this
family, see Jews, Hvrc.vnu.s, aiul Herhd. The
I'oast of the Maccabees — i.e. both of the sons of
Mattathias, and of the seven martyr chihlren
(2 Mace, vii.)— Ls found in the Roman martyrology
under the date of the first of August. See l)e
Sauley, Histoire des Machabies (1880); Ewald, and
Schi'irer.
Maccabees, Books of. Two books of this
name are recognised as canonical by the Church
of Rome, and enumerated in the articles of the
Church of England amimg those apocrypha which
'the church iloth read for examjde ol life and
instruction of manners, yet doth not apply to estab-
lish any doctrine.'
1 Marcahccx, by far the more important of the two,
after a rapid acc<mnt of the conqtu-sts of Alexander
the Great and the distrilaition of his ihuninions
among his successors (i. 1-9), goes on to desciibe
766
MACCABEES
M'CARTHY
the Helleiiising policy of Antiochus Epiphanes
towards the Jews and its baneful eft'ects (i. 10-04).
Chai>ter ii. >;i\cs the genealogy of the Maccabean
family and an account of the eH'orts of the aged
^Iattathias to rouse the spirit of active resistance
among his countrymen (168 B.C.). The rest of the
book falls into " three main divisions, relating
respectively to Judas (iii. l-i.\. 22), Jonathan (ix.
23-.\ii. 53); and Simon (xiii. 1-xvi. 18), the sons of
Mattathias, and concludes with a brief mention of
the accession of John Ilyrcanus, referring for details
to 'the chronicles of his priesthood' (xvi. 19-24).
Tlie wink as we now possess it is the Greek trans-
lation of a Heljrew original, which was still extant
in Jerome's time. According to Origen its Hebrew
title was Sai-bcth Sabaniel (meaning, perhaps, 'the
prince of the house which God built up ' ). The
date of its original composition cannot have been
much (if at all) earlier than 106 B.C. (the last year
of Hyrcanus), nor later than 64 B.C., at which time
the relations of the Jews with the Romans changed
so <;reatly for the worse. Tlie author was plainly
a Hebrew-speaking Jew, well acquainted with the
topography of Palestine, who, if he had not actually
witnessed or taken part in some of the transactions
he describes, had at least conversed with those who
had, and been at pains to make himself aoiiuainted
with tlie authentic oral traditions regarding tlieni.
He also had access to written documents, some of
them of a public and oflicial character. In spite of
some inaccuracies and exaggerations he is entitled
to high rank as a sober, painstaking, and trust-
wortliy historian. The date of the Greek transla-
tion cannot be determined, but it wa-a prolialdy
made very soon after the appearance of the original.
1 Maccabees was translated by Luther, who speaks
of it as almost on a level with the canonical
books, and hardly unworthy to be reckoned among
them.
;-' Mdccabecs opens with two letters ( i. 1-9 and
i. 10-ii. 18), [inrporting to be addressed by the
Jewish authorities in Jerusalem to their bretliren
in Egypt, urging them to the reg-ular observance
of tlie' Feast of the Dedication. 'The second ami
longer of the two contains much legendary and
fabulous matter about Jeremiah and Neliemiah,
and on the internal evidence generally it seems
certain that both must be regarded as spurious.
The reference in these letters to the wars ot libera-
tion leads the author of the book to s|)eak of
Judas Maccab;eus, and to introduce himself as
the epitomator of the five books of Jason of
Cyrene on this theme. Who Jason of Cyrene
was, or at what date he lived, is not known ;
he wrote in Greek, at some distance, both in place
and in time it would seem, from the events he
describes. lie does not ajipear to have been
ac(|uainted with 1 Maccabees. The date of his
epitomator is also uncertain ; all that can be said
with certainty is that it iinist have been prior to
the destruction of Jerusalem in 70 a.d. In numer-
ous instances the statements of 2 Maccabees do not
admit of reconciiiatiim with those of 1 Maccabees,
and the result of critical examination is in every
ease in favour of the latter. It is evident that the
epitoniatiM-, at least, if not also Jason him.self, was
comparatively indillerent to rigid accuracy in his-
torical detail ; he writes mainly with a didactic
purpose, and seeks at everj' point to give promin-
ence to supernatural interventions on behalf of the
chosen naticm.
Hesides the above comparatively well-known
writings, there occur in certain MSS. of the Se])-
tuagint two other liooks known also by the name of
Maccabees, though called so only in a loose sense.
S Maecabec.i, in seven cliai)tei's, relates two occur-
rences in the reign (2'22-'205 B.C.) of Ptolemy IV.
Philopator — his attempt to desecrate the Temple
which was miraculously defeated through the
prayere of Simon the bigli-priest, and the frus-
tration of his vindictive scheme to destroy all
his Jewish subjects, whom be had caused to be
gathered together in the circus at Alexandria. The
narrati\e is in many parts obviously fabulous, and
at every point is without historical confirmation.
4 Maccabees, as its original title, ' On the
Sovereignty of Reason ' inijilies, is a discourse
on the sovereignty of pious reason over the pas-
sions (i. 1-iii. 18); to tliis are appended numerous
illustrations from the time of tlie Maccabees (iii.
19-xviii. '23). The second and larger portion may
possibly have been based on the work of Jason of
('yrene (see above) ; the work as a whole is of a
hortatory character, and the suggestion has been
made that it was originally a synagogue sermon.
Of the author nothing is known except that be
was a sincere Jew, well read in Greek philosophy,
and especially in that of the Stoics.
A fitth book of Maccabees, in Arabic, is printed
in the Paris and London ]iolyglots. It gives a
summary of Jewish history from 180 B.C. to the
close of the reign of Hero(\ the Great, but has no
independent value.
Tlie best edition of the text of the four books of Macca-
bees is tliat of Yriiz^c\\e {Libri Aj'o<T!i}>hl Vthvis Testa-
mcnti Grace, lf>71), and tlie best coiiimentary that of
Grimm in the Exe[/etisckes Nandhiich (1 Mace. 1853;
2-4 Mace. 1857). English translations are given in
Cotton's Fire Books of Maccabees in Knijtish (1832).
illacralllba. a small mud volcano, 138 feet in
height, situated 6 miles N. of Girgenti in Sicily.
The sides are studded with numerous small cones,
which usually emit hydrogen, and occashnially mud
and stones, often sending them to a great height.
MacCartliy. Denis Florence, an Irish poet,
was born in Diililiii, '26th May 1817. He became
known as one of the young poets of that famous
newspaper, the Kution, founded liy Charles Duffy
in 184'2, and his collected BalUiih, I'lienis. and
Lyrics aiipeared in 1850. His ' 15cll- Founder,'
'^'oyage of St lirendan,' 'Foray of Con O'llDnncll,'
and'the ' Pillar Towers of Ireland,' quickly carried
his fame over the land as well as to Irishmen
beyimd the sea. Shelley's translations from Cal-
deron attracted him to Spanish, and in 1 853 he
published six of Calderon s dramas translated in
the metres of the original, and further instalments
followed in 1861, i867, 1870, and 1873, earning the
praises of Ticknor and Longfellow, and in 1881 a
medal from tlie Itoyal Academy of Spain. In 1S72
appeared tilielleii's Early Life, and in 1879 he wrote
the ode for the Moore centenary. For some years
MacCartliy sull'ered from heart disease, and he
died at IJi'ackrock, near Dublin, April 7, 1882. \
collected edition of his poems appeared in 1884.
M'Carlliy, Jtstin, a brilliant journalist and
novelist, liorii in Cork, •2'2d XovemVr 18.30. He
liecame attached to the stall' of the Xortiicrii Times,
Liverpool, in 18.53, and in I8()0 entered the
reporters' gallery of the House of Comiiions for
the 3!iirtiiiir/ ,SI(ir, becoming its foreign editor the
following autumn and chief editor three years later.
He re-signed his post in 1868, and devoted the next
three years to an unusually comjjlete tour of the
I'nitei'l States, in which he visited as many as
thirty-live of the thirty-seven states. Soon after
his return he became "connected with the Daily
Xeirs, but he has also contributed among othcM'
magazines to the Loia/tni, the ]]'esli>iiitster, and
the Fortnieihthi Rcricws. He entered the House
of Commons in 1879 as menilier for Longford, and
was leader of the main wing of llie Irish Home-
Rule Jiarty ( ' AnliParnellili' ') from tlie deposition
of Mr Pariiell (q.v.) lill 1896, when he resigned the
post. Of his novels the Ijest known are Paid Massii
M'CHEYNE
M'COSH
767
(1866), The Watcrdalc Neighbours (1867), My \
Enemy's Daughter (1869), Lady Judith (1871), A
Fair Saxon (1873), Linley Eoehford (1874), Dear
Ladii Disdain (1875), Miss Misanthrope (1877),
Donna Quixote (1879), The Comet of a Season
( 1881 ), Maid of Athens ( 1883), Camiola ( 1885), and
The Right Honourah/e, with Mrs Cainpbell I'laed
(1886). His other works are Con Aniure, a collec-
tion of essays (186S); Critical Notice of George
Sand (1870) ; Prohibitory Legislation in the Vnitcd
States (1872); Modern Leaders, biograpliical
sketches (1872) ; and A History of our Own Times,
from the Accession of Queen Victoria (4 vols.
1879-80; vol. v. 1897), an exceedingly readable
work, clear and useful, though neither erudite nor
exluuistivc. Without professijig to be inii)artial,
the author is unprejudiced and is unexpectedly
sane on Irish questions, which he expounds rather
tlian discusses. His literary criticisms are not
always happy. Later works are TIte Epoch of
Reform (1882) and History of the Four Georges
(4 vols. 1889 ct seq.). See his Reminiscences ( 1899).
M'C'lieyiie, Robert Murray, who has been
called 'theGeorge Whitefield of Scotland,' was born
at Edinburgh on 21st May 1813, educated at the
Hic'h School and university of his native town,
and licensed as assistant preacher in Larbert and
Dunipace in 1835. The scene of his life-work was,
however, Diimlee ; he was elected minister of the
new cluirch of St Peter's there in 1836, and
laboured in the same parish until his death, on
25tli March 1S43. In 18.39 he visited Palestine
as one of a mission of four ministers sent out by
the Church of Scotland to inquire into the con-
dition of the Jews, and on his return published, in
conjunction with A. A. Bouar, Narrative of a
Mission of Enquiry to the Jexcs (1839). He died
on the veiy eve of the Disruption : had he li\ed
he would certainly have thrown in his lot with the
party of his former tutors, Dr Chalmers and Dr
Welsh. Besides being an eloquent preacher, a
man of saintly piety, and a most exemplaiy parish
minister, M-t'heyne wrote hymns and puljlished
sermons, both of considerable merit. See his
Remains (Letters, Sermons, <S:c. ), with a Memoir
by A. A. Bonar (1848; 129th thousand, 1881 ).
His Complete Works appeared at New York in
2 vols, in 1847.
Macoliiavelli. See Machi.welli.
.llcC'h'llilll, George Brinton, an American
general, \v;ls iiorn at Philadelphia, 3d December
1826, graduated at West Point with ' Stonewall '
Jackson and others in 1846, and served with the
engineers through the Mexican war, where lepeated
gallantry in action gained him a captain's brevet.
He was afterwards employed as an instructor at
^^'est Point and on engineer duty in Texas, Oregon,
and Washington, and in 1855 was one of three
American officers sent to observe the campaign in
the Crimea. In 1857 he resigned his conunission,
and engageil in railroad business until the out.
break of the civil war in 1861. In April he was
ajqiointed major-general of Ohio volunt(?ers, and in
May a major-general in the United States i.rmy.
I?y the middle of July he had driven the enemy out
of West Virginia, which entered the I'nion as a
separate state the year after. McClellan was now
c.Tjled to W.ushington to reorganise the Army of the
Potomac, which was made U]> of either raw recruits
or regiments fre.sli from the defeat at Bull Ituii ; of
these ho received the command in August, and in
November he was made commander-in-eliief. But
the authorities at Wa.sliington were too nervous to
rest content with so slow and o.iroful an organiser
as McClellan: and when, in April 1862, lie landed
at Old Point Comfort, for the invanion of \'irginia
by the peninsula of the James Kiver, he iiad already
been deprived of the command-in-chief. His penin-
sular campaign lasted till July, and ended disas-
trously, partly from want of support, and ])artly
from over-caution. He advanced near to Itich-
mond, but was compelled to retreat, lighting the
'seven days' battles ' (.June 25 to July 1 ) as he did
.so, and linally to evacuate the pcninsnla. He was
now relieved of his command : but after the di.sas-
trous second battle of Bull Kun (August 29-30),
which was followed by a Confederate invasion of
Maryland, he reorganised the army at ^\'ashington,
marched rapidly north, met the forces of (Jeneral
Lee at Antietam (q.v.), and compelled him to
reoross the Potomac. This short campaign was
McClellan's most lirilliant achievement, but he
undoubtedly failed to pursue his advantage as
rapidly as he should. He followed the Coufeclerati^s
into ^"irginia, but with too great deliberation for
the taste of the impatient cabinet, and in Novem-
ber he was superseded by General Burnside (q.v.).
Here his share in the war en<led. In 1864 he
resigned his commission, and unsuccessfully
opposed Lincoln for the presidency ( see p. 640 ). He
was then in Europe till 1868, and in 1877 was
elected govenior of New Jersey. He died at
Orange, New Jersey, 29th October 1885. McClel-
lan was the idol of his soldiers, and deserved their
love by his care for them ; but his caution in the
field was excessive, and he was slow in jireparing
fresh plans or in meeting unexpected com! linat ions.
See his Report on the Organisation and Cani/jaigns
of the Army of the Potomac ( 1864 ) ; and McClellan's
Own Story, edited by AV. C. Prime (1886).
Macclesfield, an ancient municipal borough
antl important manufactuiing town in the iSIaceles-
field parliamentaiy division of Cheshire, is situ-
ated on the river Bollin, and on the western
declivity of a range of low hills, 15 miles SSE.
of Manchester and 167 NW. of London. Among
its buildings are the fine old church of St Michael,
founded by Queen Eleanor in 1278, the town-hall
(1823-70)," the intirmaiy (1872), and King Edward's
grammar-school (1553), rebuilt in 1866, and reor-
ganised in 1880, with an endon nient of £2001) a year,
which also supports a modern free school. Miiccles-
field has a public park of 16 acres (1852), public
baths, a free library, a technical school, a school
of .science and art, iS:c. The old button trade
belongs to the past ; and the silk manufacture,
established in 1756, is now the staple industry;
cotton goods and smallwares are mantifactured, and
there are dye-works and breweries. In the vicinity
coal, slate, and stone are obtained. Maccleslield,
which possesses nine charters (the first by Prince
Edward, Earl of Chester, in 1261), and which re-
turned two members to parliament from 1832 till
1880, was disfranchised in 1885. Pop. (1851)
:^9,048: (1881) .37,514; (1891) 36,009. See works
by (N)rry (1817) and Earwaker (1877).
Hl'Cliire, Sir Robert John le Me.surier, the
discoverer of the North-west Pa.ssage, was born at
Wexford, 28th January 1807, and entered the navy
in 1824, served in Back's Arctic Expedition in 18:i6,
and Ross's Franklin Expedition in 1848. As com-
mander of another Franklin Exjiedition (1850-54)
he jiassed in a sledge from Barrow Strait, where
ills ship, the Investigator, lay, to Melville Simnd,
connecting with the Arctic Ocean to the west.
M'Clure was rescued by another expedition,
made K.C. B. , .and after serving in Chinese waters,
an admiral. He died 17th October 187.3. See
PoLAU Exploration and works there cited.
N'Cosll. James, one of the most voluminous
defenders of the Scottish philo.sophy in recent
times, was born at C.irskeoch, Ayrshire, 1st Ajiril
ISll. After studying at (ilasgow and Edinburgh,
he became a minister of the Church of Scotland,
768
M'CRIE
MACDONALD
and was settled at Aibioath in 1835. In 1839 he
removed to Brechin, and four years later cast in
his lot with the Free Church! In 1851 he was
appointed professor of Logic and Metaphysics in
Queen's College, Belfast, a position which he held
till 1868, when he was called to the Presidency of
the college of New Jersey, Princeton, U.S.A. After
a very successful tenure, Dr M'Cosh resigned this
oHiee'in 1S8S in order to devote the close of his life
more exclusively to philosophical production. Dr
M'Cosh's first important work was The Method of
tlw Divine Govcrmncnt, Pht/sical and Moral (1850;
9th ed. 1867). It was followed in 1S60 by The
lulaitions of the Mind inductively investigated.
When Mill published his Examination of Sir W.
Hamilton's I'hilosophij in 1865, Dr Jl'Cosh was one
of the numerous critics who broke a lance for
Scottish philosophy and examined the examiner.
His Examination 'of Mr J. S. Mill's Philosophi/
( 1866) is entitled ' a defence of fundamental truth.'
Dr Al •( 'osh, who died 16th November 1894, defended
what he considers the Natural Realism of Reid
against both the empirical school and the rela-
tivistic views of Kant, Hamilton, and Mansel ;
and maintained the older intuitional view against
the associationists and evolutionists on the one
hand ami the transcendentalists on the other. In
1875 he ])ublished a useful history of The Scottish
Ph ilosonhij. He has also published a series of philo-
sophical tracts for the times, collected as Ecali^tlc
Philosoiihi/ (2 vols. 1887), Psi/chologij (ISm), and
First and Fundamental Truths {1SS9). The Reli-
gious Aspect of Evolution, appeared in 1890.
M'Cric, Dr Thom.\s, a learned Scottish his-
torian and divine, was bom at Duns in November
1772, sturlied at the university of Edinburgh, and
was ordained in 1795 pastor of an Anti-burgher
congregation in that city. Here he died, otli
August 1835. M'Crie's works are in the highest
degree valuable to the student of Scottish ecclesias-
tical history. They exhibit research at once vast
and minute, and though they are essentially apolo-
getic, yet their author is never consciously unfair,
and does not misstate facts. He shows, however,
such admirable skill in finding palliation even for
the less defensible acts of the Reformers, and so
warm a zeal for Presbyterianism, that the impartial
Hallam described his spirit as ' Presbyterian Ililde-
brandism.' He attacked Sir Walter Scott's account
of the Covenanters in Old Mortality in thiee tren-
chant papers in the Edinburgh Christian Instructor,
aiul most unprejudiced readere were compelled to
admit that he had the best of the controversy.
Readers of My Schools and School masters will
remember the admirable description of the militant-
looking divine's person and preaching. His best-
known works are The Life of John Knox (1812),
The Life of Andrew Melville (1819), and tlie less
satisfactory History of the Progress and Suppression
of the Refornuition in Spain (1829). His works
were collected in 4 vols. ( 1855-56 ), and a Life was
published in 1840 by his son, Thomas M'Crie,
D.D., LL.D. (1798-1875), professor in the Presby-
terian college at London, and himself the author
of Sketches of Scottish Church History ( 1841 ), and
Annals of English Presbytery (1872).
lll'C'llIloch, HoR.VTio, a Scottish landscape-
painter, was born in (!la.sgow in 1805. He ex-
hibited for the first time in 1829 ; in 1836 he was
elected an .-V.R.S.A., and in 1838 an H.S..\., when
he removed to Edinburgh. Here he liveil till his
death on 24tli June 1867. He painteil the Higli-
laml lanilscapes with unrivalled truth, breadtli,
and imagination, among his principal pictures
being 'Highland Loch,' ' Loch-an-Eilan,' 'View in
Cadzow Forest,' ' Dream of the Forest,' ' Misty
Corries,' 'Deer Forest, Isle of Skye,' 'Loch
Achray,' 'Mist rising off the Mountains,' ' Kil-
churn Castle, Loch Awe,' and ' Bothwell Castie,
on the Clyde.'
MnoClllIocIl, John, geologist, born in Guern-
sey of a Scottish family on 6th October 1773,
stuilied medicine at Edinburgh, and became a.ssist-
ant-surgeon to an artillery regiment. In 1811 he
was employed by government in geological and
mineralogical researches in Scotland ; in LS20 he be-
came physician to Prince Leopold of Saxe-Coburg,
afterwanls king of the Belgians ; and in the
later years of his life he was protessor of Chemistiy
and Geology in the East India Company's military
school at Addiscombe. He died at Penzance,
Cornwall, 21st August 18.35, in consequence of
an amputation remlered necessaiy by a carriage
accident. His most important works aie a De-
scripticm of the lycstcm Islands of Scotland ( 1819 ) ;
A Geological Classif cation of liocks, with Descrip-
tive Si/nopses (1821 ) ; A System of Geology, vith a
Theory of the Earth ( 1831 ) ; Malaria ( 1827 ) ; and
The liemittent and Intermittent Diseases (2 vols.
1828).
M'CllUoch, John R.\ms.\y, political economist,
was born at Whithorn, Wigtownshire, 1st March
1789. At first a clerk in a lawyer's office, he
became known in connection with the Scotsman
newspaper (of which he was editor in 1818-19)
and the Edinburgh Pcvieic. He made his debut in
the Review in 1818, w ith an article on Ricardo's Prin-
ciples of Political Economy, and for twenty years
contributed almost all tlie economical articles,
with a few on other subjects. He lectured and
taught in London on political economy ; in 1828
was chosen professor of Political Economy in Uni-
versity College, London; in 1838 was appointed
Comptroller of H.M. Stationery Office, a situation
which he held till his death, 11th November 1864.
His principal publications comprise: The Principles
of Political Economy (1820); The Literature of
Political Economy (1845); On the Succession to
Property vacant by Death (1848); On the Rate of
Wages ( 1826-51 ) ; A Dictionary of Commerce ( 1 832 :
new ed. 1875-80); Statistical Account of the Brit-
ish Empire (1837); Geographical Dictionary : A
Treatise on Taxation and the Funding Syste7n
(1845); Dictio)airy, Geographical, Statistical, Ac.
(1841-42): Partnership, d.-c. (1856). He also
edited Smith's Wealth of Nations and Ricardo's
works. M'Culloch was a ForeigTi Associate of the
Institute of France ; and Peel conferred on him a
pension of 1'200 a year.
niact'lllin. Hajii.sh, composer, was born in
Greenock, 22d March 1868. After study under
local teachers, in 1883 he won a scholarship at the
Royal College of Music. His progress there \\!is
so rajiid that in the following year lie Mas able to
resign it. In 1888 he was appointed a juiii<M- )iro-
fessor of Harmony at the Royal Academy. He is
regarded as one of the most pronusing composei's
of the day, his works having already won high
apjirobation. Beginning with the overture Cior
Mltor iiroduced al Glasgow, 22il Jan. 1887, they
embrace two other overtures, Land of the 3Iountaiti
and the Flood and The Dou-ic Dens of Yarrow;
choral works, including The Lay of the Last Min-
strel : .some songs ; and the operas Jennie Deans
( 1894 ) and Diarmid ( 1897 ; libretto by present Duke
of Argyll). Possessing fertility in melody and a
remark.alilc mastery of the orchestra, he is a pro-
nounced nplioldiT of nationality in music, a:ul his
works are distinctly Scottish in character.
Miirduiiald, Etienne J.vnji'Es Joseph Alex-
AM>i:i;, was horn 17th November 1765 at Sedan,
his father, a schoolmaster (horn in South Uist,
educated at Donai), who followed Prince Charlie
to France, being of the stock to which Flora
MACDONALD
769
MiicilonaUl also belonged. He entereil the army iu
17S4 anil, oiiibracing the cause of the lieviilution,
rapidly rose to liigli rank ; he distinguished liiin-
self at .Ieuui[)pes, and by the capture of the Dutcli
fleet { ITHo) alter crossing the iie. In 1798 he was
made governor of the Komau States, and, having
routed the army of the king of Naples at Otricoli,
he completed the subjugation of that kingdom. In
tlie following year he marched to North Italy, to
check the inroad of Suwarolf, who, however, de-
feated him after a three days' blood}' contest on
the Trebbia. In 1800 and ISOl he conimaniled the
army of reserve in Switzerland and marched across
the Spliigen. But in 180.5 he lost the favour of
Bonaparte by his support of Moreau. Four yeai-s
later the emperor, hard pressed, summoned Mac-
donald to comnumd the right wing of the army
of Italy. He took Laibacli, and distinguislied
himself at Wagrain, and was created marshal
and Duke of Taranto. He held a command in
Spain in 1810, and in the Russian campaign :
and in 1813 he contributed to the successes of
Lutzen and Bautzen, but was utterly routed by
Bliicher at the Katzbach. After the battle of
Leipzig he helped to cover the retreat of the
French army. In the subsecjuent struggles on
French ground Macdonald made desperate efforts
to face the enemies of Napoleon ; but, seeiug that
further resistance was hopeless, he advised the
emperor to abdicate. The Bourbons made him
a peer, and gave him the command of a mili-
tary division ; but he refused to serve during the
Hundred Days. From 1816 he was Chancellor of
the Legion of Honour, ami took an active ])art
in the discussions of the Chamber of Peers. He
dieil at Courcelles, Loire, '2oth September 1840.
See his ^0(U-eH«-o,- ( 1892 ; trans. 1892).
nnodoiiald. Flor.v, 'a name,' said Dr John-
son. ■ that will be mentioned in history, and, if
courage and hdelity are virtues, mentioned with
honour.' Born in 1722 at Milton in South Uist,
she lost her father, a tacksman, at two ; and her
mother four years later was abducted to Skye by
Hu^h Macdonald of Armadale. Flora stayed
behind in Uist with her only surviving brother,
An"us, and at thirteen was practically adopted by
Lady Clanranald, the wife of the chief of the clan.
To this Flora owed her gentle upbringing, her
three years' .schooling at E<linburgh. She had not
long returned to the Hebrides when the rebellion
of the '45 broke out ; and in June 1746, ten weeks
after Culloden, she conducted Prince Charles
Edward, disguised as ' Betty Burke, the Irish-
woman,' from Ormiclade in ISenbeeula to Monk-
stadt in Skye, and thence by way of Kingsburgh
to Portree. That she was in love with the 'young
hero ' is absolutely false— she was not even a Jacob
ite ; but those three shr)rt perilous days endeared
her to more than Jacobites, and she was' much feted
during her twelvemonth's captivity on the troop-
ship in Leitli Koads and at Londcm. In 17.50 she
married the son of .M.acdonald of Kingsburgh, and
at Kingsburgh in 177:{ she entertained Dr Jolinsf)n,
who de.scribcs her as 'of middle stature, soft feat-
ures, gentle manners, and elegant presence.' In 1774
her husband emigrated to North Carolina, and in
1776, on the outbreak of the war of independence,
he became a brigadier-general (his five sons, too,
were all British officers). He himself was marie
prisoner; and Flora, returning to Scotland in 1779
with her younger daughter, got her arm broken
during the voyage in a light with a French priva-
teer. After two years at Miltim, she was rejoined
by her husbanil, and they .settled again at Kings-
burgh ; but it was at Peinduin, a neighbour's
house, that she died on 5th March 17i)0. Shrouded
in a sheet that had wrapped Prince Charles
Edward, she wa.s buried at Kilmuir, in a grave
309
now nuuked by an lona cross (1880) of Aberdeen
granite, 28J feet high.
The so-called Autobiotiraph;/ of Flora Macdonald (2
vols. ISUy ) is a silly forgery ; but reference may be made
to Flora Macdonald and Prince C/utrles, by the Kev.
Alexander MacGregor (1882), and to Flora Macdonald
in Uisl, by W. Jolly (1886).
Macdonald, Oeorc:k, a Scottish poet and
novelist, born at Huntly, Aberdeenshire, in 1824,
educated at Aberdeen University and the theo-
logical college of the Congregationalists at High-
bury. He became minister at Arundel in Sussex,
and afterwards at ilanchester, but was compelled
by the state of his health to gi\e up preaching.
A short residence in Algiers restored him to
comparative vigour, and, returning to London, he
took to literature as a profession. His first book,
]VUIuii and Witliout. a poem, appeared in 1856,
and was followed by Foeins (1857), and P/iatilastcji,
a Faerie Bumance (1858), a poem as irregular as
Kibneity, and almost as full of beauty and power.
A long series of novels followed, including David
Elfjinbrod ( 1862 ) ; The Portent ( 1S64 ) : Ahc Forbes
of Howgten ( 1865) ; Annals of a (Juict Xcighbonr-
hood (1866): Guild Court ("lS67); The Seaboard
Parish (1868): Bobert Falconer (1868); Wilfrid
Citmbernicdc (1871); Malcolm (1874); St George
and St lilichael (1875); 2'hnmas Wingfold, Curate
(1876); The Mareiuis of Lossie (1877); Sir Gibbi>
(1879); What's Mine's Mine (1886); Lilith
(1895): and Sedted u-ilh Fire (1897). Almost all
these novels contain passages of singular beauty,
and are lightened up oy fine fanc,y and descri])tive
power, but they are badly constructed and defective
in harmony as works of art. They reveal the deep
spiritual instincts of their author in bis reaction
against Calvinism, as well as the nebulosity of his
mental atmosphere and his inability for sustained
thought. The dialect is that of .\berdeen and the
northeastern counties, and sounds feeble to the
ear after the classic vigour of the language of
Burns and Scott. He has also published books
for the young: Dealings ivith the Fairies (1867),
Banald Bannerman's Boyhood (1869), At the
Back of the North Wind [\S10), and The Princess
and the Goblin ( 1871 ) ; besides religious works :
Unspoken Sermons (3 series, 1866-89), and Tlie
Miracles of Our Lord (1870). Macdonald is well
known as a lecturer, and in 1872-73 he made a
lecturing tour in the United States. In 1877 he
received a Civil List pension of £100.
Macdonald, Sir John Alex.-\ndki;,
Canadian statesman, was born in Glasgow, 1 1th
January 1815, and with his parents emigrated five
years later to Canada. He was educated at
Kingston, called to the bar in 18.36, and appointed
a Q.C. in 1846. He rei>resented Kingston in the
Canada Assembly from 1844 till the union of the
provinces in 1867, and in the Dominion [larliament
till 1878, when he was defeated ; but he after-
wards sat for Victoria, British Colnmbia, and for
Carleton and Lenno.\, and was ag.ain returned by
his old constituency in 1887. Before the union he
li.id been Receiver-general in 1847, <'ommissioner
of Crown-lands in 1847-48, Attorney -general for
Upper Caiuula in 1854-58, succeeding Sir .Vllan
Macnab ;is leader of the Conservatives and premier
in 18.56, anil again .Attorney-general in 1858-62 and
1864-67. On 1st July 1867, when the new consti-
tution came into force, he was called upon lo form
the lirst governiin'iit for tin" new DoiMinion. and
w;ts minister of Justice and Attorney general of
Canaila until he and his cabinet resigned in 1873.
He was again returned to power in 1878, and was
successful in the elections of 1882 anil I.S87. In
1878 his success was owing lo the adoptiim of a
policy of protection for native in<lustnes, which
discriminates against the productions of all other
MACDUFF
MACFARREN
countries, not even excepting Great Britain. Sir
John was mainly inslrnniental in bringing about
the confederation of the British Nortli American
provinces, ami in securing the eonstruclion of the
Intercolonial and I'acilic railways ; and he w.as a
pioneer of imperial unity. In 1871 he wasaiijiointed
one of the British ('oinmissioners for the .settlement
of the Alaliania claims. He was made a privy-
eouucillor in 187'2, K.C.B. in ISCT, and G.C.B. in
1884, and received honours from O.xford and the
Canadian universities. He died litli June 1S91.
His widow was made a peeress of the United King-
dom, and a bust of Sir John was erected in West-
minster Abbey in 1S92. See Life by Pope ( 1894).
nincdnlf'. See b.\nff.
Mace, a thick, heavy club or stall", about 5 feet
long, surmounted by a metal head, frequently
sniked, wdiich was used by knights and warlike
clnirchmen in the middle ages. The ornamental
maces of parliament, the universities, and city
corporations, borne as an ensign of authority, may
be traced to the 12th and IHth centuries, when
princes armed their guards with spikeless maces as
the handiest against the sudden attacks of the
.\ssassins (q.v. ). The need i)assed away, but the
maces remained as symbols of rank. The House of
Commons has possessed three maces. The first
disa])i)eared after the execution of Charles I. The
second was the 'bauble' that Cromwell had re-
moved : it has been claimed that a mace preserved
in the museum at Kingston, Jamaica, is tlie same.
T'he sergeant-at-arms at the close of the session
hands over the mace to an official of the crown,
getting a receipt for it ; it is kept iinder lock and
key till the House meets again. In the congress
of the United States the .sergeant-at-arms has a
silver mace. The Lord Mayor's mace, of silver
gilt, and weighing nearly a quarter of a hundred-
weight, dates from l"3o."
Ulacc, the Aril (q.v.) or inner covering of the
Nutmeg (ipv.). It is a lacerated membrane,
blood-red «lien fresh, varying in length accord-
ing to the variety. There are two varieties of
nutmeg cultivated, one named 'Royal,' the other
'Green.' The former bears the longer and finer
quality of mace. The mace is removed from the
nutmeg and dried in the sun a few days, when
it quickly loses its line red colour and becomes light
brown. It is then sprinkled with sea-water to
preserve it and render it llexible, and is presseil
flat, in which condition it is exported, chieliy from
Penang and Singai)()rc. Mace is the most aromatic
part of the fruit, and yields both fixed and essen-
tial oils. The formei-, obtained by expression, is
highly fragrant, of buttery consistence, and brown
colour. It is powerfully stimulant, and in India is
employed as a liniment and embrocation in rheuma-
tism. The essential oil is extracted by distillation.
It possesses the fragrance of mace, and is yellow in
colour. Mace is a native of the Moluccas and
neighbouring islands, but is cultivated in Java,
Penang, Sumatra, Mauritius, and other parts of
the East, and in Cayenne, Martinique, anil some
of the West Inilia Island.s. The aril of other
species of Myristica (Nutmeg) of inferior qualitv
occasionally appears in commerce.
Alacrdoilia. anciently the name of a counlry
lying NW. of the .Kgean'Sea. Originally of small
extent, it stretched at the jteriod of its greatest
area from the Ha'mus(mod. Balkan) range on the
N. to Thessaly and the .Egean on the S., and
from Epirus and Illyiia on the W. to Thrace on
the E. The country is on the whole mountainous,
especially in the south and west, but there are
several_ large plains of great fertility. The prin-
cipal rivers were the Strynion, Axius, and Haliac-
mon. Compare Turkey. Macedonia was famous
for its golil and silver mines, and its oil and wine
Itcontainc<l a number of nourishing cities, of which
the names are well known in ancient history, par-
ticularly .Ega- (Edessa) and Pclla, the capitals,
Pydna, Thessalonica, Potida-a, Olynthos, Philippi,
and Amphipolis. Perdiccas I. {circa 700 li.C. ) is
leputed to have been the first king and founder
of the Macedonian monarchy. In 490 !!.(•. and
again ten years later Macedonia ■» as compelled to
take part with the Persians in their invasions
of Greece. Under the wise and vigorous reign of
Archelaus (413-399 l!.c. ), an admirer of Greek art
and civilisation, Macechmia greatly increased in
prosperity and power. But a period of civil wai-s
and anarchy then ensued, and wa,s only teiinin-
ated by the accession of Philip II. (359 u.r. ),
who, having seated himself firmly on the throne,
developed the resources of his kingdom, and
laid the foun<lation of its future greatness (si^e
Greece). His son, Alexander III., surnamed
the Great, brought half the then known world
under his sway ; but after his death the Mace-
donian empire was broken up, and, after
twenty -two years of incessant warfare, was formed
into four kingdoms under, his jirincipal generals
(see Philip and Alkx.\ndek). Macedonia, with
Greece, fell to Antipater's son Cassander. But in
the wars against the Gauls, the civil strifes of
the descendants of Alexander's generals, and in
the ambitious designs of Pyrrhus, king of E]>irus,
Macedonia almost perished as a kingdom. It was,
however, once more established securely by .Vnti-
gonus Gonatas (277-'239), the grandson of Alex-
ander's general Antigonus, who had obtained part
of Asia Minor. The kingdom (ueserved the limits
set it by Antigonus down to its conquest by the
Romans in 168 B.C. Twenty-five years later
Macedonia was made a Koman province, in which
Thessaly and part of lUyria were iiududed. On
the partition of the Roman world. It was incor-
porated in the eastern empire In the end of the
Gth century It was settled by Sla\onic races, and
subsequently formed part of the kingdoms of the
Bulgarians (10th century), Salonica (ruled by
Boniface, ilarquis of Montferrat), Thessalonica
(1224), the Servians (14tli century), and finally
the Turks, who still hold it. The |>o]iuIation of
the coast districts are Greeks, whilst in the interior
Christian Bulgarians greatly preiiondeiate.
niaoeio, a ))ort of Brazil, the capital of
-\lagoas state, lies on a jieninsula that shuts
in the Lagoa do Norte from the sea. Cotton
and machinery are manufactured, and there is
an active trade in maize, sugar, cotton, itc. Two
railways run from here into the interior. Pop.
12,000.
IWacorata. a walled town of Central Italy,
picturesi|ucly perched upon an eminence (1207
teet), 44 miles by rail S. of Ancona. It has a
cathedral, a beautiful town-hall of the 13th cen-
tury, ; university, and manufactures of glass and
potiery. I'op. 10,0(53.
Macfarmi. Siii (Jkohoe Alex.vndek, one
of the most promiiKMit composei's and writei's on
musical theory during the 19th century in England,
was born in London, .March 2, 1813, and e<lncated
at the Royal Academy of Music, at which institu-
lion he became a professor in 1834. In KS7.> he
was appointed Principal of the .Academy, and also
professor of Music a( ('ambridge University. Later
in life he becami; blind, ami died 31st October 1887.
He was knighted in 1883. As an operatic com-
poser Macfanen is the most characteristic repre-
sentative of the national English school — his aim
being to revive the old English music in modern
opera. His earliest dramatic work, 'J7ie Devil's
Opera, was produced in 1838 ; Don Quixote followed
I
M'GILL
MACHIAVELLI
771
ing
Lea
1860, Jessy Lea in 1863, ami She Stoops tu Conquer,
The Soldier's Lcgcu-u, ami HilrcUyn in 1SG4. His
best cantatas were Lenore ( 18.V2), Maydaii ( 1856),
CkrisliiiKS ( 1860). and The Lady of the Lake ( 1877 ).
He did not produce liis first oratorio, John the
Baptist, until 1S73; it had for successors, The
ResurreetioH (1876), Joseph (1877), and David
(1883). Macfarren's worKs coniprLse numerous
other small dramatic jiieces, as well as chamber
music, vocal and instrumental, and several sym-
phonies and overtures. He stands lii;,'her, how-
ever, as a writer on the theory of music than as a
composer. He was an enthusiastic advocate of the
views of Alfred Day ( 1810-49) as laid down in that
writer's Treatise on Harmony (1845), and for
many yeai"s stood almost alone in his advocacy
of it. As a decided conservative in music, Mac-
farren manifi^sted little sympathy for such nmdern
schools ;vs \Vagners. He wrote Rudiments of
HarmoHi/ (1860 : 13th ed. 1885), Lertures on. Har-
viony (1867: 3d ed. 1882), Conitterpoint (6th ed.
1886), A Miisieal History (1885), and Addresses
and Leetures (1888); besides editinj; Old Englijih
Ditties (1857-80), Moore s Irish Melodies (1859),
Scottish Ditties (1861-80), and the second edition
of Day's Treatise (ISSii). Heo the Life and ]Vorks
of Sir G. A. Macfarren ( 1891 ).
HI'Giilt Jame.s, philanthropist, was born in
Glasgow, 6tli October 1744. and died in Montreal,
Canada, 19th December 1813. He emigrated to
Canada before the American revolution, engaged
for some time in the ^forth-west fur trade, and, sub-
sequently settling in Montreal, became a success-
ful merchant there. He was for many years a
menilier of the Lower Canada Assembly, and subse-
quently a member of the legislative and executive
councils. He wa.s noted for ])hilanthropy. He
bequeathed to the college in Montreal tliat bears
his name jirojierty valueit at £30,000 and £10,000 in
money ; but, in consequence of the increased value
of land, these figures convey a very inadequate idea
of the present value of his gift to M'Gill College.
Macgillyciiddy Reeks, a group of rugged
mountains in Ireland, in County Kerry, rise from
the western shores of the Lakes of Killarney, anil
cover an area of 28 sq. m. Carran-Tual, the
loftiest ))eak, not only of the Keeks but in all
Ireland, is 3414 feet in height. Caher, the ne.xt in
altitude, reaches 3200 feet, and there are several
others which exceed 2500 feet.
Maetiregor. John, canoeist and philanthropist,
eldest son of General Sir Duncan MacGregor, was
born at Gravesend, January 24, 1825, and a few
weeks later was the first to be handed out of the
burning Kent, East Indiaman. He was educated at
various private schools, at Dublin, and at Trinity
College, Cambridge, where he graduated as a
wrangler, and took his I5.A. in 1847. In the same
year he entered the Inner Temple, and was called
to the bar in 1851. He did some writing and
sketching for Puneli in 1845. His desire to travel
led liitn to make a tour of Kurope, Egypt, and
Palestine (1849-.50); and a subsei|iient visit to
the United States and Canada bore fruit in Our
Ijrothers and Cuusin.i (1859). The rise of llritish
canoeing has been largely duo to his ex.inijilc and
inlluence since 18.J0. He published an account of a
canoe journey in 1865, under the title of A Thou-
sand Miles in the Roh Roy Canoe ( 1866 ). Other nar-
ratives of canoe voyages on the Baltic, Zuider
Zee, and Jordan followed. He wa.s caiilain of
the Canoe Club (1866), and contributed jiapers
on Marine Propulsion to the I'ritish Association.
He w.-vs a member of the I^ondon School Hoard for
(Ireenwich in 1870, ami again in 1873 ; when chair-
man of the Industrial School Conimi.s.sion, he sug-
gested Ihe foumling of the London Shoeblack
15rigade; .-xnd he gave the prollts of his books and
lectures— £10,000— to philantliropic schemes. He
died 16th July 1892. See Life by Hodder ( 1894).
M'Gresor, Kohekt. See Hon Hoy.
Maeliair'odlis, a gigantic sabre-toothed tiger
of the I'leistocene period, with canine teeth 6 or
8 inches long, and jagged at their edges like a
fine saw. Us remains were found in Kent's
Cavern ( q.v.).
Macliiavelli, Niccolo di Rern.vrdo dei, born
of an ancii-nt burgher fandly at Florence, in 1469,
and a pupil of the celebrated scholar, ilarcello
Virgilio, was employed in public atl'airs from a very
early age, and may be regarded as the literary
representative of the political life of the important
period to which ho belongs. The years of his early
manhood were passed amid the political troubles
occasioned by the French invasion under Charles
VIII. (1493), when the Medici Hed from Florence,
and the repuldic was proclaimed, and a new con-
stitution formed under the inlluence of the great
reformer, Savonarola. Machiavelli's first appear-
ance in public life was in the year of his famous
contemporary's fall from ]>ower, and execution.
He was elected in June 1498 to a subordinate
secretaryship in the department of '11 veci di
Balia ' — i.e. the Ten chosen to direct the military
and diplomatic attairs of the republican government.
He was promoted in July of the same year to
the chief-secretaryship under this same commission.
This position, which, though honouraljle, was sub-
ordinate, he occupied until the fall of the republic
in 1512. His immediate superior in otiice was
Marcello Virgilio Adriani, a celebrated humanist,
whose companionship is suiipo.sed to have stimu-
lated in Machiavelli the enthusiasm for the study
of the classics. It seems proved, however, that
Machiavelli did not know Greek, and cannot be
classed among the erudite of that cultured age.
Machiavelli's duties were almost entirely dijilo-
matic ; he was emphned in a great variety of
missions, the instructions and correspondence con-
nected with which may almost be said to contain
the secret political history of Italy during his time.
The culminating point of his reputation as a
diplomatist was his mission to the great master of
treachery and dissimulation, Ca'sar Borgia, Duke
of Valentinois, commonly called 'II Valentino,' in
l.i02, of which an account is preserved in lifty-two
letters written during the c<mise of the negotiation,
unsurpassed in dramatic interest by any series of
state-paper.s. In the complicated external relations
which Florence had now assumed. Machiavelli is
found in communication Mitli all the great foreign
powers, as he bad hilberto been with the Italian
jirincipalities. Between 1500-11 he formed part of
important missions, once to the German emperor
Maximilian, and four times to France. His de-
spatches during these journeys, and his treatises on
the ' All'airs of Fiance and Germany,' arc full of a
I far-reaching insight into the causes and ellects of
1 the various characteristics he had seen and studied.
The most important part which Machiavelli took
in public all'airs was his spirited attempt to raise
a trained boily of citizens able, without the aiil of
treacherous mercenaries, to defend their liberty
against foreign invjusion.
The sincere iiatriotism which ennobles his
writings and his life filled him with forebodings
f(n- the fate of his country, and especially of his
beloved native! town, and ins]iir('(l bim to teach
with fervour the only mode of rex iving her ancient
dignity ami indeiiendence. On the restoration of
the.Mi'ilici in 1512, Machiavelli wa-s involved in the
downfall of his i)atron, the Gonfahmiere So<lerini.
He w:us arrested on a charge of conspiracy in 1513.
772
MACHIAVELLI
MACHINE GUN
On being put to the torture, he disclaimed all
knowledge of the alleged conspiracy ; l)ut, altliongli
pardoned, in virtue of the amnesty ordered by Leo
A., he was oblij^ed for several years to withdraw
from public life, during wliich period he devoted
himself to literature. It was not till the death of
the young Lorenzo de' Medici, in 1519, that Machia-
velli began to rec^over favour. He was commissioned
in that year by Leo X. to draw up his report on a
reform of the state of Florence; and in 1521 and
the following years he was ofiicially employed in
various di|)lomatic services and as historiographer.
After the disastrous defeat of the French at Pavia
(1525), Italy lay liel])le.ss before the advancing
forces of the Empeior Charles V., whose ferocious
soldiery, though nominally allies, sacked the rich
and defenceless Italian towns in their power.
Machiavelli used his failing energies, undermined
by chronic disease, to rouse his fellow-citizens in
tlieir own defence, and in negotiations to avert from
Florence the invading army on its way to Kome. In
May 1527, on receiving the news of the sack of Rome
and iuiprisonmenb of Pope Clement VII. (Giulio
de' Medici), the Florentines again drove out the
Medici rulers and proclaimed the republic. But
Machiavelli found that he was to be allowed no
part in the iiopular movement for liberty and for
defence against the foreigner ; his patriotism was
doubted, and he was suspected of favouring the
Medici. This bitter disappointment, added to his
already feel>le health, brought on an illness, of
which he died on the 20th June of the same year.
His death was accompanied by the usual minis-
trations of the church, for, tliough he had written
much against clerical corrui)lion and tyranny, he
had never impugned, nor indeed even discussed,
religious doctrine. He; was interred in his family's
burying-place in Santa Croce, but all e.xact record of
the spot is lost, the family having become extinct
as early as 1597.
Through misrepresentation and misunderstanding
of his writings, his name became after his death
hated, and his teachings were spoken of as almo-st
diabolical, his earliest and most violent assailants
being the clergy, and especially the Jesuits. Al-
though his writings were several times partially
published in a more or less garl>led form, the first
great edition was not issued until 17JS2; it was
dedicated to Earl Cow|)er, who hail had a leading
part in encouraging the jniblication, as also in
promoting a iiublic subscrijition for a monument
to Machiavelli in Santa Croce. From that period
until our own day his fame has steadily increased,
and his pre-eminent position as the founder of
political science is now assured.
Macliiavelli's writings till 6 vols. 4to (F'lorence,
1782 ), or 10 vols. ,Svi>. liesides his letters and state-
papers, his historical writings also com]iri.se Floren-
tine Histories, extending from 1215 to 1492, with a
fragmentary continuation to 1499; Discourses on
the First Decade of Titus Lirius ; a Life of
Castruccio Castracani (uulinished) ; a History of
the Affairs <f Luccii. His literary works com-
prise an imitation of the Golden Ass of Apuleius,
an essay on the Italian language, and several
minor comiiositions. He also wrote Sercn Hooks
OH the Art of War, which has been much admired
by the learned in military science. But the
great source of his reputation, for good or for evil,
is the celebrated liooU De I'riiicijiallbus, or, as it
lia-s since been called, II Princijie. The main ouiw-
tion (liscus.sed in this worhl-laiued book is : How
principalities may be governed and maintained.
In resolving this iiuestion, various cases are sup-
posed, for each of which appropriate rules, prin-
ciples, and suggestions are laid down, and all are
illustrated both by contemporary examples and by
a wealth of historical learning which it is difficult
to overrate. The 7th chapter, in which he details
with e\ident admiration the system of Caesar
Borgia, and the 18th, in which he discusses 'the
duty of princes as to the obligation of keeping
faith,' are perhaps those w hich liave nu)st contrib-
uted to draw upon the author the odious repu-
tation of which his very name has become the
symbol ; but, in truth, these chaiiters are only more
precise and nioie formal than tlie rest, from their
neaping together statements which are elsewhere
insinuated or supposed. The broad scheme of the
book is everywhere the same — viz. that for the
establishment and maintenance of authority all
means may be resorted to, and that the worst and
most treaclierons acts of the ruler, however unlawful
in themselves, are jnstihed by the wickedness and
treachei-y of tlie governed. Such being the moral of
the book, a ([Uestion has arisen as to the intention
of the writer, and a favourite theory for a time
prevailed, that The Prince was but a satire upon
absolutism, and was designed to serve the cause
of libertj-, of which Machiavelli was an ardent
friend, by making arbitrary power odious and con-
teiuptible. This theory, however, besides being
utteily irreconcilable with the tone of the work, is
completely disproved by a letter of Machiavelli to
liis friend Vettori { I51.S), which was discovered only
in 1810, and which shows that The Prince was
WTitten by Machiavelli in all seriousness, in order
to recommend himself to the Medici (for whose
private peiiisal it was designed, and not for juiblica-
tion ) as a uiaster in the art of government. In his
ardour for the liberation of Italy from the rule of
foreigners, Machiavelli had become convinced that
strong native governments, even though absolute,
must be endured ; and, having acceptetl that of the
Medici for Florence, he was content to use all
means for its security and ciuisolidation. The
Prince was published, after Machiavelli's death, at
Rome, in 1532 ; and, if any doubt should be enter-
tained as to the seriousness of the author, the book
need only be compared with the commentary which
is furnished by every page of his Legazioni, or the
reports of his diplonuitic missions, which are also
contained in his collected works. Of the many
criticisms and rejoinders to which The Prince has
given occasion, the most remarkable is that of
Frederick the Great, Antiniacchiarel/i, on Examen
du Prince de I\Iacchiarcl/i (1740); and 'J'he Priiiec
was condemned by I'ope Clenu'ut VIII.
The comedies of Machiavelli form an epoch in the
history of the Italian theatre, as he and his great
contem])orarv, Ariosto, were the lirst to represent
actual life and dialogue in their jjlays. Machia-
velli's famous comedy. La Mandrai/ola, full of
biting humour and shameless indecency, is a master-
piece of dramatic art.
Aniony the many noted historians wlio have discussed
the work and morality of Machiavelli, we may note
Macaiday'.s brilliant essay, and in the more modem
style of historical criticism Lco]inI(l lianke's stuilj* in
^ur Kritik nciurcr itcachichti^chrt ilm: 'I'lic most com-
plete and remarkable work on Jlaehiavelli is that by P.
Villari, Kiccolo Machnirdli e i mioi tempi (1877-82;
Kng. trans. bSDO). Tommasini's Vita c Scritti di Macliin
vclli (1883) is full of careful research. Mr John Morli-y';
Koniaues Lecture on Muchiaredl was published in 1807.
niat'llillO tillll may be delined as a weapon
mi'cli.inically loaded with fixed ammunition from
a hoppi'r or frame, so as to lire a succcssidn of ]iro-
jecliles from a rest or carriage, in conliadistinction
to hand weapons, such as Repeating (or magazine)
Rilles (<j.v. ) and Revolvers (cpv. ).
Machine guns may be divided into two classes
— the mitraillense, which discharges a stream of
bullets not much exceeding 1 inch in diameter,
and the revolving cannon or <|uick-liring gnn,
which throws an ex]]losive shell of several pounds
MACHINE GUN
773
weight. The lii-st class inchides riHe-calibre guns
for use against troops, and naval "uus firing steel
shot oapalile of piercing the sides of a torpeilo boat.
The second is an improvement on ordinary Cannon
(q.v.), though perhaps sometimes considered less
suited to all the contingencies of a campaign, in
consequence of the comparatively delicate nature
of the mechanism employed.
A breech-loading Kequa battery (an improved
Ribaudequin or organ gun ), consisting of thirty-one
rille-barrels arranged in three parallel rows, loaded
simultaneously by means of a set of chambers, and
fired at once by a single cap. has been in the
Rotunda Museum at Woolwich since before 1S30.
A Requa battery was used at the siege of Charleston
in lS(i.3, and seems to contain the germ of such
inventions as the (Gardner and Nordenfelt machine
guns, while those like the Galling and tlie Hotch-
kiss revolving cannon seem traceable to the early
patterns of revolver-pistol. The first of such
weapons to lie used in field operations was the
Gatling, which was tested in the American civil
war, and exhibited in the Paris Exhiliition of
1867. This weapon ( fig. 1 ) usually has ten barrels
and ten locks, revolved round a fixed axis by means
of a handle or crank. In addition to revolving
with the barrels, each lock is at the same time
gradually pushed forward, so as to carry the car-
tridge into the barrel, close the breach, and fire
the charge as soon as the barrel comes under the
sights. It then commences to move backwards,
drawing with it the empty cartridge-case, so that,
when one revolution of the barrels is complete,
the open breech is brought under the drum from
which a second cartridge falls into it. Thus, when
the ten-barrelled gun is in action, there are always
five cartridges "oing through the loading process
and five otliers being gradually extracted ; and this
goes on as long as the gun is fed with cartridges,
which may be done either by hand, or, as is
more usual, by means of a drum fixed above the
barrels, as shown in fig. 1. This type of machine
gun cannot fire a volley, but the rapidity of its
fire is limited only by the movement of the handle.
Medium size Uatliog, mounted on Kield Carriage.
It can also be worked with a slight swaying action,
when firing rapirlly, .so as to spread the bullets over
a certain amount of lateral space, like water from
a firehose, and give nuich the same ellect as a
volley. The weajmns first used fired <me hundred
bullets each minute, but improved nieclianism
enables the newer types to fire ten times that
number, and to give gooil results at ranges of 3000
yard.s. The barrels are of various calilires up to
1 "J inches ; .anil larger sizes could be made. A few
Gatling guns were used in the Franco-! Jerman war
of 1S70, the Russo-Turkish war of 1877-7S, the
Chileno-Peruvian war of 1877. and the British cam-
paigns in .\shantoe, Znluland, Egy|)t, \c.
The Montigny mitrailleuse, adopted by the
French army, and used by them in large numbers
during the campaign of 1S70, consists of thirty-
seven rifle-barrels permanently enclo.-ed in an iron
cylinder. These are all loaded sinniltaneously at
the breach by means of a metal frame, in wliicli
the cartridges are carried, and can lie discharged
independently or all at once by the action of
a crank-handle. Reloading takes five seconds,
and ten discharges can be fired per minute.
The bullets have no lateral spread, and the
eil'ective range is not much over 1000 yards.
Numbers of these weapons were secretly manu-
factured in France previous to 1870, and, on the
outbreak of war in that year, were issued to the
artillery in place of their field-guns, without any
instruction having been given to the men in work-
ing tlioin. Formed into batteries of ten pieces,
they were expected to beat oft' both artillery and
infantry; but the concentrated shell fire of the
Fig. 2.
Xordenfelt-Palmcrantz Gim, inside Bulwark Mounting.
former destroyed them at long ranges, and the
rapid movements of the latter often enabled them
to capture the mitrailleuses without serious loss.
The failure of this weapon brought all machine
guns into disfavour ; but when protected from
artillery fire
in savage war-
fare, their great
value for cer-
tain purposes,
such as flank-
ing the ditches
of fortresses,
defending de-
files, bridges,
v"i:c. , and naval
oi)erations, has
since been fully
recognised, and
very many im-
proved ly|)es
have apjieared.
The Norden-
felt-I'almcrantz
.system (fi''. 2)
is particularly
useful in the
t*>ps of ships.
The 1-inch cali-
bre gun, firing
steel bullets, is Pig. 3. — Five-barrelled Gardner Gun
capable of jiierc- "" 1'ripod Stand,
ing the sides
and boilers of torpedo boats at 300 yaiils. It con-
sists usually of four or more horizontally arranged
'jS4Ui.
774
MACHINE GUN
MACK
barrels, ami the firinj; handle on heing moved for-
wards and l>aL'k\varils discharges theni all, if moved
rapidly, in a succession of volleys, if slowly, in a
succession of single shots. The numlier of aimed
shots (ler minute tired at sea varies from one
hundred with the 1-inch to ten with the :j inch gun.
Fig. 3 shows another form of ritlecalilire machine
gun designed hy Captain Gardner, late U.S.A.,
for use with a. lield army. The operations of load-
ing, liring, and withdrawing the empty cartridge-
cases are performed automatictally l>y the breech
mechanism, worked by a crank-handle. The car-
tridges are fed in from an upright frame or earlier.
The Maxim automatic machine gun has a single
barrel surrounded by an outer case, the space
between lieing lilled with water to prevent heating.
The breech end of the gun recoils after discharge
(the first cartri<lge being fed in ami tired by band),
causing the arm IJ (fig. 4) to strike the fixed point
C, thus im[)arting to the crank-shaft E a rapidly
accelerated rotation, and making the crank-handle
F strike the Imfler-spring D, which lu-ings it to a
state of rest. The rotation of the crank-shaft E
also rotates the fusee (shown dotted round E)
attached to the chain, and thereby winds it tip, so
that, when the crank-handle F rests (jn the butfer
D, the spiral spring (dotted) is not only extended
1 inch (due to the recoil), but further elongated by
the winding up of the chain on the fusee. After
Fig. 4. — Breech Mechanism of ilaxiui Gun.
the crank-handle F has been brought to rest against
the butler 1), the action of the sjiring is first to pull
Ijack the recoiling portion into the firing position,
and then to unwind the chain from the fusee, thus
rotating the erank-sliaft back into its original
position. The cartridges are carried on a broad
linen belt, to which fresh lengths can be attaelied,
and which is carried round by the mechanism. The
acceleiateil motion of the crank draws back tlie
lock sutliciently lo allow the old cartridge to drop
out, while the spiral spring causes the lock to come
forward quicker th.an the recoiling portion of the
barrel, so that at the same instant as the barrel
resumes the firing position the lock closes the
breech with a new cartridge and fires it, the recoil
setting u]i the same action again. The gun may
be arranged for liring single shots by hand on
pressing a button, or to ('ontinue firing shots at
any reqtiired interval of time. As many as (i20
rounds per minute have been fired from this gun,
and accurate shooting obtained up to .'iOOO yanls.
Fig. 5 shows a rille-calihie Maxim gun, which, with
its tripod, only weighs 70 lb. A ."i pounder gun
ba.s also been designeil on the sami^ princijile. .Ml
the mechanism is carefully covered in to jirotect it
from grit and dirt, but it can easily be taken to
pieces and (deanod.
The Ilotchkiss iev(dving cannon is similar to the
Gatling gun, iiiiistnuch as it consists of five bixrrels
revolving round a centr.al axis, but there is only one
lock for all livr>, instead of one for each barrel, and
the rotatory motion of the barrels is intermittent
instead of continuous. Each turn of the cr<ank-
handle loads one barrel an<l fires another, while an
empty cartridge-case is being extracted from a
third. The mechanism is in few parts, which are
larw, strong, and serviceable, with only one s])ring,
and that a large Mat one. Tlie hreechpiece is solid.
The calibres of the revcdving cannon vary from 1 '5
inch lo 2 iiudies, hut the same inventor has made a
(Jliounder i|uick-firing single-barrelled field-gun.
Fig. 5.— Eitle-caUbre JIaxim Gun.
The projectile is either a steel shot for naval i)ur-
poses or an explosive shell. As many as eighty
rounds per minute have been fired from the revolv-
ing cannon, the cartridges being fed in from a
hopper-frame, and go(jd results obtained at a range
of 5460 yards.
By an order of 18SS, a detachment with two
machine guns was made part of the war estab-
lishment of every brigade of infantry or cavalry
in the British army. Each infantry detachment
consists of an officer, two non-commissioned officers,
and nine men, and is accompanied by a forage-cnrt
and ammnnition-cart carrying 6040 rounds for the
guns, 1500 more being on each gun-carriage. Two
men are sufficient to w(nk each gun, the remaiiuler
are drivers and a servant. In the cavalry detach-
ment there are fifteen men, of whom two are
servants, seven drivers, and six for working the
guns and to act as horse-holders. The ammuni-
tion-wagon carries 13,340 rounds of lifie-calibre
cartridges.
The mitrailleuse form of machine gun thus takes
a definite place in the armament of Enrojiean
troops, not as a substitute for field artiller.y, against
which, if unprotected by cover, it can never stand,
but as an auxiliary to infantry ami to cavalry
acting independently, in jiositions where rifle-lire
is most etficacions. It will also he useful for long
range rifie-fire, and perhaps in lieu of an infantry
escort to guns when moving rapidly to the front,
besi<les those purposes which have already been
alluded to. The shell-firing machine gun an<l the
quick-firing gun, (Ui the other band, will i>erliaps
supersede the ordinary artillery pieces of similar
calilire. The oiie]ioundcr shell machine gun (called
■ rom-pom ' l)v the scddieis, from its sound) iiroved
of ell'ectual service in the Tran>vaal war, 1899-1900.
niiU'iiitosli, Charles. See Ixdia-eubbeu.
M'liif yre, Duncan Ban. See Gaklic, V. 52.
MiU'k. Kahi,, Freiherr vox, Austrian general,
was horn at Nenn^liMgen, in Franconia, on 'J4th
August ITo-J, entered the military ser\ iceol Austria
in TtTO, and, after fighting in the Turkish war and
against the French repiiblic.an armies, was in 1797
created field-marshal. Having, iifter the i)eaee of
Campo F'ormio, Ixh'Ii appointed by the king of
Naples to the command of his troops, he took the
field against the I'rencb, and occupied Home ; but
he was unable to ret.aiu his holil of the city. A
riot in the city of Naples, caused hy his having
concluded an armistice with the French, compelled
him to seek safety in the enemy's camp. He was
thereupon carried iirisoner to Paris, but escaped in
1S(M). Five years later the emi)eior put him at the
head of SO.OOO men, and sent him to check the
MACKAY
MACKENZIE
775
French advance alung the line of the lUei. But
the enemy outnianu-uvied him, :uul shut him up in
UIiu. and on 17th October Mack ca|iitulatcd with
his army. He was tried by court-martial and con-
demned to death, hut the sentence was commuted
by the emperor to expulsion from the armv and
twenty veal's' imprisonment. In 1808 Mack was
liberated, and in 1819 fully pardoned. He died
Sid Oi-tober 1S22. His defence was )iublished in
Raumer's Ifistorisr/tes Taschenbuch (187.^).
Maokay, Charles, LL.D., poet and journalist,
the son of an officer in the Royal Artillery, was
born in Perth in 1814. He was sent to school in
London and Brussels, and showed an early fond-
ness for verse-writing. In 1830 he became secretary
to Cockerill (q.v. ) at Seraing. The imblication
of a .small volume of poems in 1834 led to his
becoming assistant-editor of the .Morniiifi Chronicle
(1835-44). From 1844—17 he was editor of the
G/dsfjuw ArgKjs : he acted on the literary staft' of
the Illustrated Loixlon Xcv:s (1848-59), and lilleil
the post of Xew York correspondent of the Tiiiic-i
during the civil war (1862-65). The London
Review, a weekly journal which he established in
1860, was not a success. Down to the time of his
death, December 24, 18S9, he fssued many volumes
of poetry and prose, and was a contributor to
Blackwood's Magazine, the Nineteenth Cent id;/, and
other periodicals. Two of Mackay 's songs, ' There 's
a (Jood Time Coming' and 'Cheer, Boys, Cheer,'
hail an extraordinary vogue, 400,000 of the first
having been sold, without putting anything into
his pocket. He published eleven volumes of
poetry; Gossamer and Snoudrift (1890) was edited
by his son Eric ( 1851-98 ; author of Lure-letters
of a Violinist, Arrows of Song, Nero and Actea,
ice). His prose works included Memoirs of Extra-
ordinary Popidiir Delusions ( 1841 ), a work on dac/ir
Etymology ( 1878), and two works of literary auio-
biography. Forty Years' Recollections (2 vols. 1877)
and Tlirough the Long Day (2 vols. 1887).
lI'Keesport, a borough of Pennsylvania, on
the .Monongaliela River, at the mouth of the
Youghiogheny, and on several lailways, 15 miles
SE. of Pittsburg. It has fbmr, saw, and rolling
mills, large manufactories of tubing, glass-works,
a distillery, iVc. Natur.al gas is used to some
extent for fuel. Pop. 8212.
JHaokeilzie, Alex.vxder, Canadian states-
man, was born in Logierait, Perthshire, 28tli
January 1822, removed to Canada in 1842, and
worked for si>me time as a mason, subspquenlly
becoming a huililer and contractor. In 1852 he
became editor of a Reform newspaper. He rejirc-
sented Lambton in parliament from 1S61 to 18ii7,
and in the Dominion ]>.uliamcnt till 1882: he \\ as
then electeil for East York, and was re-electeil in
1887. From 1807 he led the Reform opposition
in parliament, and in 1873-80 was leader of the
Liberal parly in Canada. In 1873 he succeeded
Macdonald, becoming the llrst Liberal premier, and
remaineil at the he.ail of the government till 1878.
He thrice declined a knighlliood, wrote the Life
of his friend and allv, the Hon. George Brown
(1SS2I, and died 17th April ls92.
Narkeiizir. Sir .Ai.kx.snder Campbell, com-
poser, knighted in l.S!)5, was born in Edinliurgh
in IH47. He studii-d music in Germany and at
the Royal .\cademy. London. From 1865 to 1879
he was engaged in Edinburgh as teacher, violinist,
conductor, and compo.ser. Aftcrwanls he resided in
Italy, devoting his energy mainly to composition.
In i886 he had the de^'iee of .Mils. Doc. from St
.Andrews I'niversity ; in Februarv- 18S7 was ap-
jMiinted Princiiial of the Royal .Academy of Music
m London. His works embrace almost every form
of music. His celebrity dates from the production
opera, The Troubadour, had u<it the same success
oratorio. The Rose cf Sharon, produce<l at
of his o[)era Colomha in April 1883 at Drury Lane
by the Carl Rosa Comi)any. His subsequent
oper;
His
Norwich in 1884, is regarded as hitherto his best
work. Another similar one, The Lord of Life, was
composed for production in 1S91 at Birmingham.
Besides these, he has written several important
cantatas ; two Scotch rhaiisodies, and other
orchestral works, a concerto and a pibroeh for
violin ; chamber music, songs, piaiiofiu'te and organ
pieces, &c. His compositions are distingtiisheil
1)y a manly solidity of workmanship, the result of
a thorough mastery of all branches of his art,
eomliined in many instances with a ha])py poetic
inspiration. He is also eminent as a conductor.
niarkciizie. Sir liEOROE, a Scottish lawyer
and statesman, nephew to the Earl of Seaforth,
was born at Dundee in 1636. He studied at St
Andrews, Aberdeen, and Bourges in France ( ' the
Athens of Scottish lawyers ') ; in 1056 was called
to the bar at Edinburgh ; and in 1661 boldly
defended the Marquis of Argyll on his trial for high-
treason. About the same time he was made a
justice-depute, and as such had to repair ' once a
week at least to Musselburgh and Dalkeith, and
to try and judge such persons as are there delated
of witchcraft.' He was soon after knighted, entered
parliament as member for Ross-shire in 1669. and in
1677 was nameil king's advocate. I'p to this jioint
his career had been marked by a decidedly jialriotic
spirit, and he was even one of the most popular
men in the country. In the midst of his pro-
fessional labours he diligently cultivated litera-
ture, and was one of the first Scotchmen to write
English with purity. 'That noble wit of Scotland,'
Diyden terms him. Inhapjiily in the popular
mind he is better known as criminal prosecutor
in the days of the persecution, in which capacity
he earned the title of 'Bluidy Mackenzie;' nor
can it be disproved, in spite of his liberal ante-
cedents, that he became a willing instrument of
despotism. In 1682 he founded the Advocates'
Library (q.v.); at the Revolution, six years after-
wards, he retired to Oxford. He died in London,
8th ^lay 1691, and was buried at Edinburgh in
Grey friars Churchyjird.
His works, published between 1663 and 168G, and
collected l>y Ruddiman ( 2 vols, folio, 1716-22), include Jic-
liiiio !itoici. Moral £sm)/ upon Solitude, MomI Gallaiitrij,
Vindication of the frorernnicnt of thiirles II., three
treatises on the law of Scotland, and Jui Hcr/ium. See
his .^fClnoirs of the Affairs of Scotland (ed. 1821); and
Taylor lunos, Studies in Scottish History (1S92).
itiaokeiizie, IIkxrv, the 'Man of Feeling,'
was binn in Edinburgh, 26th August 1745. A
physician's son, he i)assed from the High School
to the university, in 1765 went up to London to
pnrsue his law studies, and, returning to Scotland,
became eiown .-ittorney in the Court of Exchequei,
and in 1804 comptndler of taxes. For upwards ot
half a century he was 'one of the most illustrious
names connected with polite literature in Edin
burgli,' where he died at the great age of eighty-
five, on 14th .January 1831. His Man of Feeling
was published anonymously in 1771 ; The Man of
the World followed in 1773, and Julia ilc Roubignt'
in 1777. All three have something of Richardson,
and more i>f Sterne, but nothing of their genius.
The lirst, which alone is not wholly forgotten, which
indeed was reprinted by Professor Henry Morlcy
in 1HH6, is jierhaps the most namby-pambv efl'usion
that ever ' attained classical celebrity.' His other
writings include some Tory pam]ddets, lives of
Blacklock and Home, ninety-nine papers in the
Mirror ami Lounger, and four very weak plays.
At least, he deserves recognition for Ids own
(76
MACKENZIE
MACKEREL
lecognitiiin of Burns, ami as an early ailniirer of
Lessing and of Schiller.
Mackenzie. William Lyon, Canadian agita-
tor an<l jimrnalist, was born in Dnndee, I'itli
March 1795, emigrated to Canada in 1820, and
in IS'24 established the Ct>Iimial Aclrucatr, first at
Qiieenstown, then at Toronto. There his denuncia-
tions of the ofiieials resulted in the partial destruc-
tion of his printing-oHice in 1826. In 1828 he
was elected to the provincial parliament for York,
but was expelled for libel on the Asseiulily, and
was successively e.\pelled and reelected until
linally the government refused to issue the writ.
In 1832 he went to Lonilon with a petition of griev-
ances from the Ueformers of Canada, and while
there secured the dismissal from oHice of the
Attorney-general and Solicitor-general of I'pper
Canada." In 1834 he was elected the Krst mayor of
Toronto, and in 1836 he started the Const it ut ion, in
which he attacked Sir Francis Head, the lieutenant-
goveinor, for interference with the elections. In
T837 hi' published a virtual declaration of independ-
ence in his paper, headed a band of armed insur-
gents, and demanded of the lieutpnant-governor a
settlement of all provincial difficulties by a conven-
tion. This demand not having been granted, Mac-
kenzie determined to arrest the lieutenant-governor
and capture the military stores in Toronto ; but
being met by a suiierio'r force at Montgomery's
Hill,' 4 miles" from the city, the insurgents were
put to flight after a brief skirmish in which several
were killed. Mackenzie and others efl'ected their
escape, and took iiossession of Navy Island in the
Niagara Ki\er, where he established a provisional
"•overnment. He was soon, however, compelled to
genus Scomber, the mackerels proper, comprises
seven species, distributed in almost all temperate
and tropical se.i-s, except ott the .\nierican shores
of the South Atlantic. The Comnu)n Mackerel (.S'.
ScoihIki-) is found as far south as the Canar>
Islands, and from Greenlaiul to Cajie Coil in
Massachusetts. It is abundant oH' the Uritish
coast, is found in the Mediterran<>an. but is scarce
in the IJaltic. It is a very beautiful lish of elegant
spindle like shape. Its cidour is a lustrous dark
idne above, with wavy blackish transverse streaks
and silvery below. The tail is crescent-shaped,
and has a .-.light ridge or keel on each side. The
snout is rather hmg, pointed, and compressed.
break up his camp, and was afterwards sentenced
by the United States authorities to twelve months'
imprisonment in Rochester jail. On the proclama-
tion of amnesty in 1849 he returned to Canada,
and was a meinher of parliament from 18r)0 till
18.58. Ref(U-ms more radical than those he con-
tended for have since lieen granted. He died in
Toronto, 28th August 1861. See the Life by his
son-in-law, Charles Lindsay (2 vols. 1862).
Mackenzie River, in North America, has its
origin, iis the Athabasca (q. v.), in a Rocky Mountain
lake in Ihitish Columbia, flows over 600 miles to
Lake Athabasca, and 240 as the Slave Kiver to
Great Slave Lake (q.v.). It now assumes the name
of Mackenzie River, and conveys the waters of the
Great Slave Lake to the Arctic Ocean at Mackenzie
Bay, after a final course which is rec koned at 104.5
miles, making a total river-system of nearly 2500
miles. It ilrains an area of little less than 600,001)
.sq. ni. The mouth of the river is closed from
October to June by ice. The Mackenzie district
itself is desolate anil unlit for colonisation : but its
great tributaiies, the Liard ami the I'eace and
.Vthabasca rivers, drain an immense fertile country,
with abundance of petroleum (the lields have been
reported the largest in the worhl), ami some coal
and lignite. The Mackenzie received its nanu'
from sir Alexander Mackenzie (c. 17;5r)-1820), by
whom it wa,s discovered in 1789. Sir .lohn Frank-
lin (q.v.) descendeil it in J82.5. Since 189.5 it gives
name to a new north-west territory of Canada.
Mackerel (Sconilm-), a genns of acantbopter-
ous fishes of the family Scomberida', which also
includes the Tunny, Bonito, ,and Sucking Fishes.
.Members of the "' mackerel ' family are pelagic
forms of very extensive distribution. They are
gregarious and i)redaceous, and are extremely
active, the form of their bodies being eminently
adapted for rapid gliding movements. Their
muscles are richly supplied with blood and with
nerves, and the temperature of their bodies is
several degrees higher than in other lislies. The
Commuu Mackerel {Scomljcr Scomber).
The mackerel is usu.ally from 14 to 16 inches long,
and about 2 lb. in weight, but it may attain a size
of over IS inches. Mackerels move about in shoals,
.approaching the coast at certain seasons either be-
fore or after spawning, or for purposes of feeding,
following shoals of herrings, spr.ats, or pilch.-irds, on
which they prey. Their migrations are [irobably
largely influenced by temperature. Early in the
ve.ar thev move from the deei)er parts of the
Atlantic towards the British coast. In May and
■lune they are foumi off the Scilly Isles, whence
some go lip St George's Ch.annel, but most proceed
along the English Channel. They are very con-
stant in the rate at which they travel during their
migrations. The mode of capture v.aries with local
circumstances. In siuing and autumn drift-nets
only are used ; in summer, when the lish are near
the sh(Me, seine-nets are likewise employed. When
the shoals are much broken up, hand-lines are used
baited with various substances, such as a slip from
.another m.ackerel, apiece of a cuttle-fish, a thin rind
of pork, worms, or indeed any glistening substance,
such as a strip of cohmrcd cloth moving ipiickly
thnmgh the w.ater. Hand-line fishing may be
]irosecuted .at .all hours of the day and night, but
it is most successful in the morning and evening',
and a smart breeze, termed a ' mackerel breeze,' is
most favcmr.able lo its success. As food, the
mackerel is very highly esteemed, but it taints
very rapidly .and" loses flavour when kept. Owing
to the rapidity of decomposition in hot weather,
and the conseiiuent injurious results to consunu-rs,
m.ackcrel were allowed in 1698 lo he sold in London
either before or after divine service on Sundays, .in
enactment that apjiears iu)t to have been repealed.
The introduction of steamboats as 'carriers' in-
stead of sailing-vessels has proved highly bene-
ficial to the mackerel industry and to the general
public. In the beginning of 1890 a lirst consign-
ment of I'urcd mac'kcrcl was sent from (.'ape Town
to I'rini-clown, .Massachusetts. t)ll' the south co.ost
of Knglaud mackerel seem to spawn about M.ay
or .lune. Sai-s states that eggs are deposited some
leagues from the shore and at the very surface of
the waves, where large numbers of these lish may
he met with eng.aged in spawning. The eggs float
on the surface. In suitable circumstances the
young grow rajiiilly.
Another species, the Spanish or Coly Mackerel
( ,S'. colias), is found in Europe in the Mediterranean,
MACKINAW
MACLAURIN
777
laiely on the sinitli coast of Enj^laml. and oecnis
from" Nova Scotia to Cape Hattcras. It attains a
weight ol"4 or 5 lli., anil unlike the coniiiion mackerel
possesses an air-hla<liler. The Scad ((pv.) is some-
limes oalled TIor>e Mackerel ; the Mackerel Mid^'e
is a small Uockling (ipv.).
M:H-kiiiaw. See Michigan (Lake).
ll«-kiliU'V. William, twenty fourth presi.lent
i.f'the United States, was Ixnn ^Oth Jan. 1S4:?. lU
Niles in Ohio, and served in the Civil War, reluuiLr
in IStiT as major to Canton, where, after a period
of stuily, he practiseil law. He was elected to con-
gress in 1S77, and repeatedly re-elected. In ISiJl he
was made governor of Ohio, his name having ere
this heen identified with the high protective larill'
carrieil in the McKinley Bill of 1S90, thongh .sul.sc-
quently modilicd hy the Democrats in 1894. Chosen
Republicau candidate for the presidency in 1896, ho
conihicted an e.xciting contest with W. J. Bryan,
who advocated the cause of free siher, payment
of dehts in silver dollars, the repression of mono-
|)olies, and was undei-stood to favour labour at the
expense of capital. A large section of the Demo-
crats, ' Gold Democrats ' or ' Sound Mimey Demo-
cr.ats,' in spite of their dLslike to INIcKinley's policy
on many points (including his protective tarill),
strongly" supported him as against Bryan ; and
McKinley secured (November 1896) a majority of
more than a hundred in the electoral college, being
regarded as the representative of nonrepuiliation, a
gold stand.ard, and the interests of capital generally.
Kor tlie war >vith Spain, see Cuba. In 1900 he
again defeated Bryan by an even bigger majority.
llai-kintosli. See India-kuhbei:.
MiK-killtosll. Sir James, philosopher, was
liorn at Ahlourie in Inverness shire, October 24,
176.5. Having studied at King's College, Aber-
deen, and then medicine at Edinburgh, lieseltled
in London, for some time supporting himself and
his young wife by writing for the newspapers. The
lii-st work that brought him into notice was his
Vindicice Galliae (1791), in reply to Burke's He-
fl'Ctioiis on tlic Freiirh Revolution. Fox, Sheridan,
and other leading Whigs sought the authors ac-
quaintance : and when the association of the
' I'Viends of the People' (q.v.) was formed he was
api)ointed secretary. He was called to the bar
in 179.'>, and ere long attained higli eminence as a
forensic lawyer. In 1799 he <lelivered a brilliant
series of lectures on the law of nature and of nations
before the benohei-s nf Lincoln's Inn ; and his de-
fence of Peltier (ISu:!), charginl with a libel on
Bonaparte, was a splendid trinm|ili. In 1804 he
was knighted, and a])pointed recorder of Bombay,
and in 1806 judge of the Admiralty Court; here
he spent seven years, entering parJiament on his
return as Whig meiul)er for Naiin (181,S). Ha
w.is professor of Law in the colleg(' of Ilaileybnry
from I81S to 1824, and in 18:iU became a member
of the Board of Control under the (irey ministry,
and spoke in favour of the Kcforni Bill'. He died
not long after, on the 22d May 1832. His Dis.scr-
IcUion on thr, Pror/rrxx of El hied I P/iilo.sop/ii/ ( 1831 ),
written for the Enri/rlopwdia Brilunnim, although
very incomplete, shows the admirable powers of
the author. For Lardner'.s Cyrloinrdin he wrote a
brief but excellent survey of'the History of Eng-
land. A meie fragment of a great projected work,
entitled A Ilislonj of the Rcunlntion in England in
168S, ajipeared after his death.
A c lUection of Mackintosh's misccllancons works was
publislied in 3 vols, in \KA. Sec- the Mrmoirx by his son
(2 vols. 183.")), and the essays of Macaulay and De Quincey.
Macklin, Chaulks, actor, was born 1st May
1690, .icconling to his biographer ( Maeklin used to
gay in 1699), the son of an Iri-h gentleman nanieU
M'Laughlin, who commanded a troon of horse for
King James at the Boyne two nnmths later, and lost
his estates in consei|Ucnce. After a wihl, unsettled
youth, in whicdi be was by turns potboy, college
servant, and stroller, he ]daved for a numlier of
years in Mristcd and Bath, tilt his brogue was worn
down, and in 1733 was engageil fin- small parts at
Drnry Lane. He steadily rose in the jmldic favour,
till in 1741 he appeared in his great character. Shy-
lock : Pope said of it, 'This is the Jew that
Shakespeare drew.' From this time he was ac-
connted one of the best actors, appearing with nearly
iMpial success in tragedy or comedy, in jiassion or
liutl'oonery, for nearly half a century. His last per-
formance was at Covent Garden in May 1789. when
he broke down : lint he survived, with an annuity
of £200, till nth July 1797. He was generous,
iiigh-spirited. and honourable, but somewhat iras-
cible : in 173.) he killed a brother-actor in a quarrel
over a wiu, and was tried for nnirder ; and fre-
quently afterwards he was engaged in disputes and ,
actions at law. He wrote a tragedy, and several
farces and comedies ; of these Love a-ht-Mode
( 1759) and The Man of the World ( 1781 ) have been
printed : in the latter his own part was Sir Per-
tinax JlacSycophant. See his Memoirs, by J. T.
Kirkman (2 vol.^. 1799), and the Life by E. A.
Parry ( 1891 ).
Macklligllt. Dr Jajies, an eminent divine of
the Church of Scotland, was born at Irvine, in
Ayrshire, 17th September 1721 ; studied at (Tl.asgow
University, and afterwards at Leyden, in Holland ;
and in 1753 was ordained minister of the parish of
Maybole. In 1769 he was translated to Jedburgh,
and thence to Edinburgh in 1772, where he died,
13th January 1800. jlacknight was a superior
scholar, a liberal, wise, and prudent ecclesiastic,
and a respectable writer on Scripture subjects.
His principal works are Harmon)/ if the Four
Gospels (1756); The Truth of the Gospel History
i 1763) ; and A New Translation of the Apostolical
Epistles, irith Commentary and Azotes ( 1795).
Maekoiiofhie, Alexander Heriot, priest,
was born at Fareham in Hampshire, 11th August
1825, the son of a Scotch East Indian colonel. He
was privately educated at Bath and Exeter, studied
awhile at Edinburgh University, and in 1845 went
up to Wadhani College, Oxford. In 1848 he took
a second-class in classics, and next year was
ordained to a curacy at Westbury, removing in 1852
to Wantage, and in" 1858 to St George's-in-tlie-East.
In 1862 he became the first vicar of St Alban's,
Holborn— the smal' but crowded slum where for
twenty years he did a great work that lives after
him. His prosecution (or pei-secution ) by the
Chinch Association for ritualistic practices com-
menced in 1867 ; and at last in 1882, in accordance
with the dying wish of Archbishop Tait, he sought
to withdraw from further coiillict by resignation.
He accepted the charge of St Peter's, London
Docks; that, too, a twelvemonth later he had to
resign. His health broke down : and on 15th
December 1887, during a visit to the liisbop of
.\rgyll at Ballachulish, he lost his way in the
Mainore deer-forest, and was found two days later
lying dead in the snow, a deerhounil and a Skye
terrier guarding him. He rests in the St Alban's
burial-ground at Woking. See his Life by Mrs
Towle (1890).
Maolaiirill. Colin, mathematician, was bom
at Kilmodan. Argyllshire, in 1698. lie grailuated
M.A. at (JIasgow' in 1713, and four years hater
obtained the professorship of Mathematics in
Marischal College, Aberdeen. In 1719 he visited
London, and was .admitted to the Hoyal Soidety.
Here he published his (lennietriii Orqanien (1719),
an elaborate treatise on the deseiiption of curve-s.
778
MACLE
MACMAHON
He afteiwarils visited France as tutor to Lonl
Polwarth's son, and while there wrote a disser-
tation on the percussion of bodies, which gained
the prize of the Academy of Sciences in 1724 ;
while sixteen years later he divided with Euler
and Bernouilli its prize for an essay on the llux and
relhix of the sea. The following year he Avas
appointed, on the recommendation of Xewton,
assistant to James Gregory, professor of Mathe-
matics in the university of Edinhurgh, and soon
after succeedeil him in the chair. In the lal>our of
preparing trenches and barricades to defend Edin-
burgh against Prince Charlie's ainiy he took too
active a share for his health, and died of dropsy
June 14, 1746. Maclaurin's writings gave a strong
impetus to the stmly of mathematical science in
Scotland. His Troitise on Fluciotm ( 1742), written
in defence of Newtons discoveries against the
attack of Berkeley, was the first work in which the
principles of fluxions were logically arranged, and
formed a contribution of the greatest importance
to the theory of the tides and the figure of the
earth. The Treatise on Algehfa (1748) was left
incomplete, as was also the Aivount of Sir Isaac
Newton's Philosophical Disrorerirs (1748), contain-
ing explanations of all Newton's dbcoveries, the
optical ones excepted. Many papers appeared in
the Philosophical Transactions.
Macl6, a term employed in mineralogy to desig-
nate what are also called twin cri/sfals, which are
crystals united according to some piecise law, yet
not having their faces and axes parallel, so as to
render the one a mere continuation of the other.
In some macles the axes are parallel : in .some, they
are inclined at an angle. Crystallisation in macles
is very characteristic of some minerals. — Made
is also the name of the variety of .Vndalu.site
(q.v.) called Chiastolite, a silicate of alumina, con-
taining a little magnesia and oxide of iron.
Made has been much used for making beads for
rosaries, «.*\;c.
M'Lennaili John FEEOfSdN, a strikingly orig-
inal and suggestive writer on primitive civilisa-
tiim, was liorn at Inverness, 14th October 1827.
He graduated at King's College, Aberdeen, in
1849, and then proceedeil to Trinity College.
Cambridge, which he left in 1853 to join the
Scottish bai- in 18.")7. But he cut short the prac-
tice of his profession in his zeal for the study
of the usages and customs of early civilisation.
The chief fruit of bis labours ;ippcared in Pri/ni-
tive Marriiiije (186.)). in which he emi)hasises the
importance of the matriarchal theory of marriage
amongst savage peoples, and in papers in tlie
Fortnightly Rericw (1869-70) on totemism. His
I)Ook, after being enlarged and the argument
strengthened by new evidence, was issuc<l umler
the new title of Studies in Ancient Ilistori/ in lS7(i.
M'Lennan further defendt^d his views as against
the patriarchal theory of Sir Henry Maine in Tlic
Patriarchal Thconi, left incomplete at the author's
death, but finished and edited by his brother Donald
in 1885. He also wrote a Life of Thomas Drinn-
mond (1867) and papers on 'The Levirate and
Polyandry' ( 1877). Oiaftsnian of parliamentary bills
for Scotland in 1872-75, he ilied 16lli June 1881.
A second series of Stinlies in A neicnt History, edited
by bis widow and A. Piatt, appeared in 1896.
MacltMMl. Noini.vx, a divine of the Church of
Scothmd eminent lor his pulpit oratory, his writ-
ings, and his lil)eral Christianity, the son of a
parish minister, was horn at Campbeltown, Argyll-
shire, .lune 8, 1812. He was educated at Campl)el-
town anil Campsie, to which his f.ithcr hail been
translated, attended t ilasgow University, and enter-
in}? the church became minister of Loudim, in Ayr-
shire (1838-43); of Dalkeith (1843-45); and of
the important Barony Church, Gla-sgow, from July
1851 till his death, June 16, 1872. He received
the degree of I). I), in 1S.'>8, and was appointed
one of the Queen's Chai>lains in Scotland, the
Queen valuing highly his sermons, sympathy,
and advice. An utterance of his on the Sabbaih
questiim in 1865 startled his brethren and the
public, and be w;us threatened with prosecution ;
but wiser counsels prevailed. In 1869 he was
moderator of the CSeneral .Assembly, and was desig-
nated Dean of the Chapel Koyal and Cba]ilain of
the Order of the Thistle. In 1845 he visited Canada
!is a church depvity ; he was in Palestine in 1864-
65, and in India in 1867, on mission business for
the Church of Scotland. One of the most eloquent
and ]inwerful addresses he ever delivered was that
on mi.-sions before the General As.sembly, after his
return. From 1850 to 1859 Macleod edited the
Edinbnr()h Christian Mai/azine, for a year the
Christian Guest (1860), and from 1860 till 1872
Good Words, to which he contributed tales, essays,
verses, sermons, most of which were reprinted in
book-form. Full of healthy life and human sym-
pathy himself, his writings show shrewd observation,
lively description, and good-humour : his tales are
lacking on the constructive side. He pos.ses.sed a
large, simple, childlike nature, full of tenderness,
and was broad and catholic in his sympathies, wdiich
l)Ounil him to humanity at many points. He pub-
lished The Earnest Student (1854), Deborah (1857),
Daihi Meditations (1861 ), The Gold Thread ( 1861 ),
The Old Lieutenant (1862), Parish Papers (1862),
Wee Darie (1864), Simple Truth (1866), Eastward
(1866), licminineenecs of n Highland Parish (his
grandfather's parish of ilorven, 1867), The Stariinef
(1867), Peeps at the Far East ( 1871 ). See Memoir
(1876) by the Itev. Donald Macleod, and articles
by Strahan (Contemporartj llericw, July 1872) and
Dean Stanley (Good Words, 1872).
Maclise, Dami.L, painter, the son of a High-
land soldier named .M'Leisli. was born at Cork in
January 1806 (not 1,811) and baptised 2d February,
entered the school of tlie Koyal Academy, Lmidim,
in 1828, soon exhibited at the Academy, and in 1833
made Inmself famous by his ' .MlHallow Eve.'
His Liter ]nctures are many of them familiar by
engraving — such as 'The Baminet Scene in Mac-
beth' and 'Scene from Twelfth Night' (1840),
'Play Scene in Hamlet' (1842), and his design
of ' Shakesiieare's Seven Ages ' ( 1848), ' The Gro.ss
of Green Spectacles' (1850), 'Caxton's Printing-
office ' ( 1851 ). The frescoes — each 45 feet long and
12 feet high — in the Hoyal Gallery of the House of
Lords, depicting 'The Meeting of Wellington and
BlUcher on the Evening of the Battle of Waterloo'
and 'The Death of Nelson at Trafalgar,' were
admitted to be the lin<'st nuiral paintings hitherto
executed in Biitain. Numerous good engravings of
them are current. The most noteworthy pictures
exhibited by Maclise, after the completion of these
great works, were 'Othello,' 'Desdemona,' and
•Ojdielia' (1867), 'The Sleep of Duiuan ' and
' M^iideline after I'raver' (1868), 'King Cophetna
and the lieggar Maid' (1869), 'The Earls of De.s.
mimd and Ormond,' iiosthnniously exhibited in
1870, in which year he died on 1st April. The
sketches by him of his contemporaries, published
in Eraser's Magazine during 1830-38, were repub-
lished in 1874 and 1883. See the Memoir by
O'Driscoll (1871).
.Mariiialion. MAnii-: Edme P.vtrice M.wkice
DK, Dnkc of Magenta, marshal of France, de-
scended from an Iri>h Jacobite family, was born at
Sully, near Autun, 13th June 1808. Entering
the army, be saw much active service; in .\lgeria,
especially distinguishing himself at the storm-
ing of Constantine (1837), commanded the
MACMILLAN
MACREADY
77U
division tdat stoniied the Malakoff at Sebastopol
in 1855, anil UuiU a <on>iiiomnis jiait in the war
against the KahvU-s in Alt;eiia (1857-5S) and in
tiie Italian raniiiai'xn of 1S59, winninj; a niaishal's
V.aton and the dijjnity of Duke of Magenta for the
decisive part he took in tlie hattle of that name
He was nominated goviMiuir-geiieral of Algeria in
1864. In the Franeotierman war of 1S70-71 he
had command of the fust army corps, hut was
defeated at Worth, ami wounded and captured at
Sedan. On the close of the war he was made com-
mander of the army of Vci-sailles, with which he
siippre.ssed the Commune. In 1873 he wa.s elected
president of the repuhlic for a period of seven years,
with some hope that the restoration through him
of the Ijourhons might he secured. For his sym-
pathies were, and continued to be, conservative.
and at times reactionary, and, although he pur-
sued no aggressive pidicy, he gradually became
estranged from the Kepuldicans. Rather than
dismiss some of his old comrades in arms he pre-
ferred to resign, .10th January 1879. He afterwards
lived in retirement, and died 17th October 1893.
Slaciuiilan. D.\NIEI,. was the son of a small
farmer, and was born <at I'pper C'orrie. Arran, 13th
. September 181.3. His brother Ale.x.ander was born
at Irvine, .Sd October 1818, survived Daniel for
nearly forty years, and died iSth January 189(5.
After serving a seven years" apprenticeship ( 182-t-31 )
under a bookseller at Irvine. Daniel went to Glas-
gow in 1831 : was engaged with Johnson, Cam-
bridge ( 1833-37 ), and with Seeley, London ( 1837-43).
He was joined by his yotinger brother Alexander,
who had been keeping a school at Nitshill, near
Paisley, and a small shop in Aldersgate Street in
London was opened un<ler his charge in 1843.
Partly through the kindly interest of Archdeacon
Hare the business of Mr Newby, Cambridge, was
taken over liv the brothers in the .same year, and
Mr Stevenson's business there was acquired for
£6000 in 1845. w itb the assistance of fresh partners.
As the brothers sliowe<l insight and knowledge of
books their business grew rapidly, and by 1856
success was secured. The books that helped the
young (irm most largely were the works of Kingsley,
M.aurice, and the educational and university
volumes. Daniel died "27111 June 1857. He had a
high ideal of the bookselling liusiness : 'As truly
as (lod is, we are his ministers and help to minister
to the well-being of the souls of men.' Alexander
Macndllan (ISIS 96) was apjiointed publisher to
Oxford University in 1863, and in the same year
tlie business was removed to London. Macmillan's
MiKjiizine first appeared in 1859, and now the cata-
logue of the lirm embraces works by the most
eminent names of the dav in all departments of
literature. See the Life by T. Hughes (1882).
Naniiillaiiites. See C.vmeroxians.
MAcon (Mutisrij of Ca'sar), the capital of the
Fri'iich department of Saone-et- Loire, on the right
bank of the Saone, 41 nnles by rail N. of Lyons. A
dull, modernised place, it has a twelve-arcli bridge,
with .1 view of >lont lil.mc : a fragment of an old
cathedral, ilemolished at the Uevolution ; the fine
Iioniancsipie church of St Pierre (rebuilt 1866);
anil ii statue of Laniartine, who was born here. It
carries on an extensive trade in wines known as
Macon, like but lighter than Burgundy, a.s well as
in corn, cattle, See, and has manufactures of
wali-hcs. bra-ss, faience, &c. Pop. (187"2) 16,614:
(1891) 18,497.
.Macon, capital of Bibb county, Ceorgia, on the
Oiiiiulgce, stands among forest clad hills, at the
head of navigation, 103 miles SSK. of Atlanta, on
si.N lines of railway. It is the seat of Mercer
University (IJaiitist), a Roman Catholic cidlege,
a Wesleyan girls' schoo!, and an academy for the
blind : ha-s several fotmdries, tlour aiul lundjer
mills, cotton-factories, i*v:c., and ships large quanti
ties of cotton. Pop. (1880) 12,749: (1890)22,746.
Ma<'(tll4'rsoil. J.\mk.s, notorious as the 'trans-
lator' ot the ( tssianic poems, was born in 1738 at
Rnthvcn, in Inverness-shire. After finishing his
studies at King's College, Aberdeen, he became a
schoolmaster in his native village, iiublished a poem
entitled the Hir/hhiix/cr in 1758, contributed about
the same time verses to the Srof.^ Mtujazitir, and
in the following year, having met with 'Jupiter'
Carlvle and John Home, the author of Dou(//as,
he sliowed them some fragments of Gaelic verse,
with ' translations ' of the same. These (sixteen in
number) appeared in 1760, and excited so much
interest that the Faculty of Advocates in Edin-
burgh subscribed money to send Macpherson on
a tour through the Highlands for the purpose of
collecting more of the same. The quest was
successful, but the unsatisfactory statements of
Macpherson about his originals and the place
where he made his discoveries excited grave and
well-grounded suspicions. Some MSS. undouljt-
edly he found, but what he published as their
contents was something very ditl'erent from these.
The result of his labours was the appearance
at London, in 1762, of the .so-called poems of
Ossian (q.v.), under the title of Finoal, an Epic
Poem, in Six Souks : and in 1763, of Tcinora, an
Epie Poem, in Eight Books. A storm of contro-
versy soon arose in regard to their genuineness,
which can hardly yet be said to have entirely
subsided, although the general verdict is one un-
favourable to Macpherson. Dr Jolmson's vigorous
denunciation of the imposture so inflamed Mac-
pherson that he threatened personal violence to
the old man, who replied with characteristic fear-
lessness : ' Any violence offered me I shall do my
best to repel ; and what I caimot do for myself,
the law shall do for me. I hope I shall never be
deterred from detecting what I think a cheat by
the menaces of a ruffian.' These poems were, how-
ever, the making of Macpherson in a worldly point
of view. He was appointed in 1764 surveyor-
general of the Floridas with a salary for life, and
in 1779 agent to the Nabob of Arcot — a very lucra-
tive olfice ; entered parliament in the following year
as member for Camelford, sat for ten years, and
then retired to the estate of Bellville which he had
purchased in Inverness shire, and where he died
Februarv 17, 1796. His body was actually in-
terred at his own request and exjiense in "West-
minster Abbey. He wrote historical compilations,
and a wretched prose translation of the Ilitiil. See
his TJfe and Letters by Bailey Saunders ( 1894).
Maoqiiarie, a tributary of the D,-uling {q.v. ). a
liviM and a port of T:ismaiii;i, a )iort in New South
Wales, and a small island in the South Pacific;
from (Jeuer.il Lacdilau Maiquarie, governor of New
South Wales from 1809 (o 1821.
.Ila4'rail4-Il4'llia (Gr., 'long-necked'), a genus
of South American fossil herbivorous animals,
forming a connecting-link between the Paheo-
theriuni (q.v.) and the camel family. In form
they nearly resembled the llama, but were as large
a.s a hipi"ipi)tamus.
Ma4T4'a4l.V. Wii.i.i.\M Cll.\i;i,i;s, a<tor, was the
son of William McCready (so he spelt his name),
actor and iirovincial manager. His mother, whose
maiden name was liirch. was an actres.s. While
the elder Macrcady was fullilling an engagement
at Covent (Jarilcn, William Charles was born in
.M.iry Street, Kuston Uoad, on .'id March 1793. In
1795 his father l)ecame maiuiger of the Birnung-
ham Theatre, and Macrcady wius sent to Rugby,
where he entered in 1803. He was intended^
780
MACROBIUS
MADAGASCAR
for the bar ; but his father's managerial spepiila-
tions proving unsuccessful, he was forceil to adopt
the stage as his profession. He made his lirst
appearance at Birmingham on 7th .June 1810,
playing Itonico, and for six years remained in tlie
provinces. On llitli Sejitemljer 1816 he made hi.s
London debut, phiying Orestes {Distreat Mot/ier)
at Covent Gartlen. His reception by the critics
and public was friendly ; Init he was for a long
time very unfortunate in being cast for unsympa-
thetic parts, one of the few exceptions being Hob
Roy, in which he made a great hit, and of which
he was the original actor in London. For many
years he fought a fairly equal tight against Kean,
Young, and Charles Keniole ; but it was not till
1837 that he really took his position as leading
English actor. On .30th September 1837 he in-
augurated his famous Covent (Jarden management,
during which he did much gooil service to the
English stage. Surrounded by such players as
Jliss Faucit, Samuel Phelps, .lames Andi^rson, Mr
and Miss VandenholV, Miss I'riscilla Horton, aud
Mre Warner, he produced Shakespeare's plays in
worthy fashion, and did much to elevate and
reform the theatre. For two seasons he managed
Covent Garden, but aliruptly gave it up ; then,
after two years' interval, took Drury Lane, which
he managed from December 1841 to June 1843.
After this time he never settled in London, l>ut
played in the provinces, in Paris, and in America.
His last visit to the United States was uiarked by
the terrible riots which arose out of the ill-feeling
borne by the American ,act(U' Forrest to iNIacready.
A riotous mob trying to break into the Astor Place
Theatre for the purpose f>f maltreating Macready
was fired upon bv the militarv, and some twenty
lives were lost ( lo'th M.ay 1849). On 26th February
1851 Macready took his farewell of the stage, at
Drury Lane, in his great part of Macbeth, and
p.asscd his remaining years in placid retirement at
Sherborne, Dorsetshire, and at Cheltenham, where
he died on '27th April 1873. As an actor Macready
endeavoured to combine the dignity of the Kembles
with the naturalness of Kean. If not of the first
rank, he was yet an actor of great power, and
specially distinguished himself in Macbeth, Lear,
Ligo, King John, Cassius, and Henry IV. In
Virginius, Werner, Kichelieu, and Claude Melnotte
he was also greatly successful.
See Macready's Reminiscences and Diaries (1875);
Lady Pollock's Macready as I knew Him (2d ed. 1885) ;
and a memoir by William Archer ('Eminent Actor.s'
scries, 1890).
Maorobiiis, AMnuosifs Theodo.sius, a Latin
grammarian who llourished about the beginning of
the 5th century. He ajipears to have been by birth
a Greek, but literally nothing whatever is 1<nown
of his life, not even whether he was a Christian or
a pagan. Two of his works are extant — a <'oni-
mentary on Cicero's Soinnium Sri/iiom's, and Siitiir-
ndliorum Conviviorum Lihri tSc/dem, a series of
historical, mythological, anti(iuarian, and critical
dialogues at third hainl. TIkmc are editions bv
Jan (1848-.5'2) and Evssenhanlt (2d ed. 1893), anil
studies by Linke (1880) and Wissowa ( 1880).
IHarroco.siii. See .Microco.sm, Pakackl-sts.
MiU'rooiU. a market-town of Ireland, on the
Sullanc, '24 niil.'s liy lail W. of Cork. l'o|i, .'iOiMI.
Near .\lacrooni is a .seat of the Earl of liantry, con-
.structed out of an old castle of King John's time.
ilni'tra. a genus of bivalve molluscs, with
somewhat triangular e(|ual-valved shells. They
are active animals, idoughing their way through
the .sand either on tlie shore or at slight depths,
and are able like cockles to tak(t con.siderable leaps, i
Two common North American species, M. soli-
dimima aiul M. ovalis, kno«ii a.s lien-clams, surf-
clams, &c., are sometimes eaten, wliile some small
Mactra.
British species— e.". M. xubfrunraia — are said to
be gathered for feeding pigs.
MacWIlirter, John, artist, was born in 1839
near Edinburgh. Api>renticed early to a bookseller
and pnlilisher, he ran away in disgust, and com-
menced his artist life. His early studies of wild-
Howers at home and abroad were selected by
Ruskin as exaini)les for his Oxford class. In 1864
he w,as electe<l .\ssociate of the Scottish .Academv,
in 1879 A.R.A., and in 1893 R.A. He excels in
depicting Highland scenery, but one of his
most admired works is a view of Constantin- '
opie and the Golden Horn (1889). As favourites
among his numerous pictures may be mentioned
'The Vanguard.' 'The L.ady of the Woods,' 'The
Three Graces," and ' Out in the Cold.'
Madagascar, the third largest island in the
world, is situated to the SE. of Afiica, and is about
four times as large .as England and M'.ales. It is in
12-2'— 25° 35' S. lat. and 4'2"— 51° 40' E. long. : length,
978 miles ; greatest breadth, .'ioO miles ; are;i, about
"230,000 sq. m. Although frequently visited by
Europeans since the beginning of the 16th century,
Madagascar is yet but imperfectly explored. The
coasts were carefully surveyed by Captain W. F.
W. Owen, R.N., 18'23-'25 ; but lintil lately there
has been a great lack of accuiate knowledge as to
the geography of the interior. Much light has,
however, been thrown u]ion this by a distinguished
French savant, M. Alfred Grandidier, who, between
1865 and 1870 exi)lored the island and crossed it
in several directions. Since then numercms jour-
neys have been made by members of the London
Missi(mary Society and other mis.sions at work in
the country: and the information thus (ditained
was emliodied in a large map of Madagascar ])re-
pared in 1879 by Rev. I)r Mullens. A later map,
brought up to the present state of (mr knowledge
of the island, was issued in 1889 by Pere Roblet, S, J.
Madagascar consists, as regards its physical geo-
graphy, of two great divisions — viz. (1 ) an elevated
interior region, raised from .'lOOO to .5000 feet above
(he sea; and (2) a com|iaratively level country
surrounding (he high land, not much exceeding (iOO
feet in altitude, ami niost extensive on the west
and south, although there are very lofty moun-
tains extending to the soiith-eastern extremity of
the island. The first of these is composed chielly
of Primary (gneiss and other crystalline) rocks,
with enormous quantities of red iday-like earth,
consisting of deconjposed giu'iss. It is ,'i mountain-
ous region, (here being very little level ground
excejit in the river-valleys, and scune extensive and
fertile rice-plains, the dried-up beds of ancient
lakes. This inteiior highland com|irises nearly half
the total area of the island, and, although central,
lies more to (he north and east, (he watershed run-
ning down (he eastern side of the island a( no great
distance from (he coast. From (his upper region
rises the highest mimntaininass, that of .\nkara(ra,
pndiably an ancient volcano, whose snnimits .are
nearly 9000 feet above the sea-level. The lower
region of Mailagascar is fertile ami well wooded.
MADAGASCAR
781
especially on the eastern side of the islaml, thongh
a lar^e ilistrict in the south is barren. The western
side appears to consist of secondary strata of the
Cretaceous and Jurassic periods, and here the
extensive plains are broken up by three prominent
lines of mountain runniuf; north and south. From
the south-ejist to the northwest ami north a
probably almost continuous series of extinct vol-
canic craters has been traced. These are very
numerous near Lake Itasy (19' S. lat. and 47° E.
long.), and also in the Bfetafo district, about 50
miles farther south. There are hot springs in many
parts of the island. The chief rivers flow west and
north-west, and there are many fine ba.\s and
harbours on the north-west coast. The largest lake
is the Alaotra in the Antsihanaka province, and a
remarkable chain of lagoons extends for about 300
miles along the east coast, south of Taiiiatave,
needini' only about 29 miles of canal to connect
them all into acontiuuous waterway.
All round the island is a nearly unbroken belt
of dense forest, varying from 10 to 40 miles across,
and most largely developed in the north-east. The
flora of Madagascar is, therefore, very rich and
vaiied, and contains large numbers of trees pro-
ducing valuable timlier, concessions for working
which have lately been granted to several European
companies. The flora is divided by Rev. R. Baron,
F.L.S., into three regions, the eastern, central, and
western, the central region including the elevated
interior plateaus. Amongst the most characterLstic
forms of vegetation are the Traveller's Tree (liarc-
nala madagascaricnsis), the Rotia Palm (Eaphia
rujffia), the Lace-leaf {Oiivirandra fenestralis), the
Beef- wood Tree (Casuariua eiiiiisctifolia), several
species of pandanus and bamboo, and numerous
peculiar orchids and ferns. Three-fourths of the
species and one-sixth of the genera of the plants
are endemic to Madagascar, showing (besides other
facts to the same ett'ect) that the island is of very
great antiquity. About 4100 indigenous species
are now known in Madagascar, and there is one
natural order, Chhvnaceie, with twenty-four species,
confined to the island.
The fauna of Madagascar contains several excep-
tional and ancient forms of life, comprising many
species and even genera known nowhere else ; but,
considering its proximity to Africa, the country is
markedly deficient in the larger carnivora and in
ungulate animals. It Ls specially the home of the
Lemviridie, there being about thirty species of this
family of Quadnimana, including the very curious
Aye-aye (fi.v., Clteiromijs iiuidtujitsrariensis). It is
also the cuief habitat of the chama?leons, and
especially of those species with curious processes on
the head, about half of all the known species in
the world being found in the island. About 240
species of birds are found in Madagascar, and of
the 1.50 land-birds 35 genera and 129 species are
fieculiar to it, many of them being unlike any other
iving forms and of remote atiinities. The remains,
in a sub-fossil state, of an immense strutliions
bird [^Kpijornis muximua), as well as of some
smaller allied species, have been found in several
places <m the southern co.ost, togetlujr with its
eggs, the largest known ( 12.} in. x 9| in.). Fossil
remains of gigantic tortoises have also been dis-
covered, as well a-s of an extinct liipjiopotamus,
but smaller than that now living in .\frica.
The Malaga-sy iieople apovar to be mainly
ilerived from the Malayo-I'olyne.sian stock, with
which they have numerou.s atiinities ; and they
have numerous points of connection with the
Melaiiesian tribes, from which the darker element
in the inhabitants of .Madagjuscar is probably
derived. There Ls also an admixture of African
blood, especially on the western side of the island ;
and there is an Arab element both on the north-
west and south-east coasts. It is further believed
that there are traces of an aboriginal race called
Vazimba, who appear to have been driven out of
the central pro\iMees by the Ilova, and whose
descendants are still found in one jiart of the west
coast. Accounts are also given of a tribe of peoiile
who live in the woods, chielly on the trees. The
Hova, the most advance<l, civilised, and intelligent
Malagasy trilie, inhabiting the central province of
Imi'rina, and, since the beginning of the 19th cen-
tury, the dominant race, are probably the latest im-
migrants and the purest Malayan in origin. Other
important tribes are the Betsileo ( .southern central ),
Biira (still farther south), Tanala (south-east
forest), BctsiniLsaraka (east coast), Sihanaka
(north-east central), and Skkalava (alongthe entire
west coast). The eastern and western coast trilies
have numerous subdivisions. All the coast peoples
appear to be closely connected with each other in
language ; but, although there are many dialectic
difi'erences, the language of the whole countrv' is
substantially one, and is evidently nearly allied to
those of the Malayan and jNIelanesian islands. The
population of JIadagascar is variously estimated at
from 2,.500,000 to 5,000,000 : proliably it is inter-
mediate between these two figures.
The Malagasy, not having had their language
reduced to a written form until the early part of the
19th century, have no ancient literature ; but their
numerous proverbs, songs, fables, and folk-tales,
and their oratorical abilities, as well as the copious-
ness of their language, give ample proof of their
intellectual acnteness. In their heathen state they
are very immoral and untruthful, and cruel in war;
but they are also courageous, affectionate, and firm
in frienilship, kind to their children and their aged
and sick relatives, obedient to the l;iw and loyal,
ver\' courteous and polite, an<l most hospitable.
While retaining some traditions of a Supreme
Being, thev practised (and, except in the more
enlighteneil parts of the central provinces, still
practise) a kind of fetichism, together with divina-
tion, curious ordeals, and ancestor- woi-ship.
The capital, Antananarivo, is situated centrally
in the island, but nearer the eastern side. It has a
population of aliout 100,000, and contains many
large and handsome buildings, including the royal
palaces, residences of the prime-minister and chief
nobles, four stone memorial churches, as well as
many others of brick belonging to the London
Missionary Society, Anglican ami Roman Catholic
cathedrals, several colleges and high scbool.s, hos-
pitals and dispensaries, an observatory, court of
justice, mission printing-presses, \c. The chief
ports are Tamatave, on the east coa.st, and Mojanga,
on the north-west. Ambohimanga in Inierina, and
Fianarantsba in Betsileo, are important places in
the interior.
The principal exports (.1:165,000 per annum) of
Madaga.scar are cattle, hides, gum-copal, india-
rubber, rafiabast, and rice, and, more recently, ebony
and other \ aluablc wouils ; collee, sugar, and vanilla
are also being cuhivate<l by Creole settlers. The
chief imports (£162,000 per annum) are cotton
goods, ironmongery, crockery, and rum. The
principal trade is from the eastern ports to
Mauritius and Reunion, and there is also now an
increasing traile from the western side of the island
with the South .African colonies. The soil of the
co.ost plains, cspicially of the eastern side, is fertile,
and could supiily large <|mintities of all tropical
productions. Inm is abundant, especially as mag-
netite, and also as ha-matite and ironstone, and
the Malagasy are skilful in the smelting and work-
ing of this as well as other metals. Copper apjiar-
ently exi.'^ts in great (|uanlily in certain distnct.s,
and there also tin is said to be found. Galena is
found abundantly near Mount Ankiiratra, and fruiu
782
MADAGASCAR
MADDEN
this lead for Imllets is obtained, and silver is being
extracted from it. (iold of excellent nuality lias
recently been found in many parts of the interior,
and is now being worked by foreign cajiitalists as
well as by the native government. Sulphur occurs
in beds near some of the extinct volcanoes. There
are as yet no roads or wheeled vehicles in Mada-
gascar, so that the country is in some res])ects very
backward, although there is no lack of manual
skill among the iieople, who excel in weaving, in
straw-work, and in car|)entry, as well as in the
working of gold and silver.
Madagascar wa.-* known to the early Greek geo-
graphers I'toleniy, .Arrian, and Marcian under the
name oi Mciiiif/ikis ; and the Arabian geographer
Edrisi apparently describes it under the name of
Chczhezat. The island was certainly known to and
visited by Arab merchants at least a thousand years
ago, and settlements were formed by them, as well
as by Indian traders, in very early times ; indeed the
Arabs have left indelible traces of their influence
upon the language, civilisation, and superstitions of
the Malagasy. Madagascar is firet mentioned under
its present name by Marco Polo as 3hidcigascar
■or Magastar ; but the first European who saw the
island appears to have been the Portuguese Femam
Soarcs in 1506. To the Portuguese, accordingly,
was owing the name by which Madagascar was
long known in Eurojiean maps. Sad Lourciico, but
they made no jicrmanent colony there. The Dutch
formed settlements for a short time ; and the French
made persistent efl'orts for nearly two centuries
to maintain military posts on the east coast, but
without any permanent success. But they still
retain the little island of Ste Marie ( east coast ) :
in 1840 they obtaineil the island of Nosil)e (nortli-
west coast); and in 1883 they went to war with
the iSIalagasy on various pretexts, hostilities being
carried on in a desultory fashion for about two and
a half years. Eventually a treaty was concluded
by which the Bay of Diego Suarez, at the extreme
north of Madagascar, was ceded to France, together
with the right to place a Resident and other officers
at the capital, and other officials at various ports
.and other ])laces. In 1890 the Etiglish govern-
ment formally acknowledged the French protec-
torate of Madagascar, but this has never been
agreed to by tlie Malagasy government, and will
probalily not lie acknowledged by them.
Up to the middle of the 17th century Madagascar
was divided into a number of independent chief-
taincies ; about that time, however, the warlike
Shkalava made themselves mastei-s of the western
half of the island, as well as of several interior pro-
vinces. But in the early part of tlie lOth century the
Hova, led l)y two energetic chiefs, lambdasalama,
afterwards known as Andrianimpoiiiimi-rina, and
his son Uadama I., threw otV the Siikaliiva yoke,
anil, with the aid of English arms and discipline,
made themselves virtually kings of .Madagascar.
They conquered the eastern, north-western, and
central provinces ; but the Hova authority is still
only nominal in some parts of the island. ( In 18S0,
however, the turbulent tribes of the south-west
were brought into submi.'ision.) Kadama abolished
the export slave-trade, and gave encouragement to
English missionaries, who commenced work at
his capital in 1820. They reduced the language to
writing, gave the people the beginnings of a litera-
ture, formed numerims schools, founded Christian
churches, and introduced many of the arts of
civilised life. But the accession of liueen Kana-
viilona I. in 1828 gradually led to repressive
measures : the missionaries were obliged to leave
in 1836, and a severe persecution of the native
Christians ensued, in which numbers jierished.
Euro|)eans generally were also for some time ex-
cluded from the island. The iiueen's decease in
1861 put an end to this period of tenor, and Mada-
gascar W!i.s reopened to Europeans at the accession
of her .son Kadama II. Owing to the young king's
follies and to intrigues with the French he was
put to death in 1863, and his wife Kiisoh6rina
placed (m the throne. During her reign (1863-68)
steady advances were made, and treaties of com-
merce concluded with England, France, and Amer-
ica. Queen Itiinavalona 11., who succeeded, and her
husband, the prime-minister, identilied themselves
with Christianity, which was becoming an import-
ant power in the country. The queen and her hus-
band and many of the nobles were bapti.'^ed; and
the burning of the royal idols in the following
year (1869) caused almost the whole population of
the central provinces of Imerina and lietsileo to
\n\t themselves under instruction. Since that time
about 1600 Protestant Christian congregations have
been formed, together with about 1300 schools, with
100,000 scholars, and 280,000 ailherents. (It is
diliicult to obtain any reliable statistics of the
Roman Catholic mission ; jirobably their numbers
amount to about a lifth or sixth of the above, while
of the preceding figures about live-sixths belong
to the iniited missions of the London Missionarj'
Society and the Friends, the others to the Nor-
wegian Lutheran and the English Episcopal mis-
sions.) Several colleges and training institutions,
iis well as hospitals and dispensaries, have been
established ; and the mission presses issue aliout
•220,000 copies annually of various ])nblications.
In 1879 all the African slaves in the country were
set free. Queen Ranav.Mona TIL, born in 1862,
succeeded in 1883. After the accession of Ranavii-
lona III. in 1883, the French pressed claims to a
protectorate, which after the occupation of Tama-
tave were in 1885 conceded. Difficulties led finally
to the French expedition in 1893, which, after fear-
ful los.scs from fever and iinjierfect commissariat,
forced its way to Antananarivo, with almost no
resistance from the Hovas. The French protectorate
and France's right to military occupation were fully
acknowledged. But the French failed to ac(|uire
full control over the island, and in 1896 a military
governor superseded the civil governor.
See Flaconrt's Hiittoirc de Madaf/ascar ( 16G1 ) ;
Hisioni of Madaqascar (1S3S), Tliric Visits to Mada-
./<(.<«(/( 18.58), and The Martiir Ckiirdi ( 1870), all by W.
Kllis (q.v. ); the present writer's Mudwittsair and its
People (1870), Tlir Gmil African Uhtvd (1880), and
Madaiiascar Bihiiograpliii (1885); Graiididicr's .ffi.s/oirc
j'hiisique, luiturdlc, ct jiofitifiuc dc Mitduf/asrar (28 4to
vols., 1870 ct scq. ) ; Guide dc riiiuitiuront it Madaija.scar
3 vols. 1900 1 ; other French books by l^lanchard ( 1875),
ilouticr (1895), and Catat ( 189(1); and English by Oliver
(1880), Cousins (1895), Maude (1895), Knight (189G).
Ulnd-applc. a name sometimes given to the
.\pple of Sodom (q.v.), to the proilnce of the Egg-
plant (q.\'.), and to a kind of (Jails (q.v.).
Maddalo'lli, a cilv of Italv, 17 miles by rail
NNE. of Naples. Pop! 17,072. "
Itladdeil, Sir Frederick, an eminent English
anti(|uary, born in Portsmouth in 1801, employed
ill the British Museum lii-st as a.ssistantkccper,
frcnn 1837 as keeper, in the department of MSS.
He was knighted in 1832, and gazetted as one of
the gentlemen of the privy chamber. In 1860 be
retired from his office in the British Museum,
and he died in Londim, 8tli March 1873. Madden
edited many works of literary m historical interest,
including jlaccluh tlic Dane (1833), Wiltiaiii I'liil
the irc/i'o//'( 18.32), the early English versions of
the Gcsta liomunorum (18.38), The Wijeliffitc Vcr-
siiiii of the Hohi Scriptures ( IS.jO), Layanion's Brut
(1847), and the Histurltt Ani/lorum of Matthew
Paris, for the Rcdis series ( IS.'iS). As an editor he
shows a rare combination of jirofound scholarship
and temperate caution. His original writings are
MADDER
MADEIRA
r83
found in tlie pages of the Archwologia and Collec-
tanea Topographica.
Madder {Bubia), a genus of plants of the
natunil order Kubiaceiv. Tlie species are found in
the tropical and warmer temperate parts of hotli
the Old and New AVorlds, and from early times till
recently were important for the colouring matter of
tlii'ir roots, especially for dyeing Turkey-red. The
most important is the t'ummou ilailder or Dyer's
Madder (7i'. tuictorui»], a native probably of the
south of Europe as well iis of Asia. It is a perennial,
with weak stems and whorls of four to six elliptic or
lanceolate glossv leaves, the stem and leaves rough
with sharp prickles, small greenish-yellow flowers,
and black fruit. Munjeet, or Indian Madder (i?.
munjisfa or cordifolia), ranks next to it in import-
ance, li. peregriiia, found in the southwest of
England, and called Wild Madder, is very similar
to R. tiiictonim. Since the discovery of artificial
Alizarin (q.v. ) the commercial importance of
madder has rapidly decreased (see DVEING, Vol.
IV. ]>. 1.38). In ISTo, 12ti.l.')'2 cwt. were imported
into Biitain (value £410,993); but in 1888 (with
munjeet, garancine) only 1-1,204 cwt. (value
flS,997).
Uladoiro. the largest of a small group of islands
in the North Atlantic Ocean, oil' the north-west
coast of Africa, from the nearest point of which it
is 390 miles distant, in 32° 40' N. lat., 17° W. long.
It lies 1164 miles SW. of the Lizard, and 535 miles
S\V. of LislM)n, and is within four days' sail of Ply-
mimtli, and si.x of Liverjiool. The other islands
of the group are Porto Santo, 23 miles to the NE..
with a po])ulation of less than 2(X)0 ; here Colum-
bus lived for a time before he touched at Funchal.
The Desertas, 11 miles SE., are three uninhabited
islands consisting of Deserta Grande, Bugio, and
Ilheo Chao. Madeira ( Portuguese, ' timber,' the
island having once been well wooded) was unin-
habited when discovered in the 14th century, and
wa-s tiret settled in 1419. It is 38 miles long, by
12 to 15 wide, and along with the other islands of
the group is treated as an integral province of
Portugal, entitled to send representatives to the
('ortes at Lisbon. It was occupied by British
troops in 1801 for a few months, and again from
1807 to 1814. Pop. (1881) 132,223; estimated
(1898) 140,000. It is travei-sed by a mountain-
chain running east and west, with deep ravines
between the lateral ridges thrown oil', the most
notable of which is the 'Grand C'uiral,' with a
depth of more than 2000 feet. The islands are of
volcanic origin, and are the summits of lofty moun-
tains, rising in Pico Ptuivo to 6059 feet, in Torres
I'eaks to 6000, Pico Arrieiro to 5895, and in many
others to 4000 and 5000 feet. Slight earthnuakes
occasionally occur. In the south the brooks are
dr\' in summer, and tin' country is treeless and
arid ; the north side is more lu.xuriant and fertile,
with wider areas of cultivated grouml ; in the north-
west are undulating gnissy i)lains. The coa.sts are
steep and nrecipitous, the only harbour being that
of Fimchal (q.v.) on the south coast, which is little
l)ettcr than an open roadstead >\liere passengers
are landed in boats. The Loo rock has, however,
been joined to the mainland to form a breakwater,
and a pier was undertaken in 1889.
The clouds, which are attracteil by the moun-
tains, yield plenty of moisture, an<l the climate is
remarkable tor its constancy, though probably too
relaxing for those in perfect health, and accus-
tomed to a temperate climate. The thermometer
at Funchal shows a mean tem])craluro of 61° I'.
At the coldest sea.son the thermometer occasion-
ally registers a minimum of 50° F. In the hottest
days of summer it seldimi rises a1>ove 80 , while 90°
is exceptional. The prevailing wind during nine
months of the year is north-east. The average
rainfall is 29 inches, and the average number of
days on which rain falls in heavy showers is 70,
but there are few really wet days. The tem-
perate and constant warmth of its climate hjis
ma<le it a favourite resort for invalids atlected by
pulmonary ilUease. The only land reptile is the
lizard, and Madeira has no iiidigenous mammalia,
though the ordinaiy domestic animals, together
with rabbits, rats, and mice, have been introduced
by the Portuguese. The fruits aiul grains of
Europe are cultivated on the lower levels; the
products include wheat, barley, Indian corn, the
]>otato, oranges, lemons, guavas, mangos, ligs, and
bananas. Travellers praise the golden si)lendour
of tli^ wide expanses of "orse and broom in blos-
som, and of the marvellous masses of colour,
jnnk, matne, and lirick-dust red of the flora of the
island. There are between 300 and 400 genera of
wild flowering plants, and 717 species; more than
40 species of ferns, and 100 of moss.
AVine is the chief export, several kinds being
]iroduced in the island. That known in Europe as
Madeira, a wine of strong body and fine bouquet,
is made of a mixture of black and white grapes.
The vines were nearly exteniiiiuited in 1852 and
succeeding years by oidium, but were soon re-
planted ; and oidium and the phylloxera have since
been kept in check by sulphur, so that only one
bad vintage lia-s been recorded in twenty-five years.
Sugar-canes brought from Demerara and the Canary
Islands are flourishing.
The inhabitants are of mixed Portuguese,
Moorish, and Negro descent ; they are of vigorous
frame, lively, and industrious, economical and
simple in their habits. In 1888 there were 4000
emigrants chiefly to the Brazils. A great draw-
back to visitors is the absence of roads ; the only-
six miles of macadamised roadway being that
between Funchal and Camaia do Lobos, a fish-
ing-village of about 6000 itdiabitauts. Loads are
carried on the head by natiics, ;;nd hammocks and
sledges drawn by bullocks are used for the tracks,
while small sledges assist travellers down the
mountains sometimes. The go\ernmeut is non-
progressive, and Roman Catholicism is predomi-
nant. At Funchal there is the governor's palace,
town-hall, opera-house, cathedral, English church,
and Presbyterian church in connection with the
Free Church of Scotland. The Lyceo at Funchal
has 7 [irotcssors paid by government.
Articles of mitive produce, such as meat, pcmltry,
and eggs, are cheap; but all imported articles,
owing to the high import duty, are dear. There
is a weekly mail and cable connection from
Funchal with Lisbon and Brazil. The imports have
an annual value of abijut £200,000. The value
of the exports, mainly wine, reaches .some yeare
£185,000. The leading imports consist of coal,
dry-goods, maize, wheal, and petroleum. The
export of fruit and vegetables is on the increase ;
and as irrigation has been introduced with great
advantage. .M.adeira promises to become more and
more the market-garden of London. The trade is
chiefly with Great Britain.
Sec works by -White (2d ed. ISGO), Grabliam (1869),
Piazzi Smyth (18SL'), Miss Taylor (l.Ss2), Yato J. Imson
(18S5), IJrown (1890), C. A. liordon (1894), and articles
in J'riixer's Maijazini: (vol xii. 1875) and BlackwooJ (vol.
cxliii. 1888).
Mndcira. the great allbient of the Amazons,
h;i.s it- origin in the conlluence of the Maniore
(q.v.) and tiiiapore (q.v.), at alxmt 12° S. lat.,
the Iicni(q.v.) joining 110 miles lower down. The
river then Hows north-exst to the Amazons, its
ilrainage basin embracing some 425,0(K) s(|. ni.
From its mouth to its lirst falls the distance is
578 miles ; above this point navigation is broken
784
MADHAVA
MADONNA
by a series of nineteen falls, lajiids, and cataracts
for a distance of '2'M miles, anu it has been pro-
posed to construct a railway to jiass these, and so
provide an outlet by the Aina/ons for the products
of ISoIivia. See Keller-Leuzinger, I'um Amazunas
uiid Madeira (1873; Enj;. trans. 1874).
Madliava is an apjiellation of the Hindu god
Visliuu (q.v.). See SiN'DiA.
Aladliava Aclislrya ( ' Madhava the Acharya '
— i.e. 'spiritual teacher'), a Hindu writer of the
14th century, famed for his numerous and im-
portant works relatinj; to the Vedic, philosophical,
legal, and grammatical writings of the ancient
Hindus.
Madison, ( l ) the capital of \\'isconsin, founded
in 1836, is situated on an isthmus between Lakes
Mendota and Monona, 82 miles W. of Milwaukee,
at the junction of several railways. It contains the
state capitol, university (foundeil in 1849, and open
to both sexes), and lunatic asylum, and has manu-
factures of flour, farming implements, machinery,
&c. Pop. (1885) 12,0G4.— (2) Capital of Jellerson
county, Indiana, on the Ohio Kiver, 86 miles by rail
SSE. of Indianapolis. It has Hour-mills, boiler and
engine works, steamboat-yards, and manvifactorics
of furniture and leather, besides large pork-packing
establishments. Pop. (1880) 8945 ; (1890) 8923.
Madison, J.\1IES, fourth president of the
United States, was born at P(U-t Conway, Virginia,
March 16, 1751, graduated at Princeton in 1772,
and studied law. In 1776 he was a member of the
Virginia Conventioii, and took a useful part in
drawing up the state constitution. His life from
this time was devoted to polities, and he became
one of the most eminent, accomplished, and
respected of American statesmen. In 1780 he was
elected to the Continental congress, and in 1784 to
the legislature of Virginia, in which he was chiefly
instrumental in securing the recognition of the
right to religious liberty. But at this period
anarchy was threatening tlie young republic, whicli
hitherto had been but a loose confederation of
states. Congress was a deliberative body merely ;
its member.s represented states only, and its powers
were practically confined to that of giving advice.
Madison was active in bringing about the Conven-
tion of 1787, which franuMl the Federal constitution.
There he acted with Jay aiul Hamilton, and with
them wrote the Federalist. He was the chief
author of the ' Virginia plan,' which even went
some way towards disregarding state rinjhts. He
also suggested the important compromise under
which, whether in apportioning taxation or rejire-
sentation, slaves were to be regarded as population
and not chattels, but live were reckoned as three
persons — the so-called ' three-lifths rule,' which
secured the adoi)tion of the constitution by South
Carolina and the other slave- holding states. A
month's discussion and all Madison's arguments
were necessary before the Virginia Convention was
brought to ratify the constitution, and that only
by 89 votes to 79. Madison was elected to the
first national congress. He had done as much as
any man, perhaps, to secure the adoption of the
constitution, but he now showed hiuiself anxious to
limit the |)owers of the central government to the
strict letter of their (•orumission therein contained.
He opposed tile linan<'ial policy of Ilatiiillon, and
became a leader of the Kepuliiic'an or Jellersonian
party. In 1801, .leti'erson having been elected presi-
dent, Madison was made secretary of state, which
post he held during the eight years of Jefl'erson's
administration. In 1809 he was elected president.
The European wars of that i)eriod, with their
blockades and orders in council, w(Me destru(^tive of
American commerce, and ultimately brought on a
war with England, which wa.s declared in 1812, and
continued for two years, at an enormous cost of life
and treasure. In 1817, at the close of his second
term, iladison retired to his seat at Montpelier,
Virginia, where he died, .June 28, 1836. Modest
and reserved, courteous and kindly, he is a pleas-
ant as well as an important figure in American
history. He was not a brilliant man, but he was a
statesman of eminent ability and purity of charac-
ter. See the Lives by Kives ( I'.usion, 3 vols. 1859
68) and Cay ('American Statesmeu ' series, 1884).
Madison University. See Hamilton, U.S.
Madness. See Insanity.
Madoe. son of Owen Cwynnedd, a Welsh
prince, is believed by his countrymen to have dis-
covered America about ,3(10 years before Columbus.
Compelled, it is said, by civil strife, to abandiui his
native land, he .sailed westward in 1170 with a
small fleet, and, after a voyage of several weeks,
reached a country whose productions and inhabit-
ants were (|uite unlike those of Eurojie. Here he
lived for a long time ; then, returning to \VaIes. he
gave an account of the new land that he had dis-
covered, equipjied another fleet, set sail again, and
was never more heard of. The story will be found
ill Lloyd and Powell's Ilistorie of Cambria ( 1584) ;
but see the e.ssav by Thomas Stephens written in
1858 for the Eisteddfod, and juiblislied in 1893.
There is no foundation fortius Welsh tiadilion:
even if it were, the Northmen have a |irior claim to
the discovery of America, foi- it is beyond dould that
tireenland and the New England States were visited
by them at a nnich earlier period. Catlin in his
Letters 0)1 the Kiirth America)! htdicuts (1841)
hazardously descrilies the Tnsc.aroras as a mixed
race descended from JIailoc's Welshmen and the
aborigines. Southey has chosen the story of M.adoc
as the subject of one of his so-called epics.
Madonna, an Italian word meaning 'My Lady,'
used as the generic title for works of art, generally
paintings, representing the 'Virgin, or the \"iigiu
with the Infant Christ. Legend credits St Luke
with having (lainted the first Madonna, a ])ortrait
put on the canvas from life, and with having carved
the image of the Virgin in the Santa C.asa at Loieto.
After the Council of Kjihesus (431), images of the
Virgin with the Saviour in liei' arms became the
recognised symbols of the orthodox faith, liut the
iconoclastic fury fomented by Leo III., the Isaurian,
entailed the destruction of many of those early
Madonnas. The oldest reiu-esentationsof the Virgin
that survive ai'e those wliich have been found in the
catacombs, aceom|)anying the tombs of the early
Christians. Cimabue was the first to put natural
life into the dead and angular designs of the
Byzantine artists, and with him began that wonder-
fully productive and brilliant period of Italian art
the all-dominant theme of which was the Madonna,
that culminated in the glorious works of liapliael —
the Sistine M.adoniui, the Madouu.'i, d<dla Seciia, iVc.
These Italian artists handed on the cult to the (Jer-
man m.asters, who not cuily executed more realistic,
more human pictures of the \'iigin, but carved her
efligy in wood. Annuigst so many artists it is not
surjuising to find the subject treated in diverse styles
and manners. To ijuotc .Mrs .lamcson (Leijeiids nf
the Madiiiiiiii, uew eil. 1890): 'Thus we have the
stern, awful iiuietude of the old nmsaics; the hard
lifelessncss of the di'generale Creek: tlie jiensive
sentiment of the Siena and the st;Uely elegam-e of
the Florentine Madonnas; the intellectual ^lilanese,
with their large foreheads and thoughtful eyi's ;
the tender, refined mysticism of the Umbrian ;
the sum])tuous loveliness of the Venetian ; thc^
quaint characteristic of the early Cerman, .so
stauqied willi their nationality . . . the intense
lifelike feeling of the Spanish ; the pro.s.aic, por-
trait-like nature of the Flemish schools ; and so on.'
MADRAS CITY
MADKAS PRESIDENCY
r85
Tlie title Madonna is not used with rigid con-
sistency ; it is also applied to representations of
the Annunciation, Nativity, Adoration of the
Magi, Flight into Eg^'pt, Holy Family, and all
the several scenes and incidents in which the
Virgin Mary personally ligures. She is often
represented too in certain specilic characters with
appro]>riate epithets, as La Vergine Gloriosa (with
•lesus). Our Lady of Sorrow, C^ueen of Heaven,
(.•cc. Entire series exist depicting the events of her
life, painted by jiaintei's like Giotto, Orcagna, Albert
DUrer, and Luini. Two common series are the
Seven Joys and the Seven Sorrows of the Virgin.
Besides Mrs Jameson's book, see works by Roliault de
Fleury (1878), A. Schultz (18791, Erkl "(]8.>si). Von
Schreibersliofen (1886), for the middle ages ( 1879); Fah,
for tlie older IJerman schools (1884); and Licll, for the
catacomb pictures (1890).
Madras City (called by the natives Chen-
napittiiciiti ) is situated on the Coroniandel Coast in
l.S" 4' N. lat. and 80° 17' E. long., and is the
capital of the presidency of the same name. The
town extends along the shore for a distance of
9 miles, and covers an area of about 27 sq. m.
Originally it consisted of a number of separate
villages, which are now united into a single muni-
cipality, administered by a president, two vice-
presidents, and thirty-two non-otticial commis-
sioners, of whom twenty-four are elected by the
ratepayers and eight nominated by government.
The roadstead, in which till quite recently all ships
had to lie, is very much exposed, and on the
approach of a cyclone all vessels put out to sea.
A pier wa.s erected in 18.59-62. A harbour begun
in 1876 was seriously damaged in 1881, and the
construction of the harbour was being carried on in
1890. but it is qiiesticmable whether it will ever
be safe for sliips to remain in it during a heavy
storm. It abeady, however, greatly facilitates the
landing of cargo during rough weather, and
passengers have no longer to cross the surf in going
to or coming from steamers. A marked feature of
this part of the coast is the heavy surf which rolls
in, even in comparatively calm weather. In ordinary
weather the surf breaks about 300 feet from the
shore, and the wave is of no great height ; but in
stormy weather there are two lines of surf, the
outer one being some 1000 feet from the shore with a
wave of 12 to 14 feet high. The ordinary surf can
lie crossed with safety by the native massulah
boats, « hicli are formed of ])lanks sewn together
with string, but no boat can live through the surf
in a cyclone. The port is liable to be visited by
these storms at two seiisons — towards the end of
-May and beginning of June, when the south-west
monsoon sets in, and in October, November, and
the early part of December, during the prevalence of
the north-ea.st monsoon. Cyclones are rare at other
times. The climate of ^ladras may be described
a.s hot and moderately dry. The annual rainfall
averages 49 inches, falling on ninety-five days,
but duriiijj the seventy four years ending with 1889
it varieil from 88i inches in 1827 to I8i inches in
18J2. The mean teniperature for the year is 82' F.,
varying from 76' in December and January to 88°
in June. During the hot months the teniperature
freqiiiMitly lises above 100", but the mcun miixiinum
in no mouth exceeils 99°. The mean annual range
is 48'. The highest temperature recorded in the
twenty-seven years ending with 1889 was 1129° and
the lowest 57 '6°. The heat of the hot season is
greatly moditied by a sea-breeze, which often sets
in soon after noon and blows till sunset. On the
whole the climate is a healthy one.
On the shore, midway between the north and
south extremities of the town, is Fort St George,
the original settlement. This fort (built 1750)
still contains the council chamber, a number
MO
of government offices, and barracks for the Euro-
pean troops. North of the fort lies Black Town,
which contains mo.st of the business offices and
a crowded native population ; south of it lies
Triplicane, the chief Jlohammcdan centre. Inlanil
and to the extreme south lie the houses chiefly
occupied by Europeans, most of ^\llich stand in
large ' compounds or i)arks, surrounded by trees.
Though Madras cannot compete with either Cal-
cutta or Bombay in the magnilicence of its public
buildings, it ocuitains some that are worthy of note.
Amongst these may be mentioned Government
House, the Chepauk Palace, the Senate House, St
-Andrew's Kirk, St George's Cathedral (containing
a monument by Chantrey to Bishop Heber), the
iladras Club, the post and telegraph oflice, and
the new High Court buildings. Many of the builil-
ings are rendered specially striking by the fjee
use of polished chunam made from shell lime.
The Madras L'niversity, founded in 1857, is simply
an examining body, the teaching being done
l>y afliliated colleges throughoiit the presidency.
Some idea of the work done by the university may
be gathered from the fact that in 1888-89 there
were 7433 candidates for matriculation, 570 for
the degree of B.A., 163 for the degree of B.L., and
smaller numbei-s for the other degrees. In addition
to colleges for the study of arts, medicine, and
engineering, there are, in or near the city, a School
of Art, a College of Agriculture, a branch of the
Royal Asiatic Society, and a large museum, con-
I taining, amongst other things, very valuable collec-
tions of Indian coins and of sculptured marbles
from the Buddhist ' tojie ' at Amravati. Madras
is the seat of the government and of the supreme
court. Pop. (1881) 405,848, of whom .3205 were
Europeans, 12,659 Eurasians, and 50,298 INloham-
medaus, the rest being Hindus by faith; (1891)
452,518. The chief articles of export are coHee,
tea, cotton, grain, hides, indigo, oil-seeds, dye-
stuM's, sugar, aud horns. The average value of
exports aud imports for ten vears previous to
1895 was about £4,000,000 and .£11,000,000 re-
spectively. For the railway connection, see under
' the presidency below. The Buckingham Canal
^ gives a waterway to the north aud .south parallel
to the coast.
I Madras Presidency, one of the administra-
I tive divisions of India, occu]>ies the southern part
of the peninsula; it is also known as the Piesidency
of Fort St George. It extends from lat. 20' 18' on
the eastern coast and lat. 14" on the west coast to
Cape Coniorin in lat. 8° 4'. The total area, exclud-
ing native states, is 139,000 sq. m. ; pop. (1881)
30,868,504; (1891) 35,630,440. (The native states
have an area of 9600 sq. m., and a population of
3,700,622.) Of these some .'io millicuis are Hin-
dus, about 2 millions Moliammcilaiis, ami 800,000
Christians. For revenue purjioses the presidency
is divided into twenty-two districts. The chief
government ollicer in each district is the collector,
who controls all dei)artnients except the judicial.
The princijial mountains belong to the two chains
of the Eastern and AVestern Ghiits. The former
have an average height of 1.500 feet, but rise in
parts to 3000 or 40(X> feet ; the latter have a cim-
siderablv greater average height, with a number
of peaks rising from 50O0 to 8000 feet, and a few
even higher. A considerable part of the presidency
forms a tableland, which includes the native states^
of Mvsore and the Deccan, rising to a height of
from KXM) lo :<000 feet. A very notable geograjihical
feature is the Palghat Gap in the Western Ghats,
25 miles wiile, and only 1000 feet alnive sea-
level. Through it passed the old Inideroute be-
tween the west and east coast, now supei-scded
by a railway, and through it the south-west mon-
soon blows strongly, bringing rain to a consideralile
786
MADRAS PRESIDENCY
MADRID
area lying east of it. The Nilgiri Hills, on whieli
at Ootacaiiiuiid is the suiiiiiior seat of the fiovoni-
iiient, may he looked on as the junction of the
Eastern ami Western Ghiits. There are also several
iniportant outlyinj; spurs, of wliich the Shevaroys
in Salem, the -\nanialais in Coimhatore. ami the
I'alnis in Madura are the most noteworthy. The
chief rivers are the (iodavari, the Kistna, and the
Kaveri, all rising in the Western (ih-its, and cross-
in;; the peninsula in a sontli-easterly direction to the
]5ay of Ben<ral. Very extensive "irrisationwork.s
liave been carried out in connection with each of
these rivers, while minor irrigation-works are to
he found in almost all parts of the piesidency.
Railway communication is being rapidly extended
throughout tlie country. The Madras Railway ( 5 ft.
(i in. gauge), with its terminus at Madras, crosses
the country in two lines. Tlie one passes in a
south-westerly direction to Calicut on the .Malabar
coast, with brandies to Bangalore, where it con-
nects with the Mysore Railway, and to Metta-
poUieni, the station for the Nilgiris. The other
crosses in a north-westerly direction to Raiclior,
where it connects with the Great Indian Peninsular
Railway. At Guntakal it makes connection with
the extensive system of the South Mahratta Rail-
way. The South Indian Railway (metre gauge) runs
south from Madras to Tinnevelli, with branches
to Pondicherry, Negapatam, and Tuticorin ; a line
from Tricliinopoly connects it with the Madras Rail-
way at Erode, and another brancli from Chengalpat
connects it with the same railway at Arconum.
There are good roads in most parts of tlie presi-
dency.
The climate differs greatly in different parts.
In the Carnatic the dry season lasts from the
middle of December till the end of June, there
being often three or four months without any rain.
From June to (Jctober there are hea\'y showers,
and from Octol)er to the middle of December the
north-east monsoon brings copious rain. Over a
great part of the east coast strij) the annual rainfall
exceeds 40 inches : but in some parts inland it does
not exceed 20 inches, and in many parts it falls
below 30 inches. The mean annual temperature
is al)OUt 82°, and in many stations a maximum
temperature of upwards of 110° is not uncommon.
On the Malabar coast tlie rainfall is much heavier,
and conies with the south-west monsoon. The
moisture-laden winds, being driven upwards by the
lofty mountains, cool as they ascend, and pour
down their .surplus moisture on the strip of land
between the hills and the sea. Thus, the fall from
June to October is 119 inches at Mangalore, and
1H2 inches at Ilonawar. The annual rainfall at
Mangalore is I'U inclios, and at Cochin 115 inches ;
at the latter place 227 inches fell in 1882. This
abundant raintall leads to a most luxuriant vegeta-
tion in Travancore and on the west coast. The
mean temperature varies from 79° to 80°, and
there are no great extremes. The climate of the
hill-stations is not unlike that of England at its
best. Frosts are not unknown, but are slight, and
in summer the temperature never rises very liigh.
The climate of the Nilgiris has been described as
'that of the English .spring and summer without
Atlantic storms or the hitter east winds of March.'
Save when the monsoon is at its height, it would
be dillicult to imagine a finer climate. Rice is the
chief croj) grown throughout the ]iresiilency, but
several other cereals are largely cultivated. Pulse,
ground-nut and other oil-seeds, indigo, and sugar-
cane are of great importance in certain jiarts.
Cotton is grown over a wide area in the drier jiarts,
and toliacco of excellent fpiality is produced in
large quantities on islands in the (iodavari, and in
parts of the Coimhatore and Madura districts.
Tricliinopoly cigars and cheroots are increasingly
exported. On the hills tea, coil'ee, and cinchona
are successfully cultivated over wide areas. The
manufacturing industry is represented by cotton,
sugar, gunny hags, ]iaper, ice, and tiles. Madras
is not rich in minerals ; Init gold is found in many
parts, and. though the most jiroductive mines at
jnesent worked lie in Mysore, there is good reason
to hope for eipially favour.ible results from mines
opened in other areas of the Darwar Rocks, which
are apparently the only auriferous strata in the
]uesi(fency. Iron of excellent quality abounds,
and is worked by the natives ; but the want of fuel
luevents any large development of the iron in
ilustry. Dianumds have been largely found, chiefly
in the Karnul district. The forests are now care
fully protected by the state, and are of great value,
csjiecially the teak forests.
The first English settlement was made at
Masulipatam in IGII. In 1616 factories were
established on the west coast at Calicut and
Ci-anganore. In 1619 a factory was opened along-
side of the Dutch one at Pulicat, Ijut this was
soon withdrawn. In 1628 the ^lasulipatam factor\
was transferred to Armagaon, 40 miles north of
Pulicat, and this was the first place fortilied by
the English in India. In 1639 a settlement wa-s
obtained at Madras. Christian missions have
made more piwress in Madras than in any other
part of India, tliere being 228 Christians in every
10,000 inhabitants; Lower Burma follows closely
with 22.5, while Bombay has only 62 and Bengal 18.
madras System. See Bell ( Andrew ).
Madrepore. See Coh.\l.
Madrid, the capital of Spain and seat of the
Spanish government, is .situ.ated in the department
of the same nanu>, in the ancient province of New-
Castile, on the left bank of tlie Manzanarcs, in
40" 24' N. lat. and 3' 25' W. long., 880 miles by rail
from Paris. It is built on a treeless, ill-watered
plateau, 2060 feet above the sea-level, and was
created capital by the arbitrary will of a sove-
reign. The Manzanares is merely a mountain-
torrent falling into the Jarama, a tributary of
the Tagus, useless for communication, and nut
even to be depended upon to sujiply the city with
water, which is brought fnun the Guadarrama
Mountains by an aqueduct 42 miles in length.
The sole recommendation of Madrid as cajiital is
its central position in the Peninsula ; it is nearly
equidistant from the Atlantic and Mediter-
ranean co.asts and from the Pyrenean frontier.
Swept, during the winter months, by the icy winds
from the snow-ca|iped mountains on the north, and
exposed in summer to a burning sun, it has a
climate which, though dry and liriglit, shows
extreme variations of temperature (104° to 14°).
The average of the eight warmer months ( March
to October) is 66° F., and that of the four re-
maining ones 44°, but the dill'erence at the same
time between sun and shade is sometimes as
great as 20°. In s]>ite of a death-rate of over
34 per thousand, cause<l by its treacherous climalf
and the insaidlary habits of its citizens, the increase
of Madrid has of late years been rapid. At the
beginning of the 19th century the |)o|mlatioii was
about 160,000; in 1860 it was 298,000; in 1870.
332,000, and in 1.S9.5, 500,000 ; less than 40 pi'r cent.,
however, of the inhabitants are natives of the city.
Madrid is nearly circular, unfortified, and about 10
miles in circumference.
Through the Latin and Arabic chroniclers
Madrid can trace its existence as fjir back as the
10th century, when it was known as Medina Mcr/eril.
a fortified post of some importance on the frontier
of the Moorish kingdom of Toledo. First retaken
by the Christians under Rainiro II. of Castile
(939), it was not finally conquered till the reign of
I
MADKID
r87
Alfonso Vr. (1085). A list of its inhabitants,
Castilian and .Mozaial>, aii|)ears in a charter of
Toledo -iranted by Alfonso VIII. in 1117. After
this time the mention of it in documents is freciuent.
The part lii'st inhabited was the high grounil where
the royal palace now stands on the west of the
city : liere wjis the stronghold that tii'st gave the
place celebrity. As the Christian frontier was
pushed farther southward, Mailrid would probably
have again sunk into obscurity hail it not been a
favourite place of meeting for expeditions against
the Mooi-s, and temporary residence of the kings,
who were attracted hy the game sheltered in the
extensive forests, long since destroyed, to the great
detriment of the climate. The city received its first
charter in lt20'2. and the Cortes were fii-st held in
it by Ferdinand VI. (1309), and subsequently by
-Alfonso XI. and Henry III., the former of whom
altered the constitution of the city, giving it twelve
regidorrs and two alcaldes in place of the Se.iior dc
Madrid, who had formerly been elected by nobles
and commons. John II. and Henry IV. granted
additional privileges to the city. Isabel the Catho-
lic acquired the city after a sharp struggle with the
partisans of her rival Doiia Juana, and it now
i)ecame a place of some importance owing to the
more frequent presence of the court. After the death
of the Catholic kings, the regent. Cardinal Cisneros,
ruled Spain from Madrid, and, though the city em-
braced the popular cause in t!ie war of the Comu-
neros, it recei\ed such privileges from the Emperor
Charles V. that its population rose rapidly from .3000
to 6000 households ; during this reign it furnished
a prison for Francis I., king of France. When in
1.561 Madrid was declared capital of Spain by Philip
II. it contained about .30,000 inhaliitants. With the
court came the great nobles, who built palaces,
and innumerable friars, who established convents ;
nevertheless till the nnddle of tlie 17th century
the city presented a mean appearance, and most of
the houses were only one story high, thus avoiding
the obligation of lodging the numerous retinue of
the kin^. Philip I\ . made some improvements,
especially the laying out of the park of the Bueu
Ketiro, and in his time Madrid, though still un-
paved, filthy, and roamed over at will by the privi-
leged pigs of St Anthony, was the seat of one of
tke most brilliant courts of Europe. The greatest
l>enefactor of the city was King Charles III., many
of whose splendid works still exist. Madrid took
an active part in the revolution that wrested the
jiower from tiodoy, the Prince of the Peace, and
during the domination of Napoleon (2d May 1808)
made a gallant attein|)t to shake off the foreign
yoke. Though taken by the allied force under the
command of the Duke of Wellington in 1812, .Madrid
was not finally rid of the French till 181.3. The
next year marked the return of the Bourbon king.
Although the scene of several of the revolutions
that form so large a part of Spanish history during
the 19th century, Madrid, aided by the suppression
( 18.36) of the convents, the introduction of railways
(IS.IO), and an abundant supply of good water
( 1858), has been continually and rapidly advancing
in importance and prosperity.
The general aspect of the city is clean and gay,
whilst the (drier parts, the Calle de Toledo, Plaza
Mayor, anil distnct of Lavapies are picturesque ;
no trace of the medieval city now remains. It
Is a<Iministered by a military and a civil governor,
aided by the niayore of the ten districts Into which
it is divided. The police is good, and Madrid is as
.safe as any European ea])ital, well lighted, but in-
differently paved (wood pavements have lately been
laid down in several streets). The new streets are
generally line, broail, and jilanted with trees ; the
houses well built, lofty, stuccoed and painted, and
inhabited by .several families living in liatg, guarded
at night by watchmen (serenos), to whom the key
of the street door is entrusted. A great feature is
the magnificent open spaces, chief of which is the
Prado, running north and south through the eastern
jiart of the city, and, with its continuations, three
miles long : it contains four handsome fountains
with groujis of statuary, a fine obelisk to com-
memorate the gallant struggle of the citizens
with the French (May 2, 1808), monuments to
Columbus, the Marques del Duero, and Isabel
the Cathcdic. The jjicture-gallery, founded by
Charles III., and situated in the Prado, is one of
the finest in Europe, and contains the principal
works of Vela.squez and Murillo, besides many of
the masterpieces of Kaphael, Tintoretto, Itubens,
Teniers, and Xnn Dyck. Two other i)arks are the
Buen Retiro, the f;isliionable promenade on the
east of the city, and the Casa de Canipo on the
west. Midway between its extremities the Prado
is crossed at right angles by the Calle de Alcala, the
finest street in the city, about a mile in length,
and leading from outsiile the fine triumphal arch
rebuilt by Charles III. to the Pucrta del .Sol, a
handsome though not very large square, with
broad pavements, and a fountain in the centre.
This square is the heart of Madrid ; here converge
the principal tramway lines which have so greatly
aided the extension of the city, and in it and the
streets branching off from it are situated the i)rin-
cipal shops and places of business. The finest
square is the Plaza Mayor, formerly the scene
of bullfights and aiitos da fe, and said to have
held 50,000 sjiectators ; it contains a gigantic
equestrian statue of Philip III., its founder, and
was formerly the centre of Madrid, but is now
somewhat decayed as the city has moved farther
eastward. On the west of the city is situated the
royal palace ; commenced in 1738 to replace the
ancient Alcazar, which had been burned down, it
was finished in 1764 at a cost of about £3.000,000.
It is a fine stone building in the Tuscan style,
forming a square of 479 feet, and enclosing a
court of 140 feet ; its architect was the Italian
Sacchetti. Dependencies of the palace are the royal
armoury, containing the finest collection in the
world, and the royal stables, remarkable for their
extent. Other fine buildings are the palace of
justice, formerly a convent ; the houses of parlia-
ment, Palacio de los Consejos ; Buena Vista Palace,
now the uiinistry of war; the new national bank;
and the town hall. Besides a flourishing uni-
versity, founded by Cardinal Cisneros, and two high
schools, Madrid contains 118 municiiial and 21
pauper schools, with an aggregate of 11,400 pupils.
There are many charitable institutions, and the
municipality maintains dispensaries in each of the
ten districts; but hospital accommodation is defi-
cient, and beggars abound in spite of the law.
Madrid is well provided with newspapei"s (about six
leading dailies and several periodical reviews) and
public libraries, the cbict being the National
Libr.ary, with more than half a million volumes,
and the 'libraiy of the university: those of the
palace and of the Academy of History contain
many treasures. Amongst the many learned socie-
ties the principal are the Academies of History
and the Spanish Language; the Ateneii is a nour-
ishing literary club with a good collection of book.s.
The opera-house is one of the finest in the world ;
all the theatres must by law be lit by electricity.
The bull-ring, situated outside the gates on the ea-st,
is a solid structure seating I4,0(K), and owned by the
provincial cciiincil. The churches are mostly small
and insigMilliant : the handsomest is the recently-
rebuilt church of San Francisco. The |)lain church
of San Isidro, patron of Madrid, serves as cathe-
dral. The old cliurch of .Mocha, cimtaining a much-
venerated image, the tombs of several celebrated
788
MADRIGAL
MAECENAS
men, and many banuere tliat recalled the great
davs of Siiaiii, has recently heen pulled ilown. ■
Madrid is rather a consuming than a luodiuing
centre : such manufactures as do exist contrihute
only in a small degree to supply the needs of the
city. Ironfounding, the manufacture of furniture, ^
carriages, and fancy articles are carried on on |
a snuui scale. The' manufacture of tobacco, the
monopoly of which is farmed by the government
to a company, employs many hands, chielly women.
The publishing trade is important, and books are
veil printed and cheap. The old tapestry-factory
still turns out beautiful work, and the potteries
at Moncloa are now prod\icing good imitations
of many of the artistic kinds of earthen\yan>
for which Spain was formerly celebrated. Tlu'
excliange and money-market, largely carried on
by foreigners, is the inost important in Spain.
See Ayala y Sastre, Madrid, Biblioteca de la Profincia
(1&S9) ; Mu.sonero Romanes, El Antiijuo Madrid ( 1S81).
For Madrid ( Provhice ), see Spain.
Madrigal, a word of uncertain etymology,
denotes a short lyrical poem, •generally on the
subjc'ia of love, and characterised by some epi-
gramm.-itic terseness or quaintness. It was written,
as a rule, in iambic metre, contained not less than
six or more than thirteen lines, and ran chielly
upon three rhymes. Among the Italians the best
writers of iiiadrigals are Petrarch and Tasso ;
among the French, Montreuil and M(mcrif ; among
the (iermans. llagedorn, Voss, (ioethe, and .\. W.
Schlege! ; and among the English, Lodge, Withers,
t'arew, and Suckling. — The name is also applied to
tlie music for a simple song sung in a rich artistic
style, but without musical accompaniment. The
original composers wrote for three, four, or more
voices ; but madrigals are now usually sung bj^ a
small but well-trained choir. These compositions
originated with the Flemings, and before the
middle of the l.ith century. From them and by
tliem it was carried to Home and \'enici', and to
England, where a famous school of madrigal com-
posers tlourishiHl from about 1530 to about 1630.
The chief com))osers of the English .school were
Hird, Weelkes, Kirkby, Wilby, Morley, Dowland,
Benet, Este, Bateson, and Orlando Gilibons.
Madrigal-singing ceased to be popular in the 18th
century ; its place is now taken by glee-singing
(see (il.EE). The Madrigal Society of London,
founded in 1741 by John Inimyns, claims to be the
oldest nnisical association in Enro])e. See Sherman,
Mad filial s aial Catc/ics (New York, 1887).
illadlira, a maritime district of India, in the
south of the Presidency of Madras, is boundeil on
tlie E. by the (!ulf of Manaar, which separates
Hindustan from Ceylon ; it has an area of 8S08 sq.
m., and a pop. of '2',(i08,404. C'liief town, Madura,
third largest in tlie presidency; pop. (1881) 73,807:
(1891 ) 87,428. For nearly 2300 years Madura was
the political and religious capital of the southein-
most part of India. Its Pandyan kings are men-
tioned by the ancient Greek geographers. In the
17th cen'turv the Nayak rulers, chicHy Tirnnuila
( IG'iS-.'JO), built here a magniticent pagoda to Sun-
dareswara (Siva), with a hall having one thousand
(!)!)7) idllars, a line jialace, now mined, a summer
i)alace for the god, and a great tank. The Jesuits
have been active in Madura since the time of Tiru-
mala ; there were 67,.V)4 Konian Catholics in the
district in 1881.
Uladlira. an island of the Dutch East Indies,
separated by a narrow strait from the north-east
of Java, with an area of 1764 sq. m. It is mostly
barren, but |)0ssesses numerous forests and .salt
marshes. ,\long with some eighty smaller ishuxls,
lying mostly to the east, it forms a Dutch resi-
dency; area 2040 sq. ni. ; population 1,500,000
The people, of Malay descent, resemble the Javan-
ese, but are stronger, more enduring, and more
enterprising ; they nuike the best native soldiers in
the Kutch <'olonial army.
lladvig. JoHAN Niroi,.AI, Danish classical
scholar, was born at Svancke, in Uinnholm, on 7th
August 1804, educated at Frederiksborgand Copen-
hagen, began to teach at the university in IS'26,
and in 1829 was appointed to the chair of Latin
Language and Liteiature, and made inspector of
higher schools. He took a keen interest also in
politics, wa-s one of the chief speakers of the
national Liberal party, sat in iiarliament, held the
])ortfolio of religion and education from 1848 to
1851, and after 1855 wjis repeatedly elected presi-
dent of the Danish ])arlianient. He died blind
on 13th December 1886. For more than half a cen-
tury Madvig enjoyed the highest reputation, not
in Denmark only, but throughout Europe, as a
shrewd, clever critic of the Latin and (heek prose-
writers. It was in criticising and emendating the
text of Cicero and Livy that he won his greatest
laurels, his Emcnilationes in Cieeroiiis Libros Pliilo-
sopliii'os (1828), editions of Cicrro's Dc Finibiis
(1839 ; 3<1 ed., greatly improved, 1876), Cato Major
et Laliiis {\S35 ; 2d ed. \mi<)), JuiaMa/aliones l.ifi-
anw (1860: 2d ed. 1876), and the edition of I.iry
(4 vols. 1861-66) being all productions of tirst-rate
scholarship. He jiro\ided for students very valu-
able information on Cicero's works in Ojiiixni/a
Acadanim (2 vols. 1834-42: 2d ed. 1887): worked
out a systematic account of his critical ]irinciples
in Adrci-.-iarUt Criticri (3 vols. 1871-84): published
in 1841 his well-known Lafiti Gminmnr (7th ed.
1881), and in 1846 his still better known Greek
Si/ntax (Eng. trans. 1853), both excellent works,
hilt now being superseded by the results of newer
philological study. The last books from Madvig's
pen were a dissertation on the Coiistihitwii aial
Adiiu'iiistration of tlie Roman Utate (2 vols. 1881-
82), intended in some sort as suiiplementary and
corrective to Mommsen's great history, and an
Autobkigraphij (1887).
Ula'aildcr (now Bojnk Mender), the ancient
name of a river of Asia Minor, rising near Cehvna',
in Phrygia, and llowiiig 240 miles west-south-west-
ward to tlie vEgean at Miletus. Its windings,
jiroverbial since Cicero's day, are after all nothing
remarkable.
Ma'CC'lias, C. Cilnius, a Roman statesman of
F^truscan origin, whose name has become a synonym
for a patron of lettei-s. He lirst appears in history
in 40 B.C. engaged in arranging a marriage between
Octavian and Seribonia. I-ater we lind him nego-
tiating the peace of Brundisiuni, and acting with
vigour in the city during the campaign of Actiuni.
When Octavian a.ssiimed the suiireniacy and the
title of Augustus, ILi'Cemus took a chief place in
his counsels. The naluie and extent of his iillicial
power are not very jirecisely nndeistood, but they
were undoubteiUy "great, though the inllucnce and
authority he enjoyed are to be estiniateil rather
from his" intimacy with the emperor than his mere
position as a public servant. During his later
years the fri Isliip was interrupted from reasons
that cannot now be exactly ascertained, but mutual
esteem siii\ived and no ojien rupture took place.
Maecenas was a thoroughly sincere imnerialist. He
had a belief in the value"of an established govern-
ment : and when he founil that he no Uinger retained
the conlidence of his sovereign he did not lapse into
a conspirator : but. as a modern minister might do,
retired into the obscurity of ])rivate life. He had
ever been given to luxury and sensual delights, but
his complex nature craved the solace al.so of higher
lileasures. He now gave all his time to literature
and the society of literarj' men. He was immensely
I
MAELAR
MAFFEI
789
rich, and kept an open table for men of parts at liis
fine house on the Esijuiline Hill ; almve them all
he lovcJ the genial Horace. lie dieil in the year
8 B.C., leaving the emperor his wealth.
Maelar. See M.^lae.
.Ma*-ldiill. See M.viLDUN.
Maelstrom ('grinding stream'), or Mosken-
STRO.M, a famous whirlpool, or more correctly
current, between Moskeniis and Mosken, two of
the Lofoden Isles (q.v.). The strait is habitually
navigated by vessels at high tide and low tide,
though in one (ilace the water is always rough and
churned into angry foam. When the wind lilows
directly against the current it becomes extremely
dangerous, especially with spring-tides or during a
north-west wind. The stories of ships, whales, iS.c.
being swallowed up iu the vorte.x are simply fables ;
at the same time, a ship once fairly under the
influence of the cunent, would probably founder
or lie ilashed upon the rocks, and whales have often
been found stranded on the Flagstadt coast from
the same cause. The cniTent takes twelve hours
to make a circular revolution. Edgar .-Vllcn Poe's
imaginative description of the horroi-s of being
sucked ilown by the ilaelstrom is well known.
A like dangerous current is the Saltstriini, at the
entrance of the Salten Fjord, where a vast mass of
water is povired through a narrow opening at a
terrific rate. Yet steamboats pa-~is through the
Saltstrom, though only at high or low tide.
lla'liads. See Dioxysls.
Maesliowe'. a chambered mound in the Main-
laud of Orkney, 9 miles WNW. of Kirkwall and
1 mile E. of the great stone circle of Stennis. A
gra-ssy truncated cone, .36 feet high and 92 feet in
diameter, it Is surrounded, at a distance of 90 feet
from its base, by a trench 40 feet wide, and still in
places 8 feet deep. On the west side is a passage,
.54 feet long, 2J to .34 feet wide, and 3i to 4s feet
high, with (about midway) a unique doorway.
This passage leads to a central chamber, measur-
ing 15J by 14j feet ; converging to a vaulted roof,
originally 20 feet high ; and built, like the passage.
Maeshowe, ground-plan.
of undressed slabs and blocks of native stone. On
each of the other three sides of the chamber, at a
height of 3 feet from the floor, there is a square
opening to a cell or 'sepulchral loculus,' 3 feet
high, 4| feet wide, and '>h to 7 feet li>ng. Maes-
howe w;i.s e.xplored in \Hii\ by Mr .lames Farrer,
.M.I'., when it was found to have been ransacked
at lea-st once before — in the winter probably of
ll.Vi-SS by Norwegians, followers of Earl IJogn-
yald, and pilgrims to .Jerusalem. Their Kunic
inscriptions, comprising ujiwards of 900 letters,
thickly cover the walls of the central chamber,
and consist mainly of such inscriptions as ' ller-
mund Hardaxe carve<l these runes.' There are
carvings besides of eight crosses, a 'worm-knot,'
and a nomlescript animal. Mere idle scribblings,
the runes afl'ord no clue to the origin of the tumulus
itself, which Dr Anderson a.ssigns unhesitatingly
to the 'Age of Stone,' whilst Fergusson a-scribes its
erection to Northmen and to a date so recent as 970.
See the article Caikn ; Farrer, Nolfs on the Runic
Innci'iptions (1862); P70C. Soc. Ant. Scot. (1867);
.James Fergusson, Itudc Stone Monuments (1872); and
•Joseph Anderson, Scotland in Patjan Times (1886).
Macstricllt* the capital of the Dutch province
of Limburg, 19 miles NNE. of Liege by rail, 19
WNW. of Aix-la-Chapelle, and 152 SSE. of
Amsterdam. It lies on the left bank of the Meuse
or Maas, a stone bridge (1683), 133 yards long,
connecting it with the suburb of Wijk." Formerly
an important fortress, it is still a garrison town ;
but the fortifications were dismantled in 1871-78.
The town-hall, with spire and carillon (1662), con-
tains many paintinc»s and a library ; and in the
threetoAvered church of St Servatius (12tli-14th
centur}' ), the cathedral once, is a ' Descent from
the Cross,' by Van Dyck. But ilaestricht's great
sight is the subterranean quarries of the Pieters-
berg, foiTuerly calleil Mons Huunorinn (330 feet).
Their labyrinthine passages, 12 feet wide, and 20
to 50 feet high, number 16,000, and extend over an
area of 13 by 6 miles. They are supposed to have
been worked first by the Romans, and, amongst
other fossils, have yielded two heads of the huge
Mosasaurus (q.v.). The manufactures inclndfi
glass, earthenware, and carpets. Pop. (1S76)
29,083: (1898) .34,.362. Mae.stricht, the liuman
Trnjcctiim nd M'jsain, was no less than six times
besieged between 1579 and 1814, and in 1830 with-
stood the insurgent Belgians.
Maestricht Beds, a section of the Danian or
tijipermost sulidivision of the Cretaceous System
(q.v.). In Britain the chalk with Hints is covered
with Tertiary strata, but at Maestricht in Holland
there occui's a thickness of 100 feet of soft yellowish
limestone with a conglomeratic base, abounding
in the remains of Corals and I'olyzoa.
The fossils are peculiar.
Maeterlinck, M.virice, was born
at (xlient in 1864, and became known
i to the Avorld of I'aris in 1890 by a play,
Ln Princcsse Maleine. Other plays are
L'Intnisc, Les Areuqlcs, Pclleas et Mcli-
.mttf/e, and Ar/toname et Selysettc (all
translated into English); and he has
shown his religions sympathies by a
translation into nmdern Flemish of
T?nvsbroeck the Mystic (1891).
Ylafeking, a town in the north-east
- ner of Cape Colony, connected in 1894
li the railw.ay .system from Capetown.
uce iu 1896 Jameson (q.v.) started on
i- (lis!ustrous raid into the Transvaal.
I'm the outbreak of the Transvaal war
— " iji 1899 Mafeking was invested by the
Boer forces, but was heroiially defended
by Colonel Badenl'owell with a small
garrison, and after a siege of seven months, was
relievcil on 17th May 1900.
Marfei, Fu.wcesco Scipione, M.vkchese di,
playwright and antiquary. wa.s born at Verona,
Isi .luiic 167.">, and studied in the .b'suit Cidlege
at Parma. lie s|icnt the ycai-s 1703-4 in military
service, uniler his brother Alessamlro, a distin-
guished soldier and field-iiiiirshal, but ultimalely
devoted himself to literary i)uisuits. His tiage<ly
of Mciope ( 1714) was so well received that it went
through seventy editions in his own lifetime. His
comedy of I.e Ceiciiioiuc (17'28) was also snecess-
fiil. Vcromi I/liisliala (1731-32; new ed. 1827)
790
MAFFIA
MAGDEBURG
is a work of much brilliancy and learning. After
four yoai-s in France (1732-36) he visited England,
Holland, and Uerniaiiy, then settled in his l)irth-
idace, where he died lltli February 17.'i5. A col- 1
lectixe edition of his worlvs was published at Venice
in ITilO, in 21 vols.
Miifli'n. a secret society in Sicily, more power-
ful than the Cauiorra (q.v.) of Naples, which has
oi'^anised lawlessness, and made itself more feared
than the law. Its code of honour (the ouierta)
binds the niembei-s to seek no redress from the
courts, nor ever to give evidence before thein ; its
object is to override the law, and to rule the island.
In an organised form, however, the Matlia survives
only in isolated localities ; as it e.\ists in the
island as a whide, it rather expresses an idea than
indicates a society with regular chiefs and C(nin-
cillors. It represents the .survival among the
people of a preference for owing the securing of
their persons and property rather to their owu
strength and inlluence than to those of the law
and its otlieers. Therefore a distinction is drawn
between the high and the low Matlia, the latter
embracing the great mass of members who, them-
selves not active in the matter, are afraid to set
themselves against the Maffia, and are content to
accept the protection of this shadowy league, which
in them inspires more awe than do the courts of
justice. Indeed, much of the Mafiia's strength
and vitality is directly due to this looseness of
organisation, and to the fact that it is an ingrained
mode of thought, an idea, and not an organised
society, that the government has to root out.
Direct robbery and violence are resorted to only
for vengeance ; for practical purposes the employ-
ment of isolation— in fact, the system of boycotting
carried to the extreme point — is sulliciently effica-
cious. From the landholders blackmail is levied in
return for protection, and they must employ mojfiusi
only on their farms ; and the rcndctta follows tliose
who denounce or in any way injure a meuiber of the
fraternity. The Maffia controls elections, protects
its members against the officers of justice, assists
snmgglers, directs strikes, and even fixes the hire
of workmen. The government's efforts have failed
to stamp out the society; but numl)ei-s of its
niemliers have been driven aliroad, and swelled the
criminal classes of New York and New Orleans.
See Ahmgi, La Mafia (Turin, 1S87); Le Faure,
La Ma/fta [Fnvh, 1892).
IHafra, a town of Portugal, 20 miles NW. of
I.islion. Pop. 3020. The palace, built by John V.
in 1717-31 as a rival to theEscorial, is 770 feel long
and (j!K) feet wide ; contains 866 rooms, and a
library of SO.OOO vols. ; but now serves as a barrack
and niilii.'trv academy.
illa$;ado\o. or .MfKOlsm*, a port on the ea.st
coast of Somaliland, 2.50 miles NE. of the mouth
of the Jnlja river. Pop. .5000.
Masa/iiie. See Periodicals. For Magazine
Rille, sec Uli'LE.
Illa^llala. a hill-fortress and small town of
Abyssinia ('[.v.), .300 miles S. of Annesley Pay, (in
the lied Sea, stood perched on a plateau 0110 feet
above sea-level. It was the place of ca))tivity of the
Jiritish prisf)ners for whose rescue an exijedition
was sent out under Sir Robert N.ajjier (Lord Napier
of Magdala) : and on 13th April 18G8 the town was
burned and its defences destroyed.
Slasidah'lia. the princijial river of Colombia,
rises in the Central Cordillera, .about 2° N. lat., and
only 8 miles from the source of the Cauca. These
streams How north on either side of the Cordillera,
uniting about 130 miles from the sea. The Mag-
dalena, which ends in a large delta, is closed to
sea-going vessels by a bar with dangerous shifting
Bands ; merchandise is conveyed by a railway ( 18
miles) from Parraniiuilla to Puerto Colombia, the
shipping port, where a pier has been built. The
river is navigable to Honda, jOO miles, where
the rapids begin: above lliese it has been navi-
gated by a (lerman steamer to Neiva since 187;"),
and a railway (20 miles) alongside the rapids con-
nects the ujiper and lower sections. The -Magda-
Icna's drainage area is calculated at 92,900 !~i\. ni.
illa^dah'iio, M.\kv, or M.vuv oi' M.\gi).\i..\,
so named from a town near Tiberias, a woman ' out
of whom Jesus cast seven devils,' and who believed
in Him and followed Him. She was one of the
M'onien who stoo^l by the cross, anil one of those
who went with sweet spices to the sepulchre. To
her He hr.st aiii>eared after His resurrection. In
consequence of an unfounded notion identifying her
with the woman who had been a sinner, described
in Luke, vii. 36-50, as having anointed our Lonl's
feet with ointment, and wiped them with her
hair, Mary Magdalene has been long and gener-
ally regarded as a woman whose early life bad
been very luolligate, although of this there is
no hint whatever in the narratives of the evangel-
ists ; and the Magdalenes, so frequent amongst
works of art, represent her according to this prev-
alent opinion. Our word maud/ in (lit. 'weeidng-
eyed') is due to the same notion, and indeed the
very name Magdalene has come to be aiiplied to
women who have fallen from chastity, and insti-
tutions for the reception of repentant prostitutes
are known as Maijdaleiic Asylums.
The conclusion of most commentators is that
there were two anointings, one in some city un-
named during our Lord's Galilean ministry ( Luke
\ii. ), the other at Bethany before the last entry
into Jerusalem (Matt, xxvi,, Mark xiv., .John
xii. ). The one passage ailduced to prove that in
these two nanatives we have but one woman is
John, xi. 2, and it has been argued by some that
this could not possibly refer by antici|)ation to the
history that follows in chap. -\ii. Against tins it
may be said that to impute a life of inii>urity to
Mary of Bethany is to make an entirely gratuitoiis
assumption. The evidence to identify Mary Mag-
dalene with either actor in the two narratives is
still less secure. The identity of Mary Magdalene
with the sinner was first positively asserted by
Cregory the Great in his Hdiiiiiics, and the .services
of tiu! feast of St Mary Magdalene >\ ere arranged
on the assumption of its truth. But a great and
growing consensus of opinion among the most com-
petent scholars, and those not merely Protestant,
is conclusive against it.
nia^'daleil Islands, a small grouji near the
centre of the Gnlf of St Lawrence, oi miles NAV.
of Cape lireton Island. The largest is Collin's
Island. The people are supported by the lobster,
cod, herring, and seal iisheries. Pop. 3172.
llau'dcblll'ijf. the capital of Prussian Sa.\ony,
and one of the chief fortresses of the (ierman
empire, 90 miles by rail SW. of Berlin and 72 N. of
Lei])zig. It lies in a cheerless countiy, on the left
b.ank mainly of the Elbe, which, here 2S0yards wide,
branches into three channels, an<l forms two islands.
On the smaller of these still stands the Citadel
(1683-1702): but otherwise the old fortifications
liave since 1866 been built over or converted into
]iromenades, their idace being taken by a cordon of
thirteen forts. Tlie cruciform Gothic cathedral,
rebuilt between 1207 and 1."i;jO, is -100 feet long, and
has two western towers .3-11 feet high. It c<intains
the tombs of the Emperor Otho the Great, of his
lirst wife, tlie English princess Editba, ami of
Archbishop Ernest, whose monument (1497) is a
masteriiiece of Peter Vischer of Nuremberg. In
front of the town-hall ( 1691-1866) is the eqneslri.an
statue of Otho, dating, not from 973 as its inscriiition
MAGDEBURG HEMISPHERES
MAGGIORE
791
claims, b>it from the close of the 13th century j
ami of several other monuments the most note-
worthy are the Sohliors' Memorial (1877) and a
statue" of Luther (1880). The industries are of
liiKh importance, comprising huge ironworks, dis-
tilleries, cotton-mills, &c. ; and the trade is corre-
spondingly great — for suj;ar it is the lii-st market
ot Germany. Magdeburt' is the junctimi of live rail-
ways : and the river-trade is also very large. Fo]i.
( lS7o> 12-2,789: ( 1890) SOi, 324, of whom over 10,000
were Catholics, and 2000 Jews. Founded by Char-
lemagne in 805, and refounded by Edillia after its
destruction by the ^Vends in 924, Magdeburg was
in 968 made the seat of an archbi.sliopric, and
had 40,000 inhabitants in 1524, when, embnicing
the Reformation, it incurred the combined wrath
of emperor and primate. It weathered the storm
then, successfully withstanding Maurice of Saxony
(1550); but during the Thirtj' Yeai-s' War it
suffered fearfully. In 1629 it was vainly besieged
for twentv-eight weeks by Wallenstein ; in May
16.S1, after an heroic defence (2000 against 25,000),
it was taken by Tilly and burned to the grouml, the
cathedral (reconsecrated for Catholic worship) and
a few poor fisher huts being almost all that remainetl
after the three days" sack, in which nearly the whole
pojmlation of 36,000 perished by tire or sword or
drowning in the river. In 1648 the archbishopric
was converted into a secular duchy, and conferred
on the house of Brandenburg in compensation for
the lo^s of Pomerania. In 1803 the French annexed
it to the kingdom of AVe-stphalia ; but in 1814 it
was finally restored to Prussia. See works by
Hoffman "(2d ed. 1885), Kawerau (1SS6), and
(iuericke (2d ed. 1887) : and for the Miiffdcbiinj
Coitiin'cs, see Church Hlstory, Vol. III. p. 242.
Slagdebnrjs; IIemisplicre.s are two hollow
hemispheres, generally made of copper or brass,
with their edges accurately fitted to each other,
and one of them furnished with a stopcock. When
Magdeburg Heiiiispjieres.
the edges are rubbed over with grease, pressed
tightly together, and the globe thus formed ex-
hausted of air through the cock, the hemispheres,
which fell asunder before exhaustion, are now
presseil together with imiuense force — e.g. if they
are one foot in diameter, they will, after ex-
haustion, l>e presseil together with a force of nearly
a ton. This experiment was first performed by
t>tto von (iiiericke (q.v. ), burgomaster of Magde-
burg, in 16.>(J, at the imperial diet at Ratisbon, to
the a-tonishment of the Emperor Ferdinand III.
and his princes and nobles.
.Mas^ llan, Ferdinand (Portuguese Magalhaes
or Mii'iiilhiiens ), a famous navigator, was born about
1470, most probably at Villa de Sabroz,i, ni>ar Villa
Real in Traz os Montes. He served with distinction
in the E.-ist Indies, particularly at Malacca, and
wa.s lamed for life in action in Morocco. Finding
his sufferings rewarded with contempt by King
Maimel he formally rencmnced his nationality, and
together with his countryman, Ruy Falero, a
geographer and astronomer, offered his serxices to
Spain. They laid before Charles V. a scheme for
reaching the Molucca-s by the west, which w.is well
received ; and ^lagellan sailed from San Lucar,
10th August 1519, with five shios of from 130
to 60 tons, and alK)ut two hundred and fifty men.
Sailing to the mouth of the La Plata and along
the shores of Patagonia, he threaded the strait
which beai-s his name (21st October — 28th Novem-
ber 1520). and entered on that vast ocean which
he named the Pacific from the fine weather which
he experienced there. He had already been
troubled by mutiny, which he had crushed by swift
venjjeauce upon the ringleaders, ami after reaching
the Philii)pine Isles he fell in an expedition against
theuativesof Matan(27thApril 1521). His ship, the
Victuria, was safely navigated by Sebastian del
Cano home to Spain, and thus completed, on Gth
September 1522, the fii-st voyage ever made round
the world.
The best contemporary account of Magellan's famous
voyage is that by .-Vntonio Pigafetta, a volunteer in the
tleet. An English version of this and tive minor narra-
tives is Lord Stanley of Alderley's First I'oi/ai/e round
the World b>i Magdlaii ( Hakhij-t Society, 1874). Sec
Guillemard, Maijellan and the Pacijic (1891).
Macell.\N, Str.\it of, separates South America
on the south from Tierra del Fuego. It is 375
miles in length, and its breadth varies for the most
part between 12 and 17 miles. It was discovered
liy Magellan in 1520, and first thoroughly explored
by King and Fitzroy in the Adventure and Bengle
(1826-36). The wider eastern half is bordered oy
level, gently-rolling grassy plains. The narrower
western half is shut in by steep, wooded mountains ;
the current runs strong through it, and the west
winds are a great hindrance to sailing-vessels.
There are several fine harbours along this part of
the strait. See works by K. O. Cunningham
(Edin. 1878) and A. AV. Miller ( Portsmouth, 1884).
.Magellanic Clouds, or Xubecil.* M.\.jor
and Minor, two cloudy masses of light seen at night
in the >ky of the southern hemisiihere. The greater
lies between E.A. 4b. 40m. and 6li., and N.P.D. 156'
and 162' ; the lesser between R.A. Oh. 28m. and
Ih. 15m., and N.P.D. 162' and 165'. They are
composed of complex masses of nebuhp and stars,
condensed so a-s to give the naked eye the impres-
sion of a cloudy mass. See Nebul.e.
MasendiPi Francoi.s, an eminent French
physioTogist and physician, was born at Hordeaux,
15th October 1783, studied at Paris. Ijecame suc-
cessively prosector in anatomy ( 1 804 ), physician
to the Hotel-Dieu, mendier of the Academy of
Sciences (1819), and jirofessor of .Anatomy in the
College de France ( 1831 ). He made important
additions to our knowledge of nerve-physiology,
the veins, and the physiology of food, and wiote
numerous works, including the Kleminls uj I'liysi-
ohfiy (originally a precis, 1816, afterwards ex-
tended). He was likewise the founder, and for
ten yeai's the editor, of the Journal de la Ph;isi-
ologie Expirimciittde, in which are recorded many
of the experiments on living aninuils which gained
for him, too deservedly, the character of an un-
scrupulous vivisector. He died 7th October 1855.
Mas<*llt<l> *n Italian town, 18 miles AV. of
Milan by rail. Poj). 5.')73. Here, on 4th June
1859, .55,000 French and .Sardinians defeated 75,000
Austrians, the latter losing 10,000 (besides 70()0
prisoners), and the allies only 4000. For this
victory MacMahon received his dukedom. — For the
coal-tar colour, see DVEING.
Masoro. See XoRTH Cape.
Massiorr. Lago, one of the largest lakes in
Italy, the I urns Verbauus of the Konntns, is
situated lor the most part in Italy, but also partly
in the Swiss canton of Ticino. It is 39 miles in
length, and varies in breadth from i mile to oj
miles. It lies 646 feet above the levef of the sea,
(92
MAGGOT
MAGIC
aiul lia-s a maxiiiiuiu deptli of 1158 feet. The river
Ticino Hows through it. In a south-westein
expansion of the lake are the Borroniean Isles
(q.v.). On the north and west it is surroiiiuled l>y
granitic mountains, 7000 feet high, on the soutli
anil ea.st hy vineyaril-covercJ liills.
!IIag£Ot« the larva of most flies (Biptera),
without limbs or distinct head. They feed on the
animal material, often a corpse of some sort, in
■wliicli they are laid. Some of the larger forms are
used for bait or for feeding birds.
Masi. In Accadian, the language of the early
Turanian inhabitants of Babylonia and Media,
iinga, signifying 'august,' 'reverend,' was the title
of their learned and priestly caste. The Semitic
nations afterwards dominant in Babylonia and
Assyria adopted the learning and many of the
religious observances of the early inhabitants, as
also the name for the learned caste ; and out of the
Semitic form the Greeks made magos. Under the
Persian empire the magi were not only the ' keepers
of the sacreil things, the learned of the people, the
philosophers and servants of God,' but also diviners
and mantics, augurs and astrologers. They called
up the dead by awful formulas, or by means of
cups, water, &c. They were held in the highest
reverence, and no transaction of importance took
place without or against their advice. Hence theii-
almost unbounded influence in both private and
public life. Apart from the education of the young
princes being in their hands, they were the constant
companions of the ruling monarch. Of their
religious system the articles Paesees and ZoRO-
.\.STER will give a fuller account. Zoroaster, in
the course of his gi'eat religious reform, reorgan-
ised the body of the magi, chiefly by reinforcing
the ancient laws as to their manner and mode of
life, which was to be one of the sim])U'st and
severest, befitting their sacred station, but which
had become one of lu.Miry and indolence, and by
re-instituting the original distinction of the three
classes of herbeds ( ' discijiles ' ), mobcds ( ' mastei's ' ),
and destur viobeds ('complete masters'). The
food, especially of the lower class, was to consist
only of flour and vegetables ; they wore white
garments, slept on the ground, and weie altogether
subjected to the most rigorous discipline. The
initiation consisted of the most awful and mysteri-
ous ceremonies, aiul was preceded by purifications
of several months' duration. Gradually, however,
their influence, which was all-powerful during
the epoch of the Sassanian kings of Persia,
began to wane, and, from being the highest
caste, they fell to the rank of wandering jugglers,
fortune-tellers, and quacks, and gave tlreir name
(Magic, q.v.) to sleight-of-hand and conjuring
tricks. But the name seems to have been also cur-
rent as a generic term for astrologers in the East,
tus is evidenced by the New Testament narrative
of the homage of the Magi to the Infant Christ.
According to the narrative (Matt. ii. \A'2) the
three wise men came from the East to Jerusalem,
led by ~ star, which at length guided them safely
to the place of the Nativity at Bethlehem, where
they ottered their gifts of gold, frankincense, ami
myrrh. As the 'TInee Kings' their names became
celebrated in the middle ages, and Bede distinguishes
them JUS Ivaspar, Melchior, and Balthasar. The
l.ist was the Chaldean name for Daniel ; Melchior
signifies ' king of light ; ' Kaspar in some legends
appears as Gathaspar, and in Syriac sources as
• ludophorhcm, in wliicli we may ])erha])s recognise
the name of the |)owerful Indo-Parthian king,
t M)ndo]>hares, said to have been baptiseil by the
apostle Thomas. The bones of the three kings are
claimed to be deposited in the cathedral at Cologne.
In the calendar the three days after New-year's
Day bear their names, and their memory isiireserved
in the feast of the three holy kings — the Epiphany.
The youngest of the three is generally represented
in works of art as a black man.
Maffic, the pretended art of doing wonderful
works by aid of mysterious supernatural means.
The term is in general synonymous with sorcery,
and was originally apiilied by the Greeks and
Romans to that form of sorcery which was com-
municated by the Babylonian Magi to the Medes,
Pei-sians, and Parthians, and by them spread over
the Eiist and even the AVest. No people have
carried magic to a greater height than the ancient
Chaldeans, and many of their formulas of propitia-
ti<m and expulsion of spirits and deminis have been
deciphered from the cuneiform inscriptions. They
practised many forms of magic, but especially
astrology, which was raised by a succession of
astronomers to the dignity of a jiseudo-science.
In the same way Egyptian magic was fornmlated
into elaborate system and litnal which far
surpassed in completeness anything to be found
anicmg the ancient Greeks or Honians. The former
held the same views of magic as the less cultured
races around them, and the philosophy of the
Pythagoreans and Neoplatonists carried mystical
symbolism and magical siieculations further into
new regions of theurgy and t haumaturgy. Theurgic
magic also was highly developed in Alexandria,
and it descended into meilie\al and modern Europe
bearing many marks of .lewish speculatiim.
Grimm .s.'iys Miracle (loitidcni) is the salutary,
Magic (zauhcrn) the htirtful or unlawful, use of
supernatural powers : miracle is divine, magic
devilish ; not till the gods were degraded and
despised was magic im]nited to them. Man can
heal or poison by directing natural forces to good
or to evil ; sometimes he even shares the gift of
miracle; but when he pushes the beneficent exer-
cise of his powers to the suiiernatural point, he
learns to conjure. The origin of all conjuring
must be traced directly to the most sacred callings,
which contained in themselves all the wisdom of
heathendom — viz. religious worship and the art of
song. Sacrificing and singing came to mean con-
juring ; the jiriest and the ])oet, confidants of the
gods and participants of divine inspiration, stand
next door to the fortune-teller and magician. By
the side of divine worship practices of dark sorcery
grew up by way of exception, not of contrast.
After the introduction of ( liristiauity all heathen
notionsand practices were declared to be deceit and
.sinful delusion : the old gods fell back and chang'ed
into de\ ils, and all that pertained to their worship
into ilevilish j\igglery. I'resently there sjirang uji
tales of the Evil t)ne's immediate connection with
sorcery and witchcraft ; and out of this proceeded
the most incredible, most cruel jumbling up of
imagination and reality. The great distinguisldng
mark of sorcery was the desire to work mischief,
and thus this definition involves the same ethical
condemnation which ma<le Plato denounce sorcery
as an illegitimate method of forcing the power of
the gods into the service of man. It was from the
beginning the inveterate antagonist of religion,
originating in dim and cmifu.sed yet independent
glimpses into the secrets of nature ; ami through-
out It we trace the elemental idea of an ojiposi
tion to the divine will, it being imiilierl thai
the power of influencing jind altering his i>hysical
conditions rests within the power of man him-
self. The sorcerer stands aloof from the ordinary
ailoration of supernatural powers, employing occult
faculties and devices which he supposes to be
within his own control. Hence sorcery early
becomes ilifl'ercntiated from religion — on the one
side legitimate means of contact with the divine,
as adoration, inspiration, vows, oracles, miracles,
MAGIC
MAGIC LANTERN
r93
omens, and signs ; on the other, th.aumatui'ry
by occult, incomprehensible arts, skill in natural
magic, mesmerism, rauuibo-jumbo, ami impos-
ture. Originally magic was the iinlimentarv be-
ginning of medicine ami science, but soon it fell
back into occult and mystic devices, while two
elements present in its lirst inception — the religi-
ous sentiment and real experimental knowledge —
developed into morality ami science. Magic, says
Bastian, is the physics of ra.iukind in the state of
nature. It rests on the beginning of induction,
which remains without result only because in its
imperfect judgments by analogy it raises the ^Jf/.s^
hoc to the propter hoc. The notion that the gods
were indifferent to the fate of mortals opened a
door to sorcery for finding relief from sutl'ering, but
gradually tlie deteriorating influences made way
and the criminal side of the miraculous became
specially the function of the craft. Moilern India,
says Sir Alfred f^ivall, swarms with astrologers,
soothsayers, and interpreters of dreams, wlio watch
n.ature to ascertain the will of the gods ; but these
are ipiite distinct from the sorcerers, w-lio work
independently of them, and soon become knaves
and clieats, religions and medical, preying upon
the ignorance of their dupes. Among the iloham-
medans magic is rife, though condemned by rigid
ilivines ; and almost everybody believes in the
etiicacy of amulets, charms, spells, exorcism, magic
mirrors, cabalistic figures, divination, sortilege,
and the like. If a man devotes the power he
acquires to good ends he is held comparatively
innocent ; but he may go on to acquire the power
of commanding the evu genii to do him all kinds
of wicked service, which is execrated as black or
Satanic magic.
The superstition of magic and witchcraft belongs
es.seutially to tlxe lower levels of civilisation, and the
reput.ation of it clings to any survivoi's of an older
nationality, like the Lavas of Burma and the Finns
and Lajjps among their Scandinavian neighbours.
Even in Scotland robust Presbyterians long thought
more highly of the Popish priests than of their own
clergy for casting out devils, laying ghosts, and
curing madness. All magical reasoning is based
upon the inherent belief of primitive man that
casual connection in thought is equivalent to
causal connection in fact. The savage ever con-
founds an ideal with a real connection ; lie confuses
subjective and objective relations. To him it is
merely a matter of e.Kperience that all nature is
jicrsonal and animate, and that human agencies
can work supernaturally. He is constantly seek-
ing an explanation of physical facts, and lie lills
up his scanty knowledge of natural causes with
hypothetical causes of a metaphysical and super-
natural character. This confusion of imagination
and reality produces a state of mind capable of
accounting for the whole business of magical arts
and magical relations, the oidy real connection
between which is mere analogy and symbolism.
Coincidences ever strike the primitive man as
things in themselves significant, and post hoc ergo
propter hoc is to his mind a perfectly valid logical
method. Nor does his sorcerer always need to
be successful — ^one lucky hit outweighs half-a-
dozen failures, and the sorcerer, through a kind
provision of nature, usually ends with being him-
self more or le.ss the dupe of his own powers.
Thus magic may develop into elaljorate and
systematic pseudo-science — a sincere though fal-
lacious ]>hilosopliy evolved by processes in great
measure still intelligible to our own minds.
Augury, divination, oneiromancy, chiromancy, and
.astrology a<lmitted of being gravely formulated
ami discussed, and even among 19th-century
ICnglishmen and Americans may be seen not a
few strange revivals of magicians like Apollonius
of Tyana and lamblichiis, as well as of savage
philoso]ihy and peasant folklore, in the freaks of
so-calleil spiritualism, with its voices, its spiiit-
writing, its untying of ropes, and its rising and
floating in the air.
The jirimitive mind over needs m.aterial support
for the religious sentiment, and in this constant
condition we find the foundation of fetichism and
idolatry. Everywhere the savage sees a connection
between an object and a visible rejiresentation of
it : hence the philosophy of making an image of
a pei'S(m to be injured by 1)urning it, melting it
aw.ay, or sticking pins into it — of which we have
still ,a surviving sliadow in our custom of burning
an unpopular person in elligy. Again, a disease
tormenting a man may be driven into an image of
clay or the like, and in the same elemental idea
of connection between object and image we find
explanation of the fear of cli])pings of the hair or
palings of the nails falling into the possession of
an enemy, our own lingering liking lor locks of
hair of those we love, as well as many of the usages
of early medicine, sympathetic powder, love-potions,
the doctrine of Signatures (q.v.). A similar con-
nection exists somehow between a thing and its
name : hence a man may Ije Ijcwitched through a
wicked use of his name, and a sorcerer may force
the hand of a divinity by invoking with bis name.
Accordingly, in the history of )n-imitive religions
we find tlie most sacred names kept strictly secret,
as by the Jews, Moslems, and the Komans of their
tutelar deity.
Magic was strictly condemned under the Levitical
law, and by the early Christians was regarded as
unlawful miracle. In the middle ages it continued
to be studied in its less harmful sides, as astrology
and alchemy, and it must not be forgotten that in
the one department it was the parent of scientific
astronomy, in the other of modern <'hemistiy.
Yet the reign of imperfect analogy has given way
but slowly before a real scientific method ; and
though the old theoiy of demoniacal possession
has been exchanged for a real knowlcilge of the
laws that govern lunacy, and occult sympathetic
operations have widened out into the \ast sciences
ot pharmacy and medicine, yet primitive magical
conceptions still cling closely to our jieople, and
form everywhere the heart of popular folklore.
See the articles Alchemy, Animis.m, .A..strolog v,
Desionology, Devil, Bivixatiox, Fetichism, Folk-
lore, Idolatry, Ixcaxtations, and 'Witchcraft ; also
Enneiiioser, Ocschichte tier Muiji< ("id ed. 1844 ; trans, by
W. Hewitt, 2 vols. 1854); Maury, La Maiiic el /'Astro-
lopic (4th ed. 1877); Leiiorniant, Xo M«<iie chcz Ics
Chaldfenx (1874; Eng. trans. 1877); Victor Rydberg,
Mufiic of the Middle Ai/rs (Eng. trans. New York,
1<'<70); and Fabart, Hinfoire pliilosoiihi(/ue ct politique
de I'Orrulte, Magie, &c. (188.5) ; also Caspari.f/rjicsc/a'fAie
der Mcnscklieit (2d ed. 1877). and Tylor's Karl;/ Historii
of Mankind (chap, vi.) and Jirimitive Culture (chap,
i'v.). Hoist's Zuidnrliibliolhek (G vols. Mainz, 1820-21;)
is a perfect cyclojixdia of the doctrine and inethods of
magic; a complete bibliography of its literature is
Griisse's Jiihlioijrapliie der wiclitiysten in das Gehicl dca
Zauber-y Oeinta--, und aon^tifjcn Abertflaubens einschla-
tjenden iVerkc ( Lcip. 1843 ).
Magic Lantern, an optical instrument said to
have been invented by Athana-ius Kircbcr in 1(>46,
by means of which magnified images of small |>ictures
are thrown upon a wall or screen. The instrumenl
con.sists of a l.intern containing a powerful argand
lamp or lime-light arrangement (see Limk-lic;ht) ;
in the side of the lantern is inserted a hori/ontal
tube, the axis of which is on a level with the centre
of the llamc, and the light is generally made to
pass through the tube by reflection from a concave
mirror i)l,iceil on the opiiosite side of the lantern.
The tube is furnished with two lenses, one at each
und ; the inner one, the condenser, is a large lens
(94
MAGIC SQUARES
MAGINN
of short focus, to condense a strong liglit on tlie
liiiliire, whicli is inserted into the tube, between
the lenses, througli a transvei-se slit. The other
end of the tube is fitted with a doulile convex lens,
or, better, a corrected combination of lenses, which
receives the rays after passing through the picture,
and throws them upon the screen or wall. The
pictures are formed on glass slides — generally '.i^
inches s(iuare — with transparent coloured varnish
or by means of photography on a collodion, gelatine,
or carbon tissue film on the glass, and mnst be
inserted into the tube in an in\erted position, and
with the film or painted side nearest the screen, in
order that the images may appear erect and
unreversed. If the screen on which the image is
thrown be at too great a distance, the image will
become indistinct from the lessened intensity of the
light. This instrument is sometimes used as a
toy, hut is also frequently employed to produce
enlarged representations of astronomical and other
scientific diagiams, and enlargements of photo-
grajihic views, so that they may be well seen by an
audience. Phantasmagoria, dissolving views, iS:c.
are produced by a particular manipulation of the
same instrument.
^lagic Squares are sets of different numbers,
each column of w Inch, whether horizontal, vertical,
or diagonal, adds alike.
1
1872
10 s
12
6
3 1 1870
7
9
1873 1 2
1871
4
5 1 11
420
SOS 453
510
523
440 471
457
479
441 1 539
432
469
502 i 423
492
Fi.'. 1.
Fig. 2.
The above are two examples of a magic square
with the same summation (in either case 1891).
Considering the dilliculty with which a person
without previous knowledge could make even
one such square, it inav surprise manv to hear
that there are more ^than 700,000,000,000,000
(seven hundred billion) magic squares of this root
(4), with the summation of 1891, each composed
of dillerent numbers, or with a ditt'erent arrange-
ment of the same numbers. Fig. 1 is so con-
structed that a great variety of other squares
may be made from it by altering the four highest
numbers in it. Thus, if 13, 14, 15, and 16 be
substituted for 1870, 1871, &c. respectively, we
get the smallest 4-s(iuare possible, with the sum-
mation 34. It was at one time thought that magic
squares could only be composed of arithmetical or
other symmetrical series of numbers ; but an ex-
amination of l<"ig. 2 shows that that idea was
erroneous.
Within the compass of a short article it is im-
possible to describe adequately any of the many
rules for making magic s(]uaies. The following
figures will, however, give simie idea of the most
im])ortant method, that of superposition, invented
by l)e la Hire. It is most readily applied to uihl
squares, more especially to those whose roots are
prime numlier.s. We therefore take the 5-square
tor our example.
1
3 1 5 2
2 1 4 1
13 5
6 1 S 1 4
4:13
4
5
4
3
3
2
1
2
6
5
0
20
15 10
5 0
10 20
20
10
15
0
15
5
20
0 16
10
15 1 10
20 5 0 1
Fig. :i.
Fig. 4.
Each row of the above squares contains the same
numbers and in the same order relatively to one
another. But in fig. 3 the first number of each
row is the same as the t/u'rd of the row above,
whilst in fig. 4 it is the foiirtli. If now these two
squares be combined by adding together the num-
bers that are in corresponding cells, the resulting
square will be magic. In this case it will have
the summation of 05, and the top row w ill be 6, 3,
20, 12, 24. By altering the positions of the unin-
bers in the top rows, and making corresponding
alterations in the others, 3600 distinct varieties of
this magic square may be obtained.
Although numerous persons have written on
ma":ic squares (among whom may be mentioned
Leibnitz. Frenicle. De Morgan, Bacliet, Ozanani,
Montucla, Frost, and Cram ), the literature on the
subject is by no means easily accessible. Perhaps
the best known work is Hutton's MtitlieiitatU-al
liecreations : and in this will be found descriptions
of other kinds of magic squares, such as the
Bordered and Tessellated, which may brietly be
describeil as magic squares within magic squares.
Kasi/: magic squares (so named l>y Frost from
his place of residence in India) are squares
whose magicality is not destroyed by repeatedly
removing the first column or row to the last
place, or vice vcrsd. All squares with prime
roots, made by De la Hire's method of super-
position, are nasik. Even squares can also be
made nasik. Fig. 1, with the numbers 13, 14, 15,
ami 16 substituted for the four highest, makes a
nasik square.
Ulas'ilp, or Megilp, a composition used by
artists in oil-colours as a medium and for glazes.
It is made of linseedoil and mastic varnish.
Robertson's medium, which is similar but dries
quicker, is now more used than magilp.
UlagilllS, a remarkable Gasteropod found on
the coral reefs of w arm eastern seas. The young
animal settles on the growing coral at the ol)vious
risk of being gradually surrounded and smothered.
This is avoided, however, Ijy an entire change in
the form of the shell, which is diverted from its
original spiral typo and grows out into a long
irregular tube. ' A neck-and-neck race is kept up
until the mollusc or the coral dies.' As the tube
lengthens sometimes to 2 or 3 feet the animal shifts
into it completely, and the original whorls are
filled up with lime.
llasillll. WiLi.l.vM, one of the most brilliant
writers of his day, born at Cork, 10th July 1793,
the son of a .schoolmaster, and educated at Trinity
College, Dublin, where he graduated U.A. in
1811, and left a brilliant reputation for precocious
scholarship. At twenty -six he received his de"ree
of LL.D. from his college, being the first who hail
ever received it so y<mng. He taught in Cork for
ten years, and in 1823 removed to London topui-sue
the life of letters. His first coiitri})Utioii to BUiel-
wood's Magazine — a Latin translation of Clicrij
Cliase — appeared in 1819, ami from that date for
nine years scarcely a luinilier appeared without
an article from his pen. In 1824 Nlurray started
the short-lived Iteprescntadve, a daily newspaper,
and Maginn was sent to Paris to act as foreign
correspondent. In 1828 lie joined the stall' of the
S/<ni(/a)(/, and he was one of the originators of
Fiascr's Magazine in 1830. His contributions to
Fraser were as 'lively, learned, and libellous' as
those to Blacluood, "and one led to a harmless
duel between the author and the Hon. Grantley
Berkeley. The remainder of Maginn's career was
irregular and unhappy. His habits of intemperance
gained the nuistery over him, and he was often
arrested and in jail for debt, without losing, how-
ever, in the least his brightness or good-humour. He
wrote his Shakespeare Papers for Blackwood in 1837,
MAGISTRATE
MAGNA GR^BCIA
ri)5
i:
ami in 1840 he Iwgan his Magazine Miscellanies,
bij Doctor Maffinii, whicli did not extend heyond
ten nurabei-s. In 1842 he was a^ain iinprisonetl in
the Fleet, and, having jiassed tlirongh the bank-
ruptcy court, was reduced in fast failing healtli to
a state of ijreat poverty. Help came from Sir
Robert Peel almost too late, for poor ' bright,
broken Maginn ' died at Waltonon-Thames, '21st
August 1S4"2. He wrote two forgotten romances,
]Viiitctiall, or the Diii/s of George IV. (182:, a
>arody on the historical novel, and Horace Smith's
'rambleti/e House in particulai), and Jo/ni Manesti/
( 1844), completed after his death by Charles Oilier.
His Homeric Ballads were ptiblisliod in 1849. A
collection of his papers was editetl by K. S. Mac-
kenzie ( 5 vols. New York, ISoo-.^T ) : and his Mis-
cellanies, Prose and Verse, bv R. W. Montagu (2
vols. Loud. 1885).
Magistrate. See Borough, and Justice of
THE Peace.
Milgliabechi. A>"toxio, bibliophile, was born
at Florence in 1633, and till his fortieth year was
a goldsmith. From youth upwanls, however, he
displayed an inordinate passion for the acquisition
of book-knowledge ; and, having mastered Greek,
Latin, and Hebrew, he literally entombed liimself
among books, of which disorderly piles encumljereil
every portion of his dwelling. In his daily habits
he grew regardless of the decencies of life ; and
such wa.s his avidity of study that he finally denied
himself even the requisite intervals of repose. His
memory was prodigious, and enabled him not only
minutely to retain the contents of his multitudin-
ous books, but also to supply, on occasion, the
most exact reference to any particular page or
paragraph, the place of each book being indicated
with precision in the midst of their seemingly in-
extricable masses. Magliabechi was regarded as
the literarj- prodigy of his times. In 1673 he was
appointed court-librarian by the Grand-duke of
Tuscany ; and the many tributes of respect
tendered by royal and distinguished pereonages to
his wonderful enidition fostered in an inordinate
degree his love of fame and praise, which rendered
him intolerant of literary merit in others, and
involved him in several bitter literary squabbles.
He died at Florence on 4th July 1714, leaving no
written record of his immense encvclopa-dic know-
ledge. His valuable library of "30,000 vols, he
bequeathed to the Grand-duke, who made it over
to the city of Florence ; it is now a free library,
anil beai-s the name of its collector. See John Hill
liurton's Book-Hiintcr (1862).
_ Miisna Cliai'ta, the Great Charter granted by
King .John of England to the barons, has since that
time been viewed as the basis of the English con-
stitution. The oppressions of a tyrannical sovereign
compelled a confederacy of the barons or tenants-
in-ehief of the crown, who took up arms for the
redre.ss of their grievances. They demanded the
restoration of the laws of Edward the Confessor
ami Henri' I. ; laws which combined Norman
feudalism with Saxon and Danish institutions. A
conference w.-vs held at Uunnymede, on the Thames
near Eghani, where king and barons encamped
opposite each other ; and, after several days'
debate, John signed and sealed the charter with
great solemnity on 15tli June 121.5.
The Great Charter provided against the abuse of
the royal prerogative by protecting the rights and
obligations of the feudal proprietor. It redressed a
variety of grievances connected with feudal tenures,
some of which are long since obsolete. Minute
provisiims were made regarding the ward, relief,
and marriage of heirs, and rights of their widows.
No .scutage or aid was to be imposed without the
authority of the common council of the kingilom.
except on the three great feudal occasions of the
king's cajitivity, the knighting of his eldest son, and
the marriage of his eldest daughter. The liberties
of the city of London and other towns, burghs, and
ports were declared inviolable. Freedom of com-
merce was guaranteed to foreign merchants. Justice
was no longer to be sold, denied, or delayed.
The Court of Common Pleas, insteail of, as for-
merly, following the king's [lerson in all his pro-
gresses, was permanently fixed at Westminster,
assizes were appointed to be lichi in the several
counties, annual circuits established, and regula-
tions made for the etliciency of the inferior courts.
Life, liberty, and property were protected from
arbitrary spoliation, and none wiis to be con-
demned to torfeit these l)ut by lawful judgment of
his peers or by the law of the land. No one was
to be condemned on rumours or suspicions, but
only on evidence of witnesses. Fines im])Osed were
in all cases to be proportioned to the magnitude of
the offence, and even the villein or rustic was not
to be deprived of his necessary chattels. The testa-
mentary power of the subject was recognised over
))art of his personal estate, and the rest w.-us to be
divided between his widow and children. The
independence of the church was also provided for.
These are the most important features of that
Charter which occupies so conspicuous a place in
history, and which establishes the supremacy of the
law of England over the will of the monarch. A
charter was at the same time granted to mitigate
the oppressions of the Forest Laws (q.v. ). The
terms dictated by the barons to John included the
surrender of London to their charge, and the Tower
to the custody of the primate till the 15th of
August following, or till the execution of the
several articles of the Great Charter. Twenty-live
barons, as conservators of the public liberties, were
empowered to make war against the sovereij'n in
case of his violation of the Charter. Several smenin
ratifications were required by the barons both from
John and from Henry 111. ; and a copy of the Great
Charter was sent to ever}- cathedral, and ordered to
be read publicly twice a year. The copy preserved
in Lincoln Cathedral is regarded as the most
accurate and complete ; and a facsimile of it was
published by the Records Commissioners in 1865.
See Bishop Stubbs's Select Charters { 1870).
Magna Crflecia (Gr. Mcgalc Hellas), the
name given in ancient times to the Greek colonies
of Southern Italy. The appellation must have
been currrent at an early period. Polybius says it
was used in the time of Pythagoras. Some writers
include under the term the Greek cities in Sicily,
others restrict it to those situated on the Gulf of
Tarentum ; but in general it is used to denote all
the (ireek cities in the simtli of Italy, exclusive of
those in Sicily. The oldest settlement is believed
to have been Cunue, though it is doubtful whether
it and its colonies, Dica\arcliia and Ncapolis, were
really embraced under the designation Magna
Gra'cia. The period assigned to its foundation —
soon after the Trojan war — is obviously fanciful.
The other more important Greek settlements in
Italy were Sybaris (founded by the Acha-ans, 720
B.C.), Croton (by the Acha'ans, 710 B.C.), Tarentum
(by the Spartans, 707 B.C.), Locri (by the Locrians,
710 B.C. : acccn-ding to others, thirty or forty years
later), Rhegiuni (by the Chalcidlans; date of
origin not known, but believed to be earlier than
Sybaris), .Mcla|iontutu (by the Acli;rans, 700-6511
B.C.), Siris (by lonians ; date unknown), and
V'elia (by the Phoca'ans, rAO B.C.). These cities
became in their turn the parents of many others.
Of the earlier history of Alagmi Gra-cia very little
authentic information has survived. The settle-
ments appear to have risen rapidly to jiower and
wealth, partly by the brisk commerce whicli they
796
MAGNESIA
MAGNETISM
carrieil on with the niother-coHiitrv, and partly
also, it is conjcotuieil, by an anialjraniatioii with
the Pelasgic ( and therefore kindred ) natives of the
interior, as at Locri. Alinut .5.30 B.C. Pythagora.s,
the philosopher, arrived at Crotona, and soon
acquired supreme influence in Magna Gra-cia,
though it did not last long. The quarrels between
the different cities were often bitter and liloody ;
the most notable cases were the destruction of
Siris by the Achivan cities and of Sybaris by Croton
(510). Besides this they were hotly ]iressecl at
times liy the Lucanians and Briittians : and fin.ally,
27'2-'27I B.C., the Romans conquered the whole of
Lower Italy. Long before this several of the cities
had disappeared. The longest to survive was
Tarentum.
See tile separate articles on the cities ; also Lenorniant,
La Grande-Grece ( 3 vols. 1881 ) and A trovers VApnlk' H
la Lvcanie (2 vols. 1883), or tlie more popular Land of
Manfred, by Mrs Janet Ross (18S9).
Mnsiiesia. See Magnesium.
Magnesia, an ancient city of Ionia in Asia
Minor, .situated nearly 10 miles NE. of Miletus
in the valley of the Masander. It was a wealthy
and prosperous city until after it fell into the hands
of the Romans, in spite of its having been destroyed
during the Cimmerian invasion about 660 B.C.
Here stood a famous temple to Artemis, the
remains of which have been excavated ; and here
Themistocles, the Athenian patriot and statesman,
died (449 B.C.). It was called Magnesia ad Ma?an-
drum, to distinguish it from another, M.VGSESl.v
.\D Sll'VU'M, which stood on the Hermns, near
Mount Sipylus. Beside this town Scipio defeate<l
Antiochus of Syria in 190 B.C. It is now called
Manissa, and is' a town of 50,000 inhabitants, 41
miles NE. of Smyrna by rail. — The easternmost
division of ancient Thessaly in Greece also bore
this name. — To one of the places called Magnesia,
most probably that in Lydia, we owe the terms
magnet, magnetism, magnesia, and apparently also
manganese.
Magiiesian Limestone. See Dolomite.
.Masnesilim (sym. Mg, equiv. 24) is a metal
whicli is very widely distributed over the globe.
It is present in many minerals — e.g. dolomite — a
carbonate of lime and magnesia ; asbestos — a sili-
cate of lime and magnesia ; and nieerschanm — a
silicate of magnesia. It exists in mineral waters
and in the aca, as sulphate, and as chloride, the
former being known as Epsom salts. It wiis from
the Ejisom spring, in 1695, that Drew extracted
this well-known salt, and in the beginning of the
ISth century Magnesia, alba, so called to distin-
guish it from what was already known as M<((i-
iiKsia nirjra (black oxide of manganese— so called
from its resemblance in colour, wei<;ht, iSrc. to the
magnet) was discovered. The metal was first pre-
pared by Davy, and for long its manufacture was
limited to a small scale. Now, liowever, it is
made in quantity by fusing together the chlorides
of potiV-ssium .and magnesium and tluor spar, and
ailding metallic sodium with great care. The
crude metal is finally distilled and pressed in a
senii-lluid state into ribbon or wire.
Magnesium li;us a silver-white colour, which is
tarnislied by moist air. It is a very light metal,
its specific gravity being only 1"75. It is readily
volatile, and, when liglited, "imms in air with an
inten.sely brilliant light rich in chemical rays. On
this account it was, till superseded by the electric
light, much useil in pliotograjvliy, while in signal-
ling and pyrotecliny it plays ;in important jiart.
When magnesium burns in air it forms a white
ash consisting of the o.vide, magnesia, MgO (which
may be also prepared by heating the cailionate).
This is a very infusible substance, and is much
n.sed in medicine under the n.anie of calcine<l mag-
nesia. The carbonate, MgCOj, is f(mnd in nature,
but for medical puriioses it is prejiared l)y
precipitating a soluble magnesi\im salt witli
carbonate of soda. According as it is prepared
in the hot or cold, the resulting carbonate forms
the ponderous and dense or the light variety.
Although insoluble in water, this substance readily
dissidves in water containing carbonic acid, and
this solution is known as tlnid magnesia. The
sulphate, MgSO^TU.O, or Epsom salts, occurs in
nature, and is well Tinown as a domestic remedy.
It is much employed in febrile all'ections, but it
may be used in any case in whicli a mild Imt
efiicient laxative is required. 1 ts dose varies from
i to 1 ounce, but in order to promote its full
efficacy it slioulil be taken along with copious
draughts of water. In combination with infusion
of senna it forms the ordinary black draught.
Magnesia and the carbonate are employed in
small doses as an antacid, but in larger quantity
they have a distinct purgative action. Fluid mag-
nesia (see above) is a valuable aperient for women
and children. Citrate of magnesia is the iiopular
name for a granular, etVervescing aperient, now
much in use. It consists of a mixture of bicar-
bonate of soda, tartaric and citric acids, su"ar,
and a small trace (1 to 5 per cent.) of Epsom salts.
Magnetic Belts. See Electricity (Medi-
C.\L).
Magnetism {magnes or IMos magnetes, 'the
loadstone,' iJiobably first fcnind at Magnesia in
Lydia). Magnets are n.atnral (Loadstone, q.v. )
or artificial, permanent (steel ma.sses magnetised
by tlie action of other magnets or of an electric
current) or temporary (soft iron ma.sses magnetised
l)y magnets, or the so-called electro- magnets, soft
iron masses round which a current is passing).
Polarity of the ,1/o(/«<7.— When a small soft iron,
nickel, or cobalt ball is suspended l>y a thread,
and a magnet ( lig. 1 ) is passed
along in front of it from one
end to the other, the ball is
powerfully attracted towards
the enils, but not at all by
tlie middle of the magnet.
The points of the magnet to-
wards which the attractive
power becomes greatest are
called its poles. By causing
a small magnetic needle mov-
ing horizontally to vibrate in
front of the diti'erent ]>arts of
a magnet placed vertically,
and counting the number of
vibrations, tlie rate of variation of the attractive
power may be exactly found. When the poles of
one magnet are made to act on those of another
a striking dissimilarity
between the poles is
brought to light. To
show this, let us suspend
a magnet, NS, fig. 2, by
a band of paper, M, hang-
ing from a coco<m thread
(a thread without tor-
sion ) ; or let us jiivot it,
or la.v it on a float on
water. When the magnet
is left to itself it takes
up a fixed position, one
end kee])ing north, and
the other south. The north pole cannot, except
in unstable equilibrium, be made to stand as a
south )iole, or rice versd ; for, when the magnet
is disturbed, both poles return to their original
positions. Here, then, is a striking di.ssimilaiity
FiK. 1.
M
Fig. 2.
MAGNETISM
797
in the jioles, by means of which we are enabled
to ilistiii^'uish them as iiortli pole and south pole.
When thus suspende<l, let us now try the ell'ect
of another magnet ujioii it, and we shall lind
that the pole of the suspended magnet which
is attracted by one of the poles of the see(md
magnet is rejielled by the other, and i-icc versi'i ;
and where the one pole attracts, the other rei)els.
If, now, the seconil magnet lie hung like the lirst,
it will be found that the pole which attracted the
north pole of the first magnet is a south pole, and
that the pole which repelled it is a north pole. We
thus learn that each magnet has two poles, the one
a north, and the other a south pole, alike in their
power of attraetimj soft iron, but differing in their
action on the poles of another magnet, like poles
repelling, and unlike pules attracting each other.
The attractions and re|)ulsions are found in a bar-
magnet to follow the same laws of distribution as
would have been obeyed by the forces due to two
equal isolated discs, the one attracting, the other
repelling, and situated at points a little short; of
the extreme ends of the bar ; and the places where
these imaginary discs of imaginary magnetic matter
would be are called the poles of the magnet. This
conception of imaginary magnetic matter greatly
facilitates nuiny calculations, and is largely applied.
It is iis if the one kind of pole consisted ot positive,
the other of negative matter; and the north pole
of a magnet is, in accordance with this order of
ideas, conventionally termed the positive pole.
Xo Isolated Poles. — If we try to cut a bar-majmet
so ;is to isolate the poles, we find that each lialf
has developed a new pole at the broken end, and
each half h;is become a separate magnet whose
jjoles are equal to one another, and to the poles of
the original magnet. We can therefore never have
one kind of magnetism tvithout having it associated
in the same magnet vyith an equal amount of the
opposite magnetism.
The Earth a Magnet. — The fact of the freely
suspendetl magnet taking up a fixed position has led
to the theory ((lilbert, i|.v., in ItiOO) that the earth
itself Is a huge magnet, having its north and south
magnetic poles in the neighbourhood of the poles
of the axis of rotation, and that the magnetic
needle or suspended magnet turns to these a.s it
does to those of a neighbouring magnet. All the
manifestations of terrestrial magnetism ( q. v. ) give
decideil confirmation of this theory. It is on this
view that the French call the north-seeking pole of
the magnet the south \1o\e {p6le austral), and the
south-seeking the north pole {p6le boreal); for, if
the earth lie taken as the standard, its north mag-
netic [lole must attract the south ])ole of otiier
magnets, and vice vcr.i('i. In Kngland and tlermany
the north pole of a magnet is the one which, when
freely suspended, points to the
north, aiKi no reference is made
to its relation to the magnetism
of the earth.
Foi-m, of Magnets. — Artificial
permanent magnets are either bar-
magnets or liorseslioe- magnets.
^Vhen powerful iiermanent mag-
nets are to be made, several thin
magnetised bars are jdaced side by
.side with their poles lying in the
same direction. Such a collection
of magnets is called .-i magnetic
magazine or batirri/, and i.s moie
powerful than a soliil bar of the
.same weight and size, because
thin bars can be nmre strongly
anil regularly magnetised than
thick ones. Fig. '.i is a horseshoe magnetic maga-
zine. The central lamina protrudes slightly beyond
the other, and it i.s to it that the armature is
attached, the whole action of the magnet being
concentrated on the projection. The magnetic
needle is a snuiU single permanent magnet nicely
balanccil on a fine jioirit. See Cinil'.V.s.s.
'The Magnetic Field. — The region sui'rounding a
magnet (even, to a diminishing extent, to an
infinite distance) is in a peculiar condition. If a
magnet be laid under a piece of glass and soft iron
filings be sprinkled on the glass, each filing will
direction ; and the whole
Itep?-
Fis
assume a jiarticular
congeries will map
out the lines of the
directions in which
small magnets will
be made to point by
the play of the mag-
netic forces existing
around the magnet,
in the ' magnetic
field' of that magnet.
These directions are
the Lines of Force in
the magnetic field
filling all space ; and
an example of them is given in fig. 4, which shows
the arrangement of the filings above a bar-magnet,
laid parallel to the glass. In a horseshoe magnet
the strongest part of the field external to the
magnet is that lying between the poles ; the lines
of force are there crowiled together.
Magnetic Induction. — These lines of force exter-
nal to the magnet are also Lines of Induction. In
the direction of the lines of induction a magnetic
sejiaration tends to be set up : the soft iron filings
are each converted, while in the neighbourhood of
the magnet, into temporary magnets, each ^^ith a
north and a south pole ; the one pole is repelled,
the other attracted ; on the whole each filing is
swivelled round into the direction of the local line
of force. Similarly, a bar of soft iron becomes,
while ui contact with a magnet, as in fig. 5, or to a
Fig. 5.
less extent when in its neighbourhood, itself a
temporary magnet : and it may in its tuni magnetise
and su]>port other bars, so that a chain of soft inm
bars may, uj) to a limiting weight, be sui)ported on
a magnet. Steel bars are slower than soft iron in
taking up a magnetic condition, and the harder
their temper the slower they are in doing so ; but,
unlike soft iron, they do not readily lose what they
have acquired ; they become permanent magnets,
while soft iron retains magnetism only precariously
and easily loses it when mechanically disturbed.
Sjiecially soft iron may lo.se the whole when struck :
ordinary wrought-iron will generally retain traces
of residual magnetism, tlie amount of which
depends on the previous magnetic history of the
particular bar. The characteri.stically magnetic
substances are iron, nickel, and cobalt; but many
others, even liquids (.such as solutions of salts of
iron) and ga.ses (sucli as ozone), are attracted by
the magnet.
Diamiiguclism. — Most substances are (in the
form of s|)liere8) feebly repelled by magnets, and
bat's of them lie across the lines of induction in
a non-uniform magnetic field. These substances
are said to be dinmagnetic — e.g. bismuth.
Magnetisation by the Earth. — The inductive action
798
MAGNETISM
of tenestrial magnetism is a striking proof of the
truth of the tlicory aheady referred to, that the
earth itself is a magnet. When a steel rod is held
in a iiosition parallel to the Diiiiiiiig-neeiUe (ij.v.)
it hecomes in the course of time, and the sooner if
struck with a hammer, permanently magnetic. A
har of soft iron held in the same position is more
powerfully hut oidy temporarily attected. We
mav understaml from this how tlie tools in work-
shops are generally magnetic. Whenever large
masses of iron are stationary for any length of
lime they are sure to give evidence of magnetisa-
tion, and" it is to tlie inductive action of the earth's
poles acting through ages that the magnetism of
the loadstone is probably to be attributed.
Preservation and Power of Magnets. — Even steel
magnets, freshly magnetised, sometimes gradually
fall olfin strength, till they reach a point at wliich
their strength remains constant. This is called
the />oint of snf /(ration. If a magnet has not been
raised to this ])oint it may lose nothing after mag-
netisation. We may ascertain whether a magnet
is at saturation by magnetising it with a more
powerful magnet, and seeing whether it retains
more magnetism than before. The saturation-point
dejiends on the material of the magnet itself.
When a magnet is above saturation it is soon
reduced to it by repeatedly drawing away the
armature from it. After "reaching this point
magnets will keep the same strength for years
together, if not subjected to rough usage. It is
favourable for the preservation of magnets that
they be provided with an armature or keeper. The
power of a horseshoe-magnet is usually tested l>y
the weight its armature can bear without breaking
away from tlie magnet. Small magnets arc mucli
stronger for their size than large ones. The reason
of this may be thus explained. Two magnets of
the same size and power, acting separately, support
twice the weight that one of them does ; but if llie
two be joined, so as to form one magnet, they do
not sustain tlie double, for the two magnets, being
in close proximity, act inductively on each other.
'I'he north pole of the one tends to repel the
adjacent magnetism of the contiguous north pole
of the other, and to form by induction a south pole
in its place ; tlie magnets thus weaken one another.
Similarly, several magnets made up into a battery
have not a force proportionate to their number.
Large m.agnets, in the same way, may be con-
sidered as made uj) of several lamiu:p, whose
mutual interference renders the action of the whole
very much less than the sum of the powers of each.
The best method of ascertaining the strength of
bar-niagnets is to cause a magnetic needle to oscil-
late; at a given distance from one of their jioles,
the a.\is of the needle and the pole of the magnet
being in the magnetic meridian. These oscillations
observe the law of penduhim motion, so that the
force tending to bring the needle to rest is pro-
portionate to the scjuare of the numlier of oscilla-
tions in a stated time.
Action of Magnets on each otJicr. — Coulomb dis-
covered, by the oscillation of the m.agnetic needle
in the presence of magnets in the way just described,
that when magnets are .so placed that two adjoining
jmles may act on each other icithotU the interference
of the opposite poles — i.e. when the magnets are
large compared with the distance lietween their
centres — the attractive or repulsive force belirecn tvo
magnetic poles varies inversely as the square of the
d'stance hctween them. Gauss proved from this
theoretically, .and exhibited experimentally, that
when the distance between the centres of two
magnets is large compared with the size of the
magnets — i.e. when the action of both poles comes
into play — the action, of two mar/nets on each other
varies inversely as the cube of the distance between
them. This variation in the stren<;th of the field
may be shown either by the oscillation exjieriments
above referred to, or by direct observation of dellec-
tioiis produced at dill'ercnt distances. The action
on a magnet in a unilorm magnetic field is that
of a couple, like that of the hands on a copying-
press. There is rotation, but no translation, un-
less the field falls oil' in strength from the position
of the one pole to that of the other.
Effect of Heat on Magnets. — When a magnet is
heated to redness it loses ]ierm,anently every trace
of magnetism ; iron, also, at a red heat, ceases to be
attracted by the magnet. At temperatures below
red heat the magnet parts with some of its power,
the loss increasing with the temperature. The
temperatures at which other substances ali'ected
by the magnet lose their magnetism dill'er from
that of iron. Cobalt remains magnetic at the
highest temperatures, and nickel loses this pro-
perty at 662° F.
Electric Eelatiovs of Magnetism. — Every electric
circuit is a closed loop of some form or other.
Every such loop bearing a current has rounil it a
magnetic field : and such a single loop is equiva-
lent to a thin disc, or shell of any form, cut out of
a large bar-magnet, and has a south and a north
aspect. The lines of induction pass, say, from the
north face outwards, filling all space, and return to
the south face, threading the loop, so that eacli line
¥M^
Fig. 6.
of induction is a closed curve. The lines of induc-
tion immediately surrounding tin; wire are, if the
circuit be large enough, circular in form, if wire
bearing a current be coiled into a helix or solenoid
(left-handed, fig. 6; right-handed, fig. 7), the helix
Fig. 7.
acts in respect to bodies external to it exactly in
all respects as a bar-magnet would do : the strength
of the equivalent magnet being in propcntion to the
strength of the current passing. The magnetic
field surrounding a current-bearing loop or helix is
called an Electro-magnetic Field ; and it is identical
with the field whicli might be ])rodueed l)y a
sulHciently magnetised mass of the same contour :
the dill'er'ence being that, since currents may be
made very strong, 'electro-magnetic' (ielils can be
made more intense than any magnetic fields obtain-
able from steel magnets. 'These phenomena have
led up to Aini)6re's theory of magnetism.
Ampere's Theory of Magnetism.— Am\^ere con-
siders that e\ery particle of a magnet has closed
Fig. 8.
Fix. 0.
currents circulating about it in the same diriiction.
A section of a magnet according to this theory is
MAGNETISM
r99
shown in fip. S. All the separate currents in the
various particles may, however, be eonsideied to be
equivalent to one strong current circulating round
the whole (fig. 9). Before magnetisation the
molecules lie in different directions, so that the
effect of the currents is lost, and the effect of induc-
tion is to twist the molecules round so as to bring
the currents to run in the same direction. The per-
fection of magnetisation would be to render all the
various currents parallel to each other. Soft iron,
in consequence of its offering less resistance to such
a disposition, becomes more powerfully magnetic
under induction than steel, in which considerable
resistance to this displacement of the molecules
e.xists, and which, when this deformation has once
been produceil, retains it to a considerable extent,
this being the cause of permanent magnetism.
This displacement of the molecules upon induction
is often accompanied by a tick, or by a mechanical
twist or an alteration in length and thickness.
Currents may also, it is probable, be induced by
a magnetic field in the several molecules of a sub-
stance non-magnetic or not ; and, as these are so
directed a-s to oppose the magnetic field, we will, if
we postulate the aV>sence ot resistance to them,
arrive in non-magnetic substances at a state of
things in which the stresses in the magnetic lield
and those in the substance acted upon by induction
are opposed ; and this will give rise to the pheno-
tuena, and may provide an explanation, of dia-
niagnetism, which is, so far as is known, a property
of bodies only found manifested within a magnetic
field.
Magnetic Induction inside a Helix. — The interior
of a current-bearin"
heli.x is a very powerfiil
magnetic fieltl, the most
powerful |)art of the
whole electro-magnetic
field of the helix, since
all the lines of induc-
tion are concentrated
within it. Soft iron
there becomes, instantly
on the passage of the
current, a powerful tem -
porary magnet, or
'electro-magnet,' as it
is called, which falls
off in power instantly
on the current being
stopped ; steel becomes
permanently magnet-
ised. Fig. 10 shows
how the wires may be ananged to magnetise a
horseshoe-bar.
The current of the helix, acting on the individual
currents within the molecules, places them parallel
to itself, and the result Ls that the soft iron comes
to act as a magnet, stronger than any steel magnet.
So long as the process of settin" the molecules in
position is far from being completed — i.e. so long
as the iron is not ' saturated ' — the strength of the
magnetism induced in the core is approximately in
proportion to the strength of the current and'the
number of turns in the coil. Another result is
that on introducinj; a soft iron core into a current-
bearing helix the Imes of induction, which are due
to the induced concert of the soft iron molecular
currents, are added to those of the inducing field,
so that the whole field is greatly strengthened.
Magnetic Attmrtion.i and liepul.sions of Currents.
— The stre.sses in the magnetic field are such as to
make all lines of induction from various sources
coincide as far as possible in direction ; and hence
circuits teml to place themselves, as far as ])ossible,
coincident with one another in respc'ct of form
and parallelism of current. It is not difficult
Fig. 10.
.J
to show that this tendency results in movements
the same as those which would be produced if
linear currents in the same direction (parallel, con-
vergent, or divergent) nmtnally attracteil one
another, and currents in opposite directions re-
pelled one another. When a circuit is in part
flexible, the flexible part being a wire or even
merely a line of discharge through air, it tends
either to expand or to contract in area, so that it
may come, as near as may be, to meet these con-
ditions ; and the result is that similarly-directed
currents or parts
of the same cur- (^_
rent move into /^ "^^J*
the closest pos- '/y
sible proximity ,
to one another. />_ ^ ^1 u .
This is illus- fr //f — > -^ ^^^:^r^V
trated by fig. 11,
in which the
course of the
current is shown
by arrows ; the
movable part of g^L 5=^r ^^/
the circuit,
poised on mer-
cury cups, will
rotate in a mag-
netic field so as ^
to tend to make
the direction of '^
its own lines ot Fig. 11.
induction coin-
cide with the direction of the lines of induction of
the magnetic or electro-magnetic field, and thus to
make its own contour embrace as many as pos^-ilile
of the lines of induction of the field, if their general
trend coincide with its own, or as few a-s jjossible
if they be opposed ; and, consequently, if a wire in
which a current passes downwards be placed verti-
cally near cd, the lines of induction round that wire
and those round cd coincide in general direction,
and cd appears to be attracted by the wire ; while
if the current pass upwards cd is rejielled, an<l if
attracted. Place, now, the wire below and parallel
to de. If the current passes in the direction d to c
no change takes place, as the attraction cannot
show itself ; but if the current moves from e to d
the whole turns round tUl d stands where e was,
and both currents run the same way. If the wire be
placed at right angles to de, the rectangle turns
round and comes to rest when both currents are
parallel and in the same direction.
According to Ampere's theory, the earth, being
a magnet, has currents in it which are equivalent
to currents circulating ab(mt it; these njust be
from east to west, the north pole of the earth
being, in our way of speaking, a south pole. A
magnet, then, will not come to rest till its own
lower currents
place themselves
parallel to and in
the direction of
the earth's cur-
rents. This is
shown in fig. 12, .
where a section ""'^ ""
of a rectangular Fig. 12.
bar-magnet is
represented in its positifm of rest with reference
to the earth-current. The upper current, being
farther away from tlie earth-current, is less affected
by it, and it is the lower current that detennines
the position. A magnetic needle, therefore, turns
towards the north to allow the currents moving
below it to jilace themselves ]iarallel to the earth's
current. This also is shown by the current-bear-
ing rectangle in fig. 11, which comes to rest in
800
MAGNETISM
stable equilibrium, in the absence of anj' external
current, when d and c lie east and west.
The iltasiireiiKiit of Magnetic Data. — This lias
largely had its lerniinoloyv evolved with reference
to the eciuivalence of magnetic forces and phejio-
iiicna to those which would he evinced if ' magnet-
ism ' were a kind of matter, positively or nei,'atively
attracting and resident in the poles. A pole of unit
strenfith is one which attracts or repels another
equal pole, situated at a distance of one centi-
metre, with a force of one dyne. The mar/netic
moment of a magnet is the strength of either i)ole
irniltiplied by the distance between the two poles,
rids can he measured directly. The intensity of
nuiynetisation of a bar-magnet is tlie magnetic
iMonu'iit divided by its volume. A maynctic Jielil
of unit xtrenf/f/i or infensiti/ at any particular point
is a tield in which at that point a unit pole wouKl
he pulled upon or repelled with a force of one
dyne ; and conversely, the intensity of a uniform
iiiagnetic field may be measured by lindiiig the
mechanical couple acting on a magnetic needle,
freely suspended in it. The intensity of induced
magnetisation produced by putting a long bar of
a magnetisable substance in a uniform magnetic
lield of unit strength measures the magnetic sus-
ceptibiliti/ of that substance. The force within the
substance of an inducetl magnet, ilue both to the
inducing field and to the surrounding magnetised
substance, when the inducing Held is unity,
measures the coetlicient of magnetic induction or
the magnetic permeability of the substance. The
strength of a magnetic disc or shell is its magnetic
moment per unit of area, if this be uniform.
Magnetic Measurement of Electric Data. — Given
a magnetic shell of given outline and strength, its
action U]ion a magnetic needle placed witliin its
field can he observed ; and conversely, from its out-
line and its deflecting action its strength can be
calculated. An electric current of the same con-
tour can have its intensity so regulated as to pro-
duce the same magnetic effect as the magnetic
shell did upon the needle in one position ; and if in
one, then in every position ; and the intensity of
that current is said to be, in magnetic measure,
numerically the same as the magnetic strength of
the equivalent magnetic shell. This is the basis
of a system of electric units, called magnetic or
electro- magnetic units of electric quantities : and
convenient multiples and subnmltiples of these —
arrived at by substituting for the centimetre, the
gramme, ancl the second, as the units of length,
mass, and time, 1 ,000,000,000cm., the f fraMiii5V5T.!i or.th
part of a gramme and the second as these funda-
mental units are in use as the practical units for
electrical measurement. These are the ampire,
the unit of current-intensity ; the ohm, that of
resistance ( = the resistance of about 106'2 cm.
pure mercury column, 1 sq. mm. in transverse sec-
tion : defmeil as that of 10(j cm. by the Paris Inter-
national Electrical Congress); the n/lt, that of
liotciitial dilference or 'electromotive force' ( = ap-
liidximately that of a Daniell cell, in which the
liquiils are a saturated solution of nitrate of copper
and dilute sulphuric acid, 1 acid in '22 water); the
coulomb, that of electric quantity ; the farad, that
of capacity ; and the quculrant, that of self-induc-
tion.
Self-induction. — When a current is suddenly
started in a coil of wire, the ultimate result is to
set up a magnetic fielil. But, while this is being
set up, energy is being absorbed by the fiehl,
and the current falls short of its full intensity.
Similarly, when the current cea-ses this energy is
restored, and the current seems piled up as if it had
niomeiitiim of its own like water in a hydraulic
ram. The stronger the magnetic lield that will he
produced — the more lines of induction will thread
the coil — the more marked is this effect ; and this
exaggeration is brought about by multiplying the
turns in the coil (keeping; down the resistance, if
necessary, by increasing the thickness of the wire
used), or by inserting a core of soft iion, or both.
Induction of Currents in Magnetic Field. — Lay
two circuits in one another's neighbourhood. Tlie
sudilen jiroductiou <m- increase of current in the one
will produce a brief current in the other in such a
sense that there is mechanical repulsion between
the induced current and the originating one : the
cessation or diminution of the juimary current
induces, in the opposite sense, a brief current in
the secondary circuit. These are phenomena of the
magnetic field of the primary circuit; and the
primary circuit can be replaced by a magn('t or
electro-magnet, whose approach or strengthening
induces brief currents in one sense, and whose
recession or weakening induces brief cunents in
the opposite sense. No current passes in the
secondary coil so long as the primary current or
magnet remains constant or stationary. For the
ways in which this production of a secondary
current is utilised, see DvNAiio, iNDl'CTiON. If
we try to move a good conductor — a copjier disc
or a knife — in a strong magnetic field the motion
is resisted or damped ; the ]iroduction of the
induced currents generated by motion in the tield
absorbs energy.
Eotutory Features of Magnetism. — As a simple
case, ccmsider the field in the immediate neighbour-
hood of a linear current. The lines of magnetic
force run in circles round the wire ; a magnet pole
tends to be driven in such a sense that, if it be
positive or north-seeking, it will travel round an
advancing current in the same sense in which the
point of a corkscrew travels round the axis of the
advancing corkscrew. If a magnet were flexible
it would form a coil r<uind the current; and con-
versely, a flexible current bearing wire tends to coil
round a strong bar-magnet, and currents parallel
to bar-magnets tend to rotate round the magnetic
axis of the magnet.
Kature of tlie Slagnetic Field. — All the pheno-
mena of the magnetic field are explicable as due to
whirlpool currents of electricity in closed vortex-
rings, the axes of which are the magnetic lines of
induction. The reaction of tendencies to the for-
mation of these vortcx-rings from different sources
results in the production of local variations of
.stress in the ether which result in attractive ami
repellent movements between currents or magnets,
or between currents and magnets, or in the jirodnc-
tion of currents, or of magnetic induction ; anil the
resultant forces are along the axes of the whirls
which tend to shorten themselves longitudinally
and to spread out laterally. The electric displace-
ments in the whirls are therefore at right angles to
the lines of magnetic force. With other disposi-
tions of the nuagnelic field we have other forms of
the lines of force ; but they are always closed
curves which mark the axes of vortex motions or
shears, and which lie wholly in air, or partly in air
and partly in metal or other substance.
Electro-magnetic Propagation. — When a disturb-
ance is set up in one place which leads to the for-
mation of a magnetic field, the change from the
original condition of tin? ether to the complex con-
dition which is known as ' magnetic lield ' is marked
by a magnetic or electro-magnetic propagation of
the disturbance ; and the theoretical velocity of
this propagation has been shown to he about
300,000 kilometres per seccmd, which is practically
exactly the same a.s the speed of the luopagation
of light. In a linear current the dircctimi of the
current is the direction of propagation : the dis-
turbance is propagateil in the ether, not in the
conductor ; and the magnetic and electric displace-
MAGNETISM
801
ments are at ri"lit angles both to the direction of
propagation and to one another. Without a linear
conductor to guide the projiaj^iition the disturb-
ance is propagated equally in all directions ; and
Clerk-Maxwell ailvanced the proposition that light
is a phenomenon of this order, an electromagnetic
phenomenon involving vortical stresses, rather than
the mere vibration of an elastic ether. This pro-
position has been strikiuglv couHrmed by the re-
searches of Hertz in 1888. tie found that by pro-
ducing waves of electro-magnetic propagation of
periodic disturbances lie could reproduce with Ion"
waves, which be found to travel at the predicted
rate, the phenomena of reHection at the surface of
a conduf'tor, refraction, |)olaiisatiou, interference,
&c., which are manifested by those short and fre-
quent ether-waves which give rise to the pheno-
mena of light and radiant heat ; and his results
have shown that the plane of magnetic disturb-
ance, at right angles to that of electric disturbance,
is the analogue of the plane of polarisation, which
must be at right angles to the plane of vibration.
By Hertz's researches the science of light has been
made a part of the general science of electro-
magnetism.
See Declination Needle, Dumagnetism, Dipping-
jfEEDLE, Dynamo-electbic MACHINES. For Utera-
ture, see Electbicity ; and refer to Sir William
Thomson's Reprint of Papers on Etectrostatics and Maij-
nctism (1872); Von Hebnholtz's Wissenschaftliche
Abftaudlunffen (voL i. 1SS2); and O. J. Ijodge^ Modern
Vieics of Electricitii (1889). For instruments, &c., refer
to W. E. Ayrton's Frartiral Electricitij (1886) and Jamie-
son's Ma'inetism and Ekctricity ( 1890).
llasiiPtism, Anijial. See Ajjimal Magnet-
ism and Hypnotism.
Magnetism. Terrestrial. Under the
general article M.\gnetism the broad fact that
the earth b a magnet has been incidentally
touched upon. In this article we propose to con-
sider in more detail the magnetic features of the
earth as a whole. In studying the magnetic field
associated with the earth we are confined to its
surface, and are unable to trace the lines of force
throughout their whole length. We believe, how-
ever, that these lines of force have the properties
of all lines of force associated with magnets. In
general they pass by continuously curved paths
trom regions in the southern hemisphere to regions
in the northern hemisphere. The southern hemi-
sphere, therefore, is the seat of what is called
northern or positive magnetism.
The direction of tlie line of force at any point
is given by the direction in which a perfectly free
magnet placed there will point (see Magnetism).
To obtain the direction of the earth's magnetic
force we must suspend the magnet accurately by
its centre of mass, as in the apparatus known
as the Dipping-needle (q.v.). With such an
apparatus, let us, beginning at the extreme .south
point of Africa, move northwards and study at
each successive stage the behaviour of the magnet.
At first it will be found to make an angle of about
57° with the horizontal, pointing upwards towards
the north-west. This angle of 57° is called the
dip, and will steadily diminish as we pass north-
wards, until, a little to the south-east of Lake
Chad, the magnet will be found to rest perfectly
hoi-izontal. Proceeding still northwards, we shall
find the magnet beginning to tilt again, but this
time with the north-pointing end downwards. As
we leave the north coast of Africa in 20° E. long,
the dip will be nearly 45° ; it will be 55° as we
enter lurkey, gradually increasing to nearly 77° as
we leave the north coast of Norway. Very similar
changes in dip will occur as we pass along any
Lines of equal Magnetic Dip, 1885.
longitude line. The general features are shown in
fig. 1, rwluced from Neumayer's chart for 1885,
as given in the new edition of Berghaus' Physi-
hftlischcr Atlas. Kacli line is drawn through all
places at which the ilij) lui-s the value indicated by
the numlier attached. The only points requiring
.•511
particular remark are the position of the line of zero
dip, and the position of the point of maximum dip.
The line of zero dip is called the magnetic equator.
Its non-coincidence with the geographical equator
indicates a marked departure of the earth's mag-
netic condition from the magnetic condition of a
802
MAGNETISM
uniformly magnetised sphere, whose magnetic axis
coincides with the poUir axis. The iiosition of
maxinmm dip sliown is wliere the neeiUe points
vertical with its north end downwards. It is
called the magnetic north pole, and is situated in
the north of Canada in 97° AV. long. , and lOi' N.
lat. There is also a magnetic south pole, which is
believed to lie somewhere near 150° E. long, and
73° S. lat. The magnetic poles do not, therefore, lie
exactly at the extremities of a diameter. It should
be noted that the dip is the angle between the line
of force at a given locality and the horizontal plane
there : that is, the dins in difterent latitudes are
referred to dili'erent planes. Fig. 2, which repre-
sents the section
of the earth
along the great
circle passing
throufjh the geo-
graphical and
magnetic north
poles, will serve
to indicate the
appro.ximately
relative posi-
tions of the
lines of force.
The directions
of these at lati-
tudes 0°, 30°,
and 60° are in-
dicated by ar-
rows, the dotted
lines gi\-ing the directions of the true vertical
at the various points. AB is the geographical
polar axis, S the ' magnetic north pole ' — really
analogous to the so-called south pole of a magnet.
Fig. -i.
00' are the points of zero dip, where the lines of
force will be roughly parallel to the magnetic axis.
Returning again to the southern extremity of
Africa, let us consider more fully the position of
the magnet hanging freely by its centre of mass.
To fix this position we recpiire to know not only
the dip but also the geographical lie of the vertical
plane in which the magnet hangs. This is given
by the Declination (q.v. ), which may be defined as
the angle between the meridian plane and the
vertical plane parallel to the mametic axis of the
free-hanging magnet. Practically this angle is
determined by a magnet suspended or pivoted so
as to lie horizontally, and is what every mariner's
compass gives more or less accurately. Near Cape-
town the declination is fully 30° west of north
(NNWJW.); but as we pass northwards it
gradually diminishes, until on the Mediterranean
shore in 20° long, it becomes only 8° west of north
(N.JW. ). Passing farther north we find it still
diminishing, but niore slowly, until finally, as we
leave the north coast of Norway in the same longi-
tude, it is found to be 6° (NAW. ). The general
features of the declination are shown in fig. 3.
Each isoo;one or line of equal declination passes
through localities at which the declination had
the value as marked in 1885. This figure is also
reduced from Neumayer's chart. It will be seen
at a glance that the surface of the globe is divided
broadly into two regions, separated by the agonic
lines (marked thick) or lines of no declina-
tion. The one region, including the Atlantic
with the whole of Africa and a large part of the
Indian Ocean, is characterised by a westerly de-
clination ; and the other ( with an interesting
exception) an easterly declination. These are
indicated by arrow-heads appropriately directed.
Fig, 3. — Lines of equal Magnetiu Declination, 1885.
The western boundary of the region of westerly
declination pa-sses through the magnetic north
pole. This hue pa-sses through the localities where
the magnet points true geographical north. It
continues itself northwards towards the geogra-
phical pole a-s the isogone of 180°, since any
magnet, set between the magnetic pole and the geo-
graphical pole, mil turn its marked end towards
the south instead of towards the north. The
eastern boundary of western declination passes
northwards from Eiiro])e till, at the gcograjjliical
north pole, it meets the short isogone of 180° just
mentioned. After its south-easterly sweep across
the Indian Ocean this line of zero declination
MAGNETISM
803
passes through the western portion of Australia
and finally ends at the 'magnetic south pole.'
Continuing ivs the iso^one of 180"' till it reaches
the geogiaphical soutli pole, it joins with tlie
other boundary line of zero ileclination. It will
be readily seen that the region of western declina-
tion is more contracted than the otiier; but, as if
to balance this, there is an isolated region of
western declination situated in the midst of the
region of eastern declination. This isolated region
lies on the east of Asia, and is enclosed in an oval-
shaped agonic line ( marked with a thick line in the
chart). Declination charts for all seas and shores
are invaluable to the practical navigator, by whom
they are called variation charts. From them lie
learns at a glance in what direction the magnetic
needle points at the place he happens to be in,
and can steer his desired course accordingly. For
example, in a voyage from England to India by-
way of Suez, the western declination diminishes
rapidly from 17^ at Gibraltar to 5^ at Suez. Before
India is sighted the agonic line is crossed, and the
declination becomes slightly easterly. Thereafter,
on as far as Hong-kong or Torres Strait, the com-
pass points never so much as half a point to the
east of north. Hong-kong is just outside the
small isolated region of westerly declination,
through which the route to Vancouver pa-sses. As
Vancouver is approached, however, tlie easterly
declination rapidly increases to nearly 25".
The declination and dip completely determine
the direction of the line of force. Its strength or
intensity still requires to be known before the
magnetic conditions are completely fixed. The
total force we may imagine to be determined by
measuring the time of oscillation of a dipping-
needle of known magnetic moment. Practically,
however, it is easier and much more accurate to
measure the horizontal component of the total
force or intensity of the field. It is consequently
more useful to construct a chart showing lines
of equal 'Horizontal Force.' Such a chart is
shown in fig. 4 (also from Neumayer's chart),
each line being drawn through localities at which
the liorizontal lorce has the \alue as marked. The
hoiizontal force must, of course, vanish at the
Fig. 4. — Lines of equal Horizontal Force, 1885.
magnetic poles, which we originally defined as the
regions where the dip w;t.s 90". From figs. 1 and
4 taken together we may calculate roughly the
total magnetic force at any locality, by multiply-
ing the horizontal component by the secant of the
angle of dip. Thus, for Edinburgh we have,
roughly, 0165 x 3 = 0-49 ; in Hudson 15ay,
0-08 X 9-5 = 0-76 ; in Central Africa, where the
magnetic equator cuts the 20° longitude line,
0-33 X 1 = 0-33. The total force, therefore, iu-
crea-scs in a general way as we ajiproach the mag-
netic poles. Its maximum values, however, are
not exactly at these poles, nor do the positions of
minimum value lie on the line of dip.
The declination, dip, and horizontal force are
commonly called the magnetic elements. They are
all subject to variations in time, so that magnetic
charts for one epoch will ditler somewhat from
those for another epoch. For example, comparing
the isogonic lines given in fig. 3 witli the iMigiuiic
lines for 1840, we see that both the long agonic
lines have, for the greater part of their lengths,
moved westwards, and the agonic oval has
changed form slightly and moved a little east-
wards. A line drawn from Nova Scotia to the
Cape of (Jood Hope divides the Atlantic into
two regions. In the nortli-eastern region the
declination has been diminishing during the last
twenty yeai-s, while in the south-western the
declination has been increasing. There is some
evidence of a periodic variation extending over
several centuries. Thus, in 1000 the agonic passed
to the iccst of England and through the Cape of
Good Hope, the declination in England being
about 8° east of north. In 1700 the irf.slir/ij declin-
ation in England had become 6" or 1\ and that at
the Cape al«)ut 12". In ISOO the declinations had
increased to 23° or '24° at the two places. All this
indicates an ea-xtward motion of the line of zero
declination. Since 1818 the westerly declination
in England and in western Enri>pe generally has
been slowly diminishing, showing that the agonic
804
MAGNETISM
MAGNOLIA
line had ceased its easterly and begun its
present westerly drift. In the charts jmhlislied
by the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey
very full information is given regarding the
westerly drift of the amnio line that passes through
America. South of tlie Great Lakes its average
rate of progress during the last forty years has
been nearly five miles per annum. In 1S90
the annual change of declination at places in the
neighbourhood of the agonic line was about three
minutes of arc, westerly increase. At Greenwich
the present annual change is about seven minutes
of arc, westerly decre;ise. The secular changes in
the dip and horizontal force are very slight, and
generally take ])lace in opposite directions, so that
the change in the total intensity is still smaller.
The solar iliurual variation of the magnetic
elements, and especially of the declination, is the
most easily recognised of all the periodic variations
to which the earth's magnetism is subject. In all
but tropical regions the declination needle oscillates
markedly about its mean position for the day,
attaining its maximum deviation from one to two
hours after noon. In the northern hemisphere
this maximum deviation is to the west of the mean
position ; in the southern hemisphere it is to the
east. Again, the total range of variation is greater
in the summer months than in the winter months.
By an elegant development of Gauss's flawless
theory of terrestrial magnetism Schuster has
shown that the features of the solar diurnal varia-
tions of the ditterent magnetic elements indicate
causes above the earth's surface as the source of
these variations. This accords with Balfour
Stewart's hypothesis that the diurnal mag-
netic changes result from electric currents in
the higher regions of the atmosphere. These
currents are due to the action of the sun, and are
probably tussooiated with the currents of hot air
which pass from the equatorial regions both north-
wards and southwards. That such electric currents
do really exist is demonstrateil by the existence of
the aurora in higher latitudes ; for this pheno-
menon is beyond (piestion electrical. Further,
distinct connection has been traced between auroral
displays and magnetic disturbances of exceptional
character (see AuKou.s. Boreali.s). These irregular
magnetic disturbances or magnetic storms, as they
are called, are more frec(uent and more pronounced
at times of ma.ximum sun-spots ; ami, according to
Loomis, a great magnetic storm is always accom-
panied by an unusual disturbance on the sun's
surface. Again, there is no doubt some connec-
tion between certain types of magnetic changes
and earth-currents, the latter being particularly
strong during magnetic storms ; but it is now
admitted by all authorities that earth-currents can-
not be regarded as an efficient cause of the magnetic
disturbances.
In addition to the well-marked solar-diurnal
variation of the magnetic elements, there is also a
lunar-diurnal variation, which has been si>eciallv
studied by Broun and Chambers. These and
other phenomena of terrestrial magnetism show
that the earth is magnetically sensitive to cosmic
influences. These influences may be directly
magnetic ; or, as is more probable in the ca.se of
the solar-diurnal variations, they may give rise
to meteorological changes involving electric and
magnetic actions. As to the ultimate origin of the
earth's magnetism as a whole it is not possible, in
the present state of the science, to fornnilate any
satisfactory hypothesis. The rotation of the
earth, which is so important a factor in the broad
meteorological features that exist over the earth's
surface, is the only dynannc jiolarity that can be
compared to the magnetic polarity. According to
the nebular hypothesis the earth's rotation is a
part of a grand circulatorj' motion of the solar
system. So may the earth's magnetism he a part
of tlie general magnetic conditions of the same
system. If such a view is too vague for accepta-
tion, the only hypothesis which seems to meet the
case is that suggested by Balfour Stewart, who
traces the magnetic condition of the earth to the
terrestrial meteorological system, as modified by
the earth's rotation, acting cunmlatively through
the ages.
Magnetite. See Loadstone.
Magneto-electric Machine. See Dynamo-
ELECTKic Machines.
Magnetometer is, in general, any instrument
for nieas\uing magnetic force, or for comparing one
magnetic force with another. A freely -suspended
magnet, whereby the strength and direction of the
lines of force in a magnetic field may be ascertained
by observing the position assumed by a freely-
suspended magnet and also its rate of oscillation
and the amount to which it is deflected when undei
tlie influence of a second magnet, is the essential
feature of all maguetometric instruments. The
peculiar importance to us of the earth's magnetic
field has, however, led to the constniction of in
struments of precision, to wliicli the name Mag
netometer is specially applied.
In a magnetic observatory the self-registering
magnetometers or magnetographs form an extremely
important set of instruments. By these the quick
changes in the intensity of the earth's magnetic
held and in the declination are registered by
photographic means. The essential feature of the
method is the reflection of a beam of light from a
mirror attached to a magnet, which is suspended
or pivoted so as to be sensitive to changes in the
particular element that is being measured.
Magnificat, the 'song of the Virgin Mary,'
which, in the Vulgate, ber;ins with Magnificat.
See Breviarv.
Magnifying Glass. See Lenses, Micro-
scope.
Magnolia, a genus of beautiful trees of the
natural order JSIagnoliacea', having a calyx of three
sepals, a corolla of six to twelve petals, and car-
pels in spikes arranged in cones, and opening at
the (lonsal suture. They are natives chiefly of
North America, the Himalaya Mountains, China,
and Japan. The flowers are large and solitary :
the leaves generally large, in some species ever-
green, in others deciduous. The wood is in general
V
Magnolia graiidiflura.
■^
soft, sjiongy, and of little value. M. grandijlnrn,
sometimes called the Laurel-leaved Magnolia, has
white flowers of great size. It ls an evergreen tree
about 20 feet high, with magnificent laurel-like
MAGNUS
MAGPIE
805
leaves, found in the lower districts from North
Carolina to the Gulf of Mexico. It succeeds well
as an ornamental tree in the south of England, but
in Scotland requires a wall ami some protection in
winter. M. tripctcila is found on the Alleghany
Mountains, ancl extends as tar north as lat. 43^
From the radiated manner in which its leaves are
disposed at the extremities of the branches it has
received the name of Umbrella Tree. It has very
large white llowers. It is one of the species most
commonly cultivated in Britain, hut in Scotland it
requires a wall. M. acuminata inhabits tlie same
districts, and is a lofty tree with greenish-yellow
flowers. It endures the climate of Britain well,
but its flowers are not so much admired as those
of some of its congeners. 31. glaimi, a native
of Pennsylvania, Virginia, and the Carolinas, is
known by the names of White Bay, Beavencood, and
SK£'yip h'assafras. It is a tree or shrab of 15 to 20
leet in height, with very beautiful and fragrant
white fiowers. The Yulan, or Chinese Magnolia
I'il/. Y-ilan or cotispiciia), has been much cultivated
lu Cjina for more than twelve hundred yeare on
account of its beautiful and fragrant white flowers,
which it produces in great profusion. It is one of
the finest ornamental trees, and succeeds well in
the south of England. It is a deciduous tree, and
the flowers expand before the development of the
leaves. M. exccha, one of the finest species known,
is a predominant tree in some parts of the Himalava
Mountains, at an elevation of 7000 to 80O0 feet,
the mountains, when it is in blossom, appearing
as if sprinkled with snow. M. Campbellii, another
native of the same region, produces great rose-
coloured flowers, and is described by Hooker as
the most superb of the genus. The bark and fiuit
of all magnolias possess tonic bitter properties, and
the bark of some of the species, particularlv that
of M. ff/anca, is used in domestic medicine in the
marshy districts of North America in cases of
rheumatism and fever. Michelia and Manglietia
are closely allied genera. The natural order
Magnoliaceie is closely allied to Kanunculacea-,
differing chiefly in the arborescent habit, and in
the large stipules which envelop the young leaves
before they open, but .soon fall off. The leaves are
simple. Aromatic properties are prevalent. To
this order belong the Tulip Tree, Star Anise, and
Winter's Bark.
]IIasnn^«, St, a Scandinavian Earl of Orkney
who in 1114 was assassinated in Egilshay Island by
his cousin Haco.
Magnus or Magxi, Oi.aus, Swedish historian,
was bom at Linkiiping in 1490, and became secre-
tary to his elder brother Johannes, Archbishop of
Upsala. At the Keforniation both brothers went
abroad, and ultimately settled in Rome. On the
death of Johannes, Olaus became titular archbishop,
and died in 1558. Both brothers wrote on Swedish
history ; the famous work of Olaus is his Historia
(le fjcntihns Septentrional ibi(s (1555).
^lagpie. or Pie {Pica), a genus of birds of the
family Corvidje (q.v.), distinguished from the true
(TOWS by their small size, long tail, short wings,
and variegated plumage. The only BritLsli species
is the Common Magpie (P. rustica), common in
Britain, ver>- abundant in Ireland, and found in
almost all parts of Europe, in Asia as far as India,
China, and Japan, antl in the northern parts of
North .\merica from the Pacific to Michigan. It
is from 16 to 18 inches long, the longest tail-feathers
sometimes measuring 1 1 inches in length. It is of
a glossy-black plumage, slightly greenish and violet
on the crown and b.vk, with a slightly coppei-y
tinge on the hea<l ; nimp gray : shouldcrfeatliers
and under-surface of body white ; wings and tail
blue, green, and white ; bill, legs, and feet
black. The female is slightly smaller than the
male and less brilliant in plum.age. The mag-
pie is a shy, mischievous bird, extremely vigilant
and cunning, Ijoth in eluding enemies and in seek-
ing its own food. It is generally seen in pairs, but
i-'_-i:;.. - -., . , i'ica rustica).
occasionally in large flocks. Its note is a harsh
chatter, kept up as long as any obnoxious person
or animal is near its haunts. In diet it is almost
omnivorous, living on snails, slugs, wonns, fi'ogs,
rats, mice, and tlie eggs and young of poultry. It
Imilds its nest usually in the fork of a tree at some
distance from the ground, but sometimes on low
hedges and thorn bushes, or even on the ground.
In Norway and Sweden, where it is favoured, it
may be found nesting near houses on low goose-
berry bushes. Its nest is large and dome-shaped,
made of sticks cemented with clay and lined with
fine roots and dried grass. It is strongly fortified
with rough thorns, so as to resist the attacks of
other animals, and even the action of the small
shot which gamekeepers fire into it when they
suspect it to contain .young birds. The et'gs are
fiom si.x to nine in number, of a i)ale bluish green
or yellowish-white, spotted with olive-brown. The
mother shows great attachment to her progeny.
The magpie is easily tamed, liecomes impudently
familiar, and leams to articulate a few words.
Both in its wild and tame state it has a propensity
to seize and carry oft' bright and glittering articles
and hide them. The genus Pica consists of nine
species, veiy widely distributed in Europe, Northern
Africa, Asia north of tlie Himalayas, in Arctic
America, and California,
A great wealth of popular superstition has
clustered round the magpie or pyct, and almost
universally it is considered as in a special sense
a bird of evil omen. In tiernuvny, Sweden, and
Brittany it is closely connected with witches and
with the devil, and it is unlucky to kill one, except
during the twelve days between Christmas and
Epij)hany in Sweden ami North Germany, and
dunng the nmnth of March in Thuringia. Popular
reasons for the bird's persistent wickedness, in the
north of England, are : because it was the only
bird that would not go into the ark with Noah ;
because it is a hybrid between the raven and the
dove; because after the crucifixion it alone of all
the birds did not go into full mourning. Its
appearance and the numbei's seen at one time
are always significant. There are many variants
(some even contradictory), but the following is in
good belief in the north of England :
One is sorrow, two is niirtli.
Three a wedUinK, four a birth,
Fivrt heaven, six liell,
Seven the deil's Ain sel.
806
MAGUEY
MAHDI
Woiilswoitli, in the Excnrsion, has alluded to
the auspicious omen of seeing two magpies cross
one's iiatli, and Sir Humphry Davy, in Halmoiiht,
has made it reasonable by linking the fact with
the goodness of the weather.
Maguey. See Agave.
Magyars. See Hungary.
Maliabaleshwar. the chief sanatorium of the
Madras Presidency, on the eastern slope of the
Western Glutts, at a height of 4717 feet, and 74
miles S. of Poona. Pop. 3500.
Malisiblldrata ( meaning probably ' the great
history of the descendants of Bharata') is the name
of one of the two great epic poems of ancient India ;
the other being the Rdmayana (q.v. ). In its
present condition tlie epos consists of a hundred
and ten tliousand couplets, each containing thirty-
two syllables ; but there is ground for believing
that it was formerly known in other recensions
of a still greater extent. In its actual shape it
is divided into eighteen parvans or books, the
Harivansa being considered as a supplementary
part of it. That this huge composition was not the
work of one single individual, out a production of
successive ages, is manifest from tne multifari-
ousness of its contents, from the differences in style,
and even from the contradictions which disturb its
harmony. Hindu tradition ascribes 'it to Vt/dsa :
but as Vyasa means ' the distributer or arranger,'
and as tlie same individual is also the reputed com-
piler of the Vedas, Puranas, and several other
works, it is obvious that no historical value can be
assigned to this generic name. The contents of
the Mahabhiirata may be distinguished into the
leading story and the episodical matter connected
with it. The former is probaldy founded on real
events in the oldest history of India, though in the
epic narrative it will be difficult to disentangle the
reality from the Hction. The story comprises the
contest of the celebrated families called the Kaura-
vas and Paudavas, ending in the victory of the
latter, and in the establishment of their rule over
the northern part of India. Kuru, a descendant of
Bharata, had two sons, Dhritarashtra and Pandu.
Dhritarashtra's sons, the Kauravas, were a hundred
in number ; Pdndu's, the Pandavas, only five. Pandu
having resigned his throne, Dhritanishtra, though
blind, assumed the government, and ultimately
divided his kingdom between his sons and the sons
of Pandu. The former, however, coveting the
territory allotted to the Pandu princes, endeavoured
to get possession of it. A game of dice was the
means i)y which they bound over their cousins to
relinquish their kingdom, promising, however, to
restore it to them if they passed twelve years in
the forests, and a thirteenth year in such disguises
as to escape detection. This promise was faithfully
kept by the P/indavas ; but when the term of their
banishment had expired the Kuru princes refused
to redeem their word. A war ensued, ending in
the comidete destruction of the Kauravas. Duryo-
dhana and his brothers are jiicturcd as the type of
all conceivable wickedness, and the I'andu princes
as paragons of virtue and heroism, and the incarna-
tions of sunilry deities. Out of the hundred and ten
thousand couplets which constitute the great epos
barely a fourth part is taken up by this narrative ;
all the rest Is episodical. The matter incidentally
linked with the main story may be distributed
under three principal heads : one comprislni^ nar-
ratives relating to the ancient or mythical history
of India, as, for instance, the episodes of Nala and
Sakuntahi ; a second is more strictly mythological,
comprising cosmogony and theogony ; a third is
did.actic or dogmatic — it refers to law, religion,
morals, and philosophy, as in the Bhagavad-Gitii,
for instance. By means of this episodical matter,
which at various periods, and often without regard
to consistency, was superadded to the original
structure of the work, the Mah;ibliaiata gradually
became a collection of all that was needed to be
known by an educated Hindu ; in fact, it became
the eucyclopa'dia of India.
Tlie text of the Mahiibhi'uata was jmblislied in Cal-
cutta in four quarto volumes (1834-39), another edition
at llombay in 18ti3, antl another, under native Hindu
auspices, at Calcutta ui 1882 and succeeding years. The
Freiicli translation by Fauche (10 vols. 18C3-70) is in-
complete ; a complete English prose translation by
Hindus, of which, up to 1890, 50 parts had ajipeareil,
was published and distributed, chiefly gratis, at Calcutta,
under the auspices of Pratapachandra Koy. Wany
episodes, as the Bhagavad-Giti, have been separately
edited and translated. See Lassen's AHertHmskunde ;
H. H. Wilson's works ; Monier Williams, Indian Epic
PoHrij (1863); Wheeler, The Vcdic Period of the Malid-
bhdrula (1867).
Mallddeva ('the great god') is one of the
usual names by which the Hindu god S'iva is
called. See SiVA.
Mah^nadi ( ' the great river ' ), a river of India,
rises in the Central Provinces, in 20° 10' N. lat.,
82° E. long. After an eastward course of .520 miles,
300 miles of which are na\igable, having divitled
into several branches at or near the town of
Ctittack, which forms the head of its delta, it Hows
east and south-east through the district of tliat
name, and falls by several mouths into the Bay of
Bengal. The catchment basin of the MahAnadi is
less than 44,000 sq. ni., yet its maximum discharge
in time of flood equals that of the Ganges —
1,800,000 cubic feet per second — and exceeds that
of the Mississippi. An elaborate system of canals
has been constructed to take advantage of this
abundance.
Malianoy' City, a mining town of Pennsyl-
vania, 109 miles by rail NW. of Philadelphia, with
a score of collieries and several manufactories.
Pop. 7181.
Maharajah. See Rajah.
Mahsivaiisa. two celebrated works written in
Piili, and relating to the history of Lankd, or
Ceylon, from its earliest period down to the reign
of "Mahiisena, who died 302 A.D. The first thirty-
eight chapters were published in 1837 by G. Tur-
nour ; and there is an edition of the whole in Pali
and Singhalese (Colombo, 1877-83).
Mahii>'ira (literally, 'the great hero') is the
24th or last Jina, or <leified saint, of the Jains
(q.v.). His legendary history is given in the
kiilpa-Sutra and the Meiluivira-Charitra, two
works held in great authority by the Jains.
Mahdi (pass. part, of Arab//«^/(2 = 'he guide<l :'
' the well-directed one'), the Mohammeilan restorer
of all things. Though not mentioned in the Koran,
he is said to have been promised by Mcdianimed to
complete his work in tilling the world as full of
righteousness as it Is of inl(|ulty. The idea is that
of the Jewish and Christian .Messiah and of the
Zoroastrian Saoshyant. Some need for reform soon
made the idea practical. The first three califs were
by All's party regarded as usurpers ; and after All's
reign and murder that party grew in inimber and In
determination to recognise as Imam or calif none
but All's heirs. Mohammed, a son of Ali though
not of palima, but of 'the Hanalite,' bore unwil-
lingly the name of Mahdi, and dying in peace he
was expected to return. The Shia or party of Ali
consisted mainly of Persians. This race opposed
the Ommiades because these were unprincipled
men and half heathen, because they were tlieir
foreign tyrants, and because as usurpers they had
broken through the divine right of heredity. The
MA HE
MAHONY
807
Abbasides who, descended from the ))rophet's
uncle, expelled and destroyed the Oramiades by
aid of the Shia were as mucli the enemies of these
iis their predecessoi-s had been. The seventh Shiite
Imam was poisoned bv Ilaroun Alraschid the
eifthth by his temporarily Shiite successor Alma-
nuin : the ninth, tenth, eleventh folh)\ved the same
path of martyrdom. The twelfth, Moliammed by
name, disappeared after captivity at the age of
twelve years in 879. The Shiite inference is that
he, the ' hidden Imam,' will yet come as Mahdi to
destroy the false prophet and, with the help of
Jesus, to destroy or convert to Islam all mankind,
and to put all wrongs right. Then will follow the
resurrection and the final judgment. The native
princes of Soli's line who mastered the Persian
throne in 1505 called themselves the lieutenants of
the coming Mahdi. From the Ismailis (q.v. ) in
North Africa arose another Malidi, from whom
sprang the Fatiniide califs. The seventh of these
was Hakim, one of God's incarnations that had
previously been AH. He died, ' became hidden,'
in 1020, and is expected by his sect the Druses.
Among the Berbers of Mount Atlas in the 12th
century arose another Mahdi, by name Mohammed
ibn Tumert, whose disciple and successor Abilul-
m(imin overran Morocco and supplanted the Almo-
ravide dynasty there and afterwards in Spain.
Hence the Alraohade (' Unitarian ') dynasty. Tlie
year 1C66 produced in Turkey its .Jewish Messiah,
Sabljatai Zevi, and in consequence its Kurdish
Mahdi for the suppression of this Dejjal, or false
prophet. Both fell quietly into the sultan's
Lands. In 1799 another Mahdi arose in Egypt,
against the French, and fell in battle. In Dongola,
towards 1843, was born Mohammed Ahmed. He
was for a time in the Egyptian civil service, but
disagreeing with the governor, he became a trader
and a leading slave-dealer. About the prophetic
age of forty he claimed to be the Mahdi. Gra<lu-
ally at the Mahdi's call — the Muslim equivalent
for a revolutionary spirit — the Eastern Soudan
stirred itself against Eg>-ptian misrule. In 1883
he seized El-'01)eyd, the chief city of Kordofan, and
made it his capital ; and t)n the 5th November of
that year the Egyptian army commanded by Hicks
Pasha was annihilated. In 1885 Khartoum was
taken by treachery, and General Gordon, wiioui
Britain had sent to pacify the Soudan, was killed.
The Mahdi died at Omdurnian on 22d June 1885.
The Khalifa Abdulla succeeded him, but never
wielded his power, and his influence was destroyed
by the British expedition to Dongola in 1896 and
tlie disastrous defeats inflicted on liim by the Sirdar
Kitchener (afterwards Lord Kitchener) at the
Atbara in April 1898, and especially at Omdurnian
on 2<1 September 1898. The Mahdis tomb in
Omdurman was destroyed, the Egyptian flag
was hoisted at Khartoum, and, after FashoJa, the
whole Nile Valley came under IJntish influence.
For the rebellion, the defeat of Hicks Pasha, and the
fall of Khartoum, see Egypt ( Vol IV. p. 213), Gordon,
SoUD.v.v. Sec also Damiesteter, The Mahdi Past and
Pre'cnt (Eng trans. 1885); Wingate, Mahdiism and the
KgijptiHH Soud'tn (1891); Ohrwalder, Ten Years' Cap-
tititii in the Mahdi's Camp ( 1892 ) ; Slatin Pasha, Fire and
Sword in the .Soudan (trans, by Wingate, 1896); Bennett
Burlei;;h, Sirdar and Khalifa (1898); G. W. Stcevens,
With Kitchener to Khartoum (1898).
Slah^, the only French settlement on the west
coast of India, is in .Malabar district, 35 miles
NNW. of Calicut. Area, 3J stj. m. ; pop. 8280.
!Mahi Hantlia Agency, a group of fifty-two
native states in liumhay. Of the total area of
11,049 sq. ni. ne;irlv one half belongs to the state
of Edar. Pop. 581,808, including 3O,(JO0 Bhils.
Hahmud. See Turkey, Gbazni.
Alahoganyci the wood of the Swietenia mahag-
oni, a tree from SO to 100 feet high, belonging to
the natural order Cedrelace;e, a native of the West
Indies and of South America. The tree attains an
immense size, and its timber is generally sound
throughout in the largest trees. It is most abundant
on the coast of Honduras and around Campeachy
Bay. St Domingo and Cuba yield a finer quality
than that obtained from the mainland, which is
frequently called Bay Wood, to distinguish it from
Cuba mahogany, usually called Spanish. The wood
varies much in value, according to the colour and
beauty of curl ; single logs have occasionally
realised as much as £1000, for cutting into veneers,
in which state it is very generally used, its great
weight and value unfitting it for being always
employed solid. The first notice we have of
mahogany is in connection with the repairing of
some of Sir Walter Raleigh's ships in Trinidad in
1597 ; but the wood does not appear to have been
carried to Britain till about the end of the 17th
century, when it was brouglit from the West Indie.s
as ballaiit by a Captain Gibbons. The captain's
brother wished to use the timber for his house then
in course of erection, but the workmen declined to
work it owing to its extreme hardness. A portion
was, however, given to one WoUaston, a cabinet-
maker, of which to make a candle-box for Dr
Gibbons. When finished, the box exhibited such
rare beauty as to create much interest in society ;
and bureaus made by Wollaston soon established
the reputation of mahogany for cabinet-work.
The annual imports into Britain are about 40,000
tons, with a value of £350,000. The bark has a
faint aromatic smell and a very astringent bitter
taste, and in tlie countries where the tree grows
is used as a medicine. As Mahorjnmj Bark, or
Amarctntli Bark, it has been employed as a sub-
stitute for Peruvian Bark. — East India Mahogany
is the timber of the Eoh una Tree ( Sownida febri-
fuga), and African Mahogany of the Khaya Sene-
galensis, both of the order Cedrelacese.
Malioinet. See Mohammed.
Mahou. See Stanhope, Port Mahon.
Mahony, Francis, better known by his famous
pen-name. ' Father Prout,' was born at Cork in
1804, and educated for the priesthood at a Jesuit
college in Paris, and subsequently in Rome,
where he remained for two years and received
ordination. He taught in a Jesuit college, was
chaplain to a Cork hospital, but ceased to exercise
the clerical calling about 18.34, and joined the
stair of Eraser s Magazine, his contributions to
which were republished under the title of lieliqiies
(if Father Prout in 1836. He contributed also to
Bcntley's Mageizine from 1837. For two yeais he
acted as Roman correspondent to the Daily News,
and his letters were collected and published in 1847
as Fads and Figures from Italy by Don Jeremy
Savonarola, Benedictine Monk. During the last
years of his life he lived in Paris, and was corre-
s))Oiident to the C/otc newspaper till his death, May
18, 18C6. Maliony possessed great scholarship and
a rich fund of genial huuiour. Amid all the con-
vivialities of the ' Fraserians,' he preserved his
reverence for religion without allowing it to cloud
tlie brightness of his wit. 'His fun is es.sentially
Irish — fanciful, playful, odd, irregular, aiul more
grotesque than northern fun. In one of his own
phrases, he is an Irish potato, seasoned with Attic
salt, and oblivion has no poppy for the exqui-
site pathos of verse like 'The Bells of Shandon'
and 'The Lady of Lee.' A volume of Final
Reliqiics of Father I'rout was published in 1876
by Air Blanchard Jerrold ; and there is an edi-
tion of his works, with a Life, bv Charles Kent
(1881).
808
MAHOUND
MAIDENHAIR
Mataound, a corrupt early western spelling of
MOHAMMICD (q.v.).
IHilhratta-S (Mardthds, or Marhafas), a people
of mixed orij^in, Hindus in religion and caste ordi-
nances, inhabiting Western and Central India, from
the Satpura Mountains to Nagpur, The Mahratta
Brahmans claim to be Rajputs ; the bullc of the
people are Sudras, and probably of aboriginal blood
mainly. They are first mentioned in liistory about
the niiddle of the 17th century, wlien tliey pos-
sessed a narrow strip of territory on the west side
of the peninsula. The founder of the Mahratta
power was Sivaji, a freebooter or adventurer, whose
father, Shahji Hlionsla, was an officer in the service
of the last king of Bijapur. By policy or by force,
he eventually succeeded in compelling the several
independent Hindu chiefs to acknowledge liini as
tlieir leader, and with the large army tlieu at his
command overran and subdued a large portion of
the emperor of Delhi's territory. His son and
(1680) successor, Sambhaji, after vigorously follow-
ing out his fatlier's policy, was taken prisoner by
Aurungzebe in 1689, and put to death. His son, a
prisoner, resigned his rule to his minister, with tlie
title of Peshivd; the descendauts of Sivaji lience-
forward reigned over but did not govern Sattara
(see India, p. 118). Under the fourth hereditary
Peshwli tliere were five Mahratta states, more or
less powerful and independent : tliat of the Peshwd
at Poona; that of tlie Blionslas at Nagpur; Gwalior,
ruled by Sindliia ; Indore, by Holkar ; and Baroda,
by the Guicowar. The invasion of the Delhi empire
by Nadir Shah afforded these wild and warlike
mountaineers an opportunity, of which they eagerly
availeil themselves, to wrest additional territory
from the feeble grasp of the Mogul emperor. From
this time tliey discharged the office of arbiters in
the quarrels Itetween the emperor, his vizier, and
his rebellious subjects : but the frightful defeat
(January 1761) they sustained at the hands of
Ahmed Shah Dunini, the ruler of Afghanistan,
on the field of Panipat, where they lost 50,000
men, and all their chiefs except Holkar, weakened
their power for a time. They still, however, con-
tinued to be the hired mercenaries of the Delhi
emperor, till the growing inlluence of the British
compelled them to look to their own safety. After
many long and bloody contests with the British
and their allies (1780, 1803, 1817-18), in which
sometimes the whole, but more frequently a
portion of the Mahrattas joined, they were one
by one, with the exception of Sindhia, reduced to
a state of dependence. This last-mentioned chief,
liaving raised a powerful army, officered by French-
men, and disciinined after the European method,
continued the contest for a number of years, till
his power was finally broken in 1843. The dignity
of Peshwil was abolished in 1818, and his territories
were occupied by tlie British. The Mahrattas are
almost all now in Britisli or Mohammeihin states ;
in the states called Mahratta states (Gwalior, In-
dore, Baroda; .see India, p. 110) only the prince
and liis relatives are Mahrattas, the people being
of other stocks. See Grant-DutTs History of tlie
Mdrathm (1826).
Maliwa-tree. See Butter-tree.
Alai, Angelo, Cardinal, a distinguished Italian
scholar, was born in the village of Scliilpario, in
Lombardy, March 7, 1782. He was educated and
lived till 1808 in Jesuit establishments, next was
a secular priest at Milan, and became custodian
of the Ambrosian Library there. Here lie de-
voted himself to palaography, and during the next
si.x years discovered a series of long-lost works,
many from palimpsests. Among these were frag-
ments of some of Cicero's Orations ; of Plautus,
eajjecially of the Vidularia, a lost play ; of Letters
of Fronto, the preceptor of Marcus Aurelius ; of
Isa!us, Themistius, Dionysius of Halicarnas.sns,
Philo, Porpliyrios, and the Chronieon of Eusebius.
All these, however, were eclipsed by his well-
known edition and restoration of the Dr. lie.piiblica
of Cicero (1822). Meanwhile Mai had been invited
to Rome by Pius VII., and named to the charge of
the Vatican Library. He at once turned his atten-
tion to the unedited MSS. of the Vatican, and
undertook the task of publishing those among
them which had been neglected by earlier editors ;
and although appointed in 1833 to the onerous
office of secretary of the Propaganda, and in 1838
to the cardinalate itself, he found time to superin-
tend a series of jjublications almost unexampled in
e.xtent and importance in modern times. Ilis first
series was in ten quarto vols., entitled Hcriptorum
Veterum Nova Collectio, e Vaticam's Codicibiis
edita (1825-38). It consists, like the great col-
lections of Mabillon, JMontfaucon, D'Achery, and
others, of niiscellaueous unpublished Greek and
Latin works, partly sacred, partly piofane, com-
prising an entire volume of palimpsest fragments
of the Greek historians, Polybius, Diodorus, Dion,
Dionysius, and others. The succeeding collections,
CUtssicorum Anctornm Collectio, e Vaticanis Codici-
bifs edita (10 vols. 1828-38), Spicilcgimn Eomanum
(10 vols. 1839-44), and Patrum Nova Biblio-
thcca (6 vols. 1845-53), are all on the same plan,
and all equally replete witli new and interest-
ing materials. For many years Cardinal Mai was
engaged in preparing an edition of the celebrated
Codex Vaticanus, but long postponed its publica-
tion with the intention of pre|)aring iireliminaiy
dissertations. But death overtook liim unex-
pectedly near Albano, September 9, 1854; and the
edition was ultimately published without the.se
(5 vols. 1858). This work was far from being
entirely satisfactoiy, and has since been super-
seded by tlie edition of Vercellone and Cozza
(1868). Cardinal Mai's library was bequeathed,
at lialf its estimated value, to tlie Vatican, for the
good of the poor of his native village.
niaideii. The. See Guillotine.
illuideuliail* (Adiantum Cajjillus-Vciieris), a
small, delicate, and graceful fern, with bipinnate
fronds, alternate obovate and wedge-shaped mem-
branaceous pinnules on capillary stalks, and mar-
ginal sori hidden lienoatli oblong iiidiisia ; growing
Mnidenhair :
", AdlaiUum Capilhis- Veneris ; h, Adiantum cuneatnm.
on moist rocks and old walls, especially near the
sea ; r.are in Britain, but very abundant in the
scnitli of Europe, where it covers the inside of wells
and the basins of fountains (as at Vaucluse) with
a tapestry of the most delicate green. Another
MAIDENHEAD
MAILDUN
809
species of tlie same genus, A. pedotum, a native
of Nortli America, with pcdatc leaves, has a sweet,
fra<iiant rout-stock, of which CapiMaire (n.v.) is
made. It is snpposeil that the name maiclenhair
originated in the use of a inucihige made from this
fern by women for stitt'ening their liair. This name
is sometimes applied also to some species of spleen-
wort (Asplenium), as A. adiantiim nigrum and A.
tric/iomaties. It is also applied to the Adiantum
familj- generally, of which there are many species
and varieties. The most common of all and best
known popularly is A. ciineufum, a Brazilian
species, which is much cultivated by florists.
Ulaidonlicad. a municipal l)orouj;h and mar-
ket-town of Uerksliire, with a population ( 1891) of
10,607, is situate amidst beautiful scenery lo miles
E. by X. of Heading, and 26 \V. of London, and on
the right bank of the Thames, over which are two
bridges, one of stone, built 1772 at a cost of £20,000,
and the other of brick, on the Great Western Rail-
way (described Vol. II. p. 439). With the excep-
tion of a recreation-ground of 12 acres, opened 1890,
there is little of interest in the town, which in
1.399 was the scene of an engagement between the
rival forces of Ricliard II. and Henry IV., and in
1647, at tlie Greyhound Inn, of tlie interview of
Charles I. with his children. On tlie opposite, or
Bucks, side of the river is Taplow (pop. 1063),
whose wooded slopes are crowned by ' Cliveden's
proud alcove.' The present house dates only from
IS.')! ; two previous mansions — in the earlier of
which Thomson, whilst on a visit to the father
of George III., probably composed ' Rule Britannia '
— having been (lestroyed by tire in 1795 and 1849.
llaidment, James, Scottish antiquarian and
literary collector, was born in London in 1794,
being descended on his mother's side from Jan
van Olden Barneveldt, the Dutch patriot. He
was educated at the High School and university
of Edinburgh, and was called to the Scottish bar
in 1817. He became almost the greatest authority
in Scotland on genealogical law cases, and took a
Srominent part in the Mar peerage case and others.
[e died in Edinburgh, 24th October 1879. The
passion of his life was the collection of literary rari-
ties, often not of a very choice character. His most
ambitious publication was 'J'he Dramatists of the
Ik.ftoratioH {li vols. 1872-75), edited with W. H.
Logan ; besides this he edited A North Coiintrie
Garland, a Collection of Ancient Ballads (1824;
new ed. 1884); Scottish Pasguils or Lampoons
(1827-28; new ed. 1868); Neiv Book of Old
Ballads (1844; new ed. 1885); Scottish Ballads
and Songs (1839 and 1868); Paekel of Pestilent
Pasquils (1869); an Acrount of the Bannatyne
Club; and several historical, antiquarian, and
genealogical works.
Maids of Honour. See Household.
llaidstonc, the county and assize town of
Kent, is se.ited on the right bank of the Medway,
.34 miles ESE. of London by road (4U by rail),
and 25 W. of Canterbury. At its west entrance,
overlooking the river, which is spanned by a three-
arch stone bridge, built 1877-79 at a cost oif £55,000,
stand the picturesoue remains of .Mi-Saints' Col-
lege (of which William flrocyn was once master),
originally established in 1260 . -is a hospital for pil-
grims travelling to Canterbury, and, like all otlier
institutions of the same kind, suppressed in the
reign of Edward VI. Close by is All-Saints'
Church, a fine example of the I'erpendicular style,
built towards the end of the I4tli century, and
restored I860; its interior is 227 feet long, and
cimtains many interesting monuments and bia«ses,
and a line organ (1880). From the tower, 78
feet high, formerly rose a spire of 94 feet, which
was destroyed by lightning in 1731. To the nortli
of this, the principal of Maidstone's ten churches,
are schools of art and music, occupying a former
palace of the archbishops of Canterbury ; and other
features of interest comprise a grammar-school, at
which Sir Egerton Biydges was educated, founded
1.549, and rebuilt on a new site, 1871 : museum and
public liliraiy, established 18.58 in Chillington
House, where, too, are the headquarters of the
Kent Arch.i^ological Society; town-hall (1764);
county ";aol (1812-19), built of Kentish ragstone,
obtained from adjacent quarries ; hospital ( 18.32-
89): cavalry and militia liarracks ; corn exchange
(1835); oi.'hthalmie hospital (1851-69); and a
public park on Penenden Heath to the NE. of
the town, where formerly ^\■cre held the county
elections and other great meetings. Lining the
river-banks are numerous paper-mills and a large
oil-mill, whilst several breweries are in operation,
and an important traffic is carried on in hops.
Maidstone returned two members to parliament
till 1885, when the number was reduced to one,
and was lii-st incorporated as a municipal borough
in 1.548 ; it gives the inferior title of viscouiit
to the Earl of Winchelsea. Pop. (ISOl) 8027;
(1831) 15.387: (1881) 29,623; (1891) 32,145. The
history of the town is bound up with that ot
Kent (q.v.), the only special incidents identified
with Maidstone being its storming in 1648 by Fair-
fax, when garrisoned by a royalist force, which only
surrendered after a desperate resistance. Wooi-
lett the engraver, Hazlitt the essayist, and New-
man Hall were natives ; and Sir Thomas Wyatt
the poet, and his son, the rebel, lived at Allington
Castle, 2 miles distant. There was a tenilile
visitation of typhoid fever in September and
October 1897, due — as w'as proved — to defective
and polluted water-supply.
See works by J. M. Kussell ( 1881 ) and Rev. J. Cave-
Browne (1889).
Maisxc (Scicena aquila), a fish of the acanthop-
terous family Scioenida^, common in the Mediter-
ranean but rare on British shores. It is usually
3 feet, sometimes 6 feet long. It resembles a large
basse and is excellent for the table.
mail. See Armour, Post-office.
Maildllll. the hero of an ancient Irish romance,
first translated by Dr Joyce in his Ancient Celtic
Romances (1879), and supposed by him to be the
product of a rich and vivid imagination, working
freely on a real voyage made in the beginning of the
8th century. The story fonus one of the four extant
Imrama or voluntary sea-expeditions, of which the
most famous is the Gth-century voyage of St Bren-
dan ; and it has lieen made familiar to all readei's
in the splendid verse of Tennyson. Maildun was
the son of Allil Oc.ar Aga, of the tribe of Owenaght
of Ninus, in the north-west of County Clare, and
liefore his l>irth his father was killed Yiy a band of
sea-robbers. He grew up handsome and accom-
plished, but had scarce reached manhood before
lie set sail in a triple-hide curragh with a crew of
sixty men to find his father's murderer. For three
years anil seven months he voyaged on the western
sea, seeing marvels such as no eyes had seen before.
He visited islands of monstrous ants, of blood-
thirsty quadrupeds, of red-hot animals, and of
those which turn them.selves round inside their
skins, a-s well as the isles of the blest, of laughing,
of weeping, of intoxicating wine-fruits, of the
mystic lake, of the burning river, of the crystal
bridge, and the four precious walls. Further
wondem were the demon horse-race, the palace of
.solitude, the miller of hell, speaking birds, a water-
arch in the air, and the silver pillar of the sea. At
len^'th Maildun found the murderer of his father,
but forgave him his wrong because of the great
mercy of God in having delivered himsi'lf from so
many dangei's.
810
MAIMANA
MAIN
Ulaiinana. an Uzbeg state tributary to Afghan-
istan, and virtually a iiro\ince of that country,
situated on the northern frontier next Bussian
Turkestan ; it has an area of about 4750 sq. ra.,
and a pop. of 100,000, mostly warlike Uzbegs and
Tajiks. The country is mountainous. The capital
is Maimana, SW. of Balkh, 2.5 miles from the
frontier. Previous to the seizure of the place by
the Afghans, in 1874, it was a considerable town,
hut is now a village of 2500 inhabitants, who trade
in hoi-ses, carpets, and dried fruits.
Mailliaiisillgll. a district of the Bengal divi-
sion of Dacca, the capital of \vhich is Nasirabad.
iflailliati'llin. a Chinese trading-town on the
northern boundary of Mongolia, opposite Kiachta
(ii.v. ), from which it is separated by a narrow strip
of neutral territory. Pop. 3000.
niaiiuboiirg, Louis (1610-86), a French Jesuit
church-historian, was expelled in 1685 fiom the
order for his defence of Gallicanisni, but became
a pensioner of Louis XIV. He wrote histories of
Wyelilism, Lutheranism, Cal\inism, and of the
prerogatives of the Church of Rome.
niaimon, Solomon, philosopher, was bom of
Jewish parents about 1754 in a village on the
Xiemen, near Mir, in the west of what is now
the Russian government of Minsk. His mind was
trained in the study of the Talmud, and he qualified
fin- a rabbi. But possessing a burning desire for
truth, and having become acquainted with the
philosophy of Maimonides, he made his way to
Berlin, and studied modern philosophy, languages,
and some science. A child of nature, with the
strong, subtle intellect of the born philosopher ;
shy, eccentric, dirty, and unmethodical ; impro\i-
dent, intemperate, and wholly irregular in his
habits, Mainion led a vagabond life, battling
against chronic ])Overty, and always dependent
upon his friends for the bare necessaries of exist-
ence. Besides cultivating his own mind, and
teaching a little, he never did any work, except
write some philosophical treatises and literary hack-
work, done anywhere and at any time, mostlv in
poor taverns. Yet this ragged philosopher luid
ilendelssohn, the philosopher, among his friends,
was admired by Kant, and attracted the attention
of Goethe. This good fortune he owed to his
Versuch eincr TranscendentalphUosophie (1790), an
eclectic .system, in which he attempted to supple-
ment Kant's by truths gleaned for the most part
from Spinoza, teibnitz, Hume, Locke, and others.
He died in the house of Count Kalkreuth, his la.st
patron, at Siegersdorf, in Lower Silesia, on 22d
iSIovember 1800.
See his very interesting Autohiorjraph'j (1702; Eng.
trans, by J. Clark Murray, 1S88); S. J. Wolff's Maimo-
niana (1813) ; and the Life by Witte (Berlin, 1876).
IIIailiIOIli<Ie!>i, the name by which Christians
generally know the great Jewish teacher, Kabbi
Moses lien Mairnon, who from the initials of these
words is called by the Jews K.\MB.^^L He wa-s
horn at Cordova, .March 30, 1135, and received his
first instruction from his father. Under the most
distinguished Arabic masters of the time he then
devoted himself to the study of Greek ( Aristotelian )
philosophy, the science of medicine, and theology.
Under the Almohades his family had to conform
outwardly to Mohammedanism, and ultimately
emigrated to Kgypt, and Maimonides became
physician to the reigning sultan, Saladin. At
("airo he died December 13, 1204. His importance
for the religion and science of Judaism, and his
inlluence upon their development, are so gigantic
that he has not unjustly been placed .second to
.Moses, the great lawgiver, himself. He first of all
brought order into those ahnost boundless re-
ceptacles of tradition, and the discussions and
decisions to which they had given rise, which, with-
out the remotest attempt .at system or method, lie
scattered up and down the works of Haggada and
Halacha — Midrash, Mishnah, 'Talmnds. Imbued
with the spirit of lucid (neek speculation, and the
logical thought of the Araliic I'erijiatetics, Mai-
nmnides, aided by an enormous knowledge, became
the founder of rational Scripture exegesis. The
Bible, and all its wnitten as well as implied pre-
cejits, he endeavoured to exi)lain by the lighl of
reason, with which, as the highest divine gift in
man, nothing really di\ine could staml in real con-
tradiction. The miracles themselves, though not
always traceable to their immediate cause, yet
cannot be wrought in ojjposition to the physical
and everlasting laws in nature. Where literal inter-
pretation seems to jar upon the feelings of reve-
rential awe towards the Highest Being, there an
allegorical explanation is to he adopted unhesitat-
ingly. As to the philosophical system of Maimon-
ides, we can barely hint at its close similarity
with that of Averroes. Maimonides fully allows
the freedom of will, and holds that prcnidence
reigns in a broad manner over humanity ; hut he
utterly denies the working of providence in the
single event that befalls the individual, \\1io,
subject abo\e all to the great physical laws,
must learn to undei-stand and obey them. The
soul, and the soul only, is immortal, and the
reward of virtue consists in its unbodily bliss in a
world to come ; while the punishment of vice is the
'loss of the soul.'
Maimonides' tiret work of paramount importance
is his Arabic commentary of the Mishnah, which
forms an extensive historical introiluetion to Tradi-
tiiin, or the Oral Law ; and this introduction, trans-
lated into Hebrew, has now for more than five
hundred years been deemed so essential a part of the
Talmud itself that no edition of the latter is con-
sidered complete without it. This was followed by
the ^'r/fc Hainmizruth, or Book of the Precciils, in
Arabic, which contains an enumeration of the 613
traditional laws of the Halacha ; the text was first
edited by M. Bloch (Paris, 1888). This book is to
he considered chiefly as an introduction to the
gigantic work which followed in 1180, under the
title of Mishne Torah ('Second Law'), or Yail
Chasttkah ('Strong Hand'), a Hebrew compendium
in 982 chapfers, embracing the entire Halacha.
The summit of liis renown, however, Maimonides
reached in his grand Arabic work, iJvliilnth A/-
Hiiiriit (translated into Hebrew by K. Tihbon as
.Mori:li Kcbor/iim, 'Guide of the Erring'), a philo-
sophical exegesis, which, while on the one hand
it has contributed more than any other work to
the progress of rational development in Judaism,
has on the other hand also become the arena for
a long and bitter light between orthodoxy and
science, between the spiritualistic Mainionidian
and the ' literal Talniudtstic ' schools. Ultimately
the antagonistic parties came to a reconciliation,
and Maimonides name became the pride and
glory of the race; and as early as the 13th cen-
tury, already portions of his works, chiefly the
il/orc/i (' Doctor Perplexinum '), became, in Latin
versions, the textbooks even of European uni-
versities. See T/ie Om'i/c of the I'crjilij:id of
Maimonides, translaleil and annotated by Fried-
lander (3 vols. 18SC) ; and his Life of Maimonides.
illaill. a river of Germany, the largest affluent
the Rhine receives from the right, is formed by the
union of two branches, the White and the Red
Main, 4 miles below Kulmb.ach, in north-east
Bavaria. The White Main rises in the Fichtel-
gebirge, 2900 feet above sea-li'vel ; the Red Main,
a few miles S. of Bayreuth. The river Hows west-
wards by huge zigzags past Bamberg, Schwcinfurt,
Wiirzburg, Aschallenhurg, Hanau, Ofl'enbach, and
f
MAINE
811
Copyright 1S90 In U.S.
by J. B. LippiDCgtt
Cuiupauy.
Frankfort, and mingles its yellow waters with the
green current of the Rhine opposite Mainz, after a
total coui-se of 307 miles, the last 205 of wliicli are
navijiable. The chief affluents are, on the ri"ht,
the Sivale, and on the left, the Regnitz. The Jlain
flows through a beautiful country, the hill-slopes
fenerally covered with vineyards and surmounted
y castles. Its watei-s communicate with those of
the Danube by means of the Ludwigs-Kanal and
the Altuiiihl. The Main divides politically North
Germany from South Germany.
Maine, an old province of France, having
Normandy on the nortli, Brittany on the west,
and Aujou on the south, corresponded to the
modern departments of Sarthe and Mayenne. Its
chief town was Le Mans.
KailI6, the north-ea.«temmost state of tlie
American Union, is bounded N. by the Canadian
grovinces of Quebec and New
runswick, E. by New Brunswick,
S. and SE. by the Atlantic Ocean
(Gulf of Maine), AV. by New Hampshire, and NW.
by the province of Quebec. Area, 33,040 sq. m., of
which one-tenth is water, there being many large
and fine lakes (Moosehead, Chesuncook, Schoodic,
Grand. Sebago, &c.) and important rivers ( Penob-
scot, Kennebec, Androscoggin, Saco, St Croix,
Aroostook, and WalloostooK or St John ). It
is thus somewhat larger than Ireland. Meas-
ured in a direct line the coast extends some 270
English statute miles, but if its sinuosities and the
outlring island-shores were measured it is esti-
mated that the whole would be extended to about
2.500 miles. When the poet Whittier speaks about
' hundred-liarboured Maine,' he scarcely exagger-
ates, for the rocky coastline, broken by the force
of the waves ami trenched in former geological
times by glaciers, forms almost that number of
anchorages, some of them higlily important for
their commerce, and others serving as liarbours of
refuge. Towards the south-west the sliore is sandy,
and there are salt marshes, producing much coarse
h.ay. The surface is uneven, and in the north-cen-
tral regions and the west it is even mountainous.
The scenerj' at some points (as on Mount Desert
Island, on some of the lakes, and in the region near
Camden) is very picturesque. Tlie highest moun-
tain is Katahdin (5385 feet). The soil is mostly
stony and hard, as in New England generally,
but some sections are very fertile — the Aroostook
region in the north-east for the most part exceed-
inirly so. The northern portion of the state is
covered in great part with a dense forest, and its
population is very sparse.
The geological features are complex, but a great
proportion of the strata shows metamorphic traces.
The surface is everywhere scored with prehistoiic
glacier and drift ice. Granite Is very extensively
iiuarried, and presents many handsome varieties.
Excellent lime is largely produced. Traces of coal
are found ( as at Georgetown and Bucksport ), and
there are local beds of valuable graphite. The
state is rich in rare minerals. Many silver-mines
have been o])eneil, and a few are still operated in
a small way; but the ores (sulphide of silver
accompanying galena, &c.) are often reMlious and
expensive to work. Vast beds of copper (lK)rnite,
clialcocite, clialcopyrite) exist, some of them quite
rich. Felspar, Ihigstone, limonite. nuca, yellow-
ochre, glass sand, slate ( the latter in vast quantities
and of high gra<le), lead ores, talc, tripoli, and
manganese are all wrought to a greater or le.ss
extent. Tourmaline is obtained as a preci<ms
stone, for jewellers' use ; and lepidolite, a mineral
rich in the rare metal ca».siuni. is locally found in
considerable abundance. Mineral waters are
shipped in large quantities.
The cool climate and the opportunities for fishing
and shooting make this state a favourite region for
summer resort. The winter climate is severe for
the latitude ; the winters are long and the snows
deep. Ice, which is harvested especially on the
Kennebec, is an important commodity for export.
The leading crops are hay, potatoes, ajiples (of
excellent quality), and the ordinary grains and
small fruits. The sweet varieties of maize (sugar-
corn) are extensively cultivated, and are sold
largely in tins and glass for winter consumption ;
this is a prominent industry in some sections.
The rainfall is copious. The rivers of Maine allonl
an enormous water-power, only a relatively small
part of which is at present utilised. Forest pro-
ducts (timber, tan-hark, &c.) are extensively cut.
Navigation is favoured by the numerous inlets and
the large navigable streams, and railway communi-
cation is fairly developed. Timber, building-stone,
ice, cattle, wool, and fann products are sliipped.
Maine has considerable shipbuilding (more than
any other state), and the coasting trade is carried
on largely. The fishing interests are extensive ;
mackerel, lobsters, herring, ' sardines ' ( here mostly
small hening), fish-oil, and fish-guano are the staple
products of the fisheries. The principal manufac-
turing industries of the state are the making of
cotton and woollen goods, leather, boots and slioes,
flour, paper, and foundiT products, the sawing and
planing of lumber, shipbuilding, the canning of
fruit and lobstei-s, lic.
Maine contains sixteen counties, and returns
four membei's to congress. The chief towns are
Portland, the largest city and principal seaport ;
Bangor, on the navigable ri\er Penobscot ; Lewis-
ton, the seat of extensive cotton manufactures ;
Augr:sta, the state capital : Bath, noted for its
shipbuilding^; Auburn, Belfast, Rockland, Bidde-
ford, Saco, Brunswick, Brewer, Eastport, Gardiner,
Hallowell, Waterville, &c. Education is general
and on the whole progressive. There are colleges
of repute at Bninswick, AVaterville, Lewiston, and
Orono, the last a state institution. The Maine
Liquor Law, one of the earliest of the stringent
Liquor Laws (q.v. ; and see Tejiper.vxck ), was
enacted in 1851. The population is mainly of the
English Puritan stock of New England. There
is a large element of French-speaking Canadian
immigrants, and in the extreme north there is a
considerable body of Acadian French who have
occupied for nearly 150 years a fertile region on
the river St John. Latterly there has been an
influx of Irish, Swedish, and Gemian settlere. An
old German colony near the coast has become com-
pletely Americanised. There are a few Indians
left in the state ; but the African element is very
small indeed. Pop. ( 1820 ) 298,335 ; ( 1860) 628,279;
(1880)648,936; (1890)661,086.
Histurtj. — The early Dutch settlements did not
prove i)ernianeiit. The English established settle-
ments here as early as 1607, but with no success.
The French planted an unsuccessful colony cm
Neutral Lsland in 1604, but all their attemi>ts at
colonisation <m the coast were speedily abanuoned.
Bristol or Pemaquid wa-s settled in 1630, and had
an interesting early history, becoming in 1648 a
centre of a new but temjiorary ' Ducal Slate' sub-
ject to the Duke of York, afterwards James II.
York, settled probably in 1624, was the capital of a
colony under Sir Ferdinando (Jorges (q.v.). In
16.35 the western part of Maine received the title
of the Province of Maine, and from 1651 to 1820 it
formed a detached part of Ma.s.sacliHsetts, called the
district of Maine ; Ma.s.«achusetts in 1677 bought
the title to the Gorges colony. Eastern Maine until
1691 forincil a part of .Acadia or Nova .S'otia.
Maine became a state in 1820. An angry dispute
■with Great Britain as to the nortlicm and eastern
812
MAINE
MAINTENON
boundary was settled in 1842 by a compromise.
Latterly the depletion of the pine-forests and a
large emigration to the West nave checked tlie
material progress of Maine, but its healthful
climate and its natural resources ensure to the
state a prosperous future. See G. J. Vamey, Brief
History of Maine (Portland, 1SS9).
Slaine, Sir Hexry James Sujinek, was born
in 1822, and had his education at Christ's Hospital
and Pembroke College, Cambridge, where his career
was unusually brilliant. He carried oil' the Craven
scholarship and other university prizes, and gradu-
ated in 18-44 as senior classic and Chancellor's
classical medallist, as well as a senior optime in
mathematics. Soon after he was elected fellow
and tutor of Trinity Hall, and in 1847, at the age
of twenty-five, was appointed regius professor of
Civil Law, which office he vacated in 1854 to become
Header on Jurisprudence at the Middle Temple. He
was called to the bar in 1850, and went to India in
1862 as Law Member of the Council in India — an
office held by Macaulay, and in which he himself
was succeeded in December 1869 by Sir James Fitz-
jaraes Stephen. In 1870 he was appointed to fill
the new chair of Comparative Jurisprudence at
Oxford, and next year to a seat in the Council of
the Secretary of State for India, on which occasion
he was created K. C.S.I. At the close of 1877 he
was elected Master of Trinity Hall at Cambridge,
and in 1 887 also Whe well professor of International
Law. But his health was already broken, and on
February .3, 1888, he died of apoplexy at Cannes.
Maine gave some wise reforms to Indian law, but
it is by his work on the ori.gin and growth of legal
and social institutions that his name will be best
remembered. His books were Ancient Law (1861),
one of the most important and influential works of
its time ; Villaqe Communities in the Ecist and
West (1871); The Early History of Institutions
(1875); Early Lav) and Custom (1883); and
Popular Gorerumciit (1885). One fundamental
idea of Sir Henry Maitie's was to make paternal
or patriarchal power the germ from which society
developed. This view was strongly controverted
by M'Lennan, Morgan, and Spencer; but Elaine's
answer was marked by equal learning and far
greater lucidity and grace of e.\i)osition. See the
Memoir by Sir'jl. E. Grant Dufr(1892).
niaine-et-Loire, a department of France,
formed out of the old province of Anjou, and
watered by the rivers wnose names it bears, is
divided into the arrondissements of Angers, Beauge,
Cholet, Saumur, and Segre. Area, 2749 sq. in. ;
pop. (1872)518,471; (1886)527,680; (1891)513,815.
The soil is fertile, and produces excellent corn and
wine, with hemp, linseed, fruit, and green crops.
Slate-quarries and coal-mines are worked ; and
there are mills for cotton, woollen, and linen manu-
factures. Capital, Angers.
niailiotes* the inhabitants of the mountainous
I)(Munsula of Maina, that lies between the gulfs of
Koron and Marathonisi in the extreme south of
Greece. They (daim to be the descendants of the
ancient Snartans, number close upon 50,000, and
are a well-built race, industrious and hospitable,
but revengeful, groat lovers of liberty, and formerly
im])laeahle foes of the Turks. They took a promi-
nent part in the war for the liberation of (Jreece.
In 1676 about 1000 .Mainotes emigrated to Corsica:
their descendants still survive at Cargese in that
islanil. Amongst the emigrants were some hearing
the name of Kalomeros, which in Italian is trans-
lated Huonaparte. Hence the people of Maina
believe that the great Napoleon was of (Jieek
origin. The emigrants were settled at Ajaccio
from 1729 down to 1769, in which year Napoleon
was born there.
C.ip of Maintenance.
Mainpnri, capital of a district in the North-
western Provinces of India, 75 miles E. of Agra.
Pop. (1881)20,236.
Ulailltciiance is a laM-term commonly used
to denote an illegal succouring of a person, a.s by
lending money to a stranger in canying on law-
suits. Contracts are sometimes held to be illegal
on this ground. At Guildford, in July 1889, a man
got six months' imprisonment with a fine of .t'200
for niiiintenance and Barratry (q.v. ).
jHailltenance, Cap of, sometimes called Cap
of iJignity, a cap of crimson velvet lined witii
ermine, with two points
turned to the back, origin-
ally only worn by dukes,
but afterwards assigned
to various families of dis-
tinction. Those families
who are entitled to a cap
of maintenance place their
crests on it instead of on
a wreath. See Heraldry,
p. 667.
Maintoiion. Fraxcoke d'Aubionio, jMar-
QtTi.sE DE, famous for her connection with Louis
XIV'., was the daughter of Constant d'Aubigne,
the worthless son of the famous Huguenot, Theo-
dore Agrippa d'Aubigne, and was born in the
prison at Niort, November 27, 1635. When four
\oars old she was carried to Martinique in the
'\\'est Indies, whence she returned after her father's
death in 1645 to France. Her conversion to the
Koman Catholic religion was efl'ected not without
ditliculty, and on her mother's death she found
herself at fifteen reduced to absolute penury. Soon
after this she became acquainted with tiie kind-
hearted poet Scarron, who offered either to many
her himself or to pay the money required for her
entrance into a nunnery. Although Scarron was
lame and deformed, she chose to marry him, anil
for nine years lived contentedly in the midst of the
intellectual society which frequented the house of
the poet. On his death (1660) she wa-s again
reduced to great poverty : but Anne of Austria
ccmtinued and increased her husband's )i('nsi<)n.
On her death (1666) it was discontinued, and she
\\ as about to go as a governess to Portugal, when
Madame de Montespan obtained for her the; con-
tinuance of her pension. In 1669 she was given
the charge of the king's two sons by Madame de
Montespan, and in this capacity displayed a patient
tenderness and sleepless care that no mother could
have surpassed. By 1674 she had made sufficient
money to buy the estate of Maintenon, and four
years later had it made a marquisate by the king.
She had now completely established her ascendancy
over the heart of Louis, who made her in 1680
second lady-in-waiting to the dauphine.ss. The
queen died in 1683, and Madame de Maintenon,
wlio had become firet lady-in-waiting to the
dnu]iliiness the year before, married the king
jirivately in the winter of 1685. Her morals were
se\ere, for her heart was never other than cold,
and she knew that the best cards for her game
were propriety, orthodoxy, and the church.
Her moral intluence over the court would liaM'
been greater had she filled a more recogniseil
position. Her political influence was supreme in
all but the more im])ortant questions of iiolicy, and
she lavished her patronage upon persons devoted
to herself. She was a liberal patroness of letters,
and, while she had a high reputation for orthodoxy,
had too much liuinaiiity to approve of the detest-
able ilriif/Dunadrs. Vet in tlie midst of s]ilendonr,
and in the po.'isessicui of great jiowcr, she was un-
happy, and she often turned for .s<ilace to the home
for poor girls of good family she had establi.shed at
MAINZ
MAISTRB
813
8t Cyr, auil lor wliich she laboured with the most
ee.iseless care: Hither she retiretl wlieii the king
died in 1715, and here she died, April 15, 1719.
Her pretended Memoires (6 vols. 1755) are spurious,
but her delightful and admirable Lcttrcs (9 vols.
1756) are genuine. By far the best editions aie
by T. Lavallee (185i-56) and M. GetiVoy (2 vols.
18S7).
See the books by Madame Suard (1810), Lafont
d'Aussonne (1814), and the Duo de Noailles ( 1848-58 ) ;
also Theophile Lavallee's Histuire de ^t Ci/r, aiid its
review in vol. viii. of f-ainte-Beuve's Cuusei-ies du
Lundi ; the studies by Cotter Morison_( 1885 ) and EniUy
Bowles (1SS8); vol. ix. of Sclierer's Ktudes siir la Litt.
CoiU., and Dijl linger in AtUjemcine Zcituny (188G).
SlaillZ (Mat/ence), an imperial German fortress
of the lirst rank, and the seat of a Roman Catholic
bishop, in the giaud-duchy of Hesse, is situated on
the left bank of the Rhine, opposite the junction
of the Main, •2-2 miles WSW. of Frankfort. The
Rhine is here crossed by a stone bridge (supersed-
ing in 1885 the former pontoon bridge) to the
\'illage of Kastel, included in the fortifications,
and by an iron railway bridge, 140 yards long, to
the port of Gustavsberg, at the mouth of tlie Main.
Pop. (IS7o) 56,421; (1890) 72,059, of whom two-
thirds are Roman Catholics ; in the 14th century it
is said to have reached 90,000. Mainz is one of
the most ancient cities in Germany ; but its oldest
part, known as KaMrich, has been rebuilt in a
modern style since its almost total destruction in
1857 by the explosion of a powder-magazine ; wliile
a handsome new quarter ha.s sprung up on the north,
in the sp;ice afforded by the advancing of the forti-
fications in 1874. The cathedral, originally built
in 978-1009, was thrice destroyed by tire, and dates
in its present form from the 13-14th century. In
1870-78 it was thoroughly restored, and the present
central Romanesque tower, 270 feet high, built.
It has five lesser towers, fourteen altars, and nine
minor chapels, and is ailorned in the interior with
frescoes and numerous monuments. Besides various
modern public buildings, the city contains the
palace of the grand-duke, originally a lodge of the
Teutonic Order, dating from the baginning of the
ISth century, an arsenal of 1736, and the large red-
sandstone electoral palace, in which are deposited
various public collections, including a library of
150,000 vols., and the valuable Romano-German
Museum, an antiquarian and historical collection
unequalled elsewhere in Europe. Mainz is an im-
portant centre of the Rhine trade with Holland and
IJelgiura, and also carries on a very large transit
tr;«le by railway, as well as an active manufacturing
industry. Elaborate new harbour-works, including
docks and storehouses, were opened in 1887 at a cost
of £2.50,(J(X) ; while the Rhine is skirted by a broad
quay, four miles long. Grain, wine, timber, books,
music, and the manufactures of the town are the
chief articles of trade. Furniture, leather goods,
m.-vchinery, musical instruments, chemicals, gold
and silver ware, hats, soap, i<:e., are among the
manufactures ; and brewing, printing, and market-
gardening in the environs are also important in-
dustries. The history of Mainz connects it with
Rome from the year 1.3 B.C., when Drusus built on
its site the important fort of Moyuntiacum or
Mttijuntin'uiiii. Among the numerous Itoman re-
mains the most remarkable are the Juf/elstciii, a
column suppo.sed to mark the tomb of Drusus, and
the remains of an aqueduct 3A miles long. The
real importance of the town dates, however, from
the Frankish emperors. In the 1.3tli century
-Mainz was the hearl of the confederacy of the
Rhenish cities, but in 1462 it wius ailded to tlie
domains of the archbishops of Mainz, the premier
spiritual electors of the emjiire. The city was
several times in the possession of France, notably
in 1801-14. After the Congress of Vienna it was
iissigned in 1816 to Hes.se- Darmstadt, on condition
that it was to constitute a federal stronghold, and
it was garrisoned by Prussian and Austrian troops.
After 1866 it was held by Prussian troops, until in
1870 it was declared an imperial fortress. Mainz
was the birthplace of Gutenberg (q.v.), whose
house is still ]>ointed out. See works by Schaab
(1844), Rockenheimer (1879), Beck (1882), and
Schneider (1886).
Alaisoii €arr«5e. See NImes.
Maistre, Joseph M.\rie, Coiite de, was born
1st April 1754, at Chambcry, of a noble French
lamily which had settled in Savoy. AVhile Savoy
was occupied in 1792 by the French, De Maistre,
who was a membt'r of the senate, withdrew from
the country ; and when the king of Sardinia re-
treated to the island of Sardinia, he accompanied
his court. In 1803 he was sent as ambassador to
St Petersburg, and here he remained until 1817,
when he was recalled to occupy a place in the home
govemmcnt. Thereafter he lived in Turin till his
death, February 25, 1821. De Jlaistre was an
ardent ultramontane, and argued with an incisive
force of logic and bxilliancy of rhetoric more often
associated with the opposite side. He maintained
the pope as the source and centre of all earthly
authority, and an ordered' theocracy as the only
protection from social and religious anarchy. He
is an unusually strong and stearly thinker, and has
a remarkable faculty of forcing plain arguments
forward to an irresistible conclusion. He is pro-
foundly learned as well as logical, and, in short, is
much more easily denounced than answered. His
first work was Considerations sur la France ( 1796),
an able defence of Legitimist views, and onslaught
on the philosophes of the 18th centui-y. In St
Petersbui-g he wrote his Coiistitii/ioiis Tolitiqitc.s
(1810), Du Fapc (1821), De l'£\j/ise Gallicaiic
(1821-22), Soirtes dc tit Pctcrsboury (1822). The
last is unfinished and desultory, but is pregnant
with strong thought ami suggestiveness. Here is
to be found the panegyric on the hangman as the
foundation of social order. Other works are his
Exanien dc la Philosophic dc Bacon (1836) and
Lellres et Opuscules (1851). See Life by Glaser
(Ber. 1865), by Margerie (Par. 1886); Sainte-
Beuve's Portraits Coiit. (vol. iii. ); John Morley's
Critical Miscellanies ; Descotes, Joseph de Maistre
avant et pendant la llevolution ( 1893-95) ; and other
books by Lescure (1893) and Cogordan (1894).
X.wier de Maistre, his younger brother,
was born at Chambcry in October 1763, and
from an early age served in the Sardinian army.
He shared "his brother's politics, and aflir
the campaign of 1799 followetf Suwaroff to Russia.
Here he serveil with distineticni, rising to the rank
of general, married a Russian lady, and settled
down, even after the fall of Najxdeon had restored
the dynasty of Piedmont. He paid visits to Naples
and Paris, where Sainte-Ceuve .saw him, and died
at St Petersburg, 12th June 1852. His name is
rememl)ered for a few delightfully fresh and un-
pretending books, written in iierfcct French, and
showing that rare mastery of the narrative art
in the simple f.'ushion for which Sainte-Beuve sets
him hesiile Prosper Mtrimce. The best known
is the Vojiagc autour dc ma Chambre (1794),
a quaint fanta.-^y, giving an account of a tem-
porary confinement to his iiuarters at Turin, that
might have been written t«y a stainle.ss Sterne.
Le Ijprcux dc lu CM d'Aostc, a sweet ami touch-
ing little story, shows the same inspiration and
the same originality in the use made of it. Other
stories are Les I'risonnicrsdu Caucase and La jciinc
Sibiriennc. The Expedition A'octurnc autour de
ma Chambre is a less successful continuation of his
814
MAITLAND
MAIZE
earliest book. De Maistre's (Euvres appeared at
Paris in 1825 (new edition, 3 vols. 1881). See
Key's X(tvicr de Maistre (1865).
llaitlaild, a town of New South Wales, on the
Hunter River, 93 miles NNE. of Sydney by rail,
and 20 N\V. of Newcastle. It is divided by the
river into East and West Maitland, which are
separate municipalities. The town is the see of a
Roman Catliolic bishop. In either division are
handsome banks, churches, and other public build-
ings. In West Maitland (much the more populous
part) are several mills, coach-buUding, tobacco,
and boot factoi-ies. Good coal abounds in the
neighbourhood. Pop. of botli divisions, 7300.
Ulaitlaud. the name of a Scottish family, cele-
brated in both the literary and political history of
their country. The lirst who acquired distinction
was SiK Richard Maitland of Lethington, son
of William Maitland of Lethington and Tbirlstane,
who fell at Flodden, and of Martha, daughter of
George, Lord Seton. He was born in 1496, studied
at St Andrews and in France, and on his return to
Scotland was successively employed by James V. ,
the Regent Arran, and Slary of Lorraine. About
1551-52 he received the honour of knighthood,
became a lord of the Court of Session in 1551 (be-
fore which, however, he had the misfortune to lose
his sight), and Lord Privy Seal in 1562. He died
20th Slarch 1586, at the age of ninety. Maitland
was one of the best men of his time. In an age of
violence, fanaticism, and perfidy, he was honour-
ably conspicuous by his moderation, integrity, and
anxiety for the establishment of law and onler.
He merits consideration not only as an eminent
and upright lawyer, but as a poet, a poetical anti-
quary, and a historian. All liis own verses were
written after his sixtieth year, and show what
things be had most deeply at heart. For the most
part they consist of lamentations for the distracted
state of his native country, the feuds of the nobles,
the discontents of the common people, complaints
'aganis the lang proces in the courts of justice,'
and the depredations ' of the border robbers. '
Knox, in his History of the Reformation, says of
him that he was ' ever civile, allieit not persuaded
in religioun.' A complete edition of Maitland's
original poems was lirst ])ublished in 1830 by the
Maitland Club (see Book-club). Sir Richard's
collection of early Scottish poetry was a work
undertaken, if not completed, before his blindness
attacked him. It consists of two MS. vols., the
lirst containing 170, and the second 96 pieces ;
they are now preserved in the Pepysian Library,
Magdalen College, Cambridge. Maitland's princi-
pal historical performance is the Iliatorie and
Cronicle of the Hoii.i and Surename of Seytoun,
&c. See Hrunton and Haig, Senators of the College
o/J'ifcv<«'e(1832).
William Maitland, best kno\vn in Scottish
history as Secretary Lethington or Ticddington,
was the eldest son of Sir Richard Maitland of
Lethington. The exact date of his birth is un-
known, but it must have been between 1525
and 1530. He probably studied at St Andrews,
though his name does not occur in any list of the
graduates of that univereity, and he seems also to
have spent some time in study on the Continent.
Knox, who was not friendly to him, describes him
as ' a nian of good learning, ami of sharp wit and
reasoning.' At the outset of his public career he
took the side of the party of reform in religion :
but all through life lie was the politician firet and
the reformer afterwards. In 1558 he became
secretary of state to .Mary of Lorraine, the Queen-
Regent, and in the following year joinril the Lords
of the Congregation, wlio were in arms against
her. His ability soon gave him a prominent place
in the councils of his new allies. In August 1560
he acted as speaker in the Convention of Estates,
and the same year was sent to the English court
to represent the interests of the Protestants. On
the arrival of Maiy in her kingdom in August
1561, Maitland associated himself with the queen's
brother, afterwards the Regent Moray, in oppos-
ing what they deemed the extreme proposals of
Knox. To JSiary he at first made himself one of
her most useful servants, and more than once
represented her at the court of Elizabeth, where he
proved himself a match even for the latter's astute
minister Sir William Cecil. His im]>ortance in
Scottish aft'airs is proved by the prominent ])Iace
he holds in Knox's Hintory of the Eefonnation,
some of whose most interesting pages are de-
voted to bis discussions with Lethington. By his
connivance at the murder of Rizzio (1566) he
made Mary his enemy, though he again became
her adviser on the return of Sloray after his tem-
porary exile. At first, also, Maitland favoured
the schemes of Bothwell, and was privv to the
murder of Darnley, yet in the rising tliat took
place on Bothwell's marriage with Mary he osten-
sibly acted with the insurgents. Nevertheless,
after the defeat of the queen at Langside and her
consequent flight to England, wliile seeming to act
as a friend to the new government, he secretly
favoured the exiled queen. He was one of the
commissioners who accompanied Moray to present
to Elizabeth their indictment against Mary ( 1568),
but all the while he was plotting against his
colleagues. On their return to Scotland the for-
mation of a party in favour of ]SIary was mainly
the work of Maitland. In spite of all his en-
deavours, however, this party was unable to hold
its own against the government, supi)orted as it was
by English money and arms. Shut up in the castle
of Edinburgh, Maitland and Kirkaldy of (Grange
held out till 1573, when they were forced to sur-
render. INIaitland, broken in health, died in prison
in Leith a few days later, ' some,' says James
Melville, 'supposing he took a drink and died, as
the auld Romans were wont to do.' From his
accomplishments and political adroitness, Maitland
was one of the most notable figures of his time in
Scotland ; but it was his fatal defect as a states-
man that, while all parties admired his ability, he
gained the confiilence of none. Knox regarded
him as no sincere sujiporter of the ]irinciples of the
Reformation, and Mary, on the other hand, t)oth
hated and suspected him. The rumcnir regarding
the mode of liis death may have been without
foundation ; but the rumour itself is a significant
commentary on the character and principles of the
man. See "Buchanan's C7(oma'/t'o», Skelton's ,!/«/<•
land of Lcthi Ill/ton (2 vols. 1887-88). For John
Maitland, Duke of Lauderdale, see LArnuKDALE.
niaiwand, 50 miles NW. of Kanilahar, where
an Englisli army was defeated by .\yub Khan, 27th
July 1880. See Afghanistan."
Ulaizc. or Indian Corn, is the produce of Zea
mays, a species of cereal having moncecious (lowers,
the' features of which are well illustrated in the
accompanying cut. The stem, which is filled with
a pithy, iibrous structure, is divided at irregular
intervals l)y nodes, and its strength and solidity is
increased by a siliccrms outside covering. From
the lowest," and sometimes also the second and
third node, it sends out 'brace' roots, and these
help to support the plant, which sometimes grows
to 18 feet in height, the minimum being generally
3 feet. The ears— which are developed within the
leaf-sheath at the nodes, and consist of a 'cob'
with the giains ilisposed njion it in regular rows
of from eight to twenty, and long 'silk' threads
attached to each embryo, which usually extend
I
f
i
MAIZE
MAJOLICA
815
beyond the closely-folded tip of the mass of im-
bricated leaves ('"husk) that wraps the whole —
are from half an inch to 3 inches in diameter,
and from 2 to 17 inches in length. The stem is
topped by a ' tassel,' produoiiij,' an abundaiice of
light, dry', loosely-attached pollen. Maize is hardly
a less staple article of food to the inhabitants of
tro])ical and subtropical countries than rice, and
is rapidly becoming; popular in various forms in
temperate and colder climates. It is held to be
superior in nutriment to barley, buckwheat, and
rye. By analysis it gives 77 per cent, of starch ;
3 of zein, a principle analogous to gluten ; 2-5 of
albumen ; 1 '45 of sugar ; '8 of extractive : 1 "5 of
gum ; 1 o of sulphate and phosphate of lime ; 3 of
Ugnin ; and 9 ot water. It is more generally used
in America ( North and South ) than in the other
continents— in the United States the crop is over
2000 million bushels, or about two-thirds of all the
grains giown ; but in the Jlediterranean countries,
Germany, &c., it is also highly valued. The green
ears of the sweet varieties are boiled and eaten
from the kernel
or served in
milk. When
coareely ground
maize forms the
hominy of the
southern states
of America, and
finer ground it
furnishes the
mush or porridge
of the northern
states ; while
the whole grains
with the cuticle
covering re-
moved after be-
ing loosened by
boiling in a
weak Ij'e, are
the hulled corn
of the states
generally. Pop-
corn is a variety
whose grains can
be roasted and
turned and
shaken smartly
over a brisk lire till they swell and burst, turning
inside out ; in this state they are coated with
syrup and pressed into a ball, or the separate
trains are simply sprinkled with salt. The
eficiency of gluten in the meal of maize renders
it ill adapted to bread-making; hut johnnycalcs
made from it are popular along with bacon, &c.,
and mi.xed with rye-meal it forms the common
brown bread of New England. Large quantities of
starch are manufactured from maize, both for
laundry i)uri)Oses and for making puddings, cust-
ards, and blancmange ; and the starch, by treat-
ment with acid, is converted into glucose or grape
sugar (see Suo.vR). The canning of green sweet
com is also an important industry in some states.
By tlie Mexicans the small young shoots of thickly-
sown crops are served at table like asparagus and
as dessert. The stems of the sugar com when full
grown yield by pressure a thin sweet juice, which
nnferniented gives a pleasant syrup and from five
to fifteen per cent, of sugar, fermented a beer called
chica, ana distilled an excellent spirit resembling
brandy. In countries where maize does not ri])en
well it is soirietimes sown to alTord fooil for
poultry, or to be mown as green fodder for cattle.
VVliere it is cultivated for its grain the dried leaves
are used as winter fodder. The stalks are used
for thatch and for fuel, and for making baskets.
Maize [Zea mays) :
a, flower ; &, ear.
The fibres of the culm and leaves afford a durable
kind of yarn ; and the husks are elastic, and can
be applied to the stuiiing of chairs, saddles, &c.,
and to the manufacture of good durable mat-
tresses, which have become a prolitahle article
of trade in Paris and Strasburg. The husks are
also much used for [lacking oranges and lemons,
and in South America for making cigarettes ; and
good paper has been manufactured from them.
Hollowed corn-cobs make homely but serviceable
])ipe-heads for smoking tobacco. There are few
plants of which the uses are more various than
maize, and few which are of gieater importance to
man. — Another species of maize, called Chili Maize
or Valparaiso Corn {Z. Curar/ua), is distinguished
by its serrated leaves. It is a smaller plant, a
native of Chili, and has won a superstitious regard
because its grains when roasted si)lit in the form of
a cross. Formerly in England maize was knowi;
by the name 'Turkey wheat, being then solely an
article of trade from the East ; but the name Indian
corn, which was given it by the early settlers i;i
America, gradually supplanted the earlier name as
the supply from that country ousted that of the
earlier sources from the Sritish market. In
America it is simply called corn. The native
country of maize is uncertain. Humboldt and De
Candolle are of opinion that it was introduced
from the West Indies and the continent of America,
but other authorities adduce good grounds for the
contention that the plant is indigenous to or at
least was known and cultivated in Asia and Africa
before the discovery of America. In an ancient
Chinese encyclopaedia in the royal library at Paris
is an excellent representation of the plant ; so that
while it was undoubtedly first introduceil to Europe
about the year 1520 by Columbus from America,
there are good grounds for the conclusion that it
was known and cultivated in the ancient world
long before that time.
Majesty, a title of honour now usually bestowed
on sovereigns. Among the I'onums majestas was
used to signify the power and dignity of the people,
and after the overthrow of the republic became
exclusively the attribute of the emperors. The
majestas of the emperors of Kome was supposed to
descend to those of CJermany as their successors ;
but the adoption of the attribute by other European
sovereigns is of comparatively late date. Its use
began in England in the later part of the reign of
Henry VIII., up to which time 'Your Cirace ' or
' Your Highness' had been the appropriate mode of
addressing the sovereign. Henry II. was the first
king of France who was st.\ led ' Most Christian
and Catholic Majesty,' the king of Spain came to
be ' Catholic Majesty,' and of Hungary ' Apostolic
Majesty.' All European emperors, kings, and
queens are now gener;illj' addressed as ' Youi
Slajesty.' The sovereign of the United Kingdom
is personally addressed as 'Your Majesty;' and
formal letters are addressed to 'The King's (oi
Queen's) Most Excellent Majesty.'
Majoriost (from the Italian name of the island
of Majorcii, where this ware seems to have been fii-sl
made), a decorated kind of enamelled pottery madf
in Italy from the loth to the KSth ccniury. It
attained its greatest development in the duchy oj
Urliiiio, which included the fmir great manufactorie.--
of Pesaro, Gubbio, Urbino, and Castcl Durante.
Majolica is an earthenware usually of a coarse
paste, covered with a stanniferous glaze or enamel.
It has sometimes been called ' Katl'aelle ware ' from
the fact that a nundier of the paintings upon it
were copied from the designs of that famous painter.
Majolica is generally considered to be the most
beautiful decorated pottery that was ever exten
sively made, at least during the Christian era
816
MAJOR
MAJUBA HILL
Some of the finer pieces when they come into the
market bring large, almost fabulous, sums of money.
See Pottery.
major, in the Army, is the lowest rank of field-
officer. There are two on the establishment of
every infantry battalion in the British army and
three on that of each cavalry regiment, one in coni-
inaiid of each battery of artillery, iibimt 150 in the
engineere — promoted after twenty years' service
whetlier vacancies exist or Tiot — 15 in the Koyal
Marine Artillery, and 42 in the Koyal Marine Light
Infantry. Previous to 1872 the niajoi-s of artillery
and engineers were called first canlaiiis. The duties
of majors of infantry in the Held, where they are
always mounted, are generally to take up points on
wliicii the line is dressed and to command, one the
supjiorts, and the other the reserve in attack for-
mation. In barracks they assist the commanding
otlicer in all matters of interior economy and dis-
cipline. Cavalry majors perform similar duties,
except that in the field each commands a squadron.
In garrison all regimental majors and captains who
for distinguished service have been given brevet
rank as majors take their turn as president of
district courts-martial and as field-officer of the day,
attending guard-mounting, visiting the guards by
day and night, taking command of piequets in case
of fire, riot, or alarm, i^-c. The paj' of a major
ranges from IGs. a day in the infantry of the line to
£1, 4s. 5d. in the household cavalry. In the United
States army the yearly pay of a major is .'S2500.
The word major is used also in conjunctioi- with
other military titles, tlius : major-general is the
lowest rank of General (q.v.) ; surgeon-major is the
rank next above surgeon ; a sergeant.niajor is a
stati'-sergeant superior to a sergeant ; dram-major,
trumpet-major, farrier-major, &c. are the old titles
of the sergeant-drummers, sergeant-trumpeters, ser-
geant-farriers, lite. A corporal-major in the house-
hold cavalry corresponds to the regimental sergeant-
major or senior non-commissioned officer in other
corps.
major, or Mair, John, was born near North
Berwick, Haddingtonshire, about 1470. After
receiving the elements of his education in Scotland,
lie studied at Oxfonl, Cambridge, and Paris. .\t
Paris he first entered the college of Sainte-Barbe,
and took his degree of Master of Arts in 1494. He
next entered the college of Montaigu, the great
stronghold of scholastic studies in tlie university of
Pftris, and in 1505 became Doctor of Theology.
While contintiing to reside in Montaigu he gave
lessons in the scholastic logic and i)hih)sophy in the
college of Navarre, and in these studies gained a
reputation second to that of no teacher in Paris,
and therefore in Europe. Besides teaching, Major
wrote voluminous commentaries on Peter Lombard,
which, though among the famous books of their
lime, were wholly out of touch with the true intel-
lectual and religions movements of the Kith century.
To this period of his life also belongs his combined
history of England and Scotland, written in medi-
eval Latin, but still of real value as a record of
facts, and by reason of the independent judgment
of its author.
In 1518 Major was regenting or teaching in the
college of Glasgow, where he had John Knox among
his pupils. In 152.3 he left Glasgow for St Andrews,
where he acted as regent in Arts at (he Pa*dagogium
of that university till 1525. At St .Andrews he had
among his students Patrick Hamilton, and likewise
(ieorge Buchanan, who spoke of him jus 'teaching
the art of sophistry rather than dialectics.' Leaving
St Andrews in 1525 Major again returned to Paris,
where he remained till about 1.530, admired and
honoured by all who still maintained the traditions
of the university as opposed to those who were eager
for the introduction of the new lights of the Kenais-
sance. In 1533 he was appointed provost of St
Salvator's College, St Andrews, an office which he
held till his death in 1550. Of his last years nothing
is known ; though it is worthy of mention that in
1547 he was present in St Andrews parish church
at the first public sermon j)reached by his former
pupil John Kno.\, then completely identified with
the cause of religious reform in Scotland.
Major was the most famous literary Scotsman of
his generation, and as the acknowledged champion
of medievalism was assailed by men of such diverse
character and aims as Melanclithon and KabelaLs.
It was his misfortune that his life was mainly given
to the advocacy of ideas which were already doomed
by the new teachings of the revival of learning.
Though born after Erasnms, with whom he was a
contemporarj' in Paris, he yet remained dead to
those influences of the Kenaissance which made
Erasmus the life-long foe of Montaigu and the Sor-
bonne. Nevertheless, by his great reputation in his
own day, and by the strong individuality stamped
on tho.se of his writings which still have a certain
interest, Major claims a far higher place than has
yet been accorded him in the literary history of his
country. See Mr A. Constable's translation of his
History hsneA by the Scottish Historical Society
(1S9'2), in which full information is given regard-
ing Major and his works.
majorca, or Mallorc.\, the largest of the
Balearic Isles (q.v.), lies about 100 miles from
the Spanish coast, and 150 N. of Algiers. It is
60 miles long by 40 broad, and l.'SIO sq. m. in area.
The climate is healthful, the sea-breeze preserving
a nearly equable temperature over the whole island.
In the north there are mountains reaching 3500 to
5000 feet in height. The hillsides are terraced; olive
groves abound everywhere, and almond, orange,
fig, and other fruit trees are eoninmn. The ^-ine is
grown and good wine made. The soil is extra-
ordinarily fertile, and is cultivated with marvellous
patience and skill by the inhabitants, 233,650 in
number, who manufacture cloth, cotton goods,
ropes, silk, soap, shoes, &c., and have a trade to
and from Spain of the annual value of £1,410,000.
There are railways (total 4S miles) connecting the
capital, Palma (q.v.), with Manacor (15,000), the
second town of tlie island (where as well as at
Arta there are magnificent caves), and La Puebla
(5000). Between this town and Alfudia, the port
for ISIinorca and Barcelona, lie the marshes of
Albufera (5000 acres), drained by a London com-
jiany in 1865-71, and now of extraordinary fer-
tility. Raymond Lully was liorn at Palma ; at
Valdemosa George Sand resided in 1838 and wrote
her Spiritlion ; and the beautiful seat of the .\ustrian
-Vrchduke Ludwig Salvator is at Miramar. Large
(piantities of lustred ware (Majolica, q.v.) were
exported to Italy and elsewhere in the 15th
century ; this ware is still made to a small extent.
Many of the nobles have handsome palaces in the
island.
See Bidwell's Balearic Isles (1876); the sumptuous
Balcarcn in Worl und Bild (5 vols. 1869-84), anon.,
but by Archduke Ludwig Salvator; and O. W. Wood,
Letters from Miijorca ( 1889 ).
mjljority is the age at which a person acquires
the status of a person siii juris— i.e. is able to
manage his or her own atl'airs. This age in the
United Kingdom is twenty-one. Under that age
jiersons in Englatid and Ireland are called infants,
and are more or less subject to guardians, who
manage for them their property. See Infant.
majllba Hill, situated in the extreme north
of Nalal, was the scene of the defeat of 648 British
troops, with the loss of their leader. Sir George
Colley, by a greatly superior force of Transvaal
MAKART
MALACCA
817
Boers on 27th Februaiy 1881. The night before,
after an eight hour?:' climb, they hail occu]iie<l the
hill, which overlookeil the enemy's position at
Laiug's Nek, and which towards noon wa-s unex-
pectedly carried by a i usli of the Boers. Tlieir loss
was 1 killed and 5 wouiided; of the British, So killed
and \'i\l prisoners (many woumled), besides some
missing. See Sir W. Butler's Li/c of Colley ( 1S99).
.^Iakart< Hans, .\ustrian painter, was bom at
Salzburg on 2Sth May 1840, stuilied under Piloty
at Munich ( lStJl-6o). and after visiting Italy settleil
in Vienna in 1869. Ten years later he was appointed
professor at the acjidemy in the Austrian capital,
and there lie died on 3d October 1884. He painted
grandiose spectacular and historical genre pictures,
forgeous with colour and of gigantic size ; but the
rawing and modelling were frequently faulty, and
the treatment nearly always sensuous and volup-
tuous to a degree. Another strong characteristic of
his work is a love for lifeless forms, with the look
of death and of the grave upon them. His brilliant
colouring and generally theatrical style of art maile
his pictures fetch large sums. .-Vmongst the most
notable specimens of his brush are 'Amorettes,'
' Entrance of Charles V. into Antwerp " — the nude
female figures in which were portraits of well-
known Viennese ladies (a fact that gave rise to
much scandal) — 'Cleopatra on the Nile,' 'The Five
Senses,' 'The Seven Deadly Sins,' 'Diana hunting,'
'Summer,' and 'Spring.' See Life by Von Liitzow
(1886).
Makkari. Ahmed el-, Moorish historian, was
born at Makkara near Tlemcen, in Algeria, about
15S5, travelled in Morocco, and in 1618 made the
pilgrimage to Mecca. This he subsequently re-
peated live times, besides seven pilgrimages to
Medina, and two to Jerusalem. At Damascus he
created an enthusiastic impression by his i)reaching
in 16"27. His chief residence, however, was at
Cairo, where he died in 1631.
His principal work was his Historii of the Moham-
medan Dpiiastiis of Spiiin, partly translated into English
by Gayangos ( 2 vols. 1840-43 ), and edited by Dozy, Wright,
and others under the title of Analectes siir rilist. ft la
Litt. des Arabes (TEspofjne (Leyden, 18.55-61, and also
printed at BiiMk, 1862). See Wustenfeld, Die Geschicht-
tchreiber der Araber.
Ulako, a market-town of Hungary, on the
Maros, 19 miles ESE. of Szegedin. Pop." 30,063.
IMakoIoIo. a tribe of Basutos (q.v.) who, under
their chief Sehituane and his son Sekeletu, founded
an extensive kingdom in the ba.sin of the Upper
Zambesi ; but a successful rebellion by the con-
quered tribes broke up the kingdom in 1864, since
which time the Makololos have ceased to e.xist as
a people.
Makrtzi, TAKf-ED-DiN Ahmed el-, the most
eminent of the Arabic historians of Egypt, was
born 1364 .\.I). at Cairo, but derives his surname
from his family's residence at Makriz, a suburb of
Baalbek in Syria. He studied theologj- and juris-
prudence under the best teachers ; made the pil-
grimage to Mecca in 138.5 ; and held various official
1«>sts, as secretary of state, insijector of the mar-
;et.s ( 1398 ), preacher, reatlcr, anil lecturer at several
mosques anil colleges at Cairo, ami ( 1408) curator
of the Kalansiya and the N'uriya hospital at Damas-
cu-s. Returning to Cairo, he devoted himself to the
historical studies which have made him renowned,
and after a second pilgrimage to Mecca ( 1430-35)
he (lied at Cairo in 1442 at the age of seventy-
eight.
He wrote sixteen works, besides smaller memoirs, of
which the following are the most important : The Khital,
or Hi9torif and To/jwtrajtht/ of Eajtpt and {esjyeriaUt/)
Cairo, printed at BCllikk (2 vols. 18531, but never com-
pletely translated, a work of the highest importance to
312
historians and archteologists ; a general history from
1181 to 1440, of which a part has been translated by
Quatieniere as HiMoirc dcs Sultans Manilouks (2 vols.
1837-44 ) : bioj;ra|ihics of famous men who lived in
Kf:ypt, iintinislied and unjmblislifd ; a treatise on Moiiam-
medan coins, translated by De Sacy (I7'J7), and another
on Mohainuiedan weights and measures, edited by Tych-
sen (1800); Histury of Hadraniaut, edited by Noskowyj
(186(5); Arab migrations tu Kgvpt, edited by Wiistenfcld
(1847); the Mohammedan kings of Aby.ssinia, edited by
Eink (17!I0). See De Sacy, Chrest. Arnbc, i. 112; 'Wus-
tenfeld, Die Gcschichtiichrfiba' der Amber,
.tialabar. a district (5765 s(|. m.) on the south-
west coast of India, in the Presidencv of Madras, ex-
tending from 10= 15' to 12" 18' N. hit. Pop. (1891)
2.(i.")2..i65, over two-thirds Hindus, and one fourth
Mohammedans. The surface is occupied in the
east by the Western Ghats, which send down
numerous rivers to the coast, many of them navi-
gable for some distance. There are large forests.
Kice is the .staple crop ; cocoa-nuts are largely
grown, and also cotlee and pejiper. The name of
this district is applied to the whole south-western
coast of Southern India.
Malaora, or M.alay Peninsila, anciently
known as the GoLDEX Cher.sonese, the long strip
of land extending from Indo-China south and .south-
east towards Sumatra. The peninsula begins geo-
graphically at the head of the Gulf of Siam, and
thus includes part of Siam jiroper and the British
province of Tenasserim in Burma ; but it is usual
to limit the name to the portion south of tlie river
Pakshan, the frontier of Tena-sserim. In the larger
sense Malacca extends from 13 30' to 1° 16' N. hit.,
and its area Is 75,0{X) sq. m.. of which 40,000 belong
to Siam, and the remainder to the Straits Settle-
ments (q.v. ) and their depenilencies, the protected
states. The width varies from 44 miles at the
isthmus of Kra (q.v.) to 210 at Perak. The
interior consists mainly of inagnilicently-wooded
mountain-ranges, disposed parallel to the long axis
of the peninsula, some of whose peaks attain a
height of 6000 to 7000 feet ( Mount Kiani is at least
8000 feet), while along the coast there .-ue nuiii-
grove swamps, half-a-dozen miles deep, backed
by low fertile plains reaching to the nnmntains.
Amongst the more valuable of the trees are ebony,
camphor, teak, sandalwood, cinnamon, rattan,
cocoa, ai(!ca, and other palms, initmeg, &c. The
rivei's are short and of little use for navigation.
A doul)le belt of islands runs along [larts of both
coasts. The peninsula is the richest tin-yielding
region in the world (see Tin). The tin ore occurs
in conjunction with gold and silver, both extracted ;
iron anil coal e.xist, the former in great quantity,
but neither mineral is worked. The forests and
mountains shelter numerous varieties of wild ani-
mals, as the tiger, rhinoceros, tapir, idi'pliant, hog,
butl'alo, nuuikeys, lic. , and many beautiful birds.
The climate is pretty uniform all the year round.
The low districts are hot and nu)i.st, and neither
they nor the highlands are healthy for Euro]ieans.
Kain falls on 190 davs in the vear. The ther-
neter ranges from 70 ti> iK)° I'"." Pop. I, '200,^)0
— ,SOO,000 in British territory anil deiicndencies.
They are mainly .Siamese in the nortli, ci\ilised
Malays (q.v.) along the coast ,ind in the south, and
uncivilised Malays, mixed with aboriginal Negrito
tribes, in the interior. The croi)s chielly cultivated
are rice, sugjir-cane, cotton, tobacco, yams, batata,
and cocoa and areca nuts. Politically, Siam ex-
teiiils !is far south as .'>' .30' on the west coast, and
to 4 On the east coast, and includes the tributary
stales of l.igor. Senggora. Patani. Kelanlan,
Tringganu, and Kcm;imaii. The southern portion
embraces the British settlements Peiiang, Malacca,
and Singapore, all treated in separate articles, and
the protccte<l states — Perak, Selangor, Sungei
818
MALACCA
MALACHT
I'iong, the Xegii Senibilan states, Pahang and
Johore, for wliicli see JoHORE and STRAITS Settle-
ments; Mrs ISishop's Golden Chersonese (1883),
Iveane's Mala;/ Peninsula ( 1887), and Ciiillciiiai-d's
M'llrii/sia (189o); and liathborne's Ctinijiint/ in
Miikiiiii (1898).
nsilaccn, part of the Straits Settlements, is
siUiati'il on the south-west coast of the Malay
IViiiiisnhi, 100 miles from Singapore, and is 42
miles in length, and from 8 to 25 broad. Area,
659 sij. m. ; pop. (1891) 92,170. The coast-lands
are Hat and swampy, and produce rice ; inland
there are low hills. Besides rice, the chief pro-
ducts are tapioca, ])epper, fniits, &c. Tin is mined
and exported. Tapioca is the only other e.xport
of value. Tlie imports average £610,000 annu-
ally, the exports £670,000 approximately. _ The
mean annual rainfall varies from 68 to 91 inches.
The town of Malacca, capital of the settlement, is
situated in 2' V N. lat., 102° 14' E. long'., at the
mouth of a small river, and consists of the old
Dutch or European town and the Chinese and
Malay town on the other (left) bank of the river.
The church of Our Lady del Monte was the scene
of the labours of St Francis Xavier. Pop. 20,000.
Malacca was taken by the Portuguese under
Alljuiiuei-f|ue in 1511, and flourished as one of the
great emporiums of Indo-China ; but it was subse-
quently supplanted by Penang, and Penang l)y
Singaiiore. JIalacca became a Dutch jiossession
in 1641, and fell in 1795 into the hands of the
Britisli, wlio restored it to the Dutch in 1818 ; but
they returned it to Britain in 1824.
llnlaeca. Strait of, separates the Malay
Peninsula on the north-east from the island of
Sumatra on the south-west, and connects the
Indian Ocean with the Chinese Sea. Length, 480
miles ; breadth, varying from 30 miles at the south-
east to 115 miles at the north-west extremity. On
tliis strait arc the Britisli settlements of Malacca,
Penang, i<:c.
.UahK'lli (probably an alibreviated form of
Maliic/iii/i/'ih, meaning 'messenger of .Jehovah;'
the LXX. and Vulgate have Malachkis), the name
given to the last book in the prophetical section
of the Old Testament canon. Piegarding its author
nothing is known. It has even been doubted
wlietlier Malachi is a proper name or only an
appellative ( ' my messenger ' or ' Angelicus ' ),
many authorities both in ancient and in modern
times favouring tlie latter view, and thinking
that some such writer as Ezra, or even some super-
natural person is meant. But although Malachiyyah
does not actually occur anywhere in the Old Testa-
ment, there is nothing to make it impossible as a
pioper Hebrew name. The book consists of a series
of reasoned remonstrances against prevailing laxity
in religious and social conduct, the points brought
cliielly into prominence being the bringing of defec-
tive (ill'erings to the altar, irregularity and evasion
in payment of tithes, mixed marriages and un-
jnstiliable divorces, a spirit of scepticism as to the
(livine cognisance of human actions and as to the
reality of moral distinctions, the practice of witch-
craft, sorcery, i)eriury, oppression. W.arning is given
of the approaching judgment, when .Jehovah him-
self, preceded by the angel of the covenant, shall
come to cleanse the sinful community by the re-
nu>val of those who have been found unfaithful. It
is the priests who are primarily addressed, and the
eonununity which they lead is that of 'Judah and
Jerusalem;' both circumstances, combined with
till! reference to the pasha or governor, show th.at
the prophecy belongs to the Persian period. Sonuf
have assigned it to the governorship of Nehemiah,
but in view of Neh. v. 14 seq. this is improbable ;
its date is to be sought rather in the interval
/n^
between his two terms of office, or after the close
of the second — possibly many years after. It is
usual to speak of the style of Malachi as marking
the transition from the age of the prophets to that
of the scribes, as having little of the freedom ami
lire of the older period, ami as tending to the
artificiality of formal scholastic disjiutation. Yet
its dialogue is not without dramatic force; and
relatively to its size the little book has contributed
an unusually large number of nuunorable phrases
and bold and striking figures to the language and
thought of Christendom. For commentaries on
Malachi, see the works on the minor i)rophots
mentioned under HoSE.\. There arc monogr;i|ihs
by Pocock (1077), Keinko (1856), Koehler (1865),
S'iinger (1867), Lange (1876), and Pusey (1877).
Malachite, a mineral, essentially a carbonate
of copper, of a green colour, occuis generally
massi\'e, with a globular reniform, botryoidal or
stalactitic surface ; frequently fibrous and showing
irregular bands of colovir ; sometimes earthy in
textiire. More rarely it is met with crystallised
in rather oblique four-sided prisms,
bevelled on the extremities, or with
the bevelling planes truncated so as to
form six-sided prisms. It is valuable
as an ore of copper, altliough seldom
smelted alone, not only because it is
found along with other ores, but
because the metal is aid to be carried , ,,'?^ , -i
oil with the carbonic acid. It is some-
times passed oft' in jewellery as turquoise, altliough
easUy distinguished by its colour and much inferior
hardness. It is used for many ornamental pur-
poses ; slabs of it — chiefly from the mines of Siberia
— are made into tables, mantel-pieces, iS;c. of ex-
quisite beauty. In 1835 a mass of solid malachite
was found in the Ural Mountains of nune tlian
17 feet in length, and weighing about 25 tons. By
the ancients it was used as a charm to protect
infants from \vitchcraft and sorceries.
Malat'liy, St, Archbishop of Armagh, and the
greatest of St Patrick's successors, was born about
1095 at Armagh, and was brought up at the
university or school there under the anchorite
Imar. About 1119 he received orders, and went
to study theology at Lismore, where he was con-
firmed in his preference for the Boman over the old
Celtic system. In 1121 he became abbot of Bangor.
Archbishop Celsns, who had made him his vicar,
procured his election to the .see of Connor (1125),
and (m his deathbed (1129) recommended him as
his successor in the primacy. It was not, however,
till 1134 that Malachy could establish him.self
therein, and, that done, he withdrew three yeare
later to the see of Down, lliough refainiiig the
virtual headship of the Irish Church, in I MO he
journeyed to Rome, seeking the iiallium, and
innocent II. aiqiointed him papal legate for Ire-
land. On his way out, and again on his way back,
he visited St Bernard at Clairvaux, and returned
to Ireland (q.v., p. 210) with four Cistercian
monks. In 1148 lie once more repaired to France,
to renew to Eugenius HI. his request for the
Iiallium : but before his arrival the pope lia<l gone
ii.-u-k to Itome, and at Clairvaux, on All-Saints'
Day, 1st November, Malachy died of a fever in St
Bernard's arms. He was canonised bv Clement
IV.
The curious ' Prophecies of St Malachy ' were
first luiblished in his I.ifjniim Vitir (Venice, 1595)
by the Flemish Benedictine. Arnold Wiim, wIk)
ilcemeil tlicm a recent f(U-gcry. They consist_of
111 Latin mottoes, forecasting as many pontiffs
from 11-13 to about 1996. The first 74 (down to
l.')90) are 'almost without exception,' says Lord
Bute, ' transparent indications of the individuals
MALACOLOGY
MALARIA
,^1'J
to whom they apply. In the case of Urban VI.
the very family name, Prej;niiiii, is given (Dc
inferno Pregnani) ; and the ovorwlielmint; majority
of the others are simple puus or plays upon the
Christian name, tUi- origin or native place, the
previous employment, or tlie coat of -arms.' The
liisl are extremely frequent, though — unless to a
prophet — Heraldry (q.v. ) was unknown in 1143.
The thirty-seven forecasts after 1590, as a rule, are
strangely vague in contrast to their predecessors,
and have sorely taxed the ingenuity of students
of prophecy. Still, it cannot be denied that there
are a few good shots — none better than Huatrum in
jiiirtA ('the rake at the gate') for Innocent XII.
( 1691 ), who wa-s one of the Pignatelli of Rastello
at the gates of Naples. Then Pcrei/rinns Apos-
tolicus fits nicely for Pius VII., and Aquila rapax
for Pius VIII., carried ott" to France by Napoleon,
whose emblem was an eagle. For Pius IX. the
motto was Crux dc crtice, and Lumen in Ca'lo for
Leo XIII., his arms bearing a fiery star. The nine
prophecies still unfulfilled in 1890 were Ir/nis arcleiis,
lieligio depopulata. Fides intrcpida. Pastor anijcii-
cus. Pastor et nauta (this shepherd will belike
make a voyage), Flos florum, De mcdictiitc luna:,
Dc labore solis, and Gloria olira-. After which
' the City of the Seven Hills shall be destroyed.'
See St Bernard's Vita MaktchkE (in Migne's Patr.
Cursus, clx.xi. 1074 ) ; Prof. G. T. Stokes's Ireland and
the Celtic Church ( 2d ed. 1S88 ) ; and, for the ' Prophecies,'
Sloreri's Diet, ffiitorique (ed. 1759; vii. 117), and an
admirable article by the Marquis of Bute in the Dublin
Rcvinc for October 1885.
MaljlCOlogV (Or. mala/cos, 'soft'), a name
sometimes employed to designate that bran<-h of
natural history which has molluscs (called mcdakia
by Aristotle) for its subject. See MoLLUSCA.
Malacopterygii ( 'soft-finned ' ), a term applied
by t'uvier to those Bony Fishes (q.v.) in which the
dorsal tins are supported by soft, jointed rays.
Malaga, a seaport in the south of Spain, is
situated on the Mediterranean, 65 miles NE. of
Gibraltar. Sheltered on the north and east by
mountains, and witli a wonderfully equalile and
uniform climate (range of thermometer 56° to 8'2°
F. ), of which dryness and constant sunshine are the
characteristics, this place Ls superior as a resort
for invalids to any either in France or Italy, not
excepting the Riviera. The only noteworthy buihl-
ings are the cathedral (1528-1765), which is still
unfinished, and the Moorish castle, built in the
end of the Kith century on the site of a former
Plucnician stronghold. Malaga is one of the most
important commercial seaports of the king<loin.
Vet its trade has been rapidly declining since 1878.
Diseases have ravaged the vines and the orange
and lemon groves; and heavy octroi duties, un-
scientific methods of agriculture and of extract-
ing olive-oil, and insutlicient and exi>eiisive means
of comM]unicati<m have all contributed to cause
the depres.sion. Nevertheless, olive -oil, wine,
raisins, lead, almonds, lemons, grapes, chick jieas,
and (esparto grass are exported to tlie annu.il value
of i;i,95:{,0<J(J, and cotton, timbi;r, coal, pi'troleuni.
sugar, and codfish are imported to tlie annual
value of £474,0(X). The United States, the great
customers for Malaga raisins, now use California
raisins instead ; the export of raisins from Malaga
to the States ha.s consequently decreased from
1,000,000 boxes in 1882 to a few thousan<ls in 189.5.
The harliour, which is entered by 2400 ves.sels of
1,025,0(>0 tons annually, one-sixth being IJrilish
and three-fourths Spanish, is protected by two
large moles. The manufacturing industry is more
hopeful and energetic; it includes establishments
for making cotton and linen goods, machinery, line
art pottery, Hour, soaji,' litliographed work, and
wine and oil presses. Pop. (1887) 134,016. The
Mcdaca of the Romans, the town is a very ancient
place, having been founded by the Phtenicians. It
was an important city under the Moois, being first
suliject to Cordova and afterwards to Uranada,
from the conquest of Spain early in the 8th century
down to 1487, when it w<is captured by Fenlinand
anil Isabella. — The modern province of Malaga has
an area of 2836 sq. m. , and a pop. ( 1887 ) of 523,627.
One-sixth is ]ilanted with the vino, and two-fifths
yield wheat, barley, and maize. I.eail, iron, and
manganese are mined.
iHulagasy. See Madag.vscak.
iUalakofI'. See Sebastopol.
Malan, Cesar Henri Abrah.vm, a Protestant
Swiss divine, was born in Geneva, 8th July 1787,
and became a pastor of the state chnrch and a
regent in the college. Through tlie intlnence of
American and Scottish friends, he became devoutly
evangelical, and many of his «'orks were trans-
lated into English— ^"'/ie C/iurch of Pome (1844),
Stories for Children (1852), Pictures from Su-itzer-
land (1854). Both words and music oi Chants de
Ziun (IS'26) are his own. He died 8tli May 1864.
His Lite was written (1869) by his son Solomon
Cesar, D.D. who, born at Geneva in 1812, studied
at O.xford, and was vicar of Broadwiiidsor and
prebendary of Sarum. He wrote on birds, and
several theological works, ami died 27th November
1894. See Life Ijy his son ( 1897 ).
Malaprop, jMr.s, a character in Sheridan's
Eicals, whose remarks are not so much out of
]jlace or mal-upropos, as ingeniously perverse in
' derangement of epitaphs ' — i.e. in confounding and
misa]iplying words somewhat similar in sound or
sjielling — a ' Derbyshire putrefaction,' ' a barbarous
Vandyke,' ' an allegory on the banks of the Nile.'
.Ilalapteriiriis. See Electric Fishes.
.Uiilar. L.\ke, one of the largest lakes, and the
most beautiful, in Sweden, measures 80 miles in
length from east to west, and has numerous long
narrow arms and ofi'sets ; area, 650 sq. m. It is
studded with upwards of 1200 islands, mostly well
wooded. Its east end is close by Stockholiii, where
its waters are poured into the Baltic Sea. The
shores are very varied w ith bays and hills, woods,
lawns, and cliffs, and are .ailorned with many
castles, country-seats, and villas, including the
royal palaces of Drottningholm and (;ri|iesholm.
]IIalaria, or Mi.\sm. Malaria, an Italian word,
is almost universally employed to designate an
earth-born poison which is generated in soils the
energies of which are not expended in the growth
and sustenance of healthy vegetation. This emana-
tion gives rise to certain diseases, especially the
various forms of intermittent and remittent fever.
During the past three hundred years some two
tliousaiKl booKs and [lapers have been written upon
the subject, but as yet, although much is known
of malaria, it is impossible to state definitely what
the morbific agent really is. Many theories have
liccn advanced with regard to malaria. It has been
said to be due to a |iarasite, to a germ, to some
telluric origin which the French call telluric intoxi-
cation, to the toxic excretions of living organisms,
plant or animal. Some say it is caused by chill,
others by certain electrical comlitions of the atmo-
sphere, and others .sjvy it is due to a gas emitted
from marsh water, .\lthough malaria is so often
connected with marshy distrii-ts as to Icjul many to
suppose that a marsh mu>t be inseparably con-
necteil with its production, yet we find that,
aft hough it is most iiowerfiil near niai-shes, it is
also fimml in arid regions and in rocky districts
which are in a state of ilislntegiation. Its geo-
graphical distribution is very wide, but it is most
820
MALARIA
MALAYS
virulent in tropical and subtropical regions. Its
(lepen<lence on climatic influences is shown by tlie
prevalence of malarial fever at certain seasons and
under certain meteorological conditions ; even in
those districts where malaria is endemic tliiough-
oiit the wliole of tlie year there is a maximum and
minimum period to its virulence. It is certain
that a high temperature is capalde of increasing tlie
freq\iency and severity of malarial fever ; and that
in those places where the summer temperature is
from 58° to 60° F. the production of the poison is
prevented. The intluence of the rainfall varies
with the character of the soil. As a general rule
it may he said that the malarial poison is most
virulent either when the rains set in after a long
period of lieat, or when the rains cease and give
place to warm dry weather. The virulence of the
poison is notably diminished at the heiglit of the
rains if they are very abundant, but the poison is
producoil in greater quantities in wet than in dry
years. \Vind exerts a certain intluence upon
inalaria, for it can carry the poison from a marsh
to a healthy spot, probably to the distance of three
miles ; wind also prevents the vertical ascent of
the poison, for in calm air malaria may ascend to
700 or 1000 feet above a swamp, but should a strong
win<l be blowing this vertical dift'usion is pre-
vented. It is also probable that on some islands
wliere malaria is absent, although from analogy
we should expect to find it present, the wind by
rapidly changing the atmospliere carries away the
poison before it has time to do harm. The e.xtent
and severity of malarial diseases diminish as one
ascends above sea level. The height at which
malaria is produced depends upon climatological
conditions — i.e. in tropical districts one must ascend
to a greater altitude to lind a situation free from
malaria than would be necessary in a northern
climate. In the tropics an altitude of 3200 feet
may be rcciuired to prevent the production of
malaria, wliere:vs in the Apennines 1500 feet only
is reiiuire<l, and farther north malaria is not found
at a greater altitude than 500 feet. In investigat-
ing the occurrence of malaria in non-mountainous
regions we also lind that altitude plays a not
uiiimiiortant part, for even on a level plateau with
basin-like ilepressions the deepest points are those
most att'ected by disease, and in those excep-
tional cases where malaria is endemic at more
or less considerable elevations the seat of the pro-
duction of the jjoison is invariably in a valley or
ravine. The older geological formations are more
or less exempt in proportion to the compactne.ss of
the rock and the porosity of the soil, and accord-
ingly the alluvial and diluvial formations are the
cliief seats of endemic malaria. Clay, marl, and
marsh lands are most favourable to its produc
tion ; a jiorous chalky soil is less favourahle, anil
sandy soil least favourable to its production.
Wliere malaria is endemic in rocky districts tliere
is always a more or less thick layer of permeable
alluvial, diluvial, or mineral detritus .spread over
the linn roidi, and invariably a hydroscopic upjier
soil.
Whatever the cli.aracter of the soil, a copious
saturation of the ground is necessary for the jiro-
duction of malaria. Tiiis may be caused by atmo-
spheric precipitations, drainage from rivers, lakes,
or pools, inundations, either periodic or irregular,
irrigation, and saturation of the ground with
siihsoil water. The amount of org.anic matter
iu the .soil is certainly connected with the ino-
luction of malaria, and, other circumstances
lieing equal, the greatest amount of malaria will
lie found where the amount of organic m.attcr
in the soil is greatest, least where it is least.
ijhanges in the soil indicate clearly its influence
in the production of malaria, for the latter will
disappear on damp or marshy soil being completely
dried up. If water completely covers the soil,
malaria disappears ; if virgin land he reclaimed,
it proves malarious until perfectly cultivated, and a
neglect of once cultisated ground may also produce
malaria. It has been found by experience th.at
malaria is not produced in tlie centre of i'ilies, and,
although it may be prevalent in the outskirts of
large towns, it does not penetrate to their centres.
Laveran discovered the parasite of malaria ;
Bignami, Grassi, and others insisted (189!)) that
the malady was mainly communicated by mos-
quitoes ; and Major Koss made extensive re-
searches in West Africa into the theory, singling
out tlie Anop/u/en clacbjcr as especially active.
Professor Koch's investigations ( 1899-1 900) in Italy,
Java, and New Guinea prove that the true home of
the germ is in the blood of the malaiial jiatient ;
mosquitoes and other gnats, imbibing the germ in
stinging .a sufferer, introduce it into the blood of
the next iierson stung. In New Guinea nearly all
children are afflicted with malaria. Much may he
done to combat the disease by special attention to
children, and to mild and latent cases in adults.
Ill Germany cases of malaria in the army, which
in 1865 were 13,500, were in 1895 only 'I'M; doubt-
less owing to the free use of quinine. Uo-^s insists
on the possibility (denied by Koch) of exterminat-
ing mosquitoes liy surface drainage. Dr .Sanilmn
and lb- S. Low, who were commissioned by the
Biitish (Government, spent the malarial season
(.Inly to October) of 1900 in the wor.st parts of
the "lloinan Caiiqiagiia ; they found that people
who only go about during the day, when these
insects do not a|ipear, and who protect them-
selves from them at night, when they are abroad
in myriads, do not sufier from malaria ; whereas
the sting of a mosquito was invariably followeil
by llie disease. See ENDEMIC and the monograph
by Celli (trans. 1900).
Naliltia (anc. Mditenc), a town in the province
of Diarlickir in Asia Minor, 8 miles from the
Euphrates ; pop. 20,000.
IHalay Peiiiusula. See Malacca.
iHalays. the dominant native race in the E.astern
Archipelago and neighbouring Asiatic peninsula,
which from them are commonly named respectively
the Malay Archipelago and Malay Peninsula, and
collectively Malaysia. Physically the Malays must
be regarded as an oceanic luanch of the Mongolic
division of mankind, diversely modilied by iuter-
minglings, especially with dark ( Pajiuan ) elementa
in the eastern, and light (Caucasic) elements in
the western and central parts of the archipel.ago.
The former (Malmjo-Papuan), often designated by
the smiiewhat vague term ' Alfuro,' merge gradually
eastward through Timor, Cerani, and South .lilolo
in the true I'apuans of Aru and New Guinea. 'J'he
latter form two distinct groups, the Jyuioncsiann
showing more of the Caucasic, and the Mahn/s
projicr showing more of the Mongolic clement.
The Indonesians, reinesented chietly by the Hallaks
and Kulms of Sumatra, the Ibighis and Mang-
kassanis of South Celebes, the Ihilcd Ijiilis and
others of lioriieo, the Manobos and Tinguians of
the I'hiliiipiiics, the Mcntawey i^-landei-s (west
coast of Sumatra), and many of tin- tribes in the
.Moluccas (North .Jilolo. Huiu), are of medium and
even tall stature, veil proportioned, with light
brown complexion, long (iloliclioccplialic) head,
straight eyes, large nose, and regular features.
The Malav race proper comprises all the rest of the
inhabilaiiis of Mal.iysia. excejit the Nc-gritos of
the I'hilippiiics aiiil .Malay Peninsula; al.so the
('hams of the .south-eiusterii extremity of ('ocliin-
China, many of the Eormosan trilies, the IIovius of
Madagascar, and some of the Micronesian islanders.
MALAYS
MALCOLM
821
Tiiey are of low size, avera-^iiiK little over live feet,
with yellowish complexion, stniij,'lil lihu'k hair,
rounil 1 biachycephalic ) heail, soiiiewliat aliiioiul-
shaped eyes, small nose, hi<;h cheek-bones, flat
features, small hands and feet, in general so like
the east Asiatic Mongols that Chinese dressed as
Balinese could scarcely he distinguished from
Malays, while many natives of Java might pass
very well for Chinese (Wallace).
liut linguistically the Malays are entirely severed
ft-oni the Asiatic Mongols, all the Malay langu.ages
without exception belonging to the wiilely-dill'used
MalayoPolynesian family, which extends across
the Indian and Pacific Oceans from Madagii-scar to
Easter Island, and from New Zealand northwards
to Hawaii. Tliis .area inchide.s many dark popul.a-
tioiis, such a-s the natives of the New Hebrides and
Solomon Islands, who speak primitive or arcliaic
forms of the organic Malayo- Polynesian tongue.
of which the standard Malay. Ka\ i, .lavane.se, antl
other idioms of the more cultured Malay peoples
apjiear to he later developments (Codrington).
Thus in the oceanic world race and language are,
so to say, antagonistic, and present many ditlicult
problems, the solution of which must await further
research.
The peoples of standaid Malay speech — i.e.
the Malays in the narrower and pojiular accepta-
tion of the term — occu|)y a comnarati^■ely limited
portion of JIalaysia, being mainly con lined to the
Malay Peninsula to about 9° N. hit., the southern
provinces of Sumatra (Menangkabo, Palembang,
&c. I, Lingen. Banka, and the other islands lietween
Suuuitra and Borneo ; Banjermassin, Pontianak,
Brunei, and some other maritime districts in
Borneo : Tidor, Ternate, and the Banda group in
the Moluccas, and the Suhi Islands. But at all
events since the IStli century these Malays have
been the chief trading people of the archipelago,
where their language was already the general
nieilium of intercourse throughout Malaysia at the
arrival of the Portuguese towards the close of the
loth century. The question of their origin has
been much discussed, some fixing the cradle of the
r.ace on the Asiatic mainland, others in Sumatra.
This island, and especially Menangkabo, was un-
doubtedly the point of dispersion of the later
historic migrations both to the mainland and to
the eastern parts of the archipelago, which migra-
tions can he traced hack to the 12th century. Hut
the race itself, being a Ijranch of the ^[ongolic
stock, must have originally reached the islands
from the mainlaml, where the OraiKj-Bcnutt ('men
of the soil ■ ), indigenous Malay tribes, are still
found almost at as low a stage of culture as their
Negrito neighbours. Others, the so-called Unt»r/-
Laul ('men of the sea*), have from times long
anterior to the Sumatran migrations Ix-en scattered
over all the inland waters of the archipelago, 'a
vile people, living by lishing .and piracy ' ( I )e Barros).
Ljustly, the Orn>if/-Mii/th/ii themselves -i.e. the
civilised Malays, formerly Brabmanists and P.uii-
dhist.s, now mostly Mohammedans — had already
overrun the southern parts of .\nnam in the 8tli
century, and the Hovas had reacheil JIadagascar
at a still earlier epoch— i.e. before the spread of
Hindu inlluences in the archipelago, for there are
no Sanskrit words in the Mala^'asy language.
Hence the Menangkabo dispersion can oidy be
regarded as an cpi.siHle in the history of the .\ialay
race, whose origin must be sought, imt in Sum.atra,
but in the Indo-Chinese peninsula. Their connection
with the primitive inhabitant.s of this region is also
shown by numerous pra<'tices, such a.s pile-build-
ing, headhunting (l)yaks of Borneo), certain
mati'i.an^hal customs. ,a dislike of milk, and foml-
ness for piitre.--cent lisli, large e.ir <irnanient.s, cock-
lighting and other forni.s of gambling.
Of late years the Malays have mostly abandoned
their lawless roving habits, and arj now spoken of
as a somewhat mild, patient, and taciturn people,
occu|iied chietiy with trade and agriculture, and
distinguished especially for their cxtrenu' courtesy
towards each other and strangers. But the old
tiery spirit still smoulders beneath an apparently
pas.sive exterior, .and too frcc]ui'ntly reveals itseif
in those sudden outliursts ol munleroiis frenzies
known as 'running amuck.' Tlie Malay intellect
is of a low order, and the r.ace has never <levelo|ied
a native culture, their civilisation being entirely
due to foreign influences, chieHy Hinchi .and Arab.
The Malay languiige, which is soft and harmonious
.and of simple structure, is written in the Arabic
chariicter, which is ill suited for the purpose.
Lately the Koman system h.as been largely ado|ited,
especially in the Dutch and English dejiendencies.
The literature, which is copious, comprises poetical
compositions, such as rhyming-proverbs, love-songs,
and dramas displaying some originality, but little
imagination. The prose-writings (histories and
chronicles in which truth and Hction are inextricably
interwoven, treatises on law, theology, and ethics)
are mostly ba.sed on Arab or Persian models.
.See J. C'rawfurd. History of the Indian ArchipiUnjo :
Logan, Journal of the Indian Arrhipelafjo and East
A»ia. and Etlniolotjy of the Indian Avchijichufo ; A. K.
"Wallace, The Malari Archipriafjo: T. .T. Newbold, Account
of the British Stflinilcntii iit the Strait.^ of Malacca;
W. E. JIaxwell, Manual of the Malaij Lanijuaye ; Mik-
lukho Maclay, Ethnofotjical Excursion in Johor ; A. H.
Keane, ligations of the Indo-Chinese and Inter-Oceanic
Bncia and Lanijiiatjes ; Von Roseubor;;, Die M(dai/ische
Archipel, and FoiUorc of the Mataifx ; Journal of the
atraits Branch of the Boi/al Asiatic Hocieti/.
ninlcollll, StR .John, G.C.B., a British sohlier,
statesman, and historian, was born .at Burnfoot,
near Langholm, Dumfriesshire, M.ay 2, 176n, and
at fourteen went to India as .a cadet in the M.adras
army. In 1798 he w.as appointed assistant to the
resident at Hyderabad by Lord Wellesley. He
distinguished himself at the siege of Seringii-
p.atam in 1799, and in ISOO he was sent .as am-
liassador to Persia, to form an alliance with tli.at
country .against Bona|)arte, in which he succeeded.
In 1801 he acted .as private secretary to Wellesley ;
in 180.3 wa.s appointed governor of the Mysore
Residency : and during the next two years did
nuich to reduce to order and tranciuillity the newly-
con<iueied -Mahratta states. In IS()7 and 1810 he
was .again sent as minister-plenipotentiary to the
Persian court. In 1812 he returned to England,
received the honour of knighthoixl, and, after live
years, went out again to India as the governor-
gener.al's political agent in the Decc.an, .and with
the rank of brigadier-gencial in the Indian army ; in
the Latter capacity he greatly distinguished himself
in llie wars against tbi' Pindaris and llolkar. He
was again in I'.nglanil in 1822, and settled with his
family at Hyile Hall, near Sawhridgeworth, Hert-
fordshire. To this period belong his anonymous
S/:etr/ic.i in Pcrsiet (1827). (!ovenu)r of Boml«iy
( 1827-30), he entered parlianuuit in 1831 as member
for L.aunceston, and opposed the Keform liill. He
died of paralysis in Lonihm. 3(ltb May 1833. The
Duke of Wellington in 18'24 wmte to Malcolm
that from the year 179G ' no great transaction has
taken place in the East in which you have not
played a. ])rincipal, most useful, conspicuous, and
honourable ])art.' Malcolm's writings are A Ilis-
toni of I'er.siit (2 vols. 181."): '2d ed. 182S), Memoir
of Cent ml IikHii (2 vols. 1823), I'olitical Jti.ilun/
of hiil'iii front /7S.I to ISM (2 vols. 18'2G), anil
/,//;■ '-/ /,'-'/■(/ I 'lire ( I8.3(;), Sec his Life and Corre-
spondence, liy Kayc ( 18.">(i).
.llah'ollll I'ailllioro (Cnel. Ccnniinwr.' f^ptit
head), king of .Scotland, was a chiUI when in 1010
82-2
MALDEGEM
MALEBRANCHE
his father, King Duncan, was slain hy Macbeth
(q.v.). He seems to havespent liis youtli in North-
umhria with his uncle, Earl Siwaicl, who in l()o4
estal]lislieil him in Hnu possession of Cuniluia ami
Lothian. lu 1057, on the death of Macbeth ami
(seven months later ) of Lulacli. as well as that
prol)ably of Earl Thorlinn of Orkney, he ascemleil
the throne of all Scotland. For the iii-st eight
years he was free to devote his energies to the
consolidation of his kingdom, England then being-
ruled liy tlie peaceful Edward the Confessor; but
even during this period he made one raid into
Northumbria (1061). And after 1060 the history
of his long reign is one of ceaseless warfare with
the Norman. His (irst wife, Ingibiorg, Thorlinn's
widow, had died ; and in 1069 Malcolm wedded
Margaret, sister of Edgar the Atheling (q.v.),
whose cause thenceforth he warmly made his own.
Five separate times did he havrv Northumbria, as
far sometimes as Vork (1069, 1070, 1079, 1091, and
1093 ) ; and there were counter invasions by William
the Conqueror and Prince Robert, in 1072 and
1080, on the former of which occasions at Alier-
nethy ' King ilalcolm came and made peace with
King "^^"illiam, and gave hostages and became
his mail.' This homage he renewed to William
Rufus in 1091 ; but, according to Scottish his-
torians, it was only for Lothian and Cumbria,
which once had lielonged to England. In 1092
Kufus wrested from Scotland all Cumbria south
of the Solway ; and next year Malcolm gathered
his army and marched into England, ' harrying
with more animosity than ever behoved him. And
then, on l.'Uli Xovember 1093, Robert de Moubiay,
Earl of Northumberland, ensnared him at Alnwick
with his men unawares and slew him. Morel of
Bamboroiigli, who slew him, was Earl Robert's
steward and King Malcolm's gossip. With INIal-
colm, also, was slain his son Edward, who should,
if he h,ad lived, have been king after him.'
Malcolm left, however, five sons, of whom four
succeeded him on the throne — Duncan (by Ingi-
biorg), Edgar, Alexander, and David. His reign
is an important one, as the commencement of the
transition of Scotland, Celtic and Culdee, to Scot-
land, feudal and Roman Catholic ; but the change
was not due to him so much as to his saintly
queen.
See the article M.\KGARET, and Skene's Celtic Scolhind
(1876) ; anil see the article ScoTr..\XD for the other three
kings of that name — Malcolm, son of Donald, king of
Alban from 942 to 954 ; Malcolm, son of Kenneth,
king of Scotia from 1005 to 1034; and Malcolm the
Maiden, king of Scotland from 1153 to 1165.
Mnlde.Sfem, a town of East Flanders, Belgium,
12 iniies hy rail E. of Bruges. Pop. 8522.
Maiden, a village of Surrey, 3 miles SE. of
Kingston-npon-Thames. From 1264 to 1274 it was
the seal of Merlon College, so may claim to he the
inetroijolis of Oxford. Pop. of parish, 525. The
town of New Maiden (poj). 2538) is 2 miles E. of
Kingston, of which it is practically a suburb.
nialdoil. a town of Massachusetts, 5 miles by
rail N. of Boston. There are manufactures of india-
niblier goods, cords and tassels, sand-paper, iS:c.
Pop. (1890) 23,031.
IHnldoil Island, a British possession in the
Central l';uilic-, lies NW. of the Marquesas in
i" 3' S. hit. and 155 W. hmg. It is a coral island
5 miles long liy 4 broad, and h.as valuable dciiosits
of guano, worked liy eight Europeans and 160
nativci lal)onreis.
Maldivc Islands, a chain of characteristic
Coral (q.v.) atolls in the Indian Ocean, lying SW.
of Ceylon. They extend 550 miles in length (7° 7'
N. lat. to 0' 42' S.) by 45 in average breadth
(72° 30' to 73° 50' E. long.), and consist of seventeen
groups, distributed politically into thirteen, and
embracing a total of several hundred islands. All
of these are very small in area, and less than 200
are inhabited. Male, the residence of the native
'Sultan of the Twelve Thousand Isles,' is 1 mile
long by j mile wide, and contains a pop. of 2000.
The population of the whole chain is nrohahly not
more than 20,000. These people resemble the Sing-
halese in their personal appearance, and s]ieak a
language closely akin to Singhalese. They are
Mohammedans by religion, and boast of an ancient
civilisation. They are peaceful, atl'ectionate, well
behaved, and of cleanly habits. Rice (imported),
fish (chiefly bonito), bread fruit, cocoa-nut, and
various other fruits and vegetables are their prin-
cipal food. Coir, cowries, dried bcmito iish, cocoa-
nut ami copra, and tortoiseshell are exported.
The gathering and preparation of these articles are
the principal occupations, apart from a little weav-
ing. The Arab geographer Ihn Batuta lived
more than a year on the islands (1343-44). The
Portuguese maintained factories there at various
times after 1518; but in 1645 the snitan put him-
self, under the protection of the Dutch governor of
Ceylon, and along with that island they excluinged
Dutch for English supremacy. The sultan sends
an embassy every year, bearing presents, to renew
his homage to the governor of Ceylon.
UlaldOU, a municipal borough of Essex, 9 miles
E. of Chelmsford and 38 NE. of London (hy rail
44), stands on a hill near the conlluence of the
Chelmer and the Blackwater, in the vicinity of
which traces are still extant of a Roman encamp-
ment. It has two fine churches, partly Decorated
and partly Perpendicular, and a quaint town or
moot hall dating from the reign of Henry VI. The
manufacture of crystallised salt is a siicciality, and
in the Blackwater— a noted resort of wild-fowl —
are extensive oyster-fisheries. From 1.328 to 1867
Maldon returned two members to |iarlianient, and
thence to 1885 one. Plume, founder of the profes-
sorship of Astronomy at Cambridge, (Jeneral tiates,
and J. R. Herbert, K.A., were natives, and Land-
seer's parents residents till 1815. In the battle of
Maldon (991), the subject of a famous old En;;lish
poem, the English under Brilitnoth were defeated
by Norwegian Vikings under (Juthniund and Olaf
Tryggvason. Pop. ( 1801 ) 2358 ; ( 1881 ) 5468 ;
(1891) 5397. See Fitch's Maldon and the Hirer
Blac/acater {1895).
Mah'branolie. Nicolas, a French philo-
sophcr, was horn August 6, 1638, at Paris. He
was deformed and sickly, and from his childhood
fond of solitude. At the age of twenty-two he
entered into the congregation of the Oratory, and
devoted himself to the study of Patristics and
church history, till Descartes's treatise, JJc Homine,
falling into his hands, attracted him to philosophy.
His famous work. De la Jicc/icrc/ie de la Virile (3
vols. 1674 ; 6lh ed. 1712), revealed great depth and
originality of thought combined with iierspicuity
and elegance, its object being the psychological
investigation of the causes of the errors to which
the human mind is liable, and of the nature of
truth and the way of reaching it. He main-
tains that we see all things in God— his famous
]'i.iiu>i eti Dieii : that alT beings and thoughts
exist in God — Diru est le lien dc.i esjiritu, evmiiie
I'expare est Ic lien des rorps ; ami that (Jod is
the (irst cause of all changes wliioh take place in
bodies and souls, which are theiefme merely pas-
sive therein. His system is a kind of mystic
idealism. It was immediately opposed by Ant.
Arnauld, Bossnet, and many others, and was snh-
jectc.l to a thorongh and critical examination b^
Locke and Leibnitz. Other works of Malehranche s
are Traiti de la Morale (1084) and Conversations
MALE FERN
MALIC ACID
823
Mi'f(ii>/n/siqiii's ct Cliictifiinrs (ItiSS), in tlie latter
of wliicli he endeavoured to exliiliit the liannoiiy
of his philosophic views with Christianily. He
died at Paris, October !.'{, 1715. The story of
Stoi-k, Berkeley's biographer, that Malebranche
dieil of the excitement induced hv a metaphysical
discussion with the subtle Berkeley, is disproved
by the dates ; Berkeley having been in England
from August 1714 till 1716.
An edition of liis works, published in 171*2, filled 11
volumes. Later editions are by (Jenonde and Lourilomix
(18:}7) and Jules Simon (18o9-71). See the Life by
Aiidr^ (Tours, 1886), and tlie Studies by Blampignon
(1861), OUe-Laprune (1870), and Pillon (189.5).
Male Feru. See Fern (Male).
nialegiiettii Pepper. See Ge.uns of Par
adi.se.
Slalesherbes, Chretiem Guillaume de
Lam()1i.;non" de, a distinguislied French statesman,
was born at Paris, December 6, 1721. Educated
at the Jesuits' College, at twenty-four he became
counsellor to the parliament of Paris, and in 1750
succeeded his father as president of the Cour des
Aides, where he showed clear judgment, strict
integrity, and humanity. A quiet but determined
opponent of government rapacity and tyranny, he
watclied the ministry with a jealous eye, and was
indefatigable in his etforts to prevent the peo|ile
from being plundered. Beside,s his moie proper
judicial duties he was entrusted also with the
censoi-sliip of the press, and so tolerant was he that
French authoi-s pronounce the period of his censor-
ship ' the golden age of letters. To his large mind
we may ascribe the publication of the fanious
EncydopMie. In 1771 his bold remonstrances
against the abuses of law which Louis XV. was
perpetrating led to his banishment to his country-
seat of St Lucie, Init here he solaced himself witii
botany, ever a favourite study. At the accession
of Louis XVL (1774) he was recalled, and took
office under the crown, but retired on the dismissal
of Turgot, and from this time to the Revolution
spent his time in travel, or in the improvement of
his estates, with one brief interval of ottice in 17^7.
The tii-st storms passed him by ; but when be beanl
that the unhappy king was about to be tried by
the Convention he magnanimously left his retreat,
anil came to Paris to undertake his defence. ' I
was twice called to tlie council of him who wa-s my
master, when all the world coveted that honour ;
and I owe him the same service now when it has
become one which many reckon danjrerous,' said
the gray-haired hero. From that day Maleslierbes
himself was doomed. He was arrested in the
beginning of December 1793, and guillotined, April
22, 1794, along with his daughter and her Inishand,
brother of the f.-unous Chateaubriand. Malesherbes
was (me of the noblest figures of his time, and his
fearless, high-minded devotion to duty as an advo-
cate was fittingly commemorated in 1826 by a
statue in the hall of justice at Paris, and in the
name of a well-known boulevard in the city. He
was a member of the Academy, and brought an
able jien to the discussion of agriculture and botany
a-s well a.s political and financial questions.
His fKiivnt Choimen (1809) contains his most interest-
ing writings. For his Life, sec the books by Dubois ( 3d
cd. l.si»(;i, GailUrd ( 1805), Boissv d'Anglas (1818), Eozet
( 18:11 ., Dupiii (18411, and Vignau.x (1874).
Malt't. See Mallet.
Mallierbe, Francois de, was bom at Caen,
July 13, 1555. After studying at the university
of Caen he attached himself to Henri d'Angoult^me,
a natural son of Henri IL, and wa.s afterwards
l>en.sioned by the Due de Bellegarde. He joined
the court of Henri IV'., and received a ]>ension of
1500 livres from the queen. He wa.s an industrious
ode
songs, paraphrases, ejii.
translations, criticisms, &c He
writer, producing
grams, e])isi les
founded a lileiary scliool, and by his inlluenoe
brought about a revolution in poetic stvle. He
gave le.-;.sons in composiliim to a class of disciples,
who met in the hotel of the Due de Bellegarde,
and death, so the story goes, struck him while he
was engaged in rounding a period. Though he had
a considerable fortune, he incessantly liewailed the
rigours of his lot in his adiln-sses to tlic court, and
successfully importuned Louis XI 11. for an addition
to his income. He died at Paris, Cctobcr Ui, ll'>28.
His poetry is of little merit, being cold, colourless,
and insipid. He is best remembered by the truly
touching stanzas which he addressed to his friend
Du Perrier, and which contain the most famous
line : ' Et, rose, elle a vecu ce q'on viveiit les roses.'
He was exceedingly vainglorious, and asserted
that what he had written would endure eternally.
His interest lies in this — that by example and
teachiug he altered the complexion of French
verse. He led his countrvmcii to look with dis-
dain on the richly-coloured and full-sounding
verses of Konsard, and to adopt a style clear and
finished, it is true, but cold and prosaic, and con-
fined to the limits of a narrow vocabulary. He
delighted to Ije termed the tyrant of words and
syllables. He introduced, so to speak, the prin-
ciple of caste into diction. Certain words were
adapted for poetic purposes, while others were to
be rigidly excluded from literature. The result
was that when Malherlie's teachings were dev<!lo])ed
by Boileau, and enforced by his high authority,
Flench \erse was deprived of nearl\' all that marks
ofi' poetry from prose. The select lilrr(tr>j words
lost their original edge and colour, and became
incapable of rendering other than conventional
ideas. On the other hand, Malherbe did good
service in inculcating the virtues of reticence,
refinement, and correctness in style.
See Sainte-Beuve's Caitgtrics itit LantJiy vol. viii. ;
Flippeau's Kcrivains iW»7Jia?K/.'* (18.58) ; and works by
Gourney (18.521, Laur (Heidelberg 1869), Johanneson
(Halle, 1881), Basset (3d ed. 1890), Allais (1892), and
the Due de Broglie ( 1896).
Slalibran, Maria Felicita, mezzo-soprano
singer, born at Paris, March 24, 1808, wiis the
daughter of Manuel Garcia, a Spanish singer and
teacher of singing. She made her debut in London
in 1S25, and soon her reputation extc-ndi'd over
Europe. Her father attemided to establish the
Italian opera in New York, but without success ;
and she married M. Malibran, a French merchant
there, who soon became bankrui>t. Theieu]ioii she
returned to the stage, and was received with great
enthusiasm in France, England, Germany, and
Italy. Her first marriage having been dissolved,
she married M. Beriot, a famous violinist, in 1836;
Iiut on 23d September of that year she died at
Manchester. She was one of the greatest of oper-
atic singers.
Malic Acid, H/'jH,0. (from Lat. malum, 'an
ai)pl<r), occurs abundantly in most acidulous fruits,
particularly in unripe api>les, goo.seberries, and
currants, in which it is found as an acid or acid
salt of potash or lime, which gradually changes into
a neutral salt as the fruit ripens. It crystallises in
groups of radiating .icicular prisms, but, as the
cr>-stals are very deliquescent, it is usually ob-
tained as a syrupy, semilranspnreiit mass, with a
very sour smell, and readily soluble in water aiid
alcohol. The chemical clianges which this acid
undergoes under the intluence of various reagents
are very singular, and si-i ve to illustrate uiaiiy
imints in vegetable pliyviology in reference to tb((
maturation of fruits. Thus, nitric acid converts it
into oxalic acid ; hydrated potash, into oxalic and
824
MALIGNANT
MALLOW
acetic acids : feiiueiits, into succinic, butyric,
iicetic, anil carbonic acids and water.
Malignant Piistnle. See Anthrax.
MaliS'nants, a tenu used by the parliament
men to desijjnate tliosc wliom thev considered to be
tlie evil advisei-s of Charles I. I'hey are so called
in the Grand Remonstrance, Laud ami Strafford
being singled out as the most prominent, and to
their door are laid all the evils which artiicted the
kingdom. Afterwards the name was e.\tended to
all who sided with the king against the parlia-
ment.
llalinos, or Mechlin (Flem. Mechelen), a city
of Helgium, on the navigable Dyle, 14 miles SSE.
of Antwerp. It has line squares, noble buildings,
and wide regular streets, but is devoid of all signs
of life and Imlustry, having lost its former great-
ness, and fallen far behind other Belgian cities in
commercial enterprise and industrial actisity. As
the see of the primate of Belgium it still retains
a certain degree of ecclesiastical importance, and
possesses numerous churches, the most noteworthy
of which is St Rombold's cathedral, a vast build-
ing, covering nearly two acres, its interior adorned
with Van Dyck's 'Crucifixion' and many other fine
pictures anjl carvings. It was mostly built in
14.37-52, but its clock-tower, .324 feet high, remains
unfinished. The churches of St .John and of Our
Lady contain works liv Rubens ; the town-hall
date's from the l.>th century ; the Cloth Hall ( 1340)
is now used as a guard-house ; noteworthy also
are the splendid modern archiepiscopal palace, the
Beguinage, the Salm inn ( 1534), and the monument
to Margaret of Austria (1849). The manufacture
of pillow-lace, so famous in the 17th century (.see
Lace ), has been largely transferred to Brussels and
elsewliere ; but linen and woollen fabrics, beer,
neeilles, &C. are made here. Pop. (1875) 40,181;
(IW(I) 40,721.
!HaIin$;ei*inK is a term used in the British
army to express the crime of feigning disea.se in
order to obtain discharge from the service, or to
escape some special duty. As defined in the Army
Act of 1881 it implies some overt act, such as the
previous application of a ligature, or the taking of
some ilrug, which ijroiluceil the appearance of the
disease said to exist. .\ woise form of the same
crime, 'wilfully maiming' — as blowing oil' the
trigger-finger — is erroneously called malingering.
Mallard. See Duck.
Malleability is the property which certain
metals possess of being reducible to thin leaves,
either by hammering (hence the corresponding
Germ.in word, lluiinncrbarkeit) or by lamination
between rollers. The order in whicli tin- la.alle-
alilc niet.als exhiliit this ]iro])erty is as follows —
(iold, Silver, ('o])per, I'latinum, Palladium, Iron,
Aluminium, Tin. Zinc, Lead, Cadmium, Nickel,
Cobalt, (iold far surpa.sses all the other niet.als
in irialleability, being capable of reduction into
films not exceeding the '200, 000th of an inch in
thickness; and silver and cop]ier may be reduced
to leaves of great tenuity. .Although gold and
silver also present the property of Ductility (q.v.)
in the highest degree, there is no constant relation
between the two proiierties ; for exani]ile, iron,
although it m.ay be reiluced to extremely thin wire,
is not nearly so malleable ,as gold, silver, or cop])er.
MalU't' Srrilb. a bushy Eucalyptus 8 or
10 feet high, which forms im|)enetrabli' thickets
in .Australia (c|.v., Vol. I. p. 589). For the Mallee
hen, see .M(i(Xi)-Hii;i)S.
.Mallet, or Mai.kp, Ci.ai he Kiiancoi.s de,
a coii^piiviidr ag;i.inst Naiioleon I., was born
'28lh .June 1754, at Dole in Pranche-CoTnte, and
became an eager supporter of the Re\()lutioii.
Entering the anny, he ha<l risen to the rank of
a brigadier-general by 1799. But in 1801 he was
detected in a conspiracy against Xajioleon, and
again in 1808 ; he was arrested and kept in
confinement until 181'2. During Napoleon's cam-
paign in Russia Mallet made his escape from
prison on the nii'ht of October 22-23, and by
circulating the false news of Napoleon's death
and by dexterous use of a forged decree of the
senate won over some of the national guards.
Whilst the latter occupied the principal i>ublic
otiices in his name. Mallet him.self proceeiled to
liberate his fellow-conspirators. Generals Guidal
and Lahorie, from prison. But at the ho\ise of
Hullin, comman<lant of the troops in Paris, Mallet
was hini-self taken prisoner by Hullin's adjutant,
Laborde. He was shot, along \\ith his fellow-
consjnrators, 29tb October 1812. See histories of
the consijiracv, by Lafon (1814), Saulnier (1834),
and I)<mrille (1840).
Mallet, or Malloch, David, the wielder of a
venal pen under the second and third tJeorges,
was born abo\it 1705, at Crieff, where bis father
was a Roman Catholic small farmer. .lanitor for
six months at the High School, Edinburgh (1717-
18), be then studied for one session at the uni-
versity, an<l in 17'20 became tutor in the family of
Mr Home of Dreghoin, in 1723 in that of the Duke
of Montrose. Here he remained several years,
and made the tour of Europe with bis pupils. In
17'23 the adaptation of two old ballads into a
new one, ' William and Margaret,' gained him
a reputation as a poet, which be enhanced by a
poem. The Ejrursion (1728). After this, having
'by degrees cleared his tongue from his native
prtmunciation, so as to be no longer distinguished
as a Scot, ... he took upon him to change his
name from Scotch Malloch to English JIallet'
— an instance of bis insufl'erable vanity. Stiange
to say, Pope, the poet, was his friend, and to
please him Mallet reviled Bentley in a w(u-k in
verse. Verbal Cn'ticism (1733). About this time
he was appointed undersecretary to Frederick,
Prince of Wales, then holding a separate court
from his father's. In 1740 jiallct puldisbed a
mediocre life of Bacon, an<l in 1742 another fairly
creditable poem, T/ir Hermit, or Aiiii/iifur mid
Theodora. After this he appears in the most
despicable cbar.acter : to gratify Bolingbroke he
heapeil abuse upon his dead friend Pope in a
preface to Bolingbroke's Patriot King ; at the
bidding of the ministry he directed the popular
rage for the loss of Minorca upon Admiral l>yng,
and his reward for this ' price of blood was,' says
Dr Johnson, 'a pension wliicli Mallet retained t^dl
his death;' and he received a legacy of £1000,
besides other sums, to write a life of the great
Duke of Marlborough, but never iieniied ,a single
line — 'he groped for materials .and thimght of it
till he bad exhausted his mind.' He also tried
his han.d at play-writing, but with im \erv gieat
s\iccess : Miistiijiha pleased for a while in 1739,
because it was thought to contain some political
allusions; Eunjdicc (1731) and KIrira (1703),
tragedies, were failures. Alfretl, a Musijiir (1740)
was wrilten in conjutiction with Thomson, ami one
of its songs, 'Rule Britannia,' b.as lieen claimed
for both of them. liesidcs, Mallet luiblished two
volumes of miscellaneous verse. He died on 21st
Apiil I7li5.
Mallow, a market-town and watering-place
of Ireland, is beautifully situated on the left bank
of the' Blackwater, 20 miles by rail N. by W. of
Cork. On the opposite side of the river, which is
here crossed liy a bridge, is the suburb of Bally-
daheen. The town is resorted to in summer on
account of its tei)id mineral waters, and contains a
MALLOW
MALMESBURY
825
neat spaliouse. Close by is the ivy-covered ruin
of the ctvstle of the Desmonds, destroyed in 11541,
and the later Mallow Castle, built by Sir Denhani
Norreys towards the end of tlie ISth century.
Tanninjr ami some snuill manufactures are carried
on. Pop. (1S.">1) 5436; (ISSl) 4439; (1S91) 4366.
Till 18sr> Mallow leturned one member to the
House of Commons.
^fallow {Miilra), a genus of plants of the
natural order Malvace^, whose species are her-
baceous ])lants, or more rarely shrubs. The Com-
mon Mallow (.1/. si/lrcntris) is plentiful over most
of Europe, and in I?ritain on waysides and heaps
of rubbish. It is a perennial, with rather larj;e
.<h
Common Mallow (Maha si/lrcxifixi.
bluish-red flowers on erect stalks. The Dwarf
Mallow (il/. rotu)i(lifulia), also a common native
of Britain, has smaller whitish or reddish-white
flowers. These two plants have a nuicila;,'inous
and somewhat bitter taste, and the leaves are
used as an emollient and di^mulcent medicine,
a decoction of them being emiiloyed in cases of
irritation of the pulmonary and of the urinary
organs ; and ]>oultices made of them are very
frequently emiiloyed to allay external inflam-
mation. Other species have similar properties.
The Musk M;illow (.1/. mosc/iatu), not unfrei|uent
in England, but rare in Scotland, has a faint nnisk-
like smell. The fibre of .V. rrisj/d is used in Syria
for textile purpo.scs, and the hbres of many species
are probably lit for similar use, and for the manii-
faeture of paper. The young leaves of some are
boiled as vegetables. A Mallow ( J.unttera arborca )
crows on I lie lia-ss liock and Haddingtonshire. The
Marsh-mallow (i|.v.) belongs to another genus.
Mallliaison, a cbflteau standing on the left
bank of the Seine, 10 miles \V. of Paris, was the
favourite residence of Josephine, wife of Napoleon
I., and here she died. Tlie cluitvau iiidoiiged to
llichelieu, and was restored by Napoluim III. in
ISOl. A sortie by Ducrot from Paris in Is70 was
repulsed here by the Germans. See a work by
I.escure ( 1S67).
Mai llicdya a Prussian town in a mountain-
valley, close to the lielgian frontier and 51 miles
S. of Ai.\-la-Cliaiielle. with mineral springs. Poj).
(189.J) 4.)00, mostly Walloons, speaking Preucli.
Malincsbliry. an old-world mark<'l-town of
Wiltshire, on a hold eniincmi' between two liead-
stre.inis iif the Avon. '20 miles by rail NNE. of
IJalh and 17 WNW. of Swimlon. It owes its name
to Maildulf, an Irish missionary. Aldhelin (n.v.),
his sehohu, beciimc alxiut ti73 lirst abliot of the
famous abbey here, in which Athelslan was burieil,
and of which William of Malmc.sburv wius librarian
and precentor in the first half of the 12th century.
To his time belong the Iniilding of a short lived
castle, and the rebuilding (also by Bisho]i Hoger of
Salisbury) of the abbey church, which, Transition
Norman in style, and cruciform in plan, with a
central s)iire, was 350 feet long. I.,ittle more tli;in
the nave — now the parish church — remains ; hut this
is a most interesting fragment, its finest feature
the south pmch. At the Dissolution (1539) the
mitred Benedictine abbey became a cloth-factory.
A beautiful market-cro.ss {temp. Henry Vll.) is
noteworthy. Hoblies w;us a n.itive. Malniesburv
returned two mendjers till 1S32, and then one till
1SS5. Pop. of borough (incorpoiated ISSti), 2964.
See works by Moffatt (1805), Sir T. Phillipps ( 1831 ),
J. K Jacksim (18B3), W. de Gray Birch ( 1K74 ), and the
Regutriitn Mafmcgburicnisc, edited by Brewer and Martin
(2 vols. 1S79 .SI).
llalinesbiii'.v. James Harris, first Earl of,
diplomatist, was born at Salisbury, 21st April 1746,
the oidy son of James 'Hermes' Harris (q.v.).
Educated at Winchester, at Merton College, (Ox-
ford, and at Leyden, in 1768 he became secretary
of legation at Madrid, and in 1772 minister at
Berlin, in 1777 at St Petersljurg, in 1784 at The
Hague. In 1779 he received the Order of the Bath,
and in 1788 was created Baron, in 1800 Earl of,
Malmesbtiry. Meanwhile, in 1793, with other
^yhigs he had seceded from Fox to Pitt, and in
1795 h.ad married by pioxy and conducted to Eng-
land the Princess Caroline. ' I in not well, Harris ;
get me a glass of brandy, Harris' — one remembers
the Prince's reception of his bride. Very deaf
during the la.st twenty years of his life. Lord
Malmesbury died in London, 20th Novendier 1S'20.
See his Diaries uiul Corrcspondc/icc (1844), and
Lo7-d Mii/iiiesbiiri/ (iiid his Friends (1870), both
edited by his grandson.
That grandson, James Howakd Hahi;is, tliir<l
Earl of JIalmesblry, was born in London, '25th
March 1807, and from Eton proceeded to Oriel
College, Oxford. He took his B.A. in 1827, and
then made a continental tour (18'2S-'29), during
which at Kome he formed a close friendshi]>
with Louis Napoleon. In 1837 he stood as a
Tory for Portsmouth, and in 1841 had just been
returned for Wilton, when his father's death
called him to the House of Lords. In 1852 he
was Foreign Secretary under Lord Derby, as
again in 1858-59, when his policy pri(U' to the
outbreak of the Franco-Austrian war was directed
wisely if un.successfully to the preservation of
the peace of Europe. In 1860 08. ;ind .iiiain in
1874—70, he was Lord Privy Seal : in 1884 appeared
his valuable and entertainitig Memoirs of an Ex-
Minister. He died 17th May 1889.
llalllK'shliry, William of, an early English
historian, was born near the close of the lUh
century, and was educated in the monastery at
Malmesbury, where he became a monk, ami in due
time librarian. an<l afterwards precentor. In 1140
he declined the ollicc of abbot, took part in the
council at Winchester .■ig;unst Stephen in 1141, and
<licd most probably soon .-liter 1142. when his latest
work, the Jlisloriii Nonl/n, comes abruptly to an
end. His two ]>rincipal works are Gcslii Jier/iim
An//lorum and Geslit I'onlificiim Anrjiorum. The
former gives the history of the kings of England
from the Saxon inv;isi<m to the twenty eighth year
of Henry 1., or the year 11'28. The llisturia
X(irc//n lirings ilown the mirrativc! to the year
1142, but is really a .separate work. Sir T. D.
Hardy edited both together for the English Histori-
cal Society in 1840. Sharpe's translation ( 1815) was
included in Bohn's ' Anli(|uarian Library' in 1847.
The two form admitteilly luu^ of the most valuable
authorities for the Anglo-Norman period of our
826
MALMO
MALTA
history, the work of a man of great learninpf,
industry, intelligence, ami impartiality — no mere
o()iMi)ilation, and written moreover with unusual
oleariK'.ss ami force. The (Je.'.iii Pontijiciim gives
an account of the hishops ami iirincipal monas-
teries iif England from the conversion of Ethelbert
of Kent by St Augustine to 11'23. It was edited
in the Ko'lls series in 1S70 hy Mr N. E. S. A.
Hamilton. Other works of William's are an
account of the- chnrch at Glastonbury, printed in
tJalu's Srrlpt'ircs XV., and a life of .St Dunstan,
printed in Wharton's Anglia Sacra.
DlallllM. the third largest town of Sweden,
on the .Souml, nearly opposite Copenhagen, 17
miles distant. Besides being a busy seaport,
it has manufactures of cigars, sugar, beer, ami
woollens, and some shipbuilding. The e.xports
(chielly grain. Hour, butter, eggs, cement, chalk,
matches, live-stock, and timber) are carried away
e\cry year in about .SoOO vessels of 750,000
tons burden, and the imports (coal, machinery,
cotton, grain, textiles, coll'ee, «S:c. ) brought hy .SOOO
vessels of 720,000 tons. The only remaining part
of tlie olil fortihcations is the castle in which the
Earl of Bothwell (q.v. ) was confined; it is now
used as a prison. The town-house is a line Renais-
sance building of 1.54G. Pop. ( 1874 ) 30,070 ; ( 1888 )
4G,'2s;?. Down to the 16th century Malmi) was one
of tlie busiest commercial towns in that part of
the Baltic. In 1.523 a treaty of peace between the
Danes and Gnstavus Vasa was signed here.
Malmsey (Fr. vin de Malvoisic), a name
bestowed originall_y on the red and white wines of
Napoli di ^ialvasia or Monenivasia, in the Morea,
not because it produced them, but because it
exported them ; they were grown in the islands of
the -]''.gean and the Levant. 'I'b(! Malmsey wines
of modern commerce are mostly the produce of
Tenerille, Madeira, the Azores, Sardinia, Sicily,
and one or two f)ther places.
Itlaloiie. Edmund, editor of Sliakcspcare, was
born in IJulilin, 4th October 1741, graduated witli
credit at the university there, and was called to the
Irish bar in 1767. Falling soon after into a fortune,
lie went to Lonilon to devote himself to literary
pursuits, his tirst work being a 'supplement' to
Steevens's edition of Shakespeare ( 1778). His con-
tributions to Steevens's third edition of Shakespeare
(178.5) led to a serious quarrel between the two, in
wliich Steevens was wholly to l)lanie. Malone's o.wn
cilition of the great dramatist ( 1790) was warmly
recei\'ed, especially the essays on tlie ' History of
the Stage ' and the ' Genuineness of the Three
Plays of Heni-y VI.' As an editor Malone displays
great good sense, conscientiousness, mucli acute-
ness, extensive research, ,and a liecoming respect
for the text of the earlier editions. He had been
one of the lirst to express his unl)elief in the anti-
quity of C'hatterton's Rowley poems, and in 179G
he denounceil the impudent forgeries of the
wretched Ireland. Next year he publislied a
postbumous edition of the works (jf his friend Sir
.Joshua lieynolds. His own death occurred 25th
May 1812. He left behind a large mass of ma-
terials for another edition of Shakespeare, which
at length appeared in 1821, in 21 vols., under the
e<litorship of .lames Boswell the younger, and as the
'Variorum Sh.aUespeare ' is known and v.alued by
all scholars. Sec Life by Sir .I.-unes Prior ( 1860).
i1Ialor.V> Sii! Tll()M.\s, is immort»i,l in his work,
th(^ I\fiirte Ddrfhiir, while of himself bnt little
is liiiown. We learn from Caxton's preface that
Malory wius a knight, th.at he finished his work in
tli(- ninth year of the reign of Edward IV. (1470),
that he ' reduced ' it from some French book, ami
that he was a servant of .lesns both day and night
— a statement which has needlessly led to the
inference that he was a priest. In Leland's
liiitcrary the name occurs in Yorkshire, and the
century after in Burton's Description of Leicester-
shire, but there is no evidence to connect the writer
with either county. Caxton's impression was
iinished in 1485, and is a black-letter folio, of
which but two copies now exist. An accurate ,and
altogether admirable edition of it was reprinted in
1889 by the care of Dr H. Oskar Sommer. The
editor's Introduction followed in 1890 ; his Treatise
on the Sources and Andrew Lang's Essay on
Malory's Prose Style in 1891. There were twelve
preceding editions, including those of Wvnkyn rle
Worde, W. t'oidand, Hazlewood ( 1816),' Soiil hey
(1817), Thomas Wright ( 1856), .and Sir E. Straehey
(the <;lobe edition, 1868). The last three have
admirable introductions.
Sir Thomas Malor.\'s work 'is indisputably,'
says Scott, ' the best prose romance the English
language can boast of.' It wjis due to an attem[)t
to work up and give an epic unity and harnmny to
the whole mass of French romance, and the result
shows that its author was no slavish copyist or
compiler merely, but that he turned nimdi that was
dross into pure gold, and stamped upon the whole
the impress of his own individuality as Shakespeare
did with bis Holinshe<l and Plutarch. And this no
less in the events than the characters of the story as
the modern reader realises them glorified through
the medium of Tennyson's stately \erse. The story
moves forward with dignity to its tragic close,
the inevitable issue of the guilty loves of Lancelot
and Queen Guinevere.
nialpiglli, Maecello, an Italian anatomist,
was born at Crevalore, near Bologna, on 10th
March 1628, and died at Rome on 29tli November
1694. He held, at dili'ercnt periods of his life, the
professorshii> of Medicine in Pisa ( 1656-60 ), Messina
( 1662-66), and Bologna ( 1666-91 ). In 1691 he was
appointed chief physician to Pope Innocent XII.
Like his contemporary Leeuwenhoek, he ^^■as a
pioneer in the study of minute anatomy with the
microscope, and is cliicHy known for his discoveries
in connection with capillary circnlatiim and in the
anatomy of the skin, the kidney, and the spleen
(see Kidneys). Amongst his worl<s m.ay be men-
tioned EpistoliK Anatomicce (1662), he Striic-
turd Viscenim (1669), Tic Pulmonibus (1661), De
Structm-d Glonr/ii/ariim Conij/o/jtitariim ( 16S9),
and Anatomia Plnnturvm (1675-79). See the
bicentenary monogra]ib by Atti, ^'ircllow, Haeckel,
Todaro, Michelis, and otliers (Milan, 1898).
Ulalpiglliaccir* a natur.al oider of exogenous
pla,nts, trees or shrubs, many of them climbing
shrubs or lianas.
MalpIaqUCt. a village in the French depart-
ment of Nord, 10 ndles S. of Mons in P.elgium.
Here, on 11th S(>ptcmber 1709, over 90,000 British
and Dutch, under Marlborough and I'rince Eugene,
defeated about the same number of French under
Marshal Villars. In this ' very nnirderous battle,'
as Marlborough called it, the loss of the allies was
from twenty to thirty thousand, of the French from
six to sixteen thousand. Its result was the capture
of Mons.
lHaIstr(»ni. See Maelstrom.
Malt and Malting. See Beer.
Malta, an islaml and British ]iosscssion in the
Mediterranean, 171 miles long by 8,', broail, with an
area of 95 sq. m. I( stands on the submarine
jilate.au which, stretching across from Sicily to
Africa, divides the IMedilerr.anean into two basins,
and is of late Eocene or perhaps Miocene forma-
tion, the prev.ailing rocks being limestones. From
its central |iosition in the Mediterranean Sea, 58
miles S. of the Sicilian coiust and about 180 SE. hy
MALTA
827
E. of Cape Bon in Algeria, ami from tli« enormous
stronglh of its fortiKciitions — Disnu'li called it ' the
little military liotliouse' — Malta is one of the
most important of the British dependencies. It
is the heailquarters of the British Mediterranean
Heet, the jirineipal coaling station for merchant-
vessels as well !i.s the navy in the Mediterranean
—between 500,000 and «)0,000 tons of coal are
imported for use and re exportation annually — a
powerful stronghold (Valetla), a valuable sana-
torium for troops employed in the Orient, and an
interesting isl.and historically, architecturally, and
from the antiiiu.arian standpoint. The dependencies
include the island of tlozo (20 sq. m.), lying NW.
of Malta, and separated from it by a channel
3 miles wide, in which are the little islands of
MALTA
linsflish Miles
^ ^ ^
Comino and Cominotto, and several islets round
the coasts of the larger islands. On one of these
islets. General's Rock, near the west side of Gozo,
the famous Maltese fungus Cynoniorium (q.v.)
grows. The area of the entire governorship of
Malta extends to 117 sq. m. The island of Malta
Ls oval in shape, the north-eastern and eastern
shores being broken into several good harbours
( Valetta, Marsa Scirocco, St Paul's Bay, ilellilia
Bay, iVc. ) ; the southern coast rises in |)icturesque
clitl's 400 feet high. The culminating point of the
Island is ToS feet. The sea h.t-s hollowed out
among its cliH's grottoes and caverns in almost
every direction, some of considerable extent,
especially one in Comino. Malta li;is a bare,
stony appearance, owing to the absence of trees
and the fact that the fields and gardens are en-
closed in high walls, to shelter the crops against
the violent winds. There are no rivers or lakes ; but
water is easily obtained from springs. The soil is
thin, but remarkably fertile ; ami its fertility is
increased by the skilful cultivation and the diligent
toil of the inhabitants. Large crops of wlieat ami
jiotatoes are raised, early varieties of the latter
being largely exported to Englan<l ; maize, barley,
cotton, clover, oranges, figs, grapes, carob beans,
and peaches and other fruits are also grown. Vine
honey i.s produced ; in spring the island is gav with
flower). Those of the .\laltese who do not cultivate
the .soil are chielly engaged in the docks and har-
bours. Filigree ornaments and a little cotton are
manufactured. Sheep and goats are kept, with
siii.illcr numbers of cattle, mules, assc», and horses.
The .Maltese Dog (q.v. ) is virtually extinct. IJuring
the summer months the thermometer range.s from
75° to 90° F., during the coldest from 50' to 71'.
The annual mean is 67°'3 F., and the annual rain-
fall '2i-2:i inches. But when the hot sirocco wind
blows — not dry as in Africa, but laden with mois-
ture— the climate is enervating. Otherwise .Malta
is fairly healthy, though chcdera pays occasional
visits, as in 1853 and 1887 ; since about 18S0 the
government have been providing the island with
a com|>rehensive system of water-works, w liich has
greatly contributed to its healthfulness. Earth-
quakes are relalivclv frequent.
In 1881 Malta (13'2,129) and Gozo (17,653) con-
tained 14n,7S2 inhaljitants ; in ISfll, 177,22.3 (in-
cluding 2.300 British residents an<l 1200 foreigners,
but excluding the 6000 to 7000 imperial troops).
The local militia, including the Uoyal .Malta Fen-
cible Artillery, number about 1200. The language
of the people is a commit dialect of Arabic, with a
strong admixture of Italian and other word.- : some
authorities, however, connect it with the ancient
Phojnician. The native population believe them-
selves to be of Phoenician descent. From the time
of the settlement of the Knights of St John down
to quite recently Italian was the official language ;
but it has been superseded by English. Most of
the educated Maltese speak Italian, and some
speak English ; the peasantry as a rule know
neither the one nor the other. The ilaltese are
a sober, industrious race of people, tliougli often
quick-teni]5ered and ignorant. Their thrifty habits
are proved by the fact that ."il97 depositors had
£402,969 standing to their credit in the .savings-
bank in 1888. They are fond and proud of their
island home — they love to call it ' the (lower of the
world' — anil are devout Roman Catholics, the power
of the Clmrch being very great over the jieople.
There are two bishops (Malta, Gozo) and 1200
clergy. Canon law is recognised as the ci\il law
of Malta. Owing to the rapid growth of the ]popu-
lation and their density to tlie sq. m. ( 1471 in
Malta and O.'Jl in Gozo; Belgium has .514 to the
sq. m.), large numbers are compelled to emigrate ;
they are found to the number of 50,000 in all
parts of North Africa and the Levant. Education
is provided for in a university, a lyceuni (400
pupils), and nearly fifty government schools,
attended by 10,000 pupils. The university,
founded in 1709, has four faculties and (188S) 105
students. The educational condition of the island
had long been a subject of discontent ; but reforms
were introduced in the end of 1887, after which the
nvuuljer of students at the unixersity more than
doubled, and a thousand more pupils attended the
priniary schools. Yet other causes of discontent
existed in the ecclesiastical jealou.sy of tlie pre-
dominant church, and social jealousy between the
impoverished native nobility ( for the most part
counts and maniuises created by the Knights of
St John, and fully recognised since 1878) and the
upper cla.sses of tlie British. A\'ithin the last few-
years the sovereign power has shown more con-
sideration for the political susceptibilities, ;nid also
for the .social welfare, of the peo]ile. The fortilieil
towns that constitute Valetta have been re-drained,
water has been carried throughout Malta, and
in 1890 was to be carried o\er CIozo likewise,
and the old Maltese coinage of the knights was
superseded (1887) by the British currency (silver
being legal tender up to i"5). Moreovei-. a con-
stitutiim based on poimlar representation was
conferred in 1887. Legislation is carried on by six
official anil fourteen elected members, the governiu',
with the power of veto, being president. There is
also an executive council, consisting of the governor
iLs |iresident, .seven ollicial members, and three
nominated by the governor from among the eli'cted
members of the legislative chandier : the crown
retains the right to legislate also thmugh orders
in council. There is no direct taxation in .Malta.
828
MALTA
The government own two-sevenths of the land (the
lest is divided about equally between the ecclesi-
astical establishments and private ownere); from
tlie rents of this and other crown property, and
from customs, licenses, i:c., the annual revenue of
£•260,000 to £300,000 is deiived. The i.ubli<- debt is
£SU,000 (189.5). There is a railway. Si niih's long,
connecting Valetta (q.v.), the present capital, with
the old capital Citta Vecchia, known to Cicero as
Melita, to the Saracens as Jledina, and to the
modern Maltese as Notabile, a place founded so
long ago as 700 B.C. Here is the cathedral of St
Paul ( 1697), traditionally occupying the site of a
palace of Publius, who erected there a church, and
of a former cathedral built by the Normans in the
l'2th century and destroyed by earthquake in 1693.
The cathedral is adorned with mosaics, pictures,
statues, and other works of art. Near bj' are
the extensive catacombs and the Grotto of St
Paul, where he is popularly believed to have lived
during his three months' stay on the island. Two
miles distant is the Verdala Palace, built by the
grand-master Verdala in 1586, and now a summer
residence of the governor of the island. At Mnaidra
and Hagiar Kim, in the south of the island, there
are megalithic Pluenician temples, the ground-
plans, not only of the general structures, but also
of the detailed compartments, being all elliptical
in sliape. The traditional scene of St Paul's ship-
wreck is on the north side of the Bay of St Paul.
The church of Musta (183.5-64) is designed on the
model of the Pantheon at l{ome, and has the largest
dome in Euiope ne.xt after those of St Peter's and
the l^antheon. Some SOOO vessels of 6,000,000 tons
enter and clear the island ports every year, with
cargoes varying in value from £25,000,000 to
£70,000,000. But of the total imports ( worth nearlv
£36,000,000 in 1891, in ISg-l hardly £14,000,000)
only a fraction — say £800,000 — is actually retained
ill the island ; the rest is re-exported.
The Hyperion or Og)jr;in of Homer is sometimes
identified with INIalta. Tlie Phucnicians colonised
the island at a very early date, more than 1000
years before the birth of Christ. Before they
were distiirlied in their possession by the (ireeks,
about 700 B.C., they had developed considerable
commerce. The Greeks, who called the island
MrAit((, were driven out by the Carthaginians about
480 B.C. As early as the first Punic war Malta
was plundered by the Romans, but did not come
definitively into their hands until "216 B.C. In those
early times Malta was renowned for its manufac-
tured cotton, its roses, and its honey ; and its
Komaii temples and villas boasted excellent works
of art and other indications of great luxury. On
the division of the Roman world (395) Malta fol-
lowed tlie fortunes of the eastern emjiire. During
the 5tli century it fell successively under the
^'andals and the Goths ; and though in 533 Belis-
arius recovered it for the Byzantine empire, its pro-
sperity departed, and its ci\ilisation almost van-
ished amid constant local feuds. In 870 the Arabs
destroyed the Greek power in Malta, and fortified
the harbour. Count Roger of Sicily drove out the
Arabs in 1090. As a fief of Sicily, Malta ])assed,
under a marriage-contract, to the Emperor Henry
YI. (1194). In 1282 the island was cimquered l>y
Pedro of Aragon, and, so coming eventually into
the hands of Charles V., was given by him, along
with Ciozo and Tripoli, in perpetual sovereignty to
the Knights of the Order of St .John of Jerusalem
(1530). The Knights raised the stupendous forti-
fications which renileied Malta so powerful, and
spent much wealth in licautifying the island.
To revenge their attacks on the Barbary pirates,
Sultan Solyman sent in 1565 a very powerful
fleet, strengthened by the galleys of Dragut of
Tri])oli, against the forts. Valetta was founded
in the following year, after the Turkish attack,
which lasted three months, hail been beaten
ofl" (see V.\LETTA). In 1571 the Maltese fol-
lowers of the Knights of St John bella^ed cour-
ageously at the battle of Lepanto. The Hospit-
allens continued in possession of Malt.a until 1798,
when they surrendered their fortresses to the
French. The Maltese, however, rose in a few
months against their new masters, who treated
them ill, and after a siege of two years, during
which they were assisted by Neapolitan and
British forces, they forced the French to capitu-
late to the English general Pigot. The treaty of
Amiens stipulated tliat Malta should be restored
to the Kniglits of St John ; but the Maltese pro-
tested against such an arrangement, and preferred
the government of (Jreat Britain. The British
government consequently refused to give up the
island, and Napoleon made the refusal one of his
grounds for the resumption of hostilities. The
Congress of Vienna ( 1814) finally recognised Malta
as a British dependency.
See historical works on Malta by Micge (1840), Eton
( 1802 ), Avales ( 1830 1, Tullack ( 1861 ), ■\Viiiterberg ( 1879 ) ;
Caruana's licports on rhwnician and Jinman Antiquities
in Malta (18S1-S2); James Smith, Voiimie and Ship-
iii-eck of St Paul (1806); .sir K. L. Playfair, Mediter-
ranean (1890), in Murray's Guidebook series; and John
Munay's valuable paper in Scut. Geoy. Moai. ( 1890).
llalta, KnIGHT.S of. See HoSriTALLEES.
END UK TOL. YI.
Edmburj^h :
Printed by W. & R. Chambers, Limited.
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